www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi i from the editor dear colleagues and readers, i am pleased to sharing with you the 12th issue of journal of social studies education research. again, you will have a chance to meet with invaluable studies in this issue. however, before introducing this outstanding studies, i would like briefly to inform you about v. international symposium of social studies education, which was held in last month. from very first meeting in marmara university in 2012, international symposium of social studies education has been growing with increasing interest of educators, and as many of you know, we were held the fifth of the symposium in denizli, with the support of pamukkale university in 2016. this year, almost 300 oral presentation were presented under the main theme of “avant-garde and ecoles (pioneers and main trends) in social studies education” in the symposium. this year symposium has broken ground with many activities. using sign language for hearing impaired people in the opening ceremony; exhibition of painting and photograph contest results, which were edi̇törden sevgili meslektaşlarım ve dergimizi takip eden sevgili okuyucular, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi’nin 12. sayısıyla sizinle birlikte olmanın mutluluğunu yaşıyorum. bu sayımızda da sizleri birbirinden değerli çalışmalarla buluşturacağız. ancak, bu sayıda yayımlayacağımız makaleleri tanıtmadan önce sizleri geçtiğimiz ay başarılı bir şekilde tamamladığımız v.uluslarası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu’nda yapılanlarla ilgili kısaca bilgilendirmek istiyorum. sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği (sbeb) olarak 2012 yılında ilkini marmara üniversitesi ev sahipliğinde gerçekleştirdiğimiz ve her geçen yıl artan bir ilgiyle düzenlemeye devam ettiğimiz uluslarası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu’nun (usbes) beşincisi sizinde bildiğiniz üzere pamukkale üniversitesi’nin ev sahipliğinde düzenlenmiştir. bu yılki teması "sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde öncüler ve ana eğilimler" olan v. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu’nda 300’e yakın sözlü bildiri sunulmuştur. bu yılki sempozyum pek çok ilki de beraberinde getirmiştir. örneğin, sempozyumun açılış programında yapılan sunumlar esnasında engelli katılımcılar için www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi ii held among university students under the theme of “school and children”; exhibition of comics which may be used in social studies teaching; exhibition of experiences and professional opinions of social studies teachers, as titled “when we look back”; and “memory card” activities, distributed daily for participants during the symposium to remind values, skills and aims used in social studies, were just few of these activities, introduced during this year symposium. in closing ceremony, next two years host universities for the international symposium of social studies education were also announced by the executive board of the association of social studies educators (asse). according to board decision, 6th and 7th international symposium of social studies education will be held consecutively by eskişehir anadolu university and kırşehir ahi evran university in 2017 and 2018. we strongly believe that international symposium of social studies education will grow and get stronger with the support of asse members and social studies educators around the country and the world. in this issue, you will meet five new distinguished studies. the first one is that işaret dili kullanılmıştır. bunun yanı sıra türkiye çapında üniversite öğrencileri arasında düzenlenen “okul ve çocuk” temalı fotoğraf yarışması ve sergisi; yine aynı tema ile resim bölümü öğrencilerinin çalışmaları neticesinde gerçekleştirilen resim sergisi; sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde kullanılabilecek karikatürlerin yer aldığı sergi; emekli sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin meslekî görüş ve deneyimlerinin paylaşıldığı “geriye doğru baktığımızda” sergisi; sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde kullanılan değer, beceri ve amaçlara odaklanarak hazırlanmış ve her gün tüm katılımcılara dağıtılarak bu konuda dikkat çekilmeye çalışılan “hafıza kartları” gibi etkinlikler usbes’in bu yılki ilkleri olarak arasında yer almıştır. sempozyum kapanış toplantısında önümüzdeki yıl hangi üniversitemizin ev sahipliğinde yapılacağı da kararlaştırılmış ve usbes’in vi.’sının (2017) eskişehir anadolu üniversitesi’nde, vii.’sinin (2018) ise kırşehir ahi evran üniversitesi’de yönetim kurulumuzda görüşülerek karar verilmiştir. uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu gelecek yıllarda sizlerinde artan katkısıyla güçlenerek büyümeye devam edeceğine olan inancımız sonsuzdur. dergimizin bu sayısında sizleri beş değerli çalışmayla buluşturuyoruz. bu çalışmalardan www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi iii studied by tilman grammes & mehmet açıkalın as titled “qualitative data collection and interpretation: a turkish social studies lesson”. after that, you will meet a study researched by sümer aktan “how can i describe social studies curriculum in the first three years of primary school? a case study”. after these two articles you may have a chance to read “embedding literacy strategies in social studies for eighthgrade students” which is studied by alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin. after that, you may read following articles consecutively: “investigating the students’ perceptions of the democratic values of academicians” by cüneyt akar; “advocating for a cause: civic engagement in the k-6 classroom” by nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck. until meeting in another issue, i hope all of you have a productive and enjoyable summer. sincerely, bülent tarman, ph.d president of asse ilki tilman grammes & mehmet açıkalın tarafından hazırlanan “qualitative data collection and interpretation: a turkish social studies lesson” isimli makaledir. i̇kinci olarak sizleri sümer aktan’ın yazarlığını üstlendiği “how can i describe social studies curriculum in the first three years of primary school? a case study” başlıklı çalışmayla buluşturuyoruz. bu iki makalenin ardından “embedding literacy strategies in social studies for eighth-grade students” başlıklı makalede alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin’in çalışmasını inceleme fırsatı bulacaksınız. daha sonra sırasıyla cüneyt akar’ın “investigating the students’ perceptions of the democratic values of academicians” ve nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck’in “advocating for a cause: civic engagement in the k-6 classroom” isimli çalışmaları sizlerin görüşlerine sunulacaktır. başka bir sayıda buluşana kadar sağlıklı ve hoşça kalın. saygılarımla, bülent tarman, ph.d sbeb başkanı jsser/sbead ailesi olarak yeni bir sayımızla daha sizleri selamlıyor olmanın vermiş olduğu mutluluğu ifade ederek sözlerime başlamak istiyorum from the editor, hello, it is my pleasure to greet you with the new volume of jsser/sbead. each new volume we publish strengthen our belief in reaching our goals for the future while increasing our hope to build a world where peace, freedom and welfare become the dominant forces. despite the human tragedy in syria and egypt, the decline in terrorist incidents in turkey and the agreements between iran and the international community in the region towards more freedom and welfare make us hopeful for establishing the peace, freedom and welfare throughout the world. another significant development nowadays is that 14th phase of accession negotiations started between turkey and eu. despite the general economic situation of eu and the double standards over the country's membership bid compared to the candidacy processes of other candidate countries, this is an important step towards east-west convergence. these socio-cultural and economic developments are so important that they require us, as social studies educators, to reconsider our responsibilities while training citizens and to act accordingly in order to have permanent peace and tranquility. in order to have permanent peace and tranquility in a culturally rich country, a community should be established where all cultural differences are regarded as richness and nobody is despised because of his/her color, language and religion. since it is among the primary goals of social studies and citizenship education to train individuals within this framework, it concerns us as the social studies educators. thus, it is a need to struggle for raising individuals who will establish the desired peace and tranquility starting from local to national and global level. since the first day of jsser/sbead, we strive to act on with this awareness. for this reason, we are looking forward to have the international social studies educators symposium (usbes iii) again this year that will bring the social studies educators together. editörden, merhaba, jsser/sbead ailesi olarak yeni bir sayımızla daha sizleri selamlıyor olmanın vermiş olduğu mutluluğu ifade ederek sözlerime başlamak istiyorum. yayınladığımız her yeni sayı bir taraftan geleceğe yönelik hedeflerimizin gerçekleşeceğine olan inancımızı daha da güçlendirirken diğer taraftan da geleceğe dair barış, özgürlük ve refahın hakim olduğu bir dünyanın inşa edilebileceğine ilişkin umudumuzu artırmaktadır. suriye ve mısırda yaşanılan insanlık dramı hala devam etmekle birlikte türkiye’nin kendi içinde terörün görülür bir şekilde azalması ve yakın çevresinde i̇ran ile uluslararası toplumun yaptığı anlaşma gibi barış, özgürlük ve refahın artması yönünde atılan adımlar, dünya çapında ihtiyaç duyulan barış, özgürlük ve refahın tesisi için bizleri umutlandırmaktadır. adaylık bağlamında uzun bir süredir görüşmelere ara verilmiş olan türkiye-ab ilişkilerinin devamı yönünde 14. fazın görüşmelere açılmış olması da son günlerde yaşadığımız önemli gelişmelerden birisidir. gerek ab’nin içinde bulunduğu ekonomik durum gerekse şimdiye kadar diğer adaylar ile kıyaslandığında üye olma yolunda karşılaşılan çifte standart gibi durumlar, ab’ye üye olmayı eskisi kadar heyecanlandırmamakta ise de bu gelişme doğu-batı yakınlaşması yönünde atılan diğer bir adımı simgelemektedir. sosyo-kültürel ve ekonomik anlamda şahit olduğumuz bu önemli tarihi gelişmeler, sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri olarak vatandaş yetiştirmede üzerimize düşen sorumlukları bir kez daha gözden geçirmemizi, kalıcı barış ve huzurun tesisinin mümkün olabilmesi için bu gelişmelerin ve sorumlulukların farkında olarak hareket etmemizi gerektirmektedir. zengin kültür yapısına sahip olan bir ülkede kalıcı barış ve huzurun tesisi için bünyesinde barındırdığı tüm kültür öğelerinin bir zenginlik kaynağı olduğunu kabul etmek, kimsenin renk, dil ve inancı nedeniyle hor görülmediği bir toplum meydana getirmek gerekmektedir. bu bilinçte bireyler yetiştirmek sosyal bilgiler ve vatandaşlık it is our hope to take a step towards the peace and welfare in the world we dream by bringing together all social studies educators who share the same concerns with us. we present five new studies in this volume. the studies that we think will contribute to the social studies literature are as follow: (i) anthony michael pellegrino and jessica kilday, “hidden in plain sight: preservice teachers’ orientations toward inquiry-based learning in history” (ii)alexandro escudero “responsible trust”: a value to strengthen active citizenship multicultural and intercultural education” (iii) sümer aktan and nevin saylan, “bir öğretim alanı’nın doğuşu: abd’de sosyal bilgilerin gelişimi” (iv) mehmet fatih yiğit and bülent tarman “the place and importance of values education in 4.th and 5th. grade social studies textbooks” (v) emin kılınç and i̇lker dere “lise öğrencilerinin ‘i̇yi vatandaş’ kavramı hakkındaki görüşleri”. i would like to thank everyone who tried hard to make this issue ready for you. i hope to meet you in our next issue. sincerely, co-editor, bülent tarman eğitiminin başlıca amaçlarından olduğu için biz sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerini çok yakından ilgilendirmektedir. böylece yerelden başlayarak milli ve küresel düzeylerde istenilen barış ve huzuru tesis edebilecek bireyler yetiştirilmesi için mücadele vermek gerekecektir. kurulduğumuz ilk günden beri vurguladığımız gibi biz, jsser/sbead ailesi olarak bu bilinçle hareket etmeye gayret ediyoruz. bu nedenle aynı bilinçte olan tüm sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerini bu yıl da bir araya getirecek olan uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri sempozyumunun (usbes iii) gerçekleşmesini sabırsızlıkla beklemekteyiz. umudumuz odur ki gerek ülkemizden gerek dünyanın dört biryanından bizimle aynı derdi paylaşan tüm sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri ile bir araya gelerek özlemini kurduğumuz barış ve huzur dolu bir dünya için bir adım daha atılmış olacaktır. bu sayımızda beş adet yeni çalışmayı sizlerle buluşturuyoruz. sosyal bilgiler literatürüne katkı sağlayacağını düşündüğümüz bu çalışmalar şu şekilde sıralanmaktadır: (i) anthony michael pellegrino ve jessica kilday, “hidden in plain sight: preservice teachers’ orientations toward inquiry-based learning in history” (ii)alexandro escudero “responsible trust”: a value to strengthen active citizenship multicultural and intercultural education” (iii) sümer aktan ve nevin saylan, “bir öğretim alanı’nın doğuşu: abd’de sosyal bilgilerin gelişimi” (iv) mehmet fatih yiğit ve bülent tarman “değerler eğitiminin 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarındaki yeri ve önemi” (v) emin kılınç ve i̇lker dere “lise öğrencilerinin ‘i̇yi vatandaş’ kavramı hakkındaki görüşleri”. bu sayının sizlerle buluşmasında emeği geçen herkese teşekkür etmeyi bir borç bilirim. bir sonraki sayımızda buluşmak ümidiyle ve en derin saygılarımla. saygılarımla, eş editör, bülent tarman sonuç bi̇ldi̇ri̇si̇ www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi i from the editor in chief... we are pleased to present the may2012 issue of the journal of social studies education research (jsser). we would like to start with giving information about the first international symposium on social studies education: new trends and issues in citizenship and democracy education in a changing world’. association for social studies educators has successfully completed the first symposium in corporation with marmara university and council of europe in 20-22 april 2012 in i̇stanbul, turkey. the first international social studies symposium took place with 250 participants from 11 different countries: turkey, brazil, canada, england, the usa, germany, france, italy, malaysia, azerbaijan, greece and kirgizstan. there were 151 full oral and 4 poster presentations presented by the participants. this event provided opportunities for participant to exchange ideas and learn about perceptions of citizenship and citizenship education in different countries. council of europe sponsored us to invite dr. david kerr, dr. reinhild otte and dr. rolf gollob as keynote speakers. these distinguished scholars delivered speeches on democracy, human rights, citizenship and education bringing theory and practice editörden... sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ve araştırmaları dergisinin mayıs-2012 sayısını sunmaktan mutluluk duymaktayız. öncelikle ilkini düzenlediğimiz uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu: değişen dünyada vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitiminde yeni yönelimler ve sorunlar ile ilgili bilgiler vererek başlamak istiyoruz. sosyal bilgiler eğitimciler birliği’nin marmara üniversitesi işbirliği ve avrupa konseyi’nin desteği ile 20-22 nisan 2012 tarihleri arasında i̇stanbul’da düzenlenen uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu’na 11 farklı ülkeden yaklaşık 250 katılımcı iştirak etmiştir. türkiye, brezilya, kanada, i̇ngiltere, abd, almanya, fransa, i̇talya, malezya, azerbaycan, yunanistan, kırgızistan’dan 151 sözlü, 4 poster bildiri sunulmuştur. sempozyum, farklı ülkelerde yurttaşlık algılaması ve eğitimi konusundaki birikimin paylaşılmasına imkân tanımıştır. avrupa konseyi katkılarıyla gerçekleştirilen “demokratik vatandaşlık ve i̇nsan hakları projesi” desteğiyle prof. dr. david kerr, prof. dr. reinhild otte ve prof. dr. rolf gollob sempozyuma çağrılı konuşmacı olarak katılmış ve demokrasi, insan hakları, yurttaşlık ve eğitimi konularında teori ve uygulamaya dönük aydınlatıcı bilgiler vermiştir. ayrıca proje katılımcısı öğretmen ve bakanlık personelinin katılım ve katkıları, bu alanda journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(1) ii together. the symposium had policy maker from ministry of education and teacher participants from all over turkey too. this will, hopefully, bridge the gap between theory and practice. it is hoped that the practitioners make use of research findings presented in the symposium when teaching in real classrooms. teachers, in turn, also provided insight into what is need to be addressed by the researchers and policy makers. in addition, after the referee process, some papers presented at the symposium will be published in a special issue of jsser, indexed by several international organizations. in this new issue we publish seven articles under three sub-sections. first four articles is placed under the “curriculum and instruction” section. the first one is written by william benedict russell iii with the title of “teaching with film: a research study of secondary social studies teachers use of film”. the main purpose of this article is to examine how teachers use film to teach social studies. second article is titled “measuring students’ attitudes towards social studies homeworks: developing an attitude scale” written by erkan dinc and murat kece. with this research study, the authors developed a scale for assessing sixth and seventh grade students’ attitudes towards yapılan araştırma sonuçlarının uygulayıcılarla paylaşılmasını sağlamıştır. bunun yanında uygulayıcı konumunda olan öğretmenlerin katılımı bu sempozyum süresince edinilen birikimin uygulamaya döneceği konusunda ümit verici olmuştur. ayrıca öğretmenlerden gelen geri bildirimler araştırmacılara yeni ufuklar açmıştır. marmara üniversitesi’nin ev sahipliğinde birincisi düzenlenen bu sempozyumun geleneksel hale gelmesi prensip olarak kabul edilmiş ve bu bağlamda sempozyumun ikincisinin 2013 yılında aksaray üniversitesi tarafından gerçekleştirilmesine karar verilmiştir. ayrıca sempozyumda sunulan bildiriler hakem süreci sonrasında uluslar arası indeksler kapsamında taranan jsser’in 2012 ek sayısında yayınlanacaktır. yeni sayımızda üç alt bölümde yer verdiğimiz yedi makale yayınlıyoruz. i̇lk dört makale “eğitim programları ve öğretim” bölümünde yer almaktadır. birincisi william russell benedict iii tarafından kaleme almıştır. “film ile öğretim: sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin film kullanımı ile i̇lgili bir araştırma” başlıklı bu makalenin temel amacı, öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler öğretmek için filmi nasıl kullandıklarını incelemektir. erkan dinç ve murat keçe tarafından yazılmış ikinci makalede, “öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersi ödevlerine yönelik tutumlarının ölçülmesi: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması” başlığını taşımaktadır. bu araştırma ile yazarlar sosyal cemil öztürk iii social studies homeworks. next article is written by selahattin kaymakci and bahri ata entitled “social studies teachers’ perceptions about the nature of social studies”. the authors aimed to elicit social studies teachers’ perceptions about the nature of social studies in this study. the last article of this section is written by stephanie m bennett with the title of “social studies textbooks for pre-service elementary teachers: implications for literacy and ell instruction”. the author examined eight elementary social studies methods texts. next two articles of this issue are placed under the global education section. while the first article of this section is authored by fulya yüksel-şahin entitled “an evaluation of the decisions taken about psychological counseling and guidance in the turkish national education councils (1939-2010)” the second one is written by ali tarik gümüş with the title of “transformation of rights to education”. the last article of this issue is placed under the history section and authored by erhan metin with the title of “sensation problems of using historical language of students: semantic association, phonetic association and lose of term.” we thank each author of each section for their contribution and their bilgiler ödevleri doğrultusunda altıncı ve yedinci sınıf öğrencilerinin tutumlarını değerlendirmek için bir ölçek geliştirmişlerdir. sonraki makalede, selahattin kaymakçı ve bahri ata tarafından yazılmıştır. “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgilerin doğasıyla i̇lgili görüşleri” adlı makalede yazarlar sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgilerin doğasıyla ilgili görüşlerini ortaya koymaya çalışmışlardır. bu bölümün son yazısı stephanie m bennett tarafından kaleme alınmış olan “hizmet öncesi öğretmen adayları için sosyal bilgiler ders kitapları: edebiyat ve i̇ngiliz dili edebiyatı öğrenimi uygulamaları" başlıklı makalesidir ki yazar bu araştırmada sekiz adet ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler ders kitabı metinlerini incelemiştir. bundan sonraki iki makale “küresel eğitim” bölümü altında yer almaktadır. bunlardan ilki fulya yüksel-şahin tarafında kaleme alınan “türk milli eğitim şuraları’nda (1939-2010) psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik i̇le i̇lgili alınmış olan kararların değerlendirilmesi” başlıklı makale iken diğeri; ali tarik gümüş tarafından yazılan “eğitim hakkının dönüşümü” başlıklı makalesidir. bu sayının son makalesi “tarih eğitimi" bölümü altında yer almaktadır. bu makale erhan metin tarafından “öğrencilerin tarihsel dil kullanımında algılama sorunları: anlamsal/fonetik çağrışım ve kavram kaybı” başlığı ile kaleme alınmıştır. her bir bölümde yer journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(1) iv elaboration on the subject of their research and provide very useful information for our readers. prof.dr. cemil öztürk editor in chief alan bütün yazarlara sağladıkları katkılardan dolayı teşekkür ediyoruz. prof. dr. cemil öztürk, baş editör www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi i from the editor dear colleagues and readers, i am delighted to present to you the new issue of journal of social studies education research. i hope everyone has had a restful and productive year. for us, this year has been full of studying and working to make our journal much prestigious position in academia. we are still working on almost around the clock to reach our goals that we put at the very beginning when we were establishing the association. i am very glad you to inform you that we took another important step in this long journey for reaching our high aims. starting from this issue, jsser is indexed by scopus, which is the largest abstract and citation database of peerreviewed literature: scientific journals, books and conference proceedings. also many academic institutions around the world equally consider scopus and ssci in their promotion and tenured policies. i believe that everybody is ready and excited, and started counting down for association of social studies educators’ yearly event of “international symposium on social studies education”. this year our symposium will be held in denizli, turkey between april 28th-30th and edi̇törden sevgili meslektaşlarım ve dergimizi takip eden sevgili okuyucular, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi’nin yeni bir sayısını daha sizlerle paylaşmaktan dolayı çok mutluyum. hepinizin huzurlu ve verimli bir yıl geçirdiğinizi umut ediyorum. geçtiğimiz yıl bizler dergimizi ulusal ve uluslararası platformda daha güçlü bir hale getirmek için olağanüstü bir gayretle çalıştık ve derneğimin ilk kurulduğu gün koyduğumuz üst düzey hedeflere ulaşmak için hiç durmadan çalışmaya önümüzdeki yıl da devam edeceğiz. kendimize koyduğumuz yüksek hedefler doğrultusunda dergimiz açısından önemli bir dönüm noktasını daha geçtiğimiz haberini sizinle paylaşmanın gururunu yaşıyorum. dergimiz bu sayıdan başlayarak dünyadaki en geniş özet ve atıf hakemli dergi, bilimsel dergi, kitap ve bildiri özeti veritabanına sahip olan scopus tarafından taranmaya başlayacaktır. bilindiği üzere, scopus dünyadaki birçok üniversite tarafından özellikle sosyal alanlarda yükselme kriteleri oluşturulurken ssci’ye eşdeğer bir indeks olarak göz önünde bulundurulmaktadır. herkesin heyecanla beklediğine ve hazırlandığına inandığım sosyal bilgiler www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi ii pamukkale university will be our host institution. the symposium main theme is ‘pioneers and main trends in social studies education” and due date for abstract submission is march 31st, 2016. you may follow up current news regarding v. annual symposium of asse and submit your presentation abstracts using our official symposium web site http://pau.edu.tr/usbes/en. in this issue, you will meet six new distinguished studies from both turkey and the united states. the first one is that studied by david w. denton & cindy sink as titled “preserving social studies as core curricula in an era of common core reform”. after that, you will meet a study researched by scott m. waring, cheryl torrez & george lipscomb “pay it forward: teacher candidates’ use of historical artifacts to invigorate k-12 history instruction”. after these two articles you may have a chance to read “opinions of social studies teachers regarding the 4+4+4 educational system” which is studied by filiz zayimoğlu öztürk. after that, you may read following articles consecutively: ““my assessment didn’t seem real”: the influence of field experiences on preservice teachers’ agency and eğitimcileri derneğinin düzenlediği “uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu” için geri sayım başladı. bu yıl pamukkale üniversitesi’nin ev sahipliğinde denizli’de 28-30 nisan tarihleri arasında beşincisi düzenlenecek olan sempozyumun ana teması “sosyal bilgiler alanında öncüler ve ekoller (ana eğilimler)” olarak belirlendi. bildiri özetleri için son gönderim tarihi 31 mart 2016 olup, sempozyumla ilgili her türlü güncel habere http://pau.edu.tr/usbes/tr adresinden ulaşılabilmektedir. dergimizin bu sayısında sizleri türkiye ve amerika birleşik devletleri’nde altı değerli çalışmayla buluşturuyoruz. bu çalışmalardan ilki david w. denton & cindy sink tarafından hazırlanan “preserving social studies as core curricula in an era of common core reform” isimli makaledir. i̇kinci olarak sizleri scott m. waring, cheryl torrez & george lipscomb’un yazarlığını üstlendiği “pay it forward: teacher candidates’ use of historical artifacts to invigorate k-12 history instruction” başlıklı çalışmayla buluşturuyoruz. bu iki makalenin ardından “opinions of social studies teachers regarding the 4+4+4 educational system” başlıklı makalede filiz zayimoğlu öztürk’ün çalışmasını inceleme fırsatı bulacaksınız. daha sonra sırasıyla j. http://pau.edu.tr/usbes/en http://pau.edu.tr/usbes/tr www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi iii assessment literacy” by j. spencer clark; “determination of the methods used by prospective teachers in the field of social studies while teaching historical topics” by ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel; and “preservice social studies teachers’ perspectives and understandings of teaching in the twenty-first century classroom: a meta-ethnography” by rory p. tannebaum . i wish all of you wonderful time until we are meeting again in our next issue and v. international symposium of social studies education. sincerely, bülent tarman, ph.d president of asse spencer clark’ın ““my assessment didn’t seem real”: the influence of field experiences on preservice teachers’ agency and assessment literacy”; ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel’in “determination of the methods used by prospective teachers in the field of social studies while teaching historical topics” ve rory p. tannebaum’un “preservice social studies teachers’ perspectives and understandings of teaching in the twenty-first century classroom: a meta-ethnography” isimli çalışmaları sizlerin görüşlerine sunulacaktır. başka bir sayıda ama öncelikle v.uluslarası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu’nda buluşana kadar sağlıklı ve hoşça kalın. saygılarımla, bülent tarman, ph.d sbeb başkanı article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (1),153-162 social skills for primary school students: needs analysis to implement the scientific approach based curriculum m. suswandari 1, siswandari2, sunardi3 & gunarhadi4 abstract this research aims to position the social skills of elementary school students as an important aspect in implementing the 2013 curriculum with a scientific approach. this research uses a descriptivequalitative approach and applies purposive sampling to select the informants, which comprised 20 students in three different elementary schools (sdn), namely sdn sonorejo 01, sdn bekonang 1, and sdn kemasan 01. the data-collection techniques used by the researcher include observation and documentation, with the subsequent data being analyzed using data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion-drawing techniques. the results show that 35% of students (7) have a good mastery of social skills, while the remaining 65% of students (13) did not demonstrate a solid mastery of social skills in class. the data implies that the social skills of elementary school students are still limited, which could in turn cause the implementation of the scientific approach to be less than optimal in the 2013 curriculum. keywords: social skills, scientific approach, 2013 curriculum, elementary school introduction fostering harmonious social relationships with other individuals is a skill that must be prepared from the early years of an individual’s life. this skill, however, is not a theoretical concept that can simply be conveyed through teaching and guidance but rather a practical skill that must be directly learned by an individual through his or her interactions with others and the forming of relationships with other students at school. social skills then become an important aspect in the realization of students’ activities and social values. social skills are an important part of the socialization process between students, with them affecting their manner of interacting, both in terms of communication and their behavior toward others. these skills are essential for the future lives of students, who will continue developing to overcome various conflicts that occur in the community and learn from real situations. possessing 1doctor candidate, universitas sebelas maret surakarta & universitas veteran bangun nusantara, sukoharjo, indonesia, meidawatisuswandari@student.uns.ac.id 2prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret surakarta, indonesia; siswandari@staff.uns.ac.id 3prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret surakarta, indonesia, nardi_ip@uns.ac.id 4 prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret surakarta, indonesia, gunarhadi@fkip.uns.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1),153-162 the knowledge, understanding, and skills to engage in social relationships is a must for everyone (dinh, 2019; kotluk & kocakaya, 2018; ririh pintoko jati, 2018). these social skills reflect the importance of students’ ability to interact with one another. one aspect of social skills that students must certainly possess involves communication skills. communication skills are one of the most basic abilities a human being must have (maulana yusuf, 2018). the other aspects of social skills include: 1) providing opportunities to other people in the group to enjoy the same rights and obligations; 2) encouraging group members to respect other members and have a positive view of them; 3) being sensitive to others, so one can feel others’ sufferings and wish to help; and 4) learning to control oneself and be a leader. in a group, fostering a harmonious atmosphere among group members requires rules to be established. this control is very important for a group’s continuity, and everyone should know the penalties for breaking the rules. what is more, 5) the habit of expressing opinions can foster bravery and readiness to accept others’ opinions, even when they differ from one’s own opinions (sriyanto, febrianta & yuwono, 2019). social skills are essential for socializing and interacting with other people, both in terms of one’s communication and behavior toward others. moreover, the various stages of cognitive, social, and psychological development act as the basis for elementary school students in future. these skills are essential to the later lives of these individuals, who will continue to develop to overcome various conflicts that can occur in society and constantly learn from real life. having the knowledge, understanding, and skills to engage in social relationships is vital (ririh pintoko jati, 2018). in addition to improving students’ social relationships, social skills are also essential for their academic and non-academic achievements, so any students with problems related to limited social intelligence need to be guided through a process to improve their social skills (hasbahuddin, 2018). for elementary school students in the classroom, good social skills are inseparable from the students’ learning progress. indonesia is currently implementing the 2013 curriculum, which follows a scientific approach. the main objective of a scientific approach to curriculum development is to achieve learning that meets the standard for an improved quality of education while also helping students to achieve their full educational and other potentials, including attitudes (religious and social), knowledge, and skills (susilana & ihsan, 2014). this concurs with suswandari, et al. 155 the aims of the ministry of education and culture in their teacher training material implementation of the 2013 curriculum (2013), which can be downloaded from www.puskurbuk.net. this scientific approach encompasses the 5ms (in indonesian terms and so further we identify as 5ms) for learning, which includes observing, asking, experimenting, reasoning/associating, and networking/communicating. some public and private elementary schools in sukoharjo regency apply the 2013 curriculum following the 5m scientific approach. these elementary schools include sdn sonorejo 01, sdn bekonang 1, and sdn kemasan 01. in the pre-observation, it was ascertained that as the teachers explained the material, the students actively participated in the learning process. the teacher solicited action by directing questions to them, so the students also played a role in the learning process. however, some things arose during learning in class, which included, among other things, some students who busied themselves talking with nearby friends; students who lacked the confidence to present before the class; some students who were hardly willing to argue; and some students who did not cooperate in group discussion activities. in addition, the teacher sometimes found it difficult to relate teaching material when applying the 5ms in a scientific approach. based on the problem analysis, this research set out to examine how the social skills of elementary school students are an important aspect in implementing the 2013 curriculum with a scientific approach. methods this research employed a descriptive-qualitative approach, because a qualitative approach was preferable for describing the learning process led by teachers in the classroom when implementing the 2013 curriculum with its scientific approach. in addition, this approach seemed a more effective candidate for use in this research because it would enable the research data to be explored in depth. purposive sampling was used to select the informants, and this process involved elementary school teachers in sukoharjo regency. the subsequent informants comprised 20 students in three different public elementary schools (sdn), namely sdn sonorejo 01, sdn bekonang 1, and sdn kemasan 01. the data-collection techniques used by the researcher included observation and documentation. observation is an activity that helps to gather in-depth data for phenomena that arise during the research period, which in this case is the social skills of v sd class students in sukoharjo regency when being taught through the 5m scientific approach as part of the 2013 curriculum. documentation, meanwhile, involves searching for data through archives, documents, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1),153-162 photos, and the files/portfolios used by teachers for the learning process under the 2013 curriculum. the overall data obtained through observation and documentation were then processed through interactive data analysis, which included stages for data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion. results and discussion this research seeks to address the research problems and objectives by describing the social skills of elementary school students as an important aspect in implementing the 2013 curriculum with its scientific approach. 5m learning process in the learning process of the 5m scientific approach of the 2013 curriculum, like with the previous curriculum, the teacher conducts three phases of activities including opening activities, core activities, and closing activities. the students’ task is to listen and be actively involved in the classroom. the teacher, meanwhile, is a facilitator who conditions the class and coordinates students, so that when learning takes place, the students act appropriately. when learning takes place through the opening, core, and closing activities, students listen carefully to what the teacher is saying. a phenomenon that arose during the learning process using the 5m scientific approach in sdn kemasan 01 concerned how the teacher of class v was unable to optimize the 5m activities by observing the students’ learning activities in class and engaging them by asking them questions about the material being taught. questioning activity was used more in learning at sdn sonorejo 01. in reasoning activity, the teachers asked the students to provide reasoning according to what they knew about the teaching materials given in the classroom. for experimental activity, the teachers allocated time for students to play an active role in learning, such as by reading examples in student books. for the networking activity, the teachers organized reciprocal activities between teacher and teacher or students and students. in this class, the students sang in front of the class. the teachers had not conditioned this class or coordinated its students, so some students were noisy during the learning process. this may be because teachers are less able to condition classes with higher student numbers, such as a class of 32 students. this happened in sd n bekonang 1 with a large, parallel number of students. suswandari, et al. 157 in addition, several matters emerged during observation when the teacher explained the teaching material to the students: some still talked with friends. student engagement was not seen in learning, and the teachers dominated the teaching–learning process more in class v of sd n kemasan 01. this can be explained by the fact that the teachers did not engage students by directing questions to them. this was also observed in sd n sonorejo 01, which also did not solicit student activity in the classroom. students’ activities appeared only in response to encouragement from the teacher for students to present in front of the class. this implies that students do not have individual awareness of presenting in front of the class. likewise, during group discussions, the students rely solely on their smarter friends. meanwhile, the smarter students preferred to work on discussion assignments independently, as evidenced by how they wrote their answers directly in their books without appreciating other members in their group. implementation of social skills in 5m the implementation of the 2013 curriculum with its 5m scientific approach in the three elementary schools of sukoharjo regency cannot be separated from one aspect of assessment, namely the student’s social skills. table 1 shows the observation results for the social skills of the 20 students in three elementary schools. table 1 recapitulation of social skills of elementary school students in sukoharjo regency no social skill aspect percentage (%) total % sdn sonorejo 01 sdn bekonang 1 sdn kemasan 01 1. student teamwork in a group 26 24 25 25% 2. helping others who need help 17 23 20 20% 3. expressing and listening to opinions 22 25 28 25% 4. there are students who do not notice that there are absent students 29 26 35 30% 5. presenting in front of the class without being instructed by the teacher 12 14 19 15% 6. choosing to work on problems in groups when the teacher asks students to discuss working on the problems 36 32 45 37% 7. academic competition during learning 18 22 20 20% total 24.5% table 1 reveals the low level of social skills shown by the elementary school students in sukoharjo regency. from the preliminary observations conducted by the researcher in the three sample journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1),153-162 elementary schools in sukoharjo, 35% (7) of students demonstrated mastery of social skills at a good level, while the remaining 65% (13) of students did not show good social skills in class. a quarter of students (25%) did work well with others in a team, and a fifth (20%) of them helped each other out. some 25% of the students were happy to express and listen to opinions. other attitudes demonstrated low social skills: for example, 30% of students did not notice friends who were absent, and only 15% of them presented something in front of the class without being instructed to by the teacher. in addition, only 37% of students worked on problems in groups when the teacher asked them to discuss a problem, and 20% of them lacked academic competition when learning in class. this low level of social skills is illustrated in figure 1. figure 1. elementary school students’ social skills in sukoharjo regency the first indicator of social skills was assessed by looking at the 25% collaboration rate among students in groups. in this activity, many students seem to have not mastered how to cooperate with other group members. these students simply wrote their answers in their respective books without any discussion with other group members. this phenomenon was studied by rusmana dahlan, and andriyanto (2018), who stated that aspects of cooperation ability could be developed through several aspects: 1) experiencing student togetherness in completing project assignments, 2) discussing project planning appropriately, 3) exchanging opinions, and 4) showing cohesiveness in completing project assignments (rusmana, dahlan & andriyanto, 2018). social skills teamwork help opinion care comm aca scss in group suswandari, et al. 159 furthermore, many students did not seem to listen to differing opinions from their friends. this could be seen in the group activities when discussing a worksheet. there were some group members who expressed their opinions, while others listened carefully. there were even some students who acted indifferently in the group and only replied to the teacher’s questions. it seems some of them justified an answer without considering the opinions of the other group members because they believed their answers were not appropriate or not correct, despite every student having the right to be him or herself and express feelings freely. this right can be developed through assertive training, which is a behavioral change procedure that teaches, guides, trains, and encourages clients to express themselves and behave decisively in certain situations. assertive training is designed to guide people in expressing, feeling, and acting based upon the assumption that they have the right to be themselves and to express their feelings accordingly. arzia purita and sumedi nugraha (2015) and octavian (2015) found increases in interpersonal communication skills after conducting assertive training for eighth-grade students at junior high school. their findings are also supported by the research of marini (2008) and rian pratama (2014), which found an increase in self-confidence after using assertive training techniques (rusmana et al., 2018). in the aspect of social skills, a caring attitude manifests through students noticing, and caring about, when other students do not attend school. this is easily observed when absent students do not answer when the teacher reads out that student’s name during an attendance check. it seems students give information to friends if they live nearby, but for students living far apart, it does not seem to be any of their business. furthermore, only 15% of the students presented something in front of the class without being asked to by the teacher. this emergence of passive students in the classroom is an important observation. students tend to enjoy writing answers in their books, but when asked by the teacher to come forward and present the results of their work discussion, the students tend to point to each other, and there is no willingness to present themselves in front of the class. in addition, 37% of the students worked on problems in groups when the teacher asked them to do so. in this activity, however, the students wrote the results of ideas and answers in their own books and did not engage in a dialog with other members of the group to ensure correct answers. therefore, due to the actions of students with the above skill indicator, they lacked maximum academic competition when learning in class (20%). the students often surrendered and showed passive learning, especially in group discussions, because they relied on the smartest students in the group. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1),153-162 based on the low level of social skills shown in the data described above for students when being taught with the 5m scientific approach, it can be surmised that this lack of social skills is not just due to an inability by teachers to develop them but also the students not exploring and subsequently developing such skills. social skills can only come about by fostering an attitude that encompasses independence, confidence, courage to communicate, and respect for others’ opinions. on instilling these attitudes, students will be able to interact with their social environment (ririh pintoko jati, 2018). this is why social skills have become an important aspect when implementing the 5m scientific approach. it also plays a key part in organizing a learning process for streamlining the 2013 curriculum. students become individuals with the right to express opinions and ideas but also the obligation to respect those of others. they should be able to exchange ideas in discussion groups, or between friends in class, while showing a social attitude and sensitivity to the students and the environment around them. efforts to improve these should in turn improve the social skills of elementary school students and prepare them to engage in a wider social context in future. conclusion this research addresses the objectives that have been elaborated upon in previous findings and discussions that position the social skills of elementary school students to be an important aspect for implementing the 2013 curriculum with a scientific approach. it can be concluded that the social skills of elementary school students are still regrettably low. this is evidenced by the observation data for the sample of students from three elementary schools in sukoharjo regency, with the average percentage for social skills being just 24.5%. social skills are an important factor when implementing a 5m scientific approach (observing, asking, experimenting, reasoning and communicating) for the 2013 curriculum. this research also has limitations, however, because the researcher selected a sample of students in sukoharjo regency from just three elementary schools. what is more, future research could build upon the data collection through observation and documentation by applying questionnairebased data collection or using a quantitative or experimental form of research. suswandari, et al. 161 acknowledgements the researcher expresses their deep gratitude to the institute of education fund management institution (lpdp) of the ministry of finance of the republic of indonesia for financial assistance to complete her study and her considerable research. references claudea cici nindhika, bain, i. s. (2018). internalisasi nilai-nilai sosial budaya melalui pembelajaran sejarah pada kelas x sma semesta semarang tahun ajaran 2017/2018 serta gaya hidup modern , di samping informasi di berbagai media, di sisi lain dan pusat statistik ( bps ), pada tahun 2013 me. indonesian journal of history education, 6(1), 14–20. daraee, m., salehi, k., & fakhr, m. (2016). comparison of social skills between students in ordinary and talented schools, 512–521. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2016.11.52 dinh, h. (2019). towards a knowledge-rich curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 54-70. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/6 gökel, ö., & dağli, g. (2017). effects of social skill training program on social skills of young people. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 13(11), 7365– 7373. https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/79615 gürbüz, e., & kıran, b. (2018). research of social skills of children who attend to kindergarten according to the attitudes of their mothers. journal of education and training studies, 6(3), 95. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v6i3.2831 hasbahuddin, h. (2018). the implementasi bimbingan keterampilan sosial untuk mengurangi perilaku agresif siswa di kabupaten pangkep. indonesian journal of learning education and counseling, 1(1), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.31960/ijolec.v1i1.36 janah, m. (2018). peningkatan keterampilan sosial peserta didik sma menggunakan layanan bimbingan kelompok dengan teknik diskusi laila maharani, hardiyansyah masya,. jurnal bimbingan dan konseling, 05(1), 65–72. kotluk, n., & kocakaya, s. (2018). culturally relevant/responsive education: what do teachers think in turkey. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(2), 98-117. larasati, k. (2019). hubungan antara komunikasi interpersonal orangtua-remaja dengan keterampilan sosial remaja, 6(2), 1093–1100. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1),153-162 maulana yusuf, i. t. dan o. s. (2018). penerapan metode simulasi untuk meningkatkan keterampilan sosial siswa dalam pembelajaran ips maulana, 5(2), 124–132. oktavia, i. (2015). oktavia, pengaruh model pembelajaran kooperatif ⋯ 2015, 01(01), 16–30. palerangi, a. m., tuwoso, & andoko. (2016). kontribusi kemandirian belajar dan keterampilan sosial terhadap pencapaian kompetensi kejuruan siswa paket keahlian teknik permesinan di kota makassar. jurnal pendidikan : teori, penelitian, dan pengembangan, 1(9), 1806–1816. pratama, f. r. (2015). simulasi pengendalian chaos dengan model coupled map lattice simulation controlling chaos with coupled map lattice model, 5, 21–24. purita, a., nugraha, s. p., & gusniarti, u. (2015). peningkatan kemampuan komunikasi interpersonal pada siswa sekolah menengah kejuruan (smk) “x” di yogyakarta melalui pelatihan asertivitas. jurnal intervensi psikologi (jip), 7(2), 233–245. https://doi.org/10.20885/intervensipsikologi.vol7.iss2.art6 ririh pintoko jati, p. dan e. r. (2018). analisis keterampilan sosial siswa pada pembelajaran ips di smp negeri 3 pardasuka. jurnal studi sosial, 6(1). rusmana, f. a., dahlan, s., & andriyanto, r. e. (2018). peningkatan keberanian siswa berbicara dalam diskusi kelas menggunakan konseling kelompok dengan teknik assertive training the improvement of students ’ courageousness to speak in class discussion using group conscients using assertive training techniques. psikologi sosial dan pendidikan, 06(1). sriyanto, s., febrianta, y., & yuwono, p. h. (2019). strategi berpikir visual bagi peserta didik gangguan kecemasan sosial untuk mengembangkan keterampilan sosial, 3, 65–78. susilana, r., & ihsan, h. (2014). pendekatan saintifik dalam implementasi kurikulum 2013 berdasarkan kajian teori psikologi belajar. edutech, 1(2), 183–195. yayuk hidayah, nufikha ulfah, dan s. (2019). pendidikan, analisis pendekatan pembelajaran mata kuliah wajib umum pancasila dan pendidikan kewarganegaraan di perguruan tinggi, 4(1), 22–33. jsser/sbead ailesi olarak yeni bir sayımızla daha sizleri selamlıyor olmanın vermiş olduğu mutluluğu ifade ederek sözlerime başlamak istiyorum i from the editor / editörden from the editor hello, thanks for joining us again in this our latest issue (v/1) of journal of social studies education research (jsser). our journal has turned 5 years old with this issue. we are extremely delighted and proud to see the seeds we planted in the autumn of 2010 take root and grow. social studies as a system of scientific research, and an academic career, is relatively new to turkey, so achieving this success here means even more compared to in other countries with more deeply rooted traditions and a greater accumulation of knowledge in this area. therefore i am grateful to everyone who contributed to achieving this success over the last four years. jsser is a member of the association for social studies educators (asse). from asse’s perspective jsser‘s role is to provide a basis for social studies academicians to fulfill their national and wider responsibilities and mission by contributing to the advancement of the social science research and to the sharing of research results. the second contribution of the jsser in this area was to set up and institutionalize an international symposium on social studies education. last month we held the third such symposium. every year we bring together hundreds of native and foreign scientists, teachers and students in these symposiums, which have gained the status of a scientific banquet. among our medium term targets is the advancement of these two activities in quality and quantity. whilst we are optimistic and hopeful about the future that does not mean that we have not encountered any difficulties during our work. on the contrary we still face many challenges. some of these stem from the application and /or infrastructure of the information technology. this edition of the jsser is the end result of a difficult and instructional period during which, due to difficulties encountered with the virtual system we use, our procedures for in-putting and evaluating articles came to a stand-still. due to the paralysis of the virtual system, only three articles reached the publication phase. these articles are the following: derek anderson and tanya cook, “committed to differentiation and engagement: a case study of two american secondary social studies teachers”, edi̇törden merhaba, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi (sbead/jsser: journal of social studies education research)’nin v/1’nci sayısıyla yine birlikteyiz. elinizdeki sayıyla dergimiz 5 yaşına girmiş bulunuyor. 2010 sonbaharında diktiğimiz bir fidanın kök salıp büyüdüğünü görmek, son derece mutluluk ve gurur verici. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi gibi bilimsel araştırma ve akademik kariyer sisteminin çok yeni olduğu türkiye’de bunu başarmak, bu alanda köklü bir gelenek ve birikime sahip ülkelere göre farklı bir anlam ve öneme sahip. bu nedenle geride bıraktığımız dört yılda bu başarı öyküsünün yazılmasında emeği geçen herkese minnettarım. üyesi olduğu sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği (sbeb/asse: assocation for social studies educators) açısından sbead/jsser’nin görevi, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmalarının gelişmesine ve sonuçlarının paylaşılmasına katkıda bulunarak, sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerinin millî ve evrensel görev ve sorumluluklarını yerine getirmelerine zemin hazırlamaktır. sbeb/asse’nin bu konudaki ikinci katkısı geçen ay üçüncüsünü gerçekleştirmiş olduğumuz uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumunu (usbes/isse: international symposium on social studies education) başlatıp kurumsallaştırmaktır. her yıl yüzlerce yerli ve yabancı bilim adamı, öğretmen ve öğrencinin bir araya geldiği bu sempozyumlar, gerçek anlamıyla bir bilim şöleni niteliği kazanmıştır. her iki türdeki faaliyetlerin sayı ve nitelik olarak geliştirilmesi orta vadeli hedeflerimiz arasındadır. geleceğe bu kadar iyimser/umutla bakmamız bu faaliyetlerimiz sırasında hiç güçlükle karşılaşmadığımız anlamına gelmemelidir. aksine birçok güçlükle karşılaşıyoruz. bunların bir kısmı bilişim teknolojisi kullanımı ve/veya altyapısından kaynaklanıyor. elinizdeki sayı uzunca bir süre dergiyi yayınladığımız sanal sistemi kullanamadığımız için makale girişi ve hakem değerlendirme işlemlerinin durduğu bir zorlu ve öğretici bir sürecin ürünüdür. yaşadığımız sanal sistem felci dolayısıyla ancak üç makale yayınlanma aşamasına gelebilmiştir. bu makaleler şunlar: derek anderson ve tanya cook “committed to differentiation and engagement: a case study of two american secondary social studies teachers”, ii from the editor / editörden şehnaz yalçın wells “active art education in a university museum the example of the barber institute”, hıdır karaduman ve cemil öztürk, “the effects of activities for digital citizenship on students’ attitudes toward digital citizenship and their reflections on students’ understanding about digital citizenship”. these are high quality studies, which will enrich the wider literature in this area. before i end i would like to thank everyone who contributed to the production of this issue and special thanks to assoc. prof. dr. alper kesten who acted as our number editor during this challenging period and successfully prevented any disruption. best regards, prof. dr. cemil öztürk editor şehnaz yalçın wells, “active art education in a university museum the example of the barber institute”, hıdır karaduman ve cemil öztürk, “the effects of activities for digital citizenship on students’ attitudes toward digital citizenship and their reflections on students’ understandingabout digital citizenship”. bu çalışmalar ilgili literatürün zenginleşmesine katkı yapacak niteliktedir. sözlerime son verirken bu sayının çıkmasında emeği geçen herkese, özellikle bu zorlu süreçte sayı editörlüğünü üstlenerek herhangi bir aksamayı önleyen doç. dr. alper kesten’e teşekkür ediyorum. gelecek sayıda buluşmak dileğiyle. saygılarımla, prof. dr. cemil öztürk editör www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi from the editors of special issue global citizenship education in the social studies teaching about globalizations and our interconnectedness with people and places around the world is an essential component of k-12 and higher education, but knowledge about global issues and news is not enough. increased mobility, digital communication, and cultural hybridity, along with oppression and social injustice require that educators and students not only be able to communicate and collaborate with people different from them, but regularly engage in critical selfreflection around perceived norms and values. in january 2016, the editors of this special issue distributed a call for theoretical, research-based, and practitioner oriented manuscripts on teaching and learning that bring social studies and global citizenship education together. evidence by the transnational contributions published within this issue of the journal of social studies education research, the place of global citizenship education within the social studies is evolving, multifaceted, and not without complications. in short: just how it should be. it is understood that globalization and global education are not the same. globalization is a series of processes and systems: economic globalization, cultural globalization, communication and information technologies, mass media, migration, and many more issues make up what we know to be globalization. in fact, the term globalization went from meaning a lot to being nearly meaningless because it is used so frequently and generally. global education, on the other hand, not only queries how cultural practices become normalized, but provides a theoretical lens through which to analyze the processes, systems, and practices that are used to construct and perpetuate narratives that “other” and ultimately reduce people and places to stereotypes. the co-editors of this issue spent time working with social studies teachers in kütahya, turkey during june and july 2016 on these very concepts. during the workshops and discussions, teachers pointed out that global education provides the tools for analyzing and critiquing globalization, but also ways of thinking about how to respond to inequities caused and sustained through global systems. however, when the topic of global citizenship was introduced, there was a range of responses and questions as to the goals, privileges, and controversies associated with such a concept. central to the debate was concern that the united states, as a global power, possesses advantages that nations www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi ii such as turkey and others do not, thus creating privileges around citizenship and global mobility for few rather than many. in such instances, as social studies teachers in kütahya argues, global citizenship cannot be presented as a monolithic status of positivity and achievement since not all people possess citizenship within a nation nor are afforded rights of equal protection. this is the kind of debate this issue intends to forward so that social studies educators in turkey, the united states, and elsewhere can interrogate what and who global citizenship includes, and the extent to which this is a desirable or even achievable status. infusing global citizenship education in social studies education across k-16 classrooms involves more than covering global issues related to cultural and economic globalization. a first step toward accomplishing these goals involves instructors and students unpacking how they imagine the world and reflecting on their biases as part of an ongoing process known as developing one’s perspective consciousness. stereotypes, exotic images, and myths about other cultures are barriers to global citizenship education because they distort reality and go hand in hand with prejudice and ethnocentrism. often stereotypes are used as shortcuts so that people do not have to examine cultural complexity and can justify their status, behavior, and worldview. too often, the lack of depth these approaches promote results in “othering” and the portrayal of cultures as static, when instead, educators should explore and value difference across and within places and people. a global citizenship education approach to understanding culture requires examination and reflection beyond surface representations of what people do, eat, and wear to a more substantive understanding of “internal culture” which includes use of language, interpretation of events, beliefs, and values. if we are to help students develop compassion for others, if we want them to see potential for good in the systems and institutions that operate across borders, then social studies education must include stories and issues relevant to all students, particularly those who do not see themselves or their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, citizenship status, or cultural heritage, represented in our curriculum. according to the 2001 national council for the social studies’ (ncss) position statement on preparing students for a global community, “a global perspective is attentive to the interconnectedness of the human and natural environment and the interrelated nature of events, problems, or ideas” and “in studying the traditions, history, and current challenges of other cultures, the perspective consciousness of our students must be raised and ethnocentric barriers www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi iii must be addressed.” a social studies education oriented toward the future requires educators who incorporate ways for students to bridge the space between the classroom and society so that lessons about citizenship, global interconnectedness, and social justice are applied rather than abstract. through the incorporation of technology and cross-cultural leaning opportunities, social studies educators foster critical thinking and expose their students to multiple perspectives across time and space. these goals remain achievable despite emphasis on assessment in education because teacher educators and in-service social studies teachers understand that our work remains oriented toward college, career, and civic preparedness for the 21st century. our shared future requires that social studies educators continue to prepare students to be informed, open-minded, and responsible citizens for and in a global age. it is imperative that social studies teacher candidates, those who are working to become teachers, develop a global perspective because their students will continue to be engaged with people and issues across the planet as the world’s peoples, economies, politics, and environmental issues become ever more interdependent. students play video games with people around the world, they watch youtube videos made by peers they may never meet in person, and they buy products made by people, too often children, who would give anything to have an opportunity to go to school. for these reasons, the place of global education in teacher education must be enhanced and one way to do that is to make sure your students and our students, and the students of social studies educators around the world, are communicating with one another. meaningful social studies engages students in analyses of the past to not only make connections to the here and now, but so that students reflect on how their actions impact our collective future. to achieve these goals, teacher candidates and social studies professionals need to identify views and voices that are not represented in the curriculum and incorporate resources that assist students in developing a more informed perspective consciousness regarding the complexities of history and contemporary issues. this includes informed use of technologies and media analysis, but the increased use of these resources carries a responsibility to examine the impact of a digital divide. students need critical media education in order to learn to think critically about sources, motive, and context. lastly, social studies educators need to foster discussions about the responsibilities students have as digital citizens in an interconnected world. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi iv to accomplish these goals, social studies instructors must create opportunities for transnational and cross-cultural collaboration. we must learn from each other and ask each other hard questions about how we teach about the world in our respective classrooms. the majority of teachers in the united states are racially white and teach in majority white schools, meaning many teachers have little experience working with students of color or with students who were born in one place and then moved to another. when discussing global citizenship education (gce), it is important to ensure that the views and voices represented in the literature are indeed global. to the extent possible, we sought to include research from across the globe to avoid privileging only certain countries or institutions. we also valued inclusion of critical points of view within the work of global citizenship education and the social studies. gce can often be limited to “elite” students and institutions, but the nature of global interdependency and interconnectedness requires critical analysis to investigate social injustice and movements for change. these perspectives and arguments should inform the implications of some of the research and conceptual work included in this issue. finally, we were committed to including a variety of methodological frameworks and topics to appeal to as broad a reading audience as possible. projects on the use of technology to teach for and about global citizenship, cross-cultural learning, service and experiential learning, and more were submitted for consideration, posing a good problem for the review and acceptance process. the issue leads off with sara matthews’s investigation of how youths construct and perceive glocal issues using digital participatory research (dpr). in “using digital participatory research to foster glocal competence; constructing multimedia projects as a form of global and civic citizenship,” participants in mathews’ study reflect on how glocal citizenship, which she defines as the merging of civic and global competence, helps students understand how local and global influences interact in their everyday lives. this multi-case study analysis of two groups simultaneously engaging in the dpr project, one in miami, florida and one in kingston, jamaica, addresses the importance of field research in multiple locations as well as the need for inclusion of youth perspectives beyond the classroom when conceptualizing global citizenship. in “curricular connections: using critical cosmopolitanism to globally situate multicultural education in teacher preparation courses,” erik byker and sheila marquardt explore the bridging of multiculturalism within a global context through cosmopolitanism. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi v interested in how teacher candidates understand and then teach for social justice, this study considers the issues within global citizenship education that are too often overlooked: privilege, access, and cultural supremacy. the curricular analysis project discussed in joanna leek’s article “global citizenship education in school curricula: a polish perspective” addresses issues that many classroom teachers looking to develop global citizenship education, regardless of grade or geographic location, encounter regularly. this project queries the extent to which individuals can develop a worldcentered perspective without abandoning their own national identity. tracing polish history from the end of wwii, through soviet occupation, and into today, leek discusses the ways in which students consider global problems to be part of the challenges faced in poland and offers perceptions that interrogate the degree to which local and global problems are linked to each other. michael kopish’s “global citizenship education for teacher candidates through global migration critical inquiry and cross-cultural experiential learning” blends work in and out of the classroom to illustrate the importance of place-based learning within global education. by devoting an entire course to experiential learning with the goal of fostering global mindedness, this project provides program and curriculum developers a way to develop meaningful educational experiences that blend technology, local community, and cross-cultural experiences. interested in closing the gap that exists between classrooms around the world, dan krutka and ken carano’s “videoconferencing for global citizenship education: wise practices for social studies educators” centers on the use of technology within global citizenship education. by focusing on resource integration and skill development related to media and digital literacy, this article provides a procedural overview that teacher educators with resource access can use to help students engage in intercultural experiences for the purpose of fostering cross-cultural learning opportunities. most students across the globe possess and interact with cultural practices and perspectives in and out of the classroom at a much higher rate than any generation before them. the demands and outcomes of global interconnectedness have led classroom educators, school leaders, teacher educators, and researchers to rethink what students need to learn and be able to do as members of a globally interdependent world. for instance, content must be paired with discussions of concepts and skills that one needs to participate in a globally interdependent world throughout a course, www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi vi rather than just learning about systems, processes, and institutions during one or two class sessions dedicated to topics and concepts deemed “global” in social studies. by discussing the extent to which their work involves curricular infusion and transformative approaches to teaching and learning, the projects included in this special issue illustrate why the “add-on” approach to global citizenship education is intensely problematic. as is argued in this volume, facilitating opportunities for teachers and students to reflect on how influences that emanate from across an increasingly interdependent, yet unequal world affect their sense of identity(ies), citizenship, and professional dispositions is integral to how global educators approach social studies education in the 21st century. we appreciate the opportunity to publish this special issue of the journal of social studies education research, with sincere gratitude to dr. bulent tarman for his support and guidance. thank you to the authors for their commitment to this special issue and for their patience during the publishing process. thank you as well to the reviewers for their prompt and thorough feedback to help us publish this issue on time. lastly, we remain inspired by our students and colleagues for their commitment to the important work of educating others so that we may achieve a peaceful, inclusive, and compassionate world. special issue editors: jason harshman, phd; university of iowa, u.s.a. emin kılınç, phd; dumlupınar university, turkey www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2), 62-79 transformation of approaches to organizing the students' university practical training in the area of social activity: a post-soviet experience ekaterina o. akvazba 1, lyudmila k. gabysheva2, pavel s. medvedev 3, natalya i. skok4, tatyana e. ukhabina 5 abstract the relevance of studying the problem is conditioned by a number of circumstances existing in the russian social education. among the most important ones, the following should be named: having to bring the russian education close to and harmonize it with the european one in line with the bologna requirements, the need to overcome its excessive academicism, as well as the actual performance of the long-proclaimed transition to practice-oriented learning. the objective of the paper consists in suggesting the variants of overcoming the existing controversies and disadvantages of the professional training of social activity specialists by putting forward a model for organizing the practical training in the direction of "social work". the model includes the concept of practical training and mechanisms for implementation thereof in the modern russia with the experience of the european countries borne in mind. the leading approach to the study of the problem was the method of hypothetic and deductive modeling, including all the successive stages up to the experimental one. the paper presents the results of theoretical analysis of scientific and methodological sources on the problem of practical training and implementation of practice and activity-oriented education at the russian higher education institutions which is aimed at personal and professional development of students via the formation of competences. the analytical approach allowed identifying the key organizational disadvantages that prevent the said approach from being implemented to the full extent in the russian education practice, including due to the lack of an optimum practical training model. the results of the research have allowed providing grounds for having to develop the concept of students' practical training in social directions of activity and suggesting the mechanisms for implementing it at the russian educational organizations.the materials of the research can be used by the russian and foreign higher education institutions when holding the students' practical training, first of all, in the area of social work. keywords: transformation of russian education, traditional paradigm of education, competency, competency-based approach, practice-oriented model, the concept of students' practical training in the social education. 1 assoc. prof., candidate of philology, industrial university of tyumen, kitino@mail.ru 2 department director, candidate of sociology, industrial university of tyumen, gabyshevalk@tyuiu.ru 3 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, industrial university of tyumen, korolallemonda@mail.ru 4 prof., doctor of sociology, industrial university of tyumen, natalya-skok@mail.ru 5 assoc. prof., candidate of sociology, industrial university of tyumen, klever_te@mail.ru mailto:korolallemonda@mail.ru mailto:natalya-skok@mail.ru akvazba et al. 63 introduction the russian fundamental education was created upon the knowledge-based paradigm. for several decades, the educational process in the system of general and professional education has been built on the deductive basis in line with the didactic triad "knowledge – abilities – skills", with the principal attention paid to knowledge acquisition. it has been believed that the very knowledge acquisition process has a developing potential: it is during the process of learning that the required abilities and skills have to be formed (it is sufficient to recollect the developmental learning theory). the many years practice has found essential disadvantages of such an approach. a comparative study of the quality of education with higher education institution graduates of post-soviet countries (russia, belarus, the ukraine) and the developed countries of the west (the usa, france, canada, israel) conducted by the world bank registered that our students show very high results (9-10 points) in the "knowledge" and "understanding" criteria and they score very low in the "practical application of knowledge", "analysis", "synthesis" and "evaluation" ones (1-2 points). meanwhile, the students from other countries have shown quite the opposite results, i.e. they have demonstrated a high extent of development in skills of analysis, synthesis, and decision-making abilities against a relatively low level of the "knowledge" parameter. among causes of crisis of the traditional education paradigm, they also list the information getting obsolete under the modern conditions much faster than the natural education cycle at the secondary and higher school is completed. consequently, the traditional orientation to transferring the required knowledge reserve from teachers to students ceases to make sense. what is much more important is to teach the students the abilities to acquire knowledge. moreover, at the labor market, it is not the knowledge as such that are in demand but a specialist's ability to use them in practice and to perform certain professional and social functions. russia's system of higher professional education is currently undergoing profound change that is closely associated with the change in economic, social and political, cultural spheres of life of the society. the change makes the university education face the necessity of a new comprehension of its essence, the principles of organization and management. the main task for teachers of the modern higher school is to generalize the positive experience of the total of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 62-79 pedagogical technologies, approaches and techniques that used to be applied before and to build the foundations for renewal of the pedagogical paradigm in order to upgrade the content of higher professional education on its basis. the change of the pedagogical paradigm actualizes the new basis categories in the content of education – the competences. the competency-based approach emerged as an alternative to the abstract and theoretical knowledge and at present is increasingly actively being introduced into the pedagogical reality. within the competency-based approach, there is an attempt to implement the personality orientation of education, its activity-, practice-related and cultural components while keeping the fundamental and universal character. the competency-based approach is oriented first of all to the achievement of certain results and acquisition of meaningful competences. as for competences acquisition, this is impossible without gaining an experience of activity, i.e. competences and activity are inseparably connected. competences are formed in the process of activity and for the sake of the future professional activity. under these conditions, the process of learning gains a new meaning – it turns into the process of studying/acquisition, i.e. acquiring the knowledge, abilities, skills and the experience of activity in order to achieve professionally and socially important competencies. there are several approaches to practice-oriented education within the system of higher education. some authors associate it with organizing the students' educational, on-the-job and pre-graduation training intended to plunge the students into the professional environment, to make them correlate their ideas about the occupation with requirements put forward by actual business, and comprehend their own role in social work. other authors consider the implementation of professionally oriented learning technologies that promote the formation of personal qualities that are significant for the future professional activity as well as knowledge, abilities and skills ensuring a high-quality performance of functional duties in the specialty of one's choice to be the most efficient. yet, other authors associate the rise of practice-oriented education with using the opportunities of professionally oriented, context learning of profile and non-profile subjects (lopatin, 2008). unlike the traditional education that is oriented to knowledge acquisition, the practiceoriented one is aimed at gaining the abilities, skills and experience of practical activity alongside with the knowledge (mauch, & tarman, 2016). however, education cannot be practice-oriented akvazba et al. 65 without gaining the experience of activity (degterev, 2008). literature review it is widely acknowledged worldwide that it is the activityand competency-based approach is the strategic foundation for the entire modern educational system: by martincová & andrysová (2017); erbilgin (2017); kenna & poole (2017), mathews (2016); paleeva, (2013); demchenkova (2011); eremina, zoroastrova and suchkova (2015); sitaeva & chupris (2015); auvinen (2006); zeer (2000); zimnyaya (2003); white (1959). interestingly, it was e. toffler's statement that became one of the impulses for the development of competency-based direction in education; in his work "the futurists", he remarked that "knowledge is becoming increasingly complicated. what today is a fact then becomes a mistake. students must learn to reject old ideas, to know when and how to replace them. to put it short, they must learn to learn, unlearn and relearn. an illiterate person of tomorrow will be not the one who cannot read but the one who has not learned how to learn" (toffler, 2002, p. 46). the idea of the content and structure of a modern man was supported by r. w. white (1956). he not only described the competences but also suggested a system for assessing these with forecasting the graduates' professional and personal prospects taken into account. speaking about the latest works on competences, the studies by soland, hamilton and stecher (2013) should be mentioned which identify the key competences of the 21st century: cognitive ones, intraand interpersonal ones. the main idea of competences consists in their being closely associated with a specialist's process of activity (social psychology of education, 2005). as it is stated by many scholars at present there takes place a certain loss of clarity and completed outlines of professions, the flexibility of the labor market emerges, and identification of stable specialties is lost while they gain the nature of dynamic short-term "packages of competences". the dynamic professional character comes to replace the stable occupations. qualifications and competences do not contradict each other but they represent various aspects of personalityand activity-based potential. it is the temporary and unstable nature of professions that can be seen as a working model of the future. thus, it is a broad view including addressing to the future labor markets that is inherent in the competency-based approach. meanwhile, it should be pointed out that the general transition to the two-level higher education consolidated by bologna agreement and actively supported by journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 62-79 first of all western specialists, in particular, by teichler (2005), has regrettably failed to yield the expected results so far. for instance, a research conducted in germany showed that the degrees obtained are not always recognized. during the study conducted after the introduction of bachelor's and master's degree, 2 135 enterprises of the german congress of industry and commerce gave their first appraisal of the higher education institution graduates. the following facts were found out during the survey:  almost 40% of the enterprises parted with an employee hired right after graduation already during the trial period. most frequently – in 26% of cases, they named as the reason the new employee's being incapable of applying the obtained theoretical knowledge in practice.  only a quarter of the enterprises surveyed have already had an experience of working with graduates having a bachelor's or master's degree.  do the bachelors live up to the employers' expectations? a third of the enterprises respond in the negative. two thirds think the bachelors are up to their expectations. the fact has to be considered as a signal of the new organization of the leveled system of higher education not quite succeeding yet. in germany, the criticism also touches upon the question of specialty knowledge: almost 40% of the enterprises complain about the graduates' insufficient knowledge in their specialties, about a third criticize the absence of methodological, social and personal competences (heimann, 2008). in spite of that, it is the competency-based approach that remains the principal tool that allows modeling the results of education and their representation as the standards of quality of the higher education, which means the following:  the results of education being reflected in a systemic and integral way;  the results of being educated at higher education institutions being worded as signs of readiness of a student/graduate to demonstrate the appropriate knowledge, abilities, skills and values;  the structure of competences to be acquired and shown by the learners being determined, the competences being adjustable in conditions of the regional labor market. special attention when implementing the competency-based approach in the professional akvazba et al. 67 education should be paid to the multi-variability of the model, to its taking into account the particularities of development of the future specialist's sphere of activity. by the model of a specialist, a certain image to be achieved during the process of training at higher education institution and to be up to the modern requirements is understood. the development of the model of a specialist allows making more precise the objectives of specialists' training, correcting the curricula and programs, selecting the methods and means of learning that are relevant to the specialist's activity as it is meant to be in actual conditions, elaborating more grounded solutions for enhancing the efficiency of students' professional training (haedrich, 1967). thus, it is the competency-based model of a graduate that becomes at present the systembuilding element of the content and result of education (hoffmann, 2017). it is the model that is a foundation for developing the conceptual approaches to organization of practical training. the said viewpoint is shared and supported by many western specialists, in particular, by kolb and kolb (1984); doel and shardlow (2004); schmitt (2007); merten (2000). in the professional and personal model of a graduate, the objectives of education are associated both with the objects and subjects of work, with performance of certain functions, and with interdisciplinary integrated requirements for the result of the educational process. a further opportunity for the relevant adaptation of the best practices available in the european council countries was the transition of the russian education to the activityand competency-based model and bologna principles. thus, the main task of the upgrade of education is having to adapt the content of education, learning technologies and practical preparation for the needs of the labor market, as it is the latter that determines the set of competencies required for a graduate. materials and methods taking into account the high importance of practical training for the higher education institution graduates' professional activity, the research group – the authors of the paper – have conducted the theoretical analysis of printed publications, methodological materials, the foreign experience of organizing and conducting the practice when training the social activity specialists. the objective of analysis was to determine the conceptual provisions in preparing, conducting, and organizing the practical training, making its goal orientation and assessment methods more precise. the main task the researchers faced was to dissect in detail the current laws and journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 62-79 regulations of all levels (the federal, the regional and the local ones), methodological materials, mostly those of the rf ministry of education and the rf higher education institutions (tyumen industrial university, ural state pedagogical university) as well as the foreign higher education institutions (lüneburg university – germany, universities of finland and the netherlands) on the organization of practical training of students enrolled in social directions of training (social work, social pedagogy), and to study the experience of the institutions in the sphere of educational activity (verein für öffentliche und private fürsorge e.v., 2004, bundesarbeitsgemeinschaft der praxisämter, 2005, 2006, jugendministerkonferenz, 2006). the analysis encompassed the curricula, working programs of practice-oriented subjects, competency-based models of graduates, the competences formation assessment systems, provisions on practical studies, practical assignments, the report documentation on the results of undergoing the practical training, and practice management. alongside with the analysis of the data sheets, opinions and the experience of practice organization at various higher education institutions were exchanged. as a result of the work conducted, the concept of students' practical training has been developed, with the competency-based approach underlying as it was adopted as the initial one by all researchers. results and discussion the logics of the analysis conducted, the literature sources available and the data sheets listed predetermined the task of the first stage of development of the concept of students' practical training in the direction of social activity. the essence of the task consisted in building a professional and personal model of a graduate where the objectives of education would be associated both with the objects and subjects of work, performance of competences, functions, and with the methodological standards, integrated requirements for the results of the educational process. competences and the results of education act as an integrating principle in the model while the basis of the professional and personal model is made up by the systemic and activitybased approach, which is the most characteristic one for the russian higher school. the components of the professional and personal model are up to the thesis "a graduate's readiness for the professional activity consists in the graduate's acquisition of a complete set of social knowledge, professional actions and social relationships as well as in the completed formation and maturity of the professional and personal qualities of the individual" (ukhabina, 2008, p. akvazba et al. 69 197). the professional and personal model of a graduate contains components represented by levels, competencies and competences. in the hierarchical structure of the model components, each lower level is characterized by what the levels located above it are determined. proceeding from these standpoints, three main groups of competencies in the professional and personal model of a graduate have been isolated: the professional and subject-related competency; the professional and activity-based competency; and the professional and personal competency. according to the diagram suggested, the structure of the professional and personal model of a graduate studying in the direction of social activity can be presented as follows in table 1 "the structure of professional and personal model of a graduate studying in the direction of social activity". table 1 the structure of professional and personal model of a graduate studying in the direction of social activity competencies criteria (approximately) external assessment of the professional and social preparedness of the graduate professional and subject-related competency integration of knowledge, cognitive aspect (mastery of the knowledgebased content), interdisciplinary consistency professional and activity-based competency the experience of demonstrating the competency in various activities: information one, social and technological one, managerial one, project one, reflexive one, and marketing one – for bachelors; the scientific and research one and methodological activity – for masters professional and personal competency readiness for showing one's personal property; readiness for actualization of competencies; readiness for showing one's competency; readiness for interaction with other people etc.; attitude to oneself as to a personality, life activity subject source: ukhabina (2008, p. 192-207). competences cannot be formed by study subjects only, be it even ones of the main professional educational program. projecting a subject onto each competence and arguing it can be formed is a wrong way. a competence is a result of integration of educational technologies, organizational forms, methods, techniques and other learning and extracurricular activity journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 62-79 performed in the so-called "competency-related space" which includes the professional environment, the territory within which education is performed, the activity, and the educational space. the students' practical training is just the coupling link that unites the professional and educational environment of the competency-based space. practice is generally known to always follow theory, so in educational process, too, it is a continuation, and frequently also a logical completion of a certain period of study. with regard to this, the architectonics of the curricula being the basic document for educational process has to be modulated in such a way as to lead to the formation of this or that competency, which was actually done at the second stage. given that practice is a logical completion of a certain period of study, the architectonics of the curricula undoubtedly has to be modulated in such a way as to lead to the formation of this or that competency. table 2 "recommendations on harmonization of the curriculum and modulating the competencyand practice-oriented disciplines of social activity bachelors" gives an example of harmonization of a social activity bachelor's curriculum. table 2 recommendations on harmonization of the curriculum and modulating the competencyand practice-oriented disciplines of social activity bachelors professional cycle and subjects and subjects of the elective parts of the federal state educational standard kinds of practical training competences module 1 introduction to specialty; conflict management in social work; professional ethic foundations of social work; theory of communications ("culture of business communication" tutorial); professional identity tutorial; visiting of social institutions of various directions of activity within the practical classes in the "introduction to specialty" subject introductory training (2 weeks) to learn to establish contact with the customer; to master the skills of ethic and business communication; to know how to plan and use one's work time sensibly; to form an idea about the structure of social institutions and the content of professional activity; to be able to adapt to the profession of one's choice (social and personal competences) module 2 sociology; psychology; social statistics; educational practical training (4 weeks) to have skills of collection, analysis and systematization of information; to develop a akvazba et al. 71 imagology (elective course); "psychology of personal growth" workshop program of professional and literary growth (social and personal competences, general scientific competences, general professional competences of the minimum width and depth, level i) module 3 theory of social work; technology of social work; management in social work; marketing and advertisement of social services; methods of research in social work; legal support in social work; individual and family counseling; creative subjects; technologies of group communication; projecting, forecasting and modeling in social work; psychological and social work with change – tutorial on adaptation to changed conditions on-the-job training (10 weeks) to have knowledge in the area of legal regulation in social work; to know how to forecast and model the customer's problem situations; to learn to develop programs, cases, and projects of rendering assistance to the customer; to be able to apply sociological research methods in practice; to master the ways, techniques and technologies used by a specialist counselor; to develop managerial competences (social and personal competences, general scientific competences, general professional ones of the minimum width and depth, levels i–ii) module 4 social work with children; social work with family; social work with the disabled; social work with the old age; problems of social work with youth; content and technique of pedagogical activity within the system of psychological and social work (social pedagogy); content and technique of social medical work pre-graduation practice (8 weeks) to be able to perform one's professional activity independently; to be ready to adopt the others' professional experience and accept the expressions of professional openness; to develop the skills of development and application of strategy of assistance for various groups of customers; to have an aspiration to implement innovations; to gain the skills of development of one's own techniques (methods) of working with various groups of customers; to master the skills of testing out (experimenting with) the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 62-79 traditional and innovation techniques (methods) of social work with various groups of customers (social and personal competences, general scientific competences, and general professional ones of the maximum width and depth of all levels) source: ukhabina t.e. (2008, p. 192-207). such modular practice-oriented education allows forming various types of competences consistently, making them more extended and profound from module to module. table 3 "assessment criteria for the extent of formation of professional competences" presents the assessment criteria for competences to be mastered by the students during the modular practiceoriented education competences width depth levels minimum maximum minimum maximum i ii iii social and technological ones to master the simplest social technologies to master all technologies to know how to use known technologies to know how to select the optimum one from several technolo-gies, to adapt it to an individual or a social group, situation, to apply it, to obtain a result, and to show initiative to be competent towards a certain customer or problem to be competent towards a social group and several problems to be competent towards an integrated problem of a territorial community organizing, managerial and legal ones to perform general managerial functions with traditional techniques to master the modern social management methods information technological ones to master the main pc programs to master all pc programs used in the practice of social work akvazba et al. 73 project ones to draw up the simplest social projects to draw up elaborate social projects, to take part in grant contests, to organize the implementation of the projects with a result obtained marketing ones to master the social market services research methods to be able to draw up a marketing plan, to conduct a study of market, and to develop a social advertisement reflexive ones to master the skills of reflection and self-reflection on social problems and personal traits to master the skills of systemic reflection and self-reflection source: ukhabina t.e. (2008, p. 192-207). the extent of formation of competences has to be assessed by the practice training advisor both on the part of the higher education institution and by the receiving organization supervisor. it is the assessment of width, depth and formation level of competences – and not holding the formal documents confirming its completion – that shall determine the success of the practical training. description and purposes of the elements oriented to forming the educational process allows laying out the basic concept of higher education institution practical training (the bachelor's degree level) in the direction of social activity; it is given in table 4 "the concept of higher education institution practical training". table 4 the concept of higher education institution practical training parts of the concept standards and recommendations for comments journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 62-79 methodological materials implementation objectives of the practical training provision on the students' or learners' practical training objectives of all kinds of practical training should be worded in line with the universal and professional competences. the objectives of each practical training kind should be up to certain width, depth and level of the extent of formation of a competence. the available provisions have to be translated into the language of quality management and competency-based approach. the influence of today's standards on the practical training has to be reduced to a minimum. each university has to have free reserves for increasing the duration of practical training (at the expense of the scope of optional hours of students' choice). the emphasis in the curriculum architectonics has to be placed on the practice-oriented, tutorial and developing kinds of classes. practical training system subjects methodological guidelines on completion of all kinds of practical training. provision on the practical training board. a list of practical training places. assessment criteria for institutions – places of practical training. requirements for practical training supervisors it is expedient to conduct certification of supervisors and places of practical training (via the rating and criteria for places of practical training). the requirements for institutions and supervisors have to be stipulated in the contract and provision on practical training. functions provision on practical training. methodological guidelines. diary of a trainee student. individual assignment. the objectives of practical training (competences) must be at the head of practiceoriented modules. introduction of other forms of practical trainings is advisable. lectures and seminars have to be oriented to not only knowledge acquisition but also to formation of competences. cooperation with places of practical training three-party contract. program of further training seminars for practical training supervisors the qualification of practical training supervisors should be enhanced at seminars. the liabilities of trainees and supervisors should be added to the three-party contract as well as the extent of their responsibility and the assessment mechanisms for work of all subjects. it is advisable to agree the project assignments for practical trainings with the institutions. assessment of results self-assessment questionnaire form. sections containing the assessment of professional the experience of european higher education institutions has akvazba et al. 75 diary of a trainee student. report on practical training. assessment criteria. and personal growth during the practical training and reflection should be introduced in the report. the assessment and selfassessment should be oriented to the extent of formation of competences. to be adopted by the russian partners (reports to be analyzed). source: ukhabina t.e. (2008, p. 192-207). the concept suggested determines the practical training organization system elements: goals set associated with width, depth and level of competences; subjects performing the practical training; the content and management of all kinds of practical training as reflected in the standard and toolkit documentation. the system-building factor of the presented concept are the competences / competencies of graduates, for it is these that determine their competitiveness, professional and personal destiny, the opportunity to get actively included into the new system of social relationships and values in line with the requirements of the new economy. conclusion the organization of practical training remains one of the problem niches in not only the russian education but also in the european one. this is confirmed by the opinions of the german employers about the young employees' ability to apply the obtained theoretical knowledge in practice quoted in the paper as well as communication with the foreign and russian colleagues. the dramatic change of social and economic situation in post-soviet russia necessitated making essential modifications. the soviet "knowledge-based" education model, though highly efficient under the plan-organized stable society, turned out to be unsuitable for preparing the specialists for a rapidly developing controversial society that is vulnerable to actions of the global world. the knowledge ceased to be an advantage of the chosen ones; what became crucial is the ability to use it in practice in order to maximize the results yielded by any activity. the so-called competency-based approach came to be used as such a tool. this has already been implemented to a sufficient extent in the russian education practice as well. the subject-related concept of students' practical training allows uniting the components of two approaches, the conventional knowledge-based one and the activity-based one, which reflects the consistency and target orientation to the development of the russian education up to the requirements of educational space globalization, labor markets expansion, and the universal journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 62-79 history logging and it-penetration. quite important is also the fact that the implementation of the presented conceptual model, its data sheets, allows shaping not only professional but also reflexive competences that promote personal development and self-education, which is crucial in conditions of humanization of education and the society as a whole. akvazba et al. 77 references auvinen, p. (2006). curriculum reform and competence definitions at finnish universities of applied sciences. url: http://www.ncp.fi/etcts bundesarbeitsgemeinschaft der praxisämter (2005). url: https://bagprax.sw.eah-jena.de bundesarbeitsgemeinschaft der praxisämter (2006). url: http://bagprax.sw.fhjena.de/texte/bag_praxisorientierung_februar_2007.pdf demchenkova, s.a. (2011). main approaches to interpretation of the notions of "competence" and "competency" abroad and their content. bulltein of tomsk state pedagogical university, 13, 243-246. degterev, v.a. (2008). the development of competences or traditional training. in: conceptualization of students' practical training within the bologna criteria. materials of the project. tyumen: publishing house of the institute for service and management see hve tsogu, 103-113. doel, m. & shardlow, s.m. (2004). modern social work practice. aldershot, hamshire: ashgate. erbilgin, e. (2017). a comparison of the mathematical processes embedded in the content standards of turkey and singapore, research in social sciences and technology, 2 (1), 5374. eremin, a.v., zoroastrova, i.v. & suchkova, e.o. (2015). identification of key competences of higher education institution graduates. studia humanitatis. an international digital scientific journal, 4. url: http:// st-hum.ru/journal/no-4-2015 haedrich, b. (1967). zur berufsbildung der sozialarbeiter in deutschland. entwicklungen und gegenwärtiger stand. dissertation. münchen. heimann, k. (2008). bachelor hat akzeptanzprobleme in der wirtschaft. url: http://neu.igmetall-wap.de/node/2504,2008 hoffmann, m. (2017). an exploratory study: mobile device use for academics, research in social sciences and technology, 2 (1), 18-52. jugendministerkonferenz (2006). jmk: top 6. staatliche anerkennung von ausbildungsabschlüssen im sozialen bereich im kontext der hochschulund studienreform. o.o. 2006, protokoll der jugendministerkonferenz am 18./19.5.2006 in hamburg. http://www.ncp.fi/etcts https://bagprax.sw.eah-jena.de/ http://bagprax.sw.fh-jena.de/texte/bag_praxisorientierung_februar_2007.pdf http://bagprax.sw.fh-jena.de/texte/bag_praxisorientierung_februar_2007.pdf http://neu.igmetall-wap.de/node/2504,2008 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 62-79 kenna, j.l. & poole, c.m. (2017). social science pre-service teachers' preparation to teach about asia: a research study. journal of social studies education research, 8(1), 93114. kolb, a. & kolb, d.a. (1984). experiential learning as the source of learning and development. new jersey: prentice heat. url: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f6ec/20a7a3150822140be7466353d0de572cc4bb.pdf lopatin, l.n. (2008). the quality of the soviet higher education system -myths and reality. questions of education, 4, 186-193. martincová, j. & andrysová, p. (2017). professional preparation of students of social pedagogy in the czech republic. journal of social studies education research, 8(1), 47-68. mathews, s.a. (2016). using digital participatory research to foster glocal competence; constructing multimedia projects as a form of global and civic citizenship, journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 1-29. mauch, j. & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. merten, r. (2000). sozialarbeit als studium: einphasig oder zweiphasig? in: archiv für wissenschaft und praxis der sozialen arbeit, 1, 51-72. paleeva, o.a. (2013). competency-based approach in higher education of germany. bulletin of n.i. lobachevskiy nizhny novgorod university, 1, 24-29. schmitt, ch. (2007). praxisorienierung – staatliche anerkennung – berufspraktikum. auslaufmodelle oder elemente der qualitätssicherung in ausbildungszusammenhängen der sozialarbeit im zeichen von bologna. lüneburg. sitaeva, i.n. & chupris a.s. (2015). competency-based interpretation of the results of professional education: history and objectives. bulletin of i. kant baltic federal university, 5, 62-68. soland, j., hamilton, l. & stecher, b. (2013). measuring 21 century competencies guidance for education asia society. url: http//goo.gl/89tmhy social psychology of education (2005). ed. a.n. sukhov мoscow: akademy publishers. teichler, u. (2005). hochschulsysteme und hochschulpolitik. quantitative und strukturelle dynamiken, differenzierungen und der bologna-prozess. munter. url: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f6ec/20a7a3150822140be7466353d0de572cc4bb.pdf akvazba et al. 79 http://readrate.com/rus/books/hochschulsysteme-und-quantitativ-strukturellehochschulpolitik toffler, e. (2002). the futurists. мoscow: ast publishers. ukhabina, t.e. (2008). competency-based model of a "social work" specialty graduate. in: conceptualization of students' practical training within the bologna criteria. materials of the project. tyumen: publishing house of the institute for service and management see hve tsogu, 192-207. verein für öffentliche und private fürsorge e.v. (2004). stellungnahme des deutschen vereins zur staatlichen anerkennung von sozialarbeiterinnen und sozialarbeitern. in: nachrichtendienst des deutschen vereins, 2, 39-40. white, r.w. (1959). motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence. psychological review, 66, 297-333. zeer, e.f. (2000). key qualifications and competences in student-centered professional space. education and science, 3, 90-120. zimnyaya, i.a. (2003). key competences-new paradigm of education results. higher education yesterday and today, 5, 34-42. http://readrate.com/rus/books/hochschulsysteme-und-quantitativ-strukturelle-hochschulpolitik http://readrate.com/rus/books/hochschulsysteme-und-quantitativ-strukturelle-hochschulpolitik www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 530-549 international framework, national legal discourse on educational rights and students’ perceptions: comparative analysis in russia and france ekaterina v. zvereva,1 nataliya m. belenkova2 & irina i. kruse3 abstract the research aims to study the features of the french and russian laws of education, to identify the common and distinctive factors in two types of discourse and the concept of human rights of the higher education institution students, as well as to determine the position of the student community of both countries on this issue. the research sample includes academic papers on the topic under study, legislative texts in the field of educational laws of russia and france, other official data on french and russian educational systems, and evidence of russian and french students on their perception of rights within education field. the comparative nature and the selection of particular countries are due to practical purposes as russian higher education institutions in general and rudn university in particular has long standing collaboration with their french partners. the methodology integrated inductive, comparative, and generalizing techniques, thematic analysis through manual coding, and distributional analysis with regard to text layout and key semantic concepts verbal representation. the research methodology also included a survey through respondents’ written replies to questionnaire and statistical data processing techniques. the findings provide the evidence that there is an undoubted similarity of the educational systems of both countries, the identity of the thematic blocks on human rights recorded in the national educational laws, as well as the correlation with the text of the declaration of human rights. the data also revealed some specifics with regard to both systems and legislation and differences in russian and french students’ perceptions of their rights. the research results can be used as the recommendations to advance charters of higher educational intuitions in line with legislation and student expectations. the shaped methodology can be applied to enhance studies of discourse on/of human rights concept and its implementation. key words: human rights, student rights, education, discourse, legal language. introduction the current research is relevant due to the increased interest to the comparative study of legal discourse from the point of view of linguistics, culture and law; the intention to explore the discourse general and distinctive features realized in the globalization and intercultural communication environment; few studies on the characteristics of the legal discourse in education 1 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, zvereva_ev@pfur.ru 2 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, belenkovanm@mail.ru 3 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, kruseirina@rambler.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 law in general and in human rights setting in particular. the relevance of the linguistic analysis of the legal discourse is determined by the intensive processes of transformation of modern social institutions, on the one hand, and by the necessity to develop a methodology for studying the above mentioned processes and identifying strategies for the adaption of a person to a rapidly changing sociocultural environment. legal discourse is one of the most essential types of institutional discourses, as it is related to foreign and domestic state policy, as well as to social and legal norms in the state and the rights and responsibilities of its citizens. since 1948 when the universal declaration of human rights was adopted, the international community continues to promote the recognition and development of human rights and fundamental freedoms by extending the international rules in this setting. the right to education is an integral part of these rights, and the starting point for the realization of all other fundamental rights (universal declaration of human rights, 1948). among other issues the concept of the right to education has come to the focus of international community. further international legislation and programs aimed to enhance the awareness of a human being of his/her right on education, the right to get information about the ways how to protect and promote the human rights in modern society. the uno world program for human rights education (2004), uno declaration on human rights education and training (2011), council of europe charter on education for democratic citizenship and human rights education (2010) strived to foster public awareness of the phenomenon under study. the above international framework lays grounds for national implementation of policies to enhance youth human rights in general, and for education, in particular. however, it should be taken into account that this right is implemented in specific ways with regard to target audiences, namely students, underage schoolchildren, etc. (banda & mafofo, 2016). the present research takes the university students as the target audiences who bear right to higher education across countries. this stance is taken due to current social and academic understanding of the role of higher education in the civilization development (cvečić et al., 2019). the examination of the practical implementation of the higher education students’ human rights is considered through the analysis of higher education issues and rights in france and russia. the selection of particular countries is due to practical purposes as russian higher education institutions in general and rudn university in particular has long standing collaboration with their french partners. zvereva et al. the research goal is two-fold and aims to study french and russian legislation on education, to identify the common and distinctive factors regarding the concept of human rights of university students, as well as to consider the perceptions of both countries’ student community on this issue. research questions the above goals shape the research questions that are as follows: 1. what are major trends in academic research regarding legislative discourse in general and that of youth rights for education in particular? 2. what are the specifics of educational systems in france and russia in the context of legislative norms? 3. what are key features regarding legal status, topics and verbal conceptual structure of the documents under study? 4. what are french and russian students’ perceptions of their rights? the last question seems logical as the student population in every country is one of the target audiences for the national legislation in force. methods the study rests on the qualitative paradigm, combines theoretical analysis of relevant academic literature, the study of legislation texts related to the topic of study, survey of two countries student community. research sample the research sample included young people studying law and medicine. among them there were 20 respondents being trained as lawyers-to-be at the faculty of law of the university named after jean mulan in lyon and the same number of the students of the law institute of the rudn university in moscow. moreover, 20 respondents studying at the medical institute of the russian university mentioned above and 20 students of the medical faculty of the university of sofia nice antipolis in france were included in the experiment. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 data collection and procedures the data collection and procedures integrated a number of sources and respective processing methods. first, the he bulk of academic papers of the topic under study were aggregated in line with the research topic, the data was extracted from the google scholar database. the selection of papers was conducted on the following criteria: thematic relevance correlation with the key words for search, namely they were subject to theoretical analysis on grounds of inductive and comparative techniques. this analysis laid grounds for further generalization regarding the reply to the first research questions on major trends in academic research regarding legislative discourse in general, and that of youth rights for education in particular. second, the specifics of educational systems in france and russia in the context of legislative norms were analyzed and compared. the variables included such parameters as the type of the state, the legislation background, the system of governing and executive bodies, key stakeholders, level, coverage, mode of operation. the study rested on the thematic analysis of the legislative texts of france and russia on the topic under study. the texts of the "educational code" (code de l'éducation) (2019) of france and the federal law "on education in the russian federation" (2012) were analyzed. these texts are the written samples of institutional communication on law in a specific communicative discursive situation. the thematic analysis used a number of techniques, including manual coding to specify the major themes and their verbal representation. further this data was subject to comparative analysis and interpretation of factual and verbal data from the respective legal texts that were part of research sample. next, the mentioned legal texts were subject to distributional analysis that explored the textual structure layouts, major semantic concepts and their distribution, sequence, and coordination inside the texts. the distributional and conceptual analyses techniques allowed identifying the qualitative discrepancies of the legal texts under study. finally, the survey of the students who are mentioned in the description of the research sample and were subject to questionnaire, took place. questioning method included the observation techniques as well, as students were offered open-ended questionnaire. this type of the respective survey tool allows for the observation of the specifics of the perception of legal categories by the learners studying law and native speakers of france and russia were invited to take part in the survey. the questionnaire included the following open-ended questions: zvereva et al. are the students’ rights enshrined by the law complied in the university? (yes/no, why?) do you have any information on the rights granted to you by law? (yes/no, please, provide comments, if any) do the rights enshrined in the law correlate with the charter of your university? (yes/no, please, provide comments, if any) should students fight for their rights? (yes/no, please, specify ways and tools, if any) should students have more rights? (yes/no, please, provide comments, if any). students were kindly asked to reply in writing, the texts were further subject to inductive analysis, identification and sorting of replies on grounds of comments provided. results and discussion the present section introduces the material in line with the research questions that have been specified earlier in the paper. first, the trends in academic research regarding legislative discourse in general and that of youth rights for education in particular, are explored. second, major specifics of educational systems in france and russia in the context of legislative norms are investigated. third, key features regarding legal status, topics and structure of the documents under study are revealed. finally, french and russian students’ perceptions of their rights are considered. trends in academic research regarding legislative discourse in general, and that of youth rights for education in particular discourse studies have traditionally related to general and comparative linguistics (gray, 2019). currently researchers tend to enhance academic tradition to study discourse within diverse social contexts, including politics and societal needs (chilton, 2004; discourse theory in european politics: identity, policy and governance, 2005), human safety and security issues (atabekova, 2019), public health protection (sims-schouten & riley, 2019). other trends include discourse studies with regard to computer communication (herring, 2019; machin & mayr, 2012), whistleblower informing (stolowy et al., 2018); interpretation of religious cultures in mass media (pasha, 2011); examination of ecological problems (hajer & versteeg, 2006). within the above framework studies of legal discourse take a specific stance (bhatia et al., 2008). the analysis in the mentioned area tends to study legal discourse together with the philosophical, cultural and social discourses (freeman, 2011). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 the consistent attention to legal discourse is explained by the fact that it affects certain really socially significant categories in the process of speech communication of various stakeholders. the present study takes into account that scholars classify legal texts in various subgroups, e.g. descriptive – prescriptive, (laws, rules, agreements); law-making (laws, charters) (sandrini, 1999); legislative discourse. g. cornu (2005) distinguished “the text of law” and “the legislative discourse. moreover, scholars specifically focus discursive functions of human rights concepts (habermas, 1996) thus, the study of human rights in the framework of linguistic discourse analysis seems very promising. researchers mention that human rights discourse covers, on the one hand, international human rights acts such as universal declaration of human rights, 1948, 1966 international covenant and other government documents, and, on the other hand, rely on the materials from the media, films, dramas, etc. (khor, 2013). therefore, it is now surprising, that currently scholars view the discourse of human rights not as an entity, but a combination of three interrelated discourses, namely legal, philosophical and political ones (evans, 2005). the examination of publications shows that human rights discourse analysis is focused on national grounds (barros, 2012; sarelin, 2014; ugor, 2019). attention is also payed to the discourse analysis within european policies (kirkwood, 2017) and the specific features of national legal discourses (sobieszewska, 2014). as far as the concept of human rights is concerned the quality of higher education is also considered as a students’ right (nicoletti, 2014).the realization of human rights and some aspects of human rights are often included in the universities’ curriculum and studied by the students (willaime, 2007). moreover, the issues of language rights in general, and with regard to education in particular are subject to consistent research, see the review by a. atabekova and t. shoustikova (2018). however, the concept of the subject of the human rights discourse remains vague and it is assumed that the subject of the human rights discourse can be anyone who speaks about human rights (fairclough, 2003). the study of current trends in academic research reveals that generally speaking, human rights are mainly the subject of legal and political sciences, the importance of language studies within the mentioned domain has not been specified so far. zvereva et al. that is why researchers underline that the study of the above issues within the discourse on human rights is timely (atabekova et al., 2019). furthermore, there are few linguistic studies of higher education students’ human rights in various countries. specifics of educational systems in france and russia in the context of constitutional norms this section explores the specifics on grounds of relevant administrativelegal provisions of the relevant documents. the thematic analysis (based on manual coding) of the legislative texts revealed major themes that include the language units specifying the executive and legislative agencies, system of state educational policy development, features of educational systems and tools for their run, existence/absence of various levels of legislation. further we provide interpretation of factual and verbal data from the respective legal texts that were part of research sample. the comparative analysis of the education systems in russia and france showed that they are similar in both countries. the corresponding ministries, namely, the ministry of national education, higher education and scientific research (ministere de l'éducation nationale, de l'enseignement supérieur et de la recherche) in france and the ministry of education and science in russia realize the management of national higher education. the state policy in relation to both secondary school education and higher education and science is developed at the levels of ministries, the parliament and the president of france and russia. as the roman legal system predominates in the countries under discussion, it also contributes to the comparability of the national educational systems. the law on education regulates all legal relations in this domain, they are the “educational code” (code de l’éducation) (2019) in france and the federal law “on education in the russian federation” (2012). both of these documents determine the main directions of state policy in education, all elements of the education system, and the mechanisms of its functioning. thus, the educational systems in both countries are very similar according to legal norms. the distinction is explained by the different forms of the state system. russia is a federal state, and france is a unitary state. therefore, there is a level of regional legislation in the russian federation and there is no such form of government in france. however, in this case, these differences journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 practically do not affect the functioning of educational systems. the human rights including the right on education in the states are guaranteed by the constitution. the french constitution states: “the nation guarantees equal access for children and adults to education, professional training and culture. the duty of the state is to provide free public and secular education at all levels” (constitution, 1958). however, it should be noted that the right to education is not enshrined in the text of the constitution of france. in the constitution of the russian federation (1993), the right to education is declared by art. 47 which states "every citizen of our country has the right to education". it should be noted that no matter how detailed the norms enshrining the right to education are spelled out in the constitution, it is impossible to implement them in the 21st century which is characterized by its high social standards, the rapid development of scientific and technological progress, academic contacts and humanitarian ties. the effective practical implementation of the constitutional norms greatly depends on the developed national legislation on education. the constitutional norms on education form the basis of educational legislation in russia (federal law on education, 2012) and france (a codified act code on education, 2019). here the right to education is enshrined and the guarantees of its implementation are established. in france, the main idea implemented by the education system is stated in article l-111-1 of the code (2019): “education is the first national priority”. the public education service is conceived and organized for the learners and students; it promotes equal opportunities. in addition to the transfer of knowledge, the nation defines its primary task as the awareness of the republic values by the students”. and further: “the right to education is guaranteed to everyone in order to develop his/her personality, increase the level of primary and continuous training, and get involved in social and professional life, realize the civil mission <...>. the development of common culture and recognized qualifications is ensured to all young people, whatever their social, cultural and geographical origin is” (code de l'éducation, 2019). article 3 of the federal law "on education in the russian federation" (2012) also enshrines the basic principles of the state policy and legal regulation of the relations in education: (1) the recognition of the priority of education; (2) the provision of the right of everyone to education, non-discrimination in education; (3) the humanistic nature of education, the priority of human life and health, individual rights and freedoms, the free development of personality, mutual respect, citizenship, patriotism, responsibility, legal culture, respect for nature and the environment, zvereva et al. rational use of natural resources”. it is evident that the "priority of education" is of primary importance in both nations. special guarantees on the right of education are provided to children and youngsters with physical and mental disabilities. in france children and youngsters with physical and mental disabilities get compulsory education in accordance with article l.112-1.the federal law of russia (2012) specifies the rights of students with disabilities in article 79. moreover, the importance of continuing education is focused on. “continuing education is a national duty. it aims to provide a person with training and development throughout all periods of his life, to enable him to get knowledge and intellectual and labor skills that will assist him/her to improve cultural, economic and social plans"(article l.122-5).the fundamental principles, in accordance with which the right on education is granted, are enshrined. they are compulsory school education, free public-school education, the secular nature and freedom of public education. the federal law on education (2012) also states that “the right on education in russia is guaranteed to everyone regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, property, social and official status, place of residence, religion, beliefs, membership in public associations, and other provisions". the above analysis leads to the statement that the basic rights enshrined in the federal law (2012) and the code (2019) can be considered as identical, except the equal opportunities to get education regardless of gender. this right is not mentioned in the french code. key features regarding legal status, topics and verbal conceptual structure of the documents under study the consideration of the legal status of two documents seems to be meaningful. in france, it is a code; in russia, it is a federal law. from the point of view of universal legal criteria, the law differs from the code; it is a legal act regulating a rather narrow range of legal relations. the code accumulates provisions in which the jurisdiction can be very broad. that is, the code is a set of laws that relate to a single branch of law, however, in the legal system of the russian federation, the code is a kind of federal law, so we can conclude that the choice of the first or second concept is more likely based on tradition than on the meaning of the word in legal sense. the french code (2019) is a unique experience in the codification of the educational sphere that does not exist in any other country. the french code of education (2019) replaced the numerous regulations that journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 complicated educational legislation until the beginning of the 21st century and was adopted in 2000. before 2000 the legislation in the field of education included more than 100 laws, many of which were adopted in the 19th century. the current code of education (2019) consists of legislative and regulatory parts. the legislative part of the french code includes nine books, grouped in four parts. the first part (books i and ii) observes general and unified principles and management of education, the second part (books iii to iv) is devoted to school education. the third part (books vi to viii) contains provisions related to higher education. book ix that makes part 4includes the legal norms of personnel matters. the provisions of the code are divided into 974 articles that have continuous numbering. the regulatory part correlates with the legislative one has 9 books and 974 articles. the books are divided into sections, then into chapters, sectors and paragraphs. the russian federal law on education (2012) 273-fl is applied from september 1, 2013. in postsoviet russia, there were several laws regarding education that ceased to match the current realities due to the social and political changes occurring in the country. the russian federation law of july 10, 1992 n 3266-1 “on education” and the federal law of august 22, 1996 n 125fl “on higher and postgraduate professional education” were abolished after the introduction of the new law. the current law on education (2012) has 15 chapters and 111 articles. article 69 considers the issues of higher education, whereas 3 books and 243 articles of the french code are devoted to this topic. thus, the french document is much more extensive and detailed as far as the higher education is concerned, and the structure of the discourse is much more complex. nevertheless, in the course of the analysis, ten general semantic concepts (blocks) were identified according to which the components of the texts can be distributed: (1) goals / objectives / principles, (2) education system, (3) subjects in education, (4) educational organization, (5) the content of education, (6) teaching staff (7) management in education, (8) state regulation, (9) financing of education, (10) international activities. evidently, that over time, there is a tendency to detail and increase the total length of the laws. the similarity of the thematic structure of the laws we have analyzed may indicate global unification in the legal register of educational policy discourse. moreover, it should be noted the high degree of correlation of the educational legislation update cycles. the legifrance site (the state service for disseminating legislative norms) reports that the code is presented in its latest modification of 08/23/2019 and the next version of 1.09.2019 is zvereva et al. announced at the following website:https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichcode.do?cidtexte=legitext000006071191 the electronic version of the federal law also states that this variant of the law was prepared on the basis of the changes introduced by the federal law of july 26, 2019 n 232-fz and all changes are presented in detail st the website:http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_146342/1031986f0041b1fc6430de f574ab736debe6e9f8/#dst100051. the structure of the texts of both documents is conventional; segmentation of the text has a wide practical development and is related to the internal structure of the text. the main function of the external segments of the text of the law is its graphic indication and delimitation of legal norms in the structure of the text in accordance with the thematic focus. the segmentation of the legislative text solves an important pragmatic task, namely, the coordination of the addressee in the text continuum and systematization of legislative practice by associating propositions that make up legal norms with a value defined for them precisely. these values are presented by the numbers of the corresponding structural units of the text. the legal text segmentation helps to realize the compensation of the proposition-binding means that are insufficient in many other genres. the legal text cohesion of a special coloring is also preserved herein the conditions of legal standard practice. in our opinion the thematic development of the discourse is carried out according to the following model: the text and the main descriptive text sequence are formed around the same topic (education) that is related to all its segments. in addition, small associated text sequences (the organization of educational institutions, the role of parents, etc.) are added to it with other topics arising from the main one and connected with it inseparably. the criterion for determining the boundaries in the legal text is a thematic unity; the description is built around a specific topic that forms the core of the text sequence. the boundaries of individual sequences are determined by the change of the topics. regarding the recipients of the discourse, if the students of higher educational institutions are focused on, the code (2019) and the federal law (2012) apply different terminology. the legal regulation of the university activity presupposes the proper legal consolidation of the status of the main participant in the educational process (a student), and it is not a spontaneous abstract construction, but a derivative of the nature and content of educational relations, of the state’s position in the regulation of higher education. since the student’s legal status is the core of the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 regulatory realization of the basic principles of the relationship between the individual and the state. mainly, it is a system of standards, patterns of behavior that are encouraged and protected by the state from violations and, as a rule, approved by society. the democratization of all areas of public life including education should be reflected in the student status. french and russian students’ perceptions of their rights in course of the research, an experiment was held. earlier we considered common and specific features of russian and french legislation on education, its verbal textual representation in the respective laws. in case of our research student population is one of target audiences of the above legal discourse samples. therefore it seems relevant to consider students' awareness of their rights and their possible intentions to modify laws that grant the students’ rights. the experiment participants included 40 lawyers-to-be, the equal number of students from france and russia. the young people were of 20 to 24 years old both male and female. they studied at faculty of law, jean mulan lyon university and the law institute of rudn university (moscow). the same number of the respondents studied medicine at medical faculty of the university of sofia antipolis of nice and institute of medicine of rudn university. they were also of both sex and of the same age group. the students were asked to respond to a few questions one of which was open ended. the positive replies of the respondents were included into table 1. table 1 the output of the students’ survey question faculty of law jean mulan lyon university lyon medical faculty of the university of sofia antipolis nice law institute rudn university moscow institute of medicine rudn university moscow are the students’ rights enshrined by the law complied in the university? 20 20 20 20 do you have any information on the rights granted to you by law? 10 2 20 5 do the rights enshrined in the law correlate with the charter of your university? 10 2 20 10 should students fight for their rights? 20 12 0 5 zvereva et al. should students have more rights? 20 5 20 8 the questionnaire reveals that there are 6 points on which the opinions of french and russian students coincide. the respondents from both countries and from both specialties believe that, first, students’ rights enshrined by the law complied in the university, and second, that students should have more rights. the survey showed that all students believe that their rights are fully respected. however, french students presented the low degree of awareness of their rights. russian students have no or little intention (mentioned by 11% of russian respondents) regarding the struggle for their rights. the students studying law have more initiatives on the extension of their rights. among them are the following: first, the right of equal access to education should become less declarative and more evident. the wording of the corresponding articles should be expanded and clarified (mentioned by 98% of respondents). french and russian students were totally unanimous (100% of the respondents) when they noted that nowadays the problem of inequality of educational opportunities is very acute. there is a group of educational institutions of “exclusive nature” that oppose to the other institutions. the students insisted on the “selective” admission of the elite young people to these institutions and the young people from the families with a lower social economic status are forced to get in the marginal groups. the students from both countries (95% of the respondents) believe that inequality of the educational system constantly increases from the first years of professional training at higher education institutions to the start of their career in the labor market. the social economic situation, gender, immigration status, and even the place (either a big city or a rural area) where the primary school is located, affect the quality of education. moreover, female respondents in france and russia (mentioned by all female respondents) were sure that during learning years women have better academic results as they are brighter than men, but then the female employees are usually less successful in the labor market. second, the rights of students with disabilities should be specified in details, as in some universities the right to a barrier-free environment is also mostly declarative and in real life their rights are not sufficiently respected journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 some students (68% of the respondents) focused on the right on a professional internship that should be more pragmatic, close to practical professional activity and should include students in the professional environment in the labor market. the russian students (mentioned by 78% of the russian respondents) also noted that they have no right to choose the site of an internship, that the internship is often meaningless and far from real life. finally, the right on strike is considered as extremely essential by french students (mentioned by 86% of the french respondents). thus, it can be noted that the views of french and russian students on their own rights coincide. the above data confirms previous academic statements on the need for comprehensive management in societal and humanitarian contexts with regard to human rights awareness (see the earlier review of the research member’s team in atabekova et al., 2018). further, the students’ replies lead to the statement that law-makers, executive authorities, and educators should balance the legislation and current practices, tailor them to the needs of the target audiences, namely student community. the comparison of the comparative legal texts data and students’ voices reveal some gaps that exist between vision and current realities. in this way the present research stresses the need confirms earlier opinions that study of youth voices and their perceptions helps to specify strategies and tactics (atabekova et al., 2016; lotto, 2018). the present data also highlights genderand countrysensitive issues with regard to the situation in educational legislation, rights, and realities of the hereof as perceived by target audiences. the need to take into account the above aspects within international globalization has been repeatedly mentioned in earlier research (gaspar et al., 2018). the present study adds news materials and data confirming that youth views on current situation with their rights should be subject to analysis under criteria of genderand nation specific parameters. the language tools for youth expression should be subject for particular study that is supposed to consider how the international and national legislation is interpreted by its target audiences as scholars underline the increasing youth activism with regard to their rights (jenkinset al., 2016). the research results provide grounds for educational dimensions of the obtained data use. the data on both the discourse analysis and study of students’ opinions can be of practical value for training educators and professors who engaged in education policy making and its realization. scholars underline that professionals are expected to match theory, practice and social expectations (preece, zvereva et al. 2018). the present research data enhances this statement with concrete data that highlights the importance of paying attention to students’ voices while drafting legislation that concerns them. conclusion the research findings confirm that current trends in academic research cover human rights are mainly the subject of legal and political sciences, the importance of language studies within the mentioned domain has not been specified so far. the analysis also reveals that discourse on youth rights and their perceptions of these rights have not become subject for research so far. the comparative study of educational systems in france and russia in the context of legislative norms showed the similarity in the main characteristics of the higher education systems of russia and france, as well as the progressive and civilized nature of the democracies of the two countries explain their adherence to the principles of the declaration of human rights in the field of enshrining these rights in relevant legislative acts. the research provided the description of key features regarding legal status, topics and structure of the documents under study. the analytical results have been specified in the respective section. in this regard, we note the thematic proximity of the main structural units of acts (with significantly greater structural complexity and branching of the code (2019)). in addition, we can concentrate on such aspects as the almost complete semantic identity of the main thematic blocks of students’ rights from the point of view of human rights set by the legislative acts. however, a clearer, complete and detailed classification of the students’ rights is manifested in the federal law and their softer, “cautious” variant is displayed in the code (2019). both countries’ legislative documents are aimed at improving the access of all citizens to higher education; solving the basic problems of students, enhancing the quality of the students’ professional training in order to provide them with competitive knowledge and competencies that satisfy modern requirements of the labor market, motivate them to settle the modern social problems. the implementation of the federal law of the russian federation on education (2012) and the code of education of france (2019) are an important step towards the democratization of society and can be considered as the most important mechanism of humanity and social justice in the area of getting knowledge. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 both legislative acts are the examples of discourse activity and are distinguished by a pragmatic focus on the. the pragmatic qualities of discourse analysis determine its general purpose setting, in accordance with which it reflects the "area due". the target pragmatic attitude defines the main functional communicative type of speech used in the french and russian legislative texts this is an advanced description of the state of things, obliging the addressee to follow the addressee's intent expressed in the text. obligations and permissions shape the basic opposition to the structure of the legislative text. the external segmentation of both texts is closely related to their thematic development. the research also revealed french and russian students’ perceptions of their rights. an experimental survey of 4 groups of students showed a significant similarity of legal problems in educational environment of both countries. the homogeneity of their perception with varying degrees of activity as far as the ways to solve them are concerned is quite evident. taken together the findings of the study can serve as recommendations to modify the charters of educational institutions and to compile the curricula of studying human rights, as well as special courses on the issues of discourse analysis. acknowledgements the publication has been prepared with support of the rudn university program under 5-100 russian academic excellence project, research project number 090512 -1274. references atabekova, a., belenkova, n., lutskovskaia, l., shoustikova, t., & udina, n. (2019). shaping methodology to explore language use in discourse on child and youth rights. xlinguae, 12(4), 18-29. atabekova, a.a., & shoustikova, t. (2018). language issues within forced migration at borders and temporary settlements: an integrated content analysis. european research studies journal, 21(4), 690-700. atabekova, a.a., belenkova, n.m., radić, n., & shoustikova, t.v. (2018). language management in humanitarian contexts: unscheduled migration. european research studies journal, 21(3), 659-674. zvereva et al. atabekova, a.a., belousov, a.a., & yastrebov, o.a. (2016). international university freshmen’s perceptions on culturally diverse community and internal stakeholders’ tactics. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(16), 9381-9389. banda, f. & mafofo, l. (2016). commodification of transformation discourses and postapartheid institutional identities at three south african universities. critical discourse studies, 13(2), 174-192. barros m. (2012). human rights movement and discourse in argentina: its emergence and constitution in argentina. brazil: poliedros. bhatia v.k., candlin c.n. & engberg j. (2008). legal discourse across cultures and systems. hong kong: university press. chilton p., (2004). analysing political discourse. theory and practice. london: routledge. code de l'éducation (2019). retrieved august 11, 2019, from https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichcode.do?cidtexte=legitext000006071191 constitution (1958). retrieved september 11, 2019, from https://www.conseilconstitutionnel.fr/sites/default/files/as/root/bank_mm/anglais/constitution_anglais.pdf constitution of the russian federation (1993). retrieved september 11, 2019 from http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-01.htm cornu g. (2005). linguistique juridique. 3-d ed. paris: montchrestien. council of europe charter on education for democratic citizenship and human rights education. (2010). retrieved august 11, 2019 from https://rm.coe.int/coermpubliccommonsearchservices/displaydctmcontent?docume ntid=09000016803034e3 cvečić, i., sokolić, d., & mrak, m. k. (2019). higer education and economic prosperity at regional level. revista portuguesa de estudos regionais, 50(1), 9-25. howarth d., & torfing j. (2005). discourse theory in european politics: identity, policy and governance. london: palgrave macmillan. erman e. (2016). human rights and democracy: discourse theory and global rights institutions. new york: routledge. evans, t. (2005). international human rights law as power/knowledge. human rights quarterly, 27(3), 1046-1068. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 fairclough n., (2003). analysing discourse: textual analysis for social research. london: routledge. federal law of the russian federation “on education in the russian federation” (2012) n 273fl (2012). retrieved september 1, 2019, from https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_140174/ freeman, m. (2011). human rights: an interdisciplinary approach. cambridge, uk, polity press. gaspar, t., cerqueira, a., branquinho, c., & de matos, m. g. (2018). dimensions of social and personal skills in children and adolescents: age and gender differences. international journal of development research, 8(01), 18394-18400. gray, b. (2019). the grammatical foundations of rhetoric: discourse analysis. hague: walter de gruyter gmbh & co kg, mouton publishers. habermas, j. (1996). between facts and norms. contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy. cambridge, ma: mit press. hajer m., & versteeg w. (2006). a decade of discourse analysis of environmental politics: achievements, challenges, perspectives. journal of environmental policy & planning, 7(3), 175-184. herring s. (2019). the coevolution of computer-mediated communication and computermediated discourse analysis. in: bou-franch p., garcés-conejos blitvich p. (eds) analyzing digital discourse. palgrave macmillan, cham. jenkins, h., shresthova, s., gamber-thompson, l., kligler-vilenchik, n., & zimmerman, a. (2016). by any media necessary: the new youth activism. new york: new york university press. kirkwood, s. (2017). the humanisation of refugees: a discourse analysis of uk parliamentary debates on the european refugee ‘crisis’. journal of community & applied social psychology, 27(2), 115-125. khor l., (2013). human rights discourse in a global network: books beyond borders. london, new york, routledge. lotto, r. r. (2018). post-graduate students' perception of research ethics training: a qualitative study. innovations in practice, 12(2), 24-33. machin, d. & mayr, a., (2012). how to do critical discourse analysis. a multimodal introduction. los angeles, london: sage publishing house. zvereva et al. nicoletti, j.a. (2014). la educación superior como derecho humano. técnica administrativa 13. retrieved august 28, 2019, from http://www.cyta.com.ar/ta1304/v13n4a3.htm pasha t., (2011). islamists in the headlines: critical discourse analysis of the representation of the muslim brotherhood in egyptian newspapers. phd dissertation. university of utah. retrieved august 17, 2019, from https://collections.lib.utah.edu/dl_files/98/96/9896e9796741fdf0bd9dbf774846e3849d71 0b9d.pdf preece, j. (2018). combating social exclusion in university adult education. london: routledge. salkie, r. (2006). text and discourse analysis. london: routledge. sandrini, p. (1999). translation zwischen kultur und kommunikation: der sonderfall recht. in: ubersetzen von rechtstexten. tubingen: narr. sarelin, a. (2014). giving meaning to human rights: an analysis of human rights discourse in malawi. journal of human rights practice, 6(2), 259-280. sims-schouten, w., & riley s. (2019). presenting critical realist discourse analysis as a tool for making sense of service users’ accounts of their mental health problems. qualitative health research. retrieved august 17, 2019, from https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/portal/files/12754978/presenting_critical_realist_discour se_analysis.pdf sobieszewska, s. (2014). reflexions sur le discours juridique dans la perspective pragma-et sociolinguistique. bulletin of chelyabinsk state university, 7(336), 88-91. stolowy, h., gendron, y., moll, j., & paugam, l. (2018). building the legitimacy of whistleblowers: a multi‐case discourse analysis. contemporary accounting research, 36 (1), 7-49. ugor, p. (2019). bonny ibhawoh’s human rights in africa: rethinking africa in the human rights discourse. canadian journal of african studies, 52(3), 1-6. united nations declaration on human rights education and training (2011). retrieved august 11, 2019, from https://documents-ddsny.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n11/467/04/pdf/n1146704.pdf?openelement universal declaration of human rights (1948). retrieved august 11, 2019, from https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 530-549 willaime, j.p. (2007). different models for religion and education in europe. in: religion and education in europe. developments, contexts and debates. 3. munster, new york: waxmann verlag gmbh. world programme for human rights education (2004). retrieved august 11, 2019, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/education/training/pages/programme.aspx 1966 international covenant. retrieved august 11, 2019, from https://www.humanium.org/en/1966-international-covenant/ tarih öğretiminde anakronizm sorunu: ders kitapları üzerine bir inceleme www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(1), 37-58 © 2011 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 tarih öğretiminde anakronizm sorunu: sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders kitaplarındaki kurgusal metinler üzerine bir i̇nceleme problem of anachronism in history teaching: an analysis of fictional texts in social studies and history textbooks i̇brahim hakkı öztürk1 özet: anakronizm bir olgunun tarihi ve dönemi hakkındaki yanılgıyı ifade eder. bu yanılgı sadece olgusal bilgiler hakkında değil, kavramlar, bakış açıları ve zihniyetler konusunda da olabilir. anakronizmin üç farklı türünün olduğu belirtilmiştir: olgu anakronizmi, dil anakronizmi ve yaklaşım anakronizmi. dil ve yaklaşım anakronizmi herhangi bir dönem için geçerli olmayan kavram ve yaklaşımların bu dönemdeki olgu ve kişileri açıklamak için kullanılmasıdır. bu yanılgı çoğu kez şimdiciliğin (presentism) bir sonucudur. şimdicilik bugünün ihtiyaçlarının, sorunlarının ve yaklaşımlarının tarih yazımına yansımasıdır. tarih yazımının doğası gereği bu bir ölçüde kaçınılmaz bir durumdur. ancak bu durum özellikle dilsel ve yaklaşımsal anakronizm hatalarının oluşmasını kolaylaştırmaktadır. tarih yazımı gibi, ilk ve ortaöğretim düzeyindeki tarih öğretiminde de anakronizm hataları sıklıkla görülmektedir. türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders kitaplarında ortaya çıkan son yıllarda bir uygulama bu hususa özellikle dikkat edilmesini gerektirmektedir. ders kitaplarında tarihi olayları dönemin kişilerinin ağzından anlatan ve kitap yazarları tarafından oluşturulan kurgusal metinler kullanılmaktadır. bu makale bu metinleri anakronizm hataları açısından incelemektedir. araştırmanın temel amacı kitap yazarlarının kendilerine ve günümüze ait olan yorum, kavram ve bakış açılarını tarihi şahsiyetlere mal edip etmediklerini, bir diğer ifadeyle, geçmiş döneme ait bakış açılarını doğru bir şekilde yansıtıp yansıtmadıklarını ortaya koymaktır.araştırma kapsamında dört ders kitabı nitel içerik analizi yöntemiyle incelenmiştir. araştırma sonuçlarına göre, tarihi şahsiyetleri kendi dönemlerinin anlayışları, bakış açıları ve anlam dünyaları çerçevesinde yansıtma konusunda kitap yazarlarının bilinç ve dikkat düzeylerinin pek yüksek olmadığı görülmektedir. bugüne ait tarihsel bilgi ve yorumların geçmişe mal edilmesi, ders kitaplarındaki kurgusal metinlerde birçok açıdan hata ve yanılgıların doğmasına yol açmıştır. özellikle zaman ve mekân algılarındaki değişim, kavram kullanımı ve olayların sebeplerinin açıklanması konularında önemli bilgi ve yorum hatalarının yapıldığı gözlenmiştir. anahtar kelimeler: anakronizm, tarih öğretimi, sosyal bilgiler öğretimi, ders kitapları 1 yrd. doç. dr., çanakkale onsekiz mart üniversitesi, ibra.ozturk@gmail.com mailto:ibra.ozturk@gmail.com� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 38 extended abstract anachronism refers to an error on the date and period of an event or phenomenon. this error may be on factual information or explanations as well as on the concepts, points of view and mindsets. three types of anachronism are reported: anachronism of facts, anachronism of language, anachronism of perspective. the anachronism of language and perspective refers to the usage of current concepts and perspectives to explain and elucidate the historical events and facts. this error is usually an outcome of presentism. presentism is the reflection of the today’s needs, problems and perspectives on the history writing. this is actually an inherent problem that cannot be avoided in history writing. however, this also can lead to grave anachronism problems. anachronistic faults are frequent in not only history writing but also in preliminary and elementary school history teaching. a recent practice in social studies and history textbooks in turkey requires further attention to this issue. fictional texts created by the textbook writers are used in the textbooks to narrate the historical events and incidents, with the people of the time being the narrators. this article analyzes these texts in terms of anachronism errors. the major goal of the study is to investigate as to whether the writers attribute their personal views, the current notions or perspectives to the historical persons and whether they properly present the past perspectives. the study carries out a research on four textbooks based on a qualitative content analysis. the textbooks’ content is analyzed in terms of three aspect: perception of the time; use of the notions and toponyms; and explanation of the facts. the research findings reveal that the textbooks’ authors do not display a satisfactory level of awareness with respect to presenting properly the perspectives, the viewpoints and approaches dominant of the time they are narrating. attribution of current interpretations and facts to the past events leads to a number of flaws and errors in the fictional texts at the books. it is observed that significant factual and interpretative errors have emerged in terms of the perception of the time. in fictional texts, in which the historical events are narrated from the view of the historical persons, the textbooks’ authors do not pay attention to reflect correctly the time conception of this historical period. for example, they use the term of bc (before christ) in a phrase that is supposed said by thales, greek philosopher lived between 624 and 546 bc. it is observed also major errors of anachronism concerning use of the notions and toponyms. in the phrases attributed to historical persons, the textbooks’ authors use frequently notions and toponyms belonging to modern era. they ignore often the capital differences between the historical period and today regarding the perception of the historical facts and the space conception. the textbooks contain also frequent anachronistic errors concerning the explanation of historical events and facts. the phrases and point views attributed to historical persons by textbooks authors reflect in fact today’s historical knowledge that is constructed through a retrospective view of history. this situation is observed especially in explanation of the causes and consequences of historical events. keywords: anachronism; history education; social studies education; textbooks i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 39 giriş anakronizm terimi sözlükte (ayverdi ve topaloğlu, 2007:50) “bir olayın tarihi ve çağı üzerinde yanılma, tarih ve çağları birbirine karıştırma” şeklinde tanımlanmaktadır. bu durum genellikle bir tarihi olgunun var olmadığı bir dönemde varmış gibi düşünülmesi ve yansıtılması şeklinde ortaya çıkmaktadır. bu anlamıyla anakronizm bariz bir tarihsel yanılgıya işaret eder. tarih eserlerinin yanı sıra, edebiyatta, görsel sanatlarda ve sinemada bu duruma sıklıkla rastlanmaktadır. tarih yazımı literatüründe anakronizm terimi bu anlamının yanında, daha yaygın bir sorunu ifade etmek için kullanılmaktadır. tarihçiler tarihi olguları açıklarken bazen yaşadıkları zamanın yaklaşımlarına, kavramlarına ve değerlerine başvurmaktadırlar. ancak çoğu kez, tarihçinin yaşadığı dönemin anlam dünyası ve değerlendirme ölçütleri ilgili tarihi dönemden çok farklıdır. tarihi olguların bu dönemde mevcut olmayan bir anlam çerçevesi içinde yorumlanması genellikle bugünün bakış açılarını geçmişe mal edilmesi sorununu doğurmaktadır. bu açıdan anakronizm “geçmişin temel özellikleriyle günümüzden farklı olduğunun” göz ardı edilmesi sonucunda ortaya çıkmaktadır (ritter, 1986:9). lorenz’in sınıflandırmasına göre (akt. verbeeck, 2006) anakronizmin temelde üç farklı şekli olduğu söylenebilir: olgu anakronizmi, dil anakronizmi ve yaklaşım anakronizmi (anachronism of facts, anachronism of language, anachronism of perspective). olgusal anakronizm bir olgunun olmadığı bir tarihsel dönemde varmış gibi düşünülmesi ve yansıtılmasıdır. bu tip anakronizmin tarihçilik açısından büyük bir hata ve yanılgı olduğu şüphe götürmez. çünkü burada geçmişte mevcut olmayan bir olguyu varmış gibi tahayyül ederek, geçmişin olgusal gerçekliğinin yanlış bir biçimde yansıtılması söz konusudur. yukarıda açıklanan anakronizmin yaygın sözlük anlamı bu tip anakronizmle büyük ölçüde örtüşmektedir. bu çalışmada olgu terimi “ortaya çıkan, gerçekleşen olay, nitelik, bağıntı veya durum; tartışılmaz, yadsınamaz olarak, tartışılmazcasına, inkar edilmezcesine kabul edilen şey” (cevizci, 2003:295) anlamında kullanılmaktadır. burada temel husus olgunun “fiili gerçeklik haline dönüşmüş, insanın algı alanına girebilecek hale gelmiş olan” (acar ve demir, 2005:305) ve dış dünyada karşılığı bulunan bir duruma işaret etmesidir. dolayısıyla tarihsel olgu insan düşüncesinin ürettiğinden bağımsız olarak var olan geçmiş dönemin gerçekliğine işaret etmektedir. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 40 olgusal anakronizm tarihsel olguların zamanıyla ilgili bir yanılgıyı ifade etmektedir. dilsel ve yaklaşımsal anakronizm ise doğrudan olgusal gerçekliğin bilgisiyle ilgili değil, onun tanımlanması ve yorumlanmasıyla ilgili yanılgılara işaret etmektedir. dilsel anakronizm tarihçinin günümüze ait kavramları geçmişin olgularını anlamak ve tasvir etmek için kullanmasıdır. bu tip anakronizm genellikle modern dönemde ortaya çıkan olguları ifade eden kavramların modernite öncesi toplumlar için kullanılması şeklinde ortaya çıkmaktadır. yaklaşımsal anakronizm ise tarihçinin geçmişi açıklamak için günümüzde var olan bakış açıları ve yaklaşımlara başvurmasıdır. tarihsel olguların modern teoriler ışığında yorumlanması bu tip anakronizme örnek olarak gösterilebilir (verbeeck, 2006). anakronizm, özellikle de olgusal anakronizm, çoğu kez tarihçinin özensizliği, yetersizliği veya ideolojik tutumundan kaynaklanan hata ve yanılgılarından doğmaktadır. fakat bazı durumlarda anakronizm tarih yazımının doğasından kaynaklanan, kaçınılması oldukça güç bir sorun şeklinde ortaya çıkabilir. çünkü tarih yazımında bugün ile geçmiş arasında kaçınılamaz bir ilişki vardır. tarih geçmişin bilgisidir ama bugünden itibaren oluşturulur. dolayısıyla tarihçi kaçınılmaz bir biçimde retrospektif, yani bugünden geçmişe doğru giden bir bakışa sahiptir. tarihçi tarihi bugün yazdığı için, tarihsel olgulara bakışı ister istemez bugünün şartlarından etkilenir. dünün olaylarını bugünün penceresinden görür ve anlatır. bu durumda, tarihçinin olayların algılanması ve yorumlanmasında kendini içinde bulunduğu zamanın anlam dünyasından tamamen soyutlaması imkânsız bir durumdur (le goff,1988; tosh,2008). bu açıdan değerlendirildiğinde, anakronizm sorunu şimdicilik (presentism) ile doğrudan bağlantılıdır. genel olarak tanımlanırsa, şimdicilik bugünün ihtiyaçlarının, sorunlarının ve yaklaşımlarının tarih yazımına yansımasını ifade etmektedir (moroabadia,2009; fendler,2008). şimdiciliği sadece dar anlamda tarihsel olguların yorumlanması bağlamında düşünmemek gerekir. tarih kuramı literatüründe şimdicilik tartışması daha temel ve kapsamlı metodolojik sorunlar bağlamında dile getirilmiştir (e.g. bourdé ve martin,1997; moro-abadia,2009; spoerhase,2008). çünkü bu olgu sadece tarihsel olguların yorumlanmasıyla değil, olguların seçilmesi, birbirleriyle ilişkilendirilmesi ve sonuçta bütün bir tarihsel anlatının kurgulanmasıyla ilgilidir. i̇talyan felsefeci ve tarihçi benedetto croce’ye göre (akt. le goff,1988), her tarih eseri aslında yazıldığı dönemi anlatır. tarihin anlattığı olaylar, zaman açısında yazıldığı güne ne kadar uzak olursa olsun, tarih gerçekte günün ihtiyaçlarıyla ve şartlarıyla i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 41 bağlantılıdır. bazı tarihçiler bu durumu, tarihin toplumsal işlevi olarak değerlendirmişlerdir. annales tarih okulu öncülerinden, fransız tarihçi lucien febvre’ye göre (akt. le goff,1988), tarih geçmişin olaylarını bugünün ihtiyaçlarına göre seçer, toplar, sınıflandırır ve düzenler. bugün için geçmişi inceler. bu tarihin ‘toplumsal işlevidir’. bir diğer ünlü fransız tarihçi charles seignobos (akt. prost,1996:26) da tarihin bu yönünü şu şekilde ifade etmiştir: “tarih ne geçmişi anlatmak, ne de birtakım şeyleri ispatlamak için değil, günümüz toplumlarının geçmişe yönelik sorularına cevap vermek için yazılır.” sonuç olarak, tosh’un (2008:141) ifadesiyle, “bir paradokstur ama bütün tarih araştırmaları bir şimdiki-zaman endişesi taşır”. öte yandan, bazı yazarlar bunu sadece tarihin doğasından kaynaklanan kaçınılmaz bir durum olarak değil, metodolojik açıdan belirli ölçülerde bir gereklilik olduğunu ileri sürmüşlerdir. spoerhase’ye (2008) göre, şimdicilik tarih yazımında dikkat edilmesi gereken bir önemli sorun olduğu gibi, ‘katı bir anti-şimdiciliğin’ de önemli açmazları vardır. katı anti-şimdicilik tarihi olguların tamamen kendi dönemlerinin şartları, anlayışları ve çerçevesi içinde ve o döneme ait terimlerle anlaşılması ve anlatılmasını öngörmektedir. bu yaklaşım tarihçinin geçmişi incelerken bugüne ait bilgilerini mümkün mertebe unutmasını ve tarihin bugün geldiği noktayı göz ardı etmesini gerektirmektedir. bu yaklaşım bugünün zihniyetini geçmişe yansıtmama gayreti bakımından olumlu olabilir, ancak bu anlayışla tarihsel sürekliliği ve gelişimi günümüze kadar getiren, geçmişi bugüne bağlayan bütünsel bir tarih yazımı oluşturmak imkânsızdır. dolayısıyla, spoerhase’ye (2008) göre iki ucun arasında (şimdicilik ve katı anti-şimdicilik), şimdiciliğin meşru ve doğru kullanımıyla, hatalı kullanımı arasında ayırım yapan, ılımlı bir anti-şimdici yaklaşım benimsenmelidir. tarih yazımında bugünle geçmiş arasındaki bu kuvvetli ve zorunlu ilişki tarihçilerin anakronizm hatalarına düşmelerini kolaylaştırmaktadır. çünkü tarihçi geçmişe kendi dönemine ait sorular ve sorunlar penceresinden bakarken, çoğu kez kendi döneminin anlam dünyasını geçmişe taşımakta, geçmişin olaylarını bunların çerçevesinde anlamaya ve anlatmaya çalışmaktadır. bu durum özellikle kavram kullanımında kendini göstermektedir. tarih yazımında günümüzün terminolojisinin kullanılması, bazen incelenen olay veya olgunun kendi tarihsel bağlamında soyutlanıp, kendi dönemi açısından anlam taşımayan bir kavramsal çerçeveye oturtulması sonucunu doğurabilmektedir (le goff,1988; tosh,2008). journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 42 bunun tarih yazımının doğasından kaynaklanan kaçınılması zor bir durum olması ortaya çıkan anakronizm hatalarını hoş görmeyi gerektirmez. çünkü bu hatalar çoğu kez tarihsel bilgi ve yorumun yanlış ve geçersiz olmasına sebep olmaktadırlar. ayrıca sorun genellikle tarihçinin kendinden kaynaklanan sebeplerle ağırlaşmaktadır. bu sebeplerin başında ideolojik kaygılar ve amaçlar geliyor. tosh’a göre (2008:134-135), burada “mesele, tarihçinin, yaşadığı döneme duyduğu ilginin, hangi noktada onun geçmişi çarpıtmadan yansıtma isteğiyle çatıştığını saptamaktır”. sovyetler birliği’nin stalinci tarihçileri gibi, bazı tarihçiler açık ve bilinçli bir şekilde bir ideolojiyi desteklemek ya da kötülemek için geçmişten malzeme ararlar. bunların ortaya koyduğu eserler aslında tarih çalışması değil propagandadır. bazı tarihçiler ise, bilinçli bir şekilde bir ideolojiyi destekleme çabası içine girmeseler bile, içinde yaşadıkları dönemin olgu ve anlayışlarını araştırmalarının konuları ve sorunsalları üzerine çok fazlasıyla yansıttıkları için geçmişi anlamada yanılgıya düşerler. modern olgu ve kurumların kökenlerinin ortaya koymaya yönelmiş çalışmalarda bu tip durumlara sıklıkla karşılaşılır. örneğin, 19. yüzyılın whig tarih okuluna mensup liberal eğilimli i̇ngiliz tarihçileri, parlamenter demokrasinin tarihsel kökenlerinin ortaya konmasına aşırı derecede önem vermelerinden ötürü, ortaçağ i̇ngiliz devlet yönetiminin yapısını yanlış yorumlamışlardır (tosh:2008). metin kunt (1995:104) bu bağlamda, tarihçinin ‘değişim’ olgusunu her zaman göz önünde bulundurulmasının önemini vurgulamaktadır: [tarihçinin] kendi çağının anlayışını ve kavramlarını incelediği tarihi döneme mal etmesi, tarihin değişim demek olduğunu akıldan çıkarmasıdır. yani belirli bir dönem için geçerli olan terimler, kavramlar, anlayışlar başka bir dönem için geçerli olmayabilir. sadece şimdi ile geçmiş arasında değil, geçmişin çeşitli dönemleri arasında da farklar vardır. sonuç olarak, anakronizm özensizlik veya bilgisizlikten kaynaklanan basit bir tarih yanılgısı olmanın ötesinde, karmaşık ve yaygın bir sorundur. tarihçinin tarihe kaçınılmaz bir biçimde kendi döneminin penceresinden bakması, bugüne ait kavram ve bakış açılarının geçmişe mal edilmesi ve böylece tarihi olgu ve kişilerin yanlış değerlendirilmesi tehlikesini doğurmaktadır. eğer tarihçi bu tehlikenin farkında değilse ve bu hataya düşmemek için gerekli dikkati göstermiyorsa anakronik tarih yorumları üretmesi beklenen bir sonuç olacaktır. i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 43 amaç ve problem tarih yazımında karşılaştığımız anakronizm sorunu doğal olarak tarih öğretimine, özellikle de tarih ders kitaplarına yansımaktadır. bu çalışma bu açıdan ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler ve ortaöğretim tarih ders kitaplarındaki durumu ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. son yıllarda ders kitaplarında ortaya çıkan bir uygulama bu hususa özellikle dikkat edilmesini gerektirmektedir. 2000’li yıllarda gerçekleşen program değişiklikleri sonrasında yazılan ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler ve ortaöğretim tarih ders kitaplarında, tarihi olayları dönemin kişilerinin ağzından anlatan kurgusal metinler kullanılmaktadır. kitap yazarları tarafından oluşturulan bu metinler bazen konu anlatımını destekleyen metinler şeklinde düzenlenmekte, bazen de drama etkinliğinin uygulanabileceği diyaloglar halinde yer almaktadır. bu metinlerin temel ayırt edici özelliği, kullanılan bilgiler tarihi kaynaklara dayansa da, konuşmanın kitap yazarı tarafından kurgulanmasıdır. dolayısıyla bu tür bir anlatım, yöntemi açısından tarih alanından daha çok edebiyat alanına girmekte ve tarihi hikaye, roman ve tiyatro türleriyle benzeşmektedir. roman ve hikaye gibi edebi türlerin tarih öğretiminde kullanılması tarih eğitimcileri tarafından genellikle olumlu bir durum olarak görülmüştür (ata, 2000; dilek ve yapıcı, 2005; şimşek, 2006). dolayısıyla ilkesel olarak, kurgusal metinlerin tarih ders kitaplarında kullanılması kabul edilebilir bir durumdur. bu yeni anlatım tarzı tarih konularının öğretimine bazı önemli katkılar sağlayabilir. öncelikle tarihi dönemin kişilerinin bakış açılarının ve anlayışlarının yansıtılması açısından olumlu olabilir. bu tür uygulamalar drama etkinliklerinin geliştirilmesine katkı sağlayabilir. ayrıca, özellikle ilköğretim düzeyinde bu anlatım tarzı öğrenciler açısından geleneksel anlatım tarzına göre daha ilgi çekici olabilir. ancak, bu yöntem bazı önemli sorunları da beraberinde getirmektedir. tarihi olayları kahramanlarının diliyle anlatan kurgu metinlerde ortaya çıkabilecek en önemli sorun, kendi dönemimize ait olan kavram, yaklaşım ve yorumların o dönemde mevcut olan olgu ve bakış açılarıymış gibi yansıtılmasıdır. başka bir deyişle, tarihi kahramanların ağzından aslında tarihçinin (kitap yazarının) konuşması ve kendi tarih anlatısını o dönemin insanlarına mal etmesidir. bu durum birçok hatalı bilgi ve yorumun ortaya çıkmasına neden olabilir. dolayısıyla bu kurgusal metinler dönemin kendi şartları, değer yargıları, bakış açıları ve bilgi düzeyi göz önüne alınarak hazırlanmalıdır. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 44 bu çalışmada sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders kitaplarının analizi bu kurgusal metinlerle sınırlı tutulmuştur. aslında modern yaklaşımları geçmişe mal eden anakronik bilgi ve yorumlar sadece bu metinlerle sınırlı değildir. ders kitaplarının diğer öğelerinde de (konu anlatımı, görsel dokümanlar, sorular, vs.) bu açıdan hatalı bilgi ve yorumlara rastlanabilir. ancak tarihi kahramanların gözüyle ve diliyle olayları anlatan kurgusal metinler bu açıdan hususi bir önem taşımaktadır. bu metinlerde anlatının dönemin kişilerine atfedilmesiyle, verilen bilgiler tarihi kişi ve olgunun bir parçası haline gelmektedir. başka bir deyişle, bilgi ve yorumların tarihi kahramanlara mal edilmesi açık ve bilinçli bir biçimde yapılmaktadır. kitap yazarlarının anakronizm sorunu hakkındaki bilinç ve donanım düzeylerinin, en belirgin olarak kurgusal metinlerin hazırlanmasında ortaya çıkması beklenmelidir. dolayısıyla bu metinlerin analizi, ders kitabı yazarlarının bu konudaki genel yaklaşımlarının anlaşılmasında oldukça faydalı olabilir. bu çalışmanın problemi şu iki soru çerçevesinde özetlenebilir: kurgusal metinlerde tarihi kahramanların ağzından anlatılanlar, acaba o dönemle ilgili olarak tarihçilerin ortaya koyduğu bilgilere uygun mudur? bugüne ait tarihsel bilgi ve yorumların geçmişe mal edilmesi ne tür hata ve yanılgılar doğurmaktadır? yöntem yöntem olarak, ders kitaplarının incelenmesinde sıkça başvurulan içerik analizi yöntemi kullanılmıştır. ancak, ders kitaplarının sistematik bir biçimde taranıp, konuyla ilgili tüm bulguların nicel bir biçimde ortaya konulması yoluna gidilmemiştir. bunun yerine betimsel analiz öngörülmüştür. çünkü bu çalışma ders kitaplarında anakronizmle ilgili sorunların hangi sıklıkla görüldüğünü ortaya koymayı amaçlamıyor. diğer bir deyişle, araştırma nicel bir durum değerlendirmesini öngörmemektedir. bunun yerine bu sorunların ders kitaplarına nasıl yansıdığını derinlemesine analiz etmeyi hedeflemektedir. betimsel analizde veriler araştırma sorularının ortaya koyduğu temalara göre düzenlenir, özetlenir ve yorumlanır. betimsel analizin dört aşaması vardır: “betimsel analiz için bir çerçeve oluşturma”, “tematik çerçeveye göre verilerin işlenmesi”, “bulguların tanımlanması” ve “bulguların yorumlanması” (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2004:172). bu çalışmada, analiz çerçevesi olarak üç tema belirlenmiştir: zaman algısı; kavramlar; olguların yorumlanması. anakronizm temelde kronoloji ile ilgili bir sorun olduğu için dönemin zaman algısının nasıl yansıtıldığı sorusu üzerinde durulmuştur. i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 45 yukarıda incelendiği gibi, kavram kullanımı bu açıdan çok önemli bir diğer husustur. tarihi şahsiyetlere atfedilen bakış açıları ve yorumların incelenmesi ise bugüne ait yorumların geçmişe nasıl yansıtıldığının gözlenmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. bu temalar aşağıda daha ayrıntılı bir biçimde açıklanmıştır. i̇kinci aşamada veriler bu temalara göre düzenlenmiş ve içlerinden bazıları yorumlanmak üzere seçilmiştir. betimsel analizde bütün verilerin kullanılması gerekli değildir. verilerin işlenmesi aşamasında en uygun ve önemli bazı veriler seçilip, bazıları ayıklanabilir (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2004). bu çalışmada da bütün veriler kullanılmamıştır. belirlenen tematik çerçeveye göre en uygun örnekler seçilerek, derinlemesine analiz edilmiştir. sadece hatalı yorum ve yaklaşımlar değil, doğru uygulamalar da örneklerle gösterilmiştir. tematik çerçeveye göre bulgular ayrı başlıklar altında tanımlanmış ve yorumlanmıştır. “betimsel türden bir analizin kullanıldığı bir araştırmada […] doğrudan alıntılara yer vermek ve bunlardan yola çıkarak sonuçları açıklamak geçerlik için önemli olmaktadır.” bu yöntem ayrıca güvenilirliğin sağlanması açısından da önemlidir (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2004:91). bu çalışmada bu hususa dikkat edilmiştir. ders kitaplarından elde edilen bulgular doğrudan alıntı şeklinde verilmiş ve değerlendirmeler bu örneklere dayandırılmıştır. araştırmanın hedefi nicel bir durum değerlendirmesi yapmak değil, konuyu derinlemesine incelemek olduğu için incelenecek kitap sayısı sınırlı tutulmuştur. i̇lköğretim 6. ve 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersleri için birer kitap (polat ve ark. 2008; tüysüz ve yıldırım, 2006), ortaöğretim 9. ve 10. sınıf tarih dersleri için birer kitap (cazgır ve ark. 2009; okur ve ark., 2009) olmak üzere toplam dört ders kitabı araştırma kapsamında incelenmiştir. bu ders kitapları 2009-2010 öğretim yılında kullanılan kitaplar arasından seçilmiştir. sosyal bilgiler derslerinde, meb yayınlarının yanı sıra özel yayınevlerinin ders kitapları da kullanılmaktadır. hem meb yayınlarından (polat ve ark. 2008), hem de özel yayınevlerinden (tüysüz ve yıldırım, 2006) birer ders kitabı örneği çalışma kapsamına alınmıştır. ortaöğretimde ise 2007 yılında başlayan program değişikliği sonrasında, ders kitapları sadece meb yayınları tarafından hazırlanmaktadır. i̇ncelenen kitaplar yeni müfredat programları kapsamında hazırlanmıştır. ders kitaplarında yazarların journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 46 uzmanlık alanları ve çalıştıkları kurumlar belirtilmemiştir. ancak hepsinin ilk ve ortaöğretim kurumlarında çalışan öğretmenler olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. bulgular ve değerlendirme genel olarak değerlendirildiğinde, araştırma kapsamında incelenen ders kitaplarının kurgusal metin kullanımı açısından ortak noktaların yanı sıra, bazı farklılıklar arz ettiği görülmektedir. kurgusal metinler ders kitaplarında çok yoğun bir biçimde kullanılmamaktadır. i̇ncelenen 6. ve 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarında sırasıyla 5 ve 7, ortaöğretim 9. ve 10. sınıf tarih kitaplarında ise sırasıyla 6 ve 14 adet metin yer almaktadır. ders kitaplarında kurgusal anlatımın temel bir yöntem olmaktan çok, yardımcı bir tür olarak benimsendiği söylenebilir. kitaplarda yer alan metinlerin uzunluğu oldukça farklılık göstermektedir. kısa bir paragraf uzunluğunda olanlar olduğu gibi, bir sayfayı geçen metinler de bulunmaktadır. büyük çoğunluğunun yarım sayfa civarında olduğu söylenebilir. sonuç olarak, incelenen ders kitaplarında kurgusal metinlerin nicel olarak önemli bir yer tutmadıkları görülmektedir. ancak bu durum bu metinlerin önemini ortadan kaldırmamaktadır. çünkü bu metinler türkiye’de tarih öğretiminde bugüne kadar kullanılmayan yeni bir anlatım dili ve yöntemi getirmektedir. ortaöğretim tarih ders kitaplarında (cazgır ve ark. 2009; okur ve ark., 2009) kurgusal metinler bir kahramanın ağzından anlatı ve karşılıklı konuşma (diyalog) olmak üzere iki farklı şekilde düzenlenmektedir. sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarında (polat ve ark. 2008; tüysüz ve yıldırım, 2006) ise birkaç istisna dışında bu metinler anlatı biçiminde hazırlanmıştır. ortaöğretim tarih ders kitaplarında diyalog biçiminde verilen metinler genellikle drama etkinliği olarak düzenlenmektedir. bu metinlerle birlikte yer alan yazılı açıklamalarda drama etkinliği her zaman açık bir şekilde belirtilmese de, metinler ‘canlandırma’ başlığı altında veya tiyatro sembolüyle birlikte verilmektedir. sosyal bilgiler kitaplarında ise kurgusal metinlerle drama etkinliğinin öngörüldüğüne dair herhangi bir açıklama verilmemektedir. bu metinlerin çok büyük ölçüde bilgi aktarmaya yönelik olduğu görülmektedir. aslında ortaöğretim tarih ders kitaplarında da bilgi verme amacının ön planda olduğu gözlenmektedir. diyaloglar biçiminde düzenlenen metinler de bile yoğun bir bilgi içeriği göze çarpmaktadır. i̇ncelenen sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarında kurgusal metinlerin gerçekte tarihi kişilere ait orijinal ifadeler olmadığı ve kitap yazarları tarafından yazıldığı belirtilmemektedir. tarih ders kitaplarında ise farklı uygulamalar görülmektedir. bazı i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 47 metinlerde sosyal bilgiler kitaplarında olduğu gibi hiçbir açıklama yer almazken, bazı metinlerde ‘yazarlar tarafından düzenlenmiştir’ ibaresi bulunmakta, bazı metinlerde ise içerik bilgisinin oluşturulmasında yararlanılan kaynağın ismi verilmektedir. sonuç olarak, ortaöğretim tarih ders kitaplarında da, bu metinlerin gerçekte tarihi kişilere ait olmadığı ve yazarlar tarafından kurgulandığı hususunun açık ve özenli bir biçimde belirtildiği söylenemez. araştırmanın temel problemi açısından değerlendirildiğinde, kurgusal metinlerde anakronik bilgi ve yorum hatalarına sıklıkla düşüldüğü görülmektedir. bu açıdan sosyal bilgiler ders kitapları ile tarih ders kitapları arasında belirgin bir farklılık gözlenmemiştir. yukarıda belirtildiği gibi, ders kitaplarında anakronizm sorunu üç farklı açıdan incelenmiştir: zaman algısı, kavramlar ve olguların yorumlanması. zaman algısı tarih öğretiminin hedeflediği temel kazanımların birisi öğrencilerde zaman algısının geliştirilmesi ve bununla ilgili becerilerin kazandırılmasıdır (safran ve şimşek, 2009). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler ve ortaöğretim tarih programlarında ‘zaman ve kronolojiyi algılama’, ‘değişim ve sürekliliği algılama’, ‘kronolojik düşünme’ becerilerine vurgu yapılmaktadır (meb, 2007; 2009). bu becerilerin geliştirilmesi için öğretim programları ve uygulamalarında zaman öğretimine yönelik konu ve etkinliklerin geliştirilmesi gerekmektedir. yapılan araştırmalar türkiye’de öğrencilerin zamanla ilgili kavramları öğrenmede önemli zorluklar yaşandığını göstermektedir (demircioğlu, 2005). zaman algısı bir yönüyle kurgusal ve tarihseldir. her dönemin ve her kültürün kendine ait bir zaman anlayışı vardır. günümüzde her ne kadar evrensel bir niteliğe kavuşmuş olsa da, miladi takvim de diğer zaman kurguları gibi izafi ve tarihseldir. dolayısıyla herhangi bir tarihi dönemde insanların tarihi olaylara bakışını doğru bir biçimde anlayabilmek için öncelikle zaman mefhumlarını göz önüne almak gerekmektedir. ayrıca öğrencilerin zaman mefhumunu doğru bir biçimde anlamaları ve zaman algılarını geliştirebilmeleri için, tarihte insanların bu olguyu günümüzden daha farklı şekillerde algıladıklarını öğrenmeleri gerekmektedir. i̇ncelenen ders kitaplarında, tarihi şahsiyetlerin ağzından kurgulanan metinlerde bu hususun pek dikkate alınmadığı görülüyor. örneğin: miletli tales: “mö 625 yılında milet şehrinde doğdum.” (ortaöğretim tarih 9. sınıf, okur ve ark., 2009:57) journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 48 kaşgarlı mahmut: “11. yüzyılda karahanlı şehirlerinden biri olan kaşgar’da doğduğum için kaşgarlı mahmut adıyla tanınırım.” (i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 6, tüysüz ve yıldırım, 2006:114) miletli tales’in mö’den bahsetmesi çok bariz bir anakronizm hatasıdır. aynı şekilde kaşgarlı mahmut’un miladi takvimi kullanması tarihsel olarak pek olası değildir. bu hatalar bilgi eksikliği ve özensizliğin ötesinde yazarların bakış açılarından kaynaklanmaktadır. yazarların tarihi şahsiyetlerin gözüyle olayları anlatırken, “bu şahsiyetler dönemlerini ve bu dönemin olaylarını nasıl algılıyorlardı?” sorusunun üzerinde pek durmadıkları anlaşılmaktadır. kavramlar ve i̇simler kavram “bir şeyin, bir nesnenin zihindeki ve zihne ait tasarımı, […] soyutlama yoluyla elde edilen zihinsel bir tasavvur”dur (cevizci, 2003:226). tarihsel bir kavram herhangi bir tarihi olguya karşılık gelse ve onu tanımlasa bile, netice itibariyle tarihçinin zihninin bir ürünüdür. dolayısıyla zaman kurgusu gibi, kavramlar da tarihseldir ve zamanla değişir. bugüne ait bakış açılarının geçmişe yansıtılmasının en yaygın şekillerinden birisi, tarihi olguları bugüne ait terminoloji ile açıklamaktır. modern kavramların konu anlatımında kullanılması çoğu kez önemli bir sorun yaratmayabilir. hatta bu belirli ölçüde gerekli bir durumdur. tamamen tarihi dönemin terminolojisinin kullanılması öğrenciler için anlaşılması imkansız bir tarih anlatısı ortaya çıkarabilir. ancak, eğer tarihi şahsiyetlerin gözüyle ve onların dilinden tarihi olayların anlatılması öngörülüyorsa, kullanılan terminolojiye mutlaka çok dikkat edilmesi gerekir. çünkü kavramlar sadece bir olguyu nitelemez, aynı zamanda bir bakış açısını yansıtır. tarihi olguları tanımlayan kavramların yanında, adlandırmalara da dikkat etmek gerekiyor. bu bağlamda özellikle yer isimlerinin kullanımına özen göstermek gerekmektedir. zaman algısı gibi, mekan algısı da tarihsel süreçte devamlı bir değişim içerisindedir. herhangi bir tarihi dönemi değerlendirirken dönemin insanlarının mekan algılamasını da göz önüne almak gerekir. eğer incelenen kurgu metinlerde olduğu gibi, tarihi olayları dönemin insanlarının gözüyle yansıtma gibi bir amaç güdülüyorsa bu gereklilik kati bir zorunluluk haline gelir. gerek kavramlar, gerekse yer isimleri açısından ders kitaplarındaki kurgu metinlerde bir çok anakronizm hatası görülmektedir. örneğin: i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 49 kaşgarlı mahmut : “orta asya’dan göçen türkler, kopuzu, türkülerini ve destanlarını beraberinde getirmişlerdi. [….] i̇pek yolu üzerindeki şehirlerde ve yollarda kervanlarla karşılaştım” (i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 6, tüysüz ve yıldırım, 2006:114-115) orta asya ve i̇pek yolu modern döneme ait mefhumlardır. bu terimler kaşgarlı mahmut zamanında kullanılmadığı gibi, bu dönemde bunlara denk düşebilecek bir algılama da söz konusu değildi. orta asya’nın coğrafi bir birim olarak algılanması ve tanımlanması modern bir durumdur. i̇pek yolu’nun tarihsel ve coğrafi bir olgu olarak tanımlanması da yine modern dönem tarihçileri tarafından gerçekleştirilmiştir. yani birçok tarihsel kavram gibi, i̇pek yolu belirli bir tarihsel gerçekliğe dayanan, ama netice itibariyle tarihçiler tarafından tanımlanan ve bir tasavvur olarak tarihi dönemin insanlarının algı dünyasında anlam ifade etmeyen bir kavramdır. bu kavramın tarih yazımı ve öğretiminde kullanılması elbette normal bir durumdur. ancak dönemin insanlarının bu olguyu bugünün insanları gibi algıladıklarını, bu veya buna benzer bir kavramı kullandıklarını varsaymak açık bir anakronizm hatası olur. ders kitaplarında tarihi şahsiyetlere kullandırılan terimlerin doğru kullanım örneklerini de görmekteyiz. bazı metinlerde özellikle yer isimleri konusunda, dönemin terminolojisinin yansıtılmaya çalışıldığı gözlenmektedir. örneğin: koçi bey: “bunca zamandır acem’e (i̇ran), nemçe’ye (avusturya) seferler olur. uzun sürdüğünden katiyen fayda alınamadığı gibi hazine telef olur”. (ortaöğretim tarih 10. sınıf, cazgır ve ark. 2009:92). ancak, bu yaklaşım sistematik ve özenli bir biçimde sürdürülmediği için aynı ders kitabı, hatta aynı metin içerisinde doğru ve yanlış uygulamaların birlikte yer aldığı görülebilmektedir. örneğin: koca yusuf paşa (1792): “bu raporlarda yeniçeri ocağı ve diğer asker ocakları dedeniz kanuni devrindeki kanunlara göre düzenlenmelidir ya da bu ocaklara frenk eğitim-öğretim usulleri ve silahları kabul ettirilmelidir diyenler vardır. [….] hünkârım! avusturya-rus savaşı’ndan dönüşümde birkaç avrupalı subayı orduyu hümayunla birlikte i̇stanbul’a getirmiştim. yeni kuracağımız orduda bu subaylardan yararlanmayı uygun görürüm” (ortaöğretim tarih 10. sınıf, cazgır ve ark. 2009:139) journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 50 metinde verilen sadrazam koca yusuf paşa’nın sultan 3. selim’le konuşmasında, avrupalılar için önce doğru olarak, bu dönemde kullanılan frenk terimini kullanırken, metnin devamında dönemin türkçesinde pek kullanılmayan avrupalı terimi kullanılmaktadır. yer isimleri gibi, siyasi örgütlenmelerin isimleri de tarihsel süreç içerisinde değişebilmektedir. tarihte kurulan devletler için günümüzde kullanılan isimlerin bir çoğu tarihçiler tarafından sonradan üretilmiştir ve o devletlerin kendi yöneticileri ve halkları tarafından kullanılan isimlerden oldukça farklıdır. dolayısıyla dönemin şahsiyetlerinin gözüyle olaylar anlatılırken bu hususa özellikle dikkat edilmesi gerekir. ancak ders kitaplarında bu konuda da önemli hataların yapıldığı görülmektedir. örneğin: samsa çavuş (14. yüzyıl): “türkiye selçuklu devleti, bizim gibi boyları uc bölgelere yerleştirerek bizans’a karşı sınırları korumak için uc teşkilatı oluşturdu.” (i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 7, polat ve ark. 2008:58). türkiye selçuklu devleti ve bizans i̇mparatorluğu terimleri sonradan tarihçiler tarafından üretilmiştir. dönemin insanlarının bu isimleri kullanması söz konusu olamaz. aynı şekilde uc teşkilatı kavramı da tarihi bir olguyu niteleyen ama netice itibariyle modern dönem tarihçileri tarafından üretilen bir kavramdır. burada yazar samsa çavuş’u konuştururken, aslında olaylara onun gözüyle değil, modern bir tarihçinin bakış açısıyla bakmakta ve günümüzün diliyle konuşmaktadır. sosyal bilimlerin diğer disiplinlerinde olduğu gibi, kavramlaştırma ve kavramlar tarih yazımı ve öğretiminin vazgeçilmez unsurlarındandır. yukarıda incelenen örneklerde olduğu gibi, birçok tarihsel kavram geçmişin olgularını anlamak ve anlatmak için tarihçiler tarafından üretilmiştir. bu kavramların tarih öğretiminde kullanılması da normal ve hatta gerekli bir durumdur. ancak burada önemli olan, sonradan üretilen bu kavramların tarihsel gerçekliğin bizatihi kendisi olmadığının ve dönemin insanlarının olguları daha farklı şekillerde algıladıkları ve isimlendirdiklerinin bilincinde olmaktır. olgular ve yorumlar yorumlama bir olgu, metin veya davranıştan anlam çıkarma, onu anlaşılır hale getirme çabasıdır. yorum yorumlayanın dışında bir gerçekliğe dayansa bile, sonuçta onun zihninin ürünüdür (hançerlioğu, 2000). yorum tarihsel anlatının vazgeçilmez bir parçasıdır. tarihsel kanıtlar ve onlardan çıkan olgusal bilgiler tek başına geçmişin i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 51 anlaşılması için yeterli değildir. tarihçinin açıklama ve yorumlarıyla geçmişin olguları bugünün insanı için anlaşılır hale gelir. ancak bu anlama ve anlatma çabasında bazı ilkelere dikkat etmek gereklidir. her tarihi olgu ancak kendi şartları çerçevesinde anlaşılabilir. bu şartlar göz önüne alınmadan yapılan şey “anlamak” değil, “kendine uydurma”dır (erdoğdu, 2009). eğer tarihi olgular kendi bağlamından koparıp, günümüze ait bakış açıları ile yorumlanırsa anakronizm yanılgıları kaçınılmaz olur. olguların açıklanmasında, sebep-sonuç ilişkilerinin yorumlanmasında, tarihi şahsiyetlerin olgulara bakışlarının yansıtılmasında anakronik değerlendirmeler sıklıkla görülmektedir. ders kitaplarındaki kurgusal metinlerde bu durumun örneklerine rastlanmaktadır. örneğin: sultan alparslan : “anadolu, sürüleriyle birlikte orta asya’dan göç eden kalabalık türk boylarını yerleştirebileceğim en uygun yerdi. bu nedenle anadolu’yu fethetmem gerekiyordu. [….] kazandığım malazgirt zaferi’nin sonuçları çok büyük oldu. bu zaferden sonra anadolu kapıları türklere açıldı ve anadolu’nun türkler tarafından fethi hızlandı.” (i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 6, tüysüz ve yıldırım, 2006:118) sultan alparslan : “anadolu türk yurdu olmalı, bu niyetimi halifeye bildireyim.” (ortaöğretim tarih 9. sınıf, okur ve ark., 2009:151) anadolu’nun türk hakimiyetine girmesi ve türkleşmesi açısından malazgirt savaşı’nın çok önemli bir dönüm noktası olduğundan hiçbir kuşku yoktur. sonuçları itibariyle malazgirt savaşı türkiye tarihinin en önemli olaylarından birisidir. ancak, acaba bu durum sultan alparslan’ın bakış açısını açıklayabilir mi? alparslan fatımilerin hakimiyetindeki mısır’a bir sefer düzenlediği sırada, i̇mparator romen diyojen’in büyük bir ordu ile selçukluların üzerine yürümesi sonrasında, yani bir bakıma zorunlu olarak malazgirt’te bizanslarla karşı karşıya gelmiştir. zafer sonrasında bizans ordusunun bertaraf edilmesine rağmen, sultan alparslan anadolu’nun fethini tamamlamaya yönelik askeri girişimde bulunmamıştır. bu dönemde alparslan’ın izlediği politikanın amacının suriye, filistin ve mısır bölgelerindeki müslüman devletleri kendi egemenliği altına almak olduğu anlaşılmaktadır (merçil, 2002). türkmen boylarının suriye, irak, filistin gibi bölgelere göre daha uygun bir iklim ve bol otlak alanları sunan anadolu’ya ilgileri aşikar olsa da, sultan alparslan’ın kendisinin journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 52 anadolu’yu fethetme gibi açık bir niyet güttüğüne dair herhangi bir kanıt bulunmamaktadır (bodmer, 2001). burada özellikle vurgulamak gerekir ki, malazgirt savaşı’nın anadolu’nun türkleşmesi perspektifinden değerlendirilmesinde herhangi bir yanlışlık söz konusu değildir. yukarıda incelendiği gibi, tarih kaçınılmaz olarak retrospektif, yani bugünden geçmişe doğru giden bir bakışla yazılır. herhangi bir tarihi olay daha sonraki olayların ve günümüze kadar gelen sürecin çevresinde değerlendirilir. bu durum kaçınılmaz olduğu gibi, tarihsel sürekliliği ve gelişimi günümüze kadar getiren, geçmişi bugüne bağlayan bütünsel bir tarih yazımı oluşturmak açısından faydalı da olabilir. dolayısıyla burada yapılan hata, olayı sonuçları çerçevesinde değerlendirmek değil, tarihsel süreç sonunda bugün bizim sahip olduğumuz bakış açısını sultan alparslan’a mal etmek ve onun bu amaçla hareket ettiğini düşünmektir. böylece sebep-sonuç ilişkisi tersyüz edilerek, aslında olay sonucunda ve uzun vadede ortaya çıkan olgunun, olayın kahramanlarını harekete geçiren saik olduğu farz edilmektedir. öte yandan birinci örnekte kitap yazarlarının malazgirt savaşı’nın sonuçlarını sultan alparslan’a söyletmesi hatayı daha da ağırlaştırmaktadır. çünkü alparslan zaferden yaklaşık bir buçuk yıl sonra, yani olayın kısa vadedeki sonuçlarını bile tam olarak görmeden suikasta uğrayarak vefat etmiştir. bir başka örnek: 3. selim : “üç kıtada büyük bir ülkeyi yönetiyorum. ancak ülkem avrupa devletleri karşısında siyasi, ekonomik, askeri ve sosyal açıdan gerileme içerisine girdi.” (ortaöğretim tarih 10. sınıf, cazgır ve ark. 2009:119) osmanlı devletinin yayıldığı hakimiyet alanı tarihi bir olgudur. ancak bu olgunun nasıl algılandığı ve yorumlandığı zamanla değişebilir. günümüzde “üç kıtaya yayılmış devlet” algısı oldukça yaygın bir bakış açısıdır. ama 3. selim ve dönemin osmanlılarının tasavvurunda acaba hakimiyet alanları böyle mi algılanmaktaydı? aslında aynı ders kitabında bulunan ve birinci el gerçek bir belgeden yapılan alıntıda, osmanlıların kendi coğrafyalarını nasıl algıladıklarının bir örneği verilmektedir. fransa kralı 1. fransuva’ya gönderdiği mektupta kanuni sultan süleyman kendini şöyle tanıtmaktadır: “ben ki [….] akdeniz’in, karadeniz’in, rumeli’nin, anadolu’nun, azerbaycan’ın, şam’ın, halep’in, mısır’ın, mekke’nin, medine’nin, kudüs’ün, bütün arap i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 53 diyarının, yemen’in, nice memleketlerin sultanı ve padişahı [….]” (ortaöğretim tarih 10. sınıf, cazgır ve ark. 2009:68) öte yandan, 3. selim’in ülkesinin avrupa devletleri karşısındaki durumunu “siyasi, ekonomik, askeri ve sosyal açıdan” değerlendirmesi bugüne ait düşünme tarzlarının tarihi şahsiyetlere mal edilmesinin bir başka örneğini teşkil ediyor. kuşkusuz sultan 3. selim osmanlı devleti’nin içinde bulunduğu gerilemenin farkındaydı ve sorunları farklı açılardan değerlendiriyordu. ancak buradaki bakış açılarının sınıflandırılması ve kullanılan kavramlar (mesela sosyal) tamamen modern mantaliteye aittir. kurgusal metinlerde bilgi aktarımı amacının ön planda olmasının anakronik yorumların artmasına sebep olduğu görülmektedir. yazarlar tarihi şahsiyetleri konuştururken, onların bakış açılarını yansıtmaktan ziyade, çoğu kez konuyla ilgili bilgi aktarmayı amaçlamaktadır. herhangi bir tarihi olay veya olgu hakkında dönemin insanları ile günümüz arasında sadece bakış açısı yönünden değil, tarihsel bilgi açısından da farklılıklar vardır. günümüzün tarihsel bilgisi olayların tarihsel gelişim süreci ışığında ve tarihçilerin yaptığı çıkarımlar sonucunda oluşmaktadır. kurgusal metinlerde bugüne ait tarihsel bilginin tarihi şahsiyetlerin ağzından aktarılması birçok basit ve bariz anakronizm hatasının ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmaktadır. mesela: nizamülmülk: “bağdat’ta kendi adımla anılacak olan nizamiye medresesini kurdum. bu medrese tarihteki ilk üniversite olarak kabul edilir” (tüysüz ve yıldırım, 2006:119) tales (mö 7. yy): “bence bu yol [kral yolu] ticari öneminden çok kültürel öneme sahiptir. çünkü mezopotamya ve anadolu uygarlıkları bu yol aracılığıyla birbirlerini etkilemişler ve ilerleme kaydetmişlerdir. [….] i̇yonya’nın asya’dan gelen ticaret yollarının bitiş noktası olması, i̇yonya’da özgürlüğün daha fazla olması, bu bölgenin ekonomik olarak gelişmiş olması kültürel açıdan gelişmeye katkı sağlamıştır.” (ortaöğretim tarih 9. sınıf, okur ve ark., 2009:57) yazarların nizamülmülk ve tales’e yaptırdıkları açıklamaların ve kullandırdıkları kavramların o dönemlerin bakış açısı ve bilgi düzeyini hiçbir şekilde yansıtmadığı açık bir şekilde görülmektedir. yazarlar konu anlatımı şeklinde verebilecekleri bilgileri hiçbir uyarlama yapmadan, tarihi şahsiyetlerin ağzından aktarmaktadırlar. bu iki örnekte yazarların dönemin kişilerinin kendi bakış açılarını yansıtma kaygısını neredeyse hiç taşımadıkları görülmektedir. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 54 sonuç sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders kitaplarında son dönemlerde ortaya çıkan ve tarihi olayları dönemin kahramanlarının dilinden anlatan kurgusal metinler tarih öğretiminde yeni bir yöntem ve anlatım dili getirmiştir. ancak bu metinlerde birçok bariz ve ciddi anakronizm hatasının yapıldığı görülmektedir. tarihi kahramanlar konuşturulurken çoğu kez, aslında ders kitabı yazarına, yani modern döneme ait olan bakış açıları, yorumlar, kavramlar, zaman ve mekan algıları dönemin insanlarına mal edilmektedir. bu durum sadece dilsel ve yaklaşımsal değil, aynı zamanda olgusal anakronizm hatalarının doğmasına sebep olmaktadır. başka bir ifadeyle, tarihi olguları bugünün kavram ve yaklaşımlarıyla açıklamanın ötesinde, bu kavram ve yaklaşımları dönemin insanlarının bildiği ve kullandığı varsayılarak, tarihin olgusal gerçekliğine aykırı bir bilgi üretilmektedir. bugüne ait tarihsel bilgi ve yorumların geçmişe mal edilmesi, ders kitaplarındaki kurgusal metinlerde birçok yanlışlığa yol açmıştır. zaman ve takvim algılarında tarih boyu meydana gelen değişimin doğru bir biçimde yansıtılmadığı görülmektedir. bir diğer önemli sorun, mekan algısı ve isimlerindeki değişimin göz ardı edilmesidir. benzer bir şekilde, siyasi birimlerin isimlendirilmesi konusunda geçmiş ile bugün arasındaki farklılıklar pek dikkate alınmamıştır. diğer bir sorun tarihsel olguları tanımlamak için tarihçiler tarafından üretilen i̇pek yolu veya uc teşkilatı gibi bazı kavramların, o dönemin anlam ve bilgi dünyasının bir parçasıymış gibi algılanması ve tarihi şahsiyetlere kullandırılmasıdır. bugüne ait bakış açılarının geçmişe mal edilmesiyle oluşan yanılgılar tarihi şahsiyetlerin davranış ve kararlarının altında yatan amaç ve düşüncelerin açıklanmasında da ortaya çıkmaktadır. malazgirt savaşı örneğinde olduğu gibi, bu durum özellikle olayların sebeplerinin açıklanmasında önemli yanılgılara sebebiyet verebilmektedir. araştırma bulguları ders kitaplarında bu hataların oldukça yoğun bir biçimde ortaya çıkmasının altında yatan faktörlere de ışık tutmaktadır. ders kitabı yazarlarının sahip oldukları yetkinlik ve kitapları hazırlarken gösterdikleri özenle ilgili eksikliklerin bu hataların doğmasında oldukça önemli bir faktör olduğu söylenebilir. ancak bu durum sadece yeterlilik ve özenle değil, aynı zamanda yaklaşımla da ilgilidir. tarihi olayları ve kişileri dönemin kendi şartları, değer yargıları, kavramları ve bakış açılarıyla yansıtma gerekliliğinin ders kitaplarında pek göz önüne alınmadığı söylenebilir. bir diğer ifadeyle, i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 55 kitap yazarlarının “dönemin insanları olayları nasıl görüyorlardı?” sorusunu sormadıkları ve dolayısıyla bugüne ait bakış açılarının dönemin insanlarına mal edilmemesi hususuna fazlaca önem vermedikleri anlaşılmaktadır. kurgusal metinlerde anakronizm hatalarının sıkça görülmesinin bir diğer sebebi, bu metinlerin asıl olarak bilgi verme amacıyla yazılmaları ve dolayısıyla yoğun bir bilgi içeriği taşımalarıdır. bugün oluşturulan bir tarih anlatısı doğal olarak birçok yönden dönemin bakış açılarından farklılık arz etmektedir. bu hususa dikkat etmeden, yoğun bir bilgi ve yorum içeriğini tarihi kahramanlara söyletmek çok sayıda hatanın ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmaktadır. öneriler kurgusal metinlerin mevcut sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders kitaplarında kullanımındaki hata ve sorunlara rağmen, bu yöntem doğru bir biçimde kullanılırsa tarih öğretimine önemli katkılar sağlayabilir. özellikle sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders programlarında (meb, 2007; 2009) vurgulanan “tarihsel empati” becerisinin kazanımına yönelik etkinliklerin geliştirilmesinde faydalı olabilir. ayrıca drama türü etkinliklerin gerçekleştirilmesinde de kurgusal metinler kullanılabilir. dolayısıyla bazı kurallara riayet etmek koşuluyla, kurgusal metinlerin ders kitaplarında ve genel olarak tarih öğretiminde kullanılması önerilmektedir. kurgusal metinlerin oluşturulmasında ders kitabı yazarlarının sahip olduğu kurgu ve yorum serbestliği tarihi roman, öykü ve tiyatro yazarlarınınki kadar geniş olmamalıdır. çünkü edebi eserlerden farklı olarak, ders kitaplarının öğrencilere tarih araştırmalarına dayanan bilgiler sunma sorumluluğu ve zorunluluğu vardır. dolayısıyla, yazılan metinlerin tarihsel gerçekliğe uygun olmasına ve özellikle de dönemin yaklaşımlarını doğru bir şekilde yansıtmasına hususi bir özen gösterilmelidir. mevcut ders kitaplarında gözlemlenen, kurgusal metinlerdeki yoğun bilgi içeriği ve bu yönteme konu anlatımı işlevinin yüklenmesi yaklaşımı değiştirilmelidir. kurgusal metinler olgusal bilgileri aktarmaktan çok, dönemin insanlarının bakış açılarını yansıtmak için kullanılmalıdır. bu amaçla, kurgusal metinleri konu anlatımının bir parçası olarak değil, ayrı bir öğrenim etkinliği olarak planlamak daha uygun olabilir. öte yandan, dönemin insanlarının bakış açılarının incelenmesinde öncelikle birinci el kaynaklar, yani gerçek tanıklıklar kullanılmalıdır. bu doğrultuda kurgusal metinlerin kullanımı birinci el kaynakların kullanımının önüne geçmemeli veya yerini almamalıdır. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 56 kurgusal metinler zaman ve takvim anlayışlarında, mekan algıları ve isimlerinde ve siyasi birimlerin isimlendirilmesinde tarih boyunca meydana gelen değişimin öğretilmesi için kullanılabilir. bunun için ders kitabı yazarlarının farklı dönemlerdeki algı ve yaklaşımları ve meydana gelen değişimi doğru bir biçimde yansıtması gerekmektedir. kurgusal metinler hazırlanırken bu hususa özellikle dikkat edilmelidir. ders kitaplarında bu metinlerin kurgusal olduğu, tarihi şahsiyetlerin gerçek ifadeleri olmadığı ve kitap yazarları tarafından oluşturulduğu öğrencilerin kolayca anlayabilecekleri bir biçimde vurgulanmalıdır. aksi takdirde öğrencilerin bu metinleri gerçek tarihi kaynaklar olarak algılaması sonucu doğabilir. araştırma bulguları ders kitaplarının yazımında farklı alanlardan uzmanların işbirliğinin önemini ve aksi halde ortaya çıkabilecek sorunları ortaya koymaktadır. i̇ncelenen ders kitaplarında alan tarihçilerinin, özellikle de tarih metodolojisi uzmanlarının katkılarının eksikliği bariz bir biçimde görülmektedir. sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders kitaplarının hazırlanmasına diğer alanlardan uzmanlar ve uygulayıcıların yanı sıra, mutlaka bu alandan uzmanlar da katılmalıdır. kaynakça / references acar, m. ve demir, ö. (2005). sosyal bilimler sözlüğü. ankara: adres yayınları. ata, b. (2000). tarih öğretiminde bir araç olarak; tarihi romanlar. türk yurdu, no. 153154, 158-165. ayverdi, i̇. ve topaloğlu, a. (2007). kubbealtı lugatı türkçe sözlük. i̇stanbul: kubbealtı yayınları. bodmer, j.p. (2001). selçuklular anadolu’da. cogito, 29, 33-46. bourdé, g. ve martin h., 1997, les ecoles historiques, paris: editions du seuil. cazgır, v., genç, i̇., çelik m., genç, c. ve türedi ş. (2009). ortaöğretim tarih 10. sınıf. i̇stanbul: meb yayınları. cevizci, a. (2003). felsefe terimleri sözlüğü. i̇stanbul: paradigma yayıncılık. demircioğlu, i̇. h. (2005). sekizinci sınıf öğrencilerinin tarih öğretiminde kullanılan zaman ve kronolojiyle i̇lgili bazı kavramları anlama düzeyi. eğitim araştırmaları, 19, 155-163. i̇brahim hakkı öztürk 57 dilek, d. ve yapıcı, g. (2005). öykülerle tarih öğretimi yaklaşımı. buca eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 18, 115-130. erdoğdu, t. (2009). tehlikeli belgeler: tarihçi nasıl çalışır? (i). http://www.liberalses.com/yazar/teyfur-erdogdu/tehlikeli-belgeler-tarihci-nasilcalisir-i.aspx (25.02.2010 tarihinde erişilmiştir). fendler, l. (2008). the upside of presentism. paedagogica historica, 44(6), 677-690. hançerlioğu, o. (2000). felsefe ansiklopedisi. kavramlar ve akımlar. cilt 7. i̇stanbul: remzi kitabevi. kunt, m. (1995). siyasal tarih (1300-1600). in m. kunt ve ark., türkiye tarihi 2: osmanlı devleti 1300-1600, (23-144), i̇stanbul: cem yayınevi. le goff, j. (1988). histoire et mémoire. paris: editions gallimard. merçil, e. (2002). büyük selçuklu i̇mparatorluğu tarihi. genel türk tarihi, 3. cilt, (101162). ankara : yeni türkiye yayınları. milli eğitim bakanlığı meb (2007). ortaöğretim 9. sınıf tarih dersi programı. http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/ogretmen/index.php (24.04.2009 tarihinde erişilmiştir). milli eğitim bakanlığı meb (2009). sosyal bilgiler 6.-7. sınıf programı. http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/ogretmen/modules.php?name=downloads&d_op=viewdownl oad&cid=74 (20.09.2010 tarihinde erişilmiştir). moro-abadia, o. (2009). thinking about 'presentism' from a historian's perspective: herbert butterfield and hélène metzger. history of science, 47, 55-77. okur, y., genç, i̇., özcan, t., yurtbay, m. ve sever, a. (2009). ortaöğretim tarih 9. sınıf. i̇stanbul: meb yayınları. polat, m. m., kaya, n., koyuncu, m. ve özcan a. (2008). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 7 ders kitabı. i̇stanbul: meb yayınları. prost, a. (1996). douze leçons sur l’histoire. paris: editions du seuil. ritter, h. (1986). dictionary of concepts in history. westport: greenwood press. safran, m. ve şimşek, a. (2009). çocuklarda zaman algısının gelişimi. uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, 2(6), 542-548. http://www.liberalses.com/yazar/teyfur-erdogdu/tehlikeli-belgeler-tarihci-nasil-calisir-i.aspx� http://www.liberalses.com/yazar/teyfur-erdogdu/tehlikeli-belgeler-tarihci-nasil-calisir-i.aspx� http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/ogretmen/modules.php?name=downloads&d_op=viewdownload&cid=74� http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/ogretmen/modules.php?name=downloads&d_op=viewdownload&cid=74� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 37-58 58 spoerhase, c. (2008). presentism and precursorship in intellectual history. culture, theory and critique, 49(1), 49-72. şimşek, a. (2006). tarihsel romanın eğitimsel i̇şlevi. bilig, 37, 65-80. http://www.yesevi.edu.tr/files/article/20.pdf (18.09.2010 tarihinde erişilmiştir) tosh, j. (2008). tarihin peşinde. i̇stanbul: tarih vakfı yurt yayınları. tüysüz, s. ve yıldırım, ş. (2006). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 6. tuna matbaacılık: ankara. verbeeck, g. (2006). anachronism and rewriting of history: the south africa case. the journal for transdisciplinary research in south africa. 2(1), 181-200. yıldırım, a. ve şimşek, h. (2004). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. http://www.yesevi.edu.tr/files/article/20.pdf� www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2010: 1(1),152-167 © 2010 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 student attitudes towards technology enhanced history education: comparison between turkish and american students öğrencilerin teknoloji destekli tarih eğitimi karşısındaki tutumları: türk ve amerikan öğrencileri arasında karşılaştırma i̇brahim turan1 abstract: teacher and student attitudes towards the technology enhanced instruction plays a critical role in determining its effectiveness. the purpose of the study is to examine turkish and american students’ attitudes and thoughts toward the use of educational technologies in history courses, and to compare the results to determine whether there are any differences between the attitudes of turkish and american student. this study was conducted with 197 american students from upper saint claire high school in pittsburgh, pa, and 214 turkish students from konya high school who volutered for this study. the required data for this study were gathered by a 26-item technology questionnaire, which included 7 multiple-choice questions and 19 likert scale questions. this questionnaire was developed to gather data on five different areas of interest: (1) demographic information, (2) participants’ computerand internet-usage skills, (3) the level of technology used in history classrooms, (4) participants’ attitudes toward technology-enhanced history education, and (5) participants’ attitudes toward history. most of the turkish and american students rated themselves as being very well experienced on the eight computerand internet-usage skills targeted in this study. but the comparison of the data indicated that american students have higher computerand internet-usage skills than turkish students do, and this difference is statistically significant (p = 0.001). most of the turkish and american students showed positive attitudes on using educational technologies in history classrooms. a majority of the turkish and american students stated that they would be able to focus and learn better if more technological materials were used in classroom activities, and this, in turn, would increase their academic achievements. keywords: secondary education, history education, it-use, comparative study 1 yard. doç.dr., atatürk üniversitesi, ituran@atauni.edu.tr mailto:ituran@atauni.edu.tr� i̇brahim turan 153 geniş özet problem durumu bilginin aktarımına (transmission) dayanan geleneksel tarih eğitiminin üstesinden gelmekte zorlandığı “ezbere dayalı olma, günlük hayattan kopukluk ve sıkıcılık” gibi problemlerin aşılması için çağdaş tarih eğitiminde önerilen yöntemlerden biri de teknoloji destekli tarih eğitimidir. tarih derslerinde kullanılan sesli ve görsel eğitim materyallerinin öğrenilenlerin kalıcılığını, öğrencilerin derse olan ilgisini ve öğrenci başarısını arttırdığı yapılan araştırmalarda ortaya konulmuştur. ancak her eğitim-öğretim yaklaşımında olduğu gibi teknoloji destekli öğretim yönteminin etkililiğini belirlemede öğretmen ve öğrencilerin bu yöntem karşısında geliştirecekleri olumlu veya olumsuz tutumlar önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. bu araştırmada teknoloji destekli tarih eğitimininin geleneksel öğretim yöntemleri karşısındaki artılarından ziyade öğrencilerin gerek bilgisayar ve internet kullanma becerileri ve gerekse eğitimde teknoloji kullanımı karşısındaki tutumları incelenerek, öğrencilerin böyle bir öğretim yaklaşımına bilgi ve tutum açısından hazır olup olmadıkları ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. araştırmanın amacı bu araştırmanın amacı türk ve amerikalı lise öğrencilerinin tarih derslerinde teknolojik materyaller kullanımı konusundaki tutum ve düşünceleri incelemek ve bu tutumu etkileyen faktörleri araştırarak iki ülke öğrencilerinin teknoloji destekli tarih eğitimi konusundaki tutum farklarını ortaya koymaktır. araştırmanın yöntemi bu çalışma amerika birleşik devletlerinin pennslyvania eyaleti, pittburgh şehrinde bulunan upper saint claire lisesinde okuyan ve araştırmaya katılmaya gönüllü olan çeşitli sınıflardan toplam 197 lise öğrencisi ve türkiye’den konya ili, konya lisesinde çeşitli sınıflarda okuyan 214 gönüllü lise öğrencisinin katılımıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. araştırma için gerekli olan veriler likert ölçeğine göre hazırlanmış 19 soru ve çoktan seçmeli 7 sorudan oluşan toplam 26 soruluk “teknoloji anketi” kullanılarak toplanmıştır. teknoloji anketi beş ayrı bölümde araştırma için gerekli verileri toplamak için geliştirilmiştir. bunlar; demografik bilgiler, bilgisayar ve internet kullanım becerileri, tarih derslerinde teknojik materyallerin kullanım oranları, katılımcıların teknoloji destekli tarih eğitimi konusandaki tutumları ve katılımcıların tarih derslerine karşı tutumları bölümleridir. araştırmanın bulguları araştırmaya katılan türk ve amerikalı öğrencilerin büyük çoğunluğu bilgisayar ve internet kullanımıyla ilgili becerilerde kendilerini tecrübeli ve deneyimli olarak değerlendirmişlerdir. ankette sorulan sekiz ayrı bilgisayar ve internet kullanım becerisinde kendini deneyimsiz görenlerin oranı türk öğrenciler için hiçbir zaman çoğunluğu oluşturmazken amerikalı öğrenciler arasında bu sekiz beceriden sadece birinde (web sayfası hazırlama) kendini deneyimsiz görenler çoğunluktadır araştırmada elde edilen bulgular karşılaştırıldığında amerikalı öğrencilerin bilgisayar ve internet kullanım becerilerinin türk öğrencilerden daha yüksek olduğu ve bu farklılığın istatistiksel olarak p= 0.001 seviyesinde anlamlı olduğu görülmüştür journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 152-167 154 araştırmaya katılan öğrencilerin beyanlarına göre her iki ülkede de tarih derslerinde eğitim teknolojilerinin kullanım oranı hayli düşüktür. yine de amerikan (usc) lisesinde bu oran türk (konya) lisesine göre daha yüksektir. her iki lisede de televizyon tarih derslerinde en çok kullanılan teknolojik materyal iken sesli materyaller en az kullanılan materyallerdir. öğrencilerin teknoloji destekli tarih eğitimine karşı tutumlarını saptamak için ilk olarak eğitimin diğer unsurlarıyla karşılaştırıldığında öğrencilerin eğitim teknolojilerini ne derece önemli gördüğü tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. araştırma bulgularına gore eğitim teknolojileri hem türk hem de amerikan öğrencileri için eğitim unsurlarının önemi sıralamasında orta sıralarda yer almaktadır. i̇ki ülke arasındaki eğitim sistemi farklılığına rağmen her iki ülkede de öğretmen ilk sırada ve ders kitabı ikinci sırada yer almıştır. teknoloji anketinde ayrıca öğrencilere eğitim teknolojilerinin genel kabul gören faydaları verilerek onlardan bunları kendilerine göre sıralamaları istenmiştir. yapılan sıralamalara göre amerikalı öğrenciler eğitim teknolojilerinin en önemli faydası olarak “kaynak bulma”yı gösterirken türk öğrencilere göre en önemli fayda “öğrenmeyi zevkli hale getirmesi”dir. araştırmanın asıl amacı olan eğitim teknolojilerinin tarih derslerinde kullanımı konusundaki görüşleri incelendiğinde türk ve amerikan lise öğrencilerinin bu konuda olumlu bir tutum sergilediği görülmektedir. katılımcı öğrencilerin büyük çoğunluğu derslerde daha çok teknolojik materyale yer verilirse daha iyi öğrenebileceklerine, farklı teknolojik materyallerin derslere daha iyi odaklanmalarınını sağlayacağına, bu sayede okul başarılarının yükseleceğine inandıklarını beyan etmişlerdir. buradan türk ve amerikan öğrencilerinin eğitim teknolojilerine yönelik tutumlarının büyük oranda birbirine yakın olduğunu söylemek mümkündür. anketteki “tarih derslerini seviyorum” yargısına amerikan öğrencilerinin %34’ü katılmazken %49.5’i katıldığını belirtmiş, türk öğrencilerinin ise %18’i katılmadığını, %56.5’i katıldığını belirtmiştir. buradan da anlaşıldığı üzere türk öğrenciler tarih derslerini amerikalı yaşıtlarına göre daha çok sevmektedir ve aradaki bu fark p=0.002 seviyesinde istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir farktır. araştırmanın sonuçları ve öneriler araştırma sonuçları gösteriyor ki iki toplum arasındaki sosyo-ekonomik ve eğitim sistemi farklılıklarına rağmen öğrencilerin eğitim teknolojilerine bakış açılarında önemli farklılıklar bulunmamaktadır. her iki ülke öğrencilerinin de eğitim teknolojilerine ve derslerde farklı teknolojik materyal kullanımına karşı tutumları olumludur. türk ve amerikan öğrencileri gerek teknoloji kullanım becerileri ve gerekse eğitim teknolojilerine karşı sahip oldukları pozitif tutum nedeniyle teknoloji destekli bir tarih eğitimine hazır görünmektedir. ancak özellikle ülkemizde tarih derslerinde teknolojik materyallerin kullanım oranı hayli düşüktür. öğrencilerin eğitim teknolojilerine karşı tutumları ile tarihe karşı tutumları arasındaki farkı göz önünde tutarsak tarih derslerinin teknoloji destekli öğretilmesi öğrencilerin bu derse olan ilgilerini, dolayısıyla motivasyon ve başarılarını artıracaktır. araştırmaya katılan amerikalı öğrencilerin bilgisayar ve internet kullanım becerilerinin türk öğrencilerden (web sayfası hazırlama hariç) yüksek oluşu ülkemizde okullarda verilen bilgisayar derslerinin i̇brahim turan 155 atırılması ve yaygınlaştırlması gereğini ortaya koymaktadır. araştırmamızda elde ettiğimiz bir başka bulgu teknolojik materyallerin derslerde kullanımı arttıkça öğrencilerin bilgisayar ve internet kullanım becerelerinin arttığını (p=0.01 seviyesinde anlamlı korelasyon bulunmuştur) göstermektedir. bu nedenle eğitimde teknolojik materyallere daha çok yer verilmesi hem yukarıda bahsedildiği gibi öğrenci ilgi ve başarısını artıracak hem de ülkemizin teknoloji okuryazarlık seviyesini yükselterek bilgi çağını yakalamış bir toplum olmamazı sağlayacaktır. anahtar kelimeler: ortaöğretim, tarih eğitimi, eğitim teknolojileri, karşılaştırmalı araştırma introduction throughout the literature, “attitude” is described as a “psychological tendency that is ex-pressed by evaluating a particular entity object, incident, or person with some degree of favor or disfavor”(eagly & chaiken, 1998) that an individual develops by experience over the course of his or her life. attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral. in education, attitudes developed by teachers and students toward any course subject, method, or instrument affect their success levels in the classroom. research in this area has shown that there is a direct correlation between positive attitudes and student success (kan and akbaş, 2006; munck, 2007). students usually list history as one of their least favorite courses. they find it simple, irrelevant, and boring (loewen, 1995; parsons, 1999). from the student’s perspective, history courses are limited to reading the textbooks, memorizing facts, paying attention in class, and taking exams (loewen, 1995). additionally, students dislike history courses because history curricula are too broad and heavy; the lessons do not relate to their daily lives; and the methods used in history courses involve narration and memorization, leaving them with little or no opportunity for active participation (safran, 1993; özbaran, 1994; demircioğlu, 2002). as a result, numerous studies have recently been conducted on technology-enhanced history education, which is expected to increase student interest, motivation, and active participation in history courses. research in this field has shown that technology-enhanced education practices are beneficial in many areas, for example, enriching classroom activities; reaching out to students with different needs, skills, or learning style preferences; and increasing student motivation, active participation, recall rate, and achievement. in particular, using journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 152-167 156 technology in history courses helps students to gain historical thinking skills and better understanding of historical subjects (brown, 2001; haydn, 2002; taylor, 2003). in addition to these benefits, the way that the current generation is growing-up makes using various technologies essential in their education. for example, in turkey, by the year 2007, 29% of all households had personal computers and 27% had internet access (tui̇k, 2007). these rates increase rapidly, as can be seen from the 125% increase in household internet usage between 2005 and 2007 (tui̇k, 2005). in 2007, the turkish student use-of-computer rate reached 87% and their internet usage reached 82% (tui̇k, 2007). turkish students access to other technological materials was also high (e.g., vcd: 70% and tv: 98%). higher level of technology access leads to higher student demand for these materials to be used in classroom. studies on student attitudes toward educational technologies will affect the level of technology used in education and the ways in which it is used (sanders & morrisonshetlar, 2001). we are seeing more and more studies on technology-enhanced education and student and teacher attitudes toward educational technologies. several of these studies examined the factors that could affect student and teacher attitudes toward educational technologies, such as age, gender, level of technology access, and technology literacy (hill, 2000; sanders & morrison-shetlar, 2001; yildirim, 2007). the aim of this study was to examine turkish and american student attitudes and thoughts toward the use of educational technologies in history. the results were compared to determine whether there were any differences between the attitudes of turkish and american student. method sample the purpose of this study was to examine possible differences between turkish and american student attitudes toward the technology enhanced history education. schools that have a high level of technology integration and technology use were needed in order to ensure that students could express their opinion on the subject. therefore, from the united states, the upper saint clair high school (usc) was chosen in pittsburgh, pa. the i̇brahim turan 157 rationale for this selection was that (1) the usc was located in an above-average socioeconomic school district; (2) the student–computer ratio was 5:1, which was higher than american average (6:1); and (3) each classroom in usc has at least four computers, a tv, and a video player. konya high school (kl) in turkey was also chosen, as it has the highest technology-use level among 15 previously studied high schools (turan, 2010). convenience sampling was used in this study as the sample selection method. wallen and sawin (1999) described a convenience sample as “a group of subjects selected not because they are representative of a specific population, but because they are (conveniently) available” (p.36). assumptions 1. the survey used in this study is a reliable tool to collect the data required for this study. 2. high school students have proper self-knowledge and are able to identify their own knowledge and skills. 3. the students participating in this study took the survey questions seriously and answered them honestly. limitations 1. the schools included in this study do not have same socioeconomic status. 2. participating students’ technology access levels differed based on their family’s socioeconomic status. 3. this study was based on students’ ability to self-report. instrument the required data for this study were gathered by a 26-item technology questionnaire, which included 7 multiple-choice questions and 19 likert scale questions. this questionnaire was developed to gather data on five different areas of interest: (1) demographic information, (2) participants’ computerand internet-usage skills, (3) the level of technology used in history classrooms, (4) participants’ attitudes toward technologyenhanced history education, and (5) participants’ attitudes toward history. cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient method was used to assess the technology questionnaire’s subsections for internal reliability. in this method, a scale that has an alpha journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 152-167 158 above 0.70 is usually considered to be internally consistent (garson, 2008). two of the five subsections in technology questionnaire that used multiple-choice questions to obtain data on a specific subject were checked for internal reliability by using cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient. one of these sections has a high alpha scale (0.91), which can be considered a good scale, and one subsection with alpha score of 0.70, which can be considered an adequate scale (garson, 2008). data analysis the participant responses to the multiple-choice questions on the questionnaire were coded into numeric values for each item. these numeric values were entered into spss 14.0 to perform descriptive statistics on the data such as frequency, mean, standard deviation, and statistical significance. the alpha level of 0.05 was used as criteria for statistical significance. results demographic information a total of 197 american students from usc and 214 turkish students from kl participated in this study. of the 197 american students, 48% were female and 52% were male; 2% of them were 10th graders, 96% were 11th graders, and 2% were 12th graders. of the 214 turkish students, 32% were female and 68% were male; 64% were 10th graders and 36% were 11th graders. computer and the internet usage competencies one of the aims of this study was to measure turkish and american students’ computerand internet-usage skills based on data that the students self-reported. by using this self-reported data, the study also aimed to determine whether there is a difference between turkish and american students’ computerand internet-usage skills, there is a correlation between computer and internet skills and student attitudes toward educational technologies, and the students are ready for technology-enhanced history education from the point of proficiency and the attitude. according to related research competency, confidence, attitude, motivation and achievement are closely connected concepts and so they affect each other (bhattacherjee & i̇brahim turan 159 premkumar, 2004; cretchley, 2007; butler & lumpe, 2008). therefore, students’ level of confidence in their technical abilities affects student attitudes toward technology-enhanced education; increasing positive attitudes toward educational technology would increase student motivation and their relative success in a technology-enhanced education environment. the most important technical knowledge students need to acquire in order to feel proficient in a technology-enhanced educational environment is how to use a computer and the internet. on the technology questionnaire, eight of the questions asked students to rate (from never tried to expert) their level of computer and internet knowledge. the following four areas of computer knowledge were examined. 1. basic computer knowledge: the ability to explore, find, open, and move a file on a windows-based operating system. 2. ms word knowledge: two questions examined the students’ expertise with ms word; the first targeted basic word skills and the ability to create a document, and the second targeted more complex word skills such as the ability to create tables and figures and insert images. 3. ms power point knowledge: the ability to create a presentation using power point. 4. ms excel knowledge: the ability to create spreadsheets, tables, graphs and build formulas and calculations in excel. the following three areas of the students’ knowledge of the internet were examined: 1. research: the ability to search for course-related information on the internet. 2. communication: communicating over the internet using e-mail and chat programs. 3. the ability to create a web page. most of the turkish and american students rated themselves as being very well experienced on the eight computerand internet-usage skills stated above. the majority of the turkish students rated themselves well experienced across the eight different computer and the internet skills (see figure 1); american students also rated themselves as being well journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 152-167 160 experienced on seven of the eight computerand internet-usage skills, except for the ability to create a web page (see figure 2). the comparison of the data indicated that american students have higher computerand internet-usage skills than turkish students do (see figures 1 and 2), and this difference is statistically significant (p = 0.001). figure 1. turkish students’ computer and the internet usage skills (%) figure 2. american student’s computer and the internet usage skills (%) i̇brahim turan 161 the level of technology used in history classrooms based on student responses to the technology questionnaire, the level of technology used in history classrooms is quite low in both the american and turkish schools; however, this level is higher at the american school (see table 1). the comparison shown in table 1 also indicates that tv is the technology tool that is used most often in both schools; audio materials are the least used. table 1 the level of technology use in history classrooms (over 4) usc high school konya high school n mean std. deviation n mean std. deviation tv 194 2.84 1.087 tv 167 1.31 1.504 vcr 193 2.59 .996 pc 155 1.13 1.449 pc 190 1.37 1.700 cd / dvd 151 .91 1.313 projector 187 1.11 .989 vcr 156 .87 1.367 cd / dvd 185 .75 .809 projector 146 .71 1.369 audio 185 .30 .782 audio 146 .48 .977 student attitudes toward technology-enhanced history education journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 152-167 162 in the technology questionnaire students were asked to rank the seven elements of education (i.e., teacher, textbooks, educational technology materials, school building, library, sports, and social activities) from least important to most important. this question was designed to determine which educational element is the most important from the students’ perspective. as you can see in table 2, both american and turkish students ranked educational technology somewhere in the middle compared to other elements of education. despite differences in the two educational systems, both american and turkish students ranked teachers and textbooks as the first and second most important elements of education. at the p. 0.05 level, no statistical difference was found between turkish and american students’ ranking on six of the seven elements of education, with the exception of their ranking for sport. table 2 students’ ranking of elements of education (over 4) usc high school konya high school n mean std. deviation n mean std. deviation teacher 194 3.75 .625 teacher 202 3.47 .942 textbook 193 2.90 .884 textbook 195 2.96 .913 school building 194 2.65 1.186 edu. technologies 190 2.78 1.264 edu. technology 193 2.53 .951 sport 188 2.71 1.238 library 191 2.34 .971 school building 191 2.57 1.367 social activities 192 2.22 1.114 social activities 187 2.50 1.284 sport 191 1.86 1.268 library 189 2.49 1.249 in this study, students were also asked to rank some predefined contributions of technology (i.e., the ability to find resources, reinforce what they had learned in school, or make learning fun) based on how helpful they find these contributions of technology in their daily and school lives. american students ranked “finding resources” as the most helpful contribution of technology to their school and daily lives (see table 3). on the other i̇brahim turan 163 hand, the turkish students ranked “putting fun in learning” as the most helpful contribution (see table 3). table 3 contributions of educational technology (over 4) usc high school konya high school n mean std. deviation n mean std. deviation finding resources 194 3.53 .789 putting fun in learning 204 3.28 1.126 making students more independent in learning 192 2.53 1.110 finding resources 192 3.20 1.040 making learning easier 191 2.48 1.150 making learning easier 201 2.95 1.048 putting fun in learning 191 2.45 1.122 reinforcing the content being taught in the class 197 2.91 1.148 learning content better 193 2.42 1.043 learning content better 196 2.87 1.115 reinforcing the content being taught in the class 194 2.34 1.081 making students more independent in learning 194 2.54 1.335 as you can see in table 4, most of the turkish and american students showed positive attitudes on using educational technologies in history classrooms. a majority of the turkish and american students stated that they would be able to focus and learn better if more technological materials were used in classroom activities, and this, in turn, would increase their academic achievements. further, students disagreed with the statement that “educational technology is nothing but a waste of time and money.” both american and turkish students also disagreed with the assertion that “history can only be learned from books,” and they stated that they could learn a historical subject better by watching a movie or documentary than they could by reading a textbook. no statistically significant differences were found between turkish and american student responses to items given in table 4 except for the item stating, “history can only be learned from books” (p = 0.001). therefore, it can be concluded from the results of this study that turkish and american students’ attitudes toward educational technology are quite similar. table 4 students’ attitudes toward educational technology (%) journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 152-167 164 students’ attitudes toward history one question on the technology questionnaire was specifically written to determine if the students like history courses or not. contrary to the research mentioned in the introduction of this paper, which stated that students find history boring and irrelevant, the findings of this study showed that a majority of the turkish and american students do like history. among the turkish students, 56.5% of them agreed with the statement “i like history courses,” 18.0% disagreed, and the rest stated that they were not sure. among the american students, 49.5% of them agreed with the “i like history courses” statement and 34.0% disagreed. the results also showed that turkish students like history more than american students do, and this difference is statistically significant (p = 0.002). conclusion the results of this study have shown that, despite the socioeconomic and educational system differences between the two societies, turkish and american students’ attitudes toward educational technology are quite similar. students from both countries have positive attitudes toward the use of various technological materials in history courses. their computerand internet-usage skills and positive attitudes toward technology show that both turkish and american students are ready for a technology-enhanced education. yet the current level of technology use in history courses is quite low, especially in turkey. although the level of technology is not as high as they may wish, students from both countries have positive attitudes toward history. therefore, considering students’ expectations to see more educational technology materials to be used in history classrooms, usc high school konya high school disagree agree disagree agree i can learn better with educational technology 7.2 69 6.3 71.7 edu. tech. helps me focus my attention 10.3 66.5 10.7 56.1 edu. tech. improves my academic achievement 11.4 62.2 9.5 65.2 edu. tech. is noting but wasting time and money 81.9 7.7 75 14.5 i can understand history better with movies and documentaries 14.1 67.5 10.5 79.5 history can be learned only from books 91.7 4.6 43.5 24.5 i̇brahim turan 165 it is reasonable to assume that higher levels of technology use in history classrooms would lead to higher levels of student motivation and academic achievement in history. participating american students had a higher level of computerand internet-usage skills than their turkish counterparts, except for the ability to create web page skills. this shows that the quantity and the quality of the technology courses and the level of technology used should be increased in the turkish schooling system in order to better prepare turkish youths for the information age. results of this study show that the higher technology used in classrooms leads to higher computerand internet-usage skills of the students, and this correlation is statistically significant (p = 0.01). therefore, if we can better integrate technology into our education system and increase the level of technology used in classrooms, students’ motivation, academic achievement, and technology intelligence will increase. this, in turn, will help the turkish society to keep up with the information era. references bhattacherjee, a. & premkumar, g. (2004). understanding changes in belief and attitude toward ınformation technology usage: a theoretical model and longitudinal test. mis quarterly, vol. 28 (2), pp. 229-254. retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25148634 brown, g. s. (2001). the coming of the french revolution in multi-media. history teacher, 34 (2), pp. 193-208. retrieved from: http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ht/34.2/brown.html butler, k., & lumpe, a. (2008). student use of scaffolding software: relationships with motivation and conceptual understanding. journal of science education & technology, 17(5), 427-436. cretchley, p. (2007). does computer confidence relate to levels of achievement in ictenriched learning models? education and information technologies, volume 12(1), 29-39. demircioglu, i. h. (2002). does the teaching of history in turkey need reform? retrieved from: http://www.centres.ex.ac.uk/historyresource/journal3/turkey.pdf http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ht/34.2/brown.html� journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 152-167 166 eagly, a. h., & chaiken, s. (1998). attitude structure and function. in d. t. gilbert, s. t. fiske, & g. lindzey (eds.), handbook of social psychology (vol. 1, p. 269-322). boston, ma: mcgraw-hill. frankel, j., wallen, n., and sawin, e.i. (1999). visual statistics. boston et al: allyn and bacon. garson, g.d. (2008). scales and standard measure. retrieved on june 16, 2008 from: http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/standard.htm haydn, t. (2002). subject discipline dimensions of ict and learning: history, a case study. international journal of historical learning, teaching and research, vol. 2(1). retrieved from: www.heirnet.org/ijhltr/journal3/haydn.doc hill, j. (2000). web-based instruction: prospects and challenges. educational media and technology yearbook, 25, 141-155. kan, a. & akbaş, a. (2006). affective factors that influence chemistry achievement (attitude and self efficacy) and the power of these factors to predict chemistry achievement-i. journal of turkish science education, 3(1): 76-85. loewen, j.w. (1995). lies my teacher told me. new york: the new press. munck, m. (2007). science pedagogy, teacher attitudes, and student success. journal of elementary science education, volume 19 (2), p. 13-24. ozbaran, s. (1994). önce tarihi yeniden tanımlayalım. tarih öğretimi ve ders kitapları sempozyumu: 1994 buca sempozyumu. istanbul: tarih vakfı yurt yayınları. parsons, d. (1999). restoring the past: a history teacher’s response to james loewen’s lies my teacher told me. available: http://eiffel.ilt.columbia.edu/ teachers/ cluster_teachers/dick_parsons safran, m. (1993). lise öğretmen ve öğrencilerine göre tarih dersinin amaçları.. gazi üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, 3, p.35-46. sanders, d. w. & morrison-shetlar, a. i. (2001). student attitudes toward web-enhanced instruction in an introductory biology course. journal of research on computing in education. 33(3), 251-262. seels, b. and richey, r. (1994). instructional technology: the definition and domains of the field. washington, d.c.: association for educational communications and http://eiffel.ilt.columbia.edu/%20teachers/%20cluster_teachers/dick_parsons� http://eiffel.ilt.columbia.edu/%20teachers/%20cluster_teachers/dick_parsons� i̇brahim turan 167 technology. taylor, t. (2003). historical simulations and the future of the historical narrative. journal of the association for history and computing 6(2). retrived from: http://mcel.pacificu.edu/jahc/jahcvi2/articles/taylor.html#020 tui̇k, (2005). bilişim teknolojileri kullanımı. türkiye i̇statistik kurumu, ankara. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/altkategori.do?ust_id=2 tui̇k, (2007). bilişim teknolojileri kullanımı. türkiye i̇statistik kurumu, ankara. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/altkategori.do?ust_id=2 turan, i. (2010). student readiness for technology-enhanced history education in turkish high schools. cypriot journal of educational sciences. 5 (2), p. 94-106. yildirim, s. (2007). current utilization of ict in turkish basic education schools: a review of teacher's ict use and barriers to integration. international journal of instructional media, 34(2) 171-186. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/altkategori.do?ust_id=2� www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 1-23 the state of social studies teacher preparation: an analysis of program requirements in the united states bonnie bittman1, william b. russell iii2, joshua kenna3, lloyd beckles4, carolyn v. zandt5 abstract what is the current state of social studies teacher preparation programs (tpps) for licensure across the united states? the purpose of this research study is to fill the gap in the academic research, providing an overview of social studies tpps across the united states. in order to best answer that question the researchers examined the required pedagogical preparation courses, social science content courses, classroom management courses, and length of student teaching experiences of all public/state university teacher preparation programs in the united states. keywords: teacher education; social studies. introduction the united states was once considered the leader in educational attainment. however, many historically low performing countries are now outperforming the united states in terms of student achievement (greenberg, mckee, & walsh, 2013). recently, there has been growing concern about the quality of teacher preparation programs (tpps) and the various evaluation methods used to measure their effectiveness (feuer, floden, chudowsky & ahn, 2013). as a direct result, arne duncan, the former u.s. secretary of education, urged tpps “to make better outcomes for students the overarching mission that propels all their efforts” in a speech to columbia university’s teachers college (cruz, 2009). as of august 29, 2013, new standards have been put in place with the specific purpose of enhancing the accreditation process for tpps (heafner, mcintyre & spooner, 2014). yet prior to the last few years, although teacher quality 1 phd candidate, the university of central florida, bonnie.bittman@ucf.edu 2 prof. dr., the university of central florida, russell@ucf.edu 3 asst. prof., university of tennessee, jkenna@utk.edu 4 dr., seminole state college, lbeckles@gmail.com 5 phd candidate, the university of central florida, carolyn.vanzandt@ucf.edu journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 has garnered much attention, the preparation of teachers has largely gone unnoticed (greenberg, et al., 2013). effective tpps are designed to provide teachers with a basic understanding of pedagogy and subject matter content, or pedagogical content knowledge (feuer, et al., 2013; shulman, 1986). two subdomains of pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge of content and students and knowledge of content and teaching identified by ball, thames, and phelps (2008) emphasize the delicate balance required of tpps. teachers must know the subject they teach, but must also be able to make sense of the subject matter for their students. interestingly, ferguson and womack (1993) have posited that the academic coursework preservice teachers complete in their tpps accounts for about 16% of the variance in teaching performance. additionally, it has long been accepted that high quality tpps provide preservice teachers with opportunities for supervised classroom experience (darling-hammond, 1992). currently, subject matter courses focus on methods for doing math or science or history, and education courses are too often theoretically to provide adequate pedagogical content knowledge (ball, thames, & phelps, 2008). the literature suggests that within social studies, tpps generally teach preservice teachers using active engagement methods, about educational theory and pedagogy, and how to plan lessons that address different student learning styles (boyle-baise & grant, 2004; chiodo & byford, 2004; russell, 2010; national council for the social studies, 2014; tannebaum, 2015 kenna & poole, 2017). despite this focus, most current social studies education graduates of tpps remain ill-prepared for teaching; lacking the necessary tools to add substantial value to student achievement through their teaching practice (levine, 2006). more recently, colleges and universities in the united states are taking a more detailed look at their tpps effectiveness, in terms of the quality of teachers, a result of recent federal legislation including no child left behind (greenberg, walsh, & mckee, 2013). teacher education programs in the u.s. are faced with thorough and robust standards and must be able to take advantage of effective teaching practices in their undergraduate and graduate education programs (coggshall, bivona, & reschly, 2012). many teachers lack necessary content knowledge and pedagogical experience, leading to high turnover in the profession (henry, paterson, campbell, & yi, 2013; ingersoll. merrill, & may, 2014; kilinç et al, 2016; kopish, 2016). furthermore, the type and quality of coursework bitmann et al. 3 preservice teachers complete during their tpps has shown to have a significant impact on future student achievement and teacher retention rates (ingersoll, et al., 2014; rice, 2003). yet, research covering social science tpps at the national scale is scarce. to improve student achievement and teacher retention, an understanding of how social studies tpps are structured and what content is being offered must be identified (poole & russell, 2015; mauch & tarman, 2016; tarman, 2016; waters & russell, 2016). therefore, the purpose of this research study is to fill the gap in the academic research, providing an overview of social studies tpps across the united states. the guiding research question for this study is: what is the current state of social studies tpps for licensure across the united states? in order to best answer that question we examined the following data: required pedagogical preparation courses, social studies content courses, classroom management courses, and length of student teaching. the subsequent questions guided our research: a.) what percentage of public, in-state universities offer a social studies education, or similar, degree program at the undergraduate and graduate level? b.) how many semester hours of pedagogical preparation in social studies education are required for graduation in undergraduate and graduate social studies education programs? c.) how many semester hours in social studies content courses are required for graduation in undergraduate and graduate social studies education programs? d.) how many classroom management credits are required in social studies education programs? and e.) how many credits are devoted to student teaching in social studies education programs? f.) is there a difference in the number of required social studies education classes between accredited and non-accredited colleges and universities? literature review although this study is exploratory in nature, it is important to survey the nature of tpps. that is, what are the philosophical underpinnings of tpps? the literature identifies a philosophical divide, as described in more detail below, about the training and educating of teachers. to further cement this study, it was also important to examine the influence that tpps have on teacher performance and retention. philosophical perspectives of teacher preparation journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 for years, researchers have shown the impact that qualified teachers have on student growth and learning (clotfelter, ladd, & vigdor, 2010). in fact, some scholars posit that teachers are the single most important factor in a student’s educational setting. even parents and politicians do not refute the importance of a qualified teacher. there is, however, ample division about what constitutes a qualified, let alone a highly qualified teacher. at the heart of this decades old divide are two philosophical perspectives, content knowledge and pedagogical skills (boyd, grossman, lankford, loeb, & wyckoff, 2009). and these perspectives lead to differing opinions about the rigors and requirements of teacher education and preparation. on one side of the spectrum is content or subject knowledge. proponents of this perspective believe that knowing what to teach is of paramount importance to becoming a qualified teacher. content acquisition then is most important and simply obtaining a related subject area degree (e.g. history, geography, economics, etc.) is viewed as the most qualifying standard. although proponents of this perspective value pedagogy, they often think it is best learned on the job rather than a being a major component of a tpp. supporters point to college professors as an example, which obtain terminal degrees in a subject area yet receive little pedagogical training prior to starting their positions. on the other side of the spectrum, however, are those who support a greater pedagogical focus. they believe knowing how to teach is of chief importance to becoming a qualified teacher, which includes, but is not limited to, preparation in the following areas: “coursework in teaching methods or teaching strategies, practice teaching, preparation in how to select and adapt instructional materials, coursework in learning theory or child/youth psychology, opportunities to observe others’ classroom teaching, and formal feedback on their own teaching” (ingersoll, et al., 2014, p. 14). from this perspective, thorough knowledge of a subject is less critical than comprehensive teaching skills. some extreme supporters may even suggest that a good teacher can teach anything. ultimately proponents of this view believe that the way to improve the k-12 teaching profession is to upgrade the pedagogical preparation required of new teachers (national commission on teaching and america’s future, 1996). in fact, teacher accreditation agencies such as, the council for the accreditation of educator preparation, often favor this position. nevertheless, like all things on a spectrum there is always a middle ground. in this instance, it is a balance between content and pedagogy, what shulman (1986) labeled pedagogical content knowledge (pck). thus, supporters of pck believe preservice teachers bitmann et al. 5 need adequate content exposure and pedagogical preparation. while pck sounds like a great compromise a problem still exists, how do tpps achieve a perfect balance between content and pedagogy? do tpps simply require preservice teachers to take equal number of credit hours in content courses as pedagogical preparation courses? if that is the case, how will tpps know they have achieved a balance? after all, we can test content knowledge to a certain degree but how do we test for pedagogical preparation? this philosophical divide has not only produced variations in the structure and quality of tpps, it has also influenced teacher certification requirements, and ultimately, the entry routes teachers take into the profession (ingersoll, et al., 2014,). for example, several states have begun to test for pedagogical preparation through the utilization of the teacher performance assessment or edtpa (an, 2017). according to the edtpa website (2017), “[it] is a performance-based, subject-specific assessment and support system used by teacher preparation programs throughout the united states to emphasize, measure and support the skills and knowledge that all teachers need from day 1 in the classroom.” (n.p.). teacher candidates are assessed through the creation of a portfolio that includes lesson plans, examples of teaching via videotaped recordings, and reflective commentary. while clearly there are proponents to edtpa (see darling-hammond & hyler, 2013), there are also critics (see au, 2013). although this study’s focus is not on critiquing edtpa or addressing the debate about access to the teaching profession, the notion of perspectives and access leads to the next area of literature to review— the influence that the tpps have on teacher performance. influence of teacher preparation programs educational scholars have examined the significance of teacher qualifications and credentials on teacher performance, which has largely been measured by student achievement via some kind of assessment (darling-hammond, 2000a; 200b; 2002; guarino, hamilton, lockwood, & rathbun, 2006; wayne & youngs, 2003). some researchers, however, have measured teacher performance based on supervisors’ rating of performance (bliss, 1992) or observation-based measures of teacher practice (miller, mckenna, & mckenna, 1998), although much of that was prior to the wide spread use of standardized testing. the conclusions of these studies are often mixed; with a number of them indicating that teacher qualifications have little significant effects on student achievement (goldhaber & brewer, 2000; ingersoll, et al., 2014). nonetheless, despite criticism towards teacher education (see walsh, 2001), several studies have journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 found significant and positive correlations to teacher qualifications, of one kind or another, and student achievement. for example, boyd, et al. (2009) used data from 31 tpps, whose graduates produce the vast majority of teachers for new york city (nyc) elementary public schools, to examine how preparation affects student learning. they found that tpps that provided more student-teaching experiences supplied significantly more effective 1st-year teachers to nyc elementary public schools. additionally, they found that tpps that grounded their work in the practice of teaching (i.e. a capstone project, studying curricula, and oversight of student teaching) were associated with positive student achievement gains in the 1st year. while tpps that grounded their work on content learning (i.e. disciplinary coursework requirements) were associated positively with student achievement gains in the 2nd year. however, boyd, et al. urged caution with interpreting the results of their study, because while positive affects to teacher quality were identified there were still challenges to making direct links to tpps as the source of that quality, rather than say, recruitment. at the secondary level, clotfelter, et al., (2010) utilized end-of-course tests in north carolina to assess the connection between teacher credentials and student achievement. while the researchers examined many different types of credentials (i.e. experience, licensure test score, entry-licensure, certification, national board certification, graduate degree, and type of undergraduate college attended), they “[found] compelling evidence that teacher credentials affect student achievement in systematic ways and that the magnitudes are large enough to be policy relevant” (p. 2). of particular interest was the effect of the entry-licensure credential, which included those who obtained a regular license through a tpp and those lateral entrants who obtained an alternative license. the researchers concluded that student achievement was reduced for alternatively licensed entrants when compared to traditional tpp entrants; however, after a couple of years of experience lateral entrants seem to be no less effective than regular entrants. although training and experience might help explain the growth of alternatively licensed teachers, the authors noted a high departure rate among alternatively certified teachers. for instance, in their study there were 804 lateral entrants with 1-2 years of experience but only 155 lateral entrants with 3 or more years of experience. teacher retention is another important aspect that researchers have considered when evaluating teacher performance. in fact, ingersoll and merrill (2013) cited a steady increase in bitmann et al. 7 the attrition rates of beginning teachers over the last two decades. ingersoll, et al., (2014) also looked at the effects of tpps on beginning teacher attrition and found, after controlling for selection bias, that pedagogical preparation was strongly related to the attrition rate. those with a more comprehensive pedagogical training — five or more methods courses and at least a full semester of student teaching — were significantly less likely to leave after the first year. with the largest reduction in attrition occurring between those with little or no pedagogical training and those who received basic pedagogical training — some methods training and at least a full semester of student teaching. while some attrition is unavoidable and, in some cases, beneficial, according to clotfelter, et al., (2010) most of the gains in student achievement associated with teacher experience occur in the first two years of teaching (p. 19). while variations will surely exist among tpps across the united states, given the current research on tpps it would seem there may be some structural similarities — type and number of required pedagogical training courses, number of required content courses, and required of student teaching. no study, however, particularly within social studies education, seems to exist. methodology the status of social science teacher education programs in american schools has not been investigated on a national level. after the passage of no child left behind (nclb) legislation in 2002, social science in k-12 education has been marginalized compared with other academic subjects, and standards-based education reform movement excluded social studies from the nations accountability-testing trend (vincent, ross, & wilson, 2012). using a quantitative descriptive research method, this study sought to understand the status of social studies tpps offering both an undergraduate and graduate degree with state licensure. population the population for this research study was all publicly-financed colleges and universities in the 50 states of the united states of america. the population was determined using the accredited post-secondary schools found in the u.s. department of education database the database of accredited post secondary institutions and programs (u.s. department of education, 2015). this database included over 39,000 postsecondary educational institutions and programs that were sorted by accreditation agencies, including the teacher education accreditation council and the national council for accreditation of teacher education, which are currently merging together into the council for the accreditation of educator preparation journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 (caep). the population for the study was 419 colleges and universities. the list was then checked against each state’s department of education list of publicly-financed universities to ensure no school was omitted accidentally. schools were eliminated from the population if there were no social science related education degrees. because this study sought to understand the status of social science tpps as a whole, tpps for social science educators became the targeted population. the population of the study were public colleges and universities that offered education degree programs for undergraduate and/or graduate students, in social science education degrees or concentrations. publicly financed colleges and universities were chosen because of their duel responsibilities to accreditation organizations and their respective state’s department of education. publiclyfinanced is defined as universities that receive a substantial amount of money from state budgets. programs that offered only alternative certifications and no degree, education minors and no certification, or had teacher preparation programs that did not include social science, were not a part of our population as the purpose of the study was to understand the status of tpps for social science educators. data was collected from all schools that met the population’s criteria. this type of population criteria is more generalizable than a sample (gall, gall, & borg, 2007). data collection as some states within the united states certify teachers in specific individual disciplines rather than a general social studies degree, the researchers had to examine each school’s website for social studies teacher degree programs within the school’s departments, education or others. oftentimes, the individual college or university would house social studies teaching certification program within a discipline’s individual department, e.g. history department. data collection consisted of the researchers dividing the united states into regions and individually examining each school’s online catalogue of coursework for the 2014-2015 school year. checks for accuracy were conducted periodically by each member of the research team to ensure accuracy. undergraduate programs were examined for a social studies education track, the required social studies education courses, the discipline content course work required for degree conferral, the inclusion of a separate classroom management course, and the number of course hours required to for internship. graduate programs in social studies education were also examined, including bitmann et al. 9 the number of social studies education courses, the number of content area credits, the inclusion of a separate classroom management course, and the required number of internship hours. the school’s accreditation is also examined. while most colleges and universities consider a single course to be three credit hours, there is some variation amongst schools and types of courses. therefore, credit hours were reported as an alternative to individual courses. data analysis considering that this study examined all publicly-financed colleges and universities, descriptive statistics were deemed appropriate to identify national trends. the data was analyzed using ibm’s spss statistical software. limitations the research is limited to accredited public state programs with online digital catalogues available to the researchers. accessibility to information was not equal, and differences in the structure and nomenclature of the institutional websites and digital catalogs occasionally hindered researchers’ navigation of individual school websites. furthermore, although almost every school utilized credit hours per course, a few schools used a portfolio-based system with no individual courses in their education degree. fewer than 10 schools were eliminated from the data set because the school did not utilize credit hours. results social science education program overview to understand the current state of social science education programs, this study collected available online data from all publicly-financed state colleges and universities on undergraduate and graduate social science education programs. considering the data was population level, descriptive statistics will be reported. with data from over 400 schools (n = 419) collected, less than half of schools (41.3%) offered an undergraduate social science education degree or concentration leading to state certification. the data collected on graduate programs focused on master’s degrees in social science education or concentration for certification in that state. colleges or universities rarely offered graduate programs with 14.1% of schools offering a master of arts degree and 7.2% offering a master of education degree. a cross-tabulation of both undergraduate and graduate programs (see table 1) showed that 48.7% of schools offered neither an undergraduate or graduate certification program in social science education, 30.1% of schools offered undergraduate programs only, 11.2% of schools offered both graduate and journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 undergraduate programs, and 10% of schools offered only graduate degrees. most social science education programs are offered as an undergraduate degree, with a small minority of schools offering only graduate certification programs in social science education. table 1 graduate * undergraduate cross tabulation undergraduate graduate none undergraduate total none count 204 126 330 % of total 48.7% 30.1% 78.8% mat count 31 28 59 % of total 7.4% 6.7% 14.1% med count 11 19 30 % of total 2.6% 4.5% 7.2% total count 246 173 419 % of total 58.7% 41.3% 100.0% accreditation the national council for accreditation of teacher education (ncate), which has recently merged with the council for the accreditation of educator preparation (caep), is the most widely used educational accreditation service for colleges and universities (colwell, macisaac, tichenor, heins, & piechura, 2014). this research study utilized the ncate website to identify colleges and universities with social science education programs accredited by ncate and caep. considering the data for accreditation was ordinal, percentages and bar graphs were reported. of the schools that offered undergraduate or graduate social science education programs, 79.5% (n = 171) schools were accredited by ncate, with only 20.5% (n = 44) schools offering social science programs not accredited by ncate (see figure 1). with schools that offer undergraduate programs, the percentages are similar, with 83.2% (n = 144) accredited, and 16.8% (n = 29) not accredited by ncate (see figure 2). graduate programs were accredited at a slightly lower rate, with 77.5% (n = 69) accredited and 22.5% (n = 20) of schools not accredited by ncate (see figure 3). the clear majority of schools offering degrees in social science education utilized the ncate to accredit their social science education programs. bitmann et al. 11 schools with undergraduate programs accredited by ncate averaged fewer required social science education classes (n = 33, µ = 3.94) compared with schools not accredited by ncate (n = 146, µ = 3.66), although the difference is negligible. examining graduate programs, there is a sharp decline in required social science education classes when programs were accredited (n = 86, µ = 1.69) versus when they are not accredited (n = 20, µ = 3.4). undergraduate social science education programs this study examined several categories concerning undergraduate degrees leading towards state certification in publicly-financed colleges and universities. the number of required credit hours required in social science education, the number of required credit hours in social science content classes, the number of required classroom management credit hours, and the number of required internship credit hours were all collected from the college or university website, either from the respective department’s website or the school catalog. the course hour data was ordinal, and this study use median and mode to report measures of central tendency and range to report variability for each variable. charts (histogram) were included when appropriate to assist with visualization of the data. for required social science education credits, the median number of credit hours offered by colleges and universities was three credit hours, “3 credit hours”, was also the most frequently required number of credit hours (81 schools) as shown in table 2. schools requiring “0 credit hours” was second with 39 schools requiring no social science education courses. social science education courses ranged from “0 credit hours” to “25 credit hours. reviewing the frequency of social science education credit hours, 71.7% of colleges and universities require three hours or less (see table 3). only 18.5% of schools require two or more classes in social science education and the vast majority of schools (46.8%) required only one class. table 2 undergraduate program credit hour statistics type of classes median mode range social science education 3 3 25 social science content 45 45a 103 classroom management 1 0 6 internship 12 12 22 a. multiple modes exist. the smallest value is shown journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 table 3 frequency of undergraduate social science education credit hours number of credit hours frequency % 0 39 22.5 1 1 .6 2 3 1.7 3 81 46.8 4 13 7.5 5 4 2.3 6 15 8.7 7 3 1.7 8 1 .6 9 4 2.3 10 1 .6 12 3 1.7 15 3 1.7 20 1 .6 25 1 .6 total 173 compared with social science content classes, the number of social science content classes varied greatly, ranging from 0 to 103 credit hours. the median was 45 credit hours, and the mode was 45 and 48 credit hours for social science classes. an examination of the histogram (figure 1) showed a leptokurtic distribution, with less than 5 schools requiring more than 90 credit hours in content areas. the vast majority of colleges and universities required between 30 and 60 content area specific credit hours for undergraduate social science teacher certification programs. bitmann et al. 13 figure 1 – undergraduate social science credit hours the number of classroom management credit hours required does not vary as much as social science education credits or content area credits. the mode of credit hours 0, the median 1, and the range of 0 to 6 credit hours showed less spread than other variables. a histogram (figure 2) shows that over 80 colleges and universities require no classroom management class at all, over 70 schools require three credit hours, and only one school required six credit hours. internship hours required in undergraduate programs range from 0 to 22 hours, with the median and mode both at 12 credit hours (63 schools). a large majority of schools, 81.5%, require 12 hours or less of internship credit hours. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 figure 2 – undergraduate classroom management credit hours graduate social science education programs this study also examined several categories concerning graduate degrees leading to teacher licensure in publicly-financed colleges and universities. within the social science tpps, the number of required credit hours in social science education, social science content areas, classroom management, and internship were all collected. again, the individual college or university’s catalog or department website was used to collect the data. the course hour data was ordinal, and this study reported median and mode for central tendency, as well as range for variability. histograms were included when appropriate to assist with visualization of the data. two different degrees are offered in education, either a master of arts in teaching (mat) or a master of education (m.ed.), with 66.3% of schools offering a mat (n = 59) and 33.7% of schools offering a m.ed. (n = 30). degrees were only included in this study if they lead to teacher licensure, which excluded many social science education graduate programs from this study. the number of credit hours in social science education ranged from 0 to 12, with 43.8% of schools requiring no social science specific education course (table 4). one-third of schools, 33.7%, required only a single three-hour class, and only 9% of schools required two or more three-hour classes (table 5). bitmann et al. 15 table 4 graduate program credit hour statistics type of classes median mode range social science education 3 0 12 social science content 0 0 30 classroom management 0 0 6 internship 6 0 27 table 5 graduate social science education credit hours number of credit hours frequency % 0 39 43.8 3 30 33.7 4 2 2.2 5 1 1.1 6 9 10.1 9 4 4.5 11 1 1.1 12 3 3.4 total 89 in looking at the number of credit hours required in social science content areas, over 50% of graduate degrees require no additional social science classes (n = 52). only 22 schools require 12 hours or more of social science content hours (see table 6). classroom management classes are rarely required as a part of graduate degrees, with the median and mode both zero credit hours, and ranging only to 6 credit hours total. internship credit hour requirements varied much more than credit hours, ranging from 0 to 27 hours, the median being 6 and the mode at 0. a histogram (figure 3) of internship credit hours showed no bell curve, nor is there an obvious peak. most of the required internship hours were between 3 and 12 credits. table 6 graduate social science content credit hours number of credit hours frequency % 0 52 58.4 3 8 9.0 6 6 6.7 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 9 3 3.4 12 4 4.5 15 1 1.1 18 5 5.6 20 1 1.1 21 2 2.2 24 1 1.1 27 4 4.5 29 1 1.1 30 1 1.1 total 89 figure 3 – internship credit hours discussion the united states is a participatory democracy and social studies plays a significant role in incorporating democratic and citizenship into k-12 education, and into elementary and secondary students (engle & ochoa, 1988; barton & levstik, 2004). democratic education bitmann et al. 17 through social studies aims to engage students in the democratic process and assist with developing civic awareness. current debates in social studies education is divided between educators passing knowledge from one generation to the next, to foster patriotism in students, to expand students’ cultural and social understanding, or to develop students’ critical thinking skills (barton & levstik, 2004; evans, 2004; hess, 2009; national council for the social studies, 2014; thornton, 2004; santora, 2011). these competing perspectives have influenced tpps within the social sciences, with some arguing for a focus on traditional disciplines such as history, geography, sociology, and psychology, or a focus instead on pedagogical development through teacher education. the need to unify standards for college and university requirements drove the first educational reforms that led to the “new history” and then the committee’s creation of a civics class, “problems of democracy” and the creation of social science education (marshall, et al., 2007). newer reforms have led to high-stakes testing on more rigorous standards and programs do not have a singular vision in developing programs effective in addressing the standards at both the national and state level. future political reforms may well define how our tpps for the social sciences will be structured in the future, and social science education researchers must remain relevant. social studies tpp vary widely across the united states. although the ncate is a national accrediting agency for tpps, the 50 different state departments of education complicate teacher licensure. this study aimed to identify national trends regarding tpps and postsecondary social science education programs. the findings of this research study reflect the myriad conditions colleges and universities are required to take into consideration when crafting social science education programs. this research showed the resulting wide variety of requirements and the disparate nature of social science programs across the united states. future teachers must have a working understanding of both content and pedagogy to enter the field. teacher preparation has lasting consequences from recruitment to retention (ingersoll, et al., 2014). it is troubling to note the philosophical divide has led to the development of some programs that are heavy on the discipline with little or no support in pedagogical preparation. by filling a void in academic research, this study provides an understanding of current social studies teacher preparation programs in the united states. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 future research concerning social science education programs should build up on this foundation, examining the effect of national and state regulatory agencies on social science programs. this study is limited to publicly-financed state schools, and research on private schools is scarce, even compared to publicly-financed colleges and universities. the study limitations include a focus on publicly funded institutions, as well as a lack of similarities concerning the reporting of credit hours. further research could offer policymakers a framework in developing national standards linking tpps to student achievement scores on standardized tests. bitmann et al. 19 references an, s. (2017). preparing elementary school teachers for social studies instruction in the context of edtpa. journal of social studies research, 41(1), 25-35. au, w. (2013). what's a nice test like you doing in a place like this? the edtpa and corporate education “reform.” rethinking schools, 27(4). retrieved from http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/27_04/27_04_au.shtml. ball, d. l., thames, m. h., & phelps, g. (2008). content knowledge for teaching: what makes it special? journal of teacher education, 59(5), 389-407. doi: 10.1177/0022487108324554 barton, k. & levstik, l. (2004). teaching history for the common good. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. bliss, t. (1992). alternative certification in connecticut: reshaping the profession. peabody journal of education, 67(3), 35-54. boyd, d. j., grossman, p. l., lankford, h., loeb, s., & wychoff, j. (2009). teacher preparation and student achievement. educational evaluation and policy analysis, 31(4), 416-440. doi: 10.3102/0162373709353129 boyle-baise, m. & grant, g. (2004). citizen/community participation in education. in s. adler (ed.), critical issues in social studies teacher education (pp. 145-164). greenwich, ct: information age press. chiodo, j. j. & byford, j. (2004). do they really dislike social studies? a study of middle school and high school students. journal of social studies research, 28(1), 16-26. clotfelter, c. t., ladd, h. f., & vigdor, j. l. (2010). teacher credentials and student achievement in high school: a cross-subject analysis with student fixed effects. human resources summer, 45(3), 655-681. coggshall, j. g., bivona, l., & reschly, d. j., (2012). evaluating the effectiveness of teacher preparation programs for support and accountability. washington, dc: national comprehensive center for teacher quality. washington, dc: national association of state directors of teacher education and certification. retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed543773.pdf journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 colwell, c., macisaac, d., tichenor, m., heins, b., & piechura, k. (2014). district and university perspectives on sustaining professional development schools: do the ncate standards matter? the professional educator, 38(2). cruz, g. (2009, october 23). are teacher colleges turning out mediocrity? time. retrieved from http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1931810,00.html darling-hammond, l. (1992). teaching and knowledge: policy issues posed by alternative certification for teachers. peabody journal of education, 67(3), 123-154. darling-hammond, l. (2000a). how teacher education matters. journal of teacher education, 51(3), 166-173. darling-hammond, l. (2000b). teacher quality and student achievement: a review of state policy evidence. educational policy analysis archives, 8(1), 1-44. darling-hammond, l. (2002). research and rhetoric on teacher certification: a response to “teacher certification reconsidered”. educational policy analysis archives, 10(36), 1-55. darling-hammond, l. & hyler, m. e. (2013). the role of performance assessment in developing teaching as a profession. rethinking schools, 27(4). retrieved from http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/27_04/27_04_darling-hammond_hyler.shtml. edtpa. (2017). about edtpa. pearson education. retrieved from http://www.edtpa.com/pageview.aspx?f=gen_aboutedtpa.html engle, s. & ocha, a. (1988). education for democratic citizenship: decision making in the social studies. new york, ny: teachers college press evans, r. (2004). the social studies wars: what should we teach the children? new york, ny: teachers college press ferguson, p. & womack, s. t. (1993). the impact of subject matter and education coursework on teaching performance. journal of teacher education, 44(1), 55-63. feuer, m. j., floden, r. e., chudowsky, n., & ahn, j. (2013). evaluation of teacher preparation programs: purposes, methods, and policy options. washington, dc: national academy of education. retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed565694.pdf gall, m. d., gall, j. p., & borg, w. r. (2007). educational research: an introduction. boston, ma: pearson/allyn & bacon. bitmann et al. 21 greenberg, j., mckee, a., & walsh, k. (2013). teacher prep review: a review of the nation’s teacher preparation programs. washington, dc: national council on teacher quality. retrieved from http://www.nctq.org/dmsview/teacher_prep_review_2013_report goldhaber d., & brewer d. (2000). does teacher certification matter? high school teacher certification status and student achievement. educational evaluation and policy analysis, 22(2), 129-145. guarino, c., hamilton, l., lockwood, j.r., and rathbun, a.h. (2006). teacher qualifications, instructional practices, and reading and mathematics gains of kindergarteners. (nces 2006-031). u.s. department of education. washington, dc: national center for education statistics. retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2006/2006031.pdf heafner, t., mcintyre, e., & spooner, m. (2014). the caep standards and research on educator preparation programs: linking clinical partnerships with program impact. peabody journal of education, 89, 516-532. doi: 10.1080/0161956x.2014.938998 henry, g. t., paterson, k. m., campbell, s. l., & yi, p. (2013). unc teacher quality research: 2013 teacher preparation program effectiveness report. chapel hill, nc: education policy initiative at carolina. retrieved from https://publicpolicy.unc.edu/files/2013/11/unc_tqr_overallprogramreport_final.pdf hess, d. (2004). controversies about controversial issues in democratic education. ps: political science and politics, 2, 257-261. hess, d. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. new york, ny: taylor francis. ingersoll, r. & merrill, l. (2010). who’s teaching our children? educational leadership, 67(8), 14-21. ingersoll, r. & merrill, e. (2013). seven trends: the transformation of the teaching force. cpre report. philadelphia: consortium for policy research in education, university of pennsylvania. retrieved from http://www.cpre.org/7trends ingersoll, r., merrill, l., & may, h. (2014). what are the effects of teacher education and preparation on beginning teacher attrition?: research report. consortium for policy research in education. retrieved from http://www.cpre.org/sites/default/files/researchreport/2018_prepeffects2014.pdf journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),1-23 kenna, j. & poole, c. (2017). social science pre-service teachers’ preparation to teach about asia: a research study. journal of social studies education research, 8(1) 93-114. kilinç, e., kilinç, s., kaya, m., başer, e., türküresin, h., & kesten, a. (2016). teachers’ attitudes toward the use of technology in social studies teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 59-76. kopish, m. (2016). preparing globally competent teacher candidates through cross cultural experiential learning. journal of social studies education research, 7(2) 75-108. levine, a. (2006). educating school teachers. new york: the education schools project. marshall, j. d., sears, j. t., allen, l. a., roberts, p. a., & schubert, w. h. (2007). turning points in curriculum: a contemporary american memoir (2nd ed.). allyn & bacon. mauch, j. & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. miller, j. w., mckenna, m. c., & mckenna, b. a. (1998). a comparison of alternatively and traditionally prepared teachers. journal of teacher education, 49(3), 165-176. national commission on teaching and america’s future. (1996). what matters most: teaching for america’s future. new york: author. retrieved from http://www.namodemello.com.br/pdf/tendencias/whatmattersmost.pdf national council for the social studies. (2014). college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history, ncss bulletin, 2014(113). silver spring, md: author. no child left behind (nclb) act of 2001, pub. l. no. 107-110, § 115, stat. 1425 (2002). poole, c. & russell, w. (2015). are teacher preparation programs educating for global perspectives? the journal of education, 195(3), 41-52. rice, j. k. (2003). teacher quality: understanding the effectiveness of teacher attributes. washington, dc: economic policy institute. retrieved from http://www.epi.org/publication/books_teacher_quality_execsum_intro/ russell, w. (2010). teaching social studies in the 21st century: a research study of secondary social studies teacher’s instructional methods and practices. action in teacher education, 32(1), 65-72. bitmann et al. 23 santora, e. d. (2011). 21st century democratic social and citizenship education: a hybrid perspective. in w. b. russell iii (ed.), contemporary social studies: an essential reader (pp. 97-116). charlotte, sc: information age publishing, inc. shulman, l. (1986). those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. educational researcher, 15(2), 4-14. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. tannebaum, r. (2015). preservice social studies teachers’ perspectives and understandings of teaching in the twenty-first century classroom: a meta-ethnography. journal of social studies education research, 6(2) 154-176. thornton, s. j. (1994). the social studies near centuries end: reconsidering patterns of curriculum and instruction. review of research in education, 20(3), 223-254. u.s. department of education. (2015). the database of accredited post secondary institutions and programs. washington, d.c.: office of postsecondary education. retrieved from http://ope.ed.gov/accreditation/getdownloadfile.aspx vinson, k. d., ross, e. w., & wilson, m. b. (2012). standards based education reform and social studies education. in w. b. russell iii (ed.), contemporary social studies: an essential reader (pp. 119-138). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. walsh, k. (2001). teacher certification reconsidered: stumbling for quality. baltimore, md: the abell foundation. retrieved from http://www.nctq.org/dmsview/teacher_certification_reconsidered_stumbling_for_qual ity_nctq_report waters, s. & russell, w. (2016). virtually ready? pre-service teachers’ perceptions of a virtual internship experience. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 1-23. wayne, a. j. and youngs, p. (2003). teacher characteristics and student achievement gains, review of educational research, 73(1), 89-122. http://ope.ed.gov/accreditation/getdownloadfile.aspx http://ope.ed.gov/accreditation/getdownloadfile.aspx student impressions of project citizen and senior projects: a comparison www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(1), 1-23 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 student attitudes towards and impressions of project citizen sara winstead fry1 & adil bentahar2 abstract project citizen is a civic education curriculum used across the united states and internationally, yet research about its impact on students is lacking in the literature. this article reports the results of a preliminary study designed to answer the following questions: what are students’ attitudes toward and perceptions of project citizen? how do their attitudes and perceptions compare to those of students who completed senior projects? ten high school students and 23 first-year college students completed a questionnaire designed for this study. our findings indicate that the high school students had positive perceptions of project citizen, and they self-reported an understanding and high levels of efficacy regarding civic responsibility. in contrast, the first-year college students had lower levels of efficacy regarding civic responsibility. our findings suggest the importance of specific learning experiences to help students develop civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions, and indicate the need for further research into civic programs such as project citizen. keywords: student attitudes, project citizen, civics education özet 1 assoc. prof.dr., boise state university, sarafry@boisestate.edu 2 ga., university of wyoming, abentaha@uwyo.edu journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 2 vatandalık projesi, amerika birleşik devletleri genelinde ve uluslararası alanda uygulanan bir vatandaş eğitimi program olmakla birlikte projenin öğrenci üzerindeki etkisi hakkında literatürde eksik kalan bir konudur. bu makale, şu sorulara yanıt bulmak için tasarlanmış bir ön çalışmadır: öğrencilerin vatandaş projesine karşı tutum ve algıları nelerdir? bu projeye katılan öğrencilerle daha önceki projelere katılan öğrencilerin tutum ve algıları karşılaştırıldığında ortaya çıkan sonuçlar nelerdir? 10 lise öğrencisi ve 23 üniversite birinci sınıf öğrencisine bu çalışma kapsamında bir anket uygulanmıştır. çalışma sonuçları lise öğrencilerinin vatandaşlık projesine yönelik olumlu algıları olduğunu göstermektedir. ayrıca bu öğrenciler uygulamanın sivil sorumlulukla ilgili üzerlerinde önemli bir etki ve konuyu anlama yetisi geliştirdiğini ifade etmişlerdir. buna karşılık, projenin birinci sınıf üniversite öğrencilerine yönelik sivil sorumluluk ilgili etkisiniş sınırlı kaldığı görülmüştür. sonuçlar, öğrencilerin yurttaşlık bilgi, beceri ve eğilimlerini geliştirmeye yardımcı olmak için özel öğrenme deneyimlerinin önemli olduğunu ve bu vatandaşlık projesi gibi sivil programların daha fazla araştırılması gerektiğini göstermektedir. anahtar kelimeler: öğrenci tutumları, vatandaşlık projesi, vatandaşlık eğitimi introduction sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 3 high school graduates should know how to be active citizens, the difference between talking about an issue and actually promoting change. government doesn’t run the country, people do. jaime, high school senior. jaime shared this reflection while participating in an elective social studies course titled citizenship in the 21st century. project citizen was an integral component of the course, and through this curriculum, jaime and classmates spent more than a month studying an issue or problem in their community, conducting researh, developing alternative solutions, and creating a proposal for public policy to address the problem. these high school students produced an action plan about how to influence policy makers to implement the suggested public policy and presented their findings to a panel of educators and community decision makers through a formal showcase. project citizen is a curriculum designed to help students learn that citizens’ participation in government “is not just a slogan. government of, by, and for the people is obtainable, if citizens acquire the knowledge, use their skills, and have the will to effect change” (branson, 1999, p. 6). jaime’s reflection that high school graduates should know how to be active citizens suggests that the project citizen experience was effective in helping shape this young citizen’s understanding of civic responsibility. perhaps more importantly, the project citizen curriculum seemed to influence jaime’s belief that citizens should be active individuals who “stand up for [their] opinions and find an outlet for [their] concerns that will foster change.” project citizen has been implemented across the united states and internationally. a survey of teachers who participated in project citizen training suggested the curriculum was well-received by educators (nairne, 2008). however, research about project citizen’s impact on students is undeveloped in peer-reviewed literature. in order to address this gap, we designed this study of journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 4 students’ attitudes toward and perceptions of project citizen. it is important to note that our sample size was small; thus, we present this as a preliminary study that contributes to reducing, but by no means eliminates, the gap in the literature. our work was influenced by scholarship about the goals of civic education, which we review in the subsequent literature review section. literature review our commitment to civic education provided the impetus for this investigation, and the goals of civic education provided a framework for our work. therefore, in the following literature review we describe the goals of civic education and some of the challenges to its implementation in the united states and internationally. we examine efforts to promote civic education worldwide and describe one program specifically: project citizen. in the final section of the literature review, we present information about the goals of senior projects. goals of civic education through civic education, teachers strive to ensure that students have the skills and dispositions needed to participate as active citizens in adulthood. as a result of an effective civic education, students should have the knowledge and understanding of “opportunities for participation and engagement in both civic and civil society” (schulz, ainley, fraillon, kerr, & losito, 2010, p. 14). in a democratic system, civic education plays a role in sustaining self-government through “citizen participation based on informed, critical reflection” (quigley, 1995: 6). as a result of civic education, citizens should be able “to think for themselves” and “criticize tradition” (nussbaum, 2010, p. 2) with the goal of creating a better future by helping shape their communities and societies (landsman & gorski, 2007; schulz et al., 2010). the preparation of effective, responsible citizens requires knowledge of democratic principles as well as the ability and willingness to be an informed participant (pepper, burroughs & groce, 2003). thus, civic knowledge sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 5 and skills are important components of civic education, but the process is incomplete without experiences that help students develop the disposition for political interest, civic engagement, and commitment to the common good (black, 2000; hyslop-margison, hamalian & anderson, 2006; niemi & junn, 1998). accordingly, schools have the potential to nurture a propensity for democratic participation among students through civic education. westheimer and kahne (2004) presented a framework of three perspectives of citizenship: the personally responsible citizen, the participatory citizen, and the justice-oriented citizen. personally responsible citizens are honest, recycle, obey laws, pay taxes, and volunteer or make donations in times of crisis. participatory citizens “actively participate in the civic affairs and the social life of the community at local, state, and national level” (p. 241). citizens who have adopted a justice orientation “must question, debate, and change established systems and structures that reproduce patterns of injustice over time” (westheimer & kahne, 2004, p. 240). while the personally responsible citizen would donate food for the hungry, the participatory citizen would be the person who organizes the drive; the justice-oriented citizen “ask[s] why people are hungry and act[s] on what they discover” (westheimer & kahne, 2004, p. 242). the behaviors of personally responsible citizens such as honesty, voting, and obeying laws are important; however, such behavior does not necessarily advance democratic ideals. indeed, curriculum designed to “foster personal responsibility [may] undermine efforts to prepare both participatory and justice-orientated citizens” (westheimer & kahne, 2004, p. 264). martin luther king, jr. (1963) illustrated the potential for tension between personal responsibility and democracy when he wrote, we should never forget that everything hitler did in germany was “legal” and everything the hungarian freedom fighters did in hungary was “illegal” journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 6 to aid and comfort a jew in hitler's germany. even so, i am sure that, had i lived in germany at the time, i would have aided and comforted my jewish brothers. (para. 18) martin luther king, jr.’s words provide a powerful reminder of the need for a balanced civic education that promotes democratic ideals (ochoa-becker, 2007; parker, 2003). although “the historic national goal of education in the united states has been to educate youth for the purpose of democratic citizenship” (hinde, 2005, p. 105), implementing civic education is often fraught with challenges, both in the united states and internationally. implementation of civic education: challenges in spite of essential nature of civic education, implementation is often a challenge. for example, in the united states social studies is the academic discipline dedicated to citizenship education (national council for social studies, 1994), but the time allotted for social studies education at the elementary level has declined precipitously in recent decades (cawelti, 2006; davis & davis, 2007; leming, ellington, & schug, 2006; mceachron, 2010; rock et al., 2006). for example, davis and davis studied elementary classrooms and found that only 15% of elementary students are getting five hours or more of social studies instruction per week. gutierrez (2010) indicated that civic educators need to improve their inadequate instructional approach by going beyond weighing students’ knowledge about government and civic matters, and pose serious questions such as “is the american social landscape littered with incidents of incivility?” (p. 24). potential or real problems resulting from inadequate citizenship education may have already begun. pepper et al. (2003) identified a prevalence of disengagement from public life on the part of young people and a decline in americans’ participation in the democratic processes. low levels in students’ civic education performance could be a consequence of three factors: “insufficient sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 7 curriculum requirement for civic education, poor teacher preparation, and lackluster instruction in civics and government” (black, 2000, p. 49). in regard to teacher preparation and as a result of increased training to raise standardized test scores on math and reading, researchers have found that time allotted to practicing teachers for professional development in social studies has decreased in the past several years as well (von zastrow, 2004; smith & kovacs, 2011). black (2000) reported that, in the united states, only 29 states require students to pass a government or civics courses for graduation from high school. since nearly half of the states do not require such a course, it is no surprise that students lack “civic engagement and civic literacy” (black, 2000, p. 49). although black (2000) wrote about the united states specifically, challenges with implementing civic education are not limited to american schools. in england, for example, citizenship education became compulsory in secondary schools in 2002, yet its implementation was problematic and researchers found civics was “not necessarily being taught explicitly” (davies, fulop, hutchings, ross, & berkics, 2004, p. 368). challenges with the implementation of civic education extended to other countries around the world as well. mason (2009) explained that given differences in historical and contemporary circumstances in emerging democracies, civic education faces a different set of challenges. for example, during the era of the soviet occupation in the baltic countries and in the soviet union, instead of encouraging and reinforcing privacy, justice, and freedom as civic values, civic education was meant to instill marxist/leninist ideology and promote allegiance to the state. such practices could bring about a sense of skepticism and distrust in civic education (mason, 2009). although some reformers in former communist countries interested in developing governments based on democratic ideals may seek assistance from the united states (pepper et al., 2003), initiatives to foster civic education through projects in emerging democracies have been met with criticism for being a tool for the west journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 8 to exert hegemonic control (craddock, 2007). perhaps, one of the challenges of civic education implementation internationally is that the west’s dilemmas are simply passed to its international partners (craddock, 2007). an international resource for civic education: civitas international and project citizen in the midst of challenges with implementation of civic education and an international interest in fostering civic education in schools, civitas international is a promising program that provides resources and support worldwide. as part of the united states-based center for civic education (2011a), civitas international is charged with gathering and sharing exemplary civic education curricula with students and teachers through partnerships in eighty countries. civitas also provides teacher training and connects the efforts of educators, governmental agencies, civil society organizations, and educational institutions (center for civic education, 2011a). united states and international educators work together to develop lessons in comparative government for american students (center for civic education, 2011b). membership in this international network does not require adoption of identical civic education programs and activities, allowing each country to develop curricula that are uniquely suited to their respective civic education needs. this flexibility may have contributed to widespread adoption of civitas programs in the middle east. in 2000, jordan was the first nation in the middle east to implement civitas international programs with support from the regional network of arab civitas (glaser consulting group, 2004). egypt and palestine joined shortly after, and by 2004 the network included educators from other arab countries of bahrain, lebanon, morocco, tunisia, and yemen (glaser consulting group, 2004). project citizen is one civitas program that has been successfully implemented in these countries. sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 9 project citizen is a civic education curriculum for middleand secondary-level students used across the united states and the world. the curriculum was developed in the mid-1990s by educators working for the center for civic education with the overarching goal of promoting “competent and responsible participation in local and state government” (center for civic education 2011b: para. 1). experiences with project citizen also help students acquire “life skills such as citizenship, problem solving, oral and written communication, and research” (medina-jerez, bryant, & green, 2010, p. 71). the curriculum allows students to study current public policy issues. project citizen also reinforces and equips students with “skills for success in the collegial and workplace environments; civic engagement; and effective communication and collaborative skills that identify and utilize social, emotional, and academic strengths” (idaho human rights education center, 2011, p. 2). project citizen emphasizes active citizenship and public policy; working together, the participating students “identify, research and pose public policy solutions to local problems” (pepper et al., 2003, p. 47). students then present their projects in local, state, and national showcases to leaders who may be in a position to implement their suggestions for reform. educators with the center for civic education (2011b) estimated that, since project citizen was developed, nearly 2 million students in the united states have been taught the curriculum. over 32,000 teachers in the united states have been trained in to teach project citizen. the curriculum is used internationally in 80 different countries, and materials have been translated into 40 different languages. given the potential of project citizen to be an effective model for civic education internationally as well as in the united states, we were surprised when our search for scholarship about project citizen in peer-reviewed journals uncovered few studies about this civic education curriculum. searching for the keyword “project citizen” in eric, academic search premier, psych journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 10 info, world cat, education research complete, and web of science, we found four articles specifically about project citizen. the authors of the articles all described effective experiences students or educators had with project citizen; however, none utilized empirical methods to examine the program’s impact on students. we describe the results of the four scholarly articles about project citizen in the subsequent paragraphs. laguardia and pearl (2009) described project citizen as one of the community development projects that help middleand high-school students collaboratively contribute to bringing about positive change in classrooms and schools, thereby making the world a better place. although the two researchers did not delve into the steps or learning outcomes of project citizen such as designing a research-based binder or portfolio, they stressed the importance of the program as a “component for citizenship” (p. 360). they also pointed out that community development projects, such as project citizen, call for policy involvement, a requirement that service learning does not necessarily meet (laguardia & pearl, 2009). while feldmann’s (2010) article on the creation of an effective pilot course in high school civics used the term ‘project citizen’ only once to exemplify public policy-oriented projects, medina-jerez, taylor, and bryant (2009) emphasized the merit of project citizen in a more elaborate manner. as a program newly introduced to bolivian schools, project citizen, through the wyomingbolivia partnership, is hoped to engage american and bolivian youth to improve the quality of life in their societies (medina-jerez et al., 2009). their work reported findings of some case studies that were conducted by three teacher educators in social studies, modern languages, and science. the three educators explored project citizen as a tool that empowers bolivian students working on project citizen to effectuate positive change in both their schools and communities. in fact, the work of medina-jerez et al. (2009) did stress project citizen, but primarily from the perspective of the sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 11 three educators not the participating students, which perhaps paved the way for another endeavor with project citizen. medina-jerez, taylor, and bryant (2010) explored bolivian students’ experiences with project citizen. the researchers followed a chronological development of the students’ project based on four core steps of project citizens: identifying a problem, identifying solutions, policy statement, and action plan. the article emphasized one important aspect of project citizen, that of linking students with the community. specifically, the bolivian students had the opportunity to present their work before not only the city council in the american embassy in la paz, but also an audience comprised of local student presenters, teachers, and members of educators for democracy. the latter served as evaluators of the students’ project (medina-jerez et al., 2010). senior projects in the midst of the decline of social studies education, and a growing critique of the contemporary approach to civic education in the united states (gutierrez, 2010), an interdisciplinary experience has gained momentum for high school students: the senior project. designed as an authentic assessment, senior project guidelines often involve research about a topic selected by a student, a project, portfolio documentation, and a presentation in front of community members with expertise in the topic (shaunessy, 2004; senior project center, 2010). senior projects have become common across the united states, with many states requiring them for graduation from high school. in 2007, our state legislature approved this change that must be in place by 2013 (idaho state department of education, 2010). however, senior projects were implemented earlier in many school districts. senior projects are designed to be an authentic assessment, and they are becoming more common as a graduation requirement across the united states. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 12 that the use of senior projects has grown while civic education has declined seems ironic considering that a civic education curriculum already exists: project citizen; the curriculum involves many of the same steps as senior projects. from our perspective, the most notable differences between the two are 1) project citizen is completed in small groups, while senior projects sometimes are completed by individual students, and 2) students are able to choose from a wide variety of topics while completing senior projects, whereas project citizen topics are limited to public policy issues. otherwise, the two learning experiences seem to have a convergent goal of helping students develop important citizenship, research, and presentation skills. thus, we had two goals for this study: 1) identify student attitudes toward and perceptions of project citizen, and 2) compare the attitudes toward and perceptions of students who completed project citizen with those of students who completed senior projects. methods participants ten high school juniors and seniors who recently completed project citizen in an elective social studies course participated in this study. interest in participating in the study seemed high when the 29 students in the course were introduced to the opportunity, but only one-third of the class returned a letter of informed consent that was signed by their parents or guardians. we refer to these students as “pc participants,” and they helped us answer the research question: what are students’ attitudes toward and perceptions of project citizen? a second group of participants enabled us to answer our second research question: how do their (project citizen students’) attitudes and perceptions compare to those of students who sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 13 completed senior projects? referred to as sp (senior project), this convenience sample consisted of 23 first-year college students who completed senior projects in high school. these participants attended a university with an enrollment of approximately 20,000 students. we obtained a list of email addresses for a random sample of 150 first-year students who graduated from high school within the last two years. thirty responded and 23 met the selection criterion of having completed a senior project during their final year of high school. data collection after obtaining institutional review board approval, participants were asked to complete questionnaires (see appendix) that included four open-ended questions and 10 likert items with two subscales (civic responsibility and research process). we developed the questionnaire specifically for this study. the four open-ended questions were: (1) what do you think high school graduates should know about civic responsibility? (2) what is the most important thing you learned through completing project citizen? (3) what was the most challenging part of your project citizen experience? (4) do you have any other comments? the civic responsibility subscale consisted of four likert items that addressed civic skills and dispositions that project citizen was designed to help students develop and which ideally all high school graduates possess. the second subscale included six likert items that addressed participants’ confidence with the research process, including written and oral communication. these six items addressed skills that students should refine through completing project citizen and use to complete a senior project. we developed the likert items based on existing literature about project citizen and senior projects. then we shared the questionnaire with three experts in the field: educators who have experience as social studies teachers as well as overseeing the implementation of project citizen and/or senior projects. we made changes based on the recommendations these experts provided. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 14 pc participants completed paper versions of the questionnaire in their social studies class on the day of their project citizen showcases – the event in which students share their research and policy recommendations in a simulated legislative hearing. for the questionnaire administered to the sp group, “project citizen” was replaced with “a senior project.” apart from word changes to reflect the different learning experiences, the questionnaires administered to each group were identical. sp participants completed the questionnaire online during their first year in college. the difference in administration of the questionnaire was due to necessity; we lacked face-to-face access to the sp participants and the pc participants lacked computer access for the questionnaire. see the limitations section for further discussion of this issue. data analysis analyzing the open-ended question responses involved a multi-step process. first, we read and re-read the open-ended question responses to obtain a sense of the data. then we used open coding to analyze the data (strauss & corbin, 1998) for each question, progressing line by line through the data and developing summary terms for each statement. once all of the responses to each question were summarized, common categories were identified. there were three categories that were prevalent enough to constitute themes. however, four responses from sp participants were relatively unique, meaning they were only shared by two participants. these were not prevalent enough to consider themes. however, as these comments provide insights into sp participants’ thinking, they are included in table 1 in the findings section. although our sample size was small (see limitations for further discussion), we conducted statistical analyses of the data to determine the reliability of the scales and explore differences in responses from the two sets of participants. as this is a preliminary study of project citizen, we determined that it was appropriate to explore the possible differences in the populations. we sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 15 conducted a reliability analysis of the civic responsibility and research skills scales. reliability was high (above 0.6) for both scales despite the small sample size. cronbach’s alpha was 0.92 for the six items which dealt with the research process, and the four items related to civic responsibility yielded a coefficient of 0.75. we analyzed the likert items by determining means for the civic responsibility items and the research process subscales. we then conducted an independent samples t-test to determine if the differences in the means for pc and sp participants were significant. limitations this study was a preliminary investigation of student impressions of project citizen. our sample size was limited. a nationally representative sample may yield different results as would a more robust sample with statistical power. although our reliability values were acceptable, this was surprising for a small sample size. our sample size constrains confidence in the reliability values as well as the significant difference in the t-test results. despite these limitations, the aforementioned lack of empirical evidence about project citizen’s impact on students in peer-reviewed literature provides justification for this study, as does the need for responsible citizens to address complex 21st century issues (cawelti, 2006). another limitation of our study design is the pc participants completed the questionnaire in a class taught and supported by a teacher who is highly respected and adept at project citizen while the sp participants completed the questionnaire online. it is possible that the pc participants were more thoughtful in their responses than the sp participants given their personal connection. our participants were also selected from two different populations. additionally, we used self-reported data as measures; assessments of civic responsibility and research skills may yield different results. results the open-ended questions, which were analyzed through qualitative data analysis, indicated journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 16 that pc participants were more articulate and definitive in their writing about what high school graduates should know about civic responsibility. table 1 provides a summary of the answers to the question “what do you think high school graduates should know about civic responsibility?” six out of 23 sp participants did not answer the civic responsibility question. we present the results using percentages rather than frequency, so that the unequal sample sizes can be compared. table 1 comparison of pc and sp participants’ beliefs about civic responsibility category of answer pc (n = 10) sp (n=17) contribute to making a change in local community and/or the world. 40% 0 detailed explanation of specific knowledge/skill set (e.g. “know how to develop informed opinions and take action”). 40% 0 vague comments that did not indicate specific knowledge or understanding (e.g. “we should know about it” and “it’s important”). 20% 53% 0 12% 0 12% 0 12% 0 12% through our analysis of the responses to the question “what is the most important thing you learned through completing a senior project or project citizen?” we identified nine categories of responses (see table 2). table 2 sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 17 comparison of most important learning for pc and sp participants category of answer pc (n = 10) sp (n = 21) how citizens can help make (policy) changes in their communities 80% 0 discussion/listening skills (group skills) 20% 5% research skills and/or writing skills 0 29% work ethic/time management 0 24% learned nothing and provided critical comments about the experience. 0 19% knowledge of government 0 14% insights about life after hs/college 0 10% responses to the question “what was the most challenging part of your senior project experience?” varied greatly among participants (see table 3). five pc and 12 sp participants offered additional comments about their experiences with senior projects, and we present a summary in table 4. table 3 comparison of challenges for pc and sp participants category of answer pc (n = 9) sp (n = 22) group work/group dynamics 44% 4.5% time management 22% 14% presenting 11% 18% drawing conclusions from research 22% 4.5% writing 0 23% research process 0 14% critical of entire experience 0 9% inconsistent feedback from evaluators (teacher vs. principal) 0 4.5% it was easy (no challenges) 0 4.5% experience took student out of comfort zone/normal routine 0 4.5% journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 18 table 4 additional comments shared by pc and sp participants category of answer pc (n = 5) sp (n = 12) praise for the learning experience and/or class in which pc/sp work occurred. 80% 17% critiqued sp compared to pc as student had completed both learning experiences. 20% 0 critical comments about sp experience. 0 50% explained what she or he did for sp. 0 25% appreciated chance to share opinion through survey. 0 8% there were significant differences between the subscale means for civic responsibility and research skills for the pc (n = 10) and sp (n = 23) participants. table 5 presents the mean (m), standard deviation (sd), and standard error of the mean (sem) for each group. table 6 presents the t-test results. these results indicate that there was a significant difference at the .01 level between pc and sp participants’ self-reported understanding of civic responsibility and confidence with research sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 19 skills. however, these quantitative results must be interpreted cautiously given the small sample size. table 5 subscale means measurement subscale group m (sd) sem civic responsibility pc 3.35 (.54) .17 sp 2.16 (.39) .08 research skills pc 3.25 (.45) .14 sp 1.85 (.49) .10 table 6 independent samples t-test for subscale means measurement subscale t df sig. (2-tailed) 95% ci civic responsibility 7.14 31 .00 .85-1.53 research skills 7.68 31 .00 1.03-1.77 discussion the results of this preliminary study suggest that project citizen helped the students in our study develop beneficial research skills, civic skills, and civic understanding. eight out of 10 pc participants indicated the most important concept they learned was how citizens can help make policy changes in their communities. the significant differences between the subscale means suggest the pc participants were more confident about their research skills and had stronger beliefs than the sp participants. the participants’ responses to the open-ended questions provide additional insights into the nature of the pc participants’ higher subscale means. we discuss the results in the two sections that follow: civic responsibility and comparing project citizen and senior projects. civic responsibility journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 20 eight out of 10 pc participants provided rich, compelling responses to the question “what do you think high school graduates should know about civic responsibility?” not one of the 17 out of 23 sp participants who answered this question provided a robust answer. the fact that two sp participants provided critical comments about civic responsibility is nothing short of alarming. the statement, “i've never been one for civic responsibility. if i know to do something is the right thing to do, then i will do it. that’s about it” suggests a lack of understanding regarding civic responsibility. the response “little to no information” may also reflect a lack of understanding. the follow-up request, “please tell me why you wrote this answer” can lead to additional information about this problematic belief that civic responsibility is unimportant. understanding the perspectives and background experiences of those who are not disposed toward civic engagement may yield valuable information that can help educators identify ways to reverse the trend of complacency. it is also noteworthy that the pc participants articulated more detailed answers that suggested a propensity toward participatory citizenship and justice-orientated citizenship (westheimer & kahne, 2004). in contrast, the sp participants’ answers were vague or described what westheimer and kahne classified as personally-responsible citizenship, which indicates a narrower understanding of the complexities of citizenship. we encourage social studies educators working with secondary and post-secondary students to remember that students may have had inadequate early experiences with civic education as a result of a national trend toward reducing the already insufficient time allocated for social studies at the elementary level (davis & davis, 2007; leming et al., 2006; mceachron, 2010; rock et al., 2006). while it is vital that we attempt to reverse this trend, it is also more essential than ever before that we proactively provide secondary and post-secondary students with opportunities to develop civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions, especially that secondary education instruction should equip students with the appropriate civic knowledge and skills sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 21 (gutierrez, 2010). since our findings suggest that project citizen had a favorable impact on the pc participants’ beliefs about and understanding of civic responsibility, this curriculum offers one such opportunity. comparing project citizen and senior projects student learning participant responses to the question “what is the most important thing you learned through completing a senior project or project citizen?” identified valuable aspects of both experiences. eight out of 10 pc participants indicated the most important thing they learned had to do with bringing about community improvements or policy reform, an outcome consistent with project citizen’s primary goals. in contrast, the sp participants provided more varied answers. this result was not surprising, because senior project requirements vary greatly among school districts. nonetheless, in their responses to this same question, it was noteworthy that 15 sp participants indicated that they developed one or more of the following skills: knowledge of government, group interaction skills, time management, as well as research, writing, and presentation skills. each of these skills is also necessary to successfully complete project citizen. two sp participants indicated that their most important learning pertained to insights about life after high school, including a future career choice. perhaps, this positive outcome for these participants reflected the nature of the senior project requirements in their school districts. participating in project citizen seems less likely to help students directly identify career options since that is not a goal of the curriculum. two of the four critical responses from sp participants indicated they did not learn anything from their senior projects. one wrote: the only thing i learned is how to bullshit well and become more independent and reliant journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 22 upon myself. it is really pathetic to be honest. the project is a complete joke; i did it in under 5 hours and got an advanced grade. beneath this strongly-worded comment is the tacit suggestion that higher expectations or more structure could make the experience more meaningful. the other two participants explained specific aspects of their senior project that made the experience a negative one, such as unclear expectations and difficulty attaining community support. challenges for students the answers to the question “what was the most challenging part of your senior project or project citizen experience?” had the greatest amount of overlap between pc and sp groups. nine students in each group explained how one or more of the following four skills was challenging: effectively working with a group, time management, presenting, and drawing conclusions. we are reminded of an african proverb about the importance of facing and overcoming challenges: “smooth seas don’t make strong sailors.” indeed, the nine sp participants who considered one of the four skills mentioned above challenging also reported one of those skills to be the most beneficial thing they learned through the senior project. in contrast, only two of the pc participants identified one of the challenging skills as their most important learning. eight of the pc participants identified the importance of knowing of how to make changes in their communities. the high school senior who completed a senior project as well as project citizen praised the latter and criticized the former, stating “as a simple research paper, it lacks the skills needed in life and college: critical thinking, recognizing problems, and working with a group.” two of the six participants who provided critical comments about their experience with completing a senior project offered similar critiques, indicating the senior project process did not help them develop new skills or perspectives; they indicated that it felt like another high school assignment. the six participants who sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 23 provided critical feedback about senior projects described multiple and varied concerns. two participants were critical of the inconsistencies across school districts in terms of senior project expectations, suggesting that some district requirements were too easy while others were too difficult. another participant was critical of evaluation practices within one school that seemed inconsistent and unfair. two participants were critical that senior projects are a graduation requirement, with one stating, “it doesn't make sense for 4 years of time and work to come down to a semester long project determining graduation or not.” finally, one participant offered scathing criticism of his or her entire high school experience as well as senior projects, indicating that the tasks were too easy. recommendations for future study the open-ended responses to the civic responsibility question highlight an opportunity for future studies that involve interviews with high school graduates regarding their beliefs about civic responsibility. they can be asked “what do you think high school graduates should know about civic responsibility?” the follow up request, “please explain your answer” can lead to additional insights, particularly if participants articulate the belief that civic responsibility is unimportant. understanding the perspectives and background experiences of those who are not disposed toward civic engagement may yield information that can help educators identify ways to develop an interest in active citizenship among students. follow-up questioning of high school graduates who provide answers that confuse civic responsibility with personal skills like “respect others. being honest could take you further in life” could also yield valuable information about a perspective that seems problematic. as advocates for civic education, we were concerned about why six first-year college students did not answer the question. one of those six did not answer any of the open-ended questions, but the other five journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 24 provided compelling answers to other questions. while it is possible that these five students simply were apathetic about answering, it is also possible that they lacked the knowledge to answer. one possible way to improve the implementation of data collection in future studies would be to gather data in person rather than electronically. in contrast, eight of the pc participants described the importance of high school graduates knowing how to become informed about issues, form opinions, and take action. their responses suggest these young citizens have benefited from an education that is consistent with “a fundamental goal of schools in this democratic nation, [which] is to educate citizens so that self-governance can flourish” (ochoa-becker, 2007: xi). hence, we recommend longitudinal studies examine whether adults who completed project citizen as students use their civic skills to participate as engaged, active citizens in their communities. in this preliminary study, we identified a partial overlap of learning and skill development for pc and sp participants. pc participants also seemed more confident about their research skills than the sp participants, and all pc participants had a positive reaction to their learning experience while many sp participants were critical of the experience. based on these comparisons, we encourage educators seeking to implement senior projects to consider whether project citizen is an appropriate option for students in their school district. since teacher training is available for the curriculum, along with teacher and student guides, and trained teachers often participate in state-level networks for ongoing collegial support (center for civic education, 2011b), project citizen can be relatively easy to implement. the sp participants who provided a critique of their experience highlighted the importance of well-designed, clear, and meaningful senior project requirements. since expectations for senior projects vary among school districts and states, we cannot make one broad recommendation for how sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 25 to improve senior projects based on these critical comments, nor would it be appropriate to do so given our limited sample size. nevertheless, it seems reasonable to suggest that ensuring student buyin and engagement with senior projects is essential. we encourage educators and school district administrators to evaluate their senior project design and requirements based on feedback from recent graduates. we also recommend a national study of senior projects to identify best practices. conclusion since the goal of a public school education in the united states is to prepare youth to assume the responsibilities of citizenship, learning experiences should provide adequate preparation. the consequences may be dire if educators fail to do so. as ochoa-becker (2007) explained: self-governance is an imperative; citizens who are uninformed, who lack complex thinking processes, who lack commitment to democracy and its social justice values as well as those who lack social and political abilities will spell its demise unless they receive stronger education for their role as citizens. (p. 3) the results of this study suggest that our pc participants were prepared to be active citizens who participate in self-governance. the results also revealed that pc participants developed many of the same academic skills associated with senior projects. while our sample size was too small to generalize these findings, our results suggest that project citizen is an effective citizenship education that may also be a viable option as a senior project. we recommend that educators designing the requirements for high school graduation consider the importance of ensuring that high school graduates develop civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions. jaime’s words about high school graduates needing to know “the difference between talking about an issue and actually promoting change” serve as a reminder of the importance of an education in developing informed, active citizens. a high school diploma is insufficient–the united journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 26 states and the world need citizens who, like jaime, are willing to “stand up for [their] opinions and find an outlet for [their] concerns that will foster change.” sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 27 references black, s. (2000). tomorrow's citizens. american school board journal, 187(7), 48-51. branson, m. s. (1999). project citizen: an introduction. retrieved from http://www.civiced.org/papers/articles_branson99.html cawelti, g. (2006). the side effects of nclb. educational leadership, 64(3), 64-68. center for civic education. (2011a). civitas international programs. retrieved from http://new.civiced.org/programs/civitas center for civic education. (2011b). curricular programs. retrieved from http://new.civiced.org/programs/project-citizen craddock, a. w. (2007). developing context in international civic education projects. international journal of social education, 21(2), 123-141. davies, i., fulop, m., hutchings, m., ross, a., & berkics, m. (2004). citizenship and enterprise: issues from an investigation of teachers' perceptions in england and hungary. comparative education, 40(3), 363-384. davis, s. & davis, j. (2007). making the case for social studies—it’s our responsibility. nation council for the social studies: washington, d.c. retrieved from http://www.ncss.org/advocacy. feldmann, d. (2010). the creation of an effective pilot course in high school civics: the kentucky model. ohio social studies review, 46 (2), 29-35. glaser consulting group. (2004). an independent evaluation of civic education programs in jordan, egypt, and west bank 2002-2003. retrieved from http://www.civiced.org/index.php?page=project_citizen_research gutierrez, r. (2010). the prevailing construct in civic education and its problems. action in journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 28 teacher education, 32(2), 24-41. hinde, e. r. (2005). revisiting curriculum integration: a fresh look at an old idea. the social studies, 96(3), 105-111. hyslop-margison, e. j., hamalian, a., & anderson, g. (2006). a critical examination of empirical research: the case of citizenship education. theory and research in social education, 34(3), 395-407. idaho human rights education center. (2011). senior project. retrieved from http://idaho-humanrights.org/content/article.cfm?article_id=34 idaho state department of education. (2010). frequently asked questions about new high school graduation requirements. retrieved from http://www.sde.idaho.gov/site/hs_grad_requirements/faq.htm king, m. l. (1963, april 16). letter from a birmingham jail. retrieved from the african studies center at the university of pennsylvania: http://www.africa.upenn.edu/articles_gen/letter_birmingham.html laguardia, a., & pearl, a. (2009). necessary educational reform for the 2lst century: the future of public schools in our democracy. the urban review, 41(4), 352-368. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11256-008-0115-9 landsman, j., & gorski, p. (2007). countering standardization. educational leadership, 64(8), 40-44. leming, j. s., ellington, l., & schug, m. (2006). the state of social studies: a national random survey of elementary and middle school social studies teachers. social education, 70(5), 322-327. mason, t. c. (2009). civic education in emerging democracies. retrieved from sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 29 http://new.civiced.org/resources/papers-and-speeches mceachron, g. (2010). study of allocated social studies time in elementary classrooms in virginia: 1987-2009. the journal of social studies research, 34(2), 208-228. medina-jerez, w., bryant, c., & green, c. (2010). project citizen: students practice democratic principles while conducting community projects. science scope, 33(7), 71-75. medina-jerez, w., taylor, c., & bryant, c. (2009). the implementation of project citizen in bolivian schools: perspectives from three teacher educators. international journal of progressive education, 5(3), 6-24. nairne, j. (2008). evaluation of we the people: project citizen summer institutes: how professional development translates into classroom instruction. retrieved from http://www.civiced.org/pdfs/pc/pcsumminsteval2008.pdf national council for the social studies. (1994). the curriculum standards for social studies. silver spring, md: national council for the social studies. niemi, r. g., & junn, j. (1998). civic education: what makes students learn. new haven: yale university press. nussbaum, m. c. (2010). not for profit: why democracy needs the humanities. princeton, n.j: princeton university press. ochoa-becker, a. s. (2007). democratic education for social studies: an issues-centered decision making (2nd ed.). greenwich, ct: information age publishing. parker, w. c. (2003). teaching democracy: unity and diversity in public life. new york: teachers college press. pepper, k., burroughs, s., & groce, e. (2003). teaching civic education in a democratic society: a comparison of civic education in hungary and the united states. educational journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 30 foundations, 17(2), 29-51. quigley, c. (1995). the role of civic education. task force on civic education paper (eric document #403203). retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/ contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed403203 rock, t. c., heafner, t., o’connor, k., passe, j., oldendorf, s., good, a., & et al. (2006). one state closer to a national crisis: a report on elementary social studies education in north carolina schools. theory and research in social education, 34(4), 455-483. schulz, w., ainley, j., fraillon, j., kerr, d., & losito, b. (2010). initial findings from the iea international civic and citizenship education study. international association for the evaluation of educational achievement. retrieved from http://www.iea.nl/fileadmin/user_upload/iccs/iccs_2010_initial_findings.pdf senior project center. (2010). senior project overview. retrieved from http://www.seniorproject.net/senior_project_overview.html shaunessy, e. (2004). the senior project and gifted education. gifted child today, 27(3), 38-51. smith, j. & kovacs, p. (2010). the impact of standards-based reform on teachers: the case of ‘no child left behind.’ teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 17(2), 201-225. strauss, a. l., & corbin, j. m. (1998). basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. von zastrow, c. (2004). academic atrophy: the condition of the liberal arts in america’s public schools. washington, dc: council for basic education. westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2), 237-269. sara winstead fry & adil bentahar 31 appendix the impact of project citizen directions: please respond to the statements below using the following scale by circling the number that best represents your response. circle only one answer; do not circle between numbers or indicate a fraction or a range. strongly strongly agree agree disagree disagree [sa] [a] [d] [sd] 4 3 2 1 sa a d sd 1. i know how to contribute to positive change in my community. 4 3 2 1 2. when i am concerned about an issue in my community, i get frustratedif elected government officials don’t share my concerns. 4 3 2 1 3. most high school students are unconcerned about community issues. 4 3 2 1 4. when i am concerned about an issue in my community, i know how to contact policy makers to suggest changes. 4 3 2 1 5. when i am concerned about an issue in my community, i know how to 4 3 2 1 research the issue so i can understand it better. 6. if i disagree with someone about an issue, i can discuss the issue with him or her and use factual information to support my opinion. 4 3 2 1 7. i am confident presenting my ideas in writing. 4 3 2 1 8. i know how to select reliable websites when i conduct research. 4 3 2 1 9. when i conduct research about an issue, i know how to find books 4 3 2 1 relevant to the topic. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 1-23 32 10. i am comfortable presenting the results of research i conduct to an audience 4 3 2 1 ii. directions: please answer the following short-answer questions, being as detailed as possible. 11. what do you think high school graduates should know about civic responsibility? 12. what is the most important thing you learned through project citizen? 13. what was the most challenging part of your project citizen experience? 14. do you have any other comments? www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2), 130-144 newest web-technologies for studying and diagnosing individual abilities of learners yuliya s. nikolaeva1, nikolay i. pak2 abstract the relevance of the research is due to the need of taking into account the learners' cognitive characteristics in the educational process. knowing the personal qualities of people is also important when choosing an occupation or employment. this is why the paper is aimed at describing the opportunities of the newest web and mobile applications for studies and self-diagnostics of users based on the cloud technology of diagnosing the human individual and cognitive abilities. the leading approach to studying this problem is the projective and recursive strategy that allows viewing the problem of expert statistics accumulation and user diagnostic results analysis in an integrated way. the paper presents the developments in problem-solving computer environments for diagnosing human individual and integrated abilities. grounds are given for diagnostics of the main human cognitive abilities: the scope of memory and attention; information processing, reading, typing speeds and others. the website for developing the new diagnostics and conducting studies can be accessed by everyone with any browser via http://selftest.ufoproger.ru. the website has been developed by the university students under the guidance of professor n.i. pak. the materials of the paper are of practical value for teachers designing the educational process up to the learners' individual characteristics. keywords: web-diagnostics, self-diagnostics, cognitive abilities, assessment, training, individualization, giftedness. introduction objective diagnosing of cognitive characteristics is extremely important for ensuring the efficiency of any educational and upbringing process – from preschool upbringing up to the adult education. the methods (klahr & li, 2005, koedinger & aleven, 2007) of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics that are available in cognitive science have not turned systemic and mass scale so far. currently there are various websites for diagnosing human individual cognitive characteristics (auvinen et al., 2015, bloom, 1956, diamond, 2002) but they have no opportunities for conducting integrated studies and no broad consumer qualities for learners, teachers and educational process at educational institutions (gentner et al., 2001, goswami, 2001, ines reyes-cespedes & dominguez-claro, 2015). 1 assoc. prof., candidate of engineering, krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astafyev, nikolaeva_y_s@mail.ru 2 prof., doctor of pedagogy, head of the department, krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astafyev, nik@kspu.ru http://self-test.ufoproger.ru/ http://self-test.ufoproger.ru/ nikolaeva et al. the abilities diagnosing problems have never ceased to be relevant. the problems were acute for both soviet and post-soviet researchers as well. the diagnosing tests being developed (clique, 1984, nayser, 1981, teplov, 1961) were applied not everywhere and not always due to poor technical capacities for information processing. as of today, the lack of accessible, targeted and highly motivated technologies for repeatedly self-diagnosing one's own cognitive abilities considerably hinders the prompt detection of giftedness and cognitive characteristics variation in children, the successful vocational guidance for youth, and selection of the appropriate methods and training tools for adults. these problems are critical in quite a special way for today's russia under its upgrade of education. for example, this is the problem of creating elite schools and other educational institutions for gifted children. the modern russian school sees the trend of earlier diagnosing the "special" abilities and inclinations of students becoming increasingly widespread. starting virtually from the first year of schooling, they find out what the schoolchildren are keen on – the humanities or the natural sciences. the objective diagnostics of cognitive abilities of youth is important for the vocational guidance emphasis of their education as well as for their teachers in order to correct and develop the required cognitive characteristics ensuring the success of personality. as for adult education, this can be rendered more efficient by selecting the training techniques that are relevant to the adults' cognitive abilities. the objective of the work is to develop a cloud technology of diagnosing the human cognitive abilities and to create a web and mobile application for the users' statistical studying, standardizing and self-diagnosing on its basis. literature review the scientific and technical advance in cloud technologies (murillo & hernandez-castilla, 2015, nath & szücs, 2014) and research of mind allows creating systems that feature high intellectualization and automation of personal cognitive abilities diagnosing and development processes (jain et al., 2014, jong, 2016, karpov, 1964, konopkin, 1980) of innovative character (tarman, 2016). the information model of thinking and the adopted mechanisms of cognitive processes rely on the theory suggested by nayser (1981). another work (lishin et al., 1990) demonstrated a successfully completed project of creating a digital "smart" teacher – hyperbrain – which is capable of not only sending messages on studying to the learners but also transferring the experience based on the mental schemes platform. the relevance of creating an artificial collective mind as a knowledge cloud consists in the opportunities for expanding the resources of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 130-144 132 brain, its teaching and cognitive abilities. the most useful aspect in the practical employment of such artificial educational mind is diagnosing and developing the thinking as a whole and its individual components in particular (bazhenova & pak, 2016). in the soviet time, the problems of thinking, cognitive abilities and giftedness diagnostics were studied by a number of scholars (nayser, 1981, kholonaya, 2000, teplov,1961) and others. at those times, diagnosing was mainly performed using the psychological tests developed by the soviet scholars (kholonaya, 2000, teplov, 1961). the majority of tests were conducted "manually", without computers, which hindered both the performance and processing of the results. the psychological diagnostics of a personality's cognitive conditions are difficult to formalize, and sometimes they cannot be – due to the lack of relevant modeling for cognitive mechanisms. with regard to this, the most widespread way of solving the problem of computer diagnostics of human psychological and physical characteristics are expert and statistical methods (rassel & norvig, 2006). at present exist various diagnosing websites (gentner at al., 2001, goswami, 2001, ines reyes-cespedes & dominguez-claro, 2015) and technologies (krutka & carano, 2017) for human individual cognitive characteristics (auvinen et al., 2015, bloom,1956, diamond, 2002) where one can get diagnosed using various tests. the result of doing these tests is usually a static characteristics of a person determined by special keys. however, they do not focus on research done by the users themselves, while this is extremely important for self-analysis and decision making. for teachers, the research nature of the learners' cognitive abilities diagnosing procedures is especially valuable (waters & russell, 2016; cowgill ii & waring, 2017). hence the diagnosing websites have to be open, practice-oriented and of a projective character (pak, 2014, pak, 2015). methodological framework the study is based on the projective and recursive strategy (pak, 2014) of creating a software product for collective and distributed research and practice-oriented user activity based on a cloud platform. the normal reference cognitive characteristics are objectified on the basis of expert and statistical analysis methods as well as dynamic testing ones (philipp et al., 2015, richland et al., 2007). the project is targeted at detecting two categories of abilities. the first one is associated with the principal cognitive characteristics (richland et al., 2015, tarling & ng'ambi, 2016, von aufschnaiter et al., 2015, wiegner & willms, 1991, wineburg, 1991, zhang nikolaeva et al. et al., 2015) having already become traditional for people. it includes the scope of attention, the speed of calculation operations, reading, constructing actions etc. the second category deals with assessment and development of combined abilities: the level of learning, the speed of learning, the ability to work under limited information and time resources etc. it also involves finding out the abilities for the humanities and for the exact sciences. first of all, the structure and composition of human cognitive abilities that are analyzable by average statistics was determined and the concept of cloud technology for the diagnostic toolkit was developed. an initial set of diagnostics for machine-assisted realization of them in conditions of a web interface was selected, with problem-solving environments and diagnostic toolkit developed. to give an example, the following diagnostics were included into the basic composition of the first category:  the scope of attention is measured with the help of a sequence of alternating numbers and a pc game "paired cards";  the operational thinking speed is diagnosed by taking down the time of performing the arithmetic actions;  the speed of reading is determined by the quantity of words per unit time, with the ratio of understanding taken into account;  the speed of typing is registered by the time of creating a set text. diagnostics of the second category are targeted at assessment and development of the combined abilities, in particular: 1. the level of learning is calculated using the total feedback coefficient as described in the cited work (nikolaeva, 2012). 2. the speed of learning is calculated using the total feedback coefficient behavior curve (nikolaeva, 2010). the curve allows seeing how quickly the process of learning occurs for each learner individually. 3. the optimum time of work under the time resource limit. the optimum time is one for which a learner performs tasks solving activity without mistakes at a timing convenient for the learner. 4. the learning activity under the actions resource limit (nikolaeva, 2012). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 130-144 134 in order to solve a task, one has to perform a certain quantity of actions resulting in solving the task. the value is reduced as learning proceeds. so, for solving a task, a limited resource of actions one can use when solving the task is created. for solving each task, the learner gets a certain resource of actions. according to the equal cost model (novikov, 1998), each correct or incorrect action of the learner while solving the task reduces the value by one unit. the learner has to minimize spending of the resource, i.e. to find the optimum activity paths of searching for the target condition during the process of learning. results and discussion as of now, the website https://self-test.ufoproger.ru/ and a mobile application have been created for studies and diagnostics by human individual cognitive abilities. the diagnostics described in the previous sections have been implemented both in software and in the web environment. the website presents diagnostics subdivided into categories: 1. general. these self-diagnostics can be used by an average person. 2. for children. these self-diagnostics are for primary school students. 3. difficult. here the advanced difficulty assignments are collected. all categories employ the following procedures:  calculation of simple expressions – one has to perform assignments for addition, subtraction and multiplication operations against the clock;  jigsaw puzzles – against the clock, one has to put together visual images of the set pictures;  paired cards – one has to find paired cards in a large total of cards, with only two of them to be opened at once;  sequences – a sequence of digits has to be memorized, commencing with two digits, with one more added to the sequence at each stage;  simple arithmetic – multiplication and addition of two-digit and three-digit numbers;  text work – assessment of the speed of typing (one has to type a set text in a certain time without mistakes) and of reading (one has to read the text and answer the questions). currently there are over one hundred users on the website. all protocols of diagnostics (over two thousand of them) are stored in a special database for conducting the expert and statistical research. here are some examples of data that can be retrieved using the existing database: nikolaeva et al. 1. the "scope of attention" studies ("sequences" diagnostics) have shown that mainly the tested ones can remember a sequence of 3 symbols (28%). the highest quantity of symbols memorized by some testees is 8 symbols (10%). 2. the "operational thinking speed" cognitive characteristics was studied using the "simple arithmetic" diagnostics. while analyzing the data obtained, it can be seen that different age groups show different operational thinking speed. with the younger than 18 age group, the average quantity of correct mathematical operations per minute makes around 15,32 correct operations per minute. it is 9,56 operations with those aged 18-25 and 5,3 operations with the 2540-year-old group. the age group of over 40 years old figure is 4 operations per minute. 3. the "constructing abilities" cognitive characteristics is diagnosed using the "jigsaw puzzles" game. in the age group of under 18, the time of putting the puzzles together is about 24,6 sec., in that of 18-25 years old – 31,9 sec. it is 43,4 sec. with those aged 25-40 and 80,7 sec. with ones older than 40. 4. the "scope of attention" cognitive characteristics is diagnosed using the "paired cards" game. four age groups have been considered. notably, with those under 18 years old, the scope of attention makes roughly 45,8 pairs seen per minute. with the group aged 18-25, it is 71 pairs and with the group aged 25-40, the scope of attention counts 65 pairs. 63 pairs per minute are seen by those older than 40. 5. the "speed of reading" diagnostics has shown (fig. 1) that the average reading speed is higher in men (206 words/minute) than in women (159 words/min). figure 1. distribution according to the "speed of reading" diagnostics. the quantity of the tested ones is along the horizontal axis, the quantity of words per minute – along the vertical one. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 130-144 136 the "typing speed" diagnostics has found a high typing speed with people aged 18-25 (fig. 2). figure 2. distribution according to the "typing speed" diagnostics. the age of the tested ones is along the horizontal axis, the quantity of words per minute – along the vertical one. in order to diagnose the level and speed of learning (diyachuk et al., 2010, bortnovskiy & diyachuk, 2011), the optimum time of work and learning activity under the limited information resources, systems for automatic management of the learners' activity were designed. the automatic management systems allow controlling the learners' task solving against time resource limit and the limit of possible actions in verbal and algorithmic problem-solving environment (nikolaeva, 2010). they meet two requirements: first, the managing actions are aimed at forming the learners' behavior which allows obtaining the task solution; second, the interaction of learners and control center is that for achieving a useful result, i.e. error-free task solving. for processing the experimental data obtained during abilities diagnosing, a computer system of processing the learners' activity products. using this, various factors influencing the process of learning activity are studied (bush & mosteller, 1962). when working in problem-solving environments, learners perform actions that are subsequently analyzed with stored man-machine communication protocols. data were obtained characterizing the learners' activity: the level of learning, the speed of learning, the optimum time of work and learning activity under the limited information resources (nikolaeva, 2010). figure 3 shows learning curves in the scale of assignments completed. as a result of calculations, the speed of learning was obtained individually for each learner. nikolaeva et al. figure 3. the speed of learning in the scale of assignments completed: a) learner 1; b) learner 2; c) learner 3. the characteristics of the optimum task solving activity time in problem-solving environments were obtained. after processing of the data, it is clear that the activity time is reduced with each following assignment completed getting close to the optimum one. the parameter will be individual for each learner. by studying the quality dependence, one can judge about the character of the learners' activity. figure 4. work timing during task solving: a) of learner 1; b) of learner 2; c) of learner 3. (n is the number of assignment and t is the time resource in minutes). it is clear from the graph in fig. 4a that after completion of five assignments the time resource has settled at approximately the same value – 0,1 minute. with learner 2, the time resource has reached the value of 0,5 minute after 10-12 assignments (see fig. 4b), while the total of 15 assignments failed to bring learner 3 to the optimum work time (fig. 4c). the variation of work tempo shown in fig. 4 is explained by the students' oscillating attention during the learning activity. in particular, the work tempo variations of tested ones 1, 2 and 3 differ essentially in the amplitude and damping rate. the work tempo variation amplitude remained almost unchanged for tested one 3. the experiment has shown that a higher work rate is accompanied by the change of the cognitive component place in the structure of activity. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 130-144 138 the individual characteristics of learners were obtained as a result of activity under limited actions resource in solving the verbal and algorithmic problems. fig. 5 shows the experimental dependence of the actions resource scope allocated by the system for each assignment on the number of the assignment completed (nikolaeva, 2010) for different learners. figure 5. actions resource scope allocated by the system for solving the problem: a) for learner 1; b) for learner 2; c) for learner 3. n is the number of assignment and y is the resource of actions. these dependences allow concluding on what resource scope each learner needed for mastering the problem solving activity. from the dependence shown in fig. 5a it is clear that learner 1 has reduced the scope of resource allocated for him by the automatic activity management system to the minimum necessary one after 2-3 assignments. it can be seen in fig. 5b that learner 2 needed a larger resource for solving the problems yet the scope was reduced after 6-8 assignments. finally, from fig. 5c it follows that 15 assignments were not enough for learner 3 to master this activity. this time resource reduction results from the learners' achieving error-free activity in problem solving. the time needed for the activity is decreased approximating to a certain value of the optimum problem solving time. 1. the optimum activity tempo is not exactly predetermined by the external conditions but it is actively formed during self-adjustment. the information about the tested one's activity time resource spent for completion of i-th assignment and any change that is determined by previous i-1-th assignment time resource is especially significant. 2. the duration of the process of achieving the optimum time resource and its level largely depend on the extent of formation of self-adjustment mechanisms and the necessity to correct them in the course of activity. in order to ensure the efficiency of this process, temporal structure of the coherent activity should be optimized, the proportion of its cognitive and executive components should be modified, and the information attributes of learning activity nikolaeva et al. should be restructured. the information basis of learning activity has a dynamic nature on balance and changes depending on the learning stages, which influences the temporal parameters of the activity. the learners can benefit from this web technology when studying various subjects, e.g. mathematics, russian etc. by implementing the technology into the educational process, efficiency of learning can be enhanced and learning can be customized too. conclusion the focus of the modern education and social trends render the research of the learners' cognitive characteristics relevant. the opportunities of the newest web and mobile applications for diagnosing human individual abilities opened up lead to serious prospects of objectifying and giving the mass scale character to fast studies and a broad use of the users' computer diagnostics results. in the paper, a novel projective cloud environment is suggested for diagnosing the individual and cognitive abilities, with studies, development and actual diagnostics of characteristics to be selected provided for in it. the feature of the website designed consists in its projective and recursive strategy that allows viewing the problem of expert statistics accumulation and user diagnostic results analysis in an integrated way. meanwhile, any user is both a participant and a developer of the diagnosing environment. some diagnostics are original and authored, containing artificial intelligence elements. the initial set of diagnostics was selected in such a way because the methods of expert and statistical analysis of user results had to be applied. so, originally, the psychological diagnostics were selected for machine-assisted realization in conditions of a web interface. the problemsolving environments and diagnosing toolkits were developed. two categories of human abilities were also conceptually designed: the traditional principal cognitive characteristics – the scope of attention, the speed of calculation operations, reading, constructing actions etc.; and the integrated educational abilities – the level of learning, speed of learning, the ability to work under limited information and time resources. it is useful to employ the opportunities of the website at classes and for the students performing their year and diploma papers. for instance, the students of siberian federal university and of krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university are engaged into both developing the website and conducting their own research. similarly, teachers at pedagogical colleges of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 130-144 140 minusinsk and abakan teach their students to diagnose the citizens' cognitive abilities and to create their own diagnostics. the website can be of use for educational institutions for integrated surveys of the learners. it can also be applied by hr workers of enterprises and businesses in order to identify the professional aptitude of employees and applicants. to start work, use any browser to go to the website via the link http://self-test.ufoproger.ru and register on it. for creating one's own diagnostics, or for research, please contact the chief website administrator who will provide the rights and services as appropriate. acknowledgements the authors express their gratitude to the regional foundation for science, as the work has been performed with the support of the regional state autonomous institution "krasnoyarsk regional foundation for support of science, scientific and engineering efforts" within the implementation of the project "cloud technology of diagnosing the human cognitive abilities", 2017, code 2017031501764. http://self-test.ufoproger.ru/ nikolaeva et al. references auvinen, t., hakulinen, l. & malmi, l. (2015). increasing students' awareness of their behavior in online learning environments with visualizations and achievement badges. ieee transactions on learning technologies, 8(3), 261-273. bazhenova, i.v. & pak n.i. (2016). projective recursive technology of training in personally the focused education. pedagogical education in russia, 7, 7-15. bloom, b.s., ed. (1956). taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals; handbook i: cognitive domain. new york: longman. bortnovskiy, s.v. & diyachuk p.p. (jr), nikolaeva, yu.s. & surovtsev v.m. (2011). computer system of optimization of a resource of educational actions. open education, 6, 9. bush, r. & mosteller, f. (1962). stochastic models of learning ability. moscow: literature in physics and mathematics. clique, f. (1984). studying of abilities: on the way to cognitive diagnostics of intelligence. psychological journal, 4, 14-28. cowgill ii, d & waring, s . (2017). historical thinking: analyzing student and teacher ability to analyze sources. journal of social studies education research, 8 (1), 115-145. retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/29488/316360 diyachuk, p.p., nikolaeva, yu.s. & pustovalov, l.v. (2010). control system of the process of search of the solution of tasks in the conditions of restriction for resources. in: the controlling systems and machines, 2(226), 47-51,79. diamond, a. (2002). normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochemistry. in: stuss, d.t., knight, r.t., eds. principles of frontal lobe function. london: oxford university press, 466–503. gentner, d, holyoak, k.j., kokinov, b.n., eds. (2001). the analogical mind: perspectives from cognitive science. cambridge, ma: mit press, 1–19. goswami, u. (2001). analogical reasoning in children. in: gentner, d., holyoak, k.j., kokinov, b.n., eds. the analogical mind: perspectives from cognitive science. cambridge, ma: mit press, 437-470. ines reyes-cespedes, p. & dominguez-claro, z. (2015). diagnostic of the information technology in the disciplines related to physics in the mathematics-physics career. luz, 4, 96-107. http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=wos&search_mode=generalsearch&qid=5&sid=r2etb9iidi124zhtd3w&page=5&doc=41&cacheurlfromrightclick=no http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=wos&search_mode=generalsearch&qid=5&sid=r2etb9iidi124zhtd3w&page=5&doc=41&cacheurlfromrightclick=no journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 130-144 142 jain, g.p., gurupur, v.p., schroeder, j.l. & faulkenberry, e.d. (2014). artificial intelligencebased student learning evaluation: a concept map-based approach for analyzing a student's understanding of a topic. ieee transactions on learning technologies, 7(3), 267-279. jong, m.s.y. (2016). teachers' concerns about adopting constructivist online game-based learning in formal curriculum teaching: the visole experience. british journal of educational technology, 47(4), 601-617. karpov, v.v. (1964). signal programming of a time structure and the sequence of actions as a premise for self-checking in formation and regulation of personal speed. psychology questions, 2, 102-111. konopkin, o.a. (1980). psychological mechanisms of regulation of activity. moscow. klahr, d. & li, j.(2005). cognitive research and elementary science instruction: from the laboratory, to the classroom, and back. journal of science education and technology, 4, 217–238. koedinger, k.r. & aleven, v. (2007). exploring the assistance dilemma in experiments with cognitive tutors. educational psychology review, 19, 239–264. krutka, d.g. & carano, k.t. (2017). videoconferencing for global citizenship education: wise practices for social studies educators. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 109-136. kholonaya, m.a. (2000). principles and methods of identification of exceptional children. in: endowments: working concept / resp. ed. d.b. bogoyavlenskaya, b.d. shadrikov. moscow -samara: rpo publishing house, 22-28. lishin, o.v., krasnoplakhtova, l.i. & orlov, v.a. (1990). diagnostics of the level of formation of socially useful activity as a way of psychological characterization of the educationalprocess. psychological journal, 2(4), 98-106. murillo, f.j. & hernandez-castilla, r. (2015). leadership for learning: what are the principals' tasks that most impact in the student learning? relieve-revista electronica de investigacion y evaluacion educativa, 21(1), article number 1. nath, s. & szücs, d. (2014). construction play and cognitive skills associated with the development of mathematical abilities in 7-year-old children. learning and instruction, 32, 73-80. nayser, u. (1981). knowledge and reality. moscow: progress. nikolaeva et al. nikolaeva, yu.s. (2012). optimum operating time at the solution of tasks in verbal problem environments in the conditions of restriction for time resource. in: modern problems of informatization in a modeoirovaniye and the sotsitsialnykh technologies: the collection of works following the results of the xvii international open scientific conference. issue 17. voronezh, 158-161. nikolaeva, yu.s. (2010). control system and diagnostics of educational activity in verbal problem environments. control systems and information technologies, 1.2(39), 259-263. novikov, d.a. (1998). regularities of iterative learning. moscow: institute of the problems of contro l, ras. pak, n.i. (2014). expert systems based on the mental scheme. in: xv russian-korean scientific and technical conference. ekaterinburg, ural federal university, 04 05 july, 233-235. pak, n.i. (2015). visualization of information links in the information model of thinking. in: works of the international conference "2015 cis-korea conference on science and technology". moscow, 140-145. philipp, p., fischer, y., hempel, d. & beyerer, ju. (2015). framework for an interactive assistance in diagnostic processes based on the translation of uml activities into petri nets. international conference on computational science and computational intelligence (csci). las vegas, 732-737. rassel, s. & norvig, p. (2006). artificial intelligence: the modern approach. moscow: vilyams. richland, l.e. & simms, n. (2015). analogy, higher order thinking, and education. wiley interdisciplinary reviews: cognitive science, 6(2), 177-192. tarling, i. & ng'ambi, d. (2016). teachers pedagogical change framework: a diagnostic tool for changing teachers' uses of emerging technologies. british journal of educational technology, 47(3), 554-572. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, (1)1, 77-97. teplov, b.m. (1961). problems of individual distinctions. moscow. von aufschnaiter, c., cappell, j. & duebbelde, g. (2015). diagnostic competence theoretical considerations concerning a central construct of teacher education. zeitschrift für pädagogik, 61(5), 738-758. http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=wos&search_mode=generalsearch&qid=19&sid=r2etb9iidi124zhtd3w&page=1&doc=2&cacheurlfromrightclick=no http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=wos&search_mode=generalsearch&qid=19&sid=r2etb9iidi124zhtd3w&page=1&doc=2&cacheurlfromrightclick=no http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=wos&search_mode=generalsearch&qid=19&sid=r2etb9iidi124zhtd3w&page=1&doc=2&cacheurlfromrightclick=no javascript:; javascript:; journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 130-144 144 waters, s. & russell, w.b. (2016). virtually ready? pre-service teachers’ perceptions of a virtual internship experience, research in social sciences and technology, (1)1, 1-23. wiegner, i. & willms, l. (1991). activity-oriented process diagnostics among engineers of the deutsche-reichsbahn validity tests under field conditions. arbeitsmedizin, sozialmedizin präventivmedizin, 26(7), 269-289. wineburg, s.s. (1991). historical problem solving: a study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. journal of educational psychology, 83(1), 73. zhang, x.y., wang, s. & yun, x. (2015). bidirectional active learning: a two-way exploration into unlabeled and labeled data set. ieee transactions on neural networks and learning systems, 26(12), 3034-3044. civic education and the learning behaviors of youth in the online environment: www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(2), 22-42 © 2011 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 civic education and the learning behaviors of youth in the online environment: a call for reform barbara a. jansen1 abstract: scholarly discourse in political science and communication studies is replete with empirical evidence lamenting the decline in civic engagement and political participation among adolescents and young adults. scholars offer a variety of factors contributing to the disengagement of youth from the civic and political process including lack of attention paid to youth by politicians and the political process, the limited experience and a narrow frame of reference of young people in the political process, their aversion to traditional politics, and to poor quality courses and a decline in civic education in schools. youth frequently lack civic and political knowledge as well as information and communications technology and social skills needed to engage in public life due in large part to the superficial coverage of substantive civic topics in textbooks and concentrating on knowledge level information that focuses on rights to the exclusion of obligations and participation. civics curriculum often lacks opportunities for young people to embrace and communicate about politics on their own terms and frequently has little connection between the academic presentation of politics and the acquisition of skills that might help develop engaged citizens. current approaches to civic education are at odds with young people’s experiences of informal participation with their peers in a nonhierarchical network. traditional civics curriculum often treats subject matter as another academic subject with right or wrong answers arbitrated by the teacher as central authority and students in competition for grades. a growing body of literature discusses the affinity that youth have for internet use and the possibilities of new media to address disengagement and to enhance new forms of citizenship calling for pedagogical reform in civic education. keywords: civic education, civics curriculum, youth, citizenship, reform, communication studies, new media, knowledge, skills 1 m.ed., the university of texas at austin, bajansen@utexas.edu mailto:bajansen@utexas.edu� barbara a. jansen 23 introduction civic education and the learning behaviors of youth in the online environment: a call for reform scholarly discourse in political science and communication studies is replete with empirical evidence lamenting the decline in civic engagement and political participation among adolescents and young adults. delli carpini (2010) cites over ten individual empirical studies suggesting that youth are less likely to engage in forms of civic or political participation including voting, reading or watching news, community volunteerism and activism, in addition to having less trust in fellow citizens and lacking a sense of pride and obligation associated with american identity (p. 341-43). an additional paper reviews almost two dozen empirical studies suggesting “the retreat of today’s young americans” from participation in all arenas of public life such as political interest, efficacy, and involvement and high levels of civic detachment (bos, williamson, sullivan, gonzales, & avery, 2007, p. 1266). livingstone, bober, & helsper (2005) cite eight more studies worrying about the decline in youth participation from researchers and political actors and from youth themselves (p. 4). a synthesis of survey results shows a decline in face-to-face, local and election-related participation, interest in the news, and a failing trust in the press by young people (bennett, 2008, p. 5). the purpose of this paper it to identify, from the scholarly and conceptual literature, the reasons young people may opt out of political and civic engagement and offer ways grade schools can address the problem. problem scholars offer a variety of factors contributing to the disengagement of youth from the civic and political process. among the factors is a lack of attention paid to youth by politicians and the political process (delli carpini, 2010, p. 345), also referred to as a “cycle of neglect,” wherein due to the lack of participation by youth, campaigns, parties, and advocacy groups are less likely to pursue youth, which leads to continued apathy (walker, 2006, p. 27). youth have limited experience and a narrow frame of reference in the political process as they only know the current environment, which leads them to believe that their own participation is unlikely to affect change because they are “alienated from the institutions and processes of civic life and lack the motivation, opportunity, and ability to overcome this alienation” (delli carpini, 2010, p. 345). young people have an aversion to traditional politics, distrusting public officials and believing that policy making is “controlled by self-interested politicians and organized lobby groups” journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 24 (tapscott, 2009, p. 246), with their distrust, due not to disinterest, but to their perception that political systems have failed to engage them in a way that matches their ethical and digital upbringing (p. 246). state of civics education presenting disengagement as a symptom of institutional failure, bennett (2008) also blames cultural forces (p. 5) and the “withering away” of civic education (p. 7). many other scholars attribute the lack of engagement to poor civic education in schools (delli carpini, 2010, p. 345; galston, 2001, p. 222), and to decline in civic education courses (bachen, rafael, lynn, mckee, & philippi, 2008, p. 292), especially after no child left behind legislation left citizenship knowledge and skills far behind math and reading, and many school systems abandoning civic education altogether over the last 40 years (bennett, 2008, p. 16). a 2007 survey showed that “nearly half of the [school] districts surveyed cut instruction time in social studies . . . in favor of those subjects that are tested like reading and math” (cited in tapscott, 2009, p, 129; mcleod, shah, hess, & lee, 2010, p. 383). along with diminished offerings due to high-stakes testing, budget cutbacks and school boards’ fears of treating controversial issues contribute to a decline in civics courses in public schools (bachen, rafael, lynn, mckee, & philippi, 2008, p. 292). lack of knowledge and skills knowledge youth frequently lack civic and political knowledge as well as information and communications technology and social skills needed to engage in public life. the 2010 national civics exam administered by the u.s. department of education to 27,000 fourth, eighth, and twelfth grade students showed that the average score for fourth graders was higher than those recorded from 1998 and 2006, not significantly different from the score in either year at grade 8, and lower than the score in 2006 but not significantly different from the score in 1998 at grade 12 (national assessment of educational progress, 2011). in reference to these results, former u.s. supreme court judge sandra day o’connor stated “. . . we have a crisis on our hands when it comes to civics education” (dillon, 2011). general knowledge about how the government works to practical knowledge about contacting a public official or registering to vote is important for young people’s involvement in civic and political affairs. traditionally, civic education required students to memorize facts, what watkins (2011) calls the “who, what, and when model of civic javascript:openglossarywin('/glossary.asp#sig_diff')� http://nationsreportcard.gov/civics_2010/g8_national.asp� http://nationsreportcard.gov/civics_2010/g12_national.asp� barbara a. jansen 25 literacy” and the “primary source of information has been textbooks, a source of literacy that has not always been the most accurate or inclusive.” scholars are generally in agreement on the state of civics texts. a survey of three best-selling high school civics books indicated they contain references to “fewer political issues, protest politics were presented in a historical throwback to days before people won their civil rights, and government was idealized in terms of its representative and responsive capacities” (bennett, 2008, p. 16). an analysis of civics text books suggests that civics textbooks “disproportionately focus on rights, to the relative exclusion of obligations and participation” (bos, williamson, sullivan, gonzales, & avery, 2007, p. 1278). skills while youth are no less likely to lack organizational, communication, and leadership skills as in the past, they are much less likely to apply them to collective problem solving (delli carpini, 2010, p. 345). verba, schlozman, and brady (1995) define civic skills as the communications and organizational abilities that “allow citizens to use time and money effectively in political life” (p. 304). those who possess verbal (wide vocabulary and the ability to formulate an argument) and composition competency (ability to effectively write letters, give speeches, and organize meetings) will have the confidence to exercise those skills in public (p. 305). mcleod, shah, hess, & lee (2010) discuss “communications competence” that includes “effective searching for information, listening to other viewpoints, thinking and connecting ideas and perspectives, expressing opinions and ideas, and actively engaging with others in collective action” (p. 368). bennett (2008) asserts that civics curriculum often lacks “independent opportunities for young people to embrace and communicate about politics on their own terms” and frequently has “little connection between the academic presentation of politics and the acquisition of skills that might help develop engaged citizens” (p. 7). he presents a survey of over 90,000 fourteen-yearolds in 28 nations suggesting that “civic education, where offered, remains largely a textbook based experience, largely severed from the vibrant experiences of politics that might help young people engage with public life” (p. 7) and that a large portion of the educators and educational policy makers making decisions about curriculum are “older-generation, traditional citizens who assume that their model of citizenship needs to be assumed by future generations” (p. 16). bennett (2007) argues that current approaches to civic education are at odds with young people’s experiences of “peer-to-peer, nonhierarchical network participation” (p. 72). traditional civics journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 26 curriculum “often treats subject matter as another academic subject with right or wrong answers arbitrated by the teacher as central authority and students in competition for academic favor” (p. 72). a 1999 u.s. department of education study found almost 90% of ninth graders reading out of textbooks and filling out worksheets compared to less than 46% debating and discussing ideas, engaging in role play or mock trials, visiting with political leaders, or writing letters to express their opinions (cited in bennett, 2007, p. 72). add to the problems a lack of teacher training in new technologies (mcleod, shah, hess, & lee, 2010, p. 383), the profile of contemporary civic education is bleak particularly in light of the ict opportunities afforded by digital media technologies that are already familiar to most young people, resulting in a curriculum that clashes with young people’s sense of political reality and meaningful personal expression (bennett, 2008, p. 17). new media and youth engagement a growing body of literature discusses the affinity that youth have for internet use and the possibilities of new media to address disengagement and to enhance new forms of citizenship (e.g., bachen, rafael, lynn, mckee, & philippi, 2008, p. 293; delli carpini, 2010, p. 346; di gennaro & dutton, 2006, p. 299; livingstone, bober, and helsper, 2005, p. 4; livingstone, couldry, and markham, 2007, p. 21-22; ward, 2008, p. 514). the new media ecology (a) increases the speed with which information can be gathered and transmitted, (b) increases the volume of information that is easily accessible, (c) creates greater flexibility in terms of when information is accessed, (d) provides greater opportunity and mixes of interactivity (one to one, one to many, many to one, and many to many), (e) shifts the nature of community from geographic to interest based, (f) blurs distinctions between types of media (print, visual, and audio), (g) challenges traditional definitions of information gatekeepers and authoritative voices, and (h) challenges traditional definitions of producers and consumers of information. all of these characteristics have potential implications for the motivation, ability, and opportunity to become engaged in public life. (delli carpini, 2010, pp. 346-347) livingstone, couldry, & markham (2007) assert that the “architecture of the internet—its flexible, hypertextual, networked structure, its dialogic, interactive mode of address, its barbara a. jansen 27 alternative, even anarchic feel—particularly appeals to young people, fitting their informal, peeroriented, anti-authority approach, making this an environment in which they feel expert and empowered” (p.3). in the online environment it may be that young people feel more expert and empowered, especially by contrast with the traditional, linear, hierarchical, logical rule-governed conventions often used in conventional communications with youth (livingstone, 2009, p. 121) received by government and educational institutions. it is a venue in which youth are not “stigmatized by their age or specifically blocked from participation because of status” (youniss et al., 2002, p. 138). new media, civic engagement, and political participation livingstone (2009) suggests that since young people enjoy using the internet’s affordances to sustain and extend their communication networks, and spend considerable time doing so, that “this energy can be harnessed to civic ends” (p. 127). additionally, use of new media can create “public-spirited talk”—discussions about public affairs with friends and family (cited in mcleod, shah, hess, & lee, 2010, p. 374). these researchers also synthesize data from studies that suggest the internet is as an important source of political information among young people by its direct and indirect effects across a wide range of civic engagement, “from the expressive to the consumptive” (p. 380). a seminal study, supported by both the macarthur foundation and the center for information and research on civic learning, examined three types of behavior: politicallydriven online participation, online exposure to diverse perspectives, and interest-driven online participation. the researchers surveyed of over 2500 high school age youth and followed 350 youth for three and a half years. three major findings of the study should inform the future of civic education curriculum for state and federal standards reform, as well as district-level educators for developing and practicing effective and transformative pedagogy. the findings suggest that 1) spending time in online communities seems to promote engagement with society as youth involvement in interest-driven online communities was associated with increased volunteer and charity work and in increased work with others on community issues; that 2) “more youth are in empty chambers than echo chambers” with “individuals tend either to see many differing perspectives or none;” and that 3) digital media literacy education dramatically increased students’ exposure to diverse perspectives and boosted the likelihood of youth online engagement with civic and political issues,” implying that young people will benefit from a journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 28 strong media literacy education program that teaches them to use the full potential of new media (university of california humanities research institute, 2011). joseph kahne, the study’s main author, states that “[r]esearch demonstrates that many youth are disengaged from traditional forms of civic and political life but are very engaged with new media . . . our study findings strongly suggest is that there are ways to build on their engagement with digital media to foster engagement in civic life” (cited in university of california humanities research institute, 2011). participatory youth culture jenkins, clinton, purushotma, robison, & weigel (2009) define the activity that youth enjoy online as a “participatory culture,” a culture that has low barriers to artistic expression and civic engagement, strong support for creating and sharing one’s creations, and some type of information mentorship whereby what is known by the most experienced is passed along to novices (p. 7). a growing body of scholarship suggests potential benefits of participatory culture, including opportunities for peer-to-peer learning, a changed attitude toward intellectual property, the diversification of cultural expression, the development of skills valued in the modern workplace, and a more empowered conception of citizenship that can be integrated into formal learning. while many educators may want to frame the discussion around the effective and innovative use of technology in the classroom, the discussion needs to focus on how youth participate in the new media ecology and the possibilities those practices can have in formal civic education courses. ito et al. (2010) defines new media ecology as the intersection of more traditional media, such as books, tv, and radio, with digital media, specifically interactive media for social communication (p. 10). they suggest that the emergence of networked public culture may shape and transform social interaction, peer-based learning, and new media literacy among young people (pp. 18-26). ito et al. (2010) also identifies “friendship-driven and interest-driven genres of participation” as a way to describe the informal practices of learning and media engagement of youth (p. 17). within those genres of participation, youth “hang out” with friends by chatting on a social network or playing online games. most of these relationships, while maintained online, are developed and sustained face-to-face. driven by their own interests and motivations, young people also “mess around” by producing and sharing digital media, searching for needed or interesting information, looking around, experimenting, or simply playing. an additional genre of barbara a. jansen 29 participation, “geeking out,” finds youth delving deeper into one area of interest, displaying “an intense commitment or engagement with media or technology” (p. 65). these “geeks” learn to navigate “domains of knowledge and practice and [are] able to participate in communities that traffic in these forms of expertise” (p. 67). politics, as constructed by the news, becomes a spectator sport, something [youth] watch but do not do. yet, the new participatory culture offers many opportunities for youth to engage in civic debates, to participate in community life, to become political leaders, even if sometimes only through the ‘second lives’ offered by massively multiplayer games or online fan communities. (jenkins, clinton, purushotma, robison, & weigel, 2009, p. 10) participatory aspects of new media accessing and using interactive web 2.0 sites and tools such as blogs, social bookmarking, social networks, shared documents, video and photo editing sharing, and wikis affords students opportunities for critical thinking and development of creative ideas and products, while providing unique occasions for students to collaborate, solve collective problems, and share—which are all valuable skills. 38% of teens who use the internet share self-created content online (lenhart, purcell, smith, & zickuhr, 2010, p. 42), 14% blog, and 52% comment on friends’ blogs (p. 45). the popularity of youtube, myspace, and other new media sites that encourage user-generated content and communication suggests that the emerging digital media culture is increasing opportunities for young people to connect, engage, and create (montgomery, 2008, p. 29). participatory websites also allow access to information not contained in traditional sources (civics textbooks, subscription databases, library shelves, and read-only websites), such as historical and cont emporary political videos available on youtube, and wikipedia’s current or lesser-known civic and political topics not available in britannica or world book online or print encyclopedias. negative aspects of new media on political participation and civic engagement while scholars offer ample evidence that youth are engaged through the new media ecology, not all agree that the internet is an end-all for promoting participation among young people. “it seems to be widely assumed that the [i]nternet can facilitate participation precisely journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 30 because of its interactivity, encouraging its users to ‘sit forward’, click on the options, find the opportunities exciting, begin to contribute content, come to feel part of a community and so, perhaps by gradual steps, shift from acting as a consumer to increasingly (or in addition) acting as a citizen” (livingstone, bober, & helsper, 2005, p. 5). a misguided notion may be that youth will want to “suddenly be involved with politics and decision making because the internet makes it trendy” (as cited in selwyn, 2007, p. 137). furthermore, there is some evidence to suggest that the internet provides a venue to pursue already existing civic interests rather than encouraging new political interests (livingstone, couldry, & markham, 2007, p. 26). digital participation divide while new technologies provide ways to attend to and participate in the public sphere, they require access and skills to use them effectively. milner (2009) contends that while “the digital technologies can boost civic literacy and the proportion of citizens with the knowledge and skills to be effective citizens,. . . they can also exacerbate class-based gaps in such knowledge and skills” (p. 17). almost all youth have access to the internet (lenhart, purcell, smith, & zickuhr, 2010, p. 9; livingstone, couldry, and markham, 2007, p. 21), but low income youth often lack broadband access at home and depend on their school or public library (which offer filtered access and frequently block participatory media), or a friend’s house for access therefore creating a limited or no access to “networks of informal education and support that make navigating the challenges of digital citizenship more manageable” (watkins, 2009, p. 33) which transforms the digital divide, or gap, into one of participation. “as digital media technology evolves into a dynamic form of literacy, personal expression, and involvement in civic life, the participation gap between poor and affluent kids grows more urgent” (watkins, 2009. p.32). jenkins (2006) argues that we need to confront the cultural factors of race, class, and language differences that “amplify these inequalities in opportunities for participation” (p. 269). additionally, teachers who are employing effective strategies in civics classrooms and transforming the learning experiences for their students tend to be in more affluent schools (haste, 2010, p. 183; mcleod, shah, hess, & lee, 2010, p. 383). an analysis of the 1999 international association for educational achievement indicates that favorable attitudes toward a range of political activities were associated with the degree to which “classrooms were more open, interactive, and focused on participation,” but that these characteristics were less likely to occur in mixed-race classrooms (cited in bennett, 2007, p. 72). barbara a. jansen 31 to close this skill-based digital divide, young people need to develop “an ict form of literacy akin to, and comprising, print literacy” (milner, 2009, p. 12), what media scholars and educators refer to as media literacy. schools need to “make concerted efforts toward developing . . . communications competencies” (mcleod, shah, hess, & lee, 2010, p. 368). in other words, there is need for reform in civic education. call for reform in civics education the need to educate a generation of politically active and civically engaged citizens has resulted in growing consensus that the character of pedagogy must shift from the student as a passive consumer of political and civic knowledge delivered by a teacher and textbook, to someone who can use a wide range of resources in collaborating with others to solve authentic problems, create and share content, and deliberate on and communicate a range of knowledge and ideas. the partnership for 21st century skills succinctly categorizes these participatory skills into “the four cs—critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration, communication, and creativity and innovation” (partnership for 21st century skills). national organizations and the federal government recognize the need to develop new standards that promote skills and attitudes to engage all students in a participatory environment while encouraging problem solving and collaboration. in 2007, two organizations updated their standards to address those needs. the american association of school librarians’ (aasl) standards for the 21st century learner has students using skills, tools, and resources to gain and share knowledge, participate in an ethical manner, produce content that effectively satisfies a purpose, and think critically, among others (2007, p. 3). the international society for technology in education’s (iste) national education standards for students include creativity and innovation, communication and collaboration, research and information fluency, and digital citizenship (2007). the u.s. department of education’s recently released national educational technology plan asserts that … 21st century competencies and expertise such as critical thinking, complex problem solving, collaboration, and multimedia communication should be woven into all content areas. these competencies are necessary to become expert learners, which we all must be if we are to adapt to our rapidly changing world over the course of our lives, and that involves developing deep understanding journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 32 within specific content areas and making the connections between them. (2010, p. xvi) although heavy in content, the national council for the social studies also revised its standards to include a strand dealing with civic ideals and practices. in the early grades, students are introduced to civic ideals and practices through activities such as helping to set classroom expectations, examining experiences in relation to ideals, participating in mock elections, and determining how to balance the needs of individuals and the group. during these years, children also experience views of citizenship in other times and places through stories and drama. by the middle grades, students expand their knowledge of democratic ideals and practices, along with their ability to analyze and evaluate the relationships between these ideals and practices. they are able to see themselves taking civic roles in their communities. high school students increasingly recognize the rights and responsibilities of citizens in identifying societal needs, setting directions for public policies, and working to support both individual dignity and the common good. they become familiar with methods of analyzing important public issues and evaluating different recommendations for dealing with these issues. (“civic ideals and practices,” 2010) however, even with new national standards in place, articulated participatory skills, access to engaging and effective online tools and resources, and the public call for reform—note the documentary “waiting for superman”—the state of civics education remains firmly locked in the traditional practices of teacherand textbook-delivered content and students as passive, bored, and disconnected consumers of that static knowledge. toward a pedagogical reform in civic education the dominant model of political science in the 1960s, a “functionalist model,” asserted that it was “necessary for citizens to learn a basic set of facts, beliefs, and behaviors reflecting a unified political system” by “portraying societies as a unified whole,” but has since given way to focusing on communities as arenas where many forces with differing interests are contending barbara a. jansen 33 (mcleod, shah, hess, & lee, 2010, p. 372). watkins’s (2011) discussion of civic education shows it historically as “targeted toward immigrant, non-english speaking, or racially and ethnically diverse students has been designed to construct loyal, obedient, and patriotic citizens [and that] . . . [in] the “1960s and 1970s, uprisings around racial and sexual equality civic education—especially issues like who and what topics should be included in civic and history textbooks—began to reflect the push for greater inclusion and diversity in our civic imagination.” watkins (2011) also asserts that perceptions of civic literacy—what students should know about the american democratic experiment—has “evolved as a result of various social, political, cultural, and economic pressures.” four decades of communication research has drastically changed the “conception of youth from a passive recipient of influence to a more active participant in seeking and using information to make sense of the world” (mcleod, shah, hess, & lee, 2010, p. 372). bennett (2007) contends that most policy makers define and fund traditional civic education programs that promote the knowledge and behaviors to develop what calls the “dutiful citizen,” one who 1) sees an “obligation to participate in government-centered activities,” 2) understands that “voting is the core democratic act,” 3) who “becomes informed about issues and government by following mass media,” and 4) “joins civil society organizations or expresses interests through parties that typically employ one-way conventional communications to mobilize supporters” (p. 63). but the challenge for civic education, bennett (2007) argues, is to figure out “how to integrate and adapt these conventional dc [dutiful citizen] virtues to the changing civic orientations of the new ‘self-actualizing citizen’” (p. 62). this emerging citizen is one who has 1) a “diminished sense of government obligation and a higher sense of individual purpose,” 2) feels that “voting is less meaningful than . . . acts such as consumerism, community volunteering, or transnational activism,” 3) whose “mistrust of media and politicians is reinforced by negative mass media environment,” and 4) “favors loose networks of community activism [that are] often established or sustained through friendships and peer relations and thin social ties maintained by interactive information technologies” (bennett, 2007, p. 63). while textbooks will most likely remain central to the civics curriculum, students are well served to construct their learning from a variety of print and digital resources. watkins (2011) asserts that “emerging digital media platforms will be key in the effort to engage, invigorate, and create an informed citizenry.” journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 34 digital resources, he states, can be used to teach basic facts but should also be appropriated to engage young people in “doing civics.” asserting that “research indicates that not only do students prefer interactive learning environments, but that these environments matter for the translation of civics skills into civic practice,” bennett (2007) then cites empirical evidence suggesting that those students who participated in debate in high school were more likely to participate in many areas of civic and political activity when they entered public life (p. 72). the development of new communication skills, increased political knowledge, and the formation of attitudes that often lead to civic activity have been linked to discussion and debate of controversial issues in the classroom, particularly those that young people view as important to their lives (cited in mcleod, shah, hess, & lee, 2010, p. 369). as “democracy involves public discussion of common problems, not just silent counting of individual hands,” deliberation with others who hold differing views “as a form of authentic instruction . . . prepare[s] young people to participate fully and competently in a form of political engagement that is important in integration with the social world (cited in mcleod, shah, hess, & lee, 2010, p. 370). young people prefer the features of interactive media, “echo[ing] previous research in the field of civic education, which indicates that traditional, passive learning techniques such as memorization and recitation tend to be ineffective in the classroom” (bachen, rafael, lynn, mckee, & philippi, 2008, p.294). however, educators must be cautioned against appropriating new media tools and skills on existing knowledge practices and pedagogies without first addressing some of the fundamental problems (haste, 2010, p. 183; selwyn, 2007, p. 136). haste (2010) suggests that educators “shift their perspectives away from the top-down conduit model in which the teacher facilitates and scaffolds how and what children learn, [and] instead . . . use a more bottom-up model in which the teacher is the choreographer of children working collaboratively and critically, as agents of their own learning, [which] requires transformation in managing the learning process (haste, 2010, p. 183). selwyn (2007) argues that citizenship education would be improved by a “bottom-up approach to school’s relationships with, and appropriations of, technology” and that instead of schools controlling and restricting the use of icts, that technology use should be driven by students (p. 141). barbara a. jansen 35 participation in civics education the mixture of classroom learning and participatory activity remains a major theme in scholars’ thinking today. leveraging the informal learning behaviors that youth employ in the new media ecology in formal civic education courses may increase motivation and develop positive attitudes toward the subject, transferring into actual practice when they enter public life as adults. although it is recognized that knowledge is essential to good citizenship, principles of learning suggest that knowledge alone is insufficient and that active partic ipation is necessary to bolster students’ civic involvement. evidence indicates that the effectiveness of civic education is raised when “students are given opportunities to participate in communities’ on-going political process, ranging from voluntary service to efforts to increase voter turnout . . . [and that] schools themselves should be viewed as an important microcosm in which students have direct experience of due process, orderly conflict resolution, and adherence to principles of human rights” (cited in youniss et al., 2002, p. 140). verba, schlozman & brady (1995) assert that education affects participation by imparting information about government and politics, and by encouraging attitudes such as a sense of civic responsibility or political efficacy that predispose an individual to political involvement (p. 305). new media and participation digital media technologies are now a central component of civic and political life, especially for young people. a study cited in kahne, fezzell, & lee (2010) found that 37% of young people ages 18–24 got campaign information during the 2008 presidential election from social networking sites—more than those who used newspapers (p. 2). findings from another study indicate that “when youth have opportunities to learn how to engage in online political activities, they become more likely to do so, [and] since online participation is a support for offline participation as well, digital media literacy education may also support broader civic and political engagement as well as increasing the frequency that youth are exposed to diverse viewpoints (kahne, feezzell, & lee, 2010, pp. 14-15). bennett (2007) claims that media literacy training can develop an awareness of integrating “dc [dutiful citizen] information skills into the often discouraging real world media experiences” of young people (p. 68). haste (2010) suggests that accessing information in the new media ecology “requires educators to rethink some basic assumptions” (p. 177), wherein the young person becomes an active [information] seeker with no restraints, able to modify the sites she accesses by being a “collaborator in the creation and the journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 36 processing of knowledge” (cited on p. 177), and most likely will work “collaboratively with friends with whom she has face-to-face contact” or has never met (p. 177). information skills a review of literature intending to explore how young people actually use the internet for information seeking provides little data to help explain why and how youth access and use civic and political information. a few studies offer limited data. evidence suggests that, currently, young people are predominantly engaging in civic activity as information seekers and in this context, the internet is primarily used as a form of light civic engagement, as an information source, and as a tool for preparing for civic engagement, be it through research, organizational tips, or communication to others about an event or cause (ohlin, heller, byrne, & keevy, 2010, p. 119). however, the propensity for younger people to participate online was found were the most likely to say that they would turn to the internet first to look for information only in their information seeking behavior and not in the more active behavior of contacting politicians (di gennaro & dutton, 2006, p. 307; ohlin, heller, byrne, & keevy, 2010, p. 309). ohlin, heller, byrne & keevy (2010) also found that other types of information seeking behaviors, such as looking for current and local news were all more common than looking for political information, which helped confirm their hypothesis that younger people are the “most likely to use the internet for information because of their greater familiarity with the internet” (p. 309). xenos & foot (2008) found the eighteento twenty-nine-year-old age group was the most likely age group to seek political information online during the 2004 elections (p. 54). these spare findings suggest educators aim lessons “at more critical deconstruction and use of available information channels, and at finding channels that address the issue at the center of the learning experience” (bennett, 2007, p. 68). digital media literacy education in addition to deliberate teaching of information fluency processes and skills, media literacy scholars have identified a set of social skills and cultural competencies that young people need if they are to be “full, active, creative, and ethical participants in this emerging participatory culture (jenkins, clinton, purushotma, robison, & weigel, 2009, p. 56) and while this set of skills is generalizable, mastery should go a long way in developing attitudes and competencies that will further civic engagement and political participation. these social and cultural competencies include barbara a. jansen 37 • play: the capacity to experiment with your surroundings as a form of problemsolving. • performance: the ability to adopt alternative identities for the purpose of improvisation and discovery. • simulation: the ability to interpret and construct dynamic models of real world processes. • appropriation: the ability to meaningfully sample and remix media content. • multitasking: the ability to scan one’s environment and shift focus as needed to salient details. • distributed cognition: the ability to interact meaningfully with tools that expand mental capacities. • collective intelligence: the ability to pool knowledge and compare notes with others toward a common goal. • judgment: the ability to evaluate the reliability and credibility of different information sources. • transmedia navigation: the ability to follow the flow of stories and information across multiple modalities. • networking: the ability to search for, synthesize, and disseminate information. • negotiation: the ability to travel across diverse communities, discerning and respecting multiple perspectives, and grasping and following alternative norms. (jenkins, clinton, purushotma, robison, & weigel, 2009, p. 56). examples offered suggest that many schools and educators are: experimenting with new media technologies and the processes of collaboration, networking, appropriation, participation, and expression that they enable. . . [by] engaging students in real-world inquiries that require them to search out information, interview experts, connect with other students around the world, generate and share multimedia, assess digital documents, write for authentic audiences, and otherwise exploit the resources of the new participatory culture. (jenkins, clinton, purushotma, robison, & weigel, 2009, p. 57). journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 38 the challenge remains in disseminating these ideals and practices to all civic education classrooms, so that all young people’s have similar opportunities. conclusion in order for today’s young people to engage deliberately in civic and political life and participate effectively in the democratic process, policy makers and educators must ensure that all grade school students have access to formal civics education that contains relevant knowledge and skills, and is presented through a student-centered pedagogy which includes practicing social and cultural competencies while engaging in the use of participatory online tools and digital resources. evidence suggests that “learning environments that emphasize old style, fact based teacher-centered pedagogy may succeed in imparting abstract facts and skills of the sort that can be tested, but, . . . they do not help young citizens translate that knowledge into later civic practice” (bennett, 2007, p. 73). bennett (2008) contends that the “educators . . . who design civic education programs . . . can benefit from learning how generational social identities and political preference formation are changing so that they can design more engaging civic education models” (p. 12). there are many implications for further research, especially in how direct instruction by teachers and school librarians in the full range of media literacy and information fluency skills in civics education may correlate to knowledge attainment, positive civic engagement, and political participation of youth. another area with limited empirical evidence is the impact that mobile devices, such as smart phones and tablets, may have on youth’s participation in the public sphere (lenhart, 2010; watkins, 2009). but rheingold (2008) cautions that “media technologies and practices are moving too quickly for us to wait for empirical understanding of changed learning and teaching styles before engaging young people with the civic potential of participatory media,” as it is vital to the “future of the public sphere . . . that young people should be included . . . in the discussion of how they are to be educated as citizens” (p. 114). indeed, we need empirical study of the fundamental hypotheses underlying the approach that [he] advocate[s]—that active use of networked media, collaboration in social cyberspaces, and peer production of digital cultural products has changed the way young people learn and that their natural attraction to participatory media could be used to draw youth into civic engagement. (rheingold, 2008, p. 114) barbara a. jansen 39 the empirical and conceptual literature suggesting that today’s young people are disengaged also provides limited examples of how youth are engaged socially and civically through the new media ecology. if there is a perceived need for youth to participate in the democratic process through deliberation and civic engagement then policy makers and educators need to reform pedagogy in civic education to become more student-centered and model democratic processes in the classroom. references american association of school librarians. (2007). standards for the 21st-century learner. in guidelines and standards. retrieved from american library association website: http://www.ala.org///////.cfm bachen, c., rafael, c., lynn, k. m., mckee, k., & philippi, j. (2008, july). civic engagement, pedagogy, and information technology on web sites for youth. political communication, 25(3), 290-310. doi:10.1080/ bennett, w. l. (2007). civic learning in changing democracies: challenges for citizenship and civic education. in p. dahlgren (ed.), young citizens and new media: learning for democratic participation (pp. 59-77). new york, ny: routledge. bennett, w. l. (2008). changing citizenship in the digital age. in w. l. bennett (ed.), civic life online: learning how digital media can engage youth (pp. 1-24). cambridge, ma: the mit press. bos, a. l., williamson, i., sullivan, j. l., gonzales, m. h., & avery, p. g. (2007). the price of rights: high school students’ civic values and behaviors. journal of applied social psychology, 36(6), 1265–1284. doi:10.1111/.1559-1816.2007.00212.x civic ideals and practices. (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies: chapter 2— the themes of social studies. retrieved april 2, 2011, from national council for the social studies website: http://www.socialstudies.org// delli carpini, m. x. (2010, june). gen.com: youth, civic engagement, and the new information environment. political communication, 17(4), 341-349. doi:10.1080/ di gennaro, c., & dutton, w. (2006, march). the internet and the public: online and offline political participation in the united kingdom. parliamentary affairs, 59(2), 299–313. doi:10.1093// journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 40 dillon, s. (2011, may 4). young students largely in dark on civics, test finds. the new york times, education. retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/// //.html?_r=1&ref=nationalassessmentofeducationalprogress galston, w. a. (2001, june). political knowledge, political engagement, and civic education. annual review of political science, 4, 217-234. doi:10.1146/.polisci.4.1.217 haste, h. (2010). citizenship education: a critical look at a contested field. in l. r. sherrod, j. torney-purta, & c. a. flanagan (eds.), handbook of research on civic engagement in youth (pp. 161-188). retrieved from http://catalog.lib.utexas.edu/ international society for technology in education. (2007). 2007 standards. in national education technology standards [for students]. retrieved from http://www.iste.org//////_for_students_2007.htm ito, m., baumer, s., bittanti, m., boyd, d., cody, r., herr-stephenson, b., . . . lange, p. c. (2010). hanging out, messing around, and geeking out: kids living and learning with new media. cambridge, ma: the mit press. jenkins, h. (2006). convergence culture: where old and new media collide. new york, ny: new york university press. jenkins, h., clinton, k., purushotma, r., robison, a. j., & weigel, m. (2009). confronting the challenges of a participatory culture: media education for the 21st century . retrieved from the john d. and catherine t. macarthur foundation website: http://digitallearning.macfound.org///%7b7e45c7e0-a3e0-4b89-ac9ce807e1b0ae4e%7d/_white_paper.pdf kahne, j., feezzell, j. t., & lee, n. (2010, november 8). digital media literacy education and online civic and political participation (monograph). retrieved from university of california irvine youth & participatory politics website: http://ypp.dmlcentral.net//medialiteracy-education-and-online-civic-and-political (working paper, cited with permission of author) lenhart, a., purcell, k., smith, a., & zickuhr, k. (2010, february). social media and young adults: social media and mobile internet use among teens and young adults. retrieved from pew internet & american life project website: http://www.pewinternet.org///mediaand-young-adults.aspx barbara a. jansen 41 livingstone, s., bober, m., & helsper, e. (2005). active participation or just more information?: young people’s take up of opportunities to act and interact on the internet. information, communication, and society, 8(3), 287-314. doi:10.1080/ livingstone, s., couldry, n., & markham, t. (2007). youthful steps towards civic participation: does the internet help? in b. d. loader (ed.), young citizens in the digital age: political engagement, young people and new media (pp. 21-34). london: routledge. livingstone, s. (2009). children and the internet: great expectations, challenging realities. cambridge, uk: polity press. mcleod, j., shah, d., hess, d., & lee, n.-j. (2010). communication and education: creating competence for socialization into public life. in l. r. sherrod, j. torney-purta, & c. a. flanagan (eds.), handbook of research on civic engagement in youth (pp. 363-389). retrieved from http://catalog.lib.utexas.edu/ milner, h. (2009, september). the internet: friend or foe of youth political participation. paper presented at 5th biennial conference of the european consortium for political research, potsdam, germany. retrieved from http://internet-politics.cies.iscte.pt///.pdf montgomery, k. c. (2008). youth and digital democracy: intersections of practice, policy, and the marketplace. in w. l. bennett (ed.), civic life online: learning how digital media can engage youth (pp. 25-49). cambridge, ma: the mit press. national assessment of educational progress. (2011). civics 2010: summary of major findings. retrieved april, 2011, from u. s. department of education website: http://nationsreportcard.gov/_2010/.asp ohlin, j., heller, a., byrne, s., & keevy, n. (2010). how young people participate in civic activities using internet and mobile technologies. retrieved from national youth affairs research scheme website: http://www.deewr.gov.au/////.pdf partnership for 21st century skills. (2004). our mission. in about us. retrieved october 1, 2010, from partnership for 21st century skills website: http://www.p21.org/ index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=188&itemid=110 selwyn, n. (2007). technology, schools and citizenship education: a fix too far? in b. d. loader (ed.), young citizens in the digital age: political engagement, young people and new media (pp. 129-142). london: routledge. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 22-42 42 tapscott, d. (2009). grown up digital: how the net generation is changing your world. new york: mcgraw hill. university of california humanities research institute. (2011, february 23). does the internet make for more engaged citizens? for many youth, the answer is yes, according to a new study by civic learning scholars [press release]. retrieved april 10, 2011, from john d. and catherine t. macarthur foundation website: http://www.macfound.org////.aspx?c=lklxj8mqkrh&b=4294243&ct=9139903 u.s. department of education office of educational technology. (2010, november). transforming american education: learning powered by technology. retrieved november 13, 2010, from u.s. department of education website: http://www.ed.gov// verba, s., schlozman, k. l., & brady, h. e. (1995). voice and equality: civic voluntarism in american politics. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. walker, t. (2006, spring). “make them pay attention to us”: young voters and the 2004 election. national civic review, 95(1), 26-33. doi:10.1002/.128 ward, j. (2008, october). the online citizen-consumer: addressing young people’s political consumption through technology. journal of youth studies, 11(5), 513-526. doi:10.1080/ watkins, s. c. (2009). the young & the digital: what the migration to social-network sites, games, and anytime, anywhere media means to our future. boston: beacon press. watkins, s. c. (2011, april 25). what should civic learning look like in an age of social and technological change? retrieved april 27, 2011, from digital media and learning research hub, university of california humanities research institute website: http://www.dmlcentral.net//craig-watkins/should-civic-learning-look-age-social-andtechnological-change xenos, m., & foot, k. (2008). not your father’s internet: the generation gap in online politics. in w. l. bennett (ed.), civic life online: learning how digital media can engage youth (pp. 51-70). cambridge, ma: the mit press. youniss, j., bales, s., christmas-best, v., diversi, m., mclaughlin, m., & silbereisen, r. (2002). youth civic engagement in the twenty-first century. journal of research on adolescence, 12(1), 121–148. doi:10.1111/.00027 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4),127-152 127 the relationship between university autonomy, lecturer empowerment, and organizational citizenship behavior in indonesian universities ahmad suriansyah1, aslamiah2, noorhapizah3, iwan winardi4, juhriyansyah dalle5 abstract the purpose of this study was to bring forth academics’ opinion or assessment regarding university autonomy, lecturer empowerment, and organizational citizenship behavior, and to establish the existing correlations among these three variables. a descriptive and correlational survey method was used, taking into consideration 350 lecturers from five universities, all found in south kalimantan, indonesia. data were collected using a research instrument comprising of 199 items. these items were categorized into three forms, basing on the three variables, that is university autonomy, which was identified as ua with 77 items; lecturer empowerment, shortened to le with 52 items; and organizational citizenship behavior, coded as ocb with 69 items. a pilot study was conducted to ensure that all items and instruments used were tested for validity and reliability. data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and pearson product-moment correlation. the results reveal that university academics sampled from the five premier universities believe that their universities meet the criteria for the established three variables of ua, le, and ocb. it is, therefore, concluded that there is a moderate understanding of the variables and also a significant relationship existing among them. keywords: university autonomy, lecturer empowerment, organizational citizenship behavior. introduction organizationally, a university can be considered as an institution with an open system that is constantly being affected by the change in both its external and internal operations (akech, 2014). globalization and internationalization trends greatly affect this change, hence influencing most of these universities’ mission and vision statements, making them behave as corporate bodies in the pursuit of knowledge creation, innovation, quality, and excellence teaching at national and international levels (reisberg et al., 2012). 1 prof. universitas lambung mangkurat, banjarmasin, indonesia, a.suriansyah@ulm.ac.id 2 prof. universitas lambung mangkurat, banjarmasin, aslamiah.fkip.unlam@gmail.com 3 dr. universitas lambung mangkurat, banjarmasin, indonesia, noorhapizah@ulm.ac.id 4 kementerian riset teknologi dan pendidikan tinggi republik indonesia, jakarta, indonesia 5 dr. universitas lambung mangkurat, banjarmasin, indonesia, j.dalle@ulm.ac.id mailto:a.suriansyah@ulm.ac.id mailto:aslamiah.fkip.unlam@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 most changes have been brought about by the rapid developments from the fields of digital information technologies, the democratization of higher education, and the diversification of production of new kinds of knowledge workers (kromydas, 2017). for instance, in the u.s.a., the national priorities in terms of defense and economy have constantly shaped the orientation and development of knowledge production in university laboratories since the 1940s until today (hussin, 1996). on the other hand, internally the faculties, departments, and academics have to make necessary responses proactively and positively towards the changing trends and developments in the external environment, thereby putting new challenges to their autonomy and empowerment in terms of their knowledge expertise, research, curriculum development, instruction, management, and organizational performance (hussin & ismail, 2009; ohlin, 2019; tarman, 2016). arguably, using the open system perspective, the university has always been considered as an autonomous academic community in which research activities and knowledge generation must not be influenced and tempered by no other motives than the pursuit of truth, for enhancing human understanding on the concepts and theories embedded in the universe, and which consequently might contribute directly to technological and societal development, both at the national and global levels. technological and societal development in return would sustain the many functions of a robust university. there is a piece of sample evidence has supported this dual interaction between the university and society, which then influences to some extent the organizational citizenship behavior of academic and management staff of universities (fumasoli et al., 2014). consequently, it is an important point of research to examine exactly how organizational citizenship behavior (ocb), lecturer empowerment (le), and university autonomy (ua) may impact a university and whether these factors contributed to overall academic success. research questions followings are the research questions of this research as observed through research hypotheses: 1) is there any relationship between organizational citizenship behavior (ocb), lecturer empowerment (le), and university autonomy (ua)? 2) what are the correlation coefficients for lecturer empowerment (le) and university autonomy (ua) variables? 3) what is the correlation coefficients between organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) and lecturer empowerment (le) variables? https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-017-0001-8#auth-1 suriansyah et al. 4) what is the correlation coefficients for lecturer empowerment (ocb) and university autonomy (ua) variables? purpose of the study the purpose of this research is to analyze the relationship between the various factors under the title of autonomy, lecturer empowerment, and organizational citizenship behavior. the reason for examining the relationship between the stated variables is literature work has provided good support for the relationship between them. secondly, various universities are starting to empower their employees specifically the teaching faculty/lecturers through which significant need is required to examine those factors having their association with the empowerment of the teachers. therefore, this study has conducted correlational analyses through data collected from the questionnaire with the targeted sample. literature review university autonomy (ua) ua is related to the european notions of territorial neutrality and the guild of artisans, both of which rely on independence and self-rule to repel any form of invasion and interference by bodies or governments outside the university’s jurisdiction. some argue, however, that the university’s ideological foundation as an autonomous institution has undergone fundamental changes in recent decades (maassen et al., 2017). in today’s competitive era of globalization, autonomy is not simply an institutional dimension of most public universities but concerns government relations as well (roversi-monaco et al., 2005). thus, ua also refers to constantly changing relations between the state and higher education institutions as well as the degree of control exerted by state agencies, which is context-dependent (hussin & ismail, 2009). in centralized education systems, the minister of education determines who fills the positions of university presidents or vice-chancellors, which provides a means by which the government can assert its informal chain of command and influence over university affairs (asimiran & hussin, 2012), and thus distort ua (ordorika, 2003). this mechanism of control, however, does not necessarily restrict the university’s autonomy and freedom as an institution of knowledge. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 although most universities operate as public or private corporations, the bicameral system of university governance – a senate and a board of directors – remains one of its distinctive features when compared to business corporations’ well-defined lines of authority (asimiran & hussin, 2012; houdyshell & kirk, 2018). further, university management has relatively little control over the institution’s fragmented daily operations, which are inundated with various academic activities (patterson, 2001; yigit, 2018), even though unique knowledge generation and dissemination are the institution’s fundamental premise. this can be a problem for university daily operations, as not everyone may be on the same page. as such, strong leadership can help by setting good examples for others even if they are not involved in decision-making processes (newman et al., 2017; tarman, 2012). although self-efficacy is beneficial for academic unity, university students often have little say in important decisions made. fast et al. (2014) examined the importance of student involvement, such as sharing opinions in the classroom or furthering leadership into a future work environment. this can lead to employee empowerment, enabling the generation of substantial diverse ideas (han et al., 2016). moreover, this heightens employee satisfaction, which can improve a business’ success. since this specific study explores universities in indonesia, specifically how these academic institutions are affected by university autonomy and lecturer empowerment, it is important to locate universities that have been attempting to implement these programs into their teaching methods. consequently, the information that is collected will be relevant, observed in real-time and able to be assessed in reference to the literature and desired goals for this study. lecturer empowerment empowerment’s theoretical perspectives and practices can be divided into two approaches. first, the relational approach stresses empowerment resulting from power-sharing managerial strategies, practices, and techniques (asimiran & hussin, 2012). within this system, managers and subordinates are advised to play to their strengths, including intellectual talent, skills, backgrounds, and networking. empowerment occurs when organizational goals, values, and structures change to accommodate power-sharing outcomes and new, shared aspirations (mcelyea, 2002). empowered teachers are more likely to take responsibility for educational pursuits and encourage student success (avidov-ungar et al., 2014). the second approach, a cognitive approach, suriansyah et al. conceptualizes empowerment in terms of its psychological-cognitive effects, focusing on the perceptions of those targeted by managers rather than on enabling management behaviors. selfefficacy is manifested in four dimensions of employees’ orientation to their work roles: (1) meaning, (2) competence, (3) self-determination, and (4) impact. considering these factors can help improve university management and learning cultures (klein, 2016). in this context, decision-making assesses the extent to which teachers are involved in making critical decisions that directly affect their work. those involved made better job-related choices and found their jobs to be more meaningful than individuals who were not involved (somech, 2005). teachers empowered to make professional choices are satisfied with their jobs because they believe that they have the capacity to be successful educators (hoy & miskel, 2008). professional growth refers to teachers’ perceptions that their work provides them with opportunities to develop professionally, learn continuously, and expand their skills throughout their careers (moran & larwin, 2017). teachers who perceive professional growth opportunities have a positive impact on the school organization and the teaching profession (bogler&somech, 2005). desimone (2009) found that professional development enhances teachers’ knowledge and skills and realigns their attitudes and beliefs toward excellence in performance. status, as used in the spes, is tied to teachers’ perceptions that they are doing an important job and have societal respect, admiration, and collegial support. individuals who perceive that their status gives them a greater sense of empowerment tend to feel dignified, align their organization’s goals with their own expectations, and consequently have a greater commitment to their schools and profession (dee et al., 2003). status, however, is also influenced by other elements such as salaries, community values regarding education, and media reports about teachers and schools. autonomy refers to teachers’ beliefs regarding whether they have the trust and freedom to organize and conduct their duties as professionals without overbearing regulations and restrictions (hemmings & kay, 2015). the hallmarks for autonomy are a sense of freedom to make certain decisions (andrews, 2019; hemmings & kay, 2015), and the confidence to express opinions, while also learning from and engaging with others. the increased autonomy can promote individuals’ sense of responsibility and allow them greater flexibility in role definition (van lankveldet al., 2016). teachers tended to exhibit high professionalism when they felt a sense of control over and autonomy in their jobs, which can benefit an overall work environment. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 in the existing, the word empowerment is significantly addressed under the title of professional empowerment, specifically in the educational sector like universities (ddungu, 2014). it is widely accepted that the word empowerment indicates the process of increasing the emotional and cognitive capacity of the individuals in order to make some significant choices while translating them into actions(dust et al, 2018; rodrigues et al, 2018). professional empowerment is regarded under the shadow through which teachers are properly facilitated through teaching resources, time management, and various indicators of job innovation (ddungu, 2014). as per the findings of (darling-hammond & richardson, 2009; darling-hammond et al., 2009; wei et al,, 2009), the essential element of professional empowerment in teaching is to enable the teaching faculty with their relative experience, tacit knowledge and wisdom too. meanwhile, the process of professional empowerment indicates the building of teacher’s capacity and efficiency (ddungu, 2014). all these factors explain how the professional empowerment of the teachers will take place, but not the way out of turnover in the education sector. however, professional empowerment explains the approach which helps to gain capacity building and contribution in the society (huda et al., 2017; salamon et al., 2017). in addition, some authors have defined the dimensions of professional empowerment through psychological and technical terms and the same is observed for the teachers (aelterman et al., 2016; ddungu, 2014). the word psychological empowerment explains the state of motivation which is felt by the persons like teachers in terms of cognitive constructs (flaherty et al, 2017; khany & tazik, 2016). whereas the cognitive measure shows the concept of self-determination, and competence too (szymanski, 2016). for the proper management of professional empowerment, there is a significant need to combine the psychological and technical dimensions which are further strengthened through providing the employees with the proper level of jobmeaning, skills, knowledge, and opportunity for self-administration (conway, 2008). in this regard, it is observed that those educational institutions which promote professional empowerment for their staff like teachers can enjoy a higher level of staff retention (ddungu, 2014). however, it is also believed that this idea is just a theoretical implication which needs to be proved in more empirical context. for the empowerment of the teachers, various points are highlighted in the literature which can work for the management of teacher empowerment. for example, wynn-godbold (2013) have pointed out the following points to manage the teacher’s empowerment: suriansyah et al.  clear definition of the vision  establishing the procedures for exploring the issues and problems  provision of resources for personal and professional development  managing the time for the activities specifically outside the school  encouraging teachers for professional partnership meanwhile, some other points are also highlighted covering the title of seeking empowerment for the teachers. these are:  clear definition of what teachers believe being a great teacher  activities for professional and personal development  focus and devotion of time and attention for the achievement of goals and objectives organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) recent studies have sought to better understand the origins of ocb and its effects on the development of corporations. ocb has contributed favorably to organizational outcomes such as service quality (koning & kleef, 2015), organizational commitment (carpenter, berry & houston, 2014), job involvement (dimitriades, 2007), and leader-member exchange (bhal, 2006). some have postulated that ocb, when aggregated over time and across people, is likely to result in higher levels of organizational performance and effectiveness (takeuchi et al., 2015). ocb enhances organizational performance by reducing organizational dependence on scarce resources needed to sustain its functions, thereby relieving employees of other burdens (shin et al., 2017). the circumplex model of citizenship, introduced by moon and marinova (2003), provides a framework for analyzing ocb. this model can be represented as a circle with two major axes. the vertical axis represents organizational/interpersonal ends, while the horizontal axis symbolizes promotive/protective ends. the model, then, has four behavioral quadrants: (1) helping (interpersonal and promotive), (2) innovation (organizational and promotive), (3) sportsmanship (interpersonal and protective), and (4) compliance (organizational and protective) (moon et al., 2004). however, the circumplex model is severely limited because it fails to consider citizenship as a political term and the interactive exchanges between citizens and the state as a social contract. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 since citizenship is a socio-political term describing bilateral interactions and duties, we posit that ocb can transcend its humanistic-psychological perspective by incorporating the socio-political dimension into the circumplex model. a strong sense of citizenship underscores citizens’ loyalty, commitment, and patriotism when carrying out their duties to enhance communal and state wellbeing and civility. the athenian model of citizenship proposed by manville and ober (2003) is useful for expanding the socio-political meanings of citizenship, and, thus, the circumplex model’s scope. from a sociological angle, citizenship describes an ongoing exchange between citizens and the state. social exchange requires individuals to be motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic returns (chen, 2005). however, recipients of voluntarily rendered benefits are obligated to reciprocate with a corresponding gesture or action, although the obligation is unspecified and cannot be enforced. a social exchange depends on a trust-based relationship, in which it is assumed that a second party will reciprocate the preferential treatment given by the first party. according to social exchange theory, university academics might be willing to perform certain non-prescribed ocbs beneficial to the university in exchange for professional autonomy and a sense of workplace empowerment (bogler & somech, 2005). zhong et al. (2009) posited that when a university’s structure, policies, and practices facilitate faculty empowerment, ocbs can be stimulated. thus, university autonomy from government intervention is of paramount importance. given globalization, however, university governance worldwide tends to be characterized by the american corporate model rather than the democratic athenian model. methods this research used a descriptive and correlational survey method to obtain information regarding individuals’ beliefs and attitudes (creswell, 2008; baharuddin et al., 2019; baharuddin & dalle, 2019). the study employed three survey instruments with 199 items in total: (1) ua (77 items), (2) le (52 items), and (3) ocb (69 items). all items in the instruments were based on a five-point likert scale (1–5), ranging from strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), fairly agree(3), agree(4), to strongly agree(5). a likert scale is similar to a rating scale as it utilizes a set scale for comparison to show both extreme ends of the spectrum and everything in between. consequently, participants are able to select answers that directly relate to how strongly they feel about the given topic. used suriansyah et al. in previous studies, the instruments were modified to suit new conceptual definitions and the study’s university context. adapted from hussin and ismail (2009), the ua survey instrument had nine major dimensions: (1) academic program, (2) postgraduate educational program, (3) research and consultation, (4) teaching and learning, (5) management, (6) human resources, (7) finances, (8) infrastructure, and (9) student affairs. the survey instrument on le was adapted from the spes questionnaire developed by short and rhinehart (1992), which have assessed the teacher’s perception of empowerment. the spes questionnaire was modified slightly to suit the university context. it consisted of 52 items across seven dimensions of le: (1) participative decision-making, (2) professional growth, (3) status, (4) self-efficacy, (5) autonomy at work, (6) impact, and (7) execution of power. the researcher also adopted the four dimensions of the circumplex model of citizenship – (1) helping, (2) innovation, (3) sportsmanship, and (4) compliance – and adapted the ocb scale developed by moon et al. (2004) to include newly identified political dimensions of citizenship and self-developed items based on the athenian model (manville & ober, 2003). the revised ocb scale had ten dimensions: (1) community orientation by helping, (2) innovation for improvement, (3) collegial harmony, (4) compliance, (5) openness, (6) responsive leadership, (7) progressive advancement, (8) an entrepreneurial spirit, (9) individual resilience, and (10) agility. to ensure the items’ suitability and reliability in all three instruments, we first conducted a pilot study. based on a statistical analysis of the data, we selected items that had reliability values between .600 and .950 for further use. pilot testing of the three survey instruments identified that the reliability values of all items were acceptable (between .600 and .890). for the actual study, we administered the surveys with a one-week gap between each instrument to prevent participants from becoming tired or bored while responding. the core participants of this research for the data collection were the senior academics who are entitled as our respondents. the reason for selecting academicians like university lecturers was that they are significantly linked with the study variables and research questions research purpose too. for the purpose of data collection, we mailed the questionnaires to 350 who are coming from five premier universities in south kalimantan, indonesia, randomly selected from academic staff lists. after three months, we received 319 completed questionnaires. subsequently screening for data outliers journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 and inappropriate responses,307 questionnaires were accepted for analysis using descriptive statistics and pearson product-moment correlation. descriptive findings are providing a good understanding of the data trends through the mean score, standard deviation and other measures of dispersion. whereas research questions are reasonably addressed through correlation matrix and hypotheses testing processes. following research hypotheses are developed for this study: h1: there is a significant correlation between ocb, le, and ua variables. h2: there is a significant correlation between le and ua variables. h3: there is a significant correlation between ocb and le variables. h4: there is a significant correlation between ocb and ua variables. results the following section outlines the results of this study collected using surveys with participants who rate questions based on a likert scale to answer the research questions through stated hypotheses. the first part is descriptive statistics ua, le, and oc, the second part is correlation between ocb, le, and ua variables, third part is correlation between le and ua variables, fourth part is correlation between ocb and le variables, and the fifth part is correlation between ocb and ua variables as follows. descriptive statistics of ua, le, and ocb the results of the descriptive statistical analysis of respondents' responses to ua, le, and ocb measured on the likert scale or the five-scale shown in table 1 that provides information about the means and standard deviation. table 1 means and standard deviations for all ua, le, and ocb domains variables code domain mean sd university autonomy ua overall 3.89 0.224 aa academic programs 4.23 0.643 ab postgraduate academic programs 4.27 0.611 ac research and consultation 4.13 0.623 ad teaching and learning 4.05 0.609 ae management 3.61 0.745 af human resources 3.96 0.659 ag finance 3.74 0.701 ah infrastructure facilities 3.95 0.610 suriansyah et al. lecturer empowerment le overall 3.88 0.455 la participative decision-making 3.62 0.755 lb professional growth 4.03 0.681 lc status 4.24 0.556 ld self-efficacy 4.46 0.476 le autonomy on the job 3.83 0.772 lf professional impact 3.93 0.656 lg execution of power 3.19 0.870 organizational citizenship behavior ocb overall 4.01 0.287 ba community orientation by helping 4.03 0.593 bb innovation for improvement 4.01 0.665 bd compliance 4.36 0.531 be openness 4.31 0.571 bf responsive leadership 3.55 0.817 bg competitive desire to excel 4.19 0.579 bh an entrepreneurial spirit 3.54 0.723 bi individual resilience 4.03 0.583 bj agility 4.10 0.614 note: n = 307 in relation to mean, the presented descriptive data from the three variables show that most respondents highly emphasized, the variable ocb to be having the highest mean average, followed by ua and le respectively. regarding standard deviation, the respondents showed the same perception on ua, indicating that variables ocb and le had the lowest value when it came to standard deviation. during the analysis, the domain of ua in relation to mean was ranked high when it came to the domain of postgraduate academic programs, however, management had the lowest mean. in reference to le, respondents held self-efficacy in high esteem, while the lowest was the execution of power. while for ocb, respondents ranked highly the domain of compliance and the lowest being leadership. correlation between ocb, le, and ua variables table 2 shows the extent to which ua, le, and ocb variables in south kalimantan public universities are correlated. the pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) reveals how strongly two variables are linked. ranging from zero to 1.00, correlation coefficients above 0.70, between 0.30 and 0.70, and below 0.30 indicate high, moderate, and weak degrees of correlation, respectively. we found significant positive correlations between the three variables, suggesting that the three variables are interrelated; that is, ocb embodies ua and le. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 table 2 correlation coefficients for ocb, le, and ua variables variables ocb le ua ocb 1.00 le .743** 1.00 ua .578** .628** 1.00 note: n = 307, ** correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) correlation between le and ua variables as shown in table 3, the correlation coefficients of ua and le domains are either moderate or low and are significant at p ≤ 0.001. we found several variables moderately correlated with ua items; for instance, lecturer status is moderately correlated with postgraduate academic programs (r = .362), self-efficacy is moderated correlated with teaching and learning (r = .450), job autonomy is moderately linked with research and consultation (r = .342), and so forth. in contrast, there were certain weak correlations, such as lecturers’ status with academic programs (r = .280), and lecturers’ execution of power with human resources (r = .285). the highest correlation coefficient value in table 3 is 0.487, which implies sufficient discriminant validity between le and ua. table 3 correlation coefficients for le and ua aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai la .315** .357** .414** .407** .455** .398** .382** .410** .273** lb .416** .433** .541** .468** .486** .434** .436** .469** .398** lc .285** .361** .398** .411** .280** .285** .267** .315** .269** ld .317** .414** .389** .450** .277** .310** .281** .324** .333** le .266** .364** .342** .435** .351** .361** .296** .351** .311** lf .280** .323** .389** .386** .354** .331** .324** .369** .243** lg .201** .213** .273** .287** .319** .285** .341** .281** .278** note: n = 307, ** correlation is significant (2-tailed) at .001, * correlation is significant (2-tailed) at .005 correlation between ocb and le variables as portrayed in table 4, the correlations between ocb and le are all significant at p ≤ 0.001 and are correlated at two different degrees: “moderate” and “low.” for instance, moderate and significant correlations were found with regard to professional growth (r = .333),status (r = .539), competitive urgency to excel and participative decision-making (r = .439), agility and participative decision-making (r = .385), compliance and status (r = .474), individual resilience and participative decision-making (r = .480), among others. however, low correlations were found between both suriansyah et al. compliance and an entrepreneurial spirit, on the one hand, and most le domains, on the other. the highest correlation coefficient value calculated was 0.584, suggesting sufficient discriminant validity between ocb and le. table 4 correlation coefficients between ocb and le ba bb bd be bf bg bh bi bj la .374** .474** .236** .268** .564** .439** .418** .480** .385** lb .333** .358** .276** .380** .548** .511** .464** .535** .348** lc .429** .539** .413** .574** .277** .541** .287** .544** .450** ld .454** .469** .387** .572** .207** .516** .264** .527** .425** le .268** .265** .218** .263** .343** .301** .292** .390** .243** lf .442** .584** .277** .470** .343** .528** .369** .530** .402** lg .130** .214** .088** .137** .330** .176** .242** .223** .178** note: n = 307, ** correlation is significant (2-tailed) at .001, * correlation is significant (2-tailed) at .005 correlation between ocb and ua variables table 5 shows that the correlations between ocb and le are all significant at 0.001, at two different degrees: “moderate” and “low.” table 5 indicates that all ocb domains are significantly correlated with all ua domains. however, there are significant but moderate correlations between the four ocb domains (responsive leadership, competitive urgency to excel, entrepreneurial spirit, and individual resilience) and all ua domains. for instance, responsive leadership is moderately correlated with university autonomy in postgraduate academic programs (r = .386) and with research and consultation (r = .370). similarly, table 5 also displays that individual resilience is moderately correlated with all ua domains. table 5 correlation coefficients for ocb and ua ba bb bd be bf bg bh bi bj aa .257** .157** .240** .244** .355** .259** .359** .305** .179** ab .269** .257** .272** .277** .328** .377** .320** .415** .320** ac .276** .241** .247** .323** .440** .370** .440** .409** .301** ad .362** .261** .288** .312** .377** .377** .440** .461** .317** ae .291** .195** .255** .182** .547** .370** .536** .467** .201** af .232** .166** .203** .240** .432** .315** .423** .420** .239** ag .239** .168** .171** .244** .414** .311** .515** .355** .241** ah .211** .209** .207** .228** .439** .355** .401** .422** .235** ai .255** .214** .227** .220** .334** .306** .359** .349** .249** note: n = 307, ** correlation is significant (2-tailed) at .001, * correlation is significant (2-tailed) at .005 there are low correlations between three ocb domains (community orientation, innovation for improvement, and compliance) and ua domains, suggesting ua domains may constitute part of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 university academics’ ocb. the highest correlation coefficient value calculated was 0.548, suggesting sufficient discriminant validity between ocb and ua. discussion in this discussion, in accordance with the objectives of the study, the first section will discuss the descriptive findings from ua, le, and ocb and the second section discusses the correlation findings between ua, le, and ocb. firstly, it has been revealed that university academics believe that ocb plays a big role compared to ua and le in five universities studied, though these universities behave as a corporate organization. these findings are in line with koning and kleef (2015) who state that ocb contributes to the quality of services in all universities. the findings from this study are also supported by carpenter et al. (2014) who state that ocb leads to a work commitment in the university, dimitriades (2007) reemphasizes that ocb promotes work engagement and cooperation, while bhal (2006) is of that ocb has a positive effect on leader-member exchanges. many other experts such as shin et al. (2017), takeuchi et al. (2015), zhong et al. (2009), bogler and somech (2005), moon et al. (2004), moon and marinova (2003), manville and ober (2003) in their studies also established that ocb contributes to higher levels of organizational performance and effectiveness and something which also leads to improvement in organizational performance and reduces dependence on diminishing resources which helps to maintain proper functioning of the employees by reducing on their burdens. it is also believed that ocb is able to go beyond its humanistic-psychological perspective with the socio-political dimension. researchers like earlier on noted in this paragraph, still on ocb aspect, believe that without a specific prescription can still be beneficial for universities more so where there is the exchange of professionals since there exist a sense of empowerment among university workers. ua has been found to be a second determining factor for the sustainability of universities. the results of this study are in line with maassen et al. (2017) who suggest that the ideological foundation of universities as autonomous institutions has undergone fundamental changes in the last few decades and roversi-monaco et al. (2005) also supports the results of this study that in the current era of competitiveness, autonomy is a government’s component to hold university leaders accountable. regarding this perception, hussin and ismail (2009) also state that ua is an ever-changing relationship between higher education institutions and the government suriansyah et al. accompanied by control according to the context, this condition is strengthened by asimiran and hussin (2012) who also states that in a centralized education arrangement, the minister of education extends his support through a rector and deputy rectors using the existing facilities and infrastructure provided by the government. ordorika (2003) describes this as a chain of command of the informal government's influence on ua which does not limit the universities to play there of knowledge creation and innovation. results of this study are also in line with several previous studies such as newman et al. (2017), han et al. (2016), and fast et al. (2014), where a university whether public and or private company, the governance system is the same, comprising of the senate and board of directors, where the rector is a strong leader who must serve by example not only to his subordinates but also to people who are not directly involved in decision making. in this study, it has been revealed that le is a third determinant in the survival of the university, which is in line with mcelyea (2002) who is also of the opinion that a leader, in this case, the rector or dean must play a role in intellectual talent, skills, portfolio growth and establish networks for the academics so that there is proper distribution of power and aspirations together. avidovungar et al. (2014) argue that teachers in schools or lecturers at universities must function and be responsible for the success of their students. furthermore, klein (2016) in his study states that education institution stakeholders are important self-efficacy manifesting in meaning as competence, self-determining individuals who play management and teaching culture role. according to somech (2005) and hoy and miskel (2008), they feel involved and satisfied with the capacity for a successful education. other previous researchers such as dee et al. (2003), bogler and somech (2005), desimone (2009), hemmings and kay (2015), van lankveldet al. (2016), and moran and larwin (2017) provide support for the results of this study by saying that le is a role holder in the day to day running of higher education institutions. they argue that professional development refers to the perception of stakeholders (lecturers) who feel they have broad opportunities in academic and non-academic development in addition to rewards such as salaries, community values and media reports about them and the institutions. today’s governance of public universities follows a corporate model, which assumes that to be sustainable, popular, and globally ranked, universities must be competitive and responsive to global higher education trends (pruvot & estermann, 2018). the traditional collegial model is no journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 longer relevant (singh, 2005). theoretically, universities ought to behave as open systems that are continuously learning and evolving in tandem with changing standards, expectations, and demands from internal and external environments (jongbloed et al., 2008). universities should thus function as unified organizations, characterized by strong ocb, common goals, and values such as loyalty, commitment, compliance, trust, and a shared vision (mohammad et al., 2010). managerialism is necessary to some degree but not at the cost of suppressing academic autonomy and empowerment, which could affect academics’ morale, performance, and job satisfaction (abraiz et al., 2012. neither should managerialism involve bureaucratic red tape aimed at standardization, which could lead to demoralization and frustration among students and academics (ng & feldman, 2011). empowerment arises when one believes one has sufficient professional autonomy to execute one’s duties, tasks, and roles in innovative ways (varekamp et al., 2009). in this regard, treating university academics as corporate employees, strictly monitored by management, can be detrimental to the university, creating a climate of distrust, insecurity, and irrational control. a corporate style of university governance is pragmatically relevant in the context of globalization and internationalization, stiff competition among universities for students and grants, and the rapid pace of change occurring in many university organizations (bartell, 2003). politically, however, autonomy and empowerment are now negotiated against sustainability and accountability, despite university academics’ long-held expectation of organizational citizenship, rooted in the collegial spirit of a community of scholars (popescu, 2019). it has been revealed that in this study, there is a significant positive correlation between ua, le, and ocb which can be interpreted as the interrelationship existing amongst the three variables. ua and le have been found to be correlating with one another, while ocb and le domains have a significant correlation. raquib et al. (2010) state that le and ocb significantly associated that shelton (2010) mentioned implies in organizational life, positive ua perception that was inextricably linked to organizational justice perception displayed more ocb than others. the interaction between ua and le is in line with morshidi sirat (2010) and marginson (1997) who state that the concept of social interaction draws attention to the nature of government actions directed to higher education policy and interventions. it is also stated that the domain in ua, namely lecturer status is correlated with academic programs, self-efficacy is correlated with teaching, work autonomy is correlated with research and consultation while there is a less strong suriansyah et al. correlation between lecturer status with academic programs and implementation of lecturer powers with sources human resources where the results of this study are in line with what has been done by guskey (1988), andiny (2008), and yuliani (2013). sufean (1996) also supports the results of this study that the establishment of military-industry universities in the united states is a good case of how national defense priorities have shaped scientific activities at research universities and triggered the growth of new specialized fields of knowledge, ranging from agriculture to aerospace. the results of the study indicate that the domains in ocb and le are significantly correlated such as professional growth, competitive urgency to excel and participatory decision making, participatory decision making and competence, compliance and status, individual resilience and participatory decision making where these results are in line with studies which have been carried out previously by nadeak (2016). thompson et al. (2005) state that ocb and le are two variables that determine one another because, without ocb, le is not anything and vice versa. bogler and somech (2004), and veza and sabzikaran (2010) also support this result which states that the influence of le is a variable that affects ocb as well as saleem et al. (2017) which in their study results found that le is the variable that determines ocb. the results of the study indicate a correlation between ocb domains and ua domains. these domains are responsive leadership, competitive urgency to excel, entrepreneurial spirit, and individual resilience at ocb, and responsive leadership, university autonomy in postgraduate academic programs with research and consultation at ua. the results of this study are in line with the results of studies conducted by several previous researchers such as damayanti (2006), dimitriade (2007), kumar et al. (2009), fadhilah and uswatun (2014), chiang (2004), and pruvot and esterman (2018). conclusion this research has examined the factor of university autonomy, lecturer empowerment and organization citizenship behavior in the region of indonesia. for the analysis purpose, descriptive findings are presented to examine the trends of data set and responses as collected through the questionnaire. whereas the correlation matrix is generated and discussion is provided to cover the research questions with the help of hypotheses testing. it is observed that there is a significant and positive correlation between autonomy, lecturer empowerment, and organizational citizenship journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 behavior as observed through the responses from academicians in five universities of indonesia. more specifically, there is a moderate understanding of the variables and also a significant relationship existing among ua, le, and ocb. the study findings are widely suggested to the university administration and related policymakers in the ministry of education for applicable decision making. it is recommended that university administration and other authorities should reasonably contribute to promoting the idea of teacher empowerment as it is important for the growth of the education sector. for this purpose, concern authorities should emphasize those factors which can further enhance the empowerment of teaching faculty. for this purpose, different strategies for the benefits of the teachers/lecturers according to the ua, le, and ocb can play a vital role. lastly, this research work is based on various limitations. the first study has only focused on the correlation matrix to provide the statistical inference under stated research questions. second, the causal relationship between the stated variables and their impact on the retention of teaching faculty like lecturers is also missing in this research. third, the sampling method could also be diversified for combing the online survey to face to face surveys too. future studies can reasonably address these limitations for more contribution to the related field of research. references abraiz, a., tabassum, t.m., raja, s., & jawad, m. (2012). empowerment effects and employees job satisfaction. academic research international, 3(3), 392-400. aelterman, n., vansteenkiste, m., van keer, h., & haerens, l. (2016). changing teachers' beliefs regarding autonomy support and structure: the role of experienced psychological need satisfaction in teacher training. psychology of sport and exercise, 23, 64-72. akech, l.o. (2014). response strategies to changes in external environment by sonysugar company limited(master thesis). retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org andiny, l. (2008). perbedaan self-efficacy antara guru sma ‘plus’ dan guru sma non ‘plus’[differences in self-efficacy between high school teachers ‘plus’ and high school teachers non ‘plus’] (unpublished undergraduate thesis). universitas indonesia, depok, indonesia. andrews, k. (2019). book review: human rights and global diversity: basic ethics in action. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 71-74. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/10 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/10 suriansyah et al. asimiran, s., & hussin, s. (2012). university governance: trends and models. kuala lumpur: um press. avidov-ungar, o., friedman, i., &olshtain, e. (2014). empowerment amongst teachers holding leadership positions. teachers and teaching, 20(6), 704-720. doi: 10.1080/13540602.2014.885706 baharuddin., hadi, s., hamid, a., mutalib, a.a., & dalle, j. (2018). dilemma between applying coherent principle and signaling principles in interactive learning media. open psychology journal, 11, 235-248. doi: 10.2174/1874350101811010235 baharuddin., & dalle, j. (2019). transforming learning spaces for elementary school children with special needs. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 344-365. bartell, m. (2003). internationalization of universities: a university culture-based framework. higher education, 45(1), 43-70. doi: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3447513 bhal, k. t. (2006). lmx-citizenship behavior relationship: justice as a mediator. leadership and organization development journal, 27(2), 106-117. doi:10.1108/01437730610646615 bogler, r., & somech, a. (2005). organizational citizenship behavior in school: how does it relate to participation in decision making? journal of educational administration, 43(5), 420438. doi:10.1108/09578230510615215 carpenter, n. c., berry, c. m. and houston, l. (2014). a meta‐analytic comparison of self‐ reported and other‐reported organizational citizenship behavior. journal of organizational behavior, 35(4), 547-574. chen, x. p. (2005). handbook of organizational citizenship behavior. new york: nova science. chiang, l. c. (2004). the relationship between university autonomy and funding in england and taiwan. higher education,48, 189-212. conway, c. m. (2008). experienced music teacher perceptions of professional development throughout their careers. bulletin of the council for research in music education, 7-18. cresswell, j. w. (2008). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). new jersey: pearson prentice hall. damayanti, a. (2006). pengaruh pemberdayaan kepada dosen terhadap organizational citizenship behavior dengan kebutuhan untuk berprestasi sebagai variabel moderasi (studi kasus pada universitas negeri yogyakarta) [the effect of empowerment on lecturers on organizational citizenship behavior with the need for achievement as a moderating http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874350101811010235 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 variable (case study at universitas negeri yogyakarta] (unpublished master thesis). universitas gadjah mada, yogyakarta, indonesia. darling-hammond, l., & richardson, n. (2009). research review/teacher learning: what matters. educational leadership, 66(5), 46-53. darling-hammond, l., wei, r. c., andree, a., richardson, n., & orphanos, s. (2009). professional learning in the learning profession. washington, dc: national staff development council, 12. ddungu, l. (2014). university lecturers’ professional empowerment and turnover in uganda. makerere journal of higher education, 6(1), 35–54. dee, j., henkin, a., &deumer, l. (2003). structural antecedents and psychological correlates of teacher empowerment. journal of educational administration, 41(3), 257–277. doi:10.1108/09578230310474412 desimone, l. m. (2009). improving impact studies on teachers’ professional development: toward better conceptualizations and measures. educational researcher, 38(3), 181–191. doi:10.3102/0013189x08331140 dimitriade, z. s. (2007). the influence of service climate and job involvement on customeroriented organizational citizenship behavior in greek service organizations: a survey. employee relations, 29(5), 469-491. dimitriades, z. s. (2007). the influence of service climate and job involvement on customeroriented organizational citizenship behavior in greek service organizations: a survey. employee relations, 29(5), 469–491. doi:10.1108/01425450710776290 dust, s. b., resick, c. j., margolis, j. a., mawritz, m. b., & greenbaum, r. l. (2018). ethical leadership and employee success: examining the roles of psychological empowerment and emotional exhaustion. the leadership quarterly, 29(5), 570-583 fadhilah, m., & uswatun, l. (2014). hubungan antara keterlibatan kerja dengan organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) di universitas muhammadiyah surakarta (ums) [relationship between work involvement with organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) at universitas muhammadiyah surakarta (ums)] (unpublished master thesis). universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, surakarta, indonesia. suriansyah et al. fast, n.j., burris, e.r., &bartel, c.a. (2014). managing to stay in the dark: managerial selfefficacy, ego defensiveness, and the aversion to employee voice. academy of management journal, 57(4), 1013-1034. doi:10.5465/amj.2012.0393 flaherty, a., o'dwyer, a., mannix-mcnamara, p., & leahy, j. (2017). the influence of psychological empowerment on the enhancement of chemistry laboratory demonstrators' perceived teaching self-image and behaviours as graduate teaching assistants. chemistry education research and practice, 18(4), 710-736. fumasoli, t., gornitzka, a., & maassen, p. (2014). university autonomy and organizational change dynamics. arena working paper 8/2014. oslo: university of oslo arena centre for european studies. guskey, t.r. (1988). teacher efficacy, self-concept, and attitudes toward implementation of instructional innovation. journal teaching and teacher education. 4, 6369. han, s.h., seo, g., yoon, s.w., yoon, d.y. (2016). transformational leadership and knowledge sharing: mediating roles of employee’s empowerment, commitment, and citizenship behaviors. journal of workplace learning,28(3), 130-149. doi: 10.1108/jwl-09-20150066 hemmings, b. & kay, r. (2015). the relationship between research self-efficacy, research disposition and publication output. educational psychology, 36(2), 347-361. doi: 10.1080/01443410.2015.1025704 houdyshell, m. & kirk, p. (2018). graduate students’ perceptions’ on a professional pathway for academic advisors. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 77-96. hoy, w. k., & miskel, c. g. (2008). educational administration: theory, research, and practice. (8th ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill. huda, m., maseleno, a., jasmi, k. a., mustari, i., & basiron, b. (2017). strengthening interaction from direct to virtual basis: insights from ethical and professional empowerment. international journal of applied engineering research, 12(17), 6901-6909. hussin, s., & ismail, a. (2009). goals, components, and factors considered in university development. asia pacific education review, 10(1), 83–91. doi:10.1007/s12564-0099001-8 https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2012.0393 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 jongbloed, b., enders, j. & salerno, c. (2008). higher education and its communities: interconnections, interdependencies and a research agenda. higher education. 56(3), 303– 324. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-008-9128-2. khany, r., & tazik, k. (2016). on the relationship between psychological empowerment, trust, and iranian efl teachers’ job satisfaction: the case of secondary school teachers. journal of career assessment, 24(1), 112-129. klein, j. (2016). teacher empowerment, horizontal and vertical organizational learning, and positional mobility in schools. european journal of teacher education, 39(2), 238-252. koning, l.f., & van kleef, g.a. (2015). how leaders' emotional displays shape followers' organizational citizenship behavior. the leadership quarterly, 26(4), 489-501. kromydas, t. (2017). rethinking higher education and its relationship with social inequalities: past knowledge, present state and future potential. palgrave communications. 3. doi: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-017-0001-8 kumar, k., bakhshi, a., & rani, e. (2009). linking the big five personality domains to organizational citizenship behavior, international journal of psychological studies, 1(2), 3-81. maassen p, gornitzka å, fumasoli t. (2017). university reform and institutional autonomy: a framework for analyzing the living autonomy. higher education quarterly, 71(3), 239– 250. doi: 71. 10.1111/hequ.12129 manville, b., & ober, j. (2003). a company of citizens: what the world’s first democracy teaches leaders about creating great organizations. cambridge, ma: harvard business school publishing corporation. marginson, s. (2004). competition and markets in higher education: a ‘glonacal’ analysis. policy futures in education. 2(2), 175-244. doi: https://doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2004.2.2.2 mcelyea, b. (2002). knowledge management, intellectual capital, and learning organizations: a triad of future management integration. futurics, 26(1 and 2), 59–65. mohammad, j., habib, f.q., & zakaria, s. (2010). organizational citizenship behavior and commitment: do age and tenure make any difference? bmqr, 1(3), 28-49. moon, h., & marinova, s. (2003). introducing a circumplex model of organizational citizenship behavior. paper presented at the 18th annual siop conference, orlando fla. https://link.springer.com/journal/10734 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-008-9128-2 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-017-0001-8#auth-1 https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-017-0001-8 https://doi.org/10.2304%2fpfie.2004.2.2.2 suriansyah et al. moon, h., dyne, l. v., & wrobel, k. (2004). the circumplex model and the future of organizational citizenship behavior research. in: turnipseed d. l. (ed.), handbook of organizational citizenship behavior: a review of good soldier activity in organizations (pp. 3–23). new york: nova science publisher, inc. moran, k., &larwin, k. h. (2017). building administrator's facilitation of teacher leadership: moderators associated with teachers' reported levels of empowerment. journal of organizational and educational leadership, 3(1), article 2. available at: https://digitalcommons.gardner-webb.edu/joel/vol3/iss1/2 nadeak, b. (2016). pengaruh budaya organisasi terhadap organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) dosen di universitas kristen indonesia (uki) [the influence of organizational culture on organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) lecturers at universitas kristen indonesian (uki)]. jurnal manajemen pendidikan, 5(1), 1-10. newman, a., schwarz, g., &cooper, b. (2017). how servant leadership influences organizational citizenship behavior: the roles of lmx, empowerment, and proactive personality. journal of business ethics.145(1), 49–62. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2827-6 ng, t.w.h., & feldman, d.c. (2011). affective organizational commitment and citizenship behavior: linear and non-linear moderating effects of organizational tenure. journal of vocational behavior, 79(2), 528-537. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2011.03.006 ohlin, c. (2019). information and communication technology in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 41-57. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/409 ordorika, i. (2003). the limits of university autonomy: power and politics at the universidad nacional autónoma de méxico. higher education, 46(3), 361–388. patterson, g. (2001). the applicability of institutional goals to the university organization. journal of higher education policy and management, 23(2), 159–169. doi:10.1080/13600800120088652 popescu, c. (2019). adaptive sustainable academic management practices. in m. sarfraz, m.i.adbullah., a. rauf (ed.). sustainable management practices (pp. 15-34). london: intech open. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.87018 https://digitalcommons.gardner-webb.edu/joel/vol3/iss1/2 https://link.springer.com/journal/10551 https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/409 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 pruvot, b.e., & estermann, t. (2018). university governance: autonomy, structures and inclusiveness. in curaj, a., deca, l., & r. pricopie (eds.), european higher education area: the impact of past and future policies (pp. 619-638). springer international publishing. raquib, m.a., anantharaman, r.n., eze, u.c., & murad, m.w. (2009).empowerment practices and performance in malaysia: an empirical study. international journal of business and management. 5(1). 121-130. doi:10.5539/ijbm.v5n1p123 rodrigues, m., menezes, i., & ferreira, p. d. (2018). validating the formative nature of psychological empowerment construct: testing cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and relational empowerment components. journal of community psychology, 46(1), 58-78. roversi-monaco, f., felt, u., gibbons, m., albornoz, o., blasi, p., jonasson, j. t., magrath, p., & rysbekov, t. (2005). managing university autonomy – university autonomy and the institutional balancing of teaching and research. proceedings of the seminar of the magna charta observatory 15th september 2005 rumbley, l.e., altbach, p.g., & reisberg, l. (2012). internationalization within the higher education context in deardorff, d.k., de wit, h., heyl, j.d., & adams, t. (ed.), the sage handbook of international higher education (pp.3). doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452218397.n1 salamon, l. m., sokolowski, s. w., & haddock, m. a. (2017). explaining civil society development: a social origins approach: jhu press saleem, a., nisar, q.a., & imran, a. (2017). organization citizenship behaviour, psychological empowerment and demographic characteristics: teachers’ perspective. international journal of advanced and applied sciences, 4(7), 129-135. shelton, k.d. (2010). autonomy and organizational justice as moderators of relationships among creativity, openness to experience, and organizational misbehavior, [ph.d. dissertation], minneapolis, walden university. shin, y., kim, m.s., choi, j.n., kim, m., & oh, w.k. (2017). does leader-follower regulatory fit matter? the role of regulatory fit in followers’ organizational citizenship behavior. journal of management, 43(4), 1211-1233. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314546867 short, p. m., & rinehart, j. s. (1992). school participant empowerment scale: assessment of level of empowerment within the school environment. journal of educational and https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/2105765617_thomas_estermann https://www.researchgate.net/profile/anantharaman_rn?_sg%5b0%5d=gcejx83na0qcts8mobxzsmgstmujoa7rxof6a0cgjcj2afa3getiyetqj7o9kskp1mtsgee.qy_rd5b_0r75ofrg-ov_btha4xcflwulsy0csyazksh9l9qlzwljudkdgo04mnnmezjr4rhwvstkine4ozcp4a&_sg%5b1%5d=moa0fpfh2rpgnocyik1ls1zyhay-oa-m0fk23orowzcjqljaofe3ff2mtrujufaq_vewe7gkwyzxds8.w6jhclqmauwl3-tqhyxmzzt3y6epfz57g8k-reqlt2jyasblyn37qdwbf9qljbe0s7lysicfcubx96limfnx-q&_sg%5b2%5d=pmw_rp3tfylyxwp_hfvfahf9pmsckdfkqy69yvwfexllkmvbv8auzouari71eemtxy5b5as.zn0wwapo2bph0t3_rkd7cnmwoc4ddoaykz4ln1tepjvt-vorfs0jsietqcjpx8kngvd9t7fgvzfl8zus3di9og http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijbm http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijbm https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v5n1p123 javascript:void(0); javascript:void(0); javascript:void(0); javascript:void(0); https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/hdbk_interntlhighereducation https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/hdbk_interntlhighereducation http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452218397.n1 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0149206314546867 suriansyah et al. psychological measurement, 52, 951-960. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164492052004018 singh, p. (2005). use of the collegial leadership model of emancipation to transform traditional management practices in secondary schools. south african journal of education. 25(1), 11–18. sirait, m. (2010). strategic planning directions of malaysia's higher education: university autonomy in the midst of political uncertainties. higher education, 59(4), 461-473. doi: 10.1007/s10734-009-9259-0 somech, a. (2005). teachers’ personal and team empowerment and their relations to organizational outcomes: contradictory or compatible constructs? educational administration quarterly, 41(2), 237–266. doi:10.1177/0013161x04269592 szymanski, a. (2016). examining the influence of self-determination theory components with students of varying cognitive abilities. kentucky teacher education journal: the journal of the teacher education division of the kentucky council for exceptional children, 3(1), 1-23. tarman, b. (2012). effective leadership in culturally diverse schools. energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 4(2), 1103-1114. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/3 takeuchi, r., bolino, m. c., & lin, c.c. (2015). too many motives? the interactive effects of multiple motives on organizational citizenship behavior. journal of applied psychology, 100(4), 1239-1248. doi: 10.1037/apl0000001 vaezi, r., & sabzikaran, e. (2010). organizational structure and employees' empowerment in national iranian petroleum products distribution company employees, tehran region, journal of change management, 2 (3), 1-11. van lankveld, t., schoonenboom, j., volman, m., croiset, g., & beishuizen, j. (2016). developing a teacher identity in the university context: a systematic review of the literature. higher education research & development, 36(2), 325-342. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2016.1208154 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0013164492052004018 http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/3 https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000001 https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2016.1208154 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 127-152 varekamp, i., heutink, a., andman, s., koning, c.e.m., de vries, g., & van dijk, f.j.h. (2009). facilitating empowerment in employees with chronic disease: qualitative analysis of the process of change. journal of occupational rehabilitation. 19(4), 398–408. doi: doi: 10.1007/s10926-009-9188-x wei, r. c., darling-hammond, l., andree, a., richardson, n., & orphanos, s. (2009). professional learning in the learning profession: a status report on teacher development in the us and abroad. technical report: national staff development council. wynn-godbold. (2013). empowered teachers will change the world. retrieved from: https://www.seenmagazine.us/articles/article-detail/articleid/2899/empowered-teacherswill-change-the-world yigit, m. (2018). does higher education change value perceptions?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 1-8. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/5 yuliani, a. e. (2013). kontribusi efikasi guru terhadap minat dan sikap siswa di sma negeri kabupaten pandeglang [teacher efficacy contribution to student interest and attitude in pandeglang district high school] (unpublished undergraduate thesis). universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, indonesia. zhong, j. a., lam, w., & chen, z. (2009). relationship between leader–member exchange and organizational citizenship behaviors: examining the moderating role of empowerment. asia pacific journal of management, 28(3), 609–626. doi:10.1007/s10490-009-9163-2 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=varekamp%20i%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19582552 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=heutink%20a%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19582552 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=landman%20s%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19582552 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=koning%20ce%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19582552 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=de%20vries%20g%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19582552 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=van%20dijk%20fj%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=19582552 https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2fs10926-009-9188-x https://www.seenmagazine.us/articles/article-detail/articleid/2899/empowered-teachers-will-change-the-world https://www.seenmagazine.us/articles/article-detail/articleid/2899/empowered-teachers-will-change-the-world http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/5 microsoft word jsser makale son hali 2 www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2010: 1(1), 88-106 © 2010 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 computer technology in education and issues of power and equity eğitimde bilgisayar teknolojisi: güç ve eşitlik konusu alper kesten1 abstract: this study aims to use ‘techniques of power’ classified (based on foucault’s work) by gore in order to illustrate power relations between supporters (or non-supporters) of computer technology and teachers. for this purpose, six out of eight techniques of power (surveillance, normalization, exclusion, classification, distribution and regulation) is used in formulating thoughts about computer technology and issues of power and equity. in this study, these techniques of power were discussed more detailed both to exemplify how supporters (or non-supporters) of computer technology exercise power over teachers (preservice or inservice) by using of major techniques of power and to show how they are related to the issue of equity. keywords: computer technology, education, power, equity geniş özet yaklaşık son 20 yıldır bilgisayar teknolojisi bazı eğitimciler tarafından, okul öncesi dönemden yükseköğretime kadar eğitimin bütün kademelerinde öğretim kalitesinin artırılması için en etkili yöntemlerden birisi olarak kabul edilmektedir. bu eğitimciler, bilgisayar kullanımının sadece öğretimle sınırlı olmadığını, ayrıca öğrencinin farklı boyutlarda düşünmesini sağlayarak ve yaratıcılığını geliştirerek önemli katkılar sağlayacağını öne sürmektedirler. bu fikre karşı çıkan bazı eğitimciler ise bilgisayar teknolojisinin öğrencilere pozitif anlamda bir şey katmadığı gibi küçük çocuklarda önemli derecede zararlara yol açacağı düşüncesini savunmaktadırlar. şu ana kadar yapılmış olan çalışmalar bilgisayar teknolojisinin eğitimde etkili bir şekilde kullanılamadığını göstermiştir. eğitimde bilgisayar kullanımının önemine inanan eğitimciler etkili kullanımdaki eksiklikleri üç temel nedene bağlamışlardır. bunlar; üniversite de alınan eğitimin yetersizliği, üniversitelerin bu konuda gönülsüz olması ve alınan eğitim yeterli bile olsa üniversite de alınan eğitim ve kullanılan araç-gereçle, okullardaki gerçekliğin birbiriyle örtüşmemesi. bilgisayar teknolojisinin eğitimde hiçbir fayda sağlamayacağını düşünen eğitimciler ise bilgisayar teknolojisini savunanların sadece bir hayal dünyasında yaşadıklarını iddia etmekte ve ne yapılırsa yapılsın bu teknolojinin eğitim açısından çok büyük bir fayda sağlamayacağını söylemektedirler. bu eğitimcilere 1 yrd. doç. dr., ondokuz mayıs üniversitesi, akesten@omu.edu.tr alper kesten 89 göre, bilgisayar teknolojisinin eğitimde ısrarla kullandırılmaya çalışılması sadece büyük bilgisayar şirketlerinin kendilerine yeni iş alanları yaratma çabasından başka bir şey değildir. yine bu karşı fikirleri savunanlara göre bilgisayarın eğitime sağladığı yararı gösteren çalışmalar çok küçük ölçekte ve dar bir kapsamda ve genellikle bilgisayar şirketler tarafından yapılan çalışmalarla sınırlıdır. ayrıca harcanan milyonlarca dolardan sonra, gelişmiş ülkelerde bile bu teknolojilere eşit ulaşım olanağının sağlanamamış olması da bu yazarlar tarafından ortaya atılmış diğer bir tartışma konusudur. bütün bu tartışmalardan da anlaşılacağı üzere konu sadece eğitimde bilgisayar kullanımı ile sınırlı değildir. bu aynı zamanda bir güç ve eşitlik konusudur ve bu konuda sağlıklı bir karara varmak için konunun mutlaka her iki boyutuyla da derinlemesine incelenmesi gerekmektedir. bu amaçla, jennifer gore’un (1998) foucault’un güç çözümlemesi çalışmasını göz önünde bulundurarak oluşturmuş olduğu kuramsal çerçeve, bu çalışmada bilgisayar teknolojisi, güç ve eşitlik üçgeninde ortaya çıkan konuları tartışmak amacıyla kullanılmıştır. konuya daha uygun olduğu için gore’un ortaya koyduğu sekiz temel başlıktan altı tanesi (gözetleme, normalleşme, dışlama, sınıflandırma, dağıtma/ayırım ve düzenleme) bu çalışmada detaylı olarak incelenmiş ve güç, eşitlik ve bilgisayar teknolojisi arasındaki güçlü bağ açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. literatür incelemesi yoluyla yapılan bu çalışma göstermiştir ki hem öğretmen adayları hem de öğretmenler bu üçlü ilişkiden oldukça fazla etkilenmektedirler. bu etki odaklarının başında resmi kurumlar, bilgisayar şirketleri ve okullar gelmektedir. fakat alanda sınırlı sayıda yapılan araştırma yüzünden bu güç ilişkisinin boyutlarını tam anlamıyla kavrayabilmek mümkün değildir. bu yüzden en kısa sürede uzun soluklu nitel ve nicel çalışmalar başlatılarak konunun daha derinlemesine incelenmesi faydalı olacaktır. anahtar kelimeler: bilgisayar teknolojisi, eğitim, güç, eşitlik introduction in last two decades, computer technology has been considered as a proper and exhilarating method of improving instruction in k-12 classrooms. during this period, many articles and books were written about the uses of computer technology. on the one side, proponents of this technology claim that computer technology is not only an instrument for receiving and distributing ideas, but also can a method expressing ideas, different perspectives, allowing thoughtful and creative responses (bennett & pye, 1998; braun, 2000; mason, 2000). on the other side, many intellectuals and educators express reservations about the use of computer technology in k-12 classrooms and preservice teacher education (clark, 1994; cuban, 2001; postman, 1993, 2000; ross, 2000; russell, bebell, o'dwyer, & o'connor, 2003; vanfossen, 1999). these journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 88-106 90 educators claim that the use of computer technology in the classroom may not lead to positive results for students, and may instead have harmful effects in the earlier graders. this study aims to use ‘techniques of power’ classified by gore in order to illustrate power relations between supporters (or non-supporters) of computer technology and teachers. for this purpose, six out of eight techniques of power (surveillance, normalization, exclusion, classification, distribution and regulation) is used in formulating thoughts about computer technology and issues of power and equity since these six techniques of power are seen in educational technology more commonly. in following sections, these techniques of power will be discussed more detailed both to exemplify how supporters (or non-supporters) of computer technology exercise power over teachers (preservice or inservice) by using of major techniques of power and to show how they are related to the issue of equity. literature review it is possible to see that both proponents and opponents of computer technology are working really hard and using all their weapons to prove what they say is better than others for teachers and students. as one can easily imagine, both preservice and inservice teachers are the leading actors of these heated discussions. following two citations may provide deeper understanding to show both sides of heated discussions regarding the use of computer technology in education: it is impossible to deny the tremendous effect of rapid technological growth has had on our society. this explosion of new technologies has changed the way we live from the way we do business to the way we communicate with each other. technological advancements are also affecting the way we teach and learn. the business world demands that our schools prepare educated workers who can use technology effectively in the global marketplace (ncate, 1997: 1). computers are reshaping children's lives, at home and at school, in profound and unexpected ways. common sense suggests that we consider the potential harm, as well as the promised benefits, of this change. computers pose serious health hazards to children. the risks include repetitive stress injuries, eyestrain, obesity, social isolation, and, for some, long-term physical, emotional, or intellectual developmental damage. our children, the surgeon general warns, are the most sedentary generation ever. will they thrive spending even more time staring at screens? yet many schools have cut already minimal offerings in these areas to shift time and money to expensive, unproven technology (alliance for childhood, 2007). alper kesten 91 proponents of computer technology argue that the main reason of not using computer technology effectively in education is lack of training in the undergraduate level. a study, by huinker, fuller, and ellwood (1995), was found that computers were hardly ever used in any math and science classes and most preservice teachers have had only inadequate experience on computer technology during their public instruction. this situation carries on at the university level, where 44% of faculty either disagreed or strongly disagreed with the idea that computers could be valuable to the teaching practice (misfeldt & stahl, 1991). also, there is unwillingness on the part of universities to recognize and reward effort put into improving teaching, including both the use and development of computer-based materials (darby, 1992). the resulting curricular inconsistency in universities causes even new graduates of professional programs to lack adequate understanding and skills in the use of technologies that they will be expected to use in their professions (hurd, 1988). many researchers believe one reason for this difference between the objectives of the teacher education programs and the reality in the schools is the fact that new teachers have had very restricted experience to proper models of how the computer can be used in a classroom setting. therefore, proponents of computer technology argue that method courses may be the most efficient way to advance computer skills of preservice teachers and to integrate computer technology into current educational system (beisser, 1999; bennett, 2000; berson, 2000; diem, 2000; kent & mcnergney, 1999; mason et al., 2000). a lack of hardware and software, and a lack of time are also reported as a barrier to using computer technology in the classroom (cummings, 1998; whitworth & berson, 2003). opponents of computer technology draw totally different picture than proponents of computer technology regarding the reason why teachers do not use computer technology in a classroom setting. they believe that much of the educational technology literature is grounded more in hope and faith than documented, readily replicable, successful, student-achievement-raising positive and economical practice (cuban, 2001; postman, 2000; ross, 2000). even several proponents of computer technology accept that no longitudinal study conducts up until now at the elementary, middle, high school, or postsecondary environments in order to evaluate the efficiency of technology on either student or instructional performance in education. much of the data are short term, single concept research analysis. there is no metacognitive studies journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 88-106 92 involving technology (mason et al., 2000; russell, bebell, o'dwyer, & o'connor, 2003; whitworth & berson, 2003). moreover, despite large expenditures, increased access, and nearly universal use by school-age children and their teachers, some observers have questioned the extent to which technology is affecting teaching and learning (healy, 1998; stoll, 1999). both healy and stoll have criticized the investment in educational technologies, arguing that there is little evidence these investments affect teaching and learning in a positive way. these researchers, in fact, asserted that computer use may be harming children and their learning. they also strongly argue that, to integrate computer technology into schools is part of technology corporations’ business plan to increase sales. following examples partly support this claim of opponents of computer technology. for example, intel’s pat foy stated, “what we do isn’t really philanthropy, which is giving something away. this is about making an investment.... if we don’t make those kinds of investments, we’re going to go out of business” (southwick, 1997). business week reported that technology corporations, including microsoft and toshiba, were stoking the education market: “penetration of pc’s in american homes is stalled at about 40%... where do you get new users? enter the education market” (gross, 1997). selling to schools has a multiplier effect because parents have an incentive to purchase compatible equipment and software for the home — especially as projects designed to foster home-school communication by e-mail early: “this (education) market is most influential in educating neophytes in the benefits of high tech. and students, once converted, will remain active buyers of computer gadgetry for life” (tausz, 1996). all these discussions and researches show that no indication exist the use of computer technology will affect current status of preservice teacher programs and classroom milieus in terms of activity, creativity, motivation and so on. in other words, the findings point out that the existence of computer technology has not changed the current structure of student-teacher power/knowledge relations. however, after spending billions of dollars only one thing is definitely obvious, which is the use of computer technology has affected power relations and equity between teachers (preservice and inservice) and proponents (sometimes opponents) of technology and probably will continue to affect these power relations in the future. alper kesten 93 rather than eliding the role of power in the classroom, or foregrounding how individuals use technology to wield power, we must begin with a more nuanced understanding of power, one that takes seriously the overlapping potentials of discipline and resistance. seeking such a perspective demands close attention to the works of michel foucault. during his tenure as a leading european intellectual, foucault (1975/1995) engaged the intersection of agency, structure, and knowledge in a range of sites: asylums, hospitals, schools and bath houses. in exploring the notion of modern discipline, foucault revealed the body as a site of discourse, a map to articulate the fields of force that shape public life, craft its barriers, and mark its discontents (o'farrell, 1997). through some of foucault’s work, such as the history of sexuality, discipline and punish and other later essays, we can find two emergent types of power: sovereign power and disciplinary power. “sovereign power”, or traditional power, is connected with the territorial state, the society laws. second, “disciplinary power” is exercised through institutions and extended throughout society. therefore, continuities in power relations are evident not only in schools, hospitals, prisons, factories, and other institutions, but also outside of these institutions (popkewitz & brenman, 1998). there is an intellectual discussion over whether foucault’s analysis of power was specific to penal institutions or intended to describe all of modern society. however, following passage shows that foucault’s analysis of disciplinary power is not limited with penal institutions and it can be a reference to other institutions, he just left the deeply analytic work to those “specific” intellectuals with a closer attachment to education: take, for example, an educational institutions, the disposal of its space, the meticulous regulations which govern its internal life, the different activities which are organized there, the diverse persons who live there or meet one another there, each with his own function, his well-defined character  all these things constitute a block of capacity – communication – power. the activity which ensures apprenticeship and the acquisition of aptitudes or types of behavior is developed there by means of a whole ensemble of regulated communications (lessons, questions and answers, orders, exhortations, coded signs of obedience, differentiation marks of the “value” of each person and of the levels of knowledge) and by means of a whole series of power processes (enclosure, surveillance, reward and punishment, the pyramid hierarchy) (foucault, 1983: 218-219). journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 88-106 94 jennifer gore (1998) has studied how power relations function at the microlevel of schooling. the theoretical framework of the study based on foucault’s analytics of power. she identified ‘techniques of power’ in the mechanism of schooling: surveillance, normalization, exclusion, classification, distribution, individualization, totalization, and regulation. gore indicates how diffuse and innocent-looking many of these techniques are in pedagogical practice. moreover, this functioning of power remains largely invisible in daily practices of schooling. techniques of power a) surveillance surveillance is one of the most common power techniques that is used either proponents of computer technology or opponents of computer technology. surveillance is defined as “supervising, closely observing, watching, threatening to watch, or expecting to be watched” (gore, 1998: 235). different governmental agencies, computer companies, and non-governmental organizations (ngos) are the biggest power and close followers of the use of computer technology in schools. these institutions strictly observe teachers, as well as release several reports to try persuading and forcing preservice and inservice teachers either to use or not to use computer technology. ceo forum (1999), apple computer, inc. reports (1996, 2002), national council for accreditation of teacher education (ncate) report (1997), president's committee of advisors on science and technology report (1997), office of technology assessment (ota) report (1995), and alliance for childhood report (2007) are some examples of these reports. following reports will exemplify how these agencies use their power to observe teachers regarding the use of computer technology in schools. ota’s (1995) report starts with some statistics to show how education department provided public schools with hardware and software. then, the report continues with some expressions that illustrate how ota has observed teachers. the report finalized by highlighting the importance of providing with “technological vision” for teachers. for example: alper kesten 95 classroom access to newer technologies like cd-rom and networking capabilities are also limited. while 75 percent of public schools have access to some kind of computer network, and 35 percent of public schools have access to the internet, only 3 percent of instructional rooms (classrooms, labs, and media centers) are connected to the internet. despite technologies available in schools, a substantial number of teachers report little or no use of computers for instruction. their use of other technologies also varies considerably. to use these tools well, teachers need visions of the technologies’ potential, opportunities to apply them, training and just-in-time support, and time to experiment. only then can teachers be informed and fearless in their use of new technologies (ota, 1995:1). after the previous report in 1997, ncate prepared very similar report to remind teachers that they are being observed by faculty and government. the report begins with some statistics similar to ota’s report and continue with some phrases in which they underlined who has the knowledge of teachers’ not using computers, just as it was highlighted in ota’s 1995 report. however, they also included the inadequacy of “teacher education programs” into the report. meanwhile, opponents of computer technology conducted different research to prove harmful effects of computer technology. they not only do observe teachers, but also watch federal government, schools, and computer companies from different angle. in following report of alliance for childhood (2007), the possible side effects are emphasized, and schools, federal governments, and computer companies are warned to release information related to potential harmful consequences of computer technology on children. emphasizing the use of computers in childhood can place children at increased risk for repetitive stress injuries, visual strain, obesity, and other unhealthy consequences of a sedentary lifestyle. some development experts also warn that increasing the time that children spend on computers, given the hours they already sit in front of televisions and video games, may contribute to developmental delays in children's ability to coordinate sensory impressions and movement and to make sense of the results. these health risks to children demand immediate action. but no one pushing the computer agenda neither high-tech companies, nor the federal government, nor school officials has yet publicly acknowledged the hazards, let alone taken action to remedy them. these examples illustrate how surveillance techniques are used by federal government or ngos to observe teachers regarding the use of computer technology. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 88-106 96 b) normalization normalization is another technique of power that we can see in power relations in computer technology. normalization is defined as “invoking, requiring, setting, or conforming to standarddefining the normal” (gore, 1998: 237). the number of computers and computers with the internet is increasing every year in the u.s. the following statistics may provide basic information about these numbers. the ratio of students to instructional computers with internet access was computed by dividing the total number of students in all public schools by the total number of instructional computers with internet access in all public schools (i.e., including schools with no internet access).3 in 2001, the ratio of students to instructional computers with internet access in public schools was 5.4 to 1, an improvement from the 12.1 to 1 ratio in 1998, when it was first measured. this level of access corresponds to the 4to 5-students-per-computer ratio that many experts consider reasonable for effective use of computers in schools (kleiner & farris, 2002: 1). indeed, current numbers should be higher than those reflected in these statistics. to make standard computers as a part of classroom milieu is one of the purposes of proponents of computer technology. they claim that in today’s world current necessities of economy and social life make computers a feature of daily live and education should not stay behind of this trend. as providing all hardware and software for schools, these agencies will finish up their responsibilities and they believe that the following steps should be taken by teachers themselves. as bennett & pye (1998: 1) claims “technology must be an integral part of the pedagogy of teaching and learning environment” and all teachers should integrate technology similar to their successful counterparts in virginia, texas, or north carolina (ceo forum, 1999). supporters of computer technology rarely ask teachers whether they need computers or the internet in their classrooms because they argue that computers are vital and usual part of classrooms just like blackboard, pencil, or book. since enough computers and the internet connections are provided for classrooms, supporters of technology believe that the only way remained to use computer technology in schools either persuade or (may be) force teachers (ceo forum, 1999, ncate report 1997, ota report, 1995). c) exclusion the category of exclusion can be used to mark the negative side of normalizationthe defining of pathological. foucault refers to exclusion as a technique alper kesten 97 for tracing limits that will define difference, defining boundaries, setting zones (gore, 1999: 230). the category of exclusion may have two different dimensions depending on from whose perspective you are looking at. from proponents of computer technology standpoint, preservice or inservice teachers who refuse to use computer technology can be grouped under this category. despite the great effort of proponents of technology, the gap between technology presence in schools and its effective use is still too large (ceo forum, 1999). for example, statistics show that while social studies teachers may have begun to support cooperative use of technology for their students, teacher use of computers still quite occasional, fewer than two every ten teachers are serious users of computers in their classrooms. three to four are occasional users. the rest, four two five of every ten teachers, never use the machines (diem, 2000). according to proponents of technology, all these statistics show that the big number of teachers still does not use computers and stay outside as an exclusion; therefore, they offer possible solutions to normalize these excluded preservice and inservice teachers. they argue that preparing new teachers to integrate technology effectively into the curriculum and training current teachers and administrators to be proficient in using computer technology should be the first priority of educational policy to include all teachers into computer technology users (bell & tai, 2003; bennett, 2000; vanfossen, 1999). however, from opponents of computer technology standpoints, preservice or inservice teachers, who successfully integrated computer technology into their daily instruction, can be classified under the category of exclusion. for instance, to see or to read the success story of west virginia project in any article or in any report, written by proponents of technology, is not an unusual situation. mostly, west virginia statistics are used as a proof to show effectiveness of the use of computer technology on test scores or students’ success. however, opponents of computer technology claim that federally funded west virginia project (technology innovation challenge grant (ticg) was used for it) cannot go further than to be a single project. as exemplified by cuban (2001), like past experience with federally funded innovations that slipped off into limbo when funding ended leads a likely scenario for any other projects. d) classification journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 88-106 98 the category of classification is used to define differentiating groups or individuals from one another, classifying them, classifying oneself (gore, 1999: 239). this should be the easiest category to define for the use of computer technology because it has already classified inside: the proponents of technology and the opponents of technology. both sides’ missions and approaches are totally different than each other. on the one side, the proponents of technology strongly argue that the effective integration of technology into classroom instruction can and will result in higher levels of student achievement. moreover, they believe that the computer has the potential to facilitate widespread access to ideas and information. educators can be empowered through the computer to break down the barriers of isolation and collaborate with broad networks of peers and experts locally, nationally, and globally (braun, 2000; easley & hoffman, 2000; keiper, mhyre, & pihl, 2000/2001; mason & berson, 2000; mason et al., 2000; whitworth & berson, 2003). however, they know that all these reforms can start with teacher and that is the reason why they try to persuade teachers to use pcs and use their powers over teachers to reach their aims. on the other side, the opponents of technology have completely different perspective about the use of computer technology. either they believe that the computer use is not as effective as in education as asserted by proponents of technology (at least right now), or they believe that the computer use even may be harmful for children. for example, cuban (2001: 178), in his book oversold &underused, asserts that “there have been no advances (measured by higher academic achievement)...over the last decade that can be confidently attributed to broader access to computers” have had no discernable impact on practitioners —or on policy makers for that matter. impact2, the report of a 4-year-government-funded study, described as “one of the most comprehensive investigations into the impact of (information technology) on education so far conducted in the (united kingdom)” concluded that “infusing” schools with technology had failed to improve student achievement (fielding, 2003). as these examples demonstrate, computer technology results in classification of teachers, scholars, and institutions and creates strong power relations among them. e) distribution distribution is defined by foucault as arranging, isolating, separating, and ranking (gore, 1999: 240). alper kesten 99 in today’s world, computer technology mostly separates and ranks schools, states, and nations from each other. these separation and rank create the biggest differences among people and these differences are widely known as “digital divide”. what is digital divide? is the digital divide essentially an issue about access in computers and/or the internet? from a point of view, as one would expect, the answer is affirmative. enlarging gap exists between those who have access to information technology and those who don't; therefore, when dealing with the digital divide we need to concentrate on giving more people computer and the internet access. in another words, the meaning of digital divide is simply having a computer and a network connection. however, this meaning only refers to the second of four consecutive kinds of access “mental, material, skills, usage” (van dijk, 1999). clearly, public opinion and public policy are strongly preoccupied with the second kind of access. proponents of technology think that the problem of information inequality in the use of digital technology or computer-mediated communication (cmc) is going to be solved at the moment that everyone has the ability to obtain a personal computer and a connection to the internet. however, it is just not that simple. technology access is only one small piece of a much larger problem, a problem that if it is solved might help raise the quality of life for millions of people (carvin, 2000; gaillard, 2001). according to van dijk (1999), access problems of digital technology gradually shift from the first two kinds of access to the last two kinds. when the problems of mental and material access have been solved, wholly or partly, the problems of structurally different skills and uses become more operative. as a result, increasing differences in the skill and usage of the new information technologies might lead to new inequalities of a nature which is not known before and to be battled, if one chooses to do so, with other means than the traditional ones. in short, in the information and network society, relative differences in getting information and lines of communication become important for one’s position in society, more than in every society in history before. giving everybody a computer and a network connection, banning the cutting lines of “segregation” in this way, will not remove them. much deeper and more noticeable differences in skill and usage will appear as both technology and society increasingly differentiate. the fundamental task journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 88-106 100 of future society will be to prevent structural inequalities in the skill and usage of computer technology from becoming more intense. f) regulation regulation is defined as controlling by rule, subject to restrictions invoking a rule, including sanction, reward and punishment (gore, 1999: 243). it is obvious that all above techniques of power would have regulating effects. however, as one comprehend from the following examples, category of regulation creates big impact on teachers and it sometimes put them under pressure. source of this power are parents, federal government, school administers, scholars. armstrong and casement (1998: 2) observed that as viewed from the outside, it seems that the public believes “it’s almost as if nothing worth while goes on in schools unless computers are involved.” increasingly, as public education is threatened on several fronts, treating the public as the customer who is always right has become synonymous with educational leadership. and it is rarely good business to argue with the customer (armstrong & casement, 1998). in one of the study authors described teachers ’professional discourse as full of “ventriloquating neophilic sentiments” that originate in the “official pro-technology discourse of the ministry, the district and the administration”(bryson & de castell, 1998). this image of teachers as puppets is disturbing, but it is not an unfamiliar metaphor to describe how people respond to what they perceive as their own powerlessness or irrelevancy when faced with coercive power in charge of implementing change. under such conditions, it maybe acceptable to dispute approaches to implementation —the strategy —but it can be seen as treasonous to challenge the goal itself. bryson and decastell (1998: 3) pointed out that disagreement can be professionally damaging: teachers who are perceived as hesitant, or who experience difficulties with the implementation... will be understood as “resisting” educational innovation; they may be characterized, for instance, as “reluctant users, ”or as “luddites,” in need of some kind of intervention facilitative of an “attitude change” with respect to new technologies.... from this standpoint, refusal to implement new technologies in education is a negative action indicating a refusal to “grow and learn,” that is to say, a falling away from the educational ideal of “the school” as a learning culture. alper kesten 101 for some teachers, these risks are hardly abstract (robertson, 1998). in robertson’s personal communications some teachers have approached her to tell their own stories after she have raised some of these issues in speeches. a first-year kindergarten teacher told robertson that her principal noted on her evaluation that, on two occasions, she had walked past the classroom and noted that at least one computer was empty and that he found this very “troubling.” another told her of how her principal had instructed her to write a letter of apology to members of the parents’ council because she had suggested that instead of buying more computers with the funds volunteers had raised, parents might consider buying books and musical instruments. the principal admonished her that she had compromised the image of the school as living “on the cutting-edge” of educational innovation. female teachers feel pressure to demonstrate high levels of competency and confidence in technology, especially if they have administrative ambitions (robertson, 1998). however, these criticisms are not only for the credibility of individual teachers but also for the validity of schooling itself. the claim that schools are chronically change resistant surfaces all too easily. seymour papert compared the school’s response to the computer to that of a living organism that, defending itself against a foreign body, digests and assimilates the intruder (conlon, 2002). discussion and conclusion aforementioned illustrations of these categories has been helpful and pertinent the analysis of the use of computer technology in the context of power relations and issue of equity. as foucault (1983: 222) indicates that “a society without power relations can only be an abstraction.” in today’s world, it is obvious that almost everybody familiar with the dynamics of power at least at the microlevel. power relations regarding the use of computer technology is another part of the microlevel action of power. however, the only problem is that this implementation of power remains almost unseen in daily practices of teacher, unless they pay close attention to it. also, one of the biggest concerns here is that whether this microlevel action of power will keep remaining at the microlevel, or, will grow up throughout time with the effect of power sources. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 88-106 102 independent from their realization both preservice and inservice teachers are affected by these power relations. they stay under pressure of federal agencies, computer companies, school districts, and so on. however, because of the limited research, we really do not know how these power relations affect teachers’ daily instructions and classroom environment. in order to draw a clearer picture of the impact of power relations on teachers, there is a need for both longitudinal quantitative and qualitative research. until these researches are conducted, many questions about power relations between teacher and power sources will be remain unanswered. references/kaynakça alliance for childhood (2007). “fool's gold: a critical look at computers and childhood.” retrieved on 15-december-2008, from http://drupal6.allianceforchildhood.org/fools_gold armstrong, a., & casement, c. (1998). the child and the machine: why computers may put our children’s education at risk. toronto: key porter. beisser, r. s. (1999, february 28-march 4). infusing technology in elementary social studies methods. paper presented at the society for information technology & teacher education international conference, san diego. bell, r., & tai, r. (2003). transforming science instruction with technology. in d. a. sheekey (ed.), how to ensure ed/tech is not oversold and underused. lanham, maryland: scarecrow press. bennett, l. (2000). technology standards for the preparation of teachers. international journal of social education, 15(2), 1-11. bennett, l., & pye, j. (1998, february 18-22). technology: creating a community of thinkers. paper presented at the national convention of the association for educational communications and technology, st. louis, mo. berson, j. m. (2000). rethinking research and pedagogy in the social studies: the creation of caring connections through technology and advocacy. theory and research in social education, 28(1), 121-131. braun, a. j. j. (2000). a baker's dozen: ideas and resources in social studies teacher education. international journal of social education, 15(2), 12-30. alper kesten 103 bryson, m., & de castell, s. (1998). new technologies and the cultural ecology of primary schooling: imagining teachers as luddites in/deed (september, 5). retrieved on 29-march-2009, from http://educ.ubc.ca/faculty/bryson/gentech/ luddites.pdf. carvin, a. (2000). mind the gap: the digital divide as the civil rights issue of the new millennium. multimedia schools, 7(1), 56-58. ceo forum (1999). “year 2 report professional development: a link to better learning.” retrieved on 14-february-2001, from http://www.ceoforum.org/reports.htm. conlon, t. (2002). rewiring schools versus re-schooling society (january, 8). retrieved on 15-march-2009, from http://www.spd.dcu.ie/cesi/tomconlon.htm. cuban, l. (2001). oversold & underused: computers in the classroom. cambridge, massachusetts: harvard university press. cummings, c. a. (1998). teacher attitudes and effective computer instruction (eric document reproduction service no. ed419 512). washington, d.c.: office of educational research and improvement. darby, j. (1992). the future of computers in teaching and learning. computers education, 19, 193-197. diem, a. r. (2000). can it make a difference? technology and the social studies. theory and research in social education, 28(4), 493-501. easley, l., & hoffman, s. (2000). creating the electronic classroom a practical guide. international journal of social education, 15(1), 80-93. fielding, r. (2003). it in schools fails to raise standards (january, 15). retrieved on 15-march-2009, from http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2121247/schoolsfails-raise-standards. foucault, m. (1978). the history of sexuality: an introduction (r. hurley, trans.). new york: random house. foucault, m. (1983). the subject and power. in h. l. dreyfus & p. rabinow (eds.), michel foucault: beyond structuralism and hermeneutics (2nd ed., pp. 208-226). chicago: university of chicago press. gaillard, f. d. (2001). understanding the digital divide as it relates to electronic commerce. unpublished doctoral dissertation, old dominion university. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 88-106 104 gore, j. m. (1998). disciplining bodies: on the continuity power relations in pedagogy. in t. s. popkewitz & m. brenman (eds.), foucault's challenge: discourse, knowledge, and power in education. new york: teachers college press. gross, n. (1997, may 5). a notebook for every student? how microsoft and toshiba are scrambling to stoke the education market. business week. healy, j. m. (1998). failure to connect: how computers affect our children ’s minds — and what we can do about it. new york: touchstone. huinker, d., fuller, h., & ellwood, c. (1995). “landscape of mathematics and science education in milwaukee. a study of the milwaukee public schools.” milwaukee, wi: center for mathematics and science education research, wisconsin university. hurd, j. m. (1988). technology: an agent for change in education for information science. journal of the american society for information science, 39(5), 323336. keiper, t., mhyre, o., & pihl, p. (2000/2001). enhancing school-university collaboration through technology. international journal of social education, 15(2), 62-75. kent, w. t., & mcnergney, f. r. (1999). will technology really change education? from blackboard to web. thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. kleiner, a., & farris, e. (2002). "internet access in u.s. public schools and classrooms: 1994-2001.” national center for educational statistics (september, 17). retrieved on 19-march-2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp? pubid=2002018+. mason, l. c., & berson, j. m. (2000). computer mediated communication in elementary social studies methods: an examination of students' perceptions and perspectives. theory and research in social education, 28(4), 527-545. mason, l. c., berson, j. m., diem, a. r., hicks, d., lee, j., & dralle, t. (2000). guidelines for using technology to prepare social studies teachers. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 1(1). misfeldt, r., & stahl, w. a. (1991). attitudes toward computerization in canadian universities. technical paper #4. ottowa: canadian international development agency. alper kesten 105 national council for accreditation of teacher education (1997). task force on technology and teacher education. washington, dc.: technology and the new professional teacher: preparing for the 21st century classroom. o'farrell, c. (1997). foucault resources. retrieved on 25-march-2008, from http://www.qut.edu.au/edu/cpol/foucault/. popkewitz, t. s., & brenman, m. (eds.). (1998). foucault's challenge: discourse, knowledge, and power in education. new york: teachers college press. postman, n. (2000). will our children only inherit the wind? theory and research in social education, 28(4), 580-586. robertson, h. j. (1998). no more teachers, no more books: the commercialization of canada's school. toronto, on: mcclelland & stewart. ross, e. w. (2000). the promise and perils of e-learning. theory and research in social education, 28(4), 482-492. russell, m., bebell, d., o'dwyer, l., & o'connor, k. (2003). examining teacher technology use implications for preservice and inservice teacher preparation. journal of teacher education, 54(4), 297-310. seymour, l. (2000). teachers online but disconnected; many in area lack the time, training to use computers in class. washington post, pp. a.01. southwick, k. (1997, march). are corporate technology initiatives more pr than philanthropy? electronic school, p. a13. stoll, c. (1999). high-tech heretic. new york: random house. tausz, a. (1996, october 15). how tech firms court the key education market. globe and mail, pp. c6. teachers and technology: making the connection. (1995). washington, dc: office of technology assessment. u.s. congress, office of technology assessment, teachers and technology: making the connection, ota-ehr-616 (washington, dc: u.s. government printing office, april 1995). van dijk, j. (1999). the network society. social aspects of new media. thousand oaks, ca: sage. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 88-106 106 vanfossen, p. j. (1999). an analysis of the use of the internet and world wide web by secondary social studies teachers in indiana. international journal of social education, 14(2), 87-109. whitworth, s., & berson, j. m. (2003). computer technology in the social studies: an examination of the effectiveness literature 1996-2001. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 2(4), 472-509. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017: 8(1), 47-68 © 2017 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 professional preparation of students of social pedagogy in the czech republic jana martincová1 and pavla andrysová2 abstract this paper addresses the professional preparation of future teachers of social pedagogy (social educators) in the context of current tasks which the social pedagogy in the czech republic still has. based on the results of the research which aims to present the professional characteristics of students of social pedagogy, we propose an innovation of the current curricula in social pedagogy study program and thus strengthen the independence of the profession which has undergone a specific development in our country. bip questionnaire was used to obtain data. the main aim of the research was to analyze the professional orientation of social pedagogy students with the use of the standardized bip questionnaire. the research has involved 154 social pedagogy students in a chosen faculty of humanities in the czech republic. besides the research of the students´ professional characteristics, an analysis of the study program social pedagogy has been done in order to create a constructive proposal of innovation of the study program subjects. so the authors call the attention to the fact that the study program must necessarily not only respond to the present demands of the tertiary sector (services marketing) but also be adapted to the professional identity of future social pedagogues and the development of students´competences. keywords: social pedagogy, professional characteristics of students of social pedagogy, curricula, professional identity introduction social pedagogy in the czech republic is regarded as an academic discipline that has many limitations in real life. in this article we focus on this problem and we describe the position of social pedagogy within tertiary education as well as the chances of finding employment as a social pedagogue. based on an analysis of the study program and professional characteristics of the students, we aim to propose innovating the set of subjects of the study program social pedagogy. thus we expect the potentials of educating social pedagogues in a more efficient manner and improving the study program adaptation to the labor market in the czech republic. 1 mgr. jana martincová, tomas bata university, martincova@fhs.utb.cz 2 mgr. pavla andrysová, palacký university olomouc, pavla.andrysova@upol.cz mailto:martincova@fhs.utb.cz mailto:pavla.andrysova@upol.cz journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 48 the primary task of this article is to define a social pedagogue, if we are to consider the professional characteristics of students of social pedagogy in the czech republic, we should not forget the problem of professional identity of a social educator who is a social educator? what knowledge and skills (s)he should have and what are his/her employment options on the labor market? while social pedagogy as a discipline and an academic field of study has found its place in the czech republic, as we have already said, it is quite different in practice. within czech legislation there is no precise definition of the job of a social pedagogue. job opportunities for a social pedagogue have been set in these two acts: the act on pedagogical staff and the act on social services. these two acts, however, do not define a social pedagogue as an independent profession; they merely describe the job opportunities in the characteristics of one of possible educational backgrounds for other professions. the act on educational staff no. 563/2004 states that the study program of social pedagogy is an appropriate education for tutors, teachers of leisure time activities and teaching assistants. the act on social services no. 108/2006 states that social pedagogy is a sufficient qualification for the profession of a social worker. it therefore follows that a social educator is: a tutor, a teacher for leisure time activities or a social worker, which however does not reflect the reality and the profile of a social educator. moreover, it does not satisfy the requirements of the labor market. the society today faces new and new problems and a social pedagogue can react to them . however, law regulations do not enable the practical use of this profession as an independent job. anyway, in many parts of the czech republic this profession came into existence even without legislative support. these are for example: subregions 3 where a social pedagogue works in primary schools. then his or her activities involve communication with problem pupils, their parents and the school, as this helps better integration of a socially excluded child into the society. this is just one example of a social pedagogue´s potential. now we will concentrate on the theoretical context of social pedagogy: its definition and the concept of the profession of a social pedagogue in the czech republic. theoretical background 3 socially excluded localities with higher concentration of minorities. jana martincová & pavla andrysová 49 the theoretical aspect of social pedagogy is rather complicated. it is due to the fact that the theory deals with phenomena which are quantitatively different and thus the relevant theory has to combine educational approaches with the theory and findings of sociology, developmental psychology, law, preventive healthcare methodology, etc. the situation is more complicated by the fact that since 1989, the theory of social pedagogy has not received sufficient attention because the official ideology did not support scientists focusing on marginal groups in the socialist society. (průcha, 2000) as regards finding employment in the labor market, not only in the czech republic but also in other countries (slovakia, the uk, germany), social work is a strong competitor for social pedagogy. some prominent experts on social pedagogy conclude that social pedagogy and social work are two overlapping fields because they both deal with educational aspects in relation to individuals who are in danger of risk behavior4; they both work with marginal groups of our population, etc. however if we analyze the curricula of social work including the minimal standard in the education in social work, we will find only few subjects related directly to pedagogy. this means that not all experts on social work understand the relationship between the social work and social pedagogy as being as interconnected as is the case for experts from pedagogical disciplines. we face a similar problem when searching for a relationship between social pedagogy and etopedy which is one of the disciplines of special pedagogy. this fact seem to be related to the complexity of the relationship between special pedagogy and pedagogy. although they are closely related historically and substantively (not only by their name), we have recently been discovering tendencies of special pedagogy teachers interpreting special pedagogy as an independent, fully-fledged, dynamic discipline with a relatively short history and very rich practical experience (slowík, 2007). however teachers still consider special pedagogy as one of the disciplines of pedagogy. based on the facts mentioned above, it may be concluded that the current problem of social pedagogy in the czech republic is still the ambivalent subject matter of research. concerning research tendencies we can view the following research in social pedagogy: 1) research focused on an analysis and description of the relation between social pedagogy and social work (marynowicz-hetka, 2016; kraus, hoferková, 2016; knotová, 2014; hämäläinen, 2003) 4 by term risk behavior we mean: alcoholism, drug addiction, gambling, aggressiveness, etc. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 50 2) research focused on social pedagogy in relation to chosen target groups: minorities and multicultural competences (hladík, 2014; preissová krejčí, máčalová, 2014); children and young people (georgiou, stavrinides, nikiforou, 2015; šándorová, faltová, 2015; hrbáčková, šafránková, 2015; zemančíková, 2014). 3) research focused on social pedagogy in chosen countries (knotová, 2016; sandermann, neumann, 2014; kallinikaki, 2015; öbrink hobzová, 2014) we can see the research, which are focused on student (akar, 2016), innovation and education (tarman, 2016) or on the teacher (kılınç, kılınç, kaya, başer, türküresin, kesten, 2016). very few surveys are focused on the academic study of social pedagogy in the czech republic. they mostly deal with specific themes that should be included into the academic preparation (hladík, 2016; hrbáčková, 2010). therefore we decided to concentrate on this area and contribute not only to the research tendencies but also to the possibilities of innovating the study program. professional preparation of future social pedagogues is deeply affected by the fact that research tendencies are not specified and that social pedagogy often overlaps with related disciplines (special education, ethopaedia, social work, philosophy, antropology, pedagogy). so next we will explain our definition of the social pedagogue profession. the concept of social pedagogy as a profession in the czech republic the term profession means a specific occupation which is based on a long theoretical preparation forming the basics of the professional activity. the social role which is connected with this profession forms a complex unit of some sort of a profession culture. social educator cannot be defined clearly nor simply (as for example the profession of a teacher). social educator works at numerous places and in various disciplines, compared to schools (s)he does not have a time constant or any standardized templates (e.g.: curriculum, educational program, etc.). the profession may be closely related to the profession of a teacher or a therapist, however it certainly does not replace it. with the increasing volume of risk behavior in our society, the profession of a social educator is becoming a necessity. universities therefore prepare students of the social pedagogy programs according to a continuous and long-term preparation and aim to jana martincová & pavla andrysová 51 encourage the need for life-long learning. the profession of a social educator requires a wide range of interdisciplinary awareness and complex expertise and knowledge. authors differ in the concept of a social educator. according to p. klíma, a social educator is an expert with theoretical, practical and conceptual knowledge who is able to intentionally affect groups or individuals. such educator works mainly where the lifestyle shows signs of destructive forms in terms of meeting the needs, expressing one´s own identity. (kraus, 2008) however, this interpretation is not comprehensive because it lacks a fundamental preventive function which every social educator should hold in their profession. bakošová (2008) associates the activities of a social educator with the ministry of education, ministry of labor and social affairs, ministry of justice, ministry of health, ministry of the interior, and with family. hroncová (2000) associates the activities of a social educator with crime prevention; selická (2004) places it in the context of romany families; jusko (2000) relates it to drug addictions; míňová (2000) connects it with the can syndrome. gregorová (2004) relates social educator with the undergraduate college preparation; šereš (2004) places this profession into the area of personal relationships and motivation for workers; határ (2004) sees it as help provided to aggressive children at schools; emmerová (2005) understands the role of a social educator in terms of risk behavior prevention at elementary schools, in penitentiary care and in working with the roma ethnic group. storo (2013) associates this profession the most with social worker and teacher. to sum up, the social pedagogue needs to be: flexible, but not indulgent; sensitive, but keeping a professional distance; authoritative, but not oppressive; and energetic and optimistic (storo, 2013). based on these characteristics we conclude that a social educator has a wide range of employment possibilities requiring extensive qualifications which can be gained via highquality professional preparation. methodology the research problem and research questions the main research problem is to identify professional characteristics of social pedagogy students and analyze the study program social pedagogy in a chosen faculty of humanities in the czech republic. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 52 the research problem leads to this research question: what are the professional characteristics of social pedagogy students? we asked ourselves this research question in order to search for professional identity of a social educator. since we cannot observe the work of a social educator in practice, we have to focus on those individuals who are currently undergoing professional preparation for social educators. we elaborate on the main research question in several research subquestions: what is the professional orientation of students of social pedagogy? what are their professional skills and qualifications? what is the work behavior of students of social pedagogy? what is the psychological profile of students of social pedagogy? what is the concept of the study program social pedagogy in the chosen faculty of humanities like? the main objective of the research is to determine the professional characteristics of students and thus formulate recommendations for their future careers. the bip (bochum inventory of personal work features) questionnaire was used of measure professional characteristics. we will further describe the questionnaire in the chapter the research instrument. the secondary aim of the research is to analyze the study program social pedagogy. the aim of this analysis is to show the present-day situation of the study program in a chosen faculty of humanities. research tools and operationalization of the variables to find out the level of professional characteristics of the students we use the bochum personality questionnaire (bip). the bip questionnaire was designed by hossiep and paschen and it was published in 2003 by testcentrum praha. the questionnaire diagnoses abilities which are crucial for success in a particular profession. we diagnose 14 personality dimensions which are assigned to 4 areas of professional requirements. these are as follows: occupational orientation (achievement motivation, power motivation, leadership motivation), social competencies (sensitivity, openness to contact, sociability, team orientation, assertiveness), occupational behavior (conscientiousness, flexibility, action orientation), psychological constitution (emotional stability, work under pressure, self-confidence). the questionnaire consists of 210 items that the respondent answers using the absolutely agree – absolutely disagree scale. bip is standardized for the czech republic. for a precise definition of the individual variables observed with bip we give the operationalization of the variables. dimensions conceptualization (the meaning of high values of scales) jana martincová & pavla andrysová 53 motivation to perform readiness to cope with high standards; motivation to place high demands on one´s own performance; high readiness to cope with strain and workload; motivation to continually improve one´s own performance. motivation to form clearly defined motivation to alter subjective perception of improper state of affairs and the will to create processes and structures according to one´s own ideas; clearly defined readiness to affect and monitor one´s own understanding of the concept. motivation to lead clearly defined motivation of social impact; preference of tasks related to leading and directing; self-assessment authority and an indicative benchmark for other people. conscientiousness meticulous work; high reliability; detail-oriented work; high ratings of conceptual work; tendency towards perfectionism. flexibility high readiness and ability to adapt to new and unforeseen situations and to tolerate uncertainty; openness to new perspectives and methods; willingness to change. decisiveness ability and willingness to quickly implement a decision through a targeted activity as well as to protect a selected option against other proposals. sensitivity sensitivity towards weak signals in social situations; great empathy; interpretation and classification of types of behavior of others. ability to make contacts clearly defined ability and preferences to address friends and strangers and making and maintaining relationships; active forming and maintaining the professional and private network of friends. sociability distinct preference of social behavior which can be defined as friendly and considerate; tolerance for partners´ weaknesses; strong desire for harmonious coexistence. team-orientation high assessment of team work and cooperation; readiness for active support of team processes; willingness to suppress one´s own opportunities to excel in favor of the work group. ability to assert oneself tendency to dominate in social situations; efforts to pursue one´s own goals despite any resistance, high readiness for conflicts. emotional stability quickly copes with failure. an optimistic and positive attitude towards life. the person does not feel limited by intensive negative emotions. work under pressure views oneself as a (physically) strong and robust person; ready to work under high pressure, and cope with it, not avoid it. (self-)confidence (emotional) independence of the opinions of others; confidence in one´s own impact; self-assurance concerning one´s own skills and abilities to perform. figure 1 the conceptualization of bip questionnaire dimensions the data were collected in december, 2015. the questionnaires were distributed to students during the classes. all respondents agreed to participate in the survey. sampling journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 54 the research set involved all universities in the czech republic that teach social pedagogy. these are: university of south bohemia in české budějovice, masaryk university in brno, university of ostrava in ostrava, university of hradec králové, university of jan evangelista purkyně in ústí nad labem, charles university in prague, palacký university olomouc, tomas bata university in zlín. one of these universities was randomly selected for a complex analysis. we do not disclose the name of the university because of ethical reasons; for the purposes of the research we call it university x. university x teaches social pedagogy as bachelor´s program as well as postgraduate master´s, both full-time and part-time. the basic research set consists of 166 students of social pedagogy in the full-time mode of study. our research concentrates on students of the full-time mode of study because we assume that part-time students have already developed their professional identity which would distort the results. the choice of the research set was exhaustive, however, some of the students were not at the university during the survey. that is why the research involved 154 respondents. the table gives a further specification of the research set. study program women men total bachelor´s study program 106 10 126 postgraduate master´s study program 33 5 38 total 138 15 154 figure 2 specification of the research set concerning the study program and gender for an analysis of the study program, i.e. to answer the research question: what is the concept of the study program social pedagogy in the faculty of humanities like? we used an analysis of the subjects´ syllabuses in bachelor´s as well as follow-up master´s study programs. at the same time we analyzed the study plan of the study program social pedagogy. research results and their interpretation analysis of students´ professional characteristics to describe the results of the research on the students´ professional characteristics we use descriptive statistics and its comparision with the norms given in the bip handbook. an jana martincová & pavla andrysová 55 essential part of the data analysis is the interpretation of found results from the standpoint of the already specified bip variables. variable n-valid mean modus min max standard deviation skewness kurtosis achievement motivation 154 49.03 43 27 72 8.46 0.06 -0.13 power motivation 154 41.77 42 26 61 6.18 0.29 0.22 leadership motivation 154 47.08 52 22 80 10.78 0.08 -0.14 conscientiousness 154 51.23 mult. 26 74 9.34 -0.07 -0.25 flexibility 154 40.67 41 16 68 9.01 0.04 -0.03 action orientation 154 44.70 50 18 70 9.01 -0.05 0.05 sensitivity 154 48.77 44 24 66 6.62 -0.19 0.70 openness to contact 154 60.90 60 36 83 10.80 -0.11 -0.50 sociability 154 57.38 mult. 32 76 8.04 -0.36 0.06 team orientation 154 40.17 mult. 15 59 9.30 -0.24 -0.19 assertiveness 154 43.48 45 24 70 9.21 0.12 -0.11 emocional stability 154 45.65 mult. 19 92 13.29 0.32 0.66 work under pressure 154 38.37 35 17 76 10.51 0.26 0.46 self-confidence 154 51.52 mult. 23 82 10.89 0.32 -0.014 figure 3 descriptive statistics of students´ professional characteristics to describe the measured values we use in particular the mean, modus, minimum, and maximum. these values that show the achieved level in the individual variables have been complemented by the value of skewness and kurtosis of the research data. we can see that the variables of conscientiousness, action motivation, sensitivity, openness to contact, sociability, and team orientation have negative skewness, i.e. half of lower values are more distributed than half of higher values (chráska, 2007). the interpretation can be that most values in the given variables are above the calculated mean. we observe that the variables of achievement motivation, leadership motivation, and flexibility have positive skewness near zero, which proves symmetric data distribution. in the coefficient of kurtosis we observe data concentration near the median. unlike skewness, with the coefficients of kurtosis we can interpret positive numbers in the variables of power motivation, action orientation, sensitivity, sociability, emotional stability, and work under pressure. positive kurtosis shows that most values are near its median. for a further data journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 56 analysis and interpretation we need to assess whether the data come from normal distribution. data normality is assessed by means of shapiro-wilk test on confidence level 0.05. h0: the data come from normal distribution. ha: the data do not come from normal distribution. variable observed shapiro-wilk coefficient (w) p conclusion achievement motivation 0.99 0.34 the data come from normal distribution. p0.05 = we confirm h0 power motivation 0.99 0.44 leadership motivation 0.99 0.81 conscientiousness 0.99 0.60 flexibility 0.99 0.95 action orientation 0.99 0.87 sensitivity 0.98 0.22 openness to contact 0.99 0.18 sociability 0.98 0.12 towards team orientation 0.99 0.26 assertiveness 0.99 0.49 emotional stability 0.97 0.01 work under pressure 0.98 0.15 self-confidence 0.99 0.28 figure 4 the conclusion about the normality of the measured values as the data come from normal distribution we can compare them with the normalized values in the bip handbook. next we will concentrate on descriptions of the individual variables in relation to measured values and the observed research set. sociability is the first analyzed factor. respondents reached an average value. therefore the following characteristic can be assigned. students do not belong to the group of people who want to be popular everywhere. it is of little significance to them to be perceived as pleasant and considerate individuals by others. they can criticize and tell the unpleasant truth openly and they can endure offending or hurting somebody by doing so. low sociability is a rather advantageous attribute for quite a high number of activities. it is associated with high independence of interpersonal harmony which allows people to solve charged conflicts, stay focused on the subject matter and not to disguise it with a compromise or premature agreement. the question is whether low sociability is a suitable attribute for a caring profession or the profession of a social educator? individuals who have a high level of jana martincová & pavla andrysová 57 sociability can respond to the needs of social environment. this ability is crucial and indispensable for the work of a social educator. the identification of needs in the environment and the activity related to the environment optimization is one of the main areas of the social educator´s profession. according to the guidebook for the bip questionnaire, the sociability is related to the team-oriented individuals. someone with low sociability can have difficulties to integrate into a team without any conflicts. in the team-oriented scale, respondents reached the low level scale. those individuals who are team-oriented put great emphasis on high autonomy and independence at work. it is important for them to be responsible for their own work results. low focus on team work is suitable in an environment where the personal performance is crucial. if this area is part of the professional requirements, which can be seen in the social services, it will be necessary for the described individuals to widen their range of behavior: many activities will eventually require not only an independent work but also the willingness to personally conform to successful cooperation in a team. the ability to make new contacts is another scale in which the respondents reached low to average level. persons who reached low level tend to be reserved in social situations and they only rarely initiate a conversation. therefore they are perceived as being shy and restrained. ability to make new contacts is also an essential social skill in the profession of a social educator. social educator should be able to make contacts not only with his/her clients, but also with other workers at a facility that provide follow-up care, assistance or support to clients. we can see a good ability to make contacts in our research group. those who reached a low level should increase it, because it can be modified to certain extent. from the perspective of work activity, this ability can develop with experience in seeking new contacts and with the need to establish such contacts. the research group reached low level at the emotional stability scale. individuals with low level need some time to overcome failure or defeat. they often feel inadequate or overloaded. this is demonstrated in the questionnaire on subjectively perceived motivation in which the students claimed to be demotivated by a high number of tasks and high workload imposed on them. the question is whether the low emotional stability is the reason students have low aspirations and they choose tasks during which they will not experience insufficiency, failure or defeat. people with high emotional stability can cope with a failure quickly. they can control most of the negative feelings that accompany problems and failures journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 58 and they do not let these feelings to affect their activities. these individuals also do not let personal problems interfere with their work or study commitments. emotional stability is also related to one´s resistance to stress. while emotional stability shows mainly emotional coping with difficult situations, the questions in this scale are related rather to mental attributes. both scales correlate and thus demonstrate the overall stability of an individual. respondents demonstrate a low level of resistance. they thus show the following characteristic: with a high workload and stress, they reach the limit of their performance quickly. when exposed to high requirements for a longer period of time, they feel exhausted, irritated and nervous. if they work intensively on a difficult task, their performance decreases as well as their overall energy. it would be appropriate to continue this scale with further research and ascertain what is demanding for a student and what is not. the primary objective of such research would aim at finding characteristics of a difficult task and problems observed by a student during his/her studies. how students perceive difficult tasks. how they describe those tasks. we are not going to answer these questions nor are we going to deal with meeting the objective. however, we provide an incentive for further research. the sixth variable is (self-) confidence. the average value was 2.56 points, median value was 3 points. respondents thus reached low or average values. therefore the following profile can be assigned. in many situations respondents worry about how others see them and what impression they make. they are dependent on the evaluation of others which has an impact on their behavior and actions. they adjust their behavior and actions according to possible evaluation. from the above mentioned interpretation, the low values of (self-) confidence does not necessarily mean an impediment. objective criticism may encourage an individual to deliver better performance. the problem occurs when an individual has to deliver a presentable performance which is associated with verbal readiness and emotional stability (low nervousness, ability to deliver a public presentation). it is recommended to these persons to practice this type of task or undergo a training where they can develop this ability. we are now going to analyze the work orientation of students which includes motivation to perform, motivation to form and motivation to lead. respondents reached low levels in all scales. the first variable we are going to interpret is the motivation to perform. individuals with low motivation to perform are aware of their own performance shortcomings. jana martincová & pavla andrysová 59 they know they can handle some tasks better, however, they are not ambitious enough to comply with high demands. when they see that a goal is difficult to achieve, they do not continue working towards it. this tendency was already evident during the analysis of questionnaires related to the motivation to perform. as stated in the bip guidebook, these individuals can be described in the economic context as lacking sufficient "drive". it is difficult to motivate these persons to demanding or challenging tasks. the motivation to perform is related to the motivation to form. it describes the internal impulses of an individual to engage in changes and reconstruction of his/her environment. the possibility to change the processes of their activities is not an important motivation factor for respondents. the possibility to influence their environment and processes is not appealing enough. in comparison, they adapt very well to the existing structures and structures which provide little room for a change. the third variable in professional orientation is the motivation to lead. students reached a low level in this area as well. respondents do not see any special incentive in leading a work team. compared to the motivation to form, this variable may be interpreted as a social influence. respondents do not require it. rather than leading, they focus on their own professional qualification which is the focus of their engagement. someone with low ability to assert oneself does not tend to dominate others and does not enforce their claims in a group. the research group has a low level in this ability. therefore they try to achieve their goals through a compromise, not dominance or authority. in situations where they are to convince others of their ideas, the give up more easily than it would be effective for solving a particular matter. low values also demonstrate social suggestibility and willingness to quickly reach a compromise. on the scale of conscientiousness, respondents reached low to average level. persons with low values are reluctant to make efforts to deliver a perfect and precisely performed task. rather, they appreciate a pragmatic solution as they believe that not every task has to be done perfectly. tasks that are connected with high demands on stamina and thoroughness for a longer period of time are not suitable for these types of persons. less diligent persons prefer activities that can be done without a long preparation. in the variable called "flexibility" the respondents gained an average value, that is 1.9 points. this scale was also measured within the questionnaire for motivation to perform where the resulting characteristic showed that students are reluctant to changes, they are unapproachable, maladjusted, they dislike overcoming obstacles, etc. according to the bip journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 60 questionnaire, persons with low values in flexibility experience difficulties in adapting to a change or changing conditions. due to the positive feelings associated with a stable environment, the respondents do not feel comfortable when confronted with new situations. they see themselves as less flexible and they prefer activities in a stable environment. decisiveness is the last scale we are going to analyze. respondents reached low to average level of decisiveness. persons with low level are described as people who are often insecure in the optimal approach to deal with their tasks. if they choose a specific way of acting, they spend some time hesitating before implementing it. they tend to postpone and delay especially the unpleasant tasks. the last variable is sensitivity. respondents again reached low to average level. due to the measured levels the respondents can be described as follows. they are insecure in a number of social situations regarding the perception of partners´ feelings and the estimate of proper behavior. they are not always sure how others perceive and interpret their behavior. if they must handle tasks that require a high level of sensitivity (tasks related to leadership, communication with clients, activities with demanding clients), further personal development is necessary. now we will concentrate on an analysis of the study program social pedagogy. an analysis of the study program social pedagogy within the study program of social pedagogy one can see the transdisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity of social pedagogy as a scientific discipline. the perspective of the study program of social pedagogy shows that it is primarily focused on general disciplines which are directly related to social pedagogy. this includes: philosophy, psychology, pedagogy, medical disciplines and social work. students attend these classes mainly during the first year and the content of lectures is rather general. in the second and third year they focus on the mentioned disciplines more closely, namely on the developmental psychology, modern pedagogy, social politics, multicultural education, etc. and of course we must not forget social pedagogy. general discipline subjects portfolio general discipline subjects portofilo psychology general psychology pedagogy modern pedagogy jana martincová & pavla andrysová 61 development psychology i special pedagogy development psychology ii introduction to didactics social psychology education of adults educational psychology leisure studies social policy and social work sociology social pedagogy social pedagogy i social work social pedagogy ii social policy methodology of social pedagogy i social services i methodology of social pedagogy ii legislation in the social field bachelor thesis seminar figure 5 general disciplines and subjects portfolio of social pedagogy studies the students can choose from several optional subjects that improve their competences for work with a specific target group. these subjects are: lecturing skills, quality standards in social services, councelling, methodology of playing, methods of work with problem children and young people, and others. however, the concept of the study program lacks continuity of work with a specific target group. each term the student chooses one or two subjects which might not have any association with optional subjects in the following term. this often means that the student acquires a theoretical knowledge of one target group but does not develop his or her competences for work with this group. work experience is an essential part of the study. 1st year students go on educational excursions when they visit organizations according to their own decision and they take part in the workshop social pedagogy in practice where they discuss the possibilities of finding employment with social pedagogy experts. in the 2nd year they have practical training in an organisation (80 hours) and they get more work experience in the 3rd year (160 hours). the recommendation is that the students choose various kinds of organisations so that they can get to know the activities of the institution where they might get a job when they graduate. within the innovation of the study program we appeal for more hours of work experience every year of the study because we think it is the vital part of education. based on the analysis of the professional characteristics of students and study program analysis, we designed an innovative undergraduate training of social educators. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 62 innovating the study program social pedagogy this part of the article aims to supplement the concept of this academic discipline with innovative subjects. as the professional characteristics of the students show low team orientation, sociability, conscientiousness, action orientation, and assertiveness, we have added marketing and social services management as subjects that help grow these qualities. in particular we appeal for the development of managerial skills such as leadership, motivation, decision making, problem solving, creativity and innovation, awareness (empathy and sensitivity), change, accountability and informatic (internationl pma, 2017). other elementary parts of the innovative curriculum are critical and creative thinking. in this way a student can get a knowledge necessary for helping professions (gambrill, gibbs, 2009). critical thinking also develops and supports students´mental flexibility (lunney, 2009). other characteristics that should get more attention are emotional stability, work under pressure, openness to contact, and self-confidence of the students. these can be developed especially by means of the subject presentation and rhetoric, followed by lecturing skills. in these subjects students focus on the development of communication competences and skills connected with public performance. jana martincová & pavla andrysová 63 figure 6 inovative subjects of social pedagogy’s preparation when drafting this proposal, we were guided by the idea of a social educator, who for example presents healthy lifestyle to young people in an appealing and convincing way, who participates in or creates a media campaign warning against risk behavior, who is able to perform a follow-up analysis, to propose other measures; who offers consultant and advisory services to schools, educational facilities and others for example when establishing or furnishing interiors and exteriors while taking into account the stimulating effect of the environment, etc. conclusion in our opinion, it is irrelevant for a social educator to specialize in social work, etopedy, etc, as is the current trend. our aim is to find employment options for social educators as independent professionals in the czech republic. the research showed that the lack of an answer to the question of: who is a social educator in the czech republic? accompanies and significantly complicates the preparation of future social educators. our research referred to the fact that there are often first-year students journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 64 who lack the requirements not only for an assisting profession, but in general for any university studies. we consider the following quota to be necessary: the need to clearly define the subject of research of the social pedagogy to develop working methods and forms for social and educational activities in the field of social pedagogy to clarify the employability of a social educator in order to achieve the independent status of this profession our appeal is based on the respect for the tradition of this field, which it undoubtedly has, and based on the justified request to strengthen the social and educational activities in schools and in society in general, which goes hand in hand with the request to increase the attractiveness of the teaching profession as such. we also appeal for a change of the concept of the study program social pedagogy so that it can react to the demands of the labor market (that is the demands of social services and educational facilities) in a more flexible way. we often hear the opinion that graduates are not sufficiently prepared for doing their job. institutions do not complain about students´ insufficient theoretical background but they compain that graduates lack personality preparedness and soft skills. therefore we have decided to widen the concept of the study program as described in the article: we have added innovative subjects. it is vital that the students are more internally motivated to develop their capacities and skills, and at the same time the subjects on the curriculum help them improve their communication skills (openness to contact), adapt to the ever-changing situations in the society today (flexibility), and improve their work orientation (achievement motivation, formation, and leadership). present-day research in social pedagogy does not focus on the development of the concept of the study program. as stated in the introduction of this article, the focus of most research is on a specific target group or on the diversification of social pedagogy compared to social work. that is why the present reseach becomes an original examination that might inspire further reseach on the evaluation of the concepts of study programs. the aim of this article was to outline social pedagogy as a study program in the czech republic, especially its concept and the job of a social pedagogue as an independent profession. what we consider to be vital is constant innovation and sophistication of academic jana martincová & pavla andrysová 65 programs in accordance with the labor market´s demands. this is how we can enhance employability of graduates and also win a good reputation of the university with graduates well prepared for real life. copyrights the manuscript has not been published elsewhere and is not under consideration for publication elsewhere. copyright is given to the journal of social studies education research should it be published in jsser. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 66 references akar, c. (2016). investigating the students’ perceptions of the democratic values of academicians. journal of social studies education research, 7(1), 96-139. bakošová, z. (2009). sociálna pedagogika ako životná pomoc, bratislava: ff uk. bakošová, z. (eds), zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou, bratislava: uk. (p. 37-43). emmerová, i. (2005). sociálny pedagóg jako koordinátor prevencie drogových závislostí a iných sociálnopatologických javov. pedagogická revue, 57(1), 55-63. gambrill, e. & gibbs, l. (2009). critical thinking for helping professionals, 3rd ed. new york: oxford university. gregorová, a. (2006). pregraduálna príprava u nás a v zahraničí. in sociálny pedagóg. határ, c. (2006). práca sociálneho pedagóga s agresívnymi deťmi na 2. stupni základnej školy. in sociálny pedagóg. bakošová, z. (eds.), zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou, bratislava: uk. (150-162). hämäläinen, j. (2003). the concept of social pedagogy in the field of social work. journal of social work, 3(1), 69-80. hladík, j. (2014). multikulturní kompetence studentů pomáhajících profesí. utb: zlín. hrbáčková, k. & petr šafránková, a. (2015) vnímání vlastní účinnosti pedagogických pracovníků v oblasti institucionální péče o děti a mládež. social education, 3(2), 9-24. doi: 10.7441/soced.2015.03.02.01. hrbáčková, k. (2010). kognitivní a nonkognitivní determinanty rozvoje autoregulace učení studentů, brno: paido. hroncová, j. (2000). analýza vzťahu sociálnej pedagogiky a sociálnej práce jako vedných disciplín a učebných odborov. in súčasný stav sociálnej pedagogiky na slovensku. zborník referáto z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou, bratislava: uk. (122-130). international pma (2017). management competencies: identification and evaluation. [online]. retrieved from: http://ipma.co.uk/management-competences.php jusko, p. (2000). resocializácia a reedukácia depravovaných jedincov – perspektívna oblast uplatnenia sociálnych pedagógov. in súčasný stav sociálnej pedagogiky. zborník refrátov z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou, bratislava: uk. (205-211). jana martincová & pavla andrysová 67 kallinikaki, t. (2015). child protection in times of crisis in greece. international journal of social pedagogy – special issue ‘social pedagogy in times of crisis in greece’, 4(1), 177189. kılınç, e., kılınç, s., kaya, m. m., başer e. h., türküresin h. e., kesten, a. (2016). teachers’ attitudes toward the use of technology in social studies teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 59-76. knotová, d. (2014). social pedagogy in the czech republic. international journal of social pedagogy, 3(1), 30-38. kraus, b. & hoferková, s. (2016). the relationship of social pedagogy and social work. social education, 4(1), 57-71. doi:10.7441/soced.2016.04.01.04. kraus, b. (2008). základy sociální pedagogiky. praha: portál. lunney, m. (2009). critical thinking to achieve positive health outcomes: nursing case studies and analyses. usa: nanda international. marynowicz-hetka, e. (2016). social pedagogy and social work: an analysis of their relationship from a socio-pedagogical perspective. social education, 4(1), 13-24. doi:10.7441/soced.2016.04.01.01. miňová, d. (2000). možnosti uplatnenia sociálného pedagóga v praxi pri riešení sociálnopatologických problémov. in súčasný stav sociálnej pedagogiky. zborník refrátov z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou. bratislava: uk. (237-247). öbrink hobzová, m. (2014). jazykové vzdělávání pro dospělé přistěhovalce v české republice a ve švédsku a používání cílového jazyka účastníků těchto kurzů. social education, 2(2). 73-87. doi: 10.7441/soced.2014.02.02.05. potmešil, m., chudý, š., neumeister, p., plischke, j., richterová, b. (2014). novice teachers (in the creating process of) forming. professional career thinking and teachers beliefs. in open journal of social sciences. 2, p. 52 – 57. preissová krejčí, a. & máčalová, j. (2014). limity českého pojetí multikulturní výchovy. social education, 2(2), 62-72. doi: 10.7441/soced.2014.02.02.04. průcha, j. (2000). přehled pedagogiky: úvod do studia oboru. praha: portál. sandermann, p. & neumann, s. (2014). on multifaceted commonality: theories of social pedagogy in germany. international journal of social pedagogy, 3(1), 15-29. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 47-68 68 selická, d. (2006). metódy a formy práce sociálneho pedagóga pri práci s rómskou rodinou. in sociálny pedagóg. bakošová, z. (eds.). zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou. bratislava: uk. (37-43). slowík, j. (2007). speciální pedagogika. praha: grada. storo, j. (2013). practical social pedagogy. theories, values and tolls for working with children and young people. bristol: the policy press. šándorová, z. & faltová, b. (2015). služba sociální prevence raná péče – alternativa pro ústavní péči i výzva pro sociální pedagogiku. social education, 3(2), 51-63. doi: 10.7441/soced.2015.03.02.04. šereš, i. (2006). sociálny pedagóg ako pracovník rozvoja podpory motivácie zamestnancov. in sociálny pedagóg. bakošová, z. (eds.), zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou. bratislava: uk. (37-43). tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education, research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. zemančíková, v. (2014). problémové správanie žiakov a úloha sociálného pedagoga v reflexii učiteľov. social education, 2(1), 22-36. doi: 10.7441/soced.2014.02.01.02 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (4),246-265 246 exploring excellency-based curriculum for indonesian primary schools in relation to the social community environment mukhamad ilyasin1 abstract the purposes of this study are to see the vision and community needs of the excellency-curriculum of the primary islamic schools, the curriculum integration between sciences and religious values for the primary islamic schools, and to see continuous development maintained in the primary islamic curriculum in east kalimantan. this research uses a qualitative case study with a multi-site approach. the study assigned three islamic primary schools sdit (integrated islamic primary school) borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 in samarinda, east kalimantan indonesia as the sites. this study involved 40 respondents, each school of which was selected 10 respondents, comprising one principal, two vice principals, and seven teachers. respondents were selected using purposive sampling techniques. the results showed that excellency-based curriculum management increases the competitiveness within sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3. this works in several ways: an environmental analysis to determine the vision of the institution, a curriculum design that meets the needs of the community, the integration of science and religion, the strengthening of religious values, the development of life skills and students’ personal development, and continuous improvement as an instrument in evaluation. keywords: curriculum management, excellency, competitive advantages introduction this study explores the practices of primary school curriculum in indonesia whose values and competences constitute islamic values. islamic values in the curriculum are incorporated in the competence in the lessons the students should master. as the values are rooted in the school operations, the values are adjusted with the school community whereby management of the operation of the excellency-based curriculum is the core focus of this study. in indonesian context, every educational institution—whether it is education within the family, in a school environment (formal education) or non-formal education (outside school), from a basic education to the tertiary level—has a duty to achieve its educational institutional goals, but it also needs to accept that one of the most important goals of national education is to develop a curriculum that will realize institutional and national goals (abdurrahman, 2017). the curriculum 1dr. state islamic institute (iain) of samarinda, indonesia, sinka2010@gmail.com ilyasin therefore becomes a guiding tool for the management of education through the teaching and learning process both inside and outside school. in other words, “the curriculum is the core of the educational and teaching process” (roziqin, 2019). generally speaking, the learning process is vital to teaching and learning activities in schools. the success of the learning process depends upon various factors, including the readiness of schools to develop a suitable curriculum, the provision of various facilities at school (e.g., computer equipment, learning media, etc.), and the commitment of school principals, teachers, and other employees to the learning process (baharun, 2015). the school is a formal educational institution but also a collaborative organization in which a group of people (educators, auxiliary staff, principals, stakeholders, and students) achieve set goals. achieving the school’s goals, both in terms of quantity and quality, greatly depends upon these people’s personal involvement in the school (syadzili, 2019). the success of schools is more or less determined by the teachers and principals, although teaching success can be influenced by several factors (awwaliyah, 2019; dinh, 2019; kagema, 2018). one of the many factors that generally plays an important role is the school principal, who can take one of a number of leadership styles to motivate teachers (hefniy, 2016). a high level of morale helps to realize the goals of an organization, and this is why leadership activities are important (bustamante & combs, 2011). therefore, in addition to the learning process led by teachers in the classroom, the quality of an education also depends on management aspects. in other words, education must be seen systemically, and success or failure is not determined by just one factor. it logically follows that education cannot be said to purely depend on the teacher, because the management of education, including curriculum management, also generally determines the success or failure (awwaliyah, 2019). the rise of integrated islamic schools (sdit) in several provinces in indonesia—such as sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 in east kalimantan province—provides the motivation for this research. the development of sdits can be interpreted as a new era of awareness and enthusiasm for indonesian people, especially for muslims who aspire to the notion of integrated islamic elementary schools that focus more on “integrating” the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. sdits are also intended to optimize the students’ education process, act as a means for the socialization process, and be a tool for students’ transformation process. in journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4),246-265 accordance with this, the three sdits above succeed both academically and non-academically, under creative managers, in reinvigorating and developing the curriculum and learning. the curriculum at the aforementioned schools was developed using an integrated curriculum model by combining the core primary school curriculum of the ministry of national education with the islamic religion curriculum (al-islam) as the motivation for the development of islamic primary schooling. in the same way, local curriculum content is also aimed positively toward the development and progress of science and technology in future by applying a full-day school system. in the same way, the 2013 curriculum is relevant to the spirit of school autonomy. in addition, the substance of school-based management (sbm) focuses on a management model that optimizes the participation of all related stakeholders (e.g., parents, the general public, community leaders, traditional leaders, ngos, companies, and other social institutions) to improve the quality of schools. sbm not just changes the school management approach from a centralized to decentralized one—a more independent school should also emerge. this principle of cohesiveness implies the importance of communication between all elements and managerial components in order to produce an ideal educational outcome. as the spirit behind educational activity, the curriculum therefore needs to be managed in order to be able to provide educational excellence and a distinct character for the school, so it can be well respected by the community (rusman, 2009). there have been numerous studies into curriculum development. adipratama (2018) found that the curriculum planning of the surya buana malang high school was conducted through workshops for preparing learning tools for teachers, compiling an educational calendar, developing work programs, and performing an ongoing evaluation. likewise, research by widayanti (2019) revealed that mi unggulan muhammadiyah lemahdadi formulated its general subjects according to the directorate general of primary and secondary education of muhammadiyah, which at the time integrated with the existing curriculum at the madrasah ibtidaiyah and the ministry of religion. aside from these studies, this area is new and it would be interesting to explore the peculiarities of implementing curriculum development and integrated learning in accordance with islamic values, as well as investigating why this is relevant to the culture and the needs of the community. as such, this research closely focuses on the development and implementation of an excellency-based curriculum in some integrated islamic schools and how it may act as a medium to increase the competitive advantage of schools. ilyasin research questions the questions we sought to answer of this study are as follows: 1) what is the vision and community needs of the excellency-curriculum of the primary islamic schools in east kalimantan? 2) how does the curriculum operate the integration between sciences and religious values for the primary islamic schools in east kalimantan? 3) how is continuous development maintained in the primary islamic curriculum in east kalimantan? literature review excellency-based curriculum management and the fulfillment of stakeholders’ needs curriculum management is understood as a cooperative, comprehensive, systemic, and systematic curriculum management system in order to realize achievement. curriculum management in schools comprises planning, performing, controlling, and evaluating. these are used to set all learning activities that can be carried out successfully and efficiently in the world of education (hidayati & concerned, 2016). similarly, curriculum management is a system for managing the cooperative, comprehensive, systemic, and systematic aspects of the curriculum to actualize the goals of the curriculum as part of achieving educational autonomy. this autonomy, which is given to every educational institution, should involve schools managing their own curriculums independently by prioritizing the needs, as well as the targets, that are embedded in their vision and mission, even if they cannot ignore policies set at the national level. curriculum management is an integral part of both the 2013 curriculum and school-based management. curriculum management includes within its scope planning, organizing, implementing, and evaluating the curriculum. at the education unit level, curriculum activities are prioritized to realize the national curriculum (i.e., standard/basic competencies) and build upon it to meet the needs of the region, the particular school, the students, and the community in which the school is located. in the process of school education, curriculum management needs to be implemented to deliver various learning resources, learning experiences, and curriculum components. nasbi (2017) proposes several functions of curriculum management: first, it increases the efficiency of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4),246-265 curriculum resource utilization. second, it encourages equality and provides more opportunities for students to achieve optimal results. third, it enhances the relevance and effectiveness of learning. fourth, it increases the effectiveness of teacher performance and student activities in achieving learning objectives. fifth, it increases the efficiency and effectiveness of the overall teaching and learning process. curriculum management is something that really needs to be undertaken because a good curriculum is a reflection of a good educational process (ulla, 2017). excellency-based curriculum management, however, involves a curriculum that is designed differently from other curriculums, so it can meet both the existing requirements and the needs of local educational institutions. in the area of practice, an excellency-based curriculum certainly meets the criteria, which are that curriculum content must be appropriate and meaningful for student development, it must reflect social reality, it must comprise scientific knowledge that is resistant to testing, and it must contain clear subject matter that can support the achievement of educational goals (baharun, 2017). in addition, an excellency-based curriculum also emphasizes the concept of designing a curriculum that reflects an ideal education and learning process. the purpose of this excellency-based curriculum management is to produce knowledgeable citizens as a consequence of its positive impact on education. as sutjipto (2018) posits, an outstanding individual grows from the existence of a meaningful curriculum design. the concept of excellency-based curriculum management is explained further below. curriculum planning planning is a management function that provides a very decisive start in the selection of curriculum determination patterns. correspondingly, sagala (2014) explains that planning as a management function is crucial for selecting guiding patterns in the curriculum. planning is the process of determining and utilizing resources in an integrated manner in accordance with exact calculations and determinations. james, as cited in lazawardi (2017), points out that curriculum planning is a process that involves various participatory elements at many levels to make decisions about learning goals, how to achieve those goals, teaching and learning situations, and how to evaluate the effectiveness and meaningfulness of the method. without curriculum planning, systematic learning experiences would therefore not be interconnected and incapable of achieving the expected goals. curriculum planning involves all stakeholders, including teachers, supervisors, ilyasin administrators, and so on. what is more, all teachers should be involved in class-level curriculum planning. to achieve the concept of an excellency-based curriculum, at least a few things are needed that affect planning and decision-making, namely philosophy, content/material, learning management, teacher training and learning systems, government policies, and local culture. furthermore, excellency-based curriculum planning still has to refer to the eight national education standards: content standards, graduate competency standards, process standards analysis, standards of assessment, standards of educators and education personnel, management standards, facilities and infrastructure standards, and financial standards (krynski, 2019; sudarsono, 2016). curriculum organization arifin (2017) states that organization is a tool to help facilitate the achievement of goals by considering legitimacy, which responds to external demands by demonstrating the performance of institutions and convincing relevant parties concerned about their ability to achieve their goals; efficiency, which relates to a recognition of an institution’s good use of time, money, and limited resources; effectiveness, which is the good distribution of tasks, rights, responsibilities, work relationships, and determined personnel to successfully carry out tasks; and excellence, which depicts the ability of institutions and their leaders to carry out their functions and duties in a way that optimizes the image and good name of the institution. in the same way, he also emphasizes that good organization should have a task-oriented principle that cultivates an attitude where the purpose is more important than anything else. the principles that need to be considered in the organization of an excellency-based curriculum are scope, the sequence of teaching materials, continuity, balance, and integration. the scope and sequence of teaching material is the most important consideration, because each curriculum pattern covers different materials. continuity relates to the contents of the teaching materials that will be presented to students. the presentation of the teaching materials, meanwhile, should meet the goals of learning itself and not be repetitive. on the other hand, widayanti (2019) describes two aspects in achieving balance in the curriculum organization: 1) the content must be seen as being broadly beneficial for students as individuals and the demands of society, and 2) there must be a balanced learning process. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4),246-265 an effective school is a one that organizes and utilizes all of its resources to ensure that all students—regardless of race, gender, or socioeconomic status—can learn essential curriculum material in schools. excellent schools have the following characteristics: they are not bound to a single curriculum, they focus on the best single way of teaching, and the search for effectiveness is not based on test scores alone (poster, 2000). curriculum implementation curriculum implementation is the application of curriculum programs that were developed in the previous stages. they are now implemented and managed, all while always adapting to the situation and characteristics of students, including their intellectual, emotional, and physical development. this implementation is a form of field research for the validation of the curriculum system itself, so in this case, classroom learning is an accurate setting to carry out and test curriculum validation. in learning activities, all the concepts, principles, values, knowledge, methods, tools, and abilities of teachers are tested through their deeds, which will manifest in the real curriculum (fadillah, mardianto & nasution, 2018; tarman, 2018). the developed learning plan is then implemented in the classroom by the teachers. curriculum planning tends to relate to abstract aspects, while the curriculum implementation process emphasizes activities that are directly related to the curriculum (paminto, rosiana, budiyono & budisantoso, 2018; silalahi & yuwono, 2018). an outstanding curriculum must have a high level of flexibility and be sufficiently representative, essential, multivalent, and interesting. this is reflected through the following criteria: 1) a curriculum topic must be needed by students to obtain the knowledge and skills they need to be useful to society or for higher education. 2) it acts as a prerequisite and/or foundation for other topics. 3) it has a wider level of applicability, so it can adapt to a situation that is constantly changing and developing. 4) it inspires great interest and fascination for students to learn it, both for their development of basic knowledge and its practical application in their daily lives. supervision curriculum supervision aims to consider and determine whether the curriculum requires any improvement in its implementation or quality enhancement. according to mustari (2014), supervision is a curriculum management function that assesses whether something is reliable and ilyasin corrects if necessary. several stages can be involved when monitoring the implementation of a curriculum: (a) determining curriculum standard achievements; (b) determining curriculum implementation measurement, where standard-setting must concur with actual processes, which can be revealed in the form of questions (e.g., how many times should implementation be measured? in what form should curriculum measurements be made, written or verbally? who will be involved, staff or managers?); (c) measuring curriculum implementation continuously, where these measurements can be done through observation, report writing, inspection, testing, and sampling; (d) comparing the implementation with standards and analyzing irregularities, so it can be ascertained why the assigned standards are not being achieved; (e) taking corrective action if needed, either in the form of standard changes or improvement in the curricular management implementation or both (arifin & muhammad, 2016). curriculum evaluation curriculum evaluation is a systematic process for gathering, analyzing, and interpreting information/data to determine the extent to which students have achieved the learning objectives. additionally, curriculum evaluation also intends to examine the overall curriculum performance in terms of various criteria. the evaluated performance indicators comprise the effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, and feasibility of the program. in the context of curriculum implementation and development, evaluation is an inseparable element because it determines the value and meaning of a curriculum. consequently, a decision can be taken as to whether a curriculum needs to be maintained or not. fadilah et al. (2018) state that the most important curriculum components to be evaluated in schools are the process and the student learning outcomes. to carryout curriculum evaluation, a school determines four main aspects to evaluate, namely educational goals, curriculum materials, learning strategies, and assessment programs. on the other hand, mustari (2014) states that evaluation can be a means to improve a program and a form of accountability. competitive advantage: the inevitability of educational competition in order to meet global demands, the educational institutions scattered throughout indonesia, especially the islamic educational institutions in regional centers, continue to make various efforts to achieve a competitive advantage. a competitive advantage is obtained when the organization journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4),246-265 can offer customers a benefit that its competitors cannot (radi, kurniawati & kurniawan, 2016). the competitive environment requires not just profitable businesses to increase their level of excellence—non-profit organizations must also understand what consumers desire and how they can manage their resources to respond to this (yasa, 2017). a competitive advantage involves a search for a favorable competitive position for an organization in a competitive arena with the aim of establishing a profitable and sustainable status. a competitive advantage is also not just about creating satisfaction for stakeholders but also cultivating long-term loyalty (muhardi, 2004). indeed, a competitive advantage in the global market is not just about price or quality but also competing on the basis of superior technology, innovation, creativity, and imagination (mulyana & sutapa, 2014; tadeu et al, 2019). the main key to maintaining a competitive advantage is resources and the ability to sustain long-term business performance. there are three important indicators of superior competitiveness for a business: 1) superior skills, including managerial and operational abilities in running a business;2) superior resources—including distribution networks, brand image, production capacity, sales force, technology, and natural resources—that can ultimately help provide superior value to consumers; and 3) superior performance in every activity, such as in designing, producing, marketing, delivering, and supporting products (ayuningrum & pangestuti, 2018). michael porter (2007) introduced his five forces that must be considered by the leadership of institutions, including educational ones, to gain a competitive advantage. these five forces can be explained as follows: first, rivalry exists among institutions. second, there is the threat of a new entrant. third, there is a threat of a substitute service. fourth, suppliers have bargaining power. fifth, buyers have bargaining power (hasan baharun, 2016). based on the above, islamic educational institutions can achieve a competitive advantage if the management, in addition to other aspects, is performed properly in accordance with the surrounding situations and settings. ilyasin methods design this research used a qualitative approach and took the form of a case study with multiple sites. as a qualitative study, this research focused on identifying data in the form of words where narrative texts were analyzed. four schools were involved in this study: sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, sdit borneo 3 and sdit borneo 4. the schools have implemented integrated curriculum that incurred islamic values and sciences at a whole package is their own excellence values, so that comparative advantages of each school were identified. this study took place in samarinda, the capital of east kalimantan indonesia. research procedures this study involved 40 respondents, with 10 respondents being selected from each school, which in turn comprised one principal, two vice principals, and seven teachers. respondents were selected using purposive sampling techniques. the primary data for this study were the results of observations and interviews that were recorded. secondary data took the form of documents that indicated how curriculum management was implemented. as a result, data were collected through in-depth interviews, observation and documentation analysis. the in-depth interview was conducted to each respondent allowing 30 minutes question and answer. the interview took place in each school. the observations were done three times for each school allowing initial observation of the whole learning process, discussing with principals and the vice principals, and discussion about the curriculum with the teaches. finally, documents analysis identified the results of implementation of the curriculum, materials, policy and the practices. the results of document analyses were used to identify problems to be addressed and guide to release questions of the interview. data analysis to analyze the data, this research used interactive model analysis from miles & huberman (1994). prior to the analysis, results of interview were recorded verbatim and thematic analyses were done. to analyze the data, the researcher used the model of miles and huberman (1994), which analyzes journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4),246-265 through four steps: data collection, data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing. as an inherently process, three stage analysis: reduction, display and verification were made available incessantly. further, the author identified the themes and categories in line with three research questions of this study that addressed to answer: the general form of the curriculum, how the curriculum integrated sciences lessons and religious lessons, and how the curriculum described the development of continuous development program for each lesson. in the reduction stage, data from transcripts and content of the document were identified to make the codes of the data and find the most relevant evidences that reflected the answer of each research question. in the data display, the author made presentation in terms of statement and quotation. finally, each data that had been displayed was verified its accuracy by using triangulation, so that data that answered each research question were defined correctly. evidences that supported answers of each research question were specified including general form of the curriculum that incorporated the vision and community needs, the way integration between sciences and religious lessons were developed, and continuous development programs was programmed. to check the trustworthiness of the data, the author applied site triangulation and method triangulation. results and discussion this study aims to see three concerns: the vision and community needs of the excellencycurriculum of the primary islamic schools, the integration between sciences and religious values for the primary islamic schools, and continuous development maintained in the primary islamic curriculum. to elaborate the concerns, this section presents the results of analysis that answer these three research questions. the vision and community needs the general form of excellence-based curriculum in this study basically consists of the formulation of the vision of the school and the curriculum is designed to meet the needs of the community. the definite statement on the vision indicates the actual goals thereby the institutions intend to promote their excellence. in addition, as the schools serve the community as a whole, the curriculum design is to meet the needs of the community. ilyasin vision oriented before determining the vision and mission of sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3, the researcher conducted an internal and external environment analysis to establish and map the potential strengths and weaknesses of the school through swot analysis. for example, the strengths, in this case, are the positive image of the institution, clear financial resources, user loyalty, and the trust of various important parties, as well as enjoying adequate support from educational facilities. the weaknesses, meanwhile, are when the output of an educational institution is inferior to that of the others, while the opportunities are when a pattern of life in modern society inclines toward the hedonistic, so religious educational institutions are required. moreover, when there is a crisis in values like morality, ethics, and so forth in society, there is the opportunity for a more dominant role for religious education. the threat is that the interest of new learners may decrease or that public in religious educational institutions may diminish. the curriculum is designed to meet the needs of the community the emergence of sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 was not a coincidence but rather a project that was planned, and it is inseparable from the circumstances and conditions that underlay it. for instance, the inevitability of increasingly open global markets has encouraged the creative community, academics, practitioners, and education stakeholders to design and establish elementary schools that can integrate several important aspects that are appropriate and necessary for the circumstances of current times. this aims to give students the superiority, readiness, and competitiveness to thrive in the midst of global currents. the advantages of sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 include integrating aspects of morality and intellect, with these being instilled in students with the support of the entire academic community in the school environment as part of its educational autonomy. this can be interpreted as meaning that almost all activities in sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 enable the students to recognize the various problems that exist in communities, which may also be rapidly changing. consequently, through their skills, students are expected to be able to contribute toward developing society and act as good role models in community life based on aspects they develop as part of a curriculum’s design. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4),246-265 the integration of science and religion the integrated concept used in sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 is interpreted and elaborated according to several areas: (1) integrating the meaning of the curriculum, namely by combining the curriculums from the department of national education, the department of religion, and the locally developed curriculum; (2) establishing a cohesive balance between the spiritual quotient (sq), the emotional quotient (eq), and the intelligence quotient (iq); (3) achieving cohesiveness in the sense of human formation, including the physical, spiritual, and sensory; (4) producing cohesive learning resources that balance between visual aids (ap), media, and materials; (5) instilling a sense of principles when educating children, split between the school, parents, and environment; (6) achieving cohesiveness in the sense of maaddah (material), which encompasses the qauliyah (verbalistic) and kauniyah (empirical); and (7) optimizing cohesive targets, which may include affective, cognitive, and psychomotor functions. the concept of cohesiveness, in general, embodies synergy between general scientific teaching and local religious values. model schools like this are oriented toward the development of multiple forms of intelligence, which combines cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects in a spiritual nuance (al-qur'an) in every teaching and learning activity or process. the key to success is promoting the integration of the school, the parents at home, and the social environment as part of the school’s mission. this aim can be realized by reconstructing syllabus and learning materials, but this does not reduce the quality of scientific learning that students experience. in contrast, it can actually bring excellent results, because students become increasingly convinced of islam as a comprehensive religion. this provides religious guideline that can be useful in broader life, not just in aspects of spirituality but also in everyday life. they can become more convinced of the benefits, and this can be indicated by improved achievement. thus, in future, the integrated concepts applied in sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 should prioritize learning materials that help to produce scientists, technologists, engineers, and other professional groups whose role and contribution is very important for economic progress. at the same time, islamic educational institutions must educate these future professionals to internalize within themselves the policies, knowledge, spiritual and rational thought, creativity, moral insight, innovative strength, ethical goodness, and the ecological sensitivity that will allow them to fully develop harmoniously, all while ensuring they achieve excellence and supremacy in their respective fields and specialties. ilyasin strengthening religious values the school curriculum is characterized by being oriented toward strengthening religious values. the distinctive feature of sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 lies in their integration of moral and intellectual aspects, which is them imparted to students with the support of all the academic community within the school environment. moreover, it concerns the aspect of morality, specifically in terms of the spiritual field of mental morality, which is needed because of the declining morals and soft skills of many indonesian people. in fact, people who are concerned about their children’s safety believe that sending their children to an islamic school is a preventive effort to protect the nation’s next generation from the threat of social decline. it therefore demands that all parties think carefully and seriously about how to bolster the nation’s morality and restore the good self-image of the indonesian nation, especially for the younger generation and children, because this is a very fundamental asset in every human empowerment activity and the very purpose of education itself. the community’s choice for religion-based schools strengthens the notion that religion can act as a tool to improve the situation, protect against aberrations of social norms, and provide a better life. the integrated islamic school network (jaringan sekolah islam terpadu in indonesian, abbreviated to jsit) is an institution with the mission of empowering islamic schools. life skills and students’ personal development a life-skills-oriented education involves providing the means to confront and solve the problems of life, whether in an individual’s personal life or as a citizen in society. the development of life skills in sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 is based on the results of the learning process, such as students’ mastery of competencies, basic skills, learning materials, and other skills that are implicitly gained through the learning experience. therefore, when developing learning in sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3, managers need to select alternative learning practices to help students learn relevant life skills based on their own needs. several processes are required to get the aforementioned points to work out correctly. first, mature planning is needed. in the curriculum-drafting process at sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3, there is a curriculum development team comprising principals, the representatives of principals, teachers, madrasah committees, and members of the school’s expert council. this step involves analyzing the context and needs and identifying national standards of education. the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4),246-265 headmaster, with the help of the curriculum-development team, then compiles a document defining the vision, mission, and objectives of the school, as well as the structure and content of the curriculum and the education calendar. the defined local content can then seek to develop competencies appropriate for the characteristics and potential of the area and the achievement of the region. such material is sometimes not suitable for inclusion in other subjects, so it may be taught as a separate subject. in management planning, an excellency-based curriculum constantly provides opportunities for the advancement of students’ self-development activities in sdit with the support of counseling services and extracurricular activities. secondly, organizing an excellency-based curriculum in sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 is accomplished by the school principal through empowering the deputy principal for the school curriculum and the vice principal of the subject teacher forum (mgmp). the intention is to have a formal mgmp meeting on a monthly basis and schedule some teacher activities to further the education and training of teachers, both within and beyond the province. this also relates to the preparation of curriculum structure, and the depth and breadth of curriculum content for each subject in each unit of education is steeped in competencies that must be mastered by students according to the learning experiences listed in the curriculum structure. these competencies include standard competencies and basic competencies, which are developed based on graduate competency standards. local content and self-development activities are also an integral part of the curriculum structure at primary and secondary levels. learning experiences are formulated in the form of required time units when students join learning programs through faceto-face systems, structured assignments, and unstructured self-activity. all of these are intended to achieve graduate competency standards by looking carefully at the level of student development. regarding the syllabus preparation in sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3, this is conducted by the teachers (independently or in groups within a school or groups of schools), a group within the subject teacher forum at the center for teacher activity, and the department of education. thirdly, the implementation of the curriculum at sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 is carried out by the principal through surveillance activities for curriculum enactment. in addition, the principal delegates authority to the deputy principal and teachers to have a short meeting (briefings) each morning to discuss any progress or deficiencies. in the implementation of a curriculum in the classroom, it is highly recommended to include life skills for the learners. ilyasin the indicators that must be achieved are based on self-awareness, but they are also referred to as personal skills, thinking and academic skills, social skills, and vocational skills. personal skills are acquired by students through contextual learning methods, while thinking skills can be taught by a teacher through a student-centered approach. academic skills are obtained through problembased learning, while social skills can be acquired through cooperative learning. conversely, vocational skills are achieved through extracurricular activities that lead to taking an interest in skills like knitting, cooking, taking field visits, and so on. continuous improvement evaluation takes place through the minimum criteria for mastery learning (kkm) achievement but also according to the implementation of the curriculum by the teacher. the evaluation is performed by examining curriculum documents, interviews, and class supervisions by the principals of sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 with the assistance of the vice principal for the school curriculum. the assessments include: (1) teachers perform class assessments to establish the progress and outcomes of learners, diagnose learning difficulties, provide feedback/improvements for the learning process and determine progress in students’ grades. (2) basic ability tests determine the ability to read, write, and count, which is necessary to improve the remedial program. (3) a final assessment of education and certification unit is organized to see the bigger picture of student learning achievement over a specific period. for certification purposes, the performance and learning outcomes listed in the elementary school certificate of completion are not solely based on the assessment results at the end of the school period. (4) benchmarking determines the excellency measurement for the school at the region or national level. this assessment is carried out continuously until students can achieve an excellent level of learning that is appropriate for the extent of its efforts and its efficacy. data and information is obtained about benchmarking achievement in school by undertaking a national assessment at the end of the education. the results of these assessments is used to rank schools and rather than determine a student’s final score. it is intended to act as a foundation for teacher coaching and school performance. (5) program assessments are conducted periodically and continuously by the department of national education and the education office. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4),246-265 conclusion this study analyzes whether excellency-based curriculum management has vision that meets the needs of the school community, integration of science and islamic values, and description of continuous development for the primary school curriculum. in summary, the results evidently show that the concept of excellency-based curriculum management—as conducted in the sdit borneo 1, sdit borneo 2, and sdit borneo 3 basic-level educational institutions—gives a competitive advantage in several ways. first, the institution plans its vision properly with the primary islamic school curriculum and the curriculum design acts as a guideline for meeting the needs of the community. second, there is an integration between science and religion, strengthening religious values in learners through islam-oriented activities. the curriculum develops the life skills of students and contributes to their personal development. third, the management involves evaluation phases with continuous improvement to achieve optimal results. the results imply that the excellence-based curriculum for primary islamic schools are applicable for the nuance of more conducts in islam but it does not specify how competence in general subjects as the basic literacy is achieved. it, therefore, defines that learning outcomes that cover basic literacy is the restriction of this research. the author then suggests that future researchers extend the research to attach basic literacy as the core competence in the integration of the islamic values. references abdurahman. (2017). implikasi uuspn terhadap pendidikan islam. al-tanzim: jurnal manajemen pendidikan islam, 1(1), 19–35. adipratama, z., sumarsono, r. b., & ulfatin, n. (2018). manajemen kurikulum terpadu di sekolah alam berciri khas islam. jamp: jurnal adminitrasi dan manajemen pendidikan, 1(september), 380. arifin, m. (2017). strategi manajemen perubahan dalam meningkatkan disiplin diperguruan tinggi. jurnal edutech, 3(1), 117. arifin, r., & muhammad, h. (2016). pengantar manajemen. malang: empatdua kelompok instrans publishing. ilyasin awwaliyah, r. (2019). pendekatan pengelolaan kurikulum dalam menciptakan sekolah unggul. insania, 24(1), 42–43. ayuningrum, i. d., & pangestuti, e. (2018). pengaruh inovasi terhadap keunggulan bersaing dan kepuasan pengunjung industri pariwisata di kabupaten bojonegoro. jurnal administrasi bisnis, 60(1), 195–203. b. ulla, m. (2017). thai learners’ linguistic needs and language skills: implications for curriculum development. international journal of instruction, 10(4), 206. baharun, h. (2015). penerapan pembelajaran active learning untuk meningkatkan hasil belajar siswa di madrasah. jurnal pendidikan pedagogik, 1(1), 35. baharun, h. (2017). pengembangan kurikulum: teori dan praktik ; konsep, prinsip, model, pendekatan, dan langkah-langkah pengembangan kurikulum pai. (zamroni, ed.). yogyakarta: pustaka nurja. bustamante, r., & combs, j. p. (2011). research courses in education leadership programs: relevance in an era of accountability. international journal of education policy & leadership, 6(3), 1–11. dinh, h. (2019). towards a knowledge-rich curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 54-70. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/6 fadillah, mardianto, & nur nasution, w. (2018). implementasi manajemen kurikulum dalam meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran di smp wiraswasta batang kuis kabupaten deli serdang. at-tazakki, 2(1), 30. hasan b. (2016). manajemen kinerja dalam meningkatkan competitive advantage pada lembaga pendidikan islam. jurnal i lmu tarbiyah “ at tajdid,”5(2), 243–262. hefniy. (2016). kyai leadership in improving organizational performance in pesantren. proceeding, 2nd icet theme:“improving the quality of education and training through strengthening networking,” 324. hidayati, i. f., & prihatin, t. (2016). pengelolaan kurikulum sekolah alam di tk alam al biruni cirebon. indonesian journal of curriculum and educational technology studies, 4(1), 32–39. kagema, j. (2018). the school curriculum and its influence on teacher motivation in curriculum implementation in kenya. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 9-25. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/3 https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/6 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/3 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4),246-265 krynski, a. (2019). in a state of fragility: the compromised dignity of communities, indignation, and the incapacitation of public education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 1-24. retrieved from https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/52 lazwardi, d. (2017). manajemen kurikulum sebagai pengembangan tujuan pendidikan. alidarah: jurnal kependidikan islam, 7(1), 202. muhardi. (2004). aspek-aspek keunggulan bersaing perguruan tinggi. mimbar, 20(2), 179–193. mulyana, m., &sutapa, s. (2014). peningkatan kapabilitas inovasi, keunggulan bersaing dan kinerja melalui pendekatan quadruple helix: studi pada industri kreatif sektor fashion. jurnal manajemen teknologi, 13(3), 304–321. https://doi.org/10.12695/jmt.2014.13.3.5 mustari, m. (2014). manajemen pendidikan. jakarta: pt raja grafindo persada. nasbi, i. (2017). manajemen kurikulum: sebuah kajian teoritis. jurnal idaarah, i(2), 321. paminto, j., rosiana, t., budiyono, & budisantoso, h. t. (2018). implementasi kurikulum 2013 di sekolah pesantren dengan sistem boarding school. indonesian journal of curriculum and educational technology studies, 6(1), 46. poster, c. (2000). gerakan menciptakan sekolah unggul. jakarta: lembaga indonesia didaya. radi, l., kurniawati, a., &kurniawan, d. (2016). strategi untuk menciptakan keunggulan bersaing melalui pengembanagn, desain dan kualitas produk. jurnal ekonomi manajemen, 2(2), 105–113. roziqin, z. (2019). menggegas perencanaan kurikulum sekolah unggul. as-sabiqun : jurnal pendidikan islam anak usia dini, 1(1), 45. silalahi, r., & yuwono, u. (2018). the sustainability of pancasila in indonesian education system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 58-78. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/364 sudarsono. (2016). upaya manajerial pengembangan kurikulum program unggulan di madrasah aliyah. jurnal pendidikan agama islam, 4(1), 107. sutjipto. (2018). pandangan guru dalam pengembangan pendidikan khusus. jurnal pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 3(1), 82. syadzili, m. f. r. (2019). polarisasi tahapan kepemimpinan transformatif pendidikan islam. altanzim : jurnal manajemen pendidikan islam, 3(1), 55–81. https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/52 http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/364 ilyasin tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 tarman, b. (2018). the awareness of social studies teacher candidates’ regarding special area competencies and the overlap level of these competencies with social studies degree. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(2), 16-28. widayanti, f. e. (2019). implementasi kurikulum ismuba di mi unggulan muhammadiyah lemahdadi. al-tadzkiyyah: jurnal pendidikan islam, 10(i), 75. yasa, k. a. b. n. n. k. (2017). peran keunggulan bersaing memediasi inovasi produk terhadap kinerja pemasaran. prosiding seminar nasional aimi, isbn: 978-602-98081-7-9, 27–28. https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2),1-14 improving student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles during pedagogical interaction in post-soviet education dmitry luchaninov1, ruslan bazhenov2, yuliya shtepa3, natalia nikolaeva4, andrey tcytcarev5, marina kuimova6 abstract the relevance of the study deals with the importance of improvement of student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles in post-soviet social studies education. in this regard, this paper aims at identifying the concept of pedagogical interaction in the information and educational environment and revealing the effective use of pedagogical interaction to improve student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles. the leading research method used to solve the problem is teaching project, which allows an integrated treatment of methodology in developing student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles. the paper presents such methods as creating positive motivation, arranging interactive educational cognitive and practical student activities and boosting the personal educational environment; it is shown that a distinctive feature of pedagogical interaction is the acquaintance of students with various elements of the information and educational environment, leading to the development of student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles; it is found out that the use of pedagogical interaction in the information and educational environment ensures the purposefulness and efficiency of educational process; it is justified that using interactive means of information and educational environment in the context of arrangement of pedagogical interaction can enrich educational process, develop specific student skill that will definitely help them in future professional activities. the research materials are of practical value to the further expansion of functional and methodical aspects of using interactive media in the information and educational environment. keywords: information competence, student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles, information know-how, pedagogical interaction, information and educational environment, post-soviet education. introduction 1 senior lecturer, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, dvluchano@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, r-i-bazhenov@yandex.ru 3assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, shtepa2001@mail.ru 4 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, nata.nikolaeva.53@bk.ru 5 assoc. prof., candidate of philosophy, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, tcytcarev@yandex.ru 6 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, national research tomsk polytechnic university, mkuimova@mail.ru mailto:dvluchano@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 1-14 2 various software tools are used in modern teaching methods to support and organize the educational process in the post-soviet studies education. the analysis of studies devoted to the use of it in post-soviet education in the late 1980-s –early 1990-s shows the problems of using it in the field of humanitarian knowledge. technology in education in the post-soviet area uses lots of ideas which were integrated by a. toffler and t. alvin (1981). information technology was mainly used as a tool for mathematical calculations and programming, and at that time applications to support learning process (kuznetsov & dolmatov, 1989). further technological development has resulted in the need to information promotion of humanitarian knowledge and general technology in education (robert, 1986). at the end of 1990s educational and information environment which showed up in various university websites development were used in education in the post-soviet area (lapchik & efimov, 1990). the advent and intensive development of web 2.0 technologies allowed creating and adapting more complex learning management systems (lms). as a rule, lms are used as readymade kits (moodle, canvas, edmodo, etc.) or specifically created for a particular post-soviet educational organization. this is due to the specificity of both the level of education (higher, professional, general) and of each educational institution separately as a regional component of education. every lecturer who implements interactive tools in the learning process when using the lms tends to replace some modules of this system by third-party tools that provide similar functionality, but are more convenient in terms of organizing some types of learning activities. all the above causes the research problem, that is the lack of effective pedagogical support to develop student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles under increasing opportunities of information and educational environment. literature review during the soviet period а. kuznetsov and v. dolmatov (1989) defined the basic concept of development of an educational system for teaching the basics of computer science and computer facilities. i. robert (1986) explored the possibilities of modern information technology, educational value of their application and the promising areas of their use. м. lapchik and v. еfimov (1990) identified the concept of technology in teacher education and challenges emerging in the process. the labor market is tasked with training qualified personnel due to changing requirements for university graduates in the post-soviet area at present. more initiative, luchaninov et al. creativity, group communication and internal motivation are required from modern employees. besides, the readiness to overcome it-related obstacles is very important, being one of the components for further successful skill upgrade and retraining. many teachers have already begun to prepare students for initiative (kangas et al., 2017), creativity (shtepa et al., 2015) and the use of electronic learning environments (kim & smith, 2017). thus, student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles is one of the most important components of the it know-how of the future employee. besides, according to the analysis of theoretical studies and statistical data in modern conditions, the student contingent is heterogeneous. in this regard, it is relevant to consider the levels of student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles (kılınç et al., 2016). these levels illustrate the behavior of the student in the event of difficulties when working with software. one of the important conditions for improving the student's readiness to overcome it-related obstacles can be the use of pedagogical interaction in the information and educational environment of the university (tarman & acun, 2010). there is actually a concept of all-pervasive learning (u-learning). it implements the availability of training anywhere in the world (lopez et al., 2016, coto et al., 2016). many studies use elements of this concept to create interactive learning web-based environments (albertos-marco et al., 2016). in addition, a continuous analysis of the effectiveness of elearning courses (umek et al., 2017, mwalumbwe & mtebe, 2017) and videoconferencing tools (krutka & carano, 2017) is conducted, student satisfaction is assessed (clawson, 2007). the use of information technology to support this concept is analyzed (smeureanu & isaila, 2011). all means declared as tools for organizing and supporting education are located in the information and educational environment of the university (iee). the analysis of studies on the use of different approaches to the implementation of pedagogical interaction in the learning process shows that different methods have a positive impact on the competence of students (mathews, 2016; mauch & tarman, 2016). for example, the studies of y. al-ashmoery and r. messoussi (2015) showed the effectiveness of using interactive forms of communication in real time to gain competence in the field of data mining with the help of educational analytical systems. at the same time, according to the research by a. horvat (2015) and other scholars (touya & fakir, 2015; tarman, 2016), students in general are positive about these innovations in the educational process. the organization of pedagogical journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 1-14 4 interaction is used to develop professional competence in applied informatics (nazarova et al, 2016), engineering training fields (maldague et al., 2016). the methods boosting student readiness to overcome obstacles were developed in the context of teacher training (rios et al., 2014), business workers (hrebiniak, 2008) and communications (hill, 2002). in addition, this component of information competence is addressed in the studies of m. zamalia and a. l. porter (2016). one of the methods providing this process is the construction of an individual educational trajectory in an electronic course (cakula & sedleniece, 2013). the analysis of the studies conducted to evaluate the use of interactive methods for blended learning (luchaninov et al., 2016) confirms that the use of iee interactive tools can support the educational process, turning it into pervasive learning. materials and methods the purpose of this article is to analyze the effectiveness of the application of pedagogical interaction in iee conditions to boost student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles. prospects of studies: – to clarify concepts of pedagogical interaction, information and educational environment, student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles; – to find out purposefulness and efficiency of using pedagogical interaction in information and educational environment to develop student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles; – to validate the use of interactive features of information and educational environment in regards with the preparation of pedagogical interaction. by it know-how we mean a set of knowledge, skills and experience in the field of it when implementing it in future professional and educational activities of a student in the context of it interaction and it activities between subjects of educational process. accordingly, it know-how of students will be defined as the possession of it competencies that ensure the implementation of value and motivational components in future professional activities. pedagogical interaction is a purposeful interaction between professors and students of a university, providing quantitative and qualitative changes in the form of improving existing and increasing new knowledge, skills, and competences through mutual influence. luchaninov et al. information and educational environment of a university is a set of programs, technical, educational, methodical, organizational and administrative components of a university system, providing prompt access to necessary information and organizing subject to subject communication between participants of educational process. according to the clarified definition of the iee, it is necessary to describe the content of the components of this set of tools. so, the software presented for the iee consists of different platforms to support educational process. among them are official and methodical sites of the university, lms (in this research lms moodle) and tools for mediated pedagogical interaction (e-mail, social networks). the technical tools that make up the iee are related to the equipment of the university (local university networks, servers and computers of the organization). educational and methodological components include methodological materials developed on the organization of educational process (subjects’ training methodological systems, educational and methodological sets of subjects, etc.). organizational and management components are related to the administrative organization system of the iee and are governed by normative documents at the federal and local levels (in the russian federation – the federal law on education, the state standard of higher education, the regulations on the use of the iee by the university, etc.). interactive tools of the university iee represent a complex of components making up the university iee that provides a quick access to the necessary information, organizes indirect pedagogical interaction between professors and students, as well as actively and diversely responds to their actions. the analysis of normative documents of higher education made it possible to determine the main competencies that are responsible for the formation and development of student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles. these competencies include the ability to assess critically one's own strengths and weaknesses, choose ways and tools developing the former and eliminating the latter; readiness to be responsible for the results of their professional activities; care about the quality of the work performed, etc. readiness to overcome it-related obstacles is seen as the ability of students to overcome themselves, continuing to work with it after failures and prevent emerging difficulties in future professional activities. this component is defined as the ability to take responsibility for results and take care of the quality of the work performed. the analysis also made it possible to identify 3 levels of student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles: journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 1-14 6  low (a student, working with information technology, easily gives in to difficulties, performs tasks based on minimum considerations, cannot objectively evaluate his work);  average (while working with it a student looks for a solution in difficult situations, it is hard to assess his own work, perform work based on personal representations of completeness);  high (a student diligently looks for a solution in difficult situations when working with it, critically estimates his own work, works until satisfied with the results). the activities of a lecturer consisted of developing methodological material and supporting learning process. the experiment consisted of three stages: 1. preparation of students for work using pedagogical interaction. 2. educational process using interactive tools of information and educational environment. 3. control and evaluation activities for students. the preparatory stage consisted of the students passing one of the training modules “use of the university it resources in educational activities” of a sub-discipline which is called “freshman's school”. within the framework of this module, first-year students got acquainted with the iee resources, which they later had to use in educational activities. in the disciplinary module, students got acquainted with the official website of the university, learned to find some necessary information about upcoming and past events, work with the rating system recording student academic achievements, and create a community in a social network to communicate on educational needs. in addition, they studied lms moodle, the structure of the course in the system, the algorithm to pass disciplinary modules in the system. the procedural stage included organization of educational process in accordance with the working curricula developed by a lecturer based on the use of pedagogical interaction. the study was conducted for it based disciplines in future professional activities. for each subject a curriculum was developed. after it a number of tasks was selected or developed that allowed the implementation of pedagogical interaction with iee. the control and measuring stage was implemented when defining student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles. these measurements were carried out for each subject of the research at the first and last classes. the activity of the lecturer while working with the electronic course consisted of the development of electronic versions of materials adapted to the application using distance educational technologies. these materials were completed before direct registration of the luchaninov et al. electronic training course in lms moodle. all materials were posted in the system, a chat room, news forum were set up for discussions. a news forum was organized as well. in addition, for each subject a community in the social network vkontakte was implemented to arrange pedagogical interaction. those preparations had been made before the academic semester started. during the term, the lecturer's task was to verify and evaluate the practical assignments completed by students; comment on a project work in a chat, forums, the social network community, and e-mail. to arrange pedagogical interaction of the iee in 2015/2016, organizational forms of pervasive learning with interactive tools were used. work was carried on to provide pedagogical interactivity for the disciplines being implemented (see table 1). table 1 techniques used to increase iee interactivity for the disciplines implemented in the study quality criteria in-class interaction mediated interaction establishing a tight communication role-plays, workshop-debates feedback session, interactive individual tasks for students, group work on the social network vkontakte, e-mail elaborating easy and clear instructions for the doing work critical assessment of works, samples of reports on works, textbooks, student rating system critical appraisal of extracurricular work, samples of reports on extracurricular work, electronic teaching tutorials, student rating system using a variety of techniques and technologies in the learning process role-plays, workshop-debates scientific papers, essays written by students, feedback session, interactive individual tasks for students readiness to use software and hardware in training using software to interact in roleplays (i.e., lan messenger) use of the social network vkontakte, skype, e-mail note. source: the authors. students’ activities consisted of completing independent or group practical tasks involving a computer and internet. a group of forum was provided for arranging interaction among students so that they could share information. reports on completed practical assignments were made by each student in the form of a file and uploaded for the professor’s review in lms moodle. to get information on the points scored by students faster, a grading system for educational achievements is used, which is a part of the university iee. we are going to give several training methods to improve student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles with examples. a seminar that had been held was based on students’ specific studies and supervised by the professor. at the beginning of the training students were given a task to make a report. for example, for those students who study linguistics machine translation systems were proposed. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 1-14 8 they made reports that were submitted on the forum and discussed in a group. the discussion began a month after the assignment had been given. during the work the professor assessed each student’s activities, his reply to his group mates’ comments, his activity to defend his work and activity when studying the other students’ work. the feedback method involves the following: a student is given the task (abstract, essay, making video, etc.), and after completing it he is to upload his work in a special group of the forum. the other students of the group evaluate this work, pointing out its drawbacks and recommend some corrections. thus, the student should defend his work, and then correct it according to the given notes. the main idea of this task is to analyze the work that implements some of the project activities, ability to get used to criticism of various kinds and interaction between group members. interactive tools of iee in this case are used as a necessary link between the students laying out work for evaluation and a group of students evaluating this work. the methods of creating positive competence motivation are used in arranging and holding direct academic classes, such as workshop-disputes and workshop-conferences. initially, students receive a topic for their presentation. within this topic student chooses a proper theme for presentation, makes a report, and speaks up at a kind of a conference. methods of arranging student interactive cognitive and practical activities are performed in a distance form. they are research tasks aimed at independent cognitive activity with minimal professor’s support and completed by means of mediated pedagogical interaction. each student was given a task that he was doing during the academic semester. in this work (for example, algorithms for publishing), he could consult the professor via chat once a week. other types of advice on that assignment were not available. at a fixed rate the student handed in the work, and then he was tested according to the established criteria. the final checking for these academic disciplines was divided into two stages. the first stage was meant to test students in the conditions of lms moodle. opportunity to test opened on schedule and each student was given one attempt only. the second stage was to develop and defend one's own project in the subject. the project defense took place during a fixed appointment in the classroom. results and discussion the task of the research student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles was to observe and record dynamics of the indicators. the object of the study is to promote student luchaninov et al. readiness to overcome it-related obstacles while the subject is the dynamics of student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles. when organizing pedagogical interaction to boost student readiness to overcome itrelated obstacles in 2015/2016, organizational forms of all-pervasive learning were used based on elements of distance educational technologies implemented with the help of the lms moodle. the experimental base of the study was sholom-aleichem priamursky state university. students and members (76 people) of the faculties of pedagogics and psychology, sociocultural activity and service, mathematics, information technologies and technics, philology, history and journalism took part in the study at various stages. for the academic subjects involved in the study, electronic courses were developed that implemented pedagogical interaction methods and supported the full-time educational process. in addition, interactive tools were implemented, both within the university iee and third-party tools, such as social networks. during the research discussions were held with the participants of educational process in order to reveal their attitude towards classes both in direct and indirect ways, taking into account their remarks and wishes. the test measurements showed quantitative changes in the indicators in enhancing student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles (see table 2). table 2 dynamics of readiness levels for overcoming it-related obstacles stages no. of students readiness levels to overcome it-related obstacles low average high no. % no. % no. % before the experiment 69 34 49.3 27 39.1 8 11.6 after the experiment 69 21 30.4 31 44.9 17 24.7 note. source: the authors. as a result of applying pedagogical interaction with iee tools, student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles has increased greatly from 11.6% to 24.7%. this change shows that the applied methodology is effective for development of this indicator of student professional competence. at the same time, the transition of students from low level readiness to overcome it-related obstacles to average level is especially significant. this stands for a shift in competence, the appearance of a vector for further student development. quantitative indicators in the dynamics attest the effectiveness of the experiment: pedagogical interaction in iee conditions contributes to the development of student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 1-14 10 in addition, at the end of the research students were interviewed of their impressions of the classes they attended. 46 % of students stayed satisfied with the studies and claimed that they had learnt much from the course. 37% of students estimate classes as adequate and necessary and fruitful in the overall structure of educational process. 17% of students felt unhappy with the experiment and considered those forms not wanted in education. in general, all the participants of educational process were content with intensive classes in learning studies. conclusion the control measurement according to the indicators after the experiment showed quantitative changes in the indicators of raising student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles. the dynamics of these data indicate the effectiveness of the experiment: 1. as a result of studies it was confirmed that the use of pedagogical interaction does not require the establishment of fundamentally new external institutional forms, fitting into existing practice of administrative organization of the studies but to a significant extent upgrades internal forms of education and teaching methods by means of additional teaching aids. a distinctive feature of using pedagogical interaction in the conditions of iee university to develop student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles is an arrangement of intensive indirect cooperation between a professor and students leading to mastering their educational and professional competencies. 2. to achieve the goal of the experiment, co-education methods based on pedagogical interaction, interactive methods of one-to-one personalized teaching, methods for making positive motivation, methods for organizing interactive cognitive practical students’ activities are used. 3. the use of pedagogical interaction provides purpose, proper sequencing, and the efficiency of the process. the research presented in this paper does not solve the whole issue which is in focus totally. it just offers only one possible solution. prospects for further research may be related to a more detailed development of diagnostic techniques and the expansion of the forms of pedagogical activity on the interactivity of the information and educational environment that forms student it know-how. data obtained from the experiment can be considered the basis for additional studies of student it know-how through training in educational institutions of the post-soviet area. the luchaninov et al. experiment described in this paper reflects the significant development of the post-soviet social studies education for over the last 30 years. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 1-14 12 references al-ashmoery, y. & messoussi, r. (2015). learning analytics system for assessing students performance quality and text mining in online communication. 2015 intelligent systems and computer vision (iscv), 1-8. albertos-marco, f., penichet, v. m. & gallud, j. a. (2016). distributing web interaction capabilities. proceedings of the xvii international conference on human computer interaction interacción 16, 37. cakula, s. & sedleniece, m. (2013). development of a personalized e-learning model using methods of ontology. procedia computer science, 26, 113-120. clawson, s. (2007). does quality matter? measuring whether online course quality standards are predictive of student satisfaction in higher education (ph.d.). capella university. coto, m., collazos, c. a. & mora-rivera, s. (2016). modelo colaborativo y ubicuo para apoyar los procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje a nivel iberoamericano. revista de educación a distancia (red), (48). hill, j. r. (2002). overcoming obstacles and creating connections: community building in webbased learning environments. journal of computing in higher education,14(1), 67-86. horvat, a., dobrota, m., krsmanovic, m. & cudanov, m. (2013). student perception of moodle learning management system: a satisfaction and significance analysis. interactive learning environments, 23(4), 515-527. hrebiniak l. (2008) making strategy work: overcoming the obstacles to effective execution. ivey business journal, 72(2), 1-6. kangas, m., kopisto, k., löfman, k., salo, l. & krokfors, l. (2016). ‘i’ll take care of the flowers!’ researching agency through initiatives across different learning environments. journal of adventure education and outdoor learning, 17(1), 82-91. kılınç, e., kılınç, s., kaya, m.m., başer, e.h., türküresin, h.e. & kesten, a. (2016). teachers` attitude toward the use of technology in social studies teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1). url: http://www.ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/6 kim, y. & smith, d. (2015). pedagogical and technological augmentation of mobile learning for young children interactive learning environments. interactive learning environments,25(1), 4-16. luchaninov et al. krutka, d.g. & carano, k.t. (2017). videoconferencing for global citizenship education: wise practices for social studies educators. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 109-136. kuznetsov, a. & dolmatov, v. (1989). methodological system of teaching basics of computer science and computer facilities: structure and functions, state and prospects. computer science and education, (1), 3-8. lopez, g. a., builes, j. a. & villamil, s. c. (2016). overview of u-learning. concepts, characteristics, uses, application scenarios and topics for research. ieee latin america transactions,14(12), 4792-4798. luchaninov, d.v., bazhenov, r.i., shtepa, y.p., kazinets, v.a. & ledovskikh, i.a. (2016) student information competence under conditions of the realization of interactive pedagogical interaction. global media journal, (s2), 11. lapchik, м. & efimov, v. (1990). issues of technology: a view from the teacher-training university. computer science and education, (4), 95-99. maldague, x., kuimova, m., burleigh, d. & skvortsova, s. (2016). information and communication technologies in engineering education. matec web of conferences, 79, 01044. mauch, j., tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, (1)2, 55-66. mathews, s . (2016). using digital participatory research to foster glocal competence; constructing multimedia projects as a form of global and civic citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 1-29. mwalumbwe, i. & mtebe, j. s. (2017) using learning analytics to predict students’ performance in moodle learning management systems: a case of mbeya university of science and technology. electronic journal of information systems in developing countries, 79 (1), 1-13. nazarova, o., maslennikova o., davletkireeva l. & novikova t. (2016) modeling and factor analysis of efficient increase of bachelors and masters' training connected with applied informatics. arpn journal of engineering and applied sciences, 11(3), 2030-2036. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 1-14 14 rios, j. a., nonato, e. d., sales, m. v. & carneiro, t. k. (n.d.). u-learning pedagogical management. technology platform innovations and forthcoming trends in ubiquitous learning, 270-288. robert, i. v. (1986). issues and prospects of using it in education. computer science and education, (2), 15-17. shtepa, y., bazhenov, r., smirnova, a., filippova, g. & vashakidze, n. (2015). tasks in information modelling as development means of schoolchildren‘s creative abilities. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 214, 3-9. smeureanu, i. & isaila, n. (2011). information technology, support for innovation in education sciences. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 15, 751-755. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, (1)1, 77-97. tarman, b. & acun, i. (2010). social studies education and a new social studies movement. journal of social studies education research, 1 (1), 1-16. toffler, a. & alvin, t. (1981). the third wave. new york: bantam books. touya, k. & fakir, m. (2014). mining students learning behavior in moodle system. journal of information technology research, 7(4), 12-26. umek, l., keržič, d., aristovnik, a. & tomaževič, n. (2017). an assessment of the effectiveness of moodle e-learning system for undergraduate public administration education. international journal of innovation and learning, 21(2), 165. zamalia, m. & porter, a.l. (2016) students' perceived understanding and competency in probability concepts in an e-learning environment: an australian experience. pertanika journal of social sciences and humanities, 24, 73-82. microsoft word rishabh kumar mishra makale asıl.docx   www.sosyalbilgiler.org   journal  of  social  studies  education  research   sosyal  bilgiler  eğitimi  araştırmaları  dergisi     2014:  5(2),  1-­‐13   ©  2014  journal  of  social  studies  education  research,  issn:  1309-­‐9108 social constructivism and teaching of social science rishabh kumar mishra1 abstract the paper presents an overview of prevailing pedagogic practices of social science at school level in india. it has been sketched with the help of social science teachers’ interviews. the analysis of teachers’ interview revealed that the teaching of social science is a reflection of teacher’s own biases and beliefs; dominated by deficit model of thinking and learning. against this backdrop the paper tries to address the question do we have any alternative of ‘deficit model’ of teaching learning? if yes, what is it? how it can be designed and executed? in the present descriptive study the researcher adopts the theoretical underpinnings of socio-cultural approach to learning and tries to design and execute constructivist pedagogic setting for teaching social science. it emerges from the analysis of these constructivists pedagogic settings that it helps to develop and sustain a culture of inquiry in the classroom where the strong interface between students’ everyday knowledge and school knowledge take place. the paper establishes the argument that for moving deficit model of teaching-learning, knowledge should be viewed as co-constructed, negotiated and situated entity, knower should have agency and the voice in process of knowing and the process learning should be dialogic. key words: funds of knowledge, social constructivism, social sciences introduction social science as a school subject enables learners to deal with the multifaceted social reality; reality that is not given but produced and reproduced under the influence of authoritative discourse of power and hegemony. by the virtue of being ‘social’, best place to teach student to question prevailing social norms, processes and practices is in the social science classroom (winberg and martin, 2004). social science should engage and make learners aware of present scenario and expose them to the ‘reality’ of society not only the ‘ideal’ of society (ogle klemp and mcbride, 2007). dewey (1916) suggested that school should provide multiple opportunities for learner to learn what a democratic way of life means and how it might be led. in india, national curriculum framework, (ncf) 2005 also adhere same views and recommends that social science teaching will enable students to think critically and take 1 assistant professor, mahatma gandhi antarrastriya hindi vishwavidyalaya, wardha (maharastra), india rishabhrkm@gmail.com journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  1-­‐13   2 informed position regarding different social issues. it gives primacy to learner’s experience and emphasised to connect the knowledge to the life outside school. the classroom processes should not be like a ‘closed-box’ processes rather it should reflect interface between school learning and what a learner learns through his/her everyday experience (ncf, 2005). after national curriculum framework, 2005 ‘civics’ has been removed from the school curriculum as it reflects the colonial legacy and ideal of a colonial citizen. instead of it ‘social and political life’ has been introduced at the upper primary classes which covers the issues related to diverse indian society in their prevailing form. these new textbooks present different social issues related to class, class, gender, human rights and tries to engage the learner with the same. prevailing pedagogic practices of social science: at the beginning of the present work i did a scouting task. i informally interviewed social science teachers of a government school who were teaching new social science textbooks namely social and political life. their responses showed a different picture of prevailing pedagogic practices of social science. it emerged during the interaction with these teachers that they are still viewing the text book ‘social and political life’ as textbook of ‘civics’. they appreciated the new textbooks for their design and activities but they are critical about the content of the textbooks. they argued that new textbooks do not provide appropriate knowledge base for the success in the future. for them, ‘success in the future’ means to prepare and qualify various competitive exams. the agenda of introducing these new textbook was to move beyond the encyclopaedic image of knowledge related to ‘government’, judiciary’ ‘functioning of local bodies’ etc. and to present the dynamics of social processes. however such kind of views shows that social science teachers are still believe in information loaded curriculum that can be used for examination purposes. they do not understand the shifts brought to curriculum through the ncf, 2005. further such kind of believe system influence their pedagogic strategies and impedes the implementation of new curriculum with its above mentioned essence. they also reported that these books have overestimated learner’s capacity and learners are unable to understand concepts such as diversity and discrimination. they believe that every learner can learn but they shared a prejudiced view regarding learner in their school: ‘learners (coming from lower socio-economic class) are lacking in knowledge base’, ‘they are not motivated to learn’, and ‘they are not getting any support at home’. these responses are reflection of deeply rooted ‘teacher’s beliefs’ which follows the ‘deficit model’ of learner and learning. the possible explanation of such rishabh kumar mishra   3 responses lies in moll et. al.’s (1992) argument, “when the classrooms practices are disconnected from learner’s everyday experience classroom instruction tend to be unidirectional, authoritative and monologic.(pp. 62)” further, it contributes in forming and reinforcing teacher’s believe that learners coming from ‘poor’ and ‘lower’ class background do not bring significant cultural capital with them. beyond deficit model: using learners’ social funds of knowledge for teaching-learning social science: at the next phase of my research work i initiated to design and create a pedagogic setting with the aim to challenge these assumptions of teachers and developing a learning environment by acknowledging learner’s agency and voices in classroom learning processes. i got theoretical support and insights from the previous researches. studies done by moll et. al. (1992) showed that children through their active participation in various social activities accumulate funds of knowledge. their funds of knowledge are abundant and diverse as they actively participate in a vast and diverse arena of activities in their contexts (moll et. al., 1992, velez-ibanez & greenberg, 1992). rogoff ( 1998) identified that students daily experiences is not a passive and inactive storage of information rather they use it to influence each others’ actions or engage in shared thinking. it is also suggested that learner’s social experiences can be used to engage the class and construct the knowledge based on learner’s resources rather than on their deficits (gonzalez & amanti, 1992; gonzalez & moll 2002). learner’s everyday experience in the community is a legitimate source of knowledge, a kind of cultural capital that can be tapped by teachers to improve the pedagogic practices. these studies led me towards the theoretical underpinnings of social constructivism. social constructivism explains learning and knowing as a social process, situated in physical as well as socio-cultural context and distributed across person and tools (vygotsky, 1987; rogoff 1990; lave & wenger, 1991; bruner,1996; brophy, 2002;). learning also involves negotiating understanding through dialogue or discourse shared by two or more members of the community who are pursuing shared goals (brophy, 2002). the basic tenets of socio-cultural approach are: (a) learners construct their own knowledge, participating in authentic activities and internalizing the tools of practices, (b) learners are reflective beings, they can think and reflect on their lived experiences, (c) social interaction/ dialogue plays a crucial role in learning). this perspective focuses on learning as sense making rather than on the acquisition of rote knowledge that exists somewhere outside the learner. it expands the horizons of teaching learning process and stretches it journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  1-­‐13   4 beyond content and curriculum transaction to establish a community of learner’s who are engaged in process of knowledge construction. against the above backdrop the present study aims to design and implement social science lessons adopting the social constructivist approach to learning. the approach provides scope for using learner’s funds of knowledge as resource in classroom discourses. methodology adopting an interpretative approach, the present study was designed as a descriptive research. the study was conducted in the class sixth of a government senior secondary school situated in sarojani nagar, new delhi. there were 35 students, including 26 boys and 9 girls in the class. most of them belong to migrant families, migrated from bihar, uttar pradesh, madhya pradesh and west bengal sates of india. their parents are working as labourer working as daily basis, rickshaw puller, fourth class employ in mcd (muncipal corporation of delhi) and other government institutes. they live in nearby areas. most of them live in one room flats or jhuggi. the source of the data was participant observation. as a teacher-researcher, the researcher himself taught the class for a period of three months. the class was taught in the first semester of the session 2013-2013. all the classes were audio recorded. later on data was transcribed and content analyzed. as a participant observer the researcher also kept field notes and reflective journal. for conducting this study, activities for teaching social and political life to class sixth students were designed and executed by the researcher. it was kept in mind while designing these activities that the knowledge and understanding about society that learners bring to the classroom must be acknowledged. this aspect of activity makes it authentic; similar to real world problems. the role of learner is envisioned as an active and reflective person acting within a certain context. the teacher, acting as guide and facilitator establishes situations that promote communications between students and student and teacher-student. these activities provide scope for interaction, participation and negotiation that helps in creating learning opportunities for exploiting the learner’s funds of knowledge. all the audio recorded data transcribed and content analyzed. the field notes and reflective journal was used for the triangulation of the data. following section presents the analysis of the activities that were carried out in social science classes with the above mentioned perspective. rishabh kumar mishra   5 findings activity 1: this activity aimed at discussing the concept of ‘diversity’ and ‘discrimination’. the overview of activity is as follows: • a handout was distributed to the class. in the space provided in the handout, students were asked to mention their name, state, religion, language, food, festivals, dress and some specific cultural practices of their family. some blank space was also provided so that they could fill any other relevant information about themselves. once they finished working on their own handout, they were asked to share and discuss the details filled with their neighbours. this helped them to highlight and appreciate the similarities and differences in the content which they had mentioned. • they were then divided into groups of five and asked to talk for three to five minutes on major forms of diversity. • the forms of diversity that came up after discussion were written on the blackboard. • further discussion was generated around the issues that emerged. the following forms of diversity came out during classroom discussion -physical appearance (color, height etc), region, religion, caste, intelligence, social class, gender and language. keeping in mind these forms of differences, it was discussed whether these forms of differences would enrich our feeling of living together or would create hindrance to it. they had classified these forms in two major categories. in first category, they mentioned region, language, food and dress, which they said contribute to enriching their routine experiences. they said that name, attire, food habits and language help to identify other peoples region, religion and caste. it enriches their experiences by introducing them to the diverse ways of dressing, eating habits and language. although they said that this is their culture and it does not work as constrain in their interaction with others, yet, during discussion, many stereotype and prejudices of learners came up “biharies eat rice only” “he eats beaf”. journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  1-­‐13   6 these kinds of stereotypes and prejudices are challenges for social cohesion. these points were taken into account and included in the classroom discussion. it is noteworthy, that issues/ stereotype would not have come to the fore if learners personal social experiences were not discussed in the class. l: sir, he is a bihari t: okay. so your friend is from bihar l: (laughs) yes sir. he speaks ‘bihari’ and eats rice t: but he is your friend. are you not accepting him as a friend because he is bihari? l: no sir, he is my friend t: if that doesn’t influence your relation with him then from where he comes and what he eats should not make a difference. in the second category they had put religion, class, caste, intelligence and told that these forms of differences separate each other. during the discussion students affirmed that a person from one religion and caste does not want to interact with a person of other religion and caste; a person who belongs to high class and caste hates people of lower class. after discussion, students come to the point that this is not ‘diversity’ but something else. significant finding that emerged during discussion that caste and class were significant dimensions of differentiation. this was evident in the fact that most of the learners mentioned their caste and class in the untitled boxes. all the girls of the class mentioned their gender in the same box along with caste and class while none of the boys mentioned his gender. during the class activity it was observed that a significant category of discrimination i.e., differently abled was missing. therefore they were given a case that if a person who is ‘visually challenged’ is admitted to their class, how would he/she feel? how would they behave with them? as soon as this case was put before them their quick response was ‘what would he do in our school?’ this response showed that such kind of mindset is a challenge for inclusion. taking this statement as a vantage point, a further discussion was encouraged. at the end of the discussion, learners themselves started empathized with their imaginary classmate. this activity not only brought out their understanding about social diversity and discrimination but also reflected their stereotypes and prejudice. in the present activity they, themselves came forth to discuss critical issues which impedes the social cohesion. the activity made them revisit their stereotype and reflect on their prejudice. activity 2: rishabh kumar mishra   7 activity: rural economy in order to understand whether the everyday classroom transactions and pedagogy provide any scope to integrate the essentials of learning to live together with the concepts taught in the classroom. the following set of hypothetical problems was given to the class and their responses on the same were sought. the students were divided in groups of four. they were given a reflective exercise where they were supposed to plan economic activities for farmers who had already sown their crops for the season and had finished all tasks related to farming. the students were told that until harvesting, the villagers were facing the problem of seasonal unemployment. while planning the activities, they were guided to keep the following points in mind 1. the task should generate monetary benefits for the farmers 2. all the villagers who are capable and willing to work should be included/employed in these activities in some way or the other 3. through these activities some social cause or purpose should also be served. along with this, the task should provide scope for people to nurture and develop-care, brotherhood and co-operation among each of them the students were asked to present their individual ideas about the possible solutions and plan to the problem and suggested plan for farmers. within the group, learners got the opportunity to not only present their ideas but also to debate whether the plans suggested were feasible and would generate optimum monetary returns. they tried to find the possible solutions to alleviate the problems of seasonal unemployment of farmers. students seemed keen and excited to work on the task as this activity provided them with scope to work in small groups. further, they felt that the planning they were doing would be instrumental in providing employment to the unemployed villagers. they seemed to be driven by a sense of positive ‘purpose’ and saw themselves as thinking-contributing members of the society. they were also expected to present this to the entire class. the solutions they shared clearly showed the clarity and insightfulness they had in understanding the problem. it is evident that the variety of suggestions and proposed economic activities thought out by the children were not restricted to the examples stated in their textbooks. this shows that while working in groups they go beyond the given information and put their ideas in a constructive way. during the observations, it was found that every group took time to arrive at a consensus. it is significant to note that none of the student showed a tendency to dominate the others while working in groups. every journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  1-­‐13   8 one gave space to other members of the group to express their idea. when one child shared his idea, everyone else in the group listened to the idea and commented on it and finally all the group member arrived at consensus regarding the most appropriate activity that they are going to present in the class. it is important to note that the children kept in mind the gender, the educational background and social status of people while allocating them work. it can be inferred from this tendency that for them these factors decide the occupational trajectory of individual. while conducting the discussions it was further probed as to why only women should make toys? or why only the rich people should finance? or why only the educated villagers should manage finances and accounts? what are the implications of these for long term planning? this gave them a chance to come out of their comfort zones and think of a possible world that is free of biases and based on the principles of equality, fraternity and brotherhood. activity 3: outline of activity: • at the beginning of the class, a case vignette (from the book) was given to the class and the learners were asked to read it. • when they had read it, the following questions were posed to them to generate discussion 1. what are the major issues discussed in the panchayat (local municipal government in rural india) meeting? 2. what could be the other issues that can be discussed in the panchayat? 3. how does panchayat arrive at any decision? these were only guiding question for the discussion. it emerged during the discussion that learners knew that the panchayat implements government plans such as preparing and repairing roads etc. along with it, panchayat also deals with people’s personal matters such as land and property disputes, division of property and so forth. the focus of vignette and course content was to provide them with an idea that panchayat works as local government. during the process the learners raised these significant aspects of panchayat, themselves, showing that they observe and are aware of what goes around them. they may not be direct participants in the process but they are aware of these. taking into account these points, they were asked to give some examples from their own lives where they had heard or seen any matter being addressed by the panchayat. one student narrated his own experience to the class, which is as follows rishabh kumar mishra   9 “last year i went to my village. my uncle fought with my father and separated my family .my father went to the sarpanch and requested him to intervene and divide the property in a fair manner. then they brought some of their other people along with them and fairly divide the property.” when a learner was narrating the whole experience, he was not just describing a ‘case’ but also a personal life experience. this made the other learners in the class aware about the functioning and role of the panchayat. along with this they were also able to understand the turmoil a family goes through when people fight and separate. the entire class also learnt as to how his family no more includes his cousins; they have become ‘other’ for him and his family. this process of separation made his uncle’s family ‘other’ from his family. it also emerged during the discussion that panchayat takes decisions in consensus with all the members of the panchayat and after listening to the arguments of both the sides. to elaborate it further and make the process of decision making more explicit, they were asked to highlight/hypothesize how the process of decision making would take place in a group? the learners came up with the following responses “every person will express his view. while he/she is expressing his views everyone else would listen to her. they may agree or disagree. in case of a disagreement, they will argue it out within the group. gradually, this process will move further and the group will eventually arrive at a final decision, possibly which suits all or most. in this process everyone’s voice(s) will be heard. each idea is important. this whole decision making process looks at the welfare of the community as a whole and. it is kept in mind that the decision should not harm anyone. through this process of reflection they came up with very relevant ideas. in the case vignette it was shown that all the villagers are present in panchayat meeting but during the classroom discussion many students argued as followed “but everyone does not go in the panchayat meeting, only ‘big shots’ are called and only they discuss during the meetings” when probed as to whom do they consider’ ‘influential’? one of the learners said: l1: those who have lots of money, land and belong to upper caste) t: but according to constitution everyone can participate in panchayat meeting. l2: no sir, only influential people attend panchayat, i have seen it. t: ok tell me, who puts forth the views of the people who do not attend the panchayat. ; (this was followed by a silence in the class) t: (don’t you think that if we have been given a right, then we should go and put forward our point) the discussion was carried forward by probing further. during the discussion an effort was made that students reflect on these issues, critically. in this activity, it emerged that learners are aware of what is going on in the society. they knew the gaps between journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  1-­‐13   10 what is ‘actually’ happening and what ‘ought to’ be happening. they were also open to revisit and challenge their existing notions and construct fresh notions that seemed more appropriate and progressive. it was hoped that in the light of their lived experiences and reality they would be enabled to think in a positive and critical manner. what also emerged through the classroom interaction was that the teacher’s role was not cut short but he/she was allotted a key role in facilitating the teaching learning process. teachers role is not only restricted to presenting the concepts but developing understanding and skills of critically reflecting on those concepts and connecting them with real issues; providing space for meaningful engagement and dialogue on social issues. while discussing those concepts she should help students understand the realities of societies by discussing the difference and diversity, there is a possibility to make them responsive human beings who accept multiple perspectives and people who are seen as others. discussion and conclusion it can be seen that in above mentioned narratives, the whole pedagogic practice begins with learners’ understanding of society, moves further with critical reflection by problem posing and providing space for reconstruction of prior assumptions beliefs and ideas. learner’s engagement and ownership in classroom pedagogic processes, teachers modelling the culture of inquiry in classroom and importance of communication within the group can be easily seen as the crux of these activities. rather than relying on teacher’s unquestionable authority, students in these pedagogic settings propose and defend their own views. they also respond thoughtfully to views of others. this process leads them to be a member of the ‘community of inquiry’ (goss 2004). the whole class benefits from ‘sum of cognition’ as when the class is divided into groups , a new social context was created, in which students get the opportunity to share individual cognition with their peers and arrive at conclusions based on the sum of those cognitions (slavin, 1995). a new participant structure emerges in classroom where power and authority shift from teacher to the students. it has potential to change the relationship between teacher and learner, between learner and learner and learner and subject matter studied (wertsch, 1998). students had developed ways of communicating, reasoning, and providing arguments to defend their ideas as they participate in and contribute to the norms and practices of their learning communities. it was found that learners were able to see themselves as question ‘posers’, decision makers and participants of democratic discussion where their views and ideas were heard. rishabh kumar mishra   11 findings of the present study challenged the prevailing believes of social science teacher and showed that students are cognizant about the social issues such as class, caste, discrimination, poverty etc. the students studying in class six can also articulate their views on the various social issues. the new role of the learner as ‘negotiator between the self, the learning process and the object of learning showed that the learner is as much a contributor as a gainer in the learning process and thereby he/she learn in an independent way. however the study raises some questions concerning pedagogic practices of school social science i.e. who decides what is worth teaching? how teachers own biases and beliefs which is the product of his/her socio-cultural experiences influence the learning processes? how the enacted curriculum is different from envisioned curriculum? how to explicate the hidden fabric of learner’s socialization which impedes the very essential value of social cohesion? these questions must be taken into account while designing pedagogic setting for teaching social science at school level. issues related to class, caste, gender poverty and power need to bring to forefront of the classroom. a social science teacher who utilizes learners ‘funds of knowledge’ will be able to transform the classroom in such a way where multiple facets of social reality is contested and this contestation will further contribute in propagating learners critical literacy. using learner’s ‘fund of knowledge’ for teaching social science will contribute in developing critical literacy and further will equip learner to appreciate pluralism, consider diversity as an asset, and take a informed position regarding critical social issues. references brophy, j. (ed.) (2002). social constructivist teaching: affordances and constraints. boston: elsevier bruner, j. s. (1996). the culture of education. cambridge, m.a.: harvard university press daniels, h. ( 2001). vygotsky and pedagogy. london: roultledge palmer davies, b. (1994). on the neglect of pedagogy in educational studies and its consequences, british journal of in-service education 20:1 pp 17-34 dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education, new york: the free press. goss, m. (2004). learning mathematics in a classroom community of inquiry, journal for research in mathematics education, 35(4), pp. 2558-291 journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  1-­‐13   12 hughes, m. & pollard, a. (2006). home-school knowledge exchange in context. educational review, 58(4), pp. 385-395 lave, j. & wenger, e. (1991) situated learning-legitimate peripheral participation, new york, u.s.a.: cambridge university press. lave, j. (1988). cognition in practice. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press leach, j. & moon, b. (eds.). (1999). learners and pedagogy, london: open university press moll l. c. & greenberg, j. (1990). creating zones of possibilities: combining social contexts for instruction. in l.c. moll (ed.), vygotsky and education pp. 319-348. cambridge: cambridge university press moll, l.c., amanti, c., neff, d. & gonzalez, n. (1992). funds of knowledge for teaching: using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms. theory in practice, 31 (2), pp. 132-141 n.c.e.r.t. (2005). national curriculum framewrok. new delhi: n.c.e.r.t. ogle, d. , klemp, r. & mcbride, b. (2007). building literacy in social studies: strategies for improving comprehension and critical thinking, alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development riojas-cortez, m. (2001). preschoolers’ funds of knowledge displayed through sociodramatic play episodes in a bilingual classroom. early childhood education journal, 29(1), pp. 35-40. rogoff, b. (1998). cognition as a collaborative process. in d. kuhn & r.s. siegler (eds.) handbook of child psychology, pp. 679-744 new york :john wiley slavin, r. e. (1995). cooperative learning and intergroup relations. in j.a. banks (ed.), handbook of multicultural education pp. 628-634, new york: mcmillan velez-ibanez, c. & greenberg, j. (1992). formation and transformation of funds of knowledge among u.s.-mexican households. anthropology & education quarterly, 23 (4), pp. 313-335 vygotsky, l. (1987). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge, m.a., harvard university press wertsch , j. (1997). mind in action. new york: oxford university press. rishabh kumar mishra   13 wineberg, s. & martin, d. (2004). reading and writing history, educational leadership, 62 (1), 42-45 www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2012: 3(2), 45-70 © 2012 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 educating for democratic societies: impediments stephen lafer1 & hasan aydin2 abstract: the paper offers a robust definition of democracy that focuses upon the decision making processes of democratic societies that are dependent on the ability and willingness of citizens to enter into a democratic dialectic in which informed opinions contend with one another in the public forum so that the best possible decisions can be made in regard to public policy and action. opinion, informed and justified in reason, is to be respected in such societies and cultivated through a proper system of education that teaches students how to determine the respectability of opinions offered and to formulate and articulate opinions worthy of respect. impediments to the development of skills, knowledge, and dispositions essential to the development of opinion worthy of respect and the critique of opinion for its respect-worthiness are considered, particularly those generated by forces of economy (business), religion, and notions of state and nation. the conclusion argues for schools that are respectful of the individual capacities of students, particularly their ability to formulate unique understandings of the phenomenon that come before them and to offer to society novel ideas, in the form of opinion, that deserve the consideration of others in the democratic decision making process. keywords: democracy, schools, impediments introduction the world needs democracy because, as dewey argues, (1937), it is only democracy that, at this point in history, offers forms of governance that allow people to find their way to realizing their human potential. according to thomas jefferson, the first author of the american declaration of independence, a profoundly capable thinker himself and a product of the enlightenment, a movement that reflected understanding and 1 assoc. prof. dr., university of nevada-reno, lafer@unr.edu 2 assist. prof. dr., yıldız technical university, aydinh@yildiz.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 46 a profound respect for the capacity of human beings use reason to come to understandings about the world that, in turn, allowed for reasoned decision making. most basic to the philosophy that generated the declaration was the reasoning that led these fathers of modern democracy, to conclude that nature and natures laws made it impossible for them to do anything else but declare their rights and do what was necessary to secure these rights through whatever means necessary. to not do so would be patently inhumane, a violation of the very laws that reason says work to define what it means to be a human being. the writers of the declaration, in determining a form of governance that would comport with the laws of nature were forced by their convictions, convictions based upon reasoning into the essence of being a human being, developed the framework for the modern forms of democracy, forms that would take into consideration “certain inalienable rights,” granted not by men but by a nature that had provided human beings with the capacity to reason. reason led jefferson, john adams, and benjamin franklin to conclude that amongst the inalienable rights of beings in possession of reasoning were the right to life, liberty, and freedom to pursue happiness. thus, such a society would need rules that would allow individuals with such rights to live together in ways that would not interfere, too much, with individuals asserting these rights. thus, governance would have to be of the people, the “keynote” of modern democracy being, according to john dewey, “the necessity for the participation of every mature human being in formation of the values that regulate the living of men together.” such participation, argued dewey, is “necessary from the standpoint of both the general social welfare and the full development of human beings as individuals” (dewey). the primary goal of the american revolution was the creation of the humane state, serving to provide conditions that allow for ongoing growth and development of individuals as they work toward actualizing the fullness of their humanity. paulo freire deems this process “humanization,” and claims that humanization is the “vocation” of human, or, in other terms, the essence of human existence. this vocation, freire (1993) argues, causes people, at some point, as they mature as human beings, to discover ways to free themselves from oppression, that which prevents them from engaging in activities that move them toward realization of their potential. human potential, in the context of a stephen lafer & hasan aydin 47 being amongst other beings in a properly humane society, is expressed most humanly by the formation of opinions based in reason, this reasoning transmittable to others in the forums of democratic discourse for the purpose of swaying societal decisions in a particularly individualistic yet reasonable way. democratic forms of government, to use dewey’s words again, “rest back upon the idea that no man or limited set of men is wise enough or good enough to rule others without their consent; the positive meaning of this statement is that all those who are affected by social institutions must have a share in producing and managing them,” this because “each one is influenced in what he does and enjoys and in what he becomes by the institutions under which he lives, and that therefore he shall have, in a democracy, a voice in shaping them.” a special political form,schools, if are to operate as legitimate institutions of democracy, must offer students the education that prepares them for effective participation in the dialect that characterizes democratic process, in which opinions, respectable opinions, are shared and debated so that the best of them are allowed to give shape to the realities citizens experience. students must know of the high quality life so that this is understood to be the criterion for developing public policy that exists to provide for an environment in which debate over the quality of opinions leads to societal decisions that provide for a common good that exists to insure individual freedom. the quality curriculum allows students to experience the life around which they can shape their opinions, be it in the mathematic course, the art course, or through the debates that allow students to test opinions as they work to build the more perfect school. such schools are dependent upon their people as democracies are dependent upon their citizens. order is generated through adherence to certain principles that are understood in such a way that members of the school society are willing to give up some freedom to serve good principles. rules are not imposed or forced upon some by the will of others. people consent to the rules because, as they do in the democracies they own, they understand that the rules, such as those found in the constitution of the united states of america, to be of a kind that actually preserve individual freedom, providing a degree of orderliness that is liberating and never oppressive. if that societal order becomes oppressive, then the patriotic citizen, of a school, of a society, has both a right and an obligation to rebel to insure that individuals are treated properly, as per the laws of journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 48 nature. the proper educational system, the properly democratic society, is focused, at all times, on the rights of individuals and the quality of their lives. the good school is about life and liberation and the pursuit of understandings that make happiness a real possibility. purpose the purpose of this paper is to discuss features of democratic schools and to highlight some of the impediments that exist to developing schools that serve the most basic needs of democratic societies. education for such societies has to be about educating people in the art of exercising, in a proper manner, in a properly rational manner, the freedoms such societies afford them. its fundamental purpose is to help individuals develop the skills, knowledge, and dispositions essential to living in a free society amongst other people who are also free. as such, it must educate for understanding of self and self as one citizen amongst many of a democratic society. education must help to grow individuality, reverence for individuality, and an understanding of why human beings are worthwhile beings, their individuality rendering them capable of making unique contributions to the health of the good society. good is not demanded nor enforced. it results from human understanding of goodness of being human and the potential good that resides in every liberated being human. as idyllic as this may sound, the belief in the goodness, the innate humanity of people, it is a profoundly essential belief and, in the good school it is made real through the development of deep understandings of the disciplines and through engagement with others, fellow beings who are contributors to the disciplines, astute teachers, and intellectually competent, articulate fellow students. the capacities of the human mind come to be understood, appreciated, even cherished and this is how people are brought up properly to serve and maintain the properly democratic society. idyllic it sounds, but democracy is viable only if people understand that they are good enough, as a people to govern themselves properly. stephen lafer & hasan aydin 49 the problem schools for democratic societies celebrate freedom and help their students to grow into active and effective citizens of the democracy. understanding what this entails deserves serious consideration, from the inside out, from understanding self and self amongst others, all free to remake the world, all limited by the fact that no one exists alone. the problem of schools for democracies is the same infuriating problem that is built into any system of self-governance, that there has to be a degree order for freedom to exist and that order imposes constraints upon individuals, freedom curtailed. how this is all managed is a problem that democracies struggle to solve and will struggle to solve throughout their existence. there really is not answer or, an answer that is far from satisfactory, that the tension will always exist. however, this is not a bad thing and schools have to help students learn to cope with the tension and participate in a delightfully futile process of finding ever better answers to the problems that independent life amongst other independent souls poses. democracies never realize their full potential but the strive for that potential, for the “more perfect union” the framers of the constitution of the united states set as the goal for the american nation. striving toward perfection with the knowledge that perfection will never be achieved sets in motion the dynamics of true democratic process and the value of the process is that, along the way, better ways are found to improve the society so that it ever moves closer to its humane goals. to find joy in this endless process, one must engage in the process and, in the process, become a working member of the society, a problem-solver interested in solving the problems that stand in the way of the perfect society. “within history,” says freire (2005, p. 4), “in concrete, objective contexts, both humanization and dehumanization are possibilities for a person as an uncompleted being conscious of their incompletion.” and the uncompleted being recognizes both the value of being such a being and of being a member of a society that celebrates its incompleteness because such a state is the mother of invention. schools, therefore, good schools, sponsor invention. they teach that the world is not settled, the natural world and the world of our being as human beings. they do this by employing problem-posing/problem-solving curricula that bring together students and teachers to engage in the dialect of democracy, in the decision making processes by journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 50 which citizens of democracies decide upon the best answers for the problems the world places before them. but the schools of which we know are not of the type but rather engage what freire (2005) calls “the banking method” by which students are assumed to be empty vessels to be filled with the knowledge generated by others and without much knowledge of the beings who created the knowledge, how they created it, why, and what for. worse, they are rarely helped to understand that these knowledge makers are very much life themselves, incomplete beings, students themselves, facing very much the same problems they do. the key ingredient in schools that truly serve the cause of democracy is humanization, the realization that knowledge is of human creation and that as humans, they too are not only capable of but also obligated to participate in the knowledge making process, a qualification for citizenship in a democracy. interfering with the development of such awareness and the kind of participation in meaning making that such awareness encourages are a number of factors present in most, if not all, societies working toward democracy and trying to build school programs that sponsor true democratic citizenship. part of the reason is that democracy is quirky, dependent upon those who participate in it who have been educated by the system people so educated have developed. as james moffett argued, if democratic societies are to survive and prosper, “one generation of teachers has somehow got to bring through one generation of students who will have thoughts we have not had before.” he goes on to say that, it is clear that the nation’s and the planet’s problems cannot be solved by just thinking along the lines we do now according to our heritage. societies relying on conventional wisdom are doomed… the next generation must have an education creative enough to survive its inheritance. (1992, pp. 31-32) instead of filling them with the wisdom of the past, schools must help students to develop abilities and attitudes that allow them to push beyond what is so as to be prepared to deal effectively with what is to come. he say elsewhere that, any institution may dispirit the individual if it plans its activities so specifically as to drive out spontaneity and vitality. this is especially devastating for children if they have no other resources to fall back on, as increasingly few do today. schools need to treat students far better, to take seriously their human rights, and stephen lafer & hasan aydin 51 even become their advocates. more than any other change, honoring the democratic ideal in deed will help them learn better. (1991, p. 6) yet, in america and elsewhere, nations have built school systems that are dispiriting, that do “drive out spontaneity and vitality,” to the point that far too many students go to school against their will, not to engage in the excitement the disciplines should generate, but in order to fulfill government and parental mandates that they learn what they are told to learn as they are told to learn it. this single factor, of students attending school because they have to and not because they want to, should be an indicator of just how problematic the modern systematic approach to education is. but instead of nations with democratic intentions working to build schools that respect the intellect of students in ways that cause students to respect the qualities of their minds, students are forced to engage in a process that has little to do with praxis, with creating knowledge from what comes to them through interaction with the world. praxis goes beyond taking in to develop ideas and to take on meanings conveyed, processing them through application of the intellectual powers to determine real meanings and viability. instead, the many are told what to know and how it is to be known, the criterion for success determined by some test maker whose notion of intellectual efficacy can be determined by machines reading tiny dots that represent something other than original thought and hard won notions of what is true and what is not. this is not a minor problem or procedural error. it is the crux of the problem that we see as systemic disrespect for the opinions, for the intellectual integrity of the human beings who are forced into and through the school systems. we will spend the remainder of the paper describing what we understand to be the forces that cause the education students receive in today’s schools to be inhumane and, thus, terribly undemocratic little potential for helping students become that one generation that will serve as the foundation for building democracies into the future. findings and results business over the years it has become apparent that business has become a significant force in shaping the process of educational decision-making. james moffett, back in the journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 52 1970s, realized what big business had realized, that the education infrastructure, particularly in nations such as the united states where educational systems are extremely large, could be plumbed for huge profits and that, in market economies, schools could be used as tools to serve the market by insuring that students receive proper training for the job market and “ideals” and attitudes consistent with the needs and desires of capitalists. bowering from dwight eisenhower, moffett declared that there existed, along with a military-industrial complex, an educational-industrial complex that did indeed make schools safe for capitalism by doing what was necessary through lobbying and sales to influence what schools would teach and the commodities they would purchase in order to teach a business friendly curriculum. if one were to examine educational policy documents developed to guide the educational process in the united states, he or she would find statements much like the one found in the mission statement of the common core state standards, a set of goals advocated by the federal government to guide curriculum development in school districts across the country, that reads, “the standards are designed to be robust and relevant to the real world, reflecting the knowledge and skills that our young people need for success in college and careers. with american students fully prepared for the future, our communities will be best positioned to compete successfully in the global economy.” nowhere in this statement of mission is there communicated a concern for growth and development of individuals’ intellectual abilities, or dispositions or values related to democratic imperatives, to effective citizenship in a democratic society. while this statement, and others like it, do, in places give mention of the relationship of education to democratic aspirations, they are not prominent and both curriculum and the materials used in support of curriculum rarely reflect deep and abiding concern for much other than developing a citizenry that can serve well the economic interests. when business it exerts force upon the education system, it does so to insure that those who are educated are educated to its specifications for worker and consumer and it seems obvious that, to a high degree, desires have been met, an educated populous highly susceptible the less than rational pitches of advertisements for products and politicians, the brilliantly cultivated hunger for the things business has to sell, that can be sold on policies that undermines its quality of life for the sake of a relative few stephen lafer & hasan aydin 53 who reap profit from thoughtlessness and educationally manufactured ignorance. one needs only to spend time watching american television for a few hours or to follow the typical american political campaign to attain a sense of a public miss-educated by its educational system. according to the university of southern california rossier college of education online staff (2011), the united states spends eight hundred and six billion dollars a year for education. some of this is, of course, spent on teachers, teacher training, and other elements that are not for profit in nature. at least seven billion dollars of this is, spent on textbooks, “testing resources and reference materials” (barnes and chozick, 2012) in addition, considerable amounts go for testing services, computers, software, white boards, projectors and the like. in recent years, for profit companies have increased their potency in the educational realm by operating elementary and secondary schools at public expense under charter laws and through the operation of for-profit colleges whose students receive considerable amounts of aid money from public agencies to pay tuition. beyond the profit making incentives for business involvement in the american educational system is the desire of corporate entities to influence educational policy, the eli broad foundation and the bill and melinda gates foundation being amongst the most potent, providing considerable amounts of charitable donations to gain the attention of high ranking educational policy makers (barkin, 2010). fusion of the corporate and educational is nowhere more clearly illustrated than by rupert murdock’s news corporation’s hiring of recently retired new york city schools chancellor joe klein (stelter, b. & arango, t. 2010) as executive vice president at the same time that news corporation, “in partnership with at&t…will offer digital learning tools to kindergarten through grade 12 students, part of the media company’s strategy to tap into the multibillion-dollar public education market” (chozick, 2012). as public schools in the united states have gotten poorer, partly as a result of the lobbying by business for lower taxes to be offset by budget cuts in the public sector, hunger for such donations has increased and, as noted before, there is hardly a set of standards, school goals, or school curricula that does not feature prominently the necessity of graduating good workers for a workforce that is being pushed to work harder journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 54 (worker productivity in the united states is an all time high) for lower pay and fewer benefits. corporate largess is prominently displayed on banners that fly in many schools, on pencils and erasers imprinted with the names of companies that supplied them, and in television advertisements costing millions of dollars to run that tell the public of major corporations’ concern for education and their generosity. while some would argue, particularly the corporations themselves, that the donations are signs of good corporate citizenship, one would have to ignore the agenda corporate america brings to the table, corporative motives, and the effect corporately proffered changes in education has wrought. schools effectiveness, as we alluded to earlier, is measured ever more on scales related to workplace readiness rather world savvy citizenship, a citizenry able to understand, amongst other things, business agenda, motives, and machinations those agenda, always linked to concerns for profit serve well, perhaps, the needs of the modern capitalism, but too often, despite corporate patriotic rhetoric, have only a nominal relationship to concern for common good or the strengthening of the public voice in the affairs of government. corporations exist to make profits and they do what they have to do in order to succeed in their pursuit. on the other hand, what corporations do to make their investors wealthy is not necessarily what is for the good of a society or its individual members. robert reich, chancellor's professor of public policy at the university of california at berkeley and secretary of labor during the clinton administration, in his book super capitalism (2008), argues that during the 1950s and into the 1960s, a relatively comfortable balance existed between corporate power and the power of the people to participate in the democratic decision making process. beginning in the 1970s that balance was distorted when companies grew into the mega-corporations that dominate the world of business and use there massive wealth to influence governments around the world to insure that policies are enacted that suit corporations at the expense of peoples in nations around the globe. in the united states, the peoples’ power to influence political decisions has been greatly diminished while corporate power to influence has grown tremendously. reich argues that capitalism has trumped democracy and that measures need to be taken to restore a reasonable balance. stephen lafer & hasan aydin 55 the way forward to restoration of the peoples’ power to govern themselves necessitates a public capable of understanding the situation and its ramifications and in possession of the abilities allow people to fight the battles that must be won if their power to govern themselves is to be restored. since the 1970s schools in america, according to most indicators, have been steadily loosing their ability to provide citizens with a proper education, for many reasons, amongst them what seems to be an unwillingness on the part of politicians to do what is necessary to provide resources and to develop policies that would strengthen schools programs so that graduates would possess the intellectual prowess essential to wresting and managing power within the framework of democratic governance. not all business initiatives are anti-democratic, but still, educators need to be vigilant against educational policy dictated by business interests that work to inculcate students in anti-democratic ways, in ways that fail to help students discover the proper sense of humanity that comes from discovery of the power of the intelligence that resides in the human minds. in a capitalist society built on consumption, business must somehow encourage people to consume, to be interested in material goods and not so much in the goodness of being human (and humane). students are inculcated in the goodness of predatory forms of competition. collaboration and cooperation may be given acknowledgement, but the ultimate goal of such activities is not a communal goal but an individual goal in the form of grade or test score. if there is something of value created through the collaborative work, there is no way to credit the collaborative value of the accomplishment to the individual students educational account. in the sane school, the school that exists within the context of the democratic imperative, it is an understanding of the value of the individual for the success of the collaborative enterprise that causes individuals to value one another and to work for others. such an environment nurtures understanding of the fact that in doing something for the whole, much that is good is derived for the self. humanization comes of prizing that that is human and much the is humane is made possible through understanding the value of the human intellect, one’s own and others’. ultimately, democracy is that environment, an environment that facilitates appreciation and admiration for the capacity of people to think and the gifts bestowed by such thought. not only does one with such journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 56 understanding not wish to do harm to another, he or she is also apt to make decisions and act in ways that protect that other by protecting the environment that allows the thought of the individual in the collective to thrive. this is the force that generates morality and leads to ethical behavior. businesses sometimes are collaborative, those collaborating doing so to enrich the owners and share holders but not necessarily the individuals doing the work. workers know this and they know that they are expendable as practices such as downsizing and offshoring have shown. good numbers of workers labor for others to get by, not to do or create something they value or understand to be worthwhile, and this is a particularly potent factor in how one values self in the context of the broader society. herbert thelen argues that “laboring, unlike dancing or work, has no consummatory value.” “labor,” he says, …is directed by someone else, for his reasons, according to his procedures; the basis of these reasons and procedures in insight or tradition may not even interest the laborer… labor is easy to direct because the tasks are cut and dried. this is the genius of mass production. the laborer is not psychologically involved enough to ask genuine questions about the task (only about the conditions of employment). (pp. 112-113) perhaps the reader hears students asking questions of “how many points,” or “how many pages,” or what do i have to do to get a high grade”? thelen contrasts labor with work, work being based upon understanding of the value of the activity. “a worker,” he writes, makes a difference…changes a situation, solves a problem, produces some useful object, develops a new insight. work is guided or directed by one’s understanding of the demand structure of the situation one is trying to cope with. work is not only creative, involving the organization of ideas and making judgments: one is truly coping. (p. 112) the life of the laborer is the life too many now live as corporations subsume greater portions of economies around the world. individuals work, not for the gratification that comes of the work or what it produces, but to put a meal on the table or pay the rent. the joy of work, and the social bonds that come with working with others to produce something good and meaningful and useful do not exist; the richness of life stephen lafer & hasan aydin 57 produced of collaboration is not experienced and a strong sense of community does not grow. we ask our readers to consider whether the classrooms they know model the laboring or the working ethos just described. while we will not make reference to work in the area of student engagement, we do feel comfortable saying that for schools to serve the growth of abilities tied to the democratic imperative, students will have to engage in meaningful work in order to feel the meaning of the individual intellect so that they come to appreciate in visceral ways, the real meaning of being human. as we have argued above, it is discovery of the potency of mind that is prime cause for strengthened sense of empathy and it is empathy that allows truly free beings to respect others, fellow human beings at once endowed with the same kind of mindfulness, appreciated for this and also those other beings potential for providing self with valuable perspectives on cannot conjure on his or her own. peace in a democratic society, in any society in which it is for the people to decide how they are going to get along, in truly free societies, comes about through development of mutual respect that authentic and not enforced, that grows as understanding of the self as intellect comes to be understood as it exists in relation to the intelligence of others. thus, the conditions of work have a profound effect on community, particularly the democratic community, where common aspirations and a sense of interdependence causes pushes one to think of community as a force that ultimately serves self. without strong notions of common bonds, decency is not of the type that arises in humane communities. instead, decency must be enforced, often in heavy-handed ways, by those hired to enforce the law. it is pitiful, but true, that the united states of america, which sees itself as the beacon of democracy there exists a strong sense that decency cannot exist except through coercion, that, in a terrible sense, people are not capable of governing themselves. for this reason, in the united states of america, democracy exists only in a weak sense, the perceived need for harsh laws and harsh enforcement of these laws so wide-spread as to suggest that good numbers of americans do not truly believe in the efficacy of democracy. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 58 religion self-respect, in its truest sense, is the cause of respect for others and for that respect to be sincere rather than forced, one has to hold appreciation for the other as a human, endowed with the capacities that make human beings human. but there are forces other than business that push people away from such appreciation and, sadly, education accedes too often to these forces. the most potent of these forces is religion, particularly in its institutionalized forms, curious institutions that in too many societies are shuttered off from sensible scrutiny. because religions do now participate rather directly in public policy debates and do exert force in determining how education is delivered in nations around the world, it is absolutely essential that nations with a democratic bent begin to take a serious look at both the consequences of religion’s dalliance at the policy level and in regard to how the learning processes of individuals are affected by religious training. religion, for the most part, is not about self-respect or the powers of the human being to use his or her intellect to make sense of the world and find meaning in one’s existence. instead, most religions offer pronouncements of truths that arise from inscrutable dogmas out of the reach of reason. to reason with religion is to demean for religion depends on something other than reason to reach the truths it sponsors. it is impossible to reason one’s way to a deity unless one is willing to accept as evidences that which would never pass as evidence in realms outside of the religious. it is pretty much impossible to argue in a rationale manner with religious premises because its premises are not rationale, and it is dangerous in many places to assert irrationality as reason for dismissal of religious premises because to do so is considered disrespectful or, in too many instances, blasphemous. in the united states, for the few hundred years of its existence, the force of religion has been acknowledged and given a place in the democratic culture that causes such high degrees of dissonance as to distort the democratic dialectic in profoundly disturbing ways, so disturbing and so difficult to speak of in an honest manner that it is rarely discussed and patently ignored in american schools. for example, while the debate over how evolution should be handled in american schools has raged for decades, most schools do not discuss in depth the reasons for the debate. it is treated as a stephen lafer & hasan aydin 59 disagreement amongst sensible people with the real sense of the matter never considered. the manner in which the issue has been handled in courts is not the manner in which students are helped to understand the issue for the courts, by law, adjudicate with reasoning supported by evidence made tangible through the application of rationale proofs, a good example of this being the trial that took place over a dover, pennsylvania school board’s attempt to force biology teachers to teach “intelligent design” as a theory equal in to the theory of evolution (pbs/transcripts). earlier in the history of science teaching in the united states a teacher named john scopes was relieved of his teaching position for teaching science based in darwin. there is nothing wrong with religion asserting its “truths” in the sanctuary or in public places as long as the logic of its pronouncements is open to legitimate questioning by those affected by those pronouncements and this includes the children whose religious educations will, in good schools, be tested through the introduction of ideas that exist in contention with, if not in opposition to, those pronouncements. for schools not to encourage students to consider the meaning of such things as resurrection and stories of creation that are not compatible with scientific understanding of such phenomenon is to deny students and the society a means for coming to sensible understandings of the world that can be used to ground public discussion. religion need not be banished or berated; it does need to be studied in the same way any influential set of ideas needs be studied in a school system that is charged with preparing its students to participate effectively in the discussions that shape the policies that regulate the lives of free peoples. to say such things is not to say things anti-religious but, rather, to call for fair treatment of a set of ideas that have led to predictions for the end of the world and to the banning of many a book and many an idea over the course of history. by avoiding honest scrutiny of religion, schools fail to help students overcome the effects of what might be intellectually crippling notions and, perhaps more damaging, emotions. we do not think that it can be denied that religion has and does cause many to avoid thinking into and about certain aspects of existence, to often out a cultivated fear for retribution by a god or the god. if fear is not the mechanism used, notions of goodness and evil are used to the same effect. democracies cannot mature unless individuals are free to inquire and, as freire argues “any situation in which some journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 60 individuals prevent others from engaging in the process of inquiry is one of violence. the means used are not important; to alienate human beings from their own decision-making is to change them into objects” (freire 2005, p. 85),” objects because they are bereft of volition to come to understandings on their own, pushed off the path to achievement of genuine praxis. “apart from inquiry, apart from the praxis, individuals cannot be truly human. knowledge emerges only through invention and re-invention, through the restless, impatient, continuing, hopeful inquiry human beings pursue in the world, with the world, and with each other (2005, p.72). these affect of such inhibitions/limitations on an individual’s consciousness is incalculable but reason would tell us, terribly debilitating. for an individual to be coerced or even convinced to not think for him for him or her self , is inhumane for it absolutely prevents one from finding self and, in regard to the democratic society, it denies that society a basic element of the democracy, a particular kind of mindfulness with potential to contribute something original to the democratic decision making process. terribly so, in the united states there are no laws to sanction religion from interfering with the freedom that allows individuals to think for themselves, to form opinions and express those opinions so that others may consider them. religion is protected, but people are not protected from religion. many argue that religion is a force of good and something that should not be questioned by the “outsider” who cannot possibly understand its teachings. however, if religion interferes with the full development of free thought, then it must become a topic of honest discussion. while one can argue that religion is a benign force in the lives of humans, it can only be treated as such if it allows or, at least, does not interfere with, human beings realizing their humanity. we do not argue for abolishing religion, but we do believe that it needs to be treated fairly so that people can be treated fairly, in the sense that they are allowed to exercise their intellects freely. schools should not be forced to teach religion as religion teaches religion, and this is pretty much accepted practice in the united states. on the other hand, schools do need to teach about religion as religion does exert a potent force on many aspects of the culture and the society and they must discuss religion in an open and honest manner whether or not some protest against such for reason precludes the legitimacy of such demands. and, most stephen lafer & hasan aydin 61 importantly, that which counters religious dogma and religious beliefs cannot be ignored or disputed in ways that run counter to good sense and critical thought. to allow for such would be to accede to the notion that because there are things that cannot be understood one should not try to understand them. the state it is the state that, in most nations, is responsible for operating the school system and this is a very good thing in a democratic state for, one would think, such a state would work to insure that students acquire abilities necessary for participation in a democratic society. but democratic states, for the most part, have yet to fulfill the promise of democracy, too often influenced too much by the forces discussed above and by a penchant of nations to be, to differing extent, more nationalistic than democratic. while to some, the recitation of a pledge to flag and country, such as that demanded of american children as young as five years old, may seem innocuous, the requirement that anyone anywhere be required to recite as a pledge words of which they do not know the meaning, is at once a command for the acceptance of servility, the students being told that there are truths beyond their comprehension with which they must thoughtlessly comply. while an adult may choose to utter words the meaning of which he or she does not know, perhaps for the sake of politeness, there is a degree of choice that in the matter. with children, this is conditioning for blind obedience and, because it occurs in the school room, it is something of an induction ceremony into a cult of susceptibility that most likely does have the effect of orienting to a kind of learning that we would label bogus, here the banking of forms of patriotism and nationalism that operate in contradiction to the kind of democratic education we have argued for throughout this paper. we need to go no future that to point out that students of ages five, six, seven, and older can be counted upon not to know the meaning of such concepts as “pledge,” “allegiance,” “united states of america,” “liberty, “justice,” and so on, but can be heard to be uttering such words on a daily basis in the institutions that should be helping them to do the necessary things that citizens of a democracy need to be able to do, one of them being to recognize acts of submission to demagoguery as they exist in opposition to self governance and democratic decision making process. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 62 let it be known that we do not care to argue that a pledge of allegiance is necessarily a bad thing, but for it to exist in abidance with basic principles of democracy, those asked to recite it must be encouraged to do so only when they know and truly believe in the meanings the pledge is meant to convey. there is nothing wrong with loving one’s country if one knows a great deal about that country and finds it to be lovable, something truly worthy of praise. to accept orders to praise blindly is to capitulate to tyranny. schools that demand such acceptance exist in opposition to the democratic impetrative. an interesting discussion of mandatory recitation of the pledge can be found in green (1995) where it is argued that the mandate is unconstitutional. green, however, ignoring the anti-democratic force the reciting of the pledge exerts on those not ready to interpret its words for themselves, goes on to sponsor the amending of the constitution so as to make the mandate lawful. again, we reassert our claim that the unlawfulness of mandates to recite anything at anytime of which the person being asked to recite has little grasp of its meaning is problematic not because it violates civil law but, rather, because it violates natural laws by which humanity must be defined, that opinions are sacrosanct within a democracy and that schools for democracy must allow students to develop opinion and never asked to accept opinion without doing what is necessary to determine truth value of an opinion. schools that we know of, be they in the united states, turkey, or in nigeria do not work well to help students attain what howe (1992), via gutman, determines to be the “democratic threshold,” freedom at its most basic, the ability, as a human being to “deliberate effectively,” the ability to make good use of the opportunity to choose in such a way that there is good chance that one will choose well. to broach this threshold, there must exist, in the choice making process, degrees of “voluntariness and intent” coupled with the ability to “identify and weigh alternatives and their consequences to choose the one judged best from among them” (pp. 459-460). for one to possess freedom he or she “…must have the opportunity to exercise it. the opportunity to exercise it, in turn requires (1) that information necessary for deliberation is available and (2) that the social conditions do not impose a burden for acting on the results…” following orders to recite the pledge or understanding learning as taking in rather than making something of the information, concepts, and ideas that come one’s way, is to misunderstand learning in the stephen lafer & hasan aydin 63 its humane sense and this inhumane sense is too often what is proffered as real learning in schools be they in nations that call themselves democratic or not. we do not ask that nations do not teach what is good about the nation, nor is it our hope students will come to dislike or become hostile to a nation. but, in truly democratic societies supporting truly democratic schools, students would come to know their nation well enough to love it or to love it well enough h to do what is necessary to make it truly lovable. and, if properly inspired to do so, they would be excited to write their own pledges and patriotic songs because their inquires have led them to understand the goodness for which the nation stands. this is a critically important proposition for, how schools treat the notions of state and country has much to do with how an individual orients him or herself to the world, as a player or shaper or one who is to fit into a given reality over which he or she can exert no control, for which there exists no impetus for participation. if students comes to think of themselves as a passive beings, good because they are accepting of what they are told, who do not really know or care to know, individuals who do not question those said to be in the know, then their education is destructive for democracy and for the kind of growth toward humanization, the vocation of which freire speaks. in dealing with issues of nation, students must come to understand the nature of history, how it comes to be written and by whom and for what purpose. perhaps not in all nations with aspirations for democracy, but true in the school in nations where we have been, a telling sign of non-democratic, anti-democratic approaches to education is the fact that neither teachers nor students know much, if anything, about the authors of their textbooks, whatever the subject may be. this may be minor consequence if authorship is ignored on some occasions. however, when authorship is rarely discussed, students probably come to see information as what it often is not, fact, or worse, the truth. this process, based upon lack of understanding of process, is amongst the most debilitating consequences of undemocratic miss-education because it teaches people how not to see but to believe in spite of ones blindness to the realities upon which the beliefs are based, if, in fact, there is basis in reality. recent critiques of practices generated by the no child left behind act provide evidence that american education is leading journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 64 children to a type of literacy that o’neil once referred to as “illiterate literacy. “make a distinction,” he writes, being able to read means that you can follow words across a page, getting generally what’s superficially there. being literate means you can bring your knowledge and your experience to bear on what passes before you. let us call the latter proper literacy; the former improper. you needn’t be able to read to be properly literate. the real problem with this “improper literacy” is that those trained in it read only surfaces, what they hear said is what is. thus, they are rendered unable to distinguish the legitimate authority from that which is not legitimate. what they read, what comes to them via school sanctioned, and later societally sanctioned, authorities is unquestioned because school has not only failed to teach them how to question but has told them in so many ways that sanctioned authorities are either not to be questioned or, worse perhaps, that they cannot and/or should not be questioned for their word stands not for an opinion but for the truth. that such hide the identity, render authoritative approaches to literacy instruction and instruction related to learning how to learn exist, we offer fair test’s assessment of the dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills (dibels) test used under the auspices of the no child left behind act to measure attainment of comprehension abilities. gerald cole, author of reading the naked truth: literacy, legislation and lies, tells us this about the test: administered throughout a school year, dibels is supposed to ascertain a student’s reading progress from kindergarten through sixth grade. if you’re wondering about comprehension, that’s in the subtest “retell fluency,” which follows “reading fluency.” after a student reads a story aloud for one minute, a teacher asks, “tell me everything you just read,” and then silently counts the words produced within one minute, a number that translates into a “comprehension” score. fast thinking is a must: a second brief pause that goes beyond five seconds ends the subtest. (coles, 2012) as a result of instruction based upon the measures used to determine whether or not proper outcomes have been achieved, the typical student graduates, stephen lafer & hasan aydin 65 lightly armed with his new, counter-intuitive way of dealing with experience and reading superficially, the child is now forced into re-viewing what he already knows and learning anew surfaces of knowledge. geography is reduced to a catalogue of names and capitals and products, history to a linear succession of dates and events, literature to a chronologically ordered set of the best thoughts man has best uttered – nothing of the systems of beliefs that underlie his uttering or the child’s comprehending, nothing of what passes or doesn’t pass from mind to mind. science is reduced to taxonomy. properly literate children are reduced to uncomprehending adolescents, improper literates. the storyteller becomes an oracle whose credentials no one thinks to scrutinize. the fruit of miss-education is the misreading by citizens of a democratic society of that which goes on around them and, inevitably, decision making that is the result of something other than effective deliberation. surveys over the years of citizen understanding of the facts behind the issues debated in political campaigns or claims made to advertise consumer goods point to high degrees of ignorance and inability to reason out the truth value of what politicians and advertisers say. again, we will make the claim that there is good reason to believe that the miss-teaching that contributes to the miss-education of citizens who must make decisions of consequence in democratic societies prevents nations claiming to want democracy from achieving it. for a good taste of how democratic process is undermined by schooling that renders people likely to make choices that are the result of something other than effective deliberation, facts known and treated reasonably, we suggest that our readers review the speeches of political candidates, advertisements that accompany campaigns, and the level of success companies have selling their products with pitches that appeal to aspects of human character other than ability to think to reasonable conclusions about the meaning of things that come before them. a particularly poignant rendering of the problem is offered in the film buying the war (moyers, 2007), a documentary that explains in detail how citizens of the united states of all levels of education were brought to believe that their was good reason for the country to engage in a war with iraq. schools, to serve democracy, then, must allow students to participate in the making of knowledge and educators must be knowledgeable of that which prevents full journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 66 student involvement in making meanings for him or herself within the context of a collaborative of fellow learners who help in the process of making the knowledge generated whole and right. the individual, engaged in the process of sense making, generates opinion and, in the democratic collective, opinion is tested against others’ opinions and the evidence that serves as the basis for opinions and this process continues until there are good enough opinions available upon which to base actions. this is the democratic process. conclusions we have touched upon three categories of impediment to education that is proper for democratic societies, these three, in our minds, being the most pervasive and detrimental, detrimental because they affect student understanding of the role of self in society and the manner in which one, oneself, goes about making sense of the things that transpire in the world and about which citizens are required to deliberate. such understanding is critical to effective citizenship because is the process by which opinions are generated and assessed so that societal decisions can be made based, upon collective understandings that arise from rigorous scrutiny of a multitude of sensible opinions, respectable opinions that are the product of the magnificent tool that is the human intellect. it is respect for opinion and the powerful mechanisms of mind that generate opinion that produces a proper morality for democracies, a morality that is based in respect for self as thinker and, through empathetic extension, respect for others as meaningful beings who are essential to the societal decision making process and, thus, worthy of individual respect and concern for their the desires, and aspirations. true democracy is humane because it is based on understanding of what it means to be a human being. it is of and by human beings who recognize the humanity of all other human beings, particularly as individuals capable of thoughtfulness. people need to learn about their capacity to think so that they can think about the worth of that capacity and enter into a dialectic that seeks truths that allow for decisions that are good for the whole of which each individual is an essential part. stephen lafer & hasan aydin 67 morality must come of such understanding, so that it does not need to be enforced, so that moral behavior does not necessitate infringements upon freedom. the individual who can understand his or her own humanity is the being capable of celebrating life for its goodness, human life for the opportunities it offers. it is in this way that one comes to understand the true value of what it is that is taken from others when others are mistreated. this understanding is the product of effective democratic education, a type of education that has rarely been practiced in our world. one cannot be told to respect another or forced to respect another in a free and democratic society. respect is of attitude not information. a pronouncement such as “love thy brother” is but a piece of information. loving one’s brother results from understanding that brother, or sister, or whoever it may be by understanding well the properties of self. we will end here, with one final note. what we have discussed is perhaps, and most probably, of the impossible. we assume that many who read what we have said will find it to be unrealistic. that is because what is “real” has yet to have been harnessed to fuel the democratic. this is not a problem with democracy. it is an effect of democracy, a form of governance that finds its real meaning in an ongoing process of creating an ever more perfect form of government for free people who must live together and who can be truly free and human if they govern themselves properly. it must be unrealistic because it can never be a real “thing;” it is process and what that process renders is of but the moment, susceptible to change for the sake of infusions of new opinions that must be taken seriously for they come of the governed engaged in a humane process of making things ever better, ever closer to perfect. the projects of democracy, including its educational programs, are always in the making and, because this is so, those programs are always about things that aren’t yet but could be, unrealistic yet true.. this is the work of humanity and the proper role for education is to help people become more effective in their exercise of their humanity. schools must become less didactic and more the dialect with, as freire suggests, teachers becoming students of their students as their students are students of their teachers. the content of schools must be taught, but the meaning of that content must be negotiated rather than imposed. freire calls for schools in which the primary work of students and teachers is that of solving problems, of taking on the world and finding in it journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 68 the meanings that can be applied to make things happen, democratically speaking, for the good of the one and the good of the whole. learning of this kind takes place in the collaborative environment of the dynamic educational setting, one that complicates rather than simplifies things for spoon-feeding. moffett and wagner (1993 ) said have said, school must be harder and more fun, the fun arising from engagement with challenges, the problems that demand solutions because they are meaningful and, as such, give value and meanings. learning, one learns, is good because it is useful. this paper cannot begin to describe all of the particulars of such schools and we feel it unfitting to attempt such. our readers, by taking it upon themselves to use the principles offered here to discover particulars, will find themselves engaged in the kind of intellectual activity in which students must become engaged. there is no particular democratic education as there is no particular democracy for both democracies and democratic education take their shape as a result of the work of those involved. our closing story that is offers more than a hint at what the dialectic of the democratic classroom might sound like. josie, eleven years old, comes home from school and tells her parents of a discussion in her classroom that was rather perplexing for her. the class had read an article describing a situation in ecuador in which oil companies were beginning to explore for oil and gas in areas covered by rainforest. the article was followed by a set of question that asked of what should be done; should the oil companies allowed to drill at the cost of the forests or the forests preserved at the cost of the people of this region of ecuador, already poor, remaining poor. most in the class, according to josie’s reporting, were against the drilling and for the preservation of the animals and plants and trees that would be disrupted and probably destroyed by the intrusion. josie said that the article, in a nature magazine, was biased in this direction making little mention to the possibility that the people of the region could climb out of poverty with the help of oil discoveries, but even so, she felt that the question could not be easily answered because neither answer was without drawbacks. she then wrote a paper that she began by saying that, while it was easy to tell the people of the region to not give up the rainforest for the sake of the beasts and the plants and other things ecological, there were people to think about who have much less than she and her classmates do, whose lives need to be considered. thus, she had no good answer stephen lafer & hasan aydin 69 and then went on to explain the pros and cons without finding a way to make a determination as to which of the two possible answers to the problem was the best. despite the bias of the article and, probably, the teacher who had assigned the reading, josie had thought the thought that led to a response that reflected understanding of the complexity of the issues involved. she felt somewhat reluctant to offer up her at odds reading of the situation because she had good reason to believe, from her reading of the situation in which she found herself, that she was at odds. whether or not she spoke her mind she did not tell us. the proper teacher for the good and democratic classroom would have encouraged her to do so. references barkan, j. (2011). got dough? how billionaires rule our schools. retrieved on may 29, 2012, from http://dissentmagazine.org/article/?article=3781. barnes, b. and chozick, a. (2012). media companies, seeing profit slip, push into education. new york times. retreived from http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/23/news-corporation-forms-newbrand-for-education-division/. cohozick, a. (2012). news corporation forms new brand for education division. new york times media decoder. retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/20/technology/discovery-invests-in-digitaltextbooks-in-hopes-of-growth.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 coles, g. (2012). comprehending dibels. jamaica plain, ma: national center for fair and open testing. retrieved from http://www.fairtest.org/comprehendingdibels. dewey, j. (1937). democracy and educational administration. school and society, 45, 457-67. feire, p. (1993). pedagogy of the oppressed. new york, ny: the continuum international publishing group inc. green, a. s. (1995). the pledge of allegiance problem. fordham law review, 64, 2. retrieved november 9, 2012 from http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3204&context=flr. http://dissentmagazine.org/article/?article=3781� http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/23/news-corporation-forms-new-brand-for-education-division/� http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/23/news-corporation-forms-new-brand-for-education-division/� ttp://www.fairtest.org/comprehending-d� ttp://www.fairtest.org/comprehending-d� journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 45-70 70 howe, k. (1992). liberal democracy, equal educational opportunity, and the challenge of multiculturalism. american educational research journal, 29(3), 455-470. mcmaster, j. (2007). judgment day: evolution on trial. nova. in mcmaster, j, gary johnstone, g., and tovell, v. boston, wgbh for pbs. moffett, j. (1992). harmonic learning: keynoting school reform. portsmouth, nh: boynton/cook. moffett, j., and wagner, b. j. (1991). student centered language arts, k-12, 4th edition. portsmouth, nh: boynton-cook. moyers, b. (2007). buying the war. bill moyers journal. in moyers, b. ny: public affairs television. reich, r. b. (2008). supercapitalism: the transformation of business, democracy, and everyday life. great barrington, ma. stelter, b. & arango, t. (2010, november). news corp. reels in a top educator. retrieved on may 28, 2012, from http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/11/09/news-corp-reels-in-a-topeducator/. thelen, h. a. (1981). the classroom society: croom helm curriculum policy and research series. new york, ny: john wiley and sons publication inc. usc rossier online staff. (2011). u.s. education spending and performance vs. the world. retreived november 10, 2012 from http://rossieronline.usc.edu/u-seducation-versus-the-world-infographic/. http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/11/09/news-corp-reels-in-a-top-educator/� http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/11/09/news-corp-reels-in-a-top-educator/� http://rossieronline.usc.edu/u-s-education-versus-the-world-infographic/� http://rossieronline.usc.edu/u-s-education-versus-the-world-infographic/� barkan, j. (2011). got dough? how billionaires rule our schools. retrieved on may ... barnes, b. and chozick, a. (2012). media companies, seeing profit slip, push into education. new york times. retreived from http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/23/news-corporation-forms-new-brand-for-education-division/. mcmaster, j. (2007). judgment day: evolution on trial. nova. in mcmaster, j, gary johnstone, g., and tovell, v. boston, wgbh for pbs. öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersi ödevlerine yönelik tutumlarının ölçülmesi: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(2), 103-124 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 lise öğrencilerinin ‘i̇yi vatandaş’ kavramı hakkındaki görüşleri1 high school students’ perception of the concept of ‘good citizen’ emin kilinç2 ve i̇lker dere3 özet: vatandaşlık eğitimi alanında son yıllarda ülkemizde birçok çalışma yapılmıştır. bu çalışmalarda daha çok sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları ile ilkokul ve ortaokul öğrencilerinin vatandaşlık algı ve yeterlikleri gibi konular ele alınmıştır. ancak lise öğrencilerinin bu konular hakkındaki düşünceleri üzerinde çok fazla çalışma yapılmamıştır. bu çalışmanın amacı, lise öğrencilerinin ‘iyi vatandaşlık’ kavramından ne anladıklarını ve iyi vatandaşlık kavramı ile ilişkili davranışlarını şekillendiren unsurları tespit etmektir. bu çalışmada nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden betimsel tarama modeli kullanılmış olup veriler anket yoluyla toplanmıştır. öğrenciler uşak il sınırları içerisinden rastlantısal kümeleme yöntemi ile seçilmiştir. elde edilen veriler spss 20 programında betimsel analiz, bağımsız örneklemler için t testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (anova) yardımıyla çözümlenmiştir. araştırma sonucunda lise öğrencilerinin en çok sosyal kaygı içerikli maddeleri iyi vatandaşın temel özellikleri arasında gördüğünü, lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışlarını şekillendirme sürecinde en çok ailelerinden ve öğretmenlerinden etkilendikleri ortaya çıkmıştır. anahtar kelimeler: iyi vatandaşlık, vatandaşlık eğitimi, lise extended abstract one of the main roles of education is to develop the concept of citizenship among young people in the society. especially in the democratic societies, civic education is considered as a tool to enable young generations to know their rights and responsibilities, be active and take action within their communities. because there can be no democracy without democratic citizens. thus, educating students on what it means to be good citizens for the republic is one of the major goals of turkish education. each turkish curriculum has at least one civic course that teaches the knowledge, skills, and values believed necessary for democratic citizenship since 1924. therefore, students in turkey are required to take particular civics courses. elementary school students take life learning courses that contain chapters about citizenship education, 6th and 7th grade students take social studies and 8th grade students take a course titled citizenship and democracy education. civic education in turkey has been extensively studied in turkey in the past decades. while previous studies of citizenship have focused on pre-service teachers’ perception of citizenship, elementary 1 bu çalışma kısmen 26 28 nisan 2013 tarihleri arasına aksaray’da düzenlenen ii. uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumunda sözlü bildiri olarak sunulmuştur. a previous version of this paper was presented at the ii. international social studies education symposium, aksaray, 26 – 28 april 2013. 2 yrd. doç. dr., dumlupınar üniversitesi, emin.kilinc@dpu.edu.tr 3 arş. gör., uşak üniversitesi, ilker.dere@usak.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 104 and middle school students’ perception of good citizenship, little in-depth research has taken place with high school students. thus, the aim of this paper is to explain what are the qualities of good citizenship perceived by high school students in uşak/turkey. in this context, three research questions are tried to be answered: 1. what are the qualities of good citizenship perceived by high school students? 2. is there a significant difference between high school students’ perception of the concept of good citizen by a. gender b. school type 3. what are the main elements that have effects on the development of good citizenship concept? the researchers used quantitative survey method in this research. the data were collected by survey from high school students. the survey questionnaire consisting of two sections was constructed based on davies, gregory and riley’s (1999) work. the first section requested standard demographic information from high school students. the second section of the survey instrument included two tasks: 1) main characteristics of good citizen 2) elements that have effects on development on good citizenship knowledge, skills and behaviors. the participants were selected through cluster random sampling during the 20122013 school year in the city of uşak. a total of 552 high school students participated in this research. the data were analyzed through descriptive analysis, independent sample t test and one-way analysis of varience (anova) in spss 20 statistical package program. the result of the study showed that three distinct characteristics of good citizenship emerged from the quantitative analysis of high school students responses: 1) social concern characteristics, 2) knowledge characteristics, 3) conservative characteristics. according to the result, high school students expressed that social concern characteristics are the most important characteristics of good citizen than other characteristics. the findings also indicated that there is a significant difference between male and female high school students on social concern characteristics. female students more considered social concern than male students. another findings showed that there are significant differences between school types on social concern characteristics. the results also demonstrate that there is a significant difference between male and female high school students on knowledge characteristics of good citizen. also, there are significant differences between school types on knowledge characteristics. keywords: good citizenship, citizenship education, high school. giriş yeni nesillere toplumun var olan kültürünü aktarmak, onları iyi birer vatandaş olarak yetiştirmek bütün politik sistemlerde eğitimin en temel hedeflerinden bir tanesi olarak algılanır. bütün siyasi rejimler, var olan kültürün sonraki nesillere aktarılması için eğitimli vatandaşlara ihtiyaç duyarlar. i̇çinde yaşadığı toplumun kültürünü benimsemiş, özümsemiş ve bunu geliştirmeyi hedef edinmiş iyi vatandaşlar (safran, 2008) yetiştirmek eğitim sistemlerinin en önemli amaçlarından biridir. gerçekten de bir çok ülkenin eğitim programları incelenirse temel hedeflerden bir tanesinin de iyi vatandaşlar yetiştirme olduğu emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 105 görülür (duman, karakaya, & yavuz, 2001).nitekim milli eğitim temel kanununda türk milli eğitiminin genel amaçlarında bu husus dile getirilmiştir (meb, 2013). öğrencileri iyi vatandaşlar olarak yetiştirmek ve demokratik bir toplumda gerekli bilgi, beceri ve değerlerle donatmak günümüz okullarının temel amaçlarından bir tanesidir (galston, 2001). okullara ilaveten yeni neslin vatandaşlık anlayışının oluşmasında ailenin, içerisinde bulunan çevrenin, kamu kurumlarının ve sivil kurumların etkisi büyüktür. ancak yeni neslin zamanının büyük bir kısmını okulda harcadığı göz önünde tutulursa, vatandaşlık yeterliklerinin kazandırılmasında ve öğrencilerin iyi vatandaşlar olarak yetiştirilmesinde okulların ne derece önemli bir rol oynadığı ortaya çıkacaktır. bununla birlikte türkiye nüfusunun %35’inin okul çağında olduğu düşünülürse (kavak, 2011), okul çağındaki öğrencilerin vatandaş ve iyi vatandaş kavramına yönelik algılarını belirlemenin bir gereklilik olduğu görülecektir. daha önce yapılan çalışmalar, vatandaşlık algılarına (dinç, 2009; doğanay, 2009; yılmaz, 2009) vatandaşlık yeterliklerine (acun, demir, & göz, 2010), etkin vatandaşlığa (ersoy, 2007; i̇brahimoğlu, 2009, sağlam, 2011) yoğunlaşmışken, ilgili literatürde ülkemizin nüfusunun önemli bir kısmını oluşturan lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaş kavramı hakkındaki düşüncelerine yönelik bir çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır. bu çalışmada lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın özellikleri hakkındaki düşünceleri belirlenmeyeve iyi vatandaşlık gelişimi üzerinde etkili olan unsurları tespit etmek amaçlanmıştır. vatandaşlık kavramı vatandaşlık kavramı, bugünkü tanımına ulaşana kadar pek çok aşamadan geçerek değişime uğramıştır. toplumun tamamını ilgilendiren ve haklar konusunda eşitliği amaçlayan günümüz vatandaşlık anlayışının birçok tanımı vardır. bazı araştırmacılar tarafından vatandaşlık, bireyin hak ve sorumluluklarını bilmesi ve toplumsal olaylara aktif bir şekilde katılması olarak tanımlanır (barr, barth, ve shermis, 1977; goodman ve adler, 1985, sunal ve haas, 2005). rapoport (2009) ise; bir bireyin vatandaş olarak adlandırılması için devletine ve içerisinde yaşadığı topluma karşı yerine getirmesi gereken birtakım sorumluluklarının olması gerektiğini, aynı zamanda bu sorumlulukları neticesinde yararlanması gereken bazı haklarının olduğunu ifade eder. vatandaşlık, bireyin devleti ile olan ilişkisi olarak tanımlanır ve devlete bağlılık ve temel bir kimlik oluşturma gayreti olarak vatandaşlık eğitiminin merkezinde yer alır (lawson ve scott, 2002). acun, demir ve göz (2010), 2005 yılında uygulamaya giren ilköğretim program ile birlikte vatandaşlık eğitiminin sadece devletin ihtiyaç duyduğu iyi bir vatandaş yetiştirme gayretinden “yaratıcı, eleştirel düşünen, katılımcı, işbirliği içinde çalışabilen, empati becerisine sahip, journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 106 çevresine duyarlı bireyler yetiştirme” (p. 109) gayretine dönüştüğünü ifade etmektedirler. yukarıdaki tanımlarda da görüleceği üzere araştırmacılar tarafından vatandaşlık kavramı tanımlanmakta, zaman zaman da iyi vatandaş kavramı ön plana çıkmaktadır. ancak genellikle iyi vatandaş kavramı açıkça tanımlanmayarak okurların anlayışına bırakılmaktadır. literatürde ilkokul öğrencilerinin “iyi vatandaş” hakkındaki görüşlerine (o’brien ve smith, 2011), taşradaki öğrencilerin “iyi vatandaş” hakkındaki düşüncelerine (martin ve chiodo, 2007), vatandaşlık algısına (dinç, 2009; doğanay, 2009; i̇brahimoğlu, 2009; sağlam, 2011) ve öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık eğitimi uygulamalarına (ersoy, 2007) yönelik çalışmaların yer aldığı görülmektedir. i̇lgili literatürde doğrudan lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaş hakkındaki düşüncelerini konu alan bir araştırmaya rastlanmamıştır. bu nedenle, bu araştırmanın amacı, lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlık kavramına ilişkin düşüncelerini ortaya koymak ve lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlık gelişimi üzerinde etkili olan unsurları tespit etmektir. araştırma ile aşağıdaki sorulara cevap aranmıştır: 1. lise öğrencileri tarafından algılanan iyi vatandaşlık kavramının temel nitelikleri nelerdir? 2. lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili algıları a. cinsiyete b. okul türüne göre farklılaşmakta mıdır? 3. lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlık gelişimi üzerinde etkili olan unsurlar hakkındaki düşünceleri nelerdir? yöntem araştırmanın deseni bu araştırmada nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden betimsel tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. tarama yöntemi hâlihazırda mevcut olan veya geçmişte olmuş bir durumu olduğu şekliyle betimleyen bir çalışma yöntemidir (gay, mills ve airasian, 2006; karasar, 2008). dolayısıyla bu çalışmada temel olarak lise öğrencilerinin görüşlerinden hareketle iyi vatandaş hakkındaki algılar incelenmiştir. evren ve örneklem araştırmanın örneklemini 2012-2013 eğitim öğretim yılında uşak ili merkezinde bulunan üç lisede eğitim gören toplam 552 lise öğrencisi oluşturmuştur. çalışmaya katılan öğrenciler, uşak ili içerisinden olasılık temelli örnekleme yöntemlerinden rastlantısal kümeleme yöntemi ile seçilmişlerdir. evrenin çok geniş olması ve farklı coğrafi alanlara emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 107 ayrılması durumunda evreni oluşturan bireylere ulaşmak zor olabilir. bu nedenle küme örnekleme yöntemlerine başvurmak daha pratiktir (gay, mills ve airasian, 2006). lise öğrencilerinin cinsiyetine, okul çeşidine ve sınıflarına ilişkin betimsel veriler tablolar halinde aşağıda sunulmuştur. tablo 1. araştırmaya katılan lise öğrencilerinin cinsiyetlerine i̇lişkin bilgiler cinsiyet frekans (f) yüzde (%) erkek 358 64.9 bayan 194 35.1 toplam 552 100 araştırmaya katılan lise öğrencilerinin cinsiyetlerine ilişkin bilgiler tablo 1’de verilmiştir. buna göre katılımcıların 358’i (% 64.9) erkek iken 194’ü (%35.1) bayanlardan oluşmaktadır. erkek öğrencilerin bayan öğrencilere oranla daha fazla olmasının temel nedeni rastlantısal kümeleme yöntemi kullanılarak yapılan örneklem seçiminde endüstri meslek lisesi öğrencilerinin araştırmaya katılmasıolduğu söylenebilir. tablo 2’de katılımcıların okul türüne ilişkin bilgilere yer verilmiştir. buna görekatılımcıların 188’i (%34.1) fen lisesi öğrencisi, 165’i (29.9) anadolu lisesi ve 199’u (36.1) endüstri meslek lisesi öğrencisidir. tablo 2. araştırmaya katılan lise öğrencilerinin okul türüne i̇lişkin bilgiler okul türü frekans (f) yüzde (%) fen lisesi 188 34.1 anadolu lisesi 165 29.9 eml 199 36 toplam 552 100 katılımcıların devam ettikleri sınıflara ait bilgiler tablo 3’te verilmiştir. bu bilgilere göre katılımcıların 133’ü (% 24.1) 9. sınıfa, 138’i (% 25) 10. sınıfa, 135’i (% 24.5) 11.sınıfa ve 146’sı (% 26.4) 12. sınıfa devam etmektedirler. tablo 3. araştırmaya katılan lise öğrencilerinin sınıflarına i̇lişkin bilgiler sınıf frekans (f) yüzde (%) journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 108 9. sınıf 133 24.1 10. sınıf 138 25.0 11. sınıf 135 24.5 12. sınıf 146 26.4 toplam 552 100 veri toplama aracı liselerde eğitim gören öğrencilerin iyi vatandaş algılarını incelemek amacıyla öğrencilerin görüşlerinin alınmasına yönelik veriler, davies, gregory ve riley (1999) tarafından kullanılan vatandaşlık anketinden (citizenship quastionnaire) esinlenerek hazırlanan bir anket aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. veri toplama aracı likert ölçeğine göre hazırlanmış olup soldan sağa “1-kesinlikle katılmıyorum, 2-katılmıyorum, 3-fikrim yok, 4-katılıyorum, 5-kesinlikle katılıyorum” şeklinde sıralanmıştır. ölçek öncelikle araştırmacılar tarafından türkçeye çevrilmiştir. daha sonra yeniden i̇ngilizceye çevrilerek çevirinin niteliği test edilmiştir. çeviri yapıldıktan sonra 4 farklı alan uzmanına inceletilerek dil ve kapsam bakımından kontrol ettirilmiştir. bu uzmanlar tarafından yapılan öneriler sonucunda orijinal ölçekte bulunan iki kısım çıkarılmış, mevcut maddelere altı madde daha eklenerek ve bazı değişiklikler yapılarak ölçeğe son hali verilmiştir. yapılan düzenlemeler sonucunda ölçek, iki bölüm halinde hazırlanmıştır. birinci bölüm katılımcıların demografik bilgilerini içeren beş maddeden oluşmakta, ikinci bölüm ise iyi vatandaş kavramı ile ilgili algıları içeren 25 maddeden oluşmaktadır. i̇kinci bölüm, iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özellikleri ile ilgili 15 madde ile vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışları şekillendirmede etkili unsurlarla ilgili 10 maddeden meydana gelmektedir. ölçeğin güvenilirliğini ölçmek için pilot çalışma yapılmış ve ölçeğin croncbach alfa iç güvenirlik katsayılarının, iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özellikleri ile ilgili kısmı için .80, vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışları şekillendirmede etkili unsurlarla ilgili kısmı için ise .74 olduğu görülmüştür. verilerin toplanması veriler 2012-2013 eğitim öğretim yılında uşak ilinde rastlantısal kümeleme yöntemi ile belirlenen 3 lisede öğrenim gören 9., 10., 11. ve 12. sınıf öğrencilerine gönüllülük esasına göre uygulanan anket sonucunda toplanmıştır. katılımcılara anket uygulanmadan önce ankete isteyenlerin katılacakları, elde edilen verilerin bilimsel amaçla emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 109 kullanılacağı ve araştırmacılar tarafından saklı tutulacağı ve kesinlikle isimlerin belirtilmeyeceği ifade edilmiştir. ayrıca ankette anlaşılmayan bölümlerin olması durumunda katılımcıların araştırmacıdan bilgi alabilmesi için anketin uygulanması sırasında araştırmacılardan bir tanesi sınıflarda hazır bulunmuştur. verilerin analizi bu çalışma kapsamında elde edilen veriler spss 20 programı aracılığıyla betimsel analiz, bağımsız örneklemler için t testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (anova) yardımıyla çözümlenmiştir. bulgular ve yorumlar lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili görüşlerini öğrenmek amacıyla yapılan çalışmada toplam 552 anket incelenerek aşağıdaki bulgulara ulaşılmıştır: birinci probleme i̇lişkin bulgular ve yorumlar: bu bölümde, lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özellikleri ile ilgili görüşleri toplam puanlarının cinsiyet ve okul türü değişkenlerine göre anlamlı bir fark gösterip göstermediğine ilişkin bulgulara ve yorumlara yer verilmiştir. katılımcılardan toplanan veriler analiz edildiğinde verilerin üç ana kategoride toplandığı gözlenmiştir. • sosyal kaygı temelli özellikler: toplumsal değerlere saygı, başkalarının iyiliğini düşünme, sorumluluk duygusu, farklılıklara saygı. • bilgi temelli özellikler: devletin yönetim ve işleyişi, siyaset ve farklı toplumların tarihi ve kültürü hakkında bilgi sahibi olma • muhafazakarlık temelli özellikler: otoriteye itaat ve toplum kurallarına dikkat etme. yapılan faktör analizi sonrasında 15 maddelik veri toplama aracından iyi vatandaşın belirgin özelliklerine ait 13 madde farklı faktörleri belirlemek için analiz edilmiştir. analizlerin sonucunda üç faktör ortaya çıkmıştır. birden çok faktörle ilişkili olan iki madde ölçekten çıkarılarak analiz tekrarlanmıştır. tablo 4 incelendiğinde lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özellikleri arasında sosyal kaygı temelli özellikleri diğer özelliklere göre daha önemli buldukları ortaya çıkmaktadır. bilgi temelli özellikler ise ikinci önemli faktör olarak görülmektedir. son olarak ise muhafazakârlık özellikli maddeler gelmektedir. tablo 4. i̇yi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özelliklerine i̇lişkin 13 maddenin faktörleri ve aritmetik ortalama değerleri journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 110 faktör n s sosyal kaygı temelli özellikler 552 4.22 .79 bilgi temelli özellikler 552 3.78 1.15 muhafazakârlık temelli özellikler 552 3.69 1.71 tablo 5. i̇yi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özelliklerine i̇lişkin 13 maddenin faktör yükleri madde faktör yükü faktör 1: sosyal kaygı temelli özellikler toplumsal konularda sorumluluk alır. .795 toplumsal değerlere saygı gösterir. .545 başkalarının iyiliğini düşünür. .562 vatanseverdir. .573 ailesine karşı sorumluluklarını yerine getirir. .562 toplumdaki farklılıklara saygı gösterir. .523 temel insan haklarına saygılıdır. .835 güvenilirdir. .616 faktör 2: bilgi temelli özellikler devletin yönetimi ve işleyişi ile ilgili bilgi sahibidir. .866 dünya toplumları hakkında bilgi sahibidir. .890 politik konular hakkında başkaları ile tartışır. .888 faktör 3: muhafazakârlık temelli özellikler davranışlarında ahlak kurallarına dikkat eder. .884 i̇darecilerine itaat eder. .951 katılımcıların iyi vatandaşın temel özellikleri ile ilgili her bir soruya verdiği cevapların ortalaması, frekans ve yüzde değerleri aşağıdaki tabloda gösterilmiştir. tablo 6. katılımcıların i̇yi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özelliklerine i̇lişkin yüzde, frekans ve aritmetik ortalama değerleri no ortamlar i̇yi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özellikleri 1 2 3 4 5 f % f % f % f % f % χ χ emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 111 1 i̇yi bir vatandaş güncel olaylar hakkında bilgi sahibidir. 4,1 3 32 5,8 22 4,0 44 8,0 235 42, 6 218 39, 5 2 toplumsal konularda sorumluluk alır. 4,1 6 18 3,3 14 2,5 56 10, 1 254 46, 0 208 37, 7 3 toplumsal değerlere saygı gösterir. 4,3 4 20 3,6 19 3,4 32 5,8 162 29, 3 313 56, 7 4 başkalarının iyiliğini düşünür. 4,0 3 22 4 23 4,2 78 14, 1 223 40, 4 206 37, 3 5 davranışlarında ahlak kurallarına dikkat eder. 4,3 6 20 3,6 20 3,6 48 8,7 206 37, 3 248 44, 9 6 i̇darecilerine itaat eder. 3,0 3 84 15, 2 88 15, 9 16 0 29, 0 165 29, 9 53 9,6 7 kendisini ilgilendiren uygulama ve politikaları sorgular. 3,9 1 16 2,9 30 5,4 11 8 21, 4 209 37, 9 177 32, 1 8 devletin yönetimi ve işleyişi ile ilgili bilgi sahibidir 3,9 8 16 2,9 35 6,3 96 17, 4 229 41, 5 175 31, 7 9 vatanseverdir. 4,4 4 21 3,8 11 2,0 28 5,1 132 23, 9 350 63, 4 10 ailesine karşı sorumluluklarını yerine getirir. 4,2 6 23 4,2 18 3,3 38 6,9 186 33, 7 287 52, 0 journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 112 11 dünya toplumları hakkında bilgi sahibidir. 3,8 3 15 2,7 35 6,3 15 6 28, 3 216 39, 1 128 23, 2 12 toplumdaki farklılıklara saygı gösterir. 4,0 7 24 4,3 25 4,5 58 10, 5 224 40, 6 219 39, 7 13 temel insan haklarına saygılıdır. 4,2 9 18 3,3 24 4,3 46 8,3 189 34, 2 269 48, 7 14 politik konular hakkında başkaları ile tartışır. 3,5 1 33 6,0 49 8,9 18 4 33, 3 170 30, 8 112 20, 3 15 güvenilirdir. 4,2 1 22 4,0 17 3,1 68 12, 3 159 28, 8 285 51, 6 tablo 6 incelendiğinde lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özelliği olarak en çok sosyal kaygı temelli özellikleri seçtikleri görülecektir. sosyal kaygı temelli özelliklerden “vatanseverdir” maddesi ( = 4.44) en öncelikli özellik, ikinci olarak “davranışlarında ahlak kurallarına dikkat eder” ( = 4.36) ve üçüncü olarak “toplumsal değerlere saygı gösterir” ( = 4.34) maddelerini seçtikleri tespit edilmiştir. buna karşılık lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özellikleri arasında en az “idarecilerine itaat eder” maddesini ( = 3.03) sonra “dünya toplumları hakkında bilgi sahibidir” maddesini ( = 3.83) ve “kendisini ilgilendiren uygulama ve politikaları sorgular” maddesini ( = 3.91), maddelerini seçtikleri görülmüştür. bu bulgu, katılımcıların m. kemal atatürk’ün teşvikiyle afet i̇nan tarafından 1930 yılında yayınlanan vatandaş için medeni bilgiler kitabında ifade edilen vatandaş kriterleri ile uyum gösterdiği görülmektedir. yani iyi bir vatandaş vatanına bağlı ve toplumsal değerleri haiz bireylerdir. diğer taraftan başta avrupa birliği ülkeleri olmak üzere dünyanın birçok ülkesinde bireylere küresel vatandaşlık anlayışı kazandırılmaya çalışılırken türkiye’de hala geleneksel vatandaşlık anlayışının etkisini sürdürdüğü söylenebilir. lise öğrencilerinin “dünya toplumları hakkında bilgi χ χ χ χ χ χ emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 113 sahibidir” maddesini iyi vatandaşın özellikleri arasında pek görmemesi, öğrencilerin hala ulusal çapta bir vatandaşlık algısına sahip oldukları şeklinde yorumlanabilir. i̇kinci probleme i̇lişkin bulgular ve yorumlar: bu çalışmanın ikinci probleminde lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili algılarının cinsiyet ve okul çeşitleri açısından farklılaşması incelenmiştir. bu amaçla bağımsız gruplar için t testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (anova) sonucu elde edilen sonuçlar aşağıda açıklanmıştır. tablo 7. katılımcıların i̇yi vatandaşın sosyal kaygı temelli özelliklerine i̇lişkin görüşlerinin cinsiyet değişkenine göre farklılığı için t testi sonuçları cinsiyet n s sd t p erkek 341 4.05 .81 524 6.81 .000 bayan 185 4.52 .64 lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın sosyal kaygı temelli özelliklerine ilişkin görüşlerinde erkek öğrencilerle bayan öğrenciler arasında herhangi bir farklılık olup olmadığını belirlemek için erkek ve bayan lise öğrencilerinin görüşleri bağımsız gruplar için t testi ile karşılaştırılmıştır. test sonucuna göre bayan öğrencilerin sosyal kaygı temelli özellikleri ( bayan = 4.52) erkek öğrencilere göre ( erkek = 4.05) daha öncelikli buldukları ve iki grup arasında bayan öğrenciler lehine anlamlı bir fark olduğu (t (524) = 6.81, p .000) tespit edilmiştir. ayrıca etki büyüklüğü de hesaplanmış (d= .64) ve bu hesaplama sonunda orta düzeyde (cohen, 1992) bir etki bulunmuştur. bu sonuca göre bayan öğrenciler erkek öğrencilere nispeten iyi vatandaşın temel özellikleri arasında sosyal kaygı temelli özellikleri daha çok vurguladıkları görülmüştür. tablo 8. katılımcıların i̇yi vatandaşın sosyal kaygı temelli özelliklerine i̇lişkin görüşlerinin okul türü değişkenine göre farklılığı için tek yönlü varyans analizi (anova) sonuçları varyansın kaynağı kt sd ko f p anlamlı fark gruplararası 26.61 2 13.30 23.07 .000 f=a> χ χ χ journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 114 gruplariçi 302.13 524 .577 𝐸𝑀𝐿 toplam 328.75 526 farklı okul türlerinden gelen 552 kişilik bir öğrenci grubunun iyi vatandaşın sosyal kaygı temelli özellikleri ile ilgili algıları arasında fark olup olmadığını sınamak için eğitim aldıkları okul türlerine göre oluşturulan grupların sosyal kaygı temelli özelliklere ilişkin algılarının ortalamaları tek yönlü varyans analizi (anova) ile karşılaştırılmış ve test sonunda fen lisesinden eğitim gören öğrencilerle ( = 4.44) anadolu lisesinden eğitim gören öğrenciler ( = 4.32) arasında anlamlı bir farkın olmadığı; buna karşın bu iki okul türünde eğitim gören öğrencilerle endüstri meslek lisesinde eğitim gören öğrenciler ( = 3.92) arasında anlamlı fark olduğu gözlenmiştir (f(2-524) = 23.07, p .000). test sonucu hesaplanan etki büyüklüğü (𝜂2=.08) bu farkın orta düzeyde olduğunu göstermektedir. yapılan scheffe çoklu karşılaştırma testi sonucunda, (f=a eml) fen ve anadolu liseleri arasında herhangi bir farkın olmadığı, anlamlı farkın bu iki okul ile endüstri meslek lisesi puanları arasında olduğu görülmüştür. tablo 9. katılımcıların i̇yi vatandaşın bilgi temelli özelliklerine i̇lişkin görüşlerinin cinsiyet değişkenine göre farklılığı için t testi sonuçları cinsiyet n s sd t p erkek 356 3.67 .93 545 2.79 .005 bayan 191 3.96 1.48 lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın bilgi temelli özelliklerine ilişkin görüşlerinde erkek öğrencilerle bayan öğrenciler arasında herhangi bir farklılık olup olmadığını belirlemek için erkek ve bayan lise öğrencilerinin görüşleri bağımsız gruplar için t testi ile karşılaştırılmıştır. test sonucuna göre bayan öğrencilerin bilgi temelli özellikleri ( bayan = 3.96) erkek öğrencilere göre ( erkek = 3.67) daha öncelikli buldukları ve iki grup arasında bayan öğrenciler lehine anlamlı bir fark olduğu (t(545) = 2.78, p .01) tespit edilmiştir. ayrıca etki büyüklüğü de hesaplanmış (d= .24) ve bu hesaplama sonunda az düzeyde (cohen, 1992) bir etki bulunmuştur. bu sonuca göre bayan öğrencilerle erkek öğrencilere arasında iyi vatandaşın bilgi temelli özellikleri konusundaki düşüncelerinde χ χ χ χ χ χ emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 115 anlamlı bir fark olduğu fakat bu farkın örneklem büyüklüğünden kaynaklanıyor olabileceği tespit edilmiştir. tablo 10. katılımcıların i̇yi vatandaşın bilgi temelli özelliklerine i̇lişkin görüşlerinin okul türü değişkenine göre farklılığı için tek yönlü varyans analizi (anova) sonuçları varyansın kaynağı kt sd ko f p anlamlı fark gruplararası 25.10 2 12.55 9.65 .000 f> 𝐸𝑀𝐿 gruplariçi 708.93 545 1.30 toplam 734.02 547 farklı okul türlerinden gelen 552 kişilik bir öğrenci grubunun iyi vatandaşın bilgi temelli özellikleri ile ilgili algıları arasında fark olup olmadığını sınamak için eğitim aldıkları okul türlerine göre oluşturulan grupların bilgi temelli özelliklere ilişkin algılarının ortalamaları tek yönlü varyans analizi (anova) ile karşılaştırılmış ve test sonunda fen lisesinden eğitim gören öğrencilerle ( = 4.03) anadolu lisesinden eğitim gören öğrenciler ( = 3.79) arasında anlamlı bir farkın olmadığı; buna karşın bu fen lisesinde eğitim gören öğrencilerle endüstri meslek lisesinde eğitim gören öğrenciler ( = 3.52) arasında anlamlı bir fark olduğu gözlenmiştir (f(2-545)= 9.65, p .000). test sonucu hesaplanan etki büyüklüğü (𝜂2=.03) bu farkın az düzeyde olduğunu göstermektedir. yapılan scheffe çoklu karşılaştırma testi sonucunda, anlamlı farkın (f eml) fen lisesi ile endüstri meslek lisesi puanları arasında olduğu görülmüştür. tablo 11. katılımcıların i̇yi vatandaşın muhafazakârlık temelli özelliklerine i̇lişkin görüşlerinin cinsiyet değişkenine göre farklılığı için t testi sonuçları cinsiyet n s sd t p erkek 349 3.62 1.59 539 1.28 .201 bayan 192 3.82 1.91 lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın muhafazakârlık temelli özelliklerine ilişkin görüşlerinde erkek öğrencilerle bayan öğrenciler arasında herhangi bir farklılık olup olmadığını belirlemek için erkek ve bayan lise öğrencilerinin görüşleri bağımsız gruplar χ χ χ χ journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 116 için t testi ile karşılaştırılmıştır. test sonucuna göre bayan öğrencilerin bilgi temelli özellikler ile ilgili görüşleri ( bayan = 3.82) ile erkek öğrencilerin görüşleri ( erkek = 3.62) arasında herhangi bir anlamlı bir fark olmadığı (t(539) = 2.78, p .05) tespit edilmiştir. bu bulgu cinsiyetin öğrencilerin iyi vatandaşın muhafazakarlık temelli özellikleri hakkında farklı düşünmediklerini göstermektedir. tablo 12. katılımcıların i̇yi vatandaşın muhafazakârlık temelli özelliklerine i̇lişkin görüşlerinin okul türü değişkenine göre farklılığı için tek yönlü varyans analizi (anova) sonuçları varyansın kaynağı kt sd ko f p anlamlı fark gruplararası 1.55 2 .78 .264 .768 gruplariçi 1587.49 539 2.95 toplam 1589.04 541 farklı okul türlerinden gelen 552 kişilik bir öğrenci grubunun iyi vatandaşın muhafazakarlık temelli özellikleri ile ilgili algıları arasında fark olup olmadığını sınamak için eğitim aldıkları okul türlerine göre oluşturulan grupların bilgi temelli özelliklere ilişkin algılarının ortalamaları tek yönlü varyans analizi (anova) ile karşılaştırılmış ve test sonunda okul türlerine göre öğrenci görüşlerinde anlamlı bir farklılık olmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır (f(2-539) = .264 , p .05). bu sonuca göre lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın muhafazakarlık temelli özellikleri hakkındaki görüşlerinin şekillenmesinde eğitim aldıkları okul türlerinin tek balına belirgin bir unsur olmadığı, başka bir ifadeyle okul türünün lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşın muhafazakarlık temelli özellikleri ile ilgili görüşlerini etkilemediği ifade edilebilir. üçüncü probleme i̇lişkin bulgular ve yorumlar: bu çalışmanın üçüncü probleminde lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışlarını şekillendirmede etkili olan unsurlar hakkındaki düşünceleri incelenmiştir. tablo 13. katılımcıların i̇yi vatandaşlıkla i̇lgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışları şekillendirmede etkili olan unsurlar hakkındaki düşüncelerinei̇lişkin görüşlerinin yüzde, frekans ve aritmetik ortalama değerleri χ χ emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 117 no ortamlar i̇yi vatandaşlık gelişimi üzerinde etkili unsurlar 1 2 3 4 5 f % f % f % f % f % 1 ailem (anne ve baba) 4.42 31 5.6 17 3.1 20 3.6 15 1 27.4 33 2 60.1 2 arkadaşlarım 3.85 31 5.6 40 7.2 58 10.5 27 1 49.1 15 1 27.4 3 kardeşlerim 3.92 36 6.5 35 6.3 75 13.6 19 1 34.6 21 1 38.2 4 akrabalarım 3.46 52 9.4 68 12. 3 10 7 19.4 21 7 39.3 10 2 18.5 5 öğretmenlerim 3.78 43 7.8 47 8.5 91 16.5 21 4 38.8 15 2 27.5 6 dini liderler 2.98 10 4 18. 8 84 15. 2 15 8 28.6 12 2 22.1 79 14.3 7 televizyon 3.25 67 12. 1 86 15. 6 12 3 22.3 19 1 34.6 83 15 8 i̇nternet 3.49 55 10 68 12. 3 10 1 18.3 20 3 36.8 12 2 22.1 9 okul idarecileri 2.82 12 0 21. 7 10 3 18. 7 14 4 26.1 12 0 21.7 61 11.1 10 ders dışı faaliyetler 3.58 56 10. 1 53 9.6 10 3 18.7 19 4 35.1 14 4 26.1 tablo 13 incelendiğinde lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışları şekillendirmede etkili olan unsurlardan ailelerini ( = 4.43), kardeşlerini ( = 3.92), arkadaşlarını ( = 3.85) ve öğretmenlerini en önemli unsurlar olarak gördükleri sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. buna karşın okul idarecilerini ( = 2.82), dini liderleri ( = 2.98), televizyonu ( = 3.25) ve akrabalarını bu süreçte kendi fikirlerini çok etkilemediklerini düşündükleri ortaya çıkmıştır. bu bulgulara göre öğrencilerin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili algıları büyük ölçüde yakın çevresi tarafından şekillenirken, ne yazık ki χ χ χ χ χ χ χ journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 118 okul paydaşlarının en önemli unsurlarından bir tanesi olan okul yönetimi ise öğrenciler tarafından en zayıf unsur olarak tanımlanmıştır. ayrıca lise öğrencileri iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışları şekillendirmede interneti ( = 3.49) televizyona ( = 3.25) nispetle daha etkili bulduklarını ifade etmişlerdir. bu durumda öğrencileri iyi birer vatandaş olarak yetiştirmede internetin aktif olarak kullanımın önemini de göstermektedir. sonuç ve tartışma araştırma kapsamında elde edilen veriler doğrultusunda aşağıda açıklanan sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır. araştırmaya katılan lise öğrencilerinin büyük çoğunluğunun iyi vatandaşlık algılarının temelde sosyal kaygı içerikli özellikler boyutuna odaklandığı görülmektedir. bu bağlamda lise öğrenciler daha çok iyi vatandaşın vatanını sevmesi gerektiği, davranışlarında ahlak kurallarına dikkat etmesi ve toplumsal değerlere karşı saygılı olması gerektiğini iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özellikleri olduğunu vurgulamışlardır. buna karşın, bilgi temelli özelliklerin sosyal kaygı temelli özelliklere nispetle lise öğrencileri tarafından iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özellikleri sıralanırken ikinci planda kaldıkları gözlenmiştir. öğrencilerin eleştirel bakış açısına sahip olmaları ve demokratik katılımı sergileme adına kendilerini ilgilendiren konularla ilgili karar ve uygulamaları sorgulamalarının öğrencilere kazandırılmak istenmesine karşın ankette yer alan kendini ilgilendiren politik uygulama ve kararları sorgulaması maddesinin en az seçilen maddelerden bir tanesi olması düşündürücüdür. buna ek olarak küreselleşen bir dünyada, gelişmelere paralel olarak küresel çapta yaşıtlarıyla rekabet edebilecek bilgi, değer ve becerilerle donatılmış bir gençlik yetiştirme bir çok ülkede eğitim politikaları içerisinde yer alırken, araştırma sonuçlarının gösterdiği veriler sonucunda lise öğrencilerinin vatandaşlık algısını hala ulusal boyutta algıladıkları ve dünya toplumları hakkında bilgi sahibi olmayı iyi vatandaşlıkla çok ilişkilendirmedikleri ortaya çıkmıştır. elde edilen bulgular, bayan öğrencilerin erkek öğrencilere nispeten sosyal kaygı içerikli konularda daha hassas olduklarını ve iyi vatandaşı tanımlarken sosyal kaygı içerikli maddeleri erkek öğrencilere nispeten daha çok vurguladıklarını ortaya koymaktadır. bilgi temelli ve muhafazakarlık temelli özelliklerde cinsiyetin belirleyici bir özellik olmadığı da araştırma sonucunda elde edilen bulgulardan bir tanesidir. bulgular ayrıca okul türlerine göre lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili algılarında farklılıklar olduğunu da göstermektedir. nitekim fen lisesi öğrencilerinin sosyal kaygı ve bilgi temelli özelliklerin iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özellikleri arasında χ χ emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 119 bulunduğunu endüstri meslek lisesi öğrencilerine göre daha önemli buldukları araştırma sonucunda ortaya çıkmıştır. muhafazakarlık temelli özelliklerin iyi vatandaşın vazgeçilmez özelliklerinden olduğu konusunda ise her üç okul türünde öğrenim gören öğrenciler hemfikirdirler. son olarak lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışları şekillendirmede etkili olan unsurlar arasında en çok aile (anne-baba) ve kardeşlerini gördüklerini; bu iki unsurdan sonra ise öğretmenlerin lise öğrencilerinin iyi vatandaşlıkla ilgili algılarını etkiledikleri de araştırma sonucunda ulaşılan diğer bir sonuçtur. ayrıca okul paydaşlarının en temel halkalarından birisi olan okul idaresinin öğrencilerin vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışlarının şekillendirme sürecinde en az etkili unsur olarak belirtilmesi düşündürücüdür. bu süreç içerisinde ayrıca televizyonun en az etkili unsurlardan bir tanesi olarak ifade edilmesi de yine önemli bir sonuçtur. öğrencilerin televizyon yerine interneti daha etkili bulması vatandaşlık eğitimi alanında internet ve sosyal medyanın daha etkin bir şekilde kullanılması gerektiğini göstermektedir. yukarıda ifade edilen sonuçlar ışığında yapılabilecek öneriler ise şu şekilde ifade edilebilir. öğrencilerin vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışlarının şekillendirme sürecinde onlara daha çok yardımcı olabilmek adına öğrenci velileri ortaöğretim kurumlarında seçmeli ders olarak okutulacak i̇nsan hakları ve demokrasi dersi hakkında yeteri kadar bilgilendirilmelidirler. ayrıca öğrenciler tarafından vatandaşlıkla ilgili yukarıda bahsedilen süreçte en az etkili unsur olarak görülen okul idarecileri de bu konu hakkında hizmet içi eğitim seminerleri vasıtasıyla bilgilendirilmeli ve öğrencilerle yapılacak etkinliklerde aktif bir şekilde rol almalıdırlar. öğrencilerin vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinme, değer kazanma ve davranışlarını şekillendirme sürecinde zamanın şartları göz önünde tutularak internet ve sosyal medya aktif şekilde kullanılmalıdır. liselerde sadece seçmeli bir ders olan i̇nsan hakları ve demokrasi dersi ile yetinilmeyip, okullarda demokratik okul kültürü oluşturulmalı ve bu kültürün yerleşmesi için okulun tüm paydaşlarının aktif bir şekilde rol alacağı etkinlikler planlanmalıdır. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 120 kaynaklar/references acun, i̇., demir, m., & göz, n. l. (2010). öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki ilişki. journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 107-123. barr, r. d., barth, j. l., & shermis, s. s. (1977). defining the social studies. arlington, va: national council for the social studies. cohen, j. (1992). a power primer. psychological bulletin, 112, 155-159. davies, i., gregory, i. ve riley, s. c. (1999). good citizenship and educational provision. london: falmer press. dinç, e. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının avrupa ve avrupa vatandaşlığı hakkındaki görüşleri. a. şişman ve diğerleri (eds.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 201-207). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. doğanay, a. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık algısı ve eylemlerinin siyasal toplumsallaşma bağlamında değerlendirilmesi. a. şişman ve diğerleri (eds.), i uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 28-44). uşak: uşak üniversitesi doğanay, a. ve sarı, m. (2009). lise öğrencilerinin vatandaşlık algılarına etki eden faktörlerin analizi. a. şişman ve diğerleri (eds.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 45-62). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. duman, t., karakaya, y., &yavuz, n. (2001).vatandaşlık bilgisi. ankara: gündüz eğitim ve yayıncılık. ersoy, a. f. (2007). sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık eğitimi uygulamalarına ilişkin görüşleri. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, anadolu üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, eskişehir. galston, w. (2001). political knowledge, political engagement, and civic education. annual review of political science, 4, 217-234. gay, l. r., mills, g. e. and airasian, p. (2006). educational research: competencies for analysis and application (8th. ed.). upper saddle river, nj: prentice hall. goodman, j. & adler, s. (1985). becoming an elementary social studies teacher: a study of perspectives. theory and research in social education,13(2), 1-20. i̇brahimoğlu, z. (2009). sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının etkin vatandaş tanımları ve etkin vatandaş yetiştirmede sosyal bilgiler dersine yükledikleri rol. a. şişman ve emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 121 diğerleri (eds.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlıkeğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 436-442). uşak: uşaküniversitesi. karasar, n. (2008). bilimsel araştırma yöntemi. ankara: nobel yay. kavak, y. (2011). türkiye'de yükseköğretimin görünümü ve geleceğe bakış. yükseköğretim ve bilim dergisi, 1(2), 55-58. lawson, h., & scott, d. (2002). introduction. in h. lawson & d. scott (eds.), citizenship education and the curriculum (pp. 1-6). westport: ablex. martin, l. a., & chiodo, j. j. (2007). good citizenship: what students in rural schools have to say about it. theory and research in social education, 35(1), 112-134. milli eğitim bakanlığı (meb). (2013). millî eğitim temel kanunu. http://mevzuat.meb.gov.tr/html/88.html o’brien, j. l., & smith, j. m. (2011). elementary education students’ perceptions of good citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 2(1), 21-36. rapoport, a. (2009). a forgotten concept: global citizenship education and state social studies standards. journal of social studies research 33(1), 75-93. safran, m. (2008). sosyal bilgiler öğretimine bakış. b. tay ve a. öcal (eds.), özel öğretimyöntemleriyle sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. ankara: pegemyayınları. sağlam, h. i̇. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik düzeyleri. kastamonu üniversitesi kastamonu eğitim dergisi, 19 (1), 39-50. sunal, c. s., & haas, m. e. (2005). social studies for the elementary and middle grades: a constructivist approach. boston: pearson. yılmaz, k. (2009). i̇lköğretim 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin temel vatandaşlık kavramlarına ilişkin algıları. a. şişman ve diğerleri (eds.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 291-297). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. http://mevzuat.meb.gov.tr/html/88.html� journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 122 li̇se öğrenci̇leri̇ni̇n “i̇yi̇ vatandaş” hakkindaki̇ görüşleri̇ni̇n değerlendi̇ri̇lmesi̇ anketi̇ kıymetli öğrenciler, bu çalışmanın amacı, lise öğrencilerinin “iyi vatandaş” hakkındaki düşüncelerini belirlemektir. ankette bulunan sorulara vereceğiniz cevaplar tarafımızca saklı tutulacak ve yalnızca bilimsel amaçlar için kullanılacaktır. bu anket iki bölümden oluşmaktadır. birinci bölüm kişisel bilgilerin elde edilmesi amacıyla hazırlanan sorulardan; ikinci bölüm ise “iyi vatandaş” hakkındaki görüş ve düşüncelerinizi belirleme amacıyla hazırlanan sorulardan oluşmaktadır. anket sonuçlarının sağlıklı olabilmesi için soruları samimi ve doğru olarak yanıtlamanız gerekmektedir. lütfen anketlerin üzerine isim belirtmeyiniz. i̇lgi ve yardımlarınız için şimdiden teşekkür ederiz. bi̇ri̇nci̇ bölüm bu bölümde kişisel özelliklerinize ilişkin sorular bulunmaktadır. lütfen ilgili maddenin karşısındaki seçeneklerden birinetik (√)koyarak cevaplandırınız. cinsiyet bayan( ) erkek( ) mezuniyet durumu 1.sınıf ( ) 2. sınıf ( ) 3. sınıf ( ) 4. sınıf ( ) yaş grubu 13 ( ) 14 ( ) 15 ( ) 16 ( ) 17 ( ) 18+ ( ) anneeğitim durumu i̇lkokul ( ) ortaokul ( ) lise ( ) önlisans ( ) lisans ( ) lisansüstü ( ) babaeğitim durumu i̇lkokul ( ) ortaokul ( ) lise ( ) önlisans ( ) lisans ( ) lisansüstü ( ) emin kilinç & i̇lker dere 123 i̇ki̇nci̇bölüm bu bölümde “iyi vatandaş” kavramına ilişkin görüşlerinizi öğrenmek amacıyla çeşitli sorular verilmiştir. lütfen bu soruları kendi düşünceleriniz doğrultusunda; 1-kesinliklekatılmıyorum, 2-katılmıyorum, 3-fikrimyok, 4-katılıyorum, 5kesinliklekatılıyorum, seçeneklerinden birini tik (√) koyarak cevaplandırınız. a. aşağıdaki nitelikler “iyi bir vatandaş”ın vazgeçilmez özellikleridir soru no sorular k es in lik le k at ılm ıy or u k at ılm ıy or um f ik ri m y ok k at ılı yo ru m k es in lik le k at ılı yo ru m 1 i̇yi bir vatandaş güncel olaylar hakkında bilgi sahibidir. 2 toplumsal konularda sorumluluk alır. i toplumsal değerlere saygı gösterir. 4 başkalarının iyiliğini düşünür. 5 davranışlarında ahlak kurallarına dikkat eder. 6 i̇darecilerine itaat eder. 7 kendisini ilgilendiren uygulama ve politikaları sorgular. 8 devletin yönetimi ve işleyişi ile ilgili bilgi sahibidir. 9 vatanseverdir. 10 ailesine karşı sorumluluklarını yerine getirir. 11 dünya toplumları hakkında bilgi sahibidir. 12 toplumdaki farklılıklara saygı gösterir. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 103-124 124 13 temel insan haklarına saygılıdır. 14 politik konular hakkında başkaları ile tartışır. 15 güvenilirdir. b. aşağıdakiler vatandaşlıkla ilgili bilgi edinmeme, değer kazanmama ve soru no sorular k es in lik le k at ılm ıy or um f ik ri m y ok k at ılı yo ru m k es in lik le 16 ailem (anne ve baba) 17 arkadaşlarım 18 kardeşlerim 19 akrabalarım 20 öğretmenlerim 21 dini liderler 22 televizyon 23 i̇nternet 24 okul idarecileri 25 ders dışı faaliyetler extended abstract www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2), 145-160 traditional and alternative approaches to the method of situational analysis in russia: evidence from the case study “istanbul in the life and works of martiros saryan” olga fedotova1, pavel ermakov2, vladimir latun3, haykaz hovhannisyan4, grant avanesyan5 abstract the article analyzes the transformation of the methodological toolkit for teaching humanities and sciences in the russian federation. the method of case study, being widely spread in modern higher education research, is used as an example to illustrate the attempts to implement the best practices of foreign educational technology into tertiary academic process in russia. the authors provide some historical aspects of introducing case studies in modern teaching practice. the article features peculiarities of the soviet approach to the structure of cases. content analysis helps to identify similarities and differences in soviet/post-soviet approaches to case study construction and brings into focus the problem points which reveal misinterpretation and/or misuse of didactic materials designated as cases. the approach suggested in the article implies presenting the content of a case study as a collection of documents related to a certain topic. the case study "istanbul in the life and work of the artist martiros saryan" demonstrates that a case can have invariable and variable parts to reflect the specificity of the didactic task within the discipline. such approach is expected to support students’ cognitive activity, develop creativity in searching additional sources and missing materials, improve efficiency of students’ autonomous work on solving complex problem solution. keywords:. case study, transformation, alternative approach, teaching problem books, didactic task, martiros saryan, istanbul. introduction recent social and economic changes in russia entail a reassessment of many aspects in terms of worldview and theoretical-cognitive consideration of such issues as shaping person’s identity and preparing for life in a multidimensional knowledge-based globalizing society (draskovic et al., 2017). training of competent specialists involves expanding their expertise in a range of situations: solving non-standard professional problems; finding the best ways of 1 prof., doctor of pedagogy, head of the department, southern federal university, fod1953@yandex.ru 2 academician, prof., doctor of biology, head of the department, southern federal university, paver@sfedu.ru 3assoc. prof., candidate of geography, head of the department, southern federal university, vlatun@yandex.ru 4 prof., doctor of history, yerevan state university, haykazh@mail.ru 5 prof., doctor of psychology, head of the department, yerevan state university, avanesyang@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 145-160 146 resolving work-related conflicts; studying, understanding, and explaining the phenomena of the surrounding reality, building awareness of their nature, causes and interplay. an important role is played by the specialist’s willingness and ability to address professional challenges pro-actively, taking into account specific circumstances deduced from the factual information. in this regard modern education is polyparadigmatical. class and lesson based teaching methods which are typical of the traditional system (lectures, seminars, workshops etc.) have been the leading forms of education in the russian higher school since the 17th century. at the same time, there have been attempts to modernize the system of higher education teaching methods, to adopt the best foreign practices and technologies. case-study technology is one of the most effective methods, though not widely used in russian professional education system yet. meanwhile, it gives an opportunity for purposeful cultivation of such professionally relevant characteristics, as pro-active ability to pinpoint the areas of concern in professional practice, to perform risk analysis procedure and diagnose the problem situation, to articulate one’s professional stance and to communicate it to the audience. nevertheless, the system of higher professional education retains certain inertia and conservatism in using qualification-based approach in choosing the system of teaching methods. it tends to follow the algorithm of knowledge reproduction. thus, there is an instant need of cultivating specific competencies required for successful professional activity of a specialist, regardless of their field of knowledge. these competencies involve diagnosis, forecasting, strategic planning, analytical components in professional activities. the purpose of the article is to feature the scope of approaches to the method of case study in soviet and post-soviet period, to outline the ways of using its latent didactic potential in the system of teaching disciplines of the humanities. literature review historical background of the research in the modern educational theory case-study is understood as the method of analyzing particular situations. according to hancock d.r. (2006), the term hadn’t been used in educational context until 1870, when the law school at harvard university first applied a new approach to consider complicated cases of legal practice (mauch & tarman, 2016). the systematic use of case-study method at the university started in the 1930-s. sets of business cases are found in the reports of harvard university dated 1925. the method gradually won great popularity in the systems of higher education of other countries. in 1973, 22 higher education fedotova et al. institutions initiated the establishment of non-profit organization «the case clearing house of great britain and ireland» to create conducive environment facilitating exchange of case materials between university professors. in 1974 the organization was officially recognized as a charitable organization. after being renamed european case clearing house (ecch) in 1991, it took the lead in producing, collecting and distributing cases within the european education space and beyond. in 1992, the organization opened its office in babson college (usa), which has gained worldwide fame as an educational institution that implements innovative entrepreneurship programs to promote leadership in changing global environment and to make leaders able to anticipate, initiate and manage changes. currently ecch is an international organization with two headquarters: based at babson college (massachusetts, usa), and cranfield university (cranfield, united kingdom). the office in babson college is geared toward working with north american colleagues, while cranfield university caters for european, african, asian, australian and south american members of the organization and commercial clients. ecch unites more than 500 institutions and corporate members around the world and has a collection of over 38,500 cases on business and management issues, among which 1,400 cases are written in languages other than english. in german-speaking countries the term "fallstudie" is used where “fall” is the case, and “studie” is the study. the case study technology hasn’t been known in russia until recently. so far, no specific efforts have been made to introduce its elements into the learning policy of higher education establishments. however, the analysis of primary sources suggests that the methodological system of the national higher school is being updated in terms of components of case-based learning. as part of the thesis research project, shumova i.v. (2010) studied the use of casestudy methods in teaching internship for undergraduate philology students. the use of virtual case-study technologies for promoting learning autonomy of students of the ministry of emergency situations was the subject of d.a. eliseev’s research (2010). e.n. krasikova (2009) studied the use of case technologies for developing method competence in linguistics teachers. issues of instrumental support of online teaching technology for computer science were considered in the dissertation research by v.v. bovt (2005). issues related to the use of case study in strategic management training were dealt with by e.v. egorova (2008). over the last years the issue was given increased attention in a number of phd thesis (gadikurbanova, 2015, zubova, 2015, naumova, 2014, tulepbergenova, 2015), research papers (nadarajah et al., 2010, journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 145-160 148 tunstall & lynch, 2010, baumgartner & shankararaman, 2015, aktan, 2016, hedden, 2017) and textbooks (situational analysis or the anatomy of case study method, 2002. the understanding of the case study method can vary. to sum up, the main points of the issue interpretation approaches should be determined. this is the method of specific situation analysis which is related to the non-game methods of active situation and problem-based learning; intensive training of learners which allows for appropriate solution of the problem (mainly the harvard school); prepared situational training, broadening the students’ professional perspectives; setting the problem in a specific way so that the solution of the problem should be based on the analysis of the documentary sources that involves using a wide range of professional knowledge, as well as certain principles of professional and critical thinking (manchester school); method of detailed analysis of events, personal or group behavior as a model of a specific medical, psychiatric, mental or social phenomenon (smolyaninova, 2000); not only a faithful description of non-standard events, but a whole complex of information necessary to give an assessment to a specific situation and suggest the ways out (eliseev, 2010). case study method in the history of russian education. it should be noted that the history of russian education the term “casus method” was used alongside with “case study”. having studied the publications of harvard business review (harvard university authority), soviet ideologists saw education potential of the case study method and recommended it as a teaching technique in party schools. in the 1930-s and 1940-s soviet party schools were actively searching for new techniques to train skilled economists within a short period of time (kasitsky, 1948, the main production issues in the program of the initial party school of the mine, 1931). analyzing specific situations made it possible to train the party executives who could deal effectively with economic and ideological problems in the country’s challenging socioeconomic environment. developing contacts across international borders and the evidence for the case-study teaching method fueled the interest of russian teachers and encouraged them to develop teaching guidelines for the method. the methodology was used in the soviet teacher training system, with the emphasis on the theory of the learning policy within the education science discipline, whereas the demand for practical problem solving training was still being felt. there were socalled “teaching problem books” published in the 1960-s and later. they were describing very briefly (savelyeva, 2013), or quite at length and in many details (kulyutkin & sukhobskaya, https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=24472926500&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=6603353408&zone= fedotova et al. 1981, smoylaninova, 2000, fedotova, 2007), some cases (“problems”). the learners were supposed to find a way out (“problem solution”). the list of keys for self-check could be found at the end of the book, where the authors provided the learners with the single correct answer to each problem, appropriate in terms of marxist-leninist education theory. in the post-soviet period the teaching potential of the case-study method also attracted attention of the scholars (spirin et al., 1991). however, it should be noted that the representatives of the post-soviet scholarly traditions shared one view on the case-study method as a distinctive analytical technology adding to the learners’ experience or real life problem solving, where the problem is presented in a set of documents and materials. growing popularity of the case-method and the spread of the "case" concept clouded the issue of selecting proper didactic materials as the concept is mentioned in the titles. the examples are as follows: 1. the book "finance. the didactic complex (case) for students on specialty 080105 "finance and credit" (kostryukova, 2006) does not contain the case, as it is claimed in the title. instead, it gives fragments of the state educational standard, the symmabi of the discipline, the course schedule, lesson plans, etc. (kostryukova, 2006). it does not provide a single example of a problem-based situation to be resolved by students. the same approach is seen in other books published by the chelyabinsk branch of the russian state university of trade and economics (volostnikova, 2005a, 2005b). 2. the author of "econometrics. basic concepts and formulas: a short course of case studies for correspondence students of specialties 060400 "finance and credit" (vlasov, 2004) provides the readers instead of the promised text of the case study lecture, with formulas for pair regression and correlation, time series in econometric studies, etc., that is, materials that are not connected in any way with the process of finding solution to a real-life precedent. this poses an obvious question of whether the teaching approaches to case-study in education have transformed over time. some clarification can be given by the empirical study. methodological framework the study was conducted in two stages in accordance with the tasks and hypotheses put forward. hypothesis of the study. the transformation of the method of situational analysis can be traced through the changes of its structure and structural principles of the cases. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 145-160 150 the source of the study is a collection of cases, titled according to the thematic content (a total of 24 cases). the choice of this source is explained by the fact that the author claims the approach to be new, and suggests a methodology for case design and use (savelyeva, 2013). the study methods are content analysis and comparative analysis (fedotova & chigisheva, 2015), interpretation of the results. the meaningful category of the analysis is a teaching case, with the sentences of the case explanation being takes as units of account. after the units from various structural components of the text were counted, the figures were grouped into excel code tables. they served as the database for the graphs to visualize the analysis results. results and discussion the case study can be of different structure. as it was noted above, in soviet times the teaching problem consisted of two structural components: description of the situation and the question for the learner to answer. new components were added to educational and research cases in post-soviet period, such as: "visiting card", "situation explanation", "case problem", "task" (fedotova, 2007). analysis of the case studies showed that they contain two structural components: the text describing the situation and the task. their correlation is seen on fig. 1. figure 1. the number of sentences in the text of the case description and the task explanation. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 the number of sentences in the narrative part of the case the number of sentences in the question part of the case fedotova et al. as is seen from the bar diagram, the total volume of the tasks (254 sentences) exceeds the total volume of the information part of the case describing the problem situation (175 sentences). the amount of the text presenting the task of the case is quite significant. it should be noted that the task explaining part of the text contains both declarative and interrogative sentences. we consider the ratio of declarative sentences with focus on informing and/or clarifying and the part of the text with the task explanation. the data are shown on fig. 2. figure 2. the correlation between declarative and interrogative sentences in the part of the text explaining the case task. as it is evident from fig. 2, the case studies contain a lot of clarifying information expressing value judgements of the text author. actual questions are given only in two positions. the task explanatory part contains the statements that impose certain reasoning on the learners. for example, the task of the case study "wealth" includes such a statement: "wealth and poverty should not be set in opposition, when the former is denounced and the latter is romanticized. it's also ridiculous to argue what’s worth more to a person money and vast prospects it opens up, or spiritual integrity. obviously, both!" (savelyeva, 2013, p. 47). the content and the style of the text invite the reader to take a 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 affirmative sentences, comments questions journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 145-160 152 certain stance. its content and style are oriented towards the adoption of a certain position. the results of the content analysis suggest that the concept underlying construction of the teaching texts of the post-soviet period, as compared to the teaching objectives of the soviet period, is: 1) relatively similar in the part of the text giving the situation description; 2) is different in the part of the task explanation, which is related to introducing value judgements and providing the learners with additional information that can influence their decision. thus, it can be argued that in this part of the case there are significant differences in comparison with the composition and content of the task explanatory part of the teaching problems of the soviet period. the tasks never contained explanations or judgments of the author. therefore, adding to the text of the case study some declarative sentences which a priori contained value statements leading to certain judgments is an important novelty characterizing post-soviet task explanation. from our point of view, the proposed structural components of the case, are traditional; they do not inspire learners for cognitive and research activity. case-study method is supposed to help students acquire unique authentic experience of solving complex professional problems, and alleviate the fears of handling unfamiliar tasks. the algorithm set in the soviet case problems and preserved in the post-soviet period does not develop an ability to assess the problem and work out the solution independently. the teaching objective of the case study is to provide a set of factual material for the analysis that can potentially lead students to their own position. the structure of the case study proposed in the article can be presented in several variants, where other approaches are equally welcome: variant 1. 1) context of the case studied (occasion and / or precedent); 2) participants’ profiles; 3) documented history of the event; 5) task for analytical summary; 6) outlooks of the problem solving – perspectives from the putsider and from the insider; variant 2. 1) introduction (problem setting); 2) problem (as seen by different participants of the event); 3) materials necessary for solving the problem; 3) case solution scenarios; fedotova et al. variant 3. 1) the plot part (description of the situation, problem state etc.); 3) the information part (documents with factual information); 4) the method part (the task, that help students articulate their position and attitude to the situation) (fedotova, 2007, p. 48-81). what is in common for all three variants is the structural component directed at the presentation of factual documentation in its content (the third structural component of the variants listed). the case study following such plan can be titled with metaphors of the concept, like “clinical record” or “judicial case”. as the case study method can be used in various training programs, we believe that the information part can be universally applicable in teaching different humanity subjects. let us briefly present the content of «istanbul in the life and work of the artist m. saryan». the theme was chosen as it is multidisciplinary and can be used teaching history, culture studies, art history, psychology, geography. it is rich in factual information, while the context of the case study and the case problem can be diverse. martiros saryan is a world-class artist whose work is a treasure of the russian pre-revolution and soviet culture, as well as armenian culture of the soviet period. the documental part of the case is represented by the following constituent parts: 1. extracts from saryan’s autobiographical story «out of my life» (saryan, 1990) related to:  the plans of his grandfather and the grandfather’s brother to move to constantinople (unlike those moving to russian city of nor-nakhichevan) and their failed attempt to reach this city by sea (chapter “nature-filled childhood”);  saryan’s trip to constantinople in 1910 (chapter “constantinople”);  the paintings created by the artist in istanbul, and later purchased by moscow arts patron in 1911 (chapter “back to moscow”);  the artist’s impression of the sea voyage across bosporus and the sea of marmara during his travel to egypt (chapter “travelling to egypt”);  the paintings created in paris and sent to armenia through istanbul in 1926 (chapter “paris”). 2. reproductions of the paintings inspired by saryan’s travel to turkey:  the dogs of constantinople. 1910. (see fig. 3).  constantinople. 1910. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 145-160 154  constantinople street at midday. 1910.  constantinople. dogs. 1910.  street. constantinople. 1910.  wistaria. 1910.  still-life. green jar and flower bouquet. 1910.  fruit shop. 1910.  still-life. 1910.  trees in blossom. 1910.  mules loaded with hay. 1910.  oriental merchants. 1910.  oriental women. 1910.  evening street. 1910.  lemonade monger. 1910.  flowers from chamlych. 1910. (see fig. 4). figure 3. the dogs of constantinople. 1910. note: the following figure is taken from saryan (1990, p. 86). fedotova et al. figure 4. flowers from chamlych. 1910. note. the following figure is taken from saryan (1990, p. 87). 3. archive materials (the state archives of the rostov region), photocopies of the following documents:  martiros saryan’s autobiography (1920), see fig. 5; figure. 5 archival page from the autobiography of martiros saryan. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 145-160 156 note. the following figure is taken from the state archive of the rostov region. (1920).  the minutes of the culture commission meetings (1920 – 1921) on establishing the regional armenian museum in rostov-on-don. 4. links to the electronic resources: – https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/сарьян,_мартирос_сергеевич – http://sarian.am/index_eng.html – https://www.britannica.com/biography/martiros-saryan the problem of the case can be formulated in various ways depending on the discipline taught, e.g.: history – the topic is “the ottoman empire (1299 – 1922)”. the problem – names of two locations (constantinople and istanbul) used in the work of saryan. the task – create a page from the historical-biographical atlas with the information of saryan’s stay in turkey as it is shown in his paintings and autobiography. psychology. the topic is “the issue of national identity of an individual”/ the problem – why turkey-specific reality of oriental culture is dominating in saryan’s pre-soviet works over russian culture, having in mind russia was the country where the artist spent over 30 years of his life (1880-1921). the task – to analyze factual materials and to conduct content-analysis to prove what culture (european or asian) saryan was identifying himself with and how it is felt in his works. geography – the topic is “global capital cities”. the problem – what are the key geolocational and socio-economic factors for relocating the capital of the country farther inland? the tasks: – 1) give comparative analysis of the circumstances of the capital transfer from petrograd to moscow (1918) and from istanbul to ankara (1923); 2) having analyzed saryan’s itinerary in turkey as it is seen from his works, design a geographic information mini project – fill the geo information system with data on locations of objects timewise (as it 1910). the ways of formulating case study structural components are outlined briefly in the article. they can be easily adjusted for other disciplines. such approach has certain advantages: students learn to handle authentic documents which can help to feel the flair of the time period and show the peculiarities of its representation in various artistic forms. learns can form their own opinions without being misled by the ready-made judgements. they are independent in https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/сарьян,_мартирос_сергеевич http://sarian.am/index_eng.html https://www.britannica.com/biography/martiros-saryan fedotova et al. developing awareness of the problem in general and working out theoretical and practical aspects of possible solution of the problem. conclusion the system of higher education is undergoing a challenging and multi-stage transfer from a “knowledge acquisition” paradigm focused on providing learners with ready-made knowledge, to the competence-based paradigm. the latter is targeted at professional functions and social performance in real-life conditions when problem-solving inevitably involves dealing with doubt and uncertainty. as the study showed, the problem of teaching methods improvement is still relevant nowadays. edifying and instructive teaching is giving way to the new methods, able to encourage cognitive activity of learners simulating actual working conditions of their professional activity. these include the method of solving the problems connected with particular situations, characteristics of which are historically specific. situation-based teaching problems of the soviet period were constructed around the ideas of foreign case studies. there were two components in their structure description of the situation and the task. the trend continued into the post-soviet period. according to the materials studied, there is a tendency to include many stance-imposing questions and statements. a different approach is proposed in the article. it can be titled “a court case” and contains a set of authentic documents presenting various aspects of the problem. the informative part is cross-functional and can be adjusted to different subject, while the task-explaining and final parts can reflect the specificity of the situation the proposed structure of the case study has the advantage of offering not quite sufficient amount of information for those wishing to make a balanced judgement, in such a way encouraging learners to search for additional information relevant to the case. thus, the learners develop their skills of fact analysis, comparison and classification. they learn to draw conclusions from the facts and master their creative approach in tackling professional issues. acknowledgements the article was written within the framework of joint scientific project implemented by the scientists of southern federal university (russian federation) and yerevan state university (republic of armenia) vn-gr-07/2017-33 “personality through the prism of history: features of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 145-160 158 martiros saryan's spiritual formation and creativity in the context of russian and armenian culture”. references aktan, s. (2016). how can i describe the social studies curriculum? a case study. journal of social studies education, 7(1), 41-72. autobiography of martiros saryan. (1920). fund 2577. inventory 1. unit of storage 9. page 1. baumgartner, i. & shankararaman, v. (2015). case studies in computing education: presentation, evaluation and assessment of four case study-based course design and delivery models. in: proceedings frontiers in education conference, fie-2015february, paper 7044194. bovt, v.v. (2005). modeling and instrumental support of online teaching technology for practical skills using case study method. phd thesis abstract. moscow. draskovic, m., milica, d., mladen, i., & chigisheva, o. (2017). preference of institutional changes in social and economic development. journal of international studies, 10(2), 318328. egorova, e.v. (2008). case study method in teaching strategic management in higher school. phd thesis abstract. st. petersburg. eliseev, d.a. (2010). effectiveness increase of the independent work in the mchs russian universities on the basis of virtual case technologies. phd thesis abstract. st. petersburg. fedotova, o.d. (2007). innovative higher school and innovative school: sharp edges of interaction. in: modern university school: precedents and interaction phenomena. tomsk: publishing house of tomsk university, 48-81. fedotova, o. & chigisheva, o. (2015). comparative analysis: methodological optics in the ideological context. international perspectives on education and society, 26, 57-82. gadikurbanova, g.m. (2015). case-technology in the formation of research competences of the future teacher invocational training. phd thesis abstract. makhachkala. hancock, d.r. (2006). doing case study research. new-york: teachers college press. hedden, m.k., worthy, r., akins, e., slinger-friedman, v. & paul, r.c. (2017). teaching sustainability using an active learning constructivist approach: disciplinespecific case studies in higher education. sustainability (switzerland), 9(8),1320. https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=24472926500&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=6603353408&zone= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84938150355&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=case+study+in+education&st2=&sid=8e46cf536ba1c718c1626d4827d7b6f8&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28case+study+in+education%29&relpos=0&citecnt=0&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84938150355&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=case+study+in+education&st2=&sid=8e46cf536ba1c718c1626d4827d7b6f8&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28case+study+in+education%29&relpos=0&citecnt=0&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84938150355&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=case+study+in+education&st2=&sid=8e46cf536ba1c718c1626d4827d7b6f8&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28case+study+in+education%29&relpos=0&citecnt=0&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/16719?origin=recordpage http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-84929256715&origin=resultslist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=chigisheva&st2=&sid=7d3a4ccc05724c9a976bc22ca175b639.y7eslnddisn8ce7qwvy6w%3a10&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=23&s=author-name%28chigisheva%29&relpos=0&relpos=0&citecnt=0&searchterm=author-name%28chigisheva%29 http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-84929256715&origin=resultslist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=chigisheva&st2=&sid=7d3a4ccc05724c9a976bc22ca175b639.y7eslnddisn8ce7qwvy6w%3a10&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=23&s=author-name%28chigisheva%29&relpos=0&relpos=0&citecnt=0&searchterm=author-name%28chigisheva%29 http://www.scopus.com/source/sourceinfo.url?sourceid=4100151515&origin=resultslist https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=57195266012&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=55657326800&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=57195263588&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=55180671400&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=57195262768&zone= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85026661462&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=case+study+in+education&st2=&sid=8e46cf536ba1c718c1626d4827d7b6f8&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28case+study+in+education%29&relpos=10&citecnt=0&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85026661462&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=case+study+in+education&st2=&sid=8e46cf536ba1c718c1626d4827d7b6f8&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28case+study+in+education%29&relpos=10&citecnt=0&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85026661462&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=case+study+in+education&st2=&sid=8e46cf536ba1c718c1626d4827d7b6f8&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28case+study+in+education%29&relpos=10&citecnt=0&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/21100240100?origin=resultslist fedotova et al. kasitsky, i.ya. (1948). balance of the industrial enterprise and its analysis collection of materials for tutorials. moscow. kostryukova, l.a. (2006). finance. the didactic complex (case) for students on specialty 080105 "finance and credit". study guide. chelyabinsk: rekspol. krasikova, e.n. (2009). case-method in the structure and content of the methodological competence of the linguist-teacher. phd thesis abstract. stavropol. kulyutkin, yu.n. & sukhobskaya, g.s. (1981). modeling pedagogical situations: problems of improving general pedagogical training of a teacher. moscow: pedagogy. mauch, j. & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. nadarajah, s., bawden, r., blackmore, c., tidball, k.g. & wals, a.e.j. (2010). resilience in learning systems: case studies in university education. environmental education research, 16(5-6), 559-573. naumova, e.v. (2014). ethno-oriented language education at school and university with the use of case-method. phd thesis. kazan. saryan, m.s. (1990). from my life. moscow: fine arts. savelyeva, m.g. (2013). pedagogical cases: design and use in the process of teaching and assessing the competencies of students: teaching and methodological manual. izhevsk: udmurt state university. shumova, i.v. (2010). the method of organizing and conducting pedagogical practice of the bachelor-philologist on the basis of case studies. phd thesis abstract. moscow. situational analysis or the anatomy of case study method. (2002). textbook. kiev: the highest school. smolyaninova, g. (2000). didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students. url: http://ipps.sfu-kras.ru/sites/ipps.institute.sfu-kras.ru/files/publications/53.pdf spirin, l.f., frumkin, m.l. & pavlichkova, g.l. (1991). pedagogical aims and their solutions. moscow-kostroma: mscpi-kspi named after n.a. nekrasov. the main production issues in the program of the initial party school of the mine. (1931). methodical manual: for the circles and schools of the party enlightenment network. rostov-on-don: northern caucasus. https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=42761970000&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=6601969800&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=7006443765&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=35293704700&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=6602417423&zone= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-79960165424&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=case+study+in+education&nlo=&nlr=&nls=&sid=8e46cf536ba1c718c1626d4827d7b6f8&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28case+study+in+education%29&relpos=39&citecnt=17&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-79960165424&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=case+study+in+education&nlo=&nlr=&nls=&sid=8e46cf536ba1c718c1626d4827d7b6f8&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28case+study+in+education%29&relpos=39&citecnt=17&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/20970?origin=resultslist http://ipps.sfu-kras.ru/sites/ipps.institute.sfu-kras.ru/files/publications/53.pdf journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 145-160 160 tulepbergenova, d.yu. (2015). development of intellectual activity of the student when using case-study in teaching a foreign language. phd thesis. makhachkala. tunstall, r. & lynch, m. (2010). the role of simulation case studies in enterprise education. education and training, 52(8), 624-642. vlasov, a.v. (2004). econometrics. basic concepts and formulas: a short course of case studies for correspondence students of specialties 060400 "finance and credit". balakovo, 2004. volostnikova, n.i. (2005a). fundamentals of marketing: didactic case for students specialising in 061500 “marketing”. study guide. chelyabinsk: institute (branch) sei hve rsote. volostnikova, n.i. (2005b). fundamentals of marketing: didactic case for students specialising in 351300 “commerce (trade)”. study guide. chelyabinsk: institute (branch) sei hve rsote. zubova, n.v. (2015). complex case-technology for teaching physics as a means of forming basic professional competencies of students at the technical university. phd thesis. chelyabinsk. https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=24554305900&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=18340328800&zone= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78149398074&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=case+study+in+education&nlo=&nlr=&nls=&sid=8e46cf536ba1c718c1626d4827d7b6f8&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28case+study+in+education%29&relpos=31&citecnt=8&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/144960?origin=resultslist microsoft word feryal çubukçu makale asıl.docx   www.sosyalbilgiler.org   journal  of  social  studies  education  research   sosyal  bilgiler  eğitimi  araştırmaları  dergisi     2014:  5(2),  14-­‐30   ©  2014  journal  of  social  studies  education  research,  issn:  1309-­‐9108 values education through literary texts feryal çubukçu1 abstract: the term `values’ is used in this review to refer to the principles and fundamental convictions which act as general guides to behaviour, the standards by which particular actions are judged to be good or desirable and examples of values are love, equality, freedom, justice, happiness, security, peace of mind and truth. the purpose of this study is to grapple with the values of the university students to see whether studying literatura enhances their perspectives in values after the five-week study of the plays tackled through the moral educational perspective, their post test results were compared with 50 freshmen students in the same department. the results show that there is no difference between freshment and junior teacher trainees in terms of the kolbian categorization. keywords: values education, teacher trainess, literary texts. introduction we live in a dickensian world, this is the best of times, and it is the worst of times, it is the age of wisdom, it is the age of foolishness, it is the epoch of belief, it is the epoch of incredulity, it is the season of light, it is the season of darkness, it is the spring of hope, it is the winter of despair. on the one hand, we have ever increasing technological advancements prevailing everywhere, on the other hand, the crime rate and violence is on the rise. a study undertaken by the geneva declaration on armed violence and development (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_countries_by_intentional_homicide_rate) estimated that there were approximately 490,000 intentional homicides in 2004. the study put forth that the global rate was 7.6 intentional homicides per 100,000 inhabitants for 2004. for the year 2010 unodc (united nations office on drugs and crime) made a similar study. it presumed a number of 468,000 intentional homicides for this year. that would correspond to a worldwide rate of 6.9, which indicates that we truly live in the world fraught with violence. 1 doç. dr., dokuz eylül üniversitesi, buca eğitim fakültesi, cubukcu.feryal@gmail.com feryal çubukçu   15 table 1. unodc results (2010) region rate count africa 17 169,105 americas 15.4 144,595 asia 3.1 127,120 europe 3.5 24,025 world 6.9 466,078 an estimated 520.000 people were killed in 2000 as a result of interpersonal violence worldwide – a rate of 8,8 per 100.000 population. (unodc). in 2008, also more than 500.000 died of interpersonal violence, which proves that there is no change in the rates and counts. central america has an average rate of 29 victims per 100,000 people. el salvador has 62 homicides per 100,000 people and is one of the most violent countries that are not at war. the murder rate in honduras is 82/100,000, one of the worst in the world. central america is followed by southern africa (27) and the caribbean (22); in comparison, the homicide rate in the united states was 4.5. (www.filipspagnoli.wordpress.com) britain’s violent crime record is worse than any other country in the european union. in the decade following the party’s election in 1997, the number of recorded violent attacks soared by 77 per cent to 1.158million – or more than two every minute. the figures, compiled from reports released by the european commission and united nations, also show the uk has the highest overall crime rate in the eu and the highest absolute number of burglaries in the eu, with double the number of offences than recorded in germany and france. experts say there are a number of reasons why violence is soaring in the uk. these include labour's decision to relax the licensing laws to allow round-the-clock opening, which has led to a rise in the number of serious assaults taking place in the early hours of the morning (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1196941/the-violent-countryeurope-britain-worse-south-africa-u-s.html#ixzz2hqdkc3re). statistics show that for the past ten years violence rates did not decrease at all, such as norway has increased from 0.7 to 2.3, greece 1.2 to 1.6(http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/homicide.html). journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  14-­‐30   16 on 20 june 2013 the report of who announces that physical or sexual violence is a public health problem that affects more than one third of all women globally, according to a new report released by who in partnership with the london school of hygiene & tropical medicine and the south african medical research council. the report, global and regional estimates of violence against women: prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence, represents the first systematic study of global data on the prevalence of violence against women – both by partners and non-partners (www.who.int). some 35% of all women will experience either intimate partner or non-partner violence. the study finds that intimate partner violence is the most common type of violence against women, affecting 30% of women worldwide.the study highlights the need for all sectors to engage in eliminating tolerance for violence against women and better support for women who experience it. new who guidelines, launched with the report, aim to help countries improve their health sector’s capacity to respond to violence against women. the report’s key findings on the health impacts of violence by an intimate partner were (according to http://www.nzfvc.org.nz/?q=node/1341) : • death and injury – the study found that globally, 38% of all women who were murdered were murdered by their intimate partners, and 42% of women who have experienced physical or sexual violence at the hands of a partner had experienced injuries as a result. • depression – partner violence is a major contributor to women’s mental health problems, with women who have experienced partner violence being almost twice as likely to experience depression compared to women who have not experienced any violence. • alcohol use problems – women experiencing intimate partner violence are almost twice as likely as other women to have alcohol-use problems. • sexually transmitted infections – women who experience physical and/or sexual partner violence are 1.5 times more likely to acquire syphilis infection, chlamydia, or gonorrhoea. in some regions (including sub-saharan africa), they are 1.5 times more likely to acquire hiv. • unwanted pregnancy and abortion – both partner violence and non-partner sexual violence are associated with unwanted pregnancy; the report found that feryal çubukçu   17 women experiencing physical and/or sexual partner violence are twice as likely to have an abortion than women who do not experience this violence. • low birth-weight babies – women who experience partner violence have a 16% greater chance of having a low birth-weight baby. for combined intimate partner and non-partner sexual violence or both among all women of 15 years or older, prevalence rates were as follows: • africa – 45.6% • americas – 36.1% • eastern mediterranean – 36.4%* (no data were available for non-partner sexual violence in this region) • europe – 27.2% • south-east asia – 40.2% • western pacific – 27.9% • high income countries – 32.7% http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/violence_against_women_201 30620/en/ values in such times when we witness a great deal of turmoil, crime and agression in all the societies as listed above with high numbers showcasing the horror and severity of the situation, moral education seems to be the way to help children and teenagers to be caring and responsible human beings. in 1930s the book entitled fifty hints and helps in character education (1931) was popular but then moral education began to lose favor after 1930s. kohlberg’s writings (1984) paved the way for the use of moral dilemma stories in the classroom known as the moral judgment approach. kohlberg, professor of psychology, established the centre for moral education at harvard university which drew heavily from piaget and dewey. kolberg's theory specifies six stages of moral development, arranged in three levels: stages characteristics level 1 preconventional/premoral moral values reside in external, quasiphysical events, or in bad acts. the child journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  14-­‐30   18 stage 1. obedience and punishment avoidance stage 2. naively egoistic orientation/exchange of favors is responsive to rules but views them in terms of pleasant or unpleasant consequences of actions, or in terms of the physical power of those who impose the rules. individuals have egocentric deference to superior power or prestige, or a troubleavoiding set. people recognize that others also have needs. they may try to satisfy others' needs if their own needs are also met. they continue to define right and wrong primarily in terms of consequences to themselves level ii: conventional/role conformity stage 3. good-boy/good-girl orientation stage 4. law and order moral values reside in performing the right role, in maintaining the conventional order and expectancies of others as a value in its own right. people make decisions based on what actions will please others, especially authority figures and other individuals with high status (e.g., teachers, popular peers). they are concerned about maintaining relationships through sharing, trust, and loyalty, and they take other people's perspectives and intentions into account when making decisions. people look to society as a whole for guidelines about right or wrong. they know rules are necessary for keeping society running smoothly and believe it is their "duty" to obey them. however, they perceive rules to be inflexible; they don't necessarily recognize that as society's needs change, rules should change as well. level iii: postconventional/self-accepted moral principles morality is defined in terms of conformity to shared standards,rights, or duties apart from supporting authority. the standards conformed to are internal, and action-decisions are based on an inner process of thought and judgement concerning right and wrong. feryal çubukçu   19 stage 5: social contract stage 6: the universal ethical principle norms of right and wrong are defined in terms of laws or institutionalized rules which seem to have a rational basis. orientation not only toward existing social rules, but also toward the conscience as a directing agent, mutual trust and respect, and principles of moral choice involving logical universalities and consistency. in stage 5 when conflict arises between individual needs and law or contract, though sympathetic to the former, the individual believes the latter must prevail because of its greater functional rationality for society, the majority will and welfare. people recognize that rules represent agreements among many individuals about appropriate behavior. rules are seen as potentially useful mechanisms that can maintain the general social order and protect individual rights, rather than as absolute dictates that must be obeyed simply because they are "the law." people also recognize the flexibility of rules; rules that no longer serve society's best interests can and should be changed. in stage 6 action is controlled by internalized ideals that exert a pressure to act accordingly regardless of the reactions of others in the immediate environment. if one acts otherwise, self-condemnation and guilt result. people in this stage adhere to a few abstract, universal principles (e.g., equality of all people, respect for human dignity, commitment to justice) that transcend specific norms and rules. the summary of these stages can be seen in table 2: table 2. kohlberg’s stages for moral development stages focus ages behavior questions 1. punishment and obedience self up to 10-13 years of age, most prisoners behavior motivated by anticipation of pleasure or pain. what must i do to avoid punishment? what can i do to force my will upon others? 2. the egoist self up to 10-13 years of age, most prisoners acceptance of the rules and standards of one's group what's in it for me? what must i do to avoid pain, gain pleasure? 3.good boy/girl significant people in life beginning in middle school, up to middle age most people end up here. good behavior is that which pleases or helps others within the group. one earns approval what must i do to be seen as a good boy/girl (socially acceptable)? journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  14-­‐30   20 by being conventionally "respectable" and "nice." peer pressure makes being different the unforgivable sin. self acrifice to group demands is expected. 4. the good citizen significant people in life beginning in middle school, up to middle age most people end up here. respect for fixed rules, laws and properly constituted authority. authority figures are seldom questioned. what if everyone did that? or why should i believe anything? 5. the philosopher/the king justice, dignity for all life, common good few reach this stage, most not prior to middle age moral action in a specific situation is not defined by reference to a checklist of rules, but from logical application of universal, abstract, moral principles. what is the just thing to do given all the circumstances? what will bring the most good to the largest number of people? the prophet/messiah justice, dignity for all life, common good rare, often value their principles more than their own life, often seen as incarnating the highest human potential. an individual who reaches this stage acts out of universal principles based upon the equality and worth of all living beings. what will foster life in its fullest for all living beings? what is justice for all? moral education is basically about values education. halstead and taylor (2000, p.169) defines the values in the following way : the term `values’ is used in this review to refer to the principles and fundamental convictions which act as general guides to behaviour, the standards by which particular actions are judged to be good or desirable and examples of values are love, equality, freedom, justice, happiness, security, peace of mind and truth”. the broad term `values education’ encompasses, and in practice is often seen as having a particular emphasis on, education in civic and moral values. there are some methods of introducing values in the classes. for example, the proponents of character education (lickona, 1991; wynne & ryan, 1992; molnar, 1997) tend to favour direct instruction and the use of stories where the instructional process may include problem solving, cooperative learning, experience-based projects, integrated thematic learning and the discussion of ways of putting virtues into practice, as well as more formal instruction.; the proponents of moral reasoning (kohlberg, 1969, 1981, 1984) favour discussion and the establishment of just communities (which were set up in a series feryal çubukçu   21 of experiments by kohlberg and colleagues to influence students’ moral reasoning and behaviour. they are small alternative schools having typically 60-100 students within public high schools, designed to promote a genuine democratic ethos); and the proponents of caring (gilligan, 1982; noddings, 1984, 1994) may favour circle time, extra-curricular activities and the narrative approach. among these abovementioned, circle time is an increasingly popular method in both europe and north america for promoting confidence, self-knowledge and self-esteem in pupils mainly, but not exclusively, of primary age and it may also help pupils to learn to talk about their feelings, to gain a sense of belonging to a group or community, to develop qualities such as trust, responsibility, empathy, cooperation, caring behaviour and respect for the feelings of others and to engage in personal reflection and clarify their own values (halstead & taylor, 2000, p.186). here the purpose of this study is to use literary texts in the class to promote moral education (kohlberg, 1984) where discussion is particularly directed at modelling and eliciting reasoning at the next stage of moral development and thus, by exposure to different moral points of view, stimulating cognitive conflict in the individual pupil’s awareness of problematical situations and facilitating movement to a higher stage. since literary texts are contextually whole and inherently meaningful, they provide an authentic source of comprehensible english language input and can lower inhibitions or the “affective filter”(krashen, 1982, p. 345). stories with well-developed characters, engaging plots and vivid themes, offer “good sources of knowledge, particularly concerning history and culture (folklore), sociological and psychological insights into realistic fiction, and a story framework for reading and writing when exploring genres, whether comprehending or composing” (karlin, 1994, p. 159). reading literature can also heighten students’ awareness of some moral, ethical values and issues with which they are unfamiliar with: for example, developing empathy and compassion, charity, or the importance of teamwork and cooperation. it can open students’ eyes to social, economic, and cultural problems of worldwide communities. literature also enriches the arts and humanities, such as visual arts and drama, and encourages the faculty of imagination. advocates of literature testify to its usability and value in the reading. collie and slater (1987, p. 256) claim that literature is able to stimulate personal involvement, arousing learners’ interest and provoking strong positive reactions from them; it is meaningful and enjoyable, and reading it has a lasting and beneficial effect upon learners’ linguistic and cultural knowledge. journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  14-­‐30   22 the aim of this study is to promote moral education through the use of literary texts in the class. method participants 69 third year pre-service teachers aged between 21-23 at the department of english language teaching participated in the study. they joined drama class activities oriented towards values education for 5 weeks. they studied the plays with the emphasis on the values for five weeks with the researcher of the study. she designed her lesson plans specifically in accordance with the tenets of the values education. their post test results were compared with 50 freshmen students in the same department. procedure 69 pre-service teachers studied the plays by sophocles and shakespeare. the plays first were discussed in terms of tragic elements, then the character analyses of oedipus and macbeth were tackled carefully with an emphasis on how they have taken their decisions, how their choices have been, how these choices lead to their catastrophes. in the treatment group, students are later given situations where they can relate to the events by placing them in the shoes of the heroes basically oedipus and macbeth. later on they were asked to interpret the events if they were the wives of these main characters, jacosta and lady macbeth. instrumentation all pre-service teachers were given a five-point likert scale on values on the plays they have studied in “british drama” class and the freshmen students of the same department who did not study the plays were given the same scale. the scale was designed by the author herself who took into account the values implied in the plays such as oedipus’ attacking the elderly, mistreating the blind man, macbeth’s betraying his friend, attacking him for the sake of the material gains, his lying, his sugarcoating his faults and hiding the truth. the cases are shown in table 4. then it was pilottested with the fourth year students in the same department and its reliability is found as .87. finally, the students’ answers were rated in accordance with kolb’s moral development scale. feryal çubukçu   23 results and discussion the means of the third year students are given in table 3. table 3. means of the values mean std. deviation s1 3,6218 1,15708 s2 2,6555 1,11566 s3 2,3697 1,10366 s4 3,9496 1,04839 s5 3,0588 1,32316 s6 2,9076 ,90190 s7 3,9580 ,84768 s8 4,1345 ,90126 s9 3,5462 1,13308 s10 3,3277 ,93979 s11 4,0924 ,97417 s12 2,3529 1,16144 s13 2,1092 ,88097 s14 1,6050 ,69158 s15 4,4034 ,78459 s16 2,6050 1,19475 s17 4,3782 ,86349 s18 3,2857 1,00121 s19 3,1429 1,00242 s20 3,2689 1,02260 s21 2,7479 1,13659 s22 2,7479 1,19475 s23 4,1176 1,01828 s24 4,0084 ,89723 s25 4,0420 ,86744 s26 4,1681 ,89556 s27 2,9748 1,27865 students predominantly believe that if they saw armed men, they would escape, if they were betrayed, they would not forgive easily, if they were treated unfairly, they would voice their dissatisfaction, if they heard somebody’s cry, they would go and help, if people cheated in the exam, they would do so, they say they would never lie even for money, they do not understand why people lie. the comparison of the first and third year students is shown in table 4. table 4. comparison of the frequencies of the first and third year students items strongly agree undecided disagree strongly journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  14-­‐30   24 agree disagree 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1.if you were challenged by a group of armed men in the street, you would stay and fight 12 18,8 12 13 20 27 32 30 24 29 2.if you were challenged by a group of armed men in the street, you would escape. 10 17,4 40 29 20 33 18 17,4 12 1,4 3.if you were betrayed by your best friend, you would stop communication 36 2,9 22 39,1 28 27.5 10 11.16 4 4.3 4.if you were betrayed by your best friend, you would feel upset and go on as if nothing had happened 4 20,3 4 10 14 14,5 44 37,7 34 34,8 5. you have never betrayed anybody so far. 10 2,9 26 18,8 16 17,4 34 29 14 14,5 6.if you realized your best friend lied to you, you would be upset and leave him/her 4 1,4 30 33,3 38 39 20 26 8 7.if you realized your best friend lied to you, you would not mind and you would go on in the same way. 2 2,9 4 4,3 16 14,5 52 56,5 26 23,2 8.if you were treated unfairly and somebody else was promoted instead of you, you would not mind 2 2,9 4 4,3 5 8,7 50 50,7 40 33,3 9.if you were treated unfairly and somebody else was promoted instead of you, you would talk against the person 10 4,3 16 11,6 18 23,2 30 46,4 26 15,9 10.if you were treated unfairly and somebody else was promoted instead of you, you would quit the job 2,9 14 14,5 46 39,1 26 33,3 14 8,7 11.you believe whatever your coffee cup says something about your future. 1 23,2 6 4,3 8 15,9 38 42 46 34,8 12.you never believe whatever your coffee cup says something about your future. 40 26,1 10 39,1 20 24,6 26 11,6 4 1,4 13.if you heard some noises outside about “help, murder”, you would go and help 28 46,4 44 39,1 24 29 4 4,3 1,4 14.you heard some noises outside about “help, murder”, you would call the police 48 2,9 50 47,8 2,9 2 1,4 1,4 15.you heard some noises outside about “help, murder”, you would look and do nothing 20,3 1,4 8 4,3 34 42 58 49,3 16.if your friend made a mistake and stole something, you would go on talking to him/her 26 4,3 22 24,6 26 34,8 20 13 6 7,2 17.if your friend made a mistake and stole something, you would tell it to everybody 2 2,9 2 2,9 18 33,3 28 58 50 1,4 18.if your friend made a mistake and stole something, you would 6 2,9 20 15,9 26 37,7 34 37,7 14 5,8 feryal çubukçu   25 stop talking to him/her 19.if your friend urged you to cheat in the exam, you would do it for him or her 8 1,4 26 17,4 40 33,3 18 39,1 8 7,2 20.if your friend urged you to cheat in the exam, you would be scared and do nothing 6 15,9 10 30,4 30 29 40 31,9 14 7,2 21.if your friend urged you to cheat in the exam, you would not do it for ethical reasons 14 11,6 20 36,2 28 24,6 30 20,3 8 2,9 22.if your friend urged you to cheat in the exam, and if everybody else was cheating, you would do it. 20 2,9 44 24,6 14 29 12 27,5 10 7,2 23.if there were an opportunity for you to earn more money, you would be involved in black market 4 8 4,3 14 11,6 30 40,6 44 40,6 24.if there were an opportunity for you to earn more money, you would be involved in any kind of trafficking 2 4 4,3 16 26,1 40 39,1 38 30,4 25. you would lie if you thought this would bring you prestige 4 5,8 28 14,5 34 44,9 34 34,8 26. you would lie if you thought this would bring you more money 8 5,8 20 7,2 30 43,5 42 43,5 27. it is natural that people lie and you lie on many occasions. 14 9 38 20,3 16 24,6 18 27,5 14 14,5 this comparative analysis shows that --both freshmen and third year students agree with each other in not staying and fighting. --third year students are more hesitant to act when it comes to fighting --when it comes to cheating, third year students feel more upset -the percentages of the freshmen who think they have not cheated are higher than those of the third students. --both freshmen and third year students believe that if their best friends lie, they are heartbroken --both groups express their disappointment when they are treated unfairly --if somebody is in need, both groups would do something and call the police or go and help the victim. -freshmen say they will go on talking when their friend steals something but this falls dramatically with the third year students journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  14-­‐30   26 --when their friends ask them to cheat, most stay hesitant but more freshmen would cheat and more third year students would avoid for ethical reasons. --the percentage is higher among the third year students when it comes to being involved in the black market. --more third year students say they would not lie for prestige or for money. -more freshmen agree that people lie and it is natural. when the t-test is applied to see whether there is a statistical difference between the third and first year students, the p value is found to be ,565, which means that there is no statistically significant difference between these two groups. table 5. the t-test results of the freshmen and third year students school n mean std. deviation sig. freshman 50 89.4 6.12 .565 third year students 69 89.7 5.65 when it comes to the gender difference, there is a significant difference between male and female students and female students get higher scores as shown in table 6. table 6. the t-test results of the groups for gender school n mean std deviation sig. females 81 90.58 4.84 .005 males 38 87.44 7.13 when the rubric designed by kolb is implemented in the answers of the teacher trainees, it is found by the researcher that teacher trainees fit into the stage 4, the good citizen. the fact that the third year students show more inclination towards integrity, kindness, benevolence yields that the use of literature enhances moral judgement and character, expands the moral imagination and develops the emotional side of a learner’s character which correlates with the study conducted by court and rosental (2007). although kirschenbaum (1976) said that his approach failed to teach young people a process by which they can analyze much of the confusing information about the world, and learn to make their own decision (p. 10), he claims that in the traditional values education feryal çubukçu   27 approach, teachers and other adults not only tell the young about what is appropriate or inappropriate behavior, but they also have to serve as examples of these behaviors and teachers and adults are living examples of the desired behavior of the youth. only through modeling and accentuating, such values education can be successful as piaget (1977) says cognition (thought) and affect (feeling) develop on parallel tracks and that moral judgment represents a naturally developing cognitive process. conclusion it is possible to conclude that when it comes to youth policy and the upbringing of the rising generation, a great deal of spiritual and moral work needs to be done to provide the upbringing and socialization of the rising generation, to consolidate and unite young people and all groups in that community, all of society, on the basis of the principles of social justice and morality (semenov, 2008). the use of literary texts in moral education is not something new as a concept and a trend. since locke, arnold and in the 20th century dewey and t. s. eliot have highlighted the correlation between moral education, development and literature. there are several advantages of values education: first of all, it allows for more students participation. rather than being told the values, students are encouraged to discuss or have the role fame through the imagined or real conflicts and learn to better handle aggressive impulses. secondly, values are essential if we are to keep the society in all one piece. some behaviors are mandated by all civilized nations and must be learned as basic. it might be even the only and last chance for the university students to focus on values explicitly before they embark upon the life journey and to help students develop an independent spirit undergirded by the moral and ethical values essential for participation in a free society ( theodore, 1986) stories are also considered to have an important part to play in spiritual development (kilpatrick et al., 1994, birch, 2005). direct discussion of character perspectives in stories enhance students’ understanding of characters and their consideration of the social context and relationships. a classroom with a more conversational style may lead learners to initiate discussions of the values implications of texts. but this technique requires considerable teacher preparation, open-ended questioning, clarifying, summarising, building on students’ contributions and encouraging students to respond to one another. journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  14-­‐30   28 a lot depends on the prospective teachers both to care about the values and to impart these values to the future generations. if prospective teachers are to help their students become critical thinkers on values, they need to practice the art of thinking critically themselves and apply such values in themselves. teacher educators have to find ways of facilitating this practice that are compatible with the specific group dynamics. teaching controversial issues to prospective teachers through literary texts /narratives has the potential to encourage what is sometimes called lateral thinking versus linear sequential thinking (gibbs, 2003). using controversial materials constructively develops the ability to think through issues in ways that make prospective teachers and everybody to be able to see shades of grey in-between the black and white. it has the potential to increase tolerance and understanding with afocus on self amelioration and improvement in the world we need to live peacefully without violence and destruction. references allen, v. g. (1989). literature as support to language acquisition. in: p. rigg and v. g. allen. (eds.), when they don’t all speak english:integrating the esl student into the regular classroom. urbana, il: national council of teachers of english. birch, d. (2005). room for the strange: what victorians can teach us about education, the times literary/supplement, 01 april, commentary, 14–15. collie, j. & slater. (1987). literature in the language classroom. cambridge: cup. court, d. & rosental,e. (2007) values embodied in children’s literature used in early childhood education in israeli state schools early childhood education journal 34, 6, 407-414 eliot, t. s. (1951). religion and literature in selected essays. london: faber & faber ltd. gilligan, c. (1982) in a different voice. cambridge: harvard university press. gibbs, r.e. (2003) the teaching of values in teacher education programmes in muticultural settings. (doctoral dissertation). retrieved from proquest dissertations and theses. (accession order no. aat nq88477) halstead, m. & taylor, m (2000)learning and teaching about values. research review, 30, 2, 169-202. feryal çubukçu   29 ho, l. (2000). children’s literature in adult education. literature in education, 31, 259271. karlin, a. (1994). picture story books to use in the secondary classroom. journal of reading, 38, 158-160. kilpatrick, w.,wolfe,g. & wolfe, s.m. (1994) books that build character: a guide to teaching your child moral values through stories. new york: touchstone. kirschenbaum (1976) advanced values clarification. ca:university associates kohlberg, l.(1984) the meaning and measurement of moral development. worcester: clark university press. krashen, s. (1982). principles and practice of second language acquisition. ny: pergamon. lickona, t. (1996) eleven principles of effective character education, journal of moral education 25, 93-100. molnar, a. (ed.) (1997) the construction of children’ s character. chicago, national society for the study of education. noddings, n. (1984) caring: a feminine approach to ethics and moral education. san francisco: berkeley university of california press. noddings, n. (1994) conversation as moral education, journal of moral education, 23,107-118. piaget, j (1977) the development of thought: equilibration of cognitive structures.london: viking press semenov, (2008)the value orientations of today’s young people. russian education and society, 50, 1, 29–43. smallwood, b. a. (1991). the literature connection. reading, ma: addison wesley. theodore, p.a. (1986). a study of attitudes concerning values and values education held by students and faculty members at the university of south alabama. (doctoral dissertation). retrieved from proquest dissertations and theses. (accession order no. aat 8628181 ) journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  14-­‐30   30 wynne, e.a. (1991) character and academics in the elementary school. in j. benninga (ed.)moral character and civic education in the elementary school. new york: teachers college press. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/homicide.html retrieved on november 15, 2014 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_countries_by_intentional_homicide_rate retrieved on november 15, 2014 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1196941/the-violent-country-europe-britainworse-south-africa-u-s.html#ixzz2hqdkc3re retrieved on november 15, 2014 www.filipspagnoli.wordpress.com retrieved on november 15, 2014 www.who.int retrieved on november 15, 2014 http://www.nzfvc.org.nz/?q=node/1341 retrieved on november 15, 2014 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (1),163-191 163 social and cultural capital and learners’ cognitive ability: issues and prospects for educational relevance, access and equity towards digital communication in indonesia binti maunah1 abstract in the educational context, the necessity of recognizing the structure of relations among social and educational institutions by examining how individuals’ different social and cultural experiences affect the educational learning outcomes towards global digital communication. the current study examined the interplay of social and cultural capital orientation, cognitive learning ability, and family background. the descriptive correlational research design was employed. it adopted two research instruments, namely the social and cultural capital questionnaire (sccq) and the otis-lennon scholastic ability tests (olsat), to a total of 377 undergraduate college students of select universities in indonesia. the results of the study showed that the respondents manifest a high level of social and cultural capital orientation, with literacy having the highest factor. likewise, the respondents have an average cognitive level of ability. test of difference showed that respondents whose parents with high educational achievement exhibit high social competence, social solidarity, cultural competence, and extraversion, social solidity, and extraversion. similarly, fathers’ education is the single variable which spelled difference on the student’s cognitive ability implying students whose fathers have high academic qualification exhibit high cognitive ability. test of relationship showed that literacy practices and global-cultural competence are correlated to students’ cognitive ability. finally, family income is a predictor of students’ high level of cognitive ability and social and cultural capital orientation. the implications of the results were discussed within, and suggestions were made for future research. keywords: cognitive ability, educational opportunity, social and cultural capital, sociology of education introduction education is a venue for social transformation, social mobility, and the vanguard of growth and development for the emerging world’s economies. without access to the relevant and quality 1dr. state islamic institute (iain) of tulungagung, indonesia, uun.lilanur@gmail.com mailto:uun.lilanur@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 educational system, the efforts of countries for development will be futile. the direct relationship between economics and education has been emphasized by various scholars (budiharso & arbain, 2019; camilleri & camilleri, 2020; chabbott, 2013; fägerlind & saha, 2016; green, 2013; kruss, mcgrath, petersen, & gastrow, 2015; shephard, 2010) where literacy is associated to the wellbeing of the people and the nations’ economic development. one of the essential functions of education is the production and development of human resources who will be the agents of change and societal transformation. no less than the united nations educational, scientific, cultural organization (tang, 2015) outlines the fundamental principles of education 2030 agenda and the sustainable development goal 4 (sdg4) to promote the rights of every individual to have full access and enjoyment to education as mechanism to achieve the sustainable development since millions of children around the around are still deprived of the educational opportunities. this can only be achieved with the concerted effort and commitment of nations around the world to tackle down the educational challenges and form systems of education that are relevant, inclusive, and equitable to all learners. at present, educational institutions of the world are challenged to promote equitable learning outcomes to students since achievement gap is still an issue (ainscow, 2016; buckley, 2010; clark, 2014; darling-hammond & friedlaender, 2008; fatimah & santiana, 2017; nadelson et al., 2020; ohlin, 2019; perry, 2009; speed, pair, zargham, yao, & franco, 2019). they are advocating educational equity calls to address inequity in student learning, which is attributed to issues on gender, race, family income, and cognitive disability. embracing educational equity in the schools is a way of supporting transformative education (godhe, lilja & selwyn, 2019; vossoughi, hooper & escudé, 2016). meanwhile, cognitive ability of students plays a crucial role in the development of countries’ workforce for they will become the leaders of the next generation, hence investment to their development should start in examining the interplay of their socio-economic status and how they relate to their social and cultural capital and cognitive ability is highlighted in this present study. the necessity of recognizing the structure of relations among social and educational institutions by examining how individuals’ different social and cultural experiences affect the educational learning outcomes should be considered. the need for education practitioners and sociologists to address the issues and gaps affecting access and equity in higher education is a way of transforming institutional culture and effectiveness. maunah. social capital and cultural capital this study promotes understanding of the prevailing social and cultural capital of higher education institutions, which will provide necessary actions on how to adequately address the gaps and disparities existing in the educational system. social and cultural capital has been espoused by bourdieu,(1977) which prompted studies concerning aspects of individual interaction and habitus. the theory is influential in understanding social class advantage, which is also essential to study the social context of educational institution contexts on how individual’s social and cultural exposure and experiences relate to their educational learning outcomes —considering that educational institutions as one of the educative agencies are a significant site of social and cultural reproduction where inequalities are prevailing. students gathered in school come from various families that differ in terms of family income, language, ethnic identity, economic class, geographical locations, and the like. they show differences in school and serve as the basis of their interaction and participation in learning activities. for bourdieu, family influences are the strongest predictor of students’ cognitive ability, where success in education fundamentally depends on one’s exposure to social and cultural capital. as a result, knowledge leads to the domination and advantage of those upper class, leaving the poor at a marginalized position. research gap and relevance to literature this study situates its claims to bourdieu's social and cultural capital relative to the cognitive ability of students in the context of the indonesian educational system. in such a way, a deeper understanding of the unequal educational outcomes may be appropriately addressed. this study provides direct evidence in which social and cultural capital shape the educational system of modern indonesia. this study also hopes to strengthen the empirical findings on the positive relationship between social and cultural capital to students' cognitive ability. however, as the research gap, there are still inconsistencies in the influences of social and cultural capital on educational inequality. hence, it remains unconfirmed. in countries such as the united nations, brazil and some other european countries, it was revealed that no relationship has been found between cultural capital and academic achievement of students (burger, 2016; edgerton & roberts, 2014; gaddis, 2013; hu & wu, 2019; jæger, 2011; marteleto & andrade, 2014). similarly, among asian countries such as japan and korea, the negative relationship has been found between cultural capital and students' academic achievement (byun, schofer, & kim, 2012; journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 lee & shouse, 2011; yamamoto & brinton, 2010). in the previous studies in the indonesian context have exemplified that social and cultural capital positively correlates with students' educational attainment (wu, 2008; xie & ma, 2019; xu & hampden-thompson, 2012). such inconsistencies prompted the researcher to re-examine the interplay of social and cultural capital to indonesian students' cognitive ability. the result of the present study hopes to address the shortage of studies regarding the variables being explored. like any other developed country, indonesia puts prime importance on education as a vehicle of social transformation and development (lee, huang & law, 2016). the central government of indonesia initiated the development of indonesia’s national strategy as a response to the united nations 2030 agenda called indonesia’s education modernization 2035. it encapsulates eight fundamental principles, rooted and anchored in the indonesian context (zhu, 2019). increasing access to education by addressing the educational gaps and inequality is one crucial component of the modernization of education in indonesia. purposes of the study this study examined the interplay of select socio-economic profile, social and cultural capital, and students’ cognitive ability among indonesian college students. it specifically sought to answer the following research questions: 1) what the students’ level of social and cultural capital orientations is? 2) is there a difference between the social and cultural capital orientations when grouped according to selected variables? 3) what is the students’ level of cognitive ability? 4) is there a difference between the respondents’ cognitive level when grouped according to selected variables? 5) is there a significant relationship between social and cultural capital orientation and the respondents’ cognitive ability? 6) what predicts the social and cultural capital orientation and cognitive ability of the students? maunah. methods research design the study used a descriptive survey correlational research design to investigate the relationship between social and cultural capital orientations and the cognitive ability of indonesian learners. the survey component ascertains the prevailing social and cultural capital orientations of the respondents and relates it to their cognitive ability. the use of correlational research design measures the association between two variables under study to find out whether a positive or negative relationship exists (grimes & schulz, 2002; williams, 2007). research participants, sampling procedure and ethical considerations a total of 377 respondents systematically sampled from a total population of 2000 students from five universities in indonesia. determination of sampling size was based on the use of a free online software raosoft http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html (arora, 1994; wilson, 2016) set with the margin of error of 5%, confidence level of 95%, and response distribution of 50%. using a systematic non-random probability sampling technique, the complete list of respondents was requested from the university registrars of the participating universities with the three as the select random start number. table 1 below presents the personal background of the respondents. it can be seen in that table that the major contributors of the study females (61%) compared to males (39%), whose mothers are mostly college level (45%) followed by high school/ senior high school graduates (30%), their fathers mainly were college level (47%) succeeded by college graduates (43%). as a whole, the majority of the respondents are earning usd 3001 and above (49%). table 1. background of the samples category frequency distribution (n=377) percentage distribution (%) gender male 148 39 female 229 61 mothers education elementary level 4 1 high school level 22 6 high school/ senior high 112 30 college level 171 45 college graduate 68 18 fathers education elementary level 0 0 high school level 10 3 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 high school/ senior high graduate 27 7 college level 178 47 college graduate 162 43 family monthly income below usd 10000 27 7 usd 1001-2000 56 15 usd 2001-3000 109 29 usd 3001-above 184 49 this study was guided by the following research ethics considerations. first, data privacy and informed consent forms were approved by the university ethics committee to be signed by the respondents of the study. second, orientation on the purposes of the study was done by the researcher prior to the administration of the instruments. thirdly, the anonymity of the respondents and the institution was observed by not mentioning names. research instruments the study used two adopted research questionnaires, namely the social and cultural capital questionnaire (sccq) and the otis-lennon school ability test (olsat). pishghadam & zabihi, (2011) developed the sccq consisted of 42 items with five dimensions, namely social competence (r=.84), social solidarity (r=.73), literacy (r=.78), global-cultural competence(r=.76), and extraversion (r=.86). the instrument has a reliability of is 0.87. meanwhile, to measure the cognitive learning ability, the olsat was used. it is a test of abstract thinking and reasoning ability among college students. the test yielded verbal and verbal scores having 21 subtests, organized into five areas, namely verbal comprehension, verbal reasoning, pictorial reasoning, figural reasoning, and quantitative reason (ahmann, 1985; otis, 1988). procedure this study was conducted within a four-month time period. the data-gathering period lasted for one month. before the formal gathering period, the university authority’s approval and permission to do the study was initiated in the first week. notice to proceed for the conduct of the research was issued during the second week. after securing the appropriate permit, the researcher identified the respondents using the inclusion criteria set in this study. likewise, proper and appointment with the students were conducted for the formal gathering for another one week. the orientation of the research’s purposes and objectives was done to the participants. the administration of the maunah. two research instruments was done by the researcher with the appropriate permit and proper coordination to avoid conflict of schedule. the research ethics considerations were strictly followed by the researcher. after gathering the students’ responses, they were coded and subjected to data cleaning and statistical analyses for one month. the gathered data were analyzed using spss version 25.0. finally, results analysis, interpretation, and report writing were done for one month. data analysis to analyze the quantitative data gathered, descriptive and inferential statistics were used. descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage were used to present the profile, social and capital orientations of the respondents, and their level of cognitive ability as well as the normality of the responses. the inferential statistics, it made use of t-test, anova, and pearson r determine the differences and relationship between the selected profile, social and cultural orientations, and the level of students’ cognitive ability. moreover, multiple regression analysis was used to determine the predictor of social and cultural capital orientations. to interpret the scco of the students, the five-point likert scale was used: strongly agree/ very high (4.20-5.00); agree/ high (3.40-4.19); undecided/ moderate (2.60-3.39); disagree/ low (1.80-2.59); strongly disagree/ very low (1.00-1.79). consequently, the interpretation of the result from the olsat was based on its standard scales and description from superior to low cognitive ability level. results and discussion research question 1. what is the students’ level of social and cultural capital orientations? table 2 presents the respondents’ level of social and cultural orientations. results revealed that the respondents have a high level of social and cultural capital orientation (m=3.96, sd= 0.46). interestingly, literacy obtained the highest mean (m=4.24, sd= 0.90) interpreted very high, followed by global-cultural competence (m=4.17, sd=0.88), social competence as also scored high (m=4.07, sd=0.88) succeeded by social solidarity (m=3.71, sd=1.20), and extraversion (m=3.96, sd=1.31) obtained the lowest mean. the general finding implies that the respondents manifest a high social and cultural capital. this part of the study described the social and cultural journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 capital orientations of the respondents. results showed that the respondents had assessed themselves to have a high level of social and cultural capital orientations. it suggests that the respondents have adequate orientation, access, networks, and group membership. the necessity of recognizing the relationships and structures among the educational system will help in initiating effective delivery of the educational system to achieve relevance, access, and equity. the effect of social and cultural experiences of the students affect their learning outcomes (börjesson, broady, le roux, lidegran & palme, 2016; cheng & kaplowitz, 2016; dejaeghere, wiger & willemsen, 2016; harju-luukkainen & tarnanen, 2017; peng, 2019). table 2. social and cultural capital orientations of the respondents domains mean (n=377) sd descriptive interpretation social competence 4.07 0.88 high social solidarity 3.71 1.20 high literacy 4.24 0.90 very high global-cultural competence 4.17 0.88 high extraversion 3.61 1.31 high grand mean 3.96 0.46 high legend: strongly agree/ very high a (4.20-5.00); agree/ high b (3.40-4.19); undecided/ moderate c (2.60-3.39); disagree/ low d (1.80-2.59); strongly disagree/ very low e (1.00-1.79) the very high assessment of literacy as a dimension of social and cultural capital indicates that the respondents have very favorable home literacy practices as they were exposed to different reading materials at home. they were influenced by their parents to read books on literature and general sciences. it indicates that most of the respondents are exposed to a home literacy environment. numerous studies have confirmed the effect of home literacy practices, parental education to learners’ academic achievement, oral language acquisition and learners’ motivation (chow, chui, lai, & kwok, 2017; davis et al., 2016; ip et al., 2016; c. liu, georgiou & manolitsis, 2018; t. liu, zhang & jiang, 2020; meyer, meissel & mcnaughton, 2017; napoli & purpura, 2018; park, pan & ahn, 2020; rowe, ramani & pomerantz, 2016; saçkes, işıtan, avci & justice, 2016). as the implication of this finding, encouragement of parents to their children to do intensive reading a home may help in improving students’ social and cultural capital. maunah. consequently, the high self-assessment of the respondents on their global-cultural competence indicates that they have favorable exposure to arts and cultural appreciation. they are capable of seeing the values of arts and culture as well as their principles and history, which form part the societal development and preservation. hence, they manifest an understanding of arts, their practical, philosophical, and social relevance. this high level of arts and aesthetic appreciation among indonesian is a manifestation of their rich cultural heritage which until this time is being promoted and preserved (howard, 2016; law & ho, 2015; t. liu et al., 2020; ning, 2015; c. tan, 2015; m. wang, 2015). the competency to value arts is to prepare students to understand the world where they live and make them critically engage in developing their skills of achieving a pillar of education which is learning to live together in harmony (de eça, milbrandt, shin, & hsieh, 2017; joncheere, 2015; potter, 2018). social competence as a dimension of social and cultural capital was favorable assessed high by the indonesian respondents. it indicates that their parents have high involvement in their learning activities. their parents are also involved as essential stakeholders of the schools. they also manifest high commitment to extracurricular activities, and they see themselves to have established a positive network to get along with others in the performance of their academic and extracurricular activities. social competence has been defined as one’s ability to handle positive social interaction (orpinas, 2010). it is how an individual gets along with others to form and establish connection and relationship, which is a product of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor abilities relating to interpersonal relationships. studies confirmed that social competence or social skill is an essential attribute of a student to establish success in schooling and education (jr, 2019; morrow, hubbard, & sharp, 2019; tuononen, parpala, & lindblom-ylänne, 2019; tynjälä, virtanen, klemola, kostiainen, & rasku-puttonen, 2016; virtanen & tynjälä, 2019). studies in the indonesian context showed that parental support influences the social competence and social desirability of adolescents (ma & wang, 2019; meng, zhu & cao, 2018). in like manner, the high assessment of social solidarity implies that they have perceived themselves to have a strong sense of belongingness to their families, universities, and societies as they are capable of fulfilling their social obligations and commitment. it allows them to establish a gluing factor towards others. they emphasize open dialogue with their parents, teachers, and peers regarding their education and future jobs as an indication of strong environmental ties. hence, students must be able to have an empathizing personality to increase solidarity among schools. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 studies showed that the role of solidarity among students allows them to establish a positive attitude towards indifference as they will create an organization of unity, support and equality (hargreaves & o’connor, 2018; langenkamp, 2016; z. li, gan & jia, 2017; ridley-duff, 2016; stråth, 2017). lastly, extraversion was also rated high, indicating that they enjoyed having around with their family members and friends. extraversion is defined as one’s ability to showcase social visibility and promote interest in social engagement (avinun, israel, knodt & hariri, 2019; costa jr & mccrae, 2008). studies showed that extraversion as a personality trait is a predictor of english achievement among indonesian university students (cao & meng, 2020). likewise, it is seen as a factor of proactive behavior that plays a vital role in determining life and work opportunities (backmann, weiss, schippers & hoegl, 2019; y. wang, ang, jiang & wu, 2019). further, for language learning, extraversion is shown to predict oral language performance (kelsen, 2019). research question 2. is there a difference between the social and cultural capital orientations when grouped according to selected variables? as shown in table 3, it shows that there is a significant difference on the social and cultural capital orientation of the respondents when grouped according to their select profile variables. hence, the hypothesis of the study is accepted. the table shows that parent’s education and family income spelled significant differences the social and cultural capital orientation. the significant differences are seen on mothers’ education on the following dimensions, social competence (p=0.00**), social solidarity (p=0.00**), global-cultural competence (0.019*), and extraversion (p=0.00*). congruently, when fathers’ education is taken, the significant differences are seen on social solidity (p=0.00**), and extraversion (p=0.00**). finally, when family income is explored, literacy (p=0.00**) and global-cultural competence(p=0.00**) showed significant differences. table 3. test of difference between the social and cultural capital orientation when grouped according to select profile variables gender p-value mothers education fathers education family income social competence 0.682 ns 0.000** 0.142 ns 0.934 ns social solidarity 0.914 ns 0.000** 0.000 ** 0.269 ns literacy 0.757 ns 0.273 ns 0.655 ns 0.000 ** global-cultural competence 0.088 ns 0.019 * 0.476 ns 0.000 ** maunah. extraversion 0.229 ns 0.000** 0.000** 0.191 ns note: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.00 ns= not significant test of difference using post hoc tukey hsd test revealed that those students whose mothers have a high level of education tend to exhibit high social competence, social solidarity, cultural competence, and extraversion. it can be practically explained that mother’s education has an influence on social and cultural capital orientations of their children, considering that professional mothers have a stronger preference and desire to educate their children, the better exposure they provide to them. educated women tend to see their children have good learning exposure and opportunities, which is linked to higher network and involvement of their children towards education. the finding corroborates with several studies showcasing the role of maternal education and social and cultural competence, and well-being of children (ansari & gershoff, 2016; crosnoe, ansari, purtell & wu, 2016; pérez‐escamilla & moran, 2017; strange, bremner, fisher, howat & wood, 2016). other studies also reported that mothers have strongly influenced the completion of degree programs in higher education as they influenced their children’s cognitive performance (erola, jalonen & lehti, 2016; font & potter, 2019; monaghan, 2017). meanwhile, paternal education spelled a significant difference in the students’ high orientation to social solidarity and the extraversion of the students. it can be explained that fathers’ education and their role in the indonesian family is crucial in the context of social and cultural capital among children. the high adherence to social solidarity shows the position of traditional indonesian fathers who are reliable, responsible, and disciplinarian tend to promote strong family ties and social cohesion among other people (x. li & lamb, 2015; seward & stanley-stevens, 2014; s. zhang, georgiou & shu, 2019). likewise, in this study, educated fathers expected to see their children be more extravert. it implicates that a higher level of education provides a higher level of civic and social engagement. studies showed that the level of education influences selfconfidence and social engagement (campbell, 2006; erdoğdu, 2019; filippin & paccagnella, 2012). when family income is taken into consideration, significant differences are seen on the level of literacy and global-cultural competence of the respondents. it can be inferred that those students who belong in the higher income brackets tend to have a high level of self-assessment on their exposure to literacy and cultural orientations. this study shows that family income is a factor that journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 defines students’ learning access to reading materials and exposure to art appreciation activities. hence, family income determines children’s academic achievement, cultural learning exposure, and children’s’ well-being (chaudry & wimer, 2016; durber et al., 2017; moote, archer, dewitt & macleod, 2019; vuong, la, ho, & hoang phuong, 2019). further, studies in the indonesian context also affirmed the role of home-learning environment, family income, and learning opportunities (ciping, silinskas, wei & georgiou, 2015; c. liu & georgiou, 2017). research question 3. what is the students’ level of cognitive ability? generally, in table 4, the result of the olsat, showed that the respondents have an average level of cognitive ability (m=103.13, sd=10.16). as the table reveals, the majority (56.50%) are on the average level of 96-103.99, followed by those students with above-average scores of 112-119.99 (35.81%). the least contributors are those who have superior (0.27%) and above-average scores (0.27%). the data also presents that no students have below average and low cognitive ability. the finding generally indicates that the respondents of the study have an average or fair cognitive learning level, which finds it logical being already at the collegiate level. table 4. students’ level of academic achievement domains descriptive interpretation frequency (n=37 percentage 128 and above superior 1 0.27 120-127.99 above average 1 0.27 112-119.99 above average 135 35.81 104-111.99 average 19 5.04 96-103.99 average 213 56.50 88-95.99 average 8 2.12 80-87.99 below average 0 0.00 7279.99 below average 0 0.00 71 and below low 0 0.00 level of cognitive ability = 103.14 (sd= 10.16) – average note: ottis-lennon school ability scale in this part of the study, finding reveals that sampled students’ level of cognitive ability is on the average. it implies that the students manifest a reasonable level of cognitive capacity towards abstract thinking and reasoning abilities. as an implication, on the average level of cognitive ability displayed by the indonesian respondents, the university may strengthen their curricular programs by enhancing more the learning opportunities being offered to the students, which will promote students’ performance on diverse learning tasks. cognitive ability is the general mental maunah. structure involving critical thing, reasoning, abstract thinking, comprehension, and application of learning (k. bergman, sarkar, glover, & o’connor, 2010). studies confirmed that students’ cognitive ability is a predictor of academic success (grass, strobel & strobel, 2017; rammstedt, danner & martin, 2016). studies in the indonesian context of students’ cognitive ability showed that urban students have better cognitive ability compared to rural students (y. wang et al., 2019; zhao, ye, li & xue, 2017). research question 4. is there a difference between the respondents' cognitive level when grouped according to selected variables? the test of the difference between the respondents' cognitive ability when grouped according to their profile variables, is presented in table 5. results showed that the hypothesis of the study is accepted. the single variable which spelled significant difference is when grouped according to fathers' education (p=0.026**). at the same time, gender, family income, and mother education showed no significant difference in terms of the students' cognitive level. table 5. test of difference between the respondents cognitive ability when grouped according to select profile variables gender p-value mothers education fathers education family income cognitive level 0.475 ns 0.026 * 0.445 ns 0.083 ns note: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.00 ns= not significant the study revealed that mothers’ education is generally associated with cognitive ability in the case of the indonesian respondents. it implies that maternal education is positively linked to the student’s cognitive ability. it can be explained that the role of indonesian mothers in the education of their children is significant. it is implying that educated mothers tend to see their children have good learning exposure and opportunities, which is linked to higher network and involvement of their children towards education. this finding confirms decade studies regarding the influence of mothers to their children’ cognitive development (baker & milligan, 2015; o. bergman, ellingsen, johannesson & svensson, 2010; borra, iacovou & sevilla, 2012; carneiro, meghir & parey, 2013; duncan & magnuson, 2012; figlio, guryan, karbownik & roth, 2014; hess & shipman, 2017; obradović, yousafzai, finch & rasheed, 2016; quittner et al., 2013). likewise, in the indonesian journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 context, this finding corroborates with the previous studies that level of mothers education and health practices significantly impact indonesian learners’ cognitive ability and language development (chiu & lau, 2018; s. li, tao, joshi & xu, 2018; lin et al., 2017; long & pang, 2016; j. wu & zhang, 2017; h. zhang & whitebread, 2017). research question 5. is there a significant relationship between social and cultural capital orientation and the respondents' cognitive ability? table 6 shows the correlation between students' cognitive ability and their social and cultural capital orientation. it was revealed that there is a significant correlation between students' cognitive ability and their social and cultural capital orientation on the domains of literacy (0.000*) and global-cultural competence (p=0.002*). the positive relationship suggests that literacy and globalcultural competence as domains of scc is positively correlated to the students' cognitive ability. hence, the hypothesis of the study is accepted. the finding generally shows that when students have a high level of literacy and cultural competence, the higher cognitive ability. no significant relationship found on social competence, social solidarity, and extraversion. table 6. test of relationship between social and cultural capital orientation and the respondents’ cognitive ability social competence social solidarity literacy global-cultural competence extraversion cognitive ability r= .0066 r=0.044 r=0.250 r=0.105 r=0.049 p= 0.899 ns p=.241 ns p= 0.000** p= 0.002* p=0.339 ns note: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.00 ns= not significant literacy and global-cultural competence are positively associated with indonesian students' cognitive ability. the positive relationship among the variables implies that high level of home literacy practices and global-cultural competence relate to the level of students cognitive ability. it further suggests that both literacy and cultural competence, when enhanced, it will improve students' cognitive ability. a similar finding has been found affirming that students' academic achievement is correlated to literacy and global-cultural competence (pishghadam & zabihi, 2011). likewise, studies also concluded the positive association between social and cultural capital to students learning outcomes (ahmadi, ansarifar & ansarifar, 2015; andersen & jæger, 2015; ghaffari & khani, 2013; gracia, 2015; hernández, cascallar & kyndt, 2019; mikus, tieben, & maunah. schober, 2019; møllegaard & jæger, 2015; o’connell, 2019; rogošić & baranović, 2016; c. y. tan, peng & lyu, 2019). studies in the indonesian context also espoused that home literacy practices promote cognitive language development (chow et al., 2017; g. li & ma, 2016; j. wang, li & wang, 2018; yeung & king, 2016; s. zhang et al., 2019). moreover, studies also showed that arts and cultural involvement of students benefit their academic achievement (alfita, kadiyono, nguyen, firdaus & wekke, 2019; pinto & he, 2019; c. tan & tan, 2016; c. y. tan et al., 2019). research question 5. what predicts the social and cultural capital orientation and cognitive ability of the respondents? table 7 shows that family income predicts the social and cultural orientation of the respondents. with the predictor variables selected, family income is the single predictor of social and cultural capital obtained the p-value of 0.000, which is lower than the alpha level of 0.01. the finding generally shows that family income significantly predicted the social and cultural capital orientations of the respondents. table 7. regression analysis of the social and cultural capital, cognitive learning ability, and select family background variables â* un std. error of â â std. err. â t (371) p value mothers education 0.055 0.051 0.029 0.027 1.086 0.278 ns fathers education -0.015 0.050 -0.009 0.032 -0.302 0.762 ns family income 0.229 0.051 0.112 0.025 4.467 0.000** note: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.00 ns= not significant the result of the regression analysis found out that family income is a predictor of high social and cultural capital orientations among the students. it implies that those students in the indonesian context who are on the higher income bracket tend to exhibit high social and cultural capital. this finding supports earlier studies that family income and social class predict more top access to learning opportunities, experiences, and educational resources (bodovski, 2010; fan, 2014; fismen, samdal & torsheim, 2012). moreover, the finding further implies that in the indonesian educational setting, families may find advantage in providing quality education to their children journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 by offering them the highlight that family income promotes learning achievement and social and cultural capital advantage of their children which will ultimately help them achieve success in their future careers. as an implication of this finding, the provision for equal and equitable access to quality education is one of the top priorities of the indonesian government at present. the human capital flourishing can be attained through quality education, which is an essential component of social justice. hence, government initiative through proper allocation of educational resources is sought to narrow down the educational gap between the learning opportunities of the rich and the poor. the increase of educational funding is necessary for the government to fulfill so that higher education institutions can adequately provide the best learning resources for the students who come from underprivileged families. conclusion the current study examined the interplay of social and cultural capital orientation, cognitive learning ability, and family background. the results of the study showed that the respondents manifest a high level of social and cultural capital orientation, with literacy having the highest factor. likewise, the respondents have an average cognitive level of ability. test of difference showed that respondents whose parents having high educational achievement exhibit high social competence, social solidarity, cultural competence, and extraversion, social solidity, and extraversion. similarly, fathers’ education is the single variable which spelled difference on the student’s cognitive ability implying students whose fathers have high academic qualification exhibit high cognitive ability. test of relationship showed that literacy practices and globalcultural competence are correlated to students’ cognitive ability. finally, family income is a predictor of students’ high level of social and cultural capital orientation and cognitive ability. these findings of the present study will present theoretical and practical implications. theoretical and practical implications the findings of the present study provide significant theoretical and practical implications. the quest to improve students’ learning outcomes is one of the essential tasks of institutions around the world. this study showcased that economic capital is a predictor of social and cultural capital for indonesian college students’ cognitive ability. as to theoretical implication, this study strengthens the bourdieu’s theory of capital (bourdieu, 1977) highlighting the direct relationship maunah. between economic opportunities to learning opportunities. influence of family background to college education is still pervasive, where secure family financial status contributes to improving learning performance and interest (w. li, 2007; matherly, amin, & al nahyan, 2017; m. zhang & li, 2019; h. zhang & whitebread, 2017). the central thesis of bourdieu is that an individual’s educational success is closely related to social class background and class bias, which are present in school. the present finding of the study bears significant implications to close the gap and indifference of student cognitive ability to promote educational relevance, access, and equity in modern indonesian society, considering that college education is the gateway for better opportunities. therefore, the following practical implications are offered. first, the support of learning institutions to students who come from low-income families may be strengthened by intensifying the effort of providing scholarships grants. second, the support of parents towards the education of their children is still encouraged through financial and non-financial aspects. third, awareness of parents on parenting behavior, as well as educational support, is always encouraged. fourth, exploration of the other factors relating to better learning access of students to education is still sought. fifth, provided that literacy as the dimension of social and cultural capital, which is associated with cognitive ability, universities are encouraged to provide more reading and learning materials to students in such a way this will improve their cognitive ability. likewise, mobile learning is also encouraged to promote better access and relevance of education in the industrial revolution 4.0. sixth, finally, global-cultural competencies also related to the cognitive ability of the students; universities should initiate socio-cultural activities that will support the cultural appreciation of students. limitations and future research direction this study is subject to limitations which will provide future research directions. first, to further ascertain and close the gap of this study, a national survey may be initiated with lager samples, which will offer a more in-depth analysis and understanding of the influence of family income and parents’ education to capture its effect on the cognitive ability of the students. questions and gaps are presented in this study, which can help future researchers chart their research problems. second, the use of a mixed-method research design is encouraged since this study is only limited to the descriptive correlational survey. thirdly, a longitudinal study must be initiated, focusing on journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 the direct effect of social and cultural capital on learners’ cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development. finally, a follow-up study should be conducted aligned with the attainment of indonesia’s education modernization. references ahmadi, h. s., ansarifar, a., & ansarifar, m. (2015). exploring the relationship between willingness to communicate in english, and social/cultural capital among iranian undergraduate english majors. theory and practice in language studies, 5(2), 413–420. ahmann, j. s. (1985). otis-lennon school ability test. measurement and evaluation in counseling and development, 17(4), 226–229. ainscow, m. (2016). collaboration as a strategy for promoting equity in education: possibilities and barriers. journal of professional capital and community, 1(2), 159–172. alfita, l., kadiyono, a. l., nguyen, p. t., firdaus, w., & wekke, i. s. (2019). educating the external conditions in the educational and cultural environment. international journal of higher education, 8(8). andersen, i. g., & jæger, m. m. (2015). cultural capital in context: heterogeneous returns to cultural capital across schooling environments. social science research, 50, 177–188. ansari, a., & gershoff, e. (2016). parent involvement in head start and children’s development: indirect effects through parenting. journal of marriage and family, 78(2), 562–579. arora, r. (1994). raosoft survey version 2.0: a productivity database. the journal of consumer marketing, 11(3), 58. avinun, r., israel, s., knodt, a. r., & hariri, a. r. (2019). little evidence for associations between the big five personality traits and variability in brain gray or white matter. biorxiv, 658567. backmann, j., weiss, m., schippers, m. c., & hoegl, m. (2019). personality factors, student resiliency, and the moderating role of achievement values in study progress. learning and individual differences, 72, 39–48. baker, m., & milligan, k. (2015). maternity leave and children’s cognitive and behavioral development. journal of population economics, 28(2), 373–391. bergman, k., sarkar, p., glover, v., & o’connor, t. g. (2010). maternal prenatal cortisol and infant cognitive development: moderation by infant–mother attachment. biological maunah. psychiatry, 67(11), 1026–1032. bergman, o., ellingsen, t., johannesson, m., & svensson, c. (2010). anchoring and cognitive ability. economics letters, 107(1), 66–68. bodovski, k. (2010). parental practices and educational achievement: social class, race, and habitus. british journal of sociology of education, 31(2), 139–156. börjesson, m., broady, d., le roux, b., lidegran, i., & palme, m. (2016). cultural capital in the elite subfield of swedish higher education. poetics, 56, 15–34. borra, c., iacovou, m., & sevilla, a. (2012). the effect of breastfeeding on children’s cognitive and noncognitive development. labour economics, 19(4), 496–515. bourdieu, p. (1977). outline of a theory of practice (vol. 16). cambridge university press. buckley, l. a. (2010). unfulfilled hopes in education for equity: redesigning the mathematics curriculum in a us high school. journal of curriculum studies, 42(1), 51–78. budiharso, t., & arbain. (2019). teaching practice: immersion program for teacher development profession. asian efl journal. burger, k. (2016). intergenerational transmission of education in europe: do more comprehensive education systems reduce social gradients in student achievement? research in social stratification and mobility, 44, 54–67. byun, s., schofer, e., & kim, k. (2012). revisiting the role of cultural capital in east asian educational systems: the case of south korea. sociology of education, 85(3), 219–239. camilleri, m., & camilleri, a. (2020). the sustainable development goal on quality education (pp. 261–277). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21154-7_13 campbell, d. e. (2006). what is education’s impact on civic and social engagement. in measuring the effects of education on health and civic engagement: proceedings of the copenhagen symposium (pp. 25–126). cao, c., & meng, q. (2020). exploring personality traits as predictors of english achievement and global competence among chinese university students: english learning motivation as the moderator. learning and individual differences, 77, 101814. carneiro, p., meghir, c., & parey, m. (2013). maternal education, home environments, and the development of children and adolescents. journal of the european economic association, 11(suppl_1), 123–160. chabbott, c. (2013). constructing education for development: international organizations and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 education for all. routledge. chaudry, a., & wimer, c. (2016). poverty is not just an indicator: the relationship between income, poverty, and child well-being. academic pediatrics, 16(3), s23–s29. cheng, s.-t., & kaplowitz, s. a. (2016). family economic status, cultural capital, and academic achievement: the case of taiwan. international journal of educational development, 49, 271–278. chiu, c. y., & lau, e. y. h. (2018). extracurricular participation and young children’s outcomes in hong kong: maternal involvement as a moderator. children and youth services review, 88, 476–485. chow, b. w.-y., chui, b. h.-t., lai, m. w.-c., & kwok, s. y. c. l. (2017). differential influences of parental home literacy practices and anxiety in english as a foreign language on chinese children’s english development. international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 20(6), 625–637. ciping, d., silinskas, g., wei, w., & georgiou, g. k. (2015). cross-lagged relationships between home learning environment and academic achievement in chinese. early childhood research quarterly, 33, 12–20. clark, i. (2014). equitable learning outcomes: supporting economically and culturally disadvantaged students in ‘formative learning environments.’ improving schools, 17(1), 116–126. costa jr, p. t., & mccrae, r. r. (2008). the revised neo personality inventory (neo-pi-r). sage publications, inc. crosnoe, r., ansari, a., purtell, k. m., & wu, n. (2016). latin american immigration, maternal education, and approaches to managing children’s schooling in the united states. journal of marriage and family, 78(1), 60–74. darling-hammond, l., & friedlaender, d. (2008). creating excellent and equitable schools. educational leadership, 65(8), 14. davis, h. s., gonzalez, j. e., pollard-durodola, s., saenz, l. m., soares, d. a., resendez, n., … hagan-burke, s. (2016). home literacy beliefs and practices among low-income latino families. early child development and care, 186(7), 1152–1172. de eça, t. t., milbrandt, m. k., shin, r., & hsieh, k. (2017). visual arts education and the challenges of the millennium goals. in the palgrave handbook of global arts education maunah. (pp. 91–105). springer. dejaeghere, j., wiger, n. p., & willemsen, l. w. (2016). broadening educational outcomes: social relations, skills development, and employability for youth. comparative education review, 60(3), 457–479. duncan, g. j., & magnuson, k. (2012). socioeconomic status and cognitive functioning: moving from correlation to causation. wiley interdisciplinary reviews: cognitive science, 3(3), 377–386. durber, c. m., yeates, k. o., taylor, h. g., walz, n. c., stancin, t., & wade, s. l. (2017). the family environment predicts long-term academic achievement and classroom behavior following traumatic brain injury in early childhood. neuropsychology, 31(5), 499. edgerton, j. d., & roberts, l. w. (2014). cultural capital or habitus? bourdieu and beyond in the explanation of enduring educational inequality. theory and research in education, 12(2), 193–220. erdoğdu, m. y. (2019). the mediating role of school engagement in the relationship between attitude toward learning and academic achievement. international journal of education and literacy studies, 7(2), 75–81. erola, j., jalonen, s., & lehti, h. (2016). parental education, class and income over early life course and children’s achievement. research in social stratification and mobility, 44, 33– 43. fägerlind, i., & saha, l. j. (2016). education and national development: a comparative perspective. elsevier. fan, j. (2014). the impact of economic capital, social capital and cultural capital: chinese families’ access to educational resources. sociology mind, 4(04), 272. fatimah, a. s., & santiana, s. (2017). teaching in 21 century: students-teachers’ perceptions of technology use in the classroom. script journal of linguistics and english teaching, 2(2), 125–134. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.24903/sj.v2i2.132 figlio, d., guryan, j., karbownik, k., & roth, j. (2014). the effects of poor neonatal health on children’s cognitive development. american economic review, 104(12), 3921–3955. filippin, a., & paccagnella, m. (2012). family background, self-confidence and economic outcomes. economics of education review, 31(5), 824–834. fismen, a.-s., samdal, o., & torsheim, t. (2012). family affluence and cultural capital as journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 indicators of social inequalities in adolescent’s eating behaviours: a population-based survey. bmc public health, 12(1), 1036. font, s., & potter, m. h. (2019). socioeconomic resource environments in biological and alternative family care and children’s cognitive performance. sociological inquiry, 89(2), 263–287. gaddis, s. m. (2013). the influence of habitus in the relationship between cultural capital and academic achievement. social science research, 42(1), 1–13. ghaffari, m., & khani, l. (2013). the relationship between social capital and cultural intelligence with medical students’ academic performance. iranian journal of medical education, 13(8), 642–651. godhe, a.-l., lilja, p., & selwyn, n. (2019). making sense of making: critical issues in the integration of maker education into schools. technology, pedagogy and education, 28(3), 317–328. gracia, p. (2015). parent–child leisure activities and cultural capital in the united kingdom: the gendered effects of education and social class. social science research, 52, 290–302. grass, j., strobel, a., & strobel, a. (2017). cognitive investments in academic success: the role of need for cognition at university. frontiers in psychology, 8, 790. green, a. (2013). education and state formation. in education and state formation (pp. 82–114). springer. grimes, d. a., & schulz, k. f. (2002). descriptive studies: what they can and cannot do. the lancet, 359(9301), 145–149. hargreaves, a., & o’connor, m. t. (2018). solidarity with solidity: the case for collaborative professionalism. phi delta kappan, 100(1), 20–24. harju-luukkainen, h., & tarnanen, m. (2017). economic, social and cultural status (escs) and mathematics performance of immigrant students in the finnish metropolitan area in pisa 2012. in nordic dialogues on children and families (pp. 120–137). routledge. hernández, c. f. r., cascallar, e., & kyndt, e. (2019). socio-economic status and academic performance in higher education: a systematic review. educational research review, 100305. hess, r. d., & shipman, v. c. (2017). maternal influences upon early learning: the cognitive environments of urban pre-school children. in early formal education (pp. 91–103). maunah. routledge. howard, k. (2016). intangible cultural heritage in china today: policy and practice in the early twenty-first century. in music as intangible cultural heritage (pp. 37–68). routledge. hu, a., & wu, x. (2019). science or liberal arts? cultural capital and college major choice in china. the british journal of sociology, 70(1), 190–213. ip, p., rao, n., bacon-shone, j., li, s. l., ho, f. k., chow, c., & jiang, f. (2016). socioeconomic gradients in school readiness of chinese preschool children: the mediating role of family processes and kindergarten quality. early childhood research quarterly, 35, 111–123. jæger, m. m. (2011). does cultural capital really affect academic achievement? new evidence from combined sibling and panel data. sociology of education, 84(4), 281–298. joncheere, a. (2015). intangible inventions: the kalbeliya gypsy dance form, from its creation to unesco recognition. archiv orientalni, 83(1), 71–93. jr, g. c. m. (2019). learning styles , study habits and academic performance of filipino university students in applied science courses : implications for instructions. journal of technology and science education, 9(2), 184–198. kelsen, b. a. (2019). exploring public speaking anxiety and personal disposition in efl presentations. learning and individual differences, 73, 92–101. kruss, g., mcgrath, s., petersen, i., & gastrow, m. (2015). higher education and economic development: the importance of building technological capabilities. international journal of educational development, 43, 22–31. langenkamp, a. g. (2016). effects of school mobility on adolescent social ties and academic adjustment. youth & society, 48(6), 810–833. law, w.-w., & ho, w.-c. (2015). popular music and school music education: chinese students’ preferences and dilemmas in shanghai, china. international journal of music education, 33(3), 304–324. lee, j. c.-k., yu, z., huang, x., & law, e. h.-f. (2016). educational development in western china: towards quality and equity. in educational development in western china (pp. 1– 20). brill sense. lee, s., & shouse, r. c. (2011). the impact of prestige orientation on shadow education in journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 south korea. sociology of education, 84(3), 212–224. li, g., & ma, w. (2016). introduction: understanding “difference within differences” in chinese-heritage students’ educational experiences across school, home, and community contexts. in chinese-heritage students in north american schools (pp. 21–28). routledge. li, s., tao, s., joshi, r. m., & xu, q. (2018). second‐language reading difficulties among native chinese‐speaking students learning to read english: the roles of native‐and second‐language skills. reading research quarterly, 53(4), 423–441. li, w. (2007). family background, financial constraints and higher education attendance in china. economics of education review, 26(6), 724–734. li, x., & lamb, m. e. (2015). fathering in chinese culture: traditions and transitions. li, z., gan, s., & jia, r. (2017). the impact of social capitals on service quality of chinese educational institutions: a multilevel analysis. concurrency and computation: practice and experience, 29(24), e4217. lin, y., xu, j., huang, j., jia, y., zhang, j., yan, c., & zhang, j. (2017). effects of prenatal and postnatal maternal emotional stress on toddlers’ cognitive and temperamental development. journal of affective disorders, 207, 9–17. liu, c., & georgiou, g. k. (2017). cognitive and environmental correlates of rapid automatized naming in chinese kindergarten children. journal of educational psychology, 109(4), 465. liu, c., georgiou, g. k., & manolitsis, g. (2018). modeling the relationships of parents’ expectations, family’s ses, and home literacy environment with emergent literacy skills and word reading in chinese. early childhood research quarterly, 43, 1–10. liu, t., zhang, x., & jiang, y. (2020). family socioeconomic status and the cognitive competence of very young children from migrant and non-migrant chinese families: the mediating role of parenting self-efficacy and parental involvement. early childhood research quarterly, 51, 229–241. long, h., & pang, w. (2016). family socioeconomic status, parental expectations, and adolescents’ academic achievements: a case of china. educational research and evaluation, 22(5–6), 283–304. ma, c., & wang, y. (2019). parental autonomy support and social competence in chinese emerging adults: the mediation role of social desirablity. in matec web of conferences (vol. 267, p. 4003). edp sciences. maunah. marteleto, l., & andrade, f. (2014). the educational achievement of brazilian adolescents: cultural capital and the interaction between families and schools. sociology of education, 87(1), 16–35. matherly, l. l., amin, n., & al nahyan, s. s. k. (2017). the impact of generation and socioeconomic status on the value of higher education in the uae: a longitudinal study. international journal of educational development, 55, 1–10. meng, q., zhu, c., & cao, c. (2018). chinese international students’ social connectedness, social and academic adaptation: the mediating role of global competence. higher education, 75(1), 131–147. meyer, f., meissel, k., & mcnaughton, s. (2017). patterns of literacy learning in german primary schools over the summer and the influence of home literacy practices. journal of research in reading, 40(3), 233–253. mikus, k., tieben, n., & schober, p. s. (2019). children’s conversion of cultural capital into educational success: the symbolic and skill-generating functions of cultural capital. british journal of sociology of education, 1–19. møllegaard, s., & jæger, m. m. (2015). the effect of grandparents’ economic, cultural, and social capital on grandchildren’s educational success. research in social stratification and mobility, 42, 11–19. monaghan, d. (2017). does college enrollment and bachelor’s completion by mothers impact children’s educational outcomes? sociology of education, 90(1), 3–24. moote, j., archer, l., dewitt, j., & macleod, e. (2019). comparing students’ engineering and science aspirations from age 10 to 16: investigating the role of gender, ethnicity, cultural capital, and attitudinal factors. journal of engineering education. morrow, m. t., hubbard, j. a., & sharp, m. k. (2019). preadolescents’ daily peer victimization and perceived social competence: moderating effects of classroom aggression. journal of clinical child & adolescent psychology, 48(5), 716–727. nadelson, l. s., albritton, s., couture, v. g., green, c., loyless, s. d., & shaw, e. o. (2020). principals’ perceptions of education equity: a mindset for practice. journal of education and learning, 9(1). napoli, a. r., & purpura, d. j. (2018). the home literacy and numeracy environment in preschool: cross-domain relations of parent–child practices and child outcomes. journal of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 experimental child psychology, 166, 581–603. ning, w. (2015). highlighting the humanistic spirit in the age of globalization: humanities education in china. european review, 23(2), 273–285. o’connell, m. (2019). is the impact of ses on educational performance overestimated? evidence from the pisa survey. intelligence, 75, 41–47. obradović, j., yousafzai, a. k., finch, j. e., & rasheed, m. a. (2016). maternal scaffolding and home stimulation: key mediators of early intervention effects on children’s cognitive development. developmental psychology, 52(9), 1409. ohlin, c. (2019). information and communication technology in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 41-57. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/409 orpinas, p. (2010). social competence. the corsini encyclopedia of psychology, 1–2. otis, a. s. (1988). otis-lennon school ability test: olsat. psychological corporation. park, s. y., pan, b., & ahn, j. bin. (2020). family trip and academic achievement in early childhood. annals of tourism research, 80, 102795. peng, m. y.-p. (2019). testing the mediating role of student learning outcomes in the relationship among students’ social capital, international mindsets, and employability. the asia-pacific education researcher, 28(3), 229–237. pérez‐escamilla, r., & moran, v. h. (2017). the role of nutrition in integrated early child development in the 21st century: contribution from the maternal and child nutrition journal. maternal & child nutrition, 13(1), 3–6. perry, l. (2009). characteristics of equitable systems of education: a cross-national analysis. european education, 41(1), 79–100. pinto, l. h., & he, k. (2019). ‘in the eyes of the beholder’: the influence of academic performance and extracurricular activities on the perceived employability of chinese business graduates. asia pacific journal of human resources, 57(4), 503–527. pishghadam, r., & zabihi, r. (2011). parental education and social and cultural capital in academic achievement. international journal of english linguistics, 1(2), 50. potter, s. m. (2018). sustainable leadership in arts education using alternative resources in pennsylvania title i schools. walden university. quittner, a. l., cruz, i., barker, d. h., tobey, e., eisenberg, l. s., niparko, j. k., & team, c. maunah. d. after c. i. i. (2013). effects of maternal sensitivity and cognitive and linguistic stimulation on cochlear implant users’ language development over four years. the journal of pediatrics, 162(2), 343–348. rammstedt, b., danner, d., & martin, s. (2016). the association between personality and cognitive ability: going beyond simple effects. journal of research in personality, 62, 39– 44. ridley-duff, r. (2016). rendering the social solidarity economy: exploring the case for a paradigm shift in the visibility of co operative and mutual enterprises in business education, research and policy-making. rogošić, s., & baranović, b. (2016). social capital and educational achievements: coleman vs. bourdieu. center for educational policy studies journal, 6(2), 81–100. rowe, m. l., ramani, g. b., & pomerantz, e. m. (2016). parental involvement and children’s motivation and achievement. handbook of motivation at school, 459. saçkes, m., işıtan, s., avci, k., & justice, l. m. (2016). parents’ perceptions of children’s literacy motivation and their home-literacy practices: what’s the connection? european early childhood education research journal, 24(6), 857–872. seward, r. r., & stanley-stevens, l. (2014). fathers, fathering, and fatherhood across cultures. in parenting across cultures (pp. 459–474). springer. shephard, k. (2010). higher education’s role in’education for sustainability’. australian universities’ review, the, 52(1), 13. speed, j., pair, d. l., zargham, m., yao, z., & franco, s. (2019). changing faculty culture to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion in stem education’. kelly m. mack kate winter melissa soto (ed.) culturally responsive strategies for reforming stem higher education. emerald publishing limited, 53–72. strange, c., bremner, a., fisher, c., howat, p., & wood, l. (2016). mothers’ group participation: associations with social capital, social support and mental well‐being. journal of advanced nursing, 72(1), 85–98. stråth, b. (2017). identity and social solidarity: an ignored connection. a historical perspective on the state of europe and its nations. nations and nationalism, 23(2), 227–247. tan, c. (2015). education policy borrowing and cultural scripts for teaching in china. comparative education, 51(2), 196–211. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 163-191 tan, c., & tan, l. (2016). a shared vision of human excellence: confucian spirituality and arts education. pastoral care in education, 34(3), 156–166. tan, c. y., peng, b., & lyu, m. (2019). what types of cultural capital benefit students’ academic achievement at different educational stages? interrogating the meta-analytic evidence. educational research review, 100289. tang, q. (2015). education 2030. incheon declaration and framework for action for the implementation of sustainable development goal 4. retrieved, 8, 2016. tuononen, t., parpala, a., & lindblom-ylänne, s. (2019). graduates’ evaluations of usefulness of university education, and early career success–a longitudinal study of the transition to working life. assessment & evaluation in higher education, 44(4), 581–595. tynjälä, p., virtanen, a., klemola, u., kostiainen, e., & rasku-puttonen, h. (2016). developing social competence and other generic skills in teacher education: applying the model of integrative pedagogy. european journal of teacher education, 39(3), 368–387. virtanen, a., & tynjälä, p. (2019). factors explaining the learning of generic skills: a study of university students’ experiences. teaching in higher education, 24(7), 880–894. vossoughi, s., hooper, p. k., & escudé, m. (2016). making through the lens of culture and power: toward transformative visions for educational equity. harvard educational review, 86(2), 206–232. vuong, q. h., la, v.-p., ho, m.-t., & hoang phuong, h. (2019). social disparities and gender gap in stem learning: insights from a cultural landscape. wang, j., li, h., & wang, d. (2018). bridging the rural-urban literacy gap in china: a mediation analysis of family effects. journal of research in childhood education, 32(1), 119–134. wang, m. (2015). urbanization and contemporary chinese art. routledge. wang, y., ang, c., jiang, z., & wu, c.-h. (2019). the role of trait extraversion in shaping proactive behavior: a multilevel examination of the impact of high-activated positive affect. personality and individual differences, 136, 107–112. williams, c. (2007). research methods. journal of business & economics research (jber), 5(3). wilson, v. (2016). research methods: sampling. evidence based library and information practice, 11(1 (s)), 69–71. wu, j., & zhang, j. (2017). the effect of parental absence on child development in rural china. maunah. asian economic policy review, 12(1), 117–134. wu, y. (2008). cultural capital, the state, and educational inequality in china, 1949–1996. sociological perspectives, 51(1), 201–227. xie, c., & ma, y. (2019). the mediating role of cultural capital in the relationship between socioeconomic status and student achievement in 14 economies. british educational research journal, 45(4), 838–855. xu, j., & hampden-thompson, g. (2012). cultural reproduction, cultural mobility, cultural resources, or trivial effect? a comparative approach to cultural capital and educational performance. comparative education review, 56(1), 98–124. yamamoto, y., & brinton, m. c. (2010). cultural capital in east asian educational systems: the case of japan. sociology of education, 83(1), 67–83. yeung, s. s., & king, r. b. (2016). home literacy environment and english language and literacy skills among chinese young children who learn english as a second language. reading psychology, 37(1), 92–120. zhang, h., & whitebread, d. (2017). linking parental scaffolding with self-regulated learning in chinese kindergarten children. learning and instruction, 49, 121–130. zhang, m., & li, y. (2019). family fortunes: the persisting grandparents’ effects in contemporary british society. social science research, 77, 179–192. zhang, s., georgiou, g., & shu, h. (2019). what aspects of the home literacy environment differentiate chinese children at risk for reading difficulties from their not at risk controls? preschool and primary education, 7(1), 1–18. zhao, g., ye, j., li, z., & xue, s. (2017). how and why do chinese urban students outperform their rural counterparts? china economic review, 45, 103–123. zhu, y. (2019). new national initiatives of modernizing education in china. ecnu review of education, 2(3), 353–362. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1), 64-87 64 beyond project compliance: unintended social impact and the emergency call for community education in west tarum canal pius suratman kartasasmita1 abstract involuntary resettlement is inevitable in development practices. it refers to a process of moving people to a different place because of government development project. beyond the conventional studies on involuntary resettlement which usually focus on the issue of fair and just compensations, this study aims to investigate the critical values of community education for resettlement. using the risk/needs/responsively model (r-n-r model) as its conceptual framework, this study has two purposes. first, whether the implementation of resettlement program in west tarum canal (wtc) complies with procedures and principles agreed by adb and goi in their loan agreement. second, whether the level of livelihood of affected households after relocation are better off. accordingly, this study deals with three specific questions i.e. whether the compensation paid is fair and just, whether the conducted training is impactful, and whether the assistance and facilitation provided are helpful. this study employs quantitative research designs. as many as 270 out of 1047 affected households (ahs) dwelling along wtc, are randomly selected as sample. questionnaires combined with systematic observations, series of fgds, and structured in-depth interviews are used as instruments for collecting data. results show that, the implementation of resettlement in wtc is not comply with the set principles and procedures. the livelihood of ahs is not better off after relocations. more specific it is concluded that, the compensation payment given is not fair and just, training programs delivered are not impactful, and assistance and facilitation provided are not helpful. this study ends up with an emergency call for inserting community civic education into resettlement program to replace conventional training and facilitation programs. further study on understanding the root of community virtuous citizenship, or lack of it, is recommended. key words: involuntary resettlement, compensation payment, risk/needs/responsively model (rn-r model), community education. introduction the integrated citarum water resources management investment program (icwrmip) is an adb funded project carried out by the directorate general of water resources (dgwr), the ministry of public work. this fifteen-year project scheme was planned to cover restoration the entire citarum river basin including 10 regencies and 6 municipalities in west java. 1 senior lecturer at department of public administration and graduate program in development study. chair of centre for human development and social justice (chuds), parahyangan catholic university, bandung, indonesia, pius.gb@unpar.ac.id kartasasmita rehabilitation of wtc, among other project components, aims at improving the flow and quality of water that provides 80% of jakarta’s surface water needs, in addition to supplying the water requirements of industrial establishments and about 52,800 ha of farmland. the wtc runs through district of karawang, district of bekasi and bekasi city. the coverage area of wtc includes 54.2 km out of is 68.3 km long of wtc that has a 100 m right-of-way (row), measured at 50 m either side from the center of the canal. relocation of people who are living along the canal on land belonging to the government and within the easement boundaries of the canal is required. their assets minus their land, including the buildings, crops and trees are compensated by the wtc project. loan agreement has requirements and a set of stringent principles on involuntary resettlement which are agreed by both goi and adb as part of their loan agreement (goi, 2008). a set of compensation principles, as the key component of resettlement, are assured by adb. any compensation gets by the aps should be fair with the assets that they loss during the development project implementation. the price of the compensation that is set by adb is the principle of replacement cost, while the value of asset is assessed by an independent appraiser. the best price known in the market will be given to the re-settlers so that it will be fair enough for the re-settlers. yet, the bank admits that cash for land acquisition has never been a satisfactory mode of compensation if it is not paid at replacement values. in many cases, land-based resettlement programs work better than non-land options. however, such option is not an issue in wtc as the land belongs to the goi. more elaborated bank's principles on compensation is indicated in the resettlement framework (rf). comparatively, such compensation principles are also shared by other international development agency such as international finance corporation (ifc, 2002). there is strong evidence in wtc that illegal dwellers along the canal do not have any intention to move out from the restricted area, albeit they have received proper amount of compensation payment. illegal dwellers who were moving out after receiving compensation payment in 2015, are eventually coming back to the restricted area. this evidence is confirmed by 32 short videos created by 101 students at the end of year 2019. go beyond conventional studies on involuntary resettlement that usually focusing on the issue of whether compensation given is fair and just, this study aims to investigate whether the implementation of resettlement program in wtc complies with procedures and principles agreed by adb and goi in their loan agreement and whether the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 level of livelihood of ahs after relocation are better off. however, this study moves further beyond compliance issues. it searches for foundation for inserting community civic education into resettlement program to replace conventional training and facilitation programs. in order to deal with such purposes above, there are three specific research questions to deal with. first, whether the compensation paid is fair and just. second, whether the conducted training is impactful. third, whether the assistance and facilitation provided are helpful. it is expected that the answer to all three questions exhibits legitimate explanation in accomplishing the purpose of this study. conceptual framework r-n-r model for resettlement program this study employs risk/needs/responsively principles (r-n-r model), initiated in early 1990 by james bonta, as the main conceptual framework. within resettlement context, the model basically asserts that treatment, is as much as important, if not more important, than the compensation itself (william h. mcneill and ruth s. adams, 2006). r-n-r model basically stand on three conceptual principles. first, the risk principles (r); refers to the risk of the affected persons (aps) returning back to the restricted area. it is related to – “who to target”-. second, the need principles (n); refers to the criminogenic needs and target them in treatment. it is related to – “what to do” by assessing criminogenic needs and provide effective interventions. third, the responsivity principles (r); is related to – “how to do it” – by maximizing the subject (read: illegal dwellers) ability to learn from a rehabilitative intervention by providing cognitive behavioral treatment and tailoring the intervention to their learning style, motivation, abilities and strengths. as it is proven in many cases, this model reduces such reoffending behavior significantly. it uses cognitive-behavioral strategies effective in changing offender behavior (general responsivity), and enhance motivation for individual offenders (specific responsivity). the basic structure of effective correctional programming of r-n-r model: interventions match intensity of treatment to level of risk, specifically target criminogenic needs, and tailor treatment to the personal and interpersonal needs and capacities of participants (andrews, d. a., et.al., 2004). leading question behind r-n-r model falls in the niche of desistance paradigm asserting that instead of starting from the question how practice should be constructed, it begins by asking how change can take kartasasmita place (william h. mcneill and ruth s. adams, 2006). desistance paradigm principles can be summarized as follow: a. agency is as important as if not more important than structure in promoting or inhibiting desistance from crime. b. individuals differ in their readiness to contemplate and begin the process of change. c. generating and sustaining motivation is vital to the maintenance of processes of change. d. desistance is a difficult and often lengthy process, not an ‘event’, and relapses are common. e. while overcoming social problems is often insufficient on its own to promote desistance, it may be a necessary condition for further progress. f. as people change they need new skills and capacities appropriate to their new lifestyle, and access to opportunities to use them (spiers, h. j. & maguire, 2007). recent development of r-n-r research as applied in sonoma county-canada, asserts that instead of using deficit based approach that hinders motivation toward positive change, the revised models emphasis more on building upon existing strengths and motivation, while also being sure to address issues connected with re-offending or criminogenic needs. one of the newer principles in the r-n-r model is to assess personal strengths and integrate them into rehabilitation efforts. the model is not just about risks. it is also a strength-based approach to helping offenders. a research summary from public safety canada corrections research led by james bonta, the prominent figure of this area, provides policy recommendations to ensure that the strengths focus of the rn-r model is properly applied: a. when developing programs and policies the expanded r-n-r model should be considered and not simply the three principles derived in the 1990 version of the model. b. the assessment of offenders for treatment purposes should integrate the assessment of strengths and motivations. in this way, treatment providers can build upon personal strengths in their efforts to decrease program attrition and reduce offender risk. c. basic human needs and aspirations are important elements to engagement and success in offender treatment. one of the principles of the expanded r-n-r model is respect for the person. however, one must not lose sight of addressing criminogenic needs. it is by reducing criminogenic needs that offenders are helped to lead a more prosocial lifestyle (bonta, 2011). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 two research representing the strength-based r-n-r principle results in positive outcomes (stewart, et.al., 2014; segeren, et.al, 2020). all these provide foundation to use r-n-r model as a conceptual framework for this study and the following paragraphs provide its logical scheme. involuntary resettlement resettlement is a term used to describe the movement of individual or group from one location to another. it refers to a process of moving people to a different place because they are no longer allowed to stay in the area where they used to live because of government development project (adb, 2013). there are two types of resettlement, voluntary and involuntary. mounted reading materials connect resettlement to land acquisition exhibiting how land acquisition is related to resettlement and why the concept is important for understanding resettlement processes (adb, 2016). therefore, resettlement is complex and consequential processes (berlowitz, 1986). in predominantly agriculture society, land is not only a mean for food production nor is a source of livelihood, but also is a symbol of social identity, status, power and wealth. large-scale and multiple displacements are associated with impoverishment, socio-cultural alienation and uprootedness. land acquisition exhibits dramatic social irony resulting in greater poverty level and economic inequality, to include deteriorating conditions for women and children (amir afaque ahmad faizi, 2014). it seriously impacts vulnerable groups and has something to do with capital concentration and inequality (akanda, 2014). state policy and public officials are vulnerable in dealing with land acquisition issue (maitreesh ghatak, 2011; sinha, 2014). as such both the adb and goi enforce tight principles and procedures as non-compromised element of their loan agreement. within r-n-r model, resettlement is an effort to mitigate a risk, which is the possibility of the affected people to keep staying or returning back to the restricted area. compensation payment most study on resettlement and land acquisition are focused on the issue of providing fair and just compensation. it is a payment or other replacement to the equal amount of loss assets belong to the affected people (aps) as the most essential element of resettlement process. in the case of wtc rehabilitation, adb emphasizes that aps should be at least as well off after resettlement as they were before. cash compensation is the amount of money given to the aps as a replacement cost kartasasmita of lands, crops, buildings and other assets loss. replacement costs are equal to market costs plus transaction costs only if the markets reflect reliable information about prices and availability of alternatives to the assets lost. however, in the context of fair in compensation, it is acknowledged by the bank that the principle of cash for land acquisition has never been a satisfactory mode of compensation if it is not paid at replacement values (adb, 1998). despite the fact that cash compensation could provide opportunities for opening family businesses (guggenheim, 1990), cash compensation have negative impact (pokharel, 1988; kartasasmita, 2014; partridge, 1989). most countries have land acquisition laws that require prompt and adequate monetary compensation for persons who lose their land and property. in many others, however, cash compensation exhibits negative consequences, particularly for tribal and other marginal communities. tribal economies are in large non-monetized, based on reciprocal exchange of goods and services. therefore, people are not well accustomed to managing cash. there is a popular saying among the havasupai apache indians in the united states, a community who displaced repeatedly by development projects: "land is like diamonds but money is like ice" (andrews, d. a., et.al., 2004). within r-n-r model, dealing with compensation is related with “what to do” question. it is identic with providing effective interventions in dealing with criminogenic needs of the affected persons. community education community education (ce) is a collective action in developing capacity of individual member of the community as well as capacity of community as a whole in various aspect of community, to include economy as well as social and moral. ce is a community wide structure for communications within neighborhoods, and between neighborhoods and government (miles, 1974). it is connected to the principles of community development (harris, 1982) and helps to improve community capacity building in many areas including disaster management (nielsen, 2005). it is proven as an effective mechanism for recognizing children’s full worth and to reflects the value of family caregiving (stoney, et.al., 2006). public investments in such programs have been promoted on the grounds that they can produce high rates of return in the form of academic outcomes, greater employment rates, and reduced crime (barnett & ackerman, 2006). in the usa journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 participation in early community education (ece) is the norm for three years and four year-old children. ce plays important roles to many aspect of community development (cd). it provides adaptive strategy in redefining family roles, and outcomes on family and marital satisfaction (sweet & moen, 2007). community-based initiatives such as community garden education program, promotes community wellness (d’abundo & carden, 2008). ce is important to improve professional capacities of who are working for and with communities (pletcher, et.al., 1989). it is proven that the intellectual content in the political process is connected to community education (boggs, 1991). scientifically, ce is necessary for conducting participatory research (walter honadle, 1996). the emerging model for achieving sustainable community-based enterprise learning in connection to ce has been recently developed (vorley & williams, 2015). promoting ce programs is a controversial community issues (favero, meyer, & cooke, 1994). in its history ce is confronted with attempts to address social issues, such as defining more racially inclusive future (skipper, 2016), developing the core principles of community based tourism (cbt) (burgos & mertens, 2017), promoting social justice in tourism planning, racial reconciliation and sustainable community development (barton & leonard, 2010). study on the impact of study collectively for community-led change (christens & inzeo, 2015), study on a ‘broken' childhood and parental mental ill-health (mccormack, et.al., 2017), as well as small businesses conducted by latino minority in urbanized northwest washington (garcía-pabón & klima, 2017), not to mention the topic of social capital and access to credit appear as one of research focus (malual & mazur, 2017), are all representing controversial issues. recent studies on ce shows that the subject remains influential (theodori & theodori, 2015). asset-based community development and critical learning pedagogy stands to make important contributions to developing an applied critical pedagogy of community development in higher education (missingham, 2017). proposal at integrating popular education into a model of empowerment planning is also sound (bengle & sorensen, 2017). schools are now considered as community assets, at least from the perspective of an asset-based community development (abcd) approach (forrester, et.al, 2018). the relevance of family stage, educational level, work involvement, and local community of residence helped predict styles of community involvement (hofmeister & edgell, 2015). the roles of women's community organizations especially in kartasasmita exploring attitudes toward collaboration among board members was also explored (cumberland, kerrick, choi, & gosser, 2017). within r-n-r model, inserting community education, in particular community civic education into resettlement process, is critical responsivity. given literature review above, figure 1 provides logical framework for conducting this study. whilst figure 2 elaborates the steps taken to execute the field survey. method research design this study primarily employs quantitative research designs with post-factum evaluation approach. fields survey is used as the main data collection method; nonetheless data collected through indepth interviews of ahs; series of fgds and participatory observation to include attending village meetings and meeting with project staff; are utilized for interpreting survey results. videography and photography are also used in visualizing data. in generating conclusions, researcher employs content policy analysis, document analysis and simple non-parametric descriptive statistical analysis. population and sample population is determined based on updated resettlement plan (rp) consists of 1047 ahs. samples are selected using randomized cluster sampling with 95% level of confidence. this ended up with 315 respondents, but it was decided to provide 50 randomized extra sample as needed. data collection tools field survey was conducted in 2015 in order to answer the three formulated research questions; whether the compensation paid is fair and just, whether the conducted training is impactful, and whether the assistance and facilitation provided are helpful. it is expected that the answer to all three questions exhibits legitimate explanation in accomplishing the purpose of this study. questionnaire consists of 97 valid and reliable questions are divided into four (4) sections measuring nine (9) issues, i.e.: 1. section a contains screening questions regarding ahs demographical identity. 2. section b contains questions on perception of ahs about replacement cost, allowances, and the resettlement process from data collection to implementing on lrp. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 3. section c contains questions on perception of ahs about facilitation activity. 4. section d consist questions on perception of ahs about training program. validity assessment was conducted at 5% significance level and n = 254 people compare to r value on table concludes that the instrument is valid. test of reliability of a measure results in calculation of cronbach’s alpha at 0.960 with 97 number of items. since the obtained value is higher than 0.90, it is concluded that the instrument has an excellent internal consistency of the items in the scale. roll-out of instrument was conducted to 20 respondents. minor revision of wording and structuring were done afterward. data collection survey phase i (25-27 march 2015) was managed to collect only 150 sample. content validity test revealed with low quality of data in terms of its reliability in particular related with its internal consistency as well as its content validity. substantive revision of instrument was done for the second time, both in terms of wording and its structure. survey plan and strategy was also revised and surveyors were replaced and upgraded to a more skillful group of surveyors. survey phase ii (7-11 september 2015) researcher employed 6 (six) higher level surveyors to the field for reconfirming the previous respondents who was questioned in survey phase i. surveyors were instructed to help respondent to fill a new format of questionnaire based on their previous answers. surveyors were also instructed to search the “unfound respondent” marked by surveyor in the previous survey phase i. after almost 5 days of extra efforts and after “three times of visit policy” applied, survey phase ii result in 270 filled questionnaires and 54 information of unreached respondents. data collected was analyzed using non-parametric descriptive statistics to address all three research questions. kartasasmita intended/ unintended comply/not comply compensation paid at replacement cost training is impactful assistance and facilitation are helpfull paying compensation conducting training providing assistance and facilitation moving out 1047 ahs from the restricted area preserving livelihood of ahs at the same level component 2.1 the integrated citarum water resources management investment program (icwrmip) resettlement program program objectives program activities performance indicators level of compiance program impacts figure 2. schematic steps in conducting field survey figure 1. logical framework for conducting the study journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 data analysis data collected through field survey is analyzed using non-parametric descriptive statistics. the results are interpreted and confirmed using qualitative data resulted from series of fgds, in-depth structured interviews as well as systematic observations. findings research question 1: whether the compensation paid is fair and just. field survey was conducted to answer the first question above. nine (9) components of rp and lrp are measured through 97 valid and reliable questions representing principles and procedures agreed by both the adb as well as goi. the said nine components are compensation payment, data collection, allowance cost, facilitation for relocation, grievance handling mechanism and public consultation activities. respondents were asked to express their level of agreement on positive statements for each components using likert scale i.e. strongly agree (5), agree (4), neutral (3), disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1). to determine the level of compliance of each component 40% (simply to sum up percentage of “agree” and “strongly agree” categories) as a threshold to divide each element into “comply” if the percentage is equal or above 40% and “not comply” if the percentage is less than 40%. as such table 1 shows that only 38 % of respondents agree and strongly agree with the overall positive statements regarding the given compensation making this resettlement element falls into “not comply” category. it is noted however, that most respondent agree or strongly agree that amount of replacement cost accordance with the nominative list. kartasasmita table 1 respondent’s perception about compensation payment compensation payment indicator % agree and strongly agree level of compliance amount of replacement cost equal to the market price 38 % not comply amount of replacement cost accordance with the nominative list 53 % comply amount of replacement cost could replace affected assets 31 % not comply amount of replacement cost could cover repairing cost of the affected assets 31 % not comply overall indicator 38 % not comply table 2 shows the perception of respondents about allowance cost they receipt from the project. based on the overall indicators, only 24 % of respondents agree or strongly agree with the positive statements regarding allowance cost paid by the project. none of six indicator falls into comply category. according to results provided in table 1 and table 2, it is confident to note that respondents do not consider the given compensation is fair and just. table 2 respondent’s perception about allowance cost allowance cost indicator % agree and strongly agree level of compliance the amount of allowance for replacement the loss of income meets the standard of living needs 17 % not comply the amount of transportation allowance enough for the relocation cost 15 % not comply the payment of allowance goes well 34 % not comply the amount of allowance in accordance with the assigned amount 30 % not comply the allowance used for purposes other than the relocation process 26 % not comply ah feel satisfied with the allowances 18 % not comply overall indicators 24 % not comply research question 2; whether the conducted training is impactful. table 3 shows that based on overall indicators only 24% of respondents are agree or strongly agree that the conducted training is impactful making this element of resettlement fall into “not comply” category. it is clearly noted that none of 16 training indicators falls into “comply” category, so that it is legitimate to note that training activities conducted within the project scheme, according to ahs, have no impact in improving their live conditions. it is noted from table 3, only journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 small percentage of respondents (19%) who are agree or strongly agree that they can see the opportunity to earn money with the skills obtained from training activities. table 4 respondents’ perception about training activities training activities indicator % agree and strongly agree level of compliance training proceed as on the schedule 27 % not comply facilitator described the training procedures 26 % not comply ahs understand the training procedures 26 % not comply ahs understand material described by instructor 26 % not comply instructor explained the material clearly 26 % not comply instructor provide the understandable material 27 % not comply supportive facility given during the training was provided properly 25 % not comply meal given during the training was provided properly 25 % not comply training was met their expectation 22 % not comply training was in accordance with their interest 23 % not comply training was in accordance with their talent 23 % not comply ah’s question about the material responded by the instructor 20 % not comply instructors provide a solution for the ah’s questions about the material 20 % not comply ahs got a new knowledge from the training 25 % not comply ahs can see the opportunity to earn money with the skills obtained from training activity 19 % not comply training activity was useful 21 % not comply overall indicator 24 % not comply research question 3; whether the assistance and facilitation provided are helpful. in order to address this research question data in table 4 shows that based on the overall indicators only small number of respondents (21%) believe that assistance and facilitation provided by the project are helpful. however, as per indicator, there are two indicators demonstrate agreement or strong agreement on the statement. first, respondents agree or strongly agree that facilitator conducted the data collection of the vulnerable group accurately. second, respondents agree or strongly agree that ahs directly involved in the vulnerable group’s briefing. the rest of 8 indicators fall into “not comply” category since the percentage of respondent who are agree or strongly agree with the helpfulness of assistance and facilitation, are all below 40%. kartasasmita table 5 perceptions of respondents about facilitation for relocation facilitation for relocation indicator % agree and strongly agree level of compliance facilitator conducted the data collection of the vulnerable group accurately 47 % comply facilitator describes the relocation procedure of vulnerable group 35 % not comply ahs directly involved in the vulnerable group’s briefing 40 % comply relocation of vulnerable group goes well 37 % not comply facilitator completely resolve trouble that afflict vulnerable group 29 % not comply facilitator assisting to find a new location 4 % not comply facilitator providing power support for relocation process 3 % not comply facilitator accompanied ah from the beginning until the end of relocation process 4 % not comply facilitator providing the required assistance during relocation process 4 % not comply ah satisfied with the relocation facility provided 5 % not comply overall indicator 21 % not comply similarly, table 5 shows that based on overall indicators only 31% of respondents agree or strongly agree that their livelihood after relocation are better off so that this resettlement element is “not comply” with the set principles and procedures. however, as per indicator it is noted there are 4 (four) out of 21 (twenty-one) indicators in which the percentage of respondents who are agree or strongly agree that the livelihood of ahs better off after relocation reach 40% or above. these three indicators are, it is easier to approach the place of worship, it is easier to get electricity, it is easier to reach public toilet facility, women and children feel secure as well. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 table 6 perception of respondent about livelihood after relocation livelihood after relocation indicator % agree and strongly agree level of compliance living standard get better after relocation 9 % not comply household income has increased after relocation 9 % not comply living expenses can be mitigated by the increase of household income 8 % not comply it is easier to go to the workplace 35 % not comply it is easier to go shopping for household purpose 39 % not comply it is easier to go shopping for business purpose 30 % not comply it is easier for the children to approach the school 29 % not comply it is easier to approach the place of worship 52 % comply it is easier to approach the public service office 28 % not comply it is easier to approach the health facility 29 % not comply it is easier to approach the sports facility 20 % not comply it is easier to approach the transportation facility 36 % not comply it is easier to get clean water 34 % not comply it is easier to get electricity 54 % comply it is easier to get telecommunication facility 36 % not comply it is easier to reach public toilet facility 48 % comply women and children feel secure 41 % comply it is easier for vulnerable group to approaching public facility 30 % not comply there is much more of public facilities obtained 26 % not comply service quality of public facilitation is better 31 % not comply ahs feel satisfied with the public facilitation provided 30 % not comply overall indicator 31 % not comply summary of findings overall findings resulted from field survey can be summarized in table 6. it is noted there are only two components which are complied with the set principles and procedures agreed by the adb and goi, which are data collection and public consultation activities. kartasasmita table 7 level of compliance of overall components of resettlement plan (rp) and livelihood restoration program (lrp) resettlement plan (rp) and livelihood restoration program (lrp) component % agree and strongly agree level of compliance compensation payment 38 % not comply data collection 58 % comply allowance cost 24 % not comply facilitation for relocation 21 % not comply grievance handling mechanism 25 % not comply public consultation activities 50 % comply livelihood after relocation 31 % not comply gender perspective 28 % not comply training activities 24 % not comply overall element 33 % not comply discussion, conclusion and implications discussions as per research question 1, it is noted that the implementation of compensation payment as well as allowance payment are not complied with the set principles and procedures. since such principles and procedures are designed for ensuring fair and just compensation payment, incompliances can be interpreted as the failure of the project to pay a fair and just compensation. one of the most plausible explanations is that cash compensation, as noted earlier, has never been satisfactory mode of compensation if it is not paid at replacement values (adb, 1998). so that agreement on what is fair and just compensation hardly ever reached, even if the independent appraisal is conducted. the one and only indicator agreed by respondent related to compensation payment, which is “the amount of replacement cost accordance with the nominative list” (see table 1). respondent agreement toward this statement, however, does not explain that they are agree with the amount of the payment on the list. this is confirmed that they are not agree towards three other allowances payment indicators stating that “the amount of allowance for replacement the loss of income meet the standard of living needs, the amount of transportation allowance journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 enough for the relocation cost, and ah feel satisfied with the allowances.” the novelty of this study supports the previous statement that cash compensation has never been satisfactorily mode of compensation (adb, 1998). as such it is suggested for future project calling for effective treatments, since it is theoretically legitimate that treatment is as much as important, if not more important, than the compensation itself (william h. mcneill and ruth s. adams, 2006). as per research question 2, reveals that delivered training programs is not impactful. it can be interpreted within r-n-r model that treatment implemented in the form of training programs provided for ahs are not effective. ahs do not agree towards all 16 stated indicators measuring training programs including towards statement that “ahs can see the opportunity to earn money with the skills obtained from training activity” reaching the lowest percentage of all indicators (19%). survey results are confirmed by results from participatory observation in more than 10 ongoing training programs. although most training were delivered in relatively professional way by well-trained and experienced trainers, need assessment for determining training materials ware not properly conducted. as the implication, it is not surprising that training programs delivered were “not met with their expectation, neither provided new knowledge nor skills, and therefore were not useful” as indicated in table 3. learning from r-n-r model, it is recommended for future project to acquaintance with basic structure of effective correctional programming of r-n-r model asserting that interventions match intensity of treatment to level of risk, specifically target criminogenic needs, and tailor treatment to the personal and interpersonal needs and capacities of participants (mitchell et al., 2004). as per research question 3, it is noted that facilitation is not helpful and the livelihood of ahs after relocation are not better off. two explanations are plausible. first, by design the project does not include relocation program so that project consultants and facilitators in the field did not prepare themselves to facilitate ahs in any form to find new place to stay. second, data collection, public consultation activities, grievance handling mechanism, as well as addressing gender issues, in the field are connected and used for executing compensation payment only. there was a moment in one of fgds with ahs, a field facilitator was discussing transportation allowance without knowing where the ahs will go. for future reference, in care of resettlement that has no relocation involved but dealing with high risk criminogenic needs like that implemented in wtc, treatment kartasasmita in the form of conventional training and facilitation should be replaced with highly effective correctional treatment. this is related to responsivity principles in r-n-r model in dealing with – “how to do it” – question. it applies principle that highly effective correctional treatment for high risk of criminogenic needs. the community who are living and working illegally along easement boundaries of wtc, can be conceptualized as a community with highly risk criminogenic needs in the form of consciously and illegally occupy the restricted public area, has no intention to move out from or keep coming back to the restricted area although they have received compensation payment to replace their loss. systematic observation and in-depth structured interview as well as series of fgds with ahs conducted in 2015; gave strong evidence that the project would not come up with the intended impact i.e. moving illegal dwellers out from the easement boundaries of the canal. it was indicated at that time, firstly, most illegal dwellers aware of their illegal status. nonetheless, they believed that their residential and business existence within the restricted area was permitted by the canal authority (pjt ii). many of them were officially bound with contract allowing them to live and work within the restricted area. secondly, it was indicated that ahs are psychologically prepared and ready to voluntarily move out from the area whenever the authority ask to do so. however, ahs saw opportunity to get good compensation at any time the canal authority ask them to move out from the restricted area. in one of meetings among project stake-holders attended by adb mission, bappenas, the ministry of public works and housing, bbws, and project consultants, there was discussion to decide that the fence must be built on both side along the canal. it was meant to be a technical solution for preventing illegal dwellers come back to the restricted area after receiving compensation. four year later after aforementioned decision, on the 23rd of november 2019, as many as 101 students, divided in a group of three, were assigned to capture the conditions of west tarum canal using videography and photography dealing with three questions. first, is there any people who are currently living and working within the easement boundaries of the canal? second, what is the current condition of fences built along the canal to prevent people enter the restricted area? third, who are the people now living within the restricted area? unsurprisingly, as many as 32 short videos reveal with the answers confirming that, first, there are many people are currently journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 living and working within the restricted area. second, fencing is apparently not the answer for preventing people to enter the restricted area. instead, the fence literary functions at providing illegal dwellers with secure private space and protect them from outside attention. fence in most places, is in poor conditions, either it was forcefully torn down by people or naturally damage due to poor quality and technical design of the fence. only small part of the restricted area is transformed into beautiful open space i.e. that is closely located to the syphon in bekasi city. third, most of people currently living within the restricted area are those who have been living more than ten years and receiving compensation payment related to the rehabilitation of the canal. they are aware of their illegal status within the restricted area, however they are confident for not getting neither legal nor social sanctions. they have no intention to move out from or keep coming back to the restricted area, due to the strategic location for their business with good economic returns, in addition to expecting another compensation payment whenever the canal authority ask them to move out for any reasons. they are always prepared and well organized to grab such opportunity. as such the restricted is a battleground for communal conflicts. within r-n-r model, this is what literary conceptualized as conditions with highly risk criminogenic needs demonstrating the lack of community virtuous citizenship, that requires highly effective correctional treatments. it cannot be resolved simply by fencing the canal, giving fair and just compensation, or providing conventional training and facilitation programs. the problem is definitely beyond project compliance towards the set principles and procedures. it apparently need an effective correctional treatment in the forms of, first, strong law enforcement. second, proper design of public space. third, integrated and impactful community civic education. these three policy recommendations are the most significant contribution of the study. conclusions this study, as stated earlier, aims to investigate whether the implementation of resettlement program in wtc complies with the set procedures and principles and whether the level of livelihood of affected households (ahs) after relocation are better off. it is concluded that, first, in general the implementation of resettlement related to the rehabilitation of west tarum canal is not comply with the set principles and procedures agreed by both the adb and goi. second, the livelihood of affected households (ahs) are not better off after relocations. research findings kartasasmita elaborate that only two out of nine resettlement component measured are complied with the set principles and procedures, namely data collection activities and public consultation activities. the rest seven other components are not complied to include compensation payment, allowance cost payment, facilitation for relocation, grievance handling mechanism, livelihood after relocation, gender perspective, and training activities. as such based on the three formulated research questions, this study concludes that the compensation paid is not fair and just, the trainings delivered for ahs are not impactful, and the assistance and facilitation programs provided are not helpful. at the end this study ends up with two insightful and serious implications with reference to r-n-r model asserting that treatment of ahs in the forms of trainings program and facilitations, are as important as, if not more important than compensation and allowance payments. however, it is indicated that treatment implemented in the program in the form are not impactful. pedagogical implication this study has serious pedagogical implication in the form of emergency call for inserting community civic education and addressing the problem of public virtue as part of resettlement program. it should replace the conventional training and facilitation programs functions as highly correctional treatments in dealing with high risk criminogenic needs of ahs. community education (ce) is a collective action in developing capacity of individual member of the community as well as capacity of community as a whole, including economy as well as social and moral. it is a community wide structure for communications within neighborhoods, and between neighborhoods and government (miles, 1974). for future reference and based on the limitation of specific case study on the resettlement under study in which no relocation involved but dealing with high risk criminogenic needs, it is critical to apply basic principle of r-n-r model asserting that highly effective correctional treatment for high risk of criminogenic needs. learning from the case of wtc, it is practically recommended that fair and just compensation payment should be remained a central issue of any resettlement program. however, it has to be bared in mind of policy makers, project consultants as well as facilitators involved, that highly effective correctional treatments are critical. fair and just compensation payment, conventional training and facilitation program, even the compliance towards agreed principles and procedures are not sufficient. beyond project compliance, it needs stronger law enforcement, proper spatial design for easement boundary of wtc as open public journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 space, and integrated community civic education. these are recommended as essential correctional treatments to deal with criminogenic needs and the lack of community virtuous citizenship along wtc. further research dealing with understanding of the root of public virtue, or lack of it, need to be proceed essential for public administration and development studies. references adb. (1998). handbook on resettlement: a guide to good practice. manila. adb. (2013). external monitoring agency; final report on rp updating and lrp preparation. adb. (2016). external monitoring agency; final report of land donation verification. akanda, a. (2014). capital concentration on land ownership in rural bangladesh. journal of land and rural studies, 215–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/2321024914534029 amir afaque ahmad faizi, t. m. (2014). contract farming and gender relations in india. journal of land and rural studies, 191–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/2321024914534041 andrews, d. a., bonta, j., & wormith, s. j. (2004). the level of service/case management inventory (ls/cmi. toronto: multi-health systems. barnett, w. s., & ackerman, d. j. (2006). costs, benefits, and long-term effects of early care and education programs: recommendations and cautions for community developers. community development, 37(2), 86–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330609490209 barton, a. w., & leonard, s. j. (2010). incorporating social justice in tourism planning: racial reconciliation and sustainable community development in the deep south. community development, 41(3), 298–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330903444051 bengle, t., & sorensen, j. (2017). integrating popular education into a model of empowerment planning. community development, 48(3), 320–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2016.1264441 berlowitz, a. j. (1986). land acquisition in developing countries. fordham international law journal, 10(4). boggs, d. l. (1991). campaigning and community development: the self-education of a political candidate. journal of the community development society, 22(2), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575339109489938 bonta, j. (2011). strengths and human needs in offender rehabilitation. research summary. public safety canada, 16(5). retrieved from kartasasmita http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/strgnths-rhb/strgnths-rhb-eng.pdf burgos, a., & mertens, f. (2017). participatory management of community-based tourism: a network perspective. community development, 48(4), 546–565. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2017.1344996 christens, b. d., & inzeo, p. t. (2015). widening the view: situating collective impact among frameworks for community-led change. community development, 46(4), 420–435. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2015.1061680 cumberland, d. m., kerrick, s. a., choi, n., & gosser, k. (2017). women’s community organizations: exploring attitudes toward collaboration among board members. community development, 48(1), 30–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2016.1242147 d’abundo, m. l., & carden, a. m. (2008). “growing wellness”: the possibility of promoting collective wellness through community garden education programs. community development, 39(4), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330809489660 favero, p., meyer, n., & cooke, s. (1994). conducting educational programs on controversial community issues. journal of the community development society, 25(1), 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575339409489894 forrester, g., kurth, j., vincent, p., & oliver, m. (2018). schools as community assets: an exploration of the merits of an asset-based community development (abcd) approach. educational review. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2018.1529655 garcía-pabón, j., & klima, k. (2017). latino small businesses in northwest washington: perceptions, challenges, and needs. community development, 48(3), 370–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2017.1301976 goi. (2008). no title adb project no. 37049-02 ino: integrated citarum water resources management investment program (icwrmip) west tarum canal resettlement plan. guggenheim, s. (1990). “development and the dynamics of displacement.” workshop on rehabilitation of displaced persons. workshop on rehabilitation of displaced persons. bangalore: institute for social and economic change and myrada. harris, i. m. (1982). an undergraduate community education curriculum for community development. journal of the community development society, 13(1), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.1982.9987142 hofmeister, h., & edgell, p. (2015). the relevance of place and family stage for styles of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 64-87 community involvement. community, work & family, 18(1), 58–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2014.939142 ifc. (2002). handbook for preparing a resettlement action plan. 6. kartasasmita, p. s. and s. l. (2014). laporan akhir profile sosial ekonomi masyarakat kawasan inlet waduk saguling. bandung. maitreesh ghatak, p. g. (2011). the land acquisition bill: a critique and a proposal. economic & political weekly epw, 65–72. malual, j. d., & mazur, r. e. (2017). social capital and access to credit in post-conflict lira, northern uganda. community development, 48(4), 566–581. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2017.1321559 mccormack, l., white, s., & cuenca, j. (2017). a fractured journey of growth: making meaning of a ‘broken’’ childhood and parental mental ill-health.’ community, work & family, 20(3), 327–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2015.1117418 miles, l. m. (1974). can community development and community education be collaborative? journal of the community development society, 5(2), 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103829.1974.10878044 missingham, b. d. (2017). asset-based learning and the pedagogy of community development. community development, 48(3), 339–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2017.1291528 mitchell, k. e., lohmann, d., houser, p. r., wood, e. f., schaake, j. c., robock, a., … bailey, a. a. (2004). the multi-institution north american land data assimilation system (nldas): utilizing multiple gcip products and partners in a continental distributed hydrological modeling system. j. geophys. res., 109(d7), d07s90--. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003jd003823 nielsen, s. w. (2005). public education for disaster management: a phenomenographic investigation. 1–393. partridge, w. l. (1989). land acquisition and resettlement in asia. washington dc. pletcher, d. d., walther, c. h., & mcconocha, d. m. (1989). the influence of planners’ educational training on the community economic development process. journal of the community development society, 20(2), 72–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575338909489984 pokharel, j. c. (1988). “population displacement by the kulekhani hydroelectric project: some kartasasmita lessons for compensation planning.” prashasan: the nepalese journal of public administration, 2(51), 7–13. segeren, m., fassaert, t., wit, m. de, & popma, a. (2020). constellations of youth criminogenic factors associated with young adult violent criminal behavior. crime science, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40163-020-0111-2 sinha, b. (2014). land reforms: evidences of reversal in orissa. journal of land and rural studies, 2(2), 171–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/2321024914534048 skipper, j. (2016). community development through reconciliation tourism: the behind the big house program in holly springs, mississippi. community development, 47(4), 514–529. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2016.1146783 spiers, h. j. & maguire, e. a. (2007). a navigational. hippocampus, 17(8), 618–626. stewart, l. a., gabora, n., kropp, p. r., & lee, z. (2014). effectiveness of risk-needsresponsivity-based family violence programs with male offenders. journal of family violence, 29(2), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-013-9575-0 stoney, l., mitchell, a., & warner, m. e. (2006). smarter reform: moving beyond singleprogram solutions to an early care and education system. community development, 37(2), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330609490210 theodori, a. e., & theodori, g. l. (2015). the influences of community attachment, sense of community, and educational aspirations upon the migration intentions of rural youth in texas. community development, 46(4), 380–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2015.1062035 vorley, t., & williams, n. (2015). creating and sustaining a model of community-based enterprise learning: a participatory case study of ready hubs. community development, 46(5), 559–579. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2015.1049281 walter honadle, b. (1996). participatory research for public issues education: a strategic approach to a municipal consolidation study. journal of the community development society, 27(1), 56–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575339609489849 william h. mcneill and ruth s. adams. (2006). human migration: patterns and policies. bloomington: indiana university press. analysis of the image of russia and belarus formed in the union state print media www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:10 (2), 133-150 133 comparative analysis of education quality and the level of competitiveness of leader countries under digitalization conditions almaz gapsalamov1, elvir akhmetshin2, tatyana bochkareva3, vladimir vasilev4 and tatyana anisimova5 abstract the quality of national education depends on many factors, which traditionally include adult literacy, the total share of students receiving general, secondary vocational and higher education, the level of the material and technical base, etc. based on these factors, a list of leading countries by the level of education is formed. the authors believe that in the short term it practically does not change, the leaders retain their positions, the lagging countries rarely get out on top positions. however, the world changes, new trends and tendencies determine the constant change and improvement of quality criteria. the authors suppose that the process of digitalization of the economy will play a significant role in this process. new technologies and processes will undoubtedly update the picture of the leaders of the modern educational process. here, the countries occupying second positions can claim the role of leaders. these aspects determine the relevance of this study. in this regard, the purpose of the work is to perform a comparative analysis of the quality of education and the level of competitiveness of the leading countries in the context of the growing digitalization process. the research methodology is based on a systematic and structural-functional approach. the representativeness and reliability of the research results are based on the use of general scientific and special methods, including analysis, synthesis, modeling, extrapolation, content analysis, historical analysis, and others. based on the world ratings of the quality of education, the authors' own rating of the best national education systems was compiled. moreover, the authors noted that this rating also differs little from the rating of countries' competitiveness on the world stage. the main reasons for distinguishing the leading countries include the existing stage of development, the standard of living of the population, investments in education and science, and other reasons. key words: digitalization of education, protectionism, digitalization of the educational system, level and quality of education, information and educational environment. introduction if one asks an average citizen of any country in the world, which country he or she would choose as the standard of the educational model, most respondents would name the educational systems of the united states of america or great britain. people, more competent in this matter, 1 kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russian federation, gapsalamov@yandex.ru 2 kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russian federation, elvir@mail.ru 3 kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russian federation, tatyana-n-boch@mail.ru 4 kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russian federation, vasvladlev@mail.ru 5 kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russian federation, anistat@mail.ru mailto:gapsalamov@yandex.ru mailto:elvir@mail.ru mailto:tatyana-n-boch@mail.ru mailto:vasvladlev@mail.ru mailto:anistat@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2020: 10 (2), 133-150 could name the system of germany, australia or, even, finland. this is no coincidence. the quality of life in these countries leaves its mark on the quality of education. by such indicators as adult literacy, the total share of students receiving general, secondary vocational and higher education, the level of the material and technical base, access to education and others, these countries have really overtaken the vast majority of countries in the world. the rivalry between countries for leadership in the field of education takes place in a group of 20-30 leading states, while the path to these ratings is still closed to other countries. however, in recent years, the world began to undergo significant transformational changes associated with the beginning of mass digitalization (yemelyanov et al., 2020; tadeu et al. 2019). changes affect the whole world, countries, state institutions, and specific individuals (swarts, 2020). the lifestyle of people, as well as its quality, is undergoing tremendous transformations. new managerial mechanisms that destroy or modernize obsolete elements are beginning to take shape. undoubtedly, these trends are also covered by national education systems. this, in turn, results in a situation where leadership becomes extremely shaky. only those countries that can fit into the new digital model, creating new educational trajectories of their development, will be able to maintain their leadership, but hypothetically such a scenario can be noted when new centers of educational growth appear. modern scientific literature pays a lot of attention to questions of the level and quality of national education systems in the context of the influence of digital technologies on it. this is due to the fact that technologies, methodologies, and conditions for creating reference models are analyzed. at the same time, examples of bad experiences are studied. information technology is the main attempt to improve the quality of education. this is an important event in the education revolution through digitalization. in this regard, transformation is becoming an important factor in the improvement of the quality of the strategy of educational organizations in achieving long-term success (adams, 2019; carcolini, 2027; márque et al., 2018; öztürkler, 2017). digital change is like a powerful tsunami when the digitalization of many business practices creates new relationships and changes the marketing landscape of national education systems (crittenden, et al., 2019). by applying technology rather than prohibiting it, teachers empower students by enhancing sensory perceptions and expanding digital activities, leading to more learning. the stakeholders — universities, professional associations, publishing gapsalamov et al. companies, and technology companies — must fully support and strengthen teachers' efforts to introduce technology to continually improve learning. a number of authors (ahel, & lingenau, 2020; baumol, & bockshecker, 2017) emphasize the undoubted benefit of the digitalization process for national systems of individual states. the implementation of sustainable development and integration of digitalization can be the key to expanding students' access to education for sustainable development. there is a global opportunity for schoolchildren and students around the world to access the internet. the study carried out by amhag et al. (2019), based on the research conducted at two swedish universities, identified the need for the teachers to use digital tools and the subsequent need for digital competency in higher education. the researchers believe that the teachers and educators require extensive government support in creating digital learning (cáceres-reche et al., 2019; glotko et al., 2020; voronkova et al., 2020; minakhmetova et al., 2020; solas & sutton, 2018). digitalization offers tremendous opportunities for the use of massive open online courses (moocs). in their study, liu et al. (2019) showed the experience of implementing moocs in china. the scientists noted a close collaboration between universities and the state in this matter. nevertheless, there are some difficulties. colleges and universities experience such problems as insufficient technical support, inadequate preparation of curricula, lack of uniform national standards for curriculum development, as well as standards (korableva et al., 2019). there is an understanding of the need to include in the digitalization process the education system and representatives of those countries that are not leaders in this process. thus, in the work of the scientists from ecuador orellana et al. (2019), the idea of supporting the digital transformation of ecuadorian universities is observed. eight quality assessment models applied in ecuador over the past five years for higher education institutions and professional accreditation are analyzed (igoshin et al., 2020). it is found that the quality models used had their own impulse for digital conversion, digital conversion drivers are identified to offer guidance on the inclusion of digital aspects in every quality criterion that encourages digital conversion at ecuadorian universities. the researchers mok and leung (2012) also note a number of acute problems that digitalization brings for both the education system and social relations in general. in their opinion, a gap appears between different social groups (namely, “having” and “not having”) due to the availability of the access to information and communication technologies and their various uses. journal of social studies education research 2020: 10 (2), 133-150 it is troubling that the digital divide will exacerbate existing inequalities, destroy traditional ties between communities, socially exclude disadvantaged people and hinder the growth of the knowledge economy. all this will damage the social structure within the country and international competitiveness from the outside. in general, the representatives of many scientific fields today come to understand the need to create a new model of a digital educational system. it was realized by drieschner et al. (2019) and khalid et al. (2018) that digital transformation will require all participants in this process to rethink their educational model. the bridge between digital transformation and educational models can be strengthened by educating future decision-makers at the beginning of their educational activities (espino et al., 2020; grewal et.al., 2019; swarts, 2020; wilcox, 2020). the analysis of literature conducted by the authors identified the purpose of the study as an analysis of the quality of education and the level of competitiveness of the leading countries in the context of the digitalization process, which is currently gaining momentum. the choice of the goal is not accidental. the world has come to the stage of a dramatic breakdown of existing relations, especially in the field of education. the creation of a competitive educational environment for many countries of the world can be based on the experience of the world's leading countries, which have made progress on the way towards the development of a digital society. world ratings for assessing the quality of education in order to understand what processes are taking place in the modern world, it is necessary to understand who and/or what determines the success of the national educational systems of the world. there are a lot of existing ratings for assessing the quality of education; they evaluate it by various parameters. consider some of the ratings to understand the criteria by which the quality of national educational systems is assessed today. the first indicator is the knowledge economy index. it characterizes the level of development of a knowledge-based economy in countries and regions of the world. the indicator was developed in 2004 by the world bank as part of a special program knowledge for development (k4d) to assess the ability of countries to create, accept and disseminate knowledge (knowledge economy index, 2019). the developers of this system believe that the index should be used by countries to analyze problematic issues in their policies and measure the country's readiness to switch to a knowledge gapsalamov et al. based development model. its calculation is based on “the knowledge assessment methodology – kam” proposed by the world bank, which includes a complex of 109 structural and qualitative indicators, combined into four main groups: 1. the economic incentive and institutional regime – the conditions in which the economy and society as a whole develop, the economic and legal environment, the quality of regulation, the development of business and private initiative, the ability of society and its institutions to effectively use existing and create new knowledge. 2. education and human resources – the level of education of the population and the presence of sustainable skills in the creation, dissemination, and use of knowledge. (adult literacy indicators, the ratio of registered students (students and schoolchildren) to the number of people of the corresponding age, as well as a number of other indicators). 3. the innovation system – the level of development of the national innovation system, including companies, research centers, universities, professional associations, and other organizations that perceive and adapt global knowledge to local needs, as well as create new knowledge and new technologies based on it. (the number of scientists engaged in research and development; the number of registered patents, the number and circulation of scientific journals, and so on). 4. information and communication technology – ict – the level of development of information and communication infrastructure that contributes to the efficient dissemination and processing of information. this index makes it possible to evaluate not only the level of education of the population and the presence of stable skills in the creation, dissemination, and use of knowledge, but also other indicators characterizing, in particular, the components of the new society. among which, in the authors' opinion, not the least place is occupied by the level of development of information and communication infrastructure. the second indicator is the ranking of national higher education systems. it is based on a global study of the achievements of countries in the field of higher education. the study has been conducted annually since 2012 as part of the global project universitas 21 (u21) of the international university network, which includes universities from 17 countries (australia, great britain, india, ireland, canada, china, hong kong, mexico, the journal of social studies education research 2020: 10 (2), 133-150 netherlands, new zealand, singapore, chile, sweden, switzerland, and japan) with a combined enrollment of more than 1.3 million students and 220 thousand teachers. the authors of the study believe that the economic development and competitiveness of modern states largely depends on the availability of educated and competent specialists and technologies that increase their efficiency and labor productivity. the higher education sector contributes significantly to these needs. moreover, in the modern world, high-quality higher education systems that have wide connections at the international level contribute to global development through the exchange of students, researchers, projects and ideas across national borders (yigit, 2018). based on these assumptions, the main goal of the project is to find out which countries provide the best higher education. unlike university ratings (see, for example, the ratings of the best universities in the world, times higher education and quacquarelli symonds), which take into account the performance of individual educational institutions, universitas 21 ranks higher education systems among a relatively large number of countries at different stages of economic and social development. the rating is calculated according to 24 main indicators, combined into four groups: 1. resources (investments from the private and public sectors) – 25%. 2. results (research, scientific publications, compliance of higher education with the needs of the national labor market, including subsequent employment of graduates of educational institutions) – 40% (lvov et al., 2019). 3. communication (the level of international cooperation, which demonstrates the degree of openness or isolation of the higher education system) – 10%. 4. environment (state policy and regulation, educational opportunities) – 25%. in the final calculations, adjustments for the population of the studied countries are taken into account. the study is conducted in states for which there are confirmed statistics for all indicators. these measurements of the effectiveness of higher education systems are summarized in the final index, which determines the position of each country in the world ranking based on international comparisons (ranking of national higher education systems, 2019). the third indicator is the national education systems performance index. the study has been conducted since 2012 in the framework of the global project the learning curve, combining a wide range of international indicators of the state of education in different countries of the world. the authors of the study indicate that the results of the project represent the first attempt to compare gapsalamov et al. the effectiveness of national education systems among a relatively large number of countries at different stages of socio-economic development (nadtochy et al., 2016; polyakova et al., 2019). the rating is calculated according to the methodology developed by the research company the economist intelligence unit and estimates the level of effectiveness of education systems in the countries of the world according to two main groups of indicators, including the corresponding set of internationally comparable data: 1. cognitive skills:  the progress in international reading literacy study, pirls. implemented by the international association for the evaluation of educational achievements, iea. the level and quality of reading and understanding of the text by primary school students are studied in countries with different educational systems.  the trends in international mathematics and science study, timss. implemented by the international association for the evaluation of educational achievements, iea. the level of natural-mathematical training of secondary school students in countries with different educational systems and the identification of factors affecting the level of this training are studied.  the program for international student assessment, pisa. implemented by the organization for economic cooperation and development, oecd. the literacy level of high school students and the ability of students to put into practice the knowledge and skills acquired at school are studied. the study is conducted in oecd countries and oecd partner countries. 2. level of education: • literacy index. data from an international study by the unesco institute for statistics for countries around the world. • index of the total share of students in secondary and higher education. data from the international study education at a glance of the organization for economic co-operation and development for oecd countries and oecd partner countries. these two basic measurements of the effectiveness of the education system are summarized in the final index, which is a weighted sum of the indicated indicators and determines the position of journal of social studies education research 2020: 10 (2), 133-150 each country in the world ranking according to the results of the international comparison (rating of the effectiveness of national education systems, 2019). rating the countries of the world in terms of the quality of education consider the top 20 countries in terms of the above-reviewed ratings. as the first indicator, the authors take the knowledge economy index (2012). table 1 knowledge economy index of the top-20 countries (2012) rating country knowledge economy index knowledge index 1 sweden 9.43 9.38 2 finland 9.33 9.22 3 denmark 9.16 9.00 4 netherlands 9.11 9.22 5 norway 9.11 8.99 6 new zealand 8.97 8.93 7 canada 8.92 8.72 8 germany 8.90 8.83 9 australia 8.88 8.98 10 switzerland 8.87 8.65 11 ireland 8.86 8.73 12 united states of america 8.77 8.89 13 taiwan 8.77 9.10 14 great britain 8.76 8.61 15 belgium 8.71 8.68 16 iceland 8.62 8.54 17 austria 8.61 8.39 18 hong kong 8.52 8.17 19 estonia 8.40 8.26 20 luxemburg 8.37 8.01 source: knowledge economy index, 2019 the table 1 shows that four countries – sweden, finland, denmark, and the netherlands are the most reference countries with the index close to 10. in total, the rating covers more than 146 countries, and there are even such states that scored less than 1 (for example: sierra leone, myanmar, haiti). according to the second indicator cited in 2019 (the ranking of national higher education systems), which assesses the quality of higher education, the list of leading countries is changing. the undisputed leader is the united states, which is more than 10% ahead of its closest pursuers. gapsalamov et al. table 2 ranking of national higher education systems (2019) rating country index 1 united states of america 100 2 switzerland 88.6 3 great britain 84.5 4 sweden 82.9 5 denmark 82.5 6 canada 81.9 7 singapore 81.3 8 australia 80.9 9 finland 80.4 10 the netherlands 80.2 11 norway 77.8 12 austria 77.2 13 belgium 73.6 14 new zealand 71.5 15 hong kong 70.2 16 germany 69.6 17 france 67.6 18 israel 67.3 19 ireland 64.7 20 japan 61.7 source: ranking of national higher education systems, 2019. finally, consider the national education systems performance index (2019). despite the fact that this index is broader than the previous rating scale, nevertheless, the leading countries have practically not changed. the united states still occupies the highest position, surpassing the nearest country (switzerland) by the quality of educational processes by more than 10%. table 3 national education systems performance index (2019) rating country index 1 united states of america 100 2 switzerland 87.2 3 denmark 84.2 4 great britain 84.8 5 sweden 82.2 6 finland 82.0 7 netherlands 81.6 8 singapore 80.6 9 canada 79.6 10 australia 77.6 11 belgium 75.7 12 norway 75.3 13 austria 74.7 14 new zealand 70.9 https://gtmarket.ru/countries/finland/finland-info journal of social studies education research 2020: 10 (2), 133-150 15 hong kong 70.9 16 germany 70.3 17 france 68.3 18 israel 67.6 19 ireland 65.2 20 japan 64.2 source: national education systems performance rating, 2019 the next step in the study will be a comparison of the countries of the world according to the indicated ratings and the allocation of an average list of leaders. according to the authors, the purpose of this comparison is not to determine the exceptional countries of the world. based on heterogeneous international assessments of the quality of education, the authors single out the top-10 countries that, in their opinion, are leaders in education. the assessment methodology is based on the indicators of the countries of the three previous ratings. the calculation is carried out on the basis of the allocation of the total weight of each country in the framework of three scales of calculation, with a further summation of their total weight. there is one exception: singapore is included in the table, which over the past few years has taken tremendous steps to improve its national education system (this country was not included in the top-20 rating of the knowledge economy index). as a result of the analysis, the authors compiled the following rating: table 4 top-10 index of the countries, leading in the field of education rating country 1 united states of america 2 switzerland 3 denmark 4 sweden 5 great britain 6 finland 7 netherlands 8 canada 9 australia 10 singapore source: compiled by the authors. gapsalamov et al. based on the table, it can be noted that the leaders are almost the same, the location of some countries has changed. moreover, the first three states are the united states of america, switzerland, and denmark. rating of competitiveness of leading countries of the world in order to assess the degree of correlation of the quality of educational systems with their role in the global market, the authors analyze the economic competitiveness index, namely the global competitiveness index. this index is calculated according to the methodology of the world economic forum and is compiled using a combination of publicly available statistics and the results of a global survey of company executives – an extensive annual study, conducted by the world economic forum in conjunction with a network of partner organizations – leading research institutions and organizations in the countries, analyzed in the report. the authors of the study emphasize that countries with high rates of national competitiveness, as a rule, provide a higher level of well-being of their citizens. in general, the competitiveness of national economies is determined by numerous and very diverse factors. thus, the inefficient management of public finance and high inflation have a negative impact on the state of the economy, and the protection of intellectual property rights, a developed judicial system, and other measures can have a positive effect. at the same time, along with institutional factors, the education and advanced training of the workforce, continuous access to new knowledge and technologies are crucial. all variables are combined into 12 benchmarks that determine national competitiveness (the global competitiveness index, 2019): 1. the quality of institutions. 2. infrastructure. 3. macroeconomic stability. 4. health and primary education. 5. higher education and training. 6. the effectiveness of the market for goods and services. 7. labor market efficiency. 8. the development of the financial market. 9. the level of technological development. journal of social studies education research 2020: 10 (2), 133-150 10. the size of the domestic market. 11. competitiveness of companies. 12. innovation potential. in 2019, countries were assessed for their degree of competitiveness, as a result of which it can be concluded that some countries included in the top-10 of the authors rating of the quality of national educational systems were not included in the similar top-10 of the most competitive (see table 5). table 5 countries' competitiveness index (2019) education of countries of the world by quality of education countries rating of competitiveness of countries of the world 1 united states of america 2 2 switzerland 5 3 denmark 10 4 sweden 8 5 great britain 9 6 finland 11 7 netherlands 4 8 canada 14 9 australia 16 10 singapore 1 source: compiled by the authors. currently, the leaders of the educational sector are leaders in the competitiveness rating, but with a certain exception (finland, canada, and australia, which occupy positions below the top-10 in terms of competitiveness rating). in the authors' opinion, this dissonance will be temporary, the quality of education will play a positive role, and after some time these countries will rise in the competitiveness rating, which should be helped by the active movement of these countries along the path of digitalization of the economy and the educational system. discussion so, it was concluded that a variety of ratings practically do not change the list of leading countries by the quality of education, which, in turn, affects the competitiveness of states gapsalamov et al. (magsumov, 2013). however, what determines the supremacy of these countries, their leadership? is there only large-scale financing, the standard and quality of life of the population, etc.? probably not. the use of advanced technologies in the education system, including on the basis of digitalization, is a key factor in their dominant position. at this point in time, a situation has arisen called “digital inequality” when there is economic and social inequality between people (groups, communities, countries, and regions), based on different possibilities of access to information and communication technologies and, therefore, to information and knowledge. digital inequality leads to the fact that the informationally poor segments of the population (and even the state) are being squeezed out of the modern information economy, which further widens the gap between rich and poor at different levels (iakova, 2016; tarman, 2009). this leads today to a new round between countries for a new “oil” of the global economy – the possession of information. the understanding of the need to engage in the “digital era” has become the dominant factor in the state policy of the leading countries of the educational process. so, over the past few years, the so-called “digital revolution” has taken place in australia’s education system. as part of this initiative, the australian government aims to bring meaningful changes to teaching and learning through the use of information and communication technologies in australian schools. it is assumed that as a result of the steps taken by the government, students will be better prepared to continue their education and training, for their future life and work in the digital world (andre, 2019). the government of the country places particular emphasis on high-quality education in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem). in this connection, the national strategy for school education stem for 2016–2026 was approved. the focus is on basic skills, the development of mathematical, scientific and digital literacy, as well as the development of critical analysis and creative thinking skills. the country's leadership is investing huge amounts of money to develop a number of curricula using artificial intelligence technology in schools. at the same time, the key areas of popularization of artificial intelligence (ai) technology in education are: conducting research on the use of ai and new technologies in schools and identifying the best teaching practices; conducting training webinars for teachers on the use of ai technologies in the educational process; the creation of specialized online resources for schoolchildren, students and journal of social studies education research 2020: 10 (2), 133-150 teachers (on the development of scientific, technical, mathematical education and digital technologies in schools in australia, 2019). the development of switzerland in this direction is also of great interest. the basic direction for the country is recognized as the development and implementation of ict and digitalization of all spheres of life, stimulating the movement towards the so-called “economy 4.0”. in the "strategy for the development of the information society", the goal is very succinctly formulated – the development of the economy through the use of advanced ict; the use of icts for the benefit of all residents of the country. the basic principles of the transit ion of the swiss confederation to the information society were declared back in 1998 in the first edition of the strategy. the first paragraph in this act was that every swiss citizen should have access to information and communication technologies (and at affordable prices); ict will be introduced in all areas of the daily life of the country's population; the information society will develop on the basis of market mechanisms and citizen initiatives. the tasks of the state included providing a framework for the functioning of the information society, promoting the formation of social equality of citizens and creating basic principles for the political solution of security issues in the use of ict. subsequent legal acts developed and detailed the main activities of the confederation in the transition to the information society. the latest edition of the document (2012) formulated the main provisions of state policy in this area for the period until 2019: “to promote the development and implementation of ict in all spheres of life; level the digital divide in society; to establish itself as a sustainable information society”. a number of government documents aimed at implementing the main provisions of the strategy deal with overcoming the existing imbalance associated with the digital divide in swiss society. the attention of government agencies is focused on special programs aimed at developing high-speed broadband infrastructure, providing open access to information networks, and stimulating the process of digitalization of data. in 2016, a new state program called “digital switzerland” was developed, which describes in more detail the processes of transferring all spheres of the life of the state to digital platforms (iakova, 2016). other countries see similar events. thus, one comes to understanding that the competitiveness of the economy is based on the quality of education, and that, in turn, today uses the tools of the digital world. the criteria for this process today are: 1. systematic state policy; 2. development of a state strategy; gapsalamov et al. 3. creation of legal, economic and social institutions that contribute to the development of technologies and tools of the digital world; 4. economic motivation of all participants in the digitalization process; 5. and, finally, the creation of barriers preventing washing out the intellectual property of participants in this process by the digital environment. conclusions at the end of the study, it should be noted that nowadays there are many world ratings that rank countries according to the quality of education. it was noticed by the authors that the leading countries in them practically do not change. even if one compares the ratings of the quality of education and the level of competitiveness of the country on the world stage, there are no serious deviations from the leading states. it is evident that there are many reasons for this. the main ones include the current stage of development, the quality and standard of living of the population, abundant investments in education and science and other reasons. among all these reasons, the authors include the degree of the country's participation in the digitalization process. without proper government policy in this area, without strategies for the development of the digital economy and the development of relevant institutions, it will be difficult to maintain existing leadership positions. acknowledgments the reported study was funded by rfbr, project number 19-29-07037 references adams, b. (2019). the far reaching impact of transformative curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.2 ahel, o., & lingenau, k. (2020). opportunities and challenges of digitalization to improve access to education for sustainable development in higher education. world sustainability series, 341-356. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-15604-6_21 amhag, l., hellström, l., & stigmar, m. (2019). teacher educators' use of digital tools and needs for digital competence in higher education. journal of digital learning in teacher education, 35(4), 203-220. doi:10.1080/21532974.2019.1646169 andre, a. (2019). about the "digital revolution" in australia's education. pandia. retrieved december 29, 2019, from https://pandia.ru/text/79/285/27785.php baumol, u., & bockshecker, a. (2017). evolutionary change of higher education driven by digitalization. paper presented at the 2017 16th international conference on information journal of social studies education research 2020: 10 (2), 133-150 technology based higher education and training, ithet 2017, doi:10.1109/ithet.2017.8067811 carcolini, p. j. (2017). curricula for sustainability in higher education. [book review]. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 102-104. cáceres-reche, m.-p., hinojo-lucena, f.-j., ramos navas-parejo, m., & romero-rodríguez, j.m. (2019). the phenomenon of cyberbullying in the children and adolescents population: a scientometric analysis. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 115-128. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.8 crittenden, w. f., biel, i. k., & lovely, w. a.. (2019). embracing digitalization: student learning and new technologies. journal of marketing education, 41(1), 5-14. doi:10.1177/0273475318820895 drieschner, c., passalidis, i., kienegger, h., & krcmar, h. (2019). business model transformation initiated by the digital transformation: a review of learning concepts. paper presented at the ieee global engineering education conference, educon, april-2019 1386-1392. doi:10.1109/educon.2019.8725155 efficiency rating of national education systems (2019). humanitarian technology. analytical portal. retrieved december 01, 2019, from https://gtmarket.ru/ratings/global-index-ofcognitive-skills-and-educational-attainment/info espino, d., lee, s., van tress, l., baker, t., & hamilton, e. (2020). analysis of u.s., kenyan, and finnish discourse patterns in a cross-cultural digital makerspace learning community through the ibe-unesco global competences framework. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 86-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.5 glotko, a. v., polyakova, a. g., kuznetsova, m. y., kovalenko, k. e., shichiyakh, r. a., & melnik, m. v. (2020). main trends of government regulation of sectoral digitalization. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 7(3), 2181-2195. doi:10.9770/jesi.2020.7.3(48) grewal, i., maher, a., watters, h., clemens, d., & webb, k. (2019). rewriting teacher education: food, love, and community. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 44-60. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.3 iakova, t. s. (2016). switzerland in overcoming the digital divide: policies and practices. mediaskop, 4. availableat: http://www.mediascope.ru/2211 igoshin, v.i., fedchenko, e.a., denisova, o.p., akhmetov, l.g., plaskova, n.s., prokofeva, e.v. (2020). to the question of the method of studying the concept of proof and the axiomatic method by bachelors and masters of pedagogical education. international journal of advanced science and technology, 29(6), 1964-1972. khalid, j., ram, b. r., soliman, m., ali, a. j., khaleel, m., & islam, m. s. (2018). promising digital university: a pivotal need for higher education transformation. international journal of management in education, 12(3), 264-275. doi:10.1504/ijmie.2018.092868 knowledge economy index (2019). humanitarian technology. analytical portal. retrieved december 02, 2019, from https://gtmarket.ru/ratings/knowledge-economyindex/knowledge-economy-index-info korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). studying user satisfaction with the mooc platform interfaces using the example of coursera and open education platforms. paper presented at the acm international conference proceeding series, 26-30. doi:10.1145/3322134.3322139 gapsalamov et al. liu, m., zha, s., & he, w. (2019). digital transformation challenges: a case study regarding the mooc development and operations at higher education institutions in china. techtrends, 63(5), 621-630. doi:10.1007/s11528-019-00409-y lvov, v. v., smirnova, z. v., artemova, e. i., averianova, t. a., aleksiuk, i. o., & tonkikh, a. p. (2019). state of university–employer interaction models in russia. journal of entrepreneurship education, 22(4), 1-9. mok, k. h., & leung, d. (2012). digitalisation, educational and social development in greater china. globalisation, societies and education, 10(3), 271-294. doi:10.1080/14767724.2012.710118 magsumov, t.a. (2013). educational excursions in technical schools of pre-revolutionary russia. bylye gody, 27(1), 52-60. márque, j., peña, c., jones, l., orange, a., & simieou, f. (2018). academic success and resiliency factors: a case study of unaccompanied immigrant children. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 162-181. minakhmetova а.z., & pyanova e.n., bochkareva n.g., borisov v. v. (2020). digital socialization of teenagers. talent development and excellence, 12(3s), 292-300. nadtochy, y.v., klochko, e.n., danilina, m.v., bazhenov, r.i., bakharev, v.v. (2016). economic factors and conditions for the transformation of the education services market in the context of globalization. international review of management and marketing, 6(1), 33-39. on the development of scientific, technical, mathematical education and digital technologies in australian schools (2019, november 18). federal center for information and educational resources. retrieved december 02, 2019, from http://fcior.edu.ru/news/o-razvitiinauchnogo-tehnicheskogo-matematicheskogo-obrazovaniya-i-cifrovyh-tehnologiy-vshkolah-avstralii orellana, v., cevallos, y., tello-oquendo, l., inca, d., palacios, c., & renteria, l. (2019). quality evaluation processes and its impulse to digital transformation in ecuadorian universities. paper presented at the 2019 6th international conference on edemocracy and egovernment, icedeg 2019, 338-343. doi:10.1109/icedeg.2019.8734373 öztürkler, z. (2017). evaluation of technology strategies as quality strategy of higher education institutions. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 13(7), 4021-4033. doi:10.12973/eurasia.2017.00770a polyakova, a. g., loginov, m. p., serebrennikova, a. i., & thalassinos, e. i. (2019). design of a socio-economic processes monitoring system based on network analysis and big data. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(1), 130-139. rating of national higher education systems (2019). humanitarian technology. analytical portal. retrieved december 01, 2019, from https://gtmarket.ru/ratings/u21-ranking-of-nationalhigher-education-systems/info solas, e., & sutton, f. (2018). incorporating digital technology in the general education classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.1 swarts, g. (2020). re/coding global citizenship: how information and communication technologies have altered humanity… and created new questions for global citizenship education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 70-85. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.4 journal of social studies education research 2020: 10 (2), 133-150 tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed tarman, b. (2009). the digital divide in education, eric (ed508213). retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed508213.pdf the global competitiveness index (2019). humanitarian technology. analytical portal. retrieved december 01, 2019, from https://gtmarket.ru/ratings/global-competitiveness-index/info voronkova, o.y., sadykova, l.r., avdeev, y.m., (...), surikov, y.n., zatsarinnaya, e.i. (2020). education in the field of technological entrepreneurship, based on the university's innovative resource base. talent development and excellence, 12(special issue3), pp. 444453. yemelyanov, v., nedelkin, a., & yemelyanova, n. (2020). expert system software for assessing the technical condition of critical lined equipment doi:10.1007/978-3-030-37916-2_92 wilcox, s. (2020). policy storms at the central office: conflicting narratives of racial equity and segregation at school committee meetings. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 40-56. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.3 yigit, m. (2018). does higher education change value perceptions?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.01.01.1 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed508213.pdf https://gtmarket.ru/ratings/global-competitiveness-index/info www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(1), 116-135 © 2011 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanılmasına i̇lişkin görüşleri ∗ pre-service teachers’ opinions regarding using films in social studies education• erdoğan kaya1, tuba çengelci̇2 özet: sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğrencilere insanlar, yerler ve kültürleri geçmiş, bugün ve gelecek bağlamında tanıtmak için çeşitli öğrenme kaynakları kullanılmaktadır. filmler sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri için önemli kaynaklardan biridir. bu çalışmanın amacı sosyal bilgiler dersinde filmlerden yararlanma konusunu öğretmen adaylarının bakış açısıyla incelemektir. çalışmanın katılımcılarını 2008-2009 eğitim öğretim yılında bir devlet üniversitesinin eğitim fakültesi sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği programında öğrenim gören üçüncü ve dördüncü sınıf öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır. çalışmada nitel araştırma yaklaşımı benimsenmiş, araştırma verileri odak grup görüşmesi yoluyla toplanmıştır.araştırma sonuçlarına göre öğretmen adayları filmlerin öğrenme-öğretme sürecinde birden çok duyu organına hitap eden, kalıcı ve eğlenceli bir öğrenmeye destek sağladığının altını çizmişlerdir. öğretmen adayları filmlerin sosyal bilgiler dersi içeriği ile ilgili bilgi, beceri ve değerleri desteklemesi bakımından önemli olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. ayrıca, öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında filmlerin etkili bir biçimde yararlanılmasında öğretmenlerin rolünü vurgulamışlar, bu süreçte karşılaşılabilecek sorunları dile getirmişlerdir. öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanma konusunda öğretmenlere, okullara, ailelere ve medya kuruluşlarına yönelik çeşitli öneriler getirmişlerdir. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler, film, öğretmen adayı ∗bu makale 27-29 temmuz 2010 tarihleri arasında singapur’da düzenlenen uluslararası öğrenme ve toplumu güçlendirme konferansı’nda (icolace 2010) bir kısmı sözlü bildiri olarak sunulan ve özeti basılan çalışmanın tamamını içermektedir. • this article includes the study a part of which was presented as an oral presentation at the international conference on learning and community enrichment (icolace 2010) in singapore, july 27-29, 2010. 1 yard.doç.dr., anadolu üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, erkaya@anadolu.edu.tr 2 arş.gör.dr., anadolu üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, tubacengelci@anadolu.edu.tr erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 117 extended abstract fundamental knowledge, skills, attitudes and values for community life are taught students through various courses in elementary school. social studies course play an important role in teaching process of mentioned knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to students in primary education level. various learning resources are used in social studies course for introducing students past, today and future with people, places and cultures. films are powerful pedagogical tools for social studies teachers. films play an important role in introducing historical, cultural, geographical, social, politic issues, perspectives and characteristics belong to people, society, or nations. this study was aimed at examining advantages and disadvantages of using film in social studies education from the perspective of social studies pre-service teachers. the purpose of the study is to examine pre-service teachers’ understandings about using films in social studies course. within the scope of the main purpose of the present study, the following research questions were addressed: • what do pre-service teachers think about using film in social studies? • what do pre-service teachers think about contributions of films to social studies education? • what do pre-service teachers think about problems can be encountered when using film in social studies? • what are pre-service teachers’ recommendations about using film in social studies? qualitative research methods were used in the study. participants of the study were 3rd and 4th grade preservice teachers enrolled in social studies teacher training program. focus group interview was used in the study. first group consisted of 8 pre-service teachers from the 3rd grade, and second group had 6 pre-service teachers from the 4th grade. in the analysis of data, content analysis technique was used. findings were examined under the four main themes which were classified as “using film in social studies”, “contributions of films to social studies”, “problems can be encountered when using film in social studies”, and “recommendations”. findings of the study show that according to pre-service teachers films appeal to multiple senses of students, help retention of learning, and facilitate history and geography learning. moreover, films make learning enjoyable. pre-service teachers explained contribution of films to social studies education under the subthemes of contribution regarding knowledge, skills, and values acquirement. they mentioned about historical and geographical issues in terms of knowledge contribution of films. pre-service teachers emphasized that films help students develop creative thinking, critical thinking, and interpreting skills. additionally, they indicated that films play a significant role to teach values such as love, friendship, independence, cultural values, national values, cooperation and solidarity, peace, democracy and freedom, and sensitivity. problems, pre-service teachers mentioned regarding using films in social studies, were determined as “films can create bias against certain views and beliefs”, “films are usually shot based on western sources”, “films generally adopt one-sided perspective”, “films about surreal heroes have negative impact on children”, “historical films may give inaccurate information”, and “violence is emphasized in some films”. finally, pre-service teachers suggested recommendation for teachers, schools, families, and media organizations. according to results of the study pre-service teachers have positive views about using films social studies. they thought that films help retention of learning, and provide visualization in teaching learning process. pre-service teachers thought that films help students acquire some knowledge, skills, and values. however, films could have negative effects on students. teachers, schools, families and media organizations should take responsibility to solve problems which are encountered regarding films. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 116-135 118 studies can be designed to determine effect of using various types of films on teaching different subjects in social studies. teachers’ views and competency regarding using films in social studies should be examined. primary school students’ and parents’ opinions about using films in education should be investigated. media literacy education and critical thinking education can be organized for teachers and parents to use films effectively in social studies course. an educational film archive can be formed for teachers by ministry of education or researchers. key words: social studies, film, pre-service teacher giriş medya günümüzde öğrenme sürecinin ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır. bu nedenle medyadan eğitim odaklı yararlanmanın akademik amaçların gerçekleştirilmesine katkı sağlayacağı söylenebilir. bu bağlamda öğretmenler belirli konuların öğretiminde öğrencileri güdülemek amacıyla filmlerden yararlanabilirler (aiex, 1988). filmler güçlü bir eğitim aracı olarak kullanılabilmekte, öğrenilmesi amaçlanan içeriğin görsel ve işitsel bakımdan erişilebilir hale getirilmesine olanak sağlayabilmektedir. bu nedenle çeşitli türleriyle filmler sosyal bilgiler derslerinde kullanılabilecek en güncel kaynaklar arasında yer almaktadır (paris, 1997). filmler iki temel özelliği nedeniyle bireyleri toplumsallaştırma işlevi taşımaktadır. birinci özellik teknik yapısıyla bir filmin görüntü, hareket ve ses öğelerini bir arada kullanılabilmesiyle çok fazla bilginin aktarılabilmesine olanak vermesidir. filmlerin toplumsallaştırma bakımından ikinci önemli özelliği sinemanın başlı başına bir sanat olması, sosyal olguları, düşünceleri ve en önemlisi duyguları aktarabilecek bir nitelik taşımasıdır. bir ders kitabında, sosyal olgu ve olayların bir film sahnesinde verildiği gibi öğrenciye aktarılması ve hissettirilmesi olanaklı değildir. diğer bir deyişle filmler, öğrencilerin gözünde soyut bilgileri ilgili tüm öğeleriyle bir bütünlük içinde canlandırabilmekte ya da gerçek bir yaşamı yansıtabilmektedir (birkök, 2008, ss.2-3). filmler öğrencilere bireyler, toplumlar ya da uluslarla ilgili tarihi, kültürel, coğrafi, sosyal ve politik konuların ve bakış açılarının tanıtılmasında önemli rol oynamaktadır. filmler, sosyal bilgiler dersi içeriğinde yer alan tarih ve coğrafya konularının öğretiminde kullanılabilir. marcus (2005, s.64) tarihsel kanıtlara dayalı filmlerin öğrencilerde tarihsel empati ve tarihsel bakış açısının geliştirilmesine katkı sağladığını belirtmektedir. ayrıca öğrencilere farklı bakış açılarının zengin biçimde sunulduğu eğitimsel filmler öğrencilerin tartışmalı tarihsel konuları analiz etmelerine olanak sağlamaktadır (stoddard, 2009, s.430). diğer yandan coğrafya ile ilgili filmler öğrencilerin çok uzak mesafelerde bulunan yerler ve kültürler konusunda bir görüş edinmelerine yardım etmektedir (algeo, 2007). bunların yanında filmler sosyal bilgiler dersinde güncel olayların ve toplumu ilgilendiren sosyal problemlerin ele alınmasında da kullanılabilir. dressel erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 119 (1990, s.226) filmlerin uyuşturucu kullanımı, ırkçılık gibi sosyal problemler konusunda öğrencilerde anlayış oluşturmayı kolaylaştırdığını vurgulamaktadır. öğrencinin toplumsal yaşamı anlayarak bu sürece etkin katılım için gerekli bilgi, beceri ve değerleri kazandığı sosyal bilgiler dersinde filmlerden yararlanma konusunda öğretmenin dikkat etmesi gereken noktalar şöyle sıralanabilir (öztaş, 2009, ss.347-354): öğretmen; • dersin kazanımlarına uygun filmleri seçmeli ve öğrencilere izlettirmeden önce kendisi izleyerek filmin uygunluğu konusunda emin olmalıdır. • film seçiminde öğrencilerin gelişim düzeyini göz önünde bulundurmalıdır. • filmlerin şiddet öğeleri içermemesine özen göstermelidir. • film etkinliğini planlı biçimde uygulamalı, gösterim öncesi, sırası ve sonrasında yapılacak çalışmaları ayrıntılı biçimde planlamalıdır. sosyal bilgiler dersinde etkili bir öğrenme aracı olarak kullanılabilecek filmler konusunda sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerinin alınması, öğretmen adaylarının konuya bakış açılarının ortaya konması ve hizmetöncesi eğitimlerinde konuyla ilgili yapılacak uygulamalara ışık tutması bakımından önem taşımaktadır. amaç bu araştırmanın temel amacı sosyal bilgiler dersinde filmlerden yararlanma konusuna ilişkin olarak sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerini belirlemektir. bu amaç doğrultusunda aşağıdaki sorulara yanıt aranmıştır: • öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmaya ilişkin olarak neler düşünmektedirler? • filmlerin sosyal bilgiler eğitimine katkıları (bilgi, beceri, değer) konusunda öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri nelerdir? • öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmada karşılaşılabilecek sorunlara ilişkin olarak neler düşünmektedirler? • öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler dersinde filmlerden yararlanmaya ilişkin önerileri nelerdir? yöntem öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler dersinde filmlerin kullanımına ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemeyi amaçlayan bu araştırma nitel araştırma modelinde desenlenmiştir. araştırmada veri toplama tekniği olarak odak grup görüşmesi kullanılmıştır. odak grup görüşmesi ılımlı bir journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 116-135 120 ortamda bir konuya ilişkin algıları belirlemek amacıyla dikkatle planlanmış tartışmalar serisi biçiminde tanımlanmaktadır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005, s.152). zaman ve maliyetten tasarruf sağlaması, katılımcılar arasındaki etkileşimin verinin niteliğine katkıda bulunması, etkileşim sonucu ortaya çıktığından tutarlı veri sunması ve katılımcılar için eğlenceli bir ortam oluşturması odak grup görüşmelerinin avantajları arasında sayılabilir (patton, 2001, ss.385-386). araştırmanın katılımcılarını 2008-2009 öğretim yılı bahar döneminde bir devlet üniversitesinin eğitim fakültesi sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği programında öğrenim gören üçüncü ve dördüncü sınıf öğrencileri oluşturmuştur. araştırmada kolay ulaşılabilir durum örneklemesinden (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005, s.112) yararlanılmıştır. sosyal bilgiler eğitimine yönelik bilgi birikimleri yanında uygulamaya dönük ders ve etkinliklerde daha çok yer almaları nedeniyle bu sınıf düzeylerindeki öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerine başvurulmuştur. odak gruplarda film izleme alışkanlıkları fazla olan öğretmen adaylarının yer almasına dikkat edilmiştir. bu amaçla odak grup görüşmeleri öncesinde öğretmen adaylarıyla informal görüşmeler yapılmıştır. daha sonra onlara araştırma konusundan ve amaçlarından söz edilmiştir. filmlere ilgisi olanlar ve araştırmaya gönüllü olarak katılmayı kabul edenlerle odak grup görüşmeleri yapılmıştır. araştırmaya üçüncü sınıftan 8, dördüncü sınıftan 6 öğrenci katılmıştır. öğretmen adaylarından 10’u erkek 4’ü bayandır. öğretmen adaylarına uygulanan görüşme formu araştırmanın amaçlarına paralel sorular içermiştir. uzman görüşleri ve pilot görüşme ile görüşme formuna son biçimi verilmiştir. odak grup görüşmeleri üçüncü ve dördüncü sınıf öğrencileriyle ayrı ayrı iki oturumda gerçekleştirilmiştir. . üçüncü sınıf öğrencileriyle gerçekleştirilen görüşüme 44 dakika, dördüncü sınıf öğrencileriyle yapılan görüşme 36 dakika sürmüştür. araştırma verilerinin toplanmasında odak grup görüşmelerinin tercih edilmesi araştırmacılara zaman bakımından kolaylık sağlamıştır. bunun yanı sıra oluşturulan gruplarda öğretmen adaylarının etkileşimi sürece katkı getirici ve zenginleştirici bir etkide bulunmuştur. öğretmen adayları birbirlerinin görüşlerinden hareketle sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde filmlerin kullanımına ilişkin bakış açılarını ortaya koymaya çalışmışlardır. görüşme sırasında yönlendirme yapılmamasına, bireysel ve grup dinamiğinin yakalanmasına çalışılmıştır. görüşmeler ses kayıt cihazı ile kaydedilmiş, daha sonra bilgisayar ortamında yazıya dökülmüştür. ses kayıtları ile yazılı döküm karşılaştırılarak tutarlılığı sağlanmıştır. araştırma verilerinin analizinde içerik analizi tekniği kullanılmıştır. araştırmada elde edilen veriler analiz sürecinde kodlanmış ve amaçlara dayalı olarak temalar altında toplanmıştır. veriler görüşlerden doğrudan alıntılar yapıldıktan sonra başka araştırmaların sonuçlarıyla tartışılarak raporlaştırılmıştır. araştırmada her bir öğretmen adayına bir kod ad verilmiş, raporlaştırmada görüşlerden doğrudan alıntılar yapılırken bunlar kullanılarak katılımcılar gizli erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 121 tutulmuştur. araştırmanın amacı dışına çıkılmamasını sağlamak için temalar oluşturulurken araştırma amaçları dikkate alınmıştır. yoğun bir veri seti içinde araştırmacıların seçici olması ve araştırma amaçları çerçevesinde kodlama yapabilmesi araştırmanın geçerliliğini de olumlu yönde etkilemektedir (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005, s.223). analiz süreci sonunda iki araştırmacı ayrı ayrı yapmış oldukları analizleri inceleyerek kod ve temalar üzerinde uyum sağlamışlardır. bulgular bu bölümde öğretmen adaylarıyla sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanma konusunda yapılan odak grup görüşmelerinden elde edilen bulgulara yer verilmiştir. bulgular sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmaya ilişkin görüşler, filmlerin sosyal bilgiler eğitimine katkıları, sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmada karşılaşılabilecek sorunlar ve sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmaya yönelik öneriler temaları altında verilmiştir. her bir temada ulaşılan alt temalar öğretmen adayları tarafından daha çok vurgu yapılanlardan başlanarak sıralanmıştır. sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmaya ilişkin görüşler öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerin kullanımı konusundaki görüşlerine ilişkin bulgular tablo1’de gösterilmiştir. tablo 1. öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanılmasına ilişkin görüşleri görüşler birden fazla duyu organına hitap etmesi kalıcı öğrenmeye destek sağlaması tarih ve coğrafya konularının öğrenilmesini kolaylaştırması öğrenilenleri somutlaştırması öğrenmeyi eğlenceli hale getirmesi öğrenilenlerin günlük yaşama aktarılmasını sağlaması tablo 1’de görüldüğü gibi sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerin kullanımına ilişkin olarak öncelikle filmlerin birden fazla duyu organına hitap etmesini dile getirmişlerdir. bununla ilgili olarak cem adındaki öğretmen adayı “sosyal bilgilerde şöyle bir ilke vardır. bir insanın ne kadar çok duyu organına hitap ederseniz o kadar çok öğretebilirsiniz” diyerek filmlerin duyuları harekete geçirdiğinden söz etmektedir. filmlerin öğrenme sürecinde özellikle görselliği sağlamasının etkili öğrenmeye katkı sağladığını düşünen journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 116-135 122 berk görüşlerini “gerçekten görsellik çok önemli, görerek öğrenmek görerek duyarak ve kendi kafamızda onu tartarak öğrenmemiz çok daha önemli. bunun faydalarını çok fazla görüyoruz” biçiminde açıklamıştır. öğretmen adayları filmlerin öğrenilenlerin kalıcılığına katkı sağladığını düşünmektedirler. öğretmen adayları filmlerin öğrenilenlerin kalıcılığına katkı sağladığını düşünmektedirler. bu konuda hale düşüncelerini şöyle açıklamaktadır: ben sosyal bilgilerde filmlerin çok önemli olduğunu düşünüyorum. eğitim bilimleri dersinde de gördüğümüz gibi bir şeyi görerek algıladığımız zaman o insanın zihninde daha da kalıcı oluyor. o yüzden görselliğin her şeyde en önemli olduğunu düşünüyorum görerek yaşayarak yapmak daha kalıcı ve etkili oluyor. hani bir öğretmenin dersi anlatarak geçmesinden yana görsel olarak filmlerden ve daha çok şey öğrendiğimizi düşünüyorum. öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler dersinde kullanılan filmlerin özellikle tarih ve coğrafya konularının öğretilmesini kolaylaştırdığını düşünmektedirler. bu konuda yine berk isimli öğretmen adayı “tarihin canlandırılmasıyla oluşturulmuş filimler öğrencilerin tarihi daha çabuk kavramasını, özellikle hikâye yoluyla daha çabuk kavramasını sağlıyor. coğrafi bakımdan ele alırsak coğrafi konularda yapılmış filmleri gören öğrencilerin daha başarılı olduğunu düşünüyorum” diyerek tarih ve coğrafya konularının öğretiminde filmlerin yerine değinmiştir. öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler dersinde filmlerin öğrenilenleri somutlaştırdığını, eğlenceli hale getirdiğini ve öğrenilenlerin günlük yaşama aktarılmasını sağladığını düşünmektedirler. filmlerin sosyal bilgiler eğitimine katkıları öğretmen adaylarının filmlerin sosyal bilgiler eğitimine katkılarına ilişkin görüşlerinin incelenmesi ile elde edilen bulgular tablo 2’de bilgi, beceri ve değer temaları altında ele alınmıştır. tablo 2. öğretmen adaylarının filmlerin sosyal bilgiler eğitimine katkıları konusundaki görüşleri tarih eğitimine katkı tarihi filmlerin bilgilendirici olması tarihi filmlerin geçmişteki kültürleri tanımaya katkı sağlaması erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 123 bilgi boyutunda katkılarına ilişkin görüşler coğrafya eğitimine katkı çevre sorunlarıyla ilgili filmlerin konuların öğrenilmesini kolaylaştırması doğal afetlerle ilgili filmlerin konuların öğrenilmesini kolaylaştırması beceri boyutunda katkılarına ilişkin görüşler eleştirel düşünme yaratıcı düşünme yorum yapma değer boyutunda katkılarına ilişkin görüşler sevgi bağımsızlık tarihsel dönemlerdeki değer yargıları kültürel değerler i̇şbirliği ve dayanışma demokrasi ve özgürlük arkadaşlık ve dostluk ulusal değerler barış duyarlılık bilgi boyutunda en çok tarih konularının öğrenilmesine olan katkıları üzerinde durulmuş ve “tarihi filmlerin bilgilendirici olması” temasının ön plana çıktığı görülmüştür. bu konuyla ilgili olarak yağız görüşlerini şu şekilde açıklamıştır: ben öss sınavına hazırlanırken turgut özakman’ın senaryosunu hazırladığı kurtuluş dizisini izledim. bu dizinin bana bilgi olarak katkısı çok büyük oldu. o savaşların nedenlerini sonuçlarını daha iyi gördüm, benim için çok etkili oldu. öteki türlü kitaptan çalışsaydım benim için biraz daha sıkıcı ve zor olacaktı, aklımda kalmayacaktı belki. ama şimdi hala aklımda tarihi filmlerin katkısı büyük benim için. ömür isimli öğretmen adayı ise tarihi filmlerin bilgilendirici özelliği konusundaki görüşlerini “tarihi filmlerin bize bilgi konusunda daha çok öncülük ettiğini söyleyebilirim. örneğin truva filminde truva savaşından alınan sahnelerle savaşın amacı ve sonuçlarıyla ilgili bilgiler edinmemizi sağlıyor ya da mustafa filmi olabilir. mustafa kemal atatürk’ün hayatından kesitler sunuyor” biçiminde dile getirmiştir. öğretmen adayları tarihi filmlerin bilgilendirici olma özelliğinin yanı sıra geçmişteki kültürleri tanımaya da olanak sağladığını belirtmişlerdir. bu journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 116-135 124 konuyla ilgili olarak rasim isimli öğretmen adayı “sosyal bilgiler dersi açısından bakacak olursak filmler eski kültürleri tanımak ve kendi kültürleriyle karşılaştırarak yeni bir senteze ulaşmaları için öğrencilere fırsat sunar. filmler bu konu açısından çok önemlidir. filmler ve diziler özellikle diziler geçmiş yaşamdaki olayların günümüzde yorumlamasını sağlamaktadır” diyerek tarihi film ve dizilerin öğrencilere geçmişe yolculuk yaparak ilgili dönemin koşulları ve kültürü konusunda bir anlayış geliştirmelerine katkı sağladığını belirtmiştir. öğretmen adayları filmlerin sosyal bilgiler eğitimine katkıları konusunda ikinci olarak coğrafya konularının öğretilmesine olan katkıdan söz etmişlerdir. bu bağlamda çevre sorunları ve doğal afetlerle ilgili filmlerin sosyal bilgiler dersi içeriğinde yer alan coğrafya ile ilgili konuların öğretilmesini kolaylaştırdığını belirtmişlerdir. ceyhun isimli öğretmen adayı “volkan diye bir film hatırlıyorum. o filmde bir volkanın çevre halkına verdiği zararlardan bahsedilmişti. yarından sonra diye bir film var aynı şekilde burada da küresel ısınmanın zararlarından bahsedilmiş. öğrenciler bu filmlerden çok kaliteli bilgiler elde edebilirler” diyerek filmlerden örneklerle görüşlerini açıklamaya çalışmıştır. öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerin kullanımının beceri boyutunda katkılarına ilişkin olarak öncelikle eleştirel düşünme daha sonra yaratıcı düşünme ve yorum yapma becerilerinden söz etmişlerdir. filmlerin eleştirel düşünme becerilerine katkısı konusunda kaan isimli öğretmen adayı düşüncelerini şöyle açıklamıştır: filmler öncelikle eleştirel bir izlenim oluşturuyor çocuklarda. diziyi veya filmi izlerken niye böyle yaptı keşke şöyle yapsaydı olmaz mıydı? bazı olaylar veya insanlar arasındaki ilişkilere eleştirel bir anlamda bakıyor. diğer yandan kendisinde olan yanlış bilgiyi veya doğru bilgiyi filmde verilmek istenen bilgilerle karşılaştırarak daha farklı bir görüş açısı kazanıyor diye düşünüyorum ben. öğretmen adayları filmlerin yaratıcı düşünme becerilerini geliştirmesi ile ilgili olarak öğrencilere katkı sağlayacağını düşünmektedirler. erdem isimli öğretmen adayı ise filmlerin yaratıcı düşünme becerilerine katkısını örnek bir film üzerinden şöyle açıklamıştır: yaratıcı düşünme becerileri konusunda ben şöyle bir şey ekleyebilirim. wall-e adında bir animasyon film var. konusu şöyle, dünyada o kadar çok çöp oluyor ki insanlar bunları yok edemiyorlar i̇nsanlar büyük uzay gemilerine binerek uzaya gidiyorlar. belirli bir süre dünya temizleninceye kadar uzayda kalarak yaşamlarını devam ettiriyorlar. bu arada wall-e adında robotlar var. bunlar çöpçü robotlar, çöpleri toplayarak belirli bir yere yığmayı sağlıyorlar. bunun hikâyesi anlatılmış filmde. i̇nsanlar aşağı yukarı bir 400 yıl kadar uzayda kalıyorlar. teknoloji o kadar erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 125 ilerliyor ki uçan sandalyelerde oturuluyor. yemek önlerine geliyor ve kemik sistemleri gelişmiyor. çocuklar bunları görerek gelecekte nasıl yaşanabileceği konusunda farklı düşünceler geliştirebilirler. öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde film kullanımının sevgi, bağımsızlık, tarihsel dönemlerdeki değer yargıları, kültürel değerler, işbirliği ve dayanışma, demokrasi ve özgürlük, arkadaşlık ve dostluk, ulusal değerler, barış ve duyarlılık gibi değerlerin kazandırılmasına katkı sağladığının belirtmişlerdir. filmler aracılığıyla kazandırılabilecek değerler konusunda ömür isimli öğretmen adayı “her filmin kendine özgü bir değer yargısı vardır. örneğin insanlık sevgisi olsun, kültürel değerlerin paylaşımı olsun, dostluk, barış…” diyerek her filmin belirli değerleri yansıttığını vurgulamaktadır. bağımsızlık değerinin kazandırılmasıyla ilgili olarak ise cem görüşlerini şöyle dile getirmiştir; “vatansever diye bir film vardı amerikan yapımı. amerika’nın bağımsızlığa gidişini gösteriyor burada. bağımsızlık değer yargısını aşılamaya çalışıyorlar”. tarihi filmlerin konu edindiği dönemin değer yargılarını anlattığını belirten yağız “mesela değerler boyutunda filmleri ele alacak olursak tarihi filmler günümüzün değil de o zamanki değer yargılarını bize öğretiyor. kral artur diye bir film vardı, burada o zamanki savaş tekniklerini o zamanlarda nasıl savaşıldığını, ormanın içindeki savaş stratejilerini göstermekteydi” sözleriyle görüşlerini dile getirmiştir. erdem ise işbirliği ve dayanışma değerlerinin öğretimi için bir çizgi filmden örnek vermiş “şirinler çizgi filminin, çocukların birbirleriyle etkileşim içerisinde olup, herkesin birbirine yardım edip birlikten kuvvet doğar anlamında birleşip bir şeyleri başarılmasını görmeleri bakımından çok etkili olduğunu düşünüyorum” biçiminde görüşünü açıklamıştır. arkadaşlık ve dostluk değerlerinin kazandırılmasıyla ilgili olarak deniz isimli öğretmen adayı “değer boyutunda buz devri diye bir çizgi animasyon vardı. burada arkadaşlığın ne kadar değerli olduğu, arkadaşlar için neler yapılabileceği anlatılıyordu” biçiminde bir örnek verirken rasim “benim izlediğim arabalar adındaki animasyon filminde ekip ruhunun önemi dostluğun önemi vurgulanıyor daha çok. bir topluluğun başarılı olabilmesi için o topluluktaki en küçük sayılabilecek bir kişinin bile ona onun başarısında çok büyük bir etken…” sözleriyle görüşünü dile getirmiştir. öğretmen adayları ulusal değerler, barış ve duyarlılık değerlerinin filmlerden yararlanılarak öğrencilere kazandırılabileceği görüşünü paylaşmaktadır. barış değeri ile ilgili olarak hale “değer olarak ben farklı bir filmden yola çıkacağım. mesela piyanist filminin değer bağlamında çok büyük katkıları var diye düşünüyorum. o dönemin şartları, savaşın zorlukları, insanların çektiği acılar olabilir. bu tip bir filmin çocuklara savaşın kötülüğünü gösterme bakımından katkı sağlayacağını düşünüyorum” sözleriyle örnek bir film üzerinden görüşlerini açıklamıştır. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 116-135 126 sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmada karşılaşılabilecek sorunlar öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler dersinde filmlerden yararlanmada karşılaşılabilecek sorunlar konusundaki görüşlerine ilişkin bulgular tablo 3’te gösterilmiştir. tablo 3. öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmada karşılaşılabilecek sorunlar konusundaki görüşleri görüşler filmlerin belirli görüş ve inançlara karşı önyargı oluşturması filmlerin genelde batılı kaynaklara dayalı olarak yapılması filmlerde tek yönlü bakış açısının temel alınması kimi filmlerin ulusal değerlere zarar vermesi gerçeküstü güçlere sahip kahramanları konu edinen filmlerin çocukları olumsuz etkilemesi tarihi filmlerde yanlış bilgilendirmeler yapılması filmlerde şiddet öğelerinin gösterilmesi öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmada karşılaşılabilecek sorunlar konusunda çoğunlukla “filmlerin belirli görüş ve inançlara karşı önyargı oluşturabilmesi” görüşüne vurgu yaptıkları görülmüştür. bu konuda yağız görüşlerini şöyle ifade etmiştir; “ben de filmlerin tarafsızlıktan yana değerlendirilmesi gerektiğini düşünüyorum. örneğin filmler yapımcılarının görüşlerini temel alırken karşı görüş ve inançları yanlış ve kötü olarak gösteriyor. bu da tabi onu izleyen öğrencilerin bazı görüş ve inançlara karşı önyargılı davranmalarına sebep oluyor”. öğretmen adaylarının sorunlar bölümünde dile getirdikleri bir diğer önemli görüş film senaryolarının hazırlanmasında genelde batılı kaynakların temel alınmasıdır. bu konuyla ilgili olarak hale, türk senarist ve yönetmenlerinin kendilerini daha iyi tanıtmalarını önererek görüşlerini şöyle dile getirmiştir: genelde filmler amerika ve batı kaynaklı. hani atatürk’ün şöyle bir sözü vardı, askeri başarılar savaş alanında ne kadar büyük olursa olsun eğer siz masa başında güçlü kuvvetli olmazsanız onun hiçbir anlamı olmaz. bu da buna benziyor. film kültüründe film yönetiminde hollywood özellikle çok ünlü bu konuda. bütün kaynaklar da batıya göre yazılıyor yapılıyor. türk filmi şu aralar çok gelişiyor. ama genelde kaynaklar batılı kaynaklar ve onların düşünce sistemlerine, onların bizi doğuyu nasıl algıladıklarına dair filmler yapılıyor. bu yüzden de türk senaristlerinin türk senaryo yazarlarının sinemaseverlerin de bu konuda bilinçli olmasını ve erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 127 kendilerini daha çok tanıtma çabası içine girmelerinden yanayım böyle olursa daha da tarafsız ve daha güzel filmler çıkacağını düşünüyorum. filmlerin batılı kaynaklara dayalı olarak çekilmesi yanında tek yönlü bakış açısını yansıtması öğretmen adaylarının dile getirdiği bir diğer sorundur. kimi filmlerin ulusal değerlere zarar vermesi, gerçeküstü güçlere sahip kahramanları konu edinen filmlerin çocukları olumsuz etkilemesi, tarihi filmlerde yanlış bilgilendirmeler yapılması ve filmlerde şiddet öğelerinin gösterilmesi öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmada belirledikleri temel sorun alanlarını oluşturmaktadır. sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmaya yönelik öneriler öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmaya yönelik getirdikleri öneriler dört tema altında toplanmıştır. önerilere ilişkin olarak ulaşılan temalar tablo 4’te gösterilmiştir. tablo 4. öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmaya yönelik önerileri öneriler öğretmenlere yönelik öneriler okullara yönelik öneriler ailelere yönelik öneriler medya kuruluşlarına yönelik öneriler tablo 4’te görüldüğü gibi öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmaya yönelik olarak öğretmenlere, okullara, ailelere ve medya kuruluşlarına yönelik öneriler getirmişledir. öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlere yönelik getirdikleri önerilerin başında “öğretmenler filmlerdeki bilgilerin doğruluğuna dikkat etmeli” önerisi gelmektedir. bu konuda deniz görüşlerini şöyle açıklamıştır; “öğretmen ilk önce tabi ki filmi izleyecek. konuyla alakalı olup olmadığına ilk önce bir karar verecek. filmler sosyal bilgiler alanında ya da diğer alanlarda bilgiler sunabilirler. öğretmenlerin bu bilgilerin doğruluğuna daha çok dikkat etmeleri gerekiyor”. bu bağlamda öğretmen adaylarının, öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler derslerinde yararlanacakları filmler ve filmlerin sunduğu bilgiler konusunda dikkatli olmaları ve bilgi doğruluğundan emin olmaları gerektiğini düşündükleri söylenebilir. öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlere yönelik getirdikleri bir diğer öneri “öğretmen eleştirel bakış açısına sahip olmalı ve eleştiri süzgecinden geçirdikten sonra öğrencilere dizi, belgesel ya da film önermeli” biçimindedir. bu konuda kaan “sosyal bilgiler öğretmeninin başta eleştirel bir bakış açısına sahip olması gerekiyor ve buna göre öğrencilere filmler, diziler veya belgeseller önermesi journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 116-135 128 gerekiyor” diyerek görüşünü dile getirmiştir. öğretmenlere yönelik getirilen bir diğer öneri “öğretmenler öğrencileri belgesel ya da bilgilendirici film izlemeleri konusunda teşvik etmeli” biçiminde olup, ceyhun isimli öğretmen adayının bu öneriyle ilgili görüşü “mesela sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri derslerinde konularıyla ilgili belgeseller veya kısa görüntüler, videolar izletebilir, bir video saati yapabilirler ders saati olarak. bu tarz filmleri izlemeleri için çocukları teşvik edebilirler veya ödev verebilirler. şu filmi izleyin gelin derste tartışacağız gibi” şeklindedir. öğretmen adaylarına göre öğretmenler filmlerdeki olumlu ve olumsuz mesajları ayırt edebilmeleri için öğrencilere eleştirel düşünme becerilerini kazandırmalıdır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanma konusunda öğretmenlere yönelik getirdikleri diğer öneriler “öğretmenler dersin bir bölümünü ya da haftada belirli bir ders saatini tanıtıcı, eğitici programlara ve filmlere ayırmalı”, “öğretmen filmlerden ne anladıklarıyla ilgili olarak öğrencilerle konuşmalı”, “öğretmen aynı konularda farklı bakış açılarına sahip filmleri izletmeli”, “film izlerken öğrencilere rehberlik etmeli, gerekli noktalarda müdahalede bulunmalı” ve son olarak “sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni alanında yetkin, çok okuyan ve genel kültür bakımından donanımlı olmalı” biçimindedir. öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanma konusunda okullara yönelik getirdikleri önerilerden birincisi okul-aile işbirliği çalışmaları kapsamında “okullar tarafından ailelere medya okuryazarlığı ve eleştirel düşünme eğitimleri verilmeli” biçimindedir. berk isimli öğretmen adayı “mutlaka olumsuz filmler olacaktır. bunları önlemenin yolu ise birincisi aileye de okullarda eğitim verilmesidir. özellikle bu medya okuryazarlığı eğitimi veya eleştirel okuma, eleştirel bakma eğitim verilmesi gerekiyor. sosyal bilgiler alanına indirdiğimizde özellikle küçük çocukların aileleri tarafından eğitilmeleri gerekiyor” diyerek konuyla ilgili görüşünü dile getirmiştir. okullara yönelik getirilen bir diğer öneri ise “okullar film izlenmesine olanak sağlayacak araç-gereç ve donanıma sahip olmalı” biçimindedir. ömür bu konudaki görüşlerini “okulun bir kere bu imkânlara sahip olması gerekiyor. bu kaynakların olması gerekiyor, bir oda olması gerekiyor artı ders saatlerine uyması gerekiyor hani aslında film izletmek gerçekten okullarda zor bir iş” biçiminde dile getirmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının ailelere yönelik önerilerinin başında “aileler filmlerin çocuklar üzerindeki etkileri konusunda bilinçli olmalı” önerisi gelmektedir. bu konuda kaan “bu bağlamda ailelere de büyük görev düşüyor. onların da çocuklarının hangi filmi izleyip izlemeyeceğini onların üzerindeki etkilerini anlayarak üstlerine düşen görevleri yapması gerekir” biçiminde bir açıklama yapmıştır. ailelere yönelik getirilen bir diğer öneri ise “aile ve öğretmen işbirliği yapmalı” biçimindedir. hale bu konuda “öğretmenler ve ailelere çok iş düşüyor. gerek sosyal bilgiler olsun gerek başka dersler açısından olsun eğitici ve öğretici filmler konusunda erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 129 öğrencilere daha yönlendirici olmalılar. bazen öğretmenin yetersiz kaldığı yerlerde aile ailenin yetersiz kaldığı yerlerde öğretmen devreye girmeli, birlikte çalışmalı” sözleriyle görüşlerini açıklamıştır. öğretmen adaylarının medya kuruluşlarına yönelik getirdikleri önerilerin başında “filmler tarafsız bir biçimde çekilmeli ve eğitici yön ön plana çıkarılmalı” önerisi gelmektedir. deniz bu konudaki görüşlerini “bilgi bulanıklığının önlenmesi gerekiyor. yine tarafsız bir şekilde bu filmlerin çekilmesi gerekiyor, daha çok eğitici yönlerinin de ön plana çıkarılması gerekiyor” sözleriyle dile getirmiştir. bu konuda getirilen bir diğer öneri olan “filmler ticari kaygı güdülmeden araştırmaya dayalı çekilmeli” önerisiyle ilgili olarak ise yağız “reyting amacı gütmeden çok izlenilmesi için yapılmadan daha çok araştırılarak daha çok emek verilerek daha çok özen gösterilerek filmlerin çekilmesi gerektiğini düşünüyorum” biçiminde bir açıklama yapmıştır. öğretmen adaylarının medya kuruluşlarına yönelik diğer önerileri “medya filmlerin etkisi konusunda dikkatli olmalı”, “televizyon kanallarında belgesel gibi eğitici yayınlara daha çok yer verilmeli”, “eğitici programlar çocuklar için uygun saatlerde yayınlanmalı” ve son olarak “daha çok belgesel film çekilmeli” biçimindedir. sonuç, tartışma ve öneriler araştırmada sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmaya ilişkin olarak çeşitli görüşler ortaya koymuşlardır. genel olarak görüşlerden sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde filmlerin kullanılmasının önemsendiği anlaşılmaktadır. çeşitli araştırmaların bu görüşü desteklediği görülmektedir. örneğin liles (2007, s.58) tarafından gerçekleştirilen araştırmada filmlerin sosyal bilgilere ilişkin uygulamalar için çok kullanışlı olduğu belirtilmiştir. özellikle birey ve aile, psikoloji, sosyoloji temelindeki sosyal olayların öğretilmesinde filmlerin yararlı olduğu vurgulanmıştır. araştırmada ulaşılan bulgulardan biri filmlerin tarih konularının öğrenilmesini kolaylaştırdığıdır. bunu destekleyen bir çalışmada marcus (2005, s.64) filmlerin öğrencilerde ilgi uyandırdığı ve tarihi olayları araştırarak öğrenmelerine neden olduğunu belirtmiştir. woelders’ın, (2007, s.146) briley’e (2002) dayanarak belirttiğine göre filmler öğrencilerde tarih konularına ilgi uyandırır ve onları öğrenmeye güdüler. araştırmada kimi öğretmen adaylarının özellikle bilgiye dayalı görselliğin kalıcı öğrenmeye neden olduğunu vurguladıkları saptanmıştır. walker (2006, s.34), watts (2007, s.108) ve woelders (2007, s.150) araştırmalarında filmlerin öğrencilerin ezber yerine kalıcı öğrenmelerine destek olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 116-135 130 araştırmada filmlerin birden fazla duyu organına hitap ederek öğrenilenleri somutlaştırdığı bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. birkök’ün (2008, s.2) araştırmasına göre filmler, soyut bilgileri canlandırabilmekte, gerçek yaşama dönüştürebilmektedir. sosyal olguların ve düşüncelerin gerçek anlam ve duygularıyla aktarılabilmesinde de filmler önemli bir yere sahiptir. çünkü ses veya duygu gibi soyut özelliklerin yazılı olarak algılanabilmesi tamamen olanaksızdır. bir diğer araştırma bulgusu filmlerin öğrenmeyi eğlenceli duruma getirmesidir. watts (2007, s.108) araştırmasında filmlerin zengin bir öğrenme fırsatı sunarak ilköğretim öğrencilerinin öğrenmeye güdülenmelerini sağladığını belirlemiştir. öğretimde film metnine ilişkin tahmin çalışmaları yapmak öğrencileri heyecanlandırmakta ve coşkulu ders işlemelerine neden olmaktadır. watts’ın (2007, s.108) bearne’den (2003) aktararak belirttiğine göre öğrencilerin yeteneklerini geliştiren metin yazarlığı ve film çekimi, onların öğrenmelerinin açık bir kanıtı olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. bu süreç öğrencilerin karakter gelişimine de katkı getirmektedir. liles’e (2007, s.58) göre filmler karakter gelişimini, ortaya koydukları düşünceler, teoriler ve hikâyelerle öğrencilerde fikir çatışmalarına yol açarak sağlarlar. birkök’ün (2008, s.7) sullivan, clemens, ve medina’ya (2004) dayanarak belirttiğine gore, öğrenciler filmlerde sergilenen karakterleri analiz edebilmekte, ilgili olaylara ve açıklamalara bağlayabilmektedirler. öğrenciler için aynı zamanda çok çekici ve eğlendirici bir eğitim ortamı içinde hem bilginin uygulanması gösterilmekte, hem de zihinlere anlamlı ve kalıcı olarak yerleştirilmesi sağlanmaktadır. bu konu ile ilgili olarak uygulanan bir proje de öğrencilerin filmi izledikten sonra kuramsal içeriği çok daha iyi anladıklarını ve öğrenme işleminin çok verimli, zevkli ve anlamlı olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. araştırmada öğretmen adaylarının filmlerin sosyal bilgiler eğitimine katkıları konusundaki görüşleri bilgi, beceri ve değer boyutlarındaki katkılar biçiminde ele alınmıştır. araştırmada filmlerin tarih, coğrafya, çevre, kültür gibi sosyal bilgilere ilişkin konularda bilgilendirici oldukları bulgusu yer almıştır. birkök’ün (2008, s.2) araştırmasına göre sosyalleşmede etkili olan filmler görüntü, hareket ve ses öğeleriyle çok büyük oranda bilgi aktarımına fırsat vermektedir. birkaç saatlik bir filmde bulunan görsel ve işitsel tüm öğelerin yazılı bir metin olarak kaydedilebilmesi, hele izleyiciye aktarılabilmesi neredeyse olanaksızdır. araştırmada filmlerin genel olarak eleştirel düşünme, yaratıcılık ve yorum becerilerini geliştirdiği üzerinde durulmuştur. stoddard da (2009, s.427) araştırmasında filmlerin öğrencilerin tarihi olaylara yönelik olarak eleştirel bir bakış açısı kazanmalarını sağladığını vurgulamıştır. ancak birçok öğrencinin filmler için bakış açısı kazanmalarında çok etkili olan eleştirel düşünme ve medya okuryazarlığı becerilerinden yoksun olduğunu belirtmiştir. erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 131 walker (2006, s.34), liles (2007, s.58) tarafından gerçekleştirilen araştırmalarda öğretmen ve öğrencilerin farklı bakış açıları ve tartışmalarla birlikte filmlerin zengin bir öğrenme ortamı yarattığı görüşünde oldukları saptanmıştır. bunu sosyal bilgiler eğitimi boyutunda destekleyen woelders, (2007, s.146) araştırmasında filmlerin tarih veya sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde eleştirel düşünmeye dayalı öğrenci merkezli öğretim için büyük fırsatlar yarattığını vurgulamıştır. becerilere ilişkin bir diğer bulgu filmlerin yaratıcı düşünme ve yorum becerilerini geliştirdiğidir. watts’ın (2007, s.108) araştırmasında geleneksel öğrenme ortamlarından farklı olarak filmlerin öğrencilerde yaratıcılık, analiz-sentez, çıkarımda bulunma, fikirleri yorumlama, bağlamı algılama gibi becerilerin gelişmesine hizmet ettikleri vurgulanmıştır. woelders’ın (2007, s.146) marcus (2005) ve seixas’ın (1994) araştırmalarına dayanarak belirttiğine göre filmler tarihin öğrenilmesinde öğrencilere karşılaştırma, zıt düşünce ve farklı bakış açılarını değerlendirme ve yorumlama becerileri kazandırır. araştırmada filmlerin sevgi, dostluk, barış, işbirliği, arkadaşlık, dayanışma, demokrasi ve özgürlük gibi değerlerin kazanılmasına da katkı sağladığı belirlenmiştir. araştırmada sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanmada kimi sorunların yaşanabileceği belirtilmiştir. birkök (2008, s.2) araştırmasında sosyalleşmede kullanılabilecek en etkin araçlardan olan filmlerin de tüm görsel araçların yoğun kullanıldığı ortamlarda olduğu gibi okuduğunu anlama becerilerini olumsuz yönde etkilediğini vurgulamıştır. kimi öğretmen adaylarına göre filmler belirli din ve inançlara ilişkin önyargı oluşturabilmektedir. bu bulguyu destekler biçimde stoddard (2009, s.429) tarafından gerçekleştirilen araştırmanın sonuçları arasında tarih öğretiminde izletilen filmlerde bulunan ideolojilerin önemli etkileri olduğu verisi yer almıştır. öğrencilerin tarihsel anlayış ve tarihsel olaylar hakkında inançlarını etkileyen bir diğer etmen öğretmenlerin ideolojik ve pedagojik yaklaşımlarıdır. bu araştırma medya (filmlerin) ve öğretmen ideolojilerinin (siyasal ve ahlâki görüşlerinin) öğrencilerin önceki inançları veya anlayışlarının değişmesinde etkili olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. sonuç olarak, eğitici filmler tarihi olayların tartışılarak öğrencilerin farklı bakış açısı kazanmalarında rol alabilir (stoddard, 2009, s.430) ancak öğrencilerin bilinçli tarih öğrencileri olabilmeleri için tarihsel becerilerle donatılmaları ve medya okuryazarı olmaları sağlanmalıdır (stoddard, 2009, s.424). araştırmada filmlerin batılı kaynaklara dayalı olarak ve onların bakış açısı temel alınarak hazırlanması bir sorun olarak ortaya konulmuştur. ansell’in (2002, s.365) afrika coğrafyası üzerine yapmış olduğu araştırmada katılımcıların bu kıtaya ilişkin filmlerin afrika’yı temsil edebilirliğini sorguladıkları ve çoğunlukla batılı şirketler tarafından yapılmaları nedeniyle geçerliklerinin bulunmadığını belirttikleri saptanmıştır. bu filmlerin afrika’nın kültürel journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 116-135 132 özellikleri ve inançları yerine daha çok batı bakış açılarını yansıttığını belirlemişlerdir. katılımcılar özellikle belgesellerin önyargılar taşımalarının önemli bir sorun olduğunu vurgulamışlardır. ancak kültürel bakış açılarındaki farklara karşın belgesellerden yararlanmanın önemine dikkat çekilmiştir. araştırmada kimi filmlerde ahlâk dışı ve kötü davranışların ön plana çıkarıldığı böylece ulusal değerlere zarar verildiği, tarihi filmlerde yanlış bilgilendirmeler yapılabildiği gibi bulgular elde edilmiştir. gerçeküstü güçlere sahip kahramanlarla şiddet içeren filmlerin çocukları olumsuz etkilemesi de bir diğer sorun olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. buradan film seçiminin ne kadar önemli olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. bulgulardan her filmin kendine ve zamanına ilişkin olarak değerler taşıdığı verisi de öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler programındaki kazanımları gözeterek bu seçimi yapmalarında yarar olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. bu bağlamda araştırmanın öğretmenler eleştiri süzgecinden geçirdikten sonra öğrencilere dizi, belgesel ya da film önermelidir, filmlerdeki bilgilerin doğruluğuna dikkat etmelidir önerileri anlamlı duruma gelmektedir. filmlere ilişkin olarak olumsuz durumlarla baş edebilmeleri için öğretmen adaylarının öğrencilere yönelik bir diğer önerileri, “filmlerdeki olumlu ve olumsuz mesajları ayırt edebilmeleri için öğrencilere eleştirel düşünme becerileri kazandırılmalıdır” biçiminde olmuştur. stoddard ve marcus’a (2010, s.89) göre eğitimci kimlikleriyle öğretmenler tarih ve sosyal bilgiler derslerinde kullanacakları filmleri belirlerken seçici davranmalıdırlar. bu filmler eğitsel açıdan bilgi ve değer kazandırıcı, aynı zamanda örneklendirici özellikte olmalıdır. liles (2007, s.57) araştırmasında teknolojik yeterlilik, emek ve zaman gerektirmesinin, filmlerin öğretiminde öğretmenler için önemli bir sınırlılık olarak ortaya çıktığını vurgulamıştır. liles’in (2007, s.57) hauenstein ve riddle’a (2003) dayanarak belirttiğine göre öğretmenlerin filmleri öğrencilere izlettirmeden önce kendilerinin izlemesi zaman gerektirir. bu hazırlık çalışması yanında film izleme aşamasında yaşanacak tartışma ve değerlendirme çalışmaları da ek zaman ayrılmasını gerekli kılar. öğrencilerin yaşları izlenecek filmin anlaşılmasında önemli olduğundan öğretmen açıklamalar için de zaman ayırmak durumunda kalabilir. katılımcılar sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde filmlerden yararlanmada yaşanan sorunların çözümüne ilişkin olarak çeşitli öneriler getirmişlerdir. öğretmen adayları tarafından “öğretmenler dersin bir bölümünü tanıtıcı, eğitici programlara ayırabilirler, onlar öğrencileri belgesel ya da bilgilendirici film izlemeleri konusunda teşvik etmelidir” gibi eğitimde filmlerden yararlanılması gerekliliğine ilişkin öneriler getirilmiştir. liles’e (2007, s.58) göre popüler yaşamın bir parçası haline gelen videolardan sonra dvd’lerle yaygınlaşan filmler sosyal olguların öğretilmesinde yaygın bir biçimde kullanılmalıdırlar. liles (2007, s.57) filmlerin çeşitli yöntemlerin öğretiminde kullanılmasını desteklemek amacıyla da öğretmenlerin işini erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 133 kolaylaştırabildiğini vurgulamıştır. ona göre öğretmenler filmleri; konferans, tartışma, drama gibi yöntem teknikler bağlamında da kullanabilirler. araştırma bulguları arasında “öğretmenler filmlerden ne anladıklarıyla ilgili olarak öğrencilerle konuşmalıdır, izlerken öğretmenler rehberlik etmeli, gerekli noktalarda müdahalede bulunmalıdır” gibi öneriler de yer almıştır. woelders’a (2007, s.150) göre öğretmenler filmleri öğrencilerin ezberlemelerini engellemelidirler. bunun için dirençle karşılaşsalar bile onlara sorular sormalı ve filmleri sorgulamalarını sağlamalıdırlar. watts’a (2007, s.108) göre ise bu yolla ezberden uzaklaşan öğrenciler bilgiyi anlamlandırarak öğrenme fırsatı yakalayabilirler. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin eleştirel bakış açısına sahip olması gerektiği gibi önerilerden onların medya okuryazarı olarak yetiştirilmelerinin önemi ortaya çıkmaktadır. son yıllarda ilk, orta ve çeşitli yüksek öğretim kurumları bağlamında eğitim fakültelerindeki sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği programlarında seçmeli de olsa medya okuryazarlığı dersinin okutuluyor olması bu anlamda bir katkı getirebilecektir. öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine yönelik diğer önerileri arasında şunlar bulunmaktadır: • sosyal bilgiler alanında yetkin, çok okuyan, genel kültür bakımından donanımlı olmalıdır. • sosyal bilgiler öğretmeninin film ve müzik kültürü geniş olmalıdır. • öğretmen aynı konularda farklı bakış açılarına sahip filmleri izletmeli. • film izlemek için haftada belirli bir zaman dilimi ayrılabilir. öğretmen adayları okul yöneticilerine yönelik olarak okullarda sinema izlenmesi için ayrı bir oda düzenlenmesini ve okulların teknolojik donanım açısından film izlenmesi için uygun duruma getirilmesini önermişlerdir. ayrıca okullarda ailelere yönelik medya okuryazarlığı ve eleştirel düşünme eğitimlerinin verilmesi öğretmen adaylarının okullara yönelik önerileri arasındadır. öğretmen adaylarının önerileri arasında aile ve öğretmenlerin filmler konusunda işbirliği yapmaları gerektiği önerisi de bulunmaktadır. ailelere yönelik diğer öneriler arasında, ailelerin filmlerin çocuklar üzerindeki etkileri konusunda bilinçli olmaları, ailelere medya okuryazarlığı ve eleştirel düşünme eğitimlerinin verilmesi, aile ortamında çocuklarla filmler üzerinde konuşulmalı, yanlış algılar düzeltilmeli gibi kimi öneriler sıralanmıştır. öğretmen adaylarının medya kuruluşu yöneticilerine önerisi tarafsız çekilmesi gereken filmlerde eğitici yönün ön plana çıkarılması gerektiği biçimindedir. watts’a (2007, s.108) göre eğitici filmlere ve filmleri öğrenmede kullanan öğretmenlere yönelik olarak öğrencilerde hayranlık gelişmektedir. katılımcıların film yapımcılarına yönelik diğer önerileri; filmlerin ticari kaygı güdülmeden araştırmaya dayalı çekilmesi, filmlerin etkisi konusunda dikkatli olunması, televizyon kanallarında belgesel gibi eğitici yayınlara daha çok yer verilmesi, eğitici programların journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 116-135 134 çocuklar için uygun saatlerde yayınlanması, daha çok belgesel film çekilmesi biçiminde olmuştur. sonuç olarak öğretmen adaylarının filmlerin sosyal bilgiler dersi içeriği ile ilgili bilgi, beceri ve değerleri desteklemesi bakımından önemli olduğunu belirttikleri görülmüştür. onlar filmlerin öğrenme-öğretme sürecinde birden çok duyu organına hitap eden, kalıcı ve eğlenceli bir öğrenmeye destek sağladığının altını çizmişlerdir. bu bağlamda dersin kazanımlarına dayanılarak seçilen filmler ve film kesitleri ders planı çerçevesinde öğrencilere izletilebilir. bunun için filmlerin baştan sona, seçilen sosyal bilgiler kazanımına uygun olması gerekmez. filmin içinde birkaç dakika ile ilgili kazanıma değinilen kareler bile kesilerek ders kapsamında kullanılabilir. bu konuda öğrencilerin çizgi film, animasyon, dizi film ilgileri öğrenmeye güdülenmeleri için önemli bir zemin oluşturmaktadır. ayrıca, öğretmen adayları sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında filmlerin etkili bir biçimde kullanılmasında öğretmenlerin rolüne dikkat çekmiş ve bu süreçte yaşanan sorunların çözümüne ilişkin olarak öğretmenlere, okullara, ailelere ve medyaya yönelik çeşitli öneriler getirmişlerdir. bu bağlamda araştırma sonuçlarına dayalı olarak şu öneriler getirilebilir: • sosyal bilgiler dersinde filmlerden etkili biçimde yararlanmak için öğretmenlere ve ailelere medya okuryazarlığı ve eleştirel düşünme konularında eğitimler verilebilir. • sosyal bilgiler dersinde kullanılabilecek eğitici filmler konusunda bir arşiv oluşturularak öğretmenlerin hizmetine sunulabilir. • sosyal bilgiler dersinde film kullanımının bilgi, beceri ve değer kazanımına etkisine yönelik araştırmalar desenlenebilir. • sosyal bilgiler dersinde filmlerden yararlanma konusunda sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin ve öğrencilerin görüşleri araştırılabilir. kaynakça / references aiex, n. k. (1988). using film, video, and tv in the classroom. eric (ed300848) adresinden alınmıştır. algeo, k. (2007). teaching cultural geography with bend it like beckham. journal of geography, 106, 133-143. ansell, n. (2002). using films in teaching about africa. journal of geography in highereducation, 26 (3), 355 – 368. birkök, m. c. (2008). bir toplumsallaştırma aracı olarak eğitimde alternatif medya kullanımı: sinema filmleri. uluslararası i̇nsan bilimleri dergisi, 5 (2), 1-12. erdoğan kaya & tuba çengelci̇ 135 dressel, p. (1990). films that put social problems in global context. teaching sociology, 18, 226230. liles, r. e. (2007). the use of feature films as teaching tools in social work education. journal of teaching in social work, 27 (3/4), 45-60. marcus, a. s. (2005). it is as it was: feature film in the history classroom. the social studies, 96 (2), 61-67. öztaş, s. (2009). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde filmlerin kullanımı. m. safran (ed.). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi (ss. 341-359). ankara: pegem akademi yayınları. paris, m. j. (1997). integrating film and television into social studies instruction. eric (ed415177) adresinde alınmıştır. patton, m. q. (2001). qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). california: sage publications. stoddard, j. d. (2009). the ideological implications of using “educational” film to teach controversial events. curriculum inquiry, 39 (3), 407-433. stoddard, j.d. & marcus, a.s. (2010). more than "showing what happened": exploring the potential of teaching history with filih. the high school journal, january/february 2010. 83-90. walker, t. r. (2006) historical literacy: reading history through film. the social studies, 97 (1), 30-34. watts, r. (2007). harnessing the power of film in the primary classroom. literacy, 41 (2), 102109. woelders, a. (2007). “it makes you think more when you watch things”: scaffolding for historical inquiry using film in the middle school classroom. the social studies, 98 (4), 145-152. yıldırım, a. & şimşek, h. (2005). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. yıldırım, a. & şimşek, h. (2005). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. socialization of foreign university students through the formation of reading literacy www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1), 42-63 42 socialization of foreign university students through the formation of reading literacy milyausha shaimardanova1, leysan akhmetova2 & svetlana nikishina3 abstract the article considers the concept of reading literacy as a means of successful socialization of foreign students of elabuga institute of kazan federal university. as a prerequisite for the research served the growth of number of foreign students in the institute. that in its chain caused the problem of socialization of foreign students in the russian society. the authors analyze the process of reading literacy formation at three levels (baseline, functional, multiple). each level corresponds to a certain stage of learning a foreign language (the language of the host country). the first stage presumes a digital educational resource “russian as a foreign language (rustart)”. at the second stage students’ study at preparatory courses of studying russian as a foreign language on the basis of university. the third stage of socialization of foreign students (multiple literacy) is characterized by formation of students' professional socialization by means of studying the english language. the level of socialization of students at each of the considered stages is determined. besides, the influence of reading literacy on the process of socialization of foreign students is revealed. the aim of the paper is to reveal and analyse value of reading literacy in the course of socialization of students from central asia in the republic of tatarstan (russia). to meet the aims of the research the authors use cross sectional research design. to reveal a relationship between reading literacy levels and students' socialization, the authors track changes at every stage of the study through testing, questioning, and interviewing foreign students. thus, correlation characteristics are determined. the impact of the development of reading literacy on the socialization of foreign students becomes evident through the analysis of the results of interviews. the analysis is performed using the method of correlational analysis. the conducted research revealed the integral role of reading literacy in socialization of foreign students in our higher education institution. key words: socialization, reading literacy, professional socialization, foreign students, cross-cultural adaptation. introduction the modern period is determined by the strengthening of international cooperation in the field of education, which is one of the most important areas of international activity in many countries of the world, including russia. it is the training and education of young people in the system of 1 phd, assoc. prof., kazan federal university, milyausha33@mail.ru 2 phd, assoc. prof., kazan federal university, leisan81@mail.ru 3 phd, assoc. prof., kazan federal university, radanisovna@mail.ru shaimardanova et al. international education that contribute to the social and spiritual convergence of peoples, their mutual understanding. there is a positive tendency in the growth of the number of foreign students in the republic of tatarstan: now 11.373 people study at universities of the republic. by comparison, in 2014 this indicator was much lower and amounted to 5736 people. in 2017 10.435 foreign students studied at universities of the republic. as for the contingent, the largest number of students are from uzbekistan, turkmenistan, kazakhstan, tajikistan (see fig.1) (media portal kfu, 2018). figure 1. growth of students’ number in 2014-2018 years there is no doubt that foreign students have problems connected with their long stay abroad, with the need to master a new socio-cultural reality. in order to make this stay more comfortable, one should think about creating a program in the university for the study of social and pedagogical features of foreign students’ cross-cultural adaptation (nagimzhanova et al., 2019; sousa et al., 2019). one of the centers for the training of foreign students in russia is elabuga institute of kazan federal university. the university has a vast experience in organizing educational work with foreign students (alajmi, 2019; biserova and shagivaleeva, 2019; frolova et al., 2019; safiullin journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 et al., 2019) they are actively involved in solving the problems of adaptation and professional socialization of foreign students, in particular, representatives of central asian countries. in this study the authors tried to consider the principles of socialization of foreign students in russian universities. socialization, as a rule, is interpreted as a process of learning social experience and at the same time as an activity for its subsequent reproduction. according to platukhina, «in modern sociology, the concept of “socialization” is viewed as “a two-way process of the constant transmission by society and individual's mastering of social norms, cultural values and patterns of behavior throughout his life that allow an individual to function in a given society”. the most significant influence on the process of socialization of an individual is provided by social institutions and, above all, by the institution of professional education» (platukhina et al.,2018). the problem of studying the process of socialization is widely represented in the works of researchers from the standpoint of pedagogy, sociology, social pedagogy, psychology: adler (1975), alred (2003), oberg (1960), mercan (2016), bierwiaczonek & waldzus (2016), chalmers & volet (1997), chen (2003), kazakova & shastina (2019), tadeu et. al. (2019) and yigit, (2018). besides, the issue of student socialization is considered in the works: feldman (1972) (socialization of modern students), weidman (2006) (factors of social and psychological adaptation), (platukhina et al., 2018) (professional socialization). in some scientific publications the problem of the socialization of freshmen in the higher education system is widely discussed, since the success of the whole process and future professional career and personal development of the graduate depends on this, leonard, pelletier, morley, (2003), akhtar, et al (2015), shafaei & razak (2016), andrade (2006). thus, many researchers are concerned about issues related to the socialization of students, but the questions about specific socio-pedagogical actions, organizational and managerial mechanisms still wait for solutions (korableva et al., 2019). the sphere of socialization is an activity, communication and self-awareness, in which the process of expansion and enhancement of the individual's social ties with the outside world takes place. the main means of communication between people is language, respectively, it is one of the key aspects of human socialization. the problem of language and speech in the process of social adaptation takes a significant place in the works of linguists, psychologists, psycholinguists, educators: schieffelin & ochs (1986), halliday (1978). by virtue of its universality, a language plays a special, main role in the process of socialization of an individual. speaking about language as a factor of socialization, first of all, one should keep shaimardanova et al. in mind the individual's mother tongue, which, while implementing the functions of communication and generalization, allows a person to appropriate social experience, and only after that (and at the same time) serves as a means of forming and expressing his or her own thoughts. a foreign language cannot, to the same extent as a native language, serve as a means of learning about the world around and “appropriating” public experience. however, one should use the sufficiently wide possibilities that a foreign language possesses for mastering the mechanisms, norms, strategies and tactics of social interaction, that is, to use its socializing potential (kodyakova, 2014; parker, 2019; prodanova et al., 2019: rubin, 2018; titova, et al., 2019; voronkova et al., 2019). one of the socializing functions of a language is the ability to read and analyze the literature of the language being studied. reading is the main and irreplaceable source of social experience of the past and the present, the most important way of learning basic socially significant information. to read correctly means to understand the text, reflect on its content, evaluate its meaning and value, record and use the information received, express the thoughts about what has been read (panteleev, 2016). consequently, reading literacy is one of the constituent factors of the socialization of foreign students. problems of the development of reading literacy in conditions of university were considered by the following authors: hoeft (2012), manarin, et al (2015), stack-cutler, et al (2015), starcher & proffitt (2011). at the turn of the xx-xxi centuries, the developers of pirls (progress in international reading literacy study) and pisa (program for international student assessment) defined reading as the process of improving the knowledge, skills, abilities and qualities of a person throughout their lives and in different cultural situations. in 1991, the international association for the evaluation of educational achievement (iea) proposed a definition in which reading was interpreted as “a person’s ability to reflect on what was read and use what was read to achieve personal and social goals, first and foremost for further education " in the context of the general cultural development of the individual, reading literacy is the ability of a person: to understand clearly the text as a whole and the meaning of individual words, in particular, and determine the value of the information received; to apply the methods of analysis and interpretation of the text for an adequate perception of the idea of the author; journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 to reflect on the content of the text and intelligently express their thoughts about what was read in order to expand their knowledge and capabilities; to evaluate critically the position of the author and the peculiarities of the presentation of his thoughts, reinterpreting the attitude to what the person has read and actualized. scientists distinguish three main types of literacy: 1. baseline elementary reading and writing skills at a level that allows a person to maintain selfconfidence and be motivated for further development; 2. functional the ability to read and write at the level that allows a citizen to develop and function in society, at home, at school and at work; 3. multiple the ability to use reading and writing skills in order to produce, understand, interpret and critically evaluate information. it is the basis for “digital” citizen participation in society and making informed decisions regarding finance, health, etc. (elinet, 2019). research questions the main research question the authors consider is how socialization of foreign university students relates to the formation of reading literacy. this threshold issue elaborates the following research sub questions: 1. how does socialization of foreign university students relate to the formation of baseline reading literacy? 2. how does socialization of foreign university students relate to the formation of functional reading literacy? 3. how does socialization of foreign university students relate to the formation of multiple reading literacy? methods research design the aim of this work is to reveal and analyse value of reading literacy in the course of socialization of students from central asia in the republic of tatarstan (russia) by means of description and testing of the process of the formation of reading literacy at three levels: baseline literacy (first stage), functional literacy (second stage), and multiple literacy (third stage). therefore, for this reason authors use cross sectional research design. to establish a relationship between the level of reading literacy and students’ socialization authors monitor the changes at shaimardanova et al. each stage of research by means of testing, questioning and interviewing foreign students. thus, correlational characteristics are defined. the effect of reading literacy development on the foreign students’ socialization is revealed by analyzing the results of interviews. hence, the correlational analysis is applied. participants the research work was carried out at elabuga institute of the kazan federal university in the period from 2017-2019. in total, over 100 students (about 35 students from each department) from central asia in the departments of philology and history, mathematics and natural sciences, psychology and pedagogy were covered by various types of correlational research. the authors identified the level of reading literacy at each stage of the research, mentioned above, by means of the criteria focused tests. at the same time, they held interviews and questionnaires to find out the students’ socialization. data collection tools in the experimental part of this work the following data collection tools were used: testing (criteria focused tests, sociological testing),; questionnaires (surveys, sociometric questionnaires), standardized interviews, analysis of the results of solving practical training tasks and writing in russian and english, observing students in class (direct, indirect, discrete, problem observation), as well as in extracurricular activities (celebrating national holidays, attendance of master-classes, visiting museums, festivals, participating in sport competitions, organizing events within club of peoples’ friendship etc.). the methods of data collection are combined by inter method that provides either quantitative or qualitative data collection. data collection the first stage of work (the formation of baseline literacy) did not involve the initial examination of knowledge, prospective students independently and remotely studied the russian language with the help of a specially designed digital educational resource at the institute “rustart”, which ended with the final control tests. at this stage surveys, criteria focused tests were used as research tools. at the second stage (formation of functional literacy) before the students studied the pre-university (preparatory) course of the foreign (russian) language, an initial examination was made in the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 experimental group, which showed the level of formation of foreign language communicative competence. this was achieved with the help of criteria focused tests. also at the second stage during the semester students were supervised at the russian language classes and core lessons, examinations of knowledge, written and oral types of work, conversations were systematically conducted, which allowed them to diagnose the level of their reading literacy. the authors used such research tools as sociometric questionnaires, criteria focused tests, direct and indirect problem observation. at the third stage of work (the formation of multiple literacy of foreign students), students were surveyed, diagnosing both the level of formation of foreign language communicative competence, and the level of methodological culture, that is, the ability to search for meaning in what was read, the ability to comprehend and rethink knowledge content and to form personal perception on this basis and understanding. the main research tools of this stage are as follows: criteria focused tests, surveys, interviews, sociological testing, discrete observations in class, direct observation in extracurricular activities mentioned above. data analysis the study examined the correlation between the level of reading literacy and foreign students’ socialization. the data were analyzed according to algorithm, represented by lackin g.f. (1990). at the end of the course of russian as a foreign language, the students were tested to identify their level of reading literacy. at the same time, they were asked the questions which they had answered before the study course. the questions of the survey determined the students’ levels of socialization as well as their reading literacy before and after study. the results are shown in table №1. table 1 percentage of answers to the question: "what did you learn during the work with texts of the russian and tatar authors in higher educational institution?" № question before the study course after the study course to elicit useful information: 1 about norms of behavior in russia and in tatarstan 9 33 2 about religious traditions and ceremonies 17 28 shaimardanova et al. 3 about specific features of the family relations in tatarstan or in russia 4 15 4 about attitude to work 6 24 to make use of the acquired information in communication with native speakers: 5 to reply to greetings, to keep up the conversation 3 10 6 to behave correctly with different representatives of society (teachers, students, representatives of the senior generation, religious figures, a wife or a husband) 10 41 7 to communicate appropriately with different representatives of sex 5 31 8 to behave correctly at a table 13 19 9 to behave properly in public places 13 21 10 to differentiate formal and informal communication 10 28 11 to estimate behavior of other people in the considered ethnos 4 14 x sx  8,54±1,30 24,00±2,67 tф 5,2 α, % 0,1 analysis made using student's tcriterion showed that the percentage of affirmative responses among the foreign students increased at a statistically significant level (α=0,1%). n x x i   (1)   1 2 2    n xx s i x (2) n s n s s xx x 2  (3) 22 21 21 xx ф ss xx t    (4) 2 21  nnk %1,0%;1%;5;   stф tt journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 findings and discussion the authors of this work attempted to describe the process of the formation of reading literacy at the above-mentioned levels: baseline literacy (first stage), functional literacy (second stage), and multiple literacy (third stage) (see table 2). table 2 socialization by means of reading literacy. baseline functional multiple literacy literacyliteracy levels of reading literacy levels of pre-labour socialization findings 1. socialization to the formation of baseline reading literacy first stage as stated above, baseline literacy implies elementary skills of reading and writing in russian at the level that allows you to maintain self-confidence and have motivation for further development. at this stage (first stage) the authors developed and implemented a digital educational resource “russian as a foreign language (rustart)”. potential students from central asia (turkmenistan, uzbekistan, tajikistan) became respondents. shaimardanova et al. in the process of distance learning of the russian language as a foreign one, an elementary level involved reading adapted literature: fairy tales and stories by russian writers containing information about the traditions and customs of russian people, the norms of behavior and religion of the society in question. formation of reading skills in the educational process took place through artistic works with subsequent answers to questions on understanding the read content. at this stage, the purpose of the study authors is the formation of entirely text-based abilities of pupils (to extract information from the text and to build a simple statement on its basis): to be able to find information and to formulate simple direct conclusions; to find explicit information in the text; to draw simple conclusions basing on the text. methodological materials for the development of reading literacy and reading interest were the stories of leo tolstoy ("two friends," "liar," "the hunter and the quail", "rats and the egg", "bug", "the wolf and the goat", "the three bears"), each of which contains in itself national mind, experience, eternal wisdom of a simple person. as a final (control) task for checking reading literacy students are invited to read galina sperling's story "mittens for christ." in the story the main character of the story inessa, who lives with her grandmother, knits scarves, gloves and socks. she plans to sell them and buy a gift for her grandmother for christmas. however, when she sees a poor orphan girl in the freezing cold, inessa decides to give her the mittens and the scarf, leaving her grandmother without a christmas gift. but the grandmother only praises the girl, saying that this is the most beautiful gift for christ. after reading this story in an adapted form, students are asked to answer the following questions: 1. what kind of orthodox holiday does the story tell about? 2. how and where do orthodox people celebrate this holiday? 3. when does one need to make gifts for christ? 4. to whom did inessa want to make a gift for christmas? 5. on what money did she want to buy a gift? 6. who speaks up for orphans according to the christian faith? 7. what gift did inessa make for christ? 8. do you think inessa did the right thing? 9. what other orthodox holidays do you know? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 such work is carried out with all texts for reading when passing the distance course “rustart”, thanks to which students begin to form a picture of the world of the ethnic group under consideration: its religion, holidays, customs, beliefs, etc. after all, it is possible to come to a dialogue of cultures, to improve the acculturation vector through reading the literature of the host country. findings 2. socialization to the formation of functional reading literacy after the successful completion of the distance course the students, who have entered the preparatory courses of studying russian as a foreign language on the basis of our university, go to the second stage of the development of reading literacy as one of the factors of socialization of foreign students in russian university. this stage (the formation of functional literacy) is characterized by the ability to read and write at a level that allows a citizen to develop and function in society, at home, in an educational institution and at work. during these period students acquire and develop communication skills, the principle of regionality in the learning process is implemented. the mastering of functional literacy involves the formation of skills based on people’s own thoughts about what they have read: to integrate, interpret and evaluate text information in the context of the reader’s own knowledge: to establish links that are not expressed by the author directly; interpret them, correlating with the general idea of the text; to reconstruct the author's intention, relying not only on the information contained in the text, but also on the formal elements of the text (genre, structure, language). at this stage the basis for the ethnocultural consciousness of students should be the desire for mutual enrichment communication of representatives of various ethnic groups. in this process national literature plays a great role as well. the republic of tatarstan, where foreign students live, is characterized by a rich cultural heritage. tatar literature of the twentieth century is described as the golden period in the history of tatar literature. at this time high secular literature and the main traditions of artistic consciousness were finally formed. therefore, along with the works of russian authors (the story by a. gaidar “the blue cup”, the fairy tale by m. gorky shaimardanova et al. “there once was a samovar”, the story by a. chekhov “on holy week”, etc.), respondents from preparatory courses study excerpts from the works of tatar writers of the twentieth century, translated into russian: “sonnatchche babai” by gayaz iskhaki, a poem by gabdullatuqay “praise to the creator, subhan-alla”, “fate of the tatar” by galimdzhan ibrahimov, poems by moussa dzhalil, etc. reading this literature as one of the main national-cultural values of tatar people acquaints readers with the basic religious principles of muslims, with the traditions and holidays of the ethnic group in question. the works contain a description of national ceremonies: wedding, circumcision of boys, divorce, funeral. in addition, reading these works students learn about the norms of behavior of tatar people: addressing elders, greetings from various members of society, rules of etiquette at the table, attitude to the opposite sex. one can also find information about national food, family life, details of clothing (decorations), interior. reading the national literature, foreign students begin to realize the specificity of the culture of russian and tatar peoples. the picture of the world that began to form in the minds of foreign students at the first stage is replenished with new knowledge and experience, thereby expanding the boundaries and acquiring a more complete form. getting acquainted with belles-lettres, students make the idea of ethnoses, draw the corresponding conclusions, develop tactics and the strategy of behavior with different representatives of society, find similarities and differences in the culture of three nations: russian, tatar and native. all this, according to the authors, facilitates the process of socialization of foreign students in the russian society. for the purpose of identification of extent of socialization of students in ei kfu, authors conducted survey of students from turkmenistan and uzbekistan. over 100 respondents participated in the poll. the questioning included 10 questions: 1. what did you know about russia before arrival to this country? 2. what did you know about tatarstan before arrival to this republic? 3. from where did you gain this knowledge? 4. what education do your parents have? 5. what is common between turkmenistan and tatarstan? 6. what russian/tatar writers do you know? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 7. what did you learn during the work with texts of the russian and tatar authors in higher educational institution? 8. did the above-stated acquired skills affected the quality of life in this society? 9. do you independently search for useful literature for further acquaintance with moral standards, traditions and culture of tatarstan and russia? 10. what from the making elements of culture of the country of the learned language remained a mystery for you? about what would you like to learn in more detail? this poll helped to reveal dynamics of growth in the level of a social maturity in the course of mastering skills of reader's literacy of the learned language. 41% of respondents answered the question "what did you know about russia before arrival to this country?" saying that they were familiar with traditions and customs of russia. 32% of foreign students were familiar with country history, each 12% had an idea of religious foundations and features of etiquette. and only 6% knew nothing about russia. another picture is formed concerning the republic of tatarstan. most of respondents (34%) were familiar with religious foundations of the republic, 24% knew about traditions and customs. 11% of respondents were acquainted with history of the republic, 9% had an idea of features of etiquette. the percent of those who knew nothing about the republic of tatarstan made 29%. as a source of the gained knowledge foreign students pointed to the following variants: 57% learned from parents, 49% from teachers at school, 45% from the acquaintances living in tatarstan, 23% from mass media. literary works also played an important role in acquisition of knowledge about russia and tatarstan. 34% of respondents noted this fact. the most popular authors among foreign students became l.n. tolstoy (81%), a.s. pushkin (21%), m.yu. lermontov (13%). such russian and tatar writers as g. tuqay, s. yesenin, m. gorky were also known to respondents (1% each). the high popularity of l.n. tolstoy is caused by studying of works of the writer during the lessons of the distance-learning course "rustart". answering the question "what is common between turkmenistan and tatarstan?", 47% of students chose "religious foundations" as a right answer, 35% chose "traditions and customs". however, 30% of respondents see nothing in common between the considered nations. therefore, having determined the initial level of knowledge at the time of arrival to the country of training, authors tried to reveal dynamics of growth of knowledge during the period of studying of the russian language with the subsequent acquaintance to the russian and tatar literature. shaimardanova et al. studying the russian language at preparation training courses, foreign students widened the list of the russian and tatar writers famous to them. answers to the question "what russian/tatar writers do you know?" allow drawing the corresponding conclusion. students answered as follows: a.s. pushkin of 97%, l.n. tolstoy of 100%, g. tuqay of 100%, m.yu. lermontov of 93%, m. gorky 100%, a.p. chekhov of 100%, a.p. gaidar of 99%, gayaz iskhaki of 98%, galimzhan ibragimov of 100%, moussa dzhalil of 100%. besides, pupils marked out the following authors: russian writers: n.v. gogol, f.m. dostoyevsky, s.a. yesenin, a.a. akhmatova, v.g. korolenko, m.a. bulgakov; tatar writers: rabit batulla, a.b. chasanoff, fatih karim, d. fatkhi, mirsay amir. table no. 3 clearly demonstrates results of work with fiction in the course of studying the russian language. table 3 difference in knowledge of the russian and tatar writers what russian/tatar writers did you know before arrival to the country? what russian/tatar writers do you know? l.n. tolstoy 81% l.n. tolstoy 100% a.s. pushkin 21% a.s. pushkin 97% m.yu. lermontov 13% m.yu. lermontov 93% g. tuqay 1% g. tuqay 100% m. gorky1% m. gorky 100% a.p. chekhov 0% a.p. chekhov 100% a.p. gaidar 0% a.p. gaidar 99% gayaz iskhaki 0% gayaz iskhaki 98% galimdzhan ibragimov 0% galimdzhan ibragimov 100% moussa dzhalil 0% moussa dzhalil 100% journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 1% s.a. yesenin n.v. gogol, f.m. dostoyevsky, s.a. yesenin, a.a. akhmatova, v.g. korolenko, m.a. bulgakov; rabitbatulla, a.b. chasanoff, fatih karim, d. fatkhi, mirsay amir the impact of development of reading literacy skills on the process of socialization of the foreign students studying at preparatory training courses in our higher education institution can be tracked by having studied table no. 4. this table clearly indicates the percentage of answers to the question: "what did you learn during the work with texts of the russian and tatar authors in higher educational institution?" table 4 percentage of answers to the question: "what did you learn during the work with texts of the russian and tatar authors in higher educational institution?" what did you learn during the work with texts of the russian and tatar authors in higher educational institution? nothing to elicit useful information to make use of the acquired information in communication with native speakers 1% about norms of behavior in russia and in tatarstan 33% to reply to greetings, to keep up the conversation 10% to behave correctly with different representatives of society (teachers, students, representatives of the senior generation, religious figures, a wife or a husband) 41% about religious traditions and ceremonies 28% to communicate appropriately with different representatives of sex 31% to behave correctly at a table 19% about specific features of the family relations in tatarstan or in russia 15% to behave properly in public places 21% to differentiate formal and informal communication 28% about attitude to work 24% to estimate behavior of other people in the considered ethnos 14% most of respondents (76%) answered the question "did the above-stated acquired skills affect quality of life in this society?" positively. asking the following question "do you independently search for useful literature for further acquaintance with moral standards, traditions and culture of tatarstan and russia?» authors tried shaimardanova et al. to reveal reading interests and the reading culture of the studied students. 68% of pupils independently select literature for reading, accessing the following sources: internet, historical literature, fiction, and folklore. the final question "what from the making elements of culture of the country of the learned language remained a mystery for you? about what would you like to learn in more detail?" was asked for the purpose of planning and correction of further work with literary works, for increasing efficiency of educational process and facilitation of the course of foreign students' successful socialization by means of reading literacy. as the most popular answers «history of russia and tatarstan", "the cities of russia and tatarstan" should be noted. such elements of culture of the russian and tatar people as holidays, music, dances, sport are also interesting for the students. thus, the results of the survey showed that the reading literacy is an important composing factor for increasing the level of a social maturity. successfully socialized personality is a person who has a well expressed social orientation, who is actively seeking for self-determination and selfrealization in a society and able to adapt productively in the surrounding him society on the basis of knowledge of social reality, formation of socially important qualities, abilities and skills. findings 3. socialization to the formation of multiple reading literacy the rate of foreign students in the total number of students at the elabuga institute of kazan (volga) federal university has increased from 12% to 47% in the last four academic years (table 5). table 5. quantitative ratio of foreign and russian students studying on bachelor 's degree, master 's degree programs at the elabuga institute of kfu academic year number of foreign students (full-time form of study) total students (full-time form of study) percentage 2016/2017 280 2174 12,88 % 2017/2018 448 2061 21,74 % 2018/2019 820 2238 36,64 % 2019/2020 1213 2377 47,42 % the third stage of socialization of foreign students (multiple literacy) is characterized, according to the authors, by formation of students' professional socialization by means of studying the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 english language. being official or one of the main languages of communication in more than 50 countries, english is represented to the authors of this work as one of the major tools for successful professional socialization of students. knowledge of a foreign language (english) opens huge opportunities both for work with foreign-language partners, and for work throughout the world. knowledge of the english language also allows using unlimited amount of information from foreign sources, including "digital". besides knowledge of the english language makes possible to meet such criteria of successful professional socialization as: social and professional competitiveness, social and professional relevance, social and professional mobility. having finished preparatory training courses of the russian language, foreign students are enrolled to the first course of a non-linguistic faculty of our higher educational institution. studying the english language on the first and second courses is provided by curricula of the faculties. process of mastery of english is followed by work with the professional focused texts that in turn represents the process of reading literacy formation. at this stage, increase in level of reading literacy is achieved by annotation of texts in the specialty. being the analytical act of processing information intended for summarization of documents, books or articles, and disclosure of their logical structure, annotation performs the function of the major tool when forming multiple literacy. the conducted research revealed the integral role of reading literacy in socialization of foreign students in our higher education institution. ability to work with literary works (to take useful information about social roles in society, standards of behavior, social stereotypes; the ability to make independent decisions in society) is the integral condition of successful socialization. these conclusions are confirmed by the results of the conducted survey. as proposals on optimization of processes of socialization of foreign students, studying in higher education institutions of the republic of tatarstan the authors represent their experience of teaching foreign language which include not only developing language skills, but also mastering reading literacy. conclusion the objectives of this study are to find the relationship of socialization toward baseline reading literacy, functional reading literacy and multiple reading literacy. the evidences in general show that during the period from 2012 through 2017, there was an increase in the number of foreign citizens studying in the russian federation (291,000 at the beginning of the 2017/18 academic shaimardanova et al. year compared to 153.8 thousand at the beginning of the 2010/11 academic year) (decree on the concept of state migration policy of the russian federation for 2019-2025). due to the facts stated above the problem of foreign students socialization takes an important part in the educational process. according to the decree of the president of the russian federation "on the concept of state migration policy of the russian federation for 2019-2025" dated october 31, 2018 one of the main directions of migration policy in the field of creating conditions for adaptation of foreign citizens in russia is formation of institutions and mechanisms of social and cultural adaptation of foreign citizens taking into account their age, professional, national, cultural and other peculiarities, as well as regional and ethnocultural ways of life of the population of the russian federation. increasing the accessibility of educational services for foreign citizens is also considered one of the leading issues of migration policy (decree on the concept of state migration policy of the russian federation for 2019-2025). as the research reveals, the significant role in success of socialization and adaptation is played by formation valuable orientations and purposes. reading literacy acts as one of the most important factors of formation of valuable orientations and purposes. reading always played an important role in the history of development of humanity. it is one of the main ways of socialization of the person, his development, upbringing and education. reading literacy is considered as an ability to understand and make use of written texts, to reflect on them and to be engaged in reading in order to achieve one's objectives, to expand one's knowledge and opportunities, to participate in social life. therefore, the relevance of the study is proved. references adler, p.s. (1975). the transitional experience: an alternative view of culture shock, journal of humanistic psychology, 15 (4), 13-23.doi: 10.1177/002216787501500403 akhtar, n., pratt, c.b., bo, s. (2015). factors in the cross-cultural adaptation of african students in chinese universities, journal of research in international education, 14 (2), 98-113. doi: 10.1177/1475240915592107 alajmi, m. a. (2019). the impact of e-portfolio use on the development of professional standards and life skills of students in the faculty of education at princess nourabint abdul rahman university, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4) 1714-1735. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) https://doi.org/10.1177%2f002216787501500403 https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84938564255&origin=reflist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=adaptation++of+students&st2=&sid=449f7e2b31d64833499775835b1cc1d6&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28adaptation++of+students%29&recordrank= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84938564255&origin=reflist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=adaptation++of+students&st2=&sid=449f7e2b31d64833499775835b1cc1d6&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28adaptation++of+students%29&recordrank= http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 alred, g. (2003). becoming a 'better stranger': a therapeutic perspective on intercultural experience and/as education, intercultural experience and education,14-30. g. alred, m. byram & m. fleming eds, clevedon, uk, multilingual matters ltd andrade, m.s. (2006). international students in english-speaking universities: adjustment factors, journal of research in international education, 5 (2), 131-154.doi: 10.1177/1475240906065589 bierwiaczonek, k., & waldzus, s. (2016). socio-cultural factors as antecedents of crosscultural adaptation in expatriates, international students, and migrants: a review, journal of cross-cultural psychology, 47 (6), 767-817. doi: 10.1177/0022022116644526 biserova, g. k., & shagivaleeva, g. r. (2019). socio-psychological adaptation of international students to learning and professional activities. space and culture, india, 6(5), 99-114. doi:10.20896/saci.v6i5.411 chalmers, d., volet, s. (1997). common misconceptions about students from south-east asia studying in australia, higher education research and development, 16 (1), 87-98. doi: 10.1080/0729436970160107 chen, h. (2003). the research in behavioural psychology of foreign students’ socio-cultural adaptation in china, journal of beijing normal university (social science edition), 6, 135142. decree on the concept of state migration policy of the russian federation for 2019-2025. retrieved december 2, 2019 fromhttp://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/58986. elinet (2019). what is literacy? retrieved march 4, 2019 from www.eli-net.eu/about-us/ feldman, k. a. (1972). some theoretical approaches to the study of change and stability of college students, review of educational research, 42(1), 1–26. doi: 10.3102/00346543042001001 frolova, i., voronkova, o., alekhina, n., kovaleva, i., prodanova, n., & kashirskaya, l. (2019). corruption as an obstacle to sustainable development: a regional example. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 7(1), 674-689. doi:10.9770/jesi.2019.7.1(48) halliday, m.a.k. (1978). language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. edward arnold london. https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84990403432&origin=reflist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=adaptation++of+students&st2=&sid=449f7e2b31d64833499775835b1cc1d6&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28adaptation++of+students%29&recordrank= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84973495164&origin=reflist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=adaptation++of+students&st2=&sid=449f7e2b31d64833499775835b1cc1d6&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28adaptation++of+students%29&recordrank= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84973495164&origin=reflist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=adaptation++of+students&st2=&sid=449f7e2b31d64833499775835b1cc1d6&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28adaptation++of+students%29&recordrank= shaimardanova et al. hoeft, m.e. (2012). why university students don’t read: what professors can do to increase compliance, international journal for the scholarship of teaching and learning, 6 (2). article 12.doi:https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2012.060212 international association for the evaluation of educational achievement. retrieved april 21, 201 from https://www.iea.nl/. kazakova j.k., shastina e.m. (2019) the impact of socio-cultural differences on formation of intrinsic motivation: the case of local and foreign students, learning and motivation. 65, is., 1-9. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). usability testing of mooc: identifying user interface problems. paper presented at the iceis 2019 proceedings of the 21st international conference on enterprise information systems, 2 468-475. kodyakova n.v. (2014) learning foreign language as one of the means of socializing medical students, orenburg state university. retrieved april 15, 2019 from http://elib.osu.ru/handle/123456789/580. lackin g.f. (1990). biometrics. moscow: high school – 352 p. leonard, d., pelletier, c., morley, (2003). the experiences of international students in uk higher education: a review of unpublished research (commissioned by ukcosa) manarin, k., carey, m., rathburn, m., ryland, g. (2015). critical reading in higher education: academic goals and social engagement. bloomington: indiana university press. media portal kfu. (2018). kfu held a round table on adaptation and socialization of foreign students. retrieved march 28, 2019 from https://media.kpfu.ru/news/v-kfu-proshelkruglyy-stol-po-voprosam-adaptacii-i-socializacii-inostrannykh-studentov. mercan, n. (2016). the art of managing intercultural differences in multicultural settings: cultural intelligence, j. open educ. pract. res., 2, 32-49. nagimzhanova, k. m., baimanova, l., magavin, s. s., adzhibaeva, b. z., & betkenova, m. s. (2019). basis of psychological and professional personality development of future educational psychologists. periodico tche quimica, 16(33), 351-368. oberg, k. (1960). cultural shock: adjustment to new cultural environments, practical anthropology, 7, 170-179. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/009182966000700405 https://www.iea.nl/ http://elib.osu.ru/handle/123456789/580 https://doi.org/10.1177/009182966000700405 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 42-63 parker, j. (2019). second language learning and cultural identity. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 33-42. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/7 panteleev, e.e. (2016). reader’s literacy as a condition of creative self-development. andreev readings: modern concepts and technologies of creative self-development of personality. kazan, 206-210. isbn 978-5-93962-756-6 pirls (progress in international reading literacy study).retrieved march 27, 2019 from www.centeroko.ru/pirls/pirls.htm . prodanova, n., trofimova, l., pozdeeva, s., melekhina, t., rustanov, a., & guryanova, i. (2019). perspective of developing software for financial reporting under ifrs in the system of national governance. journal of advanced research in dynamical and control systems, 11(8 special issue), 406-410. platukhina ie. a., eferova a. r., koikova e. i., ponomarevaye.v., maiboroda a. a. (2018). theoretical analysis of the term “professional socialization” of future economists, the journal of social sciences research. special issue. 5, 52-57. doi: https://doi.org/10.32861/jssr.spi5.52.57 programme for international student assessment. retrieved may 15, 2019 from www.centeroko.ru/pisa15/pisa15_res.htm . rubin, d. (2018). adapting teaching strategies to arab student needs in an efl classroom. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 16-26. safiullin, m. r., akhmetshin, e. m., & vasilev, v. l. (2019). production of indicators for evaluation of digital transformation of modern university. international journal of engineering and advanced technology, 9(1), 7399-7402. doi:10.35940/ijeat.a3100.109119 schieffelin, b., & ochs, e. (1986). language socialization, annual review of anthropology, 15, 163-191. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.15.100186.001115 shafaei, a., & razak, n.a. (2016).internationalisation of higher education: conceptualising the antecedents and outcomes of cross-cultural adaptation,policy futures in education, 14 (6), 701-720. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210316645017 sousa, j. a., machado, i. d. c. p., & barros, f. d. a. a. (2019). real interest of federal and state institutions in relation to chemistry education with citizenship training. [real interesse de https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/7 http://www.centeroko.ru/pirls/pirls.htm http://www.centeroko.ru/pisa15/pisa15_res.htm https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84986209002&origin=reflist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=adaptation++of+students&st2=&sid=449f7e2b31d64833499775835b1cc1d6&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28adaptation++of+students%29&recordrank= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84986209002&origin=reflist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=adaptation++of+students&st2=&sid=449f7e2b31d64833499775835b1cc1d6&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=38&s=title-abs-key%28adaptation++of+students%29&recordrank= shaimardanova et al. instituições federal e estadual em relacionar o ensino de química com a formação para cidadania] periodico tche quimica, 16(32), 862-869. stack-cutler, h.l., parrila, r.k., jokisaari, m., & nurmi, j.-e. (2015).how university students with reading difficulties are supported in achieving their goals, journal of learning disabilities, 48 (3), 323-334. doi: 10.1177/0022219413505773 starcher, k., & proffitt, d. (2011). encouraging students to read: what professors are (and aren’t) doing about it (international journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 23 (3), 396-407). retrieved march 3, 2019 from http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/ tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 titova, s. v., surikov, y. n., voronkova, o. y., skoblikova, t. v., safonova, i. v., & shichiyakh, r. a. (2019). formation, accumulation and development of human capital in the modern conditions. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 223230. voronkova, o., nikishkin, v., frolova, i., matveeva, e., murzagalina, g., & kalykova, e. (2019). importance of the process of teaching the basics of social entrepreneurship for the sustainable development of society, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 7(2): 10481058. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.7.2(18) weidman, john c. (2006). “socialization of students in higher education: organizational perspectives.” in clifton c. conrad and ronald c. serlin (eds.), the sage handbook for research in education: engaging ideas and enriching inquiry. (pp. 253-262). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. yigit, m. (2018). does higher education change value perceptions?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 1-8. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/5 https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84926482403&origin=reflist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=reading+interest+reading+literacy&st2=&sid=a68a2719dd7bd4114d2bcdda3398778a&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=48&s=title-abs-key%28reading+interest+reading+literacy%29&recordrank= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84926482403&origin=reflist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=reading+interest+reading+literacy&st2=&sid=a68a2719dd7bd4114d2bcdda3398778a&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=48&s=title-abs-key%28reading+interest+reading+literacy%29&recordrank= https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.7.2(18) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/5 the views of teachers on the upper primary social studies curriculum and its practice www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2010: 1(1), 17-49 i̇lköğretim i̇kinci kademe sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ve uygulanması hakkında öğretmen görüşleri* the views of teachers on the upper primary social studies curriculum and its practice erkan dinç 1 ve yasin doğan 2 özet: 2006–2007 öğretim yılından itibaren türkiye genelinde uygulamaya konulan ilköğretim ikinci kademe sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı’nın “yapılandırmacı” öğretim ve öğrenme yaklaşımını esas aldığı ifade edilmektedir. bu çalışmanın amacı, yapılandırmacı yaklaşım esas alınarak hazırlanmış yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ve bu programa uygun olarak hazırlanmış ders kitapları ile eğitim öğretim faaliyetlerini sürdüren öğretmenlerin yeni program ve uygulaması hakkındaki bilgi, deneyim, görüş ve önerilerini ortaya koyarak iyi örneklerin paylaşılmasına; problem ve aksaklıkların da teşhis edilerek giderilmesi yönünde önlemler alınmasına yardımcı olmaktır. çalışmada önce türkiye’de cumhuriyet’in kuruluşundan yakın döneme kadar gerçekleştirilmiş olan program değişikliklerinin kısa bir tarihçesi ele alınmıştır. yapılandırmacı yaklaşım ve bu yaklaşıma göre hazırlanan sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının temel nitelikleri tartışılan bir diğer husustur. ayrıca, yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının değerlendirilmesine yönelik olarak yapılan araştırmalar ve bu araştırmaların sonuçları da bu kapsamda incelenmiştir. araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak, nitel yöntem esas alınarak hazırlanan bir yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri ile gerçekleştirilen mülakatlardan elde edilen veriler, fenomenografik içerik analizine tabi tutulmuştur. elde edilen bulgular, yeni programın öğretmenler tarafından genel olarak olumlu karşılandığını göstermektedir. başta ölçme değerlendirme etkinlikleri olmak üzere yeni programın öğretmenler tarafından anlaşılıp uygulanmasında çeşitli sorunlar yaşandığı da araştırma bulguları arasındadır. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı, yapılandırmacı yaklaşım, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin görüşleri extended abstract the current social studies curriculum has put into use in all turkish schools in 2006-2007 academic year. it is claimed that the new upper-primary social studies curriculum, which was started to be practiced by the teachers in all schools in turkey in 2006-2007 academic year, is based on a constructivist approach. putting aside the traditional aim of education in turkey that is mostly established on the purpose of memorizing facts; the main aim of this new curriculum is to raise students as 1 yrd. doç. dr., uşak üniversitesi, erkan.dinc@usak.edu.tr 2 yrd. doç. dr., adıyaman üniversitesi, doganyasin_55@hotmail.com * bu çalışmanın ilk versiyonu 14-16 mayıs 2008 tarihleri arasında çanakkale 18 mart üniversitesi tarafından düzenlenen uluslararası sosyal bilimler eğitimi sempozyumu‟nda sözlü bildiri olarak “yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programları ve uygulanması hakkında öğretmen görüşleri ” ismiyle sunulmuştur fakat bildiri kitabında yayınlanmamıştır. © 2010 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 http://www.sosyalbilgiler.org/ mailto:dinc@usak.edu.tr mailto:doganyasin_55@hotmail.com journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 18 individuals who are able to produce their own knowledge/information, to interpret the world around themselves, to improve their learning capabilities, to think critically and creatively, to solve the real world problems, to posses higher order thinking skills and to be able to adapt themselves to changing circumstances. however, it is assumed that pupils have already possessed or will be soon acquiring the cognitive, emotional and physico-motor requirements set forth by the new curriculum. in addition, the question of whether do teachers, who are supposed to teach in accordance with this new curriculum, possess the necessary knowledge of the new curriculum and its theoretical basis, and require teaching skills is often neglected. considering the current practice of upper-primary social studies teaching in which teachers have been applying the new constructivist curriculum and new textbooks that were written in accordance with this curriculum for over five years, this study aims to put teachers‟ views forth in relation to the new curriculum and its practice. through examinig the views of teachers, it is proposed to reveal their experiences and perspectives in order to show the problems and shortcomings of the new curriculum and its practice, and put forward their suggestions for improvement. starting from the foundation of the republic, the historical background of the curriculum change in turkey is examined first. then, the theoretical basis of constructivist approach and the current social studies curriculum that has been prepared in accordance with this approach are discussed. besides, research studies examining, discussing and evaluating the theoretical and practical dimensions of the newly introduced social studies curriculum are scrutinized. the relevant literature indicates that the attainment targets and suggested activities in the curriculum have been positively viewed by social studies teachers. however, those studies also reveal that most teachers are anxious and concerned about the requirements of the curriculum in relation with the suggested evaluation and measurement activities. in this study, a semi-structured interview schedule prepared in accordance with the qualitative research approach is used as a data collection tool. interviews have been conducted with social studies teachers. nvivo qualitative analysis software was used to analyse the data collected through the semi structured interviews. a phenomenographic content analysis process was used to analyse the interview data. the findings reveal that, despite the fact that they do not feel themselves confident enough about the theoretical basis and practical requirements of the constructivist approach, social studies teachers possess positive view points about the currently implemented curriculum in general. on the other hand, a group of the participants put negative view points about the introduction and implementation of the current curriculum. the reasons behind this perspective are the insufficient educational substructure and equipments in the schools and those theachers who are not willing to work more and not open to the change. besides, they indicate several problems arising from the implementation of the new curriculum and other activities and study materials being prepared in accordance with them. according to the study findings, some of the problems arising from the curriculum are the intensive content knowledge, the lack of connections between study units and various topics, the inappropriate introduction of the content knowledge in some cases, the use of abstract concepts that are not suitable for pupils‟ learning capacity and insufficient class-time and course materials. the problems arising from the practice of the new erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 19 evaluation and measurement activities are viewed as the most problematic side of the curriculum by the participating teachers. keywords: social studies curriculum, social studies teachers, constructivist approach i̇lköğretim ii. kademe sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ve uygulanması hakkında öğretmen görüşleri hızla küreselleşen ve yerelleşen günümüz dünyasında toplumlar iletişim, bilim ve teknoloji alanlarında, yetişmiş ve nitelikli insan gücüne ihtiyaç duymaktadırlar. bu nitelikli insan gücünün yetiştirilmesinin de ancak kaliteli bir eğitim ile mümkün olabileceği düşünülmektedir (fullan, 1991). kaliteli eğitim ise ülke, toplum ve bireylerin ihtiyaç ve önceliklerini dikkate alan, mevcut insan kaynakları ve fiziksel koşulları hesaba katarak oluşturulmuş eğitim programları çerçevesinde; iyi yetişmiş öğretmenler ile; niçin eğitim ve öğretim etkinliklerine katılmaları gerektiğinin farkında olan, bilinçli ve güdülenmiş öğrenciler tarafından uygun ve elverişli ortamlarda gerçekleştirilen öğretme ve öğrenme çalışmaları olarak tanımlanabilir. günümüz dünyasındaki süratli değişmeler, nitelikli insan gücü kavramını da hızla değiştirdiği gibi bu insan gücünü yetiştirme noktasına önemli görülen kaliteli eğitim anlayışını da farklılaştırmaktadır. mesela, 1980ler ve 1990lar türkiye‟si için yeterli ve kaliteli kabul edilen bir eğitim anlayışı ve bu doğrultuda hazırlanmış öğretim programları 2000‟li yıllarda artık yetersiz, güncelliğini ve işlevselliğini kaybetmiş olarak değerlendirilebilmektedir (meb, 2005). dolayısıyla, eğitim-öğretim anlayışı ile birlikte öğretim programlarının da zamanın, bireylerin, toplumun ve ülkenin değişen ihtiyaçlarına cevap verebilecek şekilde farklı dönemlerde ele alınması, gözden geçirilmesi ve değiştirilmesi önemli ve gerekli görülmektedir (demirel, 2004). ülkemizde 1924 ve sonrasında başlatılan çalışmalarla, milli eğitim anlayışımız ve eğitim programlarımız şekillendirilmiştir. farklı dönemlerde yapılan bu çalışmaların bazıları tüm öğretim programlarını ve dersleri gözden geçiren reform niteliğindeki düzenlemeler olup; bazıları da sadece belirli dersler ya da bu derslere ait bazı bölümlerin öğretimi üzerine odaklanmışlardır (sönmez, 1999; erden, 1998). i̇lköğretim birinci ve ikinci kademe öğretim programlarında yer alan sosyal bilgiler dersi de bu doğrultuda farklı dönemlerde ele alınmış; dersin öğretim programı üzerinde çeşitli düzenlemeler yapılmıştır. i̇yi ve nitelikli vatandaş yetiştirme noktasında özel bir önem atfedilen sosyal bilgiler dersi, türkiye‟de ilköğretim okulu journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 20 programlarına bu adıyla ilk olarak 1968 yılında girmiştir. bundan önceki dönemlerde ise, dersin kapsamına giren amaçlara tarih, coğrafya, malumat-ı vataniye, yurt bilgisi ile toplum ve ülke i̇ncelemeleri gibi dersler aracılığıyla ulaşılmaya çalışılmıştır (sönmez, 1999). i̇lköğretim altıncı ve yedinci sınıflarda okutulan sosyal bilgiler dersi 1985 yılında yapılan bir değişiklik ile kaldırılarak yerine „milli tarih „ ve „milli coğrafya‟ dersleri konulduysa da, 1993 yılında eski anlayış ve sisteme geri dönülmüştür (öztürk ve dilek, 2002). 1998 ve 2004 yıllarında yapılan program geliştirme çalışmalarında, dersin adı ve programlardaki yeri korunmuş; fakat özellikle 2004 yılında yapılan düzenlemeler ile derse atfedilen misyon, dersin eğitimsel amaçları, öğretim anlayışı ve ölçme-değerlendirme yaklaşımında önemli değişiklikler gerçekleştirilmiştir. i̇lköğretim programlarında yer alan diğer derslerde olduğu gibi sosyal bilgiler dersi programı da yapılandırmacı öğretim yaklaşımı doğrultusunda yeniden hazırlanmıştır. 2005 2006 öğretim yılında pilot çalışması yapılan yeni i̇lköğretim ikinci kademe (altıncı ve yedinci sınıf) sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı, 2006-2007 öğretim yılında tüm yurt genelinde uygulanmaya başlamıştır. bu çalışmanın amacı, bir buçuk yılı aşkın bir süreden beri yürürlükte olan yeni altıncı ve yedinci sınıf sosyalbilgiler öğretim programını ve bu program doğrultusunda gerçekleştirilen eğitim-öğretim faaliyetlerini uygulamanın asli öğelerinden biri olan öğretmenlerin perspektifinden değerlendirmektir. çalışmada öncelikle yeni öğretim programları ve dolayısıyla sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının felsefi temelini oluşturan yapılandırmacı yaklaşım ele alınmıştır. daha sonraki bölümlerde ise araştırmanın yöntemi, veri toplama aracı, verilerin analiz ve değerlendirmesi ile elde edilen bulguların sunumu yer almaktadır. yapılandırmacı yaklaşım bilgi felsefesi olarak yapılandırmacılık ya da bazı eğitimcilerimizin söylemiyle oluşturmacılık (constructivism), bilimsel gerçeğin var olduğu ve bu gerçekliğin keşfedilmeyi-doğrulanmayı beklediği fikrini reddetmektedir. bilginin dışardan insan zihnine aktarılamayacağını, tam tersine bilginin bireylerin zihinlerinde oluşup şekillendiğini kabul etmektedir (schunk, 2004). bir başka ifadeyle yapılandırmacı yaklaşım bilginin, insanın kendi yaşam deneyimlerine dayalı olarak meydana getirildiğini kabul etmektedir (fensham, gunstone & white, 1994). erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 21 yapılandırmacılığın fikirsel temelleri her ne kadar giambattista vico‟nun 18. yüzyıldaki çalışmalarına veya onun çok daha ötesine, antik çağ filozoflarından socrates‟e kadar götürülse de, yaklaşımın bir teori olarak ortaya çıkışı çoğunlukla piaget‟nin çalışmalarına dayandırılır. piaget, özellikle bireyin bilgiyi içselleştirmesi ve bununla ilgili süreçlerin önemini vurgulamıştır. öğrenmenin, bireylerin zihninde yer alan dış dünya imgesinin, yeni deneyimlere uyma amacıyla tekrar düzenlenmesi, ve gerçekleştirilen deneyimler aracılığı ile elde edilen bilginin zihinde bulunan bir çerçeve veya şablona yerleştirilmesi süreçleriyle meydana geldiğini ifade etmektedir (wood, 1998: 5). yapılandırmacı yaklaşımın bir diğer önemli teorisyeni vygotsky ise, öğrenme ve düşünce gelişiminde etkinlik kavramının önemine vurgu yapmıştır. vygotsky‟nin etkinlik kavramı zihinsel gelişimde iletişim, sosyal etkileşim ve öğretimin rollerini ön plana çıkarmaktadır (wood, 1998: 37). vygotsky‟nin görüşlerinde şekil bulan sosyal yapılandırmacılık, öğrenme de kültürün ve dilin önemli bir etkiye sahip olduğunu vurgular. ona göre sosyal etkileşim, çocuğun öğrenmesinde önemli bir yere sahiptir. vygotsky, çocuğun öğrenme potansiyelinin bireylerle girdiği iletişim-etkileşim süreçleri ortaya çıktığına işaret etmiştir (wertsch, 1997). i̇nsan zihnini etkileyen biyolojik ve evrimsel engellere vurgu yapan bruner‟e göre öğrenme bir modelin, düzenin ve tahmin edilebilirliğin aranması süreçlerinden oluşur. öğretim ise, çocuğun bu model ve kuralları keşfedip oluşturması sürecinde onun desteklenmesi ve ihtiyacı olan yardımların sağlanması işidir (bruner, 1977). piaget ve vigotsky‟nin teorileri arasında bir uzlaşı bulma çabası olarak değerlendirilen çalışmalarında (wood, 1998; 37) bruner, insan zihninin gelişiminde dil ve sosyal etkileşim gibi kültürel öğelere vigotsky kadar olmasa da, oldukça önem vermiştir (bruner, 1977). bruner‟in „bilgi-işlem‟ olarak adlandırılan kuramı, kendi bilgisinin aktif mimarı olarak tanımlanan bir çocuk imajına vurgu yapar (wood, 1998). öğrenen bireylerin bilgiyi nasıl öğrendiklerine ilişkin bir kuram olarak gelişmeye başlayan yapılandırmacılık, zamanla öğrenenlerin bilgiyi nasıl yapılandırdıklarına ilişkin bir modele dönüşmüştür. yapılandırmacılıkta bilginin tekrarı değil, transferi ve yeniden yapılandırılması önemlidir. öğrencinin etkin olduğu yapılandırmacı öğrenmede; okumak ve dinlemek yerine tartışma, düşünceleri gerekçeleri ile savunma, varsayımlarda bulunma, sorgulama ve üretilen düşünceleri journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 22 paylaşma gibi aktif katılım gerektiren süreçler ön plana çıkar. bireylerin etkileşimine önem verilir. öğrenenler, bilgiyi olduğu gibi kabul etmezler, bunun yerine bilgiyi kendileri oluşturur ya da tekrar keşfederler (perkins, 1999). yapılandırmacı yaklaşım yalnızca öğretme-öğrenme süreci ile öğretmen ve öğrencilerden beklenen rolleri değil; ölçme ve değerlendirme süreçlerini de önemli ölçüde değiştirmiştir. öğretme-öğrenme sürecinde ortaya çıkan ürünleri değerlendirmek için sürecin içine yerleşmiş bir değerlendirme anlayışı ön plana çıkmaktadır. yani değerlendirmenin konusu sadece öğrencinin neyi, ne kadar öğrendiği değildir. öğrencinin ders boyunca kendisine sunulan etkinlikleri nasıl yaptığı ve bu süreçte gerçekleştirdiği öğrenme, problem çözme, soru sorma gibi aktivitelerin ne derece farkında olduğudur. dolayısıyla, değerlendirmeye esas olan ölçme işlemi de, yalnızca bilgiyi ölçen klasik sınav ve çoktan seçmeli testlerden oluşmaz. bunların ötesinde öğrenci ürün dosyaları, kavram haritaları, öğretmen gözlemleri, projeler, bireysel ve grup değerlendirme, akran değerlendirme gibi çeşitli ölçme araçları kullanılır. değerlendirme de bilginin yanı sıra tutum, araştırma, sorgulama, problem çözme vb. gibi çeşitli öğrenme becerilerini kapsar (windschitl, 2002). yukarıda görüldüğü üzere yapılandırmacı yaklaşım eğitim programlarında köklü değişikliklere yol açtığı gibi, öğretim ortamlarında öğretmene ve öğrenciye yüklenen rolleri de değiştirmektedir. yapılandırmacı eğitimin etkin bir şekilde uygulanabilmesi bu yeni rollerin teorik olarak öğrenilmesinden çok gerçek eğitim durumlarına nasıl yansıtılacağına bağlıdır. bu hususta jerome bruner‟in şu tespiti kayda değerdir: bir eğitim programı öğrencilerden çok öğretmenler için önem taşır. eğer yeni bir eğitim programı öğretmenleri değiştiremez ise; onları harekete geçiremez, zihinlerini karıştıramaz ya da bilgilendiremezse onların okuttukları öğrenciler üzerinde hiçbir etkisi olmaz. bir program öncelikle öğretmenler için hazırlanmış olmalıdır. eğer öğrenciler üzerinde bir etkisinden bahsediliyorsa; bu ancak söz konusu programın öğretmenler üzerindeki tesiri meziyetiyle gerçekleşmiştir demektir (bruner, 1977: xv). yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı sosyal bilgiler, bütün sosyal bilim disiplinlerince üretilen bilgileri ele alan kapsamlı bir derstir. bir diğer özelliği ise, bireyin temel yaşam unsurlarını merkeze alan, bireye vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri kazandıran bütüncül ve disiplinlerarası bir ders olmasıdır (doğanay, 2002). fakat, ülkemizde farklı zamanlarda hazırlanan sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ve ders kitaplarının çoğunun amerikan modelinde olduğu erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 23 gibi içerik olarak tarih, coğrafya ve vatandaşlık konuları üzerinde yoğunlaştığı bilinmektedir. adı geçen programlarda güdülen temel amaç ise sosyal bilgiler dersi aracılığı ile öğrencilere özellikle kendi yaşadıkları çevreye ve ülkemize dair coğrafi bilgileri, türk tarihine dair genel bir anlayış çerçevesini ve temel vatandaşlık hak ve sorumluluklarını aktararak onları iyi birer vatandaş olarak yetiştirmek idi. gerek programların kendi yetersizlikleri, gerek uygulamanın fiziki ve teknolojik altyapısındaki sorunlar, gerek uygulamanın insan unsuru olan öğretmen ve öğrencilerden kaynaklanan problemler, ve gerekse değişen toplum, ülke ve dünya gerçekleri eski programlar ve eski (davranışçı) eğitim anlayışı ile yürütülen diğer bir çok ders gibi sosyal bilgiler dersinin de değişmesi gerektiğini ortaya koymuştur (meb, 2005). eski programların yetersizliği düşüncesinden yola çıkılarak hazırlanan yeni ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ise, öğrencileri toplumsallaşma süreci içerisinde karşılaştıkları sorunları fark edebilen, bu sorunlara çeşitli perspektiflerden bakarak analiz edebilen ve onlara çözümler üretebilen bireyler ya da programın söylemiyle etkili vatandaşlar olarak yetiştirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. yeni program ayrıca toplumsal gelişme ve değişmeye paralel olarak sosyal bilgiler derslerinin de değişiminin kaçınılmaz olduğunu ve yeni programın işlerliğinin sürekli kontrol edilerek görülen aksaklıkların giderilmesi gerektiğini de kabul etmektedir. yeni programa göre sosyal bilgiler, …bireyin toplumsal var oluşunu gerçekleştirebilmesine yardımcı olması amacıyla; tarih, coğrafya, ekonomi, sosyoloji, antropoloji, psikoloji, felsefe, siyaset bilimi ve hukuk gibi sosyal bilimleri ve vatandaşlık bilgisi konularını yansıtan; öğrenme alanlarının bir ünite ya da tema altında birleştirilmesini içeren; insanın sosyal ve fizikî çevresiyle etkileşiminin geçmiş, bugün ve gelecek bağlamında incelendiği; toplu öğretim anlayışından hareketle oluşturulmuş bir ilköğretim dersidir (meb, 2005: 46). bu program, sosyal bilgiler derslerinde ve ders kitaplarında, sosyal bilimlerle ilgili kavramlar ve bilgilerin öğrencilerin zihinlerinde yapılandırılmasıyla gerçekleşir. program, farklı sosyal bilim alanlarından ve gerçek hayattan alınmış çeşitli bilgilerin birbirleriyle iç içe geçmiş bir şekilde örülerek yapılandırılmasını amaçlamaktadır. sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı, barth ve shermis (1977‟den aktaran doğanay, 2002: 20) tarafından belirlenen üç temel sosyal bilgiler öğretimi yaklaşımını ele alarak harmanlamayı amaç ediniyor. bu yaklaşımlar, vatandaşlık aktarımı olarak sosyal bilgiler, sosyal bilimler olarak sosyal bilgiler ve bir yansıtıcı düşünme alanı journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 24 olarak sosyal bilgiler öğretimi yaklaşımları olarak adlandırılmaktadır (doğanay, 2002). bu yaklaşımların birincisi, öğretmen merkezli bir eğitim anlayışına dayalı olup kültürün temel değer ve inançlarını yeni kuşaklara aktarmaya yöneliktir. sosyal bilimler olarak sosyal bilgiler öğretimi yaklaşımı, sosyal bilimlere ait temel ilkeler ile içerik bilgisini ve her bir sosyal bilim alanının bilgiye ulaşmada kullandığı yöntem ya da yöntemleri öğrencilere kazandırmayı amaçlamaktadır. üçüncü yaklaşımda ise içerik öğrencilerin güncel yaşamda karşılaştıkları konu ve sorunlardan seçilir ve çocuklarda karar verme sürecinin geliştirilmesi için bir araç olarak kullanılır. bu yaklaşımda öğrenciler kendilerine verilen çeşitli problemleri çözerken, bunlarla ilgili olarak düşünüp karar verirken bilgiyi kullanırlar. fakat öğretim etkinliklerinin merkezinde bilgi değil, eleştirel düşünme, yansıtıcı düşünme, problem çözme ve bilimsel akıl yürütmeye dayalı karar verme gibi beceriler bulunur (doğanay: 2002: 20-21). dolayısıyla yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programlarının, hem eski öğretmen merkezli, davranışçı eğitim anlayışını; hem de yeni öğrenci merkezli, etkinlik temelli, yapılandırmacı eğitim anlayışını esas aldığı söylenebilir. yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının, ilköğretim öğrencilerinin gerçek yaşama hazırlanmasında önemli bir yeri olan sosyal bilgiler dersine yüklediği bir başka görev ise öğrencileri, çeşitli sosyal bilim disiplinlerinin bilgiye ulaşmada kullandıkları yöntemlerle tanıştırmaktır. burada gözetilen amaç ise onların birer küçük sosyal bilimci olarak bireysel ya da gruplar halinde çalışmalarını sağlamak, toplumsal hayata ve yaşadıkları dünyaya ait gerçekleri yaparak, yaşayarak etkin bir şekilde öğrenmelerini sağlamaktır (meb, 2005). bu çerçevede hazırlanan altıncı ve yedinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler programı derse ait genel amaçlar, çeşitli beceriler, kavramlar ve değerlerden oluşmaktadır. türk milli eğitiminin genel amaçları ile sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının genel amaçları doğrultusunda ve programın altyapısını oluşturan yapılandırmacı öğrenme yaklaşımı çerçevesinde oluşturulan öğrenme amaçları “kazanım” şeklinde ifade edilmiştir. eski programda hedef/davranış olarak tanımlanan ve çoğunlukla bilgi aktarımına yönelik olan öğrenme amaçları; tanıma, kavrama ve açıklama gibi eylem sözcükleri ile ifade edilirken; yeni programda yer alan kazanımlar yukarıdakilere ilave olarak örnek verme, fark etme, ayırt etme, oluşturma, araştırma yapma, savunma, tanımlama, çıkarımda bulunma, değerlendirme, tasarlama, tartışma, ilişkilendirme, kanıt gösterme, erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 25 karşılaştırma, yorumlama, analiz etme ve fikir ileri sürme gibi fiillerle dile getirilmektedir (meb, 2005). bu da gösteriyor ki yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı, öğrencilerin sadece bilgiyi alıp özümsemelerini değil; onu kullanarak düşünme, tartışma, araştırma ve karşılaştırmalar yapma gibi eylemler gerçekleştirmelerini ve böylelikle sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında yer alan tema ve öğrenme alanları ile ilgili kendi bilgi ve anlayışlarını oluşturmalarını amaçlamaktadır. sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı kapsamında toplam onbeş beceri yer almakta olup, bunlardan dokuzu bütün derslerde ortak olan temel becerilerdir. türkçeyi doğru, güzel ve etkili kullanma becerisi ise yine bütün dersler aracılığı ile kazandırılması amaçlanan genel bir beceri olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. sosyal bilgiler dersinin özgün becerileri ise zaman ve kronolojiyi algılama, mekanı algılama, değişim ve sürekliliği algılama, sosyal katılım ve empatiden oluşmaktadır (meb, 2005: 3). programda yer alan kavramlar, program içeriğini oluşturmak üzere farklı sosyal bilim alanlarından seçilmiş olan konu ve temalar ile bunların öğretimi ile ilgili bazı temel kavramlardan meydana gelmektedir.. yeni programlar söz konusu kavramlardan çok, onların nasıl öğretileceği konusuna vurgu yapmaktadır. değerler ise öğrencilerin bireysel ve toplumsal yaşamlarını ilgilendiren çalışkanlık, dürüstlük, bilimsellik, hoşgörü, sorumluluk ve vatanseverlik gibi temel değerlerden oluşmaktadır. program bu değerlerin öğretiminde açıklama, ahlaki muhakeme, değer analizi ve gözlem gibi yöntemleri ön plana çıkarmaktadır (meb, 2005). yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı sadece öğrenmenin amaç, içerik ve sürecine değil değerlendirilmesine de farklı bir bakış açısı getirmiştir. değerlendirmenin konusu yalnızca öğrencilerin neleri öğrendiği değil, nasıl öğrendikleridir. dolayısıyla, değerlendireme yanlıca ürüne yani bilgiye yönelik olmayıp, öğrenme sürecini de kapsamaktadır. yazılı ve sözlü sınav gibi edinilmiş bilgiyi sınayan ölçme araçlarının yerine, önceki öğrenmelerin yeni durumlara uygulanmasını denetleyen ve öğrencilerin de kendi gelişimlerini değerlendirmede rol almalarına olanak sağlayan kavram haritaları, öğrenci ürün dosyaları, performans-proje ödevleri, akran değerlendirme, öz değerlendirme gibi ölçme araçlarının kullanımı ön plana çıkar (meb, 2005; windschitl, 2002). yapılandırmacı yaklaşım çerçevesinde oluşturulan yeni program, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine atfedilen rolleri de değiştirmiştir. bu anlayışa göre öğretmen yalnızca journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 26 konusunu bilen, bilgiyi aktaran ve sınıfı yöneten kişi değil; öğrencilerine rehberlik eden ve onlarla birlikte öğrenen bir yönlendiricidir. bu bağlamda öğretmenlerin, öncelikle yeni programı ve programın altyapısını oluşturan yapılandırmacı yaklaşımı anlayıp benimsemeleri beklenmektedir. böyle bir öğretmen ise öğrencilerini güdüleyip teşvik eder, öğrencilere saygı gösterir, kendilerini ifade etmelerine imkan tanıyarak onlara yardımcı ve örnek olur, öğrencileriyle birlikte her bir ders için hedefler belirler, ders konularına ve öğrencilerin gerçek yaşam deneyimlerine uygun olarak farklı materyaller ve etkinlikler hazırlar ve bunları kullanır, öğrencilerin ders ve okul dışında araştırma yapmalarına ve öğrenmelerine zemin hazırlar, ve diğer öğretmenler, okul idarecileri ve velilerle işbirliği yaparak öğrencilerinin problemlerini ve gelişimlerini takip eder (meb, 2005; yanpar, 2006). yukarıdaki alıntıda bruner‟in (1977) de ifade ettiği gibi, bir eğitim programının başarısı öncelikle onu uygulayacak olan kişilerce yani öğretmenlerce anlaşılması ve benimsenmesine bağlıdır. buradan yola çıkılarak, yapılandırmacı yaklaşıma göre hazırlanan yeni ilköğretim programlarının ve bu programların bir bölümünü oluşturan altıncı ve yedinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi programının başarısının da büyük ölçüde o programı uygulayacak olan öğretmenlere bağlı olduğu düşünülebilir. yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı hakkındaki çalışmalar yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı hakkında bu zamana kadar yapılan çalışmalar, programların çeşitli olumlu ve olumsuz özelliklerinin altını çizmiştir. yeni dördüncü ve beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretim programını teorik olarak ele alan çalışmalarında yaşar (2005) ve canerik (2005), altyapı yetersizlikleri ile programın çok kısa sürede hazırlanmalarının ileride çeşitli sorunlara neden olabileceğini belirterek; olası sorunların tanımlanabilmesi ve giderilmesi için ön (pilot) uygulama süresinin uzatılması, her türlü eleştiri ve önerilerin dikkate alınması ve en önemlisi katılımcı bir anlayış doğrultusunda program geliştirme sürecinin sürekliliğinin sağlanması gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir. dündar, kayhan ve yel‟in (2006) nitel, güven, gökbulut ve yel‟in (2006) nicel araştırmaları ile öztürk ve tuncel‟in (2006) karışık yöntemle gerçekleştirdikleri çalışmaların ortak amacı yeni dördüncü ve beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının ön uygulamasını değerlendirmek olmuştur. özellikle öğretmen görüşlerine odaklanan bu çalışmaların ulaştıkları sonuçlara göre öğretmenler, genel olarak yeni erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 27 programa ve bu programın temelinin oluşturan yapılandırmacı yaklaşıma olumlu bakmaktadır. programda yer alan kazanımlar ile etkinlikler öğretmenler tarafından beğenilirken, program içeriği bazı öğretmenlere göre yetersiz bulunmuştur. bunların yanı sıra yeni programın ölçme ve değerlendirme yaklaşımının, öğretmenlerde kuşku ve endişe uyandırdığı bu çalışmalarda ulaşılan ortak sonuçlardan biri olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır (dündar vd, 2006; güven vd, 2006; öztürk ve tuncel, 2006). yine, dördüncü ve beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretim programını ele alan fakat ön uygulamanın yapıldığı bazı okullarda gerçekleştirdikleri nitel araştırmalarında aykaç ve başar (2005), sınıf öğretmenlerinin geneli itibariyle yeni programı olumlu bulduklarını, fakat okulların altyapı olanakları ile diğer fiziksel şartların ve öğretmen özelliklerinin programın başarı şansını düşürebileceğine işaret etmişlerdir. gömleksiz ve bulut‟un (2006) benzer nitelikteki araştırması ile gömleksiz‟in (2005) bütün ilköğretim programlarını değerlendiren çalışması da hemen hemen aynı sonuçları ortaya koymuştur. doğanay ve sarı (2008) tarafından gerçekleştirilen ve hem dördüncü ve beşinci sınıflarda sosyal bilgiler dersini okutan sınıf öğretmenlerini hem de altıncı ve yedinci sınıflarda bu dersi okutan branş öğretmenlerini kapsayan araştırma, yukarıdaki çalışmalara benzer tespit ve sonuçlara ulaşmıştır. bu çalışmaya katılan öğretmenler, yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının genel anlayışını, felsefesini, temel hedef ve varsayımlarını, programda yer kazanımlar ile içeriğini olumlu bulmuşlardır. çalışmada ayrıca, ölçme ve değerlendirme yaklaşımı ile bu yaklaşımın gerektirdiği etkinliklerin uygulanması, yeni programın öğretmenleri kuşkulandıran ve zorlayan en önemli özelliği olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. genel olarak birinci kademe sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ve uygulanmasını hedef alan bu çalışmalar, özellikle ikinci kademe öğretmenlerinin görüş ve düşüncelerinin ortaya konulmasının gerekliliğini göstermektedirler. böyle bir gereksinimden yola çıkılarak gerçekleştirilen bu çalışma, yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programına göre öğretim yapan öğretmenlerin, bu program ve uygulaması hakkındaki görüşlerinin detaylı ve derinlemesine incelenmesi gerektiği düşüncesini esas alarak, nitel araştırma yöntemlerine uygun bir şekilde tasarımlanmıştır. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 28 yöntem bugünkü milli eğitim sistemi içerisinde görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin önemli bir kısmının fen, edebiyat, fen-edebiyat vb fakültelerin tarih ve coğrafya bölümlerinden mezun oldukları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda bu öğretmenlerimizin büyük çoğunluğunun davranışçı psikolojiyi esas alan geleneksel eğitim anlayışı çerçevesinde yetiştikleri söylenebilir. bu öğretmenlerin halen ilköğretim okullarında uygulamaya çalıştıkları program ise, kendileri için tanıdık ve alışıldık bir eğitim-öğretim anlayışından oldukça uzak görünmektedir. bu bağlamda öğretmenlerin yapılandırmacı yaklaşıma dair tutum, algılama ve anlayışları yeni programın etkin bir şekilde uygulanmasında belirleyici bir rol oynayacak gibi görünmektedir. her ne kadar uygulamaya başlanmadan önce il ve ilçelerde görev yapan öğretmenlere seminerler verilerek, yeni programın tanıtımını yapılmışsa da bu kısa süreli eğitimin ne kadar verimli olduğu tartışılabilir. bunun ötesinde, yeni yaklaşım ve program hakkında kendileri de sadece beş günlük bir eğitim alan müfettiş ve formatör öğretmenlerin söz konusu seminerleri ne derece etkili gerçekleştirdikleri üzerinde durulması gereken bir başka sorundur. bu çalışma, yeni altıncı ve yedinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ve bu programın uygulanmasına ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerini ele alan fenomenografik modele göre tasarımlanmış nitel bir araştırmadır (tesch, 1990). fenomenografik araştırmaların konusu olan fenomenler yani olay ve olgular „yaşanan deneyim veya içinde bulunulan gerçekliğin birer unsuru‟durlar. dolayısıyla fenomenografik araştırmalarda araştırmacı, kavram, ifade ve düşünceler arasındaki farklılık ve benzerliklerin düzenli bir biçimde ortaya koymaya çalışmaz. onun yerine, çalışma grubunda bulunan bireylerin „kendilerini çevreleyen dünyadaki fenomenlerin çeşitli yönleri hakkındaki algı, anlama, kavrama ve deneyimlerinin nitel bir biçimde betimlemeye çalışır‟ (marton, 1986: 31‟den aktaran tesch, 1990: 65). bu modele göre desenlenmiş araştırmalarda, insanların çevrelerinde olup bitenler ile karşılaştıkları durumları nasıl açıkladıkları, ve bu açıklama ya da kavramsallaştırmaların nasıl değiştiği ortaya konulur (tesch, 1990). bilindiği üzere nitel araştırmalar, belirli bir konuyu dar kapsamda fakat derinlemesine inceleyen yöntemleri içerir. bu tür araştırmalarda ulaşılan sonuçlar da esas olarak belirli bir evrene dair genel geçer yargılara ya da genellemelere ulaşma amacından çok, incelenen konunun çeşitli detayları hakkındaki bulguları anlamlı ve erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 29 sistematik bir şekilde ortaya koymaya yöneliktir (silverman; 2000; balcı, 2005). böyle bir anlayışa uygun bir biçimde tasarlanan bu çalışmada araştırmacıların yaşadıkları ve görev yaptıkları adıyaman ve niğde illeri çalışma evreni olarak belirlenmiştir. bu illerin merkezleri ile bağlı bazı ilçe ve köylerinde yer alan devlet ve özel ilköğretim okullarında görev yapan yirmi iki sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni araştırmanın örneklemini oluşturmaktadır. araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin belirlenmesi ve seçiminde gözetilen en temel ölçüt, olabildiğince farklı türden (devletözel) ve farklı yerleşim biriminde (köy, ilçe ve şehir merkezi) yer alan okullarda çalışan öğretmenlere ulaşmak olmuştur. katılımcıların belirlenmesinin ikinci önemli ölçütü ise gönüllülük olmuştur. yalnızca araştırmaya katılmaya istekli öğretmenlerle görüşmeler yapılmış; bazı katılımcıların istekleri doğrultusunda araştırmada yer almasını istemedikleri ifadeleri, araştırma etiği doğrultusunda çalışma kapsamından çıkarılmıştır. çalışmada veri toplama aracı, nitel araştırma yöntemi esas alınarak araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen bir yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formudur. bu formda yer alan sorularla gerçekleştirilen görüşmeler aracılığıyla sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı yaklaşım, yeni programlar, bu programlarda yer alan kazanımlar, içerik, öğretme-öğrenme etkinlikleri ve ölçme-değerlendirme aktiviteleri ile hali hazırda okullarımızda gerçekleştirilen uygulamalar hakkındaki görüşleri ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşme formu, nitel araştırma yöntemleri konusunda deneyimi olan iki uzmanın görüşüne sunulmuş ve alınan geribildirim doğrultusunda forma son şekli verilmiştir. görüşmeler, katılımcıların izniyle ses kayıt cihazına kaydedilmiş ve daha sonra da bu kayıtlar çözümlenmiştir. görüşme dökümleri daha sonra eposta aracılığı ile katılımcılara gönderilerek, herhangi bir değişiklik yapılmasını veya çıkarılmasını istedikleri kısım olup olmadığı sorulmuştur. bu epostalara yalnızca üç katılımcı yanıt vermiş, bunlardan birinin isteği doğrultusunda görüşme dökümünde bulunan bir ifade çıkarılmıştır. elde edilen veriler, nvivo nitel veri analiz programı kullanılarak her iki araştırmacı tarafından ayrı ayrı analiz edilmiştir. fenomenografik analiz sürecinin temel basamakları uygulanarak önce, görüşme dökümlerinde yer alan anlamlı ifadeler belirlenmiş; daha sonra bu ifadeler benzerlik ve farklılıklarına göre sınıflanmıştır. görüşmelerden alınan ifadeler taşıdıkları anlam ve nitelikler göz önünde bulundurularak tekrar tekrar sınıflandırılmış; belirli bir anlam ya da görüş noktasında birleştikleri journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 30 kanısına varıldığı zaman da bu ifadelere dayanan kategoriler oluşturulmuştur (tesch, 1990: 92). her iki araştırmacı tarafından ayrı ayrı gerçekleştirilen bu işlemlerden elde edilen bulgular daha sonra karşılaştırılarak analiz sürecinin tutarlılığı kontrol edilmiştir. araştırma katılımcılarının kimlik bilgilerinin gizliliğinin sağlanması amacıyla verilerin sunumunda katılımcıların isimleri yerine aö. 1 (adıyaman öğretmen no: 1) veya nö. 2 (niğde öğretmen no: 2) gibi kodlar kullanılmıştır. bulgular ve yorum katılımcılara ait demografik bilgiler yukarıda belirtildiği üzere, araştırmanın uygulama kısmı yirmi iki sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni ile gerçekleştirilen yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmeden oluşmaktadır. çalışmaya katılan öğretmenlerin sekizi bayan, on dördü ise erkektir. öğretmenlerin on biri eğitim fakültesi tarih öğretmenliği, üçü coğrafya öğretmenliği, altısı da sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği programı mezunu iken; fen-edebiyat fakültesi tarih bölümü mezunu olan üç katılımcıdan yalnızca biri mezuniyeti sonrası pedagojik formasyonunu tamamlamıştır. i̇l merkezlerinde görev yapan on iki öğretmenden on tanesi devlet okullarında, ikisi ise özel okullarda çalışmaktadır. genelde türkiye, özelde adıyaman ve niğde illerinde bulunan devlet okulları ile özel okullar ile bu okullarda görev yapan öğretmen ve öğrenim gören öğrenci sayıları karşılaştırıldığında toplam yirmi devlet okulu öğretmenine karşın iki özel okul öğretmeninin belirlenmiş olması örneklem seçiminde belirli bir denge veya tutarlılık sağlandığına bir kanıt olarak kabul edilebilir. i̇lçe merkezlerindeki beş katılımcının tamamı devlet okulunda görev yaparken bu katılımcılardan ikisinin yatılı ilköğretim bölge okullarında (yi̇bo) çalıştığı dikkate alınması gereken bir durumdur. köylerde görev yapan öğretmenlerin tamamı devlet okullarında çalışmaktadır. öğretmenlerin dördü, araştırmanın yapıldığı zaman meslekteki ilk yılında iken; üç katılımcının meslek deneyimi bir ila beş yıl arasında, on bir öğretmenin ise altı ile on yıl arasındadır. kalan dört katılımcı ise meslekte on yılını doldurmuş tecrübeli öğretmenlerdir. yapılandırmacı yaklaşım hakkındaki görüş ve değerlendirmeler erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 31 araştırma kapsamında görüşülen öğretmenlerin tamamı, yeni programların temel felsefesini oluşturan yapılandırmacı öğrenme-öğretme yaklaşımı hakkında bir eğitim almadıklarını; aldıkları hizmet içi eğitim seminerinde konuya çok az değinildiğini; ve bu konuda her hangi bir kitap ya da makale okumadıklarını dile getirmişlerdir. bu yüzden de hiçbir katılımcı, görüşmeler esnasında sorulan „yapılandırmacı yaklaşım nedir?‟ ya da „yapılandırmacı yaklaşımı tanımlayabilir misiniz?‟ tarzındaki sorulara yanıt vermek istememiştir. fakat, bazı öğretmenlerin yeni programlarla ilgili deneyimlerinden yola çıkarak, görüşme süreci içerisinde kendilerine göre bir yapılandırmacılık tanımı ortaya koyabildikleri gözlenmiştir. bu tanımlardan birisi aşağıdadır. ezbere dayalı olmayan eğitim yaklaşımıdır. öğretmen, bu yaklaşımda yol göstericidir. öğrenci, kavradığı konuları unutmaz. öğrenci araştırıp sınıfta herkes düşüncesini özgürce açıkça söyleyebiliyordu. öğrenci, bu yaklaşımda yaparak, yaşayarak öğreniyor. kalıcı ve somut öğrenme ortamı sağlıyor. her şeyi kendisi yapıyor. pasif değil, aktif oluyor. (nö. 3) görüşmeler sürecinde öğretmenlerden sağlanan veriler doğrultusunda, onların yapılandırmacı öğrenme-öğretme yaklaşımına atfettikleri bazı niteliklerden yola çıkılarak oluşturulan tanım ise aşağıdadır. “yapılandırmacı yaklaşım, bilginin ezber ya da anlatım yoluyla aktarılmadığı, aksine öğrenmenin ve öğrenme yöntemlerinin nasıl öğretileceğinin ön planda olduğu; soru sormanın, sorgulamanın, düşünmenin, keşfetmenin, problem çözmenin, araştırma ve inceleme yapmanın, proje üretmenin, kısaca yaparak yaşayarak öğrenmenin esas ve dolayısıyla öğrenilenlerin daha somut ve kalıcı olduğu; öğretmenin bir rehber veya yol gösterici, öğrencilerin ise kendi öğrenmelerinden sorumlu olduğu; öğrencilerin her derse hazırlıklı geldiği, öğretmenin de sürekli olarak kendini yenileyip geliştirdiği; düşünmenin, yorum yapmanın ve fikirlerini açıkça ifade etmenin serbest olduğu; iyi ve donanımlı sınıflarda ve gürültülü bir ders ortamında, çeşitli araç-gereç ve teknolojilerin kullanılmasıyla gerçekleştirilen eğitim-öğretim faaliyetlerini ifade eder.” burada altı çizilmesi gereken nokta, katılımcı öğretmenlerin görüşlerinde yola çıkılarak oluşturulan yukarıdaki tanımlamanın ne grup olarak tüm katılımcılara, ne de tek bir öğretmene mal edilebileceği hususudur. çalışmanın ilerleyen bölümlerinde de ele alındığı gibi, öğretmenlerin neredeyse tamamı yapılandırmacı yaklaşım ve yeni programların gerektirdiği etkinlik ve uygulamalar hakkında kapsamlı bir eğitim gereksinimi duyduklarını ifade etmektedirler. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 32 sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı hakkındaki genel düşünceler katılımcı öğretmenlerin tüm ilköğretim programlarında ve sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında gerçekleştirilen değişikliklerle ilgili düşüncelerini iki başlık altında özetlemek mümkündür. öğretmenlerin önemli bir kısmı, genel olarak program değişikliklerini olumlu bulurken, bazıları da söz konusu değişiklikler hakkında olumsuz görüşler öne sürmüşlerdir. program değişiklikleri hakkındaki başlıca olumlu görüşler: “değişiklik önemli bir ihtiyaçtı, yapılan değişiklikler olumlu yönde, günlük planların kalkması güzel oldu, içerik ve yöntem eskiye göre daha iyi, karşılaşılan zorluklar zaman içerisinde ortadan kalkacaktır” düşünce ve gerekçelerinden oluşmaktadır. öğrencileri çeşitli alan, konu ve olaylardan haberdar etmesi; öğrencilerin, farklı türden kaynaklar aracılığı ile bilgiye ulaşıp, elde ettikleri bilgileri değerlendirme olanakları sağlaması; ve böylelikle onları ezbercilikten kurtarması yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının bazı olumlu özellikleri olarak öne çıkmaktadır. sosyal bilgiler programındaki değişiklikleri hoş karşılamayan katılımcıların öne sürdükleri en temel nedenler ise, okullarımızdaki donanım ve altyapı olanaklarının, yeni programı uygulamaya elverişli olmaması ile öğretmenlerimizin bir bölümün daha fazla çalışmaya, çaba göstermeye ve yeniliğe açık olmamasıdır. katılımcılar, bu yüzden yeni programın gereği gibi uygulanamayacağı endişesini dile getirmişlerdir. program değişiklikleri hakkındaki olumsuz bakış açısı ile ilgili en dikkat çekici gerekçe ise, söz konusu değişikliklerin dayandığı anlayışın, yabancı ülkelerden alınmış ve dolayısıyla bizim yapımıza uygun olmamasıdır. kültüre özgün değerlerin altını çizen bu perspektif, program değişikliği çalışmalarının sınırlı bir çevre ve çerçevede alındığını, türk eğitim sistemi‟nin mevcut altyapı imkanları ile ülkemizde eğitim ve öğretim faaliyetlerine atfedilen temel misyon ve değerlerin bazı durumlarda gözardı edildiği şeklinde değerlendirilebilir. bu düşünceyi benimseyen katılımcılardan biri görüşünü şöyle ifade etmiştir: ama kendi bünyemize uygun, bizi biz yapan değerlere yönelik bir eğitim olsa bence çok daha faydalı olur. yani milli eğitim dediğimiz sistemi milli eğitim olarak ele alacağız. başka milletlerin eğitiminden değil. tamam, başka milletlerden etkileneceksin, gelişmiş olan toplumları mutlaka inceleyeceksin ama onların bir şeklide bir iki yerini değiştirerek bize getirme değil. bizim değerlerimiz ile onların değerleri uymuyor. onların imkânları ile bizim imkânlarımız da aynı değil. (nö. 1) erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 33 buna rağmen, öğretmenlerin çoğunun yeni program hakkındaki umutlarını korudukları gözlenmiştir. programda ve uygulamada birçok aksaklık olduğunu dile getiren katılımcılar, öğretmen, öğrenci ve velilerin yeni program ve uygulamanın getirdiği farklı rol ve sorumluluklarını kavrayıp benimsemeleri durumunda yavaş yavaş da olsa bu zorlukların üstesinden gelineceğine inandıklarını belirtmişlerdir. diğer yandan dört katılımcı, 1985 ve 1993 yıllarında sosyal bilgiler öğretim programlarınada yapıldığı gibi zaman zaman gerçekleştirilen köklü program değişikliklerinin, öğretmen ve öğrencileri olumsuz etkilediğini belirtmişlerdir. bu öğretmenler, söz konusu değişikliklerle ilgili bir ülke politikasının belirlenmesi ve eğitim-öğretim sistemi kapsamında yer alan tüm unsurların görüş ve düşünceleri ışığı altında bu politikaların sürekli olarak gözden geçirilip, geliştirilmesi gerektiği önerisinde bulunmuşlardır. kendilerine eski ve yeni programlardan birini seçme ve uygulama şansı verildiği takdirde hangisini tercih edecekleri niteliğindeki soruya, onyedi öğretmen, yeni program şeklinde yanıt vermişlerdir. eski programı tercih edeceklerini bildiren beş katılımcının, bu görüşlerini herhangi bir gerekçeye dayandırmaya gereksinim duymadıkları görülmüştür. yapılan detaylı inceleme, bu grupta yer alan öğretmenlerin tarih veya coğrafya gibi alan ya da alan eğitimi kökenli olduklarını, meslek deneyimlerinin on yıl veya daha fazla olduğu, ve dolayısıyla sahip oldukları bilgiye ve bilgi aktarımına dayalı öğretmenlik formasyonlarının, onlara önemli ölçüde bir özgüven ve rahatlık sağladığını ortaya koymuştur. seçimini yeni programdan yana yapan katılımcılar ise buna gerekçe olarak adı geçen programların; …daha verimli bir öğretme-öğrenme ortamı sağladığını, sınıf içinde öğrencileri daha aktif hale getirdiğini ve onların ilgilerini çekip yaparak/yaşayarak öğrenmeye ve araştırmaya yönlendirdiğini, bu programların gereklerinin yerine getirilmesinin öğretmenler için daha kolay olduğunu ve bu doğrultuda gerçekleştirilen öğrenmelerin daha kalıcı olduğunu (nö. 2; nö. 5; aö. 4; aö. 5) ifade etmişlerdir. katılımcı öğretmenlerden birinin, programlarla ilgili aşağıdaki benzetmesi ilginç ve aynı zamanda anlamlıdır. eski programı konserlere benzetiyorum. öğretmen bir sanatçı gibi çıkar söyler. öğrenciler de seyirciler, dinleyiciler gibi öğretmeni dinler. şimdi ise sadece ses sanatçısı söylemiyor, öğrenciler de söylüyor ve katılıyor (aö. 5) katılımcıların, eski ve yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programlarını karşılaştırma bağlamında yaptıkları değerlendirmeler aşağıdaki tablo 1‟de sunulmuştur. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 34 tablo 1. eski ve yeni sosyal bilgiler programlarının karşılaştırılması eski program yeni program eski program çok basit gibi geliyor bana (nö. 4), öğretmen merkezli, öğretmenin konuşup öğrencinin dinlemesini esas alıyor bu program (aö. 7), öğretmen sınıfta yöneten ve bilgi aktaran konumunda (nö. 6), programdaki konular genellikle soyut bilgilerden oluşuyor (nö. 3), öğretilmesi de basit, tekrara ve ezbere dayalı (aö. 1), öğrenilmesi de aynı ölçüde kolay (aö.1) kazanımları zaman yetersizliğinden dolayı tam olarak aktaramıyoruz (aö. 1), öğrenci merkezli bir program, ders ortamında öğrenciler daha aktif, araştıran, sorgulayan rollerinde (aö.3), öğretmen, yöneten değil yönlendiren rolünde bir rehber (nö. 4), kazanımları zaman yetersizliğinden dolayı tam olarak aktaramıyoruz (aö. 2), yeni program öğrenci merkezli olarak hazırlanmış ama merkezde yine öğretmen var. öğretmene çok iş düşüyor (aö. 3), öğrenmede birden fazla duyu organı kullanımı, ele alınan konuların daha kalıcı olarak öğrenilmesini sağlıyor (nö. 3), program içeriği, daha açık, anlaşılır, kapsamlı somut konu ve temalardan oluşuyor (nö. 6), i̇çerikte yer alan kavramlar netleştirilmiş ve azaltılmış aö. 4), öğrencilerin dikkat ve ilgisini çeken görsel ve güncel ögelere yeterince yer verilmiş (nö. 6), bu program aynı zamanda bahane üretmeye de çok uygun bir program. öğretmen imkan ve kaynaklarının yeterli olmadığını, yetiştiremediğini söyleyebilir (nö. 5) tablo 1‟de görüldüğü üzere öğretmenlerin önemli bir kısmı programları karşılaştırırken, eski programın olumsuz yanlarına, yeni programın ise olumlu özelliklerine değinmişlerdir. az sayıda katılımcının, yeni program ve uygulaması hakkında olumsuz düşünceler ortaya koyduklarını da ifade etmek gerekiyor. bu düşüncelerin, özellikle yeni programın içeriği ile öğretmenlerin bu program hakkında yeterli bir altyapı ve eğitimden yoksun olmalarından kaynaklandığı söylenebilir. programda sunulan içerikle ilgili görüş ve öneriler yürürlükten kaldırılan eski sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının soyut bilgilerden oluşan yoğun bir içeriğe sahip olduğunu belirten katılımcılar, çok daha fazla erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 35 konuyu ele almasına rağmen içerik olarak yeni programı, daha tutarlı ve olumlu bulduklarını ifade etmişlerdir. yeni programdaki bilgi yoğunluğunun azaltıldığına dikkat çeken öğretmenler, içerikte yer alan konuların öğrencilerin günlük yaşamlarında gereksinim duyacakları konulardan oluşturulmasını kayda değer bir özellik olarak değerlendirmişlerdir. öğrencilerin bu özelliği nedeniyle, yeni programda yer alan içeriği daha kolay anlayıp, kavradıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. araştırma bulguları, yukarıdaki yer alan olumlu görüşlerin yanı sıra, program içeriği ile ilgili bazı problemler olduğuna da dikkat çekmektedir. bunların başlıcaları: konu sayısı ve içerik bilgisinin çok yoğun olması; konular arasındaki bağlantıların yeterince iyi kurulamamış olması; bazı konuların ele alınış yönteminin öğrenci seviyesine göre yüksek, bazılarının ise düşük olması; bazı kavramların öğrenci seviyesine göre ağır olması ve bu kavramları öğretmek için yeterli süre ve araç-gerece ulaşma sorunları; ve eski programda dördüncü ve beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler derslerinde yer verilen bazı konular ile yedinci ve sekizinci sınıf vatandaşlık bilgisi konularının altıncı ve yedinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler programı kapsamına aktarılmasının getirdiği ders süresi sıkıntısıdır. katılımcıların tamamının dikkat çektiği, ders süresinin, programda belirtilen konuların öğretimi ve istenilen etkinliklerin gerçekleştirilmesi için yetersiz olduğu sorunu, öğretmenlerimizin yeni program ve bunların altyapısını oluşturan yapılandırmacı yaklaşım ile bu doğrultuda gerçekleştirilecek öğretim etkinlikleri hakkındaki bilgi ve deneyim eksiklerine bağlanabilir. bunun yanı sıra, bir katılımcının; benim çözümüm şu: ders kitabını yazanların kendileri derse girerek, konuları tek tek işleyip sürelerin etkinliklerle uyumlu olmasını kontrol etmesi gerekir. sürenin kesinlikle ayarlanması lazım. (aö. 1) şeklinde ifade ettiği gibi öğretmenlerimizin hala ders kitaplarını esas alan ve ders kitabını uygulamanın bir rehberi veya şablonu olarak gören yaklaşımları da üzerinde düşünülmesi gereken bir problem olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. bu durum aynı zamanda, öğrencilerin etkin katılımını esas alan, sınıf ortamında dersin gidişatını ve öğretme-öğrenme etkinliklerini düzenlemede öğretmen ve öğrencilere yetki ve sorumluluk verilmesini öngören yapılandırmacı yaklaşım ile türk eğitim sistemi‟ndeki merkeziyetçi yapı ve anlayış arasındaki temel çelişkinin altını çizmesi bakımından da önemlidir. kazanım ve etkinlikler hakkındaki görüşler journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 36 bulgular, yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının temel unsurlarından biri olan kazanımların, öğretmenler tarafından anlaşılıp benimsendiğini göstermektedir. katılımcıların bir kısmı, sayı ve nitelik olarak program kazanımlarını yerinde görürken, diğerleri bazı kazanımlarla ilgili sorunlara işaret etmişlerdir. kazanımların, programda sunulan bilgi ve becerileri belirginleştirdiği ve öğretmenlerle öğrencilere bu konuda önemli bir rehberlik hizmeti sağladığı; böylece hem öğretmeni daha etkili hale getirdiği hem de ders sırasında öğrencileri etkin bir şekilde yönlendirmelerine yardımcı olduğu ifade edilmiştir. programda yer alan kazanımların çoğu öğrenci seviyesine uygun bulunurken, bazılarının uygun olmadığı dile getirilmiştir. bazı katılımcılar ise kazanım sayısının çok fazla olduğunu; bunun da özellikle derse ayrılan sürenin kısıtlı olmasından kaynaklandığını belirtmişlerdir. bazı öğretmenlerin dile getirdiği “program kazanımları ve bunlarla ilgili açıklamaların öğrenciler tarafından anlaşılamıyor” şikayetinin yeni programın yaklaşımının henüz kavranamamasından kaynaklanan bir yanlış anlama olduğu söylenebilir. çünkü, söz konusu kazanım ifadeleri ve açıklamalar öğrenciler için değil, öğretmenler için hazırlanmıştır. kazanımlarla ilgili olarak öne çıkan bir başka problem ise, bazı kazanımlar ile programda belirtilen içerik ve etkinlikler arasında bir ilişki kurmanın zorluğudur. öğretmenlerden dördü, bu türden güçlükleri aşmak için çeşitli uygulamalar yaptıklarını belirtmişlerdir. fakat, burada konu edilen sorunun, program kazanımları ile içeriği arasındaki tutarsızlıktan ziyade, bazı ders kitaplarındaki yetersizliklerden kaynaklandığını belirtmekte fayda vardır. bir görüşmeden alınan aşağıda ifade bu çıkarımı destekler niteliktedir. mesela türkiye’ye katkıda bulunmuş ünlü kişiler diye bir konu var. o konuyu okuyan öğrenciler, o verilen kişilerin hayatlarını sanki öğretmen yazılıda soracakmış ve öğrenecekmişiz gibi algılıyor. ama kazanımı biz veriyoruz. kazanım ne? mesela oradan yola çıkarak öğrenciye ülkeye katkıda bulunmanın önemini veya nasıl katkıda bulunuruz bunun yolunu göstermek. ama öğrenci ona baktığında o kazanımı eğer biz olmazsak bilemeyecek. orda sadece konu içerisinde geçen bilgileri bilmemiz gerekiyormuş gibi geliyor. ve ona bakarak diyecek ki türkiye’yi dört tane adam idare ediyormuş veya dört tane adam tanıtıyormuş gibi gelecek. geçen sene bir kişiydi, i̇zzet baysal. allah’tan bu sene değiştirmişler dört beş kişi koymuşlar. öğrenci bana bunu soruyordu, hocam i̇zzet baysal’ın hayatını soracak mısınız diye. ha, ben oradan yola çıkarak anlatmaya, vermeye çalışıyorum ama öğrenci kitaba çalıştığı için sanki öğretmen başka bir şey istiyormuş gibi düşünce var yani. (nö. 4) erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 37 bilindiği üzere yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı, ders kapsamında yer alan içeriğin doğrudan aktarımını değil, yukarıda ele alınan program kazanımlarının gerçekleştirilmesi doğrultusunda, öğrencilerin katılımını esas alan bir anlayış çerçevesinde hazırlanan etkinlikler aracılığı ile öğretilmesini öngörmektedir. bu doğrultuda hazırlanan etkinliklerin bazı örnekleri program kitabında yer aldığı gibi, bu doğrultuda hazırlanan ders ve öğrenci çalışma kitaplarının da birçok etkinlik örneği ortaya koyarak öğretmenlere kılavuzluk etmesi düşünülmüştür. bu husustaki görüşleri sorulan öğretmenlerin yalnızca altısı söz konusu etkinlikleri derslerinde yapabildiklerini belirtmişlerdir. programda öngörülen etkinliklerin sayıca fazla ve çok zaman gerektiriyor olmasına rağmen, ders saatlerinin kısıtlılığı ve görev yaptıkları okulların uygulamanın gerektirdiği donanıma sahip olmaması nedeniyle etkinlikleri layıkıyla gerçekleştiremediklerini ifade eden birçok katılımcı, bu yüzden öğrencilerini ders dışı saatlerde çalışmaya ve internete yönlendirdiklerini söylemişlerdir. bu sorunlara ilaveten, aile ve sosyal çevrenin öğrencilerin ders dışı zamanlarda çalışarak söz konusu etkinlikleri gerçekleştirmelerine yardımcı olmadıkları belirtilmiştir. bu nedenle, programda yer alan etkinliklerin sosyo ekonomik çevre ve okulun olanakları gözetilerek seçimlik hale getirilmesi önerilmiştir. katılımcı öğretmenler ayrıca, bazı etkinliklerin program kazanımlarına uygun olmadığı ve dolayısıyla gözden geçirilmeleri gerektiği uyarısında bulunmuşlardır. yeni programa göre hazırlanan ders kitapları ve araç-gereçler öğretmenlerin yeni program doğrultusunda hazırlanan ders kitapları, öğretmen kılavuz kitapları ve öğrenci çalışma kitapları hakkındaki düşünceleri görüşmelerde ele alınan bir diğer konudur. katılımcılar, üç türden kitap hakkında hem olumlu hem de olumsuz görüşler ortaya koymuşlardır. yeni ders ve öğrenci çalışma kitaplarını olumlu bulan öğretmenler, bu kitaplardaki konu anlatım tarz ve yönteminin eskisine göre farklı ve daha iyi olduğunu, daha iyi tasarlandıklarını, içerikte yer alan görsel ögelerin daha etkili olduğunu ve özellikle resimlerin öğrenci gözüyle ele alındığını; kitaplarda yer alan yönlendirici ifadelerin açık ve anlaşılır olduğunu ve çalışma kitaplarında sunulan etkinliklerin çok faydalı bulduklarını belirtmişlerdir. program değişikliği ile birlikte gündeme gelen öğretmen kılavuz kitaplarını, beğeniyle karşıladıklarını ifade eden birçok katılımcı bu kitapları, derslerini planlamada kendilerine yol göstermeleri ve işlenen konuyla ilgili örnekleri kolayca bulmalarını journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 38 sağlamaları açısından çok yararlı bulduklarını söylemişlerdir. öğretmenler, her ne kadar tavsiye edilen ek kaynakların tamamına ulaşamasalar da, kılavuz kitapların önemli işlevler gördüğünü belirtmektedirler. kendilerine sağlanan kitapları değerlendiren katılımcılardan birinin; bize verilen her üç kitap da birbirine uyuyor ve birbirini bütünlüyor. öğretmen kılavuz kitabı gerçekten faydalı oluyor. çalışma kitabı da çocukların o etkinliklerini bir şekilde bir doküman haline getirmesi için katkılı oluyor. (aö. 3) şeklindeki ifadesi, öğretmenlerin söz konusu kaynaklar arasında bir uyum ve bütünlük olduğunu düşündüklerini göstermektedir. katılımcılar yeni ders, çalışma ve kılavuz kitapları hakkındaki bu olumlu görüşlerin yanı sıra çeşitli eleştiri ve öneriler de dile getirmişlerdir. bu kitaplarla ilgili başlıca eleştiriler, içerikte yer alan bilgilerin az (yetersiz) olması; bilgi ve yazım hatalarının bulunması; bazı konulardaki örnek sayısının yetersizliği; kitaplarda, merkezi sınavlarda sorulan çoktan seçmeli sorulara yeterince yer verilmemesi; kılavuz ve çalışma kitaplarında yer alan performans görevlerinin öğrencilerin seviyesine uygun olmaması; ve kılavuz kitapların yeterince yol gösterici olmamasıdır. öğretmenlerin her üç türden kitap hakkındaki önerileri ise, kitaplarda daha fazla görsel ögeye (detaylı haritalar gibi) yer verilmesi; ders kitaplarının sonunda yer alan sözlüğün genişletilmesi; kitaplara çoktan seçmeli sorulardan oluşan testler eklenmesi; öğretmen kılavuz kitaplarının içerik bilgisi boyutunun genişletilerek yönlendirici ifadelerin artırılması ve bu kitaplara cd ortamında görsel materyaller eklenmesi yönündedir. öğretmenlerin kitaplar hakkındaki önerileri onların, yeni programı ve yeni öğrenme-öğretme anlayışını olumlu bulup benimsediklerini ifade etmelerine rağmen, hala ders kitabı merkezli bir anlayışa bağlı kaldıklarını göstermektedir. katılımcı öğretmenlerini bazılarının sınıflarında gerçekleştirilen gözlemlerde bu yargıyı doğrular niteliktedir. ders kitabı merkezli öğretimi benimseyen öğretmenlerin, öğretmen kılavuz kitaplarını beğeniyle karşılamaları ve bu kitapların yönlendirici özellikleri ile materyal boyutunun geliştirilmesi yönündeki önerileri her ne kadar tutarlı ve haklı görülebilirse de yeni programın uygulama boyutunun üzerinde durulması gereken bir problemine dikkat çekmektedir. yeni programın etkili bir şekilde uygulanmasının temel gereklerinden bir olan araç-gereç ve teknoloji kullanımı, öğretmenlerin çok sorun yaşadıkları bir alan olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. bu konuda değinilen en önemli sorun, bütün okullarda erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 39 bulunması gereken teknolojik donanım ile araç-gereçlere (bilgisayar, projeksiyon cihazı, tepegöz, cd, vcd gibi) yalnızca il ve ilçe merkezlerinin belirli sosyo-ekonomik düzeye sahip kesimlerinde yer alan okullarda ulaşılabilmesi, periferide kalan okullarda basit haritalara bile ulaşmanın güç olmasıdır. çalışmanın ortaya koyduğu bu veri, yıllardan beri bu sorun üzerinde çalışıldığını ifade eden meb politikalarının henüz bir sonuç vermediğini göstermektedir. bu konuda dile getirilen bir diğer problem ise öğretmenlerin teknolojiyi kullanma konusunda yeterli bilgi ve beceriye sahip olmadığıdır. katılımcıların, teknolojik donanım ve araç-gereç kullanımıyla ilgili sorunların giderilmesi noktasında ortaya koydukları öneriler, yerleşim yerleri ve okullar arası farklılıkların giderilmesi; araç-gereç çeşitliliğinin artırılması; her okula bütün teknolojik donanıma, araç-gerece ve internet bağlantısına sahip bir sosyal bilgiler sınıfı kurulması; ve okul dışı öğretim etkinliklerine önem verilmesi hususlarını kapsamaktadır. yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının ölçme-değerlendirme yaklaşımı yeni programla birlikte gündeme gelen en önemli değişiklikler şüphesiz ölçme ve değerlendirme alanında olmuştur. bu konudaki değişiklikleri, daha objektif ve kapsamlı bir ölçme-değerlendirme yaklaşımı sunması ve öğrencileri araştırma incelemeye sevk etmesi bakımından olumlu bulan katılımcılar, buna rağmen en büyük zorlukları da bu alanda yaşadıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. ölçme-değerlendirme konusunda karşılaşılan güçlükleri üç kısımda ele almak mümkündür. birinci kısımdaki güçlükler öğretmenlerle ilgili olanlardır. öğretmenler, yeni programın ölçme-değerlendirme anlayışına yabancı olduklarını, bu konuda eğitim almadıklarını, bu yüzden de adaptasyon sorunları yaşadıklarını ifade etmektedir. dile getirilen bir diğer sorun ise, yeni programla birlikte gündeme gelen proje ve performans görevlerinin kendileri için önemli bir külfet oluşturduğudur. kalabalık sınıf mevcutları ile kısıtlı ders saatlerinin, söz konusu ölçme-değerlendirme etkinliklerini layıkıyla uygulamayı ve denetlemeyi güçleştiriyor olması durumu, elde edilen bir başka bulgudur. katılımcıların görüşleri doğrultusunda ulaşılan verilerin gösterdiği ikinci kısım güçlükler öğrencilerle ilgili olanlardır. öğretmenlere göre, ilköğretim öğrencileri yeni programların gerektirdiği ölçme-değerlendirme etkinliklerini yerine getirebilecek kapasiteye sahip değildirler. i̇şbirlikli öğrenme konusunda her hangi bir ön deneyimi journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 40 olmayan öğrenciler, kendilerinden beklenen grup çalışmalarını yapamamaktadırlar. yine programda öngörülen proje çalışmaları da öğrencilerin gelişim ve hazırbulunuşluk seviyeleri ile sahip oldukları sosyo-ekonomik altyapıya uygun bulunmamaktadır. öğrencilerin özellikle yoruma dayalı değerlendirme soruları karşısında bocalamaları bu durumun bir kanıtı olarak değerlendirilmektedir. ayrıca, proje çalışmaları ve performans görevlerinin bütün dersler için söz konusu olması, öğrenciler açısından adı geçen güçlükleri iyice artıran bir durum olarak görülmektedir. ölçme-değerlendirme konusunda karşılaşılan diğer güçlükler ise, okul ve sınıfa ait gerçekler ile programın kuramsal boyutu arasındaki farktan kaynaklananlardır. bazı öğretmenler proje ve performans görevlerinin, gerçekçi bir değerlendirme yapmaya uygun olmadığını belirtirken, bazıları da ünite konuları kapsamında yer alan ölçme değerlendirme etkinlikleriyle, ünite sonundaki değerlendirme sorularının içerik ve biçim olarak bir birinden farklı olduğunu ifade etmişlerdir. burada söz edilen durumlar, öğretmenlerin henüz yeni programın yaklaşımını benimseyemediklerini ve hala ders kitabı merkezli bir anlayışla öğretime devam ettikleri sorununun altını yeniden çizmektedir. bu kısımda yer alan bir başka sorun da, öğrenci etkinliklerinin rubriklerde (derecelendirilmiş puanlama anahtarları) yer alan ölçütler doğrultusunda değerlendirilmesi durumunda öğrenci başarısının çok düşük çıkması olgusudur. bu sorunu bir katılımcı şöyle ifade ediyor: projelerin sunum gözlem formu, işte değerlendirme formu, onları uyguluyorum. ama çoğunlukla kağıt üstünde kalıyor. yani öğrenci bana performans getiriyor. i̇ki sayfalık bir performans. yazmış kurşun kalemle ve düzene uymamış. şimdi ben öğrenciye o yaptığı şeyden dolayı proje veya performans değerlendirme ölçeğine baktığımızda açıkçası düşük not vermek gerekir. ama alttaki o hesaplama işini kendim yapıyorum. o da biraz kağıt üzerinde kalıyormuş gibi geliyor bana. dolayısıyla ben değerlendirmeyi öğrencinin daha önceki durumuna ve davranışına göre yapıyorum. (nö. 3) yukarıdaki alıntı yeni programın ölçme-değerlendirme yaklaşımıyla ilgili olarak yaşanan sorunların farklı boyutlarını ortaya koyması açısından önemlidir. bu bağlamda yer alan bir başka problem ise özellikle kaliteli olarak nitelenebilecek okullarda görev yapan öğretmenlerce dile getirilen sbs gibi merkezi sınavlarda çıkan/çıkabilecek sorular ile programlarda yer alan değerlendirme aktiviteleri arasındaki uyumsuzluktur. bu türden sınavların öğrenciler, öğretmenler ve veliler için önemli bir kaygı erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 41 oluşturduğunu dile getiren katılımcılar, bunun hem ders sürecini olumsuz etkilediğini hem de okulda yapılan sınavları yönlendirdiğini belirtmişlerdir. merkezi sınavlar çoğunlukla edinilmiş bilgiyi sorgularken, programda yer alan değerlendirme etkinlikleri öğrenme sürecini ve bu süreçte kazanılması umulan becerileri ölçmeye yöneliktir. katılımcılar, bu hususta bir ortak noktanın bulunması ve iki değerlendirme durumu arasında bir uyum sağlanması gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir. katılımcıların ölçme-değerlendirme konusunda dile getirdikleri bir diğer öneri ise, bu etkinliklerin gereği gibi uygulanabilmesi için öğretmenlere hem ölçme-değerlendirme hem de bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri konularında eğitim verilmesidir. yeni programın öğretmen profili ve öğretmen eğitimi görüşmelerde ele alınan konulardan biri de yeni program doğrultusunda sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine sunulan hizmetiçi eğitimin niceliği ve niteliğine yöneliktir. araştırmaya katılan yirmi iki öğretmenden on beşi yeni programlar hakkında bir hafta ya da daha kısa süreli, üçü ise iki haftalık hizmetiçi eğitim aldığını belirtmiştir. dört katılımcı ise bu konuda her hangi bir eğitim faaliyetine katılmadıklarını ifade etmişlerdir ki bunun nedeni, bu katılımcıların meslekteki ilk yıllarında olmalarıdır. hizmetiçi eğitim etkinliklerini değerlendiren katılımcılar, verilen eğitimin kısa süreli olduğunu ve yetersiz kaldığını kaydetmişlerdir. öğretmenlere göre onlara hizmetiçi eğitimi sunan kişiler (çoğunlukla müfettişler) de konuya hakim değildirler. dolayısıyla, yeni program doğrultusunda sağlanan hizmetiçi eğitim seminerlerinde yalnızca program değişikliğine neden gerek duyulduğu ve yeni programın temel felsefesi konularına değinildiğini belirtmişlerdir. bu konuda çok daha kapsamlı bir eğitime gereksinim duyduklarını ifade eden katılımcılar, hizmetiçi eğitimin öğretmenlerin iş yükü ve eğitim öğretim yılı takvimi göz önünde bulundurularak özenli bir şekilde planlanması gerektiğinin altını çizmişlerdir. ayrıca, kendilerine sağlanacak eğitim faaliyetlerinin, müfettişler ya da formatör öğretmenlerce değil akademisyenler tarafından sunulmasını ve özellikle sınıf içi etkinliklere yönelik ve uygulama ağırlıklı olmasını önermişlerdir. burada öğretmenlerin, öğretim yöntem ve tekniklerini, ders konularıyla ilgili materyal hazırlamanın yollarını ve ölçme değerlendirme etkinliklerinin tasarım ve uygulamasını kapsayan uygulamalı hizmetiçi eğitim aktivitelerine ihtiyaç duyduklarını belirtmek gerekiyor. katılımcılar, hizmet öncesi öğretmen eğitiminde (lisans veya tezsiz yüksek journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 42 lisans) de bu hususlara özen gösterilmesi gerektiğini ifade etmişlerdir. bunun yanı sıra, ihtiyaç duyan öğretmenlere alan bilgisine yönelik kurslar verilmesi de özellikle tarih ya da coğrafya gibi sosyal bilimlerin bir disiplininde gelen katılımcılar tarafından gündeme getirilmiştir. bu durum, kendi alanlarını iyi bilen bazı öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında bulunan diğer disiplinlere dair alan bilgisi eğitimine ihtiyaç duyduklarını göstermektedir. yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının uygulanmaya başlaması ile birlikte öğretmenlerin iş yüklerinin arttığını dile getiren katılımcılar, bu soruna makul bir çözüm bulunması gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir. bir görüşmeden alınan aşağıdaki pasaj, hem bu soruna hem de son dönemlerde itibarı ve saygınlığı azalan öğretmenlik mesleğinin durumuna dikkat çekmektedir. …öğretmenin saygınlığının kazandırılması gerekiyor. öğretmenin evrak öğretmenliğinden kurtarılması lazım. bir öğretmen kendini yetiştiriyor mu? öğretmenliğe başladığı yıl ile beş yıl sonra, on yıl sonra arasında bilgi bakımından acaba hep aynı yerde mi? şimdi mesela buradan çıkıp kahveye gidip akşama kadar oyun oynuyorsa ya da ben öğretmenim işte müfettiş gelecek, müdür gelecek diye ben evrak öğretmenliği yapıyorsam benim iyi öğretmenliğimin kötü öğretmenliğimin ne önemi kalacak. yani gerçekten öğretmenin üzerinde çok aşırı yükler var. i̇şte kutlamalar var, en basitinden bir kulüpte bir sürü yapacak çalışmalar var. hangi sistem daha iyiden buraya geldik. bence işte başarılı öğretmenlerin ayırt edilmesi lazım. (nö. 8) her ne kadar mesleğin toplumsal statüsü üzerinde doğrudan bir etkisi olmasa da yeni program ve yeni eğitim-öğretim anlayışının geleneksel öğretmen imaj ve profilini değiştirdiği, araştırma kapsamında ulaşılan bir başka bulgudur. katılımcılara göre yeni programın ideal sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni, genel kültür sahibi, gündemi ve güncel konuları takip eden, yorum gücüne sahip, lider, mesleğini seven, sürekli olarak kendini yenileyen, aktif ve yönlendirici, araştıran, araştırmayı ve bilgiye ulaşmanın yollarını bilen, teknolojiyi kullanabilen ve proje hazırlayabilen, öğrencilerinin seviyesine inebilen, öğrenci özelliklerinin farkında olan ve bireysel farklılıkları dikkate alan ve bir akademisyen gibi profesyonelce düşünüp davranabilen biridir. yeni programın uygulanmasının öğrenci ve veliler üzerindeki etkisi görüşmelerde ele alınan konulardan bir de yeni program doğrultusunda gerçekleştirilen uygulamaların, öğrenci tutumları üzerindeki etkisi hakkındadır. katılımcıların bir bölümü öğrencilerinde her hangi bir değişiklik gözlemediklerini ifade ederken, bazıları ise öğrencilerinde önemli değişikler gördüklerini söylemiştir. öğrencilerin derse ve okula karşı olan tutumlarında bir değişme olmadığını belirten ve erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 43 daha çok taşra olarak nitelendirilebilecek yerleşim yerlerindeki okullarda görev yapan öğretmenler bu durumu, öğrencilerin okula karşı genel kayıtsızlığına, öğrenmelerinin önemli bir kısmını okul dışındaki sosyal çevre ve televizyon karşısında gerçekleştiriyor olmalarına ve sbs türü merkezi sınavlara bağlamaktadırlar. öğrencilerinin tutumlarının yeni programla birlikte değiştiğini düşünen öğretmenler ise, bu değişmenin çoğunlukla olumlu yönde gerçekleştiğini belirtmişlerdir. öğrencilerinin derse ve okula karşı ilgilerinin artığını belirten bu gruptaki öğretmenlere göre bu görüşlerinin en açık delili, yeni programa göre öğrenim gören altıncı ve yedinci sınıf öğrencileri ile eski programa göre eğitim alan sekizinci sınıf öğrencilerin (uygulamanın yapıldığı dönemde) tutumları arasında farktır. yeni programın uygulandığı sınıflardaki öğrencilerin derslerde daha aktif oldukları, konuşmak ve daha çok soru sormak için sürekli söz almak istedikleri ve bu öğrencilerin özgüvenlerinin daha yüksek olduğu dile getirilmiştir. yeni programın devreye girmesiyle birlikte artık öğrenci velilerinin de çocuklarının öğrenme ve eğitim öğretim etkinliklerini gerçekleştirme sorumluluklarını paylaşmaları gerektiği öğretmenlerce dile getirilen bir başka husustur. fakat, eğitim seviyesine göre değişmekle birlikte, velilerin önemli bir kısmının böyle bir bilince sahip olmadığı; bilinçli olanların da gerçekten ne yapmaları gerektiğini henüz kavrayamadıkları öğretmenler tarafından ifade edilmiştir. veliye, çocuğa vermiş olduğumuz ödevlere katkıda bulunacaksın; proje, performans ödevlerine yardımcı olacaksın dediğimiz zaman o sanıyor ki ödevleri ben yapacağım. kendisi hazırlıyor çocuğun performans ödevini, bir de bozulur diye ona vermiyor, kendisi getiriyor. (nö. 3) yukarıdaki alıntıda da açıkça görüldüğü üzere veliler, her ne kadar çocuklarına destek olmak isteseler de bunu nasıl yapacaklarını, öğrencilerine nasıl yardımcı olacaklarını henüz anlayamamışlardır. bu konuda onlara da bir eğitim sunulması gerektiği araştırmada ulaşılan bir diğer bulgudur. tartışma ve sonuç araştırma kapsamında elde edilen bulgular doğrultusunda aşağıdaki sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır. görüşülen öğretmenlerin tamamı, yeni programın temel felsefesini oluşturan yapılandırmacı öğrenme-öğretme yaklaşımı hakkında bir eğitim almadıklarını; katıldıkları hizmet içi eğitim seminerlerinde konuya çok az değinildiğini ve bu konuda her hangi bir kitap ya da makale okumadıklarını dile getirmişlerdir. öğretmenlerin journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 44 neredeyse tamamı yapılandırmacı yaklaşım ve yeni programın gerektirdiği etkinlik ve uygulamalar hakkında kapsamlı bir eğitim gereksinimi duyduklarını ifade etmektedirler. program değişikliğini olumlayan öğretmenler bu kanaatlerine dayanak olarak yeni programın öğrencileri çeşitli alan, konu ve olaylardan haberdar etmesi; öğrencilerin, farklı türden kaynaklar aracılığı ile bilgiye ulaşıp, elde ettikleri bilgileri değerlendirme olanakları sağlaması ve böylelikle onları ezbercilikten kurtarması gibi özellikleri öne çıkarmaktadır. gömleksiz ve bulut‟un (2006) ve aykaç ve başar‟ın (2005) araştırmalarında da konuların yaşamla daha iç içe olduğu ve ezberden uzak olduğu vurgulanmıştır. sosyal bilgiler öğretim programındaki değişiklikleri hoş karşılamayan katılımcıların öne sürdükleri en temel nedenler ise, okullarımızdaki donanım ve altyapı olanaklarının, yeni programı uygulamaya elverişli olmaması ile öğretmenlerimizin bir bölümün daha fazla çalışmaya, çaba göstermeye ve yeniliğe açık olmamasıdır. katılımcı öğretmenlerin çoğunluğu kendilerine eski ve yeni programlardan birini seçme ve uygulama şansı verildiği takdirde yeni programı tercih edeceklerini belirtmiştir. elde edilen bulgular, katılımcıların yoğun olarak eski programın olumsuz yanlarına, yeni programın ise olumlu özelliklerine değindiklerini göstermektedir. bir kaç katılımcının, yeni program ve uygulaması hakkında olumsuz düşünceler ortaya koyduklarını da ifade etmek gerekiyor. bu düşüncelerin, programın içeriği ile öğretmenlerin bu program hakkında yeterli bir altyapı ve eğitimden yoksun olmalarından kaynaklandığı söylenebilir. katılımcılar, çok daha fazla konuyu ele almasına rağmen içerik olarak yeni programı, daha tutarlı ve olumlu bulduklarını ifade etmişlerdir. yeni programdaki bilgi yoğunluğunun azaltıldığına dikkat çeken öğretmenler, içerikte yer alan konuların öğrencilerin günlük yaşamlarında gereksinim duyacakları konulardan oluşturulmasını kayda değer bir özellik olarak değerlendirmişlerdir. öğrencilerin bu özeliği nedeniyle, yeni programda yer alan içeriği daha kolay anlayıp, kavradıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. bu sonuç doğanay ve sarı‟nın (2008) adana‟daki sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleriyle yaptıkları çalışmanın bulguları ile örtüşmektedir. bulgular ayrıca program içeriği ile ilgili bazı problemler olduğuna da dikkat çekmektedir. bunların başlıcaları: konu sayısı ve içeriğin çok yoğun olması; konular arasındaki bağlantıların yeterince iyi kurulamamış olması; bazı konuların ele alınış erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 45 yönteminin öğrenci seviyesine göre yüksek, bazılarının ise düşük olması; bazı kavramların öğrenci seviyesine göre ağır olması ve bu kavramları öğretmek için yeterli süre ve araç-gerece ulaşma sorunları; ve eski programda dördüncü ve beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler derslerinde yer verilen bazı konular ile yedinci ve sekizinci sınıf vatandaşlık bilgisi konularının altıncı ve yedinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler programı kapsamına aktarılmasının getirdiği ders süresi sıkıntısıdır. öğretmenler, öğrenme – öğretme süreciyle ilgili en olumsuz buldukları yönleri, etkinlikler için gereken sınıf koşulları, materyal ve maddi olanakların sınırlı olması ve zaman sorunu olarak genel olarak belirtmişlerdir. doğanay ve sarı (2008) ile aykaç ve başar‟ın (2005) araştırmalarında da benzer şekilde, etkinliklerin öğrenci merkezli ve öğrenci ilgisini çekiyor olmasına karşın materyal ve kaynakların yetersiz olduğu, belirtilmiştir. canerik‟in (2005) sosyal bilgiler programının değerlendirilmesiyle ilgili çalışmasında da materyallere ulaşma ve kullanma ile ilgili sıkıntılar dile getirilmiştir. yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının temel unsurlarından biri olan kazanımların, öğretmenler tarafından anlaşılıp benimsendiğini ulaşılan bir diğer sonuçtur. katılımcıların bir kısmı, sayı ve nitelik olarak program kazanımlarını yerinde görürken, diğerleri bazı kazanımlarla ilgili sorunlara işaret etmişlerdir. programda öngörülen etkinliklerin sayıca fazla ve çok zaman gerektiriyor olmasına rağmen, ders saatlerinin kısıtlılığı ve okullarımızın uygulamanın gerektirdiği donanım olanaklarına sahip olmamasından dolayı etkinliklerin layıkıyla gerçekleştirilemediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. doğanay‟ın (2008) çağdaş sosyal bilgiler program yaklaşımlarına göre türkiye‟deki sosyal bilgiler programını incelediği araştırmasında da benzer bir sonuca, kazanımların ifade edilmesinde amaç yazım kurallarına tam dikkat edilmediği kanaatine varılmıştır. programda kavram, beceri ve değer boyutlarında listelenen içeriğin önerilen etkinliklerle nasıl kazandırılacağı açık ve net olmadığı sonucu da bu araştırmanın sonuçlarıyla paraleldir. yeni ders ve öğrenci çalışma kitaplarını olumlu bulan öğretmenler, bu kitaplardaki konu anlatım tarz ve yönteminin eskisine göre farklı ve daha iyi olduğunu; daha iyi tasarlandığını; içerikte yer alan görsel öğelerin daha etkili olduğunu ve özellikle resimlerin öğrenci gözüyle ele alındığını; kitaplarda yer alan yönlendirici ifadelerin açık ve anlaşılır olduğunu ve çalışma kitaplarında sunulan etkinliklerin çok faydalı olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. taş, (2007) yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programına göre hazırlanmış journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 46 meb tarafından basılmış yeni sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarını tasarım, görsel düzen ve fiziksel yapı bakımından öğretmenlerin genel olarak olumlu bulduğunu ifade etmiştir. bu çalışmada görüşlerine başvurulan katılımcılar da yeni ders, çalışma ve kılavuz kitapları hakkındaki bu olumlu görüşlerin yanı sıra çeşitli eleştiri ve öneriler de dile getirmişlerdir. meb tarafından 2008 yılında düzenlenen sosyal bilgiler program ve ders kitaplarının değerlendirilmesi çalıştayında da sorunlar geniş katılımlı bir atmosferde tartışılmıştır. yeni programla birlikte gündeme gelen en önemli değişiklikler şüphesiz ölçme ve değerlendirme alanında olmuştur. bu konudaki değişiklikleri, daha objektif ve kapsamlı bir ölçme-değerlendirme yaklaşımı sunması ve öğrencileri araştırma incelemeye sevk etmesi bakımından olumlu bulan katılımcılar, buna rağmen en büyük zorlukları da bu alanda yaşadıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. aykaç ve başar‟ın (2005) araştırmalarında görüşülen öğretmenler de en büyük sıkıntının değerlendirme boyutunda yaşandığını belirtmişlerdir. gömleksiz ve bulut‟un (2005) araştırmalarında da, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin değerlendirme boyutunu daha olumsuz buldukları ortaya çıkmıştır. yine doğanay ve sarı‟nın (2008) da bu görüşlere paralel sonuçlara ulaştıkları anlaşılmıştır. hizmetiçi eğitim etkinliklerini değerlendiren katılımcılar, verilen eğitimin kısa süreli olduğunu ve yetersiz kaldığını kaydetmişlerdir. bu bulgu, hem doğanay ve sarı‟nın (2008), hem canerik‟in (2005) hem de aykaç ve başar‟ın (2005) araştırmalarında da ortaya çıkan ortak bir sonuçtur. yukarıdaki sonuçlar ışığında yapılabilecek öneriler ise şöyle ifade edilebilir. öğretmenler ve öğrenci velileri program hakkında yeteri kadar bilgilendirilmelidir. bu da hizmet içi eğitim seminerlerinin sürekliliğini gerekli kılabilir. böylece programın daha etkin uygulanması sağlanabilir. her bir kazanım için hazırlanan etkinlik sayısı artırılarak etkinlik bankası oluşturulabilir. öğretmenler kendi sınıfının fiziksel ve sosyo ekonomik duruma göre bu etkinliklerden seçip uygulayabilir. sosyal bilgiler dersi programıyla ilgili araştırmaların az olması muhtemeldir. i̇leride programın daha kapsamlı ve derinlemesine araştırılması, konuya daha da açıklık kazandıracaktır. bu şekilde, programla ilgili daha net kararlar verilerek programın geliştirilmesi sağlanabilir. bundan sonraki araştırmalarda, öğretmenlerin, yapılandırmacı yaklaşımı derse yansıtabilme düzeyleri araştırılabilir. velilerin eğitilmesi için kitle iletişim araçlarından daha etkin yararlanılabilir. sosyal bilgiler dersinin saati artırılma yoluna gidilerek hem erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 47 işleniş hem de değerlendirme süresi açısından zaman sıkıntısı aşılabilir. okullarda branş dersliği uygulaması sosyal bilgiler dersliği bağlamında yaygınlaştırılmalı ve gerekli materyallerle donatılmalıdır. kaynaklar / references aykaç, n. ve başar, e. (2005). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi eğitim programının değerlendirilmesi. y. kavak, e. taşdemirci. (ed). eğitimde yansımalar viii. yeni i̇lköğretim programlarını değerlendirme sempozyumu kitabı (14-16 kasım 2005, kayseri). 343-361. ankara: sim matbaası. aykaç, n. (2007). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi eğitim-öğretim programına yönelik öğretmen görüşleri. elektronik sosyal bilimler dergisi. 6(22),46-73, http://www.e-sosder.com. erişim tarihi: 05. 03.008. balcı, a. (2005). sosyal bilimlerde araştırma: yöntem, teknik ve ilkeler. (5. baskı). ankara: pegema yayıncılık. bruner, j. (1977). the process of education. cambridge: harward university pres. canerik, h. (2005). sosyal bilgiler programı ve öğretimi. y. kavak, e. taşdemirci. (ed). eğitimde yansımalar viii. yeni i̇lköğretim programlarını değerlendirme sempozyumu (14-16 kasım 2005, kayseri). 362-371. ankara: sim matbaası. carr, m. , barker, b., bell, b., biddulph, f., jones, a., kirkwood, v., pearson, j. & symington, d. (1994). the constructivist paradigm and some implications for science content and pedagogy. in p. j. fensham, r. t. gunstone & r.t white (eds.), the content of science. . 147-160. london: the falmer press. demirel, ö. (2004). kuramdan uygulamaya eğitimde program geliştirme. (7.baskı). ankara: pegema yayıncılık. doğanay, a. (2009). çağdaş sosyal bilgiler anlayışı işığında yeni sosyal bilgiler programının değerlendirilmesi. ç.ü. sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 17(2),77 96 doğanay, a. (2002). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. c. öztürk ve d. dilek (ed.) hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. 15-46. ankara: pegema yayıncılık. doğanay, a. ve sarı, m. (2008). öğretmen gözüyle yeni sosyal bilgiler programı: adana i̇linde bir araştırma. i̇lköğretim online. 7(2),468-484. http://ilkogretim online.org.tr erişim tarihi: 12.06.2009. http://www.e-sosder.com/ http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/ http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/ journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 17-49 48 dündar, h., kayhan, c. ve yel, s. (2006). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 4-5 programının değerlendirilmesi. ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği kongresi bildiriler kitabı, (14-16 nisan 2006, kayseri ) c.1, 436-441. ankara. kök yayıncılık. erden, m. (1998). öğretmenlik mesleğine giriş. (2.baskı). i̇stanbul: alkım yayıncılık. fensham, p. j, gunstone, r. f. & white, r. t. (1994). science content and constructivist views of learning and teaching. in p. j. fensham, r. f. gunstone & r. t. white (eds.) the content of science. 1-8. london: the falmer press. fullan, m. (1991). the new meaning of educational change. london: cassell. gömleksiz, m. n. (2005). yeni i̇lköğretim programının uygulamadaki etkililiğinin değerlendirilmesi. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri, 5(2), 371-384. gömleksiz, m.n. ve bulut, i̇. (2006). yeni sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programının uygulamadaki etkililiğinin değerlendirilmesi. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim yönetimi, 12(47), 393-421 güven, s., gökbulut, y. ve yel, s. (2006). 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi programına ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri. ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği kongresi bildiriler kitabı, (14-16 nisan 2006, kayseri ) c.1, 465-4715. ankara. kök yayıncılık. meb. (2005). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı ve kılavuzu. ankara: devlet kitapları müdürlüğü basımevi. meb i̇lköğretim genel müdürlüğü, (2008). i̇lköğretim programları ve ders kitaplarının değerlendirilmesi ve değerlendirme sonuçlarının ortaöğretim ile paylaşılması çalıştayı çalışma raporu, 21-23 mayıs 2008: ankara: devlet kitapları müdürlüğü basımevi. öztürk, c. ve dilek, d. (2002). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. ankara: pegema yayıncılık. öztürk, c. ve tuncel, g. (2006). yeni 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı ile ilgili öğretmen görüşleri. ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği kongresi bildiriler kitabı, (14-16 nisan 2006, kayseri ) c.ii, 184-194. ankara: kök yayıncılık. perkins, d.n. (1999). the many faces of constructivism. educational leadership. 57(3), 6-11. erkan di̇nç & yasin doğan 49 schunk, d.h. (2004). learning theories: an educational perspective. new jersey: prentice hall inc. silverman, d. (2000). doing qualitative research: a practical handbook. london: sage. sönmez, v. (1999). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi ve öğretmen kılavuzu. i̇stanbul: meb basımevi. taş, a. m. (2007). yeni sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarına i̇lişkin öğretmen görüşlerinin belirlenmesi. selçuk üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi.17, 519-532 tesch, r. (1990). qualitative research: analysis types & software tools. london: routledge/falmer. wertsch, j.v. (1997). vygotsky and the formation of the mind. cambridge: harward university press. windschitl, m. (2002). framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: an analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. review of educational research, 72(2), 131-175. wood, d. (1998). how children think and learn. (2nd ed.) oxford: blackwell publishing. yanpar, t. (2006). etkili ve anlamlı öğrenme i̇çin kuramsal yaklaşımlar ve yapılandırmacılık. c. öztürk (ed.) hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi: yapılandırmacı bir yaklaşım. 85-109. ankara: pegema yayıncılık. yapıcı, m. ve demirdelen c. (2007). i̇lköğretim 4. sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretim programına i̇lişkin öğretmen görüşleri, i̇lköğretim online, 6(2), 204-212, 2007. [online]: http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr adresinden 12 haziran 2009 tarihinde indirilmiştir. yaşar, ş. (2005). sosyal bilgiler programı ve öğretimi. y. kavak, e. taşdemirci. (ed). eğitimde yansımalar viii. yeni i̇lköğretim programlarını değerlendirme sempozyumu (14-16 kasım 2005, kayseri). 329-342. ankara: sim matbaası. http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/ ethical problems concernig dialectic interaction of www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1), 88-103 88 philosophical and cultural foundations of the concept of “nihitogenesis” natalya saenko1, olga voronkova2, elena zatsarinnaya3 & mariya mikhailova4 abstract the goals of this research are: 1) to substantiate the conceptual content and introduce into the terminological circulation of the philosophy of culture the concepts of “nihitology of culture” and “nihitogenesis”; 2) to substantiate the intensification of ontologization of the negative in the second half of the xx century and the present. data were achieved using observation and description of the behaviour of modern man in virtual and real cultures; hermeneutic analysis of observation results, as well as a description of the results of virtualization and simulation of modern culture. the article extrapolates the ontological method to the aesthetic and social spheres. research results are as follows: 1) the following metamorphoses of non-being in the space of culture being have been discovered: anthropologization of the negative; semiotization and aesthetization of non-being; “hollow” attitudes of everyday worldview and individual experience of inner devastation; production and consumption of simulacra; virtualization of cultural reality; 2) the processes of diminishing or even loss of reality are associated by the author with various factors, such as: the transition from the individual’s solid identity to its “fluid” form, and ultimately to the loss or destruction of identity; the ongoing destruction of the integrity of "ego"of a modern subject. this is expressed in the fall of stable norms, including ethical ones, in the absence of a single anthropological ideal and in highlighting visibility in the form of "flickering of countless guises", "masks"; an increase in the volume of simulacra in the spheres of media, art, morality, religiosity, and in everyday life as well; active interest in negative entities manifested by postmodern art; loss by a person of a sense of spiritual security, compensation for this loss by hedonism, unlimited consumption of material goods; communication virtualization, etc. keywords: culture, philosophy of culture, nihitology, nihitogenesis, non-being, emptiness, nothingness, ontology. introduction in the modern state of culture, the tendencies are revealed, which cannot be interpreted as the variants of universality or reanimation of the old ideas of culture. romanticism and modernism 1 doctor of science in philosophy, professor of the department of humanities, moscow polytechnic university, moscow, russian federation, rilke@list.ru 2 doctor of economics, professor of management, business organization and innovation department, altai state university, olka2004@yandex.ru 3 candidat of economic sciences, associate professor, plekhanov russian university of economics, e29175z@yandex.ru 4 assistant of department of prosthetic dentistry, candidate of medical sciences, i.m. sechenov first moscow state medical university, russian federation, moscow, stom-maria@mail.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=rilke@list.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=olka2004@yandex.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=e29175z@yandex.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=stom%2dmaria@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 88-103 had such powerful potentials that even the second half of the 20th century was strongly influenced by them with marked orientations on the temporality and the ideas of the cyclicity and rhythmic nature of cultural history. incompletion of the romantic and modern epochs is no longer questioned and noted by philosophers and sociologists of culture as their immanent characteristic. therefore, in the 20th century oftentimes a “return”, “repetition” or “neo” was discussed (new dark ages, neo-antiquity, neomythologism, archaeo-avant-garde), which created a context for understanding, re-coding and establishment of the culture universals. in the last decade of the 20th century and in the first decades of the 21th century, the formation of such characteristics is observed which cannot be interpreted as the return of old forms. besides, a number of phenomena of the post-modern culture have acquired the characteristics of the negative not as the connotation-related but the core ones, which have transformed their essence. philosophical reflection on the simulation and virtualization of reality, as well as the change of the negation status in modern times makes us to discuss the necessity of development of a new ontology of culture (jones, 2019; baubonienė et al., 2018). we think that contemporary culture in its artefacts and meanings is not something negative or opposite, but altogether different in comparison with the classical one, and hence requiring different approaches, evaluation criteria and the ways of understanding. in particular, it does not appear possible to us to interpret the being of contemporary culture using solely the laws of dialectics. the culture today is not a system but a rhizome; saussure’s law of inseparability of the signifier and the signified is often violated; cultural genesis in our time is “sliding along the surface”, an accelerated process of the endless creation of forms and impulses to the emergence of new meanings. we refuse to assess the state of modernity as degradation. we can explain it in a nietzschean manner: our view of culture is not pessimistic, but tragic. research question why and for what purpose we need to introduce in the philosophy of culture the term "nihitogenesis"? in order to systematize and unite the variety of metamorphoses of non-being in consciousness, language and culture, it is necessary to operate with a new philosophical concept. saenko et al. theoretical background a mental procedure, denoted by a term ending by –zation, is implantation, augmentation or “pollination” of one field with the concepts and principles of another. ontologization is consideration of something through the prism of “tempo-topos-kinesis”. however, describing the modern scientific implementation of this operation, r. yu. rakhmatullin, for example, understands ontologization as “... the process of modifying knowledge in order to give it a form of image” (rakhmatullin, 2014; 160). he clarifies: “among the examples of scientific ontologization are transformation of empirical and theoretical knowledge about the sun, the earth, other celestial bodies into the image of the solar system, knowledge about elementary particles and fields into the image of atom, etc. the results of religious ontologization are images of the many-armed buddha, hell and paradise, which are a sensual form of expression of knowledge of people of a certain era and culture” (rakhmatullin, 2014; 160). thus, ontologization of the negative is philosophical attempts to talk about the unpronounceable, the search for images for the image-less. these problems are solvable on the basis of analysis of the being of culture and man, which is characterized as borderline or synthesized. on the other hand, the “pollination”, with we discuss in the context of analysis of ontologizations, is “cross-fertilization”. we insist on using the term “nihitology of culture”, which is different in content from the term “nihilism”. table 1 comparison of terms “nihitology of culture” and the term “nihilism” nihitology of culture nihilism – is a method of interpretation of culture – is a worldview, which is expressed in the denial of the meaningfulness of human existence, the significance of generally accepted moral and cultural values; non-recognition of any authority; – is a phenomenon of culture, which engender or, in other cases, is engendered by the corresponding doctrine. nihilists adhere to some or all of the following statements:  there is no reasonable proof of the presence of a higher ruler or a creator;  no “realmorality” exists; journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 88-103  in certain sense, life does not have a truth, and no action is objectively preferable to any other. this is the perceiving of an empty center or the absence of an ontologically motivated content in the being of the absolute. it assumes the denial of god, sacredness and absolute. nihitology understands nothingness in nature as a measure and grandeur, and nothingness in culture as a condition of being. in nihilism, nothingness is the emptiness and void of both the natural and the human world. proceeding to a “positive” consideration of nothingness is by no means nihilism, but a set of ontologization procedures for the negative. “the essence of nihilism consists precisely in the oblivion of nothingness ...” on the contrary, existential-historical thinking (as m. heidegger calls his philosophy) recognizes that “nothingness”, “groundlessness” (abgrund) is not a bare denial of existence, not “insignificant”, but the “being” itself, however, “not in the direction to the existing, and not away from it, but from its truth. " some modern researchers consider nihitology as a novel form of nihilism: “fatigue from the expectation of a utopian miracle has been replaced by the most dangerous form of fatigue, the fatigue from being as such. nihilism, bypassing the phase of romantic projection, became nihitology. from a metaphor, nothingness has become reality” (ulyanov, 2009; 122). our concept is not nihilism, because we do not reduce being to non-being, do not deny the existence of everything; we are talking about a specific structure of the being of culture, into which non-being is aspectually embedded. introducing the ontology concepts into the philosophy of culture entails a partial change in their content. since it is impossible to say anything about absolute (pure) non-existence, therefore, one can talk about the non-existence-related characteristics of the existence of culture or ontologized negation. in an ontologized form, non-existence can be represented in a wide range of existential modes (that is, “breakthroughs” into existence and borrowing forms from existence). as the main non-existence-related characteristicsof being that can be discovered in the forms of culture, the subject of culture and cultural processes, we indicate: 1. increased temporality (or acceleration of dynamics), 2. nonlinearity, 3. discreteness, 4. simulation saenko et al. 5. rhizomaticity (lack of systemacity, fundamental incompleteness), 6. potentialism, 7. situationality, 8. absence (abolition) of a center. this list is fundamentally open, since any properties and concepts can be included (or excluded from it) when some negation is detected in their semantic structure or functional sphere. in our use, the “nihitology of culture” is a doctrine about cultural genesis, in which the phenomenon, images, names and transformed forms of non-being appear primary; whereas the need to “fill in the voids”, “patch up the holes” and “close the gaps”, i.e. to transform non-being into being or in various ways to objectify, to arrange non-being is considered as the key motive of cultural creation. we are well aware that an interpreter of culture, selecting a single concept, looks at all phenomena through a single prism. surely, we see a difference in the status of negative phenomena and the negation process itself in various cultures and epochs. however, the contemporary state, which we tend to characterize, following baudrillard, as transparency, does not aspire to metamorphoses of non-being into being, and therefore a conviction is created that contact with non-being is an exclusive characteristic of modernity. nevertheless, we would like to clarify why the conversation about the destruction of the rigid “being-nonbeing” opposition is somehow possible in modern times. the human being, having created a global mechanism of generating secondariness (copying, quoting, short description, creating remakes, analogues, etc.) and artificiality, which successfully and unceasingly works, today can no longer leave the simulation space (in order to see or perceive primariness). accelerating and increasing intensity of the production of copies (many of which have no original samples) eliminates the strictness of oppositions in the picture of the world, does not allow the choice from infinity of options due to lack of criteria. therefore, the human being has to uncritically accept (and consume) all options. in synergetics, this state of culture is called chaos5. in the context of our problems, the situation is called "ontological asymmetry". 5chaos is a phase of increased instability of structural-formative and semantic principles in the system, difficulties in determining the possibilities of interaction of elements inside the system (and with other systems), in which a special situation of search and “increased creativity” is created, activating the processes of self-organization. see: (astafieva, 2003; 395). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 88-103 one of the impulses for constructing our concept was that we heeded the appeal by m. s. kagan: “ontology should do the same thing to the ‘non-being’ concept as synergetics did with the ‘chaos’ concept: free it from absolute negativity preserved from mythological times”(kagan, 2006; pp. 8283). nihitogenesis is the process of generating new meanings of the forms of non-being. it is also a process of introducing negation into the elements of culture, which transforms them into nonexistence properties or entities. it often includes destruction, elimination, annihilation, that is, the aspiration to the forms of non-being in order to discover behind non-being a different, unprecedented meaning or to attribute such meaning to it. most actively, this process is unfolding in postmodern art. the analysis of the forms of non-being in culture is a study of what does not really exist but has a strong impact on the person’s entire life and the existence of culture. if something really does not exist, then how is it possible to classify and name the manifestations of this something in culture? the history of culture is usually aimed at clarifying the meanings, at transforming the incomprehensible into the understandable. the task of the theory of culture and our task as researchers are not to clarify the unrevealed, but to identify the mechanisms of generation of the indefinite in culture (the central aspects of nihitogenesis). methods our study is theoretical. however, observation of the behavioral models of modern man in a virtual environment (social networks, blogs, forums) and real culture (communication among fellow teachers, students, pupils), as well as the work with post-modern literary texts allowed collecting the empirical material that is interpreted through using a hypothetical-deductive method and hermeneutic techniques (inclusion of the third element; “implantation” in the logic of an event or text; expanding the context). in addition, the authors actively use the empirical method of describing the results of virtualization and simulation of modern culture. the article extrapolates the ontological method to the aesthetic and social spheres. the issue about the methodology of the philosophical understanding of modernity remains open. should the modern culture be analyzed using the post-modern methods, which, first, themselves are a phenomenological component of the culture (j. f. lyotard), secondly, they very aggressively change the analyzed object in the process of consideration (j. derrida, j. deleuze)? besides, saenko et al. postmodern philosophy is a philosophy of language, discourse (m. foucault), text (r. bart), literature (m. blanchot), it itself takes on the features of a literary text. post-modern art, today’s media sphere, as well as modern philosophy, are trying to erase or make transparent the boundary between the being of culture and the interpretations of being (textuality), and they are doing it successfully. thus, the central methodology of philosophical studying not only culture as such, but also the specifics of its being, is hermeneutics (in particular, the procedure of interpretation) and semiotics (in particular, the analysis of the structure of signs). the interdisciplinary perspective is so broad in our paper: philosophy, aesthetics, cultural studies, and semiotics. our task was to demonstrate how the modes of non-being work in the culturecreation process: “formlessness”, “chaos”, “nothingness”, “void”. results and discussion there takes place today is a radical transformation of culture under the influence of modern technologies, telecommunications and computer systems. the active “implantation” of the screen into culture has transformed the perception of the world, the entire environment of human existence. we associate the processes of diminishing or even loss of reality with various factors, but, at the same time, we lack a single term that unifies the significant phenomena in postmodernity, such as: – the transition from a solid identity of the individual to its “fluid” (z. bauman) form, and in the limit, to the loss or destruction of identity; the ongoing destruction of the integrity of the self of the modern subject. this is expressed in the decline of stable norms, including the ethical ones, in the absence of a single anthropological ideal and in highlighting the semblances in the form of "flickering of countless guises", "masks". in the terminology of the sociologist of culture l. g. ionina, these are arbitrarily and rapidly changing “scenarios”; 1. an increase in the volume of simulacra both in the fields of media, art, morality, religiosity, and in everyday life; 2. active interest in negative entities, manifested by postmodern art; 3. the loss by the person of a sense of spiritual security, compensation for this loss by hedonism, the unlimited consumption of material wealth; 4. virtualization of communication, etc. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 88-103 how should these heterogeneous phenomena be called: “nihilism”, “negation”, “self-denial”, “alienation”? in our opinion, these already accepted terms reflect individual aspects or specific processes. but we pursue the goal of proving the genetic connection of these processes. therefore, when proposing the term “nihitogenesis”, we mean that the existence of culture as such has non-being features. in modern times, these properties have become revealed, manifested, but have not been generated, invented or formed. it is the actualization of the nonbeing properties of the being of culture in modern times that has led us to the idea of their immanence to culture, and the careful process of filling, comprehending, fleeing destruction in traditional cultures (strunc, 2019). of course, the opposite effect is also visible, namely, in classical culture, some drives to non-being (deification of nothingness, perception of emptiness as an impulse to creativity). first, the destruction of center in the structure of culture. even if this does not bring culture into a state of chaos, at least it directs it to chaos. second, the fundamental semantic emptiness of the forms of culture, which is usually characterized as the sign essence. if the meanings can change depending on the context and the recipient, this means that the forms of culture must inherently have a hollow. third, the obligatory inclusion in the cycles (both microand mega-) of “deaths” or, in our expression, “contacts with nothingness”. this is necessary for the development and renewal of culture. fourth, creativity and freedom, which are the internal mechanisms of culture, are realized as a movement away from non-being or aspiration to non-being. in our opinion, the non-being traits of culture (or nihitological entities) are not peripheral; it is them that form the specificity of the phenomenon of culture. and this means that culture, in order to be realized (and to sustain its own being), paradoxically, must create non-existence: destroy, eliminate, make senseless. this we call the nihitogenic function of culture. however, we must distinguish nihitogenicity of culture from the generating and hammering out initially empty forms and shells: simulacra, imitations, phantoms, etc. we actively turn to the philosophy of culture of the second half of the 20th century and the present time, which is interested in “negative” phenomena and operates with “negative” categories. the discussion on the topic of ontology/nihitology in the domestic philosophy of culture has unfolded in the transitional epoch (from millennium to millennium, from modernity to postmodernity). in saenko et al. the “treatise on non-being” by a. n. chanyshev, the main ideas are stated: non-being exists; nonbeing is absolute, while being is relative; non-being is primary in relation to being (chanyshev, 1997). m.k. mamardashvili believed that “philosophy has always built a negative ontology of the human being, an ontology of absence; an ontology of what has never been, will not, but is now ... the human being has no age, the human being is always in a state of birth, that is what is usually meant by the category nothingness in the negative ontology” (mamardashvili, 1996; 355). we began to describe the metamorphoses of being and non-being in cultural genesis due to the semantic impulse received from the works of m. s. kagan [kagan, 2006]. although m. s. kagan analyzes in detail the fate of the “non-being” concept in the history of philosophy, at the same time he considers it unjustified to extend the non-being characteristic to the consciousness of the modern person in general and, accordingly, to contemporary art in general, “because in the bourgeois society in the west and in the current russian society (which has rapidly become bourgeois), there take place not only the consciousness principally oriented toward being and its artistic manifestations, but also art that seeks salvation from the abstractionist self-dissolution into nothingness in turning to being, and thereby, as practice has shown, from total self-negation” (kagan, 2006; 25). the research of the culturologist-essayist m. n. epstein are devoted to negative aesthetics, apophatism, and the metaphysical specifics of russian literature and culture (epstein, 2006), as well as new philosophical articulation (projective philosophical dictionary, 2003). the diversity of forms of non-being in the artistic space in a broad interdisciplinary perspective, covering philosophy, aesthetics, theory and history of literature and art, is considered in the concept of “indefinite in culture” due to m. yampolsky (yampolsky, 2010). the philosopher shows how the categories of uncertainty, such as “formlessness”, “chaos”, “nothingness”, “randomness”, work in the creative process of culture. also in the domestic philosophy, the author’s concept by n. m. solodukho is being developed (solodukho, 2001; 2002; 1999; 2006; 2010), in which the solution of the problems of the human being and his/her culture in the context of the philosophy of non-existence occupies a significant place. the philosopher poses and proposes solutions to the following issues: “immersion of the person into nothingness”, “consciousness as a subjective reality”, “negational character of the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 88-103 person’s individuality”, “metamorphoses of non-being in creative activity”, etc. (solodukho, 2002). v.a. kutyryov is the author of well-known works devoted to a radical criticism of postmodernism as a reality of culture (as the author puts it, “transpostmodernism”) and the postmodern philosophy of culture, in which being and non-being enter a state of semantic inversion (kutyryov, 2009). kutyryov explores the processes occurring in the “object world”: the expansion of machines and economy on the person’s spirituality leads to its depletion, the transformation of individuals into actors, agents, into a “human factor” and, gradually, to the dismantling of natural forms of procreation: its replacement by social and biotechnological design. we consider it logical that writing such a portrait of the person (non-person) of postmodernism brings the philosophy of culture to the level of extreme nihilism. v. a. kutyryov calls the influence of informational reality on the person’s fate a genuine “cry about non-being”. as applied to human being, postmodernism, deconstruction, and grammatology are perceived by the philosopher as the ideology of removal, elimination, inclusion in the virtual world, “in which folds and singularities are left from people; in the best case, personages”(kutyrev, 2010). in the concept of s. a. lishaev, a typology of dialogues with non-being is arranged, which is illustrated by fragments of literary works. in the third part of his book “the aesthetics of the other,” he systematically and in detail gives a general description of the ugly and, which is the most valuable, insists on the person getting the experience of “formlessness”, “ugliness”, nonpeacefulness, chaos, foreignness when meeting with the ugly object. “the ugly is chaos (nonbeing), which finds expression not in something “limitless”, not in the uncertainty of space, but in a certain thing and form” (lishaev, 2008; 218). division of non-being into positive and negative makes the ontology of culture deeper. “nothingness is positively present in the thing (and we feel it, involuntarily turning away from such a thing): it is present in the disharmony of its elements, in a peculiar combination of the color spots “simulating” it, as well as in the characteristic pattern of its movement, etc. an object will be ugly for us, the sensual form of which serves not to express meaning, but, on the contrary, to express no-meaning; in the ugly “nothingness, no-thing” is hiding under the guise of something; here the formedness, which in itself is, at least, a minimal expression of meaning, turns out to be an instrument of nonsense, here formlessness is established by form, here form serves to reject the presence as a way of meaningful existence (existence in a formed-meaningful world). the ugly thing for us is “chaos that has been faceted, a form that carries saenko et al. the form-less in itself, “alien”. the ugly is the embodied contradiction: the image of the imageless, the sensual givenness of the insensible, non-being in its positive presence” (lishaev, 2008; 218). the explanation is very convincing of why the ugly frightens us: “the presence of nonbeing is a threat to my ability to be present, and therefore the ugly thing not only repels from itself, but also frightens” (lishaev, 2008; 219). s. a. lishaev connects negative non-being with the “inclinations” for melancholy, spleen and boredom. “the world in a situation of melancholy (boredom, spleen) is not saved in the experience (is not catharsically cleansed) by the reality of the other as being, but, at the same time, it does not perish under the onrush of the other as non-being, it retains its formal definitiveness. in an empty world full of melancholy, the formal correspondence of the signifier to the signified and of language to the world is preserved; in a depressive disposition, the person is present in the world, but does not understand “why”. in the experience of melancholy, the other acts as nothingness ...” (lishaev, 2008; 67) according to s. a. lishaev, non-being is the rejection of being, nothingness is the deprivation of being. “nothingness-in-the-world” is a way of empty, formal presence, presence without meaning, without being as the source that provides sense to the being. in the domestic philosophy of culture, the problems of the ontology of culture and man in our chosen perspective were considered by p.p. gaidenko (gaidenko, 1997), v.d. gubin (gubin, 2003), g.k. saykina (saykina, 2007). the images of non-being in avant-gardism and postmodern art were analyzed in detail by m. lipovetsky, v.v. bychkov (kornevishche, 1999), n. b. mankovskaya, m. yampolsky, i. i. ilyin, a. v. venkova. the problems of nihilism in european and russian culture are developed by a.i. pigalev (pigalev, 1991), p.a. sapronov (sapronov, 2010; 2011), v.g. kosykhin (kosykhin, 2008, 2009). religious interpretations of the modes of non-being are analyzed in the studies of yu. m. duplinskaya. various aspects of the relation between the images of death and non-being are described in the works of v.v. savchuk, a.v. demichev, m.s. uvarov. solving the issues of the being of man and culture, g. l. tulchinsky introduces the concepts of “ontophany of freedom”, “the prior-to-being”, “the out-of-being”. d.v. vorobyov investigates the mental specificity of nothingness. f. i. girenok, the founder of the philosophical direction of “archeo-avant-garde”, explaining the specifics of the language of philosophy and creating a new anthropology, actively uses the concepts of “emptiness”, “simulation”, “eluding of being”, etc. (girenok, 2001) besides, f. i. girenok causally correlates ecological problems (“desertification of the earth”) to the processes of “human devastation” and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 88-103 considers the former as secondary to the latter (girenok, 1994). p.v. shubina considers emptiness as an ontological and gnoseological category, reveals the instrumental functions of emptiness in the semiotic and post-structuralist analysis of culture and subjectivity (shubina, 2005). in 2015, a. v. krichevsky’s book, “the power of non-being: metaphysics beyond the ontology” was published which theoretically justifies the possibility of constructing the doctrine of the absolute outside the doctrine of being (kirichevsky, 2015). in 2013, the center for fundamental research at the higher school of economics carried out the “ontology of negativity” project, the results of which are arranged as a collection of scientific papers (ontology of negativity, 2015). the studies of this project compare the ontological premises of various interpretations of the concepts of “negation” and “negativity” in the history of philosophy and logic, and also demonstrate the key transformations that have occurred in the intellectual practice of mastering these categories by the contemporary continental and analytical philosophy. currently, the concept of "nihitology" is actively developed in the works of contemporary foreign philosophers and culturologists. among them is one of the leading japanese aesthetician t. imamichi (the work "crisis of morality and the problems of meta-technology"), as well as such famous french philosophers as j. laurent, v. carraund, s. chauvier6. a range of research on the problem of “images and topics of nothingness in culture” was presented at the exhibition and symposium “big nothing. opposite likenesses of the human being” (badenbaden, 2001). the semiotics of absence is also the key theme of brian rotman's book “signifying nothing: the semiotics of zero” (rotman, 1987). conclusion based on observations of modern cultural practices and a review of the transformations of the concepts of “nothing” and “nonexistence” in the ontology of culture, we consider it productive to understand the essence of culture and its interpretation using dynamic models, in particular, the model of the mutual generation and interdependence of being and nothing. this determines the first facet of nihitogenesis. in addition, we build an understanding of the existence of culture in the form of a variety of 6these authors deal with the problem of ontologization of “possible worlds” in modern culture. see (laurent, 1991), (carraund, 2002), (chauvier, 2000). saenko et al. metamorphoses of non-existence, which opens the second facet of nihitogenesis. finally, as a result of research reasoning, a philosophical and cultural interest is formed not only in the creation of culture from the void, but also in the creation of the void itself (destruction, simulation in art, a new virtual sociality, etc.). the usual way of terms is as follows: from use in specific texts to fixation and systematization in a dictionary. for terminological tokens in philosophy, not so much modernity is important as timeliness. in the indicated aspect, the term "nigitogenesis" is timely. references bychkovv.v., & mankovskayan. b. (1999). root: a book of non-classical aesthetics. m.: ras. institute of philosophy, 1999. baubonienė, ž., hahn, k. h., puksas, a., & malinauskienė, e. (2018). factors influencing student entrepreneurship intentions: the case of lithuanian and south korean universities. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 6(2): 854-871. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.6.2(26) carraund v. (2002). causa sive ratio: la raison de la cause, de suarez a leibniz. paris: pressed univ. de france, 2002. chanyshev a.n. (1997). a treatise on nothingness. 4th fix and add. ed. categories. philosophical journal. 1997. no. 2. pp. 4-14. chauvier s. (2000). la querelle des arguments transcendantaux. caen.: presses univ. de caen., 2000. dragalina-chernaya e.g. (2015). ontology of negativity: collection of scientific papers. m.: "canon +" rooi "rehabilitation", 2015. gaidenko p.p. (1997). a breakthrough to the transcendental: a new ontology of the 20th century. m.: republic, 1997. giddens a. (1990). the consequences of modernity. cambridge: politypress, 1990. girenok f.i. (2001). the archeography of naivety. philosophy of naivety, comp. a. s. migunov. m., publishing house. moscow state university, 2001. pp. 23–29. girenok f.i. (1994). elusive being. m.: ros. acad. sciences, institute of philosophy, 1994. girenok f.i. (2001). the philosophical manifesto of the archaeo-avant-garde. the philosophy of the economy. 2001. no. 1. pp. 169 -171. gubin v.d. (2003). life as a metaphor for being. m.: ros. state humanitarian university, 2003. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 88-103 jones, a. (2019). parallel oppressions. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 18-33. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/31 kagan m.s. (2006). metamorphoses of being and non-being: ontology in the system-synergetic understanding. spb.: publishing house "logos", 2006. krichevsky a.v. (2015). the power of nothingness: metaphysics beyond ontology. moscowberlin: direct media, 2015. kosykhin v.g. (2009). nihilism and dialectics. saratov: scientific book, 2009. kosykhin v.g. (2008). ontology and nihilism: from heidegger to postmodernism. saratov: scientific book, 2008. krichevsky a.v. (2015). the power of nothingness: metaphysics beyond ontology. moscowberlin: direct media, 2015 kutyrev v.a. (2010). being or nothing. spb.: aletheia, 2010. kutyrev v.a. (2003). apology of the human (premises and contours of conservative philosophizing). questions of philosophy. 2003. no. 1, pp. 63–75. kutyrev v.a. (2000). justification of being (the phenomenon of nigitology and its criticism). questions of philosophy. 2000. no. 5. p. 15–33. kutyrev v.a. (2005). the philosophy of another, or the non-existential meaning of transmodernism. questions of philosophy. 2005. no. 12. s. 3–19. kutyrev v.a. (2009). human and other: the struggle of the worlds. st. petersburg: aletheia, 2009. laurent j. (1991). les corps tranquilles. paris: stock, 1991. lishaev s.a. (2008). aesthetics of the other. spb .: publishing house of st. petersburg. university, 2008. mamardashvili m.k. (1996). need yourself. lectures. articles. philosophical notes. m.: publishing house "labyrinth", 1996. mozheiko m.a. (2003). the metaphysics of absence. the latest philosophical dictionary. 3rd ed., rev. minsk: book house. 2003. pp. 622 623. pigalev a.i. (1991). philosophical nihilism and the crisis of culture. saratov: publishing house of the saratov university. projective philosophical dictionary: new terms and concepts. under the editorship of g.l. tulchinsky and m.n. estein. st. petersburg: aletheia, 2003. saenko et al. rakhmatullin r. yu. (2014). ontologization as a component of scientific knowledge. historical, philosophical, political and legal sciences, cultural studies and art history. questions of theory and practice tambov: diploma. 2014. no. 12 (50): in the 3 hours of part i. i. pp. 160 162. rotman brian. (1987). signifying nothing. the semiotics of zero. new york: st. martin’s press, 1987. saenko n.r. (2010). nihitology of culture (construction experience). volgograd: change, 2010. saykina g.k. (2007) man in the shadow of being: difficulties in the dialogue of philosophical anthropology and ontology. person. ru. 2007. no3. m. pp. 169 183. sapronov p.a. (2011). about being nothing. st. petersburg: rcaa, 2011. sapronov p.a. (2009). the concept of the initial perspective is nothing. bulletin of the russian christian humanitarian academy. 2009. t. 10. no. 4. pp. 70–83. sapronov p.a. (2010). way to nothing. essays on russian nihilism. spb.: ic "humanitarian academy", 2010. soloduho n.m. (2001). being and non-being as the ultimate foundations of the world. questions of philosophy. 2001. no. 6. p. 176–185. soloduho n.m. (1997). ontology: basic concepts: textbook. kazan: publishing house of kstukai, 1997. soloduho n.m. (2006). understanding the ontological status of non-existence. news of kazan state university of architecture and civil engineering. 2006. t. 5. no. 1. pp. 126–128. soloduho n.m. (2002). the philosophy of nothingness. kazan: kazan state publishing house. technical university, 2002. soloduho n.m. (2010). ethical principles of the philosophy of non-being. bulletin of kazan technological university. 2010. no. 3. pp. 370–376. soloduho n.m. (1999). ontological uncertainty of non-existence. the xxi century and the future of russia in the philosophical dimension: materials ii ros. philos. congress (june 7–11, 1999): in 4 t. yekaterinburg. 1999. t. 1. part 2. strunc, a. (2019). the politics of culture. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 7180. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/26 ulyanov v.a. (2009). the development of nihilism in modern and recent times: theoretical aspect. omsk scientific bulletin. 2009. no. 76–2. pp. 121–123. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 88-103 yampolsky m. (2010). through the dull glass: 20 chapters on uncertainty. m.: new literary review, 2010. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2012: 3(2), 86-104 © 2012 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 üniversitede demokratik bir değer olarak hoşgörü∗ tolerance as a democratic value in higher education kasım kıroğlu1, cevat elma2, alper kesten3 ve şule egüz4 özet: eğitimin her düzeyinde özellikle de yarının öğretmenlerini yetiştirecek olan yükseköğretim kurumlarındaki öğretim elemanlarının hoşgörülü bir sınıf ortamı oluşturarak ders işlemeleri ve öğrencilerinde de benzer tutum ve davranışlar geliştirmeye çalışmaları, demokrasiyi özümsemiş yeni bir nesil yetişmesini sağlayacaktır. bu anlamda öğretim elemanlarının eğitim öğretim sürecinde öğrencilere yönelik tutum ve tavırları hem demokratik anlayışın yerleşmesi hem de hoşgörü ortamının geliştirilmesi açısından önemlidir. demokratik bir değer olarak sınıfta hoşgörüye ilişkin öğretim elemanlarının görüşlerinin belirlenmesi amacıyla yapılan bu araştırma, tarama modeli niteliğindedir. öğretim elemanlarının sınıfta hoşgörüye yönelik görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla bir ölçek geliştirilmiştir. çalışmadan elde edilen verilerin cinsiyet, medeni durum, kıdem ve unvan değişkenleri açısından karşılaştırılması amacıyla aritmetik ortalama, t-testi, mann-whitney u testi ve kruskal wallis teknikleri kullanılmıştır. öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi hoşgörüye ilişkin görüşleri; iletişim ve katılım, dış görünüş ve öğrenci davranışlarına tepki başlıkları altında incelenmiştir. i̇letişim ve katılım boyutuna bakıldığında, öğretim elemanlarının öğrencilerin karar alma sürecine katılmalarına, dersi alacakları öğretim elemanını seçme özgürlüğüne, çeşitli konularla ilgili itiraz ve önerilerini dile getirmelerine olumlu yaklaştıkları belirlenmiştir. dış görünüş boyutunda öğretim elemanları hem kendilerinin hem de öğrencilerin istedikleri kıyafetleri giyebilmeleri ve giyim konusunda herhangi bir kısıtlamanın doğru olmayacağı yönünde görüş ifade etmişlerdir. öğretim elemanlarının giyim konusundaki bu hoşgörülü tutumlarına karşın öğrencilerin siyasi kimliklerini ya da görüşlerini belli edecek işaretler kullanmalarına ise aynı derecede hoşgörülü yaklaşmadıkları görülmüştür. bir sınıf yöneticisi olarak öğretim elemanının bir hoşgörü ortamı oluşturması, eğitim-öğretim faaliyetlerinin amacına uygun şekilde yürütülmesini kolaylaştırır. üniversitede böyle bir ortamın oluşturulması, öğretmen adaylarının gelecekte mesleklerini ifa ederken programda ısrarla altı çizilen demokratik sınıf ortamını oluşturmalarına da yardımcı olacaktır. anahtar kelimeler: demokratik değer, hoşgörü, öğretim elemanı, öğrenci ∗ bu çalışmanın bir bölümü i. uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumunda sunulmuştur. 1 yrd. doç. dr., ondokuz mayıs üniversitesi, november@omu.edu.tr 2 yrd. doç. dr., ondokuz mayıs üniversitesi, cevat.elma@omu.edu.tr 3 yrd. doç. dr., ondokuz mayıs üniversitesi, akesten@omu.edu.tr 4 arş. gör., ondokuz mayıs üniversitesi, suleeguz@gmail.com kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 87 extended abstract when we think about democracy, what springs to mind are values such as solidarity, tolerance, responsibility, love, respect, helpfulness, honesty, justice, freedom, compromise, and equality. there is no way that any one of these values could be preferred over another. however, tolerance has a special place in nurturing democracy. the turkish for tolerance is hoşgörü and the arabic and the ottoman-turkish is müsamaha. it is the state of not being bothered by others’ differences in way of language, religion, gender, creed, and attitudes, and being patient with those holding views and expressing feelings that may be in conflict with our own. a tolerant person is one who accepts there may be various approaches to a given issue, who tries to see these various approaches, and who views other people’s approaches from this perspective. a new generation that has internalized democracy is only possible through democratic classroom settings at all levels of education and especially in institutions of higher education where the lecturers train the future teachers in a tolerant environment and encourage them to adopt similar attitudes and behaviours. in this sense, lecturers’ attitudes towards students in the education process are important for nurturing democratic understanding and improving tolerance. however, how an individual defines themselves does not matter so much as how others define them. it is therefore not sufficient for lecturers just to define themselves as tolerant. in order for them to be so considered by their students, their tolerant classroom environment must be at least partially in line with their fellow lecturers’ and students’ expectations. an original dimension of this study was the development of a scale by first asking students’ ideas of how a tolerant lecturer should be, which is expected to make a contribution to the field. the main objective of this study is to find out the views on in-class tolerance of lecturers working at schools of education. method: this study is a survey aiming to find out lecturers’ idea of tolerance in the classroom as a democratic value. the research universe consisted of a total of 169 lecturers – 21 professors, 20 associate professors, 79 assistant professors, and 49 instructors – teaching at the school of education, ondokuz mayis university, in the 2011-2012 academic year. as all of the lecturers were targeted, there was no sample selection. the scales were sent out to all the lecturers in the research universe, of which 110 were returned. this scale was designed to find out the lecturers’ views on tolerance in the classroom. in order to test the validity and reliability of the scale, it was also sent to 120 lecturers at the faculty of arts and science, school of medicine, school of engineering, and the vocational school of samsun, all parts of ondokuz mayis university. a factor analysis was done to test the validity of the scale and to reveal whether the 17-item scale had one or multiple factors. following the analysis, the items with a factor load below .40 were taken out and the remaining 13 items were found to gather around three independent factors (communication and participation, appearance, reaction to student behavior) with their factor loads varying between .43 and .82. in the analysis for the reliability of the scale, the alpha internal consistency factor was found to be .74. the ‘in-class tolerance scale’ can therefore be claimed to be both valid and reliable. the arithmetic mean, the ttest, the mann-whitney u test, and the kruskal wallis technique were used to compare the data as regards gender, marital status, seniority, and academic title. conclusion: the lecturers’ views on tolerance in the classroom were studied under the headings of communication and participation, appearance, and reaction to student behavior. in the communication and journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 86-104 88 participation dimension, the lecturers were found to have a positive attitude towards students’ participation in the decision-making process, their freedom to choose their lecturers, and their objections or suggestions in certain matters. nevertheless, their attitude was less positive when the students made negative remarks about the class. there is no doubt that a tolerant lecturer is thought of as one who allows students to participate in the class-related decision-making processes (method, planning, assessment, etc.) and who values their opinions and suggestions. in this context, the lecturers who took part in this study can be said to be tolerant in the communication and participation sense. analyses revealed no significant difference as regards the lecturers’ gender, seniority, and academic title. marital status, however, was found to have a significant impact, with the single lecturers having a more positive attitude to the statements in the communication and participation section than the married ones. in the appearance dimension, the lecturers were found to be of the opinion that both the students and they themselves should be able to wear what they like and that a restriction in the dress code would not be appropriate. despite the lecturers’ positive attitude towards attire, they were not as tolerant of those students with signs or accessories revealing their political orientation. in the dimension regarding the lecturers’ reaction to student behaviour, they were found to have a positive attitude towards the statements on the students not standing up while talking, not being dismissed because of their opinions which may even be in conflict with social values, and being admitted to the class even if they are late. they were, however, not so tolerant of those students having tea or coffee in the classroom or their being dismissed for disturbing the class order. generally speaking, a lecturer who is positive towards communication, student participation, clothing, and student behavior is expected to raise students’ motivation, their interest in the course, and their performance. as an administrator in the class, the lecturer setting up a tolerant environment facilitates attaining educational targets. setting up such an environment at university will help student-teachers create a democratic classroom setting in the future, so often referred to in the curriculum. this is a quantitative study looking at how the concept of tolerance is understood by university lecturers. further class, course, or person-based qualitative studies in this area should help bring about a more profound understanding of what institutional tolerance is and how it is perceived. keywords: democratic value, tolerance, academician, university student giriş aileden başlayarak bireyin yaşamının tüm kesitlerinde demokrasiye ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. ertürk’ün (1993) bir yaşam tarzı olarak anlayıp tanımladığı demokrasi, toplumsal ilişki ve kişilik yapılarının yani yaşam biçiminin adım adım, sabır ve hoşgörüyle geliştirilmesini öngörür. demokrasi denildiğinde dayanışma, hoşgörü, sorumluluk, sevgi, saygı, yardımseverlik, dürüstlük, adalet, özgürlük, uzlaşma, eşitlik gibi değerler akla gelir. şüphesiz bu değerlerden biri diğerine tercih edilir değildir. ancak hoşgörünün demokrasinin yerleşmesinde ayrı bir payı vardır (çankaya, 2010; kıncal & işık, 2003; osler & starkey, 2006; selvi, 2006; acun, demir & göz, 2010). hoşgörü kavramının batı kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 89 dillerindeki karşılığı "tolerans", arapça ve osmanlıcadaki karşılığı ise "müsamaha"dır (kavcar, 1995). hoşgörü başkalarının dil, din, cinsiyet, inanç ve tutum gibi farklılıklarından rahatsız olmama durumudur (akarsu, 1990; cevizli, 2010). hoşgörü, savundukları görüşler ve açığa vurdukları duyguları bizimkilerle çelişen kimselere sabır göstermektir. hoşgörülü insan, bir konuya değişik yaklaşımların olabileceğini düşünen, değişik yaklaşımları görmeye çalışan ve karşısındakinin yaklaşımını da bu açıdan değerlendirebilen kişidir (başaran, 1995). ferrar (1976) ise hoşgörüden söz edebilmek için üç temel boyutun göz önüne alınması gerektiğini vurgulamıştır: 1) başka grupları, inançları ve pratikleri herhangi bir kategorik değerlendirmeye tabi tutmayan esnek ve anlayışlı bakış, 2) hak ve farklılıkların çeşitliliğine olanak tanıma, 3) i̇nançların, pratiklerin ve kültürlerin çok çeşitli olabileceğini kabullenme ve hiçbir inancı ya da kültürü yadırgamama (akt. dağlı, 1995). i̇nsanların hoşgörüyü öğrenmelerine en elverişli ortam; aile, okul ve demokrasi ile yönetilen toplum ortamıdır. siyasal erkin yönetim biçiminin, aile yönetim biçimini etkilemesi yüzünden, çocuklar toplumda uygulanan yönetim biçimini benimseyerek büyürler. çocuklar bu etkiler altında hoşgörü ya da hoşgörüsüzlüğü yaşayarak öğrenirler (başaran, 1995). çocukların demokratik bir değer olan hoşgörüyü öğrenebilecekleri diğer bir ortam okullardır. okullar demokrat vatandaşların yetiştirilmesinde ve demokratik bir kültürün oluşturulmasında önemli bir role sahiptir (apple & beanne, 2011; biesta, 2007). okullarda demokratik tutumların öğrencilere kazandırılabilmesi özellikle öğretmenlerin demokrasiye ilişkin değerlerin en önemlilerinden bir olan hoşgörüyü içselleştirilebilmelerine bağlıdır. bu bağlamda öğretmenlerin sınıf içi tutumları çok önemlidir. sınıfta öğrencilerin kendisinden farklı düşünceleri dile getirmelerine olanak tanıyan, öğrencilerini dinleyen, onlarla empati kurabilen ve öğrencilerinin etkin katılımı sağlayabilen öğretmen sınıfta hoşgörüyü egemen kılarak demokratik bir sınıf ortamı oluşturabilir. donnelly’e (2004) göre, öğretmenler sınıfta hoşgörülü bir ortam oluşturabilmek için demokratik değerlere sempati göstermeli, sınıfta ayrımcılığı ortadan kaldırarak ve herkese eşit konuşma imkânı sağlayarak öğrencilerine model olmalıdır. avery ve diğerleri (1992), öğretmenin grup etkinlikleri yoluyla farklı özellikteki öğrenciler arasında etkileşimi sağlayarak sınıfta hoşgörü düzeyini arttırılabileceğini ileri sürmektedirler. bir sınıfta hoşgörünün somut bir şekilde görülebileceği konuların başında öğretmen ve öğrenci arasındaki diyalog gelmektedir. diyalog sadece bazı bilişsel sonuçları journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 86-104 90 başarmaya yönelik bir teknik değil aynı zamanda sınıf içindeki sosyal ilişkileri dönüştüren ve geniş anlamda toplumdaki sosyal ilişkilerde de farkındalığı artıran bir yaklaşımdır (shor ve freire, 1987). diyalog, bir hoşgörü ortamında bireylerin aynı konular üzerinde farklı düşüncelerini bıkmadan usanmadan karşılıklı olarak birbirlerine aktardıkları ve birbirlerini anlamak için gösterdikleri bir çaba ya da süreç olarak tanımlanabilir (wells ve arauz, 2006). diyalog ortamının geliştirilmesinde öğretmenin sahip olduğu demokratik tutum ve davranışlar belirleyici olmaktadır. bu açıdan bakıldığında demokratik bir öğretmen, sınıf düzenini, öğrencilere emirler vererek değil, onlara karşı nazik, sıcak ve ilgili davranarak, onları kararlara katarak, sorumluluk vererek, içsel ve dışsal güdüleme mekanizmalarını kullanarak, tutum ve davranışlarında kararlılık göstererek sağlamaya çalışır (i̇pek, 1999). bu tür öğretmenler, kendi (doğru-yanlış) tanımlarını öğrenciye zorla kabul ettirmeye çalışmazlar, hoşgörülüdürler ve daha az yargılarlar (külahoğlu, 2000). sınıfta demokratik davranış sergileyen öğretmen, esnek, dersini sunmada gayretli, sınıfa rahatlatıcı bir hava yayan, çocuklara çalışmalarını iyi ve başarılı biçimde tamamlamaları konusunda yardımcı olan, öğrencileri sık sık takdir eden ve ödüllendiren, sınıfını güven içinde yöneten ve bunu tutum ve becerileriyle ortaya koyan öğretmendir (smith ve laslett 1996). hahn’a (1998) göre katılımı teşvik eden bir öğretmen, bireylere demokratik yaşamı deneyimleme fırsatı yaratır. bu deneyimler öğrencinin sınıf içinde sahip olduğu hakların neler olduğunun bilincine varmasına, demokratik değerler olarak hoşgörü, katılım, hak ve adalet kavramlarını içselleştirmesine yardımcı olur. dewey’in (1916) de belirttiği gibi küçük yaşlardan itibaren karar verme sürecine katılan öğrenciler demokratik toplumun sürdürülmesine ve kurumsallaşmasına katkıda bulunur. eğitimin her kademesindeki öğretmenler, öğrencilerine karşı hoşgörülü, haklara ve kişiliklere saygılı, tarafsız, tartışmaya açık, yol gösterici, yardımcı, tutarlı demokratik davranışlar içine girebilirlerse bu, kuşkusuz yıllar boyunca ve sayfalar uzunluğunca verilebilecek demokrasi derslerinden çok daha etkili olacaktır (gömleksiz, 1988). eğitimin her düzeyinde özellikle de yarının öğretmenlerini yetiştirecek olan yükseköğretim kurumlarındaki öğretim elemanlarının hoşgörülü bir sınıf ortamı oluşturarak ders işlemeleri ve öğrencilerinde de benzer tutum ve davranışlar geliştirmeye çalışmaları, demokrasiyi özümsemiş yeni bir nesil yetişmesini sağlayacaktır (yağcı, 1998). bu anlamda öğretim elemanlarının eğitim öğretim sürecinde öğrencilere yönelik tutum ve tavırları hem demokratik anlayışın yerleşmesi hem de hoşgörü ortamının geliştirilmesi açısından kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 91 önemlidir. ancak, bir bireyin kendini nasıl tanımladığından ziyade başkalarınca nasıl tanımlandığı önemlidir. bu yüzden öğretim elemanlarının tek başına kendilerini hoşgörülü olarak tanımlamaları yetersiz kalacaktır. onların, öğrencilerin gözünde de hoşgörülü sayılabilmeleri için sınıftaki hoşgörü ortamının paydaşları konumunda olan öğretim elemanlarıyla öğrencilerin hoşgörü anlayışlarının kısmen de olsa paralellik göstermesi gerekmektedir. bu çalışmanın özgün bir boyutu ölçek geliştirme aşamasında öğrencilerin hoşgörülü bir öğretim elemanının nasıl olması gerektiğine ilişkin görüşleri alınarak işe başlanmasıdır. çalışmanın bu yönüyle de alana katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir. bu çalışmanın temel amacı eğitim fakültesinde görev yapan öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi hoşgörüye ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemektir. bu genel amaç doğrultusunda aşağıdaki sorulara yanıt aranmıştır: 1. öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi hoşgörüye ilişkin görüşleri cinsiyet değişkenine göre değişmekte midir? 2. öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi hoşgörüye ilişkin görüşleri medeni durum değişkenine göre değişmekte midir? 3. öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi hoşgörüye ilişkin görüşleri kıdem değişkenine göre değişmekte midir? 4. öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi hoşgörüye ilişkin görüşleri unvan değişkenine göre değişmekte midir? yöntem demokratik bir değer olarak sınıfta hoşgörüye ilişkin öğretim elemanlarının görüşlerinin belirlenmesi amacıyla yapılan bu araştırma, tarama modeli niteliğindedir. bu çalışmada öğretim elemanlarının sınıfta hoşgörüye ilişkin görüşleri, araştırmacıların geliştirdiği bir ölçek aracılığıyla betimlenmeye çalışılmıştır. evren ve örneklem araştırmanın evreni, 2011-2012 öğretim yılında ondokuz mayıs üniversitesi eğitim fakültesinde görev yapmakta olan öğretim üyesi ve öğretim görevlilerinden oluşmaktadır. öğretim üyesi ve öğretim görevlilerinin tamamına ulaşılması hedeflendiğinden örneklem seçme yoluna gidilmemiştir. eğitim fakültesinde 21 profesör, 20 doçent, 79 yardımcı doçent, 49 öğretim görevlisi olmak üzere toplam 169 öğretim journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 86-104 92 elemanı görev yapmaktadır. çalışma evrenindeki tüm öğretim elemanlarına ölçek dağıtılmış bunlardan 110’u geri dönmüştür. ölçeğin geri dönüş oranı %65 olmuştur. oranın bu düzeyde kalmasının temel nedeni bazı öğretim elemanlarının çalışmaya katılmaya istekli olmaması ve uygulamanın yapıldığı dönemde bazı öğretim elemanlarının görevlendirme, izin, rapor gibi nedenlerden dolayı yerlerinde bulunmamalarıdır. veri toplama araçları öğretim elemanlarının sınıfta hoşgörüye yönelik görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla bir ölçek geliştirilmiştir. ölçek taslağı hazırlanırken eğitim fakültesi i̇lköğretim bölümündeki her bir anabilim dalından 10’ar öğrenci olmak üzere toplam 50 öğrenciye nominal grup tekniği uygulanarak “sizce hoşgörülü bir öğretim elemanının özellikleri nelerdir?” sorusu sorulmuş ve öğrencilerin görüşleri alınmıştır. bu görüşler ve yapılan alanyazın taraması sonucunda 25 maddelik taslak bir hoşgörü ölçeği geliştirilmiştir. ölçeğin kapsam geçerliliği kapsamında felsefe, ilahiyat, sosyoloji ve psikoloji alanlarında görev yapan öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri doğrultusunda 17 maddelik bir ölçek formu geliştirilmiştir. geliştirilen ölçeğin geçerlik ve güvenirliğinin belirlenmesi amacıyla ondokuz mayıs üniversitesine bağlı fen edebiyat fakültesi, tıp fakültesi, mühendislik fakültesi ve samsun meslek yüksekokulunda görev yapan 120 öğretim elemanına (her birinden 30 öğretim elemanı olmak üzere) ölçek gönderilmiştir. gönderilen 120 ölçekten 71’i dönmüş; bunlar, ölçeğin geçerlik ve güvenirliğinin belirlenmesinde kullanılmıştır. ön denemeden elde edilen verilere faktör analizi uygulanıp uygulanmayacağını belirlemek için kmo ve bartlett testleri uygulanmıştır. kmo testinden elde edilen değerin .70 çıkması ölçeğin faktör analizi yapılarak değerlendirilebileceğine, ayrıca bartlett testinden elde edilen değerin anlamlılık düzeyinin 0.05’ten düşük çıkması korelasyon matriksinden faktör çıkarılabileceğine işaret etmektedir (şencan, 2005). kmo ve bartlett testlerinin sonuçları tablo 1’de verilmiştir. tablo 1. kmo ve bartlett testi sonuçları kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequa ,696 barlett’s test of sphericity approx. chi-square 245,365 df 78,000 sig. ,000 kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 93 yukarıdaki veriler ışığında “sınıf i̇çi hoşgörü ölçeği”nin faktör analizi yapılarak değerlendirilmesi uygun görülmüştür. faktör analizi uygulaması ile 17 maddeden oluşan ölçeğin tek ya da çok faktörlü olup olmadığının belirlenmesine çalışılmıştır. yapılan analiz sonucunda madde faktör yük değeri .40’ın altında olan maddeler çıkarıldıktan sonra ölçekte yer alan 13 maddenin birbirinden bağımsız üç faktörde (iletişim ve katılım, dış görünüş, öğrenci davranışlarına tepki) toplandığı ve maddelerin faktör yük değerlerinin .43 ile .82 arasında değiştiği görülmüştür. “sınıf i̇çi hoşgörü ölçeği”nde her bir faktörün açıkladığı varyans oranlarına bakıldığında; birinci faktörün (4 madde) açıkladığı varyans oranının % 28.15, ikinci faktörün (3 madde) % 14.53 ve üçüncü faktörün (4 madde) % 10.08 ve toplamda ise % 52.78 olduğu belirlenmiştir. ölçeğin güvenirlik katsayısına bakıldığında ise alfa iç tutarlılık katsayısının .74 olduğu saptanmıştır. buna göre “sınıf i̇çi hoşgörü ölçeği”nin güvenilir ve geçerli olduğu söylenebilir. verilerin analizi araştırmada toplanan verilerin analizinde spss 16.0 istatistik paket programı kullanılmıştır. verilerin cinsiyet, medeni durum, kıdem ve unvan değişkenleri açısından karşılaştırılması amacıyla aritmetik ortalama, t-testi, mann-whitney u testi ve kruskal wallis teknikleri kullanılmıştır. sınıf içi hoşgörüye ilişkin öğretim elemanlarının, verilen ifadelere ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla beşli likert derecelendirme ölçeği kullanılmıştır. ölçek; (5) tamamen katılıyorum, (4) katılıyorum, (3) kararsızım, (2) katılmıyorum ve (1) hiç katılmıyorum seçeneklerinden oluşmuştur. bulgular bu bölümde öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi hoşgörü ile ilgili görüşleri iletişim ve katılım, dış görünüş ve öğrenci davranışlarına tepki olmak üzere üç boyutta ele alınmıştır. bu boyutlara ilişkin öğretim elamanlarının görüşleri ilk olarak aritmetik ortalama değerlerine göre tablolaştırılarak verilmiş, ardından görüşlerin cinsiyet, medeni durum, unvan ve kıdem değişkenlerine göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığı t-testi, mann-whitney u ve kruskal wallis teknikleri kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. i̇letişim ve katılım journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 86-104 94 i̇letişim ve katılım boyutunda yer alan ifadelere ilişkin öğretim elemanları görüşlerinin madde ortalama puanları tablo 2’de verilmiştir. tablo 2. i̇letişim ve katılım boyutuna i̇lişkin öğretim elemanları görüşlerinin madde ortalama puanları i̇fadeler n x ss öğrenciler kendilerini ilgilendiren konularda karar alma sürecine katılmalıdır. 110 4,52 0,53 öğrencinin alacağı dersi birden fazla öğretim elemanı veriyorsa, öğrenci istediği öğretim elemanını seçebilmelidir. 110 4,41 0,72 öğrenciler haklı oldukları durumlarda öğretim elemanlarına itiraz edebilmelidir. 110 4,35 0,68 öğrenciler de öğretim elemanlarına önerilerde bulunabilir. 110 4,30 0,72 "hocam, dersiniz çok sıkıcı" diyen öğrenciye olumsuz bir tepki gösterilmemelidir. 110 3,64 1, 09 tablo 2 incelendiğinde iletişim ve katılım boyutuna ilişkin öğretim elemanları görüşlerinin madde ortalama puanlarının genel olarak yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. öğretim elemanlarının, öğrencilerin karar alma sürecine katılmasına, ders alacakları öğretim elemanını seçme özgürlüğüne, çeşitli konularla ilgili itiraz ve önerilerini dile getirmelerine sıcak baktıkları ortaya koyulmuştur. bununla birlikte, dersin niteliğine ilişkin öğrenci görüşlerinin ifade edilmesine, diğer maddelere göre öğretim elemanlarının daha temkinli yaklaştıkları söylenebilir. öğretim elemanlarının hoşgörü ölçeğinin iletişim ve katılım boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin cinsiyet değişkenine göre t-testi sonuçları tablo 3’te verilmiştir. tablo 3. cinsiyet değişkenine i̇lişkin t-testi sonuçları boyut değişken n x ss sd t p i̇letişim ve katılım kadın erkek 34 76 21,26 21,18 2,00 2,45 108 ,167 ,867 *p>0.05 tablo 3’te de görüldüğü gibi cinsiyet değişkenine göre ölçeğin iletişim ve katılım boyutuna ilişkin öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır [t(108) =,867, p>0.05]. kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 95 öğretim elemanlarının hoşgörü ölçeğinin iletişim ve katılım boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin medeni durum değişkenine göre mann-whitney u testi sonuçları tablo 4’te verilmiştir. tablo 4. medeni durum değişkenine i̇lişkin mann-whitney u testi sonuçları boyut değişken n sıra ortalaması sıra toplamı u p i̇letişim ve katılım evli 92 51,11 4794,50 516,5 ,011 bekar 18 72,81 1310,50 *p<0.05 tablo 4 incelendiğinde evli ve bekâr öğretim elemanlarının iletişim ve katılım boyutuna ilişkin görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olduğu görülmektedir (u=516.5, p<0.05). sıra ortalamalarına bakıldığında, iletişim ve katılım boyutunda bekâr öğretim elemanlarının sıra ortalamalarının (72,81), evli öğretim elemanlarının sıra ortalamalarından (51,11) daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. bu da bekâr öğretim elemanlarının, öğrencilerin karar alma sürecine katılmasına, ders alacakları öğretim elemanını seçme özgürlüğüne, çeşitli konularla ilgili itiraz ve önerilerini dile getirmelerine daha sıcak baktıklarını göstermektedir. öğretim elemanlarının ölçeğin iletişim ve katılım boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin unvan değişkenine göre kruskal wallis testi sonuçları tablo 5’te verilmiştir. tablo 5. unvan değişkenine i̇lişkin kruskal wallis testi sonuçları boyut unvan n sıra ortalaması sd χ2 p i̇letişim ve katılım prof. dr. 9 54,89 3 ,004 1,00 doç. dr. 12 55,42 yrd. doç. dr. 64 55,58 öğretim görevlisi 25 55,56 *p>0.05 analiz sonuçlarına göre, unvan değişkeni açısından iletişim ve katılım boyutunda öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır [χ2(3)= 0,004, p=1,000, p>0.05]. öğretim elemanlarının ölçeğin iletişim ve katılım boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin kıdem değişkenine göre kruskal wallis testi sonuçları tablo 6’da verilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 86-104 96 tablo 6. kıdem değişkenine i̇lişkin kruskal wallis testi sonuçları boyut kıdem n sıra ortalaması sd χ2 p i̇letişim ve katılım 5 yıldan az 7 55,79 3 ,415 ,937 6-10 yıl arası 26 58,90 11-15 yıl arası 34 54,63 16 yıl ve üzeri 43 54,08 *p>0.05 analiz sonuçlarına göre, kıdem değişkeni açısından iletişim ve katılım boyutunda öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır [χ2(3)= 0, 415, p=0,937, p>0.05]. sıra ortalamalarına bakıldığında 6-10 yıl arasında kıdeme sahip öğretim elemanlarının iletişim ve katılım boyutundaki ifadelere daha olumlu yaklaştıkları söylenebilir. dış görünüş dış görünüş boyutunda yer alan ifadelere ilişkin öğretim elemanları görüşlerinin madde ortalama puanları tablo 7’de verilmiştir. tablo 7. dış görünüş boyutuna i̇lişkin öğretim elemanları görüşlerinin madde ortalama puanları i̇fadeler n x ss öğretim elemanı okula istediği kıyafetle gidebilmelidir. 110 4,01 1,12 öğrenciler okula istediği kıyafetle gidebilmelidir. 110 3,92 1,05 öğrencilerin okulda siyasi görüşlerini açığa vuran işaretler taşıyabilmelidirler. 110 2,15 1,22 tablo 7 incelendiğinde dış görünüş boyutuna ilişkin öğretim elemanlarının gerek kendilerinin gerekse öğrencilerin okula istedikleri kıyafetle gelebileceğine ilişkin olumlu görüş bildirdikleri, buna karşın öğrencilerinin siyasi kimliklerini ya da görüşlerini belli edecek işaretler kullanmalarına sıcak bakmadıkları görülmüştür. öğretim elemanlarının, hoşgörü ölçeğinin dış görünüş boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin cinsiyet değişkenine göre t-testi sonuçları tablo 8’de verilmiştir. tablo 8. cinsiyet değişkenine i̇lişkin t-testi sonuçları kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 97 boyut değişken n x ss sd t p dış görünüş kadın erkek 34 76 9,47 10,35 2,21 2,46 108 1,790 ,076 *p>0.05 tablo 8’de de görüldüğü gibi cinsiyet değişkenine göre ölçeğin dış görünüş boyutuna ilişkin öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır [t(108) =1,790, p>0.05]. öğretim elemanlarının hoşgörü ölçeğinin dış görünüş boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin medeni durum değişkenine göre mann-whitney u testi sonuçları tablo 9’da verilmiştir. tablo 9. medeni durum değişkenine i̇lişkin mann-whitney u testi sonuçları boyut değişken n sıra ortalaması sıra toplamı u p dış görünüş evli 92 55,41 5097,50 819,5 ,945 bekar 18 55,97 1007,50 *p>0.05 tablo 9 incelendiğinde evli ve bekâr öğretim elemanlarının dış görünüş boyutuna ilişkin görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı görülmektedir (u=819.5, p>0.05). öğretim elemanlarının ölçeğin dış görünüş boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin unvan değişkenine göre kruskal wallis testi sonuçları tablo 10’da verilmiştir. tablo 10. unvan değişkenine i̇lişkin kruskal wallis testi sonuçları boyut unvan n sıra ortalaması sd χ2 p dış görünüş prof. dr. 9 55,61 3 ,877 ,831 doç. dr. 12 62,62 yrd. doç. dr. 64 55,41 öğretim görevlisi 25 52,26 *p>0.05 analiz sonuçlarına göre, unvan değişkeni açısından dış görünüş boyutunda öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır [χ2(3)= 0,877, p=0,831, journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 86-104 98 p>0.05]. unvan değişkenine göre sıra ortalamalarına bakıldığında öğretim elemanlarından doçentlerin dış görünüş boyutundaki ifadelere daha olumlu yaklaştıkları söylenebilir. öğretim elemanlarının ölçeğin dış görünüş boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin kıdem değişkenine göre kruskal wallis testi sonuçları tablo 11’de verilmiştir. tablo 11. kıdem değişkenine i̇lişkin kruskal wallis testi sonuçları boyut kıdem n sıra ortalaması sd χ2 p dış görünüş 5 yıldan az 7 46,00 3 1,722 ,632 6-10 yıl arası 26 61,15 11-15 yıl arası 34 52,81 16 yıl ve üzeri 43 55,76 *p>0.05 analiz sonuçlarına göre, kıdem değişkeni açısından dış görünüş boyutunda öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır [χ2(3)= 1,722, p=0,632, p>0.05]. sıra ortalamalarına bakıldığında dış görünüş boyutunda yer alan ifadelere 6-10 yıl arasında kıdeme sahip öğretim elemanlarının daha olumlu yaklaştıkları görülmektedir. buna karşın dış görünüş boyutundaki ifadelere 5 yıldan az kıdeme sahip öğretim elemanlarının ise en az olumlu yaklaşan grup olduğu göze çarpmaktadır. öğrenci davranışlarına tepki öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutunda yer alan ifadelere ilişkin öğretim elemanları görüşlerinin madde ortalama puanları tablo 12’de verilmiştir. tablo 12. öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutuna i̇lişkin öğretim elemanları görüşlerinin madde ortalama puanları i̇fadeler n x ss sınıfta öğrencinin konuşurken ayağa kalkmasına gerek yoktur. 110 4,05 1,10 toplumsal değerlere uygun olmayan görüşler savunan bir öğrenci sınıftan çıkarılmalıdır.* 110 3,96 1,17 derse geç gelen öğrenci sınıfa alınmamalıdır.* 110 3,55 1,22 öğrencilerin sınıfta kahve, çay vb. şeyler içmesi uygun değildir.* 110 2,72 1,12 dersi dinlemeyen öğrencinin dışarı çıkarılması gerekir.* 110 2,60 1,21 * ters kodlanmış madde kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 99 tablo 12 incelendiğinde öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutundaki ifadelere öğretim elemanlarının farklı yaklaştığı görülmektedir. sınıfta öğrencilerin konuşurken ayağa kalkmamalarına, toplumsal değerlere aykırı da olsa görüşler ifade etmeleri durumunda sınıftan çıkarılmamalarına, derse geç kalan öğrencilerin sınıfa alınmasına ilişkin ifadelere olumlu yaklaştıkları, buna karşın öğrencilerin sınıfta kahve, çay vb. şeyler içmelerine ve dersi dinlemeyen öğrencinin dışarı çıkarılması ifadelerine temkinli yaklaştıkları belirlenmiştir. öğretim elemanlarının hoşgörü ölçeğinin öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin cinsiyet değişkenine göre t-testi sonuçları tablo 13’te verilmiştir. tablo 13. cinsiyet değişkenine i̇lişkin t-testi sonuçları boyut değişken n x ss sd t p öğrenci davranışlarına tepki kadın erkek 34 76 16,50 17,09 2,98 2,37 108 0,128 ,268 *p>0.05 tablo 13’te de görüldüğü gibi cinsiyet değişkenine göre ölçeğin öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutuna ilişkin öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır [t(108) =0,128, p>0.05]. öğretim elemanlarının hoşgörü ölçeğinin öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin medeni durum değişkenine göre mann-whitney u-testi sonuçları tablo 14’te verilmiştir. tablo 14. medeni durum değişkenine i̇lişkin mann-whitney u-testi sonuçları boyut değişken n sıra ortalaması sıra toplamı u p öğrenci davranışlarına tepki evli 92 53,62 4933,50 655,5 ,161 bekâr 18 65,08 1171,50 *p>0.05 tablo 14 incelendiğinde evli ve bekâr öğretim elemanlarının öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutuna ilişkin görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı görülmektedir (u=819.5, p>0.05). sıra ortalamalarına bakıldığında, öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutunda bekâr öğretim elemanlarının sıra ortalamalarının (65,08), evli öğretim elemanlarının sıra ortalamalarından (53,62) daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. bu da, journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 86-104 100 öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutundaki ifadelere bekar öğretim elemanlarının daha olumlu görüş bildirdiklerini göstermektedir. öğretim elemanlarının, ölçeğin öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin unvan değişkenine göre kruskal wallis testi sonuçları tablo 15’te verilmiştir. tablo 15. unvan değişkenine i̇lişkin kruskal wallis testi sonuçları boyut unvan n sıra ortalaması sd χ2 p öğrenci davranışlarına tepki prof. dr. 9 51,61 3 1,758 ,624 doç. dr. 12 61,00 yrd. doç. dr. 64 57,50 öğretim görevlisi 25 49,14 *p>0.05 analiz sonuçlarına göre, unvan değişkeni açısından öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutunda öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır [χ2(3)= 1,758, p=0,624, p>0.05]. sıra ortalamalarına bakıldığında öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutundaki ifadelere en çok katılanların doçent unvanına sahip öğretim elemanları, en az katılanların ise öğretim görevlileri olduğu görülmektedir. öğretim elemanlarının ölçeğin öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutuna ilişkin görüşlerinin kıdem değişkenine göre kruskal wallis testi sonuçları tablo 16’da verilmiştir. tablo 16. kıdem değişkenine i̇lişkin kruskal wallis testi sonuçları boyut kıdem n sıra ortalaması sd χ2 p öğrenci davranışlarına tepki 5 yıldan az 7 60,14 3 ,471 ,925 6-10 yıl arası 26 54,10 11-15 yıl arası 34 57,66 16 yıl ve üzeri 43 53,88 *p>0.05 analiz sonuçlarına göre, kıdem değişkeni açısından öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutunda öğretim elemanlarının görüşleri arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunmamıştır [χ2(3)= 0,471, p=0,925, p>0.05]. sıra ortalamalarına bakıldığında, öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutundaki ifadelere 5 yıldan az kıdeme sahip öğretim elemanlarının daha olumlu yaklaştıkları görülmektedir. kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 101 sonuç demokrasi; hoşgörülü, insan haklarına ve bireysel haklara saygılı bir ortamda uygulanmadıkça, öğrenilmesi ve benimsetilmesi mümkün olmayan bir sistemdir. bir anlamda toplumun demokratik olması eğitim kurumlarının üzerine düşen görevleri etkin şekilde yerine getirip demokrat bireyler yetiştirmesiyle mümkün olabilecektir. eğitim kurumlarının demokratik bireyler yetiştirmesi ise bu kurumlarda görev yapan eğitimcilerin ne kadar demokrat olduğuyla doğru orantılıdır. eğitim kurumlarında eğitimcilerin demokratik bir tutum sergileyip sergilemediğinin en önemli göstergelerinden biri de onların hoşgörü düzeyleridir. bir eğitim kurumu olarak üniversitelerin ortaya çıkışından günümüze değin öne çıkan temel özelliklerinden biri; her türlü düşüncenin kendine yer bulduğu, bilginin üretilmesi ve yaygınlaştırılması açısından her türlü sınır ya da engelin ortadan kaldırıldığı ve hoşgörünün üst düzeyde olduğu bir ortam olmasıdır. özellikle eğitim fakülteleri demokratik bir toplumun inşasında ayrı bir öneme sahiptir. çünkü öğretmenler demokrasiyi özümsemiş kuşakların yetiştirilmesinde ve bu anlayışın toplumun her kesimine ulaştırılmasında kilit bir rol oynar. demokrasi bilinci kazanmış öğretmenlerin yetiştirilmesinde eğitim fakültelerinde görev yapan öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içindeki hoşgörü ortamını besleyen tutum ve davranışları çok önemlidir. bu bağlamda, bu çalışmada, eğitim fakültesinde görev yapan öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi hoşgörüye ilişkin görüşleri belirlenmiştir. öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi hoşgörüye ilişkin görüşleri; iletişim ve katılım, dış görünüş ve öğrenci davranışlarına tepki başlıkları altında incelenmiştir. i̇letişim ve katılım boyutuna bakıldığında, öğretim elemanlarının öğrencilerin karar alma sürecine katılmalarına, dersi alacakları öğretim elemanını seçme özgürlüğüne, çeşitli konularla ilgili itiraz ve önerilerini dile getirmelerine olumlu yaklaştıkları belirlenmiştir. bununla birlikte, öğrencilerin derse ilişkin olumsuz görüş ifade etmelerine öğretim elemanlarının daha temkinli yaklaştıkları söylenebilir. kuşkusuz, hoşgörülü bir öğretim elemanı denildiğinde, akla öğrencilerin dersle ilgili karar alma süreçlerine (yöntem, planlama, değerlendirme vb.) katılımına izin veren, onların görüş ve önerilerine değer veren kişi gelmektedir. bu bağlamda çalışmaya katılan öğretim elemanlarının iletişim ve katılım anlamında hoşgörülü oldukları söylenebilir. ancak öğretim elemanlarının “hocam, dersiniz çok sıkıcı” şeklinde derslerine yönelik olumsuz eleştiride bulunabilecek öğrencilere ilişkin aynı derecede hoşgörülü olamayacaklarını ifade ettikleri görülmüştür. öğretim elemanlarının bu ifadeye temkinli yaklaşmalarının journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 86-104 102 nedenleri; öğretim elemanlarının bu eleştiriyi kişiliğine yönelik bir saldırı olarak algılaması, öğrencinin eleştiriyi ifade ediş biçimi ya da öğrencinin bu eleştiriyi sınıfta herkesin önünde yapmış olması olabilir. taş’ın (2009) yaptığı çalışmada da öğretim elamanlarının sınıfta çeşitli konuları paylaşma, hoşgörülü davranışlarda bulunma, sınıf kuralları belirlenirken öğrencilerin fikirlerini alma gibi konularda sınıf içi olumlu davranışları yeterli düzeyde gösterdikleri ortaya koyulmuştur. yapılan analizde cinsiyet, kıdem ve unvana göre öğretim elemanlarının iletişim ve katılım boyutundaki görüşleri arasında anlamlı fark olmadığı belirlenmiştir. bununla birlikte medeni durum değişkenine göre anlamlı fark olduğu belirlenmiş ve bekâr öğretim elemanlarının, evli öğretim elemanlarına göre iletişim ve katılım boyutundaki ifadelere daha olumlu yaklaştıkları görülmüştür. bu da bekâr öğretim elemanlarının, öğrencilerin karar alma sürecine katılmasına, ders alacakları öğretim elemanını seçme özgürlüğüne, çeşitli konularla ilgili itiraz ve önerilerini dile getirmelerine daha sıcak baktıklarını göstermektedir. böyle bir sonucun ortaya çıkmasında bekâr öğretim elemanlarının öğrencilere zaman ayırma ve öğrencilerle birebir etkileşim kurma açısından daha avantajlı olmalarının etkili olduğu söylenebilir. dış görünüş boyutunda öğretim elemanları hem kendilerinin hem de öğrencilerin istedikleri kıyafetleri giyebilmeleri ve giyim konusunda herhangi bir kısıtlamanın doğru olmayacağı yönünde görüş ifade etmişlerdir. öğretim elemanlarının giyim konusundaki bu hoşgörülü tutumlarına karşın öğrencilerin siyasi kimliklerini ya da görüşlerini belli edecek işaretler kullanmalarına ise aynı derecede hoşgörülü yaklaşmadıkları görülmüştür. öğretim elemanlarının her türlü kıyafetin giyilebileceğine ilişkin görüşleri, konu siyasi kimlik ve işarete geldiğinde bir duraksama, tereddüt hali ve karmaşaya dönüşmesinin nedeni öğretim elemanlarının kendilerinden farklı düşüncelere hoşgörü göstermede çok da istekli olmamaları olabilir. aslında bu, çelişik bir duruma işaret etmektedir. çünkü, kıyafet, sadece kıyafet değildir. giyim bir yönüyle yaşam biçiminin dışa vurumudur ve yaşam biçimi de pek çok unsurun yanı sıra siyasi işaretler ve simgeler de taşır. yapılan analizde cinsiyet, medeni durum, kıdem ve unvana göre öğretim elemanlarının dış görünüş boyutundaki görüşleri arasında ise anlamlı fark olmadığı belirlenmiştir. öğretim elemanlarının öğrenci davranışlarına tepki boyutunda yer alan sınıfta öğrencilerin konuşurken ayağa kalkmama, toplumsal değerlere aykırı da olsa görüşler ifade etmeleri durumunda sınıftan çıkarılmama, derse geç kalan öğrencilerin sınıfa alınması gibi kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 103 ifadelere olumlu yaklaştıkları belirlenmiştir. bu da, bu ifadeler bağlamında öğretim elemanlarının hoşgörülü olduklarının göstergesi olarak değerlendirilebilir. ancak öğrencilerin sınıfta kahve, çay vb. şeyler içmelerine ve dersi dinlemeyen öğrencinin dışarı çıkarılması ifadelerine ise yukarıdaki kadar hoşgörülü yaklaşılmadığı görülmüştür. sınıfların temizliğinin sağlanması ve bir ilke olarak hiçbir öğrencinin ne sebeple olursa olsun sınıftan çıkarılmasının uygun olmayacağının fakülte yönetimi tarafından öğretim elemanlarına bildirilmiş olması, bu ifadelere öğretim elemanlarının bu şekilde yanıt vermelerinin nedeni olabilir. üniversite denildiğinde ilk akla gelmesi gereken özellik onun özgürlükçü, düşünen, sorgulayan, eleştiren ve bunları davranışlarına yansıtan üyelerden oluşmasıdır. bu çalışma sonuçları, belirtilen özelliklerin hayata geçmesinde öğretim elemanlarının ve üniversitenin hoşgörü ortamının gelişmesine ne kadar olanak sağladığına işaret etmektedir. sonuçlar çalışmanın yapıldığı fakültede görev yapan öğretim elemanlarının kısmen de olsa bir hoşgörü ortamı yaratmaya çalıştıklarını göstermektedir. ancak evrensel nitelikteki bir üniversite için sağlanan bu ortamın yeterli olduğunu söylemek güçtür. hoşgörü ortamı sadece bireyin içinde bulunduğu ortamın daha demokratik olmasını (iletişime açık olma, öğrenci katılımını sağlama, kılık-kıyafette sınırlayıcı olmama) sağlamakla kalmaz aynı zamanda öğrencinin motivasyonunu, derse karşı ilgisini ve dersteki başarısını da olumlu yönde etkiler. böylelikle bir sınıf yöneticisi olarak öğretim elemanı hoşgörü ortamı oluşturarak eğitim-öğretim faaliyetlerinin amacına uygun şekilde yürütülmesini kolaylaştırır. ayrıca eğitim fakültelerinde böyle bir ortamın oluşturulması, öğretmen adaylarının gelecekte mesleklerini ifa ederken programda ısrarla altı çizilen demokratik sınıf ortamını oluşturmalarına da yardımcı olacaktır. böylelikle bu ortamlarda yetişen çocukların da hoşgörüyü içselleştirmelerine ve toplumun hoşgörüyle birbirine yaklaşan bireylerden oluşmasına zemin hazırlayacaktır. bu çalışma üniversitedeki hoşgörü anlayışının, öğretim elemanlarınca nasıl ele alındığını ortaya koymaya çalışan nicel bir çalışmadır. ancak bu çalışma tek bir üniversitenin eğitim fakültesiyle sınırlıdır. dolayısıyla benzer çalışmalar bu sonuçların genelleştirilebilirlik özelliğinin arttırılması için sadece bir fakültede değil üniversite genelinde hatta diğer eğitim basamaklarında da uygulanmalıdır. böylece türkiye’deki okullardaki hoşgörü ortamının genel bir portresinin ortaya koyulması olanaklı olacaktır. bu konuda sınıf, ders ya da kişi bazında yapılacak nitel çalışmalar da, hoşgörünün kuramsal journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 86-104 104 olarak ne olduğunun, nasıl anlaşıldığının daha derinlikli bir biçimde ortaya çıkarılmasına yardımcı olacaktır. kaynakça/references acun, i̇., demir, m., & göz, n. l. (2010). öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki ilişki. journal of social studies research, 1 (1), 107-123. akarsu, b. (1990). felsefe sözlüğü. i̇stanbul: i̇nkılap yayınevi. apple, m., & benne, j. (2011). demokratik okullar. (çev.) m. sarı, ankara: dipnot yayınları. avery, p. g., bird, k., sullivan, j. l. & johnstone, s. (1992). exploring political tolerance with adolescents. theory and research in social education, 20, 386-420. başaran, i̇. e. (1995). hoşgörü ve eğitim. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.) hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı (47-56). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayını. biesta, g. (2007). education and the democratic person: toward a political conception of democratic education. teachers college record, 109(3), 740–769. cevizci, a. (2010). felsefe sözlüğü. i̇stanbul: paradigma yayınları. çankaya, i̇. (2010). i̇lköğretim okul yöneticilerinin demokrasiye ilişkin tutumlarını etkileyen bazı etkenler üzerine bir araştırma. gaziantep üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 10(2), 945 -960. dağlı, r. (1995). eğitimde hoşgörü. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.) hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı (39-46). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayını. dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education. new york, macmillan. donnelly, c. (2004). constructing the ethos of tolerance and respect in an integrated school: the role of teachers. british educational research journal, 30(2), 263-27. ertürk, s. (1993). diktacı tutum ve demokrasi. ankara: kültür bakanlığı yayınları. gömleksiz, m.(1988). demokratik sınıf ortamı açısından hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi öğretim elemanları ve öğrencilerin davranışlarının değerlendirilmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. hacettepe üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. hahn, c. (1998). becoming political: comparative perspectives on citizenship education. albany: state university of new york press. i̇pek, c. (1999). resmi liseler ile özel liselerde örgütsel kültür ve öğretmen-öğrenci ilişkisi (yayınlanmamış doktora tezi), ankara: ankara üniversitesi. sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. kavcar, c. (1995). açılış konuşması. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.) hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı (1-4). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayını. kıncal, r., & işık, h. (2003). demokratik eğitim ve demokratik değerler. eğitim araştırmaları, 11, 54–58. külahoğlu, ş, ö. (2000). öğrenci davranışlarını etkileyen psikolojik ve sosyal faktörler. l. küçükahmet (ed.), sınıf yönetiminde yeni yaklaşımlar, ankara: nobel yayıncılık. osler,a.,& starkey,h.(2006). education for democratic citizenship: a review of research, policy and practice 1995–2005. research papers in education, 21(4), 433-466. kasım kiroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz 105 selvi, k. (2006). developing a teacher trainees’ democratic values scale: validity and reliability analyses. social behavior and personality, 34(9), 1171-1178. shor, i., & freire, p. (1987). what is the “dialogical method” of teaching? journal of education 169 (3), 11-31. smith, c. j., & laslett, r. (1996). effective classroom management: a teacher guide. 2nd edition, london and new york: routledge. şencan, h. (2005). sosyal ve davranışsal ölçümlerde güvenirlik ve geçerlilik. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. taş, s. (2009). öğretim elemanlarının sınıf içi ve sınıf dışı davranışlarının öğretim elemanı-öğrenci iletişimine yansımaları süleyman demirel üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 1(9), 171-192. wells, g., & arauz, r. m. (2006). dialogue in the classroom. the journal of the learning sciences, 15 (3), 379-428. yağcı, e. (1997). sınıf içi demokratik öğretimin öğrenci erişisi ve akademik benlik kavramına etkisi. hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 13, 171-179. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 176-200 peer acceptance in early childhood: links to socio-economic status and social competence blerta perolli shehu1 abstract social relationships and peer interactions play an important role in the healthy development of the child, and opportunities for socialization in early childhood present a good opportunity for children to gain the necessary experience and maturity for development of healthy relationships in the future. this study looks at factors associated with, and predictive of, peer acceptance and rejection in early childhood. participants of the study are 130 children, their parents and teachers. sociometric techniques, socio-demographic questionnaire and the vineland scale for adaptive behavior were used to collect the data. results indicate that socio-economic factors influence children’s social standing in the group, and higher scores in social and communication skills are positively correlated with peer acceptance. there was also a high correlation between child’s peer acceptance and their level of socialization (r(50) = .640, p = 0.00) and between child’s peer acceptance and their level of development in the field of communication (r(50) = .626, p = 0.00). although slightly lower than the above-mentioned correlations, a positive correlation exists between child’s peer acceptance and socio-economic status of the family with a correlation of r(50) = .406, p = 0.00. the results of this study have been able to establish that all factors that are assumed to correlate with peer acceptance in early childhood are determinants of a particular importance. moreover, the results of the regression indicate that the model explained 54.9% of the variance and that the independent variables were a significant predictor of peer acceptance. key words: social skills, social competence, peer acceptance, early childhood, preschool institutions. introduction social development underlies the process through which the child learns to interact with others, and as such, it implies gaining experience in social relations and learning to adapt to the surrounding environment. from an early age, the child feels the need to befriend someone, a need that later develops in their constant need for friendships (perolli-shehu, 2019). social relationships and interactions play a very important role in the healthy development of the child, and opportunities for socialization in early childhood present a good opportunity for children to gain 1 phd, faculty of education, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, blerta.perolli-shehu@uni-pr.edu mailto:blerta.perolli-shehu@uni-pr.edu perolli-shehu 177 maturity in development of successful relationships. according to dijkstra (2004), the social status of the child implies the phenomenon of acceptance or rejection of children by their peer group, and as such is recognized as a strong determinant of child development. genuine acceptance of the child in the peer group creates the basis for healthy development while rejection from peers from an early age brings about such risks as externalizing problems (poor school adaptation, physical aggressiveness) and internalizing problems (loneliness, social anxiety, depression, and negative self-esteem) (dijkstra, 2004). children who have difficulty interacting with peers and fail to build positive relationships are at serious risk for social adaptability in the future (rubin et al., 1998). research done by rubin and colleagues found that difficulties in interactions with peers are accurate predictors of peer relationships and future social competence problems (rubin et al., 1998). previous research indicates that the style of interaction with peers in early childhood does not change at later stages of child development (shuey, 2007); therefore, it is important to recognize this style and understand the factors that lead to acceptability or rejection by peers at the earliest stages of development. experiences and interactions with peers provide opportunities for social skills development, social awareness and sound psychosocial adjustment. with the development of these skills, and with the sound psychosocial adaptation in the surrounding, we can say that the child has reached the appropriate level of social competence (xie et al., 2006). over the last few decades, special attention has been paid to this topic, and there have been major advances in understanding the phenomenon of peer acceptance and rejection. although, most children are lucky enough to be rewarded with good relationships with their peers, there are children, who view social interactions as punishment, and relationships with peers as stressful for both them and their families (slaughter et al., 2002; asher, 2002). the reason why it is important to know the factors related to peer acceptance or rejection, is that by comparing rejected children to those who are better accepted in the group, not only do we learn how children’s relevant behaviors lead to difficulties in dealing with peers, but we also learn about adaptive and maladaptive ways of dealing with the social world and what kind of skills a child should have in order to be able to initiate and maintain a social relationship (perolli-shehu, 2009). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 socio-economic status and child development bronfenbrenner (1979) was the first the place child development in an ecological perspective. looking at child development from brofenbrenner’s perspective, we become aware of the complex network of factors in play shaping children’s development and day-to-day learning. looking at the microsystem, which represents the immediate surrounding of the child, it is defined as the immediate family, and therefore mostly concerns the living conditions of the child and the interaction patterns between family members. studies have found that socio-economic situation largely influences the development of social competences and peer acceptance. according to mulder (2008), parent's incomes bring social status to the family and can influence a child's social development, by providing social opportunities to the child. children, who live in homes where financial resources are limited, are less likely to have these social opportunities. children in families with limited financial resources compared with their more affluent peers are more likely to experience a variety of socio-emotional difficulties, such as behavioral problems (anthony et al., 2005: carothers, & parfitt, 2017; mirza, 2018), internalizing and externalizing symptoms (duncan et al., 1994; parker, 2019), and problematic peer relations (patterson et al., 1990). children who have good peer relations and, positive interactions (e.g., helping, caring, sharing interactions) may lead other children to think and feel positively about the child with whom such exchanges have taken place, be attracted to that child, and seek to develop a meaningful, supportive, and constructive friendship with the child (rubin et al., 2012). hoglund and leafbeater (2004) found that parental education was also related to child’s social skills. low levels of mother’s education predicted increase in emotional and behavioral problems of children in classrooms with few prosocial behaviors, which leads to lower social competence of children in the classrooms. uribe and colleagues (1994) also found that parental education attainment contributes to the social development and peer acceptance of children. ubom (2015) argued that the level of education, and knowledge of social world, permits the parents to devote more time, energy and material resources to nurturing children’s psychosocial characteristics, and found that the quality of parents’ social networks is significantly associated with children’s social competence. other studies show that children with poor social skills become rejected more often, and they are often excluded from positive interactions with peers, interactions that are critical for the learning of social skills (ferris, 2019; rubin et al., 2012). perolli-shehu 179 social development and peer acceptance children grow and develop in social networks with peers and others persons in their circle and these relationships represent an extremely important aspect of social, emotional and cognitive development of children, especially up to the age of five years (xie et al., 2006). during social relationships, young children are both influenced by their peers and they themselves influence their peers, and during these interactions their subordinate or dominant roles within the social circle become evident. according to erik erikson's theory, the child's psychosocial development goes through eight stages, which he has formulated not only as a result of experimental work, but also as a result of extensive experience in direct work with children and adolescents. each stage, according to erikson, is a "psychosocial crisis" that requires resolution at that stage, so that the child can master his or her development and move on successfully to the other stage. according to erikson, preschool children are in the third stage (initiative vs. guilt), when their interpersonal skills also begin to develop and they are preoccupied with their social world. when they manage to accomplish goals that are acceptable to their peers, they develop what erikson calls the sense of initiative. on the contrary, children develop feelings of guilt. to further elaborate, erikson believed that this stage, occurs at "playtime" or preschool age, when children learn to imagine, fantasize and expand on their abilities through active play with others; learn to collaborate with others, lead the game or follow the leader. as these skills are developed through interaction with other children, in case of rejection by others, the child is mobilized with a sense of guilt that results in fear of others, high adult dependency, lonely play and hesitation to join the group, all hindering the development of skills and imagination (perolli-shehu, 2009). according to erikson, the child develops socially as a result of being part of a group, always learning how to act to adapt to others (hurlock, 1981). i̇f the child does not overcome this social crisis at this stage, then this will follow on other stages as well, when children are required to raise their level of social competence and possess the more formal life skills. the child, who has successfully mastered the previous stages will have confidence, will be more independent, able to play and act in group and will have initiative. otherwise, the child will doubt himself and his abilities (perolli-shehu, 2009). according to john coie's theory of rejection by peers, it is the specific characteristics of the child itself, not of the social group that influence peer acceptance and rejection. according to coie, the refusal from peers results in increased aggressiveness and internalization of problems, pointing out journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 that it is the child's social behavior that is principally responsible for peer rejection. what ultimately determines the child's social status, is the way the child behaves in front of the social group. for example, according to coie, obese children are the subject of much bullying, however the way they respond to these harassments determines their social status – children who laugh at these harassments are more likely to be readily accepted by the group, rather than if they get angry, react harshly or start crying (coie, 1990). one of the main developmental tasks in childhood is achieving competence in social relationships, and research studies indicate that early childhood experiences are highly correlated with the social development of children (mulder, 2008). children's social competence is a fundamental developmental process that implies possessing the necessary social, emotional and cognitive abilities and behaviors for them to be well adapted to society and to prevail as a successful member of a society. the child's social competence depends on many factors such as social skills of the child, communication skills, his social awareness and his confidence. social competence has been defined as the ability to make use of environmental and personal resources to achieve a desired social outcome (hussong et al., 2005). bierman (2004) defines social competence as the capacity to organize social behavior in different social contexts in a manner beneficial to oneself and consistent with social conventions and morals. a large number of research studies, focused on identifying factors that lead to the development of social competence in children, have found that children who interact more with other children during early childhood are more likely to accept and understand the opinions of their peers, and interact better with one another (slaughter, 2002). children with strong language skills have more opportunities for productive social interaction with peers, and competent communicators are more likely to gain social acceptance (mendez et al., 2002; odom et al., 2006). studies by badenes, estevan, and bacete (2000) have found that children who have difficulty understanding others' inner feelings, thoughts or motivations, exhibit great difficulties even during regular activities in peer groups, and are rejected or neglected by the group, it will result in reduced opportunities for them to experience proper social interactions, acquire the skills for relating to others. the child's eligibility for play and group activities enables them to adhere to their social needs and provides opportunities for genuine personality development and creation of healthy relationships with others (reavis, 2007). whereas, the feeling of being unwanted in the group cause fear, anxiety, the child is reluctant to join activities and feels isolated. children who are not accepted well from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc5552201/#r58 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc5552201/#r65 perolli-shehu 181 the group exhibit problems of adaptation and various forms of delinquency (reavis, 2007). in addition, research shows that peer rejection also leads to internalizing problems, which can cause depression and social anxiety from preschool age. research questions this study explored the following research questions and hypotheses: (1) how is peer acceptance related to socio-economic status of the child? h1: children coming from families with higher socio-economic status are more likely to be accepted by their peers than children coming from families with lower socio-economic status (2) how is peer acceptance related to child social and communication skills? h2: children with higher scores in social and communication skills are more likely to be accepted by their peers than children with lower scores in social and communication skills method the study aim the aim of this study was to examine how socio-economic status and social competences are related to peer acceptance in early childhood in kosovo. research design the study followed a quantitative approach. according to defranzo (2011), quantitative research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. it is used to test variables and generalize results from the sample population. quantitative data collection methods are more structured and include various forms of surveys, interviews, and systematic observations, similar to those used in this study. the design of the study is correlational, a type of non-experimental research method, which measures two variables, in order to understand and assess the statistical relationship between them (kumar, 2017). similar studies conducted in the past were examined in order to support the decision for the design of this study. descriptive statistic techniques were used to tabulate the frequency counts, percentage, means, and standard deviations. correlational design was used to determine whether data on socio-economic status and social skills and competences were correlated with the data on peer acceptance of children. correlation analysis was instrumental in quantifying the degree to which variables in the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 dataset were related with one another and determine how these variables were related to one another. multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine the degree to which socioeconomic status and social skills and competences are predictive of peer acceptance. participants the study was conducted in five heterogeneously mixed preschool classrooms, with a sample of 130 children, aged 3-6 years old. the sample was representative of all social classes of kosovo. out of 130 children, 8 children were without parental care, 6 children with disabilities, 30 children from families living on social assistance and children of single mothers with no family support. the subjects of the study were children; however, most of the data was collected from parents and teachers. data collection tools sociometric technique sociometric technique is used to identify preferences, likes, and dislikes among group members as well to identify patterns of intergroup interaction (hoffman, 2001). it proved very successful in evaluating intra-group relationships and group acceptability or rejection among children. visual representation of interpersonal relationships within a group can be done through the sociogram or sociomatrics chart. choices made by children can be made through nominations (nominate friends they like and dislike) and or by grading friends against a predetermined scale (which one do you like better). the first is used more in elementary school, and the second is used in preschool institutions (hoffman, 2001). socio-demographic survey with parentsthe survey was composed of 15 questions on the sociodemographic characteristics of the family. the data collected through this survey was instrumental in defining the link between demographic characteristics and peer acceptance. vineland scale of adaptive behavior utilizes the format of survey and relies on the responses of parents / guardians and teachers for the social functioning of children in areas such as communication, life skills, socialization and motor skills. adaptive behavior in this context underlies the child's ability to function independently and meet social and cultural demands for social and personal responsibility. this scale was a revision of the vineland degree of social maturity, developed by edgar doll in 1935, and as such contains 297 questions, which take 20 to 60 minutes to complete. the scale also contains a portion for diagnosing maladaptive behaviors, perolli-shehu 183 which is not included in this study. the scale showed good internal reliability =.92. the reliability of the scale, including subscales and reported s is presented in table 1. table 1 reliability of scales measures alpha # items vineland scale of adaptive behavior 0.92 n=116 communication 0.83 n=32 daily living skills 0.78 n=32 socialization 0.84 n=32 motor skills 0.76 n=20 items in each domain are placed in developmental order and rated on a scale of 0 (behavior never performed), 1 (sometimes or partly performed), and 2 (behavior usually or habitually performed). data collection preschoolers were observed during their stay in the preschool and interviewed according to standard sociometric techniques. since the children were of preschool age, the grading method was used instead of the nomination, which implies that they were not asked to give the names of children they like or not, but they were asked to tell which child they would play the most and least with. data from this technique was then entered into the microsoft office access application sociogrm version 6.0., and the walsh classroom sociometrics program and were separated by age group / class and by peer rating (accepted / rejected). results from these data are presented in graphical form with diagram, where the most liked and disliked children in the group are clearly distinguished. from each class, five most accepted, and five most rejected/neglect children were selected, in total 50 children. to continue the study further, data were collected from parents on socio-economic status through surveys, and the vineland scale was filled out by teachers for each child. each child was scored in four areas of development. in parallel, the researcher observed children playing 1 hour per day for approximately two months, focusing mainly on communication and socialization skills of children. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 data analysis the data collected in the study were analyzed using the ibm statistical program for social studies (spss) version 23. the analysis began with data cleaning to ensure data accuracy and data preparation. data preparation also included examining internal consistency reliability of the scales. descriptive statistic techniques were used to tabulate the frequency counts, percentage, means, and standard deviations. correlational design was used to determine whether data on demographics and social skills and competences are correlated with the data on peer acceptance of children. the pearson r was used to determine bivariate correlations. multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine the degree to which social competence is predictive of peer acceptance. findings findings from the sociometric technique the word “sociometry” derives from the latin words “socio” meaning social, and “metrum” meaning measurement. for the first, time the term was used by jacob levy moreno in 1930, when he performed studies on social structures of the groups, and the need arose to develop sociometric testing techniques to measure acceptance and rejection within individuals in a group. he developed methods to analyze interpersonal relations between members of a group, methods that are still used today to identify non-formal leaders, social rankings and more importantly, to identify rejected and neglected individuals within a group (hoffman, 2001). sociometry is based on the fact that people make choices in their interpersonal relationships (hoffman, 2001). we always make choices based on some given criteria. this criterion can be subjective, such as any feeling of being liked or disliked, or it may be objective in the sense that we can choose a person because of the abilities that this person possesses. in this way, through individual choices, groups are created in social networks that determine the relationships between groups. in educational settings, sociometry serves as a very important tool for looking at the relationships between students and the overall classroom climate, identifying popular children who receive the most attention, and identifying neglected children who are overlooked by their peers. sociometry has served over the years as a particularly valuable tool in identifying neglected children and children in need of help or support in developing social skills so that they can actively participate in classroom activities. in this study, children were asked the following questions: (1) who would you like to play the most perolli-shehu 185 with? who do you least want to play with? and (2) if you had three gifts now in your hand to whom would you give the first, the second, and the third? children who receive the most positive nominations and little or no negative nominations are usually described as popular children. those who receive the most negative nominations are usually described as rejected children. however, children who are not named at all are considered neglected children, and as such the most vulnerable group in the class. the data collected from the sociometric technique are presented graphically with a diagram to clearly identify which children in the group in question are popular children, rejected and neglected. in this study, the sociometric technique was instrumental in selecting 50 children, 25 popular and 25 rejected/neglected for the next stage in the study. table 2 below is a graphic representation of popular, rejected and neglected children in 5 classrooms. the vertical line presents all the children in the classroom, their assigned numbers and gender (m/male and f/female). the horizontal line presents how many times they were positively/negatively chosen by their peers. the black line in the middle of the graph differentiates between positive choices on the right, and negative choices on the left. based on the choices from peers, in the vertical line of the graph, children are marked with p for popular, r for rejected, and n for neglected. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 table 2. graphic representation of popular, rejected and neglected children in 5 classrooms perolli-shehu 187 demographic data based on the analysis of descriptive statistics, 32% of the subjects included in the second part of the research were aged 3-4 years, 44% were aged 4-5 years and 24% were aged 5-6 years. of the 50 subjects, 24 were female and 26 were male. over 50% of subjects had parents with a high level of education and 70% had both employed parents. the results of the study showed that of the 50 subjects selected for the survey, 48% came from families with very good household incomes (over 1000 euros per month), 26% came from households with incomes of 500-1000 euros per month, 10% from households with incomes of eur 100500 per month and 16% from very poor households (under eur 100 per month), indicating that in this respect the group of children selected was heterogeneous. the relationship between the child's social status in kindergarten and the monthly household income is shown in table 3. table 3 monthly household income monthly household income total over 1000euro 500-1000 euro 100-500 euro less than 100 euro social status of the child popular 42.0% 6.0% 2.0% 0.0% 50.0% rejected/ neglected 6.0% 20.0% 8.0% 16.0% 50% total 48.0% 26.0% 10.0% 16.0% 100.0% as shown in table 3, children coming from households with very good monthly incomes were more accepted in the group, while those from poor households were rejected or neglected in the preschool group. in 48% of children coming from households with very good monthly incomes, 42% were accepted and 6% rejected by the group, in 26% of children coming from households with a monthly income of 500-1000 euros, 6 % were accepted and 20% rejected by the group, in 10% of children coming from household with a monthly income of 100-500 euros, 2% were accepted, while 8% were rejected by the group, while in 16% of children coming from poor families (under € 100 a month) all fall into the category of rejected children. looking at the employment aspect of parents, the study found that out of the 50 subjects selected for the survey, 70% had both employed parents, 14% had only one employed parent, and 16% had journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 both unemployed parents. the relationship between the child's social status in kindergarten and the employment of parents is shown in table 4. table 4 parental employment parental employment total both parents employed one parent employed both parents unemployed social status of the child popular 44.0% 6.0% 0.0% 50.0% rejected/ neglected 26.0% 8.0% 16.0% 50% total 70.0% 14.0% 16.0% 100.0% as shown in table 4, out of 70% of children with both employed parents, 44% were accepted and 26% rejected by the group, in 14% of children with only one employed parent, 6% were accepted and 8% rejected by the group, while 16% of children whose parents were unemployed all fall into the category of rejected children. in terms of parental education, it can be seen from the study that out of 50 subjects, 58% had fathers with a higher education, 28% with a secondary education and 14% with a low education; while 56% had mothers with higher education, 30% with secondary education and 14% with lower education. the relation between the social status of the child in the kindergarten and the level of education of the father, respectively the mother, are shown in tables 5 and 6 below. table 5 father level of education father level of education total higher education secondary education primary education social status of the child popular 42.0% 8.0% 0.0% 50.0% rejected/ neglected 16.0% 20.0% 14.0% 50% total 58.0% 28.0% 14.0% 100.0% perolli-shehu 189 table 6 mother level of education mother level of education total higher education secondary education primary education social status of the child popular 38.0% 12.0% 0.0% 50.0% rejected/ neglected 18.0% 18.0% 14.0% 50% total 56.0% 30.0% 14.0% 100.0% as shown in the tables 5 and 6 above, the largest percentage of children accepted by peers had at least one highly educated parent, while on the other hand, all children of parents with lower level education fell in the group of rejected children. an interesting finding of the study was that, out of the 50 subjects selected for the study, 84% had both parents, while 16% had only one parent / guardian. of these 16% of children without parents / with one parent (or guardian) all belong to the group of rejected children, while in 84% of children having both parents, 50% belong to the group of adopted children and 34% belong to the group of rejected children. data on social and communication skills the results of the study show that of the 50 subjects selected for research, 6% scored very high in the communication scale, 28% above average, 40% average, 14% below average, and 6% very low score. the relationship between the child's social status in preschool and his or her level of development in the field of communication is shown in table 7. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 table 7 development in the area of communication development in the area of communication total high score above average score average score below average score very low score social status of the child popular 6.0% 28.0% 16.0% 0.0% 0.0% 50.0% rejected/ neglected 0.0% 6.0% 24.0% 14.0% 6.0% 50% total 6.0% 34.0% 40.0% 14.0% 6.0% 100.0% as shown in table 7, children with very high and above average communication development were more likely to be accepted in the group, while children with lower levels of communication were more likely to be rejected or neglected in the group. in 40% of children with higher levels of communication development, 34% were accepted and 6% rejected by the group; in 40% of children with an average level of development in the field of communication 16% were accepted and 24% rejected by the group, while in 20% of children with lower scores in communication, all children were rejected by their peers. the results of the study show that of the 50 subjects selected for the research, 4% scored very high in social development, 26% above average, 48% average, 14% below average, and 8% had very low scores in social development. the relation between the child's social status in preschool and their level of development in the area of socialization is presented in table 8. table 8 development in the area of social skills development in the area of social skills total high score above average score average score below average score very low score social status of the child popular 4.0% 24.0% 22.0% 0.0% 0.0% 50.0% rejected/ neglected 0.0% 2.0% 26.0% 14.0% 8.0% 50% total 4.0% 26.0% 48.0% 14.0% 8.0% 100.0% perolli-shehu 191 as shown in table 8, children with very high and above average score in social skills were more likely to be accepted in the group, whereas children with lower scores were more rejected or neglected in the group. in 30% of children with higher scores, 28% were accepted and 2% rejected by the group, in 48% of children with average level of development in social skills 22% were accepted and 26% rejected by the group, while 22% of children with lower scores are all children were rejected by their peers. correlation analysis the results of the study with preschoolers showed that there was a close relationship between peer acceptance in the group (dependent variable) with socioeconomic status of the family, and level of development of the child in the field of social and communication (independent variables). table 9 below shows that there was a high level correlation between the dependent variable and the independent variables. table 9 social status of the child as noted in table 9, there was a high correlation between the social status of the child in preschool and their level of socialization [r(50) = .640, p = .00] and between the social status of the child preschool and their level of development in the field of communication [r(50) = .626, p = .00]. although slightly lower than the above-mentioned correlations, a positive correlation was also found between the social status of the child in preschool and social status -economic of a family [r(50) = .406, p = .00]. in analyzing the results further with the multiple regression technique, a strong predictive correlation between the independent variables and the dependent variable was found. the results of this analysis are presented in the table below, "model summary". socio-economic status of the family level of development in communication level of development in social skills social status of the child .406** .626** .640* **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 table 10 model summary model r r2 adjusted r2 1 .777 .604 .549 table 10 shows a multiple correlation coefficient r = 0.777, indicating that there was a strong correlation between the dependent variable (criterion) and the independent (predictive) variable. based on the adjusted r2 value of 0.549, the results of the regression indicated that the model explained 54.9% of the variance and that the model was a significant predictor of peer acceptance. the measurement of the contribution of each independent variable in the model was made through the standardized beta coefficient, by which we can measure the power of the influence of each predictor variable on the criterion variable. the higher the beta value, the greater the impact of that respective variable on the criterion variable. the results showed that the most predictive factor for the acceptability of children in kindergarten was the level of child development in the area of social skills, ß = .207, p < .001. further, results also showed, the level of development in the field of communication with ß = .168, p < .001, parental factor (whether the child has both parents or not) with ß = .048, p < .001 and socioeconomic status of family with ß = .038, p < .001, as significant predictors of peer acceptance. discussion the purpose of this study was to identify and examine the factors that influence the determination of peer acceptance in early childhood in preschool institutions. given the importance of being part of the group and the importance of being accepted into the group, it is clear that it is essential to examine the factors that influence peer acceptance of children, even at an early age. many studies have investigated the factors that have influenced the phenomenon of acceptance or rejection of children in the group and these studies have identified a variety of factors that have influenced the acceptability of children ranging from social and cognitive abilities, motor skills, speech skills, sensitivity to the needs and concerns of others, physical appearance, etc. it is a well-known fact that children rejected by their group are at risk of having difficulty adapting to the social circle as adults. numerous studies have shown that children who fail to form close relationships with friends, and who have been rejected by the group, appear to be more at risk for depression, anxiety, perolli-shehu 193 low self-esteem, and adjustment problems. it is therefore important to identify the influencing and predictive factors on this highly expressed phenomenon among children. this study found results consistent with previous research in this area, but also uncovered other factors that influence the acceptability of children in the group to add to the long list of influencing and predictive factors. observations from this study, consistent with previous findings in this area, have shown that children at 3 years of age were able to express their social preferences and at this age child have criteria based on which they choose their favorite companions. also, during observations of children’s play and when interviewing them for their social preferences, it was noted that children expressed their dislike for other children and gave their reasons (the child in question was oppressive, aggressive, crying, unclean), while for the children they liked they did not give reasons why, but these reasons were clearly noted during in class observations communication skills, socialization, self-esteem, ability to take initiative, and ability to lead the game. the results of this study were able to establish that all factors that were assumed to correlate with peer acceptance in early childhood were determinants of a particular importance. all hypotheses of this study were supported by the results obtained. the results of the study supported the first hypothesis on the impact of family socioeconomic status on the child's peer acceptance in preschool. this factor was shown to be very influential, but not so much a predictive factor for the child's peer acceptance in preschool. the correlation between this factor and the child's acceptability in the group reached r = .436, but a coefficient ß = .038 indicated that this factor was not one of the most predictive factors of the child's peer acceptance. the results were consistent with other findings from literature. ashiabi and o’neal (2015) concluded that there is a significant relationship between socio-economic status, social competence and socially acceptable behaviors, although the associations may not be strong, specifically suggesting that other factors, besides socioeconomic status, may influence the social standing of the child more. similarly, bradley and corwyn (2002) noted that children’s externalizing, aggressive behaviors are more often present in lower socio-economic status families, whereas morris and gennetian (2003) found that increases in income were related to positive social and behavioral outcomes. the study uncovered as well (although not initially planned) the influence of the parental factor on peer acceptance in preschool with a correlation coefficient of r = .406, which indicated that journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 there was a strong correlation between these two factors. although not among the predictors of the child's peer acceptance in the preschool group, it is worth noting that all children without parents and with one parent in preschool were listed in the group of rejected, with the highest number of nominations. this is perhaps not due to the fact that they do not have both parents, since one would argue that children at the age of 3-6 are not able to distinguish this, but rather because of the behaviors of said children in the social groupslow level of engagement and self-esteem could be among reasons for their categorization in the group of unwanted children. therefore, this factor should be better examined in the future, to understand the reasons behind this, since the number of children without parents in kindergarten was small, and it can be hypothesized that this factor would be more influential and more predictive if more children without parents would be included in the study. the results of this study also supported the hypothesis on the impact of developmental level of communication and social skills in the acceptance of children in the preschool group and it was established that these factors were among the most influential and predictive factors of the child's peer acceptance in preschool. development in the area of communication skills with a correlation coefficient of r = .626 and β = .168, and development in the area of social skills with a correlation coefficient of r = .640 and β = .207, indicated that these skills are most predictive of the child's peer acceptance in preschool. these findings were consistent with findings from literature. slaughter (2002) found that children, who interact more with other children, and have good communication skills are more likely to accept and understand the opinions of their peers, and interact better with one another, leading to better peer acceptance. kim (2012) found that social skills are significantly related to peer acceptance, and aggressive-hostile behaviors lead to peer rejection in early childhood. shiner (2000) reported that children, who were described by their parents as being extroverted, were found to be more socially competent and were accepted better by peers. in addition, it was concluded that children who tend to be quiet, calm, and introverted are less socially competent when compared with their peers (shiner, 2000). according to rubin and colleagues (2012), children who are socially competent are better accepted by peers, and have qualitatively richer friendships. perolli-shehu 195 conclusions and implications there has been much debate among professionals about the importance of friendships in the overall development of the child. the truth is that friendships offer the opportunity to learn social behaviors, to attain a high level of social competence, to gain knowledge of self and group, for emotional and cognitive support, and to provide a foundation for successful relationships in later life (xie at al., 2006). being a desired part of the group is a basic human motive, and the need to supplement that motive is reflected in the human desire for frequent, pleasant, and interpersonal relationships (shuey, 2007). being rejected by the social group at an early age affects the child's social life and his/her exclusion from the social circle in general. on the basis of all analyzes conducted, this study found that all factors considered as independent variables – i.e., socioeconomic status of the family, level of development in the field of communication, and social skills of children have a strong impact on the acceptance of preschool children in their peer group. findings from this study have provided an initial base for future research in kosovo. future research should explore these constructs more in depth, through longitudinal and qualitative research designs. furthermore, future research should focus on child characteristics (thoughts, feelings, and attitudes that may influence social behavior) and other domains of child development (daily life skills, motor skills, emotional competence) to determine how they are related to peer acceptance. future research should also ideally include more diverse samples and a broader population. finally, yet importantly, follow-up research with the same population would provide crucial information on the longer-term effects of the variables influencing peer acceptance. it is important that such studies continue, and with the knowledge gained, that we make recommendations to parents and teachers on how to strengthen social relationships among children and how to prevent the isolation of unwanted children from their peer groups, while focusing on strengthening cohesion within groups and building healthy social relationships from basic levels of education and onwards, thereby contributing to the creation of conditions for proper and healthy development of the child's personality. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 references adler, p. a., & adler, p. (1998). peer power: preadolescent culture and identity. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press. anthony, b. j., anthony, l. g., morrel, t. m., acosta, m. (2005). evidence for social and behavior problems in low-income, urban preschoolers: effects of site, classroom, and teacher. journal of youth and adolescence, 34, 31-39. asher, s., & coie, j. (1990), peer rejection in childhood. new york: cambridge university press. ashiabi, g.s., & o’neal, k.k. (2015). child social development in context: an examiination of some propositions in brofenbrenner’s bioecological theory. sage journals. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015590840 badenes, l., estevan, r.a., & bacete, f.j. (2000). theory of mind and peer rejection at school. social development, 9, 271-283. bierman, k. l. (2004). peer rejection: developmental processes and intervention. new york: guilford press. braza, p., braza, f., carreras, m.r., & munoz, j.m. (1993). measuring the social ability of preschool children. social behavior and personality, 21 (2), 145-158. bradley, r.h., & corwyn, r.f. (2002). socioeconomic status and child development. annual review of psychology, 53, 371−39. bronfenbrenner, u. (1979). basic concepts. in u. bronfenbrenner (eds.). the ecology of human development (pp. 3-15). cambridge, ma: harvard university press. carothers, d. & parfitt, c. (2017). disability or language difference: how do we decide? american journal of qualitative research, 1(1), 1-12. coie, j. d. (1990). toward a theory of peer rejection. in asher, s., & coie, j. (1990), peer rejection in childhood (pp. 365-401). new york: cambridge university press. connolly, j.a., & doyle, a.b. (1984). relation of social fantasy play to social competence in preschoolers. developmental psychology. american psychological association, inc., 20 (5), 797-406. currier, n.r., & schmith, p.h. (1984). social development of preschool children in home care and day care settings. journal of community health nursing, 1 (3), 189 – 206. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f2158244015590840 perolli-shehu 197 defranco, s.e. (2011). difference between qualitative and quantitative research. retrieved from https://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/qualitative-vs-quantitative-research/ dijkstra, j.k., lindenberg, s., & veenstra, r. (2004). same-gender and cross-gender peer acceptance and peer rejection. university of groningen, netherlands. duncan, g. j., brooks-gunn, j., klebanov, p. k. (1994). economic deprivation and early childhood development. child development, 65, 296-318. erikson, e. h. (1963). childhood and society (2nd ed.). new york: norton. ferris, e. (2019). lessons of policing and exclusion. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 25-43. retrieved from https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/50 gray, c.a., clancy, s., & king, l. (1981). teacher versus parent reports of preschoolers’ social competence. journal of personality assessment, 45, 5, 488493. gresham, f. m. (1986). conceptual issues in the assessment of social competence in children. in p. s. strain, m. j. guralnick, & h. m. hill (eds.) children’s social behavior: development, assessment, and modification (pp. 143-179). orlando: academic press. hoffman, c. (2001). introduction to sociometry. retrieved from www.hoopandtree.org/sociometry.htm hoglund, w.l., & leadbeater, b.j. (2004). the effects of family, school, and classroom ecologies on changes in children's social competence and emotional and behavioral problems in first grade. developmental psychology, 40(4), 533-544. hurlock, e.b. (1981). developmental psychology: a life-span approach. tata mcgraw hill edition, new delhi. hussong, a.m., fitzgerald, h.e., zucker, ra., wong, m.m., & puttler, l.i. (2005). social competence in children of alcoholic parents over time. developmental psychology, 41(5), 747-759. kim, y.a. (2012). review of research: necessary social skills related to peer acceptance. childhood education, 79(4), 234-238. kumar, r. (2017). research methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners, 4th edition. bloomington: sage. lindsey, e.w. (2002). preschool children’s friendships and peer acceptance: links to social competence. child study journal, 32, 145-155. https://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/qualitative-vs-quantitative-research/ https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/50 http://www.hoopandtree.org/sociometry.htm journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 malcolm, k.t., jensen-campbell, l.a., rex-lear, m., & waldrip, m.a. (2006). divided we fall: children’s friendships and peer victimization. journal of social and personal relationships, 23 (5), 721-740. mason, g., denham, s., mason, t., caverly, s., schmidt, m., hackney, r., caswell, c., & demulder, e. (2001). preschoolers at play: co-socialisers of emotional and social competence. international journal of behavioral development, 25 (4), 290–301. retrieved from http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pp/01650254.html mcelwain, n.l., & volling, b.l. (2005). preschool children’s interactions with friends and older siblings: relationship specificity and joint contributions to problem behavior. journal of family psychology. american psychological association, 19 (4), 486–496. mendez, j.l., fantuzzo, j., & cicchetti, d. (2002). profiles of social competence among lowincome african american preschool children. child development, 73(4), 1085-1100. mirza, s. (2018). impact of mentoring on at-risk youth. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 36-53. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/341 morris, p. a., & gennetian, l. a. (2003). identifying the effects of income on children's development using experimental data. journal of marriage and family, 65, 716−729. mulder, s. (2008). the domains that influence the development of social competence in children: a literature review. master thesis dissertation, university of wisconsin, usa. newcomb, a. f., bukowski, w. m., & pattee, l. (1993). children’s peer relations: ametaanalytic review of popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, and average sociometric status. psychological bulletin, 113(1), 99–128. odom, s.l., zercher, c., li, s., marquart, j.m., sandall, s., & brown, w.h. (2006). social acceptance and rejection of preschool children with disabilities: a mixed-method analysis. journal of educational psychology, 98(4), 807–823. parker, j. (2019). second language learning and cultural identity. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 33-42. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/7 http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pp/01650254.html https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/341 https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/7 perolli-shehu 199 patterson, c. j., kupersmidt, j. b., vaden, n. a. (1990). income level, gender, ethnicity, and household composition as predictors of children’s school-based competence. child development, 61, 485-494. reavis, r.d. (2007). predicting early peer acceptance from toddler peer behavior. university of north carolina, ma. rubin. k. h., bukowski, w., & parker, j. g. (1998). peer interactions, relationships and groups. in w. damon, & n. eisenberg (eds.), handbook of child psychology (pp. 619700). new york: wiley. rubin, k.h., begle, a.s., & mcdonald, k.l. (2012). peer relations and social competence in childhood. in developmental social neuroscience and childhood brain insult: implications for theory and practice, ed. 1. guilford press. sandstrom, m.j., & coie, j.d. (1999). a developmental perspectives on peer rejection: mechanisms of stability and change. child development, 70 (4), 955966. shehu, b.p. (2009). factors influencing peer acceptance of children in preschool institutions in kosovo. unpublished master thesis, university of prishtina, kosovo. shehu, b.p. (2019). social competence and attitudes towards school in relation to academic achievement. unpublished doctoral dissertation, clemson university, usa. shin, m.s., co, s.m., shin, y.m., & park, k.s. (2016). effects of early childhood peer relationships on adolescent mental health: a 6-8-year follow-up study in south korea. psychiatry investigation, 13(4), 383-388. shin, m.s., reccia, s.l., lee, s.y., lee, y.j., & mullarkey, l.s. (2004). understanding early childhood leaderships: emerging competencies in the context of relationships. 2(3) 301316. sage publications. retrieved from http://ecr.sagepub.com shiner, r. (2000). linking childhood personality with adaptation: evidence for continuity and change across time into late adolescence. journal of personality and social psychology, 78(2), 310-325. shuey, e.a. (2007). early parenting and children’s kindergarten peer acceptance. university of north carolina, ma. slaughter, v., dennis, m.j., pritchard, m. (2002). theory of mind and peer acceptance in preschool children. british journal of developmental psychology, 20, 545 – 564. http://ecr.sagepub.com/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 176-200 sluckin, a.m., & smith, p.k. (1977). two approaches to the concept of dominance in preschool children. child development, 48, 917-923. swindells, d., & stagnitti, k. (2006). pretend play and parents’ view of social competence. australian occupational therapy journal, 53, 314 – 324. ubom, a. (2015). the impact of parental level of education on adolescents' social competence: efficacy against the odds of school locality and gender. journal of public policy, 2(3). uribe, f. m. t., levine, r. a. & levine, s. c. (1994). maternal behaviour in a mexican community: the changing environment of children. in p. m. greenfield & r. r. cocking (eds). cross cultural roots of minority. child development. hillsdale. nj: erlbaum. van hecke, a.v., mundy, p.c., francoise, c., block, j.j., delgado, ch.e.f., parlade, m.v., neal, a.r., meyer, j.a., & pomares, y.b. (2007). infant joint attention, temperament, and social competence in preschool children. child development, 78 (1), 53 – 69. vygotsky, l. s. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. walker, h.m. (1983). the access program: adolescent curriculum for communication and effective social skills: student study guide. austin, tx: pro-ed. xie, h., li, y., boucher, s.m., hutchins, b.c., & cairns, b.d. (2006). what makes a girl (or a boy) popular (or unpopular)? african american children’s perceptions and developmental differences. developmental psychology, 42 (4), 599 – 612. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017: 8(1), 93-114 © 2017 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 social science pre-service teachers’ preparation to teach about asia: a research study joshua l kenna1 & cyndi mottola poole2 abstract asia is the world’s largest continent, both in terms of land mass and human population; yet, many of the schools in the united states still embrace a eurocentric curriculum, and resultantly, u.s. citizens remain largely ignorant about topics pertaining to asian nations including their geography, histories, politics, economics, religions, and cultures. the ignorance is particularly troubling considering the everincreasing prominence that asian nations play in global affairs. a crucial first step in broadening students’ knowledge about asian topics would be to improve the preparation of pre-service teachers, due to the influence that teachers have in determining students’ educational experiences. therefore, this case study sought to inquire about the shared experiences that a group of social science education (sse) seniors had, at a large public university located in the southeastern region of the united states, with regards to how they felt their program prepared them to teach accurately and confidently about topics and issues related to asia. it was discovered that although the pre-service teachers within the sse program expressed great confidence in the pedagogical skills they acquired through their teacher education program, they felt their lack of subject knowledge made them ill prepared to teach about asian related content. keywords: global education, pre-service teachers, united states, asia introduction asia is the world’s largest continent, both in terms of land mass and human population, consisting of approximately 30% of the world’s total land and more than 60% of the world’s total population (world atlas, 2012). over the last 30 years, several asian countries have increased their rank in the global economic marketplace and have taken on a more prominent role in world affairs. in fact, four of the united states’ top ten trading partners are located in asia: china, japan, south korea, and saudi arabia (u.s. census, 2012). additionally, asian americans are one of the fastest growing and most affluent minorities in the united states. yet, the rationale for including asian history and content within the u.s. curriculum is not just about economic and political connections between the regions. rather, the emphasis is on improving the notion of global education/citizenship, which is described in more detail below, and centralizing the humanitarian value of people of asian decent. 1 asst. prof. dr. university of tennessee, jkenna@utk.edu 2 asst. prof. dr. university of pittsburgh, clpoole@pitt.edu mailto:jkenna@utk.edu mailto:clpoole@pitt.edu journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 94 however, despite the many interactions with asian people and nations many u.s. schools still embrace a eurocentric curriculum. resultantly, u.s. citizens remain largely ignorant about this important continent. the lack of knowledge and communicative efficacy about asia will harm u.s. students’ chances of future success in life (hong & halvorsen, 2010; menton, 2007). moreover, the standards-based education reform in the u.s. seems to discourage teachers from deviating from the eurocentric path (rapoport, 2009). teachers, though, still maintain at least some autonomy over what they teach in the classroom, as they are the primary gatekeepers for content (barton, 2012; thornton, 1991). thus, the level of content knowledge teachers possess about asian related content is of vital importance as they would be more able and capable to substantiate any classroom materials. still much of the content knowledge that teachers possess, including topics and issues related to asia, come during their time studying at the collegiate level. it would seem most suitable, then, to provide pre-service teachers in a social science education (sse) program with ample and appropriate experiences grappling with content knowledge concerning asia, as it may increase the likelihood they teach their future students a more globally centered curriculum (byker & marquardt, 2016; poole & russell, 2015). therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the shared experiences a group of social science education (sse) seniors had at a large public university located in the southeastern region of the united states. more specifically, the study focused on uncovering and exploring experiences that prepared pre-service teachers to teach accurately and confidently about topics and issues related to asia. the study attempted to answer the following research questions: 1. what experiences did the sse program provide that teach pre-service teachers about asia? 2. what experiences does a pre-service teacher in the sse program participate in that prepares them to teach about asia? 3. how confident do pre-service teachers feel teaching about asia in their future classes as a result of their experiences in the sse program? 4. what experiences should the sse program provide to teach pre-service teachers about asia? joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole literature review this investigation is framed around the theory of global education or citizenship; naturally, the literature review begins by unpacking it. next, the study reviews a common hurdle proponents of global education face within the united states, the eurocentric focus of the curriculum (merryfield & subedi, 2003). while global educators desire to discuss world regions proportionally (e.g. africa, asia, latin america, etcetera), given publication constraints, this study focused on one specific world region (i.e. asia). therefore, the study reviewed literature that describes additional hurdles for this particular population and region (i.e. orientalism). the study also sought literature that might briefly explain the problems of miseducating students about asia. finally, given that the participants are bounded within a teacher education system, the study examined literature that stresses the importance of such a system. global education global education is an educational movement that began in the late 1960s. while it is difficult to define (günel & pehlivan, 2015), global education is based on the belief that with increasing technology and the emergence of international organizations and businesses, “the relative importance of …national influences will gradually decline, and a worldwide, transnational culture will come to play an increasingly large role in determining the life patterns of individuals everywhere” (becker & mehlinger, 1968, p. 10). while learning about other countries, languages, and cultures is a part of global education, it is not sufficient, as students must also gain an awareness of how separate countries interact in the world and create a sort of new transnational society. anderson and anderson (1977) define global education as “education for responsible citizen involvement and effective participation in global society” (p. 36). therefore, global educators focus on helping students to “perceive the world as an interconnected system… [which] leads to the need to understand diverse cultures, cultural interactions, and human conflicts” (merryfield, 2005, p. 59). in addition, global educators believe that students need to understand they are not only citizens of a political state but also citizens of the world and that their actions affect people internationally. social studies researchers recognize global education as a pedagogical imperative (anderson & anderson, 1977; hong & halvorsen, 2010; merryfield, 2011; ukpokodu, 2010). ukpokodu (2010) states that, “in an increasingly diverse and interdependent world, individuals, regardless of their geographic location, must possess the knowledge, skills, and attitudes journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 96 necessary to negotiate different social, cultural, political, and economic discourses” (p. 121). moreover, the national council for the social studies (ncss), the leading professional organization for social studies educators in the u.s., also endorses the skills, understandings, and attitudes achieved by effective global education as essential for the future success of all students (ncss, 2001). the ncss’s national curriculum standards [2010] state, “social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of culture and cultural diversity… [and] the study of global connections and interdependence” (n.p.). teachers and students in today’s classrooms, though, are not meeting the goals of global education, despite the fact that in recent years global education has become an important framework for social studies education in the united states (harshman & augustine, 2013) and other nations (tarman, 2016). in fact, in 1990, martin and gronewold found that only one third of u.s. states required a course in world history, world geography, or world cultures at the high school level. yet, nearly 20 years later, rapoport (2009) found that only 15 states contain the term globalization in their social studies curriculum standards, and only two included the term global citizen(ship). students in the u.s. also lack basic knowledge about the world. according to the national center for education statistics, only 27% of eighth grade students and 20% of twelfth grade students scored at or above the “proficient” level on the 2010 national assessment of educational progress geography exam (national center for educational statistics, 2010). additionally, the national geographic-roper public affairs geographic literacy survey (national geographic, 2006) found that young adults in the united states: greatly overestimated the size of the united states compared to other countries, were unable to locate many key locations on world maps, and incorrectly identified english as the most prevalent native language in the world. just as worrisome, 38% of respondents stated that speaking a foreign language was “not too important”, a mere 32% indicated that they could speak a non-native language, and only 50% thought it was important to know where countries on the news were located (national geographic, 2006). the results not only indicate that global knowledge is lacking in recent graduates of u.s. educational systems, but also that u.s. students fail to see the importance of global knowledge. joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole eurocentrism when u.s. teachers present global education in the schools, they often skew their instruction in a eurocentric direction. the west “pitches itself against the non-west as a superior force [giving students the] view that dominant ideas tend to be western in values and origin” (cousin, 2011, pp. 585-587). the united states’ eurocentric stance is a byproduct of the vestiges of europe’s history of imperialism. “imperial traditions of eurocentric scholarship delineate an, ‘us’ (the white men who created the dominant power and represent its ideals) and a ‘them’ (the others who are divided from ‘us’ by their inferior cultures, poverty, politics, language, or other differences)” (merryfield & subedi, 2003, p. 13). furthermore, “school curricula in the u.s. tends to divide the world between ‘them’ & ‘us’, ‘east’ & ‘west’” (hong & halvorsen, 2010, p. 372). the reality of global interconnectedness and range of human experience is ignored then by schools in the u.s., and “…too often, ‘western’ and ‘asian’ values are characterized as discrete, homogenous, and unchanging” (ryan & louie, 2007, p. 405). eurocentric bias can be seen in u.s. classrooms in various forms including the persistent use of mercator projection maps (raat, 2004), the organization of geography and world history textbooks (asia society, 1976), as well as teachers’ treatment of other cultures (crocco, 2010; subedi, 2007; ukpokodu, 2010). all of which support a “framework of opposition” (merryfield & subedi, 2003, p. 13), that positions the west as culturally superior to the rest of the world and as “the yardstick by which all other societies are judged” (crocco, 2010, p. 22). the “historical legacy of colonialism is such that the direction of cultural flow is largely unidirectional, from the west to the rest” (nguyen, elliot, terlouw, & pilot, 2009, p. 110). in order to embrace the global nature of education, teacher educators must give proportional time to all world areas. in fact, merryfield and subedi (2003) state: global educators share a commitment to moving beyond eurocentric perspectives to teach the voices, experiences, ideas, and worldviews of [people] in africa, asia, latin america, and the middle east and of people of color in the united states. some call this inclusion ‘moving the center’ from a curriculum centered on american and european worldviews to a curriculum that is inclusive of worldviews of the majority of the world’s peoples (p. 10). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 98 additionally, ukpokodu (2010) argues that u.s. school systems must transform the predominant imperialist eurocentric bias inherent in the current curriculum through global perspectives pedagogy. global perspectives pedagogy is a teaching approach that emphasizes the critical issues that globalization has caused including, but not limited to, economic disparities, human rights abuses, and ecological concerns. according to ukpokodu (2010), teacher educators need to ask themselves whose knowledge or bias are they privileging when supposedly teaching from a global perspective. case (1993) echoed the global perspective pedagogy and stated that the global educator’s role involves “nurturing perspectives that are empathic, free of stereotypes, not predicated on naïve or simplistic assumptions, and not colored by prejudicial statements” (p. 319). orientalism the specific type of eurocentrism that marginalizes the accomplishments and experiences of asian people has been termed ‘orientalism” by edward said (1978). said (1979) argued that orientalism, pioneered by the british and french before world war ii and taken over by the united states since that time, is: a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between ‘the orient’ and (most of the time) ‘the occident’…the basic distinction between east and west as the starting point for elaborate theses, epics, novels, social descriptions, and political accounts concerning the orient, its people, customs, ‘mind’, destiny, and so on (pp. 2-3). said (1979) believes that the imperialist views of europeans, and later americans, have caused them to create a body of “knowledge” of what constitutes asia: its people, beliefs, political systems, religions, etc. that in many ways is more reflective of the west’s need to be superior and to establish a pattern for normalcy and progress than any actual reality of asian culture. the body of “knowledge” created by western nations is an attempt to justify their imperialist behavior. while the rest of the world is undergoing rapid change, those in the west, including the unites states, considers these “truths” about asian countries and cultures as fixed in time. in fact, ryan and louie (2007) stated: it is not difficult for teachers to see that their own countries have changed dramatically in the last two or three decades. but many do not see (not having joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole lived there) how even more dramatically east asian countries have changed (p. 409). the teaching of these perceived “truths” about asian countries and cultures is indeed a reality in u.s. schools. a study conducted by the asia society (2001) found that social studies teachers spend approximately 5% of their class time teaching about asia. hong and halvorsen (2010) found that schools in the u.s. reinforced the stereotypes and misunderstandings about asia through their teaching. thus students were unable to demonstrate significant knowledge about asia. what’s more, martin and gronewold (1990) discovered that even in the extremely diverse state of new york, teachers who were very interested in including information on asia could not because there were no appropriate classes in the curriculum in which to do so. the instructional materials used in u.s. classrooms further substantiate the idea that educators are teaching inadequate information about asia. a study conducted by the asia society (1976) analyzed 270 asia-related textbooks commonly used in u.s. schools. they found that 71% of the books praised western-style change and criticized asian countries’ emphasis on tradition as an impediment to progress. while 76% of the texts use western standards to judge asian people. furthermore, the study found common themes in the texts which include: (a) asia is trying to catch-up with the west, (b) asians should see the western way of life as the standard of normalcy, and (c) asian countries were described primarily in terms of their strategic importance to the united states. unfortunately, this paper even succumbed to this ideology as it started with the description of asia in relation to the united states. notwithstanding the obvious concerns about textbook treatment of asia, teachers in the u.s. still report the textbook is the most common resource they use when teaching about asia (asia society, 2001). effects of miseducation the united states’ young people are ultimately the recipients of this miseducation, concerning asia, and this has led to many misunderstandings and incorrect impressions on their part. an analysis of u.s. middle school student’s discourses on japan conducted by inokuchi and nozaki (2010) found that, while few of the students described themselves as disliking japan, many described the country as “weird” or “different than us”, and only a small portion were willing to capitulate that “some of it is good.” many students in the u.s. leave school with the false impression that europe and the united states are geographically, culturally, historically, and linguistically related, while asia is journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 100 a distant land populated by unusual people with incomprehensible languages and cultures, and an entirely separate history. in students’ minds, the united states and europe are recognized as belonging to the same world, the ‘west’, whereas asia is constructed to be another part of the world, the ‘east’…in this distinction, students feel more comfortable with europe whereas they consider asia a remote and even fearful world (hong & halvorsen, 2010, p. 380). importance of the teacher and teacher education despite the growth of the standards based educational reform in the united states since the 1980s, teachers in the u.s. still exercise a considerable amount of autonomy in their classrooms (barton, 2012; merryfield, 1994; thornton, 1991). as a result, what they specifically choose to teach, or not teach, about asia is largely a personal decision. “teachers’ beliefs about asia are likely to influence what and how teachers teach about asia” (hong & halvorsen, 2010, p. 377). learning how to think from an asian point of view is critical to teaching about asia (johnson, 1972). the solution to this problem, therefore, lies in teacher education programs such as that found at se university. schools and colleges of education, however, are not doing enough to prepare future educators for the demands of non-eurocentric global education (kopish, 2016; nganga & kambutu, 2011). in fact, an analysis of history courses offered at se university (a pseudonym) revealed similar results (see table 1 below). when comparing the total number of history courses taught about each continent with the percentage of world population living in that continent, the results are startling. while it makes sense that a u.s. university would offer a multitude of u.s. history courses, the large discrepancy in the number of european-related courses and its percentage of world population shows clear evidence of a eurocentric bias. joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole table 1. history courses compared to world population continent percentage of world populationa number of history coursesb percentage of history courses africa 14.95% 5 5% asia 60.31% 9 9% europe 11.88% 35 36% north america 5.21% 39 40% oceania .52% 0 0% latin america 8.52% 9 9% apercentage of world population as of 2011 bnumber of courses at southeastern university as of spring 2012 the specific topics covered in classrooms and textbooks are also suspect of a hidden curriculum of “othering” and “orientalism”. masalski and levy (2010) found that “when china appears in the curriculum in many u.s. schools, the focus tends to be on cold war stereotypes, or on the political, economic, or military rivalry between our countries” (p.7). similarly, the asia society (1976) found that american textbooks tended to underplay the exploitative role of european colonialism on asia and to overemphasize the importance of the united states and its military and economic assistance to the well being of the region. similarly, according to a 1994 american association of colleges of teacher education report “only about 4% of the nation’s k-12 teachers have had any academic preparation in global or international studies” (merryfield, 1994, p. 4). other researchers agree and state, “many future teachers get little systematic grounding in global education as a regular and required aspect of their teacher preparation…” and when global education is included, “it is all too easy to slip into colonizing and stereotyped ways of doing global education” (crocco, 2010, pp. 20-21). ukpokodu (2010) states that, “…teacher education programs are doing very little to prepare teachers to develop the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to teach from a global perspective” (p. 124). the lack of preparation by teacher education programs is especially true when journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 102 considering asia. the asia society (2001), for example, found that 95% of surveyed teachers believed that they had not received adequate preparation to teach about asia in their teacher education program. yet, no study sought to explore pre-service teachers’ preparation to teach about asia. methods in order to capture the pre-service teachers’ perceptions on how well their sse program prepared them to teach about asia, the study utilized a case study research design. case study research has ethnographic roots, which emphasize shared and learned patterns of values and beliefs, “…but the intent of ethnography is to determine how the culture works rather than to understand an issue or problem using the case as a specific illustration” (creswell, 2007, p. 73). the study, then, explored an issue (i.e. pre-service teachers’ preparedness to teach about asia) within a bounded system (i.e. a sse program). a large public university that had a sse program, located in the southeastern region of the united states (hereafter the pseudonym se university) was utilized for this study. se university is a large and diverse metropolitan university that serves well over 30,000 students of which 59% are white, 19% are hispanic/latino, 10% are black/african american, 5% are asian, 2% are multi-racial, 2% did not specify, 2% are non-resident aliens, and the last 1% are either native american/alaskan or native hawaiian/pacific islander. additionally, the college of education at se university serves over 5,000 students and is a top producer of k-12 educators in its state. there are approximately 400 social studies education majors. the majority of which are white males. twenty senior pre-service teachers participated in this research study, thirteen male and seven female. all but two participants were in-state residents. sixteen participants were white, three were hispanic and one was african-american. no students identified themselves as asian or asian-american. seniors were chosen because they had the garnished the greatest amount of experience while attending se university. data collection and analysis data collection consisted of two focus group interviews, examining the sse program curricula and unit plans. a focus group interview approach was utilized because of the spawning effect; that is, as one participant describes their experience in the sse it would resonate with the others and begin to spark memories of experiences had by all. the interview questions were joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole designed using a semi-structured approach and were intended to not lead the participants to any final conclusions. the questions were also written in such a way as to reduce the criticism the participants might have towards the sse program. the focus group interviews were video taped and transcribed. during the interview, one researcher led the discussion and ensured that participants were providing pertinent information that could be used for data. meanwhile, the other researcher managed the video recorder and took field notes. the researchers individually coded the transcribed data and unit plans before later combining their codebooks into one fluent document. “structured codes” were utilized based on the interview questions (saldana, 2011). as the data was analyzed, the essence of the pre-service teachers’ shared experiences was simplified into four themes. they were as follows: (a) importance of asia in the world, (b) asia in the curriculum, (b) preparation provided by the sse program, and (d) suggestions to improve the sse program. validity in order to bolster the confidence of our findings several data verification strategies were used throughout the life of the study. first, there were multiple data points and investigators, which allowed for two sets of eyes to constantly examine and re-examine the data. particularly, with multiple investigators it allowed for “investigator triangulation”, where each investigator examined the data and then compared their findings to develop a broader and deeper understanding of the phenomenon in question (guion, diehl & mcdonald, 2011). second, the interview data was member checked with the pre-service teachers to verify the accuracy of the data analysis. limitations as is the case with all research, certain limitations exist that may hinder or alter the findings. in this case, there were several identified limitations. first, this research was conducted at one university and may not be generalizable to u.s. universities as a whole, as sse programs vary. in fact, it would better to replicate this study and use additional and multiple institutions across the u.s. as some institutions may have designed programs that better prepare their preservice teachers to teach about asia than others. second, this study only focused on asia, and so the findings cannot be generalized to other underserved world areas, such as africa and latin america. third, the size and number of focus groups could have allowed for greater control in guiding the sessions as well as providing participants a greater opportunity to share their journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 104 experiences. fourth, interviewing students at various points throughout the sse program, including recent graduates, could have resulted in a variation of the data. by utilizing recent graduates, and their real world experiences, there could have been a greater hindsight gained into how well the sse program prepared its preservice teachers to teach about asia. additionally, since a focus group setting was utilized there are concerns the preservice teachers’ responses were influenced by social desirability or presumed researcher expectations. finally, the member checking process could have been improved. rather than simply typing out the findings and asking the preservice teachers if they agree with the data analysis, there should of been a follow up focus group interview, in order to increase clarity and eliminate semantic issues. findings importance of asia the first theme uncovered during the analysis was the perceived importance of asia in the modern world and in world history. most pre-service teachers felt that knowledge about asia was extremely important in understanding current world events, “it’s important to understand about asia or to be able to teach about asia because so much of the world’s current affairs are revolved around asia and its economics”. many pre-service teachers also pointed out that asian countries influence the history of other nations, “…if you’re teaching about the u.s., asian countries contribute to united state’s history.” additionally, pre-service teachers predicted that asian nations would have an increasingly important role in future world affairs, “[asian nations] are becoming more and more important and i think as time goes by we’re going to be seeing more influence of asia in the world’s history.” one pre-service teacher linked knowledge about asia specifically to global education, stating that teachers should emphasize global knowledge and global interdependence, “everything is so connected now [and] it’s important to create a kind of global citizen, i mean, that understands the world…so in that sense i think [studying asia] is important.” the sse program, on the other hand, only requires pre-service teachers to take one nonwestern history course, which can be asian, african, or latin american history. additionally, pre-service teachers are required to take two electives in either history or political science. so while the pre-service teachers could potentially have taken up to three courses dealing with joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole asian history, none did. finally, none of the students’ unit plans focused on asian related history or topics. asia in the curriculum despite the participants’ belief that asia was important both in the modern world and in world history, they felt that the k-12 curriculum under-emphasized its role. “i think that a lot of the problem is that it’s not that teaching about asia is not important but it’s not seen in the curriculum as important.” while others spoke specifically of the eurocentric bias in the k-12 curriculum, “i feel asia has been ignored and it’s just kind of sad because our curriculum has been very eurocentric.” in considering this issue, some participants reflected on their own experience as former k-12 students or as teaching interns in secondary social studies classes. one participant asked the group members “…how many of you remember a high focus on asia when we were in high school? it just wasn’t there.” many concurred that their educational experience was similar. other participants commented on their current teaching internship experiences in a similar way, saying, “right now in my internship i’m teaching world history and asia is pretty small [in scope]”. most participants also indicated that they felt they would not be able to emphasize asia in their teaching due to the constraints of the mandatory content standards and pacing guides. some, however, felt that it was up to the teacher to find a way to include the material anyway. “if you actually just take the time and gear the lessons to relate to asian history or asian economics, politics, whatever. then yeah, it’s going to start being important.” another participant felt that the supervising teacher for her internship was a good role model for how social studies teachers should teach about asia, explaining, “the teacher i’m working with right now spent a really good amount of time talking to the students about china”. similarly, a another participant indicated his intent to include non-western material in his future classes regardless of its paucity in the established curriculum, “this is information that; although [it’s] not going to be present in a textbook that i use with students one day… i will teach that outside of the textbook because it’s necessary”. due to this perceived lack of asian emphasis in the k-12 curriculum, some participants expressed that they were ignorant about knowledge related to asia. one participant explained, “do i feel that asia is going to be useful and relevant in my professional career as a social journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 106 science 6-12 teacher? no. …because it is not [and was not]”. thus, many participants chose not to pursue knowledge of asia while in their teacher preparation program. instead the participants opted to take courses in college that would benefit them in the future as teacher educators. in fact, one participant stated, “[i want to take a course] that i’m actually going to use”. in this way, anticipation of future curricular constraints may have limited some pre-service teachers’ choices while in the sse program. yet, some participants predicted that k-12 curriculum was going to become more inclusive and that they would likely be required to teach more asian content in the future. “they keep updating the textbooks…i think we’re just going to be seeing it more”. another participant agreed with this prediction, stating, “i’ve seen [the inclusion of asian related topics] change from when i was in high school”. asian preparation provided by the sse program when participants were asked to rate their teacher preparation program on how well it had prepared them to teach specifically about asia on a scale of one to ten, the average response was a three. the most frequent response was a two, but one student, who indicated that she was currently taking an asia-related course, and therefore responded with a 10, pushed the average higher. interestingly, she also noted that if it were not for this one class, she would also have rated her asian preparation as a two. with the exception of two students, all of the participants indicated that they had learned very little specific content information about asia while in the sse program. one participant summed up the general trend by admitting; “if they ask me about asian history…i’m not going to know anything…i feel so unprepared [to teach] about asia”. another similar comment was, “i don’t feel confident in any asian subject areas”. when discussing the requirements of the sse program, all of the participants agreed that it was possible to graduate from the program, and earn a social studies teaching certificate, without having taken a single social science class about asia. when the participants were asked what specific asian social science courses they had taken while in their teacher preparation program, only three participants were able to identify such a course. two students indicated they took a course on modern chinese history, one of those same students also stated that she took a class on middle eastern politics, and a third student indicated that he took a class on russian history. it was discovered later, however, that se university classified the russian history course as a european history class. other joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole participants felt that some of their social science courses touched briefly on asia, though it was not the main focus of the course. such courses included western civilization, military space policy, world political geography, and strategic and nuclear arms control. additionally, several students acknowledged that they had not had any classes that dealt with asia, with one emphatically stating, “i just want to say…well, i’m going to graduate and i have not taken one class [that deals with asia]”, and several agreed. since the general consensus was that the sse program had not provided specific contentarea knowledge, many participants indicated that they believed that in order to successfully teach asian content in the future, they would have to study the material on their own. “if you don’t get a few classes by the time you graduate when you become a teacher you’re going to have to relearn the material”. a different participant concurred, stating; “if i become a world history teacher i’ll have to teach myself about asia”. yet another student concluded, “if…my students ask me about [asia] i would have to do my own personal research”. while nearly all of the participants indicated that their experiences in the sse program had not taught them much asian content knowledge, they did specify that they felt confident in the general teaching abilities they had developed. when rating the teacher preparation program on the development of their pedagogical abilities (e.g. classroom management, lesson planning, presenting instructional content, assessment, etc.), the average score was 8.5 out of 10. most participants indicated the teaching skills portion of the sse program was very informative, and they felt they could teach almost any subject if they took time to learn the content first. one participant explained their experience this way, “i feel…confident that i can teach and that i’ve learned how to teach…i know that once on my own or through some other way [i can get information about asia] then, yeah, i know how to teach it because i know how to teach.” another participant expressed being an expert is not necessary thanks to the textbooks, “i mean, you read a lot of the teacher’s editions of the textbooks that they give you. it’s not like you have to be an expert on any of the material…you just read up on it”. several other students felt that their ability to find the proper information from which to build lessons was something they learned and refined by their experiences while in the sse program, making such assertions as “i feel the program has taught me how to properly prepare” and “you know how to learn the stuff to be able to teach it.” one respondent summarized the general consensus by explaining, “you are taught, as an educator, how to research and that’s important…everybody has said and journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 108 we can all agree that you never stop learning. so, with that foundation i think that we can really teach any topic in history, including asia”. thus, while most had experienced little asian content in the sse program, the general consensus was they felt that the increased teaching and research capabilities they developed through the program would enable them to teach any subject in the future. one participant, however, voiced a concern about this idea, asking the group, “if we’re paying for our classes should we have to go out and learn outside of school?” most of the other participants stated that learning outside of their sse program was not a problem for them. the participants gave the distinct impression that learning to teach was a far more important aspect of the sse program than learning content material; as evidenced by the comment, “i think i can teach myself the material [i need to teach] but knowing how to be a good teacher, and how i’ve learned that in the last four or five social science instructional classes, i feel is more beneficial than actual knowledge of asia.” many of the participants, however, rejected the researchers’ interpretation of this and similar statements during the member-checking session. suggestions to improve the sse program while most participants indicated they enjoyed having a wide range of course choices, several felt that more specific course requirements would increase the breadth of their preparation. one student suggested that “maybe [the sse program] can have a requirement of latin american history, asian history, south american history, and then have specific options within that category”. one student stated, “i feel like you could condense the amount of education classes…i think they would be a little harder but they would be more to the point and you wouldn’t overlap near as much… so you could have more [content] classes.” several students agreed that the sse program could reduce the number of education classes in order to leave more room for social science content classes. another suggestion supported by many students was the creation of a 2000-level eastern civilization course sequence similar to the western civilization courses offered at universities across the united states. one participant proposed, “why not have an eastern civilization one and two…you just have two classes that cover a period of time within that hemisphere of the world. …that way it covers everything and you feel knowledgeable about [asia]”. another student stated “there needs to be a class that goes over the key events in asian history”. most of the participants agreed with this idea. while other respondents suggested the university provide joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole a greater amount of social science courses that include a broader global focus, rather than being forced into taking very specific courses where the information may not be applicable to their future teaching. ultimately, students felt that “there’s got to be a middle ground between not taking the subject at all and trying to become an expert at it” and that the college should “offer classes that are condensed [because] it allows us to be able to be well-rounded in the subjects.” another student agreed that a comprehensive base of knowledge would be most beneficial and stated, “it would be a lot easier for me to at least have a solid foundation about [asia] and then be able to individually build upon that by reading”. some participants also thought that it might be advantageous to separate their classes from those of history majors who might need more indepth coverage of specific topics. discussion there are several implications that the sse pre-service teachers expressed regarding their shared experience in the program and how that influences their teaching, particularly about asia. first, the participants expressed feelings, based on their experiences in the sse program at se university, that learning about asia is important in modern world affairs; yet, the current k-12 curriculum in the u.s. does not place an equal importance on the teaching of asia and asian related topics. indeed, the literature supports the participants’ feeling about the current representation of asia in the united state’s k-12 curriculum (martin & gronewold, 1990). second, the participants expressed that their experience in the sse program did not properly prepare them to teach about asian related content. while the pre-service teachers cited a lack of available asian history courses, they also explained that their criteria for selecting courses also included the reputations of professors, the modality of the courses (i.e. online versus face-toface), and their personal interests. participants were also concerned that this lack of preparation in asian content may hinder them from acquiring a teaching job after graduation. in general, participants suggested that their university could offer a greater array of asian related content courses, particularly broader courses intended for underclassmen, such as an eastern civilization course. the pre-service teachers also suggested that the university alter the sse program requirements to include more non-western history and social science courses. interestingly, thornton (2003) makes similar assertions. in fact, he suggests that taking traditional content courses may not necessarily enhance teachers' subject matter competence. he does present three journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 110 proposals for improving teacher subject matter competence: (a) facilitating a better alignment between the what courses preservice teachers take and what they will be expected to teach, (b) blurring of the lines between subject matter and professional education, and (c) blending work among courses including methods, educational foundations, and possibly even academic courses. regardless of the lack of content preparation the participants received, they did acknowledge that the sse program taught them good pedagogical practices. which entail bolstered their confidence in teaching about asia and asian related topics. some participants, however, suggested that there were too many required education classes designed to teach them pedagogy. currently, se university requires that its sse majors take eleven education courses for a total of 33-credit hours. of course, others attributed the number of required education courses as the reason for their strong confidence in their ability to teach about asia. the final implication, and quite possibly the most important, is that the state of nonwestern history, and particularly asian history, in u.s. k-12 classrooms will still be taught from a eurocentric point of view. the literature in the field has proven that textbooks are eurocentric in nature (marino, 2011; stanton, 2015). therefore, if an sse program is not preparing it’s preservice teachers to teach about asian related content then when and where will they go to obtain this information? remember that the participants in this study expressed that had confidence in their abilities to teach about asia due to the pedagogical and research skills they learned in the sse program. namely, they expressed that they would rely on textbooks as the epicenter for their content knowledge. unfortunately, this is an all too common practice among social studies teachers (sewall, 2000), and these are the same textbooks that have a eurocentric bias and perpetuate the ‘us’ versus ‘them’ cycle too often seen in the united states. conclusion preparing pre-service social studies teachers to teach about asia should be a necessary component for all sse programs in the united states. while it is evident from the results of this study that se university is teaching its pre-service social studies teachers an array of pedagogical practices, it appears that the pre-service teachers are inadequately prepared to teach about asian related content. the shared experiences of the participants revealed that the small number of asian related courses, the minimal course offerings for those courses they do have, and a lack of non-western history requirements in the sse program at se university only joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole further perpetuates the problem. unfortunately, this problem is not unique to se university. although, the degree or frequency for which this problem exists in other u.s. sse programs must be confirmed in future studies. additionally, there is ample evidence to suggest similar studies be completed with regards to pre-service teachers’ preparation to teach about african and latin american related content. furthermore, a more comprehensive study could be conducted to compare our results with several other sse programs from across the united states and other nations across the globe. references anderson, c. & anderson, l. (1977). global education in elementary schools: an overview. social education, 41(1), 34-37. asia society. (1976). backgrounder: treatment of asia deficient in us schools. new york, ny: asia society/ford foundation. asia society. (2001). asia in the schools: preparing young americans for today’s interconnected world. new york, ny: asia society. barton, k. (2012). wars and rumors of war. in t. taylor & r. guyver (eds.) history wars and the classroom: global perspectives (pp. 187-202). charlotte, nc: information age. becker, j. & mehlinger, h. (1968). international dimensions in the social studies. washington, d.c.: national council for the social studies. byker, e. j. & marquardt, s. k. (2016). using critical cosmopolitanism to globally situate multicultural education in teacher preparation courses. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 30-50. case, r. (1993). key elements of a global perspective. social education, 57(6), 318-325. cousin, g. (2011). rethinking the concept of ‘western’. higher education research and development, 30(5), 585-594. creswell, j. (2007). qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among five approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage. crocco, m. (2010). [how] do we teach about women of the world in teacher education? in b. subedi (ed.), critical global perspectives: rethinking knowledge about global societies (pp. 19-38). charlotte, n.c.: information age publishing. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 112 guion, l., diehl, d., & mcdonald, d. (2011). triangulation: establishing the validity of qualitative studies. department of family, youth and community sciences, florida cooperative extension service, institute of food and agricultural sciences, university of florida. retrieved from https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/fy/fy39400.pdf günel, e. & pehlivan, a. (2015). examining the citizenship and democracy education textbook and curriculum in terms of global education. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 123-171. harshman, j. r. & augustine, t. a. (2013). fostering global citizenship education for teachers through online research. the educational forum, 77(4), 450-463. hong, w. p. & halvorsen, a. (2010). teaching asia in united states secondary school classrooms: a curriculum of othering. journal of curriculum studies, 42(3), 371-393. inokuchi, h. & nozaki, y. (2010). “different than us”: othering, orientalism, and us middle school students’ discourses on japan. asia pacific journal of education, 25(1), 61-74. johnson, d. (1972). levels of conceptualization in the teaching of asian studies in schools. service center papers on asian studies, no. 4. columbus, oh: association for asian studies. kopish, m. a. (2016). preparing globally competent teacher candidates through cross-cultural experiential learning. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 75-108. marino, m. p. (2011). high school world history textbooks: an analysis of content focus and chronological approaches. history teacher, 44(3), 421-446. martin, r. & gronewold, s. (1990). is there a place for asia in the k-12 social studies curriculum? a survey of requirements and common course sequences in the 50 states: 1987-1990. new york: east asian curriculum project, east asian institute, columbia university. masalski, k. w., & levy, t. (2010). introduction. social education, 74(1), 7-8. menton, l. k. (2007). developing curriculum materials on east asia for secondary school students. educational perspectives, 40(1), 24-30. merryfield, m. (1994, april). in the global classroom: teacher decision-making and global perspectives in education. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, new orleans, la. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/fy/fy39400.pdf joshua l. kenna & cyndi m. poole merryfield, m. (2011). global education: responding to a changing world. in w.b. russell (ed.) contemporary social studies: an essential reader (p. 57-76). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. merryfield, m & subedi, b. (2003). a global education framework for teaching about the world’s women. social education, 67(1), 10-16. merryfield, m. & wilson, a. (2005). social studies and the world: teaching global perspectives. silver spring, md: the national council for the social studies. national center for educational statistics. (2010). the nation’s report card: geography 2010 (nces 2011467). institute of education sciences, u.s. department of education, washington, d.c. national council for the social studies. (2005). position statement on global education. silver spring, md: national council for the social studies. national council for the social studies. (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies: chapter 2—the themes of social studies. retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/strands national geographic. (2006). national geographic-roper public affairs geographic literacy survey. retrieved from http://www.nationalgeographic.com/roper2006/pdf/finalreport2006geoglitsurvey.pdf nganga, l. & kambutu, j. (2011). broadening social studies curricula: integrating global education in a teacher education program. in w. b. russell iii (ed.), contemporary social studies: an essential reader. charlotte, nc: information age publishing. nguyen, p., elliot, j., terlouw, c., & pilot, a. (2009). neocolonialism in education: cooperative learning in an asian context. comparative education, 45(1), 109-130. poole, c. m. & russell, w. b. (2015). educating for global perspectives: a study of teacher preparation programs. journal of education, 195(3), 41-52. raat, w. d. (2004). innovative ways to look at new world historical geography. history teacher, 37(3), 281-306. rapoport, a. (2009). a forgotten concept: global citizenship education and state social studies standards. journal of social studies research, 33(1), 91-112. ryan, j. & louie, k. (2007). false dichotomy? ‘western’ and ‘confucian’ concepts of scholarship and learning. educational philosophy & theory, 39(4), 404-417. said, e. (1978). orientalism. new york: random house. http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/strands http://www.nationalgeographic.com/roper2006/pdf/finalreport2006geoglitsurvey.pdf journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 93-114 114 saldana, j. (2011). the coding manual for qualitative researchers. los angeles: sage publications. sewall, g. 2000. history textbooks at the new century: a report of the american textbook council. new york: american textbook council. subedi, b. (2007). recognizing respondents’ ways of being and knowing: lessons un/learned in researching asian immigrant and asian-american teachers. international journal of qualitative studies in education, 20(1), 51-71. stanton, c. r. (2015). beyond the margins: evaluating the support for multicultural education within teacher’s editions of u.s. history textbooks. multicultural perspectives, 17(4), 180-189. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. thornton, s. j. (1991). teacher as curricular-instructional gatekeeper in social studies. in j. p. shaver (ed.), handbook of research on social studies teaching and learning (pp. 237248). new york: macmillan. thornton, s. j. (2003). what counts as subject matter knowledge for teaching? paper presented at the annual meeting of american educational research association, chicago, il. retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed460028.pdf ukpokodu, o. (2010). teacher preparation for global perspectives pedagogy. in b. subedi (ed.), critical global perspectives: rethinking knowledge about global societies (pp. 121-142). charlotte, n.c.: information age publishing. united states census bureau. (2012). top ten countries with which the u.s. trades. retrieved from http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/top/dst/2012/01/balance.html united states department of defense. (2011). active duty military personnel strengths by regional area and by country (309a)". available at http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/military/history/hst1109.pdf world atlas. (2012). asia. retrieved from http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/as.htm http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/top/dst/2012/01/balance.html http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/military/history/hst1109.pdf http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/as.htm www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 392-426 392 the achievement of entrepreneurship competence and entrepreneurial intentions: gender role, attitude and perception of entrepreneurship controls mediation daliman1, santi sulandari2, & iffah rosyana3 abstract the purpose of this study is to investigate the different models on the factors that influence achievement of entrepreneurial competence and entrepreneurial intentions, between male and female students, which is mediated by attitudes and control perceptions of entrepreneurship. the participants of this study included 192 students who took entrepreneurship courses in various study programs at universitas muhammadiyah surakarta in the even semester of 2015-2016 academic year. entrepreneurial intentions, entrepreneurial attitudes, perceptions of entrepreneurial control, and achievement of entrepreneurial competencies data were obtained using questionnaires, while the student gender information was gathered from the university database. data analysis was performed using structural equation modeling (sem) statistics through partial least square (pls) in multiple group analyses with the help of smart pls 3.1.7 software. the results stressed that the students’ achievement of entrepreneurship, after completing entrepreneurship subject, did not have direct effect to their entrepreneurial intentions. furthermore, the achievement of entrepreneurial competence had a significant positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions by mediating a combination of attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control in male students with a t-statistic of 4.401, at p < 0.05 and in female students with a t-statistic of 5.072 at p<0.05. the model difference test results obtained were t-statistics of 0.913, with p>0.05, which suggest that there is no significant difference in the model of the effect of achievement of entrepreneurial competence on entrepreneurial intentions, between male and female students, which is mediated by entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. keywords: entrepreneurial intentions, entrepreneurial attitude, perceptions of entrepreneurial control, achievement of entrepreneurial competence introduction behavioral intention is believed to be important for understanding the behavior when people engage in an activity (astuti & martdianty, 2012; bagozzi, baumgartner, & yi, 1989; brigas, 2019; kuehn, 2008; soyer, 2019). therefore, to advance entrepreneurial behavior studies further, 1 dr., universitas muhammadiyah surakarta affiliated, dal260@ums.ac.id 2 universitas muhammadiyah surakarta, ss280@ums.ac.id 3 institute of technology adhi tama surabaya, itats@itats.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 it is necessary to examine the entrepreneurial intentions in advance (kickul & krueger, 2005; krueger, reilly, & carsrud, 2000; pruett, 2012; pruett, powell, & tony, 2009). entrepreneurial intention is essential as a liaison between considerations for entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial activities that will be carried out by an individual (ajzen, 1991). the theory of planned behavior (ajzen, 2005) suggests that intention is determined by 3 main factors, namely attitudes towards behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. each of these factors of the intention is motivated by individual, social, and informational factors. based on this theory, it can be stated that entrepreneurial intentions are determined by 3 main elements, namely entrepreneurial attitudes, entrepreneurial subjective norms, and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. one of the important components of the individual backgrounds is entrepreneurial experience, and one main component of the background factors of information is entrepreneurship knowledge. entrepreneurial experience and knowledge, both of which can be both obtained from the process of entrepreneurial learning. entrepreneurship learning in higher education in indonesia has developed significantly in the past decade. entrepreneurial learning is carried out in the form of organizing entrepreneurship courses. entrepreneurship courses in universities in indonesia aim (direktorat jenderal pembelajaran dan kemahasiswaan ditjen pendidikan tinggi kementerian pendidikan & kebudayaan [dirjen dikti], 2013) to ensure that students can understand, apply, and adapt to the lifestyle of entrepreneurship, by acquiring the ability to communicate, lead, and implement business management in managing their business, properly and correctly. particularly, entrepreneurship courses are lessons that shape the character of entrepreneurship or help students gain knowledge regarding the ins and outs of business both in terms of soft skills and hard skills so that they can take advantage the of opportunities around them in creating their own business while still in college or after graduation. wu and wu (2008) examined the entrepreneurship intentions of chinese students by comparing their educational background found that the chinese students’ entrepreneurial intention model was primarily influenced by the diversity of educational backgrounds except for the subjective norms of entrepreneurship, as shown in figure 1. daliman et al. educational background figure 1. results of the model entrepreneurial intention wu and wu (2008). wu and wu's (2008) study involved 4 exogenous variables (figure 1), namely the main field of science, the value of learning, and entrepreneurship education, and 4 endogenous variables, namely attitudes, subjective norms, perceptions of entrepreneurial behavior control, and entrepreneurial intentions. the 4 exogenous variables with respect to the theory of planning behavior are background intentions. three endogenous variables, namely: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceptions of entrepreneurial behavior control with respect to the planning behavior theory are antecedent from intention, which functions as a mediating variable, while the one other endogenous variable is the entrepreneurial intention variable. the involvement of the 3 types of exogenous variables in the wu and wu study (2008) included the level of education, main fields of science and learning achievement values, with variable mediating attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control with the, towards endogenous variables of entrepreneurial intention. in accordance with the theory of planning behavior, this is the most comprehensive research in terms of the structure and components of the theory used, compared to the three studies by ferreira, raposo, rodrigues, & dinis, (2012), krueger et al., (2000), and liñán & chen, (2009). the results of daliman's study (2018) show that the theoretical model of student entrepreneurial intention is influenced jointly by knowledge and skills as entrepre neurial intentions level of education academic major academic achievement perceived control behavior subjective norm personal attitude entrepreneurship education journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 entrepreneurial learning outcomes, with a combination of mediation which is essentially the final value of entrepreneurial learning achievement and student attitudes towards entrepreneurship as shown in figure 2. significance: t-statistic > 1.96, at p 0.05 figure 2. theoretical model of the intention of student entrepreneurship which is influenced jointly by knowledge and skills as entrepreneurial learning outcomes, with a combination of mediation, namely the final value of entrepreneurial learning achievement and student attitudes towards entrepreneurship. this means implies that knowledge and skills as achievements in entrepreneurship learning can significantly influence the intention of student entrepreneurship, through a combination of certain mediation, namely the value of entrepreneurial learning achievement, student attitudes towards entrepreneurship, and entrepreneurial control. daliman, zainudin, hadi, and suhariadi's study (2019) found that the credit weight could be a moderator variable in influencing entrepreneurial daliman et al. attitudes towards entrepreneurial intentions, but it cannot be a moderator variable for the influence of entrepreneurial subjective norms and perceptions of entrepreneurial control with respect to entrepreneurial intentions. this research will be different from previous ones in the literature (daliman, 2018; daliman et al., 2019; wu & wu, 2008). the achievement of entrepreneurial learning competencies in this research will be a part of the level of entrepreneurship education in the research of wu and wu (2008). variable levels of entrepreneurship education in the wu and wu study (2008) include a diploma or stratum with the achievement of entrepreneurial competencies that vary according to each level of education. the current research focuses on the strata 1 level. similarly, the differences in the model of the influence of achievement of entrepreneurial competencies on entrepreneurial intentions in this study are different from those of daliman et al. (2019), which are distinguished based on student groups, namely male and female students. the results of this study are very important as data or information for future research to examine the antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions. furthermore, the results are expected to provide a better understanding of the antecedents of student entrepreneurial intentions, especially with respect to learning through entrepreneurship courses. a conceptual framework has been provided. it visualized through the operational thinking flow chart in figure 3. male (m) and female (f) student groups figure 3. conceptual framework and flow of research operational thinking attitudes on entrepreneurial entrepreneurial intentions perceptions of entrepreneurial control entrepreneurial competency achievement journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 literature review intention, attitude towards behavior and perception of behavior control intention (ajzen, 1991) is assumed to be a range of motivational factors that influence a behavior, also indicating the extent to which people are willing to attempt the engage in this behavior, and to which effort will be planned to be mobilized, in order to conduct the behavior. intention has 4 aspects (fishbein & ajzen, 1975), namely: (1) behavior, which is a specific behavior that will be realized later; (2) targets, namely objects that are subject to behavior. objects that are targeted by specific behavior can be classified into 3, namely people/certain objects (particular objects), groups of people/objects (a class of object) and people or objects in general (any object); (3) situation, that is a situation that supports a behavior (how and where the behavior will be realized); (4) time, which is the occurrence of behavior that includes a certain time in an unlimited period of time. it was further stated by ajzen (2005) that there are 3 factors that can predict individual intentions, namely attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. based on this understanding, it can be concluded that intention is a set of motivational factors that influence a person's behavior, and the extent to which they will put effort and planning into mobilizing that behavior. intention has 4 aspects, namely behavior, target behavior or specific objects and situations that support the conduct of behavior and time, namely where and when the entrepreneurship will be realized. there are 2 factors that can predict one's entrepreneurial intentions, namely attitudes, and perceived behavioral control. attitude towards behavior attitude towards the behavior refers to the level of an individual’s evaluation of what is favorable or unfavorable for a behavior (ajzen, 2005). ajzen (2005) mentioned that attitudes towards behavior are determined by a combination of behavioral beliefs and outcome evaluations. behavioral belief refers to one's belief about the positive or negative consequences of a particular behavior and outcome evaluation is an individual’s evaluation of the consequences that will arise from a behavior. therefore, it can be concluded that individuals who feel confident that a behavior has positive consequences and can produce positive outcomes will have a positive attitude towards a behavior and vice versa. based on this, it can be concluded that attitude towards behavior is the daliman et al. degree of a person’s positive or negative assessment of a behavior. therefore, attitudes towards behavior comprise a combination of beliefs and evaluation of behavioral results. perception of behavior control perceived behavioral control that refers to the ease or difficulty of displaying certain behaviors as well as the assumptions made by individuals that reflect past experiences to anticipate obstacles (ajzen, 2005). ajzen (2005) further stated that perceived behavioral control is determined by control beliefs and power control. control beliefs refer to one's beliefs about the existence – the absence of factors that support or hinder the emergence of a behavior. perceived power control is the perception of the ability to control behavior or the ability to control behavior to achieve goals. the more the supporting factors and less the inhibiting factors, the more will be the ability to control behavior and the stronger the perceived behavioral control (ajzen, 2005). background and relationship of the intention antecedent furthermore ajzen (2005) states that there are various factors behind the background of antecedent intentions; this can be divided 3 categories: individual, social, and informational. individual factors consist of personality, mood, emotion, intelligence, values, stereotypes, general attitude, and experience. social factors cover education, age, gender, income, religion/faith, race and ethnicity, and culture, and informational factors consist of knowledge, media and intervention. figure 4 shows the schematic diagram of the background factors that influence intention in the theory of planned behavior (ajzen, 2005). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 figure 4. theory of planned behavior entrepreneurial the definition of entrepreneurship has been the subject of much debate (abbassi & sta, 2019). low and macmillan (1988) state that entrepreneurship is an effort to create a new business. according to zimmerer, scarborough, and wilson (2008) entrepreneurship is the result of a discipline as well as a systematic process of applying creativity and innovation to meet market needs and opportunities. kuratko and hodgetts (2004) define entrepreneurship as a dynamic process of view, change and creation. based on the various definitions, in this study the definition of entrepreneurship proposed by zimmerer et al. (2008) has been used which describes entrepreneurship as the result of discipline and a systematic process of applying creativity and innovation to meet market needs and opportunities. this definition has psychological dimensions as well as economic dimensions. background factors ___________ individual: personality mood, emotion intelligence value, stereotypes general attitude experience social: education age, gender income behavioral belief attitude toward the behavior behavior normative belief subjective norm intention control belief perceived behavioral control actual behavior control daliman et al. entrepreneurial intention, attitude and control perception of entrepreneurship if the definitions of intention, attitude towards, behavior and perception of behavior control discussed previously are applied to entrepreneurship, it can be stated that entrepreneurial intentions are a set of motivational factors that influence entrepreneurial behavior which indicate the extent to which a person is willing to engage in entrepreneurship and the amount of effort they are applying to plan and be mobilized in entrepreneurship (schul, 2017). the intention of entrepreneurship has 4 aspects, namely entrepreneurial behavior that will be realized, specific behavioral goals or objects that are the target of entrepreneurial behavior, situations that support entrepreneurial behavior, and the time that is where and when the entrepreneurship will be realized. there are 2 factors that can predict one’s entrepreneurial intentions, namely attitude and perceived entrepreneurial control behavior. entrepreneurial attitude is a person’s positive or negative assessment towards entrepreneurship. attitudes towards entrepreneurship are determined by a combination of entrepreneurial beliefs and evaluation of entrepreneurial results. perceived behavioral control of entrepreneurship refers to the ease or difficulty of displaying certain entrepreneurship behaviors as well as assumptions made by individuals that reflect past experiences as material anticipation in the face of entrepreneurial obstacles. entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control is determined by entrepreneurial control beliefs and entrepreneurial power control. the factors underlying the anti-entrepreneurial intentions are divided into 3 categories: individual, social, and informational (ajzen, 2005). achievement of entrepreneurship competency in entrepreneurship courses achievement of learning outcomes according to peraturan menteri pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia nomor 49 tahun 2014 concerning national education standards refers to learning outcomes from a particular teaching field, in the form of knowledge, attitudes, skills, competencies, and accumulated student work experience. essentially, the achievement of entrepreneurship competency learning above by researchers is divided into 2 categories by researchers, namely entrepreneurial achievement competency in the form of knowledge and in the form of skills. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 the following is the formulation of the 2 categories of achievement of entrepreneurial competencies (direktorat jenderal pembelajaran dan kemahasiswaan ditjen pendidikan tinggi kementerian pendidikan & kebudayaan [dirjen dikti], 2013): (1) character; the ability to understand the importance of entrepreneurial character (knowledge) and spontaneously automatically behaving according to this character based on one’s understanding of it and making it a pattern in one’s daily life (skill); (2) communication and interpersonal; the ability to apply leadership and communication skills that are smooth and appropriate to motivate oneself and others so that they can become organized (skill) and efficient individuals practicing productive communication (knowledge); (3) creativity and innovation; the ability to create alternative products and services and practicing efficient problem-solving (knowledge) to provide a competitive advantage and make creativity a lifestyle (skill); (4) selling products and services; the ability to understand the process of selling products and services as a business pulse to both retail (knowledge) and corporate consumers and being able to do it spontaneously and automatically in every opportunity and making it a lifestyle in one’s daily life (skill); (5) business financial management; the ability to evaluate business management from planning to implementing spontaneously (knowledge) and automatically in managing one’s family and business assets and making it an efficient and effective lifestyle (skill). based on the description above, it is clear that 5 types of entrepreneurial competencies are addressed in entrepreneurship courses, which include character, communication and interpersonal competencies, creativity and innovation, selling products and services, and business financial management. each of those courses can be categorized under the 2 broad achievements namely in the form of knowledge and skills. characteristics of male and female students according to hungu (2007), gender is a difference between women and men biologically since a person is born. the term gender is also used for understanding gender in a non-biological way, namely sociologically where women are reconstructed as gentle beings, while men are powerful creatures. furthermore, gender is also used to denote the difference in roles, behavior, temperament of men and women by culture/society through an interpretation of their biological differences. daliman et al. achievement of entrepreneurial competence and attitude entrepreneurship achievement learning outcomes are learning outcomes from a particular teaching area in the form of knowledge, attitudes, skills, competencies, and accumulated student work experience. ghazali, ibrahim, and zainol (2013) found that entrepreneurship learning materials influenced students' attitudes in entrepreneurship. packham, jones, miller, pickernell, and thomas (2010) found that entrepreneurship education obtained by students affected the attitude of students in entrepreneurship. lestari and wijaya (2012) found that entrepreneurial knowledge had a positive and significant effect on student attitudes towards entrepreneurship. wright, aron, mclaughlinvolpe, and ropp (1997) showed that teacher learning is a dominant factor that influences student’s academic achievement, and academic achievement influences a person's attitude toward a behavior. based on the description of some of the aforementioned research results when applied in this study, it can be stated that there is a possibility that when a student has high entrepreneurial competency achievements, they will have a high entrepreneurial attitude as well. achievement of entrepreneurial competence and control perception of entrepreneurship wu and wu (2008) found that there was a relationship between academic achievement and the level of control of entrepreneurial behavior. obschonka, silbereisen, and schmitt-rodermund (2011) found that early entrepreneurial competencies affected entrepreneurial control beliefs. in the case of entrepreneurial control beliefs affecting perceptions of behavioral control, it is possible that the achievement of entrepreneurial competencies influences perceptions of behavioral control. similar research results were also described by yang (2013) that there is a relationship between entrepreneurship education and the level of control of entrepreneurial behavior. hermina, novieyana, and zain (2011) found that entrepreneurship course supports individuals’ interest in being entrepreneurship. the knowledge gained during college is the basic capital used for entrepreneurship. research on the relationship between education and entrepreneurship intentions as conducted by küttim, kallaste, venesaar, and kiis (2014) showed that participation in entrepreneurship education was found to have a positive impact on entrepreneurial intentions. barba-sánchez and atienza-sahuquillo (2018) found that entrepreneurship education hasa positive contribution on journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 entrepreneurial intentions. the results of research related to the development of entrepreneurship by razak et al. (2019) points out that there is a need to improve the current entrepreneurship curriculum to meet the needs of students with special needs in order to inspire and encourage entrepreneurship. based on aforementioned research results when applied in this study, it can be stated that there is a possibility that when a student has high entrepreneurial competency achievements, they will a high level of control perception of entrepreneurship as well. relationship between attitude entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intention ajzen (2005) mentioned that attitude is the disposition to respond positively or negatively to a behavior. if a person has an evaluation that a behavior will produce positive consequences, then the individual will tend to be favorable towards the behavior; conversely, if the individual has a negative evaluation, then the individual will tend to be unfavorable toward the behavior. this is supported by research results from moi, adeline, and dyana (2011) conducted a sample of malaysian students; it was found that entrepreneurial attitudes influenced the intentions of student entrepreneurship. iakovleva, kolvereid, and stephan (2011) stressed that attitude has a relationship with intention; this agrees with bektaş and nalçaci (2012)’s study. usman and yennita (2019) through a structural test output, showed that attitudes towards entrepreneurship has a significant and direct positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions. based on the various aforementioned research results when applied in this study, it can be stated that there is a possibility that when a student has a high entrepreneurial attitude, they will have strong entrepreneurial intentions as well. relationship between control perception of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intention perceived behavioral control is an individual's perception of the ease or difficulty of performing certain behaviors (ajzen, 2005). it is determined by a combination of control belief and perceived power control. control beliefs are individual beliefs about supporting factors or obstacles to bring about a behavior. perceived power control is the strength of individual feelings about each of these supporting or inhibiting factors. autio, keeley, klofsten, parker, and hay (2001) found that perceived power control was an important influence on one's entrepreneurial intentions. de pillis and dewitt (2008) in their study found that there is a relationship between perceived behavioral control and intention. similarly, iakovleva et al. (2011) and kautonen, tornikoski, and kibler daliman et al. (2011) found that perceived behavior control has a relationship with entrepreneurial intentions. liñán, battistelli, and moriano (2008) showed that perceived behavioral control is a good predictor for entrepreneurial intentions. usman and yennita (2019) through structural test outputs showed that perceived behavioral control had a significant and direct positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions. the various aforementioned research results when applied in this study indicate the possibility that when a student has a strong perceived power control, they will have strong entrepreneurial intentions as well. gender role to the attitude entrepreneurship, control perception of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial intention hungu (2007) explained that gender is the difference in roles, behavior, and temperament of men and women as perceived by culture/society through an interpretation of the biological differences between them. crant's research (1996) with a sample of 181 students found that gender influences student entrepreneurship intentions with male entrepreneurial intentions being higher than that of women. sarwoko (2011) found that male entrepreneurship intentions were higher than women. similarly, indarti, rostiani, and nastiti (2010) found that gender had a significant influence on entrepreneurial intentions among taiwanese students. research by gupta and turban (2008), with a sample of 469 students found that gender stereotypes influenced entrepreneurial intentions with men's intentions higher than women. karimi and alipour (2011) stressed that attitudes of male students towards entrepreneurship were more positive than that of women, but there was no difference between men and women in perceptions of entrepreneurial behavior control. haque, kabir, rahman, chowdhury, and islam (2017) found that gender was not related to entrepreneurial intentions, entrepreneurial attitudes, and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. this is because the research participants belonged to urban communities such that entrepreneurship intentions are still relatively low. based on the various aforementioned research results when applied in this study, it can be stated that there is a possibility of differences in the attitude towards entrepreneurship, control perception of entrepreneurship, and entrepreneurial intention on the basis of gender differences. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 gender role to the achievement of entrepreneurship competence as mentioned by hungu (2007), gender is the difference in roles, behavior, temperament of men and women as perceived by culture/society through an interpretation of the biological differences between them yuniarti (2017) found that there is no difference in the learning achievement between male and female students of the madrasah ibtidaiyah, teacher education study program, faculty of tarbiyah and education, uin aluddin makassar. robi (2017) claimed that male students had slightly better performance compared to the female students. furthermore, some previous studies proved that there are significant differences between men and women in terms of academic performance with women performing better than men. in a study by hdii and fagroud (2018), the independent variables were subjects, the graduating classes, and gender. subjects were classified into 3 main categories: scientific subjects (mathematics and statistics), technical subjects (agronomy and animal care), and language subjects (english and french). hdii and fagroud's (2018) claimed that girls were proven to be more likely to perform better than boys in some subjects such as agronomy, animal care, and language subjects (english and french). research by goni, wali s.b., ali, and bularafa (2015) on students at the college of education in borno state found that there was no difference in academic performance between male and female students. this might be due to the differences in the field of research. based on the various aforementioned research results when applied in this study, it can be argued that there might be differences in the achievement of entrepreneurship competence on the basis of gender. method research design the approach used in this study was a quantitative approach with a survey research design. if seen from the incident, this research was ex-post facto. this approach was chosen since this study gained data from the learning event held by an entrepreneurial lecturer. the learning event had occurred, namely, in the form of competency achievements in entrepreneurship learning outcomes, entrepreneurial intentions, attitudes, and perception of entrepreneurial control between male and female students. this study adopted the structural equation modeling causality model, technique through partial least squares (sem-pls), with a combination of two mediation. daliman et al. population and sample the population of this study is 878 students who enrolled to entrepreneurship courses in the even semester of 2015-2016 academic year. the students came from 17 out of 22 study programs at universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. the subjects were determined using a cluster and proportional random sampling technique by considering the study program group and the number of respondents. the total number of subjects in this study was 192, consisting of 96 male and 96 female students represented from 5 different faculties. a proportion of 9.9% men and 8.3% women were from the psychology faculty. the students of economics faculty were 13.4% men and 17.2% women. respondents who took entrepreneurship courses from pharmacy faculty were 7.8% men and 10.4% women. the students from the education faculty were 5.2% male and 11.4% female, and the respondents from the faculty of engineering were 13.5% male and 2.6% female. variables and measurements the endogenous variable in this study was entrepreneurial intentions, and the exogenous variable was the achievement of entrepreneurial competence. the attitude and perception of entrepreneurial control were placed as mediating variables in the model. the entrepreneurship intention variable had 3 indicators, namely, behavior, situation, and time. each indicator consisted of 2 items so that the number of items of the entrepreneurial intention variable was 6 items. the achievement of the entrepreneurial competence variable consisted of 5 indicators, namely, indicators of entrepreneurial personality, communication, leadership and motivation, innovation and creativity, and marketing and management. each indicator consisted of 2 dimensions, namely knowledge and skills. then, the number of items of knowledge and skill dimensions on the entrepreneurial personality, indicator consisted of an item. besides, the number of items of knowledge dimensions in the indicators of communication, leadership and motivation is 3 items, while the skill dimension consisted of an item. moreover, the number of items of knowledge and skill dimensions of each indicator of the entrepreneurial innovation and creativity indicator, marketing indicator, and management indicator was an item. thus, the total number of items in the achievement of the entrepreneurial competence variable was 12 items. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 the entrepreneurial attitude variable had 2 indicators, namely behavioral beliefs indicators, namely behavioral beliefs indicator, which consisted of 3 items, and evaluation results indicator, which consisted of 2 items. thus, the number of items in the entrepreneurial attitude variable was 5 units. meanwhile, the perceptions of entrepreneurial behavior variable has 2 indicators, namely entrepreneurial behavior beliefs and entrepreneurial strength control. each indicator consisted of 3 items. thus, the number of variable items perceptions of entrepreneurial behavior was 6 items. based on the description above, it was known that the overall items used in this study were 29 items. judging from the relationship of indicators with the research construct, it was found that there were 20 items in the second-order construct type and 9 items in the first-order construct type. the second-order construct was found in the variables of entrepreneurial attitudes, perceptions of entrepreneurial control, entrepreneurial intentions, and achievement of entrepreneurial competence, only in the indicator of leadership and motivation, for the knowledge dimension. however, the first-order construct was found in the achievement of entrepreneurial competence variable in all indicators and dimensions, except for the knowledge dimension in the indicator of leadership and motivation. the first step in the measurement analysis on pls was to test each item in the second-order construct by looking at the results of outer loading. the outer loading results of the second-order construct in male and female students obtained outer loading >0.7. based on these results, it could be concluded that the items at the second-order level met the validity requirements and could be used to form indicators in accordance with the research construct. furthermore, after it was known that the items in the second-order had fulfilled the validity requirements, a simplification was done by adding the items in one score. each indicator would be obtained in each research construct consisting only of a score. at this stage, the total score as an indicator in each research construct was described as follows. the entrepreneurial intention variable had 3 scores/indicators, and the entrepreneurial competency achievement variable consisted of 5 indicators. each indicator had 2 dimensions so that it becomes 10 score /indicators. the entrepreneurial attitude variable had 2 scores/indicators, and the perceptions of the entrepreneurial behavior variable had 2 scores/indicators. the construction of indicator relationships with the research construct up to this stage was included in the first-order category. daliman et al. based on this description, the total score/indicator in this study was 17 pieces, both for male and female students. furthermore, a re-measurement analysis was performed on the 17 score/indicators of this study, in order to determine whether these indicators were valid or not. the results of repeated measurements of the first-order items found that as many as 5 indicators were not valid in male students, and 6 in women, with an outer loading value < 0.7, while other indicators obtained outer loading values > 0.7. because there were still invalid indicators, the second measurement was repeated by removing the invalid indicators. the number of indicators to be estimated in stage 2 for male students was 12 indicators, while women were 11 indicators. the results of the re-measurement of stage 2 showed that all indicators had an outer loading > 0.7, as shown in table 1 for male students and table 2 for female students. table 1 student male loading factor achievement loading factor attitude loading factor perception loading factor intention loading factor ach1 0.840 att1,4 0.950 percp1,2,6 0.964 int1,4 0.968 ach2,3,4 0.881 att2,3,5 0.928 percp3,4,5 0.968 int2,6 0.956 ach5 0.888 int3,5 0.951 ach6 0.843 ach7 0.870 table 2 student female loading factor achievement loading factor attitude loading factor perception loading factor intention loading factor ach2,3,4 0.875 att1,4 0.973 percp1,2,6 0.953 int1,4 0.929 ach5 0.742 att2,3,5 0.974 percp3,4,5 0.946 int2,6 0.928 ach6 0.898 int3,5 0.935 ach7 0.818 it implied that all first-order items for both male and female students met the validity requirements, so it could be concluded that all indicators of research instruments in this measurement analysis journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 met the convergent requirements of validity. the average variance extracted (ave) results in this study showed that ave values for all constructs were higher than 0.50. therefore, it could be concluded that the scale in this study had fulfilled convergent and discriminant validity criteria. composite reliability and cronbach's alpha calculation results on achievement of entrepreneurial learning competencies, entrepreneurial intentions, perceptions of control of entrepreneurial behavior, and student attitudes towards entrepreneurship for both male and female students showed p-values <0.05; so, it can be concluded that all constructs have good reliability as in table 3 and 4. table 3 student male composite reliability and cronbach‘s alpha latent variable composite reliability cronbach‘s alpha achievement 0.937 0.915 attitude 0.937 0.867 perception 0.965 0.928 intention 0.971 0.956 table 4 student female composite reliability and cronbach‘s alpha latent variable composite reliability cronbach‘s alpha achievement 0.902 0.856 attitude 0.974 0.947 perception 0.948 0.891 intention 0.951 0.923 procedures the data collection process was coordinated with the permission granted from universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. questionnaires were distributed to the representative sample (university students). they were administered in the last lecture of the semester with the daliman et al. permission of the lecturer. research assistants helped the researchers on the process of data collection process. the full confidentiality of the data processing and presentation only for scientific purposes was ensured. it should be noted that throughout the process of data collection, the students were agreed to participate in the study without any hesitation. data analysis technique data analysis was performed with the structural equation modeling (sem) technique through partial least square (pls) (ghozali & latan, 2015) in a multiple group analysis, with a significance level of 5%. the calculation was done with the help of smart pls 3.1.7 software. data analysis was carried out in with the following steps: 1. the path coefficient of the bootstrapping table was calculated to obtain the price of the path coefficient and error standard in each group. 2. the difference between the formula smith-stterthwait (chin, 2000) was tested as follows. 𝑡 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒_1 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒_2 √𝑆. 𝐸.𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒1 2 + 𝑆. 𝐸.𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒2 2 description: sample path 1 : path coefficient for male group sample path 2 : path coefficient for female group s.e sample 1 : the standard error value of the male group s.e sample 2 : standard error value of the female group research results hypotheses testing based on the direct hypotheses tests’ results (table 5 & 6), it could be stated that: journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 1. hypothesis 1 obtained a statistical r-value of 0.007 for males and 0.107 for females, and p>0.05; the hypothesis analysis was rejected, which means that the entrepreneurial competency achievements have no significant effect on the entrepreneurial intentions. 2. hypothesis 2 obtained a statistical r-value of 0.615 for males and 0.408 for females, and p<0.05; the hypothesis of analysis was accepted, which means that entrepreneurial competency achievements have a significant influence on the entrepreneurial attitudes. 3. hypothesis 3 obtained a statistical r-value of 0.590 for males and 0.490 for females, and p<0.05; the hypothesis of analysis was accepted, which means that entrepreneurial competency achievements have a significant influence on the perception of entrepreneurial control. 4. hypothesis 4 obtained a statistical r-value of 0.280 for males and 0.494 for females, and p<0.05; the hypothesis of analysis was accepted, which means that entrepreneurial attitudes have a significant influence on the entrepreneurial intentions. 5. hypothesis 5 obtained a statistical r-value of 0.552 for males and 0.352 for females, and p<0.05; the hypothesis of analysis was accepted, which means that perceptions of entrepreneurial control have a significant influence on the entrepreneurial intentions. table 5 direct effect, pls results for male student variable attitude perception intention achievement 0.615** 0.590** 0.007 attitude 0.280** perception 0.552** **significant at p<0.05 daliman et al. table 6 direct effect, pls results for female student variable attitude perception intention achievement 0.408** 0.490** 0.107 attitude 0.494** perception 0.352** **significant at p<0.05 moreover, based on the indirect tests, which helped to answer the main hypothesis 1 (table 7), it could be stated that achievement of entrepreneurial competencies had a significant positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions, by mediating a combination of attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control for both male (0.364) and female (0.374) students, which p <0.05. table 7 the mediating effect model pls results for for male and female student on the main hypothesis 1 gender variable path to intention male achievement attitude perception 0.364** female achievement attitude perception 0.374** **significant at p<0.05 the test of path difference of main hypothesis 2 could be analyzed by observing the results of the path coefficient calculation and the standard deviation from the indirect test results in male and female students, at a significance level of 5%. the statistical analyses (table 8) showed that tstatistic value is 0.918 with p-value > 0.05. it implies that there is no difference between the 2 paths to influence the achievement of entrepreneurial competence on entrepreneurial intentions, by mediating a combination of entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control, between male and female students. based on the results of this study, it could be concluded that gender could not function as a moderator variable control. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 table 8 the test results of path difference on the main hypothesis 2 **significant at p<0.05 discussion based on the results of the research hypothesis test 1, it was found that the achievement of entrepreneurial competence had no significant effect on entrepreneurial intentions, both for male and female students, with a value of p> 0.05. it means that the higher the achievement of entrepreneurial competence of students after attending the entrepreneurship course is not followed, the higher the entrepreneurial intentions. it could be explained that although students already had high entrepreneurial competency achievements, however in general, most respondents were in the 4th and 5th semesters. they were still far from the possibility of graduating, or still a long way to start practicing their entrepreneurial skills so that they still did not have a strong intention to become an entrepreneur immediately. the results of this study are in accordance with the theory of planning behavior proposed by ajzen (2005), which states that personal characteristics, social factors, and information factors do not directly influence intentions. the student’s entrepreneurship competency achievement after taking entrepreneurship courses is part of individual factors in the form of entrepreneurial experience or skills and information factors in the form of entrepreneurial knowledge. based on the description above, it can be stated that the achievement of entrepreneurial competence of students after attending entrepreneurship lectures does not significantly influence the intentions of student entrepreneurship directly. nevertheless, this study result contradicts with the previous finding which mentions that the entrepreneur courses affect the students' entrepreneurial skills (bonesso, gerli, pizzi, & cortellazzo, 2018; solesvik, 2019). the test results of research hypotheses 2 and 3 show that the analysis hypotheses are accepted. the achievement of entrepreneurial competence has a positive effect on the attitudes and perceptions variable componen gender t-statistic exogenous mediation endogenous male female competency achievement entrepren eurial attitudes perceptions of entrepreneurial control entrepreneuri al intentions path coefficient 0.498 0.374 0.918 deviation standard 0.113 0.074 daliman et al. of student entrepreneurial behavior control, which means that the higher the achievement of entrepreneurial competencies, the higher the attitudes and perceptions of student entrepreneurial behavior control. it means that a student has the higher entrepreneurial attitudes and the perception of entrepreneurial control, if he/she has entrepreneurial knowledge and skills as an entrepreneurial learning achievement, including personality traits, communication, and interpersonal understanding, innovative and creative, and business management. the higher the entrepreneurial attitude means the more positive, profitable, and satisfied someone in entrepreneurship. the coefficient value of the effect of the entrepreneurial competence achievement on the attitudes and perceptions of student entrepreneurial control is 0.379 and 0.348. based on the results of these coefficients, it can be seen that the values of r square are respectively of 0.14.7 and 0.12.1. it means that the variability of student entrepreneurial attitudes can be explained by the variability of entrepreneurial competency achievements by 14.7%, while other factors outside the study explain 85.3%. the variability of students’ perceptions of entrepreneurial control can be explained by the variability in the knowledge of entrepreneurial learning outcomes of 12.1%, while other factors outside the study explain 87.9%. based on this analysis, it can be concluded that the role of the variability of entrepreneurial competence achievement on the variability of attitudes and perceptions of student entrepreneurial behavior control is relatively small, which is a maximum of 14.7%, although each has a significant influence. the results of this study are in accordance with the theory of planned behavior (ajzen, 2005), which states that attitudes and perceived behavioral control are determined by the achievement of one's experience and knowledge, which includes the achievement of entrepreneurial competencies. the results of this study support the research results of ghazali et al. (2013) who found that entrepreneurial learning materials influenced students' attitudes towards entrepreneurship. the results of the study by packham et al. (2010), who found that entrepreneurship education obtained by students influenced the attitude of students towards entrepreneurship. lestari and wijaya (2012) shows that entrepreneurial knowledge has a positive and significant effect on attitudes towards student entrepreneurship. research hermina et al. (2011) found that the entrepreneurship course supports their interest in being entrepreneurs. the knowledge gained during college is the basic capital used for entrepreneurship. the results of this study are also supported by the results of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 (obschonka et al., 2011), who found that early entrepreneurial competencies affected entrepreneurial control beliefs. in terms of entrepreneurial control, beliefs affect the perception of behavioral control so that the achievement of entrepreneurial competence influences the perception of entrepreneurial behavior control. the results of this study are also consistent with the results of research yang (2013), which found that there is a relationship between entrepreneurship education with the level of control of entrepreneurial behavior. based on the description above, it can be stated that the factors that influence attitudes and perceptions of student entrepreneurial behavior control in this study are the achievements of entrepreneurial competence, with the influence of both is relatively the same. the test results of research hypotheses 4 and 5 show that the analysis hypotheses are accepted. the attitude and perception of student entrepreneurial behavior control have a significant positive effect on student entrepreneurship intentions after attending entrepreneurship lectures. based on the theory of planned behavior (ajzen, 2005), attitudes are determined by the belief in behavior and the outcome of a behavior. it means that the attitude towards student entrepreneurship in the belief of entrepreneurial behavior is that if students have the opportunity and resources, then they will start an entrepreneur. also, if there are several choices, then students prefer to choose to become an entrepreneur who is already formed as part of their personalities. in terms of assessing the results of student entrepreneurship, being an entrepreneur will bring benefits, an attractive career, and satisfaction to students, which then influences students’ entrepreneurial intentions. perceived behavioral control (ajzen, 2005) is determined by a combination of control belief and perceived power control. control beliefs are individual beliefs about supporting factors or obstacles to bring about a behavior. perceived power control is the power of individual perception of each of these supporting or inhibiting factors. this means that the perception of control of student entrepreneurial behavior, both from the control of entrepreneurial behavior and the strength of control of entrepreneurial behavior have a very significant effect on student entrepreneurial intentions. based on the description above, it was stated that attitudes towards entrepreneurship and perceptions of student entrepreneurial behavior control influence student intentions on entrepreneurship. the results of this study support the results of research by liñán and chen (2009) showing that attitudes towards entrepreneurship have a relationship with one's entrepreneurial intentions. daliman et al. iakovleva et al. (2011) found that attitude has a relationship with intention, as well as the results of bektaş and nalçaci (2012). research by ghazali et al. (2013) and moi et al. (2011) shows that attitudes towards entrepreneurship are positively related to entrepreneurial intentions. the results of the influence of the perception of control of student entrepreneurial behavior on student entrepreneurial intentions in this study, according to the results of the study of autio et al. (2001) who found that perceived power control influences one's entrepreneurial intentions. research by liñán and chen (2009) found that entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control has a relationship with one's entrepreneurial intentions. furthermore, the results of the research by iakovleva et al. (2011) found that attitudes toward a behavior and perceived behavior control behavior have a relationship with behavioral intentions. the results of de pillis and dewitt (2008) research found that there is a relationship between perceived behavioral control and intention. research by liñán and chen (2009) found that perceived entrepreneurial control behavior has a relationship with one's entrepreneurial intentions. likewise, iakovleva et al. (2011) and kautonen et al. (2011) found that perceived behavior control has a relationship with intention. based on the description above it can be stated that when a student has many supporting factors for entrepreneurship, then the individual will have a strong intention to bring up the entrepreneurial behavior. the indirect test results on main hypothesis 1 show that entrepreneurial competency achievement influences entrepreneurial intentions through a combination of 2 mediating variables, namely attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control for both male and female students. based on these findings for both male and female students, the higher achievement of entrepreneurial competence will be followed by higher intention of student entrepreneurship, through higher entrepreneurial attitudes and higher perception of entrepreneurial control. achievement of entrepreneurial competencies in male students consists of 5 fields of competence which include character, communication and interpersonal, creativity and innovation, selling of products and services and business financial management, while for female students it consists of 4 fields of competence, in addition to character, communication and interpersonal, creativity and innovation, selling of products and services, and business financial management. the results of this study support the results of daliman's study (2018) even with fewer subjects. daliman's research (2018) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 found that student entrepreneurial intentions are influenced jointly by knowledge and skills as an achievement of entrepreneurial learning. the results of this study support the results of yıldırım, özgür, and aşkun (2016) who found in that educational program gender influences entrepreneurial intentions. overall, the results of this study also support the results of research by packham et al. (2010) and ghazali and zainol (2012) who found that entrepreneurship education obtained by students influenced their attitudes toward entrepreneurship. similarly, this study ‘s results agree with those of hermina et al. (2011), obschonka et al. (2011), yang (2013) who found that entrepreneurship education affects the level of entrepreneurial behavior control. particularly, these research results also supported the finding by ambad and damit (2016); lestari and wijaya (2012), miranda, chamorro-mera, and rubio (2017), and wu and wu (2008) that entrepreneurial attitudes influence entrepreneurial intentions. the results showed that attitudes towards the usefulness of websites have links with intentions to shop online. miranda et al. (2017) found that entrepreneurial attitudes influence entrepreneurial intentions. similarly, the results of this study also support the results of wu and wu (2008) who found that the perception of entrepreneurial behavior control affected entrepreneurial intentions. the indirect tests’ results on main hypotheses 2 suggested that there was no difference between the 2 paths of the effect of entrepreneurial competency achievement on entrepreneurial intentions by mediating a combination of entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control between male and female students. based on the this study, gender cannot function as a moderator variable (ghozali & latan, 2015) for the influence of entrepreneurial competency on entrepreneurial intentions between male and female students by mediating a combination of student entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. this finding implied that between male and female students, there is no different theoretical model of influence of achievement of entrepreneurial competence on entrepreneurial intentions by mediating a combination of entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. when compared to the results of the study, the direct influence of various research variables is related; the results of this study are different from those of gupta and turban (2008), and kickul and krueger (2005) who found that male students' entrepreneurial intentions were higher than women. it is also different from the results of crant (1996), gupta and turban (2008), kolvereid (1997), daliman et al. matthews and moser (1996), mazzarol et al. (1999), sarwoko (2011), and schiller and crewson (1997) who found that male students had a different level of entrepreneurial intention than female students. the results of this study are different from the results of research conducted by karimi and alipour (2011) who found that male students' entrepreneurial attitudes were higher than women. however, the results of this current study supports the results of research gupta and turban (2008), indarti, rostiani, and nastiti (2010), and karimi and alipour (2011) who found that there were no differences in entrepreneurial intentions between male and female students. similarly, the results of this study supports the results of research by karimi and alipour (2011) and gupta and turban (2008) who found that there was no difference in the perceptions of entrepreneurial behavior control between men and women. karimi and alipour (2011) found that attitudes towards entrepreneurship of male students were higher than women. based on the results of the test and the discussion, it can be concluded that there is no difference in the model of the effect of entrepreneurial competency achievement on entrepreneurial intentions between male and female students by mediating a combination of student entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. the research results model is as shown in figure 5. male student group female student group attitude intention perception achievement 3.779 3.298 5.303 2.195 intentio n perception achievement attitud e 3.857 3.927 5.283 4.905 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 significance: t-statistic > 1.96, p 0.05 figure 5. research results model in connection with the results of the study that gender cannot function as a moderator variable for the influence of entrepreneurial competency achievement on entrepreneurial intentions between male and female students by mediating a combination of student entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control, hence, in entrepreneurship learning, there is no need to distinguish between male and female students. conclusion based on the results of the test and the discussion above, it can be concluded that student entrepreneurial competency achievement after attending entrepreneurship lectures does not directly influence student entrepreneurial intentions. however, it has an indirect effect on the students’ entrepreneurial intentions by mediating a combination of attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. the achievement of student entrepreneurship competencies after attending entrepreneurship courses directly influences the attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. the attitude and perception of entrepreneurial control directly influence the intentions of student entrepreneurship. there is no difference in the model of the effect of entrepreneurial competency achievement on entrepreneurial intentions between male and female students by mediating a combination of student entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. therefore, gender cannot function as a moderator variable on the effect of entrepreneurial competency achievement on entrepreneurial intentions between male and female students by mediating a combination of student entrepreneurial attitudes and perceptions of entrepreneurial control. research limitations this study has limitations, namely the difference in the number of fields of entrepreneurial competency achievement between male and female students. students have a complete range of 5 competency fields namely character, communication and interpersonal fields, creativity and innovation, selling of products and services, and business financial management, while female students only have 4 fields of competency, namely communication and interpersonal, creativity daliman et al. and innovation, selling of products and services, and business financial management, without competency in the field of character. therefore, the entrepreneurial competence of this character field for students needs to be further investigated in the future. acknowledgement we thank the faculty of psychology, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta for granting us permissions to conduct the research. this research received specific grant from universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. references abbassi, r., & sta, n. (2019). the effect of self-esteem, entrepreneurship education, and entrepreneurial tradition of the family on the entrepreneurial intention among students. journal of business and management research, 12, 235–245. ajzen, i. (1991). the theory of planned behavior. organizational behavior and human decision processes, 50, 179–211. ajzen, i. (2005). attitude personality and behavior (second edition). london: open university press. ambad, s. n. a., & damit, d. h. d. a. (2016). determinants of entrepreneurial intention among undergraduate students in malaysia. procedia economics and finance, 37(16), 108–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(16)30100-9 astuti, r. d., & martdianty, f. (2012). student’s entrepreneurial intentions by using theory of planned behavior: the case in indonesia. the south east asian journal of management, 6(2), 100–119. https://doi.org/https://doi/org/10.21002/seam.v6i2.1317 autio, e., keeley, r. h., klofsten, m., parker, g. g. c., & hay, m. (2001). entrepreneurial intent among students in scandinavia and in the usa. enterprise and innovation management studies, 2(2), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/14632440110094632 bagozzi, r. p., baumgartner, j., & yi, y. (1989). an investigation into the role of intentions as mediators of the attitude-behavior relationship. journal of economic psychology, 10, 35– 62. barba-sánchez, v., & atienza-sahuquillo, c. (2018). entrepreneurial intention among journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 engineering students: the role of entrepreneurship education. european research on management and business economics, 24, 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2017.04.001 bektaş, f., & nalçaci, a. (2012). the relationship between personal values and attitude towards teaching profession. kuram ve uygulamada egitim bilimleri, 12(2), 1244–1248. bonesso, s., gerli, f., pizzi, c., & cortellazzo, l. (2018). students’ entrepreneurial intentions: the role of prior learning experiences and emotional, social, and cognitive competencies. journal of small business management, 56, 215–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12399 brigas, c. (2019). modeling and simulation in an educational context: teaching and learning sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 1-12. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/418 chin, w. (2000). the partial least square approach for structural equation modelling. cleveland, ohio. crant, j. m. (1996). the proactive personality scale as a predictor of entrepreneurial intentions. journal of small business management, 42–49. daliman. (2018). model intensi berwirausaha mahasiswa dalam perspektif capaian pembelajaran. unpublished doctorate dissertation, universitas airlangga, surabaya. daliman, zainudin, m., hadi, c., & suhariadi, f. (2019). student entrepreneurial intention towards entrepreneurship course with different credit loading hours. international journal of entrepreneurship, 23(1), 1–20. de pillis, e., & dewitt, t. (2008). not worth it, not for me? predictors of entrepreneurial intention in men and women. journal of asia entrepreneurship and sustainability, 4(3), 1– 13. direktorat jenderal pembelajaran dan kemahasiswaan ditjen pendidikan tinggi kementerian pendidikan & kebudayaan [dirjen dikti]. (2013). kewirausahaan. jakarta: dirjen dikti. ferreira, j., raposo, m., rodrigues, r., & dinis, a. (2012). a model of entrepreneurial intention: an application of the psychological and behavioral approaches. journal of small business and enterprise development, 19(3), 424–440. https://doi.org/10.1108/14626001211250144 fishbein, m., & ajzen, i. (1975). belief, attitude, intentions, behavior. reading ma: addison – wasley. https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/418 daliman et al. ghazali, z., ibrahim, n. a., & zainol, f. a. (2013). factors affecting entrepreneurial intention among unisza students. asian social science, 9(1), 86–93. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v9n1p85 ghozali, i., & latan, h. (2015). partials least squares konsep, teknik dan aplikasi menggunakan program smartpls 3,0 untuk penelitian empiris. semarang: badan penerbit universitas diponegoro. goni, u., wali s.b., y., ali, h. k., & bularafa, m. w. (2015). gender difference in students’ academic performance in colleges of education in borno state, nigeria: implications for counselling. journal of education and practice, 6(32), 107–114. gupta, v. k., & turban, d. b. (2008). the effect of gender stereotype activation on entrepreneurial intentions. journal of applied psychology, 93(5), 1053–1061. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.5.1053 haque, m. r., kabir, m. z., rahman, m. m., chowdhury, s. p., & islam, s. (2017). entrepreneurial intentions: a study on students from countryside university. asian economic and financial review, 7(10), 972–980. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.aefr.2017.710.972.980 hdii, s., & fagroud, m. (2018). the effect of gender on university students’ school performance: the case of the national school of agriculture in meknes, morocco. culture & society, 9(1), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.7220/2335-8777.9.1.4 hermina, u. n., novieyana, s., & zain, d. (2011). pengaruh mata kuliah kewirausahaan terhadap minat mahasiswa menjadi wirausaha pada program studi administrasi bisnis politeknik negeri pontianak. jurnal eksos, 7(2), 130–141. hungu. (2007). demografi kesehatan indonesia. jakarta: penerbit grasindo. iakovleva, t., kolvereid, l., & stephan, u. (2011). entrepreneurial intentions in developing and developed countries. education and training, 53(5), 353–370. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911111147686 indarti, n., & rostiani, r. (2011). undergraduate student’s entrepreneurial intention: a comparative study among indonesia, japan and norway. journal of indonesian economy and business, 23(4), 369–384. https://doi.org/10.22146/jieb.6316 indarti, n., rostiani, r., & nastiti, t. (2010). underlying factors of entrepreneurial intentions journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 among asian students. the south east asian journal of management, 4(2), 143–160. https://doi.org/10.21002/seam.v4i2.5636 karimi, r., & alipour, f. (2011). reduce job stress in organizations : role of locus of control. international journal of business and social science, 2(18), 232–236. kautonen, t., tornikoski, e. t., & kibler, e. (2011). entrepreneurial intentions in the third age: the impact of perceived age norms. small business economics, 37(2), 219–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-009-9238-y kickul, j., & krueger, n. f. (2005). toward a new model of intentions: the complexity of gender, cognitive style, culture, social norms, and intensity on the pathway to entrepreneurship. working paper, (september). kolvereid, l. (1997). prediction of employment status choice intentions. entrepreneurship theory and practice, 47–58. krueger, n. f., reilly, m. d., & carsrud, a. l. (2000). competing models of entrepreneural intentions. journal of business venturing, 15, 411–432. kuehn, k. w. (2008). entrepreneurial intentions research: implications for entrepreneurship education. journal of entrepreneurship education, 11, 132–141. kuratko, d. f., & hodgetts, r. m. (2004). entrepreneurship: theory, process, practice. ohio: thomson/south-western. küttim, m., kallaste, m., venesaar, u., & kiis, a. (2014). entrepreneurship education at university level and students’ entrepreneurial intentions. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 110, 658–668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.910 lestari, r. b., & wijaya, t. (2012). pengaruh pendidikan kewirausahaan terhadap minat berwirausaha mahasiswa. jurnal ilmiah stie mdp, 1(2), 112–119. liñán, f., battistelli, a., & moriano, j. a. (2008). entrepreneurial intentions in europe. in j. a. m. león, m. gorgievski, & m. lukes (eds.), teaching psychology of entrepreneurship: perspective from six european countries (pp. 21–44). madrid: uned. liñán, f., & chen, y. (2009). development and cross-cultural application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneurial intentions. entrepreneurship theory and practice, 593–617. low, m. b., & macmillan, i. c. (1988). enttrepreneurship: past research and future challenges. journal of management, 14(2), 139–161. daliman et al. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638801400202 matthews, c. h., & moser, s. b. (1996). a longitudinal investigation of the impact of family background and gender on interest in small firm ownership. journal of small business management, 34(2), 29–43. mazzarol, t., volery, t., doss, n., & thein, v. (1999). factors influencing small business startups: a comparison with previous research. international journal of entrepreneurial behaviour and research, 5(2), 48–63. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552559910274499 miranda, f. j., chamorro-mera, a., & rubio, s. (2017). academic entrepreneurship in spanish universities: an analysis of the determinants of entrepreneurial intention. european research on management and business economics, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2017.01.001 moi, t., adeline, y. l., & dyana, m. l. (2011). young adult responses to entrepreneurial intent. journal of arts, science & commerce, 2(3), 37–52. obschonka, m., silbereisen, r. k., & schmitt-rodermund, e. (2011). successful entrepreneurship as developmental outcome : a path model from a lifespan perspective of human evelopment. european psychologist, 16(3), 74–186. https://doi.org/10.1027/10169040/a000075 packham, g., jones, p., miller, c., pickernell, d., & thomas, b. (2010). attitudes towards entrepreneurship education : a comparative analysis. education + training, 52(8/9), 568– 586. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911011088926 peraturan menteri pendidikan dan kebudayaan republik indonesia nomor 49 tahun 2014. standar nasional pendidikan tinggi. pruett, m. (2012). entrepreneurship education : workshops and entrepreneurial intentions. journal of education for business, 87, 94–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2011.573594 pruett, m., powell, b., & tony, b. (2009). catalyzing regional entrepreneurial activity selfefficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. international council for small business world conference,. halifax. razak, a. a., zainol, z., muhammad, f., hussin, m. y. m., ramdan, m. r., & yin, k. y. (2019). the effect of religious beliefs and entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 392-426 actions among university students with disabilities (swds). international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 9(7), 950–960. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v9-i7/6193 robi, y. s. (2017). diploma program graduates’ cgpa as predictor of success in the teachers’ professional licensing written exam result with gender analysis. international journal of educational reform, 26(4), 321–335. https://doi.org/10.1177/105678791702600405 sarwoko, e. (2011). kajian empiris entrepreneur intention mahasiswa. jurnal ekonomi bisnis, 16(2), 126–135. schiller, b. r., & crewson, p. e. (1997). entrepreneurial origins: a longitudinal inquiry. economic inquiry, 35, 523–531. schul, j. (2017). clinical entrepreneurship: a student teacher assigning desktop documentary making. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/44 solesvik, m. z. (2019). entrepreneurial competencies and intentions: the role of higher education. forum scientiae oeconomia, 7(1), 9–23. https://doi.org/10.23762/fso_vol7_no1_1 soyer, g. (2019). urie bronfenbrenner: the ecology of human development book review. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 77-80. retrieved from https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/37 usman, b., & yennita. (2019). understanding the entrepreneurial intention among international students in turkey. journal of global entrepreneurship research, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-018-0136-0 wijaya, t. (2007). hubungan adversity intelligence dengan intensi berwirausaha ( studi empiris pada siswa smkn 7 yogyakarta ). jurnal ekonomi manajemen, 9(2), 117–127. wright, s. c., aron, a., mclaughlin-volpe, t., & ropp, s. a. (1997). the extended contact effect: knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice. journal of personality and social psychology, 73(1), 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.73 wu, s., & wu, l. (2008). the impact of higher education on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in china. journal of small business and enterprise development, 15(4), 752–774. https://doi.org/10.1108/14626000810917843 yang, j. (2013). the theory of planned behavior and prediction of entrepreneurial intention https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/37 daliman et al. among chinese undergraduates. social behavior and personality, 41(3), 367–376. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2013.41.3.367 yıldırım, n., özgür, ç., & aşkun, o. b. (2016). ready to dare ? a case study on the entrepreneurial intentions of business and engineering students in turkey. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 229, 277–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.07.138 yuniarti. (2017). perbandingan prestasi belajar mahasiswa laki-laki dan mahasiswa perempuan pada mata kuliah matematika i angkatan 2014-2016 program studi pendidikan guru madrasah ibtidaiyah fakultas tarbiyah dan keguruan uin alaudin makassar. unpublished minor thesis, uin alauddin makassar, makassar. zimmerer, t. w., scarborough, n. m., & wilson, d. (2008). kewirausahaan dan manajemen usaha kecil. jakarta: salemba empat. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),276-291 276 social construction of student behavior through character education based on local wisdom sri suhartini1, bintarsih sekarningrum2, m. munandar sulaeman3 & wahju gunawan4 abstract this article discusses the social construction of student behavior based on local wisdom, which aims to describe the social construction of student behavior by utilizing local wisdom through character education. the study was conducted using a case study method with a qualitative approach. the technique of collecting data uses observation, interviews and document studies. the results of this study indicate that the social construction of student behavior are carried out through a simultaneous dialectical process in externalization, objectivation and internalization. to apply local wisdom to character education requires the willingness of regional leaders to be implemented by their regional apparatus, schools, families and communities so that manifest students who have character. values of “7 poe atikan istimewa” (special educated seven day values” represent local wisdom that are applicable for student. essentially, the seven days education of values are divided into: sunday keywords: social construction, student behavior, local wisdom, character education introduction this study explores character education that is rooted from the local wisdom of sundanese culture. “special educated seven-day values” program is elaborated into a certain different habituations where character building is developed. social construction in this study is developed upon the interactions between teachers, students, community and environment. through this model, character education as a way of adjusting the behaviors of the students, in order to become good citizens of the future has been defined (hoge, 2002), and these students were being instructed, guided, and toward having some sets of prescribed behaviors (pike, 2010). character education is a strategic choice in the effort to shape student character in several countries (berkowitz & hoppe, 2009). attention on the character education has growing in a 1doctor candidate, padjadjaran university, bandung; wastukancana high school technology, purwakarta, indonesia, sri17010@mail.unpad.ac.id 2 dr. padjadjaran university, bandung, indonesia, bintarsih.sekarningrum@unpad.ac.id 3 prof. dr. padjadjaran university, bandung, indonesia, m.munandar@unpad.ac.id 4 dr. padjadjaran university, bandung, indonesia, wahyu.gunawan@unpad.ac.id mailto:sri17010@mail.unpad.ac.id mailto:bintarsih.sekarningrum@unpad.ac.id mailto:m.munandar@unpad.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),276-291 public school system because of the increasing tendency of negative behaviors among youth (agboola & tsai, 2012; yigit & tarman, 2013). “character education can become an everyday opportunities” (milliren & messer, 2009, p. 20). further, cooley (2008) prized character education as “engines of social change” (p.203). according to arthur (2015) 80% of the states of the united states currently have a mandate regarding character education. lee (2008) stated that education reform in taiwan for a dozen years focused on how to plan, implement and evaluate character-based school culture projects to meet moral education needs in taiwan. the word character in ancient greek means “to engrave,” which emphasizes the engraved traits will affect us to behave in certain manners (o'sullivan, 2004). u.s. department of education (2005) clearly defined the character education as “an explicit learning process from which students in a school community understand, accept, and act on ethical values such as respect for others, justice, civic virtue and citizenship, and responsibility for self and others.” initially, the goal of character education is to exemplify good character characteristics for students (agboola & tsai, 2012). the overall promising character education programs should be one of important components embedded in the current curricula. clinton in supporting character education, in “february 4, 1997 state of the union address,” said “i challenge all our schools to teach character education, to teach good values and good citizenship” (as cited in agboola & tsai, 2012). “good character is a concept which contains knowing good, embracing good and doing well” (katilmis et al., 2011, p. 854). simply put, character education is everything you do that influences the character of the kids you teach. character education is the deliberate effort to help people understand, care about, and act upon core ethical values. “when we think about the kind of character we want for our children, it’s clear that we want them to be able to judge what is right, care deeply about what is right, and then do what they believe to be right—even in the face of pressure from without and temptation from within.” (lickona, 1991). character education is embedded in the entire process of teaching learning, from curriculum to the classroom. sharp (2019) notes that while teachers are hired to develop children’s skills and abilities in academics like reading, writing, history, geography, and math, there is a lot more going on in the classroom. opportunities abound for students to develop hope, fairness, humor, valor, appreciation, and many other personal strengths that lead to fulfilling lives. sharp (2019) identifies six functions of character education: (1) wisdom and knowledge: creativity, curiosity, judgment suhartini, et al. and open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective, (2) courage: bravery, perseverance, honesty, zest, (3) humanity: capacity to love and be loved, kindness, social intelligence, (4) justice: teamwork, fairness, leadership, (5) temperance: forgiveness and mercy, modesty and humility, prudence, self-regulation, and (6) transcendence: appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, religiousness and spirituality. the purpose of focusing on those values is to decrease problem behaviors and increase academic engagements in schools. goldberg (2003) asserts character education helps students to find the universal value, core value, and moral education, so it can enable the students to think and act within a moral scope. the content of character education includes knowledge and morals that emphasize moral cognition, moral emotion and moral behavior. moral cognition regards that students should be taught to recognize moral values, and must be able to predict the sensibility of the influence of moral behavior. in the education in moral emotion, students should be able to address the issues of individual preferences and the influence of moral character on future behavior. in moral behavior; the students should be taught to make moral judgments, identify between the models of correct and incorrect behavior. in indonesia, there are still various problems in education. the process and results of education still focus on cognitive, while the affective aspects have not been optimally developed, so character education is a necessity to be developed in schools (permatasari & hakam, 2017). komalasari (2012) explains that so far the multidimensional crisis in indonesia has been rooted in degraded morality. deviant behavior in students at a very alarming and disturbing level could even change the personality and identity of students (hasibuan, syah, & marzuki, 2018). in response to the character education, ministry of national education of indonesia stipulates 18 characters to include in the curriculum, namely: religiousness, honesty, discipline, tolerance, hard work/persistence, creativity, independence, democracy, curiosity, patriotism, nationalism, appreciation on achievement, friendliness/communicative competence, peace loving, literacy, care for environment, social responsibility, responsibility (kemendiknas, 2010). this study focuses on a character education program based on local wisdom has been implemented in purwakarta indonesia. according to rahyono (2009), local wisdom is human intelligence possessed by certain ethnic groups obtained through community experience. several studies have been conducted related to local wisdom-based character education (fajarini, 2014; ramdani, 2018; priyatna, 2016; ruyadi, 2010). local wisdom is a characteristic or superiority of each region journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),276-291 that can be used to build human civilization. in purwakarta the applied character education is sundanese local wisdom as outlined in regent regulation no. 69 of 2015 with the program "7 poe atikan istimewa". research questions the context of character education is social reconstruction that elaborates local wisdom of “special educated seven-day value”. drawing on the context, this study defines two research questions to guide the research procedures: 1) how are social values to assert sundanese local wisdom reconstructed to define character education in purwakarta indonesia? 2) how is the “7 poe atikan istimewa” (special educated seven-day value) implemented to assert local wisdom of education character in purwakarta indonesia? methods this study used a case study method with a qualitative approach, constructing sundanese local wisdom and its implementation into practice for the character education. a case study was used because there was an empirical inquiry that phenomenon in depth and the boundaries between phenomenon and context were not clearly evident (yin, 2014). the focus of this study was “7 poe atikan istimewa” (special educated seven-day value) and each day was elaborated into values of local characters. as the empirical evidences on the focus were limited a case study was considered prominent to apply (yin, 2014). basically, data of this study were explored in the real life of the implementation of the local wisdom at schools in purwakarta, indonesia. units of analysis obtained from schools were analyzed using thematic analysis by spradley (1980). primary data of this study were implementation of character education in various elementary schools in purwakarta. secondary data were documents, syllabi and lesson plans on the teaching of local wisdom of the education characters. the main object of this study was regent regulation no. 69 of 2015 of the bupati of purwakarta, concerning character education that was based on local wisdom. local governments have an interest in making changes to student behavior through the “7 poe atikan istimewa” character education program. the character education concept of “7 poe atikan istimewa” comes from sundanese local culture. suhartini, et al. this study involved a head of education office at regency level, 10 head of education district, 20 elementary school principals, and 40 teachers as informants. they participated in the observation and interview to reconstruct values of sundanese local wisdom to implement in the education characters. to obtain the data, observation to see the implementation of the program was done from schools. observation was carried out by mingling intensely with school residents, families and education offices to understand how they behave and interact in instilling character values with students. in addition, in-depth interviews were conducted with informants in schools, families, community leaders, and also in the education office as policy makers. as for the secondary data, various documents and references related to the implementation of character education in elementary school students in purwakarta were evaluated. to answer the first research question on social reconstruction to define the character education, data obtained from the interview and document were analyzed their domain and taxonomy (spradley, 1980). to find character education in seven days that typically represented moral values of the “7 poe atikan istimewa”, componential analysis and themes based analysis were applied (spradley, 1980). result and discussion social contrustion the results of the social construction in teaching local wisdom for character education are built based on the interaction of parents, teachers and students, as reflected for the success of the “7 poe atikan istimewa” program. sundanese culture has also been seen as inherent in students when they have participated in the “7 poe atikan istimewa” program according to what the school programmed. the “7 poe atikan istimewa” program shows that the interaction between students, parents and teachers is an integral component of building the character of students either face-toface or through social media networks. continuous activation will give birth to student behavior patterns. character values have been legitimized by students with student indicators who have begun to realize that the character values that are built on “7 poe atikan istimewa” program are good things that continue to be done without being governed. as wahab said that the community supports cultural values and some of them can be categorized as local genius or local knowledge can be a source of value for the supporting community (abdul azis, 2012). cultural values that have been considered good in the form of local wisdom are used as material or sources of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),276-291 educational material. the inherent sundanese culture starts from wearing sundanese clothing, sundanese, playing traditional sundanese games, playing sundanese traditional music instruments. the dialectical process includes three simultaneous moments, namely externalization (adjusting to the socio-cultural world as human products), objectivation (interaction in an intersubjective world institutionalized or experiencing institutionalization), and internalization (individuals identify with social institutions or social organizations where individuals become a member). the dialectical process that is simultaneous in externalization, objectivation and internalization is used to explain the social construction of student behavior based on local wisdom. understanding the social construction of student behavior in purwakarta begins with the application of the “7 poe atikan istimewa” character education program in accordance with regent regulation no. 69 of 2015 concerning character education based on local wisdom. in the externalization process, socialization was carried out by the education unit and students then adapted the regulation. in the externalization scheme there is an adaptation and habituation process. the introduction of character education programs is carried out by the local government through the education office and the education unit (school). the results of the study show that the introduction of character education through the “7 poe atikan istimewa” program is carried out through fostering activities by principals and teachers during ceremonies or learning activities while coaching by the education office during direct visits to schools. recognition is also given to parents through circular letters. then there is the process of students adapting to the social reality outside themselves, especially related to the character education policy of the purwakarta regency government that is applied in schools. this externalization process will give birth to opinions and attitudes of students towards character education programs. the habituation occurs by students as a process of adjusting to new regulations. from the results of the study, students have a new habit of waking up early, throwing trash in its place, praying and reciting do not need to be told by parents, eating healthy food, nurturing plants, sunnah fasting monday and thursday, and being more independent in taking care of their own needs. character education is done by habituation to behave positively and stay away from negative behaviors (lickona, 1996). to make habituation at the school, rules or rules are prepared regarding the implementation of teaching and learning activities in schools. principals and teachers become role models for students, so that principals and teachers provide exemplary. suhartini, et al. in the objectivation process, there is a process of institutionalization and legitimacy. in this process, there is social interaction in the intersubjective world of students in the form of participation in the implementation of character education. at this stage there is a process of interaction and acceptance of character values legitimized by religious values and the culture of local wisdom. character values of education that are positively motivated will shape values in students. values that continue to be socialized in students will arrive at the internalization stage. in the process of internalization, the inherent process and institutionalization of character values as a whole has even merged into him who has the identity as a purwakarta student with character. the results of the research show that the values that grew after the application of the “7 poe atikan istimewa” program were the values of nationalism, spiritual values, social values, health values, independence values, tolerance values. these values have been seen in students when they are active in school and outside school. good practices programmed by the school are automatically adhered to and carried out by students with full awareness, here there is a process of socializing students towards new values that exist. socialization is an individual learning process that occurs throughout his life. many factors influence the occurrence of socialization both from within the individual and from outside the individual. in addition there are socialization agents who are places for individual learning such as playmates, family, school, environment and mass media. social construction theory departs from a constructivist paradigm which believes that individuals always try to understand the world in which they live and work. social construction theory asserts that humans as themselves as well as society indicates that man's specific humanity and sociality are inextricably interwined, homo sapiens as always, and in the same measure, homo socius. poloma (2004) explained that the view of the importance of non-divorce thinking between social behavior (objective social world) from the core of human personality, namely consciousness and freedom or subjective world. local wisdom in character education the values of character education are those originating from religion, pancasila, culture, and national education goals, namely: (1) religious, (2) honest, (3) tolerance, (4) discipline, (5) hard journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),276-291 work, (6 ) creative, (7) self-reliance, (8) democratic, (9) curiosity, (10) nationalism, (11) love the motherland, (12) appreciating achievement, (13) friendly/communicative, (14) love peace, (15) loving to read, (16) caring for the environment, (17) social care, (18) responsibility (puskurbuk, 2010). in accordance with the function of national education, character education in purwakarta is intended to develop the potential of the community especially students in purwakarta as the young generation of the nation's successors. so that, they have good character and behavior according to the pancasila philosophy of life. the implementation of character education in purwakarta includes education in schools and outside schools at the basic education level through sundanese cultural values which are then referred to as "7 poe atikan istimewa". character is considered as part of the psycho-social element that is related to the surrounding context (abdul azis, 2012). character includes moral values, attitudes, and behavior. therefore, character is seen or reflected in human daily habits. schools as formal education institutions become role models in educating children's character. character education in schools is adjusted to the age level of students' mental development. according to zuchdi, prasetya & masruri (2010), an effective character education model is a model that uses a comprehensive approach, where character education is integrated into various fields of study. muslich (2011) notes that character education is education that aims to improve the quality of implementation and educational outcomes that lead to the achievement of the formation of character and morals starting students in full, integrated, and balanced. schartz (2008) explains that character education helps students achieve success both in school and in life. meanwhile sauri (2010) asserts that the joints that support a nation include character and mentality of the people, this becomes a solid foundation of the nation's values. purwakarta district government wants to build the character of purwakarta students through character education for students who attend school in purwakarta district. building this student character is part of building the foundation of the life of the purwakarta people who have a positive mentality and behavior in national life. the concept of “7 poe atikan istimewa” comes from sundanese local culture. the effort to carry out character education in purwakarta district was outlined in purwakarta regent regulation no. 69 of 2015 concerning character education that was based on local wisdom. character education in purwakarta is poured into themes every day, but still integrated. this means that every day there suhartini, et al. is an emphasis on certain themes but still do other learning holistically. the concept of character education "7 poe atikan istimewa" is poured into themes as in table 1. table 1 themes of seven day education day theme values inception monday ajeg nusantara upright nusantara nationalism values tuesday mapag buana pick up the world global perspective values wednesday maneuh di sunda live in sunda local culture values thursday nyanding wawangi culture identity esthetical values friday nyucikeun diri delivering to holiness religiosity and spiritual values saturday and monday betah di imah comfortable at home family education values monday: ajeg nusantara ajeg in indonesian means upright and nusantara is a stretch of territory from sabang to merauke. the concept of learning about ajeg nusantara has the understanding that the unitary state of the republic of indonesia is composed of a stretch of earth that has wealth from various background such as: historical background, natural resources, indigenous tribal wealth, various regional languages, religion and beliefs, cultural arts and other advantages. this confirms that the indonesian nation as a great nation will be able to stand up as an advanced and civilized nation. on this monday the learning activities carried out were the introduction of indonesian culture, the wealth of natural resources, customs, tourist attractions, the introduction of national heroes and others. this activity is carried out by carrying out flag ceremonies, extra-curricular scouts and flag raisers. with this activity, students are expected to have a high sense of nationalism and patriotism, be proud of indonesia and preserve indonesian cultural values. tuesday: mapag buana mapag means to pick up and buana means the world, so literally means preparing ourselves from various things to pick up the arrival of an increasingly modern world civilization. the ability to read the changing times and the diversity of life in other parts of the world is absolutely necessary to add to the treasure that ultimately determines the steps in the future. on this tuesday the learning journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),276-291 done is learning information technology so that students are easier to get to know science and technology from all over the world. in addition, students also read text books outside of school lessons which contain general knowledge about countries throughout the world and their culture. by knowing the technology and culture from all over the world, students are expected to have open thoughts and broad insights. wednesday: maneuh di sunda maneuh means living or being silent and sunda is a culture that inhabits the land of padjadjaran, parts of the provinces of west java and banten, including purwakarta regency. maneuh di sunda emphasizes that students must be able to know their true identity and ancestral culture and embrace the values of traditional cultural and artistic life. on this wednesday students and teachers wear sundanese clothes (pangsi kampret) complete with headbands for men and kebaya (sundanese blouse) for women. the teacher introduces the value of life of the sundanese who "choose to take care of one another in the form of foster care, as explained by the guidance of deudeuhan as the supreme teaching of siliwangi". from maneuh in sunda students are expected to understand the life value of the sundanese, "ngamumule" (nurturing) the sundanese tradition and "nanjeurkeun dangiang komara" (arousing and upholding the life value) of the sundanese. on this wednesday students also communicate in sundanese, so that they are familiar with the mother tongue, in addition to indonesian and international languages. students were also introduced to sundanese culture, sundanese musical instruments such as angklung, sundanese dances such as jaipong, sundanese toys such as egrang and others. by getting to know sundanese culture, students are expected to have a sundanese character and be proud of being a sundanese community. thursday: nyanding wawangi it is the knowledge of students who are familiar with their cultural identity, open the horizon of the archipelago and have traveled the world, then he will rise to the next level as students who are ready to live independently, learn without limits and open the widest window of knowledge. this is where students and teachers equip themselves with learning freedom. students are freed from suhartini, et al. the uniform that shackles him but is still polite, while the teacher is freed from the various guide books of the lesson that bound the horizons of his thinking. on this thursday students are allowed to create according to their interests and talents, some are dancing, reading poetry, playing traditional and modern musical instruments, some are farming, arranging classrooms and others. students and teachers carry out activities happily because they can express their creativity. friday: nyucikeun diri nyuci keundiri means delivering ourselves to holiness. the purity in question is the sanctity of our hearts, souls and minds to stay awake and close to god almighty. many things can be done to purify themselves, starting with doing contemplative what has been done from monday to thursday, and also strengthening spirituality. the activity carried out on this friday is the dhuha prayer together on the school yard then followed by the reading of surat yasin and asmaul husna. meanwhile, for students of other religions perform rituals according to their respective teachings. on this friday you can also get used to collecting infaq and charity as sincerely as possible. with this purifying activity, students are expected to have good spiritual abilities and always remember their lord. saturday and sunday: betah di imah betah di imah reflects the attitude of students who feel comfortable when at home as the first and foremost place to study. students can be free at home for two days with their parents and siblings without being burdened by assignments from school. on this saturday and sunday, students stay with their parents and families. this is so that there is a strong bond between them after five days they are busy with work and activities at school. with a harmonious and happy family environment, it is expected that children will grow to be good and successful characters. to be able to realize the values of local wisdom in character education in purwakarta, all school members (school leaders, teachers, students, administrative staff, even school guards) and parents of students and community leaders need to collaborate comprehensively in implementing character education programs in purwakarta . journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),276-291 conclusion the social construction of student behavior is carried out through a simultaneous dialectical process in externalization, objectivation and internalization. in the externalization process, socialization was carried out by the education unit and students then adapted the regulation. in the externalization scheme there is an adaptation and habituation process. in the objectivation process, there is a process of institutionalization and legitimacy. in this process, there is social interaction in the intersubjective world of students in the form of participation in the implementation of character education. at this stage there is a process of interaction and acceptance of character values legitimized by religious values and the culture of local wisdom. character values have been legitimized by students with student indicators who have begun to realize that the character values that were built in “7 poe atikan istimewa” program are good things they have implemented in their daily lives both at school and at home. if the values of character education are detective, it positively will shape values in students. values that continue to be socialized in students will arrive at the internalization stage. in internalization, the inherent process and institutionalization of character values as a whole has even merged into him who has the identity as a purwakarta student with character. character education in purwakarta is based on local wisdom which includes the "7 poe atikan istimewa" program, which is one of the strategic steps of the purwakarta regional government to build the character of purwakarta students who have nationalism, are independent, healthy, religious, have a global outlook but still cultural values local. in order to be able to apply local wisdom to character education, the willingness of regional leaders to be followed by regional officials, schools, families and communities of purwakarta is needed so that purwakarta students who have a special character are realized. suhartini, et al. references abdul azis, w. (2012). local wisdom based education management. in seminar nasional. makasar: universitas negeri makasar. agboola, alex & tsai, chen kaun. (2012). bring character education into classroom. european educational research journal, 1(2), 163-170. doi: 10.12973/eu-jer.1.2.163 althof, w., & berkowitz, m. w. (2006). moral education and character education : their relationship and roles in citizenship education moral education and character education : their relationship and roles in citizenship education. journal of moral education, 35(4), 495–518. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240601012204 arthur, j. (2015). traditional approaches to character education in britain and america. in handbook of moral and character education. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203114896.ch4 berkowitz, m. w., & hoppe, m. a. (2009). character education and gifted children character education and gifted children. high ability studies, 20(2), 131–142. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13598130903358493 berkowitz, marvin. (2018). character education informational handbook & guide, north carolina dept. of public instruction. available on raleigh, nc: http://www.ncpublicschools.org/charactereducation/handbook/pdf/content.pdf). retrieved on 20 july, 2019. cooley, a. (2008). legislating character: moral education in north carolina’s public schools. educational studies, 43(3), 188-205. doi:10.1080/00131940802117563 fairchild, s. g., & butchart, r. e. (2006). character education in the united states: a history of movement with special attention to the character education inquiry. education. fajarini, u. (2014). the role of local wisdom in character education. sosio didaktika: social science education journal, 1(2). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15408/sd.v1i2.1225 hasibuan, a. a., syah, d., & marzuki, m. (2018). character education management in high school. tarbawi: jurnal keilmuan manajemen pendidikan, 4(2), 191–212. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.32678/tarbawi.v4i02.1230 http://www.ncpublicschools.org/charactereducation/handbook/pdf/content.pdf journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),276-291 hoge, j. (2002). character education, citizenship education, and the social studies. social studies, 93(3), 103-109. kamaruddin, s. a. (2012). character education and students social behavior. journal of education and learning (edulearn), 6(4), 223–230. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v6i4.166 katilmis, a., eksi, h., & öztürk, c. (2011). efficiency of social studies integrated character education program. educational sciences: theory & practice, 11(2), 854-859. kementrian pendidikan nasional (2010). buku induk pembangunan karakter. jakarta: kemendikbud press komalasari, k. (2012). the effect of contextual learning in civic education on students’ character development. asia pacific journal of educators and education. https://doi.org/10.3844/jssp.2009.261.270 lee, c. m. (2008). an empirical study of character-based school culture building in taiwan’s elementary and junior high schools. journal of research in education sciences. lickona, t. (1996). eleven principles of effective character education. journal of moral education, 25(1), 93–100. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/0305724960250110 lickona, thomas. (1991). educating for character. new york: bantam. muslich, m. (2011). character education: answering the challenges of the multidimensional crisis. jakarta: bumi aksara. muttaqin, f.m; raharjo, j.t & masturi. (2018), the implementation main values of character education reinforcement in elementary school. journal of primary education. 7(1), 103112. permatasari, i., & hakam, k. a. (2017). the development of character education based on sundanese local wisdom the development of character education based on sundanese local wisdom. in iop conference series: earth and environmental science (pp. 1–5). bandung: iop publisher. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/145/1/012124 pike, m. a. (2010). christianity and character education: faith in core values? journal of beliefs & values: studies in religion & educati, 31(3), 311-312. suhartini, et al. poloma, m. m. (2004). contemporary sociology. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. priyatna, m. (2016). local wisdom based character education. jurnal pendidikan islam, 05(10), 1311–1336. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.30868/ei.v5i10.6 puskurbuk. (2010). cultural and national character education development. jakarta: ministry of national education of the republic of indonesia. rahyono, f. (2009). cultural wisdom in the word. jakarta: wedatama widya sastra. ramdani, e. (2018). local wisdom based contextual learning model as strengthening character education. jurnal pendidikan ilmu-ilmu sosial, 10(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.24114/jupiis.v10i1.8264 ruyadi, y. (2010). model of character education based on local cultural wisdom (research on indigenous peoples of the kerep village in cirebon, west java province for the development of character education in schools). in international conference on teacher education (pp. 576–594). bandung: universitas pendidikan indonesia. satori, d., & komariah, a. (2011). qualitative research methodology. bandung: alfabeta. sauri, s. (2010). description of the value of faith and faith in learning. in seminar nasional : pendidikan berkarakter membangun bangsa beradab (pp. 1–15). bandung: universitas pendidikan indonesia. schartz, m. (2008). effective character education. boston: mcgraw-hill. smith, b. h. (2013). school-based character education in the united states. childhood education, 89(2), 350–355. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2013.850921 solis, j. (2013). character education in texas middle schools: an analysis of student achievement, attendance, and discipline. proquest dissertations and theses. westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizend ? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2), 237–269. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),276-291 yiğit, m , tarman, b . (2013). degerler eğitimimin ilköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarindaki yeri ve önemi (the place and importance of values education in 4.th and 5th. grade primary school social studies textbooks). journal of social studies education research, 4 (2), 79-102. retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/19101/202712 yin. k. robert. (2014). case study research: design and methods. los angeles: sage publicatio. zuchdi, d., prasetya, z. k., & masruri, m. s. (2010). the development of an integrated character education model in learning fields of study in elementary schools. cakrawala pendidikan, special ed(3), 1–12. teaching with film: a research study of secondary social studies teachers use of film www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(2), 27-54 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 “responsible trust”: a value to strengthen active citizenship alexandro escudero1 abstract: there is a widespread idea that societies receiving migratory flows behave with hostility towards the immigrants. thus, three arguments underlie the public policies and educational programmes geared to fostering intercultural values and active citizenship competencies in multicultural societies: first, that a strong sense of selfidentity is a problem itself in multicultural societies; second, that multiple, hybrids and fluids identities fit better in the social cohesion principles; and third, that it is possible to train people with formal or non-formal educational programmes with the necessary intercultural values and competencies to live together. however, empirical evidence proves that in catalonia, spain, there are indigenous people willing to meet voluntarily with people from different cultural background. the volunteers for the practice of the catalan language do this active citizenship practice driven by a strong regional identity and without having had any compulsory or non-formal training in active citizenship. this research analyses, through the grounded theory methodology, this social phenomenon and proposes the conceptual category responsible trust as the moral value that allows society to strengthen active citizenship among the adult population that is not of compulsory schooling age. keywords: active citizenship, informal learning process, identity, volunteering. introduction the post-industrial capitalism has generated vigorous migratory flows and shaped multicultural societies in which people with different identities come into contact. this economic phenomenon, named globalisation, pose questions and challenges for european societies, not only in terms of concrete policies to manage the impact of social cohesion processes, but also regarding the rise of an a-political attitude among citizens (de groot, goodson, & veugelers, 2013). thus, the democratic institutions in cities that receive migratory flows face the challenge of promoting active citizenship between people who do not enjoy the same status of full citizenship, that is, between the indigenous and immigrant populations. 1 alexandro escudero nahón is a doctoral student at the faculty of education at the university of barcelona. this text is an excerpt of his doctoral research. he was born in mexico city and moved to barcelona six years ago in order to study the phd programme. as part of the immersion process of this research, he has been studying catalan for two years. he do not belong to any political or social institution. contact: alexandroescudero@ub.edu journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 28 the coexistence of people with different culture and different identities in the same geographical space is not a social new phenomenon in the majority of the european societies considered multicultural nowadays. however, in 2011 immigration and integration continued to be matters of intense policy discussion in both the united states and europe. according to the transatlantic trends: immigration survey (2011), this issue remained of secondary concern for the public, after the economy and unemployment. perceptions of immigration as a problem or opportunity have changed little since 2008, the first year the survey was performed. the point is that while european governments emphasize the need for more economic migrants, fear of losing jobs, xenophobia and negative sentiments are widespread among the local population. attitudes and sentiments towards migrants, foreigners or ethnic minorities vary widely across countries and could be a major source of disadvantage or prosperity for ethnic minorities. while attitudes and perceptions affect our behavior, they are also the outcome of a complex social, political, and economic process, shaped through the engagement of individuals in social and economic life and influenced by public discourse and the media (constant, kahanec & zimmermann, 2008). according to studies on public opinion on immigration in spain, spaniards support less immigration, and more selectivity based on skills and qualifications, but not reduced rights and benefits for immigrants. skilled natives have more positive attitudes about immigration, in spite of the potential fiscal burden it implies for them. respondents who believed that immigration drops natives’ wages tended to oppose immigration and endorse reducing the benefits and rights granted to immigrants. more negative attitudes were found among individuals who dislike other races, while the opposite was found for those valuing cultural diversity. catholic respondents favor more restrictive admission policies, in particular ones based on cultural factors. respondents in provinces with high immigration and a high proportion of moroccans wanted lower levels of immigration, though having contact with immigrants reduces the negative attitudes toward them. individuals who overestimated the levels of immigration are more prone to have negative attitudes toward immigrants (martínez & duval-hernández, 2009). thus, three arguments underlie the majority of the studies and the public policies oriented towards social cohesion. first, that identity of an individual can be identified easily from visible features as color of their skin, the language they speak, or their gender, and with more difficulties from less evident characteristics, such as their sexual preference, their political orientation or their religious belief. people who live in multicultural societies that conceive the immigration as alexandro escudero 29 an economic and social problem per se, frequently avoid contact with immigrants to reduce the sensations of dread, distrust and ill-will (delgado, 2009; onghena, 2009). recents studies developed by public institutions in barcelona have demonstrated that the public opinion believe that the most important obstacle to coexistence in diversity are personal attitudes toward people from different cultural backgrounds. at the same time, they reveal that social and institutional management of the phenomenon is perceived as a major element facilitating this tendency (barcelona city council, 2010, p. 25). the second argument develops the idea that modern citizenship, constructed in the relationship subject-state-nation, still is the main juridical tool to take part legally in the public space and to enjoy social benefits, but it impedes the conviviality among different identities because of its historical links to national culture reproduces the tensions that it should solve for social cohesion (barber, 2003; koopmans, 2005). the european union has declared that seemingly another citizenship is being formulated among people willing to coexist with people with multiple, hybrid, fluid, postnational identities. these citizenships are being enriched with the conviviality in diverse situations and in local, regional, national and international contexts (alboan & universidad de deusto, 2009). the third argument supposes that it is possible to train people with the necessary competencies to coexist in multicultural societies (banks, 1997, 2004; josep m. puig, 2007; josep maria puig & bisquerra, 2010; wolf & macedo, 2004). the european union has unfolded a wide range of initiatives for the training of the european identity and the active citizenship2 the three previous arguments justify the idea that the receiving societies of the migratory flows behave with hostility to different identities, and that the main way of training the new citizens should be with a formal or non-formal education, where the learning process of the competencies that facilitate the social cohesion are planned and controlled. , and several public institutions, universities, non-governmental organizations, educative centers, mass media and experts in the topic have reacted to the challenge of developing formal and nonformal programs to reach this aim (bolivar, 2007; european commission, 2007; garcía, 2007; mascherini & hoskins, 2008). 2 the european union have proposed the term active citizenship as the form of civil desirable participation in the civil society, the community, the political life and the participative democracy, because it implies the mutual respect, non-violence, and it guarantees the human rights, and strengthens the values of the democracy (hoskins b., et al., 2006). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 30 however, according to the european centre for the development of vocational training, academic discussion regarding adult learning and the competencies needed for promoting active citizenship is needed because this issue has been widely studied in formal education and the educated schooled population, but informal education could have an important potential on nonschooled population. formulation of the research this section has the purpose of describing the catalan language history briefly and its present condition in order to state that throughout the history catalonia has had a difficult political relationship with the national government, that is, with spain. this historical tension is caused by cultural identity issues – mainly language. spain is one of the most multilingual states in europe. it is is composed of 17 regions, one of which is catalonia. in the early 20th century, some social organisations and political parties started demanding the full independence of catalonia or the catalan countries from spain and france. support for catalan independence is based on the thesis from the 19th century that catalonia is a nation, derived from contemporary political and cultural ideology based on the history of catalonia, the catalan language and catalan traditions (camon, 2005). the catalan independence movement derived from catalan nationalism ideology, created mainly because of the franco regime's oppression of spanish and catalan people’s and culture. recently, there has been a substantial increase of discourse and political acts regarding the full independence of catalonia. the catalan language has been used across a swathe of the western iberian peninsula, but was never officially recognized throughout most of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. its use was frequently suppressed during franco’s dictatorship. with the arrival of democracy to the iberian peninsula in the last quarter of the 20th century, the catalan language recovered a certain degree of official status. currently, the catalan language is spoken in seven territories (see figure 1). catalonia stands out regarding the level of social use of the catalan language because it is the only territory where the language used in primary education is almost exclusively catalan. of the remaining six territories, three offer some degree of official recognition for catalan: two spanish autonomous communities –valencia and the balearic islands, where the catalan language is coalexandro escudero 31 official alongside spanish-, and the independent state of andorra, the only place where it is exclusively official. however, in these three cases only a part of the education system has catalan as the language of instruction, and in the two spanish autonomous communities even this small part is threatened by the political will of the respective local governments. the catalan language lacks any official status whatsoever in the three remaining territories: a strip of aragon that borders catalonia, northern catalonia –a borderland with deep catalan roots that is officially part of france-, and the city of alghero on the island of sardinia, italy. in each of these three areas there is only a limited presence of catalan in the education system (joaquim torrespla, 2011). today the catalan language is used commonly throughout a wide range of social sectors in catalonia. however, it is still considered as a language under threat by most of the civil organizations. according to one of the most famous non-governmental organization adressed to improving the social use of the catalan language, this is why every year 10,000 catalans are volunteering to practice the catalan language with new speakers (plataforma per la llengua, 2013, p. 22). these 10,000 volunteers differ from teachers of the catalan language in two aspects: 1) their work could be defined as an active citizenship action performed by civil society, while teachers of the catalan language are considered employees of the public administration; 2) even when most volunteers for the practice of the catalan language do not journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 32 have formal studies in teaching, their task is motivated by a desire for the the full independence of catalonia, or by the catalan cultural identity at least. both distinctions matter because, even when some volunteers could be teachers of the catalan language, the active citizenship composite indicator takes into consideration the volunteer action, not the teaching task. some considerations regarding the concept of active citizenship must be done. active citizenship has been considered an essential element in the revitalised lisbon strategy in order to tackle the growing problem in most modern democratic societies of political and social disengagement, loss of community, and a decline in trust. active citizenship has been formally proposed by the european union as a desirable form of participation in civil society, the community, political life and participative democracy, because it implies mutual respect, nonviolence, and guarantees human rights, and strengthens the values of the democracy (mascherini & hoskins, 2008). active citizenship is also considered as a crucial term in order to enhance social cohesion in multicultural societies because the values involved of mutual respect in the society helps people with different identities to live together. thus, the european union has made a number of actions in order to foster and measure advances with regard to the active citizenship. for instance, so far there are several programs that promote and train the competencies of the active citizenship, such as the network of research for the development of indicators on education for citizenship, developed by the centre for research on lifelong learning (crell), with the support and assistance of the council of europe where eurydice (2005) provides information about the european educational policies-, the institutionalization of the european year of the citizenship and the education, in 2005, and the composite indicator to measure active citizenship in europe (hoskins & mascherini, 2009). the active citizenship composite indicator covers 19 european countries and is based on a list of 63 basic indicators for which the data has been drawn from the european social survey of 2002, and it presents the results in four dimensions: civil society, community life, political life, and values (all together form the active citizenship composite indicator3 3 the theoretical framework used to construct an active citizenship composite index (acci) has been developed in cooperation with the council of europe by a network of european experts and presented at an international conference held in ispra on september 2006. the acci covers 19 european countries and is based on a list of 63 basic indicators. data principally come from european social survey 2002. ). alexandro escudero 33 in general terms, the results show a heterogeneous europe in which nordic countries lead and southern countries perform well in the dimensions of values and political life but lag behind in civil society and community life. among the western european countries high scores are recorded by austria and the benelux countries, and the complex reality of eastern european countries is well reflected in the index. (hoskins et al., 2006). spain got position 14 among 19 countries evaluated(see table 1).according to the available literature (hoskins & mascherini, 2009; mascherini & hoskins, 2008; hoskins et al., 2006) the robustness of the active citizenship composite indicator is based on its theoretical structure: it has been checked by performing factor analyses on the available data from european social survey, and by a sensitivity analysis, performed in a plurality of scenarios (all with their implications in terms of standardisation, weighting schema and alternative ways of composing the composite indicator). taking in consideration the caveats the authors have made regarding the active citizenship composite indicator (hoskins et al., 2006: 58-59), it could be suggested that: 1. active citizenship is an evolving concept and new forms of active citizenship were excluded, that is, some variables, like informal or non-formal citizenship participation are poorly or not at all represented from that analysis, although they might be very relevant, due to lack of comparable data. 2. due to available data, the interpretation of the findings describes the relative performance of countries, but regions within the countries are not described. 3. the behaviour of the domain values needs more attention with respect to the other domains. whereas the dimensions of civil society, community life and political life move together, the dimension of values seems to demonstrate different and autonomous behaviour, suggesting a gap between intentions and actions that deserves more analysis. table 1. active citizenship composite indicator (ranked from the highest level to the lowest). rank civil society index community dimension index political life index values index active citizenship composite indicator 1 norway norway austria sweden norway journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 34 2 sweden netherlands norway luxembourg sweden 3 denmark sweden belgium norway denmark 4 belgium united kingdom sweden finland austria 5 austria belgium denmark poland ireland 6 netherlands ireland luxembourg portugal belgium 7 united kingdom denmark germany ireland netherlands 8 germany germany ireland denmark luxembourg 9 france austria netherlands austria germany 10 ireland slovenia grece germany united kingdom 11 luxembourg luxembourg finland netherlands finland 12 finland france spain italy france 13 slovenia finland slovenia spain slovenia 14 spain spain italy united kingdom spain 15 italy hungary united kingdom slovenia portugal 16 portugal portugal france france italy 17 grece grece portugal grece poland 18 hungary italy hungary hungary grece 19 poland poland poland belgium hungary alexandro escudero 35 bearing all this in mind, this research aims to contribute to identifying a particular case of active citizenship in the region catalonia, spain. we proposed an inductive analytic process to find out some possible links between a volunteer programme for practising the catalan language and the institutional concerns of active citizenship. by doing so, we could contribute to a qualitative analysis regarding the role of the values to strengthen active citizenship in a volunteer programme for the practice of the catalan language. aims of the research the aims of this research are as follows: • to identify the reasons that lead the volunteers of the volunteer programme for the practice of catalan language to meet people from different cultural identities. • to describe, through a constructed theoretical category, the role of the values to strengthen active citizenship in a volunteer programme for the practice of catalan language. methodology this research is been undertaking with the grounded theory methodology, that is an inductive and full research method that tries to understand the action in a substantive area from the point of view of the people involved. this understanding revolves around the main concern of the participants whose behaviour continually resolves their main concern (bryant & charmaz, 2010; charmaz, 2006; clarke, 2005; strauss & corbin, 2008). grounded theory methodology consist of systematic, yet flexible guidelines for collecting and analyzing qualitative or quantitative data to construct theories "grounded" in the data itself. this process is in direct contrast to common logico-deductive methods mainly in three aspects: an inductive process, a constant comparative method and a theoretical sampling. 1. inductive process: grounded theory is not based on the confirmation of hypothesis, for testing or refuting pre-designed theories by pre-designed analytical categories (alvesson & sköldberg, 2009). grounded theory tries to build theoretical categories grounded in data in order to explain the main concern of a specific group of people. 2. constant comparative method: as soon as the theoretical categories emerged throughout the in-depth interviews process, a unit of analysis and some comparison groups had to be defined. the aim is to constantly compare the properties and dimensions of the data in both journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 36 the unit of analysis and the comparison groups. this strategy fosters the construction of the main theoretical category. 3. theoretical sampling: data collection is made through an inductive process and the theoretical categories are built through theoretical sampling. this means that, in order to gain a deeper understanding of analysed cases and facilitate the development of analytic concepts, new cases are chosen to compare with ones that have already been studied. the goal of theoretical sampling is to build a theoretical category, no matter how many cases are needed, rather than prove the probabilistic sampling of the cases. this research was conducted with inductive logic to build an analytical category in order to explain the motivations and outcomes of a group of people that voluntarily engage in face-toface meetings to practise the catalan language with people from different cultural backgrounds. participants although there are a number of governmental and civic volunteer programmes to foster the use of the catalan language among catalan people and new speakers4, the voluntariat per la llengua5 the voluntariat per la llengua is not a teaching programme, nor a substitute for catalan classes. it is a regular activity to foster confidence for the new speaker of catalan in a very informal environment. has a unique characteristic: this programme consists of putting someone who habitually speaks catalan in contact with another person who does not speak it fluently in order for them to meet up and talk wherever, whenever and about whatever they like, for a minimum of 10 hours. this programme involves two different types of person: 4 for instance, quedem?, that is a free activity programme consisting of visits to places of interest, popular events, concerts, etc. it's aimed at everyone who lives in catalonia, whether they've just arrived or have been here for a long time. òmnium cultural is a politically non-aligned, independent association which main goal is to defend, support and promote the language, culture and national identity of catalonia, with the backing of the catalan government (òmnium cultural, 2012). xerrem is a non governmental programme for the practice of the catalan language (coordinadora d’associacions per la llengua catalana, 2012). in this programme, a catalan speaker coordinates voluntarily a group of new speaking people, meeting them on a weekly basis. while the main aim is to promote and improve the use of catalan language among immigrant people, these meetings are also an opportunity to have conversations on the history and traditional culture of the region of catalonia. the clubs of catalan's reading is a governmental programme to practice the catalan language by sharing comments of a book. these clubs meet on a monthly basis in public libraries (consorci per a la normalització lingüística, 2011). there is, of course, a wide programme to teach the catalan language along the region of catalonia. the consortium for language normalisation is the institution that faces the challenge to provide this language courses, from initial level to sufficiency level, addressed to the adult population of catalonia (consorci per a la normalització lingüística, 2011). 5 the programme voluntariat per la llengua belongs to the consorci per a la normalització lingüística (2011). alexandro escudero 37 a) a volunteer. a person aged over 18 who habitually speaks catalan and wants to dedicate 1 hour per week to talking in catalan with another person who is learning it or has a basic knowledge of the language and wants to practise in order to speak it more fluently. b) a new speaker. a person who has a basic knowledge of the catalan language and wants to practise, gain in confidence and become more fluent in order to speak it more naturally. the new speakers are mainly women, working-class people, mature people in their thirties, and legal residents in catalonia for more than two years. these two people form a couple called a “linguistic partner”. some data regarding the voluntariat per la llengua 2012 might be useful to describe how it works6 • in 2012, 10.129 linguistic partners were formed. in total 13.115 people participated in these linguistic partners. 7.597 of them were new linguistic partners (4.875 new speakers and 2.722 volunteers), the rest had participated in the volunteer programme in 2011. . • as usual, in 2012 women participated more: from amongst a total of 5.471 women, 1.879 were volunteers and 3.592 were new speakers. • the biggest group of new speakers were people from south america, while most of the volunteers were catalan people. • in relation to the age group, the volunteers were predominately between 50 and 65 years old, and the new speakers between the 30 and 39 years old. in this study 57 people were involved: 30 of them were volunteers for the practice of catalan language, 12 were new speakers of the catalan language, and 15 belonged to the comparison groups, according to the unit of analysis, as follows. the variance in the numbers of interviews conducted across groups was defined by the argument mentioned above: the number of people involved in the research it is not a probabilistic sampling of the cases, but the proper number of cases that helped to built a theoretical category. it is important to mention that the new speakers not consider themselves as catalan people, but want in good will full integration in the local culture. participants were contacted through the following: 6 these data were obtained from http://www20.gencat.cat/docs/llengcat/documents/voluntariat/arxius/dades_vxl_2012.pdf (november, 2013). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 38 1. the researcher got in contact with the coordinator of the programme voluntariar per la llengua in order to ask for his help to get in touch with volunteer for the practice of the catalan language. 2. the coordinator of the programme voluntariar per la llengua sent an email invitation to the mailing list of volunteers to ask them to participate in the in-depth interviews. 3. the researcher received 60 responses, but due to schedule issues, only 30 volunteers were interviewed. 4. the new speakers were contacted through the volunteers. actually, the new speakers interviewed were the linguistic partner of these group of volunteers. due to schedule issues, only 12 volunteers were interviewed. 5. people belonging to the comparison groups were contacted through the volunteers and the new speakers. they were friends or acquaintance unit of analysis as has been stated, this research is interested in finding out the motivation some people have to meet foreign people. thus, the unit of analysis has been defined as follows: the catalan people who take part in the voluntariat per la llengua programme in the city of barcelona. in order to carry out the general method of comparative analysis (glaser, 1998) people outside of the unit of analysis have been interviewed in-depth as well. figure 2 ilustrates the unit of analysis and the comparison groups. alexandro escudero 39 immersion process simultaneously the researcher began four immersion processes: 1) taking part in the programme voluntariat per la llengua as learner of the catalan language. 2) attending some catalan cultural performances as a guest of the volunteers interviewed (observation of several rehearsals and performances of els castellers de barcelona). 3) taking formal and non-formal training on citizenship (some institutions where the researcher has had formal and non-formal training on citizenship: pla barcelona interculturalitat, ajuntament de barcelona, centro de información y documentación de barcelona, fundació jaume bofill, universitat de barcelona, universidad del país vasco, fundación acsar y àrea d’igualtat i ciutadania de la diputació de barcelona, among others). 4) the researcher is performing a new speaker role, and is attending the xerrem programme, the quedem? programme, and a club of catalan reading. data collection in-depth, open-ended interviews were done to collect the data7 7 original audios of the in-depth interviews are available on: https://www.dropbox.com/sh/j78wu40nk9bwyi0/phqwlph08y. . these interviews were not part of the programme voluntariar per la llengua. the purpose of these interviews was to journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 40 engage in dialogue with participants about their volunteer activities and specifically in the voluntariat per la llengua. each interview lasted around 45 minutes with each participant. the interviews took place mainly in coffee shops in order to set up a very informal environment (not always quiet places), so interviewees were relaxed when describing their experiences. 30 interviews were conducted with volunteers, more than 12 interviews with new speakers, and more than 15 interviews with people from the comparison groups. all interviews were recorded and fully transcribed. then, the open and the axial coding (strauss & corbin, 2008), and the analysing process were carried out using the tams analyzer program8 . interview guideline and open coding an in-depth interview guideline for volunteers, new speakers and comparison groups regarding seven items have been designed (see appendix). the data which emerged was analysed by an inductive process, a constant comparative method and a theoretical sampling. the open coding9 was carried out according to the grounded theory codification process (glaser, 1978) (see appendix). outcomes of data analysis through the axial coding some findings indicate that the supposed conflict between immigrants and catalan people, and the formal and non-formal education as the only way to get the values and competencies for the active citizenship might be reviewed. since the traditional pedagogy believed that important learning only could happen in a formal education process, the initiatives for training on active citizenship have mainly taken place in the educational system (colardyn & bjørnåvold, 2005; follesdal, 2008). however, according to the experiences of the volunteers, informal learning might generate significant competencies on active citizenship as well. apparently these competencies went unnoticed for a long time by both, institutions and people. the volunteers were forced by the in-depth interviews to identify the places, and the moments where they learnt specific knowledge, a particular skill, or something of intercultural value. 8 tams stands for text analysis mark-up system. tams analyzer is an open source and free software program for coding and analyzing qualitative, textual and audiovisual information. it was designed by matthew weinstein and distributed under the gpl license (http://tamsys.sourceforge.net). 9 according to glaser (1978), there are two kinds of codes: sociological constructs and in vivo. the latter are taken or derived directly from the language of the substantive field; while the former tend to be the behaviours or processes which explain how the basic problem is resolved or processed. alexandro escudero 41 when those responses were contrasted with the responses of the comparisons groups, some ideas emerged: • volunteers for the practice of catalan language in the voluntariat per la llengua programme accept that they are willing to do things to collaborate in the persons' well-being of different identity, but at the same time, some of them admitted that at some time they have had racist and xenophobic feelings towards some cultural groups, that can be overcome with rational and complex thought. they perceive the voluntary work for the practice of the catalan language as an exchange of intercultural experiences, more than an attempt to help immigrant people, and it also has, to some extent, a selfish aim because it satisfies their feeling of being useful, loved, and it also strengthen their catalan identity. they describe themselves as active people looking for easy, fun and convenient, non-charitable volunteering programmes. they usually find that once they meet and become friends with people from a different cultural background, many common things appear, regardless of national or cultural identity, for instance, emotions and feelings. • some of them find a weak relationship between their family values and their willingness to participate in the practice of catalan language in the voluntariat per la llengua programme; most of them find it difficult to identify the influence of a friend in developing this volunteer collaboration. they say that there is not a direct relationship between the formal or non-formal education that they have received, and their disposition to coexist with different identities, and they also declared that this disposition is something "natural" that cannot be taught, but can be learned. enric, a 45-year-old working man, also a volunteer, said: interviewer: could volunteering for the practice of the catalan language be considered an opportunity to build active citizenship? interviewee: i don’t know... but very soon you realize that sharing your ideas and thoughts… and listening to some one else’s ideas and thoughts is very pleasant. actually, you get more than you give... diversity is enriching... interviewer: where did you learn to think this way, and have the willingness to meet and share, especially with people from different background? at school? journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 42 interviewee: not at school... i received a very strict education and we never had any class on that... besides, school is an authority, and you can’t really do any volunteering because of authority. you learn this by practising... i guess i learnt it in my family, who knows... one thing is for sure: i do it because i really want to. it’s something natural... • they say that their voluntary participation in the practice of the catalan language is not a political action, even though they know that this issue is a very important politically. according to them, the political dimension of the catalan language never comes up in the practice of catalan sessions (that was confirmed in the inmersion process of the researcher). their participation in the volunteer programme is due to a strong sense of identity, and due to the feeling that catalan language and catalan culture are under threat. they feel catalan, but they find it difficult to feel spanish; however, they can also easily feel european. anna, a 28year-old woman, also a teacher and a volunteer, said: interviewer: do you feel you are spanish? interviewee: i think spain is fictional. spain is a set of different regions... we do have some similarities, but above all, we're different. one day spain was invented as one "big and free" territory, but i just don't feel it that way. i can travel to northern spain or to southern spain, or even to madrid, and i really like it, but it is different: the food is different, the life style is different, the traditions are different... i'm not there, as simple as that.... interviewer: do you feel european? interviewee: ja, ja, ja... i see... now i see the question... well, yes! ja, ja, ja... interviewer: what does it mean for you to be an european? interviewee: the point is that i don't want to be a spaniard by obligation. i do not want to be a spaniard because someone has imposed that identity. i could choose to be european, even when europe is also fictional. nevertheless, for me, europe gathers many different cultures, doesn’t? then, you can be european, and that means that you can be alexandro escudero 43 different. however, the idea of spain is that there is only one way to be a spaniard. i guess i feel comfortable thinking of as europe as an open minded place. • they understand (and the new speakers confirmed this idea) that foreign learners of catalan have a practical interest in this language: to have more possibilities to get a job, to understand their children’s homework, for instance. this very pragmatic interest in the catalan language by new speakers does not seem to be uncomfortable to catalan people. on the contrary, they declared that this fact could be a good starting point in order to make the catalan language necessary in the labor market and in the world of educational in the future. axial coding after having showed briefly the main descriptive categories, the inductive process lead to sort all categories around one axial concept. by doing so, it will be possible to build a graphic representation in order to identify the core conceptual category: the responsible trust (see figure 3). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 44 it will be also possible to relate its peripheral categories (causes, variables, context, conditions, contingencies, and consequences) (see figure 4). a) some causes of responsible trust: living in an inclusive family during childhood. seeing good moral behaviour in a member of the family. thinking that the indigenous population has been gentile throughout the history with newcomers. a strong sense of identity. b) some conditions that help responsible trust to appear: getting information during childhood about different cultures. traveling or consuming travel related products, such as tv programmes or journals. coexisting within multicultural informal environments. having parents or family from different cultural backgrounds. having a sentimental relationship with somebody from a different cultural background. existence of easy, funny and convenient intercultural volunteering programmes in the society. c) some contingencies that hamper the appearance of responsible trust: not having multicultural environments during childhood. not having a strong sense of identity. not having time to colaborate in an intercultural volunteer programme. not having skills for doing a specific task related to regional identity, such as practising a local language. not feeling free and spontaneous within the intercultural volunteer programme. d) some variables of responsible trust: folklorisation of cultures: remarking the difference in the cultural background. alexandro escudero 45 assimilation of cultures: obligating the immigrants to incorporate the society values of the host nation. e) some context items that could shape responsible trust: political context: feeling that the national identity threatens the regional one. sociological context: a strong regional identity sense. institutional context: a strong public policy on regional identity and local language. historic context: a narrative on rejection and contempt towards the regional identity. symbolic context: a collective wish to achieve autonomy and freedom. f) some desired outcomes of the responsible trust: opportunities to meet up with people from different cultural background. sharing ideas and finding out about different lifestyles. finding the same emotions and feelings among people, regardless of the cultural background. finding that people have similar concerns, regardless the cultural background they come from. getting and giving emotional rewards and gratitude. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 46 conclusion evidence found in this research suggests that in the region of catalonia, spain, there might exists a group of persons ready for meeting voluntarily with people from different cultural background, dealing seemingly well with the proximity, and without the intermediation of a formal education or a non-formal education process: the volunteers for the practice of the catalan language. this finding suggests that there may be alternative ways to formal education to strengthen the values of active citizenship. responsible trust is the conceptual category that has been built in this research in order to explain the motivations and outcomes of a group of people that voluntarily engage in a number of face-to-face meetings to practise the catalan language with people from a different cultural background. the main characteristics of this group of people are: 1) they have never received any formal or non-formal education on issues of active citizenship, 2) they have a strong sense of catalan identity, and 3) they have difficulties to identify where and how they obtained the willingness to meet up with people from different cultural background. from a conceptual point alexandro escudero 47 of view, four dimensions of the responsible trust could be named: inception, insight, learning process, and performance. each one of these properties have several dimensions (see figure 5). these kinds of voluntary civic activities, based on a responsible trust, could be relevant to democratic institutions dedicated to promoting social cohesion because they show that, in addition to compulsory education and the non-formal education programmes, there could be another way to build and strengthen active citizenship. as shown in the inception property, one way to strengthen active citizenship among the adult population, that is, not of compulsory schooling age, could be to strengthen regional identity. that is, strengthen the local language and the narratives on regional autonomy and freedom. regional identity could be a driving force to encourage people from different cultural backgrounds to meet. although these face-to-face meetings have practical purposes (proselytising identity, for the volunteers of the language; learning a language, for new speakers), journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 48 unexpectedly important things happen: people can recognise that emotions, feelings and human concerns are very similar, regardless of cultural background. the property insight demonstrates that having a strong sense of local identity is not enough to make someone willing to meet people from different cultural background. a sense of threat to local identity is also necessary. this condition (the threat) leads indigenous people to share regional cultural features gently, and to search for symbolic alliances with the foreign population. indigenous people feel responsible for defending their regional identity, and because of this are willing to meet up and share ideas with people from different cultural backgrounds. thus, the possibility to meet and trust a perfect stranger appears. eventually, friendship occurs. the learning process property reveals the fact that the volunteers for the practice of the catalan language (and also the volunteers from the comparison groups, that is, volunteers on other volunteer programmes that do not involve the practice of the catalan language) hardly remember where and how they obtained the willingness to meet people from different cultural background suggests that the influence of formal education and the non-formal education in this matter is quite weak. it is interesting that most of these people stated that meeting strangers, helping unknown people, and feeling some kind of responsibility for the well-being of others, have always been a “natural” and fundamental part of his or her character or, at least, a tradition within the family. in short: responsible trust could not be taught, but it could be learned through a informal learning processes. this is particularly important because it seems that the responsible trust is a value that cannot be developed in deeply planned educational environments. actually, it is based on sharing unexpected topics and moments, and enjoying them together, without any order from any authority. the performance property shows that once the volunteers and the new speakers decide to meet and share differences, a curious phenomenon happens. paradoxically, the more differences they look for, the more common ground they find. then, it is crystal clear: identity should not be a morally relevant issue to coexist peacefully. on the contrary: it should be an opportunity to feel responsible trust. the evidence found in this research demonstrates that building flexible, hybrid or multiple identities is not the only way to promote contact between people from different cultural backgrounds, as is commonly said in the european social discourse. it is also possible to promote contact between people of different identities if the local identity is reinforced. this form of alexandro escudero 49 social cohesion has not been sufficiently studied in multicultural societies, but could offer creative solutions and new values to strengthen active citizenship. references alboan, & universidad de deusto. (2009). de la ciudadanía local a la global y de la ciudadanía global a la local. el camino andado: alboan. alvesson, m., & sköldberg, k. (2009). reflexive methodology: new vistas for qualitative research (2 ed.). london: sage. banks, j. a. (1997). educating citizens in a multicultural society. new york: teachers college press. banks, j. a. (2004). diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives. san francisco: jossey-bass. barber, b. (2003). strong democracy: participatory politics for a new age. berkeley, calif.; london: university of california press. barcelona city council. (2010). barcelona interculturality plan. barcelona: ajuntament de barcelona. bolivar, a. (2007). educación para la ciudadanía: algo más que una asignatura. barcelona: graó. bryant, a., & charmaz, k. (2010). the sage handbook of grounded theory. los angeles: sage. bryony hoskins, & massimiliano mascherini. (2009). measuring active citizenship through the development of a composite indicator. social indicators research, 90(3), 459-488. camon, d. (2005) un único camino. aproximación a la realidad de los países catalanes. barcelona: editorial mediterrània. charmaz, k. (2006). constructing grounded theory. london; thousand oaks, calif.: sage publications. clarke, a. (2005). situational analysis: grounded theory after the postmodern turn. thousand oaks, calif.: sage publications. colardyn, d., & bjørnåvold, j. (2005). the learning continuity: european inventory on validating non-formal and informal learning. national policies and practices in journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 50 validating non-formal and informal learning. luxembourg: office for official publications of the european communities. consorci per a la normalització lingüística. (2011), from http://www.cpnl.cat/ constant, a.; kahanec, m.; zimmermann, k. (2008). attitudes towards immigrants, other integration barriers, and their veracity. berlin: forschungsinstitut zur zukunft der arbeit institute for the study of labor. discussion paper series.iza dp no. 3650. coordinadora d’associacions per la llengua catalana. (2012). xerrem retrieved 01/02, 2012, from http://www.cal.cat/campanyes_i_projectes_detalle.aspx?id=2 delgado, m. (2009). seres de otro mundo: sobre la función simbólica del inmigrante. in ii training seminar de jóvenes investigadores en dinámicas interculturales (ed.), la dinámica del contacto: movilidad, encuentro y conflicto en las relaciones interculturales. barcelona: cidob edicions. european commission. (2007). orientations of young men and women to citizenship and european identity. youth and european identity. luxembourg: office for official publications of the european communities. eurydice. (2005). citizenship education at school in europe. brussels: eurydice. follesdal, a. (2008). european union citizenship (vol. 13). luxembourg: office for official publications of the european communities. garcía, j. l. (2007). formar ciudadanos europeos. madrid: academia europea de ciencias y artes. glaser, b. (1978). theoretical sensitivity: advances in the methodology of grounded theory. mill valley, calif: sociology press. glaser, b. g. (1998). doing grounded theory: issues and discussions. mill valley: sociology press. hoskins b., jesinghaus, j., mascherini, m., munda, g., nardo, m., saisana, m., . . . villalba, e. (2006). measuring active citizenship in europe (vol. eur 22530 en). ispra: european commission institute for the protection and security of the citizen. isolde de groot, ivor goodson, & wiel veugelers. (2013). dutch adolescents’ narratives of their citizenship efficacy “hypothetically, i could have an impact”. educational review. doi: 10.1080/00131911.2013.768957 http://www.cpnl.cat/� alexandro escudero 51 joaquim torres-pla. (2011). catalan language immersion in context. winter(6). retrieved from http://www.it-intransit.eu/articles/catalan-language-immersion-context koopmans, r., statham, p., giugni, m., & passy, f. (2005). contested citizenship: immigration and cultural diversity in europe. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. martínez, f., duval-hernández, r. (2009) hostility toward immigration in spain. berlin: forschungsinstitut zur zukunft der arbeit institute for the study of labor. discussion paper series iza dp no. 4109. mascherini, & hoskins. (2008). retrieving expert opinion on weights for the active citizenship composite indicator (vol. eur23515 en). luxembourg: european commission institute for the protection and security of the citizen òmnium cultural. (2012). quedem? retrieved 01/02, 2012, from http://www.omnium.cat/www/omnium/ca.html onghena, y. (2009). comunicación, espacio público y dinámicas interculturales. barcelona: fundación cidob. plataforma per la llengua. (2013). informecat 2013. 50 dades sobre la llengua catalana. barcelona: plataforma per la llengua. puig, j. m. (2007). aprendizaje servicio: educar para la ciudadanía. barcelona; madrid: octaedro, españa. ministerio de educación y ciencia. secretaría general técnica. puig, j. m., & bisquerra, r. (2010). entre todos: compartir la educación para la ciudadanía. barcelona: ice horsori. strauss, a., & corbin, j. (2008). basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (3 ed.). los angeles: sage publications. transatlantic trends. (2011). transatlantic trends: immigration 2011. key findings. washington: german marshall fund of the united states, the compagnia di san paolo, y the barrow cadbury trust. westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2), 237–269. wolf, p. j., & macedo, s. (2004). educating citizens: international perspectives on civic values and school choice. washington, d.c.: brookings institution press. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 52 appendix a guideline number in-depth interviews guidelines open coding it has been used the in vivo (in italics) / sociological constructs (in bold) coding system. 1 why do you engage in a volunteering programme to practice catalan language? are you participating in any other volunteering programme? adaptation collaboration controlled life defense and share of the catalan culture defense of the catalan language donation economic convenience illusion integration wish it feels good it's typical it’s easy it’s funny its my language language is identity learning ways of life meet people and cultures no to help, but to meet olympic volunteer people as a mirror reaction (to the prohibition to speak catalan in the dictatorship period) respect self-emotional training self-intercultural education selfish to some extent to be useful to help to know the foreigner's opinions on catalan culture alexandro escudero 53 guideline number in-depth interviews guidelines open coding it has been used the in vivo (in italics) / sociological constructs (in bold) coding system. 2 do you identify any relationship between your willingness to participate in the practice of catalan language with foreigner people and your family values? do you identify any relationship between your willingness to participate in the practice of catalan language with foreigner people and your formal education or your non-formal education? do you identify any relationship between your willingness to participate in the practice of catalan language with foreigner people and your friends influences? no formal civic education no formal education influence no republican education non-formal education influence not taught religious condescension religious education, but nonbeliever unconscious learning classism (no) family values influence one member of the family influences selfish youth struggling youth travel experience virtual travel experience youthful antagonism xenophobe immigrants family integration similarity (values, emotions, feelings) 3 have you ever had any racist or xenophobe feeling? if so, how do you overcome this feeling? discomfort i don't see the differences natural otherness is – otherness is + prejudices irrational response, control and dialogue 4 are you getting any unsuspected knowledge in the volunteering programme to practice catalan language? rewarding gratefulness happiness, to some extent, is to share journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 27-54 54 guideline number in-depth interviews guidelines open coding it has been used the in vivo (in italics) / sociological constructs (in bold) coding system. 5 what is your identity (catalan, spaniard or european)? is it necesary to be catalan in order to perform a volunteering programme to practice catalan language? what is it to be a catalan person? non-spaniard not anti-spaniard anti-spaniard 6 do you do the volunteering programme to practice catalan language as a political activity? proselytism of catalan culture 7 is there any thing beyond identity that makes humankind equal? emotions feelings active values index political life community civil society rank citizenship index dimension index composite index indicator open coding in-depth interviews guidelines guideline number it has been used the in vivo (in italics) / sociological constructs (in bold) coding system. i̇lköğreti̇m sosyal bi̇lgi̇ler dersi̇ndeki̇ genellemeleri̇n öğreti̇mi̇ni̇n değerlendi̇ri̇lmesi̇ www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(2), 60-95 © 2011 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersinde genelleme öğretiminin değerlendirilmesi1 an evaluation of the instruction of generalization in elementary school social studies program mükerrem akbulut taş 2 & özden demi̇r3 özet: bu araştırmada 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders programındaki “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesi kapsamında bulunan genellemelerin öğretiminin nasıl gerçekleştirildiği değerlendirilmiştir. genellemeler, ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi içinde yer alan önemli bir içerik türüdür.. araştırmada 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin ‘‘ülkemiz ve dünya’’ ünitesi kapsamında bulunan genellemelerin öğretimi nitel olarak incelenmiştir. çalışma adana ili seyhan ilçesindeki üç ilköğretim okulunda görev yapan üç sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretmeni ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. araştırmada veriler, nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden gözlem tekniği ile toplanmıştır. ayrıca destekleyici ek bilgi elde etmek ve yorumlara güç katmak amacıyla doküman incelemesi de yapılmıştır. veriler, betimsel analiz tekniği kullanılarak çözümlenmiştir. araştırma sonuçlarının güvenirliğini artırmak amacıyla ünitedeki genellemelerin analizi ve gözlem verilerinin analizi için ayrı ayrı kodlayıcı güvenirliği hesaplanmıştır. araştırma sonucunda üç öğretmenin de ünitedeki genellemelerin öğretimini ders kitabına bağlı kalarak gerçekleştirdikleri söylenebilir. katılımcıların genellemelerin öğretimini gerçekleştirmek adına bir içerik düzenlemesi yapmadıkları bunun yerine ders kitabındaki konuların ve bilgilerin sunum sırasını dikkate alarak öğretim yaptıkları görülmüştür. ayrıca ders kitabındaki içerik düzenlemesinin öğretmenlerin genelleme öğretimi yapmalarını sağlayacak biçimde olmadığı görülmüştür. katılımcılar, soru cevap yöntemini ve düz anlatımı kullanarak genellemede geçen kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkisini belirtmişlerdir. bunun dışında neden-sonuç ilişkilerini açıklayıcı başka bir etkinlik gerçekleştirmemişlerdir. ayrıca sınıfta sunulan bazı genellemeler ile ilgili bir neden-sonuç ilişkisinin açıklanmadığı ya da tam tersi biçimde sınıfta belirtilmeyen genellemeler ile ilgili neden-sonuç ilişkisinin açıklandığı görülmüştür. araştırmada katılımcıların aynı konu içindeki olgusal bilgilerle genellemelerin ilişkisini tam olarak göstermedikleri bulunmuştur. anahtar kelimeler: genelleme, genelleme öğretimi, sosyal bilgiler dersi, ilköğretim öğrencileri 1 bu makale 1-3 ekim 2009 tarihinde ege üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi tarafından düzenlenen 18. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kongresinde sözlü bildiri olarak sunulmuştur. daha sonra makalenin kuramsal, tartışma,sonuç ve öneriler ile ilgili bölümleri geliştirilmiştir. 2 dr., mükerrem akbulut taş, çukurova üniversitesi, mukerremtas@gmail.com 3 yrd. doç. dr., özden demi̇r, kafkas üniversitesi, oooozden@gmail.com mailto:mukerremtas@gmail.com� mailto:oooozden@gmail.com� mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 61 extended abstract generalizations are important content materials that should be instructed in the social studies program. the instruction of generalizations and the causal relationships emphasized in generalizations are important for students to have meaningful learning experiences and to gain causal reasoning and critical thinking skills. social studies program emphasizes the acquisition of creating scientific generalization skill as a fundamental skill to be instructed directly, and the importance of generalization instruction is highlighted. therefore, this study is important in that it draws attention to the importance of teaching generalization and creates basis for the future research in the field. in this regard, it aims at evaluating the instruction of the generalizations in the “our country and the world” unit in social studies program for 6th grades in primary school. in line with this general purpose, the instruction of the generalizations in the unit was analyzed qualitatively. the study was conducted with three social studies teachers working in three different schools located in seyhan, adana. the data were collected through the observation technique with a view to obtaining in depth data about the instruction of generalization in social studies lesson. semi-structured observation form, prepared in the light of the generalization content elements, was used as the data collection tool. these content elements consisted of four aspects: generalization statement, concepts related to generalization, cause-effect relationships between concepts, and facts about generalization. in addition to observation, document analysis was conducted with a view to supporting results and strengthening the implications. the documentary analysis was performed based on the generalizations and previously identified elements about the generalizations in the scope of the six topics in the “our country and the world” unit. the data collected from the observations were analyzed using descriptive analysis techniques. the content elements of generalization were used as themes creating conceptual framework. the data was analyzed taking into account these themes. the reliability was enhanced by the separate calculation of the coder reliability for the analysis of the generalizations in the units and the observation data. according to the result of the study, it can be suggested that three teachers carried out the instruction of the generalizations in the unit by sticking to course book. overall, the generalizations were expressed verbally in the form of suggestion by the teachers. even though the generalizations were in the course book, three teachers were observed that they did not explain them in the classroom. for the sake of carrying out the instruction the generalizations, it can be said that the participants did not do any content analysis. instead, they carried out their instructions considering the presentation order of the information and the subjects in the course book. besides, it was occurred that the content arrangement of the course book was not in the appropriate for the teachers to carry out the instruction of the generalization. participants stated the cause-effect relationship between the generalization concepts by using quoted speech or question-answer methods such as why? how come? what are the reasons according to you? except this, on behalf of teaching or explaining the cause-effect relationships, no other activity was carried out. additionally, with regard to some of the generalizations employed in the classroom, it was observed that cause-effect relationship was not explained or contrarily with regard to the generalizations which were not mentioned in the classroom, it was observed that the cause-effect relationship was explained. in the conclusion of the study, it was realized that there were generalization statements in the relevant parts of the unit in the course book but there were not any information which explain the cause-effect relationship between the concepts in the generalizations. in the result part of the research, it was found that the journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 62 participants did not show exactly the relationship of the generalizations and the factual information in the same subject. in conclusion, according to the findings gathered from the study it can be asserted that even though there were a lot of generalization statements in the unit, three teachers did not do any content arrangements concerning to generalization instruction and they preferred quoting exactly the same information in the course book. in the same manner, it can be asserted that the information in the social studies course book was not arranged to carry out generalization instruction and although there were generalization statements, there was not any qualified information that can cause gaining those generalization information and the relationship of fact, concept and generalization was not set up in the proper way. in line with the results of the study, teachers can be trained on the generalization instruction models focusing on application. besides, visual reminders such as schemes and diagrams aiming at creating generalizations and causal relationships can be included both in course books and in the teaching process. lastly, teachers can make use of different techniques apart from question and answer so as to teach and create generalizations more effectively. in order to be able to generalize the results of the study, this issue can be examined on a larger group of participants. alternatively, instruction of generalization can be analyzed in a detailed way through problem solving studies such as action research. keywords: generalization, instruction of generalization, social studies lesson, elementary students giriş genellemenin tanımı ve türleri evrendeki olguları anlama ve açıklama amacıyla gerçekleştirilen bilimsel etkinlik sonucu ulaşılan bilgiler genel olarak olgular, kavramlar, işlemler ve genellemeler biçiminde sınıflandırılmaktadır. merrill, (1983, s.286) ve romiszowski (1984, s.101) bir bilim dalının ya da disiplinin içeriğinin olgular, kavramlar, işlemler ve ilkelerden (genellemeler) oluştuğunu belirtmişlerdir. armstrong (1980) ve barth’a (1983) göre de bir konu alanı olgular, kavramlar ve genellemelerden oluşmaktadır (akt. coşkun, 1999). ornstein ve hunkins, (1995) ise bir öğretim programının içeriğinin olgular, kavramlar, genellemeler/ilkeler ve kuramlardan oluştuğunu belirtmişlerdir. sözü edilen içerik türlerinden olgular, kavram ve genelleme bilgisi için temel oluşturan bilgi yapılarıdır. olgu, nesnelere, olaylara, kişilere verilen isim ve semboller ile bunlar arasındaki gözlemlenebilen ya da önceden gözlemlenmiş olan ilişkileri anlatan ifadelerdir (deryakulu, 2006, s.1). yani bir konu alanı içindeki yer, kişi, sembol, nesne, olay adı, tarih gibi bilgiler olgusal bilgilerdir. kavram, ortak özellikleri paylaşan ve aynı isimle tanımlanan semboller, olaylar ve nesneler grubudur (merrill, 1983). kavramlar kendi arasında bir ilişki içindedir. kavramlar arasında bir ilişki kurularak oluşturulan ve olgularca doğrulanabilir olan bilgi türü ise genellemelerdir. genelleme terimi ilgili alanyazında farklı biçimlerde tanımlanmaktadır. ülgen’e (1997) göre genelleme, genellenebilme özelliğine sahip, yol gösterici ve araştırmaya dayalı mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 63 yargılardır (akt. akyürek, 2006). martorella, (1998, s.179) genellemeyi, en iyi kanıtla elde edilebilen tüm örnekler için kanıtlanan ya da doğrulanan kavramlar hakkındaki ifadeler biçiminde tanımlamıştır. sosyal bilgiler öğretimi ile ilgili alanyazında ise genelleme, iki ya da daha fazla kavram arasındaki ilişkiyi açıklayan önermeler şeklinde tanımlanmaktadır (erickson, 1995; michaelis ve garcia, 1996; sunal ve sunal, 2003; van cleaf, 1991, s.218). sunal ve sunal (2003) değişik kaynaklardan yararlanarak genellemelerin temel özelliklerini şöyle belirtmişlerdir: genellemeler; • olgulardan ve kavramlardan farklıdırlar. • i̇ki ya da daha fazla kavram arasındaki ilişkiyi tanımlar. • neden-sonuç açıklamaları belirtir. • genellemede ifade edilen ilişkinin gelecekte meydana gelme olasılığını yordar. genellemenin tanımında öne çıkan en önemli özellik kavramlar arası ilişkilerdir. marzano ve arkadaşlarının (1988, s.39) aktardığına göre katz (1976) ve klausmeier (1985) genellemeleri, kavramlar arası ilişkilerin niteliğine göre ilke adı altında aşağıdaki gibi sınıflamışlardır: neden-sonuç ilişkisi bildiren genellemeler (ilkeler): “eğer…öyleyse anlamına sahip ilişkileri açıklayan ilkelerdir. örneğin tüberküloza mycobacterium tuberculosis neden olur. i̇lişki bildiren genellemeler (ilkeler): bir olay veya durumdaki artışla, başka bir olay veya durumdaki artışa ya da azalışa göre yordanan ilişkileri açıklayan ilkelerdir. örneğin, uzun boylu insanlar daha ağır olma özelliği gösterir. olasılık bildiren genellemeler (ilkeler): olacak olan bir durum veya olaydaki olasılığı açıklayan genellemelerdir. gerçek olayların sayısı ile olma olasılığı olan olayların sayısı arasındaki ilişkidir. örneğin “bir gebelikte erkek çocuk doğma olasılığı, %52’dir. aksiyomatik genellemeler (ilkeler): evrensel olarak kabul edilmiş veya evrensel olarak kabul edilme eğilimi olan doğrulardır. esaslar, kanunlar, kurallar, aksiyomatik ilkeler kategorisi içinde yer almaktadır. michaelis ve garcia (1996) genellemelerin belirli bir kültüre, yere ve zamana uygulanabilen sınırlı ifadelerden, evrensel uygulanabilirliği olan ifadelere kadar geniş bir bilgi alanını kapsadığını belirterek üç temel genelleme türü olduğunu belirtmişlerdir: betimsel genellemeler: belli bir yer ve zamana özgü genellemelerdir. sosyal bilimler alanındaki genellemelerin birçoğu betimsel genellemelerdir. örneğin, “nüfus artışı, endüstrileşme ve kentleşme çevre sorunlarının nedenlerindedir”. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 64 koşullu genellemeler: bir koşula bağlı olan genellemelerdir. “eğer…olursa…olur” biçiminde ifade edilirler. bu tür genellemelerin, neden-sonuç ilişkisi bildiren genellemelerle aynı olduğu söylenebilir. örneğin “bir malın miktarı artarsa fiyatı düşer”. değer temelli genellemeler: bir tercih, istek, değer ya da değer ilkesi içeren genellemelerdir. örneğin, “eğer çevre sorunları çözülecekse, nüfus artışı, endüstrileşme ve kentleşme kontrol altına alınmalıdır”. banks (1991) genellemeleri, alt düzey, orta düzey ve üst düzey genellemeler olarak sınıflamıştır (akt. erickson, 1995). banks’ın yaptığı sınıflamanın kavramlar arası ilişkilerin kapsayıcılık ve açıklayıcılık gücüne dayandığı söylenebilir. örneğin “amerika’ya göç eden örgütler, değişik toplumsal örgütler kurmuşlardır” önermesi alt düzey bir genellemedir. “amerika’ya göç eden bütün gruplar, toplumsal örgütler kurmuşlardır” önermesi ise orta düzey bir genellemedir. ancak “bütün insan topluluklarındaki, toplumsal örgüt biçimleri, bireysel ve grup ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak amacıyla ortaya çıkar” önermesi üst düzey evrensel geçerliği ve kapsayıcılığı olan bir genellemedir. eggen ve kauchak (1996, s.73) ise genellemeleri kavramlar arası ilişkilerin niteliğine göre, ilkeler, genellemeler ve akademik kurallar olarak sınıflamışlar. eggen ve kauchak’ın (1996) sınıflamasında ilke ve genelleme terimleri arasında bir ayrım yapılmıştır. i̇lkeler, bilinen tüm durumlar için geçerli veya doğru kabul edilen kavramlar arasındaki neden-sonuç ilişkisini açıklayan bilgilerdir. örneğin “nesneye uygulanan güç artıkça, hızı da artar”, “değişim kaçınılmazdır” gibi. genellemeler ise bilinen istisnaları olan kavramlar arası ilişkilerdir. “örneğin “insanlar, ekonomik nedenlerle göç ederler” önermesi istisnai durumları içerebilir. çünkü insanlar, politik ya da dini nedenlerle de göç edebilirler. görüldüğü gibi örnek genelleme ifadesi de bir neden-sonuç ilişkisi içermektedir. ancak bunun, istisnaları olan bir neden-sonuç ilişkisi olduğu söylenebilir. akademik kurallar, iki kavram arasında insanların kendine göre tanımladığı ilişkiyi açıklayan ifadelerdir. örneğin “zamir kendisinden önce gelen ile sayı ve cinsiyet bakımından uyumlu olmalıdır” ifadesi insanlar tarafından dilbilgisi alanında üretilmiş olan bir kuraldır. yapılan sınıflamalar incelendiğinde genellemelerin, yordayıcılık ve açıklayıcılık gücüne, kavramlar arası ilişkilerin geçerliğine ve karmaşıklık düzeyine göre farklı biçimlerde sınıflandırıldığı söylenebilir. bu araştırmada genelleme kavramı, bir disiplin içindeki içerik türlerinden biri olarak ele alınmıştır ve iki ya da daha fazla kavram arasındaki neden-sonuç ilişkisini açıklayan önerme biçiminde tanımlanmıştır. örneğin “ticaret, ekonomiyi etkiler” önermesinde ticaret ve ekonomi kavramları arasında bir neden-sonuç ilişkisi kurulmaktadır. ya da “bir toplumun faaliyetleri biriciktir (unique) ve doğal kaynaklar, yeryüzü şekilleri ve mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 65 iklimden etkilenir” önermesinde toplum, doğal kaynaklar, yeryüzü şekilleri, iklim kavramları arasında bir neden-sonuç ilişkisi söz konusudur. ayrıca araştırmada inceleme konusu yapılan genellemelerin, bir neden-sonuç ilişkisi bildiren ifadeler olmasının yanı sıra evrensel uygulanabilirliği olan, çok sayıda farklı örneklerle desteklenebilen üst düzey önermeler olduğu söylenebilir (erickson, 1995). örneğin “aynı kıtada yer almalarına rağmen ülkelerin ekonomik faaliyetlerinin dağılımı farklılık göstermektedir” gibi. sosyal bilgilerde genellemelerin öğretimi genellemeler, bir öğretim programının içeriğinde yer alan olgusal ve kavramsal bilgiyi de içeren üst düzey bir bilgidir. genellemeler, çok sayıda olgular kümesinin analizinden elde edilen büyük miktardaki bilgiyi düzenlemeyi ve özetlemeyi sağlar (martorella, 1998). ayrıca bu türden bilgiler, öğrencilerin izole edilmiş bilgi parçacıklarını düzenlemesini, özetlemesini, yaşadıkları dünyayı anlamasını ve açıklamasını, gelecekteki olası olayları ve durumları yordamasını sağlamaktadır. dolayısıyla öğrencilerin anlamlı genellemeler inşa etmelerine yardım etmek için uygun fikirlerin (genellemelerin) seçilmesi ve öğretilmesi, öğretim açısından önemlidir (erickson, 1995; sunal ve sunal, 2003). genelleme öğretiminin, öğrencilerin verileri toplama, analiz etme, yorumlama, çıkarım yapma, test etme gibi üst düzey zihinsel becerileri kazanmalarına katkı sunması yönünden de önemli olduğu söylenebilir. genellemelerin öğretim açısından değeri dikkate alındığında bu tür bilgilerin, sosyal bilgiler dersi içinde de önemli bir yeri olduğu söylenebilir. genellemelerin sosyal bilgiler dersi içindeki önemi değişik araştırmacılar tarafından da dile getirilmiştir. örneğin sunal ve haas (2005), genellemelerin, ilköğretim ve ortaöğretimde sosyal bilgiler dersinin önemli bir kısmını oluşturduğunu; mckinney ve edgington (1997) genellemelerin, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin kalbini oluşturduğunu ifade etmişlerdir. shiveley ve misco (2009) ise özellikle ortaöğretim okullarında genelleme öğretiminin, genelleme oluşturma becerisinin ve etkinliğinin güçlü bir öğretim aracı olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili farklı yaklaşımlar bulunmakla birlikte iki temel yaklaşım esas alınmaktadır. bu yaklaşımlar sorgulayıcı ve açıklayıcı yaklaşımlardır (erişti ve küçük, 2006; martorella, 1998). sorgulayıcı yaklaşımda önce örnek ve örnek olmayan durumlar sunulur ve öğrenciler, ilkeyi keşfetmeleri için cesaretlendirilir (erişti ve küçük, 2006). açıklayıcı yaklaşımda ise önce genelleme ifadesi, genellemeyi oluşturan kavramlar ve kavramlar arası ilişkiler verilir, daha sonra genellemeyi destekleyecek örnekler, sorular, materyaller verilir ve en son öğrencinin genelleme ile ilgili yeni örnekleri tanımlaması ya da journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 66 yeni örnekler bulması istenir (martorella, 1998). mckinney ve edgington (1997) da benzer şekilde tümevarımsal, tümdengelimsel ve problem çözme yaklaşımı olarak üç temel stratejiden söz etmiştir. genelleme öğretiminde sözü edilen yaklaşımların hepsi belirli durumlarda kullanılabilir ve etkili olabilir. ancak genelleme öğretiminin doğru bir biçimde gerçekleştirilmesi için öncelikle öğrencilerin genellemede ilişki kurulan kavramlar hakkındaki ön bilgilerin eksik olup olmadığı yoklanmalıdır. kavramlar hakkındaki ön bilgiler eksik ve yanlış ise ya da yeterli değilse öncelikle ön bilgilerdeki eksiklikler tamamlanmalıdır (erişti ve küçük, 2006; sunal ve sunal, 2003). genelleme öğretimi, genellemedeki nedensonuç ilişkisi farklı durumlara uygulanabildiğinde ya da transfer edilebildiğinde gerçekleşmektedir. başka bir deyişle bir genellemenin öğrenildiğini söyleyebilmek için, o genellemenin sadece sözel olarak ifade edilmesi değil, genellemede ifade edilen kavramlar arası ilişkilerin hatırlanması ve yeni durumlarda uygulanması gerekmektedir (marzano ve diğerleri, 1988; sunal ve sunal, 2003). bu durum genelleme öğretiminde genelleme ile ilgili örnek ve örnek olmayan durumlara yer verilmesini gerektirmektedir. öğrencilere kavramlar arası ilişkinin gözlenebileceği birçok durum sunulmalıdır ve örnekler kolaydan zora doğru sıralanmalıdır. ayrıca kavramlar arası ilişkiyi taşımayan örnek durumlar da sunularak öğrencinin karşılaştırma yapmasına ve genellemenin uygulanabildiği ve uygulanamadığı durumları ayırt etmesine yardım edilmelidir (merrill, 1983). problem genellemelerin öğretim açısından önemi birçok araştırmacı ve eğitimbilimci tarafından açıkça ifade edilmesine karşılık genelleme öğretiminin çok az sayıda araştırmanın inceleme konusu olduğu söylenebilir. bu durumun, sosyal bilgiler konu alanındaki genellemelerin öğretimi açısından da geçerli olduğu söylenebilir. örneğin shiveley ve misco (2009) sosyal bilgiler dersinde genelleme öğretiminin nadiren başarılı bir şekilde yapıldığını ya da hiç yapılmadığını ve bu konunun yeniden ele alınması ve değerlendirilmesi gerektiğini ifade etmişlerdir. mckinney ve edgington (1997) da araştırmacıların genellemelerle uzun zamandan beri ilgilenmelerine ve genellemelerin sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin tamamlayıcı bir parçası olmasına rağmen bu içerik türünün dikkate alınmadığını belirtmişlerdir. sosyal bilgiler konu alanında genelleme öğretiminin yeterince araştırılmadığı, incelenen diğer araştırmalarda da belirtilmektedir (benson, 1998; burlbaw, 1994; ciardiello, 2002). bununla birlikte bu çalışmalarda genelleme öğretiminin neden önemli ve gerekli olduğu, genelleme öğretiminin nasıl yapılması gerektiği ile ilgili bilgiler de sunulmuştur. örneğin benson (1998) tarafından yapılan çalışmada genelleme öğretiminin istenen düzeyde olmadığı belirtilerek genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili bir etkinlik örneği sunulmuştur. burlbaw mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 67 (1994) ise öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler dersindeki bir üniteyi planlarken buluş yoluyla öğretim yaklaşımını kullanarak olguların, kavramların ve genellemelerin öğretimini nasıl gerçekleştirilebilecekleri ile ilgili bir etkinlik örneği sunmuştur. ciardiello (2002) tarafından yapılan araştırmada ise sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin ders kitaplarına sıkı sıkıya bağlı kaldıkları ve ortaöğretim öğrencilerinin genellikle sosyal bilgiler dersi ile ilgili metinlerdeki ve ders kitaplarındaki neden-sonuç ilişkilerini anlamakta zorlandıkları bulunmuştur. son yıllardaki bir araştırmada da mccall (2010), öğretmenlik eğitimi alan öğrencilerin, tarihsel olayları eleştirel olarak düşünmeleri, tartışmaları, yazmaları, kültürler arasındaki benzerlikleri ve farklılıkları görmeleri, neden-sonuç ilişkilerini anlamaları için sosyal bilgiler dersi içeriğindeki ve ders kitaplarındaki önemli kavramları ve ana fikirleri öğrenmelerinin önemli olduğunu belirtmiştir. mccall, bu becerileri kazandırmak için, öğretmen adayları ile okuma ve tartışma grupları (literature circles) oluşturarak bir uygulama gerçekleştirmiştir. uygulama sonunda öğretmen adaylarının belirttikleri görüşlere göre, okuma-tartışma grupları etkinliğinin, değişik metinlerdeki önemli kavramları, temaları ve neden-sonuç ilişkilerini kazandırmada etkili olduğu belirtilmiştir. türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler dersinde kavram öğretimi ile ilgili araştırmaların yapıldığı (çakmak, 2006; doğan, 2007; fidan, 2009; kaya, 2005; keskin, 2003; şeker, 2003; yükselir, 2006) ancak genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili ulaşılan çalışmaların sayıca çok az (gençmehmetoğlu, 2009; kılıç, 2004; taşlı, 2000) olduğu söylenebilir. bu araştırmalardan gençmehmetoğlu’nun (2009) yaptığı çalışmada öğrencilerin olgu, kavram ve genellemeler hakkında bilgi sahibi olmadığı, verilen etkinliklerde olguları belirlemekte güçlük çektikleri, olgular arasından kavramları seçemedikleri ve genelleme yapmakta zorlandıkları belirlenmiştir. kılıç’ın (2004) yaptığı araştırma sonucunda ise öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler dersinin öğretiminde genelleme öğretimine yer verdiği, öğrencilerin neden-sonuç ilişkisini kurmalarını sağlamaya çalıştıkları ancak genellemeleri genellikle kendilerinin aktardığı ve genelleme öğretirken çok az örnek kullandıkları belirtilmiştir. sonuç olarak sosyal bilgiler dersinde genelleme öğretimi ile doğrudan ilişkili olan bu çalışmaların bazıları, etkinlik örnekleri ve uygulamaları biçiminde gerçekleştirilmiştir; bazıları da ampirik araştırma biçiminde yürütülmüştür. dolayısıyla bu araştırmanın sosyal bilgiler dersinde genelleme öğretimine ilişkin ampirik veri sunması, daha sonra yapılacak araştırmalara kaynak oluşturması, elde edilen sonuçlarla alana katkı sunması ve genelleme öğretiminin önemine dikkat çekmesi bakımından önemli olduğu söylenebilir. ayrıca olgu ve kavram bilgisini kapsayan genellemelerin nasıl öğretildiği araştırılmaya değer bir konu olarak görülmektedir. bunlara ek olarak uygulanan sosyal bilgiler ders programında da öğrencilere journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 68 genelleme oluşturma becerisinin kazandırılması doğrudan verilecek temel bir beceri olarak belirtilmiştir ve genelleme öğretiminin önemine dikkat çekilmiştir (meb, 2010). bu anlamda sosyal bilgiler dersi konuları veya üniteleri içerisinde birçok genelleme bilgisinin bulunduğu söylenebilir. dolayısıyla sosyal bilgiler öğretimini gerçekleştirmekle yükümlü öğretmenlerin, içerikte yer alan genellemeleri öğretmeleri eğitsel bir zorunluluktur. belirtilen önem ve gerekçeler doğrultusunda bu araştırmanın genel amacı, 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesinde bulunan genellemelerin öğretiminin nasıl gerçekleştirildiğini değerlendirmektir. bu doğrultuda, aşağıdaki sorulara yanıt aranmıştır; 1.öğretmenler, “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesinin öğretimi kapsamında hangi genellemeleri belirtmişlerdir? 2.öğretmenlerin “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesindeki genellemeleri öğretirken belirttikleri kavramlar arası ilişkiler ile ilgili açıklamalar ne gibi özellikler göstermektedir? 3.öğretmenlerin “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesindeki genellemeleri öğretirken verdikleri olgusal bilgiler ne gibi özellikler göstermektedir? yöntem bu araştırmada 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi ‘‘ülkemiz ve dünya’’ ünitesinde yer alan genellemelerin öğretiminin nasıl yapıldığı, nitel araştırma yöntemine göre desenlenerek incelenmiştir. katılımcılar araştırma adana ili seyhan ilçesindeki üç ilköğretim okulunda görev yapan üç sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretmeni ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. adana il milli eğitim müdürlüğünde görevli yetkililerden alınan bilgiler doğrultusunda üç ilköğretim okulunun sosyoekonomik düzeyleri hakkında bilgi sahibi olunmuştur. bu doğrultu da öğretmenlerden ikisi orta sosyoekonomik düzeydeki iki okulda görev yaparken, biri ise alt sosyo ekonomik düzeydeki bir okulda görev yapmaktadır. alt sosyoekonomik düzeydeki okulda görev yapan öğretmen ö1; orta sosyoekonomik düzeydeki iki okulda görev yapan öğretmenler ise ö2 ve ö3 olarak kodlanmıştır. ö1’in mesleki kıdemi 5 yıl, ö2’nin mesleki kıdemi, 29 yıl ve ö3’ün mesleki kıdemi 19 yıldır. araştırmanın gerçekleştirileceği okulların yöneticileri ile görüşülerek izin alındıktan sonra okulda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretmenleri ile ön görüşme yapılmıştır. ön görüşmede öğretmenlere ‘‘ülkemiz ve dünya’’ ünitesi kapsamında yer alan kavramları ve genellemeleri ve bunlarla ilgili bilgileri öğrencilere nasıl öğretecekleri ile ilgili gözlem yapılacağı ve ünite kapsamındaki bilgileri kazandırmak için yaptıkları etkinliklerin kaydedileceği sözel olarak ifade edilmiştir. görüşme sonucunda sınıfta gözlem yapılmasına mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 69 gönüllü olarak izin veren üç öğretmenin gerçekleştirdiği öğrenme-öğretme süreci gözlenmiştir. araştırmanın örneklemi, amaçlı örnekleme yöntemlerinden tipik durum örneklemesi ile seçilmiştir. eğer araştırmacı yeni bir uygulamayı veya bir yeniliği tanıtmak istiyorsa, bu uygulamanın yapıldığı veya yeniliğin olduğu bir dizi durum arasından, en tipik bir veya birkaç tanesini saptayarak bunları çalışabilir. buradaki amaç tipik durumları seçerek evrene genelleme yapmak değildir. amaç, ortalama durumları çalışarak belirli bir alan hakkında fikir sahibi olmak veya bu alan, konu, uygulama veya yenilik konusunda yeterli bilgi sahibi olmayanları bilgilendirmektir (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005). araştırma da tipik durum örneklemesinin tercih edilme nedeni, iki farklı bölgedeki ortalama özelliklere sahip ilköğretim okullarında görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri tarafından genelleme öğretiminin nasıl yapıldığı hakkında derinliğine fikir sahibi olmaktır. veri toplama aracı ve verilerin toplanması araştırma verileri, nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden gözlem tekniği kullanılarak elde edilmiştir. gözlem tekniği, herhangi bir ortamda ya da kurumda oluşan davranışları ayrıntılı tanımlamak amacıyla kullanılmaktadır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005, s.169). bu araştırmada sosyal bilgiler dersinde genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili derinliğine bilgiler elde etmek amacıyla gözlem tekniği seçilmiştir. gözlem tekniğinin yanı sıra destekleyici ek bilgi elde etmek, yorumlara güç katmak amacıyla doküman incelemesi de yapılmıştır (bogdan ve biklen, 2007, s.133; yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005, s.187). doküman incelemesinde, sosyal bilgiler ders kitabındaki “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesinde bulunan genellemelerin, genelleme analizleri yapılmıştır. “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesinde öğretilmesi hedeflenen birden fazla genelleme bilgisi olduğundan dolayı bu ünite seçilmiştir. ünitenin seçiminde, araştırma verilerinin toplanmasının planlandığı zaman dilimi ve katılımcıların uygun oldukları zaman dilimi de belirleyici olmuştur. gözlem boyunca araştırmacılar, ders öğretmeni ile birlikte sınıfa girmişlerdir ve arka sıralardan birine oturarak dışarıdan gözlemci olarak süreçte yer almışlardır. dışarıdan gözlemde, gözlemci sınıf içi çalışmalara karışamaz ve müdahale edemez. ayrıca, gözlemci özel bir grup ile ilgilenme ya da kişisel davranışlar sergileme gibi özel isteklerde de bulunmamaktadır (hopkins ve moore, 1993, s.86; akt, i̇lğan ve kıranlı, 2007). bu araştırmada da gözlem yapılırken araştırmacılar, ders öğretmeninin yaptığı öğretime herhangi bir müdahalede bulunmamışlardır, ses kayıt cihazını öğretmen masasına bırakarak sınıf içi konuşmaları olduğu biçimiyle kaydetmişlerdir. kamera kayıtları ise arka sıradan araştırmacının bulunduğu yerden gerçekleştirilmiştir. ses kayıt cihazı ve video çekimlerine journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 70 ek olarak, araştırmacılar tarafından tahtaya yazılan notlar, çizimler, sınıfın fiziksel düzeni not edilmiştir. ayrıca sınıf içi gürültüler arttığında öğrencilerin öğretmenlerine sordukları sorular, verilen yanıtlar da not edilmiştir. veriler, yarı yapılandırılmış gözlem formu ile toplanmıştır. yarı yapılandırılmış gözlem formu, genellemenin içerik ögeleri temel alınarak hazırlanmıştır. gözlem formu, genellemenin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi, genellemede geçen kavramlar, kavramlar arası ilişkiler ve genelleme ile ilgili olgular olmak üzere 4 boyuttan oluşmaktadır. gözlem formunun geçerlik çalışması için çukurova üniversitesi eğitim programları ve öğretimi bölümünde görev yapan, genelleme öğretimi ve nitel araştırma yöntemleri konusunda uzman olan iki öğretim elemanının görüşlerine başvurulmuştur, gelen dönütler doğrultusunda gözlem formuna son şekli verilmiştir. üç katılımcı, 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitabındaki “ülkemiz ve dünya’’ ünitesinin işlenişi süresince–yaklaşık bir ay-gözlemlenmiştir. veri kaybının olmaması için öğretmenlerden izin alınarak sınıf içindeki tüm konuşmalar, ses kayıt cihazı kullanılarak kaydedilmiştir. ayrıca ö1, video çekimine de izin verdiği için, bu sınıfta gerçekleştirilen öğrenme-öğretme etkinlikleri video ile kaydedilmiştir. bunun yanı sıra öğretmenlerin tahtaya yazdığı tüm bilgiler araştırmacılar tarafından not tutularak kaydedilmiştir. ö1’in sınıfında 34 öğrenci; ö2’nin sınıfında 37 öğrenci ve ö3’ün sınıfında 47 öğrenci bulunmaktadır. ö1 ve ö2 ders işlerken sadece haritalardan (dünya haritası, türkiye’nin fiziki haritası) yararlanmışlardır. ö3 ise harita kullanmamıştır sadece bir konuyu işlerken tepegözden yararlanmıştır. gözlem sonucunda elde edilen tüm veriler, word ortamına aktarıldıktan sonra ö1 için 36 sayfa, ö2 için 30 sayfa ve ö3 için 15 sayfa yazılı metin elde edilmiştir. ö1’den video çekimi ile elde edilen veriler analiz edilirken ilgili öğretmenin ve öğrencilerinin jestleri ve mimikleri gibi birçok sözel olmayan iletişimde kullanılan ögeler, ö2 ve ö3’ün gerçekleştirdiği öğretim sürecinde elde edilemediği için analize dahil edilmemiştir. video kaydı ile elde edilen veriler analiz edilirken ses kayıt cihazı ile elde edilen verilerin analizinin tutarlılık göstermesi için sadece genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili öğretmen tarafından verilen bilgiler ile bu bağlamda öğretmen ve öğrenci arasında geçen diyaloglar incelenmiştir. verilerin analizi veriler, nitel veri analizi tekniklerinden betimsel analiz tekniği kullanılarak çözümlenmiştir. betimsel analizde elde edilen veriler, daha önceden belirlenen temalara göre özetlenmekte ve yorumlanmaktadır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005). verilerin analizinde aşağıda belirtilen sıra izlenmiştir: 1. bir genellemeyi oluşturan içerik ögelerinin belirlenmesi. mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 71 2. ünite içinde belirtilen genellemelerin saptanması ve belirlenen içerik ögelerine göre genelleme analizlerinin yapılması. 3. yapılan genelleme analizleri için kodlayıcı güvenirliğinin hesaplanması ve uzman görüşünün alınması. 4. gözlem verilerinin, genellemenin içerik ögeleri dikkate alınarak analiz edilmesi. 5. gözlem verilerinin ders kitabındaki genelleme analizleri ile karşılaştırılması; gözlem verileri için kodlayıcı güvenirliğinin hesaplanması ve uzman görüşünün alınması. yukarıda belirtilen sıra doğrultusunda verilerin nasıl analiz edildiği, kategorilerin nasıl oluşturulduğu, araştırmada geçerliğin ve güvenirliğin nasıl sağlandığına ilişkin bilgiler aşağıda açıklanmıştır. kategorilerin oluşturulması betimsel analizde veri kaybının olmasını, verilerin yanlış düzenlenmesini ve yorumlanmasını önlemek için önceden belirlenmiş olan temalardan yararlanılmaktadır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005). bu araştırmada önceden belirlenmiş olan genellemenin içerik ögeleri ana tema olarak kullanılmıştır. bir genellemenin yapısının nelerden oluştuğunu gösteren ve genellemenin kapsamını belirten belirli içerik ögeleri vardır. bu içerik ögeleri “genellemenin adı, genellemenin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi, önermede geçen kavramlar, kavramlar arası ilişkiler, genellemenin örnekleri ve genellemenin örnek olmayanlarıdır” (coşkun, 2007; erişti ve küçük, 2006). araştırmada gözlem verilerini ve ders kitabındaki genellemeleri analiz ederken ana tema olarak kullanılan içerik ögeleri ise şunlardır: “genellemenin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi, genelleme ile ilgili kavramlar ve kavramlar arası ilişkiler, genelleme ile ilgili olgular”. verilerin i̇şlenmesi 1. ders kitabındaki genellemelerin belirlenmesi ve genelleme analizlerinin yapılması: araştırmada gözlem verilerinin bir ölçüte dayalı olarak daha nesnel ve doğru biçimde analiz edilmesi için ilk olarak 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitabındaki “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesinde (meb, 2008) bulunan genellemeler, genellemenin içerik ögeleri dikkate alınarak analiz edilmiştir. genelleme analizi, genelleme bilgisinin bir genellemeyi oluşturan içerik ögeleri yönünden ayrıntılandırılmasıdır. örnek olarak “ülkenin baskın olan ekonomik faaliyetleriyle, o ülkede yaşayan insanların gelir seviyeleri arasında yakın bir ilişki vardır” genellemesi verilebilir. verilen genellemenin önerme (bir cümle) olarak ifadesinin, önermede geçen kavramların ne olduğunun, bu kavramlar arasında nasıl bir neden-sonuç ilişkisinin journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 72 olduğunun, bu genelleme ile ilgili olguların (neden-sonuç ilişkisini gösteren) ve ilgili olmayan olguların (neden-sonuç ilişkisini göstermeyen) ne olduğunun çözümlenmesidir. ders kitabındaki genellemelerin analizinden elde edilen bilgiler, gözlem verilerinin analizinde ölçüt olarak ve karşılaştırma yapmak amacıyla kullanılmıştır. araştırmada analiz edilen genellemelerin belirlenmesinde, erickson (1995, s.87) tarafından belirtilen ölçütler dikkate alınmıştır. bu ölçütler şunlardır: 1. evrensel uygulanabilirlik ve geçerlik 2. zamandan, mekandan ve belirli bir kültürden bağımsız olma 3. olgularca desteklenebilir olma yukarıda belirtilen ölçütler doğrultusunda “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesi kapsamında bulunan genellemeler iki araştırmacı tarafından belirlenmiştir. belirlenen genellemeler, “genellemenin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi, genelleme ile ilgili kavramlar, genelleme ile ilgili olgular” temaları altında kodlanmıştır. kavramlar arası ilişkiler (neden-sonuç ilişkisi) ders kitabında genellikle soru cümlesi biçiminde örtük olarak verildiği için ve bazı genellemeler için neden-sonuç ilişkisi hiç belirtilmediği için bu tema ile ilgili ayrı bir kodlama yapılmamıştır. ünite içerisinde belirtilen genellemelerin ne olduğu ve kaç tane olduğu, genelleme ile ilgili kavramlar, genelleme ile ilgili olgular iki araştırmacı tarafından ayrı ayrı kodlanmıştır. i̇ki araştırmacının belirlediği kodlar karşılaştırılarak kodların tutarlılığı incelenmiştir. karşılaştırma sonucunda iki araştırmacının kodlamaları arasındaki tutarsızlıkları gidermek amacıyla elde edilen bütün kodlar ve ana temalar, çukurova üniversitesi ve mersin üniversitesi’nde görev yapan ve genelleme öğretimi konusunda uzman olan iki öğretim üyesine sunulmuştur. uzmanlardan, yapılan kodlamaları, belirlenen temalar açısından değerlendirmeleri ve bunların uygunluğuna, doğruluğuna ilişkin görüş belirtmeleri istenmiştir. her iki uzman da, belirlenen temalarla kodların “tam uygun ve doğru” olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. ancak uzmanlardan biri, ders kitabındaki olguların ifade edilmesi ile ilgili bir düzeltme belirtmiştir. örneğin “nüfus yoğunluğu dünyanın her yerinde farklıdır” genellemesi ile ilgili olan “tokyo nüfusun yoğun olduğu bir yerdir” bilgisinin, “tokyo nüfusu … kadardır. böylece yoğun bir yerdir gibi bir açıklama olmalı” biçiminde ifade edilmesinin daha uygun olduğunu belirtmiştir. uzman görüşleri alındıktan sonra araştırmacılar tarafından ünite kapsamındaki genellemelerin, önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi, önerme içinde geçen kavramların, genelleme ile ilgili olan olguların sayısı yeniden düzenlenmiştir (ek-1). ayrıca ders kitabında genellemeler ile ilgili olmayan olgular da belirlenmiştir ve elde edilen tüm sonuçlar tablo 1’de gösterilmiştir. mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 73 tablo 1 ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesinde yer alan genellemelerin, genellemede geçen kavramların, genelleme i̇le i̇lgili olan ve olmayan olguların konulara göre dağılımı konu adı genellemeler genellemede geçen kavramlar genelleme ile ilgili olgular genelleme ile ilgili olmayan olgular f f f f dünyanın neresindeyiz? 1 2 4 3 kim, nerede çalışıyor? 9 50 18 2 aldıklarımız, sattıklarımız 1 5 6 birlikteyiz 1 6 1 7 *kültürler arası köprü *türk dünyası * kültürler arası köprü ve türk dünyası konuları içinde belirtilmiş olan bir genelleme ifadesi belirlenememiştir. bu konu içerisinde sadece olgusal bilgilere ve açıklamalara yer verilmiştir. ancak bu olgular bir genelleme ile ilişkili olmadığından bu tabloda gösterilmemiştir. tablo 1’de görüldüğü gibi “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesi içinde toplam 6 konu bulunmaktadır. bu 6 konudan sadece 4 konu içerisinde genelleme ifadesi belirlenmiştir. ünitede bulunan “dünyanın neresindeyiz?” konusundaki genelleme sayısı 1; genelleme içinde geçen kavram sayısı 2; genelleme ile ilgili olan olguların sayısı, 4 ve ilgili olmayan olgu sayısı 3’tür. “kim, nerede çalışıyor?” konusundaki genelleme sayısı 9; genelleme içinde geçen kavram sayısı 50; genelleme ile ilgili olan olguların sayısı, 18 ve ilgili olmayan olgu sayısı 2’dir. “aldıklarımız, sattıklarımız” konusu ile ilgili genelleme sayısı 1; genelleme içinde geçen kavram sayısı 5; genelleme ile ilgili olan olguların sayısı 6’dır. “birlikteyiz” konusundaki genelleme sayısı 1; genellemede geçen kavram sayısı 6; genelleme ile ilgili olan olguların sayısı 1 ve ilgili olmayan olguların sayısı 7’dir. “kültürler arası köprü” ve “türk dünyası” konuları içinde bir genelleme ifadesi belirlenememiştir. 2. gözlem verilerinin analiz edilmesi aşağıda sırasıyla gözlem verilerinin nasıl analiz edildiği açıklanmıştır. genellemenin önerme (cümle) biçiminde ifade edilmesi araştırmada üç öğretmen ile ilgili gözlem verileri, öncelikle iki araştırmacı tarafından ayrı ayrı dikkatli bir biçimde okunmuştur. daha sonra sadece genelleme özelliği taşıyan önermelerin (cümlelerin) altı çizilmiştir. bu aşamada ders kitabında belirtilen genellemelerin yanı sıra konu ile ilgili olarak öğretmenler tarafından belirtilen diğer genelleme ifadelerinin de altı çizilmiştir. her bir öğretmen tarafından ifade edilen genellemeler ile bunların kaç defa journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 74 dile getirildiği kodlanmıştır. elde edilen kodlar, “genellemenin önerme (cümle) biçiminde ifade edilmesi” teması altında toplanmıştır. genelleme ile ilgili kavramlar ve kavramlar arasındaki ilişkiler genellemeler ile ilgili kavramlar, araştırmacılar tarafından önceden belirlendiği için gözlem verilerinin analizinde, öğretmenlerin belirlenen kavramlarla ilgili olarak bir tanım, özellik ya da örnek verip vermedikleri incelenmiştir. ancak üç öğretmenin de ünite içerisinde belirlenen kavramlarla ilgili olarak bir özellik ya da örnek bilgisine yer vermediği belirlenmiştir. sadece ö1 “aldıklarımız, sattıklarımız” konusunu işlerken 6 kavramın tanımını ve kavramlarla ilgili bazı olgusal bilgileri vermiştir (ithalat, ihracat, ticaret, gümrük, gümrük vergisi ve soydaş). ö2 ve ö3 önermede geçen kavramlara ilişkin bir tanım, özellik ya da örnek vermemiştir. dolayısıyla önermede geçen kavramlar ile ilgili olarak 6 tanım dışında bir bulgu elde edilememiştir. genellemeyi oluşturan kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkileri ile ilgili olarak katılımcılar tarafından ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkileri ve öğrencilerin …. nedeni ne olabilir?, .… nedeni nedir?, .… sebepleri neler olabilir? biçimindeki sorulara verdikleri yanıtlarda ifade ettikleri neden-sonuç ilişkileri kavramlar arası ilişkiler teması altında kodlanmıştır. genelleme ile ilgili olgular bu tema altında ders kitabındaki genellemeler ile doğrudan ilgili olan olgusal bilgiler belirlenmiştir. olguların analizinde, sınıfta verilen olgusal bilgilerin genellemeler ile ilişkili olup olmadığı incelenmiştir. öğrenme-öğretme sürecinde çok sayıda olgusal bilgiye yer verildiği gözlenmiştir. bu nedenle veriler analiz edilirken genellemelerle doğrudan ilgili olmayan olgular analiz dışında bırakılmıştır, sadece genelleme ile ilgili olan (neden-sonuç ilişkisini taşıyan) ve sınıf içinde öğretmen ve öğrenci tarafından dile getirilen olgular değerlendirmeye alınmıştır. böylece genelleme ile ilgili olmayan olgular ve açıklamalar analiz dışında bırakılarak veri azaltması yoluna gidilmiştir. 3. geçerlik ve güvenirlik nitel araştırmalarda, toplanan verilerin ayrıntılı olarak rapor edilmesi ve araştırmacının sonuçlara nasıl ulaştığını açıklaması geçerliğin sağlanması için önemli bir ölçüttür (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005). bu araştırmada sonuçların geçerliğini artırmak amacıyla aşağıdaki işlemler yapılmıştır. 1. araştırmanın geçerliğini sağlamak amacıyla öncelikle verilerin nasıl toplandığı açık seçik betimlenmeye çalışılmıştır. sınıf ortamında öğretmen ve öğrenci tarafından ifade edilen her açıklama ve konuşma kaydedilmiştir. ayrıca ders kitabından ve gözlemlerden elde mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 75 edilen genelleme sayısı, kavramlar arası ilişkilerin sayısı, olgu sayısı belirtilerek verilerin doğru bir şekilde sunulmasına dikkat edilmiştir. 2. araştırma sonuçlarının başka araştırmacılar tarafından da teyit edilebilir olması için temaların nasıl oluşturulduğu ve kuramsal yapıdan nasıl yararlanıldığı açıklanmıştır. betimsel analiz yapabilmek için öncelikle genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili alanyazın incelenerek genellemenin içerik ögeleri ana temalar olarak belirlenmiştir. belirlenen içerik ögeleri, elde edilen kodları sınıflamak, özetlemek ve kodlarla temaların tutarlılığını belirlemek için ölçüt olarak kullanılmıştır. dolayısıyla veriler kuramsal olarak desteklenmeye çalışılmıştır. 3. gözlem verilerinin doğru ve nesnel analiz edilebilmesi için “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesindeki genellemelerin, genellemenin içerik ögeleri yönünden analizleri yapılmıştır ve elde edilen bilgiler, gözlem verilerinin analizinde ölçüt olarak kullanılmıştır. 4. bulguları destekleyici alıntılar doğrudan sunularak, geçerliğin artırılmasına çalışılmıştır. araştırma verilerinin güvenirliği için aşağıdaki işlemler yapılmıştır: 5. gözlem sürecinde veri kaybını önlemek ve araştırma problemine uygun verileri toplamak amacıyla ses kayıt cihazı kullanılmış, video çekimi yapılmıştır (video çekimine sadece bir öğretmen izin vermiştir). elde edilen veriler, hiçbir değişiklik yapılmadan, olduğu gibi iki araştırmacı tarafından yazılı metne dönüştürülmüştür. bu kapsamda araştırmanın amacı dışındaki konuşmalar da kaydedilmiştir. ancak bu ifadeler analiz edilmemiştir. ayrıca video kayıtlarındaki mimikler ve jestler, sözel olmayan ifadeler, ses kayıt cihazında elde edilemediği için analiz dışında bırakılmıştır. 6. araştırma sonuçlarının güvenirliğini artırmak amacıyla ünitedeki genellemelerin analizi ve gözlem verilerinin analizi için ayrı ayrı kodlayıcı güvenirliği hesaplanmıştır. kodlayıcı güvenirliği, nitel veri analizinde birden fazla araştırmacının birlikte çalıştığı durumlarda araştırmacıların aynı veri setinden elde ettiği kodların benzerliklerini ve farklılarını sayısal olarak karşılaştırıp sayısal bir değere ulaştıkları tutarlılık çalışmasıdır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005). kodlayıcı güvenirliği çalışması “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesindeki genellemelerin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi, önermede geçen kavramlar ve genelleme ile ilgili olgular için ayrı ayrı “görüş birliği” ve “görüş ayrılığı” belirlenmiştir. daha sonra miles ve huberman’ın (1994, s.64) önerdiği güvenirliği belirleme formülü (güvenirlik: görüş birliği / görüş birliği + görüş ayrılığı x 100) kullanılarak kodlayıcı güvenirliği hesaplanmıştır. ders kitabında birinci araştırmacı toplam 11; ikinci araştırmacı toplam 12 genelleme ifadesi belirlemiştir. bu durumda genellemenin journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 76 önerme biçiminde ifadesi ile ilgili olan güvenirlik 11/11+1 x 100 = %91 hesaplanmıştır. i̇kinci araştırmacı tarafından belirlenen önermenin (genelleme-yapılan teknolojik buluşlar insan hayatını hem kolaylaştırır hem de yeni üretim ve sanayi sahalarının doğmasına neden olur) genelleme bilgisi olup olmadığına karar vermek için iki uzmanın görüşüne başvurulmuştur. uzmanlar önermenin genelleme bilgisi olduğu yönünde görüş belirttikten sonra bu ifade genelleme olarak analiz edilmiştir. genelleme ile ilgili kavramlar için birinci araştırmacı toplam 50 kavram, ikinci araştırmacı toplam 45 kavram belirlemiştir. bu durumda kavramlar için güvenirlik 45/45 +5 x 100 = %90 olarak hesaplanmıştır. genelleme ile ilgili olgular için birinci araştırmacı toplam 29 olgu, ikinci araştırmacı 31 olgu belirlemiştir. bu durumda olgular için güvenirlik 29 /29 + 2 x 100 = %93 olarak hesaplanmıştır. i̇kinci araştırmacı tarafından belirlenen 2 olgusal bilgi, birinci araştırmacı tarafından genelleme ile ilgili olmayan (neden-sonuç ilişkisini taşımayan) olgu olarak kodlanmıştır. bu konuda iki uzmanın görüşüne başvurulmuştur ve uzman görüşleri doğrultusunda bu olgusal bilgilerin genelleme ile ilgili olmadığına karar verilmiştir. gözlem verilerinin analizi sonucunda “genellemenin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi”, “kavramlar arası ilişkiler” ve “genelleme ile ilgili olgular” için ayrı ayrı “görüş birliği” ve “görüş ayrılığı” belirlenerek kodlayıcı güvenirliği hesaplanmıştır (miles ve huberman, 1994). genellemenin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi teması altında birinci araştırmacı, toplam 30; ikinci araştırmacı toplam 28 genelleme belirlemiştir. bu durumda genellemenin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi ile ilgili olan güvenirlik 28/28 + 2 x 100 = %93 hesaplanmıştır. “yeryüzü şekilleri, ulaşım, iklim, sanayiyi ve sanayinin kurulacağı yeri etkiler” ile insanlar yaşamlarını sürdürmek için farklı işlerde çalışırlar genellemeleri birinci araştırmacı tarafından genelleme olarak değerlendirilmişken, ikinci araştırmacı tarafından genelleme olarak değerlendirilmemiştir. görüş ayrılığını gidermek için uzmanların görüşüne başvurulmuştur ve sonuç olarak bu ifadeler genelleme olarak kabul edilmiştir. gözlem verilerinin analizi sonucunda genellemede geçen kavramlar ile ilgili yeterli veriye ulaşılamadığından dolayı bu içerik ögesi için kodlayıcı güvenirliği hesaplanmamıştır. analiz sonucunda genellemede geçen kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkisinin açıklandığı toplam 29 ifade belirlenmiştir. i̇kinci uzman tarafından 29 neden-sonuç ilişkisinden sadece ikisi “neden-sonuç ilişkisi belirtilmemiş” olarak kodlanmıştır. bu durumda kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkisi için güvenirlik 27 /27 +2 x 100 = %93 olarak hesaplanmıştır. genelleme ile ilgili olgular için bir güvenirlik değeri hesaplanmamıştır. çünkü genellemeler ile ilgili olgusal bilgiler değerlendirilirken ders kitabındaki olgusal bilgiler ölçüt alınmıştır. ders mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 77 kitabındaki olgusal bilgilerin, genellemeler ile ilgili olup olmadığına ilişkin daha önceden uzman görüşü alındığından ve aynı olgusal bilgiler gözlem verilerinde de aynı biçimde yer aldığından dolayı olgusal bilgiler için ayrıca bir kodlayıcı güvenirliği hesaplanmamıştır. bulgular bu bölümde, verilerin analizi sonucu ulaşılan bulgular, araştırmada elde edilen temel kategoriler dikkate alınarak sırasıyla sunulmuştur. kategori 1: genellemenin önerme (cümle) biçiminde ifade edilmesi araştırmada ilk olarak öğretmenlerin, “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesini işlerken hangi genellemeleri belirttikleri incelenmiştir. üç öğretmenin ünitenin işlenişi sırasında belirttikleri genelleme sayısı ile ders kitabındaki genelleme sayısının dağılımı tablo 2’de sunulmuştur. tablo 2 öğretmenlerin sınıfta belirttikleri genelleme i̇le ünitede belirtilen genelleme sayısının konulara göre dağılımı konu adı ünite kapsamındaki genellemeler katılımcılar ö1 ö2 ö3 f f f f dünyanın neresindeyiz? 1 1 1 1 kim, nerede çalışıyor? 9 3 9 8 aldıklarımız, sattıklarımız 1 2 2 birlikteyiz 1 1 1 1 kültürler arası köprü türk dünyası tablo 2’de görüldüğü gibi öğretmenlerin sınıfta belirttikleri genelleme sayısı ile ünitedeki konular içinde belirtilen genelleme sayısı birbirinden farklılık göstermektedir. bu farklılık özellikle “kim, nerede çalışıyor” konusunda ortaya çıkmıştır. bu konu içerisinde toplam 9 genelleme belirlenmiştir. ö1’in bu konuyu işlerken belirttiği genelleme sayısı 3’tür. ö1’in ifade ettiği genelleme sayısı ile ders kitabındaki genelleme sayısı arasında belirgin bir farklılık gözlenmiştir. ö2’nin belirttiği genelleme sayısı, konu içindeki genelleme sayısı ile aynıdır. ö3’ün belirttiği genelleme sayısı, 8’dir. ö2 ve ö3’ün ifade ettikleri genelleme sayıları ile ders kitabındaki genelleme sayısı birbirine oldukça yakın bulunmuştur. gözlem sırasında ö1’in, ö2 ve ö3’e göre konuları işlerken ders kitabına daha az bağlı kaldığı gözlenmiştir. buna karşılık ö2 ve ö3’ün genellikle öğrencilere ders kitabındaki bilgileri okutturdukları veya bu bilgileri aynen aktardıkları belirlenmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 78 üç öğretmen de genellikle ders kitabındaki genellemeleri olduğu gibi kendileri tekrar etmişler ya da öğrencilere tekrar ettirmişlerdir. örneğin “nüfus yoğunluğu, dünyanın her yerinde farklıdır” genellemesi kitapta geçtiği biçimiyle üç öğretmen tarafından da aynen tekrar edilmiştir. buna karşılık “ülkenin baskın olan ekonomik faaliyetleriyle, o ülkede yaşayan insanların gelir seviyeleri arasında yakın bir ilişki vardır” genellemesini ö1, bir öğrenciye kitaptan okutturmuşken ö2 ve ö3 kendileri belirtmişlerdir. ayrıca öğretmenlerin konu ile ilgili olarak açıklamalar yaparken kendilerinin de bazı genellemeler belirttikleri gözlenmiştir. bu bulguyu destekleyen genellemeler aşağıda sunulmuştur: kim, nerede çalışıyor? konusu: “i̇nsanlar yaşamlarını sürdürmek için farklı işlerde ve farklı koşullarda çalışır” (ö2, ö3) ve “yeryüzü şekilleri, ulaşım, iklim, sanayiyi ve sanayinin kurulacağı yeri etkiler” (ö1). aldıklarımız ve sattıklarımız konusu: “her ülkenin coğrafi, sosyoekonomik ve tarihi konumu orada yapılan üretimi ve hizmeti etkiler” (ö2, ö3). araştırmada öğretmenlerin bazı genellemeleri sadece önerme biçiminde ifade ettikleri ve başka herhangi bir açıklama yapmadan diğer bir genelleme ile ilgili olgusal bilgileri aktardıkları gözlenmiştir. bu gözlem sonucunu destekleyecek alıntı aşağıda sunulmuştur: …“nüfusun artması ve üretim sektörlerinin çeşitlenmesi bu sektörlerin ihtiyaçlarına uygun nitelikte işgücü yetiştirmeyi zorunlu hale getirmiştir” (genelleme). eğitim ve turizm son yıllarda hızla gelişen alanlardan birkaçı olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. şimdi tarım, sanayi ve hizmet sektöründeki haritaları ve farklı kıtalardaki bazı ülkelerde bu sektörlerin ülke gelirindeki dağılımını okuyalım. ...(ö3). “kim, nerede çalışıyor” konusu içinde geçen “i̇nsanlar, ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak için çalışırlar” ve “çalışma dünyası sürekli gelişmekte ve değişmektedir” genellemeleri de ö2 ve ö3 tarafından kitapta geçtiği biçimiyle aynen ifade edilmiştir ve herhangi bir açıklama yapılmadan diğer genellemeler ile ilgili bilgiler sunulmuştur. sözü edilen iki genelleme ö1 tarafından ise sınıfta hiç belirtilmemiştir. ünite içindeki bazı genellemelerin üç öğretmen tarafından da belirtilmediği görülmüştür. örneğin “aynı kıtada yer almalarına rağmen ülkelerin ekonomik faaliyetlerinin dağılımı farklılık göstermektedir” genellemesi sınıfta hiç belirtilmemiştir. bu genelleme, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen kılavuz kitabında genelleme olarak belirtildiği halde ders kitabında soru cümlesi biçiminde ifade edilmiştir. sadece ö1 bu genelleme ile ilgili soru cümlesini bir öğrenciye okutturmuştur. ancak ders süresi bittiği için bu sorunun yanıtlanmadığı ve bir sonraki derste de aynı soru üzerinde durulmadığı gözlenmiştir. söz konusu genelleme ile mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 79 ilgili olarak ders kitabında 6 olgusal bilgi yer almaktadır. üç öğretmenin de bu olgusal bilgileri öğrencilere açıklattırdıkları ve tekrar ettirdikleri gözlenmiştir. “kültürler arası köprü” ve “türk dünyası” konuları ile ilgili ders kitabında herhangi bir genelleme ifadesi belirlenmemiştir ve üç öğretmenin de öğrenme-öğretme sürecinde bu konuları işlerken bir genelleme ifadesi açıklamadıkları gözlenmiştir. kategori 2: kavramlar arası ilişkiler (neden-sonuç ilişkisi) öğretmenlerin “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesindeki genellemeleri öğretirken belirttikleri kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkisi ile ilgili ulaşılan bulgular tablo 3’de sunulmuştur. tablo 3 sınıfta belirtilen kavramlar arası i̇lişkilerin (neden-sonuç i̇lişkisi) konulara göre dağılımı konu adı katılımcılar ö1 f ö2 f ö3 f dünyanın neresindeyiz? 4 2 kim, nerede çalışıyor? 7 8 4 aldıklarımız, sattıklarımız 1 birlikteyiz 1 1 1 kültürler arası köprü türk dünyası toplam 12 11 6 tablo 3’e bakıldığında kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkisine yönelik açıklamaların en fazla ö1 ve ö2 tarafından ifade edildiği görülmektedir. ö3 ise sadece 6 neden-sonuç ilişkisi belirtmiştir. “kim, nerede çalışıyor?” konusundaki genelleme sayısı fazla olduğu için öğretmenler, bu konu içerisindeki neden-sonuç ilişkisi ile ilgili daha fazla açıklama belirtmişlerdir. ancak öğretmenlerin, genelleme ile ilgili neden-sonuç ilişkisini açıklarken ya da öğrencilerin bu ilişkileri kurmalarını sağlarken genellemede geçen kavramlarla ilgili olarak bir bilgi sunmadıkları gözlenmiştir. ayrıca öğrencilerin genellemede geçen kavramlara ilişkin ön bilgilerini yoklayıcı bir soru da sorulmamıştır. sadece ö1 tarafından öğrencilere “ithalat, ihracat, gümrük, gümrük vergisi, ticaret, soydaş” kavramlarının tanımları yazdırılmıştır. ö1 “ithalat, ihracat gümrük” kavramının tanımını yazdırdıktan sonra türkiye’nin gümrük kapılarını, ithalat ve ihracat ürünlerini yazdırmıştır. daha sonra ithalat, ihracat, ticaret kavramları ile ilgili olarak kitapta verilen olgusal bilgileri sunmuştur. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 80 öğretmenler neden-sonuç ilişkisine yönelik açıklamaları genellikle neden?, niçin?, … nedeni nedir?, … etkenleri sizce nelerdir? biçiminde sorular yönelterek öğrencilerin açıklamasına yardım etmişlerdir. ancak öğrenciler doğru açıklama yapamadıklarında öğretmenler, neden-sonuç ilişkisini kendileri belirtmişlerdir. üç öğretmenin neden-sonuç ilişkisi ile ilgili soru-cevap biçiminde gerçekleşen diyaloglarından birkaç alıntı aşağıda sunulmuştur. genelleme: nüfus yoğunluğu dünyanın her yerinde farklıdır ö1:japonya kalabalık diyorsun, antarktika kalabalık değil, tenha diyorsun. neden acaba? öğrenci: antarktika buzul, buzul olduğu için insanlar orada yaşayamıyor. öğretmenim çok sıcak olduğunda da yaşayamayız. mesela çölde orada da insanlar yaşayamıyor. ö1: çocuklar iklim ve bölge koşulları insanların dağılışını etkiler diyor arkadaşınız. …. .çocuklar 23.27 oğlak ve yengeç dönenceleri ve kutuplar vardı. güney ve kuzey kutbu. dönence çevresi ve kutuplar ve ekvator ne dedik, bunların hepsi iklimi ayrı ayrı etkilediği için nüfus da farklı şekilde dağılmıştır. çocuklar avustralya’nın büyük bir bölümünde çöl iklimi var. çöl iklimi olduğu için yine bazı bölümlerinde nüfus azdır. .… . i̇klim ve bölge koşulları insanların dağılışını etkiler. genelleme: ülkenin baskın olan ekonomik faaliyetleriyle o ülkede yaşayan insanların gelir seviyeleri arasında yakın bir ilişki vardır. ö1: çocuklar ekonomik faaliyetleri saydık ya, sanayi, hizmet, tarım sektörü gibi, bunları oradaki insanların kişi başına düşen milli geliri ile ilişkilendirebiliriz. … ekonomisini tarımla geçindiren bir ülkenin kişi başına düşen milli geliri daha mı yüksek yoksa daha mı düşük olur. öğrenci: düşük. ö1:niçin? öğrenci: çünkü sanayisi yüksek olan ülkelere daha çok para düşüyor, özellikle abd’ye daha fazla düşmüş. ö1: evet sanayi ve hizmet sektörünün gelişmiş olması değil mi?.... avustralya libya, güney afrika bunlara baktığımızda gelişmelerinin, ekonomik faaliyetlerinin tarım, sanayi ve özellikle hizmet sektörüne bağlı olduğunu görüyoruz. .… sanayi tesislerinin fazla olması, nüfusun da fazla olmasıyla ilişkilendirilebilir demiştik. mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 81 ö2: haritayı dikkatle incelediğinizde sanayi, ticaret ve hizmet sektöründeki ekonomik faaliyetlerin yoğun olduğu ülkelerdeki kişi başına düşen milli gelir daha fazla çıkmıştır. tarım ise bu yarışta geri kalmaktadır. peki neden? öğrenci: öğretmenim sanayi ve hizmet daha çok para getiriyor ve diğer ülkelerde rağbet görüyor. öğrenci: teknolojik ve bilimsel gelişmeler artık tarımı eskisi kadar önemli kılmıyor. ö2: evet bunlar nedenlerden bir kaçı olabilir. diğer nedenleri araştırmak size ödev olsun. genelleme: bazı ekonomik faaliyetlerin diğerlerine göre üst ya da alt sırada yer almasında tarihi, çevresel ve sosyo-ekonomik sebepler vardır. ö3: çocuklar ancak bazı ülkeler coğrafi açıdan zengin yer altı kaynaklarına sahip olmalarına rağmen tarımsal faaliyetler daha ön planda olabilir. … .sizce sebebi ne olabilir? öğr: kendi kaynaklarını kullanmalarına bazı ülkeler izin vermiyor. ö3: evet özellikle i̇ngiltere uzun yıllar bu ülkelerin doğal kaynaklarını sömürmeye devam etmişlerdir. i̇kinci dünya savaşının ardından türkiye de dahil olmak üzere bir çok ülkeden avrupa ülkelerine göçler olmuştur. bu göçler avrupa ülkelerindeki iş gücü ihtiyacını karşılamış bu da sanayi ve ticaret sektörlerini geliştirmiştir. yukarıdaki diyaloglarda da görüldüğü üzere genellemede geçen kavramlarla ilgili bir bilgi verilmemiştir ya da kavramlara ilişkin ön bilgilerini yoklayacak bir soru sorulmamıştır. örneğin ekonomik faaliyet, nüfus ve nüfus yoğunluğu, gelir seviyesi, tarihi, çevresel ve sosyo ekonomik sebep gibi kavramlar hakkında bir bilgi verilmemiştir. kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkisi hakkında öğretmenlerin ve öğrencilerin yaptığı bazı açıklamaların, genellemedeki anlamını tam olarak karşılamadığı, genellemede verilmek istenen anlam ile örtüşmediği gözlenmiştir. örneğin “zengin maden yataklarına sahip olan ülkeler, bu yataklara sahip olmayan ülkelerden daha avantajlıdır genellemesindeki nedensonuç ilişkisi, ö2 tarafından “.… çünkü madenler işlenerek günlük yaşamda ihtiyaç duyulan birçok eşyanın yapılmasında kullanılır” biçiminde açıklanmıştır. yapılan bu açıklamanın genellemede ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkisini tam olarak karşılamadığı söylenebilir. ayrıca öğretmenlerin bazı genellemeleri önerme biçiminde ifade ettikleri halde bu genellemelerde ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkisi hakkında bir açıklama yapmadıkları, genellemeyi kitapta yazdığı biçimiyle öğrencilere okutturdukları ya da tekrar ettirdikleri gözlenmiştir. örneğin aşağıdaki genellemelerde ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkisi sınıfta açıklanmamıştır; journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 82 “teknolojik buluşlar insan hayatını hem kolaylaştırır hem de yeni üretim ve sanayi sahalarının doğmasına neden olur” (ö2, ö3). “her ülkenin coğrafi, sosyoekonomik ve tarihi konumu orada yapılan üretimi ve hizmeti etkiler” (ö2, ö3). “nüfusun artması ve üretim sektörlerinin çeşitlenmesi, bu sektörlerin ihtiyaçlarına uygun nitelikte iş gücü yetiştirmeyi zorunlu hale getirmiştir” (ö2, ö3). araştırmada öğretmenler tarafından bazı genellemelerin önerme biçiminde ifadesi hiç belirtilmediği halde o genellemelerde geçen kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkisi ile ilgili olgusal bilgilerin ayrıntılı işlendiği belirlenmiştir. örneğin “aynı kıtada yer almalarına rağmen ülkelerin ekonomik faaliyetlerinin dağılımı farklılık göstermektedir” genellemesi üç öğretmen tarafından da sınıfta ifade edilmemiştir. buna karşılık öğretmenlerin bu genellemede ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkisini, olgusal bilgilerden yararlanarak soru-cevap yoluyla öğrencilere açıklattıkları gözlenmiştir. bu bulguyu destekleyen alıntılar aşağıda verilmektedir: ö1: peki … gelişmiş ülke hangisidir, geri kalmış ülke hangisidir, neden? öğrenci: gelişmiş ülke cezayir’dir çünkü sanayisi gelişmiştir. ö1: evet sanayisi en gelişmiş ülkedir. tarımına da baktığımızda azdır, malavi’ye göre öğrenci: arnavutluk çok geri kalmış. norveç ve i̇ngiltere çok ilerlediği için gelişmiş ülkeler ö1: evet gelişmiş ülkeler olduğunu görüyorsunuz değil mi. sanayi tesisleri var. o yüzden gelişmiş ülkeler. çocuklar sanayi için, sanayi tesislerinde işlenmesi için ham madde gereklidir değil mi? bu ülkelerin ham madde açısından zengin olduğunu söyleyebilir misiniz? neden? öğrenci: evet öğretmenim. çünkü ham maddenin az olduğu yerlerde sanayi gelişmemiştir. ham maddenin çok olduğu yerlerde sanayi gelişmiştir. …. ö2:haritaya ve tablodaki yüzdeliklere baktığımızda bu ülkelerde sanayinin ve hizmet sektörünü çok gelişmediği görülmekte ayrıca verimli tarım arazilerinin olması da bir başka neden olabilir. öğrenci: hizmet sektörü nüfusun yoğun olduğu bölgelerde daha gelişmiş insanlar çoğaldıkça hizmette artmış olabilir. mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 83 ö2: hizmet sektörünün önemli olduğu ülkelerin gelişmişlik düzeyleri hakkında neler söyleyebilirsiniz? öğrenci: hizmet sektörü özellikle ticaret ve sanayinin gelişmiş olduğu ülkelerde daha hızlı ilerlediği görülüyor. bu da bu alanların birbirini desteklediğini bize göstermekte öğretmenim. kategori 3: genelleme ile ilgili olgular araştırmada öğretmenlerin “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesindeki genellemeleri öğretirken verdikleri olgusal bilgilerin ne gibi özellikler gösterdiği incelenmiştir. genellemeler ile ilgili olarak sınıfta verilen olgusal bilgilerin sayısı, tablo 4’te verilmiştir. tablo 4 öğretmenlerin genellemeler i̇le i̇lgili verdikleri olgusal bilgilerin konulara göre dağılımı konu adı ünitedeki genellemeler i̇le i̇lgili olgular katılımcılar f ö1 f ö2 f ö3 f dünyanın neresindeyiz? 4 22 6 3 kim, nerede çalışıyor? 18 29 12 13 aldıklarımız, sattıklarımız 6 6 14 11 birlikteyiz 1 6 6 6 kültürler arası köprü 21 53 21 türk dünyası 13 8 13 toplam 97 99 67 tablo 4’e bakıldığında olgusal bilgilerin en fazla ö1 ve ö2 tarafından belirtildiği ve öğrenme-öğretme sürecinde belirtilen olgusal bilgilerin sayısının ders kitabındaki olgusal bilgi sayısından daha fazla olduğu görülmektedir. ö3 ise diğer iki öğretmene göre daha az sayıda olgusal bilgiye yer vermiştir. öğrenme-öğretme sürecinde belirtilen olgusal bilgilerin sayısı ile ders kitabında belirtilen olgusal bilgilerin sayısının farklı olmasının nedeni, sınıfta aynı olgusal bilginin birçok öğrenci tarafından çok fazla tekrar edilmesi ve öğrenci çalışma kitabındaki olgusal içerikli soruların soru cevap yoluyla sınıfta işlenmesidir. örneğin ö1’in “nüfus yoğunluğu dünyanın her yerinde farklıdır” genellemesi ile ilgili olgusal bilgileri tekrarlı biçimde belirttiği ve öğrencilere tekrar ettirdiği diyalog aşağıda sunulmuştur. öğr: tokyo’da yerleşme alanları çok, antarktika’da yerleşme alanları pek fazla olmadığı için yok journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 84 bir başka öğr: japonya’nın kalabalık olması, antarktika’nın tenha olması ö1: … kutup alanlarında, çöl olan yerlerde nüfus azdır. bir başka öğr: öğretmenim bana göre en kalabalık yer çin, nüfus fazladır bir başka öğr: japonya’da tokyo bölgesinde çok yoğun hocam bir de avustralya’ da yoğunluk az. ö1: … çocuklar avustralya’nın büyük bir bölümünde çöl iklimi var. çöl iklimi olduğu için yine bazı bölümlerinde azdır. ö1: örneğin antarktika’da yerleşme olmadığını söylüyor. öğr: … örneğin tokyo’da, nüfus yoğunluğu çok fazladır. ö1: … japonya çok kalabalık bir yer öğr: avustralya’nın birçok yerinde nüfus yoğunluğu az diyor. öğr: hocam, çin, japonya dünyada nüfusun fazla olduğu yerlerdir. öğr: amerika, avrupa. öğr: çin, japonya, kore, avustralya, hindistan, afrika nüfusun bol olduğu yerlerdir öğretmenim öğr: antartika buzullarla kaplı iklimi elverişli değildir. öğr: çin, tokyo, japonya …. öğr: çin, japonya, kore nüfusun en fazla olduğu yerlerdir. dünyada nüfusun en fazla olduğu yer çin’dir öğretmenim. öğr: hocam, çin, japonya, hindistan nüfusun fazla olduğu yerler, avustralya çöllerle kaplı olduğu (öğretmen: bir bölümü dedi), için nüfus azdır antarktika hocam soğuk olduğu için. öğretmenlerin genellemede ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkisini taşımayan olgusal bilgileri de genelleme ile ilgili bir olguymuş gibi sundukları gözlenmiştir. genellemede ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkisini taşımayan bu olgusal bilgiler, ders kitabında da genelleme ile ilgili bir olgu olarak sunulmuştur. örneğin “bazı ekonomik faaliyetlerin diğerlerine göre üst ya da alt sırada yer almasında tarihi, çevresel ve sosyo-ekonomik sebepler vardır” genellemesi ile ilgili olarak sosyal bilgiler ders kitabında “karadeniz bölgesi’nde, 7 nisan 2004 tarihinde etkili olan don, yıllık altı yüz bin ton olan fındık üretim miktarını yüz elli bin tona düşürmüştür. ekonomik kaybın çok yüksek olduğu sanılmaktadır” (meb, 2008, s.128) biçiminde bir olgusal bilgi verilmiştir. aynı olgusal bilgi ö3 tarafından şu şekilde ifade edilmiştir: ö3: “mesela kitabımızda da gösterilen karadeniz bölgesinde yaşanılan olay ekonomik bir kayıptır. bu olaylar ekonomide coğrafi etmenler olarak karşımıza mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 85 çıkmaktadır”. peki çocuklar benim anlattıklarım dışında siz ne gibi örnekler ve sebepler verebilirsiniz? öğrenci: ülkenin yeryüzü şekillerine sahip olması ekonomik faaliyetlerini etkileyebilir. öğrenci: deprem ve sel gibi durumlarda belki de etkiliyordur. ö3: evet çocuklar dediğiniz doğru coğrafi, tarihi ve sosyo-ekonomik etkenler ekonomik faaliyetleri olumlu ya da olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. yukarıdaki diyaloglarda da görüldüğü gibi başlangıçta sözü edilen genelleme ile verilen olgusal bilginin doğrudan ilişkili olmadığı ve öğretmenin ders kitabında yer almayan başka bir genellemeyi belirttiği gözlenmiştir. ekonomik kaybın dile getirildiği olgusal bilginin ö3 tarafından ifade edilen “coğrafi, tarihi ve sosyo-ekonomik etkenler ekonomik faaliyetleri olumlu ya da olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir” genellemesi ile daha çok ilgili olduğu söylenebilir. ancak bu genelleme ders kitabında belirtilmemiş olup sadece ö2 ve ö3’ tarafından sınıfta ifade edilmiştir. yine ünite içerisinde “insanlar, ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak için çalışırlar” ve “çalışma dünyası sürekli gelişmekte ve değişmektedir” genellemeleri ile ilgili herhangi bir olgusal bilgi sunulmamıştır. bu iki genelleme ile ilgili olarak ders kitabında da herhangi bir açıklamanın ya da olgusal bilginin olmadığı belirlenmiştir. tartışma ve yorum bu araştırmada sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin kalbini oluşturan (mckinney ve edgington, 1997) genellemelerin öğretiminin nasıl gerçekleştirildiği değerlendirilmiştir. araştırma sonuçları sadece sosyal bilgiler dersinde genellemelerin öğretimi ile ilgili olarak üç öğretmenden elde edilen verilerle sınırlıdır. dolayısıyla ulaşılan sonuçlar, genelleme yapma amacı güdülmeden tartışılmıştır. araştırma sonuçlarına göre üç öğretmenin de “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesi kapsamında bulunan genellemelerin öğretimini ders kitabına bağlı kalarak gerçekleştirdikleri söylenebilir. özellikle ö2 ve ö3 ders kitabında bulunan genellemeleri kitapta geçtiği biçimiyle aynen belirtmişlerdir. genelleme ile ilgili olarak ders kitabında yazan bilgilerin dışında başka ek bir bilgi ya da açıklama sunmamışlardır. ö1 ise ders kitabında yer alan bilgilerin dışına çıkarak bazı olgusal bilgiler de sunmuştur. genellemeler önerme formunda, genellikle ya öğretmenler ya da öğrenciler tarafından sözlü olarak ifade edilmiştir. bununla birlikte üç öğretmenin de bazı genellemeleri, ders kitabında olduğu halde sınıfta journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 86 açıklamadıkları gözlenmiştir. ayrıca öğretmenlerin ders kitabında bulunmayan bazı genellemeleri de sınıfta belirttikleri gözlenmiştir. bu tür genellemeler az sayıdadır ve daha çok verilen olgusal bilgileri açıklamak ve özetlemek amacıyla belirtilmiştir. araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlere ön görüşmede ilgili ünite kapsamında bulunan kavramlar ve genellemeler ile ilgili bilgileri nasıl öğrettiklerinin ve bu bilgileri kazandırmak amacıyla yaptıkları etkinliklerin kaydedileceği ifade edilmiştir. bununla birlikte katılımcıların ünite kapsamında bulunan genellemelerin öğretimi adına bir içerik düzenlemesi yapmadıkları gözlenmiştir. öğretmenler öğretim sürecinde öğrencilerinin bazı olgu, kavram ve genellemeleri kazanmaları için uğraşmaktadırlar. dolayısıyla öğretmenlerin bir konu alanındaki olgu, kavram, genelleme gibi içerik türleri hakkında bilgi sahibi olmaları ve öğretimlerini bu yönde düzenlemeleri beklenmektedir (coşkun, 2007). ancak araştırma sonucunda üç öğretmenin de sadece ders kitabındaki konuların ve bilgilerin sunum sırasını dikkate alarak öğretim yaptıkları belirlenmiştir. ders kitabındaki içeriğin de öğretmenlerin genelleme öğretimi yapmalarını sağlayacak biçimde düzenlenmediği yapılan inceleme sonucunda görülmüştür. başka bir deyişle ders kitabında özellikle belirli bir içerik türünün öğretimini hedefleyen bir düzenlemenin olmadığı söylenebilir. öğretimi yapılan ünite içerisinde birçok genelleme ifadesi belirlenmiştir. fakat ders kitabında genelleme bilgisi ile ilgili olarak sadece genellemenin önerme (cümle) biçiminde ifadesi ve kısmen genelleme ile ilgili olgular yer almıştır. genellemenin diğer içerik ögeleri olan, önermede geçen kavramlar, kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkisi, genellemenin örnek olmayanları (genelleme ile ilgili olmayan olgular) gibi ögelerin belirtilmediği görülmüştür. oysa sosyal bilgiler dersinin içeriği üzerine yapılan çalışmalarda ders kitabının sosyal bilgiler öğretimi için çok önemli bir materyal olduğu ve içerikte olgu, kavram ve genellemelerin çok dikkatli bir biçimde sıralanması gerektiği belirtilmektedir (ediger, 2010; myers ve savage, 2005). ayrıca öğrencilerin içerikteki olguları, önemli kavramları, ana fikirleri (genellemeleri) anlamlı bir şekilde kavramsallaştırmaları, bilgilerini yeniden inşa etmeleri, dünyayı anlamlandıracak yorumlar oluşturmaları için yazılı metinlerin destekleyici bilgilerle, öğrenme stratejileriyle ve materyallerle desteklenmesi gerektiği görüşü öne çıkmaktadır (ediger, 2010; myers ve savage, 2005). uygulanmakta olan ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı (vural, 2005) ve öğretmen kılavuz kitapları (meb, 2006, 2010) incelendiğinde “genelleme oluşturma”, “ilkeleri türetme”, “neden-sonuç ilişkisini belirleme”, “çıkarım yapma”, “olgu ve görüşleri ayırt etme”, “karşılaştırma yapma” gibi üst düzey düşünme becerilerinin doğrudan kazandırılacak beceriler olarak belirlendiği ve genelleme öğretiminin öneminden söz edildiği mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 87 görülmektedir. bu nedenle öğrenciler için hazırlanan ders kitaplarının öğretim programıyla uyumlu olması beklenmektedir. ders kitaplarının, temel öğretim materyali olarak kullanılmasının nedeni, programın hedeflerine uygun hazırlanan bir düzenleme olmasıdır (yanpar, 2006). dolayısıyla ders kitabı hazırlanırken olgu, kavram, genelleme gibi içerik türlerinin öğretimi ile ilgili bir içerik düzenlemesi yapılabilir. böylece öğretmenlerin genelleme öğretimine ilişkin bir sistemli bir görüş kazanmalarına yardım edilebilir. araştırma sonucunda genellemede ifade edilen kavramlar arasındaki neden-sonuç ilişkisinin ö1 ve ö2 tarafından daha çok vurgulandığı görülmüştür. üç katılımcının da neden?, niçin? sizce nedenleri nelerdir? etkileyen sebepler nelerdir? gibi soru cevap yöntemini ve düz anlatımı kullanarak genellemede ifade edilen kavramlar arasındaki nedensonuç ilişkisine dikkat çektikleri gözlenmiştir. bunun dışında neden-sonuç ilişkisini açıklamak ya da bu ilişkinin farklı örnek durumlarda nasıl uygulandığını göstermek adına başka bir etkinlik gerçekleştirilmemiştir. oysa genelleme öğretimi ancak genellemede ifade edilen kavramlar arası neden-sonuç ilişkisi öğrenciler tarafından değişik ya da yeni durumlarda uygulanabildiğinde gerçekleşmektedir (erişti ve küçük, 2006; martorella, 1998; marzano ve diğerleri, 1988; merrill, 1983). yine katılımcıların kavramlar arasındaki nedensonuç ilişkisini açıklarken genellemede geçen kavramlar hakkında yeterli bir bilgi vermedikleri görülmüştür. örneğin kavramın tanımı, ayırtedici (temel) özellikleri, örnekleri veya örnek olmayanları ile ilgili bilgiler sunulmamıştır. sadece bir öğretmen tarafından bazı kavramların tanımı ve örnekleri öğrencilere yazdırılmıştır. fakat bu kavramların bir genelleme ile ilişkilendirilmediği gözlenmiştir. bu araştırmadaki gözlemler sadece bir ünitenin işlenişi ile sınırlıdır. dolayısıyla genellemelerde geçen kavramlarla ilgili olarak öğrencilere daha önceden bilgiler sunulmuş olabilir yani öğrencilerin kavramlara ilişkin bir ön bilgilerinin olduğu kabul edilerek kavramlar hakkında bir bilgi verilmemiş olabilir. ayrıca ders kitabında (meb, 2006, 2010) genellemede geçen kavramlarla ilgili bir tanım, özellik ya da örnek sunulmadığından dolayı öğretmenler, kavramlar hakkında bir bilgi vermemiş olabilirler. genellemede ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkisi ile ilgili olarak gözlenen bir diğer durum, açıklanan bazı neden-sonuç ilişkisinin genellemede ifade edilen anlamı tam olarak yansıtmadığı, eksik kaldığıdır. böyle bir durum sadece bir öğretmenin ders işleyiş sürecinde ve bir kez gözlenmiş olmakla birlikte öğrencilere verilen bilginin eksik olduğu, genellemenin gerçek anlamıyla sunulmadığı ve eksikliğin giderilmediği söylenebilir. ayrıca sınıfta sunulan bazı genellemeler ile ilgili bir neden-sonuç ilişkisinin açıklanmadığı ya da tam tersi biçimde sınıfta hiç belirtilmeyen genellemeler ile ilgili neden-sonuç ilişkisinin açıklandığı journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 88 görülmüştür. genelleme ile ilgili nedensel ilişkilerin açıklanması, genellemenin daha doğru anlaşılmasını, etkili bir biçimde belleğe kaydedilmesini ve hatırlanmasını sağlar (erişti ve küçük, 2006; kuhn, 2009). genellemenin öğrenilmesini anlamlı kılan en belirgin özellik, kavramlar arasındaki neden-sonuç ilişkisidir. bu ilişki doğru bir biçimde sunulmadığında genelleme ile ilgili olan ve ilgili olmayan olguların yorumlaması da doğru olmayacaktır. araştırma sonucunda ders kitabında ilgili ünite içinde genelleme ifadelerinin olduğu ancak genellemede geçen kavramlar arasındaki neden-sonuç ilişkisini açıklayan veya öne çıkartan bilgilerin bulunmadığı görülmüştür. sadece metin içindeki nedeni nedir? etkileyen sebepler nelerdir? gibi sorular üzerinden genellemedeki neden-sonuç ilişkisinin sezdirilmeye çalışıldığı söylenebilir. beck, mckeown ve gromoll (1989) yaptıkları bir araştırmada ilköğretim 4. 5. ve 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler programı kapsamında kullanılan 4. ve 5. sınıf tarih ve coğrafya ile ilgili ders kitaplarını ve kitaplardaki metinleri incelemişlerdir. araştırma sonucunda sosyal bilgilerle ilgili metinlerde neden-sonuç ilişkisinin etkili bir şekilde gösterilmediği, sonuçlar belirtilmeden nedenlerin ifade edildiği, neden-sonuç ilişkisinin kurulmasını sağlayacak açıklamaların yeterli olmadığı, örneklerin tam olarak ilgili kavramı ya da genellemeyi örneklendirmediği belirtilmiştir. genelleme öğretiminde kavramlar arasındaki neden-sonuç ilişkisinin doğrudan gösterilmesi ya da belirtilmesi, genellemelerin daha anlamlı ve kalıcı öğrenilmesine katkı sağlayabilir; öğrencilerin nedensel ilişkileri yeni durumlara uygulamalarını kolaylaştırabilir; neden-sonuç ilişkisi ile ilgili açıklamalarının doğruluğunu artırabilir (jonassen ve ionas, 2008). ayrıca neden-sonuç ilişkisine dayalı akıl yürütme (jonassen ve ionas, 2008) ve eleştirel düşünme becerilerini (doğanay, 2002) kazanmaları açısından da genellemede ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkisinin açıkça gösterilmesi önemli görülmektedir. araştırma sonucunda katılımcılardan ö1ve ö2’nin, ö3’e göre daha fazla olgusal bilgi sunduğu görülmüştür. ö1 ve ö2’nin öğretiminde sunulan olgusal bilgilerin ders kitabından fazla olmasının nedeni öğrencilere aynı olgusal bilginin tekrar ettirilmesi ve çalışma kitabındaki olgusal içerikli soruların da sınıfta yanıtlanmasıdır. araştırma sonucunda sınıfta sunulan olgusal bilgilerle genellemelerin ilişkisinin açıklanmadığı belirlenmiştir. sadece ö1 tarafından “nüfus yoğunluğu, dünyanın her yerinde farklıdır” genellemesinde genellemeolgu ilişkisi açıkça gösterilmiştir. ayrıca öğretim sürecinde bazen sadece genelleme ile ilgili olguların sunulduğu, ancak bu olguların ilişkili olduğu genellemelerden söz edilmediği görülmüştür. daha açık bir ifadeyle öğrenci sadece olgusal bilgileri almıştır ancak bu olgusal bilgilerin ilişkili olduğu genelleme bilgisi ile karşılaşmamıştır. bunlara ek olarak ders kitabı incelendiğinde ünite içindeki bazı olgusal bilgilerin genellemeler ile ilgili olmadığı mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 89 belirlenmiştir. ancak öğretmenlerin, genelleme ile ilgili olgular ya da ilgili olmayan olgular biçiminde bir ayrım yapmadan tüm olguları kitapta sunulduğu biçimiyle aktardıkları ve olgular arasındaki ilişkiyi açıklayan bilgiler sunmadıkları belirlenmiştir. kılıç (2004) tarafından merrill’in ögeleri belirleme kuramı temel alınarak üç öğretmenle yapılan nitel araştırma sonuçlarına göre öğretmenlerin, genelleme öğretiminde en fazla olgusal bilgilerin öğretimine yer verdikleri, genellemeler ile ilgili örneklere çok az yer verdikleri, genelleme öğretimini genellikle soru cevap yöntemini kullanarak gerçekleştirdikleri, kitaptaki genellemeleri öğrencilere aynen tekrar ettirdikleri, genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili belirli bir modeli kullanmadıkları ya da ölçüt almadıkları belirlenmiştir. ders kitabındaki olgusal bilgilerin, niçin öğretildiği ve neyi ifade ettiği açıkça belirtildiğinde öğrenciler, genellemeyi daha etkili öğrenebilir ve genellemeyi anlamlı bir biçimde öğrenebilir. ayrıca öğrencilere olgularla genellemeler arasındaki ilişki doğru olarak ve açıkça gösterildiğinde, öğrencilerin kendilerinin de genelleme oluşturmasına yardımcı olunabilir. genelleme öğretiminde olgular, önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. öğrenci, genelleme ile ilgili olgular arasındaki ilişkileri gördüğünde, genelleme oluşmaktadır. bu nedenle öğrencinin öğretim sürecinde genellemede ifade edilen neden-sonuç ilişkisini taşıyan ve böyle bir ilişkiyi taşımayan olgusal bilgilerle karşılaşması sağlanmalıdır (marzano ve diğerleri, 1988; mckinney ve edgington, 1997). shiveley ve misco (2009), öğrencilerin genelleme üretebilmeleri ve genellemeleri test edebilmeleri için olgusal bilginin temel bilgi olduğunu belirterek genelleme bilgisi ile olgu bilgisinin karşılıklı ilişkisine dikkati çekmişlerdir. sonuç olarak bu araştırmadan elde edilen bulgulara göre üç öğretmenin de öğretimi yapılacak olan ünite içerisinde birçok genelleme ifadesinin olmasına karşılık genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili bir içerik düzenlemesi yapmadıkları, ders kitabında yazılı olan bilgileri genellikle aynen aktarmayı tercih ettikleri söylenebilir. aynı biçimde sosyal bilgiler ders kitabındaki bilgilerin de genelleme öğretimini gerçekleştirebilecek biçimde düzenlenmediği, genelleme ifadeleri olmasına rağmen o genelleme bilgisini kazandıracak nitelikte bilgilerin sunulmadığı ve olgu, kavram ve genelleme ilişkisinin doğru biçimde kurulmadığı söylenebilir. araştırmadan elde edilen bulgular doğrultusunda, genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili olarak sosyal bilgiler dersine ve gelecekte yapılacak araştırmalara yönelik şu öneriler getirilebilir: genellemelerin sosyal bilgiler dersi içindeki önemi dikkate alınarak öğretmenlere sosyal bilgiler konu alanı içinde genelleme bilgisinin ne olduğu, önemi ve genelleme öğretiminin nasıl tasarlanması gerektiği hakkında öğretimde uygulayabilecekleri bilgiler verilebilir. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 90 araştırmada üç öğretmenin de ders kitabı dışında başka bir kaynak kullanmadıkları gözlenmiştir. dolayısıyla ders kitabında genellemelerin anlamlı ve kalıcı bir şekilde öğretilmesini sağlayacak içerik düzenlemesi yapılabilir ve bu tür düzenlemeler için genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili öğretim modellerinden yararlanılabilir. yine genelleme oluşumunu ve neden-sonuç ilişkisinin kurulmasını sağlayacak şema, diyagram, tablo gibi görsel araçlara yer verilebilir. çünkü yapılan araştırmalarda neden-sonuç ilişkisini gösteren diyagramların genellemede geçen neden-sonuç ilişkisinin öğretiminde etkili olduğu belirtilmektedir (cromley, snyder-hogan, luciw-dubas, 2010; jonassen ve ionas, 2008; mccrudden, schraw, lehman, ve poiquin, 2007). öğretmenlerin ders kitabındaki genellemeleri, sadece soru cevap yönetimini kullanarak kazandırmaya çalıştıkları gözlenmiştir. öğrencilere genellemeleri etkili bir biçimde öğretmek ve genelleme oluşturma becerisini kazandırmak amacıyla soru cevap yönetiminin dışında farklı yöntemler kullanılabilir. bu araştırma sadece üç öğretmenden elde edilen bulgulara ve sonuçlara dayanmaktadır. dolayısıyla genelleme öğretimi ile ilgili olarak daha geniş bir örneklemden veri toplanarak genelleme öğretimi değerlendirilebilir. ya da eylem araştırması gibi problem çözmeye dönük çalışmalarla genelleme öğretimi ayrıntılı olarak incelenebilir. kaynaklar / references akyürek, s. (2006). din eğitiminde genellemelerin öğretimi. ankara üniversitesi i̇lahiyat fakültesi dergisi, 47(1), 123-141. beck,i.l., mckeown, m.g. ve gromoll, e.w. (1989). learning from social studies texts. cognition and instruction, 6 (2) 99-158. benson, j. s. (1998). using an inquiry approach with preservice teachers to explain the process of facts, concept, and generalization. social studies, 89(5), 227-233. bogdan, r.c. ve biklen, s.k. (2007). qualitative research for education: an introduction to theories and methods (5th ed.). boston: pearson education. burlbaw, l.m. (1994). applying generalizations in middle school geography classes. social studies, 85(3), 110-113. cromley, j.g., snyder-hogan, l.e. ve luciw-dubas, u.a. (2010). cognitive activities in complex science text and diagrams. contemporary educational psychology, 35, 59-74. ciardiello, a. v. (2002). helping adolescents understand cause/effect text structure in social studies. social studies, 31-36. mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 91 coşkun, m. (1999). ögeleri belirleme kuramına dayalı kavram öğretiminin akademik başarı ve kalıcılığa etkisi. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. çukurova üniversitesi, adana. coşkun, m. (2007). i̇çeriğin öğretim için düzenlenmesi (1.baskı). a. doğanay, (ed.), öğretim ilke ve yöntemleri içinde (83-127). ankara: pegema yayınları. çakmak, f. (2006). i̇lköğretim 6. sınıf öğrencilerinin sosyal bilgiler dersi nüfus ve yerleşme konusunda geçen kavramları anlama düzeyleri ve kavram yanılgıları. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. afyonkarahisar kocatepe üniversitesi, afyon. deryakulu, d. (2006). sözel bilgilerin öğretimi. a. doğanay, (ed.), i̇çerik türlerine dayalı öğretim içinde (1-27). ankara: nobel yayınları. doğanay, a. (2002). öğretimde kavram ve genellemelerin geliştirilmesi (1.baskı.). c. öztürk ve d. dilek, (ed.), hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi içinde (227-255). ankara: pegema yayınları. doğan, o. (2007). i̇lköğretim 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi “bir ülke bir bayrak” ünitesindeki kavramların öğrenilmesinin bazı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. çukurova üniversitesi, adana. ediger, m. (2010). sequence in the social studies. journal of instructional psychology, 37 (3), 200-202. eggen, p. d. ve kauchak, d.p. (1996). strategies for teachers: teaching content and thinking skills. needham heights, ma: allyn & bacon. erickson, h.l. (1995). stirring the head, heart and soul: redefining curriculum and instruction. california: corwin press. erişti, b. ve küçük, m. (2006). kuralların öğretimi. a. şimşek, (ed.), i̇çerik türlerine dayalı öğretim içinde (71-100). ankara: nobel yayınları. fidan, n. (2009). i̇lköğretim 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin sosyal bilgiler dersinde geçen “demokrasi” ve “cumhuriyet” kavramlarıyla ilgili bilgilerinin incelenmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. çukurova üniversitesi, adana. gençmehmetoğlu, r. (2009). viii. sınıf türkiye cumhuriyeti inkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük dersinde yer alan olgu, kavram ve genellemelerin öğretimi ve önemi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. atatürk üniversitesi, erzurum. jonassen, d.h. ve ionas, i.g. (2008). designing effective supports for causal reasoning. education tech research development. 56, 287-308. i̇lğan, a ve kıranlı s. (2007). öğretmenlerin sınıf içi etkinliklerinin denetlenmesinde klinik denetim modeli. ankara university, journal of faculty of educational sciences. 2, 151177. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 92 kaya, b. (2005). i̇lköğretim okulu 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi kavramlarının öğretimi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. gazi üniversitesi, ankara. keskin, k. (2003). i̇lköğretim 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğrencilere tarih kavramlarının kazandırılma düzeyinin araştırılması. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. marmara üniversitesi, i̇stanbul. kılıç, a. a. (2004). i̇lköğretim 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin kullandıkları içerik düzenleme stratejilerinin ögeleri belirleme kuramı temelinde değerlendirilmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. çukurova üniversitesi, adana. kuhn, d. (2009). do students need to be taught how to reason. educational research review, 4, 1-6. martorella, p. h. (1998). social studies for elementary school children developing young citizens (2nd ed.). upper saddle river, nj: prentice-hall. marzano, r.j., brandt, r.s., hughes, c.s:, jones, b.f., presseisen, b.z., rankin, s.c. vd. (1988). dimensions of thinking: a framework for curriculum and instruction, alexandria, va: ascd mccall, a.l. (2010). teaching powerful social studies ideas through literature circles. social studies, 101, 152–159. mccrudden, m. t., schraw, g., lehman, s. ve poiquin, .a. (2007). the effect of causal diagrams on text learning. contemporary educational psychology, 32, 367-388. mckinney, c.w. ve edgington, w.d. (1997). issues related to teaching generalizations in elementary social studies. social studies, 88(2), 78–81. meb, (2006). i̇lköğretim 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretmen kılavuz kitabı. ankara: milli eğitim bakanlığı yayınları, no: 4285. meb, (2008). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler ders kitabı (4.baskı). ankara: milli eğitim bakanlığı yayınları, no:4283. meb, (2010). i̇lköğretim 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretmen kılavuz kitabı (5.baskı). ankara: milli eğitim bakanlığı yayınları, no: 4286. merrill, m.d. (1983). component display theory. in c. m. reigeluth (ed.), instructional design theories and models, (279-330). nj: lawrence erlbaum assc. michaelis, j.u. ve garcia, s. (1996). social studies for children: a guide to basic instruction (11th ed.). boston: allyn & bacon. miles, m.b. ve huberman, a.m. (1994). qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 93 myers, m p. ve savage, t. (2005). enhancing student comprehension of social studies material. the social studies, 96(1), 18-23 ornstein, a.c. ve hunkins, f.p. (1998). curriculum: foundations, principles, and issues (3rd ed.). needham heights, ma: allyn & bacon. romiszowski, a.j. (1984). designing instructional systems (1st ed.). london: kogan page. shiveley, j. ve misco, t. (2009). reclaiming generalizations in social studies education. social studies research and practice, 4 (2), 73-78. sunal, c.s. ve haas, m.e. (2005). social studies for the elementary and middle grades: a constructivist approach. boston: pearson, allyn & bacon. sunal, d.w. ve sunal, c.s. (2003). science in the elementary and middle school. columbus, oh: merrill prentice hall. şeker, m. (2003). i̇lköğretim okulu 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi kavramlarının kazanılmışlık düzeyi (üsküdar örneği). yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. marmara üniversitesi, i̇stanbul. taşlı, i̇. (2000). günümüz coğrafya öğretiminde öğrenci aktivitelerinin bilgi üretimine dönüştürülmesinde olgular, kavramlar ve genellemelerin sistematik kullanımının sağlanması. milli eğitim dergisi, s. 145. van cleaf, d.w. (1991). action in elementary social studies. englewood cliffs: prentice hall, inc. vural, m. (2005). i̇lköğretim okulu ders programları ve öğretim kılavuzları (1-5 sınıflar). erzurum: yakutiye yayıncılık. yanpar, t. (2006). öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal tasarımı (7.baskı). ankara: anı yayınları. yıldırım, a. ve şimşek, h. (2005). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (genişletilmiş 5.baskı). ankara: seçkin yayınları. yükselir, a. (2006). i̇lköğretim altıncı sınıf sosyal bilgiler programında geçen kavramların kazanımı ve kalıcılığında kavram analizi yönteminin etkisi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, çukurova üniversitesi, adana. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 60-95 94 ek 1: tablo 1 i̇lköğretim 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitabındaki “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesinde bulunan genellemelerin analizi sonucu elde edilen kodlar ve kategoriler önceden belirlenmiş olan temalar belirlenen genellemenin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi belirlenen genelleme ile ilgili olan kavramlar (*) genelleme ile ilgili verilen olgusal bilgilerin örnekleri (**) 1. konu: dünyanın neresindeyiz? nüfus yoğunluğu dünyanın her yerinde farklıdır nüfus yoğunluğu, farklılık antarktika yerleşmenin olmadığı bir yerdir avustralya’nın birçok yerinde nüfus yoğunluğu azdır. tokyo nüfusun yoğun olduğu bir yerdir. 2. konu: kim, nerede çalışıyor? aynı kıtada yer almalarına rağmen ülkelerin ekonomik faaliyetlerinin dağılımı farklılık göstermektedir. kıta, ülke, ekonomik faaliyet, farklılık bu genelleme ile ilgili olgusal bilgiler ünite içerisinde tablo biçiminde sunulmuştur beslenmenin canlının temel ihtiyacı olması, tarım ve hayvancılık sektörünü geliştirmiştir beslenme, canlı, temel ihtiyaçlar, tarım, hayvancılık ders kitabında bu genelleme ile doğrudan ilgili olarak bir olgusal bilgi sunulmamıştır i̇nsanlar ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak için çalışırlar i̇htiyaç, insan, çalışma ders kitabında bu genelleme ile doğrudan ilgili olarak bir olgusal bilgi sunulmamıştır çalışma dünyası sürekli olarak gelişmekte ve değişmektedir çalışma dünyası, gelişme, değişim ders kitabında bu genelleme ile doğrudan ilgili olarak bir olgusal bilgi sunulmamıştır ülkenin baskın olan ekonomik faaliyetleriyle, o ülkede yaşayan insanların gelir seviyeleri arasında yakın bir ilişki vardır. baskın olan ekonomik faaliyet, ülke, gelir seviyesi, ilişki taylandlı sokak satıcısının çalışma koşullarını ve gelir seviyesini anlatan yazılı metin i̇spanyalı turist rehberinin çalışma koşullarını ve gelir seviyesini anlatan bir metin i̇ngiltereli elektronik mühendisinin çalışma koşullarını ve gelir seviyesini anlatan bir metin ugandalı bir çiftçinin çalışma koşullarını ve gelir seviyesini anlatan bir metin bazı ekonomik faaliyetlerin diğerlerine göre üst ya da alt sıralarda yer almasında tarihi, çevresel ve sosyo ekonomik sebepler vardır ekonomik faaliyet, tarih, çevresel, sosyoekonomik, sebep azerbaycan, kuveyt, kazakistan, venezuela gibi ülkelerde petrol sanayisi olmasının nedenleri zengin yer altı kaynaklarına sahip olmasına rağmen afrika ülkelerinin birçoğunda tarımsal faaliyetler ön plandadır….. mükerrem akbulut taş & özden demi̇r 95 tablo 1’in devamı belirlenen genellemenin önerme biçiminde ifade edilmesi belirlenen genelleme ile ilgili olan kavramlar genelleme ile ilgili verilen olgusal bilgiler nüfusun artması ve üretim sektörlerinin çeşitlenmesi, bu sektörlerin ihtiyacına uygun nitelikli iş gücü yetiştirmeyi zorunlu hale getirmektedir. nüfus artışı, üretim, sektör, çeşitlilik, ihtiyaç, nitelikli işgücü ders kitabında bu genelleme ile doğrudan ilgili olarak bir olgusal bilgi sunulmamıştır zengin yer altı kaynaklarına sahip olan ülkeler, bu yataklara sahip olmayanlara göre daha avantajlıdır yer altı kaynakları, (yatakları) ülke, avantaj ders kitabında bu genelleme ile doğrudan ilgili olarak bir olgusal bilgi sunulmamıştır yapılan teknolojik buluşlar insan hayatını hem kolaylaştırır hem de yeni üretim ve sanayi sahalarının doğmasına neden olur teknoloji, buluş, insan hayatı, üretim, sanayi, ders kitabında bu genelleme ile doğrudan ilgili olarak bir olgusal bilgi sunulmamıştır 3. konu: aldıklarımız, sattıklarımız ülkeler arasında da bir alışveriş söz konusudur. çünkü ülkelerin sahip oldukları ihtiyaçlar birbirinden farklıdır. i̇htiyaç, alış-veriş, farklılık, ülke, insan ülkemizin 2005 yılı itibariyle ihracat ve ithalat yaptığı ülkeler ve oranları (tüi̇k’den elde edilen bilgiler grafik biçiminde gösterilmiştir) türkiye’nin 2005 yılı itibariyle en çok hazır giyim ve tekstil daha sonra da otomotiv sanayi alanında ihracat yapması nasa’nın denizli’de üretilen bakır kabloları satın alması türkiye’nin 2005 yılında komşularıyla yaptığı ithalat ve ihracat ürünleri ve miktarlarının tablo biçiminde sunulması. 4.konu: kültürler arası köprü ders kitabında bu konu içerisinde bir genelleme belirtilmemiştir. 5. konu: türk dünyası: ders kitabında bu konu içerisinde bir genelleme belirtilmemiştir. 6. konu: birlikteyiz çevre sorunları doğadaki dengeyi bozarak insanlığın geleceğini tehdit etmektedir. çevre sorunları, doğa, denge, insanlık, gelecek, tehdit seyfe gölü’nün kuruma nedenlerinin ve kurumanın neden olduğu sonuçların doğa koruma vakfı başkanı tarafından açıklandığı bir metin verilmiştir. *tabloda gösterilen genelleme ile ilgili kavramların hepsi, bu ünite içerisinde öğretilmesi ve öğrenilmesi zorunlu olan kavramlar olarak değil, genelleme ifadesini oluşturan kavramlar olarak değerlendirilmiştir. ancak belirlenen kavramların birçoğu, ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı kapsamında öğretilmesi zorunlu olan kavramlardır. **ders kitabımdaki genellemelerle ilgili olarak, tablo, grafik ya da şema biçiminde sunulan olgusal bilgilerde, genelleme ile ilgili olgusal bilgiler kapsamında ele alınmıştır. ancak tabloda sadece metin ya önerme biçiminde sunulan olgusal bilgiler verilmiştir. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (1),213-229 213 the dynamics of social values and teaching in the global era: the sekaten tradition of surakarta kingdom nuryani tri rahayu1, warto2, bani sudardi3 & mahendra wijaya4 abstract this article discusses the meaning behind the sekaten traditional ceremony, as performed in surakarta by surakarta palace, the government, and the local community. this is important because the sekaten ceremony is a traditional cultural event that encompasses local wisdom and moral values that guide the development of a civilized social life, yet it currently tends to be oriented toward the tourism sector, and its previous meaning is not understood by the local community. this research applies a descriptive analytical method with a qualitative approach. data were collected from informants, namely staff at surakarta palace, the surakarta city government, and islamic religious leaders in surakarta, as well as traders and visitors at the sekaten. the technique involved in-depth interviews and participatory observation of the places and events involved in the sekaten traditional procession. data analysis was then carried out inductively using interactive methods. the results showed that the meaning behind the sekaten tradition has changed in the era of globalization from originally symbolizing the islamic kingdom and royal power as part of javanese culture. in the globalization era, the surakarta palace defines sekaten as part of a cultural heritage that encompasses local wisdom, while the government defines it as a cultural asset and an element of the tourism industry. finally, local people associate sekaten with syncretism, entertainment, and tourist destinations. keywords: meaning, local culture, tourism industry, syncretism introduction there are currently about 5,000 to 6,000 cultures around the world. of these, most of them belong to indigenous peoples, accounting for around 80-90% of global cultural diversity (pröschel, 2012). this situation is reflected in indonesia, which is an archipelago country with a rich cultural diversity. each of its34 provinces has its own distinct cultural identity and pattern of human activity, as well asa symbolic structure that assigns importance to human behavior (abdel-hadi, 2012). in a large culture, there are often subcultures that are marked by social groups through 1doctor candidate, universitas sebelas maret surakarta & universitas veteran bangun nusantara, sukoharjo, indonesia; nuryanitrirahayu@student.uns.ac.id 2prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret surakarta indonesia, warto2013@staff.uns.ac.id 3prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia, banisudardi_fssr@staff.uns.ac.id 4prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia, mahendrawijaya@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:nuryanitrirahayu@student.uns.ac.id mailto:warto2013@staff.uns.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 213-229 shared practices and interests (hare & baker, 2017). there are three key concepts regarding subculture, namely capital, style, and authenticity. many studies have concluded that large cultures and subcultures in various parts of the world experience change from time to time due to the globalization process, not least in indonesia. globalization typically refers to the process through which different societies and economies become more closely integrated (iriani & noruzi, 2011). at present, society cannot avoid globalization, which underlies development and brings social change through a blurring of the cultural and geographical boundaries between countries and even between continents (riaz & arif, 2017). globalization is often seen differently, and pro-globalization groups see it as providing many new opportunities for people to develop and compete better, because production becomes more efficient. anti-globalization groups, meanwhile, argue that increasingly intense global competition pressures cause certain groups of people to lose control of resources and become unable to exercise their economic power in various situations (iriani & noruzi, 2011). globalization has managed to eliminate the cultural boundaries between countries (ritzer, 2014) and encouraged investors to take advantage of opportunities to benefit financially, including through cultural channels. as a result, forms of tradition and local wisdom that were previously highly valued in culture are systemically and structurally adapted to a more profane culture directed at meeting the need for pleasure. this phenomenon occurs in parallel to commercialization, where traditional arts and culture are treated as commodities for tourism in order to serve the economic needs of the community (conradie, 2012). today, the religious rituals and other traditions of indonesia are also being exploited by business owners to make profits under the pretext of culture-based tourism (günlü, pırnar & yağcı, 2009; maccarrone-eaglen, 2009). some religious rituals now require an entrance ticket, or they have religious attributes that require visitors to pay something. in addition, the surrounding community is also engaged in economic activities, such as catering, parking, and other paid services. the commercialization of the traditions and culture of local people by commercially repackaging them for the international community can bring in foreign spending, help drive the economy, and improve people’s welfare materially, but it can also diminish local identity and values. a community’s self-esteem is therefore eroded by transforming its culture into something profane and changing the profound into something trivial (lyons, sarah & christian wells, 2014). rahayu, et al. globalization clearly impacts culture through the increasingly vague cultural boundaries between countries and the strong influence of foreign culture on the local culture. there is also a strengthening of modern cultural forms throughout the world as the more traditional local cultures are abandoned. a society cannot avoid this exposure to foreign culture, which consequently manifests in its food, clothing, and entertainment(shepherd, 2002). the influence of foreign cultures on traditional arts and cultures also causes young people (i.e., millennials) to be less interested in social values and traditional culture. the younger generation therefore does not understand the values contained in local wisdom, and they consider traditional culture to be oldfashioned, impractical, and a barrier to progress. this behavior can be seen in the people of surakarta, which was historically the center of government for the mataram kingdom with its islamic nuances. before indonesia’s independence in 1945, the surakarta palace was the seat of government for the mataram kingdom. it has hosted the traditional sekaten ceremony every year since the 15thcentury. this tradition is a major attraction for tourists visiting surakarta, and it remains attractive to many local and foreign researchers due to its uniqueness. the sekaten ceremony was originally intended as a medium for disseminating islamic ideology. however, along with the shifting social dynamics in surakarta, the sekaten experienced a shift in its orientation, function, and meaning. purpose of the study this paper seeks to examine the dynamics of the social values and teachings behind the sekaten social tradition from the perspectives of history, the palace, the government, and society in the globalized era. more specifically, this research aims to answer the following research questions: 1. how are the social values and teaching of the sekaten tradition in surakarta viewed from a historical perspective? 2. how do the surakarta palace, the surakarta city government, and the community interpret the sekaten as a social tradition? literature review the sekaten tradition as a social practice is an object of cultural study. it has earned an enduring interest in the form of studies of habits, spatial positions, and social practices (mahbub & shoily, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 213-229 2016). structural theory is one of the earliest theories in cultural studies. it views the “structure” as rules and resources that are recursively implied within social reproduction. these are characteristics of institutionalized social systems that have structural properties in the sense that relationships are established overtime and space. this “structure” can be abstractly conceptualized through two aspects: normative elements and codes of significance (hilmi, 2012). through his structural theory, gidden places people in a very significant position as an “agency” that can reproduce actions and have the ability, as well as an understanding of, the intent and purpose of these actions. through various structuration principles, he details three major groups of structures: (1) signification structure, which involves symbolic schemata, meaning, mentioning, and discourse; (2) the structure of domination, such as the means of control over people (politics) and goods (economics); and (3) the structure of justification or legitimacy, such as the normative regulatory scheme that is embodied in the legal system (hilmi, 2012). in the process of cultural production and reproduction, the role of agents is highly influenced by the structure, especially the marking structure, for the symbol system, the interpretation of meaning, and the formation of discourse. here, cultural differences in values and epistemological framework concur with cultural differences that are reflected in artifacts and public demonstrations. one dimension of cultural difference concerns the varying psychological distance between people and nature (medin & bang, 2014). cultural production and reproduction often occur as part of industrial activities. in america, the cultural heritage industry is often described as “cultural sharing,” where supporters of indigenous culture are involved in the process of transforming their cultural identity into products for consumption by foreign tourists. there are two different views of the culture industry, though. on the one hand, the cultural heritage industry can be seen as a strong catalyst for reproducing local culture, but on the other hand, it can be regarded as endangering cultural aspects that are currently protected from commodification (bunten, 2008; strunc, 2019). cultural reproduction can occur through re-invention in the form of an effort that is consciously directed to construct a new identity that departs from tradition and functions as a social and political formation, one that is needed to legitimize the status and authority of a community (moersid, 2013). thus, cultural preservation often only arises as an issue when there are concerns about a possible “loss” from the relevant culture (lundup, 2013). cultural preservation also rahayu, et al. becomes more complicated when it comes to intangible culture heritage (ich). a total of 82 ich conventions focus on “oral traditions and expressions, performing arts, knowledge and practice about nature and the universe, social practices, rituals and celebratory events, and traditional expertise” (blakely, 2015). in an effort to preserve various forms of traditional culture, it is necessary to maintain the culture in a form that has “naturally” evolved. this leads to the problem of how to exploit a culture economically without compromising its authenticity (pröschel, 2012). on the one hand, commodification can result in a traditional culture becoming essentially extinct, but on the other hand, only a culture that accommodates commercialization in the tourism industry will be acceptable to a changing society. this phenomenon is behind the shift in the orientation and function of traditions and therefore their meanings. in communication, a sign points to something other than itself, so the meaning is the relationship between the object or idea and a sign (littlejohn, 1999). indeed, meaning is a complex relationship between symbols, objects, and people. thus, we have logical and psychological meanings: logical meaning is the relationship between symbols and references, while psychological meaning is the relationship between symbols and people. meaning comprises personal individual conceptions and general conceptions that are shared with others. langers’ vocabulary includes three additional terms: signification, denotation, and connotation. signification is the meaning of a sign, a simple stimulus that announces the existence of an object. denotation is the relationship between a sign and an object. the connotation of symbols, meanwhile, is the direct relationship between symbols and conceptions. methods research design this study applies a descriptive analytical research design with a qualitative descriptive strategy, which is suitable for research that generates data in the form of words, whether written or spoken by people who can be understood (bogdan & taylor, 1975). such research is one of the basic traditions in social science, and it relates to people in their language, region, and terminology (moleong, 2011). a descriptive strategy discusses the recording or grouping of a series of elements (james & champion, 2012), and it is supported by the reading meaning technique using the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 213-229 semiotics of littlejohn (1999), which in turn comprises three elements: denotative meanings, connotative meanings, and meanings from the perspective of myths. research participants, sampling procedure, and ethical considerations this research was conducted at surakarta palace in central java, indonesia. the main data analyzed were qualitative data, namely information sourced from key informants in the form of actors involved in the sekaten tradition. the main participants therefore included staff working at surakarta palace, while supporting informants included the surakarta city government and islamic religious leaders in surakarta. the sample was purposively selected based on the selection criteria (goetz & lecompte, 1984). firstly, this research is a qualitative descriptive study that aims to produce data in the form of words expressed by people and observable behavior (bogdan & taylor, 1975). secondly, this research is part of a tradition in social science that is fundamentally dependent on observing people in their own society, and it relates to these people’s language and terminology (moleong, 2011). thirdly, in qualitative research, a description is the basis for all scientific investigations, so information includes recording or groupings for a set of elements according to the problem being investigated (james & champion, 2012). data-collection procedures the data-collection procedure comprised in-depth interviews, participatory observation, and content analysis. the data-collection instruments used included interview guides, observation structures, and coding sheets. the level of truth (validity)for the information was determined through the source triangulation method, where a number of sources are used to check the validity of data (moleong, 2011). data-analysis techniques the data analysis was carried out inductively using interactive analysis methods, with the procedures including data reduction, data presentation, conclusion handling, and verification (miles, huberman & saldana, 2014). in the interactive model, the three activities analysis involved a process of interactive cycles and interactions, where activities were not something that could be done together but rather complemented each other (sutopo, 2002). rahayu, et al. results social values and teachings for the sekaten tradition: a historical perspective information about the social values and teachings of the sekaten tradition in surakarta was collected from the informants, thus revealing changes in meaning forthe sekaten tradition from when surakarta palace was still a center of government to the globalized era, when the palace lost much of its influence on society. the sekaten is a traditional ceremony that is held every year in the javanese calendar month ofmulud (or rabi' al-awwal in the islamic calendar). the sekaten tradition first started in the 15th century as a means to extend islam’s influence on java through a cultural approach. it was considered an appropriate medium to spread islamic ideology because at that time, javanese society was still very influenced by animism, dynamism, and polytheism, and many people were still pagans. at that time, many traditions and rituals worshipped spirits, objects, or sacred places and involved meditation, offerings, superstitions, and myths, and these were highly respected by the public. this prompted nine islamic scholars known as the wali sanga to find a good approach to shift people’s beliefs away from polytheism and toward monotheism. one of the guardians of the wali sanga, sunan giri, mastered the technique for making gamelan, which is music involving several traditional javanese musical instruments. sunan giri then made a set of gamelan music to be played during the sekaten celebration. he argued that the sound of the gamelan would draw people’s attention and encourage them to investigate it. once the community found the source of the music, the symbols of islam would be conveyed. this theory turned out to be correct, because every time the gamelan was played in the surakarta grand mosque, many community members gathered, and after listening to lectures on islam, many converted to islam by saying two words of the sahadah. the word sahadatain later served as the origin of the name “sekaten.” the sekaten tradition was originally an islamic religious ceremony, but it also has a javanese character. this tradition acts as a medium for teaching islamic religious values and a noble character to the community. this persisted until indonesia became independent of the dutch and japanese colonial powers in 1945. after this, the religious awareness of the community began to develop through the establishment of formal and informal religious education institutions. the teaching of islam was then carried out by many educational institutions, such as madras as and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 213-229 islamic boarding schools. the sekaten tradition continued, however, but its function shifted to celebrating the birth of the prophet muhammad. after surakarta palace became part of the territory and government of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia in 1958, the sekaten, which was originally a symbol of local wisdom, experienced changes in its orientation, function, and symbolic meaning as social changes affected its supporters. in the globalization era, the religious nuances of the sekaten grew weaker, while the accompanying night market that starts a month before the peak of the sekaten ceremony became more dominant, a phenomena that continues today. sekaten tradition: the palace’s perspective a key informant from surakarta palace, which started the sekaten tradition, conveyed that when surakarta palace was still a center of government, the sekaten was intended as a medium for communication between the king and his people. surakarta palace therefore positions the sekaten as a form of cultural communication passing down moral values and local wisdom from one generation to the next through verbal and nonverbal symbols. for example, in the sekaten tradition, there is a gunungan-shaped mountain that symbolizes how life’s purpose is to return to the creator, the ruler of all life and the universe. this is considered important, because local wisdom is held by certain social groups and conveyed through community experiences. at the time when surakarta palace still had a considerable influence on the community, the sekaten was used politically by the palace to determine the extent of royal influence on the people, as reflected in the number of community members who participated in the event. the attendance at the ceremony was considered indicative of the kingdom’s influence on society. what is more, the sekaten tradition was also used to assess the degree of obedience to the king, again measured according to the attendance level but also by the amount of tribute that was presented to the king. any absence from the sekaten ceremony could be considered a form of defiance against the king. for surakarta palace, the sekaten tradition is a symbol of the islamic mataram kingdom, which distinguishes itself from the previous mataram hindu kingdom. in the globalized era, surakarta palace sees the sekaten tradition as symbolic of surakarta’s identity as an islamic kingdom. this is represented in the ceremony’s time and place and the content of the message being delivered, as well as the ordering of the ceremony and the role of the king in it. rahayu, et al. sekaten ceremonies are held every year in the mulud month, and the event’ speak coincides with maulid, the birthday of the prophet muhammad, the bearer of islamic teachings. the ceremony is mostly centered on the large square before the palace, where there is also a mosque as a place of worship for muslims. at the climax of the event, the king leads the procession and delivers a message about the teachings of islam or the history of the prophet muhammad. all the messages conveyed in the series of events relate to islam. in addition, surakarta palace also interprets the sekaten tradition as an endeavor to preserve the cultural heritage of the palace. the sekaten ceremony is a tradition for the palace, one where various symbols are used exclusively in the ceremony, because they only exist in the palace and are not typical in the lives of everyday people. in the sekaten tradition, the king distributes alms to the people in the form of agricultural produce, and this is symbolic of the sultan’s role in ruling for the welfare of his people. sekaten tradition: the local government’s perspective information from the surakarta city culture and tourism office reveals the local government’s view of the sekaten tradition. when surakarta palace still had political influence in the community, the local government was not very involved in policy making or the implementation of the sekaten tradition. at that time, the government saw the sekaten tradition as being under the authority of surakarta palace. however, in the current globalized era, surakarta city government interprets the tradition as an annual cultural event in the surakarta city area. the local government therefore provides guidance for the development and preservation of these traditions. the surakarta city government has for the last five years seen the sekaten tradition as a tourist attraction for surakarta (bappeda kota surakarta, 2016). for this reason, the surakarta city government aims to develop sekaten as a cultural and religious tourist attraction, as well as a destination for shopping tourism with an emphasis on the role of the lower classes ins ociety. the surakarta city government has positioned the sekaten as a driving force for people's economic wellbeing by encouraging the participation of small businesses, home industries, and traditional craftsmen. traditional artisan products with philosophical value—such as a clay piggy bank (celengan), a whip (pecut) made from hemp leaves, and a spinning top made from bamboo (gangsingan)—are consistently encouraged to enliven each year’s sekaten. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 213-229 the sekaten is part of the culture of surakarta palace, which includes features in the form of gunungan, officers’ clothing, traditional toys, the language used, islamic values, and symbols of the harmonious relations between the king and his people (manunggaling kawula lan gusti), as well as cultural teachings in the form of good habits and behavioral codes. the sekaten tradition as a religious tourism event relates to its role in commemorating the birthday of the prophet muhammad, who is a role model for muslims. the sekaten tradition is also coupled with public entertainment in the form of a night market that sells a variety of goods and hosts a variety of stands, including playgrounds for children, music performances, various culinary delights, communication tools, and traditional crafted goods. the sekaten tradition: the community’s perspective observation of the sekaten procession at its location revealed that some members of the community fought over food, vegetables, and fruits from the mountains because they believed that these objects would bring blessings. fruits and vegetables taken from the mountains are replanted on farms in the hope that their fields will produce good crops and be free of infestations or diseases. the followers of the sekaten tradition believe it will give them the gift of youth, specifically when visitors chew kinang along to the sound of a gong on the gamelan played at the event. the gamelan kiai sekati—which comprises two instruments, namely kiai guntur madu and kiai guntur sari— is only played during the sekaten celebration because it is considered to have the magical power to give blessings. from the perspective of the muslim community, this is regarded as a form of superstition that should be avoided. community groups with strong islamic religious beliefs therefore interpret the sekaten as a blend between culture and religion, which is often referred to as syncretism. when the people of surakarta were still unfamiliar with islam, the sekaten tradition acted as an effective medium for teaching its ideology, but nowadays there are many other sources of islamic teaching in the community, so this element of its function is greatly reduced. the application of a cultural approach to spreading islam through the sekaten tradition is also seen as inappropriate in the current context, because people are already very open to various cultures through communication and information technology in social life. islamic religious leaders believe that the religious values embedded in the sekaten tradition have been eroded by economic activities. the sekaten tradition is no longer a sacred, religiously valued rahayu, et al. traditional ceremony but rather a business event serving the interests of many parties, and it is more about encouraging the community to act hedonistically. a number of community members involved in the ceremony’s activities expressed that the sekaten tradition currently has more economic value, with the night market starting almost a full month before the ceremony’ speak. in the night market, hundreds of booths enable the community to conduct economic activities in the form of trade, the provision of parking services, the transportation of goods or people, and culinary tourism activities. traders in the area also argued that without the night market, people would have little interest in attending the sekaten, because most people do not care about listening to religious lectures and rather focus on recreation through shopping or enjoying culinary delights. thus, the sekaten is seen more as being economically valuable because it provides additional incomes for the community through the related economic activities. thechairman of the rukun tetangga (the lowest institution in the government structure of indonesia) stated that the sekaten tradition also has economic value for the body, because citizens engaged in economic activities in the sekaten must set aside some of their profits to give to the rukun tetangga treasury. such economic activities include trading, providing parking services and transportation services, offering games, and providing recreational services like lighted bicycles, horse-drawn carriages, and playgrounds for children. discussion the data obtained in this study indicates that there has been a shift in the social values and teaching behind the sekaten tradition from a historical perspective. the meaning of the sekaten tradition— according to surakarta palace, the surakarta city government, and the local community—has changed from a cultured event to something more profane. this is a natural social process where culture promotes a certain way of life shaped by values, traditions, beliefs, and material objects. it fundamentally persists for along time in society but also adapts through routine communication and social interaction (lull, 1998). one of the factors behind the shift is the influence of the mass media, especially broadcast television and new media forms that assign greater importance to modern pop culture than traditional local culture. from a historical perspective, the shift in orientation and function of the sekaten can be seen. this causes a biased meaning for certain community groups, which can in turn trigger horizontal social journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 213-229 conflict and resistance in the community. some social groups with strong islamic beliefs view a number of practices in the sekaten as an undesirable form of syncretism. on the other hand, community groups that support javanese culture argue that the sekaten is a ritual ceremony that must still be preserved, especially because it celebrates the birth of the prophet muhammad (utami, 2011). another reason concerns the message presented in the sekaten ceremony, which is packaged in a unique form, so it can provide education and entertainment for the community (ni’mah & soekiman, 2007). the shift in the social values and teaching embodied in the sekaten tradition began when the political influence of surakarta palace started to diminish, specifically when surakarta became part of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia in 1958. this gave rise to the opinion that the palace had lost meaning as a symbol of the surakarta people. this led to the emergence of various practices that would have been considered irregular in the past. the increasing level of religious awareness and education among the local community also affects its interpretation of the sekaten tradition. the sekaten tradition is now largely understood by the community as an entertainment event, and its significance as a symbol of identity no longer seems important. the sekaten as a form of propaganda through a cultural approach is no longer deemed appropriate, and its potential to attract people is instead exploited by businesses. the commercialization of the sekaten tradition is just one phenomenon in the commercialization of indonesian local culture, and similar processes can be seen in thailand, india, and many african countries. this phenomenon cannot be separated from state politics, which are outlined for the field of tourism in the national medium-term development plan 2014–2019 (bappenas, 2014). this stipulates the preservation and development of cultural assets that support tourism development, but efforts must also support a creative economy. this means that the indonesian government views culture both as a legacy that must be preserved and as an asset to be exploited through tourism. departing from this policy, the surakarta city government positioned the sekaten tradition as something to drive the local economy and increase revenue for local people through tourism. the government policy for the preservation of local culture is distorted, because traditional arts and local culture are being packaged and marketed for the consumption of tourists, especially foreign ones, so they cater for market tastes. this reality seems to have become an inevitable consequence of globalization. every regional culture that contains its own local wisdom, natural beauty, and cultural aspects is often exploited in order to increase tourism activity through rahayu, et al. the label of cultural tourism (conradie, 2012). this situation has played a role in objectifying and reducing culture to “cultural art”—such as dance, music, costumes, crafts, and architecture (korff & susanne, 2014)—that can then be sold. the practice of commercializing tradition is a consequence of national policies promoting tourism, which in turn raises divisions between the authentic and the modern (cohen & cohen, 2012). in addition, the process of commodifying a tradition cannot be separated from the role of the agent causing the change. agencies involved in the commercialization process for traditional generally include the organizers themselves, tourism organizations, and the private sector. this can be seen in artistic performances where the aesthetic element is highlighted and when the arrangements, instruments, makeup, and art displays are redefined for mass consumption by a wider audience, particularly foreign tourists (yulianto, 2013). the shifting meaning of the sekaten tradition is part of the cultural tourism process in surakarta, backed up by the belief that cultural tourism is an element for developing tourism in various regions of the world, and thishas a strong influence on policy-makers(richards, 2005; bui & lee, 2015). in this situation, local culture is gradually abandoned in favor of foreign culture, and preservation involves adjusting the packaging and presentation without removing the essence, meaning, and original values of the traditional culture (haris, 2015). preserving local culture cannot be separated from the social-construction process, which is an area where several methods are employed by agents including the government, the markets, and civil society. these are interconnected and presented together in different patterns of formal and informal regionalisms (söderbaum, 2013). conclusion and implication in the course of its history from the 15thcentury until the present day, there has been a shift in the sekaten tradition in surakarta in terms of its meaning and values. the sekaten tradition as a symbol is open to interpretation according to recent developments. this tradition has endured for centuries and experienced dynamic meanings over time. when it was first organized, it was a representation of the islamic palace and a symbol of royal power to endear popular obedience and represent javanese culture. in the current globalized era, there are shifting meanings for the event, as well as objections from certain groups toward the tradition. on one hand, the sekaten tradition can be considered to have journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 213-229 been distorted, but on the other hand, the tradition is very popular among the community. although the influence of surakarta palace is no longer dominant, and the surakarta city government implements the sekaten tradition, the event continues to this day. the meaning behind the sekaten tradition in the current era of globalization has changed, however. surakarta palace now interprets the event a s a form of cultural heritage that contains local wisdom that must be preserved. the local government, meanwhile, sees it as a cultural asset for the tourism industry, thus driving the local economy and generating revenue. finally, the local community interprets sekaten as undesirable syncretism, as entertainment, and as a destination for religious, culinary, and shopping tourism. theoretical and practical implications the findings of this study indicate that in social and cultural structures, specifically in the process of cultural production and reproduction, people are in a very strong position to act as agents who understand the purpose and objectives of everything they do. the meaning behind the sekaten tradition is formed from a number of symbols interpreted by the agents in accordance with their respective interests. this reinforces the principle of the structuration theory of giddens (ritzer, 2014; lubis, 2016), which asserts three major structure groups: the structure of signification, the structure of domination, and the structure of justification (hilmi, 2012). this study also has practical implications for critically and comprehensively looking at cultural phenomena in the form of social traditions. it also has implications for narrowing the gaps in how the sekaten tradition is perceived by those community groups supporting cultural values and those communities supporting religious values. limitations and directions for future research this study has limitations because its subject is a single tradition in one location, so the obtained results are limited in terms of generalizability. future research should therefore look at broader social traditions in terms of numerous events scattered over various regions, so any similarities and differences can be observed. in addition, this research is also limited to the use of qualitative methods, and the results take the form of describing a tradition as a substructure in social structure. based on these limitations, the use of quantitative methods is recommended for future research to study a number of variables that may be interconnected. rahayu, et al. references abdel-hadi, a. (2012). culture , quality of life , globalization and beyond. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 50(july), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.08.011 bappenas. (2014). rencana pembangunan jangka menengah nasional 2014-2019. retrieved from https://www.bappenas.go.id/index.php?cid5009?cid= 5009 blakely, m. r. (2015). pattern recognition: governmental regulation of tartan and commodification of culture. international journal of cultural property, 22, 487–504. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0940739115000284 bogdan, r. & taylor, s. j. (1975). introduction to qualitative research methods. new york: john wiley. bui, h. t., & lee, t. j. (2015). commodification and politicization of heritage: implications for heritage tourism at the imperial citadel of thang long, hanoi (vietnam). austrian journal of south-east asian studies, 8(2), 187–202. https://doi.org/10.14764/10.aseas2015.2-5 bunten, a. c. (2008). developing the commodified persona in the heritage industry. american etnologist,35(3), 380–395. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1425.2008.00041.x cohen, e., & cohen, s. a. (2012). authentication: hot and cool, 39, 1295–1314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.03.004 conradie, a. (2012). remaking culture for sale : the strategic commodification , construction and performance of “ traditional ” cultural identity in south african cultural villages. cape town, south africa. goetz, j.p. & lecompte, m. . (1984). ethnography and qualitative design in educational research. new york: academy press, inc. günlü, e., pırnar, i., & yağcı, k. (2009). preserving cultural heritage and possible impacts on regional development: case of izmir. international journal of emerging …, 1(1), 1–13. retrieved from http://www.regionalstudies.org/uploads/networks/documents/tourismregional-development-and-public-policy/gunlu.pdf hare, s., & baker, a. (2017). keepin ’ it real : authenticity, commercialization, and the media in korean hip hop. sage open, april-june, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017710294 haris, a. (2015). sekaten; dulu dan kini. retrieved november 28, 2018, from journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 213-229 http://hidayathari01.blogspot.com/2015/12/sekaten-dulu-dan-kini.html?m=1 hilmi, m. (2012). pergulatan komunitas lembaga dakwah islam indonesia di kediri jawa timur : disertasi. universitas indonesia. iriani, f. n. h. a., & noruzi, m. r. (2011). globalization and challenges; what are the globalization’s contemporary issues ? international journal of humanities and social science, 1(6), 216–218. retrieved from www.ijhssnet.com james, b. a., & champion, d. j. (2012). metode dan masalah penelitian sosial. (ruzhendi, e. koeswara., d. salam., & alfin, eds.) (3rd ed.). bandung: pt eresco. korff, r., & susanne, s. (2014). current trends in anthropological and sociological research on and in debatte; current trends in southeast asia. littlejohn, s. w. (1999). human communication theory (sixth edit). wadswortt publishing company. lubis, a. y. (2016). postmodernisme; teori dan metode. (t. p. penyuntingan, ed.) (1st ed.). jakarta: rajagrafindo persada. retrieved from http://www.rajagrafindo.co.id lull, j. (1998). media, komunikasi, kebudayaan: suatu pendekatan global. (s. a. abadi, ed.). jakarta: yayasan obor indonesia. lundup, t. (2013). contemporary ladakh : culture , commodification and tourism. ipcs : institute of peace and conflict studies, issue brie(august), 1–8. lyons, sarah, and e. christian wells, e. (2014). global tourism: cultural heritage and economic encounters. international social science review, 89(1), 1–13. maccarrone-eaglen, a. (2009). an analysis of culture as a tourism commodity. tourism, culture & communication, 9(pp.000-000), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3727/109830409x12596186103879 mahbub, r., & shoily, k. f. (2016). the place of piere bourdieu’s theories in (popular) cultural studies. brac university journal, xi(1), 1–9. medin, d. l., & bang, m. (2014). the cultural side of science communication. proceedings of the national academy of sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1317510111 miles, m. b., huberman, a. m., & saldana, j. (2014). qualitative data analysis, a methods sourcebook. (adele hutchinson, ed.) (3rd ed.). los angeles, london, new delhi. singapore, washington dc: sage publication inc. moersid, a. f. (2013). re-invensi batik dan identitas indonesia dalam arena pasar global. rahayu, et al. jurnal ilmiah widya, 1(2), 121–128. moleong, l. j. (2011). metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. ni’mah, i. &soekiman, d. (2007). keramaian (dan) sekaten yogyakarta 1938-2005. yogyakarta: universitas gadjah mada. pröschel, n. (2012). commodification and culture how can culture be economically used without selling it out ? modul vienna university. riaz, s., & arif, u. (2017). influence of foreign tv programs on fashion , lifestyle and language of youth. journal of media studies, 32(2), 89–133. retrieved from www.pu.edu.pk/home/journal/41 richards, g. (2005). cultural tourism in europe. (g. richards, ed.), association for tourism and leisure education (atlas) (vol. ). wallingford, uk: cab international. retrieved from www.atlas-euro.org ritzer, g. (2014). teori sosiologi modern. (t. wibowo, ed.) (edisi ketu). jakarta: prenadamedia grup. shepherd, r. (2002). commodification, culture and tourism. tourist studies, 2(183), 182–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/146879702761936653 söderbaum, f. (2013). rethinking regions and regionalism weakness and fragmentation . georgetown journal of international affairs. strunc, a. (2019). the politics of culture. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 7180. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/26 sutopo, h. b. (2002). metode penelitian kualitatif; dasar teori dan penerapannya. (s. h.b., ed.) (1st ed.). surakarta: sebelas maret university press. utami, h. e. (2011). sekaten chants between relligion and socio-cultural rite. harmonia journal of arts research and education, 11(2), 153–162. yulianto, a. d. (2013). komodifikasi pertunjukan festival reog ponorogo. dinamika perubahan pertunjukkan reog ponorogo dalam industri pariwisata. universitas brawijaya malang. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(2), 1-29 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 using digital participatory research to foster glocal competence: constructing multimedia projects as a form of global and civic citizenship sarah a. mathews1 abstract digital participatory research (dpr) combines grass-roots participatory research and photojournalism, asks students to investigate assets and issues within their community, and facilitates civic participation by using problem-posing and praxis-orientated methods. although there is a vast amount of research documenting the impact of dpr at the local level, there is limited research about the use of this methodology to facilitate global competence. this study presents the results from a multi-case study analysis of two groups simultaneously engaging in the dpr project; one in miami, florida and one in kingston, jamaica. this research study examines whether this methodology helps contribute to glocal citizenship. in this case the term glocal citizenship mergers civic and global competence and helps students understand how local and global influences interact in their everyday lives. westheimer and kahne’s (2004) three kinds of citizenship and landarf and doscher’s (2015) three global outcomes were applied to individual interview data, observational field notes, and transcripts of digital media. this study found that students’ projects often offered solutions at the personally-responsible and participatory level. when they addressed topics that would raise awareness about systemic global issues, they did not include information that would challenge systems of power and oppression. also, while students did not learn substantive content to promote global awareness, they did participate in global engagement opportunities and recognized aspects that they shared with their international peers. keywords: digital participatory research, glocal, global competency, civic competency, introduction rhetoric about 21st-century skills emphasizes an awareness of the diversity of human cultures, the physical and the natural world, the ability to analyze issues from multiple perspectives, the capacity to work collaboratively with others, and a sense of civic and social responsibility (aac&u, 2007; landorf & doscher, 2015). these skills contribute to an individual’s global competency or “the capacity and disposition to understand and act on issues of global significance (boix-mansilla & jackson, 2011, p. xiii). twenty-first-century skills, and in particular global competency, are facilitated through global citizenship education and are 1 assist. prof., florida international university, samathew@fiu.edu mailto:samathew@fiu.edu journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 supported by the knowledge, skills, and dispositions developed in social studies education. however, in the united states, current educational reform focuses on college and career readiness (national governors association center for best practices & council of chief state school officers, 2010) privileging literacy and mathematics instruction, while decreasing the importance of the social sciences and humanities. this trend is most apparent at the elementary level (bisland, 2012; fitchett, heafner & lambert, 2012, 2014) and suggests that students enter adolescence deficient in skills necessary to understand and participate in society. the u.s. is not the only country implementing reforms for 21st century economic and social progress. in 2009 the government of jamaica (goj) issued a national reform plan, vision 2030 jamaica, outlining a plan to bring the nation to developed country status by 2030. among numerous reform areas, this proposal emphasizes the importance of restructuring education to develop globally competent citizens. the profile of the globally competent citizen, outlined in vision 2030 jamaica, included the ability to be “agile of mind, adjust to different situations,” and develop a perspective that is “tolerant of diversity” and “committed to a sustainable lifestyle” (government of jamaica 2012, 57). however, mathews & reid-brown (2015) found that when interviewed, jamaican teachers understood global education as a “globalized education” (i.e. education from outside of jamaica), were not confident in their ability to create globally competent students, and felt they lacked the resources to enhance these skills. by focusing on career and college readiness, and in turn economic development, both the u.s. and jamaican governments disregard the role schools play in preparing young people to contribute to the creation of a more just democratic society (mira, garcia & morrell, 2016, p. 1). i propose that “glocal pedagogies” have the ability to help students learn about the world by examining issues that impact the local community and vice versa. digital participatory research (dpr) is a glocal pedagogy that combines grass-roots participatory inquiry and photojournalism, asks students to investigate assets and issues within their community using their academic skills, and facilitates civic participation by using problem-posing and praxis-orientated methods (epals & buck institute for education, 2014; photovoice.org, 2012). although numerous studies have documented the impact of dpr on youth civic engagement at the local level, research that addresses whether this methodology can facilitate global citizenship is limited. in this article, i present data from two groups of middle school students that were simultaneously working on dpr projects, one in the united states and one in sarah a. mathews 3 jamaica. the purpose is to examine how implementing dpr projects with middle school students in transnational settings contributes to glocal citizenship. in particular, this piece describes what dpr looks like in the classroom as well as how participants are experiencing and interpreting the process. this manuscript will also discuss the ways global citizenship remain undeveloped even after the youth participated in this project. the conceptual framework of glocal citizenship roland robertson (1995) first coined the term "glocal" to discuss the process of negotiating simultaneous universal and particular economic forces. however, there are a variety of social, political, and cultural issues that blur these lines as well. this negotiation of multiple areas of belonging and participation begs the question, “how do individuals successfully navigate their lives locally as they interact with the world globally?” (sarra, 2008, p. 61). glocality affirms the notion that to understand the local, individuals must understand the global, and vice versa. social studies educators, and in particular global educators, address this when recognizing that, as future citizens, students are asked to participate, in a variety of different ways, within local, national, and global contexts (banks, 2007; brooks & normore, 2010; ladson-billings, 2007). as a result, students need to develop a citizenship that merges both civic and global competence. westheimer and kahne’s (2004) groundbreaking study outlined three archetypes of what a “good citizen” is and does, embedded within civic education programs. each type of citizen is based on a core assumption regarding how individuals solve problems. the first kind of citizen is the personally responsible citizen, someone who acts responsibly in her/his community, obeys laws, and volunteers in time of crisis. to solve societal problems individuals “must have a good character” and be “law-abiding citizens” (p. 240). the second kind of citizen is the participatory citizen. these are active members of the community that understand how government agencies work and know strategies for accomplishing collective tasks. the assumption behind this type of citizenry is that citizens must actively participate as leaders within established systems and community structures (p. 242). finally, the justice-oriented citizen is aware of social movements and seeks out areas of injustice. this type of citizenry requires individuals to assess social, political and economic structures critically, use problem-solving skills to improve society, and work to change those structures that reproduce patterns of injustice (p. 240). this framework provides a series of aptitudes that can help facilitate an individual’s civic competence. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 in 2013, the u.s. national council for the social studies (ncss), issued a response to the common core state standards’ marginalization of the social studies. ncss outlined standards for college, career, and civic preparedness (c3). the c3 framework utilizes an inquiry arc that calls for students to evaluate sources, conduct research, and use disciplinary skills and concepts to address real world problems (ncss, 2013). the c3 inquiry arc provides these skills. civic competence must also include civic efficacy or the extent to which an individual believes that one’s actions can make a difference in society (crocetti, jahromi, & meeus, 2012; westheimer & kahne, 2006). therefore civic education must help students build civic efficacy by helping them developing the skills necessary to participate in society. civic competency skills i.e. using an inquiry arc and promoting civic efficacy can promote problem-solving skills and transform social inequities, as also encouraged by the jamaican ministry of education, in vision 2030 jamaica (government of jamaica, 2012). in an increasingly interdependent and transmigratory world individuals also need to develop global competence. landorf and doscher (2015) suggest that every global education program attempts to foster three global learning outcomes. the first outcome, global awareness, requires an understanding of the interconnectedness of global systems, trends and issues. global perspective refers to the ability to analyze local, national, and global issues from multiple viewpoints. finally, global engagement addresses an individuals’ willingness to take part in problem-solving at the local, national, and global level (mathews & landorf, 2015). once again global competence requires knowledge, skills, and a disposition towards action. in fact, as harshman (2013) reminds us, critical global competence is also directly aligned with the inquiry arc found at the core of the c3 framework. digital participatory research as a glocal pedagogy digital participatory research (dpr) as used in this study, is based on the goals that emerge from the literature on community-based research (cbr) (see hacker, 2013) and youth participatory action research (ypar) (see mirra, garcia, & morrell, 2016). each field promotes research that emerges from the everyday experiences of those most directly impacted by policy decisions. research conducted in this vein differs from positivistic research in five major ways. first, instead of a lone researcher, research is conducted as a collective. second, the researchers are “insiders” in a given situation. third, the inquiry is critical in nature, examining historical and contemporary loci of power. four, participants are asked to consider issues from multiple lenses. sarah a. mathews 5 finally, knowledge is seen as active, not passive (cammarota & fine, 2008). cbr and ypar methodologies challenge assumptions about who is permitted to create knowledge in society, who is allowed to translate or transfer knowledge in our society, and whose voices possess legitimacy in society. for ypar this means that research must be conducted with students, not on or for them (mirra, garcia, & morrell, 2016, chapter 1, section 2, para 9). dpr seeks to examine what happens when we use “participatory” forms of research with visual and digital methods of inquiry (gubrium & harper, 2013). digital and photo methodologies are consistent with transformative and participatory research and have been used to raise awareness of instances of injustice around the world (photovoice 2011; wang, morrel-samuels, hutchinson, bell & pestronk, 2004; wilson, dasho, martin, wang & minkler 2007). for example, cahill, riosmoore, & threatts’ (2008) used dpr strategies in the lower eastside of new york with a group or women, the fed up honey’s, who set out the challenge the stereotypes of young urban women of color. this collective group found that the research process allowed them to “reverse the gaze” of traditional research methods while examining the contradictory and political notions of citizenship (pp. 91-92). in “the see it our way photovoice project” supported through photovoice.org, (2012), youth from albania, armenia, lebanon, romania, and pakistan used photographs to document the impact of human trafficking in their communities. scholars have used digital images and media with participants to tell stories, elicit stories, and critique stories (ewald, 2001; schensul & dalglish, 2015; wang & burris, 1994). essentially, dpr is based on the drive to “get cameras into the hands of youth,” as one method to motivate and facilitate youth civic participation (ewald, 2001; luttrell & chalfen, 2010). digital images and methodologies have also been used to facilitate global competence. for example, after analyzing global images students have been shown to develop a deeper understanding of global diversity (lintner, 2005) and diminish stereotypes of the ‘other’ (scott, 1999). photography can also be used to solicit an individual’s subjective perceptions of their experiences and interpretation. for example, spindler and spindler (1993) incorporated photography into their consciousness-raising tool cultural therapy. in cultural therapy, participants are asked a series of questions while viewing photographs or documentary images. the goal is to help individuals reflect on the taken-for-granted assumptions they bring with them into the “viewing” experience and interrogate these as potential biases to knowledge acquisition. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 this review of research documents how dpr has been used to help youth and young adults analyze local issues, critique power-relations within societal systems and institutions, and participate in developing solutions for change at the local level. photo-methodologies have been shown to serve as also effective tools to develop global competence, forcing individuals to examine their own cultural assumptions. however, there is limited research on how dpr can foster civic and global competence simultaneously. can this methodology facilitate that adage: “think globally, act locally”? methodology although there is a wealth of research on the impact of dpr on students’ awareness of local issues, there is limited research on how dpr methods can be used to facilitate both civic and global competence concurrently. this qualitative research study reports the results of a multi-case study (stake, 2006) of two groups of young adults simultaneously engaging in dpr projects; one group in the united states and one group in jamaica. the goal was to determine if, after surveying their community, youth can identify a problem or issue that can be documented and addressed through dpr. throughout the project, the youth groups were connected with their peers overseas to facilitate intercultural collaboration and help students better reflect on the participatory research process. the research questions guiding this project include: 1. how are youth identifying and documenting issues in their local community? 2. how were youth demonstrating their civic competency through their dpr projects? 3. how were youth demonstrating their global competency through their dpr projects? using the multi-case study approach, i was able to identify general themes that emerged from the data as well as the particularities within specific cases (stake, 2006). context and participation the first dpr project took place in florida at augusta f. savage middle school (afs) (all names are pseudonyms) in miami, florida. the project lasted over a three month period and was incorporated into a research-intensive elective as part of the cambridge program. since the program uses a cohort model, and since the students’ social studies teacher also taught their cambridge elective, lessons often overlapped with the students' social studies period and coursework. along with six pre-service social studies teachers, i served as a participant-researcher sarah a. mathews 7 by helping to facilitate the project during various stages of the project. eleven sixth grade students in this cohort agreed to participate in the study (8 females; 3 males). the second dpr project took place at louise b. coverly high school (lbc) in kingston, jamaica. the project took place over a ten-day period during the same semester. again, as a participant-researcher, i conducted this project along with one pre-service social studies teacher, while in kingston. seventeen, eighth-grade students (9 females; 2 males) were selected by their social studies teacher to participate. the dpr workshop took place after school or during the students’ elective period. each sample was purposive and convenient. i collected data from those students who were engaged in the dpr project, who gave assent, and who submitted parental consent (fraenkel, wallen, & hyun, 2014). data collection and analysis keeping with the tenets of dpr, the observations and written documentations of participants’ field work, as well as the final multimedia project, serve as the primary data source in this study. the students’ research findings help capture each group’s emic, or insider, knowledge or experience (stake, 2006). i conducted one hour-long, semi-structured individual interview with a sample of each group of students: twelve lbc students and five afs students (see appendix a for attached interview questions). these interviews were designed to probe for additional information and explanation of the research process. i also included my observation field notes that i captured while working on these projects, as well as while watching the final dpr products. throughout the process the students in jamaica communicated electronically with the students in florida, sharing their experience engaging in the dpr process. i included these exchanges as data. all interviews and digital data were translated verbatim. to analyze the data, i first engaged in a critical analysis of discourse (gee, 2004) while looking for common and uncommon emerging themes using inductive coding procedures (patton, 2002). these themes were then compared to westheimer and kahne’s (2004) three types of civic engagement and the landorf and doscher's (2015) three global learning competencies. throughout my analysis, i needed to remain aware of my positionality. i am a white, female, middle-class professor, and i have spent the majority of my life living in the mid-western and south-eastern portions of the united states. i have only lived and worked in the area surrounding afs, a cosmopolitan yet primarily latino community in south florida, for five years. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 i have also been working with teachers in jamaica over the same five-year period. my university offers a master's degree program in kingston, and i serve as an instructor, traveling to jamaica for four weekends in a row during the semesters i am slated to teach. i have also complete two, 14day research trips to this nation. however, i acknowledge that i have still had limited exposure to jamaica's educational, political, and cultural climates. i was also new to each school placement, i.e. i started working with both schools during the dpr process. therefore, it was very important to utilize a variety of triangulation methods to balance my etic, or outsider perspective, with those participating in each case (stake, 2006). the multiple forms of data, e.g. my observations versus individual interviews, were used to form a consensus around the analysis. i employed member checks, verifying my interpretation with those offered by the student participants, their teachers, and the pre-service teachers that worked on the dpr project. finally, the dpr methodology privileges the voices of those that are most active in the research. therefore i have infused quotes throughout this report to present as much of this research using the student-researchers' own voices. findings lessons from augusta f. savage middle school (afs) afs is located in the metropolitan and cosmopolitan city of miami, fl. approximately ninety-seven percent of the student population at this school identifies as hispanic.1 two percent identify as white, and one percent identify as asian. twenty-two percent of the students are classified as english language learners (ell) and 18% under the category students with disabilities (swd). the school is required to provide additional educational support and services to these groups of students. eighty-seven percent of afs students qualify for a free and reduced lunch as a result of their parents’ or guardians’ socio-economic status. while these statistics reflect the demographics of the surrounding community, the students in this study participate in the school district’s cambridge magnet school program. the cambridge program is internationally recognized, implemented around the world, and adheres to a rigorous academic curriculum. the district’s website describes the cambridge program as one that prepares “students to distinguish themselves in further academic study” (university of cambridge & miami-dade county schools, n.d.). the school’s website indicates that students in this program complete a multitude of assignments that infuse advanced academics, technology, global education, and arts & culture. students must apply for this program and must have a sarah a. mathews 9 strong record in core subjects, maintain regular attendance, and be recommended by previous teachers to be accepted. i gained access to this cohort through one of teachers in the cambridge program, mr. b. i originally approached mr. b in december 2015 to serve as an adjunct instructor in the secondary social studies education program i oversee at the university where i work. we were reviewing the activities that our university pre-service teachers completed in the prior course, including a dpr project within the university’s community, when mr. b suggested that dpr may work within his sixth-grade courses at afs. the cambridge elective course he was teaching was designed to help students develop and utilize research skills to address real-world issues. the dpr process used with the afs students. in february 2015, i met with mr. b and his sixth-grade students and explained the dpr process. at this first stage, mr. b asked the students to brainstorm a list of the issues that they believed were impacting their community, first in small groups and then as a large class. angelica explained the process saying, well, what we did was…we all wrote words in the beginning about the community. and then we chose some major issues. we all voted on the most major topics of all of the papers, and we put it on the board. then we got to choose which group we wanted to be in. (individual interview 04/13/2015) after discussing and pairing down the list of issues, the class decided to investigate four issues: the conditions of public park bathrooms, littering around the school and community, animal problems, and the lack of security in the area. the students each chose the topic that they were most interested in researching and formed inquiry groups. groups learned they would create a digital video about their topic that included the following information: a) a definition of the problem, b) the causes of this issue, c) the issue’s impact on the community and individual citizens, d) and possible solutions to address this issue. to start the process, students had to examine the “problem” from a variety of different perspectives or stakeholders. students completed an activity based on a visible thinking strategy known as circle of viewpoints (see figure 1) (fine, 2014). first students filled in the chart from the perspective of a particular stakeholder. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 1. i am thinking of ___________ (the topic). from the point of view of _________________ (the point of view you’ve chosen). 2. i think … describe the topic from your viewpoint. be an actortake on the character of your viewpoint. write from that perspective. 3. write: a question i have from this viewpoint is… ask a question from this viewpoint. 4. write: what new ideas or questions do you have about the topic that you didn’t have before? figure 1. circle of viewpoints – brainstorming strategy they then shared their reflections within their inquiry groups. this process helped group members determine which types of information they needed to gather to support their dpr project. during this session, mr. b introduced various methods the students could use to gather data. the students periodically worked on the projects over a 10-week period. first, they developed a storyboard where they sketched out the different scenes they wanted to create in their movie (see figure 2). groups could fill in the boxes with text or illustrations. introduction: scene one scene two scene three scene four conclusion: scene five figure 2: example of a storyboard sarah a. mathews 11 storyboarding helped students outline the types of information their group needed to research and the forms of visual artifacts they would need to collect or produce to successfully create their dpr movies. for example, some students wanted to include interviews with individuals that are impacted by the issue. storyboarding helped them determine where the interviews may best support their presentation and influenced how they could shape interview questions to present essential questions. it also helps to help students focus on the practical aspects involved with gathering digital data (e.g. time, editing, lightening, etc.). during this stage the whole class discussed the ethical implications of engaging in digital participatory research. mr. b. and myself gave students two consent forms: 1) a form for individuals to sign that they consent to have their image and/or voice used in a video format and 2) a form for the photographer/videography to consent to allow myself and the research team to use their images. after reviewing the forms, we discussed, as a class, why it was important to seek an individual’s (oral and written consent) before interviewing or photographing them and why we should ask for permission to reproduce images that other collect. mr. b. carved out a serious of sessions to help students work on the research and videoproduction stages. for example, some sessions provided students the opportunity to use computers to gather supporting research. during other class periods, students used ipads, smartphones and additional technologies to capture interviews, photographs, and digital or audio-recordings to incorporate into their video. throughout these working sessions, the university pre-service teachers in the social studies program, and enrolled in mr. b's college course, intermittently volunteered to help the afs students, when it fit into their schedule. the university students helped the inquiry groups analyze and organize their data and edit their final projects. once they finished, each group presented their videos to the research team. during an endof-the-school-year presentation, school faculty and parents also had the opportunity to view student presentations. the following section gives an overview of the four projects that were created by afs students and the process these individual groups went through to create their presentations. park bathrooms. five students (three females and one male) examined the conditions of the bathrooms found in two large parks in their surrounding community. to gather data, the park bathrooms group (pbg) captured photographic images at the parks, distributed a survey to community members, and captured a video of the bathroom conditions. the pbg used a variety journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 of diverse technology applications, programs, and equipment to complete their projects including the whatsapp® application, flipagram®, microsoft moviemaker® and a selfie stick. they also researched historical and contemporary information about the park. for example, they discovered that one space served as a “horse racing camp for the community and local farmers starting in 1979” and that the second park hosts an annual fair “visited by over 600,000 people annually” (pbg video). they defined the problem as, paper waste, dangerous puddles, and bugs that could carry diseases filling the bathrooms, conditions which could lead to further healthrelated issues. cecelia offered the following solution to this issue, “we could clean up the bathrooms ourselves, or probably have a fund-raiser and ask people to come. if the park could hire more staff members to come in everyday, there would be less problems” (individual interview, 05/22/2015). the littering situation. the littering group (lg) also had five group members (three females and two males). the littering group was inspired to examine the causes and impacts of littering due to a lot of broken bottles and cans found on their schools’ tennis courts. most of this trash was left over from community members who used the facilities after school hours. marta was inspired to join this group for personal reasons. she said, i came to this country when i was eight. so most of my life i lived in a central american country, where there is a lot of trash and littering, and that affects all of us. where my mom used to work, it smelled really bad because of littering. so then i thought, “hey, i can fix this problem here now so it doesn’t get bigger.” after defining littering as any “trash such as paper, cans, and bottles that are left lying on the environment that are not supposed to be there,” the group focused on the “money spent to clean up littering” and possible health risks posed as the issues’ major impact (lg video). the lg conducted research on the historical impact of littering, interviewed students and teachers in the school, and created a collage made of recyclable materials (see image 1). sarah a. mathews 13 image 1: collage of recyclable items they posed the following solutions: tie bundles before placing them in the trash can, be a role model for younger children by properly getting rid of waste, and carrying a litter-bag in the car (see image 2). image 2: example of a litterbag the students in this video also microsoft powerpoint ® and moviemaker® to create this video. animal problems. the animal problems group (apg) originally chose to focus on how to address pet owners that did not clean up after their pet’s waste but then realized there were additional issues in the community that impact pets. for example, maria jose explained, journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 there are sometimes like loose animals, stray dogs. like the animals are everywhere. off w [street] there is a cat like dead on the floor. it’s like, flat on the ground; you see like all of the organs and stuff. (individual interview, 05/22/2015) this group of five students (three females and two males) decided to expand the scope of the project to include stray animals. the apg discovered that “27,000 stray animals are brought into animal shelters and more than 20,000 animals are euthanized each year” in their county. they also found that stray animals can transmit diseases such as “rabies or leukemia” (apg video). this group created a movie filled with a collage of images and suggested that the community “put up signs telling owners to clean up after their dog” or “report strays so they can get returned to their owners” as examples of possible solutions. community security. the community security group (csg) was made up of four students (two female and two male students). the csg was inspired to research this issue after learning from the media that a young girls’ body was found burned, behind a dumpster in a local shopping center (observation notes, 02/12/2015). this group gathered historical research on the law-enforcement agencies in the area, located crime statistics, and captured videos of the areas they felt were unsafe. angelica explained, there are areas that when you go through those areas, there is hardly any security at all. so i thought it was an issue that we could solve or at least tell somebody about. that we could at least show that this is something that we really care about in our community, the security. (individual interview, 05/22/2016) the csg group constructed their project as a news report, with a news desk and “on location reporters”. they incorporated video clips from news outlets reporting on the young girl’s death. the group suggested adding more security cameras and better lighting, and increasing the police that patrol the areas (csg video). lessons from louise b. coverly high school (lbc) lbc is a non-traditional high school, serving grades 7-11, and located in kingston, jamaica. non-traditional high schools, as opposed to traditional and church-run schools, were established in the 1970’s and are fully-funded by the government of jamaica. unlike the private and church-run schools, non-traditional schools serve a disproportionate amount of poor students (evans, 2001). when the current principal, mrs. d., arrived at the school in 2004, “the school was in trouble. the students were struggling academically, and rival gangs were threatening the local sarah a. mathews 15 community. i came in to try to clean the place up” (miss d., individual interview, 03/08/2015). although miss d. managed to bridge groups in the community and secure a safe place for students to learn, the school’s test scores remained low. in april 2015, i traveled to kingston, jamaica along with miss c., a pre-service, secondary social studies education teacher. during this visit we conducted a 10-day dpr workshop with one cohort of eighth-grade students. miss c., born to haitian parents, is one of the first generation of her family born in the u.s. and attending an american university. she had also conducted a similar dpr project in rural haiti the summer before our research in jamaica, and we spent some time merging our curricular ideas before traveling abroad. once arriving in jamaica, miss c. and i worked with the social studies department to select a group of students willing to participate in the workshop. twenty-five students originally showed up to our first after school session to participate. eleven students completed the entire workshop, and 10 students participated in individual interviews. unlike their afs counterparts, this group of students represents a typical cohort of students at this particular site. the only difference is that the lbc students that participated in this study were willing and able to stay after school to engage in the dpr process. the dpr process used with the lbc students. during our first meeting, miss c. modeled the same procedures with the lbc students that mr. b. utilized with the afs students. first, individual students brainstormed a list of the issues that they believed were impacting their community and then shared these in small groups. then the small groups reported the main themes to the larger group. after the small groups had reported their ideas, we discovered there were 18 topics of interest (see image 3). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 image 3: brainstorming ideas for dpr projects in jamaica as a larger group, we worked to decrease the list and came to a consensus around three groups: abuses (physical, sexual and mental abuse), road conditions, and violence. over the course of the next eight days, we meet with the students during their elective period or after school for at least two hours each session. we devoted each workshop session to help students use a different strategy. for example, on the second after school, workshop session the students each chose the topic that they were most interested in researching and formed inquiry groups. each student in the group answered the following questions: what do i think is the problem? what additional information do i need in order to address this issue? where can i go to find out additional information? when i hear multiple stories how do i determine what is right? we used a think-pair-share strategy where students first reflected on the questions and wrote an individual responses (think), then shared their responses with their small inquiry groups (pair), and each group reported out the information that they discussed. then students created a word web to communicate their initial ideas about the causes, impact, and solutions for each issue (see image 4). sarah a. mathews 17 image 4: concept map from the violence group on day three each student located an article or online source of data about their issue and completed a graphic organizer that guided them through analyzing this information. this graphic organizer is an activity based on two other visible thinking strategy: “what makes you say that?” (see figure 3) and “i used to think, but now i think…” (see figure 4) (fine, 2014). what’s happening? what do i see/ know that makes me say that? based on what’s happening and the evidence you found, what do you think the author is trying to say? figure 3: what makes you say that? graphic organizer journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 i use to think… now i think… what new evidence did you learn from reading? explain why it did or did not persuade you to change your mind. figure 4: i used to think, but now i think…graphic organizer on additional sessions, students searched for images and statistical data. during two sessions students filmed various aspects of the video. prior to filming, the lbc students received the same consent forms as we held a similar discussion about ethics in dpr. on the ninth day, each group met with miss c. or myself as we demonstrated microsoft moviemaker ®. we had half a day to help them to create and edit their movies. therefore we demonstrated the technology to the groups of students while they told us how to edit the film. this included editing out mistakes, embedding music into the video, transitioning between scenes, and adding text. those who were not working with us on the editing portion were allowed to practicing creating and editing their own short films on our laptops or ipads. had we had time, and in future dpr research projects, i would ensure that there were at least 1 training session to demonstrate the technology and at least one session to let groups edit their own projects. at the conclusion of our 10th course session, the students presented their videos to their peers and faculty in the school. during the lbc workshop, we faced a variety of additional logistical issues that we did not face at afs. the community surrounding the school served as an inspiration and a barrier to the project. for example, at one point during our original discussion one young man told us he no longer wanted to participate because, “if his community found out that he was talking about these issues he may face retaliation” (observation notes, 03/08/2015). mrs. d. also advised us not send the ipads we provided home with the children, “since we would never see them again.” we were, however, able to travel, in small research teams, to areas outside of the school, to capture video images and conduct interviews with local community members. finally, internet access was sarah a. mathews 19 inconsistent throughout our entire workshop. in fact, we were disconnected on two occasions while trying to communicate via skype® to the students at afs. these issues raise awareness to the practical and ethical implications of engaging in dpr in different locations, particularly when researchers are outsiders, as well as highlighted the discrepancy between these schools regarding access to resources. road conditions. there were three female members in the road conditions (rc) group. these students chose to examine the poor road conditions throughout jamaica. maranda explained why she felt this issue was important saying, “the fact that it hurts people when their loved ones die or their animals. it’s also a constant reminder from the government that they promise to fix the roads but every time they promise there’s always an incident” (individual interview, 03/10/2015). they indicated that the terrible conditions of the roads were caused by “crashes, poor infrastructure, and lack of money and resources” and that the impact included “accidents that result in injuries and even death for people and animals” (rc word web assignment). after researching the issue, the students found that improper drainage created most of the potholes and that over three hundred people died as a result of road fatalities in the previous year (rc video). this group did not believe the jamaican government would solve this issue soon, and instead urged the members of the community to take action. they suggested that people could sell items or hold a marathon to raise funds to repair the roads in their own communities. faith even suggested, “i was thinking that we could use this [video] and like publish it. we [her emphasis] could put it in the newspaper on like sunday and then the next day on the television” (individual interview, 03/10/2015). the rc group video-taped themselves talking next to potholes outside of their school’s campus and juxtaposed this with images and statistics of dangerous road conditions throughout the country. this group also wrote a song to bring awareness to the issue, which they incorporated as background music for their video. violence group. the violence group included three female and two male students. the students in this group determined that gang issues and misunderstandings often instigate violence, and the impact is that violence is a “cycle that puts everyone in jeopardy and makes our commitment to each other weaker” (see image 4) (vg word web assignment). for solutions, they suggested “instead of fighting we could talk it out”, “increase community awareness of meeting with the police,” and “form a group to tell others how to prevent violence.” the group organized their video as a skit to respond to an incidence that occurred at school a few weeks journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 before and performed this on the school’s football field. marlon explained, “sometimes violence starts when we play a football game. then that situation continues outside of school. people join groups, and it gets bigger than it needs to be” (individual interview, 03/10/2015). the students acted out the scenario that prompted the violence but included alternative responses to each case they displayed. abuses group. the third group of students was motivated to examine abuse after learning about a young woman's murder in the area surrounding the school. an older man had abused the girl and then shot her when discovering that she was pregnant (jamaica observer, 2014). four female students joined this group and decided to examine physical, mental, and sexual abuse. in their research, the group discovered that there were over 7,000 reports of abuse in jamaica during 2012 and 10,000 during 2013 (jamaican gleaner, 2013). faith suggested that “sometimes people commit abuses because someone has done this to them first” (individual interview, 03/10/2015). the first scene in their movie took place in the abandoned lot where authorities discovered the young girl’s body. each member of the group acted out the role of an “on location” reporter to give information about their various component of the video – i.e. causes, impact, and solutions. the abuses group decided that they could write a “petition or hold a community meeting to raise awareness of the issue. these group also wrote and performed a song as part of their presentation. lessons about glocal competency differing types of citizenship and civic engagement in each of these projects students utilized the inquiry arc promoted by the ncss’ (2013) c3 framework. students developed compelling questions, used disciplinary knowledge and skills, and evaluated sources for information. the dpr projects also served as a product for communicating ideas. for example, afs student maria jose shared, “we learned how to put music into videos. we learned how to edit videos. we learned how to put in videos. we learned how to put in captions” (individual interview, 05/22/015). carol-ann, a student from lbc, also discussed how these types of projects provided opportunities for students to express themselves. she said, it really helped us to express ourselves. sometimes i see things that are affecting me, and i am afraid to talk about it. now, you helped me to learn that i can express it more and talk more and share it with other people. (individual interview, 03/10/2015) the final portion of the social studies inquiry arc is to prepare students to take informed action, and as described in the previous section, this process had various results across and within sarah a. mathews 21 each location. there were noticeable differences regarding the type of citizenship promoted within their dpr projects. two projects from afs, the littering group and the animals problem group, focused on solutions that straddled the personally-responsible and participatory types of citizenship. these projects offered solutions such as “being a role model and showing others how to properly dispose of litter” and “pet owners can be responsible to clean up after their pets.” yet these groups also suggested that members could organize activities in the larger community. for example, when asked what she could do to help her community, cecelia offered the following reflection: there are meetings every thursdays in my community. so if i were to help i could go there and i would say there is a problem in our [park] bathrooms or with littering. and i could send emails to the whole community. and we talked about raising money to clean our bathrooms. if people were to check their emails and then do it than we would have enough money to clean our bathrooms. in our community, we should have a store that has bags to clean up dog poop. because last year they didn’t have that and you would see poop everywhere. but this year, there is a fine. her explanation suggests that people should act responsibly in their own community; however, community members may also need to engage in concerted efforts to increase awareness of issues and motivate community participation. two projects in this study, the afs’s park bathrooms group and lbc’s road conditions group, offered more participatory-oriented solutions in their project. for example, the park bathrooms group did suggest an awareness campaign to urge people to clean up after using the facilities. they also contacted the parks department to request they hire additional custodians to maintain the bathrooms throughout the day (pbg video). jamaican road conditions would also seem to require government involvement, however, the road conditions group instead advocated for a more hands-on approach by local community members. in their video, maranda tells viewers, “this is a constant reminder from the government of promises that they do not keep. we need to take this into our own hands. we can come together as a community to raise funds, or we can save money to fix these roads” (rcg video). the group may critique the jamaican government’s structures, but the video offer solutions that circumvent these structures, rather than challenging them. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 finally, the afs security group and lbc’s abuses and violence group’s all researched and reported on systemic-level issues. violence and abuse often require a justice-oriented approach in that these issues frequently necessitate social movement to invoke institutional and structural change. the students in these group begin to scratch this surface by suggesting “awareness campaigns” or “circulating petitions.” their reactions suggests that the dpr process can serve as the initial stage for critical reflection and may need additional supports for participants to engage in praxis-oriented action (cammarota & fine, 2008; friere, 2000). global competency one of my personal goals for this project was to seek ways to facilitate meaningful, crosscultural communication between the students at afs and at lbc. the cross-cultural dialogue we set up was our attempt to go beyond the superficial interactions often created by “pen-pal” programs, and connect students with overseas peers working on similar projects. the assumption was that intercultural collaboration should help the students better reflect on the participatory research process and examine how students experience issues at the glocal level. unfortunately, our communication was somewhat limited throughout the project. for example, although miss c. and i were able to work with the jamaican students every day, mr. b.’s interaction with the cambridge students fluctuated as a result of afs’ rotating schedule. therefore, we only had opportunities to communicate every other day while we were overseas. two of these interactions were interrupted due to internet connections. to compensate for the first interruption, each group of students filmed an “introductory video” describing their school, their interests, and the issues they were researching. the instructors were able to share the videos electronically overnight so that the students could learn from with their overseas partner groups the next day. eventually, the lbc and afs students suggested that we use the whatsapp® application. groups were paired up using this technology and could send short text messages to each other. finally, i was able to share the lbc videos with the afs students once returning to their school in may, and miss c. returned to jamaica with the afs movies during june. although the students were able to speak with their peers overseas, neither group demonstrated increases in “global awareness” about the other host country. instead, this project seemed to reinforce pre-existing ideas. for example, daniel stated, “i know there is violence in america. and i know the students [at afs] mention this in their movies. but we found information on the internet about jamaica as well. jamaica is one of the top countries for violence” (individual sarah a. mathews 23 interview, 03/10/2015). the afs students did ask questions about the jamaican setting. students wondered why only two male students participated in the project and asked “why the classrooms in jamaica were louder” than their classrooms in america (observational notes, class discussion, 05/21/2015). each group was aware of how their issues played out on a global scale but did not demonstrate learning substantive facts or information about the other nation. one theme that emerged was a recognition of “sameness”. for example, afs student faith noticed that groups from both schools focused on animal-related issues. she stated, “even the road conditions group mentioned the impact of cars hitting animals. i think it is interesting that we all care about animals” (individual interviews, 05/22/2016). when lbc student keisha viewed the project from her afs peers, she formed a connection between the issues that students were addressing in south florida and the trash issue that was occurring in jamaica. towards the end of our workshop, a major trash landfill in kingston caught on fire. it took four days to extinguish the fire. in the meantime, schools and business were shut down over public concern over possible health issues. keisha made the connection between this issue and what she viewed in the afs projects saying, “it showed that every community has issues and that they can share it. here in jamaica, we have the dump that’s burning, affecting the children that can’t come to school. so garbage and littering is a big issue here too” (individual interview, 05/22/2016). above all the students felt a comradery around having completed similar projects. rafael addressed this in the following reflection: i think that we all make the community a better place, and also the world a better place. i definitely think that we are making an impact because we are reaching out to other kids in different countries. right now we are reaching out to jamaica, and hopefully, they are understanding our problems in our community as we are understanding their problems in their community. discussion and implications the cases presented in this research demonstrates how dpr helps adolescents develop glocal competency. the students were able to examine local issues while also understanding that many of these concerns also exist around the world. by examining the dpr process at two distinct locations, in jamaica and south florida, this research also highlights how context influences the way that individuals implement the methodology, the issues students address in their projects, and the types of solutions that youth develop. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 the students in this study did not necessarily learn a list of “facts” or “concepts” related to their specific civic-related issue or aspects of global awareness. the challenges of developing authentic intellectual work through digital documentary projects in the social studies have been countered and affirmed by scholars that have engaged in similar work (see swan, hofer & swan, 2011 and swan & hofer, 2013 for this discussion). however, the students in this study were developing the skills promoted in the social studies inquiry arc. this is one stage in developing what harshman (2016) refers to as critical global competence. students were required to take a position on an issue and support this with credible sources. they also learned technical skills necessary to develop digital projects. many of the groups communicated an awareness of societal issues and demonstrated a disposition towards wanting to participate in their community to promote positive change. unfortunately, most of the dpr projects did not critically examine how global forces influence local issues. this missing critique suggests that while some students were able to develop critical civic competency (i.e. questioning whether or not the government will respond to local concerns) they were not necessarily developing critical global competency. critical global competency would require students to examine “global power dynamics, inequity, privilege, and social justice,” (harshman, 2016, p. 161). while students were learning to act within existing governmental systems, they were not learning to disrupt the local and global systems that produce violence and abuse or suppress solutions for change. implications for theory and future research the results in this study suggest that students’ ideas about civic engagement do not always fit nicely into only one of westheimer and kahn’s (2004) typologies of citizenship. for example, many of the jamaican students’ projects addressed structural issues and all three groups’ videos took more of an advocacy approach. however, in their individual interviews many of the students discussed more “participatory-oriented” approaches when they referenced holding community meetings or circulating petitions. the same could be said with the afs students that focused on issues that could start with personally-responsible actions – i.e. picking up animal waste or litter. students in these groups also discussed ways that citizens could participate in their community in order to make a more sustained impact in their society – i.e. present at a town hall meeting to discuss security or pollution. these results may expand or complicate westheimer and kahn’s sarah a. mathews 25 (2004) model. further research should explore how students’ experiences fit within the gaps and overlaps of these three archetypes of citizenship. unfortunately the students’ interaction with their overseas peers was not mutually reciprocal. this had limitations on the students’ ability to develop global competency. participatory research could be designed to create scenarios where the students are directly working with their overseas peers on a mutually agreed upon problem. creating a more structured interaction between the two groups may increase the participants’ opportunity to develop the three global learning outcomes. this adaptation to the project will also provide researchers the opportunity to further explore the potential for digital participatory research to facilitate global awareness, perspective, and engagement. implications for future practice 1. construct long-term projects: the 10-day workshop that we conducted with the jamaican students did not facilitate an in-depth analysis of local or global issues. the afs students were able to complete dpr process and create detailed multimedia projects within a semester-long course. however, we still do not know if either group would have also developed a deep level of glocal competency with only four months of communication with another cultural group. 2. intentionally scaffold cross-cultural interactions: teachers could create authentic crosscultural learning experiences through the activities they create. “getting-to-know-you activities” are an important foundation to establishing these relationships. however, students could learn more by engaging in collaborative, problem-solving sessions. groups could work together virtually to create projects examining how issues impact both countries or help each other problem-solve technological issues. 3. teachers and students should prepare to use a variety of technological resources. when our internet went down we struggled to find other means to communicate. youth can take a role in sharing online websites, applications or forms of social media that they use to communicate outside of the classroom. although we struggled to have students skype® within the classroom setting, our students were able to use whatsapp® and communicate with their international peers outside of school. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 references banks, j. a. (2007). introduction: democratic citizenship education in multicultural societies. in j. a. banks (ed.) diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives (pp. 3-16). san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. brisland, b. m. (2012). the marginalization of social studies in elementary grades: an overview. in w. b. russell (ed.), contemporary social studies: an essential reader (pp. 173–191). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. brooks, j. s. & normore, a. h. (2010). educational leadership and globalization: literacy for a global perspectives. educational policy, 24(1), 52-82. cahille, c., rios-moore, i., & threatts, t. (2008). different eyes/open eyes: community-based participatory action research. in j cammarota & m. fine (eds.). revolutionizing education: youth participatory action research in motion (pp. 89-124). new york, ny: routledge. crocetti, e., jahromi, p., & meeus, w. (2012). identity and civic engagement in adolescence. journal of adolescence, 35(3), 521-532. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.08.003 hacker, k. (2013). community-based participatory research. los angeles, ca: sage. epals & buck institute for education. (2014). community photojournalists. retrieved from: http://pblu.org/projects/community-photojournalists evans, h. (2001). inside jamaican schools. barbados: university of the west indies press. ewald, w. & lightfoot, a. (2002). i wanna take me a picture: teaching photography and writing to children. massachusetts, ma: beacon press. fine, j. (2014). visible thinking strategies. red 6805 syllabus: practicum in reading. retrieved from: http://coe-syllabi.fiu.edu. fitchett, p. g., heafner, t. l., & lambert, r. g. (2012). examining elementary social studies marginalization: a multilevel model. educational policy, 28(1), 40-68. fitchett, p. g., heafner, t. l. & lambert, r. g. (2014). assessment, autonomy, and elementary social studies time. teachers college record, 116(10), 1-34. fraenkel, j. r., wallen, n. e. & hyun, h. h. (2014). how to design and evaluate research in education (8th ed.). new york, ny: mcgraw hill. freire, p. (2000). pedagogy of the oppressed (30th ed.). new york, ny: bloomsbury. gee, j. p. (2004). what is critical in critical discourse analysis? in r. rogers (ed.), an sarah a. mathews 27 introduction to critical discourse analysis (pp. 19-50). mahweh, nj: lawrence erlbaum. gubrium, a., & harper, k. (2013). participatory visual and digital methods. new york, ny: routledge. harshman, j. (2016). critical global competence and the c3 in social studies education. the social studies, 107(5), 1-5. doi: 10.1080/00377996.2016.1190915 hovland, k. (2006). shared futures: global learning and liberal education. washington, dc: association of american colleges and universities. jamaica observer. (2013, october). children’s advocate urges change in sexual abuse misconceptions. retrieved from: wwww.jamaicaobserver.com/news/children-s advocate-urges-change-in-sexual-abus-misconceptions_17736667 jamaican gleaner. (2014, april). bus conductor charged with the murder of 14-year-old pregnant girl. retrieved from: http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20150409/bus conductor-charged-murder-14-year-old-pregnant-girl ladson-billings, g. (2007). culture versus citizenship: the challenge of racialized citizenship in the united states. in j. a. banks (ed.) diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives (pp. 99-126). san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. luttrell, w. & chalfen, r. (2010). lifting up voices of participatory visual research. visual studies, 25(3), 197-200. mathews, s. a. & landorf, h. (2015). global education 2.0: can discussions of difference make a difference in an online format? in b. m. maguth and j. hilburn (eds.) the state of global education: learning with the world and its people (pp. 133-151). new york, ny: routledge. mathews, s.a. & reid-brown, c. (2015, november). “out of many, one”: jamaican teachers’ perspectives of global education. paper presented at the annual meeting of the college and university faculty assembly of the national council for the social studies, new orleans, la.mirra, n., garcia, a., & morrell, e. (2016). doing participatory action research: transforming inquiry with researchers, educators, and students. [bookshelf vital source electronic edition]. new york, ny: routledge. mitra, d. l. & serriere, s. c. (2012). student voice in elementary school reform examining youth development in fifth graders. american educational research journal, 49(4), 743 774. doi: 10.3102/0002831212443079 journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 1-29 national council for the social studies (ncss). (2013). the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver springs, md: ncss. national governors association center for best practices & council of chief state school officers. (2010). common core state standards initiative: preparing america’s students for college and career. retrieved from: http://www.corestandards.org photovoice. (2012a). photovoice: participatory photography for social change, vision and missionretrieved from http://www.photovoice.org/about/info/vision-and-mission. photovoice. (2012b). see it our way – albania, armenia, lebanon, romania, pakistan (2010 2011). retrieved from http://www.photovoice.org/projects/international/see-it-our-way putnam, r. d. (2000). bowling alone: the collapse and revival of american community. new york, ny: simon & schuster. robertson, r. (1995). ‘glocalization: time-space and homogeneity-heterogeneity. in m. featherston, s. lash, & r. robertson (eds.). global modernities (pp. 25-44). london: sage. rock, t., heafner, t., o’conner, k., passe, j., oldendorf, s., good, a., et al (2006). one state closer to a national crisis: a report on elementary social studies education in north carolina schools. theory and research in social education, 34(4), 455-483. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2006.10473318 schenscul, j., & dalglish, c. (2015). “a hard way out”: improvisational film and youth participatory action research. in gubrium, harper, & otañez (eds.). participatory visual and digital research in action. new york, ny: routledge. stake, r. e. (2006). multiple case study analysis. new york, ny: guilford press. swan, k. & hofer, m. (3013). examining student-created documentaries as a mechanism for engaging students in authentic intellectual work. theory & research in social education, 41(1), 133-175. doi:10.1080/00933104.2013.758018 swan, k., hofer, m., & swan, g. (2011). examining authentic intellectual work with a social studies digital documentary inquiry project in a mandated state-testing environment. journal of digital learning in teacher education, 27, 115-122. university of cambridge & miami-dade county schools. ( n.d.). expanding opportunities with http://www.photovoice.org/projects/international/see-it-our-way sarah a. mathews 29 cambridge programs. retrieved from: http://pwbell.dadeschools.net/cambridgeoverview.pdf vanfossen, p. j. (2005). “reading and math take so much of the time…” an overview of social studies instruction in elementary classrooms in indiana. theory and research in social education. 33(3), 376-403. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2005.10473287 westheimer, j. & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2), 237-269. doi: 10.3102/00028312041002237 westheimer, j. & kahne, j. (2006). the limits of political efficacy: educating citizens for a democratic society. ps: political science & politics, 39(02), 289-296. notes 1 all of the names for the schools and identified participants are pseudonyms to protect the participants’ privacy. 2 all of the data here is pulled from the researcher’s university’s school of education website that provides demographic data for all of the schools in the school district. http://pwbell.dadeschools.net/cambridgeoverview.pdf article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (3),176-192 reading habits, grammatical knowledge, creative thinking, and attainment in academic writing: evidence from bengkulu university, indonesia erni sukesi1, emzir2 & sabarti akhadiyah3 abstract this study aims to establish whether any correlation exists between (1) students’ reading habits, (2) knowledge of grammar, (3) creative thinking, and (4) academic writing. this study assessed 69 students from the english department at the faculty of teacher training and education sciences (fkip), bengkulu university, indonesia, with them being selected through proportional random sampling as subjects for the study. a survey with test and questionnaire techniques was employed to collect data, which was then analyzed through multiple regression and correlation analysis. the results of the analysis suggest that positive correlations exist between (1) students’ reading habits and learning outcomes for academic writing, (2) knowledge of grammar and learning outcomes for academic writing, (3) creative thinking and learning outcomes for academic writing, and (4) students’ reading habits, knowledge of grammar, and creative thinking on the one hand, and student’s learning outcomes for academic writing on the other hand. keywords: academic writing, reading habits, grammar knowledge, creative thinking introduction this study examines the unsatisfactory academic writing abilities of students at the english department of bengkulu university, indonesia. the academic writing ability of these students has been identified as being affected by grammatical knowledge, reading habits, and creative thinking. this study therefore aims to establish how these factors affect the students’ performance of academic writing. steinlen (2018) suggests that students writing in an english as a foreign language (efl) classroom context should show an awareness of their own communicative goals, the reader, and the writing context. academic writing is a major challenge for many students in indonesia, as well as many efl students around the world. efl writing is useful in two respects: first, it motivates students to think, organize their ideas, and develop the ability to summarize, analyze 1 doctor candidate, universitas negeri jakarta & universitas bengkulu, indonesia; email: ernimuryono@gmail.com 2 prof. dr. universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia; email: emzir.unj@unj.ac.id 3 prof. dr. universitas muhammadiyah prof. dr. hamka, jakarta, indonesia. mailto:emzir.unj@unj.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),176-192 and criticize. second, it strengthens how students learn, think, and reflect on the english language (rao, 2007). during undergraduate education, writing is one of the fundamental channels for transmitting existing knowledge in most academic fields. the college composition or first-year writing classes of undergraduate programs represent an initial step in learning academic writing, and acquiring professional writing skills is quite a substantial achievement. at the same time, however, becoming a competent writer can be a demanding process for first-year students and their teachers because it embodies various components (e.g., vocabulary, grammar, citation procedures, genre variations, etc.), but gaining such competencies in this productive skill will stand the test of time (tanyer, 2015). breuer (2017) advocates that writing academic texts in one’s native language (l1) and in a foreign language (fl) places high cognitive demands on students. in order to cope with these demands, students should learn to adapt their writing methods flexibly to their tasks, depending on the language and the genre they are writing in. the ability to write is also related to a student’s level of knowledge of english grammar. indeed, the grammatical knowledge of students has a very close relationship with their writing abilities. this accords with the principle of transfer of learning, which states that the learning-transfer process will run smoothly when there are similarities between the skills being studied and the existing skills of students. grammatical knowledge is a basic capital for students when improving their writing skills. with this basic capital, students will feel confident in their abilities and always be optimistic about every learning activity, which ultimately invokes a desire to achieve the best-possible learning outcomes. students with a good knowledge of grammar tend to have good writing skills as well. another factor that affects students’ ability is their ability to think creatively, which in turn influences the ability to identify, summarize, or explain a problem. writing encourages creative thinking. in addition, reading and writing self-efficacy have been recognized as b e i n g related to, and predictors of, writing performance (tanyer, 2015; prat-sala & redford, 2012; shell, murphy & bruning, 1989). as reading academic texts and writing essays are two essential components of undergraduate programs, discovering and discussing a belief in reading and writing ability becomes valuable (tanyer, 2015). drawing on the above background, this study asks the following research questions: sukesi, et al. 178 1) is there any relationship between reading habits and academic writing attainment? 2) is there a correlation between grammatical knowledge and academic writing attainment? 3) is there a relationship between creative thinking and academic writing attainment? 4) is there a double relationship between reading habits, grammatical knowledge, and creative thinking on one hand and academic writing attainment on the other hand? literature review writing writing is defined as “a reflective activity that requires enough time to think about the specific topic and to analyse and classify any background knowledge. the writer needs a suitable language to structure these ideas in the form of a coherent discourse” (chakraverty & gautum, 2000, p. 34). writing requires “a complex activity, a social act which reflects the writer’s communicative skills which is difficult to develop and learn, especially in an efl context” (shokrpour & fallahzadeh, 2007, p. 17). recently, myhill (2009) views l1 writing as being composed of three domains: a cognitive psychological perspective, a sociocultural perspective, and a linguistic perspective. writing has certain advantages over speaking. according to manjet (2015), these advantages include the following: (i) writing is permanent, so it can be read over and over again; (ii) in terms of time, the author has sufficient time to plan, review, and revise his or her work; (iii) writing can overcome limitations in time and space between readers and authors; (iv) orthographically, writing can be perceived in terms of pressure, intonation, content, pause, and so on; (v) in terms of complexity, written language is more perfect than oral language; (vi) writing may be neatly arranged and more formal than spoken language; and (vii) written language tends to be more varied with more efficient and effective words than spoken language (wiegle, 2002). the outcome of learning academic writing in this research refers to the ability of a student to write in the cognitive, sociocultural, and linguistic domains after completing the learning process. the purpose of teaching academic writing is to prepare students for the final task of writing a thesis. in this study, the outcomes of learning academic writing are gleaned from students’ thesis proposals. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),176-192 reading habits reading habits have been identified as affecting the acquisition of academic writing skills. in general, the more frequently a student reads, the greater the level of academic writing he or she achieves. understanding is obtained through mastering concepts as a reader. the relationship between reading and writing is very close, although not quite as closely related as listening and speaking. to be able to write well, we need to read a lot, and reading is the primary means for improving writing skill (chettri & rout, 2013). according to chakraverty and gautum, 2000), custom is a factor in a consistent life that is often reflected in an unconscious pattern, while habits are temporary and result in effectiveness or ineffectiveness. habits are formed based on three things: science (related to the what and why), skills (related to the how), and desire (related to motivation). muhamad (2014) divides and differentiates habits into two: (i) a reflex or automatic action that is a product of neuro-muscular organization and serves to defend or protect the subject and (ii) a patterned and learned action through repetitive activity. according to akhadiah (2007), a human child is born with the potential to learn a language. with this potential, the child can learn any language. language includes a set of habits, which are behavioral patterns that are formed in a neuro-muscular system accidentally or without full awareness. akhadiah (2007) says that the understanding of a read text can be achieved through analytical activities, namely breaking down and fragmenting the text into smaller elements. analytical activities should then be followed by a process of synthesis, namely unifying opinions by connecting them and then drawing conclusions based on part or all of the text. reading comprehension activities are constructive, and for this reason, some background knowledge related to the topic of the text is needed to understand a written text completely and explicitly. a deep understanding of the reading will then result from appreciating the contents of the text in the form of a mental process to absorb the content or message and gain an impression of the text. once this appreciation has been achieved, the reader is not only able to translate, interpret, and extrapolate the contents of the text—he or she is also able to incorporate meaning and value into this meaning. understanding the text will also determine the reader’s attitude toward the content (alogali, 2018; muslim, 2014). sukesi, et al. 180 guy (1989, p. 164) suggests that reading is a complex activity because it depends on one’s language skills and the level of one’s reasoning. necessary skills include: (i) making conclusions about the meaning of words and handling unknown vocabulary; (ii) understanding the information explicitly expressed in the text; (iii) understanding the information implicitly conveyed in the text; (iv) understanding the conceptual meaning; and (v) interpreting the text in the light of other content outside the text. grammatical knowledge suriasumantri (2000) suggests that natural phenomena, according to the old assumption as adopted by empiricists, are obtained through the five human senses (e.g., by seeing, feeling, etc.). the various characteristics of natural phenomena are therefore experienced repeatedly, resulting in the drawing of conclusions and generalizations. in acquiring such knowledge, the individual has a rational mind, so if someone expresses his knowledge, but it is difficult to be accepted by this rational mind, the idea cannot be classed as knowledge. besides being obtained through experience, knowledge can also be acquired through learning. according to winkel (1996), learning is a mental activity that actively interacts with the environment to bring about changes in knowledge, understanding, skills, and attitudes in the learner (winkel, 1996). according to malik (1994), learning is a form of growth as new changes occur in people as they gain new experiences. it is further explained that learning activities can be broken down into three groups, namely (i) learning aimed at modifying behavior, (ii) learning aimed at understanding the symptoms of the environment, and (iii) learning in a broader sense, such as improving the career quality of the learner. schrampfer’s (1999) material for grammatical knowledge includes verb tenses, subject–verb agreements, nouns, pronouns, modals, the passive voice, infinitives, gerunds, coordinating conjunctions, conditional sentences, supplementary grammar units, contractions, preposition combinations, and verb forms. these materials are formed into structured sentences. according to brinton (1984), a mastery of grammar is very important in writing. the ability to structure language plays a role in both fluency in speaking and writing skills. the knowledge of grammar in this study is reflected in students’ grammar knowledge scores as measured by toefl tests. learning outcomes in this cognitive domain include (i) knowledge, (ii) understanding, (iii) application, (iv) analysis, (v) synthesis, and (vi) evaluation related to verb journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),176-192 tenses, subject–verb agreements, nouns, pronouns, modals, the passive voice, gerunds, infinitives, coordinating conjunctions, conditional sentences, supplementary grammar units, contractions, preposition combinations, and verb forms that are applied into sentence patterns. creative thinking according to ghokale (1995), the ability to think creatively comes from (i) an attitude in individuals to solve problems they face, (ii) knowledge of methods for thinking logically and formulating appropriate arguments, and (iii) other skills that can help apply the knowledge they possess. creative thinking is a persistent effort to test every belief or piece of knowledge in order to draw the right conclusions (eragamreddy, 2013). according to fisher (2001), creative thinking is a style of thinking that is used when facing various problems by focusing the mind, so people’s intellectual abilities can be enhanced. furthermore, ghokale (1995) suggests that improving an individual’s ability for creative thinking can be achieved by (i) recognizing the problem, (ii) using the right tools to solve the problems being faced, (iii) collecting all information, (iv) recognizing unstated assumptions and values, (v) using the right language, (vi) interpreting data, (vii) evaluating each statement, (viii) recognizing the relationships between each statement so they can be logically accepted, (ix) making conclusions and generalizations, (x) testing those conclusions, (xi) reconstructing these conclusions with broader knowledge and experience, and (xii) making more accurate conclusions or statements and comparing them with the life events of other people. according to paul (2000), the ability to think creatively can be improved by holding group discussions, increasing fieldwork practices, and adapting to technological advances, so students can solve the problems they face. according to douglas (2000), creative thinking comprises (i) identifying problems, (ii) grouping each type of statement, (iii) identifying stakeholders and the failure experienced by others, (iv) identifying a methodology, and (v) framing personal opinions and acknowledging other perspectives. fisher (2001) maintains that the ability to think creatively is very closely related to the ability to act creatively, so it can be said that creativeness and creative thinking is a process that comprises flexible thinking, the ability to develop ideas, independent consideration, resilience in work, and selectivity in accepting the opinions of others. operationally, creativity is an ability that reflects fluency, flexibility, and originality in thinking, as well as the ability to elaborate, develop, enrich, sukesi, et al. 182 and detail an idea. thus, creative thinking is an ability that reflects flexibility in thinking, the ability to develop ideas, courage in establishment, independence in consideration, resilience in work, and selectivity in accepting others’ opinions. methods design and setting this research was conducted among the english department of fkip (faculty of teaching and educational sciences) university of bengkulu over eight months. the research stages included: (i) development of the survey, (ii) testing of the instrument, (iii) data collection, (iv) data analysis, and (v) the drawing of conclusions from the research results. this research applied the survey method with the correlation technique, being designed to establish the relationship between the three independent variables and the one dependent variable. the independent variables comprised reading habits (x1), knowledge of grammar (x2), and creative thinking (x3), while the dependent variable was the outcome of learning academic writing (y). to this end, the following research hypotheses were proposed: 1) there is a positive relationship between reading habits and academic writing attainment. 2) there is a positive relationship between grammatical knowledge and academic writing attainment. 3) there is a positive relationship between creative thinking and academic writing attainment. 4) there is a positive relationship between reading habits, grammatical knowledge, and creative thinking combined and academic writing attainment. sample the population for this study was 345 students, from which 20% (69 students) were selected for the sample using the proportional random sampling technique. the sample’s students had completed the writing i, writing ii, and writing iii courses in the english department of the university of bengkulu. procedures the data in this study were collected using questionnaires to assess reading habits and creative thinking, while toefl test results were used to evaluate grammatical knowledge. academic journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),176-192 writing was assessed in terms of students’ thesis proposals. the questionnaires to capture data about reading habits and creative thinking were structured on the likert scale. the preparation of each questionnaire was based on indicators for each construct and then developed into statements. they were then tested to determine the validity and reliability of the instrument. data analysis techniques we used the statistical program for social science (spss) software for windows version 11.01 to analyze the data. descriptive analysis was performed to establish the average, standard deviation, frequency distribution, mode, and median, as well as to build histograms for scores for reading habits, grammatical knowledge, creative thinking, and the outcomes of learning academic writing. in addition, inferential analysis was used in this study with the aim of using the research results for hypothesis testing with generalization. in the early stages of testing, the analytical requirements were used to test the assumptions. the requirements that needed to be met before performing regression and correlation analysis for hypothesis testing were: (i) the sample had to be taken randomly and meet a minimum size; (ii) for each predictor price group x, respondent y must be independent and normally distributed; and (iii) the between variables must be the same. thus, the analysis requires a normality test, a linearity test, and a multicollinearity test. the normality test aims to test whether the sample follows a distribution that is close to the normal distribution of the population. one technique that is used to perform normality testing involves estimation error followed by a lilliefors test. a linearity test is performed in order to learn whether or not there is a linear relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable. it can also indicate the level of deviation in the relationships between variables. before testing the hypotheses, a calculation of the correlation coefficient between the independent variables was performed with the aim of determining whether there is a high correlation coefficient between the independent variables to be regressed. once all the analytical requirements were met, hypothesis testing was performed. the collected data was therefore analyzed through a regression analysis technique, namely multiple regression. sukesi, et al. 184 findings results of the requirements analysis the normality test was used to see the frequency deviations from the theoretical frequencies. to test the assumption of normality, the non-parametric, one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test was applied (table 1). if p is greater than 0.05, the distribution is normal, while if p is less than 0.05, it indicates the distribution is not normal. table 1. normality test variable kolmogorov-smirnov z p remark reading habits 0.652 0.789 normal grammatical knowledge 1.116 0.166 normal creative thinking 0.488 0.971 normal academic writing 1.348 0.053 normal the result of normality test indicates that the variables for reading habits, grammatical knowledge, creative thinking, and academic writing follow a normal distribution. a further test was conducted to determine the linearity of the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable. this linearity test also shows the level of deviation from a linear relationship. if the linearity value p is less than 0.05, the relationship is linear, while if the value deviation from linearity p is greater than 0.05 then the relationship is not linear. table 2. linearity test variable f p remark reading habits–academic writing 11.005 0.002 linear grammar knowledge–academic writing 10.394 0.002 linear creative thinking–academic writing 15.080 0.001 linear table 2 shows that reading habits, grammar knowledge, and creative thinking (all when paired with academic writing) have a linearity value p less than 0.05, indicating that the relationship is linear. a multicollinearity test looks to see whether there is a high degree of correlation between the independent variables. if such a correlation exists, then there is what is called a multicollinearity problem, which a good regression model should not have. to test for the presence or absence of multicollinearity, we can apply collinearity diagnostics on the tolerance column or read the value of vif (variance inflation factor). if the vif value is below 10, the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),176-192 regression model does not have a multicollinearity problem, while a tolerance value under 1 also indicates there is no multicollinearity problem. see table 3. table 3. multicollinearity test variable collinearity statistic remark tolerance vif reading habits 0.938 1.066 no multicollinearity grammar knowledge 0.954 1.048 no multicollinearity creative thinking 0.966 1.035 no multicollinearity results of hypothesis testing the four research hypotheses tested in this research were: 1) there is a positive relationship between reading habits and academic writing attainment. 2) there is a positive relationship between grammatical knowledge and academic writing attainment. 3) there is a positive relationship between creative thinking and academic writing attainment. 4) there is a positive relationship between reading habits, grammatical knowledge, and creative thinking combined and academic writing attainment. the results of the full-model regression testing for the relationship of the independent variables (reading habits, grammatical knowledge, and creative thinking combined) with academic writing are shown in table 4. table 4. regression analysis with the full model variable f r2 p reading habits (x1) grammatical knowledge (x2) creative thinking (x3) attainment in academic writing (y) 11.024 0.337 0.000 table 4 shows that reading habits, grammatical knowledge, and creative thinking combined has a very significant relationship (f = 11.024, r2 = 0.337, and p = 0.000) with the attainment of academic writing. this means that the major hypothesis in this research is accepted. following this, the staged regression analysis revealed the results presented in table 5. table 5. staged regression analysis variable beta t p reading habits (x1)–academic writing (y) 0.238 2.285 0.026 sukesi, et al. 186 grammar knowledge (x2)–academic writing (y) 0.256 2.481 0.016 creative thinking (x3)–academic writing (y) 0.374 3.640 0.001 based on table 5, the following statements can be made: 1) there is a positive and significant correlation between reading habits (x1) and academic writing (y) among the students of the department of english at fkip university of bengkulu, with beta = 0.238, t = 2.285, and p = 0.026. 2) there is a positive and significant relationship between grammatical knowledge (x2) and academic writing (y) among the students of the english department at fkip university of bengkulu, with beta = 0.256, t = 2.481, and p = 0.016. 3) there is a positive and very significant relationship between creative thinking (x3) and academic writing (y) among the students of the department of english at fkip university of bengkulu, with beta = 0.374, t = 3.640, and p = 0.001. discussion this study demonstrates that there is a very significant correlation between reading habits, grammatical knowledge, and creative thinking and the attainment of students’ academic writing. these factors predict students’ academic writing achievement by 33.7 percent, with the remaining 66.3 percent being explained by other factors that influence students’ academic writing learning outcomes. amabile (1993) argues that other factors may lead to high or low individual writing skills, such as (i) cognitive ability; (ii) personal characteristics related to self-discipline, sincerity in the face of frustration, and independence; (iii) intrinsic motivation, as this greatly affects a person’s ability by inspiring an individual spirit to learn as much as possible and acquire knowledge and skills relevant to the problem at hand, so the individual can put forward ideas smoothly, solve problems with flexibility, and come up with original ideas and be able to elaborate them; and (iv) the social environment, namely the absence of pressure from it, such as in the form of oversight, assessment, or outside restrictions. according to suryabrata (1998), factors that influence learning achievement can be classified into two groups, namely internal factors that originate within the individual (e.g., physiological and psychological factors) and external factors that come from outside the individual (e.g., social and non-social factors). physiological factors relate to the physical state of the individual in the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),176-192 form of physical functions such as health, the five senses, and so on. psychological factors are closely related to psychological aspects such as motivation, interests, talent, and cognitive ability. the social factors, meanwhile, refer to factors arising from fellow humans, whether or not immediately present. non-social factors cannot be expressed through numbers, and they may include aspects like the weather conditions, the air quality, the study location, and the tools used for learning. according to winkel (1996), individual writing skills are also determined by various factors: (i) student characteristics, including psychological and physical characteristics; (ii) teaching factors, such as knowledge of the subject matter, teaching skills, interests, motivation, attitudes, attention, health, and general physical condition; (iii) the material to be studied and the degree of difficulty and complexity; (iv) teaching media and its quality and application; (v) physical characteristics of the school, such as buildings and learning facilities; and (vi) environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, seasons, and climate. observing the learning experience at the english department of fkip university of bengkulu revealed that students’ writing abilities are still low. this has resulted from new lifestyle patterns, the environment, academic ability, teaching quality, and the facilities of the campus. there is a positive and significant correlation between reading habits and academic writing achievement in students, however, proving that well-read students will have a greater linguistic sense, and they will speak, write, and understand complex ideas better. reading activities do require training, however, indicating a need for repetitive practice and habituation (ramiyatun, 2003). being fond of reading can be interpreted as having a sense of interest, and it indicates the emergence of a person’s attention and pleasure when engaging in reading activities. having a diligent, intense attention helps individuals to deeply master a subject. when something becomes a personal habit or routine, it cannot be easily disturbed because it has become a personal pleasure to continuously engage in it. therefore, a person with an automatic reading passion has often had this habit since childhood. the main purpose of reading, according to guy (1989) and douglas (2000, p. 87), is to seek and obtain information, including both the content and an understanding of its meaning. meaning is closely related to the intent and purpose or intensity of a person in reading, so if a person has a reading habit, he or she will tend to have a brilliant thinking ability. sukesi, et al. 188 a reading habit is key to gaining writing ability, because people who like to read will have a wider knowledge. the more knowledge a person has, the easier he or she will find it to write. there is also a positive and significant correlation between grammatical knowledge and academic writing learning outcomes in students, indicating that a mastery of grammar is very important when writing. the ability to structure words correctly is very instrumental in language, both in terms of spoken fluency and writing skills (guy, 1989). according to bee (2001), there are six ways to support the mastery of grammar among students: the use of scientific words, a willingness to follow scientific discussions, visits to libraries and other places of reading in spare time, positive reinforcement, and television viewing activities. grammatical structuring by the students of the department of english at fkip university of bengkulu is shown through sentence patterns, and such materials are introduced gradually to students with english majors from the first semester in the structures i, ii, and iii courses. the grammatical knowledge possessed by students had a very close relationship with the outcome of learning academic writing. this accords with the principle of transfer of learning, which states that the learning process runs more smoothly when there are elements of similarity between the skills being studied and the existing skills of students. in the context of this research, the taught material deepens and extends students’ knowledge of grammar. it is also asserted that grammatical knowledge is a basic capital for students learning writing, because they will feel confident and optimistic in every learning activity, which in turn invokes a desire to achieve the best-possible learning outcome. there is a positive and very significant relationship between creative thinking ability and the student outcomes when learning academic writing, indicating that the ability to think creatively represents a mental style of solving various the problems encountered by focusing the mind and therefore improving the abilities of the individual (fisher, 2001). according to suharnan (1998), creative thinking involves a process of exploring and discovering new ideas in the mind, where the successful identification of ideas is achieved through the ease, clarity, and completeness of the mind when reimagining objects and situations that are relevant to the current problem. being able to easily reimagine these previously experienced objects or events can help to discover new ideas. a creative thinking ability can also be developed through practice (stenberg, 1995). related to this osborn (in stenberg, 1995) claims that creativity can be improved by training in activities journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),176-192 that can develop imagination. according to paul (1990), students’ ability to think creatively can be improved by holding group discussions, increasing fieldwork practices, and adapting to technological advances, so students can solve the problems they face. sternberg and lubart (2001) maintain that the potential for creative thinking is in everyone but to varying degrees. kuwato (1993), meanwhile, explains that creative thinking is continuous but varied. students who have the ability to think with a high degree of creativity tend to have a desire to learn and a reasonable mind. they are eager to find something, tend to prefer hard and difficult tasks, be happy to solve problems, perform jobs passionately and with dedication, respond quickly, and answer questions, with them typically giving more answers than other students and being able to synthesize and observe implications. it can be concluded that a greater ability for creative thinking in students leads to a higher level of involvement in campus activities. their outcomes from learning academic writing will also generally be better than those of students with not-so-creative thinking. based on the discussion and research results given in this study, it can be said that greater reading habits positively affect the outcomes of learning academic writing. likewise, the greater a student’s knowledge of grammar, the better the expected outcome from learning academic writing will be. in addition, a greater ability to think creatively supports a student’s ability to learn academic writing effectively. conclusion and suggestions in summary, the results of the analysis and the hypothesis testing of this study revealed the following findings: first, reading habits have a positive relationship with the outcomes of learning academic writing. this indicates that when students have strong reading habits, their resulting academic writing will also be stronger. second, knowledge of grammar also has a positive relationship with learning academic writing. if therefore follows that if students’ knowledge of grammar is improved, their outcomes of learning academic writing will also increase. third, creative thinking has a positive relationship with the outcomes of learning academic writing. this shows that if the creative thinking of students is improved, then their achievements in academic writing will also improve. sukesi, et al. 190 fourth, reading habits, grammatical knowledge, and creative thinking together have a positive relationship with the outcomes of learning academic writing. these three factors significantly determine and make a significant contribution to the outcomes of learning academic writing. in other words, they jointly enhance the learning of academic writing. thus, to improve students’ learning outcomes for academic writing, especially those of the english department at fkip bengkulu, it will be helpful to improve these three factors. considering the results of the analysis, the following suggestions are offered: to encourage students to develop reading habits, we suggest setting reading assignments (e.g., reading lecture materials), providing alternative teaching materials, changing the presentation means, and requiring writing practice. to improve the grammatical knowledge of students for writing, lecturers should stimulate students’ curiosity by setting tasks related to grammar. considering the importance of creative thinking, lecturers should improve the quality of their lectures, as well as strive to personally improve themselves through the learning of science and technology. the improvement of academic writing requires the integration of these internal and external factors. references akhadiah, s. (2002). bahasa: pengembangan dan pembelajaran. jakarta: pps kingdom: cambridge university press. alogali, a. (2018). world englishes: changing the paradigm of linguistic diversity in global academia. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 54-73. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/342 amabile, t. m. (1993). the social psychology of creativity: a componential conceptualization, journal of personality and social psychology, 45(2), 357-376. bee, h. (2001). the child developing. new york: harper and row publisher. breuer, o. e. (2017). revision process in first language and foreign language writing: differences and similarities in the success of revision process. journal of academic writing, 7(1), 27-42. brinton, laurel j. (1984). the structure of modern english, a linguistic introduction. philadelphia: john benjamin publishing company. chakraverty, a. & gautum, k. (2000). dynamics of writing. forum, 38(3). chettri kushmeeta & k. rout. (2013). reading habits – an overview. journal of humanities and social science, 14(6), 13-17. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/342 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),176-192 douglas, n. l. (2000). enemies of critical thinking: lessons from social psychology research. reading psychology, 129-44. eragamreddy, n. (2013). teaching creative thinking skills. journal of english language & translation studies, 2(4), 22-36. fisher, a. (2001). critical thinking an introduction. cambridge: cambridge university press. gokhale, a. a., (1995). collaborative learning enhances critical thinking, journal of technology education, 2, 76-82. guy, l. (1989). reading difficulties: their diagnosis and correction. new jersey: prenticehall, inc. kuwato, t., (1994). sex role dan kreativitas. disertasi, yogyakarta: universitas gadjah mada. malik, o. (1994). metode belajar dan kesulitan-kesulitan belajar. bandung: tarsito. manjet, k. m. s. (2015). international graduate students’ academic writing practices in malaysia: challenges and solutions. journal of international students. 5(1), 12-22. myhill, d. (2009). becoming a designer: trajectories of linguistic development. in bear, r., myhill, d., riley, j., nystrand, m. the sage handbook of writing development. (402-13). london: sage publications. muhammad, s. & jawaid, a. s. (2015). lack of academic writing skills in english language at higher education level in pakistan: causes, effects and remedies. international journal of language and linguistics 2(4), 132-163. muslim, i. m. (2014). helping efl students improve their writing. international journal of humanities and social science, 4(2), 67-79. paul, r. (1990). critical thinking: what every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world. rohnert park, ca: center for critical thinking and moral critique. prat-sala, m., & redford, p. (2010). the interplay between motivation, self-efficacy and approaches to studying. british journal of educational psychology, 80, 283–305. ramiyatun, p., (2003). hubungan antara konsep diri akademik dan dukungan sosial keluarga dengan minat membaca pelajar sltp di sltp 13 yogyakarta. tesis. yogyakarta: fakultas psikologi ugm. rao, z. (2007). training in brainstorming and developing writing skills. elt journal, 61(2). schramfer, b. (1999), understanding and using english grammar. new york: white plains. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249252609_training_in_brainstorming_and_developing_writing_skills?el=1_x_8&enrichid=rgreq-1f72114cfc247aef10b4437e020e261e-xxx&enrichsource=y292zxjqywdlozi2nji5mtqwottbuzozndk4mjgwmdi0mdizmdramtq2mdqxnjkwmza0ma== https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249252609_training_in_brainstorming_and_developing_writing_skills?el=1_x_8&enrichid=rgreq-1f72114cfc247aef10b4437e020e261e-xxx&enrichsource=y292zxjqywdlozi2nji5mtqwottbuzozndk4mjgwmdi0mdizmdramtq2mdqxnjkwmza0ma== sukesi, et al. 192 shell, d.f., murphy, c.c., & bruning, r.h. (1989). self-efficacy and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement. journal of educational psychology, 81, 91–100. shokrpour, n., & fallahzadeh, m. (2007). a survey of the students and interns’ efl writing problems in shiraz university of medical sciences. asian efl journal, 9(1). steinlen, k. a. (2018). the development of german and english writing skills in a bilingual primary school in germany. journal of second language writing, 39, 42-52. sternberg, r. j. (1995). implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. journal of personality and social psychology. 49(3), 607-627. sternberg, r. j. & lubart, t. l., (2001). investing in creativity, american psychologist. 7, 677688. suharman (1998). pengaruh pelatihan imageri dan penalaran terhadap kreativitas menurut perspektif perbedaan individu. disertasi. yogyakarta: universitas gajah mada. suriasumantri, j. s. (2000). filsafat ilmu: sebuah pengantar populer. jakarta: pustaka sinar harapan. suryabrata, s. (1994). pembimbing ke psikodiagnostik. yogyakarta: raka press. edisi ii. tanyer, s. (2015). the role of writing and reading self-efficacy in the first-year preservice efl teachers’ writing performance. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 199, 38–43. winkel, w. s. (1996). psikologi pengajaran. jakarta: pt. gramedia widiasarana indonesia. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),292-310 292 the effectiveness of a counselling program based on play in reducing sleep disorders in children of sexual abuse ola al hwayyan1 & fayez mahamid2 abstract this study aimed to test the effectiveness of a counseling program based on play in reducing sleep disorders in children of sexual abuse. the participants were 3 male and 3 female children who were sexually abused and registered at al hussein social foundation of the ministry of social development in amman, jordan. they participated in a play-based group counseling program for 15 sessions. the results indicated the effectiveness of the counseling programs in decreasing sleep disorder symptoms in these children. based on the results, the study recommends using similar methods for other counseling patients who suffer from sleep disorders, such as traumatized children, juvenile delinquents, and children with chronic and intractable diseases, and constructing counseling programs to reduce sleep disorders based on other therapeutic approaches such as drama, narrative therapy and emotion-centered theory. key words: counseling program, play therapy, wake up and sleep disorders, children of sexual abuse. introduction there is clear evidence that violence against children in different forms is a global issue with deep origins in cultural, economic and social practices and that the solution requires an understanding of its occurrence in various environments and due to various causes and the psychological and social consequences for children. statistics indicate increasing incidence of various forms of abuse worldwide. among about 3.188 million children reviewed by child protection offices in the united states after being subjected to violence in 2013, 79% suffered from bodily neglect and 9% of them experienced sexual violence, while around 1,520 died as a result of such violence. overall, nine out of every 1,000 children have been subjected to a form of violence (sporober et al., 2014). 1 assistant professor, university of jordan, o.alhwayan@ju.edu.jo 2 assistant professor, an-najah national university, nablus, palestine, mahamid@najah.edu mailto:o.alhwayan@ju.edu.jo mailto:mahamid@najah.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),292-310 in jordan, the number of child abuse cases handled by the department of family protection in 2018 amounted to 1,778, distributed as follows: 523 cases of sexual abuse (319 females and 224 males); 1,255 cases of physical abuse (83 males and 1,174 females), and 30 cases of neglect (12 males and 18 females) (department of family protection, 2017). sexual abuse the world health organization defines abuse as arbitrariness against or mistreatment of children; all forms of bodily and sexual abuse; neglect; emotional abuse; and negligent treatment or exploitation, commercial or otherwise, that may harm the child’s health, life, dignity, or growth in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust and authority. such experiences have a grave negative impact on the child and threaten his or her social, personal and emotional growth. they also increase the likelihood of the child developing mental health problems such as low selfesteem, anxiety, depression, learning difficulties, or sleep disorders, as well as antisocial behavior (owtani, 2008). sexual abuse is sexual intercourse involving coercion, psychological or physical, or including at least one person who cannot consent to contact (e.g. a child). this abuse may take many forms, such as pedophilic activity (activity rooted in sexual desire towards children), rape or incest. this problem is one of the most common in society (al katarne, 2018). the rate of sexual abuse towards children varies according to the definitions of the concept of ‘child’, as ‘childhood’ may be said to end at any age from 12 to 19 years. there are also disagreements on what behaviors constitute sexual abuse. some consider any kind of sexual interaction with a child to be tantamount to sexual abuse, even if it did not include physical contact, while others consider direct physical contact a prerequisite. still others required to contact through saliva or genitals or believe that even consensual sexual contact occurring with a person under the legal age is sexual abuse (hooley & butcher, 2013). children who are sexually abused suffer a wide range of negative shortand long-term consequences, which may include anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, low self-esteem, inappropriate sexual behavior, or sleep disorders (al-harasis, 2012). some studies indicate a relationship between the incidence of sexual abuse during childhood, mental disorders during puberty, symptoms associated with dyslexia, and personality disorders in general (rashad & alhwayyan & mahamid nashwa, 2015). perhaps one of the most common disorders in these children is sleep disorders due to deep psychological (migdadi & yusuf, 2003). sleep disorders sleep disorders are associated with a wide range of negative physiological and psychological effects. physiological effects include a general decline in physical health, and psychological effects include poor mental health and poor overall performance. it has been found that sleep has a significant role in the human learning process, promoting a more ‘flexible’ brain by creating new neurotransmitters (an, li, shin & yang, 2017). insomnia is one of the most common sleep disorders associated with sexual abuse in children. it causes persistent difficulty in falling and staying asleep despite adequate sleep conditions, which may lead to poor performance during the day. the prevalence of this disorder in children is 1% to 6%, and this percentage increases significantly in children with neurological growth disorders, autism, and children who are subjected to sexual abuse. this rise to a prevalence ranging from 25% to 50% for preschool children who have been subjected to sexual abuse (hooly & butcher, 2013). it is also common for children of sexual abuse to suffer from disorders that occur in the sleep stage of rapid eye movement (rem sleep or deep sleep) and sleepwalking disorders. in sleepwalking, the child leaves the bed during the night and walks about without the slightest degree of awareness and no memory of the event afterwards, even after moving to another room. usually, the child is able to move but may trip or bump into objects. trying to wake a child in this state is very difficult and may confuse him or her (cortese & litvinenko, 2014). night terrors are one of the most serious disorders in children who have been sexually abused. they are episodes of intense fear, which begin with sudden crying or screaming, accompanied by increased activity of the autonomic nervous system. this disorder is most prevalent in preadolescent victims. parents describe the child as not responding to calming behaviors, and there is a positive correlation between this disorder and high levels of anxiety, which may be suffered by children in general and, more specifically, children of sexual abuse (cui, fiska, titus & webb, 2018). many studies have provided evidence for the connection between sexual abuse and sleep disorders. okada et al. (2017) aimed to examine such a connection in a study of 273 children in japan ranging from four to 15 years old. the study used a questionnaire and interview to collect data. the results journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),292-310 of the study showed that more than 40% of the abused children suffered from various sleep problems, from insomnia to disturbing dreams and nightmares, with about 19% displaying symptoms of sleep disorders and psychological and behavioral disorders. the research of greenfield et al. (2011) aimed to examine the relationship between sexual abuse of children in childhood and problems with sleep in adolescence. the study sample consisted of 835 children who had been sexually abused in the united states. the severity and duration of sexual abuse experienced by the individual in childhood was hypothesized to be connected to sleep disorders that appear in their adolescence. the results of the study provided evidence for this hypothesis with a statistically significant correlation. they also revealed that the abuse of children in adolescence was also associated with sleep problems among in that same life phase. merclongo (2014) studied the relationship between sleep disorders, depression, and sexual abuse in a sample of 47 females aged 14 to 25 years in the united states. the results showed that sexual abuse can be associated with many psychological and emotional problems and that the girls suffered from a variety of sleep disorders after a long period of abuse. in a longitudinal study, nell et al. (2006) examined the relationship between sexual abuse in childhood and sleep disorders and depression in adolescence. the sample consisted of 147 girls, 75 of whom had been sexually abused, and 69 of whom had not, and data collection was done through self-assessment scale. the results of the study indicated statistically significant differences in sleep disorder prevalence among girls subjected to sexual abuse in childhood. the abused girls were found to have increased sleep problems as well as emotional and behavioral problems. play therapy without therapeutic intervention, children of sexual abuse have an increased likelihood of severe mental disorders and antisocial behavior in adolescence. play therapy is a type of treatments for children. playing can provide an opportunity for children to discover and express themselves and their feelings freely and spontaneously and establish a therapeutic relationship based on trust, respect, and empathy. it also serves as a game-like diagnostic tool for determining the degree and nature of the abused experienced by the child, as well as for evaluating his or her stage of therapeutic progress (mahamid & fayez, 2016). there have been many definitions dealing with treatment through play, with each researcher providing a different theoretical framework. schaefer (2010) has defined it as a personal process through which the child and therapist use roleplay, communication, and activity to help the child alhwayyan & mahamid to deal with psychological problems and to prevent future problems. the framework is used to play a variety of methods and techniques that determine how to use play materials to ensure appropriate therapeutic use of them. the association for play therapy defines the systematic use of theoretical models for interpersonal relationships in which the therapist uses the techniques to play to help the child cope with current challenges and to prevent future problems to achieve healthy growth in all developmental aspects (abojedi, 2010). the goal of play-based therapy is to remove the emotional pain caused by the abuse through various expressive and imaginative tools, as well as to help the child with self-expression (kaduson & schaefer, 2001). the treatment helps the child to practice social skills such as cooperation and expression of emotions. it also helps the child to effectively solve problems and make decision and provides an opportunity for emotional venturing, which reduces the child’s feelings of tension and anxiety. the play is also important in diagnosis and understanding. by observing the child’s interactions, expressions, feelings and thoughts, the therapist can better understand the nature of the child’s problem (green, 2005). play is used effectively to treat children with adaptive problems by using it in a planned way to achieve changes in the child’s behavior and personality to make his life happier and productive (carmichael, 2006). play therapy can teach children new life skills and ways to adapt to their environment. children require assistance to remain in harmony with their environment, as this is a skill that many children lack, resulting in anxiety. through play therapy, the child works through feelings of tension and anxiety with dolls or games, as well as receiving the opportunity to discover his willingness to perform the tasks (geldard & geldard, 2001). play therapy has been used in various forms within various theoretical frameworks. the first to use play in psychotherapy were a group of therapists who embraced the principles of psychoanalysis. thomas and ross (1993) wrote about the methods of psychoanalysis used by hughellmuth, anna freud and barlingham, who used toys as an alternative to free fall and adopted an approach in which the therapist was more responsive and encouraging toward the child compared to what the therapist did with adults in the free fall. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),292-310 the person-centered theory has developed its concepts of play therapy through axline (abojedi, 2010), which uses non-directed toys and in which the therapist focuses on communicating with the child. the therapist can only empathize with and attempt to understand the child’s issues and can only rarely explain the child’s behavior and motivations. as a result, the therapist must trust the child’s ability to grow and drive his or her growth. this framework serves as an appropriate input for the use of toys in the treatment of children, especially for novice therapists of different theoretical orientations. the proponents of cognitive theory have developed their methods to match play therapy. meichenbaum suggests that children can be taught self-control using visualization and imagination, in which play is used to modify ideas. nell developed behavioral models that use modeling and reinforcement, and the methods of gardner use mutual storytelling as a means of treatment (knell, 1997). landreth (1991) points out that the stages of treatment with toys stand out as a result of the interaction between the child and the therapist, and in this context, several models have emerged that outline with the stages of treatment with toys. these include those of rogers, the bean model, that of norton and norton (1997), and the multidimensional treatment model of yasenik and gardner (2004). broken down into stages, the following is a description of the norton and norton model (1997), which has been relied upon to build the indicative programmed, as it is the most comprehensive. 1. exploratory stage: during this stage, children seek two goals: familiarity and comfort within the playroom. children can touch several games and move from one activity to another. at this stage, children are not engaged in continuous play or meaningful play. the second goal is to build a relationship with the therapist. children’s comments about the games give the therapist details about what the child prefers and does not prefer. the therapist will accept anything children say to build a therapeutic relationship. children at this stage also ask a number of questions in order to identify the playroom, games, and therapist. common questions in this context include: ‘how do you play this game? what are these? and how do you use these toys? do other children come here?’ (higgins, 2003). 2. testing for protection stage: after the children come to feel comfortable with the therapist during the exploration phase, they seek to test his or her patience, tolerance and reliability. they alhwayyan & mahamid exhibit unacceptable behavior to find out if the therapist can protect and accept them, and here, the role of the therapist is to accept behaviors, be aware of them improve them (ray & wilson, 2017). 3. dependency stage: most children spend their time during the therapeutic process at this stage, as their play show metaphorical and symbolic implications. their imaginative play includes metaphors and signs of the traumatic events they have experienced. they thereby invite the therapist on the healing journey in a way that they feel pain and stress. at this stage, children’s play is intense, emotional and meaningful (clauber, flasch, robinson & taylor, 2017). 4. growth stage: after the children experience their pain in symbolic play, they will develop ways to overcome their wounds. by returning to the traumatic event and dealing with it, they will regain their confidence. the emotional experiences of the children are reshaped, so that remembering traumatic experiences will not cause distress. when children reach the point of remembering the traumatic events without feeling intense emotion, they then move on to the next stage and develop a new sense of self. with this renewed sense of self, the nature of their games changes to include laughter and pleasure (baggerly, 2004). 5. termination stage: there are two tasks that the therapist seeks to achieve during this stage. the first is to have the children close the play by reviewing the stages of the treatment process and content, and children may display some of the responses they showed in the previous stages but with decreased emotion. the second task is to have the child say goodbye to the therapist, again highlighting the issue of trust and acceptance as the child tries to understand the termination and not continue treatment. the children direct their toys to show that they have overcome their problems and reached solutions (abojedi, 2010). play therapy is based on a range of therapeutic methods, from which it derives its strength and effectiveness. these methods have been used in treatment both play-oriented or non-directed, and this depends on the therapist’s skills and experience in the use of these methods. common methods include: 1. story-based methods: in these methods stories are used for therapeutic, developmental or diagnostic purposes. 2. methods based on expressive arts (painting, roleplaying, masking, masks, etc.) 3. puppet-based methods: dolls are used as a diagnostic or therapeutic method by having the therapist play one of the characters (clauber, flasch, robinson & taylor, 2017). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),292-310 4. methods based on the use of games that express themes and include plastic games, which reflect either tools used in life, such as cooking tools or medical tools, or games that reflect the roles of individuals, such as soldier or farmer, or represent means of transport, means of communication, or domestic or wild animals. 5. the methods based on games, including a series of popular and traditional games, which are used to achieve counseling or therapeutic goals (kaduson & schaefer, 2001). a group of studies on the role of therapy have investigated play and the extent of its effectiveness in the treatment of many behavioral and psychological problems in children, including hyperactivity and attention deficit. this might involve taking medication to play with children with similar problems, such as lack of attention, aggression, and low self-efficacy. all of the studies proved the effectiveness of this method in alleviating the symptoms of these problems. one of the studies, by misurell (2010), investigated the therapeutic efficacy of play based on cognitive behavioral theory with children who have been sexually abused and mistreated, using a sample of 37 females and 23 males. the results showed that the therapeutic programmed has alleviated the problems suffered by these children, including sleep disorders, and improved their social skills and self-concept. the study by almerasi (2010), conducted in california, failed to provide evidence for the effectiveness of therapy play in reducing the symptoms of disordered sleep, lack of attention and aggression. the sample consisted of 27 children ranging in age from six to 11 years. the results showed that no statistically significant differences between teachers’ and parents’ evaluations of performance before and after the intervention. parents and teachers agreed that sleep problems and attention deficit problems still persisted. in a study by hill (2006), the aim was to examine the effectiveness of play therapy in reducing sleep disorders in five male and five female children who were sexually abused in new york city, usa. the results showed the effectiveness of the therapeutic intervention in reducing sleep disorders in the experimental group and showed no differences between males and females in the extent of therapeutic improvement. hiller, springer and misurell (2016) examined the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy based on play in reducing behavioral problems in sexually abused children in the united states. the study results showed the effectiveness of such play therapy in reducing symptoms of anxiety, alhwayyan & mahamid psychological trauma and sleep disorders and did not show differences in the level of improvement on the two measures of follow-up with respect to gender. a study by hlavka, lashley and olinger (2010) looked at the effectiveness of treatment employing dolls in the reduction of sleep disorders in sexually abused children in boston. the results of the study showed the effectiveness of the treatment in reducing sleep disorders and revealed that this type of treatment improved participants’ skills in communication and social interaction. study problem sexual abuse is considered as one of the greatest threats to a child’s development in all its aspects: emotional, psychological, cognitive and physical. children exposed sexual abuse will face serious problems in future life situations, especially those related to family relations, school relations, and peer relationships. perhaps the most important effect of sexual abuse on children is sleep and wakeup disorders. sexual abuse creates a deep psychological trauma in the child, characterized by many psychological, social and emotional problems. furthermore, play is one of most important intervention tools used in helping these children, as playing can help the child express his feelings and experiences, develop awareness strategies for traumatic experiences and establish a relationship between the child and counselor based on trust, acceptance and empathy. hypothesis testing recognising the rareness of counselling programmes that deliver play-based therapy to individuals and groups to reduce sleep and wake-up disorders in sexually abused children, the researchers create such a programme and tested its effectiveness. the current study aims to verify or reject the following hypotheses: 1. there are no differences at the level of significance (α = 0.05) in the pre-test of sleep disorder due to gender. 2. there are no differences at the level of significance (α = 0.05) in the post-test of sleep disorder due to gender. there are no differences at the level of significance (α = 0.05) between the pre-test and post-test in the sleep disorders among the experimental group members. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),292-310 method research design the current study can be classified as a single-group experimental study, as the number of potential participants to which the researchers had access were limited (i.e., children who have experienced sexual abuse and are suffering from sleep disorders). this design was also used because it allowed the researchers to calculate the change in sleep disorder among the participants in with pre-test and post-test, as illustrated by the following symbols: e o1 x o2 e: experimental group o1: pre-test x: experimental treatment o2: post-test study group the total number of participating children at the hussein social institution of the jordan ministry of social development in 2018 was 10 children with a history of exposure to sexual abuse, six of whom were recorded as having a severe sleep disorder. participants’ history of sexual abuse and level of sleep disorder were evaluated, and all six were accepted. data collection tools sleep and wakeup disorders. the researchers used a scale on sleep and wake-up problems developed by alraggad (2010). it is comprised of 14 items, each of which participants rated on a five-point scale, from 1 (‘this is not a problem for me.’) to 5 (‘this is a problem i always have.’). higher scores reflect a higher level of sleep and wake-up disorder. this is the tool used by the specialists in the institution. counselling game program. the researchers developed a play-based counselling programme rooted in the theoretical and applied literature in the field, including intervention programmes such as migdadi (2003), alhwayyan & mahamid mahamid (2010), hawash (2012), baggerly (2004) and higgins (2003). the programme contains from fifteen counselling sessions, with a session duration of 90 minutes and two sessions per week. every session included a goal and a counselling exercise, and the counselling was conducted with all participants at the same time, as a play group. the researcher introduced a play counselling programme to a group of specialists in psychological counselling to determine the suitability of the programme. the following is a brief description of the programme sessions: session 1: the first session aims to acquaint the child with the counsellor and build confidence in the relationship, as well as provide an opportunity for children to explore the play environment, give the child a sense of safety, and provide some playing instructions (time, place, date of meeting). session 2: this session aims to help the children to identify the playroom and allow the child to explore its contents and create an affinity between the child and some of the games in the room. it also aims to allow the child to act freely and to express verbally or non-verbally what he or she thinks and feels. session 3: this session aims to further develop the child’s sense of safety; reduce anxiety and tension, which contributes to reducing the child’s sleep disorder symptoms; and set the limits of the game involving time, play method and mechanisms of expression through play. session 4: this session aims to help the child to express their emotions about abuse experienced by using the drawing tools (papers, pencils, colouring wax, watercolours, brush drawing, stickers, games, etc.) and a house model to play games representing interactions between family members. this activity leads to emotional discharge and helps reduce stress and nightmares resulting from the internal suffering and suppressed feelings. session 5: the purpose of this session is to develop the sense of child’s sense of responsibility and decision-making by allowing the child to attempt some of the games and test out making decisions about it. in this session, the counsellor uses the act treatment model. session 6: this session aims to improve self-esteem building using cubes, paste, small dolls and drawing tools. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),292-310 session 7: the purpose of this meeting is to increase child’s awareness of their feelings by using a sandbox and various dolls (model soldiers, airplanes, various plastic games representing family members, mother, father, children, etc.). session 8: this session is aimed at detecting conflicts within the child and help them to develop a sense of safety to reduce sleep disorders, using between 18 and 20 dolls ranging in between represent different forms, including aggressive, neutral, fictional, real or dressed for a profession such as doctor and policeman. session 9: this session aims to improve the child’s social skills using cards and graphics bearing social attitudes, as the counsellor displays cards with certain positions and then discusses the child in these positions. session 10: this session aims to further improve the child’s social skills by helping them form concepts such as cooperation, participation, communication or sense of social responsibility. session 11: this session aims to help the child to integrate an awareness of internal conflicts and coping strategies through team play, paper bags, colours, stickers for decorating and scraps of paper. session 12: the aim of this session is to develop commitment and teamwork in the counselling group, increase the child's awareness of himself and enhance his strengths by using magic shop games and the talent market. session 13: this session aims to help the child in self-expression through play and promote self-assurance behaviours in various social situations, which in turn contributes to the reduction of sleep problems among these children using the robot games, ice and fire, a ball game and a projection game. session 14: this session aims to promote self-assertiveness behaviours and help the child to navigate various conflicts by helping him or her to identify some of their conflict topics and then writing a story that involves the conflict and tension the child is facing and helping him develop a solution to that conflict. alhwayyan & mahamid session 15: the final session aims to address unresolved conflicts of the group counselling members by talking about their experiences during the programme and the extent to which the programme met their expectations. data collection the researchers obtained approval for this study from the institutional review board and the hussein social institution. data was collected using the sleep and wake-up disorder scale, applied as a preand post-test before and after the treatment. the first stage of data collection was to select the participants by applying the scale and determining the severity of their sleep disorder. the second stage was the counseling programmed. the third stage was the post-test. data analysis the researchers used spss to analyze the data. for the first two hypotheses, mann-whitney test were conducted to determine any difference in the preand post-test according to gender, while for the third hypothesis, the wilcoxon test was used to determine any difference between groups. findings and discussion first: there are no differences at the level of significance (α = 0.05) in the pre-test of sleep disorder due to gender. to test this hypothesis, the data were processed using the mann-whitney test to identify the significance of the differences between the averages of the male and female participants on the pre-test, as shown in table 1. table 1 mann whitney test to identify the differences in gender on the pre-test variable n average rank total rank u factor w z values sig. male 3 3.83 11.50 3.50 9.50 -0.4.49 0.65 female 3 3.17 9.50 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),292-310 table 1 shows that the value of z reached -4.49. the coefficient of u reached 3.50 and the value of p reached 0.65, which is larger than 0.05, indicating that there were no differences in the average of male and female participants on the pre-test. the researchers attribute this result to the nature of the abuse experience, which can cause psychological and physical disorders and a negative social impact on the child, regardless of gender. sexual abuse is considered one of the most traumatic experiences possible in childhood, which can be reflected in the child’s development of a negative self-concept and view of life in general and cause long-term psychological effects. sleep disorders are one of the most common issues in such children. they have likely been subjected to harsh experiences even before the sexual abuse. in children in this age range, the severity of the impact is usually determined by variables other than gender, such as age at abuse, degree, duration and severity of abuse. second: there are no differences at the level of significance (α = 0.05) in the post-test of sleep disorder due to gender. to answer this hypothesis, the data were processed using the mann-whitney test to determine the significance of the differences in the averages of the male and female participants on the post-test, as shown in table 2. table 2 mann-whitney test to identify the differences in gender on the post-test variable n average rank total rank u factor w z values sig. male 3 3.17 9.50 3.50 3.50 -4.43 0.65 female 3 3.83 11.50 the value of z reached -4.43, the coefficient of u reached 3.50, and the p value amounted to 0.65, which is greater than 0.05, indicating that there were no differences in the male and female participants on the post-test. the results obtained with respect to this hypothesis showed no differences in the male and female participants on post-test due to gender. the researchers attribute this result to the nature alhwayyan & mahamid of the improvement in the effectiveness of the play therapy, which contributed to the improvement of the participants’ sleep disorders regardless of gender. this indicates the extent to which the counselling programme is suitable for all the objectives, techniques and methods of play-based treatment in the target group, which supports this programme being used in future studies aimed at reducing disorders of sleep in children in general. the studies of hiller, springer & misurell (2016) and hlavka, lashley & olinger (2010) agree with this result, as they have indicated the effectiveness of treatment based on play in reducing behavioural problems and sleep disorders in children of sexual abuse and did not find differences in the level of improvement in the two measurements and follow-up post-test with respect to gender. third: there are no differences at the level of significance (α = 0.05) between the pre-test and post-test in the sleep disorders among the experimental group members. to test this hypothesis, the data were processed using the wilcoxon test to identify the significance of the differences between the averages in the two tests of the sleep disorders scale, as shown in table 3. table 3 wilcoxon test to examine the differences between preand post-test averages measurement rank distribution n mean rank sum of rank z values sig. pre-test negative 6 3.5 21.00 -2.20 0.02 * post-test positive 0 0 0 equally 0 it is clear from the previous table that there are significant differences at the level of significance 0.05 in the test averages of the experimental group, showing an improvement in the post-test. the value of z is -2.20, the p value is 0.02, and the average for the pre-test was 3.5 while mean rank for the post-test was 0.00, which is lower than the pre-test average. results obtained for this hypothesis showed differences in sleep disorders between the mean of the pre-test and post-test levels. it appears that the experimental group showed a decrease in sleep disorders. the researchers attributed this result to the collective experience of the play therapy programme and the exercises and techniques used. the group created opportunity for journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),292-310 interaction with others and a sharing of feelings and experience, leading to an improvement in the child’s mental health and a decrease in the severity of problems such as sleep and wake-up disorders. the group environment contributed to effective communication between the members, and this communication is made even more effective presence of a qualified instructor, such as a counsellor, who can regulate interaction among the members of the group. abused children and other counselling groups already exist together for long hours a day only. participation in the therapeutic group also pushed participants to invest themselves in the programme’s objective, both through discussions during the sessions, and through the exercises, techniques and tasks to be implemented at home, most of which relate to the problems and situations participants face in their daily lives. this investment is thought to have contribute greatly to their improvement. this result is consistent with the findings of misurell (2010); almerasi (2010); hill (2006); hiller, springer & misurell (2016); and hlavka, lashley & olinger (2010), all of whom indicated that play-based counselling can reduce sleep and wake-up disorders in sexually abused children. conclusion the current study attempted to test the effectiveness of play therapy in reducing sleep disorders in children who suffer from sexual abuse. results indicated the effectiveness of a treatment plan based on play in reducing sleep disorders among participants in this research. play therapy is an intervention designed to meet children’s developmental needs. it is through play that children with sexual abuse most naturally express their inner selves; thus, therapy for children that uses play can provide children the most developmentally appropriate means of developing self-efficacy and healing. on a theoretical level, the therapeutic conditions provided by non-directive play therapy, which require unconditional positive regard, empathy and congruence (e.g. therapists’ use of their own feelings therapeutically as they arise within social interactions) and the method’s more recent emphasis on a developmental approach to treatment, all point to the possibility that this method benefits children of sexual abuse both emotionally and socially. the therapeutic condition of unconditional positive regard concentrates on accepting children’s current functioning, along with assuming that they possess an innate drive towards improving functioning. children suffering from sexual abuse may be afraid to express their feelings of guilt, fearful of being accused or blamed for not taking action against the assault. through a therapeutic relationship in play therapy, children may be able to reveal these feelings of self-blame. additionally, they can play out alhwayyan & mahamid scenarios of taking action and preventing the trauma in their fantasy, which may serve to assuage their feelings of guilt. limitations and future directions this study was conducted with a sample of sexually abused children at the hussein social foundation in amman, jordan, enrolled in the year 2018. we had difficulty obtaining official approval to implement the therapeutic programme and sleep disturbance measure due to the specific features needed in the participants. the researchers recommend the use of play therapy in dealing with other counselling problems that may cause sleep and wake-up disorders, such as traumatised children and children with chronic diseases. furthermore, it is worth investigating possibilities for the creation of other types of counselling programmes to reduce sleep disorders, such as those involving drama, novel therapy, and emotion-based therapy. references abojedi, a. (2010). play therapy: its concept and applications. jordan society for scientific research, 1 (1), 19-21. al-harasis, m., muntaha (2012). the effect of a prevention program in increasing the first grade female student awareness of sexual abuse and enable them to acquire the concepts of self-protection. unpublished doctoral dissertation , university of jordan, amman, jordan. al katarne, f.. (2018). sexual violence against children, protection mechanisms, rules and methods of investigating victims. dar wael for publishing and distribution. amman: jordan. almerasi, mj (2010). effectiveness of cognitivebehavioral play therapy with children who have symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. adhd atten def hypdisord, 5, 4146. baggerly, j. (2004). the effects of child-centered group play therapy on self-concept, depression, and anxiety of children who are homeless. international journal of play therapy, 13 (2), 31-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0088889 butcher, j. n., mineka, s., & hooley, j. m. (2013). abnormal psychology. boston: pearson.. carmichael, k. (2006). play therapy: an introduction. upper saddle river. new jersey: pearson education, inc. cortese, s., ivanenko, a., ramtekkar, u., & angriman, m. (2014). sleep disorders in children and adolescents: a practical guide. http://iacapap.org/wpcontent/uploads/i-4-sleep-2014.pdf department of family protection. (2017). annual report.amman: jordan. flasch, p., taylor, d., clauber, r. n., & robinson iii, e. (2017). examining students’ selfperceived competence and comfort in an experiential play therapy counseling course: a single group pretest-posttest investigation. international journal for the scholarship of teaching and learning, 11(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2017.110110 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0088889 http://iacapap.org/wp-content/uploads/i-4-sleep-2014.pdf http://iacapap.org/wp-content/uploads/i-4-sleep-2014.pdf https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2017.110110 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),292-310 geldard, k., geldard, d., & foo, r. y. (2017). counselling children: a practical introduction. sage. green, e. (2005). elementary school children's perceptions of the process of counseling with school counselors who utilize play therapy techniques. https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/262 hawash, a. (2012). the effectiveness of a play therapy program in reducing attention deficit hyperactivity among a sample of school students in jordan. unpublished master’s thesis, university of jordan, amman, jordan. higgins-klein, d. (2013). mindfulness-based play-family therapy: theory and practice. new york, ny: norton & company. hill, a. (2006). play therapy with sexually abused children: including parents in therapeutic play. child & family social work, 11(4), 316-324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.13652206.2006.00411.x hiller, a., springer, c., misurell, j., kranzler, a., & rizvi, s. (2016). predictors of group treatment outcomes for child sexual abuse: an investigation of the role of demographic and abuse characteristics. child abuse review, 25(2), 102-114. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2343 hlavka, h. r., olinger, s. d., & lashley, j. l. (2010). the use of anatomical dolls as a demonstration aid in child sexual abuse interviews: a study of forensic interviewers' perceptions. journal of child sexual abuse, 19(5), 519-553. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2010.511988 kaduson, h., & schaefer, c. (eds.). (2001). 101 favorite play techniques. northvale, nj: jason aronson knell, s m. (1997). child-centered play therapy. in kevin j. o'connor & lisa mages braverman (eds.), play therapy theory and practice: a comparative presentation (17-45). new york: john wiley & sons, inc. landreth, g. (1991). play therapy: the art of the relationship. bristol. pa: accelerated development. nj: jason aronson. mahamid, f. (2016). the efficacy of a group counseling program based on gestalt play in improving the level of perceived self efficacy among a sample of abused children. annajah university journal of research (humanities), 30 (1), 27-50. marcolongo, e. (2014). the relationships between sleep disturbances, depression, inflammatory markers, and sexual trauma in female veterans. unpublished doctoral dissertation, university of south florida health, florida, united states. migdadi, y. (2003). the effectiveness of play therapy and assertive training in reducing anxiety and abuse, and improving perceived self-efficacy in abused children . unpublished doctoral dissertation, amman arab university, amman, jordan. misurell, j. (2010). clinical efficacy of a play-based cognitive-behavioral therapy group program for children who have been sexually abused and maltreated, unpublished doctor dissertation, fordham university, new york. national council for family affairs. (2005). family violence in jordan: knowledge, attitudes and reality. amman: jordan. https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/262 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00411.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00411.x https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2343 https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2010.511988 alhwayyan & mahamid noll, j. g., trickett, p. k., susman, e. j., & putnam, f. w. (2005). sleep disturbances and childhood sexual abuse. journal of pediatric psychology, 31(5), 469-480. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsj040 norton, c., & norton, b. (1997). reaching children through play therapy: an experiential. approach denver: the publishing cooperative. owtani, s. (2008). organize the intervention of public bodies in the life of the family to protect children from abuse and neglect. 11th arab psychiatric conference:damascus. qaisi, l. (2006). child abuse and it’s relationship to psychological problems among child and marital adjustment among parents. adapt to the marital status of parents, unpublished doctoral dissertation, university of jordan, amman, jordan. rashad, n. (2015). the work in between community organizations in the face of the phenomenon of sexual harassment. unpublished doctoral dissertation, helwan university, egypt. ray, d., & wilson, b. (2017). child-centered play therapy: aggression, empathy, and selfregulation. journal of counseling & development, 96, 399409. schaefer, c. (2010). play therapy for preschool children, northvale, nj: jason aronson. springer, c., misurell, j. r., & hiller, a. (2012). game-based cognitive-behavioral therapy (gbcbt) group program for children who have experienced sexual abuse: a three-month follow-up investigation. journal of child sexual abuse, 21(6), 646-664. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2012.722592 spröber, n., schneider, t., rassenhofer, m., seitz, a., liebhardt, h., könig, l., & fegert, j. m. (2014). child sexual abuse in religiously affiliated and secular institutions: a retrospective descriptive analysis of data provided by victims in a government-sponsored reappraisal program in germany. bmc public health, 14(1), 282. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-245814-282 tuma, jm, & russ, sw (1993). psychoanalytic psychotherapy with children. in tr kratochwill & rj morris (eds.), handbook of psychotherapy with children and adolescents (131-161). boston: allyn & bacon. webb, c. a., cui, r., titus, c., fiske, a., & nadorff, m. r. (2018). sleep disturbance, activities of daily living, and depressive symptoms among older adults. clinical gerontologist, 41(2), 172-180. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2017.1408733 world health organization (2011). guidelines for medical care for victims of sexual violence, arabic edition cairo: regional office of the world health organization for east aalmtost. yang, y., shin, j. c., li, d., & an, r. (2017). sedentary behavior and sleep problems: a systematic review and meta-analysis. international journal of behavioral medicine, 24(4), 481-492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-016-9609-0 yasenik, l. gardner, k. (2004). play therapy dimensions model, jrs print solution, calgary, alberta, canada. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsj040 https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2012.722592 https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-282 https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-282 https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2017.1408733 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-016-9609-0 www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(1), 96-139 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 investigating the students’ perceptions of the democratic values of academicians cüneyt akar1 abstract the aim of the study is to investigate how university students percieve academicians’ democratic values, and whether their perceptions on it differ significantly according to certain variables. designed as a descriptive quantitative research, this study employs of 248 students studying at the faculty of education and faculty of economics and administrative sciences in usak university as its participants. “the scale of students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values” was developed and utilized for the study by the researcher. the resulting 6-dimension structure explains 62,831% of the phenomenon in total. in addition to the construct validity, cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient was calculated and it was found ,927. the academicians’ perceived level of having democratic values was found to be 2,43. the findings indicated that the academicians had democratic attitudes at low levels based on the students’ perceptions. they attributed much more importance to “respecting institutional rules and regulations” and "giving importance to equality” compared to other four dimensions. the academicians give least importance to the “democratic role modelling behaviours”. furthermore, the results indicated that there were statistically significant differences according to some demographic variables. keywords: academicians, university students, values, democratic values the concept of democracy the concept of democracy is defined in political literature as “individuals’ governing themselves” or “their involvement and/or having a voice in governance”. democracy, from the social aspect, is not only a form of government, but it is also the individuals’ maintaining the relationships and life experiences with each other based on democratic principles (büyükdüvenci, 1990). democracy allows people to be independent individuals by liberating them and allows individuals to determine their personality, identity and position in society in the broadest sense of the term. thus, the liberated individuals become more efficient and balanced in all respects as they lead a life in harmony with the society and the world in which they live (karpat, 2010). democratic values and education 1 assist.prof. dr., usak university, akarcuneyt@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 97 once a country has adopted democracy as a political system, it aims to educate its citizens as the individuals who internalize, live and practice democracy as an output of the education system. in this sense, it is of vital importance for students to internalize democratic thought and values in turkey. from a social perspective, democratic values are important factors in the facts, events and relationships occurring in the lives of individuals in the countries adopting democracy. these values in the social structure in which each individual is interdependent on relational basis are essential for both individuals and the society. until recently, however, the students’ gaining life skills and values were of secondary importance in educational programs in our country, but rather these issues were dealt with theoretically (yeşil and aydın, 2007). the traditionalist education approach based on knowledge transfer has lost its importance with the adoption of progressive philosophy of education and constructivist approach. in today’s educational approach, life skills and values are the most important features planned to be acquired by the students. the importance given to these elements is explicitly seen in the renewed programs (meb, 2005; katılmış, ekşi & öztürk, 2010; kamber, acun & akar, 2011; acun, yücel, önder, tarman, 2013; yiğit, tarman, 2013; tay, durmaz & şanal, 2013; meb, 2015). the fact that the issue of ‘values’ is adopted and attached importance to has given rise to “values education” in educational programs. there are numerous values for students to acquire. laying out a hierarchy of these values in order of importance may not be accurate. however, it is undoubted that acquiring a concept as a value that reflects the fundamental government philosophy of a country is of vital importance. the importance of democratic values has increased in today’s conditions under which especially all kinds of beliefs and values are loutishly abused by terrorist organizations. education, in this regard, plays an important role for the existence and sustainability of democracy (davis, 2010). the main objectives of the mentioned ‘values education’ are described as the individuals’ being sensitive to the events occurring around them and in the world, creating social awareness, honesty and taking responsibility, caring about others, sharing something with others and learning to live together in society (veugelers ve kat, 2003; acun, demir & göz, 2010). examining the democratic values acquired by individuals, it is observed that the studies note the importance of three factors. one of them is the schools (ensign, 1994; wyett, 1997; şişman, 2006; kovacs, 2009; davis, 2010). another factor is teachers (mullins, 1997; murphy, 2005; colby, 2007; kesici, 2008) and the other one is parents (büyükkaragöz, 1992; kaldırım, 2005; üstün and yılmaz, 2008; sarı and sadık, 2011). given the importance of schools, teachers and parents in this process, it would not be wrong to say that democratic values can cüneyt akar 98 only be acquired owing to the individuals’ believing in these values. universities are an important part of this process as well. thus, korkut (1993) states that the universities which are expected to lead the society hold an important place in terms of maintaining and improving democracy culture and its values. role of universities in acquiring democratic values in today’s society, the universities, which are among the key educational institutions that embody democracy and its values, are committed to help individuals recognize themselves and be prepared for professional and social life as conscious individuals (chomsky, 2007). according to chomsky (2007), the major contribution that universities can make to a free society is by preserving its independence as an institution committed to the free exchange of ideas, to critical analysis, to experimentation, to exploration of a wide range of ideas and values, to the study of consequences of social action or scientific progress and the evaluation of these consequences in terms of values that are themselves subjected to careful scrutiny. in this respect, university is seen as a living space in which both academicians and students can integrate democratic principles and values into their lives. likewise, there is a plenty of studies indicating that the university students’ internalizing democratic values is essential for the development of democratic understanding (kılıç, ercoşkun and nalçacı, 2004; karahan, sardoğan, özkamalı and dicle, 2006; akın and özdemir, 2009; sönmez-ektem and sünbül, 2011; yazıcı, 2011; genç and esen, 2012; gömleksiz and çetintaş, 2012). the academicians’ democratic attitudes, as well as the corporate facilities of universities, have importance in this regard. sarı and sadık (2011) found that the academicians’ democratic attitudes and behaviours, as well as many factors, have an impact on university students’ propensity for democratic values. the academicians should communicate with the students accordingly in order for students to acquire democratic values. the academicians should provide a suitable environment for their students on the issues such as tolerance, trust, cooperation, responsibility, independence, respect for human dignity, friendship, equality, honesty, justice, diversity, respect for privacy and environment, participation, freedom and autonomy, achieving happiness, respect for life, fairness, openness to innovation, respect for others and self-esteem, helping each other, self-confidence and standing against discrimination. in literature, there are numerous studies supporting this idea (solomon and kendall, 1975; zenzirci, 2003; doğanay and sarı, 2004; kıncal and işık, 2005; hébert and wilkinson, 2006; jacobowitz and sudol, 2010; çankaya, 2012; kıroğlu, elma, kesten and egüz, 2012). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 99 based on the body of researches mentioned above, it can be said that university as a structure and the behaviours of its stakeholders have effects on the individual’s attitudes and behaviours as a social role model. in this respect, it is important to determine how democratic the academicians are perceived by the students. fundamental democratic values are the basic criteria of democratic societies and democratic education. from time to time, measuring these democratic values at schools/universities may be necessary for the development of democratic society in turkey, just as it is done in other democratic countries (uygun and engin, 2014). with this study, it is expected to give feedback to academicians and to make a contribution for the researchers in this field. the main purpose of this study, in this context, is to determine how the academicians’ democratic values are perceived by university students. for this purpose, the following questions are tried to be answered: 1. to what extent are the democratic values of academicians perceived by university students? 2. do the perceived democratic values of academicians vary by the following variables? a) faculty, b) gender, c) department, d) the place of residence between the ages 1217, e) regional culture in which they live. method this study is a descriptive field research based on descriptive survey model. descriptive method is used in the case of researches that aim to describe an existing situation (karasar,1984: 83). study group the subjects of the study consisted of 248 students studying at 8 departments in the faculty of education and in the faculty of economics and administrative sciences at uşak university (classroom teaching, science education, social studies education, mathematics education, economics, management, finance and accounting). the students were sophomore, junior and senior students who studied in 2011-2012 academic year at uşak university. descriptive data reflecting the demographic characteristics of the participants are listed in table 1. the number of participants may vary for some variables, because some of them were not marked by the participants. cüneyt akar 100 table 1. study group gender male female total n 81 167 248 % 32,7 67,3 100 faculty educati on feas n 128 120 248 % 51,6 49,4 100 departme nt classro om teach. science edu. social studies edu. maths edu. econo mics manag ement financ e acco untin g n 25 44 34 25 15 37 39 29 248 % 10,1 17,7 13,7 10,1 6 14,9 15,7 11,7 100 grade 2nd gr. 3rd gr. 4th gr. n 87 63 98 248 % 35,1 25,4 39,5 100 place of residenc e (12-17 ages) village town district city metrop olitan n 24 7 83 65 69 248 % 9,7 2,8 33,5 26,2 27,8 100 regional culture west blackse a east blackse a central anatoli a coastal aegean inner aegean southe ast east medit erran ean thrac e n 8 8 41 57 58 8 23 34 11 248 % 3,2 3,2 16,5 23 23,4 3,2 9,3 13,7 4,4 100 data collection instruments “the scale of students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values” was developed and utilized for the study by the researchers. the themes designated by unesco (1998), kesici (2008) and doğanay and sarı (2004) were taken into consideration creating the themes related to democratic values of the scale. 47 statements were produced in accordance with these themes. 2 academicians, who are experienced at educational sciences, have been journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 101 consulted for assessing these statements’ relevance with the themes. in addition, a language specialist was consulted to assess the scale in terms of face validity, intelligibility and usability. the data obtained from this scale were computerized and tested using the principle component analysis in order to assess the construct validity of the scale. the results are shown in table 2. table 2. scale of the academicians’ perceived democratic values factor analysis and reliability analysis results statements dimensions 1 2 3 4 5 6 s31 ,756 s30 ,718 s32 ,714 s29 ,694 s28 ,638 s25 ,611 s19 ,606 s35 ,593 s26 ,590 s34 ,491 s22 ,417 s40 ,798 s43 ,767 s41 ,765 s42 ,722 s44 ,682 s46 ,611 s10 ,835 s11 ,823 s12 ,648 s14 ,830 s13 ,766 s17 ,786 s16 ,723 s15 ,574 s2 ,792 s1 ,787 s3 ,549 number of items 11 6 3 2 3 3 described variance (%) 18,375 14,480 8,109 7,840 7,494 6,532 eigen value 9,802 2,260 1,718 1,428 1,260 1,125 cronbach α coefficient ,890 ,878 ,748 ,829 ,738 ,690 rotation method: varimax (kaiser normalization), number of iterations: 6 kmo-msa: ,887, bartlett’s tsp: ,000 total explained variance: %62,831, total cronbach α value: ,927 (n=28) cüneyt akar 102 as a result of the factor analysis, kmo-msa value (,887), which tests the sample’s suitability for factor analysis, and bartlett’s sphericity test significance level (p: 0,000) were found in (suitable) ranges. according to the results of principle component analysis performed through varimax rotation method, 19 statements were excluded out of 47 statements constituting the scale due to the reasons such as low factor loadings, high factor loadings in more than one component and impairing structural integrity of the scale. it was seen that the remaining 28 statements formed a structure consisting of 6 dimensions. factor loadings of these statements ranged from ,830 to ,549. the resulting 6-dimension structure explains 62,831% of the phenomenon in total. the statistics including the variances explained by each dimension, number of statements, eigen values are listed in table 2. in addition to the construct validity, cronbach’s α internal consistency coefficient was calculated as ,927 for the whole scale with regard to the reliability of the measurement. internal consistency coefficients of 6 dimensions of the scale ranged from ,690 to ,890. considering the results of validity and reliability tests, it has been concluded that the scale is applicable as it is. the scale is a 4-point likert-type scale and consists of 6 dimensions including 28 statements. the first dimension of the scale includes 10 statements. as a result of examining the statements, the first dimension consisting of then statements was entitled as “giving importance to freedom and justice”; the remaining 5 factors were respectively entitled as “democratic role modelling – 8 statements”, “tolerance for differences – 3 statements”, “respecting institutional rules and regulations – 2 statements”, “encouraging participation in democratic activities – 3 statements” and “giving importance to equality – 3 statements”. grading of the scale is as “very little” (1), “little” (2), “extremely” (3) and “very much” (4) based on the academicians’ meeting the conditions specified in the statements. according to this grading system, the academicians are perceived as having democratic attitudes and values at “very little” and “little” ranges of the average scores of the dimensions while they are perceived as having democratic attitudes and values at “extremely” and “very much” ranges. ‘n-1/n’ formula was used in the determination of the ranges of scores. the range of scores was found as 0,75 applying the formula as 4-1/4; the ranges are as the follows; 4,00 – 3,25 range “very much” 3,24 – 2,49 range “extremely” 2,48 – 1,73 range “little” 1,72 – 1 range “very little”. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 103 the second part of the scale includes an information form that contains the variables related to the students’ demographic characteristics such as faculty, department, gender, place of residence between the ages 12-17 and regional culture. data analysis in this study, basic descriptive statistics were used to determine the levels of the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values. independent samples t test was performed to determine whether the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values varies in terms of faculty and gender variables; one-way variance analysis (f) was used to determine whether their perceptions vary in terms of the place of residence between the ages 12-17 and regional culture. the mean difference values between the groups were analyzed using tukey test in order to determine the source of difference. the dimensions with significant differences between each other were listed in the tables; however, the dimensions/findings having no significant differences between each other were not included in the tables. findings descriptive statistics were used to determine the levels of the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values. the results are listed in table 3. table 3. average and standard deviation values related to the academicians’ having democratic values n* x s.d. 1-giving importance to freedom and justice (gifj) 247 2,45 ,600 2-democratic role-modelling (drmo) 246 2,01 ,679 3tolerance for differences (td) 246 2,54 ,778 4-respecting institutional rules and regulations (rirr) 244 2,95 ,721 5-encouraging participation in democratic activities (epda) 248 2,39 ,795 6giving importance to equality (gie) 247 2,81 ,587 total 248 2,43 ,487 (* different n values are due to some unmarked statements by the participants) the average level of the academicians’ having democratic values was calculated as 2,43. accordingly, it can be said that the students’ level of perceptions of the academicians’ having democratic values was “little”. considering the sub-dimensions, “respecting institutional rules and regulations” (x= 2,95=extremely) and “giving importance to equality” cüneyt akar 104 (x= 2,81= extremely) were perceived by the students as the highest sub-dimensions regarding the academicians’ having democratic values. “tolerance for differences” (x= 2,54) was found at “extremely” level as well. the lowest perceived sub-dimension was “democratic rolemodelling” (x= 2,01). “giving importance to freedom and justice” (x= 2,45) and “encouraging participation in democratic activities” (x= 2,39) were also found at “little” level. independent samples t test was performed to determine whether the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values varies in terms of the faculty at which they study. the results are listed in table 4. table 4. t-test results for the faculty variable faculty n mean std. deviation std. error mean t p gifj education 128 2,5651 ,56872 ,05027 3,121 ,002 feas 119 2,3301 ,61142 ,05605 drmo education 127 2,1822 ,66123 ,05867 4,232 ,000 feas 119 1,8273 ,65329 ,05989 td education 127 2,6325 ,75952 ,06740 1,907 ,057 feas 119 2,4440 ,78961 ,07238 rirr education 128 3,0156 ,68429 ,06048 1,425 ,153 feas 116 2,8836 ,75573 ,07017 epda education 128 2,5391 ,76319 ,06746 2,973 ,003 feas 120 2,2431 ,80204 ,07322 gie education 128 2,8737 ,57039 ,05042 1,856 ,065 feas 119 2,7353 ,59952 ,05496 total education 128 2,5516 ,45657 ,04036 4,130 ,000 feas 120 2,3036 ,48692 ,04445 the results of the analysis show that there is a significant difference in favour of faculty of education students regarding “giving importance to freedom and justice” [t=3,121; p < ,05], “democratic role-modelling” [t=4,232; p < ,05] and “encouraging democratic participation” [t=2,973; p < ,05] dimensions of the scale. in terms of the total scores of the scale, a significant difference [t=4,130; p < ,05] was also found in favour of faculty of education students. accordingly, it can be said that the faculty of education students perceive academicians more democrat compared to the students of faculty of economics and administrative sciences. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 105 independent samples t test was performed to determine whether the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values varies in terms of the gender variable. the results of the analysis are listed in table 5. according to the table, the “tolerance for differences” dimension related to the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values was found to differ significantly by gender variable [t=2,235; p < ,05]. accordingly, male students, compared to female students, perceive academicians more sensitive about being tolerant to differences. there was no significant differentiation by gender in other dimensions. one-way variance analysis was used to determine whether the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values vary in terms of the departments at which they study. the results of analysis are listed in table 6. table 6. one-way analysis of variance results in terms of departments source of variance sum of square df mean square. f (p) difference gifj between groups 6,165 7 ,881 2,554 ,015 social studies>finance within groups 82,429 239 ,345 total 88,594 246 drmo between groups 12,215 7 1,745 4,113 ,000 class. teach..> finance science edu.> finance social studies> finance within groups 100,970 238 ,424 total 113,186 245 gie between groups 7,160 7 1,023 3,144 ,003 science edu.> finance maths. edu.> finance economics> finance management> finance within groups 77,753 239 ,325 total 84,912 246 total between groups 5,406 7 ,772 3,491 ,001 class. teach.> finance science edu.> finance social studies> finance within groups 53,089 240 ,221 total 58,495 247 examining table 6, it was found that the academicians’ democratic values perceived by university students differed significantly in terms of the departments at which they study in “gifj” [f = 2,554, p < ,05], “dmro” [ f= 4,113, p < ,05] and “gie” [f = 3,144, p < ,05] table 5. t-test results for gender variable gender n x sd t (p) td male 77 2,6905 ,74128 2,235 ,027 female 166 2,4578 ,78339 cüneyt akar 106 dimensions as well as in the overall scale averages [f = 3,491, p < ,05]. no significant difference was found in other dimensions. table 7. averages of the dimensions with significant differences in terms of departments gifj drmo gie total classroom teaching n 25 25 25 25 x 2,5636 2,3100 2,7467 2,5903 std. d ,70662 ,69202 ,59535 ,54434 science education n 44 43 44 44 x 2,5188 2,1395 2,9129 2,5102 std. d ,54966 ,67252 ,46100 ,42225 social std. education n 34 34 34 34 x 2,6456 2,3103 2,8725 2,6089 std. s ,57443 ,72928 ,77423 ,52834 mathematics education n 25 25 25 25 x 2,5383 1,9533 2,9333 2,5078 std. s ,45093 ,44232 ,37268 ,30357 economics n 15 15 15 15 x 2,4812 1,7778 3,0889 2,4059 std. s ,78333 ,68041 ,61032 ,53977 management n 36 36 37 37 x 2,2865 1,9435 2,8739 2,3013 std. s ,55903 ,65605 ,54064 ,47850 finance n 39 39 39 39 x 2,1716 1,6517 2,4658 2,1708 std. s ,67259 ,69154 ,57377 ,53040 as shown in table 7; compared the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values related to gifj dimension in terms of the students’ departments, the average of the social studies education students (x= 2,646) is significantly higher than the average of the finance department students (x= 2,172 ). as for drmo dimension, the average scores of the students studying at the departments of classroom teaching (x= 2,310), science education (x= 2,140) and social studies education (x= 2,310) are significantly higher than the average scores of the students studying at finance department (x= 1,652). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 107 considering gie dimension, it is seen that the average scores of the students studying at the departments of science education (x= 2,912), mathematics education (x: 2,933), economics (x= 3,098) and management (x= 2,874) are significantly higher than the average scores of the students studying at finance department (x= 2,466). considering the total average scores of all dimensions, he average scores of the students studying at the departments of classroom teaching (x= 2,590), science education (x= 2,510) and social studies education (x= 2,609) are significantly higher than the average scores of the students studying at finance department (x= 2,171). no significant difference was found in other dimensions. table 8. one-way analysis of variance results in terms of the place of residence between the ages 12-17 source of variance sum of square df mean square f (p) difference gifj between groups 3,413 4 ,853 2,411 ,050 village>district within groups 84,942 240 ,354 total 88,356 244 examining table 8, it is seen that the “gifj” dimension related to the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values differed significantly by the place of residence in which the students spent their lives between the ages 12-17 [f=2,411; p<.05]. table 9. averages of the dimensions with significant differences in terms of the place of residence between the ages 12-17 n x sd. gifj village 24 2,7899 ,65897 district 83 2,3831 ,58892 according to the table, it is seen that the students who lived in villages between the ages 12-17 (x=2,79), compared to those who lived in districts at the same period (x=2,38), perceive academicians as more sensitive to the democratic values related to freedom and justice. no significant differentiation was found in other dimensions. one-way variance analysis was performed to determine whether the students’ perceptions related to the academicians’ democratic values vary in terms of the regional culture in which they grow up. the results of analysis are listed in table 10. cüneyt akar 108 table 10. one-way analysis of variance results in terms of regional culture source of variance sum of square df mean square f (p) difference gifj between groups 5,812 8 ,726 2,080 .039 mediterranean> central anatolia within groups 81,737 234 ,349 total 87,548 242 td between groups 9,663 8 1,208 2,066 ,040 inner aegean> southeast; east> southeast within groups 136,243 233 ,585 total 145,906 241 rirr between groups 9,130 8 1,141 2,376 ,018 coastal aegean> central anatolia within groups 110,954 231 ,480 total 120,083 239 total between groups 4,012 8 ,501 2,196 ,029 inner aegean> central anatolia within groups 53,667 235 ,228 total 57,678 243 examining table 10, it was found that the academicians’ democratic values perceived by university students differed significantly in “gifj” [f=2,080; p<.05], “td” [f=2,066; p<.05], “rirr” [f=2,376; p<.05] dimensions as well as in the total dimension [f=2,196; p<.05] representing the sum total of all statements. there was no significant difference in other dimensions. table 11. averages of the dimensions with significant differences in terms of regional culture regions gifj td rirr epda total west blacksea n 5 6 6 6 6 𝑋𝑋� 2,4545 2,3889 2,6667 1,7778 2,2902 ss ,59265 ,68041 ,51640 ,50185 ,51246 east blacksea n 6 6 6 6 6 𝑋𝑋� 2,5522 2,5000 3,0833 2,5556 2,5319 ss ,52477 ,69121 ,66458 ,75031 ,54366 central anatolia n 41 41 39 41 41 𝑋𝑋� 2,1605 2,3902 2,6282 2,2642 2,2039 ss ,63396 ,78847 ,73196 ,88974 ,50485 coastal aegean n 57 57 57 57 57 𝑋𝑋� 2,4897 2,4912 3,1842 2,2719 2,4451 ss ,59755 ,83833 ,59486 ,74578 ,49545 inner aegean n 58 58 57 58 58 𝑋𝑋� 2,5230 2,7299 3,0351 2,6379 2,5625 ss ,58944 ,68244 ,68046 ,77745 ,45642 journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 109 southeast anatolia n 8 7 7 8 8 𝑋𝑋� 2,4570 1,7143 3,1429 2,2292 2,3530 ss ,48875 ,73102 ,62678 ,77120 ,37275 east anatolia n 23 23 23 23 23 𝑋𝑋� 2,3261 2,7536 2,9783 2,2029 2,3412 ss ,53444 ,71927 ,84582 ,86158 ,45652 mediterrane an n 34 33 34 34 34 𝑋𝑋� 2,6642 2,6061 2,8824 2,5000 2,5484 ss ,61392 ,84247 ,64030 ,70353 ,48001 thrace n 11 11 11 11 11 𝑋𝑋� 2,4628 2,3485 2,7273 2,5606 2,4364 ss ,51819 ,58904 ,98396 ,88278 ,43578 total n 243 242 240 244 244 𝑋𝑋� 2,4496 2,5406 2,9583 2,3893 2,4320 ss ,60147 ,77809 ,70883 ,79898 ,48720 according to table, the students living in the mediterranean region (x=2,66) perceived academicians as giving more importance to the democratic values related to freedom and justice compared to those living in the central anatolia region (x=2,16). the students living in inner aegean region (x = 2,73) perceived academicians as giving more importance to the democratic values related to “tolerance” compared to those living in the south east region (x = 1,71). the students living in the eastern anatolia region (x = 2,75) perceived academicians as giving more importance to the democratic values related to “respect for institutional rules and regulations” compared to those living in the south east region (x = 1,71). the students living in the coastal aegean region (x=3,18) perceived academicians as giving more importance to the democratic values related to total sum compared to those living in the central anatolia region (x = 2,63). the students living in the inner aegean region (x = 2,56) perceived academicians as giving more importance to the democratic values related to “tolerance” compared to those living in the central anatolia region (x = 2,20). no significant differentiation was found in other dimensions. results, conclusions and recommendations in this study, we analyzed the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values and the extent to which academicians have these values in terms of various variables. according to the results, it can be said that academicians are perceived as democrat at “low” cüneyt akar 110 level by the students. these findings are consistent with the literature (duman and koç: 2004; doğanay and sarı: 2006; kumral: 2009; kayabaşı: 2014). the academicians are expected to have democratic values at high levels; however, research results do not support this assumption. having analyzed the sub-dimensions, it is seen that academicians give more importance to the “rules and regulations” at university based on the students’ perceptions. according to aypay and bektaş (2010), the academicians’ behaviours –such as fulfilling certain responsibilities abiding by the existing rules and exhibiting solid and unchanging attitudes– transform university into “bureaucratic organizational model” as an organizational structure. this naturally leads the university students to perceive academicians as inadequate in terms of democratic values. this finding lends support to literature. the students who participated in the research gave the lowest score to academicians regarding “democratic role modelling” dimension. accordingly, it can be said that the academicians were unable to be a good role model for their students. the fact that academicians are unable to be democratic role models should not be ignored in universities which is one of the leading institutions that are supposed to have democratic values at higher levels. the scores related to the academicians’ “giving importance to freedom and justice” were found at “low” level. in contrast, kıroğlu, elma, kesten and egüz (2012) found that the academicians approached tolerant towards the students’ participating in decision-making process, freedom to choose instructor, voicing their objections and suggestions on various issues, behaviours and clothing preferences. these results are not consistent with the findings of this study. this may be due to the fact that the democratic values of the academicians were evaluated based on the students’ perceptions and/or the study subjects were different. doğanay and sarı (2006) tried to determine the university students’ perceptions related to the quality of life in terms of democratic life and they reached the conclusion that the students gave the lowest score to “communicating with academicians” dimension in their study. the findings reached by doğanay and sarı indicate low perceptions at universities and their findings are in line with the ones reached through this study. these findings indicate that the communication between academicians and students is neglected more than other democratic features existing at university. similarly, the results related to giving importance to freedom and justice dimension reached at this study overlap with the findings reached by doğanay and sarı. according to the researchers, the academicians’ ignorance of active participation of students in teaching-learning process, not involving the students in the decisions to be taken at lesson planning and implementation stage and disregarding their students may lead the journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 111 classroom setting to move away from a democratic environment. the low communication between academicians and students mostly in class supports this view. kumral (2009) found that the students are of the opinion that the academicians lack communication, have inadequacies in the field and formation training and exhibit hard, disrespectful and contemptuous attitudes. in another study conducted by kayabaşı (2011), the prospective teachers stated that the academicians behaved in accordance with democratic principles. however, they stated that the academicians exhibited inadequate attitudes in terms of providing opportunities to discuss in classroom and participating in decision-making process. duman and koç (2004) found that the democratic attitudes and behaviours of academicians were at “moderate” and “lower” levels based on the students’ perceptions. having analyzed whether the students’ perceptions of the democratic values related to academicians varies in terms of the gender variable, the male students, compared to female students, stated that the academicians gave more importance to freedom and justice (clothing preferences, etc.). doğanay and sarı (2006) found that the university students’ perceptions related to the quality of life in terms of democratic life varied by gender variable in “participation in decision-making” and “classroom setting” dimensions. the female students’ perceptions related to the quality of life at university were found to be more positive compared to male students. sağlam (2000) and kaya et al., (2012) also reached similar conclusions underlining significant differences in favour of female students, while arslantaş (2011) found a difference in favour of male students. erdem and sarıtaş (2006), on the other hand, found that the perceived democratic values and attitudes did not differ by gender. having analyzed whether the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values differ in terms of the faculty and department at which they study, it is seen that the faculty of education students generally perceive academicians more positive compared to feas students. these results are consistent with the expectations. because, the characteristic of being a teacher and educator contains, by its very nature, democracy and its associated values. in addition, the fact that the academicians in the faculty of education have a specific pedagogical training renders the communication between academicians and students more positive. in terms of the departments, the students who studied at the department of finance had lower perceptions compared to the students studying at other departments. there was no difference between the students studying at other departments. this finding may indicate a specific condition regarding the academicians of the related department; so, it would be wrong to make a generalization. it was observed that there was no difference between the departments of prospective teachers. kaya et al. (2012) also found similar results in a study conducted with cüneyt akar 112 the participation of prospective teachers. these findings are consistent with the results reached at this study. in terms of the place of residence variable, the students who lived in villages between the ages 12-17, compared to those who lived in districts at the same period, perceive academicians more positive related to the dimension of giving importance to freedom and justice. although we have not come across any study on this subject, the life in villages is known to be more traditional and conservative on social relationships. thus, an individual who grew up in such a culture might have perceived academicians and their behaviours more liberal at university, which is relatively a freer environment. it was also seen that the students’ perceptions of the academicians’ democratic values differ in terms of the regional culture in which they grew up. the findings generally indicate that the students living in the mediterranean region and coastal and inner aegean regions, compared to the students living in the central anatolia region, perceive academicians as having more democratic attitudes and values. this finding was different from the researchers’ expectations. it is known that the lifestyle in the mediterranean and aegean regions, especially in the coastal areas, is more secular while it is more conservative in inner and eastern regions in turkey. therefore, the expectations about democratic values and freedoms are considered to be higher and so the people living in these regions are expected to perceive academicians as more inadequate. in this respect, further studies are required. it has been seen that the students perceive the academicians as “prescriptive” and “egalitarian”. reaching both findings simultaneously can be interpreted as a sign that the academicians abstain from a number of factors (administration, environment, and etc.). however, this attitude might stem from individually or along with other factors. there is need for further studies on this subject. however, it can be said that the democratic behaviours of academicians are connected with the attitudes of university administration. universities’ providing academicians with the assurance of academic freedom and becoming democratic institutions in this sense will ease the pressure on academicians and remove one of the obstacles that lead them to exhibit “prescriptive” attitudes. besides, universities’ organizing activities (e.g. seminars, conferences) to develop democratic values of academicians can increase their sensitivity. especially considering that the academicians are perceived inadequate for being a role model, it is suggested that this issue should be paid a close attention. university administration’s encouraging academicians to join social, scientific and sporting activities together with the students can also make a contribution in this regard. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 113 the researchers in this area are suggested to investigate this subject with different samples and/or methods and do studies examining the reasons why the academicians are not perceived as democratic at desired levels. references acun, i̇, demir, m. ve göz, l. (2010). öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki ilişki, journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 107-123 acun, i̇., yücel, c., önder, a. ve tarman, b. (2013). değerler: kim ne kadar değer veriyor? uşak üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, kış (6/1), 194-196. akın, u. & özdemir, m. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının demokratik değerlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi: eğitim bilimleri fakültesi örneği. ankara üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 42(2), 183-192. arslantaş, i̇. (2011). öğretim elemanlarının öğretim stratejileri-yöntem ve teknikleri, iletişim ve ölçme değerlendirme yeterliklerine yönelik öğrenci görüşleri. mustafa kemal üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 8 (15), 487-506. aypay, a., aypay, a. & demirhan, g. (2009). öğrencilerin üniversiteye sosyal uyumu. uşak üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 3 (2/1), 46-64. aypay, a., sever, m. & demirhan, g. (2012). üniversite öğrencilerinin sosyal ve akademik entegrasyonu: boylamsal bir araştırma. gaziantep üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 11(2), 407-422. bacon, m. & sloam (2010). john dewey and the democratic role of higher education in england. journal of political science education, 6, 336-352. bingöl, d. (2000). demokratik tutum ve değerler açısından üniversite gençliği. i̇ktisadi ve i̇dari bilimler dergisi, 14(1), 129-157. büyükdüvenci, s. (1990). demokrasi, eğitim ve türkiye. ankara üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 23(2), 583-597. büyükkaragöz, s. (1992). aile içi demokrasi ve eğitim. selçuk üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 1(8), 143-151. chomsky, n. (2007). demokrasi ve eğitim. c.p. otero (ed.). i̇stanbul: bgst yayınları colby, a. (2007). educating for democracy. 03.04. 2012 tarihinde www.carnegiefoundation.org adresinden erişilmiştir. http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ cüneyt akar 114 çankaya, i̇. h. (2010). i̇lköğretim okul yöneticilerinin demokrasiye ilişkin tutumlarını etkileyen bazı etkenler üzerine bir araştırma. gaziantep üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 10(2), 945 -960. davis, m. (2010). practicing in democracy in the nclb elementary classroom. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, domanician university of california, san rafael, ca. dewey, j. (2010). okul ve toplum (2. basım). ankara: pegem akademi. doğanay, a. & sarı, m. (2006). öğrencilerin üniversitedeki yaşam kalitesine ilişkin algılarının demokratik yaşam kültürü çerçevesinde değerlendirilmesi. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi, 4(2), 107-128. doğanay, a. & sarı, m. (2004). elementary school students’ devotion level to democratic values and comparison of the effect of overt and hidden curriculum on gaining democratic values in terms of students and teachers opinions. educational administration in theory & practice, 39, 356-383. duman, t. & koç, g. (2004). eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin öğretim elemanlarının demokratik tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin görüşleri. xiii. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kurultayı, malatya. ensign, j. (1994). changing roles in classroom: an attempt thet didn’t work. paper presented at a the meeting of the american educational studies association, chapel hill, nc. erdem, a. r. & sarıtaş, e. (2006). sınıf öğretmenliği öğrencilerinin öğretim elemanlarının davranışlarının demokratikliğine ilişkin algıları (paü örneği), selçuk üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 16, 525–538. genç, s. z. & esen, h. (2012). öğretmen yetiştirmede demokratik değerlerin benimsenmesi. the journal of academic social science studies, 5(8), 589-602. gömleksiz, m. n. & çetintaş, s. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının demokratik tutumları (fırat, dicle,7 aralık, cumhuriyet ve erzincan üniversiteleri örneği). dicle üniversitesi ziya gökalp eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 17, 1-14. hébert, y. & wilkinson, l. (2006). diversity and democratic values: implications for public policy. george h. richardson & david, w. (eds.) troubling the canon of citizenship education. new york: peter lang publishing. jacobowitz, t. & sudol, k. a. (2010). literacy strategies that promote democratic skills, attitudes, and behaviors in the social studies classroom. social studies research and practice, 5(3), 62-73. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 115 kalaycı, ş. (2008). spss uygulamalı çok değişkenli i̇statistik teknikleri. ankara: asil yayın dağıtım. kaldırım, e. (2005). i̇lköğretim 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin demokrasi algıları. gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 25(3), 143-162. kamber, t., acun, i̇. & akar, c (2011). i̇lköğretim birinci kademe sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının uygulanabilirliği, uşak üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 4(2), 195-218. http://dx.doi.org/10.12780/uusbd99 karahan, t. f., sardoğan, m. e., özkamalı, e. & dicle, a. n. (2006). öğretmen adaylarında demokratik tutum, nevrotik egilimler ve kendini gerçekleştirme. h. ü. eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 30, 149-158. karasar n . (1984). bilimsel araştırma metodu. ankara: hacettepe taş kitapçılık. karpat, h. k. (2010). türk demokrasi tarihi: sosyal, kültürel, ekonomik temeller. i̇stanbul: timaş yayınları. katılmış, a., ekşi, h., öztürk, c. (2010). sosyal bilgiler dersi kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programının etkililiği, journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi, 1(1), 50-87. kaya, h. i̇., taştan, m., kop, y. & metin, m. (2012). öğretmen adaylarının öğretim elemanlarının demokratik davranışlarına ilişkin algıları (kars i̇li örneği). pegem eğitim ve öğretim dergisi, 2(1), 39-49. kayabaşı, y. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının davranışlarının demokratik sınıf ortamı açısından değerlendirilmesi. gü gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 31(2), 525-549. kesici, ş. (2008). teachers' opinions about building a democratic classroom. journal of instructional psychology, 35(2), 192-203. kıncal, r. y., & işık, h. (2005). elementary school principals’ level of practicing democratic values: perceptions of teachers. international journal of educational reform, 14(3), 326-333. kılıç, d., ercoşkun, m. h. & nalçacı, a. (2004). sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının demokratik tutumları. türkiye sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, 8(2-3), 9-19. kıroğlu, k., elma, c., kesten, a. & egüz, ş. (2012). üniversitede demokratik bir değer olarak hoşgörü. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi, 3(2), 86-104. korkut, h. (1993). demokratik üniversite. amme i̇dare dergisi. 26(2), 119-133. kovacs, p. (2009). education for democracy: it is not an issue of dare; it is an issue of can. teacher education quarterly. 9-23 http://dx.doi.org/10.12780/uusbd99 cüneyt akar 116 kumral, o. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının öğretim elemanlarının davranışlarına yönelik algıları. pamukkale üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 1(25), 92-102. meb, (2015). hayat bilgisi programı, ankara: milli eğitim basımevi. meb, (2005). sosyal bilgiler programı 4-5. sınıflar, ankara: milli eğitim basımevi. mullins, s. l. (1997). images of democratic educators. paper presented at the annual of the national council for the social studies. cincinati, oh, november. murphy, m. (2005). maritain explains the moral principlers of education to dewey. educational horizons, 282-291. sağlam, h. i̇. (2000). sosyal bilgiler dersinin demokratik tutum geliştirmedeki rolü. milli eğitim dergisi, 146, 67-71. sarı, m. & sadık, f. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının demokrasi algıları (çukurova üniversitesi örneği). uluslararası eğitim programları ve öğretim çalışmaları dergisi, 1(2), 67-82. solomon, d. & kendall, a. (1975). dimensions of children’s classromm behavior as perceived by teachers. paper presented at meeting of the society for research in child development, denver, colorado. sönmez-ektem, i. & sünbül, a. m. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının demokratik tutumları üzerine bir araştırma. selçuk üniversitesi ahmet keleşoğlu eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 31,159-168. şişman, m. (2006). eğitimde demokrasi ve sosyal adalet: türkiye eğitim sisteminin değişmeyen miti. türk eğitim sisteminde yeni paradigma arayışları (bildiriler kitabı). ankara: eğitim-bir-sen yayınları. uygun, s. & engin, g. (2014). temel demokratik değerler ölçeği: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması. turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkc. volume 9/5 spring 2014, 2021-2031. üstün, a. & yılmaz, m. (2008). üniversite öğrencilerinin aile içi demokrasi ile ilgili görüşlerinin cinsiyet ve anne-baba eğitim düzeyine göre değerlendirilmesi. ahi evran üniversitesi kırşehir eğitim fakültesi dergisi (kefad), 9(2), 77-90. tay, b., durmaz f., & şanal, m. (2013). sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında öğrencilerin değer ve değerler eğitimine ilişkin görüşleri. g.ü. gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi gefad / gujgef 33(1), 67-93. veugelers, w., & kat, e. d. (2003). moral and democratic education in public primary schools. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, chicago. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 117 wyett, j. l. ( 1997). new teachers for a new mission: democratic classrooms. paper presented at the annual meeting of the association of teacher educators, washington. yazıcı, k. (2011). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının demokratik değerlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. eğitim ve bilim, 36(159), 165-179. yeşil, r. & aydın, d. (2007). demokratik değerlerin eğitiminde yöntem ve zamanlama. türkiye sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, 11(2), 65-84. yiğit, m. f., tarman, b. (2013). değerler eğitimimin ilköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarındaki yeri ve önemi. journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi. 4(2), 79-102 zenzirci, i̇. (2003). i̇lköğretim okullarında yönetimin demokratik düzeyinin katılım, özgürlük ve özerklik boyutları açısından değerlendirilmesi (balıkersir i̇li örneği).yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, ankara üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, ankara. cüneyt akar 118 öğretim elemanlarının demokratik değerlerine yönelik öğrenci algılarının i̇ncelenmesi cüneyt akar∗ özet bu çalışmanın amacı üniversite öğrencilerinin öğretim elemanlarının demokratik değerlere ne düzeyde sahip olduklarına yönelik algılarını ve algılarının bazı değişkenlere göre faklılık gösterip göstermediğini incelemektir. araştırma betimsel bir çalışma olup, çalışma grubu uşak üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi ve i̇ktisadi ve i̇dari bilimler fakültesinde öğrenim gören 248 öğrenciden oluşmaktadır. araştırmada ölçme aracı olarak araştırmacı tarafından geliştirilen “akademisyenlerin demokratik değerlerine yönelik öğrenci algısı ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. sonuç olarak toplam varyansın % 62,831’ini açıklayan 6 boyutlu bir ölçek elde edilmiştir. ölçeğin toplam cronbach alfa güvenirlik katsayısı ,927 bulunmuştur. akademisyenlerin demokratik değerlere sahip olma düzeyleri ortalaması 2,43 olarak tespit edilmiştir. bu bulgular aklademisyenlerin demokratik değerlerinin düşük düzeyde algılandığını göstermektedir. öğretim elemanlarının en fazla değer verdikleri boyutlar “kurumsal kural ve yasalara saygı” ve “eşitliğe verilen önem”dir. en az önem verdikleri değerin ise “demokratik rol olma” boyutu olarak algılandığı görülmüştür. ayrıca bazı demografik değişkenler açısından istatistiksel olarak anlamlı farklar olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. anahtar kelimeler: öğretim üyeleri, üniversite öğrencileri, demokratik değerler, key words: academics, university students, democratic values demokrasi kavramı demokrasi kavramı siyasi literatür ve çevrelerde “bireylerin kendi kendisini yönetmesi” ya da “yönetime katılma ve/veya söz sahibi olması” anlamında yer bulmaktadır. toplumsal yönüyle ise demokrasi sadece bir yönetim biçimi olmayıp, bireylerin birbirleriyle olan ilişkilerini ve yaşantılarını demokratik ilkelere göre sürdürmesidir (büyükdüvenci,1990). en geniş anlamı ile demokrasi; insanı özgürleştirerek onun bağımsız bir birey olmasını sağlarken, bireyin kişiliğini, kimliğini ve toplum içerisindeki yerini, kendi özgür iradesiyle belirleme ∗ yrd. doç. dr. uşak üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, akarcuneyt@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 119 imkânı verir. böylece özgürleşen kişi, her bakımdan daha verimli ve dengeli olurken, kendisi, yaşadığı toplum ve dünya ile barışık bir hayat sürer (karpat, 2010). demokratik değerler ve eğitim bir ülke eğer siyasal bir sistem olarak demokrasiyi benimsenmişse, eğitim sisteminin bir çıktısı olarak vatandaşlarını demokrasiyi benimseyen, yaşayan ve uygulayan bireyler olarak yetiştirmeyi amaçlar. bu anlamda ülkemizde de demokratik düşünce ve değerlerin öğrencilerimize kazandırılması son derece önemlidir. demokrasiyi benimseyen ülkelerde demokratik değerler, toplumsal anlamda bireylerin yaşantılarında meydana gelen olaylar, olgular ve birbirleriyle olan ilişkilerinde önemli bir unsur olmaktadır. i̇lişkisel olarak her bireyin birbirine bağımlı olduğu toplumsal yapı içerisinde bu değerler, hem kişisel olarak hem de toplum için gereklidir. ancak ülkemizde eğitim programlarında son zamanlara kadar öğrencilere yaşam becerileri ve değerlerin kazandırılması ikinci planda kalmış, daha ziyade bu hususlar bilgi boyutunda ele alınmıştır (yeşil ve aydın, 2007). gelenekselci eğitimin bilgi aktarmaya dayalı eğitim anlayışı, ilerlemeci eğitim felsefesi ve yapılandırmacı yaklaşımın benimsenmesiyle önemini kaybetmiştir. günümüz eğitim anlayışında yaşam becerileri ve değerler öğrencilere kazandırılması planlanan en önemli özelliklerdir. yenilenen programlarımızda da bu unsurlara verilen önem açıkça görülmektedir (meb, 2005; katılmış , ekşi & öztürk, 2010; kamber, acun & akar, 2011; acun, yücel, önder, tarman, 2013; yiğit, tarman, 2013; tay, durmaz & şanal, 2013; meb, 2015;). değerler konusunun önemsenmesi ve benimsenmesi ise, eğitimde “değer eğitimi” konusunun var olmasına neden olmuştur. öğrencilere kazandırılması düşünülen çok sayıda değer bulunmaktadır. bu değerlerin önem sırasına göre bir hiyerarşisinin yapılması doğru bulunmayabilir. ancak kuşkusuz ülkenin temel yönetim anlayışını yansıtan eden bir kavramın değer olarak kazandırılması hayati öneme sahiptir. özellikle her türlü inanç ve değerin terör örgütleri tarafından hoyratça kullanıldığı günümüz koşullarında demokratik değerlerin benimsenmesinin önemi daha da artmıştır. bu açıdan, demokrasinin varlığı ve sürdürülmesi için eğitim önemlidir (davis, 2010). tartışılan değer eğitiminde eğitimin temel amaçları, bireylerin çevresinde ve dünyada meydana gelen olaylara duyarlı olma, toplumsal farkındalık oluşturma, dürüstlük ve sorumluluk alma, başkalarını önemseme, başkalarıyla bir şeyleri paylaşma ve toplum içinde birlikte yaşamayı öğrenme olarak ifade edilmektedir (veugelers ve kat, 2003; acun, demir, göz, 2010). demokratik değerlerin bireyler tarafından kazanılması incelendiğinde, yapılan çalışmaların üç faktörün önemine işaret etmekte olduğu görülmektedir. bunlardan biri cüneyt akar 120 okullardır (ensign, 1994; wyett, 1997; şişman, 2006; kovacs, 2009; davis, 2010). bir diğer faktör öğretmenler (mullins, 1997; murphy, 2005; colby, 2007; kesici, 2008) ve bir diğeri ise ebeveynlerdir (büyükkaragöz, 1992; kaldırım, 2005; üstün ve yılmaz, 2008; sarı ve sadık, 2011). okulların, öğretmenlerin ve ebeveynlerin bu süreçteki önemi göz önüne alındığında demokratik değerlerin ancak bu değerlere inanan yetişkinler aracılığıyla kazandırabileceğini söylemek yanlış olmaz. üniversiteler de bu sürecin önemli bir parçasıdır. nitekim korkut (1993) demokrasi kültürünün ve değerlerin yaşatılması ve geliştirilmesi bakımından toplumun öncüsü olması beklenen üniversitelerin önemli bir yer tuttuğunu ifade etmektedir. demokratik değerlerin kazanımında üniversiteler günümüz toplumunda demokrasi ve ilkelerini taşıyacak önemli eğitim kurumlarından olan üniversiteler, bireylerin kendilerini tanımalarını ve onların mesleki ve toplumsal hayata bilinçli vatandaşlar olarak hazırlanmalarını görev edinmektedir. chomsky (2007) bu hususta üniversitenin özgür bir topluma yapabileceği en önemli katkıyı, serbest fikir alış verişi, eleştirel analiz, deneycilik, çeşitli fikir ve değerlerin keşfedilmesi, toplumsal eylem veya bilimsel ilerlemenin sonuçlarının araştırılması olarak görmektedir. bu açıdan üniversite hem öğretim üyelerinin hem de öğrencilerin demokratik ilke ve değerlerini yaşamları ile bütünleştirdiği bir yaşam alanı olarak görülür. nitekim yapılan pek çok çalışmada demokratik anlayışın gelişmesi için üniversite öğrencilerinin demokratik değerleri içselleştirmelerinin gerekli olduğu ortaya konulmuştur (kılıç, ercoşkun ve nalçacı, 2004; karahan, sardoğan, özkamalı ve dicle, 2006; akın ve özdemir, 2009; sönmez-ektem ve sünbül, 2011; yazıcı, 2011; genç ve esen, 2012; gömleksiz ve çetintaş, 2012). üniversitelerin kurumsal imkânlarının yanı sıra öğretim elemanlarının demokratik tutumları bu hususta önemli bir durum teşkil etmektedir. sarı ve sadık (2011), yaptıkları bir araştırmada üniversite öğrencilerinin demokratik değerlere yaklaşımlarında, birçok etkenin yanında, öğretim elemanlarının tutum ve davranışların da etkili olduğunu bulmuşlardır. öğrencilere demokratik değerlerin kazandırılabilmesi için öğretim elemanlarının öğrencilerle iletişiminin buna uygun olması gerekir. öğretim elemanları öğrencilerine; hoşgörü, güven, işbirliği, sorumluluk, bağımsızlık, insan onuruna saygı, arkadaşlık, eşitlik, dürüstlük, adalet, çeşitlilik, gizlilik ve çevreye saygı, katılım, özgürlük ve özerklik, mutluluğa ulaşma, yaşama saygı, adil olma, yeniliğe açık olma, başkalarına ve kendine saygı, yardımlaşma, öz güven, ayrımcılığa karşı olma gibi konularda uygun ortamları sağlamalıdır. literatürde yer alan pek çok çalışma da bu düşünceyi destekler niteliktedir (solomon ve kendall, 1975; zenzirci, journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 121 2003; doğanay ve sarı, 2004; kıncal ve işık, 2005; hébert ve wilkinson, 2006; jacobowitz ve sudol, 2010; çankaya, 2012; kıroğlu, elma, kesten ve egüz, 2012). bu bulgulardan hareketle bir yapı olarak üniversite ve paydaşlarının davranışlarının sosyal bir rol model olarak bireyin tutum ve davranışını etkilediği söylenebilir. bu açıdan öğretim elemanlarının öğrencilerinin gözünde ne kadar demokratik olduğunun belirlenmesi önemlidir. temel demokratik değerler, demokratik toplumların ve demokratik eğitimin temel ölçütleridir. dünyadaki demokratik ülkelerde olduğu gibi türkiye'de demokratik toplumun gelişmesi için okullarda zaman zaman bu demokratik değerlerin ölçümü zaruri olabilir (uygun ve engin, 2014). böyle bir çalışma ile hem öğretim elemanlarına dönüt verilmesi hem de bu alanda çalışma yapmak isteyen araştırmacılar için katkı sağlanması beklenmektedir. bu bağlamda araştırmanın temel amacı, öğretim üyelerinin demokratik değerlerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından nasıl algılandığını belirlemektir. bu amaçla aşağıdaki sorulara cevap aranmıştır: 3. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerleri hangi düzeydedir? 4. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerleri; a) öğrenim görülen fakülte b) cinsiyet, c) öğrenim görülen bölüm, d) 12-17 yaşları arasında yaşamlarını geçirdiği yerleşim yeri, e) yaşadıkları bölge kültürü değişkenlerine göre farklılaşmakta mıdır? yöntem bu çalışma betimsel alan araştırmasıdır. betimsel yöntem var olan bir durumu olduğu gibi ortaya koymayı amaçlayan araştırmalar söz konusu olduğunda kullanılmaktadır (karasar,1984: 83). çalışma grubu araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, 2011-2012 eğitim öğretim yılında uşak üniversitesinde bulunan eğitim fakültesi ve i̇ktisadi ve i̇dari bilimler fakültesi olmak üzere iki fakültede öğrenim görmekte olan ikinci, üçüncü ve dördüncü sınıf üniversite öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır. çalışma grubu bu iki fakülteden sınıf öğretmenliği, fen bilgisi öğretmenliği, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği, matematik öğretmenliği, i̇ktisat, i̇şletme, maliye ve muhasebe olmak üzere toplam 8 farklı bölümde öğrenim gören gönüllülük esasına dayalı olmak üzere 248. katılımcıdan oluşmaktadır. katılımcılara ilişkin demografik özellikleri cüneyt akar 122 yansıtan betimsel veriler, tablo 1’de sunulmuştur. demografik değişkenlerden bazıları işaretlenmediği için bazı değişkenlerde katılımcı sayıları farklılaşabilmektedir. tablo 1. çalışma grubu cinsiyet erkek kadın toplam n 81 167 248 % 32,7 67,3 100 fakülte eğitim i̇i̇bf n 128 120 248 % 51,6 49,4 100 bölüm sınıf öğrt. fen bil. ö. sos. bil. öğrt. mat. öğrt. ekono mi i̇şletme maliye muha sebe n 25 44 34 25 15 37 39 29 248 % 10,1 17,7 13,7 10,1 6 14,9 15,7 11,7 100 sınıf 2. sınıf 3. sınıf 4.sınıf n 87 63 98 248 % 35,1 25,4 39,5 100 12-17 yaş yerleşim yeri köy kasaba i̇lçe şehir büyük şehir n 24 7 83 65 69 248 % 9,7 2,8 33,5 26,2 27,8 100 bölge kültürü batı k.dz doğu k.dz i̇ç ana. kıyı ege i̇ç ege güney doğu doğu ak deniz trak ya n 8 8 41 57 58 8 23 34 11 248 % 3,2 3,2 16,5 23 23,4 3,2 9,3 13,7 4,4 100 veri toplama araçları bu çalışmada araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen “öğretim elemanları demokratik değerlerine i̇lişkin öğrenci algısı ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. ölçeğin demokratik değerlerle ilgili temalarını oluştururken unesco (1998), kesici (2008) ve doğanay ve sarı (2004) tarafından belirlenen temalar göz önüne alınmıştır. bu temalar doğrultusunda 47 ölçek maddesi yazılmıştır. ölçeğin maddelerinin bu temalarla uygunluğunun değerlendirilmesinde eğitim bilimlerinde uzman 2 akademisyenin görüşüne başvurulmuştur. ayrıca görünüş geçerliliği, anlaşılabilirlik ve kullanışlılık açılarından ölçeğin değerlendirilmesi amacıyla bir dil uzmanına başvurulmuştur. bu haliyle hazırlanan ölçeğin uygulanmasından elde edilen journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 123 veriler bilgisayar ortamına aktarılmış ve ölçeğin yapı geçerliliğinin test edilmesi amacıyla bu veriler temel bileşenler analizine tabi tutulmuştur. sonuçlar tablo 2’de verilmiştir. tablo 2. öğretim üyelerinin algılanan demokratik değerleri ölçeği faktör analizi ve güvenilirlik analizi sonuçları maddeler boyutlar 1 2 3 4 5 6 s31 ,756 s30 ,718 s32 ,714 s29 ,694 s28 ,638 s25 ,611 s19 ,606 s35 ,593 s26 ,590 s34 ,491 s22 ,417 s40 ,798 s43 ,767 s41 ,765 s42 ,722 s44 ,682 s46 ,611 s10 ,835 s11 ,823 s12 ,648 s14 ,830 s13 ,766 s17 ,786 s16 ,723 s15 ,574 s2 ,792 s1 ,787 s3 ,549 madde sayısı 11 6 3 2 3 3 açıklanan varyans (%) 18,375 14,480 8,109 7,840 7,494 6,532 eigen değeri 9,802 2,260 1,718 1,428 1,260 1,125 cronbach α katsayısı ,890 ,878 ,748 ,829 ,738 ,690 döndürme yöntemi: varimax (kaiser normalizasyonlu), i̇terasyon sayısı: 6 kmo-msa: ,887, bartlett’s tsp: ,000 açıklanan toplam varyans: %62,831, toplam cronbach α değeri: ,927 (n:28) yapılan faktör analizi sonucunda ölçümün yapıldığı örneklemin faktör analizine uygunluğunu test eden kmo-msa değerinin (,887) ve barttlett küresellik testi anlamlılık düzeyinin (p: 0,000) uygun aralıkta olduğu görülmüştür. varimax dik döndürme yöntemi ile cüneyt akar 124 yapılan temel bileşenler analizi sonuçlarına göre 47 maddeden oluşan ölçeğin 19 maddesi faktör yüklerinin düşük olması, birden fazla bileşende yüksek faktör yüklerine sahip olması ve ölçeğin yapı bütünlüğünü bozması gibi sebeplerle dışarıda bırakılmıştır. geriye kalan 28 maddenin 6 boyuttan oluşan bir yapı oluşturduğu tespit edilmiştir. elde kalan maddelerin faktör yükleri 0,830 ila 0,549 arasında değişmektedir. elde edilen 6 boyutlu yapı, ölçülmeye çalışılan fenomenin toplamda % 62,831’ini açıklamaktadır. boyutların tek başlarına açıkladıkları varyanslar, madde sayıları, eigen değerleri gibi istatistikler tablo 2’de yer almaktadır. yapı geçerliliğinin yanı sıra, ölçümün güvenirliği ile ilgili olarak cronbach α i̇ç tutarlılık katsayısı ölçeğin bütünü için ,927 olarak hesaplanmıştır. ölçekte yer alan 6 boyutun iç tutarlılık katsayıları ise ,890 ila ,690 arasında değişmektedir. yapılan geçerlilik ve güvenilirlik testleri sonuçlarına bakılarak ölçeğin bu haliyle kullanılabilir olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. ölçek, 4’lü likert tipinde olup 28 madde ve 6 boyuttan oluşmuştur. ölçeğin 1. boyutunda 10 madde yer almıştır. maddelerin incelenmesi sonucunda 10 maddeli 1. boyuta “özgürlük ve adalete önem verme” , 8 maddeli 2. boyuta “demokratik rol model olma”, 3 maddeli 3. boyuta “farklılıklara karşı hoşgörü”, 2 maddeli 4. boyuta “kurumsal kural ve yasalara saygı gösterme”, 3 maddeli 5. boyuta “demokratik faaliyetlere katılımı teşvik”, 3 maddeli 6. boyuta ise “eşitliğe önem verme” isimleri verilmiştir. ölçeğin derecelendirilmesi ise öğretim elemanlarının belirtilen maddeleri karşılama durumlarına göre “çok az” (1), “az” (2), “oldukça (3), ve “çok fazla” (4) şeklindedir. bu değerlendirme sistemine göre boyutların ortalama puanlarında “çok az” ve “az” puan aralıklarında öğrencilerin öğretim elamanlarının daha az demokratik tutum ve değere sahip oldukları şeklinde algılanırken, “oldukça” ve “çok fazla” puan aralıklarında ise daha demokratik tutum ve değer sahip oldukları görülür. puan aralıklarının belirlenmesinde n-1/n formülü kullanılmıştır. buna göre puan aralıkları 4-1/4’den 0,75 bulunmuş ve aralıklar aşağıdaki gibi hesaplanmış; 4,00 – 3,25 aralığı “çok fazla” 3,24 – 2,49 aralığı “oldukça” 2,48 – 1,73 aralığı “az” 1,72 – 1 aralığı “çok az” olarak yorumlanmıştır ölçeğin ikinci bölümünde üniversite öğrencilerinin kişisel özelliklerine ilişkin öğrenim görülen fakülte, cinsiyet, bölüm, 12-17 yaşları arasında geçirdiği yerleşim yeri, bölge kültürü değişkenlerinin yer aldığı bilgi formu yer almaktadır. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 125 verilerin analizi araştırmada öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin düzeylerini belirlemek için temel betimsel istatistikler yapılmıştır. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin öğrencilerin öğrenim görülen fakülte ve cinsiyetleri açısından farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığını belirlemek için bağımsız gruplar için t testi; öğrencilerin 12-17 yaşları arasında yaşamlarını geçirdiği yerleşim yeri, yaşadığı bölge kültürü açısından farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığını tespit etmek için ise tek yönlü varyans analizi (f) yapılmıştır. farkın hangi kaynaktan olduğunu tespit etmek için ise tukey testi ile gruplar arası ortalama fark değerleri incelenmiştir. tablolaştırmalarda aralarında anlamlı fark bulunan boyutlara yer verilmiş, anlamlı fark bulunmayan bulgular tabloya dâhil edilmemiştir. bulgular öğretim üyelerinin öğrenciler tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin düzeylerini belirlemek amacıyla betimsel istatistikler yapılmıştır. yapılan analiz sonuçları tablo 3’te sunulmuştur. tablo 3. öğretim üyelerinin demokratik değerlere sahip olma düzeylerine i̇lişkin ortalama ve standart sapma değerleri n x s.s. 1-özgürlük ve adalete önem verme (öaöv) 247 2,45 ,600 2-demokratik rol model olma (drmo) 246 2,01 ,679 3farklılıklara karşı hoşgörü (fkh) 246 2,54 ,778 4-kurumsal kural ve yasalara saygı (kkys) 244 2,95 ,721 5-demokratik faaliyetlere katılımı teşvik (dfkt) 248 2,39 ,795 6eşitliğe önem verme (eöv) 247 2,81 ,587 toplam 248 2,43 ,487 (n’ deki farklı değerler katılımcıların bazı maddeleri işaretlememesinden kaynaklanmaktadır) öğretim üyelerinin demokratik değerlere sahip olma düzeyleri ortalama 2,43 olarak hesaplanmıştır. buna göre öğrencilerin öğretim üyelerini “az” düzeyinde demokratik değerlere sahip olarak algıladıkları söylenebilir. alt boyutlar incelendiğinde, öğretim üyelerinin demokratik değerlerinin en yüksek algılandığı olduğu alt boyutlar “kurumsal kural ve yasalara saygı” (x= 2,95=oldukça) ve “eşitliğe önem verme” (x=2,81=oldukça)’dir. yine “farklılıklara karşı hoşgörü” (x= 2,54) “oldukça” düzeyinde bulunmuştur. en düşük algılanan boyut “demokratik rol model olma”dır (x= 2,01). “özgürlük ve adalete önem verme” cüneyt akar 126 (x=2,45) ve “demokratik faaliyetlere katılımı teşvik” (x=2,39) boyutlarının da “az” düzeyinde bulunduğu görülmektedir. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin öğrenim görülen fakülte açısından farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığını tespit etmek amacıyla bağımsız gruplar t testi yapılmıştır. yapılan analiz sonuçları, tablo 4’te sunulmuştur. tablo 4. öğrenim görülen açısından bağımsız gruplar ttesti sonuçları fakülte n ortalama std. sapma std. hata ortalaması t p öaöv eğitim 128 2,5651 ,56872 ,05027 3,121 .002 i̇i̇bf 119 2,3301 ,61142 ,05605 drmo eğitim 127 2,1822 ,66123 ,05867 4,232 .000 i̇i̇bf 119 1,8273 ,65329 ,05989 fkh eğitim 127 2,6325 ,75952 ,06740 1,907 .057 i̇i̇bf 119 2,4440 ,78961 ,07238 kkys eğitim 128 3,0156 ,68429 ,06048 1,425 .153 i̇i̇bf 116 2,8836 ,75573 ,07017 dfkt eğitim 128 2,5391 ,76319 ,06746 2,973 .003 i̇i̇bf 120 2,2431 ,80204 ,07322 eöv eğitim 128 2,8737 ,57039 ,05042 1,856 .065 i̇i̇bf 119 2,7353 ,59952 ,05496 toplam eğitim 128 2,5516 ,45657 ,04036 4,130 .000 i̇i̇bf 120 2,3036 ,48692 ,04445 yapılan analiz sonucunda ölçeğin “özgürlük ve adalete önem verme” [t=3,121; p < ,05], “demokratik rol model olma” [t=4,232; p < ,05] ve “demokratik katılımı teşvik” [t=2,973; p < ,05] boyutlarında eğitim fakültesi öğrencileri lehine anlamlı bir fark olduğu görülmektedir. ölçeğin toplamına ait puanlar açısından da [t=4,130; p < ,05] eğitim fakültesi öğrencileri lehine anlamlı fark bulunmuştur. buna göre eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin genel olarak i̇ktisadi ve i̇dari bilimler fakültesi öğrencilerine göre öğretim elemanlarını daha demokrat olarak algıladıkları söylenebilir. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin cinsiyet açısından farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığını tespit etmek amacıyla bağımsız gruplar t testi yapılmıştır. yapılan analiz sonuçları, tablo 5’ te sunulmuştur. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 127 tablo 5 incelendiğinde öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerine ilişkin “farklılıklara karşı hoşgörü” boyutunun öğrencilerin cinsiyetine göre anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaştığı saptanmıştır [t=2,235; p < ,05]. buna göre erkek öğrenciler kız öğrencilere göre öğretim üyelerini farklılıklara karşı hoşgörü konusunda daha duyarlı olarak algılamaktadırlar. diğer boyutlarda ise cinsiyete göre anlamlı bir farklılaşmanın olmadığı tespit edilmiştir. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin öğrencilerin öğrenim gördükleri bölüm açısından bir farklılaşma olup olmadığını belirlemek amacıyla tek yönlü varyans analizi yapılmıştır. yapılan analiz sonuçları, tablo 6’da sunulmuştur. tablo 6. öğrenim gördükleri bölüm açısından tek yönlü varyans analizi sonuçları varyansın kaynağı k.t. sd k.o. f (p) fark öaöv gruplararası 6,165 7 ,881 2,554 ,015 sosyal bilgiler>maliye gruplar içi 82,429 239 ,345 toplam 88,594 246 drmo gruplararası 12,215 7 1,745 4,113 ,000 sınıf öğr.>maliye fen bil. öğr.>maliye sosyal bilgiler>maliye gruplar içi 100,970 238 ,424 toplam 113,186 245 eöv gruplararası 7,160 7 1,023 3,144 ,003 fen bil. öğr.>maliye matematik öğr.>maliye i̇ktisat>maliye i̇şletme>maliye gruplar içi 77,753 239 ,325 toplam 84,912 246 toplam gruplararası 5,406 7 ,772 3,491 ,001 sınıf öğr.>maliye fen bil. öğr.>maliye sosyal bilgiler>maliye gruplar içi 53,089 240 ,221 toplam 58,495 247 tablo 6 incelendiğinde, öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin “öaöv” [f = 2,554, p < ,05], “dmro” [ f= 4,113, p < ,05], “eöv” [f = 3,144, p < ,05] boyutlarında ve ölçeğin geneline ait ortalamalarda [f = 3,491, p < ,05] öğrencilerin öğrenim gördükleri bölüme göre anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaştığı saptanmıştır. diğer boyutlarda anlamlı bir farklılaşmanın olmadığı tespit edilmiştir. tablo 5. cinsiyet açısından bağımsız gruplar ttesti sonuçları cinsiyet n x sd t (p) fkh erkek 77 2,6905 ,74128 2,235 ,027 kadın 166 2,4578 ,78339 cüneyt akar 128 tablo 7. öğrenim görülen bölümlere göre anlamlı fark bulunan boyutların ortalamaları öaöv drmo evö toplam sınıf öğr. n 25 25 25 25 x 2,5636 2,3100 2,7467 2,5903 std. s ,70662 ,69202 ,59535 ,54434 fen bil. öğr n 44 43 44 44 x 2,5188 2,1395 2,9129 2,5102 std. s ,54966 ,67252 ,46100 ,42225 sosy. bil. öğr. n 34 34 34 34 x 2,6456 2,3103 2,8725 2,6089 std. s ,57443 ,72928 ,77423 ,52834 mat. öğr. n 25 25 25 25 x 2,5383 1,9533 2,9333 2,5078 std. s ,45093 ,44232 ,37268 ,30357 i̇ktisat n 15 15 15 15 x 2,4812 1,7778 3,0889 2,4059 std. s ,78333 ,68041 ,61032 ,53977 i̇şletme n 36 36 37 37 x 2,2865 1,9435 2,8739 2,3013 std. s ,55903 ,65605 ,54064 ,47850 maliye n 39 39 39 39 x 2,1716 1,6517 2,4658 2,1708 std. s ,67259 ,69154 ,57377 ,53040 tablo 7’de de görüldüğü gibi; öaöv boyutunda öğretim üyelerinin algılanan demokratik değerleri önemseme düzeyleri bölümlere göre karşılaştırıldığında, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği öğrencilerine ait ortalama (x= 2,646), maliye bölümü öğrencilerine ait ortalamaya (x= 2,172 )göre anlamlı şekilde daha yüksektir. drmo boyutunda ise sınıf öğretmenliği(x: 2,310), fen bilgisi öğretmenliği (x= 2,140) ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği (x: 2,310 ) öğrencilerine ait ortalama puanlar, maliye bölümü öğrencilerine (x= 1,652 ) göre anlamlı bir şekilde daha yüksektir. eöv boyutuna bakıldığında fen bilgisi öğretmenliği(x= 2,912 ) , matematik öğretmenliği(x= 2,933 ), i̇ktisat (x= 3,098 ) ve i̇şletme (x= 2,874 ) bölümü öğrencilerine ait ortalama puanlar, maliye bölümü öğrencilerine (x= 2,466 ) göre anlamlı bir şekilde daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 129 bütün boyutların birlikte ele alındığı toplam ortalama puanlarda ise sınıf öğretmenliği(x= 2,590), fen bilgisi öğretmenliği(x= 2,510 ) ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği(x= 2,609 ) öğrencilerine ait ortalama puanlar, maliye bölümü öğrencilerine (x= 2,171 ) göre anlamlı bir şekilde daha yüksektir. diğer boyutlarda anlamlı bir farklılaşmanın olmadığı tespit edilmiştir. tablo 8. 12-17 yaşları arasında yaşamlarını geçirdikleri yerleşim yeri açısından tek yönlü varyans analizi sonuçları varyansın kaynağı k.t. sd k.o. f (p) fark öaöv gruplararası 3,413 4 ,853 2,411 ,050 köy>i̇lçe gruplar içi 84,942 240 ,354 toplam 88,356 244 tablo 8 incelendiğinde, öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerine ilişkin “öaöv” boyutunun, öğrencilerin 12-17 yaşları arasında yaşamlarını geçirdiği yerleşim yerine göre anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaştığı saptanmıştır [f=2,411; p<.05]. tablo 9.çocukluğun geçirildiği yerleşim birimlerine göre anlamlı fark bulunan boyutların ortalamaları n x sd öaöv köy 24 2,7899 ,65897 i̇lçe 83 2,3831 ,58892 buna göre, 12-17 yaşlarını köyde geçiren öğrencilerin (x=2,79), ilçede geçiren öğrencilere (x=2,38) oranla öğretim üyelerini, özgürlük ve adalet değerlerine daha duyarlı buldukları saptanmıştır. diğer boyutlarda anlamlı bir farklılaşmanın olmadığı tespit edilmiştir. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin yaşadıkları bölge kültürü açısından bir farklılaşma olup olmadığını belirlemek amacıyla tek yönlü varyans analizi yapılmıştır. yapılan analiz sonuçları tablo 10’da sunulmuştur. cüneyt akar 130 tablo 10. bölge kültürü açısından tek yönlü varyans analizi sonuçları varyansın kaynağı k.t. sd k.o. f (p) fark öaöv gruplararası 5,812 8 ,726 2,080 .039 akdeniz> i̇ç anadolu gruplar içi 81,737 234 ,349 toplam 87,548 242 fkh gruplararası 9,663 8 1,208 2,066 ,040 i̇ç ege> güney doğu; doğu> güney doğu gruplar içi 136,243 233 ,585 toplam 145,906 241 kkys gruplararası 9,130 8 1,141 2,376 ,018 kıyı ege> i̇ç anadolu gruplar içi 110,954 231 ,480 toplam 120,083 239 toplam gruplararası 4,012 8 ,501 2,196 ,029 i̇ç ege> i̇ç anadolu gruplar içi 53,667 235 ,228 toplam 57,678 243 tablo 10 incelendiğinde, öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerleri “öaöv” [f=2,080; p<.05], “fkh” [f=2,066; p<.05], “kkys” [f=2,376; p<.05] boyutlarında ve tüm maddelerin genel toplamını ifade eden toplam boyutta [f=2,196; p<.05] öğrencilerin yaşadıkları bölge kültürüne göre anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaştığı saptanmıştır. diğer boyutlarda anlamlı bir farklılaşmanın olmadığı tespit edilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 131 tablo 11. bölge kültürüne göre anlamlı fark tespit edilen boyutların ortalamaları bölgeler öaöv fkh kkys dfkt toplam batı karadeniz n 5 6 6 6 6 𝑋𝑋� 2,4545 2,3889 2,6667 1,7778 2,2902 ss ,59265 ,68041 ,51640 ,50185 ,51246 doğu karadeniz n 6 6 6 6 6 𝑋𝑋� 2,5522 2,5000 3,0833 2,5556 2,5319 ss ,52477 ,69121 ,66458 ,75031 ,54366 i̇ç anadolu n 41 41 39 41 41 𝑋𝑋� 2,1605 2,3902 2,6282 2,2642 2,2039 ss ,63396 ,78847 ,73196 ,88974 ,50485 kıyı ege n 57 57 57 57 57 𝑋𝑋� 2,4897 2,4912 3,1842 2,2719 2,4451 ss ,59755 ,83833 ,59486 ,74578 ,49545 i̇ç ege n 58 58 57 58 58 𝑋𝑋� 2,5230 2,7299 3,0351 2,6379 2,5625 ss ,58944 ,68244 ,68046 ,77745 ,45642 güneydoğu anadolu n 8 7 7 8 8 𝑋𝑋� 2,4570 1,7143 3,1429 2,2292 2,3530 ss ,48875 ,73102 ,62678 ,77120 ,37275 doğu anadolu n 23 23 23 23 23 𝑋𝑋� 2,3261 2,7536 2,9783 2,2029 2,3412 ss ,53444 ,71927 ,84582 ,86158 ,45652 akdeniz n 34 33 34 34 34 𝑋𝑋� 2,6642 2,6061 2,8824 2,5000 2,5484 ss ,61392 ,84247 ,64030 ,70353 ,48001 trakya n 11 11 11 11 11 𝑋𝑋� 2,4628 2,3485 2,7273 2,5606 2,4364 ss ,51819 ,58904 ,98396 ,88278 ,43578 toplam n 243 242 240 244 244 𝑋𝑋� 2,4496 2,5406 2,9583 2,3893 2,4320 ss ,60147 ,77809 ,70883 ,79898 ,48720 buna göre, akdeniz bölgesinde yaşayan öğrenciler (x=2,66), i̇ç anadolu bölgesinde yaşayanlara (x=2,16) oranla öğretim üyelerini özgürlük ve adalet ile ilgili demokratik değerlere daha fazla önem verdikleri şeklinde algılamaktadırlar. i̇ç ege bölgesinde yaşayan öğrenciler (x = 2,73), güney doğu bölgesinde yaşayanlara (x = 1,71) oranla öğretim cüneyt akar 132 üyelerini, “hoşgörü” ile ilgili demokratik değerlere daha fazla önem verdikleri şeklinde algılamaktadırlar. doğu anadolu bölgesinde yaşayan öğrenciler (x = 2,75), güney doğu bölgesinde yaşayanlara (x = 1,71) oranla öğretim üyelerini, “kurumsal kural ve yasalara saygı” ile ilgili demokratik değerlere daha fazla önem verdikleri şeklinde algılamaktadırlar. kıyı ege bölgesinde yaşayan öğrenciler (x=3,18), i̇ç anadolu bölgesinde yaşayanlara (x = 2,63) oranla öğretim üyelerini, toplam puanlara demokratik değerlere daha fazla önem verdikleri şeklinde algılamaktadırlar. i̇ç ege bölgesinde yaşayan öğrenciler (x = 2,56), i̇ç anadolu bölgesinde yaşayanlara (x = 2,20) oranla öğretim üyelerini, “hoşgörü” ile ilgili demokratik değerlere daha fazla önem verdikleri şeklinde algılamaktadırlar. diğer boyutlarda anlamlı bir farklılaşmanın olmadığı tespit edilmiştir. sonuç, tartışma ve öneriler araştırmada öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerleri ve bu değerlere sahip oma düzeyleri muhtelif değişkenler açısından incelenmiştir. sonuçlara göre öğretim elemanlarının öğrenciler tarafından “az” düzeyinde demokrat olarak algılandıkları söylenebilir. bu bulgular literatürle de uyumludur (duman ve koç: 2004; doğanay ve sarı: 2006; kumral: 2009; kayabaşı: 2014). öğretim elemanlarının demokratik değerlere yüksek düzeyde sahip olması beklenir. ancak araştırma sonuçları bunu desteklememektedir. alt boyutlar incelendiğinde öğrencilere göre öğretim üyeleri en fazla üniversitedeki "kural ve yasalara" önem vermektedirler. aypay ve bektaş’a göre (2010) öğretim üyelerinin örgütsel davranış gereği mevcut kurallarla belli sorumlulukları yerine getirme, katı ve değişmez tutum sergileme gibi davranışları bir örgüt yapısı olarak üniversiteyi “bürokratik örgütsel model”e dönüştürmektedir. bu da doğal olarak, öğrencilerin öğretim üyelerini demokratik anlamda yetersiz olarak algılamalarına yol açmaktadır. araştırmanın bu bulgusu literatürü destekler niteliktedir. öğrenciler öğretim elemanlarına en düşük puanı "demokratik rol model olma" boyutunda vermişlerdir. buna göre öğretim elemanlarının öğrencilerine iyi birer model oluşturamadıkları söylenebilir. demokratik değerlerin üst düzeyde olması gereken kurumların başında gelen üniversitelerde öğretim elemanlarının demokratik rol model olamıyor olması önemsenmesi gereken bir konudur. özgürlük ve adalete önem verme konusunda öğretim üyeleri “az” seviyede değerlendirilmiştir. buna karşılık kıroğlu, elma, kesten ve egüz (2012) araştırmalarında öğretim elemanlarının öğrencilerin karar alma sürecine katılmalarına, dersi alacakları öğretim journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 133 elemanını seçme özgürlüğüne, çeşitli konularla ilgili itiraz ve önerilerini dile getirmelerine, kılık, kıyafet farklılıklarına ve öğrenci davranışlarına karşı hoşgörülü yaklaştıkları sonucuna ulaşmışlardır. bu sonuçlar çalışma bulguları ile örtüşmemektedir. bu durum öğretim elemanlarının demokratik değerlerinin öğrenci algılarına göre değerlendirilmesinden ve/veya deneklerin farklı oluşundan kaynaklanmış olabilir. doğanay ve sarı (2006)’nın çalışmalarında üniversite öğrencilerinin demokratik yaşam çerçevesinde yaşam kalitesine ilişkin algılarını belirlemeye çalışmışlardır. çalışmalarında öğrencilerin en düşük puanı "öğretim elemanları ile iletişim" boyutuna verdikleri sonucuna ulaşmışlardır. doğanay ve sarı’nın bulguları üniversite düşük algıyı göstermektedir. bu durum çalışmanın bulguları ile paralellik göstermektedir. bu bulgular üniversitede öğretim elemanı-öğrenci arasında iletişimin, üniversitede var olan diğer demokratik özelliklere göre daha fazla ihmal edildiğini göstermektedir. benzer şekilde mevcut çalışmanın özgürlük ve adalete önem verme boyutu ile ilgili sonuçları, doğanay ve sarı’nın bulgularını destekler niteliktedir. onlara göre öğretim elemanlarının öğrenme–öğretme sürecinde öğrencilerin aktif katılımına önem vermemeleri, dersin planlama ve uygulama aşamasında alınacak kararlara öğrencileri katmamaları, öğrencilere değer vermemeleri sınıf ortamının demokratik bir ortamdan uzaklaşmasına neden olabilir. genellikle sınıf içinde oluşan, öğretim elemanı öğrenci iletişimi boyutunun da düşük olması bu görüşü desteklemektedir. kumral (2009) yaptığı çalışmada öğrencilerin öğretim elemanlarını iletişim yetersizliği, alanda ve formasyonda zayıflık, katı tutum, saygısız ve küçümseyici tavırlar gösterdikleri yönünde görüş belirttiklerini bulmuştur.öğretmen adayları ile yapılan başka bir çalışmada kayabaşı (2011) öğretmen adaylarının öğretim üyelerinin demokrasi ilkelerine uygun davrandıklarını ifade ettikleri sonucuna ulaşmıştır. ancak öğretmen adayları öğretim üyelerinin sınıf içerisinde tartışma imkanı sağlama ve karara bağlama bakımından yetersiz tutuma sahip olduğu sonucuna ulaşmıştır. duman ve koç (2004) ise öğrencilerin algılarına göre öğretim elemanlarının demokratik tutum ve davranışlarının orta ve alt düzeylerde olduğu sonucuna ulaşmışlardır. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin öğrencilerin cinsiyeti açısından farklılaşma olup olmadığına bakıldığında, öğrencilerin algılarına göre erkek öğrenciler öğretim üyelerinin “özgürlük ve adalete önem verme” (kılık, kıyafet vb.) kızlara oranla daha fazla önem verdiklerini ifade etmektedirler. doğanay ve sarı (2006)’nın çalışmasında üniversite öğrencilerinin demokratik yaşam çerçevesinde yaşam kalitesine ilişkin algıları “kararlara katılım” ve “sınıf ortamı” boyutlarında cinsiyet açısından farklılık gösterdiği bulunmuştur. kız öğrencilerin üniversite yaşam kalitesine ilişkin algıları cüneyt akar 134 erkeklere oranla daha olumlu olduğu görülmüştür. sağlam (2000) ve kaya ve diğerleri (2012)’nin çalışmalarında da benzer sonuçlara ulaşılmış olup kız öğrenciler lehine anlamlı farklılıklar görülürken, arslantaş (2011)’ın çalışmasında erkekler lehine bir farklılaşma bulunmuştur. diğer yandan, erdem ve sarıtaş (2006) çalışmasında ise algılanan demokratik değer ve tutumların cinsiyet açısından farklılaşmadığı tespit edilmiştir. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin öğrencilerinin öğrenim gördükleri fakülte ve bölümler açısından farklılaşma olup olmadığına bakıldığında, genel olarak eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin öğretim elemanlarını i̇i̇bf öğrencilerine göre daha olumlu olarak algıladıkları görülmektedir. bu sonuç beklentilerle uyumludur. çünkü öğretmen ve eğitimci olma vasfı doğası gereği demokrasi ve buna bağlı değerleri içinde barındırmaktadır. ayrıca eğitim fakültesinde çalışan öğretim elemanlarının belirli bir pedagojik eğitime sahip olması da öğretim elemanı öğrenci iletişimini daha olumlu kılmaktadır. bölümler açısından bakıldığında ise maliye bölümünde okuyan öğrencilerin diğer bölümlerde okuyan öğrencilere göre düşük algıya sahip oldukları görülmüştür. diğer bölümlerde okuyan öğrenciler arasında fark bulunmamıştır. bu bulgu bölüm öğretim elemanlarıyla ilgili özel bir durumu işaret edebilir ve bir genelleme yapılması yanlış olabilir. öğretmen adaylarının bölümleri arasında bir fark olmadığı görülmüştür. kaya ve diğerleri (2012)’nin öğretmen adayları üzerinde yaptığı bir çalışmada da benzer sonuçlar elde edilmiştir. bu bulgular araştırtma sonuçlarıyla örtüşmektedir. yerleşim yeri değişkeni açısından bakıldığında, 1217 yaşları arasında köyde yaşayan öğrenciler ilçede yaşayanlara oranla öğretim üyelerini özgürlük ve adalete önem verme boyutunda daha olumlu olarak algılamaktadırlar. bu konuda bir çalışmaya rastlamamış olmakla birlikte, köy yaşantısının sosyal ilişkilerde daha gelenekselci ve muhafazakâr olduğu bilinmektedir. dolayısıyla böyle bir kültürde yetişmiş bir bireyin nispeten daha özgür olan üniversite ortamında karşılaştığı öğretim elemanlarını ve onların davranışlarını daha fazla özgürlükçü olarak algılamış olabilirler. öğretim üyelerinin üniversite öğrencileri tarafından algılanan demokratik değerlerinin öğrencilerin yaşadıkları bölge kültürü açısından da farklılaştığı görülmüştür. bulgular genel olarak akdeniz, kıyı ve i̇ç ege bölgelerinde yaşayan öğrencilerin i̇ç anadolu bölgesinde yaşayanlara oranla öğretim üyelerinin daha demokratik tutum ve değerlere sahip olduklarını göstermektedir. bu bulgu araştırmacı beklentisinden farklı çıkmıştır. ülkemiz genelinde akdeniz-ege ve özellikle de kıyı bölgelerinin yaşam tarzlarının daha seküler olduğu, iç ve doğu bölgelerde ise daha muhafazakâr bir yapı olduğu bilinmektedir. bu nedenle demokratik değerler ve özgürlükler konusunda batı ve kıyı bölgelerinin beklentilerinin daha yüksek journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 135 olması ve dolayısıyla da öğretim elemanlarını daha yetersiz algılaması beklenir. bu konuda yeni araştırmalara ihtiyaç olduğu söylenebilir. öğrenciler öğretim elemanlarını "kuralcı" ve "eşitlikçi" olarak algıladığı görülmüştür. her iki bulgunun aynı anda ifade edilmesi öğretim elemanlarının bir takım faktörlerden (yönetim, çevre vs.) çekindiklerinin bir işareti olarak değerlendirilebilir. ancak bu tutumun bundan ayrı veya bunlarla beraber başka sebepleri de olabilir. bu konu ile ilgili yeni çalışmalara ihtiyaç bulunmaktadır. bununla birlikte öğretim elemanlarının demokratik davranışlarının üniversite yönetimlerinin tutumlarıyla bağlantılı olduğu söylenebilir. üniversitelerin öğretim elemanlarına akademik özgürlük konusunda güvence vermeleri ve bu anlamda demokratik olmaları öğretim elemanları üzerindeki baskıyı hafifletecek ve onların "katı kuralcı" bir tutum sergilemeleri önündeki engellerden birini ortadan kaldıracaktır. bunun yanında üniversitelerin öğretim elemanlarına yönelik demokratik değerleri geliştirici etkinlikler düzenlemesi, örneğin konuyla ilgili seminer, konferans gibi çalışmalar yapılması öğretim elemanlarının duyarlılığını arttırılabilir. özellikle öğretim elemanlarının rol model olma özelliğinin yetersiz görüldüğü düşünüldüğünde bu konuya gereken ağırlığın verilmesi önerilebilir. üniversite yönetimlerinin öğretim elemanlarının öğlecilerle birlikte organize edilecek sosyal, bilimsel, sportif vs. faaliyetlere katılımlarının teşvik edilmesi de bu anlamda katkı sağlayabilir. araştırmacılar açısından ise konunun farklı örneklemler ve/veya yöntemlerle araştırılması ve öğretim elemanlarının istendik düzeyde demokrat olarak algılanmamalarının nedenlerini inceleyen çalışılmaların yapılması önerilebilir. kaynaklar acun, i̇, demir, m. ve göz, l. (2010). öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki ilişki, journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 107-123 acun, i̇., yücel, c., önder, a. ve tarman, b. (2013). değerler: kim ne kadar değer veriyor? uşak üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, kış (6/1), 194-196. akın, u. & özdemir, m. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının demokratik değerlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi: eğitim bilimleri fakültesi örneği. ankara üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 42(2), 183-192. arslantaş, i̇. (2011). öğretim elemanlarının öğretim stratejileri-yöntem ve teknikleri, iletişim ve ölçme değerlendirme yeterliklerine yönelik öğrenci görüşleri. mustafa kemal üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 8 (15), 487-506. cüneyt akar 136 aypay, a., aypay, a. & demirhan, g. (2009). öğrencilerin üniversiteye sosyal uyumu. uşak üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 3 (2/1), 46-64. aypay, a., sever, m. & demirhan, g. (2012). üniversite öğrencilerinin sosyal ve akademik entegrasyonu: boylamsal bir araştırma. gaziantep üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 11(2), 407-422. bacon, m. & sloam (2010). john dewey and the democratic role of higher education in england. journal of political science education, 6, 336-352. bingöl, d. (2000). demokratik tutum ve değerler açısından üniversite gençliği. i̇ktisadi ve i̇dari bilimler dergisi, 14(1), 129-157. büyükdüvenci, s. (1990). demokrasi, eğitim ve türkiye. ankara üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 23(2), 583-597. büyükkaragöz, s. (1992). aile içi demokrasi ve eğitim. selçuk üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 1(8), 143-151. chomsky, n. (2007). demokrasi ve eğitim. c.p. otero (ed.). i̇stanbul: bgst yayınları colby, a. (2007). educating for democracy. 03.04. 2012 tarihinde www.carnegiefoundation.org adresinden erişilmiştir. çankaya, i̇. h. (2010). i̇lköğretim okul yöneticilerinin demokrasiye ilişkin tutumlarını etkileyen bazı etkenler üzerine bir araştırma. gaziantep üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 10(2), 945 -960. davis, m. (2010). practicing in democracy in the nclb elementary classroom. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, domanician university of california, san rafael, ca. dewey, j. (2010). okul ve toplum (2. basım). ankara: pegem akademi. doğanay, a. & sarı, m. (2006). öğrencilerin üniversitedeki yaşam kalitesine ilişkin algılarının demokratik yaşam kültürü çerçevesinde değerlendirilmesi. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi, 4(2), 107-128. doğanay, a. & sarı, m. (2004). elementary school students’ devotion level to democratic values and comparison of the effect of overt and hidden curriculum on gaining democratic values in terms of students and teachers opinions. educational administration in theory & practice, 39, 356-383. duman, t. & koç, g. (2004). eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin öğretim elemanlarının demokratik tutum ve davranışlarına ilişkin görüşleri. xiii. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kurultayı, malatya. http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 137 ensign, j. (1994). changing roles in classroom: an attempt thet didn’t work. paper presented at a the meeting of the american educational studies association, chapel hill, nc. erdem, a. r. & sarıtaş, e. (2006). sınıf öğretmenliği öğrencilerinin öğretim elemanlarının davranışlarının demokratikliğine ilişkin algıları (paü örneği), selçuk üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 16, 525–538. genç, s. z. & esen, h. (2012). öğretmen yetiştirmede demokratik değerlerin benimsenmesi. the journal of academic social science studies, 5(8), 589-602. gömleksiz, m. n. & çetintaş, s. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının demokratik tutumları (fırat, dicle,7 aralık, cumhuriyet ve erzincan üniversiteleri örneği). dicle üniversitesi ziya gökalp eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 17, 1-14. hébert, y. & wilkinson, l. (2006). diversity and democratic values: implications for public policy. george h. richardson & david, w. (eds.) troubling the canon of citizenship education. new york: peter lang publishing. jacobowitz, t. & sudol, k. a. (2010). literacy strategies that promote democratic skills, attitudes, and behaviors in the social studies classroom. social studies research and practice, 5(3), 62-73. kalaycı, ş. (2008). spss uygulamalı çok değişkenli i̇statistik teknikleri. ankara: asil yayın dağıtım. kaldırım, e. (2005). i̇lköğretim 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin demokrasi algıları. gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 25(3), 143-162. kamber, t., acun, i̇. & akar, c (2011). i̇lköğretim birinci kademe sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının uygulanabilirliği, uşak üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 4(2), 195-218. http://dx.doi.org/10.12780/uusbd99 karahan, t. f., sardoğan, m. e., özkamalı, e. & dicle, a. n. (2006). öğretmen adaylarında demokratik tutum, nevrotik egilimler ve kendini gerçekleştirme. h. ü. eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 30, 149-158. karasar n . (1984). bilimsel araştırma metodu. ankara: hacettepe taş kitapçılık. karpat, h. k. (2010). türk demokrasi tarihi: sosyal, kültürel, ekonomik temeller. i̇stanbul: timaş yayınları. katılmış, a., ekşi, h., öztürk, c. (2010). sosyal bilgiler dersi kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programının etkililiği, journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi, 1(1), 50-87. http://dx.doi.org/10.12780/uusbd99 cüneyt akar 138 kaya, h. i̇., taştan, m., kop, y. & metin, m. (2012). öğretmen adaylarının öğretim elemanlarının demokratik davranışlarına ilişkin algıları (kars i̇li örneği). pegem eğitim ve öğretim dergisi, 2(1), 39-49. kayabaşı, y. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının davranışlarının demokratik sınıf ortamı açısından değerlendirilmesi. gü gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 31(2), 525-549. kesici, ş. (2008). teachers' opinions about building a democratic classroom. journal of instructional psychology, 35(2), 192-203. kıncal, r. y., & işık, h. (2005). elementary school principals’ level of practicing democratic values: perceptions of teachers. international journal of educational reform, 14(3), 326-333. kılıç, d., ercoşkun, m. h. & nalçacı, a. (2004). sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının demokratik tutumları. türkiye sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, 8(2-3), 9-19. kıroğlu, k., elma, c., kesten, a. & egüz, ş. (2012). üniversitede demokratik bir değer olarak hoşgörü. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi, 3(2), 86-104. korkut, h. (1993). demokratik üniversite. amme i̇dare dergisi. 26(2), 119-133. kovacs, p. (2009). education for democracy: it is not an issue of dare; it is an issue of can. teacher education quarterly. 9-23 kumral, o. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının öğretim elemanlarının davranışlarına yönelik algıları. pamukkale üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 1(25), 92-102. meb, (2015). hayat bilgisi programı, ankara: milli eğitim basımevi. meb, (2005). sosyal bilgiler programı 4-5. sınıflar, ankara: milli eğitim basımevi. mullins, s. l. (1997). images of democratic educators. paper presented at the annual of the national council for the social studies. cincinati, oh, november. murphy, m. (2005). maritain explains the moral principlers of education to dewey. educational horizons, 282-291. sağlam, h. i̇. (2000). sosyal bilgiler dersinin demokratik tutum geliştirmedeki rolü. milli eğitim dergisi, 146, 67-71. sarı, m. & sadık, f. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının demokrasi algıları (çukurova üniversitesi örneği). uluslararası eğitim programları ve öğretim çalışmaları dergisi, 1(2), 67-82. solomon, d. & kendall, a. (1975). dimensions of children’s classromm behavior as perceived by teachers. paper presented at meeting of the society for research in child development, denver, colorado. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 96-139 139 sönmez-ektem, i. & sünbül, a. m. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının demokratik tutumları üzerine bir araştırma. selçuk üniversitesi ahmet keleşoğlu eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 31,159-168. şişman, m. (2006). eğitimde demokrasi ve sosyal adalet: türkiye eğitim sisteminin değişmeyen miti. türk eğitim sisteminde yeni paradigma arayışları (bildiriler kitabı). ankara: eğitim-bir-sen yayınları. uygun, s. & engin, g. (2014). temel demokratik değerler ölçeği: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması. turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkc. volume 9/5 spring 2014, 2021-2031. üstün, a. & yılmaz, m. (2008). üniversite öğrencilerinin aile içi demokrasi ile ilgili görüşlerinin cinsiyet ve anne-baba eğitim düzeyine göre değerlendirilmesi. ahi evran üniversitesi kırşehir eğitim fakültesi dergisi (kefad), 9(2), 77-90. tay, b., durmaz f., & şanal, m. (2013). sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında öğrencilerin değer ve değerler eğitimine ilişkin görüşleri. g.ü. gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi gefad / gujgef 33(1), 67-93. veugelers, w., & kat, e. d. (2003). moral and democratic education in public primary schools. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, chicago. wyett, j. l. ( 1997). new teachers for a new mission: democratic classrooms. paper presented at the annual meeting of the association of teacher educators, washington. yazıcı, k. (2011). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının demokratik değerlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. eğitim ve bilim, 36(159), 165-179. yeşil, r. & aydın, d. (2007). demokratik değerlerin eğitiminde yöntem ve zamanlama. türkiye sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, 11(2), 65-84. yiğit, m. f., tarman, b. (2013). değerler eğitimimin ilköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarındaki yeri ve önemi. journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi. 4(2), 79-102 zenzirci, i̇. (2003). i̇lköğretim okullarında yönetimin demokratik düzeyinin katılım, özgürlük ve özerklik boyutları açısından değerlendirilmesi (balıkersir i̇li örneği).yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, ankara üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, ankara. danimarka’da vatandaşlık eğitimi www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(1), 97-120 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 danimarka’da vatandaşlık eğitimi* citizenship education in denmark sevgi coşkun keski̇n1 ve deniz yüceer2 özet dünyada birçok ülke kendi yapı ve anlayışına uygun olarak, iyi birer vatandaş yetiştirme amacını gerçekleştirmek için sosyal bilgiler ve tarih programına başvurmaktadır. bu ülkelerden birisi de danimarka’dır. danimarka bu amaç doğrultusunda, sosyal bilgiler dersi aracılığıyla toplumun değerlerine saygılı, demokratik topluma aktif bir şekilde katılan ve yaşadığı toplumun gelişmesi için katkıda bulunan bireylerin yetiştirilmesini hedeflemektedir. son yıllarda ülkemizde milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından vatandaşlık eğitimi merkezli pek çok uygulama ve proje yapılmaktadır. bu çalışmalara ışık tutmak ve öneriler getirmek için vatandaşlık eğitimini büyük bir ciddiyetle yürüten danimarka’nın sosyal bilgiler ve tarih programları hedef, içerik, öğrenme öğretme süreçleri ve değerlendirme boyutları bakımından incelenmiştir. çalışma; danimarka’nın odense bölgesi’nde uygulanan sosyal bilgiler dersinin görüldüğü 7.-9. sınıf ve tarih dersinin görüldüğü 3.-9. sınıf düzeyleri ile sınırlı kalmıştır. araştırmada, doküman analizi ile adı geçen programlar incelenmiştir. programlar ülkenin eğitim bakanlığı kaynaklarına ulaşılarak elde edilmiştir. danca diliyle yazılı olan dokümanlar önce i̇ngilizceye sonra türkçeye çevrilmiştir. bu esnada danimarkalı program * 20-22 nisan 2012 uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu’nda sözlü tebliğ olarak sunulmuştur. 1 yrd.doç.dr., sakarya üniversitesi, eğitim fakültesi, scoskun@sakarya.edu.tr 2 felsefe öğretmeni, özel sektör, yr.deniz@sakarya.edu.tr mailto:yr.deniz@sakarya.edu.tr� journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 98 uzmanları ve alan öğretmenlerinden gerektiğinde çeviri için destek alınmıştır. bunun dışında veri toplamak amacıyla araştırmacı, çeşitli ders etkinliklerine katılarak gözlemlerde bulunmuştur. elde edilen bulgulara göre; danimarka’da vatandaşlık eğitiminde demokrasi, özgürlük, saygı kavramlarının üzerine odaklanıldığı; öğrencilere demokratik yaşama katılım için gerekli olan kuralların ve değerlerin kazandırılmaya çalışıldığı görülmüştür. ayrıca, öğrencilere demokratik yaşama katılma konusunda seçim yapabilme ve fikirlerini özgürce söyleyebilme hakkına sahip oldukları anlayışının verilmeye çalışıldığı da tespit edilmiştir. vatandaşlık eğitiminin sadece teoriye dayalı olmadığı, okulların öğrencilere bu dersin merkezinde olan demokrasi anlayışını, gerek düşünce gerekse de eylem olarak kazandırmaya çalıştığı görülmüştür. bu bağlamda danimarka’nın sosyal bilgiler programının içeriğinin düşünce özgürlüğü, demokrasi, ideolojiler, politika ve anayasa gibi konulardan oluştuğu söylenebilir. ayrıca danimarka’nın sahip olduğu çok kültürlü yapının ortak yaşam açısından toplumdaki bireylerin birbirini anlaması gerekliliğini ortaya çıkardığı; vatandaşlık eğitiminin de öğrencilerin karmaşık sosyal yapıya uyum göstermesi ve farklılıkları anlaması konusunda önemli bir işleve sahip olduğu görülmüştür. anahtar kelimeler: danimarka sosyal bilgiler ve tarih programı, vatandaşlık eğitimi, hedef, içerik, öğrenme öğretme süreçleri ve değerlendirme sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 99 extended abstract many countries in the world refer to the social studies and history program to achieve the objective training a good citizen according to its own structure and approach. denmark is one of these countries. for this purpose denmark aims to educate individuals who are respectful to the values of community, actively participate in the democratic society and contribute to the development of living community. in this context, the content of social studies program in denmark forms such as freedom of thought, democracy, ideology, policy and constitutional issues. in recent years in our country makes many applications and project that is based to citizenship education by the ministry of education. to shed light on these studies and bring recommendations, social studies and history curriculum of denmark carrying out citizenship education very seriously is investigated in terms of dimensions of goals, content, learning and teaching process and evaluation. this study is limited with social studies lesson in 7th-9th class and history lesson in 3th-9th class which is applied in odense of denmark. in this study it is examined metioned the programs by document analysis. the programs are obtained reaching the country’s education ministry sources. the documents which were written danish language are translated into first english and then turkish language. in the meantime it is receieved the support for translation fromdanish programs professionals and teachers where it is needed. in addition to data collection, the researcher is observed participating various course activities. according to results of analysis of the data, these findings are reached: it is often emphasized on concept of democracy, freedom, and respect in citizenship education in denmark. it is intended to give the students required the rules and values for participation in the democratic life and it is attempted to be given approach that the students have a right journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 100 to say their ideas freely and to choose to participate in democratic life. it is seen that citizenship education is not only based on theory in the process and democracy approach is at the center of this course is tried to gain the students in the schools in both of thought and action, it is shown the student council as an example. in this context it can be said that danish social studies program’s content occurs from issues such as freedom of thought, democracy, ideologies, policies, constitution it is seen to reveal that individuals need to understand each other that denmark has a multicultural structure. it is also seen to have an important function about adoption complex social structure and understand differences of students in citizenship education. keywords: curricula of history and social studies in denmark, citizenship education, aim, learning and teaching process and evaluation. sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 101 giriş devletle arasında karşılıklı etkileşimle birlikte bir bağ olan kimse olarak tanımlanan ‘vatandaş’ın (karaman kepenekçi, 2008; sağırlı, 2005), yaşadığı ülke ve dünyaya aykırı bireyler olmaması için etkili ve demokratik bir vatandaşlık eğitiminden geçirilmesi gereklidir. avrupa konseyi bakanlar komitesinin tavsiye kararına (2010, s. 7) göre demokratik vatandaşlık eğitimi; … demokrasi ve hukukun üstünlüğünü yaygınlaştırmak ve korumak amacıyla; öğrencileri bilgi, beceri ve anlayışla donatmak ve tavır ve davranışlarını geliştirmek suretiyle, onları toplumda demokratik haklarını ve sorumluluklarını kullanıp savunacak şekilde yetkinleştirmeyi, öğrencilerin çeşitliliğe değer vermelerini ve demokratik yaşamda aktif bir rol oynamalarını sağlamayı amaçlayan, eğitim, öğretim, farkındalık arttırıcı girişimler, bilgiler, uygulamalar ve faaliyetlerdir. bu bağlamda türkiye ve birçok ülkede ilköğretim çağındaki çocuklara, her ülkenin kendine göre belirlediği vatandaş yetiştirme modeline göre gerekli değer, tutum ve davranışlar sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında öğretilmeye çalışılmaktadır. nitekim meb’e (2005) göre sosyal bilgiler, bireyin toplumsal varoluşunu gerçekleştirebilmesine yardımcı olması amacıyla; tarih, coğrafya, ekonomi, sosyoloji, antropoloji, psikoloji, felsefe, siyaset bilimi ve hukuk gibi sosyal bilimlerin ve vatandaşlık bilgisi konularını yansıtan öğrenme alanlarının bir ünite ya da tema altında birleştirilmesini içeren; insanın sosyal ve fiziki çevresiyle etkileşiminin geçmiş, bugün ve gelecek bağlamında incelendiği; toplu öğretim anlayışından hareketle oluşturulmuş bir ilköğretim dersidir. diğer bir ifadeyle, “sosyal bilgiler, sosyal bilimler disiplinlerinden ilköğretim dönemi çocuklarının seviyesine uygun olarak seçilmiş bilgilerin, disiplinler arası bir yaklaşımla verildiği bir müfredat programıdır journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 102 (safran, 2008). öğrenciler, iyi bir vatandaş olmak için gerekli ilk temel bilgi ve becerileri, sosyal bilgiler dersinde kazandığından günümüz eğitim anlayışı göz önünde bulundurulduğunda da, sosyal bilgiler dersi vatandaşlık eğitimi konusunda önemli bir misyonu üstlenmektedir. çünkü bu dersin temel amacı, küreselleşme sürecinde birbiriyle etkileşimli olan, günümüz dünyasında kültürel çeşitliliği tanıyan ve benimseyen, demokratik toplumun vatandaşları olarak mantıklı kararlar vermeleri konusunda genç kuşaklara yardım etmek; kamusal yaşama katılmak ve kamusal yaşamda aktif olmak için öğrencilerin gerekli demokratik eğilimini, vatandaşlık bilgisini geliştirmektir (ncss, 1992). bu amaçlar doğrultusunda ülkelerin eğitim anlayışında toplumun değerlerine saygılı, demokratik topluma aktif bir şekilde katılan ve yaşadığı toplumun gelişmesi için katkıda bulunan bireyleri yetiştirmek ve onlara ülkelerinin tarihini, kültürel mirasını, rejimini ve demokratik sistemini anlama, vatandaşlık hak ve sorumluluklarını bilme, anlaşmazlıkları çözme, işbirliği ve iletişim becerisini kazanma ve eleştirel düşünebilme gibi değerler kazandırmak için (akbaş, 2008) vatandaşlık eğitimine ağırlık vermesi gerekmektedir. bugün birçok ülkede sosyal bilgiler kapsamında verilmekte olan vatandaşlık eğitiminde, sadece kendi ulusu için yaşayan bireylerin yetiştirildiği geleneksel vatandaşlık eğitimi yerine, ulusal ve evrensel değerleri benimsemiş, ülkesini ve dünyayı ilgilendiren konulara duyarlı bireyler yetiştirilmesi hedeflenmektedir (kan, 2009). bu paralelde vatandaşlık eğitimi dünya vatandaşlığını kapsayan bir boyutta verilmeye başlanmıştır. çünkü bugün birey sadece kendi ülkesinin değil aynı zamanda dünyanın da vatandaşı konumuna gelmiştir. bu durum ona dünyada yaşanan savaş, açlık, ekonomik kriz, deprem, terör saldırıları gibi pek çok olayda duyarlı olma, eleştirel düşünme vb. birçok vasıfa sahip olma sorumluluğunu da yüklemiştir. tüm bunlar bireyin ulusal yerine küresel bir vatandaşlık eğitimi alması gerekliliğini ortaya çıkarmıştır. sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 103 örneğin boobekova (2001)’nın “türkiye ve kırgızistan i̇lköğretim sistemleri’nin karşılaştırmalı olarak i̇ncelenmesi” başlıklı çalışmasında, sovyet iktidarı döneminde kırgızistan’da eğitimin amacının, toplum için çalışan, toplumun çıkarını kendi çıkarından üstün tutan, lenin ideolojisini benimseyen vatandaşlar yetiştirmek olduğu, bugün ise eğitim sisteminin amacının vatandaşlarının çok yönlü gelişimini sağlama, kendi kültürüne ve başka ulusların kültürüne saygılı, vatansever, çalışkan, bilinçli, kendini sürekli geliştiren bireyler yetiştirmek olduğuna değinilmektedir. bu doğrultuda vatandaşlık anlayışı tek bir ulusa değil, dünya uluslarına yönelik olarak yeniden yapılandırılmıştır. nitekim, küresel dünya vatandaşı olmanın hak ve sorumluluğunu kavrayan insanların sayısı artmadıkça, küresel sorunlarla başa çıkma da güçleşmektedir (argüden, 2008). ülkemizde vatandaşlık eğitimi, amerika birleşik devletlerinde olduğu gibi (keskin ve coşkun-keskin, 2011), sosyal bilgiler dersi tarih, coğrafya gibi disiplinlerin ağırlıkta olduğu bir yapılanma içinde verilmektedir. bunun dışında 8. sınıf düzeyinde vatandaşlık dersi ayrı bir ders olarak yer almaktadır. çünkü ülkemizde national council for the social studies kuruluşunun öğrenme alanları ve kriterleri sosyal bilgiler eğitimine şekil vermektedir (ncss, 2010). oysa avrupa ülkelerine genel olarak bakıldığında çoğunda sosyal bilgiler dersinin sadece vatandaşlık eğitiminin verilmesine yönelik olarak planlandığı görülmektedir. örneğin türkiye’den farklı olarak i̇ngiltere’nin sosyal bilgiler programı kapsamına giren tarih, coğrafya ve vatandaşlık dersleri ayrı dersler olarak okutulmaktadır (gün, 2007). i̇ngiltere’deki bu durum, bir diğer avrupa ülkesi olan ve araştırmanın konusunu oluşturan danimarka’da da böyledir. danimarka, anayasal monarşiyle yönetilen, avrupa birliği üyesi olan, bünyesinde çok farklı etnik grupları barındıran, ekonomik anlamda güçlü ve gelişmiş olan bir ülkedir (yüceer ve coşkun keskin, 2012). bu nedenle araştırmada, demokratik ve toplumun değerlerine saygılı bireyleri yetiştirmeyi hedefleyen danimarka’nın vatandaşlık eğitimi konusunda https://www.google.com.tr/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0ccyqfjaa&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.ncss.org%2f&ei=-oj-t_gojstssgay49ddba&usg=afqjcnffhnzzen392hy7wdlssy9uktdaga&sig2=n3dfbz50uexw1jj3da1p8a� https://www.google.com.tr/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0ccyqfjaa&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.ncss.org%2f&ei=-oj-t_gojstssgay49ddba&usg=afqjcnffhnzzen392hy7wdlssy9uktdaga&sig2=n3dfbz50uexw1jj3da1p8a� journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 104 programlarda var olan durumu betimlenerek alan literatürü oluşturma hedeflenmiştir. araştırma kapsamında danimarka’nın sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders programı vatandaşlık eğitimi temelinde program geliştirmenin ögeleri olan hedef, içerik, eğitim durumları ve değerlendirme boyutları bakımından incelenmiştir. bu yolla ülkenin vatandaşlık eğitimi konusunda örnek alınabilecek durumlar betimlenmeye çalışılmıştır. yöntem çalışmada, doküman incelemesi yapılmıştır. bilindiği gibi doküman incelemesi hedeflenen olgu veya olgular hakkında bilgi içeren yazılı materyallerin analizidir (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2011). buradan hareketle araştırmada danimarka’nın vatandaşlık eğitimini programlar kapsamında incelemek amacıyla, ülkenin eğitim bakanlığı kaynaklarına ulaşılarak, 1993 tarihli sosyal bilgiler programı (samfundsfag) ve tarih programı (historie) elde edilmiştir. bu programların seçilmesindeki amaç; vatandaşlık eğitiminin bu dersler aracılığıyla verilmeye çalışılmasıdır. i̇ncelenen dokümanlar; danimarka’nın odense bölgesi’nde uygulanan sosyal bilgiler dersinin görüldüğü 7.-9. sınıf ve tarih dersinin görüldüğü 3.-9. sınıf düzeyleri ile sınırlıdır. her iki program, program geliştirmenin dört temel boyutu (hedef, içerik, öğrenme-öğretme süreçleri ve değerlendirme) (demirel, 2007) bağlamında ele alınmıştır. bu boyutlar ele alınırken araştırma, ilgili programların vatandaşlık eğitimi konu ve alanlarıyla sınırlandırılmıştır. aşağıdaki şekilde tarih ve sosyal bilgiler programlarının incelendiği program geliştirme ögeleri ve bunların alt boyutlarına yer verilmiştir. sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 105 şekil 1. araştırmada i̇ncelenen program geliştirme sürecinin ögeleri ve alt boyutları araştırma sürecinde gerek sosyal bilgiler programı (samfundsfag) gerekse de tarih programı (historie) önce danca’dan i̇ngilizceye, sonra i̇ngilizceden türkçeye çevrilmiştir. programların danca’dan i̇ngilizceye çevrilmesi aşamasında danimarkalı program uzmanlarından ve orada görev yapan türk ve danimarkalı sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinden ihtiyaç oldukça görüşülerek destek alınmıştır. ayrıca araştırmacı, danimarka’daki bazı okullarda öğretmenlik uygulaması dersi bağlamında gözlem yaparak bilgi notları almıştır. bu bilgi notları de verileri bulgulama amacıyla kullanılmıştır. bulgular ve yorum bu başlık altında danimarka eğitim sisteminde yer alan ve vatandaşlık eğitimi misyonunu üstlenen sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders programlarının analizine yer verilmiştir. genel uzak amaçlar hedefler derslerin genel yapısı derslerin olduğu sınıf düzeyleri programların misyonu öğrenme öğretme süreçleri yöntem, teknik ve sınıf içi etkinlikler kazandırılması istenilen beceriler kazandırılması istenilen değerler ders materyalleri ve kaynakları i̇çerik öğrenme alanları toplum yapısı ve sosyal gelişim bilgisi tarihi bilme ve yorumlama kronoloji politika ekonomi sosyal ve kültürel faktörler değerlendirme programların i̇ncelendiği boyutlar journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 106 bu bağlamda çalışmada, program geliştirme sürecinde yer alan “sosyal bilgiler ve tarih dersinin yapısı ve misyonu, vatandaşlık eğitiminin verildiği sınıf düzeyleri, sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders programının genel amaçları, içerikleri, öğrenme-öğretme süreçleri ve değerlendirme boyutuları” ele alınmıştır. sosyal bilgiler ve tarih dersinin yapısı ve misyonu danimarka’da verilen sosyal bilgiler dersi, öğrencileri demokratik yaşama katmak amacıyla vatandaşlık bilgi ve becerilerini içeren bir yapıya sahiptir. bu amaçla öğrencilere demokratik yaşama katılım için gerekli olan kurallar ve değerler kazandırılmaya, seçim yapabilme ve fikirlerini özgürce söyleyebilme hakkına sahip oldukları anlayışı kazandırılmaya çalışılmaktadır. dolayısıyla öğrencilerin, demokrasi ve özgürlük kurallarıyla birlikte, demokratik bir toplumun vatandaşı olmalarından doğan demokratik felsefeyi ve kuralları, zorunlulukları ve hakları bilmesi ve buna ek olarak demokratik ve anayasal ideallere ve demokratik kurallara uygulamada da saygı göstermesi beklenmektedir. bu durum, demokratik topluma yetkin bir katılım için önkoşuldur ve vatandaşlık eğitiminin bu amaca büyük bir katkısı vardır (samfundsfag, 2009). vatandaşlık eğitiminin diğer bir boyutunun yer aldığı tarih dersi ise, bireye kendi çevresinin ve toplumunun zaman içerisindeki dönüşümünü anlamasını sağlayan, ona tarihsel bilinç ve kimlik kazandıran bir misyona sahiptir. tarih, toplumda değişime neden olan etmenleri, demokrasinin farklı biçimlerini, bireye verilen hak ve ödevleri ifade etmesi bakımından sosyal bilgiler dersi ile ilişkilendirilerek verilmektedir. bunun dışında tarih dersinin genel amaçlarında yer alan tarihin öğrencide, yaşam koşullarına ve insan yaşamına dair bir anlayış geliştirmesi gerektiği; bu durumun, öğrencilerin bilgilerini geliştirip kendi kültürlerine ve diğer kültürlere yönelik tutum ve anlayışlarını ve doğal olarak insan etkileşimlerini arttırdığı ifadesi; vatandaşlık eğitimi açısından önemlidir (historie, 2009). sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 107 çünkü toplum içerisinde bireylerin ortak bir yaşam sürdürmesi ve birbirlerine yönelik olumlu tutumlar geliştirmeleri demokratik süreç açısından gereklidir. sınıf düzeyleri danimarka’da vatandaşlık eğitimi çerçevesinde verilen sosyal bilgiler dersi, okulların isteğine göre, 8. ve 9. sınıf düzeyinde veya sadece 9.sınıf düzeyinde okutulmaktadır. 10. sınıf düzeyinde de, yine okulun isteğine bağlı olarak görülmektedir. bu düzeylerde sosyal bilgiler dersi disiplinler arası bir yapıya sahiptir; yani diğer sosyal bilimlere ait disiplinlerle ilişki içerisindedir. 3.-9. sınıf düzeylerinde okutulmakta olan tarih dersi ise özellikle 7.-9 sınıf düzeylerinde vatandaşlık eğitimi ile ilişkili olarak verilmektedir. sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders programının genel amaçları danimarka’da sosyal bilgiler dersi aracılığıyla toplumun değerlerine saygılı, demokratik topluma aktif bir şekilde katılan ve yaşadığı toplumun gelişmesi için katkıda bulunan bireylerin yetiştirilmesi hedeflenmektedir. bu çerçeve içerisinde sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında aşağıdaki genel hedefler programda yer almaktadır (samfundsfag, 2009: 3): • vatandaşlık eğitiminin amacı, öğrencilere toplum ve toplumun tarihsel dönüşümü hakkında bilgi kazandırmak, öğrencilerin demokratik topluma aktif katılımını sağlamaktır. • eğitim öğrencilerin, toplumsal gelişime katkıda bulunmalarını sağlayacak uygun değerleri edinmelerinde ve eleştirel düşünme becerilerini geliştirmede; toplumun bir parçası olarak, hem diğerlerini etkilemiş hem de diğerlerinden etkilenmiş bir şekilde, sosyal ve tarihsel perspektif içerisinde günlük yaşamı anlamalarına yardımcı olmalıdır. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 108 • eğitim, öğrencilere demokratik kurallara ve temel değerlere saygı duymayı öğretme ve uygulama konusunda katkıda bulunmalıdır. yukarıda ifade edilen sosyal bilgiler programın genel amaçları, topluma uyum sağlayan bireyler yetiştirmek için konuyla ilgili hem bilgi kazanmayı hem de aktif katılımı hedeflemektedir. çünkü sosyal bilgiler dersi, özü gereği toplumu ve toplumu oluşturan bireyleri esas almakta ve onların topluma etkin katılımını sağlamaya yönelik gerekli bilgi ve becerileri onlara kazandırma noktasında pratik yapma imkânı sunmaktadır. bu durum, daha önce de belirtildiği gibi, sosyal bilgiler dersine vatandaşlık eğitimi misyonunu yüklemektedir. ayrıca programda öğrencilerin topluma katılımı için, toplum hakkında bilgi edinmeleri ve bu konuda bir yetkinlik kazanmaları gerektiği ifade edilmektedir. ancak unutulmamalıdır ki, toplum ‘şimdi’ ile sınırlı değildir. dolayısıyla öğrencilerin kendi toplumlarının geçmişini ve bugününü de öğrenmesi gerekmektedir. çünkü her toplumun siyasi bakışı ve değer anlayışı tarihsel süreç içerisinde bir dönüşüm yaşamaktadır. bu dönüşümde insan önemli bir faktördür ve öğrencinin kendi eylemlerinin bu dönüşüm sürecine nasıl etkide bulunabileceğini görmesi önemlidir (samfundsfag, 2009). bu bakımdan vatandaşlık eğitimi kapsamında sosyal bilgiler dersi ile ilişkili olan tarih dersi de önemli bir misyona sahiptir. bu çerçeve içerisinde aşağıda, programda yer alan tarih dersine ilişkin genel hedeflere değinilmektedir. tarih eğitiminin amacı (historie, 2009, s. 3); • öğrencilerin kronolojik bakış açısını geliştirmek, tarihsel bağlamda anlayışlarını ve bilgilerini arttırmak ve günlük yaşamlarında ve toplum yaşamında bu anlayışı kullanmak için onlara uygulama yaptırmaktır. sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 109 • tarih dersi öğrencilerin bilgilerini arttıracak, kültürlerine ve diğer kültürlere yönelik tutum ve anlayışlarını ve doğal olarak da insan etkileşimlerini geliştirecek şekilde yaşam koşullarına ve insan yaşamına dair anlayışlarını geliştirmelidir. öğretim, öğrencilere tarihi alan bilgisini görme ve denetleme fırsatı sağlamalı ve onlara süreklilik ile değişim anlayışını genişletme imkânı tanımalıdır. • öğretim; öğrencilere, tarihsel bilinç, tarihsel kimlik ve zamanı anlama yeteneği kazandırmalıdır. yukarıda ifade edilen tarih dersinin genel amacı, daha önce de ifade edildiği gibi, toplumların zaman içerisindeki dönüşümünü öğrenci açısından anlaşılır kılmaya ve onlara kronolojik bir bakış açısı kazandırmaya çalışmaktır. bunun dışında tarih öğrencide, insan yaşamına ve insanın yaşamını etkileyen koşullara yönelik bir anlayış oluşturarak insanlar arasındaki etkileşimi arttırmayı; onlarda tarihsel bilinç ve kimlik kazandırmayı hedeflemektedir. görüldüğü üzere vatandaşlık eğitimi kapsamında sosyal bilgiler dersinde özellikle “demokrasi, özgürlük ve saygı” kavramları ön plana çıkmaktadır. bu kavramlar temel alınarak öğrencilere demokratik yaşama katılım için gerekli olan kurallar ve değerler kazandırılmaya çalışmaktadır. bunun dışında demokrasinin gelişimi açısından tarih dersi aracılığıyla toplumunun siyasi ve sosyal alandaki tarihsel dönüşümü, öğrenciler için anlamlı kılınmaya çalışılmaktadır. sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders programının i̇çerik boyutu sosyal bilgiler dersinin içeriğini teori ve uygulamada; düşünce özgürlüğü, demokrasi, ekonomik gelişim, ideolojiler, politika, medya, kişisel gelişim ve anayasa gibi konular oluşturmaktadır. dolayısıyla içerik doğrultusunda vatandaşlık eğitimi; demokratik journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 110 kural ve değerleri uygulamayı bilen, bu kural ve değerlere saygı gösteren bireyler yetiştirme misyonunu yüklenmiştir. bu misyonun gereği olarak bireyleri topluma katmak için demokrasinin tarihsel bakış açısını, gelişimini ve yapısını içeren konulara yer verilmektedir. örneğin, konuşma ve din özgürlüğünün danimarka toplumunda nasıl anlaşıldığı ve uygulandığı gibi (samfundsfag, 2009). danimarka’nın sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında içeriğin verildiği yapı, öğrenme alanlarıdır. bu bağlamda ders kapsamında aşağıdaki üç öğrenme alanına odaklanıldığı görülmektedir (samfundsfag, 2009, s. 4) : 1. politikagüç, karar verme ve demokrasi 2. ekonomiüretim, i̇stihdam ve tüketim 3. sosyal ve kültürel faktörlersosyalleşme, kültür ve kimlik bu öğrenme alanlarından özellikle “politikagüç, karar verme ve demokrasi” ve “sosyal ve kültürel faktörlersosyalleşme, kültür ve kimlik” öğrenme alanları sosyalleşmeye ve demokrasiye ilişkindir. ekonomi-üretim, i̇stihdam ve tüketim öğrenme alanı ise vatandaşlığın bir başka yönü olan bireyin ülke ekonomisi ve kalkınmasına katkısına, bireyin üretici ve tüketici olarak toplumdaki rolüne yöneliktir. aşağıda bu üç öğrenme alanının içeriğine ayrıntılı olarak yer verilmektedir. 1.politikagüç, karar verme ve demokrasi: bu öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde öğrenciler; demokrasi kavramına, danimarka’da demokrasinin gelişimi ile vatandaşların sosyal ve siyasal haklarına ilişkin bilgi edinmekte ve danimarka’daki önemli değişimlerin (tarım toplumundan endüstri toplumuna, endüstri toplumundan küreselleşen topluma ya da krallık yönetiminden demokrasiye geçiş3 3 bu bilgi, danimarka’daki sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretmeninden elde edilmiştir. ) farkına varmaktadırlar (samfundsfag, 2009). sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 111 bunun dışında içerikte; danimarka siyasal sistemi ve danimarka hükümetinin temel yönetim kurallarına, muhafazakârlık, liberalizm, sosyal liberalizm ve sosyalizm gibi klasik siyasi ideolojilerin ana fikirlerine; siyasi görüşlerin yaş, cinsiyet, etnik köken ve din ile sosyal ve ekonomik durumlarla nasıl bağlantılı olabileceğine; danimarka vatandaşlarının hak ve sorumlulukları başta olmak üzere, demokratik sistemde yasanın vatandaşlar için önemine; demokrasi ve güç arasındaki ilişkiye; bununla ilgili olarak siyasi karar vermede danimarka ve ab arasındaki etkileşime; politik sistemde siyasi aktörlerin, vatandaşların; yerel, ulusal ve küresel düzeyde siyasi karar vermeleri ile bunun siyasi katılımlarını nasıl etkileyebileceğine; siyasi haberlerin siyasi süreci nasıl etkileyebileceğine, bu bağlamda kitle iletişim araçlarının siyasi rolüne; danimarka’nın ab ve içinde yer aldığı uluslararası organizasyonlarla olan ilişkisine odaklanılmaktadır (samfundsfag, 2009). 2.sosyal ve kültürel faktörlersosyalleşme, kültür ve kimlik her birey bir toplum içerisinde doğar, o toplum içerisinde sosyalleşir ve kimlik kazanır. dolayısıyla öğretim, öğrencilerin sosyalleşme sürecine katkıda bulunmalıdır. bu fikir paralelinde öğrenme alanının odak noktasını; sosyal gruplar, bireyler, gruplar arası ilişkiler ve çatışmalar, farklı yaşam koşullarına ve değerlere sahip bireylerin birbirini algılayış biçimleri, kültür ve alt kültür, din, etnik köken, cinsiyet ve milliyet konuları, kültürel çatışma ve kültürel karşılaşma, modern toplumdaki çatışmalar, toplumsal yaşama katılım ve eğitimin sosyalleşmedeki rolü gibi konular oluşturmaktadır (samfundsfag, 2009). bu öğrenme alanında konular, özellikle farklı etnik yapıdan gelen bireylerin bir arada yaşaması çerçevesinde ele alınmaktadır. bu durum ise ülkenin çok kültürlü yapısı ile ilişkilidir. danimarka, bünyesinde arap, türk vb. birçok milleti barındıran ülkelerden journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 112 birisidir. bu durum ortak yaşam açısından toplumdaki bireylerin birbirini anlaması gerekliliğini ortaya çıkarmaktadır. bu bağlamda öğretim, öğrencilerin karmaşık sosyal yapı içerisinde uyum göstermesi ve farklılıkları anlaması konusunda beceri kazanmalarını sağlamalıdır. dolayısıyla öğretimde, günlük yaşamda karşılıklı etkileşim içerisinde ve farklı yaşam koşullarında yaşayan bireylerin birbirlerini anlamalarını sağlayan yaşam biçimleri, kurumlar ve inançlar ile insanların kendini ve diğerlerini nasıl algıladıkları üzerine yapılan tartışma oldukça önemlidir. öğrenciler bu şekilde bilgi ve beceriyi edinip, birbirlerinin davranışları, fikirleri ve inançlarını saygıyla karşılayabilirler. bu bakımdan öğretim, öğrencilerin toplum içinde yapıcı bir şekilde ve açık fikirlilikle hareket etmesini sağlamalıdır (samfundsfag, 2009). 3.ekonomiüretim, i̇stihdam ve tüketim ekonomi, toplumların refahı açısından önemli bir yere sahiptir. toplumlarda görülen birçok çatışmanın sebebini ekonomi oluşturmaktadır. ekonomi yaşamımızın içindedir, dolayısıyla günlük yaşamda bir tüketici olarak ekonomiyle iç içe olan öğrencilerin toplumun ekonomik gelişimini anlaması, gündelik yaşamını anlamlandırması açısından önemlidir. bu bağlamda da 9. sınıf düzeyinde bu öğrenme alanının odak noktasını ekonomik döngü, ekonomik yapı, refah toplumu, ekonomiye dayalı çıkar ilişkileri, küresel ekonomi, kaynakların devamlılığını sağlamak oluşturmaktadır. 10. sınıf düzeyinde ise 9. sınıf düzeyinde olduğu gibi ekonomik yapı, ekonominin devamlılığı ve çıkar ilişkileri ve buna ek olarak, bireyin ekonomik döngüye nasıl katkıda bulunacağı ve ekonomik yapıyı nasıl etkileyeceği ve ülkenin ekonomik koşullarından nasıl etkileneceği konularına yer verilmektedir (samfundsfag, 2009). vatandaşlık eğitiminin diğer bir boyutuyla ilgili olan tarih dersinde yer alan konular ise; danimarka tarihinde gerçekleşen dönüşümler, danimarka’nın bugünkü sınırlarında yaşanan olaylar, ülkenin bölgesel ve küresel gelişimi, danimarka’nın diğer kültürlerle olan sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 113 ilişkisi, insani destek, ekonomik gelişim, barışın varlığının korunması gibi işlevleri olan kuzey atlantik anlaşması örgütü (nato), birleşmiş milletler (un) ve avrupa birliği (ab) gibi uluslararası kuruluşlar vb.dir. tarih dersinde dikkat çekici konulardan biri de abd’de yaşanan 11 eylül saldırılarıdır (historie, 2009). hristiyan ve müslüman kültürünün birlikte yaşadığı, vatandaşlar arasında kutuplaşmaya yol açan 11 eylül saldırıları çerçevesinde; terörizm, kültürel çatışma ve savaş konuları ele alınmaktadır. tarih dersi programına (2009) göre bu konular, farklı etnik yapılardan oluşan ülkelerde, özellikle demokratik değerler açısından bireylere uzlaşma, saygı, hoşgörü ve kültürler arası iletişim becerileri kazandırması bakımından ele alınması gereken konulardandır. 3.-9. sınıf düzeyinde okutulmakta olan tarih dersinde ise şu üç öğrenme alanına yer verilmektedir (historie, 2009): • toplumun yapısının ve sosyal gelişiminin bilgisi, • kronoloji, • tarihi bilme ve yorumlama vatandaşlık eğitimi ile ilişkisi bakımından özellikle 7.9. sınıf düzeyinde “toplumun yapısının ve sosyal gelişiminin bilgisi” öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde toplumda meydana gelen dönüşümler, demokrasi, bireye verilen hak ve ödevler ele alınmaktadır. öğrenme alanında ele alınan başlıca konular ise demokrasi, göç, kültürel karşılaşma ve toplumun yaşam koşullarıdır. bu bağlamda derste danimarkalı olmanın ne anlama geldiği, kültürlerin göç aracılığıyla karşılaşmalarının olumlu ve olumsuz sonuçları ya da danimarka’da despotizm’den demokrasi’ye geçiş süreci gibi konular ele alınmaktadır. “kronoloji” öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde ise toplumsal anlamda geçmişin ve şimdinin bir karşılaştırılması yapılmaktadır. “tarihi bilme ve yorumlama” öğrenme alanında da geçmişin yorumunu yapma, geçmişi anlamak adına tarihi sorular oluşturma journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 114 temeldir. görüldüğü üzere tarih dersinde yer alan öğrenme alanlarından “toplumun yapısı ve sosyal gelişim bilgisi” vatandaşlık eğitimi ile ilişkisi bakımından sosyal bilgiler dersi ile direkt bağlantılıyken, “kronoloji” ve “tarihi bilme ve yorumlama” öğrenme alanları daha çok kazanılması gereken yorumlama ve anlamlandırma becerileri açısından bu ders ile ilişkilidir. i̇çerik yazma yaklaşımı açısından incelendiğinde, ülkede sarmal programlama yaklaşımı ile konu ağı-proje merkezli yaklaşımın kullanıldığı söylenebilir. bilindiği gibi konu ağıproje merkezli program yaklaşımı”nda öğrencilere konuların ağı bir harita gibi çıkartılıp verilir ve belirli zamanlarda projenin hangi aşamasında olmaları gerektiği söylenir. bu yaklaşımda konuların içeriğine öğrenciler kendi kendine ya da gruplar halinde karar verir. konular, projede ulaşılan bilgilerle sınırlı olur. ‘sarmal yaklaşım’da ise farklı sınıf düzeylerinde, konuların yeri ve zamanı geldikçe tekrar tekrar öğretilmesi söz konusudur (demirel, 2007). danimarka’daki programlarda da, ayrıntısı aşağıda görüleceği üzere, projeye dayalı tekniklere ağırlık verilmekte ve bir alt sınıf düzeyindeki işlenen bir konu, bir üst sınıf düzeyinde daha karmaşık, zor, geniş ve ayrıntılı bir şekilde yeniden ele alınmaktadır. sosyal bilgiler ve tarih dersi programının öğrenme-öğretme süreçleri bu başlık altında eğitim sürecinde yer alan yöntem ve teknik, öğrenciye kazandırılması ön görülen beceri ve değerler ile ders materyalleri ve kaynakları gibi unsurlara değinilmektedir. yöntem ve teknik: daha önce de vurgulandığı gibi vatandaşlık eğitiminin konularını, sosyal yaşam ve toplumsal olaylar oluşturmaktadır. bu nedenle eğitim sürecinde toplumsal öğelerin sınıfa taşınması ve öğrencinin bu doğrultuda yaşama dair çeşitli deneyimler edinmesi esastır. öğretimde öğrencilerin ilgisini çekmek amacıyla sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 115 problem temelli öğretim, projeye dayalı öğretim ve sınıf içi tartışmaları gibi çeşitli öğretim biçimlerine odaklanılmaktadır. problem temelli öğretim ile öğrencilerin uygulamada, konu ve sorunların formüle edilmesinde, günümüz toplumsal olaylarından ilham alarak şaşırtıcı sorular ortaya koyması beklenir. bu çalışmalarda öğretmen ve öğrenciler konuya birlikte karar verir ve bu şekilde de öğrenci konuya dâhil edilmiş olur. öğretmen, öğretimde bütün sorumluluğa sahip olmakla birlikte gerek konu ve problemleri oluşturmada gerekse de sonuçların sunulmasında öğrenciye kılavuzluk eder (samfundsfag, 2009). ayrıca vatandaşlık eğitiminde problem temelli öğretimin yanı sıra proje çalışmalarına ve sınıf tartışmalarına odaklanılmaktadır. öğrenciler yapılan bu aktivitelerle sürece dâhil olmakta, toplumsal problemlerle karşı karşıya gelip sorunlara farklı boyutlardan bakarak eleştirel düşünebilmekte, kendi bakış açılarını ortaya koyabilmektedirler. bu bağlamda öğretimde öğrenci merkezliliğin esas olduğu görülmektedir. problem temelli öğretim çerçevesinde çeşitli konularda proje çalışmaları yapılmaktadır. proje çalışması, öğrencinin sürece dâhil olmasında son derece önemlidir. çünkü öğrenci bu süreç boyunca kendi fikir ve ilgilerini, deneyimlerini araştırmaya katma imkânı bulmaktadır. ülkede proje çalışması her sınıf düzeyinde olmakla birlikte, 9. sınıf düzeyinde okulu bitirmek amacıyla zorunlu olarak yapılmaktadır. aşağıda daha önce ifade edilen öğrenme alanlarına ilişkin olarak problem temelli öğretim, proje çalışması ve sınıf tartışması yöntem ve teknikleri çerçevesinde gerçekleştirilen etkinlik örneklerine yer verilmektedir. örnek 1: sosyalleşme, kültür ve kimlik öğrenme alanına dair (samfundsfag, 2009, s. 46): journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 116 …cinsiyet algısı konusu ele alınırken, ilk olarak cinsiyet algısının nasıl yaratıldığına ilişkin farklı bakış açılarını öğrencilere göstermek için, derste cinsiyetler arasındaki biyolojik farklılıklarla ilgili dokümanlara, kızlar ve erkekler arasında var olan eğitim ve meslek seçimi konusundaki istatistiklere, cinsiyete yönelik basmakalıp reklamlara yer verilebilir. bu çalışma, konuya yönelik farklı bakış açılarının yer aldığı sınıf tartışmasını beslemek için muhteşem bir fırsat sunar. bu tartışma için kadın itfaiyeci ve erkek hemşire olan veliler derse katılıp deneyimlerini paylaşabilirler. i̇kinci olarak işgücü piyasasında kadın ve erkek ayrımına yönelik bir çalışma yürütmek için sınıf kızlar ve erkekler olarak iki gruba ayrılabilir. i̇ki grup öğretmenin seçmiş olduğu materyallerden hareketle problem üzerinde çalışır ve çalışmanın sonunda herkes elde ettiği verileri sınıfta sunar. örnek 2: ekonomi, üretim ve tüketim öğrenme alanına dair (samfundsfag, 2009, s. 46): …küçük sınıflarda ev halkının bütçesi, yaptığı harcamalar, yiyecek tüketimi, ev halkının satın alma gücü gibi konular ele alınır. bu amaçla öğrenciler marketleri, mağazaları ziyaret edip veri toplayabilirler. market veya mağaza müdürüyle birebir görüşme yapıp verileri kayıt altına alabilirler. bunun dışında öğrenciler arz ve talep kavramlarını, bunların fiyatlandırmadaki etkisini kavramalıdırlar. bu onların para mekanizmasını anlamalarını sağlar. bu doğrultuda öğrencilere, ev halkının tüketim yönüyle ekonomik büyümeyi etkileyen taleplerinin üretimi nasıl etkilediğine dair örnekler vererek ekonomik dünyaya ilişkin bir bakış açısı kazanması sağlanmalıdır. bunların dışında özellikle demokrasi, toplumun demokratik gelişimi, yaşam koşulları, savaşlar, danimarka’nın yasaları gibi konuların ele alınmasında; araştırma, tartışma, sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 117 inceleme, empati ve örnek olay ve gezi aktivitelerinden de faydalanılmaktadır. örneğin tartışma etkinliği yaparken, öğrenciler şu sorulara yanıt bulmaya çalışabilirler (historie, 2009, s. 39): • yasayla birlikte danimarkalı vatandaşlara verilen hak ve ödevler nelerdir? • mutlakiyetin yerini alan demokratik hükümet biçimine yönelik tartışmalar nelerdir? • bu açıklamalar zaman içinde değişti mi? eğer öyleyse nasıl ve niçin? • demokratik hükümet yapısı nasıldır ve nasıl gelişmiştir? • niçin başlangıçta oy verme hakkı sadece erkeklere aitti? • bugünün danimarka toplumunda kurumların rolü nedir? • demokrasinin ortaya çıkma öyküsü nasıldır? • demokratik bir sistem nasıl olmalıdır? bu çalışmayı yaparken öğrencilerin şu aktiviteleri yapması sağlanabilir (historie, 2009, s. 39): öğrenciler; • monarşinin sona erişini anlatan eski ve yeni kitapları inceleyebilir, karşılaştırma yapabilirler, • vatandaşların hakları ve ödevleri ile ilgili temel yasa’nın hükümleri’ne ilişkin bölümleri okuyup tartışabilirler, • tarihi dönemleri anlatan müzeleri ziyaret edebilirler, • bir anayasa hazırlayabilirler, • avrupa boyutunda ve küresel boyutta demokrasi üzerine araştırma yapabilirler. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 118 okullarda öğrencinin vatandaşlık eğitimi temelini oluşturan, demokrasi anlayışını uygulama alanı bulduğu ve fikirlerini özgürce ifade edebildiği çeşitli etkinlikler yapılmaktadır. bunlardan biri de öğrenci konseyleridir (samfundsfag, 2009). öğrenci konseyleri küçük sınıfların (2.-5. sınıf düzeyindekiler) ve büyük sınıfların (6.-9. sınıf düzeyindekiler) yer aldığı iki farklı gruptan oluşmaktadır. bu konseylerde öğrenciler okulla ilgili eksik gördükleri ya da eleştirdikleri konulara yönelik değişiklikler yapmakta ve tartışarak birlikte karara varmaktadırlar.4 materyal ve kaynaklar. sosyal bilgiler programında belli başlı materyaller olarak; kitaplar, makaleler, gazeteler, ansiklopediler, bilgisayarlar ve medya içerikli araçlar, internet, video/ film, resim, ses ve metinleri birleştiren veri tabanları, elektronik sözlükler, simülasyonlar, oyunlar, web blokları kullanılmaktadır. öğretmen ve öğrencilerin ders sürecinde kitaplar dışında kullanabileceği çeşitli materyaller bulunmaktadır. öğrenciler, sözgelimi siyasi bir probleme yönelik araştırma yaparken konuyla ilgili siyasi görüşlerin yer aldığı uygun kaynakları (makaleler, gazetelerdeki yorumlar) bulabilir, bu kaynakları yorumlayıp tartışmada bu yorumları kullanabilirler (samfundsfag, 2009). bunun dışında görsel materyal olarak bilgisayarları ya da medya içerikli araçları kullanabilirler. i̇nternet aracılığıyla bilgi alışverişinde bulunabilirler. i̇nternet üzerinden sosyal konuları ve sorunları indirilebilirler. özellikle küçük sınıflarda internet, bilgi almada ve öğrencinin adaptasyonunu sağlamada önemli bir yere sahiptir. video/film, resimler, ses ve metinleri birleştiren veri tabanları, ansiklopediler ve elektronik sözlükler bilgiye ulaşmada ve araştırma yapmada öğrenciye fırsatlar sunar. ancak öğrencinin; bilginin değerini, güvenilirliğini ve tutarlılığını değerlendirebilmesi gerektiği bilinci, öğrenciye bu süreçte kazandırılmalıdır. 4 bu bilgi, danimarka’da görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmeninden elde edilmiştir. sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 119 sosyal bilgiler programına (2009) göre elde edilen bilginin yayılması sürecinde yani proje sunumunda şekillerin, çizimlerin ve resimlerin bir araya getirildiği multimedya programlarının yanı sıra öğretimde öğrencilerin deneyim kazanmasını sağlamak amacıyla bir diğer araç olarak simülasyonlar ve oyunlar kullanılabilir. i̇letişimde ise e-mail, dünyanın bir ucundan diğer ucuna5 tarih dersinde ise kullanılan başlıca materyaller; tarihi öyküler, tarihi atlaslar, kitaplar, makaleler; tarihi fotoğraflar, klipler, filmler, çizgi filmler, tarihi oyunlar gibi bilgi teknolojisi temelli materyallerdir. öğrenciler arasındaki soruları, bilgileri, deneyimleri ve görüşleri hızlı bir şekilde iletmek için kullanılabilir. (samfundsfag, 2009). daha öncede belirtildiği gibi tarih aracılığıyla öğrenciye kazandırılması gereken unsurlardan biri de tarihsel kimliktir. tarihsel kimliği kazandırmada tarihi öyküler ayrı bir yere sahiptir; çünkü tarihi öyküler, tarihi oluşturan insanlar hakkındadır ve empati ile kimlik oluşturmak için açık fırsatlar sunar (historie, 2009). aynı zamanda öyküler aracılığıyla tarih, öğrenci için daha anlaşılır bir hale gelir. bu ders ile öğrencilerin eleştirel düşünme ve farklı bilgi kaynaklarını değerlendirme yetenekleri geliştirilmeye çalışılmaktadır. bu düzeyde öğretim için seçilmiş olan öğrenme kaynakları; öğrencilerin analiz etme, sorular formüle etme, değerlendirme ve açıklama yapma, yorumlama ve üretme yeteneklerini geliştirmeye olanak verir. dolayısıyla süreçte bilgi teknolojileri, görsel materyaller vb. kullanılmaktadır. bunun dışında öğrenciler iletişim teknolojileri aracılığıyla elde ettikleri bilgiyi video sunumları, ses kaydı gibi araçlarla arkadaşlarına aktarabilir ya da internetten tarihi fotoğraflar, klipler, filmler, çizgi filmler, tarihi oyunlar vb. görsel medya araçlarını indirerek geçmişi birebir yaşayabilir; 5araştırmacı notu: danimarka’da eğitim sisteminde internet kullanımı önemli bir yere sahiptir. çoğu öğrenci dünyanın öbür ucundaki insanlarla yazışarak bilgi alışverişinde bulunmaktadır. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 120 internet aracılığıyla, tarihle ilgili çeşitli makalelere ve istatistiklere ulaşabilirler. bu şekilde onlar öğretim sürecine dâhil olmuş olurlar. i̇letişim teknolojileri dışında öğrencilerin geçmişi birebir, canlı olarak yaşayabilecekleri müzeler ve sergiler, onların tarihi anlamasında önemli olan öğelerdendir. danimarka’da kültürel ve tarihi müzeler ülkenin dört bir yanına dağılmıştır ve tarih öğretiminde deneyim sağlaması ve geçmişin izlerini sürmesi açısından öğrenciye zengin fırsatlar sunmaktadır. bir diğer alternatif olarak e-müzeler ise ülkenin dört bir yanındaki müzelere daha kolay ulaşılmasını sağlamaktadır (historie, 2009). tüm bunların dışında öğrencilerin tarihi objelerin birebir benzerlerin bulabilecekleri dükkânlar da bulunmaktadır. bu araçlar tarih öğretiminde öğretmene yardımcı olmaktadır. görüldüğü üzere ülkede klasik öğretim materyallerinin yanı sıra ağırlıklı olarak teknoloji destekli materyaller kullanılmaktadır. bu sayede öğrenme süreci sınıf dışında da gerçekleşmektedir. kazandırılması ön görülen beceri ve değerler. sosyal bilgiler ve tarih programında, öğrencilerin kazanması gereken beceriler olarak uzman okuma, eleştirel düşünme, probleme yönelik sorular formüle etme ve değerlendirmelerde bulunma, başkalarının fikirlerine saygı gösterme, tarihsel kimlik ve bilinç gibi çeşitli beceri ve değerler vurgulanmaktadır. uzman okuma becerisi, öğrencinin probleme ilişkin metinleri anlayıp yorumlayabilmesi açısından önemlidir. bu becerinin kazanılabilmesi için de öğretmenin derse ilişkin gerekli kavram ve terimleri öğrenciye öğretmesi gerekmektedir. örneğin, ‘refah’ kavramı çerçevesinde öğrenci, refah devletinin özelliklerini tarif eder; refah toplumu olan ve olmayan devletlerarasında ayrım yapar; refah politikasına yönelik bakış sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 121 açılarını yorumlar, siyasi tartışmaları sonuçlar ve belki de refah devletinin gelişmesi için kişisel bir yol sunabilir (samfundsfag, 2009). problem tespit etme becerisine yönelik olarak ise öğrenci bir probleme ilişkin çalışma ortaya koyarken, öncelikle problemi net bir şekilde tespit edebilmeli, probleme yönelik kavramları net ortaya koyabilmeli, gerekli materyalleri toplamalı ve problemi formüle edebilmelidir. danimarka’nın vatandaşlık eğitiminde, öğrencilerin toplumsal süreçte yer alması için toplumun yorumunu yapabilecek ölçüde eleştirel düşünmeye yönelik bir bakış açısına sahip olmaları gerektiği; bu bakış açısını da önemli sosyal konular üzerine yapılan tartışmalar aracılığıyla ortaya konan farklı fikir ve anlayışlarla kazanabilecekleri vurgulanmaktadır (samfundsfag, 2009). danimarka çok kültürlü yapıya sahip bir ülke olduğu için, bireylerden farklı bakış açılarına saygı duymaları ve birbirlerine karşılıklı anlayış göstermeleri beklenmektedir. çünkü kimi zaman farklı anlayışa sahip öğrenciler, yeni bakış açılarını ortaya koyma konusunda tartışma sürecini kesintiye uğratabilir. bu yüzden öğrenenlerin konuyu tartışabilmesi için birbirlerinin fikrine saygı duyması, bunun da öğretim aracılığıyla sağlanması gerekmektedir. dolayısıyla programda öğrencinin farklı bakış açılarını görmesi, gerekli deneyimleri edinmesi ve kendi bakış açısını tartışmak için bir fırsata sahip olması gerekliliğine vurgu yapılmaktadır (samfundsfag, 2009). öte yandan bireyler toplum içerisinde farklı kimliklere sahip ulusal bilinç kazanma değerinin yeri oldukça önemli görülür. çünkü bireyin kim olduğunu belirleyen, içinde yaşadığı toplumdur. bireyin kim olduğunu, nereden geldiğini ona gösteren ise tarihtir. bu bağlamda tarih kişiye bir kimlik kazandırılması gereklidir (historie, 2009). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 122 öğrenciye kazandırılması gereken bir diğer değer ise tarihsel bilinçtir. tarihsel bilinç, bugünü anlamak adına geçmişe başvurmak anlamına gelir. tarih, öğrencilerin bu bilince sahip olmasını sağlar. bu da ancak onların kendi yaşamlarının ve toplumların yaşamlarının nasıl şekillenmiş olduğunu gösteren konu ve temalarla gerçekleşebilir. ders belirli ölçüde geçmişte yaşamış insanların düşünceleriyle, hisleriyle, yaşam koşullarıyla ve ilişkileriyle şekillendirilmelidir. buradaki amaç, toplum üzerinde ve toplumsal değişimde etkisi olan insanı açıklamaktır. örneğin; fransız devrimi, farklı arka plana sahip, sosyal değişimi gerçekleştiren insanları konu alır. böylelikle öğrenciler bu değişimi yaşamış insanlara yönelik bir bakış açısı kazanır (historie, 2009). sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders programının değerlendirme boyutu danimarka’da her okul, değerlendirmeyi nasıl yapacağına kendisi karar verir, bu anlamda okullara tam bir özgürlük sağlanmıştır. bazı okullarda yılda bir ya da iki kez öğrencinin değerlendirilmesine ilişkin yazılı bir rapor sunulur, bazı okullarda ise öğretmenler öğrenci ve öğrencinin ailesiyle sık sık yüz yüze gelerek, onun okuldaki durumu ve sorunları hakkında düzenli görüşmeler yapar.6 değerlendirme araçları, öğrencinin öğrenme sürecindeki dayanıklılığını ve zayıflığını göstermeye yardımcı olur. böylelikle öğrenciler öğretmenleriyle birlikte kendi öğrenmelerindeki gelişmeleri takip edebilirler. bu amaçla portfolyolar hazırlanabilir. öğrencilerin aktiviteleri; test, gözlem, ölçme ve değerlendirme araçları yoluyla değerlendirilebilir. test, çok önemli bir değerlendirme aracıdır. örneğin, öğretmen “ülkenin başında kim var ve parlamentoda kaç parti temsil ediliyor?” sorusunun cevabını yapılan değerlendirmeyle öğrencilerin kendi öğrenmesi ile ilgili sorulan sorulara cevap verilmiş olur. bu noktada değerlendirmede, öğretmenin kendi öğretimi ile ilgili dürüst davranması önemlidir. 6 bu bilgi, danimarka’da görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmeninden elde edilmiştir. sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 123 öğrencilerin öğrenip öğrenmediklerini bilmek istiyorsa, test yoluyla bu bilgiye ulaşabilir. değerlendirme hem sözel hem de yazılı olarak ortaya konulabilir (samfundsfag, 2009). sonuç, tartışma ve öneriler sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamının geniş olması ve bireye dünya hakkında genel bilgi kazandırması açısından türkiye’de ve birçok ülkede ilköğretim seviyesinde zorunlu olarak okutulan bir derstir. ncss’in belirlediği öğrenme alanları çerçevesinde tarih, coğrafya, sosyoloji, siyaset vs. gibi sosyal bilim alanlarının konuları ile birlikte vatandaşlık eğitimine ilişkin konular da ayrıntılı bir şekilde yer almaktadır. danimarka’da ise türkiye’den farklı olarak sosyal bilgiler dersi tamamen vatandaşlık eğitimine yönelik olup, tarih, coğrafya gibi dersler ayrı ayrı disiplinler şeklinde okutulmaktadır. sosyal bilgiler programının yanı sıra tarih programında da vatandaşlık eğitimi konularına yer verilmektedir. daha öncede belirtildiği gibi danimarka, almanya (gazibey-sağlam, 2004) ve i̇ngiltere (gün, 2007) gibi birçok avrupa ülkesinde sosyal bilgiler kapsamına giren tarih, coğrafya ve vatandaşlık derslerinin ayrı dersler olarak okutulduğu, özellikle sosyal bilgiler dersinin, vatandaşlık eğitimini kapsayacak şekilde öğrenciye sunulduğu görülmektedir. araştırma sonucuna göre danimarka’nın vatandaşlık eğitiminin hedefinde; bireyin kendi toplumunu tanıması ve tarihini bilmesi, topluma katılım için gerekli olan becerileri edinmesi ve demokratik değerlerle donanmış etkin yurttaşlar yetiştirilmesi gibi ulusal amaçlar yer almaktadır. ayrıca danimarka eğitim sisteminin genel amaçlarında ülkenin çok kültürlü bir yapıya sahip olmasının bir sonucu olarak kendi kültürünün yanı sıra diğer kültürleri tanıma da önemli görülmektedir. benzer şekilde çok kültürlü bir yapıya sahip olan almanya’nın eğitim sisteminin amaçlarında da “başka milletlerin, toplumların ve kültürlerin yaşama hakkını ve bağımsızlıklarını tanıyabilme” (gazibey-sağlam, 2004) ifadesi yer almaktadır. bu bağlamda küreselleşmenin de etkisiyle toplumlararası, kültürler journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 124 arası ilişkilerin artmasının, eğitimde “çok kültürlülüğü” önemli hale getirdiği söylenebilir. nitekim, gay (1994)’a göre kültür kavramının doğasında, sosyal sınıf, din, dil ve etnik köken gibi farklılıklar vardır. bireylerin bu farklılıklar konusunda erken yaşlarda eğitilmesi, gelecekte küresel toplumun etkili birer üyesi olarak yetiştirilmeleri açısından yararlıdır. sözü edilen ayrılıklar; toplumların kutuplaşmasına, insanların birbirleriyle etkileşimlerinin kesilmesine ve toplumdan uzaklaşmalara neden olmaktadır (akt. cırık, 2008). bu nedenle türkiye’nin eğitim sisteminde de, küreselleşmenin zorunlu bir sonucu olan toplumlar ve kültürler arası ilişkiler çerçevesinde, çok kültürlülüğe gereken önemin verilmesi gerekmektedir. danimarka eğitim sisteminde vatandaşlık eğitimi kapsamında sosyal bilgiler ve tarih dersinde özellikle “demokrasi, özgürlük ve saygı” kavramları ön plana çıkmaktadır. bu kavramlar çerçevesinde bireye demokratik yaşama katılım için gerekli olan temel değerler, kurallar ve beceriler (eleştirel düşünme, farklılıklara saygı gösterme gibi) kazandırılmaya çalışılmaktadır. okulda verilen vatandaşlık eğitimi aracılığıyla öğrenciler hak ve sorumluluklarının farkında olup topluma etkin katılan demokratik bireyler haline gelebilmektedirler. ancak bu değer, kural ve becerilerin kazandırılması noktasında teorinin yanında bireye uygulamanın da yaptırılması gerekmektedir. paykoç’a (1991) göre demokratik bir vatandaşın istenilen düzeye gelmesi için de eğitim sistemi içerisinde bu değerlerin neler olduğu uygulamalarla, öğrenciye gösterilmelidir. yoksa değerleri bilgi düzeyinde öğretmek bu değerlerin kazanılacağı anlamına gelmez (akt. güven, 2008). bu anlamda danimarka’da okullarda öğrencinin vatandaşlık eğitiminin temelini oluşturan demokrasi anlayışını uygulama alanı bulduğu ve fikirlerini özgürce ifade edebildiği çeşitli etkinlikler yapılmaktadır. bunlardan biri de öğrenci konseyleridir. bu konseylerde öğrenciler okula yönelik değişiklikler yapmakta ve tartışmak istedikleri konularda birlikte karara varmaktadırlar. bu şekilde yapılan uygulamayla, daha önce de vurgulandığı gibi, sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 125 öğrenciye kazandırılması hedeflenen beceri ve değerler sadece teori düzeyinde kalmayıp öğrenci açısından daha kalıcı hale getirilmektedir. danimarka’nın sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında üç öğrenme alanı yer almaktadır. bu öğrenme alanlarında ise vatandaşlık eğitimi bağlamında şu konu ve kavramlara yer verilmektedir: demokrasi ve gelişimi, vatandaşların siyasi ve sosyal hakları, ülkenin siyasi sistemi, siyasi görüşlerin yaş, cinsiyet, din ve etnik köken ile bağlantısı, danimarka’nın ab ile olan ilişkisi, sosyal gruplar, gruplar arası ilişkiler, kültürlerin birbirlerini algılayış biçimleri, ekonomi, ekonomiye yönelik çıkar ilişkileri, bireyin ülke ekonomisi ve kalkınmasına katkısı, bireyin üretici ve tüketici olarak toplumdaki rolü. bunların dışında terörizm ve çok kültürlülük konularına oldukça yoğun olarak yer verilmektedir. programda en dikkat çekici hususlardan biri -daha öncede belirtildiği gibi “terör” konusuna özellikle de 11 eylül saldırılarına yer verilmesinin “barış eğitimi” ile ters düşmesidir. yani çok kültürlü bir yapıya sahip olan ülkede bu tür konuların ele alınması müslüman kesime düşmanca bir bakış açısı ile bakmaya neden olmaktadır. bu durumun sonucunda müslüman kültüründen gelen bireyler zor durumda kalmaktadırlar. bu, çok kültürlü yapıya sahip olan ve eğitim sisteminde çok kültürlülüğe vurgu yapan bir ülke olan danimarka ve farklı etnik kökenden gelen insanlar açısından dikkate alınması gereken bir durumdur. çünkü yeryüzünde yaşayan tüm insanların etkileşimine dayanan küreselleşmede, etkileşimin sağlıklı olması için bireylere eğitim yoluyla bilgi, beceri ve davranışlar kazandırılırken; dürüst olma, adil olma, başkalarının bakış açısı ile bakma, sorumluluk sahibi olma, dayanışma, farklılıklara saygı gösterme ve hoşgörülü olma gibi değer ve becerilerin kazandırılması gerekmektedir. bu değer ve becerilerin kazandırılması için de sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında “barış eğitimi”ne yer verilmesi gerekmektedir (coşkun, 2008). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 126 araştırma sonucunda dikkat çeken diğer bir önemli konu ise danimarka’nın demokrasiyi temel alan vatandaşlık eğitiminde; problem temelli öğretim, proje çalışması, sınıf tartışması, grup çalışması gibi öğrenciyi aktif kılan yöntem ve teknikleri yoğun bir şekilde kullanmasıdır. nitekim shafer’e (1987) göre; almanya’da demokrasi eğitimi alanında önemli bir kişi olan wolfgang hilligen, bu eğitimin başarılı olması için dört ilke önermektedir. bu ilkeler şöyle özetlenebilir (akt. yeşil, 2004, s. 37): 1. sınıfta açık toplum yapısı oluşturma, 2. öğrencilere grup çalışmaları yaptırma, 3. öğrencilere araştırmacı ve çözümleyici yaklaşım kullandırtma. sorunların çözümü için bireysel çalışmalar yaptırma, 4. öğrencilerin kendi ilgi ve sorunlarını başlangıç noktası olarak almalarını sağlama. bahsedilen bu ilkelere, danimarka eğitim sisteminde genel olarak uyulmaktadır. problem temelli öğretim, öğrencinin yaşama dair deneyimler edinmesi açısından son derece önemlidir. çünkü bunun aracılığıyla öğrenciler günlük hayatta karşılaşacağı problemlere ilişkin çözüm önerileri sunabilmekte, eleştirel ve yaratıcı düşünme becerilerini ortaya koyabilmektedirler. bunun yanı sıra problem temelli öğretim, öğrencilerin işbirliğine dayalı öğrenmelerini de geliştirerek, onların problemi takım çalışmasıyla çözerek takım içerisinde sorumluluk alma becerilerini de geliştirmektedir (akt. gültekin ve diğerleri, 2007). bu şekilde öğrenciler, topluma etkin bir şekilde katılmakta, ortaya çıkan sosyal, siyasal, ekonomik problemlere eleştirel ve yaratıcı bir bakış açısıyla çözüm önerisi getirebilmektedirler. problem temelli öğrenme sürecinde öğretmen ve öğrenciler konuya birlikte karar vermekte, böylece öğrencinin sürece aktif katılımı sağlanmaktadır (samfundsfag, 2009). bu yolla öğretim sürecinde öğrenci merkezde olmaktadır. bu tür bir eğitim anlayışına türkiye’de “yapılandırmacılık”la geçildiği ancak bu yaklaşımın sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 127 uygulanması konusunda çeşitli sıkıntıların yaşandığı görülmektedir. çünkü yapılan araştırmalarda görüldüğü üzere, yapılandırmacı yaklaşımın öğretmene ve öğrenciye yüklediği roller kadar bu rollerin öğrenme ortamına nasıl yansıtılacağı, öğrenme sürecinin nasıl planlanması gerektiği ve öğretmenin bu konuda yeterli donanıma sahip olup olmaması durumu başlıca eleştiri konularıdır (hazır-bıkmaz, 2006). bu konuda meb’nın eksiklikleri giderici ve uygulamayı iyileştirici çalışmalar yapması; uygulayıcı olan öğretmenleri bu tür bir süreci nasıl uygulayacakları konusunda eğitmeleri önerilebilir. danimarka’nın vatandaşlık eğitiminde öğrencinin sürece aktif katılımını sağlayan ve süreçte önemli bir yere sahip olan bir diğer etkinlikte proje çalışmasıdır. çünkü öğrenci bu süreç boyunca kendi fikir ve ilgilerini, deneyimlerini araştırmaya katma imkânı bulmaktadır. ülkede proje çalışmaları her sınıf düzeyinde yapılmakla birlikte, 9. sınıf düzeyinde okulu bitirmek amacıyla zorunlu olarak yapılmaktadır. türkiye’de ise bu yaklaşım süreçte tasarım olarak yer almamakta, etkinlik olarak bulunmaktadır. türkiye’de de yapılandırmacılık kapsamında öğrencilere proje çalışmaları yaptırılmakta, ancak uygulama öğrencinin sürece aktif katılımını sağlayamamaktadır. çünkü proje ödevi öğrenciler tarafından internette çıktısı alınacak ya da anne babaların çocukları için yapması gereken bir ödev olarak görülmekte dolayısıyla etkinlikten istenen sonuç elde edilememektedir. bu çerçevede öğrencilerin öğrenme bağlamlarında yer alan velilerin yapılandırmacı eğitim konusunda yeteri kadar bilgilendirilmesi gerekmektedir. çünkü çocuğun bilgiyi yapılandırdığı yer sadece okul değildir. bu süreç okul dışında da devam etmelidir. bu yüzden bu konuda yeteri kadar bilgiye sahip bilinçli velilere ihtiyaç vardır (coşkun-keskin, 2007). dolayısıyla öğrencinin öğrenme sürecinde olumsuzluk yaratan, onları pasif kılan “proje ödevleri velilerin yapması içindir” anlayışını ortadan kaldırmak için velilere ve öğretmenlere konuyla ilgili gerekli eğitimi vermek gerekmektedir (yüceer ve coşkunkeskin, 2012). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 128 araştırma sonucunda danimarka’nın vatandaşlık eğitiminde öğrencilerin yaparak yaşayarak sürece dâhil oldukları görülmüştür. öğrenciler gözlem, deney ve incelemeler yaparak sürece aktif bir şekilde katılmakta, okul kampları ve geziler aracılığıyla bir tarihi mekânı yakından görme fırsatına sahip olmakta ve çağın bilgisayar ve internet gibi teknolojilerinden yararlanabilmektedirler. bu durum ise etkili bir vatandaşlık eğitimine zemin hazırlamaktadır. öte yandan danimarka’da her okul değerlendirmeyi nasıl yapacağına kendisi karar vermektedir. bazı okullarda yılda bir ya da iki kez öğrencinin değerlendirilmesine ilişkin yazılı bir rapor sunulmaktadır, bazı okullarda ise öğretmenler, öğrenci ve öğrencinin ailesiyle sık sık yüz yüze gelerek, onun okuldaki durumu ve sorunları hakkında düzenli görüşmeler yapmaktadır. böylelikle velinin eğitim sürecine katılımı sağlanmaktadır. türkiye’de de velilerle öğrencilerin genel durumuna ilişkin yüzeysel olarak görüşmeler yapılmaktadır. bu yüzden veli katılımının desteklenmesi gerekmektedir. sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 129 kaynakça/references akbaş, o. (2008). değerler eğitimi akımlarına genel bir bakış. kırıkkale üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, değerler eğitimi dergisi, 16, 9-27. alkın, s. (2007). i̇ngiltere ve türkiye’de ilköğretim programlarındaki vatandaşlık eğitiminin karşılaştırılması. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, ankara argüden, y. (2008). küreselleşmeyi yönetebilmek: küresel vatandaşlık eğitimi. önce kalite dergisi, 40-42. avrupa konseyi bakanlar komitesi (2010). avrupa konseyi demokratik vatandaşlık eğitimi ve i̇nsan hakları eğitimi şartı. cm/rec(2010)7 sayılı tavsiye kararı ve açıklayıcı not. strasbourg: avrupa konseyi yayınları boobekova, k. (2001). türkiye ve kırgızistan ilköğretim sistemlerinin karşılaştırılmalı olarak incelenmesi (1. kademe). yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul cırık, i̇. (2008). çok kültürlü eğitim ve yansımaları. hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 34, 27-40. coşkun-keskin, s. (2007). sosyal bilgiler derslerinde empati becerilerine dayalı öğretim tekniklerinin kullanılması. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul coşkun, s. (2008). çocuk ve barış: çocuklar nasıl bir dünya istiyor? safran m., dilek d. (ed.), 21. yüzyılda kimlik, vatandaşlık ve tarih eğitimi içinde (s.286-301). i̇stanbul: i̇nsan yayınevi demirel, ö. (2007). eğitimde program geliştirme. 10. baskı. ankara. pegem a yayıncılık journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 130 gazibey-sağlam, d. (2004). almanya’da gymnasium 5.,6, ve 7/8. sınıf tarih, coğrafya ve vatandaşlık eğitimi programlarının amaç ve içerik açısından incelenmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü: i̇stanbul gün, e. s. (2007). türkiye ve i̇ngiltere ilköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıflar sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programlarının karşılaştırılması. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. hacettepe üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, ankara gültekin, m., karadağ, r. ve yılmaz, f. (2007). yapılandırmacılık ve öğretim uygulamalarına yansımaları. anadolu üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 2, 50-528 güven, a. (2008). demokratik vatandaşlık ve tarih eğitimi. atatürk üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 12 (2), 337-350. hazır-bıkmaz, f. (2006). yeni ilköğretim programları ve öğretmenler. ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi, 39, 97-116. historie (2009). tarih. http://www.uvm.dk/~/media/publikationer/2009/folke/faelles% 20maal /filer/faghaefter/090707_historie_12.ashx adresinden 14.05. 2009 tarihinde edinilmiştir. kan, ç. (2009). sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde küresel vatandaşlık. pamukkale üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 26, 25-30. karaman kepenekçi, y. (2008). eğitimciler için insan hakları ve vatandaşlık. ankara: ekinoks kitapevi keskin, y. ve coşkun-keskin, s. (2011). amerika birleşik devletleri. i̇çinde c. öztürk (ed.), farklı ülkelerin sosyal bilgiler öğretim programları (s.73-104). ankara: pegem a http://www.uvm.dk/~/media/publikationer/2009/folke/faelles%25%2020maal%20/filer/faghaefter/090707_historie_12.ashx%20adresinden%20%2014.05� http://www.uvm.dk/~/media/publikationer/2009/folke/faelles%25%2020maal%20/filer/faghaefter/090707_historie_12.ashx%20adresinden%20%2014.05� sevgi coşkun keski̇n ve deniz yüceer 131 meb (2005). sosyal bilgiler 4.-7. sınıf programı. ankara: talim ve terbiye kurulu başkanlığı national council for the social studies (ncss) (1992): national curriculum standards for social studies: executive summary. http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/ execsummary adresinden 08.03.2009 tarihinde edinilmiştir. national council for the social studies (ncss) (2010): national curriculum standards for social studies: chapter 2—the themes of social studies. http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/strands adresinden 31.12.2012 tarihinde erişilmiştir. oruç, ş., ve ulusoy, k. (2008). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi alanında yapılan tez çalışmaları, selçuk üniversitesi, ahmet keleşoğlu eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 26, 121-132. safran, m. (2008). özel öğretim yöntemleriyle sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. ankara: pegem a yayınevi sağırlı, m.. (2005). bir konu alanı olarak vatandaşlık bilgisi. i̇çinde e. töre temiz (ed.), vatandaşlık bilgisi (s. 10-26). i̇stanbul: lisans yayıncılık samfundsfag. (2009). sosyal bilgiler. http://www.uvm.dk/~/media/publikationer/2009/ folke/faelles%20maal/filer/faghaefter/090709_samfund_12.ashx adresinden 14.05.2009 tarihinde edinilmiştir. ulusavaş, m. (tarihsiz) temel yurttaşlık eğitimi (global boyutlu, karşılaştırmalı bir çalışma). http://pauegitimdergi.pau.edu.tr/makaleler/144138815_17temel%20yurtta %c5%9elik%20e%c4%9e%c4%b0t%c4%b0m%c4%b0.pdf adresinden 12.12.2011 tarihinde edinilmiştir. http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/%20execsummary� http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/%20execsummary� http://www.uvm.dk/~/media/publikationer/2009/%20folke/faelles%20maal/filer/faghaefter/090709_samfund_12.ashx%20adresinden%2014.05.2009� http://www.uvm.dk/~/media/publikationer/2009/%20folke/faelles%20maal/filer/faghaefter/090709_samfund_12.ashx%20adresinden%2014.05.2009� http://www.uvm.dk/~/media/publikationer/2009/%20folke/faelles%20maal/filer/faghaefter/090709_samfund_12.ashx%20adresinden%2014.05.2009� http://pauegitimdergi.pau.edu.tr/makaleler/144138815_17-temel%20yurtta%20%c5%9elik%20e%c4%9e%c4%b0t%c4%b0m%c4%b0.pdf� http://pauegitimdergi.pau.edu.tr/makaleler/144138815_17-temel%20yurtta%20%c5%9elik%20e%c4%9e%c4%b0t%c4%b0m%c4%b0.pdf� http://pauegitimdergi.pau.edu.tr/makaleler/144138815_17-temel%20yurtta%20%c5%9elik%20e%c4%9e%c4%b0t%c4%b0m%c4%b0.pdf� journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 97-120 132 yeşil, r. (2004). i̇nsan hakları ve demokrasi eğitiminde yöntem. gazi üniversitesi kırşehir eğitim fakültesi dergisi.5 (1), 35-41. yıldırım, a. ve h. şimşek (2011). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık yılmaz-önkür ,ş. (2004). fransız eğitim sisteminin ilköğretim ikinci kademesinde (college) uygulanan sosyal bilgiler programının analizi ve türkiye’deki programlarla karşılaştırılması. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü: i̇stanbul yüceer, d. (2011). danimarka ve türkiye’de uygulanan sosyal bilgiler programlarının analizi ve karşılaştırılması. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. sakarya üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü: sakarya yüceer, d. ve coşkun-keskin s. (2012). danimarka ve türk eğitim sistemlerinin ilköğretim düzeyinde karşılaştırılması. ondokuz mayıs üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi. 31 (1), 325-349 devletle arasında karşılıklı etkileşimle birlikte bir bağ olan kimse olarak tanımlanan ‘vatandaş’ın (karaman kepenekçi, 2008; sağırlı, 2005), yaşadığı ülke ve dünyaya aykırı bireyler olmaması için etkili ve demokratik bir vatandaşlık eğitiminden geçir... … demokrasi ve hukukun üstünlüğünü yaygınlaştırmak ve korumak amacıyla; öğrencileri bilgi, beceri ve anlayışla donatmak ve tavır ve davranışlarını geliştirmek suretiyle, onları toplumda demokratik haklarını ve sorumluluklarını kullanıp savunacak şeki... bu bağlamda türkiye ve birçok ülkede ilköğretim çağındaki çocuklara, her ülkenin kendine göre belirlediği vatandaş yetiştirme modeline göre gerekli değer, tutum ve davranışlar sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında öğretilmeye çalışılmaktadır. nitekim meb’e... consensus as democratic education on the village consultative body election in bangkalan www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (2), 84-110 consensus as democratic education on the village consultative body election in bangkalan yudi widagdo harimurti,1 encik muhammad fauzan,2 indah purbasari,3 indra yulianingsih4 abstract this study aims to discuss democracy education practice on electing members of the village consultative body in the regency of bangkalan –indonesia. through this study, the authors intend to describe models by which used in electing members of the village consultative body (bpd) within the regency of bangkalan –indonesia as well as to explore democracy values derived from the model chosen by related villages to be employed for society’s education on democracy. this study is carried out by way of qualitative research methodology –by observing the ongoing election process of members of the village consultative body in the regency of bangkalan in 2019; the authors were on the spot during the event. furthermore, the study reveals that the government of bangkalan regency drafts regulations by exercising the regent’s stipulation ,i.e., giving options to approximately 256 villages in bangkalan in which, respective model or option is applicable in selecting the nominees to fill in the posts of members of village consultative body in the regency of bangkalan the nomination procedure is held through a direct voting among village society or consensus by consultative assembly. later, the result shows that the society who elect candidates for filling in the posts of bpd members agreed to use consensus as a model, and it is exercised in a specific consensus forum. therefore, such model is considered suitable with the fourth of fundamental concept of pancasila (five basic principles of establishing the state). the core issue regarding the fourth principle of pancasila is the practice of democracy so that a consensus is also a reflection of democracy values and it can be used as a role model in educating people about democracy. keywords: consensus, democracy education, election, pancasila introduction democracy is commonly represented, one of them, by collective decision making, in which decisions are made by all members of a society to elect officials to govern the respective society in order to achieve what counts as the public good. collective decision making is generally exercised through a mechanism of direct voting and the winner is the candidate with the majority 1 associate professor, university of trunojoyo madura, yudi.harimurti@trunojoyo.ac.id 2 senior lecturer, university of trunojoyo madura, encik.fauzan@trunojoyo.ac.id 3 senior lecturer, university of trunojoyo madura, indah.purbasari @trunojoyo.ac.id 4 senior lecturer, university of trunojoyo madura, indra.yulianingsih @trunojoyo.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 votes. in indonesia the typical mechanism is often conducted when electing the president, members of house representative, regional representative council as well as head of regional government namely governor and regent or mayor. indonesia implements this democracy for favoring the harmony of indonesian government system. the government system assigns the president as the central government is which divided into provincial governments ruled by governors. the provincial governments are also divided into regencies or municipalities which are led by regents or mayors. this system exists in article 18 the 1945 indonesian constitution which regulate regional government. however, there is a lower government system in indonesia namely village government. the village government is indirectly expressed in article 18 the 1945 indonesian constitution. the position of village government is under the regency government as regulated in the 2014 indonesian law number 6 regarding village. nevertheless, the village is interpreted in article 18b section 2 the 1945 indonesian constitution which stated that “the state recognizes and respects traditional communities along with their traditional customary rights as long as these remain in existence and are in accordance with the societal development and the principles of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia, and shall be regulated by law” village is the smallest region in indonesia governed by village government. in addition, there is an institution to control village government a called a village consultative body or bpd (badan permusyawaratan desa). functionally, bpd serves society in the same way as the house of representatives does, particularly in exercising supervision toward the chief of village performance. as such, the appointed members of bpd are preferably the village society and they are elected by means of a democratic election with two varied options: direct voting and representative deliberation. democracy, in general, is identical to direct election or direct voting by which the candidate with majority votes won. “the democratic form of nomination is election. the organ authorized to create or execute the legal norms is elected by subjects whose behavior is regulated by these norms” (kelsen, 2017). it means that general election reflects democracy and a symbol of openness and freedom. as a matter of fact, in indonesia, general election is used to elect the president, harimurti, et al. 86 members of house representative and regional representative council, the head of regional government, the members of regional house of representative and to elect the chief of village government. however, in electing bpd member, the indonesian government provides two option; that is, direct voting and representative deliberation. as reviewed above, indonesian government hierarchies consist of central government – province government – regency or municipal government – village government. the village government consisting of the village head and village apparatus has the task of implementing the village governance system, development, community empowerment, service delivery and village community development. therefore, the village government is the administration of government affairs and the interests of the local community in the government system of the unitary republic of indonesia (syahbudin, 2017). meanwhile, bpd is an institution at a lower level to control a village government, specifically, the election of bpd members is exercised differently than that in another institution in indonesian government system. the election should be done, for it is a tool of democracy supremacy. normally, an election is implemented through direct election by which people choose the candidate directly. direct election will determine the candidate with majority voter. consequently, the candidate and its supporters likely resent their loss in the election. besides, the direct election of regional heads is less efficient particularly in the budget. a huge amount for its logistic must be provided. sometimes, direct election spends budgets larger than the allocation funds for the regional economic development. it probably appears conflicts that will disrupt the stability of regions (megawati, 2019). it later raises disharmony in running the government. meanwhile, indonesia has a principle of representative deliberation stated in the pancasila. pancasila is indonesian fundamental norms and way of life which it comprises five inseparable and interrelated principles, namely: 1. belief in the one and only god, 2. just and civilized humanity, 3. the unity of indonesia, 4. democracy guided by the inner wisdom in unanimity arising out of deliberations amongst representatives, 5. social justice for the whole of the people of indonesia. pancasila reflects values that constant and common in community. these values exist beneath and in the general society and it’s called the national traditions (mishra & azeez, 2014). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 temporarily, the implementation of representative deliberation as one of the values in pancasila reduced especially in public and official elections even the curriculum of civic education from elementary school up to higher education basically covers how to implement the five principles of pancasila. it means that the principle of deliberation to make a consensus in pancasila has been abandoned and replaced with modern democracy through direct elections. the reduced implementation of deliberation appears curiosity of the authors toward the mechanism of bpd members election in bangkalan. with the two varied mechanisms of electing bpd members offered to the society (deliberation and direct election), thus, raises questions for a research as “ to what extent is the election for appointing bpd members in bangkalan regency in the east java province in 2019 democratic and “how should the election mechanism be applied to serve as a model in democratic education?” the election mechanism opted is in line with the ministry of home affairs regulation number 110 year of 2016 on village consultative body. the authors decided to take the bangkalan regency for a research in 2019 since it is located on madura island which region is under the jurisdiction of east java province. the territory on the island is divided into four regencies, that is, the regencies of sumenep, pamekasan, sampang and bangkalan; among which pamekasan, sampang and bangkalan are the regencies inhabited by society with the lowest education among other regencies within the east java province and most of them are found in rural areas. according to the statistics issued by the data and statistics center of culture and education 2018/2019 bangkalan is at the second lowest level for the citizens educational level among the rest 38 regencies in the east java province. moreover, regarding society which comprises nearly 90 percent of the entire population on the island. madura island in general, literally belongs to the madurese society whose characteristics are commonly simple-minded and conservative in nature. in addition to being less educated, they are docile, particularly to muslim scholars. there are many graves of muslim scholars found in bangkalan; it proves that there were islamic teachers who founded of the largest islamic organization in indonesia. in other words, democracy in bangkalan is strongly influenced by strong religious values. among regents in indonesia, bangkalan is identical with the patronage culture in the relationship between islamic teacher (called as kyai) with their student (called as harimurti, et al. 88 santri). the islamic teacher becomes a patron while the santri community as a client. their relationships are bound by providing religious knowledge, guidance, role models and protection from the islamic teacher (kyai) to their santri and the surrounding people. consequently, they reward the kyai with their trust, loyalty, and support (sjafrina, 2012). this unique character and culture are why researchers interested in conducting research in bangkalan because the patronage culture probably influences the practice of democratic values in the community. they tend to follow the figure of kyai rather than express their own aspiration. yet, the society thereby is less informed and educated about democracy; particularly, when electing the government head such as the president, governor, regent or chief of village. therefore, any political events related to electing government officials are likely prone to conflicts. regarding the election mechanism to fill in the position of new bpd members, direct voting was offered and held simultaneously in 256, out of 273 villages of the bangkalan regency. the former bpd members assigned in these villages had finished their service in 2019. while 17 other villages will hold an election for the members of bpd in 2020. this study is supposedly intriguing for it is written at the same time as the enactment of the minister of home affairs regulation number 110 year of 2016 on village consultative body serving as the legal basis for organizing the conduct of listing the candidates of bpd members. furthermore, it would be the first enactment of the respective regulation in the bangkalan regency by way of two democratic election methods: direct voting or consensus through consultative body. moreover, the regulation also requires that bpd also comprises at least a female representative in its composition. predominantly, population in indonesia consists of people who live in villages, thus it is increasingly important to study how democracy exercised within village societies and the outcome of which is expected to reflect how democracy is practiced in indonesia as well as to contribute to democracy development by means of providing adequate education in democracy. democracy education aims to prepare citizen who think critically, act democratically and has equal opportunity (mason, 2019; polat, 2020; robbins, et al. 2019). this study shall carry out an in-depth survey to explore opportunities in some extent to apply similar democratic election model to relatively small-scale environments like educational journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 institutions. educational institution such as schools, in this context, is a miniature of a state; thus, students thereby represent a small scale of society who demand equal opportunity in receiving education and fair treatment. proper democratic education can have an impact on understanding rights and obligations. conversely, democratic education which is not due to the wrong election mechanism model can become tyrannical. however, this type of election, especially related to bpd member electoral mechanism, can be applied as role model in democracy education (lafer, 2014). the study regarding the conduct of filling in the posts of bpd members prior to general election is comparatively new and no similar studies were held earlier. rumayya batubara focused on discussing “the interrelationship between democracy and ethnic fractionalization at village level, by applying a profit model to the ifls (indonesian family life survey) data set on the perception of corruption incidence and the changes in governance at village government in 256 communities”(batubara, 2016). edward aspinall and noor rohman held a research titled “village head elections in java: money politics and broker age in the remaking of indonesia's rural elite.” this study explores on how democracy will enable village officials to transform, particularly in the two elections of chief of village in central java(aspinall & rohman, 2017). additionally, a.b. barrul fuad also carried out a study in respect to political changes in indonesia by means of case studies at the village of karang pandan-malang, indonesia focussing not only on political or economic changes but it is also considered as a cultural event (budiharso & tarman, 2020; fuad, 2014). methods the study employs a socio legal research. it combines the methods of legal research and social research. this socio-legal study imposes on evaluation research at which it attempts to determine how the program or the policy achieve the goals (neuman, 2011). hereby, the authors evaluate how the laws and democracy principles works on the process of preparing and filling in the posts of bpd members and how the participating villages interact within their co mmunity and communicate the preparedness to the village empowerment office in bangkalan regency. as such, the authors construct social reality in the election of bpd members in forms of attending the process of drafting regulations for listing the candidates of bpd members in bangkalan regency, harimurti, et al. 90 particularly in terms of model designation for such respective matters. in addition, the designation shall impact democracy education within village societies in the regency of bangkalan. research design the research design follows the qualitative approach. consequently, the data collected and their analysis are descriptive in form of text and the data is less published inform of statistical analysis (neuman, 2011). additionally, it involves observations on people with their surroundings as well as interact with them by learning the atmosphere around them (nasution, 1996). this qualitative research also constructs social reality, concentrates on interaction and occurrence wherein there is a self-involvement of the authors (neuman, 2011). newman designs the qualitative research processes into seven steps namely: (1) acknowledgement on social phenomenon, (2) adopting perspective, (3) designing the study, (4) collecting data, (5) analyzing data, (6) interpreting data and (7) publishing (neuman, 2006). briefly, the following diagram visualizes this research design: self-acknowledgement researchers are familiar with the characters of bangkalan society because they are lecturers and government consultants for regulatory drafting. most of them are bangkalan residents for years. prior to the study, a team needs to be formed by way of involving personal expertise in accordance with the field of research such as law, governance, education, and social issues. they fully involved in the process of drafting bpd election regulation, interacted with the chiefs of village self-acknowledgement: identifying researcher position in society adopting perspective: law democracy concept design the study: determining locations, event, participants, and instruments data collections techniques: direct observations and interviews analyzing data: inductive reasoning interpreting data: literal interpretation publishing diagram 1 the research design journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 and the government officers of the villages empowerment affairs in bangkalan, east java, indonesia. adopting perspectives the authors designate the research perspectives which comprise perspectives on legislation and democracy education. hence, the study is equipped with research variables on law. anwarul yaqin describes that socio-legal research covers the study of legal research on particular case and how it deals with social context or social problem (yaqin, 2007). legal resources to be discussed as variables consist of the 1945 constitution of republic of indonesia, specifically it focuses on its preamble, the republic of indonesia laws number 6 of 2014 concerning villages and the regulation of home affairs minister of the republic of indonesia number 110 of 2016 regarding village consultative bodies. these doctrinal discussions are both a descriptive and exploratory study to find out the fact and to figure out plausible explanations (yaqin, 2007). they will clarify how the regulations accommodate elections methods both deliberation and voting. later, they disclose facts and find educational democratic values contained thereof as educational variables so that it is necessary to perceive whether models chosen for listing the candidates of bpd members reflects democracy values which later be implemented by village societies or the public for democracy education. designing the study the study commences by designating the place of research and its social phenomenon, i.e., the regency of bangkalan. the choice is taken as there are complaints within village societies. such complaints are filed by the chiefs of villages related to the listing of candidates to be appointed as bpd members in bangkalan regency in terms of the election mechanism, number of bpd members to be elected, limited budget and allocation, absence of regulatory conduct within the regency level. formerly, when the authors began the study, there was no relevant stipulation made available to organize such issues in the regency level. the authors design this study by determining the relevant topic and literature, arranging research stages and proposal, organizing research team, preparing administrative procedures and research instruments. research proposal is written as the basis for conducting a study in bangkalan regency. in this stage, the research period is decided to last from march 2019 to december 2019 and to be located within the harimurti, et al. 92 bangkalan regency, particularly at the village empowerment office in bangkalan regency as the local institution to be in charge of the entire village issues within the bangkalan regency. participants the participants consist of author, government officers for village affairs in bangkalan and heads of village in bangkalan. the authors were consultants of government officers and the regulatory drafters for the election process. therefore, authors became active participants in the consultation and drafting regulation process. the event was attended by the heads of 256 villages, the government officers, and the regency committee for the bpd elections. the authors were actively involved and disclosed his participation within that process. they become full participant in the process. it means that the authors attend the deliberation for drafting the election regulation. two authors take a part in the deliberations, give suggestions, recommendation through the drafting process while others record and put jotted notes on the opinion stated by chiefs of villages in the drafting of regent regulation for electing bpd candidates. instruments the research instruments for collecting the data consist of observation and interview guidelines, check lists of the relevant literatures and documents (nasution, 1996). before observing and interviewing, the teams make guidelines in form of checklist points for observations and questions guideline for interview. taking notes and recording the situation are urgent in observation (neuman, 2011). therefore, notes and recording are compulsory instruments during the observations and interviews. besides, teams also prepare the lists for the needed literatures and documents for library research guidelines and makes check lists and notes for the collecting literatures and documents. sampling and informants the informants are selected through purposive sampling. it means the researchers point out the criteria made for the purpose of study (yaqin, 2007). the interviewers seek the data referred to the interview guideline. briefly, the interviewers ask the informants toward their views on the options for the electoral mechanism of appointing bpd candidates, the strengths and weaknesses of each option, the budget allocation. the selected informants intended for purposive sampling consist of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 the committee of bpd candidate election within the regency level and the village empowerment officers of bangkalan. data collections procedures the team determines the source of primary data and the secondary data. they obtain directly from the process of electing bpd member in bangkalan regency and the secondary sources are gathered from relevant literature such as book, journal articles, former researches, relevant material posted in credible websites. the research applies observation and interview as the techniques for collecting primary data literature reviews and doctrinal studies for completing the secondary data (yaqin, 2007). the authors collect specific data for primary by applying participant observations and structured interviews. according to anwarul yaqin, observation means collecting data by observing the phenomenon and people behavior directly (yaqin, 2007). the authors in this research conduct as full participant in the observation. participant observation means the observer involve actively with the activity in the natural process to obtain the data (yaqin, 2007). observation was conducted by way of a straight monitoring and attended by full participants in conjunction with the drafting of regent regulation to be used as the village guideline in listing the candidates of bpd members. the direct observation comes together with the structured interviews toward the informants. the outcomes of observation and interview were jotted down in notes and later to be reported in a minute, coded and classified for their relation to the subject of research (neuman, 2011). the researchers also conduct the library research for collective relevant references and legal documents. the relevant sources are noted and organized in form of cards (neuman, 2011) and afterwards, compiled with primary data. analyzing the data the authors analyze the research subject by using inductive reasoning; it is analyzed based on specific facts or empirical events for producing theoretical or universal hypothesis (neuman, 2011). therefore, mentioned inductive analysis hereby is conducted by surveying the model chosen by the village for listing the candidates to fill in the post of bpd members to be analyzed later for its connection to the application of democracy values. in addition, if, in case democracy values are found in the chosen model of approach, it means that consultative model should be harimurti, et al. 94 applicable for providing democracy education toward the respective village societies or public in common. interpreting the data the authors make literal interpretation with a purposive approach (yaqin, 2007). literal intepratation of the statutes are conducted to the state principles contained in the preamble of the republic of indonesia constitution, specifically on paragraph four related to democracy characteristics as described by beetham (beetham, 2006). in addition, it is also interpreted article 18 b section (2) concerning protection as well as acknowledgement practice and respecting groups of societies under custom laws along with their lifetime traditional rights thereof which is in accordance with social development by the state. publishing the authors conduct evaluations and reporting by giving recommendations to stakeholders to improve the regulation performance and diminish its weaknesses in its relationship with filing in the post of bpd members in forms of documented reports. the reports will also be published by way of presenting all findings concerning the model chosen for the respective activity which can be used as a role model for democracy education. findings democratization in the election for appointing bpd members in bangkalan regency in the east java province in 2019 the election or filling of officials in indonesia is generally carried out using direct election mechanisms. this mechanism is considered to represent the embodiment of modern democratic values. indeed, the concept of democracy does not only refer to use direct elections but also include the consensus mechanism. the consensus agreement is considered as democratic practice because in its implementation there must be a unanimous agreement and be accepted by all parties. therefore, it deserves to enrich the democratic education values globally as what happened in the bangkalan district in the implementation of filling bpd members in 2019. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 bangkalan regency is a regency in the east java province regional government. bangkalan holds 18 districts under which there are 273 villages and 8 village offices (kelurahan). every village has sub-villages with the total number of 1,357. in 2019, the regional government carried out a simultaneous election for bpd members among 256 villages. the bpd members’ service in 256 villages was valid until september 2019 where it has one period in six-years. therefore, the bangkalan regency regional house of representative must draft the local laws regarding the bpd election on february 2019. in this process, the authors were involved directly in discussion with commission field government of the bangkalan regency regional house of representative. unfortunately, this local laws until may 2019 unfinished is caused the member of bangkalan regency regional house of representative more focusing in indonesian general election on april 2019. the general election was held for appointing the indonesian president and members of bangkalan regency regional house of representatives there was scarcely an election for appointing bpd members because of the incomplete procedure of local laws performed by the bangkalan regency regional house of representatives. local laws are very important to be drafted so that the selection of bpd members for 256 bangkalan regency villages can still be done. therefore, to fill this vacancy, the bangkalan regency government through the village community empowerment agency passed a regent's regulation based on the old regional regulation such as bangkalan regency local laws number 2 of 2015 regarding bpd and based on the enactment of the ministry of home affairs regulation number 110 year of 2016 on village consultative body. in preparing the regent's regulations regarding filling in the post of bpd members whereinthe researchers discussing with the committee of election of bpd member in bangkalan regency level and several heads of village, there are several factors to be reviewed in the regent's regulations to minimize conflicts such as social conditions of bangkalan, the pattern of leadership in bangkalan government and related regulations. bangkalan comprises a religious community wherein many islamic boarding schools are established. consequently, bangkalan society implements values and systems based on islam such as obedience to leaders and religious leaders. in the local government leadership pattern, the regent, in conducting a leadership pattern, also seek religious leaders’ advice for decision and policy making. the religious leaders are important figure as a key harimurti, et al. 96 to avoid horizontal conflict. whereas the regulation operates on the enactment of the minister of home affairs regulation number 110 year of 2016 on village consultative body. based on the factors, the regent regulation number 31 of 2019 on technical directory for the 2019 bpd members simultaneous listing was issued. there are four important points in this regulation namely the minimum obligation to have one representative bpd member from the mechanism for selecting bpd members can be done through direct elections or representative deliberations, the implementation of elections that must be carried out simultaneously by 256 villages in bangkalan, and the number of bpd members each different villages, five, seven or nine based on the sum of sub village and the female element. the determination of the number of bpd members is based on the number of hamlets in a village. consensus as a model of democratic education in this study, the most urgent matter discussed was related to the mechanism for selecting or filling in the post of bpd members to be determined through village deliberations. the data showed that out of 256 villages which held internal meetings, all of which agreed to determine the mechanism for selecting bpd members through representative deliberations held in the special consultative assembly. the participants in this forum were the village heads and its apparatus, the representatives of youth, women, community clubs, health care and community empowerment offices as well as regional representatives in the village. the stages to be carried out for the election of bpd members through consensus by special consultative assembly are: a. to establish the committee for filling in the post of bpd members, b. to screen the candidates of bpd members, c. to survey the fulfillment on administrative requirements, establish and announce the candidates of bpd members d. to establish the participants of consensus in particular, e. to determine and draw numbers to represent the candidates’ orders, f. to hold the assembly to acquire consensus in particular and g. to appoint and inaugurate the bpd members. those stages show the implementation of an alternative model in democracy by using deliberation to make a consensus for the election. this model is properly applied in a democracy process and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 as a direct democratic education. by which, people may aware their roles to uphold democracy value through democracy education in village society. this model takes advantages to avoid horizontal conflict, to afford less expense, to increase the community participation and to give more respect each other's opinion and aspiration. the consensus model is capable of being the way to maintain the existence of the fourth principles of pancasila in society thus the teaching of civic education should be more stressed on the deliberation and consensus practice. discussion creating the regent regulation to fill legal vacancy filling the posts of public officials within the practice of indonesian civil law can be conducted by means of three possible mechanisms namely; consultative assembly, election and appointment. the three models can likely be employed when official public posts within the central government or the lowest local government, namely village, must be filled. such procedures are organized in such a way to meet the values of state founding principles as stated in the preamble of 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. additionally, paragraph four of which reads ‘thus the indonesian national independence is organized within a constitution called the indonesian constitution, which is arranged in the hierarchy of the republic of indonesia by applying people sovereignty”. people sovereignty in-depth interpretation is a main pillar for manifesting democracy. in other words, otherwise people sovereignty exists, democracy should never occur in society. sovereignty and democracy are underlying concepts in politics studies; both of them are inseparable. there are perspectives asserting the existence of democracy as the main requirement for establishing a state; they are in line with the theories created by linz and stepan which claim that democracy requires sovereignty. explicitly, they add that official existence of a state highly requires democracy; the major challenge faced by a state, on its way to achieving democracy, is the requirement for having territories thereby as a state wherein sovereignty is bestowed upon(tansey, 2010). sovereignty and democracy are intertwined with the three models of filling public official posts in some extent that democracy is a reflection of people governance thereby where society holds harimurti, et al. 98 absolute powers for the governance. moreover, democracy can be manifested through direct voting as well as election through delegations. in an event of direct voting, society use their rights to cast ballots for their preferred candidates directly, whereas in a delegated democracy society entrust all decisions to delegations appointed on their option or preference. hence, in delegated democracy, two models are available for filling the public official posts: consultative assembly and appointment. models of consultative assembly and appointment can be viewed within the procedure of filling the posts for the ministers hired to assist the president; thus, it is the president’s prerogative to decide who shall serve as his ministers. such appointment can only be performed by the president himself since it is unlikely possible to hold a consultative assembly for such matter. nowadays, in the open era of democracy, it is hard to hold consultative assembly although such model suits the characteristics of village societies at the most. in 2019, bangkalan had to hold elections for bpd members in 256 villages. however, the implementation of the election of bpd members needs a rule of law as a basis for guidelines for village government. there are two rules to be established by the bangkalan regency, namely the regional regulation on the bpd and the regent’s regulation on the technical selection of bpd members. indeed, previously there was a local regulation in bangkalan district number 2 of 2015 concerning bpd. however, many of these regional regulations are irrelevant to the enactment of the minister of home affairs regulation number 110 year of 2016 on village consultative body. therefore, in 2019, the bangkalan regency regional house of representative drafted local laws on bpd as a substitute for bangkalan regency local laws number 2 year 2015. however, the bangkalan regency regional house of representative failed to finish the draft of bpd. in fact, there was a legal vacancy to hold the election of bpd members in bangkalan. all members of the bangkalan regency regional house of representative focused on facing the general election. in order to avoid the legal vacancy, the researchers propose the making of regent regulation on the basis of the bangkalan regency local law number 2 year 2015. albeit the substance of regent regulation based on the enactment of the minister of home affairs regulation number 110 year journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 of 2016 on village consultative body, in law aspect, a solution given for a law problem as a part of the bangkalan regency local law number 2 year 2015 regarding bpd is irrelevant to the enactment of the minister of home affairs regulation number 110 year of 2016 regarding bpd. however, the making of regent regulation is important to regulate the mechanism of electing bpd members in bangkalan. the indonesian government represented by the regulation of home affairs ministry of the republic of indonesia number 110 of 2016 hereby provides two models available for conducting the election of bpd members, i.e., by means of direct voting or consultative assembly. those two are assumed to represent the democracy systems applied in indonesia. for example, in the event of electing an official to fill in the public post within the village in which direct voting or simultaneous election is exercised. regarding the listing of candidates to fill in the posts of chief of village, a direct and simultaneous election is implemented direct voting, in other words, society directly vote for the future chief of village and the election of chief of village is also performed by other villages within one regency at the relatively same time and on relatively same day. such electoral mechanism is practiced as a way of preventing violations against the fair elections(pinilih, 2017). if, in case, direct and simultaneous elections can reduce unfair elections; it can be assumed that election held through consultative assembly would remove illegal procedures. nonetheless, the models exercised for the election of bpd members are still flawed despite its strengths. the first model by which direct election is conducted wherein the elected candidates are those with the highest ballots. hence, the society will definitely accept the winning candidates based on the tally. while the weakness is that the first model requires massive funds and conflicts are prone to occur due to the loss suffered by parties whose respective candidates lost the election. the second model, whose mechanism is consultative assembly, provides benefits since it is only practiced by society representatives and minimum funds are required to conduct election as well as eliminates conflicts within society. its weaknesses, however, are that candidates are elected by way of indirect voting for the rights for exercising such matters have been entrusted to their delegations as a medium for conveying their aspirations in the consultative forum. harimurti, et al. 100 the most important thing in discussing regent regulations is requiring women's representation in the bpd. so far, bpd members in bangkalan are only a small proportion of women. this is because women are still not qualified to occupy a public position or represent the community. traditionally, the low political participation of women is associated with gender socialization, both at childhood and adult level, and is also considered an important factor in determining the level of political participation. women are socialized to gender roles that are submissive, passive, subordinate, and more private-oriented, while men are socialized to adopt leadership, public, autonomous, and self-reliant roles. another explanation of women’s low political participation is a strict division of public and private sphere it also depicted in the theory of politics. women are supposed to be in custody of the domestic/private sphere. they have to take care of children, males, and elders of the family (ahmad et al., 2019). based on regent regulations, each village must have a female representative in the bpd member. at least one woman must be a member of the bpd in each village. this women's representation as a form of democratic education is a manifestation of gender equality. this obligation to represent women is unprecedented. this is a new thing for the bangkalan community who must change the paradigm of women who can also play a role in the political sphere, especially at the village level. initially, the obligation of this representative was rejected because not all villages, female residents wanted to nominate to become bpd members because according to what was explained earlier that women only take care of domestic households. however, with the approach of the village head, the local government, and academics the responsibility of this women's representative can be realized for one village of one bpd member from a women's representative. from the discussion above, based on our findings, the regent regulation number 31 of 2019 has filled the existing legal vacancy, formed a new system and a paradigm shift towards bangkalan people by managing to fill bpd members with two opted mechanism, namely direct election or representative deliberation. as such, the election was carried out simultaneously on the same day by 256 villages. in spite of the chosen mechanism, it does not necessarily diminish the bpd members’ significant roles within the villages. in fact, the bpd members play significant roles in safeguarding journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 developments and the governance within the villages. bpd can function as working partners to the chiefs of villages in efforts to achieve goals and work plans decided earlier. different roles and authorities of the chiefs of villages and bpd members, indeed, put chiefs of villages and bpd members in comparatively equal levels. however, village societies mostly have no clues about what bpd members do and function. as such, bpd functions have been defined in article 55 of the indonesian republic laws number 6 of 2014 regarding villages described as follows: a. bpd members, along with the chief of village; b. discuss and agree upon the draft of village regulation; c. bpd members accommodate and convey village societies’ aspirations; and d. conduct supervisory actions toward the performance of the chief of village. those three functions mentioned above have to be comprehended and implemented by bpd members, thus it takes a considerable and careful survey prior to the candidates listing of bpd members; they have to be qualified and smart to take care of developments for the respective villages. the filling of bpd member posts compliant with the regulation of home affairs minister of the republic of indonesia number 110 of 2016 has to be held within democratic manners by considering the existence of territorial representation and female representation. special consultative assembly as a manifestation of democratic values bangkalan community is a very religious society. this is proven by the behavior of people who are very obedient to the teachings of their religion and religious leaders. in addition there is a philosophy of the bangkalan people as madurese that holds the term bhuppa 'bhabhu' ghuru rato which means to respect parents, teachers and government leaders(susanto, 2012). madura society also has a tendency to be individualistic, selfish, rigid and rude, firm to hold on to principles and natural, honest and innocent (hidayat, 2012). this community phenomenon is observed by the researchers within the electoral system will be carried out by the bangkalan community, especially in the selection of bpd members. the characters described above likely leadto problems in society; thus; there are often incidences of carok (duel by using sickle as a gentleman) if there are individuals interfering with their privacy. this situation is also exacerbated by the low level of education in bangkalan district; hence, a system capable of developing education is highly needed in bangkalan and it can be applied in harimurti, et al. 102 education, particularly, through democracy education to demonstrate that democracy is adaptable with the characteristics of conventional wisdom. we know that democracy is not always synonymous direct election, but it can also be through deliberation. according david beetham, democracy is based on the following key ideas, all members hold interests affected by collective decision, everyone is capable of reaching a view about what best or worst decision would be, both for themselves and the association as a whole. the best decisions over the long run will be ones where all such views have been publicly aired and debated. where debate and discussion fail to produce a single agreed outcome, decision should be taken by a vote of all participating members. furthermore, the principle of one person, one vote, one value, reflects a wider conception that all person are equal worth (addai-mununkum, 2019; beetham, 2006). village societies in bangkalan need to have in-depth learning on democracy although they may have practiced democracy in their day to day lives. however, they have yet comprehended or known exactly whether the daily practice shows the democracy values. therefore, democracy education is essential to village societies for providing knowledge on democracy and explaining how it is implemented. village societies, as a matter of fact, tend to be modest and lowly educated, thus appointing a leader who is trustworthy, just, and capable of leading societies to welfare can be done as an implementation of democracy. in addition, they also expect that their leader is a skilled person in entrepreneurship whose network exceeding the areas beyond the village territories(bernstein, 2006). the election of chief of village is a form of democratic practice within village societies although its mechanism on direct election is not the sole applicable mechanism. democracy values could also be manifested through efforts made to protect the rights belonging to the village and its society. protection against the rights of village and its citizens’ has been strictly stipulated in article 18 section (2) of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia which states that “ the state acknowledges and respects groups of societies under custom laws along with their traditional rights for lifetime thereof, which is in accordance with society development as well as the principles of establishing the republic of indonesia as a unitary state as it has been stipulated in the constitution. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 acknowledgement towards societies under custom laws and their traditional rights is that commonly attached to the village and its societies as each village may have varied cultures and conventional wisdoms. such cultural diversity, rights of the village and of its society are those issues protected by the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia and stipulated in detailed inthe indonesian republic laws number 6 of 2014 regarding villages and supported by article 67 of the indonesian republic laws number 6 of 2014 which states that the rights of a village are: a. to manage and take care of society necessities based on rights of their origin, custom and social and cultural values of village societies ; b. to establish and manage the village institutional body; and c. to find resources of income. furthermore, in addition to be granted rights, villages are obliged to a. protect and maintain the unity, solid, and harmony within village societies in efforts to establish national security and oneness of the republic of indonesia as a unitary state; b. to improve livelihood of village societies; c. to develop democracy life; d.to develop the empowerment of village societies; and e. provide and improve public services for the village societies. the rights bestowed to village societies are defined in article 68 of the indonesian republic laws number 6 of 2014 which states that village societies are entitled for a. requesting for and obtain information from the village government and to conduct supervisory actions toward the day to day performance of village government, actions taken related to village developments, programs provided for village social mentoring, and empowerment of village societies; b. obtaining the same fair treatment related to public services; c. deliver their aspirations, give suggestions and opinions verbally or in writing as well as to take responsibility for any activities of running the village government, village developments, village societies mentoring, and village societies empowerment; d. to elect, to be elected and/or to be appointed as: 1. the chief of village; 2. village supporting staffs; 3. members of village consultative body (bpd); or 4. members of village social institution; e. to obtain privileges as well as protections against disturbances and public disorders within the village. while village societies are obliged to a. develop inner self and maintain the village surroundings; b. to encourage the establishment of village government, the implementation of village development, the mentoring on village social aspects and the adequate empowerment on village societies; c. to ensure safe, convenient, and harmonious atmosphere harimurti, et al. 104 within villages; d.to maintain and develop values of assembly, consensus, family bonding and mutual works within villages; e. to take parts in the entire activities held within villages. rights and obligations are exercised simultaneously in order that justice is achieved. when the obligations are once accomplished, the rights will be received afterwards. as mentioned earlier that rights and obligations of a village and of its societies are defined in the indonesian republic laws number 6 of 2014. as such, it is in line with the views of supreme court of canada which introduce the rights related to democracy such as (1) the right to effective representation; (2) the right to meaningful participation; (3) the right to equal participation; and (4) the right to a free and informed vote (dawood, 2013). these respective rights are necessarily socialized in such a way that society will learn about their rights in living the democracy life. democracy implementation on village societies is expected to raise hopes in order that village societies obtain their rights as stipulated in both the constitution and laws of the indonesian republic. the aim of practicing democracy within the village societies is to provide protection for the village as well as its societies, to improve welfare and the most important issue of all is to avoid possible conflicts, either horizontally or vertically; horizontal conflicts might arise from the village itself from which its citizens confront their fellow citizens or the village societies confront societies of other villages. while vertical conflicts might take place when societies are up against the local government in the village or societies are up against the chief of village. such conflicts can only be eliminated when democracy education exists. as discussed earlier that democracy is exercised by imposing the values of pancasila which reflect the fundamental principles of the state. the terminology of pancasila emerged and gained its fame when it was brought up in the presidential speech of mr. soekarno, the first president of republic of indonesia on june 1 st, 1945.according to sukarno, pancasila is the “philosofische grondslag” of indonesian independence which means foundation, philosophy, the most profound thought, the spirit, and the deepest desire, upon which to build the eternal, indestructible nation of independent indonesia (fatlolon, 2019). in addition, pancasila is also written in the preamble of 1945 constitution of the indonesian republic, particularly, in paragraph four. the preamble is an inseparable part of the constitution. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 this fourth paragraph defines the five principles of pancasila: 1. in one god we believe; 2. humanity which is just and civilized; 3. the unity of indonesia; 4. governance is held through wisdom, within consensus achieved through consultative assembly and 5. justice and social welfare are devoted to the entire citizens of indonesia. in other words, pancasila can be summarized as a. believe in one god; b. humanitarianism; c. nationalism; democracy; e. social justice (sarip, 2018). furthermore, it reveals that on the consultative assembly the village societies of bangkalan regency practice the fourth principle of pancasila. the consultative assembly is held in efforts to seek resolutions and make decisions based on consensus and not on the basis of highest votes; the participants of which can provide underlying reasons or argue about their decision in order to convince all participants of the consultative assembly to reach the mutual decision. in selecting bpd members, villages within the regency of bangkalan agreed to conduct a particular village consultative assembly as the mechanism used for determining the bpd members. the particular assembly was attended by the chief of village, the head of election committee, delegations from existing neighborhoods within the village territories, public figures as well as youth’s and women’s clubs. these delegations are trusted by the respective village societies and thus, they are convinced that their aspirations have been properly conveyed by the delegations in this event. the specific village consultative assembly is carried out for determining bpd members and thus can only be performed when the new bpd members have to be appointed once within six years. in general, village consultative assembly is conducted by the chief of village to discuss work and action plans for the village government and attended by society representatives and bpd members such procedure is described in article 54 the indonesian republic laws number 6 of 2014 as it states that “a village consultative assembly is a consultative forum attended by society representatives and village society elements to discuss strategic issues in the establishment of village government. moreover, the “strategic features” discussed in the village consultative assembly cover a. village management; b. village planning; c. village collaborations; d. investment planned to be placed within the village; e. the establishment of village-owned business (bumd) ; f. the increase and the release of the village asset and g. extraordinary events harimurti, et al. 106 furthermore, village consultative assembly is held approximately once a year, whereas specific village consultative assembly is conducted in case there are new bpd members to be appointed and it goes beyond the discussion within the village consultative assembly in common. .such assembly has been the habit practiced over time by the village societies of bangkalan regency and alternatively it can serve as a sample or a model for applying democracy in the election and it is in line with the fourth principle of pancasila which is interpreted as “democracy guided by the inner wisdom in the unanimity arising out of deliberations amongst representatives. this principle emphasizes the idea of a people led or governed by sound policies through a process of consultation to attain consensus. it would be a big mistake simply to translate this as a commitment to western liberal democracy, especially since the rejection of western liberalism (or at least some parts of it) has been a continuing theme of indonesian political discourse exercised since the time prior to the birth of the nation. the word musyawarah connotes discussion and deliberation amongst members of a society, but it does not necessarily suggest such ideas as majority rule and minority rights”(fatlolon, 2019). deliberation is the core issue of the fourth principle of pancasila’s implementation, which reflects the core of democracy values in indonesia. consensus principles are in accordance with fundamental values of indonesia expressed in the principles for establishing the state called pancasila(mutaqin, 2017). nonetheless, the consultative assembly to reach consensus has to be led by a wise and just person for his presence is compulsory for preventing conflicts emerging from consensus achieved earlier in the assembly. additionally, consensus also imprints compliance on all participants of the assembly, thus they obey the consensus resulted from the consultative assembly. if viewed from its conduct, the consultative assembly is in line with democracy ideas. the advantages of employing this system are that the system is less costly, fast, able to make decisions in favor of all parties, less complicated since no one feels overwhelmed for winning or losing the election and it is created with the same goals for a development and an improvement over mutual prosperity. henceforth, education on democracy is highly needed to imprint democracy values within all levels of society and it can be started from the village society. deliberation achieved through consultative assembly in the election of bpd members is a real form of how democracy possibly journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 exercised in the lowest level of society. if conducted within the village, such model is capable of applying democracy values. thus, the same model can be employed at other countries which hold the same characteristics. the practice of consultative assembly reflects educational values to society or young generations such as students of junior high and senior high school, particularly in terms of: 1. interpreting the democracy values; by not taking “direct voting” as a sole mechanism to hold election for members of village representative body; 2. understanding that consultative assembly is similar to the practice of democratic election held to achieve a consensus; 3. understanding that consultative assembly also applies the five fundamental principles of the state establishment (pancasila); and 4. agreeing upon all decisions acquired in the consultative assembly whatsoever. democratic values, furthermore, can be imprinted on scholars or young people; they learn and interpret democratic values in accordance with conventional wisdom. such consultative assembly practices can be used as open discussions or dialogs seeking to resolve conflicts and achieve institutional objectives. conclusion and implications the election of bpd members in bangkalan regency was conducted with a relatively different electoral mechanism unlike those practices commonly held in indonesia or other countries. rather, it was carried out through a consultative assembly to reach a consensus. such model can possibly be copied by regions comprising homogenous society whose characteristics are typically different from other societies. they tend to be religious, rigid yet docile, particularly, towards local public figures mainly towards religious scholars; they are generally simple-minded and low-educated. deriving from these backgrounds; therefore, such electoral mechanism shall bear no conflicts for there are no winning or losing candidates and the election result will definitely be accepted by all participating parties. harimurti, et al. 108 therefore, consensus can be a suggested model for the implementation of democracy as seen in the election for appointing bpd members in bangkalan, in 2019. this evidence is proven to have successfully avoided vertical and horizontal conflicts. in order to make a consensus, the democratic value should adopt conventional wisdom. as the result, people easily accept the election model by conducting representative deliberation to achieve the full consent. the implication of this election model minimizes bribery given by the candidates to their supporters. besides, the respective model is expected to bring about implications upon the society in terms of society’s transformation on people’s behavior to be more concerned about democratic values; hence, that will be a part of the democratic education to raise people awareness to get involved in democratic events. another benefit of using the model is that it enables understanding towards respecting others, obeying the law, and avoiding conflicts. this model requires to be wrapped by local laws. references ahmad, a., mahmood, q. k., saud, m., & mas’udah, s. (2019). women in democracy: the political participation of women. masyarakat, kebudayaan dan politik, 32(2), 114. https://doi.org/10.20473/mkp.v32i22019.114-122 addai-mununkum, r. (2019). students’ representation of “other” religions. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 aspinall, e., & rohman, n. (2017). village head elections in java: money politics and brokerage in the remaking of indonesia’s rural elite. journal of southeast asian studies, 48(1), 31–52. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022463416000461 batubara, r. (2016). village government corruption in-post decentralization: democracy, ethnic diversity and budget authority. journal of developing economies, 1(1), 44–57. https://doi.org/10.20473/jde.v1i1.1774 beetham, d. (2006). a beginer’s guide democracy. oneworld publication. bernstein, t. p. (2006). village democracy and its limits. asien, 99(april), 29–41. http://asien.asienforschung.de/wpontent/uploads/sites/6/2018/05/asien_99_bernstein.pdf budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 dawood, y. (2013). democracy and the right to vote: rethinking democratic rights under the https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 84-110 charter. osgoode hall law journal, 51(1), 251. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2396199 fatlolon, c. (2019). pancasila democracy and the play of the good. filocracia, 3(1), 70–92. fuad, a. b. b. (2014). political identity and election in indonesian democracy: a case study in karang pandan village – malang, indonesia. procedia environmental sciences, 20, 477– 485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2014.03.060 hidayat, a. (2012). karakter orang madura dan falsafah politik lokal. karsa: journal of social and islamic culture, 15(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.19105/karsa.v15i1.109 kelsen, h. (2017). general theory of law & state. in general theory of law & state. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203790960 lafer, s. (2014). democratic design for the humanization of education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 6-12. mason, l. (2019). dewey and political communication in the age of mediation. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 94-102. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.6 megawati, m. (2019). deconstruction of deliberation implementation and the populist meaning in the perspective of prophetic democracy in the implementation of pancasila. journal of transcendental law, 1(1), 71–91. https://doi.org/10.23917/jtl.v1i1.8695 mishra, p., & azeez, a. (2014). international journal of multidisciplinary approach and studies. international journal of multidisciplinary approach and studies, 01(5), 138–147. mutaqin, z. z. (2017). the strong state and pancasila: reflecting human rights in the indonesian democracy. constitutional review, 2(2), 159. https://doi.org/10.31078/consrev221 nasution, s. (1996). metode penelitian naturalistik kualitatif. penerbit tarsito. neuman, w. l. (2011). social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches. in pearson education. pinilih, g. s. a. (2017). model of village head election arrangement in village governance law. jurnal dinamika hukum, 17(2), 146. https://doi.org/10.20884/1.jdh.2017.17.2.789 polat, s. (2020). multidimensional analysis of the teaching process of the critical thinking skills. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 134-157. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 robbins, c., bishop, j., & tarman, b. (2019). against reactionary populism: opening a needed https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 harimurti, et al. 110 conversation in education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), i-vi. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.ed sarip, s. (2018). the manifestation of indonesian democracy; between pancasila state of law and islamic nomocracy. jurnal hukum novelty, 9(2), 192. https://doi.org/10.26555/novelty.v9i2.a11517 sjafrina, a. g. p. (2012). patronase dalam pencalonan kepala daerah (studi kasus patronase pencalonan ra. imam – din zein dalam pilkada bangkalan 2012). jurnal politik muda, 2(january-march), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1049/oap-cired.2017.1227 susanto, e. (2012). revitalisasi nilai luhur tradisi lokal madura. karsa: journal of social and islamic culture, 12(2), 96–103. https://doi.org/10.19105/karsa.v12i2.135 syahbudin. (2017). implementasi hubungan wewenang antara kepala desa dan bpd, pembentukan peraturan desa. 70. jurnal al-’adl, 10(2), 70–82. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.31332/aladl.v10i2.700 tansey, o. (2010). does democracy need sovereignty? review of international studies, 37(4), 1– 22. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/s0260210510001087 yaqin, a. (2007). legal research and writing. lexis nexis. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.ed www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(1), 121-147 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimi uygulamalarının öğretmenler tarafından uygulanma düzeyleri1 the application levels of practices of values education in social studies course by teachers tekin çeli̇kkaya2, simge fi̇loğlu3 ve nur sema öktem4 özet bu araştırma, sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine yönelik yapılabilecek olan uygulamaların öğretmenler tarafından uygulanma düzeylerini belirlemek amacıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. araştırmanın örneklemi, seçkisiz örnekleme kullanılarak oluşturulmuştur. araştırmanın örneklemi, 2011-2012 eğitim-öğretim adana il ve ilçe merkezindeki 60 ilköğretim okulundaki 4 ve 5. sınıf öğretmeni (n=104) ile sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni (n=109) oluşturmuştur. araştırmanın verileri yüzde, frekans, t-testi, anova ve pearson korelasyonu analizleri ile elde edilmiştir. veriler araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen 38 maddelik ve 5’li likerten oluşan ölçekten elde edilmiştir. araştırmada değerler eğitimine yönelik yapılabilecek olan etkinliklerin uygulanma durumlarının cinsiyete, branşa, görev yerine, mesleki kıdem ve değerler eğitimi alma durumuna göre farklılaşıp-farklılaşmadığı incelenmiştir. sonuç olarak; öğretmenlerin boyutlarının sırasına göre en çok yaptıkları etkinlikler; öğrencilere değerleri kazanmalarını sağlayacak kitaplar 1 bu çalışma 20-22 nisan 2012 tarihleri arasında marmara üniversitesi tarafından düzenlenen değişen dünyada vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitiminde yeni yönelimler ve sorunlar” konulu uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumunda sunulan sözlü bildirinin genişletilmiş halidir. 2 yrd.doç.dr., ahi evran üniversitesi, eğitim fakültesi, tcelikkaya@ahievran.edu.tr. 3 ahi evran üniversitesi,sfiloglu@hotmail.com 4 ahi evran üniversitesi, nsemaoktem@hotmail.com journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 122 önermek, dersin konusu ilgili önemli bireylerin biyografilerini hazırlatıp tartışma konusu olarak sunmak, örnek davranış sergileyen öğrencileri sınıf ortamında ödüllendirmek, değerler eğitiminde öğrencilerin kendilerini başkalarının yerine koyma (empati) becerisini kazanmalarını sağlamak ve öğrencileri, olumlu değerlere sahip olması için telkin yoluyla(nasihat ederek) uyarmak şeklindedir. kadın öğretmenler erkek öğretmenlere göre belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikleri daha iyi düzeyde uygulamaktadır. i̇lçe merkezinde görev yapan öğretmenler il merkezinde görev öğretmenlerden hem belirginleştirme hem de toplam boyuttaki etkinlikleri daha iyi düzeyde uygulamaktadır. anahtar kelimeler: değer, değerler eğitimi, sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı, öğretmen görüşleri tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 123 extended abstract while globalisation provides many opportunities in political, social, economic, and cultural fields nowadays, it has caused the problems which threaten the social life to rise. national, moral, social, ethical, and cultural values which form the foundation of our social life are the most important sources of reference for the solution of risks and problems which threaten the individual, family, society we live in and the world. since values education is of particular concern to the whole society, it must be dealt with multi dimensionally. so, all the elements that compose education system require to gain sensibility and awareness. the teachers are not only practitioners of education programs but also they have the leading roles and missions to have the students acquire the values.(meb ttkb,2010). because of this, the teachers are required to be equipped with enough skills and knowledge about values education. the teacher who does not have enough knowledge and skills about the approaches of values education will try to realize this mission either unconsciously or implicitly. social studies course is a course of value education. it is important in terms of value education due to its content having a historical quality, telling the stories of different cultures and life and having a very disciplined structure (kan, 2010, p,140). the typology of values education approaches was first formulated by superka in his phd thesis in 1973. five approaches about values education were introduced. these approaches were called “values clarification”, “action learning”, “moral development”, “value analysis” and “inculcation” by superka, ahrens, hedstrom, ford ve johnson (1976,p.3). the aim of this study is to determine the implementation levels of the activities about values education done by the 4th and 5th grade teachers and social studies teachers. in this context, three research questions are tried to be answered: journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 124 1what is the frequency level of the use of the activities done by the teachers relating to the values education in social studies course? 2-do the activities the teachers do about values education in social studies course differentiate according to gender, place of duty, branch, position of values education and professional seniority? 3is there a meaningful difference between the activities the teachers do and their sub-dimensions related to values education in social studies course? the research is both quantitative and relational study aimed at analysing the relations between the variables. the data of the research was collected by using likert type scale. the data of the research was obtained by the analysis of frequency and percentages, t-test, arithmetic average, anova and pearson correlation. the sampling of the study was formed by the 4th and 5th grade class teachers (n=104) in 60 primary schools in the centre and town of adana and social studies teachers (n=109). the scale used in the study was composed of the activity examples related to values education which take place in the regulation with the number of 2010/53 sent to primary schools by ministry of education in 2010-2011 education year and the answers the 15 social studies teachers gave to the open-ended question that is “what kind of activities do you do to have the students acquire the values in the program?” the activity scale made up of 38 items was a 5-point likert scale and in the grading and interpretation of the points obtained, the given point intervals of 54,20 “always” ,4,19-3,40“frequently”, 3,392,60“sometimes”, 2,59-1,80“rarely ”, 1,79-1 “never” were used as the base. the data were obtained from the scale made up of 38 items and a 5-point likert scale. as a result of the analysis, the kmo value was found to be 872 and bartlett’s value was 3908,065(p< .05). as a result of the reliability analysis, cronbach alpha internal tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 125 consistency coefficient of the test was found to be 928 in total. moreover, the scale was collected under 5 factors. the variance explained by 5 factors in the scale is %52,11. as a result of the findings obtained from the study, while the activities in clarification level were done by the teachers at the level of always, the other 4 activities in sub-dimensions were done at the level of frequently. the main activity practised most by the teachers are suggesting books and trying to be a model. the least used activity by the teachers is organizing trips with the purpose of visit to such institutions such as nursing home and orphanage. the clarification activities done by the teachers about values education were practised better by the female teachers and the teachers working in the town centre. keywords: value, values education, social studies curriculum, teachers' views journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 126 giriş günümüzde bilim ve teknoloji alanında gelişmeler yaşanmaktadır. bu gelişmeler toplumları kimi zaman kalkındırırken kimi zaman da kalkınmasına olumsuz yönde etki etmektedir. bunun için de toplumun bu aşamadan en az zararla çıkması için belirli alanlara önem verilmelidir. önem verilmesi gereken alanların başında da değer eğitimi gelmektedir. günümüz dünyasında yaşanan siyasi, sosyal, kültürel değişim ve gelişmeler sonucunda bireylerin etkili ve verimli iletişim kurup, yaşanan sorunlara etik kurallara uygun bir şekilde çözüm üretebilmeleri için değer eğitimi oldukça önemlidir. (kale, 2007, s. 316).değer eğitimi bir bireye ne kadar iyi verilirse o derece sağlam bir toplum oluşturulabilir. aksi takdirde huzursuzlukların yaşandığı bir toplum gelebilir. değerler bakımından yeterince olgunlaşmayan veya değer olguları gelişmeyen birey, hem kendilerine hem de çevresindeki diğer kişilere karşı zarar verici eylemlerde bulunabilir (doğanay, 2006, s. 257). sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının vizyonu, “21. yüzyılın çağdaş, atatürk ilkeleri ve inkılâplarını benimsemiş, türk tarihini ve kültürünü kavramış, temel demokratik değerlerle donanmış ve insan haklarına saygılı, yaşadığı çevreye duyarlı, bilgiyi deneyimlerine göre yorumlayıp sosyal ve kültürel bağlam içinde oluşturan, kullanan ve düzenleyen (eleştirel düşünen, yaratıcı, doğru karar veren) sosyal katılım becerileri gelişmiş, sosyal bilimcilerin bilimsel bilgiyi üretirken kullandıkları yöntemleri kazanmış, sosyal yaşamda etkin, üretken, haklarını ve sorumluluklarını bilen, türkiye cumhuriyeti vatandaşlarını yetiştirmektir” (meb, 2010, s.25). tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 127 değer eğitimi sosyal bilgiler dersinde önemli bir yer tutar. gerek içeriğinin tarihsel bir nitelik taşıması, gerekse değişik kültür ve yaşam hikâyelerini anlatması ve çok disiplinli bir yapıya sahip olması açısından değer öğretimi bakımından önemlidir (kan, 2010, s.140). 2005 yılında gerçekleştirilen köklü program değişikliklerinde dikkati çeken hususlardan biri de değer eğitimi konusunun programlar içinde vurgulanmasıdır. sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı incelendiğinde öğrencilere toplam 20 değerin kazandırılması hedeflenmektedir (meb, 2008; meb, 2010). bu değerler;“ adil olma, aile birliğine önem verme, barış, bağımsızlık, bilimsellik, çalışkanlık, dayanışma, duyarlılık, dürüstlük, estetik, hoşgörü, misafirperverlik, özgürlük, saygı, sağlıklı olmaya önem verme, sevgi, sorumluluk, temizlik, vatanseverlik, yardımseverlik” olarak belirlenmiştir. bu değerlerden bazıları sadece bir sınıf düzeyinde verilirken (örn: misafirperverlik 4.sınıf, estetik 7.sınıf), bazıları da aynı anda birkaç sınıf düzeyinde (örn: saygı 4-5-6 ve 7. sınıf) verilmektedir. değerle ilgili yapılan, tek bir tanımdan ziyade birtakım tanımlara yer vermek değer kavramını daha anlamlı kılacaktır. değer, istenilen, ilgi ve ihtiyaç duyulan bir şey olup aynı zamanda olması gerekeni ifade eden bir kavram olarak da ifade edilir (bolay, 2007, s.60). değerler bireylerin toplum içerisinde hayatını teminat altına almayı sağlayan, onların yaşamlarını kolaylaştıran toplumsal davranış kalıplarıdır (özkan, 2010, s. 1128).bireyi ve toplumu tanıma ve tanımlamada kullanılan, davranışları yönlendiren, birey ve toplum açısından varlık ve devamlılık sağlayan ölçütlere değer denilmektedir (yeşil ve aydın, 2007, s. 80). programda (meb, 2005, s. 89) ise değer kavramı, “ bir sosyal grup veya toplumun kendi varlık, birlik, isleyiş ve devamını sağlamak ve sürdürmek için üyelerinin çoğunluğu tarafından doğru ve gerekli oldukları kabul edilen ortak düşünce, amaç, temel ahlakî ilke ya da inançlar” olarak tanımlanmaktadır. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 128 okullarda değer öğretiminin nasıl yapılması gerektiği konusunda farklı yaklaşımlar bulunmaktadır. okullarda seçilen değerler, geleneksel telkin yöntemiyle aktarılabileceği gibi değer açıklama yaklaşımı ile öğrencinin kendi değerlerinin farkına varması sağlanabilir. ayrıca öğrencinin değerlerini anlamak ve değerinin sistematik analizini yapmak amacıyla ahlaki muhakeme ve değer analizi yaklaşımları da kullanılabilir. bu tür konuların ele alınmasında izlenen farklı yaklaşımlar vardır. bunlardan biri ele alınan beceriler, değerlerin var olan tüm konularla ya da birçok konuyla bütünleştirilerek verildiği ve sınıf öğretmeni tarafından işlenişinin gerçekleştirildiği bütünleştirilmiş yaklaşımdır. taşıyıcı konu yaklaşımında ise, tema sosyal bilgiler, biyoloji, sağlık eğitimi gibi, tek bir konuda iletilir ve ilgili alan öğretmeni tarafından işlenir. ayrı konu yaklaşımında da, tema tanımlanmış, özel olarak eğitilmiş öğretmen tarafından ayrı bir konu olarak işlenir. (unesco, 2004). değerler eğitimi yaklaşımlarının tipolojisi ilk olarak superka tarafından, 1973’te doktora tezinde formüle edilmiştir. değerler eğitimi ile ilgili beş yaklaşım ortaya konmuştur. bunlar; superka, ahrens, hedstrom, ford ve johnson (1976, s. 3) tarafından ortaya koyulan , “belirginleştirme”, “davranış öğrenme”, “ahlaki gelişim”, “değer analizi” ve “telkin etme”, yaklaşımları ile adlandırılmıştır. değerler açısından olgunlaşmamanın sonucunda, insanlar yalnızca çevrelerine karşı değil, kendilerine ve diğer insanlara karşı da olumsuz eylemelerde bulunabilmektedirler. yalnızca kendinden farklı düşündüğü ve farklı inançlara sahip olduğu için, başkalarını hoşgörüyle karşılamayan hatta onlara karşı elinden geldiğinde fiziksel baskı ve şiddet uygulayan insanlar vardır. kendi kendine ve sağlığına saygı duymadan, kendine zarar veren insanlar vardır. tüm bu olaylar, sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin bir parçası olarak değerler eğitiminin gereğini ve önemini vurgulamaktadır (doğanay, 2009, s. 227). tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 129 hangi değerlerin öğrencilere verilmesi gerektiği programda verilse bile son karar, öğretmenin sahip olduğu bilgi, beceri ve değerleri tarafından belirlenir. bu açıdan bakıldığında araştırma, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin “değerler eğitimi” çerçevesinde yaptıkları faaliyetleri belirlemek açısından önemlidir. çünkü, öğretim tekniklerini ve konu içeriğini çok iyi bilen bir öğretmen toplumsal yaşamla ilgili görüş ve deneyimlerini öğrencilerle paylaşmıyorsa başarılı olarak değerlendirilemez (gleen,1998) alan yazında öğretmen adaylarının ve üniversite öğrencilerinin (akın ve özdemir, 2009; altunay ve yalçınkaya, 2011; başçiftçi, güleç, akdoğan ve koç, 2011; coşkun ve yıldırım, 2009; dilmaç, bozgeyikli ve çıkılı, 2008; fidan,2009; koca, 2009; moosmayer ve siems 2012; sarı, 2005; tay, 2009; yapıcı ve zengin, 2003), yönetici, öğretmen ve öğrencilerin (aktepe ve yel, 2009; balcı ve yelken, 2010; baydar, 2009; bulach, 2002; can, 2008; germaine, 2001; johansson, 2002; okudan, 2010; pauw,2012; pedder, james ve macbeath, 2005; revell, 2002; sezer, 2008; tepecik, 2008; theodore,1986; turan ve aktan, 2008; whitney, 1986) değer algıları, değer tercihleri ve değer kavramına ilişkin görüşlerini ortaya koyan birçok çalışma olmasına rağmen ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler programında yer alan değerler eğitimi etkinliklerine yönelik bir çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır. değerler eğitimi toplumun tümünü ilgilendirdiğinden çok boyutlu ele alınması gerekmektedir. bu açıdan eğitim sistemini oluşturan tüm unsurların bu konuda duyarlılık ve bilinç kazanmasına ihtiyaç vardır. öğretmenlerin de öğretim programlarının uygulayıcıları olmalarının yanında öğrencilere değerleri kazandırmada öncü rol ve görevleri de bulunmaktadır. araştırmanın amacı bu araştırmanın amacı, 4 ve 5.sınıf öğretmenleri ile sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimi ile ilgili yaptıkları etkinliklerin uygulanma düzeylerini belirlemektir. araştırmayla aşağıdaki sorulara cevap aranmıştır: journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 130 1sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine ilişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinliklerin kullanım sıklıkları ne düzeydedir? 2-sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine ilişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinlikler cinsiyet, görev yeri, branş , değer eğitimi durumu ve mesleki kıdem göre farklılaşmakta mıdır? 3sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine ilişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinliklerin alt boyutları arasında anlamlı bir farklılık var mıdır? araştırmanın yöntemi araştırmada betimsel yöntem kullanılmıştır. bilindiği gibi betimsel yöntem veya diğer adıyla tarama yöntemi, günümüzde mevcut olan veya geçmişte olmuş bir durumu, olduğu şekliyle betimleyen araştırma yöntemidir (karasar, 2008, s.77). bu bağlamda araştırma, değişkenler arasındaki ilişkileri incelemeye yönelik niceliksel ve ilişkisel bir çalışmadır. araştırmanın verileri likert tipi ölçme aracı kullanılarak toplanmıştır. araştırmanın verileri yüzde, frekans, t-testi, aritmetik ortalama, anova ve pearson korelasyonu analizleri ile elde edilmiştir. çalışma grubu araştırmanın çalışma evrenini; 2011-2012 eğitim öğretim yılında adana ilindeki ilköğretim okullarında görev yapan 4. ve 5. sınıf öğretmenleri ile sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri oluşturmaktadır. araştırmanın örneklemini ise adana il ve ilçe merkezindeki 60 ilköğretim okulundaki 4. ve 5. sınıf öğretmenleri (n=104) ile sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri (n=109) oluşturmaktadır. araştırmanın örneklemi, seçkisiz örnekleme kullanılarak oluşturulmuştur. yıldırım ve şimşek’e (2003, s. 65) göre bir evrenden, istatistik hesaplarla evreni temsil edebilme büyüklüğüne sahip ve tamamen rast gele yöntemle bir örneklem seçmek mümkündür. buna seçkisiz örnekleme denir. araştırma grubuna giren öğretmenlere ait demografik veriler tablo 1’de sunulmuştur. tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 131 tablo 1 araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin demografik özellikleri tablo 1 incelendiğinde araştırma grubu, 80’i erkek ve 133’ü kadın olmak üzere toplam 213 öğretmenden oluşmaktadır. branşlarına göre öğretmenlerin 104’ü 4. ve 5.sınıf, 109’u ise sosyal bilgiler öğretmenidir. mesleki kıdemlerine bakıldığında öğretmenlerin, 13’ü 0-5 yıl, 34’ü 6-10 yıl, 83’ü 11-15 yıl ve 83’ü 16 ve üzeri kıdeme sahiptir. tablo 2 araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin değer eğitimini i̇lişkin eğitim durumları değer eğitimi durumu f % 1. meb’den hizmet içi eğitim faaliyeti kapsamında değer eğitimi kursu aldım. 13 6,1 2. değer eğitimi hakkında formal bir eğitim aldım. 4 1,9 3. değerler eğitimi içerikli bir konferansa, çalıştaya vb. katıldım. 3 1,4 4. değerler eğitimi için üretilen materyalleri(kitap,dergi,vcd gibi) takip ederim. 13 6,1 5. değerler eğitimi kapsamında çalışma yapan arkadaşlarımdan yardım alırım. 14 6,6 6. hiçbiri 123 57,7 7. 1 ve 4. durumlar 13 6,1 8. 4 ve 5.durumlar 30 14,1 toplam 213 100 özellik grup frekans (f) yüzde (%) cinsiyet erkek 80 37,6 kadın 133 62,4 toplam 213 100 branş 4. ve 5.sınıf öğretmeni 104 48,8 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni 109 51,2 toplam 213 100 mesleki kıdem 0-5 yıl 13 6,1 6-10 yıl 34 16 11-15 yıl 83 39 16 yıl ve üzeri 83 39 toplam 213 100 journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 132 araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin değer eğitimine ilişkin durumlarını belirlemek için öğretmenlere 6 maddeden oluşan ifadeler sunulmuştur. öğretmenler bu ifadelerden kendi durumlarını ortaya koyan maddeleri işaretlemeleri istenmiştir. alınan cevaplarda ilk altı durumunun dışında öğretmenlerin bir kısmı 1 ve 4. durumlar ile 4 ve 5.durumları beraber işaretlemişlerdir. tablo 2’ye bakıldığında öğretmenlerin yarıdan fazlası (%57,7) değer eğitimi adı altında herhangi bir eğitim, kurs almadığı gibi ayrıca değer eğitimi ile ilgili yayın takibi yapmamakta ve arkadaş desteği almamaktadır.öğretmenlerin % 14,1’i ise hem değer eğitimi ile ilgili yayınları takip etmekte hem de bu konuda bilgili arkadaşlarından yardım almaktadır. veri toplama aracı çalışmada kullanılan ölçek milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından 2010-2011 eğitim öğretim yılında ilköğretim okullarına gönderilen 2010/53 sayılı genelgede yer alan değer eğitimine yönelik etkinlik örneklerinden ve 15 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenine sorulan “programdaki değerleri öğrencilere kazandırmak için ne tür etkinlikler yapıyorsunuz?” biçimindeki açık uçlu soruya verdikleri yanıtlardan oluşturulmuştur. 38 maddeden oluşan etkinlik ölçeği, 1-5 arası puanlanan likert tipi bir ölçek olup, elde edilen ortalama puanların derecelendirilmesi ve yorumlanmasında; 54,20 “her zaman” ; 4,19-3,40“sık sık”; 3,39-2,60“ara sıra”; 2,59-1,80“seyrek ”; 1,79-1 “hiçbir zaman” puan aralıkları temel alınmıştır. ölçeğin yapı geçerliliği çalışması için ilk olarak veriler üzerinde kaiser meyer oklin (kmo) ve bartlett’s test analizleri yapılmıştır. analiz sonuçlarında, kmo değerinin ,872 ve bartlett’s değeri 3908,065 olarak bulunmuş (p< .05);maddelerin faktör yüklerinin ,30’un üzerinde olduğu belirlenmiştir.diğer taraftan bu ölçme aracının ön uygulaması kırşehir il merkezinde görev yapan 4 ve 5.sınıf öğretmenleri ile sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri (n=109) üzerinde yapılmış ve sonucunda güvenirliği düşüren 3 madde tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 133 çıkarılmıştır. yapılan güvenirlik analizi sonucunda testin cronbach alpha iç tutarlılık katsayısı toplamda,928 olarak bulunmuştur. ayrıca alt faktörlerin cronbach alpha iç tutarlılık katsayısı birinci faktör için ,889 ; ikinci faktör için ,834; üçüncü ,760; dördüncü için ,800 ve beşinci için ,718 olarak bulunmuştur.toplam varyans değerleri incelendiğinde, analize alınan 38 maddenin (değiskenin), öz değeri 1’ den büyük olan 5 faktör altında toplandığı görülmektedir. ölçekteki 5 faktörün açıkladığı varyans %52,11’dir.bu faktörler maddelerin içerikleri dikkate alınarak superka, ahrens, hedstrom, ford ve johnson (1976:3) tarafından ortaya koyulan , “belirginleştirme”, “davranış öğrenme”, “ahlaki gelişim”, “değer analizi” ve “telkin etme”, yaklaşımları ile adlandırılmıştır. buna göre ölçekte yer alan maddelerin; 11 ’i belirginleştirme etkinliklerine; 8’i davranış öğrenme etkinliklere; 5’i ahlaki gelişim etkinliklere; 8’i değer analizi etkinliklerine ve 6’sı de telkin etme etkinliklerine aittir. ölçek formu veri grubunun, cinsiyet, görev yeri,branş,mesleki kıdem ve değer eğitimine ilişkin bilgiler gibi demografik özellikleri ölçek aracılığıyla toplanmıştır. ölçekte, öğretmenlerin, değer eğitimi adı altında yaptıkları etkinliklerin (ders esnasında güncel olaylar ve değerler arasında bağlantı kurarım; değerleri kazanmaya teşvik edici güzel sözler seçerek öğrencilerle bu sözleri paylaşırım; müze ve tarihi yerlere gezi düzenlerim; öğrencilere kazandırmaya çalıştığım değerlerin öğrencilerin davranışlarını ne yönde değiştirdiğini ölçerim gibi) uygulanma sıklıkları hakkında ifadeler bulunmaktadır.sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin kırşehir il merkezinde sayısının az (50) olması sebebiyle 100 kişiden oluşan 4. ve 5. sınıf öğretmenlerine pilot uygulama yapılarak anketin anlaşılırlığı konusunda geribildirim alınmış, gerekli son düzenlemeler yapılarak uygulamaya hazır hale getirilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 134 verilerin analizi ölçek, 213 öğretmene uygulandıktan sonra elde edilen veriler bilgisayar ortamına aktarılmış ve verilerin analizinde spss 15 (statistical packet for social sciences) istatistik programı kullanılmıştır. ölçekte, öğretmenlerin etkinlere yer verme derecelerini ortaya koymak amacıyla aritmetik ortalamalar, frekans ve yüzdeler alınmış olup yorumlar aritmetik ortalama üzerinden yapılmıştır. bu değerlere göre, öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinliklerin durumları ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. cinsiyet, görev yeri, branş değişkenine göre bağımsız t-testine, değer eğitimi durumu ve mesleki kıdem değişkenlerine göre yaptıkları etkinliklerin durumları arasında anlamlı farkın olup olmadığını belirlemek amacıyla varyans analizi sonuçlarına (anova) bakılmıştır.alt boyutlar arasındaki ilişki için ölçeğin alt boyutlarından elde ettikleri puanlar pearson korelasyonu ile analiz edilmiştir. bu ölçekte bir maddeden alınabilecek en yüksek puan 5, en düşük puan ise 1’dir. diğer taraftan, anlamlılık testlerinde p<,05 düzeyi anlamlılık için yeterli görülmüştür. bulgular ve yorum bu araştırma, 4 ve 5.sınıf öğretmenleri ile sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimi ile ilgili yaptıkları etkinlikleri uygulanma düzeylerini belirlemek amacıyla yapılmıştır.araştırmanın birinci sorusuna yanıt verebilmek için, 5 faktör altında toplanan etkinliklerin frekans ve aritmetik ortalamalarına yer verilmiş olup ifadeler aritmetik ortalama üzerinden yapılacaktır. tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 135 tablo 3 öğretmenlerin belirginleştirme boyutlu yaptıkları etkinliklere i̇lişkin bulgular beli̇rgi̇nleşti̇rme boyutlu etki̇nli̇kler 5 h er z am an 4 s ık s ık 3 a ra s ır a 2 s ey re k 1 h iç bi r za m an χ s 1. öğrencilere değerleri kazanmalarını sağlayacak kitaplar öneririm. f 135 47 26 4 1 4,46 ,81 2. ders esnasında güncel olaylar ve değerler arasında bağlantı kurarım. f 103 85 24 1 4,36 ,69 3. değerleri kazanmaya teşvik edici güzel sözler seçerek öğrencilerle bu sözleri paylaşırım. f 90 85 29 8 1 4,19 ,84 4. öğrencilerin değerlerle ilgili güzel sözler bularak, sınıfla paylaşmasını sağlarım. f 96 74 37 4 2 4,21 ,86 5. değerleri öğrencilere kazandırma konusunda davranışlarımla onlara örnek olmaya çalışırım. f 120 72 19 2 4,45 ,69 6. sınıf içinde öğrencilerin haklarını özgürce arayabilecekleri ortam hazırlarım. f 101 89 20 3 4,35 ,70 7. sınıf içinde sergilememiz gereken davranışlar listesini birlikte oluşturmayı ve bu listenin sınıf panosunda ilan edilmesini sağlarım. f 90 75 37 8 3 4,13 ,92 8. değerlerimizin gelişimine hizmet etmiş şahsiyetler – fikir insanlarının araştırılmasını ve sınıfta yapılacak sunumlar eşliğinde diğer öğrencilerle paylaşılmasını sağlarım. f 87 80 39 6 1 4,15 ,85 9. öğrencilerin kendi değerlerinin farkına varmalarına imkan sağlamak için onları sorularla yönlendiririm. f 90 95 25 2 1 4,27 ,74 10. öğrencilerin değerlerinde değişiklik olup olmadığını söz konusu değerler hakkında tartışma ortamı oluşturarak belirlerim. f 77 85 43 7 1 4,07 ,85 11. medyadaki bazı olayları eleştirel bir yaklaşımla analiz etmelerini sağlarım. f 73 80 49 9 2 4,00 ,91 toplam 4,24 ,56 tablo 3’e baktığımızda sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin değerler eğitimi ile ilgili yaptıkları belirginleştirme boyutlu yaptıkları etkinliklere yönelik maddelerin ortalamaları 4,00 ile 4.46 arasında değişmektedir. en yüksek aritmetik ortalama ölçeğin 1. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 136 maddesindeki “öğrencilere değerleri kazanmalarını sağlayacak kitaplar öneririm.” ifadesine aitken (4.46) iken en düşük aritmetik ortalama 11.maddedeki “medyadaki bazı olayları eleştirel bir yaklaşımla analiz etmelerini sağlarım.” ifadesine aittir (1,77).öğretmenin belirginleştirme boyutlu yaptıkları etkinliklerin genel olarak aritmetik ortalamasının 4,24 olduğu ve bu boyuttaki etkinliklerin “ her zaman” yapıldığı görülmektedir. tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 137 tablo 4 öğretmenlerin davranış öğrenme boyutlu yaptıkları etkinliklere i̇lişkin bulgular davraniş öğrenme boyutlu etki̇nli̇kler 5 h er z am an 4 s ık s ık 3 a ra s ır a 2 s ey re k 1 h iç bi r za m an χ s 12.dersin konusu ilgili önemli bireylerin biyografilerini hazırlatıp tartışma konusu olarak sunarım. f 50 79 69 14 1 3,76 ,90 13.öğrencilere bazı değerleri öne çıkaran roller vererek, canlandırmalarını isterim. f 33 90 70 17 3 3,62 ,89 15.öğrencilere değer kazandırmada etkisi olan sinema filmi, tv filmi ve tiyatro vb. izlemelerini öneririm. f 40 86 77 8 2 3,72 ,84 16.bazı değerlere ilişkin kompozisyonlar yazdırırım. f 17 77 97 20 2 3,40 ,80 17.öğrencileri bazı değerleri uygulayabilecekleri sosyal projelerde görevlendiririm. f 23 79 97 12 2 3,51 ,79 18.ziyaret amaçlı huzur evi, çocuk esirgeme kurumu vb. kuruluşlara gezi düzenlerim. f 28 54 86 28 17 3,22 1,08 19.değerler eğitimi adına yaptığım çalışmaların amacına ulaşabilmesi için öğrenci velileriyle görüşerek onlarla işbirliği içinde çalışırım. f 42 82 74 13 2 3,69 ,88 20.müze ve tarihi yerlere gezi düzenlerim. f 29 45 101 26 12 3,24 1,02 toplam 3,52 ,619 sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin değerler eğitimi ilgili yaptıkları etkinliklere ilişkin ikinci alt boyut “davranış öğrenme boyutlu etkinlikler” dir. bu boyutla ilgili maddelere verilen yanıtların betimsel değerleri tablo 4’ te gösterilmektedir. etkinliklere yönelik maddelerin ortalamaları 3,22 ile 3,76 arasında değişmektedir. en yüksek aritmetik ortalama ölçeğin 12 maddesindeki “dersin konusu ilgili önemli bireylerin biyografilerini hazırlatıp tartışma konusu olarak sunarım” ifadesine aitken (3,76) iken en düşük aritmetik ortalama 18.maddedeki “ziyaret amaçlı huzur evi, çocuk esirgeme kurumu vb. kuruluşlara gezi düzenlerim.” ifadesine aittir (3,22).öğretmenin davranış öğrenme boyutlu yaptıkları journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 138 etkinliklerin genel olarak aritmetik ortalamasının 3,52 olduğu ve bu boyuttaki etkinliklerin “sık sık” yapıldığı görülmektedir. tablo 5 öğretmenlerin ahlaki gelişim boyutlu yaptıkları etkinliklere i̇lişkin bulgular ahlaki̇ geli̇şi̇m boyutlu etki̇nli̇kler 5 h er z am an 4 s ık s ık 3 a ra s ır a 2 s ey re k 1 h iç bi r χ s 22.öğrencinin kendisinin ve arkadaşlarının iyi örnek olabilecek davranışlarını sınıf panosuna asarak sınıfla paylaşırım. f 55 89 55 7 7 3,83 ,95 26.öğrencilerin sorunlarını kâğıtlara yazdırıp bu sorunlara çözüm bulabilmek için beyin fırtınası yaptırırım. f 59 86 56 8 4 3,88 ,92 27.örnek davranış sergileyen öğrencileri sınıf ortamında ödüllendiririm. f 65 95 44 8 1 4,00 ,84 28.her öğrencinin sınıfındaki arkadaşlarının takdir ettiği veya beğendiği davranışlarını yazılı veya sözlü olarak sınıfta paylaşmasına ortam hazırlarım. f 49 11 0 46 6 2 3,92 ,80 31.değer eğitimi ile ilgili hedefleri öğrenciye kazandırmanın her aşamasında velilerle yardımlaşırım. f 49 89 58 16 1 3,79 ,89 toplam 3,89 ,63 sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin değerler eğitimi ilgili yaptıkları etkinliklere ilişkin ilişkin üçüncü alt boyut “ahlaki gelişim boyutlu etkinlikler” dir. bu boyutla ilgili maddelere verilen yanıtların betimsel değerleri tablo 5’ te gösterilmektedir. etkinliklere yönelik maddelerin ortalamaları 3,79 ile 4,00 arasında değişmektedir. en yüksek aritmetik ortalama anketin 27. maddesindeki “örnek davranış sergileyen öğrencileri sınıf ortamında ödüllendiririm.” ifadesine aitken (4,00) iken en düşük aritmetik ortalama 31.maddedeki “değer eğitimi ile ilgili hedefleri öğrenciye kazandırmanın her aşamasında velilerle yardımlaşırım.” ifadesine aittir (3,79).öğretmenin ahlaki gelişim boyutlu yaptıkları tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 139 etkinliklerin genel olarak aritmetik ortalamasının 3,89 olduğu ve bu boyuttaki etkinliklerin “sık sık” yapıldığı görülmektedir. tablo 6 öğretmenlerin değer analizi boyutlu yaptıkları etkinliklere i̇lişkin bulgular değer anali̇zi̇ boyutlu etki̇nli̇kler 5 h er z am an 4 s ık s ık 3 a ra s ır a 2 s ey re k 1 h iç bi r za m an χ s 23.toplum hizmeti çalışmalarını(akut, tema,yardım kuruluşları gibi) tanıtırım f 37 66 95 12 3 3,57 ,89 24.öğrencilerin, toplum hizmeti çalışmalarına katkıda bulunmasını sağlarım f 27 83 83 17 3 3,53 ,86 30.öğrencilere değerlerle ilgili kavramları ders içinde sadece kelime anlamı olarak açıklarım. f 39 91 67 9 7 3,68 ,93 32. öğrencilere sınıf içinde işbirliği içinde çalışmalarını sağlayacak ortamlar hazırlarım. f 65 94 50 2 2 4,02 ,81 34.değerler eğitimi verirken tarihteki kahramanlardan faydalanırım. f 48 86 69 9 1 3,80 ,85 35.öğrencilerden kendi değerleri doğrultusunda yarattıkları kahramanı anlatan kompozisyon yazmalarını isterim. f 27 73 84 23 6 3,43 ,94 37.öğrencilere değerleri kazanmalarında etkili olacağını düşündüğüm filmler izlettiririm, tiyatroya götürürüm vb. f 30 77 83 15 8 3,49 ,94 38.değerler eğitiminde öğrencilerin kendilerini başkalarının yerine koyma (empati) becerisini kazanmasını sağlarım. f 67 96 43 5 2 4,03 ,83 toplam 3,69 ,57 sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin değerler eğitimi ilgili yaptıkları etkinliklere ilişkin dördüncü alt boyut “değer analizi boyutlu etkinlikler” dir. bu boyutla ilgili maddelere verilen yanıtların betimsel değerleri tablo 6’ da gösterilmektedir. etkinliklere yönelik maddelerin ortalamaları 3,43 ile 4,03 arasında değişmektedir. en yüksek aritmetik ortalama anketin 38. maddesindeki “değerler eğitiminde öğrencilerin kendilerini başkalarının yerine koyma (empati) becerisini kazanmasını sağlarım.” ifadesine aitken journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 140 (4,03) iken en düşük aritmetik ortalama 35.maddesindeki “öğrencilerden kendi değerleri doğrultusunda yarattıkları kahramanı anlatan kompozisyon yazmalarını isterim.” ifadesine aittir (3,43).öğretmenin değer analizi boyutlu yaptıkları etkinliklerin genel olarak aritmetik ortalamasının 3,69 olduğu ve bu boyuttaki etkinliklerin “sık sık” yapıldığı görülmektedir. tablo 7 öğretmenlerin telkin etme boyutlu yaptıkları etkinliklere i̇lişkin bulgular telki̇n etme boyutlu etki̇nli̇kler 5 h er z am an 4 s ık s ık 3 a ra s ır a 2 s ey re k 1 h iç bi r za m an χ s 14.öğrencilere örnek olaylar sunarak üzerinde düşünmelerini ve çıkarımda bulunmalarını sağlarım. f 46 93 69 5 3,84 ,78 21.öğrencilere kazandırmaya çalıştığım değerlerin öğrencilerin davranışlarını ne yönde değiştirdiğini ölçerim. f 24 11 8 61 8 2 3,72 ,74 25.öğrencileri, olumlu değerlere sahip olması için telkin yoluyla(nasihat ederek) uyarırım. f 73 74 54 9 3 4,12 ,73 29.öğrencileri dürüst davranmaları konusunda cesaretlendiririm. f 70 10 3 37 3 4,08 ,73 33. öğrencilerin değerleri kazanıp kazanmadıklarını belirlemek için onların davranışlarını gözlemlerim. f 66 10 0 46 1 3,95 ,75 36.verdiğim performans ödevleri ile öğrencilerin sorumluluk duygusunu kazanmalarına imkân oluştururum. f 52 10 2 56 3 3,94 ,50 toplam 3,94 ,50 sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin değerler eğitimi ilgili yaptıkları etkinliklere ilişkin beşinci ve son alt boyut “telkin etme boyutlu etkinlikler” dir. bu boyutla ilgili maddelere verilen yanıtların betimsel değerleri tablo 7’ de gösterilmektedir. etkinliklere yönelik maddelerin ortalamaları 3,72 ile 4.12 arasında değişmektedir. en yüksek aritmetik ortalama anketin 25. maddesindeki “öğrencileri, olumlu değerlere sahip olması için telkin tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 141 yoluyla(nasihat ederek) uyarırım.” ifadesine aitken (4,12) iken en düşük aritmetik ortalama 21.maddedeki “öğrencilere kazandırmaya çalıştığım değerlerin öğrencilerin davranışlarını ne yönde değiştirdiğini ölçerim” ifadesine aittir (3,72).öğretmenin telkin etme boyutlu yaptıkları etkinliklerin genel olarak aritmetik ortalamasının 3.94 olduğu ve bu boyuttaki etkinliklerin “sık sık” yapıldığı görülmektedir. bağımsız değişkenlerin bağımlı değişkenler üzerindeki anlamlılıklarına i̇lişkin bulgular ve yorumlar araştırmanın ikinci alt problemi, “sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine ilişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinlikler cinsiyet, görev yeri, branş , değer eğitimi durumu ve mesleki kıdem göre farklılaşmakta mıdır?” olarak belirlenmişti. bu amaçla alt boyutlar düzeyinde cinsiyet, branş ve görev yeri ile yapılan karşılaştırmalar t-testi analizi ile mesleki kıdem ve değerler eğitimi durumları ise varyans analizi (anova) gerçekleştirilmiştir. makalenin sınırları açısından, sadece anlamlı farklılıkları görülenler tablolarda verilmiştir. öğretmenlerin branşları arasında anlamlı bir farklılığa rastlanmamıştır. tablo 8 sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine i̇lişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinlikler ile cinsiyet arasındaki farklılığı gösteren t-testi sonuçları etkinlikler cinsiyet n χ s sd t p belirginleştirme erkek 80 4,14 ,60814 211 -1,986 ,048 kadın 133 4,30 ,52481 öğretmenlerin değer eğitimine yönelik yaptıkları etkinliklerin alt boyut ve toplam puanlarının cinsiyete göre t-testi sonuçları tablo 8’de gösterilmiştir. sadece journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 142 belirginleştirme boyutunda yapılan etkinlikler cinsiyete göre anlamlı bir farklılık göstermektedir, t(211)= -1,986, p< .05.kadın öğretmenlerin etkinlikleri uygulanma düzeyleri ( χ =4,30), erkek öğretmenlere ( χ =4,14) göre daha olumludur. tablo 9 sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine i̇lişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinlikler i̇le görev yeri arasındaki farklılığı gösteren t-testi sonuçları etkinlikler görev yeri n χ s sd t p belirginleştirme i̇l merkez 130 4,11 ,58381 211 -4,410 ,000 i̇lçe merkez 83 4,44 ,45790 toplam i̇l merkez 130 3,81 ,47149 211 -2,997 ,003 i̇lçe merkez 83 3,99 ,38240 öğretmenlerin değer eğitimine yönelik yaptıkları etkinliklerin alt boyut ve toplam puanlarının görev yerlerine göre t-testi sonuçları tablo 9’da gösterilmiştir. belirginleştirme boyutunda yapılan etkinlikler ile toplamda yapılan etkinlikler görev yerlerine göre anlamlı bir farklılık göstermektedir, t(211)= -4,410, p< .05; t(211)= -2,997, p< .05.her iki durumda da ilçe merkezde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkinlikleri uygulanma düzeyleri ( χ =4,44; χ =3,99 ),il merkezinde görev yapan öğretmenlere ( χ =4,11; χ =3,81) göre daha olumludur. tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 143 tablo 10 sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine i̇lişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinlikler ile mesleki kıdem değişkenine göre varyans analizi (anova) sonuçları etkinlik boyutları varyansın kaynağı kt sd ko f p anlamlı fark belirginleştirme gruplar arası 2,771 3 ,924 3,015 ,031 2-3/2-4 gruplar içi 64,028 209 ,306 toplam 66,799 212 davranış öğrenme gruplar arası 4,540 3 1,513 4,122 ,007 2-3/2-4 gruplar içi 76,724 209 ,367 toplam 81,264 212 ahlaki gelişim gruplar arası 4,816 3 1,605 4,185 ,007 1-3/1-4 2-3/2-4 gruplar içi 80,173 209 ,384 toplam 84,989 212 değer analizi gruplar arası 3,223 3 1,074 3,390 ,019 1-3/2-3 gruplar içi 66,240 209 ,317 toplam 69,463 212 toplam gruplar arası 2,537 3 ,846 4,451 ,005 1-3/ 2-3/2-4 gruplar içi 39,711 209 ,190 toplam 42,248 212 öğretmenlerin değer eğitimine yönelik yaptıkları etkinliklerin meslek kıdem değişkenine göre anova sonuçları tablo 10’da verilmiştir. analiz sonuçları, mesleki kıdem değişkenine göre değer eğitimi etkinliklerini uygulanma açısından belirginleştirme ,davranış öğrenme, ahlaki gelişim ,değer analizi ve toplam boyut üzerinde p<.05 düzeyinde anlamlı bir farklılık oluşturduğu göstermektedir. anlamlı farklılığın hangi gruplar arasında olduğunu bulmak amacıyla yapılan lsd testinde; belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden 11-15 yıl ( χ =4.26, s=.57) ve 16 ve üzeri ( χ =4.33, s=.53) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin; 6-10 yıl ( χ =4.01, s=,52) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 144 [f (3-209)= 3.015; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık 6-10 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. davranış öğrenme boyutundaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden 11-15 yıl ( χ =3.61, s=.62) ve 16 ve üzeri ( χ =3.58, s=.56) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin; 6-10 yıl ( χ =3.22, s=,52) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (3-209)= 4.122; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık 6-10 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. ahlaki gelişim boyutundaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden 11-15 yıl ( χ =4.01, s=.59) ve 16 ve üzeri ( χ =3.91, s=.58) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin; 1-5 yıl ( χ =3.52, s=,93) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (3-209)= 4.185; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık 1-5 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. ayrıca mesleki kıdemi 11-15 yıl ( χ =4.01, s=.59) ve 16 ve üzeri ( χ =3.91 , s=.58) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin; 6-10 yıl ( χ =3.66, s=,52) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (3-209)= 4.185; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık 6-10 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. değer analizi boyutundaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden 11-15 yıl ( χ =4.01, s=,52) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin;1-5 yıl ( χ =3,47, s=.63) ve 6-10 yıl ( χ =3,53, s=.65) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (3-209)= 3.390; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık 11-15 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin lehinedir. toplam boyuttaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden 11-15 yıl ( χ =3.96, s=.44) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin 1-5 yıl ( χ =3.70, s=.58) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (3-209)= 4.45; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık 11-15 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin lehinedir. ayrıca 11-15 yıl ( χ =3.96, s=.44) ve 16 ve üzeri tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 145 ( χ =3.91, s=.40) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin; 6-10 yıl ( χ =3.67, s=,42) kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (3-209)= 4.45; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık 6-10 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. tablo11 sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine i̇lişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinlikler ile değer eğitimi alma durumu değişkenine göre varyans analizi (anova) sonuçları etkinlik boyutları varyansın kaynağı kt sd ko f p anlamlı fark belirginleştirme gruplar arası 7,381 7 1,054 3,638 ,001 1-4/1-8 5-8/6-8 gruplar içi 59,418 205 ,290 toplam 66,799 212 ahlaki gelişim gruplar arası 17,024 7 2,432 7,335 ,000 1-8/4-8 1-3/3-4 3-5/3-8 gruplar içi 67,965 205 ,332 toplam 84,989 212 değer analizi gruplar arası 4,761 7 ,680 2,155 ,040 6-7/6-8 gruplar içi 64,702 205 ,316 toplam 69,463 212 telkin etme gruplar arası 8,928 7 1,275 5,733 ,000 1-7 6-4/6-5 gruplar içi 45,604 205 ,222 toplam 54,532 212 toplam gruplar arası 4,420 7 ,631 3,422 ,002 1-4/1-7/1-8 gruplar içi 37,828 205 ,185 toplam 42,248 212 öğretmenlerin değer eğitimine yönelik yaptıkları etkinliklerin değer eğitimi alma durumu değişkenine göre anova sonuçları tablo 11’de verilmiştir. analiz sonuçları, değer eğitimi durumu değişkenine göre değer eğitimi etkinliklerini uygulanma açısından belirginleştirme ,ahlaki gelişim, değer analizi, telkin etme ve toplam boyut üzerinde p<.05 journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 146 düzeyinde anlamlı bir farklılık oluşturduğu göstermektedir. anlamlı farklılığın hangi gruplar arasında olduğunu bulmak amacıyla yapılan lsd testinde; belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden materyalleri takip eden ( χ =4.35, s=.46) ve hem materyal takibi hem de arkadaştan yardım alan( χ =4.63, s=.34) öğretmenlerin; hizmet içi eğitim alan ( χ =3.90, s=.56) öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. anlamlı farklılık hizmet içi eğitime katılan öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. ayrıca hem materyal takibi hem de arkadaştan yardım alan( χ =4.63, s=.34) öğretmenlerin; arkadaştan yardım alan( χ =4.14, s=.53) ve hiçbir eğitim almayan ( χ =4.16, s=.58) öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (7-205)= 3.638; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık hem materyal takibi hem de arkadaştan yardım alan öğretmenlerin lehinedir. ahlaki gelişim boyutundaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden hem materyal takibi hem de arkadaştan yardım alan( χ =4.46, s=.36) öğretmenlerin hizmet içi eğitim alan ( χ =3.67, s=.92) öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (3-209)= 7.335; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık hem materyal takibi hem de arkadaştan yardım alan öğretmenlerin lehinedir. ayrıca hizmet içi eğitim alan ( χ =3.67, s=.92) , materyalleri takip eden ( χ =4.01, s=.63), arkadaştan yardım alan( χ =4.01, s=.63), hem materyal takibi hem de arkadaştan yardım alan( χ =4.46, s=.36) öğretmenlerin; konferansa katılan eden ( χ =2.86, s=.23), öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. anlamlı farklılık konferansa katılan öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. değer analizi boyutundaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden hem hizmet içi eğitim alan hem de materyal takip eden ( χ =4.07, s=.52) ve hem materyal takibi hem de arkadaştan yardım alan( χ =3.88, s=.34) öğretmenlerin; hiçbir eğitim almayan( χ =3.64, tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 147 s=.55) öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (7-205)= 2.155; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık hiçbir eğitim almayan öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. telkin etme boyutundaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden hem hizmet içi eğitim alan hem de materyal takip eden ( χ =4.42, s=.38) öğretmenlerin; hizmet içi eğitim alan ( χ =4.03, s=.58) öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. anlamlı farklılık sadece hizmet içi eğitime katılan öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. ayrıca materyalleri takip eden ( χ =4.11, s=.39) ve arkadaştan yardım alan ( χ =4.19, s=.42) öğretmenlerin; hiçbir eğitim almayan( χ =3.64, s=.55) öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir. [f (7-205)= 5.733; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık hiçbir eğitim almayan öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. toplam boyuttaki etkinlikleri uygulanma yönünden materyalleri takip eden ( χ =3.99, s=.27), hem hizmet içi eğitim alan hem de materyal takip eden ( χ =4.08, s=.45) ve hem materyal takibi hem de arkadaştan yardım alan( χ =4.14, s=.24) öğretmenlerin; hizmet içi eğitim alan ( χ =3.63, s=.62) öğretmenlerden daha etkili oldukları belirlenmiştir [f (7-205)= 3.422; p<.05]. anlamlı farklılık sadece hizmet içi eğitime katılan öğretmenlerin aleyhinedir. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 148 tablo 12 sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine i̇lişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinliklerin alt boyutları arasındaki i̇lişkiye ait pearson korelasyonu analizi sonuçları etkinlik boyutları belirginleştirme davranış öğrenme ahlaki gelişim değer analizi telkin etme belirginleştirm e r 1 p n 213 davranış öğrenme r ,524** 1 p ,000 n 213 213 ahlaki gelişim r ,570** ,409** 1 p ,000 ,000 n 213 213 213 değer analizi r ,508** ,480** ,594** 1 p ,000 ,000 ,000 n 213 213 213 213 telkin etme r ,441** ,300** ,504** ,526** 1 p ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 n 213 213 213 213 213 ** korelasyon p< .01 düzeyinde anlamlıdır. araştırmadaki son alt problem de, “sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimine ilişkin olarak öğretmenlerin yaptıkları etkinliklerin alt boyutları arasında anlamlı bir farklılık var mıdır?”olarak ifade edilmişti. bu ilişkiyi ortaya koymak için de ölçeğin alt boyutlarından elde edilen puanlar pearson korelasyonu ile analiz edilmiştir (tablo12). tablo 12’de görüldüğü gibi yapılan etkinliklerin alt boyutları arasında p< .01 düzeyinde anlamlı ilişkiler bulunmuştur. belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikler ile davranış öğrenme boyutundaki etkinlikler (r=,524; p<.01)arasında, belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikler ile ahlaki gelişim boyutundaki etkinlikleri (r=,570; p<.01)arasında, belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikler ile değer analizi boyutundaki etkinlikler(r=,508; p<.01)arasında, belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikler ile telkin etme boyutundaki etkinlikleri (r=,441; p<.01), davranış öğrenme boyutundaki etkinlikler tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 149 ile ahlaki gelişim boyutundaki etkinlikler (r=,409; p<.01) arasında, davranış öğrenme boyutundaki etkinlikler ile değer analizi boyutundaki etkinlikler(r=,480; p<.01)arasında, davranış öğrenme boyutlu etkinlikler ile telkin etme boyutundaki etkinlikler(r=,480; p<.01)arasında, ahlaki gelişim boyutlu etkinlikler ile değer analizi boyutundaki etkinlikler(r=,594; p<.01)arasında, ahlaki gelişim boyutundaki etkinlikler ile telkin etme boyutundaki etkinlikler(r=,504; p<.01)arasında, değer analizi boyutundaki etkinlikler ile telkin etme boyutundaki etkinlikler(r=,526; p<.01)arasındadır. aralarında ilişki bulunan bu etkinlikler incelendiğinde genelde birbiri ile bağlantılı etkinlikleri içerdiği görülmektedir. tartışma, sonuç ve öneriler günümüzde küreselleşme; siyasi, sosyal, ekonomik ve kültürel alanlarda pek çok gelişmeye imkan sağlarken bir taraftan da toplumsal yaşamı tehdit eden sorunların ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur.bireyi, aileyi, yaşadığımız toplumu ve dünyayı tehdit eden risk ve sorunların çözümünde, toplumsal yaşantımızın temel yapısını oluşturan milli, manevi, sosyal, ahlaki ve kültürel değerlerimiz en önemli referans kaynağımızdır.değerler eğitimi toplumun tümünü ilgilendirdiğinden çok boyutlu ele alınması gerekmektedir.bu açıdan eğitim sistemini oluşturan tüm unsurların bu konuda duyarlılık ve bilinç kazanmasına ihtiyaç vardır.öğretmenler öğretim programının uygulayıcıları olmanın yanı sıra öğrencilere değerleri kazandırmada öncü rol ve görevlerde bulunmalıdırlar(meb ttkb, 2010).bunun için öğretmenlerin değerler eğitimi konusunda yeterli bilgi ve beceri ile donanmış olması gerekir. değerler eğitimi yaklaşımları konusunda yeterince bilgi ve becerisi olmayan bir öğretmen bu işi örtük ya da bilinçsiz olarak gerçekleştirmeye çalışacaktır.bu sebeple araştırma,hizmet öncesi dönemde öğrenim görmekte olan öğretmen adaylarının göreve başladıkları zaman kazandırmaları gereken değerler journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 150 hakkındaki görüşlerinin belirlenmesi ve değerler eğitimi hakkındaki bilgi durumunun ortaya konulması açısından önemlidir. bu araştırma, 4 ve 5.sınıf öğretmenleri ile sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimi ile ilgili yaptıkları etkinlikleri uygulanma düzeyleri açısından irdelenmiş ve bulgular araştırmanın problemlerinin veriliş sırasına uygun olarak aşağıda tartışılmıştır. araştırmanın, 4 ve 5.sınıf öğretmenleri ile sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimi ile ilgili yaptıkları etkinliklerine ilişkin bulgular 5 alt boyutta (belirginleştirme, davranış öğrenme, ahlaki gelişim, değer analizi ve telkin etme) ele alınmıştır. belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikler öğretmenler tarafından her zaman düzeyinde yapılmakta iken diğer 4 alt boyuttaki etkinlikler sık sık düzeyde yapılmaktadır. belirginleştirme yaklaşımı, büyük ve küçük grup tartışmaları, kişisel ve grup çalışmaları,sahte,yapmacık ve gerçek ikilimler, zorlanmış tercihler,duyarlık ve dinleme teknikleri, şarkılar ve resimler,oyun ve taklitler, kişisel haber ve röportajlar gibi şeyleri çok sayıda metod ve teknikleri içermektedir (superka ve diğ.,1976, s. 106). belirginleştirme boyutlu etkinliklerde öğretmenlerin her zaman yaptıkları etkinlikler “öğrencilere değerleri kazanmalarını sağlayacak kitaplar önermeleri; değerleri öğrencilere kazandırma konusunda davranışlarıyla onlara örnek olmaya çalışmaları.” olarak ortaya konulmuştur.bunun yanında öğretmenlerin sık sık yaptıkları etkinliklere “öğrencilerin değerlerinde değişiklik olup olmadığını söz konusu değerler hakkında tartışma ortamı oluşturarak belirlemeye çalışma; öğrencilerin değerlerle ilgili güzel sözler bularak, sınıfla paylaşmasını sağlama”. gibi etkinlikler yer almaktadır. can (2008) tarafından yapılan çalışmada, öğretmenler değerlerin kazandırılmasında tartışma yöntemini sıklıkla kullanmaktadırlar.ancak whitney (1986), tarafından yapılan çalışmada tartışma yönteminin değer eğitiminde önemli bir yöntem olmasına rağmen öğretmenlerin çok azının bu yöntem için özel bir tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 151 zaman ayırdığı belirlenmiştir. çalışmayı destekleyen veriler arasında farklılık olması zaman, program ve öğretmenlerin yetiştirilmesi gibi etmenlerden kaynaklanmış olabilir. davranış öğrenme yaklaşımı, öğrencilere,değerlerine dayanan kişisel ve sosyal davranışlar için fırsatlar sağlamaktadır.bu yaklaşımda değerler eğitimi sürecinde okul ve topluluklar içinde eylem davranış projeleri,organize edilmiş gruplar ve kişilerarası beceri uygulaması kullanılmaktadır (superka ve diğ. ,1976, s. 178).davranış öğrenme boyutlu etkinliklerin hiçbiri öğretmenler tarafından her zaman yapılmamaktadır. etkinliklerin yapılma durumu sık sık ve ara sıra düzeyinde değişmektedir.sık sık düzeyde yaptıkları bazı etkinlikler “dersin konusu ilgili önemli bireylerin biyografilerini hazırlatıp tartışma konusu olarak sunma ; öğrencilere değer kazandırmada etkisi olan sinema filmi, tv filmi ve tiyatro vb. izlemelerini önerme; öğrencileri bazı değerleri uygulayabilecekleri sosyal projelerde görevlendirme” şeklindedir. kültürel mirasa duyarlılık değerinin kazandırılmasına yönelik olabilecek olan “müze ve tarihi yerlere gezi düzenlerim” etkinliği öğretmenler tarafından ara sıra düzeyinde yapılmaktadır. çetin, kuş ve karatekin (2010) ve mazman (2007)’da sosyal bilgiler ögretmenlerinin, maddi imkânsızlıklardan, bürokratik engellerin çokluğundan, müfredat yoğunluğundan dolayı bu metodu kullanamadıklarını tespit etmistir. ahlaki gelişim yaklaşımının en karakteristik tekniği, daha sonra küçük gruplarda da tartışılarak,gerçek veya kurmaca bir ikilemli hikayenin öğrencilere sunulmasıdır (superka ve diğ ,1976, s. 31).ahlaki gelişim boyutlu etkinliklerde de öğretmenler tarafından her zaman düzeyinde yapılan etkinlikler yer almamaktadır. etkinlerin hepsi sık sık düzeyde yapılmaktadır.sık sık düzeyde yapılan etkinliklerden bazıları “her öğrencinin sınıfındaki arkadaşlarının takdir ettiği veya beğendiği davranışlarını yazılı veya sözlü olarak sınıfta paylaşmasına ortam hazırlama; öğrencilerin sorunlarını kâğıtlara yazdırıp bu sorunlara çözüm bulabilmek için beyin fırtınası yaptırma” şeklindedir. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 152 değer analizi yaklaşımında öğrencilerin değerlerini kavramsallaştırmalarında ve bunlar arasında birbiriyle bağlantı kurmalarında mantıklı ve analitik süreçler kullanmalarına yardımcı olmak vardır (superka ve diğ ,1976, s. 55).değer analizi boyutlu etkinliklerde de öğretmenler tarafından her zaman düzeyinde yapılan etkinlikler yer almamaktadır. etkinlerin hepsi sık sık düzeyde yapılmaktadır.sık sık düzeyde yapılan etkinliklerden bazıları “öğrencilere değerlerle ilgili kavramları ders içinde sadece kelime anlamı olarak açıklama; öğrencilere sınıf içinde işbirliği içinde çalışmalarını sağlayacak ortamlar hazırlama; değerler eğitiminde öğrencilerin kendilerini başkalarının yerine koyma (empati) becerisini kazanmasını sağlama.” şeklindedir. johansson,(2002, s. 206) tarafından yapılan çalışmada öğretmenlerin ahlakla ilgili en önemli çabalarının, çocukların başkalarını anlamaları için onlara yardımcı olmaları gerektiğini belirlenmiştir.başkalarını anlamanın en iyi yolu da empati yapmadır. can (2008) tarafından yapılan çalışmada araştırma destekler nitelikte olup “ögrencilerin olumlu değerlere sahip insanları model almalarını sağlama ve onlara empati yaptırmaya yönelik etkinler” de öğretmenler tarafından sıklıkla yapılmaktadır. telkin etme yaklaşımında süreç içerisinde; model olma, olumlu ve olumsuz pekiştirme, küçümseme, azarlama, alternatifleri idare etme,oyunlar ve taklitler, rol oynama ve araştırmacı öğrenme yöntemleri kullanılmaktadır (superka ve diğ ,1976, s. 9-10).telkin etme boyutlu etkinliklerde de öğretmenler tarafından her zaman düzeyinde yapılan etkinlikler yer almamaktadır. etkinlerin hepsi sık sık düzeyde yapılmaktadır.sık sık düzeyde yapılan etkinliklerden bazıları “öğrencileri, olumlu değerlere sahip olması için telkin yoluyla(nasihat ederek) uyarma; öğrencilerin değerleri kazanıp kazanmadıklarını belirlemek için onların davranışlarını gözlemleme; verdiğim performans ödevleri ile öğrencilerin sorumluluk duygusunu kazanmalarına imkân oluşturma” şeklindedir. öğretmenler özellikle sorumluluk değerini kazandırmaya çalışmaktadırlar. whitney (1986) tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 153 tarafından yapılan çalışmada öğretmenler dürüstlük,saygı ve sorumluluk değerlerinin değer eğitimi programında yer alması gereken en önemli üç değer olduğunu ifade etmişlerdir. can(2008) tarafından yapılan çalışmada öğretmenler öğrencilerin değerleri kazanıp kazanmadıklarını onların davranışlarını her zaman düzeyinde gözlemleyerek anladıklarını ifade etmişlerdir.yiğittir ve öcal (2011) tarafından yapılan çalışmada öğretmenler değer eğitiminde en çok telkin yaklaşımını kullanmaktadır.akbaş (2009) tarafından yapılan çalışmada ilköğretim programlarını kullanan öğretmenlerin değerlerin davranışa dönüştürülmesi konusunda daha duyarlı oldukları ortaya konulmuştur. bağımsız değişkenlerin bağımlı değişkenler üzerindeki anlamlılıklarına ilişkin bulgular açısından baktığımızda, öğretmenlerin yaptığı etkinlikler alt boyutlar düzeyinde cinsiyet, branş ve görev yeri ile yapılan karşılaştırmalar t-testi analizi ile mesleki kıdem ve değerler eğitimi durumları ise varyans analizi (anova) gerçekleştirilmiştir. öğretmenlerin branşları arasında anlamlı bir farklılığa rastlanmamıştır. öğretmenlerin değer eğitimine yönelik yaptıkları belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikler cinsiyete göre anlamlı bir farklılık göstermektedir, t(211)= -1,986, p< .05.kadın öğretmenler erkek öğretmenlere göre bu boyuttaki etkinlikleri daha iyi düzeyde uygulanmaktadır. öğretmenlerin değer eğitimine yönelik yaptıkları belirginleştirme boyutundaki etkinlikler ile toplamda yapılan etkinlikler görev yerlerine göre anlamlı bir farklılık göstermektedir, t(211)= -4,410, p< .05; t(211)= -2,997, p< .05.her iki durumda da ilçe merkezinde görev yapan öğretmenler il merkezinde görev öğretmenlerden etkinlikleri daha iyi düzeyde uygulanmaktadır. bu durum il merkezinde görev yapan öğretmenlerin sınava yönelik ders işleme sürecinden kaynaklanmış olabilir. öğretmenlerin değer eğitimine yönelik yaptıkları belirginleştirme, davranış öğrenme, ahlaki gelişim ,değer analizi ve toplam boyut etkinlikleri meslek kıdem journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 154 değişkenine göre anova sonuçları doğrultusunda anlamlı bir farklılık oluşturmuştur.anlamlı farklılığın hangi gruplar arasında olduğunu bulmak amacıyla yapılan lsd testi sonuçlarında anlamlı farklılığa sahip olan her boyuttaki etkinlikler 11-15 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenler tarafından 1-5 ve 6-10 kıdeme sahip öğretmenlere nazaran daha iyi düzeyde uygulanmaktadır. öğretmenlerin değer eğitimine yönelik yaptıkları belirginleştirme ,ahlaki gelişim, değer analizi, telkin etme ve toplam boyut etkinlikleri değer eğitimi durumu değişkenine göre anova sonuçları doğrultusunda anlamlı bir farklılık oluşturmuştur.anlamlı farklılığın hangi gruplar arasında olduğunu bulmak amacıyla yapılan lsd testi sonuçlarında; sadece hizmet içi eğitime katılmanın değer eğitimine bir katkı sağlamadığı;hem materyal takibi hem de arkadaştan yardım almanın ve konferans, çalıştay gibi faaliyetlere katılmanın değer eğitimine olumlu yönde katkı sağladığı görülmüştür.sezer(2008) tarafından yapılan çalışmada öğretmenlerin yeni müfredat programı ile ilgili bilgilendirme çalışmalarına katılma sayısı artmasına rağmen değerlerin öğretimine ilişkin bir farklık olmamıştır.bu durum hizmet içi eğitim faaliyetlerinin içeriğinin etkili olmadığını ortaya koymaktadır. alt boyutları arasında ilişkiyi ortaya koymak için de ölçeğin alt boyutlarından elde edilen puanlar pearson korelasyonu ile analiz edilmiştir.bu analiz sonucunda etkinliklerin alt boyutları arasında p< .01 düzeyinde anlamlı ilişkiler bulunmuştur. araştırmada elde edilen bulgular doğrultusunda bir takım önerilerde bulunulabilir:  program dahilindeki değerlerin okullarda öğrencilere kazandırılması ancak değer eğitiminin önemine inanan ve bunu destekleyen öğretmenlerle gerçekleşebilir. bu sebeple öğretmenlerin de bu eğitim konusunda gerekli bilgi ve becerileri kazanmalarını ve geliştirmelerini sağlamak amacıyla tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 155 hizmet öncesi eğitim çerçevesinde üniversitelerde değerler eğitimine daha fazla ağırlık verilebilir.  ayrıca ilköğretim okullarında görev yapan öğretmenlere de hizmet içi eğitim çerçevesinde uygulamalı olarak eğitim verilebilir.  bunun yanında öğretmenlere sadece yapılması gerekenleri söylemekten ziyade nasıl ve ne ile yapmaları konusunda gerekli materyallerin temini sağlanabilir.  okullarda, eğitim sürecinde öğrencilerde değerleri geliştirme önem kazanmaktadır. elbette, okulda değerleri geliştirme çabası aile ve aile çevresince de desteklenmeli, onlar da çocuklarına model olmalıdırlar.öğretmenler okulda öğrencilere hangi değeri aktarıyorsa, bu değerden aile de haberdar edilerek değer öğretiminde tutarlık ve kalıcılık sağlanmış olur. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 156 kaynakça/ references akbaş, o. (2009). i̇lköğretim okullarında görevli branş öğretmenlerinin değer öğretimi yaparken kullandıkları etkinlikler: 2004 ve 2007 yıllarına i̇lişkin bir karşılaştırma. kastamonu eğitim dergisi, 17(2), 403–414. akın, u. ve özdemir, m.(2009).öğretmen adaylarının demokratik değerlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi: eğitim bilimleri fakültesi örneği. ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi dergisi,42(2),183-198. aktepe, v. ve yel, s. (2009). i̇lköğretim öğretmenlerinin değer yargılarının betimlenmesi: kırşehir ili örneği. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi. 7 (3), 607622. altunay, e ve yalçınkaya, m. (2011).öğretmen adaylarının bilgi toplumunda değerlere ilişkin görüşlerinin bazı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim yönetimi 17(1), 5-28. balcı, f. a. ve yelken, t.y.(2010). i̇lköğretim öğretmenlerinin “değer” kavramına yükledikleri anlamlar. hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 39, 81-90. başçiftçi, g.n., akdoğan, t. ve koç, z. (2011) öğretmen adaylarının değer tercihleri ile epistomolojik inançlarının incelenmesi. 2nd international conference on new trends in education and their implications 27-29 april, 2011 antalya-turkey baydar, p. (2009).i̇lköğretim beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler programında belirlenen değerlerin kazanım düzeyleri ve bu süreçte yaşanılan sorunların değerlendirilmesi. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, çukurova üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, adana. bolay, s. h. (2007). aşkın değerler buhranı. değerler ve eğitimi uluslar arası sempozyumu bildiriler kitabı içinde (s.55–69), i̇stanbul. tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 157 bulach, c. r. (2002). implementing a character education curriculum and assessing its impact. the clearing house. 76(2), p.79-83 from http://www.westga.edu/~cbulach/sclimate/characterinstdescription.htm can, ö.(2008).dördüncü ve beşinci sınıf öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimi uygulamalarına ilişkin görüşleri, yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi hacettepe üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, ankara. coşkun, y. ve yıldırım, a. (2009). üniversite öğrencilerinin değer düzeylerinin bazı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. yüzüncü yıl üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 1 (6), 311-328. çetin, t.kuş, z. ve karatekin, k. (2010). sınıf ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin gezigözlem yöntemine iliskin görüşleri. sosyal bilimler arastırmaları dergisi, 2, (2010), 158-180 dilmaç, b.,bozgeyikli, h. ve çıkılı, y.(2008). öğretmen adaylarının değer algılarının farklı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. değerler eğitimi dergisi, 6(16), 69-91. doğanay, a. (2006). degerler egitimi. i̇çinde c. öztürk (ed.) hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler ögretimi. ankara: pegem yayıncılık. doğanay, a. (2009). değerler eğitimi. i̇çinde c. öztürk (ed.), sosyal bilgiler öğretimi .ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. fidan, n.k.(2009). öğretmen adaylarının değer öğretimine ilişkin görüşleri. kuramsal eğitim bilim, 2 (2), 1-18. germaine, r. w. (2001) values education ınfluence on elementary students’ selfesteem. phd thesis. san diego university glenn,c.l.(1998).what real education requires. journal of education,180(3),41-50 http://www.westga.edu/~cbulach/sclimate/characterinstdescription.htm� journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 158 johansson, e. (2002). morality in preschool ınteraction: teachers’ strategies for working with children’s morality. early child development and care, 172(2), p. 203–221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430210887 kan ç. (2010). sosyal bilgiler dersi ve değerler eğitimi. milli eğitim dergisi, 187,138– 145. karasar, n. (2008). bilimsel araştırma yöntemi. ankara: nobel yay. koca, a. i̇. (2009). üniversite öğrencilerinin değerleri ve bireysel özellikleri ile kariyer tercihleri arasındaki ilişki: çukurova üniversitesi’nde bir araştırma. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. adana: çukurova üniversitesi. mazman, f. (2007). sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde gezi-gözlem metodunun uygulanmasına ilişkin bir araştırma. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, gaziosmanpaşa üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, tokat. meb.(2005). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi 6-7.sınıflar öğretim programı ve kılavuzu (taslak basım). milli eğitim bakanlığı talim ve terbiye kurulu başkanlığı, devlet kitapları müdürlüğü, ankara. meb. (2008). i̇lköğretim 7.sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretmen kılavuz kitabı. gizem yayıncılık, ankara. meb. (2010). i̇lköğretim 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretmen kılavuz kitabı. gizem yayıncılık, ankara meb ttkb(2010) milli eğitim bakanlığı talim ve terbiye kurulu başkanlığı b.08.0.ttk.0.72.02.00 sayı,i̇lk ders konulu genelge moosmayer, d. c. ve siems florian u. (2012). values education and student satisfaction: german business students' perceptions of universities' value influences. journal of marketing for higher education, 22(2),257-272,to link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08841241.2012.746254 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08841241.2012.746254� tekin çeli̇kkaya, simge fi̇loğlu ve nur sema öktem 159 okudan, a, y.(2010). eğitim yöneticilerinin değerler eğitiminin önemi, etkileri ve uygulamalar hakkındaki görüşleri,yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, marmara üniversitesi, i̇stanbul. pauw jelle boeve-de (2012): valuing the invaluable: effects of individual, school and cultural factors on the environmental values of children, environmental education. to link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2012.700700 pedder, d., james, m. ve macbeath, j.(2005). how teachers value and practise professional learning. research papers in education, 20(3), 209-243 to link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02671520500192985 revell, l.(2002). children ’s responses to character education. educational studies. 28(4), 421-431.doi number:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305569022000042426 sarı, e.(2005). öğretmen adaylarının değer tercihleri: giresun eğitim fakültesi örneği. değerler eğitimi dergisi, 3(10),73-88. sezer, t.(2008). i̇lköğretim 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde sorumluluk değerinin öğretimine ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri, yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, gazi üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, ankara. superka, d.p., ahrens,c.,hedstrom,j,e.,ford,l.,j. ve johnson,p,l.(1976). values education sourcebook: conceptual approaches, materials analyses, and an annotated bibliography. social science education consortium eric clearinghouse for social studies social science education tay, b. (2009). prospective teachers’ views concerning the values to teach in the course of social sciences. social and behavioral sciences, 1, 1187-1191. tepecik,b.(2008). sosyal bilgiler dersinde sorumluluk değerinin kazandırılmasına ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri. eskişehir anadolu üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2012.700700� http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02671520500192985� journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 121-147 160 theodore, philip. a. (1986). a study of attitudes concerning values and values education held by students and faculty members at the univeristy of south alabama. phd thesis. university of alabama turan, s. ve aktan,d.(2008). okul hayatında var olan ve olması düşünülen sosyal değerler. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi bahar,6(2), 227-259. unesco. sinclair, m. (2004). learning to live together: building skills, values and attitudes for the twent-fisrt century. geneva: international bureau of education. yapıcı, a. ve zengin, z. s. (2003). i̇lahiyat fakültesi öğrencilerinin değer tercih sıralamaları üzerine psikolojik bir araştırma: çukurova üniversitesi i̇lahiyat fakültesi örneği. değerler eğitimi dergisi, 1(4), 173-206 yeşil, r. ve aydın, d. (2007). demokratik değerlerin eğitiminde yöntem ve zamanlama. tsa, 11( 2), 65-84. yiğittir,,s. ve öcal,a.(2011). lise tarih öğretmenlerinin değerler ve değerler eğitimi konusundaki görüşleri. kmü sosyal ve ekonomı̇k araştırmalar dergı̇si 13 (20), 117124 whitney, iris.b.(1986). the status of values education in the middle and junior high schools of tennessee. phd thesis. tennessee state university from http://digitalscholarship.tnstate.edu/dissertations/aai8802627 http://digitalscholarship.tnstate.edu/dissertations/aai8802627� www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(2), 109-136 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 videoconferencing for global citizenship education: wise practices for social studies educators daniel g. krutka1 & kenneth t. carano2 abstract videoconferencing activities hold particular promise for social studies educators hoping to mediate humanizing experiences that will help students grow as citizens of the world. in this paper, we review literature on videoconferencing for global citizenship education and analyze those efforts towards cosmopolitan citizenship. through our analysis of scholarly, popular, and practitioner sources, we present three general, and often overlapping, purposes for videoconferencing -intercultural experiences, intercultural projects, and learning about cultures -while providing a variety of examples and options from elementary to higher education. educators encourage intercultural experiences when the primary purpose for participants’ videoconferencing activities is to learn about the people, communities, and cultures with whom they engage. the primary aim of intercultural projects is for participants to utilize videoconferencing to complete some task together. educators can help students learn about cultures by bringing in people from different countries or cultures to share their expert knowledge or perspectives. we hope educators can glean insights from the videoconferencing cases provided in the text so as to make decision appropriate to their unique students’ needs. none of these approaches is necessarily superior to the others, but they may require different time and energy commitments. we also share technology requirements and common problems with videoconferencing. finally, we conclude with implications for educators and researchers. keywords: global citizenship, video-conferencing, social studies introduction a key aim of social studies education is to help students grow as global citizens (e.g. ncss, 2013; thornton, 2005). however, this is not an easy task as teachers must draw on a variety of methods to help students understand peoples and places with which they may have little familiarity or contact. educational technologies can help educators accomplish these aims, but as leduc (2013) found in his study with 29 canadian teachers, only 8 teachers could make any technology recommendations for global citizenship education (gce) and many stated they needed support, particularly with videoconferencing activities. we believe videoconferencing activities hold particular promise for social studies educators hoping to mediate humanizing experiences that will help students grow as citizens of the world. 1 assist. prof., texas woman’s university, dankrutka@gmail.com 2 assoc. prof., western oregon university, caranok@wou.edu journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 we define videoconferencing as synchronous audio and video communication between participants from two or more geographic sites. while videoconferencing technologies have been available to the larger public since the late 1990s, educational uses of them in the social studies have been both underpracticed and undertheorized. there is a dearth of scholarly literature concerning how videoconferencing might be used for global citizenship education (gce). in this paper, we aim to not only highlight existing sources -scholarly, popular, and practitioner, but we organize them into a framework that can help scholars and educators plan how to utilize videoconferencing for global citizenship education (gce). first, we will offer background information for videoconferencing in education, and social studies education in particular. we will then describe and define global citizenship education to provide a lens for considering purposes for videoconferencing. we will present three general purposes for videoconferencing - intercultural experiences, intercultural projects, and learning about cultures -while providing a variety of examples and options from elementary to higher education. we will share technology requirements and common problems of videoconferences. finally, we will conclude with implications for educators and researchers. videoconferencing in education videoconferencing technologies date back to at least the motion video telephone that was introduced by at&t at the 1964 world’s fair in new york, and were utilized for as a way for businesses to conduct long distance meetings (lawson, comber, gage, & cullum-hanshaw, 2010). these technologies first started to be used for similar reasons in higher education settings, particularly in distance learning programs. improvements in linkages, accessories, connections, and equipment led to proliferation of videoconferencing to more settings, including k-12 schools (lawson, comber, gage, & cullum-hanshaw, 2010). while videoconferencing became increasingly possible in many schools, even receiving governmental support in the united kingdom as a medium to “contribute to global citizenship” (p. 296), usage rates by educators are difficult to determine in most countries and reports tend to center around single events or uses (see lawson, comber, gage, & cullum-hanshaw, 2010 for more detailed history and literature review). the rise of free services like skype in 2003, google hangout in 2013, and smartphone apps like facetime in 2010 have increased the number of people, particularly youth, videoconferencing (buhler, neustaedter, & hillman, 2013). daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 111 of course, when discussing uses of technology worldwide, educators must consider not only access to technology, but opportunities to participate and develop technological skills and competencies (jenkins, purushotma, weigel, clinton, & robison, 2009). while the internet, social media, and emerging technologies like videoconferencing offer new opportunities for participation in local and international dialogues, it is important to understand how mediums can empower democratic engagement, not reinforce inequalities (norris, 2001). there has been evidence that, for example, social media platforms can lead to new forms of protest and engagement (tufekci, 2013), but each context and existing resources must be considered. even when a group may lack access, educators can work to find solutions. for example, darfuri in remote and isolated refugee camps in chad are connecting to educators and secondary students across the u.s. through the software pazocalo, which enables users to work both online and offline. this innovative software is a promising opportunity to narrow the digital divide and humanize others by providing more opportunities for cross-cultural collaboration on social media platforms to those who have inconsistent internet access. despite the potential of innovative software, such as pazocalo, obstacles remain. computers, cameras, solar panels, and batteries are necessary in order that the darfuri refugees be able to participate, which clearly is a burden in many parts of the world (bennion, 2013). videoconferencing affords educators a means by which to transcend geographic bounds with synchronous communication that holds potential for participants to feel social presence that may be less available in asynchronous interactions (e.g., discussion boards). belderrain (2006) argued that educators should consider how emerging technologies can mediate social presence where students perceive “intimacy, immediacy” (p. 149). small, interactive group activities hold particular promise. however, technical difficulties or ineffectual pedagogy (e.g., too much lecture, completing individual tasks during session, checking individual understandings) can limit the affordances of videoconferencing technologies (gillies, 2008). gillies (2008) suggested that even with videoconferencing, students and lecturers often felt disconnected from each other for a variety of reasons (e.g., lag time, audio/video problems, participant relation to camera/mic, inattentive/inactive participants). simply utilizing videoconferencing technologies for remote lectures can fail to engage participants. while teaching approaches and student engagement are critical, there is limited research concerning videoconferencing pedagogies (gillies, 2008). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 videoconferencing in the social studies since the rise of the internet in the 1990s there has been a general lack of research concerning online education in the social studies (journell, 2014), and the same holds true for the emergence of videoconferencing technologies (journell & dressman, 2011). while videoconferencing offer a means for bringing the people of the world into social studies classrooms, there is little evidence this is taking place on a large scale. in 2003, bolick and colleagues reported that videoconferencing was seldom utilized in social studies methods courses, and we were unable to identify any reports on usage in k-12 or higher education social studies courses since that time. however, there are exceptional examples of social studies educators -and educators in general -utilizing videoconferencing platforms from which we can draw insights. several u.s. social studies educators have used videoconferencing in pre-service teacher methods courses for intranational course collaborations (karran, berson, & mason, 2001; mason & berson, 2000). good and colleagues (2005) experimented with the use of videoconferencing between u.s. social studies methods classes for elementary pre-service teachers and participants “commented that they learned more about content and pedagogy” (n.p.). in particular, 17 of 18 pre-service teachers reported learning more about the geography, culture, and history of the place of videoconferencing counterparts. similarly, hilburn and maguth (2012) utilized videoconferencing to create communities of practice that yielded “positive student perceptions of the value of the collaboration, learning new teaching strategies and educational technologies, and learning from multiple social studies instructors’ expertise” (p. 316). while intranational engagements can cross social, cultural, and economic boundaries in meaningful ways, this was not the primary aim or result of these videoconferencing activities. however, these cases do still provide examples of successes and shortcomings in uses of videoconferencing in general and we will reference components of similar cases below. global citizenship education for cosmopolitan citizenship social studies scholars have long championed global citizenship education as an important purpose of the field (e.g., garii, 2000; kirkwood-tucker, 2012; merryfield & wilson, 2005; rapoport, 2013) along with the importance to increase understanding across cultural and national boundaries (e.g., carano & stuckart, 2013; merryfield, 2000). the globalization of our political, economic, environmental, and technological systems has changed the skills students need to become effective citizens (merryfield, 2000). the pace by which these systems have transformed daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 113 are unprecedented (kennedy, 2007). as a result, 21st century students must be educated for this new global reality if they are to develop the skills necessary to interact effectively with people who differ from them culturally, geographically, and nationally. a central aim of global citizenship education (gce) has been to help students grow as cosmopolitan citizens who can engage in transcultural communications across cultures, borders, and spaces (banks, 2008), but k-12 social studies educators in the u.s. have struggled to embrace such perspectives and curricula (rapoport, 2009). as the world has become increasingly interconnected over the past decade, arguably, there has been an increased emphasis in the literature on the need for gce (e.g., kirkwood-tucker, 2009; zong, 2009; carano, 2013). despite this increase, scholars have offered varying aims for global citizenship (leduc, 2013; rapoport, 2013). for example, merryfield and wilson (2005) identified 10 elements of understanding critical to gce, including (a) local/global connections, (b) perspective consciousness and multiple perspectives, (c) the world as a system, (d) global issues, (e) power in a global context, (f) nonstate actors, (g) attention to prejudice reduction, (h) cross-cultural competence, (i) research and thinking skills, participation in local and global communities, and (j) use of electronic technologies. on the other hand, myers (2006) simplified gce by suggesting only three primary gce themes for school curricula include (a) international human rights, (b) the reconciliation of the universal and the local, and (c) political action beyond the nation-state. myers’ third dimension is intended encourage exploring the ways that globalization is changing politics and how the individual can work towards having an impact in improving the world. while understanding multiple perspective and global human rights are often mentioned in gce conceptualizations, the analysis of power relations and knowledge production in the gce literature has been lacking (andreotti & pashby, 2013). social media in the social studies classroom has the potential to fill this gap by allowing students to explore these power relationships while leading to increased equity and understandings by providing access to information and information technology (darling-hammond, zielezinski, & goldman, 2014). furthermore, harshman and augustine (2013) found evidence that teacher and student beliefs in global citizenship is a spectrum that will change based on experiences, habits of mind, and the extent to which one has authentic learning opportunities in global events. used wisely, videoconferencing can potentially mediate humanizing experiences with others and help students move to a higher level along the gce spectrum. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 scholars have also presented varying dimensions over the years. early gce advocates regularly focused on understanding systematic interconnections, developing cultural understandings, and individuals’ impacts on others (e.g. anderson, 1990; hanvey, 1976; tye, 1990). more recent advocates also focus on gaining analytical skills, digital skills, and taking informed action (e.g., carano, 2013; merryfield & wilson, 2005). gce values also tend to vary among different countries, including more developed countries and less developed countries and western and eastern countries (white & openshaw, 2002). united states teachers, the ones who are on the front lines with our children, may have yet another iteration of gce. rapaport (2013) studied four social studies high school teachers interested in exploring international issues and found that while they agreed with many traits articulated by early gce advocates, their visions were also undergirded by nationalism. he found the following four basic gce goals outlined by the teachers: 1. understanding of other cultures. 2. learning and understanding of the world around us. 3. being aware of global interdependence. 4. better understanding of the place of the united states in the world. in another approach to gce, gaudelli (2009) used heuristics to identify and define five separate gce conceptualizations: (a) neoliberal, (b) national, (c) marxist, (d) world justice and governance, and (e) cosmopolitan. a neoliberal citizen is affiliated nationally but governed by a universal market conception. a national identity is defined by a social compact between the national and the citizen. the marxist gce discourse bases global citizenship on class and transcends national borders. finally, world justice and governance perceives global citizenship through international law and global human rights. finally, a cosmopolitan gce focuses less on the ends and more on the means to further the dialogue of living in a shared global society. in this conceptualization, it is critical for the person to gain an understanding in matters of value, morality, and humane treatment. gaudelli (2009) defined these three gce cosmopolitan characteristics as follows: 1. value: gaining a deeper understanding of what others’ believe is important and useful in life; and taking informed action in resolving possible conflicts to values. 2. morality: the understanding of right and wrong and that peoples’ understandings of right and wrong may differ depending on diversity and multiple perspectives. daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 115 3. humane treatment: humanizing people rather than seeing them as a generalization or stereotype while treating each other with empathy and respect. due to gce’s complex nature, and the variety of perspectives and beliefs about this concept throughout the world, it is unlikely an authoritative definition will be attained in the near or distant future. additionally, the different gce conceptualizations lead to differing pedagogical approaches and outcomes (andreotti & pashby, 2013). taking these varied definitions into consideration and mindful of a definition’s impact on pedagogical approaches, we will utilize gaudelli’s (2009) cosmopolitan framework of gce as a lens for understanding videoconferencing activities. we will use italics in the sections below to highlight how these three gce characteristics (value, morality, and humane treatment) have, and can be, embedded in videoconferencing activities. methods in 2010, lawson, comber, gage, and cullum-hanshaw conducted a landscape review of videoconferencing in education with the aim of establishing “broad outlines of what is known in an under-researched field” so as to support future research (p. 296). while some additional research has been conducted on videoconferencing in education in general, there is still very little literature in the area, particularly concerning our focus of how videoconferencing can support global citizenship education (gce). therefore, we analyzed scholarly, practitioner, and popular sources on videoconferencing for gce to offer broad outlines for scholars and educators who seek to research the topic or plan class activities. while we relied largely on scholarly sources, we did not limit ourselves to such academic texts as we believe practitioner articles, blogs, and news stories also offer insights into what is possible with videoconferencing. moreover, while we both come to this project from a social studies education background, we will draw from cases of educators both inside (journell & dressman, 2011; maguth, 2014; krutka & carano, 2016) and outside (e.g., anikina, sobinova, & petrova, 2015; anastasiades, filippousis, karvunis,, siakas, tomazinakis,, giza, & mastoraki, 2010) the field who used videoconferencing for gce. in an effort to analyze our sources holistically, we engaged in what creswell (2007) called horizonalization whereby we developed a list of significant statements, sentences, and quotes from the literature that focused on how videoconferencing has been used with students. next, we developed clusters, or meaning units, from these significant statements into themes. in the end, we identified three general and interconnected approaches to videoconferencing for gce around journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 which we organized the next section: (a) intercultural experiences, (b) intercultural projects, and (c) learning about cultures. through our narratives below, we hope educators can glean insights from the ways others have utilized videoconferencing in their classes so as to make decision appropriate to their unique students’ needs. none of these approaches is necessarily superior to the others, but they may require different time and energy commitments. for example, intercultural experiences can require several synchronous sessions that require more scheduling and time whereas learning about cultures might be accomplished in a single half hour session. teachers should use their judgment to determine their pedagogical aims for achieving gce characteristics within their classes. purposes for videoconferencing for global citizenship education as we searched for different purposes for videoconferencing that could contribute to global citizenship education (gce), we encountered a number of general benefits, including reaching homebound students (ferriter, n.d.; raths, 2015), distance learning (acacio, 2012; raths, 2015; richardson, fox, & lehman, 2012), overcoming geographic isolation (mader & ming, 2015; raths, 2015), student-teacher engagement outside of class time (acacio, 2012), and online tutoring (mader & ming, 2015). however, in the following three sections, we will focus on the three themes we identified that are centered around the purposes for which educators used videoconferencing for gce: (a) intercultural experiences, (b) intercultural projects, and (c) learning about cultures. both intercultural experiences and projects are centered primarily around interactions between videoconferencing participants (e.g., namibian and chinese students) either learning about each other or working on a project together. on the other hand, learning about cultures involves more one-way exchanges (e.g., historian from haiti describes haitian revolution and its legacy to egyptian students). of course, class activities often do not neatly fit into any single purpose, but we made an effort to organize videoconferencing lessons by the aims that seemed most central to activities. daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 117 figure 1. three purposes for videoconferencing for global citizenship education (gce) educators encourage intercultural experiences when the primary purpose for participants’ videoconferencing activities is to learn about the people, communities, and cultures with whom they engage. such activities may consist of students sharing their personal and communal stories or discussing topics they find important. this category of videoconferencing might resemble a 21st century iteration of an international pen pal. on the other hand, the primary aim of intercultural projects is for participants to utilize videoconferencing to complete some task together. while intercultural learning experiences will almost assuredly take place in such projects, the driving aim of the activities concerns projects like studying global deforestation or sharing a diversity profile of their local communities with international peers. finally, educators can help students learn about cultures by bringing in people from different countries or cultures to share their expert knowledge or perspectives. these experiences tend to be more of a one-way exchange with, for example, a vietnamese citizen offering american students a first-hand account of their experiences and perspectives of the american-vietnam war. intercultural experiences when educators placed intercultural experiences at the center of videoconferencing activities, teachers’ driving aspiration for students was to gain deeper understandings of those with journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 whom they engaged. of course, getting to know someone from a different culture can pose linguistic, cultural, and temporal obstacles, but these very challenges present opportunities for the growth as global citizens. students who engage in videoconferences across borders can share cultures and histories, discuss current events from unique perspectives, or engage in other dialogues to enhance cross-cultural awareness. as an example of what is possible, elementary teacher leigh cassell (2014) asked her students to choose a country in which they were interested and she arranged videoconferences with students in 16 different countries to “teach us about their people, communities, cultures, and celebrations” (cassell, 2014, n.d.). as the following examples attest, this aim also has the potential of promoting each of the gce characteristics (value, morality, and humane treatment) by allowing students the opportunity to engage in real time face-to-face cross-cultural dialogue that provides a deeper understanding of individuals often living on other continents with different value systems, cultures, and standards of living. one example of videoconference activities organized as intercultural experiences is face to faith (since renamed generation global), an educational program that offers students crosscultural videoconferencing opportunities in approximately 400 schools in 17 countries (beauchamp, 2011). the program promotes students gaining cross-cultural and interreligious understandings while discussing global issues, including the environment, poverty, and religious freedom. because of their focus on gaining deeper understandings of others, these ideals fit squarely in the gce characteristics of values and morality. additionally, face to faith appears to provide opportunities for humane treatment by providing students the opportunity to see their cross-cultural counterparts as more than generalizations. ramsey, a high school student in new york city provided an example of this humanizing element when he stated, “face to faith helped me to really figure out what it means to be a global citizen. i can take away the idea that i can now safely enter dialogue with someone from different religions so that we can further advance our opinions. a global citizen appreciates everyone’s differences” (beauchamp, 2011, p. 5). the format includes teacher training and ongoing support to enable students to engage in studentcentered, collaborative learning with peers of disparate beliefs worldwide. students are prepared for videoconference sessions by learning background information about the their peers’ country, culture, and religion. while the number and length of videoconference collaborations vary, an initial session focuses on students learning about each others’ classes and subsequent meetings allow students to delve deeper into their counterparts’ beliefs, values, and issues. in between daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 119 meetings, students reflect on and explore religious and global issues on which they are learning and dialoguing. face to faith also enables students to continue their new connections with moderated discussion forums dedicated to global issues. educators can utilize a variety of ways to organize experiences around issues related to their curriculum or communities. for example, like face to faith, many educators have used asynchronous communication via social media, discussion boards, or e-mail to support synchronous videoconferencing sessions. we (krutka & carano, 2016) shared a case whereby social studies pre-service teachers from the u.s. (n=16) and english learners from the gaza strip (n=16) used skype and facebook to connect over the course of a university term with the aim of building “cross-cultural awareness and new media literacies that could potentially be applied in their future secondary classrooms” (p. 213). while ken (author) stated that his students grew in democratic media literacy skills through the activities, his primary aim was for his students to grow as global citizens. his students demonstrated new understandings in the humane treatment gce characteristic through reported reductions in misunderstandings, stereotypes, and misinformation. notably, students also stated that the experiences humanized their counterparts in ways that transcended traditional learning activities that simply center around gathering information about others. some students even used this opportunity to take informed action, a component of values, through raising awareness on issues often not heard by the public through establishing videoconference sessions in their middle and high school classrooms in which gaza counterparts provided a counter perspective to the dominant u.s. media narrative story of the current israelipalestinian conflict taking place. likewise, anikina, sobinova, & petrova (2015) organized a telecollaboration project between three universities -two in the united states and one in russia. the foremost objective was to foster international collaboration and understanding with an opportunity to develop language acquisition skills. utilizing the social network vkontakte (vk), students were paired with a global peer and engaged in eight weeks of dialogue. because of the time difference, asynchronous communication was largely employed and skype used as was possible. through survey results and discussions, improved gce characteristics were noted. the authors concluded that project participation enriched languages skills along with increasing students’ cultural awareness through gaining a deeper understanding of their counterparts’ values and a greater appreciation of humane treatment through the humanizing nature of the collaboration. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 journell and dressman (2011) describe another case of intercultural experiences where u.s. pre-service teachers and moroccan undergraduates videoconferenced about religion. these exchanges forced students on both sides to confront existing stereotypes and consider diverse perspectives through critical and intense dialogue, which, arguably, enabled students to gain a deeper understanding in each of gaudelli’s (2009) gce cosmopolitan characteristics. for example, during one exchange over the role of media on americans’ views of islam, a u.s. student stated, “all i know of islam is what i see on the news,” to which a moroccan student countered, “the media tried to make a terrorist out of every muslim after 9/11. how can we teach students to be more critical of the media?” (p. 110). because the instructors established a semistructured format that focused on understanding perspectives on these types of issues, students spent up to an hour working through these issues. in all of these cases, educators prioritized intercultural experiences as their primary rationale for videoconferencing and reported meaningful benefits for students as cosmopolitan citizens. intercultural projects while intercultural experiences may not always be the foremost focus of intercultural projects, participants can experience similar benefits of learning about other cultures through videoconferencing interactions. organizations such as iearn and epals offer classrooms opportunities to connect with other classrooms around the world and collaborate on an array of projects. working on projects in this manner can also potentially enhance each of the cosmopolitan gce characteristics of value, morality, and humane treatment. the classroom without walls program established by a a school district on the alaskan kenai peninsula has enabled its district’s high school students
 to connect with students in afghanistan, israel, yemen, and several u.s. states (raths, 2015). small groups of students videoconference with students in another school to work on projects together. for example, recently, students in a couple alaskan social studies classes gained skills in the gce characteristics of value and humane treatment by working on a conflict tree project with students in palestine and ghana. during the project, student participants from each school developed and shared “conflict trees” as a means to understand the root causes and effects of conflict across cultures. camardese & peled (2014) studied the impact of an international book-sharing collaboration between u.s. middle school students and israeli peers conducted via videoconferences. the authors’ findings on the impact of videoconference interactions included: daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 121 1. students’ responses indicated an increased understanding and appreciation of diverse perspectives (morality). 2. students found many common interests across cultures (e.g., music, type of dress). 3. students’ responses described the importance of gaining another perspective (humane treatment). students explained that the videoconference collaborations “show how small the world is, and how much alike we all are. we have the same needs, same desires, same interests,” and another commented that, “i learned that language and distance do not have anything to do with the people inside. we are all people. we are all friends” (p. 26). the videoconference medium allowed students to transcend geographic boundaries to engage in international discourses that were intimate, critical, and may not have been possible otherwise. by confronting stereotypes, students gained skills that can help them develop an increased appreciation for the humane treatment of others. during debriefing, students in both countries expressed a positive and drastic shift in their perceptions of their international peers. at the university level, maguth (2014) ran a digitally mediated global learning project between his 26 secondary social studies methods students at a large midwestern university and secondary students in thailand. in the project, his university students engaged in weekly asynchronous (i.e., epals, youtube) and synchronous (i.e., skype) exchanges with thai students, and learned about thai value characteristics, such as culture and history, through the discussions and classroom reflections. the university students then constructed lesson plans for thai students on american imperialism and the thai instructor selected some of the lessons to implement with the secondary students. at the end of the project u.s. and thai students reflected on the project together via skype exchanges. as a result of the project, students in both countries demonstrated better understandings of the other country’s histories, issues, and cultures. additionally, this authentic learning experience helped u.s. social studies methods students be better prepared to design their own digitally mediated global learning classroom project that respects multiple perspectives. as the previous cases illustrate, educators can organize international videoconferencing projects in various ways with an array of benefits. teachers from missouri and scotland aimed to engage 11 and 12 year-old students as multicultural citizens at both the local and global levels through research (thurston, 2004). students learned to think globally and act locally in eradicating journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 inequality and injustice in all their 
forms by completing research about diversity in their towns through surveys and interviews, gaining familiarity with peers abroad via e-mail, and then sharing slide presentations via videoconference with their peers abroad. students showed growth describing their own ethnicities, diversity in their towns, and problems in local news coverage. hopper (2014) conducted a case study on a k-8 texas school that implemented global projects through videoconferencing in various grade levels. videoconferencing collaborations were project-based learning activities that included a kindergarten butterfly project between texas students and those in mexico, a first grade cross-cultural project between the texas students and those in japan, belarus, and kenya, and texas third graders comparing and contrasting moon phases with students in wales. the activities allowed students to gain improved gce skills in value and humane treatment by having the opportunity to get to know their cross-cultural participants as individuals rather than stereotypes while working on action projects that required students to get to know the beliefs of their counterparts. the videoconferencing activities also helped students improve critical thinking, problem solving, communication, collaboration, independent learning, information media, global and cultural awareness, technological literacy, group learning, and learning different perspectives. learning about cultures learning about cultures through videoconferencing can include bringing in guest experts for lecturers or taking students on virtual field trips. while each of gaudelli’s (2009) three cosmopolitan gce characteristics can be addressed, videoconferencing activities in this category tend to be less immersive than the previous two we described. it can be akin to learning about a city from a tour guide as opposed to living there. however, there are a number of reasons why these more one-way activities might be an appropriate choice for educators. both intercultural experiences and projects can require large chunks of time and coordination that can be difficult or impractical for many situations. moreover, bringing in experts or single experiences can be easier to align with curricula that must address specific content or standards. the quality of experiences, like with any videoconferencing, largely depends on the selection and organization of activities. bringing in a survivor of the 1994 rwandan genocide against the tutsis or learning about the american revolution from a british historian can leave a lasting impression on students. educators can utilize videoconferencing technologies to allow students to travel the world without a passport through digitally mediated field trips. this can level the playing field by daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 123 allowing students to see other parts of the world in real-time and experiences can be customized to meet teachers’ educational goals (zaino, 2009). students can learn about other cultural perspectives through such experiences. for example, amanda lusk, a social studies teacher at herman l. horn elementary school in vinton, va, organized for her students to videoconference with a scientist who was working on several projects in antarctica in order to learn more about the continent’s geography and the type of work being done there. during the conference call, students received a live view of the research station where the scientist even walked her laptop outside to show views of the antarctica’s harsh environment (mccrea, 2012). students can learn about problems from different perspectives via videoconferencing which can help students move further along the gce spectrum of understanding characteristics such as value and morality. while an intranational example, fourth grade students in two texas counties partnered with their guest experts, the texas parks and wildlife department and the texas wildlife association, to provide students with a greater understanding of a local river basin. the two schools were located on the opposite ends of the river. the students, from both classes, studied water quality over a two month period and had several videoconferencing sessions with the guest experts from the field to enhance their knowledge of the water quality. students, from the two schools, also used skype to compare, contrast, and review their notes on conservation along the river basin (hopper, 2014). guest speakers have long brought new perspectives to schools, but videoconferencing can expand the range of accessible guests from across the globe. richardson, fox, & lehman (2012) explained how videoconferencing can be used to to bring in guest speakers in higher education. at the authors’ midwestern university, college of education faculty videoconferenced with guest speakers who demonstrated uses of the medium and discussed their experiences videoconferencing with university students in a myriad of other countries. schools and universities have brought in holocaust survivors (ross, 2010), chinese students to teach about puppetry arts (russell-fry, n.d.), and a world traveler to update students on his journey (quillen, 2004). numerous organizations and museums facilitate videoconference opportunities for classes that allow for growth in humane treatment by bringing the experiences people have gone through to life. in 2016, the united nations hosted its eighth annual “remember slavery global student videoconference” day which linked “high school students at united nations headquarters in new york to their counterparts in dakar, senegal, and port-of-spain, trinidad and tobago” (n.p.). in another journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 example, the museum of tolerance (n.d.) in los angeles hosts a program called “bridging the gap” whereby special speakers (e.g., holocaust survivors, hate crime victim and perpetrator) present one hour lectures and answer questions. in 2008, “the mot partnered with lausd to connect los angeles students with peers in baku, azerbaijan, and with the constitutional rights foundation to connect local students with youths in russia and lithuania” (n.p.). finally, the digital human library is a nonprofit organization that connects teachers and students, particularly those in canada, with organizations and experts around the world who offer interactive curriculum-based opportunities for learning using technology (learn more at https://www.digitalhumanlibrary.org/). operational considerations educators must research and practice using any new technologies before utilizing them in class to ensure that class activities run smoothly. fortunately, gradual technological improvements in videoconferencing services have made it easier for teachers to overcome hurdles and shorten the learning curve. however, there are still pre-planning items educators should consider. for example, videoconferencing requires a high internet bandwidth, compatible browsers or operating systems, and appropriate and updated videoconferencing services. teachers must also be mindful of organizational constraints concerning room set-up, background noise, and participants’ proximity to the camera and mic. for example, videoconference participants usually benefit from being close to the camera and microphone, rather than being sprawled across an entire classroom. this allows more participants to be seen and heard. for listening and talking, it is best to mute the microphone if not talking to get eliminate background noise. additionally, teachers should complete trials runs prior to the initial videoconferencing. finally, educators should have a secondary method for contacting the other participants (e.g., instant messaging, text message) in the event of technical problems or delays. for a more complete list of suggested preparation guidelines see table 1. table 1 videoconferencing preparation suggestions daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 125 based on the literature and our own classroom videoconferencing collaboration experiences, the following list offers teachers suggestions that can help them set up successful videoconferencing activities. 1. know district and school policies for videoconferencing and guest speakers (ferriter, n.d.; mccrea, 2012). 2. gain parental permissions (richardson, fox, & lehman, 2012). 3. outline objectives and ground rules (gill, parker, & richardson, 2005; richardson, fox, & lehman, 2012). 4. check stability of internet connections (gill, parker, & richardson, 2005; journell & dressman, 2011; mccrea, 2012; camardese & peled, 2014). 5. complete practice runs with the other class and own class before beginning (gill, parker, & richardson, 2005; richardson, fox, & lehman, 2012; camardese & peled, 2014). 6. have tech support available during the videoconferencing collaboration (beauchamp, 2011; richardson, fox, & lehman, 2012; camardese & peled, 2014). 7. have a backup plan (e.g., synchronous chat in facebook messenger) in case of technical difficulties (gill, parker, & richardson, 2005; journell & dressmann, 2011). 8. if using a guest speaker, prep the speaker, have interview questions pre-arranged that are possibly designed and asked by the students (ferriter, n.d.; mccrea, 2012). 9. consider time differences if doing an international videoconferencing collaboration (hilburn & maguth, 2012). 10. provide students with continuous feedback and reflection in addition to time for evaluation during and inbetween videoconferencing sessions (gill, parker, & richardson, 2005). this time is critical for students to critically analyze and gain a deeper understanding of cultural similarities and differences and their own evolving understandings. it is also an evaluative time that can help both teachers and students gain insights about what can improve the collaboration. implications for practice and research we know that in an era of standardized testing and accountability, social studies educators often face pressures to cover discrete and testable facts about people, places, and events (houser, krutka, roberts, pennington, & coerver, 2016). however, we believe that personal interactions can help students gain the types of humanizing experiences to better interact as cosmopolitan journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 citizens across cultural, linguistic, or national borders (banks, 2008). by analyzing the literature and identifying three primary purposes for videoconferening for gce, we hope educators can gain insights into determining what might be appropriate in their settings. of course, wise application of videoconferencing requires understanding your students, community, and technology. we believe the examples in this manuscript make a strong case for why social studies educators should consider integrating videoconferencing into their classes and teachers and scholars alike should research videoconferencing for gce. intercultural experiences, intercultural projects, and learning about cultures each offer specific aims that tend to highlight specific gce characteristics. while intercultural experiences offer more opportunities for the development of humanizing relationships, we believe there are a number of ways educators could supplement intercultural projects and learning about cultures with more opportunities for intercultural immersion. for example, a teacher could enhance collaborative intercultural projects by setting aside non-videoconferencing time for project reflection activities with students. during this reflection time, away from their cross-cultural peers, students will be free to share thoughts on the project, suggest ways to improve it, and clarify any cultural misunderstandings or ambiguities. such dialogues could further alleviate cultural misconceptions and allow teachers and students an opportunity to deepen cross-cultural dialogue during the subsequent videoconference sessions. similarly, lessons with the primary aim of learning about cultures could include more intercultural experiences by allowing students to ask questions during, before, or after the videoconference, or by inviting in other people or perspectives to the lesson. moreover, videoconferencing experiences can help students grow as global citizens if teachers implicitly and explicitly focus on achieving gce characteristics (gaudelli, 2009) in videoconference activities. videoconferencing for global citizenship education requires teacher intentionality and quality pedagogy. for example, in an effort to help students take informed action in resolving possible conflicts, which is an underlying aspect of gaudelli’s (2009) value gce dimension, teachers might videoconference with an expert on climate change and take students on a virtual field trip of glacier national park, an area greatly affected by climate change. this activity could be supported through other activities like students studying past and present photos of the region along with other primary and secondary sources. this analysis could dovetail class dialogues about practicing and encouraging sustainable patterns of living, consumption and production. students daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 127 might even engage in a cross-cultural service learning project on climate change with students from other countries through iearn or epals (see table 2 for more videoconferencing and global project-based websites). table 2 videoconferencing and global project-based websites the following organizations have a history of providing online classroom exchange opportunities. while not all the sites advertise videoconferencing collaboration, they do provide opportunities for teachers to make global classroom connections, which can lead into using videoconferencing as one of the mediums. ● the centre for global education (http://tcge.tiged.org/): the mission of the centre for global education (tcge) is to educate 21st century students for a 21st century world by providing global learning opportunities. the global encounters program brings together students from across the world through live video conferences that explore global issues and the potential youth have to shape a better common future. each interdisciplinary, project-based encounter has a specially designed tig virtual classroom, to foster asynchronous student collaboration. furthermore, a team of global expert mentors is recruited for each session, to provide students with authentic and timely feedback on their online postings. (grades 7-12) ● digital human library (dhl; https://www.digitalhumanlibrary.org/): the digital human library was founded in 2011 by canadian teacher leigh cassell. dhl is a nonprofit organization that connects teachers and students, particularly those in canada, with organizations and experts around the world who offer interactive curriculum-based opportunities for learning using technology. dhl also runs connected learning partnerships (#clpedu) with the aim of creating opportunities for connections-based learning by establishing partnerships with teachers and schools in other countries around the world. ● epals classroom exchange (www.epals.com): connecting more than 108,000 classrooms in more than 190 countries with school-safe email, epals markets itself as the internet’s largest global education community of collaborative classrooms engaged in crosscultural exchanges and project sharing. (grades k-12) journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 ● generation global (http://generation.global/): previously face to faith, based with the tony blair faith foundation, this global program allows students to interact with their global peers. generation global provides global learning and student-to-student dialogue opportunities to gain global citizenships skills. support for teachers includes training, professional development videoconferences, and support delivery. (12-17 year olds) ● global classroom project (https://theglobalclassroomproject.org/): the global classroom project supports a vibrant online collaborative community and global education network, helping to empower teachers and students around the world to explore new ways to connect, share, learn and collaborate globally. (grades k-12) ● global nomads group (http://gng.org/): global nomads group is a non-profit organization that uses interactive technologies such as videoconferencing to increase children’s understanding of the world and its cultures. middle and high school youth collaborate faceto-face across cultural and national boundaries to discuss world issues and their personal differences and similarities. ● global schoolnet (http://www.globalschoolnet.org/): global schoolnet offers a long list of projects that allow classrooms from around the world to work together online. a highlight of the site is the projects registry, a database of school internet projects that teachers can use to search for collaborative projects to join. schools can also submit a project of their own. the projects can be searched by age level, start date, curriculum area, technologies used, collaboration types used, and keyword. ● international education and resource network (iearn; www.iearn.org): this organization is a nonprofit global network made up of more than 30,000 schools in more than 140,000 countries. teachers and students collaborate via the internet on projects that fit their curricula and increase international understanding. ● kidlink (http://www.kidlink.org/): kidlink has over 100 public and private conferencing communities for youths, teachers, and parents in over 30 languages. since its start in 1990, over 110,000 kids from more than 120 countries have participated. their primary means of communication is via e-mail, but real-time interactions with web-based dialogs and video conferencing are also used. ● schools online (https://schoolsonline.britishcouncil.org/): schools online has a database for schools looking to partner with other schools worldwide to develop international daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 129 education projects. it is managed by the british council, but it is open to schools worldwide. ● skype in the classroom (https://education.microsoft.com/skype-in-the-classroom/): skype in the classroom is an online community that enables thousands of teachers to inspire the next generation of global citizens through transformative learning thorugh (a) skype lessons with experts or peers, (b) playing mystery skype with another classroom, (c) virtual field trips, or (d) guest speakers. ● takingitglobal (http://www.tigweb.org/): takingitglobal has served over 4,500 schools in over 145 countries. the organization offers a free online classroom platform for use in developing collaborative global projects with other classrooms. ● for more, the digital human library has an excellent page with recommended organizations global connections: https://www.digitalhumanlibrary.org/teachers/globalconnections-for-teachers-and-students/ videoconferencing has the potential to support the aims gce, but there is no guarantee that such purposes will be achieved. educators should ensure that sessions are pedagogically sound and fit educational aims. for example, students are likely to find sessions that solely consist of lecture with slides without questions or interactions as unstimulating as this will fail to take advantage of the interactive possibilities with videoconferencing. when lee (2007) conducted a case study on the use of videoconferencing to connect 7th grade u.s. students with international university students, lee (2007) identified pedagogical shortcomings. while the teacher’s instructional goal was to expose students to other cultures and learn about countries via guest speakers, findings indicated that videoconferences with these “country experts” resulted in the deepening stereotypes of other cultures. this was at least partially due to the teacher’s lack of exposure to these cultures and experience with an intercultural videoconferencing pedagogy. teachers should also be cognizant the personal biases and misconceptions they bring to any project. finally, researchers can support teachers in their uses of videoconferencing for gce by delving into the topic. currently, there is a dearth of scholarly literature on the topic and many questions need to be answered. for example, do videoconferencing interactions lead to shifts in student thinking beyond the single project? how does coursework support issues related to cross journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 cultural learning and global citizenship? there are no surveys of why teachers and teacher educators in the social studies choose to use (or not use) videoconferencing. identifying reasons why teachers do not use videoconferencing technologies can help identify necessary supports for teachers to utilize videoconferencing technologies. moreover, rich case studies of how and why teachers utilize videoconferences, like the ones we have detailed in this paper, can help teachers imagine possibilities appropriate to their settings. we believe teachers, teacher educators, and researchers all have much they can learn from each other as they investigate how videoconferencing through intercultural experiences, intercultural projects, and learning about cultures can support the aims of global citizenship education. conclusion we believe that educators have only begun to tap into the potential benefits of videoconferencing for gce. more than ever, we are all connected as many local problems are global and global problems are local. whether we aim to address environmental concerns, reduce prejudice, or pursue specific projects to make a better world, videoconferencing can transcend geographic boundaries and provide an impetus for action. when students can listen to, and see, peers from across the world share their perspectives, challenges, and hopes, they can grow as global citizens who understand issues in new ways. when used well, videoconferencing allows students a passport around the world, opens their eyes to their place in it, and their responsibility to care for the earth and each other. daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 131 references abbott, l., austin, r., mulkeen, a., & metcalfe, n. (2004). the global classroom: advancing cultural awareness in special schools through collaborative work using ict. european journal of special needs education, 19(2), 225-240. adreotti, v., & pashby, k. (2013). digital democracy and global citizenship education: mutually compatible or mutually complicit? the educational forum, 77(4), 422-437. anastasiades, p. s., filippousis, g., karvunis, l., siakas, s., tomazinakis, a., giza, p., & mastoraki, h. (2010). interactive videoconferencing for collaborative learning at a distance in the school of 21st century: a case study in elementary schools in greece. computers & education, 54(2), 321-339. anderson, l. f. (1990). a rationale for global education. in k. a. tye (ed.), global education: from thought to action (pp. 13-34). alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. anikina, z., sobinova, l., & petrova, g. (2015). integrating telecollaboration into efl classroom: theoretical and practical implications. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 206, 156-161. banks, j. (2008). diversity, group identity and citizenship education in a global age. educational research, 37(3), 129-139. beauchamp, m. (2011). face to faith: teaching global citizenship. phi delta kappan, 93(4), 24 27. belderrain, y. (2006). distance education trends: integrating new technologies to foster student interaction and collaboration. distance education, 27, 139–154. bennion, k. (2013, june 5). pazocalo social network connects students with survivors. deseret news. retrieved from http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865581160/pazocalo-socialnetwork-connects-students-with-survivors.html bolick, c., berson, m., coutts, c. & w. heinecke (2003). technology applications in social studies teacher education: a survey of social studies methods faculty. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education [online serial], 3(3). retrieved from http://www.citejournal.org/vol3/iss3/socialstudies/article1.cfm buhler, t., neustaedter, c., & hillman, s. (2013, february). how and why teenagers use video http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865581160/pazocalo-socialhttp://www.deseretnews.com/article/865581160/pazocalo-socialjournal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 chat. in proceedings of the 2013 conference on computer supported cooperative work (pp. 759-768). acm press. camardese, a. & peled, y. (2014).using technology to bridge cultural differences. delta kappa gamma bulletin, 80(2), 21-34. carano, k. t. (2013). global educators’ personal attribution of a global perspective. journal of international social studies research, (3)1, 4-18. carano, k. t., stuckart, d. w. (2013). blogging for global literacy and cross-cultural awareness. in l. nganga, j. kambutu, & w. b. russell iii (eds.), exploring globalization opportunities and challenges in social studies: effective instructional approaches. (pp. 179-196). new york: peter lang. creswell, j. w. (2007). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. darling-hammond, l., zielezinski, m. b., & goldman, s. (2014). using technology to support at-risk students' learning. alliance for excellence in education. retrieved from https://edpolicy.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/scope-pub-using-technology-report.pdf. ferriter, b. (n.d.) using videoconferencing to connect your class to the world. retrieved from learnnc: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/6559 garii, b. (2000). u.s social studies in the 21st century: internationalizing the curriculum for global citizens. the social studies, 91(6), 257-264. gaudelli, w. (2009). heuristics of global citizenship discourses toward curriculum enhancement. journal of curriculum theorizing, 25(1), 68-85. gill, d., parker, c., & richardson, j. (2005). twelve tips for teaching using videoconferencing. medical teacher, 27(7), 573-577. gillies, d. (2008). student perspectives on videoconferencing in teacher education at a distance. distance education, 29, 107–118. good, a. j., o'connor, k. a., greene, h. c., & luce, e. f. (2005). collaborating across the miles: telecollaboration in a social studies methods course. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education [online serial], 5(3/4). retrieved from http://www.citejournal.org/vol5/iss3/socialstudies/article2.cfm hanvey, r. g. (1976). an attainable global perspective. new york, ny: american http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/6559 daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 133 forum for global education. harshman, j. r., & augustine, t. a. (2013). fostering global citizenship education for teachers through online research. the educational forum, 77(4,) 450-463. hilburn, j., & maguth, b. (2012). intercollegiate collaboration: connecting social studies preservice teachers at two universities. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 12(3). retrieved from http://www.citejournal.org/vol12/iss3/socialstudies/article1.cfm hopper, s. b. (2014). bringing the world to the classroom through videoconferencing and project-based learning. techtrends: linking research & practice to improve learning. 58(3), 78-89. houser, n. o., krutka, d. g., roberts, r. d., pennington, k., & coerver, n. a. (in press). navigating the reform-accountability culture in oklahoma social studies. theory and research in social education. jenkins, h., purushotma, r., weigel, m., clinton, k., & robison, a. j. (2009). confronting the challenges of participatory culture: media education for the 21st century. boston, ma: mit press. journell, w. (2014). k-12 online learning: the next frontier for social studies education. in russell, w. b. (ed.), digital social studies (pp. 21-43). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. journell, w., & dressman, m. (2011). using videoconferences to diversify classrooms electronically. the clearing house, 84, 109-113. karran, s. w., berson, m. j., & mason, c. l. (2001). enhancing social science education through tele-collaborative teaching and learning. social education, 65(3), 151-151. kirkwood-tucker, t. f. (2012). preparing global citizens through the study of human rights. social education, 76(5), 244-246. kirkwood-tucker, t. f. (2009). from the trenches: the integration of a global perspective in curriculum and instruction in the miami–dade county public schools. in t. f. kirkwood tucker (ed.), visions in global education: the globalization of curriculum and pedagogy in teacher education and schools (pp. 137–162). new york, ny: lang. krutka, d. g., carano, k. t. (2016). “as long as i see you on facebook i know you are safe”: social media experiences as humanizing pedagogy. in a. crowe & a. cuenca (eds.), journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 rethinking social studies education in the twenty-first century. (pp. 207-222). switzerland: springer international publishing. lawson, t., comber, c., gage, j., & collum-hanshaw, a. (2010). images of the future for education? videoconferencing: a literature review. technology, pedagogy, and education, 19(3), 295-314. leduc, r. (2013). global citizenship instruction through active participation: what is being learned about global citizenship? the educational forum, 77(4), 394-406. lee, m. m. (2007). ‘making it relevant’: a rural teacher’s integration of an international studies program. intercultural education, 18(2), 147-159. maguth, b. m. (2014). digital bridges for global awareness: pre-service social studies teachers’ experiences using technology to learn from and teach students in thailand. journal of international social studies, 4(1), 42-59. mason, c., & berson, m. (2000). computer mediated communication in elementary social studies methods: an examination of student’s perceptions and perspectives. theory and research in social education, 28(4), 527-545. merryfield, m. m. (2000). why aren’t teachers being prepared to teach for diversity, equity, and global interconnectedness? a study of lived experiences in the making of multicultural and global educators. teaching and teacher education, 16, 429-443. mccrea, b. (2012). skype takes students where no school bus can go. t.h.e. journal, 39(4), 18. museum of tolerance (n.d.). video conferencing. retrieved from http://www.museumoftolerance.com/site/c.tml6kfnvlth/b.4866099/ myers, j. p. (2006). rethinking the social studies curriculum in the context of globalization: education for global citizenship in the u.s. theory and research in social education, 34, 370-394. norris, p. (2001). digital divide: civic engagement, information poverty, and the internet worldwide. cambridge: cambridge university press. national council for the social studies (2013). the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver spring: md. author. quillen, i. (2004, february 4). educators move beyond the hype over skype. education week. retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/dd/articles/2011/02/09/02skype.h04.html daniel g. krutka & kenneth t. carano 135 rapoport, a. (2009). a forgotten concept: global citizenship education and state social studies standards. journal of social studies research, 33(1), 91-112. rapoport, a. (2013). global citizenship themes in the social studies classroom: teaching devices and teachers’ attitudes. the educational forum, 77(4), 407-420. raths, d. (2015). 6 ways videoconferencing is expanding the classroom. t.h.e. journal, 42(4), 12-17. richardson, j. c., fox, w. s., & lehman, j. d. (2012). successful videoconferencing scenarios for teacher education programs.. tech trends, 56(5), 17-24. ross, s. (2010, november 16). holocaust survivor to video chat with students today. north texas daily. retrieved from http://ntdaily.com/holocaust-survivor-to-video-chat-withstudents-today/ russell-fry, n. (n.d.). videoconference about china. retrieved from http://www.oakhill.k12.oh.us/school-separator/middle-high-school/news/1108videoconference-about-china thornton, s. j. (2005). incorporating internationalism into the social studies curriculum. in n. noddings (ed.), educating citizens for global awareness (pp. 81-92). new york, ny: teachers college press. thurston, a. (2004). promoting multicultural education in the primary classroom: broadband videoconferencing facilities and digital video. computers & education, 43(1), 165-177. tufekci, z. (2013). is there a social-media fueled protest style? an analysis from #jan25 to #geziparki. technosociality: our tools, our selves [blog]. retrieved from http://technosociology.org/?p=1255 tye, k. a. (1990). introduction: the world at a crossroads. in k. a. tye (ed.), global education: from thought to action (pp. 1-9). alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. united nations (2016, may 16). united nations global student videoconference to celebrate heritage, culture, roots of african diaspora at headquarters on 13 may. retrieved from http://www.un.org/press/en/2016/note6480.doc.htm white. c., & openshaw, r. (2002) translating the national to the global in citizenship education. in d. scott & h. lawson (eds.), citizenship education and the curriculum (pp. 151–166). westport, ct: ablex. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 109-136 zong, g. (2009). global perspectives in teacher education research and practice. in t. f. kirkwood-tucker (ed.), visions in global education: the globalization of curriculum and pedagogy in teacher education and schools (pp. 71–89). new york: lang. zaino, j. (2009). field-tripping goes virtual. instructor. 119(2), 34-36. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2012: 3(2), 21-44 © 2012 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 repetitive microteaching: learning to teach elementary social studies derek l. anderson1, don barr2 & christina labaij3 northern michigan university abstract: the role of deliberate practice in the development of performance has been studied extensively in many contexts, such as in athletics. the construct of deliberate practice in the development of teacher performance has been receiving heightened examination lately, though the role of practice in the development of elementary social studies teachers remains essentially unexplored. the purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of a repeated practice microteaching model on the teaching behaviors of 64 elementary preservice teachers (psts) who taught the same social studies lessons to small groups of 4th-grade students four times in succession. pst reflection journals from all psts, observational transcripts of 14 teaching pairs, focus group interviews with the psts, and informal cooperating teacher interviews revealed that the psts’ lessons changed over the four successive teaching episodes. the psts became more comfortable and confident after teaching the same social studies lesson multiple times. psts also reported that their lessons became better, yet the qualitative data revealed that even though their teaching became more efficient and student work correctness improved, only a few psts increased the cognitive demand of their questions and activities. nonetheless, most psts demonstrated increased use of social studies pedagogical content knowledge through their examples and discussions, as well as increased attention to student thinking. repeated practice field experiences seem to hold potential for elementary psts to develop their use of social studies pedagogical content knowledge. keywords: teacher education, field experiences, practice, elementary introduction most middle and secondary social studies teachers have taught the same lesson multiple times on the same day. while most teachers would admit to occasional boredom, nearly all would attest that their lessons changed over those iterations. for example, teachers might rearrange, lengthen, shorten, or even eliminate particular components of their original lessons. most importantly, teachers would likely suggest that their lessons improved with practice. 1 assoc. prof. dr., northern michigan university, dereande@nmu.edu 2 graduate student, northern michigan university, dbarr@nmu.edu 3 graduate student, northern michigan university, cbrazins@nmu.edu journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 22 because middle and high school social studies teachers often teach lessons multiple times, preservice secondary education teachers get opportunities to observe repetitive lessons; and, during field experiences and student teaching, preservice teachers (psts) get to teach lessons multiple times themselves. elementary teachers, however, rarely get to deliver the same lesson multiple times, other than year-to-year. consequently, elementary psts lack opportunities to practice the craft of teaching through repetitive lessons. since repetition is a vital component toward improvement through deliberate practice, teacher educators should find ways to provide preservice elementary teachers with authentic opportunities for repeated practice. this paper explores a microteaching model designed to give preservice elementary teachers the opportunity to teach the same social studies lessons in succession. though teacher educators lack consensus over what is meant by the term practice, most commonly, practice relates to an activity done repeatedly in order to get better at it (lampert, 2010). practice-oriented teacher education courses typically focus on pedagogies of investigation, which focus on studying exemplary teaching by watching and discussing videos and case studies, and on pedagogies of enactment, which provide psts with opportunities to actually do what teachers do, even if in artificial contexts such as practicing lessons on one’s colleagues (ball & forzani, 2009; grossman & mcdonald, 2008; shah, 2011). ball and forzani (2009) in advocating for a practice-oriented approach to teacher education proposed that significant attention needs to be paid “not just to the knowledge demands of teaching but to the actual tasks and activities involved in the work” (p. 503). we based our microteaching model on the notion that in order to best prepare teachers to teach elementary social studies, they need opportunities for authentic practice, which must include teaching social studies content to elementary students. to bridge university coursework with the actual demands of classroom teaching, teacher education programs must provide psts with opportunities both to study and to practice specific teaching strategies (ball & cohen, 1999; lampert, 2005; shah, 2011). what’s more, those strategies should be practiced on real students in subject-specific contexts. the general purpose of this investigation was to examine the impact of a microteaching model we designed to provide elementary psts with opportunities for repeated practice of the same lesson on groups of 4th-grade students. we investigated how the elementary psts’ social studies lessons changed over four successive teaching episodes, as well as the psts’ perceptions derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 23 of those changes. additionally, we sought to examine the psts’ teaching of social studies specifically and how their social studies teaching evolved with repeated practice. theoretical framework since normal schools began, reformers have been calling for teacher education programs to provide future teachers with opportunities to practice on students. dewey wrote extensively about the need for meaningful apprenticeships for psts. calling for laboratories similar to those scientists use, berliner (1985) implored, “we must provide our novice teachers with environments in which to experiment with producing cognitive and affective change in children” (p. 6). even today, the desire to provide psts with authentic opportunities for practices is an issue upon which everyone concerned with the next generation of teachers seems to agree (darling-hammond, 2006). in a 2011 speech, u.s. secretary of education, arne duncan, stated, “one big thing i hear consistently from young teachers is that they just spend too much time in college studying educational theory, history, and philosophy and did not receive enough handson experience in actual classrooms” (mack, 2011, p. 5). duncan went on to say, “student teaching shouldn’t just be the second semester of senior year. it needs to be every year” (p. 19). all teacher education programs involve a formal student teaching experience, which incidentally is often referred to as “practice teaching.” yet, the extent to which psts get to practice teaching k-12 students varies widely. too often, programs rely on psts merely observing classroom teachers. certainly, there is value in observing and reflection on teaching, but as ball, sleep, boerst, and bass (2009) noted, “[t]eacher preparation must help novices learn how to do instruction, not just hear and talk about it” (p. 459). it is widely argued that the improvement of teaching requires clinical practice similar to other fields (grossman, hammerness, & mcdonald, 2009). practicing teaching requires not only an awareness of tools and strategies but also experience with their use (lampert, 2010). a time-honored adage states, “you can’t learn to swim if you don’t get in the water.” it is no wonder that education leaders have been advocating for increasing practice experiences for psts since research on practice in other fields is overwhelmingly positive. in numerous studies on what separates the great performers from the good performers in every context they studied, from music to chess to various sports, ericsson and his colleagues have found that the amount of time spent on deliberate practice is paramount to success. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 24 “research across all domains shows that it is only by working at what you can’t do that you turn into the expert you want to become” (ericsson, prietula, & cokely, 2007, p. 3). expertise is a process, not an acquired state (bereiter & scardamalia, 1993). with the goal of improvement, practice requires considerable effort and high levels of repetition (dunn & shriner, 1999; ericsson, et al., 1993). performers “should repeatedly perform the same or similar tasks” (ericsson, et al., 1993, p. 367). deliberate practice allows performers to make small improvements to their actions through repeated trials of the same exercise, with as few variables altered as possible (ericsson, et al., 1993). often, deliberate practice involves a subset of the actual performance the practice is designed to improve. in sports, for example, performers will often practice doing drills involving isolated skills that contribute to their greater game performance. in music, and perhaps in teaching, this would be considered rehearsal. purposeful practice of teaching should involve authentic contexts with age-appropriate students, even if only small groups (berliner, 1985). as cohen (2011) asserted, teaching is dependent upon learners who share in the commitment to human improvement. without learners, there is no teaching. deliberate practice in teaching must include repeated experiences with actual students so that the teacher can make adjustments in order to determine how those adjustments impact performance (ericsson et al., 1993). cognitive load theory suggests that performance improves when new tasks are scaffolded on top of previously mastered skills (pass, renkl, & sweller, 2003). since teaching is a layered activity that builds on previous experiences, specific skills should be practiced within the context of entire activity (ericsson et al., 1999; van gog et al., 2005). teacher educators strive to provide psts with opportunities to practice the craft of teaching prior to the seminal activity of teacher education, student teaching. because teacher educators seldom have access to whole classrooms of k-12 students, they often implement approximations of practice, which consist of opportunities to rehearse and enact components of whole-class teaching in settings of reduced complexity or on their preservice teacher colleagues (grossman et al., 2005). microteaching models preserve the authenticity of working with actual students, even if with a smaller group or for a shortened time. our microteaching model is based on the importance of repetition in deliberate practice. the model certainly could be used generally; however, we intended to specifically study how elementary psts enact their teaching of social studies. anchored in shulman’s (1986) derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 25 conceptions of how content knowledge and pedagogical skills are not enough to become an effective teacher, we were adamant that our preservice teachers must have opportunities to practice and reflect on their social studied pedagogical content knowledge (pck). initially proposed by shulman (1986), pck involves the integration of subject matter, instructional methods, and learner characteristics. pck in elementary social studies involves a unique blend of pedagogy with content knowledge in each of subordinate components of social studies – history, economics, geography, and civics. effective teacher preparation programs must put pck at the fore (grossman, wilson, & shulman, 1989). the literature base on the study of practice-oriented approaches to education, and their connection to pedagogical content knowledge, is growing; however, the vast majority of the research has focused on mathematics education. foreign language education has received some attention, and lately researchers have been studying the role of practice and pck in science education. noticeably missing from the field has been the examination of practice and pck in social studies education. what’s more, the few studies that address these topics were conducted at the secondary or college levels in history courses. this reveals a common hole in social studies research: studies on elementary social studies and correspondingly on branches of social studies other than history. our research project serves to help fill that gap. methods site and participants this study took place over two semesters in 2011. participants included 64 undergraduate psts enrolled in an elementary social studies methods course during their final semester prior to student teaching. the psts, from an approximately 9,000-student public university in the uppermidwest of the us, were predominately caucasian, female (91%), and in their earlyto mid-20s. situated within a block of methods courses taken during their penultimate semester, the social studies methods course involves several field-based experiences in a local rural school district that serves approximately 2,500 k-12 students. the student population is mainly caucasian (92%) with a wide range of socio-economic levels, including 33% who qualify for free or reduced lunch. the principal and 4th-grade teachers at the site school agreed to turn over their classrooms for one morning per semester, which consists of approximately 160 minutes. earlier in the journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 26 semester, the 4th-grade teachers provided us with the social studies standards they wanted us to teach. the preservice planned their lessons around those standards accordingly. we structured the 160 minutes so that the psts would teach their lessons four different times in succession to one quarter of the class, rather teach the whole class once. thus, the psts delivered, in pairs, 35minute social studies lessons to groups of six or seven 4th-grade students, four different times. data sources in order to answer our research questions, we collected data from multiple sources, intending to increase validity through triangulation (stake, 1995; yin, 1994). following the teaching experiences, the psts were given an assignment to write a reflection on what they learned from the experience and on how, if at all, their lessons changed over the four iterations. these reflections served as the primary of our four data sources. we solicited graduate students to sit in on the lessons of 14 teaching pairs, selected at random, in order to document as much as possible. particularly, we asked them to record everything the psts and students said, and if time allowed, to record other observations. we also circulated throughout the classrooms during the lessons making our own observations, sitting in on lessons, and recording the events and our interpretations. a phenomenological approach situated us as participant observers who continuously worked to acknowledge and bracket our assumptions (moustakas, 1994). one of us was the methods instructor for the course, while the other two authors were graduate assistants. all three of us have been classroom teachers. as such, our personal experiences certainly impacted our interpretation of the psts’ motivations and actions. in addition, we held frequent conversations with the teachers in whose classrooms the psts taught. the classroom teachers remained in their classrooms during the lessons, and though we did not conduct formal interviews, the teachers provided additional perspectives on how the psts’ lessons changed. data analysis since our study was exploratory in nature and inductive in its approach, we first acknowledged our preconceptions and assumptions, and then bracketed those biases (rich, 2012). we used constant comparison analysis to examine, verify, and draw inferences from the data (glasser, 1978, glasser & straus, 1967; leech & onwuegbuzie, 2007). we began by open coding randomly selected pst reflections and observational records collectively over several derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 27 sessions to create initial codes. we then divided the rest of the data pieces to code independently, reconvening several times to compare and refine our initial codes. next, we used focused coding (charmaz, 2006) to array the first cycle codes into broader conceptual categories under which we placed each subcode. throughout our data analysis, we engaged in countless conversations that lead to concurrent and iterative analyses of our data. because phenomenological methods put personal assumptions and interpretations at the forefront, these conversations, both formal and informal, helped us to challenge our assertions and prompted us to seek rival explanations. the convergence of the multiple data sources, as well as our layered analyses of those data yielded substantial triangulation to increase validity. findings in written reflections completed after teaching their lessons repeatedly, the psts were asked to describe how their lessons changed over the four sessions. we compared the data from the pst reflections with our own observations of the lessons, focus group interviews with the psts, and conversations with the classroom teachers. overwhelmingly the psts wrote, and we observed, that they became more comfortable and confident after teaching the same lesson multiple times. psts also reported that their lessons became better, though our observations revealed that while their teaching became more efficient and student work correctness improved, only a few psts increased the cognitive demand of their questions and activities. nonetheless, most psts demonstrated increased use of pedagogical content knowledge through their examples and discussions, as well as increased attention to student thinking. efficacy with few exceptions, the psts explicitly noted that they became more comfortable teaching their social studies lessons after having the opportunity to teach the same lessons multiple times. their increased confidence took different forms. some psts focused on their initial internal insecurities and how practice allowed them to overcome their anxieties. for example, one pst wrote, “the first lesson was kind of a blur. i was so nervous and stared at my lesson plan most of the time. by the third time, i didn’t even need to look at it.” we observed similar phenomena with other psts. eye contact with students increased, and their body language become visibly more relaxed with each iteration. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 28 a number of psts expressed a lack of confidence with social studies specifically. when assigned to teach how positive and negative incentives influence behavior in a market economy, one pst wrote in her post-teaching reflection: i was so nervous the first time i taught because social studies is my weakest area. i was worried that students were going to ask me questions i didn’t know the answers to, but it didn’t happen. this was somewhat do to the fact that i learned a lot about the topic during my prep but mostly due to the fact that the students didn’t ask many questions at all. for their four repeat lessons, most pst pairs were assigned to teach lessons on economics, which nearly all identified as their weak areas within social studies. for example, one pst remarked, “most of my social studies classes have been history, so i was freaked when i learned that we had to teach about global trade.” another pst, who was assigned to teach how price affects decisions about purchasing goods and services, wrote: even though i spent more time researching the econ topics for this lesson than i have for any other lesson i’ve taught at (this university) thus far, i was still so nervous that i didn’t know anything. actually, i learned so much that i had to work to simplify the concepts for the students. despite the psts’ initial anxiety over teaching social studies, their self-efficacy increased with opportunities to teach the same lesson in succession. with practice, the psts became more comfortable with the social studies content and consequently more confident with their teaching. pst reflections and focus group debriefing interviews yielded numerous comments like, “i can’t believe how much better i got with each lesson,” and, “i feel sorry for our first group. my lesson got so much better by the end, i am kind of embarrassed by our first lesson.” a central challenge of this study lies in trying to determine the extent to which their lessons actually improved (increased student learning) versus the psts’ merely becoming more comfortable and confident (increased pst self-efficacy). certainly, increased confidence is an important component of teacher development, and having opportunities for repeated practice helped with this. psts noted becoming more comfortable with teaching in general and with the social studies content specifically. more importantly, the psts made discernible changes to the way they delivered their lessons as a result of their increasing confidence. derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 29 time-management the most common changes to lesson plan delivery pst involved adjustments to the order and duration of procedures in their lessons – time management. few psts noted that they deviated from their lesson plans during the first time they taught their lessons. however, nearly all the psts reported that they made adjustments in subsequent teaching episodes. pst it was clear that because most psts lacked teaching experience in general, and with teaching 4thgrade social studies specifically, the opportunity to teach their lessons repeatedly gave the psts answers to their inquires, which allowed them to adjust. because the psts were given a defined length of time (35 minutes) to teach each of their lessons, they were anxious about how much content and activities to include. not sure about whether she had planned too much for the time allotted or too little, this pst reflected on her concerns about timing: during our first lesson, we were not quite sure about the timing of everything. we had a lot of questions we were asking ourselves like: how long will the powerpoint take? will the simulation go fast or slow? will the students have a lot of questions or will they grasp the concept quickly? we did end up running out of time during the first lesson, and therefore, students did not get their worksheet completed. the second time we did the lesson we decided to speed up the powerpoint in the introduction to make time for the worksheet at the end. commonly, psts over-planned, which lead to them having to make difficult decisions over what to drop from their originally planned lessons. we observed several pst teaching pairs exasperated when the classroom teachers announced after 35 minutes that it was time to switch groups, even though they weren’t close to the end of their lessons. having been taught in their methods courses that it is better to be overplanned rather than underplanned, most psts were forced to decide which materials and activities to cut. this pst wrote about how she decided which elements to eliminate from her lesson on public goods and taxes: we definitely were not paying attention to the time during the first lesson. when mrs. a told us it was time to switch groups, the students were still reading the article, so we didn’t have time to do the structured conversation activity, and thus we weren’t able to assess them. the second time through was better because we read the article to them, but we still didn’t have as much time as we wanted. so, for the 3rd and 4th times, we cut out the game at the beginning which gave us more time to focus on the article and then the journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 30 structured conversations. it might not have been as fun for them, but they definitely learned more that way. when faced with the decision over what to cut, there were no distinct patterns. some pairs eliminated “fun” activities to preserve the efficiency of transmission-style teaching, while others did the reverse. for example, one pst, who repeatedly taught a lesson on how competition among buyers results in higher prices and competition among sellers results in lower prices, explained that he kept the hands-on part of his lesson: “we realized we had way too much planned, so we had to cut something. we didn’t want to cut the trading activity because that was the best part of our lesson, so we eliminated the powerpoint.” conversely, another pst noted that she eliminated the more interactive part of her lesson on trade: “we planned to have them make a picture representation of triangular trade, but this didn’t give us enough time to read the article about china, so we dropped the picture part of the lesson.” pedagogical content knowledge at this point it is important to recognize that the ways the psts demonstrated increased knowledge and skills included both general pedagogical knowledge (gpk) and pedagogical content knowledge (pck) (shulman, 1986, 1987). when the psts made decisions about which parts of their lessons to eliminate, they were making decisions that required more than gpk. to be sure, the psts demonstrated and noted many ways in which they used gpk to change their teaching throughout the four lessons. for example one pst wrote about how she and her teaching partner took over a task that was not related to the lesson objective in the effort to provide students with more focused reading time. she that recognized one of their lesson activities was taking time from student work time: in the first session, i felt unorganized. the students didn’t have a surface to write on or pencils to write with. we had them fold and cut their flipbooks, which took up too much time. after the first lesson, we decided we would fold and cut the flipbooks while the children were creating their three laws. however, as portrayed in the journal excerpts above, psts frequently used their knowledge of how to “help specific students learn specific content” (harris & bain, 2011, p. 9). this pck is “both built with and builds upon content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, and knowledge of learners (gudmundsdottir & shulman, 1987, p. 60). when the psts in this study made changes to their lessons they were not merely using pedagogical knowledge to increase derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 31 lesson flow and efficiency. the psts kept their lesson objectives at the forefront and made purposeful efforts to connect the social studies content to student learning. attention to student learning was prominent in this study, but much more so in later iterations of their lessons. as psts’ comfort levels with the social studies content increased, many psts modified their lessons in attempt to increase student learning. for example, one pst rearranged her lesson sequence because students were rushing through the writing portion of her lesson to get to the illustration portion. reflecting on her lesson about factors of production and resource conservation, she noted how rearranging activities allowed her to formatively assessed individual student thinking: during the first lesson i passed out the paper for the final activity and instructed students to draw a picture and write one sentence about how to conserve our resources and why. for the second group, i instructed the students to write their sentences first, then draw the picture. i quickly realized the sentences were simply being scribbled down, without much thought, so the students could get to the drawing. for the rest of the groups, i gave the students time to think of a sentence and get it approved by me before handing out the paper. this worked really well and the sentences reflected what the students actually learned. numerous reflection journals revealed that psts were able to identify and overcome obstacles to student learning. the psts commonly made procedural changes to their lesson activities when the students in their early groups struggled with the task at hand. describing how she used a prereading strategy to prime students’ thinking about how positive and negative incentives influence behavior in a market economy, one pst wrote: we realized that the students were having a hard time coming up with an answer so instead of asking the question after they had read the article, we changed it so that we would ask the question before they read so they could be thinking about it while they were reading. this seemed to make a big difference with students being able to answer the question. psts largely, however, the psts mentioned their lesson objectives when describing changes to their lessons. we posit that there were three reasons for this. first, writing objectives and corresponding assessments is a primary component of the social studies methods course in which journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 32 the psts were enrolled. second, for the deliberate practice field experience, each pair of psts in each 4th-grade classroom was assigned a specific objective (from the michigan grade level content expectations). the psts were advised to teach the objectives in whatever manner they chose, as long as they taught to the objective. finally, the psts might have centered their lesson adjustments on their objectives due to the rising attention given to standardized testing and mandated curricula. we think it is safe to claim that most psts in this study knew that their 4th grade students would be taking the michigan educational assessment program (meap) test in 6th grade. the psts’ emphasis on meeting their originally intended objectives, despite altering their originally intended procedures, revealed their attention to student learning. predominantly, the psts adjusted their teaching not to make their lives easier, but rather to help their students learn more. despite the prevalence of attention to students’ thinking and learning, the psts were quite dichotomous regarding what they prioritized when altering their teaching actions. in general, they tended to emphasize either students’ correctness or students’ deeper thinking. approximately 75% of the psts adjusted their actions to guide students toward their previously determined outcomes, often using a three-part initiation, response, follow-up cycle, or triadic dialogue to direct student toward their expected answers (gourlay, 2005; lemke, 1990). a minority of the psts altered their actions to elicit deeper thinking from the students, scaffolding instruction to elicit greater cognitive demand. teacher-centeredness many of the pst reflections focused on a self-perceived improvement in the quality of their examples, explanations, and analogies. demonstrating emerging use of pedagogical content knowledge, the psts often stated their goals of improving student understanding of the content through use of interventions that connect to students’ background knowledge, often in the form of contemporary references, or by referring to newly learned content. for example, one pst explained that it took multiple lesson implementations to find appropriate examples grounded in students’ prior knowledge in this referencing a popular animated movie: “we didn’t come up with the cars reference right away. once we did, this made a big difference as to how our students understood some of the bigger issues.” yet, despite this pst pairs’ profound connection between the local economy and that of the fictional radiator springs, they did not allow the students to make the connection themselves. instead, they used a transmission approach to give derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 33 students one more example to support their intended objective, which they then asked the students to explain in their own words on the assessment. frequently, psts provided students with foundational knowledge early in the lesson, then asked the students to recall the newly learned information later in the lesson. in groups we observed, the anticipatory set often included a video, photographs or maps to which students could later refer in order to answer recall or comprehension questions. pst reflections support the intentionality of such practices. for example, one preservice teacher described how she showed and explained concepts on the three branches of us government to students, rather than allowed students to construct their own understanding : as other groups came in, i tried to make the overview more relatable to the students. i gave scenarios that referred back to the anticipatory set, school, or other powers. for instance, two powers federal governments hold are “appointing federal judges and other government officials” and “approving the appointments of federal judges.” when one of these came up, i showed the other one to the students too. i then compared them and helped students realize how they both couldn’t be done by the same branch. i also tried to explain how the judicial branch was made up of the judges, so it wouldn’t be fair for that branch to hold either one of these powers. often, it seemed as if the psts simply wanted students to be able to recall answers discussed earlier in their lessons. in some ways, the psts demonstrated adherence to the ncss curriculum guidelines for social studies teaching and learning, a central focus of the methods course in which they were enrolled. psts made purposeful efforts to make the material meaningful, integrative, and active; yet, they seldom challenged the students to think critically. a number of psts referenced how their discussions improved after teaching a time or two. for example, one pst reflected: “once we figured out how 4th graders think and answer, we were able to scaffold our questions better.” later in the reflection, the same pst described how she and her partner were able to lead the students to the correct answers about their lesson on the history of migration: we asked, “why did they have to move? maybe for a better job? better schools?” these examples helped our students to connect immigration and migration to current times and their own lives. our evidence that they “got it” came from the quiz at the end where almost all of the students were able to answer the questions about push and pull factors, journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 34 how jobs relate to immigration/migrations, and tell one new thing they learned from the lesson. likewise, in our observations we frequently observed psts’ reliance on initiation-responsefollow-up and scaffolding to guide students toward correct answers. what’s more, it was common to observe psts asking rhetorical questions such as, “immigrants wouldn’t come here just for fun, would they?” and, “mining is good job because it doesn’t require a lot of training and it pays a lot, right?” in addition to suggesting that their examples, explanations, and discussions improved, the psts purported that the students’ written work improved. psts explained that by later lesson implementations, they learned to take more time to explain the task and expectations, thereby allowing students to focus on the content in more depth. by improving the pedagogical aspects of their lessons, psts created more time for social studies learning. one pst felt that “students had an easier time getting started in the later session” when her group “took more time to introduce the activity, [the expectations], and how to set up the timeline.” as a result, their “students were able to get the physical timeline set up faster, and then put more details into their responses about each event.” this same group recognized their goal for “detailed responses” and credited the fact that “the timelines got better with each lesson” with getting “the basics accomplished, so [the students] had more time for the details.” consistently, we saw psts focused on directing students toward predetermined outcomes, which they were better able to do when they had several opportunities to teach their lessons. for example, although this pst noted improved student output through increased time on task, we observed the pair of psts accomplishing their goal by increasing the amount of time on initiation-response-follow-up: “we had the students fill out exit tickets explaining taxes and government spending. when comparing what the first group of students wrote and what the last two groups of students wrote, it is a night and day difference.” powerful and purposeful social studies as noted earlier, although most psts altered their lessons toward greater emphasis on correctness rather than on students’ deep thinking, approximately 25% of the psts demonstrated more “powerful and purposeful” teaching of social studies (http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/powerfulandpurposeful), which we explore below. first, however, it is worth noting that many psts appeared to honestly assess when their changes did http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/powerfulandpurposeful� derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 35 not comply with powerful and purposeful social studies teaching. these psts often took the time to explain why they deviated from best practices. one group explained their decision to “slow down on the higher-order-thinking questions” to accommodate a “wide variety of academic levels” and alleviate time pressures. other psts lamented that they “had to use teacher-centered teaching to get through the material.” in the debriefing focus-group discussions, psts commonly apologized for not teaching the “way they were supposed to.” it isn’t clear if the psts actually wanted to teach in a more student-centered manner or if they were responding how they thought their professor wanted them to act. we do not know if the preponderance of transmission-style teaching was due to a lack of willingness or lack of ability. nevertheless, a number of psts were able to alter their lessons in ways that were more consistent with ncss principles. several pairs recognized that even though they thought their lesson plans were student-centered, their lessons ended up being transmission-style. for example, one pst captured the challenges she and her partner faced and how their teaching evolved. she recognized that by prioritizing coverage of material, they relied on telling students information as opposed to allowing students to engage with the material themselves: the lesson we planned to teach was very hands-on and activity-based, but we just didn’t have enough time to get through it. so, for the second and third time we made sure to cover all the material, but it turns out that we pretty much just lectured them and asked a few questions. by the fourth time, we were starting to be able to put more of the responsibility on them. another pst described the shift from direct explanations to using questions to lead students in inquiry-based discussions. reflecting on her lesson about government, she noted how they changed their lessons to allow students to contribute more to the dialogue: the first time we went through the lesson, we realized that we were talking at the students too much and not letting them come to conclusions. after this, we tried to ask the students questions that got them to tell us what the powers of the branches were rather than trying to just tell them. we also started asking about what branch they would like to work in and why after the first lesson because we thought it would help the students. the groups that evolved to become more student-centered did so in two main ways: better direct questioning and better discussion facilitation. initially, nearly all the groups had journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 36 lesson plans that were, on paper, student-centered. as mentioned above, however, most psts were preoccupied with lesson efficiency and time-management centered on covering the material. conversely, as the lessons progressed some psts gave more priority to students’ deep thinking and connections between abstract concepts and students’ lives. for example, one pst explained the shift in learning priorities that took place over the course of the four lessons: we had in mind the big questions we wanted them to answer, but when they weren’t able to answer them during the first lesson, we panicked and made the questions easier. slowly, we brought back the big ideas we wanted the students to take away: “why do we still talk about harriet tubman today? in what ways did she influence our present lives? who is our harriet tubman?” we learned that they could answer these questions, but we had to be patient with them and give them little prompts without doing too much of the work for them like we did during the first couple of lessons. another pst reflected on how prompts from the psts facilitated a discussion that allowed students to compare elements of their local economy to a larger, less familiar context: during our later lessons, we prompted them to think of bigger things such as (the university), (the hospital), mining, etc. we went through the economic circle in which we produce something (cars, coal, lumber, etc) that we sell for money. the company gets the money, pays its employees, and the employees spend the money in the community, which creates demands for products, and it starts over. we then prompted what would happen if all our economic resources went away. the students decided what would happen if (our town) lost its major economic activity, and how this would affect the people. students were able to compare and contrast (our town) to detroit. all of this related to the automotive industry, the ups and downs, including the recent bail out. students did a good job of analyzing how the economic activity affects the people. students’ ideas just bounced off each other, and they had great discussions. i felt like we just got to sit back, moderate, and put in ideas. the students really collaborated together to get a good understanding of our materials. we observed a few groups who changed the ways they asked students questions throughout the four lessons to include more divergent questions rather than recall or comprehension-based questions. we also witnessed how some groups’ discussions improved as psts allowed student-generated questions about the examples and material to direct the flow of derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 37 the conversations. one pst highlighted the flexibility she and her teaching partner demonstrated in later lesson implementations. reflecting on their lessons about role of the president, the pst described how they altered their delivery over the four iterations to accommodate student interests:: we found that as the lessons went on the students wanted to discuss why certain people got elected and how important it was to make sure we are voting for the right reasons. we also got into the debate on why the president can’t just appoint people without getting it approved. the students were very interested in the topic of what things to look for when electing a president…the ideas they came up with were great and helped to instill how the process worked. despite the evidence that some psts changed their lessons toward more powerful and purposeful social studies, we were not able to ascertain why those psts did while most did not. clearly, on the whole, the psts altered their behaviors as result of teaching the same lesson four times. psts self-reported that they became more confident and competent. they also noted that they became more efficient and made better use of time by consciously cutting less-important elements of their lessons. most psts were attuned to student thinking and work, though most psts altered their actions to help students arrive and their pre-determined convergent outcomes. in other words, most psts got better at helping students to answer and produce work that was consistent with the psts wanted. a few psts, however, evolved their teaching to include more divergent tasks and deeper student thinking. discussion learning to become an effective teacher requires practice. teacher educators, faced with limited access to k-12 classrooms, must find ways to provide psts with high-quality preparation opportunities to set future teachers on a path toward effective and reflective practice. though microteaching has been a popular method for giving preserve teachers opportunities for practice, no published studies explored the use of authentic repeated practice. furthermore, only a few studies have investigated the preparation of elementary social studies, and particularly how psts develop their social studies pck. though only exploratory, our repeated practice microteaching model appears to foster development of preservice elementary teachers’ pck. through repeated journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 38 microteaching, our model controls many conditions of the practice activity by changing only the group of students, not the lesson objectives. since shulman introduced pck more than 25 years ago, numerous educational researchers have attempted to redefine and reconceptualize pck. hashweh (2005) synthesized research on pck into seven assertions, one of which is that “teacher pedagogical constructions develop through experience” (p. 278). consistent with what we found in this study, hasweh suggested that teacher learning is a constructive process that requires authentic episodes working with students, reflection, and adjustment. most importantly, psts’ pck constructions are better developed during teaching experiences than during traditional coursework. as hasweh declared, practice is vital: a teacher might invent an analogy during interactive teaching when she realizes she needs one more representation to explain a certain concept. or she might, reflecting on the last period, realize she needs a new analogy, and invents a new one. (p. 279) hasweh’s assertion is remarkably consistent with the findings of our study, where nearly all the psts changed how they taught, with most adopting new explanations, examples, or analogies to help students learn. it is important to note hasweh’s example of a teacher reflecting on the previous class period and then altering her lesson for the next period. certainly, this is a common occurrence for secondary teachers, but a rarity for elementary teachers. if teachers need opportunities to teach, reflect, adjust, and re-teach in order to develop their pck, they are unlikely to gain those opportunities in a traditional field experience or student teaching practicum where they will be teaching several different subjects each day. as such, the deliberate practice model we describe in this paper may hold great potential to aid teachers’ pdc development. limitations and implications teacher educators must keep in mind that the goal of teaching is student learning, not teacher behavior (dunn & shriner, 1999). though the psts’ behaviors in this study changed, we do not know the extent to which their students’ learning increased. in our study, it was apparent that the psts were attuned to their students’ behaviors and made adjustments accordingly. it is not apparent, however, that psts made these adjustments because they taught their same lessons derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 39 four times in succession – because of our microteaching model. we do not know, for example, if psts would make similar changes if they taught four different lessons over four weeks instead. in addition, teaching small groups is not the same as teaching a whole class. it is not clear how learning parts of teaching constitute learning the whole of teaching. likewise, this study cannot allow us to make any claims about the long-term effects of our model on psts’ future teaching. yet, because there is no evidence that expert performance correlates with innate ability in other domains, it is reasonable to conclude that teaching expertise can be developed (ericsson, 2006, 2008, 2009; ericsson, & charness, 1994; ericsson, krampe, & tesch-rӧmer, 1993; ericsson, prietula, & cokely, 2007; plant, ericcson, hill, & asberg, 2005). furthermore, there is no evidence that contradicts our supposition that in learning to teach, delivering short lessons multiple times to small groups of students is a legitimate practice activity to improve psts’ capacity to teach the whole class. there are several important of reasons why repetitive microteaching holds great promise in this particular era of teacher education, particularly in the united states. first, the us has seen a rapidly heightened teacher accountability movement. starting with the no child left behind act (2001) and more recently with the race to the top initiative (2009), much greater emphasis has been placed on student test scores. what’s more, teacher evaluations are now tied to their students’ performance on standardized tests. as a result, classroom teachers are likely to be less willing to turn over their classrooms for psts to practice on their students, adding to the longstanding barriers toward establishing practice-based teacher education programs, which also include complexity and cost (zeichner, 2012). with reduced opportunities for authentic field experiences, repetitive microteaching might serve as an efficient and effective way for preservice teachers to gain meaningful experience. repetitive microteaching is relatively simple and low-cost. second, there has been a recent rise in scripted instruction, assumedly in response to mandated curriculum and testing pressure. scripted teaching situates teachers more like technicians than professionals who must apply deep knowledge and judgment (zeichner, 2012). because most teacher educators advocate for the professionalizing of teaching, judgment-based field experiences, like repetitive microteaching, allow pre-service teachers to develop broad skills in authentic and unique contexts. as hiebert and morris (2012b) suggested, we need to engage in the work of “improving teaching versus training teachers” (p. 383). that work, journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 40 however, should emphasize practice opportunities in real classrooms rather than laboratory programs (hiebert & morris, 2012a). third, and most importantly, a growing body of research suggests that practice-based teacher education is the optimum model for improving classroom instruction (zeichner, 2012). hiebert and morris (2012b) asserted: learning to teach something well is best achieved by directly studying and improving instruction of this content and in the process of repeated cycles of implementing and refining instructional methods and materials, to abstract the recurring routines and core practices that become keys to effective practices. (p. 384) repetitive microteaching fosters high-leverage practices at “a grain size that is usable new teachers and their teacher educators” (zeichner, 2012, p. 378). with scarce opportunities for authentic practice in classrooms prior to student teaching, elementary teacher education programs could benefit from further exploration of repeated practice microteaching models. references anderson, d. (2007). cooperating teachers’ power in the student teaching practicum. education, 128(2), 307-323. anderson, d. (2008). student teachers and their cooperating teachers: expectations and reality. issues in education, 1(1), 17-26. anderson, d. (2009). the impact of cooperating teachers on the teaching perspectives of student teachers. international journal of learning, 16(1), 119-134. ball, d. l., & cohen, d. k. (1999). developing practice, developing practitioners: toward a practice-based theory of professional development. in l. darling-hammond & g. sykes (eds.), teaching as the learning profession: handbook of policy and practice (pp. 3-32). san francisco: jossey-bass. ball, d. l. , sleep, l., boerst, t., & bass, h. (2009). combining the development of practice and the practice of development in teacher education. elementary school journal, 109, 458476. bereiter, c., & scardamalia, m. (1993). surpassing ourselves: an inquiry into the nature and implications of expertise. la salle, il: open court. derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 41 berliner, d. c. (1985). laboratory settings and the study of teacher education. journal of teacher education, 36(2), 2-8. bloom, b. (1985). developing talent in young people. new york: ballantine books. boyd, d., grossman, p., lankford, h., loeb, s., & wyckoff, j. (2009). teacher preparation and student achievement. educational evaluation and policy analysis, 31(4), 416-440. britzman, d. p. (2003). practice makes practice: a critical study of learning to teach. albany, new york: state university of new york press. bransford, j., darling-hammond, l., & lepage, p. (2005). introduction. in l. darlinghammond and j. bransford (eds.). preparing teachers for a changing world: what teachers should learn and be able to do (pp. 1-39). san francisco: jossey-bass. darling-hammond, l. (2006). powerful teacher education: lessons from exemplary programs. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. darling-hammond, l., hammerness, k., grossman, p., rust, f., & shulman, l. (2005). the design of teacher education programs. in l. darling-hammond and j. bransford (eds.). preparing teachers for a changing world: what teachers should learn and be able to do (pp. 390-441). san francisco: jossey-bass. dunn, t. g., & shriner, c. (1999). deliberate practice in teaching: what teachers do for selfimprovement. teaching and teacher education, 15, 631-651. ericsson, k. a. (2006). the influence of experience and deliberate practice on the development of superior expert performance. in k. a. ericsson, n. charness, p. feltovich, and r. r. hoffman (eds.). cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 685706). cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. ericsson, k. a. (2008). deliberate practice and acquisition of expert performance: a general overview. society for academic emergency, 15(11), 988-994. ericsson, k. a. (2009). enhancing the development of professional performance: implications from the study of deliberate practice. in k. a. ericsson (ed.), the development of professional expertise: toward measurement of expert performance and design of optimal learning environments (pp. 405-431). new york: cambridge university press. ericsson, k. a., krampe, r. t., & tesch-rӧmer, c. (1993). the role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. psychological review, 100(3), 363-406. ericsson, k. a., & charness, n. (1994). expert performance: its structure and acquisition. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 42 american psychologist, 49(8), 725-747. feiman-nemser, s. (2003). what new teachers need to learn. educational leadership, 60(8), 25-29. ghousseini, h. (2009). designing opportunities to learn to lead classroom mathematics discussions in pre-service teacher education: focusing on enactment. in d. mewborn, & h. lee (eds.), scholarly practices and inquiry in the preparation of mathematics teachers. san diego, ca: association of mathematics teacher educators. ghousseini, h., lampert, m., lewis, j. m., murray, o., & scott, s. (2008, april). the role of rehearsal in learning to do ambitious practice. paper presented at the american educational research association annual meeting, new york. gourlay, l. (2005). okay, who’s got number one? permeable triadic dialogue, covert participation and co-construction of checking episodes. language teaching research, 9, 403–422. grossman, p. l., compton, c., igra, d., ronfeldt, m., shahan, e., & williamson, p. (2005, april). unpacking practice: decompositions and approximations. paper presented at the american educational research association, montreal, canada. grossman, p., & mcdonald, m. (2008). back to the future: directions for research in teaching and teacher education. american educational research journal. 45(1), 184-205. grossman, p. l., wilson, s. m., & shulman, l. s. (1989). teachers of substance: subject matter knowledge for teaching. in m. reynolds (ed.), the knowledge base for beginning teachers (pp. 23-36). new york: pergamon. gudmundsdottir, s. & shulman, l. (1987). pedagogical content knowledge in social studies. scandinavian journal of educational research, 31, 59-70. hammerness, k., darling-hammond, l., bransford, j., berliner, d., cochran-smith, m., mcdonald, m., et al. (2005). how teachers learn and develop. in l. darling-hammond & j. bransford (eds.), preparing teachers for a changing world: what teachers should learn and be able to do (pp. 58-389). san francisco: john wiley. harris, l. m., & bain, r. b. (2011). pedagogical content knowledge for world history teachers: what is it? how might prospective teachers develop it? the social studies, 102, 9-17. hashweh, m. z. (2005). teacher pedagogical constructions: a reconfiguration of pedagogical content knowledge. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 11(3), 273–292. derek l. anderson, don barr & christina labaij 43 hiebert, j., & morris, a. k. (2012a). teaching, rather than teachers, as a path toward improving classroom instruction. journal of teacher education, 3, 92-102 hiebert, j., & morris, a. k. (2012b). extending ideas on improving teaching: response to lampert; lewis, perrry, friedkin, and roth; zeichner. journal of teacher education, 5, 383-385. hoekstra, a., & korthagen, f. (2011). teacher learning in a context of educational change: informal learning versus systematically supported learning. journal of teacher education, 62(1), 76-92. kersting, n. b., givvin, k. b., thompson, b. j., santagata, r., & stigler, j. w. (2012). measuring usable knowledge: teachers’ analyses of mathematical classroom videos predict teaching quality and student learning. american educational research journal, 49, 568-589. lampert, m. (2010). learning teaching in, from, and for practice: what do we mean?. journal of teacher education, 61(1-2), 21-34. lemke, j. (1990) talking science: language, learning and values. norwood, nj: ablex. lewis, j. m. (2009, april). lesson study and the test of practice. paper presented at the annual conference of the american educational research association, san diego. mack, j. (2011, september 9). u.s. education secretary arne duncan holds up university of michigan school of education as national model, but says u.s. teacher preparation needs to improve. mlive. retrieved from http://www.mlive.com/education/index.ssf/2011/09/post_6.html morris, a. k., & hiebert, j. (2011). creating shared instructional products: an alternative approach to improving teaching. educational researcher, 40(1), 5-14. moustakas, c. (1994) phenomenological research methods london: sage. plant, e. a., ericcson, k. a., hill, l., & asberg, k. (2005). why study time does not predict grade point average across college students: implications of deliberate practice for academic performance. contemporary educational psychology, 30, 96-116. rich, p. (2012). inside the black box: revealing the process in applying a grounded theory analysis. the qualitative report, 17, 1-23. syed, m. (2010). bounce. new york: harper collins. van gog, t., ericsson, k. a., rikers, r. m., & paas, f. (2005). instructional design for advanced http://www.mlive.com/education/index.ssf/2011/09/post_6.html� journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 21-44 44 learners: establishing connections between the theoretical frameworks of cognitive load and deliberate practice. educational technology research and development, 53(3), 7381. wideen, m., mayer-smith, j., & moon, b. (1998). a critical analysis of the research on learning to teach: making the case for an ecological perspective on inquiry. review of educational research, 68(2), 130-178. zeichner, k. (2012). the turn once again toward practice-based teacher education. journal of teacher education, 63, 376-382 mack, j. (2011, september 9). u.s. education secretary arne duncan holds up university of michigan school of education as national model, but says u.s. teacher preparation needs to improve. mlive. retrieved from http://www.mlive.com/education/index.ss... sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarından yararlanma: bir eylem araştırması araştırması1 www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(1), 83-115 1 bu çalışma, anadolu üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsünde doktora tezi olarak sunulmuştur. 2 dr., ertuğrulgazi i̇lköğretim okulu (alpu/eskişehir), tsay@anadolu.edu.tr 3 doç. dr., anadolu üniversitesi, hanil@anadolu.edu.tr © 2011 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarından yararlanma: bir eylem araştırması1 local community studies in social studies course: an action research tuğba selani̇k ay2 ve handan deveci̇3 özet: bu araştırmanın temel amacı, ilköğretim okullarındaki sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarının nasıl uygulanacağını belirlemeye çalışmaktır. sosyal bilgiler dersiyle yaşamı bütünleştirmek, öğrenilenlerin gerçek yaşamda uygulanmasını sağlamak için öğrenme-öğretme sürecinde toplumsal kaynaklardan yararlanmak bir zorunluluk haline gelmektedir. sosyal bilgiler programı ile ilişkilendirilen yerel toplum çalışmaları öğrencilerin toplumsal kaynaklardan yararlanarak kalıcı öğrenmeler gerçekleştirmesine yardım eder. bu araştırmanın temel amacı, ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarının nasıl uygulanacağını belirlemeye çalışmaktır. araştırma 2008-2009 öğretim yılı bahar döneminde eskişehir ili alpu i̇lçesi merkez ertuğrulgazi i̇lköğretim okulunda 5/a sınıfına devam eden öğrencilerle gerçekleştirilmiştir. araştırmanın verileri kişisel bilgi formu, video kayıtları, yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşme, öğrenci günlükleri ve araştırmacı günlüğü ile toplanmıştır. araştırmanın verilerinden yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler, araştırmacı ve öğrenci günlükleri betimsel analiz yoluyla, video kayıtları makro ve mikro analizler yoluyla çözümlenmiştir. araştırma sonucunda yerel toplumda yer alan kurum ve kuruluşlardan yararlanma, yerel toplumda yer alan kişilerden yararlanma, internet ve kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanma, özel günler ve güncel olaylardan yararlanma kapsamında etkinlikler geliştirilmesinin ve öğrencilerin yerel toplum çalışmalarına katılımını sağlama yönünde etkinliklere yer verilmesinin sosyal bilgiler dersini daha etkili hale getirmeye katkı sağlayabileceği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. ayrıca sosyal bilgiler dersinde gerçekleştirilebilecek yerel toplum çalışmalarında öğretim sürecinin nasıl düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin sonuç ve öneriler belirlenmiştir. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler, yerel toplum çalışmaları, eylem araştırması journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 84 extended abstract social studies can be defined as “bonding process based on verification with social reality and dynamic information obtained as a result of this process”. in this context, it is essential to unify the social studies course with the real life and to benefit from the society in teaching-learning process in order to enable the learned information to be applied in the real life. in the social studies course, students should encounter with the real life itself. thus, students can produce multidimensional alternative solutions for the cases they encounter and they can explain the best solution with justifications. considering these arguments, it can be claimed that involving the subjects and studies related to the society and near environment in the social studies courses increases the effectiveness of social studies teaching. local community studies, which are associated with the social studies program by means of a detailed and good plan, can draw students’ attention and thus permanent learning can occur. in this sense, teachers should benefit from the local community studies in the social studies course which reflects the real life. the aim of this study is to determine how local community studies will be applied in social studies course in the primary education schools. in line with this aim, the following research questions were addressed: 1. how can the activities of a. benefitting from institutions and organizations in local communities b. benefitting from people in local communities c. using internet and library sources d. benefitting from special days and current events which are carried out in the social studies course taught with local community studies, be arranged? 2. do the local community studies help the students determine the problems in their environments and find out the solutions for these problems? 3. what are the students’ opinions about the social studies course taught with local community studies ? 4. does the social studies course taught with the local community studies change the students’ attitude towards the social studies course? the study was conducted with 13 students attending to 5/a in eskişehir/alpu ertugrulgazi primary school in the spring term of 2008-2009 academic years. training in the present study was given to all students in the class while three students in the class were selected as the focus of the study. for this study, the local community studies were applied in the social studies course for 11 weeks between 23 march 2009 and 03 june 2009 within the context of “the ones working for the society” and “one country, one flag” units. the data of the study were collected with different data collection tools, such as personal information form, video records, semi-structured interviews, document analysis, students diaries and researcher diary. the data collected from semi-structured interviews, student and researcher diaries were analyzed through descriptive analysis while video records were examined with macro and micro analyses. tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 85 the findings of the study were interpreted on the basis of the research questions, in this line; the conclusion and suggestions were written. the conclusions drawn considering the findings and the suggestions offered in the light of the conclusions were as follows: it is essential to design and develop activities within the context of benefitting from the institutions and organizations in the local community; benefitting from the people in the local community; using internet and library sources; benefitting from special days and current events, besides the participation to local community studies should be arranged systematically. moreover, to benefit from the institutions and organizations in the local communities, some activities such as organizing field trips or inviting local managers of the institutions and organizations can be carried out. the teachers can implement the activities such as inviting source person, verbal history, arranging history exhibition and activities with parents in order to enable the students benefit from the people in local community. it is necessary to design the activities for benefitting from internet and library sources. public library, school and class libraries should be enriched; moreover, any technical deficiencies in the information technologies classes should be made up. additionally, the special days such as national holidays and local independence days should be utilized. the students should be encouraged to relate the current events with the social studies course. the students should determine a problem in their environment and they should be supported to find out a solution for this problem. the teacher’s role in the teaching process is to ‘guide’, besides, the teacher should have roles to communicate with the source person before the activities, inform the source people about the aim of the study, guide the students and encourage the students. keywords: social studies, local community studies, action research giriş i̇lköğretimdeki pek çok ders arasında yaşama ilişkin bilgi ve becerileri kazandırmaya yönelik derslerden biri olan sosyal bilgiler dersi ile yaşamı bütünleştirmek, öğrenilenlerin gerçek yaşamda uygulanmasını sağlamak amaçlanmaktadır (sönmez, 2005). sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğrenci yaşamın kendisiyle karşı karşıya gelmeli, yaşamda karşı karşıya kaldığı durum için çok yönlü çözümler üretmeli ve en iyi çözümü gerekçeleriyle ortaya koyabilmelidir (gelen, 2002). burz ve marshall’a (1998) göre ilköğretim öğrencilerinin deneyimlerini çeşitlendirme öğrencilere bu dönemde analizler ve karşılaştırmalar yapabilmeleri için olanaklar sunar. öğrencilerden bu sınıf düzeyinde beklenen, vatandaşlık haklarını kullanarak gerçek bir durum ya da olay karşısında eyleme geçmeleri, vatandaşlık eylemlerinin yerel, ulusal ve evrensel etkilerini açıklamalarıdır. bunun yanı sıra öğrencilerin bu etkilerin farkında olmaları, toplum yararına olacak biçimde vatandaşlık görevini yerine getirmeleri, güncel bir olaya katılım ya da bu olay üzerinde etki yaratacak bir plan yapmaları ve uygulamaları da beklenir. sosyal journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 86 bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmaları kullanımı öğrencilere sosyal katılım becerisi kazandırmaya, toplum, güncel yaşam ve sosyal bilgiler dersi arasında bağ kurmaya yardımcı olabilir. sosyal bilgiler dersi ile bireylerin toplumsallaşması, içinde yaşadıkları toplumun sorunlarına duyarlı bireyler olarak yetişmesi sağlanmaya çalışılmaktadır. bu bağlamda etkili bir sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ancak toplumda yer alan tüm kaynakların sistemli biçimde işe koşulması ile gerçekleştirilebilir. yerel toplum çalışmaları; toplum tarihi, toplumun şu an ki durumu, toplumun gelecekteki konumu gibi konuları kapsayan, öğrencilerin içinde yaşadıkları toplumu ve çevrelerini anlamlandırmalarını sağlayan konu, içerik ve etkinlikler olarak tanımlanabilir. yerel toplum çalışmaları kapsamında tarih sergisi düzenleme, sözlü tarihten yararlanma, toplumda karşılaşılan olaylar, insanlar arasındaki etkileşimlerle ilgili günlük yazma, çeşitli kişi ve kurumlara inceleme gezileri düzenleme, gözlem yapma, kütüphane ve internetten yararlanma gibi etkinlikler gerçekleştirilebilir (savage ve armstrong, 1987). yerel toplum çalışmaları ile gerçekleştirilebilecek bu çalışmalar göz önünde bulundurulduğunda yerel toplum çalışmalarının yararları şu şekilde sıralanabilir. yerel toplum çalışmaları (kaltsounis, 1987); • sosyal bilgiler öğretimi için iyi bir laboratuar ortamı oluşturur, • sosyal bilgiler ile ilgili kavramların doğrudan ve etkili bir biçimde öğretimine yardım eder, • sosyal bilgiler kavramları ile öğrencilerin yaşamları arasında ilişki kurmasına olanak tanır, • öğrencilerin ilgisini çeker, • toplumla ilgili daha çok bilgi kazandırarak öğrencilerin daha iyi vatandaşlar olmalarını sağlar, • öğretme ve öğrenmenin öğrenci deneyimleri üzerinde yapılandırılmasına olanak tanır, • okul ve toplumu birbirine yaklaştırır, • entelektüel ve sosyal beceriler geliştirmeyi sağlar, • problem çözme becerilerinin gelişimini sağlar, • birlikte çalışma ve iyi insan ilişkileri kurmaya yardımcı olur, • yerel toplumun bir parçası olan özel ve kamu kurumlarının görevleri hakkında bilgi düzeyinin artmasını sağlar, • öğrencilerin gönüllü etkinliklere, toplum düzenlemelerinin bir üyesi olmaya dönük istek ve katılımlarını artırır. tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 87 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler programında öğrencilerin kazanmış olması beklenen bilgi, beceri, tutum ve değerler olarak tanımlanan kazanımların çoğunun yerel toplum çalışmaları ile ilgili olması nedeniyle sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmeöğrenme süreçleri düzenlenirken yerel toplum çalışmaları ile ilgili farklı etkinliklere yer verilmesi gerektiği söylenebilir. böylece öğrencilerin kendini, ailesini ve yakın çevresini tanımasına yönelik günlük yaşam bilgi ve becerilerinden oluşan sosyal bilgiler dersinde anlamlı ve kalıcı öğrenmeler gerçekleştirilmesi ve okul-toplum işbirliğinin sağlanması kolaylaşacaktır. bir başka deyişle ilköğretim programında yer alan bir ders olan sosyal bilgilerin günlük yaşama yaklaşacağı söylenebilir (deveci ve selanik ay, 2008). bu nedenle öğretmenler sosyal bilgiler dersi konuları ile ilişkilendirerek yerel toplum kaynaklarının etkili biçimde işe koşulmasını sağlamaya çalışmalı, bu amaçla kurum ve kuruluşlardan, okul çevresinde yaşayan kişilerden, internet ve kütüphane kaynaklarından, özel gün ve güncel olaylardan yararlanmaya yönelik etkinlikler planlamalıdır. sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmaları kullanımının dersin etkililiğini artıracağı, öğrencilerin günlük yaşamları ile sosyal bilgiler dersi arasında bağ kurmalarına yardımcı olacağı, haklarını bilen, çevresine karşı duyarlı, çevrelerinde gelişen sorunların farkında olan ve sorunları çözümleme girişiminde bulunan bireyler yetiştirmeye katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmekle birlikte, bu konuda araştırma sonuçlarına gereksinim duyulmaktadır. i̇lgili alanyazının incelenmesi sonucunda türkiye’de ve dünya’da yerel toplum çalışmalarını genel ve doğrudan ele alan az sayıda araştırmaya (alleman, knighton ve brophy, 2007; deveci, çengelci ve selanik ay, 2007) rastlanmıştır. i̇lgili alanyazında daha çok yerel toplum çalışmaları ile doğrudan ilgili çalışmaların yanı sıra yerel toplum çalışmaları kapsamında gerçekleştirilebilecek etkinlikler ile ilgili araştırmalar bulunmaktadır. bu kapsamda yer verilen araştırmalar alan gezisi (açıkgöz, 2006; demir ve özsoy eşki, 2010; farmer, knapp ve benton, 2007; kızılçaoğlu, 2003; mazman, 2007; yönev, 2008), sözlü tarih (lyons, 2007), aile katılımı, internet araştırmaları (roslynne, 2005), gazete kullanımı (munck, 2007; ünlüer, 2008) ve güncel olay kullanımı (arın, 2006; deveci, 2007; gürdoğan, bayır, 2010; haas ve laughlin, 2000) ile ilgili araştırmalardır. bu araştırma da yerel toplum çalışmaları etkinliklerinin sosyal bilgiler dersinde ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğini, yerel toplum çalışmalarına ilişkin öğrencilerin görüşlerini, yerel toplum çalışmalarının sosyal bilgiler dersinde journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 88 kullanımının öğrencilerin yaşadıkları çevredeki sorunları belirlemelerine ve bu sorunlara çözüm bulma girişiminde bulunmalarına katkı sağlayıp sağlamadığını belirlemeye yönelik olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. bu araştırmada gerçekleştirilen etkinlikler ile öğrencilerin dün, bugün ve gelecek arasında ilişki kurmaları, öğrencilerin toplumda ve çevrelerinde yer alan kaynaklardan etkili biçimde yararlanarak çevrelerindeki sorunları belirlemeleri ve bu sorunları çözme girişiminde bulunmaları hedeflenmektedir. yaşamın kendisini yansıtan sosyal bilgiler dersinden en üst düzeyde yararlanabilmek, etkili bir öğretim gerçekleştirebilmek bakımından sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarından ne şekilde yararlanılabileceğinin araştırılması, sosyal bilgiler derslerinin amaçlarına ulaşılması bakımından önem taşımaktadır. bu bağlamda bu araştırmanın sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarının ne şekilde uygulanabileceğine ilişkin olarak uygulayıcılara ve bu konuda yapılacak çalışmalara ışık tutacağı umulmaktadır. bu araştırmanın temel amacı, ilköğretim okullarındaki sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulanacak yerel toplum çalışmalarının nasıl uygulanacağını belirlemeye çalışmaktır. belirlenen bu temel amaca bağlı olarak aşağıdaki sorulara yanıt aranmıştır: • yerel toplum çalışmalarıyla işlenen sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplumda yer alan kurum ve kuruluşlardan yararlanma, yerel toplumda yer alan kişilerden yararlanma, internet ve kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanma, özel günler ve güncel olaylardan yararlanma etkinlikleri ne şekilde düzenlenebilir? • yerel toplum çalışmaları öğrencilerin, yaşadıkları çevredeki sorunları belirlemelerine ve bu sorunlara çözüm bulma girişiminde bulunmalarına yardım etmekte midir? • öğrencilerin yerel toplum çalışmalarıyla işlenen sosyal bilgiler dersine ilişkin görüşleri nelerdir? yöntem bu bölümde, araştırmanın modeli, eylem araştırması süreci, ortam, katılımcılar, verilerin toplanması ile verilerin çözümlenmesi ve yorumlanması alt başlıklarına yer verilmiştir. araştırma modeli “i̇lköğretim okullarındaki sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulanacak olan yerel toplum çalışmalarının nasıl uygulanacağını belirlemeye” yönelik olan bu araştırma, tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 89 incelenen durumun özeliğinden dolayı eylem araştırması biçiminde desenlenmiştir. eylem araştırması, bir sosyal durumu gözleyerek kaliteyi geliştirmeyi amaçlayan bir araştırma yöntemi olarak tanımlanmaktadır (elliot, 1991). bu araştırmada da sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarının kullanımı ile sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin niteliğinin artırılması amaçlanmıştır. öğrenme durumunun, sınıf ya da okul gibi gerçek ortamlarda anlaşılması ya da geliştirilmesine yönelik, eğitimin kalitesini artırmayı amaçlayan bir yöntem olan eylem araştırmasının (andrew, 2005) bu araştırmada uygulanması ile okul ile toplum arasındaki ilişkilerin güçlendirilmesi, böylece sosyal bilgiler dersinin yaşama yönelik bir ders olmasının öğretme-öğrenme süreçlerine yansıtılması planlanmıştır. araştırma sürecinde aşağıda şekil 1’de görülen eylem araştırması döngüsü gerçekleştirilmiştir. buna göre, araştırmanın diyalektik döngüsü şu şekildedir: sosyal bilgilerin günlük yaşamı konu edinen bir ders olması nedeniyle sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarından yararlanarak, toplumla iç içe bir sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğini, öğrencilerin ve araştırmacının bu çalışmalara ilişkin görüşlerinin belirlenmesini öngören bir araştırma önerisi hazırlanmış, öneri üç uzman tarafından incelenmiştir. alan uzmanları sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarından yararlanmanın alandaki bir eksikliği giderebileceğini, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin niteliğini artıracağını, derse yaşamsal bir önem katacağını belirtmiş, böylece odaklanılacak alan “sosyal bilgilerde yerel toplum çalışmalarından yararlanma” olarak belirlenmiştir. araştırmada veri toplama araçları olarak öğrenci journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 90 günlükleri, araştırmacı günlüğü, video kayıtları ve her etkinliğin sonunda odak öğrencilerle yapılan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler kullanılmıştır. yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmelerin çözümlenmesinde betimsel analizden, video kayıtlarının analizinde makro ve mikro analizden yararlanılmış, bütün veriler birlikte ele alınmış, araştırmacı ve öğrenci günlüklerinden doğrudan alıntılar yapılmıştır. her hafta düzenli olarak toplanan ve üç üyeden oluşan geçerlik komitesinde bir önceki hafta yapılan etkinliklerin video kayıtları, video kontrol listeleri ile izlenerek, çeşitli önerilerde bulunulmuş, yaşanan sorunlara ilişkin çözüm önerileri getirilmiş, karar defterine alınan kararlar yazılmıştır. geçerlik komitelerinden elde edilen verilere dayalı olarak eylem planları geliştirilerek yeniden uygulamaya konulmuş, veriler tekrar toplanarak analiz edilmiştir. bu şekilde veriler birbirini tekrarlar hale gelene kadar çalışmalar devam etmiş, elde edilen bulgulara dayalı olarak sonuç ve önerilerin yazılması ile araştırma tamamlanmıştır. geçerlik komitesi kararları araştırmanın eylem döngüsünü önemli ölçüde etkilediğinden geçerlik toplantısının ardından bir komite karar defteri tutulmuştur. bu deftere toplantıda ele alınan görüşmelerin yansıttığı açıklamalar ‘bulgular’ başlığında, toplantıda verilen kararlar ise ‘karar’ başlığı altında yazmıştır. katılımcılar çalışma, birinci araştırmacının sınıf öğretmeni olarak görev yaptığı eskişehir i̇li alpu i̇lçesi ertuğrulgazi i̇lköğretim okulu 5/a sınıfı’nda 13 öğrenci üzerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. etkinliklerin tüm sınıfta uygulanmasına karşın süreç içinde örnekleme alınan öğrencilere odaklanılmış ve bu öğrencilerin sınıf uygulamalarına katılımı ile yerel toplum çalışmaları kapsamında oluşturdukları öğrenci ürünleri incelenmiştir. bu bağlamda üst, orta ve alt seviye odak öğrenciler belirlenmiş, odak öğrenci görüşmelerinde bu öğrenciler ile görüşmeler gerçekleştirilmiştir. araştırmada belirlenen temel ölçüt, öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersindeki başarısı, yerel toplum çalışmalarına olan ilgisidir. uygulama öncesinde öğrencilere yerel olanaklardan yararlanmalarını gerektiren görevler verilerek öğrenciler ve öğrenci ürünleri gözlenmiş, bu gözlemlerinden yola çıkarak öğrencilerin bu çalışmalara ilgileri belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. verilerin toplanması araştırma ilköğretim 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi programında yer alan ‘gruplar kurumlar ve sosyal örgütler’ öğrenme alanı ‘toplum i̇çin çalışanlar’ ünitesi ve ‘güç, yönetim ve toplum’ öğrenme alanı ‘bir ülke, bir bayrak’ ünitesi tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 91 kapsamında gerçekleştirilmiştir. belirlenen bu iki ünite, yerel toplum çalışmalarına dayalı etkinliklerle işlenmiştir. yapılan etkinliklere ilişkin bilgiler tablo 1’de sunulmaktadır. tablo 1: etkinlik listesi etkinliğin adı tarih/ders saati kütüphane araştırması 16.03.2009 (2) kaynak kişi davet etme (zabıta) 19.03.2009 (1) kaynak kişi davet etme (halk eğitim merkezi müdür yardımcısı) 23.03.2009 (1) kaynak kişi davet etme (polis) 26.03.2009 (2) sunu hazırlama (sivil toplum kuruluşları) 30.03.2009 (2) kitap toplama kampanyası 02.04.2009 (2) dosya hazırlama (tema) 06.04.2009 (2) engellilere yardım etkinliği 09.04.2009 (1) çevre bilinçlendirme ve ağaçlandırma kampanyası 13.04.2009 (2) bağımsız öğrenci etkinliği 16.04.2009 (1) yasalar çalışma yaprağı 20.04.2009 (1) 23 nisan ulusal egemenlik ve çocuk bayramı etkinliği 23.04.2009 (yaklaşık 2 ders saati) sözlü tarih 27.04.2009 (2) sınıf anayasası düzenleme 30.04.2009 (1) mahalle modeli oluşturma 04.05.2009 (1) alan gezisi düzenleme (i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürlüğü) 07.05.2009 (1) dosya oluşturma (bakanlıklar) 11.05.2009 (2) dosya oluşturma (cumhurbaşkanlarımız) 14.05.2009 (1) sınıf meclisi 18.05.2009 (1) journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 92 tatbikat ve drama 21.05.2009 (2) tarih sergisi düzenleme 25.05.2009 (2) aile anayasası düzenleme 28.05.2009 (1) uygulama sürecinde kişisel bilgi formu, video kayıtları, yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşme, öğrenci günlükleri, araştırmacı günlüğü olmak üzere farklı veri kaynaklarından bilgi toplanmıştır. yapılan alan gezileri uygulamanın gerçekleştirildiği okulun ilçe merkezindeki resmi kurumlar ile aynı mahallede yer alan bir okul olması, araştırmacı tarafından gezi öncesinde kurumlarla iletişime geçilmesi, gerekli kişiler ile randevu saatlerini ayarlaması, gezi süresinin önceden öğrenci ve ilgililere duyurulması bir başka deyişle önceden yapılan iyi bir planlama ile yukarıda belirtilen ders saatleri içerisinde tamamlanmıştır. özellikle alan gezilerinin uygulanması sırasında ilçe merkezindeki bir okulda uygulama yapılmasının yarattığı ulaşım kolaylığı çalışmaya olumlu biçimde yansımıştır. ancak alan gezilerinin il merkezindeki okullarda gerçekleştirilmesinde ulaşım zorluğu nedeniyle ders saatinin yeterli olmaması gibi sorunlar yaşanabilir. bu sorun alan gezilerinin planlama ve değerlendirme aşamalarının sınıfta sosyal bilgiler ders saati içinde, gezi aşamasının ise ders saatlerinin dışında yapılması, gezi süresinin amaca yönelik olarak sınırlı tutulması ile çözülebilir. bunun yanı sıra alan gezilerinde okulların profesyonel şirketlerle çalışarak gerekli hizmetleri bu şirketlerden almaları sağlanabilir. tüm kurum ve kuruluşlarda okullarla iletişim sağlayabilecek birimler açılabilir. bu birimlerin öğrencilere rehberlik etmesi ve onları bilgilendirmesi, öğrenciler ile kurum yöneticilerinin görüşmesi için randevu ayarlaması sağlanabilir. böylece okul ile toplum arasındaki kopukluğun giderilmesine yönelik olarak kurum ve kuruluşlarda katkı sağlamış olur. öğrencilerin grupla ya da bireysel olarak okul dışında çalışmalar yapmalarına olanak sağlamak amacıyla, milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından etüd merkezleri açılabilir. alan gezisi dışındaki etkinlikler de yine öğretmenin ve öğrencilerin önceden yaptıkları planlamalar doğrultusunda ilgili ders saatlerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. yapılan araştırmanın geçerlik ve güvenirliği ile ilgili olarak inandırıcılığının sağlanabilmesi için araştırma verileri toplam 11 haftalık bir süreç içerisinde toplanmıştır. araştırma sürecinde toplanan verilerin analizleri düzenli olarak tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 93 yapılmıştır. böylece, her hafta toplanan verilerin kontrolü sağlanmış her hafta toplanan geçerlik komitesinde belirlenen sorun ya da eksikliklere yönelik çözüm önerileri oluşturulmuştur. araştırmanın planlanması, uygulanması ve sonuçlandırılması aşamalarında gerek alan bilgisi gerekse nitel araştırma konularında uzman görüşlerine başvurulmuştur. araştırma verilerinin analizleri uzman kişilerin görüş birliğine dayanarak gerçekleştirilmiş ve sonuçların uzmanlarla paylaşılarak onların görüş ve önerilerinin alınması yoluna gidilmiştir. araştırma verileri eylem araştırmasının farklı veri toplama araçlarına dayandırılarak toplanmış ve birbirleriyle ilişkileri göz önünde tutulmuştur. araştırmada aktarılabilirliğin sağlanması amacıyla açık ve anlaşılır bir dil kullanılmasına özen gösterilmiştir. tutarlılık boyutu ile ilgili olarak araştırmada, kavramların ortak biçimde ele alınması sağlanmıştır. onaylanabilirlik için sonuçlar birbirini destekleyen verilerin uygulama sürecinde gerçekleştirilen her bir etkinlik için ard arda verilmesi ile açık biçimde ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. geçerlik çalışmasına yönelik olarak nitel araştırma ve alan uzmanlarından oluşan bir geçerlik komitesi oluşturulmuştur. verilerin çözümlenmesi ve yorumlanması bu araştırmada elde edilen verilerin bir kısmı verilerin toplanma aşamasında düzenli olarak analiz edilmiştir. etkinliklerin tamamlanmasının ardından tekrar analiz edilen verilerin birbiri ile olan ilişkisi ve tutarlılığı analiz edilmiştir. öğretim etkinlikleri video ile kaydedilmiştir. video kayıtlarının makro analizleri için her hafta düzenli olarak video kayıtlarının genel bir dökümü yapılmış, makro analizler her hafta komite üyelerine sunulmuştur. komite üyeleri video kontrol listelerini kullanarak uygulayıcıyı, öğrencileri ve öğrenme ortamını gözlemlemişlerdir. uygulama sonunda kayıtların mikro analizleri yapılmıştır. mikro analizler sonucu ulaşılan veriler araştırmanın diğer verileriyle birlikte ele alınarak analiz edilmiştir. analiz sürecinde uzman görüşleri alınarak tema ve alt temalar belirlenmiştir. araştırma sürecinde her hafta gerçekleştirilen uygulamaların ardından video kayıtlarının ilgili bölümlerinin dökümü yapılmıştır. video kayıtlarının genel bir tanıtımının yapılması ve önemli olabilecek yerlerin belirlenmesi amacıyla makro analizler gerçekleştirilmiştir. her etkinliğin bitiminde odak öğrenciler ile görüşme gerçekleştirilmiştir. yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmelerin çözümlenmesinde “betimsel analiz”den yararlanılmıştır. video kaydı dökümlerinin ve görüşme kayıtlarının doğrulanması için bir alan uzmanından yardım alınmıştır. uzman, araştırma verisinin %20’sini bağımsız olarak incelemiş, daha sonra araştırmacının yaptığı dökümler ile journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 94 karşılaştırmıştır. yapılan karşılaştırmalar sonucunda dökümlerin birbiri ile tutarlı olduğu belirlenmiş, tema ve kodların belirlenmesinde araştırmacı ile uzman arasında görüş birliğine varılmıştır. bulgular bu bölümde araştırma kapsamında elde edilen bulgulara yer verilmiştir. bulgular, oluşturulan temaların araştırmanın amaçlarıyla ilişkilendirilmesi biçiminde yapılandırılmıştır. araştırmanın uygulama süreci şekil 2’de verilmiştir. şekil 2. araştırmanın uygulama süreci uygulama süreci uygulama öncesi süreç yerel toplumda yer alan kurum ve kuruluşlardan yararlanmaya yönelik etkinlikler yerel toplumda yer alan kurum ve kuruluşlardan yararlanmaya yönelik etkinlikler i̇nternet ve kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanmaya yönelik etkinlikler özel gün ve güncel olaylardan yararlanmaya yönelik etkinlikler odak öğrencilerin belirlenmesi etkinliklerin sonunda öğrencilerin ve araştırmacının günlüklerini yazması etkinliklerin sonunda odak öğrenciler i̇le görüşmeler yapılması uygulama sonrası geçerlik komitesinin önerileri doğrultusunda eylem planlarının geliştirilmesi tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 95 yerel toplum çalışmaları kapsamında gerçekleştirilen etkinlikler bu bölümde yerel toplumda yer alan kurum ve kuruluşlardan yararlanma, yerel toplumda yer alan kişilerden yararlanma, internet ve kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanma, özel günler ve güncel olaylardan yararlanma ile ilgili olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerle ilgili bulgular sunulmaktadır. bulguların sunumunda etkinlik sırasında, öğrenci günlükleri, öğrencilerle görüşme, araştırmacı günlüğü, öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri sırası izlenmiştir. yerel toplumda yer alan kurum ve kuruluşlardan yararlanmaya yönelik olarak, gezi ve görüşme etkinlikleri; yerel toplumda yer alan kişilerden yararlanmaya yönelik olarak kaynak kişi daveti, sözlü tarih, tarih sergisi, aile katılımına yönelik etkinlikler; özel gün ve güncel olaylardan yararlanmaya ilişkin olarak çeşitli bayram törenleri ve gazetelerden yararlanmaya yönelik etkinlikler; internet ve kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanmaya yönelik olarak ise kütüphane araştırmaları, internet araştırmaları ve dosya oluşturma etkinlikleri gerçekleştirilmiştir. eylem araştırmasının gelişimsel bir model olması nedeniyle bulgular ilk etkinlikten başlayarak öğrencilerde oluşan gelişimin daha net anlaşılabilmesi için etkinliklerin tarih sırasına göre verilmiştir. yerel toplumda yer alan kurum ve kuruluşlardan yararlanma etkinlikleri araştırmada yerel toplumda yer alan kurum ve kuruluşlardan yararlanma ile ilgili olarak alan gezisi ve görüşme etkinlikleri gerçekleştirilmiş, araştırma kapsamında elde edilen bulgular aşağıda sunulmuştur. i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürlüğü’ne düzenlenen “alan gezisi” etkinliği sırasında öğrenciler yerel yönetim ve merkez yönetim birimlerinin yapısı ve i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürlüğü’nün görevleri gibi meraklarını uyandıran konulara ilişkin bilgi edinmişlerdir. bir öğrenci görüşme bitiminde okulda belirlediği bir sorunu çözme girişiminde bulunmuş, okulda fotokopi makinesi ile ilgili olarak toner ve kâğıt yetersizliği sorununun çözümünde i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürü’nün yardımını istemiştir. öğrenci günlüklerinde öğrenciler bu etkinliğin görüşme yapma becerilerine katkıda bulunduğunu, konuya ilişkin bilgi edinmelerini sağladığını, kaynak kişiye karşı daha önce duydukları korku ve çekinme duygularının yok olduğunu, i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürlüğü’nün nasıl bir yer olduğunu gördüklerini, meraklarını giderilmesine yardımcı olduğunu, okulla ilgili sorunlarını çözmelerine journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 96 yardımcı olduğunu ifade etmişlerdir. odak öğrenciler ile yapılan görüşmelerde, öğrenciler bu etkinliğin toplantı odasında gerçekleştirilmesinin ve i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürü’nün kendilerini önemsemesinin hoşlarına gittiğini, merak ettikleri soruların yanıtlarını öğrenmelerine katkı sağladığını, i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürlüğü’nün nasıl bir yer olduğunu gördüklerini belirtmişlerdir. ancak görüşmenin çok uzun sürmesi nedeniyle dikkatlerinin dağıldığını ve kimi sorularda kullanılan terimlerden dolayı bazı yanıtları anlayamadıklarını belirtmişlerdir. araştırmacı günlüğünde öğrencilerin etkinlikten genel olarak memnun olarak ayrıldığı ancak görüşme süresinin çok uzaması nedeniyle öğrencilerin dikkatlerinin dağıldığı ifade edilmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak bir öğrenci, i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürlüğü alan gezisi sırasında i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürüne okulda fotokopi makinesinin toneri ve fotokopi kâğıdı konusunda sıkıntı çekildiğini ve bu sorunun çözümü için yardımcı olup olamayacağını sormuştur. bu durum yapılan etkinliğin öğrencilerin çevrelerinde yaşanan bir sorunu belirlemelerine ve çözmelerine katkıda bulunduğu biçiminde ifade edilebilir. alan gezilerinin ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; alan gezilerinde öğretim süreci ile ilgili olarak; öğrencilerin ilgi ve gereksinimleri göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır. gidilecek yeri öğretmen gezi öncesinde belirlemeli, gerekli düzenlemeleri yapmalı, gidilecek yer bir kurum ya da kuruluş ise yöneticiler ile iletişime geçmeli, yöneticiler gezinin amacı ve kendilerinden beklenenler konusunda bilgilendirmelidir. öğrenciler gezi öncesinde, gezinin amacı ve gezide dikkat edilmesi gereken noktalar konusunda bilgilendirilmeli ve cesaretlendirilmelidir. yerel toplumda yer alan kişilerden yararlanma etkinlikleri araştırma kapsamında yerel toplumda yer alan kaynak kişilerden yararlanmaya ilişkin olarak kaynak kişi davet etme (zabıta, halk eğitim merkezi müdür yardımcısı ve polis), sözlü tarih, aile anayasası ve tarih sergisi etkinliği düzenlenmiştir. zabıta, halk eğitim merkezi müdür yardımcısı ve polis, ilgili konular kapsamında sınıfa kaynak kişi olarak davet edilmiştir. “kaynak kişi davet etme (zabıta)” etkinliği sırasında öğrenciler zabıtanın kaynak kişi olarak davet edilmesi sonucunda beslenme ile ilgili kurumlar konusunda bilgi edindiklerini, zabıtanın görevlerini öğrenmelerini sağladığını, görüşme sorusu hazırlamayı öğrenmelerine katkıda bulunduğunu ve görüşme yapma becerilerini geliştirdiğini belirtmişlerdir. tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 97 öğrenci günlüklerinde öğrenciler bu etkinlik ile öğrendiklerini unutmayacaklarını, bu etkinliğin hem eğlenceli olduğunu hem de günlük yaşamları üzerinde etkisi olduğunu, satın aldıkları malların son kullanma tarihine baktıklarını, bu konuda bir sorun ile karşılaşırlarsa zabıtaya başvurabileceklerini ifade etmişlerdir. odak öğrencilerle yapılan görüşmelerde öğrenciler sınıfa bir uzmanın kaynak kişi olarak davet edilmesinin konuyla ilgili merak ettiklerini öğrenmelerine, dersin daha ilgi çekici olmasına katkıda bulunduğunu ve bu etkinliğin sonunda vatandaşlık haklarını öğrendiklerini ve kullanacaklarını belirtmişlerdir. araştırmacı günlüğünde etkinliğin öğrencilerin ilgisini çektiği, öğrencilerin görüşme öncesinde hazırladıkları soruların yanı sıra görüşme sırasında da merak ettikleri konular ile ilgili sorular yönelttikleri, ders sonunda öğrenilenlerin özetlenmesi sırasında öğrencilerin beslenme ile ilgili kurumlar konusunu anladıklarının gözlendiği belirtilmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak zabıtanın kaynak kişi olarak davet edilmesinden bir süre sonra, öğrencilerin tarihi geçmiş bir ürünü bakkalın değiştirmemesi üzerine belediyeye giderek dükkân sahibini zabıtaya şikâyet etmeleri, hem ürünün değiştirilmesini hem de dükkân sahibinin ceza almasını sağlamaları ile öğrencilerin öğrenilenleri günlük yaşamlarına transfer ettikleri, bir sorun belirleme ve çözme girişiminde bulundukları söylenebilir. kaynak kişi davetlerinin ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; öğretmenler davetten önce kaynak kişiyi tarih ve saat, görüşmenin konusu ve süresi, davetin amacı gibi konularda bilgilendirmelidir. öğrenciler de kaynak kişinin gelme amacı konusunda bilgilendirilerek, öğrencilerin sorular hazırlamaları sağlanmalıdır. kaynak kişi davetinin amacına ulaşabilmesi için hazırlanan sorular sınıfta paylaşılmalı ve önemli görülenler seçilmelidir. bunun yanı sıra öğrencilere görüşme sırasında merak ettikleri soruları sorabilecekleri belirtilerek kaynak kişi ile iletişimleri desteklenmelidir. görüşme bitiminde öğrenciler ile bu görüşme sonucunda neler öğrenildiği ve etkinliğin ne gibi katkılarının olduğu tartışılmalıdır. “sözlü tarih” etkinliği sırasında öğrenciler yaşlı kişilerle görüşme yapmış, görüşmelerini kamera ile kayıt altına almış, sözlü tarih etkinliklerini hazırladıkları görsellerle zenginleştirerek sınıfta sunmuşlardır. sözlü tarih sunumları ardından yapılan sınıf tartışmalarında eski gelenekler, günümüz ve geleceğe ilişkin tartışmalar gerçekleştirilmiş, karşılaştırmalar yapılmıştır. bu durum, sözlü tarih etkinliğinin öğrencilerin geçmiş, bugün ve gelecek arasında bağ kurmasına katkı getirdiği journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 98 biçiminde yorumlanabilir. bunun yanı sıra öğrenciler bu etkinlikte gruplar halinde çalışmışlardır. öğrenci günlüklerinde öğrenciler bu etkinlik ile görüşme yapmayı, kamera ile çekim yapmayı, sunu hazırlamayı, grupla çalışmayı öğrendiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. odak öğrencilerle yapılan görüşmelerde duyuşsal boyutla ilgili olarak öğrencilerin çoğu yaşlı insanlara karşı daha çok yakınlık duyduklarını, onların anlattıkları şeylerin ilgilerini çektiğini, bilgilerinin çokluğu karşısında şaşırdıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. bu bağlamda, etkinliğin nesiller arasındaki duygusal bağın güçlenmesine katkı sağladığı söylenebilir. bunun yanı sıra yapılan etkinlikle ilgili olarak öğrenciler sözlü tarih çalışmasını çok sevdiklerini, kendilerini gazeteci gibi hissettiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. araştırmacı günlüğünde araştırmacı öğrencilerin hazırladığı sözlü tarih sunumlarından çok etkilendiğini belirtmiş, görsellik, sunum yapma becerisi, araştırma, dil kullanma becerisi, özgünlük, araştırma sorularının uygunluğu gibi ölçütler açısından değerlendirildiğinde öğrencilerin bu çalışmalarını çok başarılı bulduğunu ifade etmiştir. öğrencilerin çalışma sürecinde karşılaştıkları sorunlar karşısında vazgeçmemelerini, gruplarıyla uyum içinde çalışmalarını ve işbölümü yapmalarını bu etkinliğin yararları olarak belirtmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak öğrenciler sözlü tarih görüşmeleri yapabilmek için yaşlı bir kişi ararlarken pek çok sorunla karşılaştıklarını ancak komşularına, akrabalarına, ailelerine sorarak bu kişileri bulmaya çalıştıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. bir grup öğrenci de yağan yağmur nedeniyle görüşme yapacakları kişiye ulaşamamaları sonucunda, camiden çıkan bir grup yaşlı kişinin otobüs durağında oturmalarını sağlayarak görüşmelerini gerçekleştirdiklerini ve kayıt altına aldıklarını belirtmişlerdir. öğrenciler karşılaştıkları sorunların çözümünde yakın çevrelerinde yer alan kişilerden yararlanmış, karşılaştıkları sorunları çözmek için çaba harcamışlardır. bu durum yapılan etkinliğin öğrencilerin sorun çözmelerine katkıda bulunduğu biçiminde yorumlanabilir. sözlü tarih çalışmalarının ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; sözlü tarih etkinlikleri yapılmadan önce öğrencilerin; araştırma yapma, görüşme soruları hazırlama, görüşme yapma, görüşmeleri kayıt altına alma, sunu hazırlama, sunum yapma gibi konularda gerekli becerileri kazanmış olmaları gerekir. sözlü tarih etkinlikleri sonunda öğrenilenlerin tartışılması, geçmiş ve günümüz arasında bağ kurulması, geleceğe ilişkin tahminde bulunulması için öğrencilerin yönlendirilmesi gerekir. tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 99 “tarih sergisi” etkinliği sırasında öğrenciler tarih sergisi için eskiden kullanılan eşya, fotoğraf, belge, gazete, mektup gibi materyaller araştırırken çevrelerinde yer alan kişilerle, komşularıyla, akrabalarıyla iletişime geçmişlerdir. bu sayede yerel toplumda yer alan kişilerden yararlanmışlardır. tarih sergisi etkinliği ile geçmiş zamanlarda kullanılan eşyalar günümüzde kullanılanlar ile karşılaştırılmış, gelecekte kullanılabilecek eşyalara ilişkin tahminlerde bulunulmuştur. öğrenciler günlüklerinde tarih sergisini çok sevdiklerini ifade ederlerken öğrencilerin çoğu daha önce müzeye gitmediklerini belirtmiş ve okulun bir müze gibi olduğunu söylemişlerdir. odak öğrencilerle yapılan görüşmelerde öğrencilerin sergide en çok dikkatini çeken eşyalar çanakkale gazisinin fotoğrafı, osmanlı tapuları, tapularda yazan eski yazı, kömür ile çalışan ütü, eski paralar ve eski daktilo olarak belirtilmiştir. araştırmacı günlüğünde yapılan tarih sergisinin öğrencilerin geçmişte toplumsal yaşam, teknolojinin gelişimi gibi konularda bilgi edinmesine katkıda bulunduğu, öğrencilerin geçmiş ve günümüz arasında bağ kurmasını ve geleceğe ilişkin tahminde bulunmasını sağladığı belirtilmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak öğrenciler tarih sergisinde kullanacakları eski eşyaları bulmada sorun yaşamışlar; ancak aileleri, akrabaları ve komşuları ile iletişime geçerek sergi için gerekli eşyaları bulmuşlardır. tarih sergilerinin ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; tarih sergisi öncesinde öğretmenler, öğrencileri eski eşyaların hangi zamandan kalmış olduğu, kimden edinildiği, ne amaçla kullanıldığı konusunda araştırma yapmaları ve sergi sırasında eşyaları tanıtırken bu bilgilerden yararlanmaları için uyarmalıdır. öğretmenler geçmiş zamanlarda kullanılan eşyaların yerine günümüzde ne gibi eşyalar kullanıldığı ya da bazı eşyaların teknolojik gelişimi konularında öğrencilerin tahminlerde bulunmalarını sağlamalıdır. tarih sergisi ile öğrencilerin geçmiş ve günümüz arasında bağ kurmaları ve geleceğe ilişkin tahminde bulunmaları, toplum tarihinin korunması ve aktarılması yönünde katkı sağlamaları için öğretmen rehber olmalıdır. “aile anayasası” etkinliği sırasında öğrenciler ailede benimsenecek kurallara ilişkin hazırladıkları aile anayasalarındaki maddelere oylama yoluyla ailece karar verdiklerini belirtmişlerdir. bu durum öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğrenilenleri günlük yaşamda uygulamalarının bir göstergesi olarak kabul edilebilir. öğrenci günlüklerinde öğrenciler aileleri ile etkinlik yapmaktan mutluluk duyduklarını ifade etmişlerdir. odak öğrencilerle yapılan görüşmelerde öğrenciler journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 100 yapılan etkinliğin yararına ilişkin olarak ailede demokrasiyi sağladığını ifade etmişlerdir. evde alınan kararlarda daha önce söz sahibi değilken bu etkinlik ile evde alınan kararlarda söz sahibi olduklarını bu bağlamda etkinliği çok sevdiklerini belirtmişlerdir. araştırmacı günlüğünde araştırmacı öğrencilerin aileleri ile çalışma yapmaktan memnun olduklarını, etkinliği eğlenceli bulduklarını gözlemlediğini belirtmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak öğrencilerin çoğu bu etkinliğin, aileleri ile yaşadıkları sorunları çözmelerine yardımcı olan bir etkinlik olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. bu etkinliğin evde işbölümü sağlama, alınan kararlarda söz sahibi olma yönünde katkılar getirdiğini ifade etmişlerdir. aile anayasası etkinliğinin ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; öğrencilerin aileleri ile birlikte bir görevi yerine getirmeleri, öğrenmeleri ve karar almaları, bilgi ve düşüncelerini paylaşmaları, sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğrendikleri demokrasi gibi kavramları aile yaşamlarında uygulamaları sağlanmalıdır. bu bağlamda öğretmenler aile anayasası gibi etkinliklerin öncesinde ailelerle görüşerek ya da aileleri hazırladıkları yönergeler ile yapılacak etkinlikler konusunda bilgilendirerek, etkinliklerde ailelerin rol ve sorumluluklarını açıklamalıdır. gerek sınıfta ailelerin katılımıyla, gerekse evde aileler ile öğrencilerin birlikte çalışmasına olanak sağlayabilecek etkinliklerle bu çalışmalar yürütülmelidir. i̇nternet ve kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanma etkinlikleri araştırma kapsamında internet ve kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanmaya ilişkin olarak kütüphane araştırması, dosya hazırlama (tema, bakanlıklar, cumhurbaşkanlarımız), sunu hazırlama (sivil toplum kuruluşları) etkinlikleri düzenlenmiştir. “sunu hazırlama (sivil toplum kuruluşları)” etkinliği sırasında öğrenciler internetten ve kütüphaneden sivil toplum kuruluşları ve çalışma alanlarını araştırarak power point sunuları hazırlamışlar, sunularını görseller ve çeşitli kitle iletişim araçlarından buldukları haberlerle zenginleştirmişlerdir. sunumlarının ardından bu haberleri tartışmışlardır. öğrenci günlüklerinde öğrenciler yapılan etkinliğin internette araştırma yapma becerilerinin gelişimi, sivil toplum kuruluşları ve etkinlik alanlarına ilişkin bilgi edinme, grupla çalışma, internetten araştırma yapma, sunum yapma yönünde katkılar sağladığını belirtmişlerdir. odak öğrencilerle yapılan görüşmelerde öğrenciler bu etkinlikten önce sivil toplum kuruluşları ile ilgili tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 101 haberler duyduklarında anlamadıklarını, bu etkinlikten sonra sivil toplum örgütlerini ve çalışma alanlarını öğrendiklerini ifade ederek, gelecekte bir sivil toplum kuruluşunda çalışmak istediklerini söylemişlerdir. öğrenciler bu etkinliğin sunu hazırlama ve sunum yapma becerilerinin gelişimini sağladığını belirtmişlerdir. araştırmacı, günlüğünde öğrencilerin gruplar halinde hazırladığı sunumları beğendiğini ve öğrencilerin uygulamanın ilk haftaları ile karşılaştırıldığında daha çok tartışmaya başladığını gözlemlediğini belirtmiştir. araştırmacı, günlüğünde sunuların hem içerik hem de görsel boyut açısından son derece nitelikli olduğunu ifade ederek, öğrencilerin birbirlerinin çalışmalarını eleştirmelerinin ve getirilen haberleri tartışmalarının ders sürecine katkılarını belirtmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak; öğrenciler etkinlik sırasında getirdikleri haberleri tartışırken alpu’da engelli vatandaşlar için kaldırım ve resmi binalarda gerekli düzenlemelerin olmamasını bir sorun olarak belirlemişlerdir. bu sorunu çözmek amacıyla sınıfla birlikte dilekçe yazmaya ve belediye başkanı ile görüşmeye giderek dilekçeyi kendisine vermeye karar vermişlerdir. bu durum yapılan etkinliğin öğrencilerin yaşadıkları çevrede bir sorun belirlemelerine ve çözmelerine katkıda bulunmuştur. öğretim sürecinde internet destekli uygulamaların ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; öğrencilerin internet araştırmaları yapmalarını gerektiren etkinliklerde, öğretmenler internet sitelerinde etkinlik öncesinde araştırma yaparak, konuya ilişkin yeterli kaynak bulunup bulunmadığını, öğrenciler için uygun internet sitelerini, konuyla ilgili resmi kurumların internet sitelerini incelemelidir. etkinlik öncesinde öğrencilere dağıttığı yönergeler ile öğrencilere bazı internet sitelerinin adreslerini örnek olarak vermelidir. öğretmenler internet araştırmaları sırasında ilgili ve ilgisiz, önemli ve önemsiz bilgileri ayırt etme, internetten araştırma yapma, edinilen bilgileri özetleme, sunu hazırlama gibi konularda öğrencilere rehber olmalıdır. “dosya oluşturma etkinlikleri” kapsamında öğrenciler tema; bakanlıklar ve cumhurbaşkanlarımız ile ilgili dosya oluşturma etkinlikleri gerçekleştirmişlerdir. dosya oluşturma (tema) etkinliği sırasında tema ve tema’nın çalışmaları öğrencilerin ilgilerini çekmiştir. öğrenciler tema ve tema’nın yürüttüğü kampanyaları araştırmış, görsellerle zenginleştirerek sunular hazırlamışlar, tema ile ilgili çeşitli kitle iletişim araçlarından buldukları haberleri sınıfa getirerek ders sonunda tartışmışlardır. öğrencilerden biri alpu i̇lçe orman bölge müdürlüğü’ne journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 102 giderek yapacakları ağaçlandırma çalışması için fidan verip veremeyeceklerini sormuştur. öğrenci günlüklerinde öğrencilerin çoğu, konuları araştırarak daha iyi öğrendiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. öğrenciler etkinlik sonunda belirledikleri sorun çözme yönünde yapacakları çalışmaya ilişkin çok heyecanlandıklarını, çevrelerinde bir şeyleri değiştirecekleri için çok mutlu olduklarını belirtmişlerdir. odak öğrenciler ile yapılan görüşmelerde öğrenciler bu etkinlikten önce yerlere çöp attıklarını ancak tema ve etkinlik alanını öğrendikten sonra çevrelerine karşı daha duyarlı bireyler olduklarını belirterek bu etkinliğin günlük yaşamları üzerinde etkili olduğunu söylemişlerdir. bu etkinliğin araştırma becerilerinin gelişimine katkı sağladığını, bilgi edindiklerini, kendi hareketleri ile diğer insanlara örnek olmak istediklerini ifade etmişlerdir. araştırmacı günlüğünde öğrencilerin dosya hazırlamalarının ardından birbirlerinin çalışmalarını eleştirdiği, eleştirirken de biçimsel ve içerik yönünden ders öncesinde belirtilen ölçütleri göz önünde bulundurdukları belirtilmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak derste gerçekleşen tartışmalar sırasında öğrenciler alpu’da çevre bilincinin yeterince gelişmediğini, yeterince ağaçlandırma yapılmadığını, okul bahçesinden başlayarak alpu’da çevre kirliliğinin olduğunu ifade etmişlerdir. bu etkinliğin sonunda belirlenen bu sorunlara yönelik olarak; bahçe temizliği, fidan dikme çalışması yapılmasına ve ilçe halkını bilinçlendirmek için çevre ile ilgili sloganlar yazılarak pankartlar hazırlanıp, ilçenin her yerine asılmasına karar verilmiştir. bu durum, etkinliğin; öğrencilerin yaşadıkları çevrede sorunlar belirleyerek, çözme girişiminde bulunmalarına katkı sağlamıştır. dosya oluşturma etkinliklerinin ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; etkinlik öncesinde öğrenciler dosya değerlendirme ölçütleri konusunda bilgilendirilmelidir. i̇çerik, görsellik, sunum gibi çeşitli sınıflamalar yapılarak öğrencilerin dosya oluşturmada nelere dikkat etmesi gerektiği vurgulanmalıdır. öğrencilerin kendi dosyalarını ve birbirlerinin dosyalarını belirlenen ölçütler doğrultusunda eleştirmeleri sağlanmalıdır. “çalışma yaprağı (yasalar)” etkinliği sırasında öğrenciler sözlük, ansiklopedi, dergi, internet gibi pek çok farklı kaynaktan ünite ile ilgili verilen temel kavramları araştırmıştır. çalışmanın öğrencilerin farklı kaynaklardan araştırma yapma, aynı kavramın farklı tanımlarını karşılaştırma, ilgili ve ilgisiz, önemli ve önemsiz bilgileri ayırma gibi yönlerden katkı sağladığı söylenebilir. öğrenci günlüklerinde öğrenciler bu etkinlik ile aynı anda birden fazla kaynaktan araştırma tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 103 yapmanın; bilgileri sınıflandırma, gereksiz ve ilgisiz bilgileri ayırt etme, kitaplardan araştırma yapma, internetten araştırma yapma gibi becerilerinin gelişimine katkıda bulunduğunu belirtmişlerdir. bu etkinlikle öğrendikleri kavramların tanımını kendi ifadeleri ile yapmayı başka derslerde gerçekleştireceklerini ifade etmişlerdir. odak öğrenciler ile yapılan görüşmelerde öğrencilerin çoğu yeni kelime ve kavramları ünite başında araştırmış olmanın üniteyi anlamalarını kolaylaştıracağı yönünde görüş belirtmişlerdir. öğrenciler en çok kavramlara ilişkin kendi tanımlarını yapmaktan hoşlandıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. böylece bu etkinliğin öğrencilerin yazılı ifade becerileri üzerinde etkili olduğu söylenebilir. araştırmacı günlüğünde bu etkinlikte öğrencilerin daha fazla derse katıldığı, dersin tartışma kısmında daha fazla görüş belirten öğrenci olduğu ifade edilmiştir. öğrencilerin yavaş yavaş olumlu yönde değişmeye başladıkları, kendilerini daha iyi ifade ettikleri ve bu etkinliğin sonunda bir sınıf anayasası hazırlayıp uygulamaya konulmasına karar verildiği belirtilmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak sınıfta bazı öğrencilerin sınıf kurallarına uymadığını, yazılı bir anayasa ile bu sorunun çözülebileceğini belirten öğrenciler sınıf anayasası hazırlanarak bu sorunun çözülmesine karar vermiştir. bu bağlamda yapılan etkinliğin öğrencilerin sorun belirleyerek çözmelerine katkıda bulunduğu söylenebilir. çalışma yaprağı etkinliklerinin ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; öğretmen çalışma yaprağını kazanımlar doğrultusunda hazırlamalı, öğrencilerin değişik kaynaklardan araştırma yapmalarına olanak tanımalıdır. çalışma yaprakları doldurulduktan sonra sınıfta öğrencilerin birbiriyle tartışmaları sağlanmalıdır. “kütüphane araştırması” etkinliği sırasında öğrenciler okulun yanındaki kütüphanede bireysel araştırmalar yapmış, sınıfta araştırmalarını gruplar halinde birleştirmiş ve grup raporlarını hazırlayarak sunmuşlardır. öğrenci günlüklerinde bu etkinliğe ilişkin olarak araştırma becerilerinin gelişimine katkıda bulunduğu ve grupla çalışmaktan zevk aldıkları belirtilmiştir. odak öğrencilerle yapılan görüşmelerde öğrencilerin çoğu daha önce kütüphaneye gitmediklerini, araştırmalarını yalnızca internetten yaptıklarını belirtmişler, bu etkinlikten sonra kitaplardan araştırma yapmayı, kütüphanede çalışmayı sevdiklerini ve bundan sonra araştırma yapmaları gerektiğinde sosyal bilgiler dersi ve diğer dersler için kütüphaneden yararlanacaklarını ifade etmişlerdir. bunun yanı sıra kütüphanenin soğuk olmasının ve kaynak kitap sayısın yetersizliğinin kendilerini olumsuz yönde journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 104 etkilediğini belirtmişlerdir. araştırmacı günlüğünde araştırmacı kütüphanenin soğuk olmasını, kütüphane görevlisinin yeterince öğrencilere rehberlik edememesini, kaynak kitapların azlığını birer sorun olarak gördüğünü ifade etmiştir. öğrencilerin sınıf tartışmalarına yeterince katılmaması da belirlenen diğer bir sorundur. etkinlik sonunda toplanan geçerlik komitesinde komite üyelerinin “kitap toplama kampanyası yapılabilir ve etkinlikler sırasında öğrenciler çevrelerinde sorunlar belirleyerek çözmeleri konusunda cesaretlendirilebilir” biçiminde yaptıkları öneriye ilişkin olarak olumlu görüşlerini ifade etmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak bu etkinliğin “kütüphanede kaynak kitap sayısının azlığı” biçiminde bir sorunun belirlenmesi ve çözümlenmesi yönünden katkısı olduğu söylenebilir. kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanma etkinliklerinin ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersinde kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanması desteklenmelidir. bu bağlamda öğrencilerin kütüphaneden araştırma yapmalarına olanak sağlayacak etkinlikler uygulanmalıdır. öğrenciler ile kütüphanelere alan gezileri düzenlenerek öğrencilerin kütüphane çalışanları ile iletişim kurmaları sağlanmalıdır. kütüphaneye yapılacak alan gezileri öncesinde araştırma yapılacak konuya ilişkin olarak kütüphane görevlisi bilgilendirilmeli, öğrencilere rehberlik etmesi istenmelidir. okul ve sınıf kitaplıkları zenginleştirilerek öğrencilerin daha çok kaynağa ulaşmasına katkıda bulunulmalıdır. özel günler ve güncel olaylardan yararlanma etkinlikleri araştırmada özel günlerden yararlanmaya ilişkin olarak araştırmanın uygulama sürecine denk gelen “23 nisan ulusal egemenlik ve çocuk bayramı” törenine katılım gerçekleştirilmiştir. güncel olaylardan yararlanmaya ilişkin olarak ise sosyal bilgiler derslerinin sonunda getirilen gazete haberleri ve diğer kitle iletişim araçlarından öğrencilerin derlediği haberler tartışılmıştır. “23 nisan ulusal egemenlik ve çocuk bayramı töreni” sırasında törenin düzenlenmesinde yaşanan aksaklıklar nedeniyle öğrencilerin çoğu duydukları rahatsızlıktan söz etmişlerdir. öğrenci günlüklerinde belirtilenler göz önünde bulundurulduğunda öğrenciler için bu bayramda herhangi bir etkinlikte yer almanın büyük önem taşıdığı, öğrencilerin duyuşsal gelişimi üzerinde büyük etkisi olduğu söylenebilir. öğrenciler çoğunlukla günlüklerinde atatürk ve vatan sevgisinden söz etmiş, 23 nisan ulusal egemenlik ve çocuk bayramından duydukları mutluluğu tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 105 ifade etmişlerdir. odak öğrenciler ile yapılan görüşmelerde öğrenciler tören düzeninde yer alan sorunlar nedeniyle törenden daha önceki yıllara göre daha az zevk aldıklarını belirtmişlerdir. yağmur yağmasının töreni olumsuz yönde etkilediğini ifade ederek 23 nisan ulusal egemenlik ve çocuk bayramı’nın yarattığı coşkuya değinmişlerdir. bu bağlamda ulusal bayramların öğrencilerin ulusal değerleri kazanmasına, öğrencilerin kendilerini toplumun bir parçası olarak hissetmesine katkıda bulunduğu söylenebilir. araştırmacı günlüğünde, tören düzeninde olan sorunlardan söz edilerek öğrencilerin 23 nisan ulusal egemenlik ve çocuk bayramına duydukları coşku dile getirilmiştir. özel günlerden yararlanmaya yönelik çalışmaların ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; ulusal günler, yerel kurtuluş günleri ya da özel günlerde düzenlenen törenlerde öğrencilerin çoğuna görev verilmesi sağlanmalıdır. tören öncesinde günün anlam ve önemi konusunda öğrenciler bilgilendirilmelidir. öğrencilerin coşku, sevinç gibi duyguları yaşayabilmeleri için sınıf ya da okulları süsleme gibi özel etkinlikleri öğrencilerin birlikte gerçekleştirmesi desteklenmelidir. törenlerden sonra öğrencilerin törene ilişkin görüşlerini paylaşması sağlanmalıdır. güncel olaylardan yararlanma etkinliği sırasında, öğrenciler her dersin sonunda konu ile ilgili getirdikleri gazete haberlerini sunmuş, haberler birlikte tartılmıştır. haberlerin tartışılması sırasında öğrenciler günlük yaşamları ile ya da yaşadıkları çevre ile haberleri ilişkilendirmeye çalışmışlardır. öğrenci günlüklerinde öğrenciler güncel olayları takip etmenin sorumluluk kazanma, gündemi takip etme, çevrelerindeki sorunları belirlemelerine yardımcı olma gibi katkıları olduğunu ifade etmişlerdir. odak öğrenciler ile yapılan görüşmelerde öğrenciler uygulama öncesinde gazete okumadıklarını ve haberleri izlemediklerini ifade ederek bu çalışmanın gündemi takip etmelerine, gazete okuma alışkanlığı kazanmalarına katkı sağladığını belirtmişlerdir. araştırmacı günlüğünde öğrencilerin güncel olayları takip etmelerinin öğrenilenlerin günlük yaşamla bütünleştirilmesi, öğrencilerin çevrelerindeki sorunlara karşı duyarlılıklarının artması yönünde katkılar getirdiği ifade edilerek; güncel olayların sınıfta tartışılmasının öğrencilerin kendilerini ifade etme becerisinin gelişimi üzerinde olumlu etkileri olduğu belirtilmiştir. güncel olaylardan yararlanmaya yönelik çalışmaların ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; güncel olaylardan sosyal bilgiler dersinde yararlanılmalı, bu çalışmalarda journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 106 özellikle öğrencilerin yorumlama ve eleştiri yapma becerilerinin gelişimi üzerinde durulmalıdır. öğrencilerin güncel olaylarla sosyal bilgiler dersi arasında ilişki kurmalarına olanak sağlanmalıdır. öğretmenler güncel olayların seçiminde güncel olayların öğrenci düzeyine uygun olması, ilgi çekici olması gibi noktalara dikkat etmelidir. öğrencilerin sorun çözmeye yönelik olarak gerçekleştirdiği etkinlikler araştırmada önceden planlanan etkinlikler sırasında öğrenciler çevrelerinde gözlemledikleri bir sorunu belirleyerek bu sorunun çözümü için önerilerde bulunmuşlardır. sınıfça karar verilen etkinlikler gerçekleştirilerek öğrencilerin belirledikleri sorunları çözmeleri sağlanmıştır. öğrenciler “kütüphane araştırması” etkinliğinin sonunda “kitap toplama kampanyası”; “sunu hazırlama (sivil toplum kuruluşları)” etkinliği sonunda “engellilere yardım kampanyası”; “dosya oluşturma (tema)” etkinliği sonunda “çevre bilinçlendirme ve ağaçlandırma kampanyası”; “mahalle modeli oluşturma” etkinliği sonunda “tatbikat ve drama”; “çalışma yaprağı (yasalar)” etkinliği sonunda “sınıf anayasası düzenleme”; “dosya oluşturma (bakanlıklar ve cumhurbaşkanlarımız)” etkinlikleri sonunda “sınıf meclisi” etkinliklerinin gerçekleştirilmesine karar vermişlerdir. yapılan etkinliklerden çevre bilinçlendirme ve ağaçlandırma kampanyası’na ilişkin bulgular aşağıda sunulmaktadır: “çevre bilinçlendirme ve ağaçlandırma kampanyası” etkinliğinde öğrenciler okulun diğer sınıfları ile konuşarak okuldaki tüm öğrenciler ile birlikte bahçe temizliği yapılmasına karar vermiş, bahçedeki çöpler okuldaki tüm öğrenciler tarafından toplanmıştır. bunun yanı sıra öğrenciler ilçe halkını çevre konusunda bilinçlendirmek için bilgilendirici ve uyarıcı pankartlar hazırlayarak bunları ilçedeki çeşitli dükkânlara, kamu kuruluşlarına, otobüs duraklarına, evlerinin önüne ve odalarının camına asmışlardır. çevrelerini ağaçlandırmak için her öğrenci aldığı fidanı okulun bahçesinde ağaç bulunmayan yerlere dikmiştir. bu etkinlik sırasında öğrencilerin pankart asılmasına ilişkin olarak kendilerine olumsuz yanıt veren kahvehane çalışanına gösterdikleri tepki ve çalışmalarının amacını esnaf ve resmi kurum çalışanlara iyi biçimde ifade etmeleri komite üyeleri tarafından olumlu bir gelişme olarak yorumlanmıştır. esnafların çoğunun ve resmi kurum çalışanlarının nâzik tavırları ve öğrencilere yardımcı olmaları komite üyeleri tarafından çalışmaya katkı getiren etkenler olarak nitelendirilmiştir. tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 107 öğrenci günlüklerinde öğrencilerin çoğu yapmış oldukları bu çalışmanın kendi çevre bilinçlerinin gelişimine katkıda bulunduğunu, bu çalışmadan sonra daha iyi örnek olabilmek için çevreye karşı daha duyarlı davrandıklarını belirtmişlerdir. odak öğrencilerle yapılan görüşmelerde öğrenciler bu etkinlikle çevrelerine karşı daha duyarlı olduklarını belirterek, ağaçlandırma çalışmaları gerçekleştirmekten duydukları mutluluğu ifade etmişlerdir. araştırmacı günlüğünde öğrencilerin çevre ile ilgili pankartlar hazırlayarak ilçenin değişik yerlerine astıkları bunun için esnaflarla ve çeşitli kurum kuruluşlarla iletişime geçerek çalışmalarını anlattıkları, bu kişileri ikna ettikleri, okul bahçesine fidan dikildiği ve okulun tüm öğrencileri ile okul bahçesinin temizlendiği belirtilmiştir. araştırmacı, çalışmalar sırasında öğrencilerin son derece girişken olduklarını, uygulamanın başındaki davranışlarıyla karşılaştırıldığında kendilerine çok daha fazla güvendiklerini ve daha kolay iletişim kurduklarını gözlemlediğini ifade etmiştir. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri ile ilgili olarak, okul bahçesi tüm okul öğrencileri ile birlikte temizlenmiştir. okul bahçesine her öğrenci bir fidan dikmiştir. çalışma bu boyutu ile öğrencilerin okulları ile ilgili sorunları çözmelerini sağlamıştır. i̇lçedeki tüm dükkân, resmi kurum ve otobüs duraklarına ilçe halkının çevreye karşı duyarlılıklarını artırmak amacıyla hazırlanan uyarı pankartları asılarak ilçede belirlenen bir sorun çözülmeye çalışılmıştır. öğrencilerin sorun belirlemelerine ve çözmelerine yönelik çalışmaların ne şekilde düzenlenebileceğine ilişkin olarak elde edilen bulgular kısaca şu şekilde ifade edilebilir; öğrencilerin günlük olayları izlemeleri sağlanmalı, öğrenciler çevrelerinde sorun belirlemeleri ve çözmeleri konusunda desteklenmelidir. bu bağlamda öğrenciler çevrelerindeki yerel yöneticiler ile ya da kurumların yöneticileri ile nasıl iletişim kuracakları, resmi kurumlara nasıl başvuru yapacakları gibi konularda bilgilendirilmeli ve çeşitli etkinliklerle deneyim kazanmaları sağlanmalıdır. öğrencilerin kurum ve kuruluşlarda rol ve sorumluluklarını öğrenmeleri, vatandaşlık haklarını bilmeleri ve kullanmaları için olanaklar sağlanmalıdır. öğrenciler ile etkinliklerin sonunda yapılan görüşmelerden, video kayıtlarından, öğrencilerin günlüklerinden ve araştırmacı günlüğünden elde edilen verilere dayalı olarak öğrencilerin yapılan etkinliklerin tümünden hoşlandığı söylenebilir. bunun yanı sıra öğrencilerin en çok beğendiği etkinliklerin tatbikat ve drama etkinliği, tarih sergisi ve sözlü tarih çalışması olduğu söylenebilir. yapılan bu journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 108 çalışmalara ilişkin olarak öğrenciler keyif aldıklarını, günlük yaşamlarında kullanabilecekleri bilgi, beceri ve değerler edindiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. sonuç, tartışma ve öneriler araştırma bulgularına dayalı olarak öğrencilerin yerel toplum çalışmaları kapsamında gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin tümünden hoşlandığı, yerel toplum çalışmalarına dayalı olarak işlenen sosyal bilgiler dersinin öğrencilere; internet ve kütüphane kaynaklarından yararlanma, araştırma yapma, insanlarla iletişim kurma, görüşme yapma, vatandaşlık hak ve sorumluluklarını bilme ve kullanma, kendini daha iyi ifade etme, yaşadığı çevre, ülke ve dünyaya karşı daha duyarlı olma, kendini içinde yaşadığı toplumun bir parçası olarak görme, güncel olayları izleme ve yorumlama yönünde katkı sağladığı belirlenmiştir. mills (2001) sosyal bilgiler dersinin ilköğretimdeki önemine ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerini belirlemeyi amaçladığı araştırmasında öğretmenlerin hiçbirinin eleştirel düşünme ya da problem çözme gibi becerilerden söz etmediğini belirlemiş, bunun nedenini sorduğunda öğretmen ve uzmanlar bu becerilerin birinci kademeden çok ikinci kademe öğrencilerine uygun beceriler olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. bunun yanı sıra öğretmenler zamanın sınırlı olduğunu belirterek ilköğretimde öncelikli amaç olarak temel matematik ve okuma yazma becerilerinin gelişimini önemsediklerini, sosyal bilgiler dersini bir şeyleri değiştirmekten çok, var olan durumu ortaya koyan bir ders olarak gördüklerini ifade etmişlerdir. oysa yerel toplum çalışmalarının sosyal bilgiler dersinde kullanımı ile özellikle varılmak istenen nokta, sosyal bilgiler dersinin günlük yaşamla bütünleştirilmesi yönünde somut adımlar atabilmek, öğrencilerin yaşadıkları topluma, dünyaya karşı farkındalık ve duyarlılıklarını artırarak, çevrelerindeki sorunları belirlemelerini ve vatandaşlık haklarını kullanarak bu sorunları çözme girişiminde bulunmalarını sağlamaya çalışmaktır. sunal ve haas (2002)’a göre öğrenciler, gazetelerden yararlanılarak işlenen sosyal bilgiler dersi yoluyla, kendi sosyal dünyalarındaki anlayışları yapılandırdıkları gibi düşünme becerilerini ve tüm okul programından elde ettikleri bilgileri bütünleştirip, bunlardan sonuç çıkarırlar ve sunulan problemleri çözmek için araştırma yapmaya başlarlar. sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarının kullanımına ilişkin olarak gerçekleştirilen bu çalışmada gazeteler de bir yerel toplum kaynağı olarak kullanılmış, her dersin sonunda öğrencilerin getirdiği gazete tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 109 kupürlerinin tartışılmasına zaman ayrılarak, konu ile haberlerin ilişkilendirilmesi sağlanmaya çalışılmıştır. araştırmada öğrenciler derse getirilen haberlerin tartışılması sırasında çevrelerinde çeşitli sorunlar belirleyerek bu sorunları çözme girişiminde bulunmuşlardır. morris (2004) tarafından gerçekleştirilen yerel tarihle ilgili çalışmada öğrenciler alan gezilerine katılmışlar, ilgili dokümanları incelemişler, tarihe tanıklık etmiş kişilerle görüşmeler yapmışlar ve elde ettikleri verileri bir araştırma dosyasında toplamışlardır. projenin toplum tarihinin korunması ve aktarılmasına hizmet ettiği vurgulanmıştır. bu araştırmada öğrenciler alan gezileri, kaynak kişiler, dokümanlar gibi kaynakları kullanarak uygulama sürecini tamamlamışlar; tarih sergisi, sözlü tarih ve kaynak kişi daveti etkinliklerinin sonunda toplumun dünü, bugünü ve geleceğine ilişkin çalışmalarda bulunmuşlardır. morris’in elde ettiği “alan gezilerinin toplum tarihinin korunması ve aktarılmasına hizmet eder” biçimindeki bulgu, bu araştırma kapsamında yapılan tarih sergisi sonunda da elde edilmiştir. morris (2005) tarafından yapılan bir diğer çalışmada sosyal bilgiler dersinin -zenginleştirilmesi için ders dışı bir model önerilmiştir. bu modelde öğrencilerin tarihi kişilikleri daha iyi tanıyabilmesi için bir dizi etkinlik yer almıştır. bu etkinlikler geziler, kaynak kişilerle görüşmeler yapma, akranlarla bilgi paylaşımı, aileden yardım alma biçiminde sıralanmıştır. modelin öğrencilere yaratıcı problem çözme ve esnek düşünme becerileri kazandıracağı belirtilmiştir. morris’in araştırması ile paralel olarak bu araştırmada da öğrenciler okulla ilgili yaşadıkları çevre ile ilgili alan gezileri, kaynak kişiler ile görüşme, aileleri ile çalışma gibi etkinlikler sonunda sorunlar belirleyerek çözme girişiminde bulunmuşlardır. bu durum sözü edilen etkinliklerin problem çözme ve düşünme becerilerini kazandırmaya katkıda bulunduğu biçiminde yorumlanabilir. zabıtanın kaynak kişi olarak davet edilmesi etkinliği sonucunda elde edilen “öğrencilerin yaşadığı çevrede bir sorun belirleyerek çözmeleri yönünde vatandaşlık haklarını kullanma ve girişimde bulunmalarına katkıda bulunmuştur” bulgusu ile chapin (2006)’in “öğrencilerin yerel çevrelerinde bir sorun belirlemeleri ve bu sorunu çözmeleri, öğrencilere vatandaşlık görevlerini yerine getirme olanağı sunar, öğrencilerin başarma ve tatmin duygusunu tatmalarına fırsat verir” biçimindeki görüşü paralellik göstermektedir. pumpian, fisher ve wachowiak (2006)’ın “dışarıdaki okul” başlıklı araştırmaları öğrencileri okul saati içinde toplumla bağ kurmaya yönlendiren, journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 110 müzeye dayanan eğitimsel bir girişim olarak açıklanmıştır. öngörülen eğitim müzelerde eğitim görme, alan gezileri, okuma, yazma ve dil becerilerinin geliştirilmesini amaçlayan etkinlikleri kapsamaktadır. bu araştırmada öğretimin sınıf dışına taşınmasının, geleneksel eğitimin sınırlılıklarını ortadan kaldırdığı; öğrenme ve öğretmeye farklı bakış açılarının getirilmesine olanak sağladığı belirtilmiştir. yerel toplum çalışmaları da öğrencileri yalnızca okul saati içinde değil, okul dışında da çalışmaya yönlendiren etkinliklerden oluşmaktadır. bu araştırmada yerel çevreden elde edilen kaynaklar ile okulda düzenlenen tarih sergisi de öğrenciler tarafından okulun bir müzeye benzediği biçiminde yorumlanmış, öğrencilerin geçmiş, bugün ve geleceğe ilişkin farklı bakış açıları kazanmalarına yardımcı olmuştur. bu araştırma ile öğrencilerin kütüphane ve internet kaynaklarından yararlanmalarını sağlamaya yönelik etkinlikler de gerçekleştirilmiştir. bu etkinliklerin sonucunda öğrenciler aynı anda birden fazla kaynaktan araştırma yapmanın; bilgileri sınıflandırma, gereksiz ve ilgisiz bilgileri ayırt etme, kitaplardan araştırma yapma, internetten araştırma yapma, sunum yapma, bireysel ve grupla çalışma gibi becerilerinin gelişimine katkıda bulunduğunu belirtmişlerdir. elde edilen bu bulgular oliver’ın (2007) “öğrenciler araştırma yaparak araştırma becerilerinin yanında birçok üst düzey bilgi kazanırlar.” görüşü ile paralellik göstermektedir. deveci ve selanik ay (2008) tarafından yapılan çalışmada bu araştırmadan elde edilen sonuçlara paralel biçimde öğrencilerin çoğunun yerel toplum çalışmaları ile işlenen sosyal bilgiler dersinden zevk aldığı, gerçekleştirilen etkinlikleri ilgi çekici ve eğlenceli bulduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. ünlüer (2008) 4. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde gazete kullanımının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına ve tutumlarına etkisini belirlemeyi amaçladığı araştırmasında, sosyal bilgiler dersinde gazete kullanımının öğrencilerin akademik başarıları ve derse ilişkin tutumları arasında deney grubu lehine anlamlı bir fark olduğu sonucuna ulaşmıştır. öğrencilerle yapılan görüşmelerde öğrencilerin tümü derste gazete kullanımıyla dersi sevdiğini, tümüne yakını da derste gazete kullanımında güçlüklerle karşılaşmadığını ve tüm derslerde gazetenin kullanılabileceğini belirtmişlerdir. bu araştırmada da her dersin sonunda öğrenciler, gazetelerden ve çeşitli kitle iletişim araçlarından edindikleri haberleri sınıfa getirerek ders sonunda tartışmışlardır. öğrenciler günlüklerinde ve yapılan görüşmelerde gazete kullanımına ilişkin olumlu görüşlerini ifade etmişlerdir. bu bulgu ünlüer’in sosyal bilgiler dersinde gazete kullanılmasına tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 111 ilişkin öğrenci görüşlerinin genelde olumlu olduğu yapılan görüşmelerde öğrencilerin tümünün derste gazete kullanımının okuma ve okuduğunu anlama becerisini artırdığını, tümüne yakınının gazete kullanımıyla dersi daha iyi öğrendiğini, dersi günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirdiğini ve araştırma becerilerini geliştirdiğini belirttikleri biçimindeki sonucu ile paralellik göstermektedir. yapılan bu araştırmada sosyal bilgiler dersinde alan gezilerinin kullanımının öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersini günlük yaşamla bütünleştirmelerine ve sorun çözme becerileri kazanmalarına katkı getirdiği bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. araştırma kapsamında i̇lçe milli eğitim müdürlüğüne yapılan alan gezisi ve görüşme etkinliği sonucunda öğrenciler okulları ile ilgili belirledikleri sorunu bu kurum ile iletişime geçerek çözmeye çalışmışlardır. elde edilen bu bulgu yerel toplum çalışmaları kapsamında gerçekleştirebilecek etkinliklerden biri olan alan gezilerine ilişkin olarak, gökçe, çengelci ve selanik ay (2009) tarafından yapılan çalışma sonucunda elde edilen, öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği programında daha fazla geziye yer verilmesi gerektiği yönündeki bulgu ile paralellik göstermektedir. bu bağlamda öğretmen eğitimi programlarında daha fazla alan gezisine yer verilebilir ve bu yeterliklerin öğretmenlere kazandırılması ile öğretmenler alan gezilerini daha sık ve etkili biçimde kullanabilir. öğrenciler yakın çevrelerinden başlayarak dünyayı tanır ve anlamlandırırlar. okulda öğrenilen bilgilerin günlük yaşamda kullanılabilmesi için öğrencilerin toplumla iletişim içinde olması gerekir. öğrencilerin vatandaşlık hak ve sorumluluklarını öğrenebilmesi, kurumlar içindeki yerini ve rolünü anlayabilmesi için bu kurumlarla doğrudan iletişim kurulmalıdır. öğrencilerin yalnızca haklarını ve sorumluluklarını ders kitaplarından okuması yerine öğrencilerin etkin olduğu zengin öğrenme ortamları tasarlanabilir. öğrencilerin okul dışında da deneyim kazanmalarına olanak tanınabilir. araştırmanın sonuçlarına dayalı olarak geliştirilen öneriler aşağıda sunulmaktadır: • i̇lköğretim beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler programında yerel toplum çalışmalarına ilişkin olarak öğretmenlere örnek oluşturabilecek açıklama ve etkinliklere yer verilebilir. • öğretmenler yerel toplum çalışmaları ve uygulama örnekleri kapsamında hizmet içi eğitime alınabilir. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 112 • tüm kurum ve kuruluşlarda okullarla iletişim sağlayabilecek birimler açılabilir. bu birimlerin öğrencilere rehberlik etmesi ve onları bilgilendirmesi, öğrenciler ile kurum yöneticilerinin görüşmesi için randevu ayarlaması sağlanabilir. • öğrencilerin geçmişteki toplumsal yaşama ilişkin görüş geliştirmesini sağlamak amacıyla, müze bulunmayan yerleşim birimlerinde günümüzde kullanılmayan eski eşyalar okullarda toplanarak sergilenebilir. • okulun bulunduğu çevrede uzun süredir yaşayan insanlar ve konu alanı uzmanları her öğretim yılı başında belirlenerek hangi ünite ve temalar ile ilişkilendirilerek davet edileceklerine ya da sözlü tarih çalışmaları yapılacağına karar verilerek bir çalışma planı oluşturulabilir. • ailelerin katılımını sağlamak amacıyla çeşitli etkinliklerin okulda ailelerle birlikte yapılması sağlanabilir. okulların bünyesinde aile merkezleri açılarak öğretmen, öğrenci, yönetici ve ailelerin birlikte çalışabileceği ve paylaşımda bulunabileceği ortamlar düzenlenebilir. • öğrencilerin grupla ya da bireysel olarak okul dışında çalışmalar yapmalarına olanak sağlamak amacıyla, milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından etüt merkezleri açılabilir. • öğrencilerin interneti araştırma yapmak amacıyla daha sık kullanmalarını sağlamak için okullarda bilgisayar sayısı artırılabilir. teknoloji sınıflarının donanım eksiklikleri tamamlanabilir. • öğrencilerin kütüphanelerden daha sık yararlanmaları için ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler programlarına kütüphane kullanımını sağlayacak daha fazla etkinlik eklenebilir. ayrıca, öğrencilerin kütüphanelerden daha fazla yararlanabilmesi için ilçe ve il halk kütüphaneleri, okul kütüphaneleri ve sınıf kitaplıkları zenginleştirilebilir. • çeşitli sivil toplum örgütlerinde öğrencilerin toplum hizmeti çalışmalarına katılmaları sağlanabilir. • sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmaları kullanımına ilişkin farklı sınıf düzeylerinde nicel ve nitel araştırmalar yapılabilir. tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 113 kaynakça / references açıkgöz, m. (2006). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde gezi-gözlem ve inceleme yönteminin etkililiğinin incelenmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. gazi üniversitesi, ankara. alleman, j., knighton, b., brophy, j. (2007). incorporating all children using community and cultural universals as a centerpiece. journal of learning disabilities, 40 (2), 166-173. retreived june 12, 2009, from eric database. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 758 044). allen, m. g., & stevens, r. l. (1998). middle grades social studies teaching and learning for active and responsible citizenship (2nd ed.). boston: allyn and bacon. andrew p, j. (2005). a short guide to action research. united states of america: pearson education. arın, d. (2006). sosyal bilgiler dersinde güncel olayların kullanımının öğrenci başarısı ve hatırda tutma düzeyine etkisi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. anadolu üniversitesi, eskişehir. burz, h. l., & marshall, k. (1998). performancebased curriculum for social studies from knowing to showing. california: corwin press inc. chapin, j. r. (2006). elementary social studies. boston: pearson education allyn and bacon. demir, m. k., özsoy eşki, i. (2010). sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının gözlem gezisi yöntemine karşı ilgilerinin incelenmesi. ix. sınıf öğretmenliği eğitimi sempozyumu içinde (1070-1071). elazığ: fırat üniversitesi. deveci, h. (2007). sosyal bilgiler dersinde güncel olayların öğretimine ilişkin öğretmen görüşleri. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri, 7 (1), 415-451. deveci, h. ve selanik ay, t. (2008). sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmaları ve uygulama örnekleri. internatinal conference on educational sciences içinde (649-658). kıbrıs: doğu akdeniz üniversitesi. deveci, h., selanik ay, t. ve çengelci, t. (2008). öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler dersinde yerel toplum çalışmalarından yararlanma durumları. iii. sosyal bilimler eğitimi kongresi içinde (464-474). adana: çukurova üniversitesi, milli eğitim bakanlığı. elliott, j. (1991). action research for educational change. buckingham: open university press. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 83-115 114 erden, m. (tarihsiz). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. ankara: alkım kitapçılık yayıncılık. farmer, j., knapp, d. ve benton g. m. (2007). the effects of primary sources and field trip experience on the knowledge. multicultural education, 14 (3), 2731. retreived september 14, 2009, from eric database. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 762 419). gelen, i̇. (2002). sınıf öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgiler dersinde düşünme becerilerini kazandırma yeterliklerinin değerlendirilmesi. çukurova üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 10 (10), 100-119. gökçe, n., çengelci, t. ve selanik ay, t. (2009). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının alan gezilerini gerçekleştirme becerilerine ilişkin görüşleri. iv. sosyal bilimler eğitimi kongresi, i̇stanbul: marmara üniversitesi. gürdoğan bayır, ö. (2010). sosyal bilgiler dersinde güncel olaylardan yararlanmanın öğrencilerin eleştirel düşünme becerilerine etkisi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. anadolu üniversitesi, eskişehir. haas, m. e., & laughlin, m. a.(2000). teaching current events: its status in social studies today. retreived october 22, from eric database. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 440 899). kaltsounis, t. (1987). teaching social studies in the elementary school. new jersey: prentice hall. kızılçaoğlu, a. (2003). i̇lköğretim okullarında bir kırsal yerleşmeye düzenlenecek gözlem gezisinde gerçekleştirilecek etkinlikler ile bir gezi planı önerisi. balıkesir üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 6(9), 1-20. lyons, j. f. (2007). integrating the family and the community into the history classroom. society for history education, 40(4), 481-491. martorella, p. h. (2001). teaching social studies in middle and secondary schools (3rd ed.). new jersey: prentice hall. mazman, f. (2007). sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde gezi-gözlem metodunun uygulanmasına ilişkin bir araştırma (tokat örneği). yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. gaziosmanpaşa üniversitesi, tokat. mills, r. (2001). elementary teachers’ views of the role of social studies education. elementary level education, 109 (1), 82-87. morris, r. v. (2004). the clio club: an extracurricular model for elementary social studies enrichment. gifted child today, 28 (1), 41-48. tuğba selani̇k ay & handan deveci̇ 115 morris, r. v. (2005) the atterbury files: an extracurricular inquiry project illustrating local history. gifted child today, 27 (3), 28-35. munck, s. (2007). using newspapers and news magazines to teach history. unpublished masters thesis, wayne state university, from ted.coe.wayne.edu/sse/finding/munck.doc oliver, r. (2007). exploring an inquiry-based learning approach with first-year students in a large undergraduate class. innovations in education and teaching international, 44 (1) 3-15. retreived 25 november, 2008, from eric database. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 764 305). pumpian, i., fisher, d. & wachowiak, s. (2006). challenging the classroom standard through museum-based education: school in the park. retreived may 15, 2009, from http://books.google.com.tr/ roslynne h. (2005). successful strategies to keep students focused during internet research in social studies. retreived october 11, 2008, proquest dissertations and thesis database, from http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?did= 1037877831&fmt=7&clienti d=79356&rqt=309&vname=pqd savage, t. v. ve armstrong, d. g. (1987). effective teaching in elementary social studies. new york: macmillan publishing. sönmez, v. (2005). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi ve öğretmen kılavuzu. ankara: anı yayıncılık. sunal, c. s. & haas, m. e. (2002). social studies for the elementary and middle grades a constructivist approach. boston: allyn and bacon. ünlüer, g. (2008). sosyal bilgiler dersinde gazete kullanımının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına ve tutumlarına etkisi. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. anadolu üniversitesi, eskişehir. yönev, m. (2008). ortaöğretimde okutulan tarih derslerindeki gezi gözlem ve inceleme etkinliklerinin öğrenciler açısından kazanımları. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. yeditepe üniversitesi, i̇stanbul. http://books.google.com.tr/� www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(1), 140-162 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 advocating for a cause: civic engagement in the k-6 classroom nancy k. dejarnette1 & maria sudeck2 abstract in response to the marginalization of social studies instruction in u.s. elementary schools, these teacher educators developed a study to explore the impact that service-learning might have on the preparation of elementary teacher candidates. these authors specifically designed a study in which elementary teacher candidates created and implemented an interdisciplinary unit in which service learning was embedded as a critical piece of academic instruction for elementary students. quality controls for the instructional units were ensured through the provision of instruction for the service-learning component for the elementary teacher candidates prior to their clinical practice semester. data for the study were generated through preand post-surveys, focus groups, and document analysis. findings revealed that elementary teacher candidates reported a greater understanding of service-learning, a greater degree of teacher efficacy, and perception of an increased notion of civic engagement by their students as a result of having created and implemented the interdisciplinary instructional unit during their clinical practice semester. introduction fifty years ago, martin luther king, jr. raised awareness about the importance of service when he said, “everybody can be great...because anybody can serve.” in that spirit, this article situates service-learning as a way to enhance teaching and learning in public schools. servicelearning in the 21st century casts a new light on the ways in which the civic mission of schools can advocate for the silenced. to that end, we define service-learning as instruction that includes any of the following: direct service, indirect service, research, and advocacy. it is through the inclusion of advocacy that p-12 students and their teachers can act on behalf of marginalized groups who may be largely silenced in society. through this project-based experience with their students, teacher candidates not only develop and exercise their leadership skills, but also their citizenship skills (lester, 2015). as teacher educators, we came together with the common understanding that, because civic engagement and service-learning are marginalized in schools, young children are missing 1 ed.d., university of bridgeport, ndejarne@bridgeport.edu 2 ph.d., rowan university, sudeck@rowan.edu journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 141 valuable opportunities to learn about social responsibility, personal responsibility, citizenship, and social justice (national commission on service-learning, 2002). with this common understanding, we developed a study to explore how clinical practice candidates might implement service-learning into an interdisciplinary instructional unit and the impact that doing so might have on children’s learning as perceived by the candidates. teacher education has recently shifted to inquiry and outcomes. this method of critical analysis and reflective practice is such that teachers act as researcher to improve practice on a consistent basis. recent reforms in teacher education push for more active learning through realword experiences where such opportunities as engagement in neighborhoods, community agencies and local institutions afford college students opportunities for meaningful work (bettencourt, 2015). this specific type of collaboration between p-16 students and the community can be attained through service-learning (couse & russo, 2006). context of study in the spring semester of 2015, two faculty members of the department of teacher education in a mid-size public university in the northeastern united states launched a study to explore the effects of implementing a service-learning project during the clinical practice semester. a group of elementary clinical practice candidates (n = 38) were assembled at the beginning of the semester for an introduction to service-learning through a large group assembly followed by an informational powerpoint presentation that was emailed to each candidate. the candidates were provided with a definition of service-learning; exemplars of service-learning projects; and then brainstormed ideas for designing and implementing an interdisciplinary teaching unit with service-learning embedded, for an overall instructional design. the clinical practice candidates were placed in surrounding area school districts in k-5 classrooms. as part of their clinical practice experience, candidates were asked to embed a service-learning project into the preexisting requirement of planning and teaching an interdisciplinary thematic unit. the service-learning projects could reflect any of the following types: direct service, indirect service, research, or advocacy, as defined by berger-kaye (2004). as the teacher candidates planned and implemented their service-learning projects within their elementary classrooms, some key findings were revealed. nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 142 the research questions presented were consistent with a broader sense of the impact of teacher education programs and its connection to child outcomes. the following three research questions guided the study: 1) what do elementary teacher candidates know and perceive about service-learning? 2) how might elementary teacher candidates embed service-learning into instructional units during clinical practice? 3) what impact does service-learning have on teacher candidates’ perceptions regarding their ability to impact their students’ lives through civic engagement? the purpose of this study was to measure teacher education candidates’ perceptions regarding both their own self efficacy towards civic engagement as well as their planned instructional impact on their students’ civic engagement. applying the existing knowledge base the service-learning projects were designed to develop civic engagement in elementary school settings by building upon the foundations and research of service, beginning with the work of robert coles. according to coles (1993) there are seven types of service, which include social and political activism, community service, personal gestures and encounters, charity, religious sanctioned action, government sanctioned action, and service to country. social and political activism involve activities that represent a desired outcome or change such as demonstrations, protests, media or print campaigns. community service affords the opportunity for volunteers to work in a variety of settings such as schools, hospitals, soup kitchens, nursing homes, or animal shelters. the third type of service includes personal gestures and encounters and is represented by a solitary deed in response to a singular setting. charity, another type of service involves giving something tangible such as money, food, clothing, furniture, or transportation. the fifth type of service involves religiously sanctioned actions such as building churches, clinics, teaching, and other religiously inspired actions around the world. government sanctioned action is a broad type of service that can involve organizations such as the peace corps, but can also include such actions as assisting with voter registration or beautifying local journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 143 state and/or national parks. the final type of service is service to country. activities in the armed forces, the uso, or the american red cross are some examples of this type of service. for the purposes of this study, we have focused on five of the seven types of service as defined by coles (1993). we believe that these five types encompassed civic engagement in an academic setting. social and political activism, community service, personal gestures and encounters, charity, and government sanctioned actions were included in the focus areas. in order to enact service in an academic setting, educators must take ordinary community service and develop it into what is called service-learning. service-learning is a type of service that is interdisciplinary, embedded, and assessed (eyler, 2002; eyler & giles, 1999; jacoby & associates, 1996; o’byrne, 2006). to that end, service-learning is connected to a course, unit of study, or content area. service-learning, as opposed to community service projects, are embedded within the curriculum and assessed according to standards and objectives. further, service-learning is intended to be systemic and long-term in classrooms in order to foster students’ burgeoning sense of civic engagement (scott & graham, 2015). according to eyler (2002), service-learning that is connected with academic study and deep reflection result in the greatest impact on student learning and dispositions regarding community engagement. reflective service-learning results in numerous benefits for students such as raising student interest and engagement within their communities, developing life-long learning and problem solving skills, and helping students understand social issues. this study acknowledges connections between experiential learning, service-learning, and community building. a link arose between having our pre-service teachers incorporate service-learning and their own cognitive development. service-learning experiences prepares candidates to strategically identify a social problem, design a plan, facilitate motivation and engagement for their young students, and reflect upon the impact and importance of the project. the servicelearning component, when added to the current curriculum, provides connections to socially relevant issues that allows for a more connected learning (eyler & giles, 1999). berger-kaye (2004) defines and describes four types or categories of service-learning: direct service, indirect service, advocacy, and research. direct service is described as interpersonal interactions, which can include working with animals. direct service follows a sequence from beginning to end that allows students to see social justice in action. examples of nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 144 direct service include tutoring at-risk students or working at an animal shelter. in indirect service, however, students do not have direct interpersonal interactions with those who will benefit from the service. instead, students engage in activities that focus on cooperation, team building, prioritizing, and organizing in indirect service. examples of indirect service include constructing park benches or preparing kits for hospitalized patients. advocacy is defined as the intent to create awareness and/or promote social action about an issue of public interest. while engaged in advocacy, students learn about perseverance, systems and processes, and working with adults. examples of advocacy include letter writing campaigns, petitions, collecting donations for a cause, or sponsoring a town meeting. the final type of service-learning, research, involves students in finding, gathering, and reporting information that is centered around topics or issues in the public interest. while engaged in research, students learn how to conduct research, make discriminating judgments, and work systematically. examples of research include studying the impact of bottled water versus tap water, doing experiments, and conducting interviews (bergerkaye, 2004). framework for study drawing on a constructivist approach to progressive education, this study emphasizes meaningful and active engagement for students through service-learning. hahn (2010) states that, “importantly, today the dominant constructivist paradigm posits that youth are active constructors of meaning rather than passive recipients of adult messages.” (p. 6). servicelearning actively engages children in activities that either directly or indirectly support a social cause as well as exposes them to issues of social justice (billig, 2000). jacoby & associates (1996) state that, “service-learning programs are also explicitly structured to promote learning about the larger social issues behind the needs to which their service is responding.”(p. 7) further, preliminary discussions with candidates in focus groups and with classroom cooperating teachers suggest a deeper understanding of how service-learning is linked to civic engagement. this can lead to a more meaningful development of a social justice stance for all constituents. there are many benefits for the student population, both at the p-12 and university levels for engaging in service-learning. according to scott (2008), an immediate benefit is active journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 145 community participation. a long term benefit and outcome is that students will have increased systemic, civic engagement (scott & graham, 2015). another benefit, according to niegocki et al. (2012) is that when students are engaged civically, they are able to cultivate a capacity as individuals to enact social justice efforts. they can conceptualize empowerment as a process of strengthening their skills and developing resources. “social justice efforts do not need to be grand, complicated, large-scale undertakings in order to spark change and have a positive impact on a community.” (p. 53) wade (2003) suggests that service-learning is a meaningful experience in building real relationships through community service and academic skills. the center for civic education (1994) states that, although young people may engage in community service, they are less likely to engage in the political process of our democracy. related to constructivism, if students are actively engaged in meaningful service, they are likely to continue to do so on into adulthood (shiller, 2013). in keeping with a constructivist approach to service-learning, involving students in the selection process of service-learning projects increases impact. research suggests “the simple act of asking students, engaging them in the issue-identification process, has power. the conversation itself ignites motivation.” (dundon, 1999, p. 34) sudeck and hartman (2009) also found that when students are directly involved with the project selection process, students demonstrated gains both academically and in terms of their self-efficacy as citizens. transformational learning and advocacy building on the work of sudeck, hartman (2009) and dundon (1999), service-learning is transformational and builds an advocacy stance in our students. to that end, through engagement in service-learning, students begin to see the impact they have on the community and other people. for example, ethridge (2006) sees service-learning as an effective method and a catalyst for engaging children in advocacy efforts. research also supports that there is a link between academic curriculum and civic engagement. from that transformation, springs advocacy, which enhances ones awareness in ethical and political contexts (cairn & keilsmeier, 1991; root & furco, 2001). nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 146 in looking at the reality of youth culture, the importance of engaging students in servicelearning becomes even more critical. barton (2005) states, young people believe that an individual can’t make a difference. they see themselves as customers of government with no real responsibilities other than to consume the services offered…finally, they believe that politics is fundamentally irrelevant and they have little interest beyond casting the occasional vote or signing a petition. (p. 75) without a direct connection to a specific subject or course content, students can fail to attach meaning to service-learning (eyler & giles, 1999). so therefore, this study followed a constructivist approach to service-learning in the classroom though the efforts of clinical practice candidates whereby their students participated in the selection of social and civic issues that are meaningful to them. hence, the process of embedding service-learning into instruction teaches clinical practice candidates and their students of their worth as advocates and participants in a democratic society. “…we should help [students] to formulate possibilities for action to change the world to make it more democratic and just.” (banks, 2004, p. 291). methodology this study represents a mixed-methods research design with a concurrent transformative strategy approach (terrell, 2012). participants this study took place within a public teacher education preparation program at a midsized university in the northeast. the participants were thirty-eight pre-service teachers in their final semester of study involved in clinical practice. participants were selected as a group enrolled in the clinical practice experience. thirty-three of the pre-service teachers were female and five male. the candidates were all seeking elementary education certification. thirty-two of the teachers were caucasian, four african-american, one asian, and one listed as other ethnical background. this 15-week experience concludes their academic degree program and leads to a state teaching certificate. prior to the study, the researchers received institutional review board (irb) approval and participants signed an informed consent form volunteering for the study. the journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 147 researchers directly supervised a seven of these teacher candidates and served as a resource to the others via email. instruments and procedures the triangulated data for this study was collected through preand post-surveys consisting of likert scale rated questions administered at the beginning and again at the end of the clinical practice semester, three different focus groups following implementation of the projects, and document analysis of candidates’ service-learning oriented instructional units collected as assessments. the survey instrument asked candidates to self-report a rating regarding their current degree of civic engagement, their understandings of service-learning, and their ability to design and implement an interdisciplinary unit with service-learning embedded into elementary classroom instruction. the survey consisted of eight questions using a 5-point likert scale where 0 = not at all, 1 = a little, 2 = moderately, 3 = very, and 4 = extremely. survey questions are listed below in table 1. the survey instrument was validated prior to the study by administration to a pilot group of teacher education candidates for content and construct validity. submitted surveys were anonymous and collected within the candidates’ seminar course. responses to the preand post-surveys were tallied and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. table 1 pre and post survey questions 1. i believe that having an impact on community problems is within my reach. 2. i understand how service-learning can be integrated into the curriculum in major content areas. 3. i plan to implement service-learning in my future classroom. 4. i am knowledgeable about strategies to implement an initiative that improves or supports the community. 5. i am confident in my ability to plan and imbed service-learning in the curriculum. 6. i am able to design strategies to assess student growth in service-learning. 7. given the demands on classroom teachers, how relevant is curriculum imbedded service-learning? 8. through service-learning i believe that i can make a difference in my students’ lives. note. each question was answered using a 5 point likert scale where 0 = not at all, 1 = a little, 2 = moderately, 3 = very, and 4 = extremely. nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 148 the second form of data collected was through a focus group protocol. teacher candidates participated in the focus group within their seminar course after the service-learning instructional units had been taught. the focus group questionnaire was developed by the researchers and then validated by administration to a pilot group of teacher education candidates for content and construct validity and is provided below in table 2. the focus groups were recorded using an ipad and later transcribed and cross-checked for accuracy. three separate focus groups were conducted with candidates involving roughly a dozen candidates in each group. the results were analyzed by coding the responses of the three different groups and organized according to similar themes. table 2 focus group protocol questions 1. what is your understanding of service-learning? 2. describe what type of service-learning you implemented in your classroom. 3. do you believe having done this has an impact on your own civic action? 4. do you believe having done this project will have an impact on your students’ present and future civic engagement? 5. how do you believe this project has impacted your influence as a classroom teacher? finally, the researchers engaged in document analysis, which closely examined the ways teacher candidates enacted service learning in their instructional units. instructional units were evaluated according to a rubric, which teacher candidates received at the beginning of the semester. in this way, the instructional units received a holistic grade to capture the overall design of their unit, which included their incorporation of service learning for their elementary students, as well as how they were assessed. the rubric used to assess candidates’ service learning plans can be seen in table 3 below. these two elements were a component of a much larger rubric that assessed the entire performance task of the unit plan. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 149 table 3 service learning assessment rubric (0) unsatisfactory (1) developing (2) meets target (3) exceeds target service learning lesson integration candidate did not implement lessons targeting one of the four sl tasks. candidate attempted to implement lessons targeting one of the four sl tasks. candidate fully implemented lessons targeting one of the four sl tasks. candidate thoroughly and exceptionally implemented lessons targeting one of the four sl tasks. assessment of student growth for service learning candidate did not assess student growth related to a sl project. candidate adequately assessed student growth related to the sl project. candidate effectively assessed student growth related to the sl project. candidate effectively assessed student growth related to the sl project in multiple ways. at the beginning of the teacher candidates’ clinical practice semester candidates received instruction on embedding service-learning within instructional units during their orientation for clinical practice. the purpose of the instructional assembly was to provide teacher candidates with information about service-learning, the types of service-learning, and providing examples of how service-learning can be implemented in the elementary curriculum. at the conclusion of the orientation assembly, teacher candidates were emailed the instructional powerpoint on service learning to use as a reference during their planning stages. teacher candidates were allowed to develop their own service learning projects in collaboration with their cooperating teachers, the extent curriculum, and the needs and interests of their students. once the topics were chosen, teacher candidates conducted research, made appropriate contacts, and developed their lesson plans. the majority of project topics revolved around the science or social studies themes for instruction, but some projects were also related to literacy or health topics. one example consisted of a candidate who designed an nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 150 interdisciplinary science unit on habitats for second graders which included awareness and advocation for the polar bears’ diminishing habits as a result of global warming. the unit plan involved the students reading and researching about the polar bears and their endangered habitats, locating where the habitats were located in the world, and partnering with an international organization called polar bears international to help save the polar bears. students wrote persuasive letters to their fellow schoolmates and held a school-wide campaign to raise money for this professional organization. once the money was collected, these second graders received a math lesson where they counted the money raised before they sent it to the organization. a second example of a service-learning project completed by a teacher candidate teaching in a first grade classroom consisted of indirect service for one student’s family member serving in the armed forces in afghanistan. the teacher candidate provided instruction on the armed forces, the location and geography of afghanistan, and the sacrifices these service members make when they are deployed. the class then decided to write letters to the service member’s platoon as well as assemble and ship care packages to them. later in the semester, this same service member returned home and made a special visit to this third grade class. this was a unique experience that will be very memorable for these young students. findings surveys findings revealed that teacher candidates increased their overall understanding of and ability to embed service learning within elementary instruction. moreover, teacher candidates reported an increase in their teacher efficacy and ability to have an impact on the communities in which they teach. on the pre-survey the candidates’ responses varied reporting a minimal belief that they had the ability to have an impact on community problems. 33% moderately believed they could have an impact, 42% reported they very much believed they could have an impact, and only 16% extremely believed they could have an impact on community problems. compared to the candidates’ post-survey results which yielded stronger results, where 18% moderately believed they could have an impact, 50% very much believed they could have an impact and the remaining 26% of candidates extremely believed they could have an impact on community journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 151 problems through implementing service learning within their instruction. overall, 94% of teacher candidates in the study indicated an increase in their belief that having an impact on community problems was within their reach. figure 1 illustrates the data from the preand post-surveys related to teacher efficacy and service learning. figure 1. results from preand post-surveys regarding candidates’ self-reported belief on their ability to have an impact on community problems through service learning (question 1). along with an increase in the belief that candidates can have an impact on community problems, candidates also reported an increase in their confidence and knowledge of how to implement service-learning into the elementary curriculum in major content areas. in fact, 100% of candidates reported an increase in their confidence and knowledge in this domain of teacher efficacy. on the pre survey, candidates self-reported that 4% had no knowledge, 16% had a little knowledge, 22% had moderate knowledge, 42% had very good knowledge, and 15% had an extreme level of knowledge. these percentages increase greatly on the post survey with 42% having very good knowledge and 52% having an extreme level of knowledge for implementation. figure 2 illustrates the data from candidates’ preand post-surveys for survey question 2. 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% not at all a little moderately very extremely pre survey post survey nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 152 figure 2. results from preand post-surveys about candidates’ self-reported confidence and knowledge of how service-learning can be integrated into the elementary curriculum in major content areas (question 2). in addition to an increase in candidates’ teacher efficacy, 100% of candidates reported an increase in their understanding and knowledge of strategies to implement an initiative that improves or supports the community. on the pre-survey, the majority of candidates rated their knowledge of implementation strategies on or below the moderate level with only 27% rating themselves as very knowledgeable and only 4% rating themselves as extremely knowledgeable. these percentages increased dramatically on the post survey where candidates largely rated themselves above the moderate level with 32% rating themselves as very knowledgeable and 39% rating themselves as extremely knowledgeable. these results demonstrate that the candidates were successful in identifying strategies for implementation of their service-learning initiatives that improves or supports the community. figure 3 illustrates candidates’ pre and post survey responses for implementation strategies. 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% not at all a little moderately very extremely pre survey post survey journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 153 figure 3 results from pre and post surveys about candidates’ self-reported knowledge regarding strategies to implement a service learning initiative that improves or supports the community (question 4). by definition, service-learning represents not only concepts embedded within the curriculum, but it is also assessed. another important change identified as a result of this servicelearning research with teacher candidates was their ability to design strategies to assess student growth in regards to service-learning. on the pre survey, 58% of candidates rated their ability to design assessments for service-learning at the moderate level or below. on the post survey however, 79% of candidates rated their ability to design assessments at very knowledgeable and above. figure 4 illustrates the results of question 6 on the survey. 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% not at all a little moderately very extremely pre survey post survey 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% not at all a little moderately very extremely pre survey post survey nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 154 figure 4 results from pre and post surveys about candidates’ self-reported knowledge regarding their ability to design strategies to assess student growth in service-learning (question 6). of the eight questions on the preand post-survey, the largest increase was seen in the results of question five which asked elementary teacher candidates to rate their confidence in their ability to plan and embed service learning within their curriculum. on the pre-survey, only 40% rated confidence in their abilities above the moderate level. on the post-survey however, 81% of candidates rated themselves as either very confident or extremely confident. results from the pre and post surveys illustrate this finding in figure 5. figure 5. results from preand post-surveys regarding candidates’ confidence in their ability to plan and imbed service learning in the curriculum (question 5). focus groups three different focus groups were conducted with the elementary teacher candidates during their clinical practice seminar. candidates were asked to respond to the focus group protocol consisting of five questions listed previously in table 2. during the focus group sessions the majority of candidates were very excited about their service-learning projects that they had completed in their elementary classrooms and were more than eager to share. each session had a few who were quiet and content to listen to the others share about their experiences. each focus group was recorded using an ipad and later transcribed and crosschecked for accuracy. 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% not at all a little moderately very extremely pre survey post survey journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 155 in response to question one, a candidate shared, “i feel like it gives the students their place in the world, seeing that they can actually help their community and they’re not just students. they’re part of a community, a place where they can make the world a better place.” this candidate’s response demonstrates that they believed they were able to make an impact on their students’ civic engagement. another candidate stated, “this is something they’ll remember when they are older, and those are the most impactful lessons.” this response demonstrates that the candidates realized the value of designing lessons that were meaningful and authentic for their students. question two asked candidates to describe the service-learning projects that they conducted in their elementary classrooms. one candidate shared, “in my class, our project was on ‘who’s a community member?’ we were able to identify a soldier serving oversees and we sent him a care package. he has been corresponding with us since we started the project and also came to visit once he arrived back home. he came into my first grade class in full uniform and brought us some pictures.” in this example the children were able to see first hand the fruits of their labor and experience the impact their service project had on the life of this soldier. a second candidate shared, “our class did ‘how you can keep your community environment clean?’ so we donated plants to the janitors in our school. each janitor received two plants, one to take home and one to plant on the school grounds. i involved my kindergarten students in deciding what the project should be and they came up with this idea on their own!” this candidate grasped the understanding of the value of involving her students in the decision making process for service-learning. question three asked candidates if this service-learning experience has had an impact on their own civic action. one candidate responded, “yes, i realize now that it is not as difficult as i thought it would be to get involved in a cause and to make a difference.” another candidate replied, “my family has often been involved in charity 5k runs and walks such as relay for life as i was growing up, but now this project has motivated me to become involved in my own events.” other candidates responded in similar ways that the experience has motivated them to continue personal service projects in the future. question four asked candidates if they believe having done this project that it will have an impact on their students’ present and future civic engagement. one candidate replied, “my nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 156 kids really got into it and all the time now they ask questions and think of sending things to other soldiers. they say things like ‘we have to remember them’ and are super into it. they have asked if they can do it again next year.” the service projects provided intrinsic motivation for students as well as extrinsic. candidates recalled that the experience was highly meaningful and valuable for their elementary students. another candidate responded, “it makes them [students] feel important because we also did valentine’s day. i have two friends in the army and they’re in qatar, so we talked about how these guys cannot spend the holidays with their families because they are fighting for us. so they made cards for them and they [students] weren’t prideful, but just felt they can help them out by sending them cards to feel better so they won’t be lonely. it gave them a sense of being an important part of the community too.” candidates were able to identify the impact that the service-learning projects made on their students sense of civic engagement. question five asked candidates how the service learning projects impacted their influence as a classroom teacher. one candidate replied, “it made me realize that even the kids in the younger grades realized that they could do something. you think that they’re [students] so helpless and they need all the help, and then when they get to this service project and they’re doing it themselves and they understand their impact on the community, it is simply amazing!” several candidates agreed and commented that they felt at first that a service project would be too difficult for their lower elementary students to grasp and understand, but they actually experienced the opposite. another candidate responded, “i think i’ll definitely do it in my future classroom, especially since a lot of schools support teachers doing this type of thing and they do it as well. so, knowing now that you have support from other people in the school makes it more motivating as well.” the teacher candidates in the focus groups were 100% in agreement that the service-learning projects were very motivational for their students, that the students took ownership of the projects, and that they felt that the experience made a positive impact on their students’ lives. document analysis the document analysis consisted of the elementary teacher candidates’ interdisciplinary units on a thematic topic where the service-learning project was embedded. some sample projects were as follows. two different candidates prepared units on community workers and journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 157 planned collection drives for an animal shelter. one candidate wrote her thematic unit on earth day and conservation methods for second graders. the embedded service learning project involved the students donating money to purchase some plants for the school custodians to plant around the school yard as well as to take one home. another candidate planned a thematic unit on community workers for first grade and the embedded service-learning project involved writing letters and collecting money to support the volunteer fire department. 100% of the elementary teacher candidates scored in the acceptable range (scoring a 1, 2, or 3 on a 0-3 point rubric) on the service-learning aspect of the unit plan. the service-learning portion of the assessment rubric was provided earlier in table 3. the candidates’ supervisors were required to conduct a formal observation of at least one lesson during the service-learning unit instruction. candidates were scored according to the content, planning, and implementation of the lesson using the danielson framework rubric. overall, the findings from the triangulated data sources indicate that elementary teacher candidates’ knowledge of service-learning increased as a result of having to incorporate servicelearning into extant elementary curriculum. in addition to an increase in knowledge, candidates reported an increase in their teacher efficacy. candidates also expressed an increase in their ability to make an impact on community problems as well as identifying strategies to implement initiatives that improve or support the community. moreover, at the end of the semester, candidates effectively demonstrated their ability to design curriculum that integrated specific strategies used to implement initiatives that improve or support the community. data from candidates’ instructional units support the finding that candidates were successfully able to enact and assess service-learning into their instruction for elementary students. discussion the results of this study indicate that by embedding service-learning into an instructional unit, teacher candidates elicited higher levels of student engagement and retention of information. moreover, elementary students were engaged in social responsibility and civic engagement as a result of participating in service-learning projects within their classrooms. the clinical practice candidates found that embedded service-learning, contrary to their initial concerns, did not detract from, but rather enhanced students’ higher order thinking skills and supported standards based instruction. nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 158 furthermore, even the teacher candidates placed in early childhood settings (k-3) found that students were able to grasp concepts of fairness, community engagement, and social activism. this is in agreement with what wade (2007) states, …service-learning for social justice should begin in the earliest years of schooling. if students are to develop a commitment to social justice ideals, this work should begin in the elementary years when children are concerned with “fairness” and when their empathy and perspective taking abilities are developing. (p. 158) findings also suggest that clinical practice candidates established competence in developing integrated curriculum that included critical engagement in civically and socially relevant concepts. service-learning integration also prepares them for teaching in high needs communities where they can have an impact both academically and socially; such as dealing with issues of poverty, hunger, inadequate medical care, and lack of community resources. it potentially fosters a desire in candidates to teach in high-needs communities where they know that their efforts will have a positive impact. finally, document analysis of the clinical practice candidates’ instructional units revealed several key findings. first their units displayed student-centered activities. for example, one candidate teaching in a rural community designed a unit about soil conservation and provided instruction on how the children could contribute to clean soil and a healthy environment. another key finding was that these units provided authentic engagement, which is also associated with constructivism. one candidate provided instruction for fourth graders on the impact of bullying and invited a community social worker in as a guest lecturer about the impacts of bullying. a final key finding was the embedding of real world applications. one candidate provided instruction for second graders on the conservation efforts and the benefits of recycling. these interdisciplinary units embedded with service-learning efforts were received well by school administrators, parents, and students alike. the results of this study re-emphasized the positive impact that service-learning can have on both the teacher and the learner regarding attitudes related to social responsibility (eyler, 2002). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 159 implications for future directions the service-learning embedded interdisciplinary unit is now a requirement for all elementary clinical practice candidates moving forward in this teacher preparation program. interdisciplinary units that embed service-learning can support meaningful civic engagement. in addition, students and educators will gain experience in such skills as activism, community building and the cooperative process. one future direction of this research can include quantitative measures of involvement in social activity that supports positive community change. conclusions service-learning in a variety of ways makes a lasting impact not only on future elementary teachers, but the students that they teach as well (scott & graham, 2015). this study demonstrated how through the simple act of embedding such methods into their instruction not only increases knowledge, but more importantly candidates’ efficacy as well. if ‘practice makes perfect’ as the age old saying goes, then this experience will replicate itself as these teacher candidates enter into the teaching world prepped with strategies and the confidence to make a difference. service-learning opportunities also have a great impact on the elementary students they serve as well according to barton (2005), advocacy in the classroom has several benefits. it provides opportunities for students to do primary and secondary research; engages them in a process of discovery; and enables them to select, develop, and publish electronic and textual documents for specific audiences in an authentic rhetorical context. (p. 79) as a result, it is recommend that service-learning be embedded into the extent curriculum in elementary schools across america as well as globally. encouraging both teachers and students to develop their voice on social issues and increase their confidence and beliefs that they can make a difference in society just might change the world one child, one classroom, one teacher, at a time. nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 160 references banks, j.a. (2004). teaching for social justice, diversity, and citizenship in a global world. educational forum. vol. 68, 289-298. barton, f. (2005). walking the talk: creating engaged citizens in english class. english journal, 94(5), 75-79. berger-kaye, c. (2004). the complete guide to service learning. minneapolis, mn: free spirit publishing. bettencourt, m. (2015). supporting student learning outcomes through service-learning. foreign language annals, 48(3), 473-490. billig, s. h. (2000). research on k-12 school-based service-learning: the evidence builds. phi delta kappan, 81, 658-664. cairn, r.w., & kielsmeier, j. (1991). growing hope; a sourcebook on integrating youth service into the school curriculum (roseville, mn, national youth leadership council). center for civic education. (1994). national standards for civics and government. calabasas, ca: center for civic education. coles, r. (1993). the call of service: a witness to idealism. boston, ma: houghton mifflin. couse, l., & russo, h. (2006). service‐learning: mentoring leadership skills in the experienced teacher. mentoring & tutoring: partnership in learning, 14(1), 33-48. doi:10.1080/13611260500432251 dundon, b.l. (1999). my voice: an advocacy approach to service learning. educational leadership, 57(4), 34. ethridge, e. (2006). teacher modeling of active citizenship via service-learning in teacher education. mentoring & tutoring: partnership in learning. feb2006, vol. 14(1), 49-65. eyler, j. (2002). reflection: linking service and learning – linking students and communities. journal of social issues. 58(3), 517-534. javascript:__dolinkpostback('','ss%7e%7ear%20%22ethridge%2c%20elizabeth%22%7c%7csl%7e%7erl',''); javascript:__dolinkpostback('','mdb%7e%7eaph%7c%7cjdb%7e%7eaphjnh%7c%7css%7e%7ejn%20%22mentoring%20%26%20tutoring%3a%20partnership%20in%20learning%22%7c%7csl%7e%7ejh',''); journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 140-162 161 eyler, j. & giles, d.e. jr. (1999). where’s the learning in service-learning? san francisco: jossey-bass. hahn, c.l. (2010). comparative civic education research: what we know and what we need to know. citizenship teaching and learning. 6(1). pp. 5-23. jacoby, b. & associates. (1996). service-learning in higher education: concepts and practices. san francisco: jossey-bass publishers. lester, s. i. (2015). melding service learning and leadership skills development. journal of experiential education, 38(3), 280-295.national commission on service-learning. (2002). learning in deed: the power of service learning for american schools. retrieved from http://ed253jcu.pbworks.com/f/learningdeedservicelearning_american+schools.pdf niegocki, k.l., mastroianni, e.m., hurley, e.j., green, m.m., gerstein, l.h., richardson, d.r., & miller, d.a. (2012). making the social justice connection: development of a community resource guide. journal for social action in counseling & psychology, 4(2), 41-58. o’byrne, k. (2006). service learning: what, why and how? the language educator. 47. root, s. & furco, a. (2001). a review of research on service-learning in preservice teacher education, in: j.b. anderson, k.j. swick & j. yff (eds). service-learning in teacher education: enhancing the growth of new teachers, their students, and communities. (washington, dc, american association of colleges for teacher education), 86-101. scott, d.l. (2008). service learning: the road from the classroom to community-based macro intervention. journal of policy practice, 7(2/3), 214-225. scott, k. e., & graham, j. a. (2015). service-learning. journal of experiential education, 38(4), 354-372. doi:10.1177/1053825915592889 shiller, j. t. (2013). preparing for democracy: how community-based organizations build civic engagement among urban youth. urban education, 48, 69-91. doi:10.1177/0042085912436761 sudeck m. & hartman, t. (2009). service learning: the power to inspire. educational leadership. 66. nancy k. dejarnette & maria sudeck 162 terrell, s. (2012). mixed-methods research methodologies. the qualitative report. 17(1). 254 280. retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/qr/qr17-1/terrell.pdf. wade, r.c. (2003). teaching preservice social studies teachers to be advocates for social change. social studies, 94(3), 129. wade, r.c. (2007). service-learning for social justice in the elementary classroom: can we get there from here? equity & excellence in education, 40(2), 156-165. doi:10.1080/10665680701221313 abstract introduction fifty years ago, martin luther king, jr. raised awareness about the importance of service when he said, “everybody can be great...because anybody can serve.” in that spirit, this article situates service-learning as a way to enhance teaching and lear... as teacher educators, we came together with the common understanding that, because civic engagement and service-learning are marginalized in schools, young children are missing valuable opportunities to learn about social responsibility, person... context of study applying the existing knowledge base framework for study transformational learning and advocacy methodology findings implications for future directions conclusions www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2),15-38 15 transformation of the system of bilingual education in the republic of tatarstan: crossover ethnolinguistic controversies olga maximova1, vladimir belyaev2, olga laukart-gorbacheva3 abstract the relevance of the problem range addressed in the study is conditioned by the system of education functioning under multiculturalism in modern polyethnic societies and their social stability much depending on the balanced use of languages of ethnoses that reside in the region as well as on the respectful attitude to their representatives in daily life. thus, the system of education has to take into account the ethnic and religious, political, social and cultural requirements of the society offering highquality education to the consumers according to their expectations. the objective of the paper consists in revealing the topical problems of regional educational reforms aimed at implementing the principle of bilingualism in polyethnic and polyreligious region of russia – the republic of tatarstan. the representative mass survey of population of the republic of tatarstan and a series of in-depth narrative interviews with representatives of various generations of tatarstan citizens as the main methods used in the research. based on the sociological survey conducted within the research project "dynamics of real and conventional generations in information polyethnic and polyreligious society (a case study of the republic of tatarstan)", the following findings have been made. scientific justification of the language policy being implemented in the republic and of the methodological support of bilingual educational programs are of poor level. a higher education system segregated according to the information carrier language prevails. there also remains a crossover controversy expressed in discontent in both russianspeaking and to a significant extent tatar-speaking urban population with the school educational policy of bilingualism. results of the research cited in the paper can be used by the state authorities of the republic for elaborating the optimum bilingual language policy as well as in the practice of educational institutions implementing the bilingual education. keywords: bilingual education, teaching methods, policy of bilingualism, educational program, language identity, crossover ethnolinguistic controversy, upgrade of the tatar language teaching methods. introduction post-modern societies develop in conditions of multiculturalism which brings about the necessity of a balanced ethnic and religious policy, and in particular, language policy. some of the efficient mechanisms of language policy implementation in areas with ethnically diverse 1 assoc. prof., candidate of sociology, kazan (volga region) federal university, kazan national research technical university named after a. n. tupolev – kai, olga_max@list.ru 2 prof., doctor of politics, kazan national research technical university named after a. n. tupolev – kai, vlad_belyaev@list.ru 3assoc. prof., candidate of sociology, kazan national research technical university named after a. n. tupolev – kai, olga241202@yandex.ru mailto:olga_max@list.ru mailto:vlad_belyaev@list.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 population is maintaining and developing the languages of the most numerous ethnoses residing in the region by teaching these languages at educational institutions. the optimum proportion of the ethnic groups' interests in educational programs allows using the languages of the ethnoses in a balanced manner while also maintaining their tolerant attitude to each other. educational reforms aimed at implementing the bilingualism or multilingualism principle frequently have no scientific justification and are conducted under the influence of certain political or economical interests, which results in immediate public initiatives and escalation of tension in interethnic communication. one of the important questions in the sphere of education is the implementation of bilingualism or multilingualism policy in areas with ethnically diverse composition of population (byker & marquardt, 2016, kopish, 2016). while working out the policy of functioning and development of educational institutions, the interests of ethnic groups have to be taken into consideration and an optimum proportion of two or more languages teaching has to be implemented in educational programs. any biases towards any certain language are promptly responded to by the public. bilingualism in the republic of tatarstan is a historically formed result of a prolonged interaction of two main ethnoses, the russian and the tatar ones, for which close neighboring is perceived not as a problem but more as a cultural particularity of the republic. meanwhile, bilingualism is not a direct reflection of bi-ethnic structure due to the presence of numerous russian-speaking monolinguals and bilinguals first of all among the tatar urban dwellers in tatarstan. however, in various historical time spans, language policy did not always completely take into account the interests of both ethnoses, which was also reflected in educational programs of the republic's educational institutions. it was only during the restructuring years of 1987-1991 that the actual discussions (both in scientific circles and in the mass media) on the questions of bilingualism commenced in tatarstan openly. previously, in the early soviet time – in 1930s and 1950s, the compulsory learning of the tatar language by tatar origin schoolchildren and optional learning of tatar by the russian children were widespread at schools. with regard to this, it was the spoken tatar language that russian schoolchildren studied, in play and spectacular forms, using the words and idioms that were common for the daily speech mainly. the first discussions about the role of the tatar language, its evolution and obligation of all maximova et al. learners to study it regardless of their ethnic background were only to be heard during the "thaw" of the 1950-1960s within clandestine and semi-clandestine groups on the history of tatar ethnos and its culture; the authors of the paper were told about the work of such groups by participants themselves during the in-depth interviews. v. belyaev (2007) notes that tatar ethno-national movement of that time had the goal of raising the status of the tatar culture and language, expanding the authorities of the republic and possibly rendering the ethnicity political and was already institutionalized in the stagnation years, having created an elaborate network of ethnonational mobilization that consisted of a number of concentric circles. its "external circle" represented the small isles of tatar ethnic culture (at tatar theaters, philharmonic society and other institutions of art, tatar departments of pedagogical institute and university, at the institute of language, literature and history, in tatar-speaking newspapers and magazines, later – at the conservatoire, the institute of culture, on the radio and television etc.). the communities were institutionalized by subtle semi-legal campaigning at the theatrical gatherings, shows, creative evenings, culture evenings, society parties and the like events where the ones concerned with the destiny of their people were selected from the "external circle" audience. the objectives of ethnicity volunteers' working in the external circle were to look for sympathizers ("clubmen") and to involve potential activists and adherents – constituents. the chosen ones got to the "medium circle" or "inner network" which was already busy with the consistent preparation of ethno-national politically charged most active members: by advocacy of the history of the turkic peoples and languages, theology and history of islam among the activists. the main function of the "medium circle" is forming the ethno-national elite and training the reserve staff for the official ruling elite. at the head of all this work there was the "core" (the caucus of ethnonational "counter-elite"). the caucus included both the forefront leaders (organizers, ideologists from among scientists and smooth operators from among cultural figures) and the second unit actors (leaders' backup men, "arguers", "referees" and constituents). the caucus had its representatives in the city and municipal authorities, in security and other ministries of the republic, and it also supervised the personnel policy at the middle level (in areas, ministries and government agencies). the main functions of the caucus of such "counter-elite" were management of the ethnic movement, development of its strategy, injection of power with ideas and people (permeating into the power) as well as exercising pressure on the power. the caucus of the "counter-elite" practically interspersed with the ruling elite of neo-nomenclature so it journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 cannot be called opposition to the full extent. thus, the ethnic movement was an integral system in which each "circle" was a subjected stage, a form for being selected into the next level (belyaev, 2007, p. 306-308). the above processes actually brought about flourishing of ethnocentrism in the late soviet and restructuring times. in the late soviet time, discussions on the problem of bilingualism were provoked by a number of functions of the tatar language declining, its going away into "kitchens and countryside". hence one of the reasons for uplift of the ethnocentric and republican (given the obvious poor compatibility of these two vectors) at the end of the 1980s was the aspiration to revive the social and state functions of the tatar language. as a form of such renaissance, the tatar ethno-political movement and leaders of the republic suggested to vest the tatar language only with state functions in tatarstan and to make studying it an obligation for all learners. at the same time, the multinational movement "soglasie" ("concord") emerged in the republic which put forward the idea of equal state recognition of two main languages and the idea of compulsory study of both languages at school, although in a different scope, with the russian language prevailing essentially. further on, the public discussion turned quite harsh, which was expressed in the law of the republic of tatarstan "on state languages of the republic of tatarstan and other languages in the republic of tatarstan" that first appeared in 1992 and was updated several times. the law prescribed that both languages be studied in equal scope as well as the subject-based (not objectbased) principle in relation to mastery of both languages be observed by the state authorities. this means it is not merely an "object", or a state agency, that had to give a reply in the same language it had been addressed to (for this, it suffices only one official in charge of answering the requests to know both languages) but each "subject", i.e. each official had to know both languages – which is physically impossible as of now and in practice leads to mono-ethnization of power structures. discussions associated with this go on both in the scientific community (including thesis works, monographs and papers) and in the internet, on websites of newspapers, and to a smaller extent – on the radio, television and in the official "paper" printed media. the introduction of compulsory study of the tatar language and literature at comprehensive schools and professional educational institutions of tatarstan in the early 1990s caused an immediate people's response in the printed media of the republic (khodzhaeva, 2011). broad public discussions on the problem of proportion of the russian and tatar languages maximova et al. being taught go on, and so do the social initiatives. among the most noticeable social activities in this direction, the following can be named: – created in 2008, the web community "the russian language at schools of tatarstan" keeps functioning actively, currently listing over 11 thousand members; – in june, 2010, 30 collective appeals against the republican "strategy of development of education in the republic of tatarstan for the years 2010-2015" ("kilechek") were signed and distributed, as according to the activists the said strategy involved consolidating the priority positions of the tatar language in the system of education while implying no development in the study of russian; – in february, 2011, there was a one-person picket with the slogan "rt me&s, bring the russian language back to schools!", and in the same month, an open letter was published and collection of signatures of schoolchildren's parents was started; – on april 16, 2011, leaders and activists of the society for the russian culture rallied in kazan for the defense of the russian language and its position in the republic's system of education; – on june 9, and september 7, 2011, pickets were organized in kazan for the defense of russian; – in 2012, due to the greater quantity of official appeals to the federal authorities by the public organizations and parents of tatarstan and bashkortostan, russia's state duma committee for nationalities proceeding from the results of expert evaluation conducted by the committee concluded that the regions' actions in setting equal the scopes of study of russian and national languages ("the language serving all spheres of the society – russian – certainly cannot be equated to a language of local functioning – tatar, bashkir etc.") were illegal. however, no essential change in proportion of the russian and tatar languages being taught took place in educational programs of tatarstan educational institutions; – in june, 2013, there was a rally in the center of kazan, in november – a march under the slogan "for the russian language"; – in december, 2013, a picket for the defense of russian was organized in moscow; – in february, 2014, one-person pickets took place in kazan; – in may, 2015, an open letter to the president of the rf "save the russian language and interethnic concord in russia's national republics" was published; journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 – in april, 2017, the rally "against the language tyranny in tatarstan" was organized in kazan; – in may, 2017, kazan saw the parents' protest activated against selection to a "polylingual" school – one with the tatar language of teaching in most grades being created in a new district of kazan (where the shortage of schools is quite acute) (vasilyeva, 2017). according to some researchers, the concept of the "native language" in tatarstan is ideologically charged. throughout the entire post-soviet time, it was it that formed the basis for rhetorics of tatar nationalist groups. today, the concept is being actively borrowed by campaigners for the position of the russian language. for them, the principal problem of public debates is russian being taught at all russian-speaking schools of tatarstan "under the curriculum of national schools". thus, formally, russian has got the status of a non-native language – for ethnically russian schoolchildren too, while tatar is taught as a "native" for everyone. the russian-speaking public believes this leads to impairment of the children's rights for getting the knowledge on their native language in full (here the scope of learning the russian language in "non-national" regions of russia is meant) (khodzhaeva, 2011). it should be pointed out that the demands of the public and, first of all, the russianspeaking parenting community are focused not on completely canceling the learning of tatar but on reducing the scope of study of tatar for the schoolchildren (russians, tatars and others) whose mother tongue is russian. as an argument, statements of parents are cited to the effect that they have to pay for extra services of private tutors of russian for their children to score sufficiently in the uniform state exam (use) when completing comprehensive schooling in order to be admitted to higher educational institutions. moreover, results of studies show that most learners do not master tatar at the due level because of low motivation and lacking methodological support, in particular – poor qualification of teachers of the tatar language and literature, excessively complicated (one for higher educational institutions, in fact) theoretical study program. the listed problems in transformation of the system of bilingual education in the republic of tatarstan demand being comprehended and studied at the empirical, theoretical and methodological levels. literature review the society has experienced dramatic change in all spheres of its existence during the maximova et al. recent decades. the rise of the new type of the society in the second half of the 20th century is characterized by the researchers variously: as a post-industrial one (bell, 1973); as an information one (masuda, 1983, castells & himanen, 2004); as an individualized (bauman, 2001) or innovative one (tarman & acun, 2010; tarman, 2016); a society of risk (luhmann, 1991; beck, 1992); a society where the notions of "work" and "capital" are replaced by the "knowledge" and "information" ones (toffler, 1980, mansell, 1998); a learning society (hutchins, 1968, husen, 1974); the century of bifurcations (laszlo, 1991) etc. the like social transformations render it necessary to change the educational paradigm too. the analysis of the context of transformations has revealed a higher role of education and learning at the personal level which is characteristic for the new type of the society (levy, 1966, inkeles, 1976, dahrendorf, 1979, kumar, 1988, naisbitt & aburdene, 1990, giddens, 1990). the modern consumer of educational services is aimed to a larger extent at obtaining the practical, utilitarian knowledge, skills and competences and to a smaller extent – the universal theoretical knowledge (maximova et al., 2016). given the conditions of dual ethnic composition of the population in the certain region, and, in particular, approximately equally numbering shares of the population belonging to different language groups, there is also the problem of bilingualism actualized in the sphere of education. as a result of globalization and development of world communication between different cultures and countries, various languages produce a potent effect on each other. e. bialystok (2001) points out that monolingualism as a characteristics of speech of the modern adult is a fiction because any modern language contains words borrowed from other languages in its structure. in the formed world situation, owing to the stable increase of the quantity of people speaking several languages, bilingualism became a kind of phenomenon of the modern times. this range of problems has gained its popularity and is being researched widely by specialists of various scientific fields. according to common underlying proficiency theory (baker, 1996), two languages used by an individual function within the human conscience via one and the same central cognitive system, though being separated from each other: "when a person owns two or more languages, there is one integrated source of thought" (baker, 1996, p. 147). bilingual education implies organizing the educational process in several languages at the same time and is used in various educational institutions of countries where, for instance, there journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 are two official languages or an ethnic minority language actively comes into its own alongside with the official one. thus, under the dual ethnic composition of the population, there emerges a new social request for the system of education in solving the tasks of upbringing, education, and if necessary, rendering correction assistance to the rising generation with the linguistic particularities of the modern integrated society borne in mind. in order to solve the set task successfully, the relevant necessity arises to form techniques of teaching two languages to representatives of both ethnic groups. however, here the problem emerges which is expressed in having to ensure for parents of minor children the right to choose from educational programs and techniques oriented to bilingual education. the standpoints of the international community in education and, in particular, in preservation and development of languages, the problems of teaching these are reflected in unesco documents elaborated in the recent decades: unesco universal declaration on cultural diversity (2001); convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage (2003); recommendation concerning the promotion and use of multilingualism and universal access to cyberspace (2003); convention on the protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions (2005). unseco recommends the member countries when developing their national language policies to support the diversity of languages by using and disseminating them, to promote teaching of several languages at different levels of education commencing with early childhood, to use methods of communication that run traditional in the culture and to keep the specific character of pedagogical systems, as well as to disseminate linguistic diversity by using the developments of the state-of-the-art information technologies and opportunities of the world information networks (smeets, 2005). one of unesco projects aimed at integrating national languages in the educational systems suggested a staged schedule of measures on reforming the educational systems in line with introduction of language training subjects. while emphasizing the complexity and social responsibility of introducing the national languages into the educational process, as well as having to take into account the national particularities and capacities, unesco experts recommended a number of main stages of the reform of education for implementing the national languages into educational programs (dwyer et al., 2008). they are as follows: – creating the scientific basis for educational programs upgrade relying on scientific maximova et al. research of linguistic and sociolinguistic particularities of the region; – making the problems of language policy implementation in the educational sphere relevant and engaging the official figures concerned as well as the public in order to render the expected educational reforms legitimate and popular; – training the personnel who are capable of implementing the expected changes in educational programs and ensuring quality teaching of the language subjects introduced at a high professional level; – forming the methodological support of the educational reforms being conducted (planning, development, production, distribution and control of the required courseware and training measures that would resolve any difficulties and problems of language subjects introduction arising); – ensuring the standard base and legal framework for the transformations conducted at the regional educational institutions; – preparing the financial and technical base so as to ensure the efficiency and longevity of the educational reforms brought into life. bilingual education at the contemporary stage of its development is the subject of an extensive discussion among politicians, teachers, linguists, sociologists, philologists and parents. likewise, the very notion of bilingualism is quite debatable. with regard to this, it makes sense to outline the brief chronology of the term being used in scientific discourse. l. bloomfield (1933) was one of the first to characterize the notion of bilingualism; he insisted that a bilingual is a person who speaks both languages fluently. u. weinreich (1953) determines bilingualism as the practice of alternate use of two languages. the russian researcher v. yu. rosenzweig (1972) pointed out that by bilingualism mastery of two languages and regular switching between them depending on the communication situation is usually meant. the russian scholar a. d. schweizer (2012) singles out the first language as one's mother tongue and the second language as the unrelated but being in a wide use with a certain ethnic community. the author specifies that a person can have different levels of mastery in the two languages: being fluent in spoken colloquial language or in written literary one or in both forms. according to schweizer, one of the important sociolinguistic problems is that of social aspects of bilingualism. in conditions of bilingualism, two languages coexist within one community who journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 use the languages in various communicative spheres depending on the social situation and other parameters of communicative act. f. grosjean (1989) determined a bilingual as a person who can "function" in both languages depending on the necessity. meanwhile, he criticizes the monolingual or fractional view holding that the bilingual is (or should be) two monolinguals in one person. grosjean stands up for the bilingual or holistic view stating that it is a unique and specific speaker-hearer that coexistence of two languages in the bilingual person produces. s. dopke (1992) distinguishes between the productive and receptive bilingualism. by productive bilingualism, a person's quite profound mastery of two languages as an educational competence is meant. in case of receptive bilingualism, people can understand the speech addressed to them and probably even read in the second language but they cannot actively use this language. s. romaine (1995) described six models of "home bilingualism" from the standpoint of social and linguistic particularities, with a greater or smaller status of each of the languages and the language material received by children taken into account. the same context is explored by the russian authors a. a. zalevskaya and i. l. medvedeva (2002) who single out the following types of bilingualism. the natural (everyday) bilingualism means that the second language is mastered owing to the speech practice without getting deep into studying the language particularities of the language being learned. the artificial (academic) bilingualism involves certain pedagogical efforts and techniques in mastering the second language. the fundamental foundations of sociolinguistics were laid down in the 1920-1930s by the soviet scholars v. v. vinogradov (1923), l. p. yakubinskiy (1923), r. o. schor (1926), e. d. polivanov (1927), v. m. zhirmunskiy (1936), and m. v. serghievskiy (1936). the researchers proceeded from the marxist approach viewing the language as a social phenomenon within the context of historic and materialistic principles of analysis of social relationships. in the 1960-1970s, the interest in sociological problems of language was revived, which is first of all associated with the change in social needs and with the necessity of activating the pragmatic direction of sociolinguistic studies and applying their results in social practice, in particular, for developing the language policy up to the demands of the time and implementing it in educational programs, social and cultural projects (galkina-fedoruk, 1954, avrorin, 1975, nikolskiy, 1976, stepanov, 1976, desheriev, 1977). maximova et al. in the recent years, the problem of bilingualism in education has been quite extensively discussed both at the public level and in scientific discourse. among the most significant works, the papers by s. akhmetova (2013), g. guzelbaeva (2013), l. nizamova (2016) etc. can be singled out. these authors point at controversial trends in bilingualism functioning in the republic, persistent asymmetry in the use of the state languages towards the russian language. most tatars of the republic being bilinguals and having mastered both tatar and russian to a sufficient extent while the russian population as a rule failing to master the tatar language in spite of the educational policy is considered by the said authors to be one of the principal problems. nevertheless, it is only a limited quantity of authors who discuss another viewpoint voiced by the russian population mainly and associated with the problem of the tatar language being taught at the expense of reducing the academic hours for russian (khodzhaeva, 2011). on balance, the analysis of literature reflects the multidimensionality of definitions and the evident lack of studies on the problem of bilingualism in russia's system of education from the viewpoint of the social pedagogics, and certainly a later beginning of research in this area as compared to foreign scholars. at the modern stage of development of bilingualism in the republic of tatarstan being one of the polyethnic regions of russia, the problem of development of techniques and methods of education and upbringing of children in conditions of bilingualism is actualized, as well as that of rendering them pedagogical and psychological assistance both in conditions of schooling and in intrafamilial socialization, as well as resolving social controversies in this sphere at the level of interethnic communication and performance of educational activity. research methods within the research project "dynamics of real and conventional generations in information polyethnic and polyreligious society (a case study of the republic of tatarstan)" supported by the russian foundation for basic research (the reported study was funded by rfbr under research project no. 17-06-00474 a), an integrated sociological study was performed by the research team with direct participation of the authors of this paper in aprilmay of 2017. the study included the following stages: representative survey of population of the republic of tatarstan (n=1500 people). the obtained data have been processed and analyzed using the spss software for statistical data processing; journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 a series of in-depth narrative interviews with representatives of various generations of tatar citizens (the total of 20 interviews among the representatives of the russian and tatar ethnoses have been conducted), narrative analysis processing of the interviews. one of the objectives of the integrated research consisted in identifying the key factors conditioning the specific character of transformation of the bilingual education system in tatarstan and in finding out the attitude to this problem in two most numerous ethnoses residing in the region, the russians and the tatars. the tasks of the research consisted in the following: revealing the particularities of the tatar citizens' language identity; characterizing the attitude of various age cohorts of the population of tatarstan towards educational programs implemented with the principles of bilingualism at the republic's educational institutions; describing the extent of acceptance/rejection of individual ways of mastering the two languages among the learners and their parents; identifying the problems of teaching the russian and tatar languages at educational institutions; finding out the opportunities for overcoming the crossover controversy in implementation of bilingualism at educational institutions of the republic of tatarstan. the population of the republic of tatarstan became the object of the research. the subject of the research was the population's attitude towards the problem of bilingualism being introduced and functioning within the republic's educational sphere. the toolkit of the research consisted of a mass survey questionnaire and a guide for the in-depth interview which included the following thematic units: language identity of the republic's population, including one taken across generations; evaluation of the educational reforms conducted in the republic within the context of bilingualism; optimum variants of combination of educational needs for the two most numerous ethnoses, the russians and the tatars. results and discussion comprehensive schools and professional educational institutions of tatarstan comply with the federal laws and work in line with basis curricula setting the standards of hours for maximova et al. study subjects taught at the educational institutions. however, according to the constitution of the russian federation (art. 68), the republic of tatarstan being a subject of the russian federation has the right to set another state language and, consequently, introduce teaching of this language at its educational institutions. the law "on state languages of the republic of tatarstan and other languages in the republic of tatarstan" of 1992 specifies that "at state and municipal educational organizations, teaching and learning of tatar and russian as the state languages of the republic of tatarstan, of literature in tatar and russian within the educational programs accredited by the state are performed in accordance with the federal state educational standards. at comprehensive educational organizations and organizations of professional education, the tatar language and the russian language are studied in the equal scopes of the appropriate levels of general and secondary vocational education" (law of the republic of tatarstan "on state languages of the republic of tatarstan and other languages in the republic of tatarstan", 1992). the policy of bilingualism being implemented at comprehensive schools and professional educational institutions of the republic of tatarstan has got debatable consequences and is evaluated by the public, parents and learners in an ambivalent manner. the research team with direct participation of the authors of this paper has conducted a representative survey of population of the republic of tatarstan, the sampling total amounting to 1500 people. according to the results of the mass survey, language identity of the population of tatarstan looks as follows: – russian is named as the mother tongue by over half of the republic's citizens (52%); – around half of the respondents (46,4%) consider the tatar language to be their native; – a significant part of non-russian population of the republic (68,5%) have pointed out that they speak russian alongside with their mother tongue; – only a minor share of the respondents (14,4%) specified the knowledge of tatar as a second language; – in particular, the highest extent of knowledge of tatar is marked with the youngest age group aged 16 to 24 (42,7%), the lowest – with the oldest one whose age ranges from 65 years and older (3,5%), which can be explained as a consequence of studying of the tatar language having been introduced in the 1990s as mandatory throughout all educational institutions of the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 republic. concerning the problem of transformation of the bilingual education system, the following generational dynamics has been registered. the youth are more tolerant towards studying the tatar language. so, the answer options of tatar being mandatory for studying by everyone in the same or smaller scope as russian were selected by 50,4% of the respondents aged 16-24 and by 49,8% of the 25-34-year-old ones. meanwhile, with older generations, the figure ranges within 33,5% in 55-64-year-old ones and 40,8% in those aged 45-54. alongside with that, these data also show there is no shared opinion on this problem in the tatar society. the representatives of tatar ethnicity are much greater oriented to recognizing the studying of tatar as mandatory as compared to the russians and other nationalities. however, the extent of knowledge of tatar among the young respondents, according to their self-assessment, is clearly not up to the scope of hours allocated for studying of the language at educational institutions. with regard to this, only a small proportion (9%) of the russian youth specified their being fluent in tatar. each third one answered they had difficulty speaking tatar, with each fifth one marking the passive understanding of the tatar speech. during the mass survey, the respondents' attitude towards the problem of proportion of teaching the russian and tatar languages at the republic's educational institutions has also been found out. so, it is only one fifth of the respondents who believe that tatar must be studied at the equal scope with russian; others are for reducing the quantity of hours allocated for the study of tatar (see table 1). table 1 distribution of the respondents' answers to the question "what is your attitude towards the problem of teaching of the tatar language at educational institutions of tatarstan?" answer options what is your attitude to the problem of teaching the tatar language? % of those who have answered 1. the tatar language must be mandatory for all learners in the equal scope with the russian language. 20,4% 2. the tatar language must be mandatory for all learners but in a smaller scope than the russian language. 22,5% 3. the tatar language must be mandatory for tatars and optional for other nationalities up to their wish. 25,9% maximova et al. 4. the tatar language must be only studied optionally, regardless of a learner's nationality. 27,1% 5. other 0,7% 6. at a loss to answer 3,4% total 100,0% as it is clear from the above data, the opinions of the respondents were not united yet quite a significant part of the surveyed ones (27,1%) believe that tatar must be studied optionally, up to one's wish, regardless of the learner's ethnicity – or as a compulsory subject by tatars only, being an elective for others (25,9%); 20,4% think tatar to be mandatory for studying in the same scope as russian, while 22,5% in a smaller scope. meanwhile, it is the representatives of tatar ethnicity who are much greater oriented to recognizing the studying of tatar as mandatory as compared to the russians and others. similar data were also obtained in the study by e. khodzhaeva (2011) who points out that "so little as less than half of the tatars (44%) and 14% of russians support the current republican language policy in the sphere of education. the present-day demands of the russian public – to make tatar mandatory for studying by all schoolchildren but in a smaller scope – are supported by a quarter of tatars and a little over a quarter (28%) of russians. as for the russians, the majority of them (42%) speak for voluntary learning of the neighboring people's language" (table 2) (khodzhaeva, 2011). table 2 distribution of the respondents' answers to the question "does the tatar language need to be taught at schools of tatarstan? if yes, in what forms?" does the tatar language need to be taught at schools of tatarstan? if yes, in what forms? tatars (in %) russians (in %) it must be a mandatory subject for all. 44 14 it must be a mandatory subject but with a smaller quantity of hours allocated for it. 25 28 it must be as an option only, for the willing ones. 16 42 it must be mandatory for tatars only. 11 10 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 schools of tatarstan must be free from it at all. 1 1 i am at a loss to answer. 4 5 so, it can be seen that the results of representative mass surveys of population of the republic of tatarstan confirm the fact that it is not only the radically-minded public who call for reduction of the quantity of hours allocated for studying the tatar language but also a significant share of the population. this standpoint was also voiced by the informants of in-depth interviews conducted within the project. so, informant 1, a secondary school teacher of the russian language and literature was of the following opinion: "well, my attitude, it will be due to my profession, yes. i see children directly, i see them study, well, i remember schooling myself, when there was tatar, even with two official languages, however, there already was much more tatar than russian. this is certainly unacceptable. i think there can be a greater quantity of tatar for the children coming directly from tatar families and exclusively up to their wish, here they study for advancing their language. but anyways, the majority of population here speak… yes, they speak a lot both tatar and russian. that is, almost all tatars know russian, and unfortunately not all russians speak tatar. so making such a thrust on the tatar language at schools – as well as absolute deviation to the other side away from the russian language – i think it is unacceptable. i believe it is yet the russian language that has to form the cornerstone" (informant 1, a woman, a russian). the informants also support the opinion that studying of the tatar language has to be optional, up to one's wish: "the informant: yet the people who live in kazan, in tatarstan, they all can, yes, leave and they get enrolled, most likely, as far as i know the graduates of kazan schools, they leave for moscow and they leave for saint-petersburg. russian is needed hundred percent there, and it is all there that the use and the like, the like… while tatar… the interviewer: what should be the proportion of languages at school, here, in your opinion, and at all, do we need tatar at school, as such, must it be there, in what form if it is needed? the informant: well, i would keep it as an option for the willing ones. maximova et al. the interviewer: an option? the informant: i would leave it so, because yet the exam is, yes, the state russian language. be it not at the expense of russian, well, but it is at the expense of russian that they squeeze out the hours, and that is frustrating for me." (informant 2, a woman, a russian). as an individual problem, the informants named the insufficient methodological level of teaching of the tatar language at schools: "also, again, as a teacher and, basically, as a person who is – well, six years that is not much – not too long away from school. we can say, look, they study tatar at schools since the first grade, and they study english – some of them since the second, others since the first, yet others since grade five, and they have tatar five times a week while there is two or three times of english a week. well, that is if we take a comprehensive school. but as they leave school, what we get is somehow completely different proportions. that is, for some reason, even with two or three classes a week children speak english much better rather than tatar on which so much time is spent. and in fact, if we take the school program level – i couldn't string two words together. well, this certainly can be in the red for me, but anyway… and again, wasting 5-6 lessons a week – this is, well, really, this is a pointless waste of time. because anyways, again, when you work at school, you interact with children directly, and with the children, regrettably, tatar may evoke no positive emotions whatever. that is, so much time is spent for the language, and even for the very children – well, it still is just some strange subject which they do not see what for they go to. come, this is really so, and what is more, even with the tatar children at times. and here we get the question, accordingly, what for, probably it really should be if it is better for one's soul and not just to tick the box. and well, we all know it fairly well, that going to school itself is for those children just to tick the box until say grade 9, and all the more so with the tatar language classes. they just do not see what this is for." (informant 3, a man, a russian). meanwhile, it was emphasized that it is on the teacher's standpoint that the motivation in learning of tatar depends, just like in the case of other languages: "in fact, it depends on the teacher, but it also depends on the system of education first and foremost. for example, we had teaching practice, we taught tatar and english, we tried to take a slightly different approach, so that it would be interesting for the learners themselves – not just reading and retelling stories. we tried giving the topics of lessons in another format. look, journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 english is taught and everyone likes the way english is taught while tatar is taught and no-one wants to study it. even me, i do not want to teach up to this program. and so absorbing the technique of teaching english we tried to teach tatar, and it turned out to be very efficient. we had various listening comprehension tasks, discussions and surveys. now it has already become popular, the singapore technique and others. that is, certainly, a very strong motivation, not only for tatar children but for the russian ones too. i liked it so much when the russian kids came to us asking "are you coming back to us next year? we like the tatar language so much!" (informant 4, a woman, a tatar). thus, the results of studies allow identifying some trends in the development of bilingualism in the sphere of education of the republic of tatarstan from the standpoint of their potential influence on interethnic communication, namely: ongoing active public discussions on the problem of proportion of the russian and tatar languages being taught, social initiatives of those supporting the language policy being implemented and of those advocating the reduction of the tatar language component in educational programs confirm the fact that the problem keeps being relevant; language identity particularities of the republic of tatarstan population revealed in the course of research render it necessary that the bilingual component is preserved in educational programs but require a more scrupulous approach, finding out all opinions of the population, with these to be taken into account when implementing the educational policy; the majority of the questioned ones negatively evaluating language training practices at the republic's educational institutions demonstrates the poor level of scientific justification for the language policy being implemented and imperfection of methodological support for implementation of bilingualism in educational programs. conclusion under the modern conditions, the initial boost in transformation of the system of bilingual school (and even higher education institution) education in the republic of tatarstan has rolled back to a segregated education system, segregation based on the language information carrier. in particular, approximately the same (be it expanded in the menu) sectors of education have remained tatar-speaking (tatar journalism, history of tatarstan, philology – literature including, as well as many study courses of agrarian direction) due to tatar-speaking citizens and tatar maximova et al. schools prevailing in the countryside. meanwhile, the attempts of translating the training in the sphere of technical and natural sciences higher education into tatar have failed to be perceived by the tatars themselves. school education policy represents a crossover controversy to the above fact. it still has the principle of equal study hours conserved for both languages, which does not work for the urban population first of all (both russian and to a significant extent tatar one). the authors believe that the problem of proportion of hours allocated for studying of the russian and the tatar languages at the republic's comprehensive schools needs adjustment and bringing into greater accordance with the federal legislation. with the opinion shared by already not only individual social activists, but also by a significant part of the russian and a considerable amount of the tatar population, it is expedient to review the curricula in order to bring the quantity of hours allocated for russian to the general russian standard while also reducing the quantity of mandatory hours for learning of the tatar language and introducing additional optional hours for all the willing ones. the techniques of teaching the tatar language at secondary school need a thorough upgrade with new interactive encouraging methods of teaching to be introduced. the authors think that the principle of tatar teaching at schools has to be changed on top of that as well: the extensive learning of grammar has to be rejected in favor of teaching the communicative, spoken language skills that are more demanded in daily communication practices among the population of the republic. the authors believe that under the modern conditions the republic of tatarstan has got all capacities for elaborating and implementing the optimum language policy and in particular educational programs which would take into account the needs and interests of representatives of the republic's principal ethnoses. studying the conceptual approaches to the problem of bilingualism and multiculturalism, the positive world experience, the results of the republican educational practices, the tatarstan citizens' language identity and their educational needs, as well as the capacities of the republic's educational institutions will allow developing the projects of educational programs designed to maintain the uniqueness of the ethnic cultures and the mutually tolerant attitude of their representatives in the today's conditions of multiculturalism. acknowledgements the reported study was funded by rfbr under research project no. 17-06-00474 and by journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 the rfbr and government of the republic of tatarstan under research project no. 17-46-160490. the authors express their profound gratitude to all informants of the research who demonstrated an interest in the study and gave the most detailed and frank answers to questions put to them. when collecting the empirical information, the ethics of human subject research was observed that consists in exclusively free-will participation in the questionnaire survey and interviews and in observing the principle of anonymity during processing and interpretation of the results. the authors would like to thank the administration of kazan national research technical university named after a. n. tupolev – kai (knrtu-kai) and kazan (volga region) federal university at which the authors collaborate. maximova et al. references akhmetova, s.a. (2013). tatar and russian bilingualism in the regional context. transactions of kazan university. humanities series, 6(155), 7-14. avrorin, v.a. (1975). problems of studying the functional side of language: on the question of the subject of sociolinguistics. l.: science, leningrad department. baker, c. (1996). foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. clevedon: multilingual matters. bauman, z. (2001). the individualized society. cambridge: polity. beck, u. (1992). risk society: towards a new modernity. london: sage. bell, d. (1973). the coming of post-industrial society: a venture of social forecasting. n.y.: basic books. belyaev, v.a. (2007). intelligentsia as a subject of the russian political process: the federal and regional aspects. thesis paper of the doctor of politics. kazan. bialystok, e. (2001). bilingualism in development. language, literacy and cognition. cambridge: cambridge university press. bloomfield, l. (1933). language. new york: henry holt. byker, e.j. & marquardt, sh. (2016). curricular connections: using critical cosmopolitanism to globally situate multicultural education in teacher preparation courses. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 30-50. castells, m. & himanen, p. (2004) the information society and the welfare state: the finnish model. oxford: oxford university press. dahrendorf, r. (1979). life chances. chicago: university of chicago press, 162-172. desheriev, yu.d. (1977). social linguistics. on the general theory foundations. moscow: science. dopke, s. (1992). one parent one language: an interactional approach. amsterdam: john benjamins. dwyer, a., brenzinger, m. & yamamoto, a.y. (2008). unesco program "safeguarding of endangered languages". online publication. url: http://www.ddl.ishlyon.cnrs.fr/colloques/3l_2008/3lcoursematerial/yamamotodwyer_aaa_unesco.pdf galkina-fedoruk, e.m. (1954). language as a social phenomenon. m.: state educational and pedagogical publishing house of the ministry of education of rsfsr. http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/colloques/3l_2008/3lcoursematerial/yamamotodwyer_aaa_unesco.pdf http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/colloques/3l_2008/3lcoursematerial/yamamotodwyer_aaa_unesco.pdf journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 giddens, a. (1990). the consequences of modernity. cambridge: polity press. grosjean, f. (1989). neurolinguists, beware! the bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person. brain and language, 36(1), 3-15. guzelbaeva, g. (2013). practices of use of the state languages by citizens of tatarstan in the situation of official bilingualism. philology and culture, 4, 44-51. husen, t. (1974). the learning society. l.: methuen. hutchins, r.m. (1968). the learning society. santa barbara (ca): praeger. p.41-61. inkeles, a. (1976). a model of the modern man: theoretical and methodological issues. in: black c.e. (ed.) comparative modernization. new york: free press, 320-348. khodzhaeva, e.a. (2011). the tatar language at schools of tatarstan: public debates and the population's opinion. emergency reserve, 6, 245-254. kumar, k. (1988). the rise of modern society: aspect of the social and political development of the west. oxford: basil blackwell. kopish, m.a. (2016). preparing globally competent teacher candidates through crosscultural experiential learning. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 75108. laszlo, e. (1991). the age of bifurcation: understanding the changing world. philadelphia: gordon & breach. law of the republic of tatarstan "on state languages of the republic of tatarstan and other languages in the republic of tatarstan" (version of the rt law dated 28.07.2004. no. 44zrt). (1992). url: http://base.garant.ru/8102506/ levy, m. (1966). modernization and the structure of societies. princeton: princeton university press. luhmann, n. (1991). soziologie des risikos. berlin / new york (de gruyter). mansell, r. (1998). knowledge societies: information technology for sustainable development. oxford: oxford university press. masuda, y. (1983). the information society as postindustrial society. washington. maximova, o., belyaev, v., laukart-gorbacheva, o., nagmatullina, l. & hamzina, g. (2016). russian education in the context of the third generation universities` discourse: employers’ evaluation. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(16), 2016, 9101-9112. http://base.garant.ru/8102506/ https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/17700155408?origin=recordpage maximova et al. naisbitt, j. & aburdene, p. (1990). megatrends 2000: the new directions for the 1990’s. new york: william morrow. nikolskiy, l.b. (1976). synchronous sociolinguistics (theory and problems). moscow: science. nizamova, l.r. (2016). ethnic tatars in contention for recognition and autonomy: bilingualism and pluri-cultural education policies in tatarstan. nationalities papers, 44(1), 71-91. polivanov, e.d. (1927). the revolution and literary languages of the ssr union. the revolutionary east, 1, 36-57. romaine, s. (1995). bilingualism. oxford: blackwell. rosenzweig, v.yu. (1972). language contacts. leningrad: science. schor, r.o. (1926). language and society: a sketch. moscow: rabotnik prosveshcheniya. schweizer, a.d. (2012). modern sociolinguistics. theory, problems, methods. moscow. serghievskiy, m.v. (1938). history of the french language. moscow: uchpedghiz. smeets, r. (2005). unesco activities for safeguarding endangered languages. online publication. url: http://lingsib.iea.ras.ru/en/articles/smeets.shtml stepanov, g.v. (1976). typology of language conditions in countries of the roman speech. moscow: science. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, (1)1, 77-97. tarman, b. & acun, i. (2010). social studies education and a new social studies movement. journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 1-16. toffler, a. (1980). the third wave. bantam books. vasilyeva, n. (2017). school for children with tatar surnames to open in azino. evening kazan, may, 27, 62-63, 1-2. vinogradov, v.v. (1923). on tasks of stylistics. observations on the style of protopope avvakum's hagiography. in: russian speech. coll. of papers, ed. by l.v. shcherba. vol. i. pgr., 195-293. weinreich, u. (1953). languages in contact: findings and problems. new york. yakubinskiy, l.p. (1923). on dialogical speech. in: russian speech. coll. of papers, ed. by l.v. shcherba. vol. i. pgr., 144-160. http://lingsib.iea.ras.ru/en/articles/smeets.shtml journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 15-38 zalevskaya, a.a. & medvedeva, i.l. (2002). psycholinguistic problems of educational bilingualism. tver: tver state university. zhirmunskiy, v.m. (1936). national language and its social dialects. leningrad: khudozhestvennaya literatura. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),404-433 404 technologization of the pedagogical process as a teacher self-improvement factor bakyt t. kuanysheva1, rakhila zh. aubakirova2, nelli iu. pigovayeva 3 & nataliia iu. fominykh 4 abstract the research paper presents the concept of technologization of the pedagogical process as a mechanism for purposeful phased implementation of the elements of an integrated pedagogical process leading to effective learning outcomes for children. technologization of the pedagogical process involves not only step-by-step following a clear algorithm of pedagogical activities, but also continuous innovation, teachers’ professional improvement. the objective of the study is to find out the peculiarities of the implementation of pedagogical technologies based on the professional experience of pre-school teachers of the republic of kazakhstan. the method is based on a phenomenological approach: a descriptive analysis of direct experience with minimal interpretations, the use of open questions for the widest coverage of the phenomenon being studied. a written survey (intramural and extramural) of 700 pre-school teachers with work experience 135 years was conducted. the results represent the technologies most frequently used in the preparing of pre-schoolers (the undoubted priority of gaming methods and developmental education), the reasons for their choice are provided. teachers prefer effective methods that allow free experimentation; they actively use innovations in their work, but don’t know that their own professional growth is important. objective and subjective barriers to the introduction of pedagogical innovations in the pre-school are specified. it has been revealed that the desire for selfimprovement as a professionally important trait is not common for young professionals. with increasing seniority for teachers, the internal need for professional and personal growth increases. the desire to modernize the pedagogical process, create own technologies is a marker of satisfaction with the profession of a teacher. key words: pedagogical technology, technologization of the pedagogical process, preschool education, innovation, professional development, professional experience, professionally important qualities of a teacher. 1senior teacher,pavlodar state university named after s. toraighyrov, pavlodar city, republic of kazakhstan;rakhilaaubakirova@gmail.com 2prof. pavlodar state university named after s. toraighyrov, pavlodar city, republic of kazakhstan;rakhilaaubakirova@gmail.com 3assoc. prof. pavlodar state university named after s. toraighyrov, pavlodar city, republic of kazakhstan;rakhilaaubakirova@gmail.com 4prof. plekhanov russia university of economics, moscow, russian federation, rakhilaaubakirova@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 introduction the distinctive feature of the pre-school education system of the republic of kazakhstan is that it has been a compulsory part of the state system since the 40-50’s of the 20th century. owing to it, most children have access to educational services, and the country has gained experience in the systematic use of different pedagogical approaches. pre-school education has become more variative and multifunctional as it focuses on the individual needs and specifics of the child’s development. according to the statistics of 2013, there were 8,590 pre-school organisations (state, corporate and private kindergartens, short-stay groups, mini-centres, rehabilitation groups) in the republic, and they were attended by 644,300 children and served by 60.4 thousand teachers (ministry of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan, 2010). the state policy in the field of education is aimed at both ensuring full and equal access to quality educational services regardless of the social status of families and places of residence and at assisting families who bring up children at home. these problems are being solved by increasing the number of preschool establishments and their modernization. at the same time, this urges the problem of ensuring the continuity of the content of education between the pre-school establishment and comprehensive school. the main way to solve the above problem is the introduction of compulsory and free pre-school education. pre-school classes for children aged 5-6 are arranged in comprehensive schools (state compulsory education standard,2016). the key objective of the classes is to develop a list of knowledge, skills and life competencies in children, which are outlined in the requirements of the state compulsory education standard. pupils with different levels of readiness are admitted, and the educational content stimulates and guides the development of a child, ensuring his/her subsequent adaptation to school. another challenging issue is staffing of pre-school system with professionally trained personnel. intensive growth of the network of private pre-school establishments, a variety of alternative and innovative models of education, a fundamental change in the organisational and content-related component of education brought the problem of a qualitative change in the personality of a teacher, and his/her role in the pedagogical process to the forefront. it is the technologization of the pedagogical process that we see as an effective way to solve it. we define technologization of the pedagogical process (hereinafter referred to as “the tpp”) as “the use of modern pedagogical technologies in the phased implementation of a set of system elements of an integrated pedagogical process, leading children to high-performance outcomes in kuanysheva et al. both learning and education” (aubakirova, 2016, p. 36). pedagogical technology is a complex system that integrates the philosophical and scientific principles of education, the goals and content of education, various forms of interaction between teachers and pupils, the process of monitoring results, didactic materials and equipment. the concept of technologization of the pre-school pedagogical process has been formulated by the author, and these days it is an important part of the scientific and methodological support for the organisation of pre-school education in the republic of kazakhstan. more than 30 training packages are recommended by the ministry of education and are used in the pre-school practice; special courses and tutorials for professional training of teachers have been implemented; a modular educational program to train specialists for pre-school educational establishment has been developed in the context of the implementation of the international program of tempus (tempus educa jep 517504-de-2011, 2011). research questions and hypothesis testing the aim of this publication is to find out the specifics of the implementation of pedagogical technologies based on the professional experience of pre-school teachers of the republic of kazakhstan. we proceeded from the hypothesis that the technologization of the pedagogical process involves not only step-by-step following a clear algorithm, but also constant innovation, personal and professional improvement of a teacher. in the context of increasing the effectiveness of the tpp, we raised the following questions: 1) what is the level of using particular educational technologies in the pre-school practice? 2) what factors contribute to and hinder the introduction of new technologies in the pre-school educational process? 3) how does experience with technology affect the desire for professional growth, teacher’s need for self-expression and self-improvement? addressing these issues will help optimize the use of pedagogical technologies in pre-school education, namely, finding ways to effectively incorporate scientific advances and pedagogical innovations into the real pedagogical process. this will enable more effective and psychologically comfortable preparation of children aged 5-6 to perform their social role of pupils. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 theory and conceptual framework of the research the technological approach, based on the ideas of behaviorism, became widespread in the 60’s of the twentieth century. the general principle of learning was to focus on achieving clear educational goals that could be classified, identified and measured (anderson & krathwohl, 2001; bloom et al., 1956; krathwohl, bloom &masia, 1964). a rule, a structural algorithm and an equivalent set of procedures were specified for each goal (scandura, 2001). the consistent implementation of the above system of actions leads to achieving the expected results. technologies in education is a systemic method of building educational process, reproducible pedagogical cycle, based on the phased implementation of the set objective with the help of certain forms, methods and principles of work. it should be noted that in education, the concept of “technology” is often used literally, namely: the theory and practice of using high-tech devices, software and internet networks in the educational process (dagdilelis, 2018; herold, 2016; hoffmann, 2017; hsu et al., 2013; karaca, 2011). in this work, the term is used in a more traditional and broad sense -as a reproducible pedagogical cycle, which is aimed at achieving planned results in any field of education; as a content-related technique for the implementation of a pre-developed educational process (bespalko, 1995; solas & sutton, 2018); as “a systemic totality and the procedure for functioning of all personal, instrumental and methodological means used to achieve pedagogical goals” (clarin, 1999, p. 48); “strict scientific development and accurate reproduction of pedagogical actions guaranteeing success”(slasteninet al., 2013, p. 101). in this sense, the term “pedagogical technology” is used at three hierarchically subordinate levels (selevko, 1998): common didactic level characterizes the educational process in a region or educational establishment, at a certain stage of educational process; subject-related technology is used in the meaning of a “specific methodology” as a set of means for implementing a specific educational content (methods of teaching subjects, compensatory education, educator’s work);local technology represents the separate parts of the educational process and the solution of didactic tasks (technology of the formation of concepts, technology of the control over material, etc.). multi-dimensional classification of pedagogical technologies by selevko (1998) organizes technologies by: attitude to a child (authoritarian, humanistic, didactocentric, personality-oriented, technologies of cooperation, of free education, etc.); the content of education (general and professional education, training and educating, secular and religious, humanitarian and technical); kuanysheva et al. the type of organisation and management of a cognitive activity (book-based education, a system of small groups, computer-based education, etc.); educational media: reproductive, explanatory and illustrative, problem, developing, dialogical, gaming, creative, etc. a demonstrative presentation of the technological is flow charts and diagrams, that is documents describing the didactic basis of the project (tasks, logical structure) and the stages of implementation of the pedagogical technique (monakhov, 2016). in this case, the chain of pedagogical actions is arranged to strictly comply with the objectives in the form of a specific expected result. an integral part of pedagogical technology is diagnostic procedures that contain the criteria, indicators and instruments of measurement the results obtained. the instrumental focus and the guaranteed results determine the potential of the technological approach. it allows effective addressing a number of important problems of building the educational process, namely: detailing and specification of learning objectives based on a certain desired standard, standardization of instructional procedures, the opportunity to automate the pedagogical process, monitoring results and effective feedback in the process of education, possibility of correction at any stage. it is worth noting that the technological approach in modern pedagogy is personality-orientated, which allows a teacher to “brighten up” the process of pedagogical communication. we argue that the diversity of modern technologies allows the creative teacher to choose the most appropriate tools, adapt and combine them taking into account the individual characteristics of children and the resources of the educational establishment (aubakirova, 2013). tpp allows reaching an optimized, standardized and reproducible educational process, which guarantees a consistently positive result. this is, especially, significant in the pre-school, which prepares children for participation in the selection procedure to become the first-year pupils, and subsequently – for adaptation in the regulated school environment. we suggest distinguishing common characteristics of the implementation of pedagogical technologies in pre-school education: 1. each technology is reasonable and leads to the expected result. 2. a cyclic sequential chain of actions and elements (diagnostics, goal setting, development, implementation, analysis of the results of work) that are in strict logical sequence with each other is traced in technologies. a change made to any element of the system causes changes the whole system. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 3. the selection of means, methods and techniques of education is determined by the technology’s benchmarks (requirements of the educational standard, the competence model of a school leaver). 4. in terms of process, technologies are represented by operation flow charts, diagrams or stepby-step instructions for performing tasks, which, on the one hand, facilitates mastering new techniques by a child, and on the other hand, structures the teacher’s work, reflecting phased mental operations and practical actions of a child. 5. pedagogical technology relies on scientific knowledge of the psychological characteristics of this age group and the individual characteristics of pre-schoolers. it should be noted that there are both advocates and opponents of the idea of the tpp among scholars and practitioners. the main objection concerns the fact that education is a creative process that cannot be limited by stable algorithms. psychological risks of technologization are associated with excessive structuring and formalisation of the educational process as a whole (lifintseva, 2009). it is necessary to understand that pedagogical technologies are simply necessary for the result of pedagogical activity to be predictable and relatively independent of the experience and abilities of a particular teacher (baiborodova, 2015). since the technologies inflexibly set the achievement of goal through a unified procedural algorithm, they ensure the same high result when used in different settings, by different teachers and with different children. thus, the focus on tpp is stipulated by the basic objectives of education, by striving to maximize the development of children’s potential. it is important to understand that the development of pedagogy as a science and practice occurs through the introduction of technologies and their subsequent transformation. we see that many pedagogical technologies, having stood the test of time, turned into guiding didactic principles (for example, problem-based learning by dewey (1938), a child’s independent development technique in a didactically prepared environment by montessori (2016), a technology of full assimilation of knowledge (bloom, 1971; carroll, 1963) or elkonin-davydov developmental education system (davydov, 1996). on the other hand, the rapid development of society and science requires continuous improvement of educational technologies, starting from a very early age. it is necessary to constantly modernize effective methods, introduce and test innovations. new ideas and technologies regularly appear on the educational services market; their introduction often requires a global reorganization of the educational environment. testing pedagogical innovations is a long, kuanysheva et al. complicated (and not always successful) process, requiring the involvement of children, parents, teachers and educators, professional research experts, education managers. we accept the point of view of shmelkova (2002), stating that technologization is a multi-level process of “scientifically grounded improvement of pedagogical objects of any nature” (p. 17). tanurkova (2011) links the tpp with the problem of updating the quality of education. at the same time, the development of educational systems reflects the needs of families which are the direct participants in the educational process, the needs of society and the state, as well as socio-cultural standards, ideas about a successful person. it is technologization that ensures a consistent evolution of the educational space through the phased introduction of innovations, the adjustment of existing methods to solve qualitatively new and complex tasks. the opportunity for subjects of pedagogical activity to independently choose the educational programs is an important factor in the formation of the kazakh model of pre-school education. variative programs and training packages that enable personality-oriented interaction with the child are actively being developed. the selection of innovative and traditional technologies in the working practice determines the teacher’s professional style and position, his/her attitude to the child’s personality, philosophical perception of such categories as education, development, teaching and learning. tpp is based on the teacher’s technological culture. this is “a set of knowledge, skills and experience of purposeful work aimed at the integrated implementation and comprehensive development of educational technology in the context of pre-school preparation” (aubakirova, 2016, p. 96). it is obvious that in the process of work a specialist masters a whole set of pedagogical technologies focused on various aspects of child development. the individual style of activity and the proficiency of a teacher depend on the structure of the above set and the flexibility in using tools for solving pedagogical problems. as is known, the working conditions of teachers are extremely diverse, and the needs for training are constantly changing in the process of social development. therefore, an important problem is training specialists, who, on the one hand, show the totality of knowledge, experience and personal qualities formed in the tradition of classical pedagogy, while on the other hand, being capable of independent search and finding solutions, able to adapt existing pedagogical methods, technologies both to the individual needs of a child and to the general needs of the social environment (aubakirova, 2011). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 the experience of introducing the concept of tpp in the pre-school of the republic of kazakhstan showed the effectiveness and justification of the described approach (aubakirova, 2016). at the same time, a number of problems of professional personnel became noticeable: а) lack of readiness to use innovative technologies in pedagogical process; b) lack of skills to adapt existing technologies to the changes in the pedagogical situation; c) lack of opportunity to flexibly build the pedagogical process using a wide range of technologies in the context of a personality-oriented approach. it should be recognized, teachers often use methods and forms that do not take into account the individual abilities and cognitive interests of children and do not contribute to the development of their self-reliance. therefore, it is one of the main tasks today to form teachers’ competencies in the application of modern educational technologies in the context of pre-school. this work should be based on studying the real attitude of teachers to the issue in question, identifying their professional experience, potential and limitations in the technologization of the pedagogical process. methods participants to achieve the set goal, we collected data on the peculiarities of the technologization of the pedagogical process in pre-school education. we tried to attract the maximum number of teachers with different professional positions and work experience. the invitation to participate was posted in all educational establishments of the east kazakhstan region with pre-school classes, as well as on the websites of professional communities (master students of the siberian state pedagogical institute a. belokon and i. oralkanova assisted in the collection and primary data processing). there were 700 pre-schoolteachers/educators aged 25 to 58 (average age 39.8), which were surveyed. the average work experience of the interviewed teachers/educators was 14.5 years; the detailed distribution of the data is shown in figure 1. among the surveyed teachers, 13.8% taught in kazakh, 86.2% – in russian. 82.6% of respondents had a higher pedagogical education. they were all women. kuanysheva et al. figure 1. work experience of the surveyed teachers/educators (frequency distribution in %, n=700) ethical considerations participation in the survey was voluntary. the survey suggested obtaining personal data of respondents: surname and name, age, place of employment, level of education and professional qualification level. this information was used in the initial analysis solely for identification purposes; all scientific reports contain only generalized and impersonal data. in the cover letter to the questionnaire, we guaranteed that the information obtained would be used solely for scientific purposes, that personal data would not be disclosed under any circumstances and would in no way affect the professional career or reputation of the survey participants. instruments a written form containing questions about participants’ direct experience in the implementation of pedagogical technologies was used. most of the questions were open in nature, which made it possible to cover a wide phenomenological field of the phenomenon being studied and to study it fully enough. content of the questions: 1) what educational technologies do you consider the most relevant in your work? 2) why did you choose these technologies? 3) how often do you use the below technologies in your work? namely: modular-based education, gaming technology, differentiated education, developmental education, critical thinking technology, problem-based learning, information technology, collaboration technology, computer-assisted learning, anticipatory education. 4) how would you interpret the term “innovation”? journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 5) what, in your opinion, shows the effectiveness of the application of innovative technologies? 6) please, rank the factors influencing the use of innovative technologies in pre-school (order them from the most significant to the least significant): state educational standards; regulatory documentation of the department of education; philosophical, special, scientific and educational literature; mass media; refresher courses; studying best practices of other schools and institutions. 7) what prevents you from applying technology in your work? 8) do you have experience in creating your author’s technologies? 9) are you involved in educational research activity? 10) what personal and professional qualities do you consider the most important for selfrealisation in teaching? 11) please, rank the below qualities in order of importance in the work of an educator/teacher with pre-schoolers: professional knowledge, love for children, pedagogical tolerance, communicativeness, patience, purposefulness, creativity, eruditeness, responsiveness, striving for self-improvement. 12) when did you last take refresher courses? 13) to what extent are you satisfied with these courses? 14) are you generally satisfied with your profession? 15) having gained work experience, do you think that you have chosen the right profession? if you had the opportunity to change your profession, would you choose it again? procedure there were 198 respondents, who filled out a questionnaire form in the presence of researchers during group training at refresher courses. the rest of the teachers filled out the questionnaire form in absentia and sent the result to the researchers by email. different types of data were presented in the interview. for quantitative values, we used descriptive statistics. to summarize the rank answers, an average arithmetic rank was calculated, based on which the final ranking (ordering) was constructed. concerning the ready-to-answer questions (the nominal data reflecting the facts: yes or no, level of professional qualification, etc.), the frequency of answers was calculated and summary tables were made. the phenomenological analysis of kuanysheva et al. open-ended answers (short narratives showing private opinion and understanding of teachers) was aimed at identifying the prevailing meanings. to distinguish the significant units, we used content analysis (categories of content were selected and calculated manually, while trying to reflect the wording of respondents as accurately as possible). the rate percentage (frequency of response of a certain category relative to the total number of respondents) was used to quantitatively interpret the categories of content analysis; the most popular categories were assigned ranks, reflecting a kind of "top rating" of pedagogical technologies. to test the hypothesis about the connection of experience in the use of pedagogical technologies and the desire for professional growth (as well as other professional qualities of teachers), the sample was divided into two groups depending on work experience: teachers with work experience from 1 to 20 years (542 teachers) and from 21 to 35 years (158 teachers), the results obtained were compared using the spearman’s rank correlation criterion. the hypothesis of changing the structure of professionally important personal qualities of teachers with more than 20 years of experience has been tested. there were quite a few of them in the sample (22.6 of the total sample). this figure does not reflect the real demographic situation, just young teachers more actively participated in the study (especially in the online form). during the interview, the participants made a ranking list of ten qualities that they consider the most important in the work of a teacher. we synthesized these data and compared using the spearman correlation criterion (н1 implies the similarity of rank structures, н0 lack of relation, that is, a significant difference between the teachers’ ideas about professionally important qualities). the data collection and analysis allowed drawing conclusions about the change in the orientation of professional and personal development over time. results and discussion the results of the survey of teachers/educators illustrated the specifics of the implementation of modern pedagogical technologies in the pre-school. first of all, we suggested the intended teachers to evaluate innovative technologies in terms of their frequency of use and the degree of current relevance. the final list is as follows (table 1). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 table 1 ranking of learning technologies according to the level and frequency of use by respondents rank pedagogical technologies the level of use number of respondents % 1 game-based technology high 700 100 2 developmental education high 696 99.43 3 information (computer) technology high 630 90.00 4 problem solving-based learning high 624 89.14 5 modular-based learning medium 459 65.57 6 collaboration technology high 420 60.00 7 differentiated education high 356 50.86 8 anticipatory education high 315 45.00 9 programmed education high 244 34.86 10 critical thinking technology, rwst high 95 13.56 the greatest number of respondents ranked a game-based technology first (primarily because role playing are best suited to the features of children aged 5-6). in addition to games-based technologies and methods, developmental education is often used in the pre-school educational process, as it focuses on the development of the potential abilities of pupils and their application in various activities. information (computer) technologies are also highly ranked and they imply the introduction of a large number of innovations. in addition, teachers/educators have a high rank to the technology of problem solving-based learning, which supposes consistent cognitive tasks for pupils, which might be solved by application of the search methods. it is easy to note that these technologies are united by a high degree of variability in the ways of achieving the goals set. in this regard, they qualitatively differ from the technologies that occupied the lowest positions in the ranking: rwst and programmed education. the respondents answered very diversely to the question no. 2 “why did you choose this technology?”. we performed a content analysis of textual data and identified categories that reveal the primary reasons for choosing a specific technology in the work of a pre-schoolteacher:  personal interest: compliance of technology with abilities and inclinations of a teacher/educator;  optimally solves the educational task set: quickly, with saving of time, effort and resources;  technology can be adapted to the individual needs and characteristics of the child’s development;  the application of technology does not require expensive materials and equipment, sophisticated hardware;  shows a good result in different conditions and with different children; kuanysheva et al.  adequateness to time, social context and general tasks of education;  offers a new solution to the existing problem;  well-observed and recorded effectiveness of the technology (rapid development of a child). in general, the choice of specific education technologies is determined to the greatest extent by effectiveness in the context of a child’s mental and physical development. this was noted by 82% of the surveyed teachers/educators. the participants of the survey suggest different interpretation to the term “innovation”. the most typical formulations are provided below: “novelty”; “the introduction of new non-standard teaching methods”; “a variative part of the educational process”; “effective methods and techniques that produce good results”; "this is the imperative of our time, the use of modern technologies needed by society; “new, but with valuable elements of the earlier accumulated best practices”; “methods, technology or a program is created for the benefit of a child and contributes to the high development of a personality.” the interviewed teachers are explicit in understanding innovation as the “introduction of something new” into the learning process. the majority of respondents emphasize the importance of innovation in the process of child development, in his/her adapting to the requirements of society. at the same time, none of the survey participants wrote that the introduction of innovations is an important component of the professional development of a teacher/educator herself/himself. question no. 5 reveals the positive results of the application of innovative technologies. respondents most often point to the activation of the educational process, the development of communicative competency, the formation of cognitive and practical skills of pre-schoolers – table 2. at the same time, a small proportion of the respondents (9.5%) confidently asserted that only traditional, time-proven technology provides solid and deep knowledge. table 2 benefits of the application of innovative technologies while working with pre-schoolers category of content analysis explication activation of the educational process children’s cognitive activity quickly obtained result of learning stimulates interest in learning monitoring the quality of knowledge cognitive development of a child a large volume of information assimilated development of thinking encourages search for answers to questions, to make discoveries social development of a child development of communication skills journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 ability to work in a group development of inter-personal skills moral education understanding of moral values learning to respect the opinions of others formation and manifestation of personal qualities development of creative abilities widening the spheres of interests freedom of expression acquisition of important skills and life competencies computer skills overcoming behavioural problems while responding to question no. 5, teachers noted that a positive result of application of technologies depends on the systemacy of work. this implies the provision of necessary methodological and didactic materials, support of the administration, sharing experience with colleagues, assistance and understanding of parents. during the study, we suggested the teachers/educators to rank a separate group of factors, which are seen as sources of knowledge that influence the use of technology in their work (table 3). table 3 ranking sources of knowledge that influence the use of technology rank pedagogical technologies number of respondents % 1 regulatory documentation of the department of education 700 100 2 state educational obligatory standards 696 99.43 3 scientific and pedagogical literature 695 99.29 4 refresher courses 513 73.29 5 studying best practices of colleagues and other educational establishments 488 69.71 6 specialized scientific literature 475 67.86 7 philosophical literature 156 22.29 8 mass media 144 20.57 the results showed that the main factors determining the use of innovative technologies in the preschool are the official requirements and regulatory documents of the state education authorities. the ranks from 3 to 6 deal with the study of the current best practices of implementing pedagogical innovations from various professional sources. teachers/educators regularly study an extensive range of educational technologies, track current trends in pedagogy. this, in turn, determines the professional competence and mastery. in order to identify objective and subjective factors hindering the use of innovations, we asked a direct question: “what prevents you from applying technologies?”. 62.1% of respondents answered that nothing prevents them; 20.7% noted high workload at work; 17.2% gave other reasons (among the most common reasons are lack of resources, lack of support from the kuanysheva et al. administration, schools and pre-school establishments are insufficiently equipped materially and technically). the need of teachers for self-improvement is the internal motive. its external manifestation is the regular participation in refresher courses and validation of professional qualifications. in the republic of kazakhstan, like many other countries, the level of professional competence of teachers is determined by the qualification category. to be certified for a qualification category, a teacher/educator is supposed to complete a number of tasks and meet standard requirements. the certification of teachers/educators is an obligatory procedure that is carried out at least once every five years. its goal is to enhance the level of professional skills, to develop creative initiative, to promote the growth of both the prestige and remuneration to teachers for their work (order of the minister of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan no. 83, 2016). the qualification level provides the teacher with the opportunity to solve more complex professional tasks. 20.7% of the respondents have the highest qualification category (table 4). in accordance with the requirements of the department of education, this means that they are authors of publications, textbooks, training package, they are winners of pedagogical competitions, participants in conferences and seminars at the republican or international level. in addition, 37.9% of the total number of respondents are engaged in scientific and educational activities (respectively, 62.1% are not engaged). table 4 experience of completing refresher courses and satisfaction with the profession of teachers (n=700) components of experience of completing refresher courses n % professional education level specialized secondary pedagogic education 145 20.7 incomplete higher education 25 3.6 higher pedagogic education 530 75.7 have second higher education 48 6.9 professional category of respondents without category 48 6.9 certified first category 314 44.8 certified second category 193 27.6 certified higher category 145 20.7 when did you last complete refresher courses? less than 6 months ago 97 13.9 6 months ago 120 17.1 a year ago 217 31.0 2-3 6 years ago 241 34.4 4-5 years ago 25 3.6 more than five years ago 0 to what extent are you satisfied with these courses? completely satisfied 265 37.9 partially satisfied 338 48.2 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 not satisfied 97 13.9 are you satisfied with your profession? yes, satisfied 676 96.6 no, not satisfied 24 3.4 if you had the opportunity to change your profession, would you choose it again? yes, would take this opportunity 676 96.6 no, wouldn’t take this opportunity 24 3.4 the need of teachers/educators in self-improvement is realized, among other things, in regular completing the refresher courses. the results of the survey showed that during the current year more than 60% of the teachers surveyed completed the refresher course to improve their qualification. this indicates a qualitative approach to their professional activities. at the same time, only 37.9% of teachers/educators express full satisfaction with the refresher courses, while 13.9% of surveyed were not satisfied with their results. in the pedagogical environment, it is widely believed that the teacher’s professional selfimprovement (as well as the quality of the educational process as a whole) depends on how much she/he loves her/his work, and is satisfied with the profession. the respondents’ answers to questions no.14 and 15 showed that 89.7% of them were confident that they had chosen the right profession; 6.9% indicated that they had made a mistake in choosing a profession; 3.4% found it difficult to answer. at the same time, the overwhelming majority of respondents (96.6%) would not change the occupation provided such an opportunity. an important result of the survey is the statement of the fact that a third of respondents have a desire to create their author’s technologies, and 13.8% of the surveyed specialists are already implementing their own developments in practice: methods, techniques, planning sheets (figure 2). very few teachers/educators (only 3.4% of the sample) declare their unwillingness to create something new. it is a common thing that these are the same persons who point out to their dissatisfaction with the profession. to explore what place the desire for self-improvement occupies in the system of professionally important qualities, we used the open and closed questions in the questionnaire. at the beginning, with the help of content analysis of answers to open question no. 10, we formed a list of qualities that teachers considered most important for them to realise themselves in the profession in the current conditions and educational technologies they find necessary for use. in table 5, we have distinguished, as a separate category of content analysis, a group of skills and competencies that provide the teacher with competitive advantages in the modern labour market. it is this category that includes the desire for self-development as the basis of professional and personal development. kuanysheva et al. figure 2. experience in creating the author’s technologies by teachers/educators (frequency distribution, n=700) table 5 professionally important qualities of a modern teacher/educator category of content analysis explication professional competence professional knowledge, awareness, fluency in the state language, pedagogical tolerance, conscientious attitude to work, commitment attitude to children love for children, responsiveness, tolerance, understanding, patience organisational skills insistence on high standards, purposefulness, steadiness, decisiveness socially important skills and qualities interpersonal skills, tact, politeness, respect for others cognitive abilities attentiveness, creativity, eruditeness personal traits kindness, openness, emotional balance, optimism, generosity, spirituality, tidiness competitiveness computer literacy, creative approach, mobility, individuality, multiplicity, desire for development, self-improvement the below professionally important qualities of teachers are typically mentioned in the scientific literature and empirical studies. they are as follows: knowledge, love for children, pedagogical tact, sociability, patience, dedication, creativity, eruditeness, responsiveness and desire for selfimprovement. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 we suggested the respondents to rank them in order of importance when working with preschoolers (question no 11 of the questionnaire). as usual, such qualities as “love for children” and “professional knowledge” rank first. the pursuit of excellence is often found in the lowest positions. at the final stage of data analysis, we divided the sample into two groups depending on their work experience: teachers/educators with work experience of 1-20 years and 21-35 years. the groups were suggested to make separate ratings of the significance of the above ten leading professional qualities. at a later stage, the obtained ranking results were compared using the spearman’s rank correlation criterion – table 6. table 6 comparison of the ranks of professionally important qualities in groups of teachers/educators with different work experience the empirically calculated rank correlation coefficient is rs=0.42 (the critical value of r when n=10 for ρ≤0.05=0.64). thus, the correlation between the professionally important qualities of the groups of “teachers with 1-20 years of experience” and “teachers with 21-35 years of experience” is not statistically significant. this allows speaking about significant changes in the structure of professional qualities. the greatest discrepancy concerns “patience” (its significance decreases by 6 positions in the rating). this may indicate a violation of the emotional regulation of the behaviour of teachers/educators with work experience of more than 20 years. at the same time, the importance of such qualities as pedagogical tact, eruditeness and striving for self-improvement grows quite strongly (by 3-4 positions in the ranking). top 10 teacher/educator qualities the results of ranking in the group with the experience of 1-20 years the results of ranking in the group with the experience of 21-35 years d d² professional knowledge 1 3 -2 4 love for children 2 1 1 1 pedagogical tact 6.5 3 3.5 10.5 sociability 4 6 -2 4 patience 3 9 -6 36 dedication 6.5 6 0.5 0.25 creativity 6.5 9 -2.5 6.25 eruditeness 6.5 3 3.5 10.5 responsiveness 9.5 9 0.5 0.25 desire for self-improvement 9.5 6 3.5 10.5 total σ 55 55 0 83.25 kuanysheva et al. thus, the desire for self-improvement as a professionally important trait is not common for young specialists. with increasing work experience of teachers, the internal need for professional and personal growth increases. the data obtained from the survey of pre-school teachers allows making the following inferences: the use of pedagogical technologies in the pre-school practice pre-school teachers/educators demonstrate a predominantly high level of implementation of modern pedagogical technologies, which implies continuous self-improvement of the personality and the development of professional competencies. a high level of the tpp supposes the constant regulation of interaction in the system of “teacher/educator-pupils” (aubakirova, 2013; 2016). in this case, the content of education is delivered through the systemic application of effective means, methods and techniques, where there is an opportunity for the creative building of the pedagogical process. it is important to understand pedagogical goal and tasks at each stage, in each element of the educational process, and the phased control of their implementation. the systematic application of technology is characterized by a constant updating of the pedagogical system: the improvement of tools, the introduction of new technological tools, methods and techniques. in such settings, the teacher/educator introduces elements of the scientific organisation of work and systematically transforms technologies, improving the pedagogical process and own skills. we believe that the high level of the use of technology is due, primarily, to the organizational features of the pre-school. the teacher has a very limited time during which he/she must: establish interaction with pupils, assess the level of their cognitive and social development, “level out” the shortcomings of previous education and training and prepare the child for school. the survey results confirmed that a characteristic feature of the tpp in the pre-school is the constant search for a way of teaching that, at the lowest cost of manpower and resources, will provide the highest effect (ensuring compliance of the child’s level of development with age standards and meeting the requirements for entering primary school). the selection of specific learning technologies is mostly determined by its effectiveness with regard to mental and physical education of children, by possibility to solve modern development problems. the controllability of technology, its adaptability to individual goals and learning conditions is important. the results obtained are supported by data of predecessors, who revealed determinants of the use of educational practices in different countries and cultures. in this regard, surveys of teachers in the pre-school education system of greece and turkey showed that it is the child development that journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 is the main criterion for the selection of educational technologies (buldu & tantekin erden, 2017; rentzou & sakellariou, 2011). stoner et al. (2008) point to the peculiarities of the perception of technology by the teachers/educators themselves, as well as to their experience in its use. a personal standpoint (philosophical, religious, ideological, professional) and beliefs about teaching determine the choice of educational technology according to luchkina (2009), thomas (2013), çobanoğlu (2015). the study of shin (2015) shows the importance of teacher’s personal convenience as a factor having an impact on the choice of modern technology in the korean elementary school. the results of a survey of pre-school teachers in the republic of kazakhstan show the same trends. the leading positions in terms of frequency of use are occupied by game-based technologies: they correspond to the age characteristics of children of 5-6 years old, for whom the main activity is still the game. it has long been known that the game is the main source of children’s development: it teaches to act in an imaginary situation, fulfil one’s desires independently and arbitrarily, and master social roles (vygotsky, 2005). nowadays, the child’s right to play as fundamental, essential part of childhood needs support: “playing is a vital, universal behaviour, essential for children to be children and thrive in the modern world. … it is a biological, social, cognitive necessity for individual children, but also has benefits for society and the human species” (international play association, 2014). in the system of formal education, the game provides interaction and socialization, fostering self-regulation and contributes to handle complexity, promotes individual creativity and initiative. therefore, gamification (pedagogies of games) is recognized as one of the key “clusters” of innovative pedagogies (paniagua & istance, 2018). to prepare for schooling, games aimed at developing the ability to adhere to established rules are especially important (smirnova & ryabkova, 2017). pre-school teachers also often use developmental education, information technologies and problem solving-based approach in their work. a common feature of these technologies is the active assimilation of knowledge and the development of creative autonomy of pupils while performing activities. they also share the possibility of free experimentation of the teacher herself/himself, the introduction of innovations in traditional ways of interaction with children. this promotes the possibility of free planning and development of the educational process, making adjustments in case of changes in the baseline pedagogical situation. as a result, while modern kuanysheva et al. educational technologies offer step-by-step algorithms for organizing the pedagogical process, they also provide the teacher/educator with the right to work creatively. factors that contribute to and hinder the introduction of new technologies in the pre-school educational process pre-school teachers/educators emphasize the importance of pedagogical innovations in the process of raising and educating children in a general social context. however, they do not realize the importance of innovations in the process of their own professional and personal development. it is important to make teachers/educators understand that regular upgrading of their ‘toolbox’ of working methods they use is the key to professional competence and to their competitiveness in a constantly transforming society. in her previous studies (luchkina, 2000) proved that the innovative activities of teachers are associated with personal and professional self-development, with confident progress towards professional maturity. this is a powerful driver in the self-“cultivation” of a teacher/educator as a valuable personality and competent professional. it is also known that the transition to the innovative level of performing activities is an effective means of overcoming the professional and personal crises of experienced professionals (zeer & symanyuk, 2002). we believe, that regular introduction of innovations protects teachers from the emotional burnout and related professionally destructive processes. our research has proved that innovative technologies are widely used in the practice of pre-school establishments. they stimulate the educational process, and they make it possible to effectively develop creative and cognitive abilities of children, to form their practical and social skills. the introduction of innovations is limited by objective factors: regulations and rules of the state department of education, as well as shortage of working time, lack of material resources and moral support in pre-school establishments. the problems described are characteristic not only of the republic of kazakhstan. the data of american researchers (hirschler & darcy, 2002) suggest that pre-school teachers/educators are limited in time and resources, which does not allow them to sufficiently use traditional professional development opportunities. because of this, they make methodological mistakes in their work, and they lack effectiveness in the use of pedagogical technologies. studying the use of innovative project technologies in turkey, arıkan and kimzan (2016) found that kindergarten educators suffer from difficulties in planning educational processes. flexible modelling of the pedagogical process contributes not only to the development journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 of children, but also to the education and professional development of teachers/educators. in addition, research in countries that have experienced a totalitarian regime has shown that it is sometimes difficult for teachers to adopt a pupil-centered teaching philosophy, and especially to understand how these approaches can be implemented in classroom settings (zabeli, anderson & saqipi, 2018). modern educational standards stimulate the modernization of the educational process. therefore, the main external limiter of the introduction of innovations can be the high workload, as well as insufficient common orientation of the professional environment to development. in addition, there is a subjective factor, which is the need of teachers for self-improvement (personal and professional growth). it is no accident that that the concept of lifelong learning is one of the main trends of modern education both in the republic of kazakhstan and in the entire civilized world. acquiring practical skills lifelong is a prerequisite for the survival of a person in a complex social world (commission of the european communities, 2000). modern studies show that teachers are highly competent in lifelong learning, they really want to assimilate new skills in the field of modern technologies (selvi, 2011; kazu & erten, 2016). given the internal need for self-development, as well as the external support of this need by other participants in the educational process, teachers prove their skills by raising the qualification category, publishing scientific and methodological works, participating in professional competitions, seminars and conferences, as well as in scientific and educational activities. preschool teachers regularly review, analyze and adapt the experience of innovations of colleagues, study the scientific and special literature. refresher courses show great potential in the development of technological culture of teachers, but the opportunities of such courses are insufficiently used (as evidenced by dissatisfaction of some teachers after completing those courses). at this stage, it is important to provide teachers with quality information, professional and moral support. zeichner (2005) emphasizes that the task of pedagogical education involves developing the ability of teachers to evaluate and decide when to use specific practices and how to adapt them to the settings in which they teach. the studies by bell et al. (2013) underline the importance of the environment of the teacher training. çakmak (2016) argues that the training delivered to teachers influences their attitude to and behaviour in the occupation. the use of active methods in kuanysheva et al. teacher training enhances creativity, research skills, teamwork skills. the subsequent introduction of these qualities in work with pupils allows slow but sure improving the entire educational system. the idea of communities of practice has proved to be effective, which are flexible structured professional groups aiming at sharing ideas. teachers/educators, united in “communities of practice”, share concerns or passion for the specific issue, deepen their knowledge and experience in this area, implement teaching models with support and apprenticeship (shatunova et al., 2019; wenger et al., 2002). arikan et al. (2017) showed, that when teachers mastered novel technologies, the presence of colleagues who followed the same path and experienced a similar struggle created a “ground for cooperation” and a source of support. the teacher’s work experience: influencing professional skills, striving for innovation, the need for self-expression and self-improvement there is a logical relationship between the tpp and pedagogical skills: the main sign of teacher’s skills – reproducibility of a planned result – is also a key sign of pedagogical technology. sidorov (2015) describes two ways to achieve this level: to master a ready-made scientifically developed technology or to develop your own technology as a result of accumulated experience. the pedagogical mastery acquired in the process of understanding personal experience is a difficult, long trial-and-error path; the use of already created technologies helps to make this path shorter. our study found that 45% of pre-school teachers/educators demonstrate the desire and ability to create new technology products in their work. 48% of them use ready-made technologies trying to modernize them, adapt to the age of children and to the certain materially and technically equipped pedagogical process. to clarify the data obtained we suggest using rogers’s innovation diffusion theory, which is relevant as it explains the process of disseminating ideas and products in social systems. the scholar classifies five types of the subjects-innovators: innovators, early implementers, a preliminary and later majority, and hesitant ones (rogers, 2010). in accordance with the description of these ideal types, pre-school teachers/educators make up the later majority as they master innovations when they meet their own needs or under the pressure of a social (professional) environment. teachers with different work experience and employment duration have different points of view on professionally significant qualities. as work experience enhances, the internal need for professional and personal growth increases significantly. in the psychology of professional development, the transition to the highest stage of mastery is traditionally associated with the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 development of an individual style of activity, as well as with the manifestation of creativity: going beyond the limits of current practice, creating your own tools and working methods. buldu and tantekin erden (2017) claim that the level of education, professional experience and qualifications significantly influence the self-esteem of teachers and the practices they use in their work. the data obtained by rahayu et al. (2018) confirm the direct link between the level of pedagogical skills and the inclination of teachers to innovate; at the same time, professional competence of the teacher mediates the impact of innovation on school effectiveness and security. we agree with the opinion of pudinova and shepilova (2014) that every teacher/educator and teaching staff has the right to introduce innovations. however, in this case, she/he “must assume certain obligations for the preparation and organization of innovation, since children become the objects of any pedagogical initiative” (pudinova & shepilova, 2014, p. 34). the modern system of pre-school training in the republic of kazakhstan requires the search for new pedagogical technologies that ensure the flexibility and variability of the educational process. this requires, on the one hand, the study and synthesis of real pedagogical experience, and on the other, rapid practical implementation and dissemination of the achievements of pedagogical science. as a result, the most promising innovations are accumulated, integrated into the existing pre-school educational systems and become continuously used. it is the tpp that ensures the safe and responsible introduction of innovations in pre-school education settings. conclusion this study showed that the introduction of new technologies in pre-school settings provides a variety of forms of activities (game, search, cognitive activity), creates an emotionally significant development situation for both the child and the teacher. the technologization of the pedagogical process involves creativity, professional and personal development of a teacher/educator. the desire for self-improvement makes up a part of the system of professionally significant qualities of a teacher/educator, and it determines her/his adaptive abilities and competitiveness. so, the desire to create something new (practical techniques, technologies and methods) is an important marker of overall satisfaction with the profession and the ability to grow professionally. this research and other studies to follow will contribute to the awareness of technologization of the pedagogical process and improving the quality of the refresher courses for teachers/educators of pre-school establishments. the results of this study suggest that we have to think about kuanysheva et al. improvement of the refresher courses for teachers/educators of pre-school establishments, and our next research and publications will cover this issue. delivering tpp principle as the key to competent and safe innovation will allow intensifying this process, the creation of author’s technologies based on the acquired experience, and the modernization of existing methods. this is a matter of mastery and a condition of job satisfaction. the identified features of the implementation of modern pedagogical technologies in the pre-school are the basis for the development of training packages and their implementation in practice. references anderson, l. w., & krathwohl, d. r. (eds.). (2001). a taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. new york: longman. bloom, b. s., engelhart, m. d., furst, e. j., hill, w. h., & krathwohl, d. r. (1956). taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. handbook i: cognitive domain. new york: david mckay company. arıkan, a., & kimzan, i̇. (2016) the project approach in preschool education: the inquiries of dendrologists project, elementary education online, 15(2), 498-528. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17051/io.2016.37190 arikan, a. fernie, d. e., & kantor r. (2017). supporting the professional development of early childhood teachers in head start: a case of acquiring technology proficiency, elementary education online, 16(4), 1829-1849. aubakirova, r. z. (2011). pedagogical technologies in pre-school education, professional education. capital, 12, 42-43. aubakirova, r. z. (2013). the problem of technologization of pedagogical process in preschool, modern problems of science and education, 1. retrieved march 25, 2019, from http://www.science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=8121 aubakirova, r. z. (2016). the organization of pre-school training based on the concept of technologization of the pedagogical process (for example, visual activity). doctorate dissertation. shakarim state university, kazakhstan. baiborodova, l. v. (2015). theory and practice problems of pedagogical technologies use in education. yaroslavl pedagogical bulletin, psychological and pedagogical sciences, 2(2), 69-76. http://www.science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=8121 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 bell, r. l., maeng, j. l., & binns, i. c. (2013). learning in context: technology integration in a teacher preparation program informed by situated learning theory, journal of research in science teaching, 50(3), 348-379. bespalko, v. p. (1995). pedagogy and progressive learning technologies. moscow: institute of professional education. bloom, b. s. (1971). mastery learning. in block j. h. (ed.), mastery learning: theory and practice (pp. 37-41). new york: holt, rinehart & winston. buldu, m., & tantekin erden, f. (2017). an investigation of turkish early childhood teachers’ self-reported beliefs and practices regarding assessment, journal of education and future, 11, 29-49. çakmak, m. (2016). a study in teacher education: effects of activity-based instruction on student teachers’ achievement, elementary education online, 15(3), 1043-1053. carrol, j. b. (1963). a model of school learning, teachers college record, 64(8), 723-733. clarin, m. v. (1999). technology training: the ideal and reality. riga: experiment. çobanoğlu, r. (2015). a review of research in turkey on beliefs about teaching, hacettepe university journal of education, 30(3), 48-59. commission of the european communities. (2000). a memorandum on lifelong learning. сommission staff working paper. brussels. dagdilelis, v. (2018). preparing teachers for the use of digital technologies in their teaching practice. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 109-121. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/345 davydov, v. v. (1996). theory of developing learning. moscow: intor. decree of the government of the republic of kazakhstan no. 292. (2016). state obligatory standard of preschool education and training. retrieved march 25, 2019, from http://base.spinform.ru/show_doc.fwx?rgn=58838#a4nd0lnzz6 dewey, j. (1938). experience and education. new york: collier books. gronlund, n. e. (1991). how to write and use instructional objectives (4th ed.). new york: macmillan publishing co. herold, b. (2016). technology in education: an overview. education week. retrieved march 25, 2019, from http://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/technology-in-education/ http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/345 http://base.spinform.ru/show_doc.fwx?rgn=58838#a4nd0lnzz6 http://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/technology-in-education/ kuanysheva et al. hirschler, j., & darcy, c. (2002). using technology to support preschool teachers' professional development. in d. willis, j. price & n. davis (eds.), proceedings of site 2002-society for information technology & teacher education international conference (pp. 25502551). nashville, tennessee, usa: association for the advancement of computing in education (aace). hoffmann, m. (2017). an exploratory study: mobile device use for academics. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1), 18-52. hsu, y. c., hung, j. l., & ching, y. h. (2013). trends of educational technology research: more than a decade of international research in six ssci-indexed refereed journals, educational technology research and development, 61(4), 685-705. international play association. (2014). ipa declaration on the importance of play. retrieved march 25, 2019, from http://ipaworld.org/ipa-declaration-on-the-importance-of-play/ karaca, f. (2011). teacher and student perceptions about technology use in an elementary school in ankara, journal of social studies education research. 2(2), 43-59. kazu, y., & erten, p. (2016). teachers’ lifelong learning competencies, elementary education online, 15(3), 838-854. krathwohl, d. r., bloom, b. s., & masia, b. b. (1964). taxonomy of educational objectives, the classification of educational goals. handbook ii: affective domain. new york: david mckay co. lifintseva, n. i. (2009). tecnologization of education and psychological health in education of personality, scientific bulletin of belgorod state university. humanities sciences, 4(14), 6671. luchkina t.v. (2000). the role of innovation in the personal-professional self-development of a young teacher. proquest dissertations. khabarovsk state pedagogical university, russia. luchkina, t. v. (2009). professional and personal position of a young teacher in the modern school, scholarly notes of transbaikal state university, 6, 90-98. ministry of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan. (2010). state program for the development of education of the republic of kazakhstan for 2011–2020. retrieved march 25, 2019, from http://control.edu.gov.kz/ru/gosudarstvennaya-programma-razvitiyaobrazovaniya-na-2011-2020-gody http://control.edu.gov.kz/ru/gosudarstvennaya-programma-razvitiya-obrazovaniya-na-2011-2020-gody http://control.edu.gov.kz/ru/gosudarstvennaya-programma-razvitiya-obrazovaniya-na-2011-2020-gody journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 monakhov, v. m. (2016). designing of methodical ensuring system of educational standards functioning, pedagogika, 3, 17-25. montessori, m. (2016). a full course of education (collection). moscow: ast. order of the minister of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan no. 83. (2016). on approval of the rules and conditions for certification of pedagogical workers and persons equivalent to them, occupying positions in educational organizations, implementing general educational curricula of pre-school education and training, primary, basic secondary and general secondary education, educational programs of technical and vocational, postsecondary, additional education and special educational programs, and other civil servants in the field of education and science. retrieved march 25, 2019, from http://base.spinform.ru/show_doc.fwx?rgn=84793 pudinova, a. s., & shepilova, n. a. (2014). innovative activities in pre-school educational institutions, international journal of experimental education,7(2), 34-35. paniagua, a., & istance, d. (2018). teachers as designers of learning environments. the importance of innovative pedagogies. paris: oecd's centre for educational research. rahayu, s., ulfatin, n., wiyono, b. b., imron, a., & wajdi, m. b. (2018). the professional competency teachers mediate the influence of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence, school security journal of social studies education research, 9(2). 210-227. rentzou, k., & sakellariou, m. (2011) greek pre-service kindergarten teachers’ beliefs about and practices of developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood education, early child development and care, 181(8), 1047-1061. rogers, e. (2010). diffusion of innovations. new york: simon and schuster. scandura, j. m. (2001). structural learning theory: current status and new perspectives, instructional science, 29(4/5), 311-336. selevko, g. k. (1998). modern educational technology. moscow: narodnoeobrazovanie. selvi, k. (2011). teachers’ lifelong learning competencies, uluslararası eğitim programları ve öğretim çalışmaları dergisi, 1(1), 61-69. shatunova, o., anisimova, t., sabirova, f., &kalimullina, o. (2019). steam as an innovative educational technology, journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 131-144. shin, w. (2015). teachers’ use of technology and its influencing factors in korean elementary schools, technology, pedagogy and education, 24(4), 461-476. http://base.spinform.ru/show_doc.fwx?rgn=84793 kuanysheva et al. shmelkova, l. v. (2002). technologization of the educational process. kurgan: ipkpro. sidorov, s. v. (2015). the place of pedagogical technology in the system of activity of a teacher. teacher-researcher website. retrieved march 25, 2019, from http://sisv.com/publ/1/ped_tekhnologii/14-1-0-511. slastenin, v. a., isaev, i. f., & shiyanov, e. n. (2013). pedagogy. moscow: academy. smirnova, e. o., & ryabkova, i. a. (2017). psychology and pedagogy of the game. moscow: yurayt. solas, e., & sutton, f. (2018). incorporating digital technology in the general education classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 1-15. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/338 stoner, j. b., parette, h. p., watts, e. h., wojcik, b. w., & fogal, t. (2008). preschool teacher perceptions of assistive technology and professional development responses, education and training in developmental disabilities, 43(1), 77-91. tanurkova, e. i. (2011). new quality of education as a result of the technologization of the educational process. proceedings of the international scientific conference: problems and prospects of the development of education. perm: mercury. tempus educa jep 517504-de-2011. (2011). modernization and development of curricula on pedagogy and educational management in the central asian countries. compostela, spain. thomas, m. (2013). teachers’ beliefs about classroom teaching – teachers’ knowledge and teaching approaches, procedia social and behavioral sciences, 89, 31-39. vygotsky, l. s. (2005). the game and its role in the mental development of the child. transcript of a lecture given in 1933 at the leningrad state pedagogical institute a. i. herzen, preschool education, 5. retrieved march 25, 2019, from https://dob.1sept.ru/article.php?id=200500510 wenger, e., mcdermott, r. a., & snyder, w. (2002). cultivating communities of practice: a guide to managing knowledge. boston: harvard business press. zabeli, n., anderson, j., & saqipi, b. (2018). towards the development and implementation of learner-centered education in kosovo, journal of social studies education research, 9(4), 49-64. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/338 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),404-433 zeer, e. f., & symanyuk, e. e. (2002). emotional component in the professional development of the teacher, psychology world, 4(32), 194-203. zeichner, k. (2005). becoming a teacher educator: a personal perspective, teaching and teacher education, 21(2), 117-124. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (2), 27-60 27 and justice for all: teaching the reparations debate james r. moore1 one of the most significant and controversial issues facing the united states as it prepares for the 2020 election cycle centers around reparations—whether the united states should compensate african americans for slavery, jim crow segregation, racial inequalities, and persistent racial discrimination—and the numerous moral, political, social, and cultural arguments for and against reparations. the disputes surrounding reparations are not new in american politics; in fact, they have been present since the end of the civil war in 1865, and have fluctuated in the public consciousness based on grassroots movements, media attention, legal opinions, and academia’s interests in the most effective manner to achieve racial justice. the debate regarding reparations is enormously complex and fraught competing ideologies, contradictory visions for achieving racial justice, and is an emotionally charged issue. nevertheless, secondary students should be taught multiple perspectives regarding reparations—including the historical events that precipitated the current focus on racial and social justice—and have access to competing arguments, facts, statistics, and opinions to construct their own views. this article will examine the reparations debate and propose several instructional methods and activities to teach this debate in a pedagogically sound manner that advances civic participation without indoctrination. key words: reparations, slavery, segregation, racial justice, property, equality introduction the united states of america—considered the world’s first modern nation because its national identity was rooted, not in blood nor soil, but in the political ideals of the enlightenment--is currently examining its history of racial discrimination. these ideals affirmed that all human beings are entitled to liberty, property, and equality under the law, dignity, due process, and individual rights (davis, 2020; flynn et al., 2017; huntington, 2004; schlesinger, 1991). these ideals, considered radical heresies throughout most of human history, constitute the foundations of modern democracies are articulated in national constitutions and international law via the 1948 universal declaration of human rights. unfortunately, the gross betrayal of these ideals by several european countries and the united states resulted in one of the greatest human tragedies in world history: the institution of race-based slavery in european colonies and the united states (colonies of england until 1776) from the late 15th century until the 19th century (franke, 2019; weinstein, 1979). between 1517 and 1867, 12.5 million enslaved africans 1 associate professor of social studies education, cleveland state university, j.moore2@csuohio.edu journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 migrated to the americas, this figure does not include the millions of africans sold into slavery by the arabs (araujo, 2019). the horrors of the transatlantic slave trade, slavery, jim crow segregation, and continuing discrimination against african americans have prompted many scholars, educators, civil rights advocates, politicians, and citizens to assert that the descendants of slaves are entitled to reparations (araujo, 2017; feagin & ducey, 2018; winbush, 2003). these reparations aim to repair, to the extent that it is possible, the incalculable harm spawned by slavery, segregation, and discrimination that continues to contribute to inequality and oppression of african americans (franke, 2019). advocates of reparations insisted that property (promised but never realized after the civil war ended in 1865), cash payments, government programs to alleviate poverty), education and health care are rights long denied to african americans. simultaneously, the vociferous opponents of reparations argue they promote victimization, exacerbate racial tensions, deny the incredible socioeconomic improvement in the africa american community since 1964, create a moral hazard by forcing citizens to pay for their ancestors’ sins, and present serious logistical and practical issues (mcwhorter, 2003; steele, 2015; steele, 2003; williams, 2003; williams, 2019). furthermore, according to reparations critics, advocates of reparations misinterpret historical facts and downplay the role that africans and their governments played in the slave trade and the focus on group identity stereotypes all blacks as victims and all whites as oppressors (sowell, 1994; steele, 2015; williams, 2019). regardless of one’s views on slavery, racism, and reparations, research indicates that social studies do a poor job of teaching the hard truths about american slavery (southern poverty law center, 2018). for example, while 92% of high school seniors could identify slavery as the principal cause of the civil war, 68% did not know that the 13th amendment abolished slavery (p. 9) and only 46% knew the middle passage was the transportation of african slaves across the atlantic ocean to the colonies (p. 23). indeed, most students do not understand the brutality of the middle passage and the horrors of slavery (crawford et al., 2003; frank, 2019; southern poverty law center, 2018). this, of course, exacerbates the reparations debate; prior to forming an informed perspective on reparations, students must have a solid knowledge base regarding slavery. this must include a graphic and scrupulous discussion of the cruelty—rape, violence, lynching, malnutrition, torture, separation of families, and other forms moore of the inhumane treatment of africans and africa american slaves—of american slavery (davis, 2020). however, this much-needed improvement in teaching about slavery is difficult because any discussion of slavery, racism, white supremacy, and reparations can be very controversial and emotional, especially in multiracial classrooms (southern poverty law center, 2018). many school administrators, board members, educators, and parents are cognizant of the risks involved in teaching about all racial issues and many teachers feel uncomfortable teaching about slavery and assert that they get little support from textbooks or state standards. it is challenging to teach the “hard truths” about slavery and racism and, simultaneously, ensure that student protection from violence, threats, and charges and countercharges of racism. nevertheless, teaching honest history—presenting facts, regardless of how graphic, emotionally charged, controversial, or offensive they may be—is a prerequisite to any intellectually and historically honest debate on reparations (goldberg, 2020). in the united states, the idea of reparations is not new; arguments to compensate freed slaves and their descendants began in the 1860s, continued throughout the civil rights era, and is currently gaining momentum in the country in academia and the media (franke, 2019; robinson, 2000; winbush, 2003).the contemporary emphasis on reparations is not confined to the united states is not the only country dealing with reparations issues; indeed, there is a global movement to hold countries, governments, and corporations responsible for their pro-slavery policies (franke, 2019). for example, many scholars assert that africa’s severe underdevelopment is a direct result of slavery and colonial policies that robbed africa of its human and natural resources, as well as policies that prevented african nations from developing self-government and economic prosperity (attoh, 2009; franke, 2019). for many people, reparations, which is a pan-african issue, are a prerequisite for racial reconciliation for slavery, segregation, and discrimination (asante, 2003). the term maffa (disaster in kiswahili) refers to the five hundred years that africans have suffered under slavery and colonialism (asante, 2003), and this human catastrophe requires full restitution as a precondition for reconciliation (coates, 2014; feagin & ducey, 2018; trask, 2003). thus, the idea of reparations is a global phenomenon because africans encountered slavery in european colonies and arab traders enslaved millions of africans in several muslim countries (araujo, 2017; attoh, 2009; franke, 2019; hellie, 2019; sowell,1994). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 however, this article will concentrate on the reparations debate in the united states—a timely issue that all secondary social studies students should understand to make an informed decision regarding reparations and their relationships to race relations, civic education, and social justice. this debate is fraught with numerous controversies, complexities, legal issues, logistical challenges and has powerful moral, economic, religious, and political themes that can provoke a wide range of emotional responses. this fact explains why the reparations debate is so crucial in american politics and education as the country prepares for the 2020 election cycle. thus, the primary purpose of this study is to examine the major pros and cons of the reparations debate so citizens can construct an informed viewpoint as they prepare to cast their votes in 2020. method the primary research method employed in this article is an historical and social science examination of slavery in the american colonies and the early history of the united states as a sovereign country after declaring independence for england in 1776 (national council for the social studies, 2013). this includes an analysis of american slavery—its extent, purposes, nature, and impact on african americans—and an inquiry into the political, economic, cultural, moral, and social factors related to the reparations debate in the united states. while slavery has been a ubiquitous institution throughout human history and across the globe, american slavery had some unique characteristics differentiating it from other slave institutions. for example, advocates of reparations assert the fact that slavery existed in a nation founded on the principles of liberty, equality, and due process of law demonstrates the utter hypocrisy between american ideals and actual laws and behaviors. conversely, opponents of reparations assert contemporary americans are not culpable for laws and events that occurred over 165 years ago. furthermore, both sides of the reparations debate offer reasoned economic, political, cultural, and moral arguments that require a neutral approach by teachers that allow for students to engage with all pertinent facts, opinion, values, and beliefs and then render a judgment on reparations (of course, intelligent students will offer nuanced and eclectic opinions that betray and “either/or” dichotomy) without propaganda or predisposition. these arguments help explain why the reparations debate is relevant, passionate, and controversial in 2020; thus, a methodically sound approach to teaching about the reparations debate is presenting multiple views based on historical evidence while recognizing that people will have diverse views based on ideology, personal experiences, contrasting interpretations of moore history and notions of responsibility, and myriad other factors (avery et al. 2013; hess, 2002; kello, 2016). moreover, this method—teacher neutrality on controversial issues that encourages multiple viewpoints, dissent, and a respect for empirical data—is educationally sound because it allows teachers to present multiple views on a controversial issue which immunizes them against dangerous charges of indoctrination or political bias (hess, 2002). educators have other choices regarding controversial issues in social studies education. for example, some educators will not teach about controversial issues citing student immaturity, parental and community reactions, concerns over offending students, emotional reactions from students, and worries about job security (hess, 2002; kello, 2016). some educators may teach about controversial issues but take a strong stance on a specific viewpoint creating possible charges of indoctrination, intolerance for opposing student views, and political bias (hess, 2002; kello, 2016). choosing to present all views and encouraging dissent, debate, and rational discourse is an appropriate method when dealing with controversial issues. teacher neutrality, like all options for teaching these issues, has positive and negative characteristics (hess, 2002; kello, 2016). for example, some fear that teacher neutrality will lead students to think that all positions are morally equal and would have the same political, social, or economic consequences for society. however, it can be argued that teacher neutrality on controversial issues is the most appropriate method to ensure a full and ideologically balanced examination of all relevant facts, opinions, values, beliefs, and implications of contrasting viewpoints. moreover, this method conveys respect for all students, encourages civic participation, and allows student to make informed choices (avery et al., 2013).the reparations debate is extremely controversial and could create problems for teachers, students, and schools if charges of political bias or indoctrination are lodged against educators. this method of teacher neutrality would be appropriate with other contemporary issues, such as abortion, gun control, capital punishment, euthanasia, the legalization of drugs, and welfare, that requires prudence, respect for dissent, tolerance, and a serene, academic, and rational approach that minimizes potential for legal actions and conflicts among all interested parties. the united states is a highly polarized country; bitter divisions among all ideological camps, exacerbated by growing income inequality and a racial divide (west, 2020 ) requires social studies educators to approach controversial issues in an academic manner that supports all student opinions (of course, the teacher should emphasize empirically supported historical facts) journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 in a quest to further civic education. kayne et al., (2016) stated that, “participatory politics are interactive, peer-based acts through which individuals and groups seek to exert both voice and influence on issues of public concern (p.3). the reparations debate is an issue of public concern that deserves an ideologically balanced examination of all relevant facts, opinions, values, and beliefs in democratic classrooms. theories of slavery: a universal institution throughout history there are several theories about why slavery has been a persistent and ubiquitous institution throughout world history. indeed, in 2019 descent-based slavery—individuals born into slavery because their ancestors were enslaved—is common in mali, chad, sudan, niger, and mauritania (anti-slavery international, 2019). these individuals are slaves in the traditional sense; they can be bought and sold, sexually exploited, and are compelled to work and have no human rights. thus, slavery still exists in the world and there are organizations fighting to end it in africa and other regions. slavery is an institution rooted in antiquity and still present in the modern world. it is important to note that slavery was practiced by the mesopotamians, egyptians, greeks, romans, chinese, indians, africans, russians, europeans, muslim empires, precolumbian americas, and other cultures and regions (hellie, 2019; schug, 2013). frequently, prisoners of war and conquered peoples were enslaved and forced to labor in agriculture, mining, trade, public works, manufacturing, and domestic service, and war production (schug, 2013). a major reason for the persistence of slavery can be traced to the benefits it bestowed on the ruling elites; much of their wealth was accumulated via slave labor. throughout most of human history, slavery was not a race-based institution; in addition to enslavement via conquest, it could be based on social class, tribal identities, religion, insolvent debtors, criminals, or political factors. for example, ancient china practiced a system of slavery whereby poor males, referred to as ximin, were sold to wealthy families and performed as domestics in their masters’ homes; female slaves also performed as domestic servants and concubines. slavery was not abolished in china in the early 20th century (schug, 2013). slavery was practiced in all islamic societies and it is estimated that 18 million africans were conscripted into the islamic trans-saharan and indian ocean slave trades between 650 and 1905 (hellie, 2019). the ottoman empire recruited conquered christian male prisoners-of-war to become part of the elite janissary corps, an elite military force (hellie, 2019; mandal, 2018). moore these christians were given an opportunity to convert to islam and serve the ottoman empire in a military capacity, a fate often preferable to death (mandal, 2018). these “slave-soldiers” often enjoyed a much higher social status and benefits not available to other slaves. thus, slavery is a complex historical and global institution that took many forms and structures and resulted in divergent treatment of slaves based on their specific roles in a society (hellie, 2019; mandall, 2018). nazi germany used millions of jewish and roma slaves between 1939 and 1945 in manufacturing and other forms of labor to compensate for limited german resources (schug, 2013). prisoners deemed unfit for labor were frequently sent to the gas chambers; thus, the nazis were simultaneously committing genocide and slavery, perhaps the greatest crimes against humanity. the soviet union, under josef stalin, enslaved millions of political prisoners in the gulags and forced them to work in mines and factories under brutal conditions (balmforth, 2013). in fact, much of the soviet union’s power and infrastructure were built on slave labor that was frequently accompanied by rape, torture, and starvation. this fact—that the soviet union was, to a significant extent, built on slavery—is often ignored in social studies courses in k-12 schools and in university history courses (goldberg, 2014). there is little talk of reparations for stalin’s victims and their descendants; of course, this is to be expected in russia—an authoritarian society where freedom of expression can result in death or imprisonment. but this does not explain why slavery in the soviet union is ignored in the united states. slavery in the united states was unique in the sense that the country was founded on the democratic ideals of liberty, individualism, limited government, popular sovereignty, and due process of law (huntington, 2004). from 1619 until 1865, slaves toiled in agriculture producing tobacco, sugar, and cotton that reaped enormous profits for the slave traders and owners (schug, 2013). in the united states, powerful notions of racial inferiority were used to justify slavery and segregation. these ideas, given support by social scientists, some medical doctors, and others, became ingrained throughout the country and it took a civil war that costs at least 600,000 american lives to end this “peculiar” institution (williams, 2019). it is one of america’s great hypocrisies that the greatest proponents of democratic ideals and freedom from great britain were slaveholders in the colonies (pack, 1996). in fact, slavery has never been a peculiar institution—proven by its ubiquity and stubborn persistence into the 20th century. what is unique, from a historical perspective, is the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 idea that slavery is a moral abomination that should be abolished (d’souza, 2002; huntington, 2004; schlesinger, 1998). indeed, the idea that slavery should be abolished on moral grounds began in western countries, such as great britain, where the enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, individual rights, and limited government were employed to assault institutional slavery (d’souza, 1995). thus, slavery has existed in monarchies, empires, totalitarian regimes, and democracies. adam smith argued that slavery’s persistence (smith was pessimistic that slavery would ever be completely eradicated) was rooted in human nature (pack, 1996; weingast, 2015). adam smith argued that slavery morally wrong and economically inefficient for society. the wealthy and powerful slave owners do accrue profits but do so by increasing human misery for the slaves and poor people (pack, 1996; weingast, 2015). smith asserted that slavery was a universal institution because “slavery takes place in all societies at their beginning, and proceeds from that tyrannic disposition which may almost be said to be natural to mankind” (pack, 1996, p. 255). smith believed that man is naturally prone to seek domination and power over others and to benefit economically and psychologically from controlling and tyrannizing others they deem inferior. these notions of superiority may stem from tribal origins, notions of race and class, religion, or different levels of societal advancement. human trafficking—a global $150 billion industry that uses all forms of modern transportation and communication technologies to recruit and enslave victims—is a form of modern-day slavery where almost 40 million people are forced into labor (farms, mines, manufacturing) and sexual exploitation (prostitution, pornography, massage parlors, and forced marriages (anti-slavery international, 2018). slavery, in traditional forms and human trafficking, still exists and human beings suffer emotional, physical, and mental problems common to all forms of oppression. when charles darwin stated, “if the misery of our poor be caused not by the laws of nature, but by our institutions, great is our sin” (gould, 1996, p.19) he understood that slavery was a moral atrocity rooted, not in nature, but in human-created institutions. the rationale for slavery in the american colonies it is imperative that students understand that slavery was a universal institution in the ancient and medieval world—it was ubiquitous in egypt, greece, rome, china, the muslim world and other geographic regions—and was not related to our modern understanding of race moore (marger, 2015; schug, 2013). slavery was often the consequence for losing a war, religious and cultural differences, or existing empires annexing land and enslaving people. many nations and empires created wealth and established political and economic systems based on slavery; the american colonies depended on slave labor, especially in agriculture, for profits. in the 14th century, militarily superior european nations were able to conquer much of the americas, africa, and asia. the transatlantic slave trade, which was a direct result of european notions of racial, cultural and religious superiority, was the first time in world history that race-based slavery become the norm (southern poverty law center, 2018). additionally, slavery was enormously profitable for traders, corporations, governments, and owners. in fact, many advocates of reparations assert that present-day governments and corporations owe a significant debt to african americans (araujo, 2017; coates, 2014). the europeans believed that nature divided human beings into superior and inferior races and that one’s race was the primary factor in determining intelligence, specific skills, and character traits (marger, 2015). moreover, the doctrine of racism asserts these profound racial differences are incontrovertible and justified slavery, segregation, discrimination, and genocide (marger, 2015). this powerful idea, albeit scientifically erroneous and the primary cause of destructive race relations for the past five hundred years, became ingrained in european colonies across the world and was used as a justification for the transatlantic slave trade and race-based slavery (marger, 2015). it is incumbent upon policy makers, textbooks authors, curriculum developers, and teachers to improve teaching the centrality of racism and slavery in american history. unfortunately, many textbooks tend to focus on the abolitionist movement but downplay the horrible realities of slavery (southern poverty law center, 2018). given the current climate on racial issues, as well as the emotions and controversies associated with slavery, this is understandable, albeit educationally fallacious. students deserve to know the truth about slavery and its racist foundations. for example, american history textbooks downplay, distort, or omit the idea of white supremacy as the ideological foundation for racism and slavery and employ euphemisms, such as calling sexual assault as “unwanted sexual advances” or “frequent sexual liaisons” (southern poverty law center, 2018, p. 37) that are problematic and disingenuous. many textbooks inadequately discuss the profit motive for slavery and omit an examination of the enormous profits “earned” by governments and corporations from slave labor. labor that was essential in journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 building the modern world economy and contributing to the wealth of individuals and corporations—wealth that can be passed down to succeeding generations (araujo, 2017; southern poverty law center, 2018). it is educationally prudent to present the harsh and brutal realities of slavery to secondary students. this must include a comprehensive examination of the economic, political, cultural, and racial aspects of slavery. omitting or distorting offensive facts or details that can provide a deep understanding of slavery is tantamount to educational malfeasance and perpetuates americans knowledge gap that hinders race relations in contemporary america. the middle passage: unimaginable horror the middle passage—the transatlantic forced migration of african slaves to the americas—is one of the most lethal and cruel events in world history (araujo, 2017; crawford et al., 2003; davis, 2020; mintz, 2016). historians estimate that european slave traders transported between 10 and 15 million africans to the americas and islamic traders transported 10 million to north africa, the middle east and india, and many, perhaps most, slaves were captives in africa (mintz, 2016). two million africans died on the journey to the americas, and perhaps fifty percent of africans died on the journey from the interior to the coasts (crawford et al., 2003; mintz 2016). africans captured in the interior were kept in holding pens and slave dungeons, suffered from malnutrition, and were ultimately exposed to european diseases—smallpox, measles, and tuberculosis—that were often lethal. the conditions on board the ships were horrific. people chained together and unable to stand (the spaces were often five feet high) in extremely small spaces where temperatures could reach over 100° f. human beings were forced to live with human waste, vomit, dead bodies, and horrible odors, and were often murdered by the ship’s crew (araujo, 2017; crawford et al., 2003; mintz 2016). moreover, the captives suffered from malaria, malnutrition, scurvy, infections, typhoid fever, worms, and the biggest killer during the middle passage: amebic dysentery (bloody diarrhea) that had a mortality rate between 20 and 80 percent (davis, 2020; crawford et al., 2003, p.254). they also suffered from beatings, accidents, assaults, and experienced psychological terror that spawned many suicides. estimates suggest between the 15th and 19th centuries, as many as 60 million people died or endured slavery owing to the european and islamic slave trade (mintz, 2016, p. 446). this is considered a maafa—african holocaust—and is a central component of the modern reparations debate. moore american slavery and its impact of africans and african americans surviving the middle passage—mortality rates ranged from 20-80 percent—was difficult and slaves faced extremely harsh conditions once they arrived in the north american colonies (araujo, 2017; crawford et al., 2003, p. 255; mintz, 2016). first, exposure to new diseases, such as smallpox, tuberculosis, and measles and a colder climate led to a significant increase in morbidity and mortality for africans. second, africans were forced to endure the humiliation of the auctioning block—stripped naked and inspected like animals—and families were separated and sold to numerous plantations across the colonies never to be reunited again (araujo, 2017; crawford et al., 2003). this was an intentional policy designed to foster submission and destroy african cultures; and religions were prohibitions against speaking african languages and practicing african religions in successful policies to erase old identities (araujo, 2017). slaves were overworked, beaten, raped, and subjected to all forms of physical and psychological abuse. suicide, diseases, depression, torture (floggings, amputations, castrations, and mutilations were common methods to maintain slavery) and malnutrition produced a mortality rate during the three-year “breaking-in” period between 30 and 50 percent (crawford et al., 2003, p. 255). furthermore, the official end of the african slave trade in 1808 forced slaveholders to ensure the fertility of black women via rape and other coercive means. the deliberate attempt to dehumanize africans and justify slavery and segregation had a devastating impact on the mental and physical health of africans and contemporary african americans (araujo, 2017; flynn et al., 2017). today, african americans are much more likely, on a per capita basis, to suffer from cancer, heart disease, diabetes, stokes, hiv/aids, racial profiling, high infant mortality rates, post-traumatic stress syndrome (pstd), exposure to toxins, lead poisoning(the number one cause of preventable cognitive impairment, obesity (crawford et al., 2003, p. 272; flynn et al., 2017). moreover, african americans continue to face economic and social barriers that hinder their advancement—residential and socioeconomic segregation in high-poverty communities characterized by numerous pathological behaviors that harm children—in society (araujo, 2017; davis, 2020; flynn et al. 2017; marger, 2015). these pathological behaviors, rather than reflecting some moral, cultural, or intellectual flaws of african americans, are the result of centuries of slavery, brutal violence, segregation designed to deny all opportunities to african americans, and discrimination in all major institutions. for african americans, segregation was journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 not a choice; government, banks, realtors, and others conspired to ensure african americans would be racially and economically isolated from white society (flynn et al., 2017; massey & denton, 1993). white supremacists misused science—anthropology, psychology, and psychiatry— in promoting racism and the mental and biological inferiority of africans—to destroy the mental health of africans (crawford et al., 2003, p. 258; marger, 2015). the fact that numerous scholars and social scientists advocated for “scientific” racism gave powerful support to racists, governments, and private sector enterprises to legally segregate and discriminate against african americans (of course, other racial/ethnic groups suffered similar segregation and discrimination, albeit with less intensity). after 245 years of chattel slavery and 100 years of mandatory segregation and discrimination, it is reasonable to assert that contemporary african americans lag behind white americans economically (income, wealth accumulation, and home ownership), educationally, and socially as a direct legacy of racial discrimination (flynn et al., 2017; marger, 2015). this brief overview of slavery in the united states, while far from comprehensive, is a prerequisite for teaching about reparations. prior to teaching about reparations, students must acquire more in-depth knowledge about slavery and segregation; research shows students are lacking in this knowledge preventing a base for informed discussions on reparations (southern poverty law center, 2018). a 2019 pew research center survey showed that 63% of adults argue that slavery affects the socioeconomic position of african americans today; the figure for whites is 58% and 84% for african americans (horowitz, 2019, p. 1). furthermore, 78% of african americans, as opposed to 37% of whites, say that the united states has not gone far enough in giving african americans equal rights. this wide racial gap in attitudes reflects the racial tensions that characterize race relations in 2019. democrats (80%) are much more likely than republicans (42%) to say that slavery adversely affect contemporary african americans (brown, 2019; horowitz, 2019). a racial and ideological split on reparations has important consequences for politics and policy. therefore, the reparations debate and its antecedents’—slavery, jim crow segregation, and discrimination—are crucial contemporary political events and relevant for all citizens. moreover, the reparations debate is an excellent topic for secondary social studies students and encompasses powerful moral, economic, political, cultural, and social factors that are relevant to developing civic knowledge and thinking in students. moore reparations: pros and cons the most compelling and intellectually challenging aspect surrounding the reparations debate is the powerful arguments that supporters and opponents cite to defend their positions. these arguments include moral, religious, political, economic, and social ideas and facts that illuminate the complexity of slavery, jim crow segregation, continued discrimination, and the tension between individual and national responsibility for americas’ sins. a full description and examination of the pros and cons concerning reparations is a prerequisite for student knowledge and understanding. indeed, students, especially as young citizens developing their political and socioeconomic views, need sound pedagogy that avoids indoctrination. the following section will discuss the pros and cons of reparations with the acknowledgement that educators may use various methods and instructional activities to ensure students consider all relevant viewpoints. arguments supporting reparations first, slavery, racial segregation, discrimination, and violence are moral abominations that contradict the founding ideals of american democracy (araujo, 2017; coates, 2014; davis, 2020; huntington, 2004; schlesinger, 1998). the united states is the world’s first modern nation; a moral and constitutional republic founded, not on the ancient ideas of blood (to whom born) or soil (where one is born), but on the ideals of equality, liberty, justice, and the rule of law (huntington, 2004; schlesinger, 1998). moreover, the christian concepts of individual liberty, equality, and personal responsibility had a significant impact on the development of modern democracy; thus, 18th and 19th century abolitionists and 20th century civil rights leaders, including dr. martin luther king jr., were primarily motivated to seek racial justice by their deep-seated beliefs in christian theology. slavery, segregation, and discrimination make a mockery out of those ideals and exposes the hypocrisy inherent in the founding of the united states (asante, 2003; coates, 2014; davis, 2020; marger, 2015). on may 25, 2020, george floyd, an unarmed african american citizen in minneapolis, minnesota was killed by derek chauvin, a white police officer who killed flo yd by placing his knee on floyd’s neck for 8 minutes and 46 seconds (belvedere, 2020). chauvin was assisted by three other white officers and did not heed floyd’s desperate calls stating, “i can’t breathe” numerous times. the video (taken by a seventeen-year-old woman on her cell phone) of this murder—the coroner’s office ruled it homicide—went viral and triggered peaceful protests and riots (vandalism, arson, looting, violence) across the united states, as well as other countries. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 the united states has not witnessed such protests and riots since 1968, following the assassinations of dr. martin luther king, jr., and robert kennedy. once again, many americans from diverse backgrounds are calling for an end to the racial discrimination, violence, and murders that have plagued african americans, especially males, throughout history. moreover, the floyd murder has spawned a renewed demand for reparations—on monday, june 1, 2020, black entertainment television (bet) founder robert johnson called for $14 trillion to be paid to african american descendants of slavery—to compensate for centuries of slavery, segregation, discrimination, and violence against african americans (belvedere, 2020). thus, the legacy of slavery and discrimination—both preceded the 19th century rise of biological racism that asserted the innate intellectual and moral inferiority of african americans and other non-whites—are responsible for contemporary african americans lagging behind whites in educational attainment, income, quality housing, health, wealth accumulation, political power, and several other indicators of well-being. slavery and segregation—the intentional separation of african americans in housing, education, employment, and access to public accommodations and vital social services (medical care)—are the primary causes of incalculable human misery that demands reparations. although no amount of money, affirmative action, and special programs can fully compensate for centuries of slavery, segregation, murder, rape, torture, confiscating wealth, and other injustices, reparations can contribute to racial reconciliation (coates, 2014). many advocates of reparations assert the necessity of racial justice if the united states is to fulfill its moral and constitutional ideals of liberty, due process of law, and equality to all citizens. for many americans, the floyd murder is symbolic of america’s hypocrisy that spawns protests and violence; increasingly, there are demands that white americans take concrete actions to stop racism and compensate african americans for centuries of indescribable human suffering. while contemporary white americans never participated in slavery (and many may not have engaged in racists behaviors) they have benefitted from a society that accorded whites opportunities (economic, educational, quality housing, healthcare, and other areas) denied to racial and ethnic minorities (araujo, 2017). thus, they have a moral and civic obligation to help end racism; this can be accomplished without fomenting racial envy and white guilt. this is simply an acknowledgement by white society that the serious inequalities and oppression experienced by african americans stem, not from the moral, biological, or cultural inferiority of moore blacks, but from centuries of racial oppression that most white americans cannot comprehend because they never experienced it (arajuo, 2017; coates, 2014; davis, 2020; feagin & ducey, 2018). second, some scholars assert that slavery in america (1619-1865) was “far and away the most heinous human rights crime visited upon any group of people in the world over the last five hundred years” (feagin & ducey, 2018; robinson, 2000, p. 216; schug, 2013). this gross violation of africans and african americans basic humanity must be acknowledged and repaired as a prerequisite for racial reconciliation and progress as a multiracial democracy. the universal declaration of human rights (udhr)—a legal document written, in large part, by the united states—asserts that victims of human rights violation are entitled to compensation, such as property, monetary remunerations, and retributive justice (punishment for perpetrators), and special programs offering opportunities (advocates for human rights, 2019; trask, 2003; van dyke, 2003). many rights and civil liberties contained in the udhr are analogous to rights found in the u.s. constitution; thus, international and american jurisprudence support reparations. third, even though slavery’s abolition in 1865 and the civil rights acts of 1964 and 1968 abolished de jure segregation, the legacy of oppression continues to hinder african americans economically, socially, and politically (brown, 2019; coates, 2014; feagin & ducey, 2018; flynn et al., 2017; winbush, 2003). for example, in the late 19th century and early 20th century, white people, often in collusion with local, state, and the federal government, employed fraud, threats, violence, and lynching to steal land from african americans, especially successful farmers (winbush, 2003). this practice, called “whitecapping,” entailed bands of white men raiding african american homes and farms at night to intimidate or kill the owners. moreover, whites burned hundreds of african american homes, churches, and businesses depriving african americans property and opportunities to produce income and wealth (coates, 2014; flynn et al., 2017; winbush, 2003). today, that legacy continues in significant racial gaps in home ownership—the most common form of wealth for most americans—as less than fifty percent of black families own homes compared to seventy-five percent of white families (coates, 2014; marger, 2015). therefore, reparations entail a return of stolen property to contemporary african americans, as well as policies to address numerous other injustices. america’s history is explicit journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 in the present gap between whites and african americans in wealth, property, health, housing, employment, and education. fourth, taxes on slaves and the crops they produced, mainly cotton and tobacco produced much of the wealth accumulated by white american slave owners, the federal government, and state governments (araujo, 2017; feagin & ducey, 2018; outterson, 2003). in fact, the atlantic slave trade, instigated in the late 15th century by portugal, created great wealth for european nations, especially portugal, spain, the netherlands, and great britain (araujo, 2017; outterson, 2003). in the colonial era, several states, such as south carolina, florida, georgia, and mississippi, slave taxes raised 30 to 40 percent of the state revenues (outterson, 2003, p. 139). furthermore, many southern states imposed special poll taxes on free african americans ($5 as compared to $0.39 for slaves) to encourage migration and reduce the number of free african americans. failure to pay the taxes resulted in the confiscation and sale of property at auction and some african americans suffered involuntary servitude to pay the unremitted taxes (outterson, 2003). additionally, the high poll taxes on african americans, as well as literacy tests and residency requirements, restricted voting and obstructed the acquisition of political power. slavery, segregation, slave taxes, and other forms of discrimination conspired to oppress african americans in all aspects of american life (araujo, 2017). in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, all attempts by former slaves to seek financial reparations, pensions, land, and political rights (in practice, the equal protection and due process clauses of the 14th amendment and the voting rights clause of the 15th amendment were negated via racist acts of the federal and state governments) were futile (araujo, 2017). thus, reparations are the only method to repair this historical injustice. fifth, there are several historical precedents supporting reparations. for example, in 1990, president george h.w. bush signed the civil rights redress act stipulating that $1.2 billion ($20,000 for each victim) in remuneration for japanese americans conscripted into internment camps during world war ii (araujo, 2017; gallavan & roberts, 2005; marger, 2015). president franklin roosevelt, conflating race with nationality and patriotism, ordered 120,000 japanese americans, most born in u.s. territories, relocated to camps to prevent them from aiding japan in the war (marger, 2015). although the u.s. issued a formal apology and a monetary stipend to compensate the victims, it hardly repairs the incalculable emotional harm caused by racial animus. moore germany has paid over $70 billion in social welfare and pension payments to jews who suffered under the nazi regime (monahan & neely, 2017; reiter, 2019). the nazi regime, as well as corporations, such as volkswagen, krupp (arms manufacturing), deutsche bank, and i.g. farben (chemical company) benefited from the use of slave labor; many of these corporations have admitted their role during the nazi regime and have agreed to pay some form of reparations (facing history and ourselves, 2018). simultaneously, in the 17th and 18th centuries, many corporations in the united exploited slave labor to acquire wealth, such as aetna insurance, j.p. morgan, and lehman brothers, and owe reparations (araujo, 2017). therefore, present injustices and pervasive inequalities are the direct result of past behaviors and states have a moral responsibility to repair the great harm to victims by instituting a reparations program. in the united states, this program should not be simply a cash payout to african americans, but a comprehensive program that addresses education, employment, criminal justice inequities, residential segregation, the wealth gap, persistent discrimination, and the serious health (physical, emotional, and psychological) problems facing african americans (araujo, 2017; crawford et al., 2003; winbush, 2003). sixth, the 19th century emergence of the united states as an economic power attributes that success to america’s unique brand of capitalism and the primacy of rugged individualism, private property, entrepreneurship, market forces, and limited governmental regulations. however, this narrative omits the crucial role that slavery played in creating wealth and the great irony and hypocrisy that human bondage was a major foundation of the free market system that allowed whites to acquire wealth and power upon the backs of enslaved africans (beckert & rockman, 2016; flynn et al., 2017). reparations cannot undue the incalculable harm of two hundred and forty-five years of chattel slavery, one hundred years of jim crow segregation, and continuing discrimination in housing, employment, access to health care, and education (brown, 2019). however, reparations are a prerequisite for racial reconciliation in a diverse democracy where racism has been a political cancer. it is well beyond time that the united states atone for its sins and fulfill the promise made by general sherman in 1965. sherman issued special field order no. 15 reserving land confiscated from plantation owners in southern states for african americans freed by the emancipation proclamation. this act set aside “40 acres and mule” for each freed slave. this act of social and economic justice ended when president andrew johnson rescinded the order and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 returned the land to the rebellious white owners (araujo, 2017; farmer-paellmann, 2003). today, the vast majority of african americans are committed to the ideals—freedom, equality, due process, and individualism—that undergird the american founding. they simply wish that america abolished all forms of discrimination and oppression and return the wealth, property, freedom, opportunities, and dignity stolen from them beginning in 1619. paying this long overdue debt is the best way the united states can ensure that our political ideals become a reality for all americans. arguments opposing reparations first, opponents of reparations argue that no living african americans are slaves today (williams, 2019). slavery’s abolition by the 13th amendment in 1865—at a cost of almost 600,000 lives during the civil war that almost destroyed the united states—was the first step to repair the great injustice wrought by slavery and it is unreasonable to make contemporary taxpayers fund reparations. this is especially true since almost 90 million people migrated to america since 1865 and they played no part in slavery or segregation (marger, 2015). opponents of reparations assert that contemporary whites and african americans (3,000 owned slaves, and many past africans were complicit in the atlantic slave trade) are not liable for the sins of their ancestors. moreover, reparations are only justified when living individuals experience a violation of their human rights; japanese americans interred during world war ii and holocaust victims are examples of a morally justified reparations program (williams, 2003). moreover, 67% of americans oppose cash reparations (younis, 2019), which might exacerbate race relations in an already politically tense environment. furthermore, contemporary africans and arabs would have to pay for the transatlantic slave trade and middle eastern slave trading systems because their ancestors played a central role in obtaining slaves and gained profits via slave trading (williams, 2003; williams, 2019). second, advocates of reparations are in denial regarding the amazing socioeconomic progress by african americans that has occurred in the past fifty-five years (d’souza, 2002; steele, 2015; williams, 2003). for example, according to the u.s. census bureau (2012d), the poverty rate for african americans dropped from 55.0% in 1959 to 21.2% in 2017; this is a remarkable decline, albeit the black rate is higher than the white rate in both years (the white rate in 1959 was 18.1% and in 2017 it was 10.7%). moreover, the african american middle class has risen substantially in the past 55 years, spawned in large part by a significant increase in african moore american educational attainment, especially from secondary school (marger, 2015; thernstrom & thernstrom, 2003). currently, over fifty percent of african americans live in suburbs (berube, 2016) exposing the myth that most african americans live in high-poverty urban areas. increasing college graduation rates, especially if african americans and other students major in high-paying stem (science, technology, math, and engineering) disciplines will result in higher median incomes. a significant reduction in white racism and discrimination has allowed african americans to exercise their natural, human, and constitutional rights to economic, educational, political, and social advancement. third, paying reparations to african americans would be logistical nightmare and would stimulate a plethora of claims from other groups—women, native-americans, asian americans, latino americans, and the irish—that would be divisive and bring the nation to economic ruin (arends, 2019; hillard, 2019). for example, while economists produce divergent figures for the full costs of reparations, all estimates would be awfully expensive. craemer (2015) estimated that slave labor was valued between $5.9 trillion and $14.2 trillion in 2009 dollars. another estimate (achieved by applying the u.s. minimum wage to the total numbers of forced labor hours from 1619-1865) asserts the country owes $97 trillion to the descendants of slaves (hillard, 2019), this figure is almost five times the nation’s annual gdp. paying reparations to african americans for slavery would unleash a stream of demands from various groups that would, if paid, destroy the american economy. some estimates claim if we paid reparations to african american and native americans—the two groups most aggrieved throughout history— the costs could be around $51 trillion (arends, 2019). of course, this would open a “pandora’s box” with many groups—mexican americans/mexico demanding reparations for land lost in war, women claiming that past discrimination adversely affects women’s wages and occupations today, and the irish and italians wanting compensation for labor discrimination—demanding compensation that would shatter the social fabric and empty the treasury. in general, one of the major problems with the concept of reparations in world history is replete with examples of one group (tribal, racial, religious, economic, or cultural) committing a vast array of moral abominations (genocide, slavery, torture, segregation, and discrimination) against other groups. thus, the pro-reparations movement could ignite a global political storm of aggrieved groups seeking compensation for past injustices committed over numerous centuries. this would likely exacerbate ethnic conflicts journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 in many multinational or multiethnic countries. the united states, one of the world’s most racially, ethnically, religiously, and culturally diverse countries, would not be immune from primordial conflicts. fourth, the idea of reparations invites numerous complex questions, many of which are not amenable to empirical analysis (williams, 2003; williams, 2019). for example, what percentage of “black blood” would entitle a citizen to reparations? should africans who migrated to the u.s. in 2000 be eligible for compensation? would african countries have to pay for their part in the slave trade? three thousand blacks owned slaves in the country (williams, 2003). should their descendants pay, or are they entitled to compensation simply based on race? many whites took part in the abolitionist movement—often at great personal and legal risk—and helped slaves in the underground railroad obtain freedom (williams, 2019). should skin color alone be the basis for reparations, ignoring historical facts about the complexity of slavery? how much money should go to each african american? how do we calculate a fair rate of payment? how much should corporations who benefited from slavery pay? should reparations entail grants, special educational programs (such as free college for african americans), employment quotas, and other government-sanctioned programs? these are difficult questions that do not have clear and morally just answers. fifth, some opponents of reparations contend that the united states government has taken powerful and costly steps to compensate african americans, beginning with the civil war (1861-1865) that claimed 360,000 union deaths from battle, diseases, suicide, accidents, and other causes (history net, 2019). these individuals died fighting to end slavery (of course, preserving the united states as a viable nation-state was an important goal) and many whites were active in the 19th century abolitionist movement and the 20th century civil rights movement (van dyke, 2003; williams, 2019). the 1964 civil rights act banned racial discrimination in public accommodations, public schools, businesses, labor unions, and governmental institutions. the 1965 voting rights act protected the right of african americans (as well as all groups) to vote and established penalties for individuals who attempted to use threats, violence, and other means to disenfranchise voters. moreover, the united states established substantial programs for african americans in terms of subsidized housing, several forms of welfare (free/reduced lunches in schools, food stamps, and financial aid to families below the poverty line). furthermore, attempts to integrate moore public schools to provide equal educational opportunities (these attempts, such as busing, often failed in light of pervasive residential segregation and resistance movements), and affirmative action programs to provide employment opportunities to long oppressed minorities have been ubiquitous since the 1970s (marger, 2015). however, steele (2015) asserts that these wellintentioned programs have hurt african americans by creating a harmful dependency and preventing equality. sixth, reparations, especially in the form of cash payments, will not solve the serious problems that plague african american urban communities (steele, 2015; steele, 2003). seventy percent of african american children are born out-of-wedlock (centers for disease control, 2018). numerous research studies show that children growing up without a male role model are more likely to engage in criminal behaviors, substance abuse, experience poverty, and less likely to graduate from high school and college (putnam, 2015; raeburn, 2014). furthermore, these children are more likely to suffer from malnutrition (crucial for brain development and academic success), lack access to quality medical care and cultural resources (travel, museums), and exposure to environmental toxins and increased risk of violence and substance abuse (raeburn, 2014). the focus of social policy should be diminishing the pathological behaviors that hurt african americans while recognizing that slavery, segregation, and discrimination are primary causes of these pathological behaviors. of course, this requires reducing racial discrimination in all crucial areas—housing, education, employment, and access to quality medical care, nutrition, and social services—and fulfilling the constitutional mandates of equality under the law, liberty, and due process. money cannot solve deeply entrenched cultural problems and it does not impart virtues— honesty, hard work, personal responsibility, self-discipline, prudence, sobriety, and others—that are required for academic and economic success in a modern, and highly competitive, global economy. reparations legitimizes the notion of black victimization—the idea that african americans cannot achieve on their own without the help of a benevolent white population, often motivated by guilt based on past behaviors—and is a permanent trait of african american culture (steele, 2003). the reparations debate: teaching multiple perspectives teaching the arguments (the pros, cons, and eclectic ideas) relevant to the reparations debate is essential in any honest attempt to educate—without indoctrination—students and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 encourage civic participation. one of the most effective methods for teaching complex and controversial issues employs a student-based inquiry project. the college, career, and civic life framework for social studies state standards (henceforth, referred to as the c3 framework) was created to improve civic education and preparing all students for democratic participation in a globally competitive economy (the c3 framework, 2013). the rationale for the creation of the c3 framework is predicated on the notion that students will need content knowledge, disciplinary skills (how social scientists structure their disciplines), special skills (creativity, problem-solving, critical thinking, and communication), and the ability to work in cooperative environments characterized by high level computer technologies and a rapidly globalizing economy. the c3 framework focuses on the core social science disciplines of history, civics, economics and geography; these are the four federally defined social studies disciplines chosen to streamline the development process (the c3 framework, 2013, 18). teachers can review the c3 framework by visiting the website (http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/c3framework-for-social-studies.pdf) prior to developing their lesson plan. a comprehensive review is beyond the scope of this article, but teachers will benefit from visiting the website as they develop their lesson plans. the first “dimension (developing questions and planning inquiries)” is concerned with the development of compelling questions —“questions that focus on enduring issues and concerns” (the c3 framework, 2013, 23) — and lend themselves to rigorous debate, in-depth research, and empirical analysis. this question should be complex, often controversial, stimulate thought, appeal to the cognitive, affective, and reflective domains, and are of interest to students. the question should focus on an enduring issue with significant political and social implications. the question must be amenable to empirical analysis, rigorous debate, and multiple research methods (historical, quantitative, and qualitative). “should the united states pay reparations to african americans for slavery and segregation?” is a compelling question. this question will provoke student interests and allow them to engage in an intellectual, moral, and political debate that requires research, applying social science skills, using evidence to evaluate competing claims and ideas, collaboration, and communicating their findings to stimulate action. getting students actively engaged beyond the classroom is a primary goal of the c3 framework; this is easier to accomplish when students develop a passion for social justice issues that influence their lives. http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/c3-framework-for-social-studies.pdf http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/c3-framework-for-social-studies.pdf moore the second step is “dimension two (applying disciplinary tools and concepts) that includes four subsections—civics, economics, geography, and history—which include descriptions of the structure and tools of the disciplines as well as the habits of mind common in those disciplines” (the c3 framework, 2013, 12). students (working in groups) should develop between three and five supporting questions for each of the following subjects: history, geography, economics, and government. the supporting questions help students answer the compelling question using discipline-specific knowledge and research methods. primary and secondary sources, digital media, and expert opinion from advocates and opponents of reparations, interviews with citizens, and access to museum resources are excellent research methods for students. here, the teacher bears the responsibility of ensuring that students are acquiring factual knowledge, searching for dissenting data, distinguishing between facts and political ideology, and stressing that americans are diverse in their opinions, values, and beliefs. moreover, instruction on how historians and social scientists conduct research, gather and evaluate historical evidence and quantitative data, draw generalizations, and articulate conclusions and/or policy prescriptions are a crucial component of the process. teaching the tools of the trade—specific concepts, statistical analysis, various research methodologies, ethical issues in research, and the limitations of the disciplines—help students learn how knowledge is constructed and used in policy and law. scholarship and intellectual rigor guide the research and students must recognize how personal biases and strong political views can influence objectivity. it is vital that students support their views with empirical data, as well as compelling moral arguments to advocate their positions. these are examples but students can develop their own questions. supporting questions for history: 1. how did slavery affect africans from the 17th until 19th centuries? 2. can you explain the conditions for slaves during the middle passage? 3. was slavery in other ancient civilizations (egypt, rome, greece, and the muslim empires) based on race? 4. how did jim crow segregation influence african americans? supporting questions for geography: 1. what african regions transported slaves to the americas? 2. why did the southern states receive most slaves? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 3. can you explain why the north was opposed to slavery? 4. what other countries had slave systems in the 17the and 18th centuries? supporting questions for government: 1. how did slavery and jim crow legislation betray the core political ideals of the united states? 2. why was compromise over slavery (the 3/5 compromise) required to ratify the constitution in the late 18th century? 3. how did state and local governments enforce jim crow segregation and other black codes? 4. what impact did the 1964 civil rights act and the 1965 voting rights act have on african americans politically and socially? supporting questions for economics: 1. is it possible to calculate the monetary amount owed to slaves from 1619 until abolition in 1865? 2. considering that many corporations benefited from slavery, do these entities owe contemporary african americans? 3. how did slavery, segregation, and discrimination contribute to an african american underclass characterized by numerous economic, educational, family, social and health problems? 4. what steps can society to compensate african americans for slavery and segregation? dimension three (evaluating sources and using evidence) demonstrates the importance of gathering and analyzing data in order to draw viable conclusions. teachers must emphasize that students must support their claims with empirical data—statistics, facts, examples, historical evidence—that justifies their policy recommendations. it is vital that students are able to evaluate the credibility of sources and make distinctions between values, facts, opinions, and political ideologies; teaching students to recognize biases, faulty logic, myths, and being able to distinguish between correlation and cause/effect are vital skills in the social studies and are mandatory for methodologically sound inquiry learning (the c3 framework, 2013). dimension three is research methods that are vital to answering the compelling and supporting questions and allowing students to create a comprehensive project. moore this process requires that teachers supervise students’ research and help them find reputable resources and deal with the complexities and contradictions associated with research— experts disagree on many issues, some questions may not have answers, methodologies may be flawed, and researcher bias—that may be frustrating. moreover, keeping students on track, checking their progress, monitoring group dynamics, and ensuring they finish their project requires diligence. dimension 4 (communicating conclusions and taking informed action) is the final stage in the c3 framework and students present their conclusions and describe their policy recommendations for solving problems and improving society via civic engagement. students, working individually and collaboratively, will present their findings via essays, reports, multimedia presentations (powerpoints, videos, blogs, and other forms of social media), debates, posters, mock trails, moot courts, and other activities. the audience for these presentations may include outside officials who were involved in the c3 projects, as well as parents. moreover, these presentations give students opportunities to comment on their work (as well as other students’ projects), accept constructive feedback, make modifications, and gain valuable experiences that will help prepare them for college, career, and civic life. of course, there are numerous other methods teachers may employ to teach the reparations debate. essays, mock trials, simulations, small group discussions, interactive lectures (numerous opportunities for student questions and comments), creating artwork, music, literature, political cartoons, and other methods may be more appropriate than a time-consuming and complex c3 framework project. furthermore, time constraints, student ability levels, state/district testing requirements, and other factors may affect teaching decisions. the efficacy of using multiple methods and activities the reparations debate is a superb issue for secondary schools students because it is contemporary, makes direct connections with american history, and incorporates the four core disciplines of history, civics (political science), economics, and geography (national council for the social studies, 2013). one of the most important decisions educators make entails choosing the specific instructional activities, methods, resources, and assessments. while the reparations debate can be taught using traditional methods, such as lecture and assigned readings, the research literature suggests that student-centered methods are better suited to engage students with controversial issues (avery et al., 2013; national council for the social studies, 2013 ). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 therefore, the c3 framework and other inquiry projects are effective methods for teaching controversial issues because students are actively engaged in creating and answering questions, acquiring empirical research, comparing perspectives, evaluating various arguments and ideological claims, drawing conclusion and making recommendations. the teacher serves a vital role as facilitator ensuring students remain on task, correcting errors in accuracy or methodology, guiding them to excellent resources, and ensuring that they apply the scientific method in their research. of course, unlike the hard sciences, political ideology, religious beliefs, personal experiences, family background, and a host of other factors will influence all human beings and their ultimate beliefs and values on civic issues. students need to understand that this is normal human behavior and dissenting views are inevitable, especially on controversial issues. this helps students develop tolerance, respect, and sharpens their appreciation for persuasion, compromise, and democratic processes. moreover, groups inquiry projects help students develop social skills valued in the modern economy, such as cooperation, deliberation, listening to diverse opinions, effective communication, problem-solving via creativity, and the crucial role that all individuals play in achieving overall company goals (national council for the social studies, 2013). the c3 framework, or other inquiry methods, can incorporate several other strategies into a final product. conversely, educators can choose to have a mock trial or debate about reparations without using the c3 framework. this entails a significant amount of teacher and student preparation and requires a large time commitment, although less than a complete c3 framework project. mock trials and debates are effective because students are playing active roles as debaters, witnesses, judges, jurors, social science experts, and so forth (chapin, 2015; zevin, 2015). the use of music, literature, and art (in the case of reparations and slavery, there are excellent resources, ranging from gospel music to uncle tom’s cabin, political cartoons, newspaper accounts, political speeches, and numerous other primary sources) are excellent methods because they appeal to the affective domain (emotions, values, morality, beliefs) as well as the cognitive and reflective domains (zevin, 2015). students can examine these resources and use them to support or oppose different perspectives; the affective domain helps students develop an understanding of metaphors, analogies, caricature, symbols, sarcasm, and other literary devices. the arts are essential to social studies and their proper implementation can improve moore thinking, problem-solving skills, creativity, and spawn greater empathy and a respect for the human condition. these methods are effective in producing effective citizens committed to democracy, social justice, and the essential dignity and equality of all people. moreover, these methods allow students to be active participants by engaging in voting, lobbying, holding leaders accountable, protesting, and fighting injustices via behavior. “democracy is not a spectator sport” (davis, 2019, p. 180) and students must use their knowledge to improve our society in its perpetual quest to seek equality, justice, and a reduction in human suffering and an increase in human flourishing. the spectacular advances in computer technologies allow students to create blogs, videos, recordings, graphics, powerpoint presentations, take virtual field trips, play video games, and communicate with people from all over the world (chapin, 2015; zevin, 2015). students can use the internet to conduct research and formulate their presentations with a wide array of materials (maps, charts, graphic, statistics, videos, music, and so forth). it is important students understand that technology is a useful tool, but that engaging with ideas, moral issues, historical events, and political issues should be their central focus. this is a contentious issue in education; technology is not a panacea and reading, writing, and discussions are still vital to civic knowledge and understanding. furthermore, the technology explosion has resulted in a tsunami of false information, distortions, propaganda, myths, on myths being sent across the globe with one click of the mouse (davis, 2019). social media can often resemble a hitech form of tribalism where students are much more interested in a friend’s post than in constitutional law or economic history. rising incivility in political discourse, academia, and the media is a consequence of communications technologies that allow individuals to retreat into their tribes and avoid any consequences for their views expressed in anonymity (davis, 2019). social media cannot be allowed to contaminate honest and scholarly attempts to examine the reparations debate and other controversial issues. therefore, teachers must exercise extreme caution with all instructional methods and activities; choosing methods, activities, and resources that promote knowledge, respect, civility, and further the democratic ideals of liberty, equality, individual rights and responsibilities, and civic participation are a prime responsibility of educators. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 discussion, conclusion, and implications the reparations debate—what, if anything, should the united states (including private sector entities that benefited from slavery)—pay to descendants of african and african american enslaved from 1619 until 1865 is a relevant and controversial topic in contemporary america. advocates for reparations assert that even though slavery was abolished by the 13th amendment in 1865, its legacy of de jure and de facto segregation and rampant racial discrimination is the primary cause of contemporary african americans lagging far behind whites in wealth accumulation, income, equal educational and employments opportunities, political power, and access to quality housing and social services. moreover, african americans are disproportionately overrepresented in the criminal justice system and experience a wide variety of physical and emotional health issues stemming from centuries of racial hatred and ubiquitous discrimination. for advocates of discrimination, it is a moral, political, and economic issue and there cannot be a peaceful reconciliation until the harm is repaired. reparations can take the form of cash payments, housing vouchers, affirmative action in education, employment, and other areas. the current status of african american communities is a direct and intentional result of slavery and segregation and the united states—the world’s first nation built on the democratic ideals, not of blood (to whom born) nor soil (where one is born) but on the moral precepts of freedom , equality of opportunities, due process of law, and individual rights. american slavery and segregation are the ultimate betrayal of these ideals and equitable compensation is the only viable method to achieve racial and social justice. opponents of reparations do not deny the great harm inflicted by slavery and segregation. rather, they contend that the united states has made amends for these moral failings via major civil rights laws, constitutional amendments, and supreme court decisions banning racial segregation and discrimination. furthermore, they allege that the civil war (1861-1865) was the first step in abolishing slavery and african americans have made remarkable socioeconomic progress in the past 65 years and paying contemporary african americans would create a moral hazard—slavery ended in 1865 and no living african american experienced it and no living whites owned slaves—by punishing individuals who did not personally commit any immoral behaviors. reparations would bankrupt the nation, exacerbate race relations, and generate a plethora of groups—women, native american tribes, asian americans, latinos, catholics, and moore others—claiming they faced multiple forms of discrimination that hindered their economic and educational opportunities and stifled their equality the dominant white protestants. educators have several choices regarding teaching about controversial issues (avery et al., 2013; goldberg, 2020; hess, 2002). for example, some educators will take a specific position and defend it to students but allow dissent, encourage debate, and maintain an open classroom. other educators, fearing classroom disruptions, parental/community outrage, or emotionally charged students may not allow controversial issues to be discussed in the classroom. this position, however safe for teachers, is pedagogically fallacious because it deprives students’ opportunities to discuss and debate the most important issues in society. omitting controversial issues, including difficult historical events (students may be shocked or ashamed to learn that their country engaged in moral abominations), eviscerates social studies and is professionally unethical and harmful to students and society (avery et al., 2013; goldberg, 2020; hess, 2002.) consequently, they would be woefully unprepared for civic participation. some teachers, believing that there is only one correct point of view may attempt to indoctrinate students and not allow and criticism or debate on their position. this method can have serious legal and professional consequences for the teachers; courts have ruled that k-12 educators possess less academic freedom and first amendment rights than university professors. thus, it may be the case that teacher neutrality is the most prudent choice in a politically divided society where diversity of thought, values, and political ideologies is powerful and pervasive. social studies teachers should consider all options, including the pros and cons and potential consequences for each choice, and make an informed decision on how they will approach controversial issues. it is crucial that students learn to debate issues without resorting to anger, disrespectful comments or body language, incivility, or asserting that people who disagree with them must be immoral. the reparations debate is controversial because people of good will on both sides possess strong arguments grounded in competing notions of morality and political ideology. a central component of american democracy requires civic engagement among factions that have competing values, beliefs, historical experiences, and interests. thus, various groups—racial, ethnic, economic, professional, religious, geographic, and so forth—compete to attain their goals and vision via lobbying government and persuading the american people of the moral superiority of their position. for example, advocates of gay rights—the right to equal treatment journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 under the law in employment, education, military service, sexual activities, and marriage— fought for their beliefs by civic engagement and education (national council for the social studies, 2019). this battle raged for over fifty years before the supreme court ruled that homosexual marriage and other rights are guaranteed under the u.s. constitution, specifically the 14th amendment’s “equal protection” and “due process” clauses. when viewed from a long historical perspective, some controversial issues become anachronisms as one view becomes the social norm and law. today, slavery, a raging controversy in the late 18th and 19th centuries, is a moral abomination rejected by almost all people in the united states (as well as all other modern nations; pockets of de facto slavery still exist in some regions and human trafficking is a separate contemporary issue ). by teaching controversial issues and other formerly controversial issues (i.e., women’s rights), students should be presented with historical facts, relevant statistics, competing ideologies and philosophies, and other pertinent information that sharpens their thinking skills and allows for intelligent and informed participation in american democracy. therefore, educators can achieve these goals by being ideologically balanced and allowing all perspectives (including one’s anathema to teachers and some students) into the classroom. the knowledge and skills they learn by studying the reparations debate are transferable to all other controversial issues and will contribute to producing independent thinkers capable of effective civic participation—a major goal of social studies education in an increasingly pluralistic (this diversity includes political opinions and values as well as racial, ethnic, religious, and economic diversity) and complex democracy. it is vital to reiterate that controversial issues in social studies education are highly complex issues because ideology—the totality of moral precepts, values, beliefs, personal experiences (this would include relevant factors such as race, socioeconomic status, and sex/gender) and religious principles—is a powerful determinant of political, social, and economic views. a pluralistic democracy, such as the united states, demands that all perspectives be thoroughly examined and subject to dissent as part of the process of persuasion, compromise, and decision-making. the reparations debate offers powerful arguments on both sides of the issue and this article has examined those arguments in a scholarly manner designed to inform citizens as they construct their views. ultimately, citizens express those views via voting; a sign of a healthy democracy where popular sovereignty determines policies. moore references araujo, a. l. (2017). reparations for slavery and the slave trade. new york: bloomsbury publishing. asante, m.k. (2003). the african american warrant for reparations: the crime of european enslavement of africans and its consequences. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp. 3-13). new york: harpercollins. attoh, s.a. (2009). population geography of sub-saharan africa. in s.a. attoh (ed), geography of sub-saharan africa (pp. 170-203). new york: prentice hall. avery, p.g., levy, s.a., and simmons, a.m. (2013). discussing controversial public issues as part of civic education. the social studies, 104(3),105-114. beckert, s & rockman, s. (2016). slavery’s capitalism: a new history of american economic development. philadelphia, pa: university of pennsylvania press. chapin, j. (2015). middle and secondary social studies. (4th ed.). new york, ny: pearson. crawford, j., nobles, w., & leary, j.d. (2003). reparations and health care for african americans: repairing the legacy of slavery. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp.251-281). new york: harpercollins. davis, k.c. (2020). the american contradiction: conceived in liberty, born in shackles. social education, 84 (2), 76-82. davis, k.c. (2019). democracy is not a spectator sport: the role of social studies in safeguarding the republic. social education, 83 (4), 180-187. d’souza, d. (2002). what’s so great about america. washington, dc: regnery publishing, inc. d’souza, d. (1995). the end of racism: principles for a multiracial society. new york: simon and schuster. farmer-paellmann, d.c. (2003). excerpt from black exodus: the ex-slave pension movement. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp. 22-31). new york: harpercollins. feagin, j.r. and ducey, k. (2018). racist america: roots, current realities, and future reparations. (4th ed.).new york: routledge. flynn, a., holmberg, s.r., warren, d.t., & wong, f. j. (2017). the hidden rules of race: barriers to an inclusive economy. new york: cambridge university press. franke, k. (2019). repair: redeeming the promise of abolition. chicago, il: haymarket books. gallavan, n.p., and roberts, t.a. (2005). enduring lessons of justice from the world war ii japanese american internment. social education, 69 (5), 275-281. goldberg, t. (2020). delving into difficulty: are teachers evading or embracing difficult histories? social education, 84 (2), 130-136. gould, s. j. (1996). the mismeasure of man. new york, ny: w.w. norton & company. huntington, s. (2004). who are we? the challenges to america’s national identity. new york: simon & schuster. kahne, j., hodgin, e., and eidman-aadahl, e. (2016). redesigning civic education for the digital age: participatory politics and the pursuit of democratic engagement. theory & research in social education, 44 (1), 1-35. kello, k. (2016). sensitive and controversial issues in the classroom: teaching history in a divided society. teachers and teaching, 22 (1), 35-53. marger, n.m. (2015). race & ethnic relations: american and global perspectives. (11th ed.). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 stamford, ct: cengage learning. massey, d.s. & denton, n. a. (1993). american apartheid: segregation and the making of the underclass. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. mcwhorter, j. (2003). against reparations. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp. 180-196). new york: harpercollins. outterson, k. (2003) slave taxes. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp.135-149). new york: harpercollins. pack, s.j. (1996). slavery, adam smith’s economic vision and the invisible hand. history of economic ideas, 4 (1/2), 253-269. putnam, r. (2015). our kids: the american dream in crisis. new york: simon & schuster. raeburn, p. (2014) do fathers matter? what science is telling us about the parent we’ve overlooked. new york: scientific american/ farrar, straus, and giroux. robinson, r. (2000). the debt: what american owes to blacks. new york: dutton. rossiter, c. (1999). the federalist papers. new york: penguin books. schlesinger, a.m. (1998). the disuniting of america. new york: w.w. norton. schug, m.c. (2013). slavery and free markets: relationships between economic institutions. social education, 77 (2), 82-86. sowell, t. (1994). race and culture: a worldview. new york: basic books. steele, s. (2015). shame: how america's past sins have polarized our country. new york: basic books. steele, s. (2003). …or a childish illusion of justice?: reparations, enshrined victimhood, dishonoring our ancestors. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp. 197-199). new york: harpercollins. thernstrom, a. & thernstrom, s. (2003). no excuses: closing the racial gap in learning. new york: simon & schuster. trask, h. (2003). restitution as precondition of reconciliation: native hawaiians and indigenous human rights. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp. 32-45). new york: harpercollins. van dyke, j.m. (2003). (2003). reparations for the descendants of american slaves under international law. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp. 57-78). new york: harpercollins. west, d.m. (2020). divided politics, divided nation: hyperconflict in the trump era. washington, dc: brookings institution press. williams, a. (2003). presumed victims. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp. 165-171). new york: harpercollins. winbush, r.a. (2003). and the earth moved: stealing black land in the united states. in r.a. winbush (ed.), should america pay? slavery and the raging debate on reparations (pp. 46-54). new york: harpercollins. zevin, j. (2015). social studies for the twenty-first century: methods and materials for teaching in middle and secondary schools. (4th ed.). new york: routledge. web-based references advocates for human rights. (2019). human right and the united states. retrieved september 12, 2019 from http://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/human_rights_and_the_united_states anti-slavery international. (2019). descent-based slavery reports. retrieved april 12, 2020 from: http://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/human_rights_and_the_united_states moore https://www.antislavery.org/reports-and-resources/research-reports/descent-basedslavery-reports/ anti-slavery international. (2018). anti-slavery: today’s fight for tomorrow’s freedom. retrieved april 12, 2020 from: https://www.antislavery.org/ arends, b. (2019). opinion: the math on reparations: total cost of $51 trillion and a tripling of the national debt. retrieved october 11, 2019 from https://www.marketwatch.com/story/the-math-on-reparations-total-cost-of-51-trillion and-a-tripling-of-the-national-debt-2019-06-27 balmforth, t. (2013). life in stalin’s gulags. retrieved april 14, 2020 from: https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/03/life-in-stalins-gulags/273681/ belvedere, m.j. (2020). bet founder robert johnson call for $13 trillion of reparations for slavery. retrieved june 3, 2020 from https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/01/bets-robert-johnson-calls-for-14-trillion-ofreparations-for-slavery.html berube, a. (2016). segregation, suburbs, and the future of fair housing. retrieved september 20, 2019 from https://furmancenter.org/research/iri/essay/segregation-suburbs-and-the-future-of-fairhousing brown, a. (2019). key findings on americans’ views on race in 2019. retrieved october 25, 2019 from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/09/key-findings-on-americans-views-ofrace-in-2019/ centers for disease control. (2018). national vital statistics report. retrieved september 20, 2019 from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67_08-508.pdf coates, t. (2014). the case for reparations. retrieved april 20, 2020 from: https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ craemer, t. (2015). estimating slavery reparations: present value comparisons of historical multigenerational reparations policies. retrieved august 28, 2019 from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ssqu.12151 facing history and ourselves. (2018). the business of slave labor. retrieved october 12, 2019 from https://www.facinghistory.org/holocaust-and-human-behavior/chapter-10/business slave-labor goldberg, j. (2014). union of soviet slaveholding republics. retrieved april 20, 2020 from: https://www.nationalreview.com/corner/union-soviet-slaveholding-republics-jonahgoldberg/ hellie, r. (2019). slavery. retrieved april 20, 2020 from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology/historical-survey hillard, j. (2019). the other case against reparations. retrieved april 20, 2020 from: https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/07/the-other-case-against-reparations/ history net (2019). civil war casualties. retrieved october 18, 2019 from https://www.historynet.com/civil-war-casualties horowitz, j.m. (2019). most americans say the legacy of slavery still affects black people in the u.s. today. retrieved october 18, 2019 from https://www.antislavery.org/reports-and-resources/research-reports/descent-based-slavery-reports/ https://www.antislavery.org/reports-and-resources/research-reports/descent-based-slavery-reports/ https://www.antislavery.org/ https://www.marketwatch.com/story/the-math-on-reparations-total-cost-of-51-trillion-%20and-a-tripling-of-the-national-debt-2019-06-27 https://www.marketwatch.com/story/the-math-on-reparations-total-cost-of-51-trillion-%20and-a-tripling-of-the-national-debt-2019-06-27 https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/03/life-in-stalins-gulags/273681/ https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/01/bets-robert-johnson-calls-for-14-trillion-of-reparations-for-slavery.html https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/01/bets-robert-johnson-calls-for-14-trillion-of-reparations-for-slavery.html https://furmancenter.org/research/iri/essay/segregation-suburbs-and-the-future-of-fair-housing https://furmancenter.org/research/iri/essay/segregation-suburbs-and-the-future-of-fair-housing https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/09/key-findings-on-americans-views-of-race-in-2019/ https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/09/key-findings-on-americans-views-of-race-in-2019/ https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67_08-508.pdf https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/ https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ssqu.12151 https://www.facinghistory.org/holocaust-and-human-behavior/chapter-10/business-%20slave-labor https://www.facinghistory.org/holocaust-and-human-behavior/chapter-10/business-%20slave-labor https://www.nationalreview.com/corner/union-soviet-slaveholding-republics-jonah-goldberg/ https://www.nationalreview.com/corner/union-soviet-slaveholding-republics-jonah-goldberg/ https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology/historical-survey https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/07/the-other-case-against-reparations/ https://www.historynet.com/civil-war-casualties journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 27-60 https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/17/most-americans-say-the-legacy-of slavery-still-affects-black-people-in-the-u-s-today/ mandall, d. (2018). janissaries: origins and military system of the elite soldiers. retrieved april 16, 2020 from: https://www.realmofhistory.com/2018/06/19/facts-ottoman-janissaries/ mintz, s. (2016). digital history: the middle passage 2016. retrieved september 30, 2019 from http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook_print.cfm?smtid=2&psid=446 monahan, k. & neely, b. (2017). death train: will germany finally pay the holocaust survivors of iasi? retrieved september 30, 2019 from https://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news/death-train-will-germany-finally-pay-holocaustsurvivors-iasi-n778336 national council for the social studies. (2019). contextualizing lgbt + history in the social studies curriculum. ncss position statement. retrieved april 16, 2020 from: https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/contextualizing_lgbt_history_within_the_social_ studies_curriculum national council for the social studies. (2013). the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver spring, md: ncss. retrieved october 21, 2019 from http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/c3-framework-for-social-studies.pdf reiter, b. (2019). if germany atoned for the holocaust, the u.s. can pay reparations for slavery. retrieved october 1, 2019 from ` https://theconversation.com/if-germany-atoned-for-the-holocaust-the-us-can-payreparations-for-slavery-119505 southern poverty law center. (2018). teaching hard history: american slavery. retrieved october 4, 2019 from: https://www.splcenter.org/sites/default/files/tt_hard_history_american_slavery.pdf https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2018/02/04/582468315/why-schools-fail-to-teach slavery’s-hard-history weingast, b.r. (2015). adam smith's theory of the persistence of slavery and its abolition in western europe. retrieved april 14, 2020 from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315450839_adam_smith's_theory_of_the_per sistence_of_slavery_and_its_abolition_in_western_europe williams, w. (2019). the arguments against reparations for slavery. retrieved april 14, 2020 from: https://www.godanriver.com/opinion/columnists/williams_walter/the-argument-againstreparations-for-slavery/article_97de2e77-d906-5d46-aff8-cc8606203f7b.html united states census bureau. (2019). historical poverty tables: people and families 1959 to 2018, table 2. retrieved october 23, 2019 from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-povertypeople.html younis, m. (2019). as redress for slavery, americans oppose cash reparations. retrieved october 23, 2019 from https://news.gallup.com/poll/261722/redress-slavery-americans-oppose-cashreparations.aspx https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/17/most-americans-say-the-legacy-of-%20slavery-still-affects-black-people-in-the-u-s-today/ https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/17/most-americans-say-the-legacy-of-%20slavery-still-affects-black-people-in-the-u-s-today/ https://www.realmofhistory.com/2018/06/19/facts-ottoman-janissaries/ http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook_print.cfm?smtid=2&psid=446 https://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news/death-train-will-germany-finally-pay-holocaust-survivors-iasi-n778336 https://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news/death-train-will-germany-finally-pay-holocaust-survivors-iasi-n778336 https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/contextualizing_lgbt_history_within_the_social_studies_curriculum https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/contextualizing_lgbt_history_within_the_social_studies_curriculum http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/c3-framework-for-social-studies.pdf https://theconversation.com/if-germany-atoned-for-the-holocaust-the-us-can-pay-reparations-for-slavery-119505 https://theconversation.com/if-germany-atoned-for-the-holocaust-the-us-can-pay-reparations-for-slavery-119505 https://www.splcenter.org/sites/default/files/tt_hard_history_american_slavery.pdf https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2018/02/04/582468315/why-schools-fail-to-teach-%20slavery's-hard-history https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2018/02/04/582468315/why-schools-fail-to-teach-%20slavery's-hard-history https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315450839_adam_smith's_theory_of_the_persistence_of_slavery_and_its_abolition_in_western_europe https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315450839_adam_smith's_theory_of_the_persistence_of_slavery_and_its_abolition_in_western_europe https://www.godanriver.com/opinion/columnists/williams_walter/the-argument-against-reparations-for-slavery/article_97de2e77-d906-5d46-aff8-cc8606203f7b.html https://www.godanriver.com/opinion/columnists/williams_walter/the-argument-against-reparations-for-slavery/article_97de2e77-d906-5d46-aff8-cc8606203f7b.html https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-poverty-people.html https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-poverty-people.html https://news.gallup.com/poll/261722/redress-slavery-americans-oppose-cash-reparations.aspx https://news.gallup.com/poll/261722/redress-slavery-americans-oppose-cash-reparations.aspx article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (4),153-175 153 investigating the learning outcomes of an inqf-based english language teaching curriculum in indonesia imroatus solikhah1 & teguh budiharso2 abstract this study revisits the structure of an english language teaching (elt) curriculum for an undergraduate program based on the indonesian national qualification framework (inqf). we investigated whether learning outcomes in elt programs are effectively translated into the inqf. this study applied content analysis and grounded theory in its data analysis. as primary data sources, we used curriculum documents that were obtained online and conducted interviews with 60 respondents. the learning outcomes developed by the elt association, meanwhile, acted as secondary data. we found that the learning outcomes described in elt curriculums are somewhat confused, and some revitalization is needed to make them effective. the matrix approach to developing a curriculum has made learning outcomes unfocused, while clusters of course groups remain undeveloped. the classification of learning outcomes is also not defined, and the course requirement of 144 credits is not distributed evenly through skill categories, semesters, and learning outcomes. this study is limited in that a relatively low number of respondents were recruited, implying that future research is needed with a wider range of participants if we are to use a course group matrix to revitalize their program learning outcomes, as well as their course and unit learning outcomes. keywords: learning outcomes, kkni, competence, english language program introduction the current focus of higher education curriculum reform in indonesia is set on a proper formulation of the learning outcomes in adapting backward curriculum design and embedding the national qualification framework into the expected outcomes. in the formulation process, however, the backward model should adhere to the national standard as its basis for curriculum development and consider a wide range of factors from the geographic region to the possible implementation of innovative technologies (korotchenko et al., 2015; tadeu, fernandez batanero & tarman, 2019). 1dr. state islamic institute (iain) of surakarta, indonesia; email: iimqueenoslo@gmail.com 2prof. dr. mulawarman university, samarinda, indonesia; email: proteguh@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 this study reviews the learning outcomes of an english language teaching (elt) curriculum based on the inqf (the indonesian national qualification framework or kerangka kualifikasi nasional indonesia [kkni] in indonesian). indonesia’s ministry of higher education, research and technology (kemenristekdikti, 2012) introduced the kkni/inqf in 2012, and efforts to develop an inqf-based curriculum continue. however, there are various inconsistencies in the development and implementation of an inqf curriculum. a review of the literature indicates that curriculum reform for higher education in indonesia has transformed the content-based curriculum (ministry of national education, kemendiknas, 2000, 2002) into a competence-based curriculum (kemenristekdikti, 2006, 2012). this shift in the curriculum model essentially affects how curriculums are developed, as well as how their organization and contents are devised. from the perspective of elt in indonesia, issues pertaining to clustering of courses, the core curriculum, and the skills covered in each course’s scope and qualification framework need to be urgently address, but the implementation varies from one university to another (budiharso, 2018). the ministry demands that higher education institutions introduce the inqf into their entire higher curriculum planning and reform, however, so they will become inqf-based curriculums. unfortunately, we see there is a mismatched conceptualization for the new curriculum policy. first, learning outcomes are defined in a rather vague way. for example, they are defined as “learning attainment” (kemenristekdikti, 2012), “competence,” and “learning achievement” (kemenristekdikti, 2015). even the term “inqf curriculum” is debatable, because in the kemenristekdikti guidelines (endrotomo, 2014), it states that the inqf is an achievement criterion, so it is inappropriate to refer to the inqf as a “curriculum.” that said, a curriculum may refer to the inqf (kemenristekdikti, 2015). we can argue that the different views in the reference guidelines for the development of an inqf curriculum, as officially issued by the government, still contain ambiguous content. second, conceptually speaking, the government suggests that inqf curriculum development is conducted over four steps: formulating learning outcomes, developing material, determining course content and weighting course credit, and distributing courses over curriculum documents (kemenristekdikti, 2015). this approach simply reflects the concept of backward curriculum design (wiggins & mctighe, 2005) in a different way. this process is generally acceptable, but problems arise when a matrix approach for the learning outcomes of all subjects needs to be solikhah & budiharso. defined in the first step (solikhah, 2015), with classifications being made based on similarities in the learning outcomes arranged in the matrix approach (budiharso, 2018). third, in the implementation stage, each curriculum developer uses his own style, resulting in confused concepts and internal quality assurance in each university. in addition, the national accreditation agency that supervises curriculum implementation applies different measurements for inqf-based curriculum practices. thus, investigating an inqf-based curriculum can help enhance its organization and establish in greater detail how an inqf-based curriculum for elt in indonesia can be strengthened. this will also contribute to theoretical perspectives concerning elt as a foreign language, as well as its practice. as korotchenko et al. (2015) assert, learning a foreign language as an academic subject has great potential in terms of education, development, and communication goals, thus potentially revitalizing the learning outcomes of an inqf-based elt curriculum in indonesia. research questions drawing on the background problems in developing an inqf curriculum, the questions we sought to answer were: 1) how does the structure of an inqf-based curriculum for undergraduate elt programs need to be revitalized? 2) how does the formulation of learning outcomes relate to an inqf-based curriculum as a reference standard for elt programs in indonesia? literature review backward curriculum design wiggins and mctighe (1998) introduced backward curriculum design. it begins with a considered statement of the expected results or outcomes to ensure that appropriate teaching activities and content result in effective learning (richrads, 2013). in this backward design, the curriculum assumes an overall idea that encompasses the major knowledge structures in a subject area, and there is a great emphasis on assessment. in this backward curriculum design process, assessment assumes a high status where teachers are seen as “assessors” rather than “developers” (wiggins & mctighe, 1998, p. 10). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 backward curriculum involves three stages: (1) identifying desired outcomes, (2) determining acceptable assessment evidence, and (3) crafting the learning plan experience (wiggins and mctighe, 1998). identifying the desired outcomes begins by formulating the program outcomes and determining the skills that students should acquire over the course (wiggins & mctighe, 2005). the program’s content should adhere to the standard requirements for desired outcomes as laid down by the government, as well as meet the needs of university, industry, and other stakeholders (korotchenko et al., 2015). to determine acceptable assessment evidence, the developer takes the desired outcomes that students should achieve and what evidence of this should be shown (wiggins & mctighe, 2005). this implies that when planning a curriculum, it is more important to think about assessing learning outcomes than speculating on the number of units and topics for students to study (dinh, 2019; etherington, 2019; korotchenko et al., 2015; vu, 2019). finally, the learning experience is developed through basic instructional activities and areas of focus in accordance with the expected learning outcomes, quality monitoring, and the learning outcome assessment system. in principle, backward design relies on the fact that instructional methods, the sequence of lessons, and resource materials should only be defined once the final learning outcomes, quality monitoring, and learning outcome assessment system have been identified (korotchenko et al., 2015). the curriculum developer determines the essential knowledge (i.e., facts, idea, and laws) and skills (i.e., processes, procedures, and strategies) that students need to acquire as their final learning outcomes. so, what should be taught, and what are the best instructional activities with regards to the established goals? which instructional materials and resources should be employed to accomplish the goals (wiggins & mctighe, 2005; parker, 2019). the development approach for an inqf-based curriculum kemenristekdikti (2015) defines learning outcomes as achievements that are obtained by internalizing knowledge, attitudes, skills, competencies, and accumulated work experience. a learning outcome is a way of measuring what a person gains from a learning process, whether it is structured or unstructured. the formulation of learning outcomes is classified into four elements: attitudes and values, work ability, mastery of knowledge, and authority and responsibility. solikhah & budiharso. the formulation of graduates’ learning outcomes, as stated in the skl (graduate competency standards), is defined through three elements: attitudes, knowledge, and skills. skills comprise general and specific skills (kemenristekdikti, 2015). for undergraduate programs that are categorized as level-6 kkni, kkni uses the following keywords: keywords for job competence: application, study, design, utilize science and technology, solve problems. keywords for knowledge management: this involves mastering the theoretical concepts for certain fields of knowledge and skills in general, as well as the theoretical concepts of specific sections in the field of knowledge and in-depth skills (kemenristekdikti, 2015, pp.7–9). kemenristekdikti (2015) also explains that in general, learning outcomes function as follows: • curriculum components and indicators of quality graduates; • the characteristics of study program specifications; • the magnitude of the qualification level; • referrals for curriculum evaluation; • referrals for the recognition of equality; • the comparative achievement of education levels; and • the main descriptions in the skpi (certificate of companion). now, what is lacking in the instructions for kemenristekdikti’s (2015) learning outcomes presented above? the answers are twofold. basically, the formulation of learning outcomes in an inqf-based curriculum comprise graduate learning outcomes and course learning outcomes, but the focus is more directed at graduate learning outcomes. these four learning outcomes equate to institution/university learning outcomes (ilos), study program learning outcomes (plos), course learning outcomes (clos), and unit learning outcomes (ulos). thus, the learning outcomes that serve as benchmarks for quality are the plos and clos (beaumont, 2005). evidently, the matrixbased learning outcomes suggested by kemenristekdikti (2015) complicate the preparation process, and it overlaps and lacks direction for two reasons. 1) a maximum of 144 credits must be completed at the undergraduate level (ministry of national education, kemendiknas, 2000, 2002; kemenristekdikti, 2012, 2015). simply put, if every course awards two credits, there will be 72 courses, so the problem lies in creating a matrix for a list of 72 subjects in one series. this is not a problem that can be easily defined, however. besides being inefficient, the principles of taxonomic analysis and domains do not apply here. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 2) the process of selecting and sorting a curriculum that requires adoption, adaptation, and diversification suggests that the compiler should benchmark, observe, review, and select other institutional curricula as inputs when selecting materials (budiharso, 2018; parlindungan, rifai, & satriani, 2018). with this mindset, curriculum developers take several steps in the curriculum-evaluation process: • identify the types of courses that already exist and select courses to be taken. • establish groups of subjects according to the field’s structure, such as literacy courses, linguistic knowledge, knowledge and teaching skills, curriculum, evaluation, and managerial and scientific development. • make groupings through taxonomic techniques and domains for all allied or similar subjects. • develop learning outcomes for each subject and develop learning outcomes for cognate subjects. arguably, the inconsistency of the terms contributes to unproductive practices. the development of the inqf-based curriculum was expected to inject fresh blood into the higher education by improving quality control through both internal quality assurance and quality control management. however, the following happened instead: when the ban-pt assessors visited and assessed study programs for the accreditation process, the issue of having an inqf-based curriculum was never mentioned at all. their assessment tool also does not specifically capture how an inqf-based curriculum is implemented (solikhah, 2015). another aspect pertains to “a misunderstanding” when translating an inqf-based curriculum that has been developed autonomously by a study program or institution. various evidences exemplify such cases. for example, a certain university intentionally eliminated its language science courses and replaced them with teaching courses (canada college, 2017). the faculty members apparently held the flawed belief that the department’s elt program would be more rigorous if it dedicated more credits to teaching. another example emerges when a professional teacher-development program is perceived as no longer needing courses for teaching practices, resulting in them being abolished. other detrimental perceptions also arise, such as translation, literature, pragmatics, and discourse analysis courses belonging to the literature department because the elt faculty is not deemed competent enough. in the field of thesis research, the elt program faculty is solikhah & budiharso. underestimated due to a belief that it is only capable in teaching fields and lacks the competences needed to conduct research in literary, translation, discourse, and pragmatic matters. learning outcomes formulation for learning outcomes to be formulated and graded, beaumont (2005) asserts that their development should not be separated from course design and program evaluation. guilbert (1987) describes the process of preparing learning outcomes through four steps:  the formulation of learning outcomes;  assessment and evaluation planning;  planning and implementing the education program; and  assessment and evaluation. good learning outcomes must meet the smart criteria (beaumont, 2005), which stands for specific (i.e., using action verbs that are unambiguous), measurable, achievable (i.e., students can realistically achieve these targets), relevant (i.e., related to the general objectives of learning), and timed (i.e., it is clear when these outcomes should be achieved). furthermore, guilbert (1987) classifies learning outcomes into three categories: • cognitive (i.e., knowledge that must be mastered); • psychomotor skills (i.e., practical skills that can be developed); and • affective (i.e., a temperament that can be controlled). according to guilbert (1987), each domain in learning outcomes comprises a number of levels called taxonomies, with each level showing the level of difficulty that exists in each domain. bloom (1956) formulates six taxonomies for learning, namely knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. reece and walker (1997) suggest that learning outcomes be arranged into four levels: (i) knowledge (i.e., learning and remembering facts), (ii) comprehension (i.e., interpreting or summarizing the provided information), (iii) application (i.e., using information to solve problems), and (iv) invention (i.e., comparing, contrasting, analyzing, and deciding). guilbert (1987), meanwhile, suggests three levels: the recall of data, the interpretation of data, and problem solving. in addition, learning outcomes are developed through five stages: determining the initial step, arranging templates, developing learning outcomes, making a schedule, and conducting a review. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 saxton (1989) suggests that a curriculum compiler should initially refer to the contents of the traditional syllabus and develop learning outcomes based on the materials. newble and cannon (1994), meanwhile, propose the use of learning goals. alternatively, learning outcomes can be developed at an early stage by referring to the objectives of the course, which are then broken down to produce learning outcomes. to make the learning outcomes easily understandable, newble and canon (1994) suggest the template below. as a result of students participating in ……………………., they will be able to …………………………… the next stage, according to newble and canon (1994), is to arrange the actual learning outcomes by considering the selection of appropriate action verbs, the level of learning outcomes, the number of learning outcomes, and the time assigned to achieve the learning outcomes before reviewing the students’ progress. in practice, newble and canon (1994) suggest that when compiling learning outcomes, a curriculum developer can do the following: • focus on fewer high-priority learning outcomes. • arrange learning outcomes into broad categories. • make specific outcomes as clear and focused as possible. in addition, canada college (2017) propose a template for the preparation of learning outcomes, as shown in figure 1. how to get started writing learning outcomes 1. begin by developing a department/service area mission statement. make sure your mission supports or advances the broader college mission and is consistent with the college’s espoused values. 2. ask yourself: what are the most important things a student should know, be able to do or demonstrate after completing my program or from utilizing my office/services? 3. make a list of these and try to write them as slo statements using the examples and hints provided below. relate them to the college’s strategic plan and action plan. 4. edit and review – refer to “how do you fix a student learning outcome?” on page 3 of this handout, paying careful attention to the verbs used in your slos. 5. meet with the college research office (which is all too eager to meet with you) to validate and, if necessary, refine the slo into an authentic & useful assessment tool. figure 1. template for developing learning outcomes (canada college, 2017) http://www.canadacollege.edu/inside/strategicplanning/docs/mission-statement-3-15-07.pdf http://www.canadacollege.edu/inside/strategicplanning/docs/value-phrases-6-20-07.pdf http://www.canadacollege.edu/inside/strategicplanning/strategic-plan-final.pdf http://www.canadacollege.edu/inside/strategicplanning/strategic-plan-final.pdf http://www.canadacollege.edu/inside/strategicplanning/strategic-plan-final.pdf solikhah & budiharso. learning outcomes should not be so general that they are difficult to evaluate. the examples in figure 2 are quoted from the canada college (2017) template, and they exemplify learning outcomes that are difficult or easy to evaluate. too general and very hard to measure… 1. …will appreciate the benefits of exercise. 2. …will be able to access resources at the canada college. 3. …will develop problem-solving and conflict-resolution skills. 4. …will be able to have more confidence in their abilities. still general and hard to measure… 1. …will value exercise as a stress-reduction tool. 2. …will be able to develop and apply effective problem-solving skills that would enable one to adequately navigate through the proper resources within the college. 3. …will demonstrate ability to resolve personal conflicts and assist others in resolving conflicts. 4. …will demonstrate critical thinking skills, such as problem solving as it relates to social issues. specific and relatively easy to measure… 1. …will be able to explain how exercise affects stress. 2. …will be able to identify the most appropriate resource that is pertinent to their college concern. 3. …will be able to assist classmates in resolving conflicts by helping them negotiate agreements. 4. …will demonstrate the ability to analyze and respond to arguments about racial discrimination. figure 2. sample learning outcomes student learning outcomes are embedded within the clos, plos, and ilos (larsen, 2011). ilos are developed based on a university’s vision, mission, and general objectives, which typically reflect scientific achievements and certain academic values. they contain the achievements of all learning programs/levels being managed by the institution. plos, meanwhile, show the achievement of a program within a certain level, such as a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral program. the plos therefore embody the achievements that students must attain at a certain degree level. as larsen (2011) explains, plos include knowledge of the prerequisites that together form a scientific discipline, the values of a scientific professional, critical and logical thinking skills, communication skills, critical decision-making abilities, and special abilities in the field of expertise. clos, meanwhile, comprise the achievements for one subject or groups of similar or related subjects. achievements can be formulated in the form of overall achievements for the subject or group of subjects and the achievements of a unit or lesson in a course. the following example is quoted from larsen’s explanation (2011) when distinguishing between ilos, plos, and clos. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 institutional outcomes a university establishes a general vision and mission to guide its operations. in addition, a university also builds a family of knowledge that acts as the mainstay of its university program. it has the general goal of educating students, so they will gain critical thinking skills, be highly ethical, understand the value of globalization, and become masters of information literacy (larsen, 2011). for this reason, larsen (2011) exemplifies the ilos shown below. in completing their programs, graduates will be able to:  engage in purposeful reasoning to reach sound conclusions (critical thinking);  demonstrate the ability to make informed decisions based on ethical principles and reasoning (ethics);  exhibit a sense of social, cultural, and global responsibility (global awareness); and  demonstrate the ability to find, evaluate, organize, and use information (information literacy). furthermore, the university formulates achievements in the field of science as follows: natural sciences: demonstrate comprehension of fundamental concepts, principles, or processes about the natural world. mathematics: demonstrate an understanding of mathematical concepts to solve realworld problems. program outcomes program outcomes are broader than course outcomes and focus on the outcomes that represent a program’s mission (larsen, 2011). example plos include: our graduates will: 1. have the knowledge required to be successful in their fields; 2. have the skills needed to be able to function successfully in their fields; 3. be able to analyze problems in their fields and develop solutions or strategies to solve those problems; 4. be able to communicate effectively; 5. be able to apply the discipline’s code of ethics when making decisions; and 6. be able to design experiments and analyze data. solikhah & budiharso. course outcomes course outcomes are achievements for certain courses or groups of similar or cognate subjects. these achievements can be formulated to guide the share of each unit for all courses or groups of courses. course outcome formulation relates to the use of audience, behavior, condition, and degree (abcd) formulas (larsen, 2011; aorola, 1985). in addition, these achievements are measured through responses that can be observed when targets reach threshold values (canada college, 2017). for example, a lecturer may set a target where his students on a research course will be able to compile research proposals in accordance with the lesson plan and the assessment rubric at a 75% level of compliance. if the target of 75% is not achieved, a 70% level must be attained at the very least. examples clos—quoted from newble and canon (1994), larsen (2011), and canada college (2017)—are given below. by completing this course, students will be able to: 1. demonstrate an inferential statistic to test the effect of vocabulary size on reading comprehension up to 90% (unit outcome); 2. explain the procedures for using quantitative and qualitative approaches in language teaching research at 80% (course outcome); and 3. apply teaching methods, evaluate the outcomes, and design teaching materials appropriate to the students’ needs at 80% (course group). methods this research is a qualitative study using content analysis (holsti, 1952) and applying grounded theory (straus & corbin, 1996) for its data analysis. the main data for this study were the curriculum documents of elt programs in indonesia (which were available online), written curriculum documents from five universities in central java, and the online curricula of various foreign universities. the documents for the curriculum dissemination issued by kemenristekdikti (2012, 2015, 2016) were also reviewed as secondary data sources. some 60 participants were involved in this study, including 50 english lecturers who were members of the study program association, 5 deans, and 5 assessors. participants took part in in-depth interviews about the contents of an inqf-based curriculum, basic preparation, the accuracy of content, the formulation of objectives, learning outcomes, constraints, and processes to overcome obstacles in the development of an inqf-based curriculum. the contents of the documents were sorted taxonomically based on their themes according to a thematic analysis (cresswell, 2007; miles & huberman, 1994). furthermore, the results of the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 study were analyzed using a grounded theory analysis framework, namely open coding, axial coding, and the theoretical perspective. open coding examined all data that were obtained from content analysis, and the interview results were coded openly. this process makes it easy for researchers to identify the types of data and their categories. in axial coding, the researchers conducted a study of the data that was previously coded. the results of this analysis included a general classification of data types, with each datum being grouped into the appropriate domain. through this technique, the researcher obtained a description of the features of an inqf-based curriculum and its problems. at the theoretical perspective stage, the researcher incorporated the learning outcomes, the inqf-based curriculum, the description of courses, and other related matters into the theoretical framework. the theory was then tested with data and formulated into a theory statement. findings and discussion revisiting the elt curriculum the inqf-based elt curriculum structure requires revitalization, because variations manifest here and there, and there are discrepancies in the competences of curriculum developers and institutions. from an interview with the assessors on may 5, 2018, a striking difference when formulating the curriculum structure revealed how some curriculum developers are less competent. indeed, their course structures do not demonstrate how well their study programs guarantee their graduates the same achievements as the level 6 inqf. as a result, study program heads dislike courses that are deemed hard to handle, so they replace them with their preferred courses without considering quality standards (from the interviews with faculty officials on june 23, 2018). because of this, there is a less positive perception of some subjects. for example, the teaching practice course (ppl) is omitted, while teaching subjects are increased at the expense of scientific subjects that are deemed “less preferable” (from an interview with a head of study program). if a revitalization is to be carried out, it is suggested that it cover the following areas: 1) the 144 credits, as a maximum graduate requirement, can be achieved in seven semesters. students are allowed to finish their studies in seven semesters based on a formal document that is in line with the content standards of higher education and an inqf-based curriculum. 2) establish courses in groups of academic concern that have similar domains to facilitate the formulation of subject learning outcomes, the proposal of literacy courses, linguistic knowledge, teaching, evaluation and the curriculum, learning methods, and research. solikhah & budiharso. 3) formulate standard content of the materials for each subject and subject groups. 4) re-formulate the statements of learning outcomes in stages by dividing learning outcomes based on academic group learning outcomes, course program learning outcomes, and unit learning outcomes. this revitalization has implications for the reform process in the following ways: 1) what will actually be formulated in learning outcomes is competence (kemenristekdikti, 2014). the formula operationally uses verbs from bloom’s taxonomy. the achievements consist of three domains: attitude, knowledge, and performance/skill. there are similarities that are theoretically and practically found in the learning outcomes of foreign universities and those of the inqf. both refer to competence and the measuring of attitude, knowledge, and performance. one difference, however, lays in how the formulation of learning outcomes in the inqf version is vague because of the technique used to prepare the course matrix. 2) the classification of courses in the inqf is mentioned in the competency based curriculum (cbc). the cbc identifies groups of subjects in areas like personality development, scientific subjects, work skills, and community courses. the inqf names them attitude, ability in the field of work, knowledge, and managerial ability. examples grouping models have been well established at the state university of malang. if this grouping is made more specific, this research arrives at the following: a. literacy courses: grammar, vocabulary, listening, speaking, reading, and writing. what literacy means here is the ability to achieve basic competencies in communicating in english at a minimal level. so far, attention to vocabulary mastery is not of particular concern. objectives for mastering 3,000 general word lists in other efl countries are of special concern. in indonesia, however, due to an understanding of a communicative competence that is less focused on vocabulary and grammar, vocabulary courses are eliminated, but no alternative courses are provided that can properly fill that vocabulary void. b. scientific subjects in elt: this covers methods for teaching english, developing curricula, using textbooks, and evaluating, as well as variations like eap (english for academic purposes), teaching english to young learners, and breaking practices. c. linguistic science courses: this includes areas such as translation, general linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, syntax, discourse analysis, and literary understanding and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 appreciation. this subject is the scientific basis of broad language understanding. such courses serve to give a broad understanding of the language while at the same time providing curriculum flexibility vertically and horizontally. vertically, once equipped with language science courses, elt program undergraduates can continue on to higher levels in elt program majors or something other than elt. horizontally, the elt program undergraduates of an institution do not miss out on scientific knowledge when compared to other graduates with other majors in the field of english. on the other hand, flexibility must also provide opportunities for below the undergraduate level, such as in high school, man (senior islamic secondary school), vocational schools, and courses that will progress to elt majors. knowledge, skills, and competencies obtained at the intermediate level will be useful when graduates proceed to an elt program. thus, there are no claims of selfishness that, for example, demand that literary courses belong exclusively to the faculty of literature because only they are competent enough in literature. likewise, in thesis writing, the elt program should not assert that it is the best in the field of education. taken together, this would mean literary majors should not study education. likewise, literature majors should not claim that mastering literature is the only concern of the literature department. d. research and development of scientific works: research-related courses are the most important means for developing research skills. the subject of research methods must absolutely be strengthened in areas like statistics, data analysis, qualitative research, and writing scientific papers and theses. so far, the matrix-based subject development technique poses a complicated problem because the matrix can only be effectively used for courses that are generally known, and grouping related fields is considered as violating the principles of the inqf. substantially, the formulation of matrix-based learning outcomes is indeed still vague because the learning outcomes in question tend to be forced. instead, the learning outcomes should have been formulated as a subject’s learning outcomes rather than a graduate’s. in addition, the courses compiled by learning outcomes differ in the domains in which they should be grouped rather than being “forced” into one domain. solikhah & budiharso. the standardization of learning outcomes formulation the results of this study indicate that there are four types of standard learning outcomes, namely institutions, programs, courses, and graduates. however, the inqf tends to emphasize the graduate learning outcomes. the results also found that the learning outcomes of courses received less attention because the preparation process was carried out in “bulk” through a matrix, and there was “pressure” for allied subjects or similar contents to be put together within a portion of the study area. this study proves that there have been difficulties in integrating the inqf curriculum guidelines, namely in that administrators must translate the meaning of learning outcomes as competencies, attitudes, and knowledge into indicators whose concepts can potentially be misinterpreted. templates for the attitude aspect help the general formulation, but on the other hand, they also restrict the creative process. the results of the learning outcomes analysis of the inqf template are exemplified in a sample to show that the learning outcomes in the general knowledge and special knowledge template indicates plos or ilos, so the formulation of clos and ulos is required. 1# cp program 1 general knowledge, template no. 1 “mastering the theoretical concepts of the language and techniques of oral communication and general writing (general english) in the daily/general, academic, and occupational contexts equivalent to the post-intermediate level.” (cp 75 english study documents, unpublished) 2# cp template special knowledge for s1 program no. 5 “planning, implementing, managing, evaluating, learning, and improving methods and the process of learning english as a foreign language in accordance with the characteristics and needs of students and stakeholders according to process and quality standards.” (cp 75 english study documents, unpublished) if measured using the learning outcomes criteria, cp 1# and 2# show formulations that are too general, vague, and difficult to measure. the main aim of a cp is that it must be capable of being measured and demonstrated. for cp 1# and 2#, this can be demonstrated, yet it is difficult to measure. evidently, these two cps are examples of ilos or plos. to be useful, both cps must be reduced to something more specific, demonstrable, and measurable. the use of verbs like “master” and lists like “planning, implementing, managing, evaluating, learning…” indicates that the actions are broadly defined and difficult to measure. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 the standardized learning outcomes of a group of courses are set out in table 1, while a summary of the revitalized learning outcomes is presented in table 2. table 1. suggested learning outcomes based on course groups no course group courses suggested lo a english literacy 1. vocabulary 1. demonstrate english mastery with a 4,000 2. grammar word vocabulary and appropriate grammar 3. pronunciation for oral and written communication up to 4. listening advanced level 5. speaking 2. demonstrate mastery of academic 6. reading english verbally and in writing 7. writing for formal and informal purposes. 8. journal article writing b language contents 1. introduction to linguistics 1. explain scientific concepts of language 2. syntax and their application in reviewing linguistic 3. phonology problems. 4. semantics 2. apply the results of a theoretical 5. pragmatics analysis of linguistics to a context related 6. sociolinguistics to literature, translation, social interaction, 7. discourse analysis and academic goals. 8. literature 9. translation 10. eap c language teaching 1. tefl 1. explain the concept of methods of design 2. teaching methodology for language learning, the development of 3. classroom management teaching materials, choosing methods, 4. e-learning & teaching methods and learning and practice in the classroom. 5. language curriculum 2. demonstrate competence to teach 6. materials development english in the classroom and community 7. assessment and testing contexts using technology, information-based 8. instructional design learning and appropriate managerial 9. apprenticeships principles. 10. micro-teaching 11. ppl 12. community outreach program (kkn) in teaching d research 1. quantitative research in language teaching 1. implement procedures and processes of scientific work logically using qualitative 2. qualitative research in language teaching and quantitative approaches. 3. data analysis in qualitative & quantitative research 2. compile written reports and communicate the results of the study 4. research proposal verbally and in writing in the academic 5. proposal seminar forum. 6. undergraduate thesis solikhah & budiharso. table 2. proposed plos for an elt curriculum for an undergraduate program no course group suggested lo a english literacy 1. demonstrate english mastery with a 4,000-word vocabulary and appropriate grammar for oral and written communication up to advanced level. 2. demonstrate mastery of academic english verbally and in writing for formal and informal purposes. b language contents 1. explain the scientific concepts of language and their application in reviewing linguistic problems. 2. apply the results of a theoretical analysis of linguistics into various contexts related to teaching and learning, literature, translation, social interaction, and academic purposes. c language teaching 1. explain the concepts of teaching methods in language teaching, the development of teaching materials, teaching methods selection, instructional design, and practice in the classroom. 2. demonstrate english teaching competences for teaching in the classroom and society using technology, information-based approaches, and the appropriate managerial principles d research 1. apply procedures and scientific processes logically using quantitative and qualitative approaches. 2. develop written reports correctly and communicate the results of a research verbally and in writing in an academic forum. cp, vision/mission, general purpose, and learning objectives the findings of this study also show how respondents respond to developing learning outcomes and the factors underlying the background. a good learning outcome is able to help better understand how to help students learn and provide feedback, so that institutions can take steps to enable students to explain what they have learned from an institution, both inside and outside the classroom. if students can explain what they can do and what they know, it helps them to identify what they specifically need to focus on learning, whether it be knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values. the second cp formulation has therefore not met the criteria for a good cp formula. when questioned about the learning outcome drafting process and its relation to vision, mission, and objectives, the respondents stated that they did not know, so they wrote the cp following an existing example. operationally, there are five stages for formulating a cp, namely referring to the vision and mission of the institution, setting the most important targets that should be learned and later demonstrated by students, making a cp statement list along with examples, editing and reviewing cp statements, and discussing statements with the quality assurance department or other related institutions. according to the respondents, they were unaware of the five steps, so they had worked on none of them. what they did know is that a cp shows the expected learning outcomes, but when it came to how the process is formulated, they said they did not know about this. the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 respondents also said that they knew the prescribed operational verbs to use, yet they did not know that each verb must be demonstrated as a learning outcome by students and must be measurable. learning outcomes can be developed based on four sources: government, universities, study programs, and courses. when asked about the four learning outcome sources, respondents claimed to understand them, but they found it difficult to distinguish how the formulation of learning outcomes corresponded to each source. according to the respondents, the relationship between learning outcomes must show a relationship between the mission, goals, learning outcomes, and learning objectives that is difficult to distinguish. when explaining the meaning of each term, one respondent said that he knew but it was not clear. the mission is a holistic vision of the values and philosophy of an institution, program, or department. the purpose, broadly put, is to create a general statement about the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students are expected to master. the outcome is clearly an operational definition specifically formulated for that purpose. outcomes are student oriented. the learning objectives are the learning strategies expected from learning opportunities, which is teacher-centered. when asked whether the learning outcomes they formulated helped support the learning objectives and clearly showed the aspects to be measured—including attitudes, knowledge and skills—the respondents generally answered hesitantly. for the respondents, learning outcomes are a statement about the competence of graduates, but how can such statements support their learning objectives? as for describing the knowledge, attitudes, and skills, the respondents answered that they quoted from the kkni curriculum guidelines. framework for formulating learning outcomes a standardized formulation of learning outcomes was agreed unanimously by all respondents, with them mentioning some points to be revisited and reformulated. the respondents’ comments included: • creating a template for formulating statements of learning outcomes; • choosing operational verbs with an emphasis on words like remembering, explaining, evaluating, and formulating; • making groupings according to the following groups: literacy, teaching science, language science, and research; • developing knowledge and competencies that must be mastered in each group of subjects; solikhah & budiharso. • spreading the 144 credits over seven semesters. • developing a thesis guidance model, trial examinations, and thesis examination stages; • supporting each other by exchanging articles that will be published in scientific journals in each institution, either from a thesis or an original paper; • creating an inventory of the names and types of courses needed to obtain 146 credits; • formulating models for institutional learning outcomes, subject learning outcomes, and the gradual learning outcomes of graduates; • encouraging the head of each study program to use these models in an efficient manner together with the formulation of standard competency courses; • incorporating technology-based teaching materials into each learning activity and each subject using gadgets, such as android devices; and • using technology-based, blended-learning in learning, assignment, and assessment. conclusion and implications the objective of this study is to examine the formulation of learning outcomes in an inqf-based elt curriculum for undergraduate students, with particular reference to learning outcome statements for elt programs in indonesia. in brief, this study found that in general, a revitalization of the formulation for an inqf-based elt curriculum is urgently needed. typically, the matrix approach to developing learning outcomes is disorganized and results in learning outcomes that are unfocused, overly general, and missing the expected professional outcomes of elt programs. the existing learning outcomes are plos, so definite learning outcomes that indicate clos and ulos are urgently required. the formulation of content for an elt curriculum lacks flexibility and vertical and horizontal continuity. vertically, the curriculums do not identify how the knowledge of high school graduates (or equivalent) can be accommodated in an elt program. indeed, the contents of these elt curricula are still so diverse that continuity with graduate and postgraduate programs is even less effective. horizontally, these elt curricula do not yet have a clear linkage when they are associated with a literature major, a certified undergraduate program, an overseas eap program, or an international curriculum for elt. in particular, this study revealed a wide diversification in elt study programs throughout indonesia, such as differences in the number of credits, the types of courses, the quality of the formulation of learning outcomes, the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 differences that require understanding to compile grouping guidelines, and the re-forming of the subject learning outcomes. this study is limited in terms of the number of respondents and their distribution. considering this limitation, the researcher suggests the following theoretical and practical implications. theoretically speaking, this study finds that the concept of learning outcomes, as issued by kemenristekdikti, needs changing. learning outcomes should definitely be developed in adherence with ilos, plos, clos, and ulos, with this being a top priority. the definition of learning achievement derives from the term “learning outcomes,” and this is actually a scientific umbrella for the learning outcomes themselves, so it does not need to be forced into something different. practical implications, meanwhile, relate to the method of developing matrix-based learning outcomes. this method proves difficult, and it even “misleads” curriculum developers, because they become stuck in a matrix configuration that forces several courses to be integrated. a middle way could be found where a matrix can still be created, but courses could be grouped according to a general taxonomy. for elt programs, the following taxonomic groups are recommended: literacy, teaching science, language science, and research. with this concept, elt program management associations need to develop a new formula for defining learning outcomes for ilos, plos, clos, and ulos. ilos and plos could be achieved in the form of templates. in addition, the formulations that need to be emphasized are clos and ulos. management associations also need to formulate guidelines for determining types of courses, competency standards, and assessment processes that can be applied throughout indonesia, all while respecting the possibility for certain study programs to offer different courses while still adhering to the formulation guidelines. in addition, it is suggested that further research look at a larger number of respondents with heterogeneous backgrounds. it is also suggested to involve students and other stakeholders, such as teachers and school administrators. solikhah & budiharso. references beaumont, r. (2005). learning outcomes: a practical guide. newcastle: university of newcastle. budiharso, t. (2017). developing prompts of argumentative essay writing for efl college students. ijotl-tl, 2(3), 227–244. budiharso, t. (2018). pembelajaran menulis esai dalam disertasi: kajian metakognitif. cendekia, 12(2), 141–152. canada college. (2017). a guide to developing measurable students learning outcomes. toronto: office of planning, research and student service. course, program, institution: connecting learning outcomes. (2017). retrieved from http://www.studentlife.utoronto.ca/bts/learning-outcomes on july 23, 2018. cresswell, j. w. (2007). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. (2nd ed.). thousand oaks: sage publication. dinh, h. (2019). towards a knowledge-rich curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 54-70. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/6 endrotomo. (2014). pengembangan kurikulum pendidikan tinggi mengacu pada kkni dan sn dikti. jakarta: direktorat pembelajaran dan kemahasiswaan. etherington, m. (2019). the challenge with educational transformation. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 96-112. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/33 guilbert, j.j. (1987). educational handbook for health personnel. geneva: who. holsti, o. r. (1969). content analysis for the social sciences and humanities. reading, mass.: addison-wesley publishing company. larsen, r.w. (2011). developing program learning outcomes. thousand oaks: prentice hall inc. ministry of national education (kepmendiknas). (2002). pedoman penyusunan kurikulum pendidikan tinggi dan penilaian hasil belajar mahasiswa. dirjen dikti. kemenristekdikti. (2012). kurikuum pendidikan tinggi: pendekatan kurikulum berbasis kompetensi dan kurikulum berbasis capaian. jakarta: belmawa dikti. kemenristekdikti. (2015). paradigma capaian pembelajaran. jakarta: belmawa dikti. http://www.studentlife.utoronto.ca/bts/learning-outcomes%20on%20july%2023 https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/6 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/33 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 153-175 korotchenko, tatiana; matveenko, a iriana; strelnikova, b, anna & phillips, chris. (2015). backward design method in foreign language development curriculum. procediasocial and behaviorial sciences 215, 213-217. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.624 miles & huberman. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sources. new jersey: francis bacon inc. kemenristekdikti. (2016). panduan penyusunan kurikulum pendidikan tinggi. jakarta: dirjen belmawa. newble d & cannon r. (1994). a handbook for medical teacher. kluwer: dordrecht. parker, j. (2019). second language learning and cultural identity. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 33-42. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/7 parlindungan, f., rifai, i., & satriani, a. (2018). the representation of indonesian cultural diversity in middle school english textbooks. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 8, 289–302. reece, i. & spencer w. (1997). teaching, training and learning a practical guide. sunderland: business educational publishers. senior college and university commission. (2017). six steps assessment process: student learning outcomes. california: csuf. solikhah, i.. (2015). kkni dalam kurikulum berbasis learning outcomes. lingua, 12(1), 1-22. strauss, a. & corbin j. (1998). basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedures and techniques (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 tim pengembang kurikulum pendidikan tinggi. (2012). modul 2 tahapan penyusunan kurikulum pendidikan tinggi. jakarta: belmawa dikti. vu, t. (2019). theoretical constructs and practical strategies for intercultural communication. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 43-53. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/3 wiggins, g., & mctighe, j. (1998). understanding by design. alexandria, https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/7 https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/3 solikhah & budiharso. va: association for supervision & curriculum development. wiggins, g., & mctighe, j. (2005). understanding by design. alexandria: ascd. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(2), 112-153 © 2015journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 determination of the methods used by prospective teachers in the field of social studies while teaching historical topics sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tarihi konulara ait kazanımların sağlanmasında kullandıkları yöntemlerin belirlenmesi ali yılmaz1& ayşegül kırtel2 abstract acquisitions on history and historical topics constitute an important section of social studies curricula. such acurricula which is prepared on the basis of a constructivist approach should be applied within the light of accurately chosen methods. performing social studies course, one of main objectives of which is to train activecitizens by means of proper methods will ensure historical acquisitions, as presented in the curriculum, to be realized more accurately. as a result of students' acquisitions achieved through the acquisition the application of the proper methods to wards historical topics, it is easy to learn and students will do better bindings with their daily lives. therefore, students will learn historical topics more easily and make better associations with their daily lives. in this study conducted within the light of this purpose, portfolio prepared by social studies teacher training students of sakarya university in the courses of teaching practice were subjected to document analysis. it was found out that prospective teachers did not use the methods and techniques sufficiently as required for an effective social studies course. keywords: social studies, history teacher, method, acquisition. introduction one of the most important functions of educational institutions is to educate child as a good citizen. this function of educational institutions enables child to become socialized and recognize culture, history and institutions of the society in which they live as well as providing them with attitudes required by roles in society, opportunities that society present for them and the ways of benefiting from these opportunities. a great amount of these knowledge and skills are gained for students through social studies course in turkey (erden, n.d.). it has not been easy to define this course which is so significant. social studies is a training program producing purposes suitable for duties of citizens who possess responsibility in turkish democratic society, forming these purposes by associating their contents with history, geography and 1assoc. prof. dr., marmara university, ayilmaz@marmara.edu.tr 2res. asst., sakarya university, aseker@sakarya.edu.tr ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 113 citizenship study topics and presenting citizenship skills lasting throughout their lives (barth and demirtaş, 1997). in the light of social studies definition made around the world, scientists in turkey also made some definitions within the scope of this course. in line with these definitions, we can define social studies as follows: social studies is a training program using and integrating information and methods taken from social and human sciences in order to train citizens that are able to solve problems and make decisions based on knowledge in the circumstances of changing country and world in almost all respects (öztürk, 2006). as it can be inferred from the definitions and explanation above, one of the most important functions of social studies lesson is to raise individuals who can sustain their lives healthily in a society by enabling them to learn civic duty and responsibilities. this function also constitutes a base for the universal objectives of the social studies lesson (öztürk et al., 2012; bilgili, 2009, coşkun keskin, 2012). a new curriculum was put into practice with fundamental changes of the ministry of education for all first phase of primary school in 2005-2006 school year and fractionally second phase program of primary school starting from 2006-2007 school year. new curricula also feature the approach stated as constructivist. in constructivist approach, teachers are expected to use student-centered methods and techniques instead of the traditionally used methods and techniques. following these changes, curricula of 4-5 and 6-7 grades of primary school being applied in order to acquire the goals of social sciences course in turkey are presented. the table below shows the distribution of learning fields and acquisitions in social sciences curriculum by grade levels (mone, 2006). table 1:learning field and acquisition distribution in social sciences curriculum acquisition figures learning fields 4th grade 5th grade 6th grade 7th grade person and society 6 4 6 6 culture and heritage 6 6 9 8 people, places and environments 8 7 7 5 production, distribution and consumption 7 7 6 6 science, technology and society 6 6 5 5 groups, institutions and social organizations 5 5 power, administration and society 4 5 5 5 global connection 4 6 5 4 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 114 within the framework of social sciences education course, and one of most significant features of an active citizen is possessing history knowledge and historical awareness. all of our emotions, thoughts and behaviors rise, develop and take shape in the light of our past experiences whether we are aware of this situation or not. all things forming our present day are the products of our backgrounds and experiences we transfer from past up to today (aslan, 2006). the smell of history is human. and its purpose is to put forth past human effects with scientific methods, enlighten the present day and shape the future (çapa, 2006). undoubtedly, one of the indispensable and most important disciplines of social studies is “history”. we encounter with the discipline of “history” in each topic concerning society (ulusoy and turan, 2013). considering today’s world, an important question seeks for an answer in specific and general terms. which is more difficult: writing history or teaching history? it is understood that the answer of this question is “to teach history” (keskin, 2012). it is aimed at contributing to personality development, socialization and citizenship learning of the students through history training. history training has been regulated in a way that will meet needs of turkish society in terms of sense of citizenship, moral and cultural values. history as part of social studies training program includes significant events of national history in order to make students realize their own national identities, cultural heritages and values of turkish society (dilek, 2002). when the literature is examined, it is seen that the concepts of method and technique are confused with each other. these two concepts may be substituted. a training situation which is dealt with as a method in some sources may be used as a technique in another source (çelikkaya and kuş, 2009). when in social studies education worldwide examined the research on the use of different methods and techniques; it is observed that different methods are used by the researchers in social studies course. studies show that these methods and techniques affect achievements of students positively and may sometimes shape future behaviors of students (kan, 2006). the curriculum of social studies lesson constitutes a rich data source in terms of the methods and teaching and learning trends (wojcik et al., 2013). in the last ten years, quite many researches have been conducted on the methods used in the education of social studies (waring, 2010). we should pay attention to two factors in order to provide an enhanced teaching. these are being expert in the field and possessing competent knowledge about the methods to be used during teaching. teachers take the lead about this issue; because teachers should sufficiently ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 115 know social studies teaching methods and use these methods in accordance with the situation of class and course in order to be able to reach the desired success level. however, one of the important factors teachers should be careful while choosing these methods is individual differences which depend on learning features of students. in this respect, it is important to determine which teaching methods and techniques should be used by social studies teachers in their lessons (çelikkaya and kuş, 2009). the most frequently used methods and techniques in teaching of history subjects constituting the base of social studies are as follows: lecturing method, question-answer method, drama method, trip-observation method, discussion method, problem solving method, group work method (köstüklü, 1998; çelikkaya and kuş, 2009). methods and techniques used in history teaching aim at making past events comprehended, gaining intangible concepts and picturing past experiences in the minds of students whose trails are still alive. planning, practicing and evaluating methods and techniques within this framework in history teaching have specific difficulties (bal, 2011). therefore, methods and techniques to be preferred during teaching possess a particular importance. it is thought that trying to teach students determined targets and behaviors or student acquisitions with convenient methods and techniques may solve the said problems in teaching history subjects (şimsek, 2006). today, which is called as information age, it is needed for individuals possessing multi-qualities and skills. thus, the most significant duty in an age when training human is very important falls to teacher who is the main element of educating process (gençtürk and sarpkaya; 2012). the institution responsible for training teachers who possess these qualifications in our country is faculties of education. faculties of education take on the task of preparing students for the profession of teaching. they try to prepare students to working life by providing them with the necessary information, attitude and behaviors. faculties of education take individuals as students from high schools and train them as teachers for primary, secondary, and high schools. performing these institutions’ functions fully depends on the ability of education process to serve for the purpose of training teachers (yeşil and çalışkan, 2006). faculties of education which train teachers give the lessons of teaching practice i-ii in practice schools in different teaching programs in order to gain professional competence as a pre-service training for prospective teachers.teaching practices course includes the practices performed in public and private schools affiliated to the ministry of national education regarding teaching area of journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 116 prospective teachers in order to provide teaching experiences for prospective teachers (şimşek et al., 2013). prospective teachers form the base of their professional experiences during practices they perform at schools. courses such as teaching experience or practice enable prospective teachers to get more acquainted with the profession of teaching and to make their professional believes and perceptions clearer (tarman, 2012). social studies prospective teachers apply and share in their courses the knowledge they learned during their bachelor’s degree period. in order to raise good citizens intended for the basic objective of 21st century, the socials studies teacher candidates should behave by being aware of their potentials for attaining the objective (russell, 2010). in this line, the aim of this study is to analyze the activities given in application files that were prepared by prospective teachers during teaching application courses and detect the methods that they use during the application of acquisitions related to the date presented in social sciences education curriculum within the framework of learning fields and acquisitions of social sciences course curriculum.in this sense, the purpose of this study is find out the methods used by prospective teachers while applying the practices regarding history which takes place within social studies training program in teaching practice courses. method model of the study document review was used in this study in which it was tried to determine methods and techniques used by prospective teachers of social studies in social studies teacher training program. document review includes the analysis of written materials containing information about phenomenon or facts which are targeted to be reviewed (yıldırım and şimşek, 2008). the documents acquired in this study were subjected to a comprehensive analysis. the qualitative research method is a complicated, variable and controversial field. thus, it is not just a single substance, it is a rather huge umbrella (punch, 2005). that is why the qualitative data may not make much sense. some researchers see the surveys including qualitative data as unproductive (berg, 2001). however, another feature of the qualitative researches is that they enable a significant quantification. thus, quantitative connections can be made in qualitative analyses (mayring, 2000). this study sets a model for the above mentioned situation. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 117 working group the research group is selected with typical situation sampling. this selection of sampling enables the researcher to reach one or a number of data mostly typical to the subject desired to be presented (yıldırım and şimşek, 2008). the typical sampling of the research is composed of the 4th grade students social sciences teaching program in sakarya university faculty of education during fall and spring term of 2013-2014 academic year. the research group consisted of 20 people from 4th grade of social sciences course at sakarya university. prospective teachers prepare files including activities for teaching application course given during undergraduate education each week. this study examines a total of 20 files prepared by 20 social sciences prospective teachers during teaching application courses and 77 activities planned towards acquisitions about historical events. data analysis the data obtained as a result of the research are subjected to content analysis. the basic purpose in that content analysis is to reach such concepts and relations that can explain the collected data (yıldırım and şimşek, 2008). the obtained data were analyzed individually for each of six different learning fields taking place in social sciences education curriculum as presented by mone. frequency analysis was used to analyze the method and usage frequency of techniques towards acquisitions in every learning field.the usage frequency of the methods and techniques applied to the obtained data according to the acquisitions is analyzed via frequency analysis. the frequency analysis presents the usage frequency of the units or elements and concepts. this analysis is useful to reveal the importance and priority of importance of the used elements or concepts (bilgin, 2006). in this context, the methods utilized by the teacher candidates are examined with frequency analysis in terms of the acquisitions of history available in the social studies curriculum. validity and reliability the researcher has to use certain additional measures which can assist in confirming the obtained data and results in order to create a whole picture for the searched case or incident (yıldırım and şimşek, 2008). reporting the collected data in details and explaining how the related results are obtained are ranked among the important criteria of the validity in a research. the credibility of the results of the research is quite important in the qualitative researches as the facts can show differences according to the individuals and the situation in question journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 118 (yıldırım, 2010). for reliability, the formula of reliability = consensus / (consensus + dissension) x 100 is applied on the document analysis made by both two researchers and another field researcher (miles and huberman, 1994). the goodness of fit is calculated as 89% among these three researchers. this rate shows that the reliability is ensured for the data analysis. findings following the assessment on 20 files prepared by social sciences prospective teachers during teaching application i and ii courses within the scope of acquisitions given in social sciences curriculum, it was found that they prepared 77 activities to this end. when 77 activities about historical events were examines, it was seen that prospective teachers prepared activities for 23 acquisitions within 6 learning fields that lay ground for social sciences curriculum. the findings about these activities within the framework of learning fields are presented in titles as follows: methods and techniques used in the framework of culture and heritage learning activities prepared by prospective teachers in the framework of culture and heritage learning were examined and distribution of used methods and techniques according to acquisitions are given in table 2. table2:methods and techniques used in the acquisitions of culture and heritage area methods and techniques used acquisition l ec tu ri ng m et ho d q ue st io na ns w er m et ho d p ro bl em so lv in g m et ho d g ro up w or k m et ho d t ri po bs er va ti on m et ho d d is cu ss io n m et ho d d ra m a they make inference about social and economic amendments by taking the newly founded institutions into consideration after reforms in the ottoman empire. 3 4 1 they exemplify the elements of turkish culture through travel books. 3 3 3 they recognize the interaction of culture, art and esthetic within the framework of ottoman-europe relationships. 1 1 1 they show proves about changes and continuity in the notion of turkish culture, art and esthetic though city review. 5 5 3 they show proves about the importance of notion of tolerance and living together in the ottoman society. 4 4 they explain the factors that affect the rise of ottoman empire as a political power depending on proves. 3 3 3 they make inferences about political, economic and cultural features of central asia first turkish states by benefitting from epics, inscriptions and other documents. 1 1 ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 119 they make inferences about political, economic and cultural features of first turkish-islamic states by benefitting from the lives of statesmen and turkish leaders living in that period. 2 2 they show evidences about the contributions of central asia first turkish states to turkish culture, art and esthetic notion. 1 1 1 they evaluate conquests and combats of the ottoman empire in terms of importance of trade and seas for the ottoman empire. 2 2 2 total 25 26 0 9 0 4 1 when table 1 was examined, it was determined that prospective teachers used 10 acquisitions in the framework of culture and heritage area. it was seen that the most preferred method and technique by prospective teachers was question-answer method (26 prospective teachers). it was observed that after question-answer method, the most preferred method and technique was lecturing method (25 prospective teachers). it was found out that 9 prospective teachers used group work method, 4 prospective teachers used group discussion method and 1 prospective teacher used drama method. on the other hand, it was seen that problem solving method and trip-observation method were not used by the prospective teachers. methods and techniques used in the framework of science, technology and society learning area activities prepared by prospective teachers in the framework of science, technology and society learning were examined and distribution of used methods and techniques according to acquisitions are given in table 3. table 3:methods and techniques used in the acquisitions of science, technology and society learning area methods and techniques used acquisition l ec tu ri ng m et ho d q ue st io na ns w er m et ho d p ro bl em so lv in g m et ho d g ro up w or k m et ho d t ri po bs er va ti on m et ho d d is cu ss io n m et ho d d ra m a they recognize the effect of events happened between 15th and 19 centuries in europe to the formation of today’s scientific accumulation. 8 8 4 1 they associate expressing thoughts in the historical process with scientific developments of scientific freedom. 2 2 they recognize the importance of usage area of writing and conveying information by taking the first manuscript samples into consideration. 1 1 they give examples about the contributions of first civilizations to scientific and technologic developments. 5 5 3 they evaluate the contributions of scholars living in turkishislamic states to scientific development process. 3 3 2 total 19 19 0 7 0 3 0 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 120 when table 3 was examined, it was determined that prospective teachers used 5 acquisitions in the framework of science, technology and society learning area. it was seen that the most preferred method and technique by prospective teachers was question-answer method and lecturing method (19 prospective teachers). it was found out that 7 prospective teachers used group work method and 3 prospective teachers used discussion method. on the other hand, it was seen that problem solving method, drama method and trip-observation method were not used by the prospective teachers. methods and techniques used in the framework of production, consumption and distribution learning area activities prepared by prospective teachers in the framework of production, consumption and distribution learning were examined and distribution of used methods and techniques according to acquisitions are given in table 4. table 4:methods and techniques used in the acquisitions of production, consumption and distribution learning area methods and techniques used acquisition l ec tu ri ng m et ho d q ue st io na ns w er m et ho d p ro bl em so lv in gm et ho d g ro up w or k m et ho d t ri po bs er va ti on m et ho d d is cu ss io n m et ho d d ra m a they evaluate the effects of developments in production technology to social and economic life through giving examples from past and present. 2 3 2 1 they get acquaintance with the institutions performing the duty of finding occupations and providing occupational ethics for turks throughout the history. 8 8 1 2 they give examples of past and present about the activities of foundations and their roles in social life. 3 3 1 1 they give examples of past and present about the importance of resources, products and trade routes in the development of states. 5 5 2 2 total 18 19 0 6 0 2 4 when table 3 was examined, it was determined that prospective teachers used 4 acquisitions in the framework of production, consumption and distribution learning area. it was seen that the most preferred method by prospective teachers was question-answer method (19 prospective teachers). it was observed that after question-answer method, the most preferred method was lecturing method (18 prospective teachers). it was found out that 6 prospective teachers used group work method, 4 prospective teachers used drama method and 2 prospective teachers used discussion method. on the other hand, it was seen that problem solving method and tripobservation method were not used by the prospective teachers. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 121 methods and techniques used in the framework of power, governance and society learning area activities prepared by prospective teachers in the framework of power, governance and society learning were examined and distribution of used methods and techniques according to acquisitions are given in table 5. table 5:methods and techniques used in the acquisitions of power, governance and society learning area methods and techniques used acquisition l ec tu ri ng m et ho d q ue st io na ns w er m et ho d p ro bl em so lv in gm et ho d g ro up w or k m et ho d t ri po bs er va ti on m et ho d d is cu ss io n m et ho d d ra m a they recognize the change and continuity in the patterns of regimes and sovereignty in turkish states in historical process. 6 6 1 1 they discuss historical development of democratic governance mentality in different periods and cultures. 1 1 1 total 7 7 0 1 0 2 0 when table 5 was examined, it was determined that prospective teachers used 2 acquisitions in the framework of power, governance and society learning area and it was seen that the most preferred method by prospective teachers was question-answer method and lecturing method (7 prospective teachers). furthermore, it was found out that 2 prospective teachers used discussion method and 1 prospective teacher used group work method; however it was seen that problem solving method, drama method and trip-observation method were not used by the prospective teachers. methods and techniques used in the framework of people, places and environments learning area activities prepared by prospective teachers in the framework of people, places and environments learning were examined and distribution of used methods and techniques according to acquisitions are given in table 6. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 122 table 6:methods and techniques used in the acquisitions of people, places and environments learning area methods and techniques used acquisition l ec tu ri ng m et ho d q ue st io na ns w er m et ho d p ro bl em so lv in gm et ho d g ro up w or k m et ho d t ri po bs er va ti on m et ho d d is cu ss io n m et ho d d ra m a they recognize the interaction between settlement and economic activities of first civilizations having lived in anatolia and mesopotamia and their social structures. 1 1 1 when table 6 was examined, it was determined that only 1 prospective teacher prepared activity in the framework of people, places and environments learning area. the prospective teacher preferred to use simple lecturing method, question-answer method and discussion method. it was seen that problem solving method, trip-observation method and drama method were not used by the prospective teacher. methods and techniques used in the framework of global connections learning area activities prepared by prospective teachers in the framework of global connections learning were examined and distribution of used methods and techniques according to acquisitions are given in table 7. table 7:methods and techniques used in the acquisitions of global connections learning area methods and techniques used acquisition l ec tu ri ng m et ho d q ue st io na ns w er m et ho d p ro bl em so lv in gm et ho d g ro up w or k m et ho d t ri po bs er va ti on m et ho d d is cu ss io n m et ho d d ra m a they associate political and economic structures of the ottoman empire and european countries at the beginning of 20th century and reasons and results of world war i. 4 4 3 1 when table 7 was examined, it was determined that prospective teachers used 1 acquisition in the framework of global connections learning area. it was seen that the most preferred method by prospective teachers was question-answer method and lecturing method (4 prospective teachers). furthermore, it was found out that 3 prospective teachers used group work method and 1 prospective teacher used discussion method; however it was seen that problem solving method, drama method and trip-observation method were not used by the prospective teachers. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 123 table 8:methods and techniques used in all learning areas methods and techniques used learning areas l ec tu ri ng m et ho d q ue st io na ns w er m et ho d p ro bl em so lv in gm et ho d g ro up w or k m et ho d t ri po bs er va ti on m et ho d d is cu ss io n m et ho d d ra m a culture and heritage 25 26 9 4 1 science, technology and society 19 19 7 3 production, consumption and distribution 18 19 6 2 4 power, governance and society 7 7 1 2 people, places and environments 1 1 1 global connections 4 4 3 1 individual and society groups, institutions and social organizations total 74 76 26 13 5 when table 8 was examined, the following results were acquired; when internship files prepared by social studies prospective teachers in the framework of teaching practice course were evaluated in terms of history acquisitions, it was found out that they;  prepared 10 acquisitions in the framework of culture and heritage learning area,  prepared 5 acquisitions in the framework of science, technology and society learning area,  prepared 4 acquisitions in the framework of production, consumption and distribution learning area,  prepared 2 acquisitions in the framework of power, governance and society learning area,  prepared 1 for each acquisition in the framework of people, places and environments as well as global connections learning areas. furthermore, it was seen that; the most preferred methods and techniques used by prospective teachers was question-answer method and lecturing method. however it was found that tripobservation method and problem solving method were not used by the prospective teachers. discussion, conclusion, and suggestions if you were building a house, you would consider the materials needed and think of design of the house, what it would look like and to what extent you meet your needs. planning teaching is like building a house to some extent. the materials used in the construction of house comprise journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 124 methods. classroom is in the position of “house” where students learn something (barth and demirtaş, 1997). choosing and using eligible materials to be used in this house is pretty important in terms of ensuring continuance in learning. the first step of determining what kind of materials to use for this house is took in teaching practice course. teaching practice is one of the indispensable factors in training teachers in the process of pre-serviceand process carried out by teachers in these courses are generally able to make a preliminary study on the path towards the teacher. the process of teaching practice is the tangible indicator of their competences in terms of field information, pedagogical formation, general culture and skill (yeşilyurt and semerci, 2011).in this context, methods chosen by prospective teachers during teaching practice course in their internship files will be an antecedent for their futures. thus, examining methods chosen for teaching history subjects is significant. the way of teaching history subjects productively is methods and techniques that will direct interests of children back to the past (şimşek, 2006). therefore, this issue should be taken into consideration while choosing methods and techniques. according to the study performed by çulha (2010), when it comes to teaching history, the most frequently used method by teachers is question-answer method after lecturing. similarly, when the internship files prepared by prospective teachers were examined in this study, it was determined that the most frequently used method by these prospective teachers was question-answer method. it was seen that the activity of asking questions was used almost in all activities within 77 activities examined. while some acquisitions are suitable for question-answer method, some other acquisitions are not suitable for the use of this method. one of the most important points in this method is used in compliance with the acquisition of the questions. it comes to teaching history, profound questions should not be thought as the questions showing whether students learn a topic or whether they read a topic. on the contrary, these questions should enable students to consider historically, think critically and establish connections among events (çulha, 2010). given teacher candidates use this method so often, it can be considered the nature of the questions might be ignored. when the research conducted by waring (2010) on the methods used in the education of social studies is reviewed, the majority of 786 students in the research find the social studies lesson is boring as they see it as a lesson for memorizing the names. a limited number of participants see this lesson as entertaining. the biggest reason for that situation is that the teachers use straight expression method in their lessons. in the study performed by bal and yiğittir (2011), ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 125 lecturing method takes place on the top among the most preferred methods in social studies courses by teachers. we can also see in this study that prospective teachers use lecturing method frequently. in the simple lecturing method, the main principle is teacher’s lecturing and student’s listening. this situation is not convenient with constructivist learning principles. therefore, prospective teachers should not use this method so frequently in history teaching while planning their activities. in today’s circumstances, it is thought that teacher-centered lecturing technique is sufficiently effective. however, new methods and techniques are being developed by educators both in the world and in our country. it can be benefitted from technology, drama, story and similar various activities (avşar, no date). the sparkles acquired by using different teaching methods develop the historical questioning and empathy skills of the students. an empathy process with the history is enabled and the abstract concepts and cases in between the student and history are transformed to much tangible things by showing pictures related with the related history (mccormick and hubbard, 2011). discussion is a method used for making students think on a subject, explaining points that are not understood well and reinforcing information. this method provides the opportunity for students to develop various skills such as listening, questioning, having exchange of ideas and examine a subject thoroughly. discussion method is quite important in terms of examining reasons and results of historical events (dönmez and yazıcı, 2008). current study showed that prospective teachers did not prefer using discussion method. however, it is essential to use discussion method in history acquisitions in terms of examining reasons and results of events as it is mentioned above. it can be thought that prospective teachers attending the study did not prefer using this method because of their deficiencies in preparing discussion groups. art can be used in order to encourage the students to participate in lessons. certain games, based on a scenario where the technique of brainstorming can be used within the framework of certain commands, can be played with the company of an art trainer. with the assistance of these games, the students can perceive good and evil, ethic rules and personal relations by using their critical thinking skills, and they can present solutions for the problems with the families (colley, 2012). drama method which can be used in social studies lesson is notably suitable in gaining these acquisitions. in yılmaz’s (2013) study in which he/she took the opinions of social studies teachers about use of drama method in their lessons, it was found that teachers liked using drama method in teaching history acquisitions. when the study was examined in this journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 126 context, it was seen that prospective teachers scarcely used drama method in history acquisitions. one of the most important ways to extract social studies course from being a memorization course is to associate topics with life and use various methods and techniques in the process of teaching. just as a laboratory study on any topic, museums and historical places are locations in which teachers cannot find information and provide experience in another place in terms of teaching concepts and events in social studies training (meydan and akkuş, 2014). the visits to the historical areas and field trips ensure the experiences gained via the lessons to be visually stored in the memory as well (lovom, 2012). the method enabling use of museums and historical places in training programs is trip-observation method. trip-observation method is an important method whose educational value is so high. observation trip provides students with rich learning environments (yaşar and gultekin, 2006). in the research named “the toy museums as out-of-school learning environment in the social studies and history teaching” and conducted by coşkun keskin and kaplan (2012), the acquisitions that can be acquired via tripsurvey method are presented. it is also suggested that the students can acquire certain acquisitions on cognitive level available within social studies and history education, and they can realize certain information about science and technology within the context of change and continuity. in the study of çengelci (2013), it was found that teachers were of the opinion that social studies course was suitable for teaching out of the classroom. it is so easy to benefit from trip-observation method in teaching history acquisitions within the scope of social studies course. what is more, when social studies program is examined well, it seen that museum trips activities are being performed (ministry of national education, 2008). however, it is an attention grabbing situation that this method which is one of the essential methods for teaching history is not used in history acquisition activities in teaching practice internship files. although the acquisition of “they show proves about changes and continuity in the notion of turkish culture, art and esthetic” taking place in culture and heritage learning area is pretty convenient for this method, prospective teachers preferred to use lecturing, question-answer and group work methods. it can be thought that one of the reasons of this result may the fact that it is not given the necessary importance to trip-observation activities during bachelor’s degree education. problem solving method is quite educative just like trip-observation method. it is one of the most important practices of constructivist learning; because this method requires students to ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 127 actively participate in a specific problem situation (dönmez and yazıcı, 2008). it is one of the methods enabling the reveal of the skills of high level thinking and realization of critical thinking (russel, 2010). it was seen in this study that prospective teachers did not want to prefer using problem solving method just as in the case of trip-observation method. the reasons why they did not prefer using these methods is very important. however, we can learn the reason of this situation through making interviews with the prospective teachers attending the study. in the study conducted by usa lecturers (2012) of sakarya university department of primary school social studies training within the scope of “sakarya province education monitoring report”, it was asked to the actively working teachers which methods and techniques they uses and when the answers were examined, it was found out that the least used method and technique was problem solving method. as it is known, prospective teachers apply teaching practice courses in company with the teachers actively working in the ministry of national education. if the guiding teacher does not use this method frequently, then prospective teachers may not prefer this method, as well. it is a known fact that perception levels and interests of the students increase in courses in which different methods and techniques are used. the best example of this situation is the study conducted by şimşek (2004). şimşek used the method of storytelling in teaching of history subjects and the perception level of students showed increase. in addition to this, the teaching methods based on research can also be used in the historical acquisitions available in social studies lesson (wojcik et al., 2013). the usage of teaching technologies by the teacher candidates assists in the selection of suitable methods in historical acquisitions (brush and saye, 2009). it is so essential to use different methods and techniques in teaching of history topics taking place in social studies course. as it is seen in the study, the methods and techniques used by prospective teachers in their internship processes are not sufficient. moreover, it can be said that they do not take this course seriously. the study about teaching practice performed by şimşek et al. (2013) supports this result. most of the participants attending to the study specified that educators, managers and lecturers should show more sensitivity in order to make prospective teachers take the teaching practice course more seriously which will enable teaching practice process work efficiently. for this purpose, it was put emphasis on enabling prospective teachers to recognize that their occupational future would be shaped by teaching practice course (şimşek et al., 2013). in the last ten years, many studies have been made on this subject. however, there are still certain gaps between the theory and practice in the teacher journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 128 training. it is required to change this situation. in the scope of this change, the first point is to teach the methods and techniques in teacher training (waring, 2010; russell, 2010). the social studies teacher candidates should be encouraged to use different methods and techniques throughout the undergraduate education, in pre-service period in other words (mathis and boyd, 2006). in this context;  awareness of the prospective teachers in this topic should be raised and they should use these methods and techniques in their internship processes.  lecturers who are the guiders of teaching practice course should follow these files actively and help prospective teachers regarding their deficiencies about methods.  prospective teachers should get acquainted with more and different methods during their bachelor’s degree.  it should be taken into account that if teachers working at schools use different methods in the practice courses, prospective teachers may also use these methods, as well.  therefore, teachers should be provided with in-service training about teaching methods and techniques. references aslan, e. (2006). neden tarih öğretiyoruz? (whyteach history?) dokuz eylül üniversitesi buca eğitim fakültesi dergisi. c. 20. 162-174. avşar, o., (tarihsiz). eğitimde yeni yaklaşımlar. (new approaches in education) ted ankara koleji vakfı. bal, m. s. & yiğittir, s. (2011). tarih ve sosyal bilgiler derslerinde uygulanan etkinliklerin yöntem ve teknikler açısından i̇ncelenmesi, (history and analysis methods and techniques in applied social studies in terms of activities), sbard, (18). bal, s., (2011). türkiye’de tarih öğretiminin sorunları ve çözüm yolları konusunda öğretmen adayı ve öğretmen görüşlerinin karşılaştırılması. (a comparıson of views of in-servıce and pre-servıce teachers on problems of history teaching and solutions for these problems) mustafa kemal üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi. c. 8. s. 15. 371-387 ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 129 barth, j. & demirtaş, a., (1997). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler öğretimi kaynak üniteler. yök (elementary social studies resource units. yök/world bank national education development project pre-service teacher education.) ankara: yök. berg, b.l., (2001). qualıtatıve research methods for the socıal scıences. printed in the united states of america. bilgili, a. s., (2009). sosyal bilgilerin temelleri. (social studies basics) (ed. bilgili, a. s.) s. 2-36. ankara: pegem akademi. bilgin, n., (2006). sosyal bilgilerde i̇çerik analizi teknikler ve örnek çalışmalar. (content analysis techniques in social sciences and case studies). ankara: siyasal kitapevi. brush, t., & saye, j. w. (2009). strategies for preparing preservice social studies teachers to integrate technology effectively: modelsand practices. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 9(1), 46-59. colley, b. m., (2012). teaching social studies through the performing arts. the educational forum, 76.4–12. coşkun keskin, s. & kaplan, e., (2012). sosyal bilgiler ve tarih öğretiminde okul dışı öğrenme ortamı olarak oyuncak müzeleri. (toys museums as out-of-school learning method in social studies and history education) elektronik sosyal bilimler dergisi. c. 11. s. (41). 95-115 coşkun keskin, s., (2012). çocuklar i̇çin değer neyi çağrıştırıyor? değerleri gündelik hayata aktarmaya yönelik bir tespit çalışması. (what does “value” evoke for children? a detection study as totransferring values to daily life) kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri. 12(2). 1491-1512. çapa, m., (2009). sosyal bilim disiplinleri. sosyal bilgilerin temelleri (social science disciplines. basics of social science). (ed. bilgili, a. s.) s. 121-140. ankara: pegem akademi. çelikkaya, t. & kuş, z., (2009). sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin kullandıkları yöntem ve teknikler. (methods and teachniques they use social studies teachers) uludağ üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi. xxii(2). 741-758 çengelci, t. (2013). sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sınıf dışı öğrenmeye i̇lişkin görüşleri. (social studies teachers’ views on learning outside the classroom) kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri. 13(3). 1823-1841. çulha, b., (2010).tarih derslerinde etkin soru sorma. tarih nasıl öğretilir. tarih öğretmenleri i̇çim özel öğretim yöntemleri. (effective questioning in history course. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 130 how toteach history? teaching methodology for history teachers.) (ed. safran, m.). s. 290-297. i̇stanbul: yeni i̇nsan yayınevi. dilek, d. (2002). tarih derslerinde öğrenme ve düşünce gelişimi (learning and development thought in history courses). ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. dönmez, c. &yazıcı, k., (2008). t.c. i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük konularının öğretimi. (teaching topics of revolution history and kemalism.) ankara: nobel yayınevi. erden, m. (tarihsiz). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. (social studies education). i̇stanbul: alkım yayın evi. gençtürk, e. & sarpkaya, g., (2012). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen yeterlilikleri. sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. (social studies teacher qualifications social studies education). (ed. safran, m.) s. 49-66. ankara: pegem akademi. güçlü, y. & diğ., (2012). sakarya i̇linde sosyal bilgiler dersinin öğretmen yeterlilikleri ve öğrenci tutumları açısından değerlendirilmesine yönelik tespit çalışması.sakarya (teacher qualification and retaining study on the evaluation of student attitudes of social studies in the province.) sakarya üniversitesi bilimsel araştırma projesi sonuç raporu. sakarya. kan, ç., (2006). etkili sosyal bilgiler öğretimi arayışı. (the pursuit of effective instruction social studies course) kastamonu eğitim dergisi. s. 14. 537-544. keskin, y., (2012). türkiye’de 1970’li yıllardan günümüze kadar yayınlanmış i̇lkokul, ortaokul ve i̇lköğretim okulu programlarında yer alan tarih dersi konularının dönemlere göre i̇ncelenmesi.(evaluating the history course subjects involved in the programs of primary schools, secondary schools and elementry schools published from 1970’s until today according to the education terms) international online journal of educational sciences.s. 4(2). 442-461. köstüklü, n., (1998). sosyal bilimler ve tarih öğretimi. (social sciences and history teaching.) konya: kuzucular ofset. lovom, m.g., (2012). historiography in the methods course: training preservice history teachers to evaluate local historical commemorations. the history teacher. 45 (4). 569-579. mathis, p. b. & boyd, n. c., (2009). who is teaching social studies? pre-service teachers’ reaction. social studies research & practice. 4 (3). p76. mayring, p., (2000). nitel sosyal araştırmaya giriş. (introduction to qualitative social research). ankara: baki kitapevi. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 131 mcmormick, t. m. & hubbard, j., (2011). every picture tells a story: a study of teaching methods using historical photographs with elementary students.the journal of social studies research. 35 (1). 80-94. meydan a. & akkuş, a., (2014). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde müze gezilerinin tarihi ve kültürel değerlerin kazandırılmasındaki önemi. (the importance of getting students adopt the history and cultural values through museum visits in social studies teaching) marmara coğrafya dergisi.s. 29. 402-422. miles, m.b., & huberman, a.m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, california: sage. morahanmartin, 1996. milli eğitim bakanlığı talim ve terbiye kurulu başkanlığı, (2008). sosyal bilgiler 6. ve 7. sınıf programı. (ministry of education social studies curriculum. grade: 6 and 7) öztürk, c. (2006). sosyal bilgiler: toplumsal yaşama disiplinler arası bir bakış. hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi: yapılandırmacı bir yaklaşım. (social studies: interdisciplinary social life at a glance. life science and social studies education: a constructivist approach). (ed. öztürk, c.). s. 21-50. ankara: pegem akademi. öztürk, c., coşkun keskin, s. & otluoğlu, r. (2012). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde edebi ürünler ve yazılı materyaller. (literary textsand written materials of social studies) ankara: pegem a akademi. punch, k., (2005). sosyal araştırmalara giriş: nitel ve nicel yaklaşımlar. (introduction to social research: qualitative and quantitative approaches.) ankara: siyasal kitapevi. russell, w. b., (2010). teaching social studies in the 21st century: a research study of secondary social studies teachers' instructional methods and practices. action in teacher education. 32 (1). 65-72. şimşek, a. (2004). i̇lköğretim okulu sosyal bilgiler dersi tarih konularının öğretiminde hikaye anlatım yönteminin etkinliği. (activities story telling method of teaching primary school social studies history subject.) türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi c. 2. s.4. şimşek, a. (2006). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersinde tarihsel hikayeye yönelik öğrenci görüşleri. (the opinions of students about historical story in social studies in elementary schools) g.ü. gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi cilt 26. s. i .187-202. şimşek, a., alkan, v. &erdem, a.r. (2013). öğretmenlik uygulamasına i̇lişkin nitel bir çalışma. (a qualitative study about teaching practice) pamukkale üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi. s.34 ii. 63-73. tarman, b., (2012). öğretmenlik deneyimi dersinin öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik i̇nançlarına etkisi. (prospective teachers’ beliefs and perceptions journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 132 about teaching as a profession)kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri. 12(3). 19511973. turan, r.,& ulusoy k. (2013). sosyal araştırmalara giriş: nitel ve nicel yaklaşımlar. (the role and importance of history in social studies. basics of social science.)(ed. turan, r. ve ulusoy, k.). s. 138-153. ankara: pegem akademi. waring, s.m., (2010). the social studies methods course: what do teacher candidates know and want to know about teaching social studies? educational research and evaluation. 16 (5). 437-449. wojcik, t. g., heıtzmann, r., kılbrıde, c. & hartwell, d., (2012). instructional strategies recommended in social studies methods textbooks: a historical perspective. the social studies. 104. 241-249. yaşar, ş. & gültekin, m., (2006). anlamlı öğrenme i̇çin etkili öğretim stratejileri. hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi: yapılandırmacı bir yaklaşım (effective teaching strategies for meaningful learning. social studies education: a constructivist approach.) (ed. öztürk, c.). s. 111-146. ankara: pegem akademi. yeşil, r. & çalışkan, n. (2006). okul deneyimi i dersinde i̇şbirliği sürecinin değerlendirilmesi (kırşehir eğitim fakültesi örneği). (an assessment of the cooperatiom process in ‘school experiance i’ course in teacher training) kuram ve uygulamada eğitim yönetimi.s.46. 277-310. yeşilyurt, e. & semerci, ç., (2011). uygulama öğretmenlerinin öğretmenlik uygulaması sürecinde karşılaştıkları sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri. (the problems and their solutions of practice teachers in teaching practice process ) akademik bakış dergisi. s.27. 1-23. yıldırım a. & h. şimşek (2008). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (qualitative research methods in social sciences) (6. baskı). ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. yıldırım, k., (2010). nitel araştırmalarda niteliği artırma. (raising the quality in qualitative research) i̇lköğretim online.s. 9 (1). 79-92. yılmaz, s., (2013). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde bir yöntem olarak dramanın kullanımına i̇lişkin öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri. (teacher candidates’ opinions related to using drama as a teaching method in teaching of social studies) ahi evran üniversitesi kırşehir eğitim fakültesi dergisi.c. 14. s. 2. 123-145. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 133 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tarihi konulara ait kazanımların sağlanmasında kullandıkları yöntemlerin belirlenmesi determination of the methods used by prospective teachers in the field of social studies while teaching historical topics ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel özet: tarih ve tarih konuları ile ilgili kazanımlar, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi programının önemli kısımlarından birisini oluşturmaktadır. yapılandırmacı yaklaşım ile hazırlanan bu eğitim programının, doğru seçilmiş yöntemler ışığında uygulanması gerekmektedir. asıl amaçlarından birisi etkili vatandaş yetiştirmek olan sosyal bilgiler dersinin, doğru yöntemler kullanılarak yürütülmesi, programda var olan tarihi kazanımlara daha etkili bir şekilde ulaşılmasını sağlayacaktır. uygun yöntemlerin uygulandığı kazanımlar sonucunda öğrenciler, tarihi konuları daha kolay öğrenecek ve günlük hayatları ile daha iyi ilişkilendirmeler yapacaklardır. bu amaç ışığında yapılan bu çalışmada sakarya üniversitesi, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik uygulaması derslerinde hazırlamış oldukları uygulama dosyaları doküman analizine tabi tutulmuştur. öğretmen adaylarının etkili bir sosyal bilgiler dersi için gerekli olan yöntem ve teknikleri yeteri kadar kullanmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler, tarih öğretimi, yöntem, kazanım. giriş eğitim kurumlarının en önemli işlevlerinden birisi çocuğu iyi bir vatandaş olarak yetiştirmektir. eğitim kurumları bu işlevini, çocuğun toplumsallaşmasını, içinde yaşadığı toplumun kültürünü, tarihini, kurumlarını tanımasını sağlayarak; toplumdaki rollerinin gerektirdiği davranışları, toplumun kendisine sağladığı olanakları ve bunlardan yararlanma yollarını kazandırarak yerine getirir. ülkemizde, öğrencilere tüm bu bilgi ve becerilerin önemli bir kısmı sosyal bilgiler dersi yoluyla kazandırılır (erden, ?). bu kadar önemli bir dersin tanımını yapmak hiç de kolay olmamıştır. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi programı, türk demokratik toplumundaki sorumluluk sahibi vatandaşların görevlerine uygun amaçlar üreten, içeriğini tarih, coğrafya ve vatandaşlık bilgisi konularını ilişkilendirerek oluşturan ve yaşam boyu sürecek vatandaşlık becerileri sunan bir eğitim programıdır (barth ve demirtaş, 1997). dünya genelinde yapılan sosyal bilgiler tanımı ışığında türkiye’deki bilim adamları da bu dersin içeriği kapsamında tanımlamalar yapmışlardır. yapılan bu tanımlamalar ışığında sosyal bilgileri şöyle tanımlayabiliriz; sosyal bilgiler, hemen her bakımdan değişen ülke ve dünya koşullarında bilgiye dayalı karar alıp problem çözebilen etkin vatandaşlar yetiştirmek amacıyla sosyal ve beşeri bilimlerden aldığı bilgi ve yöntemleri kaynaştırarak kullanan bir öğretim programıdır (öztürk, 2006). journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 134 yukarıdaki tanımlama ve açıklamalardan anlaşılacağı üzere; sosyal bilgiler dersinin en önemli işlevlerinden birisi vatandaşlık görev ve sorumluluklarının öğrenilmesini sağlayarak toplum içinde hayatını sağlıklı bir şekilde sürdürecek bireyler yetiştirmektir. bu işlev ayrıca sosyal bilgiler dersinin evrensel amaçlarının dayanağını da oluşturmaktadır (öztürk ve diğ, 2012; bilgili, 2009, coşkun keskin, 2012). milli eğitim bakanlığı’nın yaptığı köklü değişiklikle 2005–2006 eğitim-öğretim yılında ilköğretim i.kademe programlarının tamamı, 2006-2007 eğitim-öğretim yılından itibaren de ilköğretim ii. kademe programları kademeli olarak değiştirilerek yeni öğretim programları uygulamaya koyulmuştur. yeni öğretim programları, yapılandırmacı (constructivist) olarak ifade edilen yaklaşımı ön plana çıkarmaktadır. bu değişiklikler akabinde; türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler dersinin bu amaçlarını kazandırmak için yürütülmekte olan ilkokul 4-5 ve 6-7 ders programı mevcuttur. aşağıda sosyal bilgiler ders programında bulunan öğrenme alanlarının ve kazanımlarının sınıf düzeyine göre dağılımını gösteren tablo verilmiştir (meb, 2006). tablo 1:sosyal bilgiler programı öğrenme alanları ve kazanım sayıları kazanım sayıları öğrenme alanları 4. sınıf 5. sınıf 6.sınıf 7. sınıf birey ve toplum 6 4 6 6 kültür ve miras 6 6 9 8 i̇nsanlar, yerler ve çevreler 8 7 7 5 üretim dağıtım ve tüketim 7 7 6 6 bilim, teknoloji ve toplum 6 6 5 5 gruplar, kurumlar ve sosyal örgütler 5 5 güç, yönetim ve toplum 4 5 5 5 küresel bağlantılar 4 6 5 4 sosyal bilgiler eğitimi dersi çerçevesinde, etkin vatandaşın en önemli özelliklerinden birisi ise tarih bilgisine ve tarihi bilince sahip olmasıdır. farkında olalım ya da olmayalım tüm duygu, düşünce ve davranışlarımız geçmiş deneyimlerimiz ışığında doğar, gelişir ve biçimlenir. bugünümüzü oluşturan her şey geçmişimizden günümüze taşıdığımız birikim ve deneyimlerimizin bir ürünüdür (aslan 2006). tarihin konusu insandır. amacı ise geçmişteki insan etkinliklerini bilimsel metotlarla ortaya koyarak, bugüne ışık tutmak ve geleceğe yön vermektir (çapa, 2006). sosyal bilgilerin vazgeçilmez ve en önemli disiplinlerinden birisi hiç şüphesiz “tarih”tir. toplumu ilgilendiren her konuda “tarih” disiplini karşımıza çıkmaktadır (ulusoy ve turan, 2013). günümüz dünyasına bakıldığında; özelde ve genelde önemli bir soru cevabını aramaktadır. acaba tarih yazmak mı, yoksa tarihi öğretmek mi daha zordur? bu sorunun cevabının “tarih öğretmek” olduğu anlaşılmaktadır (keskin, 2012). tarih öğretimi yoluyla, öğrencilerin kişilik gelişimi, sosyalleşme ve vatandaşlık eğitimine katkıda bulunmak amaçlanmaktadır. tarih ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 135 eğitimi vatandaşlık duygusu, moral ve kültürel değerleri açısından türk toplumunun ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak üzere düzenlenmiştir. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi programının tarih kısmı, öğrencileri kendi ulusal kimlik, kültürel miras ve türk toplumunun değerlerinin farkına varmaları açısından ulusal tarihin önemli olaylarını kapsamaktadır (dilek, 2002). yapılandırmacı yaklaşımda öğretmenlerden geleneksel olarak kullandıkları yöntem ve tekniklerin dışında, öğrenci merkezli yöntem ve teknikler kullanmaları beklenmektedir. literatür incelendiğinde, yöntem ve tekniğin kavram bakımından birbiri ile karıştırıldığı görülmektedir. bu iki kavram birbirleri yerine kullanılabilmektedir. bazı kaynaklarda yöntem olarak ele alınan bir eğitim durumu, başka bir kaynakta teknik olarak geçmektedir (çelikkaya ve kuş, 2009). dünya genelinde sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde farklı yöntem ve tekniklerin kullanılmasını inceleyen araştırmalar incelendiğinde; sosyal bilgiler dersinde birbirinden farklı yöntemlerin araştırmacılar tarafından kullanıldığı görülmektedir. araştırmalar, bu yöntem ve tekniklerin öğrencilerin ders başarısını olumlu yönde etkilediğini ve öğrencilerin gelecekteki davranışlarını da bazen şekillendirebileceğini ortaya koymaktadır (kan, 2006). sosyal bilgiler ders programı yöntemleri, öğretme ve öğrenme eğilimleri açısından zengin bir veri kaynağı oluşturmaktadır (wojcık ve diğ, 2013). son on yılda sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde kullanılan yöntemlerle ilgili oldukça fazla çalışma yapılmıştır (waring, 2010).i̇yi bir öğretim sağlayabilmek için iki unsura dikkat etmek gerekmektedir. bunlar; alanında uzman olmak ve öğretim esnasında kullanılacak olan yöntemlerin yetkin olarak bilinmesidir. bu konuda öğretmelere büyük iş düşmektedir. çünkü öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler dersinde istenilen başarı düzeyine ulaşabilmek için sosyal bilgiler öğretim yöntemlerini yeterince biliyor olmaları ve sınıfın ve dersin durumuna göre bu yöntemleri kullanmaları gerekmektedir.ancak öğretmenlerin yöntemleri seçerken dikkat etmeleri gereken önemli unsurlardan birisi öğrencilerin öğrenme özelliklerine bağlı olan bireysel farklılıklarıdır. bu açıdan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin derslerinde kullandıkları öğretim yöntem ve tekniklerinin tespit edilmesi önemlidir (çelikkaya ve kuş, 2009). sosyal bilgiler dersinin temelini oluşturan tarih konularının öğretiminde en fazla kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler; anlatım yöntemi, soru-cevap yöntemi, drama yöntemi, gezi-gözlem yöntemi, tartışma yöntemi, problem çözme yöntemi ve grup çalışması yöntemidir (köstüklü, 1998; çelikkaya ve kuş, 2009). tarih öğretiminde kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler; geçmiş zamanda yaşanan olayları kavratmak, soyut kavramları kazandırmak ve günümüzde izleri kalmış yaşantıları öğrenci zihninde journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 136 canlandırmaya yöneliktir. tarih eğitiminde bu çerçevede yöntem ve tekniklerin planlanması, uygulanması ve değerlendirilmesi kendine has güçlükler taşır (bal, 2011).bu nedenle eğitim esnasında seçilecek olan yöntem ve teknikler ayrı bir öneme sahip olmaktadır. belirlenmiş hedef ve davranışların ya da öğrenci kazanımlarının, uygun yöntem ve tekniklerle öğrencilere öğretilmeye çalışılmasının, tarih konularının öğretiminde bahsedilen olumsuzlukları çözebileceği düşünülmektedir. (şimşek, 2006). bilgi çağı olarak adlandırılan günümüzde çoklu nitelik ve becerilere sahip bireylere ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. nitekim insan yetiştirmenin çok önemli olduğu bu çağda en önemli görev, eğitim-öğretim sürecinin temel öğesi olan öğretmene düşmektedir (gençtürk ve sarpkaya; 2012). ülkemizde bu niteliklere sahip öğretmenleri yetiştirmekle sorumlu olan kurum eğitim fakülteleridir. eğitim fakülteleri, öğrencileri öğretmenlik mesleğine hazırlama görevini üstlenmiş kurumlardır. öğrencilere, öğretmenlik mesleği için gerekli bilgi, tutum ve davranışlar kazandırarak meslek hayatına hazırlamaya çalışır. eğitim fakülteleri, ortaöğretim kurumlarından öğrenci olarak aldığı bireyleri, ilk ve ortaöğretim kurumlarına öğretmen olarak yetiştirir. bu kurumların işlevini sağlıklı olarak yerine getirebilmesi, eğitim sürecinin, öğretmen yetiştirme amacına hizmet edebilirlik düzeyine bağlıdır (yeşil ve çalışkan, 2006). öğretmen yetiştiren eğitim fakülteleri, öğretmen adaylarına verdikleri hizmet öncesi eğitimde adaylara mesleki yeterlik kazandırmak için uygulama okullarında öğretmenlik uygulaması derslerini farklı öğretmenlik programlarında vermektedir. öğretmenlik uygulaması dersi öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik deneyimi kazanmalarını sağlamak amacıyla, öğretmen adayının ilgili olduğu öğretmenlik alanıyla ilgili olarak milli eğitim bakanlığı’na bağlı devlet ve özel okullarda gerçekleştirdikleri uygulamaları kapsamaktadır (şimşek ve diğ., 2013). öğretmen adayları, mesleki yaşantılarının temelini okullarda yaptıkları uygulamalar esnasında oluşturmaktadır. öğretmenlik deneyimi veya uygulaması gibi dersler öğretmen adaylarının, öğretmenlik mesleğini daha yakından tanımalarını ve mesleki inanç ve algılarının netleşmesini sağlamaktadır (tarman, 2012). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları bu derslerde; lisans dönemi boyunca edindikleri birikimlerini uygulamaktadırlar. 21. yüzyılın temel hedefi olan iyi vatandaş yetiştirebilmek için sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının hedefe ulaşabilmek için kendi potansiyellerinin farkında olarak hareket etmeleri gerekmektedir (russell, 2010). bu bağlamda çalışmanın amacı; sosyal bilgiler dersi programının öğrenme alanları ve kazanımları kapsamında; öğretmenlik uygulaması derslerinde öğretmen adaylarının hazırladıkları uygulama dosyalarında bulunan etkinlikleri inceleyerek, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi programında bulunan tarih ile ilgili kazanımları uygularken, kullandıkları yöntemleri tespit etmektir. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 137 yöntem araştırmanın modeli sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler eğitim programında bulunan tarih kazanımlarına ulaşmak için kullandıkları yöntem ve teknikleri belirlemeye yönelik yapılan bu çalışmada, doküman incelemesi kullanılmıştır. doküman incelemesi, araştırılması hedeflenen olgu veya olgular hakkında bilgi içeren yazılı materyallerin analizini kapsar (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2008). bu araştırmada elde edilen dokümanlar kapsamlı bir analize tabi tutulmuştur. nitel araştırma yöntemleri karmaşık, değişken, tartışmalı bir alandır. bu nedenle tek bir varlık değil devasa bir şemsiyedir (punch, 2005). bu yaklaşımda nicel veriler pek bir anlam ifade edemeyebilir. bazı araştırmacılar nicel verilerin olduğu anketleri kısır bulmaktadır (berg, 2001). ancak nitel araştırmanın bir özelliği de anlamlı bir nicelleştirmeye olanak sağlamasıdır. böylelikle nitel analizlerde nicel bağlar kurulabilmektedir (mayring, 2000). bu araştırma yukarıda bahsi geçen duruma örnek olmaktadır. çalışma grubu araştırma grubu; tipik durum örneklemesi ile seçilmiştir. bu örneklem seçimi araştırmacıya, ortaya koymak istediği konuya en tipik bir veya birkaç veri ile ulaşabilmesine olanak tanır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2008). araştırmanın tipik örneklemini sakarya üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi'nde 2013-2014 öğretim yılı güz ve bahar yarıyıllarında öğrenim görmekte olan sosyal bilgiler eğitimi 4. sınıf öğrencileri oluşturmuştur. araştırmanın çalışma grubunu sakarya üniversitesi sosyal bilgiler eğitimi 4. sınıfı öğrencilerinden 20 kişi oluşturmaktadır. öğretmen adayları lisans dersleri kapsamında almış oldukları öğretmenlik uygulaması dersi için, her haftayı içeren etkinliklerin yer aldığı dosyalar hazırlamaktadırlar. bu araştırmada çalışma grubunda bulunan 20 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayının öğretmenlik uygulaması derslerinde oluşturdukları 20 dosya ve tarihi olaylara ilişkin kazanımlara ulaşmak için planladıkları 77 etkinlik incelenmiştir. verilerin analizi araştırma sonucunda elde edilen veriler içerik analizine tabi tutulmuştur. i̇çerik analizinde temel amaç, toplanan verileri açıklayabilecek kavramlara ve ilişkilere ulaşmaktır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2008). elde edilen veriler meb’in sunmuş olduğu sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ders programında bulunan altı öğrenme alanı için ayrı ayrı incelenmiştir. her öğrenme alanında yer alan kazanımları gerçekleştirmek için kullanılan yöntem ve tekniklerin kullanım sıklığı frekans journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 138 analizi yoluyla analiz edilmiştir. frekans analizi, birim veya öğelerin, kavramların kullanım sıklığını ortaya koymaktır. bu analiz kullanılan öğe veya kavramların önemini ve önem sırasını ortaya koymaya yarar (bilgin, 2006). bu bağlamda; araştırmada, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi programında yer alan tarihi kazanımlarda öğretmen adaylarının kullandıkları yöntemler frekans analizine tabi tutulmuştur. geçerlik ve güvenirlik araştırılan olgu veya olay hakkında bütüncül bir resim oluşturabilmesi için araştırmacının elde ettiği verileri ve ulaştığı sonuçları teyit etmesine yardımcı olacak bazı ek önlemler kullanması gerekir (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2008). toplanan verilerin ayrıntılı bir şekilde rapor edilmesi ve araştırmacının sonuçlara nasıl ulaştığını açıklaması nitel bir araştırmada geçerliğin önemli ölçütleri arasında yer almaktadır.araştırma sonuçlarının inandırıcı olması; nitel araştırmalarda, gerçeklerin bireye ve içinde bulunduğu duruma göre değişim gösterebileceğinden oldukça önemlidir (yıldırım, 2010). araştırmada, güvenirlik için her iki araştırmacı ve bir diğer alan araştırmacısı tarafından yapılan doküman incelemeleri üzerine güvenirlik= görüş birliği/ (görüş birliği + görüş ayrılığı) x 100 formülü uygulanmıştır (miles ve huberman, 1994). üç araştırmacı arasında uyuşum yüzdesi % 89 olarak hesaplanmıştır. bu oran veri analizi açısından güvenirliğin sağlandığını göstermektedir. bulgular sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik uygulaması i ve ii dersleri kapsamında hazırlamış oldukları 20 dosya, sosyal bilgiler dersi programı içerisinde bulunan kazanımlar bağlamında değerlendirildiğinde, sosyal bilgiler programı kapsamında tarihi kazanımlar çerçevesinde 77 etkinlik hazırladıkları tespit edilmiştir. tarihi olaylara ilişkin 77 etkinlik incelendiğinde; öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler ders programının temelini oluşturan 6 öğrenme alanında yer alan 23 kazanım için etkinlik hazırladıkları görülmüştür. hazırlanan bu etkinliklerin öğrenme alanları çerçevesindeki bulguları, aşağıda başlıklar halinde verilmiştir. kültür ve miras öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler öğretmen adaylarının kültür ve miras öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde hazırlamış oldukları etkinlikler incenmiş ve kullanılan yöntem ve tekniklerin kazanımlara göre dağılımı tablo 2’de verilmiştir. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 139 tablo 2: kültür ve miras öğrenme alanı kazanımlarında kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kazanımlar a nl at ım y ön te m i so ru -c ev ap y ön te m i pr ob le m ç öz m e y ön te m i g ru p ç al ış m as ı y ön te m i g ez ig öz le m y ön te m i t ar tış m a y ön te m i d ra m a osmanlı devleti’nde ıslahat hareketleri sonucu ortaya çıkan kurumlardan hareketle toplumsal ve ekonomik değişim hakkında çıkarımlarda bulunur. 3 4 1 seyahatnamelerden hareketle türk kültürüne ait unsurları örneklendirir. 3 3 3 osmanlıavrupa ilişkileri çerçevesinde kültür, sanat ve estetik anlayışındaki etkileşimi fark eder. 1 1 1 şehir incelemesi yoluyla, türk kültür, sanat ve estetik anlayışındaki değişim ve sürekliliğe ilişkin kanıtlar gösterir. 5 5 3 osmanlı toplumunda hoşgörü ve birlikte yaşama fikrinin önemine dayalı kanıtlar gösterir. 4 4 kanıtlara dayanarak osmanlı devleti’nin siyasi güç olarak ortaya çıkışını etkileyen faktörleri açıklar. 3 3 3 destan, yazıt ve diğer belgelerden yararlanarak, orta asya ilk türk devletlerinin siyasal, ekonomik ve kültürel özelliklerine ilişkin çıkarımlarda bulunur 1 1 dönemin devlet adamları ve türk büyüklerinin hayatından yararlanarak ilk türki̇slam devletlerinin siyasal, sosyal ve kültürel özelliklerine ilişkin çıkarımlarda bulunur. 2 2 orta asya ilk türk devletleri ve türk-i̇slam devletlerinin türk kültür, sanat ve estetik anlayışına katkılarına kanıtlar gösterir. 1 1 1 osmanlı devleti’nin fetih ve mücadelelerini, osmanlı’da ticaretin ve denizlerin önemi açısından değerlendirir. 2 2 2 toplam 25 26 0 9 0 4 1 tablo 2 incelendiğinde; öğretmen adaylarının kültür ve miras öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde 10 kazanım kullandıkları tespit edilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının en fazla tercih ettiği yöntem ve tekniğin soru-cevap yöntemi (26 öğretmen adayı) olduğu görülmektedir. soru-cevap yönteminden sonra en fazla tercih edilen diğer yöntem ve tekniğin ise anlatım yöntemi (25 öğretmen adayı) olduğu görülmektedir. 9 öğretmen adayının grup çalışması yöntemini, 4 öğretmen adayının tartışma yöntemini ve 1 öğretmen adayının drama yöntemini kullandığı tespit edilmiştir. problem çözme yöntemi ve gezi-gözlem yönteminin ise öğretmen adayları tarafından kullanılmadığı görülmektedir. bilim, teknoloji ve toplum öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler öğretmen adaylarının bilim, teknoloji ve toplum öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde hazırlamış oldukları etkinlikler incenmiş ve kullanılan yöntem ve tekniklerin kazanımlara göre dağılımı tablo 3’de verilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 140 tablo 3: bilim, teknoloji ve toplum öğrenme alanı kazanımlarında kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kazanımlar a nl at ım y ön te m i so ru -c ev ap y ön te m i pr ob le m ç öz m e y ön te m i g ru p ç al ış m as ı y ön te m i g ez ig öz le m y ön te m i t ar tış m a y ön te m i d ra m a 15-19.yüzyıllar arasında avrupa’da yaşanan gelişmelerin günümüz bilimsel birikiminin oluşmasına etkisini fark eder. 8 8 4 1 tarihsel süreçte düşünceyi ifade etme ve bilim özgürlüklerini bilimsel gelişmelerle ilişkilendirir. 2 2 i̇lkyazı örneklerinden yola çıkarak yazının kullanım alanlarını ve bilgi aktarımındaki önemini fark eder. 1 1 i̇lk uygarlıkların bilimsel ve teknolojik gelişmelere katkılarına örnekler verir. 5 5 3 türk ve i̇slam devletlerinde yetişen bilginlerin bilimsel gelişme sürecine katkılarını değerlendirir. 3 3 2 toplam 19 19 0 7 0 3 0 tablo 3 incelendiğinde; öğretmen adaylarının bilim, teknoloji ve toplum öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde 5 kazanım kullandıkları tespit edilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının en fazla tercih ettiği yöntem ve tekniklerin soru-cevap yöntemi ve anlatım yöntemi (19 öğretmen adayı) olduğu görülmektedir. 7 öğretmen adayının grup çalışması yöntemini ve 3 öğretmen adayının tartışma yöntemini kullandığı tespit edilmiştir. problem çözme yöntemi, drama yöntemi ve gezi-gözlem yönteminin ise öğretmen adayları tarafından kullanılmadığı görülmektedir. üretim, tüketim ve dağıtım öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler öğretmen adaylarının üretim, tüketim ve dağıtım öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde hazırlamış oldukları etkinlikler incenmiş ve kullanılan yöntem ve tekniklerin kazanımlara göre dağılımı tablo 4’de verilmiştir. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 141 tablo 4: üretim, tüketim ve dağıtım öğrenme alanı kazanımlarında kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kazanımlar a nl at ım y ön te m i so ru -c ev ap y ön te m i pr ob le m ç öz m e y ön te m i g ru p ç al ış m as ı y ön te m i g ez ig öz le m y ön te m i t ar tış m a y ön te m i d ra m a tarihten ve günümüzden örnekler vererek üretim teknolojisindeki gelişmelerin sosyal ve ekonomik hayata etkilerini değerlendirir. 2 3 2 1 tarih boyunca türklerde meslek edindirme ve meslek etiği kazandırmada rol oynayan kurumları tanır. 8 8 1 2 vakıfların çalışmalarına ve sosyal yaşamdaki rolüne tarihten ve günümüzden örnekler verir 3 3 1 1 kaynakların, ürünlerin ve ticaret yollarının devletlerin gelişmesindeki önemine tarihten ve günümüzden örnekler verir. 5 5 2 2 toplam 18 19 0 6 0 2 4 tablo 4 incelendiğinde; öğretmen adaylarının üretim, tüketim ve dağıtım öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde 4 kazanım için etkinlik hazırladıkları tespit edilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının en fazla tercih ettiği yöntemin soru-cevap yöntemi (19 öğretmen adayı) olduğu görülmektedir. soru-cevap yönteminden sonra en fazla tercih edilen diğer yöntemin ise anlatım yöntemi (18 öğretmen adayı) olduğu; 6 öğretmen adayının grup çalışması yöntemini, 4 öğretmen adayının drama yöntemini ve 2 öğretmen adayının tartışma yöntemini kullandığı anlaşılmaktadır. problem çözme yöntemi ve gezi-gözlem yönteminin ise öğretmen adayları tarafından kullanılmadığı görülmektedir. güç, yönetim ve toplum öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler öğretmen adaylarının güç, yönetim ve toplum öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde hazırlamış oldukları etkinlikler incenmiş ve kullanılan yöntem ve tekniklerin kazanımlara göre dağılımı tablo 5’de verilmiştir. tablo 5: güç, yönetim ve toplum öğrenme alanı kazanımlarında kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kazanımlar a nl at ım y ön te m i so ru -c ev ap y ön te m i pr ob le m ç öz m e y ön te m i g ru p ç al ış m as ı y ön te m i g ez ig öz le m y ön te m i t ar tış m a y ön te m i d ra m a tarihsel süreçte türk devletlerinde yönetim şekli ve egemenlik anlayışındaki değişim ve sürekliliği fark eder. 6 6 1 1 değişik dönem ve kültürlerde demokratik yönetim anlayışının tarihsel gelişimini tartışır. 1 1 1 toplam 7 7 0 1 0 2 0 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 142 tablo 5 incelendiğinde; öğretmen adaylarının güç, yönetim ve toplum öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde 2 kazanım kullandıkları ve bu kazanımlar için en fazla soru-cevap yöntemi ve anlatım yöntemini (7 öğretmen adayı) kullanmayı tercih ettikleri görülmüştür. ayrıca 2 öğretmen adayının tartışma yöntemini ve 1 öğretmen adayının grup çalışması yöntemini kullandığı; ancak problem çözme yöntemi, drama yöntemi ve gezi-gözlem yönteminin ise öğretmen adayları tarafından kullanılmadığı tespit edilmiştir. i̇nsanlar yerler ve çevreler öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler öğretmen adaylarının insanlar, yerler ve çevreler öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde hazırlamış oldukları etkinlikler incenmiş ve kullanılan yöntem ve tekniklerin kazanımlara göre dağılımı tablo 6’de verilmiştir. tablo 6: i̇nsanlar, yerler ve çevreler öğrenme alanı kazanımlarında kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kazanımlar a nl at ım y ön te m i so ru -c ev ap y ön te m i pr ob le m ç öz m e y ön te m i g ru p ç al ış m as ı y ön te m i g ez ig öz le m y ön te m i t ar tış m a y ön te m i d ra m a anadolu ve mezopotamya’da yaşamış ilk uygarlıkların yerleşme ve ekonomik faaliyetleri ile sosyal yapıları arasındaki etkileşimi fark eder. 1 1 1 tablo 6 incelendiğinde; sadece 1 öğretmen adayının insanlar, yerler ve çevreler öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde etkinlik hazırladığı tespit edilmiştir. hazırlanan bu etkinlikte öğretmen adayı; düz anlatım yöntemini, soru cevap yöntemini ve tartışma yöntemini kullanmayı tercih etmiştir. problem çözme yönteminin, gezi-gözlem yönteminin ve drama yönteminin öğretmen adayı tarafından kullanılmadığı görülmüştür. küresel bağlantılar öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler öğretmen adaylarının küresel bağlantılar öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde hazırlamış oldukları etkinlikler incenmiş ve kullanılan yöntem ve tekniklerin kazanımlara göre dağılımı tablo 7’da verilmiştir. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 143 tablo 7: küresel bağlantılar öğrenme alanı kazanımlarında kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kazanımlar a nl at ım y ön te m i so ru -c ev ap y ön te m i pr ob le m ç öz m e y ön te m i g ru p ç al ış m as ı y ön te m i g ez ig öz le m y ön te m i t ar tış m a y ön te m i d ra m a 20. yüzyılın başında osmanlı devleti ve avrupa ülkelerinin siyasî ve ekonomik yapısıyla i. dünya savaşı’nın sebep ve sonuçlarını ilişkilendirir. 4 4 3 1 tablo 7 incelendiğinde; öğretmen adaylarının küresel bağlantılar öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde 1 kazanım kullandıkları tespit edilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının en fazla tercih ettiği yöntem ve tekniklerin soru-cevap yöntemi ve anlatım yöntemi (4 öğretmen adayı) olduğu görülmektedir. 3 öğretmen adayının grup çalışması yöntemini ve 1 öğretmen adayının tartışma yöntemini kullandığı; ancak problem çözme yöntemi, drama yöntemi ve gezi-gözlem yönteminin ise öğretmen adayları tarafından kullanılmadığı görülmektedir. tablo 8: tüm öğrenme alanlarında kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler kullanılan yöntem ve teknikler öğrenme alanları a nl at ım y ön te m i so ru -c ev ap y ön te m i pr ob le m ç öz m e g ru p ç al ış m as ı g ez ig öz le m y ön te m i t ar tış m a y ön te m i d ra m a kültür ve miras 25 26 9 4 1 bilim teknoloji ve toplum 19 19 7 3 üretim, tüketim, dağıtım 18 19 6 2 4 güç yönetim ve toplum 7 7 1 2 i̇nsanlar yerler ve çevreler 1 1 1 küresel bağlantılar 4 4 3 1 biray ve toplum gruplar, kurumlar ve sosyal örgütler toplam 74 76 26 13 5 tablo 8 incelendiğinde aşağıdaki sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır; sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik uygulaması dersleri kapsamında hazırlamış oldukları staj dosyaları tarih kazanımları bağlamında değerlendirildiğinde;  kültür ve miras öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde 10 kazanım için etkinlik hazırladıkları,  bilim, teknoloji ve toplum öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde 5 kazanım için etkinlik hazırladıkları, journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 144  üretim, tüketim ve dağıtım öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde 4 kazanım için etkinlik hazırladıkları,  güç, yönetim ve toplum öğrenme alanı çerçevesinde 2 kazanım için etkinlik hazırladıkları,  i̇nsanlar, yerler ve çevreler ile küresel bağlantılar öğrenme alanları çerçevesinde birer kazanım için etkinlik hazırladıkları tespit edilmiştir. ayrıca öğretmen adaylarının kullanmayı en fazla tercih ettikleri yöntem ve tekniklerin ise soru cevap yöntemi ile anlatım yöntemi olduğu görülmüştür. gezi-gözlem ve problem çözme yöntemlerinin ise öğretmen adayları tarafından kullanılmadığı tespit edilmiştir. tartışma, sonuç ve öneriler bir ev inşa ediyor olsaydınız, gerekli olacak malzemeleri hesaplar, evin tasarımını, neye benzeyeceğini ve ihtiyacınızı ne ölçüde karşılayacağını düşünürdünüz. öğretimi planlamak da, bir ölçüde ev inşa etmek gibidir. evin inşasında kullanılan malzemeleri yöntemler oluşturur. sınıf, öğrencilerin bir şeyler öğrendikleri “ev” konumundadır (barth ve demirtaş, 1997). bu evde kullanılacak malzemelerin nitelikli seçilip kullanılması öğrenmenin kalıcılığını sağlaması açısından oldukça önemlidir. bu ev için kullanılacak malzemenin ne olduğunun belirlenmesinin ilk adımı öğretmenlik uygulaması dersinde atılmaktadır. öğretmenlik uygulaması, hizmet öncesi öğretmen yetiştirmede vazgeçilmez unsurlardan birisidir ve bu derslerde yürütülen süreç ile öğretmen adayları öğretmenliğe doğru giden yolda bir ön çalışma yapma imkanı bulabilmektedir. öğretmenlik uygulaması süreci, öğretmen adaylarının alan bilgisi, pedagojik formasyon, genel kültür ve yetenek bakımından yeterliğinin somut göstergesi konumundadır (yeşilyurt ve semerci, 2011). bu bağlamda; öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik uygulaması dersi boyunca hazırladıkları staj dosyalarında seçtikleri yöntemler, gelecek yaşantıları için bir öncül konumundadır. tarih konularının öğretimi için seçilen yöntemlerin incelenmesi bu bağlamda önem arz etmektedir. tarih konularında verimli öğretimin yolu, çocukların ilgisini geçmişe yöneltecek yöntem ve tekniklerdir (şimşek, 2006). bu nedenle yöntem ve teknik seçilirken bu husus göz önüne alınmalıdır. çulha (2010)’nın yapmış olduğu araştırmaya göre, tarih öğretimi söz konusu olduğunda öğretmenlerin anlatımdan sonra en çok kullandıkları yöntem soru-cevap yöntemidir. bu araştırmada da, öğretmen adaylarının hazırlamış oldukları staj dosyaları incelendiğinde; en sık kullandıkları yöntemin soru-cevap yöntemi olduğu tespit edilmiştir. i̇ncelenen 77 etkinlik içinde soru-sorma etkinliğinin hemen hemen her etkinlikte kullanıldığı görülmüştür. bazı ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 145 kazanımlar soru-cevap yöntemine uygunken bazı kazanımlar bu yöntemin kullanılmasına uygun değildir. kullanılan bu yöntemde en önemli noktalardan birisi sorulan soruların kazanıma uygunluğudur.tarih eğitimi söz konusu olduğunda etkili sorular öğrencilerin bir konuyu öğrenip öğrenmediklerini, bir konuyu okuyup okumadıklarını anlamayı sağlayan sorular olarak düşünülmemelidir. aksine sorular öğrencilerin tarihsel düşünmelerine kılavuzluk edecek, eleştirel düşünmelerini ve olaylar arasında bağlantı kurmalarını sağlayacak nitelikte olmalıdır(çulha, 2010).öğretmen adaylarının bu yöntemi bu kadar sık kullanmaları göz önüne alındığında, soruların niteliğinin göz ardı edilebildiği düşünülmektedir. waring (2010)’in sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde kullanılan yöntemlerle ilgili yapmış olduğu araştırma incelendiğinde; araştırmaya katılmış olan 786 öğrencinin büyük bir kısmı, sosyal bilgiler dersini isimleri ezberleme dersi olarak gördükleri için sıkıcı bulmaktadırlar. az oranda katılımcı bu dersi eğlenceli bulmaktadır. bu durumun en büyük sebebi öğretmenlerin derslerinde düz anlatım yöntemine sıklıkla başvurmalarıdır. bal ve yiğittir (2011)’in yapmış olduğu araştırmada; öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler derslerinde en fazla kullanmayı tercih ettikleri yöntemler arasında anlatım yöntemi ilk sıralardadır. yaptığımız bu araştırmada öğretmen adaylarının da anlatım yöntemine sıklıkla başvurduğunu görmekteyiz. düz anlatım yönteminde esas olan öğretmenin anlatması ve öğrencinin dinlemesidir. bu durum yapılandırmacı öğrenme ilkelerine uygun değildir. bu nedenle öğretmen adaylarının etkinliklerini planlarken, tarih öğretiminde bu yönteme sıklıkla müracaat etmemeleri gerekmektedir. günümüz koşullarında öğretmen merkezli ders anlatım tekniğinin yeterince etkili olmadığı düşünülmektedir. buna karşın gerek dünyada gerekse ülkemizde eğitimciler tarafından yeni yöntem ve teknikler geliştirilmektedir. teknoloji, drama, öykü gibi çeşitli etkinliklerden yararlanılabilir (avşar, tarihsiz). farklı öğretim yöntemleri kullanılarak elde edilen kıvılcımlar öğrencide tarihsel sorgulama ve empati becerisini geliştirir. geçmişle ilgili resimler gösterilerek; tarih ve geçmişle empati kurmaları sağlanır ve tarihle aralarında bulunan soyut kavram ve olgular somuta dönüşür (mccormick ve hubbard, 2011). tartışma; bir konu üzerine öğrencileri düşünmeye yöneltmek, iyi anlaşılamayan noktaları açıklamak ve verilen bilgileri pekiştirmek amacıyla kullanılan bir yöntemdir. bu yöntem; öğrencilerin dinleme, sorgulama, fikir alış-verişinde bulunma ve bir konuyu derinlemesine irdeleme gibi çeşitli becerilerinin gelişmesine fırsat tanır. tartışma yöntemi; tarihi olayların sebep ve sonuçlarının irdelenebilmesi açısından oldukça önemlidir (dönmez ve yazıcı, 2008). araştırmada öğretmen adaylarının tartışma yönteminikullanmayı tercih etmedikleri görülmektedir. ancak tarih ile ilgili kazanımlarda yukarıda da dile getirildiği gibi olayların journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 146 sebep ve sonuçlarının irdelenmesi açısından tartışma yönteminin kullanılması oldukça gereklidir. araştırmaya katılan öğretmen adaylarının tartışma gruplarını hazırlama konusundaki eksikliklerden dolayı, bu yöntemi kullanmayı tercih etmedikleri düşünülebilir. sanat, derslere öğrenci katılımını teşvik etmek için kullanılabilir. bir sanatçı eğitmenin eşliğinde, komutlar çerçevesinde beyin fırtınası tekniğinin aktif olarak kullanılabileceği senaryoya dayalı oyunlar oynanabilir. bu oyunlar aracılığı ile öğrenciler eleştirel düşünme becerilerini kullanarak iyi ile kötüyü, ahlak kurallarını, kişisel ilişkileri algılayabilir ve ailelerle ilgili sorunlara çözümler sunabilir (colley, 2012). sosyal bilgiler dersinde kullanılacak olan drama yöntemi bu kazanımları kazandırabilmesi açısından oldukça uygundur. yılmaz (2013) sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin derslerinde drama kullanımı ile ilgili görüşlerini aldığı çalışmasında; öğretmenlerin drama yöntemini tarihi kazanımların öğretilmesinde kullanmayı sevdikleri sonucuna ulaşmıştır. bu bağlamda bu araştırma incelendiğinde; öğretmen adaylarının tarihi kazanımlarda, drama yöntemini çok az kullandıkları görülmüştür. sosyal bilgiler dersini ezber bir ders olmaktan çıkarmak için yapılabilecek en önemli çalışmalardan birisi konuları yaşamla ilişkilendirerek, öğretim sürecinde çeşitli yöntem ve teknikler kullanmaktır. herhangi bir konu üzerinde laboratuvar çalışması gibi, müzeler ve tarihi mekânlar da sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde kavramların ve olayların öğretimi açısından öğrencinin başka bir yerde toplayamayacağı bilgileri ve elde edemeyeceği deneyimleri sağlama yeridir (meydan ve akkuş, 2014). tarihi ziyaretler ve alan gezileri, ders bazında kazanılan deneyimlerin görsel olarak da hafızaya alınmasını sağlar (lovom, 2012).müze ve tarihi mekânların eğitim programında uygulanabilmesini sağlayan yöntem gezi-gözlem yöntemidir. gezi-gözlem yöntemi, eğitsel değeri oldukça yüksek olan bir yöntemdir. gözlem gezisi öğrencilere zengin öğrenme ortamları sağlar (yaşar ve gültekin, 2006). coşkun keskin ve kaplan (2012)’ın yapmış olduğu “sosyal bilgiler ve tarih öğretiminde okul dışı öğrenme ortamı olarak oyuncak müzeleri” isimli çalışmada öğrencilerin gezi-gözlem yöntemi ile elde edebilecekleri kazanımlar ortaya konmuştur. müze gezisi ile öğrencilerin; sosyal bilgiler ve tarih eğitimi içinde yer alan bilişsel düzeydeki bazı kazanımları kazanabileceği, değişim ve süreklilik bağlamında bilim ve teknolojiye yönelik bilgileri fark edebileceği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. çengelci (2013) yapmış olduğu araştırmada, öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler dersinin sınıf dışı öğrenmeye uygun bir ders olduğunu düşündükleri sonucuna ulaşmıştır. sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında yer alan tarih kazanımlarının öğretilmesinde gezi-gözlem yönteminden kolaylıkla faydalanılabilir. hatta sosyal bilgiler programı iyi incelendiğinde müze gezisi etkinliklerine yer verildiği görülmektedir (meb, 2008). ancak tarih eğitimi için gerekli ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 147 yöntemlerden biri olan bu yöntemin, öğretmenlik uygulaması staj dosyalarında tarih kazanımları etkinliklerinde kullanılmaması dikkat çekici bir durumdur. kültür ve miras öğrenme alanında yer alan “şehir incelemesi yoluyla, türk kültür, sanat ve estetik anlayışındaki değişim ve sürekliliğe ilişkin kanıtlar gösterir.” kazanımı bu yönteme oldukça uygun olmasına rağmen öğretmen adayları; anlatım, soru-cevap ve grup çalışması yöntemlerini kullanmayı tercih etmişlerdir. bu durumun sebeplerinden birisinin lisans eğitimleri süresince gezi-gözlem etkinliklerine yeteri kadar önem verilmemesi olduğudüşünülebilir. problem çözme yöntemi de tıpkı gezi-gözlem yöntemi gibi oldukça eğitici bir yöntemdir. yapılandırmacı öğrenme anlayışının en önemli uygulamalarından birisidir. çünkü bu yöntem öğrencilerin belirli bir problem durumuna aktif katılımlarını gerektirir (dönmez ve yazıcı, 2008). üst düzey düşünme becerilerinin açığa çıkmasına ve eleştirel düşünmenin gerçekleştirilebilmesine olanak sağlayan yöntemlerden birisidir (russel, 2010). araştırmada öğretmen adaylarının gezi-gözlem yöntemi gibi, problem çözme yöntemini de kullanmayı tercih etmedikleri görülmüştür. bu yöntemleri kullanmayı tercih etmeme nedenleri oldukça önemlidir. ancak bu durumun sebebini araştırmaya katılan öğretmen adayları ile görüşmeler yaparak öğrenebiliriz. sakarya üniversitesi i̇lköğretim bölümü sosyal bilgiler eğitimi abd öğretim üyelerinin (2012) “sakarya i̇li eğitim i̇zleme raporu” kapsamında yaptıkları araştırmada, aktif görev yapan öğretmenlere derslerde kullandıkları yöntem ve teknikler sorulmuş; alınan cevaplar incelendiğinde en az kullanılan yöntemin problem çözme yöntemi olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. bilindiği üzere öğretmen adayları öğretmenlik uygulaması derslerini meb’de aktif görev yapan öğretmenler eşliğinde uygulamaktadırlar. rehberlik eden öğretmenlerin bu yöntemi sıklıkla kullanmamaları, öğretmen adaylarının bu yöntemi tercih etmemesine sebep olabilir. farklı yöntem ve teknikler kullanılarak yürütülen derslerde, öğrencilerinin algı düzeylerinde ve derse ilgilerinde artış olduğu bilinmektedir. şimşek (2004)’in yapmış olduğu araştırma bu duruma güzelbir örnektir. tarih konularının öğretiminde hikâye anlatma yöntemini kullanmış ve öğrencilerin kavrama düzeylerinde artış gözlenmiştir. bunun yanı sıra araştırmaya dayalı öğretim yöntemleri de sosyal bilgiler dersi bünyesinde bulunan tarihi kazanımlar için kullanılabilir (wojcik ve diğ, 2013). öğretim teknolojilerinin öğretmen adayları tarafından kullanılması da, tarihi kazanımlarda uygun yöntemleri seçebilmelerine yardımcı olur (brush ve saye, 2009). sosyal bilgiler dersinde bulunan tarih konularının öğretiminde farklı yöntem ve tekniklerin kullanılması oldukça gereklidir. araştırmada görüldüğü üzere, öğretmen adaylarının stajlarında journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 148 kullandıkları yöntem ve teknikler bu bağlamda yeterli değildir. bu durum bu dersi yeteri kadar ciddiye almamaları ile ilişkilendirilebilir. dosyalar incelendiğinde, bu sonuç ortaya çıkmaktadır.şimşek ve diğ. (2013)’nin öğretmenlik uygulaması dersi ile ilgili yaptıkları araştırma bu sonucu destekler niteliktedir. nitekim araştırma katılan katılımcıların çoğu, öğretmenlik uygulaması dersinde surecin daha iyi işlemesine yönelik olarak öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik uygulaması dersini daha ciddi bicimde ele almaları için eğiticilerin, yöneticilerin ve öğretim elemanlarının hassasiyet göstermeleri gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir. bu amaçla öğretmen adaylarının meslekteki geleceklerinin öğretmenlik uygulaması dersiyle şekilleneceğinin farkına varmalarının sağlanmasının önemi üzerinde durulmuştur (şimşek ve diğ., 2013; 66-67). son on yılda bu konu ilgili birçok araştırma yapılmıştır. ancak hala öğretmen eğitimi ile ilgili teori ve pratik arasında bazı boşluklarmevcuttur. bu durumun değiştirilmesi gerekmektedir. bu değişimde ilk nokta öğretmen yetiştirmede yöntem ve tekniklerin öğretilmesidir. (waring, 2010; russell, 2010). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları hizmet öncesi dönemde yani lisans eğitimi süresince farklı yöntem ve teknikleri kullanmaları açısından cesaretlendirilmelidir (mathis ve boyd, 2006). bu bağlamda;  öğretmen adaylarının bu konuda farkındalıklarının ilgili dersler ile artırılarak, stajlarda bu yöntem ve teknikleri kullanmaları sağlanmalıdır.  öğretmenlik uygulaması dersinin yürütücüsü olan öğretim üyeleri, bu dosyaları aktif olarak takip etmeli ve öğretmen adaylarının yöntem bağlamındaki eksikliklerini gidermelerine yardımcı olmalıdır.  lisans öğrenimleri boyunca öğretmen adaylarının daha fazla ve farklı yöntemlerle tanışmaları sağlanmalıdır.  okullarda görev yapan öğretmenlerin, derslerde farklı yöntemleri kullanmaları durumunda öğretmen adaylarının da bu yöntemleri kullanabileceği göz önüne alınmalıdır. bunun için öğretmenlere öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri ile ilgili hizmet içi eğitim yapılmalıdır. ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 149 kaynakça aslan, e. (2006). neden tarih öğretiyoruz? (why teach history?) dokuz eylül üniversitesi buca eğitim fakültesi dergisi. c. 20. 162-174. avşar, o., (tarihsiz). eğitimde yeni yaklaşımlar. (new approaches in education) ted ankara koleji vakfı. bal, m. s. & yiğittir, s. (2011). tarih ve sosyal bilgiler derslerinde uygulanan etkinliklerin yöntem ve teknikler açısından i̇ncelenmesi, (history and analysis methods and techniques in applied social studies in terms of activities), sbard, (18). bal, s., (2011). türkiye’de tarih öğretiminin sorunları ve çözüm yolları konusunda öğretmen adayı ve öğretmen görüşlerinin karşılaştırılması. (a comparıson of views of in-servıce and pre-servıce teachers on problems of history teaching and solutions for these problems) mustafa kemal üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi. c. 8. s. 15. 371-387 barth, j. & demirtaş, a., (1997). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler öğretimi kaynak üniteler. yök (elementary social studies resource units. yök/world bank national education development project pre. printed in the united states of america. bilgili, a. s., (2009). sosyal bilgilerin temelleri. (social studies basics) (ed. bilgili, a. s.) s. 2-36. ankara: pegem akademi. bilgin, n., (2006). sosyal bilgilerde i̇çerik analizi teknikler ve örnek çalışmalar. (content analysis techniques in social sciences and case studies). ankara: siyasal kitapevi. brush, t., & saye, j. w. (2009). strategies for preparing preservice social studies teachers to integrate technology effectively: models and practices. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 9(1), 46-59. colley, b. m., (2012). teaching social studies through the performing arts. the educational forum, 76. 4–12. coşkun keskin, s. & kaplan, e., (2012). sosyal bilgiler ve tarih öğretiminde okul dışı öğrenme ortamı olarak oyuncak müzeleri. (toys museums as out-of-school learning method in social studies and history education) elektronik sosyal bilimler dergisi. c. 11. s. (41). 95-115 coşkun keskin, s., (2012). çocuklar i̇çin değer neyi çağrıştırıyor? değerleri gündelik hayata aktarmaya yönelik bir tespit çalışması. (what does “value” evoke for children? a journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 150 detection study as totransferring values to daily life) kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri. 12(2). 1491-1512. çapa, m., (2009).sosyal bilim disiplinleri. sosyal bilgilerin temelleri (social science disciplines. basics of social science). (ed. bilgili, a. s.) s. 121-140. ankara: pegem akademi. çelikkaya, t. & kuş, z., (2009). sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin kullandıkları yöntem ve teknikler. (methods and teachniques they use social studies teachers) uludağ üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi. xxii(2). 741-758 çengelci, t. (2013). sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sınıf dışı öğrenmeye i̇lişkin görüşleri. (social studies teachers’ views on learning outside the classroom) kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri. 13(3). 1823-1841. çulha, b., (2010). tarih derslerinde etkin soru sorma. tarih nasıl öğretilir. tarih öğretmenleri i̇çim özel öğretim yöntemleri. (effective questioning in history course. how toteach history? teaching methodology for history teachers.) (ed. safran, m.). s. 290-297. i̇stanbul: yeni i̇nsan yayınevi. dilek, d. (2002). tarih derslerinde öğrenme ve düşünce gelişimi (learning and development thought in history courses). ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. dönmez, c. &yazıcı, k., (2008). t.c. i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük konularının öğretimi. (teaching topics of revolution history and kemalism.) ankara: nobel yayınevi. erden, m. (tarihsiz). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. (social studies education). i̇stanbul: alkım yayın evi. gençtürk, e. & sarpkaya, g., (2012). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen yeterlilikleri. sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. (social studies teacher qualifications social studies education). (ed. safran, m.) s. 49-66. ankara: pegem akademi. güçlü, y. &diğ., (2012). sakarya i̇linde sosyal bilgiler dersinin öğretmen yeterlilikleri ve öğrenci tutumları açısından değerlendirilmesine yönelik tespit çalışması. sakarya (teacher qualification and retaining study on the evaluation of student attitudes of social studies in the province.) sakarya üniversitesi bilimsel araştırma projesi sonuç raporu. sakarya. kan, ç., (2006). etkili sosyal bilgiler öğretimi arayışı. (the pursuit of effective instruction social studies course) kastamonu eğitim dergisi. s. 14. 537-544. keskin, y., (2012). türkiye’de 1970’li yıllardan günümüze kadar yayınlanmış i̇lkokul, ortaokul ve i̇lköğretim okulu programlarında yer alan tarih dersi konularının dönemlere göre i̇ncelenmesi. (evaluating the history course subject involved in the ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 151 programs of primary schools, secondary schools and elementry schools published from 1970’s until today according to the education terms) international online journal of educational sciences.s. 4(2). 442-461. köstüklü, n., (1998). sosyal bilimler ve tarih öğretimi. (social sciences and history teaching.) konya: kuzucular ofset. lovom, m.g., (2012). historiography in themethods course: training preservice history teachers to evaluate local historical commemorations. the history teacher. 45 (4). 569-579. mathis, p. b. & boyd, n. c., (2009). who is teaching social studies? pre-service teachers’ reaction. social studies research & practice. 4 (3). p76. mayring, p., (2000). nitel sosyal araştırmaya giriş. (introduction to qualitative social research). ankara: baki kitapevi. mcmormick, t. m. & hubbard, j., (2011). every picture tells a story: a study of teaching methods using historical photographs with elementary students. the journal of social studies research. 35 (1). 80-94. meydan a. & akkuş, a., (2014). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde müze gezilerinin tarihi ve kültürel değerlerin kazandırılmasındaki önemi. (the importance of getting students adopt the history and cultural values through museum visits in social studies teaching) marmara coğrafya dergisi.s. 29. 402-422. miles, m.b.,& huberman, a.m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, california: sage. morahanmartin, 1996. milli eğitim bakanlığı talim ve terbiye kurulu başkanlığı, (2008). sosyal bilgiler 6. ve 7. sınıf programı. (ministry of education social studies curriculum. grade: 6 and 7) öztürk, c. (2006). sosyal bilgiler: toplumsal yaşama disiplinler arası bir bakış. hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi: yapılandırmacı bir yaklaşım. (social studies: interdisciplinary social life at a glance. life science and social studies education: a constructivist approach). (ed. öztürk, c.). s. 21-50. ankara: pegem akademi. öztürk, c., coşkun keskin, s. & otluoğlu, r. (2012). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde edebi ürünler ve yazılı materyaller. (literary textsand written materials of social studies) ankara: pegem a akademi. punch, k., (2005). sosyal araştırmalara giriş: nitel ve nicel yaklaşımlar. (introduction to social research: qualitative and quantitative approaches.) ankara: siyasal kitapevi. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 112-153 152 russell, w. b., (2010). teaching social studies in the 21st century: a research study of secondary social studies teachers' instructional methods and practices. action in teacher education. 32 (1). 65-72. şimsek, a. (2004). i̇lköğretim okulu sosyal bilgiler dersi tarih konularının öğretiminde hikaye anlatım yönteminin etkinliği. (activities story telling method of teaching primary school social studies history subject.) türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi c. 2. s.4. şimşek, a. (2006). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersinde tarihsel hikayeye yönelik öğrenci görüşleri. (the opinions of students about historical story in social studies in elementary schools) g.ü. gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi cilt 26. s. i .187-202. şimşek, a., alkan, v. & erdem, a.r. (2013). öğretmenlik uygulamasına i̇lişkin nitel bir çalışma. (a qualitative study about teaching practice) pamukkale üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi. s.34 ii. 63-73. tarman, b., (2012). öğretmenlik deneyimi dersinin öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik i̇nançlarına etkisi. (prospective teachers’ beliefs and perceptions about teaching as a profession)kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri. 12(3). 19511973. turan, r., & ulusoy k. (2013).sosyal araştırmalara giriş: nitel ve nicel yaklaşımlar. (the role and importance of history in social studies. basics of social science.) (ed. turan, r. ve ulusoy, k.). s. 138-153. ankara: pegem akademi. waring, s.m., (2010). the social studies methods course: what do teacher candidates know and want to know about teaching social studies? educational research and evaluation. 16 (5). 437-449. wojcik, t. g., heıtzmann, r., kılbrıde, c. &hartwell, d., (2012). instructional strategies recommended in social studies methods textbooks: a historical perspective. the social studies. 104. 241-249. yaşar, ş. & gültekin, m., (2006). anlamlı öğrenme i̇çin etkili öğretim stratejileri. hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi: yapılandırmacı bir yaklaşım (effective teaching strategies for meaningful learning. social studies education: a constructivist approach.) (ed. öztürk, c.). s. 111-146. ankara: pegem akademi. yeşil, r. & çalışkan, n. (2006). okul deneyimi i dersinde i̇şbirliği sürecinin değerlendirilmesi (kırşehir eğitim fakültesi örneği). (an assessment of the ali yılmaz & ayşegül kırtel 153 cooperatiom process in ‘school experiance i’ course in teacher training) kuram ve uygulamada eğitim yönetimi.s.46. 277-310. yeşilyurt, e. & semerci, ç., (2011). uygulama öğretmenlerinin öğretmenlik uygulaması sürecinde karşılaştıkları sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri. (the problems and their solutions of practice teachers in teaching practice process) akademik bakış dergisi. s.27. 1-23. yıldırım a. & h. şimşek (2008). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (qualitative research methods in social sciences) (6. baskı). ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. yıldırım, k., (2010). nitel araştırmalarda niteliği artırma. (raising the quality in qualitative research) i̇lköğretim online.s. 9 (1). 79-92. yılmaz, s., (2013). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde bir yöntem olarak dramanın kullanımına i̇lişkin öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri. (teacher candidates’ opinions related to using drama as a teaching method in teaching of social studies) ahi evran üniversitesi kırşehir eğitim fakültesi dergisi.c. 14. s. 2. 123-145. exploring technology use in a technology rich elementary school setting: teacher, student and parent perceptions www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(2), 43-59 © 2011 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 teacher and student perceptions about technology use in an elementary school in ankara ankara’da bir i̇lköğretim okulunda teknoloji kullanımına dair öğretmen ve öğrenci görüşleri feride karaca1 abstract: in the present study, the perceptions of two important stakeholder groups (teachers and students) were examined at the same time to have an insight about the current state of technology use in an elementary school in ankara. the participants of this study included 35 elementary school teachers and 81 students, and the data were collected through two different questionnaires for teachers and students. the results of the study indicated that both teachers and students have positive perceptions about the value of technologies in educational settings. teachers’ most frequently used technologies were computer and internet and they used these technologies mostly for class preparation activities. a majority of teachers have low competency levels for computer use and the most important barrier to their technology use was their lack of technology related knowledge and skills. looking from both teachers’ and students’ perspectives, the results of this study would provide valuable insights about how to improve technology integration process in educational settings. keywords: technology use, teacher perceptions, student perceptions, elementary schools özet: bu çalışmada, okullarda teknoloji entegrasyonu konusunda önemli role sahip olan iki farklı paydaş grubunun (öğretmen ve öğrenci) görüşleri alınarak, ankara’da bir ilköğretim okulunda teknoloji kullanımının araştırılması amaçlanmaktadır. bu çalışmanın katılımcıları 35 öğretmen ve 81 öğrenciden oluşmaktadır. bu çalışmadaki veriler araştırmacı tarafından geliştirilen, öğretmen ve öğrencilere özel iki farklı anket aracılığı ile toplanmıştır. çalışmanın sonuçları incelendiğinde, öğretmen ve öğrencilerin teknolojinin eğitim ortamlarında kullanımı konusunda olumlu düşüncelere sahip oldukları görülmüştür. öğretmenlerin en sık kullandığı teknolojilerin bilgisayar ve internet olduğu ve öğretmenlerin teknolojiyi en çok derse hazırlanma sürecinde kullandıkları anlaşılmıştır. ayrıca, çoğu öğretmenin teknoloji kullanımı konusunda kendisini yetersiz gördüğü ve öğretmenlerin 1 dr., orta doğu teknik üniversitesi, krcferide@gmail.com mailto:krcferide@gmail.com� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 43-59 44 teknoloji kullanımına en önemli engelin, onların teknoloji ile alakalı bilgi ve becerilerinin yetersiz olmasından kaynaklandığı görülmüştür. okullarda teknoloji entegrasyonu konusunda önemli role sahip olan iki farklı paydaş grubunun (öğretmen ve öğrenci) algılarının araştırıldığı bu çalışma, okullarda teknoloji entegrasyonu sürecinin geliştirilmesi konusunda faydalı bakış açıları sunmaktadır. anahtar kelimeler: teknoloji kullanımı, öğretmen görüşleri, öğrenci görüşleri, ilköğretim okulları introduction in this century, teachers are required to integrate technology in ways that “their students achieve success in learning, communications, and life skills, as well as becoming technology literate in the process” (dias & atkinson, 2001, p.2). since the world is technologically oriented, the students need to master new technologies in order to answer the requirements of information age (li, 2007). therefore, while setting educational policies in many countries, the policy makers investigate the ways for preparing the students for the current technologically oriented society (çağıltay, çakıroğlu, çağıltay & çakıroğlu, 2001). since most policy maker believe that high access to technologies likely to result in major improvements in teaching and learning (cuban, kirkpatrick & peck, 2001), substantial investments have been made in educational technology (bebell, russell, & o’dwyer, 2004). as technologies became more available in schools, educational researchers are challenged to explore the value of technology use in educational environments (baylor & ritche, 2002). according to yıldırım (2007), the use of technologies in educational settings is related to many social, economic and pedagogical benefits. the author explained that the use of technologies has a great value in “improving communication and collaboration among students and teachers, and in reforming teaching and learning tasks” (p.172). çağıltay, çakır, çağıltay and çakır (2001) found that turkish teachers have positive beliefs about technology use as they thought that the use of technologies increases the quality of education. the participant teachers also feride karaca 45 expressed that technology use has some positive effects on the students, such as it increases the students’ knowledge and skills, their interest and motivation to the lesson. in a current study, karaca (2011) also found that turkish teachers have positive beliefs and attitudes towards using technologies and the teachers thought that the use of technologies positively impacts students’ achievement in the lessons and it increases their participation, motivation and interests to the lessons. it was emphasized in the literature that when teachers believe that technology is useful and it has a potential to improve teaching and learning, they are more likely to use technologies in a variety of ways (teo, 2009; zhao & frank, 2003). although teachers have positive beliefs about technology use and they have more access to technologies both in classrooms and at home, their use of technologies is still low (doughty, leu, spuchec, & yonai, 1995; ertmer, 2005; adıgüzel, 2010). according to cuban et al. (2001), most teachers and students are occasional to rare users or they are nonusers of technology in classrooms. furthermore, a snapshot survey conducted in elementary schools in ankara, showed that most of the elementary teachers are rare users or nonusers of technology (yüzgeç, 2003). also, adıgüzel (2010) found that teachers rarely use computer technologies in their lessons. in the literature, many different studies have been conducted to find out the factors that are responsible for teachers’ limited use of technologies. for example, after a huge literature review and research, ely (1999) found eight conditions that facilitate technology adoption in schools. these were (1) dissatisfaction with status quo, (2) existence of knowledge and skills, (3) availability of resources, (4) availability of time, (5) rewards or incentives exist, (6) participation, (7) commitment, and (8) leadership. in a more recent research, hew and brush (2007) made an extensive literature review about previous empirical studies, and they reached six main categories of barriers: (1) resources, (2) knowledge and skills, (3) institution, (4) attitudes and beliefs, (5) assessment, (6) subject culture. furthermore, ertmer (1999) made a categorization of barriers including first-order and second-order barriers. the journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 43-59 46 first order barriers are external to the teachers and included types of resources, such as equipment, time, training and support; and the second order barriers were internal to the teachers and included teachers’ beliefs about teaching computers and their willingness to use computers in their lessons. in addition, çağıltay et al. (2001) revealed that the most important barriers that turkish teachers might face while integrating technology were related to lack of availability of technologies and lack of technology training. also, the teachers stated that the curriculum was not appropriate to integrate technologies. according to adıgüzel (2010), the most important factors affecting teachers’ use of instructional technologies were teachers’ lack of technology knowledge and skills, overcrowded classrooms, access to technologies, technical and principal support. as technology becomes more available in educational settings, it is important to investigate the ways to integrate technologies into the lessons (dias & atkinson, 2001). it is emphasized in the literature that all the main stakeholders including researchers, policy makers, and parents should be involved in the technology integration process (li, 2007) in order to design an educational environment that will best meet the future needs of all the students (peck & carr, 1997). therefore, it is significant to explore the perceptions of these main stakeholders for understanding how to involve them in the technology integration process. for this reason, this study seeks to understand perceptions of two important stakeholder groups in elementary school settings: teachers and students. since “the decision regarding whether and how to use technology for instruction rests on the shoulders of classroom teachers” (ertmer, 2005, p. 26), their perceptions are critical to be investigated. also, the perceptions of the students are important to be examined since they are the mostly affected persons by technology implementation (li, 2007). consequently, the perceptions of both teachers and students would provide valuable insights about how to improve technology integration process in educational settings. this study, therefore, explores teachers’ and students’ perceptions about technology use in an feride karaca 47 elementary school in ankara, turkey. with respect to the aim of this study, two main research questions were proposed: 1. what are the teachers’ and students’ perceptions about technology use in an elementary school setting? a. what is the current state of technology availability? b. how do teachers use technologies in their lessons? i. how often do teachers use technologies in their lessons? ii. what are the teachers’ purposes for technology use? iii. what are the teachers’ perceived computer competencies? c. what are the barriers that influence teachers’ technology use in the lessons? 2. what are the teachers’ and students’ perceptions about the benefits of using technologies in the lessons? method in this study, a descriptive case study was conducted to explore teachers’ and students’ perceptions about technology use in an elementary school in ankara, turkey. in this part, some information was provided about the participants and sampling, data collection and data analysis methods of the present study. participants and sampling this study was conducted in an elementary school located in the western part of the ankara, in turkey. this school has a good deal of technological media and materials, and most teachers were qualified in their field. nearly all the classes were occupied with computers, internet and projectors and there are some classes for special subject fields including a science and technology class, a technology and design class, a visual arts class, a library and two information technologies classes. there are 35 teachers and 815 students in this school. all the teachers (n= 35) in this school participated to this study. while selecting the participant students, the journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 43-59 48 researcher decided to include 10% of the students in this school, which involves 81 students in total. the participant students were randomly selected from 6th, 7th and 8th grade students and 27 students from each grade level were participated to this study. the participant students included 54 girls and 27 boys. in this school, there were 13 classroom teachers, 2 turkish language teachers, 2 social studies teachers, 2 mathematic teachers, 3 science teachers, 3 english language teachers, 4 technology and design teachers, 1 information technologies teacher, 1 religious culture teacher, 1 art, 1 music, 1 physical sciences and 1 preschool teacher. as explained before, all the teachers in the participant school were included in this study. there were 31 female and 4 male teachers. 13 teachers were over 46 years old, 15 teachers were between 36 and 45 years old, and 5 teachers were between 26 and 35 years old. most of the teachers (n= 16) were experienced teachers with more than 20 year teaching experience. in addition, 9 teachers had a teaching experience of 16-20 years, 4 teachers had a teaching experience of 11-15 years, and 3 teachers had a teaching experience of 6-10 years, and 3 teachers had a teaching experience of 1-5 years. among the teachers, 1 teacher used computers between 6 month and 1 year. furthermore, 10 teachers had a computer experience of 1 to 2 years, 13 teachers had 2 to 5 years, and 9 teachers had a computer experience of more than 5 years. in addition, most of the teachers (n=18) stated to use computers less than 1 hour in a day. while 10 teachers expressed to use computers 1 to 3 hours in a day, only 4 teachers rated to use computers more than 3 hours in a day. also, more than half of the participant teachers expressed that they learned how to use computers by having in-service trainings in their school. also, 20% of teachers explained that they learned about computers by themselves. only 14% of teachers learned about computers from their colleagues and 9% of teachers learned about computers in their undergraduate education. feride karaca 49 data collection and data analysis methods in this study, data were collected through two different questionnaires developed by the researcher. while developing these questionnaires, the researcher benefited from the questionnaires developed by çağıltay et al. (2001) and yüzgeç (2003). in order to check the face and content validity of the instruments, the questionnaires were shown to 4 different experts. depending on the expert comments, necessary revisions were made to the questionnaires. the teacher questionnaire consisted of two parts. the first part of the questionnaire involved some demographics and second part involved some questions about teachers’ perceptions about technology use in their school. second, the student questionnaire consisted of two parts. the first part of this questionnaire included some demographics and the second part involved a scale about students’ perceptions of technology use in their school. the student questionnaire involved a likert type scale of 1 to 3 where 1 represents “disagree”, 2 represents “partially agree” and 3 represents “agree”. teacher questionnaires were distributed to all teachers in the school by the researcher and the student questionnaires were distributed to the students by the school administration. after data collection process, the data was analyzed by using descriptive statistics, which involves frequencies, means, percentages and standard deviations. results below, the findings of the study were given under six headings: current state of technology availability, teachers’ technology use in the lessons, teachers’ purposes for using technologies, teachers’ perceived computer competencies, barriers that influence teachers’ technology use, perceptions about the benefits of technologies. current state of technology availability when asked about the adequacy of technologies in their school, a majority of teachers (89%) stated that there were enough computers and internet access in their journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 43-59 50 school. also, many teachers expressed that there were sufficient television (86%), projector (77%), video player (66%), and overhead projector (%57), in their school. the least frequently rated technology was smart board. also, students were generally agree that the available technologies in their school were sufficient to answer their needs (m=2.02, sd=.76), and they have access to these technologies in their school (m=2.11, sd=.67). the students expressed that they can readily use it classes whenever they need (m=2.36, sd=.77). although the students have easy access to computers (m=2.57, sd=.76) in the school, they cannot readily acess to the internet (m=1.87, sd=.65). teachers’ technology use in the lessons the teachers were asked to report the frequency of the use of different technologies in the lessons. most of the teachers use computer (60%), internet (46%) and projectors (43%) in their courses. also, these technologies were the most frequently used technologies in the lessons. however, only one teacher stated to use smart board once a month in her lessons. it was the least frequently used technology in the lessons since 11 teachers rated to never use smart board it in their lessons. on the other hand, students’ ratings for teachers’ use of computers were low (m=1.68, sd=.65). their ratings for the use of television (m=1.18, sd=.41), video (m=1.36, sd=.62) and overhead projector (m=1.94, sd=.70) in the lessons were also low. teachers’ purposes for using technologies teachers mostly used technologies for searching information (n=21, 60%) and for entering student grades (n=18, 51%). also, some teachers reported using technologies for preparing lesson plan (n=13, 37%) and preparing instructional materials (n=13, 37%). finally, teachers reported using computers least frequently for for presenting lessons (n=9, 25%), and demonstrating examples (n=7, 20%). feride karaca 51 teachers’ perceived computer competencies teachers were asked to rate their computer competencies. of the respondents, only one teacher stated to be “very good” in using computers. in addition, 5 teachers stated to be “good”, 14 teachers were “avarage”, 14 teachers stated to be “poor”, and only one teacher stated to be “very poor” in computer use. in addition, the teachers were asked about their use of some common computer applications. many teachers stated to use ms office applications including, ms word (60%), powerpoint (37%), ms excel (31%). in addition, most of the teachers (66%) expressed that they use email programs. furthermore, the teachers were asked about their in-service training needs about technology use. though 34% of teachers expressed their need for technology related in-service training, a majority of teachers (60%) stated that they did not need any technology training in-service training. among the teachers, who expressed their need for technology related in-service training, 17 teachers wanted to have training about the use of ms office applications. also, 4 teachers requested training about basic computer use, 4 teachers about web design and only 1 teacher claimed to have training about internet use. barriers that influence teachers’ technology use the teachers were asked about the barriers that influence their use of technologies in the lessons. the most important barrier to technology use was related to teachers’ insufficient knowledge and skills to use technologies. furthermore, many teachers expressed that the lesson hours were not adequate to use technology. furthermore, 11 % of teachers stated that they do not have enough time to prepare instructional materials. although it was a technology rich school, 18% of teachers thought that there were not enough hardware in their school and 14 % of teachers talked about inadequate instructional materials available to be used in the lessons. a journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 43-59 52 small portion of teachers talked about the problems of inadequate in-service technology training (11%) and lack of technical support (6 %). perceptions about the benefits of technologies the teachers were asked about the benefits of technology use in the lessons. 80% of the teachers stated that the use of technologies in lessons enhances learning environment. also, many teachers stated that the use of technologies in the lessons increases permanency of learning (71%), and it makes the content more attractive (69%). of the participants, 66% of teachers reported that use of technologies eases students’ learning and 63% of them stated that it increases students’ motivation. finally, a small portion of teachers felt that use technologies is good for saving time (40%), for disclosing student’ interests and abilities (29%), and for individualizing instruction (23%). the students have also positive beliefs about technology use in the lessons. they thought that they learn better in the technology supported lessons (m=2.71, sd=.62) and so they become more successful in those lessons (m=2.56, sd=.71). also, the use of technologies increases their motivation (m=2.52, sd=.71) and their participation to the lesson (m=2.57, sd=.67). furthermore, the students expressed that they can better communicate with their teachers in technology supported lessons (m=2.34, sd=.75). finally, the students mostly rated that they want to have more information about the latest technologies (m=2.86, sd=.42). discussion and conclusion in the present study, the perceptions of two important stakeholder groups (teachers and students) were examined at the same time to have an insight about the current state of technology integration in an elementary school in ankara, turkey. the findings of the present study indicated that teachers and students have generally similar perceptions about technology use in elementary school settings. since this feride karaca 53 study was conducted in an elementary school, which is well equipped with technological media and materials, all the stakeholders were agree that there were sufficient media and materials in this school. the findings of this study showed that both teachers and students have positive perceptions about the value of technologies in educational settings. first, the students thought that they learn better and become more successful in the technology supported lessons. also, they thought that the use of technologies increases their motivation and their participation to the lesson and they can better communicate with their teachers in technology supported lessons. similarly, li (2007) found that the students have positive beliefs about the effects of technology use, including increased efficiency, motivation and confidence, preparation for the future and pedagogical benefits. these findings were also supported by yıldırım (2007) that technologies have a great value in “improving communication and collaboration among students and teachers, and in reforming teaching and learning tasks” (p.172). furthermore, in the present study, the students were reluctant to have more information about the latest technologies. similarly, li (2007) found that the students were enthusiastic for frequent and better use of technologies in the lessons and they want to learn more about technology use in order to prepare themselves for the future workforce. according to the author, students should have positive attitudes and beliefs about technology use since they need to master new technologies in order to answer the requirements of information age. also, most participant teachers believed in the benefits of using technologies as they thought that the use of technologies enriches the learning environment, increases permanency of learning, makes the content more attractive, eases learning and increases students’ motivation. this finding was supported by karaca (2011), who revealed that turkish teachers have positive attitudes and beliefs towards technology use. in the literature, teachers’ belief and attitudes about technology use is journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 43-59 54 one of the most important factors affecting technology integration (karaca, 2011, teo, 2009; van braak et al., 2004). it is emphasized in the literature that when teachers believe that technology is useful and it has a potential to improve teaching and learning, they are more likely to use technologies in a variety of ways (teo, 2009; zhao & frank, 2003). this study results indicated that the availability and accessibility of technologies influences teachers’ use of technologies in their lessons. hew and brush (2007) point to the importance of access to available technologies by saying that in order to integrate technology in to curriculum, technologies should be provided in the locations where teachers and students can use them. since many classrooms were equipped with computers, projectors and internet in the participant school, these technologies became teachers’ most frequently used technologies. also, the results showed that participant teachers mostly use technologies for preparation and evaluation activities, such as searching information, preparing lesson plan, preparing exam questions, entering student grades etc. on the other hand, very few teachers used the technologies for in-class activities like presenting lesson, demonstrating examples etc. this finding was supported by many studies that teachers mostly use technologies for class preparation activities, rather than for inclass activities (karaca, 2011; o’dwyer et. all, 2004; yıldırım, 2007). although the participant school has a good deal of technological media and materials, teachers’ use of technologies is still limited to class preparation activities. in this study, there were some differences between the views of teachers and students about teachers’ use of technologies in the lessons. although the teachers stated that they use computers and internet in their lessons, their use of technologies was still limited to class preparation activities, and they rarely use technologies for inclass activities. since the students are exact observers of the teachers’ performance in the lessons, they complained about that their teachers did not much frequently use feride karaca 55 technologies in the lessons. in order to deal with this problem, selwyn (1999) recommended locating more technologies in the classrooms so that teachers can readily use these technologies whenever they need. for improving teachers’ technology use in the classroom environment, ministry of national education developed a nationwide project, called as fatih project (ministry of national education, 2011), which aimed to provide turkish basic education schools and classrooms with ict technologies. however, as our findings indicated, providing access and availability to technologies, does not alone lead to teachers’ high level of technology use (ertmer, 2005). therefore, using the results of this study, the policy makers should design and develop some strategies about how to support teachers in technology integration process. considering the barriers found in this study, some professional and technical support facilities should be provided for teachers. the findings of this study indicated that teachers’ one of the most frequently stressed barriers to their technology use was their lack of technology related knowledge and skills. in fact, most of the participant teachers stated to lack the necessary knowledge and skills about technology use. the importance of teachers’ having technology competencies was highly emphasized in the literature (adıgüzel, 2010; hew& brush, 2007; karaca, 2011) and it is one of the common reasons given by teachers for not using technologies (hew & brush, 2007). çağıltay et al. (2001) found that increasing teachers’ knowledge and skills about technology use was the most important requirement for integrating technologies to the curriculum. on the other hand, most of the participant teachers expressed that they did not need any technology related in-service training. it can be understood from here that even though teachers lack the necessary skills and knowledge to use technology and the most commonly stated barrier for technology use were their lack of skills and knowledge, they still did not want to have technology related in-service training. these results can be possibly explained by that teachers do not much benefit from these in-service training programs, since they complain about the quality and journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 43-59 56 effectiveness of these training programs in turkey (çağıltay et al., 2001; yıldırım, 2007). yıldırım (2007) explained that teachers’ specific needs were not considered while designing these programs. therefore, a need analysis should be conducted for determining teachers’ specific technology related in-service training needs. furthermore, the author explained that these trainings were given in a seminar format and teachers’ do not have a chance to apply what they have learned. for this reason, teachers should have a chance to experiment what they have learned in the training sessions. furthermore, these training sessions should be given in the contracted school year, since teachers are not motivated to have trainings in the summer breaks. in the early efforts of technology integration, it was thought that when the appropriate conditions were met, technology integration would follow (ertmer, 1999). on the other hand, even though the conditions for successful integration appear to be in place in this participant school, teachers’ technology use is still low. consequently, technology integration seems not to be just the “availability” issue, and as our results also indicated, some additional barriers may be at work. therefore, some further research should be conducted to examine the other possible barriers. in this study, the perceptions of two important stakeholder groups (teachers and students) were examined at the same time to have an insight about the current state of technology integration in a technology rich elementary school in turkey. their perceptions would provide valuable insights about how to improve technology integration process in educational settings. in the future, some qualitative studies should also be conducted to have teachers and student perceptions about technology use in depth. feride karaca 57 references adıgüzel, a. (2010). the status of instructional technology in the primary schools and classroom teachers’ level of using these technologies. dicle university ziya gökalp education faculty journal, 15, 1-17. baylor, a. l., & ritchie, d. (2002). what factors facilitate teacher skill, teacher morale, and perceived student learning in technology-using classrooms? computers & education, 39(4), 395–414. bebell, d., russell, m., & o’dwyer, l. (2004). measuring teachers’ technology uses: why multiple measures are more revealing. journal of research on technology in education, 37(1), 45–63. berg b l. (2001) qualitative research methods for the social sciences. boston: pearson/allyn & bacon. çağıltay, k., çakıroğlu, j., çağıltay, n., çakıroğlu,e. (2001) teachers' perspectives about the use of computers in education, hacettepe university journal of education, 21(1), 19-28 cuban, l.; kirkpatrick, h., & peck, c. (2001) high access and low use of technologies in high school classrooms: explaining an apparent paradox. american educational research journal, 38, 813–834. dias, l. b., & atkinson, s. (2001). technology integration: best practices? where do teachers stand? the international electronic journal for leadership in learning (iejll), 5 (10). doughty, p., leu, d., spuchec, c., & yonai, b. (1995). developing classroom-based data for technology decisions: assisting the implementation of oswego's vision for the use of technology. district-wide summary report (report no. ed 396710). oswego city school district, ny. ely, d. (1999). conditions that facilitate the implementation of educational technology innovations. educational technology, 39(6), 23–27. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 43-59 58 ertmer, p. a. (1999). addressing first and second order barriers to change: strategies for technology integration. educational technology research and development, 47(4), 47-61. ertmer, p. a. (2005). teacher pedagogical beliefs: the final frontier in our quest for technology integration? educational technology research and development, 53(4)25-39. hew, k., & brush, t. (2007). integrating technology into k-12 teaching and learning: current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research. educational technology research and development, 55(3), 223-252. karaca, f. (2011). factors associated with technology integration to elementary school settings: a path model. unpublished doctoral dissertation, middle east technical university, ankara, turkey. lawson, t. & comber, c. (1999). superhighways technology: personnel factors leading to successful integration of information and communications technology in schools and colleges. journal of information technology for teacher education, 8 (1), 41-53. li, q. (2007). student and teacher views about technology: a tale of two cities?. journal of research on technology in education, 39 (4), 377-397. ministry of national education (2011). eğitimde fatih projesi. retrieved april 3, 2011, from http://fatihprojesi.meb.gov.tr/site/projehakkinda.php. nelson, l.m., & reigeluth, c.m. (1995). professional development in systemic educational change. in p.m. jenlink (ed.), changing education systemically: touchstones for designing future schools. palatine, il: skylight publishing. peck, k. l. & carr, a. a. (1997) restoring public confidence in schools through systems thinking. international journal of educational reform, 6(3), 316-323. pelgrum, w. j. (2001). obstacles to the integration of ict in education: results from a worldwide educational assessment. computers & education, 37(2), 163-178. feride karaca 59 rogers, p. l. (2000). barriers to adopting emerging technologies in education. journal of educational computing research, 22(4), 455-472. selwyn, n. (1999). differences in educational computer use: the influences of subject cultures. the curriculum journal, 10(1), 29-48. teo, t. (2009). modelling technology acceptance in education: a study of pre-service teachers. computers & education, 52(2), 302-312. van braak, j., tondeur, j., & valcke, m. (2004). explaining different types of computer use among primary school teachers. european journal of psychology of education, 19(4), 407–422. yıldırım, s. (2007). current utilization of ict in turkish basic education schools: a review of teacher's ict use and barriers to integration. international journal of instructional media, 34(2) 171-186. yüzgeç, a. (2003). bilgi teknolojisi sınıflarının kullanımı ve etkilerinin değerlendirilmesi. unpublished masters’ thesis, ankara university, ankara, turkey. zhao,y., frank, & k. a. (2003) factors affecting technology use in schools: an ecological perspective. american educational research journal, 40(4), 807840. introduction www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2), 178-190 178 internationalization impact on phd training policy in russia: insights from the comparative document analysis oksana chigisheva1, elena soltovets2, anna bondarenko3 abstract the relevance of the study is due to the need for an objective picture of the russian third level tertiary education transformation driven by internationalization issues and global trends in education. the article provides an analytical comparative review of the official documents related to the main phases of education reform in russia and focuses on the system of phd training which has undergone significant reorganization in recent years. a series of alterations introduced into the theory and practice of postgraduate education in russia are traced in regulatory documents and interpreted in terms of growing internationalization demand. possible implications for further development of the research human potential in russia are being discussed. the method of comparative document analysis produces the best possible insight into the subject. the findings of the study contribute to the understanding of current challenges facing the system of doctoral studies in russia and lead to certain conclusions on the transformation of educational policy in relation to phd training under the influence of internationalization agenda. keywords: internationalization, educational policy, phd training, comparative document analysis, russia. introduction among the many trends shaping the face of modern higher education few are as powerful and tangible in their impacts as internationalization. the fact that internationalization of education has remained prominent on the global agenda is easily explainable taking into consideration the number of challenges it poses to national educational systems. one of the most obvious is connected with the by-effects of globalization. accessibility and diversification of labour markets combined with the increased job and academic mobility stirred competition to an extent when “it is the market, not the state, that is the instrument for shaping educational values” (ghosh, 2004, p. 93), spurring educational institutions into “interconnectedness and multi-level, multi-directional relationships” (ghosh, 2004, p. 93) and bringing about the “culture of accountability” (assessment in education. implications for leadership, 2016, p. 28). though the 1 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, southern federal university, opchigisheva@sfedu.ru 2 senior lecturer, southern federal university, hsolt@mail.ru 3master student, southern federal university, anuta060693@mail.ru mailto:anuta060693@mail.ru chigisheva et al. implications are far-reaching, it is the long-term vision that many higher educational establishments lack under the pressure of globalization, being prone, according to mestenhauser (2002), to quick fixes in internationalization instead of developing a systematic approach. this constraint can be partly related to the institutional conservatism, which is seen by ellingboe (1996) as one of the major barriers. green (2003) mentions other institutional barriers manifested in “scarce resources, disciplinary paradigms, structures, or the absence of incentives” (green, 2003, p. 1). the institutional level of changes fueled by internationalization also implies shifts in the attitudes of the university stakeholders (president, administration, faculty etc.) (drascovic et al., 2017). understanding them through the current policy and implementation efforts “is key in not only removing some of the barriers of the internationalization process, but also managing the university wide internationalization process effectively” (iuspa, 2010, p. 50). all the challenges mentioned are of special relevance for russia that has been struggling its way through the higher education modernization process for the last two decades. in compliance with the european education integration process russia has been gradually introducing alterations into its national education policy. the years after the adoption of the bologna process by the russian federation witnessed the process of “unification of educational standards with ones of the eu” being “the main trend in the development of russian education” (vorontsov & vorontsova, 2015, p. 1163). the changes took years, being introduced on the “bottom-up” principle into the bachelors’ level first with masters’ education to follow. postgraduate education, therefore, was the last to undergo reforms. by that time the impacts of global processes were pervasive in terms of tertiary education internationalization. whether the internationalization demands were met remains an open question. the scope of meaning behind existing definitions of internationalization, as well as the variety of terms commonly used to address different aspects of internationalization, makes such assessment a difficult task. one of the recognized definitions proposed by the association of international educators (nafsa, 2011) describes internationalization as the conscious effort to integrate and infuse international, intercultural, and global dimensions into the ethos and outcomes of postsecondary education. the definition of jane knight (2004) features it as a phenomenon more approachable in terms of national standards analysis, “the process of integrating international, intercultural and global dimensions into the purpose, functions – teaching/learning, research and service – or delivery of higher education” (knight, 2004, p. 9). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 178-190 she also suggests discriminating between “cross-border internationalization” for off-campus initiatives and “internationalization at home” for campus-based strategies including international and intercultural dimension in the teaching/learning process (knight, 2010, p. 208). this research rests upon the “internationalization at home” assumption, as it enables a closer consideration of the country-specific standards of postgraduate education to the extent feasible. thus, this study is aimed at revealing the extent of internationalization impact on phd training policy in russia. it seems possible to do it through rigorous comparative analysis of documents allowing fixing qualitative transformations in phd educational domain in response to growing internationalization dynamics in the sector of russian higher education. literature review a tremendous contribution to the study of the phenomenon of internationalization in higher education was made by jane knight, a renowned expert in the sphere. the definition proposed by knight (2003) summarizes numerous concepts of internationalization as “the process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of postsecondary education” (knight, 2003, p. 2). the difference of internationalization strategies which are peculiar to the level of education (bachelor, master or doctorate) is repeatedly noted by hans de wit (2011). considering the phenomenon of internationalization for higher education in his monograph of 2011, he also emphasizes the shift from “reactive to a pro-active strategic issue, from added value to mainstream” (de wit, 2011, p. 232) as well as substantial change in its focus, scope and content. complex relations between the “cross-border” and “home” internationalization are also examined; the fact that mobility is gradually being replaced from the centre stage by the issues of learning process and curriculum is seen as a current trend. the significance of curricula internationalization has long been recognized by scholars and a lot has been said about acute necessity of globally competent educators (kopish, 2016). curricular change is shown as a “powerful and practical way to bridge the gap between rhetoric and practice” (leask, 2001, p. 100). advantages of the transformational approach, “which promotes a critical awareness of the bias and values inherent in western pedagogical and curricular approaches’ is described as able to minimize negative effects of various constraints (williams, 2008, p. 32). a growing trend of internationalization in postsecondary education curricula is often interpreted in terms of dealing with foreign students’ influx (james et al., chigisheva et al. 2013). however, the “at home” internationalization is rarely considered as a set of national lawdriven alterations in the curriculum. while a wide range of national reports and country casestudies has been published recently (butterfoeld, 2007; leung et al., 2017), the reports on russian experience published internationally are not plentiful. the agenda of soviet vs. post-soviet dimensions fuels some of the research. historical implications of the soviet educational system collapse and academic internationalization in market-driven russian reality are described by kuraev (2014). shaydorova (2014) provides the analysis of the rationales for internationalization of higher education taking into account interests of the main stakeholders. one of the most comprehensive studies was conducted by the british council, it covers the dimension of academic english language perspective (frumina & west, 2012). the prospects of further development of internationalization by higher educational institutions of russia are viewed positively by kulikova and tseljutina (2015) who give a brief review of the forms of internationalization. the optimism is based on the continuing impact of globalization and integration trends on the educational environment resulting in enlarging the scope of forms and techniques enormously. on the contrary, kupriyanova-ashina and chang (2013) stress the lack of strategic vision and the demand for system approach in shaping national educational concept in this respect. this view is shared by some russian scholars. thus, filippov (2013) calls for creating a complex national policy document regulating internal internationalization in russia. knyazev and drantusova (2013) study the models of institutional differentiation due to internationalization processes and present the analysis of the stakeholders’ expectations as seen through the documental prism of government initiatives. finally, a far-reaching controversy is noticed by kapshutar (2016) who studies a new russian system of doctoral training, introduced after 2014, in terms of quality issues. it is a gap between the transformed status, process, normative legal base of doctoral programs and the rigidity of traditional approaches. materials and methods the paper draws upon data represented in the policy documents that include: 1. law of the russian federation on education n 3266-1 of july 10, 1992; 2. federal law on education in the russian federation n 273-fl of december 29, 2012; 3. decree of the government of the russian federation no. 842 of september 24, 2013 (as amended on august 28, 2017) "on the https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=leung%20d%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28884948 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 178-190 procedure of awarding academic degrees" (together with the "regulation on awarding academic degrees"). (2013); 4. decree from july 30, 2014 n 902 on the “approval of the federal state educational standards of higher education, field of studies 44.06.01 education and pedagogical sciences (highly qualified personnel training level)” (2014); 5. order from july 30, 2014 n 902 on the “approval of the federal state educational standards of higher education, field of studies 44.06.01 education and pedagogical sciences (highly qualified personnel training level)” (2014); 6. order of the ministry of education and science of the russian federation of march 18, 2016 n 227 “on approval of the procedure for conducting state final certification on educational programs of higher education programs for the training of scientific and pedagogical staff in postgraduate study, traineeship, internship programs” (2016); 7. federal law “on amendments to article 4 of the federal law “on science and state policy in science and technology" of may 23, 2016, n 148-fl (2016). document analysis was used for systematic and thorough review and evaluation of the chosen educational policy documents that have been regulating phd training at different time periods in russia (bowen, 2009). the research was supported by the comparative method (phillips & schweisfurth, 2014, fedotova & chigisheva, 2015) that allowed to highlight the key changes associated with internationalization process taking into account worldwide trends in the sphere of higher education and doctoral studies. results and discussion the collapse of the soviet union brought about the transformation of the whole system of higher education. the pattern of doctoral students’ training also had to undergo a number of reforms in compliance with the new national policy in the field of tertiary education of the young russian federation. its fundamental principles were provided by the law of the russian federation on education n 3266-1 of july 10, 1992. according to the law, in the post-soviet tertiary education system postgraduate professional education was the basic form of training academic and teaching staff (academics) as well as researchers. the process of the doctoral training transformation was driven by a complex system of interlinked factors. unlike the soviet education tradition, which, as a number of scholars have noted, had remained “frozen internally” in its theories and practices and had been “impervious to outside influences” seen as a threat (morgan & kliucharev, 2012, p. 3), the newly-born russian education was sensitive to the world-wide trends. as russia was striving for international chigisheva et al. cooperation, the post-soviet education was characterized by the increasing integration processes. some radical transformations were dictated by “both internal social and economic needs and external pressures such as europeanisation and globalization” (morgan & kliucharev, 2012, p. 5). as gounko and smale (2007) point out, “the most notable changes in higher education were achieved through curriculum reform, institutional autonomy, the diversification and expansion of higher education and the introduction of tuition fees in public institutions” (gounko & smale, 2007, p. 533). the biggest impact on modernization of the doctoral students’ training process was clearly related to the eu bologna process, joined by russia in 2003. communiqué of the conference of ministers responsible for higher education in berlin on 19 september 2003. “realising the european higher education area” spotlighted the doctoral level of higher education and emphasized the necessity to include it into the bologna process as a third-pillar of higher education. the bologna process prescribed a transfer from the classical pattern of doctoral students training within its system/paradigm of “research student – scientific advisor” relations to the well-structured doctoral program as the third cycle. the latter relies on a comprehensive syllabus involving thesis research (compulsory for all learners of the program), in-depth disciplinary and interdisciplinary training (provided through a series of seminars, courses and workshops), as well as educational modules aimed at developing profession-related competencies (bedny, 2013). quite expectedly russia “had a long way to go in terms of adaptation and pilots” (esyutina et al., 2013, p. 152). it was not until 2011 when large-scale educational reforms resulted in meaningful curricula changes. fundamental changes in the system of postgraduate training were soon to follow. the federal law on education in the russian federation n 273-fl of december 29, 2012 proclaimed a shift from postgraduate vocational education to doctoral study programs as the third cycle of higher education. this new model was supposed to change the status of postgraduate education as a social institution, its aims and functions as well as the training and assessment procedure, but started to actually function only two years later, in 2014 (bedny, 2017, p. 6). training programs for research students had to abide by the federal state educational standard of higher education approved in 2014 by the order n 902 of the ministry of education and science of the russian federation. the doctoral study program is expected to equip the students with all necessary competences for carrying out research in a certain professional area journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 178-190 and teaching activity in higher education institutions (order from july 30, 2014 n 902 on the “approval of the federal state educational standards of higher education, field of studies 44.06.01 education and pedagogical sciences (highly qualified personnel training level)” (2014). the law specifies the procedure of the end-of-course assessment as including the following forms: state examination; defending graduate qualification thesis; scientific report on the main results of the research graduate qualification work (dissertation) (order of the ministry of education and science of the russian federation of march 18, 2016 n 227 “on approval of the procedure for conducting state final certification on educational programs of higher education programs for the training of scientific and pedagogical staff in postgraduate study, traineeship, internship programs”, 2016). thorough and comprehensive as it may seem, the assessment procedure did not lead to a scientific degree. the requirements for conferment of science degree were specified by the decree of the government of the russian federation no. 842 "on the procedure of awarding academic degrees" (together with the "regulation on awarding academic degrees") (2013). a public defense of a thesis is still a prerequisite for being awarded a candidate of science degree (soviet equivalent of the second level scienсe degree). the candidate of science diploma/certificate is granted by the institution where the thesis is defended. the decision is made by the dissertation board of the institution and finally by the higher attestation commission of the russian federation. on may, 23, 2016 the government of the russian federation approved the federal law “on amendments to article 4 of the federal law “on science and state policy in science and technology” (2016) which granted two leading russian universities (moscow state university and saint petersburg state university) autonomy in decision making and degrees conferring. the following phase began on september, 1, 2017, when the list of the institutions enjoying the right to confer degrees was extended up to 20. this is a direct acknowledgement of international experience regarding lack of state control in degree confirmation and transfer of this function directly to the universities. chigisheva et al. conclusion general analysis of the most fundamental changes manifested in the documents regulating national educational environment has revealed a number of trends that can be interpreted as positive in terms of internationalization of the third stage tertiary education in russia. comparative analysis of selected legislative documents within the period of 1992-2016 has demonstrated a gradual shift in the focus of educational policy, urged by the bologna process and enshrined in the federal law on education in the russian federation of 2012. this led to further legislation initiatives standardizing various aspects of educational reform as to its procedure, requirements and the expected results. the practice-oriented character of the learning process is another trend evidenced through the educational theory documents review. the transformation process involves all levels from terminology through the scope of educational approaches used to the teaching techniques. the bulk of changes within the analyzed period indicate a clear emphasis on competitiveness as the idea underlying the process of doctoral training in russia. analysis of the documents regulating the teaching practice and final certification has confirmed a strong positive relationship between the progress of the third level higher education in russia and new requirements imposed on both parties of the learning-teaching process. the whole picture reveals a general tendency towards international transparency: a capacity for selfdevelopment and establishing oneself at the global research labour market is interpreted as a key factor for professional development. most evidently the positive trends have been traced in the federal state educational standards of higher education reshaping the post-graduate studies’ curriculum. enlargement and diversification of the number of disciplines studied, the stress on intensification of the researchspecific competencies development and introduction of english as an equal-partner language signal a clear recognition of the key role of the third-level training for the global research career development. the process of the phd training reforms in russia is far from being successfully completed. however, it allows some cautious optimism, as the tendency towards orientation on educational internationalization remains relevant for russian postgraduate education of 2017. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 178-190 acknowledgements the research was supported by the russian foundation for basic research grant n 1736-01125 “functional literacy of highly qualified scientific and pedagogical personnel in russia and the uk: outcomes of the international comparative study”. references assessment in education. implications for leadership (2016). scott, s., scott, d.e., webber, c.f. (eds.). xiv, springer. bedny, b.i. (2013). the role and structure of educational training in the new-generation postgraduate studies. higher education in russia, 12, 78-89. bowen, g.a. (2009). documentary analysis as a qualitative research method. qualitative research journal, 9(2), 27-40. butterfoeld, a. (2007). the internationalization of doctoral social work education: learning from a partnership in ethiopia. advances in social work, 8(2), 237-251. communiqué of the conference of ministers responsible for higher education in berlin on 19 september 2003. realising the european higher education area. (2003). url: https://media.ehea.info/file/2003_berlin/28/4/2003_berlin_communique_english_577284. pdf de wit, h. (2011). globalisation and internationalization of higher education” [introduction to online monograph]. revista de universidad y sociedad del conocimiento (rusc), 8(2), 241-248. decree from july 30, 2014 n 902 on the “approval of the federal state educational standards of higher education, field of studies 44.06.01 education and pedagogical sciences (highly qualified personnel training level)” (2014). url: http://fgosvo.ru/uploadfiles/fgosvoaspism/440601.pdf decree of the government of the russian federation no. 842 of september 24, 2013 (as amended on august 28, 2017) "on the procedure of awarding academic degrees" (together with the "regulation on awarding academic degrees"). (2013). url: http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_152458/ draskovic, m., milica, d., mladen, i. & chigisheva, o. (2017). preference of institutional changes in social and economic development. journal of international studies, vol. 10, n. 2, 318-328. http://fgosvo.ru/uploadfiles/fgosvoaspism/440601.pdf http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_152458/ chigisheva et al. ellingboe, b.j. (1996). divisional strategies on internationalizing the curriculum: a comparative, five-college case study of deans’ and faculty perspectives at the university of minnesota. master of arts thesis, university of minnesota. esyutina, m., fearon, c. & leatherbarrow, n. (2013). the bologna process in higher education: an exploratory case study in a russian context. quality assurance in education, 21(2), 145-161. federal law “on amendments to article 4 of the federal law “on science and state policy in science and technology" of may 23, 2016, n 148-fl (2016). url: http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_152458/ federal law on education in the russian federation n 273-fl of december 29, 2012. (2012). url: http://base.garant.ru/70291362/ fedotova, o. & chigisheva, o. (2015). comparative analysis: methodological optics in the ideological context. international perspectives on education and society, vol. 26, 57-82. filippov, v.m. (2013). internal internationlization of higher education in russia. in: rationales for internationalization, larionova, m., perfilieva, o. (eds.). moscow: logos publishing house, 200-211. frumina, e. & west, r. (2012). internationalization of russian higher education: the english language dimension. british council. url: https://www.britishcouncil.ru/sites/default/files/internationalisation_of_russian_higher_edu cation.pdf ghosh, r. (2004). globalization in the north american region: toward renegotiation of cultural space. mcgill journal of education, 39(1), 87-101. gounko, t. & smale, w. (2007). modernization of russian higher education: exploring paths of influence. compare: a journal of comparative and international education, 37(4), 533548. green, m. (2003). the challenge of internationalizing undergraduate education: global learning for all. paper presented at the duke university’s global challenges and u.s. higher education conference. durham, nc. iuspa, f.e. (2010). assessing the effectiveness of the internationalization process in higher education institutions: a case study of florida international university. fiu electronic theses and dissertations. url: http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/316 http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_152458/ http://base.garant.ru/70291362/ http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-84929256715&origin=resultslist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=chigisheva&st2=&sid=7d3a4ccc05724c9a976bc22ca175b639.y7eslnddisn8ce7qwvy6w%3a10&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=23&s=author-name%28chigisheva%29&relpos=0&relpos=0&citecnt=0&searchterm=author-name%28chigisheva%29 http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-84929256715&origin=resultslist&sort=plf-f&src=s&st1=chigisheva&st2=&sid=7d3a4ccc05724c9a976bc22ca175b639.y7eslnddisn8ce7qwvy6w%3a10&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=23&s=author-name%28chigisheva%29&relpos=0&relpos=0&citecnt=0&searchterm=author-name%28chigisheva%29 http://www.scopus.com/source/sourceinfo.url?sourceid=4100151515&origin=resultslist https://www.britishcouncil.ru/sites/default/files/internationalisation_of_russian_higher_education.pdf https://www.britishcouncil.ru/sites/default/files/internationalisation_of_russian_higher_education.pdf http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/316 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 178-190 james, c.e., cullinan c.c. & abdi a.a. (2013). internationalizing postsecondary education. in: critical perspectives on international education. comparative and international education (a diversity of voices), hébert y., abdi a.a. (eds.), vol. 15. rotterdam: sense publishers. kapshutar, m.a. (2016). the quality of doctoral students’ training and the efficiency of the modern post-graduate education: searching for the new indices. modern knowledgeintensive technologies, 7(1), 132-136. knight, j. (2004). internationalisation remolded: rationales, strategies and apoproaches. journal for studies in international education, 8(1), 5-31. knight, j. (2010). internationalisation and the competitiveness agenda. in: higher education, policy, and the global competition phenomenon. portnoi, l.m., rust, v.d., bagley, s.s. (eds.). new york: palgrave macmillan, 205-218. knight, j. (2003). updated internationalization definition. international higher education, 33, 2 3. knyazev, e.a. & drantusova, n.v. (2013). to the question on linkage between internationalization and institutional diversity in the systems of higher education. in: larionova, m., perfilieva, o. (eds.). rationales for internationalization. moscow: logos publishing house, 215-243. kopish, m.a. (2016). preparing globally competent teacher candidates through crosscultural experiential learning. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 75108. kulikova o.v. & tseljutina t.v. (2015). the prospects of higher education internationalization development. fundamental studies, 7-8, 610-614. kupriyanova-ashina, v. & chang zh. (2013). the internationalization of higher education: the russian approach. international trends. journal of international relations theory and world politics, 11, 2(33), 85-94. kuraev, a. (2014). internationalization of higher education in russia: collapse or perpetuation of the soviet system? a historical and conceptual study, phd, boston college. url: http://hdl.handle.net/2345/3799 law of the russian federation on education n 3266-1 of july 10, 1992. (1992). url: http://en.russia.edu.ru/information/npb/fzakon/law/3266-1/index,3/ http://hdl.handle.net/2345/3799 http://en.russia.edu.ru/information/npb/fzakon/law/3266-1/index,3/ chigisheva et al. leask, b. (2001). bridging the gap: internationalizing university curricula. journal of studies in international education, 5(2), 100-115. leung, d, carlson, e, kwong, e.e.y., idvall, e. & kumlien, c. (2017). exploring research cultures through internationalization at home for doctoral students in hong kong and sweden. nursing & health sciences. url: https://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12369 mestenhauser, j. (2002). in search of a comprehensive approach to international education: a systems perspective. in: rockin’in red square: critical approaches to international education in the age of cyberculture. grunzweig, w., rinehart, n. (eds.). london: vit verlag, 165-202. morgan, w.j. & kliucharev, g.a. (2012). higher education and the post-soviet transition in russia. european journal of education, 47(1), 3-8. nafsa’s contribution to internationalization of higher education (2011). url: https://www.nafsa.org/_/file/_/2011_izn_contributions.pdf order from july 30, 2014 n 902 on the “approval of the federal state educational standards of higher education, field of studies 44.06.01 education and pedagogical sciences (highly qualified personnel training level)” (2014). url: http://fgosvo.ru/uploadfiles/fgosvoaspism/440601.pdf order of the ministry of education and science of the russian federation of march 18, 2016 n 227 “on approval of the procedure for conducting state final certification on educational programs of higher education programs for the training of scientific and pedagogical staff in postgraduate study, traineeship, internship programs”. (2016). url: http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_196763/49224697548ccd20b77f1c40 aa5682e985c6134e/ phillips d. & schweisfurth, m. (2014). comparative and international education. an introduction to theory, method, and practice. london, bloomsbury: continuum international publishing group. shaydorova, g. (2014). rationales for the internationalization of higher education: the case of russia. url: https://tampub.uta.fi/handle/10024/96033 vorontsov, a. & vorontsova, e. (2015). current trends in russian scientific and educational development in the context of worldwide globalization. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 214, 1156-1164. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=leung%20d%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28884948 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=carlson%20e%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28884948 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=kwong%20eey%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28884948 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=idvall%20e%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28884948 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=kumlien%20c%5bauthor%5d&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=28884948 https://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12369 https://www.nafsa.org/_/file/_/2011_izn_contributions.pdf http://fgosvo.ru/uploadfiles/fgosvoaspism/440601.pdf http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_196763/49224697548ccd20b77f1c40aa5682e985c6134e/ http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_196763/49224697548ccd20b77f1c40aa5682e985c6134e/ https://tampub.uta.fi/handle/10024/96033 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1877042815060887 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1877042815060887 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 178-190 williams, s. (2008). internationalization of the curriculum: a remedy for international students' academic adjustment difficulties? memorial university of newfoundland. url: http://web.uvic.ca/~sherriw/images/ed%206890%20sherri%20williams%20final%20pap er%20for%20website.pdf http://web.uvic.ca/~sherriw/images/ed%206890%20sherri%20williams%20final%20paper%20for%20website.pdf http://web.uvic.ca/~sherriw/images/ed%206890%20sherri%20williams%20final%20paper%20for%20website.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1), 137-152 137 glocal vision to deconstruct internationalization in indonesian higher education nursalam1 abstract glocal vision, a combination of words from globalization and localization "think globally, act locally, by requires students to have global and broad thinking but are implemented based on local wisdom so without leaving the local culture. this study aims to identify the features do students perceive the implementation of glocal vision curriculum and students’ perception on the implementation of glocal vision to deconstructing internationalization. this study involved 383 students as study subjects from each tertiary institution. glocal engagement framework (gef) as a framework for international justice that is fair, inclusive, and diverse. the results of this study indicate that the use of the glocal vision curriculum fosters students’ attitudes that can affect the internationalization aspect of higher education. in concluding this study, critical questions were raised for further study, and recommendations were made to embed the gef in the mainstream curriculum transformation agenda in international higher education. the perceive and perception of higher students will demonstrate their commitment by providing adequate resources to deconstruct internationalization in their respective higher education through the glocal vision curriculum. key words: glocal vision curriculum, glocal engagement framework, gender, internationalization. introduction indonesia’s minister of education and culture encourages the internationalization of higher education so that undergraduate students are encouraged to continue their studies abroad (baswedan, 2014). postgraduate students are expected to attend international conferences while lecturers are encouraged to publish articles in various world academic journals with a high reputation, such as scopus. with the current impetus in education, internationalization is a social obligation in tertiary institutions. in the 21st century, tertiary education faces a substantial number of challenges, which is to educate the number of students who experience continual improvement. the degree of education is a requirement for getting a job as one of the challenges of sustainable development. they can act as informed and responsible informants in a global society. this is an 1 assoc. prof. dr., sociology education, universitas muhammadiyah makassar, nursalam.h@unismuh.ac.id mailto:nursalam.h@unismuh.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 137-152 interrelated curriculum challenge. teachers cannot overcome what problems and how to teach without knowing who taught (tarman & gürel, 2017). internationalization is marketed as an income-generating machine that has become a hegemonic power (patel, 2017). the community is developing amazingly with the promise of quality education designed in the west, which leads to quality of life in their local context. in return, internationalization in higher education has dictated groups of students from developing communities (in asia, africa, and latin america) based on english perspectives of expertise, ethnicity, and indigenous knowledge, from developed communities (or host countries in north america, europe, united kingdom, and australasia). the unbalanced diffusion of new educational and communication technologies throughout the world is increasingly widening the innovation gap (patel & hochfeld, 2012; servaes, 2016). both access and lack of access to new communication media technology create tensions and barriers to achieving social equality. in the internationalization paradigm, factors that influence the developing relationships of glocal communities include stereotyping, prejudice, and discriminatory behavior among proponents of internationalization towards other cultures of the community (mathews, 2016). the author suggests "glocal vision as an alternative to internationalization" (patel & lynch, 2013) as the educational vision at makassar muhammadiyah university (mmu), because glocal vision embodies all the attributes that did not exist in the discourse of internationalization during the last few periods. competitiveness in international institutional scale education that shows a ranking must support the quality of student learning and development, both on a national and international scale (gobo, 2016). glocal vision thinking in higher education for sustainable development can help take advantage of good transnational collaboration opportunities (caniglia et al., 2017). however, the application of glocal vision requires a curriculum that is integrated with four dimensions as local values, which are intellect, emotion, action, and morally (john et al., 2017). glocal vision curriculum prepares students with the knowledge, skills, and mindset to overcome sustainability from local to global context and scale (mathews, 2016; park, sklad, & tsirogianni, 2015). glocal vision curriculum management is elaborated in the form of curriculum and learning processes, which are developed and arranged with different models and trends according to the learning program based on the internationalization of higher education (fuadi, 2018). in this study, the author conducted a preliminary study on the application of the glocal vision curriculum in the sociology education nursalam course at mmu. therefore, the application of the glocal vision curriculum also involves local principles in makassar, such as "pangadereng" (yunus, 2018). at this time, awareness to preserve local culture is very low. this statement is supported by the results of the study with a gender perspective (male and female), which stated that current students are more obedient to cultures that enter through globalization, even though local culture is more in line with their character (fuadi, 2018). this condition is worsened by the fact that rarely have male students maintained the culture in their social environment consciously. the low awareness of the current generation influences the deconstruction of internationalization of a tertiary institution because of the rarity of students who carry regional names in an international event. in this case, raven (2000) stated that respecting cultural arrangements based on gender differences with internationalization has been recognized as being able to improve competence and also critically reflect practitioners' skills. this study identifies the features do students perceive and students’ perception on the implementation of the glocal vision curriculum in the deconstruction of internationalization of students between the internationalization by reviewing the dimensions of glocal vision at mmu with different gender backgrounds can be uncovered. research questions the above goals lead to the research questions as follows: 1. what features do students perceive on the implementation of the glocal vision curriculum at mmu? 2. how are students’ perceptions on the implementation of glocal vision curriculum deconstructed in the international curriculum design at mmu? this study begins with a description of the literature review and theoretical framework, research method followed by an examination of the results of the research questions, and ends with information about the boundaries and direction of the study for study research. literature review and theoretical framework glocal vision curriculum glocal vision is a combination of words from globalization and localization, which means that an approach is developed or designed in a global understanding but is implemented in accommodation locally (soulard, gard, & stern, 2019). another word that best describes glocal vision is "think journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 137-152 globally, act locally", which requires students to have global and broad thinking but are implemented based on local wisdom so that local culture is not forgotten (khondker, 2004; svensson, 2001). in this paper, the authors deconstruct internationalization as an agenda of tertiary institutions as an educational goal. with the pursuit of a new curriculum, the integration of globalization and localization is applied at the same time. the glocal vision curriculum has four dimensions for effective design, namely independent, local and global, virtual and real, collaboration, and relationships (john et al., 2017). independent refers to the success of learning in the learning environment. local and global refers to differences in social and cultural methods. real and virtual refers to spaces that are no longer only located in the classroom. collaboration and relationships refer to the psychological and emotional aspects of the study group. the author implemented the glocal engagement framework to apply glocal vision curriculum in this study. the glocal engagement framework the author develops the glocal engagement framework (gef) by integrating components of effective teaching-learning culture with glocal engagement of dimensions (ged) and principles of global engagement (pge). john et al. (2017) stated that the components of effective teachinglearning culture consisted of independent, local and global, real and virtual, and collaboration and relations. meanwhile, ged has four dimensions, namely intellect, emotion, action, and orally which are important components in glocal vision. while pge has two principles in cultural exchanges, respect each other's differences, which are culture and morally (klyukanov, 2005). to evaluate the use of gef so effective teaching-learning cultural components are identified based on integrated ged and pge main components, i.e., intellect in cultural differences, emotion in culture, action in culture, and morally in culture within the scope of higher education. commitment to learning glocal vision as fairness, inclusiveness, diversity, and sustainability of the framework and its components, ged and pge are crucial for success. gef shares with stakeholders a common vision and foundation for building creative and innovative pathways to improve the quality of life for the glocal community. the gef is illustrated in figure 1 for further understanding of the integration between ged and pge as follows: nursalam figure 1 : the integration of glocal engagement framework method design this study used a quantitative design from which numeric data were analyzed using comparative statistical analysis. comparative statistical analysis helps the author to analyze multiple cases in a complex situation (rihoux, 2006). tilly (1984) distinguishes four types of comparative analysis, namely individualizing, universalizing, variation-finding, and encompassing. the steps in this study are as follows: (1) develop or use a detailed about how today local culture can be brought into the global world so that local wisdom such as "pangadereng" cannot become extinct and later generations can understand it well; (2) identifying a case of interest, students are invited to identify interesting cases about local social life; (3) developing a set of dimensions, students develop how their actions as social beings are based on the dimensions of glocal vision, namely intellect, emotion, action, and morally through gef; (4) score the dimensions, author calculate from each dimension of glocal vision through gef results that have been answered by students; (5) analyzing the dataset, the author analyzes the results of the use of glocal vision for the internationalization of higher education institutions; and (6) interpret the findings and discussion about the future study. participants this study identifies the features of the implementation of the glocal vision curriculum and students’ perception on the implementation of glocal vision using gef to deconstructing journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 137-152 internationalization between male and female students in sociology education students. this study uses a purposive sampling technique to compare the level of internationalization. there were 383 students participating in the study consisting of 191 male students and 192 female students. they were selected from 4 different forces from sociology education at mmu, indonesia. the characteristics of the selection of study subjects are based on their gender, that is, the traits inherent in men and women socially and culturally constructed. this is done because gender differences in men and women can affect their own social and cultural lives. instrumentation the instrument in this study was a questionnaire that was adapted from klyukanov (2005). the questionnaire was conducted with multiple-choice options, this questionnaire consisted of a total of 27 question items consisting of 9 items each in the glocal dimensions of intellect, emotion, and action and morally to identify students' perceives and perceptions. the questionnaire data being compared is the result of the level of internationalization of two different genders of higher students. this study uses the gef, which provides alternative guidelines for the application of the glocal vision paradigm so that it can be adapted and modified to include the perspectives of indigenous peoples from the cultural context of the university implementing the curriculum glocal vision. in this study, a questionnaire was given to 383 mmu students with alpha cronbach value of 0.89. with this value, the questionnaire in this study was declared valid and reliable due to more than 0.7 (standard validity and reliability of a research instrument). the statement on the questionnaire shows the effectiveness of the glocal vision curriculum towards internationalization at mmu. the question method is included in the observation technique because students are given an open questionnaire. the type of survey tool each allows for specific observations about how the results of applying the glocal vision curriculum from the point of view of female and male students. some examples of open-ended question items in the questionnaire are as follows. in the scope of intellect, the question about: (1) what type of knowledge do students need to be involved in the curriculum? what type of knowledge do students need if they want to address the specific real-world sustainability issues they are interested in?; (2) what resources in your field can you use to ensure students not only acquire and reproduce knowledge but also generate new knowledge for understanding or solutions to complex real-world sustainability problems?; (3) how nursalam can you facilitate the process of actively disclosing knowledge and adjustments needed to understand and overcome real-world sustainability issues in different social, geographical, and cultural contexts? how will students learn to deal with the uncertainties and risks that are embedded in the process of understanding and overcoming real-world sustainability problems in such changing contexts? in the scope of the actions, the question about: (1) how do you imagine collaborative and synergistic learning in your transnational collaboration?; (2) how do you imagine students learning to use virtual and digital technology to improve communication and foster collaboration among people from different cultural and geographical contexts? in the scope of the emotions and morally, the question about: (1) what kinds of mindsets, attitudes, and feelings in the world can help students work in different geographical and cultural contexts?; (2) what is their mindset, attitude, and sense of self in the world that fosters a commitment to creating solutions to real-world sustainability problems and the ability to produce systemic change? data collection procedure in this study, data collection and data analysis are not activities carried out simultaneously but are recursive. the author repeats the organization-gathering-analysis-phase several times, gathering or excluding material progressively until a clearer framework emerges. the distribution of this measuring instrument took two months because of the large number of research subjects, namely 383 students, so the distribution of measuring instruments was divided into eight classes. within one month, lecture learning is applied glocal vision in one class so that research subjects are divided into eight groups. the research procedure for implementing the glocal vision curriculum is divided into three stages, namely: (1) the first stage, the questionnaire was given as a preliminary pretest; (2) the second stage, the application of glocal vision which takes one month to carry out the stages in the section design, students were invited to develop and identify a case in local social life; (3) the third stage, the questionnaire was given as a posttest to measure perceptions of internationalization deconstruction in higher education. the measuring instrument used was the adaptation of the neo-ffi scale (a trait of neurotic personality) by mccrae and costa with a reliability coefficient of 0.900 and an adaptation of the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 137-152 resistance to change the scale by oreg with a reliability coefficient of 0.937. the results of data analysis using the pearson correlation technique showed a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.295 with a value of p = 0.000 (p <0.05). data analysis techniques data were analyzed quantitatively by performing calculations using t-table calculations to determine differences in the results of applying the glocal vision curriculum seen from a student's gender perspective. the neo-ffi-3 computer software automatically selects the t-score as the default score. in each case, the t-scores were calculated using american norms published by the authors of each questionnaire. participants are considered to be distinguished based on the place or university background (kenny & cook, 1999). the results of the gef that have been distributed to students are analyzed again with additional assessments from studies about the assessment of the glocal vision curriculum that has been applied to students within this one month period. findings research question 1: what features do students perceive on the implementation of the glocal vision curriculum at mmu? the effect of glocal vision was not seen significantly in the application of glocal vision in the deconstruction of internationalization of higher education institutions. however, there is an influence on the deconstruction of internationalization through the glocal vision. table 1. gef results in the application of the glocal vision curriculum female male female male dimensions of glocal mean (std) mean (std) p t t independent: intellect 47.61 (2.1) 46.51 (2.05) .005 -11.13 -16.37 emotion 48.1 (1.51) 48.19 (1.62) .011 -12.3 -10.72 action 47.32 (1.97) 48.57 (3.69) .171 -13.27 -3.74 morally 46.5 (2.14) 46.88 (2.8) .065 -16.0 -10.74 local and global: intellect 46.93 (2.07) 44.72 (1.19) .088 -14.51 -42.71 emotion 46.51 (2.17) 47.31 (3.68) .151 -2.21 0.82 action 48.78 (1.83) 50.41 (1.33) .049 0.96 2.47 morally 48.41 (1.23) 49.37 (1.01) .021 3.42 1.35 real and virtual: intellect 51.04 (0.25) 50.26 (0.81) .055 1.78 1.80 nursalam emotion 49.34 (1.05) 49.17 (0.56) .049 3.19 2.94 action 49.97 (2.19) 51.43 (1.2) .010 -0.13 1.14 morally 49.29 (3.67) 48.03 (4.11) .044 3.44 0.08 collaboration and relation: intellect 50.06 (0.24) 52.18 (0.57) .032 2.52 3.69 emotion 49.12 (0.6) 49.32 (1.06) .088 2.03 2.92 action 48.32 (3) 45.84 (3.4) .039 4.31 -3.3 morally 49.92 (0.57) 49.91 (0.6) .002 -1.42 -1.37 table 1 shows that the p and t table columns are the results of the features do students perceive the implementation of the glocal vision curriculum at mmu between male and female students. while the results in the mean (std) column are data for students' perception on the implementation of the glocal vision curriculum deconstructed in the international curriculum. in all the dimensions of glocal vision in gef, the highest average values appeared in the intellect and action aspects. the lowest average appears on emotion and morally. thus, the application of the glocal vision curriculum has not been able to achieve the emotion and morally possessed by students. in its application, students' emotions and morals are expected to increase with the era of globalization. however, the curriculum can slightly improve the emotions and morals of students, as evidenced by the t-value that exceeds the t-table, which is 1.745 in the independent dimension. male's t-score is 1.775 and the female's t-score is 1.7523. glocal vision, which is the idea that we need to find a way to do it actually applies the work of an experimental group. global class experiments show that it is indeed possible to implement curricular innovations that are in the real world problem, complexity thinking, and the very contextual nature of knowledge in the world. our students from different cultures and with life experiences and values find ways to incorporate these factors in productive and creative ways into their learning environments and study projects. combining two different cultures is not easy. however, recognizing the importance of cultural differences and different life experiences, our social and communication competencies, especially intercultural competencies which are often theorized about and proposed as friendly outcomes but are rarely included in traditional academic programs are truly important to the success of glocal vision. the results on the glocal vision dimensions appear in table 1 for the means, and standard deviations of the t-scores and their g-effect hedges centered on the mean differences for paired sample tests for male and female. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 137-152 independent dimension the independent dimension shows that there are differences perceive in the application of the glocal vision curriculum in the university with different genders' backgrounds. male students perceive are in an intellectual condition about independence in a glocal vision that is very different from female students' perceive. the t score of female students was -11.13 that different from the t score male students was -16.37. female students are superior to perceive glocal vision at intellectual independence because their culture is very independent in living a global life but still accompanied by their local life, which is far from urban. intelect in independent dimensions is seen in how students understand about independence that exists in the era of globalization but in the local scope. local dan global dimension table 1 shows that in columns p and t the table is the result that students feel the implementation of the glocal vision curriculum at mmu. while the results in the mean column (std) are data for students' perceptions about the implementation of the glocal vision curriculum, which is deconstructed in the international curriculum. on the local and global dimensions, we use the universalization stage to see cross-sectional comparisons or aspects of the two gender of higher students. this involves the use of comparisons to develop fundamental theories with significant generalizations and relevance; go further to provide theories that explain the case being studied. the case given is a case that is happening in indonesia, which is about religious debate. the perception of male students is ready for the internationalization process because they have good intellectual and action aspects. they use intellect in taking action to deal with problems between the global world and the opposing local world. real dan virtual dimension in the real and virtual aspects, male students have a better view of the action dimension than the female student's view of 1.14 with a comparison of female students with a t value of -0.13. in the real and virtual aspects, the t value is stable, so it can be said that glocal vision can follow the internationalization of students through real and virtual aspects. the author uses the universalization stage to look at comparisons or cross-sectionals from the two genders, namely, comparing various forms of a single phenomenon to find logical differences between events and nursalam setting a standard of variation in the character or intensity of the phenomenon. the single phenomenon discussed in the glocal vision curriculum is about the educational changes that will be brought about by the new education minister on digital education. collaboration and relation dimension in the aspect of collaboration and relations, the view of female students has a t value that is approximately the same as the view of male students, although there is a difference in the t value of female students in action that is 4.31 while the t value of male students in action is -3.3. on the dimensions of collaboration and relationships, the study uses the universalization stage to see cross-sectional comparisons of the two genders including comparison 'placing various events in various locations in the same system, on the way to explaining their characteristics as a function of their various relationships with the system as a whole'. so that on this dimension, the author review how the relationships and interactions that occur in students of male and female students. research question 2: how are students’ perceptions on the implementation of glocal vision curriculum deconstructed in the international curriculum design at mmu? the results of the study described in table 1 show that how students’ perception on the implementation of the glocal vision curriculum in deconstructing internationalization in mmu. the results on the glocal vision dimensions appear for the means and standard deviations of the tscores and their g-effect hedges centered on the mean differences for paired sample tests for male and female. results of the std between the dimensions in the gef with the dimensions of the glocal vision curriculum, which have values that influence each other. so, it can be said that students have a good perception of the glocal vision curriculum so that it can influence the internationalization of a higher education institution in mmu. the highest value of students' perceptions is on the intellect dimension on aspects of collaboration and relations with an average value of gef 51.12 of all research subjects. this indicates that their knowledge in collaboration and relations in the curriculum of glocal vision can help students in internationalizing higher education. students have a good mean in collaboration and relation aspects after real and virtual aspects. with students' statements about their mindsets, attitudes, and feelings in the world that foster a commitment to create solutions to real-world sustainability problems and the ability to produce systemic changes in collaboration and relationships. as a journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 137-152 result, male students have collaborative learning and synergy in implementing learning with the glocal vision curriculum so that the goals of internationalization can be easily reached. in addition, male students have excellent knowledge of collaboration and relationships at the international level. the value of students' perceptions of glocal vision for the deconstruction of internationalization of higher education in the real and virtual aspects is a total of 50.7. students who have a good perception of the opinion of the new indonesian ministry of education because, according to them, the use of the virtual digital aspect in the current era could increase the index of education in indonesia into technology-literate education. but it must be balanced with equal distribution of facilities in all corners of schools in indonesia. students gave perception through their statement not to forget about the locality around campus that many students do not have digital capabilities for all students in the area. in this case, students understand that independent is very high, but its implementation is less demonstrated. this basically involves describing the full characteristics or features of each case being studied. this helps broaden the knowledge of studies and provides insight to see cases in depth. this method cannot be said to be truly comparative but instead utilizes comparisons in small aspects of the study (fredrickson & roberts, 1997). in the emotional and moral aspects, in the local and global dimensions, students are able to think about patterns and kinds of attitudes and behaviors that can be accepted in the global world and the local world simultaneously seen at the total mean with a value of 45.83 shows the perception of students about glocal vision in local and global aspects is still low compared to other aspects. students still do not have a good perception of how we as the next generation to protect our locality from coinciding with the culture that enters through globalization. however, they have flaws in conflicting matters, namely about religion. so, with the same case, the two genders have different views. male students are more inclined towards internationalization, while female students have not been included in the assessment of internationalization. discussion the results showed that students who participated in glocal vision became more confident in their capacity to recognize and critically assess their own position and the role of social and cultural contexts in shaping their perspectives and others, and to understand problems from the nursalam perspectives of various others while implementing the glocal vision. students have more readiness to develop internationally with this glocal vision. the results of the study show about features do students perceive the implementation of glocal vision curriculum and there are different perceive from higher students. this difference is due to the existence of various cultural streams, originating from anywhere in the world, held to increasingly coexist in one cultural space (emeraldien, 2018). in addition, each gender has the choice to accept the culture that comes into that one space. glocal vision can make students think that they think globally in local applications. glocal vision is an abstraction; it exists in a great many which are produced empirically in various contexts through local-global interactions. although glocalization refers to the process of refraction through the locality, it refers to the conditions under which globalization is experienced globally. the best way to define it is to distinguish glocality from globality (roudometof, 2015). glocal vision can be a real, new prospect, being characterized by some extrinsic features and namely the universal nature, concreteness, mobilize human energy, and sustainability (emeraldien, 2018; khondker, 2004). in the author's view, a pragmatic view of the world is very important in the discourse of international higher education. in the context of this paper, glocal refers to local and global integration because local and global social and environmental problems affect the glocal community. learning based on glocal vision requires students to involve their minds in the glocal learning space to reach solutions and act to find consensus to overcome natural disasters, human dangers, religious conflicts, land, and families. in learning spaces that apply glocal vision, real-life natural disasters, and human hazard situations in our glocal environment is an assessment case study in which the assessment approach as learning is recommended to be taken into consideration in curriculum design and implementation (patel, 2017). it is very important that the glocal vision framework in international higher education focuses on the quality of learning. the unbalanced diffusion of new educational and communication technologies throughout the world is increasingly widening the innovation gap (patel & hochfeld, 2012; servaes, 2016). access to and lack of access to new communication media technologies create tensions and obstacles to achieving social equality (shamsuddoha, 2008). in the internationalization paradigm, factors that influence relations of development of glocal communities include stereotypical, prejudiced, and discriminatory behavior among proponents of the internationalization of other cultural communities. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 137-152 as a final point, the need for internationalization in higher education through glocal vision is an increasing awareness that the idea of "internationalization" is not only related to relations between countries but even more seriously with relations between cultures and between global and local. the inclusive reason is that the internationalization of higher education is considered as an end in itself, not as a means to an end. internationalization is a strategy to improve the quality of education and study (saridakis et al., 2019). the results of this study give more effort to redefine the concept of internationalization, which is still young, so it must be a call for action to bring the core values and goals of internationalization of higher education through glocal vision. conclusion the glocal vision curriculum shows the difference from the perspective of local think global act to internationalize a tertiary institution in indonesia, in all four dimensions of glocal vision, namely independent; global and local; virtual and real; collaboration and relationships. the four dimensions have different intensities, respectively, in the independence of female students, which is generally local is higher than male students and the difference is seen in other dimensions, which show that with glocal vision can improve or prepare universities for the deconstruction of internationalization. in this study shows about features do students perceive the implementation of a glocal vision curriculum. in addition, students have a good perception on the implementation glocal vision curriculum that can deconstruct the internationalization of higher education institutions in its application and the benefits in social and cultural contexts are increasingly understood by students. references baswedan, a. r. (2014). gawat darurat pendidikan di indonesia. the emergency of indonesian education. a paper delivered at the meeting between ministry and head of education offices indonesia-wide in jakarta, on december. caniglia, g., john, b., bellina, l., lang, d. j., wiek, a., cohmer, s., & laubichler, m. d. (2017). the glocal curriculum: a model for transnational collaboration in higher education for sustainable development. journal of cleaner production, 9, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.207 emeraldien, f. z. (2018). culture in glocalization process: a study of indonesian newspapers. nursalam jurnal ilmu komunikasi, 1(2), 82–94. fredrickson, b. l., & roberts, t. a. (1997). toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. psychology of women quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x fuadi, d. (2018). internasionalisasi perguruan tinggi: studi multisitus pada perguruan tinggi islam di yogyakarta. the progressive and fun education seminar, 1, 594–607. gobo, g. (2016). glocalization: a critical introduction. european journal of cultural and political sociology, 3(2–3), 381–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/23254823.2016.1209886 john, b., caniglia, g., bellina, l., lang, d. j., & laubichler, m. (2017). the glocal curriculum: a practical guide to teaching and learning in an interconnected world. baden-baden: critical aesthetics publishing. kenny, d. a., & cook, w. (1999). partner effect in relationship research: conceptual issues, analytic difficulties, and illustrations. personal relationships, 6, 433–448. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.1999.tb00202.x khondker, h. h. (2004). glocalization as globalization : evolution of a sociological concept. bangladesh e-journal of sociology, 1(2), 1–9. klyukanov, i. e. (2005). principles of intercultural communication. boston, usa: pearson education. mathews, s. a. (2016). using digital participatory research to foster glocal competence: constructing multimedia projects as a form of global and civic citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 1–29. retrieved from www.sosyalbilgiler.org park, e., sklad, m., & tsirogianni, s. (2015). a qualitative evaluation of “going glocal.” in j. friedman, v. haverkate, b. oomen, e. park, & m. sklad (eds.), going glocal in higher education: the theory, teaching, and measurement of global citizenship (pp. 174–192). roosevelt: university college roosevelt. patel, f., & hochfeld, t. (2012). developmental social work in south africa: translating policy into practice. international social work, 56(5), 690–704. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872812444481 patel, f., & lynch, h. (2013). glocalization as an alternative to internationalization in higher education: embedding positive ‘glocal’ learning perspectives. international journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 25(2), 223–230. retrieved from journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 137-152 http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/past2.cfm?v=25&i=2 patel, fay. (2017). deconstructing internationalization: advocating glocalization in international higher education. journal of international and global studies, 8(2). retrieved from https://www.lindenwood.edu/files/resources/64-82-deconstructing-internationlization.pdf rihoux, b. (2006). qualitative comparative analysis (qca) and related systematic comparative methods. international sociology, 21(september), 679–706. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580906067836 roudometof, v. (2015). theorizing glocalization: three interpretations. european journal of social theory, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431015605443 saridakis, g., idris, b., hansen, j. m., & dana, l. p. (2019). smes’ internationalisation : when does innovation matter? journal of business research, 96(september 2017), 250–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.11.001 servaes, j. (2016). how “sustainable” is development communication research? international communication gazette, 78(7), 701–710. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048516655732 shamsuddoha, m. (2008). globalization to glocalization: a conceptual analysis. ssrn. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1321662 soulard, j., gard, n., & stern, m. (2019). annals of tourism research transformative tourism organizations and glocalization. annals of tourism research, 76(march), 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.03.007 svensson, g. (2001). “glocalization” of business activities: a “glocal strategy” approach. management decision. https://doi.org/10.1108/eum0000000005403 tarman, b., & gürel, d. (2017). awareness of social studies teacher candidates on refugees in turkey. journal of social studies research, 41(3), 183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2016.11.001 tilly, c. (1984). big stuctures, large processes, huge comparisons. new york: russell saga foundation. yunus. (2018). islam dan budaya (nilai-nilai islam dalam proses pernikahan masyarakat bugis). titian: jurnal ilmu humaniora, 2(1), 5–7. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (1), 127-136 improving quality of higher education using academic information system as a public administration service: the case of indonesia didin muhafidin1 abstract information communication and technology has made a lot of investments to the rapid transformation of modern society. the goal of the study was to establish a highly customized student information and accounting system in indonesia to promote the enrolment and accounting phase and to meet the needs of all clients and employees in the provision of line services. this study applied the context of computer science research for information systems, while describing the problems faced in the enrolment and accounting phase, specifying the analysis purpose, planning and implementing the program, installing and testing it, and reporting the results of the study. the digitalized enrolment system works in numerous computer units over a system with a shared database for data storage. it has distinct embedded features that promote the needs of frontline service providers and customers. the aggregate feature of the enrolment system has increased the efficiency of the frontline providers, as most of the processes are automated and computerised. the results of the survey, along with service quality, precision of documents and records and promptness, demonstrate that tine enrolment system is significant and effective instrument for delivering front-line services. hence, improving the quality service of higher education institution in indonesia through system development will provide better services offered to clienteles. keywords: enrolment system, indonesia, higher education, quality, students, introduction many organizations around the world are always updating and redesigning their offerings to their clients for the sake of the development and survival of their enterprises, corporations, states, nongovernmental organizations and also higher education institutions. in higher education institutions, in instance, the existence of electronic communications technology will facilitate the distribution of programs with real-time performance to the demands of customers such as copies of documents, teaching schedules, syllabuses, ratings, student finance documents and many others instantly (almaiah & man, 2016). the use of digital communications technology in the institution could 1dr. public administration department, faculty of social and political sciences padjadjaran university, bandung indonesia; didin_muhafidin@yahoo.co.id mailto:didin_muhafidin@yahoo.co.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 127-136 128 be used as a competitive edge for the institution by providing a service to its stakeholders (sligo, et al, 2017). in this global age, quality administration is needed, as koc, turan and okursoy (2016) for global competitiveness as well as market demands, for each higher institution and assess its current output of service in the face of super and international competitors. in fact, government rules often mandate every university education organization to meet with all legislation appropriately. continuous delivery shall have the consistency of all operational tasks, like on-line enrolment processes for new graduates as well as current students, topics, classroom schedules, use of knowledge and instructional practices such as truancy, graduation, curriculum, absences, etc. individuals involved in the service delivery must understand the scope to which the quality, functionality and scope of the information is often used. as the purpose of providing services in order to fulfill the requirements of the criteria to the shareholders (ognjanovic, gasevic & dawson, 2016). at present, educational institutions of the world are challenged to promote equitable learning outcomes to students since achievement gap is still an issue (addai-mununkum, 2019; ainscow, 2016; buckley, 2010; clark, 2014; darling-hammond & friedlaender, 2008; espino et al. 2020; nadelson et al., 2020; perry, 2009; speed et al. 2019; tarman & dev, 2018). they are advocating educational equity calls to address inequity in student learning, which is attributed to issues on gender, race, family income, and cognitive disability. embracing educational equity in the schools is a way of supporting transformative education (adams, 2019; godhe, lilja & selwyn, 2019; vossoughi, hooper & escude, 2016). barton et al (2016) consented on the required introduction of the university system of learning facilities, and it is important to ensure consistency and efficiency in the learning experience. without an educational information system, the process of learning will not function well in the learning process. information systems today have become important part of the higher educational milieu. many higher education institutions are using the information system as a tool for productivity and competition, but fewer have the capacity to respond to a number of changes related to the development of the organization within (arpaci, 2019). the competitive advantage relied on standard variables such as efficiency price, consumer response and speed (dun & kennedy, 2019). today's organizations pose an added challenge of the need to evolve, not sometimes but sometimes, rapidly with a consistent rate of success. according to kompen et al (2019) the design of the systems and software offered by the information systems group is also muhafidin assumed to have evolved over time where new strategic solutions often appear to be aimed at the consumer or sales market rather than internal optimization schemes. purpose of the study this study generally examined the experience of one university in indonesia on the implementation of information system on registrar, cashiering, and accounting services and assess the student’s satisfaction on the providing these systems in the university operations. methods research design in order to explore the delivery of institutional information systems services that have been introduced at one university in indonesia, the researcher used the existing data documented in the program that can be accessed accordingly. by gathering and choosing details about how to deliver services to the academic information system used by administrators as well as faculty and students. the technique used in this report is descriptive. descriptive research was carried out by presenting the flow of service data to customers and also by collecting and recording the related data, such as the statistics and tables from the current show data in the apps, which were then evaluated and addressed accordingly. research participants, sampling procedure and ethical considerations a total of 377 respondents systematically sampled from a total population of 2000 students from one indonesian university. determination of sampling size was based on the use of a free online software raosoft http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html with the margin of error of 5%, confidence level of 95%, and response distribution of 50%. using a systematic non-random probability sampling technique, the complete list of respondents was requested from the university registrars of the participating universities with the three as the select random start number. this study was guided by the following research ethics considerations. first, data privacy and informed consent forms were approved by the university ethics committee to be signed by the respondents of the study. second, orientation on the purposes of the study was done by the researcher prior to the administration of the instruments. thirdly, the anonymity of the respondents and the institution was observed by not mentioning names. http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 127-136 130 research instruments the study used interview guides to identify problems and concerns of the three primary service providers the findings of the interview were used to describe the features and functionality of the system. direct observation was also used, prior to the development of the framework, to further analyze the requirements and issues encountered by students as core beneficiaries. this device was also used after the program was configured for service. rating is on the efficiency of the system. the survey was taken from the student satisfaction survey developed by the staff of the university planning and development office. the questionnaire used the 5-point likert scale indicating: 5best; 4-better; 3-good; 2-fair; 1-poor. procedures this study was conducted within a four-month time period. the data-gathering period lasted for one month. before the formal gathering period, the university authority’s approval and permission to do the study was initiated in the first week. notice to proceed for the conduct of the research was issued during the second week. after securing the appropriate permit, the researcher identified the respondents using the inclusion criteria set in this study. likewise, proper and appointment with the students were conducted for the formal gathering for another one week. the orientation of the research’s purposes and objectives was done to the participants. the administration of the two research instruments was done by the researcher with the appropriate permit and proper coordination to avoid conflict of schedule. during the study, the interviewer went to the registrar, the cashier and the accountant on an individual basis to define the requirements and issues of their respective offices. the researcher has consistently done the same thing as data is required until the device features and capabilities have been completed. during the study, the interviewer went to the registrar, the cashier and the accountant on an individual basis to define the requirements and issues of their respective offices. the investigator has consistently done the same thing as data is required until the device features and capabilities have been completed. the research ethics considerations were strictly followed by the researcher. after gathering the students’ responses, they were coded and subjected to data cleaning and statistical analyses for one month. the gathered data were analyzed using spss version 25.0. finally, results analysis, interpretation, and report writing were done for one month. muhafidin data analysis the study used interview guides to identify problems and concerns of the three primary service providers the findings of the interview were used to describe the features and functionality of the system. direct observation was also used, prior to the development of the framework, to further analyze the requirements and issues encountered by students as core beneficiaries. this device was also used after the program was configured for service. rating was on the efficiency of the system. the survey was taken from the student satisfaction survey developed by the staff of the university planning and development office. results and discussion the objective of this study is to see how a university in indonesia implements the information system on registrar, cashiering, and accounting services and assess the student’s satisfaction on the providing these systems in the university operations. using all of the interconnected capabilities of the full system to support front-line service transactions the three main front-line service suppliers received high scores in terms of quality, timeliness and consistency of service delivery based on the adopted findings of the students satisfaction survey for front-line services as evidenced by the grand mean of 4.03. the required configuration has been completed; thus, the program has the potential to support all transactions needed by both consumers and clients. undergraduates who want to see their grades would no longer be in the registrar's office because there is a computer system built in a software unit outside the office that offers a simple-to-use option for learners to access their grades. this functionality also made a registrar more successful. it is also more pleasant for the part of the students because there is no more conflict. based on the actual findings, the time spent on the delivery of frontline services during normal circumstances has been that. at present, enrolment of freshmen learners can be achieved in 4-6 minutes, 2-3 minutes for old and usual students and 2-4 minutes for irregular students; approval of grades and enrolment can be completed in 1 to 2 minutes; the processing and publishing of the official transcript of the documents can be completed in ten to twenty minutes and the printing of the rating assessment can be achieved in 1 or 2 minutes for regular students. in addition, invoice and acceptance can be received in 1 minute; review permits can be given in 1 to 3 minutes; the student fees may be calculated in less than 1 minute, but it may no longer have been included in the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 127-136 132 enrolment phase as the system will automatically measures the outstanding student balance and the student ledger adjustment may also be omitted as a step during enrolment. as seen in table 1, the student satisfaction report showed that the audited accounting services in terms of quality, timeliness and precision have a grand mean of 4.16 (sd=0.88) fall to the better rating. registrar services also was rated better as shown with the mean of 3.71 (sd=1.20) while cashiering services obtained the mean of 4.24 (sd=0.90) showed the highest mean and interpreted with the better rating. based on the results of the survey, it is revealed that the sias is efficient in delivering the providers of the three frontline service providers. table 1. satisfaction on the use of the systems among the students areas mean (n=377) sd descriptive interpretation accounting services 4.16 0.88 better registrar services 3.71 1.20 better cashiering services 4.24 0.90 better grand mean 4.03 better legend: best (4.20-5.00); agree/ high b (3.40-4.19); better (2.60-3.39); good (1.80-2.59); fair (1.00-1.79) information technology does have an influence not only on dissemination of educational information, but also on auxiliary operations of the universities (lazzari et al, 2019). because students today are more technologically advanced than most of the staff, the consequences for the academy would certainly include a broad range of opportunities to exploit the advantages of modern hardware and software technologies in ways that really improve educational experience. however, as universities are more mindful of results, new ways of innovating in the provision of support services will emerge; organizations whose organizational structures are most open to new ideas will gain the most benefits. eaton and pasquini (2020) affirmed that all the most innovative companies are adopting and depending on information technology systems to improve their business processes and profitability. the collection of processes for arranging, coordinating, guiding and managing the delivery of it services. in addition to the advancement of ict within the enterprise, human resources are also being developed in order to achieve good service quality (al-kurdi, el-haddadeh & eldabi, 2020; tarman, baytak & duman, 2015). in providing services to customers and employees, the organization shall provide and retain questions regarding performance management, people management, resource management, preparation and facilities management. recently, the policies of institutions of higher education require good academic muhafidin management. reports from any university shall be provided to the government on a periodic basis and reviewed by government officials from time to time. conclusion ict has made a lot of investments to the rapid transformation of modern society. the goal of the study was to establish a highly customized sias in indonesia to promote the enrolment and accounting phase and to meet the needs of all clients and employees in the provision of line services. this study applied the context of computer science research for information systems, while describing the problems faced in the enrolment and accounting phase, specifying the analysis purpose, planning and implementing the program, installing and testing it, and reporting the results of the study. the digitalized enrolment system works in numerous computer units over a system with a shared database for data storage. it has distinct embedded features that promote the needs of frontline service providers and customers. the aggregate feature of the enrolment system has increased the efficiency of the frontline providers, as most of the processes are automated and computerised. the results of the survey, along with service quality, precision of documents and records and promptness, demonstrate that tine enrolment system is significant and effective instrument for delivering front-line services hence, improving the quality service of higher education institution in indonesia. practical implications the development of infrastructure using high-end information technology is strongly recommended for the implementation of real-time data to stakeholders among higher education institutions of indonesia. management of the university recommends applying the innovation plan through the use of ais software technologies to provide programs to students and lectures to other stakeholders as well. the results of the study in the report was suggested and advised by university to refine the idle module and sub-module for implementation in order to provide better service to stakeholders. there are many higher education institutions across the world that still do not use the web-based development program, resulting in dissatisfied students and late government reports, many higher education institutions will follow this framework to handle the provision of resources in their higher universities. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 127-136 134 limitations and future research direction this study is subject to limitations which will provide future research directions. first, to further ascertain and close the gap of this study, a national survey may be initiated with lager samples, which will offer a more in-depth analysis and understanding of the influence of developed university systems. questions and gaps are presented in this study, which can help future researchers chart their research problems. second, the use of a mixed-method research design is encouraged since this study is only limited to the descriptive correlational survey. thirdly, a longitudinal study must be initiated, focusing on the direct effect of social and cultural capital on learners’ cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development. finally, a follow-up study should be conducted aligned with the attainment of indonesia’s education modernization. references adams, b. (2019). the far reaching impact of transformative curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 17-32. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/8 addai-mununkum, r. (2019). students’ representation of “other” religions. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 1-16. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/2 ainscow, m. (2016). collaboration as a strategy for promoting equity in education: possibilities and barriers. journal of professional capital and community, 1(2), 159-172. al-kurdi, o. f., el-haddadeh, r., & eldabi, t. (2020). the role of organisational climate in managing knowledge sharing among academics in higher education. international journal of information management, 50, 217-227 al-kurdi, o. f., el-haddadeh, r., &eldabi, t. (2020). the role of organisational climate in managing knowledge sharing among academics in higher education. international journal of information management, 50, 217-227 almaiah, m. a., & man, m. (2016). empirical investigation to explore factors that achieve high quality of mobile learning system based on students’ perspectives. engineering science and technology, an international journal, 19(3), 1314-1320. muhafidin arpaci, i. (2019). a hybrid modeling approach for predicting the educational use of mobile cloud computing services in higher education. computers in human behavior, 90, 181-187. barton, k. a., tejay, g., lane, m., & terrell, s. (2016). information system security commitment: a study of external influences on senior management. computers & security, 59, 9-25. bourdieu, p. (1977). outline of a theory of practice (vol. 16). cambridge university press. tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), i-ii. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363. tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a clark, i. (2014). equitable learning outcomes: supporting economically and culturally disadvantaged students in ‘formative learning environments’. improving schools, 17(1), 116-126. darling-hammond, l., & friedlaender, d. (2008). creating excellent and equitable schools. educational leadership, 65(8), 14. dunn, t. j., & kennedy, m. (2019). technology enhanced learning in higher education; motivations, engagement and academic achievement. computers & education, 137, 104113. eaton, p. w., & pasquini, l. a. (2020). networked practices in higher education: an ethnography of the# acadv chat community. the internet and higher education, 45, 100723. espino, d., lee, s., van tress, l., baker, t., & hamilton, e. (2020). analysis of u.s., kenyan, and finnish discourse patterns in a cross-cultural digital makerspace learning community through the ibe-unesco global competences framework. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 86-100. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/442 godhe, a. l., lilja, p., & selwyn, n. (2019). making sense of making: critical issues in the integration of maker education into schools. technology, pedagogy and education, 1-12. koç, t., turan, a. h., &okursoy, a. (2016). acceptance and usage of a mobile information system in higher education: an empirical study with structural equation modeling. the international journal of management education, 14(3), 286-300. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 127-136 136 kompen, r. t., edirisingha, p., canaleta, x., alsina, m., &monguet, j. m. (2019). personal learning environments based on web 2.0 services in higher education. telematics and informatics, 38, 194-206. lazzari, n., becerro, m. a., sanabria-fernandez, j. a., & martín-lópez, b. (2019). spatial characterization of coastal marine social-ecological systems: insights for integrated management. environmental science & policy, 92, 56-65. nadelson, l. s., albritton, s., couture, v. g., green, c., loyless, s. d., & shaw, e. o. (2020). principals’ perceptions of education equity: a mindset for practice. journal of education and learning, 9(1). ognjanovic, i., gasevic, d., & dawson, s. (2016). using institutional data to predict student course selections in higher education. the internet and higher education, 29, 49-62. perry, l. (2009). characteristics of equitable systems of education: a cross-national analysis. european education, 41(1), 79-100. sligo, j., gauld, r., roberts, v., & villa, l. (2017). a literature review for large-scale health information system project planning, implementation and evaluation. international journal of medical informatics, 97, 86-97. speed, j., pair, d. l., zargham, m., yao, z., & franco, s. (2019). changing faculty culture to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion in stem education. in culturally responsive strategies for reforming stem higher education: turning the tides on inequity (pp. 5372). emerald publishing limited. vossoughi, s., hooper, p. k., & escudé, m. (2016). making through the lens of culture and power: toward transformative visions for educational equity. harvard educational review, 86(2), 206-232. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2),100-116 social informatics: natural tools for students' information training in the conditions of embodied and mental approaches being employed daria barkhatova1, elmira nigmatulina2, tatyana stepanova3 abstract the relevance of the problem under study is due to the society's requirements for the quality information training of a personality which is oriented to forming the solid fundamental knowledge as well as to developing the cognitive capacities that are needed for solving mental tasks. with regard to this, the paper is aimed at finding out the opportunities of applying the natural tools in information training of students from the standpoints of embodied and mental approaches. the main idea of these is integrated studying of an object, beginning with learning it in an "embodied" way and finishing with abstract models formed in the human memory. the leading approach to the research is the integrated one taking into account the psychological and pedagogical, didactic and methodological constituents. it allows identifying the psychological and pedagogical conditions of application of natural tools as well as the possible ways of their use. the authors describe models of natural tools of computer science training in individual sections of the school course as the main results. the materials of the paper are of practical value in methods of teaching computer science to students at various stages of education. keywords: embodied approach, mental approach, information training, natural training tool, tool use in education. introduction the modern world is currently characterized by a quick tempo of life, a global, rapid and continuous nature of processes occurring in it. alongside with it, the habitual pattern of human life changes requiring from man yet new abilities and knowledge, an ability to easily fit in new conditions, speedy mobilization and activation of information resources for solving a number of professional and daily tasks. mental work takes over from manual work. now, information gains a special value as a universal category of social development and as an indicator of quality of life (tarman, 2016). these processes have necessitated the change of educational paradigm in the area of information training of a personality which is oriented to forming the fundamental knowledge and abilities that are needed for human information activity. the emergence of an individual direction of research in computer 1 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astafyev, darry@mail.ru 2 phd student, head of the department office, krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astafyev, nigmira@yandex.ru 3 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astafyev, step1350@mail.ru barkhatova et al. science was quite an expectable response of science to this need. it was created in russia in the mid1980s and got the name of social informatics (kolin, 2015). today, this is a compulsory section of the school computer science course which is aimed at the development of information worldview in students as well as qualities that they need for acting efficiently in an information environment. all over the world computer science teacher now faces an important task to select the methods and tools that are up to the demands of time and requirements of the educational system (mathews, 2016, korkmaz & avci, 2016). here it is the integrated approach that is important, as it takes into account the psychological and pedagogical, didactic, and methodological constituents that ensure the formation of solid knowledge and abilities for cognitive information processing. the natural training tools can become such means as well as an important supplement for the educational process with the study information to be perceived. the objective of the paper consists in describing the psychological and pedagogical foundations and ways of applying the natural tools in students' information training from the standpoint of embodied and mental approaches. literature review the starting point when the school computer science course, or informatics, was launched can be considered the year of 1985, as the "fundamentals of informatics and computer science" course was introduced. the educational paradigm which was characteristic for the time span had the principal objective of the universal computer literacy. that was understood as fundamentals of algorithmics and programming taught to everyone (makarova et al., 2014, p. 150). ershov (1981) pointed out that the main task of the course is not so much teaching the practical skills of programs writing and pc working practices rather than forming in all students the operational and combinatorial thinking, an ability for abstracting, reasoning and acting. meanwhile, the "fusion" of operational knowledge and algorithmic thinking act in a profound relation with other components of education (ershov, 1981). the development of computer science and emergence of operating systems with graphic user interface and new kinds of software led the pedagogical community to realize the necessity of changing the computer science teaching paradigm. beginning with 1999, the objective of the study course has been expanded considerably, with forming the schoolchildren's information culture becoming the reference point. it is forming the abilities and skills of using the modern technical information and communication technology means in one's activity that becomes the main idea of the school it course (makarova et al., 2014, p. 151). however, as the volume of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 100-116 102 information grew, new information technologies developed, and the quantity of people involved into the information sphere of activity increased, a rethinking of the content and methods of training was required from education. the processes of it penetration and the human activity globalization rendered the necessity to introduce a new domain of knowledge – social informatics – relevant. social informatics is a science studying the complex of problems associated with information processes taking place in the society. this is a new trend in science that has emerged at the junction of such areas as it, sociology, psychology and philosophy (starikov, 2012, p. 264). in russia, it was founded by a.d. ursul (1990). he highlighted the influence of information processes in the society on the content and methods of informatics from the philosophical point of view. being a social process in its essence, it penetration has to have a humanist focus, with its means acting merely as a tool for acquiring the information and basis for social, scientific and technical advancement. alongside with that, a.d. ursul pointed out the negative consequences of it penetration that required urgent measures (kolin, 2011, p. 460). social informatics has been rapidly developing in russia for over 25 years already. currently this is one of the principal sections of it which is a scientific basis for forming the information society as well as for studying the new opportunities and new problems of people under the rise of a completely new information environment of their life and professional activity (kolin, 2015). the main task of social informatics is to form the ability to find one's bearings correctly in the new information reality both at the world level as a whole and in russia. it also involves forming the idea about computer literacy being a must without which one is left out of the modern information environment. social informatics deals with methodological preparation for further studying and mastering the information technologies of the relevant domain, the future professional activity, and life activity as a whole, as well as for participating in development of these technologies (starikov, 2012, p. 265). in order to solve the tasks, the students' information training at it lessons is quite essential. the training relies on forming of a personality's information culture, developing its information potential, i.e. its having the knowledge and skills, creative abilities, cultural particularities and unconscious motives (osipova-derbas, 2008, p. 229), as well as its intellectual potential, i.e., its ability to produce and absorb new knowledge (kolin, 2011, p. 462). barkhatova et al. having to form new qualities has directly influenced the computer science teaching methods as well. unlike the soviet times, as the word-based methods and programmed training methods prevailed that were formed from the viewpoint of cybernetics (sofronova, 2004, p. 38), the modern time is characterized by mostly systemic and activity-based approach. this approach is designed in such a way as to ensure forming the readiness for self-development and continuous education, designing and constructing the social environment of development for learners within the education system, their active academic and cognitive performance, and building the educational process with individual age-related, psychological and physiological particularities of learners borne in mind (makarova et al., 2014, p.153). as forming the knowledge, abilities and skills was abandoned for practice-oriented abilities one needs for life and activity in an information society, the very tools of training changed. they now are up to the requirements of integrated studying of a subject and they boost the students' cognitive activity within the activity-based context. among such tools, there are natural training ones. at present, there are various approaches to teaching the school it and ict course using the natural training tools. however, such tools tend to be applied in the section of modeling and formalizing as tools for natural experiments (andujar et al., 2013) or in the section "structure of a pc" as the visual aids. there is no doubt that the conventional visual aids are needed in teaching computer science, which is determined by their specific functions which it is either impossible to vest in the pc or inexpedient from the psychological and pedagogical viewpoint or the content-related one. however, alongside with the demonstration materials, a lesson on computer science has to employ such training means as to plunge the students into the methods or phenomena being learned via encouraging their cognitive activity. studies are currently conducted of the role of natural tools in teaching the algorithmics and programming line (stepanova, 2014), the use of robotic engineering (maris & boekhorst, 1996, barkhatova, 2015) and electronic design kits at the it lessons (romero et al., 2009). the research relies on embodied (varela et al., 1993, wilson, 2002, alyushin & knyazeva, 2009, shapiro, 2011) and mental approaches in education (cartelli, 2009, lebedeva et al., 2015, bazhenova et al., 2016). the embodied approach is based on a radically new theory of embodied cognition. according to it, brain is not the only resource available to people for solving problems. it is the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 100-116 104 human body and perception that act as a guide in the outer world replacing the complicated mental operations by sensual ones (wilson & golonka, 2013, p. 625). at present, many scientists and researchers mention the deficiency of reducing the cognition process to a model of mental manipulation with symbols. they emphasize the importance of communication of mind and body in the process. cognition is a complicated versatile process that can go far beyond the framework of mind. in it, using special tools – body included – allows one to solve a number of problems and tasks one faces (rambusch & ziemke, 2005, p. 1805). if the body is involved in the process of studying of any subject, this allows activating the students' cognitive processes, rendering the cognition more profound, and studying the processes and phenomena at the level of a profound and complete understanding owing to manipulating the objects "live" (kukhtina et al., 2015, stepanova, 2014, nigmatulina & pak, 2017). however, in order to ensure the entire cycle of knowledge acquisition, it is not sufficient to involve the embodied cognition methods only. the information received has to be consolidated in the human memory thus ensuring the transition from the certain to the abstract. such transition can be built on the basis of the mental approach. the mental approach allows learning to be viewed as a process of formation and development of human mental schemes during the person's information interaction with the environment (lebedeva et al., 2015). a mental scheme is a set of notions and associations between them that are used by people for interpreting the processes and phenomena under consideration without turning to scientific and disciplinary knowledge (cartelli, 2009, p. 193). as the time passes, the modelrelated ideas undergo transformations towards generalization and abstracting and they form the language. the formed mental schemes determine an individual's knowledge and allow the individual to perform thinking (bazhenova et al., 2016). the total of mental schemes makes up the structure of one's thesaurus. these fundamentals of the mental approach determine the rules for studying any domain: first, the formation of sensual mental schemes of a domain with the help of their mental models has to be ensured, and then all images, models and notions have to be systemized using the linguistic means (fig. 1) (nigmatulina & pak, 2017). barkhatova et al. figure 1. learning a subject from the standpoint of embodied and mental approaches. note: the following figure and note are each adapted from nigmatulina & pak (2017, p. 10). in studying computer science, the embodied cognition methods allow forming the mental schemes in the sensual area while the mental didactics ones allow ensuring the transition from the certain to the abstract, from action to notion (bazhenova et al., 2016). such an approach will ensure the staged formation of information and intellectual potential of a personality based on the solid knowledge and the developed algorithmic and abstract thinking. thus, given the society's requirements for the new information training of a personality that is oriented to one's ability to act efficiently and safely in conditions of the global information society, the methods of embodied and mental approaches will allow ensuring the development of the personality's information and intellectual capacity. the use of natural tools within this context will eliminate the passive role of students at it lessons. it is the active inclusion of students into the cognitive process that is the main objective of using such tools. methodological framework the objective of the research consists in developing and exploring the opportunities of a natural tools kit in the students' information training in conditions of embodied and mental approaches being employed. tasks of the research: 1. analysis of the russian and foreign experience of using the natural computer science teaching tools. 2. analysis of psychological and pedagogical, didactic and methodological constituents of the school computer science course and finding out the opportunities of natural training tools in the process of formation of new knowledge and diagnostics of understanding. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 100-116 106 3. description of a model of natural tools for teaching computer science in individual sections of the course and the possible pedagogical effect of using them. the theoretical analysis of psychological and pedagogical, methodological literature on the topic of the research is conducted, its results are generalized; the natural training tools are modeled and the pedagogical effect of using them is forecast. the research relies on an integrated approach to enhancing the quality of information training owing to the application of ready natural tools in teaching computer science as well as to creation of the tools by the very students' own forces using the state-of-the-art technologies. the embodied and mental approaches to designing the didactic principles of developing the algorithmic, logical and abstract thinking in students are used, and their cognitive, exploratory capacities, and the fundamental knowledge on information activity are formed and developed. results and discussion psychological and pedagogical foundations of using the natural tools in teaching computer science having to build the process of teaching computer science at school on the standpoint of mental and embodied approaches is due to the age-specific particularities of the students' cognitive capacities as well as individual needs of the ways of perception and acquisition of the material selected in line with their knowledge level. while analyzing the age-related particularities of schoolchildren's cognitive capacities at different educational stages (see table 1), it can be stated that all schoolchildren of various age highly need visual aids (fridman, 1984, muhina, 2006). however, if mainly ready-made visual aids have to be used at primary school, the secondary grades should opt for the ones that are designed and crafted by students themselves. l. fridman points out that schoolchildren have to be taught how to analyze the visual aids used, to find out their essential properties and particularities in order to overcome the passive and superficial character of perception that many adolescents have. at the stage of the senior school age, rather complex visual aids can and must be used, possibly involving the very students into the process of designing and building the aids (fridman, 1984). table 1 characteristics of the students' cognitive capacities age groups particularities of cognitive capacities barkhatova et al. primary school age (from 6-7 up to 9-11 years old) the motivation of cognitive activity is poorly developed. attention is hard to be kept for a long time. it is difficult to learn a large volume of material. playing and productive activity kinds take the principal place in learning. there is an aspiration to solve a task independently, to do a certain experiment. there are high requirements for the ready-made visual aids (including ones used as a means for boosting attention). secondary school age (from 11-12 up to 15 years old) there is an interest in independent activity where the teacher is an assistant. the perception processes get intellectualized. there is an urge to single out the main and the secondary and one for structured information. analyzing the content of the material, the logics of its structure, singling out the essential points ensure the maximum efficiency of reproduction. there is a need of making visual aids by oneself. some adolescents keep high requirements for the ready-made visual aids. senior school age (15-18 years old) all mental processes are consolidated and improved, with their motivation gaining a high level. reflection nature of thinking and self-cognition develop rapidly. quite complex visual aids can and must be used, with the very students possibly involved into the process of designing and constructing the aids. note. the authors' analysis is based on the works by fridman (1984) and muhina (2006). another important feature is the students' need of dynamic independent activity that allows boosting their mental processes to the full. at any age, self-fulfillment, demonstration of one's capacities and knowledge are important for students and so is the appraisal by peers and teachers. the natural tools of training allow implementing the principles of illustrative, conscious and active character to the full extent, acting on the one hand as a visual material and on the other hand as a tool for studying a subject via activity. moreover, they can be used not only as ready-made didactic tools but also as an educational result which renders material the knowledge obtained. having studied the material, the students can create their own natural tools themselves, which allows systemizing the knowledge and making the abstract notions more definite. the next important point in the implementation of embodied and mental approaches in teaching computer science is having to take into account the information perception channels. among the first scientists to speak about the dependence between perception type and learning success, there were psychologists – the founders of neurolinguistic programming, according to them, each individual while possessing all three perception modality actually uses at the maximum load only one of them – the leading one. however, this does not mean other perception channels cannot be used. in order to do this, the individual will need making additional effort that slows down the process of acquisition of the study information. during learning, this can result in gapped knowledge and abilities, which once again emphasizes the importance and significance of matching the perception modality correctly when teaching various school subjects (grinder, 1991, bandler & grinder, 1975). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 100-116 108 there is a number of differences between kinesthetic, visual and auditory learners. they touch on a very broad range of things, e.g. the way thinking, memory, training methods are organized. undoubtedly, this has to be reflected in selecting the teaching methods for this or that section of computer science. the analysis of literature and of teachers' and researchers' experience on the problems of teaching the computer science course (lapchik et al., 2008, vitkute-adzgauskiene & vidziunas, 2012, lebedeva et al., 2015) has shown that the teachers use practice-oriented tasks, writing program code accompanied by detailed comments, computer presentations, diagrams and mental maps ensuring a varying degree of visualization of the study material etc. as means and techniques helping to enhance the efficiency of learning the computer science course and to facilitate the perception of abstract study information. however, all these training means are mostly aimed at visual and auditory learners as it is to these channels that they address. nevertheless, statistics shows (vopneruk et al., 2005, plighin & gerasimov, 1996), that it is the kinesthetic perception channels that are dominant in 30-40 % of people. they feel the world around them and perceive the greater part of information sensually, via the sense of touch and smell, associations and actions performed. kinesthetic learners need activity in order to understand finally – to make something with their own hands and to experience by touch (stepanova, 2014, p. 52). this is why completely new training tools are essential that would be targeted at kinesthetic channels of perception and at activating the motor area of memory. it is believed that the information training process will ensure the formation and development of the required qualities in students if the system of learning is constructed using the natural tools – ones that are targeted at activating the motor area of memory (alongside with the visual, auditory and abstract ones). therefore, the natural tools of teaching the computer science will be an important supplement to the educational process that is oriented to conscious understanding of the information perceived, to forming the solid knowledge, and to developing the students' thinking in a versatile way. such tools will allow them to reveal the essence of the notions and phenomena under study, to inquire into algorithms at a tactile level, to look at the object under study from various standpoints etc. and subsequently, based on the actions identified, to construct an algorithm, to create an information model or to perform another abstract action. models of natural computer science teaching tools barkhatova et al. the studies in application of natural tools in teaching computer science are conducted at the basic chair of computer science and information technologies in education of the institute of mathematics, physics and computer science, krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astafyev. there are several directions of work:  development of natural tools for teaching the school computer science course, technique of using them;  training of further it teachers in implementing the embodied and mental approaches at computer science lessons;  organization of distance learning using the natural training tools. as of today, there is a number of natural tools developed in the area of information training of schoolchildren: 1) "theoretical fundamentals of computer science":  calculating frame for working in various systems of notation;  visual sets showing selection of elements with various operations on sets. 2) "fundamentals of programming":  simulators of implementation of algorithms using the simple types of data;  simulators of implementation of algorithms using arrays and strings. the tools allow building the training process from the easy to the difficult and from single operations to multiple ones, from real objects to abstract ones. so, for example, when studying the "systems of notation" topic, the calculating frame can be used. with them, first, the basic notions of counting and quantity are discussed, the number digit positioning processes are visualized, and the algorithm of transiting from one notation system to another one is inquired into "manually". only after that, the symbol recording is studied (fig. 2). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 100-116 110 figure 2. various notation systems calculating frame. the calculating frame is a board with cells in which beads are placed in turns, working from the rightmost bottom cell upwards. there is a slider to mark the notation system with which the learner is currently working. once a column-digit is filled up, all beads are removed from the column and replaced by one bead to be put into a higher order digit. it is proceeded this way until the suggested quantity of beads runs out. the process allows demonstrating the algorithm of a number passing to the next digit and explains the meaning of position notation systems. similarly, the reverse procedure is possible when there are already beads laid out in the cells. for studying the "classes and attributes of objects" topic, the kit was developed that consists of objects with various attributes (cubes and balls of different color and size) as well as shapes for sorting the objects into classes. the students are asked to subdivide the objects into shapes according to various attributes, with the mutually excluding ones not used as well. the process illustrates the notions of logical operations on sets. moreover, simulators that allow visually inquiring into the work of algorithms with simple and compound data types have been developed. the main idea behind creation of a simulator for working with simple data types was to show the necessity of describing the variables and data types as well as the ways of recording them in the computer memory while the program is executed. the simulator is a board with cells of different size but similar ones for one and the same type. for example, cells for storing the real data type exceed the integer data type twice and they have a separator for storing the integer and fractional parts. the certain values operated by the algorithm are written down in special beads the size of which matches the memory cells of the relevant value. barkhatova et al. when inquiring into the algorithm, the students replace the data beads from one cell to another according to the program code. meanwhile, an integer data shape bead can be placed into a real data cell but not vice versa. when studying the complex data types, the students often have such problems as losing the distinction between an element's index and its very value, exceeding the limits of a data string, failure to understand the process of ordered reading of elements etc. it appears efficient to use the kinesthetic simulators in training for solving such problems. they will allow the students to "manually" record an array element by element, to bubble sort it, to locate the required element etc. the natural tool for studying statistical one-dimensional arrays is a board with cells and a slider to limit the array dimensionality (fig. 3). figure 3. simulator for manipulating one-dimensional arrays. before the work is started, a student has to decide on the array dimensionality, next – on the data type, as the array is a set of the same-type components. for emphasizing the same-type character of the data, data of one type are marked on beads of the same shape (round or square). then, the created array has to be filled with elements. filling is performed in cycles from 1 to n, where teacher is the counter. students may have certain difficulties studying the algorithms of array sorting and element searching. an example of natural tool for studying the sorting algorithms can be a set of balls placed in cells (fig. 4). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 100-116 112 figure 4. studying the algorithms of one-dimensional arrays processing. each cell is numbered – marked with the array element index, and balls are of various sizes, which illustrates their different values. the bubble sorting of the array is simulated according to the following rules: only one ball may be picked up and it may be compared with the neighboring ball only. if the next ball is larger, one has to swap them. however, here a problem arises: how one can swap the balls if only one ball may be picked up. while solving the problem, the necessity of using an additional variable can be demonstrated. the practice of using the model confirms that once an algorithm is performed manually, the text of the program executing the algorithm becomes clear to each and every student. such a simulator can also be used for visualizing the more complicated sorting algorithms – hoare sorting, bit or digit sorting – that frequently fail to be understood even by more advanced students after the first explanation, using words only. the next example is the task of finding the minimum/maximum value of elements of a sequence. using the same simulator presented above in fig. 4 and a flexible tape, the first ball is measured. this one is considered to be a reference of the smallest ball. next, the reference ball is compared to the following balls. once a new ball is smaller than the reference one, the new size is taken with the flexible tape. similarly, the largest ball or the ball of a said size can be found. all the described tools have been created using the 3d-prototyping technology with a 3dprinter. students and teachers of the chair of computer science and information technologies in education of v.p. astafyev cspu took part in preparation and printing of the objects. barkhatova et al. further work within this project consists in elaborating the kit of natural tools for teaching computer science and in conducting an experiment of their testing out among schoolchildren of grades 3-4, 8-9 and 10-11 at schools of krasnoyarsk. the kit can be copied and distributed within the system of students' information, engineering and technical training. conclusion changes in education associated with the society entering the age of information make it necessary to rethink the content of methods and tools for the students' information training from the standpoint of social aspects of human life. the natural tools of teaching computer science are an important supplement to the educational process. they are oriented to conscious understanding of the information perceived, to forming the solid fundamental knowledge, and to developing the students' cognitive capacities that are essential for solving the mental tasks. the application of such tools proceeding from the mental and embodied approaches will allow transiting from the embodied cognition to forming the abstract mental images – mental schemes. and conversely, based on the formed knowledge and abilities the students can themselves create their natural objects visualizing their mental schemes. thus, the toolkit can act both as a teaching aid and as a result – a product of students' creative activity. having to build the educational process on the standpoint of mental and embodied approaches is due to the age-specific particularities of the students' cognitive capacities as well as individual needs of the ways of perception and acquisition of the material selected in line with their knowledge level. the natural tools of training will help to bridge the critical gap in the mechanism of computer science teaching to a large extent. they will eliminate the very cause of emergence of the gap while making the resulting system of knowledge more consistent and restoring the didactically correct structure of transition from sensory operating to abstract one. acknowledgements the reported study was funded by krasnoyarsk region science and technology support fund according to the research project no. 2017031301651 "a set of natural-didactic training tools for informatics and methods of their application". journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 100-116 114 references alyushin, a.l. & knyazeva, e.n. (2009). embodied approach in cognitive science. philosophical sciences, 2, 106-125. andujar, c., schiaffonati, v., schreiber, f.a., tanca, l., tedrek, m., van hee, k. & van leeuwen, j. (2013). the role and relevance of experimentation in informatics. 8th european computer science summit of informatics europe. url: http://www.informaticseurope.org/images/documents/informatics-experimentation_2013.pdf bandler, r. & grinder, j. (1975). the structure of magic ii: a book about communication and change. palo alto, ca: science & behavior books. barkhatova, d.a. (2015). the use of devices with remote control at megalessons of informatics. youth. society. modern science, technology and innovations, 14, 277-278. bazhenova, i. v., babich, n. & pak, n.i. (2016). from projective and recursive technology of training to mental didactics. krasnoyarsk: siberian federal university. cartelli, a. (2009). between tradition and innovation in ict and teaching. in: encyclopedia of distance learning, hershey-new york: information science reference, 187-193. ershov, a.p. (1981). programming – the second literacy. url: http://oberon2005.oberoncore.ru/classics/ae1981.pdf. fridman, l.m. (1984). presentation and modeling in training. moscow: znanie. grinder, m. (1991). righting the educational conveyor belt. portland, or: metamorphous press. korkmaz, u. & avci, z.y. (2016). turkish pre-service teachers’ experiences with contemporary technology games and perceptions about teaching with instructional games. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1). url: http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/5 kolin, k. (2011). social informatics today and tomorrow: status, problems and prospects of development of complex lines in the field of science and education. triplec, 9(2), 460-465. kolin, k. (2015). social informatics: 25 years development of the russian scientific school. strategic priorities, 4(8), 51-63. kukhtina, e.s., sorokin, a.v. & barkhatova, d.a. (2015). thinking skills development with use natural tutorials at informatics lessons. current problems of aviation and astronautics, 2(11), 957-959. http://www.informatics-europe.org/images/documents/informatics-experimentation_2013.pdf http://www.informatics-europe.org/images/documents/informatics-experimentation_2013.pdf http://oberon2005.oberoncore.ru/classics/ae1981.pdf http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/5 barkhatova et al. lapchik, m.p., semakin, i.g., henner, e.k., ragulina, m.i., samylkina, n.n., smolina, l.v., udalov, s.r. (2008). theory and methodology of training in informatics. moscow. academy. lebedeva, t.p., pak, n.i. & rukosueva, n.v. (2015) about a training entity from the position of information and mental approach. informatics and education: communication borders, 7(15), 31-33. makarova, n.v., nilova, y.n. & titova, y.f. (2014). modern paradigm of teaching computer science on the basis of the new standard. pedagogical education in russia, 1, 150-155. mathews, s.a. (2016). using digital participatory research to foster glocal competence; constructing multimedia projects as a form of global and civic citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 1-29. maris, m., & te boekhorst, r. (1996). exploiting physical constraints: heap formation through behavioral error in a group of robots. in: proceedings of iros ’96: ieee/rsj international conference on intelligent robots and systems, ed. m. asada. piscataway, nj: ieee press, 1655–1660. muhina, v.s. (2006). age psychology. development phenomenology. moscow: academy. nigmatulina, e.a. & pak, n.i. (2017). the student-centered training in programming in pedagogical university. informatics and education, 2(281), 8-14. osipova-derbas, l. (2008). forming of the informational potential of the personal and social system. izvestia: herzen university journal of humanities & science, 71, 228-234. plighin, a. & gerasimov, a. (1996). research of regularities of development of representative systems of school students. center of nlp in education. url: https://www.nlpcenter.ru/index.php?sid=224&did=1059 rambusch, j. & ziemke, t. (2005). the role of embodiment in situated learning. in: bara, b., barsalou, l. & bucciarelli, m. (eds.). proceeding of the 27th annual meeting of the cognitive science society. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum, 1803-1808. url: http://csjarchive.cogsci.rpi.edu/proceedings/2005/docs/p1803.pdf romero, p., boulay, b. d., robertson, j., good, j., & howland, k. (2009). is embodied interaction beneficial when learning programming? lecture notes in computer science virtual and mixed reality, 97-105. shapiro, l. (2011). embodied cognition. new york: routledge press. http://csjarchive.cogsci.rpi.edu/proceedings/2005/docs/p1803.pdf journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 100-116 116 sofronova, n.v. (2004). theory and methodology of informatics training. moscow. higher school. starikov, s.a. (2011). about formation of social informatics. herald of chelyabinsk state pedagogical university, 8, 122-131. starikov, s.a. (2012). prerequisites of social informatics formation. bulletin of osu, 2(138), 264-267. stepanova, t. a. (2014). theory of algorithmic thinking. krasnoyask: krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astafyev. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1). url: http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/3 ursul, a.d. (1990). informatization of society: introduction to social informatics. moscow: academy of social sciences. varela, f.j., thompson, e. & rosch, e. (1993). the embodied mind: cognitive science and human experience. cambridge: ma: mit press. vitkute-adzgauskiene, d. & vidziunas, a. (2012). problems in choosing tools and methods for teaching programming informatics in education. informatics in education, 11(2), 271282. vopneruk, e.a., zaykova, a.c. & ilichova, a.c. (2005). interrelation of learning ability with the leading representative system. psychological bulletin of ursu, 5, 47-60. wilson m. (2002). six views of embodied cognition. psychonomic bulletin & review. 9(4), 625636. wilson, a.d., & golonka, s. (2013). embodied cognition is not what you think it is. frontiers in psychology, 4, 58. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/3 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 227-237 227 formation of pedagogical system for individual self-development by means of physical culture and sport valery d. panachev 1, leonid a. zelenin 2, anatoly a. opletin3, sergei a. verbytskyi 4 abstract problems of formation, development and introduction of the modern pedagogical selfdevelopment system in university educational process by means of physical culture and sport have been considered in this article. such generated pedagogical system reflects practical implementation of social order on the modern educational paradigm aimed at creation of competitive, physically and morally strong individuals. this system promotes self-realization of students’ individuality in formation of physical culture and sport competencies as well as competencies of self-development. contemporary conditions of society’s development and analysis of the world social cultural and educational tendencies show that recently the object of scrupulous society’s attention and the subject of interdisciplinary research have become different aspects of person’s behavior in respect of his health in many highly developed countries. the slogan of such relation is: “health is not everything but everything without health is nothing”. and this very principle specifies the problems of students’ self-development during intensive preparation for professional activity in the course of university training. these problems are aimed at maintenance of their health and improvement of physical preparation considering formation of professional motor competences for effective and qualitative mastering of future profession and career after graduation from the university. keywords: pedagogical system, individuality, creative self-development, self-realization, physical culture, non-traditional methods of physical culture. introduction due to transformational mechanisms of russia’s involvement in the integrated educational environment of europe (bologna process) demand of population for qualitative goods and services appeared to be in the centre of the modern society. world and russian socialeconomic transformations of the last decade have led to review of role and functions of students’ physical culture promoting formation of human potential of young people. functions of physical culture in new conditions are out the frames of physical qualities formation and motion activity 1 prof, perm national exploratory polytechnic university perm, panachev@pstu.ru 2 prof, perm national exploratory polytechnic university perm, panachev@pstu.ru 3 asst. prof, perm national exploratory polytechnic university perm, panachev@pstu.ru 4 sen. lect., the national university of life and environmental sciences of ukraine kyiv, panachev@pstu.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),227-237 training. they have become the social factor of reproduction of one of the elements of productive forces, namely of labor recourses. to become the subject of one’s own life means to realize its purport, to be capable of self-determination, self-development and self-improvement. modern generated pedagogical system of individual self-development by means of physical culture makes possible to achieve high level of realizing the mechanism of one’s own self development and the way of its control; to study the fundamentals of dialectical person’s self-development philosophy; to master their practical application; to study russian system of self-defense, its technical and psychological aspects; to acquire the experience of making individual self-development technology both at lessons, trainings, sport events, holidays and in conditions of everyday life activity; to acquire the experience of sport events refereeing on the city, krai and country scale. this pedagogical system of individual self-development by means of physical culture is oriented to formation of such person’s qualities as steadiness, single-mindedness, independence, self-developing activity, self-reliance and assurance of one’s own force, attention to the environment, and desire for healthy life-style, for physical perfection, beauty and harmony. improvement of intellectual, moral, physical and cultural level, responsibility, readiness for rational self-restriction, tolerance, creative realizing of participation in educational process with the aim of self-development and self-improvement are the components of this system as well. new paradigm of individual self-development states new strategic problems of competence approach to the establishment and development of society in whole and of every person in social medium. rapid development of technology in all branches of industry requires extensive knowledge stored in the process of education and formation of professional competencies of young people. that was the main reason for elaboration of specialized pedagogical system of professional individual self-development by means of the modern technologies of physical culture and sport. the practice of competence approach to the given system showed positive results during pedagogical experiment with students. during the process of this system realization the model of students’ preparedness for self-development in spots environment of university has been worked out (image 1). panachev et al. image 1. model demonstrating the functioning of pedagogical system of individual selfdevelopment by means of physical culture and sport in the experimental regime. methods of research experimental program of physical culture and technology of its realization was elaborated on the base of the model. the tasks of experimental program include intensification of educational function and reorganization of physical training forms both at lessons and in the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),227-237 students’ independent activity. experimental work was organized in order to solve these problems. the control group (45 persons) was composed from the 1st year students who were trained in accordance with traditional program of education. 46 students were trained according to the experimental program. experiment was carried out during the academic year. at the end of the year there were shown control results. review of the literature on the subject analysis of the world social cultural and educational tendencies shows that recently different aspects of person’s behavior in respect of his own health have become the object of scrupulous attention of society and the subject of interdisciplinary research in many highly developed countries. there are tested different systems of healthy lifestyle education (philosophical, educational, medical, politically-radical, sport-oriented, etc.) as the factor of person’s competitiveness on the labour market and in conditions of creative self-realization, selfdevelopment (balsevich, 2006; zagvyazinsky, 2000; lubysheva, 2006; makeeva, kunitsyn & vucheva, 2004; manzheley, 2007; opletin, 2008; 2009). the common opinion of specialists in the sphere of physical culture concerns the recognition of necessity of reconstruction of students’ physical culture system on the base of the principles of humanistic pedagogy, ethics and psychology oriented to self-development of trained individuals. the analysis of students’ physical culture system makes possible to state a number of its main contradictions which are characterized by: availability of innovative programs of physical culture and poor development of adequate technologies providing their realization; demand for necessary level of students’ physical culture and the lack of teachers’ preparedness for such necessity; importance of students’ subjective position in sport-educational process and low level individual utilization of developing pedagogical technologies providing their demonstration and establishment; orientation of educational process to formation of physical culture and utilitarian applied orientation of estimation criteria of successful mastering of instructional material specified by the program on physical culture. panachev et al. while analyzing the organization of physical culture lessons at universities as well as students’ attitude to these lessons the following tendencies could be mentioned: poor students’ interest for physical culture lessons, especially if they are taught traditionally. students’ demands, motives and value orientations in transformation of their physical nature are practically not taken into consideration; poor readiness of the 1st year students to organize their independent exercises, to strength their health and to improve their creative activity; lack of teacher’s competency level correspondence to the modern requirements which is revealed in poor professional willingness to master new forms of knowledge of physical training, modern technologies demanding for mastering individual systems, means, methods and forms of their organization; lack of teaching materials concerning students’ self-development by means of physical culture. all these facts impel us to elaborate the system of students’ self-development by means of physical culture. pedagogical system of individual creative self-development by means of physical culture we treat as the system of methods and means of students’ physical training at university of nonsport profile which is based on the interaction of persuasion and suggestion having the ability to rise pedagogical efficiency of educational process in solving the problem of physical and socialmoral united development of future professionals by means of physical culture and sport. this system is called to provide comprehensive, balanced individual development on the base of students’ involvement in the process of self-regulation, self-improvement, and selfdevelopment both in physical and in social moral sphere. the system includes the following components: universal limbering-up system (opletin, 2009), integral systematic method of selfimprovement with the elements of yoga (ivanov, 1990), social-pedagogical training (novosyolov, opletin & titova, 2003; novoselov & opletin, 2007), russian native system of self-defense (mach, 2008), space suit gymnastics, energy gymnastics, informational gymnastics (marchenko, 2011). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),227-237 results of research goal of research: students’ familiarization with regular exercises, motion activity and improvement of functional possibilities of organism by introduction of pedagogical system aimed at student’s self-development into educational process. in the process of university educational work the following problems are being solved with the assistance of such pedagogical system: improvement of physical development of students, achievement of high level of training, of functional state and organism’s resistance to the cold; training of moral, esthetic, motion culture, aspiration for health, beauty, love and harmony; development of requirement for self-actualization, self-developing activity, objective self-appraisal; moral development, correction of system of values; intellectual development, mentality; formation of vision. modern generated pedagogical system of individual selfdevelopment by means of physical culture provides: influence on realized and instinctive state of mind; students’ awareness of their physical and moral “i” by self-diagnosing, self-analysis, selfdetermination, self-education, self-control and reflection of physical culture and sport ideals, values and traditions; application of traditional and alternative methods aimed at correction of psychophysical conditions of students, opening of individual potential, development of reflexive consciousness, individuality and identity, manifestation of self-respect, orientation to i-concept of individual, birth of new self-estimation; inculcation of psycho hygiene skills, self-massage, eupnoea, application of yoga elements, self-defense actions, methods of physical development and health improvement in everyday life; acquisition of additional knowledge in the sphere of philosophy of self-development, biology, physiology, psychology, pedagogic, physical culture; theoretical and practical mastering of self-defense methods, rendering first medical aid, mastering of personal and social safety in extreme cases. during the experiment students of this group showed more clearly evidenced statistically reliable improvements in physical development, physical preparedness, motion activity and physical labor activity than students of control group. eight tests (total number of tests was nine) confirmed real differences between experimental and control groups of girls at the end of the experiment, namely: in 30 m and 1000 m race, 3000 m race walking, jump over the rope, forward inclination of body, lift of body; flexion and extension of fixed hands in lying position, test of rufye. so, the effectiveness of indicators’ improvement according to the proposed system and technology of realization is equal to 89%. six tests (from the total number of nine ones) panachev et al. confirmed real differences between experimental and control groups of boys, namely: in 3000 m race walking, jump over the rope, forward inclination of body, body lift, flexion and extension of fixed hands in lying position, test of rufye. so, the effectiveness of indicators’ improvement according to the proposed system and technology realization is equal to 67%. analysis of the data received verified positive tendency of emotional state of students. thus, 14% of students from experimental course showed the lower rate of in-between state of anxiety. correspondingly, 6% of total number of students showed the increased indicator of norm and 9% of students showed the increased indicator of pedagogical correction. positive tendency appeared in the indicators of mental state of depression as well. 15% of students showed the lower rate of inbetween state, considerable number of students (13%) showed the increased indicator in the sphere of pedagogical correction, and 3% – indicator of norm. on the contrary, there wasn’t observed the tendency of indicators’ improvement in control group of students which was trained in traditional manner. analysis of experimental material got by the sam method (self-feeling, activity and mood) showed the improvement of emotional state of students. 54% of students felt better (from the original 32%), 22% of students felt unwell and this indicator was considerably less in comparison with the original (36%). however, 24% of students felt themselves as before uncomfortable at the lessons of physical culture. students’ activity increased from 48% of low level to 43% of middle level, i.e. satisfactory one. in control group students began to feel better but not considerably – from 51% of low level to 45% of middle level, i.e. activity wasn’t practically changed. analysis of comparative data shows that students of experimental group changed their attitude to physical culture; their motivation to this kind of activity in its self-developing direction became higher. the rate of students having negative attitude to the lessons of physical culture became three times less (from 34% to 12%). number of students having the average level of attitude to such studies increased considerably (from 64% to 76%). there was recorded the increased number of students having the level of attitude high enough (from 2% to 8%). and 4% of students manifested the highest level. it means that in whole introduction of alternative methods of physical culture is accepted by students positively. students’ interest to physical culture studies became higher. they became interested in self-development, in themselves as individuals able to be realized in the chosen profession. this fact was confirmed by the data on journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),227-237 revealing students’ ability to self-development. considerable positive dynamics of students’ ability to self-development was evident: average level dominated, sufficient one became higher (from 8% to 22% of students from experimental group). a small number of students manifested the highest level (4%) which was not revealed in the original data. these given results make possible to attribute pedagogical efficiency in the sphere of self-development to the introduction of alternative methods as in control group positive manifestations in this direction are isolated and barely perceptible. it could be especially mentioned some positive dynamics of selfdevelopment activity as the most important indicator of self-cultivation in the experimental group. the indicator of self-development activity levels for exposure of new program efficiency is sufficiently important as it reflects multi-aspect manifestation of individual “identity”. percentage wise positive dynamics was marked in indicators of all levels. a number of students with low level decreased considerably (from 54% to 30%). however, average level is dominated and students with the level high enough show a small rate (from 9% to 11%). and with it, the larger number of students with the indicator of average level comparing to those having low level suggests definite activation of considerable number of students in the sphere of selfdevelopment. in control group this kind of identity manifestation showed poor dynamics. it appeared to be unclaimed there. during the experiment special attention was given to the indicators which registered the dynamics of growth of social-moral individual qualities determining substantive essence and orientation of self-development. in this aspect the growth of moral choice stability appeared to be small. a number of students with low level indicator became less (for 7%). a number of students with high level indicator remained practically unchanged. and as before the dominant were the students with the average level indicator. the indicator of the highest level wasn’t recorded at all. these data testify the indifferent students’ attitude to the choice of the aim and essence of social-moral self-development. choice response in problem situations is the evidence of this fact. in the experimental group it happens in situations of indirect suggestion and in the process of its realization. in control group reaction to the problems of self-development in the sphere of physical culture testifies this attitude. such situation was confirmed by the indicators of competiveness as the important factor in selfrealization and self-identification. the results showed little decrease in number of students with low level in both groups. nobody showed the highest level. average and high enough levels remained practically unchanged. it is known that individual identity is defined by the personality panachev et al. strength to a large extent. we revealed it by mmpi method (scale – personality strength). in the experimental group some dynamics of personality strength manifestation was recorded: the number of students participating in the experiment and having low level became less by 10%, the number of students with average level increased by 1%, some student manifested high level (9%). personality traits are given according to the method of r. cattel f-16, form c. analysis of the received data showed the dynamics of individual traits manifestation. thus, characterizing intellectual peculiarities according to r. cattel’s method data a large group of students (61%) had changes in abstract thinking, some students of the group (49%) acquired broaden imagination. the largest part of students (63%) manifested positive attitude to innovations. some positive dynamics in emotional-volitional aspect was marked as well. sufficient number of students (39%) demonstrated the growth of emotional stability, and the number of students having self-control became higher (47%). the character of communicative qualities was changed as well. the indicator of risk tendency increased in the group of considerable part of students (81%). more than half of students (65%) became more restrained and considerable part of students (59%) became self-reliant. many students (49%) became more adaptable. analysis of the received data allowed making several conclusions. conclusion introduction of new pedagogical system, new alternative methods optimized the process of students’ physical training. results of the experiment showed first of all the incentive growth to physical culture studies, the normalization of mental state of considerable part of university students. sufficient level of individual physical development showed itself in health strengthening (low sickness rate) has been registered. optimal development and strengthening of students’ respiratory organs, growth of vital functions, relaxedness of motor skills, strengthening of body muscles, mobility of joints and spine has been marked. mastering of health preservation and strengthening by means of muscle stretch, joints’ gymnastics and self-massage has been demonstrated. more active attitude to healthy life-style has been shown. physical studies attendance has become sufficiently better. during the academic year students of experimental group had been seldom ill with acute respiratory diseases (viral infection, influenza, diseases of throat, nose and ear). during the experimental period students of this group caught cold 596 times while the students of control group – 1007. in the experimental group average duration of disease was about 7,1 days, while in control group – 9,9 days. number of students from journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),227-237 experimental group being often ill (3-4 times a year) was by 29,1% less than in control group. pedagogical observations: improvement of definite traits of students, studying in the experimental group. students have lost their timidity, uncertainty, shyness and inactivity. discipline has become better, orderliness and independence have appeared as well as interest to physical exercise and willingness to be trained in sport classes. such changes were not demonstrated in control group. panachev et al. references balsevich, v.k. (2006). intelligent vector of physical education in russian schools. moscow: type fkis. ivanov, y.m. (1990). yoga and psychotraining: path to physical perfection and cosmic consciousness. moscow: jv lesinvest. lubysheva, l.i. (2006). sports culture at school. moscow: theory and practice fkis. mach, s.y. (2008). self-defense in the formation of personal safety strategies: monograph. orel: orel state technical university. makeeva, v.s., kunitsyn, a.d., & vucheva, v. (2004). health-improving and recreational physical culture: tutorial. orel: orel ph. manzheley, i.v. (2007). pedagogical model of physical education. chelyabinsk: south ural book publishers. marchenko, e.d. (2011). benefit from fear. introduction to pedagogy of joy. st. petersburg: author center "radast". novoselov, a.s., & opletin, a.a. (2007). self-development of the individual student's nontraditional methods of physical training: guide for independent work of students and teachers. perm: spb ivesep. novosyolov, a.s., opletin, a.a., & titova, l.a. (2003). diagnostics of self-developing activity in the educational process (pedagogical aspect). perm: pspu publishing house. opletin, a.a. (2008). pedagogical bases of social and moral self-identity of student (on the basis of physical education): monograph. perm: spb ivesep. opletin, a.a. (2009). system of universal workout at the lessons of physical culture in the context of self-development of students: tutorial. perm: pgpu publishing house. zagvyazinsky, v.i. (2000). real humanism and trends of development of education. education and science, 1, 10-15. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 370-391 370 human agency as a self-cognition of human autonomous learning: a synthesized practical of agentic approach alfaiz1, nur hidayah2, im hambali3, carolina ligya radjah4 abstract this research aims to describe the personal and social cognition in human learning, analyze human agency as a self-cognitive strength to establishing adequate autonomous learning, explain a relationship between personal agency and human autonomy in a social system, and synthesize an agentic approach to shape self-cognition of human autonomous learning process. data was obtained using the critical analysis literature method and it was gathered that agentic with a cognitive and behavior domain often show proactive, adaptive, and purposeful behavior to achieve goals in social life. the result of the study shows that human agency was integrated into the intentional, forethought, reactive, and reflective processes, and also has a relationship with human autonomous behavior in the social system by acting as an autonomous agent in choosing and considering an action. moreover, in response to contemporary issues, human agency is synthesized and developed as an agentic approach to shape autonomous learning in counseling manner. key words: human agency, autonomous learning, well-being, cognition, agentic approach introduction several disciplines including sociology, economics, anthropology, psychology, religious studies, and science of education have continually studied human behavior. from the education perspective, human beings are learning and this required finding new things of life to fulfill their needs (kowalski, 2011). these further elicit human learning behavior which is generated by impulse and cognitive aspects. the experiences of humans during the process of learning life circumstances cannot be separated from three psychological aspects including cognitive, affective, and psychomotor which are reflected in daily behaviors. it is a fact that humans have initiative in learning and also important 1 doctoral student in faculty of education, universitas negeri malang, indonesia and also a lecturer at stkip pgri sumatera barat, indonesia, alfaiz.1701119@students.um.ac.id 2 prof. dr. faculty of education, universitas negeri malang, indonesia: nur.hidayah.fip@um.ac.id 3 dr. faculty of education, universitas negeri malang, indonesia: im.hambali.fip@um.ac.id 4 dr.faculty of education, universitas negeri malang, indonesia: inawasis2409@gmail.com mailto:alfaiz.1701119@students.um.ac.id mailto:nur.hidayah.fip@um.ac.id mailto:im.hambali.fip@um.ac.id mailto:inawasis2409@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 to understand the best strategy to be employed in achieving learning objectives. several psychological development research works have attached human learning behavior in social life to the concept of nativism and empiricism, which are categorized under psychodynamic, behavioristic, and cognitive perspectives (kowalski, 2011; bakkenes et al, 2010; goodall et al, 2017). social life is formed from three aspects with a reciprocal determinism and they include an individual, behavior, and the environment. in this context, it was comprehended that the learning process in human social life and educational institutions is an interaction put forward by bandura. this involves the order of values, rules and culture, and agreement on the direction of human development with these three aspects to form a social system in the educational climate (bandura, 1978, 1986; pajares et al, 2008; hidayah, n et, al, 2017). therefore, due to the importance of education climate in the world, indonesia, as a member of the asean economic community (aec), has entered an agreement which involves the globalization and internationalization of the asean economic and educational system demanding equality in competitiveness and collaboration in the 21st century (kemendikbud, 2010) (pelkmans, n.d.; “the asean economic community and the asean investment framework”, n.d.; wicaksono 2007; chongvilaivan 2016). moreover, the asean university network-quality assurance (aun -qa), also focus on equalizing the quality of academic standard, education, research and service of infrastructure facilities within asean countries (guide to aun-qa, 2016:7). these activities show the current importance of education in human development concerning life circumstances. its rapid progress has also been attached to the advancement of human thinking in the mastery of science, especially when it involves answering life questions on social life (suriasumantri, 2009: 3; khoo et, al, 2016). the development of education in the current globalization era demands an order to evaluate and develop a new educational and learning system in higher education. the existence of higher educational curriculum in indonesia under the universities regulation requires higher education focuses on the equality of learning achievement by ensuring the quality of learning is the same both at home and abroad (dikti curriculum, 2014). however, primary and secondary education focuses on strengthening the nation's character through the national movement of the mental revolution (gnrm) (kemendikbud, 2010). this involves implementing educational processes focused on shaping the character of the students. the indonesian presidential regulation no. 87 of alfaiz et al. 2017 article 3, states that "the strengthening of character education is implemented by applying pancasila (five principles) values in character education mainly to include religious, honesty, tolerance, discipline, hard work, creative, independent, democratic, curiosity, the spirit of national values...". this means the focus of education is to strengthen the character of learners by integrating these values in every subject and supported by guidance and counseling from a professional counselor. the values are arranged in the formulation of five pillars of character in extended education to include religious, nationalist, autonomous, cooperation, and integrity values (kemendikbud, 2010). however, the education system of indonesia seems to be using the pragmatism of logic in practice (ma’arif, s, 2018). in this context, the autonomous learning character is an aspect education process that needs to be addressed and a survey was conducted to show its effect on adolescents learning. the results of the survey conducted on high school students in some areas in padang city between 2016 and 2017 showed a decline in autonomous learning. some of the students were observed to be using the gadgets supplied by the school for "hanging out" on the road at about 7:00 am when they are supposed to be in school. some of them were also observed to have learned how to cheat their classmates’ schoolwork, and according to the interviews conducted on the teachers, this act has been extended to examinations. moreover, some counselors interviewed in some high schools of padang city in indonesia also reported that students experience psychological distress due to the demands of autonomous learning curriculum and lesson schedule, thereby, leading to cheating behavior and playing with gadgets instead of using them for academic purposes. the research conducted on high school sungai tarab west sumatera by elfira in 2013 found the level of students’ autonomous learning to be low with dependence on group guidance for improvement (elfira, 2013). another study by apriyadi conducted in 2014 at junior hihh school 1 (smp n 1) wonopringgo also reported a low level of students’ autonomous learning in mathematics and recommended the use of college ball technique for improvement (apriyadi, 2014). the application of autonomous learning by students has led to positive changes in their intellectual ability and the lack thereof, is attached to poor learning habits such as skipping, cheating, and searching for leaked examination questions. moreover, proper application of this value is dependent on the ability to organize, direct, think ahead, and the desire to achieve in the future journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 (ani, 2017; dounis, 2017; wang, 2015; sulistyaningsih, 2017). however, students’ involvement and motivation in learning is another challenge observed in the use of autonomous learning (mullins, 2019; priyono, 2018). furthermore, candy (1975) reported four dimensions of learning attitudes to include 1) personal autonomy, 2) self-management, 3) achieving freedom, and 4) understanding learning constraints. this shows the use of the concept of autonomous learning gives the freedom to achieve learning objectives attached with the mastery of a particular subject matter (rianawati, 2017; leung, 2001; sardegna et, al, 2017). steinberg (2004) also revealed autonomy to be the development of an adolescent’s ability to think, feel, make choices, and takes actions towards achieving goals. indonesian dictionary further defined the term to be the state of standing alone, taking care and overcoming interests without depending on others (rianawati, 2017; steinberg, 2006; steinberg, 2014; silverberg et, al, 1987; sessa et, al, 1991). these explanations show autonomous learning is a form of behavior derived from adolescents’ self-condition. this process was reported by roger to be an active and constantly changing psychological process depending on the assessment of the self-worth of an individual and the environment that makes the condition valuable (brammer et, al, 1982: 50; brammer 2010; brammer 2014). candy (1991) further described autonomous learning as the process by which students obtain knowledge from personal efforts and develop the ability to evaluate and criticize their learning activities (healey, 2014: 9; mota et, al, 2014). moreover, listyani (2008) explained the six indicators of attitudes include self-reliance, being autonomous, confidence, discipline, sense of responsibility, self-initiation, and self-control (saefullah, 2013: 27). autonomous learning is mostly viewed as a psychological aspect associated with students’ conditions as reflected in their behavior. even though the concept varies from what is ideally desired by the social system of the current educational curriculum as well as some theoretical views, it is important to understand the method of conducting the curative measurement to improve students’ autonomous learning. expert opinion has also related the ‘self’ in self-autonomy to be an actor thinking, choosing and determining, independent of others, self-control, discipline to evaluate the behavior conducted towards achieving goals. the term ‘actor’ is a term proposed by bandura in classifying the tendency of human attitude in the social environment as a human agency. it is a revolutionary concept in the social cognitive alfaiz et al. theory of bandura (1997, 2006) and involves the final result of the process of human cognitive behavior process making an individual an actor influencing the environment. this agency is classified into three forms and one of them is the personal agency which serves as the foundation for the other two and involves individuals’ self-capability in planning, acting and evaluating behavior for task completion in social life. this means individuals with the tendency to control their behavior have a high self-efficacy, capacity, and capability in estimating personal agency behavior (bandura, 1999). (bandura, 1974; chima, 2002; bandura, 1991; taylor et, al, 2005; taylor et, al, 2002; schutte, 2014; yansaputri, et, al, 2017; yamazumi, k, 2007). human agency is defined as the capability to take actions through self-perceptive abilities, planning, framework reconstruction, and evaluation of results (cauce et, al, 2017: 11). similarly, the self-learning process involves to the development, and planning of goals by students’ as well as the creation, implementation and evaluation of frameworks to achieve adequate learning outcomes. these attributes make students more self-efficient as personal agents. candy (1975) stated that there are four dimensions of autonomies namely: self-autonomy, self-management, freedom of learning, and understanding the weakness or mastery of learning materials (rianawati, 2017). these comprises of an ideal content with the concept of human agency which is a form of individual self-capability in planning, acting, and evaluating social life using the cognitive theory of bandura (1997, 2006). human agency also contributes to student engagement in the learning process, as constructive contribution which intentionally and proactively personalize what is to be learnt and autonomously communicate their needs and recommend a learning goal to be pursued (reeve, j et, al, 2011). student not only react to learning activities but as an autonomous actor in learning, which transforms, and creates an outstanding level of learning (reeve, j et, al, 2011; montenegro, 2016). similarly, according to charteris (2015), agentic students tend to make decisions regarding their learning goals and objectives. they seek efforts and ameliorate their performance capacity by monitoring their learning behavior autonomously (charteris, 2015). this behavior are shaped by cognitive and dimensions of agentic perspective which improves their adaptative, proactive, and purposeful behavior in achieving goals. several studies have been conducted on agentic perspective in learning which shows it contributes to student’s autonomous learning process. however, limited research has been conducted in accordance with educational counseling to synthesize an agentic approach and help improve students’ autonomous learning. this behavior was activated through agentic aspects of building journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 self-cognition in learning, which focuses on the construction of human behavior. bandura (2018) stated that there are intentional, forethought, self-reactions and reflective aspects of agentic behavior which are grouped into dimensions of cognitive (ideation) and realization behavior. furthermore, the activation of these four aspects using the agentic approach helps to reconstruct self-cognition of human autonomous learning in accordance with the goals to be achieved, through understanding and discipline. according to the described above, the questions for this study include what is personal and social cognition in human learning? how does human agency as a self-cognitive strength, establish human well-being in autonomous learning? what is the relationship between personal agency and human autonomy in a social system? what agentic approach was used to shape the self-cognition of the human autonomous learning process? these questions were used to analyze the application of the theory of human agency to understand and develop a synthesized practical to shape the human autonomous learning process. personal and social cognition in learning: a social cognitive theory perspective early efforts towards understanding human behavior reported environmental factors or empiricism to have a strong influence on how humans behave (kowalski, 2011). this perspective was supported through the research conducted by miller and dollard which reinforced the behavioristic view that learning is only achieved through imitation rather than the process of cognition and observation (hergenhahn, 2008). however, due to the development psychology as a science, bandura studied the concepts of social learning theory proposed by miller and dollard using an observational approach and it was discovered that humans learn through cognition and observation while imitation was an option (hergenhahn, 2008). these findings suggest the behavior of a human in learning is not merely depending on environmental factors but also with the complexity arising from the relationships between these factors. this view, however, tends towards the concept of triadic reciprocal determinism and observational learning. the rationale behind effective observational learning was proposed by bandura (1986:24) with the interaction factors mutually determinative through a position is known as the reciprocal determinism. this concept revises all the behavioral psychological assumptions which states there are only one one-sided determinism and two-sided determinism between the environment, individual, and behavior. alfaiz et al. bandura (1977, 1986, 1997) proposed a formulation between behavior represented by b, environment by e, and the individual or organism or person represented by p concerned as shown in the following figure. figure 1. the formulation of behavior, environment, and person behavior is not imitation but rather a cognitive aspect of why an individual does or do not behave in a particular manner. this process is, therefore, termed the observational learning such that how an individual behaves is not due to imitation but the cognitive consideration of the observer to the environment (hergenhahn, 2008), according to the concept of social cognitive theory. the development of observational learning has a model is the source of observation in learning and some of the important natural processes differentiating it from imitative learning include: 1. the attentional process: attention is one of the processes in the observational learning model providing a stimulus. bandura (1986) reported that individuals pay attention to effective, attractive, rewarding and successful models than others (hergenhahn, 2008: 363). 2. motivational process: according to bandura, reinforcement has two main functions. the first involves creating expectations for observer through certain activities to spur increased motivation while the second includes acting as an incentive to translate learning into performance. 3. retention process: after observation by an individual, the information from the model is stored... bandura (1986:58) explained that this process involves remembering and preserving the information with an imaginative and verbal symbol in the style and speech accustomed to the language used by the model. 4. the process of behavior: this is the determination of the extent to which the observational study is translated into action or performance. in the learning process, a qualified approach to form learning behaviors in an educational setting is usually through the use of educator as the role model for the students. the experience serves as p e b journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 a self-reference for students in forming their behavior in agreement with the social cognitive concepts of bandura which shows behavior to be an accumulation of past experiences of both success and failure, social persuasion of the social environment, emotional state, and vicarious experience (bandura, 1986). these usually lead to self-efficacy to form the perception of selfbelief and individual skills to complete a task which needs to be possessed by an individual to become an actor in an environment. a good personality is reflected in behavior with a strong belief in making choices and completing some tasks in a particular environment through self-efficacy. this motivates students by creating awareness and personal interest in making learning and career decisions and can be used as a model in an environment (hambali, 2019). moreover, the social cognitive theory views self-efficacy as a self-belief that is different from other self-concepts like self-esteem, and others (bandura, 1997: 10). it shows it tends towards self-capability which is more specific than self-belief in conducting behavior and action. the cognitive process has to do with the activities involved in structuring life, purpose, and ability to predict behavior and actions in completing a task (bandura 1997: 116). it also deals with the individual learning process in the academic world such that higher cognitive abilities help an individual in preparing the best strategy to achieve goals. the process of motivation, selfmotivating ability, and action are rooted in cognitive activity (alfaiz, et, al, 2017). moreover, cognitive motivation ensures people guide and direct their anticipatory action through the predictive thoughts of the future. this involves forming aspirations, creating the worst and bestcase scenarios, and developing anticipatory behaviors to overcome future conditions (bandura, 1997: 122). furthermore, the affective process of self-efficacy has more to do with the intensity of the emotional experience influencing the sustainability of learning behavior and control through thoughts, actions, and feelings (alfaiz, et, al, 2017). it is oriented towards the psychological condition of individuals concerning comfort, happiness, expectation, anxiety, and worry and also determines their effectiveness in neutralizing these conditions to achieve the desired result (bandura, 1997: 137). however, the selection of human cognitive concepts is based on some certain considerations. for example, from the self-efficacy perspective, personal and social learning of human beings are selected based on self-cognition which requires understanding the fulfillment of capabilities and weaknesses to achieve a higher efficacy. moreover, self-conscious alfaiz et al. perspective involves matching people with their abilities (bandura, 1997: 160). this selfawareness needs to be formed in the process of learning to make students become independent self-agents determining and choosing the direction and how to form good learning. the self-cognition process is formed through an individual’s daily activities and based on four sources of self-efficacy. the first is the mastery experience which involves recalling the activities conducted with a satisfactory outcome, and from the social cognitive view, it has a stereotyped impression on human self-cognition to determine self-belief required to execute every activity and task (bandura, 1991, 1997, 2001). the second is the vicarious experience, which involves acting based on both personal and other experiences obtained through the interaction with the environment. this is related to the observational learning process, which involves the gathering of information through attention, retention, motivation, and production in everyday behavior (bandura, 1986, 1997). the third is the verbal or social persuasion and it involves strengthening the self-confidence of a leaner through environmental persuasion from teachers, classmates, parents, siblings, and others (bandura, 1986, 1997: 101). the affective or emotional state of an individual also determines the confidence in capabilities through the calmness and focus on completing tasks and activities. moreover, being a self-belief mechanism, it understands the element of human psychology from the proactive attitude of human behavior based on the cognitive aspect and also used as a determinant of the agentic perspective of human beings (alfaiz, et, al, 2015). this perspective is, however, a view of the development of human through the involvement of personal factors affecting different things in an ever-changing environment (bandura, 2006: 1; hidayat, a., 2016; yansaputri, et, al, 2017). human agency as a self-cognitive strength to establish human well being in autonomous learning bandura viewed the human agency as a condition of human self-cognition with a purpose, construction, and plan to anticipate the effects of an action, estimate an ability, manage affection, and execute some tasks (cauce et, al, 2017: 2). this means individuals with good self-agents do not act on the level of difficulty but rather self-motivated to achieve results (cauce et, al, 2017: 2). moreover, humans, as personal agency, has a cognitive belief to be the foundation of motivation, well-being, and achievement, based on self-efficacy. this ability prioritizes the quality of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 independent self-cognition such that individuals undergoing learning process mostly engage in personal activities in achieving learning objectives. this process is autonomous and usually produce properly planned, constructive, and purposeful results. (bandura, 2006; ortner, et, al, 2017; hitchcott, et, al, 2017; lanciano, et al, 2014). human agency is defined as the capability to take actions through self-perception of abilities, planning, framework reconstruction, and evaluation of results obtained (cauce et, al, 2017: 11). this concept was illustrated by cauce (2017) by stating that an individual trying to climb the mountains, but never leave the house or buy climbing equipment does not possess a human agency behavior. however, if the individual wants to climb the mountain, buy the climbing equipment, and climb the mountain, even though such person is unable to reach the peak due to weather and other physical conditions, a human agency behavior has already been displayed (cauce, 2002; mayr, 2011; brett, 2017). similarly, the self-learning process involves students being the agent to develop goals, plan actions and behavior, create a framework and completeness of activities, implement learning with all abilities, and evaluate the learning outcomes. these attributes make students being personal agent more self-sufficient. however, some researchers found this autonomous condition has some challenges, for example, the survey conducted in 2016-2017 showed students have no framework and proper planning towards learning, thereby, leading to cheating. candy (1975) reported the four dimensions of autonomies to be self-autonomy, self-management, freedom of learning, and understanding the weakness or mastery of learning materials on learning (rianawati, 2017). these are, however, observed to have an ideal content with the concept of human agency which is a form of individual self-capability in planning, acting, and evaluating behavior in completing tasks in the social life. the concept was derived from the social cognitive theory of bandura (1997, 2006). the human agency has three forms and one of them is the personal agency which involves trained individuals becoming more active in their environment by planning the frameworks, working on a goal, and taking action plans to achieve objectives. this concept has proximity to selftransforming individuals, adaptation, and evaluation (bandura, 2001). however, another form is the proxy agency which involves acting and achieving goals through other individuals. the third form is the collective agency which includes a social group with shared interests and common alfaiz et al. goals working together through interdependence efforts by sharing experiences, knowledge, skills, and action to ensure better future in the social system (bandura, 2006: 165). moreover, the educational learning process cannot be formed completely without the inclusion of personal agency due to the importance of autonomous learning character. therefore, the core value of the personal agency are as follows: 1. intention: an individual forms an intention which includes an action plan and strategy for self-realization. this value of intent and planning can be used to produce different outcomes in each behavior (bandura, 2001, 2006), especially in learning to produce creativity and innovation. 2. forethought: this is a plan directed towards the future by setting goals and anticipating the purpose of achieving the desired results. this was required to obtain motivation through cognitive ability and visualization from the mind. the ability to foresee the future leads provides an individual with a self-guiding power to motivate and achieve goals in the independent environment (bandura, 2001, 2006) 3. self-reactiveness: this involves an individual being the behavioral regulator after a plan had been made. it also means being proactive about certain things and has the ability to ensure a self-reactive agent makes choices and action plans to create consistent ways of learning and organizing behaviors (bandura, 2001, 2006). 4. self-reflectiveness: this involves individuals judging their functions and deeds by reflecting the efficacy of their personal thoughts and actions through self-consciousness and make self-improvement (bandura, 1997, 2001, 2006). this concept ensures individuals evaluate their behaviors in achieving their goals, especially in learning, without depending on others. these values have been tested in students’ learning and found to be a constructive contribution ensuring students enrich their experience and put interest in setting a new goal and objective in learning (reeve, j, et, al, 2011). this shows agentic aspect contribute autonomously to a student's proactive behavior in learning, much like reflective practice and praxis according to roy (2017). relationship between personal agency and human autonomous in social system in modern psychology, many of issues are separating autonomy, freedom, and human happiness (chirkov, et al, 2011). this started with the paradigm to understand the origin of human behavior, whether it came from humans or there are determining variables from the social environment. the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 determinist view which is rapidly developing in the modern psychology states that human behavior is mainly caused by subjective experience factors (chirkov, et al, 2011). skinner further explained that humans consciously behave with the influence of individual reinforcement. this shows human behavior is independently formed by awareness, however, social construction experts believe it is a process of construction based on the environment (chirkov, et al, 2011). this view was initially in line with the cognitive-behavioral view although there are differences in their perspective of social construction such as humans are not merely pawns of the environment due to the cognitive considerations about their interests, behavioral choices, and actions towards the modification of their environment (bandura, 2008). the social cognitive theory distinguishes three types of environmental structures and they include the innate, chosen, and built environments, which represent the changeable level of processes to determine the individual to be an agentic person (bandura, 1999). this, however, requires adaptation and ability to choose goals in the environment. it is different from the social construction perspective regarding the formulation of human behavior which rejects the existence of intrapersonal psychological forces in behavior. the drive for values, desires, and expectations are eliminated to produce the agentic autonomous character of human behavior in the environment (chirkov, et, al, 2011). the production of human behavior from civilized environmental influences without the acceptance of self-system due to the proactive and independent condition of human in the social system (bandura, 1989, 1999) led to the emergence of human agency. it is, however, divided into three, one of which is an autonomous agency (bandura, 1989). a proactive person has the ability to affect the environment in an agentic manner and this makes human autonomous agency required in social construction (chirkov, et, al, 2011). moreover, behavior in the environment is not sufficiently understood if human internal mental processes such intentionality, anticipation, actions, and selfreflection producing behavioral learning skills are not clearly stated (chirkov, et, al, 2011). alfaiz et al. figure 2. relationship between personal agency and autonomous behavior in social system figure 2 shows within an individual (p) there is a personal agency construct requiring activation to release the strength of an autonomous agentic behavior (p) which contacts and interacts with the environment (e) and environmental behavior (b). this, therefore, makes proactive behavior, management, and measurable goals, as self-agents, to be maximal. agentic approach to shape self-cognition of human autonomous learning process the previous discussion and research about the agentic concept and lack of autonomous learning based on a survey conducted to improve the student’s autonomous and engagement in learning showed agentic aspect prepares students for life after school, higher education and career (roy, 2017). on the contrary, disengagement of this concept in learning makes students drop out of school (roy, 2017) due to the inability to realize the full potential of their agentic capabilities. the authors provided some recommendations which involve developing a model to enhance autonomous learning through the concept of human agency from the perspective of social cognitive theory to realize well-being in self-cognition for human self-learning process. furthermore, articles and pieces of literature earlier discussed revealed human agency as one of the solutions to improve students’ personal agency affecting their autonomous learning through the internalization of the human agency value and explained the concept through learning guidance. this was guided by the cognitive-behavioral approach, which involved making students the source of cognitive experience. this guidance through the human agency with the training of core values is referred to as the wellbeing guidance and it requires the following stages to improve the autonomous learning of students. p b e e construct of personal agency construct of personal agency journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 1. opening: this is based on field assessment results obtained from several measuring instruments. this is followed by rapport techniques to receive students with a humanistic context as well as the creation of structuring and limiting processes during the guidance. 2. assessment: this starts with interviews and allows the counselor to dig information using several dialectical communication techniques through paraphrased, open, and confrontational questions to reveal the true conditions of things. at this stage, the counselor becomes an agent model with self, intellectual, and emotional control exploring students’ cognitive conditions and mindset, as well as the agency in learning. students are given the freedom to convey their mindset and argument in the understanding of learning. 3. coaching: this requires confrontational techniques if the client lacks the awareness of the agents’ shortage. the counselor provides training on human agency values through paraphrasing, using real-life situations, and other important means to ensure students also become a personal agent with control over their behavior and actions towards achieving goals. 4. evaluation: this stage involves the assessment of the results of the guidance upon completion irrespective of the period to determine the client's condition after learning. therefore, human agency is worthy of implementation in guidance efforts towards enhancing autonomous learning through the four self-developed steps as shown in the following table. table 1 the process of agentic approach in guidance counseling to shape autonomous in learning coaching phase opening coaching 1 and 2 coaching 3 coaching 4 guidance phase opening stage attending, build a rapport, contract, structure of the process, discuss assessment result assessment stage maintain and position a general technique in guidance and counseling studied information on personal agency conditions and client selfcognition, as well as studying the condition of self-perception in learning coaching stage maintain and position the general technique in guidance and counseling 1.understanding of matter training the personal conditions of the present are less supportive and understand the personal use real-life situation in this stage the counselor provides some attitude tasks that need to be implementation in this coaching, clients are invited to 1.plan alfaiz et al. conditions that are wellbeing. 2. paraphrase of matter conducts self-talk training to self-suggest a client through counseling persuasion implemented in the process of daily learning 2. design performance targets. 3. strategies to achieve 4. behavioral implementation 5. anticipatory behavior in implementation and outcome 6. self-reflection of these achievements. 7. the process of habituation in the learning environment in this final stage, exercise includes 4 human agency values, such as intention, forethought, selfreactiveness, and selfreflectiveness. evaluation stage maintain a position of general technique in guidance and counseling 1. the openness of the client tells the condition of self-cognition and behavior. 2. understand the ideal conditions in real-life learning and the future. 3. a strong desire to change self-cognition 1. understand the new condition (human agency) is in the client's personal life. 2. accepting assignments (theoretical practices and scenarios) related to the new cognitive conditions in personal and social terms. 3. understanding the conditions of the task with the previous selfcondition should be familiarized 1. counselors’ observation of clients in the process of real-life learning in schools, 2. the client must familiarize the value of the human agency to become agentic self as well-being the table shows there are four stages of training to build the four human agency values for the well-being guidance to produce a client with the ability to engage in the autonomous learning process as an agentic person. the explanations of the training to synthesize the agentic approach to be implemented by further research are stated as follows. 1. understanding of matter: the first phase is to understand the material about human agency values by setting aside the student's previous knowledge of self-condition interfering with the self-imposed self-sufficiency. it also involves the conduct of a process of suggesting different ways of becoming an agent through self-confidence and self-efficacy by the counselor. 2. paraphrase of matter: this involves inviting students to use logic and dialectical language to show the understanding and cultivation of the information in their language while the counselor guides the correctness of the meaning. the aim is to enable the student to associate the knowledge acquired in an easily understood language. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 3. real-life situation through narration: this involves projecting student's self-condition by following up the knowledge acquired through the self-talk process. at this stage, the student narrates to the counselor by answering what, how, and why are the past behaviors conducted and the need for change in the behaviors and attitudes to become an agent? and what it means for the student. 4. implementation: this involves putting what has been learned or acquired into practice through the communication of their behavior to have new ones. the counselor is tasked with the responsibilities of reinforcement, observation, and assessment of the student’s progress. conclusion human agency is the ability of individuals to proactively direct, plan, visualize, and modify themselves to achieve goals in the social environment. the agentic perspective of humans to behave like actors, is based on self-cognition, which sets the mind into achieving goals through autonomous behavior such as intentionality, forethought, self reactiveness and reflection. these perspectives, further raises the human self-cognition in understanding the knowledge, perceptions, and paradigms in order to determine social behavior capable of achieving set goals. according to the analysis above, that human agency has a self-cognition in learning as integrated into intentional, forethought, reactive and reflective processes, and also has a relationship with human autonomous behavior in the social system as an agent used in choosing and considering an action. moreover, the concept is defined as the capability to take action covering self-perception to planning action, reconstructing framework, and evaluating the results obtained. it was also discovered that the wellbeing of human agency in guidance establishes student’s autonomous learning through an agentic approach in cognitive-behavioristic paradigm. in addition, agentic approach must continue to developed and this synthesized practical model serves as a preliminary research model to be explore and implemented in an experimental method as a guidance and counseling for students in a school setting. references alfaiz, & yandri, h. (2015). self concept and self efficacy as a ground points in a social activities (an analysis of psychology perspective: a social cognitive theory). jurnal alfaiz et al. pelangi, 7(2), 45-52. https://doi.org/10.22202/jp.2015.v7i2.203. http://ejournal.stkip-pgrisumbar.ac.id/index.php/pelangi/article/view/203. alfaiz, zulfikar, & yulia, d. (2017). efikasi diri sebagai faktor prediksi kesiapan mahasiswa dalam mengerjakan tugas kuliah. jurnal ilmu pendidikan, vol. 2, no. 2, 119-124. http://dx.doi.org/10.17977/um027v2i22017p119. http://journal2.um.ac.id/index.php/jktpk/article/view/2546. alfaiz, hariko, r, rafiola, r. h & zulfikar. (2017). condition and shaping of student personality in educational process through transpersonal psychology perspective. proceedings of 3rd international conference on education and training (icet 2017). series advances in social science, education and humanities research. vol. 128. atlantis press. https://doi.org/10.2991/icet-17.2017.1. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icet17/25883491. https://publons.com/publon/24792154. ani, l. (2017). how introversion and extroversion affect students’ autonomous in l2 writing tasks: students’ perceptions. advances in social sciences research journal 4 (5). scholar publishing. doi:10.14738/assrj.45.2817. apriyadi, f (2014). peningkatan kemandirian belajar siswa dalam pembelajaran matematika melalui metode college ball. universitas muhamadiyah surakarta, unpublished. asean university network (aun). (2016). guide to aun-qa assesment at institutional level. version 2.0 bakkenes, i, vermunt, j.d & theo wubbels. (2010). teacher learning in the context of educational innovation: learning activities and learning outcomes of experienced teachers. learning and instruction 20 (6). elsevier bv: 533–48. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.09.001. bandura, a. (1978). the self system in reciprocal determinism. american psychologist 33 (4). american psychological association (apa): 344–58. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.33.4.344. bandura, a. (1986). social foundation of thought and action: social cognitive theory. englewood cliffs, new jersey: prentice-hall. bandura, a. (1977). social learning theory. englewood cliffs, new jersey: prentice hall. bandura, a. (1989). human agency in social cognitive theory. american psychologist, vol. 44, no.9, 1175-1184. bandura, a. (1997). “self-efficacy the exercise of control”. new york: freeman and company https://doi.org/10.22202/jp.2015.v7i2.203 http://ejournal.stkip-pgri-sumbar.ac.id/index.php/pelangi/article/view/203 http://ejournal.stkip-pgri-sumbar.ac.id/index.php/pelangi/article/view/203 http://dx.doi.org/10.17977/um027v2i22017p119 http://journal2.um.ac.id/index.php/jktpk/article/view/2546 https://doi.org/10.2991/icet-17.2017.1 https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icet-17/25883491 https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icet-17/25883491 https://publons.com/publon/24792154 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 bandura, a. (1999). social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. asian journal of social psychology, blackwell publisher, vol 2. 21-41. bandura, a. (2001). social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. annual review psychological, vol 52, 1-26. bandura, a. (2006). toward a psychology of human agency. american for psychological science. vol. 1, no. 2, 164-180. bandura, a. (2008). “toward an agentic theory of the self”. self process, learning and enabling human potential. age publishing. bandura, a. (2018). toward a psychology of human agency: pathways and reflections. association for psychological science, perspective on psychological science. vol. 13(2), pp. 130-136. http://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617699280. bandura, a. (1974). a social-learning explanation of deviant behavior. in perspectives in abnormal behavior, 65–72. elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-017738-0.50014-4. bandura, a. (1991). social cognitive theory of self-regulation. organizational behavior and human decision processes 50 (2). elsevier bv: 248–87. doi:10.1016/07495978(91)90022-l. brammer, l & shostrom, l. e. (1982). therapeutic psychology. fourth edition. new jersey, prentice hall. brammer, a. (2010). community care and the promotion of autonomous. in the law and social work, 211–24. macmillan education uk. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-07323-5_13. brammer, a. (2014). introduction. in safeguarding adults, 1–19. macmillan education uk. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-28996-4_1. brett, a, s. (2017). constructing human agency. princeton university press. doi:10.23943/princeton/9780691141930.003.0003. cauce, m.a, & gordon, w.e, (2017). toward the measurement of human agency and the disposition to express it. the gordon commission, retrieve at 18 september 2017. cauce, m, a. (2002). examining culture within a quantitative empirical research framework. human development 45 (4). s. karger ag: 294–98. doi:10.1159/000064992. charteris, j. (2015). learner agency and assessment for learning in a regional new zealand high school. australian and international journal of rural education, vol. 25 (2), pp. 2—13. http://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617699280 alfaiz et al. chima, f, o. (2002). elderly suicidality. journal of human behavior in the social environment 6 (4). informa uk limited: 21–45. doi:10.1300/j137v06n04_02. chongvilaivan, a. (2016). does outsourcing enhance skill premiums in asean?. in asean economic community, 217–29. palgrave macmillan us. doi:10.1057/9781137535085_11. chirkov, v.i, ryan, r.m, & sheldon, k.m. (2011). “human autonomy in cross-cultural context: perspective on the psychology of agency, freedom and well-being. springer science: london. dounis, v. (2017). building positive teacher relationships with students. in quality learning, 79–84. sense publishers. doi:10.1007/978-94-6300-914-0_8. elfira, n. (2013). peningkatan kemandirian belajar siswa melalui layanan bimbingan dan kelompok. jurnal konselor, vol 2, no 1, 279-282, universitas negeri padang. goodall, j, sue j-w, & rosemary, r. (2017). the emotions experienced while learning mathematics at home. in understanding emotions in mathematical thinking and learning, 295–313. elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-802218-4.00011-x. hambali, im, (2019). examining the relevance of indonesian vocational high school career outcomes to the labor market. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 no. 1 (133-155). http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/559. healey, m. (2014). “developing independent & autonomous learning”. researcher paper. pp. 910 hergenhahn b.r. (2008). theories of learning. 7th edition. boston: pearson education. hidayat, a. (2016). holistic vision: integrative approach in guidance and counseling services. guidena: jurnal ilmu pendidikan, psikologi, bimbingan dan konseling, 6(1), 1-10. https://dx.doi.org/10.24127/gdn.v6i1.375. hidayah, n & ramli, m. (2017). need of cognitive-behavior counseling model based on local wisdom to improve meaning of life of madurese culture junior high school students. proceedings of 3rd international conference on education and training (icet 2017). series advances in social science, educational and humanities research, vol. 128: atlantis press. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icet-17/25883543. https://doi.org/10.2991/icet-17.2017.53. http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/559 https://dx.doi.org/10.24127/gdn.v6i1.375 https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icet-17/25883543 https://doi.org/10.2991/icet-17.2017.53 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 hitchcott, p. k., fastame, m. c., ferrai, j., & penna, m. p. (2017). psychological well-being in italian families: an exploratory approach to the study of mental health across the adult life span in the blue zone. europe’s journal of psychology, 13(3), 441-454. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v13i3.1416. kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan ri. (2010). konsep dan pedoman penguatan pendidikan karakter. kemendikbud ri. jakarta kowalski, r. & westen, d. (2011). psychology. sixth edition. donnelley & sons khoo, su-ming. n.d. (2016). strengthening development education practice in the higher education sector. in development education in policy and practice. palgrave macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137324665.0016. lanciano, t., & zammuner, v. l. (2014). individual differences in work-related well-being: the role of attachment style. europe’s journal of psychology, 10(4), 694-711. doi:10.5964/ejop.v10i4.814 leung, w. h. n.d. (2001). does project-based learning change learners attitudes towards autonomous learning?. ph.d. thesis, the university of hong kong libraries. doi:10.5353/th_b3165049. ma'arif, s. (2018). education as a foundation of humanity: learning from the pedagogy of pesantren in indonesia. journal of social studies education research. vol. 9, no. 2. (104123). http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/256 mayr, e. (2011). the problem of human agency. in understanding human agency, 5–22. oxford university press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199606214.003.0002. montenegro, a. (2017). understanding the concept of agentic engagement for learning. colomb. appl. linguist. j., 19(1), pp. 117-128 mota, r, & david, s. (2014). independent learning. in education for innovation and independent learning, 73–95. elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800847-8.00006-5. mullins, r. (2019). using dewey’s conception of democracy to problematize the notion of disability in public education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 1-17. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/24 ortner, c. n. m., briner, e. l., & marjanovic, z. (2017). believing is doing: emotion regulation beliefs are associated with emotion regulation behavioral choices and subjective wellbeing. europe’s journal of psychology, 13(1), 60-74. doi:10.5964/ejop.v13i1.1248 https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v13i3.1416 http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/256 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/24 alfaiz et al. pajares, f, & ellen l, u. (2008). self-efficacy motivation, and achievement in school from the perspective of reciprocal determinism. in advances in motivation and achievement, 391– 423. elsevier. doi:10.1016/s0749-7423(08)15012-9. pelkmans, j. n.d. (2004). conceptual foundation of the asean economic community. in the asean economic community, 75–115. cambridge university press. doi:10.1017/cbo9781316460016.004. priyono, (2018). the implementation of paikem (active, innovation, creative, effective and existing learning) and conventional learning method to improve student learning results. journal of social studies education research. vol. 9. no. 2. (124-137). http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/267. reeve, j. & tseng, c-m. (2011). agency as a fourth aspect of students’ engagement during learning activities. contemporary educational psychology. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.05.002. rianawati, (2017). internalisasi karakter kemandirian melalui pembelajaran konstruktif di perguruan tinggi, iain pontianak. retrieve 2017. roy, s. (2017). grade ten students’ agentic engagement within project-based learning (ph.d. dissertation, university of prince edward island). dissertation abstracts. saefullah, dkk. (2013). hubungan antara sikap kamandirian belajar dan prestasi belajar siswa kelas x pada pembelajaran fisika berbasis portofolio. jurnal wahana pendidikan fisika, vo. 1 tahun 2013. issn: 2338-1027. sardegna, v, g., juhee, l., & crystal, k. (2017). self-efficacy attitudes, and choice of strategies for english pronunciation learning. language learning, september. wiley-blackwell. doi:10.1111/lang.12263. schutte, n, s. (2014). social environment contexts of trait emotional intelligence. journal of human behavior in the social environment 24 (7). informa uk limited: 741–50. doi:10.1080/10911359.2013.866065. sessa, f, m., & steinberg, l. (1991). family structure and the development of autonomy during adolescence. the journal of early adolescence 11 (1). sage publications: 38–55. doi:10.1177/0272431691111003. http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/267 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 370-391 silverberg, s, b., & steinberg, l. (1987). adolescent autonomy parent-adolescent conflict, and parental well-being. journal of youth and adolescence 16 (3). springer nature: 293–312. doi:10.1007/bf02139096. steinberg, m. (2006). intelligent autonomy for unmanned naval systems. in unmanned systems technology viii, edited by grant r. gerhart, charles m. shoemaker, and douglas w. gage. spie. doi:10.1117/12.665870. steinberg, m, p. (2014). does greater autonomy improve school performance? evidence from a regression discontinuity analysis in chicago. education finance and policy 9 (1). mit press journals: 1–35. doi:10.1162/edfp_a_00118. sulistyaningsih, (2017). kemandirian belajar dan prestasi belajar matematika siswa smp negeri 27 purworejo. universitas muhammadiyah purworejo. retrieve 2017. suriasumantri, j.s. (2009). “ilmu dalam perspektif”. jakarta : yayasan obor indonesia. taylor, s, mulroy, e, a & austin, m, j. (2005). social work textbooks on human behavior and the social environment. journal of human behavior in the social environment 10 (3). informa uk limited: 85–110. doi:10.1300/j137v10n03_04. taylor, c. n.d. (2002). what is human agency?. in human agency and language, 15–44. cambridge university press. doi:10.1017/cbo9781139173483.002. wang, l. (2015). "changes in learning beliefs". in chinese students learning cultures and overseas study, 126–98. palgrave macmillan uk. doi:10.1057/9781137496591_5. wicaksono, a. (2007). think asean! : rethinking marketing toward asean community 2015. asean economic bulletin 24 (2). institute of southeast asian studies: 278–80. doi:10.1355/ae24-2h. yamazumi, k. (2007). human agency and educational research: a new problem in activity theory. an international journal of human activity theory, no 1. kansai university, pp 19-39. yansaputri, i., & wijaya, h. (2017). the role of social-emotional health on academic achievement of college students. guidena: jurnal ilmu pendidikan, psikologi, bimbingan dan konseling, 7(1), 23-28. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.24127/gdn.v7i1.748 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 470-489 470 spiritual and moral meanings and values of the russian culture as a basis for the national and civil consciousness upbringing in the russian youth aleksander m. egorychev,1 lev v. mardakhaev,2 anna g. akhtyan,3 valeriya v. sizikova4 & yanina shimanovskaya5 abstract the relevance of the problem under study is associated with the actual situation which is characteristic for the present-day russia and pertaining to the results of the state youth policy being carried out, the level of formation of national and civil consciousness of the russian young people. the objective of the paper consists in detailing the philosophical bases, meanings and values of the russian culture that can be used in organizing the upbringing and educational activity of the russian youth. the leading approach to studying this problem was the culturological one acting as the methodological basis of studying the problem of upbringing of the national and civil consciousness in the russian young people. the main results of the research have shown that the questions of upbringing of the contemporary russian young people's civil and patriotic consciousness are understudied. there are only few works of social and pedagogical focus that consider these questions pointedly and productively. the research demonstrates the necessity of introducing the relevant modifications (amendments) concerning the russian youth to the state social policy. it has to be clearly oriented to organizing the focused and consistent social and pedagogical activity which is aimed at shaping the national and civil consciousness of the rising generation on the basis of meanings and values of the russian culture. the resulting materials are both of theoretical importance for further exploration of this range of problems and of practical importance for elaboration of objectives, provisions, and content of various state and public projects and programs pertaining to the civil and patriotic upbringing of the rising generation (children, adolescents, young people) and using them within the country's system of education at all levels (pre-school, school, professional, and further ones). key words: russian young people, russian culture, spiritual and moral meanings and values, ideology of the russian state, civil and patriotic consciousness. introduction the development of the russian state and society of the contemporary period (early 21st century) takes place in a complicated and controversial situation having formed both in russia itself and in 1 prof., dr., russian state social university, chelovekcap@mail.ru 2 prof., dr., russian state social university, mantissa-m@mail.ru 3 assoc. prof., dr., russian state social university, ahtyananna@mail.ru 4 prof., dr., russian state social university, 1699636@mail.ru 5 assoc. prof., dr., russian state social university, ya1873@yandex.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489 the global community in general. all this demands immense and strenuous work from the russian state. the work concerns the questions of russia's geopolitics (defending its territorial integrity and state independence, looking for vectors of economic cooperation and new reliable allies in the international stage etc.) and domestic policy (questions of determining the strategy of social and economic development, keeping the national priorities in its sustainable development, preparing the rising generation for life and work in the russian society and many more). the existing problems call for elaborating an efficient state policy aimed at progressive development of the russian state and society, activating all social institutions and structures of the country, joining all life forces of the russian nation into completing the global tasks associated with challenges of the 21st century. nowadays, it has become understood universally that the development of the contemporary russian state and community requires not only the scientific and technological breakthrough but also the focused and consistent activity of upbringing the rising generation with meanings and values of the russian culture, forming in it the consciousness and the worldview corresponding to the historical sociocultural code of the russian (russia's) people (egorychev & mardakhaev, 2018; lopukha, 2000, 2019; subetto, 2007; bykov, 2006). the social and political (social and economic) course adopted by the government of the contemporary russia states meanings, norms and values clashing with the historical sociocultural code of the russian (russia's) people and the civilizational way of its historical development (subetto, 2007; kara-murza, 2010; turchenko, 2015). in russia's society, the "new civil ethics" is getting established which in no way corresponds to the spiritual bases of the russian culture, its ideals, traditional values, patterns of social behavior and interaction. to a greater extent it affects the young people, their social establishment. as a social and demographic group, the youth feature the following combination of qualitative characteristics:  they adopt the experience of the previous generation (through education, family upbringing, communication with tutors, older age strata during their life activity);  they generate new ideas and rely on intuitive understanding and evaluation of what is happening more rather than on their life experience and empirical studies; they tailor innovation suggestions in all spheres of life activity; egorychev et al.  they ensure the demographic continuity of generations and they are responsible for reproduction of the following generation. the particular social functions of the youth that are singled out based on this – the reproductive one, the innovation one and the translational one – act as its essential characteristics. the young people's pursuing their aspirations aimed at self-development and self-fulfillment renders them the main factor of development of russia's entire society while also the one bearing responsibility for maintenance and development of their country, its historical and cultural heritage in front of new challenges (bugaev & rostovskaya, 2018, p. 11). russian sociologists zubok yu. a., rostovskaya t. k. and smakotina n. l. (2016) pay attention to the new turn of the crisis and instability in the sociocultural sphere. quite reasonably, there arise a number of important (pivotal) questions: where will the social and political course adopted in the country lead? what impact will transformation of the russian culture have on the social health of the russian (russia's) people? is the turn of russia to its genuine, traditional meanings and values of the russian culture possible? the practice shows that the liberal-democratic cultural and values-related orientation of the country's political course currently adopted erodes the healthy organism of russian (russia's) culture and civilization, like a malignant tumor, destroys its historically formed spiritual and moral tradition underlying the national upbringing and educational system (egorychev et. al., 2018; kara-murza, 2010; turchenko, 2015; akhtyan et al., 2018). the institution of upbringing, basically relying on the traditional meanings and values of the russian culture, as such (in its classical expression) functions little if at all. it is substituted with various children's, teenagers' and youth shows which have no relevance to the focused and systemic activity of forming the civil and patriotic consciousness in the russian young people. the above said motivated the authors to conduct this research (ivanov et. al., 2018). theoretical and conceptual framework of the study the questions concerning the evolution of man, the birth, development and establishment of national cultures are considered to be quite complicated and problem-laden. however, as many scientists believe, the american researcher g. simpson (1944) made an inestimable contribution to the understanding of evolution, laid down the foundations for the modern doctrine of macroevolution, united the descriptive taxonomy with methods of the modern genetics and statistical journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489 analysis. thereby, he considerably facilitated the question of understanding the biological and historical evolution of peoples of the planet earth. the issues concerning the impact of the contemporary world (market economy and globalization processes) on the development of the society and the man are discussed in the works of many researchers (robertson & knondker, 1999; ohmae, 1990; o`brien & smith, 2011; ljubownikow et al., 2013; bittman & russell, 2016; tarman & chigisheva, 2017). some sources by foreign authors are devoted to the study of national cultural specificity and its implementation possibilities in education (carothers, 2018; leek, 2016; komarudin et al., 2019). although, the questions of evolution of the russian state and society, culture of the russian (russia's) people are also a point of investigation interest all around the world (wierzbicka, 2002; huttunen, 2011; zappen, 2012), it is by the russian researchers that they are studied to a larger extent. the problem of birth and development of the russian ethnos (nation), its culture stirred and continues to stir interest of many russian researchers (rybakov, 1981; kuzmina, 1983; lednev, 2010; alieva et al., 2019). the process of formation of spiritual and moral bases of culture of the russian nation covers an immense historical period counting many millennia. as far as artifacts allow judging, it is about 30-40 thousand years ago that the process of birth and rise of the russian culture and civilization – the ancient rus – commenced (guseva, 1998; mizun & mizun, 2004; andreevaet. al., 2001). many researchers associate the development of culture and civilization with establishment of the institutions of upbringing and education in the society. n. v. sedova (2001), one of the authors of the joint monograph on "the history of education and pedagogical thought abroad and in russia" notes: "pedagogical thought of the ancient rus relied on traditions of upbringing counting over two thousand years" (p. 67). it should be pointed out that this is not the final scientific opinion as for the age of the russian culture and civilization. although rather large research material on the history of the ancient rus has been accumulated, it has not become a part of the worldview system of the russian world and the entire global community. the remark of yu. a. nikiforov (2012) is fair: "however, it is naïve to think that the historical knowledge which is accessible to the experts' community of professional historians can be represented in the public consciousness in a relevant manner" (p. 154). all questions concerning the analysis of particularities of the ancient culture of the russian nation rest on the major scientific problem – finding those meanings and values that act as the content of egorychev et al. the sociocultural code of the russian (of the russian nation) and that could form the basis for upbringing the national and civil consciousness in russia's contemporary young people. the russian researchers point out it is now the time for russia's people to realize their historical grandeur, their national consciousness, their belonging to the great ancient russian culture having the history of many millennia (lopukha, 2000, 2019; turchenko, 2015). discussing the topic of whether russia has the future, v. n. turchenko (2015) writes that in the recent years the government has undertaken "… vigorous measures in order to restore the country's scientific and technical, economic and military potential – sufficient to withstand any external pressure and any aggression, and they are absolutely necessary. however, all of them will ultimately turn useless unless they rely on the rise of spiritual and physical vital forces of the stateforming russian nation" (p. 53). a. d. lopukha (2019) talking about global problems of the contemporary russia gives a clear answer concerning the question of the role and necessity of the russian culture in the survival of the russian state and society: "in order to recreate the russian, and in the future, all-russian culture, in russia's society, it has to be created, approved, developed, defended and then transferred at educational institutions". thus, education plays a crucial role in the formation and upbringing of the national and civil consciousness by the russian youths that will foster the sustainable development of the state in the future. research problem and issues under study the main research problem being solved within the study is connected with defining the role and significance of the moral meanings and values rooted in the national cultural heritage for the formation of patriotic citizen and socially responsible person. research questions the following initial positions and research issues formulated in the form of questions were identified for deeper analysis of the stated problem: 1. what are the basic spiritual and moral values of russian culture? 2. what is the position of russian researchers on the formation of civil and patriotic consciousness of modern russian youth? journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489 3. what is the level of the national and civil consciousness formation by the students of the russian state social university? methods research design our research study being of analytical nature and involving both theoretical and empirical parts that are based on the conceptualization of the meanings and values of the russian culture and the necessity of using them in the social and pedagogical practice of contemporary russia, has found out a serious problem. the point is that there is the established scientific viewpoint concerning the age of the russian culture. its supporters believe the beginning of the birth of the russian culture has to be counted from the rus adopting christianity (likhachev, 1988; maltsev, 2014). while recognizing the high role of the russian culture in the global community, v. a. maltsev (2014) nevertheless notes that "the christian history of the russian nation has already exceeded 1000 years, so it is at least futile to look for the roots of the contemporary spiritual and moral traditions in the dark pagan past". it was the standpoint of the well-known scientist d. s. likhachev (1988) that promoted the establishment of such an opinion to a larger extent. in his paper dedicated to the 1000-year anniversary of christianization of russia, he wrote: "the culture itself knows no origin date, just like the very nations, tribes, and settlement do not know the exact starting date. all anniversary beginning dates of this kind are usually conventional. yet if we are speaking about the conventional date of the beginning of the russian culture, then i, according to my understanding, would consider the year of 988 to be the most justified one" (p. 257). this point of view completely discards an immense historical period associated with the history of the ancient rus. the opponents of this standpoint believe this to be absolutely unacceptable and contradicting the entire historical logic of development of the russian culture and civilization (kikeshev, 2003; egorychev & mardakhaev, 2018; egorychev et. al., 2018). in particular, n. i. kikeshev (2003) writes: "and as long as we go on cutting the funiculus of the slavic history with christianization of rus, and consider the literature treasures and achievements of our remote ancestors as alien – we will not be able to bring up in the present-day and future generations any feeling of pride of belonging to the great slavic brotherhood. we will go on seeing in the slavs an inferiority complex and that of slavish admiration of those nations which have preserved the egorychev et al. memory of their remote past or have managed to design a fine-looking pedigree for themselves" (p. 6). bringing up the feeling of pride of belonging to the ancient slavic brotherhood in the present-day and future generations is the basis for forming the civil consciousness and patriotism in russia's contemporary young people. the problem of civil and patriotic upbringing of russia's young people attracts the attention of many researchers nowadays (bykov, 2006; belyaev & sivolobova, 2014). the main progenitor of the traditional spiritual and moral meanings and values of the russian culture, according to many researchers, is the orthodox church which has carefully preserved them for already over a thousand years and has been conveying them into russia's society (pitka, 2014; nevleva, 2015). in her paper, s. n. pitka (2014) views a relevant problem of the contemporary russia's reality associated with the formation of values in the youth. she believes the key part in this process is played by the russian orthodox church which, according to the author, lays down and supports such unshakeable values as love, faith, honor, duty, conscience, forgiveness, patience, hope, and mercy. it is obvious that spiritual and moral meanings and values of the russian (russia's) culture have to act as the basis of civil consciousness upbringing in russia's contemporary young people. the study encompassed three stages: research and analytical (analysis of scientific literature; defining of the research problem; determination of the research positions); development of the conceptual idea of the research problem at the theoretical and empirical level (singling out the basis for the upbringing of civil consciousness from past to present, designing and conducting the sociological survey); generalizing (interpretation of the collected data, summarizing the outcomes of the study). the purpose of the research consisted in detailing the social and philosophical bases of the traditional meanings and values of the russian culture in organizing the upbringing and educational activity for forming the civil consciousness in russia's young people. the tasks of the research were formulated in the logic of reaching the purpose: a) to identify and give grounds for spiritual and moral meanings and values of the russian (russia's) culture, the essence of mentality that is inherent in the russian nation which as a total determines the development of the russian state and society and contributes to the upbringing of civil and patriotic journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489 consciousness in the young people; b) to conduct scientific literature analysis on the problem of forming and developing the civil and patriotic consciousness of the rising generation, to find out the researchers' standpoint as for solving the problem; c) to identify and systemize the knowledge and ideas of russia's youth in the area of life organization philosophy of the russian (russia's) people; d) to conclude on the role and opportunities of the russian system of education in upbringing the civil and patriotic consciousness in russia's contemporary young people based on the meanings and values of the russian (russia's) culture. research data, samples and participants the research data obtained from various sources included: 1. theoretical statements of the russian thinkers, philosophers and enlighteners concerning the historical development of the russian state and society based on the meanings and values of the russian culture; 2. scientific materials connected with the formation of the civil and patriotic consciousness of the modern russian youth; 3. scientific literature reflecting complex historical genesis of the russian culture and civilization from ancient and orthodox rus to soviet and new russia. these four stages of the social development of the state served good research samples and allowed defining the development of national meanings and values of russian culture, specify the peculiarities characterizing its citizens` mentality formation; 4. answers obtained within the sociological survey on the problem of the national and civil consciousness of russia's young people that was undertaken during the period of 2017 and 2018 at russian state social university (moscow, russia). participants included 326 students (212 female and 114 male) aged 17-30 of both full-time and part-time departments (bachelor's and master's) of the faculty of social work. research instruments and data analysis desk research (theoretical part) was accompanied by the sociological survey (empirical part) where a simple questionnaire form was developed and used as the main research instrument. it was made up of closed-ended (yes, no, cannot give a certain answer) questions distributed in three units: the history of your homeland; your attitude to the meanings and values of russia; prospects of your life. the analysis of the collected data was performed using historical, social and philosophical methods to investigate the russian culture genesis; examination, comparison, contrasting, summarizing of the research materials as well as primary and secondary empirical data on the problem in question (fedotova & chigisheva, 2015); abstracting and forecasting of the processes associated with the development of russia's society and different aspects of egorychev et al. contemporary youth upbringing. results and discussion basic spiritual and moral values of the russian culture the following statement was accepted as the basis for this research which determined its logic: the foundation of the russian culture is made up by historical traditional meanings and values representing the sociocultural code of the russian nation’s leading its life and expressing the essence of its mentality. sociocultural code of the russian nation’s leading its life (archetype according to c. g. jung) has profound historical roots consolidated at its sociogenetic level which are manifested by people at the social level under the effect of the environment and upbringing. proceeding from the statement adopted (the authors' standpoint), during the research the following theoretical constructions determining its focus and content were obtained: 1. it is awakening of sociocultural code in the rising generation, maintaining the national meanings and values in the russian (russia's) society at a due level that is the essential state and public task which requires creating and taking into account the relevant conditions, the consistent, focused and ongoing activity of the government, all social institutions of the russian state and society in this direction. 2. meanings and values of the russian culture keep representatives of all ethnic groupsand peoples of the russian federation (about 193 in total) from losing their civil and national self-identity, and, as a consequence, the country from losing its statehood. maintaining these meanings and values at a due level in russia's society requires a relevant consciousness and worldview from each of them (people, ethnos). 3. a person (a citizen) having a cosmopolitan consciousness and worldview and not being a bearer of national meanings and values of the russian (russia's) culture, not having the mentality of the russian (russia's) people, is merely unable to love russia (to be its genuine citizen and patriot). such individuals are also unable to plan and build leading their own life in accordance with traditions of their nation (creating the traditional family, organizing daily life, having and bringing up children, etc.), going on to promote the historical, national and sociocultural continuity of life performance (to keep, develop, and transfer the national meanings and values to the following generations). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489 4. two basic social institutions perform the consistent and focused activity of upbringing the national and civil consciousness in the rising generation (children, adolescents, and the young people) – the family and the system of education. it is these two institutions which initially comprise and fulfill the main educational functions (upbringing, teaching, and development) having the objective-related orientation to forming the personality of an individual who is up to the needs of a particular national community, of russia's society in this case. analyzing the historical genesis of the russian culture and civilization has allowed conventionally singling out several historical periods which determined the of national meanings and values of the russian culture, the formation of mentality of its people: 1. the ancient rus (30-40 thousand years b. c. – 10th century a. d.). 2. the orthodox rus / russia (10th century – early 20th century). 3. the soviet russia (1917-1991). 4. the new russia (1991 – nowadays). the ancient rus in the ancient rus, upbringing, learning and development of the rising generation was of a family and community nature and was aimed at studying and absorbing the life rules; housekeeping skills; norms and rules of social behavior; the hierarchy of complicated community (intratribal and clanbased) interaction; laws and standards determining the system of attitudes to the nature, the entire world being and many more. a special place in upbringing of the rising generation was given to learning the history of one's kith and kin, the laws of the creator. the creator, the supreme being is no other thing but the law followed by everyone and everything in the boundless universe. as for the russians' ancestors, the slavs (the rus), it can be concluded that they not only understood the existing harmony of the universe well but they also followed in their life organization the laws which enabled them to pursue the path of truth. "they knew there is the universal law (the god of gods) to which everything is subordinated – both gods and people. everything was formed by this god of gods (the supreme being) out of his body. the trees and grasses are created of his hair, the sun and the moon – of his eyes, etc. man is also created of the body of the supreme being, so he is godly, just like everything in this world. yet this is not only an honor for man but first of all a responsibility. this is the responsibility to the worldwide law, egorychev et al. to the supreme being for one's attitude to other people, to all the living and non-living in the world" (babishin&mityurov, 1985, p. 145). the orthodox rus / russia the adoption of christianity by rus in the 10th century (988) shows the fact of adoption of those external supreme meanings and values which rather naturally "fitted" into the russian culture – not destroying its bases but significantly enriching it. for the ten centuries to follow (x-xix), from the beginning of adoption of christianity, the development of the russian state and society was subordinated to the ideology of orthodoxy becoming more entrenched. the worldview paradigm of the orthodox christianity found a fertile ground in the beliefs of the ancient slavs, the latter having adopted the moral system of the orthodox meanings and values, moral standards by means of the mentality which is inherent in the russian ethnos. largely, the russian orthodox church owes its existing basic features to that particular artistic and esthetic, spiritual and moral foundation which the ancient russian culture and civilization (the ancient rus) initially had. the forming social ideal of man and society within the context of the russian orthodoxy gaining a foothold was inevitably conditioned by the system of values having already existed for many millennia and by all elements of the spatial model of culture of the ancient rus. the soviet russia starting from 1917, russia saw the major sociocultural change. in the soviet period, the entire upbringing and educational activity was organized within the ideology of socialism and communism being built and it was shaped as the united country-wide system covering all strata of the population. within quite a short term, the country had many problems solved and tasks completed which it had inherited from the civil war and the time before 1917 (children's homelessness, famine, devastation, illiteracy). essentially, a new system of the russian (russia's) people's leading life in the state and social respect was created – new both in terms of the content and the focus. one cannot say the traditional culture was dealt out of life. earlier meanings and values were upgraded and given a particular ideological form in the code of the builder of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489 communism. a clear ideal of the soviet person was elaborated which involved a high level of patriotism, devotion to and love for one's homeland. the new russia beginning with 1991, the country has been through a complicated comprehensive economic and sociocultural restructuring. all this has aggravated and made relevant the problem of looking for ways to render the society healthier, to protect the population, its interests, needs and rights. in its turn, this has pushed towards the necessity of developing the professional and educational standards which would be relevant for the times and activated the development of the appropriate educational methodology as well as preparation of the corresponding theoretical basis. although the development of the new russia achieved certain technological successes, what was lost was the most important – the integral system of upbringing of the national and civil consciousness of russia's young people based on the spiritual and moral meanings and values of the russian culture. this loss has yielded its results giving evidence about the downturn of spirituality and moral in russia's society and the escalation of aggression among the young people, with drugs and alcohol abuse increasing. this is confirmed by results of many independent sociological studies. position of russian researchers on the formation of civil and patriotic consciousness of modern russian youth let the results of such surveys be considered as an example: 1. the results of a sociological survey of the problem of spiritual and moral upbringing of the youth (using the example of young students of the town of pervouralsk, 2013). in order to form a special spiritual and moral, intellectual atmosphere in the educational organizing, the authors of the project developed and carried out programs along all lines of the upbringing work (the spiritual and moral one, the civil and patriotic, the sports and recreational, the popular and cultural, the professional one, students' self-government). the sociological survey was conducted upon the fulfillment thereof, and the results obtained enabled the authors to come to the following conclusions (lazutina & kruzhkova, 2013):  the youth society is in a crisis both in spiritual and material terms; egorychev et al.  the problem of spiritual and moral upbringing is quite urgent among the town's young people;  systemic forms of communication with senior school and college students, young students, and the working youth are essential. 2. the results of a sociological survey of the problem of russia's contemporary young people (zholudeva, 2015). for the latest five years, the authors conducted a number of sociological studies concerning the qualitative conditions of the young students of yaroslavl; namely, they studied the ethical and moral values of the contemporary young men and women, their attitude to politics and some other sides of the public and private life. based on the data obtained during the studies, the following conclusions can be made:  political consciousness of the young people is highly complicated and multiform. in it, both the interest in political events and a low activity of participation in the political life coexist simultaneously; so do disregard to political institutions and belief in the supreme power; the lack of interest in any associations and parties; a critical attitude to the political situation;  among the ethic reference points in the contemporary young people, one can clearly trace a considerable bias to preferring those moral values which are directly associated with satisfying one's selfish needs, while the spiritual and moral values of collectivist trend are developed in the respondents somewhat worse;  the contemporary life creates a shortage of a number of human qualities which both the young people and the ones around them lack. sociological survey results on the national and civil consciousness formation by the students at russian state social university the results of the sociological survey within this research "the problem of the national and civil consciousness of russia's young people" conducted with the young students of the russian state social university (in 2017-2018) have been obtained, too. the objective of this research was to find out the level of formation of the national and civil consciousness of the young students of rssu. the results characterize the attitude of the young students to the spiritual and moral meanings and values of russia's culture; the extent of formation of patriotism and civil consciousness in them. all research materials have been carefully analyzed, summarized, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489 systemized and brought down to uniform logical expression. let some items of the students' answers be noted (table 1). table 1 the attitude of young students to the meanings and values of russia item no. questions concerning the problem of attitude of the young students to meanings and values of the russian state and society results (%) yes no cannot give a certain answer 1. do you consider yourself to be a patriot of russia? 66,2 25,4 8,4 2. are you proud of your country? 54,2 33,0 12,8 3. is it necessary to bring up patriotism in russia's rising generation in a focused and systemic way? 62,8 32,8 4,4 4. would you like to leave for permanent residence abroad? 32,4 44,8 22, 8 5. do you consider serving in the russian army a holy and honorable duty of a citizen of russia? 52,0 43,8 8,2 in general, it can be noted that the young students are quite well adapted to the existing conditions of russia's society. they understand well what is patriotism, civil spirit, duty to their motherland. they can find their bearings in the political situation well, both the russian one and that of the global community. they have their own opinion on many political questions, even though not always clearly substantiated. alongside with that, it is only two thirds of the surveyed ones (66,2%) who consider themselves to be patriots, with so few as about one half (54,2%) being proud of their country. it is only for a half of the questioned ones (52,0%) that serving in the army is an honorable duty, with one third (32,4%) being ready to leave the country. nevertheless, the greater part of the students surveyed (62,8%) consider it necessary to bring up patriotism in the rising generation in russia in focused and systemic manner. as for the majority of the young students, they do not have a clearly long-held ideological standpoint. to a greater extent, there is the stance of criticizing all focus areas of the country's social policy. some of the students surveyed (26,8%) feel pessimistic about the future of russia. the preference of personal material welfare in prejudice of the public interests is be traced (82,2%). they see the personal happiness in joining the loved one, getting a well-paid job and a good apartment (84,2%), with only 15,8% seeing the happiness in the welfare and happiness of russia's entire society. egorychev et al. conclusions and recommendations the problem of forming and developing the civil and patriotic consciousness in the rising generation is directly connected with the country's current state policy which features the thrust on meanings and values of the western world and on forming the so-called "universal nature values". it does not either allow for carrying out the process of forming and developing the civil and patriotic consciousness of the young people in a focused and consistent manner. the historical traditional meanings and values of the russian (russia's) culture contain an immense spiritual and moral potential. if used wisely in the contemporary russia, the potential will allow creating favorable conditions for efficiently dealing with many questions (lines) of the state social policy (the youth, the demographic, the family, the educational one, etc.). the role of the russian system of education in upbringing the civil and patriotic consciousness of russia's contemporary young people is immense and foremost one, its capacities are unlimited in case the institute of upbringing is activated and filled with the meanings and values of russian culture the russian family acts as (has to act!) the basic social institution creating the sociocultural upbringing environment upon traditional national meanings and values of the russian (russia's) culture. it should lay down the foundations of civil and patriotic self-awareness and consciousness, form the national self-identification of the rising generation. when organizing and performing the social and pedagogical activity aimed at the upbringing of civil and patriotic consciousness in russia's young people studying at different institutions, it is necessary to make a special accent on the history of birth and development of meanings, values and traditions of the russian (russia's) culture as well as their social consolidation among the public; address the established philosophy of life organization of the russian (of russia's) nation, those meanings and values that are inherent in the russian (russia's) people, their mentality and culture. inclusion of all the above statements into the state social policy documents of russia may serve a good ground for:  creating the relevant conditions in the russian state and society for organizing the efficient social and pedagogical activity in all social institutions and structures for forming and developing the consciousness and worldview of the rising generation within the national culture of the russian (russia's) people; journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489  organizing in a focused and systemic way and carrying out in stages the upbringing and educational activity of forming the national and civil consciousness in the rising generation at all levels of the russian education (the preschool, school, professional, further ones), with the institution of family included. it is obvious that the results of the study may have a wide and important implication when organizing the consistent and focused social and pedagogical activity of forming and developing the national and civil consciousness relying on social and philosophical bases, meanings and values of the russian (russia's) culture in the country's young people. they will allow:  forming the necessary values-related basis in the consciousness of the rising generation towards their homeland, a wish to honestly serve its interests; creating strong prerequisites for the young people to realize their own role in solving various problems of their country;  working up and reinforcing the bases of historical consciousness in the young people, shedding light on the meanings of historical continuity in social building of the russian state and the society;  working up a conscious attitude (worldview attitudes) to any activity the rising generation will have to pursue, giving socially important objectives and meanings to their life selfidentification;  developing and reinforcing the feelings of communality, community spirit and solidarity in the young people, these being the basic mental qualities of the russian nation that are essential for its leading its life within russia's multinational community. entering the life, the russian young people have to absorb all knowledge and competencies pertaining to the worldview content of the traditional russian philosophy. they have to get such a fundamental worldview training as to enable them to keep and develop the personal civil and patriotic core of their worldview culture. this is a pledge of the correct combination of civil, patriotic and professional training of the young people for their life activities in the conditions of the russian federation. acknowledgments the paper has been written upon the results of participation in research within the rssu grant on the theme "monitoring of youth organizations` activity and their informal associations, estimation of the actual quantity of their members and the risk of involvement into unlawful activity" (a.m. egorychev et al. egorychev, l.v. mardakhaev, a.g. akhtyan, v.v. sizikova, ya.v. shimanovskaya and other colleagues). references akhtyan, a.g., anikeeva, o.a., sizikova, v.v., shimanovskaya, ya.v., starovoitova, l.i., medvedeva, g.p., kozlovskaya, s.n. (2018). information literacy of older people: social aspects of the problem. international journal of civil engineering and technology, 9(11), 1789-1799. alieva, s. a., zakaryaeva, s. z., omarov, o. n., radjabova, r. v., kimpaeva, e. k., &gadjieva p. d. (2019). scientific and pedagogical bases of civic and patriotic upbringing of young students. journal of educational and social research, 9(3),160-169. andreeva, i. n., butorina, t. s., vasilyeva, z. i., sedova, n. v., et al. (2011). the history of education and pedagogical thought abroad and in russia: a study guide for students of higher pedag. ed. institutions. in z. i. vasilyeva (ed.). moscow: academia publishing center. babishin, s. d., &mityurov, b. n. (1985). anthology of pedagogical thought of the ancient rus and the russian state of the 14th-17thcenturies. moscow: pedagogika. belyaev, a. v., &sivolobova, n. a. (2014). an experience of organization of civil and patriotic upbringing of young students. society. culture. science. education. digital journal, 1.retrieved fromhttp://cipv.ru/static.php?mode=page_231 bittman, b. l., & russell, w.b. (2016). civic education in united states: a multiple regression of civic education scores from the national assessment of educational progress. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 1-16. bugaev, a. v., & rostovskaya,t. k. (eds.).(2018).youth policy in the system of formation of civic identity of the contemporary young people: a joint monograph.moscow: rssu publishing house. bykov, a. k. (2006). the contemporary scientific problems of patriotic upbringing of the young people. proceedings of volgograd state pedagogical university, 14(1),102-106. carothers, d. (2018). a culture of equality?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(2), 42-57. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 http://cipv.ru/static.php?mode=page_231 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489 egorychev, a. m., & mardakhaev, l. v. (2018). spiritual values in the russian world: conditions for survival and development in the 21st century. bulletin of moscow state linguistic university, education and pedagogical sciences,814(6), 61-71. egorychev, a. m., rostovskaya, t. k., &kretinin, a. s. (2018). spirituality of the russian culture as a basic factor of russia's new state youth policy,citise, 14(1). fedotova, o., & chigisheva, o. (2015). comparative analysis: methodological optics in the ideological context. international perspectives on education and society, 26, 57-82. guseva, n. r. (1998). the arctic homeland in the vedas? who are they and where are they from? the most ancient associations of the slavs and the aryans. moscow. huttunen, t. (2011). autogenesis in russian culture: an approach to the avant-garde. in: alapuro s., mustajoki a., pesonen p. (eds.) understanding russianness, (pp.165-182). new york: taylor and francis. ivanov, a.v., chelysheva, y.v., akhtyan, a.g., vishnyakova, v.a., &sorikhina, v.p. (2018). ethical concepts of pedagogy of consciousness as a foundation for the development of the school for the future. astra salvensis, special issue, 453-462. kara-murza, s. g. (2010). who we are going to protect. moscow: eksmo, algorithm. kikeshev, n. i. (2003). ancestral homelands and ancestors. moscow: belyealvy. komarudin, k., alkhudri a.t., ubedilah u., syaifudin s., casmana a.r. (2019). the nationality education model: the implementation of a score-a training model for youth across different cultures in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 308-322. kuzmina, e. e. (1983). the origin of the art of pottery in the vedic aryans. moscow: ma icca. lazutina, t. v., & kruzhkova, t. i. (2013). spiritual and moral upbringing of the young people (using the example of activity of the branch of the russian state professional pedagogical university in the town of pervouralsk), basic research. section "pedagogical sciences", 10(13), 2787-2793. lednev, v. s. (2010). vends. slavs. rus. historic, etymological and paleographic problems. moscow: ieopigko uk. leek, j. (2016) global citizenship education in school curricula. a polish perspective. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 51-74. likhachev, d. s. (1988). christianization of rus and the state of rus, the new world, 6, 249-258. egorychev et al. ljubownikow, s., crotty, j., & rodgers, p. w. (2013). the state and civil society in post-soviet russia: the development of a russian-style civil society. progress in development studies, 13(2), 153–166. lopukha, a. d. (2019). russia: politics and society. russian education: the price of reforms.retrieved august 16, 2019, from http://kniga.seluk.ru/k-bezopasnost/816332-1rossiya-politika-obschestvo-rossiyskoe-obrazovanie-cena-reform-lopuha-dpn-professorakademik-mpa-pani-msa-s.php lopukha, a. d. (2000). vital forces of patriotism in the contemporary russia: an experience of sociological analysis. moscow: rusaki. maltsev, v. a. (2014). traditional spiritual and moral values of the russian people, their difference from the european ones. retrieved august 16, 2019, from https://www.in.ast.social/menu-news/389-traditsionnye-dukhovno-nravstvennyetsennosti-russkogo-naroda-ikh-otlichie-ot-evropejskikh.html mizun, yu. v., &mizun, yu. g. (2004). the vedic rus. moscow: aif print. nevleva, i. m. (2015). spiritual association of generations through the values of orthodoxy. scientific journal of belgorod state university,20(34), 68-72. nikiforov, yu. a. (2012). interpretation of history as a technology of social design. in the spaces of the empire: tradition, history, culture. moscow: idc, central publishing house llc. o'brien, j. l., & smith, j. m. (2011). elementary education students’ perceptions of “good” citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 2(1) 21-36. ohmae, k. (1990). the borderless world: power and strategy in the interlinked economy. new york: harper business. pitka, s. n. (2014). russian orthodox church as a factor of formation of the russian young people's values. sociology of religion in the society of the late modern: materials of the 4thinternational scientific conf. (belgorod, september 12, 2014) (pp. 397-401). belgorod: belgorod publishing house. robertson, r., &knondker, h. (1999). discourses of globalization. preliminary considerations. international sociology, 13(1), 25-40. rybakov, b. a. (1981). paganism of the ancient slavs. moscow. simpson, g. (1944). tempo and mode in evolution. new york: columbia univ. press. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 470-489 subetto, a. i. (2007). the epoch of the great evolutionary pivot point. spb. kostroma: n. a. nekrasov ksu. tarman, b. & chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. turchenko, v. n. (2015). the slavic peoples and russia in the 21st century: to be or not to be? moscow: russkiy dom publishers. wierzbicka, a. (2002). russian cultural scripts: the theory of cultural scripts and its applications. ethos, 30(4), 401–432. zholudeva, v. v. (2015). the contemporary russian youth: results of sociological research.social sciences in the contemporary world: a coll. of scientific works according to the results of the international scientific and practical conference, 2,ufa. zappen, j.p. (2012). us and russian traditions in rhetoric, education and culture. journal of curriculum studies, 4(6), 745-760 zubok, yu. a., rostovskaya, t. k., & smakotina, n. l. (2016). young people and youth policy in the contemporary russian society. moscow: perspektiva publishing and trading house. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(1), 21-36 © 2011 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 elementary education students’ perceptions of “good” citizenship jason l. o'brien1 and jason m. smith2 abstract: the purpose of this study was to investigate how elementary pre-service teachers perceive of ‘good’ citizenship. prior to any instruction in their methods courses, 309 pre-service elementary teachers from nine different states were asked to respond to the prompt “what is a good citizen?” the two most common responses were “helping others/community involvement” (n=180) and “following laws” (n=163). using the framework created by westheimer and kahne (2004), the authors make the conclusion that a majority of undergraduates have adopted a “personally responsible” model of citizenship. the authors argue that social studies methods instructors should attempt to move students in the direction of adopting a more “justice-oriented” model of citizenship when teaching elementary students in their future classrooms. keywords: good citizenship, preservice elementary teachers “democracy must be born anew every generation, and education is its midwife.” john dewey, 1889. “if reading and math are the building blocks of an education, social studies is the mortar that holds it all together” johnnie eames, social studies teacher. introduction when asked, many social studies educators identify the development of citizenship skills as their central mission. this is corroborated by the national council for the social studies which states that the primary goal of social studies instruction is to “teach students the content knowledge, intellectual skills, and civic values necessary for fulfilling the duties of citizenship in 1 asst. prof. dr. jason l. o'brien, the university of alabama in huntsville, jason.obrien@uah.edu 2 asst. prof. dr. jason m. smith, the university of alabama in huntsville, jason.smith@uah.edu journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 21-36 22 a participatory democracy” (ncss, 2005: 1). this statement was echoed in the nation’s report card: civics 2006, which stated, “the united states depends on a well-informed and civicminded population to sustain its democratic traditions” (lutkus & weiss, 2007). schools and teachers can play a major role in achieving these goals. teachers can use social studies as a conduit to pass on democratic beliefs and behaviors that our culture has deemed desirable or widely accepted (gagnon 2003; wineburg 2001). the lead author of the current study teaches elementary social studies methods at our institution, and one of the first questions he asks every term is, “why do we teach social studies?” typical student responses include, “to teach students history” or “to teach students to be patriotic.” seldom does a student mention the word “citizenship.” students are often surprised when the instructor posits that the central goal of social studies is to prepare students to be effective life-long citizens. to more fully investigate the perceptions of citizenship held by pre-service teachers, this study surveyed teacher candidates from several institutions in several different states and regions of the u.s. such research reveals how these future educators conceptualize the concept that is to be central to their future social studies instruction, and illuminates (at least in part) what social studies teacher education programs need to address during the training period for teacher candidates. research on citizenship and citizenship education research conducted in the past decade indicates that americans’ political participation and civic involvement has declined significantly (galston, 2008), that many young adults are not knowledgeable about democratic principles nor do they care about international relationships (torney-puerta, 2001), and that teacher candidates are less informed of world events than candidates in the past (wartella & knell, 2004). this suggests a need for renewed emphasis on educating pre-service teachers on the importance, values, and practices of good citizenship. when describing how teachers teach the concept of citizenship, anderson et al. (1997) found “four coherent, identifiable, and separate viewpoints on citizenship education” (p. 351) held by teachers. the first is called the critical thinking perspective. these teachers believe that citizenship education should help students question the status quo, develop critical thinking and questioning skills, and encourage open-mindedness and tolerance. the second viewpoint is called the legalist perspective. these teachers believe that citizenship should stress obedience to jason l. o'brien & jason m. smith 23 laws, teach the basic structure of our political system, and inform students of their rights and responsibilities. the third perspective is that of cultural pluralism, and these teachers focus on celebrating the diverse and pluralistic nature of the united states. rather than simply teaching about political structures in the u.s., these teachers expose students to a wide range of political ideologies. the last is called the assimilationist perspective. teachers who adhere to this paradigm hold similar beliefs to legalists, but they explicitly reject the notion of “political correctness” and want to transmit to students the dominant values of our society. while teachers may vacillate between models in their instruction, their views on what they consider to be most important about citizenship education are sure to influence their instruction. when describing how social studies instruction is implemented in elementary level classrooms, recent developments prove troubling for citizenship education in the united states. while the ncss regards teaching citizenship as the main objective for social studies educators, there is ample – and growing – evidence that social studies instruction is being marginalized in our nation’s elementary schools (barton & levstik, 2004; rock, et. al, 2006). some researchers have found that teachers view social studies as less important than other academic subjects, and that it is sometimes considered an enrichment or second-ranked subject (hinde, 2005; houser, 1995, thornton & houser, 1996; wade, 2002). since the passage of the no child left behind act in 2001, the increased emphasis on student scores on standardized tests has forced teachers to focus more on language arts and mathematics, often marginalizing social studies instruction in the classroom (brighton, 2002; smith and kovacs, 2011). davis and davis (2007) found that only 15% of elementary students are getting five hours or more of social studies per week. furthermore, research has documented reductions in the time allotted to practicing teachers for professional development in social studies (van zastrow, 2004; smith and kovacs, 2011). in sum, a growing need for citizenship education is emerging, just as the emphasis on social studies in our schools seems to be declining. according to professional standards, it is vital that teachers teach citizenship, and do so with some level of efficacy, to develop active, thoughtful members of society. however, political participation is down, while instructional time for students and opportunities for professional development for teachers in the social studies is sparse and waning. these developments do not bode well for a democratic nation. an understanding of how people perceive of the concept of citizenship is thus imperative. westheimer and kahne’s (2004) seminal work describes three categories of “good citizens”: the journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 21-36 24 personally responsible citizen, the participatory citizen, and the justice-oriented citizen. personally responsible citizens obey laws, pay taxes, volunteer to help the community and help others in need. participatory citizens “actively participate in the civic affairs and the social life of the community at local, state, and national level” (241). the justice-oriented citizen critically assesses social, political, and economic structures in an effort to enact societal change and when possible, addresses the root causes of problems. while the personally responsible citizen would donate food for the hungry, the participatory citizen would be the person who organizes the drive; the justice-oriented citizen “ask[s] why people are hungry and act[s] on what they discover” (242). prior research indicates that a narrow, often incomplete, conception of “good citizenship” is quite common among students, usually reflecting only the personally responsible model. for example, conover and searing (2000) investigated how high school students from urban, rural, and suburban schools perceived the notion of “citizenship.” students were given cards with citizenship duties, and participants were asked to rank the importance of each. more than 90% of the participants believed that following laws and paying taxes were the main obligation of citizens. other responses of note included voting in elections (83%), showing patriotism (78%), serving in the military during wartime (75%), participating in jury duty (56%), and donating to charity (23%). as a result of their findings, conover and searing concluded that “[students’] grasp of what it means to act as citizens is rudimentary and dominated by a focus on rights, thus creating a privately-oriented, passive understanding” (108). in 2005, martin and chiodo compared the perceptions of citizenship between 8th grade and 11th grade students in rural, suburban, and urban settings. their main findings were that a majority of these students perceived that good citizens followed rules and laws and helped others. these students believed that demonstrating good citizenship required them to help out with community and school projects and to obey laws. when asked about their future endeavors towards good citizenship, participants mentioned voting, being gainfully employed, and helping with community projects. participants had difficulty relating to future political engagement beyond voting in local and national elections. closer to our purposes here, gallavan (2008) surveyed 93 pre-service teachers from one university at the conclusion of their early childhood, elementary, middle, and high school student teaching experiences. the survey asked participants about their views regarding teaching world jason l. o'brien & jason m. smith 25 citizenship. among her findings were that a vast majority (97%) of the participants wanted to teach their students to be “world citizens” but that a majority (72%) of these future teachers felt that they were not prepared to do so. her study also revealed that many teacher candidates did not have a clear definition of what it meant to be a “world citizen” in the curricular content or in their instructional strategies. these findings substantiated the research of robbins, francis & elliott (2003) who found similar themes reported by students during their student teaching experiences. in the study most closely related to the one reported here, martin (2008) asked 39 elementary education majors and 36 secondary social studies, “what does it mean to be a good citizen?” her major conclusions were that these pre-service teachers emphasized civic engagement more than political engagement: the two main criteria for good citizenship were community engagement and following laws. both elementary and secondary students in her study felt that helping others was integral to good citizenship and that their future “good citizenship” endeavors would include teaching and helping others in need. limitations of existing research most of the research in this realm has addressed how students perceive of citizenship. little has been done to assess the views of teacher candidates, especially at the elementary level. only martin’s study (2008) focused on the perceptions of pre-service teachers, but her research drew participants from only one institution, and mixed elementary pre-service teachers’ perceptions with those in secondary programs. to address these shortcomings, the present study gathers data from a larger and wider group of respondents, expanding both the number of study participants and their locations. furthermore, this study only includes pre-service elementary level teachers. as a result, findings from this study will offer enhanced insight into how elementary pre-service teachers perceive good citizenship, as well as offering a greater ability to generalize to the larger population of pre-service teachers nationwide. research question as westheimer and kahne (2004) note, how teachers conceive of the notion of citizenship – i.e., whether a teacher’s ideas of good citizenship reflect the “personally responsible,” the “participatory,” or the “justice-oriented” model – can have a significant impact on curriculum, and how teachers prepare students for their future roles in a participatory democracy. therefore, to satisfy both the needs of a democratic nation, and fulfill the journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 21-36 26 table 1: locations and numbers of responses by state (n=309) state responses region 1 alabama 26 southeast 2 florida 100 southeast 3 california 30 west 4 minnesota 24 midwest 5 texas 36 southwest 6 connecticut 19 northeast 7 idaho 8 west 8 georgia 24 southeast 9 kentucky 42 southeast total 309 professional standards set forth by the ncss, teacher education programs need to develop full comprehension of the concept of citizenship in their teacher candidates. it is essential to this task that teacher education programs focus some of their instruction on developing in their teacher candidates appropriate understandings of what it means to be a “good citizen,” as well as training them in best practices for developing citizenship in their future students. to do so, teacher educators must understand the perceptions of citizenship held by would-be teachers when entering teacher education programs. with such knowledge, methods instructors can address deficiencies in understanding or commonly-held fallacies regarding citizenship among teacher candidates. understanding and addressing these perceptions can lead to greater effectiveness when teaching the all-encompassing concept of “good citizenship” to pre-service teachers, which ultimately informs the classroom practice of these individuals. to this end, the research question that guided this study was “how do pre-service elementary teachers perceive good citizenship?” we were interested in student views before they were exposed to instruction in their elementary social studies methods course. our findings will reveal how well pre-service teachers understand the concept of citizenship, and provide direction for methods instructors when teaching the skills and knowledge integral to citizenship education. data collection convenience sampling was used to enlist participants in the study. this type of sampling is used to get responses easily accessible by the researcher and is one of the most commonly used purposive sampling methods (kemper, stringfield & teddlie, 2003). specifically, the lead author asked colleagues to suggest names of other teacher educators in the field of elementary social studies. eleven professors were contacted and eight agreed to provide data from their respective classes. the goal of the data collection was to gather responses from at least one public teacher education program in each of the five geographic “regions” in the united states (i.e., southeast, northeast, midwest, southwest, and west), thereby making the results more generalizable to pre-service elementary teachers across the nation. the locations from which the data were gathered as well as the number of responses from each state are listed in table 1 below. jason l. o'brien & jason m. smith 27 participating pre-service elementary teachers were asked to anonymously answer the question, “what is a good citizen?” during the first week of their “elementary social studies methods” course. because we wanted to assess perceptions at the time teacher candidates enter their professional coursework, it was important that the responses were gathered at the beginning of the semester before instruction began, so that their methods course did not influence their perception of the tenets of “good citizenship.” written responses were collected anonymously by the respective instructors and returned via u.s. mail to the researchers. after gathering all responses, the entire data set was transcribed by a staff assistant at the researchers’ university. method of analysis after transcription, our research team coded the responses using a modified open-coding process (babbie 2004; strauss and corbin, 1990). the team consisted of the authors and a research assistant. based on results from martin (2008), we created a list of nine (9) code categories. individual responses that addressed multiple categories were given multiple codes, therefore the total frequencies reflected in table 2 (f=807) is greater than the number of participants (n=309). in order to establish inter-rater reliability, each team member reviewed the same set of 50 randomly chosen responses from the data set, identifying any and all code categories in each response. this produced a possible 450 categorizations (9 possible categories x 50 responses.) we then compared assignments made by each team member, which yielded a “rate of agreement” of 94.66%. team members discussed any discrepancies until reaching consensus, and three new code categories were identified: achievement orientation, environmental responsibility, and ethics / honesty. the remaining responses were then coded by the group utilizing the 12-category schema. code categories and frequencies are also shown in table 2. results the responses indicate that the two most common response categories—by a wide margin-were in that the most common two “community involvement/helping others” and “following laws.” more than half the participants mentioned at least one of these ideas, and most of these (93 participants) mentioned both in their response. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 21-36 28 table 2: code categories and frequencies 1 community involvement (help others, attend comm’ty events) 180 2 following laws 163 3 respecting others 115 4 being politically active / voting 98 5 keeping up with current issues 71 6 loyalty / pride about us / patriotism 48 7 environmental responsibility 31 8 ethics / honesty 28 9 achievement orientation / be educated 26 10 supporting the gov’t 19 11 understanding the gov’t 16 12 paying taxes 12 one hundred and eighty respondents (58.3% of our participants) mentioned some aspect of community involvement in their comments, while one hundred and sixty three respondents (52.8%) mentioned some aspect of obedience to rules or the law. recurrent phrases relative to community involvement included being “actively involved in the community” and “making the community a better place.” forty three pre-service teachers thought that “volunteering” was an essential component of good citizenship. another consistent idea was that ‘good’ citizens direct this assistance towards those “less fortunate” or those “who need help.” “respecting others” was also mentioned by more than 1/3 of respondents (n=115, or 37.2%). respondents included comments like “be sensitive to those around you,” “know that others have feelings,” and “be respectful.” others said that good citizens are “not judgmental or stereotyping,” “considerate of others,” and “compassionate and understanding towards your fellow citizens.” other categories appeared in less than 1/3 of the responses. being politically active and voting were identified by 98 respondents, while keeping up with current issues was something 71 of our pre-service teachers thought good citizens do. of the 98 participants who mentioned voting as a characteristic of good citizenship, 36 also mentioned that people should be informed of issues. patriotism and loyalty to / pride in the u.s. were mentioned 48 times, and about one in ten participants held either environmental responsibility (n=31) or certain ethical traits like honesty (n=28) as key to good citizenship. the environmental responses revolved around the concepts of “not littering,” and “recycling,” and four people specifically used the terminology jason l. o'brien & jason m. smith 29 “going green.” ethical traits of honesty, morality, and “having values” were explicitly mentioned in participant responses. more than two dozen (n=26) identified working hard, being employed, achieving “success” and fulfilling one’s potential, or being educated as important, while 19 said a good citizen supports and /or respects the government. understanding the government, questioning its policies or decisions, or understanding politics etc., was only brought up by 16 pre-service teachers. paying taxes was identified by 12 students. discussion in their answers to our question, teacher candidates – like many people – reflect little more than traits of the personally responsible citizen. they suggest that citizens should simply follow the laws their government passes, be involved in some community events, and be honest and respectful of others. very few future teachers seemed to embrace the critical-thinking perspective identified by anderson et al. (1997). among those suggesting some form of active involvement in society, most were aimed at “helping others” through volunteering or taking part in community events, but lacked an orientation toward working for social change through critical reflection and involvement in the political process. westheimer and kahne’s (2004) three categories of citizenship – the personally responsible, the participatory, and the justice-oriented citizen – helped clarify our results and offered a possible reason for the overwhelming number of personally responsible citizens. as westheimer and kahne note, the personally responsible citizen “receives the most attention” (p. 243) from policy makers, program officers, and citizenship educators, but the traits valued by the personally responsible conception are inadequate for – even potentially dangerous to – a democratic system. while everyone obviously wants young people to be honest and obey the laws, such behavior is not essentially democratic. stressing loyalty and conformity with the law runs counter to the development of “the kind of critical reflection and action that many assume are essential in a democratic society” (westheimer and kahne 2004: p. 244). we found very little evidence of this kind of critical perspective in the answers from participants. only 16 respondents (5.1%) made any comments that reflected the idea that citizens in a democratic society should be engaged with current issues to the degree that includes critiquing the actions and policies undertaken by the elected representatives or the government of those citizens. of the few who did mention this, the following are examples: journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 21-36 30 [if good citizens] disagree [with a law or governmental policy,] they learn the law making process and become an active citizen in either the state or national level. they vote and make informed decisions…. response #169, from minnesota [a good citizen means] you know what your rights and responsibilities are. it means you understand the government, economics, history and geography to be able to debate a controversial issue. it means you vote and take every opportunity for your voice to be heard. response #277, from kentucky good citizens…contribute to the political process by understanding it, voting, and working to change the laws that you do not agree with or for certain important causes. response #19, from alabama these types of responses reflect more than simple personal responsibility, and more than basic community involvement. they suggest a critical, contemplative engagement with and fulfillment of the role necessary for a fully functioning democracy to thrive. honest people who are willing to volunteer in their communities are certainly desirable, and such goals for citizenship education (and for citizens in general) are laudable. however, for a democracy to flourish to its fullest, citizens must be active in the political process, engaged with and informed about the issues of the day, and must ultimately take action to change unjust laws or policies. unfortunately, the vast majority of our responses made no such comments. more typically, participants made comments like the ones below: to be a good citizen means having good morals and values. it means helping people when they need you to, obeying laws, reporting serious crimes if you see them happen so you are helping to protect your community, taking care of the environment, and being trustworthy to others. response #10, from alabama jason l. o'brien & jason m. smith 31 a good citizen is a person who obeys the laws of their state. this person pays taxes, works in the community, and helps others if needed. a good citizen volunteers and does work for others. response #238, from idaho a good citizen is someone who is respectful of laws placed in our society. someone who doesn’t go out of their way to break these rules (even though sometimes rules will be broken) and respects others. response #58, from california possibly the most troubling quote from the entire set of responses was: to be a good citizen means to contribute to a growing society on a regular basis. this can be any society. even if the society’s objective may be morally incorrect such as the nazi society. anyone who contributes for society’s good is a good citizen. -response #139, from florida). whether in their primary and secondary classrooms, or through social interactions in their lives, most of our participants have learned to conceptualize citizenship in a rather narrow way: obedience, honesty, and volunteering in the community. several studies conducted in the united states and internationally (hahn, 1999; kahne & sporte, 2008; torney-purta, schwille, & amadeo, 1999) indicate that educators, researchers and the public are concerned about engaging children and adolescents in civic life on an international level. like westheimer and kahne (2003), we believe this engagement should be based on more than personally responsible models of civic engagement, especially as it pertains to citizens addressing the challenges of citizenship in a democratic society. to help pre-service teachers move beyond the personally-responsible citizen towards a more socially just orientation, teacher educators should model a more critical perspective of citizenship. tishman, jay, and perkins (1993) found that many teachers see their main function as passing on information to their students. rather than adopting this simplistic notion, teacher educators should model more transformational models of citizenship education (engle & ochoa, 1988). adherents to the transformation model of education believe that curriculum should be journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 21-36 32 revised at the “social action” level, in that it encourages students to take action to address society’s problems (banks,1997; mclaren, 1994). in classrooms such as these, students are taught to make decisions and take actions regarding a societal problem. jennings et al. (1994) posit that projects such as these can “convince participants of the power inherent within cooperative efforts against injustice” (jennings, et al., 1994, p 5). if pre-service teachers enter their classrooms with experiences such as these, there is hope that they will encourage their students to view the world through a more critical lens and work to improve conditions when necessary. limitations some limitations to our study need to be addressed. the first involves the issue of generalizability. a broad understanding of citizenship beliefs among pre-service teachers is needed, and our study moves the field in that direction. prior scholarship in this area has relied on smaller samples (less than 100) drawn from only one institution, mixing elementary and secondary teacher candidates. this project enlisted more than 300 teacher candidates from nine different states and schools, in five different regions of the united states, and included only elementary teacher candidates. the shortcoming is that these responses were not drawn from a truly random sample, which limits the overall generalizability of the results. the fact that this study contains the largest number of responses (n=309), from a homogeneous group (only preservice elementary education teachers) at several different universities suggests improvement of our ability to understand how teacher candidates broadly conceive of citizenship. another limiting factor of this study is the fact that participants only replied in an openended response format. our one-question survey was not prompted, nor were students prepared in advance, thus a full consideration of citizenship may not have been at the forefront of our participants’ minds. one the one hand, this is what we wanted – an unsolicited, spontaneous response regarding citizenship that would reveal what actually was at the forefront of teacher candidates’ minds. on the other hand, the extemporaneous nature of the survey, may have caused participants to only provide initial reflections on the issue that could be quickly and easily written down. a suggestion for future researchers is to use a list of code categories (e.g., helping others, following rules/laws, voting, etc.) like those we have identified to create a list from which participants can choose what behaviors and concepts fit their idea of citizenship, or even to rank these areas in importance according to their beliefs. jason l. o'brien & jason m. smith 33 conclusion in the four or so months that pre-service teachers are enrolled in their social studies methods courses, teacher educators have the daunting task of helping this disparate group not only understand and clarify their own beliefs about what constitutes “good” citizenship, but they must also teach pre-service teachers to improve their future students’ abilities to be effective citizens. the findings of this study indicate that a clear majority of pre-service teachers have adopted, whether consciously or not, a legalist perspective of citizenship. with this evidence in mind, teacher educators should utilize pedagogic strategies that can develop and enhance these future teachers’ questioning and critical thinking skills. in the current climate of accountability in which some elementary teachers are being forced to teach from teachers’ manuals and follow scripted lessons, it is not difficult to understand how teachers would value following rules and being obedient. however, the founding fathers’ perception of citizenship included the responsibility of citizens challenging existing power structures when necessary. thomas jefferson wrote “ordinary people have power....when they rise up and defy the rules....propel new issues to the center of political debate....and force political leaders to reforms. these are the conditions that produce (america's) democratic moments" (piven, 2008, p. 1). while elementary teachers have the responsibility of transmitting important information from the social sciences, they also have an equally important obligation to teach critical thinking so that students feel comfortable challenging existing power structures. if not, we as a nation risk losing future citizens who form the foundation for a more socially just world. references anderson, c., avery, p., pederson, p., smith, e., & sullivan, j. (1997). divergent perspectives on citizenship education. a q-method study and survey of social studies teachers. american educational research journal, 34(2), 333-364. babbie, e. (2004). the practice of social research. belmont, ca: wadsworth. barton, k., & levstik, l. (2004). teaching history for the common good. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. brighton, c.m. (2002). straddling the fence: implementing best practices in the age of accountability. gifted child today, 25(3), 30-33. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 21-36 34 chiodo, j., & martin, l. (2005). what do students have to say about citizenship? an analysis of the concept of citizenship among secondary education students. the journal of social studies research, 29(1), 23-31. conover, p. & searing, d. (2000). a political socialization perspective. in l. mcdonnell, p. timpane, & r. benjamin (eds.), rediscovering the democratic purposes of education (pp. 91-126). lawrence, ka: university press of kansas. davis, s. & davis, j. (2007). making the case for social studies—it’s our responsibility. nation council for the social studies: washington, d.c. retrieved june 24, 2010, from http://www.ncss.org/advocacy. duplass, j. (2008). teaching elementary social studies: strategies, standards, and internet resources (2nd ed.). boston, ma: houghton-mifflin. fernandez, o. (2005). towards european citizenship through higher education? european journal of education, 40(1), 60-80. gagnon, p. (2003). educating democracy: state standards to ensure a civic core. washington, dc: albert shanker institute. gallavan, n. (2008). examining teacher candidates’ views on world citizenship. the social studies, 99(6), 249-254. galston, w. (2008). civic knowledge, civic education, and civic engagement: a summary of recent research. international journal of public administration, 30(7), 623-642. hahn, c. (1999). citizenship education: an empirical study of policy, practices, and outcomes, oxford review of education, 25(3), 231-250. hinde, e. (2005). revisiting curriculum integration: a fresh look at an old idea. the social studies, 96(3), 105-111. houser, n. (1995). social studies on the back burner: views from the field. theory and research in social education, 23(2), 147-168. jennings, t., croswell, s. & fernlund, p. (1994). social justice in the elementary classroom. social studies and the young learner, 7(1), 4-6. kahne, j., & sporte, s. (2008). developing citizens: the impact of civic learning opportunities on students’ commitment to civic participation. american educational research journal, 45(3), 738-766. jason l. o'brien & jason m. smith 35 kemper, e., stringfield, s, & teddlie, c. (2003). sampling strategies in social science research. in a. tashakkori & c. teddlie (eds.), handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 273-296). thousand oaks, ca: sage. landis, j. r. & koch, g. (1977). "the measurement of observer agreement for categorical data" biometrics, 33(1), 159-174. lutkus, a. & weiss, a. (2007). the nation’s report card: civics 2006 (nces 2007–476). u.s. department of education, national center for education statistics. washington, d.c.: u.s. government printing office. martin, l. & chiodo, j. (2007). good citizenship: what do rural students have to say about it? theory and research in social education, 35(1), 112-127. martin, l.a. (2008) elementary and secondary teacher education students’ perspectives on citizenship. action in teacher education, 30(3), 54-63. mcguire, m. & cole, b. (2005). using storypath to give young learners a fair start. social studies and the young learner, 18(2), 20-23. national council for the social studies (2005). mission statement. retrieved may 18, 2010, from http://www.socialstudies.org/about/. national association of secretaries of state. (1999). new millennium project, part 1: american youth attitudes on policies, citizenship, government, and voting. washington, d.c. national council for the social studies. (1989). essential skills of a social studies education. retrieved june 5, 2010, from http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/ parker, w., glenn, a. & mizoue, y. (1997). japanese and american pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards global issues and relations. peabody journal of education, 72(1), 187 202. piven, f. (2008). challenging authority: how ordinary people change america. new york, ny: rowman & littlefield publishers, inc. rock, t., heafner, t., o’connor, k, passe, j., oldendorf, s., good, a., byrd, s. (2006). one state closer to a national crisis: a report on elementary social studies in north carolina. theory and research in social education, 34(4), 455-483. robbins, m., francis, l. & elliott, e. (2003). attitudes toward education for global citizenship among trainee teachers. research in education, 69(1), 93-98. smith, j., & kovacs, p. (2011). the impact of standards based reform on http://www.socialstudies.org/about/� http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 21-36 36 teachers: the case of ‘no child left behind.’ teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 17(2), 34-42. strauss, a., & corbin, j. (1990). basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedures and techniques. newbury park, ca: sage publishing. thornton, s. & houser, n. (1996). the status of the elementary social studies in delaware: views from the field. (eric clearinghouse for social studies/social science education, ed 404 239). tishman, s., jay, e., & perkins, d. n. (1993). thinking dispositions: from transmission to enculturation. theory into practice. 3(2), 147-153 torney-purta, j. (2001). what adolescents know about citizenship and democracy. educational leadership, 59(4), 45-50. torney-purta, j., lehmann, h., oswald, h. & shultz, w. (2001). citizenship education in 28 countries: civic knowledge and engagement at age 14 years old. amsterdam: international association for the evaluation of educational achievement. torney-purta, j., schwille, j., & amadeo, j. (1999). civic education across countries: twentyfour case studies from the iea civic education project. amsterdam: international association for the evaluation of educational achievement. wade, r. (2002). beyond expanding horizons: new curriculum directions for elementary social studies. the elementary school journal, 103(2), 116-130. wartella, e. & knell, g. (2004). raising a world-wise child and the power of media. phi delta kappan, 86(3), 222-224. westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2), 237-269. wineburg, s. (2001). historical thinking and other unnatural acts: charting the future of teaching the past. critical perspectives on the past. philadelphia, pa: temple university press. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(2), 1-17 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 preserving social studies as core curricula in an era of common core reform david w. denton1 & cindy sink2 abstract education reform over the last two decades has changed perceptions of core curricula. although social studies has traditionally been part of the core, emphasis on standards-based teaching and learning, along with elaborate accountability schemes, is causing unbalanced treatment of subjects. while the research literature indicates teachers are spending less time on social studies, perceptions about the subject are more complicated. some educators accept the value of social studies knowledge and skills, while others see it as an auxiliary subject for supporting test achievement. integration is one way elementary school teachers reconcile the need to focus on tested disciplines, while holding to traditional notions of the core curricula. results from a case study involving elementary teachers show integration as the preferred method for teaching social studies. participants, however, also indicated they were unable to achieve effective integration due to time constraints, limited training, and inadequate curricular resources. the trajectory of standards-based reform suggests educators will continue to encounter obstacles that impede integration. systematic change that preserves the place of social studies as part of the core curricula is unlikely. nevertheless, adoption of common core standards presents an opportunity for educators to reexamine the merits of social studies integration. keywords: case study, common core, core curricula, elementary, integration, social studies introduction traditionally, subject areas considered part of the core curricula have included english, mathematics, science, and social studies (tyler, 2004). however, the reality of high-stakes testing since 2001 has elevated literacy and mathematics above other subjects. for example, the center on education policy (2007) reports 62% of elementary schools have increased time for literacy and math, while simultaneously reducing time in non-tested subjects by up to 145 minutes per week. research by heafner and fitchett (2012) corroborate this trend, indicating time for social studies has decreased in grades three through five, by up to 60 minutes per week. nevertheless, despite evidence to the contrary, holloway and chiodo (2009) assert that social studies concepts are taught, just not in the “allotted portion of time” normally assigned to 1 assistant professor, seattle pacific university, dentod@spu.edu 2 clinical instructor, seattle pacific university, sinkc@spu.edu journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 1-17 2 departmentalized planning (p. 237). rather, according to holloway and chiodo, elementary school teachers are teaching social studies concepts by integrating them with reading, language arts, mathematics, and other disciplines. as an alternative to both perspectives, houser (1995) and bisland (2012) claim elementary teachers were neglecting social studies well before the era of standardized testing. reasons cited by houser and bisland for diminished attention include pressure to cover other content, faulty teacher preparation, lack of administrative support, and dearth of content knowledge among elementary teachers. though diminished attention to social studies in elementary grades is lamentable, it could be argued the problem is a symptom of the way educators prioritize what students should learn, and to what level of precision. the history of education is full of examples showing how each new generation of educator contends with the question, what knowledge is most worth learning?, just as herbert spencer did in 1854. for spencer, the answer was scientific knowledge. yet if the content of standardized test items in the current era is any indication, the knowledge most worth learning today is subject matter required for mastering basic literacy and mathematics. standardized tests reveal priorities about what matters. students are tested in reading, writing, and math, suggesting disintegration of disciplines through assessment. it can be further argued that attempts to improve achievement through high-stakes testing has resulted in greater separation between subjects, contrary to principles of integration, which some suggest promote critical thinking skills such as transfer, error detection, and concept learning (haskell, 2000; thomas, 2007). shifting priorities through emphasis on test achievement has brought the place of social studies within the core curricula into question. it has also required creative solutions by elementary teachers for reconciling their beliefs about social studies and how to teach in a system that may neglect, dismiss, or marginalize non-tested disciplines. one way primary grade teachers manage this tension is through integration (holloway & chiodo, 2009; pederson, 2007). however, integration means different things to different people, as indicated by the various definitions presented over the years (czerniak, weber, sandmann, & ahern, 1999). integration and integrated curricula banks (1993) defines integration as “the extent to which teachers use examples, data, and information from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate the key concepts, principles, generalizations, and theories in their subject area or discipline” (p. 25). alternatively, parker david w. denton & cindy sink 3 (2005) defines integration as an “approach that purposefully draws together knowledge, perspectives, and methods of inquiry from more than one discipline to develop a more powerful understanding of a central idea, issue, person, or event” (pp. 452-453). similarly, badley (2009) defines integration as “curriculum or instruction that combines, draws upon or encourages students to see connections between the contents of two or more academic disciplines” (p. 115). lastly, beane (1995) defines integration as not simply an organizational device requiring cosmetic changes or realignments in lesson plans across various subject areas… it is a way of thinking about what schools are for… about the uses of knowledge… curriculum integration is the search for selfand social meaning (p. 616). the way integrated curricula is conceived also varies. for example, beane (1995) describes integrated curricula as design of learning activities around projects that depend on a variety of disciplines for addressing personally and socially meaningful problems. alternatively, hinde (2005) is less theoretical, describing integrated curricula with principles of effective practice, such as 1) activities aligned with lesson objectives, 2) lessons planned so they preserve the integrity of social studies content, 3) learning segments designed to account for prior knowledge and potential misconceptions, and 4) use of authentic knowledge and skills that transfer between disciplines. czerniak et al. (1999) provide more detail, citing several professional organizations for a comprehensive conception of integrated curricula, but again a conception that exemplifies effective practice. according to czerniak et al., integrated curricula 1) maintains content integrity while facilitating connections between disciplines, 2) fosters collaboration, 3) promotes democracy, 4) deploys multiple learning strategies, 5) respects diverse ideas, 6) uses a variety of sources including experimentation, 7) applies symbol systems for representing, and 8) uses different types of assessments. examples of integrated lessons and activities in elementary classrooms take many forms. integration results as students or teachers select problems or controversial issues to resolve (hinde, 2005). for example, grade three students investigate the effects of immigration on communities through biography, demographic analysis, and geography. alternatively, traditional units may be revised around a theme (wraga, 1993). for example, grade two students learn about their community by identifying recreational activities, their geographic location and distance from school, and paint pictures and write poems to symbolize what the activities mean to them. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 1-17 4 another variation on the theme approach is to merge disciplines so students construct their own generalizations about phenomenon (parker, 2005), such as grade four students concluding that culture is shaped by environment. another example, one that retains traditional subject divisions, is sequencing. sequencing includes activities from different disciplines organized to show relationships. for example, a grade five class learning about continents and oceans in social studies, simultaneously studies oceanography during science, and reads island of the blue dolphins in language arts (hinde, 2005). effects of integration on student learning educators at the elementary level identify integration as a way to improve learning (bisland, 2012; hinde, 2005) even though systematic empirical analyses showing the effects of integration are rare (ellis & fouts, 2001). nevertheless, some research exists which continues to persuade educators of the positive effects of integration. for example, vars (1997) summarized the effects of curriculum integration on student learning and concluded that it was equivalent, and often better, in comparison to conventional departmentalized programs. ellis and fouts (2001), however, cautioned that the analysis by vars is more of a synthesis, rather than a critical evaluation of empirical evidence and they also suggest that too few studies exist for any kind of meaningful analysis. hartzler (2000), however, conducted a meta-analysis of integrated curriculum programs and found they had a positive effect on student performance on state tests and program developed assessments. hartzler proposed that teachers taking an integrated approach need not fear student failure or declining test scores. in summary, while systematic empirical research on the effects of curriculum integration is limited, integration as an approach to instructional design is routinely associated with higher-level thinking skills, unified sense of process, real-world application, heightened motivation, and depth of understanding (ellis & fouts, 2001; vars, 1991). however, integration in an era of common core reform may also be used as a diversionary phrase, satisfying traditional notions of the core curricula, but in reality freeing educators to focus their efforts on improving test achievement. while the use of integration for deflection may seem implausible, there is precedence for observing gaps between what teachers say they believe about instruction and what they actually practice in the classroom, and research suggests this is the case for some social studies educators. for example, bailey, shaw, and hollifield (2006) found that primary teachers reported preferring inquiry-based instruction, but david w. denton & cindy sink 5 the same teachers also reported using it infrequently. similarly, faulkner and cook (2006) surveyed middle school teachers and found they reported using a wide array of instructional practices, while simultaneously indicating they relied mostly on discussion, lecture, and worksheets. similar discrepancies between what teachers say they prefer and what they actually do have been found by bolinger and warren (2007) and leming, ellington and schug (2006). elementary teachers who claim integration as a method for making time for social studies in an era of standards-based change are equally vulnerable to saying one thing and doing another. some reasons for this are that effective integration requires comprehensive understanding of multiple subjects, with insight about how and when subjects relate, along with opportunities to plan integrated lessons. integration is also contrary to typical subject matter divisions, which ease lesson planning and assessment, enabling teachers to handle objectives and activities as discrete elements. even when integration is used, it may be superficial since teachers have to contend with pressure to raise and maintain test scores (winstead, 2011). in addition, not unlike other educational interventions, professional training and curricular resources may be lacking, diminishing opportunities for teachers to integrate efficiently (pederson, 2007). obstacles to effective integration time is perhaps the most significant obstacle teachers at the elementary encounter as they attempt to teach social studies, while simultaneously attending to three other major subject areas (bisland, 2012). there is no shortage of studies indicating issues with time. along with findings reported by the center on education policy (2007) and heafner and fitchett (2012), vanfossen (2005) provides further evidence social studies teaching is becoming increasingly marginalized across kindergarten to grade five. similar to previous research, vanfossen cites lack of administrative support, lack of pressure to perform on a state-wide social studies assessment, and lack of clear understanding of the goals of social studies learning. yet, a more troubling finding reported by vanfossen is less than one in three elementary teachers associated social studies with its foremost purpose, citizenship education. while time is readily quantifiable, perceptions of the importance of social studies are more difficult to measure, but they are also indicative of the status of social studies as a diminished component of the core curricula. for example, lintner (2006) surveyed elementary principals and found they ranked social studies sixth in importance, out of nine subjects, behind science and before physical education. lintner also reported some principals valuing social journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 1-17 6 studies for its focus on other cultures and global citizenship, yet still more principals viewed social studies as a supplement for enhancing reading and writing. similarly, gibson (2012) found that some educators ranked reading, writing, and math above social studies, along with teachers reporting they struggled to understand the purpose of teaching social studies concepts, such as awareness of other cultures and citizenship. vogler (2011) reported similar results, indicating that teachers integrated information such as historical facts, rather than concepts. one shared conclusion from this research is that effective social studies education requires more than just time. it requires continuous training and curricular resources to assist concept teaching through effective practices such as inquiry-based activities and reflective examination (bisland, 2012). not the least of these requirements is emphasis on the goals and mission of social studies, in particular citizenship education. integration to preserve social studies as part of the core excluding significant changes to the trajectory of standards-based reform, one solution for managing non-tested subjects is to rely on the promise of content integration. however, as previously noted, empirical studies testing the effects of integration on student learning shows mixed results (hinde, 2005). nevertheless, vars (1991) contends that students involved in integrative or interdisciplinary studies perform as well as students who approached curricula in traditional ways. alternatively, schug and cross (1998) argue that keeping subjects separate and teaching through direct instruction has a greater impact on student achievement. since results compiled by vars and schug and cross more than a decade ago, research dealing with integration has increased. however, the literature is somewhat confined by the number of descriptive studies across a dispersed number of subjects, such as integrating social studies with technology (maloy, poirier, smith, & edwards, 2010); science (singletary & miller, 2009); mathematics (kinniburgh & bryd, 2008); visual arts (lucey & laney, 2009); and literacy (macphee & whitecotton, 2011). one reason for the dearth of empirical studies is that integration is challenging to describe, hard to implement, and even more difficult to measure (hinde, 2005). nevertheless, standards-based reform has fueled consistent interest in integrating social studies in an era of standardized testing and accountability. for example, searching the educational research information center database for peer reviewed articles using the terms standards, integration, and social studies produces more than 30 results. however, growth in the david w. denton & cindy sink 7 literature dealing with common core reform and social studies appears to be relatively undeveloped. for example, searching the same database for common core and integration produces 10 results, but only a few of these studies deal with social studies. for example, berson and berson (2013) have written on the connection between social studies and common core by linking literacy skills with adoption of multiple perspectives. in addition, kenna and russell (2015) have investigated changes in secondary social studies teachers’ instructional practices as a result of adopting common core standards. the articles by berson and berson and kenna and russell are likely the first of many which will make connections between common core and social studies knowledge and skills. the brief analysis of literature covering obstacles to integration and potential for integration to promote social studies within elementary classrooms shows levels of underlying complexity. some of these complexities include allocation of time, prioritization of tested subjects, and training and resources for teaching integrated lessons. in addition, adoption of common core standards in many states has added another layer of uncertainty. while studies exist showing the trajectory of social studies in an era of standards-based change, there are few studies investigating integration as a way to reinvigorate social studies education. additional information is needed for reexamining integration as a possible strategy for maintaining, or even improving, the place of social studies as part of the core curricula. the study that follows attempts to addresses a few of these gaps by reexamining time devoted to social studies instruction, perceptions of integration as an approach to social studies instruction, curricula used for integration, and available resources and training for planning and deploying integrated lessons. although information was gathered using case study procedures, focused on a convenience sample of participants, results provide helpful points of departure for further investigation. methods and results the study was divided into exploratory and confirmatory phases, according to procedures outlined by creswell and clark (2007), with the purpose of validating trends found in current literature, along with identifying new questions for investigation. the exploratory phase included a convenience sample of 11 student teachers earning endorsements in elementary education. student teachers observed their mentor teachers for several weeks, and responded to open-ended journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 1-17 8 questions about the amount of instruction occurring in social studies and other subjects, and also the type of curricula mentor teachers used for social studies instruction. results of the exploratory phase indicated student teachers observing between 0 and 90 minutes of social studies instruction per week, with an average of 60 minutes. these results confirm findings from other studies on the subject of time dedicated to social studies instruction (see bisland, 2012; mcguire, 2007; national council for the social studies, 2008; pederson, 2007). another result was absence of dedicated social studies curricula for social studies instruction. rather, three students observed use of social skills and literacy curricula, and what they identified as integration of social studies concepts. for example, one student teacher reported the mentor had just started using worldscapes, a literacy program including various types of texts (hand to mind, 2013) for teaching social studies. two other student teachers observed mentors using second step and steps to respect, curricula for teaching social emotional knowledge and skills (committee for children, 2012). the majority of observations made by student teachers, however, indicated their mentors were not teaching social studies, or that mentors were integrating social studies with other subjects. information gathered from student teachers about how their mentors handled social studies in the exploratory phase prompted questions around integration. specifically, whether elementary teachers in the convenience sample taught social studies through integration, the kinds of curricula used for integration, and whether teachers had access to resources and training for effective integration. data was collected from 14 elementary school teachers using a survey with 14 items, scaled from 1 – strongly agree to 5 – strongly disagree, and two open-ended questions. a different group of 14 student teachers, separate from the exploratory phase, requested that their mentor teachers complete the survey over the course of several weeks. participating mentors who completed the survey worked in five districts around a large metropolitan area. schools where teachers were employed ranged from 550 to 270 students, with varying rates of socio-economic status as indicated by receipt of free or reduced price meals between 88 and 10 percent. similar to results found in the exploratory phase, participating teachers identified integration as their preferred method for teaching social studies content (m = 1.50). participants also reported possessing knowledge and skills required for integration (m = 1.64) and that students were being instructed in social studies-specific concepts as well as fields such as david w. denton & cindy sink 9 economics and geography (m = 1.97). teachers were neutral (m = 3.50) when asked whether they had enough time to plan integrated lessons and also indicated they would like to learn more strategies for integrating social studies with tested subjects (m = 2.43). on a similar item, teachers indicated they spent more time teaching basic skills in comparison to social studies subject matter (m = 2.29). teachers were somewhat positive when asked if they would spend more time on social studies if they were provided additional training (m = 2.67). however, teachers were somewhat neutral when asked if they would spend more time on social studies if their district showed more leadership in the area of social studies instruction (m = 2.86). figure 1 summarizes results from the survey. figure 1. survey results from fourteen elementary school teaches about their use of integration for teaching social studies. on open-ended responses, teachers indicated some cohesiveness with the kind of curricula used for teaching social studies. five teachers reported using storypath, an integrative approach based on storytelling (interact, 2013), while four others indicated using a textbook, and three reported using social studies alive. one teacher reported using integration and another teacher simply reported other. unlike results from the exploratory phase, no teachers reported using second steps or steps to respect as substitutes for social studies curricula. teachers indicated variation in school support in terms of integration. for example, one teacher wrote, “there are no resources or curricula to teach social studies in my district i try to integrate it 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 prefer integration knowledge and skill for integration teach concepts and fields time to plan integrated lessons strategies for integration basic skills over social studies more time with training more time with leadership a gr ee d is ag re e journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 1-17 10 whenever i can.” similarly, another participant wrote, “district standards and guidelines are totally unsupported by materials or professional development.” discussion use of integration. results from both phases of the study suggest participating elementary teachers identified integration as the primary method used for teaching social studies content. similarly, teachers reported having sufficient knowledge and skill for deploying integrative pedagogy. however, these claims were contradicted by results showing a lack of time for planning integrated lessons and the need for more integration strategies. likewise, teachers inferred the importance of social studies by reporting that they taught related concepts and knowledge, but at the same time teachers reported that basic skills were somewhat more important. similar to studies by bailey, shaw, and hollifield (2006) and faulkner and cook (2006), participating teachers reported contradictory information, perhaps because they were both expressing their beliefs about social studies, but also reporting the reality of how they focus their time on tested subjects. curricula used for integration. participating teachers reported using a wide variety of curricula for integrating social studies, including social skills curricula, literacy curricula, and traditional textbooks. other teachers reported using project-based curricula, or reported no curricula at all. according to hinde (2005), there is little consensus about what an integrated curriculum looks like, and results of this study concur with the variability that comes with integration. however, whether history, geography, anthropology, economics, or other fields were included as part of participating teachers’ efforts of integration were unclear. there was no evidence that “the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence” was occurring (national council for the social studies, n.d.). rather, results seemed to validate findings by bailey, shaw, and hollifield (2006), who reported that “teachers would teach social studies when, or if, they got around to it” (p. 22). training and resources for integration. participants narrowly indicated they would spend more time on social studies if they had additional training. their enthusiasm for district leadership in the area of social studies instruction was even more neutral. however, participants did not indicate outright dismissal of social studies or integrative pedagogy. the contrary seemed to be true. participants identified integration as their preferred method and they also validated the importance of social studies. nevertheless, there was no evidence to suggest teachers were david w. denton & cindy sink 11 engaged in the kinds of activities called for by gibson (2012), lintner (2006), and vogler (2011) necessary for sustaining an integrated approach to content, such as concept teaching, inquiry, and reflective analysis. conclusion standards-based reorganization and accountability schemes measured by test achievement show little sign of abating. even if educational leaders abandon reform activities implemented over the last decade, the momentum behind these efforts is sure to prohibit balanced treatment of subjects. the precarious state of education budgets and consequences associated with low test scores are exerting additional pressure that discourage reapportioning time and resources to subjects like social studies. standards-based reorganization and accountability activities are changing the way educators think about core curricula. the latest example of this is adoption of common core standards, which are for literacy and mathematics learning, rather than acquisition of social science knowledge and skills. nevertheless, some standards clearly overlap with social studies concepts. for instance, common core requires students be able to cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary sources or distinguish fact from opinion to make a reasoned judgment. the overall emphasis, however, is clearly focused on improving achievement associated with literacy and mathematics. at the same time, most educators at the elementary level embrace the use of integration as a way to reconcile the value of social studies content with the necessity of test achievement. however, results from this study suggest the sample of teachers claim integration as their preferred method for social studies instruction, but struggle to achieve effective implementation. claiming integration as a solution for teaching social studies content without discussing issues of time, training, or curricular resources, or the pressure exerted by high-stakes testing, is disingenuous. circumstances suggest additional compromise, even though many advocates of social studies teaching and learning are sure to see additional concessions as untenable. alternatively, there are others who already recognize the need for a pragmatic approach. adoption of common core standards presents the next opportunity for practical solutions. it is also an opportunity for educators and researchers to reexamine the merits of integration, and the necessity to address implementation. although small in comparison to what is needed, table 1 shows some examples for promoting this work. nevertheless, expecting a few examples will journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 1-17 12 cause educators to invest significant time and resources toward integration is optimistic, but any strategy that preserves social studies as part of the core curricula is certainly worth considering. table 1. integration of social studies content with common core standards common core literacy standard social studies content integrative learning activity provide a concluding statement or section related to information summarize major ideas in a conclusion statement work in pairs to summarize two ideas from lee’s resolution of 1776 claiming america’s independence from britain distinguish the literal and nonliteral meanings of words and phrases in context recognize instances in which more than one interpretation of factual material is valid listen to mlk’s i have a dream speech and then interpret two phrases read grade-level prose and poetry orally with accuracy, appropriate rate, and expression understand and analyze causal factors in major events in history study and analyze poetry, such as western wagons, by rosemary and stephen vincent benét, then recite a portion of the poem compare and contrast the point of view from which different stories are narrated, including the difference between firstand third-person narrations understand that there are multiple perspectives and interpretations of historical events read historical fiction such as crispin, catherine, called birdy, or robin’s country and compare and contrast perspectives identify the reasons and evidence a speaker provides to support particular points identify a situation in which a decision is required listen to franklin delano roosevelt’s speech declaring war on japan in 1941 and then discuss three supporting details david w. denton & cindy sink 13 report on a topic or text or present an opinion, sequencing ideas logically and using appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details to support main ideas or themes understand and apply reasoning skills to conduct research, deliberate, form and evaluate positions study and collect data on a local school issue, such as playground equipment or lunch room; share a presentation of results common core math standard social studies content integrative learning activity draw a picture graph or a bar graph to represent a data set with up to four categories understand that members of a community make choices among products and services that have costs and benefits conduct a survey of four common products, such as paper towels or pizza, and represent results in a graph generate data by measuring lengths using rulers marked with halves and fourths of an inch understand and apply how maps and globes are used to display regions determine efficient and scenic routes between school and a local store or park represent real world and mathematical problems by graphing points in the first quadrant of the coordinate plane construct and use maps to show and analyze information about european settlement in the americas use a coordinate plane and geographic coordinates to analyze and compare early american settlements, such as savannah, williamsburg, and new york summarize numerical data sets in relation to their context understand the geographic factors that influence the movement of groups of people in the past or present infer geographic influences from statistics of immigrant populations in the u.s. from 1860s to 1960s journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 1-17 14 references badley, k. (2009). resisting curriculum integration: do good fences make good neighbors? issues in integrative studies, 27, 113-117. bailey, g., shaw, e. r., & hollifield, d. (2006). the devaluation of social studies in the elementary grades. journal of social studies research, 30(2), 18-29. banks, j. (1993). multicultural education: development, dimensions, and challenges. phi delta kappan, 75(1) 22-28. beane, j. a. (1995). curriculum integration and the disciplines of knowledge. phi delta kappan, 76(8), 616-622. berson, i. r., & berson, m. j. (2013). getting to the core: using digital resources to enhance content-based literacy in the social studies. social education, 77(2), 102-106. bisland, b. m. (2012). the marginalization of social studies in the elementary grades: an overview. in w. b. russell (ed.). contemporary social studies: an essential reader (pp. 173-191). charlotte, nc: information age. bolinger, k., & warren, w. j. (2007). methods practiced in social studies instruction: a review of public school teachers’ strategies. international journal of social education, 22(1), 68-84. center on educational policy. (2007). choices, changes, challenges: curriculum and instruction in the nclb era. washington, dc: author. retrieved from http://www.cep-dc.org committee for children. (2012). about committee for children. retrieved from http://www.cfchildren.org/advocacy/about-us.aspx creswell, j., & clark, v. (2007). mixed methods research. thousand oaks, ca: sage. czerniak, c. m., weber, w. j., sandmann, a., & ahern, j. (1999). a literature review of science and mathematics integration. school science and mathematics, 99(8), 421-430. ellis, a. k. & fouts, j. t. (2001). interdisciplinary curriculum: the research base. music educators journal, 87(5), 22-26. faulkner, s., & cook, c. (2006). testing vs. teaching: the perceived impact of assessment demands on middle level instructional practices. rmle online: research in middle level education, 29(7), 1-13. gibson, s. (2012). why do we learn this stuff? students’ views on the purpose of social studies. canadian social studies, 45(1), 43-58. david w. denton & cindy sink 15 hand to mind. (2013). worldscapes. retrieved from http://www.hand2mind.com/worldscapes/worldscapes.jsp hartzler, d. s. (2000). a meta-analysis of studies conducted on integrated curriculum programs and their effects on student achievement (order no. 9967119). available from proquest dissertations & theses a & i. (304624583). retrieved from http://ezproxy.spu.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/304624583?account id=2202 haskell, r. e. (2000). transfer of learning: cognition, instruction and reasoning. san diego, ca: academic press. heafner, t. l., & fitchett, p. g. (2012). national trends in elementary instruction: exploring the role of social studies curricula. social studies, 103(2), 67-72. hinde, e. r. (2005). revisiting curriculum integration: a fresh look at an old idea. social studies, 96(3), 105-111. holloway, j., & chiodo, j. j. (2009). social studies is being taught in the elementary school: a contrarian view. journal of social studies research, 33(2), 235-261. houser, n. o. (1995). social studies on the back burner: views from the field. theory and research in social education, 23(2), 147-168. interact. (2013). storypath. retrieved from http://www.teachstorypath.com kenna, j. l., & russell, w. b. (2015). secondary social studies teachers’ time commitment when addressing the common core state standards. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 26-48. kinniburgh, l. h., & byrd, k. (2008). ten black dots and september 11: integrating social studies and mathematics through children’s literature. social studies, 99(1), 33-36. leming, j. s., ellington, l., & schug, m. (2006). the state of social studies: a national random survey of elementary and middle school social studies teachers. social education, 70(5), 322-327. lintner, t. (2006). social studies (still) on the back burner: perceptions and practices of k-5 social studies instruction. journal of social studies research, 30(1), 3-8. lucey, t. a., & laney, j. d. (2009). this land was made for you and me: teaching for economic justice in upper elementary and middle school grades. social studies, 100(6), 260-272. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 1-17 16 macphee, d. a., & whitecotton, e. j. (2011). bringing the “social” back to social studies: literacy strategies as tools for understanding history. social studies, 102(6), 263-267. maloy, r. w., poirier, m., smith, h. k., & edwards, s. a. (2010). the making of a history standards wiki: “covering”, “uncovering”, and “discovering” curriculum frameworks using a highly interactive technology. history teacher, 44(1), 68-81. mcguire, m. e. (2007). what happened to social studies?: the disappearing curriculum. phi delta kappan, 88, 620-624. national council for the social studies. (2008). curriculum standards for social studies. retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org national council for the social studies. (n.d.). about national council for the social studies. retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org/about parker, w. c. (2005). social studies in elementary education. (12th ed.). columbus, oh. pearson. pederson, p. v. (2007). what is measured is treasured: the impact of the no child left behind act on nonassessed subjects. clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues and ideas, 80, 287-291. schug, m. c., & cross. b. (1998). the dark side of curriculum integration in social studies. the social studies, 89(2), 54-56. singletary, t., & miller, r. (2009). instant integration: just add water. science teacher, 76(2), 54-60. thomas, e. (2007). thoughtful planning fosters learning transfer. adult learner, 18(3-4), 4-8. tyler, r. w. (2004). basic principles of curriculum and instruction. in d. j. flinders, & s. j. thornton (eds.), curriculum studies reader (2nd ed., pp. 51-59). new york, ny: routledge. vanfossen, p. j. (2005). reading and math take so much time…: an overview of social studies instruction in indiana. theory and research in social education, 33(3), 376-403. vars, g. f. (1991). integrated curriculum in historical perspective. educational leadership, 49(2), 14-15. vars, g. f. (1997). in j. l. irvin (ed.), what current research says to the middle level practitioner (pp. 179-186). waterville, oh: national middle school association. david w. denton & cindy sink 17 vogler, k. e. (2011). back on the backburner? impact of reducing state-mandated social studies testing on elementary teachers’ instruction. journal of social studies research, 35(2), 163-190. winstead, l. (2011). the impact of nclb and accountability on social studies: teacher experiences and perceptions about teaching social studies. the social studies, 102, 221227. wraga, w. g. (1993). the interdisciplinary imperative for citizenship education. theory & research in social education. 21(3), 201-231. dear colleagues and friends: www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi i from the editor… awakening to the importance of social studies once again dear colleagues and friends: while it is with our great pleasure to welcome and greet you with a new issue of jsser, we have been deeply saddened by the earthquake news from van and terrorist attacks in çukurca (of hakkari province) over the past few weeks. since our organization association for social studies education research (asse) and journal (jsser) focus on social issues such as citizenship, poverty, social and economic equality and justice, we see extreme poverty as an important issue in the developing world. sadly, scenes like those in van remind us of the impoverishment and dramatic inequalities that remain in the developed countries. we as social studies educators need to take more action and responsibility to educate and advocate people in our community and in the world to make poverty history. this disaster proofed that we as a nation could get united to overcome the difficulties of such disasters with the help of our common values and beliefs. this disaster also showed that whenever and wherever we face up with such tragedies, we could get together and help each other without considering our regional and ethnical differences. however, we also witness through media that a small group of people pays effort to weaken our bonds of brotherhood by using our regional and ethnical differences. therefore, this gives us a huge responsibility to educate our citizens as social studies educators. in this issue, six articles are being published. first article is entitled, “preservice teachers' attitudes toward the editörden… sosyal bi̇lgi̇leri̇n önemi̇ni̇ anlama noktasinda yeni̇den bi̇r uyaniş değerli meslektaşlarımız ve dostlar: sizi dergimizin (jsser) yeni sayısı ve konuları ile selamlamanın mutluluğunu yaşamakla birlikte aynı zamanda hüzünlüyüz. sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği (sbeb) ve sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi’nin (jsser) yönetim ve yayın kurulu üyeleri olarak, birkaç hafta önce van’da meydana gelen deprem felaketi ve bu felaketin beraberinde getirmiş olduğu görüntüler, hemen öncesinde çukurca’da meydana gelen terörist saldırısı karşısında derin üzüntü duyduğumuzu belirtmek isteriz. çalışmalarını sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ile ilgili konulara (vatandaşlık, eşitlik, yoksulluk, sosyal ve ekonomik adalet ve özgürlük gibi konular) yoğunlaştırmış olan organizasyonumuz bu toplumsal soruna değinmeden geçemezdi. başta van ili olmak üzere depremden etkilenen bölgelerde yaşananlar, fakirliğin ve sosyal adaletsizliğin gelişmiş ve gelişmekte olan ülkelerin önemli ancak göz ardı edilmiş sorunları olduklarını bir kez daha gözler önüne sermiştir. bu felaketle ortaya çıkan üzücü tablo, yoksulluğu ve sosyal adaletsizliği yerel ve küresel düzeyde ortadan kaldırmada eğitime ve eğitimcilere düşen görevin önemini insanlığa bir kez daha hatırlatmış bulunmaktadır. “sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri” olarak bizler, bu tür trajedilerin hem gelişmiş hem de gelişmekte olan ülkelerde sosyal adalet ve yoksulluk konularında süregelen tartışma ve değişim çalışmalarının gelişip ilerlemesinde olumlu bir rol oynayacağını umut etmekteyiz. bu felaket bize bir kez daha millet olarak bu tür felaketler karşısında bir yumruk olabildiğimizi ve ortak değer ve inançlarımızla her türlü zorlukların üstesinden gelebilecek bir toplumsal dokuya sahip olduğumuzu göstermektedir. doğusu ve journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2) ii inclusion of “heritage education” in elementary social studies” written by dr. keith barton and cemil yeşilbursa. in their research, they address how important to integrate heritage education in elementary social studies education by exploring preservice teachers’ attitudes with an approach to teaching history grounded in first-hand experiences with material culture. second one is authored by barbara jansen with the title of “civic education and the learning behaviors of youth in the online environment: a call for reform.” the author discusses “the possibilities of new media to address disengagement and to enhance new forms of citizenship calling for pedagogical reform in civic education”. third article is written by feride karaca deals with technology integration in the elementary setting by focusing on teachers and student perceptions. another article is a qualitative research study entitled “an evaluation of the instruction of generalization in elementary school social studies program” written by mükerrem akbulut and özden demir. the purpose of this study is to examine “the instruction of the generalizations in “our country and the world” unit in 6th grade social studies program. next article has three authors mustafa şahin, derya göğebakan yıldız and ruşen duman with the title of “an assessment on the social sciences theses in turkey”. the authors examined 550 master theses and 62 dissertations prepared in the field of social studies in turkey. i̇skender dölek and selçuk beşir demi̇r are the authors of the last article of this issue with the title of “the supply of the teaching materials provided by geographic information systems (gis) for geography courses”. the authors present a model through a sample implementation of arc gis for geography teachers so they could develop related learning materials. as jsser editors, we wish you enjoy reading the articles in this issue, and invite batısıyla yurdun neresinde olursa olsun başımıza gelen bir felaketin hepimizin yüreğinde derin acılar bıraktığını ve yaralarımızı sarabilmek için toplumca seferber olabildiğimizi göstermektedir. diğer taraftan küçük bir kesim aracılığı ile bu felaketin ve yaşanılan acıların fırsat bilinip etnik ve sosyokültürel farklılıkları da kullanarak bir takım söylemler ile kardeşlik bağlarını yıpratmak için uğraşlar verildiğini de medyadan izlemek mümkün olmaktadır. i̇şte bu nedenle bu tür durumlardan toplumumuzun olumsuz yönde etkilenmemesi için vatandaşlık eğitimi konusunda biz sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerine oldukça önemli görevler düşmektedir. bu sayımızda altı makaleye yer verilmiştir. bu makalelerden ilki “preservice teachers' attitudes toward the inclusion of “heritage education” in elementary social studies” başlığı ile dr. keith barton ve cemil yeşilbursa tarafından kaleme alınmıştır. bu araştırmada yazarlar, “kültür eğitimi”nin (heritage education) ilköğretim seviyesinde sosyal bilgiler programına entegre edilmesinin önemi üzerinde durmaktadırlar. bu amaçla öğretmen adaylarının tarih öğretimi ile ilgili konuların birinci elden kültürel materyallere dayalı olarak verilmesi konusundaki tutumlarını araştıran bir çalışmadır. barbara jansen’in “civic education and the learning behaviors of youth in the online environment: a call for reform.” başlıklı çalışma ikinci sırada yer verdiğimiz bir makaledir. yazar bu makalede yeni medya olanaklarının yurttaşlık eğitiminin gelişimi için bir fırsat olabileceğini ve pedagojik anlamda önemli bir reform sağlayabileceğini tartışmaktadır. feride karaca tarafından keleme alınan üçüncü sırada yer verdiğimiz makale ise “ankara’da bir i̇lköğretim okulunda teknoloji kullanımına dair öğretmen ve öğrenci görüşleri ” başlığını taşımakta ve teknolojinin ilköğretim seviyesinde kullanımına dair öğretmen-öğrenci görüşlerini incelemektedir. nitel bir araştırma olan ve “i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersinde genelleme öğretiminin değerlendirilmesi” başlığını taşıyan makale mükerrem akbulut ve özden demir tarafından kaleme alınmıştır. bu cemil öztürk iii you to submit your invaluable works to the next issues of the jsser. finally, in 20-22 april 2012 we are going to meet in istanbul for the first international symposium organized by the joint effort of marmara university, association for social studies educators (asse), ministry of national education and council of europe! on behalf of the executive board and members of asse, we warmly welcome all of our colleagues and friends and thank all of you for your dedication to social studies education. it is our sincere hope that you will inform your colleagues about our mission and invite more educators and scholars, who are passionate about social studies education to join us at our symposium to be held in istanbul on 20-22 april, 2012. yours sincerely, prof. dr. cemil öztürk araştırmada ilköğretim 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders programındaki “ülkemiz ve dünya” ünitesi kapsamında bulunan genellemelerin öğretiminin nasıl gerçekleştirildiği değerlendirilmiştir. bir diğer makale mustafa şahin, derya göğebakan yıldız ve ruşen duman olarak üç yazar tarafından “türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler eğitimi tezleri üzerine bir değerlendirme” başlığı ile ele alınmıştır. yazarlar bu çalışmada toplam 550 yüksek lisans ve 62 doktora tezi incelemişlerdir. i̇skender dölek ve selçuk beşir demir tarafından kaleme alınan ve bu sayımızda yer verdiğimiz son makalenin başlığı “coğrafi bilgi sistemi (cbs) i̇le coğrafya derslerine yönelik öğretim materyallerinin hazırlanması”dır. yazarlar bu çalışmada örnek bir uygulama yoluyla coğrafya öğretmenlerinin arcgis programını kullanarak, nasıl öğretim materyali hazırlayabileceklerine yönelik bir model sunmaktadır. jsser editörleri olarak sizlerden bu sayımızda yayınlanan makaleler konusunda görüşlerinizi ve gelecek sayılarımıza katkılarınızı beklemekteyiz. son olarak, marmara üniversitesi ve sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği derneği’ milli eğitim bakanlığı ve avrupa konseyi’nin işbirliği ile 20–22 nisan 2012 tarihlerinde i̇stanbul’da düzenleyeceğimiz uluslararası sempozyuma bütün meslektaşlarımızı davet ediyoruz. çevrenizdeki tüm meslektaşlarımızı bu sempozyuma katılmaları yönünde teşvik edeceğinizi ümit ediyor ve i̇stanbul’da görüşmek üzere saygılar sunuyoruz. saygılarımızla, prof. dr. cemil öztürk student impressions of project citizen and senior projects: a comparison www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(1), 24-48 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenler factors affecting the participation of social studies teacher candidates in discussions on controversial issues a. figen ersoy1 özet günümüzde vatandaşların, kendi toplumlarında ve dünyada tartışılan konuların farkında olması ve bu konulara çözüm önerileri getirmesi beklenilmektedir. bu nedenle, tartışmalı konular vatandaşlık eğitiminin önemli bir parçasıdır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, derslerinde tartışmalı konulara yer vererek öğrencilerin vatandaşlık yeterliklerini geliştirmelidir. öğretmen eğitiminde tartışmalı konulara yer verilerek öğretmen adaylarının hem kendi vatandaşlık yeterlikleri hem de vatandaşlık eğitimi açısından mesleki yeterlikleri geliştirilmelidir. bu araştırmanın amacı, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenleri belirlemektir. araştırmaya türkiye’deki 12 farklı üniversiteden 1957 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayı katılmıştır. araştırma verileri, anket ile toplanmış ve yüzde, frekans ve ki-kare testleri ile çözümlenmiştir. araştırma sonuçlarına göre, öğretmen adayları, ilgilerini çeken, bilgi sahibi oldukları konularda tartışmaya daha çok katılırken hassas konularda daha az katılmaktadır. öğretmen adayları görüşlerine saygı gösterilmediğinde, tartışmalar kişiselleştiğinde ve yargılanma, etiketlenme ile karşılaştıklarında tartışmaya katılmamaktadır. öğretmen adayları, öğretim elemanı ile aynı görüşte olduğunda tartışmaya daha fazla katılmaktadır. kız öğretmen adayları toplumsal uzlaşmanın zor olduğu hassas konularda erkek öğretmen adaylarına göre 1 doç. dr., anadolu üniversitesi, arifee@anadolu.edu.tr a. figen ersoy 25 tartışmaya daha az katılmaktadır. sosyo-ekonomik geliri ve eğitim düzeyi düşük ailelerden ve küçük yerleşim birimlerinden gelen, meslek lisesi mezunu öğretmen adayları tartışmada kendini ifade etme ve söz hakkı alma konusunda sıkıntılar yaşamakta, öğretim elemanının tutumundan ve görüşlerinden daha fazla etkilenmektedir. öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerini rahatlıkla ifade edebilmesi öğrenim gördüğü üniversiteye göre değişmektedir anahtar sözcükler: tartışmalı konular, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi, vatandaşlık eğitimi, öğretmen eğitimi, öğretmen adayları, tartışma. extended abstract social studies teachers employ discussions about controversial issues in their classrooms as an effective instructional tool in order to improve citizenship education. therefore, teaching about controversial issues in pre-service social studies programs is important for improving preservice teachers’ understanding of their own abilities to teach about citizenship issues and their skills to teach about controversial issues in their classrooms as well. pre-service teachers ought to be encouraged to participate more in classroom discussions about controversial issues. therefore, this study aim to understand and explain factors that affect social studies teacher candidates’ participation in classroom discussions about controversial issues and suggest how this process might be more efficient and effective in turkey. 1957 pre-service social studies teachers from 12 different universities in turkey participated in this study. a questionaire was used to collect data for this research. the questionaire included likert type 16 items regarding students’ personal information and factors that affect the level of participation in classroom discussions about controversial issues and one open-ended question regarding implications on how discussions can be improved in a way that journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 26 help the discussions more effective and efficient. chi-square, frequency, and percentange tests were used to analyze the quantitative data. inductive content analysis method was employed to analyze and code the qualitative data. the findings of the study showed that while 92.2 % pre-service social studies teachers stated that they participate in the dicussions on controversial issues when they only find it interested, 79.4 % participant pointed out that they do not participate in the discussions, if they believe they do not have enough knowledge about the topic of the dicussion. in addition, 47.5% of the participants stated that they do not want to participate in the discussions about culturally and socially sensitive issues. 40.5% pre-service teachers in the study shared that they do not have discussions with their peers who are not tolerant to different ideas and perspectives. on the other hand, 48.7% participants argued that if the discussions become a personal battles between peers, they are not comfortable sharing their ideas. 54.8% of the participants stated that even if they feel like the teacher supports one of group against other groups, they still are comfortable expressing themselves during classroom discussions; however, 32.8% participants pointed out that they do not participate in the discussions if they believe the teacher is not objective about the sensitive issue. the findings of the study show that participants’ gender, income, their parents’ education, residency, the university they attend, grade level, and high school they graduated from are contributed to their level of participation in the classroom discussions about controversial issues. female participants stated that if they feel like they do not have enough knowledge about the discussion topic or the topic is a culturally and socially sensitve issue, they either do not participate at all or their participation is limited. however, male pre-service teachers shared that they are more concerned about peer interaction and having good relationships with their peers a. figen ersoy 27 after the discussion is ended as well. another finding of the study indicate that pre-service teachers from low socio-economic status shared that if they feel like the teacher’s judgement might be compromised based on students’ contradicted ideas, they rarely participate in the discussions. in addition, students whose parents have limited education (i.e., elementary level) said that they have difficulty expressing themselves during classroom discussions. furthermore, another finding show that teacher candidates who come from big cities feel more comfortable participating in the classroom discussions about controversial issues compared to teacher candidates who come from in rural areas. in addition, results of the study indicate that level of participation in classroom discussions regarding controversial issues increased as they become sophomores and seniors. it is also important to say that culture of the universities might influence students’ response to controversial discussions. the researcher of the study found that level of participation varies based on academic culture of the universities. for example, in the universities that are considered as conservative teacher candidates participated in the discussions less than their counterparts who are enrolled in universities that are known as democratic. therefore, these factors ougth to be carefully considered before they are educated about how to employ controversial issues as an instructional tool. the pre-service teachers suggested that they would like to be respected, the teachers should be objective during discussions, and they should not try to impose their ideas to the students. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 28 giriş tartışmalı konular, çeşitli çözüm önerilerine karşın üzerinde uzlaşılamamış toplumsal ve siyasal konulardır (stradling, 1984). nükleer enerji santrali kurulması, ötenazi, savaşlar ve genetiği değiştirilmiş ürünler gibi sorunlar yerel ve uluslararası düzeyde tartışılan konulardandır (hess, 2001). günümüzde teknolojik ve bilimsel gelişmelerin farklı kültürlerdeki değerlerle çatışması ile siyasal sorunlar birçok konunun ulusal ve ulusalararası alanda tartışılmasına neden olmaktadır. etkili vatandaşların, tartışmalı konuların farkında olması ve bu konulara çözüm önerileri getirmesi beklenir. bu nedenle, tartışmalı konular vatandaşlık eğitiminde önemli bir yere sahiptir (national council for social studies [ncss], 1992; qualifications and curriculum authority [qca], 1998). tartışmalı konuların öğretimi ile, farklı bakış açılarını kabul etme, görüşlerini açıklama, eleştirel düşünme ve etkili iletişim kurma gibi birçok becerinin gelişimini sağlanır (harwood ve hahn, 1990; holden, 2002; wilson ve diğ., 2002). çoğulcu demokrasilerde öğrencilerin vatandaşlık rollerine hazırlanmaları, eleştirel düşünme becerilerinin ve kişilerarası iletişim becerilerinin gelişmesi için tartışmalı konuların öğretimine yer verilmelidir (harwood ve hahn, 1990). tartışmalı konuların öğretimine ilişkin, ilköğretimden (mcbee, 1996; smith & lennon, 2011; zembylas ve froso, 2012) yükseköğretime (payne ve gainey 2000; rambosk, 2011) birçok araştırma yapıldığı görülmektedir. bu çalışmalar, tartışmalı konuların, öğrencilerin yaş ve hazırbulunuşluk düzeyine uygun olarak öğretim programlarıyla ilişkilendirilerek verilebileceğini göstermektedir. alanyazında hem sosyal bilimlerin (dube, 2009; healey, 2012; neal, 2013) hem de fen bilimlerin öğretiminde (hand ve levinson, 2012; healey, 2012; levinson, 2006; rola, 2012; solomon, 1992) birçok derste tartışmalı konulara yer verilebeleceğini gösteren çalışmalar bulunmaktadır. a. figen ersoy 29 etkili vatandaşlık eğitimi açısından tartışmalı konuların öğretiminde sosyal bilgiler dersi ve bu dersin öğretmenleri önemli bir role sahiptir. sosyal bilgiler dersinin genel amacı, öğrencilerde vatandaşlık bilgi, beceri ve değerlerini kazandırmaktır (ncss, 1992). etkili vatandaş, kendisine sunulan her şeyi sorgulayan, bilgi ve akıl süzgecinden geçiren kişidir (doğanay, 2002). bu nedenle, sosyal bilgiler dersi sadece bir toplumsallaşma dersi olarak değerlendirilmemelidir. öztürk ve dilek (2002), etkili sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin ülkenin demokratik ve siyasal gelişimine katkı sağlayacağını belirtmiştir. aynı zamanda, bu dersin sosyal ve doğa bilimlerinin disiplinlerarası yaklaşımla derlendiği bir çalışma alanı (sönmez, 1998) olması, tartışmalı konuların öğretimine uygun bir ortam oluşturur. çünkü, tartışmalı konular disiplinlerarası bir bilgi birikimi gerektirir (qca, 1998). örneğin, nükleer enerji santralinin kurulması hem fen hem de sosyal bilimleri ilgilendirir. bu bağlamda üzerinde henüz uzlaşılmamış birçok bilimsel gelişme ve toplumsal konu sosyal bilgiler dersinde tartışılabilir. ötenazi, hayvan deneyleri ve hakları, genetik mühendisliği, silah kontrolü, nüfus kontrolü, kadın hakları ve göç gibi konular sosyal bilgiler dersinde tartışılabilecek konular arasındadır (dube, 2009). tartışmalı konuların, karmaşık, birçok etik ikilemi içeren, toplumsal duyarlığa sahip ve üzerinde uzlaşılamamış sorunları içermesi bu konuların öğretiminde kendine özgü birçok ilke ve stratejinin uygulanmasını gerektirir. alanyazında bu ilkeler öğrencilerin ilgisi ve hazır bulunuşluk düzeyine uygun konuların seçilmesi, konunun öğretim programı içeriği ve amaçlarıyla ilişkilendirilmesi, konu hakkında bilgi sahibi olunması, konuya ilişkin temel kavramlarda ortak görüş oluşturulması, tartışma kurallarının önceden oluşturulması, demoktratik sınıf ortamının kurulması, konuya ilişkin tüm görüşlerin ortaya konulması, kişilere değil düşüncelere odaklanılması, bilimsel kanıt ve güvenilir veriler kullanılması, etkin öğretim journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 30 yöntemlerinden yararlanılması biçiminde belirtilmektedir (oxfam, 2006; oulton, day, dillon ve grace, 2004; payne ve gainey, 2000). öğretmen eğitiminde tartışmalı konulara yer vermek, öncelikle, öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterliklerini geliştirir. öğretmen adayları, yerel, ulusal ve küresel düzeyde tartışılan konular hakkında bilgi sahibi olur, çözümüne ilişkin görüş geliştirir ve böylece siyasal okuryazarlık yeterlikleri kazanır. bu konuları sınıf ortamında tartışarak iletişim becerilerinin yanısıra farklı görüşlere saygı duyma, empati, kendini ifade etme ve katılım becerileri gelişir. öğretmen eğitiminde tartışmalı konulara yer vermek aynı zamanda gelecek nesillerin etkili vatandaş olarak yetişmelerinde katkı sağlar. alanyazında, öğretmen eğitiminde tartışmalı konulara yer verilmesinin, öğretmen adaylarının bu konuların sınıf ortamında nasıl tartışılabileceğine ve bu süreçte hangi sorunlar yaşanabileceğine ilişkin deneyim kazandıklarını, bu konuların nasıl öğretilebileceğine ilişkin öğretim stratejileri geliştirdiklerini göstermektedir (hess, 2001; mclauglin, 2003). tartışmalı konulara yer vermek öğretmen adaylarının hem kendi vatandaşlık yeterliklerinin hem de vatandaşlık eğitimi açısından mesleki yeterliklerinin geliştirilmesi sağlanır (ersoy, 2010). alanyazında, öğretmenlerin tartışmalı konulara derslerinde yer verme konusunda zorluklar yaşadıkları (byford, lennon ve russell, 2009; dean ve joldoshalieva, 2007; holden ve hicks, 2007, qulton et al., 2004; wilson ve diğ., 2002) ve hizmet öncesi öğretmen eğitiminde tartışmalı konuların öğretimine yeterli düzeyde yer verilmediği vurgulanmaktadır (crowe ve wilen, 2003; hess, 2001). birçok araştırma sonucu ise, öğretmen adaylarının kendilerini tartışmalı konuların öğretiminde yeterli görmediklerini, (holden ve hicks, 2007; misco ve patterson, 2007; oulton ve diğ., 2004; robbins ve diğ., 2003), öğrencilerin düzeyine uygun olarak ele alma konusunda bilgi ve beceri yetersizliği yaşadıklarını (robbins ve diğ., 2003), zor konular yerine geri a. figen ersoy 31 dönüşüm gibi daha güvenli alanların öğretimini tercih ettikleri, bu konuların öğretiminde ailelerin tepkilerinden, öğrencilerin yanıtlarından çekindiklerini ve uygun öğretim stratejileri uygulama konusunda yeterli olmadıklarını (holden ve hicks, 2007) ortaya koymuştur. bu sonuçlar bağlamında, öğretmen eğitiminde tartışmalı konuların öğretimine yeterli önem verilmediği söylenebilir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hizmet öncesi eğitiminde, tartışmalı konularla ilgili etkili bir tartışma gerçekleştirilmesi için öncelikle öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya katılımı sağlanmalıdır. ancak, öğretmen adaylarını entelektüel, katılımcı ve verimli bir tartışma sürecine katmak ve bu süreçte onlara liderlik yapmak öğretmen eğitimcilerinin karşılaştığı zor görevlerdendir (ezzedeen, 2008). özellikle, siyasal okuryazarlık ve siyasal katılım düzeylerinin düşük olduğu toplumlarda öğrencileri sınıf ortamında tartışma sürecine katabilmek önemli bir sorundur. ayrıca, sınıfta tartışmalı konulara yer verilmesini etkileyen birçok etmen olabilir. alanyazında, seçilen konu, öğrencilerin kişisel özellikleri, akran etkileşimi, öğretmenlerin tutumları ve sınıf ikliminin tartışmalı konulara katılımı etkilediği belirtilmektedir. öğrencilerin tartışmalı konuya ilişkin ilgileri (ezzedeen, 2008; hess ve posselt, 2002), ön bilgileri (larson, 2000; wade, 1994; weaver ve qi, 2005), cinsiyeti (haste ve hogan, 2006; larson, 2000; mazzolini ve maddison, 2002) ve yaşı (larson, 2000; weaver ve qi, 2005) tartışmaya katılımda etkili olmaktadır. ayrıca, sınıfın cinsiyet, etnik köken gibi demografik yapısındaki baskın gruplar baskın olmayan gruplara göre daha çok tartışmaya katılmaktadır (howard, zoeller ve pratt, 2006; lusk ve weinberg, 1994). tartışma sürecine katılımı etkileyen diğer bir etmen de akran etkileşimidir. tartışmada, kimi öğrenciler arkadaşlık ilişkilerini tehlikeye atma korkusu yaşamaktadır (fallahi, 2007; hess ve posselt, 2002; hyde ve ruth, 2002). genelde, öğrencilerin sınıfta öğretmeni bir uzman olarak algılamaları ve onun görüşlerinin sorgulanamayacağını journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 32 düşünmeleri tartışmaya katılımlarını engellemektedir (lusk ve weinberg, 1994; weaver ve qi, 2005). tartışma sürecinde oluşturulacak olan açık ve diyaloga dayalı bir sınıf iklimi tartışmaya katılım sürecini olumlu etkilemektedir (ehman, 1980; wade, 1994). türkiye’de tartışmalı konuların öğretimine ilişkin yapılmış çalışma oldukça azdır (ersoy, 2010; yılmaz, 2009). bu araştırma, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımlarını etkileyen etmenleri belirlemeye çalışmıştır. araştırma sonuçlarının hizmet öncesi sosyal bilgiler öğretmen eğitimi programının geliştirilmesine ve öğretmen eğitimcilerinin tartışmalı konuların öğretimine ilişkin stratejiler geliştirmelerine katkı sağlaması beklenmektedir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenleri belirlemeyi amaçlayan bu araştırmada şu sorulara yanıt aranmıştır: 1. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenler nelerdir? 2. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımı ile öğretmen adaylarının cinsiyeti, ailesinin gelir düzeyi ve eğitimi, yerleşim birimi, öğrenim gördüğü üniversite, sınıf ve mezun olduğu lise arasında bir ilişki var mıdır? 3. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının bu konuları tartışma sürecinin daha etkili olması için önerileri nelerdir? yöntem araştırma karma yöntem olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. karma yöntem, problemin çözümünde nicel ve nitel araştırma yaklaşımlarını birlikte işe koşarak probleminin daha ayrıntılı incelenmesini ve daha zengin veri elde edilmesini sağlar (creswell, 2007). karma işlemi araştırmanın farklı aşamalarında ya da tüm aşamalarda yapılabilmektedir bu araştırmada veri a. figen ersoy 33 toplama ve analiz süreçlerinde karma yöntem işe koşulmuştur. böylece, öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenleri farklı boyutlarıyla daha ayrıntılı ve bütüncül olarak betimlemek amaçlanmıştır. araştırmada nicel ve nitel paradigma çerçevesinde yapılanlar aşağıdaki başlıklarda açıklanmıştır. desen araştırma, genel tarama modelinden desenlenmiştir. tarama desenleri, geçmişte yada var olan durumu yansıtan, betimsel araştırma yaklaşımıdır (karasar, 2012). bu desene dayalı olarak sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenler belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. çalışma grubu araştırmanın evrenini, türkiye’de 26 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen eğitimi programında öğrenim gören öğretmen adayları oluşturmaktadır. araştırmanın nicel verileri 12 üniversiteden (anadolu, kastamonu, pamukkale, abant i̇zzet baysal, afyon kocatepe, marmara, gazi, dicle, ondokuz mayıs, uşak, dumlupınar ve çukurova) katılan 1957 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayına yapılan anket ile toplanmıştır. ankete katılan öğretmen adaylarının %45.9’u kız, %54.1’i erkektir. öğretmen adaylarının %18.1’i birinci sınıf, %29.1’i ikinci sınıf, %33.3’ü üçüncü sınıf ve %19.5’i dördüncü sınıfta öğrenim görmektedir. bu öğrencilerin %76’sı genel lise, %2’si mesleki teknik lise, %9.7’si anadolu öğretmen lisesi ve %12.3’ü anadolu ve fen liselerinden mezundur. öğretmen adaylarının ailesinin %18.5’i 500 tl altında, %46.6’sı 501 tl-1000 tl arasında, %23.5’i 1001 tl-1500 tl arasında ve %11.4’ü 1501 tl üzerinde gelir düzeyine sahiptir. araştırmanın nitel verileri ise, 1217 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayının ankette yer alan bir açık uçlu soruya verdiği yanıtlarla toplanmıştır. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 34 verilerin toplanması ve analizi araştırma verileri, araştırmacı tarafından geliştirilen bir anket ile toplanmıştır. anket üç bölümden oluşturulmuştur. birinci bölümde, öğretmen adaylarının kişisel bilgilerini içeren yedi soruya, ikinci bölümde öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenleri içeren 16 maddeye yer verilmiştir. bu maddeler, ‘kesinlikle katılıyorum’, ‘katılıyorum’, ‘kararsızım’, ‘katılmıyorum’ ve ‘kesinlikle katılmıyorum’ olarak 5’li likert biçiminde oluşturulmuştur. üçüncü bölümde ise, “medyada ve toplumda tartışılan konuları derslerinizde tartışırken tartışma sürecinin daha etkili olması için önerileriniz nelerdir?” biçiminde bir açık uçlu soru yer almıştır. anket alanyazında belirtildiği biçimde, problemi tanımlama, madde yazma, uzman görüşü alma ve ön uygulama yapma olmak üzere dört aşamada geliştirilmiştir (büyüköztürk, 2005; creswell, 2007; fowler, 2002). araştırma probleminin ve maddelerin belirlenmesi sürecinde, alanyazında tartışmalı konular ile ilgili araştırmaların sonuçlarından ve 45 öğretmen adayının tartışmalı konulara ilişkin yazılı olarak alınan görüşlerinden yararlanılmıştır. anket formunun kapsam geçerliği için, beşi sosyal bilgiler olmak üzere yedi alan uzmanından görüş alınmıştır. uzman görüşleri doğrultusunda maddeler yeniden yazılarak düzenlenmiştir. anket maddelerin anlaşılırlığı ve güvenirliği için 50 öğretmen adayına uygulanmış ve anlaşılamayan maddeler yeniden düzenlenmiştir. ayrıca, anketin güvenirliği için iki kontrol sorusu sorulmuştur. kontrol sorularına göre, özensiz ve eksik doldurulan 124 anket değerlendirmeye alınmamıştır. anket uygulaması 2008 yılı mayıs-haziran aylarında gerçekleştirilmiştir. ankette yer alan likert tipi maddeler frekans ve yüzde biçiminde betimsel olarak analiz edilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının bireysel özellikleri ile tartışmalı konulara katılımı arasındaki ilişki bağımsız örneklemler için ki-kare testi ile analiz edilmiştir. açık uçlu soruyla elde edilen a. figen ersoy 35 nitel verilerin analizinde ise, içerik analizi kullanılmıştır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2005) i̇çerik analizi, araştırmacı ve başka bir sosyal bilgiler uzmanı ile birlikte yapılmıştır. i̇ki araştırmacı birbirinden bağımsız olarak soruya verilen yanıtları kodlamışlar, daha sonra kodlamalarını karşılaştırıp kodları yeniden düzenlemiş, frekans sayılmıştır (miles ve huberman, 1994). öğretmen adaylarının yazılı görüşlerinden alıntı yapılarak içerik analizinde ortaya çıkan temalar örneklendirilerek yorumlanmıştır. bulgular öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenler tablo 1’de verilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının tartışma sürecine katılımı, tartışılan konunun özelliğine, akran ilişkilerine ve öğretim elemanı tutumuna göre değişmektedir. tartışılan konunun öğretmen adayının ilgisini çekmesi ve tartışılan konuda bilgi sahibi olması tartışmaya katılımını büyük ölçüde etkilemektedir. öğretmen adayları tartışılan konu ilgisini çektiğinde (%92.2) tartışmaya katılırken tartışılan konuda yeterli bilgisi olmadığında (%79.4) tartışmaya katılmamaktadır. toplumsal duyarlılığı yüksek olan hassas konuları tartışırken öğretmen adaylarının katılımı düşmektedir. öğretmen adaylarının yaklaşık yarısı (%47.4) toplumsal uzlaşmanın zor olduğu konularda tartışmaya katılmamaktadır. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 36 tablo 1 öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenler maddeler n k es in lik le ka tı lıy or um k at ılı yo ru m k ar ar sı zı m k at ılm ıy or um k es in lik le ka tı lm ıy or u % % % % % 1 tartışılan konu ilgimi çekerse konuşurum. 1955 55.4 36.8 3.6 2.7 1.5 2 görüşlerimi açıklarken farklı görüşteki arkadaşlarımla ilişkilerimi bozmamak için konuşmam. 1884 6.6 13.4 16.5 39.8 23.8 3 kendimi ifade etmekte zorlandığım için görüşlerimi açıklamam. 1893 5.4 11.3 10.4 41.1 31.8 4 tartışılan konu hakkında yeterli bilgim olmadığında konuşmam. 1894 33.6 45.8 8.4 6.4 5.8 5 düşüncelerimi hoş görmeyen arkadaşlarımla tartışmaya girmem. 1912 19.4 26.6 13.6 25.5 14.9 6 öğretim elemanı ile aynı düşündüğümü hissettiğimde görüşlerimi rahatlıkla açıklarım. 1933 29.6 35.8 13.8 13.4 7.4 7 tartışmalar kişiselleştirildiğinde görüşlerimi açıklamam. 1926 17.9 30.8 20.5 21.2 9.7 8 konuşmak istediğim zaman söz hakkı almakta zorlanıyorum. 1909 6.5 15.1 8.6 41.7 27.9 9 öğretim elemanının tartışılan konuda taraf olduğunu hissetsem bile görüşlerimi açıklarım. 1939 23.9 30.9 22.1 15.8 7.3 10 öğretim elemanının beden diline göre düşüncelerimi açıklarım. 1928 7.6 27.4 20.8 31.1 13.1 11 öğretim elemanı not verirken tarafsız olamaz düşüncesiyle görüşlerimi açıklamam. 1941 13.4 18.4 17.9 30.0 20.3 12 tartışılan konu ders ile ilgili olmadığında konuşmak istemem. 1927 6.0 12.2 11.4 42.1 28.2 13 tartışılan konu ile ilgili görüşlerim, çoğunluğun görüşleri ile çelişse bile görüşlerimi açıklarım. 1937 31.7 38.6 16.4 9.3 4.1 14 toplumsal uzlaşmanın zor olduğu konularda görüşlerimi açıklamam. 1928 9.1 19.8 23.7 32.3 15.1 15 bilimsel dayanakları olmayan konularda tartışmaya katılmam. 1938 10.0 20.4 22.0 34.7 12.8 a. figen ersoy 37 16 düşüncelerim nedeniyle etiketlenmekten çekindiğim için görüşlerimi açıklamam. 1946 7.7 13.5 14.9 40.3 23.7 sınıf ortamındaki akran ilişkileri öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya katılımını etkilemektedir. öğretmen adaylarının yarısından fazlası sınıfta çoğunluğun görüşleri ile çelişse bile görüşlerini açıklarken (%70.3) ve düşüncelerinden dolayı etiketlenmekten çekinmezken (%64), yaklaşık yarısı düşüncelerini hoş görmeyen arkadaşları ile tartışmaya girmemekte (%40.5) ve tartışmalar kişiselleştirildiğinde görüşlerini açıklamamaktadır (%48.7). bu sonuçlar, öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri çoğunluğun görüşleriyle çelişse bile görüşlerini açıklamaktan çekinmemesine karşın düşüncelerine hoşgörü göstermeyen akranları ile tartışmaktan kaçındıklarını göstermektedir. öğretim elemanın tutumu öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya katılımını etkilemektedir. öğretmen adayları öğretim elemanı ile aynı düşündüğünü hissettiğinde görüşlerini rahatlıkla açıklamaktadır (%65.4). buna göre, öğretmen adaylarının yarısından çoğu, tartışma sürecinde öğretim elemanının görüşüne dikkat etmekte ve öğretim elemanını sınıfta bir otorite olarak algılamaktadır. öğretmen adaylarının yarısından biraz fazlası da (%54.8) öğretim elemanının tartışılan konuda taraf olduğunu hissetmesine karşın görüşlerini açıklamaktadır. buna göre, öğretmen adayları, öğretim elemanının tartışmada tarafsız olmadığını düşündüğünde tartışmaya daha az katılmaktadır. bunun yanı sıra, öğretmen adaylarının not kaygısı ve değerlendirme sürecinde öğretim elemanının tarafsız olamayacağını düşünmesi tartışmaya katlımlarını etkilemektedir. öğretmen adaylarının bir kısmı öğretim elemanının not verirken tarafsızlığını koruyamayacağından endişelendiği için (%32.8) tartışmaya katılmamaktadır. , journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 38 öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımında bireysel özellikler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konularda tartışmaya katılımı ile öğretmen adaylarının cinsiyeti, ailesinin gelir düzeyi, anne ve babasının eğitim durumu, yaşamının çoğunluğunu geçirdiği yerleşim birimi, mezun olduğu lise türü, öğrenim gördüğü üniversite ve sınıf düzeyi arasında ilişki bulunmaktadır. öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya katılımı cinsiyetine göre incelendiğinde, kız öğretmen adayları tartışılan konuya daha çok dikkat etmektedir. tartışılan konuda yeterli bilgisi olmadığında, kız öğretmen adayları (%82.4) erkek öğretmen adaylarından (%76.8) (x²(2)=14.40, p<.05) daha az katılım göstermektedir. aynı zamanda toplumsal uzlaşmanın zor olduğu konularda da kız öğretmen adayları (%31.1) erkek öğretmen adaylarından (%26.9) daha az tartışmaya katılımaktadır (x²(2)=9.39, p<.05). erkek öğretmen adayları ise, tartışılan konudan daha çok akran ilişkilerine dikkat etmektedir. erkek öğretmen adayları (%25), kız öğretmen adaylarına göre (%14.1) tartışma sürecinde arkadaşlarıyla ilişkilerini bozmamaya daha fazla dikkat etmektedir (x²(2)=38.22, p<.05). aynı zamanda, erkek öğretmen adayları (%48.6) kız öğretmen adaylarına göre (%43) düşüncelerini hoş görmeyen arkadaşları ile tartışmaya girmekten daha çok çekinmektedir (x²(2)=6,39, p<.05). bunun yanı sıra, erkek öğretmen adayları (%75.1) kız öğretmen adaylarına göre (%64.6), çoğunluğun görüşleri ile çelişse bile görüşlerini daha çok açıklayabilmektedir (x²(2)=29.74, p<.05). bununla birlikte erkek öğretmen adayları (%22.8) kız öğretmen adaylarına göre (%19.1) göre etiketlenmekten çekinmeden görüşlerini daha rahat açıklamaktadır (x²(2)=6.48, p<.05). ayrıca, erkek öğretmen adayları (%58.6) kız öğretmen adaylarına göre (%50.3) öğretim elemanının tartışılan konuda taraf olduğunu hissetse bile görüşlerini daha rahat açıklamaktadır (x²(2)=13.49, p<.05). bu sonuca göre, erkek öğretmen adayları çoğunluğun görüşlerine, öğretim elemanının görüşleri ile çelişse a. figen ersoy 39 bir kız öğretmen adaylarından görüşlerini daha rahat açıklamaktadır. bu bulgu, erkeklerin toplumsal yaşamdaki rahat ve özgür tutumlarının tartışma sürecine yansıdığı biçiminde söylenebilir. öte yandan, erkek öğretmen adayları görüşlerini açıklamada daha rahat davranmalarına karşın arkadaşlık ilşkilerini bozmamaya kız öğretmen adaylarından daha çok dikkat etmektedir. öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya katılımı ile ailesinin gelir düzeyi arasındaki ilişkiye bakıldığında, ailesinin ekonomik geliri çok düşük olan öğretmen adayları (500 tl ve altı) öğretim elemanının not verirken tarafsızlığını koruyamayacağını düşünerek tartışmaya daha az katıldığını belirtmiştir (x²(6)=13.36, p<.05). bunun yanı sıra, öğretmen adayının söz hakkı alabilmesi ailesinin ekonomik durumuna göre de farklılaşmaktadır (x²(6)=23.15, p<.05). ailesinin ekonomik geliri 500 tl altı olan öğrenciler (%27.4), 501-1000 tl arasında olanlar (%23.4) ile 1001-1500 tl olanlar (%18.6) ve 1501 tl ve üzeri olanlardan (%12) daha az söz hakkı alabilmektedir. bu bulgu, alt sosyo-ekonomik düzeydeki öğretmen adaylarının başarılı olma ve gelecek kaygısını daha çok yaşadıkları için öğretim elemanının değerlendirme sürecindeki tutumundan daha çok etkilendiklerini ve ailenin gelir düzeyi yükseldikçe öğrencilerin toplumda söz alma konusunda özgüvenlerinin arttığı biçiminde yorumlanabilir. öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya katılımı ile anne ve babasının eğitim durumu arasındaki ilişkiye bakıldığında, annesi okuryazar olmayan öğretmen adayları (%26) annesi yükseköğretim mezunu olanlara (%12.2) göre düşünceleri nedeniyle etiketlenmekten çekindiği için daha az katılım göstermektedir. buna göre, annenin eğitim durumu yükseldikçe öğretmen adaylarının etiketlenmeden daha az çekindikleri görülmektedir (x²(8)=16.64, p<.05). bunun yanı sıra, annesi okuryazar olmayan öğretmen adayları (%50.6) annesi lisans ve lisansüstü eğitim mezunu olan öğretmen adaylarına göre (%40.5) tartışmalar kişiselleştirildiğinde daha az katılım journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 40 göstermektedir (x²(8)=18.17, p<.05). ayrıca, annesi okuryazar olmayan öğretmen adayları tartışma sürecinde kendini ifade etmekte daha çok zorlanmaktadır (x²(8)=20.45, p<.05). benzer biçimde, babası okuryazar olmayan öğretmen adaylarının (%29.9), babası yükseköğretimden mezunu olanlara göre (%13.6) kendini ifade etmekte daha çok zorlandıkları ortaya çıkmıştır (x²(8)=19.79, p<.05). bu sonuç, öğretmen adaylarının annesinin ve babasının eğitim durumu yükseldikçe kendini daha rahat ifade edebildiğini ve tartışmaya daha çok katıldığını göstermektedir. öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya katılımı yaşamının çoğunluğunu geçirdiği yerleşim birimine göre incelendiğinde, köy (%39.3) ve kasaba (%39.9) gibi küçük yerleşim yerlerinde yaşamının çoğunluğunu geçiren öğretmen adaylarının ilçe (%35.2) kent (%32.1) gibi daha büyük yerleşim yerlerine göre tartışma sürecinde öğretim elemanının beden diline daha çok dikkat ettikleri görülmektedir (x²(6)=13.94, p<.05). ayrıca, yaşamının çoğunluğunu küçük yerleşim birimlerinde geçiren öğretmen adayları (köy %36.3, kasaba %36.6) büyük yerleşim birimlerinden gelenlere göre (ilçe %32.9, kent %28.2) öğretim elemanının not verirken tarafsızlığını koruyamayacağını düşündüğü için tartışmaya daha az katılmaktadır (x²(6)=14.17, p<.05). bununla birlikte, yaşamının çoğunluğunu küçük yerleşim birimlerinde geçirenler (köy %22.7, kasaba %19.7) büyük yerleşim birimlerinden geçirenler göre (ilçe %16.8, kent %13.5) kendini ifade etmekte daha fazla zorlanmaktadır (x²(6)=26.84, p<.05). bu sonuca göre, yaşamının çoğunluğunu küçük yerleşim birimlerinde geçiren öğretmen adaylarının tartışma sürecinde küçük yerleşim yerlerinin sosyo-kültürel özelliklerinin etkisinde kaldıkları söylenebilir. öğretmen adaylarının tartışma sürecinde söz hakkı alabilmesi mezun olduğu lise türüne göre de farklılaşmaktadır (x²(6)=19.76, p<.05). meslek lisesinden mezun olan öğretmen adaylarının (%32.5), genel liseden (%23.4), anadolu öğretmen lisesinden (%13.5) ve fen lisesi a. figen ersoy 41 ve anadolu lisesinden mezun olan (%16) öğretmen adaylarına göre daha az söz hakkı alabildiği görülmektedir. bu sonuca göre, tartışmada söz hakkı alma konusunda meslek liselerinden mezun olan öğretmen adaylarının diğer ortaöğretim kurumlarından mezun olanlara göre daha az istekli oldukları görülmektedir. öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerini rahatlıkla ifade edebilmesi ve tartışmaya katılımı, öğrenim gördüğü üniversiteye göre değişmektedir. kimi üniversitelerde öğretmen adayları düşüncelerinden dolayı etiketlenmekten çekindiklerinde (x²(22)=43.33, p<.05), düşüncelerini hoş görmeyen arkadaşları olduğunda (x²(22)=56.15, p<.05), çoğunluğa karşın görüşleri farklılaştığında (x²(22)=34.05, p<.05) ve tartışmalar kişiselleştiğinde (x²(22)=38.22, p<.05) tartışmaya daha az katılmaktadır. ayrıca, öğretmen adayları, kimi üniversitelerdeki öğretim elemanlarının tartışılan konuda taraf olduğunu hissettiğinde (x²(22)=70.64, p<.05) ve not verirken tarafsızlığını koruyamayacağını düşündüğünde (x² (22)=58.86, p<.05) tartışmaya daha az katıldıklarını belirtmişlerdir. bu bulgular, kimi üniversitelerde öğretmen adaylarının öğretim elemanının tarafsızlığı ve akranlarıyla ilişkileri konusunda kimi çekinceler yaşadıklarını düşündükleri için tartışmalı konulara ilişkin görüşlerini belirtmedikleri biçiminde değerlendirilebilir. öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya katılımı ile öğrenim görülen sınıf düzeyi arasındaki ilişkiye bakıldığında, birinci sınıf öğrencileri diğer sınıflara göre, düşüncelerinden dolayı etiketlenmekten çekindiği için tartışmaya daha az katılmakta ve öğretmen adaylarının sınıf düzeyi yükseldikçe etiketlenmekten çekinme oranının düştüğü görülmektedir (x²(6)=14.86, p<.05). tartışmada öğretmenin mimiklerine göre düşüncelerini açıklayan öğretmen adaylarının en yüksek oranı birinci sınıfta (%39.6,4) iken, en düşük oran üçüncü sınıftadır (%32,4). (x²(6)=16.82, p<.05). ayrıca, birinci sınıftaki öğrenciler (%27.7), ikinci sınıftaki (%24.1), journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 42 üçüncü sınıftaki (%19.1) ve dördüncü sınıftaki (%16.8) öğrencilere göre söz hakkı almakta daha fazla zorlanmakta (x²(6)=18.02, p<.05) ve kendini daha az ifade edebilmektedir (x²(6)=23.34, p<.05). bu bulgular, birinci sınıftaki öğretmen adaylarının diğer sınıflara göre düşüncelerinden dolayı etiketlenmekten çekindiği, söz hakkı almakta ve kendini ifade etmekte zorlandığı için diğer sınıflarda öğrenim gören öğretmen adaylarına göre tartışmaya daha az katıldıklarını belirtmiştir. bu durum, ortaöğretim sürecindeki geleneksel eğitimin sonuçlarından biri olarak değerlendirilebilir. ancak, sınıf düzeyi yükseldikçe öğretmen adaylarının söz hakkı alma ve düşüncelerini ifade etme düzeyi artmaktadır. ayrıca, üniversite birinci sınıf ile diğer sınıflar arasında fark olması ve bu farkın giderek yükselmesi öğretmen adaylarının düşüncelerini ifade etme konusunda yükseköğretimde gelişim gösterdikleri biçiminde değerlendirilebilir. öğretmen adaylarının tartışma sürecine i̇lişkin önerileri öğretmen adaylarının tartışma sürecinin daha etkili olması için önerileri tablo 2’de verilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının önerileri, 1) tartışma ortamının özellikleri, 2) tartışma stratejileri, 3) tartışılan konunun özellikleri, 4) öğretim elemanının tutumu ve 5) öğretmen eğitim programında tartışmalı konuların yeri olmak üzere beş tema altında toplanmıştır. tartışma ortamının özelliğine ilişkin olarak öğretmen adaylarının belirttiği öneriler içinde, görüşlerine saygı duyulması ve düşüncelerin özgürce ifade edilmesi en çok vurgulananlar olmuştur. tartışma sürecinde görüşlere saygıyı ve özgürlüğü vurgulayan öğretmen adayları “öncelikle saygı, salt kendi düşüncesinin doğruluğunu savunan başkasının görüşlerine değer vermeyen insanların bulunduğu ortamda tutarlı bir demokrasi anlayışından söz edilemez” ve “düşüncelerimi açıkça ifade ettiğim zaman öğretim görevlisi hoş görse dahi bazı kişi ve kurumların hoşuna gitmediği zaman bir etkiye maruz a. figen ersoy 43 kalabiliyoruz (tehdit, şantaj)” biçiminde düşüncelerini ifade etmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının vurguladığı diğer nokta ise, etiketlenmeden ve yargılanmadan görüşlerini açıklayabilmedir. bu konuda bir öğretmen adayı, “tartışma tarafsız yapılmalı, …cı, ...cu diye insanları bir gruba dahil etmek yerine herkese eşit söz hakkı verilmeli, bir taraf savunulurken diğer taraf yerden yere vurulmamalı” biçiminde yazmıştır. konuşma dilinin kırıcı olmamasını belirten öğretmen adaylarından biri ise, görüşlerini şöyle açıklamıştır: kırıcı ve tahahkümper davranışlardan kaçınılmalı ki farklı görüşler kolayca ifade edilebilsin. taraftar bulunmaya çalışılmamalı, kişi doğru bildiğini yalnız kalacağını bilse bile dürüstçe samimi bir biçimde görüşlerini savunmalıyız. ayrıca, ikna olmaya açık olmayız. belki de bildiklerimiz değişebilecek niteliktedir. çeşitliliğe ve farklı görüşlere saygılı olmalıyız. tartışma stratejilerine ilişkin olarak öğretmen adayları, öncelikle tartışılan konu hakkında öğrencilerin ön bilgilerinin olması gerektiğini vurgulamıştır. bunun için, tartışılacak konunun tartışılmadan önce araştırılmasını, öğretim elemanının konuyla ilgili bilgi vermesini ve konuyla ilgili özel kavramların açıklanmasını önermiştir. bu konuda bir öğretmen adayı görüşlerini “öncelikle, okumak bilgi sahibi olmak gerekir. bir konu hakkında ne kadar çok bilgi edinilirse tartışma da o kadar iyi geçer. gerçekten bir şey biliyorsak tartışmaya girmeliyiz” biçiminde ifade etmiştir. i̇kinci olarak, öğretmen adayları tartışma sürecinde konuyla ilgili bilimsel bilgi ve kanıtlar kullanılmasını ve temel kavramların anlamları konusunda uzlaşma sağlanmasını önermiştir. öğretmen adayları görüşlerini “kavram kargaşaları ortadan kaldırılmalı, bir kavrama herkes her istediği anlamı yüklememeli. örneğin ılımlı i̇slam ne demek herkes aynı şeyi anlamalı”, “o konu hakkında genel bir bilgi verilmeli, çünkü herkes her haberden ya da tartışılan konuda haberdar journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 44 olmayabilir. benzer olaylar önceden yaşanmışsa örnekler verilebilir” ve “bilimsel dayanağı olmayan ispatlanmamış konuların geniş bir biçimde araştırma yapılmamış bilgilerden söz edilmemesi gerekir” cümleleri ile belirtmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının diğer bir önerisi ise, konuyla ilgili tüm farklı görüşlerin ortaya konulması ve konunun geniş bir bakış açısı ile ele alınmasıdır. bir öğretmen adayı bu konuda şunları yazmıştır: “herkese düşüncesi sorulmalı, bazen çok suskun olarak tanıdığımız kişilerin çok güzel düşüncelere sahip olduğunu gördüğümüzde o zaman hayretler içinde kalabiliyoruz. tartışma ortamında çok çeşitliliğe ihtiyaç var. tartışma birkaç kişinin etrafında şekillenmemeli”. bunun yanı sıra, öğretmen adayları konuyla ilgili geçmiş yaşantılardan ve günlük yaşamdan somut örnekler verilmesi, tartışılan konunun amaçlarının açıklanıp sınırlarının belirlenmesi, tartışılan konuların kişiselleştirilmemesi, kurumlar ya da kişilerin değil düşüncelerin tartışılması, tartışma sürecine sınıftaki herkesin katılımının sağlanması biçiminde öneriler getirmiştir. a. figen ersoy 45 tablo 2 öğretmen adaylarının tartışma sürecine i̇lişkin önerileri öneriler f tartışma ortamının özellikleri saygı 791 özgürlük 362 eşit söz hakkı 206 önyargı ve tarafsızlık 212 etkili iletişim 205 yargılamama ve baskı kurmama 157 etkili dinleme 74 diyaloga açık olma 41 tartışma stratejileri hazırlık (ön bilgi) 338 bilimsel kanıtlar kullanma 158 tüm görüşleri ortaya çıkarma 142 somut örnekler verme 116 katılım sağlama 114 çözüm belirleme 90 önemli fikirleri tartışma 73 konunun sınırlarını belirleme 70 görsel materyaller kullanma 49 tartışma ilkelerini belirleme 25 yeterli zaman verme 16 grup tartışması yapma 8 tartışılan konunun özellikleri i̇lgi çeken konular 111 eğitimsel yararı olan konular 50 ders konuları ile ilişkili konular 25 hassas olmayan konular 17 öğretim elemanının tutumu tartışmada tarafsızlık 288 not vermede tarafsızlık 90 kendi gibi düşünmeye zorlama 81 tartışmayı kontrol etme 72 öğretim elemanı öğrencilerini iyi tanımalı 4 programda yer verme her derste yer verilmeli 66 ayrı bir ders saati olmalı 13 bu konulara okulda yer verilmemeli 10 journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 46 tartışılan konuya ilişkin olarak öğretmen adayları, ilgilerini çeken, eğitimle ve ders içeriğiyle ilişkili konuların tartışılmasını istemiştir. öğretmen adayları medyada birçok magazinsel konunun tartışıldığını, bunların derslerde tartışılmasının etkili olmadığını belirtmektedir. bu konuda bir öğretmen adayı “tartışılan konu, güncel bir konu olması gerekir. bunun yanında ilginç ve öğrencinin dikkatini çekecek konu olmalı” diyerek konunun ilgilerini çekmesi gerektiğini belirtmiştir. bazı öğretnen adayları toplumda hassas olan olan konuların sınıf ortamında tartışılmaması gerektiğini düşünmektedir. bu konuda bir öğretmen adayı “vatan, millet, bayrak ve din ile ilgili konularda bunlara zarar verecek konumda olan kişilerin susturulması ve bu konulardan taviz verilmemesi gerekir” diyerek hassas konuların tartışılmasının doğru olmayacağını ifade etmiştir. bunların yanısıra bazı öğretmen adayları konuların derste gelişigüzel tartışılmamasını ders konusuyla ilişkilendirilerek tartışılmasını istemiştir. bir öğretmen adaynın bu konudaki önerisi şöyledir: öncelikle tartışılan konunun önemine dikkat edilmeli. öğrencilere bir faydası dokunmayacaksa gereksiz yere bir uğraş verilmemelidir. dersin konusuyla uyarlı hale getirilebilir. örneğin küresel ısınma söz konusu ise bunu coğrafya dersiyle ilişkilendirilmesini sağlamalıyız. günün tartışma konusu tarihi olaylar ise tarih dersiyle ilişkilendirmeli. öğretim elamanının tutumuna ilişkin olarak öğretmen adayları, en çok öğretim elamanının tarafsız olmasını ve tüm görüşlere eşit uzaklıkta durmasını önermiştir. bu konuda öğretmen adaylarından biri “öğretim görevlisi taraf olduğu düşünceyi belli ettiğinde öğrencide öğretim görevlisinin düşüncesi doğrultusunda yorum yapar bu da verimli olmaz” diyerek görüşlerini dile getirmiştir. öğretmen adayları öğretim elemanının öğrencileri kendi a. figen ersoy 47 gibi düşünmeye zorlamamasnı ve öğretmen adaylarına kendi görüşlerini kabul ettirmeye çalışmamasını vurgulamıştır. bir öğretmen adayı bu konuda “öncelikle dersin hocası kendi görüşünü dikte ederek sunma biçiminden vazgeçmeli. benim pek sık karşılaştığım gibi, dersin hocası öğrenci bir şeyler söylerken sözünü kesip onun düşüncelerini değersiz gibi görme davranışından vazgeçmeli” diyerek görüşlerini açıklamıştır. bazı öğretmen adayları, öğretim elemanının not verirken tarafsız olmasını önermiştir: bir öğretmen adayı “çoğu arkadaşımız görüşleri yüzünden öğretim elemanı tarafından notlarına yansıtılacağını düşündüğünden rahatça tartışmaya giremiyorlar” diyerek kaygılarını dile getirmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara öğretmen eğitim programlarında yer verilmesine ilişkin görüşleri farklılık göstermektedir. kimi öğretmen adayları öğretmen eğitim programında tartışmalı konulara yeterli düzeyde yer verilmediğini ve daha fazla yer verilmesi gerektiğini düşünmektedir. bu öğretmen adaylarına göre, her derste tartışmalı konulara yer verilmeli ya da ayrı bir ders olarak yer almalıdır. böyle düşünen öğretmen adayları görüşlerini “derslerde bu konular açılıp günlük olaylarla ilgili öğrencilerin fikirleri sorulmalı. en azından 5-10 dakika bu konulara ayrılmalı” ve “bunun için ayrı bir ders saati konulabilir. güncel konular bu derste münazara edilerek diğer öğrencilerin de derse katılması sağlanabilir” diyerek açıklamıştır. kimi öğretmen adayları da derslerde tartışmalı konulara yer verilmemesini önermişlerdir. bu öğretmen adayları derste tartışmalı konular açıldığında ders konusunun işlenemediğini belirtmiştir. böyle düşünen öğretmen adayları “ben eğitimcinin derste tek taraflı politika konuşmasına karşıyım. hatta bazı derslerde bu dersin konusundan daha önemli hale geliyor” ve “tartışmalar yapıldığında ufkumuz daha çok açılır ama toplumda büyük bir sorun olan konular tartışıldığında derslerde polemik olabilir. o yüzden tartışmalar yersiz” diye görüşlerini açıklamıştır. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 48 tartışma ve öneriler araştırma sonuçlarına göre, öğretmen adayları ilgilerini çeken, yeterli bilgi sahibi oldukları ve derslerle ilgili olduğunu düşündükleri konularda tartışmaya daha çok katılırken toplumsal duyarlılığı yüksek olan hassas konularda daha az katılım göstermektedir. bu sonuç, öğretmen adaylarının hassas konuları rahatlıkla tartışamadıklarını ortaya koymaktadır. alanyazında, araştırmanın bu sonucuyla benzerlik gösteren araştırma bulguları bulunmaktadır (ersoy, 2010; hess ve posselt, 2002; hyde ve ruth, 2002; larson, 2000; mccully, 2006; stradling, 1984; wade, 1994). bu durumda öğretim elemanları, öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını artırmak için, ders sürecinde ele alacağı tartışmalı konuları ders programına uygun olarak öğretmen adayları ile belirleyebilir ve öğretmen adaylarının tartışma yeterliklerini geliştirdikten sonra hassas konuların tartışılmasına yer verebilirler. araştırmada öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya katılımında sınıf atmosferinin etkili olduğu belirlenmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının yaklaşık yarısı, görüşlerine saygı gösterilmediğinde, tartışmalar kişiselleştiğinde ve yargılanma, etiketlenme ile karşılaştıklarında tartışmaya katılmadıklarını belirtmiştir. bu sonuç, sınıf ikliminin saygı ve hoşgörü üzerine dayanmasının önemli olduğunu göstermektedir. bu nedenle, öğretim elemanları saygı ve hoşgörüyü sağlayacak bir sınıf ortamı oluşturmalıdır. bunun için tartışma ilkelerinin tartışma öncesinde öğretmen adayları ile birlikte belirlenmesi işlevsel olabilir. ayrıca, öğretmen adaylarının yarıdan fazlası, düşünceleri öğretim elemanının görüşüyle aynı olduğunda görüşlerini daha rahat açıkladığını belirtmiştir. bu sonuca göre, öğretmen adaylarının öğretim elemanlarını sınıfta bir uzman olarak kabul ettikleri söylenebilir. benzer sonuçlar farklı araştırmalarda da bulunmuştur (lusk ve weinberg, 1994; weaver ve qi, 2005). ancak, bu araştırmada düşük not alma ve ders geçme kaygısı gibi öğretmen adaylarını etkileyen farklı bir boyut ortaya çıkmıştır. öğretim elemanları, a. figen ersoy 49 öğretmen adaylarının bu kaygısını gidermek ve tartışmaya katılımını artırmak için, değerlendirme sürecinde tarafsızlık ilkesine dikkat edebilir ve öğretmen adaylarının değerlendirme sürecine katılımını sağlayabilirler. öğretmen adaylarının bireysel özellikleri ve tartışmaya katılımı açısından öne çıkan bulgulardan biri, bayan öğretmen adayları toplumsal uzlaşmanın zor olduğu hassas konularda erkek öğretmen adaylarına göre tartışmaya daha az katılmasıdır. bu durumda, kız öğretmen adayları çatışmalı durumlardan hoşlanmamakta ve düşüncelerini belirtmekten çekinmektedir. erkek öğretmen adaylarının, çoğunluğun görüşleriyle çeliştiğinde bile etiketlenmekten çekinmeden görüşlerini açıklamaları tartışmada daha rahat ve özgür hareket ettiklerini göstermektedir. ancak, erkek öğretmen adaylarının tartışmada arkadaşlarıyla ilişkilerinin bozulmamasına daha çok dikkat ettikleri saptanmıştır. hess ve posselt’in (2002) araştırmasında da erkek öğrencilerin tartışmaya katılmada akran ilişkisinden daha çok etkilendiği bulunmuştur. kızların tartışma sürecinde daha çekimser davranmaları onlara yüklenilen toplumsal rollerinden kaynaklanabilir. öğretim elemanları kız öğretmen adaylarının bu özelliklerini bilmeli, katılımlarını sağlayacak önlemler almalıdır. araştırma sonuçlarında, sosyo-ekonomik geliri ve eğitim düzeyi düşük ailelerden ve küçük yerleşim birimlerinden gelen, meslek lisesi mezunu öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya daha az katılma konusunda ortak özellikler gösterdiği görülmektedir. bu öğretmen adayları, özellikle kendini ifade etme ve söz hakkı alma konusunda sıkıntılar yaşamakta, öğretim elemanının tutumundan ve görüşlerinden daha fazla etkilenmekte ve daha çok not kaygısı yaşamaktadır. bu durum, öğretmen adaylarının bireysel özellikleri arasındaki ilişkiliyle açıklanabilir. genelde, ekonomik düzeyi düşük ailelerin, eğitim düzeyinin de düşük olduğu ve küçük yerleşim birimlerinde ikamet ettikleri ve meslek lisesi öğrencilerinin düşük sosyo-ekonomik düzeye sahip journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 50 ailelerden geldikleri söylenebilir. bu öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya daha az katılması, küçük yerleşim yerlerindeki geleneksel ve sosyo-kültürel yapının etkisi, ataerkil aile yapısı, gelecek kaygısının yüksek olması ve özgüven eksikliği gibi birçok nedenden kaynaklanabilir. öğretim elemanları, öğretmen adaylarının tartışmaya daha fazla katılımını sağlamak için, öncelikle öğretmen adaylarının sosyo-ekonomik ve kültürel özelliklerini bilmesi gerekmektedir. ayrıca, öğretim elemanları öğretmen adaylarını tartışmaya katılmada cesaretlendirmeli ve onların özgüvenlerini geliştiren etkinlikler yapmalıdır. araştırmanın diğer bir sonucu ise, öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerini rahatlıkla ifade edebilmesi öğrenim gördüğü üniversiteye göre değişmesidir. bu durum, üniversitelerin genel sosyo-kültürel yapısı ve öğretim elemanının sınıftaki tutumu olmak üzere iki boyutta incelenebilir. bir öğretmen adayının yazılı görüşünde ‘düşüncelerimi açıkça ifade ettiğim zaman öğretim görevlisi hoşgörse dahi bazı kişi ve kurumların hoşuna gitmediği zaman bir etkiye maruz kalabiliyoruz (tehdit, şantaj)’ diyerek sınıf dışından gelebilecek akran baskısına dikkat çekmiştir. kimi üniversitelerde akran baskısının sınıf içindeki tartışmaları olumsuz etkilediği görülmektedir. bir diğer etken öğretim elemanının sınıf içindeki tutumudur. kimi üniversitelerde öğretmen adayları, öğretim elemanlarının tartışmalı konulara derslerinde yer vermekten kaçındığını, konu açıldığında kapatmaya çalıştığını ya da tarafsız olamadığını dile getirmişlerdir. öğretim elemanı kaynaklı bu etkenler tartışma sürecini olumsuz etkileyebilmektedir. buna karşın araştırmada, öğrenim görülen sınıf düzeyi yükseldikçe öğretmen adaylarının tartışma sürecine katılımlarının artması, onların üniversite ortamında tartışmalı konulara katılım becerilerinin geliştiğini gösteren önemli bir sonuçtur. alanyazında, tartışmalı konuların vatandaşlık eğitiminin önemli bir parçası olduğu kabul edilmekte (ncss, 1992; qca, 1998) ve bu konuların öğretimine ilişkin birçok çalışma yapılmaktadır. bu araştırma, öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı a. figen ersoy 51 konulara katılımlarını etkileyen etmenleri öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerine dayalı olarak belirlemeye çalışmıştır. i̇leride yapılacak araştırmalarda öğretmen eğitimcilerinin görüşleri alınabilir. ayrıca, sınıfta tartışma süreci ve bu sürece öğretmen adaylarının katılımı gözleme dayalı olarak nitel araştırma yaklaşımı ile incelenebilir. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 52 kaynakça/references büyüköztürk, ş. (2005). anket geliştirme. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi, 2, 133-151. byford, j., lennon, s., ve russell, w. b. (2009). teaching controversial issues in the social studies: a research study of high school teachers. the clearing house, 82, 165-170. creswell, j. w. (2007). educational research (2nd ed.). new jersey: pearson merrill prentice hall. crowe, a. r., ve wilen, w. (2003). teaching prospective social studies teacher to use issuesbased discussion in their secondary social studies classrooms. the international social studies forum, 3, 303-305. dean, b., ve joldoshalieva, r. (2007). key strategies for teachers new to controversial issues. in h. claire & c. holden, (eds.), the challenge of teaching controversial issues. (pp. 175187). usa: trentham books. doğanay, a. (2002). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. i̇çinde c. öztürk ve d. dilek (edt). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi (s.15-46). ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. dube, o. (2009). addressing current controversial issues through the social studies curriculum: making social studies come alive. european journal of educational studies, 1, 25-34. ehman, l. h. (1980). change in high school students’ political attitudes as a function of social studies classroom climate. american educational researh journal, 17, 253-265. ersoy, a. f. (2010). social studies teacher candidates' views on the controversial issues incorporated into their courses in turkey. teaching and teacher education, 26, 323-334. fowler, f. j. (2002). survey research methods. (3rd ed). usa: sage publications. a. figen ersoy 53 ezzedeen, s. r. (2008). facilitating class discussions around current and controversial issues: ten recommendations for teachers. college teaching, 56, 230-236. fallahi, c. r. (2007). using debate in helping students discus controversial topics. journal of college teaching & learning, 4, 83-97. hand, m., ve levinson, r. (2012). discussing controversial issues in the classroom. educational philosophy and theory, 44, 614-629. harwood, a. m., ve hahn, c. l. (1990). controversial issues in the classroom. (eric documentation reproduction service no. ed327453). haste, h., ve hogan, h. (2006). beyond conventional civic participation, beyond the moralpolitical divide: young people and contemporary debates about citizenship. journal of moral education, 35, 473-493. healey, r. l. (2012). the power of debate: reflections on the potential of for engaging students in critical thinking about controversial geographical topics. journal of geography in higher education, 36, 239-257. hess, d. (2001). teaching do public controversy in a democracy? i̇çinde j. j. patrick & s. robert (eds.), principles and practices of democracy in the education of social studies teacher: civic learning in teacher education (pp. 87-110). (eric documentation reproduction service no. ed460064). hess, d., ve posselt, j. (2002). how high school students experience and learn from the discussion of controversial public issues. journal of curriculum and supervision, 17, 283314. holden, c., ve hicks, d. (2007). making global connections. teaching and teacher education, 23, 13-23. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 54 holden, c. (2002). teaching the tricky bits: topical, political and controversial isues. education, 3, 17-23. howard, j., zoeller, a., ve pratt, y. (2006). students’ race and participation in sociology classroom discussion: a preliminary investigation. journal of scholarship of teaching and learning, 5, 14-38. hyde, c. a., ve ruth, b. j. (2002). multicultural content and class participation: do students self-cencor? journal of social work education, 38, 241-256. karasar, n. (2012). bilimsel araştırma yöntemi (24. baskı). ankara: nobel yayın dağıtım. larson, b. e. (2000). influences on social studies teachers’ use of classroom discussion. the clearing house, 73, 174-181. levinson, r. (2006) towards a theoretical framework for teaching controversial socio-scientific issues, international journal of science education, 28, 1201–1224. lusk, a. b., ve weinberg, a. s. (1994). discussing controversial topics in the classroom: creating a context for learning. teaching sociology, 22, 301-308. mazzolini, m., & maddison, s. (2002). does gender influence discussion forum participation in online education? ascilite 2002 conference proceedings. retrieved october, 03, 2009 from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/auckland02/proceedings/papers/134.pdf mcbee, r. h. (1996). can controversial issues be taught in the early years? the answer is yes. social education, 60, 38-41. mccully, a. (2006). practitioner perceptions of their role in facilitating the handling of controversial issues in contested societies: a northern irish experience. educational review, 58, 51-65. a. figen ersoy 55 mclauglin, t. (2003). teaching controversial issues in citizenship education. i̇çinde a. locyer, b. crick ve j. annette. (eds.) education for democratic citizenship: issues of theory and practice. (pp. 149-161). usa: asgate publishing company. miles, m. b., ve huberman, m. a. (1994). an expanded sourcebook qualitative data analysis. london: sage publication. misco, t., ve patterson, n. c. (2007). a study of pre-service teachers’ conceptualizations of academic freedom and controversial issues. theory and research in social education, 35, 520-550. national council for social studies. [ncss] (1992). a vision of powerful teaching and learning in social studies: building social understanding and civic efficacy. retrieved august, 01, 2006, from http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/powerful neal, l. (2013). from classroom to controversy: conflict in the teaching of religion. teaching theology ve religion, 16, 66-75. oulton, c., day, v., dillon, j., ve grace, m. (2004). controversial issues teachers attitudes and practice in the context of citizenship education. oxford review of education, 30, 489-507. oxfam house. (2006). global citizenship guides: teaching controversial issues. retrieved may, 15, 2008, from www.oxfam.org.uk/publications. qualifications and curriculum authority. [qca] (1998) education for citizenship and the teaching of democracy in schools final report of the advisory group on citizenship. london: qualifications and curriculum authority. oulton, c., day, v., dillon, j. ve grace, m. (2004). controversial issues teachers' attitudes and practices in the context of citizenship education, oxford review of education, 30, 489-507. öztürk, c., ve dilek, d. (2002). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretim programları. i̇çinde c. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 24-48 56 öztürk ve d. dilek (ed.). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi (s. 47-81). ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. payne, b. k. ve gainey, r.r. (2000). understanding and developing controversial issues in college courses. journal of criminal justice education, 51, 51-57. rambosk, p. d. (2011). florida pre-service teachers' and their attitude towards the use of controversial issues. electronic theses, treatises and dissertations. paper 2134. retrieved may, 10, 2013, from http://diginole.lib.fsu.edu. robbins, m., francis, l., ve elliot, e. (2003). attitudes towards education for global citizenship among trainee teachers. research in education, 69, 93-98. rola, k. (2012). nature of science and decision-making. international journal of sicience education, 34, 67-100. smith, a. m. ve lennon, s. (2011). preparing student teachers to address complex learning and controversy with middle grades students. international journal of progressive education, 7, 33-51. solomon, j. (1992). the classroom discussion of science-based social issues presented on television: knowledge, attitudes and values. international journal of science education, 14, 431–444. sönmez, v. (1998). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi ve öğretmen kılavuzu. ankara: anı yayıncılık. stradling, r. (1984). the teaching of controversial issues: an evaluation. educational review, 36, 121-129. weaver, r. r., ve qi, j. (2005). classroom organization and participation: college students’perceptions. journal of higher education, 76, 570–601. a. figen ersoy 57 wade, r. c. (1994). teacher education students’ views on class discussion: implications for fostering critical reflection. teaching and teacher education, 10, 231-243 wilson, e. k., hass, m. e., lauglin, m. a. ve sunal, c. s. (2002). teacher’s perspectives on incorporating current controversial issues into the social studies curriculum. the international social studies forum, 2, 31-45. yıldırım, a. ve şimşek, h. (2005). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin yayınları. yılmaz, k. (2009). sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin tartışmalı ve tabu konular hakkındaki görüşleri. i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildiri kitabı içinde (ss. 290-300). uşak üniversitesi (28-30 mayıs). ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. zembylas, m., ve froso, k. (2012). the teaching of controversial issues during elementary-level history instruction: greek-cypriot teachers’ perceptions and emotions. the theory and research in social education, 40, 107-133. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1),230-253 230 digital literacy of future preschool teachers ellina sergeevna anisimova1 abstract the basics of digital literacy begin to form at an early age, and as they grow older, digital literacy must continue to evolve, adapting to the rapidly changing digital world. the first (both in importance and in time) after the family cognitive social institution for most people is the educational system, or rather, the system of preschool education. the problem of increasing the digital literacy of preschool teachers, their willingness to use information technology in educational activities is clearly relevant. studies have shown an insufficiently high level of digital literacy of future teachers. the goal of this work is to strengthen the digital literacy component in preparing future preschool educators. the authors of the article conducted an experimental study on the introduction of a new program of study of the discipline "information technology" at the elabuga institute of kazan (volga) federal university. this program includes the following modules: "interactive didactic games", "animation basics", "programming basics" and "network technologies". based on an analysis of the design work for each module, as well as a survey of 68 respondents of different age categories who took part in the study, an increase in the level of digital literacy of future teachers in all indicators, an increase in the number of people wishing to use information technology in their professional activities, as well as a positive attitude of future teachers to the proposed program. key words: digital literacy, preschool education, interactive didactic game, multimedia, programming, practice-oriented training. introduction in the modern world, information technologies penetrate all spheres of human life: industry, agriculture, medicine, management, art, science, and education. today, it is difficult to imagine human life and activity without information technologies. people get knowledge of them in early childhood. such acquaintance depends primarily on the environment of a child: his/her parents and teachers. it is necessary to form in a child the culture of interaction with information technologies, starting from early childhood. scientists from different countries have conducted numerous studies on the impact of information technologies on children's health. some scientists believe that information technologies have mainly a positive impact on children’s intellectual development: they develop better memory, attentiveness, spatial imagination, quick thinking 1 lecturer, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, ellin_a@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 (abramov & zima, 1989; bolstad, 2004; siraj-blatchford, 2003). other researchers suppose that information technologies can harm children's health: they can cause deterioration of vision, posture, emotional state, and nervous system disorder (gurjev; hamilton, 2006; hancox, milne & poulton, 2005; waddell, hua, garland, peters & mcewan, 2007; titova et al., 2019). certainly, it is impossible to completely ban the interaction of children with information technologies, because if used correctly, they can have a positive impact on their development, but the possible harm to children’s health cannot be denied, which makes it necessary to achieve the balance in their use in education. let us try to generate a formula for the application of information technologies in the upbringing of children in this way: the maximum level of the positive influence of information technologies when their negative impact ends to zero. with the reasonable, thoughtful use of information technologies in the educational process, they can serve as an effective tool for training support and development of preschoolers. at the same time, preschool teachers should realize what kind of learning impact they would like to achieve with the use of information technologies and apply pedagogical strategies that are adequate to the goals to be achieved (sousa et al., 2019). this demonstrates that teachers’ digital literacy is an indispensable condition for the effective and adequate integration of information technologies in preschool education. this concept involves the knowledge, skills, and understanding necessary for the proper, safe and effective use of digital technologies for the purposes of teaching and learning in teachers’ professional activities and in everyday private life (kalash, 2011). the problem of quality training of future teachers has been highlighted in numerous works by modern researchers (ahtarieva et al., 2018; anisimova & ibatullin, 2018; kontovourki et. al., 2017; marsh et al., 2017; mayoral et al., 2016; riberio, 2019; sánchez-garcia, mena marcos, guanlin & escribano, 2013; svensson & baelo, 2015). the purpose of the study is to strengthen the digital literacy component in the training of future preschool educators (alajmi, 2019). a preschool teacher with digital literacy skills will be able to competently select the informational support of educational activities (taking into account ergonomics, children’s age peculiarities, cognitive nature), and, if necessary, take part in the design and development of information products in the educational process, thereby promoting the effective integration of information technologies in the educational process aimed at the intensive development of the younger generation (gabidullina et al., 2019). anisimova “digital literacy is the ability to access, manage, understand, integrate, communicate, evaluate and create information safely and appropriately through digital technologies for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship. it includes competences that are variously referred to as computer literacy, ict literacy, information literacy and media literacy” (“a global framework of reference on digital literacy skills for indicator”, 2018). however, only the definition of digital literacy is not enough to measure this phenomenon a meaningful operationalization of the concept, the construction of scales for assessment and objective measurement are required. one of the first attempts at such operationalization was the project digeulit (martin & grudziecki, 2006), implemented in europe in 2005-2006. digital literacy was then determined through four indicators: computer, information, visual and media literacy. later, in 2011, a unesco expert approach was published describing digital literacy through a set of skills needed to work with digital media and to process and search for information (wilson, grizzle, tuazon, akyempong & cheung, 2011). the russian research community also has a serious backlog in the study of digital literacy. the first works describing similar knowledge and skills defined them as “information literacy,” that is, a person’s understanding of the basic ideas of computer science, an understanding of the role of information technology in society, the ability to work with information flows (ershov, 1988; mikhailovsky, 1994; sokolova, 2002). later, technocratic studies were published, where much attention was paid to infrastructural, technical indicators and the socio-cultural aspects of digital literacy were hardly measured (critical perception of information, creative thinking, etc.). moreover, the data collection technique, as a rule, was aimed at an internet audience and excluded a significant number of citizens for whom the network is not available (prodanova et al., 2019 a,b; gerasimov et al., 2019). in this study, the approach proposed by a group of specialists at the g20 summit in berlin in april 2017 is used to assess the digital literacy of educators (chetty, wenwei, josie & shenglin, 2017). the approach is based on the assessment of indicators of information, computer, communicative literacy, media literacy and attitude to technology. the main advantage of this approach, which became decisive for its choice in the course of a detailed study of international experience in this field, is that the indicators of measuring digital literacy are formulated based on an analysis of the objective needs of the economy based on big data and machine learning technologies, vacancies journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 are studied and typologized employers' requirements for digital skills and knowledge of candidates (demand-side analysis). at the time of the study, this methodology seems to be the most developed and practice-oriented, it was the result of the joint work of specialists from around the world. consider the key indicators of digital literacy. 1) information literacy allows people in all walks of life to effectively seek, evaluate, use and create information to achieve their personal, social, professional and educational goals (“overview of information literacy resources worldwide”, 2013; sokolova, 2012). an information literate person understands the role and degree of influence of information on life, knows how to search and find information on various resources, and also understands the benefits and harms of information. 2) computer literacy. with the development of digital technologies, the groups of people who have access to them gain more and more opportunities. at the same time, the opportunities of social groups that have less access to digital technologies or do not have it at all decrease, their competitiveness decreases (aymaletdinov, 2012; franco and bedin, 2019). a computer literate person understands the technical components of a computer and the principles of their interaction, easily uses digital devices regardless of platform / interface, and also understands the "purpose" of the computer and the purpose of its use. 3) communicative literacy is the key to the development and maintenance of social connections and social capital of each person (sokolova, aymaletdinov, ivanchenko, plakhtiy & voronina, 2009; kireev et al., 2019). a communicatively competent person understands the differences between digital communications and live communication, knows how to use modern means of communication social networks, instant messengers, and also realizes the existence of a special ethics and communication standards in a digital environment. 4) media literacy allows a person to navigate the media space, search for news, assuming that the media can cover them incompletely or unreliably. the skill of working with the media, like the other skills that shape digital literacy, leads to an improvement in the quality of life (gambarato, 2017). a media-literate person understands the variety of sources of information, forms and channels of its distribution, knows how to search for news in different sources, check their completeness and accuracy, and is also critical of information messages and news. 5) a person’s attitude to innovative technologies is on a par with informational, computer, communicative and media literacy. if a person follows technology, he is more interested in anisimova developing his own digital literacy. a person who takes technology positively is characterized by the fact that he understands technological trends, is ready to work with new and modern technologies applications, gadgets, and also understands the benefits of technological innovations both for the development of society and himself. the demand for digital literacy in all areas of professional activity today is quite obvious, it becomes simply impossible not to notice it, since progress requires the development of a completely different level of competencies from a modern person (korableva et al., 2019). in this regard, a promising measure is seen in strengthening the component relating to digital literacy of students of all areas of training, primarily pedagogical, since the literacy of the students themselves will depend on how competent the teacher is. all these indicators of digital literacy are undeniably important; therefore, it is necessary to work to improve them. some researchers have been analyzing challenges to educators' digital literacy.. the authors of the paper (marsh, kontovourki, tafa & saloma, 2017) identify some of the digital literacy barriers for teachers when working with preschool children, including teachers’ traditional beliefs and attitudes, lack of their knowledge, skills and abilities, lack of self-confidence, lack of equipment, software, lack of funding, etc. researchers also propose the formation of individual indicators of digital literacy. the work (sánchez-garcia et al., 2013) proposes the organization of advanced training of working teachers on the following modules: information and operating systems, interactive tools and multimedia materials. the results of the experiments showed the high efficiency of the training, as well as high satisfaction of course participants. moreover, course participants found the module dedicated to working with multimedia materials more useful than the first module. so, this study is aimed at improving information, computer literacy, as well as the attitude to technology. the work (sazonova & alekseenko, 2017) suggested the formation of ict competence of already working preschool teachers based on improving their skills as well. according to this approach, already working teachers receive basic skills in working with information technologies. this work is aimed at improving information and computer literacy. the paper (mayoral et al., 2016) proposes a program to study the discipline "information and communication technologies" for master’s students – future teachers of secondary schools. the authors identify three blocks in the program: "communication, interaction and collaborative resources", "educational resources" and "multimedia educational resources generation". the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 experiment results also showed high training efficiency and students’ high satisfaction with teaching. this study aims to increase all indicators of digital literacy. however, the program proposed here is intended to train high school teachers. it should be noted that existing studies on improving digital literacy are mainly devoted to secondary school teachers. for teachers of preschool education, there are practically no works devoted to improving their digital literacy. therefore, in this study, a program is proposed to increase the digital literacy of future preschool educators. it is based on active work on all indicators (information, computer, communicative literacy, media literacy and attitude to technology) of digital literacy. method research design the study was conducted at the elabuga institute of kazan (volga region) federal university. when conducting the study, the following methods were used: source analysis, questionnaires, experiment, project method, methods of mathematical statistics. participants this study involved students in the direction of “pedagogical education” and the profile of training “preschool education. primary education”, belonging to different age categories (68 students in total, age 21-39 years old). to analyze digital literacy of students belonging to different age categories, students were divided into 4 groups: 21-25 years old, 26-29 years old, 30-34 years old, 35-39 years old (figure 1). in each group there was an almost equal number of students. the results of the questionnaires, estimates of design work are also given in accordance with age categories. figure 1. age of participants anisimova instrumentations for questionnaires, questionnaires were used. surveys were conducted anonymously. the preliminary questionnaire included 4 questions that determined the desire to use information technology in professional activities and the desire to increase the level of digital literacy. the questionnaire to determine the initial and final level of digital literacy included 15 questions presented in the form of polar pairs of statements describing knowledge, skills and attitudes regarding the five main dimensions of the digital environment: information, computer technology, media, communications and innovation. all 15 indicators corresponding to the questionnaire are assigned the same weighting factors, since at this stage there is no reason to argue that individual indicators are more significant (have more weight) than others. the final questionnaire included 7 questions that determined the usefulness of the program components of the program and the desire to apply information technology in professional activities. to conduct an experiment on studying the discipline "information technologies", a multimedia audience was used, equipped with a multimedia projector, an automated projection screen, an acoustic system, as well as an interactive tribune for the teacher, a conference microphone, a wireless microphone, a multi-station with a light tablet for a multi-studio, a digital camera, a video camera. the student's workplace includes a computer desk, chair, personal computer, licensed software (adobe photoshop, coreldraw, microsoft office, first, windows movie maker, i can animate, istopmotion, smart notebook). each computer has broadband internet access. all computers are connected to the corporate computer network of kfu and are in a single domain. data collection 1. before starting the study, all students took part in an anonymous questionnaire survey, which contained the following questions: 1) your age: a) 21-25 years old; b) 26-30 years old; c) 31-35 years old; d) 36-40 years old. 2) in your opinion, should information technologies be applied in preschool education? a) yes; journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 b) no; c) i don’t know. 3) do you want to improve your information literacy? a) yes; b) no. 4) will you use information technologies in your educational activities? a) yes; b) no; c) not sure. 2. a questionnaire was conducted to determine the initial level of digital literacy of students (aymaletdinov et al., 2019). 3. next, an experiment was conducted to introduce a new discipline program "information technology". the proposed program includes the following modules: 1) interactive didactic games; 2) animation basics; 3) programming basics; 4) network technologies. let us take a closer look at each module. 1) a game is the main form of activity in preschool age. therefore, classes in preschool institutions are most effective if they are in the form of a game. a future teacher should be able not only to use ready-made game versions at lessons but also to independently design and develop simple games. in this regard, the first module provides for the training of students – future teachers in the design and development of interactive didactic games. as part of this module, students also acquire basic skills of working with device tools for developing and editing multimedia applications (adobe photoshop, coreldraw, etc.) and an interactive board, the ability to analyze information products in terms of ergonomics and their influence on the harmonious personality development of the younger generation. within this module, students develop a set of didactic games in microsoft powerpoint and smart notebook (borisenko, 2015; popova et al., 2019; borisenko & volodina, 2015; dong & jong, 2013). in microsoft powerpoint, students learn to work with triggers, animation, and control elements. in smart notebook, they learn screen shading technologies anisimova ("curtains"), multiple cloning utilities, the eraser tool, object sequencing technologies. after studying these programs, each student defends the work done (nagimzhanova et al., 2019). during the defense, the whole group evaluates the work of each student according to several criteria:  game ergonomics (0-5 points);  originality (0-5 points);  the quality of artistic performance. the artistic level of the work, design elements, the harmonious color combination, the quality of the compositional solution are assessed (0-5 points);  the quality and complexity of the technical performance of the work. the validity and reasonableness of the choice of the instruments and tools used are assessed (0-5 points);  cognitive nature of a game (0-5 points);  fascination of a game (0-5 points);  compliance with children’s age peculiarities (0-5 points). the final estimate of the project is the average value of the estimates for all criteria. note that the tools for developing and editing multimedia applications within this module are studied as auxiliary tools in the development of game applications. nevertheless, the importance of learning the basics of working with them for teachers’ future professional activity is obvious, although in many reports the work with these tools is not considered. this module contributes to the formation of information, computer literacy, as well as the attitude to technology. 2) within the second module, students learn the basics of animation. this module implies the teamwork of students. each team creates a cartoon based on folk tales. in a team, students distribute the roles on preparing characters and cartoon scenery, creating photographs, dubbing, music overlapping and editing. cartoon characters and scenery can be made from plasticine, paper, glass beads, etc. windows movie maker, i can animate, and istopmotion can be used for film editing. as part of this module, students also learn to work with digital equipment. after the creation of cartoons, each team defends its work. students assess the cartoons made by the following criteria:  originality of content and performance (0-5 points);  the use of artistic-expressive means (the power of emotional impact) (0-5 points); journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253  disclosure of a given topic, script (0-5 points);  level of special effects (0-5 points);  technical mastery (revision, editing, sounding and processing of the material) (0-5 points). the final estimate of the project is the average value of the estimates for all criteria. this module is interesting; after having learned it, a teacher can teach children to create cartoons, work with a digital camera and video camera, as well as with video editors. this module is also aimed at the formation of information, computer literacy, as well as the attitude to technology. 3) teachers should also work on the formation of children's logical thinking. therefore, in the third module, students acquire programming skills in the pervologo program. the possibilities of this program as a simple graphic editor, text editor, music editor, as well as a programming language, are being explored. this program allows creating simple algorithms with a performer turtle. students learn basic commands: "go", "turn", "change a pen", "increase", "decrease", "stamp", "turn everything off", "freeze" and the principles of working with the performer. at the end of this module, students also defend the work. the creation of cartoons by each student is envisaged as the final work. students’ final works are evaluated according to the following criteria:  originality of the work (0-5 points);  the quality and complexity of the technical performance of the work (0-5 points);  script. completeness, consistency, detailed elaboration and originality of the script are evaluated (0-5 points);  the quality of artistic performance (0-5 points). the final estimate of the project is the average value of the estimates for all criteria. thus, when studying the discipline "information technologies", students master a technology of developing interactive didactic games, creating cartoons, and study working with graphic and video editors, digital equipment. this module is also aimed at the formation of information, computer literacy, as well as the attitude to technology. 4) it is useful for a modern teacher to work on the internet. therefore, in the fourth module, students become familiar with internet services: a mapping system google maps, an automatic translation service google translate, photo editing and publishing service google photos, full-text anisimova search service google books, a text, spreadsheet and presentation editor google docs, a blogging platform blogger, a geo-information system google earth, etc. the final work is the development of a site-portfolio using google sites or the platform wix.com. site evaluation criteria are as follows:  consistency in the same style of fonts, graphics, colors (0-5 points);  balance of information on the site pages (0-5 points);  graphic quality (0-5 points);  text readability (0-5 points);  color design (0-5 points);  content quality (0-5 points);  feedback (0-1 points);  convenience of the navigation mechanism (0-5 points);  correct work of references (0-5 points);  lack of dead-end pages (0-1 points);  lack of grammatical and syntactic errors (0-5 points). the final estimate of the project is the average value of the estimates for all criteria. this module is aimed at the formation of information, communication, media literacy. 4. after studying the proposed program, a questionnaire was again conducted to determine the final level of digital literacy of students (aymaletdinov, baimuratova, zaitseva, imaev & spiridonova, 2019). 5. at the end of the study, an anonymous questionnaire survey of students was conducted; it was aimed at determining the usefulness of the modules studied. the questionnaire included the following questions: 1) your age: a) 21-25 years old; b) 26-30 years old; c) 31-35 years old; d) 36-40 years old. 2) assess the usefulness of the module "interactive didactic games" (0-5 points): ___ points. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 3) assess the usefulness of the module "programming basics" (0-5 points): ___ points. 4) assess the usefulness of the module "animation basics" (0-5 points): ___ points. 5) assess the usefulness of the module "network technologies" (0-5 points): ___ points. 6) will you use information technologies in your educational activities: a) yes; b) no; c) not sure. 7) your feedback on the course completed: _______________________________________. data analysis techniques methods of mathematical statistics were used for the data analysis. findings 1) a preliminary questionnaire was aimed at identifying the level of digital literacy and the desire to use information technology in professional activities. the results of the preliminary questionnaire are shown in figure 2. figures (a), (b), (c) illustrate the answers to questions 2-4. answers to questions are grouped by age category. for each age category, the column is divided into parts of different colors in proportion to the number of answers of students of this age category. (a) (b) (c) figure 2. results of the initial survey – answers to the questions: (a) – is it necessary to apply information technologies in preschool education? (b) – do you want to improve information literacy? (c) – will you use information technologies in your educational activities? consider the results of the survey for each age group separately. 95% of the students aged 21 to 25 think that information technologies are necessary in preschool education. all 100% of students anisimova want to improve information literacy. 83% of them are going to use information technologies in educational activities. 67% of the students aged 26 to 30 thinks that information technologies are necessary in preschool education. 94% of students want to improve information literacy. 79% of them are going to use information technologies in educational activities. 44% of the students aged 31 to 35 thinks that information technologies are necessary in preschool education. 94% of students want to improve information literacy. 76% of them are going to use information technologies in educational activities. 93% of the students aged 36 to 40 want to increase the level of information literacy. 67% of them are going to use information technologies in educational activities. 2) next, a questionnaire was conducted to determine the initial level of digital literacy of students of different age categories. the survey results are presented in table 1. table 1 the results of the survey to determine the initial level of digital literacy of students of different age categories private index values digital literacy index information literacy computer literacy communicative literacy media literacy attitude to technology 21-25 years old 79% 84% 86% 80% 95% 85% 26-30 years old 76% 77% 80% 75% 90% 80% 31-35 years old 70% 72% 80% 72% 80% 75% 36-40 years old 68% 70% 75% 70% 75% 72% whole group 73% 76% 80% 74% 85% 78% columns 2-4 show the average values of private digital literacy indices (indicators), and column 5 shows the digital literacy index, calculated as the average of private indices for each age group separately. the last line shows the average values of private indices and the final index of digital literacy for the entire group as a whole. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 the average digital literacy index of the entire group is 78% this is not a high enough level, so work is needed to increase it. the highest index of digital literacy (85%) is observed among students of the youngest age group, the smallest (72%) is among the oldest, so we see a gap between the digital education of students of different age groups. 3) in the framework of the discipline "information technology" mastered the following modules: 1) interactive didactic games; 2) animation basics; 3) programming basics; 4) network technologies. the development of each module was a project. the project rating is in the range of 0-5 points. to evaluate the projects, a commission was organized from among the teachers specializing in information technology. the results of the development of the modules were grouped by age category. the results include an average score for each age category for each module and standard deviation. table 2 the results of the study of modules by age categories interactive didactic games animation basics programming basics network technologies average estimate standard deviation average estimate standard deviation average estimate standard deviation average estimate standard deviation 21-25 years old 4.397 0.416 4.564 0.387 4.139 0.432 3.776 0.184 26-30 years old 3.989 0.682 4.289 0.392 3.869 0.396 3.692 0.345 31-35 years old 3.619 0.754 4.173 0.452 3.547 0.248 3.699 0.296 36-40 years old 3.506 0.574 4.006 0.232 3.433 0.286 3.14 0.226 the average estimate for the module "interactive didactic games" was 3.91; "animation basics" – 4.28; "programming basics" – 3.78; "network technologies" – 3.60. the highest estimate is observed on the module "animation basics", which is probably related to the variety of activities in creating cartoons. the estimate for "network technologies" is not high due to the fact that the maximum possible value of a student's estimate for this module is 4.(27). below are some of the students’ estimates on the module "interactive didactic games". 1. an interactive game-presentation "paint the animals" was prepared in microsoft powerpoint using the technology of triggers. the game consists of several slides, which anisimova depict the outlines of animals: fox, frog, piglet, bear, and wolf. near the animals, there is a palette with paints of different colors, among which there are colors appropriate or inappropriate for the animal. when choosing a paint of the right color, the animal contour is filled with this color; otherwise, the paint is only "shaking". this game can be used when studying the topic "colors" during speech development lessons and native language lessons (figure 3). (a) (b) figure 3. slides of the didactic game "paint the animals": initial state (a); final state (b) 2. an interactive game-presentation "pick edible mushrooms", also prepared in microsoft powerpoint using the technology of triggers. the presentation slide features an illustration of a forest with trees, plants, and mushrooms. each mushroom is designed as a separate piece of illustration. when clicking on an edible mushroom, it is sent to the basket for collecting mushrooms through an animation effect, and a sound of applause appears, confirming the correctness of the choice. when clicking on an inedible mushroom (pale toadstool, amanita), it disappears on the slide, which is also accompanied by a corresponding audio fragment. this game can be used during lessons on the world around us (figure 4). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 (a) (b) figure 4. slide of the game "pick edible mushrooms": initial state (a); final state (b) 4) after studying the discipline, a questionnaire was conducted to determine the final level of digital literacy of students of different age categories. the survey results are presented in table 3. table 3 survey results on determining the final level of digital literacy of students of different age categories private index values digital literacy index information literacy computer literacy communicative literacy media literacy attitude to technology 21-25 years old 90% 95% 96% 91% 100% 94% 26-30 years old 88% 88% 91% 86% 98% 90% 31-35 years old 85% 84% 90% 83% 96% 88% 36-40 years old 84% 84% 88% 84% 98% 88% вся группа 87% 88% 91% 86% 98% 90% the average digital literacy index of the entire group has increased markedly from 78% to 90% a high level. the highest index of digital literacy (94%) is observed among students of the youngest age group, the smallest (88%) is among students 31-35 and 36-40 years old, however, we see that the gap between the digital education of students of different age groups has decreased significantly and the smallest the index rose significantly from 72% to 88%, which indicates the positive impact of the proposed program on increasing the digital literacy index. we also see an increase in digital literacy in all private indices, which confirms the effective impact of the program anisimova on each component of digital literacy: information, computer, communication, media literacy and attitude to technology. 5) the final questionnaire was aimed at identifying the desire to apply information technology in professional activities, as well as determining the usefulness of the modules that make up the program. the results of answers to questions 2-5 (figure 5) are grouped by modules and by age. figure 5. usefulness estimates of the modules "interactive didactic games" (1st module), "animation basics" (2nd module), "programming basics" (3rd module), "network technologies" (4th module) thus, the module "animation basics" received the highest estimate (5.0) in all age categories of students. the results of the answers to question 6 are shown in figure 6. they are also grouped by age category. figure 6. results of the final survey – answers to the question: will you use information technologies in your educational activities? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 thus, a pronounced tendency to increase the level of digital literacy of all students is observed. 89% of students aged 21-25 feel a high level of digital literacy, 11% have an above average level. 44% of students aged 26-30 feel a high level of digital literacy, 39% have an above average level, and 17% have an average level of digital literacy. 56% of the students aged 31-35have a high level of digital literacy, 25% have an above average level, and 19% have an average level of digital literacy. 40% of the students aged 36–40 have an above average level of digital literacy, 53% have an average level of digital literacy, 7% of students have a below average level. in general, 50% have a high level of digital literacy, 28% – an above average level, 20% – an average level and 2% – a low level. the positive outcome is that all students are going to apply information technologies in their future professional activities. feedback from students: "thank you for the high-quality and interesting organization of classes in the discipline "information technologies". we received really useful skills and abilities to create fascinating applications that we will necessarily apply in our professional activity!" "the undoubted difference of the course completed is its focus on the use at preschool institutions. we not only worked with the programs, we understood what they are for. we developed complex tasks that demanded great efforts to study several programs at once, we learned to photograph and shoot correctly..." discussion in the framework of ict training of future preschool teachers, this paper proposes the program "information technologies" aimed at forming digital literacy. the advantage of the proposed program is a practical-oriented integrated approach, within which students are offered project tasks (closely related to preschool education), for which they need to master a set of specific programs. moreover, they study rather different programs that can be applied at lessons on any preschool discipline. students study the creation of interactive didactic games, master teamwork on creating cartoons, gain digital skills, learn to program, keep a blog, create websites, and also learn to analyze and critically evaluate software products. thus, steps are taken to form the digital literacy of future preschool teachers. a feature of the proposed program is the project method. previously, it was already applied at the elabuga institute of the kazan (volga region) federal university in 2017-2018. during the preparation of the training direction 44.03.05 “pedagogical education” and the profile “preschool anisimova education. the results of the study showed the high efficiency of the application of the project method in the formation of information competence of future teachers. as part of this study, students developed multimedia didactic game projects in the smartnotebook environment, drafted a lesson plan, and thought out at what stage it is better to use the game, what is its duration, content. at the end of the course, a project defense was organized where each student presented his game. however, the authors of the study put forward the idea that a modern teacher needs to expand and, in a sense, deepen his information and computer skills: he must not only be able to create interactive didactic games, but also know the basics of animation, understand the tools for developing and editing multimedia applications. critical thinking skills are a prerequisite for digital literacy (shastina et al., 2019), and therefore, within the framework of this program, the “fundamentals of programming” module in the pervologo program was proposed. and finally, a modern educator needs to possess a variety of communication technologies and media technologies. for this purpose, the module "network technologies" was proposed. the proposed program is fully consistent with active work on all indicators of digital literacy: information, computer, communication, media literacy and attitude to technology. thus, the proposed program of the discipline "information technologies" is aimed at training future preschool teachers with a high level of digital literacy, capable of effectively integrating information technologies into the educational process aimed at the intensive development of the younger generation. conclusion the proposed training program for students-teachers "information technologies" included the following modules: "interactive didactic games", "animation basics", "programming basics" and "network technologies". the results of the study indicate an increase in the level of digital literacy, an increase in the number of people wishing to apply information technology in educational activities in all studied age categories. students of all age categories praised the proposed program modules. the gap between students of different age categories in terms of digital education also decreased significantly. this study was not aimed at teaching students to work with all programs. certainly, this is unlikely. however, having acquired the skills of working with some of the programs presented here, having understood how to apply them, students will be able to select and master many others. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 the proposed program can be considered as a universal tool for the formation of digital literacy of future teachers by adding or removing some modules. the prospect of this study is the possibility of organizing relationships with preschool institutions so that students not only create software applications but also learn how to put them into practice when working with children. under the proposed program, it is also possible to organize advanced training courses for already employed teachers. references a global framework of reference on digital literacy skills for indicator (2018). date of treatment 24.11.2019 http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/ip51-globalframework-reference-digital-literacy-skills-2018-en.pdf abramov, s. a., & zima, e. v. (1989). the beginning of computer science. moscow: science. aymaletdinov, t. (2012). informatization of the university’s scientific and educational resources management system as an indicator of innovative development. continuing grushin. materials of the second international scientific and practical conference, 109–110. aymaletdinov, t., baymuratova, l., zaytseva, o., imaeva, g., & spiridonova. l. (2019). digital literacy of russian educators. willingness to use digital technology in the educational process. moscow: nafi. ahtarieva, r., ibragimova, e., sattarova, g., & turzhanova, g. (2018). integration as a form of acculturation of foreign student – future teacher in the polyethnic educational environment of university. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 317-331. alajmi, m. a. (2019). the impact of e-portfolio use on the development of professional standards and life skills of students in the faculty of education at princess nourabint abdul rahman university, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4), 1714-1735. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) anisimova, e.s., & ibatullin, r.r. (2018). project method in preparation of future preschool teachers. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 228-238. bolstad, r. (2004) the role and potential of ict in early childhood education: a review of new zealand and international literature. new zealand council for educational research, wellington. http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/ip51-global-framework-reference-digital-literacy-skills-2018-en.pdf http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/ip51-global-framework-reference-digital-literacy-skills-2018-en.pdf http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) anisimova borisenko, i. g. (2015). virtual trends in the global educational space: smart technologies. philosophy of education, 3(60). borisenko, i. g., & volodina, d. n. (2015). educational smart technologies in the educational process. journal of siberian federal university. series: the humanities, 8(3). chetty, k., wenwei, l., josie, j., & shenglin, b. (2017). bridging the digital divide: measuring digital literacy. economics discussion papers, 69. dong, u. i., & jong, o. l. (2013). mission-type education programs with smart device facilitating lbs. international journal of multimedia and ubiquitous engineering, 8(2). ershov, a. (1988). informatization: from computer literacy of students to the information culture of society. communist. 2, 82–92. franco, v. d. a., & bedin, e. (2019). the chemistry teaching and the high school student: a case study in the state basic education of esteio city, brazil. [o ensino de química e o aluno do ensino médio: um estudo de caso na educação básica estadual do município de esteio, brasil] periodico tche quimica, 16(33), 118-129. gabidullina, f. i., korganbekov, b. s., makarova, v. f., zakirov, r. a., & kayumova, g. f. (2019). concept «teacher» in language consciousness of students of philological faculty. xlinguae, 12(3), 45-54. doi:10.18355/xl.2019.12.03.04 gambarato, r. (2017). media literacy is a key human skill in a connected world. post-science. date of treatment 11/25/2019 https://fly-uni.org/stati/mediagramotnost-klyuchevojnavyk/ gerasimov, v. o., sharafutdinov, r. i., kolmakov, v. v., erzinkyan, e. a., adamenko, a. a., & vasilyeva, a. g. (2019). control in the human capital management system in the strategy of innovative development of a region, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 7(2): 1074-1088. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.7.2(20) gurjev, s. v. (n.d.). necessary conditions for conducting classes for preschool children. hamilton, s. (2006). screening for developmental delay: reliable, easy-to-use tools. journal of family practice, 55(5), 415-422. hancox, r. j., milne, b. j., & poulton, r. (2005). association of television during childhood with poor educational achievement. archives of pediatric and adolescent medicine, 159(7), 614-618, doi: 10.1001/archpedi.159.7.614 https://fly-uni.org/stati/mediagramotnost-klyuchevoj-navyk/ https://fly-uni.org/stati/mediagramotnost-klyuchevoj-navyk/ https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.7.2(20) journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 kalash, i. (2011). electronic books: possibilities of information and communication technologies in preschool education. date of treatment 06.06.2019 https://iite.unesco.org/pics/publications/ru/files/3214673.pdf kalinina, t., & dmitriev, j. a. (2014). information competence of a preschool teacher. teacher of the 21st century, 1, 100-108. kireev, b., zhundibayeva, a., & aktanova, a. (2019). distance learning at higher education institutions: results of an experiment. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 387-403. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). usability testing of mooc: identifying user interface problems. paper presented at the iceis 2019 proceedings of the 21st international conference on enterprise information systems, , 2 468-475. kontovourki, s., garoufallou, e., ivarsson, l., klein, m., korkeamaki, r.l., koutsomiha, d., marciboehncke, g., tafa, e., & virkus, s. (2017). digital literacy in the early years: practices in formal settings, teacher education, and the role of informal learning spaces: a review of the literature. cost action is1410 . marsh, j., kontovourki, tafa, s. e., & saloma, s. (2017). developing digital literacy in early years settings: professional development needs for practitioners. a white paper for cost action is1410. martin, a., & grudziecki, j. (2006). digeulit: concepts and tools for digital literacy development. italics, 5(4), 249-267. mayoral, a.m., morales, j., borras, f., & aparicio, j. (2016). ict training for future teachers. international technology, education and development conference, 4547-4552, doi: 10.21125/inted.2016.2131 mikhailovsky, v. (1994). formation of a scientific picture of the world and informatization. spb: science. nagimzhanova, k. m., baimanova, l., magavin, s. s., adzhibaeva, b. z., & betkenova, m. s. (2019). basis of psychological and professional personality development of future educational psychologists. periodico tche quimica, 16(33), 351-368. overview of information literacy resources worldwide (2013). unesco. date of treatment 25.11.2019 https://iite.unesco.org/pics/publications/ru/files/3214673.pdf anisimova popova, l. i., demina, i. d., stepanenko, y. s., tran, q. n., meshkova, g. v., & afonasova, m. a. (2019). regional aspects of sectoral digitalization: problems and prospects. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 176-188. prodanova, n., plaskova, n., popova, l., maslova, i., dmitrieva, i., sitnikova, v., & kharakoz, j. (2019a). the role of it tools when introducing integrated reporting in corporate communication. journal of advanced research in dynamical and control systems, 11(8 special issue), 411-415. prodanova, n., trofimova, l., pozdeeva, s., melekhina, t., rustanov, a., & guryanova, i. (2019b). perspective of developing software for financial reporting under ifrs in the system of national governance. journal of advanced research in dynamical and control systems, 11(8 special issue), 406-410. ribeiro, m. (2019). analog and digital games as a pedagogical tool in the teacher training context. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 163-173. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/411 sánchez, a., marcos, j.m., guanlin, & escribano, j.p. (2013). teacher development and ict: the effectiveness of a training program for in-service school teachers. lumen international conference logos universality mentality education novelty (lumen 2013), 529-534, doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.713 sazonova, n. p., & alekseenko, p. n. (2017). formation of the ict competence of a teacher in a preschool educational institution. international forum "electronic week in altai", 1-6. shastina, e., kazakova, j., shastina, m., trofimova, l., & borisov, a. (2019). modern austrian novel: endless wanderings in the labyrinths of kafka’s castle . space and culture, india, 7(3), 54-61. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i3.432 siraj-blatchford, i., siraj-blatchford, j. (2003). more than computers: information and communication technology in the early years. the british association for early childhood education. london. slyadneva n. (2015). information and analytical culture as a condition of modern sociocultural and political processes. culture: theory and practice, 1(4). sousa, j. a., machado, i. d. c. p., & barros, f. d. a. a. (2019). real interest of federal and state institutions in relation to chemistry education with citizenship training. [real interesse de https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/411 https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i3.432 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 230-253 instituições federal e estadual em relacionar o ensino de química com a formação para cidadania] periodico tche quimica, 16(32), 862-869. sokolova, i. (2002). social informatics. m.: mgsu. sokolova, i. (2012). network activity of scientists and teachers as a factor in the development of their creativity. proceedings of the twenty-first mathematical readings of the russian state social university, 190-194. sokolova, i., aymaletdinov, t., ivanchenko, d., plakhtiy, m., & voronina, e. (2009). the development of network interactions in the system of social education. moscow: russian state social university. svensson, m., & baelo, r. (2015). teacher students’ perceptions of their digital competence. the 6th international conference edu world 2014 “education facing contemporary world issues”, 1527-1534, doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.302 titova, s. v., surikov, y. n., voronkova, o. y., skoblikova, t. v., safonova, i. v., & shichiyakh, r. a. (2019). formation, accumulation and development of human capital in the modern conditions. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 223230. waddell, c., hua, j. m., garland, o., peters, r., & mcewan, k. (2007). preventing mental disorders in children: a systematic review to inform policy-making. canadian journal of public health, 98 (3). wilson, c., grizzle, a., tuazon, r., akyempong, k., & cheung c. (2011). media and information literacy: curriculum for teachers. unesco. zubov, y. (1994). informatization and information culture. problems of information culture, 5– 11. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017: 8 (3),168-189 168 problems of linguistic discrimination in the communicative space of tajikistan: legal, sociolinguistic and educational aspects diloro iskandarova1, olga ladygina2, khusrav shambezoda3, alexey zolotukhin4, valijon abdukhamitov5 abstract although it is disregarded and banned, a person can be discriminated in the society according to various attributes – due to the person's language, religion, nationality, social background. the problem touches upon not only individuals but minorities as well. almost all states have one or several groups – minorities – that differ from the main population in ethnic, linguistic or religious lines. most international treaties on human rights contain anti-discriminatory provisions. in addition to the main rights of the freedom of conscience, thought and associations, the principal legal guarantees for each representative of minorities consist in being treated equally by the law and courts and in equal protection of laws. the paper studies the problems of legal, sociolinguistic and educational basis of linguistic discrimination in the communicative space of tajikistan. linguistic discrimination and political correctness are closely connected with the language policy of the state. with exoglossic linguistic situation being characteristic for tajikistan arises a need to study the questions related to linguistic discrimination. this will allow making certain adjustments to language building and harmonizing the ethnic and interethnic interests on the basis of a balanced and scientifically justified language policy. keywords: discrimination, linguistic minorities, legal and sociolinguistic aspects, education, tajikistan. introduction just like a living organism, language is in the condition of endless motion and development while existing not only for transmitting the ideas but also for organizing them, for interpreting the structure and meaning of the world in the human consciousness. simultaneously, language is a potential tool of oppression, and a powerful one. the use of a discriminating language is one of the reasons hindering the achievement of social and public equality. in their turn, all discriminatory phenomena found their way into a new one that since the 1960s has been called linguistic discrimination. as a protest against linguistic discrimination, the notions of political correctness (pc), correctness toward various ethnic, sexual, age-related 1 professor, doctor of philology, russian-tajik slavonic university, iskandarova@hotmail.com 2 professor, doctor of philosophy, russian-tajik slavonic university, friedrichii@rambler.ru 3 professor, doctor of philology, russian-tajik slavonic university, shambezade56@mail.ru 4 assoc. prof., doctor of law, russian-tajik slavonic university, mczolotoy@rambler.ru 5 assoc. prof., doctor of law, russian-tajik slavonic university, valijon05@mail.ru iskandarova et al. and other groups of society were introduced into scientific discourse. the notion is closely related to the idea of cultural pluralism. among the problems of the rise of polyethnic communities in the post-soviet states, globalization (ladygina, 2015) and transformation agenda in socio-economic and educational sphere (bittman & russell, 2016; drascovic et al., 2017, tarman & chigisheva, 2017) the issue of language policy is one of the most urgent. the range of opinions on the most "necessary and correct" way of implementation of the latter is surprisingly broad (tarman & baytak, 2012). here tajikistan is no exception. during the process of the development and rise of the independent state, different attitudes toward the language problems in the republic were observed. in the period of demise of the multinational and multilingual state, the first question to be dealt with was that about the development of the national – tajik – language. the government and the solidary national intellectuals expanded the scope of the tajik language in every way possible, which promoted its functional and intrastructural development. however, the fullfledged language policy should not be limited by the problems of the main language of the state only, as well as the question should not be over politicized. the following languages function within tajikistan: tajik as the native and the state one, as well as a means of international communication for individual ethnic groups of badakhshan; russian as the native language (for the russians, koreans, jews, tatars etc.) and a shared language of international communication; uzbek as the native language of the largest national diaspora after the titular nation of the republic. the pamir nationalities – smaller ethnoses living in gorno-badakhshan autonomous region, numbering over 270 thousand in total but occupying 45% of the area of the republic – are quite a special group, as they speak 14 languages and dialects that are conventionally united under a single name of the pamir languages. alongside with the listed larger national and linguistic formations, there are the ukrainians, byelorussians, tatars, koreans (categorized as the russian-speaking population), kirghiz (compact communities in the murgab and dzhirgatal areas) who live in the republic. all the above languages, except tajik, are referred to the languages of national and ethnic minorities. with exoglossic linguistic situation being characteristic for tajikistan, the questions related to linguistic discrimination have to be studied, which will allow making certain adjustments to language building and harmonizing the ethnic and interethnic interests on the basis of a balanced and scientifically justified language policy. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 literature review linguistic discrimination can be considered in various aspects and it overlaps the subject of the research of a number of applied fields of study. in this investigation of the problems of linguistic discrimination, the authors deal with aspects that are the most relevant for the society of tajikistan: the legal, social and linguistic ones. the consideration of linguistic discrimination problems is closely connected with such sociolinguistic areas as language planning, language building and language policy. linguistic discrimination is otherwise called linguicism. linguicism is discrimination based on language or dialect: linguistically argued racism. it's also known as linguistic discrimination (nordquist, 2017). the term was coined in the 1980s by linguist tove skutnabbkangas (1988), who defined linguicism as "ideologies and structures that are used to legitimate, effectuate and reproduce an unequal division of power and resources between groups which are defined on the basis of language" (skutnabb-kangas,1988, p. 339). several forms of linguicism are subdivided: "overt linguicism is exemplified by the prohibition of the use of particular languages for instruction. covert linguicism is illustrated by de facto non use of certain languages as languages of instruction, even if their use is not explicitly forbidden" (velez, 1998). "linguicism can be open (the agent does not try to hide it), conscious (the agent is aware of it), visible (it is easy for non-agents to detect), and actively action oriented (as opposed to 'merely' attitudinal). or it can be hidden, unconscious, invisible, and passive (lack of support rather than active opposition), typical of later phases in the development of minority education" (skutnabb-kangas et al., 2000, p. 109). "fundamentally, linguicism is a matter of depriving people of power and influence due to their language" (gynther, 2007, р. 221). professor n. golev (1999) suggests using the term "linguistic discrimination"; he singles out two types of linguistic discrimination(golev, 1999, р. 34): politically-related and legal, as the people of "non-titular" nationality living in the country experience discrimination through limitations due to their language (which was the case of some republics of the former ussr, tajikistan included), iskandarova et al. daily life and legal, as the people being in their native country and city turn out to be eliminated from full-fledged communicative acts, because they have to stay in several semiotic systems simultaneously without their consent for that. the problem of linguistic discrimination implies turning to ecolinguistics. linguistic ecology is the study of languages in relation to one another and to various social factors. also known as language ecology or ecolinguistics (nordquist, 2016). haugen defined language ecology as "the study of interactions between any given language and its environment" (haugen, 1972, р. 325). linguistic ecology studies the language sphere of habitation of humans and the society, the interaction between language, an individual as a linguistic persona and the individual's environment. with regard to this, language is viewed as an integral component of the chain of relationships between people, the society and the nature. functioning and development of language are envisaged as an ecosystem, and the outside world – as a linguistic concept (golev, 1999, р. 35-36). the tajik language is one of the pillars of statehood, and the state support of tajik is up to the strategic interests of tajikistan. however, tajik being declared a state language does not diminish or prejudice the constitutional rights of citizens whose native language is any other one. tajikistan seeks to create an optimum balance between the right of everyone to study, support and develop their native culture and language and to ensure the integration of their representatives into society as its equal members speaking the state language. the respect of language rights, the creation of conditions for maintaining the areas of functioning of the numerous languages of the national and ethnic minorities, including those of native speakers of endogenous languages of tajikistan optimize the process of international communication and promote a successful state-building. the legal protection of languages implies liability for violation of laws on language. however, although adherence to language standards and the culture of its use are not regulated by the law, it is an important factor of anti-discriminatory measures that allows saving the richness of the native language, the relevance of its being perceived by others, thus creating a comfortable communicative environment, reducing its aggressiveness and propensity to conflict. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 methodological framework analysis of significant methods of research on linguistic discrimination the objective of this study is to analyze the legal, sociolinguistic and educational aspects of the problem of linguistic discrimination in the communicative space of the republic of tajikistan. in 2015-2016, the authors conducted the research "cognitive and ethnopsycholinguistic study of the problems of tolerance and interethnic communications" (iskandarova et al., 2015, iskandarova et al., 2016). within the research area of focus, they studied the questions concerning the analysis of discourse, sociological monitoring of sources of the ethnic intolerance in the rt, ethnic stereotypes, the differences in axiological picture of the world in the russians and the tajiks, association area, the formation of a linguistic persona's field of tolerance, which has allowed them to identify the main particularities of the ethnic and psycholinguistic background of the interethnic relationships having formed among the young people of tajikistan as well as the sources of intolerance. the research has led the authors to understanding of the fact that intolerance is closely connected with linguistic discrimination. accordingly, they believe the tasks of this study to be consideration of the bases of legal regulation of discrimination ban in the rt, including that on language-related discrimination; sociolinguistic monitoring of changes in the linguistic situation in tajikistan; and the study of conditions of languages functioning within tajikistan's communicative space. quite an important question for studying linguistic discrimination as a scientific object is the technique of the research. the analysis of works on this topic conducted has allowed identifying two main approaches depending on which the relevant methodology is selected: the theoretical and the applied one. when the applied approach is adopted, the current condition of various aspects of linguistic discrimination in the society is represented, most frequently, in the quantitative or factual expression. within the analytical approach, conclusions are made and forecasts are given as for the emergence of conflicts based on linguistic discrimination and solution options may be put forward. however, the authors believe this approach to be a derivative from the theoretical one or to be at the junction of both. selected research methodology the study of linguistic discrimination implies a multi-dimensional, generalizing and systemic analysis of the legislative basis of the state language policy, as well as that of diagnostic iskandarova et al. parameters and statistical data that reflect the most objectively any changes occurring in the communicative space of tajikistan society. based on the integrated analysis of the international and national law, the legal regulation of discrimination ban, including that on language-based discrimination, has been considered. sociolinguistic monitoring of changes in the linguistic situation in tajikistan, the study of conditions of languages functioning, the implementation of the right for linguistic ecology allow revealing the linguistic trends in order to adjust the state language policy, to prevent linguistic discrimination, and to create a comfortable communicative environment. the works on linguistic discrimination (inceli, 2015; skutnabb-kangas, 1995; velez, 1998; golev, 1999; gynther, 2007; nordquist, 2017), linguistic ecology (haugen, 1972; skvorodnikov, 1992; golev, 1999; nordquist, 2016), and sociolinguistic situation, including that in tajikistan (nikolskiy, 2010; nozimov, 2010; shambezoda, 2013; usmonov, 2014) formed the methodological basis of the research. results and discussion legal aspect. legal regulation of the ban on discrimination as neither the international law nor the law of the republic of tajikistan contains a definition of the notion "linguistic (language) discrimination", the authors' definition will be based on three kinds of documents: the international legal documents of the comprehensive type; the documents adopted specifically for protection against discrimination; and documents adopted for protection of rights of the national minorities. anti-discriminatory provisions are contained in most international treaties on human rights, in the international convention on the rights of the child, and in the international covenant on civil and political rights. article 27 of the covenant is especially noteworthy: "in those states in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, or to use their own language" (kartashkin & lukasheva, 2002, p. 136-138). this article grants the minorities the right for national, ethnic, religious or linguistic identity, just like the right to keep the distinctions and particularities that the minorities wish to maintain and develop. although article 27 refers to the rights of persons belonging to minorities in their countries of residence, the official recognition of a minority by the state is not a condition for granting these rights. article 27 does not call for journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 special measures to be taken by the states, but it is the states ratifying the covenant that within their jurisdiction shall ensure the minorities an opportunity to use their rights, and it is the state that shall take action for eradicating any inequality and discrimination suffered by minorities, as necessary. the principles of a non-discriminatory approach are also included in the documents on human rights of the council of europe, such as the european convention for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms, the framework convention for the protection of national minorities. discrimination based on language, religion, national or social origin as well as place of birth is prohibited. the principal legal guarantees for each representative of the minorities consist in equality before the law and courts and in equal protection by the law, in addition to the main rights of the freedom of conscience, thought and association. according to article 2 of the declaration on the elimination of all forms of intolerance and of discrimination based on religion or belief, the expression "intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief", should be understood as any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on religion or belief and having as its purpose or as its effect nullification or impairment of the recognition, enjoyment or exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms on an equal basis" (protopopov, 2002, p. 22-23). the following international legal documents ratified by the republic of tajikistan also provide liability for deeds of possibly discriminatory nature: the united nations convention against transnational organized crime of november 15, 2000 (boboev et al. 2011, p. 418), shanghai convention on combating terrorism, separatism and extremism of september 5, 2003 (boboev et al. 2011, p. 540), the international convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination of december 21, 1965 (boboev et al. 2011, p. 239), the international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights of december 16, 1966 (boboev et al.2011, p. 234), the convention of the commonwealth of independent states on human rights and fundamental freedoms dated 26.05.1995. (boboev et al. 2011, p. 258), and others. the legal instrument of the united nations reflects the special rights of minorities in the individual document "declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities" (declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities, 1992). the text of the declaration while ensuring the balance of rights of minorities for keeping and developing their identity and iskandarova et al. originality ultimately protects the territorial integrity and political independence of peoples on the whole. the principles contained in the declaration determine the special rights of minorities in addition to the generally recognized human rights guaranteed in other international documents. the declaration does not put any legal obligations upon the states but it implies the possibility of political influence on the part of all member states of the un, as the document was developed and adopted by the united nations general assembly. in particular, the declaration grants the minorities the state protection of their existence and the national, ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic identity and originality (article 1); the right to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, and to use their own language, in private and in public (article 2.1); and the right to participate in cultural, religious, social, economic and public life (article 2.2). according to the declaration, states shall protect and guarantee the rights of persons belonging to minorities by means of the following: 1) to create favorable conditions to enable persons belonging to minorities to express their characteristics and to develop their culture, language, traditions and customs; 2) to grant them adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in their mother tongue; 3) to encourage knowledge of the history, traditions, language and culture of the minorities existing within the country and at the same time to grant the persons belonging to minorities adequate opportunities to gain knowledge of the society and culture of the community as a whole; 4) to grant them opportunities to participate fully in the economic progress and development of the country as a whole; 5) to take into account the legitimate interests of minorities in implementing the national policy and programs as well as in planning and implementing the programs of cooperation and assistance; 6) to cooperate with other states on questions relating to minorities, inter alia, exchanging information and experiences, in order to promote mutual understanding and confidence. many of these questions belong to the competence of language policy and language planning and state-building. states are expected to inform the minorities about any guarantees of their rights available as for the use of their language in private and in public, the use of their language at courts, the possibility for the representatives of a minority to be educated in their own language, to freely practise their religion, to create and maintain their own cultural associations being a key element of the rights of the minority for keeping their cultural originality, as well as about their being represented in the local and central authorities. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 there are a wide range of international documents that contain provisions related to the rights of regional languages and languages of ethnic minorities (minority languages): the universal declaration of human rights, the international covenant on civil and political rights, the international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, the international convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination, and the declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities. for the member states of the council of europe, the main document is the convention for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms (1950). the legal instrument was adopted in relation to cis countries (no. 1249 in 2001). there are also the hague recommendations regarding the education rights of national minorities, the oslo recommendations regarding the linguistic rights of national minorities, etc. the european charter for regional or minority languages (1992) adopted in 1992 for the protection and promotion of regional and minority languages of europe and suggesting a contemporary understanding of regional and minority languages is deemed to be the most important document in the area under consideration. the legal status of ethnic minorities in the republic of tajikistan is determined in the constitution of the state and in other laws current, as well as in the international regulations and laws adopted by tajikistan. the constitution of the rt bans discrimination according to race, nationality and ethnic origin (articles 1, 2, 5, 14, 24, 36, 41) (constitution of the republic of tajikistan, 2016). all nations and peoples living within the rt have the right to freely use their native language. the republic of tajikistan has ratified a number of international regulations concerning the national minorities, such as the international convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination and the convention on the rights of persons belonging to national minorities. under the requirements of the constitution, they are considered to be an integral part of legislative system of tajikistan and they shall be given priority in cases of any discrepancy of provisions of laws of the republic with standards contained in these documents. the analysis of international legal regulations allows determining the language-based discrimination as any form of unjustified distinction or limitation that impairs or voids an individual's use of rights consolidated in the international legal documents or domestic law due to the individual's linguistic belonging. linguistic (language-based) discrimination takes place if a person is treated worse than the others in a comparable situation due to the person's not iskandarova et al. knowing or knowing poorly the official language set in this state or locality. the notion of linguistic discrimination also includes the actions aimed at discouraging or challenging the keeping or development of languages of the minorities. however, failure to fulfill its liabilities in the area of keeping and development of minority languages in its territory by the state is not always considered to be a breach of the equality principle that generates discrimination. evidently, this is associated with the fact that simultaneous use of a large quantity of languages in the public sphere in a poly-ethnic state can paralyze the administration. meanwhile, any obstacles in using a native language in private life, both in a written and oral form, shall be considered as linguistic discrimination. hence the language policy of the government of tajikistan toward e.g. the djugi (mugat) and yaghnobi cannot be qualified as discriminatory from the standpoint of law. however, attention has to be drawn to the moral liabilities of the state in the sphere of protection of the linguistic rights. in particular, this is emphasized in an alternative report on tajikistan's fulfilling the un convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination in connection with consideration of the 9th-11th periodical reports of the rt for the years of 2012-2015: "outreach programs have to be developed that are aimed at overcoming the alienation of the mugat and their exclusion from the society of tajikistan…" (alternative report on tajikistan's fulfilling the un convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination in connection with consideration of the 9th-11th periodical reports of the rt for the years of 2012-2015, 2017, р. 7). in recommendations to the government of tajikistan, it is also suggested that they should render the state support for the keeping and development of the yaghnobi and pamir languages: finance academic research of these languages, introduce them into the school program. the situation is regulated by the law on language, in particular, by article 3 thereof, which states that the questions related to the status and functioning of the pamir languages are decided by the gorno-badakhshan autonomous region independently (law of the republic of tajikistan on the state language of the republic of tajikistan, 1989). the republic of tajikistan recognizes the equal rights of languages, ensures legal guarantees and a respectful attitude to all languages being in use in the republic and protects the integral right of its citizens of any nationality to develop their language and culture and the equality of all citizens before the law regardless of their native language. sociolinguistic aspect. language policy journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 the sociolinguistic aspect of studying the linguistic discrimination implies turning to language planning, building and the state language policy. the language policy is defined as an integral part of the national policy, the theory and practice of conscious and targeted influence of certain subjects on the progress of language development, the focused and scientifically grounded administration of functioning of the existing languages, the creation and improvement of the new linguistic means of communication. in his thesis research "the linguistic situation of today's tajikistan: condition, particularities and prospects of development", a.a. nozimov (2010) subdivides three strategic directions of language building in the language policy of the republic of tajikistan:  the expansion and consolidation of social and communicative functions of the state language;  maintenance of the general cultural functions of russian;  the development of other languages of the peoples of tajikistan. another objective of language policy of the republic of tajikistan is to create the optimum conditions for linguistic normalization, to settle functional relationships between the state language and other languages functioning in the republic, as well as to influence in a consistent and focused way the functional status and standardization of the tajik language, normalization and alignment of its terminology (nozimov, 2010, p. 4). language building and planning directly depends on the formed linguistic situation. linguistic situation is one of the main categories of sociolinguistics. according to ch. ferguson (1989), the term "linguistic situation" refers to the overall configuration of use of a language at the given time and place and includes the information about how many languages and what exactly languages are used within this range, how many people speak them, under what circumstances, and what attitudes and opinions toward these languages are held by members of this collective (ferguson, 1989, p. 123). the modern linguistic situation of tajikistan was influenced by geopolitical change due to the demise of the soviet union and the formation of independent states on its territory that redefined the role of ethnic and national element in public life and state political composition. the role was expressed in an aspiration to revive the ethnic languages and cultures. as a result of increased changeability of ethnic self-identification and migration of ethnic groups, some groups iskandarova et al. shrank while others increased in number. in tajikistan, the process was also affected by the civil strife of the 1990s. it does not seem possible to specify an exact quantity of languages. objective difficulties of sociolinguistic identification and calculation of tajikistan's languages are associated first of all with linguonyms and ethnonyms mismatching and a special status of certain peoples. moreover, during the census, the principles of ethnic and attitude classification are not adhered to (nozimov, 2010, p. 14). lines were introduced in the census form that united peoples and languages of india and pakistan, as well as "other nationalities" and "non-specified nationalities in the census form". according to the results of census of 2000 in the republic of tajikistan, 93 languages could be identified, while it was 88 in 2010, including the peoples of india and pakistan. there are numerous ethnic groups that have a minor quantity of representatives and yet keep their ethnic and language identity. 57 languages have the number of speakers not exceeding 200 people (as per the 2000 census, they amounted to 48 languages). among them, there is a special group of languages having a critical number of speakers – less than 10 people (35 languages). thus, the exoglossic character of the language situation in tajikistan has high averaged figures. a special group of languages of tajikistan is made up by the immigrant languages – the languages of peoples of other states who came to tajikistan both for temporary and permanent residence. the immigrant languages fall beyond the language policy and language planning. nevertheless, the fact of their existence and repeated registration of the immigrant languages in censuses makes one take consider them when taking sociolinguistic inventory of languages. it is non-governmental organizations founded under the law "on public associations" that deal with the problems of keeping and development of such ethnoses and their culture: the society of the azerbaijani of tajikistan "dostluq" (sat), the georgian cultural and educational society "satvistimo iberia", the armenian community of tajikistan named after mesrop mashtots (act), the association of the uigurs of the republic of tajikistan (aurt), the german society "wiedergeburt" of the republic of tajikistan (gsrt), the society of ossetian culture "alan" (soc) etc. their activity promotes mutual understanding between various nationalities and harmonization of national relationships. the total of 21 public associations of national minorities are registered who are active members of the civil society fruitfully participating in social, political and economic life of the country (nozimov, 2010, p. 22). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 in order to determine the sociolinguistic condition of the communicative environment, an important parameter is the geographical range of occurrence of languages. in the republic of tajikistan, three sociolinguistic areas can be singled out: the northern one (it is characterized by a high prestige of tajik, uzbek and russian), the southern one (it is characterized by a high prestige of tajik and russian), with two sub-areas subdivided here – the dzhirgatal area (the kyrgyz, the tajik and the russian languages enjoy a high prestige) and the shaartuz and tursunzade areas (these are distinguished by a high prestige of uzbek, tajik and russian). the third sociolinguistic area is the eastern or badakhshan one (its feature is a wide use of the local languages, tajik and russian as well). within this area, a sub-area should also be identified – the murgab area (this is characterized by a wide use of the kyrgyz, tajik, russian and shugni languages) (shambezoda, 2013, p. 16-17). a characteristic of anti-discriminatory language policy is the opportunity of instruction in one's native language. the law on language does not prevent education, as well as activities in culture and art in the native languages. at schools, children are taught in languages of ethnic minorities: russian, kyrgyz, turkmen, uzbek. however, there is a wide range of problems in this sphere, in particular, lack of teachers and textbooks at schools designed for ethnic minorities. many representatives of ethnic minorities have quite a bad knowledge of the state language, which results in barriers to accessibility of higher education. this is true first of all for the kyrgyz of dzhirgatal and murgab, the uzbek in the near-border areas of sughd and khatlon regions of the rt, in the republican subordination regions of tursunzade and shahrinaw, and for the turkmens in kabadiyan and kolhkozabad of tajikistan. at higher educational institutions, the instruction is in tajik, russian and uzbek. so, for example, tajik state pedagogical university, khujand and kurgan-tyube state universities train students in uzbek in a number of pedagogical specialities. the professionals speaking kyrgyz and turkmen are mostly trained in kyrgyzstan and turkmenia or they study at higher educational institutions of tajikistan in the russian and tajik languages. within the information space of the country, there are quite a lot of mass media in various languages. as of january 1, 2011, 412 newspapers, magazines and information agencies were registered in the rt, of them 268 newspapers and 136 magazines. 10 of the said titles are published in the uzbek language, 1 in kyrgyz, while 260 have mixed materials in the tajik, uzbek, russian and other languages. iskandarova et al. in the republic, there are 8 information agencies active in tajik, russian and english. in the digital mass media there is also time spared for various broadcasts. so, the total volume of all-republican television programs per week is 20 hours 50 minutes, among them there are broadcasts in uzbek, russian, arabic and english. regional television also has programs in the languages of ethnic minorities. the total volume of programs in the languages of ethnic minorities amounts to 80 hours in the republican and regional radio channels. within the communicative space, the numerous languages have different statuses. the main subjects of the ethnic and linguistic situation are tajik, uzbek and russian. with regard to this, the place and role of the tajik language and the russian language are consolidated by law: by the constitution of the republic of tajikistan, by the law of the republic of tajikistan on language (dated july 22, 1989) and the law of the republic of tajikistan "on the state language of the republic of tajikistan" (october 5, 2009), by the "program of the government of tajikistan on the development of the state language and other languages in the state territory of the republic of tajikistan" (dated october 21, 1997). while tajik has the state language status, russian is, under article 2 of the constitution of the republic of tajikistan, the language of international communication. in spite of its sphere of use being narrowed down in the sovereign tajikistan, russian remains fairly important. it still is one of the main languages of the mass media. according to the information of the ministry of culture of the rt, in 1998, 32 titles were published in russian of all 101 printed media issued in dushanbe, and of 347 printed mass media, about 60 editions were in russian at the early 2011 (mulloev, 2017). in tajikistan, the russian periodicals are distributed without restraint, and the official mouthpiece of the government of tajikistan, the novaya gazeta, is issued in russian. the tajik-speaking television has a daily news program in russian, and the russian radio station "mayak" broadcasting covers the greater part of the area of the republic. there are also the russian-speaking radio stations that enjoy popularity with the local people. tajikistan has no obstacles in using russian for communication of citizens and as a working language in some international organizations that are accredited in the country. according to the paper of m. mardon who refers to olim salimzoda, head of the committee on international relationships, public associations and information of the lower chamber of the parliament of tajikistan, the russian language is used in tajikistan without any limitations journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 (mardon & abdullo, 2016). although tajik is the only state language, documents may be accepted by state institutions in both languages. russian is used in legislation, and the business sector of the republic functions mainly in the russian language. according to the data of the official statistics organ – the presidential agency for statistics of the republic of tajikistan – as of the beginning of 2015, the population numbered 8 million 352 thousand people. the results of census of 2010 show quite a small number of the russians in tajikistan – thirty-five thousand, which is not more than 0,5% of the population of the country (population of tajikistan, 2016). as compared to 2000, the russian population of the republic decreased 7-fold while the figure of the knowledge of russian – by 1,8 times only. this must be due to russian being a second mother tongue for 3 thousand 182 tajiks (the data of 2010 census). russian still is a native language for a part of the population, especially for those living in large cities like dushanbe and khujand. meanwhile, a survey of the eurasian monitor agency conducted in 2015 has shown that a quarter of the young tajiks aged under 25 do not speak russian and that on balance the use of russian in the official events and in daily life reduced by half as compared to 2000. however, 70% of the young citizens of tajikistan demonstrate a need of studying russian realizing that their current knowledge level is quite poor. the data on tajikistan show the highest proportion of the population of all surveyed countries who believe learning of russian at schools of the country should be expanded. this demonstrates the people's dissatisfaction with the conditions and virtual absence of opportunities to study russian in their country (mardon & abdullo, 2016). educational aspect a snap poll of students of the russian-tajik (slavonic) university conducted in 2016 confirmed the existence of interest for the russian language and culture in the young people: 79% of the respondents prefer reading literature in russian, 84% watch and listen to tv and radio programs in russian. currently knowledge of the russian language is a relevant objective for tajik-speaking young people. 97% of the respondents believe the knowledge of russian to be in demand as of today and it is necessary to study this language. the necessity of knowing russian is explained by the interest in getting an education in russia. according to the data of avesta.tj information agency that refer to sh. zukhurov, speaker of the assembly of representatives of the parliament of the rt, while in october 2012 it was 4,7 thousand citizens of tajikistan who studied at higher educational institutions of russia, iskandarova et al. november 2016 saw over 15 thousand of them (avesta, 2016). every year, the tajik-speaking young people go to study at the best higher education institutions of russia under the approved quotas. for instance, over 200 graduates of secondary schools of tajikistan study at military higher education institutions of the russian federation at the expense of the budget of russia annually, in order to train the personnel for border-security troops of tajikistan (alieva, 2011). in 2016, 3426 quotas were allocated to citizens of tajikistan for studying in russia along the line of the federal agency for cis affairs, compatriots living abroad and humanitarian cooperation (interfax, 2017), with 5702 applications submitted for the quotas. the interest in getting education in russian in tajikistan itself has not gone down. at all tajik-speaking schools, they have russian as a compulsory subject beginning with grade two. in 2007, schools of the republic had 1777 classes with the russian language of teaching (44315 students, that is 2,6 % of the total number of schoolchildren) (usmonov, 2014, p. 82). the quantity of those willing to study russian is growing. so, according to the data of the ministry of education and science of the republic of tajikistan, at the end of 2014-2015 academic year, the quantity of children studying at the russian classes amounted to 59 thousand, which is about 3,5 thousand higher as compared to 2013-2014 academic year. with regard to this, for these new learners, due to the lack of teachers of russian, neither additional russian schools nor additional russian classes were opened, so the schoolchildren have to study at overcrowded classes. in connection to this, the fact described in the work by r. kudratov (2017) seems curious: in 1942, the citizens of leningrad being under siege managed to send through the blockade 15 thousand copies of textbooks in russian that had been prepared shortly before the war (kudratov, 2017, p. 23). some 28 % of the total number of students of higher education institutions of tajikistan were taught in russian in 2007/2008 academic year (usmonov, 2014, p. 82). while until recently the only higher education institution with teaching in russian has been the russian-tajik (slavonic) university, now there are branches of moscow higher education institutions (m. lomonosov msu, moscow power engineering institute, moscow institute of steel and alloys). groups taught in russian have been launched at the most prestigious tajik-speaking higher education institutions – tajik national university, technical university, and medical university. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 according to the data of rossotrudnichestvo, as of september 1, 2017, about 30 educational institutions teaching in the russian language function in the republic, with over 17 thousand people being educated in them (the russian state news agency). s.a. nikolskiy, while identifying the role of the russian language, supposes that "…a gradual refusal from russian as a means of intercultural communication can deprive the peoples of post-soviet countries of the access to the world masterpieces translated into russian for a prolonged period of time" (nikolskiy, 2010, p. 37). thus, an instantaneous refusal from russian as from a part of the unpopular past will result in the problem of access to the world cultural values. the russian language and the russian culture remain an important means of integration into the world civilization even now. meanwhile, using an international communication language has to be combined with keeping the mother tongue as the basis of national identity. conclusion the republic of tajikistan is a multilingual country where people speaking in languages of different genetic groups and structural types live. the ethnolinguistic landscape of the modern tajikistan is characterized on the one part by a high extent of linguistic diversity and on the other part – by three ethnoses, the tajik, uzbek and russian ones, prevailing. hence the linguistic situation is concentrated with these communication partners. while tajik has the state language status, russian is the language of international communication, which renders these languages a special importance in the communicative space of tajikistan. the tajik language is the fundamental factor for the development of national consciousness and unity of the state. the keeping of the sphere of functioning of the russian language is ensured and supported by tajikistan's pursuit of integration processes and maintaining the united cultural and educational space with the russian federation. the uzbek, kyrgyz, yaghnobi languages, the languages of pamir peoples also have to get favorable conditions for being preserved and developed. for this, they have to be included into the system of education in the regions having the said communities. on the one hand, this may result in higher importance of the ethnic languages, which contradicts the objective of creation of the united nation. however, on the other hand, choosing the ethnic languages for primary education can well be a compromise for the national issues and for solving the ethnic conflicts. the consistent educational work to explain the particularities of languages and cultures of the national and ethnic minorities is essential, and so are overcoming iskandarova et al. the negative stereotypes of perception thereof, overcoming the alienation, and the promotion of tolerance. multilingualism can be seen as a resource for the dynamic development of the society of tajikistan. the anti-discriminatory policy in the sphere of language will allow saving the territorial integrity, loyalty of the ethnic minorities of the country and creating a positive image of the democratic state in the eyes of the global community. acknowledgements the authors express their gratitude to the russian-tajik (slavonic) university for financing the research under the university development program for 2017. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 references alieva, r. (2011). modern condition and prospects of tajik-russian cooperation under integration. university bulletin, 1(31), 141. alternative report on tajikistan's fulfilling the un convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination in connection with consideration of the 9th-11th periodical reports of the rt for the years of 2012-2015. (2017). url: https://adcmemorial.org/wpcontent/uploads/tajcerdru3.pdf avesta, tj. (2016). sh. zukhurov on the status of russian in tajikistan. url: http://avesta.tj/2016/11/25/sh-zuhurov-rasskazal-o-statuse-russkogo-yazyka-vtadzhikistane/ bittman, b., russell, w. (2016). a multiple regression of civic education scores. research in social sciences and technology, (1)2, 1-16. boboev, u.kh., makhmadshoev, f.a., mengliev, sh.m., pulatov, a.s., salikhov, s. (2011). international law in documents: collection of the international regulations and the internal law of the rt. dushanbe. constitution of the republic of tajikistan. (2016). url: http://www.president.tj/ru/taxonomy/term/5/112 declaration on the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities. (1992). url: http://www.un.org/ru/documents/decl_conv/declarations/minority_rights.shtml draskovic, m., milica, d., mladen, i. & chigisheva, o. (2017). preference of institutional changes in social and economic development. journal of international studies, vol. 10, n. 2, 318-328. ferguson, ch.a. (1989). the problems of influence of the linguistic situation on secondlanguage learning. in: new in the foreign linguistics. issue xxv. contrastive linguistics: translated works. moscow: progress, 122—127. golev, n.d. (1999). legal aspect of language as viewed by linguistics. in: law linguistics 1. problems and prospects. barnaul, 11-58. gynther, p. (2007). beyond systemic discrimination: educational rights, skills acquisition and the case of roma. leiden: martinus nijhoff. haugen, e. (1972). the ecology of language. stanford: stanford university press. https://adcmemorial.org/wp-content/uploads/tajcerdru3.pdf https://adcmemorial.org/wp-content/uploads/tajcerdru3.pdf http://avesta.tj/2016/11/25/sh-zuhurov-rasskazal-o-statuse-russkogo-yazyka-v-tadzhikistane/ http://avesta.tj/2016/11/25/sh-zuhurov-rasskazal-o-statuse-russkogo-yazyka-v-tadzhikistane/ http://www.president.tj/ru/taxonomy/term/5/112 http://www.un.org/ru/documents/decl_conv/declarations/minority_rights.shtml iskandarova et al. inceli, o. (2015). the perceptions of english teachers to the siop® model and its impact on limited english proficiency. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 2(1), 15-28. interfax. the number of foreign students forecast by the head of rossotrudnichestvo. (2017). url: http://www.interfax.ru/russia/519671 iskandarova, d., gulova, z., davlatmirova, m., karimova, n. & fomin, a. (2015). monitoring of tolerance associative field and forecasting of inter-ethnical interrelations problems: questionnaire survey in the university environment of tajikistan. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 6(5s4), 35-46. iskandarova, d.m., ladygina, o.v., salikhov, n.n., shambezoda, h.d. & davlatmirova, m.b. (2016). social and linguistic aspects of the tajik national identity formation: the findings of the survey of students in tajikistan. indian journal of sciences and technology, 9(5). url: http://www.indjst.org/index.php/indjst/article/download/87594/67222 kartashkin, v.a. & lukasheva, e.a. (2002). international regulations on human rights: collection of documents. moscow, 136-138. kudratov, r. (2017). contribution of tajikistan into enhancing the military and economic capacity of the ussr during the great patriotic war of 1941-1945. in: the contribution of the citizens of tajikistan into the victory over nazism in the great patriotic war of 19411945 (materials of the scientific and practical conference). dushanbe, 23. ladygina, o.v. (2015). philosophical comprehension of the modern society development problems under globalization. dushanbe, 98-102. law of the republic of tajikistan on the state language of the republic of tajikistan. (2009). https://khoma.tj/index.php/zakonodatelstvo-v-sfere-smi/112-zakon-rt-o-yazyke mardon, m. & abdullo, sh. (2016). tajikistan has no need of the second state language. url: http://rus.ozodi.org mulloev, sh.b. (2017). review of the condition of the russian-speaking mass media at the modern stage. sharif mulloev official website. url: https://mulloevsharif.wordpress.com/ nikolskiy, s.a. (2010). shared cultural bases is the factor of development of national consciousness in peoples of the post-soviet space. in: the national consciousness of the peoples of the cis and baltic region: the role of the shared cultural bases. moscow: progress-traditsiya, 37. http://www.interfax.ru/russia/519671 http://www.indjst.org/index.php/indjst/article/download/87594/67222 https://khoma.tj/index.php/zakonodatelstvo-v-sfere-smi/112-zakon-rt-o-yazyke http://rus.ozodi.org/ https://mulloevsharif.wordpress.com/ journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(3),168-189 nozimov, a.a. (2010). linguistic situation of today's tajikistan: condition, particularities and prospects of development. phd thesis. dushanbe. nordquist, r. (2016). linguistic ecology. glossary of grammatical and rhetorical terms. url: https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-linguistic-ecology-1691125 nordquist, r. (2017). linguicism. glossary of grammatical and rhetorical terms. url: https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-linguicism-1691238 population of tajikistan. (2016). "tajikistan law" database. url: http://www.tj.spinform.ru/people.html protopopov, a.o. (2002). religion and law. the legal bases of the freedom of conscience and the activity of religious associations in the countries of the cis and baltic region. collection of legal instruments. moscow: yurisprudentsiya, 22-23. shambezoda, kh.d. (2013). state sovereignty as a guarantor of the development of languages. in: the prospects of development of fundamental and applied linguistic research in the rt. juridical linguistics. dushanbe, 15-20. skvorodnikov, a.p. (1992). on ecology of the russian language. philological sciences, 2, 35-46. skutnabb-kangas, t. (2000). linguistic genocide in education, or worldwide diversity and human rights. lawrence erlbaum. skutnabb-kangas, t. (1988). multilingualism and the education of minority children. in: minority education: from shame to struggle. skutnabb-kangas, t. & cummins, j. (eds.). clevedon, avon: multilingual matters, 9-44. skutnabb-kangas, t., phillipson, r. & rannut ,m. (1995). linguistic human rights: overcoming linguistic discrimination. bod third party titles. tarman, b. & baytak, a. (2012). “children’s online language learning: a constructionist perspective”, energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 2012, 4(2) 875-882. tarman, b. & chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education (editorial). journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. usmonov, r.a. (2014). tajikistan: the history of linguistic independence. blank spots of the russian and world history, 5, 82. https://www.thoughtco.com/richard-nordquist-1688331 https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-linguistic-ecology-1691125 https://www.thoughtco.com/richard-nordquist-1688331 https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-linguicism-1691238 http://www.tj.spinform.ru/people.html iskandarova et al. velez, w. (1998). race and ethnicity in the united states: an institutional approach. rowman and littlefield publishers. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (3),311-331 311 pedagogical values in indonesian lyrics of dangdut songs: evidences of language vulgarism and gender exploitation dewi kusumaningsih1, djatmika2, riyadi santosa3 & d. edi subroto4 abstract language vulgarism can be heard in the lyrics of many indonesian dangdut songs in terms of words, phrases, and clauses to portray women as either the instigators or objects of sexuality. the objectives of the study are to see: vulgar language that present in dangdut song lyrics as the pedagogical evidence of gender exploitation, and internal structures for vulgar forms that intentionally appear in the song lyrics. a qualitative approach with content analysis was employed to describe various phenomena of vulgar language that tends to portray women as either the instigators or objects of sexuality. the corpora of 25 indonesian dangdut songs whose lyrics often feature vulgar language without being limited to certain composers or time of composition were analyzed. the data were language units, namely basic words, affixes, phrases, clauses, and compound sentences. data were collected using document analysis techniques and interviews. the document analysis technique involved reading the documents and taking notes. informants were chosen from the writers of the selected songs, the songs’ lovers, and elements of the indonesian broadcasting commission. results show that vulgar language was indeed used, and even emphasized, in dangdut song lyrics, representing a continuing sexist attitude toward exploiting women. keywords: gender exploitation, song lyrics, dangdut, vulgarism, indonesia introduction this study focuses on themes of vulgarism in “music of the people” in indonesia, dangdut. the corpus of 25 hits song titles and lyrics showing sexuality and vulgar figure of intimate are analyzed. we show the notions of the title in the perspective of linguistics and sociolinguistics at the first stand. we then argue in support to researches of rose (2016), mochtar (2017), and weintraub (2006) on how the lyrics of dangdut song explicitly exploit sexuality and vulgarly mention genital, and specifically a research by putri (2018) accentuating intimate intercourse and the lady singers expose the lyrics through bodily performance. 1 doctor candidate, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta & universitas veteran bangun nusantara, sukoharjo, indonesia, dewikusumaningsih71@gmail.com 2 prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia, djatmika@uns.ac.id 3 prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia, riyadisantosa1960@gmail.com 4 prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia. mailto:dewikusumaningsih71@gmail.com mailto:djatmika@uns.ac.id mailto:riyadisantosa1960@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 currently, dangdut clearly receives prominent position in the world of popular music in indonesia and in its neighbouring countries, e.g. malaysia, dangdut is exposed to it every single day, through social gatherings, public spaces, shows, etc. (campbel, 1988; putri, 2018). in the last few years, dangdut has enjoyed the high economic and cultural values mostly directed to indonesian/malaysian audience because its themes appeal to the two countries’ low class masses (nuvich and campbell, 1998; weintraub, 2010). in hosting the 2018 asian games, indonesia has appointed dangdut singer via valen to sing its theme song, due to its considerably wide audience and its significant position to represent indonesian’s popular music (putri, 2018:3-4). in addition, liga dangdut indonesia or the indonesian dangdut league (ldi), an infamous dangdut talent show broadcasted by indosiar, occupies prime time with a daily schedule along the week. in january 2018, the upper middle rating of ldi parked at 9, while indonesian idol that started its season at the same time, placed 15 (raditya, 2017). dangdut has also been used prominently by political practices during elections, in regional and national scope, for its enormous appeal to the indonesian people (weintraub, 2010). however, many discourses in public face that dangdut’s appeal lays on its sexualized and banal performance by its ladysingers and its ‘ridiculous’ lyrics (campbel, 1998). the rising dangdut star inul daratista was not given permission to perform on stage in 2003 because she was visually provocative in performing her ‘drilling’ dance (raditya, 2017). raditya also noted, there are 13 dangdut koplo songs that are banned by the government because of their sexually provocative lyrics. however, koplo has become the prominent champion in indonesia’s dangdut universe since television creates talent shows such as ‘dangdut academy’ or ‘bintang pantura’. banality, thus become the face of indonesian dangdut. needless to say, its audience were predominantly lower-middle class young male indonesians (campbel, 1998; weintraub, 2010). audience of dangdut has always been represented in media as banal and uneducated (weintraub, 2010). when writing about dangdut audiences’ representation in popular print media, weintraub suggest that ‘they were viewed as incapable of acting together in an organized way; rather than acting, they were acted upon as objects that could be read about in popular print media. when they did become active, at concerts for example, they were accused of being unruly and violent’ (weintraub, 2010:106). as weintraub acknowledges, dangdut audience has never been able to speak for themselves in these media platforms. their voices are left out from the discussion. kusumaningsih et al. researches on sexuality of songs have present elsewhere. putri (2018) investigates sexuality in dangdut performs for her master’s thesis. dangdut as the most popular music in indonesia is highly sexualized on its representation of women. dangdut’s sexualization is prominent on its performance, lyrics and culture. banality, is the face of dangdut. during its public shows, many of the male audiences are more often than not intoxicated and engage in physical fights (putri, 2018:1). dangdut is enjoyment and meaning making by the notion of musical pleasure, musical identity performance and female dancing bodies. langdon (2012) and putri (2018) discover that female audiences’ meaning making of dangdut, thus, lies on their personal, sexual, social, and "indonesianess" experience. this paper describes lyric songs of dangdut music having vulgar meanings and exploiting the woman singers through their genital appeals. we focus on how lyrics of dangdut songs connote sexual images and the singer as the “folk devils”. stanley cohen (2002) coined that ‘folk devils’ indicate individuals or groups as deviant that society disapproves, people who are marginalized (donson et al, 2004), and portray negatively dangdut singers who perform and exploit themselves sensually (mochtar, 2017). for example, the so called inulmania that swept over the country in 2003 was a phenomenon that cannot escape our attention. emha ainun najib’s most quoted article in kompas, “pantat inul adalah wajah kita semua” (inul’s rear end is our collective face), discusses the already corrupt morality of the nation. now, after more than a decade inulmania might have calmed down, but controversies surrounding female dangdut singers are far from resolved (mochtar, 2017). weintraub (2006:412-414) and langdon (2012) point out that dangdut is the music of the people in indonesia and it is the most popular among the young and adults in this country. historically the genre is associated with the marginalized people, therefore, dangdut is thought to reflect the desires and aspirations of ‘the people’, primarily those who occupy the lower stratum of the political and economic structure: ‘little people’ (rakyat kecil ); ‘common people’ (rakyat jelata); ‘poverty-stricken’ (rakyat je´mbe´l); ‘underclass group’ (golongan bawah); ‘marginalized group’ (kaum marginal); those who have been pushed aside (pinggiran); and ‘the middle class and below’ (kelas menengah ke bawah). according to weintraub (2006:412-413) in the 1970s dangdut was associated with the marginalized lower class, but now its popularity grew and it was embraced by the middle class through the commercial television programs in the 1990s. in the 21 st century, dangdut became journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 “a large consumer industry”. as the music of the people, it is an accepted practice that the female dangdut singers wear costumes deemed appropriate for them to freely sway their hips (goyang) in accordance to the music. wintraub (2012:23) maintains that goyang, literary means ‘to move’ but in dangdut, involves the swaying of the waist, the hips and the buttocks as a natural and unconscious movement in response to the dangdut music. it is this goyang dangdut that sparks controversies and at the same time it becomes a commodity to be bought and sold (mochtar, 2017). there have been many studies into dangdut music and songs from various perspectives such as, among others, the history of dangdut performing arts from its origins to modern times, which has been influenced by music from india, sumatra, and sunda, as well as by rock music and gamelan (javanese orchestra) (takari, 2001). moreover, there have been studies into the influence of dangdut music on language development among children in kindergarten, the development of dangdut music performances in various television programming, the history of koplo dangdut, dangdut with the full traditional drum, the development and prohibition of koplo dangdut, the meaning of the power relationship and sexuality in koplo dangdut, and the interpretation of the female singers of koplo dangdut music (hidayaningrum, 2017; khusyairi, 2012; merian, 2014; moh. muttaqin, 2006; pangastuti, 2015; raditya, 2017; takari, 2001). historically, the lyrics of dangdut music developed from malay music in the 1950s to the 1960s. the pure theme behind malay song lyrics was love with metaphorically poetical language. this agrees with the view of khusyairi (2012), who said that starting from 1970, the rock music genre was incorporated into malay music in terms of not just the music but also the costume and stage style. this ultimately changed the characteristics of malay music to be more attractive, varied, and aggressive. the word dangdut is an onomatopoeic word derived from the kendang/ketipung (a drum) used in the rhythm of the music, based on its “dang” and “dut” sounds. this musical instrument is classed as being “low-class.” the lyrics of the songs, meanwhile, are simplistic and easily understood by listeners (khusyairi, 2012). rhoma irama is a prominent figure and artist in dangdut music, and he has been pioneering the modern dangdut movement in indonesia. he has previously said that very simple lyrics pose no problem if they are not destructive in nature, and they can cater to less highbrow tastes because art has its own autonomy. due to the simplicity of kusumaningsih et al. the lyrics in dangdut songs, its fans are many, especially in the middle to lower classes (khusyairi, 2012). currently in indonesia, many dangdut songs have emerged with very vulgar and improper language. the functional beauty of lyrics can no longer be enjoyed in such songs, because many rustic, salacious, and impolite words are employed. this led to the local indonesian broadcasting commission (kpid) of central java and east java to forbid some dangdut songs with vulgar words from being broadcasted. besides the goyang, dangdut song lyrics are full of sensuality. there have been some 43 songs that have been sanctioned by the kpid, because of sexual diction, wording and symbol. of 43 songs 13 are banned from broadcast, while the remainder can be broadcast late at night on radio and television (raditya, 2017). the titles of the 13 banned songs, although there may now be others, are paling suka 69, the most wanted 69 position (julia perez), wanita lubang buaya, woman of croc hole, (mirnawati), simpanan, mistress (zilvana), hamil sama setan, impregnated by satan (ade farlan), mobil bergoyang, a swaying car (asep rumpi and lia m. j.), apa aja boleh, anything i serve (della puspita), hamil duluan, early pregnancy (tuty wibowo), mucikari cinta, pimps of love (rimba mustika), satu jam saja, let’s make one hour love (zaskia gotik), melanggar hukum, love needs no ethical (moza kirana), cowok oplosan, reserved guy (geby go), merem-merem melek, close and open your eyes (ellicya), and gak zaman punya pacar satu, one guy is not enough (lolita). a cursory examination of the data (i.e., the songs) revealed signs of gender exploitation, especially of women, in all of the songs. women as the object of vulgarism can be viewed from various perspectives, namely in terms of named body parts, sexual activities, and attitudes toward the role of women. the language used tends to objectify the female gender, such as through sexist language. lei (2006) defines sexist language as language expressed in a biased manner to support one of the sexes, thus treating the other sex discriminately. the existence of sexist language rises out of sexism in society, because as a social phenomenon, language is closely related to social attitudes. a vulgarism is an obscene, bawdy, dirty, nasty, and/or indecent word. the emergence of a vulgar, linguistic form and obscene content can be related to various causes. it also relates to culture, politics, analogies, and language creativity in terms of social matter (edwin, 2008; ransom, 2015). through their creativity, composers try to promote various kinds of actions and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 thoughts to attract the attention of listeners. barbour and carmichael (2002) state that the micro processes behind language creativity are influenced by the analysis of certain values in sociolinguistics. some sociolinguistic studies have focused on sexist language (coates, 2015; cullen, 1975; omar sharif, 2017a; wardhaugh, 2006). language studies into sexism have led to a structure for forms of sexism: open and closed, direct and indirect. the closed form may be indirectly understood in a context with a certain interpretation. studies related to sexism and gender equality, as well as the battle against sexism, have also been carried out (hammond, sibley, & overall, 2014; mills, 2008; swim, eyssell, murdoch, & ferguson, 2010). however, studies into sexism as an explanation of specifically obscene vulgarism have yet to be seen in such work. research questions to guide the research procedures, the following two research questions were developed: 1) how vulgar language are present in the dangdut song lyrics as the pedagogical evidence of gender exploitation? 2) what are the internal structures for vulgar forms that intentionally appear in the lyric of the songs? theoretical review sociolinguistics as an interdisciplinary science, sociolinguistics is closely related to linguistics, but it is inseparable from individual speakers and their interlocutors. many factors influence language in society, such as social status, age, education, and even sex. what is more, women’s use of language often differs from that of men. according to suwito (1996), an individual is part of a society and inseparable from his or her group. language use therefore always deals with society. as a result, language does not serve as an individual cause but rather a social one. moreover, suwito also explained that language is part of a society and culture in addition to serving communication. communication is a form of interaction through language use. sociolinguistics as a multidisciplinary science pays attention to social, political, cultural, and economic growth and development. kusumaningsih et al. many perspectives have been proposed by sociolinguists. one such perspective is given by hudson: “sociolinguistics is a ‘study of language in relation to society’, implying that sociolinguistics is part of the study of language” (hudson, 1996:86). he adds, “the individual speaker is important in sociolinguistics in much the same way that the individual cell is important in biology: if we don’t understand how the individual works, to that extent we shan’t be able to understand how the individual collections of individuals behave either (1996:88)”. an individual speaker is therefore the most important subject in the study of sociolinguistics, much like biology focuses on individual cells. if we do not know an individual, we will never understand how that individual behaves. an important aspect in the study of sociolinguistics is to clearly think about classifying individuals in society according to dimensions like age, area of origin, and social class (profession). language is merely part of a certain picture, but it is certainly an important part because it provides us with a set of clearly structured symbols that can be used to recognize ourselves in the world. the people around us are grouped into various social classes, such as old men and young women (hudson, 1996). sociolinguistics primarily concentrates on studying the correlation between social structure and language use. this differs from the focus of other linguistic studies, such as psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics. sociolinguistics tries to identify a clear relationship between language and society (coulmas, 1998a). in a very practical sense, sociolinguistics has been concerned with the functions of language in social institutions and the organization of society. for example, language is used as a means of social control and discrimination. in sociolinguistics, the unforgettable principle is that language relates to society, and no individuals in it are separated from social life. one form of interaction used by individuals in society is songs. songs are composed by songwriters using lyrics as a form of expression, thus conveying their message to listeners through well-packaged music. music has become an integral element of human culture, and its history is extensive. for millennia, music has been employed in various human activities, such as rituals, religious activities, ceremonies, and entertainment. gender and sexism in dangdut female dangdut singers are perceived as they do not conform to the social expectations and beliefs on women’s roles. the female dangdut singers by intention show their sensual bodies instead on the quality of their voices. protests are addressed on the impropriety of the dancing journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 style which involves the swaying of the pelvic and the bump-grind routine in tune with the dangdut music that is too erotic and mimic the sexual activities. thus the bodies of dangdut singers are transformed as a site of sexuality. added with the vulgar language and dictions in the song lyrics, the label of dangdut singers is even worse. they are considered to condemn erotic dancing and destroy morality of the nation (yamin 2003; seneviratne 2006). mochtar (2017) records the following labels. tampil sensual (liputan6.com, 2003); vulgar, terlalu panas, kemben melorot (liputan 6.com 2008); sang penyanyi sengaja membuka bagian paha (kabar6.com 2011); berpenampilan seronok, pakaian minim, penampilan ‘berani’ cenderung porno (kompasiana 2011); haram hukumnya jika bernyanyi dengan mengumbar aurat, berpakaian yang tembus pandang, berpakaian yang tipis sehingga memperlihatkan bagian tubuh di dalam (kapanlagi.com 2011). (quoted from mochtar, 2017). the way they dress are: showing their thighs on purpose, dress in a vulgar way barely covering themselves, daringly showing themselves with a pornographic tendency, vulgar, too hot, sheer costume that reveal parts of the body, etc. the way they dress combined with the way they do the goyang dangdut (dangdut dance) would arouse the erotic feeling of the male audience. the dangdut singers are accused of destroying the nation morality as the purposely seduce the male members of the nation. tarian dan goyangannya dianggap seronok dan merusak moral masyarakat, dapat mengundang kejahatan moral (kapanlagi.com 2005); berpotensi merusak moral, bertentangan dengan agama (detik.com 2008); menimbulkan kerawanan sosial, dapat menimbulkan birahi terutama bagi anak-anak dan remaja, dinilai berbahaya, berpenampilan seksi dicemaskan bisa mengundang birahi kaum adam (surabaya post.co.id 2011); merusak moral generasi muda (okezone 2011); meresahkan masyarakat dan dapat berpotensi merusak moral generasi muda (kompasiana 2011); bergoyang erotis seolah ingin mengundang syahwat (kabar 6.com 2011) (mochtar, 2017). the above phrases mean that the singers and the dancing would destroy the people’s morality, it is against the religion and would impact to moral and social criminality of the young generation and men because of the sexual arousal they cause and merusak moral (destroy the morality). the singers are connoted as a seducer, ‘seductress’, ‘enchantress’, ‘femme fatale’, ‘siren’ and ‘temptress’; which mean a fascinating or beautiful woman who lures men into dangerous or compromising situations that might lead men into destruction. in addition, dangdut singers are kusumaningsih et al. also accused as the deviant to the local norms and values, a marginalized group, judged to defy the norms and values, and constructed as the folk devils of the society (mochtar, 2017). study into sociolinguistics and gender began around the early 1970s. according to coulmas (1998b), women’s language reflects a conservative faith or belief, a practical awareness, insecurity, dignity, emotion, social sensitivity, and such like. men are perceived to be tough, competitive, firm, competent, hierarchical, and full of control. the women’s image is intended to be very different from that of men. the male stereotype is designed to be superior to the female stereotype. women are described as inferior, weaker, and more emotional creatures than men. up to now, studies into this matter have led to varying and contradictory claims about the male and female stereotype. for example, the use of standard formal language is connected to an elite of middle-to-upper-class males. meanwhile, language standardization is associated with women (lower than men). according to giddens (1989), sex is the “biological or anatomical differences between men and women,” whereas “gender” concerns the psychological, social, and cultural differences between males and females. this implies that the word sex is used to distinguish between men and women, while gender relates to the psychological, social, and cultural differences between the sexes. among the gender models, knowing what differs between feminine and masculine lies in understanding the context-dependent diversity. the masculine and feminine live side by side, so they should not be considered different but rather as coming from separate perspectives when exploring certain relationships (coulmas, 1998b). the stereotype where women have a lower status than men should have been erased long ago, yet it is still inherent in modern society. when it is related to songs, which are very popular in society, it takes the form of songs that are obscene and exploit the female body through lyrics. according to labov (1986), when it is related to the study of linguistics, sex is a factor influencing language behavior. typical language use labelling women is closely associated with sexism. sexism distinguishes the genders and promotes a stereotype that looks down on one gender. this is then perpetuated by the societal conditions, explaining why sexism persists in society even now. sexist language is a language that expresses bias toward one of the sexes, so it therefore treats the other sex discriminatively. sexism itself combines two typical aspects: sexism in words and proverbs. sexist language deals with the problems of women in western countries, where the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 social status of women is better, and a “super mascularization” phenomenon has come about (lei, 2006). some efforts have been made by the promoters of gender equality to respond to the existence of sexism. one such effort is to align language use between men and women. stereotypes should be eliminated to prevent sexism from fettering women. this accords with the opinion of ayres, friedman, and leaper (2009), who said that good sexism functions to boost any gender inequality by expressing attitudes of concern and respect to women. women with higher psychological power tend to support sexism, whereas men with weak psychological power do not tend to refuse any perspective of sexism. these findings suggest that the benefits of sexism widely contribute to the maintenance of gender inequality and resist women’s efforts to achieve gender equality. the words vulgar and obscene the indonesian words vulgar and cabul translated into english as vulgar (the same spelling) and obscene. the great dictionary of the indonesian language (henceforth, the kbbi), when translated into english, defines vulgar is an adjective that describes rude or impolite behavior or action (kbbi-online, 2018), while cabul is defined an adjective meaning vile, dirty, or inappropriate, thus violating courtesy. this word derives from, among others, committing obscene acts, such as to blemish women’s dignity, to restrict or violate rights, or to molest (kbbi, 1989). searching for the meaning of the word vulgar in the 1989 version of the kbbi does not yield a definition for the word vulgar, but both words are found in the 2018 online version. this shows that the word for obscene (cabul) dates back further in the indonesian vocabulary. indeed, in the indonesian language, the word vulgar has been borrowed from english, as stated in a dictionary compiled by s. wojowasito dan poerwodarminto (1980). methods this research employed a qualitative approach for the data source, data, and data analysis. a content analysis was conducted to examine the content of dangdut lyrics, containing various types of vulgarism in the words and other linguistic units present (santosa, 2017). the study kusumaningsih et al. sample included 25 songs modified census of the top ten songs and best seller. in addition, authors related gender theories, especially those from sociology regarding gender exploitation. the main objective of this research is to describe the phenomenon of vulgar vocabulary emerging, implicitly and explicitly appearing in indonesian dangdut song lyrics. the intention is to describe the cultural phenomenon for readers (santosa, 2017; subroto, 1992). this research used 25 dangdut texts of songs in indonesian as its primary data source. these dangdut songs contained vulgar, nasty, or obscene words, phrases, clauses, or other linguistic units that were used as research data. the research procedures were conducted in two general steps. first, various dangdut songs with indonesian lyrics from various genres were searched for. the search focused on the dangdut songs containing vulgar lyrics. it was performed over the internet, namely through youtube and google, but also through books containing collections of dangdut songs, published or unpublished (owned by their singers). to aid the understanding of the authors and readers, tables are used to explain the linguistic phenomena found in the data analysis. in the second stage, domain, taxonomic, and componential analyses were performed to understand the patterns of cultural behavior in the observed data. a domain analysis was needed to learn the scope of this study focused on dangdut songs from various genres. each song has an internal structure that is divided into the verse, bridge, chorus, refrain, ending, and code. all data sources were identified for the parts where language vulgarism usually emerged in songs. the componential analysis was used to reduce large amounts of data into small groups based on categorizing the knowledge in line with the forms of linguistic units found (santosa, 2017) and to show the cultural theme of the research subject, so all patterns in the data could be revealed. this analysis combines the domain analysis and the taxonomic analysis into one complete matrix. the results of the componential analysis were intended to show the patterns of cultural behavior in all the examined data, so these behaviors could be described in an in-depth study supported by the linguistic theories of sexism to become the main framework. results and discussion vulgar song lyric indicating gender exploitation results of lyric songs that indicate vulgarism and exploit gender sex appeals appear in table 1, showing song titles containing vulgar language and their respective artists. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 table 1. song titles containing vulgarisms no title of the song artist 1. mobil bergoyang, a rocking car lia mj feat asep rumpi 2. wanita lubang buaya, woman’s croc hole minawati dewi 3. apa aja boleh, anything you want della puspita 4. hamil duluan, early pregnancy tuty wibowo 5. maaf kamu hamil duluan, sorry for early pregnant ageng kiwi 6. ada yang panjang, your long genital rya sakila 7. jupe paling suka 69, jupe loves 69 the most julia perez 8. melanggar hukum, love has no ethical mozza kirana 9. belah duren, split the durian julia perez 10. aw aw, sound of sexual moans zaskia 11. bara bere, let’s have sexual intercourse siti badriah 12. perawan atau janda, virgin or widow cita citata 13. manis manja, sweet spoiled bete 14. aku pengen dipacarin, date me diora ariendita 15. becekin adek bang, seduce me babe frida angelia 16. 1 jam, let’s have one hour love zaskia gotik 17. jablai, slut titi kamal 18. halalin aku, marry me dewi persik 19. kimcil, adolescent prostitute serempet gudal 20. geboy mujair, sexual fish dancing ayu ting-ting 21 keong racun, cone snail shinta dan jojo 22 gak jaman punya pacar satu, one guy is not enough lolita 23 hamil sama setan, impregnated by satan ade perlan 24 cabe-cabean, seductress imey mey 25 burung saya, my bird iceu wong table 1 suggests that all of these song titles contain vulgar language with connotative meanings about the relationship between men and women depicted in an unofficial (i.e., negative) relationship, with reference to body parts, the naming of negative professions, the condition/status of women, and the social phenomenon. at a glance, all the songs’ titles contain connotative meanings referring to women dealing with their profession, their destiny as victims, or their unlucky condition. for example, kimcil, adolescent prostitute and cabe-cabean, seductress are song titles referring to profession. kimcil is a name for an adolescent prostitute aged around 13–17 years. cabe-cabean, meanwhile, is a term for a girl with loose sexual morals. the representation of the female as a victim (in her relationship with a man) can be found in the song titles apa aja boleh, anything i serve, hamil duluan, early pregnancy, maaf kamu hamil duluan, sorry for early pregnancy, hamil sama setan, impregnated by satan, jablai, slut, aku kusumaningsih et al. pengin dipacarin, date me, becekin adek bang, seduce me, and halalin aku, marry me. all the data for the song titles showed that they contain connotative meanings where women are negatively exploited by men (the songs’ composers), but if the words are naturally used, they do not have a negative connotation. one exploitation raised is the condition of pregnant women, as well as the women being considered as the party initiating sexual acts, as found in the song titles becekin adek bang seduce me, aku pengin dipacarin, date me, and halalin aku, marry me. pregnancy is a great natural phenomenon, and it is regarded by all women as the fruit of love between committed couples. in the song titles, however, it is implicitly stated that the women’s pregnancies result from a unilateral action of the women, so the consequences should be borne by the women themselves. other dangdut song titles express the exploitation of women through their bodily condition, such as wanita lubang buaya, woman of a croc hole, perawan atau janda, virgin or widow, belah duren, split the durian. the connotative meaning for the listeners and/or writers of such songs is that it is natural for women to be positioned lower than men. in-depth results for the use of vulgar language can be more clearly seen in the lyrics of the songs. from the results of the observation, notes, and data grouping, adjusted to the componential analysis, a clear grouping resulted. in each song, some aspects of the internal structure were examined, and from this examination, various forms of vulgar language in the form of named body parts, sexual activities, the place/time of the sexual activities, and the roles in sexual interaction were identified. inner structure in the language form the second findings of this study are inner structure how vulgarism is constructed in terms of words, phrase and sentences. the findings are divided into sections that describe vulgarism in terms of body of the songs, lingual forms, occurrence in lingual form, and role of the lingual form. language vulgarism in the form of named body parts specifically, body parts named in the lyrics of dangdut songs dealt with sexual organs in two forms, namely susumu (your breasts) and anumu (your genitals). the two forms have the structure of affixed words, namely a basic word followed by a suffix. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 specifically, the basic word susu, breast is followed by the possessive pronominal suffix–mu, your, while the basic word anu, genitals, is also followed by the same suffix –mu. susu means “breast,” while anu means “genitals.” contextually, susumu and anumu therefore refer to the names of women’s breasts and genitals, respectively. this is openly vulgar, because it suggests the exposure of female body parts that are generally hidden, and this is even emphasized by the composers. the vulgar words are positioned in the verse and repeated in the refrain. it was explained earlier that the verse is a part of the song showing the lyrics of its inner part, while the refrain can repeat earlier lyrics to emphasize the main idea of the song. repetition of vulgar forms in the refrain with complete sentence patterns is exemplified in the following extract and its translation: aku suka susumu meskipun gede satu (i like your breasts, although their shapes are not the same.) aku suka anumu meskipun belum tumbuh bulu (i like your vagina, although no hair grows there.) aku suka susumu meskipun gede satu (i like your breast, although their shapes are not the same.) aku suka anumu meskipun belum tumbuh bulu (i like your vagina, although no hair grows there.) the suggestion here is that the two forms, susumu, your breast and anumu, your genitals, are intentionally repeated to build upon the context of the song’s title, which is kimcil, a name for an adolescent prostitute. just two vulgar words are found in this group, which suggests that the use of vocabulary to directly refer to sexual organs is limited. lingual forms dealing with sexual activity language forms referring to sexual activity, even the vulgarisms, can be clearly and explicitly seen in the various lyrics for the examined songs. love, which is usually expressed in an implicit form in all of its beauty through literary dictions like pertemuan indah (beautiful meeting), kerinduan ini (this longing), hasrat ini (this desire), and such like do not appear anymore. the composers clearly choose to express the more vulgar form of sexual activity through vulgar linguistic forms. vulgar linguistic forms in the internal structure of the songs, specifically appear in the verse, bridge, chorus, and refrain. in the verses, all linguistic forms except the clause are found. two basic words that are used are pegang (hold) and cium (kiss). these basic words serve as the kusumaningsih et al. introduction to songs, and they are a part of sexual activity that is vulgarly expressed in the lyrics, in contrast to the belief that a song should have a subtle use of language. exploitation that vulgarly emerges is seen in the form of the following affix words: diraba (touched), dilirik (leered), digituin (fucked), dielusin (stroked), dipegangin (held), diremesin (squeezed), dicumbuin (cockered), and dimanjain (fondled). all the words are passive verbs, implying a treatment to an object. the woman therefore serves as a sexual object in a more obvious fashion than the doer. this form is repeated in parts of the refrains, to emphasize the main idea that the sexual activity is committed by the doer, and the woman is more clearly exposed than the man. the repeated words as evidence of the exploitation of sexual activity are found in this verse. the repeated form emphasizes a word, as intended by the songwriter. the repetition of a word also serves the purpose of exploiting information, such as with sayang-sayangan (loving one another), mesra-mesraan (intimate with one another), pegang-pegangan (holding one another), and cium-ciuman (kissing one another). all these refer to sexual activity being vulgarly expressed in the lyrics of dangdut songs. vulgarities showing sexual activity in the form of a clause are found in walau cinta satu jam saja aku puas rasanya (although making love is merely for an hour, i feel satisfied), minta anu maunya dituruti (asking to make love should be fulfilled), and goyang sama biduan (been rocking with singers), biar saya obati dengan geboy mujair (let me cure you with geboy mujair, a sexual fish dancing). walau cinta satu jam saja though we love just one hour aku i puas rasanya am so satisfied adverb subject predicate behaver this clause shows a very strong contextual meaning about the exploitation of sexual activity, as evidenced by the prepositional phrase cinta satu jam saja (making love for an hour). references to sexual activity are successively shown in the form of minta anu, show your genital, goyang, dance. linguistic forms dealing with the occurrence of sexual activity linguistic forms dealing with the atmosphere or occurrence of sexual activity always refer to the nature of the time and place. such vulgarisms emerge in the form of repeated words like remangjournal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 remang (nebulous) and gelap-gelapan (darkness). remang-remang describes an atmosphere at night that is rather dark with a little lamp light, while gelap-gelapan is a dark surrounding that is intentionally created without any light. these two forms are vulgarly used to show the atmosphere of the sexual activity being performed, which is implicitly stated in the message of the song. another vulgar form concerns the choice of location in the form of mobil bergoyang (the car is rocking). this clause gives a contextual meaning that suggests the car is moving because of fervent movement in the car, thus implying sexual activity. this is rather crude, and no element of beauty is found within the song. position of the forms is it presents in the verse, bridge, and refrain. the appearance of such vulgar forms in the three parts serves the following purposes: in the verse, the vulgar form serves to introduce the main idea of the song before entering the bridge. the bridge then leads into the main message of the song, namely the chorus. vulgar repetition emerges in the refrain to reinforce the main idea of the song, as implied in the title used by the songwriter. linguistic forms dealing with roles in sexual interaction the emergence of the exploitation role in sexual interaction occurs in many of the dangdut songs examined. all forms suggest women as the instigators. vulgarities arise in the verse, bridge, chorus, and refrain of the songs. the exploitation of women as the instigators of the sexual activity is shown in the affix words kecentilan (too coquettish) and keganjenan (too flirtatious). it is also shown in the form of the compound words lubang buaya, cabe-cabean (adolescent prostitute); cewek gampangan (a woman who is easily asked on a date); cewek murahan (a woman who is easily asked on a date with a low reward), cewek kampungan (an inexperienced woman from the village); bodi semok (plump and beautiful body shape); and wanita penjaja cinta (prostitute). on the clause level, the term karen aku merusak rumah tangga orang, because i broke other’s marriage, was found. this clause makes it clear that the woman is one destroying a family, while the man engaging with another woman is blameless, so the woman is demonized. the findings of the study show evidence of gender exploitation through vulgar language are predominantly present in indonesian lyrics of dangdut songs. the genre of dangdut music was focused on in this study because during its development, this music has become very popular among indonesian people. what is more, music is used as a medium to convey various messages kusumaningsih et al. in line with the development of the history, politics, and culture of the people enjoying the music. a study of sexist language in song genre was conducted by neff (2014) in america in his scholarly work sexism across musical genres: a comparison. he compared the language used in the musical genres of country, rock, rap, and hip hop. he used five themes describing women in the roles of traditional gender, women with a lower status than men, women as objects, women as stereotypes, and the harassment of women. each example of sexism was also classified as good, ambivalent, or hostile (neff, 2014). the study of neff differs from this present study, which focuses on the use of forms of vulgar language that portray exploiting women as objects and making them victims in the sexual description of songwriters. sexist language expresses bias toward one gender over the other. in many cases, this bias benefits men more than women (lei, 2006). based on the findings given above, it can be stated that gender bias arises in the lyrics of dangdut songs with vulgar content, showing that some gender inequality still occurs in various aspects of life. this is supported by research into sexist language from the perspective of differences between men’s and women’s use of language, such as the descriptions of sexual stereotypes in society and how this deviating point of view creates distortion between men and women (firestone, firestone, & catlett, 2006). another study, meanwhile, attempted to focus on men’s and women’s use of language toward sexism and variation. the research intended to explore, examine, and evaluate differences in language choices made by university students in dhaka (omar sharif, 2017b). meanwhile, a well-known discussion on sexism is mills’ (2008) study into language and sexism, which was widely conducted from various points of view and compiled into an essay called gender matters. indeed, it is rather a compilation of essays created by the writer to collectively represent a “third wave” linguistic and feminist analysis of various texts. this compilation is divided into four parts: parts one and two deal with the analysis of written language, while parts three and four deal with the analysis of oral language (coffey, 2013). the language used in song lyrics influences listeners, and music can influence the development of human languages. this study shows that in the lyrics of dangdut songs, the use of very vulgar language with reference to exploiting women and sexual activities is found. this will greatly impact the listeners of such songs at various age ranges from children to adults. the effects of music on language development, and even brain development, has been shown in studies (hidayaningrum, 2017; pangastuti, 2015; patel, 2003). moreover, research results show that journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 music can improve performance in some domains, including intelligence. scientists also found that music can modify the brain on functional and structural levels. such nervous changes may affect some domains, and one domain that seems to be greatly influenced by music is language. music and language seem to share specific features that enable music to improve and contribute to language processing (moreno, 2009) conclusion and implication in summary, our findings conclude that vulgar languages are indicated explicitly in the song titles. specifically, vulgar languages are described in the body of the song in the form of words, phrases and sentences. in social education aspects, vulgarism implies negative aspects pertaining to moral and character education. as dangdut is the music of people where music indicate social status and identify, vulgar language does impact values in social educations. in addition, the role of social media that exposes sexual appeals of the ladysingers will enhance the impact of the vulgarism. future researches are suggested to focus on how to filter the negative impacts of the vulgarism by providing character educations and moral education through the social media. references antony giddens. (1989). sociology. cambridge: polity. ayres, m. m., friedman, c. k., & leaper, c. (2009). individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday lives. sex roles, 61(7– 8), 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3 barbour, s., & carmichael, c. (2002). language and nationalism in europe. (s. and c. c. barbour, ed.). new york: oxford university press. coates, j. (2015). women, men and language: a sociolinguistic account of gender differences in language: third edition. women, men and language: a sociolinguistic account of gender differences in language (3rd ed.) edition. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315645612 coffey, l. (2013). review gender matters : feminist linguistic analysis, sara mills (2012), 7(3), 405–408. https://doi.org/10.1558/genl.v7i3.405 cohen, stanley. (2002). folk devils and moral panics. london and new york: routledge. kusumaningsih et al. coulmas. (1998a). the handbook of sociolinguistic. usa: blackwell publisher. cullen, c. (1975). sexism in language. english quarterly. donson, fiona et al. (2004). rebels with a cause, folk devils without a panic: press jingoism, policing tactics and anti-capitalist protest in london and prague. internet journal of criminology (ijc). retrived from www.internetjournalofcriminology.com edwin, r. (2008). popular song and music teacher: cross training for the voice. journal of singing the official journal of the national association of teachers of singing. firestone, r. w., firestone, l. a., & catlett, j. (2006). men, women, and sexual stereotypes. sex and love in intimate relationships. hammond, m. d., sibley, c. g., & overall, n. c. (2014). the allure of sexism. social psychological and personality science, 5(4), 422–429. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550613506124 hidayaningrum, v. (2017). biduan dangdut koplo:kajian relasi kuasa dan seksualitas penyanyi dangdut di bandar lampung. hudson. (1996). sociolinguistics (second edi). new york: cambridge university press. khusyairi, j. a. (2012). perkembangan musik dangdut indonesia. verleden, 1(no 1), 1–109. langdon, elizabeth a. (2012). popular music lyrics and adolescent sexual behavior and attitudes. etd archive, 580. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/580. lei, x. (2006). sexism in language. journal of language and linguistics, 5(1), 87–94. merian, f. a. (2014). konten musik dangdut dalam industri televisi indonesia fajar akbar merian dibuat oleh : fakultas ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik universitas indonesia. mills, s. (2008). language and sexism. new york: cambrigde university press. retrieved from www.cambridge.org mochtar, jenny. (2017). female dangdut singers as folk devils in indonesian online media. paper presented in seminar on lingitic. surabaya: petra christian university. moh. muttaqin. (2006). musik dangdut dan keberadaannya di masyarakat. jurnal pengetahuan dan pemikiran seni, vii(2), 1–9. moreno, s. (2009). can music influence language and cognition? contemporary music review. http://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/ https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/etdarchive/580 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),311-331 https://doi.org/10.1080/07494460903404410 neff, s. (2014). sexism across musical genres : a comparison. honors theses. nuvich, a. and campbell, d. (1998). can dangdut travel outside region in billboard-the international newsweekly of music, video and home entertainment, apr 18, 1998, vol. 110, issue 16; pg 75. new york: prometheus global media. omar sharif, c. (2017a). sexism and variations in the use of language. int. j. adv. res, 5(12), 1136–1144. https://doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/6067 omar sharif, c. (2017b). sexism and variations in the use of language. int. j. adv. res. https://doi.org/10.21474/ijar01/6067 pangastuti, d. (2015). pengaruh musik dangdut terhadap perkembangan bahasa anak di tk dharma wanita madiun 2014 / 2015. patel, a. d. (2003). language, music, syntax and the brain. nature neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1082 putri, kaloka deasyntya, gabriela. (2018). negotiating dangdut sexuality: a glance through female audience’s music enjoyment. thesis. lund university. raditya, m. h. b. (2017). dangdut koplo: memahami perkembangan hingga pelarangan. studi budaya nusantara, 1(1), 23–41. ransom, p. f. (2015). message in the music : do lyrics influence wellbeing? rose, sekewael. (2016). indonesian popular music and identity expressions. issues of class, islam and gender. master’s thesis in leiden university. santosa, r. (2017). metode penelitian kualitatif kebahasaan. (d. punanto, ed.) (1, april 2 ed.). uns press. seneviratne, kalinga. (2006, may 8). indonesia: spicy pop-folk dance has anti-porn forces all shook up. global information network. retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/457573955?accountid=45762 subroto, d. e. (1992). pengantar metode linguistik struktural (pertama). surakarta: uns press. suwito. (1996). sosiolinguistik: buku pegangan fakultas sastra indonesia. surakarta: uns press. http://search.proquest.com/docview/457573955?accountid=45762 kusumaningsih et al. swim, j. k., eyssell, k. m., murdoch, e. q., & ferguson, m. j. (2010). self-silencing to sexism. journal of social issues. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2010.01658.x takari, m. (2001). akulturasi kebudayaan musikal dalam seni pertunjukan dangdut. selonding, jurnal etnomusikologi indonesia, 1(september), 103–118. wardhaugh, r. (2006). an introduction to sociolinguistics blackwell textbooks in linguistics. religion (4th ed.). victoria: blackwell publisher. https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.2003.0268 weintraub, n. andrew. (2006). dangdut soul: who are the people in indonesian popular music? asian journal of communication, 16(4):411-431. yamin, kafil. (2003, march 14). a sexy dancer draws fans and religious wrath. global information network. retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/457552904?accountid=45762 http://search.proquest.com/docview/457552904?accountid=45762 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4),357-369 357 literature and cinema: ways of interaction in the 21st century zulfia zinnatullina1, diana davletbaeva2and reseda mukhametshina3 abstract the research is based on the analysis of interaction of different forms of art: cinema and literature. cinema is in very close connection with literature since the moment of emergence. in spite of this various discussions about the literature and cinema’s interaction continue. there is no consensus about the status of film adaptation, its fidelity approach or the influence of film to the text reception. it is possible to speak about the variety of types of relationship existing today between cinema and literature. for a long time, it was considered that cinema plays a secondary role in comparison with literature. the only possible algorithm of interaction between these types of arts is "literary workscenario-screen version". however, there is a strong tendency towards the impact of cinema on setting new trends in literature. along with the traditional “literary work – scenario – screen version” algorithm we also consider "literary work – scenario – screen version – literary work" (when details which appeared in the screen version influence the following parts of a literary work) or "scenario – movie – literary work" (when a literary work is created on the basis of the original scenario or the movie). today writers and directors look for new ways of transferring of one art form’s peculiarities into another. as a result, we can speak about the existing interdependence between them. key words: cinema, literature, interaction, intermediality, novelization, adaptation. introduction due to the rapid development of science and technology the 20th and 21st centuries became the time of creation and development of new synthetic art forms. there were cinema, television, computer graphics and others in the past century. now there are operas transferred to a format of the comic book, a picture which comes to life, a cosplay etc. (dalton, 2019, lyapustina, 2019, wolff, 2018). it is quite obvious that the list of such arts is not exhausted yet. emergence of each new art form crucially changes the internal structure of system of arts and relationship between the available types of them, because today any form of art does not develop separately they interpenetrate, influence each other. this leads to the fact that borders between different types of art wash away. such interpenetration can occur at different levels (bozhkova et al., 2019; 1 phd in philology, associate professor, kazan federal university, kazan, russia, :zin-zulya@mail.ru 2ph.d. in philology, full professor, kazan federal university, kazan, russia, dianadi@bk.ru 3ph.d. in philology, full professor, kazan federal university, kazan, russia, rezeda_fm@bk.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 357-369 ahtarieva et al., 2018). for example, we can read in the book the description of painting, music or movie. dan brown’s book the da vinci code (2003) is constructed on the game with the most famous paintings of leonardo da vinci. in the novel sherlock holmes vs. martians the writers h. l. oldie (this is a pen-name of ukrainian writers dmitry gromov and oleg ladygensky) tried to describe the sound of choral prelude ich ruf zu dir herr jesu christ by j. s. bach. if we remember john fowles’ the magus we can find there not only mention about marcel carné’s film port of shadows (french: le quai des brumes), but also we see the film in the book. the main character nicholas urfe is watching the film called bitter truth, which flows into the performance. since the moment of its emergence, cinema is in very close connection with literature: “today the words “memory” and “writing” could be replaced with “literature” and “film” insofar as writers and literary critics, from the very beginning of film history, were deeply suspicious of cinema, especially adaptations of literary works.” (cartmell, 2012). cinema as well as literature tells the stories but uses different tools. claim this paper argues that the new ways of interaction have appeared in the 21th century. we defend the arguments in two reasons below and describe the evidences in the paragraphs that follow, among others: (1) film interpretation as the most popular form of interaction, (2) influence of cinema on the book, (3) three reasons for novelization. firstly, many movies represent the screen version of literary works. there is no consensus about this situation. the dispute between movie and book lovers is lasting for hundred years (miles, 2013; azmanova-rudarska, 2019). of course, there are a lot of people who think that cinema is a bad influence on the text reception (shatunova et al., 2019). they believe that cinema can kill reading. but at the same time the cinema can help to draw attention to the literature, as it allows to a large number of people to know about the literary work (sabitova et al., 2018; frolova et al., 2019). secondly, captions in silent movies were forcedly used and in fact it was literature. for a long time, it was considered that cinema plays a secondary role in comparison with literature; the only possible algorithm of interaction between these types of arts is “literary work-scenarioscreen version”, when the book first appears. on the basis of it the scenario is written and after that film is being shot. however, there is a strong tendency towards the impact of cinema on setting new trends in literature. zinnatullina et al. in particular, one of the most qualitative and popular screen versions in history, the film trilogy lord of the rings by peter jackson, led to the sharp growth in the popularity of fantasy genre in literature, which also gave rise to a huge number of authors writing in this genre. the fact that a successful screen version can revive interest in writers who might not have been really popular at that time can be illustrated by the example of great gatsby (2013). directed by baz luhrmann, the screen version made the literary works of francis scott fitzgerald a commercial success again. today there is also a strong tendency to use film posters of popular adaptations on books’ covers. it leads to the increasing awareness of the book, as the result the demand for it grows too (mahlknecht, 2012). thus, today the relations between literature and cinema become more and more various. therefore, it is incorrect to consider that one art form prevails over another (portnova, 2019). along with the traditional “literary work – scenario – screen version” algorithm we also consider “literary work – scenario – screen version – literary work” (when details which appeared in the screen version influence the following parts of a literary work) or “scenario – movie – literary work” (when a literary work is created on the basis of the original scenario or the movie). evidence and discussion film interpretation as the most popular form of interaction if we talk about the first algorithm, the birth of the first type of interpretation of literary works — film adaptations —it falls on 1902. that year the french director georges melies produced the screen version based on the novel robinson crusoe by daniel defoe. it was a 20th minutes short film about the sailor’s life in the uninhabited island, his meeting to cannibals, saving friday and homecoming to southampton. since the moment the epoch of using literature by cinema start: “since the beginning of cinema, adaptations have been a staple of the business of film. among the earliest films were adaptations of literary works.” (cartmell, 2012). today’s film adaptations are created on the basis of prose, dramatic art, poetry, songs and the opera. their main goal is to transfer the sense of the primary source using “film language” which significantly differs from literary. and each literary work can be interpreted in movies in different ways. for example, the stories about sherlock holmes and dr. watson written by sir arthur conan doyle hit the guinness book of records. today there are about 210 adaptations with sherlock holmes and dr. watson journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 357-369 as the main characters. the adventures of sherlock holmes and dr. watson (1979 1986) is a canonic soviet tv series directed by igor maslennikov. vasily livanov, who played sherlock holmes’ role is an honorary mbe (member of the order of the british empire). besides we should mention british tv series sherlock (2010 present)created by steven moffat and mark gatiss. the events in this film are carried from the end of 19th century to contemporary london. the most original version is japanese adaptation of miss sherlock (2018) where the main characters are women. therefore, it is natural that the viewer will estimate any screen version from the perspective of how well it corresponds to the level of the primary source or even surpasses it (it happens too). a good screen version gives viewers a chance to experience what they admired and what touched them in the book once again. it “visualizes” what they could just imagine earlier and gives the opportunity to fix the unified image: “adaptations nowadays contribute to “convergence culture”, which involves a circulation and remediation of texts, images, media and the concomitant communicated messages.” (perdikaki, 2017). apart from film adaptation there is a screen version based on the work. most often it is used when the book cannot be transferred to a screen literally. the screen version of this type does not strictly correspond to the primary source, but transfers the main idea and adds something new. for instance, we can consider british tv series lost in austen based on the jane austen’s novels. if we look at the list of 2019 oscar winners, we can see that 5 (if beale street could talk, blackkklansman, spider-man: into the spider-verse, black panther, first man) of the 22 winning films are based on the books (including comics and graphic novels). this proves that film adaptation genre is demanded today. at the same time the debate continues whether the film interpretation is a particular art form or it is “a way for translating from the language of literature into the language of cinema” (vinterle, 2010, perdikaki, 2017). we regard film adaptation as a genre of cinema. the creator of film adaptation is a director. he is guided by his own ideas, perception of the work, era and consumer tastes. another discussion on film adaptation’s entity is connected with its fidelity approach. should films approach fidelity to the literary version? david l. kranz and nancy c. mellerski consider this question in their book in/fidelity. essays on film adaptation (kranz & mellerski 2008). this volume originates from the 2005 literature/film association annual conference and includes twelve chapters. the work explores a timely and controversial theoretical issue in cinematic adaptation studies: the necessity and value of fidelity as a yardstick by which to measure film https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/igor_maslennikov https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vasily_livanov https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/member_of_the_order_of_the_british_empire https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/steven_moffat https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mark_gatiss zinnatullina et al. adaptations of literary and dramatic works. the editors group the essays based on the level of fidelity in considering film adaptation. the first group is devoted to works “express the desire for fidelity in film adaptation and/or demonstrate the ways in which several films, despite some textual and contextual interference, manage to remain relatively faithful to sources in one way or another” (kranz & mellerski 2008). the second one “shows how textual and contextual influences draw film adaptations into infidelities of various kinds” (kranz & mellerski 2008). the next group “offers examples of cinematic adaptation, which have tenuous connection to their alleged sources or critique central elements of those sources” (kranz & mellerski 2008). but this classification has been criticized too, for example, in thomas van parys’s review (van parys, 2013). of course, there could be various reasons why the film adaptation would differ from the literary version, like limited screen time, low budget, actors’ graphics, etc. so, this remains a matter of ongoing debate. influence of cinema on the book the second algorithm “literary work – scenario – screen version – literary work” occurs in multiprivate, cyclic works. some elements of the movie can be reflected in the literary work when the screen version of one part of the book is being produced simultaneously with the process of writing another part. for example, such situation happened to a series of books about harry potter. the moment of a release of the first movie – harry potter and the sorcerer's stone (2001) – coincided with the time of writing of the fifth book – harry potter and the order of the phoenix. in this book two minor heroes – lee jordan (an actor michael bakari jordan) and angelina johnson (an actress – danielle tabor) – acquire new details in the description. lee jordan is described as a tall boy with dreadlocks on the head, and angelina johnson was given the following characteristics: a tall black girl with long braids (rowling, 2003). it is obvious that such details were published in books thanks to the actors who played in the movie, – until the fifth book the author did not comment on appearance of these characters in any way. thus, the reader understands that for the author the screen version is not just transfer of the book on the screen. the visual embodiment became in many respects inseparable from the literary source. in particular, harry potter’s world exists not only consistently – at first in the book, and after – in cinema, but also in parallel – in literature and in cinema. today iconic writer george martin, unlike joanne rowling, denies the influence of the series to his books (hibberd, 2019). although there are some researches about the differences of the series https://context.reverso.net/%d0%bf%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b2%d0%be%d0%b4/%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%b3%d0%bb%d0%b8%d0%b9%d1%81%d0%ba%d0%b8%d0%b9-%d1%80%d1%83%d1%81%d1%81%d0%ba%d0%b8%d0%b9/remains+a+matter+of+ongoing https://ew.com/author/james-hibberd/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 357-369 from the book (for example, an interesting scene comparison produced by a. k. mungal, j. tan and p. sharma), but we could not find any of them devoted to the analysis of elements of the movie which are reflected in the literary work. three reasons for novelization for designation of another algorithm “scenario movie literary work” the term “novelization”, which gains popularity today and plays a large role in promotion of the movie, is most often used. there is no consensus about this genre: “but the genre is peripheral incontent as well, since the novelization is a ‘hybrid’ form, often mixing film, literature, screenplay, and even film photography into one package.” (van parys, leuven, 2011) novelization is a unique genre as jan baetens writes: “again, novelization is obviously a form of adaptation, but it is quite different in semiotic as well as institutional terms from the better known and well-studied case of the filmic adaptation of a literary text. semiotically speaking, most novelizations are not intermedial: they do not transform a narrative in a certain medium into another medium (as occurs with the filmic adaptation of a literary text) since their source text is not visual (the film) but verbal (the screenplay).” (baetens, 2010). but we suppose certain intermediality of novelization as novelizers very often use visual effects in their text. for example, color spectrum, describing appearance of characters, etc. the reasons of emergence of novelization can be different: 1. it concerns those films which were (or planned) shot, but were not shown on screens or remained in a scenario format; 2. it is the expanded version of the movie with episodes and additional information which were not included into the movie. 3. the third reason was stipulated by neil gaiman in the preface to his novel neverwhere. he stated that he couldn’t call series unsuccessful, but during the shooting process he was not abandoned by a thought: acts absolutely not that he conceived. after that he decided to write the book himself. (geiman, 2009) to the first group it is possible to attribute practically the 200th page script with storyboards of the unreleased film by francis ford coppola megalopolis. after the success of the godfather trilogy he wanted to make something very ambiguous and great. the director developed the script for many years and it was the movie of his dream. but monumental science-fiction epic about the https://www.behance.net/makulhaim http://webdev.jocelyn-tan.com/ zinnatullina et al. architect-inventor, revolution and utopian new york after global disaster did not appear on screens. in 2001 the director presented the idea in cannes to the potential producers, but it was unsuccessful. however the tragedy of september 11, was a catastrophe also for the movie, as the director did not find producers. after that coppola decided no longer to make widescale auteur cinema. the script of the movie and storyboards are freely distributed on the internet (for example, http://epoleart.canalblog.com/archives/2015/01/13/31149379.html). but today we possess an information that the director is going to return to his project this year [evangelista, 2019]. one more unreleased film which formed the book belongs to a cult director stanley kubrick. after space odyssey: 2001 in 1968 he planned the biopic about napoleon bonaparte covering all life of the french emperor, investigating history of his self-damage. the director wanted to answer a question about what kind of person he was and what made him the great emperor. kubrick wrote in the diary, that he was going to make the best movie ever shot on the earth. (sotnikova, 2015) however, neither the conducted researches into life of the outstanding frenchman nor the idea to invite audrey hepburn to josephine’s role impressed producers. according to them, the budget was inadmissible, historical movies consigned to the past, and napoleon’s figure became unattractive after a failure of waterloo (1970) directed by sergey bondarchuk. the book stanley kubrick’s napoleon: the greatest movie never made, consisting of 10 volumes, was published in 2017. the working scenario with numerous comments of kubrick was found in archives of the director in 2005. except the scenario the book includes kubrick’s notes with the description of all, up to the smallest, details of napoleon’s life, his correspondence concerning this project, the map catalogue of the main places visited by the french emperor, the costume sketches, the photos and other materials. one of the volumes is devoted to the history of a costume of that era which was prepared by kubrick. thus, the book became a peculiar synthesis of documents, inventions and also the metatext about process of creation of one of the greatest unreleased movies. the second group of novelization has more applied character as it is created as a part of promotion to the movie. “in the past three decades they have become a regularly used tool for the promotion of many of hollywood’s major cinematic releases — a calculated means of maximizing profits. blockbusters like king kong (2005, dir. peter jackson), the wolfman (2010, dir. joe johnston), and cowboys and aliens (2011, dir. jon favreau) all have their novelistic alter egos.” (mahlknecht, 2012) actually, the emergence of such novelizations in the usa is not casual, one may say, even https://context.reverso.net/%d0%bf%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b2%d0%be%d0%b4/%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%b3%d0%bb%d0%b8%d0%b9%d1%81%d0%ba%d0%b8%d0%b9-%d1%80%d1%83%d1%81%d1%81%d0%ba%d0%b8%d0%b9/auteur+cinema https://context.reverso.net/%d0%bf%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b2%d0%be%d0%b4/%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%b3%d0%bb%d0%b8%d0%b9%d1%81%d0%ba%d0%b8%d0%b9-%d1%80%d1%83%d1%81%d1%81%d0%ba%d0%b8%d0%b9/auteur+cinema http://epoleart.canalblog.com/archives/2015/01/13/31149379.html https://www.slashfilm.com/author/chris-evangelista/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 357-369 somewhat traditional. at the beginning of the 20th century the summaries of movies were published for involvement of the audience: “this form was further developed through fan magazines, such as the motion picture story magazine and photoplay (both first published in 1911), that enabled audiences to either prepare themselves for film viewings, or re-experience films in story form, through the translation of movie melodramas to written form.” (grossman, j., and r. b. palmer, 2017). today it extends the whole film industry. however, many critics and readers treat a novelization genre with some hostility, perceiving it not as full-fledged literature. first, naturally, in most cases these novelizations are of poor quality. for example, there is such sentence at a novelization seven cabins: “they did not reach a door literally of two steps as it swung open, and the girl of twentyfour years dressed in a tutu of a black swan entered a toilet” (piterskiy, 2007). as maslekova writes: “here comes the question: how the heroes defined at once that the girl is 24 years old, not 25 or 23?” (maslenkova, 2016) it can be often met in novelizations: detailed descriptions of appearance of heroes, an interior are given though they do not play an important role for the narration. besides, the purpose of such novelizations is not to be read, but to inform more people about the forthcoming display of the movie: “for a novelizer like foster it may be disheartening to think that in the eyes of his employers (at least the studio if not the publisher) he may have done a good job if a person simply walks into a bookstore and looks at the cover of the novelized book transformers: revenge of the fallen (foster 2009c) without opening it, let alone buying it. at least that person is now aware of a film with such a title, and he or she may decide to go see it.” (mahlknecht, 2012) those who expect full similarity to the movie from a novelization might likely be disappointed. due to the fact that in the shooting course the scenario can change, there is no time to remake a literary version. so, it is often possible to meet divergences in novelizations. however, it’s not that bad! sometimes novelizations can offer explanations to some subject holes arising in movies and additional details. and not all works related to this group are of low-quality. fans speak quite friendly of mathew stover’s novelization of episode iii. revenge of sith from the great saga of george lucas star wars or terminator. salvation by alan dean foster. it is very important for some fans as it allows to construct the whole universe in their minds. this group also could include the novelizations of comics film adaptations. valerian and the city of a thousand planets by christie golden, the dark knight trilogyby dennis o'neil, jonathan nolan, christopher j. nolan, david s. goyer are based on popular well-known films. at the same https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/7710.christie_golden https://www.goodreads.com/series/78075-dark-knight-trilogy https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/28710.dennis_o_neil https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/23421.jonathan_nolan https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/23421.jonathan_nolan https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/3044804.christopher_j_nolan https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/6447944.david_s_goyer zinnatullina et al. time, they keep some elements of comic books, for example, the describing of thoughts, emotions of characters. the star wars universe also should be mentioned. star wars expanded universe today includes more than 200 books. the third group is also presented by the novel of neil gaiman’s neverwhere and some others. neverwhere had been published for the first time in 2009 though it was written in 1996 in parallel with shooting of the eponymous series, about which existence even not all fans of the writer know. if to speak about the failure reasons of the movie, in our opinion, the most important is the lack of good special effects. shooting the movie in a genre of a city fantasy demands using advanced visual effects which were not widely spread in the nineties of the 20th century. the second reason is timing. the series has a mini format and consists of six episodes. it did not allow gaiman to reveal many features of creation of london below, characters, etc. gaiman reprocessed the cinema version quite a lot though the main plot and the main characters remained. in the book the author pays more attention to forming of the world of london below which is guided by the subway map that is not present in series: “another important detail of this prologue is an umbrella with the map of the london underground. it prepares the reader for the subsequent play with the toponyms connected with this type of transport. nearly the whole novel is based on a kind of game associated with the names of streets, districts and other toponyms in london. for example, old bailey of gaiman is an old man who breeds birds, and hammersmith is not the name of a subway station, but a blacksmith. the whole london below is structured on the basis of the metro scheme, where most of the action of the novel takes place.” (zinnatullina, zueva, popp, 2018) director focuses more attention on events, without giving the viewer the reason for reflection over toponymy of london. at the same time gaiman remains faithful to some cinema receptions, such as, parallel installation, a soundtrack, the movement from the general to a close up, using them in the book. (zinnatullina, zueva, popp, 2018) this group may also include novels by anthony burgess man of nazareth and johnathan lynn and antony jay’s books yes minister and yes prime minister, all from which appeared on the basis of movies. in the 1970s english scriptwriters jonathan lynn and anthony jay had offered to the bbc2 channel to make a series about a fictional british politician jim hacker. the first season of the series (which called yes minister) was transmitted on tv in 1980 and became very popular, so soon the second part (yes prime minister) appeared on the screens. eventually yes minister and yes prime minister received three bafta (british academy television awards) was adapted for the radio and also journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 357-369 spawned a stage play. as a result, already in 1989, jonathan lynn and anthony jay published books based on their own script. the main character, a former oppositionist jim hacker is the minister for administrative affairs (a fictitious ministry of the british government) and in yes, prime minister he becomes the prime minister of the united kingdom. he is confronted by his own permanent secretary sir humphrey appleby. as a result, we have a conflict between politicians and officials, which becomes the main problem of the country. although the screen version keeps “theatrical specificity of spectator perception” (solomkina, 2016), the literary version’s genre can be defined as a mockumentary, as these works are a mere imitation of the documentary. in yes minister and yes prime minister authors chose a form of the diary of the main character for realization of literary option. except the diary the literary work includes also the imitations of the subordinates’ memoirs, various documents (for example, memos), shorthand reports and fragments from media materials. as the result, johnathan lynn and antony jay could keep satire of the television series, and at the same time, they could get away from the usual thirdperson narrative and a mere plot’s retelling. man of nazareth by anthony burgess narrates his own vision of christ’s live and is based on his own scenario to the television mini-series of 1977. anthony burgess novelized it because the series had not taken all his ideas on screen. the director structured the movie around biblical themes and canonic jesus image. burgess’s jesus has dual nature: divine and human, but his humanity prevails. the writer tried to describe him as a real man. conclusion thus, in a contemporary cultural situation connection between art forms amplifies and borders are washed away. it seems to us that it is one of the main features of modern culture and most brightly characterizes today’s situation in society. in particular, it leads to formation of a difficult complex of relationship between corporation and authors, literature and cinema, the director and writer that directly reflected in the created texts and influence the addressee (reader/viewer). we tried to classify the current types of relationship between cinema and literature. in this paper we highlighted three of them. our classification is based on the consideration of working processes’ algorithms. the first one is when literature plays a role of the primary source. it is the oldest type of interaction of the literature and the cinema. as we can see there is no consensus about the status of this genre: “the adaptation – situated somewhere between the categories of novel and film, zinnatullina et al. simultaneously recognized as both and as neither – challenges the novel/film binary, thereby refuting the hierarchy that situates the novel as innately superior to the film” (kranz & mellerski, 2008). in our opinion, we can speak about the hybridity of the film adaptation, as its main goal is to keep the idea of the primary source (literature) creating new artwork (cinema). the algorithm “literary work – scenario – screen version – literary work” refers to a limited number of works, as two conditions must be met: 1. the literary work is cyclic. 2. the filming process coincides with the time of writing of the book. in this situation some elements of the book can be inspired by a film. the notion novelization is used for the third algorithm. there is an opinion about this genre as well as film adaptation. novelization is comparatively young genre and is considered as a part of film industry than literature. nevertheless, today the novelization estimates thousands of works which differ from each other in quality, the reasons and conditions of creation. we highlighted 3 the most popular reasons for novelization and considered some examples. due to the development of various fields of art today writers and directors look for new ways of transferring of one art forms peculiarities into another. as a result, we can speak about the existing interdependence between them. acknowledgment the work is performed according to the president of russian federation grant program мк731.2018.6. literature and cinema: the mutual influence of the arts in the 21st century. scientific director is z. zinnatullina. references ahtarieva, r., ibragimova, e., sattarova, g., turzhanova, g. (2018). integration as a form of acculturation of foreign student – future teacher in the polyethnic educational environment of university. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), pp. 317-331 azmanova-rudarska, e., bozhinov, v. (2019). literature work and its screen versionexperiment, society, regime (as an example of surveys among students) balkanistic forum, 1, 147-158. https://context.reverso.net/%d0%bf%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b2%d0%be%d0%b4/%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%b3%d0%bb%d0%b8%d0%b9%d1%81%d0%ba%d0%b8%d0%b9-%d1%80%d1%83%d1%81%d1%81%d0%ba%d0%b8%d0%b9/comparatively+young journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 357-369 baetens, j. (2010) expanding the field of constraint: novelization as an example of multiply constrained writing. poetics today, 31 (1), 51-79. bozhkova, g. n., shastina, e. m., kalimullina, o. v., & shatunova, o. v. (2019). study of literary images of gifted characters in optional activities as a means to develop capable and talented youth. space and culture, india, 7(1), 264-273. doi:10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 cartmell, d. (2013). 100+ years of adaptations, or, adaptation as the art form of democracy. a companion to literature, film and adaptation, 1-14. dalton, l. (2019) the top ten space opera comics. url: https://www.goombastomp.com/topten-space-opera-comics-part-1/ evangelista ch. (2019). francis ford coppola might finally make ‘megalopolis’, his longgestating passion project. url: https://www.slashfilm.com/megalopolis-movie/. frolova, i., voronkova, o., alekhina, n., kovaleva, i., prodanova, n., & kashirskaya, l. (2019). corruption as an obstacle to sustainable development: a regional example. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 7(1), 674-689. doi:10.9770/jesi.2019.7.1(48) gaiman, n. (2009). neverwhere, harpers collins. grossman, j., palmer, r. b. (eds.). (2017). adaptation in visual culture, palgrave macmillan. hibberd, j. (2019). george r.r. martin: game of thrones fan reactions won't change my books. url: https://ew.com/tv/2019/07/15/george-rr-martin-game-thrones-fan-reactions/ kranz, d.l., mellerski, n.c. (eds.). (2008). in/fidelity: essays on film adaptation, newcastle: cambridge scholars publishing. lyapustina, p. (2019).it turns out that opera & comic books are a good match. url: https://medium.com/opera-in-review mahlknecht, j. (2012). the hollywood novelization: film as literature or literature as film promotion? poetics today, 33(2), 137-168. maslenkova n.a. (2016). ‘considering pictures: lacons in the poetics of literary plot’, mat. of the 2 int.sci. conf. ‘visual communication in socio-cultural dynamics’, 191-196. miles, p., & smith, m. (2013). cinema, literature & society: elite and mass culture in interwar britain. routledge. munga, a. k., tan, j., sharma, p. (2019). game of thrones: books versus tv series. url: http://got-books-to-series.surge.sh/ https://www.goombastomp.com/top-ten-space-opera-comics-part-1/ https://www.goombastomp.com/top-ten-space-opera-comics-part-1/ https://www.slashfilm.com/megalopolis-movie/ https://ew.com/author/james-hibberd/ https://ew.com/author/james-hibberd/ https://ew.com/tv/2019/07/15/george-rr-martin-game-thrones-fan-reactions/ https://medium.com/@polinalyapustina?source=post_page-----89162c72f05c---------------------https://medium.com/opera-in-review http://got-books-to-series.surge.sh/ zinnatullina et al. portnova, t. (2019). "the dying swan" by a. pavlova: choreography and iconography of the image. space and culture, india, 6(5), 241-251. doi:10.20896/saci.v6i5.368 perdikaki, k. (2017). film adaptation as an act of communication: adopting a translationoriented approach to the analysis of adaptation shifts. meta, 621, 3–18. piterskiy n. (2007). seven cabins. rowling, j.k. (2003). harry potter and the order of the phoenix, bloomsbury. sabitova, a., salimova, d., ibragimova, e. (2018) motivated and unmotivated violations from the norm in children's books in organizing extracurricular reading. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), с. 306-316 shatunova o., anisimova t., sabirova f., kalimullina o. (2019) steam as an innovative educational technology. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 (2), 131144. solomkina, t. a. (2016). interactions between theatre and cinema in the early twentieth century: ph.d. thesis. sankt-petersburg, 212 p. sotnikova, a. (2015). ‘nothing is filmed’, kommersant weekend, 39, 26. url: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2846880 van parys, t. (2011). the study of novelisation: a typology and secondary bibliography, dalhousie university, url: https://dalspace.library.dal.ca/bitstream/handle/10222/53191/10_02_paryst_noveli_en_co nt.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y van parys, t. (2013). 'in/fidelity. essays on film adaptation.' david l. kranz & nancy c. mellerski, eds. image and narrative, 14 (1), 148-153. vinterle, i.d. (2010). the role of cinema in the development of modern literary fantasy. vestnik of lobachevsky university of nizhni novgorod, 4 (2), 827–829. wolff, c. (2018). opéra-comique, cultural politics and identity in scandinavia 1760–1800. scandinavian journal of history, 43 (3), 387-409. zinnatullina, z. r., zueva, e. v., popp, i. a. (2018). tv-series and their novelization: neverwhere by neil gaiman, orbis, 14 (41), 19-26. https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2846880 https://dalspace.library.dal.ca/bitstream/handle/10222/53191/10_02_paryst_noveli_en_cont.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y https://dalspace.library.dal.ca/bitstream/handle/10222/53191/10_02_paryst_noveli_en_cont.pdf?sequence=1&isallowed=y coğrafi̇ bi̇lgi̇ si̇stemi̇ (cbs) i̇le coğrafya dersleri̇ne yöneli̇k öğreti̇m materyalleri̇ni̇n hazirlanmasi www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(2), 122-143 © 2011 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 coğrafi bilgi sistemi (cbs) i̇le coğrafya derslerine yönelik öğretim materyallerinin hazırlanması preparation of geography teaching materials through the utilization of geographic information systems (gis) software i̇skender dölek1 & selçuk beşir demi̇r2 özet: bu çalışmada, coğrafya dersleri için öğretim materyali hazırlama aşamaları; dünyada yaygın olarak kullanılan cbs enstrümanlarından biri olan arc gis programı kullanılarak, kâğıt haritaların sayısallaştırılması örneğinden hareketle ifade edilmiştir. kâğıt haritaların sayısallaştırılması süreci özellikle sayısal verilerine ulaşamadığımız yerlere ait verilerin hazırlanmasında aynı zamanda fiziki ve beşeri coğrafya ders konularına ait ders materyali hazırlama açısından önemli bir katkı sağlayacak niteliktedir. çalışmada, coğrafya dersinde işlenen bütün konulara yönelik öğretim materyali geliştirilmesinden öte, örnek bir uygulama yoluyla coğrafya öğretmenlerinin arc gis programını kullanarak, nasıl öğretim materyali hazırlayabileceklerine yönelik bir model sunulmuştur. bu kapsamda örnek teşkil etmesi açışından çalışmada kâğıt haritaların ekran sayısallaştırılması süreci ile haritalar, yer şekilleri, yerleşme gibi konulara yönelik öğretim materyali hazırlama aşamaları adım adım ifade edilmiştir. coğrafya öğretmenleri tarafından arc gis programı ile bu çalışmada belirtilen aşamaları takip ederek coğrafi konulara yönelik çok sayıda öğretim materyali geliştirmeleri mümkündür. anahtar kelimeler: coğrafya öğretimi, coğrafi bilgi sistemleri, öğretim materyali, kâğıt haritaların sayısallaştırılması, arc gis, oluşturmacılık, öğretmen yetiştirme extended abstract in this study we present a model through a sample implementation the intention of which is to teach geography teachers how to develop learning materials by using the arc gis rather than instructing them about material development of all sorts. within this context different phases of material development such as maps, landforms and settlements are explained step by step along with the digitizing process of screen maps. a great number of geographical materials can be enhanced by teachers of geography if they follow the steps illustrated by the arc gis programme. the materials prepared by geography teachers and three dimensional images can be enlarged or zoomed out on the screen to figure out the effect of the scale on the map. the fact that our eyesight becomes narrow and details disappeare as we gain height can be concretized through this example. besides teachers can explain visually how physical features are shown by using contour lines. for instance, it is observed on three dimensional images that the slope increases where the contour lines become more frequent in areas like hillsides, 1. yard. doç. muş alparslan üniversitesi, isdolek@hotmail.com 2. muş alparslan üniversitesi, sbesdem@hotmail.com mailto:isdolek@hotmail.com� mailto:sbesdem@hotmail.com� i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 123 or vice versa. the appearance of contour lines or other landforms can be highlighted by these images as well. in a class at which topics like river valleys, plains, plateaus, etc. are supposed to be explained, these can be presenented with the help of visuals. furthermore the relation between settlements and landforms can be made clear and easy to grasp through already developed materials. geography teachers can develop materials or process certain data with various techniques (satellite images, air photographs) as they improve their skills of using the gis. they can even digitize the images of google earth, an increasingly popular internet device and turn them into an easy-to-examine datum by means of the gis. in this manner they provide acquired information and developed materials to their students and help them use an advantegous device in the long and tiring process of education. we therefore need further research to integrate gis practices and materials with social sciences and geography and also to detect factors which prevent students from using the gis actively during their education. both descriptive and experimental researches can be directed at determining possible influences of the usage of gis based materials in geography and social sciences. studies which depend on quality investigation methods will specifically prove useful alike. keywords: geographic information systems (gis), teaching materials, digitizing maps, arc gis, constructivism, teacher training giriş bilgisayar teknolojileri ile bilgisayar yazılımlarına bağlı olarak gelişen coğrafi bilgi sistemleri, genel olarak dünya üzerindeki farklı bölgeleri tanımlayan, o bölgelerle ilgili mevcut verileri depolayan ve kullanan bilgisayar sistemleri şeklinde tanımlanabilir (devine ve field, 1986; doe, 1987; parker, 1988; kerski, 2000; i̇şlem şirketler grubu, 2004; demirci 2008a). teknolojik gelişmelere bağlı olarak, gelişmiş araç ve gereçlerle yeryüzünü farklı bakış açılarına göre incelemek mümkündür. daha önceden bir bölgeye ait farklı haritaları üretmek günlerce sürerken gelişen coğrafi bilgi sistemleri ile birlikte bu işlemler çok kısa sürede yapılmaya başlanmıştır (demirci, 2008a). özellikle tematik haritaların üretilmesinde, çevre problemleri ile mücadelede, doğal afetlerle ilgili risk haritalarının üretilmesinde, sağlık alanında, kentsel planlamada cbs kullanılmaktadır (bensghir ve akay, 2006). cbs’yi geleneksel bilgisayar sistemlerinden ayıran en önemli özellik; cbs ile sorgulama ve istatistiksel analizlerin yapılabilmesi ve bu sorgulama ve istatistiksel analizlerin haritalar ile bütünleştirilebilmesidir (turoğlu, 2000). cbs’de sorgulama ve analizlerin yapılmasını sağlayan bir diğer önemli özellik ise yazılımların katman mantığı ile çalışmasıdır (burrough, 1986). cbs’de katman mantığı ile çalışıldığı için (görüntü 1) aynı anda çok farklı konular arasında bağlantı kurulabilmektedir. ayrıca, bağlantı kurulan konular arasında sorgulamalar journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 124 yapılabilmektedir. örneğin, aynı bölgeye ait yükselti, yağış, sıcaklık, bitki örtüsü gibi haritalar aynı ekranda görüntülenebilmekte ve katmanların birbiriyle olan ilişkileri sorgulanabilmektedir (yomralıoğlu, 2005). görüntü 1: coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinde katman mantığı cbs ile çeşitli konulara ait sayısal verilerin dökümleri yapılabildiği gibi grafik bilgileri haritaya eklenebilmektedir. bu işlemler iyi bir kullanıcı tarafından çok kısa sürede yapılabilmektedir (demirci, 2008b). bu bağlamda cbs, coğrafyanın entelektüel nüvesindeki çeşitli metodolojilerle çok güçlü bağlantı kurma imkânı sunmaktadır (sui 1995’den akt. summerby murray, 2001; demirci, 2008a). çalışma konusu bir şekilde mekân, insan, zaman olan veya bunlarla ilgili değişkenleri az veya çok içeren bütün bilim dalları ve meslek gruplarının cbs’den faydalanma imkânları vardır. dolayısıyla cbs metodolojisini kullanan ve farklı meslek gruplarına hitap eden; arc viev, netcat, netinfo, intergraph, mge, autocat net, landmarks, graphics, erdas, ermaper, graff, envi, i̇drisi, erdas gibi birçok cbs yazılımı mevcuttur (turoğlu, 2000; yomralıoğlu, 2005). farklı işlevleri olan coğrafi bilgi sistemleri, kullanıcının deneyim ve planlama yeteneğine bağlı olarak; tematik haritaların üretilmesinde, çevre problemleri ile mücadelede, kentsel planlamada, e-devlet sistemi, kent bilgi sistemleri ve coğrafya bilimi ile ilgili araştırmalarda kullanılabilmektedir (demirci, 2004). ayrıca cbs’den eğitim-öğretim sürecinde, özellikle de coğrafya öğretiminde de aktif olarak yararlanılabilir (ergün ve ayday, 2006; demirci, 2008b; şimşek, 2008; artvinli, 2009; erdoğan, 2009; özgen, 2009; aydoğmuş, 2010). i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 125 cbs, coğrafyanın temel prensiplerini oluşturan “ne”, “nerede”, “nasıl” ve “niçin” sorularını cevaplamayı kolaylaştıran önemli bir eğitim-öğretim aracı olarak dünyada yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır (aksoy, 2004; yomralıoğlu, 2005; demirci, 2008a; artvinli, 2009). eğitim hizmetlerini daha geniş kitlelere daha kaliteli biçimde götürebilmek için öğretim teknolojisinin tüm olanaklarından etkili biçimde yararlanmak gerekmektedir (audet ve luwig, 2000; alibrandi, 2003; johansson ve pellikka, 2005; beishuizen, 2006; demirci, 2007; uğurlu ve baloğlu, 2008). bu teknolojilerden biri de coğrafi bilgi sistemleri (cbs) dir (keiper, 1999; lemberg ve stoltman, 2001; crabb, 2001; aksoy, 2004; pitts, 2005; aladağ 2006; bednarz ve schee, 2006). 2005 yılından itibaren milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından uygulamaya konulan oluşturmacı yaklaşıma göre hazırlanmış 9.10.11. ve 12. sınıf coğrafya dersi öğretim programları’nda coğrafi bilgi sistemleri teknolojisine yer verilmesi gerektiği belirtilmiştir (meb, 2005; koçak, 2007). ancak, cbs’yi kullanabilecek eğitime sahip öğretmen sayısının çok az olması, yazılımın pahalı olması ve okulların, fiziki koşullarının yetersiz olması, yazılım temelli uygulamalardan ders sürecinde faydalanılmasını sınırlandıran başlıca faktörlerdir (şimşek, 2008). bu nedenle türkiye’de, coğrafya derslerinde bu teknolojiden henüz yoğun olarak yararlanılmaya başlanılmamıştır (artvinli, 2009; erdoğan, 2009; aydoğmuş, 2010). coğrafi bilgi sistemleri ve bu sistemlerle geliştirilen öğretim materyalleri coğrafya derslerinde etkinliklere dayalı olarak kullanıldığında ders içinde “ne”, “nerede”, “nasıl” ve “niçin” gibi konuma dayalı soruların öğrenciler tarafından cevaplanmasını kolaylaştıracaktır (alibrandi ve palmer, 2001; ergün ve ayday, 2006). coğrafi bilgi sistemleri, coğrafya derslerinde öğrenenlere mekânın üç boyutlu olarak sunulması ve görüntülenmesi imkânını sağlayacağı gibi, öğrenciler tarafından da doğal ve beşeri olayların çok boyutlu değerlendirilmesine fırsat tanıyacaktır. ayrıca, coğrafi bilgi sistemleri öğrencilerin coğrafya dersi ile ilgili modellemeler yapmalarına ve yoruma açık yeni haritalar üretmelerine imkân tanımaktadırlar (cameron, 2005). coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinin coğrafya öğretiminde kullanılmasının gerekliliği 2005 yıllında uygulamaya konulan yeni öğretim programlarında olduğu gibi yeni coğrafya dersi öğretim programları’nda da bilgiyi öğretmekten ziyade; bilgiye nasıl ulaşılacağının ve bilginin nasıl kullanılacağının öğretilmesi önem kazanmıştır (meb, 2005). coğrafya dersi öğretim programları’nın paradigmasına uygun olarak coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’nden coğrafya derslerinde yararlanılması, öğrencilerin; analiz ve sentez yapabilme, journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 126 eleştirel düşünme, problem çözme, coğrafi prensipleri uygulayarak sonuçlar çıkarma gibi becerilerinin geliştirilmesi sürecinde katkı sağlayacaktır (west, 2003; heafner, 2004; walker, 2004; baloğlu ve uğurlu, 2007). mevcut alanyazına göre coğrafya öğretiminde cbs kullanımının yararları genel olarak şu şekilde özetlenebilir: • matematiksel işlemler için hesap makinesine ne ölçüde ihtiyaç varsa mekânsal araştırma ve incelemelerde de cbs’ye de o ölçüde ihtiyaç vardır (baker, 2002). cbs enstrümanlarından yaralanarak araziye ait hesaplamalar, sorgulamamalar ve istatistik analizler kolaylıkla yapılabilmektedir. arazi eğim aralıklarına göre sınıflandırıldığında her eğim aralığının kapladığı alan kolaylıkla hesaplanabilir. • cbs, coğrafya derslerinde kazandırılması gereken temel becerilerden olan coğrafi sorgulamanın öğrencilere kazandırılması sürecinde önemli bir rol üstlenmektedir (baker, 2002; cameron, 2005; lee, 2005; tuna, 2008; aydoğmuş, 2010). aynı yere ait çok farklı değerler aynı ekranda görüntülenebilmekte ve birbirleriyle olan ilişkileri bu sayede sorgulanabilmektedir. örneğin; türkiye’deki deprem bölgeleri ile iller aynı ekranda çakıştırılarak kademe kademe iller gruplandırılabilmektedir. • cbs, coğrafi sorgulamanın tüm aşamalarında etkin olarak kullanılabilmektedir. cbs, öğrencilere dünyada yaşanan küresel problemlere coğrafya biliminin bakış açısı ile nasıl yaklaşıldığını ve bu bakış açısı ile çözüm önerilerinin nasıl geliştirileceğini öğretmede yardımcı olmaktadır (keiper, 1999; bednarz, 2000; drennon, 2005). • cbs teknolojisi, güncel yasamda karşılaşılan problemlerin çözümünde bilginin etkin bir şekilde kullanılmasını sağlamaktadır (baker, 2002; drennon, 2005). risk haritaları oluşturularak mevcut verilerden hareketle potansiyel risk bölgeleri belirlenebilir. • cbs ile konumsal veriler ve öznitelik verileri aynı anda analiz edilip sorgulanabilir ve istatistiksel olarak görselleştirilebilir. bu sayede coğrafya derslerinde; mekânsal verilerin cbs ortamında sorgulanarak analiz edilmesi, istenilen bilimsel erişiyi kolaylaştırmaktadır (baker, 2002; aksoy, 2004). coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinin coğrafya öğretiminde kullanılması öğrencilerin coğrafya dersine yönelik tutumlarını olumlu yönde etkilemektedir (baker, 2002, aladağ, 2006; uğurlu ve baloğlu, 2008;). ayrıca coğrafya derslerinde cbs kullanımı öğrencilerin coğrafya dersindeki akademik başarılarını artırmaktadır (heafner, 2004; bednarz ve drennon, 2005; schee, 2006). i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 127 coğrafi bilgi sistemleri dünya’da coğrafya eğitimcileri tarafından coğrafya derslerinde aktif olarak yıllardan beri kullanılmaktadır (freeman, 2003; cameron, 2005). ancak türkiye’de coğrafyacı eğitimcilerinin ve coğrafya öğretmenlerinin cbs ile tanışması henüz çok yenidir. coğrafya derslerinde coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’nin aktif olarak kullanılamamasının nedenleri arasında; coğrafi bilgi sistemleri için gerekli olan bilgisayar donanımının okullardaki yetersizliği, veri temininin güçlüğü, cbs eğitimini verecek kalifiye eleman yetersizliği ve ortaöğretimde coğrafya ders saatlerinin az olması gibi etkenler gösterilmektedir (şimşek, 2008; artvinli, 2009). aslında bu duruma coğrafya eğitimcilerinin ve öğretmenlerinin, coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’nin kullanımı noktasındaki bilgi ve beceri eksiklikleri ve coğrafya öğretmenlerinin coğrafya derslerinde kullanabilecekleri coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’yle geliştirilmiş öğretim materyallerinin yetersiz olması da kaynaklık etmektedir (freeman, 2003; erdoğan, 2009). bu nedenle coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’nin coğrafya öğretmenleri tarafından tanınması, öğretmenlerin cbs hakkındaki bilgi, beceri eksikliklerinin giderilmesi gerekmekte ve coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’nin coğrafya öğretmenleri tarafından aktif olarak coğrafya derslerinde kullanımı yönündeki tüm engellerin ortadan kaldırılması sağlanmalıdır. ayrıca öğretmenlerin, coğrafya dersi öğretim programlarında yer alan öğrenme alanları ve kazanımlarla bağlantılı, cbs’nden faydalanarak, etkinlik temelli öğretim materyali geliştirmeleri ve cbs’nin coğrafya derslerinde etkili olarak kullanılması için gereken her türlü ortam oluşturmaları gerekir (moore, brady ve diğerleri, 2004; tschirner ve o'brien, 2006). çalışmanın önemi ve amacı bu çalışmada coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’nin coğrafya öğretmenleri tarafından tanınmasına katkı sağlayarak, coğrafya öğretmenlerinin cbs ile coğrafya dersi öğretim programları’nda yer alan kazanımlarla doğrudan ilişkili öğretim materyallerinin nasıl hazırlanacağı hakkında temel bir öngörü kazanmasını sağlamak amaçlanmıştır. coğrafya öğretmenleri ve eğitimcileri tarafından coğrafi bilgi sistemleri kullanılarak coğrafya dersleri için öğretim materyali hazırlanma yeterliliğinin kazanılması, mevcut olan öğretim materyali eksikliğinin giderilmesi noktasında önemli bir rol oynayacaktır. coğrafya dersleri i̇çin örnek materyal hazırlama süreci coğrafya eğitimi alanında en yaygın olarak coğrafi bilgi sistemleri yazılımlarından arc gis programı kullanılmaktadır. arc gis programı, esri firması tarafından 1981 yılında yazılımı gerçekleştirilen veri tabanı temelli, güçlü ve esnek yapıya sahip bir cbs yazılımıdır. sektörün önde gelen yazılımlarından biridir. bu çalışmada arc gis programının seçilmesinin journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 128 en önemli nedeni, kullanıcıya güçlü bir coğrafi veri yönetim ortamı sunuyor olmasıdır. arc gis programı, dinamik aynı zamanda esnek bir veri yönetimi tabanına sahiptir. ayrıca program, veri dönüşümlerine de olanak sağladığı için bu yönüyle başka programlarda üretilmiş verilerin kullanılmasını da kolaylaştırmaktadır. arc gis programının farklı uygulamalar için alt modüllere sahip olması programa daha işlevsel bir yapı kazandırmaktadır. arc map, arc catalog ve arc toolbox gibi temel uygulamalardan oluşan programda, örneğin arc map bileşeninde konumsal verilerin görüntülenmesi, sorgulanması ve analizi yapılır veya harita üzerinde çalışarak kartografik amaçlı çıktı üretilebilir. konumsal verilerin yönetildiği, harita dosyalarının yerleştirildiği bölüm ise arc katalog’dur. arc toolboox ise menü tabanlı bindirme, tampon, dönüşüm gibi işlemlerin yapıldığı bölümdür (yomralıoğlu, 2005). bu çalışmada coğrafi bilgi sistemleri yazılımlarından olan arc gis programıyla coğrafya öğretiminde kullanılabilecek öğrettim materyali hazırlanma süreci ayrıntılı olarak ifade edilmiştir. bu yönüyle çalışma coğrafi bilgi sistemlerini kullanarak öğretim materyalleri hazırlanma aşamalarının temel düzeyde coğrafya öğretmenlerine ve coğrafya eğitimcilerine tanıtılması noktasında örnek teşkil etmektedir. kâğıt haritaların sayısallaştırılması bu çalışmada coğrafya dersleri için öğretim materyali hazırlama aşamaları dünyada yaygın olarak kullanılan ve cbs enstrümanlarından biri olan arc gis programı kullanılarak hazırlanmıştır. kâğıt haritaların sayısallaştırılması süreci özellikle sayısal verilerine ulaşamadığımız yerlere ait verilerin hazırlanmasında ve fiziki ve beşeri coğrafya konularıyla ilgili ders materyali geliştirilmesi sürecinde önemli bir rol üstlenmektedir. kâğıt haritaların sayısallaştırılması yöntemiyle coğrafya dersinde kullanılabilecek çok basit uygulamalar ve materyaller hazırlanabileceği gibi, daha karmaşık uygulamalarda tasarlanabilir. örneğin; bu yöntemle dünya’daki fay hatları ile levha sınırlarını ve deprem bölgelerini aynı ekranda üst üste bindirilmiş bir şekilde görselleştirmek ve aralarında ki ilgiyi görmek olanaklıdır. aşağıda kâğıt haritaların sayısallaştırılması süreci; koordinatlandırma, projeksiyon seçimi, ekran sayısallaştırması, yüzey üretimi ve üç boyutlu görüntülerin elde edilmesi olmak üzere beş temel basamakta ifade edilmiştir. coğrafya öğretmenleri arc gis programı ile belirtilen aşamaları takip ederek coğrafi konulara yönelik çok sayıda öğretim materyali geliştirebilirler. koordinatlandırma ve projeksiyon seçimi i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 129 tiff veya jpeg formatında taranmış ve dijital ortama aktarılmış kâğıt haritanın öncelikle arc gis programı içinde yer alan arc map’te koordinatlandırılması gerekir. bu işlem aynı haritayı kullanarak, üretilecek diğer haritaları farklı katmanlar şeklinde aynı ekranda görebilmemiz için de gereklidir. örneğin, türkiye’deki fay hatları ile deprem bölgelerini gösteren ayrı ayrı iki haritayı tek bir haritada gösterebilmek için bu işlemin gerçekleştirilmiş olması gerekir. koordinatlandırma işlemi arc map’te viev (görünüm) başlığı altında (görüntü 2) ve araç çubukları sekmesinde georeferencing (koordinatlandırma) uzantısı ile yapılır (görüntü 3). görüntü 2 (birinci adım): arc map’te viev (görünümü ) görüntü 3 (i̇kinci adım): araç çubukları adlı sekmede bulunan georeferencing (koordinatlandırma) işlemi journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 130 koordinatlandırma işlemi aslında haritanın en az üç köşesine ait “x” (boylam) “y” (enlem) değerleri girerek haritayı yeniden tanımlama işlemidir (görüntü-4). bu işlem temel haritadan oluşturulacak diğer haritaların da çakışmalarını sağlayacaktır. görüntü 4 (üçüncü adım): x (boylam), y (enlem) değerlerinin harita üzerinde tanımlanması koordinatlandırma işleminde “x” yerine haritanın boylam değeri (dikey yazılı rakamlar), “y” yerine ise enlem değerleri (yatay yazılı olan rakamlar) yazılır (görüntü 5). görüntü 5 (dördüncüadım): koordinatlandırma işleminde haritada “x” ve “y” yerine yazılacak rakamlar. koroordinat değerlerinin girilme işlemini haritaya ait en az üç köşe noktasına uygulamak gerekir (görüntü 6). nokta sayısı arttıkça kordinatlandırma işleminin doğruluk oranıda artar. i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 131 görüntü 6 (beşinci adım): koordinatlandırma işleminin en az üç köşe noktasına uygulanması gerekir. koordinatlandırma işleminin sonunda “rectify” et (görüntü 7) komutuyla haritalar önceden açılmış bir dosyaya tif formatında kaydedilmelidir. çünkü daha sonraki işlemlerde rectify edilmiş haritalar kullanılacaktır. görüntü 7 (altıncı adım): koordinatları girilen harita “rectifiy” komutu ile kaydedilir. projeksiyon seçimi arcmap’te koordinatlandırılan haritaya ya da haritalara uygun bir projeksiyon seçilmesi gerekmektedir. uygun projeksiyon üreteceğiniz haritalardaki hata payını azaltacağı gibi çok sayıda haritayla çalıştığınızda bu haritaların programda aynı bütünü oluşturacak şekilde tek bir harita olarak görüntülenmesini de sağlayacaktır. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 132 projeksiyon seçimi işlemi için arv viev’de arc catalaog’u açarak koordinatları girilen (rectify) haritanın, open attribute table (öznitelik) tablosundan raster dataset bölümünde projeksiyon tanımlamasının yapılması gerekir (görüntü 8). görüntü 8 (yedinci adım): projeksiyon tanımlamasının yapılacağı raster dataset bölümünde edit (düzenle) seçeneğinin olduğu bölüm. edit (düzenle) aracı ile spatial reference properties (mekânsal analiz özellikleri) bölümünde projeksiyonun yazılarak koordinatlandırma işlemi tamamlanmalıdır (görüntü 9). görüntü 9 (sekizinci adım): projeksiyon türünün spatial reference properties (mekânsal analiz özellikleri) bölümünde projeksiyonun belirlenmesi. ekran sayısallaştırması i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 133 koordinat ve projeksiyon tanımı yapılan harita üzerinde sorgulamalarla yada grafiklerin oluşturulabilmesi için haritada işlenecek verilerin niteliklerinin tanımlanması gerekir. örneğin; haritada izohipsler ve yollar çizilecekse çizgi şeklinde; binalar üç boyutlu gösterilecekse poligon olarak tanımlanmalıdır. bu tanımlama işlemi; sayısallaştırma sırasında çizilen her izohipsin yükselti değerinin, oluşturulan bu tabloya yazılmasıyla gerçekleştirilir. arc map’te sayısallaştırılacak harita yeniden açılarak, editor (düzenleyici) araç çubuğu kullanılarak (görüntü 10) izohipsler ekran üzerinde yeniden çizilir. çizilen her izohipsin yükselti değeri öznitelik tablosuna da kaydedilir. bu durum cbs programlarını cad türü çizim programlarından ayıran en temel özelliklerden biridir. görüntü 10 (dokuzuncu adım): editor (düzenle) aracıyla izohipslerin yeniden çizildiği kağıt harita. yüzey üretimi yükselti değerlerinin girildiği verilerden eğim, bakı gibi haritalar üretilemeyeceği gibi üç boyutlu görüntülerde elde edilemez. çünkü izohipsler çizildiğinde sadece çizgi üzerindeki yükseltiler belirtilmiş ancak izohipsler arasında kalan yerlere ait yükselti değerleri girilmemiştir. bu nedenle tüm yüzeye ait yükselti değerlerine ihtiyaç vardır. burada yüksekli değerlerinin de girildiği izohipslerden yararlanarak farklı yüzeyler elde edilmesi gerekir. kısaca özetlemek gerekirse, çizilen izohipslerin tin’e (triangulated irregular network) “düzensiz üçgenler ağı” olarak da ifade edilebilen yüzeye dönüştürülmesi gerekir. bu sayede eğim, bakı, yükseklik, iki ve üç boyutlu (3d) haritalar da üretilebilir. tin üretebilmek için arc map’te ki ana menüden araçlar üzerinde 3d analyst uzantısının seçili olması gerekir. arcmap’te 3d analyst de tin oluştur (create /modif tin create tin from features) seçeneğini kullanarak izohipslerden tin üretebilirsiniz (görüntü11). journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 134 görüntü 11 (onuncu adım): i̇zohipsler arc map te tin oluştur seçeneği (create /modif tin – create tin from features) kullanılarak tin’e dönüştürülmesi. çok basit şekliyle tin renklendirme yoluyla yapılmış bir fiziki harita olarak ta değerlendirilebilir (görüntü 12). tin üzerinde renklerin hangi yükselti aralıklarını karşıladığını da görmek mümkündür. görüntü 12 incelendiğinde ekranın sağında renklerin karşılığı olan yükselti aralıkları görülebilir. görüntü 12 (onbirinci adım): i̇zohipslerden üretilmiş tin üç boyutlu görüntülerin elde edilmesi kabartma haritalardan yararlanarak arazideki dik yamaçlar, heyelan aynaları ve vadi gibi jeomorfolojik ünitelerin ayırt edilmesi kolaydır (demirci, 2008a). böylece coğrafya dersinde anlatılan farklı konular sözel ifadeler olmaktan çıkmış, görsel araçlarda kullanılarak i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 135 somutlaştırılmıştır. örneğin vadi, sadece oluk biçimli bir sözel ifade olarak kalmamış bilgisayar ekranında sanal bir şekilde içerisinde gezinti yapılabilecek bir şekilde somutlaştırılmıştır. üç boyutlu (3d) görüntüler arc gis programı içerisinde arc scean uygulamasında tin verisi işlenerek elde edilir. zaten arc scan’de tin açıldığında ekranda üç boyutlu (3d) olarak görüntülenecektir (görüntü 13). üç boyutlu görüntü üzerinde izohipslerde görülür. tin üzerine gelerek farenin sağ tuşu ile propertis (katman özellikleri) seçeneği açıldığında, kabartı artırılabilir. görüntü 13 (onikinci adım): arc scan’de oluşturulmuş 3d (üç boyutlu) görüntünün elde edilmesi. properties (katman özellikleri) bölümünde base heigh (temel yükseltiler) seçeneğinde z unıt conversion bölümünde (birim dönüşümü) değer bölümüne “3” yazarak dikey olarak abartıyı artırmak mümkündür (görüntü 14). journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 136 görüntü 14 (onüçüncü adım): tin’e ait propertis (katman özellikleri) özelliğinden yararlanarak kabartı z unıt conversion (birim dönüşümü) bölümünden artırılması. sırasıyla aynı işlemleri tekrarlayarak üç boyutlu görüntü üzerine akarsuları, binaları ve hazırlanan diğer veriler eklenebilir, bu görüntüler üzerinde yorum yapılabilir (görüntü-15). görüntü, fare kullanarak yaklaştırılıp, uzaklaştırılabilir; aynı zamanda farklı açılardan da bakılabilir. bu özellik, coğrafya derslerinde, haritada ölçek konusu işlenirken de kullanılabilir. harita üzerinde “izohipslerin sıklaştığı yerler eğimin fazla, seyrek olduğu yerler ise eğimin az olduğunu ifade eder” sözel ifadesini bu görüntüler üzerinde öğrencilere görsel olarak sunulabilir (görüntü 16-17 ). görüntü 15: i̇zohips, akarsular ve binaların eklendiği üç boyutlu görüntü. i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 137 görüntü 16: binaların üç boyutlu gösterildiği, izohipslerin de üzerinde yer aldığı aynı yere ait daha büyük ölçekli haritaya ait görüntü. görüntü 15, 16 ve 17’de aynı bölgeye ait farklı ölçeklere sahip haritalar sunulmuştur. fare yardımıyla görüntü yaklaştırıldığında, görülen alan azalmakta ancak ayrıntı artmaktadır. alan üzerindeki evlerin belirginleştiği de görülmektedir. programın bu özelliğinden yararlanarak ölçek farkının harita çizimine etkisi öğrenenlere somut bir şekilde aktarılabilir. görüntü 17: binaların, akarsu ve izohipslerin eklendiği daha ayrıntılı üç boyutlu görüntü. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 138 materyallerin coğrafya derslerinde kullanımına örnekler çalışmanın bu bölümünde gerek ekran sayısallaştırılması aşamasında gerekse ekran sayısallaştırılması sonrasında elde edilen verilerin kullanılabileceği bazı etkinlikler açıklanacaktır. haritalarda ölçek kavramı ölçek bir haritanın küçültme oranıdır. bu nedenle haritaya aktarılacak ayrıntıya ve çalışılacak alanın büyüklüğüne göre harita çiziminde farklı ölçekler kullanılır. ölçek kavramı işlenirken genelde “aynı bölgenin farklı ölçekler yardımıyla haritasını yapmanın, o bölgeye farklı yükseltilerden bakıldığında gördüklerimizle benzerlik gösterdiği” şeklinde ifade edildiği görülür. yani yükseklere çıktıkça görüş alanımız artar, ayrıntı azalır, hata oranımız yükselir şeklinde sözel ifadelerle vurgular yapılabilir. bu ifadenin somutlaştırılmasında; farklı ölçeklerle yapılmış aynı bölgenin haritalarına örnek olarak görüntü 15, 16, 17 deki yazılım çıktıları kullanılabilir. görüntü 15, 16 ve 17’de aynı bölgeye ait farklı ölçeklere sahip haritalar sunulmuştur. fare yardımıyla görüntü yakınlaştırıldığında, görülen alan azalmakta, ayrıntı artmakta, evlerin belirginleştiği görülmektedir. programın bu özelliğinden yararlanılarak ölçek farkının harita çizimine etkisi öğrencilere somut bir şekilde aktarılabilir. harita çeşitleri – renklendirme yöntemi i̇le yapılan haritalar arggis programı ile coğrafya derslerinde kullanılabilecek örnek materyallerden biriside tin verisinden yararlanılarak hazırlanabilecek renklendirme yöntemiyle yapılmış haritalardır. renklendirme yöntemiyle yapılmış haritalarda renkler belirlenmiş bir yükselti aralığını ifade ederler. bu amaçla renklerin farklı yükseltileri gösterdiğine örnek olarak elde edilen tin verisinden elde edilen görüntüler kullanılabilir. bu şekliyle, tin, renklendirme yoluyla yapılmış bir fiziki harita olarak ta değerlendirilebilir (görüntü 12). tin üzerinde renklerin hangi yükselti aralıklarını karşıladığını da görmek mümkündür. görüntü 12 incelendiğinde ekranın sağında renklerin karşılığı olan yükselti aralıkları görülebileceği gibi, tin kullanılarak çıktı alındığında renkler lejant kısmında da ayrıca gözlenebilir. program içerisinde öz nitelik tablosundan faydalanılabilir ya da ekran üzerinde renkler istenilen yükselti aralık değerlerine göre yeniden düzenlenebilirler. i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 139 sonuç ve öneriler coğrafi bilgi sistemleri ile ne yapabileceğinizden çok neyi hayal ettiğiniz önemlidir. cbs’nin beyin cerrahisinde dahi kullanılıyor olması herhangi bir cbs kitabının veya konu ile ilgili bir makalenin tek başına programın yeteneklerini ifade edebilmesi mümkün değildir. coğrafya öğretmenlerinin cbs kulanım becerisi artıkça farklı yöntemler kullanarak uydu görüntüleri, hava fotoğrafları gibi veriler sayesinde çok farklı öğretim materyali geliştirilebilir. hatta coğrafya öğretmenlerinin günümüzde kullanımı oldukça yaygılaşan google eart’den elde edilen bir görüntüyü bile cbs ile sayısallaştırarak, sorgulamaların yapılabileceği bir sayısal haritaya dönüştürülebilir. elde edilen veriler ve öğretim materyalleri öğretmenler tarafından, öğrencilerin kullanımına sunulabilir. bu çalışmada, örnek bir uygulama yoluyla coğrafya öğretmenlerinin arc gis programını kullanarak nasıl öğretim materyali hazırlayabileceklerine yönelik bir model sunmak amaçlanmıştır. bu kapsamda örnek teşkil etmesi açışından çalışmada, kâğıt haritaların ekran sayısallaştırılması süreci ile harita, yer şekilleri ve yerleşme gibi konulara yönelik öğretim materyali hazırlanma aşamaları adım adım ifade edilmiştir. coğrafya öğretmenleri tarafından bu çalışmada belirtilen aşamalar takip edilerek, coğrafi konulara yönelik çok sayıda öğretim materyali geliştirilmesi mümkündür. çalışmada hazırlanan öğretim materyalleri ve elde edilen üç boyutlu görüntü yakınlaştırılıp uzaklaştırılarak ölçeğin harita çizimine olan etkisi vurgulanabilir. yüksekten bakıldığında görüş alanımızın artması, ayrıntının azalması gibi kavramlar da bu örnek üzerinde somutlaştırılabilir. yine üç boyutlu görüntü üzerinde yer alan izohipslerden yararlanarak yer şekillerinin bu yöntemle nasıl gösterildiği, örneklerle görselleştirilebilir. i̇zohipslerle farklı yer şekillerinin nasıl gösterildiği de bu görüntülerle vurgulanabilir ayrıca yer şekillerinin işlendiği bir derste akarsu vadisi, ova plato gibi şekiller sözel ifade edilmek dışında somut olarak da sunulabilir. milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından sosyal bilgiler ve coğrafya öğretmenlerine coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’nin tanıtılması ve öğretmenlerin cbs yazılımlarını etkin olarak kullanabilmelerini sağlamak amacıyla hizmet içi eğitim çalışmalarının yapılması gerekmektedir. coğrafya ve sosyal bilgiler alanında öğrenim gören öğretmen adaylarına coğrafi bilgi sistemlerine yönelik teorik ve uygulamalı derslerin verilmesi yararlı olacaktır. cbs uygulamalarının öğretim süreci ile bütünleştirilmesi ve öğretmenler tarafından kullanımının yaygınlaştırılması amacıyla okullardaki cbs yazılımları ile bu yazılımlara uygun donanımlara sahip bilgisayar eksikliğinin giderilmesi gerekmektedir. milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından coğrafya dersi öğretim programları’na coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’ne journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 140 ilişkin uygulamaların, entegre edilmesi, coğrafya dersi öğretmen kılavuz ve öğrenci çalışma ve ders kitaplarında coğrafi bilgi sistemleri ile hazırlanan öğretim materyallerine daha fazla yer verilmesi etkili coğrafya öğretimi noktasında önemli bir adım olacaktır. cbs ile geliştirilen öğretim materyallerinin sosyal bilgiler ve coğrafya dersleri ile bütünleşebilmesini için cbs’nin eğitim-öğretim sürecinde aktif olarak kullanılmasını engelleyen faktörlerin belirlenmesine yönelik araştırmaların yapılmasına ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. coğrafya ve sosyal bilgiler derslerine coğrafi bilgi sistemleri ile geliştirilen öğretim materyallerinin kullanılmasının etkilerini belirlemeye yönelik betimsel ve deneysel araştırmalar yapılabileceği gibi, özellikle nitel araştırma yöntemleriyle desenlenmiş çalışmaların yapılması yararlı olacaktır. kaynaklar / references aladağ, e. (2007). i̇lköğretim 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde coğrafi bilgi sistemleri kullanımının öğrencilerin akademik başarı ve derse karşı motivasyonlarına etkisi. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, gazi üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, ankara. akbulut, g. (2004). coğrafya öğretimi ve yaratıcı düşünce. c.ü. sosyal bilimler dergisi, (28)2, 215-223. aksoy, b. (2004). coğrafî bilgi sistemleri uygulamalarının öğretimi üzerine bir model. kastamonu eğitim dergisi, 12(1), 179-190. alibrandi, m. & palmer, j. (2001). making a place for technology in teacher education with geographic information systems (gis). contemporary issues in technology and teacher education,1(4) 483-500. artvinli, e. (2009). coğrafya öğretmenlerinin coğrafi bilgi sistemleri (cbs)’ne ilişkin yaklaşımları. balıkesir üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 12(22),40-57. audet, r. & luwig, g. (2000). gis in schools. redlands, ca: esri pres. aydoğmuş, m. y. (2010) coğrafi bilgi sistemleri (cbs) uygulamalarının coğrafya dersinde öğrencilerin i̇lgi, motivasyon ve öğrenme düzeylerine etkisi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. baker, t. r. (2002). the effects of geographic information system (gis) technologies on students’ attitudes, self-efficacy and achievement in middle school science classrooms. (unpublished phd thesis), kansas, usa. i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 141 baloğlu ve uğurlu, n. (2008). a new example for the use of ınformation technologies in education: geographic information systems. ankara university journal of faculty of educational sciences, 41(2), 81-95. bednarz s. w. & schee, j. v. (2006). europe and the united states: the ımplementation of geographic information systems in secondary education in two contexts technology. pedagogy and education, 15(2), 191–205. bednarz, s. w. (2000). connecting gis and problem based learning. environmental systems research, (1), 89-101. burrough, p. a. (1986). principles of geographic systems for land resources assessment. oxford: clarendon. cameron, t. (2005). geographic information system technologies as an educational tool in ontario secondary schools. unpublished phd thesis, quenn’s university, usa. crabb, k. d. (2001). case study of geographic information system integration in a high school world geography classroom. unpublished phd thesis, university of georgia, usa. demirci, a. (2008a). öğretmenler için cbs. i̇stanbul: fatih üniversitesi yayınları. demirci, a. (2008b). coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinin ilk ve ortaöğretim coğrafya derslerinde bir öğretim aracı olarak kullanılması: önem, ilke ve metotlar. marmara üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü öneri dergisi, 28(7), 377-388. demirci, a. (2007). coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinin yüksek öğretim coğrafya eğitimi ile entegrasyonu: başarılı uygulamalar için bir yol haritası. marmara coğrafya dergisi, 15(1),207-228. demirci, a. (2004). türkiye ve abd’de ortaöğretim coğrafya öğretim sisteminin müfredatlar, metotlar ve kullanılan araç-gereçler açısından değerlendirilmesi. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. drennon, c. (2005). teaching geographic information systems in a problem-based learning environment. journal of geography in higher education, 29(3), 385-402. erdoğan h. (2009). ortaöğretim coğrafya derslerinde doğal afetler konularının coğrafi bilgi sistemleri uygulamaları i̇le öğretimi. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. freeman, d. (2003). gis in secondary school. teaching geography, 28(1), 3638. günay, s. ve ergün-can, a. (2006). ortaöğretim coğrafya derslerinde yapılandırmacı program yaklaşımı ve cbs etkinliklerine bir örnek. ege coğrafya dergisi, 15, 73-86. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 122-143 142 heafner, t. (2004). using technology to motivate students to learn social studies. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 4(1), 42-53. johansson, t. & pellikka, p. (2005). interactive geographical information systems (gis) applications for european upper secondary schools. recent research developments in learning technologies, 2, 505–509. keiper, a. t. (1999). gis for elementary students: an ınquiry into a new approach to learning geography. journal of geography, 98(2). kerski, j. j. (2000). the implementation and effectiveness of geographic information systems technology and methods in secondary education. unpublished phd thesis, unıversıty of colorado, usa. koçak, h. (2007). yeni coğrafya öğretim programında bazı tarım konularının öğretiminde coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinin kullanımı. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, afyon kocatepe üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, afyon. lee, j. w. (2005). effect of gis learning on spatial ability. unpublished phd thesis, a&m university, texas, usa. lemberg, d. & stoltman, p. j. (2001). geography teaching and the new technologies. boston university journal of education, 181(3), 63-67. moore, s., brady, j., bursek, j. & francis, l. (2004). an ocean of ıssues: designing gisbased lessons for secondary schools. 4th annual esri education user conference, 710 august, san diego. özgen n. ve oban, r. (2008). yapılandırmacı öğretimde coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinin (cbs) kullanımı ve yüksek öğretim kademelerindeki coğrafya derslerinde uygulanabilirliği. uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi/the journal of international social research, 1(5). pitts, l. (2005). gis in high schools a case for teaching geography through technology. unpublished ms thesis, california state university, usa. şimşek, n. (2008). sosyal bilgiler dersinde coğrafi bilgi sistemleri (cbs) teknolojisinin kullanılması. kastamonu eğitim dergisi, 16(1), 191-198. tschirner, s. & o'brien, m. (2006). tegis –technology in education with gis 'schools in the digital age'. presentation at the national conference 2006 of the computer education society of ireland cesi. turoğlu, h. (2000). coğrafi bilgi sistemleri’nin temel esasları, i̇stanbul: çantay yayınları. i̇skender dölek & selçuk beşir demi̇r 143 tuna, f. (2008). ortaöğretim coğrafya derslerinde proje tabanlı öğrenimi desteklemek amacı i̇le coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinden (cbs) yararlanma. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. walker, s. l. (2004). gis and students as scientists, constructivist approaches to science curriculum restructuring. geographic learning environments monograph, no. 1. west, b. (2003). student attitudes and the ımpact of gis on thinking skills and motivation. journal of geography, 102(6), 267-274. xioamin, q. (2006). geographic information technologies: an influence on the spatial ability of university students ?.unpublished phd thesis, texas state university, texas, usa. yomralıoğlu, t. (2005). coğrafi bilgi sistemleri temel kavramlar ve uygulamalar, trabzon: akademi kitapevi. giriş coğrafya dersleri i̇çin örnek materyal hazırlama süreci materyallerin coğrafya derslerinde kullanımına örnekler sonuç ve öneriler elitist education: historical experience of the russian and tatar peoples www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1),267-280 267 elitist education: historical experience of the russian and tatar peoples farida gabidullina1, radik galiullin2, ilnara khakimova3 & ilsur mansurov4 abstract the article considers the essence and historical way of elitist education of the russian federation's peoples by the example of russian and tatar educational institutions. the article clarifies the concept of an "elite educational institution" and exposes the role of the state and sponsors in ensuring the activities of educational institutions. the work is based on the method of analysis of theoretical literature, periodization, and the comparative historical method. statement of the problem is determined by the fact that there are many unresolved questions about this type of education: the concept of "elitist education" needs clarification; there is a necessity to identify and create pedagogical conditions for the development of modern elite schools, which can be implemented only with the support of the historical past. key words: elitist education, female education, elite, madrasah. introduction reforms and innovations in the education system have become the starting point for a lot of new scientific works and studies that consider the problems of education in different aspects. nevertheless, elitist education stays out of the attention of researchers, although it is an effective mechanism for training talented and active youth – the future elite of the country (sousa et al., 2019). one more problem is the inconsistency in interpreting the term "elitist education", which is understood either as education for gifted children (e. durkheim) or as education for children from a certain (upper, elite) social stratum of society. in the authors' opinion, the most objective understanding of the purpose of elitist education is the creation of favorable pedagogical conditions that contribute to the development of natural preconditions into the extraordinary abilities of a person, which ultimately should result in public progress (mingazova et al., 2017; shandruk et al., 2019; franco and bedin, 2019). the generalization of the historical experience of elite schools and 1 yelabuzhsky institute of kazan (privolzhsky) federal university, tatarstan, russian federation 2 naberezhnye chelny state pedagogical university, tatarstan, russian federation 3 naberezhnye chelny state pedagogical university, tatarstan, russian federation 4 sterlitamak branch of the bashkir state university, bashkortostan, russian federation journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 267-280 the analysis of tendencies in elitist education of modern russia have great importance for science and the teaching practice. the goal of this study is to identify conceptual foundations, main trends and pedagogical conditions for the improvement of elitist education at different stages of its historical development (lysytsia et al., 2019). to achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks: 1. to reveal the essence of the concept of "elitist education"; 2. to identify the specifics of functioning of elite educational institutions in different historical epochs (in pre-revolutionary russia, in the soviet and post-soviet periods); 3. to reveal the trends in the development of modern elite educational institutions. literature review the analysis of the existing theoretical literature has shown that different researchers understand the words "elite", "elitist education" in different ways. however, experts’ opinions on this subject are divided. kryshtanovskaya writes in the work "anatomy of the russian elite": "i refer to the elite people who make national decisions. often, these people are in the highest public positions. but sometimes this group included those who exerted great influence on the political process because of their richness. i refer the following groups to the elite: 1) top leadership of the country ("politburo"); 2) the government; 3) parliament; 4) regional elite" (kryshtanovskaya, 2005). afanasyev believes that it is not quite right to accept only the upper stratum of the political class as elite. according to this scientist, the country needs a developing elite, which would include the rating and status tops of social groups such as senior officials and deputies, army officers and other representatives of public authorities and management; owners of enterprises and companies of large, medium and small businesses (business representatives); heads of structural divisions of private and public companies (management representatives); as well as specialists of law, science and education, health, mass information (afanasyev, 2009). due to different interpretations of the concept of "elite", researchers mean different types of education under the term "elitist education". samartseva offers to make the distinction between elite education and elitist education. under the term elitist education, the researcher implies "a closed system of higher education, intended for small social strata, provided at privileged gabidullina et al. educational institutions, the access to which is limited, and admission is based on belonging to a certain social elite (blood, wealth, power)" (samartseva, 2012). the concept of elite education in the interpretation of samartseva sounds like "an open system of higher education, which is available to representatives of different sectors of society with high intellectual abilities and talents, regardless of belonging to the social elite" (samartseva, 2012). the same opinion is expressed in nazaryeva’s work: "an elite school is an open-type secondary educational institution, i.e. accessible to the majority, the purposes of which are aimed at revealing a person’s individual abilities, education of a socially active personality responsible for his/her actions and decisions leading to self-upbringing and bringing high moral and spiritual requirements" (nazaryeva, 2008). regardless of the student’s social status, v.n. ivanov sees the main feature of elitist education in the fact that it acts as the main element of the educational system, which specifically creates conditions for the development of natural prerequisites. the scientist writes: "the main purpose of the elite school is the creation of special, optimal conditions contributing to the growth of natural preconditions to the extraordinary abilities of the individual, ensuring the process of his or her physical and spiritual formation and socialization as the elite of society" (ivanov, 1999). the ideas of foreign researchers regarding the role of elitist education in society are of interest. the german sociologist and philosopher karl mannheim, one of the founders of the sociology of knowledge in the 20th century, believed that "the role of the public schools should certainly be to act as the preservers of the valuable elements in the cultural inheritance and also as the recipients of that fresh stimulus and vitality which seems always to be the quality of rising classes" (mannheim, 2010, p. 583). manheim argues against providing the possibility to study at public schools, boarding schools, etc. only to children from privileged classes; he highly appreciates the mutually enriching communication of adolescents from different social strata. the ideas of differentiation of elitist education are developed in the works by the sociologist jose ortega y gasset; he believes that it is impossible to adopt the experience of even the best school or university because it is closely interrelated to the society in which it was formed (ortega y gasset, 2005). the work by the french sociologist pierre bourdieu "elite schools in the field of power" is developed around the key concepts of "power field", "symbolic violence", "cultural capital", etc. according to bourdieu, the education system participates in the legitimation of the unequal distribution of cultural capital between different social groups. pierre bourdieu also pays attention journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 267-280 to the problem of education of gifted young people, believing that the idea of "gift" is closely related to the idea of early development (bourdieu, 1996, p. 20). the works devoted to the history of education are worth a special mention (alajmi, 2019; nagimzhanova et al., 2019). in the work on the history of egyptian education, the authors note that the priestly duties were taught after school as part of advanced apprenticeship in the temple; according to another version, it is assumed that children who were to become priests were trained at separate, special schools (lazaridis, 2010). oliven and bello discuss the history of elitist education in brazil, which in its formation experienced a powerful impact of french elitist vocational schools established by napoleon (oliven & bello, 2016). however, the main attention is given to the educational policy that is pursued at the present time, new strategies aimed at attracting to the university and engaging in the academic community a new category of students – afro-brazilians and indians, who due to the lack of funding and a lower level of education at secondary schools previously were not able to enter prestigious universities and regarded a university only as a place for the education of the white elite. the authors reveal the difficulties and peculiarities of the struggle for higher education through the example of the life of afrobrazilian students who showed themselves as the best students in high school and were admitted to elite educational institutions. the french sociologist and philosopher e. durkheim already in the second half of the 19th century came up with the idea that any person who is constantly developing and self-improving, focusing on high humanistic ideals, can belong to the elite, that the purpose of education is the development in each individual of all the perfection to which he or she is capable (mazalov, 2013). it is likely that in some countries the understanding and, which is equally important, adoption of this idea have come relatively recently (bigagli, 2019; márque et al., 2018). in this work, the authors will adhere to the opinion that educational institutions can be considered elite if the selection of students there is based on intellectual abilities, talent, but not the class and social affiliation and if they focus on providing education of spiritual, moral, social and intellectual active citizens of the country. the functioning of elite schools for several centuries is explained by the fact that society needs elite educated persons who are able to lead the progressive development of its various social institutions and seeks to create the appropriate conditions for this (sagdieva et al., 2019). gabidullina et al. the formation and development of elitist education in russia has its own history. using e.y. samartseva’s work as a basis, the periodization of the development of this type of education in pre-revolutionary russia can be divided into the following periods: the first period: the end of the 18th – the first quarter of the 19th century; the second period: 1825-1855; the third period: 1855 – the first half of the 1890s; the fourth period: the first half of the 1890s – the beginning of the 20th century (samartseva, 2012). the first period is characterized by the fact that the main purpose of education was offered like the formation of a "new breed" of people. in 1811, "the decree of the imperial lyceum" was published. it should be noted that the educational potential of this institution had a sufficiently high level; the lyceum program harmoniously combined the human sciences and exact sciences and gave encyclopedic knowledge. perhaps, this explains the fact that so many talented people who graduated from it became famous in various spheres, not only in the public service but also in science and culture. the second period is characterized by the fact that at the moment the state established strict control over education. during the third period, the educational system was reformed, so that the elitist education received a powerful impulse for its development. as the researchers note, the purposes of elite education for the period were "the formation of young people with a high level of intelligence and culture, pronounced and persisting throughout life, the desire to serve russia in accordance with the specific and definite role of a loyal follower of the monarchy, a patriot of russia, law-obedient citizen and father (mother) of the family" (samartseva, 2012). the fourth period is characterized by a breakthrough in the development of the elitist education system, which achieved a qualitatively new level, including the creation of a system of higher education. pre-revolutionary elitist education is considered to be of high quality in the educational plans and is represented by such educational institutions as the imperial lyceum, the gymnasium of higher learning in nizhyn, the page corps, the boarding school for noblemen in moscow, the private gymnasium of l.i. polivanov, pavlov institute in st. petersburg, a private women’s high school of aristocratic type of princess obolenskaya in st. petersburg. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 267-280 it should be noted that state support, including material support, played a large role in the development of the above-mentioned educational institutions. thus, the smolny institute for noble maidens was founded by decree of empress catherine ii to give the state educated women, good mothers, useful members of the family and society. years later, such educational institutions began to appear all over the country. speaking about pre-revolutionary elitist education, it is necessary to consider the peculiarities of the formation of national elitist education. madrasahs in the cities of the volga region existed at least since the era of the golden horde, but were destroyed after the fall of the kazan and astrakhan khanates in the 1550s. the consequence of this policy is emphasized by gainutdin: "the process of eradicating the socially active, educated, thinking layer of the population, the fight against any expression of discontent in a particularly cruel way lasted for centuries, as a result of which not only madrasahs, but even primary schools disappeared" (gainutdin, 2013). the outstanding scientists of the 19th century r. fakhretdinov and s. mardzhani studied the ancient tatar written language, but did not find outstanding manuscripts of the tatar’s life for the period of 1555-1675 and even a piece of paper with a note about the life of tatars. only in the early 17th century, works that filled a serious gap in tatar literature were written and translated. the words "maktab", "madrasah" are mentioned in mawla coly’s poem of 1677 for the first time after the fall of the kazan khanate. in the first half of the 18th century, madrasahs began to carry out their activities in tashkichu, esterlibash, caryl, adai, and taisuganovo, that is, where the control of the authorities did not reach such proportions as in the center. the revival of education in the madrasah was led either by tatars, who often received education in muslim countries, or by immigrants from muslim countries, mainly from the caucasus and bukhara. material provision of madrasahs and schools was entirely provided by the people. gainutdin writes: "we can safely claim that the tatars, being colonial, powerless people, were forced to pay huge, robbery-like taxes to provide schools and madrasahs, the government had no involvement. in spite of this, those layers of the population who had at least some opportunity did not remain on the side of the provision and saving of schools and madrasahs. repair of village schools, teachers’ salaries ("friday sadaqah") – it all was paid by the village people" (gainutdin, 2013). in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century, many representatives of the tatar bourgeoisie provided financial support to madrasahs, as well as activities aimed at educating the people. the most prominent among these are the brothers ramievs, akchurins, khusainovs, saidashevs. initially, the madrasahs best known gabidullina et al. for the level of teaching and freedom were outside of kazan and kargaly – in kyshkar (arsky district), maccara (kukmorsky district), sterlibash (the urals), buy soon such prominent educational institutions as "marjane" (kazan, 1870), "muhammadiya" (kazan, 1882), "hussainia"(orenburg, 1890), "rasuliya" (troitsk, 1890) begin to implement their activities in major cities. the purpose of the madrasah is to prepare the spiritual and secular national elite. the success of the activity of the madrasah in achieving this purpose can be shown by the number of well-known personalities who studied in these madrasahs, as well as estimates of current scientists. thus, t. biktimirova sees "muhammadiya" like "madrasah, worthy of the status of the university" (biktimirova, 2017). the madrasah program assumed 12-year and, later, 14-year study. both religious (the study of the quran, hadith, hafiz (learning the quran by heart), history of islam, the foundations of shariah, islam and other religions, etc.) and secular subjects (russian language, arabic language, rules of turkic languages, calligraphy, literature, arithmetic, geography, history, drawing, geometry, history of the turkic people, rhythmic, rhetoric, the rules of partition of the inheritance, psychology, pedagogy, etc.) were studied there. students of "muhammadiya" produce their own newspapers, namely: "telescope", "manzaratul-gelam", "telcan". it is noteworthy that in the "muhammadiya" as in other madrasahs training was combined with the education of spiritual and moral qualities, as it was believed that training without the education of spirituality is a crime against the people. graduates of "muhammadiya" are such persons as khusain yamashev, mahmut dulat-gali, kamil jakub, galiaskar kamal, karim tinchurin, salih saidashev, fatih amirhan, naki isanbet, mazhit gafuri, fathi burnash, zarif bashari, ahmad ishaq, baki urmanche, fazyl tuikin, gybed nagaibak, galimzhan sarraf, burhan sarraf and others. such prominent figures as mazhit gafuri, hassan tufan, saifi kudash, shaikhzada babich, mansur hatipovic, sultan habashi and others trained in the madrasah "galiya". "muhammadiya" and "galiya" are significant, but not the only leading educational institutions of the 19th – early 20th centuries. it is worth saying about the madrasah "izh-bobya". before the bubi brothers and their sister mukhlisa bubi took charge of this madrasah, its educational system was not different from other similar educational institutions (husnutdinov et al., 2019a,b). due to the educational activities of nigmatullins-bubi, the madrasah became one of the most famous muslim schools in the volga region. the innovation was that the brothers sought to train not only competent religious persons but also agricultural workers and entrepreneurs. it was necessary to journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 267-280 radically change the entire curriculum and manuals to do this. it is worth saying about women’s education. the first women’s school was opened due to the efforts of mukhlisa bubi in the village of izh-bobya in the vyatka governorate. the bubi brothers also contributed to the establishment and development of women’s schools, and some of the subjects were taught by them, a bold step at that time, especially when it was taken into account that at the end of the 19th century the teaching of literacy to women was considered to be a sin. both mukhlisa abistai and the brothers had to deal with gossip, slandering their names, but there was a positive result: more and more students arrived from ufa, kazan, moscow, tashkent, tyumen, samarkand, simberi and other areas. girls were taught both religious and secular sciences; lessons on moral education were conducted. thus, the madrasah turns into a training center for teachers, scientists and cultural figures not only of the tatar people, but also of other turkic people of the russian empire. a. gavrilenko writes: "however, the admiration of the madrasah by the russian turks was not transferred to the officials of the ministry of national education of russia. the circular is sent out among them in which the madrasah is accused of spreading pan-islamist ideas" (3). the brothers were arrested, and after release one of them left for china, and the second went to ufa. the fate of their sister is tragic; she was falsely accused of participating in a nationalist movement and subsequently shot. the revolution of 1917 radically changes the fate of other madrasahs. the bolsheviks, standing for the education of atheistic society, could not allow the activities of educational institutions, where religious science was taught. thus, "hussainia" was transformed into an open soviet primary school in 1922. in the 1980s, the faculty of advanced training of bashkir state pedagogical institute was located in the building of the madrasah. now there is a high school in this building. the madrasah "galiya", which existed in ufa from 1906 to 1919 and carried out teaching at the level of higher education, was burned during the civil war, but later restored. the building underwent the following changes: men’s secondary school for bashkirs and tatars; tatar school no. 15; boarding school no. 92 for the mentally retarded. finally, in 2001, the building was transferred to the russian islamic university of the central spiritual administration of muslims of russia. the madrasah "muhammadiya" was closed in 1918; however, in 1993 it opened the door for students once again. today, the activity of the madrasah continues, but it is far from its former glory. graduates of madrasahs are sent to work in muslim meetings throughout the russian federation. gabidullina et al. in the soviet period, the system of elitist education underwent changes in accordance with the transformations that occurred at this stage of the country's history. by laying emphasis on equality as the main quality of the soviet state, the authorities at the time tried to establish the image of the proletarian personality as a model. elitism replaced egalitarianism. a separate stage in the development of elitist education in the soviet period is the period of 1960s-1980s. elitist education again begins its development; "the growing value of the results of activity of elitist education as a mechanism of personal and social development, as well as the positive experience of its institutions, contributed to the recognition by the political and administrative elite of the importance of creating schools for gifted children (with in-depth study of subjects), as well as enhancing the role of higher education in the preparation of "national talents" and high-status professionals (cultural elite)" (oliven, bello, 2016, pp. 17-18). methods we used the following tools of cabinet phases of design research: preparation, structuring, analysis and synthesis. some methods of data collection, processing and analysis are represented in the article too. to achieve the goal and solve the problems we collected secondary and primary data by means of intramethod way, the method of observation on this problem. data processing was carried out through generalization, explanation, analysis and synthesis. to determine the features of the functioning of elitist educational institutions of the russian and tatar peoples in different historical eras, a multidimensional analysis of the data was carried out, using comparative-historical and system-typological methods that allowed to identify and compare the levels of evolution, changes in the phenomenon under consideration and determine the trends of its development. the comparative-historical method contributes to a more complete coverage of the history of elitist education in russia, to identify the specifics of elitist educational institutions of both russian and tatar peoples. system-typological approach makes it possible to analyze elitist education within the framework of this study as a complex, open and flexible system, which tends to change according to various periods of the historical development of society. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 267-280 results and discussion the concept of “elitist education” is binary. we tend to the following interpretation of the term “elitist education”an open system of higher education, where representatives of different sectors of society with high intellectual abilities and talents can get it not paying attention to their belonging to the social elite. the purpose of the elitist school is to create special, optimal conditions that contribute to the outgrowth of natural prerequisites in the extraordinary abilities of the individual, ensuring the process of its physical and spiritual formation and socialization as the elite of society. it should be emphasized that there is some stability in the existence of elitist educational institutions of the russian people for different eras. that is not typical for national elitist educational institutions. in the pre-revolutionary period, the elitist education of the russian people was supported by the state, and the national elitist education-by the people, later-by representatives of the tatar bourgeoisie. in the 80s, the national elitist educational institutions are closed and transferred to the mass organizations. it should be said that at the beginning of the 20th century, not only national education but also elitist education was damaged due to its inconsistency with the new ideology, but by the end of the 20th century, it was legalized. unfortunately, breaking ties with the past causes some damage and hinders the development of elitist education. despite the contradictory views on the essence of elitist education, the scarcity of practice, and the insufficient number of special theoretical studies on the problems of elitist education, it continues its development. modern elitist education is secular. despite the fact that a certain proportion of commercialization exists, students with outstanding prerequisites for becoming chemists, physicists, mathematicians have the opportunity to enroll and study in schools for gifted children on the basis of entrance examinations, tests. however, in this case, both the child and the parents should be prepared for the fact that the child will have to completely focus on the study, to withstand a large educational load. the state understands that it needs scientific personnel of the higher standard. therefore, schools for gifted children meet the requirements and needs of the state; in particular, it can be noted that such schools are designed to educate future physicists, mathematicians, chemists, computer geniuses. on the contrary, the state does not allocate funds for the education of lawyers, translators, etc. methods of teaching at elite schools can be more different than the standard ones. working in mini-groups, talking with students as equals, building relationships "colleague gabidullina et al. colleague", not "teacher-student", providing freedom of action in terms of homework, the development of creativity, creative thinking of students – these are just some of the possible approaches to individual education at schools for talented children. the curriculum also differs from mass schools, and it approaches the level of academic education in high school. conclusion it should be noted that every person is endowed with different abilities by nature, different level of intellectual development. personal qualities of people have significant differences. therefore, it makes sense to develop elitist education. the society, which sought to ensure that the course of the country's history was determined by highly moral, highly intellectual, active individuals, cannot be mistaken; educational institutions should seek to educate the qualities necessary for the future elite of the republic. today, there is a question of the education of the national, in particular, tatar elite. scientists and public figures often suggest turning to the foreign experience and building a national university independent from the state, as "even in imperial russia, only independent schools were able to save the tatar nation from extinction" (kryshtanovskaya, 2005). the time will show how real the support of the activities of national elite educational institutions and the organization is. it seems that the current political situation does not contribute to the organization of national educational institutions, although the need in them is obvious. references afanasyev m. (2009). russian development elites: a request for a new course. moscow: liberal mission. 132 p. alajmi, m. a. (2019). the impact of e-portfolio use on the development of professional standards and life skills of students in the faculty of education at princess nourabint abdul rahman university, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4) 1714-1735. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) bertugan bubylar иm izh-buby mәdrәsәse. (1999). tarihi documentary kytyk. kazan: rukhiyat. 240 b. bigagli, f. (2019). school, ethnicity and nation-building in post-colonial myanmar. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 1-16. retrieved from https://repamjournal.org/index.php/repam/article/view/2 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 267-280 biktimerova t. (2017). university of typi mәdrәsә. mәgarif. №4. pp. 37-41. bourdieu p. (1996). the state nobility elite schools in the field of power. translated by lauretta c. clough. polity press, 487 p. franco, v. d. a., & bedin, e. (2019). the chemistry teaching and the high school student: a case study in the state basic education of esteio city, brazil. [o ensino de química e o aluno do ensino médio: um estudo de caso na educação básica estadual do município de esteio, brasil] periodico tche quimica, 16(33), 118-129. gavrilenko a. (2018). will the former glory return to izh-bob'ya? internet resource. url: http://rt-online.ru/p-rubr-obsh-37636/; circulation date: 04/02/2018. gainetdin m. (2013). mudrәsәlәrebez tarihnnan. tarih-mәdәni miras = historical and cultural heritage, №3, p. 14. gusakovsky m.a. (2005). josé ortego and gasset mission of the university. mn. : bsu, 2005. 104 p. husnutdinov, d. h., sagdieva, r. k., mirzagitov, r. h., & abikenov, m. t. (2019a). ethnic auto stereotypes in paroemias of the tatar language. journal of sociology and social anthropology, 10(4), 264-270. doi:10.31901/24566764.2019/10.04.324 husnutdinov, d. h., sagdieva, r. k., sayfulina, f. s., gatin, r. g., & timerkhanov, a. a. (2019b). phraseological units in the tatar language containing the component of can (küñel) (soul). xlinguae, 12(2), 41-50. doi:10.18355/xl.2019.12.02.04 ivanov v.n. (1999). elite school in the national education system: dis. ... dr. ped. sciences, cheboksary, p. 395. kiselev i.yu. (2006). elitology: studies. allowance. yaroslavl: yarsu, 96 p. kryshtanovskaya o. (2005). anatomyoftherussianelite. m .: zakharov, 216 p. kuznetsov s.a. (2000). great dictionary of russian language. spb .: norint, 1536 p. lazaridis, n. (2010). education and apprenticeship. ucla encyclopedia of egyptology / in elizabeth frood, willeke wendrich (eds.), p. 14. lysytsia, n., martynenko, m., prytychenko, t., gron o., & us m. (2019). prospects for innovations in marketing of economic educational services in ukraine, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 17711783. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(16) gabidullina et al. márque, j., peña, c., jones, l., orange, a., & simieou, f. (2018). academic success and resiliency factors: a case study of unaccompanied immigrant children. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 162-181. mazalova m.a. (2013). on the "elite" and "elite" as the essential characteristics of the practice of family education. bulletin of the tspu. №11, pp. 156-161. manheim k. (2010). favorites: the diagnosis of our time. m.: publishing house of the no. "talking book", 744 p. mingazova, l. i., vildanovna, y. g., & faridowna, k. g. (2017). the folk epic "tulyak and susylu", "zayatulyak and hyuhylu": the history of record and the plot. astra salvensis, 2017, 673-679. мәхмүтова а. (2001). иж-бубый мәдрәсәсенә 220 ел. казан утлары. № 11. pp. 126 – 138. nagimzhanova, k. m., baimanova, l., magavin, s. s., adzhibaeva, b. z., & betkenova, m. s. (2019). basis of psychological and professional personality development of future educational psychologists. periodico tche quimica, 16(33), 351-368. nazarieva k.v. (2008). the development of elite school education in england: dissertation dis. ... cand. ped. sciences. arkhangelsk, p. 24. novikov a.m. (2018). what is elite education? internet resource. url: http://www.anovikov.ru/artikle/elit.pdf; appeal date: 03/14/2018. oliven a.k., bello l. (2016). afro-brazilians and indians in an elite university: how did positive discrimination affect students in brazil. education issues. №2, p. 259-285. olkhovskaya e.yu. (2004). the role of the humanistic paradigm of the beginning of the twentieth century (until the october period) in the development of the theoretical foundations of the elite education of russia. teacher: science. technology. practice. barnaul: bspu, №1, pp. 95-104. ortego y gasset, jose. (2005). university mission. translated from spanish by m. n. golubeva; ed. translation by a. m. korbut; under the general. ed. m. a. gusakovsky. minsk: belarus, 104 p. pavlova s.v. (2010). imperial lyceum. spb .: td "the bronze horseman", p. 20. shandruk, s. i., bulakh, v. p., akhmetshin, e. m., nogovitsina, o. v., panachev, v. d., legotkin, l. r., & ponomarev, n. l. (2019). professional training of teachers in the united states as journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 267-280 an example for improving the professionalism and competence of pedagogues in ukraine. space and culture, india, 7(2), 101-111. doi:10.20896/saci.v7i2.454 sagdieva, r., husnutdinov, d., mirzagitov, r., & galiullin, r. (2019). kinship terms as proof of genetic relationship. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 103-117. samartseva e.yu. (2012). elite education in russia in the xix early xx centuries (on the material of the smolensk province): abstract of thesis. ... cand. ped. sciences. smolensk, 2012. 23 p. sousa, j. a., machado, i. d. c. p., & barros, f. d. a. a. (2019). real interest of federal and state institutions in relation to chemistry education with citizenship training. [real interesse de instituições federal e estadual em relacionar o ensino de química com a formação para cidadania] periodico tche quimica, 16(32), 862-869. tatar mgarif һәm milli university. (2018). internet resource. url: http://millimejlis.blogspot.ru/2008/09/blog-post_8569.html;mөrәҗәgat itү vacancies. toshchenko t.zh. (2002). political sociology: a textbook. unity-diana, p. 495. the history of the development of religious (muslim) education in tatarstan. internet resource. url: http://islamobr.ru/historydevelopmentreligiousmuscular /; circulation date: 04/02/2018. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2), 161-177 formation of students’ professional self-actualization in modern educational environment nadezhda a. dmitrienko1, marina a. gorbina2, natalya f. porozhnyak3, tatyana v. trusova4, tatyana g. konovalenko5 abstract the research relevance of the paper is determined by social demands in highly qualified specialists with abilities to professional growth. in this regard, the article is aimed at developing students’ professional self-actualization in modern educational environment. the article presents authors’ technology of developing students’ consciousness indicating higher levels of students’ professional self actualization. leading research methods are: theoretical analyses, induction and deduction, systematic and structural analysis, methods of indirect and direct pedagogic observation, expert evaluation and experimental testing (experimental questionnaires and review). materials of the article are of practical value for teachers, students and people who are interested in practical ways of self-organizing personal and professional development in modern educational environment of technical university. keywords: self-actualization, self-actualized personality, communicative creativity, personal position, pedagogic technology, educational environment, motivation. introduction the present article deals with the problem of improving professional education quality which is closely connected with formation of students’ professional self -actualization in modern educational environment. research subject is the process of forming students’ professional selfactualization in education process of learning foreign languages. the need to form students’ professional self-actualization is known as a way of improving professional education as 1 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, institute of service and business (branch) of don state technical university in shakhty, stilist4485@mail.ru 2 senior lecturer, institute of service and business (branch) of don state technical university in shakhty, marina77@mail.ru 3senior lecturer, institute of service and business (branch) of don state technical university in shakhty, natasha555@mail.ru 4 senior lecturer, institute of service and business (branch) of don state technical university in shakhty, tatyana59@mail.ru 5 assoc. prof., candidate of philology, institute of service and business (branch) of don state technical university in shakhty, kashirochka123@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 161-177 students’ personal and professional growth and can be explained by students’ motivation and needs, social expectations, and modern requirements to professional education. meaningful cognitive, professional and cultural components of educational environment are supposed to enhance students’ communicative creativity thus improving educational results. the complexity of the research subject determines the need of using comparative historical analyses of soviet and post-soviet traditional pedagogical paradigm to determine humanistic essence of professional self-actualization in modern educational environment. it is important for investigating holistic pedagogical conditions of forming students’ professional selfactualization and for eliminating significant gaps and disadvantages of former pedagogic approaches. traditional pedagogic methodology of soviet period was aimed at forming significant personal features of a comprehensively developed specialist. though pedagogic meaning of the concept was considered to be humanistic, the lack of adequate pedagogical explanation and technology implementing the aim in education environment gave birth to a lot of problems. so, holistic aim failed but the problem is still urgent in modern education. (bondarevskaya & kulnevitch, 1999). modern scholars’ attention (gurov & seliukova,1996, didenko & klyucharev, 2013, sulimova, 1996, talyzina, 2001) is still concentrated on the formation of students’ selfactualization in the educational environment by means of increasing a number of pedagogic techniques and tools as external pedagogic consistients of educational process while internal value-semantic mechanisms of students’ development are still beyond the research frames. in particular, it is known that formation of students’ professional self-actualization is based on internal sources of development defined by students’ synergetic self-developing abilities to improve and form professional knowledge, to initiate new creative ways of working abilities and innovative decision making methods in modern educational environment (bespalko, 1980, reshetova, 1985, zorina, 1996). the urgency of professional self-actualization is stressed by modern requirements, educational documents, researchers’ interests to the problem of improving professional education. it must be pointed out that professional self-actualization is included in students’ general professional competence characteristics (kochetov, 1996, ruvinskiy & kobylecki, 1995) and is usually defined by self-regulated students’ educational activity (kovalev, 1970, semenov & stepanov, 1983, yigit, 2017). taking into account synergetic parameters of self-actualization, dmitrienko et al. the researchers refer to pedagogical synergy (budanov, 1996, zorina, 1996, knyazeva, 2016, kulnevich, 1999, sheveleva, 1996, barnes, 2011) to explain students’ self-organizing learning strategy. extrapolating synergy principles into the study, the researchers point out that pedagogic process of forming students’ professional self-actualization can be represented as students’ selforganizing communicative activity determined and regulated by internal sources (students’ motivation, communication creativity, consciousness) but stimultated by external sources of pedagogical conditions and technology in modern educational environment. literature review theory of professional self-actualization having analyzed papers dealing with self-actualization, the researchers of the present article point out those studies that can clarify pedagogical essence of the research subject and meet authors’ approach to formation of students’ professional selfactualization in modern educational environment. many scientists stress the significance of students’ motivation indicating students’ learning directions (intentions) to form professional self -actualization and determining intensity of its manifestation in educational environment (perfilyeva, 2008). these two basic parameters describe educational process of students’ development as effective education activity in case of ideal coincidence of four developing stages: violence, manipulation, non-action and self-actualization. i.r. prigozhin (1991) noted the significance of synergetic coercion in developing students’ self-actualization as a way of making students overcome inner hesitations and personal problems. manipulation is “a good pedagogic instrument of forming students’ motivation to selfactualization” (prigozhin & nicolis, 1997, p. 46). containing negative shadow, pedagogic manipulation encourages students to take quick communicative and professional decisions to overcome different personal problems known as students’ uncertainty and insecurity in modern education environment. manipulation, non-action and violence are explained in pedagogic literature as external sources stimulating students’ internal sources (students’ consciousness and motivation). the concept of “self-actualization” has become popular in scientific literature due to humanistic psychology, where this concept is explained as a result of personal development and personal needs and abilities to implement individual potentials in any significant activity. the most popular and detailed humanistic theory of developing people’s self-actualization is carried journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 161-177 out by a.h. maslow (1969a), who defines self-actualization as one of the main human needs. the scientist distinguishes selfactualization out of other human needs due to resultative efficiency of personal and professional development and calls it a source of students’ personal and professional growth. a.h. maslow (1969b) believes that selfactualization is typical for most people and it can be developed under certain influence of social conditions. however, the scientist points out that that social and cultural components of education process often suppress person’s self-actualization (due to cultural standards accepted in the society). therefore, to form self-actualization in educational environment, the teachers must appeal to students’ systems of values as pedagogic support of students’ self-actualization (maslow, 1969b, p. 201). in the context of the research problem under consideration professional self-actualization is considered to be basic students’ needs to become “a functioning personality” (rogers, 2007, p. 256). many scientists study self-actualization as sustainable integrated personal characteristics (slastenin & podymova, 1997, markova et al., 1983), as effective way of improving personal growth and professional competences (vyatkin, et al., 2013), as a conscious way of person’s existence, as learning strategy of forming competent specialists (abulkhanova-slavskaya, 1981, berikov & burns, 1986, verbitsky, 1991, slastenin & podymova, 1997, petelina, 2001), as students’ professional self-organization (leontyev, 1985, self-regulation and forecasting of social behavior of the person, 1987, antsyferova, 1973, kulnevich, 1999, budanov, 1996). there are three main contexts of researching self-actualization in scientific literature: 1) to describe person’s psychological and moral health; 2) to characterize person’s emotional experience (happiness in achieving personal goals), 3) to explain personal needs and inner motives (leontyev, 1987), to describe students’ subjectivity (petrovsky, 1996). but despite a great scientific interest to this problem, the idea of forming professional self-actualization in modern educational environment has not become the subject of special studies yet (andrienko, 2001, p. 34). theoretical analyses of students’ professional self-actualization can help the researchers to describe and sufficiently improve a unique nature of students’ personal development (maslow, 1969b) and change educational aims, pedagogic approaches, methods and principles. the authors of the paper suppose that formation of students’ professional self-actualization is reflected in students’ consciousness activity as basic personal structures and can be developed in communicative creativity stimulated by communicative situations as students’ self-organizing dmitrienko et al. learning strategy to overcome various communicative and personal problems and hardships. in this case students’ self-actualization is one of the main conditions of person’s survival in the complex regalia of everyday life being developed in modern education environment. in general, literature review proves the relevance of the present study and stimulates the researchers’ interest to eliminate existing contradictions in modern education environment. modelling self-actualization in modern educational environment authors’ innovative model of forming students’ professional self-actualization in education environment is reflected in the authors’ pedagogic technology based on concepts correlation of self-actualization, creativity and professional self-organization (maturana, 2006). synergy integration describes pedagogic conditions of students’ communicative creativity as self-organizing process realized in communicative situations of learning foreign languages. students’ co-creative activity is the basic synergetic integrative principle involving students in modeling various open communicative situations in modern educational environment of learning foreign languages. thus students’ creative potentials are revealed in modeling communicative situations combining cognitive, cultural, professional, communicative and personal values of modern educational environment. in this case pedagogical technology becomes a very important instrument compared with life situations changing students’ minds and developing synergetic thinking and students’ consciousness (dmitrienko & ershova, 2017). self-organized process is stimulated by pedagogic tools: manipulation, violence and non action being changeable synergetic parameters regulated by communicative situations making students overcome inner hesitations, and personal problems. pedagogic principles are picked out by the authors among the claimed pedagogical approaches: cultural-semantic orientation, humanization, synergy, value orientation, cultural communicative content, integration and complementarity. as students’ self-actualization is considered to be a pedagogic principle, so the authors of the study appeal to it to describe personal trajectory of self-developing students’ continuous professional growth. paying attention to the aim of the study three types of communicative situations are designed and tested by the researchers to outline distinguish features of the authors’ pedagogic technology: 1) problem and contradictive communicative situations imitating conflict situations contain different problems, contradictive facts and open information meet the interests and needs journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 161-177 of students’ age and initiating students’ criticality, independence and autonomy as invariant thinking; 2) professional communicative situations imitating future professional activity initiating students’ creativity, self-control and empathy; 3) everyday communicative situations imitating modern problems of social reality based on variety of cultural, personal and moral values initiating students’ moral choice and life plans, forming motivation, system of values and humanistic attitude to life. methodological framework research design and methods the complexity of research tasks determined the need of using a combination of methods including comparative analyses, induction and deduction, generalization of key concepts and approaches. experimental methods are based on direct and indirect pedagogical observation, tests and questionnaires to determine students’ levels of self-actualization at different stages of experimental work and to prove the efficiency of the authors’ pedagogic technology. in order to investigate students’ motives and interests in professional self-actualization a semi-structured interview was organized by the researchers at practical classes of learning foreign languages. the results proved students’ significant interest in professional growth by means of communicative creativity in educational activity. to gain more in-depth information about students’ motivation improving levels of students’ selfactualization and to learn more about effective pedagogical and communicative situations facilitating or hampering students’ professional self-actualization in education environment of technical university, a set of questionnaires was applied. the final results demonstrated that 78% of interviewed students were highly motivated in forming higher levels of professional self-actualization in educational environment of technical university, 20% of them had low motivation and wanted to do it later and 2% of the students were indifferent to personal development results. corresponding to the research tasks, the interview participants were asked to point communicative situations as (1) stimulating or (2) hampering students’ personal and professional development. subsequently, respondents were asked to rank them as descending degree of importance factors of communicative creativity. as students’ self-actualization is the result of inner students’ activity so it can be estimated as consciousness activity reflected in innovations in students’ personal structures (reflexion, motivation, autonomy, self-control) and can be diagnosed in education dmitrienko et al. process. self-actualization test was applied to evaluate different levels of students’ selfactualization in experimental and control groups. participants the research study was conducted for three years in educational environment of the institute of service and business (branch) of don state technical university from 2013 to 2016. 356 students from different faculties participated in the study. they had different levels of motivation as they were randomly selected from various faculties of the first and second courses. thus there were 6 experimental groups and 8 control groups of students. it should be noted that the authors of the study do not take into consideration, gender, national and social differences of selected students. efficiency of self-actualization in communicative creativity the main criterion to evaluate the efficiency of students’ self-actualization in communicative situations of learning foreign languages is students’ communicative creativity implemented in modern educational environment of technical university. the degree of communicative creativity was evaluated by direct and indirect pedagogic observation methods at practical classes of learning foreign languages. the results showed students’ innovative communicative competences expressed in communicative activity having quantitative expression and characterized as unusual way of communicative combinations, assimilation and complementarity (adding information) being indicators of students’ professional self-actualization. individual results of developing self-actualization were ranged into three levels, low, middle and high to indicate efficiency and quality of developed students’ characteristics. thus, two types of indicators (qualitative and quantitative) were applied in experimental work. students’ professional self-actualization levels were assessed in accordance to the authors’ descriptive characteristics of communicative creativity determined by students’ communicative competences:  students can define communicative problems, point out contradictive details, formulate communicative goals and objectives; determine perspective ways of gaining communicative results, forecast and overcome possible problems and hesitations under changing communicative situations, demonstrating higher levels of communicative self-development (self-control; motivation); journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 161-177  students can analyze and define relevant professional, cultural valuable information compare and identify them with personal peculiarities to form personal value systems, professional and cultural standards, demonstrate linguistic skills to process foreign information and systematize it in communicative creativity (flexibility, criticality, contact and sensitivity);  students can demonstrate communicative independence, originality, free choice of communicative means as self-respect and respect to communicative partners in communicative dialogues (creativity, self-acceptance, self-esteem, independence and freedom);  students can solve various communicative problems and communicative transformations, find outsider positions (collisions, time competence, holistic perception of life);  students can support communicative partners, predict and evaluate communicative perspectives and goals (empathy and sensitivity). communicative creativity has quantitative and qualitative statistical characteristics and can be evaluated as innovative statements, heuristic communicative style complementarity. the data was collected as clusters in communicative activity at practical classes of learning foreign languages and then obtained results were analyzed according to pierson correlation coefficient. results and discussion the results were received as qualitative and quantitative changes in students’ levels of self-actualization done by researchers during indirect and direct pedagogic observation. they were registered as special diagnostic tools. all participants of experimental work were asked to fulfill self-actualization test (sat) (shostrom, 1968). the survey was conducted individually with each student to determine personal points at each scale of the test (the highest point is 100). then the received students’ results were compared with teachers’ results and the mean scores were defined as standard points. this methodological procedure was aimed at denoting and comparing personal levels of self-actualization reflected as changes in various scales for every tested students of experimental and control groups. the practice of using sat for defining students’ professional self-actualization resulted in various studies showed that students’ high levels of self-actualization are 55-70 points, while 45-55 points are considered to be statistical mean points of students’ self-actualization (shostrom, 1968). using sat in the present research the authors had a fine chance to trace dynamical changes in students’ self-actualization denoting students’ individual and professional dmitrienko et al. growth in modern educational environment. processing procedure was an important part of experimental work as it was based on a double estimation, self-estimation and teachers’ evaluation, regarded as subjective and objective evaluation results. students’ individual learning strategy was realized as personal trajectory of learning efficiency (corresponding to personal peculiarities as holistic nature component) and was graphically expressed and presented in personal registers as personal results to be compared with. so students had an opportunity to put personal aims in learning foreign languages, determining terms of improving self-actualization and predicting learning results. students of experimental groups were informed about the significance of professional self-actualization in education activity and were told about the ways of pedagogic tools improving self-organizing effects. students’ awareness added them motivation degree and inspired them to get higher results. the participants were also asked to specify the effects of experiment study on their life satisfaction using choices: “never agree, rarely agree, sometimes agree, agree, and totally agree”. according to the descriptive analysis of students’ life satisfaction the mean point was denoted 4,65 (as an agree level). every student of experimental groups demonstrated a certain increase in various scales determining levels of professional self-actualization at the end of the experiment. received results can be compared with students’ indicators of self-actualization levels at initial stages of the experiment. these changes are reflected in table 1, recording growth of each student in experimental groups and comparing them with students’ results in control groups. table 1 contains comparative results of students’ professional self-actualization in experimental and control groups where m1 is used to indicate students’ levels at the starting stage of the experiment and m2 to determine its final values characterizing developed students’ professional self-actualization. table 1 comparison of experimental results indicating students’ self-aactualization levels in control and experimental groups scales students of experimental groups starting (m1) final (m2) (mean values) students of control groups starting (m1) final (m2) (mean values) m 1 m 2 m 1 m 2 1. time competence 7,8 7,9 2,66 7,2 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 161-177 2. self-control 46,8 47,6 6,76 46,4 3. value independence 11,0 11,4 3,31 10,7 4.communicative flexibility 14,8 13,5 3,74 13,4 5. sensitivity 6,4 6,7 2,64 7,5 6. self-esteem 6,3 7,1 2,60 6,6 7. contact 8,6 9,2 2,94 8,4 8. self-acceptance 10,4 14,4 3,17 10,1 9.freedom 4,8 4,9 2,04 4,1 10. synergy 4 3,6 1,76 3,7 11. aggression acceptance 2,79 7,8 2,84 8,8 12. selfactualization 3,17 10,1 4,16 5,8 13. holistic perception of life 1,44 6 2,30 4,8 14. creativity 2,54 6,5 2,50 7 15. support 2,45 4.8 2,12 5,6 16. independence 4,6 12,8 4,5 6,7 17. self-image 6,4 11,7 5,9 7,5 the calculated points of t exceed the mean points given in table 1 in both scales (if two scales are taken): on scale of support and communicative flexibility. thus taken into account received results it is possible to assert with confidence that the authors’ technology affects students’ self-actualization in experimental groups though it effectively reduces the degree of students’ communicative flexibility especially at starting stages of experimental work. it may be explained by accumulative effect of students’ communicative development. in addition, the changes are seen in students’ indicators of experimental groups demonstrating increased indicators in scales of self-acceptance, acceptance while students in control groups willingly demonstrate interpersonal sensitivity (the scale aggression and sociability). thus, the authors’ technology of modeling communicative situations helps students to accept their own unique nature, to form motives, to respect inner beings and improve professional self-actualization. comparative analyses of students’ results among students of experimental and control groups were conducted at certain stages of the experiment where mean point of t – test is (& < 0.05, while in the t table is 2.04 determining communicative freedom equal to 37 points), thus dmitrienko et al. significant differences are observed among students on both scales (time competence and support), as well as on additional scale communicative flexibility. in the beginning of experimental work, students of experimental groups were tested and the results they demonstrated showed that they had low indicators of holistic perception of life but greater independence of values and communicative flexibility. this fact can be explained by priorities and preferences in students’ communicative orientations and personal communicative strategy of development. but, final results of experimental work demonstrated significant alignment in all testing scales among students of experimental groups indicating higher levels of professional self-actualization. the results confirmed a widening gap in statistically reliable indicators among students of experimental and control groups. on the scales of self-acceptance, acceptance of aggression and contact significant changes were registered at the final stage of experimental work influenced resulting changes. statistically significant differences appeared in following scales: value orientations, self-esteem and selfactualization. thus, students with initially higher level of selfactualization in control groups show mean increase points in three scales two basic and one additional, while the students of experimental groups were evaluated by seven scales (one basic and six additional). pedagogic observation showed that students of experimental groups have higher indicators in all scales reflecting higher degree of students’ self-actualization as high levels of self-image, independence, freedom etc. at the expense of decreasing points in scales of sociability, and communicative flexibility resulted as personal problems with communicative competences as self-expression in foreign languages. students could easily express their independent opinions, and were quick to find innovative invariant communicative decision based on greater internal freedom, self-respect and self-acceptance. however, the obtained data was not enough for full confidence in technology efficiency. in this regard, clarifying diagnostic procedure was applied to identify direct and indirect changes in personal structures of consciousness as being indicators of students’ self-actualization. preliminary results for the second group of tests were obtained by means of individual testing and observation of students’ results as self-assessment characteristics: results presented proved positive results of experimental work. dynamics of students’ changes can be registered mostly journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 161-177 between positive indicators as qualitative changes in personal structures of consciousness among students of experimental groups. thus, students 1 and 3 demonstrated high level of motivation at the starting stage and at the final stage of experimental testing both students showed a significant increase in motivation levels. students qualitative changes were estimated by four scales with increased indicators (one basic and three additional). table 2 shows the results of the student 2 with low motivation level at the beginning of the experiment and a significant increase in scales of motivation, reflection, self-assessment and criticality at the final stage of the experiment. communicative competences were estimated in communicative creativity as communicative originality and innovative ways of students’ self-expression, manifestation frequency indicators prove increased levels of students’ professional and communicative competences as professionally significant qualities having humanistic values. table 2 dynamics of developing students’ professional self-actualization scales starting stage of the experiment finishing stage of the experiment changing dynamics personal structures st. 1 st. 2 st. 3 st .1 st. 2 st. 3 st. 1 st. 2 st. 3 motivation 43 37 52 54 50 64 +11 +15 +12 criticality 52 46 64 57 59 71 +5 +11 +7 reflexion 62 41 59 69 56 79 +7 +15 +20 self-assesment 41 38 51 53 46 68 +12 +8 +17 the first part of experimental work was intended to point criterion justification; a wide range of diagnostic techniques has been implemented. the second part of experimental work was connected with experiment organization and it was conducted as applying set of questionnaires adapted to the aim of the study to estimate initial states of students’ qualities and characteristics and communicative competences in specially designed communicative situations. the third stage was a formative experiment intended to define final results. the purpose of experimental work was to identify the effectiveness of the proposed technological innovations, tracking dynamics dmitrienko et al. and forecasting students’ future professional growth. at this stage obtained results were comprehensively summarized to prove initial pedagogic supposition. it should be noted that deviation in experimental results do not exceed experimental time duration thus confirming overall repeatability of results in all diagnostic techniques. in this regard, the researchers present the results of ascertaining methods at control stages of experiment in unified table1 and table 2 demonstrating relevant indicators of indirect and direct diagnostic methods. subsequent changes in levels and degree of professional self-actualization are typical for students of experimental groups. three-time repeatability of results also underlines dynamical changes in students’ levels of professional self-actualization in experimental groups in comparison with students of control groups. conclusion literature analyses proved authors’ supposition that to develop personal qualities and characteristics like self-actualization a pedagogic technology (burns & flam, 1987) must be designed as a general education model, combining and incorporating all educational components in cultural educational environment to stimulate students’ self-organizing processes to make them go beyond education frames of a single subject “foreign language”. the authors’ technology of modeling communicative situations differs from existed education models of former soviet and post-soviet periods as it is based on holistic ideas and essences, on coincidence of pedagogic approaches, criteria and principles of personal oriented, cultural, communicative and synergetic methodology stimulating students’ individual development, creativity and self-organization thus eliminating contradictions and gaps in modern professional educational environment. the authors’ pedagogic technology is designed as students’ selforganized learning strategy implemented in communicative creativity to ensure permanent character of students’ self-developing process as a unique picture of personal self-development changing usual education and communicative position of students and teachers and incorporates education components into unified education model. this is done due to students’ co-creativity and communicative creativity in learning foreign languages where subjective activity is connected with purposeful transformation of communicative situations broadening subjective communicative experience. education environment is a synthesis mechanism to identify students’ perspective self-organizing learning strategy. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 161-177 innovative abilities of students’ self-actualization in experimental groups are closely connected with students’ consciousness activity stimulated by communicative situations. so the main principle of technological instrument is co-creation of students and teachers in education environment where a person cultivates personal abilities in education design of communicative situations when participating in communicative creative activity. the innovative self-organized learning strategy is stimulated by modeling communicative situations containing basis for spiritual and moral assessment as moral imperatives. theoretical analyses and experimental results proved the efficiency of designed technology. students of experimental groups participated in three types of modeling communicative situations and demonstrated higher levels of professional self-actualization in communicative creativity. in other words, positive results of experimental work proved the efficiency of pedagogic technology being a holistic self-organizing learning strategy emphasizing professional self-actualization in modern education environment. synergy methodology significally expands students’ learning abilities transforming communicative situations into self-organizing communicative strategy where the students become real creators of education process and active subjects to be responsible for education results. innovative technology of forming students’ professional self-actualization differs from traditional technologies as it is mobile educational model which can be easily adapted to the students’ and subjects’ peculiarities while traditional technologies are usually based on teacher's authority and direct knowledge transmition. since the studied problem is complex, the work should be continued to ensure interdisciplinarity to expand research horizons: point out and compare gender, age and social differences of self-actualization in the educational environment. dmitrienko et al. references abulkhanova-slavskaya, k.a. (1981). development of a personality in the process of life. in: psychology of formation and development of personality. moscow: science, 19-44. andrienko, e.v. (2001). professional pedagogical education and personal development of teachers: textbook. novosibirsk: nspu publishing house, 34. antsyferova, l.i. (1973). psychology of self-actualizing personality in the works of abraham maslow. questions of psychology, 4, 173-180. barnes, g. (2011). i can let my soul soar. an appreciation for the idea of heinz von foerster and his circle of ideas. paper presented at the conference «self-organization and emergence» devoted to the 100th anniversary of h. von foerster, vienna, 62-65. berikov,v.v. & burns, r. (1986). development of education. moscow: progress, 421. bespalko, v.p. (1980). problems of developing pedagogical systems. moscow, 34-36. bondarevskaya, e.v. & kulnevich, s.v. (1999). pedagogy: personality in humanistic theories and systems of education. moscow-rostov-on-don. budanov, v.g. (1996). era of bifurcations and synergy in education. moscow, 42. burns, t. & flam, h. (1987). the shaping of social organization. beverly hills: sage, 34-56. didenko, d.v. & klyucharev, g.a. (2013). vocational education in russia: ways of catch-up modernization and innovation. issues of education, 1, 183-204. dmitrienko, n.a. & ershova, s.i. (2017). forming the students’ synergetic thinking in the synergetic reality of communicative situations. man in india, 97(5), 13-32. gurov, v.n. & seliukova l.i. (1996). socialization of the personality: social worker, family and school. stavropol, 120. kochetov, a.i. (1996). culture of pedagogic research. minsk, 312. kovalev, a.g. (1970). psychology of personality. moscow, 212. knyazeva, e.n. (2016). the wisdom of the environment: ideas of f. de saussure, f. guattari, r. thomas in the context of the development of biosemiotics. philosophical sciences, 9, 6176. kulnevich, s.v. (1999). pedagogics of self-organization: the features of transition to post-nonclassical educational theory. new of the russian academy of education, 3, 41-48. leontyev, d.a. (1987). the development of the idea of self-actualization in the works of a. maslow. questions of psychology, 3, 150-158. http://serialsjournals.com/articlesview.php?volumesno_id=1218&article_id=17318&volumes_id=1060&journals_id=40 http://serialsjournals.com/articlesview.php?volumesno_id=1218&article_id=17318&volumes_id=1060&journals_id=40 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 161-177 markova, a.k., orlov, a.b. & fridman, l.m. (1983). motivation and education of the students. moscow: pedagogy, 67. maslow, a.h. (1969a). notes on being-psychology. in: readings in humanistic psychology. sutich, a.j., vich, m.a. (eds). n.y.: free press, 45-47. maslow, a.h. (1969b). a theory of metamotivation: the biological rooting of the value-life. in: readings in humanistic psychology. sutich, a.j., vich, m.a. (eds). n.y.: free press, 201204. maturana, h.r. (2006). self-consciousness: how? when? where? constructivist foundations, 1(3), 34-36. perfilyeva, m.b. (2008). managing staff loyalty. prague: chtu publishing house, 23. petelina, v.n. (2010). socio-cultural space of a science as the orientation field of professional identity of student. url: http://psyedu.ru/authors/a1879.phtml petrovsky, v.a. (1996). subjectivity: a new paradigm in education. /science and education, 3, 100-105. prigozhin, i.r. & nicolis, g. (1997). complexity of transferring knowledge. in: synergetics and psychology. texts. vol.1. moscow: msu «union», 62-93. prigozhin, i.r. (1991). philosophy of instability. problems of philosophy, 6, 46. reshetova, z.ya. (1985). psychological foundations of professional education. moscow: msu, 204. rogers, c. (2007). the necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. psychotherapy: theory, research, practice, training, 44 (3), 256. ruvinskiy, l.i. & kobylecki, i. (1985). basics of pedagogy. moscow: «prosveschenie». self-regulation and forecasting of social behavior of the person. (1979). ed. v.a. yadov. leningrad: science. semenov, i.n. & stepanov, s.y. (1983). reflection and organization of creative thinking and self-development. questions of psychology, 2, 35-42. slastenin, v.a. & podymova, l.s. (1997). pedagogy: innovative activities. moscow: master. sheveleva, s.s. (1997). to the formation of synergetic model of education. social sciences and modernity, 1, 125-133. shostrom, e.l. (1968). time as integrating factor. in: the course of human life. buhler ch., massarik f. (eds). n.y.: springer, 351-359. dmitrienko et al. sulimova, t.s. (1996). social work and constructive conflict resolution. moscow: institute of practical psychology. talyzina, n.f. (2001). an active approach to the mechanisms of communication. questions of psychology, 9, 3-16. verbitsky, a.a. (1991). active learning in higher school: the contextual approach. moscow, 207. vyatkin, b.a., shchukin, m.p. & merlin, v.s. (2013). about the problem of psychological training in the pedagogical higher school (celebrating the 115th anniversary of the scientist). education and science journal, 1(1), 146-156. yigit, m.f. (2017). value priorities of public and private university students. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1). url: http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/38/19 zorina, l.y. (1996). a reflection of the ideas of self-organization in the content of education. pedagogy, 4, 105-109. bulgular ve yorum www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2012: 3(2), 71-85 © 2012 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 i̇lköğretim öğretmenlerinin etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarının çeşitli değişkenler açısından i̇ncelenmesi1 an investigation on primary school teachers’ perceptions of effective citizenship proficiency by certain variables 2 halil i̇brahim sağlam 3 özet: bu araştırma, ilköğretimde görev yapan sınıf ve branş öğretmenlerinin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarını belirlemek amacıyla yapılmıştır. araştırmada “vatandaşlık değerleri” ve “vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri” alt boyutlarından oluşan 23 maddelik etkili vatandaşlık yeterlikleri ölçeği kullanılmıştır. ölçeğin iç tutarlılık güvenirlik katsayısı .89’dur. araştırmaya, 2010-2011 eğitim öğretim yılının bahar döneminde 108’i kadın (%50.5), 106’sı erkek (%49.5) olmak üzere toplam 214 öğretmen katılmıştır. kolmogorov-smirnov testi sonucuna göre medeni durum, mesleki kıdem, öğretmenliği severek tercih etme ve öğretmenlikten memnun olma durumları p<.05 düzeyinde anlamlı bir farklılık gösterdiği için dağılımların normal olmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. bundan dolayı söz konusu değişkenlerden mesleki kıdem için parametresiz testlerden kruskal wallis h testi; medeni durum, öğretmenliği severek tercih etme ve öğretmenlikten memnun olma durumları için mann-whitney u testi yapılmıştır. ayrıca, mesleki kıdemde kruskal-wallis h testi sonucunda anlamlı çıkan farklılığın hangi gruplar arasında olduğunu belirlemek için mann-whitney u testi yapılmıştır. cinsiyet ve branş değişkenleri ile ilgili verilerin analizinde istatistiksel teknik olarak parametrik testlerden t testi yapılmıştır. araştırma sonucunda ilköğretim okullarında görev yapan öğretmenlerinin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının “tam katılıyorum” düzeyinde olduğu bulunmuştur. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenler cinsiyet, branş, medeni durum, öğretmenliği severek tercih etme ve öğretmenlikten memnun olma durumları bakımından anlamlı bir farklılık göstermemektedir. araştırma sonucunda vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutuyla ölçek toplamında mesleki kıdem bakımından kıdem yılı fazla olanlar lehine anlamlı farklılık bulunmuştur. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler, vatandaşlık eğitimi, etkili vatandaşlık yeterlikleri 1 bu makale 20-22 nisan 2012 uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu’nda sözlü tebliğ olarak sunulmuştur. 2 this article was presented in the international social studies education symposium in 20-22 april 2012. 3 doç. dr., sakarya üniversitesi, sakarya. hsaglam@sakarya.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 71-85 72 extended abstract citizenship can be defined as political belonging to the state. citizenship consists of relationships between the state and the individuals. in order to maintain the relationships between the state and the citizens wholesomely, it is necessary to fulfill rights and responsibilities mutually. thanks to this fact, citizenship education has become common interest of whole humanity. in this sense; primary education is a crucial step in developing citizenship consciousness. the fact that students in this level are proned to pattern themselves after their teacher and that teacher are perceived as professionalists followed by society further increase the significance of effective citizenship proficiency levels of teachers. consequently, determining effective citizenship proficiency levels of the teachers who work in primary education constitutes the main purpose of this study. in addition, it is aimed to determine whether the teachers’ gender, field of study, marital status, length of service, whether they prefer teaching profession willingfully and whether they are pleased with teachership or not lead to differentiation in their “effective proficiency levels”. the purpose of this study is to reveal primary school teachers’ effective citizenship proficiencies. the study employed a 23-item inventory of effective citizenship proficiencies, which consisted of two sub-dimensions, namely “citizenship values” and “citizenship knowledge and skills”. the inner consistency coefficient of the inventory is 0.89. the study was conducted on a total of 214 teachers, 108 of them being female (50.5%) and the remaining 106 of them (49.5%) being male, during the spring term of the educational year 2010-2011. the level of significance for data analysis was accepted as 0.50. the data were analyzed in accordance with the sub-dimensions. firstly, the normality of the distribution of the variables was studied through the kolmogorov-smirnov test in an attempt to determine what kind of tests would be conducted on the data. according to the kolmogorov-smirnov test, it was concluded that the distributions were not normal, for there were significant differences, at the level “p<0.05”, in the variables “marital status”, “length of service”, “willingly or unwillingly choosing to become a teacher” and “being satisfied or dissatisfied with being a teacher”. accordingly, the kruskal wallis h test, a non-parametric method, was conducted on the variable “length of service” whereas the mann-whitney u test was carried out on the variables “marital status”, “willingly or unwillingly choosing to become a teacher” and “being satisfied or dissatisfied with being a teacher”. furthermore, the mann-whitney u test was conducted in order to determine between which groups the significant differences, revealed by the kruskal-wallis h test, existed. the t test, a statistical parametric method, was carried out on the data on the variables “gender” and “branch”. the study concluded that primary school teachers “strongly agree” with the statements on efficient citizenship proficiencies. there was no significant difference between teachers in “gender”, “branch”, “marital status”, “willingly or unwillingly choosing to become a teacher” and “being satisfied or dissatisfied with being a teacher”. however, the study reported a significant difference in favor of those teachers with a higher length of service in both the whole inventory and the sub-dimension “citizenship knowledge and skills”. keywords: social studies, citizenship education, effective citizenship proficiencies. giriş vatandaşlık, devlete siyasal aidiyet olarak tanımlanmakla birlikte bireyi bir dizi özel hak ve sorumlulukların bağlı olduğu yasal statüyle donatmaktadır (üstel, 1999; gündüz & gündüz, 2005; pamuk & alabaş, 2008). vatandaşlık, devlet ve birey arasındaki ilişkilerden oluşur. bu ilişkiler doğal olarak hak ve sorumlulukları birlikte içerir (doğanay, 2004). vatandaş, halil i̇brahim sağlam 73 bilgilendirilmiş, sorumluluğu olan ve tartışmalar içinde yer alarak karar verebilen kişidir. bundan başka gelişmiş demokrasilerde vatandaşlık eğitimi çerçevesinde öğrencilere yeni görevler yüklenmiştir. öğrencilerden, yaşadıkları toplumun sosyal, politik ve çevresel problemlerinden haberdar olmaları ve bu problemlerle mücadele edebilecek şekilde yetişmeleri beklenmektedir (holden, 2003; demircioğlu, 2008). siyasal bir kuruluş olan devletin iyi örgütlenmiş olmasının tek başına yeterli olmaması, devletlerin, anayasal demokrasilerini güçlendirebilmeleri, bağımsız devlet olarak yaşayabilmeleri, etkin olarak yönetilebilmeleri ve gelişebilmeleri için etkili vatandaşlara ihtiyaç duymaları gibi nedenler vatandaşlık bilgi, beceri ve değerlerinin her kuşağa etkili bir şekilde kazandırılmasını gerektirmektedir. bu nedenlerle, etkili vatandaşlık eğitimi devletlerin temel görevi haline gelmiştir. bir devletin etkili vatandaşlara sahip olabilmesi için bütün kurumlarının aynı amaç için çalışması ve tüm vatandaşlarının da bu konuda bilinçli olması gerekir (ersoy, 2007). etkili vatandaş, içinde yaşadığı toplumun kültürünü benimsemiş, özümsemiş ve bunu geliştirmeyi amaç edinmiştir (safran, 2008). i̇yi bir vatandaşlık eğitimi aktif, üretken ve problem çözen bireyler yetiştirmelidir (phillips, 2003; kan, 2009). bunun için, bireylerin daha etkili bir sosyal anlayışa, iletişim ve ortak çalışma yeteneğine, değişen şartlarda diğer alanlardaki uzmanlarla çalışma becerisine, bilgi edinme, üretme ve kullanma yeteneklerine sahip olması gerekmektedir (keser, 2003). bu, bir taraftan eğitim anlayışının değişmesine neden olurken diğer taraftan öğretim uygulamalarında yeni fırsatların doğmasına zemin hazırlayabilir (tezci, 2002). vatandaşlık eğitiminin değişen şartlardan bağımsız olarak varlığını sürdürmesi düşünülemez. değişimin baş döndürücü bir hızla gerçekleştiği günümüzde vatandaş yetiştirme anlayışının da buna uygun olması gerekmektedir. etkili vatandaşlık bir ülkede eğitim sisteminin genel amacı olmakla birlikte, okul programları içinde bu görev daha çok sosyal bilgilere düşmektedir. demokratik bir ülkede, sosyal bilgilerin temel amacı, demokratik süreci geliştirecek etkili vatandaşlar yetiştirmektir (doğanay, 2004; tay, 2009). demokrasi; demokrasiye inanmış, demokrasiyle ilgili bilgi, beceri ve değerlerle donatılmış insanlar aracılığıyla gelişebilir (doğanay, 2004). vatandaşlık eğitimi, bir ülkedeki her bireyi, kurumu, okulları ve hatta dünyadaki bütün insanları ve ülkeleri ilgilendiren ortak bir eğitim konusu haline gelmiştir (alkın, 2007). birçok ülkenin eğitim sisteminin en temel amacı iyi vatandaş yetiştirmektir (duman, karakaya, & yavuz, 2001). milli eğitimi bakanlığı da, öğrencileri iyi birer toplum, bölge, millet ve dünya vatandaşı haline getirmeyi, iyi meslek adamı ve sağlıklı nesiller yetiştirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. toplum tarafından resmi bir kuruluş olarak oluşturulmuş olan okul, kültürel mirasını aktarmak ve ülke gençliğini gelecekteki hayata hazırlamakla yükümlüdür (barth & demirtaş, 1996; sağlam, 2000). milli eğitim temel journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 71-85 74 kanunu’nun 23. maddesi ilköğretimin amaçlarını düzenlemektedir. buna göre ilköğretimin amacı, çocukları iyi birer vatandaş olarak hayata ve üst öğrenime hazırlamaktır. aynı kanunun 2. maddesi bir vatandaşın hangi özelliklere sahip olması gerektiğini ifade etmektedir. bu amaçlar doğrultusunda etkili vatandaş yetiştirmek tüm eğitim kurumlarının görevi olmakla birlikte iyi vatandaş yetiştirme görev ve sorumluluğu ilköğretim basamağında daha da önem taşımaktadır. engle ve ochoa’ya göre (1988), demokratik vatandaşlığın özünü etkili karar verme oluşturmaktadır. karar verme sürecinde birey bilgi, beceri, değer ve alışkanlıklarını işe koşmaktadır. i̇lköğretim döneminde çocuklar, etkili vatandaşlık eğitimi için gerekli vatandaşlık bilgi, beceri ve değerlerinin kazanılması için düzenlenecek etkinliklere gönüllü olarak katılma eğilimindedirler (mcgovan & godwin, 1986). bunun yanında, bir ülke vatandaşlarının tamamına yakını ilköğretim düzeyinde eğitim sürecinden geçmesine karşın, orta ve yüksek öğretime devam etmeyebilmektedir (ersoy, 2007; yeşil, 2002). bu anlamda ilköğretim, vatandaşlık bilincinin oluşmasında çok önemli bir basamaktır. bu da ilköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerinin önemini artırmaktadır. bu kademedeki öğrencilerin öğretmenlerini örnek almaya eğilimli olduğu bilinmektedir. literatürde vatandaşlığa (gündüz & gündüz, 2005; üstel, 1999; üstel, 2011; yazıcı &yazıcı, 2010), vatandaşlık algısına (dinç, 2009; doğanay, 2009; doğanay & sarı, 2009; i̇brahimoğlu, 2009; sağlam, 2011; pamuk & alabaş, 2008; yılmaz, 2009; yılmaz, tunç-şahin & bengiç, 2009), dijital vatandaşlığa (karaman, karabulut & ekici, 2009; karaduman, 2011), küresel vatandaşlığa (tuncel & uğur, 2009) ve öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık eğitimi uygulamalarına (ersoy, 2007) yönelik çalışmaların yer aldığı görülmektedir. söz konusu çalışmalar ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim öğrencileri ile öğretmen adayları üzerine yoğunlaşmaktadır. doğrudan ilköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarını konu alan bir çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır. bundan dolayı ilköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının tespit edilmesi araştırmanın temel amacı olarak belirlenmiştir. ayrıca, ilköğretim okullarında görev yapan öğretmenlerin cinsiyetlerinin, branşlarının, medeni durumlarının, kıdemlerinin, öğretmenlik mesleğini severek tercih edip etmemelerinin ve öğretmenlikten memnun olup olmamalarının etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarında bir farklılaşmaya neden olup olmadığının belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. halil i̇brahim sağlam 75 yöntem araştırmanın modeli bu araştırma, tarama modellerinden karşılaştırma türü ilişkisel tarama ile yapılmıştır. tarama modelleri, geçmişte ya da şu anda var olan bir durumu var olduğu şekliyle betimlemeyi amaçlayan araştırma modelleridir. bu modellerde esas amaç, var olan durumu olduğu gibi betimlemektir. karşılaştırma türü ilişkisel tarama modellerinde, en az iki değişken bulunup bunlardan birine göre gruplar oluşturularak diğer değişkene göre aralarında bir farklılaşma olup olmadığı incelenir (karasar, 1994). karşılaştırma türü ilişkisel tarama niteliğinde olan bu araştırma ile ilköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının belirlenmesi ve çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. araştırma grubu araştırmada uygun örnekleme yöntemi kullanılmıştır. uygun örnekleme, yakın çevrede bulunan, ulaşılması kolay ve araştırmaya gönüllü olarak katılmak isteyen bireyler üzerinde yapılan örnekleme olarak tanımlanmaktadır (erkuş, 2009; ekiz, 2009). bu yüzden örneklem kavramı yerine araştırma grubu kavramının kullanılması daha uygun görülmüştür. araştırma grubunu 2010-2011 eğitim öğretim yılının bahar döneminde sakarya’da görev yapan 108’i (%50.5) kadın, 106’sı (%49.5) erkek olmak üzere toplam 214 ilköğretim öğretmeni oluşturmaktadır. araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin 106’sı (%49.5) sınıf, 108’i (%50.5) branş öğretmenidir. öğretmenlerin 81’i (%37.9) 1-8 yıllık, 74’ü (%34.6) 9-16 yıllık, 30’u (%14.0) 1724 yıllık, 29’u (%13.6) 25 yıl ve üzeri kıdeme sahiptir. veri toplama aracı i̇lköğretim okullarında görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarını incelemek amacıyla öğretmenlerin görüşlerinin alınmasına yönelik olarak hazırlanan veri toplama aracı sağlam (2011) tarafından geliştirilmiştir. 23 maddeden oluşan ölçek iki boyutludur. ölçekte vatandaşlık değerleri olarak yer alan ilk boyut 12 maddeden oluşmakta ve faktör yük değerleri .42-.72 arasında değişmektedir. toplam varyansın 19.1’ini açıklayan bu boyutun iç tutarlılık katsayısı .83’tür. ölçeğin vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri adını taşıyan ikinci boyutu 11 maddeden oluşmakta ve faktör yük değerleri .41-.76 arasında değişmektedir. toplam varyansın 19.9’unu açıklayan bu boyutun iç tutarlılık katsayısı .84’tür. 23 maddeden oluşan etkili vatandaşlık yeterlikleri ölçeği’nin tamamı ele alındığında toplam varyansın %39.0’ını açıkladığı ve iç tutarlılık katsayısının .89 olduğu görülmektedir. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 71-85 76 verilerin analizi verilerin analizine başlanmadan önce, veri toplama araçları tek tek kontrol edilmiş, eksik doldurulan 2 veri toplama aracı “geçersiz” sayılarak değerlendirmeye alınmamıştır. değerlendirmeler 214 veri toplama aracı üzerinden yapılmıştır. veri toplama araçları sıraya konularak numaralandırılmış, elde edilen veriler tanımlanmış ve spss programına yüklenmiştir. bu veriler araştırmanın alt problemlerine göre analiz edilmiştir. öncelikle elde edilen verilere hangi testlerin uygulanacağını belirlemek amacıyla değişkenlerin dağılımının normalliği kolmogorov-smirnov testi ile incelenmiştir. kolmogorov-smirnov testi sonucuna göre medeni durum, mesleki kıdem, öğretmenliği severek tercih etme ve öğretmenlikten memnun olma durumları p<.05 düzeyinde anlamlı bir farklılık gösterdiği için dağılımların normal olmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. bundan dolayı söz konusu değişkenlerden mesleki kıdem için parametresiz testlerden kruskal wallis h testi; medeni durum, öğretmenliği severek tercih etme ve öğretmenlikten memnun olma durumları için mann-whitney u testi yapılmıştır. ayrıca, mesleki kıdemde kruskal-wallis h testi sonucunda anlamlı çıkan farklılığın hangi gruplar arasında olduğunu belirlemek için mann-whitney u testi yapılmıştır. cinsiyet ve branş değişkenleri ile ilgili verilerin analizinde istatistiksel teknik olarak parametrik testlerden t testi yapılmıştır. aritmetik ortalamaların belirlenmesinde 1.00-1.79 hiç katılmıyorum, 1.80-2.59 biraz katılıyorum, 2.60-3.39 kararsızım, 3.40-4.19 oldukça katılıyorum, 4.20-5.00 tam katılıyorum puan aralığı olarak belirlenmiştir. anlamlılık düzeyi .05 olarak alınmıştır. bulgular bu bölümde, araştırma ile elde edilen bulgular araştırmanın alt problemleri doğrultusunda ele alınmaktadır. bu bağlamda; “etkili vatandaşlık yeterlikleri ölçeği”ne ilişkin betimsel veriler ortaya konulduktan sonra ilköğretim okullarında görev yapan öğretmenlerin cinsiyet, branş, medeni durum, kıdem, öğretmenlik mesleğini severek tercih etme ve öğretmenlikten memnun olma durumları bakımından etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarında bir farklılaşmaya neden olup olmadığına ilişkin sorulara cevap aranmıştır. tablo 1. “etkili vatandaşlık yeterlikleri ölçeği”ne ilişkin betimsel veriler ölçeğin adı n x ss vatandaşlık değerleri 214 4.52 .343 vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri 214 4.38 .686 toplam 214 4.45 .436 halil i̇brahim sağlam 77 tablo 1 incelendiğinde araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterlikleri ölçeği’nden aldıkları puanların aritmetik ortalamasının vatandaşlık değerleri boyutunda 4.52, vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutunda 4.38 ve ölçek toplamında 4.45 olduğu görülmektedir. bu ortalama ilköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerinin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının en üst düzeyde olduğunu göstermektedir. tablo 2. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin cinsiyetlerine göre etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarına ait t testi sonuçları boyutlar cinsiyet n x ss sd t p vatandaşlık değerleri kadın 108 4.56 .312 212 1.944 .053 erkek 106 4.47 .368 vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri kadın 108 4.37 .702 212 -.220 .826 erkek 106 4.38 .673 toplam kadın 108 4.47 .438 212 .626 .532 erkek 106 4.43 .435 tablo 2 incelendiğinde, araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının cinsiyetlerine göre vatandaşlık değerleri [t(212) =1.944, p<.05], vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutları [t(212) =.826, p>.05] ile ölçek toplamında [t(212) =.532, p>.05] anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmadığı görülmektedir. hem kadın hem de erkek öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının “tam katılıyorum” düzeyinde olduğu görülmektedir. tablo 3. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin branşlarına göre etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarına ait t testi sonuçları boyutlar branşı n x ss sd t p vatandaşlık değerleri sınıf öğretmeni 106 4.52 .334 212 .192 .848 branş öğretmeni 108 4.52 .353 vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri sınıf öğretmeni 106 4.42 .512 212 .799 .425 branş öğretmeni 108 4.34 .823 toplam sınıf öğretmeni 106 4.47 .363 212 .680 .497 branş öğretmeni 108 4.43 .498 tablo 3 incelendiğinde, araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının branşlarına göre vatandaşlık değerleri [t(212) =.848, p>.05], vatandaşlık bilgi journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 71-85 78 becerileri [t(212) =.425, p>.05] boyutları ile ölçek toplamında [t(212) =.497, p>.05] anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmadığı görülmektedir. tablo 4. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin medeni durumlarına göre etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarına ait mann-whitney u testi sonuçları boyutlar med. durum n sıra ort. sıra top. z u p vatandaşlık değerleri evli 168 110.08 18493.00 -1.168 3431.000 .243 bekâr 46 98.09 4512.00 vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri evli 168 111.43 18721.00 -1.781 3203.000 .075 bekâr 46 93.13 4284.00 toplam evli 168 111.34 18705.50 -1.736 3218.500 .083 bekâr 46 93.47 4299.50 tablo 4’te araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin medeni durumlarına göre etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının vatandaşlık değerleri [u=3431.000, p>.05], vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri [u=3203.000, p>.05] ve ölçek toplamında [u=3218.500, p>.05] anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmadığı görülmektedir. evli olan öğretmenlerin vatandaşlık değerlerine ilişkin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalaması (110.08), bekâr olan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasından (98.09); evli olan öğretmenlerin vatandaşlık bilgi becerilerine ilişkin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalaması (111.43), bekâr olan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasından (93.13) yüksektir. ölçekten elde edilen toplam puanlar ele alındığında evli olan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalaması (111.34), bekâr olan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasından (93.47) yüksek olduğu bulunmuştur. evli olan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamalarının vatandaşlık değerleri, vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri ve ölçek toplamında bekâr olan öğretmenlerden yüksek olması anlamlı bir farklılığa yol açmamıştır. bu durum öğretmenlerin evli ya da bekâr olmasının vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarını etkilemediğini göstermektedir. tablo 5. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin kıdemlerine göre etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarına ait kruskal wallis h testi sonuçları boyutlar kıdem n sıra ort. sd χ2 p fark vatandaşlık değerleri (1) 1-8 yıl 81 99.21 3 3.066 .382 (2) 9-16 yıl 74 116.48 (3) 17-24 yıl 30 109.10 (4) 25 yıl ve üzeri 29 106.09 halil i̇brahim sağlam 79 vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri (1) 1-8 yıl 81 87.40 3 14.112 .003 1-2 1-3 1-4 (2) 9-16 yıl 74 121.97 (3) 17-24 yıl 30 119.42 (4) 25 yıl ve üzeri 29 114.38 toplam (1) 1-8 yıl 81 90.41 3 10.408 .015 1-2 (2) 9-16 yıl 74 121.01 (3) 17-24 yıl 30 115.78 (4) 25 yıl ve üzeri 29 112.19 tablo 5’te araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin kıdemlerine göre vatandaşlık değerleri [χ2=3.066, p>.05] boyutunda anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmadığı; vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri [χ2=14.112, p<.05] ile ölçekten elde edilen toplam puan [χ2=10.408, p<.05] bakımından mesleki kıdemi 1-8 yıl olan öğretmenler aleyhine anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaştığı görülmektedir. vatandaşlık değerleri ele alındığında mesleki kıdemi 1-8 yıl arasında olan öğretmenlerin (so=99.21), mesleki kıdemi 9-16 yıl arasında olan öğretmenlerin (so=116.48), mesleki kıdemi 17-24 yıl arasında olan öğretmenlerin (so=109.10), mesleki kıdemi 25 yıl ve üzeri olan öğretmenlerin (so=106.09) olduğu görülmektedir. mesleki kıdemi 9-16 yıl (so=121.97), 17-24 yıl (so=119.42), 25 yıl ve üzeri (114.38) olan öğretmenlerin mesleki kıdemi 1-8 yıl (87.40) olan öğretmenlere göre vatandaşlık bilgi becerilerine ilişkin algılarının daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. boyut toplamında mesleki kıdemi 9-16 yıl arasında olan öğretmenlerin (so=121.01) mesleki kıdemi 1-8 yıl arasında olan öğretmenlere göre (90.41) etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. bu durum öğretmenlerin mesleki kıdemlerinin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarını etkilediğini, öğretmenlerin algılarına göre mesleki tecrübenin önemli olduğunu göstermektedir. tablo 6. i̇lköğretimde çalışan öğretmenlerin öğretmenliği severek tercih etme durumlarına göre etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarına ait mann-whitney u testi sonuçları boyutlar tercih n sıra ort. sıra top. z u p vatandaşlık değerleri evet 184 109.66 20178.00 -1.270 2362.000 .204 hayır 30 94.23 2827.00 vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri evet 184 108.76 20012.50 -.741 2527.500 .459 hayır 30 99.75 2992.50 toplam evet 184 109.90 20222.50 -1.408 2317.500 .159 hayır 30 92.75 2782.50 journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 71-85 80 tablo 6’da araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin öğretmenlik mesleğini severek tercih etme durumlarına göre vatandaşlık değerleri [u=2362.000, p>.05], vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri [u=2527.500, p>.05] ile ölçekten elde edilen toplam puan [u=2317.500, p>.05] bakımından anlamlı bir farklılık görülmemektedir. öğretmenlik mesleğini severek tercih eden öğretmenlerin vatandaşlık değerlerine ilişkin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (109.66), severek tercih etmeyen öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (94.23) olduğu görülmektedir. öğretmenlik mesleğini severek tercih eden öğretmenlerin vatandaşlık bilgi becerilerine ilişkin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (108.76), severek tercih etmeyen öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (99.75) olduğu görülmektedir. ölçekten elde edilen toplam puanlar ele alındığında öğretmenlik mesleğini severek tercih eden öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalaması (109.90), severek tercih etmeyen öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (92.75) olduğu görülmektedir. bu durum öğretmenlerin mesleklerini severek tercih edip etmemelerinin vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarını etkilemediğini göstermektedir. tablo 7. i̇lköğretimde çalışan öğretmenlerin mesleklerinden memnun olma durumlarına göre etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarına ait mann-whitney u testi sonuçları boyutlar mem. durumu n sıra ort. sıra top. z u p vatandaşlık değerleri evet 178 107.99 19222.50 -.259 3116.500 .795 hayır 36 105.07 3782.50 vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri evet 178 108.06 19234.50 -.294 3104.500 .768 hayır 36 104.74 3770.50 toplam evet 178 108.53 19318.50 -.542 3020.500 .588 hayır 36 102.40 3686.50 tablo 7’de araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin öğretmenlik mesleğinden memnun olup olmama durumlarına göre vatandaşlık değerleri [u=3116.500, p>.05], vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri [u=3104.500, p>.05] ile ölçekten elde edilen toplam puan [u=3020.500, p>.05] bakımından anlamlı bir farklılık görülmemektedir. öğretmenlik mesleğinden memnun olan öğretmenlerin vatandaşlık değerlerine ilişkin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (107.99), memnun olmayan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (105.07) olduğu görülmektedir. öğretmenlik mesleğinden memnun olan öğretmenlerin vatandaşlık bilgi becerilerine ilişkin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (108.06), memnun olmayan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (104.74) olduğu görülmektedir. ölçekten elde edilen toplam puanlar ele alındığında öğretmenlik halil i̇brahim sağlam 81 mesleğinden memnun olan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalaması (108.53), memnun olmayan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine ait sıra ortalamasının (102.40) olduğu görülmektedir. bu durum öğretmenlerin mesleklerinden memnun olup olmamalarının vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarını etkilemediğini göstermektedir. tartışma ve sonuç vatandaş tanımının merkezinde iyi vatandaş nitelendirmesi yer almaktadır (doğanay ve sarı, 2009). bu konuda ilköğretimde çalışan sınıf ve branş öğretmenlerine önemli görev ve sorumluluklar düşmektedir. bu araştırmada ilköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarının en üst düzeyde olduğu görülmüştür. öğretmenliğin anaç meslek olması, öğretmenlerin toplum tarafından örnek alınan meslek insanları olarak algılanması bu durumun önemini daha da artırmaktadır. acun, demir & göz (2010) öğretmen adaylarının %73’ünün iyi vatandaşlık davranışlarını gösterdiklerini belirlemiştir. yağcı (2007) öğretmenlerin sınıf içindeki davranışlarının öğrencilerin bilgi ve kavrama düzeyi ile akademik benliğini olumlu yönde geliştirdiği sonucuna ulaşmıştır. buna karşın doğanay (2009) yaptığı bir çalışmada öğretmen adaylarının geleneksel vatandaşlık anlayışını sosyal-aktif vatandaşlık anlayışına göre daha fazla tercih ettikleri sonucuna ulaşmıştır. üstel (2011) tanzimat’tan günümüze makbul vatandaşlık anlayışını araştırdığı çalışmasında, türkiye’deki vatandaşlık anlayışının sivil ve katılımcılık boyutlarının eksik olduğu, pasif bir itaati ve konformizmi hedeflediği yargısına varmıştır. ersoy (2007) ise öğretmenlerin, vatandaşlık yeterliklerini ölçmenin zor olacağına ilişkin görüş ortaya koyduğunu ifade etmektedir. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerinin cinsiyetlerine göre vatandaşlık değerleri, vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri ile ölçek toplamında anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmamıştır. bu sonuç, vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutu dışında, sağlam’ın (2011) öğretmen adaylarının etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik düzeyleri ile ilgili araştırma sonuçlarıyla benzerlik göstermektedir. söz konusu araştırmada vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutunda erkek öğretmen adayları lehine anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmuştur. doğanay ve sarı (2009) lise öğrencilerinin vatandaşlık algılarıyla ilgili araştırmalarında kız öğrencilerin erkeklere göre daha geleneksel vatandaşlık algısına sahip oldukları sonucuna ulaşmışlardır. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerinin branşlarına göre vatandaşlık değerleri, vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutlarıyla ölçek toplamında anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. bu sonuç sağlam’ın (2011) öğretmen adaylarına yönelik yaptığı araştırma sonuçlarıyla benzerlik taşımaktadır. bu iki sonuç hem öğretmen adaylarının hem de ilköğretimde branş ya da sınıf öğretmeni olarak görev yapmanın journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 71-85 82 öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarında bir farklılaşmaya yol açmadığını göstermiştir. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerinin medeni durumlarına göre vatandaşlık değerleri, vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutlarıyla ölçek toplamında anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. öğretmenlerin evli ya da bekâr olmasının öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılarında bir farklılaşmaya yol açmadığı bulunmuştur. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerinin kıdemlerine göre vatandaşlık değerleri boyutunda anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmadığı; vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri ile ölçekten elde edilen toplam puan bakımından anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaştığı bulunmuş; mesleki kıdemin öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılamalarında etkili olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerinin öğretmenlik mesleğini severek tercih etme durumlarına göre vatandaşlık değerleri, vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutlarıyla ölçek toplamında anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. öğretmenlerin mesleklerini severek tercih edip etmemiş olmalarının etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılamalarında bir farklılaşmaya yol açmadığı bulunmuştur. i̇lköğretimde görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerinin öğretmenlik mesleğinden memnun olup olmama durumlarına göre vatandaşlık değerleri, vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutlarıyla ölçek toplamında anlamlı bir şekilde farklılaşmadığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. öğretmenlerin mesleklerinden memnun olup olmamalarının etkili vatandaşlık yeterliklerine ilişkin algılamalarında bir farklılaşmaya yol açmadığı görülmüştür. sonuç olarak ilköğretim okullarında görev yapan öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarına ilişkin görüşlerinin “tam katılıyorum” düzeyinde olduğu; öğretmenlerin cinsiyet, branş, medeni durum, öğretmenliği severek tercih etme ve öğretmenlikten memnun olma durumları bakımından anlamlı bir farklılık göstermediği; vatandaşlık bilgi becerileri boyutuyla ölçek toplamında mesleki kıdem bakımından kıdem yılı fazla olanlar lehine anlamlı farklılık olduğu bulunmuştur. kaynakça/references acun, i̇., demir, m. & göz, n. l. (2010). öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki ilişki. journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 107-123. halil i̇brahim sağlam 83 alkın, s. (2007). i̇ngiltere ve türkiye’de ilköğretim programlarındaki vatandaşlık eğitiminin karşılaştırılması. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, ankara üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, ankara. barth, j. & demirtaş, a. (1996). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler öğretimi, ankara: milli eğitim geliştirme projesi yayınları. demircioğlu, i̇. h. (2008). türkiye’de tarih öğretimi aktif vatandaşlık eğitimini desteklemekte midir? türk tarih öğretmenlerinin görüşleri. m. safran & d. dilek (ed.), 21. yüzyılda kimlik, vatandaşlık ve tarih eğitimi (s. 54-60). i̇stanbul: yeni i̇nsan yayınevi. dinç, e. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının avrupa ve avrupa vatandaşlığı hakkındaki görüşleri. a. şişman ve diğerleri (ed.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 201-207). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. doğanay, a. (2004). sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin genel amaçları ne olmalıdır? i. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi kongresi bildirileri (s. 204-215). ankara: milli eğitim bakanlığı yayınları. doğanay, a. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık algısı ve eylemlerinin siyasal toplumsallaşma bağlamında değerlendirilmesi. a. şişman ve diğerleri (ed.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 28-44). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. doğanay, a. ve sarı, m. (2009). lise öğrencilerinin vatandaşlık algılarına etki eden faktörlerin analizi. a. şişman ve diğerleri (ed.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 45-62). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. duman, t., karakaya, y., & yavuz, n. (2001). vatandaşlık bilgisi. ankara: gündüz eğitim ve yayıncılık. ekiz, d. (2009). bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: anı yayıncılık. engle, s. h., & ochoa, a. s. (1988). education for democratic citizenship: decision making in the social studies. new york: teacher college press. erkuş, a. (2009). davranış bilimleri için bilimsel araştırma süreci. (i̇kinci baskı). ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. ersoy, a. f. (2007). sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık eğitimi uygulamalarına ilişkin görüşleri. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, anadolu üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, eskişehir. gündüz, m., & gündüz, f. (2005). yurttaşlık bilinci. ankara: anı yayınları. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 71-85 84 holden, c. (2003). citizenship in the primary school. in constructivist teaching in primary schools. s. gatt & y. vella (eds.), malta: miller malta, 195-214. i̇brahimoğlu, z. (2009). sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının etkin vatandaş tanımları ve etkin vatandaş yetiştirmede sosyal bilgiler dersine yükledikleri rol. a. şişman ve diğerleri (ed.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 436-442). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. kan, ç. (2009). değişen değerler ve küresel vatandaşlık eğitimi. kastamonu eğitim dergisi, 17 (3), 895-904. karaduman, h. (2011). 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumlarına etkisi ve öğrenme öğretme sürecine yansımaları. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, marmara üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. karaman, k., karabulut, b. & ekici, m. (2009). dijital vatandaşlık. a. şişman ve diğerleri (ed.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 315-316). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. karasar, n. (1994). bilimsel araştırma yöntemi. ankara: 3 a araştırma danışmanlık limited. keser, ö. f. (2003). fizik eğitimine yönelik bütünleştirici bir öğrenme ortamı tasarımı ve uygulaması. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, karadeniz teknik üniversitesi, fen bilimleri enstitüsü, trabzon. mcgowan, t. m., & godwin, c. m. (1986). citizenship education in the early grades: a plan for action. social studies, 30, 108-207. pamuk, a., & alabaş, r. (2008). tarih eğitimi ve vatandaşlık algısı: trabzon örneği. m. safran & d. dilek (ed.), 21. yüzyılda kimlik, vatandaşlık ve tarih eğitimi kitabı (s. 23-37). i̇stanbul: yeni i̇nsan yayınevi. phillips, r. (2003). history, citizenship and identity. the teaching of history, 37-41. safran, m. (2008). sosyal bilgiler öğretimine bakış. b. tay & a. öcal (ed.), özel öğretim yöntemleriyle sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. ankara: pegem yayınları. sağlam, h. i̇. (2011). öğretmen adaylarının etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik düzeyleri. kastamonu üniversitesi kastamonu eğitim dergisi, 19 (1), 39-50. sağlam, h. i̇. (2000). sosyal bilgiler dersinin demokratik tutum geliştirmedeki rolü. milli eğitim dergisi, 146, 67-71. tay, b. (2009). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin dünü, bugünü ve yarını. r. turan & k. ulusoy (ed.), sosyal bilgilerin temelleri. ankara: maya akademi. halil i̇brahim sağlam 85 tezci, e. (2002). oluşturmacı öğretim tasarım uygulamasının ilköğretim beşinci sınıf öğrencilerinin yaratıcılıklarına ve başarılarına etkisi. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, fırat üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, elazığ. tuncel, g. & uğur, c. a. (2009). i̇lköğretim 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin “küresel vatandaşlık” kavramına yükledikleri anlamlar üzerine bir değerlendirme. a. şişman ve diğerleri (ed.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 229-232). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. üstel, f. (1999). yurttaşlık ve demokrasi. ankara: dost kitabevi. üstel, f. (2011). makbul vatandaşın peşinde. i̇stanbul: i̇letişim yayınları. yağcı, e. (1997). sınıf içi demokratik öğretimin öğrenci erişisi ve akademik benlik kavramına etkisi. hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 13, 171-179. yazıcı, s. ve yazıcı, f. (2010). yurtseverlik eğitimi: tarih ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin algı, tutum ve eğitimsel uygulamalarına yönelik bir araştırma. uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, 3 (10), 649-660. yeşil, r. (2002). okul ve ailede insan hakları ve demokrasi eğitimi. ankara: nobel yayıncılık. yılmaz, k. (2009). i̇lköğretim 8. sınıf öğrencilerinin temel vatandaşlık kavramlarına ilişkin algıları. a. şişman ve diğerleri (ed.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 291-297). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. yılmaz, a., tunç-şahin, c. & bengiç, c. (2009). i̇lköğretim öğrencilerinin devlet, vatandaş, demokrasi ve insan hakları kavramlarına ilişkin algıları. a. şişman ve diğerleri (ed.), i. uluslararası avrupa birliği, demokrasi, vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi sempozyumu bildirileri (s. 77-84). uşak: uşak üniversitesi. araştırma grubu veri toplama aracı verilerin analizi kaynakça/references article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (3),193-211 193 javanese women’s political discourse in response to the 2019 indonesian general election prembayun miji lestari 1, djatmika2, sumarlam3 & dwi purnanto4 abstract this article aims to explain javanese women’s political discourse in response to the various conflicts that arose from the 2019 indonesian general election. this study focuses on the political discourse among javanese women in response to the electoral issues. it employed observation and in-depth interviews in its data collecting technique. fairclough’s critical discourse analysis model was used to analyze the data with reference to the textual, discourse practice, and sociocultural dimensions. the findings revealed that the political discourse of javanese women is inseparable from the boundaries of the javanese language and the cultural context. the textual analysis revealed that positive and negative sentiments about the presidential and vice presidential candidates dominated the discourse. a discourse practice analysis was then interpreted through four dimensions, namely (i) what is going on?, (ii) who is involved?, (iii) what relationships are at issue?, and (vi) what is the role of language? furthermore, a sociocultural analysis attempted to connect the javanese women’s discourse practices with the sociocultural context. the use of traditional javanese idioms as a cultural norm confirmed how local javanese wisdom showed in the political conversation among the javanese women, thus mitigating any negative effects. keywords: political conversation discourse, javanese women in indonesia, general election fairclough critical discourse analysis, unen-unen (traditional javanese idioms). introduction the year 2019 marked a democratic celebration for all indonesian citizens, because it carried the momentum of legislative elections at both the regional and national levels combined with simultaneous presidential and vice presidential elections, as well as the election of members for the regional representative council. in short, this year has been a very political one for indonesians. this evoked various topics in political conversations involving society, including javanese women as part of indonesian society. the political conversation discourse of javanese women certainly differs from that of women from other ethnicities, as each ethnicity has its own respective cultural characteristics. the abundance of fraudulent practices and other issues, such as 1 doctor candidate, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta & universitas negeri semarang, semarang, indonesia, prembayun@gmail.com 2 prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id 3 prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia;sumarlamwd@gmail.com 4 dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia; dwi.purnanto@yahoo.com mailto:prembayun@gmail.com mailto:djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:sumarlamwd@gmail.com mailto:dwi.purnanto@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),193-211 bribery, hoaxes and slander, the introduction of political technologies, such as quick count to estimate election results earlier and vote multiplication in the real count, and irregularities that potentially violate the values of democracy have drawn javanese women into the political conversation, something they rarely did previously. the complicated political state has certainly affected indonesians’ lives, because they feel it may degrade democratic conditions and threaten the country’s sustainability. the conflicts existing in the differing perspectives within the democratic process will undeniably lead to turmoil if not addressed. political conversation about the 2019 indonesian general election is considered an interesting topic to study because of the dynamic development of the political situation itself. a critical discourse analysis is required to understand the textual practices of javanese women’s political conversation about the election. the discourse itself is considered the means to produce and reproduce the meanings expressed by the subjects based on particular interests. an understanding of the discourse, in reality, also relates to a lack of neutral meaning unavailability due to subjects inevitably having their own interests. a discourse always contains meaning based on the subjects’ purposes, even if they are unaware of the implied meaning. a discourse can serve to evoke participants, both from internal and external groups (sumarti, 1984). fairclough, meanwhile, defined discourse as the use of language as part of social practice. this implies that individual acts in using language form part of the social reality. in this regard, fairclough assumed the discourse concept by combining linguistics, interpretative traditions, and sociology. through his theory, fairclough offered a discourse model that includes three dimensions of exploration, namely textual, discourse practice, and social practice dimensions. these dimensions have their respective domains and processes that dialectically relate to each other (munfarida, 1978). a number of experts have previously studied critical discourse, but the current research offers several different features, including their object and subject, approaches, and findings. most previous research has highlighted written discourse, with only a few discussing oral discourse. this current study focuses on the emergent political discourse among javanese women, which came in response to the phenomenon of the 2019 indonesian general election. interestingly, this topic includes the javanese women’s criticisms of the regime-transfer process, their political conversation practices, and their conversation models based on the sociocultural context. this study mainly focuses on how javanese women respond with different perspectives to the electoral process in an attempt to minimize conflict within their social communications and lestari, et al. interactions. such questions are considered essential in the current social reality, where a critical discourse analysis (cda) may help to reveal the problems through a number of dimensions, including the textual, discourse practice, and sociocultural practice dimensions. therefore, the researchers considered fairclough’s cda (1995) as being the analysis model that could offer the most appropriate approach for exploring the problems. the study is expected to provide an indepth discussion for communication science development, one that relates to political discourse and fairclough’s cda model. research questions drawing from the above background, this study is guided by the following two research questions: 1) how are javanese women’s opinions about the indonesian general election 2019, given the abundant irregularities, represented? 2) how does the context represent the textual analysis, discourse practice and sociocultural analysis? literature review previous studies related to political discourse or critical discourse analysis a number of previous studies related to political discourse have adopted fairclough’s social-shift approach or highlighted the javanese culture, including studies from ardianto (2012); anom, kee and zamawi (2014); mardikantoro (2014); hayati and juliana (2016); sumarlam (2016); anuar, ahmad, and salleh (2018); radzi, rahim, and yaakob (2018); yasini, ghaem, and bicharanlou (2018); sakhiyya and locke (2019); and nugrahani, nababan, santosa, and djatmika (2019). ardianto (2012) studied the daily newspapers pikiran rakyat and kompas to identify the functions of political public relations aimed at establishing president susilo bambang yudhoyono’s (sby) reputation branding. his study revealed that textual production in pikiran rakyat tended to publicize a negative branding of president sby. in contrast, kompas tended to show president sby in a positive light. anom et al. (2014), meanwhile, studied the political communication between indonesia and malaysia in maintaining the malay archipelago’s political stability. this study of indonesian– malaysian political communication employed documentary analysis by referring to the functions of indonesia’s and malaysia’s political communications in attempting to sustain the malay archipelago in the face of the lahad datu issue. it confirmed an active political communication journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),193-211 between both countries, as both indonesia and malaysia held similar views about their respective roles in facilitating the prevention of tension and conflict. mardikantoro (2014) investigated a corruption case in indonesia. he discovered that within the context of criticism about corruption, koran tempo disputed an existing news publication on corruption, while kompas, republika, jawa pos, and suara merdeka confirmed the same news publication. abdi and basarati (2016) investigated the critical discourse from a number of international newspapers published in iran, saudi arabia, and the usa in relation to the crisis in yemen. they picked up 63 headlines for the study from various publications, namely iran daily, tehran times, iran on-line, and the irna (islamic republic news agency), all iranian publications; al-sharq alwsat and al-jazeera for saudi arabian newspapers; and telegraph, usa today, news week, and the new york times to represent american newspapers. fairclough’s three-dimensional model was adopted to explore the discourse related to yemen’s crisis. the study revealed that houthis were labeled rebels by the saudi arabian and american newspapers, in which saudi arabia was accused of protecting the rebels. in contrast, iranian newspaper labelled saudi arabia and the usa as aggressors and decided to promote diplomacy between the military forces. hayati and juliana (2016), meanwhile, analyzed the descriptions of malala yousafzai in four british and pakistani newspapers following the trial for her attempted murder by the taliban. these newspapers included the news, dawn, the nation, and the daily times, as published from october 10, 2012 to november 10, 2012. the study deployed a framing theory and comparative analysis from the editorials of these four newspapers, a total of 29 editorials (five from the news, six from dawn, nine from the daily times, and nine from the nation). the findings concluded that malala yousafzai was described as a brave girl who opposed the taliban. the findings also revealed a negative sentiment among pakistanis toward the taliban following the group’s attack on malala yousafzai. sumarlam (2016) analyzed the political discourse related to the internal conflicts of yogyakarta palace in indonesia. through fairclough’s analysis model, the researcher exposed a number of elements, including the representation of a post-monarchy regime following the dominion dispute, the discourse actors, and the conflict settlement. it revealed a number of things, including that the discourse structure comprised the headline, orientation, sequence of events, and closing. the positive ideology of the parties involved and related institutions (i.e., government and experts) lestari, et al. were represented through prohibitive speeches and negative sentences. furthermore, the events, actors, relations to the issues, and language roles were exposed through the interpretation of discourse practices. in addition, the text production, institutional impacts (among the parties involved in the conflict) to the text, and the social condition of yogyakarta palace were represented according to the economic, political, social, and cultural interests. anuar, ahmad, and salleh (2018) identified the impact of memes on the malaysian sociocultural environment using fairclough’s cda model. it concluded that memes not only reinforced inspiration but also served to express people’s dissatisfaction with a particular phenomenon. radzi, rahim,and yaakob (2018), meanwhile, studied advertisements that featured celebrities as product endorsers, also using fairclough’s critical discourse analysis. they pointed out the textual dimension as mostly affecting product advertising. this dimension could clearly convey information to consumers and attract their attention through a particular message structure. in the iranian context, yasini, ghaem, and bicharanlou (2018) investigated women’s clothing standards following the transition of the revolutionary political era. based on a construction of social discourse analysis, the study identified iranian women’s fashion styles and studied the discursive practices of a number of groups and ideologies within society. it utilized laclau and mouffe’s model to analyze the particular groups’ polemics and practices that led to women dominantly wearing the hijab at the national level. the dominant revolutionary discourse opposed symbols of modern power and freedom that were represented in western thinking and replaced these with symbols of morality and holiness. this symbolic power currently still exists, however, due to the sociocultural shift. even if iranian women’s fashion styles following the revolution of 1979 are still considered a religious symbol, social, cultural, economic, and political influences still manifest. sakhiyya, locke and locke (2019), meanwhile, studied the different perspectives of the meritocratic and empowerment discourse at the state universities of indonesia in relation to the representation of indonesian women’s leadership. they explained how the meritocratic discourse emphasized achievements based on individual eligibility, including skills and talents. in contrast, the empowerment discourse supported gender equality and women’s involvement in the decisionmaking process at the higher education level. indeed, the empowerment discourse considered the term “empowerment” to represent a progressive political agenda in society. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),193-211 nugrahani et al. (2019) studied the translations of three novels, namely burung-burung manyar (manyar birds), pengakuan pariyem (pariyem’s confession), and para priyayi (the noblemen), all of which featured javanese culture. the study identified various javanese idioms in the forms of paribasan (proverbs), saloka (metaphors), sanepa (figurations), bebasan (suppositions), and parikan (poems). the previous studies mentioned above highlight a lack of study into political discourse within the sociocultural context. this current article therefore promises significant new discoveries that differ from those of previous studies. critical discourse analysis discourse analysis is part of a discipline that aims to study the use of language in communication, seeing discourse as the use of oral or written language within social practices. it aims to describe, translate, analyze, and criticize social phenomenon that is reflected through text and speech. the oral form of discourse is a direct conveyance through verbal language, while the written form is conveyed through writing (kusumastuti, 2019; mulyana, 2005; sumarlam, 2003). a conversation is one example of oral discourse in the form of dialogue. therefore, the political discourse of javanese women in response to the 2019 indonesian general election is classified as oral discourse. this current study applies fairclough’s critical discourse analysis model, which assumes that language is an inseparable part of social life that connects with other elements, so it also considers external elements other than language. fairclough (1995) divides discourse analysis into three dimensions, namely textual analysis (description), discourse practice analysis (interpretation), and sociocultural practice analysis (explanation). textual analysis relates to linguistics by referring to vocabulary, semantics, and sentence structure. fairclough also includes coherence and cohesion as elements that allow a particular sentence to combine with others, so his model allows a definition that covers all the elements of analysis, including ideas, relations, and identity. ideas indicate a particular reference, often to ideological elements. relations correspond to the construction analysis among the speakers, while identity refers to the actors’ construction of an identity that explains their personalities. discourse practice analysis, meanwhile, relates to exploring the meaning between the textual and contextual interpretation phases. the textual interpretation runs through the levels of speech, lestari, et al. speech meaning, local coherence, and discourse integrity, while the contextual interpretation is used to identify the situational context by observing the social impacts and comparing the current texts with others. finally, social practice analysis relates to elements outside both the textual and situational contexts. it highlights the relationship between discourse practice and the social context with the aim of explaining the description and interpretation phase (sumarlam, 2016). in this phase, researchers need to analyze and explain the tendency of texts, the complexity of discourse practices, and the social-shift process. in summary, fairclough’s analysis model mainly involves relating text at the micro-level with the society at the macro-level. the political discourse of javanese women in indonesia in reality, human life is inseparable from politics. all problems and solutions derive from political issues. in this regard, gee (1999) explained that every reciprocal human relationship actually symbolizes an implied process about how various social norms are implemented. indeed, social consideration is adhered to by particular groups as a mark of dominance, status, or social value that is distinguished in the form of qualities such as academic ability, financial status, charisma, self-control, appearance, age, wisdom, knowledge, technological mastery, morality, ownership, general knowledge, and common sense. these social forms in turn lead to dominance (darma, 2013). javanese women adopt the indonesian ethnics that exist on the island of java and possess their own cultural values. they use particular symbols or signs as means to express the messages or advice through conversation. such symbols or signs commonly have deep meanings that require further analysis to comprehend their purposes in conveying messages. magnis suseno (2003) stated that javanese people refer to social norms, including manners (respect principles) and harmonious social appearance (concordance principles) when regulating their daily lives. respect principles urge them to act and honor others based on their social status. concordance principles, meanwhile, encourage them to behave properly in every situation in an attempt to avoid conflict. such norms lead to people, especially women, maintaining the local culture’s values and traditions. indeed, they reflect local javanese wisdom in the form of traditional idioms, even when used in political conversation about the 2019 indonesian general election. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),193-211 methods the study focuses on javanese women’s attitudes as reflected in their discourse about the 2019 indonesian general election. it explores their responses to the electoral events of 2019 based on their sociocultural characteristics. five forms of speech are highlighted, including sapa presidene? (who is the president?), modhele kampanye (the campaign model), coblosan (the votes), pemilu urik (general election fraud), and hasile pemilu (the general election result). to comprehend the meaning of the language attitudes, complete, descriptive, in-depth data are required to scientifically explore this discourse’s uniqueness (miles & huberman, 1994, p.6–7). a comprehensive overview of the political discourse of javanese women requires a critical discourse analysis in order to explore its textual practices. critical discourse analysis considers the use of oral and written language as part of social practice (fairclough & wodak, 1997; titscher et al., 2000; eriyanto, 2012; darma, 2013; suliman et al., 2016). this study employed fairclough’s critical discourse analysis model, which comprises textual, discourse practice, and sociocultural practice analyses. this approach integrates concepts from linguistics, sociopolitical notions, and social shift. in short, fairclough’s analysis model looks at text as the micro-level element and social context as the macro-level element of the discourse. the research data included a series of conversations among javanese women when responding to the situation of the 2019 indonesian general election. the data were collected through observations and interviews, with four informants being involved in this study: atik (45 years old), septi (39 years old), yati (35 years old), and rini (38 years old). all participants had obtained diplomas or undergraduate degrees. informants were selected based on the prerequisite that they understood and frequently discussed the indonesian political situation, especially that of the 2019 general election. they were then selected randomly based on an observation of their discussion themes and the javanese idioms they used. the data (i.e., their conversations) were collected from early march 2019 to the end of april 2019. observation was conducted by listening to their political conversations prior to, during, and following the election process. in addition, flexible and open interviews were conducted in a less structured, informal, and repeated manner. an indepth interview can acquire data through face-to-face inquiries with the informants of a study, either with or without an interview guide (sutopo, 2006, p.72). lestari, et al. fairclough’s critical discourse analysis model was used in this research. this comprises three phases, namely textual analysis (description), discourse practice analysis (interpretation), and sociocultural analysis (explanation). the process in this research went as follows: a. the textual analysis (description) emphasized the use of language to explore the themes of political conversation that reflect ideology. the use of language included the elements of words and sentence structures that were used by javanese women. b. the discourse practice analysis (interpretation) aimed to identify the relationships between the textual and contextual interpretation. the textual interpretation comprises four phases, namely speech, speech meaning, local coherence, and discourse integrity. the contextual interpretation, meanwhile, includes the situational context and intertextuality. the researchers identified the situational context by observing the social impacts of the text, while the intertextuality involved a comparison between the current texts and others. these phases aimed to reveal the ideology within the textual construction of javanese women’s political conversations about the 2019 indonesian general election. c. the socio-cultural analysis (explanation) involved a relationship analysis between the discourse practice and the social context. it aimed to explain the description and interpretation phases. during this phase, the researchers analyzed and explained the relationships between a number of elements, including the tendency of conversation text, the complexity of discourse practices, and the social-shift process. results this section presents the results of the critical discourse analysis of javanese women’s political conversations in response to the 2019 general election. this includes analyses of the text with the aim of revealing the javanese women’s opinions about the election and the practice of this particular political discourse. this was followed by sociocultural analysis in order to explain the textual and interpretation analyses by referring to (i) the situation when the conversation took place, (ii) the institutions related to the conversation, and (iii) the macro-level elements of society that relate to the javanese women’s economic, political, social, and cultural interests. textual analysis (description) a number of language elements appear in the javanese women’s political discourse about the 2019 indonesian general election, including personal pronouns and nuanced democratic and political journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),193-211 terms. the use of personal pronouns indicates their disposition within the conversation. there are four kinds of personal pronouns: (a) aku “i,” (b) awake dhewe “we,” (c) wong cilik“ proletariat,” and (d) wong ngisor“ commoner.” the use of the personal pronoun aku aims to convey an expectation, persuasion, or domination, while the use of awake dhewe in explaining a political situation tends to evoke a particular group whose members are emotionally connected as indonesian citizens. meanwhile, the use of the personal pronouns wong cilik and wong ngisor represent a disposition as a common person (i.e., one not in the governmental structure or part of the social elite). the use of politically nuanced terms aims to convey the participants’ expectations for a fair and honest general election. such expectations were targeted at the government as the state administrator and the general election commission (kpu) as the administrator of the election. the conversational patterns employed by the discourse participants (i.e., the javanese women) generally comprised three elements, namely the opening, content, and closing. the opening functions to initiate the conversation related to the political situation of the 2019 general election. the content then moves to an in-depth exploration of the topic. next, the closing concludes the conversation, and this commonly manifests in the form of persuasion, advice, suggestions, prohibition, and inputs for the other participants. for instance, the following sentence marks a closing: “wis rasah ngomongke masalah politik, ndak marai panas, digawe adem wae. sing arep dadi presidene sapa, ya wis ben” (“no need to talk anymore about politics. we do not want to end up in such a hot situation. let’s chill out. whoever the president will be, just let it flow.”). such closings reflect the discourse practice that describes the javanese women’s expressions and attitudes pertaining to their implicit political decisions. they apparently did not want to disclose their favored presidential candidate (i.e., 01 -joko widodo or 02 -prabowo subianto). the expression “digawe adem wae” (let’s chill out), meanwhile, reflects local javanese wisdom and a desire to muffle the turmoil stemming from the unconducive political situation. the javanese women’s political conversations about the 2019 general election also highlighted a number of issues, such as money politics, quick and real count fraud, criticisms of the kpu and election supervisory agency (bawaslu), people power, regime condition, parties, legislative member candidates, and the presidential and vice presidential candidates. the grammatical structure of the political conversations focused on statements of the pros and cons of the political candidates. this study revealed two sentiments at the textual analysis phase, lestari, et al. namely positive and negative. negative statements commonly came from participants without a tendency to any candidate, while positive statements came from participants who supported particular parties, legislative member candidates, and/or presidential and vice presidential candidates. the intensity of positive and negative statements relates to the discourse participants’ personalities and cultural environment. based on the analysis, the participants’ positive statements that marked their support for political candidates mostly conveyed those candidates’ successes, their partisanship to the people, public economic development programs they were associated with, and other positive imaging. in contrast, the negative statements generally exposed candidates’ failings, their neglect of the people’s aspirations, trivial programs they initiated that failed to solve national problems, and other negative imaging. additionally, several parts of the conversations also contained neutral tones. the following data comes from the javanese women’s political conversations that took place prior to, during, and following the 2019 indonesian general election. 1) jaman saiki kok isih ana sing kampanye nak pemilu haram? kondisi negara kaya ngene kok ya pemikirane ora berubah, jan kebangeten. “how could there still exist the notion that a general election is haram? with the current state of our country, such a thought is just too offensive.” 2) jaman wis maju kok kampanye isih wer-weran knalpot blong-blongan, awit esuk tekane sore, suarane banter pol, marakke mumet na sirah. kabeh dha sambat merga dha terganggu. “such an irony that in this modern era, they still run a political campaign by riding on their motors without mufflers from morning till evening. the noise really disturbs me and makes my head dizzy. many people protest against such a campaign style due to its disturbing impact.” the first sentence identifies a javanese woman’s disposition as a member of society that regrets the conservative paradigm that supposes a general election as violating islamic rules (haram), such that hard line groups decided not to vote. through the conversation, the woman aimed to express her negative evaluation of those who still adhered to such conservative thought. this was deemed inconsistent with the current era, because democracy requires widespread public participation in elections in order to realize the nation’s future stability and prosperity. the woman even claimed such thinking threatened the country’s sustainability because of the potential to cause a loss of voting rights and no contribution to the target of improvement. the second sentence, meanwhile, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),193-211 shows a javanese woman’s self-identification as someone who disagreed with the motorized campaign model because of the noise this causes. the woman claimed that many other people condemned such campaign models. she also believed that more creative campaign strategies should be used to attract public sympathy. 3) pas nyoblos milih, diakehi sing donga njaluk ro gusti allah muga-muga sing dadi pemimpin wong apik, jujur, tanggungjawab ro rakyat tur amanah. muga kabul 2019 ganti presiden. “during the time of voting, we have to pray more, and ask god to grant us with good, honest, and responsible leaders. may god bless us with a new president in 2019.” this third sentence identifies a javanese woman’s disposition as a voter. she persuaded others to choose the right leaders for the nation, and she expected god to provide indonesia with good, honest, and responsible leaders. this sentence reflects her positive evaluation of the urgent need for competent, loyal, integrated indonesian leaders. she expected indonesia to have a new president in 2019 who would constitutionally bring the nation toward progress. implicitly, this javanese woman also conveyed a negative evaluation to the incumbent, as she considered that joko widodo’s governance (the presidential candidate from 01 coalition) had failed to implement the promises he made in 2014 to bring prosperity to the country. 4) jane itungan suara pemilu ki apa ora dicek, suara sah ro ora sah, plus jumlah sing milih pira, itungane kan jelas, kok isa ora sinkron. “don’t they check the number of votes? the number of valid and invalid votes? the number of voters? the count should have been clear. how could people say that it was not synchronized?” 5) aku mbayangke sing dha golek suara tekan ngendi-ngendi, bareng ning kpu (komisi pemilihan umum), penak banget direvisi nak ana kesalahan input data. salah input data kok berulang, tur sing diuntungke ya pasangan calon iku wae. “i just imagine people look for votes everywhere, so they just need to confirm with the kpu in case there is an input error. how do you think errors could happen repeatedly and just contribute more votes to the other candidate?” 6) dipantau wae piye kahanane, masak ana sing protes demo kecurangan kpu terus ditangkap. nak sing ditangkapi emak-emak akeh banget, isa-isa penjarane kebak, isa gawe arisan na penjara. lestari, et al. “let’s monitor the process. how could the people that protested against the indication of kpu’s fraud be detained? if there were lots of housewives imprisoned, the jail would be fully loaded. they could even hold a social gathering there.” 7) gusti allah paringi sabar…jare wingi pas ngrekap data, akeh data sing di-mark up luar biasa, baik data pileg maupun pilpres, padha wae. “god, brace our hearts…some said that there were a significant amount of data mark-up for the legislative and presidential candidates.” the conversations above textually show the use of positive and negative sentences by the javanese female participants. the conversations attempt to establish the participants’ ideological values by conveying their subjective and collective evaluations of the indonesian 2019 general election. data (4) and (5) mainly discuss indications of fraud in the votes for the presidential and vice presidential candidates, in which the participants questioned the kpu’s performance as the administrator of the general election, finding it less than professional and seeming to favor one particular candidate. this negative evaluation of the kpu’s performance is marked by the statement that unsynchronized votes and input errors were found, as was relayed through television news and other mass media. it also showed their protest toward the institutions that they considered were not neutral in carrying out their duty. data (6) and (7) also highlight indications of fraud committed by the kpu. both data contain negative evaluations of the kpu as expressed through several terms, includingdata mark-up, protest, kpu fraud, and imprisoned. several parts of the conversations also show the participants’ neutral attitudes toward the representative council members and the presidential and vice presidential candidates. for instance, take the sentence sing arep dadi presidene sapa mbok yaben, menang kalah iku biasa. nak menang rasah gumedhe, nak kalah rasah susah (“whoever will become president, just let it flow. winning and losing are just two common things. if they win, they do not need to be conceited; and if they lose, they do not need to grieve.”) this represents a vague statement that does not provide any clue about the speaker’s partisanship, even if she had already made her decision. the clause nak menang rasah gumedhe, nak kalah rasah susah (“if they win, they do not need to be conceited; and if they lose, they do not need to grieve”) is an example of local javanese wisdom, which advises people to behave normally when responding to any victory or loss, because winning and losing are just two sides of the same coin. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),193-211 the javanese women’s political discourse in responding to the 2019 indonesian general election did focus more on the presidential and vice presidential elections, while the conversation related to the election of legislative and regional council member candidates only occupied a small portion of the discourse. the above conversations show three forms of partisanship, namely the proponents (who support joko widodo-maruf amin and oppose prabowo subianto-sandiaga uno), the opposition (who support prabowo subianto-sandiaga uno andoppose joko widodo-maruf amin), and the neutral line (who favor neither joko widodo-maruf amin nor prabowo subianto-sandiaga uno). based upon their conversations, the proponents and opponents showed a significant political engagement in conversation, while the neutral line preferred to avoid conflicts (see diagram 1). diagram 1. javanese women’s political conversation model at the textual analysis phase discourse practice analysis (interpretation) discourse practice analysis represents an interpretation process by analyzing the relationships between the text as a part of speech and discourse practice. this interpretation should refer to the miscellaneous sources and principles in an attempt to come to an accurate interpretation (sumarlam, 2013, 2015, 2016). in this respect, researchers should also conduct an intertextuality analysis (fairclough, 1995) by studying the relations between one conversational text and the others in addition to its context as the causal factor of the conversation. hasil quick count tv menang kubu 01, ning hasil real count dasare pleno c1 menang kubu 02. sing bener sing endi iki? ora isa dipercaya! “the quick count result on tv said 01won, while the c1 plenary picked 02.which one is true? untrustworthy!” text (discourse) the textual analysis considers the following elements: the use of personal pronouns the use of democraticnuanced terms the use of political terms the content production positive negative neutral lestari, et al. saya panas kahanane negara, kpu jare melu main curang dukung salah siji kubu. rakyate akeh sing ora trima nak ngene iki. “our country is getting more chaotic. they said the kpu was involved in fraud because it favored one candidate. people will not accept this.” both expressions mostly contain negative sentiments—as indicated by the phrases ora isa dipercaya (untrustworthy), main curang (involved in the fraud), and saya panas (getting more chaotic)—that mark the speakers’ protests toward the general election process. they affirmed that indonesians want a peaceful democracy free from any conflict that might potentially damage national unity and cause disrespect among different religious adherents and ethnicities. following the intertextuality analysis of the javanese women’s political discourse, the researchers interpreted the data through four dimensions. the following explanation shows the interpretation results for this: (1) what is going on? there is a political discourse related to the 2019 indonesian general election, particularly the presidential and vice presidential election. the topic becomes an interesting issue because regime transfer begins with the completion of the electoral agenda. (2) who is involved? the javanese women are involved in the political conversation, because they highlight the national participant as electoral elements, including the legitimate indonesian voters, the kpu, bawaslu as the supervising committee for the general election, the incumbent ruler that is running for a second presidential term, the opposition presidential candidate, the central government, and each campaign’s expert text producers who aimed to show their respective candidates in a good light. (3) what relationships are at issue? the javanese women’s conversation is based on their custom of always trying to have interesting discussions that are relevant to current trends, especially for controversial topics. the controversy of the 2019 indonesian general election attracted much public interest, especially for stakeholders and those that aware of the information being disseminated. (4) what is the role of language? the use of language (textual structure, sentence structure, and dictions) within the political discourse reflects the participants’ (i.e., the javanese women) responses and opinions. if a candidate intensively garners negative sentiments, the public will surely adopt a common judgment and eventually form their own negative opinions of that candidate. in contrast, frequent positive sentiment will foster positive imaging for a candidate. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),193-211 this phenomenon represents the power of language, which is used by the javanese women within their political discourse about the 2019 indonesian general election in an attempt to develop their own influential images. for example, supporters of the incumbent joko widodo tried to paint a positive image of him and tended to express negative sentiments about the opposition candidate prabowo subianto. sociocultural analysis (explanation) sociocultural analysis (explanation) is defined as analyzing the relationships between discourse practice and the social context. it aims to explore the interpretation results that were produced at the description and interpretation phase. in this phase, researchers explain the relations among the textual tendency, discourse practice complexity, and social-shift process. the following highlights the social practices that relate to the current study. 1) situational changes: this study highlights the situational changes of the javanese women’s political discourse with regards to the indonesian general election between march and april 2019. these changes were triggered by widespread reports through mass media, including television, about the electoral process, campaign actions prior to the election on april 17, 2019, and the election result. the javanese women commonly maintain social harmony and try to avoid conflict, even if they differed in their political leanings. they conformed to social norms that are explicitly conveyed through unen-unen (traditional javanese idioms), such as guyup rukun (togetherness in peace without conflict), rukun agawe santosa crah agawe bubrah (united we stand, divided we fall), aja njiwit yen ra gelem dijiwit (do not hurt someone if you do not want to be hurt), ana rembug dirembug (all matters should be discussed), yen menang aja sawenang-wenang (if you win, do not be high-handed), menang tanpa ngasorake (winning without humiliating), asu gedhe menang kerahe (the ruler has the right to rule), and tepa selira (promoting empathy). the javanese women often used those idioms when responding to the situational shift, as well as different opinions and political decisions, related to the 2019indonesian general election. 2) institutions: a number of the parties share a mutual interest in dealing with the conflicts that arose during the 2019 indonesian general election, and the kpu and bawaslu were frequently highlighted by the javanese women in their political conversations. both institutions lestari, et al. were considered as favoring one of the candidates. other participants in the discourse, however, expressed that both institutions had performed their duty well. 3) social changes: the javanese women, as part of society, became insecure and confused in the face of the conflicts arising from the 2019 indonesian general election. based on the sociocultural context, the electoral issue highlighted the enmity between the incumbent and the opposition. this enmity eventually spread widely through the public as they monitored the electoral process. the third party’s intervention, which aimed to intensively dominate the discourse production, was also thought to have caused a more complicated situation. conclusion in their social interactions, the javanese women commonly used verbal forms that affected the dynamics of their conversation in response to the indonesian political situation. this study aimed to reveal these women’s ideological representations when responding to the 2019 indonesian general election. in summary, javanese women’s political discourse in response to the indonesian general election 2019 is inseparable from their cultural boundaries. there are statements of pros and cons related to the general election, in addition to a conversational tendency based on the use of several language aspects, such as dictions and sentences. specifically, javanese women exhibit cultural norms as values that they uphold, so they tend to avoid conflicts despite different perspectives and political decisions (especially in relation to the presidential and vice presidential candidates). they tend to frequently use unen-unen (traditional javanese idioms) in an attempt to minimize the negative impacts resulting from discussing sensitive topics. references abdi, r., & basarati, a. (2016). a critical analysis of the representation of yemen crisis in ideologically-loaded newspaper headlines. journal of language studies, 16(october), 37– 52. anom, e., kee, c. p., & zamawi, j. w. m. (2014). political discourse in indonesia and malaysia for national human security : a case study of lahad datu wacana politik indonesia dan malaysia terhadap keselamatan insan nasional: malaysian journal of communication, 30(2), 183–200. ardianto, e. (2012). analisis wacana kritis pemberitaan harian pikiran rakyat dan harian kompas sebagai public relations politik dalam membentuk branding reputation presiden journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3),193-211 susilo bambang yudhoyono (sby). jurnal ilmu komunikasi, 2(1), 15–55. ahmad, s. (2017). ideologi teks dalam iklan produk tolak angin sidomuncul (suatu kajian wacana kritis). jurnal para pemikir,6(1), 127-130. anuar, f. n., ahmad, f., & salleh, s. m. (2018). meme sebagai seloka persendaan dan parodi: impak dimensi sosiobudaya. jurnal komunikasi: malaysian journal of communication, 34(1). anin, a. (2018). analisis wacana kritis iklan operator selular. jurnal bahasa, sastra, dan pengajaran. 1(5), 22-27. darma, y.a. (2013). analisis wacana kritis. bandung: penerbit yrama widya bandung bekerja sama dengan jurusan pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia upi bandung. eriyanto. (2012). analisi wacana kritis: pengantar analisis teks media. yogyakarta: lkis group. fairclough, n. (1995). critical discourse analysis. longman, london & new york. fairclough, n.& wodak, r. (1997). critical discourse analysis: an overview.in teun van dijk (ed.), discourse and interaction. london: sage publication. kusumastuti, f. (2019). polysemy in and of the science fiction film arrival (2016). research in social sciences and technology, 4(1), 73-91. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/398 mardikantoro, h. b. (2014). analisis wacana kritis pada tajuk (anti) korupsi di surat kabar berbahasa indonesia. jurnal litera. vol.13 (2). miles, m.b. & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. london: sage publications. munfarida, e. (1978). analisis wacana kritis dalam perspektif norman fairclough. jurnal komunika, 8(1), 1–19. nugrahani, d., nababan, m. r., santosa, r., & djatmika. (2019). translating javanese culture expressions in a novel: techniques and quality. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 323–343. radzi, n. a. m., rahim, n. a., & yaakob, n. a. (2018). wacana tekstual dalam iklan selebriti. jurnal komunikasi: malaysian journal of communication, 34(4). http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/398 lestari, et al. sholikhati, n., & mardikantoro, h. (2017). analisis tekstual dalam konstruksi wacana berita korupsi di metro tv dan net dalam perspektif analisis wacana kritis norman fairclough. seloka: jurnal pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia. 6(2), 123-129. sakhiyya, z., locke, k., & locke, k. (2019). empowerment vs. meritocracy discourses in indonesian public universities : the case of female leaders. asian journal of women’s studies, 25(2), 198–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2019.1610210 suliman, m., shah, m., ullah, a., & jamal, h. (2016). ethnicity based social exclusion of nomads in khyber district malakand, pakhtunkhwa-pakistan. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 3(1), 11-19. sumarlam. (2016). representasi kekuasaan melalui sabda raja pada teks berita mengenai konflik internal keraton yogyakarta (sebuah analisis wacana kritis) 1 sumarlam. international seminar prasasti iii: current research in linguistics, (hb x), 58–70. sumarlam. (2013). teori dan praktik analisis wacana. surakarta: bukukatta. sumarti, e. (1984). analisis wacana kritis strategi politik penggunaan bahasa dalam pidato presiden susilo bambang yudhoyono. jurnal litera, 9(1), 19–39. sumarti, e. (2015). “analisis wacana kritis teks berita “mencari solusi konflik keraton surakarta” dalam international conference on linguistics 2015, kamis, 28 mei 2015, di fakultas ilmu budaya, universitas padjajaran bandung. suseno, f.m. (2003). etika jawa. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. sutopo, h.b. (2006). metodologi penelitian kualitatif: dasar teori dan terapannya dalam penelitian. surakarta: sebelas maret university press. titscher, s. m. meyer, r. wodak & e. vetter. (2000). methods of text and discourse analysis. london: sage publications. microsoft word hatice türe & arife figen ersoy makale asıl.docx   www.sosyalbilgiler.org   journal  of  social  studies  education  research   sosyal  bilgiler  eğitimi  araştırmaları  dergisi     2014:  5(2),  31-­‐56   ©  2014  journal  of  social  studies  education  research,  issn:  1309-­‐9108 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısı1 social studies teachers’ perceptions of tolerance hatice türe2 & arife figen ersoy3 özet bu araştırmanın amacı, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısını anlamaktır. bu araştırmada, nitel araştırma desenlerinden fenomenolojiden yararlanılmıştır. araştırmaya 10 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni katılmıştır. araştırmada veriler yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmeyle toplanmış ve tematik olarak analiz edilmiştir. araştırma sonucunda, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörüyü; düşünce, değer, inanç ve davranışlara saygı duymak, cinsiyet, ırk ve gelişim özellikleri gibi farklılıkları kabul etmek, hataları kabul etmek, insana değer vermek ve nesnel olmak olarak tanımladıkları ortaya çıkmıştır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri hoşgörünün sınırlarını, bireylere ve ülkeye zarar verme olarak vurgulamışlardır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri hoşgörü algılarının gelişiminde ailesinin, yaşının, deneyimlerinin ve okuduğu kitapların etkili olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler, vatandaşlık, değer, hoşgörü. extended abstract problem: tolerance is one of the values which citizens should have in today's multicultural and democratic society. educational system should teach tolerance to the individuals in a democratic society. tolerance can be given through curricula in educational process. social studies is one of the courses for conducting tolerance education. skills and perspectives of teachers are important for tolerance education in social studies. the purpose of this study is to understand social studies teachers' perceptions of tolerance. method: in the study, qualitative research method and phenomenology that is one of the qualitative research designs was employed. the participants were determined using criterion sampling. 10 social studies teachers graduated from social studies education departments working at schools of eskisehir provincial directorate of national education participated in the study. the research process consisted of two phases. the data were gathered through semi-structured interviews. the interviews were conducted in two steps in order to make an in-depth analysis. in phase i of the study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 teachers in december and january months during the 2012-2013 school year. the data obtained from the first interviews were also the base for the questions in the second interviews. in phase ii of the study, semi-structured interviews were again conducted with 10 teachers who participated in the first interviews in april and may 1 bu makale, “sosyal bilgiler öğretmelerinin hoşgörü algısı ve hoşgörü eğitimine bakışı” adlı yüksek lisans tezinden üretilmiştir. 2 doktora öğrencisi, gazi üniversitesi, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği, hatice.turee@gmail.com 3 doç. dr., anadolu üniversitesi, eğitim fakültesi, arifee@anadolu.edu.tr journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   32 months during the 2012-2013 school year. teacher interview form-1 in the first interviews and teacher interview form-2 in the second interviews were used for data collection. as for data analysis, thematic analysis technique was used. the data were analysed, the findings were defined and interpreted based on the research questions. findings:   the   findings   of   the   study   revealed   that   the   social   studies   teachers   described   tolerance   as   respecting   ideas,   values,   beliefs   and   behaviors,   accepting   differences   such   as   gender,   race   and   developmental   characteristics,   being   considerate,   accepting   one's   faults,   caring   about   people   and   being   objective,  and  emphasized  the  religious  aspect  of  tolerance.  the  social  studies  teachers  described  the  limits   of   tolerance   as   damaging   freedom,   country   and   individuals.   most   of   them   stated   that   tolerance   was   important  to  live  together  in  a  community.  they  also  asserted  that  families  were  effective  in  their  children's   tolerance  development.  besides,  according  to  them,  age,  experience  and  reading  habits  could  also  affect   tolerance.  the  findings  also  showed  that  the  social  studies  teachers  pointed  out  that  prejudices,  pressure   and  media  such  as  television  and  internet  inhibited  tolerance.     keywords:  social  studies,  citizenship,  values,  tolerance.     giriş küreselleşme, göç, uluslararası ticaret ve siyaset dünyayı giderek birbirine yaklaştırmakta, ülkeler ve kültürlerarası sınırlar azalmaktadır. meydana gelen temel siyasal, kültürel ve sosyal değişiklikler farklı yaşam tarzlarının belirginleşmesine, geleneksel ve sosyal çevrenin kaybolmasına, farklı etnik ve kültürel yapıya sahip yeni toplumların ortaya çıkmasına ve farklı kültür, değer ve inanç sistemine sahip insanların bir arada yaşamak zorunda kalmasına neden olmaktadır (weidenfeld, 2002). farklı kültürlerin birlikte yaşadığı günümüz toplumlarında toplumsal barış için gerekli olan ve demokrasinin temel değerlerinden biri olarak kabul edilen hoşgörünün (colesante ve biggs, 1999; güven ve akkuş, 2004; kavcar, 1995; weidenfeld, 2002; widmalm, 2005; yürüşen, 1996) bir toplumda yaşayan bireyler tarafından benimsenmiş ve içselleştirilmiş olması için hoşgörü eğitimi verilmesi gereklidir (gözübüyük, 2002). evrensel bir değer olan hoşgörü, insanların siyasi görüşü, dili, dini inancı, dünya görüşü, kültürel kimliği ne olursa olsun herkes için gereklidir (karataş, 1995). i̇nsanı yücelten en önemli erdemlerden biri olan hoşgörü (canto-sperber, 1996; kavcar, 1995; pasamonik, 2004; ricoeur, 1996; widmalm, 2005) iyi vatandaş özelliklerinden biridir. i̇yi vatandaş, haklarını ve sorumluluklarını bilen, başka insanların haklarına ve özgürlüklerine hoşgörü ile yaklaşabilen kişidir (pasamonik, 2004). hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   33 hoşgörü, farklılıkların uyumunu temel alan siyasal ve yasal bir gereksinim olup barış kültürünün gelişmesine önemli katkılar sağlar (unesco, 1995). aynı zamanda, demokratik toplumların barış ve uzlaşma içinde yaşamasını sağlayan temel değerlerden biridir (khitruk ve ulianova, 2012). ayrıca, uyumlu ve sağlıklı iletişim kurabilmenin zeminini oluşturur (tatar, 2009). bir toplumda hoşgörü anlayışı, temel hak ve özgürlüklere karşılıklı olarak saygıyı ilke edinme, önyargısız iletişim kurma, empati kurma, görüş birliği bulunmayan konularla ilgili problemlerin çözümünde ortak paydalar aramaya çalışma gibi her toplumda genel geçerliliği olan bazı kurallara uyularak olanaklı olabilir (tatar, 2009). alanyazında hoşgörü, “bir toplumda tüm farklılıklara karşın bir arada yaşamayı mümkün kılan, karşılıklı sevgi, saygı, güven ve anlayış esasına dayalı olarak kurulan fonksiyonel bir iletişim süreci” (gözübüyük 2002, s. 40) ve “aynı toplumda yaşayan farklı görüş ve özelliklere sahip birey ve grupların barış içinde bir arada yaşamasına olanak sağlayan sosyal bir erdem ve siyasi bir prensip” (pasamonik, 2004, s. 206); “dünyadaki farklı kültürel zenginliği kabul etme, takdir etme ve bu çeşitliliğe saygı duyma” (unesco, 1995, s. 9). alan yazındaki hoşgörü tanımları incelendiğinde, bir arada yaşamanın gereği olan karşılıklı saygı, anlayış ve empatinin vurgulandığı görülmektedir. hoşgörü kavramının i̇ngilizce karşılığı tolerans (tolerance) kavramıdır. hoşgörü ve tolerans kavramları birbirlerinin yerine kullanılmaktadır. ancak hoşgörü ve tolerans kavramların ifade ettiği anlamlar arasında farklılıklar vardır (aslan, 2001; başaran, 1995; kepenekçi, 2004). tolerans, başkalarının görüşlerine, inançlarına ve yaptıklarına karışmamak (başaran, 1995), onlara tahammül etmek ve katlanmak zorunda kalmak (aslan, 2001) anlamlarını da içermektedir. toleranslı kişi, karşısındaki bireyi anlamak, ve onun duyduklarını duymak zorunda değildir; ancak ona katlanmaya çalışmaktadır (başaran, 1995). hoşgörüde ise, başkasının görüşünü anlamak ve karşıt görüşleri dinleyerek onları hoş görmek önemlidir. farklı duygu ve düşünceleri doğal karşılamak ve onları özgürce dile getirme olanağı tanımak hoşgörünün ön koşuludur (kavcar, 1995). hoşgörüde, farklılıkları hoş görerek olduğu gibi kabul etmek; toleransta ise farklılıkları hoş görmeden katlanmak zorunda kalmak söz konusudur. hoşgörü kimi zaman yanlış anlaşılan bir kavram olabilmektedir. bireylerin, farklılıkları kabul ederken, kendi kişisel görüş düşünce ve ilkelerinden vazgeçip onları önemsememesi (kuçuradi, 1996), görmezlikten gelmesi, aldırış etmemesi, umursamazlık ve ciddiyetsizlik göstermesi hoşgörülü olmak olarak değerlendirilmemelidir. bu durumlar toplumda sorumsuzluk, disiplinsizlik ve karmaşaya neden olabilir (kavcar, 1995; şahin, journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   34 2011). ayrıca hoşgörü tek taraflı bir iletişim tarzı da olmamalı, bir kişi sürekli hoşgörü bekleyen, diğeri ise hoşgörü göstermek zorunda kalan kişi durumuna düşmemelidir (tatar, 2009). yanlış davranışlara gösterilen hoşgörü, yanlışın yerleşmesine neden olabilir. sınırsız bir hoşgörü değil, akılcı ve gerekçi bir hoşgörünün gerekliliği bilinciyle yetişecek kuşaklar, daha uygar toplumları yapılandıracaktır (munzur, 1995). bu nedenle, hoşgörünün sınırlarının belirlenmesi önem taşımaktadır. (akbay, 1995; başaran, 1995; canto-sperber, 1996; gürkaynak, 1995; kavcar, 1995; kuçuradi, 1996; pasamonik, 2004). alan yazında belirtildiği gibi, temel hak ve özgürlükleri kısıtlayan davranışlara, ülke için tehdit oluşturan durumlara, toplumsal huzuru ve barışı tehlikeye sokacak eylemlere karşı hoşgörü gösterilmesi toplum içinde kargaşa ortamının doğmasına neden olabilir. unesco (1994) tarafından cinsiyet ayrımcılığı, ırkçılık, etnik merkezcilik, ulusalcılık, faşizm, yabancı düşmanlığı, emperyalizm, istismar/sömürü ve dini baskıyı hoşgörüsüzlük olarak belirtmiştir. başaran (1995, s. 54), hoşgörülü olunmaması gereken davranışları şöyle ifade etmiştir: • hoşgörü demokratik yönetimle yönetilen ortamda bulunabilir ve gelişebilir. demokrasiyi kaldırmaya yönelik girişimlere hoşgörü olamaz • hoşgörünün kaynakları olan düşünme, düşünce, vicdan, irade ve eylem özgürlüklerini kaldırmaya, yasaklamaya, kısıtlamaya ve sınırlandırmaya yönelik eylemlere karşı hoşgörü olamaz. • i̇nsanların yüzyıllar süren savaş ve savaşımlarıyla kazandıkları hakları elinden alınmaya yönelik uygulamalara karşı hoşgörü olamaz. • i̇nsanlığın binlerce yıldan beri yaratıcılıklarını simgeleyen kültürel; toplumsal ve törel değerleri geliştirmeye yönelik olmayan ama yıkmaya yönelik olan girişimlere karşı hoşgörü olamaz. • i̇nsanın inanç özgürlüğünü elinden almaya, insanın insana zarar vermesine yönelik eylemlere karşı hoşgörü olamaz. evrensel bir değer olan hoşgörünün boyutlarına ilişkin alanyazında farklı sınıflamalar yapıldığı görülmektedir. en yaygın olanı, siyasi hoşgörü, ahlaki hoşgörü ve sosyal hoşgörüdür (vogty, 1997’den akt., colesante ve biggs, 1999). hoşgörünün boyutlarına ilişkin bir başka bakış açısı da, toplumlarda kendini en çok gösteren hoşgörüsüzlük alanlarını temel almıştır. bunlar ırkçı hoşgörüsüzlük, cinsel hoşgörüsüzlük ve dinsel hoşgörüsüzlük olarak görülmektedir. ayrıca, hoşgörü negatif ve pozitif olmak üzere iki biçimde değerlendirilmektedir (yürüşen, 1996). hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   35 hoşgörü eğitim sürecinde öğrencilere kazandırılması gereken bir değerdir. toplumların hoşgörülü bireylere sahip olabilmesi, nitelikli bir hoşgörü eğitimi verilmesine bağlıdır. öğretmenler, hoşgörü eğitiminde önemli bir yere sahiptir. bu bağlamda, öğretmenlerin hoşgörü eğitimi konusunda yeterli donanıma sahip olması, okullardaki hoşgörü ve bir arada yaşama kültürünün oluşmasında en önemli etkenlerdendir (kaymakcan, 2007). öğretmenlerin, öğrencilerine hoşgörüyle yaklaşabilmesi ve hoşgörüyü öğretebilmesi için öncelikle kendilerinin bu değeri benimsemesi gerekmektedir (munzur, 1995). bu bağlamda, hoşgörü eğitimini gerçekleştirecek olan öğretmenlerin hoşgörü algısı önem taşımaktadır. giderek daha çok önem kazanan hoşgörü üzerine yurtiçinde ve yurt dışında sınırlı sayıda çalışmaya rastlanmıştır. yurt içinde, ilköğretim öğrencilerinin (çalışkan ve sağlam, 2012), üniversite öğrencilerinin (gürkan, 1995), öğretim elemanlarının (kıroğlu, elma, kesten ve egüz, 2012), sınıf öğretmenlerinin (büyükkaragöz ve kesici, 1996; kepenekçi, 2004) hoşgörü algısı irdelemiştir. yurt dışında ise, lintner (2005) fotoğraflar aracılığıyla ilköğretim öğrencilerin hoşgörü algısını, stevens ve charles (2005) öğretmen adaylarının hoşgörü ile ilgili algılarını ortaya çıkarmayı amaçlamışlardır. ancak, yurt içinde ve yurtdışında doğrudan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısını irdeleyen çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır. vatandaşlık becerilerini geliştirmek için sosyal bilimler ve beşeri bilimlerin birleşimi (welton ve mallan, 1999) olan sosyal bilgiler dersinde, bireye kendinden farklı olanlara nasıl hoşgörü ile yaklaşacağı öğretilmek amaçlanır (deveci, 2005). sosyal bilgiler dersinin yürütücüleri olan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörüyü ve hoşgörülü olmayı öğrencilerine öğretebilmeleri için öncelikle kendilerinin bu değeri benimsemiş olmaları gerekmektedir. bu araştırma, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısını irdeleyerek sosyal bilgiler ve vatandaşlık eğitimine bu boyutuyla katkı sağlamayı amaçlamıştır. ayrıca, sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ile sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni yetiştirme programı’na katkı sağlayacak veriler sunulması beklenmektedir. araştırmanın amacı bu araştırmanın amacı, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısını incelemektir. bu amaçla şu sorulara yanıt aranmıştır: 1. sosyal  bilgiler  öğretmenlerinin  hoşgörü  algısı  nedir?   2. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısının gelişimini etkileyen etmenler nelerdir? journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   36 yöntem araştırma deseni sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısını belirlemeyi amaçlayan bu araştırmada, nitel araştırma desenlerinden biri olan fenomenolojiden yararlanılmıştır. fenomenoloji, “farkında olduğumuz ancak derinlemesine ve ayrıntılı bir bilgiye sahip olmadığımız olgulara odaklanmaktadır” (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2011, s. 72). fenomenoloji deseninde amaç, algı ve olgunun anlamını betimlemektir ve bu desende, “bireyin olguya ilişkin deneyimleri nelerdir?” ve “bu olguya ilişkin deneyimleri etkileyen ortam ve koşullar nelerdir?” temel sorularına yanıt aranır (creswell, 2007). bu araştırmada sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısı ve bu algının gelişiminde etkili olan koşullar ortaya çıkarılmıştır. katılımcılar bu araştırmada, katılımcılar ölçüt örneklem ile belirlenmiştir. ölçüt örneklemeye dayalı olarak katılımcıların belirlenmesindeki temel amaç, önceden belirlenmiş bir dizi ölçütü karşılayan bütün durumların çalışılmasıdır. bu ölçütler, araştırmacı tarafından oluşturulabildiği gibi, önceden hazırlanmış bir ölçüt listesi kullanabilir (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2011). bu araştırmada, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği programı’ndan mezun olan öğretmenlerin araştırmaya katılması temel ölçüt alınmıştır. sosyal bilgiler, tc inkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük ile vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi derslerini, edebiyat fakültelerinin tarih ve coğrafya bölümlerinden mezun olan öğretmenler de yürütmektedir. tarih ve coğrafya bölümlerinde verilen eğitim ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni yetiştirme programı’nda verilen eğitim oldukça farklıdır. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin özellikleri tablo 1’de gösterilmiştir. tablo 1. öğretmenlerin kişisel özellikleri kod i̇sim cinsiyet okuttuğu sınıflar yürüttüğü dersler eğitim durumu hizmet süresi enes erkek 6, 7, 8 sosyal bilgiler i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük lisans 15 yıl mete erkek 6, 7, 8 sosyal bilgiler tc i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük vatandaşlık ve i̇nsan hakları eğitimi lisans 8 yıl i̇smail erkek 6, 7 sosyal bilgiler lisans 14 yıl hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   37 raziye kadın 6, 7, 8 sosyal bilgiler tc i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük vatandaşlık ve i̇nsan hakları eğitimi yüksek lisans 7 yıl berna kadın 5, 6, 8 sosyal bilgiler din kültürü ve ahlak bilgisi lisans 9 yıl hamide kadın 5 sosyal bilgiler lisans 6 yıl rana kadın 5, 8 sosyal bilgiler vatandaşlık ve i̇nsan hakları eğitimi lisans 10 yıl esra kadın 5, 8 sosyal bilgiler tc i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük lisans 6 yıl bilge kadın 7, 8 sosyal bilgiler tc i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük vatandaşlık ve i̇nsan hakları eğitimi lisans 10 yıl mediha kadın 5, 7, 8 sosyal bilgiler tc i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük vatandaşlık ve i̇nsan hakları eğitimi lisans 14 yıl araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği programı’ndan mezun olmuş olan öğretmenlerin dokuzu lisans biri de yüksek lisans mezunudur. katılımcıların hizmet süreleri 6-15 yıl arasında değişmektedir. katılımcıların ikisi yalnızca sosyal bilgiler dersini, ikisi sosyal bilgiler ile tc inkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük derslerini, beşi sosyal bilgiler, tc inkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük ile vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi derslerini, biri de sosyal bilgiler ile din kültürü ve ahlak bilgisi derslerini yürütmektedir. ayrıca, katılımcılardan üçü altı, yedi ve sekizinci sınıfları, ikisi altı ve yedinci sınıfları, biri beşinci sınıfları, biri beş ve sekizinci sınıfları, biri yedi ve sekizinci sınıfları, biri beş, altı ve sekizinci sınıfları, biri de beş, yedi ve sekizinci sınıfları okutmaktadır. verilerin toplanması ve analizi bu araştırmanın verileri, yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşme ile toplanmıştır. görüşmenin güçlü özelliklerinden biri, gözlenemeyenler hakkında bilgi edinmeyi sağlaması ve gözlenenler hakkında ise alternatif açıklamalar yapılmasına imkan sağlamasıdır (glesne, 2012). yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmede, görüşmeci genel olarak bir yol haritasına sahiptir ancak görüşülen kişinin ilgi ve bilgisine göre araştırmanın genel çerçevesi içinde farklı sorular sorarak konunun farklı boyutlarını ortaya çıkarmaya çalışır. görüşmeci, hem konuya ilişkin yeterli bilgi edinme, hem de görüşmeyi belli bir seyirde götürme şansına sahiptir. ayrıca, görüşülen kişiye de kendisine göre önemli olan noktaları vurgulama olanağı sağlamış olur (altunışık, coşkun, bayraktaroğlu ve yıldırım, 2005). fenomenoloji araştırmalarında derinlemesine bilgi edinmek için katılımcılarla birden fazla görüşme gerçekleştirilir (creswell, 2007). bu araştırmada da, her bir öğretmenle iki ayrı görüşme gerçekleştirilmiştir. bu görüşmeler için araştırmacı tarafından journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   38 geliştirilmiş olan iki farklı ‘öğretmen görüşme formu’ kullanılmıştır. görüşme formlarında yer alan görüşme soruları, alanyazın ve uzmanların görüşleri dikkate alınarak geliştirilmiştir. birinci görüşmeler öncesinde, hazırlanan görüşme sorularının uygunluğunu sağlamak için beş alan uzmanına verilerek görüşme formunun incelenmesi sağlanmış ve görüşme formunda gerekli düzeltmeler yapılmıştır. daha sonra görüşme sorularının anlaşılırlığını denemek için iki öğretmenle ön görüşme yapılmıştır. ön görüşmelerden alınan verilerden hareketle görüşme formunda değişiklik yapılmasına gerek duyulmamıştır. i̇kinci görüşmeler için hazırlanan görüşme formu iki bölümden oluşmaktadır. birinci bölümde, tüm öğretmenler için ortak sorular oluşturulmuştur. i̇kinci bölümde ise, birinci görüşmelerden elde edilen veriler dikkate alınarak öğretmenlerin her birine ayrı görüşme soruları hazırlanmıştır. i̇kinci görüşmelerde oluşturulan sorular, birinci görüşme sonrasında analiz edilen verilerden oluşturulmuştur. örneğin, birinci görüşmede her öğretmene “siz hoşgörüyü nasıl açıklarsınız?” sorusu sorulmuş ve verilerin analizinde öğretmenlerin hoşgörülü olarak karşılamadıkları davranışlar kısmen belirlenmiştir. bunun üzerine ikinci görüşmede daha ayrıntılı veri elde etmek için her öğretmene ortak soru olarak “sizce hoşgörünün sınırı nedir?” sorusu sorulmuştur. ayrıca, birinci görüşmede bir öğretmen farklılıklara saygı duymak biçiminde hoşgörü algısını belirtmiştir. aynı öğretmene ikinci görüşmede “hangi farklılıklardan söz ediyorsunuz? gibi özel bir soru sorulmuştur. birinci görüşmeler 17.12.2012 ile 08.01.2013 tarihleri arasında gerçekleştirilmiştir. birinci görüşmelerin toplam süresi 3 saat 50 dakikadır. i̇kinci görüşmeler 15.04.2013 ve 13.05.2013 tarihleri arasında gerçekleştirilmiş ve toplam süresi 5 saat 59 dakika sürmüştür. bu araştırmada, verilerin analizinde tematik analiz tekniğinden yararlanılmıştır. tematik analizde araştırmacı, veriler içinde tema ve örüntüler aramak için analitik tekniklere odaklanır. bu analizin en önemli yönlerinden biri verilerin kodlanmasıdır. verilerin kodlanmasıyla, aynı şekilde kodlanmış tüm veriler okunur ve öncelikle o kodun özünde ne olduğu bulunmaya çalışılır (gibbs, 2007’den akt., glesne, 2012). bulunan kodlar, ana kategori ve alt kategorilere ayrılıp, araştırmanın temaları oluşturulur (liamputtong, 2009). bu araştırmada, ilk olarak her bir öğretmen için ayrı görüşme formu oluşturulmuş ve görüşmelerin dökümü yapılmıştır. tüm görüşme dökümleri araştırmacılar tarafından gerçekleştirilmiştir. görüşme dökümleri ilgili öğretmenlerin denetimine sunularak, katılımcı teyidi yapılmıştır. daha sonra, dökümlerin tamamı betimsel indeks tablolarına aktarılarak araştırmanın kodları belirlenmiştir. bu aşamada boş betimsel indeks tabloları bir uzmana verilmiş ve kodlar çıkarması istenmiştir. araştırmacının kodlarıyla hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   39 uzmanın kodları karşılaştırılmış ve kodlayıcılararası güvenirlik hesaplanmıştır. bu hesaplanırken, araştırmacı ve uzmanın kodlarından benzer olanlar “görüş birliği” ve farklı olanlar “görüş ayrılığı” olarak kabul edilmiştir. “görüş ayrılığı” olan kodlarda, araştırmacının kodu esas alınmıştır. daha sonra, “görüş birliği” ve “görüş ayrılığı” sayıları belirlenip, miles ve huberman’nın (1994) p (uzlaşma yüzdesi) = na (görüş birliği) / na (görüş birliği) + nd (görüş ayrılığı) x 100 formülü kullanılarak kodlayıcılararası güvenirlik hesaplanmış ve güvenirlik p=%98 bulunmuştur. kullanılan bu formülde, p=%70 ve üzeri olduğunda kodlama güvenilir kabul edilmektedir. bu bağlamda, bu araştırmada da, p=%98 olarak hesaplandığı için, kodlama güvenilir kabul edilmiştir. bu hesaplamalardan sonra, belirlenen kodlar ortak temalar altında toplanmıştır. bulgular araştırma verileri sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin (i) hoşgörü algısı ve (ii) hoşgörü algısını etkileyen etmenler ana temaları altında verilmiştir. 1. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısı sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörüye ilişkin algısı, hoşgörüye yükledikleri anlamlar, hoşgörülü bireyin özellikleri, hoşgörünün sınırları, hoşgörünün önemi, hoşgörüyü engelleyen etmenler alt temalarında tablo 2’de verilmiştir. hoşgörünün anlamı sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, hoşgörüyü, çoğunlukla kabul etmek, saygılı olmak olarak tanımlamışlardır. ayrıca, birkaç öğretmen empati kurmayı, nesnel olmayı, güvenmeyi ve insana değer vermeyi vurgulamıştır. hoşgörüyü kabul etmek olarak tanımlayan öğretmenler hataları ve farklılıkları kabul etmeyi dile getirmiştir. örneğin, mete öğretmen, “i̇nsanların yapmış olduğu hatalara karşı hoşgörüyle yaklaşabilmek, onların hatalarını büyütüp bir problem haline getirmektense çözüm yolunu göstererek anlayışlı davranabilmek” derken; i̇smail öğretmen, “i̇nsanların cinsiyet olarak, ırk olarak yani kısa yoldan ne olursa olsun daha doğrusu birbirine zarar vermeden kabullenmek” diyerek hoşgörüyü tanımlamıştır. esra öğretmen, “şimdi hoşgörü her türlü şeye saygı göstermektir” diyerek hoşgörü tanımında saygılı olmak üzerinde durmuştur. esra öğretmen, “davranışlar, hareketler, değerler, inançlar... bunlara saygı göstermek” sözleriyle saygı gösterilmesi gereken journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   40 noktaları açıklamıştır. bilge öğretmen hoşgörü tanımında inanç ve mezheplere saygıyı dile getirmiş ve hoşgörünün daha çok dini boyutuna vurgu yapmıştır. bilge öğretmen bu konudaki düşüncesini, “ben hoşgörüyü farklılıklara saygı olarak açıklıyorum yani benim için hoşgörü mevlana’nın hoşgörüsüdür. hani farklı dinlere ya da farklı mezheplere olan saygı” sözleriyle açıklamıştır. raziye öğretmen “başkalarının düşünceleri bizim düşüncelerimizle çelişse bile onlara karşılıklı anlayış göstermek” diyerek hoşgörülü olmayı düşüncelere saygı göstermek olarak açıklamıştır. tablo 2 . sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısı hoşgörünün anlamı kabul etmek saygılı olmak empati kurmak nesnel olmak güvenmek i̇nsana değer vermek hoşgörülü bireyin özellikleri farklılıklara saygılı olmalı nesnel olmalı geniş bakış açısına sahip olmalı empati yeteneğine sahip olmalı sabırlı olmalı eğitimli olmalı demokratik olmalı etkili iletişim becerilerine sahip olmalı i̇nsan sevgisi olmalı olumlu bakış açısına sahip olmalı sorgulayıcı olmalı tutarlı davranmalı zengin kültüre sahip olmalı hoşgörünün sınırları zarar vermek kurallara uymamak yalan söylemek hırsızlık yapmak baskı yapmak dışlamak ahlaki olmayan davranışlar şiddet uygulamak hoşgörünün önemi birlikte yaşayabilmek için huzurlu ve mutlu bir yaşam için i̇nsanların birbirine saygılı olması için çağdaş bir toplum için toplumların devamı için kendimize hoşgörü beklemek için hoşgörüyü engelleyen etmenler önyargı ben merkezcilik teknolojik araçların olumsuz kullanımı toplumsal baskı bazı gelenek ve göreneklerin olumsuz etkisi şiddet sinirli kişilikte olmak ayrımcılık bazı öğretmenlerin olumsuz tutumları hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   41 hoşgörülü bireyin özellikleri sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, çoğunlukla farklılıklara saygılı olmayı, nesnel olmayı, empatik olmayı hoşgörülü bireyin özellikleri olarak belirtmişlerdir. ayrıca, öğretmenlerden bazıları, geniş bakış açısına sahip olmayı, sabırlı olmayı, eğitimli olmayı, demokratik olmayı, etkili iletişim becerilerine sahip olmayı, insan sevgisine sahip olmayı, olumlu bakış açısına sahip olmayı, sorgulayıcı olmayı, tutarlı olmayı, zengin kültüre sahip olmayı vurgulamışlardır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, hoşgörülü bireyi farklı özelliklere vurgu yaparak tanımlamışlardır. örneğin, farklılıklara saygıyı vurgulayan i̇smail öğretmen özellikle inançlar konusunda hoşgörülü olduğunu, “ben inançlar konusunda hep düşünürüm kendimi düşünürüm. gerçekten inanç konusunda kendini geliştiren insan çünkü din insanın en hassas noktasıdır ona böyle rahat bakabiliyorsa bu hoşgörüyü yakalamış demektir…” sözleriyle dile getirmiştir. enes öğretmen, “başkalarının düşüncelerine saygı göstermeli.” diyerek düşüncelere saygıyı, mete öğretmen ise, “dinsel olabilir, cinsel olabilir, kimlik olabilir kimlikler yani farklı millet unsurları olabilir. dolayısıyla bu farklılıklara saygı duyan kişi hoşgörülü olma yolundadır.” diyerek farklı kimliklere ve kültürlere saygılı olmayı dile getirmiştir. mediha öğretmen, “hayata farklı açılardan bakabilen farklı gözlerle bakabilen insanlar hoşgörülü olabilir” ve i̇smail öğretmen “bir defa hoşgörülü insanın her düşünceye açık olması gerekiyor bir bu.” görüşleri ile açık görüşlü olmayı ifade etmişlerdir. raziye öğretmen, “empati gücü yüksek olması gerekiyor.” düşünceleriyle empatiyi vurgularken; esra öğretmen, “bu görgü seviyesi aileden aldığı eğitim.” diyerek eğitimli olması gerektiğini dile getirmiştir. ayrıca, esra öğretmen, “i̇letişime açık birisi olması gerekiyor, kendini ifade edebilmesi gerekiyor, kendini anlatması gerekiyor, çok iyi bir dinleyici olması gerekiyor, karşısındakini dinlemesi gerekiyor, karşısındakini çok iyi algılaması gerekiyor” diyerek hoşgörülü bireyin iletişim becerilerine sahip olması gerektiğini belirtmiştir. hoşgörünün sınırları sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin çoğunluğu bireysel hak ve özgürlüklere ve devlete zarar vermeye hoşgörülü olunamayacağını düşünmektedir. bazı öğretmenler de kurallara uymamak, yalan söylemek, hırsızlık yapmak, baskı yapmak, dışlamak, ahlaki olmayan journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   42 davranışlar ve şiddet uygulamak gibi durumlarda hoşgörülü olunmaması gerektiğini ve hoşgörülü olmadıklarını belirtmişlerdir. bireylerin hak ve özgürlüklerine zarar verme noktasında hoşgörünün sınırlarının başladığı düşünenlerden i̇smail öğretmen, “sınır şeyde başlıyor bence bu özgürlükte de var. zarar verme süreci başlıyorsa sınır orasıdır yani” derken; raziye öğretmen, “hoşgörülü olacağım diye de her şeye göz yummayacaksın. hakkını da savunacaksın. özgürlüklerini bileceksin.” sözleriyle görüşlerini belirtmiştir. bilge öğretmen, ülkeye zarar verecek durumların ve hakaret içeren sözlerin de hoşgörü ile karşılanamayacağını, “ülkenin bölünmez bütünlüğüne… ya da işte hani bir insana hakaret derecesinde bir durum olmayacak” sözleriyle dile getirmiştir. esra öğretmen, bireye fiziksel veya zihinsel açıdan zarar verici durumların hoşgörü ile karşılanmaması gerektiğini, “bazı davranışların insanların kırıcılık boyutunda da olabilir, fiziksel olarak zarar verme boyutunda da olabilir ya da zihinsel olarak zarar verme boyutunda da olabilir. bundan dolayı her türlü davranışa tolerans göstermeye gerek olduğunu düşünmüyorum” sözleriyle ifade etmiştir. hamide öğretmen, öğrencilere karşı tehlike oluşturabilecek, zararlı olacak durumlarda hoşgörülü olmadığını, “çakılar getiriliyor mesela bazı öğrenciler... bu tür şeyleri de hoşgörüyle karşılayamayız. diğer öğrenciler tehlikede olacak bunu kabul edemezsin. hoşgörü de gösteremezsin bu konuda.” sözleriyle belirtmiştir. berna öğretmen örnek olarak sınıfta yaşadığı bir durumu, “kural dışı mesela ders bazında örnek vereyim öğrencinin derse aktif katılmasını gerçekten çok severim aslında ama söz hakkı almadan konuşan öğrenciyi hoşgörüyle karşılamayı sevmiyorum ona hoşgörü gösteremem çünkü kural dışı davranmış oluyor” sözleriyle kural dışı davranışları hoşgörüyle karşılamayacağını açıklamıştır. mediha öğretmen yalan söylemek, hırsızlık yapmak ve başkalarının malına zarar vermek gibi durumlarda hoşgörülü olunamayacağını düşünmektedir ve bu düşüncesini, “hoşgörünün sınırı vardır tabi vardır olmaz mı! hele ki ben kendi çocuklarıma da aynı şeyi söylüyorum yalan mesela yalan söylemek, hırsızlık yapmak, başkasının malına zarar vermek ya bunlara hoşgörülü olamam. ben olamam. herhalde kimse de olmamalıdır.” sözleriyle ifade etmiştir. i̇smail öğretmen baskı ve dışlama gibi durumların da hoşgörüsüzlük olduğunu, “irksal çatışmalar oluyor hoş görmeyip, şiddet uyguluyorsa ya da dinsel süreçlerde oluyor bu, mezhep farklılıkları olabiliyor. i̇nsanlar o mezhebi hoşgörüyle karşılamayabiliyor, baskı oluşturuyor. mesela ya da ne yapıyor toplum içerisinde dışlanabiliyor, sen bizim grubumuzda yer alamazsın diyor mesela onu dışlıyor. görev vermeyebiliyor bunlar hoşgörüsüzlük.” diyerek açıklamıştır. esra öğretmen ise, şiddet hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   43 içeren durumlarda da hoşgörülü olunmaması gerektiği, “şiddete çok fazla eğilim gösteren çocuklar var. özellikle işte bu kan olaylarını oyunlarla birleştirmeye çalışan çocuklar var. hitleri çok fazla sorgulayan çocuklar var ama şiddet tarafını sorgulayanlar var. onlara çok fazla tolerans göstermiyorum ben.” görüşleriyle dile getirmiştir. hoşgörünün önemi sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri çoğunlukla bir arada yaşayabilmek için hoşgörünün gerekliliğine inanmaktadır. ayrıca, bazı öğretmenler de huzurlu ve mutlu bir yaşam için, insanların birbirlerine saygılı olması için, çağdaş bir toplum için, toplumların devamı için ve bireylerin karşıdaki bireylerden hoşgörü beklemeleri için öncelikle kendilerinin hoşgörülü davranmaları gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir. örneğin, esra öğretmen, insanların bir arada yaşamak zorunda oldukları için hoşgörülü olmaları gerektiğini, “zaten insanlar bir arada yaşamak istiyorlarsa mecburen hoşgörülü olmak zorunda olacaklar. bu zaten toplumun bir gereği bir arada olmanın bir gereği.” biçiminde ifade ederken i̇smail öğretmen, “i̇nsanlar bir arada yaşayabilmek için hoşgörülü olmalı. ülkeler de birbirine muhtaç.” ve mete öğretmen, “ben bunu kişisel tercih olarak bakıyorum. siz yan komşunuzla bir arada yaşamak istiyor musunuz istemiyor musunuz? ben istiyorum ve onun dili, dini, ırkı, etnik kökeni benim için çok da önemli değil. onun insan olması benim için yeterli bir kavram.” sözleriyle ifade etmişlerdir. raziye öğretmen toplumda yaşayan insanların birbirlerine saygılı olması gerektiğini, “toplumların daha huzurlu daha rahat, refah düzeyine ulaşabilmesi için birbirlerine karşı saygılı olması gerektiği yoksa karşılıklı hoşgörü olmadığı zaman insanların birbirine kin nefret ile bakması ciddi problemler yaşanmasına neden olur toplumda bu yüzden hoşgörünün verilmesi gerekir.” biçiminde ifade etmiştir. esra öğretmen hoşgörülü toplumlarda insanların daha mutlu olduğunu düşünmektedir ve bu düşüncesini, “mutluluk en başta geliyor yani kesinlikle insan çok daha mutlu oluyor hoşgörülü olunca yani.” sözleriyle açıklamıştır. berna öğretmen avrupalı toplumların daha çağdaş ve bu yüzden de daha hoşgörülü olduğu yönündeki görüşünü ise, “avrupalı toplumların daha hoşgörülü olduklarını düşünüyorum her ne kadar gidip görmesem de okuduklarımdan duyduklarımızdan onların daha hoşgörülü olduklarını düşünüyorum.” sözleriyle belirtmiştir. esra öğretmen, hoşgörünün olmadığı toplumlarda çatışma ortamının olacağını ve bu nedenle toplumun devamlılığının olmayacağını, “hoşgörünün olmadığı toplumlarda zaten toplumun devam etmesi gibi bir şeyin olacağını düşünmüyorum ben.” sözleriyle ifade etmiştir. enes öğretmen ise, diğer öğretmenlerden farklı olarak insanların journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   44 kendilerine hoşgörü beklemeleri için hoşgörülü olmaları gerektiğini “sen başkasına hoşgörülü olduğun zaman yarın da o sana hoşgörülü olmak zorunda. aslında kendimize hoşgörülü oluyoruz farkında değiliz. hoşgörü kendimize dönüyor çok kısa sürede ama farkında değiliz.” diyerek açıklamıştır. hoşgörüyü engelleyen etmenler sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, önyargının, benmerkezciliğin, yazılı ve görsel basının, ailenin, toplumsal baskının, kimi gelenek ve göreneklerin, şiddetin ve sinirli kişilikte olmanın, ayrımcılık yapmanın ve kimi öğretmenlerin hoşgörünün gelişimini engellediğini düşünmektedir. örneğin, bilge öğretmen önyargının hoşgörüyü engellediğini, “önyargılı olmak kesinlikle engelliyor... toplumun kafasındaki önyargılar... i̇nsan türk insanı ya da müslüman insan böyle olmalıdır. biz bir prototip belirleyip de onun gibi olmak zorunda olduğumuz için...” biçiminde dile getirmiştir. hamide öğretmen, benmerkezciliğin de hoşgörüyü olumsuz etkilediğini, “i̇nsanlar sürekli ben merkezci olmaya başladı. sürekli ben ben ben… dünyanın ekseni olduklarını düşünüyorlar…” biçiminde ifade etmiştir. raziye öğretmen de, ben merkezcilik yüzünden insanların empati kuramadığını ve hoşgörülü olmadığını, “çağımızda benmerkezcilik ön planda bu çağda. toplum, medya... herkes benim dediğim olsun istiyor. benim dediğim olsun isteyince de karşısındaki kişiye hoşgörülü bakamıyorsunuz...” sözleriyle açıklamıştır. bazı öğretmenler yazılı ve görsel basının hoşgörüyü engellediğini düşünmektedir. raziye öğretmen dizilerde ben merkezciliğin vurgulandığını ve bunun hoşgörüyü azalttığını, “i̇zledikleri bir filmden daha çok etkileniyorlar… yani olaylar olurken çıkar üzerine kuruluyor bütün ilişkiler. medyadaki bütün diziler ben merkezcilik üzerine. yani hep benim dediğim olsun hep ben haklıyım. karşıdakinin duygularını hiç ön planda tutmadan hep benim istediğim olsun.” biçiminde dile getirmiştir. rana öğretmen de televizyonda şiddet içeren filmlerin olduğunu, bu filmleri izleyen çocukların da etkilenip şiddete eğilimli ve hoşgörüsüz olduklarını şöyle açıklamıştır. teknolojik aletler bence televizyonun etkisi. çünkü televizyonda izlenen birçok şeyler diziler diyelim filmler diyelim çocukların bakış açılarını daha doğrusu hoşgörüsüz davranmalarını gerektiriyor. çünkü neden, hemen bir olay halledilemiyorsa vurdulu kırdılı ya da şiddetle halledilebileceğini düşünüyor çocuklar. bunun çözümü konuşmak değildir, anlayış göstermek hoşgörü göstermek değildir, bir tane vurmakla bu olay çözülür diye düşünüyorlar. bunda televizyonun çok büyük etkisi olur diye düşünüyorum ben. hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   45 mete öğretmen, yazılı ve görsel basının bir başka yönüne dikkat çekerek özellikle görsel basında yer alan dizilerin de hoşgörüyü olumsuz etkilediğini düşünmektedir. mete öğretmen çocukların dizilerde farklı kültürleri kabul etmek konusunda olumsuz örnekler gördüklerini ve bu örneklerin çocuklardaki hoşgörü gelişimini olumsuz etkilediğini belirtmiştir. mete öğretmen bu konudaki düşüncesini şöyle dile getirmiştir: mesela dizideki farklı ailelerin farklı sosyal yapıdaki ailelerin ya da farklı ekonomik yapıdaki ailelerin birbiriyle evlenmesi ya da evlenmemesi gibi… ondan sonra ya da farklı inançlardaki insanların birbirleriyle olan diyalogları. burada daha çok hoşgörüyü farklı inançlara saygıyı farklı kültürlere saygıyı işlemeleri gerekirken daha çok parçalanmışlığı, ajitasyonu görüyorsunuz. bu da toplumun genelinde genel bir kabul doğruluğu yaratıyor. bu da hoş bir durum değil. hoşgörüyü engelleyen etmenlerden birinin de aile ortamı olduğunu düşünen rana öğretmen ise, çekirdek aile yapısından dolayı paylaşımın az olduğunu ve bu durumun hoşgörüyü engellediğini “şimdiki bizim ailelerimiz çekirdek aile. çekirdek aile olduğu için herkes önce kendini sonra başkalarını düşünüyor hatta başkalarını düşünme de artık ne diyebiliriz %5'lere %10'lara düşmüş derecede.” sözleriyle dile getirmiştir. rana öğretmen, ailenin hoşgörüyü engellediğini, “aileler burada hatalı mı? evet bence hatalı çünkü dört yaşındaki beş yaşındaki bir çocuğa savaş sahneli kan sahneli olan bir oyun oynamasına izin veriyorlarsa burada bazı değerler kaybediliyor.” sözleriyle de vurgulamıştır. i̇smail öğretmen, “bence aile çok önemli. en önemli rol bu. başka faktörlerde var. ailede başlıyor… aile kendi içerisinde yok o işte bizdendi o bizden değildi. hoşgörüsüzlük böyle başlıyor.” diyerek ailenin değer sistemindeki önemine dikkat çekmiştir. hamide öğretmen, bazı gelenek ve göreneklerin de hoşgörüyü engellediğini düşünmektedir ve bu düşüncesini, “büyüklerin yanında konuşmak, erkek çocuklarının kız çocuklarına göre daha serbest olması. abi yapar sen yapamazsın. gelenek kültür sözsüz yazısız kurallara yani.” sözleriyle örneklendirerek dile getirmiştir. hamide öğretmen de farklı bir boyuta dikkat çekerek toplumsal baskının hoşgörüyü engellediğini, “bir kere toplumda o kadar çok baskı var ki! bir kere cinsiyet ayrımından başlayabiliriz. cinsiyet üzerine her zaman kadınlar ikinci planda kalmıştır. kadınlar bastırılmış sindirilmiştir.” biçiminde dile getirmiştir. berna öğretmen ise, hoşgörüyü şiddetin engellediğini journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   46 düşünmektedir. berna öğretmen bu konudaki düşüncesini, “bir kere kesinlikle şiddet hoşgörüyü engelliyor ve günümüzde gerçekten çok fazla şiddet içerikli görüntüler, haberler… şiddet kesinlikle engelliyor hoşgörünün gelişimini. çünkü maalesef şiddete ağırlık veren bir toplumuz.” biçiminde açıklamıştır. 2. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısının gelişimini etkileyen etmenler sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, çoğunlukla çevrelerinin hoşgörü algılarının gelişimini etkilediğini söylemişlerdir. ayrıca, bazı öğretmenler de okuduğu kitapların, yaş ve deneyimlerinin hoşgörünün gelişimini etkilediğini belirtmiştir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısını etkileyen etmenler şekil 1’de verilmiştir. şekil 1. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısının gelişimini etkileyen etmenler sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin çoğu, hoşgörü anlayışının gelişiminde ailesinden etkilendiğini belirtmiştir. örneğin, raziye öğretmen, hoşgörü konusunda babasından etkilendiğini, “en çok beni babam etkiledi. babam çok hoşgörülü bir insan... karşımdaki insana önyargıyla bakmadan onu anlamayı öğretti ve insanlara kesinlikle bir gurur kibir görmeden onlarında bir insan bir birey olduğunu görmeyi babamdan öğrendim ve babamı hep kendime model almışımdır” biçiminde açıklamıştır. raziye öğretmen bu konuda babasıyla ilgili yaşadığı bir deneyimi şöyle paylaşmıştır: babam muhafazakar ama herkesle arkadaş olabilmişti… alkol kullanan arkadaşları vardı. babam umre’ye gidip geldikten sonra onlar da bize gelmişlerdi. hatta espri konusu olmuştu ben alkol kullanıyorum. zemzem suyu içsem bir şey olur mu günah olur mu falan. o zaman daha net öğrenmiştim. kesinlikle önyargıyla bakmayıp tüm insanların görüşlerine saygı gösterip herkesi kucaklamak önemli olan. babamın işte bu davranışlarından oldukça etkilendim. onlar sizden bir şey öğreniyor siz onlardan bir şeyler öğreniyorsunuz. kesinlikle farklı insanlarla arkadaşlık kurmak gerekiyor. zaten öğrencilere de bunu sürekli söylüyoruz. • aile  (baba,  eş,  dede,   abla,  çocuk)   • okul  (yönerci,   öğretmen)   çevre   • i̇leri  yaşlar   yaş   • mesleki  deneyim   deneyim   • mesnevi  -­‐mevlana   kitap   hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   47 şekilci olmayın, farklılıklara saygı duyun, birbirinizle güzel iletişim kurun. ben bunda da etkili olduğumuzu düşünüyorum açıkçası. esra öğretmen de babasının geniş bir dünya görüşüne sahip olduğunu ve bu nedenle farklı görüşlere yönelik kitapları okuması için onu yönlendirdiğini, “babamın bana hep söylediği her türlü şeyi takip etmen gerekir. yani bir şeye inanıyorsan önce kendi inandığın şeyi araştır ama karşı taraf ne düşünüyor onu da bilmek zorundasın derdi. bundan dolayı ailemin bana çok katkısı var.” diyerek açıklamıştır. mete öğretmen de ailesinin ona küçük yaşlarda söz hakkı verdiğini, ayrımcılık yapmadıklarını ve bu nedenle hoşgörü konusunda ailesinin etkilediğini, “ben böyle bir çevrede yetiştim zaten. ailemde hiçbir zaman mezhep ayrımı olmadı bizde. daha çok küçüklerin fikirlerine önem verilirdi… yani böyle bir çevrede yetiştim.” biçiminde ifade etmiştir. mete öğretmen hoşgörü konusunda dedesinden de etkilendiğini şöyle anlatmıştır: dedem benim tarımla çiftçilikle uğraşırdı. hani karıncayı bile incitmez dediğimiz karakterde olan kişiler vardır. her şeyi anlayışla karşılayabilir. her şeyi olgunlukla karşılayabilen kişilerdir. benim gözümde yani örnekti, örnek insandı. biz hayvancılık yaparken çok sabırsız davranırdık. karşımızdakinin bir hayvan olduğunu, onun aklının olmadığını, akılla idrak edemediğini unutur bazen çok küçük de olsak şiddet içerikli şeyler yapabilirdik küçük yaşlarda. dedem ise onla bizi onun ayırt eden noktanın ne olduğunu çok iyi anlattığını düşünürüm. bunu sadece hayvanlara karşı değil de açıkçası insanlara karşıda veya bitkilere karşıda aynı şekilde davranırdı. ondaki hoşgörüden çok fazla etkilenmişimdir. bilge öğretmen, eşinin hoşgörülü, sabırlı ve soğuk kanlı bir insan olduğunu ve bu nedenle onu kendine örnek aldığını, “benim eşim gerçekten çok hoşgörülü bir insandır mesela… onu kendime çok örnek alıyorum.” derken rana ve berna öğretmen, hoşgörü konusunda ablalarından etkilendiklerini söylemiştir. rana öğretmen, ablasının sakin, empati becerisine sahip ve olaylara farklı açılardan baktığını ve bu nedenle hoşgörü konusunda ablasından etkilendiğini, “ablam ben onu bu konuda kendime hep örnek almışımdır. olaylara daha sakin farklı açılardan ve empati kurarak bakıyor ya da birçok neden öne sürebiliyor. yani onu örnek almışımdır hoşgörü şeyinde.” sözüyle dile getirmiştir. rana öğretmen ablasının olaylara farklı açılardan bakmasını kendine örnek almış ve bunu, “bir olayın birçok sebebi olabilir, hoşgörülü olmak ya da olmamak kısmında yani daha geniş açıyla bakıyor. ne diyelim ona at gözlükleriyle değil de daha geniş bir yelpazede bakıyor. bu da hani onun kişilik özellikleriyle da kaynaklı. ama önemli olan bu sebebin değil de bu sadece görünüşteki sebeptir ana sebebi bilmek journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   48 önemlidir.” sözleriyle açıklamıştır. berna öğretmen ise, ablasının anlayışlı ve hoşgörülü olduğunu ve bu nedenle ondan etkilendiğini, “ablam … çok hoşgörülüdür. her şeyi affeder. yani böyle ailesinde yaşadığı problemleri de hep hoş görür. i̇nsanlara böyle hep hoşgörüyle yaklaşır.” sözleriyle dile getirmiştir. hamide ve mediha öğretmen, hoşgörülü olma konusunda çocuklarından etkilenmişlerdir. hamide öğretmen, “kızım evet… yani evlat söz konusu olunca her şey çok farklı oluyor öyle diyeyim. kızıma artık ben bu sabrı zorladığımı hissediyorum, hoşgörüyü zorladığımı halen de hissediyorum.” sözleriyle kızının sabır konusunda onu etkilediğini ifade etmiştir. hamide öğretmen kızı olduktan sonra diğer çocukları daha iyi anladığını, “önceden çocuklara karşı çok şey değildim 0-6 yaş grubu. şu anda kızımın davranışlarını görerek çocukların neyi neden yaptığını daha iyi anlıyorum... başka çocukların da neden yaptığını sezebiliyorsun. o empati çok etkiliyor” sözleriyle dile getirmiştir. mediha öğretmen de çocuklarının hoşgörü konusunda onu etkilediğini ve anne olduktan sonra daha hoşgörülü olduğunu, “ben ne zaman hoşgörülü olduğumu yani hoşgörülü olmam gerektiğini fark etmeye başladım anne olduktan sonra. en büyük kriter oydu bence benim için.” sözleriyle ifade etmiştir. mediha öğretmen, anne olduktan sonra daha hoşgörülü olmasının nedenini şöyle açıklamıştır: çünkü çocuklarım büyüdükçe tabi öğretmen olduğum için o yaş özellikle de o yaşa işte altı, yedi ve sekizinci sınıf öğrencileri, o yaşlara yani 11-12. şu anda oğlum 10 buçuk 11 yaşında. o büyüdükçe ve o girdiğim sınıfın öğrencileriyle aynı yaşta olmaya başlayınca çok daha böyle ya dedim nasıl farklı görüyormuşum. kendi çocuğumda da çünkü farklı davranışlar var. o çocuklarda aynı yaştalar ve o annelik duygusu daha farklı beni hoşgörülü yapmaya başladı. esra öğretmen, okuduğu okuldaki öğretmenlerinin nesnel olmalarının onu hoşgörü konusunda etkilediğini, “bulunduğum ortam… öğretmenlerim, hocalarım beni çok etkiledi. çünkü onlar her türlü şeye açıklardı… hani ben çoğu kavramı onlarla birlikte öğrendim ve çok objektif yaklaştılar. objektif olmaları beni daha da etkiledi diye düşünüyorum.” sözleriyle ifade etmiştir. berna öğretmen de, çevrenin hoşgörü üzerinde etkili olduğunu düşünmektedir. berna öğretmen, çalıştığı okuldaki yöneticisinden de hoşgörü konusunda etkilendiğini, “önceki kurumumda… müdürümüz… çok etkiledi. bütün okulu gerçekten hoşgörüsüyle yönetiyordu. çok sistemli bir düzen vardı.” sözleriyle ifade etmiştir. hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   49 mediha öğretmen, yaş ve deneyimin de hoşgörü üzerinde etkili olduğunu düşünmektedir. mediha öğretmen bu düşüncesini “yaş, deneyim çok önemli. i̇nsan genç yaştayken hoşgörülü olması biraz daha zor. fark etmiyorsunuz aslında orada… ama ondan sonra yaşadıkça, yaş ilerledikçe tecrübe artıkça eskiden yaptıklarımı da hatırladıkça.” biçiminde dile getirmiştir. mediha öğretmen bu konudaki düşüncesini, “i̇lk öğretmenliğe başladığım zamanlarda… ödev getirmedi mi çocuk hemen bağırıp çağırabiliyordum. çocuk bana diyor öğretmenim ödevi unuttum. yani niye getirmedin de işte bu senin görevin de.” sözleriyle açıklamıştır. mediha öğretmen konuyla ilgili yaşadığı bir olayı da şöyle paylaşmıştır: bir olay var tam da olayı hatırlayamadım ama babayla ilgili. i̇şte çocuk ödevini mi yapmamış defterini mi getirmemiş ya bir yerde bir problem var ve ben de işte hani annelerinizin babalarınızın paralarını harcıyorsunuz gibi bir laf etmiştim bir keresinde. çocuğun biri de bir öğrencim de kalktı hocam dedi ben dedi annemin parasını harcıyorum. ben de şaşırdım önce, benim babam öldü dedi. i̇şte yani o zaman bu ne oluyor bundan sonra insanlara öğrencilerime daha farklı gözle mesela anne baba kavramını anlatırken işte ne biliyim anne baba sevgisini anlatırken ya da bu tür kelimeler edeceğim zaman daha dikkatli olmaya çalışıyorum. onların yaptığı o hataların arkasında bu sefer hep bir mutlaka... direk sormuyorum ama annesini babasının var olup olmadığını ilk başladığımda mesela hele ki hiç tanımadığım bir sınıfa girdiysem. i̇lk onları öğrenmeye çalışırım sınıf öğretmeninden. anne babası var mı ya da ayrılar mı? çünkü bunlar çok etkiliyor çocukları. hayatlarındaki o olumsuz davranışlar mutlaka bununla alakalı olduğu için onu bilirsem daha farklı daha ılımlı yaklaşıyorum. i̇şte hoşgörü benim için o yani. berna ve bilge öğretmen, hoşgörü konusunda okudukları kitaplardan etkilediklerini düşünmektedir. berna öğretmen, okuduğu kitaptan çok etkilendiğini, “beni böyle direk etkileyen mesnevi’den biraz okumuştum o gerçekten beni etkiledi hoşgörü konusunda. hepsini tamamen okumadım ama okuduğum bölümlerden etkilendim.” sözleriyle belirtmiştir. bilge öğretmen de okuduğu kitaplardan hoşgörü konusunda etkilendiğini, “o kitaplardan çok etkileniyorum… ben mevlana’nın kitaplarından çok etkileniyorum özellikle.” biçiminde ifade etmiştir. bilge öğretmen mevlana’nın kitabını okuduktan sonra hayata daha olumlu yaklaştığını şöyle anlatmıştır: okumadan önce pozitif değildim. hayatım bir olumsuz şekillenebiliyordu. ya da bir olumsuzluk başlarsa başka bir olumsuzluk ona eşlik edip hayatımı karartabiliyordu. sonra bunlara dur demeyi öğrendim. yani bir yerde dur diyelim ki ondan sonrakiler olumlu gelsin. yağmurdan sonra bile gökkuşağı çıkıyor. journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   50 tartışma ve öneriler bu araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısının farklı boyutlarda olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri hoşgörüyü; düşünce, değer, inanç ve davranışlara saygılı olmak, cinsiyet, ırk ve gelişim özellikleri gibi farklılıkları kabul etmek; anlayışlı olmak, hataları kabul etmek, insana değer vermek ve nesnel davranmak olarak tanımlamışlardır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, hoşgörülü bireyi ise, sabırlı, anlayışlı, empati becerisine sahip, farklı fikirlere açık, tutarlı davranışlar sergileyen ve etkili iletişim becerisine sahip bireyler olarak da belirtmişlerdir. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin, hoşgörü tanımları, alan yazındaki hoşgörü tanımlarının özellikleri ve öğretmenlerle gerçekleştirilen hoşgörü konulu bazı araştırmaların sonuçları ile örtüşmektedir. kepenekçi (2004) tarafından gerçekleştirilen araştırmada, sınıf öğretmenlerinin yaptıkları hoşgörü tanımlarında anlayış ve farklılıklara saygı vurgulandığı için, sınıf öğretmenlerinin çoğunun yaptıkları tanımlarda hoşgörüyü olması gerektiği gibi algıladıkları bulunmuştur. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerin çoğu, hoşgörüyü farklı düşünce, değer, inanç ve davranışlara saygılı olma olarak tanımlamıştır. bu tanımlar, alan yazındaki hoşgörü tanımlarına benzemektedir (kuçuradi, 1996; unesco, 1995). araştırmaya katılan kimi öğretmenler, hoşgörünün özellikle dini boyutuna vurgu yapmışlar, dini inançlara saygılı olunması konusunda hassas olduklarını belirtmişlerdir. bu öğretmenlerin inançlarından dolayı hoş görülmeme ya da dışlanmış hissi yaşama gibi deneyimleri olmuştur. böyle düşünen öğretmenler, bu olumsuz deneyimlerle hoşgörü yoluyla baş ettiklerini vurgulamışlardır. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinden kimileri, hoşgörüyü hataları ve farklılıkları anlayışla kabul etme olarak tanımlamıştır. farklılıkları kabul etme hoşgörüyle ilgili çalışmalarda sıklıkla üzerinde durulan bir konudur (1995; köknel, 1996, unesco, 1995). bu bakımdan araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin farklılıkları kabul etmeye vurgu yapmış olmaları onların hoşgörü konusunda olumlu algılara sahip oldukları biçiminde yorumlanabilir. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin tamamı her şeye hoşgörü gösterilemeyeceğini, bu nedenle hoşgörünün sınırlarının belirlenmesi gerektiğini vurgulamış ve hoşgörünün sınırlarını, özgürlüklere, ülkeye ve bireylere zarar verme olarak vurgulamışlardır. ayrıca sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, kuraldışı davranışlar, yalan söylemek, hırsızlık yapmak ve baskı uygulamak gibi durumlarda da hoşgörü hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   51 gösterilemeyeceğini belirtmişlerdir. öğretmenlerin bu görüşleri alan yazın ile uyumlu görülmektedir. çünkü, hoşgörünün sınırlarının iyi belirlenmesi gerektiği, aksi takdirde toplumda düzensizlik ve kargaşa ortamının ortaya çıkacağı ileri sürülmektedir (akbay, 1995; başaran, 1995; canto-sperber, 1996; kavcar, 1995; kuçuradi, 1996; pasamonik, 2004). canto-sperber (1996), bireylerin haklarını ve özgürlüklerini tehdit eden durumlarda, gürkaynak (1995), şiddet içeren davranışların gösterilmesinde hoşgörünün mümkün olmadığını belirtmiştir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, görüşmede, yalan söyleme, hırsızlık yapma, baskı uygulama, kurallara uymama, saygısızlık ve rencide etme gibi davranışların zarar verici davranışlar olduğunu, başkalarının hak ve özgürlüklerini de etkilediğini, bu nedenle de bu tür davranışlara hoşgörü gösterilemeyeceğini belirtmişlerdir. buradan hareketle, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri toplum hayatını ve düzenini olumsuz etkileyen, bireylerin hak ve özgürlüklerine zarar veren ve psikolojik olarak bireyleri olumsuz etkileyen durum ve davranışlara karşı hoşgörülü olunmaması gerektiğini söyleyerek hoşgörünün sınırlarını çizmişlerdir. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin çoğunluğu, farklı özelliklere sahip bireylerin bir arada yaşayabilmesi için hoşgörünün önemli olduğu yönünde görüş belirtmişlerdir. ayrıca öğretmenler, çağdaş düzenli bir toplum, huzurlu ve mutlu bir yaşam için de hoşgörünün önemli olduğunu vurgulamışlardır. rice (2009), aynı özelliklere sahip insanların bir arada yaşaması durumunda hoşgörüye ihtiyaç olmayacağını, ancak bu durumun dünyadaki hiçbir toplum için söz konusu olmadığını belirtmektedir. tatar (2009) ise, bir arada yaşamanın getirdiği sorunların üstesinden gelebilmek için de hoşgörüye ihtiyaç olduğunu vurgulamaktadır. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, hoşgörüyü engelleyen etmenlerin önyargı, toplumsal baskı, gelenek ve görenekler, televizyon, internet gibi yazılı ve görsel basının olumsuz kullanımı olduğunu söylemişlerdir. bunun yanında araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, şiddet, ayrımcılık, sinirli kişilikte olmak gibi durumlar ile aile ve öğretmenlerin de hoşgörüyü engelleyen etmenler olduğunu belirtmişlerdir. araştırmanın bu sonucuna benzer olarak, unesco (1994) tarafından, yazılı ve görsel basında yer alan şiddet içerikli görseller ve sergilenen davranışların çocukları olumsuz etkilediğini, bunu önlemek için öğretmenlerin derslerinde yazılı ve görsel basından örneklere yer verip öğrencilerin bu görseller ve davranışlara karşı farkındalık kazanmalarının sağlanması gerektiği vurgulanmıştır. journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   52 araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin çoğu ailesinin hoşgörülü olmaları üzerinde etkili olduğu düşünmektedir. bunun yanında, yaş, deneyim ve kitap okumanın da sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörülü olmalarında etkili olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. görüşmeye katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin çoğu, hoşgörü konusunda ailelerinden etkilendiklerini vurgulamışlardır. hoşgörü davranışlarının kazanılmasında ailenin rolüne ilişkin öğretmenlerden ikisi, çocukları olduktan sonra öğrencilerine karşı daha önce hoşgörü göstermedikleri durumları da hoşgörüyle yaklaştıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. buradan hareketle, hoşgörü konusunda yaşanan deneyimlerin insanlarda hoşgörü geliştirmeye katkı sağladığı söylenebilir. öğretmenlerin hoşgörü geliştirme üzerinde önemli bir yeri olduğu, özellikle de öğrencileri tarafından model alındığı düşünülebilir. kavcar (1995), bireylerin hoşgörü beklemesi için kendilerinin de hoşgörü göstermesi gerektiğini belirtmiştir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinden birkaçı okul yöneticilerin hoşgörülü olup olmamasında etkilendiğini belirtmişlerdir. bu kapsamda okul yöneticilerinin öğretmenlere gösterdiği hoşgörü, öğrencilere kadar yansıyabilecek bir okul kültürünün oluşmasını da sağlayabilecektir. bu konuda okul yöneticilerinin hoşgörülü olmasının önemi vurgulanmaktadır (kepenekçi, 2004). sonuç olarak, araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörüyü daha çok sosyal boyutuyla farklılıklara saygı olarak algıladığı görülmektedir. ayrıca, bu öğretmenlerin hoşgörü algısının gelişiminde daha çok ailelerinin etkili olduğu görülmektedir. öğretmenlerin, hoşgörü algısının gelişiminde eğitim sürecinden söz etmemiş olmaları ilgi çekicidir. bu bulgu eğitim sürecinde öğrencilere yeterli hoşgörü eğitimi verilip verilmediği veya nasıl verildiği sorusunu gündeme getirmektedir. ayrıca, çoğunluktan farklı özelliklere sahip öğretmenlerin hoşgörü algısının farklılıklara saygı açısından daha kuvvetli olduğu görülmektedir. araştırmaya katılan bütün sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, hoşgörünün demokratik toplumlarda önemli bir değer olduğunu düşünmektedir. bu araştırmada, sadece 10 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeninin görüşleri alınmıştır. bundan sonra gerçekleştirilecek araştırmalarda daha geniş bir kitle üzerinde hem sosyal bilgiler hem de diğer alan öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısı irdelenebilir. öğretmenlerin hoşgörüye ilişkin uygulamaları nitel araştırma yaklaşımları ile ortaya çıkarılabilir. kaynakça/references hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   53 akbay, g. (1995). açılış konuşması. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.). hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı içinde (ss. 9-11). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayın no: 2. altunışık, r., coşkun, r., bayraktaroğlu, s., ve yıldırım, e. (2005). sosyal bilimler araştırma yöntemleri. sakarya: sakarya kitabevi. aslan, ö. (2001). hoşgörü ve tolerans kavramlarına etimolojik açıdan analitik bir yaklaşım. cumhuriyet üniversitesi i̇lahiyat fakültesi dergisi, 5(2), 1-26, http://eskidergi.cumhuriyet.edu.tr/makale/325.pdf adresinden 20 mayıs 2013 tarihinde alınmıştır. başaran, i̇. e. (1995). hoşgörü ve eğitim. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.). hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı içinde (ss. 47-56). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayın no: 2. büyükkaragöz, s., ve kesici, ş. (1996). öğretmenlerin hoşgörü ve demokratik tutumları. eğitim yönetimi, 3, 353-365. canto-sperber, m. (1996). how far can tolerance go? diogenes, 44(4), 175-188. creswell, j. w. (2007). qualitative inquiry & research design choosing among five approaches. london: sage. colesante, r. j., & biggs, d. a. (1999). teaching about tolerance with stories and arguments. journal of moral education, 28(2), 185-199. çalışkan, h., ve sağlam, h. i̇. (2012). hoşgörü eğilim ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi ve ilköğretim öğrencilerinin hoşgörü eğilimlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri, 122, 1431-1446. deveci, h. (2002). sosyal bilgiler dersinde probleme dayalı öğrenmenin öğrencilerin derse ilişkin tutumlarına, akademik başarılarına ve hatırlama düzeylerine etkisi. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, anadolu üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, eskişehir. http://tez2.yok.gov.tr/ adresinden edinilmiştir. glesne, c. (2012). nitel araştırmaya giriş. a. ersoy ve p. yalçınoğlu (çev. edt.). ankara: anı yayıncılık. (özgün çalışma, 2011) gözübüyük, m. (2002). türkiye’de demokrasi ve hoşgörü kültür ve eğitiminin yaygınlaşmasında sivil toplum kuruluşlarının yeri ve önemi. yayımlanmamış yüksek journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   54 lisans tezi, ankara üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, ankara. http://tez2.yok.gov.tr/ adresinden edinilmiştir. gürkan, t. (1995). üniversite öğrencilerinin hoşgörü kavramına bakışı. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.). hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı içinde (ss. 69-78). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayın no: 2. gürkaynak, i̇. (1995). farklı boyutları ile hoşgörü. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.). hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı içinde (ss. 34-38). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayın no: 2. güven, a. ve akkuş, z. (2004). demokratik değer kazanımında okulların rolü. kazım karabekir eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 9, 217-224. karataş, e. (1995, haziran). açılış konuşması. uluslararası hoşgörü kongresi, antalya. kavcar, c. (1995). açılış konuşması. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.). hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı içinde (ss. 1-4). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayın no: 2. kaymakcan, r. (2007). bir değer olarak hoşgörü ve eğitimi. değerler eğitimi merkezi dergisi, 2(6), 114-119. kepenekçi, k. y. (2004). sınıf öğretmenlerine göre hoşgörü. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim yönetimi, 38, 250-265. khitruk, v. v., & ulianova, o. a. (2012). inclusive tolerance as a basis of professional competence of prospective teachers. problems of education in the 21st century, 43, 21-32. kıroğlu, k., elma, c., kesten, a., ve egüz, ş. (2012). üniversitede demokratik bir değer olarak hoşgörü. journal of social studies education research, 3(2), 86-104. köknel, ö. (1996). hoşgörünün ruhsal-toplumsal temelleri. b. onur (ed.). hoşgörü ve eğitim içinde (ss. 67-78). ankara: türk eğitim derneği yayınları. kuçuradi, i̇. (1996). on tolerance and the limits of toleration. diogenes, 44(4), 163-174. liamputtong, p. (2009). qualitative data analysis: conceptual and practical considerations. health promotion journal of australia, 20(2), 133-139. hatice türe & arife figen ersoy   55 lintner, t. (2005). a world of difference: teaching tolerance through photographs in elementary school. the social studies, january/february, 34-37. miles, m. b., & huberman, m. a. (1994). an expanded sourcebook qualitative data analysis. london: sage. munzur, f. (1995). okulda hoşgörü. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.). hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı içinde (ss. 79-86). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayın no: 2. özdoğan, b. (1995). ailede hoşgörü. i̇. pehlivan (yay. haz.). hoşgörü ve eğitim toplantısı içinde (ss. 63-68). ankara: unesco türkiye milli komisyonu ve ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi ortak yayın no: 2. pasamonik, b. (2004). the paradoxes of tolerance. the social studies, september/october, 206-210. rice, s. (2009). education for toleration in an era of zero tolerance school policies: a dewey an analysis. educational studies, 45, 556–571. ricoeur, p. (1996). obstacles and limits to tolerance. diogenes, 44, 161–163. stevens, r. & charles, j. (2005). preparing teachers to teach tolerance. multicultural perspectives, 7(1), 17–25. şahin, ç. (2011). perceptions of prospective teachers about tolerance education. educational research and reviews, 6(1), 77-86. tatar, a. f. (2009). okul öncesi eğitiminde (5–6 yaş) hoşgörü eğitimi. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, ankara üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, ankara. http://tez2.yok.gov.tr/ adresinden edinilmiştir. unesco (1995). the declaration of principles on tolerance. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001518/151830eo.pdf 20 kasım 2012 tarihinde alınmıştır. unesco (1994). tolerance: the threshold of peace. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0009/000981/098178e.pdf2 5 ocak 2012 tarihinde alınmıştır. weidenfeld, w. (2002). constructive conflicts: tolerance learning as the basis for democracy. prospects, 32(1), 95-102. journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(2),  31-­‐55   56 welton, d., & mallan, j. t. (1999). children and their world: strategies for teaching social studies. new york: houghton mifflin company. widmalm, s. (2005). trust and tolerance in india: findings from madhya pradesh and kerala. india review, 4, 233-257. yıldırım, a., ve şimşek, h. (2011). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. yürüşen, m. (1996). liberal bir değer olarak ahlaki ve siyasi hoşgörü. i̇stanbul: yapı kredi yayınları. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 26-57 26 preservice teachers’ perceptions and preparedness to teach for global mindedness and social justice using collaboration, critical thinking, creativity and communication (4cs) lydiah nganga1 abstract the present study examined preservice teachers’ (n=47) perceptions and preparedness to teach for global mindedness and social justice. a phenomenological approach helped the researcher to gain deeper understanding of participants’ perceptions of the effectiveness of instructional practices used in a social studies methods course. of particular interest were instructional practices that preservice teachers perceived as promoting 4cs. data collected from discussions, in-class written reflections and feedback from open-ended questions showed that although learners were initially uncomfortable exploring global and social justice issues, they eventually gained essential multiple perspectives. consequently, this study affirms the importance of using 4cs in teacher education programs to teach essential knowledge and skills in global mindedness and social justice. key words: global mindedness, preservice teachers, teacher education, social studies, social justice, 4cs. introduction globalization or the world interconnectedness in economic, political, cultural and social systems is an old phenomenon. what is unique in contemporary globalization, however, is the use of modern technologies that have transformed the world into a "village" (nganga & kambutu, 2015). because advances in technology have virtually eliminated the physical and cultural barriers that previously hindered global interactions, people of different cultural backgrounds are now interacting physically and virtually at rates and speeds never imagined, thus turning the world into a place of increased interactions, interdependence and interconnection (wiarda, 2007). faced with this reality, people need to master skills in intercultural communications. regrettably, colleges in the u.s. are typically ill prepared to teach for cultural pluralism and complexities such as racial, ethnic, and linguistic differences (bittman & russell, 2016; landorf, rocco & nevin, 2007). as a result, it is necessary to explore not only the knowledge and skills 1 prof dr. university of wyoming, laramie wyoming, usa, email: lnganga@uwyo.edu mailto:lnganga@uwyo.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 needed to effectively navigate global issues, but to also examine best ways to teach for global mindedness and social justice. teaching for global mindedness and social justice has multiple dimensions. for example, while learning about global competencies such as information, skills, and cultural attitudes (mccabe,1997) is essential, an education for social justice is necessary because it examines, disrupts and replaces existing unjust and oppressive societal structures (sleeter & grant, 2009). essentially, an education for social justice is learning that supports and promotes basic human rights and dignity (banks, 2001). thus, it embraces multiple perspectives. bleicher and kirkwood-tucker (2004) were especially in favor of an education for social justice because it helps learners to understand and appreciate multiple perspectives especially in the context of diversity appreciation. combined, education for global mindedness and social justice promotes intellectual curiosity that transcends national and cultural borders (merryfield, 1997; nganga, 2016). such an education can be implemented while using a variety of instructional practices. an array of instructional practices, both teacher and learner-centered can promote the acquisition of knowledge and skills essential to global mindedness and social justice. learnercentered instruction focuses on “learner's needs” as well as “conditions for learner development” (kolman, roegman, & goodwin, 2017, p. 94). in a learner-centered environment, the teacher draws on students’ experiences in order to develop curricula that foster individual growth (dewey, 1938; 1956; schiro, 2013; vygotsky, 1978). notwithstanding the benefits inherent in curricula for growth, teacher education programs in the u.s. rarely implement learning for multiple perspectives in areas of global mindedness and social justice (yeung, 2015). equally problematic is the current lack of data that examine pre-service teachers’ perceptions about the need to acquire knowledge and skills essential to global mindedness and social justice in social studies classrooms. therefore, i (researcher) designed this study to address this problem. specifically, i was interested in examining preservice teachers’ level of preparedness to teach for global mindedness and social justice using collaboration, critical thinking, creativity and communication (4cs) skills as recommended by the national council social studies framework (ncss, 2013). literature review and theoretical framework modern globalization is affecting human interactions in multiple ways. as a result, institutions of learning have a responsibility to teach knowledge and skills essential to global mindedness and nganga social justice. and while there is a whole breadth of such knowledge and skills, i argue in support of an education that helps learners to understand and appreciate current global cultural interconnectedness and interdependence because what happens in one community is affecting distant groups. therefore, an education for global mindedness and social justice should focus on helping learners to develop understandings of the existing interdependence among nations (banks, 2001). as a result, i argue that such an education could be implemented through the use of critical thinking, creativity, communication and collaboration (4cs). using the 4cs as a framework in social studies the national council for social studies (ncss) framework for 21st century learning describes the 4cs as “essential skills for success in today’s world,” (partnership for 21st century skills, 2009, np.). consequently, the national education association (nea, n.d) recommended that educators complement all content areas with “the “four cs” in order to prepare young people for citizenship and the global workforce.” ncss framework is especially supportive of teaching and learning based on the 4cs because it helps students to develop deeper understanding and appreciation of pertinent knowledge and skills. a brief description of each of the 4cs is provided below. creativity is an essential skill to develop because it eases the process of managing the complexities of globalization and social justice. while there are different views about creativity, beghetto (2006) described it as “the ability to offer new perspectives, generate novel and meaningful ideas, raise new questions, and come up with solutions to ill-defined problems” (p. 1). when using creativity as an instructional practice, an educator could encourage discourse that permits students to speculate, say for example, about “a connection made between a historical event and a theme of a highly popular futuristic video game” (beghetto, 2006, p. 1). to beghetto, creativity is not necessarily about accuracy and relevancy. rather, it entails allowing learners the freedom to make mistakes while thinking freely and divergently. in essence, then, creativity is a preferred teaching and learning approach because it supports learning that permits students to make their own meaning, and in doing so, new knowledge is constructed (urbani,et al., 2017). notwithstanding the importance of creativity, it is seldom implemented because of the current emphasis on standardized and test-based education (kampylis, berki & saariluoma, 2009). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 similar to creativity, critical thinking is understood in multiple ways. for example, paul (1988) viewed it as the ability to reach sound conclusions based on observed information. but to other scholars, critical thinking is simply the ability to assess the authenticity, accuracy and worth of knowledge claims in order to make informed decisions (beyer, 1983; iskandar, 2009; lafer, 2014; walters, 1989). ennis (1987) and norris (1985a) pointed to the need for reflective thought as a way to foster deeper observation, examination and judgment of situations. in doing so, learners are able to develop informed alternatives. hager and kaye (1992) favored critical thinking because it equips learners with essential problem-solving skills; an essential disposition relative to addressing global and social justice issues. therefore, an education that promotes critical thinking helps learners to achieve deeper understanding. consequently, hager and kaye (1992) recommended critical thinking education to be used in every classroom, along with communicative and collaborative learning activities. having effective collaborative and communication skills is essential in the current reality of cultural interconnection and interdependence. mastery of effective communication and collaborative skills enables people to explain their thinking, beliefs, and expectations clearly. to that end, lawley, moore and smajic (2014) highlighted the important roles that communication and collaboration plays in the process of building an ideal work place. so, in the current age of globalization that is characterized by constant mixing and interactions of people of different cultures, all educators should help their students develop essential communication and collaborative skills by creating space and opportunities for their students to practice interpersonal communication and collaboration skills (liliane & colette, 2009). generally, student-centered instructional practices such as discussions, problem/project-based learning and a myriad of cooperative teaching strategies such as think-pair share, jigsaw, student team’s achievement divisions, mix-pair-share and all-write-consensus (arends, 2015) are known to enhance communication and collaboration skills. because acquiring these essential skills is important for global mindedness and social justice, pertinent learning outcomes should be incorporated in social studies courses in teacher education programs. further, instruction based on 4cs would be most beneficial especially when it creates space to model for preservice teachers how to teach pertinent knowledge and skills. nganga context of study using purposive sampling (bernard & ryan, 2010), the researcher invited three cohorts (n= 47) of preservice teachers to participate in this study that was situated in a rural university in the rocky mountain region of the u.s. the researcher was professor-on-record for all three cohorts taught during three different semesters. all participants except one learner were female, and were all enrolled in a social studies methods course that ranged in class sizes from 12 to 20 students. among other goals, the course examined instructional methods and materials used to teach social studies education. also, it focused on developing social studies units that were original, meaningful, and engaging to both teachers and their students. to teach to these instructional goals, the researcher used inquiry process (dewey, 1933; zarrillo, 2004), classroom discussions (duplass, 2008), role-play and mock trials (bloom, 1997), and threaded discussions. the following is a brief analysis of the value of each of these instructional strategies: inquiry processin considering the benefits of inquiry process, zarrillo (2004) identified its focus on a problem/s that is/are identified either by students or teachers as critical to informative learning. to develop solutions, zarrillo recommended formulation of hypotheses, followed by gathering and analyzing data. dewey (1933) had a similar approach in his recommendation for reflective thought. adhering to zarillo’s (2004) recommendations, the researcher developed and used during instruction a graphic organizer (see figure 1) that focused on the intersection between columbus and native people in the u.s. hypothesis: ___________________________ problem/s causes effect/s solution a. b. c. ____________________________________________________________ overall solution____________________________ figure 1: christopher columbus versus indigenous people classroom discussionsi structured small and large group classroom discussions around cooperative learning activities. first, i randomly divided preservice teachers into groups of four. but to allow the participants an opportunity to collaborate with different students during the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 semester, i regularly changed group membership. additionally, i ensured positive interdependence through assigned roles, and promoted individual accountability (duplass, 2008). in terms of social skills, i expected effective communication during all group learning activities (ncss, 2016). then, i circulated among different groups during discussions to assess learning, take notes and ask questions that clarified learners’ thinking and assertions (duplass, 2008). among many learning activities, one of the assigned small group project required preservice teachers to develop a collaborative unit on a randomly selected foreign nation. the first step in this unit required a research study of a randomly selected foreign nation before writing a comparative paper that addressed the similarities and differences between the studied nation and the u.s. in areas of culture, education and global resources (see appendix 1). the study of a foreign nation unit was grounded on ncss (2010, p, 68) standards that required the integration of topics that “focus on specific cultures or nations … as a means of introducing students to the geography, history, economic relationships, and cultures of other countries”. instructional topics with a global focus are especially relevant to social studies curriculum because they help learners to gain knowledge of world cultures, and understand the historical, geographic, economic, political, cultural, and environment relationships among world regions and peoples (ncss, 2010, p. 58-59). to culminate this learning activity, preservice teachers prepared informative presentations, and selected and evaluated children’s books related to their unit of study for different types of bias (see appendix 3). role-plays and mock trialsrole-play is a popular instructional approach in elementary education social studies courses because it utilizes both cognitive and affective domains (duplass, 2008). duplass postulated that learners are likely to develop objective solutions to a problem when they possess deeper cognitive understanding of it (problem), while also identifying with the problem and solution on personal levels (affective process). in addition, role-plays and mock trials give learners opportunities to dialogue in order to develop objective solutions to identified problems (bloom, 1997; schwartz, 2010). given the aforementioned benefits, i developed and used two role-plays and mock trial units that included a trial of christopher columbus by indigenous peoples (appropriate for 4th and 5th grades) and a role-play that enacted the montgomery bus boycott promoted by rosa parks’ refusal to give up her seat in a bus during segregated times in the u.s. (appropriate for 1st through 5th grade). to prepare students for role-plays, i used duplass (2008, p. 339) recommendations as follows: a) start with nganga an introduction explaining the task and goals of the lesson, b) prepare role-plays by explaining roles and responsibilities, c) keep all students focused while role-playing is taking place, and d) allow students to share ideas and relate the reenactment to their own lives. as a result, i required preservice teachers to prepare for mock trials and role-plays by conducting comprehensive reviews of pertinent literature using primary sources. for columbus trial, i divided the participants into two sidesone side supported columbus’ actions while the other defended the plights of indigenous people (during trial, learners served either as judges, prosecutors, defense lawyers, witnesses for prosecution, witnesses for defendant, bailiffs and/or jury (bloom, 1997). as a result of this learning activity, participants expressed shock after learning for the first time the atrocities committed against native people by columbus and his men. the second role-play involved an enactment of the montgomery bus boycott that was sparked by rosa parks’ refusal to give up a seat in a bus for a white person at a time in history when buses were segregated in the u.s. this role-play is appropriate for 1st through 5rd grades (but content and children’s books should be assessed for appropriateness). before commencing the role-play, preservice teachers read the book; “walking for freedom: the montgomery bus boycott” by richard kelso (2001). additionally, they watched the following two videos: a) rosa parks and the montgomery bus boycott by (n.d), and b.) the montgomery bus boycott by (n.d). then, using shapiro and leopold (2012) recommendations, i designed the following rubric that helped participants organize their ideas: a) topic of the role-play should be intellectually rigorous and relevant to participants, b) role-play activity should invoke higher order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, and c) role-play should invite divergent perspectives. after accessing essential background information, participants organized a town-hall meeting as part of role-play. while some students acted as supporters of the bus boycott, others played opposition roles. during role-play, i expected all my preservice teachers to use essential critical thinking skills, collaboration, communication and creativity (4cs). in addition, i invited observers from the african american community because of their lived experiences with unequal and unjust treatment in u.s. based on race. as a result of this role-play, participants developed strategies to fight for justice for all people. additionally, this learning activity enabled participants to understand the events leading to the bus boycott, thus allowing them to see that journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 rosa parks did not act alone. rather, other unrecognized heroes of the civil rights movement in the u.s. participated. finally, this role-play provided ideal learning space for learners to explore multiple perspectives, and in doing so, they developed informed autonomous choices and solutions to a potentially controversial social justice issue. threaded discussions-weekly online threaded discussions extended classroom discussions on various selected key topics. after posting discussion questions/prompts/topics (see appendix 2), i expected all preservice teachers to respond to my prompts within a week, and to also respond to a minimum of two responses from their peers. threaded discussions created a “safe” place for learners to share thoughts that they could not contribute freely during face-to-face classroom discussions. therefore, as i read my students’ responses, i clarified misconceptions, assumptions, questions and viewpoints. additionally, i intentionally scrutinized learner acquisition of knowledge and skills essential to global mindedness and social justice from a 4cs framework. methods data collection this study used a phenomenological-interpretative framework to explore the perceptions of preservice teachers relative to teaching for global mindedness and social justice in social studies. phenomenological studies require total researcher participation in the studied phenomenon. therefore, the researcher served as a participant and observer (moustakas, 1994). also, because phenomenological studies are interested in how people perceive and talk about objects and events (moustakas,1994; taylor,1985), the researcher used open-ended questions/prompts to encourage participants to share details regarding their learning experiences and perceptions of applied instructional approaches (giorgi, 2012). specifically, the researcher explored the effectiveness of the instructional practices used in a social studies method course that the participants were enrolled in. in particular, the researcher examined the effectiveness of using collaboration, critical thinking, creativity and communication (4cs) in helping preservice teachers develop knowledge and skills critical to understanding and appreciating global mindedness and social justice (ncss, 2016). finally, the researcher applied ryan, heineke & steindam’s (2014) recommendation for teacher educators to document their instructional approaches in order to support other teacher educators. as a result, the researcher designed this nganga study to enrich the existing literature by illuminating the perspectives of preservice teachers relative to teaching for global social justice using the 4cs framework. the researcher collected data from small and large group classroom discussions, written reflections, online discussions and role-play activities. a pre and post assessment for a unit on the study of a foreign nation (see appendix 2) provided additional essential data regarding participants’ misconceptions (see appendix 1). the following two research questions guided the study: a) what instructional practices do preservice teachers perceive as important while developing global mindedness and social justice perspectives? and b) what instructional practices promote the use of 4cs in teacher education? to help document the effectiveness of the instructional strategies used, participants responded to the following prompts at the end of the semester. 1. at the beginning of semester, how comfortable were you teaching issues of global mindedness and social justice? 2. as the semester progressed, what changes did you experience in your level of comfort? 3. at the end of semester:  describe your experiences with instructional strategies used in this course in relation to teaching for global mindedness and social justice issues  what instructional strategies were most helpful to you and why?  what were your experiences with collaboration, critical thinking, creativity and communication (4cs) in relation to teaching global and social justice issues?  explain which of the 4cs you might use in your future classroom to teach global mindedness and social justice issues. analysis data were analyzed qualitatively (bogdan & bilken, 1982). also, i applied interpretative phenomenological approach to identify patterns and themes within data (moustakas, 1994). to braun and clarke (2006) a thematic analysis is critical because it helps to organize and describe data in a detailed manner. after coding and studying data carefully, several minor themes immerged that i then juxtaposed and melded into the following five themes: a) importance of teaching about other cultures, b) studying a foreign nation, c) exploring multiple perspectives, d) instructional strategies that promote 4cs, and e) teaching global citizenship from a social justice perspective. a detailed analysis of each of these themes is discussed in the results section. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 validity and reliability to decrease the chance of participants responding in ways that they thought were desirable to me, i informed them that i was interested in personal perspectives based on their experiences and understandings as preservice teachers. using patton’s (2002) guidance for studies involving purposeful sampling, i established clear study boundaries, explained the purpose and nature of the study, promised confidentiality, and assured the participants that their participation or lack thereof would not affect their academic grades in the course whatsoever. additionally, i assured participants that they were fully entitled to their opinions. thus, i encouraged them to be open-minded and receptive during classroom and online threaded discussions. to barak and levenberg (2016) an open-minded student learns from other students, is fully involved during teamwork, is receptive to multiple perspectives, and is able to handle conflict proactively. all participant conducted member check to ascertain valid representation of their perspectives. results importance of teaching about other cultures: studying a foreign nation data showed that the participants in this study developed an appreciation for comparative cultural studies. specifically, they favored studying a foreign nation and comparing what they learned with what they already knew about the united states. because of this learning activity, learners reported a deeper understanding of the commonalities between nations as well as differences. additionally, after completing a unit on a foreign nation and presenting it to peers, participants reported that the new knowledge helped to clarify existing misconceptions about other nations as is evident in the following feedback from one participant: “during presentations, i was surprised to learn that even though the u.s is a developed nation, we are behind in education and healthcare when compared to other developed nations, let alone some developing nations.” perhaps because of this new knowledge, the participants showed an interest in learning more about global and social justice matters. data showed that at the start of semester, participants were generally uninterested in global and social justice issues. instead, a majority of participants not only expressed limited knowledge of global education and social justice issues, but they also were less interested in engaging in pertinent topics, and when they did, they did so from limited and simplistic knowledge levels. nganga for example, when discussing issues of nations from which immigrant came from, participants tended to blame the affected groups. the following quote shares this viewpoint: i think we should not let syrian refugees into the usa because we have not seen positive things from them. when you do not see positive things it is kind of hard to trust them. also, i think most of people who want to come from such places are moving away from poverty and therefore are poor and will depend on our (us) government if they come over here taking from taxpayers. most governments where these immigrants come from are to blame for chaos and poor conditions. what was evident in the simplistic responses was a lack of critical understanding of the dynamics involved that lead to poverty and “chaos” such as the link between poverty and experiences with colonization/neocolonialism, natural calamities, and marginalization in political, economic, and military activities (sleeter, 2003). what were equally baffling were participants’ ideas about possible solutions to issues of poverty. equally evident is a leaning towards ethnocentrism (bennett, 2004). by the end of the semester, however, summative data gathered from the unit on a foreign nation suggested that most of the participants had developed a better understanding and appreciation of global issues, especially in terms of the existing disparities in global resources as well as contributing factors (see appendix 1 and 2). consequently, participants were able to see the existing global interconnections and interdependencies relative to problems of social justice. the following scripts from an online discussion demonstrate a change in thinking: students need to understand that their actions and those of people in their community or country impact the lives of people on a global scale and vice versa. one way that students can gain a better understanding of the concept of interdependence is by learning about students can learn how our economy is affected by the global economy and how our economy affects the global economy. while learning about global economies, students would also need to learn about geography so that they could connect the information about various economies with their corresponding global locations. i liked the activity we did in class on global resources. it made me think about how some nations have so much, yet others have so little. yet, we compare these nations as if they were the same. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 well, i knew the us has many resources compared to other parts of the world, but i was not sure to what extent. i mean there is so much we need to learn as teachers. i like how you spoke about using the classroom as a base to teach about global citizenship. i think it is easy for students to overlook a connection to an individual from outside the us, but by using something they know and modeling good relationships with one another we are learning to become better global citizens. i liked the treaty writing simulation. my group took a current global issue, discussed it and then developed a treaty/solution to the issue. other reflections showed that studying a nation that was culturally different than the united states helped participants to get a better understanding of other cultures as well as remove misconceptions that they previously held as is evident in the following quote. doing my research and learning about china was intriguing. although i knew they have a large population, i did not know by how much1.4 billion people compared to us 320 million is a big difference. i also learned how china is committed to education and has more university students than the us and europe combined. china is also one of the largest world economies. a misconception i had was that being a communist nation, they do not practice a market economy. when we hear of communist china in the news, we are not told the us has many companies in china. at least i did not know they did. i also learned that china has many ethnic minorities. that was an interesting fact. shocking though was learning about social injustice for migrant workers. in one website they stated that “migrant workers endure long working days, work seven days a week, many without an employment contract and face constant discrimination.” this made me think about migrant workers in the us and those labeled as illegal migrants and long hours that they work. i think we need to teach student some of the things we never see on text books as they are important for them to become well informed. in our state we get migrant workers in the farming communities. the above findings suggested that preservice teachers perceived the study of topics that infused learning about other nations as critical to developing better understanding of global issues, as well as helping leaners to see connections in global problems such as those related to immigrants and their treatment. to participants, then, teaching about such topics is helpful because they might not be included in textbooks. consequently, data showed that after experiencing learning nganga for global and social justice perspective, the preservice teachers in this study were ready to explore global topics, and develop and implement-teaching units that could help their students understand and appreciate other cultures. to capture this apparent transformation, a participant responded: i came into this course without any knowledge of what global education meant or any idea of how similar nations are. i have now learned how interconnected and interdependent all nations are. to help students understand that they are global citizens they first need to experience a caring environment. students need to be cared about in order to show that care to others. they also need a chance to make decisions and be part of an active pro-social behavior that is they need to know what it means to be giving, helping and sharing for harmonious group relations. students can become global citizens by becoming knowledgeable about other parts of the world. they can research problems to better understand other countries and they can also pen-pal other students from different walks of life. students need to "see" others' ways of living and know what it means to have empathy so that they are globally connected to one another. in conclusion, the study of a foreign nation (see appendix 1) enabled preservice teachers to gain knowledge and skills that are critical to teaching for global and social justice issues. as a result, participants deemed topics that explored similarities and differences between nations as important in that endeavor. exploring multiple perspectives data showed that the use of role-play, as well as discussions and reflections around role-playing helped the participants to explore, analyze and evaluate evidence in different scenarios that were presented during the study of global and social justice issues. for example, in the study of christopher columbus, a role-play that considered both the explorers and native americans’ perspectives enabled participants to learn and think critically about how likely it is for information sources to shape purpose and meaning. when addressing role-play learning activities, all participants argued that these activities helped them link ideas as well as structure argument and counter-arguments; all skills that helped them to recognize incongruences in topics that they explored. the following selected reflections address this important finding: the most important information i gained from this discussion was the truth about christopher columbus. in elementary school, i learned about columbus from a positive journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 view. i didn’t learn about the malicious crimes he committed, but rather that he was an explorer who found “new land” for the spanish. truthfully, columbus arrived at this “new land” and tortured the natives, or those he called “indians”. he was ignorant towards the many people who lived here first, and claimed the land as his own, giving him wealth and power. the mock trial was very helpful. i think having the instructor assign random roles was good because we had to think of how to act like that role/character and come up with supportive ideas, arguments and counter arguments. being one of columbus men, i had to research his journals and those of his men and then put myself in that role. supporting columbus was difficult after hearing what the other side – native americans had to say about his atrocities against them. i was amazed to learn that native americans for the most part took care of people who then turned around and persecuted them. evident in the above reflections is the potential benefit of using critical thinking education and collaborative discussions as teaching practices. as these participants responded to the online discussions, for example, they not only thought critically about the knowledge gained about columbus, but they also benefited from the multiple perspectives that each student shared regarding different topics. in the presence of multiple perspectives, learners are able to develop a fuller and more comprehensive view of history. learners are then likely to personalize the knowledge gained and apply it in the process of constructing new meanings (brookfield, 1986; okukawa, 2008). addressing the significance of accessing multiple perspectives in order to make learning personal and meaningful, two participants in this study stated that: everyone has a different background and different experiences, and even when presented with the same stimuli, will think about different things. people will come up with an idea you've never thought of, or help add on to an idea that you bring up. people with more or less experience can give advice and ask questions. additionally, if the way you see something is confusing, someone else might be able to explain it to you in a better way for your understanding. i think students should be given the opportunity to learn different things and to share ideas freely. by giving us time to discuss our perspectives on different topics i learned ways in which i could implement similar topics in my future nganga classes. i liked the roleplay activity a lot. it is something that students would really get to enjoy doing in such a constructive environment. healthy argument is good for students and will provide them with practice on their critical thinking skills. it is important to have students know that global citizenship is not global allegiance as we need to have our own set of moral laws and values first, guiding us to follow the laws in place by government. global citizenship is about being aware of local and global issues and how they are interconnected. for example, we could look at real world problems such as poverty and how that connects with the u.s. the u.s. has so much wealth and sometimes a lot goes to waste. looking at how much wasted food we have and how we have millions going without food around the nation and the world can help students see why we need to be less wasteful as global citizens. in summary, the above findings point to the need of providing learning opportunities that support using multiple perspectives in teacher education programs. a majority of the preservice teachers in this study reported that instruction that promotes multiple perspectives nurtures healthy discussions, and promotes understanding of views that may contradict one’s own viewpoints. according to unesco (2012), “multiple-perspective analysis helps students to understand the points of view of others who live in their community or across the world” (p. 6). this findings support these views. instructional strategies that promote the 4cs when asked to identify the instructional practices that helped the participants the most in practicing the 4cs, they indicated that role-playing, writing reflections (online and in-classroom), small group collaborative activities, and in-classroom discussions were most helpful. on role playing, one student reported that it was a: challenge because it required us to develop, implement and communicate our ideas to others. we also had to make sure each group member had a part in the roleplay. we needed to collaborate and be creative. other findings showed that role-playing helped participants think about activities that they might do in their future classroom. this finding is evident in the following script. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 i think a good lesson for a fifth grade class could involve a mock debate, similar to what we did in class. a question for debate could relate to current events, global event, past events in the united states, or even issues occurring in the classroom. this lesson would require objectivity, open-mindedness, flexibility, intellectual honesty, and respect for other viewpoints. students could investigate open ended questions or questions that have a valid answer that they are unaware of. this would be good for this grade level because students are old enough to discuss topics, as well as research what they are unknowledgeable about. the teacher can assign roles in the debate. group learning activities were equally identified as helpful in promoting collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking (4cs). data showed that role-play and discussions assisted participants in developing all 4cs. reflecting on the benefits of discussions, two pre-service teachers provided the following illustrations: in-class discussions in small groups were very helpful, in terms of understanding children’s literature. it was great to see so many perspectives – especially ones we may not have considered initially. it was also good to talk with peers about future classroom plans and ways of integrating diverse pieces as it really widens our own personal idea capacity and sparks even more ideas of things we can do with our future classes in terms of teaching diversity. as a white, female preservice teacher in the us, i am in the majority. therefore, i don’t come from the same background(s) in which s some of my students might come from. however, i want to really reach out to each and every student and provide equal learning opportunity in the classroom. knowing how to review books will help me select anti-biased materials in my class. that is why i found discussions with peers on this topic to be very helpful. online discussions were great because they encouraged us to communicate in more details than we would in class discussions. we also responded to other people’s post. it was a great way to share our thoughts. another thing was how these posts helped us to reflect on our individual ideas on topics that we worked in collaboration. it was interesting for example to see when we did the study of a foreign nation in small groups, but did individualized reflections on how we could use the information, people had different ideas. this greatly helped to learn about new ideas and thoughts. nganga equally helpful in the process of developing 4cs were creative projects such as critical viewing of class videos and selection of class materials. reflecting on the benefits of critical viewing of class videos and selection of class materials, participants reported lack of prior knowledge on how to critically view and select materials using a social justice lens (see appendix 3 for criteria used to assess children’s books). for example, when asked what considerations they would make when selecting children’s movies, the number one consideration was “the movie should be fun.” none of the participants indicated that one should look for bias. after taking part in discussions and activities on selecting anti-bias learning materials, participants reported noting bias in books and videos that previously looked appropriate to use. as a result, one participant responded thusly: the use of video/movies and providing a critical analysis as to why certain movies/video were helpful or not helpful to teaching about a certain issue was helpful. i never thought about evaluating a movie. when i watched mulan, for example before this class, i did not think about gender issues. it was just a fun movie. but when we were taught how to look at information using a critical lens, i watched the movie. i started noticing little things that i had not seen before. why was mulan seen as not fit to go to fight to represent her family? why was bringing a man home important? these were things that were showing that females might not be as good as men in war or their place was to get married. after acquiring essential evaluative skills, a different participant took the risk to evaluate “freedom writers,” a movie in which a teacher inspires her student in planning their future. reflecting on her position relative to using this movie, this participant reported that: this is one of my favorite movies. students would be able to see that not all students are treated the same or have the same opportunities as others. students will learn about different environments in which there is shortage of supplies and resources in schools. along with this, students can see that if you believe in something, you need to fight for what you think is right; like the teacher did in the movie. i would use this in a 4th or 5th grade classroom. reflecting on the value of creative activities such as role-playing and reviewing teaching movies and videos, a participant reported that role-playing was “new to me. it was such fun and i learned a lot. it showed me how to be creative and how i can help my students learn though such a fun activity.” for other participants, the use of town hall meetings and mock trials were creative journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 learning activities that they planned to use in their future classrooms to teach about global and social justice issues. commenting on the value of mock trails, one participant responded thusly after experiencing a mock trial of christopher columbus: as a native american, i am frustrated that there is a holiday to celebrate a man that was so cruel to my people. he came to my land and took it away from my ancestors. he kidnapped them and did horrible things to them. he committed horrendous crimes towards my people and it seems this holiday is a celebration of that. it is time to let people know who columbus really was. other findings from participants showed that activities that involved creating global education units during the social studies methods course (study of a foreign nation) promoted development of critical thinking. the following are scripts from pre-service teachers when asked how they would help their learners develop critical thinking for different grade levels: in order to teach intellectual curiosity, open-mindedness, flexibility and respect for other viewpoints i would allow my students to trade papers/presentations/ideas, etc. and have a partner assess them upon a checklist. i believe this could take students out of their comfort zones to take in others’ ideas critically by providing one another with feedback. i think this type of activity could be done in the intermediate grades. i think it is important for students to reflect upon one another and i cannot think of a better idea to take in new ideas by being flexible and open-minded than by reviewing others work and providing feedback to support their ideas. if i were to teach 5th graders a lesson on human rights, i could focus on south africa and the united states. there are a lot of parallels in what happened to blacks in south africa and blacks in the us. in south africa, i would focus on apartheid. the considerations that i would have to make when teaching this is how to make it culturally relevant and relatable to my students. this could be done by comparing apartheid in south africa to the segregation and the civil rights movement within the united states. as students will already have a general understanding of the civil rights movement within the u.s., i could conduct a lesson comparing and contrasting the similar topic of apartheid within south africa. after reading books about each issue from the two countries, each student can then write two journal entries from the point of view of a black person experiencing nganga segregation in the u.s. during the 1950's-1960's and also of a black person experiencing apartheid in south africa during the 1940's-1990's in south africa. a children's book i could read on apartheid would be the soccer fence and a children's book we could read on segregation would be one crazy summer. these books are about young children and the hardships of growing up during apartheid and segregation. in summary, the above findings suggested that the participants in this study perceived instructional strategies that promoted communication, collaboration, critical thinking and creativity as relevant to teaching for global mindedness and social justice knowledge. additionally, data showed that different learning activities modeled for participants’ ways to develop and enact learning activities that support 4cs. as a result, participants are likely to implement similar instructional practices in their future classrooms. teaching global citizenship from a social justice perspective in terms of teaching practices that helped participants develop essential global and social justice knowledge and skills, data showed that the participants found in-classroom small and large discussions were most helpful. additionally, critically analysis children’s books and learning materials was very helpful. as a result, they were able to not only discover hidden messages in movies and children’s books that they discussed, but they also developed possible teaching and learning activities. the following selected written reflections address this important finding: our small group discussion of the movie “freedom writers” was helpful. it is a great movie to use to teach global/moral concepts; i wonder if this would be better suited for middle or high school levels students with the emotionally heavy topics? after watching the video “starting small”, our group discussed how the video showed that it is never too early to discuss social justice and global issues with children. watching how one teacher used a “peace corner” for children to go and resolve simple conflicts was amazing. i like how the teacher tied this with resolving national and international conflicts. we discussed some lesson ideas and came up with an activity that we could do with young children that would look at holidays from anti-bias perspective. this would be a good topic for december and january when there are many holidays around the world. we thought identifying common themes in the holidays and discussing why people celebrate or not celebrate holidays would be a good idea. this is something i have never thought about. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 during discussions, i liked how the instructor defined common humanness. it was very simple and to the point; students would have an easy time understanding how it was explained (referring to cultural universals). i also really appreciate that the instructor explained that global citizenship is not global allegiance as having our own set of moral laws and values first, guiding us to follow the laws in place by government. from the above excerpts, it is evident that in-class discussions have value especially when teaching about global mindedness and social justice issues. discussions and conclusions the current study examined preservice teachers’ perceptions regarding teaching for global mindedness and social justice. additionally, the researcher explored the instructional strategies that preservice teachers perceived as helpful in promoting the 4cs (collaboration, communication, critical thinking and creativity). a theoretical framework of the 4cs has not been previously used with preservice teachers, thus this study could be useful to other educators in teacher education programs while investigating instructional strategies that promote global mindedness and social justice. as noted elsewhere in his study, modern globalization and increased world interconnectedness and interdependence in economic, political, cultural and social systems present diverse opportunities and challenges. therefore, educational institutions have a responsibility to help students’ master knowledge and skills critical to functioning effectively in contexts of modern globalization. mastering knowledge and skills for global mindedness and social justice is especially important, but before educators are able to teach pertinent knowledge and skills, they should first be introduced to such knowledge and skills. educators thus prepared are likely to teach using a global conscious lens, and to implement instruction for social justice in social studies (merryfield, 1993; 1997; merryfield & subedi, 2001). to that end, findings from this study suggest that teacher educators should include multiple instructional strategies while preparing preservice to teach for global and social justice issues. in addition, data from this study revealed that preservice teachers found incorporation of social studies themes that exposed them to other nations critical to development of multiple perspectives. equally helpful to participants were instructional strategies that aligned well with competencies and skills essential to development of skills collaboration, communication, critical thinking and creativity (4cs). after nganga developing skills in 4cs, data showed that participants were generally receptive to teaching for multiple perspectives. the ability to accept other people’s views is consistent with grant and secada’s (1990) recommendations for an education that promotes understanding and appreciation of societal issues in order to build a more socially just world. this in itself reflects critical thinking skills which according to kennedy (1991) help learners to be open-minded and considerate of other people. an education for social justice is especially important because it intentionally grapples with questions about causes of societal inequalities (local and global) and solutions to such problems (cochransmith, 2010). an effective education for social justice is grounded on collaboration, communication, critical thinking and creativity (4cs). data in this study showed that before the participants experienced learning for social justice that was informed by 4cs, they blamed the poor for their conditions. however, after experiencing social justice education, they developed a better understanding and appreciation of the problematic nature of systems of inequalities. thus, they were willing to confront issues of poverty and other social justice problems using objective information. similarly, other data showed that learning based on 4cs challenged many misconceptions and preconceived notions about global and social justice issues that the participants held. thus, they were willing to confront, using a social justice lens, similar issues that their future students could hold. the participants’ readiness to teach for social justice was consistent with norris (1985b) views that once a learner experiences critical thinking, he/she is likely to “apply everything they already know and feel, to evaluate their own thinking, and especially to change their behavior” (p. 40). it should not be surprising, therefore, that the participants in this study showed evidence that after experiencing the 4cs, they not only started to examine their thinking about their prior knowledge and positions on global mindedness and social justice issues, but they also were open to developing new perspectives on how to teach such content in their future classrooms. this was an important finding because as misco and shiveley (2016) argued, teaching for global mindedness and social justice calls for educators to be open minded, appreciate diversity, and commit fully to critical thinking and social justice. role-play activities in which students were expected to think creatively and critically were also found to be very helpful during the implementations of the 4cs. role-play and problem solving teaching strategies indirectly promote critical thinking dispositions like open mindedness, fairjournal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 mindedness, perseverance and empathy among students” (rashid & qaisar, 2017, p. 198). the role-play activities used in this study were developed by participants. as a result, data showed that participants found them relevant and meaningful in helping them understand how to develop role-play activities that they could use in their future classrooms. as a result, data from this study confirm the importance of using instructional strategies and activities that model best instructional practices for pre-service teachers. in summary, data from this study indicate that effective teaching for global mindedness and social justice is likely when collaboration, critical thinking, creativity and communication (4cs) skills are utilized. further, data showed that discussions, mock trials, role-plays, and written reflections supported learners’ use of 4cs. as a result, this study recommends the use of these important teaching strategies especially when instructing for global mindedness and social justice. nevertheless, the researcher encourages further examination of instructional strategies that advance knowledge and skills for global mindedness and social justice in teacher education programs because after all, educators have the all-important responsibility of preparing learners for full and productive lives. an education that helps future educators to master knowledge and skills essential for global mindedness and social justice is a necessity because it situates them well to prepare their future students for dreams and possibilities in a globalized world. limitation and future research this study was conducted in a teacher education program situated in a rural setting. therefore, it is highly likely that findings could only apply to similar teacher education programs. as a result, the researcher recommends a more robust study that could be easily generalizable. a second limitation delves into the possibility of response bias. although the researcher requested participants to provide unbiased responses, it is highly probable that student/teacher power dynamics motivated participants, perhaps unconsciously, to respond in ways that affirmed instructor’s research goals. to mitigate this limitation, a study involving neutral investigators, preferably in collaborative teaching settings is warranted. finally, this study does not document whether participants implemented in their future classrooms the knowledge and skills they reportedly gained. therefore, the researcher recommends a longitudinal study that follows preservice teachers into their classroom in order to investigate and document transferability of the 4cs skills learned in teacher education programs. such documentation would be helpful in nganga making curricular decisions that would positively impact teacher education, particularly in preparing teachers who are globally and social justice minded. notwithstanding the identified limitations, however, data from this study have motivated the researcher to utilize content and instructional practices that promote collaboration, critical thinking, creativity and communication (4cs) skills. evidently, mastering skills in 4cs is likely to empower future teachers to teach for global mindless and social justice in their future classrooms. references arends, r. i. (2015). learning to teach, 10th edition. new york, ny: mcgraw-hill. banks, j. (2001). citizenship education and diversity: implications for teacher education, journal of teacher education, 52(1), 6-16. barak, m. & levenberg, a. (2016). a model of flexible thinking in contemporary education. thinking skills and creativity, 22, 74-85. beghetto, r.a. (2006). does creativity have a place in classroom discussions? prospective teachers’ response preferences. thinking skills and creativity, 2(1)1-9. bennett, m. j. (2004). from ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism. in j. s. wurzel (ed.), toward multiculturalism (pp. 62-78). newton, ma: intercultural resource corporation bernard, h.r. & ryan, g. w. (2010). analyzing qualitative data. systematic approaches. london: sage. beyer, b. (1983, november). common sense about teaching thinking skills. educational leadership, 41, 44-49. ej 289-719. bittman, b. l., & russell, w. b. (2016). civic education in united states: a multiple regression of civic education scores from the national assessment of educational progress. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 1-23. bleicher, r. e., & kirkwood-tucker, t. f. (2004). integrating science and social studies teaching methods with a global perspective for elementary preservice teachers. curriculum and teaching dialogue, 6(2), 115–124. bloom, j. (1997). due process: mini mock trials. in m.e. hass & m.a.laughlin (eds.), meeting the standards; social studies readings for k-6 educators, (pp.166-148). washington, d.c: ncss. bogdan, r. c., & biklen, s. k. (1992). qualitative research for education: an introduction to journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 theory and methods. boston, ma: allyn and bacon. braun, v. & clarke, v. (2006). using thematic analysis in psychology. qualitative research in psychology, 3 (2), 77-101. brookfield, s.d. (1986). adult learning: a comprehensive analysis of principles and affective practice. milton keynes, england: open university press. cochransmith, m. (2010). toward a theory of teacher education for social justice. in a. hargreaves, a. lieberman, m. fullan, & d. hopkins (eds.), second international handbook of educational change (pp. 445-467). dordrecht, nl: springer dewey, j. (1938). education and experience. new york, ny: macmillan. dewey, j. (1956). the child and the curriculum. chicago, il: university of chicago press. duplass, j. a. (2008). teaching elementary social studies. new york, houghton mifflin company. ennis, r. h. (1987). a taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. in baron, j. and sternberg, r (eds.) teaching thinking skills: theory and practice. new york: freeman. giorgi, a. (2012). the descriptive phenomenological psychological method. journal of phenomenological psychology, 43(1), 3-12. grant, c., & secada, w. (1990). preparing teachers for diversity. in w. r. houston, m. haberman & j. sikula (eds.), handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 403-422). new york, ny: macmillan. hager, p. & kaye, m. (1992). critical thinking in teacher education: a process-oriented research agenda. australian journal of teacher education, 17(2), 26-33. retrieved from https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1218&=&context=ajte&=&sei kolman, j.s., roegman, r., & goodwin, a.l (2017, summer). learner-centered mentoring building from student teachers’ individual needs and experiences as novice practitioners, teacher education quarterly, 44 (3), 93-117. kampylis, p., berki, e. & saariluoma, p. (2009). in-service and prospective teachers’ conceptions of creativity. thinking skills and creativity, (5), 15-29. kelso, r. (1993). walking for freedom: the montgomery bus boycott. heinemann-raintree: chicago, il. lafer, s. (2014). democratic design for the humanization of education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 6-12. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1218&=&context=ajte&=&sei nganga landorf, h., rocco, t.s. & nevin, a. (2007a.). creating permeable boundaries: teaching and learning for social justice in a global society. teacher education quarterly, 31(1) 4156. lawley, j.j., moore, j., & smajic, a. (2014). effective communication between preservice and cooperating teachers. the new educator. 10 (2), 153-162, doi: 10.1080/1547688x.2014.898495 liliane, p., & colette, g. (2009). analysis of the dynamics of the sharing knowledge between cooperating teacher and teacher-in-training: the partners’ respective roles. us-china. education review, 6 (6), 71–80. mccabe, l. t. (1997). global perspective development. education, 118 (1), 41-46. merryfield, m. (1993). reflective practice in global education: strategies for teacher educators. theory into practice, 32(1), 27-32. merryfield, m. (1997). a framework for teacher education in global perspective. in m.m. merryfield, m. m., jarchow, e. & pickert, s. (eds.) (1997). preparing teachers to teach global perspectives: a handbook for teacher education, thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. merryfield, m., & subedi, b. (2001). decolonizing the mind for world-centered global education. in e. w. ross (ed.), the social studies curriculum: purposes, problems, and possibilities (pp. 277–290). albany, ny: state university of new york press. misco, t. & shively, j. (2010). seeing the forest through the trees: some renewed thinking on dispositions specific to social studies education. the social studies 101 (3), 21–126. moustakas, c. (1994). phenomenological research methods. london, sage. nganga, l. (2016). promoting intercultural competence in a globalized era: pre-service teachers’ perceptions of practices that promote intercultural competency. journal of international social studies, 6(1), 84-102. nganga, l. & kambutu, j. (2015). social justice education, globalization & teacher education. charlotte, nc: information age publishing inc. national council for the social studies (ncss) (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies (ncss bulletin 111). silver spring, maryland: ncss. national council for the social studies (ncss) (2013). college, careers & civic life: c3 framework for social studies state standard. silver spring, md. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 national council for the social studies (ncss) (2016, n.p). global and international education in social studies. retrieved from https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/global_and_international_education national education association (nea) ( n.d). an educator’s guide to the four cs. retrieved from http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/a-guide-to-four-cs.pdf norris, s. p. (1985a). the choice of standard conditions in defining critical thinking competence. educational theory, (35) 97-107. norris, s. p. (1985b). synthesis of research on critical thinking. educational leadership, 42, 40 45. okukawa, h. (2008). if your learning experience is meaningful for you, how have you been constructing that meaning? a study of adult learners in bangkok. international forum of teaching and studies, 4(1), 4661. patton, m.q. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods. london, sage publications. partnership for 21st century skills (2009). 21st century student outcomes. retrieved from http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/p21_framework_definitions.pdf paul, r. (1988, april). critical thinking in the classroom. teaching k-8, 18, 49-51. rachid, s. & qaisar, s. (2017). role play: a productive teaching strategy to promote thinking. bulletin of education and research, 39(2), 197-213. rosa parks and the montgomery bus boycott (n.d) retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pxtwb38nerg ryan, a.m., heineke, a.j., & steindam, c.e. (2014).preparing globally minded teachers through the incorporation of the international baccalaureate. the journal of education, 194 (3), 39-51. schiro, m. s. (2013). curriculum theory: conflicting visions and enduring concerns. thousand oaks, ca: sage. schwartz, s. (2010). mock trial: a window to free speech rights and abilities. the social studies, 101 (6), 242-249. shapiro, s. & leopold, l. (2012). a critical role for role-playing pedagogy. tesl canada journal, 29(2), 120-130. sleeter, c.e. & grant, c.a. (2009). making choices for multicultural education: five approaches to race, class and gender. new jersey: john wiley & sons, inc. https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/global_and_international_education http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/a-guide-to-four-cs.pdf http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/p21_framework_definitions.pdf https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pxtwb38nerg nganga sleeter, c. (2003). teaching globalization. multicultural perspectives, 5 (2) 3-9. taylor, c. (1985). self-interpreting animals. w: philosophical papers 1: human agency and language (45-76). cambridge: cambridge university press. the montgomery bus boycott (n.d). retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhfph79iaoo unesco (2012). exploring sustainable development: a multiple-perspective approach. retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002154/215431e.pdf urbani, j.m.; roshandel, s.; michaels, r.; & truesdell, e. (2017). developing and modeling 12st-century skills with preservice teachers. teacher education quarterly, 44, 27-50. vygotsky, l. s. (1978). mind in society. cambridge, ma: harvard university press walters, k.s. (1989). critical thinking in teacher education: towards a demythologization. journal of teacher education, 40(3), 14-19. wiarda, h. j. (2007). globalization in its one and many forms. in h. j. wiarda (ed.), globalization: universal trends, regional implications (pp. 264-276). lebanon, nh: university press of new england/ northeastern university press. yeung, s. s. (2015). conception of teaching higher order thinking: perspectives of chinese teachers in hong kong. the curriculum journal, 26 (4), 553-578, doi: 10.1080/09585176.2015.1053818 zarrillo, j.j. (2004). teaching elementary social studies. new jersey, pearson. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhfph79iaoo http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002154/215431e.pdf journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 appendix 1 unit: study a foreign country develop a unit about a foreign nation that is randomly selected. pre-assessment 1. what do you know about your nation? 2. would you visit that nation? explain why or why not. 3. what is your understanding of global education and why is it relevant in social studies? unit guidelines part 1 a. you are expected to research your country outside of class time and develop a unit. b. write a 6 pages (double spaced) paper that summarizes your country’s education system, geography, history, culture & economic activities. c. how your country does compares to u.s.a (similarities and differences)? d. develop two abbreviated lessons/activities that could be taught to 3rd grade and up based on this unit. e. develop a scoring guide that is appropriate evaluating your activities. consider the national council for the social studies (ncss) themes; culture, individuals, groups, an institutions and global connections (ncss, 2010). f. present your activities to your peers and share what similarities and differences you found in your nation of study and the u.s. g. during presentations bring two children’s books (about your country or another country) that you might use when teaching about foreign cultures in your future class for discussions & reflections. threaded discussion questions: 1. in two paragraphs summarize most important learning from your study of a foreign nation. explain why these learning were important to you? 2. what are the benefits of including of global cultures and histories in social studies? 3. respond to two posts with reflective thoughts. nganga appendix 2: postassessment threaded discussion 1. what misconceptions did you have at the beginning of the semester about the nation you studied? 2. what views changed after researching and developing a unit on your “nation”? why? 3. based on the study of a foreign nation, how did your views change regarding your understanding of global education and its relevance in the social studies? 4. what similarities and differences did you find between the nation you studied and the united states? journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57 appendix 3 assessing materials analyze a children’s or young adults’ book of your choice that has a diversity or global theme. title of book and author/s: illustrators if any: grade level for which your book is appropriate: a short summary of the themes covered in the book: if the book has pictures/illustrations do they include representation of diverse populations? yes no contain diversity represented within cultural groups? yes no include characters depicted realistically and genuinely? yes no avoid reinforcing societal stereotypes? yes no story, characters and theme criteria yes or no explain story accurately reflects the values inherent to the culture being depicted the book avoids offensive expressions, negative attitudes, or stereotypical representations events, situations and objects depicted are historically accurate book avoids any suggestion that there is a single cause or simple answer to the socio-historical dilemmas nganga of the culture being represented promote an understanding of all aspects of our diverse society represent cultural settings realistically story acknowledges the diversity of experiences within a particular cultural group characters are depicted realistically and without stereotypes include females as well as males in leadership and/or non-traditional roles represent people from a variety of cultural groups, age ranges and sizes, including some with disabilities does the book reflect a variety of settings realistically? journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 26-57  urban, suburban and rural a. would you use this book in your social studies teaching? explain. b. how would you rate this book on a scale of 1 to 5? where 1 implies that the book is not appropriate for teaching global and social justice themes, 3 = could use it but it is limited in scope of covering these themes, and 5 = book is very appropriate and addresses several global and social justice themes. explain your rating: c. on a scale of 1 to 5rate yourself in regard to how well you feel prepared to teach for global and social justices topics in your future classroom. where 1 = not at all prepared, 3 = kind of prepared but requires additional preparation and 5= feels well prepared. explain your rating: article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (4), 75-96 75 emotive behavior control to reduce intolerance and depression among secondary school students in tulungagung indonesia sokip1 abstract the present study attempts to examine the impact of emotive behavior control in determining selfefficacy among students through mediating role of depression and intolerance in students. following the quantitative approach, the primary data has been collected through purposive sampling from the 307 students of the educational institutions of indonesia. data has been analyzed with amos and spss. several tests were applied including descriptive analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, convergent and discriminant validity and structural equation modeling to test the hypothesized relationships. the results show significant differences in direct and indirect effects. the direct effects indicated that emotive behavioral control techniques are the significant and positive drivers of self-efficacy among secondary level students. while the indirect effects show that depression and intolerance do not act as a significant mediator between emotive behavioral control and self-efficacy. also, the study embraces several theoretical, practical and policy-making implications for the practitioners of mental health and academicians to promote self-efficacy and emotional wellbeing among students. in addition, the findings elaborated the mechanism of behavioral control and highlighted the associated outcomes which can be used for designing the emotional control curriculum. in the last, various limitations have been given along with the recommendations for in-depth findings by future researchers. keywords: emotive behavior control, intolerance, depression, indonesia introduction the goal of education is to teach value systems and the development of abilities that can make contribution to the harmony of society. education is a learning phenomenon that develops selfidentification, self-esteem, intellectual and emotional skills among individuals (hulten, 2017). through learning systems, the individuals are able to conceive the favorable and prohibited behavior and norms of the society and become a responsible citizen and individual. it enables a person to understand emotional intelligence with the understanding of tolerance for disagreeable belief systems (smith et al., 2017). therefore, in order to achieve the desired objectives of educations, it is essential to facilities students with the learning processes and conditions which allows them to be active learners and recognize learning opportunities (lalic, ciric, gracanin, & 1dr. state islamic institute (iain) of tulungagung, indonesia, sokiptagung@yahoo.com mailto:sokiptagung@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 anisic, 2018). in the learning conditions, the notion of self-efficacy is the crucial factor, emerged from bandura’s social cognitive theory and its significance in learning systems was supported with practical and theoretical implications by several scholars (connolly, 2017). self-efficacy is the perceived self-esteem, sense of self-worth and the self-confidence of abilities held by an individual (shehzadi & krishnasamy, 2018). it is the belief of an individual in the possessed capabilities to perform a particular behavior. according to bandura (2001) “self-efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one's own motivation, behavior, and social environment”. it enables an individual to control and evaluate the thought process, feelings and their associated outcomes (kong, deng & zhang, 2019). the degree of self-efficacy perceived by an individual drives the emotions desired performance and the selection of behaviors and ultimately drives the efforts for a particular activity (lent & brown, 2019). self-efficacy is also believed to be a source of positive mental health and satisfaction of students with their life’s and their executed behaviors. as the students who considered themselves successful in their academics are more satisfied with regards to their performance (lau, fang, cheng & kwong, 2019). it is observed that the students with high self-efficacy are more inclined towards their career and set challenging goals whereas, the students with low levels of self-efficacy or self-confidence feel disappointed and discouraged in their academic activities and easily falls into depression (brenninkmeijer, lagerveld, blonk, schaufeli & wijngaards-de meij, 2019). as shown from the global statistics of mental health of students (figure 1), depression and anxiety are the most prevailing negative mental health element. figure 1. common mental health problems among students sokip for the achievement of desired performance in academics, it is essential for students to enhance their self-worth and reduce academic burnout and depressive behaviors as sound mental health are the vital factor for boosting self-confidence. throughout the world, almost every country is facing the challenge of student’s mental health which needs to be resolved as due to this the capabilities and potential of students are underutilized as for the growth of any country, effective education systems and students capabilities in the form of human capital are the major contributors (sperry & binensztok, 2019). therefore, in view of the discussed findings, it is observed that the researches have been focused on the impact of cognitive-behavioral interventions and therapies but no such study has been conducted to analyze the role of emotive behavioral control on self-efficacy of students particularly. also, the mediating role of depression and intolerance in students in the relationship between emotive behavioral control and self-efficacy of the students not examined earlier. these observations highlighted the literature gap which needs to be fulfilled, therefore in order to fulfill the identified gap, by following the suggestions of previous studies of (sutherland, conroy, mcleod, kunemund & mcknight, 2019; vernon & bernard, 2019) the present study proposed the following research objectives: 1. to determine the impact of emotive behavior control on the self-efficacy among secondary school students in tulungagung indonesia 2. to investigate the mediating role of depression in students in the relationship between emotive behavior control and the self-efficacy among secondary school students in tulungagung indonesia. 3. to explore the mediating role of intolerance in students in the relationship between emotive behavior control and the self-efficacy among secondary school students in tulungagung indonesia. similarly, the other contribution was the inclusion of indonesia’s education sector to investigate the impact of emotive behavior control on the self-efficacy among secondary school students in tulungagung indonesia with the mediating role of depression and intolerance. as, the education system is the 4th largest in the world with more than 50 million students, 2.6 million teachers, and 250k schools as shown in figure 1. the education of primary and high school is compulsory. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 figure 2 overview of indonesia’s education system moreover, unlike previous studies, the current study incorporated advanced methodological techniques such as structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis. the explanation of the proposed mechanism is significant for mental health practitioners and educators to develop recovery therapies and promote mental health. thus, the rest of the research covered the relevant literature and formulation of hypotheses, in section 3 the methodology of the study is discussed, whereas in section 4 data analysis and results are discussed while section 5 includes a conclusion and future policy implications. literature review and theoretical background in order to analyze the role of emotive behavior control on the self-efficacy of students, the study incorporated the framework of “rational-emotive behavior therapy (rebt)” (ellis & maclaren, 1998). the application of rebt for the treatment of mental health problems of school students was pioneered by alber ellis in the 1950s since that long history was evidenced in terms of its application to school students (turner, 2016). this intervention was proposed as a significant framework to understand and promote mental health as mentioned by (ellis, 1995) that “i have always believed in the potential of rebt to be used in schools as a form of mental health promotion and with young people experiencing developmental problems”. rebt emphasized the inclusion of prevention curriculum in the schools as it helped students in learning of mental health mechanisms through which the present and future benefits are associated. in the context of education and schools, rebt is derived as rebe i.e. “rational-emotive behavior education” which can be applied to teach emotional control behavior and practices (wood, barker & turner, 2017). sokip as the learning of social and emotional competence is vital for the wellbeing of students. also, it fosters their academic performance, self-confidence, and sense of responsibility (cunningham & turner, 2016). the core characteristics of rebt comprises of prevention, promotion and intervention approach to teaching the students the skill of rational evaluations of their behaviors including self-worth, tolerance of frustration, and risk-taking. it also enhanced the ability to challenge irrational thoughts with the incorporation of several change methods based on emotional, behavioral and cognitive aspects (maclaren, doyle & digiuseppe, 2016). the mental health of students is affected in various forms including depression, career anxiety, intolerance, suicide or suicide ideation, eating disorders, and substance abuse result when they are unable to deal and control their emotions and behaviors (iftene, predescu, stefan & david, 2015). several studies have incorporated rebt framework for an in-depth understanding of mental health promotion and its outcomes in the educational context and for the reduction of depression and academic anxiety among student (ellis, 2019; ogbuanya, eseadi, orji, anyanwu, ede, 2018). thus, the present study proposed the following conceptual model presented in figure 3 by taking into consideration the role of emotive behavior control (independent variables) as the determining factor of self-efficacy among students in indonesia (dependent variable). the study also assumed that depression in students and intolerance acts as a significant mediator in the relationship between emotive behavior control and self-efficacy among students of secondary schools. emotive behavior control and student self-efficacy emotive behavior control refers to the degree to which individuals are able to control their emotions. it is the identification of rational thoughts and addressing existing mental health disorders and irrational beliefs. it includes the discovery of one’s self-worth and the detection of potential weak areas that need to be improved (zahrakar & kasaee, 2019). it is a self-oriented perspective focused on the promotion of wellbeing and mental health which allows the individuals to work on their self-satisfaction and self-worth by controlling their emotional responses to various situations of the environment in which they live through the development of positive attitude. it works on the principle of prevention, promotion, and intervention which emphasizes implementing best mental health promotion practices and ultimately high self-worth (turner & davis, 2019). it is argued by the authors that emotive behavior control generates solutions to the underlying behavioral problems faced by individuals. without the adoption of this intervention the individuals journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 are unable to resolve mental problems and fulfill the needs of self-satisfaction and confidence it has a significant impact on an individual’s self-efficacy (haydon, alter, hawkins, & theado, 2019). also, emotive behavior control leads towards consistency in perceiving high self-value and capacity to perform and targeted towards solutions of the existing issues like low self-esteem and academic anxiety, etc. (krispenz, gort, schültke & dickhäuser, 2019; etherington, 2019). also, emotive behavior control is an approach based on mental health-driven practices to explore the existing potentials and strengths among individuals for the enhancement of self-efficacy (wijayanti, sugiharto & wibowo, 2019). in order to archive high levels of self-worth, the schools incorporate the activities comprising of emotional control techniques to promote positive mental health among students and for the reduction of stress levels (pannebakker et al., 2019). also, multiple studies have emphasized the importance of being emotionally strong and intelligent responsive to high performance and ultimately for self-confidence (ogbuanya, eseadi, orji, anyanwu & joachim, 2018). while studying the major determinants of self-efficacy and high selfsatisfaction, the findings highlighted that the implementation of emotive behavior control techniques is effective in generating solutions with creating a favorable environment for the students (boutelier, 2019; fernández & do nascimento, 2019; wood et al., 2017). therefore, based on the reviewed literature and the recognition of the importance of emotive behavior control in the determination of self-worth or self-efficacy among students, the current study hypothesized that: h1: emotive behavior control has a significant impact on student self-efficacy. mediating role of student intolerance tolerance in students is the willingness to accept difference of opinion that occurs due to personality, religion and cultural differences. whereas, intolerance in students refers to the unwillingness of the acceptance of beliefs, opinions, and views that are not similar to the opinions and beliefs of one's self (si & zhang, 2017). it is necessary for the schools to promote tolerant environment in order to teach the acceptance of differences of opinion which exists due to different value systems and diverse perceptions among individuals (vu, 2019; warren & hale, 2016), also it is important to understand cultural differences. because high tolerance behavior among students encourages participation and collaboration and provides multiple opportunities for learning new skills and abilities through gaining knowledge from different mindsets (phelps-naqvi & katz, sokip 2017). this skill development ultimately boosts the self-confidence and self-worth of individual as positive perceptions of being able to achieve the desired tasks emerged (cândea et al., 2018). it is observed in the literature that tolerance behavior can be taught with high emotional self-control as it requires the courage to respect and understand the belief systems that are different from selfperceptions about a particular mechanism (matweychuk & dryden, 2017). moreover, it is argued by several scholars and practitioners of rebt that emotive behavioral control is the effective and significant way to reduce irrational negative emotions and behaviors such as intolerance, and anxiety among students as in the present era the schools evidenced high trends of diversity in terms of cultural and regional characteristics that resulted in diverse opinions and self-concepts (dryden, 2019). therefore, in order to boost high self-esteem and self-confidence among students, it is vital to teaching them tolerance behavior through emotive behavioral control techniques and interventions as rebt emphasized the inclusion of prevention curriculum in the schools to help students in learning of mental health mechanisms (bennett & turner, 2017). the confidence in one’s self can only be achieved when an individual realizes the importance of his or her unique perceptions and identities. this confidence can be injected among students with the promotion of positive emotions and the avoidance of intolerance behaviors that resulted in negative emotions and lowers the self-esteem (stephenson, watson, chen & morris, 2018). thus in view of the existing relationship between, intolerance in students, emotive behavioral control and selfefficacy, the present study hypothesized that: h2: intolerance in students significantly mediates the relationship between emotive behavior control and student self-efficacy. mediating role of depression in student depression in the form of mental disorder and is a common and serious medical illness which negatively impacted the behavior of an individual, it affects how the person feels and observes the surroundings and also the acts. the feelings of sadness are caused by depression and ultimately result in loss of interest in the activities which were important earlier (damush et al., 2016). it is argued by the authors that depression in students, their ability to control the emotions and their self-efficacy are interrelated. as mentioned above, the core characteristics of rebt comprises of prevention, promotion and intervention approach deal with negative mental health aspects such as depression, as enhanced the skill of rational evaluations of behaviors. it also enhanced the ability of students to challenge the irrational thoughts with the incorporation of several change methods journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 based on emotional and behavioral aspects (cherenack, sikkema, watt, hansen & wilson, 2018)with the adoption of emotive behavior control, the individuals are able to avoid negative emotions and mental disorders fulfill the needs of self-confidence and increased their trust in their capabilities (blackburn & owens, 2015). with high depression levels, the need to control such disorder emerges in the individual and it has a significant impact on self-worth of the students (harries & brown, 2019). also, the effective reduction of negative emotions like depression requires well-designed prevention and emotive behavior control approach that results in strong emotional control and provides ways for them to cope up with the challenging environment and leads towards enhanced self-worth (adams et al., 2019; kato, 2018). moreover, it was highlighted by muris, meesters, pierik, and de kock (2016)_enref_27 that for the enhanced self-worth, it is essential that the individual must possess positive perceptions about the overall wellbeing and enjoys sound mental health as its plays a significant role in the process of fostering high selfconfidence, self-esteem and build trust in the capabilities of one’s self. thus in view of the existing relationship between, depression levels of students, emotive behavioral control and self-efficacy, the present study hypothesized that: h3: depression in students significantly mediates the relationship between emotive behavior control and student self-efficacy. figure 3. conceptual model methods population and sampling researcher accompanied this research study for checking the effect of emotive behavior control on student self-efficacy, in mediating role of tolerance in students and depression in students. researcher observed this specific research study in population of indonesia because education emotive behavior control student selfefficacy intolerance in student depression in student sokip quality has been questioned a lot in indonesia, as indonesian government provides the free to charge education to students from one to nine grade in schools but still it has been evaluated that after completing the school students still not much literate. moreover, self-efficacy in students has not been observed due to attitude of teacher towards students learning and behavior, as many schools have been owned by politics officers that’s why teachers were more attentive rather than students learning. there is need to change the culture of education system and teachers should focus on building the character and behavior of students, in this regard researcher accompanied this research study for checking that if emotive behavior control policies have been implemented then what will be the effect on self-efficacy of students. researcher targets the tulungagung indonesia region for data collection, as it has been observed that schools in this specific region have poor education quality and due to high misconduct practices of students in this region. further, researcher used simple random sampling technique for selecting schools from this region, in order to maintain balance and researcher used purposive sampling technique for selecting students from sampling frame, as it enables to selects only those who have interest in study and have knowledge about variables. for data collection, researcher distributes the questionnaire among 360 respondents, only 523 responded and researcher considered only 307 valid because rests of them have been rejected. data collection procedure structured questionnaire has been taken into consideration for the collection of quantitative, objective and primary responses form large no of responses. researcher categorized the questionnaire into two types of closed ended questions such as first one is variable scale items related to emotive behavior control, intolerance in students, depression in students and student self-efficacy and second one is demographic questions. researcher originally wrote the questionnaire items in english language but for data collection from indonesia, researcher converted into native language. afterward, researcher used back-translation method for converting questionnaire back into english language, for easy data analysis. further, researcher checked the content validity of measured through feedback of industrial practitioners and also checked the understandability of items through feedback of 30 selective respondents. for administration of questionnaire, researcher accompanied self-administering technique because some respondents journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 were unable to understand the specific terms of questionnaire that’s why researcher self-visits the respondents to solve the queries. measures different authors have already used the proposed variables in their earlier studies in the previous literature, in totally different context but due to reliability and authenticity of outcomes, researcher adapts the survey items from their research work for the assessing the roles of variables. in this study, researcher measured the emotive behavior control through 24 survey items, adapted from (macavei, 2005), researcher takes into account research study of (fibert & ressler, 1998), for adapting 4 survey items for the measurement of intolerance in students and researcher adapts the 7 measurement items form earlier study of (inam, saqib & alam, 2003), for the measurement of depression in students. further, student’s self-efficacy measurement, researcher takes into account earlier work of (walker, 2003) for adapting 10 survey items. all these measurement items, have been assessed through 5-point likert scale, in this scale response ranges from1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). data analysis for statistical analysis of the collected data or responses, researcher takes into account two software such as (1) spss and (2) amos, which analyzed the data by accompanying different tests. researcher accompanied the spss for running the diagnosis of reliability test, regression test, correlation test and descriptive statistics test, all these tests examined different criteria to statistically analyzed the collected data. in reliability test, researcher examined two criteria such as composite reliability and cronbach’s alpha, both must have the values in threshold range, greater than 0.70 in order to ensure the internal consistency and items reliability. further, researcher accompanied amos for running the diagnosis of confirmatory factor analysis and structure equation modeling. cfa has been taken into consideration for assessing convergent validity, model fitness and discriminant validity. contrary to this, sem runs for checking that which hypothesis get accepted or which get rejected. sokip results and discussion the data for this study has been collected from 307 residents of tulungagung, indonesia consisting of 40.7% males and 59.3% females. moreover, about 48.9% of the sample respondents have done their post-graduation and 40.4% have done their masters, which makes the sample highly educated. the largest portion of the sample, almost 60%, belonged to the age group 31-40, making the majority sample mature and able to understand the intricate details of the study. table 1. descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean sd skewness statistic statistic statistic statistic statistic statistic se sselfefficacy 307 1.00 4.90 3.5609 1.08867 -.837 .139 intolstud 307 1.00 5.00 3.3550 1.21409 -.523 .139 deprstud 307 1.00 5.00 3.4597 1.12641 -.553 .139 embehvcont 307 1.00 5.00 3.4851 1.13219 -.563 .139 valid n (listwise) 307 table no. 1 is showing descriptive statistics results of this study. minimum and maximum statistic values show that none of the variables acted as an outlier in the data. mean values show an average inclination towards 3.5, making it easy to interpret that most of the respondents either stated neutral responses or agreed with the statements in the questionnaire. the skewness measures were used to check the normality in the data. the results of skewness lie between the threshold range for normal distribution, i.e. -1 and +1. so it can be said that the data was normally distributed against all variables. table 2. kmo and bartlett's test kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy. .809 bartlett's test of sphericity approx. chi-square 23986.996 df 990 sig. .000 the results of the kmo and bartlett’s test has been shown in the table no. 2. the sampling adequacy for the data taken for calculation is given as an output of kmo testing. the result for this study, .809, lies between the threshold range of this test, 0.8 and 1. the sample size for this study was therefore adequate. table no. 3 represents the results of rotated component matrix. the results of all the components show that their carry factor loading is almost above 0.7, with only one component having .699 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 result, which is insignificant due to its closeness to 0.7, it is validated greater that there is no issue of cross loading, meaning that the validity of data is good. table 3. rotated component matrix component 1 2 3 4 se1 .699 se2 .769 se3 .842 se4 .858 se5 .829 se6 .811 se7 .815 se8 .835 se9 .854 se10 .829 is1 .782 is2 .828 is3 .820 is4 .830 ds1 .826 ds2 .880 ds3 .876 ds4 .885 ds5 .888 ds6 .890 ds7 .876 bc1 .865 bc2 .906 bc3 .885 bc4 .877 bc5 .873 bc6 .874 bc7 .817 bc8 .905 bc9 .888 bc10 .882 bc11 .858 bc12 .884 bc13 .907 bc14 .868 bc15 .894 bc16 .874 bc17 .902 sokip bc18 .860 bc19 .822 bc20 .901 bc21 .883 bc22 .892 bc23 .845 bc24 .875 table 4. convergent and discriminant validity cr ave msv maxr(h) bc is ds se bc 0.921 0.819 0.279 0.991 0.905 is 0.931 0.771 0.271 0.992 0.521 0.878 ds 0.965 0.796 0.233 0.994 0.336 0.438 0.892 se 0.938 0.755 0.279 0.995 0.528 0.484 0.483 0.869 table no. 4 shows results of the convergent and discriminant validity tests. the cr and ave are indicators of convergent validity while the rest are indicators of discriminant validity. threshold of cr values is 0.7 and for ave is 0.5. the results for all variables for these indicators are above threshold which confirms that there is convergent validity in data. the diagonal portion of this table shows that is and ds are more associated with themselves instead of being dependent on each other while is has more association with bc and se is more associated with ds. table 5. confirmatory factors analysis indicators threshold range current values cmin/df less or equal 3 2.188 gfi equal or greater .80 .800 cfi equal or greater .90 .956 ifi equal or greater .90 .956 rmsea less or equal .08 .065 table no. 5 is for confirmatory factor analysis that shows the fitness of model. the fitness of model is confirmed if the results for all the indicators are above threshold like in the present study results that are proving that the developed model is a good fit. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 figure 4. cfa table 6. structural equation modeling total effect embehvcont deprstud intolstud deprstud .331*** .000 .000 intolstud .502*** .000 .000 sselfefficacy .534*** .294** .173** direct effect embehvcont deprstud intolstud deprstud .331*** .000 .000 intolstud .502*** .000 .000 sselfefficacy .350*** -.294** -.173** indirect effect embehvcont deprstud intolstud deprstud .000 .000 .000 intolstud .000 .000 .000 sselfefficacy -.184** .000 .000 sem was run on amos for testing the hypotheses of this study. results have been shown in table no.6 that show that emotive behavior control exerts a significant positive direct effect on the selfefficacy of the students. increasing one unit of emotive behavior control has shown to increase self-efficacy by 35%. however, under the influence of the mediators, indirect effect is insignificant but negative. increasing one unit of emotive behavior control increases depression by 33.1% and intolerance by 50.2%. while increase in depression by one unit reduces self-efficacy by 29.4% and increase in intolerance by one unit reduces self-efficacy by 17.3% in the students. this sokip negative impact of mediators can be seen in the decrease of 18.4% in self-efficacy under indirect effect of emotive behavior. figure 5. sem this study focused on how emotive behavior in secondary level students affected their selfefficacy. the major aim was to discuss the reduction of depression and intolerant behavior of secondary level students by promoting the use of the technique of emotive behavior control by the teaching staff. during this study, the author generated three major hypotheses that were used to test the said effects of emotive behavior control. the first hypothesis proposed that emotive behavior control directly effects the self-efficacy of the students. this hypothesis was accepted by the sem testing steps, as depicted in table no.6 given above. some studies have mirrored these results (wood et al., 2017; zee, de jong & koomen, 2016). the second hypothesis proposed that emotive behavior control and self-efficacy have an indirect relationship through the mediating effects of depressive behavior in secondary level students. the results showed that this variable had a significant but negative effect on self-efficacy was caused through this mediator, as depicted in table no.6 given above. a number of previous studies follow this result (beiter et al., 2015; raskauskas, rubiano, offen & wayland, 2015). the third hypothesis presented the fact that emotive behavior control and self-efficacy have an indirect relationship through the mediating effects of intolerant behavior in secondary level students. this hypothesis was also rejected as a significant and negative impact of intolerant behavior was seen over self-efficacy. few studies (jibeen, 2017; noh, 2016) also mentioned similar research outcomes. this analysis helps in deducing that if the tolerance level of students is increased through promotion of emotive behavior journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 control and the depression causing factors for students are also decreased, then the self-efficacy of the students can be increased efficiently. conclusion today’s education system imposes a great amount of stress and responsibility on students of very tender ages. these stress factors cause the students to develop low levels of self-esteem and selfefficacy. the purpose of this study was to analyze how emotive behavior therapy can be used to increase self-efficacy in students. the study used reduction in depression and intolerant behavior of students as the mechanism to improve the levels of efficacy in students. the data for this study was collected from secondary schools in tulungagung, indonesia. the selected sample had 307 respondents. statistical analysis, estimation techniques and root unit testing were some methods using which this data was analyzed. results have been summarized in the analysis and results section of this paper. the results showed that reduction in depression and intolerance caused the self-efficacy in students to increase to efficient levels. the author of this study has outlined several policy making, theoretical and practical implications in the section below. implications since this study discusses the impact of emotive behavior controlling for the reduction of very critical behavior issues, intolerance and depression, in young students, it has several implications in theoretical, practical and policy making contexts. deep literature review has been presented that can be used by fellow researchers for clarifying their concepts for their own researchers. in addition, it provides the school faculties with guidelines and insights that can help them to recognize and control depressive and intolerant behavior in students. the government officials can also use this study to guide policy designs for school level laws in their jurisdiction. limitations and future research recommendations it is important to consider few limitations for the improvement and enhancement of future research in this area of study. some of the limitations and boundaries of this particular research are based on the fact that the population taken for this research is very small and the results can prove to be geographically biased. this limitation implies that in future, researchers should consider conducting similar research taking a country level or region level data. in addition, the effects of sokip emotive behavior control techniques should be tested for other behavioral characteristics of students, like self-esteem level, self-efficacy and learning power with the aim improving the volume of research and the quality of education. references adams, s. w., bowler, r. m., russell, k., brackbill, r. m., li, j., & cone, j. e. (2019). ptsd and comorbid depression: social support and self-efficacy in world trade center tower survivors 14–15 years after 9/11. psychological trauma: theory, research, practice, and policy, 11(2), 156. bandura, a. (2001). social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. annual review of psychology, 52(1), 1-26. beiter, r., nash, r., mccrady, m., rhoades, d., linscomb, m., clarahan, m., & sammut, s. (2015). the prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and stress in a sample of college students. journal of affective disorders, 173, 90-96. bennett, r., & turner, m. (2017). the theory and practice of rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt) rational emotive behavior therapy in sport and exercise (pp. 4-19): routledge. blackburn, l., & owens, g. p. (2015). the effect of self efficacy and meaning in life on posttraumatic stress disorder and depression severity among veterans. journal of clinical psychology, 71(3), 219-228. boutelier, s. (2019). limiting learning environments through domestication. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 45-55. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 brenninkmeijer, v., lagerveld, s. e., blonk, r. w., schaufeli, w. b., & wijngaards-de meij, l. d. (2019). predicting the effectiveness of work-focused cbt for common mental disorders: the influence of baseline self-efficacy, depression and anxiety. journal of occupational rehabilitation, 29(1), 31-41. cândea, d., stefan, s., matu, s., mogoase, c., iftene, f., david, d., & szentagotai, a. (2018). rational-emotive and cognitive-behavior therapy for major depressive disorder in adults rebt in the treatment of subclinical and clinical depression (pp. 13-43): springer. cherenack, e. m., sikkema, k. j., watt, m. h., hansen, n. b., & wilson, p. a. (2018). avoidant coping mediates the relationship between self-efficacy for hiv disclosure and depression http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 symptoms among men who have sex with men newly diagnosed with hiv. aids and behavior, 22(10), 3130-3140. connolly, g. j. (2017). applying social cognitive theory in coaching athletes: the power of positive role models. strategies, 30(3), 23-29. cunningham, r., & turner, m. j. (2016). using rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt) with mixed martial arts (mma) athletes to reduce irrational beliefs and increase unconditional self-acceptance. journal of rational-emotive & cognitive-behavior therapy, 34(4), 289309. damush, t., kroenke, k., bair, m., wu, j., tu, w., krebs, e. e., & poleshuck, e. (2016). pain self‐management training increases self‐efficacy, self‐management behaviours and pain and depression outcomes. european journal of pain, 20(7), 1070-1078. dryden, w. (2019). the distinctive features of rational emotive behavior therapy advances in rebt (pp. 23-46): springer. ellis, a. (1995). changing rational-emotive therapy (ret) to rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt). journal of rational-emotive & cognitive-behavior therapy, 13(2), 85-89. ellis, a., & maclaren, c. (1998). rational emotive behavior therapy: a therapist's guide: impact publishers. ellis, d. j. (2019). the power and compassion of rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt) scientific concepts behind happiness, kindness, and empathy in contemporary society (pp. 178-189): igi global. etherington, m. (2019). the challenge with educational transformation. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 96-112. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/33 fernández, a., camargo, c., & do nascimento, m. s. (2019). technologies and environmental education: a beneficial relationship. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 13-30. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/415 harries, v., & brown, a. (2019). the association between use of infant parenting books that promote strict routines, and maternal depression, self-efficacy, and parenting confidence. early child development and care, 189(8), 1339-1350. http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/33 sokip haydon, t., alter, p., hawkins, r., & kendall theado, c. (2019). “check yourself”: mindfulnessbased stress reduction for teachers of students with challenging behaviors. beyond behavior, 28(1), 55-60. hulten, c. r. (2017). the importance of education and skill development for economic growth in the information era: national bureau of economic research. iftene, f., predescu, e., stefan, s., & david, d. (2015). rational-emotive and cognitive-behavior therapy (rebt/cbt) versus pharmacotherapy versus rebt/cbt plus pharmacotherapy in the treatment of major depressive disorder in youth; a randomized clinical trial. psychiatry research, 225(3), 687-694. jibeen, t. (2017). unconditional self acceptance and self esteem in relation to frustration intolerance beliefs and psychological distress. journal of rational-emotive & cognitivebehavior therapy, 35(2), 207-221. kato, k. (2018). cultural understandings of mental health: the role of language and ethnic identity. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 58-83. kong, j., deng, s., & zhang, y. (2019). research on influencing factors of college students’ intention of online health information behavior based on social cognitive theory. paper presented at the journal of physics: conference series. krispenz, a., gort, c., schültke, l., & dickhäuser, o. (2019). how to reduce test anxiety and academic procrastination through inquiry of cognitive appraisals: investigating the role of academic self-efficacy. frontiers in psychology, 10, 1917. lalic, b., ciric, d., gracanin, d., & anisic, z. (2018). the importance of education in enhancing the innovation capacity in serbia. paper presented at the international joint conference on industrial engineering and operations management. lau, y., fang, l., cheng, l. j., & kwong, h. k. d. (2019). volunteer motivation, social problem solving, self-efficacy, and mental health: a structural equation model approach. educational psychology, 39(1), 112-132. lent, r. w., & brown, s. d. (2019). social cognitive career theory at 25: empirical status of the interest, choice, and performance models. journal of vocational behavior. maclaren, c., doyle, k. a., & digiuseppe, r. (2016). rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt): theory and practice. contemporary theory and practice in counseling and psychotherapy, 233-263. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 matweychuk, w. j., & dryden, w. (2017). rational emotive behaviour therapy: a newcomer's guide: routledge. muris, p., meesters, c., pierik, a., & de kock, b. (2016). good for the self: self-compassion and other self-related constructs in relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression in nonclinical youths. journal of child and family studies, 25(2), 607-617. noh, y. (2016). the influence of career exploration behavior on career adaptability of undergraduate students: testing the moderated mediating effect of intolerance of uncertainty on career decision-making self-efficacy. journal of agricultural education and human resource development. ogbuanya, t. c., eseadi, c., orji, c. t., anyanwu, j. i., ede, m. o., & bakare, j. (2018). effect of rational emotive behavior therapy on negative career thoughts of students in technical colleges in nigeria. psychological reports, 121(2), 356-374. ogbuanya, t. c., eseadi, c., orji, c. t., anyanwu, j. i., joachim, o. c., & otu, m. s. (2018). the effect of rational emotive behavior therapy on irrational career beliefs of students of electrical electronics and other engineering trades in technical colleges in nigeria. journal of rational-emotive & cognitive-behavior therapy, 36(3), 201-219. pannebakker, f. d., van genugten, l., diekstra, r. f., gravesteijn, c., fekkes, m., kuiper, r., & kocken, p. l. (2019). a social gradient in the effects of the skills for life program on self‐efficacy and mental wellbeing of adolescent students. journal of school health, 89(7), 587-595. phelps-naqvi, a., & katz, j. (2017). delivering rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt) education in youth rugby union rational emotive behavior therapy in sport and exercise (pp. 187-205): routledge. raskauskas, j., rubiano, s., offen, i., & wayland, a. k. (2015). do social self-efficacy and selfesteem moderate the relationship between peer victimization and academic performance? social psychology of education, 18(2), 297-314. shehzadi, k., & krishnasamy, h.i.n. (2018). esl writing anxiety, writer's native language, esl writing self-efficacy and esl writing performance: insights into the literature. pakistan journal of humanities and social sciences, 6(2), 221-247. sokip si, g., & zhang, c.-q. (2017). a rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt) intervention to improve low frustration tolerance in an elite table tennis player rational emotive behavior therapy in sport and exercise (pp. 153-170): routledge. smith, w. c., fraser, p., chykina, v., ikoma, s., levitan, j., liu, j., & mahfouz, j. (2017). global citizenship and the importance of education in a globally integrated world. globalisation, societies and education, 15(5), 648-665. sperry, l., & binensztok, v. (2019). ultra-brief cognitive behavioral interventions: a new practice model for mental health and integrated care: routledge. stephenson, e., watson, p., chen, z. j., & morris, r. j. (2018). self-compassion, self-esteem, and irrational beliefs. current psychology, 37(4), 809-815. sutherland, k. s., conroy, m. a., mcleod, b. d., kunemund, r., & mcknight, k. (2019). common practice elements for improving social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes of young elementary school students. journal of emotional and behavioral disorders, 27(2), 76-85. turner, m. j. (2016). rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt), irrational and rational beliefs, and the mental health of athletes. frontiers in psychology, 7, 1423. turner, m. j., & davis, h. s. (2019). exploring the effects of rational emotive behavior therapy on the irrational beliefs and self-determined motivation of triathletes. journal of applied sport psychology, 31(3), 253-272. vernon, a., & bernard, m. e. (2019). rational emotive behavior education in schools advances in rebt (pp. 289-306): springer. vu, t. (2019). theoretical constructs and practical strategies for intercultural communication. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 43-53. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/3 warren, j. m., & hale, r. w. (2016). fostering non-cognitive development of underrepresented students through rational emotive behavior therapy: recommendations for school counselor practice. professional counselor, 6(1), 89-106. wijayanti, a., sugiharto, d. y. p., & wibowo, m. e. (2019). the effectiveness of rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt) group counseling to reduce cheating behavior. jurnal bimbingan konseling, 102-107. https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/3 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 75-96 wood, a. g., barker, j. b., & turner, m. j. (2017). developing performance using rational emotive behavior therapy (rebt): a case study with an elite archer. the sport psychologist, 31(1), 78-87. zahrakar, k., & kasaee, a. (2019). the effectiveness of training based on rational-emotionalbehavioral therapy on career decision-making self-efficacy. international clinical neuroscience journal, 6(2), 69-75. zee, m., de jong, p. f., & koomen, h. m. (2016). teachers’ self-efficacy in relation to individual students with a variety of social–emotional behaviors: a multilevel investigation. journal of educational psychology, 108(7), 1013. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017: 8(1), 1-34 © 2017 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 an investigation of middle school teachers’ perceptions on bullying stewart waters1 & natalie mashburn2 abstract the researchers in this study investigated rural middle school teachers’ perspectives regarding bullying. the researchers gathered information about the teachers’ definitions of bullying, where bullying occurs in their school, and how to prevent bullying. peer-reviewed literature associated with this topic was studied in order to achieve a broader understanding of bullying and to develop a self-administered survey addressing these issues. a total of 21 teachers participated in the survey and the results of this study convey the need to recognize bullying in many forms, appropriately address bullying when it occurs, and incorporate preventive actions that will discourage bullying and encourage acceptance. keywords: bullying; middle school; teacher preparation. introduction middle school can be a transformative and exciting time for students. however, during these important developmental years, bullying continues to be a persistent and serious issue. in more recent years, national and international concerns relating to the harmful effects of bullying have increased significantly (thompson & cohen, 2005). according to frey and fisher (2008), bullying has become a part of life for countless students, and can take on many forms within contemporary schools. as a result, bullying has placed a considerable amount of pressure on administrators and teachers to effectively respond to bullying (bush, 2011). often, teachers and administrators can be unaware of bullying, making it difficult to develop appropriate policies that are proactive instead of reactive. in 2003, seals and young stated that bullying is a persistent and insidious problem that affects roughly one-fourth of the students in the united states. however, in 2011, eight years later, the national education association (nea), nishioka et al., and the united states department of education (usde), stated that bullying affects one-third of students in schools in the united states. 1 assist. prof. dr., university of tennessee, knoxville, kswaters@utk.edu 2 lenoir city intermediate school, nrmashburn@lenoircityschools.net journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 2 with the number of students affected by bullying growing each year, middle school teachers are often bombarded with the realization that the development of cognitive skills is not the only foundation for truly effective learning. cognitive processes are also justly linked to students’ emotional, psychological, and physical health (siris & osterman, 2004). davis and nixon (2011, p. 18) state, when “teachers, counselors, and administers strive to create emotionally safe and respectful school environments, they are often confronted with conflicting ideas about what to do.” teachers’ often have differing views about how to respond to bullying behavior and what exactly constitutes bullying, as there can be differences based on the regularity and gravity of a bullying situation (rigby, 2002). nansel et al. (2001, p. 294) state that “given the concurrent behavioral and emotional difficulties associated with bullying, as well as potential long-term negative outcomes for [students], the issue of bullying merits serious attention.” the researchers in this study seek to provide insights from current middle school teachers regarding bullying and what can possibly be done to help prevent and reduce bullying in schools today. purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to explore middle school teachers’ perceptions towards bullying and the ramifications of different types of bullying within the school environment. this study was thoughtfully designed after a thorough examination of relevant research literature, which was then used to inform the construction of our research study and analysis of data collected from a self-administered online survey instrument. we chose specifically to study the perceptions of classroom teachers because they are often the most likely school employees to witness bullying of and between students, thus, if and how they choose to respond to these incidents has a direct correlation to the overall effectiveness of bullying prevention programs and the promotion of a positive school climate. the researchers in this study collected data that focused on teachers’ perceptions of how the issue of bullying is currently addressed in a middle school setting, as well as recommending future actions for bullying prevention in secondary schools. review of the literature bullying is nothing new in society; the exploitation of the weak by the strong is a recurring theme throughout recorded history (rigby 2002). many literary works depict children being frequently and systematically bullied, and a copious amount of adults have childhood encounters that haunt their memories. even with the common-place familiarity of bullying in society, it was never truly studied with any significance until the late 20th century, when professor dan olweus stewart waters & natalie mashburn 3 studied, defined, classified, and estimated frequency of bullying behavior (rigby, 2002). consequently, the subsequent review of literature was established to present information pertaining to a definition of bullying to be used throughout the course of this study, different types of bullying, who bullying affects within educational environments, and different approaches to preventing and reducing bullying, specifically in the middle grades. what is bullying? olweus (1993), a pioneer in bullying research, defines bullying as an imbalance of strength, which must be a repeated action and occur regularly over time. there is a major emphasis on the phrase, “imbalance of strength,” which simply means, the word bullying cannot be used when two or more students of nearly the same size, physically or psychologically, are fighting or arguing (olweus, 1993). distinguishing between direct-physical, direct-verbal, indirect, overt, and relational forms of aggression can be difficult because bullying can take on multiple forms at one time (nishioka, coe, burke, hanita, & sprague, 2011; psunder, 2010). direct-verbal aggression can be seen as “hurtful teasing, name calling and assigning unkind nicknames,” and is one of the more common forms of aggression among young people (psunder, 2010, p. 218). verballyand physically-aggressive behaviors are two characteristics of overt aggression that are generally intended to threaten or harm another student; whereas, harming a student’s relationship with others is a form of relational aggression (nishioka et al., 2011). in addition to the verbal and physical forms of bullying, aggressive behavior can be demonstrated through electronic text, known as cyberbullying (diamanduros, downs, & jenkins, 2008). cyberbullying most frequently occurs through social media sites and allows bullying behaviors to continue beyond the traditional school day and into the homes of students. the continual presence of cyberbullying in children’s lives can have a devastating impact and should be taken seriously by students, parents, teachers, and administrators. with multiple genres of bullying comes a multitude of reasons behind bullying. students have reported that they were bullied due to “how they acted, what they said, who their friends were, and their size” (thornberg, 2010, p. 312). according to thornberg (2010), teacher favoritism along with academic and social success and shortcomings play a significant role in the totality of bullying. the idea that bullies often act out due to an aggressive and impulsive nature, a strong need to maintain power over others, and a family life full of aggression and/or neglectful parenting journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 4 are some other central issues in the reasoning for bullying tendencies (liepe-levinson & levinson, 2005: olweus, 1993; thornberg, 2010). in recent years, many studies have been organized around bullying, and data have been accumulated to show a representative depiction of the affect of bullying in schools (frey & fisher, 2008; nea, 2011; nishioka et al., 2011; novick & isaacs, 2010; petrosino, guckenburg, devoe, & hanson, 2010; psunder, 2010; usde, 2011; veenstra, lindenberg, munniksma, & dijkstra, 2010). bullying has developed into a routine, every-day occurrence in classrooms all across the globe (sherer & nickerson, 2010). it can take on many forms and may be hard to recognize at times. humiliation, teasing, and physical aggression are just a few of the many ways students are bullied in school (psunder, 2010). according to watson et al. (2010, p. 62), bullying is no longer seen as a “traditional dyadic bully-victim relationship,” researchers now have to acknowledge the “social arena in which bullying occurs.” who is affected by bullying? according to frey and fisher (2008), bullying has become a persistent part of school life for countless students and can be very difficult to avoid. several research projects have reported that bullying hits a pinnacle in middle school (hargrove, 2010, p. 40). according to an early survey presented by the world health organization (who), 30% of a student sample of sixth through tenth graders had been involved in bullying (as cited in rimm, 2010, para. 2). the national education association (nea) reported that “bullying and violence cause 160,000 fearful children to miss one or more school days each month” (as cited in mental health american [mha], 2011, para. 3). specifically, the american psychological association (apa) and the nea (as cited in frey & fisher, 2008, p. 132) stated that “7% of eighth graders stay home from school at least once a month to avoid a bullying situation.” frey and fisher (2008) also state that many middle school students have reported altering their routes between classes to avoid meeting a bully in the hallway. a number of studies (as cited in watson et al., 2010, p. 62) have confirmed six chief roles within the realm of bullying: the bully, the victim, the bully-aide, the bully-supporter, the protector, and the spectator/bystander. the pure bully and pure victim are both the original characters in the bully-victim scenario. the protector simply defends the victim in the bullying situation. the spectator/bystander takes on the role of audience member. this character does nothing except watch the bullying play out. lastly, the bully-aide and bully-supporters are more specifically defined within the context of the actual role played. as defined by watson et al. (2010, p. 62), the stewart waters & natalie mashburn 5 bully-aide is someone “who joins in with bullying, but does not initiate it.” similarly, the bullysupporter is someone “who provides positive feedback to the bully, but does not actively take part” (watson et al., 2010, p. 62). there are other roles that researchers have considered significant as well, bully-victims. based on a study by wolke, woods, stanford, and schulz (2001), a bully/victim was also identified as a key role in the arena of bullying behavior. within this character, the main idea is that the player is both a victim of bullying and a perpetrator of bullying. because bullying has so many components it is often difficult to distinguish between victim and bully. victims of bullying are affected in many ways by the oppressive actions of bullying perpetrators. this can have a negative impact on academic success and the social/emotional development of middle school students (frey & fisher, 2008; nishioka et al., 2011). additionally, student bystanders and perpetrators of bullying can also experience social and emotional anxiety (nishioka et al., 2011). according to veenstra et al. (2010, p. 481), bullying perpetrators, like most students, “want to realize status and affection.” bullying can have many affects on all the different parties involved. every day there are many students who are discouraged and disparaged from social interactions due to bullying. bullying also leads to absences, as kids wish to stay home and avoid bullies at school, which can also contribute to poor academic performance. preventing bullying in schools “although it has always been around, bullying should never be accepted as normal behavior” (mha, 2011, para. 1). in more recent years it seems that bullying has increased dramatically; however, there is no definitive evidence that this is true. according to education.com (2011), there are several reasons bullying seems to be on the rise: • “there is greater awareness of the seriousness of bullying, which could be due to higher reporting rates by students. • the addition of cyberbullying as a new, easy, and round-the-clock place to bully. • there are a number of early childhood risk factors that have increased that might also increase a child’s vulnerability to bully or be bullied, such as an insecure attachment to a primary care giver or lack of parental supervision.” (2011, para. 3). diamanduros et al. (2008) argue that bullying has greatly impacted the contemporary headlines due to the recent eruption of school shootings and other forms of school-based violence. with this escalation comes a challenge for students as well as teachers. according to rimm (2008), journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 6 administrators, teachers, parents and students need to become more proactive in the prevention of bullying in schools. bullying has many different forms, and often times will take on multiple forms at once. this can cause teachers and administrators to be oblivious to bullying, which in turn makes it hard for any proactive steps to be taken (psunder, 2010; veenstra et al., 2010). research suggests bullying episodes are rarely reported to school officials, which can become an impediment to the “ability to define the scope and frequency of bullying behavior” in educational environments (petrosino et al., 2010). many school systems have developed an anonymous hotline reporting system that hopefully has removed students’ fear of retaliation and in turn, encouraged them to report any and all bullying situations (petrosino et al., 2010). rather than involving adults, most middle school students tend to select other forms of dealing with bullying situations (novick & isaacs, 2010). however, when students are left to their own devices, they tend to choose approaches that are either highly unproductive or are likely to cultivate further harassment. it has been said that students have a tendency to choose more effective ways of coping with bullying as they get older; therefore, a promising avenue for bullying prevention programs would be to prepare students with effective responses to bullying at an early age (watson et al., 2010). the ultimate goal is to reduce victimization through preparing students, of all ages, to use an inner-dialogue approach in collaboration with any existing intervention and/or prevention plans (watson et al., 2010). there are many steps that can be taken in order to help prevent bullying; for example, the olweus bully prevention program, which incorporates four rules to be implemented school-wide (olweus, 1993). these rules consist of not bullying others, including those who are being excluded, helping those being bullied, and telling an adult at school and home if there has been a bullying incident (olweus, 1993). respect and regard for others should be taught from an early age and continued throughout the schooling process (mha, 2011). the students are not the only ones in need of bullying education. sherer and nickerson (2010) reference several sources that say teachers and administrators need to be trained and provided continuous support in order to enhance their abilities to manage bullying dilemmas. in order to help prevent bullying in schools, administrators and teachers need to help students learn to improve their behavior management skills and foster social and emotional growth (romain, 1997). students should feel capable and willing to help other students being bullied, and teachers need to help facilitate an understanding of bullying so that all students can play a role in decreasing the frequency and intensity of all stewart waters & natalie mashburn 7 bullying situations (olweus, 1993). the research literature clearly demonstrates the importance of teachers in helping students effectively deal with bullying and the vital role teachers’ play in implementing anti-bullying policies. essentially, anti-bullying policies cannot be effective if teachers do not know how to identify different types of bullying behaviors and how to respond to these situations when they occur. thus, the present research study was designed to examine the perceptions of teachers at a middle school with a designated anti-bullying program to provide insights into how classroom teachers actually handle various aspects of bullying. method this study took place in a middle school, grades six through eight, in the southeastern united states. the population of the school was approximately 605 students and 49 faculty, staff and support services. the percentage of students receiving free and reduced lunch was 43%. the primary unit of analysis for this study was teachers, both in regular classrooms and related arts classrooms (i.e. band, art, library, physical education, etc.). the emphasis for the study was placed on teachers who interact with the students on a daily basis. this element helped to eliminate 13 members from the faculty, staff and support services, specifically, administrators, guidance counselor, and all other support staff. there were 36 classroom teachers available to participate in this study, and 21 of the teachers fully participated in completing the online survey. this made for a response rate of 58%, which is higher than average for typical survey research. the participants were first invited to take part in the survey by means of a formal letter requesting the teachers’ participation in this voluntary study. this letter was placed in the teachers’ mailboxes the day before the survey was administered. the letter also notified participants that their identity would remain confidential and that a report would be issued once the study was complete. a second invitation, along with a link to the survey, was given via email to complete the survey during the teachers’ own time, using an online program (www.surveymonkey.com). the participants then responded to each question independently. two days before the survey was expected to be complete, the participants were sent an email reminder requesting their participation to complete the survey on or before the due date. the self-administered survey was used for several reasons. due to the survey being selfadministered through an online program the researchers had easy access to the participants’ responses. also, the self-administered surveys permitted the participants to complete the questions at their own leisure. the latter of the two reasons was a major factor in deciding on selfjournal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 8 administered surveys. teachers do not have a lot of leisure time due to the everyday time constraints of grading, lesson planning, parent conferences, etc. therefore, a short, selfadministered online survey was chosen as the data collection instrument. this was necessary in order to gather the valuable insights of middle school teachers about bullying in their school, while also being cognizant of their extremely busy schedules. instrument the survey (see appendix a) used for this study was based on a survey used in a similar study on the concept of teachers’ bullying perceptions. michael bush created a comprehensive survey that was “designed to examine the influence of individual and organizational level factors towards teachers’ responses to bullying” (bush, 2011, p. 41). the survey was based on olweus’ (1993) definition of bullying, which was provided on the survey for the participants in order to maintain consistency in data analysis. bush (2011) took into account concerns for reliability, which is associated with credibility of research findings or interpretations of findings, and validity, which refers to the accuracy of measurement. bush’s study tested the reliability and validity of each item within the survey instrument and all items had a cronbach’s alpha of .75 or higher, which has been deemed an acceptable level of reliability among researchers (dillman, 2007). the survey was left in the original order of questioning; however, the actual presentation of the survey was altered slightly. for ease of convenience, the survey was transferred to an online service (www.surveymonkey.com). the questions were presented in the precise manner that bush (2011) fashioned in the original survey as to preserve the survey’s integrity. also, there was no reason to alter or make amendments to the questions being asked because they were composed in this exact rhythm for flow and consistency. the researchers designed this study to build on the work of bush (2011) by adding to the literature on teachers perceptions of bullying, while also offering a unique perspective by collecting data specifically from a group of teachers at a middle school with a designated anti-bullying program. limitations before any generalizations can be made about this study, further research must be completed due to the overwhelming development of bullying reports in educational settings today. a major limitation stems from the population surveyed, as the participants were all from one specific school. this convenience sample was chosen because the researchers had support from the school administration, but also because the student population of this school closely aligned stewart waters & natalie mashburn 9 with the overall demographic of most middle schools within the state. as a consequence of these limitations, the results of this study cannot be generalized to a larger population. reproduction of this study among a larger variety of schools within the u.s. and abroad would certainly generate useful data to the field of education. another limitation of this study was the lack of diversity among participating teachers. due to this lack of diversity, the researchers were unable to examine the differences in how teachers respond to bullying based on race/ethnicity, grade level taught, and gender. results teacher concerns teachers were asked to rank order the following five items: classroom resources/materials, student assessment, bullying, curriculum/lesson plans, and teacher observations/evaluations. teachers were asked to use a scale of 1–5, where 1 indicated their highest concern and 5 indicated their lowest concern. table 1, displays the ranking of each item with the percentage of respondents. based on the table 1, nine teachers (43%) ranked student assessment as the highest concern. this was closely followed by curriculum/lesson plans, which was selected as the second largest concern by 42% of participants. these two findings accurately reflect the current climate of education in many areas of the u.s., where high stakes testing has a major impact on teachers’ job security and pay increases. interestingly, bullying was rated as the lowest two concerns by a majority of participants, with 62% of teachers identifying it as a 4 or 5 on the rating scale. in the end, these findings provide insights into the largest areas of concern for middle school teachers. clearly, participants in this study were mostly concerned about their professional responsibilities in relation to classroom instruction and assessment. in addition, it appears that most teachers deem bullying to be less of a concern compared to other professional responsibilities. table 1 teacher concerns ranking answer options 1 2 3 4 5 rating average classroom resources/materials 14% 10% 28% 24% 24% 3.33 student assessment 43% 19% 14% 14% 10% 2.29 bullying 19% 10% 10% 34% 28% 3.43 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 10 curriculum/lesson plans 10% 42% 24% 14% 10% 2.71 teacher observations/evaluations 14% 19% 24% 14% 28% 3.24 observation and consideration of behavior the next section of the survey included information about different forms of bullying behavior (physical, verbal, and relational) and whether or not teachers observed this type of behavior within the last year. the teachers were also asked whether or not they considered the aforementioned types of behavior as bullying. there were six descriptive statements, two for each type of behavior, used to ask the participants about the different types of bullying (see table 2). the respondents were first given a statement, and then asked, “have you seen this type of behavior occur this academic year (2015-2016)?” additionally, teachers were asked if they considered each of the behaviors to be bullying and rate the severity of the bullying action on a scale of 1-10 (1 being least serious, 10 being very serious). finally, teachers were asked to rate the likelihood of them responding to bullying behaviors in question on a scale of 1-10, with 1 being not respond in any way, and 10 being definitely respond. the majority of the teachers participating in this study witnessed each type of behavior during the last academic year and overall considered each type of bullying to be very serious. based on the responses, teachers in this study witnessed a great deal of bullying over the last year, as four of the six behaviors were reported by 85% of the teachers in this study. verbal bullying was the most common, with both descriptive statements (see table 2) being observed by 85% and 86% of the teachers in this study. teachers in this study rated the severity of each bullying incident fairly high and the scores were quite consistent among participants, as all of the average ratings were 8.5 or higher. interestingly enough, there were two bullying statements, one verbal and one relational, that teachers in this study indicated that they were not very likely to respond to if witnessed. both of these statements dealt with the common middle school situations of “teasing” and “gossiping,” indicating that perhaps teachers in this study do not believe these behaviors to be all that serious or harmful. table 2 teachers observing bullying behavior stewart waters & natalie mashburn 11 type of bullying bullying statement percentage of teachers observing behavior percentage of teachers considering behavior as bullying severity of action average rating (1-10) likelihood to respond average rating (110) physical bullying a student hits, kicks, pushes or shoves another student. 86% 76% 8.5 9.5 physical bullying a student threatens another student with physical harm. 62% 76% 10.0 10.0 verbal bullying a student is being teased by another student. 86% 71% 9.0 5.0 verbal bullying a student is being called hurtful names. 85% 80% 9.5 10.0 relation al bullying a student is deliberately being left out of a group of other students. 79% 68% 8.5 9.0 relation al bullying a student is having rumors or gossip spread about him or her. 84% 84% 9.5 6.0 bullying response training next on the survey was a section that asked about teacher training in response to bullying. the teachers were asked if they had received any training for responding to bullying since being hired at their school. out of the sample, 79% indicated they had received training from the school in question; however, 21% indicated they had not received any training pertaining to responding to bullying. secondly, the teachers who had received training were asked how many hours were received during the 2015-2016 academic year. there was a range of responses from 0 – 4 hours. the third and final question in this section asked, “using the scale below, respond to the statement, ‘i would like more training for responding to bullying.’” the respondents then recorded their score on an interval scale ranging from 0% 100%, where 0% was related to the strongly disagree, 50% journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 12 was related to neither agree nor disagree, and 100% was related to strongly agree. the average response for all teachers was 66%, meaning. the average teacher in this study agreed with the idea that more training is needed in their school. anti-bullying policy with respect to policy, the teachers were asked if their school has a formal anti-bullying policy. within the sample, 95% indicated their school did have an anti-bullying policy in place. the teachers that responded “yes” were then asked to answer several questions regarding familiarity, satisfaction, effectiveness, consistency, and involvement in the development of the anti-bullying policy for their school. the respondents then recorded their score on an interval scale ranging from 0-10, where 0 was related to the not at all, 5 was related to moderately, and 10 was related to very familiar. table 3, shown below, displays the average rating for each policy question. table 3 anti-bullying policy anti-bullying policy question average rating how familiar are you with the school's anti-bullying policy? 7.0 how satisfied are you with your school's anti-bullying policy? 7.0 how effective is your school's anti-bullying policy? 6.0 how consistent are you in enforcing your school's anti-bullying policy? 8.5 how involved were you in developing your school's anti-bullying policy? 2.5 discussion bush (2011) discusses several studies about bullying that use physical aggression as the main focus; however, this study includes physical, verbal, and relational aggression. also, much of the previous research on bullying focuses on the students’ perspectives. this study was solely focused on teachers and their perspectives of bullying frequency and intensity. these are some of the key factors that have helped to develop a clearer understanding of what teachers need and want stewart waters & natalie mashburn 13 in order to minimize and eliminate bullying behavior. this study, while small in sample size, does offer valuable insights into how middle school teachers identify bullying behavior and how seriously they consider these behaviors to be in the school setting. based on the results of this study, there is clearly a great deal of bullying taking place in middle schools and teachers and administrators should strongly consider how these behaviors can impact the social, emotional, and intellectual development of middle school students. teacher concerns teachers’ professional responsibilities run a wide gamut of activities, from instructor to role model to cheerleader to drill sergeant. due to this wide array of challenges, certain items were included within the survey to provide an essential skeleton in which to base the larger results. these specific items measured teachers’ perceptions of their responsibilities, observation of behavior, whether they actually consider the behaviors to be classified as bullying, and lastly, these items also provided some non-specific information about response training and anti-bullying programs within the teachers’ school. teachers in the u.s. are professionally responsible for students’ achievements on standardized tests and this accountability directly impacts the teachers’ job security and pay (bush, 2011). with new evaluation systems in place and teachers being intensely critiqued based on their students’ test scores, teachers are more and more concerned with what occurs academically in their classrooms. with this in mind, it is no surprise that one of the top ranked concerns for this specific sample of teachers was student assessment and curriculum/lesson plans. however, bullying was also a legitimate concern, as several respondents added additional comments in the survey highlighting how distinguishing between childish behaviors and bullying is an essential part of working with middle school kids. this goes to show that bullying, while certainly a concern, continues to be difficult for teachers to routinely address on top of all their professional responsibilities as classroom teachers. observation and consideration of behavior there is still a substantial portion of undiscovered bullying in schools, making it hard to gauge teachers’ perceptions about the amount of bullying behaviors in their school (olweus, 1993). in order to overcome this barrier, the teachers were asked if they had observed any aggressive behavior within this academic year (2015-2016). as displayed in table 2, the majority of teachers in this sample observed all of the descriptive behaviors used within the survey. verbal bullying was the most observed among the respondents; however, this is ironic because relational and verbal journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 14 aggressions are usually less visible than physical aggression (liepe-levinson, 2005). generally speaking, it is easier to catch sight of a student hitting, kicking, pushing, or shoving another student, rather than a student spreading rumors or gossip about another student. trevor romain (1997) discusses the idea that most bullies seem to operate undercover, which simply means that bullies tend to only use aggressive behavior in small groups and usually not in the presence of an adult or authority figure. this makes it difficult for teachers to be able to prevent or even intervene in a bullying situation. another important aspect to consider is teachers’ consideration of bullying behavior. several respondents added comments at the end of the survey that provided a more detailed description of their perceptions of bullying behavior within their school. one teacher stated, “close attention must be paid to whether a situation is recurring and also how both sets of students perceive the behaviors.” multiple other teachers commented with similar sentiments stating that it is essential for teachers to distinguish between childish behavior and bullying. according to bush (2011, p. 118), “the challenge in distinguishing bullying behavior from non-bullying behavior adds to its elusive nature.” this is not only a challenge for the teachers, but the students as well. one respondent commented, “often, i am having to teach students that repeatedly teasing, calling someone names, or touching others can be considered an act of bullying.” many times, students may not be aware of their bullying tendencies, which one teacher noted in the comments section. the respondent said, “many times bullying students graduate and move on with their lives without ever realizing they had bullying tendencies in school.” in many cases, adolescents use rough play, or horseplay, and teasing as a function to determine friendships and even flirtatious relationships (bush, 2011). the definition of bullying used for this study emphasizes the imbalance of power between the bully and the victim. due to the different types of bullying, this can be difficult to recognize. with physical bullying the power refers to the bodily shape and size of the bully. in verbal and relational bullying, power refers to emotional and mental fortitude. the key issue to remember is there must be an imbalance of power, whatever kind of power that may be in each bullying situation. bullying response training as indicated by rigby (2002), teachers feel a responsibility to prevent bullying within educational environments, but on the other hand, they do not feel well equipped in appropriate and stewart waters & natalie mashburn 15 effective ways to respond to bullying. teachers also, for the most part, felt as though situations not being handled appropriately would further exacerbate the conditions. a few teachers stated they had not received any training at their school for responding to bullying within the last academic year (2015-2016). however, there were several teachers who responded that they had received at least one hour of training within this academic year (2015-2016). when asked if they would like to receive more training in responding to bullying, the majority of teachers agreed. several teachers commented on inconsistency within bullying responses among teachers; however, one similarity in response technique was to defer the situation to the guidance counselor. within the comments section, there were multiple answers, with no real consistency, which was shown through the different response techniques chosen for each descriptive behavioral statement. more often than not, the teachers would inform the school guidance counselor; some chose to do this right away, and others would talk to the students first and then inform the guidance counselor. anti-bullying policy according to rigby (2002), teachers and other school personnel commonly believe that an anti-bullying policy can help reduce any level of bullying. majority of the teachers responded “yes” when asked, “does your school have an anti-bullying policy?” the significantly low number of respondents who said “no” shows some inconsistencies within the school anti-bullying strategy. the teachers that responded “no” may have been absent for the training, or there may not have been any training at all. however, all teachers within a school need to be aware of and knowledgeable in the school’s anti-bullying guidelines. this will not only help with structure for responding to bullying, but will provide continuity pertaining to liability concerns as well. conclusion bullying is undoubtedly a highly difficult concept to evaluate; however, within this study it was determined that anti-bullying programs are beneficial and would be helpful in reducing and potentially, preventing bullying incidences. bullying prevention programs are widely used in middle schools throughout the united states and these programs can add consistency to a school climate when responding to bullying. according to the national middle school association/association for middle level educators (nmsa/amle, 2010, para. 17), a top priority for all schools is to provide an environment that is “inviting, safe, inclusive, and supportive of all.” by implementing a bullying-specific policy, students, teachers, administrators, and even parents can become involved in helping to intervene and prevent bullying within educational journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 16 environments. furthermore, nmsa/amle (2010, para. 7) states, “effective middle grades educators make a conscious choice to work with young adolescents and advocate for them. they understand the developmental uniqueness of this age group, the appropriate curriculum, effective learning and assessment strategies, and their importance as models.” due to middle grades educators unique qualifications, it is imperative that the teachers and administrators work together in creating an anti-bullying program to ensure the proper guidelines are implemented and everyone is comfortable and familiar with the guidelines. unfortunately, as the findings in this study indicate, many teachers are not involved in the planning of anti-bullying programs, which could contribute to a lack of understanding regarding expectations, responses, and importance of the initiatives. teachers usually have little control over school discipline policies, but they do have a significant amount of autonomy within their own classroom. in order to create a cohesive and consistent anti-bullying program, teachers and administrators need to work together for the betterment of their students and school. the nmsa/amle (2010) includes empowering students as one of the essential attributes of an education for young adolescents. the nmsa/amle goes on to state that “providing all students with the knowledge and skills they need to take responsibility for their lives, to address life's challenges, to function successfully at all levels of society, and to be creators of knowledge” are also important factors of empowering young adolescents. in order to help students conquer bullying situations, no matter what part they play (bully, victim, bystander, etc.), teachers, administrators, parents and students need to ban together and create a network of support and encouragement. no child should ever have a fear of going to school due to constant harassment and bullying. while some teachers and adults may write off some of these situations as simply “part of growing up,” the severity, frequency, and consistency of bullying behavior, both in person and online, can have a devastating impact on the lives of middle school children. educators and researchers should seriously consider the impact that bullying has on students lives, both in the classroom and beyond, and systematically make a conscious effort to address the problem proactively instead of reactively. stewart waters & natalie mashburn 17 references bush, m. d. (2011). a quantitative investigation of teachers’ responses to bullying. (doctoral dissertation, indiana university of pennsylvania). retrieved from http://dspace.iup.edu/ bitstream/handle/2069/179/michael+ bush.pdf?sequence=1 bradshaw, c. p., waasdorp, t. e., o’brennan, l. m., & gulemetova, m. (2011). findings from the national education association’s nationwide study of bullying: teachers’ and education support professionals’ perspectives. retrieved from national education associationwebsite: http://www.nea.org/assets/img/content/findings_from_neas_nationwide_study_of_bul lying.pdf davis, s., & nixon, c. (2011). what students say about bullying. educational leadership, 69(1), 18-23. diamanduros, t., downs, e., & jenkins, s. j. (2008). the role of school psychologists in the assessment, prevention, and intervention of cyberbullying. psychology in schools, 45(8), 693-704. dillman, d. a. (2007). mail and internet surveys: the tailored design method (2nd ed.). john wiley & sons, inc. new jersey. education.com. (2011). is bullying on the rise? [web log post]. retrieved from http://www. education.com/reference/article/bullying-on-the-rise/ hargrove, k. (2010). stop school bullying: a tale of two girls. gift child today, 33(4), 39-40. frey, n., & fisher, d. (2008). the under-appreciated role of humiliation in the middle school. in r.b. evers (ed.), annual editions: education 11/12 (pp. 131-138). boston, ma: mcgraw hill. kert, a. s., codding, r. s., tyron, g. s., & schyko, m. (2010). impact of the word “bully” on the reported rate of bullying behavior. psychology in the schools, 47(2), 193-204. liepe-levinson, k., & levinson, m. h. (2005). a general semantics approach to school-age bullying. etc: a review of general semantics, 62(1), 4-16. mental health america (2011). bullying and what to do about it. retrieved from http://www.nm ha.org/go/bullying nansel, t. r., overpeck, m., pilla, r. s., ruan, w. j., simons-morton, b., & scheidt, p. (2001). bullying behaviors among u.s. youth. the journal of the american medical association. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 18 285(16), 2094-2100. national education association. (2003). nea survey: school staffs need more help to prevent bullying. retrieved from http://www.nea.org/home/42869.htm national middle school association/association for middle level educators. (2010). this we believe: essential attributes of successful schools. retrieved from http://www.amle.org/about amle/ thiswebelieve/the14characteristics/tabid/1274/default.aspx nishioka, v., coe, m., burke, a., hanita, m., & sprague, j. (2011). student-reported overt and relational aggression and victimization in grades 3-8. issues and answers report, rel 2011(114), 1-42. novick, r. m., & isaacs, j. (2010). telling is compelling: the impact of students reports of bullying on teacher intervention. educational psychology, 30(3), 283-296. olweus, d. (1993). bullying at school. malden, ma: blackwell publishing. petrosino, a., guckenburg, s., devoe, j., & hanson, t. (2010). what characteristics of bullying, bullying victims, and schools are associated with increased reporting of bullying to school officials?. issues and answers report, rel 2010(092), 1-33. psunder, m. (2010). the identification of teasing among students as an indispensable step towards reducing verbal aggression in schools. educational studies, 36(2), 217-228. rigby, k. (2002). new perspectives on bullying. london, england: jessica kingsley publishers. rimm, s. (2010). bullying needs to stop. retrieved from http://www.sylviarimm.com/article_ bullying romain, t. (1997). bullies are a pain in the brain. minneapolis, mn: free spirit publishing. seals, d., & young, j. (2003). bullying and victimization: prevalence and relationship to gender, grade level, ethnicity, self-esteem, and depression. adolescence. 38(152), 735-746. sherer, y. c., & nickerson, a. b. (2010). anti-bullying practices in american schools: perspectives of school psychologists. psychology in the schools, 47(3), 217-229. siris, k., & osterman, k. (2004). interrupting the cycle of bullying and victimization in the elementary classroom. phi delta kappan. 86(4), 288-291. surveymonkey. (2012). surveymonkey [online survey program] retrieved from http://www. surveymonkey.com thompson, m., & cohen, l. (2005). when the bullied must adjust. education digest, 70(6), 16 stewart waters & natalie mashburn 19 19. thornberg, r. (2010). schoolchildren’s social representation on bullying causes. psychology in the schools, 47(4), 311-327. united states department of education. (2011). student reports of bullying and cyber-bullying: results from the 2007 school crime supplement to the national crime victimization survey. [nces 2011 316]. retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed19449.pdf veenstra, r., lindenberg, s., munniksma, a., & dijkstra, j. k. (2010). the complex relation between bullying, victimization, acceptance, and rejection: giving special attention to status, affection, and sex differences. child development, 81(2), 480-486. watson, s. e. j., vannini, n., woods, s., dautenhahn, k., sapouna, m., enz, s., schneider, w., wolke, d., hall, l., paiva, a., andre, e., & aylett, r. (2010). inter-cultural differences in response to a computer-based anti-bullying intervention. educational research, 52(1), 61-80. wolke, d., woods, s., stanford, k., & schulz, h. (2001). bullying and victimization of primary and secondary school children in england and germany: prevalence and school factors. british journal of psychology, 92(4), 673-696. wright, j. (2004). preventing classroom bullying: what teachers can do. retrieved from http:// www.interventioncentral.org journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 20 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all serious serious appendix a thank you for agreeing to complete this survey. your participation is greatly appreciated and will undoubtedly provide useful information about issues that teachers face in schools. the survey is divided up into six parts. please read the directions for each part carefully. the survey will take approximately 15 – 20 minutes to complete. part i: teachers have multiple concerns related to their work. listed below are some of these concerns. rank the following items from 1 to 5, where 1 indicates your highest concern and 5 indicates your lowest concern. classroom resources/materials __________ student assessment __________ bullying __________ curriculum/lesson plans __________ teacher observations/evaluations __________ part ii: there are varying perspectives about student conflict situations and how to respond to them. please read the definitional phrases provided below and answer the questions that follow each of the phrases. to answer the questions, either place an “x” in the space to the left of your answer choice or circle the percentage underneath the line provided. 1. a student hits, kicks, pushes, or shoves another student. a. have you seen this type of behavior occur this academic year? _____ yes _____ no b. using the scale below, how seriously do you rate this behavior? stewart waters & natalie mashburn 21 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not somewhat very at all likely likely c. using the scale below, how likely are you to respond to this type of behavior? d. based on your experience, how would you typically respond to this type of behavior? please choose only one answer. _____ do not respond to this type of behavior _____ discuss behavior with the student who hit, kicked, pushed, or shoved _____ have students who are involved in the situation talk to one another _____ discuss the situation with the entire class _____ call the parents of the student who hit, kicked, pushed, or shoved the other student _____ send the student who hit, kicked, pushed, or shoved to detention _____ send the student who hit, kicked, pushed, or shoved to the office _____ other (please specify): ______________________________________________________ e. do you consider this type of behavior bullying? _____ yes _____ no 2. a student threatens another student with physical harm. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 22 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all serious serious ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not somewhat very at all likely likely a. have you seen this type of behavior occur this academic year? _____ yes _____ no b. using the scale below, how seriously do you rate this behavior? c. using the scale below, how likely are you to respond to this type of behavior? d. based on your experience, how would you typically respond to this type of behavior? please choose only one answer. _____ do not respond to this type of behavior _____ discuss behavior with the student who threatened another student _____ have students who are involved in the situation talk to one another _____ discuss the situation with the entire class _____ call the parents of the student who threatened another student stewart waters & natalie mashburn 23 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all serious serious ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not somewhat very at all likely likely _____ send the student who threatened another student to detention _____ send the student who threatened another student to the office _____ other (please specify): ______________________________________________________ e. do you consider this type of behavior bullying? _____ yes _____ no 3. a student is being teased by another student. a. have you seen this type of behavior occur this academic year? _____ yes _____ no b. using the scale below, how seriously do you rate this behavior? c. using the scale below, how likely are you to respond to this type of behavior? journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 24 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all serious serious d. based on your experience, how would you typically respond to this type of behavior? please choose only one answer. _____ do not respond to this type of behavior _____ discuss behavior with the student who teased another student _____ have students who are involved in the situation talk to one another _____ discuss the situation with the entire class _____ call the parents of the student who teased another student _____ send the student who teased another student to detention _____ send the student who teased another student to the office _____ other (please specify): ______________________________________________________ e. do you consider this type of behavior bullying? _____ yes _____ no 4. a student is being called hurtful names. a. have you seen this type of behavior occur this academic year? _____ yes _____ no b. using the scale below, how seriously do you rate this behavior? stewart waters & natalie mashburn 25 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not somewhat very at all likely likely c. using the scale below, how likely are you to respond to this type of behavior? d. based on your experience, how would you typically respond to this type of behavior? please choose only one answer. _____ do not respond to this type of behavior _____ discuss behavior with the student who was name calling _____ have students who are involved in the situation talk to one another _____ discuss the situation with the entire class _____ call the parents of the student who was name-calling _____ send the student who was name-calling to detention _____ send the student who was name-calling to the office _____ other (please specify): ______________________________________________________ e. do you consider this type of behavior bullying? _____ yes _____ no 5. a student is deliberately being left out of a group of other students. a. have you seen this type of behavior occur this academic year? _____ yes _____ no journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 26 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all serious serious ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not somewhat very at all likely likely b. using the scale below, how seriously do you rate this behavior? c. using the scale below, how likely are you to respond to this type of behavior? d. based on your experience, how would you typically respond to this type of behavior? please choose only one answer. _____ do not respond to this type of behavior _____ discuss behavior with the students who were leaving others out _____ have students who are involved in the situation talk to one another _____ discuss the situation with the entire class _____ call the parents of the students who were leaving others out _____ send the students who were leaving others out to detention _____ send the students who were leaving others out to the office stewart waters & natalie mashburn 27 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all serious serious ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not somewhat very at all likely likely _____ other (please specify): ____________________________________________________ e. do you consider this type of behavior bullying? _____ yes _____ no 6. a student is having rumors or gossip spread about him or her. a. have you seen this type of behavior occur this academic year? _____ yes _____ no b. using the scale below, how seriously do you rate this behavior? c. using the scale below, how likely are you to respond to this type of behavior? d. based on your experience, how would you typically respond to this type of behavior? please choose only one answer. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 28 _____ do not respond to this type of behavior _____ discuss behavior with the students who were spreading rumors or gossip _____ have students who are involved in the situation talk to one another _____ discuss the situation with the entire class _____ call the parents of the students who were spreading rumors or gossip _____ send the students who were spreading rumors or gossip out to detention _____ send the students who were spreading rumors or gossip to the office _____ other (please specify): ______________________________________________________ e. do you consider this type of behavior bullying? _____ yes _____ no for parts iii, iv, and v, please read the following definition for bullying and answer the questions in each section according to the definition provided. -a student is being bullied or victimized when he or she is exposed repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other students. -negative actions are defined as when someone intentionally inflicts, or attempts to inflict, injury or discomfort upon another. part iii: please answer the questions below by either placing an “x” in one of the blanks provided, writing your answer in the blank provided, or by circling the number that corresponds to how strongly you agree or disagree with the given statement. stewart waters & natalie mashburn 29 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% strongly neither agree strongly disagree nor disagree agree 1. have you received any training for responding to bullying since being hired at your school? _____ yes _____ no if you answered yes to the question above, then please answer question 1a.below. if you answered no, then please move ahead to question 2 and continue the survey. a. in the last academic year, how many hours have you spent being trained at your school for responding to bullying? _____ hours 2. using the scale below, respond to the following statement, “i would like more training for responding to bullying.” part iv: please answer the questions below by either placing an “x” in one of the blanks provided or by circling the number that corresponds to how strongly you agree or disagree with the given statement. 1. does your school have a formal anti-bullying policy? _____ yes _____ no if you answered yes to the question above, then please answer the questions below. if you answered no, then please move ahead to part v and continue the survey. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 30 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all familiar familiar ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all satisfied satisfied ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all effective effective ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all consistent consistent a. using the scale below, how familiar are you with the school’s anti-bullying policy? b. using the scale below, how satisfied are you with your school’s anti-bullying policy? c. using the scale below, how effective is your school’s anti-bullying policy? d. using the scale below, how consistent are you in enforcing your school’s anti-bullying policy? stewart waters & natalie mashburn 31 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% not moderately very at all involved involved ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% strongly neither agree strongly disagree nor disagree agree ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% strongly neither agree strongly disagree nor disagree agree e. using the scale below, how involved were you in developing your school’s anti-bullying policy? part v: please answer the questions below by circling the number that corresponds to how strongly you agree or disagree with the given statement. 1. when responding to bullying, other teachers support my response. 2. when responding to bullying, the principal/vice-principal supports my response. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 32 ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% strongly neither agree strongly disagree nor disagree agree ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% strongly neither agree strongly disagree nor disagree agree ______________________________________________________________________________ 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% strongly neither agree strongly disagree nor disagree agree 3. when responding to bullying, the school board/school district supports my response. 4. when responding to bullying, students support my response. 5. when responding to bullying, parents support my response. stewart waters & natalie mashburn 33 part vi: personal and professional characteristics please answer the following questions about your personal and professional characteristics either by writing your response on the line provided or by placing an “x” on the appropriate line provided. 1. what is your current age? _____ years old 2. what is your gender? _____ male _____ female 3. what race/ethnicity do you most identify with? _____ asian/pacific islander _____ african american _____ hispanic/latino _____ native american _____ caucasian (white) _____ other (please specify) __________________________________________________ 4. what subject do you teach? _____ language arts _____ mathematics _____ reading _____ related arts _____ science _____ social studies 5. what grade(s) do you currently teach? ____________________ grade (s) journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 1-34 34 6. how many consecutive years have you been teaching? ____________________ years thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. your assistance in providing this information is very much appreciated. if there is anything else you would like to say about this survey or bullying, please do so in the space provided below. öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersi ödevlerine yönelik tutumlarının ölçülmesi: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2014: 5(1), 1-19 © 2014 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 committed to differentiation and engagement: a case study of two american secondary social studies teachers derek anderson1 and tanya cook2 abstract this case study examines two 10th-grade us history teachers who collaborated to create and implement an integrated, thematic eight-week unit on war with an emphasis differentiated instruction. drawing on the national council for the social studies (2010) framework for powerful and purposeful social studies instruction, the case study uses multiple sources of data, including 38 lesson observations, analyses of the teachers’ lesson plans and student work, and interviews of teachers. initially, the teachers were successful at engaging students in simulations, small-group discussions, and higher-order thinking. as the unit progressed, however, the teachers reverted to transmission-style teaching with an emphasis on breadth over depth. changing teaching practice requires overcoming barriers associated with prior experiences and deeply-held beliefs about teaching and learning. keywords: differentiation, thematic instruction introduction the words “boring” and “useless” are often associated with the subject of social studies beginning at the elementary level and continuing through high school (guidry, cuthrell, o’connor & good, 2010; tanner, 2008; zhao & hoge, 2010). researchers link students’ negative attitudes towards social studies to dull instructional methods and increases in curriculum demands (guidry et al. 2010; hinde, 2005; pederson, 2010; tanner, 2008; zhao & hoge, 2010). intensifying accountability models since the implementation of the no child left behind act (nclb) have resulted in a greater emphasis on english-language arts (ela) and mathematics, thus marginalizing social studies instruction, particularly at the elementary level (anderson, 2014; guidry et al. 2010). according to a report by the us center on education policy, since the enactment of the nclb, 44% of districts have 1 northern michigan university 2 northern michigan university journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 1-19 2 reduced instructional time designated for social studies. by the time students enter secondary education where social studies is more emphasized, students do not have the content knowledge secondary teachers are expecting (guidry et al. 2010; hinde, 2005). secondary educators in the us are accountable for hundreds of content standards. when looking at us history, there are 65 high school content expectations (hsces) and 86 subhsces for michigan students, where this study took place. the astonishing number of social studies content standards puts pressure on secondary social studies teachers, which is greatly heightened when students enter high school already behind in their content knowledge (guidry et al. 2010). the challenges and stresses of covering an overwhelming amount of content has prompted teachers to adopt more teacher-centered instructional methods. most commonly, teacher-centered instruction is textbook-driven, resulting in students developing negative attitudes towards social studies, as they are not engaged or experiencing any real-life connection to the material (guidry et al. 2010; hinde, 2005; tanner, 2008). ths is concerning as secondary students are bored and have negative attitudes towards learning are at higher risk for school dropout (shernoff, csikszentmihalyi, scheider, & shernoff, 2003). the national council for the social studies (ncss) has taken an assertive role in combating teacher-centered, textbook-driven teaching. they posit that in order for our youth to become responsible, active citizens and for the future of our democratic society, social studies instruction needs to change. with a goal of helping students “make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world” (2010, p. 1), ncss recommends powerful and purposeful social studies instruction, which consists of instruction that is “meaningful, integrative, value-based, challenging, and active” (p. 1). students need to be encouraged to think critically, to develop a deep understanding of core concepts rather than a surface understanding, and to have opportunities to connect to core values of democracy on a personal level (ncss, 2010). likewise, students desire social studies lessons that are “useful and challenging” and “fun to learn” (zhao & hoge, 2010, p. 218). teachers often want to teach using powerful and purposeful social studies instruction, but numerous barriers exist. overcoming barriers to engaging, student-centered teaching is a demanding but worthwhile pursuit. much can be learned from ambitious, committed high school teachers who strive to engage students in authentic, evocative, and personally relevant social studies tasks. derek anderson & tanya cook 3 purpose of study in this case study, we examined two 10th-grade us history teachers at a large, rural high school in the upper-midwest. the teachers were faced with newly implemented, intimidating state-mandated content standards, large class sizes, rising accountability, and low student engagement. to counter these daunting realities, the teachers decided to work together on an ambitious goal to create and implement an integrated, thematic eight-week unit on war involving increased differentiation and powerful and purposeful social studies instruction (ncss, 2010). the purpose of this case study is to take an in-depth look at these two high school social studies teachers who proclaimed their passion and desire to improve their social studies practice in an era where social studies instruction is not at the forefront and schools are experiencing continuous cycles of reform, budgetary cuts, and incessant increases in administrative and societal expectations. using thorough and multiple sources of data, including more than 30 lesson observations, analysis of the teachers’ lesson plans and student work, and interviews of teachers, we sought to examine the extent to which the teachers were successful at meeting their ambitious goal. theoretical framework powerful and purposeful social studies instruction follows a student-centered approach in which students are actively learning through problem-solving, hands-on inquiry, and collaboration (ncss, 2010). when students are fully engaged in the learning process, the classroom environment experiences less disruptive behavior, which thereby increasing students’ academic development (kalina & powell, 2009; shernoff et al. 2003). these essential elements of powerful and purposeful social studies are rooted in constructivist learning theory (kalina & powell, 2009; windschitl, 2002). constructivism derives from the work of jean piaget (1953), lev vygotsky (1962), john dewey (1938), and many others who studied how individuals acquire and develop knowledge. constructivism is the idea that learners construct their own meaning through inquiry coinciding with piaget’s (1953) theories of individuals building upon their existing knowledge through personal experiences. a teacher’s role in constructivist learning is as a facilitator and guide for student achievement. vygotsky (1962) argued that individuals learn in their own zone of proximal development where they seek assistance from peers journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 1-19 4 and teachers to reach a deeper level of understanding (kalina & powell, 2009). within constructivist learning, teachers strive to center instruction around a central theme relevant to students’ lives and to guide students towards resources and opportunities for selfdiscovery to develop a deep understanding of the underpinnings of the theme (kaiser, 2010; windschitl, 2002). constructivist learning can take different forms in the social studies classroom, all of which involve students’ cognitive engagement with history, geography, civics, or economics at a level that challenges them appropriately. the high school social studies teachers we studied sought to use thematic and differentiated instruction to engage their students in an eight-week war unit. thematic instruction allows teachers to anchor and connect their subjects’ curriculum around key concepts through the development of authentic themes (barton & smith, 2000; white, 1995). predicated on the theory of constructivism, the goal of thematic instruction is to provide students with opportunities to apply and build upon their critical and analytical skills through inquiry while making strong bonds between abstract ideas (barton & smith, 2000; jewett, 2007; mcbee, 2000; white, 1995). within social studies, thematic instruction has shown to be more effective than the traditional chronological approach as it evokes student engagement and a deeper understanding of content (white, 1995). although research on the topic is not exhaustive, particularly at the secondary level, results are suggesting that students who participate in integrative thematic instruction test as well and sometimes better than students in traditional settings (hinde, 2005; stephens, 2007; vars & beane, 2000). this aligns with dewey’s (1938) idea that learning takes place when experiences have meaning and importance to the learner. in today’s secondary social studies classrooms consisting of 30+ students, academic diversity is inevitable and extreme, especially since social studies is the subject least likely to be tracked by student ability. central to constructivism is the need for teachers to address the wide range of ability levels and learning styles of their students. because not every student will reach the prescribed outcome at the same rate or with the same supports, teachers must differentiate their instruction to address learner variance (tomlinson, 1995; 2000). differentiated instruction is “flexibility in content, process, and product based on student strengths, needs, and learning styles” (levy, 2008, p. 162). content differentiation refers to ensuring that individual learners are provided with a continuum of building blocks, appropriate to each student’s zone of proximal development, so that all students can master content standards. traditional teacher-centered classrooms derek anderson & tanya cook 5 implementing a one-size-fits-all curriculum fail to take into account individual students’ knowledge and experiences. differentiation of the learning process involves providing students with multiple learning activities and peer groupings, taking into account individual abilities, learning styles, and interests. product differentiation provides students with various options to demonstrate what they have learned (levy, 2008; tomlinson, 1995). limited research has been published on differentiated instruction in secondary social studies classrooms, which raises a serious issue as a sophomore-level social studies us history class encompasses a vast range of learners. arguably, a us sophomore-level social studies course, like the one that is the focus of this paper, has the greatest need for teachers who use differentiated instruction. with many high-achieving students electing to take advanced placement courses starting the following year, sophomore social studies courses include all students, non-tracked by ability. although most secondary social studies educators acknowledge the benefits and challenges of addressing classroom academic diversity, most still revert to traditional, textbook-based instruction (guidry et al. 2010; hinde, 2005; tanner, 2008; hootstein, 1999). the two teachers that are the focus of this paper attempted to address this challenge of learner variance and student disdain for social studies by creating and implementing an integrated, thematic unit on war involving increased differentiation and powerful and purposeful social studies instruction. methods participants the participants in this study included two 10th-grade us history teachers, from an approximately 2,500-student k-12 public school district in the upper-midwest. both teachers were caucasian and female, with seven and 21 years of experience. their high school serves approximately 1,146 students grades 9 through 12, 91.5% caucasian, 5.2% american indian, 1.1% african american, 1.1% asian, and 0.5% hispanic. students within the school district represent a wide range of socio-economic levels, including 33% who qualify for freeor reduced-lunch. the teachers each teach three sections of us history with an average of 30 students per class, including a wide range of ability levels from students with learning disabilities (ld) who receive in-class support to gifted and talented students. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 1-19 6 data in order to explore the extent to which the teachers were successful at meeting their ambitious goal of using thematic and differentiated instruction to engage their students, we used a case study design to examine the participants within their daily context, in order to gain an intensive, holistic description and analysis (merriam, 1998; yin, 2011). case studies allow for a detailed and contextual analysis (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2011). yin (1994) asserted that one benefit of case study research is its insight into the boundaries between what is known about a phenomenon and what is not known. several elements of case study research reveal those boundaries. when cases can be studied in real-life contexts, richer description and analyses are possible. in this study, we not only talked with the teachers about their planning, delivery, and assessment of social studies, we observed them in action extensively, thus strengthening the empiricism of the study. we used multiple and extensive methods of data collection with simultansous qualitative analysis to increase breadth and depth of understanding and to increase validity through triangulation (merriam, 1998; stake, 1995; yin, 1994). we conducted 38 lesson observations within the 8-week unit. we administered two 1-hour interviews with the teachers during the planning stages of their thematic, differentiated war unit. about halfway through the unit we conducted a 3-hour interview with the participants and another lengthy interview following completion of the unit. data sources also included extensive document analysis of teachers’ lesson plans, materials, student work, and assessments. to analyze the interview transcripts, lesson observation notes, teachers’ lesson plans, and student work, we began by using constant comparison method to create initial codes (glaser & strauss, 1967). next, we used focused coding continuously to arrange the existing codes into broader conceptual categories until the data reached a point of saturation (charmaz, 2006). throughout the coding process, we attempted to bracket our own experiences and assumptions through reflective note-taking and regular critical conversations, as well as by relying heavily on the participants’ own words. findings in this study, we investigated the extent to which two teachers were successful at meeting their ambitious goal of addressing the challenge of learner variance and student disdain for social studies by creating and implementing an integrated, thematic unit on war derek anderson & tanya cook 7 involving increased differentiation and powerful and purposeful social studies instruction. in the following sections, we will examine the teachers’ unit plan and associated materials, their implementation of the eight-week plan, and the teachers’ thoughts and reflections. unless otherwise noted, our narrative descriptions of the teachers’ actions derived from our 40+ hours of observations of their teaching and materials, as well as student work. extensive unit plan through collaborative efforts, the teachers developed a thematic unit plan covering the spanish american war, world war i (wwi), and world war ii (wwii). the goal of the unit was to address at the three wars collectively using essential questions intended to spark students’ higher-order thinking skills. the teachers developed 10 essential questions to be interwoven throughout the unit plan for leading discussions and for students to reflect on and journal about. examples of the 10 essential questions are: “what is war?” “is war ever just? if so, under what conditions?” “does war cause national prosperity?” and “is it the responsibility of the united states to be the world’s policeman?” the teachers’ unit plan incorporated other differentiated daily activities such as simulations, computer research, think-pair-share, and primary and secondary document analysis. to assess student learning throughout the unit, the teachers’ intended plan incorporated formative preand post-test assessments, periodic portfolio checks, teachermade quizzes, choice list projects, and a summative final exam. the preand post-test consisted of 30 multiple-choice questions. throughout the unit, students were to keep all of their work within their social studies binder for the teachers to assess periodically. the final exam was a two-part exam. the first half was a test consisting of 38 multiple-choice questions and 12 matching questions. the second half included an essay on the ways the concept of war changed throughout the three wars, using historical facts to explain if they thought wars could be just. in addition to the essay, students were to choose two additional projects from the list of 10 options. projects ranged from creating political cartoons to creating a graph to illustrate the costs of wwi and wwii. unit implementation as is expected in the realm of teaching, classroom instruction does not always go as planned. in this section, we will look at the first few weeks of instruction, the middle of the unit in which an instructional shift occurred, and the last half of unit instruction. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 1-19 8 beginning instruction. unit implementation started on track with the first two essential questions (“what is war?” and “is war ever just?”) leading student-centered lessons. differentiated techniques were frequently interwoven throughout the first few weeks including the following: a class state debate simulation on determining whether the united states should go to war, open-ended discussion questions, think-pair-share opportunities, and a realties of war choice list project. lesson observations revealed a high level of student engagement throughout the first couple of weeks of instruction, especially within the simulation lesson. students exhibited high on-task behavior through active participation, quality peer discussion, eye contact, with minimal amounts of side conversations or glazed-over looks. coinciding with our classroom observations, the teachers described the state debate simulation as having high differentiation and student engagement. for example, one of the teachers said: students are grappling with events, making decisions, debating, having to use a big skill set in order to participate. everyone has to participate because the students are in groups of three or four, and the group has to come to a consensus because they get one vote to share and everyone has to be able to respond and [share their vote rationale] for each year from 1914-1917. i think it worked really well. you feel like they’re getting it. the teachers also integrated short video clips into early lessons to provide another source of information for students to connect to the print content. the modernity of the video clips seemed to engage the students; all students’ eyes were focused on the screen, they were taking notes, and nearly every student participated in post-clip discussions. the teachers presented the students with prompts related to the video clips, which sparked students to make real-life connections. for example, during the realities of war segment, students investigated the types of weaponry was used at that time, what life was like for soldiers, and how those concepts compare with weaponry and the lives of soldiers today. instructional shift. classroom observations revealed that despite the teachers’ effective use of the first two questions from the 10 essential questions they planned to weave throughout the entire unit, the essential question focus became an afterthought as the teachers moved through the unit. the packet was intended to focus the students on higher-order thinking questions and discussion around specific themes. instead, the teachers used more transmission-style teaching dominated by lecture and storytelling. in our mid-unit interview, teachers concurred that the essential questions were no longer a central focus. one of the teachers stated, “we have lamented the fact that we derek anderson & tanya cook 9 haven’t been using the journals the way we intended to.” in the post-interview, one teacher explained why the essential questions were ignored as the unit progressed: we feel like we didn’t do what we set out to do which was connect [all three wars] through the essential questions. we didn’t make the connections as tightly or as frequently as we wanted to do because we didn’t take the time or didn’t have the time. in addition to moving away from the essential questions, classroom instruction was not focused on looking at the three wars collectively as planned. wwi and wwii were covered using a more traditional chronological approach. along with the shift away from a thematic approach, their perceived need to cover content caused the teachers to shift away from their planned material. because the state debate simulation carried over into two class periods rather than the planned one, the teachers felt compelled to play “catch-up.” one teacher expressed feeling pressured to get through it all with not enough time. as we will discuss in the next section, the need for content “catch-up” and the decreased emphasis on the essential thematic questions led to a shift towards more teacher-centered lessons. last half of unit. as the teachers moved away from the essential questions, lectures mixed with teacher-led whole-group discussions became more prominent. they touched on two more of the essential questions; however, fact-based content overruled essential question analysis and discussion. differentiated techniques were still frequently incorporated, mostly through process differentiation, such as think-pair-share, one-minute essays, video clips, and analyzing primary documents; yet, these techniques were typically combined with teacher-centered instruction rather than as part of student-centered lessons like the simulations and debates they did at the start of the semester. consistent with our lesson observations, teachers agreed that they returned to their old, more traditional social studies approach. one of the teachers stated during an interview, “there were some choices we made because we had things from previous teachings that we knew worked and were like our fall back. we didn’t execute the plan as we wanted to.” lesson observations indicated that as teachers struggled to stick with the thematic, student-centered approach, students struggled with staying engaged throughout lessons. throughout the eight-week unit, there were always a few students who were not engaged in daily lessons; however, our observations consistently revealed more off-task behavior in the teacher-centered lessons compared to more student-centered lessons and activities. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 1-19 10 teachers’ unit reflections following their eight-week unit, the teachers were dubious about their success at differentiation and powerful and purposeful social studies instruction. one of the teachers noted: we have mixed feelings about [the unit]. i think we had really good intentions and decent plans, but it’s reality when it comes to dealing with lack of time. we wanted to make sure we hit the content and were making those thematic reflections, but we were so rushed with covering the content that i felt like we weren’t doing content justice and making sure [the students] had the basic elements of war. we feel like we didn’t do what we set out to do which was connect [all three wars] through the essential questions. the teachers expressed internal conflict in regards to letting go of traditional, high contentdriven instruction for thematic, student-centered instruction. they felt students would not be able to engage in higher level thinking without knowing the basics. one of the teachers commented: so, we wanted to have this rich conversation about civil liberties: in times of war, should they sacrifice their civil liberties? we wanted to have a big conversation about that, which we did a little bit, but when we were talking about ww1, we didn’t have time to get into depth about it, and so without the content base we couldn’t have that rich conversation. with the amount of time the teachers spent creating this unit and their frustration with the outcome, the teachers were apprehensive to repeat it. one teacher remarked: i think we are playing with this idea, do we want to do war in this manner again? i think perhaps condensing it down and doing war for 8 weeks. maybe it doesn’t work, so maybe we go back to a more chronological approach as opposed to thematically. but i think we would still embed social and political themes throughout, and instead of us interweaving the themes, the kids would bring up the themes. the other teacher added: if we do it again, is it worth it to put more time in because we spent a lot of time in the summer and through october, and it was just like “eh” because we didn’t execute according to plan, and we taught poorly in compared to what we’ve done previously. derek anderson & tanya cook 11 despite the teachers’ mixed feelings towards their unit implementation, they were proud of their students’ accomplishments. the students’ scores did improve from pre-test to post-test with the class average increasing from 43.7%to 73.3%. in addition, the class average on the summative assessment portion of the final exam was 78.2%, which the teachers indicated was similar to other years. though the teachers did not stick with their intended student-centered approaches throughout the unit, they were pleased with the development of their students’ thinking processes. one of the teachers noted: i’m proud of the fact that [the students] were at least thinking about war in terms of its implications on society, and whether or not it’s just and are questioning it, like: should we blindly agree with what the government is doing? [they] were even questioning me. i’m happy with their thinking process and questioning skills they have developed throughout this unit. discussion the two high school social studies teachers in this study set out to teach an eightweek unit using powerful and purposeful social studies (ncss) with an emphasis on differentiation. the teachers wanted to teach differently from how they taught typically, and prior to the unit, they had a clear vision of how they wanted their teaching should be conducted. during our initial interview, one of the teachers commented, “i’ve got the picture. i know how i want to do it. after taking courses and going to countless conferences and workshops, i know how i want to change the way i teach.” the most effective teachers tend to be most open to change (fullan, 2007; richardson, 1990). there is a glut of research on teachers’ resistance to change; however most of that research has examined teachers’ responses to external pressures to change, rather than to changes the teachers themselves want to make (pajares, 1992). successful change in teaching practice requires that teachers change their beliefs first (borg, 2011). in order for teachers to change their actions, they need a clear sense of what they want their new teacher behaviors to consist of. the two teachers in this case study wanted to change and were able clearly articulate their vision. for example, in contrasting their typical methods for delivering and assessing course content, the teachers explained how they wanted to embrace differentiated instruction. one of the teachers described differentiation as, “allowing for multiple journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 1-19 12 approaches for students to play with their learning and show what they know; finding different ways for kids to learn and for them to really bring in to who they are.” she contrasted differentiated instruction with an explanation of traditional social studies instruction: “i think it is very teacher-centered with prescribed outcomes that are closedended. the kids don’t have any input. it’s very regimented and a lot of historical trivia.” differentiation is essential to powerful and purposeful social studies teaching; however, effective differentiation requires more than being knowledgeable of its definition; it requires practice and knowledge of breaking down content for the individual student through differentiated content, process, and product (levy, 2008; tomlinson, 1995; 2000). for much of the unit, the teachers were successful at differentiating, particularly their assessments. one of the teachers commented, “a lot of the end products we are giving are culminating activities. we give them choices they can do a song, a poster. i think kids are hungry for opportunities to fly and they are crying out for a chance to show off their stuff.” despite their success with differentiating the students’ learning products, the teachers’ use of differentiation for the learning content or process was limited (tomlinson, 1995; 2000). our observations of nearly 40 lessons revealed that when the teachers differentiated their teaching (learning process), their students were more engaged through participation, enriched discussions with peers, and on-task behaviors. differentiated instruction leads to students being appropriately challenged resulting in less cause for boredom or feelings of overwhelming difficulty. prior to teaching their unit, the teachers described effective differentiation and declared that they intended to make it a priority. in the early stages of the unit, they did differentiate the learning process for their students, with great success. as the weeks went on, however, the teachers returned to a more traditional, transmission style of teaching. as their unit progressed, the teachers in this study seemed to face barriers in the way of their quest to engage students in powerful and purposeful social studies. onosko (1991, 1992) asserted that there are five barriers in the way of deep, engaging social studies: 1. a tradition of transmission-style social studies instructional model 2. a curriculum emphasis on breadth 3. large class sizes 4. lack of teacher prep and work time 5. high number of courses taught per day derek anderson & tanya cook 13 the teachers in this study faced large class sizes (average of 35 per class), had to teach five classes per day, and were allotted only one prep period each day, which certainly hindered their change efforts. it was the first two barriers, however, that kept them from fully implementing the type of teaching they set out to do. the three barriers onosko identified regarding teacher time could be classified as first-order barriers to change (cuban, 1988; fullan, 2007). on the other hand, the first two barriers, though still part of intuitional structures, are related to teacher beliefs and are therefore second-order barriers to change. first-order barriers to change in teaching practice tend to be extrinsic to the teachers’ sphere of influence (ertmer, 1999). first-order barriers involve logistical and procedural practices. second-order barriers to teacher change, however, involve teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning (ertmer, 1999; richardson, 1990). second-order barriers are often tacit and not even recognized by teachers (kerr, 1996). because second-order barriers are deeply rooted and imperceptible, they are far more difficult to overcome than first-order barriers (ertmer, 1999). in this study, the teachers were able to overcome first-order barriers rather easily, without regression throughout the eight-week unit. at the start they were also able to surmount the second-order barriers, but after a couple of weeks they reverted to long-held practices. in particular, the two teachers could not overcome onosko’s (1991) first two barriers; they could not forgo a transmission style of teaching or emphasize depth over breadth of curriculum. the two teachers’ attempts and powerful and purposeful social studies teaching were attenuated by their experiences as students and teachers where social studies consisted of neutral, fact-based, teacher-centered instruction. the teachers began their unit with an emphasis on small-group work and simulations, which the teachers found to be successful. yet, as the unit progressed, we observed the teachers doing more of the talking. their plan was to focus students’ thinking and writing around 10 essential questions. early in the unit, the questions played a large role in how class time was spent; however, of the 38 lessons we observed, only six lessons focused on the essential questions, all of which occurred early in the unit. the teachers expressed frustration that their students lacked content knowledge, and therefore felt compelled to transmit knowledge to them using traditional teachercentered methods. for example, one of the teachers remarked, “there are certain aspects that we want the students to know. i can’t have them go into higher order thinking if they don’t know the basics.” ironically, early in the unit when they had their students journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 1-19 14 participate in a simulation, which required higher-order thinking, the students performed admirably, even though they lacked content knowledge. social studies teachers have always complained about students’ lack of knowledge (guidry et al. 2010; hinde, 2005). one of the teachers in this study vented, “i hate that they don’t know as much as they used to when they come to me. if they don’t know certain things, i just feel like as an american citizen they need to know these things.” with their growing frustration over their students not knowing some of the “basics”, the teachers reverted to their deeply ingrained beliefs that social studies knowledge trumps higher-order thinking. as the weeks went on, the two teachers could not overcome the second-order change barrier of a transmission-style of teaching social studies. their attempts at cognitively-demanding thematic instruction were also thwarted by their propensity to emphasize breadth of coverage over depth. the two teachers felt compelled to “get through the material.” they recognized during the planning process that teaching in a thematic, student-centered manner would require them to leave some content out. one of teachers noted, “there is just so much cool stuff we could do, but we have to pick the best stuff.” white (1995) described how thematic instruction emphasizes depth of coverage: [thematic instruction] forces the teacher and student to identify fundamental ideas within a subject. this can only be done if teachers selectively and judiciously abandon less important content in favor of more important ideas. the view that all content is of equal value simply is not feasible in theory or practice (p. 161). covering content is a primary component of most social studies teaching (barton & levstik, 2003). the two teachers began their unit emphasizing depth over breadth, but as the unit progressed, they began to recognize that they were not going to be able to cover as much as they had planned. one of the teachers described how they got behind schedule: “the simulation took longer than we planned, so we had to cram two days into one.” even though both teachers spoke positively about the simulation activity, and it was clear that the students were engaged throughout, the teachers still obligated to use transmission-style instruction to cover all the planned material. their deeply held beliefs about content coverage won out over their new commitment to focusing on depth using thematic instruction differentiation. derek anderson & tanya cook 15 conclusion teachers who set out to deliver powerful and purposeful social studies are to be commended. the two high school social studies teachers who were the focus of this case study set out with an ambitious goal of teaching an integrated, thematic eight-week unit on war with an emphasis on differentiation. prior to teaching the unit, they proclaimed their passion and desire to improve their social studies practice in an era where social studies is increasingly marginalized, class sizes are growing, and administrative and societal expectations seem insatiable. their unit and lesson plans reflected this desire, and at the start of the unit, the teachers were successful at meeting their goal; however, by the end of the eight-week unit, the two teachers reverted to their old practices of transmission-style of instruction with an emphasis on breadth over depth. our analysis of multiple sources of data, including 38 lesson observations and three lengthy interviews, suggests that the teachers faced second-order barriers to change. they encountered conflicts between their long-held tacit beliefs and their new espoused beliefs about teaching high school social studies. much has been written about the role of beliefs in transforming teaching practice. in order for teachers to make significant, lasting changes to their teaching practices, they have to acknowledge how their deeply-held beliefs about teaching and learning, and how their educational experience, differ from how they want to teach (sheingold, 1991). there is great debate about whether change in beliefs must precede change in practice (pajares, 1992); however, it is generally agreed that reflection is essential to change (marcos, sanchez, & tillema, 2011; schön, 1991). likewise, collaboration increases the likelihood that teachers will change their practice (schmoker, 2006). the teachers in the study were conflicted about their attempt at changing the way they teach. though proud of their initial success, the teachers recognized the pull to retain their regular practices. they acknowledged the barriers in the way of deep, engaging social studies instruction (onosko, 1991), yet their beliefs are evolving through their new experiences, reflections, and collaboration. when teachers launch ambitious goals and recognize the challenges of changing how they teach, powerful and purposeful social studies can prevail (schmoker, 2006). journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 1-19 16 references anderson, d. (2014). outliers: elementary teachers who actually teach social studies. the social studies, 105(2), 91-100, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00377996.2013.850055 barton, k. c., & levstik, l. s. (2003). why don't more history teachers engage students in interpretation?. social education, 67(6), 358-358. barton, k., & smith, l. (2000). themes or motifs? aiming for coherence through interdisciplinary outlines. the reading teacher, 54(1), 54-63. retrieved from http://www.reading.org/general/publications/journals/rt.aspx borg, s. (2011). the impact of in-service teacher education on language teachers’ beliefs. system, 39(3), 370-380. charmaz, k. (2006). constructing grounded theory: a practical guide through qualitative analysis. london: sage. cohen, l., manion, l., & morrison, k. (2011). research methods in education. london: routledge. cuban, l. (1988). constancy and change in schools (1880's to the present). in p. jackson (ed.), contribution to educational change: perspectives on research and practice (pp. 85-106). berkeley, ca: mccutcheon. dewey, j. (1938). logic: the theory of inquiry. carbondale, il: siu press. ertmer, p. a. (1999). addressing first-and second-order barriers to change: strategies for technology integration. educational technology research and development, 47(4), 47-61. fullan, m. (2007). the new meaning of educational change. new york: teachers college press. glaser, b. g., & straus, a. l. (1967). the discovery of grounded theory. chicago: aldine. guidry, a., cuthrell, k., o’connor, k., & good, a. (2010). from the green mile to the yellow brick road: using a practical model to fill in the social studies content gap. the social studies, 101(1), 22-29. hinde, e. (2005). revisiting curriculum integration: a fresh look at an old idea. the social studies, 96(3), 105-111. hootstein, e. w. (1999). differentiation of instructional methodologies in social studies at the secondary level. journal of social studies research, 23(1), 11-18. retrieved from http://www.thejssr.com/ http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00377996.2013.850055� http://www.reading.org/general/publications/journals/rt.aspx� derek anderson & tanya cook 17 jewett, s. (2007). the stories of people’s lives: thematic investigations and the development of critical social studies. the social studies, 98(4), 165171. kaiser, c. (2010). redrawing the boundaries: a constructivist approach to combating student apathy in the secondary history classroom. the history teacher, 43(2), 223-232. retrieved from http://www.thehistoryteacher.org/ kalina, c. & powell, k.c. (2009), cognitive and social constructivism: developing tools for an effective classroom. education, 130, 241-250. retrieved from http://www.projectinnovation.biz/education.html kerr, s. (1996). visions of sugarplums: the future of technology, education, and the schools. in s. t. kerr. (ed.), technology and the future of schooling (pp. 1-27). national society for the study of education. chicago: chicago university press. levy, h. (2008). meeting the needs of all students through differentiated instruction: helping every child reach and exceed standards. the clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues and ideas, 81 (4), 161-164. marcos, j. m., sanchez, e., & tillema, h. h. (2011). promoting teacher reflection: what is said to be done. journal of education for teaching, 37(1), 21-36. mcbee, r. h. (2000). why teachers integrate. the educational forum, 64, 254-260. merriam, s. (1998). qualitative research and case study applications in education. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. national standards for social studies teachers (2010). national council for the social studies. retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/teacherstandards onosko, j. j. (1992). an approach to designing thoughtful units. the social studies, 83(5), 193-196. onosko, j. j. (1991). barriers to the promotion of higher-order thinking in social studies. theory & research in social education, 19(4), 341-366. pajares, m. f. (1992). teachers’ beliefs and educational research: cleaning up a messy construct. review of educational research, 62(3), 307-332. pederson, p. (2010). what is measured is treasured: the impact of the no child left behind act on nonassessed subjects. clearing house: a journal of education strategies, issues, and ideas, 80, 287-291. piaget, j. (1953). the origin of intelligence in the child. london: routledge & paul. richardson, v. (1990). significant and worthwhile change in teaching practice. educational researcher, 19(7), 10-18. http://www.projectinnovation.biz/education.html� http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/teacherstandards� journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 1-19 18 schmoker, m. (2006). results now: how we can achieve unprecedented improvements in teaching and learning. alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. schön, d. a. (1991). the reflective turn: case studies in and on educational practice. new york: teachers press, columbia university. sheingold, k. (1991). restructuring for learning with technology: the potential for synergy. phi delta kappan, 73(1). 17-27. shernoff, d., csikszentmihalyi, m., schneider, b., & shernoff, e. s. (2003). student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. school psychology quarterly, 18(2), 158-176. stake, r. e. (1995). the art of case study research. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. stephens, p. (2007). does integrated thematic instruction motivate and encourage culturally and linguistically diverse students in self-directed learning? retrieved from teachers network website: http://www.teachersnetwork.org/tnli/research/stephens.pdf tanner, l. (2008). no child left behind is just the tip of the iceberg. the social studies, 99(1), 41-48. tomlinson, c. (1995). deciding to differentiate instruction in middle school: one school's journey. gifted child quarterly, 39, 77-87. tomlinson, c. (2000). reconcilable differences? standards-based teaching and differentiation. educational leadership. 58 (1), 6-11. retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership.aspx vars, g. & beane, j. (2000). integrative curriculum in a standards-based world. eric digest. retrieved from eric database. (edo-ps-00-6) vygotsky, l. s. (1962). the development of scientific concepts in childhood. cambridge, ma: mit press. white, r. (1995). how thematic teaching can transform history instruction. the clearing house 68(3), 160-162. windschitl, m. (2002). framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: an analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. review of educational research, 72 (2), 131-175. yin, r. k. (1994). case study research: design and methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. http://www.teachersnetwork.org/tnli/research/stephens.pdf� derek anderson & tanya cook 19 yin, r. k. (2011). qualitative research from start to finish. new york, ny: guilford publications, inc. zhao, y. & hoge, j. (2010). what elementary students and teachers say about social studies. the social studies, 96, 216-221. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi i from the editor dear colleagues and readers, it is my pleasure to share with you the may 2017 issue (8/1) of journal of social studies education research. i strongly believe once again that you will have a chance to meet with invaluable studies in this issue. through each new issue we publish strengthen our belief in reaching our goals for the future. with this opportunity i would like to emphasize once again that recent socio-cultural and economic developments in all around the world require us, as social studies educators, to reconsider our responsibilities while training citizens and to act accordingly in order to have permanent peace and tranquility. it is a need to struggle for raising individuals who will establish the desired peace and tranquility starting from local to national and global level. since the first day of jsser, we strive to act on with this awareness. i hope you will enjoy reading and learning about the latest studies from different parts of the world. in this issue, you will meet seven new distinguished studies. the studies that we think will contribute to the social studies literature are as follow: (i) edi̇törden değerli meslektaşların ve okurlar, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergimizin mayıs 2017 (8/1) sayısnı sizlerle paylaşıyor olmanın vermiş olduğu mutluluğu ifade ederek sözlerime başlamak istiyorum. bu sayımızda da çok değerli çalışmaları inceleme fırsatı bulacağınızdan oldukça eminim. yayınladığımız her yeni sayı geleceğe yönelik hedeflerimizin gerçekleşeceğine olan inancımızı daha da güçlendirmektedir. bu fırsat ile bir kez daha vurgulamak istiyorum ki dünya çapında yaşanan sosyo-kültürel ve ekonomik anlamda önemli tarihi gelişmeler, sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri olarak vatandaş yetiştirmede üzerimize düşen sorumlukları bir kez daha gözden geçirmemizi, kalıcı barış ve huzurun tesisinin mümkün olabilmesi için bu gelişmelerin ve sorumlulukların farkında olarak hareket etmemizi gerektirmektedir. böylece yerelden başlayarak milli ve küresel düzeylerde istenilen barış ve huzuru tesis edebilecek bireyler yetiştirilmesi için mücadele vermek gerekecektir. i̇lk günden beri vurguladığımız gibi biz, sbead ailesi olarak bu bilinçle hareket etmeye gayret ediyoruz. dünyanın farklı bölgelerinde yapılan en son çalışmaları içeren bu sayımızı zevk alarak www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi ii the first one is that studied by stewart waters and natalie mashburn as titled “an investigation of middle school teachers’ perceptions on bullying”. “developing globally minded, critical media literacy skills” (ii)after that, you will meet a study researched by ahmed hamed al-rabaani and intisar hamed alaamri “the effect of using cartoons on developing omani grade 4 students’ awareness of water issues and their attitudes towards using them in teaching social studies” (iii) jana martincová and pavla andrysová “professional preparation of students of social pedagogy in the czech republic” (iv) jason harshman “developing globally minded, critical media literacy skills” (v) joshua l. kenna and cyndi mottola poole “social science pre-service teachers’ preparation to teach about asia: a research study” (vi) daniel armond cowgill ii and scott m. waring “historical thinking: an evaluation of student and teacher ability to analyze sources”, (vii) john h. bickford iii, “the curriculum development of experienced teachers who are inexperienced with history-based pedagogy”. i would like to thank everyone and express my special appreciation to the people who okuyacağınızı ümit ediyorum. bu sayımızda yedi yeni çalışmayı sizlerle buluşturuyoruz. sosyal bilgiler literatürüne katkı sağlayacağını düşündüğümüz bu çalışmalar şu şekilde sıralanmaktadır: (i) çalışmalardan ilki stewart waters ve natalie mashburn tarafından hazırlanmış olan “an investigation of middle school teachers’ perceptions on bullying” başlıklı çalışmadır. (ii) daha sonra ise sırasıyla bu sayıda şu çalışmalar bu sayıda yer alacaktır; ahmed hamed al-rabaani and intisar hamed alaamri’nin “the effect of using cartoons on developing omani grade 4 students’ awareness of water issues and their attitudes towards using them in teaching social studies” (iii) jana martincová and pavla andrysová “professional preparation of students of social pedagogy in the czech republic” (iv) jason harshman “developing globally minded, critical media literacy skills” (v) joshua l. kenna and cyndi mottola poole “social science pre-service teachers’ preparation to teach about asia: a research study” (vi) daniel armond cowgill ii and scott m. waring “historical thinking: an evaluation of student and teacher ability to analyze sources”, (vii) john h. bickford iii, “the curriculum development of experienced teachers who www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi iii contributed to make this issue ready for you. until the next issue, i hope all of you have a productive and enjoyable summer. sincerely, bulent tarman, ph.d editor-in-chief, jsser are inexperienced with history-based pedagogy”. bu sayının sizlerle buluşmasında emeği geçen ve katkısı olan herkese teşekkür etmeyi bir borç bilirim. bir sonraki sayımızda buluşmak ümidiyle ve en derin saygılarımla güzel ve üretici bir yaz geçirmenizi temenni ediyorum. bülent tarman, (ph.d) baş editör, sbead www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2010: 1(1), 50-87 © 2010 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 sosyal bilgiler dersi kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programının etkililiği the effıcıency of beıng scıentıfıc focused character educatıon programme in socıal studıes course ahmet katılmış1, halil ekşi2 ve cemil öztürk3 özet: bu araştırmada, ders kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş karakter eğitimi programının, ilköğretim 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde doğrudan verilecek değerler arasında yer alan bilimselliğin kazandırılmasına olan etkisini tespit etmek amaçlanmıştır. ön test-son test ve kontrol gruplu yarı deneysel desene göre yapılan bu araştırmanın sürecinde, öncelikli olarak ders kazanımlarıyla uyumlu karakter eğitimi programı ve ölçme araçları geliştirilmiştir. bu kapsamda uygulanacak olan 12 ders saatlik program hazırlanmış ve programın bilimsellik değerinin edindirilmesine olan etkisini ölçebilmek için 5’li likert tipi sorulardan oluşan bilimsellik ölçeği geliştirilmiştir. ayrıca öğrenci tercihlerinin nedenlerini ortaya koyabilmek amacıyla yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu hazırlanmıştır. bu ön hazırlıkların tamamlanmasından sonra bizzat araştırmacının katılımı ile yürütülen uygulama aşamasına geçilmiştir. araştırmanın uygulaması, 2008 yılının bahar döneminde i̇stanbul ilinin ümraniye ilçesinde bulunan bir devlet ilköğretim okulunda gerçekleştirilmiştir. uygulamaya başlamadan önce sınıflardan biri deney diğeri kontrol grubu olarak atanmıştır. grupların denk olduğu istatistikî işlemle tespit edilmiştir. deney grubuna ders kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programı uygulanırken kontrol grubunda normal ders programı uygulanmıştır. haftada 3 ders saati olmak üzere toplam 12 ders saati süren uyguma sonucunda bilimsellik destekli karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin yükselmesine istatistikî olarak anlamlı olacak biçimde olumlu etki yaptığı saptanmıştır. anahtar kelimeler: bilimsellik, değerler eğitimi, sosyal bilgiler, karakter eğitimi. extended abstract being scientific is among direct values of 7th grade social studies curriculum. in this study, it was aimed to determinate the effect of the social studies integrated character education program on this value. 1 dr., marmara üniversitesi, akatilmis@marmara.edu.tr 2 doç.dr., marmara üniversitesi, halileksi@marmara.edu.tr 3 prof. dr., marmara üniversitesi, cemilozturk@yahoo.com ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 51 in this study, pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design was used and a character education program and a measurement tool were developed in connection with aims of the social studies course. in this context, a course schedule was prepared for 12 hours and to measure the effect of this program on being scientific value, 5 point likert scale was developed. besides, to determine the reasons of the students’ choices, a semi-structured interview form was developed. after those preliminaries, the researcher began to the implementation phase. the implementation phase was fulfilled in spring term of 2008, in a state school in umraniye district of istanbul. before the implementation phase, a class was determined as experimental group while another was chosen as control group. equivalence of the groups was determined through statistical procedures. the social studies integrated character education program was implemented to the experimental group and the normal program was implemented to the control group. the implementation phase was proceeded throughout 12 hours. after this, it was found that being scientific value supported character education program had statistically meaningful effect on being scientific value. in this context, after the analyse of the data following results were found: 1. the mean scores of the students in experimental group in the whole post-test of being scientific scale is higher than those of the students in control group. the score difference between the groups are statistically significant. 2. the mean scores of the students in experimental group in the curiosity and ciritical thinking subdimensions of post-test of being scientific scale is higher than those of the students in control group. the score difference between the groups are statistically significant. 3. the mean scores of the students in experimental group in the convincing and ethic subdimensions of post-test of being scientific scale is higher than those of the students in control group. the score difference between the groups are statistically significant. 4. the mean scores of the students in experimental group in the freedom sub-dimension of post-test of being scientific scale is higher than those of the students in control group. the score difference between the groups are statistically significant. 5. the mean scores of the students in experimental group in the whole delayed post test of being scientific scale is higher than those of the students in control group. the score difference between the groups are statistically significant. 6. the mean scores of the students in experimental group in the curiosity and ciritical thinking subdimensions of delayed post-test of being scientific scale is higher than those of the students in control group. the score difference between the groups are statistically significant. 7. the mean scores of the students in experimental group in the convincing and ethic subdimensions of delayed post-test of being scientific scale is higher than those of the students in control group. the score difference between the groups are statistically significant. 8. the mean scores of the students in experimental group in the freedom sub-dimension of delayed post-test of being scientific scale is higher than those of the students in control group. the score difference between the groups are statistically significant. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 52 we can express those data briefly like this: the effect of the being scientific based character education program on gaining necessary knowledge, attitude and behaviors was positive. in other words, character education program effected the students’ being scientific levels positively and that effect was long lasting. besides, results that were gathered through analyse of the quantitative data were supoorted with the qulitative data. keywords: being scientific, values education, social studies, character education günümüzde insani değerlerin azaldığı ya da bu değerlere yeterince önem verilmediği düşüncesi akademik ve popüler yayınlarda yoğun bir şekilde vurgulanmaktadır. bu kapsamda en temel insan haklarından faydalanılabilmesi için gerekli olan toplumsal yapının zorlandığı belirtilmektedir (lickona, 1991; ryan ve bohlin, 1999). bu ifadelerde vurgulanan durumun türkiye için de geçerli olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. yani uzun vadede türk toplumunun kültürel yapısının zedelenmesine neden olarak toplumsal hayatın makul ölçülerde devam etmesini zorlaştırabilecek bir problem alanı ile karşı karşıya bulunduğumuzu ve söz konusu problem alanını ortadan kaldırmaya yönelik çalışmaların yapılmasının gerekli olduğunu ifade edebiliriz. bu problem alanını ortadan kaldırmaya yönelik çalışmalar farklı disiplinlerin çalışma alanına girmektedir. bu disiplinlerden biri de eğitimdir. çünkü en genel anlamda eğitim kişiye, toplum hayatına intibak edebilmesi için gerekli olan davranışların kazandırılmaya çalışıldığı bir süreçtir (akbaş, 2004). bu süreç içinde, toplumun değer yargıları ve kültürel unsurları toplumun devamını sağlamak amacıyla kasıtlı olarak bireylere aktarılmaktadır (ertürk, 1997; demirel, 2007). başka bir anlatımla bir toplumun kendi kültürünce değerli addedilen anlayış ve tutumları, o toplumun okulları tavassutuyla yeni yetişen genç nesle kazandırılmaktadır (nucci, 2001). ayrıca temel insani değerleri benimsemiş bireyleri yetiştirmek okulun amaçları arasında olduğu gibi toplumun da okullardan bu yönde bir beklentisi vardır (ekşi, 2003). dolayısıyla okulun sadece akademik bilgi vermekle yetinmeyip yukarıda bahsedilen problem alanını ortadan kaldırmaya yönelik kasıtlı uygulamaları da yapması gerekmektedir. i̇nsanlar kendi hayatlarını güvence altına almak için söz konusu hayat süresince kendilerine lazım olacak müktesebatı tam anlamıyla temin etmek maksadıyla farklı uğraş alanlarına yönelmektedirler. bu nitelikten hareketle insanlarla devletler arasında büyük benzerliklerin olduğunu görebiliriz. başka bir anlatımla tıpkı devletler de insanlar gibi varlıklarını güvence altına almak ve gelecekte daha iyi konumda olabilmek ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 53 için çeşitli faaliyetler için uzun vadeli planlamalar yapmaktadır. bu planlı faaliyetlerin eğitim boyutunda ise devletin devamını sağlayacak nitelikte insan yetiştirmeye odaklanılmaktadır. bu durumun gereği olarak her devletin, eğitim ve öğretim faaliyetlerini tanzim ederken göz önünde bulundurduğu amaçlardan birini de kendi varlığının devamını arzulayacak bireyleri yetiştirmek düşüncesi oluşturmaktadır. bu düşünce, eğitim ve öğretime yönelik çıkarılan kanunlarda dile getirilmektedir. bir ülkedeki eğitim faaliyetleri eğitime yönelik çıkarılan kanunlar çerçevesinde yürütülmektedir. çünkü söz konusu kanunlar bir ülkedeki eğitim faaliyetlerine genel bir çerçeve çizmektedir. bu bağlamda, türkiye’de eğitim faaliyetlerinin genel amaçları ve ilkeleri ile devletin eğitim ve öğretim alanındaki görev ve sorumluluğunu da düzenleyen, 1973 yılında yayımlanan daha sonraki tarihlerde yapılan değişiklik ve eklerle uygulaması devam eden 1739 sayılı milli eğitim temel kanununun, türk milli eğitiminin genel amaçlarını tanımlarken hem bilimsel düşünceye hem de makul karakter niteliklerine sahip bireylerin yetiştirilmesini öncelediği görülmektedir (meb, 1997). hatta söz konusu kanunda saygı, sorumluluk, özgürlük, ahlâklı olmak, toplum yararına çalışmak çerçevesinde yapılan vurgulamalardan dolayı karakter eğitimine yönelik uygulamaların hayata geçirilmesinin kanunca zorunlu hale getirildiğini de söyleyebiliriz. çünkü bu yöndeki çalışmalar karakter eğitimi kapsamındaki uygulamaları içermektedir (lickona, 1991). i̇nsanlık tarihi boyunca, toplumların beka ve refahının sağlanmasında tayin edici faktörlerden biri olan eğitim; amaç, kapsam ve yöntem bakımından, farklılaşan dünya koşullarına göre değişime uğramıştır. nitekim türkiye’de de ilköğretim ders programları dünyadaki gelişmelerin ışığında yeniden hazırlanmış ve hazırlanan bu yeni ders programları 2005–2006 eğitim ve öğretim yılından itibaren yürürlüğe konmuştur. öğretmekten çok öğrenmenin merkeze alınmasına, öğrencilere araştırma becerileri kazandırılmasına ve öğrencilerin kendi bireysel özelliklerini keşfederek problem çözme yetilerinin geliştirilmesine vurgu yapılan söz konusu programda, demokratik toplum içinde kendine güvenerek sorumluluk alabilen bireyler yetiştirmenin amaçlandığı söylenebilir. buna paralel olarak yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında önceki programlarda olduğu gibi türk toplumunun değerlerinin gelecek kuşaklara aktarılmasına ve evrensel çapta paylaşılabilecek değerlerin yetişen yeni genç nesle kazandırılmasına vurgu yapılmıştır. bu çerçevede hazırlanan yeni program bilgi, beceri, journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 54 değer ve kavram öğeleri üzerine inşa edilmiştir. özelikle demokratik tutum ve değerlerin kazandırılmasına öncelik verilmiştir (ata, 2009). programda demokratik bir toplum düzeninin sürdürülebilmesi için gerekli olan yurttaşlık özelliklerinin üzerinde durularak olumlu karakter özelliklerine sahip bireylerin yetiştirilmesi amaç edinilmiştir. bunun için de saygı, vatanseverlik, etik, hoşgörü, barış, dürüstlük, bilimsellik ve adil olma gibi karakter özellikleri doğrudan verilecek değerler olarak program içeriğine dâhil edilmiştir (meb, 2005). bu karakter özelliklerinin program içeriğinde kendine yer bulması, bunların genç bireylere nasıl kazandırılacağı konusunda gerekli araştırmaların yapılmasını zorunlu kılmaktadır. çünkü bu tür araştırmalar, hem programın etkili uygulanabilmesi hem de uygulamayı gerçekleştirecek sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine uygulamada alternatifler sunması bakımından gereklidir. öte yandan karakter eğitimi programlarının etkisini sınamaya yönelik yurt dışında gerçekleştirilen araştırmalarda, karakter eğitimi programlarının öğrencilerin karakter gelişimine ve akademik başarılarına olumlu yönde etki ettiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır (allard, 2001; brand, 1999; costanzo, 2005; davis, 2006; germine, 2001; grimbilas, 2009; prencipe, 2001) yukarıda da değinildiği gibi yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında bilimselliğe doğrudan verilecek değerler olarak yer verilmiştir. aynı zamanda türk milli eğitiminin temel ilkelerinden biri olan bilimsellik ilgili kanunda şöyle açıklanmıştır: “her derece ve türdeki ders programları ve eğitim metotlarıyla ders araç ve gereçleri, bilimsel ve teknolojik esaslara ve yeniliklere, çevre ve ülke ihtiyaçlarına göre sürekli olarak geliştirilir. eğitimde verimliliğin artırılması ve sürekli olarak gelişme ve yenileşmenin sağlanması bilimsel araştırma ve değerlendirmelere dayalı olarak yapılır. bilgi ve teknoloji üretmek ve kültürümüzü geliştirmekle görevli eğitim kurumları gereğince donatılıp güçlendirilir; bu yöndeki çalışmalar maddi ve manevi bakımından teşvik edilir ve desteklenir” (meb, 2009). bu açımlamadan da görülebileceği gibi türk eğitim sistemi içinde bilimsel düşüncenin geliştirilmesi ve benimsenmesi hedefine ulaşmaya veya yetişen yeni genç neslin bilimsellik düzeylerinin geliştirilmesine yönelik faaliyet ve çalışmalarının yapılmasına büyük önem verildiğini söyleyebiliriz. bu bağlamda bu hedeflerin gerçekleşme düzeyini gösterecek ölçme araçlarının geliştirilmesi de ayrı problem durumu olarak kendini göstermektedir. çünkü söz konusu hedeflerin ulaşılma derecesinin tespit edilip ilgili değerlendirmeler ışığında yapılması gerekenlere karar verilebilmesi böyle bir aracın geliştirilmesine bağlıdır. söz konusu zorunluluk ise bu ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 55 araştırmanın yapılmasına zemin hazırlayan problem alanının bir boyutunu teşkil etmektedir. kökleri ilgili literatürde eski yunalı düşünürlere kadar götürülen karakter eğitimi, genel olarak öğrencilerin iyiyi bilmelerini, iyiyi arzulamalarını ve iyiyi yapmalarını sağlamak amacıyla yapılan kasıtlı uygulamalar olarak tanımlanmaktadır (lickona, 1991). bu amaçlarda başarılı olabilmek yani etkili bir karakter eğitimi uygulaması gerçekleştirebilmek için göz önünde bulundurulması gereken ilkeleri rusnak (1998: 4-6) aşağıda verildiği gibi sıralamaktadır: 1. karakter eğitimi, sadece bir dersin konusu olarak görülmemelidir. aksine okul programlarında yer alan tüm ders ve derslerin içeriğini oluşturan konu alanlarında görünür kılınmalıdır. kısaca karakter eğitimine okulda öğrenciler için planlanan deneyimlerin hepsinde yer verilmelidir. 2. karakter eğitimi öğrenci eylemlerini de kapsayacak biçimde tasarlanmalıdır. yani sadece değerlerin bilişsel düzeyde gerçekleştirilmesiyle yetinilmeyip öğrencinin eylemlerde bulunabileceği ortamların öğrencilere sunulması gerekmektedir. kısaca karakter eğitimi bir eylem eğitimi olarak kabul edilmeli ve bu kabulü yansıtacak faaliyetleri içerecek tarzda uygulanmalıdır. 3. pozitif okul ortamı karakter inşasına yardım eder. bundan dolayı, okul genç bireylere olumlu rol modelleri sunmalıdır. yani okul personeli tutum ve tavırlarıyla öğrencilerin karakter gelişimine destek olmaları gerekmektedir. bunun için okulun benimsediği değerler sistemi (okul etosu)nin öğrencilerin karakter gelişime katkı sağlayacak nitelikte olması ve yine okulun önceden yaptığı hazırlıklarla (proaktive) öğrencilerin karakter gelişimini desteklemesi elzemdir. 4. okul, karakter eğitimi uygulamalarını ya da öğrencilerin karakter gelişimini kendi politika ve misyonunun bir parçası olarak görmelidir. 5. etkili karakter eğitiminin gerçekleşmesi için özgür ve yetkili öğretmenlerle mümkün olacağı için öğretmenlerin, merkez programın kısıtlamaları olmaksızın öğretim yapmaları gerekmektedir. 6. okul ve toplumun karakter gelişimindeki ortaklığı hayati öneme sahiptir. bundan dolayı karakter eğitimi, gençlerin karakter gelişimini etkileyen ya da etkileyebilecek tüm değişkenleri kapsayacak içerikte düzenlenmelidir. bu journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 56 bağlamda karakter eğitimi tüm okul personelini ve okulun bulunduğu bölgedeki yerel topluluğun tamamını içine almalıdır. verilen ilkeleri incelediğimiz zaman, yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında değerlerin kazandırılmasında kullanılmak üzere önerilen yaklaşım ve yöntem ile uyumlu olduklarını söyleyebiliriz. çünkü yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında da değerler için ayrı bir zaman dilimi veya öğrenme/öğretme saati tanzim edilmemekte, değerlerin ilgili ünite kazanımlarıyla birlikte gerçekleştirilmesi benimsenmektedir. başka bir anlatımla ilgili programda açık olarak ifade edilmemekle birlikte ders kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş bir değerler eğitimi sürecinden bahsedilmektedir. ne var ki programda bu sürecin nasıl ilerleyeceği konusunda yeterli bilgilendirme yapılmamakta ve uygulama örneklerine yer verilmemektedir. bu bağlamda sosyal bilgiler ders kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş değerler eğitimi örneklerinin geliştirilip bunların uygulama sonuçlarının raporlaştırılması da bir problem durumu olarak kendini hissettirmektedir. ayrıca karakter eğitimi programlarının da yetişen yeni genç nesle saygı, sorumluluk, dürüstlük, adalet gibi bazı evrensel değerlerin kazandırılması amacıyla uygulanmaktadır. bu boyutu göz önüne aldığımız zaman, ders kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programının bilimsellik niteliğinin kazandırılmasına olan etkisinin tespit edilmesi zikredilen problem durumunun çözüme kavuşturulmasına veya ilgili problem alanına yönelik alternatiflerin durumu hakkında verilecek kararlara etki edebilir. özet olarak, yukarıda verilen paragrafların içeriğinden de anlaşılacağı gibi çağımızda toplumsal hayatın seyrinin yaşanabilir bir iklimde devam etmesi için, bireylerin bu iklime olumlu yönde katkıda bulunabilecek karakter özelliklerine sahip olması gerekmektedir. bu tür özelliklerin gençlere kazandırılması ile ilgili çalışma ve araştırmalar bazı ülkelerde yapılmaktadır. türkiye’de ise türk milli eğitim temel kanunu’nda iyi karakter özelliklerine sahip bireylerin yetiştirilmesi demokratik cumhuriyetin devamının sağlanması için zorunlu görülmektedir. aynı zamanda asıl amacının demokratik toplum için gerekli becerilere sahip bireyleri yetiştirilmesini sağlamak olan sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programına doğrudan verilecek değerler olarak saygı, dürüstlük, etik, adil olma, barış, bilimsellik ve vatanseverlik gibi değerlerin alınması bu değerlerin nasıl kazandırılacağına yönelik çalışmaların yapılmasını gerekli kılmaktadır. öte yandan bu değerlerin kazandırılması hedefini ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 57 gerçekleştirmek için yapılan karakter eğitimi uygulamalarında olumlu sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır. bu bağlamda araştırmanın problem cümlesini 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programı öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin geliştirilmesinde etkili midir? sorusu oluşturmaktadır. amaç bu araştırmada, 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin geliştirilmesine olan etkisini tespit etmek amaçlanmıştır. bu amaç kapsamında test edilecek olan hipotezler aşağıda verilmiştir. hipotez 1: karakter eğitimi programı, öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin gelişmesinde etkilidir. bu kapsamda aşağıdaki alt hipotezler sınanacaktır: hipotez 1.1: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününden aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 1.2: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 1.3: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “etik ve kanıt kullanma” boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 1.4: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “özgürlük” alt boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 2: karakter eğitimi programı, öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin kalıcılığı üzerinde etkilidir. bu kapsamda aşağıdaki hipotezler sınanacaktır: hipotez 2.1: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününden aldıkları kalıcılık testi puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 2.2: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık testi puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir fark vardır. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 58 hipotez 2.3: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık testi puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 2.4: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “özgürlük” alt boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık testi puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 2.5: deney grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününden ve alt boyutlarından aldıkları son test puanları ile kalıcılık testi puanları arasında kalıcılık testi lehinde olmak üzere istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı bir fark vardır. yöntem bu araştırmada, deneme modellerinden olan ön test-son test ve kontrol gruplu yarı deneysel model tercih edilmiştir. bu tercihin sebebi, çalışmada bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programının uygulandığı grup (deney grubu) ile bu programın uygulanmadığı grup (kontrol grubu) arasında bilimselliğin kazandırılma düzeyi arasında karşılaştırma yapılacak olmasıdır. deneysel desenin de bu tür karşılaştırmaların yapılabilmesine olanak sağlamasıdır (karasar, 2006: 110). araştırma modelleri içinde en kesin sonuçların elde edildiği model olarak nitelenen deneme modelinin ilgili literatür incelediği zaman farklı uygulama biçimleri olan ve tam (gerçek) deneysel yöntem, zayıf deneysel yöntem, faktöryel desenler ve yarı deneysel desenler olarak adlandırılan türlerinin olduğu görülmektedir (altunışık ve diğer, 2007; böke, 2009; çepni, 2007; neuman, 2008). bu araştırmada adı geçen türlerden yarı deneysel yöntem tercih edilmiştir. seçkisiz atamayı içermeyen yarı deneysel desende hazır gruplardan ikisi işlem gruplarına seçkisiz olarak atanır (fraenkel ve wallen, 2000: 283). bu yolla katılımcıları mümkün olduğunca birbirine benzer olacak şekilde eşleşmesi sağlanır. bu araştırmada, ön test-son test ve kontrol gruplu yarı deneysel desenin tercih edildiği yukarıda belirtilmişti. bu tercihin yapılmasında özellikle araştırmanın yapıldığı türkiye’de merkezi eğitimin uygulanması ve sınıfların okul idarelerince oluşturulması etkili olmuştur. çünkü türkiye’deki mevcut eğitim sistemine göre araştırmacının sınıfları kendisinin oluşturması ve bu işlemi yaparken belirli sayıdaki öğrencileri sınıflara seçkisiz atama tasarrufunu kullanmasına imkân yoktur. bundan dolayı araştırmanın uygulaması okul idaresi tarafından oluşturulan aynı seviyedeki mevcut sınıflardan biri deney diğeri ise kontrol grubu olarak belirlenerek gerçekleştirilmiştir. ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 59 uygulama öncesi gruplara ön test uygulama sonrası son test ve uygulamadan 6 (altı) hafta sonra kontrol testi uygulanmıştır. evren ve örneklem bilimsel çalışmalarda vurgulanan iki tür evren vardır. bunlardan biri genel evren diğeri ise çalışma evrenidir (karasar, 2006). genel evren araştırma sonuçlarının genellenmek istendiği birimlerin tamamını üzerinde barındıran ve kapsamı oldukça geniş olan alandır. yani “herhangi bir araştırma kapsamına giren obje, olgu, olay ve bireylerin tümü bu evreni oluşturmaktadır” (yazıcıoğlu ve erdoğan, 2004: 31). bu tanımlama ve açıklamalara uygun olarak araştırmanın çalışma evrenini, i̇stanbul iline bağlı ümraniye ilçesinde bulunan çakmak i̇lköğretim okuluna 2007-2008 eğitim ve öğretim yılında devam eden 7. sınıf öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır. araştırmanın örneklemi ise olasılık dışı örnekleme türlerinden olan, amaçlı (purposive) örneklemeye göre belirlenmiştir. “yargısal örnekleme olarak da adlandırılan amaçlı örneklemede, araştırmacı kimlerin seçileceği konusunda kendi yargısını kullanır ve araştırmanın amacına en uygun olanları örnekleme alır” (balcı, 2004: 90). yani amaçlı örneklemede; örneklem anakütle içinden bilgi edinmek istenen özelliği temsil edecek birimleri ayırmak suretiyle belirlenir. bu ilkeler göz önünde bulundurularak adı geçen okulunun 7/e sınıfına devam eden öğrenciler deney grubu ve 7/c sınıfına devam eden öğrenciler ise kontrol grubu olarak araştırmanın örneklemine alınmış ve örneklemin bağımsız değişken kapsamındaki bazı nitelikleri şöyledir: öğrencilerin % 53.4’ü kızlardan, % 46.6’sı erkeklerden oluşmaktadır. öğrencilerin, % 4.1’i bir, % 37’si iki , % 39.7’u üç, % 12.3’ü dört ve % 6.8’i beş ve üzerinde kardeşe sahiptir. annesi ilkokul mezunu olan öğrencilerin oranı % 56.2, annesi ortaokul mezunu olan öğrencilerin oranı % 28.8 ve annesi lise mezunu olan öğrencilerin oranı % 15.1’dir. babası ilkokul düzeyinde eğitim alan öğrencilerin oranı % 37, babası ortaokul düzeyinde eğitim alan öğrencilerin oranı % 32.9, babası lise düzeyinde eğitim alan öğrencilerin oranı % 26 ve babası üniversite düzeyinde eğitim alan öğrencilerin oranı ise % 4.1’dir. öğrencilerin % 17.8’i alt, % 68.5’i orta ve % 13.7’si üst gelir seviyesine sahip ailelere mensupturlar. örnekleme dâhil olan öğrencilerin % 20.5’i geniş aile ve % 79.5’i çekirdek aile içinde yaşamaktadır. veri toplama araçları journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 60 bu araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak, bilimsellik ölçeği ve yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu kullanılmıştır. bilimsellik ölçeği bu araştırmada, “kesinlikle katılmıyorum”, “katılmıyorum”, “kararsızım”, “katılıyorum” ve “kesinlikle katılıyorum” şeklinde derecelendirilen beşli likert tipi ölçek kullanılmıştır. ölçeğin geliştirilme sürecinde gerekli literatür taraması yapılmıştır. daha sonra madde havuzunun oluşturulmasında faydalanmak amacıyla ilköğretim 7. sınıf ve üniversite 2. sınıf öğrencilerine bilimsellikle ilgili kompozisyonlar yazdırılmıştır. bu süreçler tamamladıktan sonra bilimsellik ölçeği için 33 maddelik form oluşturulmuştur. daha sonra ölçme aracının görünüş/yüz ve kapsam/içerik geçerliliğini sınamak amacıyla hazırlanan formlar uzman görüşüne sunulmuştur. uzmanların en az % 90 oranında ölçekte kalsın yönünde görüş bildirdiği ifadeler ölçek maddesi olarak tutulmuş; bu oranın altında olan ifadeler formlardan çıkartılmıştır. bu düzenlemen sonra 24 madden oluşan bilimsellik ölçeğinin deneme formları oluşturulmuştur. ölçeklerin deneme formlarının oluşturulmasından sonra geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmaları için i̇stanbul il sınırları içinde bulunan 5 farklı ilköğretim okuluna, 2007-2008 eğitim öğretim yılının güz döneminde devam eden toplam 306, 7. sınıf öğrencisi üzerinde pilot uygulama gerçekleştirilmiştir. pilot uygulamanın gerçekleştirildiği grubun % 50.9’unu kız, % 49.1’ini ise erkeler oluşturmuştur. yapı geçerliliği ölçme aracının geçerliliği kapsamında öncelikli olarak faktör analizi yapılmıştır. faktör analizi, birbirleriyle ilişkili çok sayıdaki değişkenden daha az sayıda ilişkisiz ve kendi içinde kavramsal olarak anlamlı değişkenler (faktörler) elde edildiği bir istatistiksel tekniktir (ellez, 2009, s. 185-186). bu teknikte çok sayıdaki değişken arasındaki ilişkilerin anlaşılmasını ve yorumlanmasını kolaylaştırmak için daha az sayıdaki temel boyuta indirgemek amaçlanır. başka bir anlatımla faktör analizi sorulan soruların cevaplayıcılar tarafından kaç değişik boyutta algılandığını tespit etmek gayesiyle yapılır (sipahi ve diğerleri, 2006, s. 73). bu araştırmada, ölçme aracını oluşturan faktörler önceden belirlenmediği için açımlayıcı faktör analizi tekniği tercih edilmiştir. faktör analizi ile ilgili literatür incelendiği zaman, veri grubunun faktör analizine uygun olarak değerlendirilebilmesi için bazı eserlerde kmo değerinin ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 61 0.50’den, kimi eserlerde ise 0.60’dan yüksek çıkmasının yeterli olduğu söylenmekte ve bartlett sphericitiy testinin de anlamlı olması şart koşulmaktadır (bayram, 2004, s.137; büyüköztürk 2004, s.120; tatlıdil, 2002). kmo değerleri yorumlanırken 0.8 ve üzeri değerler yüksek, 0.7 orta, 0.6 vasat, 0.5 zayıf ve 0.5’in altındaki değerler kabul edilemez olarak nitelendirilmektedir (altunışık ve diğer, 2007, s.226; bayram, 2004; kalaycı, 2005, s. 322; sipahi ve diğer, 2006, s.80). buna göre kmo değerinin 0.50’den küçük çıktığı veri setleri üzerinde faktör analizinin yapılamayacağını söyleyebiliriz. bu araştırmada kullanılan veri toplama araçlarına faktör analizi yapılırken kmo değerinin 0.60’ni üstünde çıkması faktör analizine başlamak için yeterli görülmüştür. tablo 1: bilimsellik ölçeği kmo ve bartlett’s testi değerleri kmo ,919 bartlett testi x2 4936,499 sd 210 p ,000 tablo 1’de verilen bulguları incelediğimiz zaman, kasiyer meyer oklin (kmo) değerinin. 919, bartllet testi sonucunun ise anlamlı bulunduğunu (x2 =4836.281; p<0.01) görmekteyiz. bu veriler bilimsellik ölçeği üzerinde faktör analizi yapılabileceğini göstermektedir. bu araştırmada özdeğer istatistiği tercih edilmiştir. buna göre özdeğeri 1 (bir) ve üstünde olan faktörler anlamlı kabul edilmiştir. bu nedenle ölçme aracının faktör analizi çalışmasının başlangıcında boyut sayısına herhangi bir sınırlama getirilmemiştir. bundan dolayı özdeğer (eigen) 1 olarak alınmış, faktör yükleri için en küçük değer .40 kabul edilmiştir. bu ilkeler doğrultusunda gerçekleştirilen ilk analiz sonuçları sonucunda, özdeğeri 1’den büyük olan 4 faktör ortaya çıkmıştır. buna göre en yüksek madde yük değerinin 11.39 (% 47.49) ve en düşük madde yük değerinin 1.27 (% 4.69) olduğu görülmüştür. bu sonuçlar varimax dik döndürme tekniği kullanılarak incelendiğinde faktör yük değeri .40’ın altında olan 3 madde ve birden fazla faktörde yüksek yük değerine sahip olan 1 madde ölçek aracından çıkarılarak faktör analizi 21 madde üzerinden tekrar edilmiştir. bu analiz sonucunda, ölçeğin, özdeğeri 1’in üzerinde 3 faktörden oluştuğu görülmüş ve bu faktörlerin özdeğer ve açıkladıkları varyans miktarı tablo 2’de verilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 62 tablo 2: bilimsellik ölçeği oluşan faktörler ve açıkladıkları varyans miktarları boyutlar özdeğer varyansın toplam yüzde 1 6,653 31,681 31,681 2 4,410 21,000 52,681 3 2,793 13,300 65,981 tablo 2’de yer alan değerlere göre oluşan üç faktörün açıkladığı toplam varyans miktarı % 65.98’dir. literatürde sosyal bilimler için % 40 ila % 60 arasında değişen varyans oranları ideal olarak değerlendirilmesinden hareket ederek bilimsellik ölçeği için açıklanan bu varyans oranının kabul edilebilir bir oran olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. yine tabloda görüldüğü gibi özdeğeri 6.653 olan birinci faktör toplam varyansın % 31.681’ini, özdeğeri 4.410 olan ikinci faktör toplam varyansın % 21.00’ını ve özdeğeri 2.793 olan üçüncü faktör toplam varyansın % 13.300’ünü açıklamaktadır. tablo 3: faktör analizi sonucunda belirlenen alt boyutlar ve bu boyutlarda yer alan maddeler faktörler madde sayısı madde numaraları 1 10 17, 3, 1, 12, 21, 16, 20, 4, 15, 5, 2 7 13, 8, 10, 19, 2, 24, 9 3 4 23, 11, 22, 18 tablo 3’ü okuduğumuz zaman, bilimsellik ölçeğinin 3 boyuttan ve 21 maddeden oluştuğunu görmekteyiz. ölçekte 21 madde yer aldığı için uygumla formunda madde numarası 21’den yüksek olan maddelerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin son halindeki numaralarında değişiklik olmuştur. buna göre uygulama formunda, 22 numara ile verilen madde ölçekte 6 numaralı, 23 numara ile yer alan madde 7 numaralı, 24 numara ile verilen madde 14 numaralı madde olarak yer almıştır. diğer maddeler ise uygulama formundaki numaralarına göre verilmiştir. ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 63 tablo 4: bilimsellik ölçeğinin alt boyutlarının maddelerine ilişkin faktör yükleri madde 1.boyut 2.boyut 3.boyut madde 17 ,839 madde 3 ,821 madde 1 ,762 madde 12 ,741 madde 21 ,731 madde 16 ,718 madde 20 ,709 madde 4 ,705 madde 15 ,670 madde 5 ,605 madde 13 ,817 madde 8 ,788 madde 10 ,735 madde 19 ,664 madde 2 ,647 madde 24 ,623 madde 9 ,604 madde 23 ,805 madde 11 ,769 madde 22 ,712 madde 18 ,577 tablo 4’te verilen bilgiler incelendiği zaman, 1. alt boyutun 10 (on) maddeden oluştuğunu ve bu boyut altında yer alan maddelerin faktör yük değerlerinin .839 ila .605 arasında, 2. alt boyutun 7 (yedi) maddeden oluştuğunu ve bu boyut altına yer alan maddelerin faktör yük değerlerinin .817 ila .604, 3. alt boyutun ise 4 (dört) maddeden oluştuğunu ve bu boyut altında yer alan maddelerin yük değerlerinin .805 ila .577 arasında değişmekte olduğunu görmekteyiz. faktör yüklerinin hangi boyut altında toplandığını tespit ettikten sonra maddelerin içerikleri göz önünde bulundurularak her boyuta, isim verilmiştir. i̇lk boyutta yer alan maddelerin genel olarak “niçin”, “neden” ve “nasıl” soru eklerini çağrıştırdığı için bu boyuta “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” ismi verilmiştir. i̇kinci boyutta yer alan maddeler genel “tutarlılık” ve “intihal” ifadelerini çağrıştırdığı için bu boyut “kanıt kullanma ve etik” olarak adlandırılmıştır. üçüncü boyutta yer alan maddeler daha çok bilimsel çalışmalar için gerekli olan özgür düşünce yapısına vurgu yaptığı için bu boyuta “özgürlük” adı verilmiştir. ölçüt geçerliliği ölçme aracında yer alan her bir maddenin ayırt edicilik niteliği tespit edilmiştir. bu işlem için pilot uygulamanın gerçekleştirildiği 306 katılımcının aldıkları puanlar her ölçek için küçükten büyüğe doğru sıralanmıştır. daha sonra alt ve üst % 27’lik grup journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 64 içinde yer alan katılımcıların her bir maddeden aldıkları toplam puan ortalamaları t-testi ile karşılaştırılmıştır. bu işlem neticesinde maddelerin ayırt edicilik gücü tespit edilmiştir. bilimsellik ölçeğinden alınan puanların büyükten küçüğe sıralanması sonucunda oluşan üst grup (% 27’lik üst kısım) ile alt grubun (% 27’lik alt kısım) her bir maddeye verdikleri puan ortalamaları arasındaki farkın bağımsız grup t-testi ile karşılaştırılması sonucunda, %27’lik üst grup ile %27’lik alt grubun her bir maddeden aldıkları puanlar arasında yapılan bağımsız grup t-testi sonuçları tüm maddeler için p<0.01 düzeyinde anlamlı bulunmuştur. maddelerin ayırt edicilik işleminin tamamlanmasından sonra bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütünün ve alt boyutların ayırt edici olup olmadığı sınanmıştır. tablo 5: bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününe ve alt boyutlara ait toplam puanlara uygulanan bağımsız grup t-testi sonuçları ölçekler n x ss sd t p merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme alt grup 83 16,120 6,670 164 30,965 ,000 üst grup 83 44,939 5,234 kanıt kullanma ve etik alt grup 83 13,168 7,147 164 21,584 ,000 üst grup 83 31,927 3,406 özgürlük alt grup 83 7,638 4,142 164 11,933 ,000 üst grup 83 15,722 4,575 bilimsellik ölçeği alt grup 83 36,927 14,800 164 28,252 ,000 üst grup 83 92,590 10,156 tablo 5’den görüldüğü gibi ölçme aracının bütünün ve alt boyutlarının % 27’lik üst grup ile % 27’lik alt grup puanlarına yönelik gerçekleştirilen t-testi sonuçları hem ölçeğin bütünü hem de alt boyutları için p<0.01 düzeyinde anlamlı olduğu tespit edilmiştir. fark puanları arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir ilişkinin varlığının tespit edilmiş olması ölçme aracının bütününün ve alt boyutlarının gerekli ayırt ediciliğe sahip olduğunun göstergesi olarak değerlendirilebilir. güvenirlik güvenirlik kapsamında ölçme aracının bütünü ve alt boyutlarının güvenirliği cronbach alpha, sperman brown ve strict parallel modelleri ile sınanmıştır. tablo 6: faktör analizi sonucunda belirlenen alt boyutlara ve ölçeğin bütününe ait güvenirlik katsayıları boyut cronbach alpha sperman brown strict parallel merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme .93 .91 .93 kanıt kullanma ve etik .91 .92 .91 özgürlük .79 .72 .79 bilimsellik ölçeği .95 .90 .94 ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 65 tablo 6’da verilen değerleri incelediğimiz zaman, ölçme aracının iç tutarlılık katsayıları analizi neticesinde, alt boyutlar için cronbach alpha değerlerinin .79 ila .95 arasında, sperman brown değerlerinin .72 ila .92 arasında ve strict parallel değerlerinin .79 ila .94 arasında değişmekte olduğu görülmektedir. öte yandan ölçme aracının bütünü için cronbach alpha değeri .95, sperman brown değeri .90 ve strict paralle değeri .94 olarak tespit edilmiştir. ortaya çıkan bu değerlere göre, ölçme aracının bütününün ve bağımsız olarak alt boyutlarının iç tutarlılıklarının yüksel olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. bilimsellik ölçeğinin iç tutarlılık güvenirliğinin tespitinden sonra ölçeğin güvenirliliğini desteklemek amacıyla test-tekrar test güvenirliliği sınanmıştır. bu işlem tesadüfi örnekleme ile seçilen 33 kişilik ilköğretim 7. sınıf öğrencisi üzerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. bu işlem dört haftalık zaman dilimi içinde sonuçlandırılmıştır. uygulama sonucunda elde edilen puan setleri arasındaki ilişki pearson korelasyon katsayısı kullanılarak hesaplanmıştır. tablo 7: bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününe ve alt boyutları için gerçekleştirilen test-tekrar test uygulama sonuçları boyut uygulama n x s r p merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme i̇lk uygulama 33 34.27 7.225 ,81 ,000 son uygulama 33 33.36 6.795 kanıt kullanma ve etik i̇lk uygulama 33 24.15 5.685 ,93 ,000 son uygulama 33 23.51 5.613 özgürlük i̇lk uygulama 33 13.697 2.663 ,90 ,000 son uygulama 33 13.666 2.367 bilimsellik ölçeği i̇lk uygulama 33 72.12 13.633 ,92 ,000 son uygulama 33 70.54 11.856 tablo 7’de verilen veriler incelendiği zaman, ölçme aracının bütününe ve alt boyutlarına yönelik gerçekleştirilen test-tekrar test uygulaması sonucunda elde edilen verilere göre aracın yeterli kararlılık katsayısına sahip olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu bu araştırmada, bilimsellik değeri odaklı karakter eğitimi programının etkisini tespit etmek amaçlandığı için özellikle deney grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinden aldıkları puanların nedenini tespit edebilmek maksadıyla deney grubundan seçilen öğrencilerle görüşme yapılmıştır. bu yolla programın öğrenci tercihlerine olan etkisi analiz edilmeye çalışılmıştır. bu işlemde kullanılan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formunun hazırlanmasında uzman görüşünden faydalanılmıştır. görüşme formunda yer alan ifadelerin değer ölçeklerinin bütününden ve boyutlarından alınan puanların journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 66 nedenini açıklayıcı nitelikte olmasına özen gösterilmiştir. “bilim kelimesi sana neler çağrıştırmaktadır?”, “çevrende meydana gelen olayların nedenlerini merak eder misin? niçin?”, “yeni bir şeyler yaratmaya meraklı mısın? niçin?”, “bir görüşü desteklemek için o görüşte neler ararsın? niçin?”, “herkesin doğru olarak kabul ettiği bir görüşün tersini söyleyebilir misin? niçin?” sorularına yer verilmiştir. nicel verilerin toplanması ve çözümlenmesi araştırmada kullanılan nicel veriler, bilimsellik ölçeği kullanılarak elde edilmiştir. bu kapsamda uygulamaya başlamadan önce ön-test, uygulamanın bitiminde son-test ve uygulamanın tamamlanmasından yaklaşık 6 (altı) hafta sonra kalıcılık testi uygulanmıştır. bu işlemler neticesinde araştırmanın nicel verileri toplanmıştır. elde edilen veriler, kovaryans analizi (ancova) uygulanarak çözümlenmiştir. “ancova, gruplar arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark olup olmadığını tespit etmek için kullanılmaktadır” (büyüköztürk, 2007: 47-48). bundan dolayı, “öntestsontest kontrol gruplu bir desende, araştırmacı deneysel işlemin etkili olup olmadığına odaklanmışsa, en uygun istatistiksel işlem, ön testin ortak değişken olarak kontrol edildiği tek faktörlü ancova’dır” (büyüköztürk, 2004, s. 106). ancova’nın bu niteliğinden dolayı bu araştırmanın değerlerin kazandırılma düzeyiyle ilgili verileri, bu teknik, kullanılarak analiz edilmiş ve bu analizlerde en az .05 anlamlılık düzeyi esas alınmıştır. nitel verilerin toplanması ve çözümlenmesi araştırmanın nitel verileri bilimsellik değerine yönelik hazırlanmış yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formları kullanılarak elde edilmiştir. bu formlar, deney grubunda bulunan 2 (iki)’si kız, 2 (iki)’si erkek toplam 4 (dört) öğrenciye uygulanmıştır. görüşme yapılan katılımcılar uygulamanın sürdüğü dönemde hiç devamsızlık yapmayan öğrenciler arasından seçilmiş ve seçilen bu öğrencilere rumuzlar verilmiştir. görüşme esnasında katılımcıların kayıt cihazından rahatsız olduklarını belirtmeleri üzerine görüşmede kayıt cihazı kullanılmayarak, katılımcı ifadeleri doğrudan not edilmiştir. elde edilen veriler betimsel analiz tekniğine göre çözümlenmiştir. verilerin önceden belirlenen temalar altında sınıflanarak yorumlandığı betimsel analizde, sınıflama görüşme formunda bulunan sorulara göre yapılabileceği gibi süreçte tanık olunan durumlara göre de yapılabilmektedir (yıldırım ve şimşek, ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 67 2006; altunışık ve diğerleri, 2007). bu nedenle bu çalışmada sınıflama, görüşme formundaki sorularına göre yapılmıştır. bulgular ve yorum araştırmada toplanan verilerin analiz edilmesiyle elde edilen bulgular, hipotezlere göre sınıflandırılarak aşağıda verilmiştir. hipotez 1: karakter eğitimi programı, öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin gelişmesinde etkilidir. bu genel birinci hipotez kapsamında, bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününe, “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme”, “kanıt kullanma ve etik” ve “özgürlük” alt boyutlarına yönelik olarak toplam dört hipotez test edilmiştir. elde edilen sonuçlar ilgili hipotezden sonra verilmiştir. hipotez 1.1: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününden aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere anlamlı bir fark vardır. bu hipotez, ön testler birlikte değişen (kovaryet) olarak alınarak kovaryans analizi (ancova) ile sınanmıştır. bu kapsamda, deney ve kontrol gruplarında bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününden aldıkları ön test ve son test puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma ile ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test puanlarına ait aritmetik ortalama değerleri hesaplanmış bu işlem sonunda, deney grubunun ön test puanlarının aritmetik ortalaması 51.58, standart sapması 22.973, kontrol grubunun ön test puanlarının aritmetik ortalaması 51,10 ve standart sapması 20.717 olarak tespit edilmiştir. deney grubunun son test puanlarının aritmetik ortalaması 96.72, standart sapması 6.059, kontrol grubunun son test puanlarının aritmetik ortalaması 61.86 ve standart sapması 14.191 olarak saptanmıştır. bunun yanında ön test puanlarına göre düzletilmiş son test aritmetik ortalaması deney grubu için 96.72, kontrol grubu için ise 61.86 olarak hesaplanmıştır. bu sonuçlar, deney grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin, bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününe ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanlarının kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerden daha yüksek olduğunu göstermektedir. gruplar arasındaki bu farkın, istatistiksel olarak nasıl yorumlanması gerektiğini ortaya koyabilmek için ancova testi yapılmıştır. bu testin sonuçları tablo 8’de verilmiştir. tablo 8: bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütünü için gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları kaynak kt sd ko f p η2 journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 68 model 22170,857 2 11085,429 90,918 ,000 ,722 kovaryet ,623 1 ,623 ,005 ,943 ,000 müdahale 22164,951 1 22164,951 181,788 ,000 ,722 hata 8534,924 70 121,927 toplam 30705,781 72 tablo 8’i incelediğimiz zaman, deney ve kontrol gruplarının bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününe ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğunu görmekteyiz [f(1:70)=181,788 p<.01]. tablo 8’de verilen etakare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin % 72.2’sini açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli anlamlıdır [f(2;70)= 90,918, p<.01]. bu sonuçlara göre, karakter eğitimi programının, öğrencilerin bilimsellik değerini edinmelerini olumlu yönde etkilediğini söyleyebiliriz. başka bir anlatımla, karakter eğitimi programı uygulanan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinden aldıkları puanların aritmetik ortalaması karakter eğitimi uygulanmayan öğrencilerden yüksektir. i̇ki grup arasındaki fark ise istatistiksel olarak anlamlıdır. ayrıca görüşme sonunda elde edilen bulgularda bu sonucu destekler niteliktedir. araştırmanın bu hipotezine yönelik olarak görüşme sonunda elde edilen bulgular tema ve alt kategorilere ayrılarak tablo 9’da sunulmuştur. tablo 9: bilimsellik değerine yönelik öğrenci görüşleri tema alt kategoriler toplam bilimsellik merak yaratıcılık eleştirel yaklaşım özgürlük kanıt kullanma etik f 7 7 6 6 5 4 35 tablo 9’daki verileri incelediğimiz zaman, katılımcıların bilimsellik değerine yönelik toplam 35 ifade dile getirdiklerini görmekteyiz. bu ifadelerden yedisinde merak, yedisinde yaratıcılık, altısında eleştirel düşünce, altısında özgür düşünce, beşinde kanıt kullanma ve dördünde ise etik davranış öne çıkarılmaktadır. bu kapsamda, katılımcılardan k4, “çevremdeki olayların nedenlerini merak ederim. öğrendikten sonra çözüm bulmaya çalışırım… düşüncelerimi özgürce söyleyebilirim. özgürlük olmadan bilim olmaz.”, k3, “i̇nsanlar yanlış düşünüyor olabilir.”, k1, “anlatılanları genellikle doğru mu? diye kitaptan kontrol ederin.”, k2 “herkesin düşüncelerini özgüre ifade etmesine izin vermeliyiz. çünkü bir insanın görmediğini ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 69 başka biri görebilir.” gibi cümleler kurarak düşüncelerini açıklamışlardır. bu cümleleri incelediğimiz zaman, öğrencilerin bilimsellik değerine yönelik olumlu tutum ve davranışlara sahip olduğunu gösteren delilleri içermekte olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. çünkü cümlelerde öne çıkarılan vurgulamalarda katılımcıların sadece düşünceye değil aynı zamanda düşünceyi davranışa yansıtmaya yönelik ifadeleri de kullandıklarını görmekteyiz. araştırmanın bu hipotezine yönelik toplanan nitel ve nicel verilerini birlikte ele aldığımız zaman karakter eğitimi programının, öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin gelişimini olumlu etkilediğini ifade edebiliriz. çünkü hem nicel hem de nitel boyuttaki bulgular bu ifadeyi desteklemektedir. hipotez 1.2: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere anlamlı bir fark vardır. bu hipotez, ön testler birlikte değişen (kovaryet) olarak alınarak kovaryans analizi (ancova) ile sınanmıştır. bu kapsamda deney ve kontrol gruplarında bulunan öğrencilerin “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutundan aldıkları ön test ve son test puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma ile ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama değerleri tespit edilmiştir. bu kapsamda deney grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 24.80, standart sapması 12.446, kontrol grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 26.62 ve standart sapması 10.932 olarak bulunmuştur. deney grubunun son test aritmetik ortalaması 46.52, standart sapması 3.009, kontrol grubunun son test aritmetik ortalaması 29.86 ve standart sapması 7.318 olarak tespit edilmiştir. ön test puanlarına göre düzletilmiş son test aritmetik ortalaması deney grubu için 46.53, kontrol grubu için 29.86 olarak hesaplanmıştır. bu verirler, deney grubunun, “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanlarının kontrol grubundan daha yüksek olduğu göstermektedir. gruplar arasındaki bu farkın istatistiksel açıdan manidar olup olmadığını tespit etmek amacıyla ancova testi yapılmıştır. i̇lgili testin sonuçları tablo 10’da verilmiştir. tablo 10: merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme alt boyutu için gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları kaynak kt sd ko f p η2 model 5066,321 2 2533,160 78,978 ,000 ,693 kovaryet ,111 1 ,111 0,003 ,953 ,000 journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 70 müdahale 5038,754 1 5038,271 554,271 ,000 ,692 hata 2245,186 70 32,074 toplam 7311,507 72 tablo 10’dan görüldüğü gibi, deney ve kontrol grubunun “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutuna yönelik ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanları arasındaki fark istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bulunmuştur [f(1:70)=554,271, p<.05]. aynı tabloda verilen eta-kare değerleri incelendiğinde ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin % 69.2’sini açıkladığı ve bu sonucun da istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(2;70)= 78,978, p<.01]. bu bulgular, uygulanan karakter eğitimi programının, öğrencilerin merak duygusu arttırdığı ve eleştirel bakabilme becerilerini geliştirdiğinin göstergesi olarak yorumlanabilir. öte yandan görüşme sonunda elde edilen verilerden ulaşılan bulgular da bu sonucu desteklemektedir. bu kapsamda görüşme sonunda elde edilen veriler incelenerek sınıflandırılmıştır. yapılan sınıflamaya göre öğrenci görüşlerinin iki alt kategoride toplandığı görülmüştür. alt kategoriler ve alt kategorilerinin oluşmasını sağlayan öğrenci görüşleri tablo 11’de sunulmuştur. tablo 11: merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme boyutuna ilişkin öğrenci görüşleri tema alt kategori doğrudan alıntı (öğrenci görüşü) b ili m se lli k m er ak k1: “her insan merak eder, doğal olarak bende ama doğurduğu sonucada bağlı eğer benim için önemli bir olaysa o konuda araştırma yapmayı severim. herkesin yararına yarayan herkesin rahatlıkla kullanabileceği insanlık için önemli bişey üretmek isterdim”k3: “çevremdeki olayları merak ederim. olayı öğrendikten sonra kimin haklı kimin haksız olduğunu bilirim. olayın niye olduğunu kendim çok meraklı bir kişi olduğum için merak ediyorum… her konuda benim ilgili alanıma giren şeyler için yeni şeyler ürütmeyi severim. mesela müzik yeni şarkılar yazmayı çalgı aletlerinde yeni müzikler üretmeyi severim. bu voleybol ve dans içinde geçerli.” k4:“olayları merak ederim. öğrendikten sonra çözüm bulmaya çalışırım. bazı olayları öğrenince mutlu oluyorum. bazen söylenenlerin yalan olduğunu öğreniyorum. onun için merak ediyorum.” k2:“yağmurun neden yağdığını merak etmiyorum. çünkü bu olayı görüyorum, belkide o yüzden. merak ettiğim olay ise bilgisayarların, oyunların nasıl yapıldığı. bilgisayarları yapmak bende çok isterdim bi oyunu yapmak çok zevkli olurdu.” e le şt ir el b ak ab ilm e k4:“kendimce doğru olmadığına inandığım söylenenlere inanmam. onları eleştirmekten çekinmem… nasıl yapmalıydı niye yapmalıydı diye sormayı severim.” k1: “herşeyin iyisinin olduğuna inanıyorum… eleştiriyorum ama bazen çoğunluğa uyuyorum bunun nedeni çoğunluğa uymak belki toplumda birlik ve bütünlüğü sağlar.” k2:“bazı olayların tersini söylemeyi severim. bide haklıysam kesin söylerim. bazen öğretmenin dediğinin bile tersini söylüyorum ama onun dediği oluyor. gerçi kızmıyor ama benim dediğimide kabul etmiyor.” k3: “i̇nsanlar yanlış düşünüyor olabilir. ama genellikle çoğunluğun dediği oluyor. benim, düşüncelerime göre yanlışsa tersini söyleyebilirim. çünkü herkesin görmediği yanlışı ben görmüş olabilirim.” ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 71 tablo 11’de verilen öğrenci ifadelerine göre öğrencilerin merak ve eleştirel bakabilme duygularının geliştiğini görmekteyiz. buna göre, öğrencilerin genel olarak gerçekleşen olay ve olguların nedeni tespit etmeye yönelik çapa sarf ettiklerini ve aynı zamanda yeni bir şeyler üretmeye de ilgi duyduklarını ifade edebiliriz. özellikle ilgilendikleri bir alanda yeni bir şey üretmeye istekli olmaları bilimsellik açısından önemli bir bulgudur. çünkü bu durum öğrencilerin ileride var olanla yetinmeyip kendilerinin yeni bir şeyler üretebileceklerinin göstergesi olarak da yorumlanabilir. ayrıca tablo 11’de eleştirel düşünemeye yönelik verilen öğrenci ifadelerinde öğrencilerin kendi düşüncelerini söylemekten çekinmeyeceklerini gösteren ifadeler kullanmaları onların var olan durumları gösterildiği gibi değil kendi bakış açılarına göre ele alacaklarının delili olarak değerlendirilebilir. ayrıca k1’in olaylara eleştirel baktığını lakin bazen toplum yarını düşünerek onların genel düşüncelerine katıldığını belirtmesini karakter eğitiminin toplum yarına olabilecek tercihlerde bulunma anlayışıyla örtüşmesi bakımından önemli bir bulgudur. çünkü bu bulguyu öğrencinin başkalarının da mutluluğunu önemsediğinin kanıtı olarak da ele alabiliriz. hipotez 1.3: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “etik ve kanıt kullanma” alt boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere anlamlı bir fark vardır. bu hipotez, ön testler birlikte değişen (kovaryet) olarak alınarak kovaryans analizi (ancova) ile sınanmıştır. bu işlem için gerekli olan deney ve kontrol gruplarında bulunan öğrencilerin “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutundan aldıkları ön test ve son test puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma ile ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama değerleri hesaplanmıştır. bu işlem sonunda, deney grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 16.77, standart sapması 6,888, kontrol grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 17.81 ve standart sapması 7.328 olarak bulunmuştur. deney grubunun son test aritmetik 31,361, standart sapması 3.287, kontrol grubunun son test aritmetik ortalaması 20.297 ve standart sapması 5.248 olarak tespit edilmiştir. ön test puanlarına göre düzletilmiş son testin aritmetik ortalaması deney grubu için 31.377, kontrol grubu için 20.282 olarak hesaplanmıştır. bu değerlere göre, deney grubunun kanıt kullanma ve etik alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanlarının kontrol grubundan daha yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. gruplar journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 72 arasındaki bu farkın istatistiksel anlamda manidar olup olmadığını tespit etmek amacıyla ancova testi yapılmıştır. bu testin sonuçları tablo 12’de verilmiştir. tablo 12: kanıt kullanma ve etik alt boyutu için gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları kaynak kt sd ko f p η2 model 2236,832 2 1118,416 57,282 ,000 ,621 kovaryet 3,306 1 3,306 ,169 ,682 ,002 müdahale 2234,087 1 2234,087 114,427 ,000 ,620 hata 1366,729 70 19,525 toplam 3603,562 72 tablo 12’den görüldüğü gibi, deney ve kontrol gruplarının bilimsellik ölçeğinin “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu bulunmuştur [f(1:70)=114,427, p<.05]. tablo 12’de verilen eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin % 62’sini açıkladığı görülmekte ve bu sonucu tanımlayan ancova modeli anlamlıdır [f(2;70)= 57,282, p<.01]. bu bulgulara göre, uygulanan karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutuna yönelik tutumlarının gelişmesini olumlu yönde etkilediğini söyleyebiliriz. yani iki grupta bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutundan aldıkları puanlar arasındaki farkın deney grubu lehine anlamlı olmasından dolayı, karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerde kanıt temelli düşünce inşa etme tutumu ve etik anlayışın gelişmesine olumlu yönde katkı sağladığını ifade edebiliriz. görüşme sonunda elde edilen bulgular da bu görüşü destekler niteliktedir. bu çerçevede görüşme sonunda elde edilen bulgular alt kategori ve bu alt kategorilerin oluşmasını sağlayan öğrenci ifadeleri tablo 13’te verilmiştir. tablo 13: kanıt kullanma ve etik boyutuna ilişkin öğrenci görüşleri tema alt kategori doğrudan alıntı (öğrenci görüşü) ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 73 b ili m se lli k k an ıt k ul la nm a ve e ti k k1:“… öncelikle somut bir gerçek olmasına önem veririm. beş duyu organımla hissedemediğim şeylere inanmam, desteklemem. bu konuda bazı şeyleri ayrı tutuyorum tabi… anlatılanları bazen kitaptan kontrol ederim. mesela öğretmen anlatırken ben kitaptan takip ederim.” k2: (bir görüşü desteklemem için) “kendi görüş ve düşüncelerime yakın olması mantıklı ve hayatımızı iyi yönde etkileyebilecek olması… konuyla ilgi kitap okurum daha sonra insanlar hala aynı şeyi söylüyorsa hiç çekinmeden düşüncelerimi söylerim… mesela adananın başkent olduğunu söyleyemem. bu doğru değil.” k3: “ben genellikle söylenen her şeye inanmıyorum. mesela bi seferinde arkadaşım (x) fenerbahçe’nin alex’i sattığını söyledi. ben inanmadım gastede yazıyor dedi. ben gasteye baktım öyle bişey yoktu onun için doğru olmayan şeyleri konuşmamalıyız.” k4: “i̇nsanın görüşleri her zaman değişir… ama bazı şeyleri somut ve nesnel olan yasaları kabul ederim.(bir düşünce) eğer bilimsel olarak kanıtlanmışsa ona aykırı bir şey söylemek çok zordur. o doğrudur. doğruluğuna inanmadığım şeyleri söylemem.” tablo 13’te sunulan görüşleri incelediğimiz zaman, katılımcıların genel olarak somut delillere odaklandıklarını, nesnel gerçeklerin kabul edilmesi yönünde bir eğilime sahip olduklarını ve bilginin kaynağından kontrol edilmesinin gerekli olduğunu vurguladıklarını görmekteyiz. bu vurgulamalar, öğrencilerin kendi düşüncelerini kanıtlar temelinde oluşturmanın gereğine inandıklarının göstergesi olarak ele alınabilir. bunu düşüncemize dayanak alarak öğrencilerin mesnetsiz görüşlere itibar etmediklerini söyleyebiliriz. elde edilen bu bulgular, bilimsellik ölçeğinin bu boyutuna yönelik elde edilen istatistikî sonuçlarla örtüşmektedir. bundan dolayı karakter eğitimi programının bilimselliğin kanıt kullanma ve etik boyutuna yönelik öğrencilerde olumlu tutum ve davranışların gelişmesine katkı sağladığını söyleyebiliriz. hipotez 1.4: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “özgürlük” alt boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere anlamlı bir fark vardır. bu hipotez, ön testler birlikte değişen (kovaryet) olarak alınarak kovaryans analizi (ancova) ile sınanmıştır. bu işlem için hazırlanan deney ve kontrol gruplarında bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “özgürlük” alt boyutundan aldıkları ön test ve son test puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma ile ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama değerleri saptanmıştır. bu işlem sonunda, deney grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 10.00, standart sapması 5,171, kontrol grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 10.51 ve standart sapması 4.513 olarak tespit edilmiştir. deney grubunun son test aritmetik ortalaması 18.83, standart sapması 1,698, kontrol grubunun son test aritmetik ortalaması 11.70 ve standart sapması 3.430 olarak saptanmıştır. bunun yanında ön test puanlarına göre düzletilmiş son test aritmetik ortalaması deney grubu için 18.85, kontrol grubu için ise 11.68 olarak tespit edilmiştir. bu sonuçlar, journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 74 deney grubunun, “özgülük” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanlarının kontrol grubundan daha yüksek olduğu göstermektedir. gruplar arasındaki bu farkın istatistiksel olarak nasıl yorumlanması gerektiğini ortaya koyabilmek amacıyla ancova testi yapılmıştır. i̇lgili testin sonuçları tablo 14’te verilmiştir. ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 75 tablo 14: özgürlük alt boyutu için gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları kaynak kt sd ko f p η2 model 937,678 2 468,839 63,749 ,000 ,646 kovaryet 9,915 1 9,915 1,348 ,250 ,019 müdahale 935,394 1 935,394 127,187 ,000 ,645 hata 514,815 70 7,354 toplam 1452,943 72 tablo 14’ten görüldüğü gibi, deney ve kontrol gruplarının bilimsellik ölçeğinin “özgürlük” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu bulunmuştur [f(1:70)=127,187, p<.01]. aynı tabloda verilen eta-kare değerlerini incelediğimizde ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin % 64.5’ini açıkladığını ve bu işlemi tanımlayan ancova modelinin anlamlı olduğunu görmekteyiz [f(2;70)= 63,749, p<.01]. bu bulgulara göre, uygulanan karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimselliğin “özgürlük” alt boyutuna yönelik tutumlarının gelişmesini olumlu yönde etkilediği söylenebilir. başka bir anlatımla karakter eğitimi programı, öğrencilerin özgürlük anlayışlarının gelişmesine olumlu yönde katkı sağlamaktadır. görüşme sonunda elde edilen bulgular da bu sonucu desteklemektedir. özgürlük alt boyutuna yönelik görüşme sonunda elde edilen bulgular tablo 15’te verilmiştir. tablo 15: özgürlük boyutuna ilişkin öğrenci görüşleri tema alt kategori doğrudan alıntı (öğrenci görüşü) b ili m se lli k ö zg ür lü k k1: “herksin düşüncelerini özgürce ifade etmesine izin vermeliyiz. çünkü bir insanın göremediği bir şeyi başka bir insan farklı açıdan görür ve yorumlayabilir. bu hem bilimin iyi gelişmesini ve farklılığın artmasını sağlar.” k2: [i̇nsanların düşüncelerini özgürce ifade etmesine] “kesinlikle izin vermeliyiz. çünkü sonuçları ortada ülkemizde bir şey bilmiyor dediğimiz ama aslında çok şey bilen insanların fikirlerini daima dinlemeli ve saygı duymalıyız. onlara çalışacak yerler yapmalıyız.” k3: “i̇nsanlar düşüncelerini özgürce ifade etmeli. bilim adamlarını dinlemezsek onlarda yurt dışına gider.” k4: “düşüncelerimi kimseden çekinmeden söylerim… i̇nsanlar özgür olmadan bilim olmaz. özgür olmazsalar korkarlar çalışmazlar.” tablo 15’te sunulan ifadeleri incelediğimiz zaman, katılımcıların bilimin hangi anlayışla gelişebileceğini belirttiklerini ve bu yönde çalışacak insanlara imkânların verilmesinin gerekli olduğunu vurguladıkları sonucuna ulaşabiliriz. ayrıca katılımcıların bilimin gelişmesi için özgürlük kavramını öne çıkarmaları ve kendi görüşlerini ifade etmekten çekinmeyeceklerini belirtmeleri bilimsel düşüncenin journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 76 gelişmesi açısından oldukça önemlidir. çünkü öğrenciler hem özgürlüğün öneminin farkında olduklarını hem de bunu kendi davranışlarına yansıtacaklarını ifadelerinde dile getirmektedirler. bu bulgulardan hareket ederek görüşme sonunda elde edilen verilerin de karakter programının etkili olduğunu gösteren kanıtlar sunduğunu söyleyebiliriz. birinci genel hipotez kapsamındaki hipotezlerin sınanmasıyla elde edilen bulguları birlikte ele aldığımız zaman, bilimsellik değerine yönelik elde edilen nicel bulgular, hem ölçeğin bütününe hem de alt boyutlarına yönelik olarak deney grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin puanlarının kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerden daha yüksek ve bu iki grup arasındaki farkın istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olduğunu görmekteyiz. ulaşılan bu sonucu nitel bulgular da desteklemektedir. bu durum ise karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsel düşünce kapsamındaki bilgi, tutum ve becerilerinin gelişmesine olumlu yönde katkı yaptığı anlamında yorumlanabilir. hipotez 2: karakter eğitimi programı öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin kalıcılığı üzerinde etkilidir. bu genel ikinci hipotez kapsamında, bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününe, “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme”, “etik ve kanıt kullanma” ve “özgürlük” alt boyutlarına yönelik olarak toplam beş hipotez test edilmiştir. elde edilen bulgular ilgili hipotezden sonra verilmiştir. hipotez 2.1: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününden aldıkları kalıcılık testi puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere anlamlı bir fark vardır. bu hipotez, ön testler birlikte değişen (kovaryet) olarak alınarak kovaryans analizi (ancova) ile sınanmıştır. bu kapsamda deney ve kontrol gruplarında bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününden aldıkları ön test ve kalıcılık testi puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma ile ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama değerleri tespit edilmiştir. bu işlem sonunda, deney grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 51.58, standart sapması 22.973, kontrol grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 51.10 ve standart sapması 20.717 bulunmuştur. deney grubunun kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalaması 93.77 ve standart sapması 10.192, kontrol grubunun kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalaması 63.21 ve standart sapması 22.079 olarak tespit edilmiştir. ön test puanlarına göre düzletilmiş kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalama deney grubu için 93.77, kontrol grubu için 63.21 olarak hesaplanmıştır. bu verirler, deney grubunun bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütüne ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanlarının, kontrol grubundan daha yüksek ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 77 olduğu göstermektedir. gruplar arasındaki bu farkın istatistiksel anlamda manidar olup olmadığını tespit etmek amacıyla ancova testi uygulanmıştır. bu testin sonuçları tablo 16’da verilmiştir. tablo 16: bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününün kalıcılık düzeyi için gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları kaynak kt sd ko f p η2 model 17042,492 2 8521,246 28,154 ,000 ,446 kovaryet ,025 1 ,025 ,000 ,993 ,000 müdahale 17040,853 1 17040,853 56,303 ,000 ,446 hata 21186,467 70 302,664 toplam 38228,959 72 tablo 16’da verilen sonuçları incelediğimiz zaman, gruplar arasındaki farkın istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı olduğunu görmekteyiz [f(1:70)=56.303, p<.01]. tablo 16’da verilen eta-kare değerleri incelendiğinde ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin % 44.6’sını açıkladığı ve bu işlemi tanımlayan ancova modelinin anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [ f(2;70)= 28.154, p<.01]. bu sonuçlara göre karakter eğitimi programı aracılığıyla bilimsellik kapsamında kazandırılan bilgi, beceri ve tutumların daha kalıcı olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. hipotez 2.2: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık testi puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere anlamlı bir fark vardır. bu hipotez, ön testler birlikte değişen (kovaryet) olarak alınarak kovaryans analizi (ancova) ile sınanmıştır. bu kapsamda deney ve kontrol gruplarında bulunan öğrencilerin “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutundan aldıkları ön test ve kalıcılık testi puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma ile ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama değerleri hesaplanmıştır. bu hesaplama sonunda, deney grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 24.80, standart sapması 12.446, kontrol grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 26.62 ve standart sapması 10.932 bulunmuştur. deney grubunun kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalaması 45.55, standart sapması 4,837, kontrol grubunun kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalaması 30.48 ve standart sapması 10.973 olarak tespit edilmiştir. ön test puanlarına göre düzletilmiş kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalama deney grubu için 45,54, kontrol grubu için 30.46 olarak hesaplanmıştır. bu verirler, deney grubunun, “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 78 boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanlarının kontrol grubundan daha yüksek olduğunu göstermektedir. gruplar arasındaki bu farkın istatistiksel anlamda manidar olup olmadığını tespit etmek amacıyla ancova testi yapılmıştır. i̇lgili testin sonuçları tablo 17’de verilmiştir. tablo 17: merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme kalıcılık düzeyi için gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları kaynak kt sd ko f p η2 model 4146,219 2 2073,109 28.171 ,000 ,446 kovaryet 2,844 1 2,844 ,039 ,845 ,001 müdahale 4100,935 1 4100,935 55,727 ,000 ,443 hata 5151,288 70 73,590 toplam 9297,507 72 tablo 17’de verilen değerleri incelediğimiz zaman, deney ve kontrol grubunun, “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutuna yönelik ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bulunduğunu görmekteyiz [f(1:70)=55,727, p<.01]. tablo 17’de verilen eta-kare değerleri incelendiğinde ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin % 44.3’ünü açıkladığı ve bu işlemi açıklayan ancova modelinin de anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(2;70)= 28,171, p<.01]. bu bulgular, deney grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutuna yönelik kalıcılık testi puanlarının kontrol grubundan yüksek olduğunu göstermektedir. i̇ki grup arasındaki farkın istatistiksel olarak anlamlılığı, uygulanan karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin merak duygusunu arttırdığı ve eleştirel bakabilme becerilerini geliştirdiği ve aynı zamanda bu yöndeki kararlarının sürekliliğini sağladığının göstergesi olarak yorumlanabilir. hipotez 2.3: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık testi puanları arasında anlamlı bir fark vardır. bu hipotez, ön testler birlikte değişen (kovaryet) olarak alınarak kovaryans analizi (ancova) ile sınanmıştır. bu işlemde kullanılan deney ve kontrol gruplarında bulunan öğrencilerin “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutundan aldıkları ön test ve kalıcılık testi puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma ile ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama değerleri bulunmuştur. bu işlem sonunda deney grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 16.77, standart sapması 6.883, kontrol grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 79 17.81 ve standart sapması 7.328 olarak saptanmıştır. deney grubunun kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalaması 30.80, standart sapması 3,258, kontrol grubunun kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalaması 20.54 ve standart sapması 7.751 olarak tespit edilmiştir. ön test puanlarına göre düzletilmiş kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalama deney grubu için 30.80, kontrol grubu için ise 20.54 olarak hesaplanmıştır. bu verirler, deney grubunun, “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanlarının kontrol grubundan daha yüksek olduğu göstermektedir. gruplar arasındaki bu farkın istatistiksel anlamda manidar olup olmadığını tespit etmek amacıyla ancova testi yapılmıştır. i̇lgili testin sonuçları tablo 18’de verilmiştir. tablo 18: kanıt kullanma ve etik alt boyutu kalıcılık düzeyi için gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları kaynak kt sd ko f p η2 model 19,760 2 961,380 26,550 ,000 ,431 kovaryet ,109 1 ,109 ,003 ,956 ,000 müdahale 1910,167 1 1910,167 52,752 ,000 ,430 hata 2534,719 70 36,210 toplam 4457,479 72 tablo 18’de verilen değerleri incelediğimiz zaman, deney ve kontrol grubunun, “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutuna yönelik ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanları arasındaki fark istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bulunduğunu görmekteyiz [f(1:70)=52,752, p<.01]. tablo 4.18’de verilen eta-kare değerleri incelendiğinde ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin % 43’ünü açıkladığı ve bu işlemi tanımlayan ancova modelinin anlamı olduğu görülmektedir [f(2;70)= 26.550, p<.01]. bu bulgular, karakter eğitimi programı aracılığı ile öğrencilere kanıt kullanma ve etik davranabilme yönünde kazandırılan bilgi, davranış ve tutumların daha kalıcı olduğunun göstergesi olarak yorumlanabilir. çünkü elde edilen istatistikî neticeler böyle bir yorumun yapılmasına imkân vermektedir. hipotez 2.4: deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin “özgürlük” alt boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık testi puanları arasında deney grubunun lehinde olmak üzere anlamlı bir fark vardır. bu hipotez, ön testler birlikte değişen (kovaryet) olarak alınarak kovaryans analizi (ancova) ile sınanmıştır. bu işlemde kullanılan deney ve kontrol gruplarında bulunan öğrencilerin “özgürlük” alt boyutundan aldıkları ön test ve kalıcılık testi puanlarına ilişkin aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma ile ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi puanlarına ait aritmetik journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 80 ortalama değerleri hesaplanmıştır. elde edilen sonuçlara göre, deney grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 10.00, standart sapması 5.171, kontrol grubunun ön test aritmetik ortalaması 10.51 ve standart sapması 4.513 olarak bulunmuştur. deney grubunun kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalaması 18.222, standart sapması 1,914, kontrol grubunun kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalaması 12.189 ve standart sapması 4,481 olarak tespit edilmiştir. ön test puanlarına göre düzletilmiş kalıcılık testi aritmetik ortalama deney grubu için 18,21, kontrol grubu için 12,20 olarak hesaplanmıştır. bu verirler, deney grubunun, “özgürlük” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanlarının kontrol grubundan daha yüksek olduğu göstermektedir. gruplar arasındaki bu farkın istatistiksel anlamda manidar olup olmadığını tespit etmek amacıyla ancova testi uygulanmıştır. i̇lgili testin sonuçları tablo 19’da verilmiştir. tablo 19: özgürlük alt boyutu kalıcılık düzeyi için gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları kaynak kt sd ko f p η2 model 667,287 2 33,643 26,517 ,000 ,431 kovaryet 3,157 1 3,157 ,251 ,618 ,000 müdahale 657,327 1 657,317 52,243 ,000 ,427 hata 930,469 70 13,292 toplam 1548,027 72 tablo 19’dan görüldüğü gibi, deney ve kontrol grubunun, “özgürlük” alt boyutuna yönelik ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanları arasındaki fark istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bulunmuştur [f(1:70)=52,243, p<.01]. tablo 19’dan verilen eta-kare değerleri incelendiğinde ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin % 42.7’sini açıkladığı ve bu işlemi betimleyen ancova modelinin anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(2;70)= 26,517, p<.01]. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik değerinin bu boyutuna yönelik kalıcılık testi puanlarının aritmetik ortalamaları arasındaki farkın istatistiksel olarak anlamlılığı, uygulanan karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin merak duygusunu arttırdığı ve eleştirel bakabilme becerilerini geliştirdiği ve aynı zamanda bu yöndeki eğilimlerinin sürekliliğini sağladığı anlamında yorumlanabilir. hipotez 2.5: deney grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününden ve alt boyutlarından aldıkları son test puanları ile kalıcılık testi puanları ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 81 arasında kalıcılık testi lehinde olmak üzere anlamlı bir fark vardır. bu hipotez, bağımlı gruplar t-testi ile analiz edilmiş ve ulaşılan sonuçlar tablo 20’de verilmiştir. tablo 20: deney grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik değer düzeylerinin kalıcılığına yönelik gerçekleştirilen bağımlı grup t-testi sonuçları bilimsellik değer ölçeği n x ss sd t p bütünü son test 36 96,72 6,059 35 1,826 ,076 kalıcılık testi 36 93,77 10,192 merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme son test 36 46,52 3,009 35 1,574 ,125 kalıcılık testi 36 45,55 4,837 kanıt kullanma ve etik son test 36 31,36 3,287 35 1,059 ,297 kalıcılık testi 36 30,80 3,258 özgürlük son test 36 18,83 1,698 35 1,843 ,074 kalıcılık testi 36 18,22 1,914 tablo 21’de verilen veriler incelendiği zaman, deney grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin; a) bilimsellik ölçeğinin bütününden aldıkları son test ve kalıcılık testi puanları arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olmadığı [t(35)= 1,826; p>.05], b) bilimsellik ölçeğinin “merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme” alt boyutuna ait son test ve kalıcılık testi puanlarının aritmetik ortalamaları arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olmadığı [t(35)= 1.574; p>.05], c) bilimsellik ölçeğinin “kanıt kullanma ve etik” alt boyutuna ait son test ve kalıcılık testi puanları arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olmadığı [t(35)= 1,059; p>.05], d) bilimsellik ölçeğinin “özgürlük” alt boyutundan aldıkları son test ve kalıcılık testi puanları arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olmadığı [t(35)= 1,843; p>.05], görülmektedir. bu sonuçlar, uygulama sürecinde bilimselliğe yönelik ulaşılan seviyenin korunduğunu göstermektedir. başka bir anlatımla, bu sonuçları, karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsellik değer düzeylerinin istatistiksel açıdan anlamlı olacak biçimde yükselmesini sağlayarak kalıcı öğrenmelere neden olduğu şeklinde değerlendirebiliriz. i̇kinci genel hipotez kapsamındaki alt hipotezlerin sınanması sonucunda ulaşılan bulguları birlikte ele aldığımız zaman, deney grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerden daha yüksek olduğunu görmekteyiz. bu nedenle bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin kalıcılığına olumlu yönde katkı sağladığını ifade edebiliriz. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 82 tartışma ve sonuç araştırmada toplanan nitel ve nicel verilerin analiz edilmesi neticesinde, karakter eğitimi programının hem erişi hem de kalıcılık düzeyinde istatistiksel açıdan manidar olmak üzere, öğrencilerin; a) bilimsellik düzeylerinin yükselmesini, b) bilimselliğin alt boyutu olan merak etme ve eleştirel bakabilme güdülerinin artmasını, c) bilimselliğin alt boyutu olan kanıt kullanma ve etik davranma düzeylerinin yükselmesini, d) bilimselliğin alt boyutu olan özgürlük düzeylerinin yükselmesini, olumlu yönde etkilediği sonuçlarına ulaşılmıştır. ulaşılan sonuçları kısaca şu şekilde ifade edebiliriz: karakter eğitimi programının, öğrencilerin bilimsellik için gerekli olan bilgi, tutum ve davranışları edinmeleri üzerindeki etki gücü olumludur. başka bir anlatımla karakter eğitimi programının, öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin hem yükselmesini hem de ulaşılan düzeyin kalıcılığını olumlu yönde etkilediğini ifade etmek mümkündür. araştırmanın bu sonucu balcı (2008) tarafından ilköğretim 6. sınıf öğrencilerine yönelik gerçekleştirilen araştırma sonuçları ile de örtüşmektedir. çünkü adı geçen araştırmacı, çalışmasında değerler eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin artışına olumlu yönde etkide bulunduğu sonucuna ulaşmıştır. araştırmada karakter eğitimi programının öğrencileri bilimsel düşünce becerilerinin gelişimine katkı sağlaması aynı zamanda karakter eğitimi programının sosyal bilgiler dersinin amaçlarının gerçekleştirilmesini de kolaylaştırdığı şeklinde de değerlendirilebilir. çünkü “sosyal bilgiler dersinin amaçlarında, öğrencilerin bilimsel düşünce becerilerinin geliştirilmesine büyük önem verilmektedir” (öztürk, 2007: 103). sosyal bilgiler dersinin duyuşsal alana yönelik hedefleri de ihtiva eden bir ders olması sebebiyle, bu ders aracılığı ile öğrencilere bazı değerlerin edindirilmesi amaçlanmaktadır. ersoy (2006)’a göre değerlerin gerçekleştirilmesi yani kişinin değerleri içselleştirerek kendi davranış ve tutumlarına yansıtması bireyin gerçeği algılaması ile yakından ilgilidir. bu düşünceden dolayı gerçeği aramak ve onu ortaya çıkarabilmek için gerekli olan birçok becerinin bireye edindirilmesi veya bireyde geliştirilmesi gerektiğini söyleyebiliriz. söz konusu olan bu beceriler, bilimsellik kapsamındadır. araştırmanın bu sonucuna, bu perspektiften yaklaştığımız zaman, ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 83 ulaşılan sonucun bireyin değerleri edinmesi için bir zemin oluşturduğunu söyleyebiliriz. bundan dolayı karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerini geliştirerek onların kendi değerlerini gerçekleştirmelerine hizmet ettiğini ifade edebiliriz. ayrıca karakter eğitimi programın öğrencilerinin bilimsellik düzeylerini geliştirmesi sonucunu, karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsel anlayış ve tutumu geliştirerek onların gerçek temelli veya hurafelerden arındırılmış bir değerler sitemi inşa etmelerine katkı sağlayabilecek bir veri olarak da ele alabiliriz. çünkü bilimsel düşünce ve bilimsel yöntem insana hurafeler ile gerçekler arasında ayrım yapması için gerekli yeterlilikleri sunmaktadır (niyazi, 2000). böyle bir yeterlilik; a) yeni yetişen genç neslin kendi değer sistemlerini gerçeklik temelli oluşturmalarına katkı sunması, b) değer temelli problemlerin çözümünde bilimsel yöntemlerin kullanılmasını sağlayabilecek olması, açısından oldukça önemlidir. söz konusu bu yeterliliklere ilköğretim seviyesinde uygulanan karakter eğitimi programı ile ulaşılması, karakter eğitimi programlarının öğrencilerin belirli değerleri kazandırdığını ve onların akademik başarılarını olumlu yönde etkilediğini (england, 2009; king, 2009; lickona, 1991; ryan ve bohlin, 1999) vurgulayan ilgili literatür ve araştırma sonuçları ile de örtüşmektedir. çünkü ifade edilen yeterlilikler karakter eğitimi programlarının değerlere ve akademik başarıya yönelik olumlu etkisini de yansıtmaktadır. başka bir anlatımla karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerini yükseltmesi aynı zamanda karakter eğitimi programlarının öğrencilerin akademik başarısını artırdığını gösteren araştırma sonuçları ile de tutarlıdır. çünkü bilimselliğe yönelik beceriler daha çok bilişsel alan içinde yer verilen bilgi ve becerilerle ilgilidir. ayrıca bilimsellik değerinin, değerlerin gerçeklik temelinde inşa edilmesine katkı sunmasından dolayı bu araştırmanın, öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin yükseldiği gösteren sonucu, karakter eğitimi programlarının gençlerin olumlu karakter niteliklerini edinmelerindeki etki gücünün olumlu olduğunu gösteren araştırma sonuçları (allard, 2001; doak, 2009) ile de örtüşmektedir. yapılan tartışmayı toparlayacak olursak, karakter eğitimi programının, öğrencilerin eleştirel düşünce ve kanıt kullanma becerilerini geliştirdiğini, bilimsellik kapsamındaki dürüstlük değer seviyelerini yükselttiğini, kanıt temelli düşünce inşa etme journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 84 ve etik davranma yönündeki meyillerini arttırdığını ifade ederek öğrencilere, gerçeğe ulaşmak için gerekli olan bilgi, tutum ve davranışları edindirdiğini söyleyebiliriz. bu sonuç genel olarak türk milli eğitiminin temel ilkelerinin özel olarak ise türkiye’de ilköğretim 4-7. sınıflarında verilen sosyal bilgiler dersi amaçlarının gerçekleştirilmesi açısından da önemlidir. çünkü hem türk milli eğitiminin temel ilkeleri arasında bilimselliğe hem de sosyal bilgiler dersi aracılığı ile bilimsel düşünce kapsamındaki becerilerin öğrencilere kazandırılmasına dersin amaçları içinde yer verilmekte ve bu yönde gerçekleştirilecek faaliyetlerin önemi vurgulanmaktadır (meb, 2009). öneriler bu çalışmada, sosyal bilgeler dersi kazanımlarıyla bütünleştirilmiş bilimsellik odaklı karakter eğitimi programının öğrencilerin bilimsellik düzeylerinin geliştirilmesindeki etki gücünün olumlu olduğu tespit edilmiştir. bundan dolayı benzer çalışmaların tüm derslere yönelik yapılarak ileri araştırmalar için bir zemin oluşturulabilir. bu çalışma, ilköğretim 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin bir ünitesinde gerçekleştirildi. benzer çalışmaların diğer ünite ve sınıflara ilişkin de yapılması gerekmektedir. çünkü bu yolla sosyal bilgiler dersinin tamamına yönelik deneysel sonuçlar elde edilerek daha kapsamlı genellemeler yapılabilir. araştırmada etkisi sınanan programın uygulamasında öğrenci merkezli etkinliklere yer verilmiş ve bu uygulamanın öğrencilerin bilimsellik değerini edinmelerini olumlu etkilediği tespit edilmiştir. bu nedenle sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin dersleri için planladıkları öğretmen ve öğrenme süreçlerinde öğrencilerini işbirlikli çalışmalara teşvik etmeleri gerekmektedir. böylece öğrencilere yaparak yaşayarak öğrenme fırsatı sunarak onların daha kalıcı tutumlar benimsemelerini sağlayabilirler. kaynakça/ references akbaş, o. (2004). türk milli eğitim sisteminin duyuşsal amaçlarının i̇lköğretim ii. kademedeki gerçekleşme derecesinin değerlendirilmesi. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, gazi üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. allard, j. edward (2001). a study of the result of program to teach moral development to fifth grade students. unpublished doctorate thesis, norther kentucky university, usa. ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 85 altunışık, r., çoşkun, r., bayraktaroğlu, s. ve yıldırım, e. (2007). sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri spss uygulamalı. sakarya: sakarya yayıncılık. arık, a. (1998). psikolojide bilimsel yöntem (2.baskı). i̇stanbul : çantay kiabevi. ata, b. (2009). sosyal bilgiler programı. c. öztürk (der.) sosyal bilgiler öğretimi demokratik vatandaşlık eğitimi (s.1-31). ankara: pegema balcı, a. (2004). sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntem, teknik ve i̇lkeleri. ankara: pegem yayınları. balcı, n. (2008). i̇lköğretim 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitiminin etkililiği. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisan tezi, marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. baykul, y. (2000). eğitim ve psikolojide ölçme: klasik test teorisi ve uygulaması. ankara: ösym yayınları. bayram, n. (2004). sosyal bilimlerde spss ile veri analizi. bursa: ezgi kitabevi. böke, k (2009). sosyal bilimlerde araştırma. k. böke (der.), sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri (s.3-30). i̇stanbul: alfa yayınları. brand, d. l. (1999). education for character in the united states army: a stuyd to determine the compenents for an effective curriculum for values education in basic training units. unpublished doctorate thesis, college of education university of south carolina, carolina, usa. büyüköztürk, ş. (2004). sosyal bilimler i̇çin veri analizi el kitabı (4. baskı). ankara: pegema. büyüköztürk, ş. (2007). deneysel desenler ön test-son test kontrol grubu desen ve veri analizi (2. baskı). ankara: pegema. büyüköztürk, ş., kılıç çakmak, e., akgün, ö. e., karadeniz, ş. ve demirel, f. (2008). bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: pegema. costanzo r. a. (2005). a study of character education programs in connecticut public elementary schools based on the eleven principles of effective character education. unpublished doctorate thesis, faculty of the school of education and human resources university of bridgeport. davis, d. h. (2006). character education in america’s public schools. journal of church and state. winter 48,1. 5-13. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 86 demirel, ö. (2007). kuramdan uygulamaya eğitimde program geliştirme. ankara: pegema yayıncılık. doak, j. (2009). the effect of character education on emotional intelligence. unpublished doctorate thesis, marshall üniversity, usa. ekşi, h. (2003). gençlik döneminde karakter eğitimi. (m. e. ay ve diğ. der.) gençlik dönemi ve eğitimi (s.397-416). i̇stanbul: ensar neşriyat. ellez, m. a. (2009). ölçme araçlarında bulunması gereken özellikler. a. tanrıöğen (der.), bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri (s.167-192). ankara: anı yayıncılık. england, t. f. (2009). character education and the perceived impact on student akademik achievement and in fazilitating a safe and effective learnin enviroment in california k-12 public schools. unpublished doctorate thesis. üniversitiy of la verne, california. usd. ersoy, e. (2006). değer farklılaşmalarının sosyolojik boyutu (malatya örneği). yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, i̇nönü üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. ertürk, s. (1997). eğitimde program geliştirme (9.baksı). ankara: metaksan yayınları. fraenkel, j. r. & wallen, n. e. (2000). how to desing and evaluate research in education. mcgraw-hill. germaine, r. w. (2001). values education on elementary students’ self esteem. unpublished doctorate thesis, university of san diego, san diego, usa. grimbilas (2009). the effect of a character education unit on the behavior of ninth grade students. unpublished master thesis, graduate program caldwell college, new jersey, usa. kalaycı, ş. (2005). faktör analizi. ş. kalaycı (der.), spss uygulamalı çok değişkenli i̇statistik teknikleri (s.321-334). ankara: asil yayın dağıtım. karakuş, ö. ve başıbüyük, o. (2009). deneysel ve deneysel olmayan araştırma yöntemleri. k. böke (der.), sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri (s.198240). i̇stanbul: alfa yayınları. karasar, n. (2006). bilimsel araştırma yöntemi (16. baskı). ankara: nobel yayıncılık. king, j. d. (2009). implementation of characterplusrtm and interdependence on achievement and discipline. unpublished dissertation. lindenwood university, missouri, usa. ahmet katilmiş, halil ekşi̇ & cemil öztürk 87 lickona, t. (1991). educating for character: how school can teach respect and responsibility. new york: battam. lickona, t. (1993). the return of character education. educational leadership. vol. 51, issue 3, pp. 6-11. meb ttkb (2009). sosyal bilgiler 4–5. sınıf programı. http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr. meb. (2005). i̇lköğretim 1-5. sınıf programları tanıtım el kitabı. ankara: meb yayınları. meb. (2007). http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/ ogretmen/modules. neuman, w. l. (2008). toplumsal araştırma yöntemleri nitel ve nicel yaklaşımlar iii. (s. özge, çev.). i̇stanbul: yayınodası. niyazi, m (2000). medeniyetimizin analizi ve geleceği. i̇stanbul: ötüken neşriyat. nucci, l.p. (2001). education in the moral domain. cambridge university press. öztürk, c. (2007). küreselleşme ve bilgi çağında sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. a. oktay ve ö. polat unutkan (der.) i̇lköğretimde alan öğretimi (s.101-142). i̇stanbul: morpa yayınları. prencipe, a. (2001). cildren’s reasoning about the teaching of values. unpublished master thesis. university of toronto, toronto, usa. rivers m. t. (2004). ten essential for character education. the journal of general education. vol, 53. issue, 3/4, pp. 247-260. rusnak, t. (1998). integration character in the life of the school. t. rusnak (eds.), an integratted approach to character education (s. 9-19). thousand oaks: corvn press. ryan, k. & bohlin, k. (1999). building character in schools practical ways to bring moral instruction to life. san francisco: jossey-bass. tatlıdil, h. (2002). uygulamalı çok değişkenli i̇statistiksel analiz. ankara: akademi matbaası. tezbaşaran, a. (1997). likert tipi ölçek geliştirme kılavuzu. ankara: türk psikologlar derneği yayınları. yazıcıoğlu, y. ve erdoğan, s. (2004). spss uygulamalı bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: detay yayıncılık. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 50-87 88 ek 1: bi̇li̇mselli̇k ölçeği̇ i̇fadeler k es in lik le k at ılm ıy or um k at ılm ıy or um k ar ar sı zı m k at ılı yo ru m k es in lik le k at ılı yo ru m 1. çevremdeki varlıkların nasıl meydana geldiğini merak ederim. 2. savunduğum düşüncelerin yanlış olduğu kanıtlansa da savunmaya devam ederim. 3. anlamadığım şeyleri sormaktan çekinmem. 4. bir problemin çözümüne ilişkin fikirler ortaya koyabilirim. 5. çevremde olan olayların sebeplerini araştırırım. 6. özgür düşüncenin olmadığı yerde bilim gelişmez. 7. hangi düşünceyi savunursa savunsun bilim adamlarının çalışmaları desteklenmelidir. 8. görüşler arasındaki ortak ve farklı noktaları belirleyebilirim. 9. savunduğum düşüncelerin tutarlı olmasına önem veririm. 10. ödevlerimi hazırlarken farklı kaynaklardan yararlanırım. 11. i̇nsanlar düşüncelerini özgürce ifade edebilmelidir. 12. herhangi bir konu hakkında farklı fikirler ortaya koyabilirim. 13. ödevlerimi hazırlarken yararlandığım kaynakların ismini belirtirim. 14. okuduğum herhangi bir metindeki tutarsızlıkları fark ederim. 15. diğer insanlardan farklı olmayı göze alabilirim. 16. yeni şeyler üretmeye meraklıyımdır. 17. düşüncelerimin eleştirilmesinden rahatsız olmam. 18. i̇nsanları farklı kılan fikirleridir. 19. gelecek ile ilgili öngörülerde (tahminlerde) bulunurken mevcut delilleri kullanırım. 20. bilimsel gelişmeler ile ilgili gazete ve dergilerde verilen haberleri okurum. 21. verilen kararları sorgularım. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2), i-iv editorial transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education more than half a century has passed since the collapse of the soviet union in 2001 that led not only to deep geopolitical, economic and social changes but also stimulated transformations in the educational sector of most post-soviet states. having common background and historical roots national educational systems of most of these countries were modifying their past experience under the influence of modernization strategies and internationalization processes after signing bologna agreements in the first half of the xxi century. thus, this special issue is an attempt to trace retrospectively the changes that took place on the post-soviet territory using social studies education as an example with a focus on educational policy, theory and practice. it seems reasonable and worthy as it provides multifaceted comparative perspective of the development within this field during the periods of transition, stabilization and potential growth. under social studies education we understand integrated and systemic teaching and learning experience in such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, history, geography, philosophy, psychology, pedagogy, religion and sociology. the eleven articles in this special issue focus on the topics within the following general strands:  transformation of post-soviet social studies education curriculum under the influence of modernization and internationalization processes;  enhancing instruction in post-soviet social studies education;  emergence of new assessment methods and techniques in post-soviet social sstudies education;  diversification of curriculum, instruction and assessment for various categories of learners in social studies education;  professional development of new age social studies researchers from post-soviet states. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), i-iv ii the issue opens with the article entitled “improving student readiness to overcome itrelated obstacles during pedagogical interaction in post-soviet education” by dmitry luchaninov, ruslan bazhenov, yuliya shtepa, natalia nikolaeva, andrey tcytcarev & marina kuimova and aimed at identifying the concept of pedagogical interaction in the information and educational environment, showing how efficient pedagogical interaction may improve student readiness to overcome it-related obstacles. the authors prove that integrating it into educational process is useful and is vital for developing professional career in the future. the second contribution “transformation of the system of bilingual education in the republic of tatarstan: crossover ethnolinguistic controversies” by olga maximova, vladimir belyaev & olga laukart-gorbacheva concentrates attention on bilingual education and practical implementaion of its principles in polyethnic and polireligious regions of russia taking the republic of tatarstan as an example. it is stated that implemented language policy as well as existing bilingual educational programs and their methodological support are of poor quality and need significant improvement in the nearest future. the next article “knowledge management as an approach to learning and instructing sector university students in post-soviet professional education” by irina s. volegzhanina, svetlana v. chusovlyanova, vladimir a. adolf, ekaterina s. bykadorova & elena n. belova reveals the nature of knowledge management approach compared to the knowledge-based one that dominated in the soviet system of education. the authors prove that ontological core of the knowledge-based approach is promising and didactically important especially for sector university students majoring in social sciences. ekaterina o. akvazba, lyudmila k. gabysheva, pavel s. medvedev, natalya i. skok tatyana e. ukhabina being the authors of the fourth article “transformation of approaches to organizing the students' university practical training in the area of social activity: a post-soviet experience” present the challenges that russian social studies education has faced during the last years especially in the professional training of social sphere specialists. detailed plan for overcoming these disadvantages is offered including the authors’ practical training model for those involved in social work with regard to existing european experience. in the fifth article “buddhist religious education in the context of modern russian policy of multicultural education: a case of the republic of buryatia” by oyuna dorzhigushaeva, bato dondukov & galina dondukova, the place and role of buddhist religious education in the ethnoculturally and ethnoconfessionally specific educational environment of the republic of buryatia is analyzed. the authors provide multilateral analysis of the studied phenomenon and reveal its preventive educational potential for problematic multicultural regions. the next article “social informatics: natural tools for students' information training in the conditions of embodied and mental approaches being employed” authored by daria barkhatova, elmira nigmatulina & tatyana stepanova deals with a relatively new field of social studies education – social informatics. the importance of quality it training is prioritized and the opportunities for applying the natural tools in it training within school courses from the standpoints of embodied and mental approaches are offered. in their article “teacher to student epistemological interaction in the contemporary paradigm of university education” irina charikova & victor zhadanov state the necessity to reconceptualise the understanding of epistemological interaction and its essence as a result of epistemic content-related transformations between all the active parties of the educational process. it is obvious that cooperation and openness to new knowledge stimulate cognitive transformations of teachers and students as well as desire for innovation. yuliya s. nikolaeva & nikolay i. pak present in their article “newest web-technologies for studying and diagnosing individual abilities of learners” research outcomes on the possibilities to use newest web and mobile applications in the educational process as well as for self-diagnostics of the main human cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, reading, information processing etc. the authors report on practical outcomes of their study, i.e. the website http://self-test.ufoproger.ru developed for new diagnostics and studies in the sphere of human individual and integrated abilities. article 9 “traditional and alternative approaches to the method of situational analysis in russia: evidence from the case study “istanbul in the life and works of martiros saryan” by the international group of authors, olga fedotova, pavel ermakov, vladimir latun, haykaz hovhannisyan & grant avanesyan, demonstrates the potential of case study as a methodical tool for developing cognitive and problem-solving abilities of students, stimulating them for http://self-test.ufoproger.ru/ journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), i-iv iv individual research work. content peculiarities of cases in soviet and post-soviet times are analyzed through a comparative lens. the next contribution “formation of students’ professional self-actualization in modern educational environment” by nadezhda a. dmitrienko, marina a. gorbina, natalya f. porozhnyak, tatyana v. trusova & tatyana g. konovalenko is devoted to the issue of professional self-actualisation in modern educational process. the authors discuss the advantages of the developed technology for raising students` consciousness allowing to reach high levels of self-actualization, fast personal and professional growth. the final article of the special issue “internationalization impact on phd training policy in russia: insights from the comparative document analysis” by oksana chigisheva, elena soltovets & anna bondarenko provides the findings from the comparative analysis of documents regulating training of phd students (education only) in russia during the last two decades. dramatical changes are fixed in educational policy due to the internationalization agenda. the authors conclude on the competitiveness of existing phd training, its key role for global research career development and progress of the system of higher education in general. i would like to thank jsser editor-in-chief, assoc. prof. dr. bulent tarman for endless support and useful recommendations when working on this special issue as well as all the authors for their interesting contributions and strong commitment. i do believe that this special issue will help to extend the vision of transformation experiences in educational policy, theory and practice of post-soviet social studies education from inner perspective and stimulate future discussions at the international level. guest editor, jsser editor-in-chief, jsser assoc. prof. dr. assoc. prof. dr. bulent tarman oksana chigisheva, southern federal university, rostov-on-don, russia article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (3),64-81 64 learning from the face-threatening acts by tourist workers in bali: impacts of cross-cultural misunderstanding anak agung ayu dian andriyani1, djatmika2, sumarlam3& ely triasih rahayu4 abstract a face-threatening acts (ftas) is considered to be an act, including an utterance, that can damage a person’s face. this study aims to identify ftas unintentionally committed by tourism workers toward japanese tourists. drawing on a qualitative approach, this study involved 25 participants selected in purposive sampling, and interviews were conducted with five japanese tourists and four tourism workers who were available during the research. data were collected through observation and interviews. records and field notes were also used to collect data. in addition, domain, taxonomy, componential, and cultural theme analyses were applied to analyze the data and consider the power, distance, range of imposition, and speech situation. the results show that tourism workers perform negative ftas when addressing japanese tourists and offering goods or services for sale. specifically, tourism workers demonstrate speech that implies oppression, the absence of honorific keigo, the use of titles not commonly addressed in japanese culture in the same context, a failure to understand that japanese tourists may want to enjoy the beach privately, and speech when making offers that invades the privacy of japanese tourists. linguistically, tourist workers are using correct local conventions, but this cultural context is improperly perceived. keywords: kuta beach, tourism workers, face-threatening acts, japanese tourists. introduction this paper covers a pragmatic analysis that focuses on how utterances by beach workers—as tourism workers—are perceived by japanese tourists in bali, indonesia. the honorific addresses of futsuugo and keigo can be delivered inappropriately, with offers sometimes offending tourists. politeness strategies are being wrongly perceived here by tourism workers in bali due to crosscultural misunderstandings. sadeghoghli & niroomand (2016) assert the politeness principle restricts human communicative behavior, influencing us to avoid communicative discord or offence, and maintain communicative concord. by “communicative discord” leech (2005) means a situation in which two people can be assumed, on the basis of what meanings have been 1 doctor candidate, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta; mahasaraswati university, denpasar, bali, indonesia; email: agungdianstiba@gmail.com 2 prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia, email: djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id 3 prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta, indonesia, email: sumarlam@staaf.uns.ac.id 4 dr. universitas jendral soedirman, purwokerto, indonesia, email: hikarinihongo@gmail.com mailto:agungdianstiba@gmail.com mailto:djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:sumarlam@staaf.uns.ac.id mailto:hikarinihongo@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3), 64-81 communicated, to entertain mutually opposed goals. according to brown and levinsons’ (1987) speech acts, such as requests, offers, disagreement and compliments, inherently threaten either the hearer’s or the speakers’ face-wants and that politeness is involved in redressing face threatening acts (ftas). japanese tourists as reported by bali’s tourist agency represented the largest group visiting bali in 2004 (disparda, provincial tourism office, 2019). starting in 2008, however, tourists from china, australia, and india started to out number japanese tourists, resulting in them moving down to fourth number (disparda, 2019). tourism in bali has been developed using the concept of tri hita karana, which is the teaching of the hindu religion based on the principle of balance and harmony by the interrelated components of parahyangan (harmony toward the creator), pawongan (harmony toward the interpersonal), and palemahan (harmony toward the surrounding nature) (dibya, 2018; tvri pusat jakarta, 2019). tourism in bali has among its resources nature and culture, and the unique beauty and culture of bali strengthen its image as a tourist destination (bagus, 2016). one class of tourism location that is largely desired by japanese tourists is the beaches. along these beaches, many tourism workers take the opportunity to earn income from tourism. tourist workers at the beach are generally self-employed and sell various kinds of souvenirs and services. their work is usually dependent on visiting domestic and foreign tourists. these workers include beach workers, who frequently have a firm posture, tattoos, and colorful hair. they provide services like the renting of surfboards and offer training through short surfing tutorials. other tourism workers include street vendors, masseurs, hairdressers, and taxi drivers (disparda, 2019). during their interactions with japanese tourists, tourism workers use the japanese language without proper structure and grammar and only a slight comprehension of japanese culture (dibya, 2018). this results in improper speech from tourism workers that fails to consider the position of the other party as an unfamiliar customer (ida bagus, 2016). culture therefore plays an important role in successful communication (brown & levinson, 1987). appreciating the importance of culture and proper grammar can lead to acceptable language for both parties in a dialogue. in tourism, this applies not just to the japanese language but also to other languages, such as arabic, which must follow the principles of correct grammar(mansor, 2016). the arabic language is also used in tourism for various expressions, with explicit adjectives being the dominant features when compared to other tourism interactions. arabic in tourism, for instance, is categorized of having andriyani, et al. stylish features, and positive language can advance the density and beauty of a dialogue (idrismansor, 2016). guides for japanese tourists are obliged to usethe japanese language properly and correctly. these guides need to understand japanese culture, so their speech will not seem rude and impolite. unfortunately, as reported by rashid, rahim & mamat (2017) tourist workers in the area of kuta beach, bali show an imperfect mastery of pragmatic forces when communicating with japanese tourists, thus giving japanese tourists a negative impression. uncomfortable feelings that manifest due to cultural misunderstandings were identified as ftas by leech (1990), such as when politeness strategies are inappropriately applied (brown & levinson, 1987). politeness indicates the cross cultural communication (brown & levinson, 1987) that requires speakers avoid face threatening (culpeper, 1987; srisuruk, 2011). various studies in languagepoliteness strategies and ftas shave been conducted (e.g., srisuruk, 2011; purnomo, 2011; najeeb, maros &nor, 2012; kristianto, 2016; rashid, rahim &mamat, 2017). srisuruk (2011) found that the quality of politeness in tourist interactions in the english language by thai people tend to feature negative politeness strategies when maintaining a harmonious relationship with the other party in the conversation. purnomo (2011) investigated language use in tourism service interactions between hosts and tourists. he noted that the hosts prefer a positive politeness when providing services to tourists. in addition, najeeb, maros, and nor (2012) examined politeness strategies in arabic post-graduate student emails to supervisors in a malaysian university, focusing on cultural diversity, and stressed they are very problematic for arabic students studying in malaysia. during their interaction with supervisors, they employ two strategies, namely positive and negative politeness rather than the five available strategies proposed by brown and levinson (1987). research by kristianto (2016) analyzed language use in the tourism context and its effect on selfimage, focusing on the structure of the hospitality language system. a novel finding of this research was how speakers’ intention to limit ftas applies negative hospitality, where tourism practitioners demonstrate awareness of ftas by withholding negative faces during service interactions. good hospitality thus occurs when tourism practitioners show awareness of the need for tourists to save face during service interactions. rahsid, rahim & mamat (2017) note that strategies used to avoid ftas by tourist workers did not specifically describe occurrences of ftas in the tourism domain. we observe that the patterns of humor and strategies used by tourism guides journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3), 64-81 while providing services to japanese tourists is rather playful by nature with the intention attracting the attention and interest of japanese tourists and providing a humorous ambience. rahayu (2017) asserts that laughter is also used to achieve harmonious interpersonal relations, as has been noted in several previous researches that focus on the types of politeness strategies used to avoid ftas. thus, speech related to ftas and its implementation in the tourism domain has not yet been fully explored (disparda, 2019). research questions drawing on politeness strategies and ftas as the cornerstone for our concepts, this study is guided by the following research question: “how do tourist workers deliver addresses and offers when communicating with japanese tourists in bali?” review of literature face the face theory is coined by brown and levinson (1987), that consist of three basic notions: face, fta and politeness strategies. an fta results from the effects of a speaker’s utterance, regardless of the politeness strategy used in his or her speech (yule, 1996). to overcome the issue, speakers can avoid this threat by quantifying the degree of the threat during communication (levinson et al., 1987; nadar, 2009; yule, 1996). such an approach also applies in the tourism domain, where tourism workers try to provide maximum service while being aware of their speech in order to avoid ftas, because these lead to disharmony in communication. basically, in general communication the use of politeness strategies of bald on-record and offrecord are important for ftas (kristianto, 2016; levinson et al., 1987; yule, 1996). in direct contact like communication between tourists and tourist workers, ftas may frequently occur as a result of misunderstanding of the culture that implicates to the use of negative politeness strategies (ida bagus, 2016; rahayu, 2017; rashid, rahim & mamat, 2017). a person’s face is the self-image that he or she wants to preserve, and utterances and threats from other people can threaten this. humans, as social creatures, use two types of face, positive and negative (levinson et al., 1987). a positive face includes an interest in being liked and respected by others, while a negative face features a basic desire for individual space, personal privilege, and freedom from disruption (dagdilelis, 2018; levinson et al., 1987; nadar, 2009; yule, 1996). andriyani, et al. brown and levinson (1987:61) argue that the concept of face is “the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself”. there are two kinds of face wants: positive and negative face. negative face covers the basic claim of territories, personal preservers, right to nondistraction, e.g. freedom of action and freedom from imposition. the positive face is the positive consistent self-image or “personality” claimed by interactants. every utterance is potentially a fta, either to negative face or positive face. based on this basic theory, brown & levinson (1987) point out three main strategies to perform speech acts are distinguished: positive politeness, negative politeness and off-record politeness. positive politeness aims at supporting the addressee’s positive face, whereas negative politeness aims at softening the encroachment on the addressee’s freedom of action or freedom from imposition. off-record politeness assumes that the addressee is able to infer the intended meaning. to implement the strategies brown and levinson (1987) then propose five approaches:  bald on-record, which is a direct speech strategy without any nuances or platitudes, so the concept of face does not apply in this situation;  positive politeness, where speakers seek to save positive face by presenting themselves as equal speaking partners, avoiding disagreement, making promises, and using humor;  negative politeness, where speakers use indirect utterances through questioning with speaking partners to keep a social distance and act apologetically;  off record, which is a speech strategy using indirect speech;  avoid the fta by saying nothing, although this fails to achieve the desired communication. japanese politeness politeness is the demonstration of respect toward one or more other people in communication (brown & levinson, 1980; rahayu, 2013). respect and politeness are two different concepts, but they are closely connected in the honorific patterns of speakers (baryadi, 2003). in japan, politeness is at the basis of all communication, and whether it proceeds or not depends on the politeness demonstrated between speaking partners (ide, 2006). politeness in japan is an imprinted concept, such that a polite individual is characterized by his or her use of an honorific system (respectfulness) in each utterance on the lexical, syntactical, and morphological levels. it follows social norms, such as being polite to those of a higher social status, greater authority, and older journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3), 64-81 people, as well as within formal situations (ide, 1989). the view of communication in japanese society is mostly driven by the japanese cultural background. the japanese concept of politeness is divided into two types, namely ishi (volition) and wakimae (discernment) (kaneko, 2014). politeness as social norms must be demonstrated by each individual in an interaction rather than as a volition in the ishi concept. wakimae covers individual roles verbally and non-verbally in a situation, based on social conversion, so the japanese apply the wakimae concept in communication for the purpose of creating a harmonic relationship between speaking partners (iori & takanashi, 2000). the degree of japanese honorific language the degree of japanese honorific language comprises futsuugo (ordinary language) and keigo(polite language) (kaneko, 2014). futsuugo is the quality of language characterized by the main verbs expressed by speakers to familiar speaking partners with no social distance, so futsuugo has no display of honor (suzuki, 1998; iori & takanashi, 2000; kabaya, takagi & kimu, 2009; kaneko, 2014). this pattern includes futsuutai verbs, which is the basic verbform, and is also known asgokan in japanese. izumi (2011) also calls this pattern futsuutai when referring to an ordinary pattern on the word level, while futsuugo is an ordinary pattern on the sentence level (iori& takanashi, 2000; rahayu, 2013). keigo, meanwhile, is the polite language used by speakers when communicating based on factors like position, setting, nuance, occupational position, age, and seniority (suzuki, 1998:23). as a polite style (keigo), it is used based on the connections of speakers (o1), speaking partners (o2), and others in the conversation (o3) (rahayu, 2013). keigo itself is further divided into sonkeigo (ascent language), which is used to express respect directly by uplifting speaking partners or third parties, while kenjougo (descent language) is used to directly express respect by humbling oneself. these differ from teineigo (polite language), which is used to demonstrate politeness in every word and thus soften the utterance in the ears of speaking partners and third parties (suzuki, 1998; kabaya & kimu, 2009; kaneko, 2014). balinese tri hita karana the implementation format of tri hitakarana assumes that all living creatures are part of a brotherhood. this means that the thoughts, words, and deeds are the same regardless of race or other grouping based on the tri kaya parisuda hindu teaching (tvri pusat jakarta, 2019). the andriyani, et al. use ofsor//singgih//basa reflects one’s degree of politeness in communication (rai, 2018:1). polite speech thus becomes a strategy to support harmonious communication by following the teaching of tri hita karana. such a concept also applies in the tourism context of bali, such as in hotels. under the concept of pawongan, hotels always support artistic performances from various tribes and religious groups in their areas. the intention is to maintain harmony among religious followers. meanwhile, the concept of palemahan aims to maintain harmony with nature, such as by sustaining coral reefs and turtle populations. the concept of parhyangan in matahari hotels also includes being active in constructing temples and upholding the sanctity of temples in hotel areas. this effort is not random but rather standardized in daily hotel operation (parma & par, 2010). tourism workers tourism workers are at the frontline of sustainability in the tourism industry (hsu & chan, 2009; huang, 2011a). in addition, tourism practitioners must understand the needs of tourists and be capable of giving positive impressions, because their main purpose is to provide new experiences. the service toward customers in japan can be viewed based on the analysis of reisinger and waryszak (2000), where all tourists visiting japan are treated as customers like they are in their own homes. from the japanese perspective, a guest as a customer receives a similar devotion to that of god, so all services in japanese hospitality are maximally accommodating. based on the service type, tourism workers must embrace the concept of guests as kings (shinya ichijo, 2015). this differs, however, from the western view of customers as kings (dace, 1995). hospitality, according to kristianto (2016), uses language that can be identified through speech formats illustrating acts of service. to reduce face threatening through negative hospitality, tourism practitioners should display positive facial awareness, thus saving face during service interactions. positive hospitality occurs when tourism practitioners respect the need for tourists to preserve a positive or negative face during every service interaction. research by roswati (2013) investigated the characteristics of japanese tourists when vacationing abroad and how tourism practitioners attempted to understand the behavioral patterns of japanese tourists to avoid conflicts. the findings of roswati (2013) are relevant to this research, because they revealed efforts to avoid face-threatening acts through the use of proper language politeness strategies. based on the view journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3), 64-81 of reisinger and turner (1999), cultural variation and service providers’ behaviors provide personal impressions for tourists. methods this research applied a descriptive qualitative approach using the case study method for the global tourist destination of kuta beach in the badung regency of bali, indonesia. the focus of this study was the honorific addresses and offers made by beach workers when communicating with japanese visitors to kuta beach. the utterances used to address or make an offer to japanese tourists were explored in this study, because they can sometimes offend or even insult japanese tourists. a pragmatic analysis was performed to confirm whether communication was performed well, not just in terms of form but also the context and purpose. we involved 20 japanese tourists and five tourism workers based on the purposive sampling techniques in the entire research process. the criteria used for selecting tourism workers included: a) must have worked in tourism on kuta beach for at least five years, b) must be able to speak basic japanese, and c) must have lived in bali for at least five years. in addition, the japanese tourists were selected based on the following criteria: a) must have visited bali more than two times and b) must understand bali’s societal character and culture. this research was done for three months from january to march 2017. data were collected through a) recording various dialogues between tourism practitioners and japanese tourists; b) observing and taking field notes during interactions based on the research purposes; and c) interviewing in a deep but unstructured format to give ample opportunity for interviewees to provide the most original responses (sutopo, 2006). for the interviews, four tourist workers and five japanese tourists who were available during the research were involved. see tables 1 and 2 for a description of the data-collection process. table 1 profiles of the tourism workers for interviews interview name age duration (minutes) interview date 1 dg1 43 60 10 february, 2017 2 dg2 35 45 13 february, 2017 3 dg3 45 55 15 february, 2017 4 dg4 28 30 18 february, 2017 andriyani, et al. the tourism workers (labeled dg1, dg2, dg3, and dg4) were all male tourism workers who had been working for more than 20 years as providers of surfboards, street vendors, or chauffer guides. they used the japanese language to communicate with japanese tourists but without use of proper japanese language. they merely improvised a vocabulary that they had learned themselves. they presumed that their improper, less polite use of the japanese language would not raise complaints if they provided sufficient comfort for the tourists. the japanese tourists (labeled wj1, wj2, wj3, wj4, and wj5) had all visited bali more than twice on vacation. with regards to the improper japanese language use by the tourist workers, the japanese tourist participants expressed that they understood the situation. the tourists expected that the beach atmosphere brings a non-formal situation where there is no obligation to use honorific utterances. in addition, the requirement to provide excellent and friendly services gave comfort to the japanese tourists. although a meeting may be peculiar, because the tourism workers talk easily and relatively fast and close to japanese tourists, the tourists appreciate the hospitable nature of the indonesian people, so the phenomena is not a major issue. table 2 profiles of the japanese tourist interviewees interview name age duration (minutes) interview date 1 wj1 32 30 25 january, 2017 2 wj2 38 45 28 january, 2017 3 wj3 36 25 25 february, 2017 4 wj4 76 60 29 february, 2017 5 wj5 44 45 30 february, 2017 for analysis purposes, the data were presented in dialogue format based on the speech context, including topic discussion, the location related to the situation, speaker positioning, and time. the primary data for this research comprised linguistic data in the form of dialogues between beach tourism workers and japanese tourists, which may contain positive and/or negative ftas. the data included verbal data, possibly containing ftas, from the verbal interactions in the research location, namely the kuta beach area. this involves various linguistic interactions between beach tourism workers and japanese tourists, supported by neighborhood data gained from numerous sources, such as event locations and the place of an interaction’s occurrence. the credibility of the research data was evaluated through the validity checking technique of triangulation between data resources and methods. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3), 64-81 the data were analyzed based on spradley’s (1980) model, which includes domain, taxonomy, componential, and cultural theme analyses. this way, dialogues were classified according to domain, taxonomy, componential, and cultural themes. power was symbolized with (+p) to show speaking partners who possessed more power than other speakers; social distance was represented as (++d) and (+d) and (-d) for no social gap; and a large degree of imposition was denoted as (+i), with (-i) representing no imposition. for the social context, a formal situation was symbolized by (+f) and a non-formal situation by (-f) (santosa, 2017; spradley, elizabeth, & amirudin, 1997). results and discussion the objective of this study was to examine patterns in addresses and offers made by tourism workers when communicating with japanese tourists in the japanese language and establish if they were considered impolite or awkward. this is exemplified through the dialogues extracted from the data analysis. dialogue (1) is an interaction between a tour service provider and a japanese tourist on kuta beach. it indicates how a negative fta occurred in the tourist information center of kuta beach. the worker is an officer in the tourism center and the other party is a japanese tourist inquiring about the services provided by the tourist information center. dialogue (1) negative face-threatening act: speech data (1): speaker : service provider (30–35 years old /m) interlocutor: 1 japanese tourist(25–30 years old/ m) location: small information center distance: first encounter (++d) topic of conversation: service provider offers optional tour speech context: japanese tourist (wj) customer upon the service (+p) first time meeting (++d) the degree of imposition (+i) informal situation (-f) speech: service provider : ohayou//gozaimasu//shachou//, douzo//…tsua-//dou?//ubud,// kintamani.// good morning//boss//please//what about ordering a tour? ubud, kintamani. japanese tourist : boku//shachou?//shachou//janaiyo…. (warai) i am a boss? not the boss, though. (laugh) ii//desu//. no. service provider : bari//no//omiyage//dou?.// what about a souvenir from bali? japanese tourist : ii//desu//. no. andriyani, et al. service provider : (damatteimasu) (silence) the service provider directly used positive hospitality to greet the tourist (ohayou//gozaimasu) and lead the tourist in checking out the options offered by the provider in order to narrow the social gap in this initial meeting (++d). in this context, the title used for the japanese tourist is shachou (boss), which is a title for someone of a higher position in a company(wamafma, 2010). in indonesia, the boss title can be used more comfortably and neutrally without considering customers’ origin or gender. uplifting the speaking partner’s status is a sign of respect and a format for hospitality toward customers (abdurrahman, 2011). however, the tour service provider does not realize it represents an fta because in japan, the word shachou belongs to the highest leader of a company. thus, the staff of a company is more likely to speak using proper honorific symbols (kabaya, 2015) rather than uplift the social status of speaking partners. the tour service provider lexically translated the indonesian word for a company leader into shachou, which is the closest in meaning for comforting and uplifting the status of customers. from dialogue (1), we identify that the cultural differences in interpreting the word shachou between the service provider and the japanese tourist result in shock and awkwardness. although there was no intention from the service provider to threaten the face of the tourist, it indirectly threatened the negative face of the japanese tourist, because such speech is not part of common politeness. as the result of the improper word choice, the tourist experiences discomfort. nevertheless, the japanese tourist laughs and tries to respond by explaining that he is not the ceo of a company. the communication continues and offers are swiftly rejected by the japanese tourist. ultimately, the service provider gives up and goes silent following the tourist’s rejection of balinese souvenirs. from the beginning to the end of the conversation, there is no formal situation. the service provider does not use honorific keigo speech. the speech used is futsuugo (ordinary format) in the form of tsua//dou and omiyage//dou. despite the service provider using the ordinary speech format, the communication proceeded. this concurs with the opinions of suzuki (1998) and hiroyuki (2014)that the speech degree is strongly affected by social factors, such as formal and non-formal speech situations. although the service provider committed an fta with his use of the shachou title toward the japanese tourist, the tourist remains because he realizes that the provider cannot speak properly in japanese but is trying to use the japanese language when making offers. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3), 64-81 greetings and a warm welcome give a good impression to japanese tourists visiting the beach. this can be seen in their responses to offers, even if they refuse them and laugh at the use of the word shachou as their title. what is more, based on an interview with one of the 20 japanese tourists who had all visited bali more than twice, the tourist is shocked at the title shachou, because normally the word would be okyakusama// or okyakusan//(guest). on their second and subsequent visits, the tourists simply accepted such things as something quirky about kuta beach. the japanese tourist understands the intention implied in the worker’s misuse of the word shachou, namely that he is trying to be friendly and welcoming toward the japanese tourist as a customer and reduce the awkwardness of this initial meeting. the data in dialogue (2) show how an offer is made by a beach worker that is considered improper. dialogue (2) negative face-threatening act: speech situation context speakers: beach worker(35 years/m) interlocutor : japanese tourist (23–25 years/m) topic discussion:beach worker offers//surfing//to japanese tourist time: 11:30 am speech context : japanese tourist upon the service (+p) first-time meeting (++d) degree of imposition (+i) informal situation (-f) beach worker : sa-fin// yaranai//desuka//. wanna surfing, sir?. japanese tourist : bo-do//rentaru//ikura?. how much for aboard?. beach worker : 1 jikan//50.000//rupia//dake//. one hour is only 50,000 rupiahs. japanese tourist : take-! that’s//expensive!. beach worker :takakunaiyo//. it’s notthat expensive. japanese tourist : majide?.// really? beach worker : souyo//. douzo//, erande//kudasai//. sure. pick one. japanese tourist : kono//iro//ga// ii// ne//. this color is awesome. beach worker : kore//ni//suru?// you choose this one, sir? japanese tourist : hai. yeah. beach worker : mou,//sorosoro//nami//ga//kuruyo//. the//wave is coming//shortly.’ japanese tourist : hontoni?.// oh yeah?. beach worker : imakara//junbi//shitene!// andriyani, et al. get ready now. japanese tourist : hai//. yeah. dialogue (2) is an interaction between a beach worker and a japanese tourist in the kuta beach area. the beach worker provides surfboard rental and beverages. when the beach worker perceives the japanese tourist has the look of a surfer, he proceeds to greet and offered him a surfboard. initially, the beach worker seems to understand the japanese tourist’s need to go surfing and therefore the need to rent a surfboard. the interrogative sentence sa-fin//yaranai//desuka (do you want to surf, sir?) is an utterance to offer the service. it is direct speech to the tourist as a customer with power (+p), and in this first-time meeting, it is interpreted as a negative fta toward the japanese tourist because it disrupts his activities in bali. this agrees with the view of levinson (1987) that states that someone’s negative face relates to a basic desire for space, personal priviledge, freedom from disruption, and the ability to act and do something. the beach worker has tried to avoid an fta by using a negative face-saving strategy that employs interrogative sentences when offering surfboard rental. in the beginning of the interaction, the beach worker uses the teineigo (polite) speech pattern, as indicated by the copula desuka at the end of the sentence as a form of respect. while the initial interaction is in the teineigo format, the subsequent speech involves the use of futsuugo when explaining the cost of renting a surfboard. he explains that the rental cost is not so expensive (takakunaiyo). next, the conversation proceeds to confirm the choice of surfboard for the japanese tourist, and the speech dictates the proper time to surf (mou,//sorosoro//name//ga//kuruyo) and says to be ready (ima//kara//junbi//shitene!). although the beach worker is not consistent in his use of speech degrees due to his basic command of japanese from self-taught learning, the communication remains harmonious. this is evident in the japanese tourist’s willingness to accept the offer of renting a surfboard. the initial social gap is wide (++d) but gets narrower and ends without any gap (-d), because the beach worker is friendly and familiar with the other party even though it is a first-time meeting. the beach worker’s strategy is a friendly one that provides comfort during the interaction, even though the language use is improper and does not follow japanese language standards. an fta that indicates a formal context is exemplified in dialogue (3), and this shows improper and awkward use of a word. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3), 64-81 dialogue (3) negative face-threatening act: speech situation context speakers: beach worker (20–25 years/m) interlocutor : japanese tourist (25–30 years/f) topic discussion: beach worker asks the intention of wj time: 12:30 pm 01:00 pm speech context: japanese tourist upon the service (+p) first time meeting (++d) the degree of imposition (+i) formal situation (-f) beach worker : ohayou//gozaimasu,//doko//ikuno//oneechan//. good morning, madam.wheredo you want to go?. wj : nenene,//koko//kara//kuta//bi-chi//toui?.// emm, is it far from here to kuta beach? beach worker : kok//kara//massugu//dake//de//iku//to//sugu//chikaku//. it’s straight downhere. the beach is nearby. wj : souka,//arigatou.// oh i see.thanks. beach worker : hai. yes. dialogue (3) above indicates how an interaction occurred on kuta beach between different speakers. the beach worker in dialogue (3) greets the japanese tourist politely by saying ohayou//gozaimasu (good morning) as an opening for the unfamiliar customer. the interaction remains with a wide social gap (++d) and a high degree of imposition (+i) during the speech. afterwards, the beach worker uses interrogative sentences to ask about the intention of the tourist (doko//ikuno//oneechan//). although the beach worker uses interrogative sentences, it actually represents a negative fta, because the tourist has an expectation of privacy and a desire to not be exposed to unfamiliar people. in addition, the word oneechan is used to refer to the japanese tourist. based on the interview with the beach worker, the word choice oneechan was translated lexically from “older sister” (oniichan means “older brother”). these are neutral titles that indonesian vendors use while interacting with customers. the situation is different in japanese culture, however, and the title //oneechan// or oniichan// are reserved for close relatives. when referring to brothers and sisters in another family, the words oniisan and oneesan, respectively, are used. none of these words are used to refer to costumers, though, because the correct word would be okyakusan or okyakusama (guest) in japanese. andriyani, et al. in this context, the beach worker does not use honorific speech toward the japanese tourist. with only a basic command of the japanese language, the beach worker fails to understand the use of different speech degrees and differences in culture. the beach worker therefore directly translates the local culture while offering a service. despite this phenomenon occurring in the tourism domain of bali, the japanese tourist is amazed that the beach worker can communicate in japanese, regardless of his improper use of japanese grammar. however, the friendly and excellent service mean communication still goes well. for example, the japanese tourist asks the beach worker about the location of kuta beach. he politely explains the way to kuta beach by saying that the tourist should follow the straight lane to find it. this hospitality and sincere help are the results of hindu teaching, which demands maintaining a harmonic relationship with anyone. in japanese culture, customers must always be provided with excellent service because of the //okyakusama//wa//kamisama (the guest is god) concept. thus, service providers are obliged to provide excellent service. although the japanese language skills are limited, the ability to provide optimal service brings comfort. conclusion this study has identified situations where tourism workers use japanese words and sentences inappropriately and with awkward sentence patterns. in summary, the interactions between beach workers and japanese tourists on kuta beach are commonly associated with a negative fta toward japanese tourists. such acts can be seen in the use of words like shachou and oneesan, which while their equivalence may be commonly used in indonesian, they can represent face-threatening acts for japanese tourists. in addition, asking probing questions about a japanese tourist’s activities invades their privacy during their vacation in bali. beach workers also do not use the honorific speech degree toward japanese tourists as customers in first-time meetings. the beach workers’ utterances unintentionally contain ftas, however, because they have limited understanding of the japanese culture and language. despite this, the tourism workers are still able to interact well while providing services, and the tourists are happy. implication for tourist practitioners the results of the study show that japanese tourists who are the native speakers of japanese are aware and accept that the japanese language is not the native tongue of the balinese tourist journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3), 64-81 workers. in addition, non-formal situations become a major consideration for japanese tourists, considering power, distance, range of imposition, and speech situation as cultural problems that may cause ftas to appear. this implies that actions are not solely a system of a good communication process. tourism workers have acquired limited japanese language skills, but their friendly strategy helps maintain comfort during interactions. one limitation of this study is that the purposive sampling used in this study means that the results are only applicable to this specific setting, so future research could extend the range of subjects and deepen the exploration into the pragmatic use of politeness and impoliteness strategies in more natural ways. references abdurrahman, a. (2011). pragmatik; konsep dasar memahami konteks tuturan. lingua: jurnal ilmu bahasa dan sastra, 1(2), 1–19. brown,p. & levinson,s. (1987). politeness. someuniversalsoflanguageusage.cambridge. budiarta, i. w., & rajistha, i. g. n. a. (2018). politeness in “adit dan sopo jarwo” animation. lingua cultura, 12(1), 25. https://doi.org/10.21512/lc.v12i1.1822. culpeper, j. (2008). reflectionson impoliteness, relational work and power. in d. bousfield and m. locher (eds.), impoliteness in language: studies on its interplay with power in theory and practice, pp.17–44. berlinand new york: moutonde gruyter. dagdilelis, v. (2018). preparing teachers for the use of digital technologies in their teaching practice. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 109-121. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/345 gunawan, f. (2014). representasi kesantunan brown dan levinson dalam wacana akademik (brown and levinson’s politeness representation in academic discourse). kandai journal, 10(1): 13-25. idris-mansor, g. s. (2016). arabic for tourism: guidelines for linguists and translators. arab world english journal journal, 7(3), 77–94. iori, i., takanashi, s., nakanishi, k., & yamada, t. (2001). nihongo bunpou handbook. tokyo: 3a corporation. kabaya, hiroshi (2015). utsukushii nihongo to tadashii keigo ga mi ni tsuku hon. japan: tokyo taishukan. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/345 andriyani, et al. kabaya, hiroshi & kimu dongyu, t. m. (2009). keigo hyougen handobukku. japan: taishukan japan. kaneko, hiroyuki. (2014). nihongo keigo toreningu. japan: 会社アスク出版. kristianto, yohanes. (2016). hospitalitas sebagai alat kesadaran muka dalam interkasi layanan di ranah pariwisata. litera jurnal bahasa dan sastra, 2(1), 63–69. levinson, p., brown, p., levinson, s. c., & levinson, s. c. (1987). politeness: some universals in language usage (vol. 4). cambridge university press. nadar, f. (2009). pragmatik & penelitian pragmatik. yogyakarta: graha ilmu. najeeb, z. m., maros, m., & nor, n. f. m. (2012). politeness in e-mails of arab students in malaysia. gema online journal of language studies, 12(1), 125–145. parma, i. p. g. & par, s. s. (2010). pengamalan konsep tri hita karana di hotel: sebuah studi kasus pengembangan hotel berwawasan budaya di matahari beach resort and spa. purnomo, b. (2011). politeness in tourism-service register in central java: a sociopragmatic study. universitas gadjah mada. rahayu, e. t. (2013). the japanese keigo verbal marker. advances in language and literary studies, 4(2), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.4n.2p.104 rashid, r. a., ismail, r., rahim, n. a. a., & mamat, r. (2017). humour and communication in the tourism industry in malaysia. jurnal komunikasi, malaysian journal of communication, 33(1), 184–198. retrieved from http://ejournals.ukm.my/mjc/article/view/17161 resmi, b., perkembangan, s., & provinsi, p. (2019). perkembangan pariwisata bali februari 2019, (23), 1–6. sadeghoghli, hossein & niroomand, masoumeh. (2016). theories on politeness by focusing on brown and levinson's politeness theory. international journal of educational investigations. 3(2): 26-39. available online@ www.ijeionline.com santosa, r. (2017). metodologi penelitian kualitatif kebahasaan. (dwi purnanto, ed.). surakarta: uns press. sartini, n. w. (2017). strategi kesantunan berbahasa diaspora orang bali di jawa timur dalam situasi formal. mozaik humaniora, 16(2), 233–246. shinya ichijo. (2015). omotenashi nyuumon. japan: japan. retrieved from http://www.j-n.co.jp/ spradley, j. p., elizabeth, m. z., & amirudin. (1997). metode etnografi. yogyakarta: tiara http://www.ijeionline.com/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(3), 64-81 wacana. srisuruk, p. (2011). politeness and pragmatic competence in thai speakers of english submitted for the degree of doctor of philosophy school of education, communication and language sciences. newcastle university. suzuki, y. (1998). utsukushii keigo no manaa. tokyo: miryoku bijitsu. tvri pusat jakarta. (2019). beryadnya berbasis tri hita karana. jakarta barat, indonesia: tvri pusat jakarta. utama, i.g.b.r. (2016). the uniqueness of culture and natural beauty as images of bali destination according to the australian senior tourist. ssrn, 06 (april), 149–172. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2790503 wamafma, d. (2010). kesantunan masyarakat jepang. jurnal sastra jepang, 9(2), 1–8. yule, g. (1996). pragmatics. oxford university press. oxford. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 201-214 201 education for knowledge society: learning and scientific innovation environment alexander o. karpov 1 abstract cognitive-active learning research-type environment is the fundamental component of the education system for the knowledge society. the purpose of the research is the development of conceptual bases and a constructional model of a cognitively active learning environment that stimulates the creation of new knowledge and its socio-economic application. research methods include epistemicdidactic analysis of empirical material collected as a result of the study of research environments at schools and universities; conceptualization and theoretical modeling of the cognitively active surrounding, which provides an infrastructure of the research-type cognitive process. the empirical material summarized in this work was collected in the research-cognitive space of the “step into the future” program, which is one of the most powerful systems of research education in present-day russia. the article presents key points of the author's concept of generative learning environments and a model of learning and scientific innovation environment implemented at russian schools and universities. keywords: environment, learning, research, knowledge society, innovation. introduction the knowledge society is a dynamically developing socio-economic system within the modern society. this system, being a part of the society, is striving for using the scientific thinking as a primary force of production and development of the society as a whole. in this system, science is increasingly transforming into a single source of additional knowledge, and knowledge positions itself as a new axial principle of the society (stehr, 1994). education is upbringing young people who are gifted in scientific creativity, i.e. research education plays the role of a culture-producing foundation of the knowledge society. research education is based on a teaching system that uses the methods of cognition peculiar to science (karpov, 2015a). this sector of education has a high level of institutional diversity. it includes a research school and a research university (including an entrepreneurial type) that are interconnected by scientific-cognitive continuity both at the level of environment 1 doctor of philosophy, candidate of physics and mathematics, bauman moscow state technical university; state center “interphysica”, a.o.karpov@gmail.com mailto:a.o.karpov@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 201-214 and teaching methods. its institutional basis is cluster-network partnerships with scientific institutes, high-tech companies, innovation development organizations. creation of creativity-active cognitive research-type environments with a center at schools and universities is a prerequisite for upbringing young people who are able to participate in knowledge production. theoretical solution of this problem will make it possible to define characteristics of learning institutions for the education model in the knowledge society. literature review by the end of the 20th century, the concept of education through scientific research gained a footing in industrialized countries, according to which researches should be used as teaching methodologies (simons, 2006). they began to form an educational environment, a teaching process, and a cognitive function of thinking. at the beginning of the 21st century, universities occupy a key place in establishment of the knowledge society (the role of the universities in the europe of knowledge, 2003). at the political level, universities are declared as the basis of economic competitiveness (delivering on the modernisation agenda for universities: education, research and innovation, 2006). the idea of consolidation the scientific environment of universities plays a leading role in creation of excellence networks (response to the communication from the commission “the role of the universities in the europe of knowledge”, 2003). formation of university ecosystems based on distributed-type creative environments is taking place (curley and formica, 2015b). experience in creation of creative spaces at the stanford university shows that they are an effective way to change behavior (kembel, 2012). the conceptual document “designing spaces for effective learning” (2006) drawn up for the uk's higher education system states that “a learning space should be able to motivate learners and promote learning as an activity, support collaborative as well as formal practice, provide a personalized and inclusive environment, and be flexible in the face of changing needs”. innovative and entrepreneurial activity of students is becoming a key factor in university competitiveness (karpov, 2016e; mauch & tarman, 2016). among its objectives, the mit innovation initiative (2013) points to the creation of “an ecosystem where student ideas become world-changing technologies” (overview of the mit innovation initiative, 2016). at the same time, education should be provided in the expanded innovation-centric spaces to be the place of activities for creative collaborations of students, research staff, and faculty and provide effective linking of knowledge and experiences to real karpov world problems (mit innovation initiative: final report of community feedback and recommendations , 2016). in secondary-level education, methods of research cognition began to penetrate relatively recently. in the late 1950's – early 1960's, the scientific-research approach to school education became the subject of special political attention of the us government that was caused by soviet achievements in the field of military and space technologies (trow, 1968). in the report to the club of rome (1979), learning is treated from generative positions that are focused on the active role of a person in his attitude towards knowledge and society (botkin et. al., 1999). in the 1980s, the european union commission makes research activities at school a part of the policy of human potential development. in the early 2000's, in western education the issue of bringing to teaching the institutions, specialized on functions performed by knowledge in the post-industrial culture was being discussed (carr, 2003). bruner (2006) introduces the concept of a “soft technology” that focuses on the process of solving scientific problems and is able to provide the best learning results. in russia, project and research education at school emerges in mid-1990s as a result of the “step into the future” program. academic, professional and cultural institutions of the society were included into the scope of educational institutions (arlamov et al., 2011). as stated by j. tomlinson (2000), j. graham called this kind of association the “transformative partnerships” and w.e. doll (1993) named it “dynamic social communities”. today, the very possibility of research university activities depends on the level of cognitive readiness of a schoolchild to master sophisticated systems of scientific knowledge. formation of research competencies requires long time; therefore, it should start at the stage of secondary education. research education empowers a growing personality with dynamic competence required for working in complex systems of knowledge production (karpov, 2016a). it becomes an instrument of research-type socialization, which makes young people ready for life in the knowledge society (karpov, 2016d). this new type of socialization, for the first time described by me, achieves global social significance. it occurs in cognitively saturated environments that can motivate learners and be flexible for their various needs. as shown by results of the strata-etan group, the competencies involved in conducting researches have a high degree of coincidence with “for employment” competencies on the modern labor market (developing foresight for the development of higher education/research relations in the perspective of the european research area (era), 2002). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 201-214 the modern education absorbs the latest technologies, which become the instrumental basis for development of creative environments formed by new learning methods. indeed, the oecd report emphasizes that the solution to problems in technology-rich environments is found as a result of combination of digital and cognitive skills (oecd skills outlook 2013: first results from the survey of adults skills, 2013). the ict literacy model for higher education proposed by j. perez and m.c. murray (2010) makes computer user’s generativity a cornerstone, i.e. the ability to acquire new skills and generate new knowledge which forms the basis for innovations and creativity. the flipped classroom model used at the simon fraser university, canada, made it possible to create a socially dynamic educational environment focused on interactive and collaborative solutions of problems in the field of environmental protection and prevention of occupational diseases (galway et. al., 2014). the report by makeschools alliance founded by 40 american colleges and universities informs about implementation of the makerspaces concept integrating different tools and disciplines and may combine an art studio, a machine shop, a computer lab, a bio lab, etc. their technological infrastructure is used as a place of “blending practical learning and creativity”, where deep experience of interdisciplinary collaboration and maker culture emerge, “can-do” thinking is developed, and abilities to take creative risks and tackle difficult tasks are generated (byrne & davidson, 2015; tarman, 2016). meanwhile, training programs up to now use the conceptual dictionary of descartes, newton and laplace, whereas modern scientific thinking operates in the epistemic system of bohr, heisenberg and prigozhin (doll, 1993). experts direct attention to a lack of studies in the field of theoretical understanding of creativity in education (hammershoj, 2009); discrepancy between intellectual needs of students and educational environment (shernoff, 2013). purpose and methods of the study the purpose of this study is the development of conceptual bases and a constructional model of a cognitively active learning environment that stimulates the creation of new knowledge and its socio-economic application. research methods include epistemic-didactic analysis of empirical materials collected as a result of the study of research environments at schools and universities; conceptualization and theoretical modeling of the cognitively active surrounding, which provides an infrastructure of the research-type cognitive process. karpov the empirical material summarized in this work was collected in the research-cognitive space of the “step into the future” program, which is one of the most powerful systems of research education in present-day russia. the “step into the future” program was founded by me 25 years ago. today, more than 150 thousand young researchers schoolchildren and students – take part in this program. program support centers are distributed throughout the country. they represent partner structures that unite schools, universities, research institutes, various types of enterprises and organizations of innovative development. as a result of this association, the equipped research-cognitive spaces for the research and development activities of learners are taking shape. the european union commission and partners from 42 countries cooperate with the “step into the future” program, giving a potential to accumulate in its activity the most advanced experience in training of young researchers. at the world innovation summit for education (wise, doha, 2011), the “step into the future” program along with the skolkovo center was recognized as one of the two major innovation projects in russia. results and discussion generative learning environment experts underline a special role of the cognitively active learning environment in modern education. j. boys (2011) looks at the learning environments from the perspective of development the conceptual principles and methods that can help mapping of socio-spatial practices of education at universities and colleges in order to improve it. the author's standpoint lies in the fact that ”the space is therefore one of our means of thinking about the world and embodying thought into action” (boys, 2011). by a.p. wierzbicki and y. nakamori (2005) definition, the creative environment means “a place and space in which knowledge is shared, created and used, including physical space (offices, buildings), virtual space (computer network services), and mental space (experiences, ideas, emotions) – shortly, a place and environment in which creative activity can be performed”. the creative environment in the creative center at the university of brighton (the uk) is thought of as something greater than its physical part. it is represented by an assemblage of such spaces as a physical space (arrangement of training places), a virtual space (electronic networks), a psychological space (character, values, beliefs, emotions), a biological space (mental and physical abilities), and an interpersonal space (communications, social interaction) (martin et. al., 2010). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 201-214 the backbone of the author's concept of cognitively active learning environment relies on the idea of generativity as a trigger motivating to learning, creation of new knowledge and its socio-economic application. the term “generative” is an epistemic-didactic feature of both learning and teaching environment. generative learning is aimed at developing abilities for discovery of new knowledge and methods of its transformation (karpov, 2016b). it includes not only processes leading to creativity, but also formation of special set of values specifics for epistemic communities (e.g., in relation to the search for the truth, partnerships, and competition), scientific-type research behavior, scientific cognitive trajectories of personality development (problem-cognitive programs) (houdyshellm, 2017; karpov, 2016c). the generative learning environment is not only cognitively active forms and structures of cognitive attitude, but also a peculiar cognitive operationalism they contribute to learning practices. characterization of the learning environment as a generative phenomenon is opposed to the tradition to treat it as an adaptive structure having a comfortable environment for creative works and standardized abilities. uncertainties embodied in the generative learning environment stimulate imagination; problematic situations it offers, structure cognitive activity; cognition tools it is equipped pay the way to discoveries; and collectives of people being its integral part act as independent creating origin. along with the fact that this environment is a “driver” in academic cognition, researches, and developments (both training and professional), it contains authoritative truths and rigorous epistemic models to be overcome when searching for new knowledge. in such a way, the generative environment “teaches” to achieve scientific truth. the generative learning environment operates as a system of cognitive heuristics, i.e. presumably defines the best or optimal methods of cognitive activity in specialized problematic contexts, relying on a complex of dominant epistemic logics. at the same time, here is the place for ideas testing and creative productivity. using this environment, the school and university goes beyond the boundaries of the pure learning space. it leads to the emergence of principally new properties of the learning process, such as its indeterminacy, openness and transformativeness (self-modification), auto-regulation of cognition, and dynamism of cognitive contexts. karpov in general, the generative learning environment is defined by me as an educational system that encourages and builds a creative thinking function and possesses required socially active cognitive components. the generative learning environment of the university, focused on the knowledge production fields, is a cross-institutional educational system, which (1) actively creates and guides the process of scientific cognition and making an individual a knowledge worker, (2) is equipped with distributed cognitive structures organizing and providing necessary steps in his/her research and socio-cognitive maturation. this very general theoretical construct specifies a framework description that can be concretized by models revealing its contents from perspectives of one or another problem solving. learning and scientific innovation environment analysis of the generative environment as structurally complicated epistemic surrounding leads to cognitive-constructive concepts. the “learning and scientific innovation environment” construct developed by me for russian schools and universities can be interpreted as an epistemic mega-constructor containing socio-morphic extracurricular-type structures performing specialized work with research cognition and its products. in the research education systems, the learning environment constructively becomes layered. externally, it is realized in the form of a configuration of educational and professional organizations; at the internal structural level, it exists as a learning and scientific innovation environment. the latter is a special construction of the learning space in which research training is immersed. let's give a constructive definition to the “learning and scientific innovation environment” notion. the learning and scientific innovation environment is a socio-morphic system of internal organization of educational communities resting on contextual forms of transformation of learning activities into research cognition and knowledge technologization, implemented in the system of social relations with scientific and professional institutions of the society. it constructively includes: (1) basic structural-functional components – the specialized forms and methods of working with knowledge, enriched with a problematic content and required instrumental surrounding, (2) meta-components – the integrating structures that perform scientific-organizational, methodological, expert, communication, economic, and other functions journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 201-214 to provide specialized forms of working with knowledge, life activity and development of the total institutional-environmental basis for the educational system. the distributed learning and scientific innovation environment as a basic component in the architecture of macro-educational communities is the form of instrumental-contextual organization of education. it is the basis of socialization in educational research-type systems and an instrument of epistemic invasion of problematic reality. specialized partner networks endow an educational institution with an innovation ecosystem ensuring cognitive investments into human capital assets. the report of the association of european universities states that the creative partner network gives a potential to implement the principle of diversity in learning, involves outside professionals into teaching and gives students a chance to go beyond specific disciplines (creativity in higher education: report on the eua creative project – 2007, 2007). structural-functional components of the learning and scientific innovation innovation environment represent forms of organization and methods of cognitive activity of a learner in professional and socio-cultural contexts, resulting in creation of new knowledge or its transformation into a technical object. the structural-functional components include cognitive collectives (including youth groups) acting in the forms of research groups, laboratories, design bureaus, creative workshops. today, this variety includes small innovative companies, business incubators, technology transfer centers, knowledge distribution offices and other organizations involved in the processes of technological transformation and commercialization of knowledge. integrating structures are meta-environmental structures that expand the learning and scientific innovation, innovation environment of an individual educational institution up to an academic community located both within the integrated educational system (karpov, 2015b) and beyond its limits. let us briefly characterize a number of meta-components, having been already “classical”, in the learning and scientific innovation environment. the scientific societies of learners are, first of all, macro models of professional segments in the society. they bring elements of self-management into learning. complex programs and projects combine dissimilar socio-cultural contexts and tools of cognitive activity, diversified professional institutions and role functions. similar cognitive actions are carried out by both educational institutions and external organizations. methodical associations transform and bring pedagogical experience into everyday work with knowledge. scientific educational exhibitions, karpov conferences, training schools-seminars, including distant, carry out missions related to scientific consulting and professional training, approbation and transfer the results of learner’s research activity to consumers. let's study innovative components of the learning and scientific environment at a research university. at the structural-functional (basic) level, innovative activities of students and schoolchildren, who are successful in scientific and engineering efforts, consolidate into modern organizational forms, in particular, into a system of small innovation business enterprises that can be startup companies. the economic activity of this company is based on innovative developments or technologies that are marketable; what is more, the degree of novelty of the business-product can be either local, i.e. for a specific market, or global. for creation and development an innovation environment, it is important not only to form “ready-made” startups, but also be able to organize a system of competitive selection of students-managers and students developers, engaging the most talented persons in works of these companies. one of the forms of assistance to innovation entrepreneurs is a business-incubator, which has a technical infrastructure, a system of workplaces, and consultation services. to attract funds for implementation and commercialization of developments of students and young scientists, investment sites are arranged at the universities. the teaching-educational functions in the innovation environment are carried out by a knowledge distribution office. the form of the entity providing commercialization of an innovative product is a technology transfer center, and the form of infrastructural and technical support for its production is an innovation and technology center. a new and effective form of innovation activity organization has become an experimental business-laboratory. in contrast to business incubators it extends “the incubation process beyond the limits of the business plan to encompass experimentation and the simulation of new business concepts”. a specific micro-ecosystem of aspiring entrepreneurs and other engaged persons emerges in its environment (curley & formica, 2015). the meta level of the innovative component of the learning and scientific environment carries out a mission of systemic management of structural and functional components. the agents of the innovation meta level are: (1) technological consortiums that unite innovative divisions of educational institutions and business; (2) generalized knowledge funds of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 201-214 universities and scientific organizations; (3) scientific parks producing a common creative space for science-intensive companies and research teams; (4) techno-parks with infrastructure that can provide a full cycle for materialization of scientific innovations. the system configuration of these meta-elements can be built in terms of bridging three main gaps in innovation activity: between fundamental and applied science in the scientific environment; in the environment of relations between a scientific community and a corporation of process engineers, i.e. on the border of applied science and experimental production, and finally, in the process of technology transfer from developers to producers, or, in other words, between experimental production and industry. one of the ways to bridge innovation gaps is building engineering-type consortiums – the contact network structures that combine the knowledge generation environment with the knowledge technologization environment, and provide deep engineering in case of interaction of these environments. in 2011, the author, based on the learning and scientific innovation environment theory, developed a concept and a business model of an expert-technological consortium, representing an in-depth type engineering platform for network transfer of technologies in the system of interaction between universities, research organizations, high-tech companies and venture business (karpov, 2012). conclusion the strategic task of present-day social development is the creation of a scientific and education system giving a potential for formation of the knowledge society. it should be based on a specific form of learning environment that can provide creative, interdisciplinary and proactive training focused on innovative forms of working with knowledge. its institutional basis is different-level educational institutions, scientific institutions, high-tech companies, innovation firms, industrial consortiums, institutions of innovation-driven growth. this learning and scientific innovation environment is the core of the modern research education system. it combines the learning process at different stages of education (at school and university) with scientific search and technological transformation of knowledge. it gives a wide range of options for verification an individual vocation. it provides a cognitively active environment for solving practical and theoretical problems, including in developments of new equipment, technology, products, and services, in researches in the field of basic sciences, in karpov studies of environment natural, technogenic, social. it can train personnel with the highest qualification, who are able to create scientific products transforming the world. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 201-214 references arlamov, a.a., bagdasar'ian, n.g., daniliuk, a.ia., karpov, a.o., pruzhinin, b.i., aref'eva, e.m., bezuglova, o. a., kerimov, d.f., korikova, n.i., lomonosova, o.i., moskalenko, m.l., pachin, i.m., sukhov, m.v., shalashova, t.iu. (2011). how are we going to transform education? a roundtable. russian education and society, 53(8), 36-62. botkin, j.w., elmandjra, m. & malitza, m. (1999). no limits to learning. bridging the human gap. a report to the club of rome. oxford: pergamon press boys, j. (2011). towards creative learning spaces: re-thiking the architecture of postcompulsory education. london; new york: routledge. bruner, j.s. (2006). science education and teachers: a karplus lecture. in: search of pedagogy, the selected works of jerome s. bruner. london and new york: routledge. vol. ii, 150159. byrne, d. & davidson, c. (2015). state of making report. pittsburgh: carnegie mellon university, makeschools higher education alliance. carr, d. (2003). making sense of education. london and new york: routledgefalmer. creativity in higher education: report on the eua creative project – 2007. (2007). brussels: european university association. curley, m. & formica, p. (2015). introduction. in: the experimental nature of new venture creation: capitalizing on open innovation 2.0 (innovation, technology and knowledge management). n.y.: springer science & business media, 1-9. delivering on the modernisation agenda for universities: education, research and innovation (2006). brussels: commission of the european communities. designing spaces for effective learning (2006). a guide to 21st century learning space design. stoke gifford: hefce; jisc. doll, w.e. (1993). a post-modern perspective on curriculum. new york and london: teacher college press, columbia university. galway, l.p., corbett, kk., takaro, t.k., tairyan, k. & frank, e. (2014). a novel integration of online and flipped classroom instructional models in public health higher education. bmc medical education, 14(181), 2-9. hammershoj, l.g. (2009). creativity as a question of bildung. journal of philosophy of education, 43(4), 545-557. karpov houdyshellm, m. (2017). academic integrity in an emerging democracy: how university students in a former soviet republic balance achievement and success in education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(1), 14-25. karpov, a.o. (2016a). education in the knowledge society: genesis of concept and reality. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(17), 9949-9958. karpov, а.о. (2012). engineering platform for technology transfer. questions of economics, 7, 47-65. karpov, а. о. (2015a). formation of the modern concept of research education: from new age to a knowledge society. procedia  social and behavioral sciences, 214, 439-447. karpov, a.o. (2016b). generative learning in research education for the knowledge society. international electronic journal of mathematics education, 11(6), 1621-1633. karpov, a.o. (2015b). integrated and network systems of research education in the knowledge society (by example of the russian educational system). mediterranean journal of social sciences, 6(6), 529-540. karpov, a.o. (2016c). problem-cognitive program: a model of socio-cognitive self-making of learners-researchers in cultural reality of knowledge society. the european proceedings of social & behavioural sciences (epsbs), xxvii, 332-340. karpov, a.o. (2016d). socialization for the knowledge society. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(10), 3490-3492. karpov, a.o. (2016e). university 3.0 as a corporate entity of knowledge economy: models and missions. international journal of economics and financial issues, 6(s8), 354-360. kembel, g. (2012). preface. in: doorley s., witthoft s. make space: how to set the stage for creative collaboration. hoboken: wiley, 7. martin, p., morris, r., rogers, a. & kilgallon, s. (2010). what are creative spaces? in: making space for creativity. brighton: university of brighton, 23-26. mauch, j., tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, (1)2, 55-66. mit innovation initiative: final report of community feedback and recommendations (2016). cambridge: massachusetts institute of technology. oecd skills outlook 2013: first results from the survey of adults skills (2013). paris: oesd publishing. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 201-214 overview of the mit innovation initiative (2016). cambridge: massachusetts institute of technology. perez, j. & murray, m. c. (2010). generativity: the new frontier for information and communication technology literacy. interdisciplinary journal of information, knowledge, and management, 5, 127-137. response to the communication from the commission “the role of the universities in the europe of knowledge” (2003). brussels: european university association. shernoff, d.j. (2013). optimal learning environments to promote student engagement. n.y.: springer science+business media. simons, m. (2006). “education through research” at european universities: notes on the orientation of academic research. journal of philosophy of education, 40(1), 31-50. stehr, n. (1994). knowledge societies. london: sage. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, (1)1, 77-97. the role of the universities in the europe of knowledge (2003). brussels: commission of the european communities. tomlinson, j. (2000). policy and governance. in: watkins, ch., lodge, c. & best, r. (eds.). tomorrow’s schools – towards integrity. london and new york: routledgefalmer, 153166. trow, m. (1968). the sociology of education. in: american sociology: perspectives, problems, method. n.y., london: basic books. wierzbicki, a. p. & nakamori, y. (2005). creative space: models of creative processes for the knowledge civilization age. rotterdam: springer science & business media. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(2), 51-74 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 global citizenship education in school curricula. a polish perspective. joanna leek1 abstract the purpose of this study is to present global citizenship education from a polish perspective. analyzing the issue, the first part of this paper presents the development of citizenship education, followed by the current status of global citizenship education in polish schools. in the second part of the study i draw attention to national curricula and other supporting documents published after 1945, to verify whether issues of global citizenship education in poland are included in the curricula, and if so, what they highlight. i then argue that global citizenship education in poland is based on a framework of world-centered perspectives within a national context. in this understanding, global citizenship education is aimed at creating citizens who are members of the world community, without giving up their own national identity. the polish perspective on global citizenship education urges pupils to consider global problems as part of the challenges of their own country, and offers the perception of local and global problems being linked and complementary to each other. key words: citizenship education, global citizenship education, poland, curriculum introduction citizenship in a traditional sense is defined as membership in a political and geographic community, which provides legal status, rights, and belonging (bloemraad, korteweg & yurdakul 2008). aspects of citizenship include duties, responsibilities, participation (o'byrne, 2003; delanty, 2000), a particular set of attributes and a status, feeling or practice (osler and starkey, 2005), categories, ties, roles (tilly, 1996), identity (tilly, 1996; delanty, 2000), and participation (delanty, 2000). keatings (2014, 43-44) sees the concept of citizenship as a legal status and a set of behaviors and skills. when considering legal status within citizenship, the global element would rarely be included. the difference within the meaning refers, however, to a set of behaviors and skills, such as participation, involvement, engagement, and the feeling of belonging. if the term ‘citizenship’ is seen as more of a series of behaviors and skills, such as participation and the feeling of belonging, then the global element to citizenship is more likely to be recognized. it can be argued that if the perception of citizenship refers to identification with a place, or a sense of place, then the global element can be seen as helping people make sense of their place in the world and developing their identity in global issues. this assumption follows davies’ (2006) view that global citizenship education inculcates in 1 assist. prof., university of lodz (poland), joanna.leek@uni.lodz.pl mailto:joanna.leek@uni.lodz.pl journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 students the notion of not just belonging to their own nation, but to the world, and encompasses global issues including human rights, democracy, social justice, and conflict. in addition to participation and identification, inclusion can be added. this is emphasized by james banks (2004) when considering citizenship in a multicultural and global world. one of the aims of citizenship education, according to banks, “should be the development of reflective and clarified identification with own cultural communities, nation-states and the global community. students need to be able to acquire the knowledge, attitudes and skills needed to act to make the nation and the world more democratic” (banks, 2004). following the assumptions of davis, evans & reid (2005), global citizenship education should be placed within the broader context of citizenship education, due to the similarity of rationale and the variability of models that the latter offers. the traditional view of national citizenship compared to a more global perspective is one of the constraints in the national versus global dilemma (rapoport, 2009; davies, evans, & reid, 2005; parker, ninomiya & cogan, 1999; thornton, 2005). global citizenship education is not simply an expanded local or nation citizenship education (davies, 2006), but the logical development of a citizenship needed for all contemporary citizens, aimed at the development of cultural, national, and global identifications; it also significantly contributes to civic democratic development (rapoport, 2009; banks, 2004).when discussing the kind of citizenship employed in the curriculum, academics and policy makers distinguish between education about citizenship and education for/through citizenship. education about citizenship takes the narrow approach to citizenship and focuses on providing descriptive information about civic matters, such as institutions. the opposite model, “education for/through citizenship”, is considered adequate for promoting effective citizenship (kerr, 1999; keating, 2009) as it aims to provide students with the knowledge, values, attitudes, and skills needed to effectively participate in the civic sphere (kerr, 1999,p. 12). keating notes that citizenship education “must include each of these dimensions in order to facilitate the emergence of an active, critical, and knowledgeable citizenry” (2009, p. 166). additionally, citizenship education has been categorized along a continuum of minimal to maximal characteristics (cogan & morris, 2001; davies & issitt, 2005; dejaeghere, 2006; kerr, 1999; mclaughlin, 1992). minimal citizenship education includes normative ideas of citizenship and emphasizes knowledge about institutions, responsibilities, laws, rights and the political system, but leaves little room for different perspectives and ideas about the enactment of rights in the daily lives of people, or discussion about the meaning of democracy (see mclaughlin, 1992; kerr, 1999). maximal joanna leek 53 citizenship education for mclaughlin (1992) and kerr (1999) deals in participation in democracy and civic life at all levels, which requires development of values, attitudes, and behaviors. the purpose of this study is to present global citizenship education from a polish perspective. the first part builds on a review of literature on global citizenship education, presenting the development of citizenship education, followed by the current status of global citizenship education in polish schools. global citizenship education in poland is acknowledged as part of its general citizenship education, therefore i decided to first describe the development of citizenship education, and then the current status of global citizenship education in polish schools. i chose this approach because in my opinion, global citizenship education has roots in the history of the country, its national traditions, relation to citizenship and perception of global challenges. another reason for this approach was to give a background for the national context of education in poland in general, and education in global citizenship in particular. a brief overview of the development and status of civics education and global citizenship education in poland shows that the changes in this area of education are followed by socio-political changes in the country. global citizenship education in poland is another step towards opening poland to the world, preparing young generations of poles to be citizens in their own country and active participants in the global community, after years of the country’s isolation from foreign influences. i use an analysis of the literature on global citizenship education and its development in poland as a starting point for the second component of the paper – analysis of the polish national core curriculum. within this component i tried to verify whether issues of global citizenship education in poland are included in the national curricula, and if so, what they highlight. looking at the teaching content of the national curriculum in poland, i argue that global citizenship education consists of a world-centered perspective with a national context. in that understanding, global education aims to create a citizen that is a member of the global community, without giving up their own national identity. there is a great deal of debate and discussion around this question of what is citizenship education and global citizenship education, for the purpose of this paper the term “citizenship education” follows the unesco definition meaning educating “children from early childhood, to become clear-thinking and enlightened citizens who participate in decisions concerning society, understood in the special sense of a nation with a circumscribed journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 territory which is recognized as a state” and “training children for adulthood and citizenship” (unesco, 1998). although no widely accepted definition for the term “global citizenship education” exists, for purposes of my paper, a common view of global citizenship is adopted that implies equipping young people with the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes required to respond to the increasing number of environmental, economic and social issues facing our world today (davies, 2006; goodreau et al., 2004; oxfam, 2015). the inspiration to write this paper came from the research work i undertook as part of the international erasmus+ project, ‘future youth school forums’, led by oxfam uk, funded with the support of the european commission and the polish ministry of science and higher education. research questions and methodology in order to present global citizenship education from a polish perspective, i posed the following research questions: (1) how developed is global citizenship education in poland? (2) what issues of global citizenship education in poland are included in the curriculum? (3) which of these issues are highlighted in polish education? to address the first research question, i made a review of the literature, to examine the development of citizenship education and global citizenship education. to address the second and third research questions i analyzed the national curriculum, identifying which of the key themes and issues of global citizenship education were present in it. the focus of the study is the national curriculum introduced in schools in 2009. this covers compulsory general education levels: isced1 – primary education, isced 2 – lower secondary and isced 3 – upper secondary (6-18 years of age). i organized my research into a series of two readings, or analytical stages. with the first reading i went through the structure, objectives and teaching content of all subjects covered by the curriculum. not surprisingly, it turned out that social studies, environmental education and history emerged as the subjects with the greatest concentration of global education-related topics and activities. with the second reading, i tried to verify which issues in global citizenship education were being emphasized. for the purposes of these analyses, i created a tool, the ‘template for analysis of core curricula in poland’. it was used to present the respective parts of the national curriculum and contained 3 parts: 1) subjects covered, 2) structure of documents, 3) scope of the teaching objectives, 4) scope of the teaching content. joanna leek 55 citizenship education and global citizenship education in poland – past and present the tradition of citizenship education in poland dates back to the enlightenment, in particular to the education reform introduced by the commission of the national education (1773-1794)2. after the loss of its independence in the nineteenth century, poland shared the fate of many small european nations who were not politically independent and suffered under occupying forces. civic education at that time, conducted mainly within families rather than schools, was aimed at developing in young poles patriotism and a readiness to sacrifice for their motherland (cwiek-karpowicz, 2008). after regaining independence after world war i, and with the introduction of compensatory education, civics education formally came to schools. (cwiek-karpowicz, 2008). its concept was based on new meaning and awareness of being a citizen in one’s own country. the education policy, valid in polish schools between world war i and world war ii, strongly emphasized the skills needed to think and act as a polish citizen. introduction of the citizenship curriculum was then followed by the development of teacher training materials and recommendations to create a separate room in schools, the so-called national classroom, where the citizenship education of young poles would be conducted. a significant role was played by citizenship educators, who were not only responsible for teaching, but for being role models by behaving as good polish citizens in their private life. citizenship education in 1918-1939 in poland was characterized by patriotism and the development of the moral principles and range of duties and rights of every citizen (cwiek-karpowicz, 2008). the national curriculum and school books emphasized the principles that every citizen should follow in life, in particularly fidelity and obedience, which were understood as respect for the constitution and state law in general. after world war ii, “progressive education known in western countries, was unknown in poland, pupils were rather trained than educated and frequently alienated by compulsory russian lessons and excessive doses of political propaganda” (davies, 2005, p.452). schools were used mainly as a tool for political indoctrination (janowski, 1993, pp. 42-43; korzeniowski & machalek, 2011, p. 20; zahorska-bugaj, 1996, p. 50). parents and even the educational organizations didn’t have any influence on the education of their children, as the education system was allowed only in state-controlled schools. citizenship education was present in school, under various names, including ‘citizenship education’, 2 as a separate school subject called “moral teaching”. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 ‘social studies’, ‘teaching about poland and the contemporary world’, and ‘learning about the constitution’. school curricula promoted socialist values that were alien or antagonistic to the values respected by many poles (zahorska-bugaj, 1996, p. 50). after 1956 the ideological pressure subsided slightly, but was still present right up to 1989 (korzeniowski & machałek, 2011, p. 20; janowski, 1993, pp. 42-43). when explaining the development of education in poland, professor zbyszko melosik (1998) goes back to the times after world war ii, explaining that the ruling elite treated polish education as a “passive transmitter of values that were present in schools to confirm its power and dominance. in consequence, polish education created generations who were deprived of a sense of influence and participation. education in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s gave poles an “anti-global, divided and fragmented view of the world: a world of contradictions, a world of superpowers and their satellites, a world of cold war and cold peace” (melosik, 1998, p.72). before the major social, political and economic changes 1989, civic education “aimed to prepare society to play the right and politically correct role in asocialist society and was conducted to satisfy the needs of that society. the role of civic education was one of the elements of total indoctrination that led to gaining control over the society and subjecting it to socialist power” (switala, 2016, p. 64). the civic education of these times “was organized and carried out to prepare society to play a complex and clearly defined role in the socialist state: to submit to the will of the polish united workers party [puwp]. the aim of the actions of the prl [polish people’s republic] was to build an alleged system of social equality and a socialist society within a just socialist state” (switala, 2016). the transformation initiated in 1989 introduced in poland a multi-party political system, and in 1991 parliamentary elections took place. at the same time, a range of economic reforms of a free-market character were introduced. these reforms included political changes that created the foundations of a democratic system, such as recognition of individual rights, civil liberties and political liberties. changes in the economic system were designed to restore a market economy. all of the changes together influenced citizenship education in poland in such a way that, in the completely new political, economic and social situation, it faced its biggest challenge as a ‘guide’ to living in a democracy. the downfall of communism resulted in the de-politicization of civic education in poland (zahorska-bugaj, 1996; davies, 2005)., when analyzing the relationship between education and socio-political changes, zbigniew kwieciński, polish professor of pedagogy, noted that “the practice of education adapts to the tasks, requirements and expectations of its political, economic, joanna leek 57 cultural and social environment and tries to repair, heal, improve their surroundings, by enabling people to understand and assimilate of principles and norms and to develop the competences for acting” (kwiecinski, 1995, p. 9). poland’s political transformation resulted in the overthrow of the socialist system of management, forcing society to act independently after years of standing still. after almost half a century of living in a society governed “centrally”, it was difficult to raise a growing generation of voters that could make an independent analysis of the phenomena occurring in their country and society. there was no basis for learning democracy, because the communist system had limited the possibilities for being responsible citizens. deprived of the right to act independently, polish citizens were taught conformity and passivity. one of the challenges for polish education in the 1990s was to change the perception of education among polish society, to being a tool for individual development and support for social mobility. so a significant change in polish society became the growing importance of education, as a possibility for better living standards and a source of knowledge and skills for active citizenship. when describing challenges for civic education in poland after 1989, marta zahorska-bugaj, a polish sociologist, points to the fact that “the most harmful vestige of the previous socio-political system is that many basic concepts necessary for understanding social, economic, and political issues have been deprived of meaning. how can one communicate with another person who learned that “civic education” means indoctrination, a “citizen” is someone who has no influence over the authorities, “democracy” is really a dictatorship, a “politician” is someone who can do as he or she pleases; and the “economy” is an area of society controlled by the state?” (zahorska-bugaj, 1996, p. 54). due to the fact that there were not many teachers capable of teaching citizenship education like this at the time, its introduction in polish schools was strongly supported by non-governmental organizations, such as the centre for citizenship education, the helsinki human rights foundation and other international or national institutions (such as the polish-american freedom foundation, the konrad adenauer foundation, the friedrich ebert foundation, and the local democracy development foundation). “nation-centered” and “world-centered‟ perspectives in education (melosik, 1998, p.73) were distinctive of the development of education after the socio-political changes in 1989 in poland, as a result of the clash between the two dominant political cultures. the nation-centered perspective emphasized poland’s input in international relations, the exceptionality of polish history, and notions of what it meant to be a polish citizen. it also journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 considered education to be the optimum method of inculcating social values and shaping people “who are unable to negotiate their own values and assumptions‟ (melosik, 1998, p. 73). in contrast, the world-centered perspective of education tried to overcome limitations arising from “narrow polish patriotism and a restricted sense of citizenship‟ (melosik, 1998, p. 74). education based on either orientation, nation-centered or world-centered, affected citizenship education and global citizenship education in poland for many years. zbyszko melosik points at the need to increase global awareness among poles and makes recommendations for global education in poland, such as paying attention to change, interdependence, analyzing the future using alternative solutions, integrating the notion of peace, personal and national freedom and justice, development of responsibility for events at local and global levels and an awareness of the relationship between local and global problems, and support for active participation. a change for both europe itself and the wider, world-oriented citizenship education came with the change in politics in 2008, when a pro-european party took a majority in the polish parliament. following this change, then saw the introduction of a new national curriculum that included, for the first time, a wide variety of global issues. similarly to the introduction of civics education in 1991 in poland, there was hardly any promotion of the subject or appropriate support for teachers (i.e. teacher training) in teaching the new, globally relevant topics. finally, in 2010 the definition of ‘global education’ was defined between the ministry of education, the ministry of foreign affairs, the national institute for development in education, regional teacher training centers and various ngos. according to the “memorandum of understanding on strengthening global education” (2010), global education in poland had been acknowledged as being part of a civics education that extends range by awareness of global phenomena and the meaning of global interdependences. the main objective of global education is to prepare students to face the global challenges faced by all human beings around the world. these interdependences are understood as cultural, environmental, economic, social, political and technological connections. the definitions are supplemented by a list of global challenges, such as ensuring peace and security in the world, improvement of life quality in countries of the global south, protection of human rights, ensuring sustainable development, and building economic and social relationships between the countries of the global north and global south. according to the later, 2010 definition, global citizenship education in poland is designed to develop skills, in particular perception joanna leek 59 and understanding of global interdependence, critical thinking to be able to make decisions, cooperation at the local, national and international levels, followed by attitudes such as responsibility, respect, honesty, empathy, openness, accountability, personal commitment, readiness for lifelong learning. global citizenship education in the national context: examples from the polish national curriculum the core component of my study was an analysis of the national core curriculum, in particular those parts covering teaching content, valid in all schools in poland, set by the ministry of education. as mentioned previously, analysis of the curriculum began with a review of the literature on global citizenship education and identification of the key themes and issues of global citizenship education. the next step was to focus on working directly with the curriculum, to identify where and how the themes and issues of global citizenship education were presented. i looked first at the curricular guidelines for primary, secondary and post-secondary schools, and then in more detail at the curricula for social studies, environmental education and history, where the majority of education about global issues occurs. as a legal and official document the core curriculum remains “one of the key mechanisms by which the state articulates and communicates their aims and priorities for school education in general, and citizenship education in particular. official curricula thus illustrate some of the official discourses of citizenship and effort to shape the meaning of citizenship in a contemporary context” (keating, hinderliter ortloff, & philippou, 2009, p.153). the core curriculum in poland covers compulsory education, that is, pre-school education (ages 3-5), early years education (ages 6-8), primary school (ages 9-11), lower secondary school (ages 12-15) and upper secondary school (depending on the type of school, ages 16-19). in my paper i analyzed those parts of the core curriculum that correspond to global citizenship education subjects taught in poland: social studies, environmental education and history. early years education includes elements of citizenship education, but there is no separate school subject foreseen for citizenship education. the focus of study for citizenship education in the core curriculum of compulsory general education level is: isced1 – primary education, isced 2 – lower secondary and isced 3 – upper secondary (for students aged 6journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 18). areas selected for review were obtained from the official websites of the various institutions responsible. with the first reading, in analyzing the data i sought first to understand how teaching about global issues is supported by the ministry of education, the status of the national curriculum in poland, and which approaches the curriculum represents. in the communist era the entire education system was subject to central planning by the ministry of education. after the socio-political changes, over the past twenty five years schools in poland have been the subject of much deliberation and have undergone many reforms, in particular as regards their autonomy. the decentralization of responsibilities to the schools themselves and to their local communities was designed to increase the efficiency of school management, although control of the curriculum was not placed on the school level. teachers were given increased participation in school life and autonomy in decision-making about text books and other teaching materials, methods and ways of teaching. the government, however, retained the right to decide the general objectives and content within the curriculum. looking back at the history of poland after 1945, the curriculum has always been called ‘the national curriculum’, and developed according to the views of the ruling political party.3 but despite recent changes in the field of school management, the curriculum in poland is still developed centrally by the ministry of education, and is obligatory for all schools in the country. in this way, the nationstate has retained the right to influence teaching content, as it did in the past. another distinctive feature of global citizenship education in poland found after the first reading is the inclusion of global themes as part of larger, more general core units covering global issues in teaching content, accompanied by national and european perspectives on selected topics. looking at the structure of the polish curriculum, it is very much evident that traditional perspectives prevail, in the sense that the emphasis is distinctly on the teaching and learning of facts and data, rather than gaining knowledge through activities and developing the skills of how to learn (walker & soltis, 1986). the contribution of the students themselves to the learning process is not a crucial requirement in the polish curriculum. the content of the document is divided into units, or blocks, which are broken into smaller units of information. at the end of each subject unit, there is a set of skills and attitudes that are recommended to developed in the classroom. 3 it looks as though this trend will be continued in the next few months, as the ruling political party (‘law and justice’) has already announced changes in the curriculum, justifying them as compensating for “inappropriate teaching content”. joanna leek 61 with the second reading (analytical stage), i was aiming to verify which issues of global citizenship education are highlight. my analysis showed that the dominant theme in the secondary level curriculum (social studies) was participation in relation to citizens’ activity. citizenship has often being discussed in relation to civil and political rights, and “duties and participation” (o’byrne, 2003). participation is, for delanty (2000), one of four elements of citizenship, with rights, responsibilities and identity. osler and starey (2005) link the term “participation” to a “status, feeling or practice”. for keating (2014) an “educated citizen” is one that is schooled and skilled for participation in society. what was surprising, though, was that the teaching objectives refer both to globallyand nationally-oriented citizenship at the same time. the core unit, ‘participation of citizens in public life’, contains references to the development of knowledge possibilities for the participation of citizens in the local area, world citizens in public life, democracy and other systems of government in the world, and the influences of globalization on culture, politics and societies. what is interesting is that at the end of the social curriculum, recommendations are made on how participation can be developed at the school level. for example, through participation in school debates, participation in school projects to solve problems in the local community, or participation in decision-making at different schools in selected areas of school life. in the introduction to the social education curriculum, a set of aims are listed, one of which refers to discussion about the meaning of citizenship in contemporary times, globalization today: the influence of globalization on culture, economy, politics, ecology, communication, followed by recommendations for teachers to support pupils in the class room to present their own perspectives of fairness, or what it means to be an ethically engaged global citizen. the curriculum for upper primary schools contains references to critical thinking about reasons why ‘the world has become smaller’, including giving one’s own examples of this phenomenon in different parts of the world. the concept of global citizenship is visible in the next core unit, ‘nation, homeland, minorities’, where the learning outcomes are focused on citizenship within nation-states by discussing ethnic versus civic citizenship. pupils are learning about diverse perspectives and notions of civic identities, and developing knowledge about minorities in poland and other countries and the refugee crises in different parts of the world in general. what is significant to the structure of the curriculum is that, at the end of the curriculum, a set of tasks is given that have to be fulfilled by schools. some of the tasks involve supporting pupils’ “participation in the discussions and debates at the school, in tasks journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 and projects aiming to solve problems of their community”; “participation in different activities of the student council”; “participation in the life of the local community”; “cooperation with different organizations and public institutions”, and “participation in civic campaigns and activities”. emphasizing participation and social skills recalls oxfam’s definition of education for global citizenship, which includes developing “knowledge and understanding, skills, values and attitudes that learners need to fully participate in the globalist society” (oxfam, 2015, p. 5). a global citizen is someone who “participates in the community at a range of levels, from the local to the global”. similarly to the polish curriculum, oxfam’s curriculum in its “skills” section is referring to “participation in decision-making in schools and contributing to the well-being of the wider community, both inside and outside the classroom” (oxfam, 2015, p. 7). similarly to canadian global education curricula – despite a rhetorical shift towards an emphasis on active citizenship (mundy & manion, 2008) – analysis of the polish curriculum suggested that teaching content tends to under-emphasize the actionable dimensions of global problems, often by focusing on non-controversial themes at the expense of more controversial ones. the core unit “problems of humankind” for secondary-level junior classes emphasizes “poverty aid activities and other intervention measures undertaken by governments (i.e. of poland) or non-governmental organizations to support people in need around the world”, and “the situation in the countries of the poor south and the wealthy north.” in upper-secondary classes, more attention is paid to armed conflicts around the world, and activities such as showing on the map places of international conflicts and discussing the course of the conflict and with suggestions trying solve one of them are emphasized. the united nations (un) is listed as an example of an international organization involved in matters of peace making, in charge of security matters. un activities are mentioned again in the social education curriculum, when pupils learn about the content of the “universal declaration of human rights” and discuss selected examples of violations of human rights in the world. i was surprised how rarely the national curriculum invited pupils to consider the trade-offs and dilemmas that economic expansion and globalization raised. my analysis also finds that global citizenship in the polish curriculum is directly related to social order. unlike at oxfam, social change is understood to focus more on activities, with more emphasis on knowledge than skills. there is a core unit entitled ‘social change’ that contains direct references to the development of understanding the world as a complex and dynamic altering system, discussing the impact of global processes on people, joanna leek 63 and participation of global citizens in social change. accompanying the discussion about social change, the curriculum recommends including the development of critical thinking about the impact of social change in selected global processes (history and social education). in addition to the contemporary perspective, the polish curriculum contains references to the solidarity movement in poland and martin luther king’s participation in the civil rights movement in the usa, which incorporates the national and international context within social change. in addition to the economic, cultural, political relations which shape human lives in the world, the global education in the polish curriculum increases the understanding of environmental influences. in environmental education in primary schools, pupils are learning about the need to respect plants and animals in the world and about the risks that a man can harm the environment (i.e. by air and water pollution), how to save water, the importance of water for life on earth, all of which are incorporated into the core unit ‘human beings and the environment’. in opposition to canadian (kymlicka, 1998; manzer 1994; zachariah, 1989; mundy & manion, 2008) or us (banks, 2006) perspectives on global education, the polish curriculum doesn’t emphasize multiculturalism issues much. there is, however, a mention in the curriculum for polish language, at the secondary level, of developing students' attitude of curiosity, openness and tolerance towards other cultures and discussing similarities and differences between people, understanding and tolerance. in the core social education unit ‘nation, homeland, minorities’, discussion about the relationship between ethics, civics and multicultural issues in the contemporary world is mentioned. surprisingly, the multicultural context is hardly represented in other subjects of the national curriculum, and not only within global citizenship education. it can be argued that polish global citizenship education, when considering the teaching content in the national curriculum, awakens associations with zbyszko melosik’s “nation-centered” and “world-centered‟ perspective of polish education after 1991. looking at citizenship education in poland, melosik assumes that after the socio-political changes of 1991 there came to “a serious confrontation between two political cultures. each of them struggled to shape a social awareness and common sense of polish society” (melosik, 1998, p.72). the nation-centered culture locates concepts of the polish nation (state) over europe (the world). the distinction is visible between the polish nation, polish values, polish history journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 and other nations, their values, history and traditions. supporters of nationalism, points out melosik, “treat education as one of the most important ways to inculcate the ‘only proper’ value system (…) they offer pupils a ‘closed’ contingent of values and an authoritarian ‘climate’ of education” (melosik, 1998, p.72). in opposition to the nation-cantered perspective of education, the world-centered education emphasizes “mutual interaction within economic, political, technological, ecological and cultural systems”. world-centered education aims to equip pupils with “global awareness”, shaping citizens into members of national and state communities and overcoming their “limitations resulting from narrow national patriotism and a restricted sense of citizenship, treats the world as one economic, ecological and political system, is emphasizing commonalities between polish nation and other nations” (melosik, 1998, p. 72). the analysis of social education teaching content showed the domination of worldcentered education in the curriculum, however, the incorporation of the national context into global citizenship education is distinctive. for example, social education outcomes for primary schools highlight the knowledge and understanding that people who demonstrate meritorious behavior towards their local community, in poland and in the world, deserve respect. the content of social education in secondary schools refers to migration in poland and in other parts of the world, and challenges such as support for refugees. migration flows are a background to the discussion on national and ethnic minorities and groups of migrants (including refugees) living in poland today. incorporating the national context into global education isn’t only ‘a polish matter’ but seems to be, as richardson (2004) has shown, “a matter of national self-interest and is almost exclusively tied to the civic structures of nationstate. thus students in canada are urged to take up responsibilities and obligations to address global issues such as international conflict, environmental degradation, or the protection of human rights as citizens of canada rather than as citizens of the world” (richardson, 2004). similarly, pike (2000) and richardson (2004) have both argued that the canadian curriculum presents global themes as a matter of national self-interest, almost exclusively tied to the civic structures of the nation-state (evans, ingram, macdonald, weber 2009). after analyzing various teaching content revisions, i found that the secondary-level curriculum across poland does indeed emphasize global themes. social education teaching references knowledge about bilateral and multilateral relations between poland and other countries. under the ‘global relations’ core unit, discussion about the participation of the international community in cases of natural disasters, and the contribution of humanitarian joanna leek 65 aid coming from poland and from other countries has been included. another example of the national context in the curriculum is the notion of ‘multiple identities’ that is present in themes such as citizenship, protection of environment, the meaning of patriotism and identity (local, regional, national), different value systems and ways of life in selected nations and communities. the first reading of the polish school curriculum showed evidence that the notions of ‘global citizenship’ and ‘global citizen’ aren’t directly emphasized. but indirect references can be found in the core unit, ‘the participation of citizens for public life’, where in the teaching objectives explaining, by giving examples of how citizens can influence the decisions of the authorities at local, national, european and global level is included. another core unit, ‘civil society’, emphasizes knowledge about civic patriotism and forms of activity of citizens at the local community, region, country and global levels. patriotism in the curriculum is recognized as a sense of alliance – a bond with the local community, national, european and global community. the teaching content mentions the idea of being simultaneously polish, european and a world citizen (social education, secondary school). in particular, interest in matters that concern one’s own region, country, europe and the world, responsibility for the natural environment and cultural heritage in one’s own region and in poland, and the meaning of identity in contemporary times, are all significant for the global dimensions of the polish national curriculum. the polish perspective on global citizenship education draws on pike and selby (1995), who propose using global content linking past and present. in the history curriculum, for example, references can be found to the global context in the core unit ‘history of europe in the 19th and 20th century’. this incorporates various topics, such as ‘poland and the world after the world war ii’, ‘the role of united nations in peacekeeping after world war ii’, ‘polish involvement in peacekeeping in the world’, ‘the world and the cold war’, ‘transformation of power & civilization in the world’, ‘colonial expansion in selected parts of the globe’, and ‘industrialization in the 19th and 20th century of the natural environment in poland’. as discussed above, another example of linking contemporary and historical perspectives is the social change theme. the predominant focus of global citizenship education on knowledge and understanding could be seen to underplay oxfam’s emphasis on the centrality of values and attitudes of pupils to becoming a member of a more just, sustainable world (oxfam, 1997, p. 13). this doesn’t mean, however, that polish global citizenship education is based purely on knowledge and understanding. one of the initial readings i undertook during my research journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 showed that in the concluding part of each curriculum, there are recommendations for developing certain activities and attitudes in which can be found several references to citizenship education. for example, in social and history education, at the secondary school level, it is recommended to develop involvement in civic action (through engagement in social activities), social sensitivity, responsibility, for example for action in one’s own community or solving conflict situations, a sense of belonging (the student feels a bond with the local, national, european and global community), tolerance (the student respects the rights of others to disagree, behavior, customs and beliefs, they can oppose forms of discrimination). in the same concluding section, there is a recommendation for schools to ensure that students have access to various sources of information and different points of view, participate in discussions and debates in school, in tasks and projects aiming to solve problems of their community, have a real impact on selected areas of school life, including within the student council, participate in the life of the local community, cooperate with different organizations and public institutions, participate in civic campaigns and activities and benefit from various forms of communication in public affairs, and develop self-esteem, willingness and trust in others. conclusions there are a number of conclusions that can be drawn from examining global citizenship education in poland. firstly, global citizenship education in poland, according to the study, is about overcoming limitations resulting from national patriotism, finding commonalities between poland and other nations, and giving the same priority to universal and national values. the national dimension to citizenship education is no longer constructed in terms of patriotism for the nation-state, or myths about national history and heroes, as soysal (2002) and rauner (1998) suggest have previously stated as being the case. a sense of belonging to a broader global community is shown in the polish national school curriculum through belonging to a smaller national community. in this understanding, the polish perspective of global citizenship education aims to create a citizen that is a member of the world community, without giving up their own national identity, similarly to the canadian model of global education (pike, 2000; richardson, 2004; mundy & manion, 2008). both polish and canadian models tend to focus on national identity at the expense of more cosmopolitan conceptions. in this understanding, global citizenship education in poland aims joanna leek 67 to create a citizen that is a member of the world community, without giving up their own national identity. the polish perspective of global citizenship education urges pupils to consider global problems as part of the challenges of their own country, and offers a perception of local and global problems as being linked and complementary with each other. secondly, for polish global citizenship education is a significant factor in overcoming the anti-global view of the world that was introduced through citizenship education in the communist times (zahorska-bugaj, 1996; melosik, 1998; davies, 2005; switala, 2016) as being organized and carried out to prepare society to clearly play a defined role in the state. contemporary, global citizenship education in poland is based on a pro-global model of active citizenship education that is more in keeping with the post-national cosmopolitan approach (rauner 1998, soysal 1994), and the maximal citizenship education model of mclaughlin (1992) and kerr (1999). young poles have opportunities in schools to develop the ability to question their own value systems, understand the value systems of others and develop values around a positive sense of self. global citizenship education from a polish perspective aims to grow a willingness to take action for change, develop an appreciation of cultural diversity, passion for social justice and human rights. through incorporating the national context into global themes pupils gain the opportunity to appreciate their own multiple identities (country, continent, planet). also significant are the implications of my findings that the curriculum’s definitions of global citizenship education are interwoven with national understandings of citizenship. world-centered education with a national context gives a critical appraisal of the activities of national government and transnational agencies from the perspective of equality and justice, and offers the understanding that individual consumer decisions have multiple impact on the global context. davies and reis (2005) indicate new forms of citizenship, growing in the face of globalization. one of these is “a perspective of interconnectedness in which the nation states are not in the prime focus of analysis”. the polish perspective of global citizenship education is focusing on the nation-state (country), that is involved globally and influences the world, and is at the same time a member of a global interconnected society. the perspective of membership and interconnectedness follows the fundamental principle of global citizenship described by pike (2008), when he says that “an individual’s awareness, loyalty, and allegiance can and should extend beyond the borders of a nation to encompass the whole of humankind” (p. 39). massey (2014) suggests that “to expand one’s identity and journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 loyalty beyond one’s country is not meant to suggest that people should not consider themselves national citizens, but rather national and global citizens” (2014, p. 87). understanding one’s identity in this way will result in creating active national citizens with an informed global conscience (pike 2008, after massey, 2014). thirdly, the ‘brandable’ nature of citizenship education can lead to different approaches, from the conservative that aims at reproduction of the existing social order, to the more progressive and critical, aimed at transformation of existing social dynamics (mclaughlin, 1992; kennedy, 1997; kerr, 1999). like other educational fields, citizenship education can focus on maintaining the status quo, but can also be a tool for empowering individuals and groups to struggle for emancipatory change (schugurensky, 2008). looking at the polish curriculum, despite the values and attitudes that are complementary to knowledge within global citizenship education, it is evident that the domination of the conservative approach in citizenship education, focused on teaching, and the transmission of information and knowledge about the history of the social order. in terms of content, conservative citizenship education deals primarily with national narratives, historical and geographic facts, and the functioning of government institutions. from this perspective, global citizenship education emphasizes the acceptance of existing social structures, development of moral character and ensuring social cohesion. good citizens are conceptualized in the curriculum as good producers, good consumers, and good patriots (schugurensky & myers, 2003). the conservative approach to global citizenship education in the polish curriculum follows the “education about citizenship” model rather than “education through/for citizenship” model (kerr, 1999; keating, 2009). knowledge-based global education, that reproduces the social order, is most evident. however, in the curriculum some topics can be found that show a tendency towards the progressive approach by emphasizing participation skills, engagement and motivation, and activities in and out of school. fourthly, the historical and contemporary orientation towards global citizenship education is distinctive of the polish global citizenship model. as a result of my review of the polish curriculum, i found that primary and secondary subjects don’t emphasize lee’s (2012) “future-oriented” perspective on global citizenship education that invites “all people to work together for a better future” (p.10). apart from the conservative approach, polish global citizenship education shows a tendency to be more structural-political than individualhumanitarian (wintersteiner, grobbauer, diendorfer, reitmair-juares, 2015), more soft then critical (andreotti 2006), and political than humanitarian (dobson 2005). the polish joanna leek 69 perspective of global citizenship education contains a reproduction of cultural heritage and knowledge valuable to the present generation, accomplished by the promotion of skills such as discussing, writing, and reading. teaching content includes the development of an ability to assess alternatives and correct one’s own assumptions. through the polish national curriculum, young people are being supported in their personal development towards becoming members of the polish nation, which is presented in the curriculum as part of a wider global community. critical thinking within global education is focused on problems presented as challenges to humankind. but the notion of global citizenship in poland urges young people to consider global problems as part of challenges in their own country and close relationships between national and global problems. references banks. j.a. (2003). teaching for multicultural literacy, global citizenship, and social justice, the 2003 charles fowler colloquium on innovation in arts education, university of maryland, college park. banks, j.a. (2006). cultural diversity and education: foundations, curriculum and teaching (5th ed.). boston: pearson, allyn & bacon. bosniak, l. 2000. citizenship denationalized. indiana journal of global legal studies 7: 447. bosniak, l. 2006. the citizen and the alien. princeton, nj: princeton university press. bleszynska, krystyna, m. (2011) intercultural education in post-communist countries. in grant, carl, a. and portera, a. intercultural and multicultural education. enhancing global interconnectedness. abingdon, oxon: routledge. pp 69-82. buckner, e., russell, s. 2013. portraying the global: cross-national trends in textbooks’ portrayal of globalization and global citizenship. international studies quarterly 57: 738–750. cwiek-karpowicz, j. 2008. edukacja obywatelska w polsce. in k. siellawa-kolbowska, a.lada, j. cwiek-karpowicz (eds.) edukacja obywatelska w niemczech w polsce. raport z badan. warszawa: isp. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 cogan, john j., and morris, paul (2001). the development of civics values: an overview. international journal of education research, 35: 1-9. dejaeghere, joan g. (2006). intercultural meanings of citizenship in the australian secondary curriculum: between critical contestations and minimal constructions. in d.. stevick and b. a. levinson (eds.), reimagining civic education: how diverse societies form democratic citizens. (pp. 293-316). lanham, md: rowman and littlefield. davies, n. (2005). god’s playground. a history of poland. oxford university press: oxford. davies, i., evans, m., reid, a. (2005). globalising citizenship education? a critique of global education and citizenship education. british journal of educational studies 53 (1): 66–89. davies, l. (2006) . global citizenship: abstraction of framework for action? educational review, 58 (1), 5-25. davies, i., and issitt, j. (2005). dobson, a. (2005). reflections on citizenship education in australia, canada and england. comparative education, 41(4): 389-410. delanty, g. (2000). citizenship in a global age: society, culture and politics. buckingham, uk: open university press. dobson, a. (2005). globalisation, cosmopolitanism and the environment, international relations, vol. 19, 259–273. eurydice. (2004). citizenship education at school in europe. country reports – poland. brussels: eurydice books. evans, m., ingram, l. macdonald a. and weber n. (2009) mapping the “global dimension” of citizenship education in canada. the complex interplay of theory, practice and context, citizenship, teaching and learning, vol.5, no. 2, pp. 16-34. goodreau, j., holland, d., & montemurro, d. (2004). exploring the dimensions of global citizenship. retrieved from http://cide.oise.utoronto.ca/projects/globalcitizenship/chap1.pdf. hahn, c.l. (2006) citizenship education and youth attitudes: views from england, germany, and the united states. in h. ertl (ed.), cross-national attraction in education: accounts from england and germany. didcot: uk: symphosium books, 127-151. janowski, a. (1992). polish education – chances and prospects. oxford studies in comparative education, 1 (2), pp. 41-55. joanna leek 71 kerr, d. (1999) citizenship education: an international comparison. international review of curriculum and assessment frameworks archive (london: qualifications and curriculum authority). available online at: http://www.inca.org.uk/pdf/citizenship_ no_intro.pdf, accessed 12 november 2016. keating, a. (2014) education for citizenship in europe. palgrave macmillan. keating, a. (2007). the europeanisation of citizenship education: politics and policymaking in europe and ireland. doctoral thesis. university of cambridge. keating, a. (2009). nationalizing the post-national: reframing european citizenship for the civics curriculum in ireland, curriculum studies 41, 2, pp. 159-178. keating, a. & hinderliter ortloff, d. & philippou, s. (2009). introduction: citizenship education curricula: the changes and challenges presented by global and european integration, curriculum studies 41, 2, pp. 145-158. korzeniowski, j.& machalek, m. (2011). edukacja obywatelska w szkole. teoria i praktyka. warszawa: pwn. kymlicka, w. (1998). multicultural citizenship. in g. shafir (ed.), the citizenship debates: a reader (pp. 167-188). minneapolis, mn: university of minnesota press. lyons kwieciński z. (1995). demokracja jako wyzwania i zadania edukacyjne. in wychowanie obywatelskie. studium teoretyczne, porównawcze i empiryczne, ed.) k. przyszczypkowski. edytor: poznań –toruń. lee, w.o..& fouts, j.t (2005). education for social citizenship: perceptions of teachers in the usa, australia, england, russia and china. hong kong: hong kong university press. lee, w.o.(2012). education for future-oriented citizenship: implications for the education of 21st century competencies, asia pacific journal of education, 32(4), pp. 498-517. manzer, r. (1994). public schools and political ideas: canadian educational policy in historical perspective. toronto: university of toronto press. massey, k., global citizenship education in a secondary geography course: the students' perspectives, review of international geographical education online, summer2014, vol. 4 issue 2, pp. 80-101. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 mclaughlin, terence h. (1992). citizenship, diversity and education: a philosophical perspective. journal of moral education, 21(3): 235-250. melosik, z. (1998). philosophy, power and education: the struggle for a common sense in poland. in dane. r. gordon (ed.) philosophy in post-communist europe, 71-78. mundy, k., manion, c. global education in canadian elementary schools: an exploratory study. canadian journal of education , vol. 31 (4), p. 941-974. parker, w. c., ninimiya, a., & cogan, j. (1999). educating world citizens: toward multinational curriculum development. american educational research journal, 36, 117-145. o’byrne, d. (2003) the dimensions of global citizenship. political identity beyond the nation state, frank cass. okoń, w. (2007). mały słownik pedagogiczny. wydawnictwo akademickie zak: warszawa. osler, a & starkey, h. (2005). changing citizenship: democracy and inclusion in education. maidenhead, open univesity press.. osler, a & starkey, h. (2006). education for democratic citizenship: a review of research, policy and practice 1995-2005, research papers in education, 21 (4), 433-466. oxfam. (2015). global citizenship in the classroom. a guide for teachers. oxford, oxfam oxfam. (2015). education for global citizenship. a guide for schools. oxford, oxfam. piechocinski, r. (1993). current curriculum changes in poland: a national report, curriculum studies, 1:2, 215-232. rapaport, a. (2009). a forgotten concept: global citizenship education and. state social studies standards. journal of social studies research , 33 (1), 91-112. pike, g. and selby, d. (1995) reconnecting: from national to global curriculum. godalming, wwf. program nauczania liceum ogólnoszktalcacego [secondary school curriculum].(1990). ministerstwo edukacji narodowej, dz.urz. men, 3 poz.13, wsip: warszawa. program nauczania szkoły podstawowej [primary school curriculum].(1990). ministerstwo edukacji narodowej, zarządzenie men nr. 1 z dnia 15 stycznia 1990, dz.urz. men, 1, 1990: wsip: warszawa. joanna leek 73 regulation of the minister of national education on core curriculum for pre-school and general education in specific types of schools of 23 december 2008, amended on 27 august 20121 (journal of laws of 30 august 2012, item 977). rauner, m. (1998) citizenship in the curriculum: the globalization of civics education in anglophone africa 1955–1995. in c. l. mcneely (ed.), public rights, public rules: constituting citizens in the world policy and national policy. new york: garland publishing, 107-124. remy, r. & strzemieczny, j. (1996). building civic education for democracy in poland. ncss: washington. richardson, g. (2004). global education and the challange of globalisation. in a. sears & i. wright (eds.), challenges and prospects in caadian social studies. vancouver: pacific education press, pp. 138-149. sassen, s. (2007). a sociology of globalization. new york: norton. schugurensky, d.; myers, j.p. (2003) citizenship education: theory, research and practice, encounters on education, vol. 4, pp.1-10. siellawa-kolbowska, e. & lada, a.& cwiek-karpowicz, j. (2008). edukacja obywatelska w niemczech i polsce. instytut spraw publicznych: warszawa. somers, m. 2008. genealogies of citizenship: markets, statelessness, and the right to have rights. cambridge: cambridge university press. soysal, y.n. (1994) limits of citizenship: migrants and post-national membership in europe. chicago: university of chicago press. stromquist, n.p. (2002) education in globalized world: the connectivity of economic power, technology, and knowledge. lanham, md: rowman & littefield. stromquist, n.p. (2008) theorizing global citizenship. paper presented at the comparative and international education society (los angeles: university southern california, rossier school of education). switala, e. (2016). does civic and citizenship education at the turn of the twenty-first century cater to national, regional, an dglobal citizenship. a global example. in: regional contexts and citizenship education in asia and europe, k.j. kennedy, a. brunold, routeledge: oxon and new york. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 51-74 tawil, s. (2013) education for global citizenship. a framework for discussion, education research and foresight – working papers, new york: unesco. thornton, s. j. (2005). incorporating internationalism into the social studies curriculum. in n. noddings (ed.), educating citizens for global awareness (pp. 81-92). new york: teacher college press. unesco (1998) citizenship education for the 21st century. new york: unesco press. walker, d.f.; soltis, j.f. (1986). curriculum and aims, new york: teachers college press. zachariah, m. (1989). linking global education with multicultural education, the alberta teachers’ association (ata) magazine, 69(4), 48-51. zahorska-bugaj, m. (1996). poland after the democratic revolution. challenges for civic education. in remy, r. & strzemieczny, j. (1996). building civic education for democracy in poland. ncss: washington, pp. 43-54. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017: 8(1), 115-145 © 2017 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 historical thinking: an evaluation of student and teacher ability to analyze sources daniel armond cowgill ii1 & scott m. waring2 abstract the purpose of this study was to partially replicate the historical problem solving: a study of the cognitive process using historical evidence study conducted by sam wineburg in 1991. the historical problem solving study conducted by wineburg (1991) sought to compare the ability of historians and top level students, as they analyzed pictures and written documents centered on the battle of lexington green. in this version of the study, rather than compare historians and students, we sought out to compare the analytical skills of teachers and students. the main findings relate to the fact that the participants lacked the ability to engage in the very complex activities associated with historical inquiry and the utilization of primary sources in learning about the past. this lack of ability should be used to improve teacher professional development programs and help them develop the skills needed to not only engage in historical evaluation themselves but to also develop skills that will allow them to instruct students to do the same. keywords: document analysis, historical literacy, historical thinking, inquiry, primary sources, teacher education introduction with the release of the common core state standards (ccss) and the college, career, and civic life framework (c3), teachers are increasingly urged to create and use instructional activities that provide students with the types of skills needed to be successful in both college and careers (common core state standards initiative, 2012; levine, 2014; national council for social studies, 2013). the types of skills that ccss and c3 focus on revolve around a student’s ability to read, write, speak, listen, complete research-based projects, and use processes and language utilized by professionals, and, in the process, allowing students to practice elements of 1 dr. oviedo high school, daniel.cowgill@hotmail.com 2 prof. dr. university of central florida, scott.waring@ucf.edu mailto:daniel.cowgill@hotmail.com mailto:scott.waring@ucf.edu journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 116 authentic inquiry along with skills needed for civic participation (levine, 2014). more specifically, they require students to be able to cite textual evidence from primary and secondary documents, determine central ideas from primary and secondary documents, determine author’s point of view, analyze charts and graphs, distinguish between fact and opinion, analyze relationships between primary and secondary documents, and construct evidence-based arguments. integrating the curriculum with primary sources and disciplined-based methods allows educators the opportunity to meet these requirements in effective and authentic ways (britt & howe, 2014; callison, 2013; lamb, 2014; woyshner, 2010). primary sources the utilization of primary sources provides students with the prospect of investigating historical events from a variety of perspectives, in a more authentic manner, and allows them to construct meaning from events that took place in the past (barton & levstik, 2003; marino, 2012; tally & goldenberg, 2005; waring & scheiner-fisher, 2014; waring, torrez, & lipscomb, 2015). vansledright (2004) argues that the use of primary sources in the classroom provides students with the opportunity to understand distortions in historical texts, such as bias, exaggeration, ideology, and partisanship. this type of thinking is very different than other forms of problem solving, because rather than trying to determine a question with a pre-determined answer, one is attempting to reconstruct an event that can be vague and open to interpretation (bickford, 2010; breakstone, smith, & wineburg, 2013; wineburg, 1991). allowing students to engage in the thoughtful analysis of historical documents can result in a more complete understanding of historical events and authentic opportunities for students to recall historical events, with more specificity and detail (barton, 2005). the repetition of this type of analysis can bolster students’ ability to independently arrive at reasonable, informed opinions (seixas, 2000). typically, classroom teachers value the theories of implementing primary sources in the social studies classroom and using primary documents, as a means of promoting historical inquiry (hicks, doolittle, & lee, 2004; lee, 2002; waring, torrez, & lipscomb, 2015). despite this identification of importance, the implementation of primary source activities in the k-12 history classroom has been limited (lee, 2002; levstik & barton, 2005; friedman, 2006). this lack of primary source use can largely be attributed to the perception that these activities are too daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 117 complex to design, implement, and grade (vansledright, 2004). many teachers also feel that the complexity, of primary source analysis exercises, is too difficult for students to complete (vansledright, 2004). while it has been established that students often struggle with the analysis of primary source documents (wineburg, 1991), it has also been shown that students, as young as seven years old, have the cognitive ability to engage with and analyze primary source information (hicks, doolittle, & lee, 2004). with evidence to suggest that even the youngest students have the capability of analyzing primary source documents, coupled with the increased focus on these types of analytical skills, it is imperative that teachers utilize primary sources in social studies classrooms. despite the limited use of primary source activities, there has been a push to extend the use of primary source-based activities in k-12 classrooms. the use of activities supporting the integration of primary sources into social studies teaching, especially those that require students to construct their own meaning of history, is strongly supported by the national council for the social studies (ncss, 2013). the ncss national curriculum standards, as well as the newly developed c3 standards, which were developed as a companion to ccss, call for inquiry-based models of instruction (national council for the social studies, 2010; national council for the social studies, 2013). the c3 model is designed to help students develop content area literacy abilities based upon the use on inquiry methods that push students to use proper disciplinary skills (lee & swan, 2013). the use of the c3 model, along with the use of ccss, should help open the social studies classroom to more effective literacy instruction, if implemented in appropriate ways. in order to effectively implement primary source-based activities into the classroom, teachers need to be knowledgeable about pedagogical approaches that assist students in reading, understanding, and constructing meaning from primary sources (vansledright, 2004; barton & levstik, 2003). despite the need to develop knowledge regarding the implementation of primary source-based activities, it has been identified that pre-service, as well as in-service, teacher knowledge of what primary sources are and how they can be implemented in the classroom can at times be limited or non-existent (neumann, 2010; waring & torrez, 2010). the question then becomes, if we are asking teachers to implement strategies into the classroom that they are journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 118 unprepared for, how can it be expected that these types of activities be implemented into the classroom with success? historical sense, habits of mind, and thinking in addition to being able to independently analyze primary sources, it is vital for students to gain skills of historical sense making, to be able to think historically, and to be able to construct from the “confused tangle”, of what is history, a straightforward and most probable account for what may have happened for events from the past (bell & mccollum, 1917). students need to be provided the skills necessary for reading, writing, and analysis to be able to properly understand and convey the stories of what we know about the past and how we know it, in both educational and public spheres (nordgren, 2016). to think historically, students must be given opportunities to create their own authentic questions, utilize a variety of sources, have the skill set to properly examine, read, and determine the context for original sources, be able to consider alternative perspectives, find sources to corroborate and question their hypotheses, and construct their own narratives (waring, 2011). in order to move students towards this goal, they must be able to have opportunities to cultivate their own “historic sense” and historical “habits of mind” (bell, 1917; bell & mccollum, 1917; bradley commission on history in schools, 1995). with a well-developed historic sense and historical habits of mind, students are better prepared to provide clear, intelligible, and well-articulated accounts for historical events (bell, 1917; bradley commission on history in schools, 1995). additionally, it is important for students to be able to understand present events in light of the past, to appreciate a historical narrative, and be able to provide reflective and discriminating replies to “thought questions” about various historical situations (bell & mccollum, 1917). history teachers need to move students along a novice to expert level continuum of historical thinking, by attending to and building historical “habits of mind”, such as the ideas that the progression of time is preordained, there is one cause for historical events, one can learn from the past to automatically avoid mistakes in the future, historical presentism, and that one source and perspective is sufficient (bradley commission on history in schools, 1995). students need these skills in order to be more effective and productive citizens in a 21st century democracy (common core state standards initiative, 2012; national council for social studies, 2013). daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 119 specific skills that are essential to developing and fostering historical ways of thinking are sourcing, contextualization, close reading, and corroboration (wineburg, 2010). the process of sourcing is when the individual viewing a source thinks about its author and the creation of the source. contextualization is having the ability to situation a source and events associated with it in time and place. close reading refers to being able to carefully consider what the source is documenting and the methods used to convey a particular message. corroboration is the act of utilizing multiple additional sources to ask questions about important details about a source and to confirm or refute understandings made about previous source(s) analyzed. with these skills and historical habits of mind more sophisticatedly developed, students will be better able to cite textual evidence from primary and secondary documents, determine central ideas from primary and secondary documents, determine author’s point of view, analyze charts and graphs, distinguish between fact and opinion, analyze relationships between primary and secondary documents, and construct evidence-based arguments (common core state standards initiative, 2012; national council for social studies, 2013). method the purpose of this study was to partially replicate the historical problem solving: a study of the cognitive process using historical evidence study conducted by sam wineburg in 1991. the historical problem solving study conducted by wineburg (1991) sought to compare the ability of historians and top level students, as they analyzed pictures and written documents centered on the battle of lexington green. in this version of the study, rather than compare historians and students, we sought to compare the analytical skills of teachers and students. using the wineburg (1991) study as a guide, we attempted to examine: (a) how do people prioritize and construct meaning from historical sources that, at times, contradict each other and (b) the extent to which students and teachers source, contextualize, corroborate, and close read, while engaging with a set of historical sources related to a central historical topic. subjects this study was conducted at a high school in the southeastern region of the united states. this high school is consistently ranked in the top 500 high schools by u.s. news and world report and annually receives an a rating from its state’s school ranking system. the focus of the study was on social studies teachers (7), as well as students (6). seven social studies teachers journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 120 (ta-tg; 6 males and 1 female) participated in this study. of these teachers, they taught standard or honors level american history (3 teachers), standard level american and world history classes (1), standard and honors level world history (1), ap human geography (1), and ap and honors economics (1). since none of these american history teachers taught ap american history, the content that they cover only spans from reconstruction to modern history, as the school’s state standards do not require the teaching of early american history due to its inclusion in the 8th grade curriculum. thus, we purposely selected these participants, as they should be familiar with social studies pedagogy but do not currently teach content related to the american revolution. table 1: teacher degree and length of teaching experience. teacher length of teaching experience degrees teacher a 2 years b.s. social science education teacher b 30 years jd law, alternative certification teacher c 10 years b.s. social science education, m.ed. social science education, ed.d. educational leadership teacher d 8 years b.s. social science education teacher e 15 years b.s. elementary education, m.ed. general education teacher f 1 year b.s. social science education teacher g 1 year b.s. social science education six students (sa-sf; 6 males) participated in this study. each of these students were invited to take part in this study, because they were in the process of taking either ap american government or ap economics and had taken and passed both their ap american history class and ap american history exam, during the previous school year. since students had passed the daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 121 ap american history exam as delivered by college board, this was an appropriate baseline for the acquisition of american history knowledge. through the ap american history class, students would have also been exposed to document based question (dbq) activities that require the analysis of both primary and secondary sources. the use, of dbq activities, helps students prepare to write analytical essays that require the citing of content from the documents within the dbq source set. the essay, based upon the analysis of various sources, is a major component of the ap exam, so it is important that students develop appropriate document analysis skills to be successful on the exam. the mean grade point average for all students was 3.421. all students planned to attend 4-year universities. materials the materials, for this study, included eight written documents and three pictures, focusing on the events of the battle of lexington green. as this study was done as a reproduction of previous work, the documents and pictures (see appendix a) are the same as those utilized by wineburg in his historical problem solving study (wineburg, 1991). these sources best allowed us to conduct our research, as well. six of the written documents were created within 7 years of the battle of lexington green. the makeup of these documents included a deposition of 34 minutemen, two british diary entries, a newspaper story from london, a letter protesting british actions in the colonies, and an excerpt from a personal narrative written by a british soldier. the final two documents included a 1963 american history textbook version of the events of the battle and a 1961 american novel detailing what happened during the battle. the documents were originally chosen by wineburg for their ability to provide contrasting details about the same event. this would, therefore, provide the impetus needed to stimulate the need for deeper analysis of what might have actually taken place during the battle. three paintings were used to depict the events that unfolded during the battle of lexington green. picture 1, a depiction of the battle from 1775, highlights the colonists in a state of crisis, scattered throughout with an apparent lack of order. the town of lexington appears to have been set on fire, and there are very few colonists seen in this depiction of the battle. picture 2, a depiction of the battle from 1859, shows a scattered colonial militia facing an organized british force. the british forces appear to have been spurred on by a commanding journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 122 officer on a horse. at the forefront of the picture, there is a woman who is tending to a wounded colonial. both the british and the colonists show multiple casualties, something that is not corroborated with any of the other documents. picture 3, a depiction of the battle from 1886, shows a defiant colonial militia exchanging fire with the british regulars over a bridge. in the background, there is a tranquil village surrounded by the gun smoke of battle. it depicts a single colonial causality and what appears to be a commanding officer spurring british soldiers into battle. procedure the initial step taken in the study was to engage each of the participants individually in a think-aloud. in order to practice and become comfortable with the process of engaging in a think aloud, participants were provided with sample texts and asked to describe everything that they thought, while reading the sample text. once comfortable with engaging in the process of a think-aloud, participants were presented with a set of documents concerning the battle of lexington green. participants were informed that their goal was “to try to understand what happened at lexington green on the morning of april 19, 1775.” next, participants were provided with the eight historical documents and were asked to read the documents aloud, one at a time. each individual was asked to verbalize his or her thoughts, while reading the text. no prompts were given, and no questions were asked, except during time of long silence. in those moments of silence, participants were only asked the questions “what are you thinking?” or “why did you pause?” once all documents had been read aloud, each document was presented again, but this time, each document was chunked into individual sentences and placed on 5in x 7in index cards. the process of chunking information is designed to help participants slow down his or her thinking and allow individuals an opportunity for deeper analysis of each document (johnstone & el-banna, 2006). once all documents had been presented for the second time, participants were given a reference sheet that included all eight written documents. this, therefore, allowed participants to see all documents at the same time and allow for easier reference during the final portions of the study. daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 123 after the distribution of the reference sheets, participants were asked to analyze three paintings, with the name of the artist and the date of the painting removed. participants were asked to review each picture and provide statements as to what they saw. once comments had been made about each of the pictures, participants were asked to determine which “most accurately depicted what happened during the battle of lexington green.” they were then asked to provide a date for each of the pictures. once each picture had been evaluated, participants were asked to rank each of the written documents in their order of trustworthiness regarding the events of lexington green. a ranking of one meant that the document was considered to be the most trustworthy, while a ranking of eight meant the document was the least trustworthy. data analysis picture evaluation all interviews were recorded and transcribed in full. all statements, made during the picture analysis, were coded using the protocol outlined by wineburg in his original study. these were each given a code, based upon whether the statements the statement could be described as description, reference, analysis, or qualification. descriptive statements are those that only refer to what the item or characteristic is. a descriptive statement does not look at the function of the object being described. a reference statement is one in which the participant either referenced one of the written documents, or one of the other two pictures. an analytical statement included comments that focused on a particular point of view or possible motives of the subjects of the work. these also may have included unprompted mentioning of the date of construction for each picture. a qualifying statement is one in which the participant makes a claim but qualifies it with another statement. a qualifying statement is also one in which the participant notated limitations of the pictures. reliability, in the coding scheme, was determined by comparing the coding of the authors with that of a trained external rater. the interrater reliability for the raters was found to be kappa=.73 (p<0.001), 95% ci. document evaluation in order to analyze the participant responses during the document analysis portion of the interview, statements were coded as one of the following: sourcing, corroboration, journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 124 contextualization, or close reading. each of these coding categories is described further during the analysis for written documents below. once again, reliability was determined by comparing author codes with that of a trained external rater. the interrater reliability for the raters was found to be kappa=.72 (p<.001), 95% ci. findings while many of the conclusions may be predictable, based upon the vast number of studies completed regarding student ability regarding literacy skills, there are a few interesting implications that can be drawn from a study of this nature. the american school system is about to embark into a new round of test taking, based upon the idea that students should have the ability to critically analyze primary and secondary documents and then be able to construct a valid argument using those sources. this means that teachers must possess the ability to not only analyze documents themselves but to also be able to communicate strategies that will allow students to analyze documents in a way that allows them to appropriately engage in these very complex ways of thinking historically. in this study, teachers are supposed to represent experts, who have the ability to engage in deep analysis of historical sources, with the purpose of recognizing pertinent information that can be used in the construction of a deep understanding of historical events. unfortunately, there seem to be a number of issues that would make it easy to question the place of the teacher as an expert on how to engage in deep analysis of historical texts. with some of the issues that became apparent through the analysis of teacher responses to both written and pictorial sources, it is not surprising that students run into many of the same issues when analyzing historical documents. these issues largely center on the way in which teachers and students analyze photographs/paintings, how they engage in the analysis of written documents, and their lack of content knowledge regarding the topic they are studying. overall, there seemed to be very little difference in the abilities of teachers and ap level students to engage in the analysis of historical document analysis. one thing, to keep in mind with this analysis, is that many teachers are just now moving away from a “teach to the test” model of instruction to a much more complicated model of document-based instruction. this is in contrast to a group of students who had spent the previous school year regularly analyzing primary sources to get ready for their ap american history exam. if this study had been done daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 125 with standard or honors level students, it may have painted a very different picture, as to student ability. picture evaluation when taking a close look at the way in which teachers and students analyze pictures, there are a few things that stand out. the first real deficiency that is notable among teachers and students is the lack of statements that either reference previous materials or attempt to analyze the picture to find a deeper meaning in the representation of the topic. the vast majority of statements that students and teachers made during the analysis of the pictures centered on the restatement of concrete facts from the pictures. unfortunately, there is scarce use of statements that take the obvious and tie it to a deeper meaning throughout the painting. the lack of analytical or cross reference statements would leave one to believe that teachers are not teaching students to appropriately analyze pictures, because they themselves cannot appropriately analyze pictures. there was also a lack of teacher and student use of the qualifying skill during the picture analysis. this would lead one to believe that teachers and students are unable to make varied distinctions on what is right and what is wrong in historical documents. of the five instances where qualified statements were made regarding the accuracy of the paintings, two teachers merely stated that there were “inaccuracies in all three pictures” and that their choice would be inherently flawed. this statement is quite generic and fails to show the ability to grasp finite details from such a broad text. perhaps if participants had been further prompted, they would have been able to better distinguish the flaws in their choices, but as of now, the use of the qualification skill would not be something that could be considered a well-developed skill. when comparing the coded responses to the picture analysis portion of the study an independent t test was run (see table 1). only the category of descriptive statements showed a statistically significant difference t(11)=.463, p< .05. the categories of reference t(11)=1.551, p<.05; analytical t(11)=.136, p<.05; and qualification t(10)=.542, p<.05 showed no statistical significance. table 2: means and standard deviations for each category. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 126 subject category description reference analytical qualifying teachers (n=7) m sd 12.50 7.06 3.67 3.72 3.00 1.55 .33 .52 amh teachers (n=4) m sd 16.00 6.25 2.33 2.08 2.33 2.08 .67 .58 non-amh teachers (n=3) m sd 9.00 7.00 5.00 5.00 3.67 .58 0.00 0.00 students (n=6) m sd 14.33 6.65 6.33 1.97 3.17 2.56 .50 .55 the picture that was chosen as most accurate by both teachers and students was overwhelmingly the 1886 depiction of the battle of lexington green (reprinted in mcdowell, 1967). of the six student participants, five stated that they felt that the 1886 depiction was the most accurate picture, and of the 7 teacher participants, three felt that 1886 depiction was the most accurate. the one student who did not choose the 1886 depiction of the battle, as most accurate, chose the 1859 account (reprinted in mcdowell, 1967). of the four teachers who did not choose picture 2 as the most accurate, two teachers found the 1775 depiction of the battle (reprinted in tourtellot, 1959) to most accurate, and two found the 1859 depiction of the battle to be most accurate. after analyzing the reasons for why each individual picked their respective picture as the most accurate, there were no distinct common themes between respondents. the 1886 depiction of the battle was chosen for a variety of reasons. student e and student b declared that there was a bridge present, as stated in some of the documents. student f and teacher c stated that there were no women mentioned in the documents, and teacher a had no real reason for daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 127 choosing for choosing the 1886 version. there were also no real commonalities in the selection of either the 1859 or 1775 depiction of the battle. five individuals did make qualifying statements, as to why they made their respective choices regarding the most accurate picture. teacher d and a made the blanket statement that all three pictures contained inaccuracies and that they would be making a choice despite knowing that the document they were choosing would not be a completely truthful interpretation of what had taken place during the battle. teacher f and student c made similar qualifications by commenting that their choice of best picture was in spite of the fact that neither of their choices showed the 7 or 8 men who were described as wounded during the battle, in many of the documents. student e made the final qualifying statement, by stating that the 1886 picture was the best representation of the battle of lexington green despite the fact that “there’s not really a stone wall in [picture 2], there is one in picture 3, but the other aspects [of that picture] i don’t much like at all.” ranking of documents after analyzing participant response to the written documents, it would appear that both teachers and students run into many issues, when engaging in the processes of sourcing and contextualization. when engaging in the process of sourcing, neither teachers nor students made it a point to place the documents into the appropriate context, prior to reading the rest of the document. this start from the top left of a document and read to the bottom right is a trait that can be seen with readers, who have not been taught to appropriately analyze the content of a historical document. both teachers and students often fumbled through some of these complex texts and were unable to make appropriate conclusions about the text due to their ignorance of the contextual evidence provided to them in the source of the document. the main difference in the use of the sourcing skill between students and teachers was that, even though teachers did not engage in sourcing at the beginning of the text, teachers were still able to consistently make judgments about the validity of the text, based upon the source material, after having read the text. because the sourcing skill is such an integral part of the ability to appropriately engage in the analysis of historical documents, a teacher’s ability to go back and revise statements that had been previously made bodes well for their ability to demonstrate to students the importance for the reading of source materials. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 128 the issues with the use of the contextualization skill was also quite glaring. as seen during the discussion about student and teacher ability to analyze pictorial sources, teachers and students were quite adept at providing basic factual statements about the written texts, as well. they were both, however, unable to tie those factual statements together, in a way that would allow them to create a deeper understanding of the drama that was taking place in the documents before them. this lack of reconstruction may stem from the perception that history is often just a litany of facts and that there is no need to reconstruct facts from within a document to make one’s own interpretation of the event. one final note on close reading comes from a comment made by teacher g. teacher g pointed out that a number of words may give students difficulty, if they were reading these documents during a class assignment. he, and almost every other participant, had repeated issues with the pronunciation of words like “impetuosity”, “ministerial”, and “wading.” these issues with anachronistic vocabulary are definitely something to keep in mind, as teachers move to the implementation of more primary source-based activities. in order to analyze the level of agreement between teacher and student document rankings, kendall’s coefficient of concordance was used. the use of kendall’s coefficient of concordance allows for the comparison of rankings between two different groups. kendall’s coefficient of concordance analysis was chosen over spearman’s rho technique, as it allows for a better analysis of tied rankings. kendall’s correlation coefficient between teacher and student ranking of documents showed a strong positive relationship with r=.837 and p=.01. we also chose to measure the concordance of american history teachers and those who taught non-american history social studies classes. the kendall’s correlation coefficient between american history teachers and non-american history teachers showed a weak negative relationship with r= -.143 and p=.01. figure 1 demonstrates how each participant within the study ranked each of the documents analyzed during the study. the chart shows very similar rates of response for each document. each document has a wide range of where they were ranked. daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 129 figure 1: levels of trustworthiness sourcing. a participant was viewed to have completed the process of sourcing, if they considered the document's attribution (both its author and how the document came into being) prior to reading anything else in the document. we were interested in determining if the participant attempted to identify the source prior to attempting to understand the context and endeavoring to close read or corroborate. sourcing entails identifying such characteristics as the author of the document, a potential purpose for why the author wrote the document, the date of the document, the publisher of the document and the like (wineburg, 1991). accurately identifying the source information for a document allows the reader to place the document into appropriate context and allows for the identification of possible bias within the documents. the use of the sourcing skill was employed on three different occasions, during the teacher interviews. teacher d was responsible for two of the sourcing instances, while teacher a had one instance of using the sourcing skill. even in these instances of using the sourcing skill, very little detail was gathered from the use. teacher d noted that (s)he had never heard of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 130 joseph warren before and declared document 5 to be a “primary source”. teacher a referenced the rank of lt. john barker and stated, “ah, it’s a lieutenant. that makes sense.” this participant went on to read the rest of the source, without further connection to his rank. despite the fact that passing reference was made to components of the sourcing strategy, neither teacher a, nor teacher d, used the sourcing skill in a way that would allow for generation of a deeper understanding of the document’s context. there were a few instances where teachers identified the source three or four lines into the reading of the source. teacher b provided the most instances of citing source information after already having started reading the document. teacher b pointed out that document 3 “is not a very trustworthy legal document” because of the emotion that the soldier would have felt, when dealing with the death of his father. teacher b also used this skill during analysis of document 4, acknowledging that the author was a british officer and stated, “we have a different perspective here.” teacher c used the source for contextual information a few lines into the text during document 2, when he stated that the document wasn’t written “long after [the event],” but followed that statement by noting, “5 days…that’s kind of a long time to either all get together and get the story your gonna tell straight, or 5 days of that’s what really happened and so that is what i’m gonna go swear and say.” while each of these examples would not fit the traditional definition of sourcing, the following examples show that teacher b and teacher c clearly have the ability to use source information to develop appropriate contextual understanding of the source. no students displayed even this form of use for the sourcing skill. students and teachers were able to use the source information, after the document had been read, to go back and revise their understanding of a document. teachers a, b, c, d, and f, along with students c and g, questioned the legitimacy of document 7, due to the fact that it was a textbook. teacher b pointed out that the textbook lacked the “varying perspectives of the other documents.” teacher c also characterized the textbook excerpt as being “a cute story that we tell our kids. it doesn’t have much substance to it.” had this been identified prior to the reading of the document, it may have elicited more critical statements about the legitimacy of the source. the absence of sourcing, as they interpreted the events in the documents, did cause issues for some teachers and students. the best examples of this confusion can be seen through daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 131 teacher c’s comments regarding the end of document 4. here, teacher c stated, “ok, so before this, thinking about who is it? now, right now, i’m thinking that it’s the british army people. um, but who knows?” without the utilization of the sourcing skill, this participant had confusion, regarding what had taken place based on the description provided in the document. student b also demonstrated how failing to source a document first could lead to a misinterpretation of the text. student b initially declared that document 8 was from the colonist perspective, but after reading the citation at the end of the text, this student stated, “ok, so it wasn’t from [the rebels], he was a member of the british officers. i was wrong there, should have read [the citation] first.” student b also showed an inability to properly analyze source material by stating, “i’m not sure how [the father] would have been shot in the revolutionary war, if this was published in 1961.” all of these examples provide a bit of insight into the lack of ability to appropriately use the sourcing skill. contextualization. contextualization is the process by which a reader tries to place the source and the events it reports in proper place and time. scheurman and newmann (1998) argue that understanding the context of an event requires one to explore the issues, relationships, and complexities of the topic being investigated. one cannot be said to have participated in the process of contextualization, if he or she have merely restated the order of the events for which they have read. the reader must have attempted to use the information of when and where the event took place to try and gain a deeper understanding of the event. the analysis of student and teacher use of the contextualization skill was extremely lacking through their analysis of the documents. while teachers and students were very good about restating the information they had just read in chronological order, they almost never restated information to then try to gain a deeper understanding of the text. one of the most common statements that best fits the above definition of contextualization is the common response, made by students, to the “hostilities” noted in document 1 as being the “shot heard round the world.” this statement shows that students are able to place the events, being described in the document, in the proper time period and that they are able to make connections to outside descriptions of events being described in documents. teachers f, c, and b and students e, b, and c made statements, about slavery, that may appear at first glance to fit into the contextualization framework. these participants were able to journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 132 point out that the use of the term “slavery”, used in document 1, did not refer to the type of enslavement of african americans we are accustomed to reading and talking about in an american history class. it referred to the perception of what it was like to be ruled by great britain. these analytical statements show that these participants could appropriately place the concept of slavery into a broader context and understand the way in which the concept was being used in this instance. even with statements like this, the use of the contextualization skill was very scant. while the previous examples show an ability to engage in analytical thought, they do not truly fit the definition of contextualization. they delve into historical understandings of particular historical concepts; however, these are not thoughts pertinent to the understanding of “what happened at lexington green on the morning of april 19, 1775”. corroboration. corroboration is a skill that requires participants to compare, for areas of agreement and disagreement, the information from one source with information contained in other sources. the more that the information from one document lines up with the information contained in other documents, the more likely the reader is able to determine if the information that they have read is at least plausible. vansledright (2004) averred that corroboration is needed, because a source has no innate reliability. as compared to the use of the sourcing skill, teachers and students both utilized the corroboration skill, on a much more consistent basis, and were able to use it to create a deeper understanding of the content. both student and teacher use of the corroboration skill focused on three critical concepts, which were 1) who fired first the first shot, 2) the number of injured soldiers killed and injured during the fighting, and 3) the time of the attack. teachers and students consistently referred to other sources to try and determine who fired the first shot during the battle of lexington green. teacher b’s statement of “i generally try to tell myself a history story, and the story i’m telling myself here is that i’m not clear who fired first that night and i’m not certain it matters a whole lot. i think both sides were spoiling for a fight and that the british certainly got more than they expected,” summed up the position of those who tried to corroborate who fired first during the battle. despite referencing multiple accounts of who fired first, no one was able to come to a full and complete conclusion, based upon these documents, as to who fired first at the battle of lexington green. daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 133 there was also quite a bit of discussion about how many soldiers were injured during the battle. student c stated that he found it curious that so many accounts mentioned the number of soldiers who had been hurt or killed during battle, yet the author of document 4 stated that he didn’t know how many had been hurt or killed, despite having stopped to rest before moving on to concord. both, teachers and students, consistently linked the description of the one british causality, described in document 5, to the naming of a dead british soldier, in document 8. while not quite as prevalent, many of the participants, in the study, pointed out possible inconsistencies as to when the battle was supposed to have taken place. teacher c continually pointed out the different times discussed, for when the battle apparently took place. teachers b and c, along with student c, also pointed out that they were confused by certain documents, noting that the battle took place during early morning. these instances, of using the corroboration skill, show a consistent ability to try and use multiple documents to try and verify the validity of various statements regarding a historical event. close reading. the process of close reading is one in which readers read carefully to consider what a source presents and the language used to say it. close reading can be used to question the motivation of an author’s statement, to read deeper into the motivations of the individuals in the text, and to build a more comprehensive understanding of the events in the text. when identifying themes regarding the close reading process, there was very little alignment to those things talked about by teachers and students. the main close reading themes that emerged from the analysis of participant responses focused on 1) teacher analysis of where the information from document 6 actually came from; 2) the use of text features such as quotation marks and ellipses; and 3) the observation that many of these documents could have been used for propaganda purposes. teachers a, e and f, along with students b and c, pointed out possible inconsistencies that could have possibly arisen throughout document 6. the statement that was most questioned by these participants stated that “this account major pitcairn himself gave mr. brown of providence who was seized with flour and carried to boston a few days after the battle; and gov. sessions told it to me.” the main criticism of this statement can best be summed up by teacher c, who said “oh good gracious, and all of this is from the diary of someone else, who’s not even journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 134 writing this story. this is like 5th party in.” this analysis of the text provided these individuals with the ability to question the authenticity of the accounts which can be supported by teacher f’s comment that this account is “word of mouth, so it could have gotten messed up somewhere in translation.” another example of close reading could be found in the analysis of teacher comments regarding many of the text features throughout the documents. teacher a made an observation about the use of text features used in document 1, when stating, “i wonder what was taken out there with the ellipses.” all seven teachers made comments regarding the use of quotation marks and italics throughout document 7. they all made comments to the effect that the use of those terms were used to emphasize or, at times, exaggerate certain terms. no student referenced any of these text features and provided zero comment, as to their meaning. many students had a unique take on the possible purpose of many of the documents. students a, b, c, and d all made comments about how many of these documents could have been used as propaganda. students a and b both commented that the contents of document 1 were meant to convince people to support the “colonists’ cause.” student c and d also commented on how the use of a newspaper could be used to try and sway people to the support of the british with negative descriptions of the colonists. conclusion there are a variety of implications that can be pulled from a study of this nature. one of the main things to point out is that, despite a constant push from academia to transform the classroom into a place where teachers and students alike can thoughtfully analyze primary documents, there is still a lack of ability and/or desire of teachers to engage in these very complex activities (friedman, 2006; levstik & barton, 2005; waring, torrez, and lipscomb, 2015) and use of primary sources does not automatically equate into authentic historical thinking (swan & hicks, 2007). this lack of ability should be used to improve teacher professional development programs and help them develop the skills needed to not only engage in historical evaluation themselves but to also develop skills that will allow them to instruct students to do the same. daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 135 another implication that can be taken away from this study lies in the lack of content knowledge displayed by teachers. even though these teachers are not tasked with the instruction of this material, many of the concepts that are discussed during the revolutionary time period have ripple effects throughout the rest of american history, as well as the teaching of american government and european history. this lack of knowledge may signal the need to increase the amount of content area knowledge that teachers receive during their teacher education programs. while the study provided some insight into the ability of teachers and students to think historically, the limitations must be acknowledged. although the sample size was small and limited in diversity, the results are worth sharing. hopefully, this study will encourage other researchers to conduct similar studies with larger sample sizes. it would also be interesting for researchers to examine whether teacher educators possess the required skills to effectively educate future teachers on the skills needed to properly analyze primary and secondary sources. it would also be fascinating to evaluate the success rates of professional development courses that teach literacy instructional skills. each of these avenues for future development are critical to the success of implementing appropriate content area literacy skills into the classroom. with a move towards the use of common core standards in the classroom, it is no longer enough to state that we must transform our social studies classrooms into a place where students can actively engage in the analysis of historical documents. these types of statements have been made over and over again since wineburg (1991) conducted this study originally in 1991, and the state of the social studies classroom has changed very little over this time. with a shift in how education is being delivered taking place on a nationwide basis, it is time for the social studies to thrust themselves into a primary position within our schools and show how instructional leaders of this discipline can adequately prepare students to be literate citizens in a global world. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 136 references barton, k. c. (2005). primary sources in history: breaking through the myths. phi delta kappan, 86(10), 745-753. barton, k. c., & levstik, l. s. (2003). why don't more history teachers engage students in interpretation? social education, 67(6), 358-358. bell, j. c. (1917). the historic sense. the journal of educational psychology, 8(5), 317-318. bell, j. c., & mccollum, d.f. (1917). a study of the attainments of pupils in united states history. the journal of educational psychology, 8(5), 257-274. bickford iii, j. h. (2010). complicating students' historical thinking through primary source reinvention. social studies research & practice, 5(2), 47-60. bradley commission on history in schools. (1995). building a history curriculum: guidelines for teaching history in schools. westlake, oh: national council for history education. p. 9. breakstone, j., smith, m., & wineburg, s. (2013). beyond the bubble in history/social studies assessments. phi delta kappan, 94(5), 53-57. britt, j., & howe, m. (2014). developing a vision for the common core classroom: what does elementary social studies look like? social studies, 105(3), 158-163 callison, d. (2013). ccss: primary sources for secondary social studies. school library monthly, 30(2), 18-21. common core state standards initiative (2012). english/language arts standards. retrieved from common core state standards initiative: preparing america's students for college and career: http://www.corestandards.org/ela-literacy common core state standards initiative (2012). implementing the common core state standards. retrieved from common core state standards initiative: preparing america's students for college and career: http://www.corestandards.org daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 137 friedman, a. m. (2006). world history teachers' use of digital primary sources: the effect of training. theory & research in social education, 34(1), 124-141. hicks, d., doolittle, p., & lee, j. k. (2004). social studies teachers' use of classroom-based and web-based historical primary sources. theory & research in social education, 32(2), 213247. johnstone, a., & el-banna, h. (1989). understanding learning difficulties: a predictive research model. studies in higher education, 14(2), 159-168. lamb, a. (2014). primary source digital documents: ccss & complexity of text. school library monthly, 30(4), 5-8. lee, j. k. (2002). digital history in the history/social studies classroom. the history teacher, 35(4), 503-517. lee, j., & swan, k. (2013). is the common core good for social studies? yes, but… social education, 77(6), 327-330. levine, p. (2014). the c3 framework: one year later an interview with kathy swan. social education, 78(4), 172-174, 178. levstik, l. s., & barton, k. c. (2005). doing history investigating with children in elementary and middle schools, 3rd ed. mahwah, nj: l. erlbaum associates. marino, m. (2012). urban space as a primary source: local history and historical thinking in new york city. social studies, 103(3), 107-116. national council for social studies. (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies: a framework for teaching, learning and assessment. washington, dc: national council for social studies journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 138 national council for social studies. (2013). social studies for the next generation: purposes, practices, and implications of the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards. washington, dc: national council for social studies. neumann, d. j. (2010). “what is the text doing?” preparing pre-service teachers to teach primary sources effectively. history teacher, 43(4), 489-511. nordgren, k. (2016). how to do things with history: use of history as a link between historical consciousness and historical culture. theory and research in social education, 44(4), 479504. scheurman, g., & newmann, f. m. (1998). authentic intellectual work in social studies: putting performance before pedagogy. social education, 62, 23-26. seixas, p. (2000). schweigen! die kinder! or, does postmodern history have a place in the schools? in p. n. stearns, p. c. seixas, & s. s. wineburg (eds.), knowing, teaching and learning history: national and international perspectives (pp. 19-37). new york, ny: new york university press. swan, k., & hicks, d. (2007). through the democratic lens: the role of purpose in leveraging technology to support historical thinking in the social studies classroom. the international journal of social studies education, 21(2), 142-168. tally, b., & goldenberg, l. b. (2005). fostering historical thinking with digitized primary sources. journal of research on technology in education, 38(1), 1-21. vansledright, b. a. (2004). what does it mean to read history? fertile ground for crossdisciplinary collaborations? reading research quarterly, 39(3), 342-346. vansledright, b. a. (2004). what does it mean to think historically… and how do you teach it? social education, 68(3), 230-233. waring, s. m. (2011). preserving history: the construction of history in the k-16 classroom. charlotte, nc: information age publishing. daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 139 waring, s. m., & scheiner-fisher, c. (2014). using sources to allow digital natives to explore the lewis and clark expedition. middle school journal, 45(4), 3-12. waring, s. m., & torrez, c. f. (2010). using digital primary sources to teach historical perspective to preservice teachers. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education – social studies, 10(3), 294-308. waring, s. m., torrez, c., & lipscomb, g. (2015). pay it forward: teacher candidates' use of historical artifacts to invigorate k-12 history instruction. journal of social studies education research, 6(2), 18-30. wineburg, s. s. (1991). historical problem solving: a study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. journal of educational psychology, 83(1), 73. wineburg, s. (2010). historical thinking: memorizing facts and stuff? teaching with primary sources quarterly, 3(1), 2-4. woyshner, c. (2010). inquiry teaching with primary source documents: an iterative approach. social studies research and practice, 5(3), 36-45. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 140 appendix a document 1 in 1775, benjamin franklin was the colonial representative in london. after the events in lexington and concord, the massachusetts provincial congress put together 21 sworn depositions about the events and sent them to franklin with the following cover letter: to the inhabitants of great britain: in provincial congress, watertown, april 26, 1775 friends and fellow subjects: hostilities are at length commenced in the colony by the troops under command of general gage; and it being of the greatest importance that an early, true, and authentic account of this inhuman proceeding should be known to you, the congress of this colony have transmitted the same, and from want of a session of the honorable continental congress, think it proper to address you on the alarming occasion. by the clearest depositions relative to this transaction, it will appearthat on the night preceding the nineteenth of april instant, . . . the town of lexington . . . was alarmed, and a company of the inhabitants mustered on the occasion; that the regular troops, on their way to concord, marched into the said town of lexington, and the said company, on their approach, began to disperse; that notwithstanding this, the regulars rushed on with great violence, and first began hostilities by firing on said lexington company, whereby they killed eight and wounded several others; that the regulars continued their fire until those of said company, who were neither killed nor wounded, had made their escape. these, brethren, are marks of ministerial vengeance against this colony, for refusing, with her sister colonies, a submission to slavery. but they have not yet detached us from our royal sovereign. we profess to be his loyal and dutiful subjects, and so hardly dealt with as we have been, are still ready, with our lives and fortunes, to defend his person, family, crown, and dignity. nevertheless, to the persecution and tyranny of his cruel ministry we will not tamely submit; appealing to heaven for the justice of our cause, we determine to die or be free. daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 141 joseph warren [president pro tern] document 2 we nathaniel mulliken, philip russell, [followed by the names of 32 other men present on lexington green on april 19, 1775],... all of lawful age, and inhabitants of lexington, in the county of middlesex, . . . do testify and declare, that on the nineteenth of april instant, about one or two o'clock in the morning, being informed that... a body of regulars were marching from boston towards concord, . . .we were alarmed and having met at the place of our company's parade [lexington green], were dismissed by our captain, john parker, for the present, with orders to be ready to attend at the beat of the drum, we further testify and declare, that about five o'clock in the morning, hearing our drum beat, we proceeded towards the parade, and soon found that a large body of troops were marching towards us, some of our company were coming up to the parade, and others had reached it, at which time the company began to disperse, whilst our backs were turned on the troops, we were fired on by them, and a number of our men were instantly killed and wounded, not a gun was fired by any person in our company on the regulars to our knowledge before they fired on us, and they continued firing until we had all made our escape. lexington, april 25, 1775, nathaniel mulliken, philip russell, [and the other 32 men] [duly sworn to by 34 minutemen on april 25 before three justices of the peace] document 3 major pitcairn screamed at us: "lay down your arms, you lousy bastards! disperse, you lousy peasant scum!" . . . at least, those were the words that i seem to remember. others remembered differently; but the way he screamed, in his strange london accent, with the motion and excitement, with his horse rearing and kicking . . . with the drums beating again and the fixed journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 142 bayonets glittering in the sunshine, it's a wonder that any of his words remain with u s . . . . we still stood in our two lines, our guns butt end on the ground or held loosely in our hands. major pitcairn spurred his horse and raced between the lines. somewhere, away from us, a shot sounded. a redcoat soldier raised his musket, leveled it at father, and fired. my father clutched at his breast, then crumpled to the ground like an empty sack then the whole british front burst into a roar of sound and flame and smoke. excerpt from the novel april morning, by howard fast, published in 1961 document 4 19th. at 2 o'clock we began our march by wading through a very long ford up to our middles; after going a few miles we took three or four people who were going off to give intelligence; about five miles on this side of a town called lexington, which lay in our road, we heard there were some hundreds of people collected together intending to oppose us and stop our going on; at 5 o'clock we arrived there, and saw a number of people, i believe between 200 and 300, formed in a common in the middle of the town; we still continued advancing, keeping prepared against an attack though without intending to attack them; but on our coming near them they fired one or two shots, upon which our men without any orders, rushed in upon them, fired and put them to flight; several of them were killed, we could not tell how many, because they were got behind walls and into the woods; we had a man of the 10th light infantry wounded, nobody else hurt. we then formed on the common, but with some difficulty, the men were so wild they could hear no orders; we waited a considerable time there, and at length proceeded on our way to concord. entry for april 19th, 1775, from the diary of lieutenant john barker, an officer in the british army. document 5 daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 143 lieutenant nunn, of the navy arrived this morning at lord dartmouth's and brought letters from general gage, lord percy, and lieutenant-colonel smith, containing the following particulars of what passed on the nineteenth of april last between a detachment of the king's troops in the province of massachusetts-bay and several parties of rebel provincials lieutenant-colonel smith finding, after he had advanced some miles on his march, that the country had been alarmed by the firing of guns and ringing of bells, dispatched six companies of light-infantry, in order to secure two bridges on different roads beyond concord, who, upon their arrival at lexington, found a body of the country people under arms, on a green close to the road; and upon the king's troops marching up to them, in order to inquire the reason of their being so assembled, they went off in great confusion, and several guns were fired upon the king's troops from behind a stone wall, and also from the meeting-house and other houses, by which one man was wounded, and major pitcairn's horse shot in two places. in consequence of this attack by the rebels, the troops returned the fire and killed several of them. after which the detachment marched on to concord without any thing further happening. newspaper account from the london gazette, june 10,1775 document 6 there is a certain sliding over and indeterminateness in describing the beginning of the firing. major pitcairn who was a good man in a bad cause, insisted upon it to the day of his death, that the colonists fired first he does not say that he saw the colonists fire first. had he said it, i would have believed him, being a man of integrity and honor. he expressly says he did not see who fired first; and yet believed the peasants began. his account is this—that riding up to them he ordered them to disperse; which they not doing instantly, he turned about to order his troops so to draw out as to surround and disarm them. as he turned he saw a gun in a peasant's hand from behind a wall, flash in the pan without going off. and instantly or very soon two or three guns went off by which he found his horse wounded and also a man near him wounded. these guns he did not see, but believing they could not come from his own people, doubted not and so asserted that they came from our people; and that thus they began the attack. the impetuosity of the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 115-145 144 king's troops were such that a promiscuous, uncommanded but general fire took place, which pitcairn could not prevent; though he struck his staff or sword downwards with all earnestness as a signal to forbear or cease firing. this account major pitcairn himself gave mr. brown of providence who was seized with flour and carried to boston a few days after the battle; and gov. sessions told it to me. from the diary of ezra stiles, president of yale college, entry for august 21, 1775 document 7 in april 1775, general gage, the military governor of massachusetts, sent out a body of troops to take possession of military stores at concord, a short distance from boston. at lexington, a handful of "embattled farmers," who had been tipped off by paul revere, barred the way. the "rebels" were ordered to disperse. they stood their ground. the english fired a volley of shots that killed eight patriots. it was not long before the swift-riding paul revere spread the news of this new atrocity to the neighboring colonies. the patriots of all of new england, although still a handful, were now ready to fight the english. from the united states: story of a free people, a high school textbook by samuel steinberg, allyn and bacon, publishers, 1963 document 8 to the best of my recollection about 4 o'clock in the morning being the 19th of april the 5 front companies was ordered to load which we did it was at lexington when we saw one of their daniel a. cowgill ii & scott m. waring 145 companies drawn up in regular order. major pitcairn of the marines second in command called to them to disperse, but their not seeming willing he desired us to mind our space which we did when they gave us a fire then run off to get behind a wall. we had one man wounded of our company in the leg, his name was johnson, also major pitcairn's horse was shot in the flank; we returned their salute, and before we proceeded on our march from lexington i believe we killed and wounded either 7 or 8 men. ensign jeremy lister, youngest of the british officers at lexington, in a personal narrative written in 1782 yöntem: www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(2), 96-121 © 2011 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler eğitimi tezleri üzerine bir değerlendirme∗ an evaluation of the theses on social studies education in turkey mustafa şahi̇n1, derya göğebakan yildiz 2 & ruşen duman3 özet: çalışmanın amacı, türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ile ilgili olarak hazırlanmış olan tezlerin 1990’dan günümüze kadar farklı kriterlere göre nasıl bir dağılım gösterdiğini ifade etmektir. çalışmanın sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında hazırlanmış olan tezleri çeşitli açılardan inceleyerek, bu alanda yapılan tezlerin genel çerçevesini görmek bakımından yararlı olacağı düşünülmektedir. araştırmada betimsel yöntem kullanılmıştır. bu çerçevede doküman incelemesi yapılan bu çalışmada (1) dokümanlara ulaşma, (2) orijinalliğin kontrol edilmesi, (3) dokümanların anlaşılması, (4) verinin analiz edilmesi ve (5) verinin kullanılması şeklinde belli başlı beş aşama izlenmiştir. araştırmanın problem cümlesi “türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili yapılmış tezler bazı ölçütlere göre nasıl bir dağılım göstermektedir” şeklinde belirlenmiştir. buna bağlı olarak alt problemler ise sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili yapılmış tezlerde; a) yıllarına göre, b) yapıldığı üniversitelere göre, c) yök ulusal tez merkezi’nde okuyucuya açık olup olmamalarına göre, d) araştırma temaları ve bu temaların yıllara göre nasıl bir dağılım gösterdiği şeklinde dizayn edilmiştir. yapılan çalışmalarda sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında hazırlanan ilk tezin 1990 yılında olduğu görülmekle beraber, daha sonraki yıllarda bu sayının artarak günümüze 550 yüksek lisans tezi ve 62 doktora tezi şeklinde ulaştığı belirlenmiştir. 20 yıllık araştırma sürecinde tez sayılarının 2006 yılıyla beraber hızla artış gösterdiği ve hem yüksek lisans hem de doktora tezlerinin en çok 2007 yılında hazırlandığı saptanmıştır. üniversitelere göre yapılan incelemede, hem yüksek lisans hem de doktora tezlerinin en çok gazi üniversitesi’nde hazırlandığı görülmüştür. tezlerin toplam sayısı incelendiğinde yüksek lisans tez sayısının doktora tez sayısından yaklaşık olarak 9 kat fazla olduğu görülmüştür. tezlerin izinli ve izinsiz olma durumlarına göre yapılan incelemede hem yüksek lisans, hem de doktora tezlerinde izinlilerin daha fazla olduğu görülmekle birlikte, bunların büyük çoğunluğunun 2006 yılı ve sonrasında olduğu saptanmıştır. tezlerin tema dağılımına bakıldığında, yüksek lisans tezlerinde en çok eğitim programı temasının, doktora tezlerinde ise en çok öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri temasının çalışıldığı gözlenmiştir. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler eğitimi, yüksek lisans tezleri, doktora tezleri ∗ bu çalışma 7-9 ekim 2009 tarihlerinde milli eğitim bakanlığı öğretmen yetiştirme ve eğitimi genel müdürlüğü ile marmara üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi tarafından düzenlenen dördüncü sosyal bilimler eğitimi kongresi’ne bildiri olarak sunulmuş, veriler güncellenerek yeniden yazılmıştır. 1 yrd.doç.dr., dokuz eylül üniversitesi, mustafa.sahin@deu.edu.tr 2 ege üniversitesi, dgogebakan@yahoo.com 3 dokuz eylül üniversitesi, rusenduman@hotmail.com mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 97 extended abstract the aim of the study is to show how the theses prepared in the field of social studies education in turkey have been distributed according to different criteria from 1990 to the present. examining the prepared theses in the field of social studies in terms of various aspects, this research is thought to be beneficial in view the overall framework of the theses prepared on this subject. descriptive method was used in this study. in this context, during the document analysis process, five major steps were followed as (1) access to documents, (2) checking originality, (3) understanding the documents, (4) analyzing the data, and (5) using the data. the research statement has been determined as “how the theses on the social studies education field in turkey show distribution according to different criteria like the dates, the universities, and the research topics.” accordingly, in the theses prepared on the field of social studies , the sub-problems have been designed according to a) the dates, b) the universities, c) their status of being open to the reader in national theses database d) the research topics and how these topics are distributed according to the years. in the studies made, it has been observed that the first thesis prepared in the field of social studies was in 1990, and it has been found out that the number of the theses in the field has reached to 550 master theses and 62 doctoral dissertations to date. in the process of 20-year research, the number of theses increased rapidly by 2006, and both master and doctoral dissertations were mostly prepared in 2007. in the examination made according to the universities, both master theses and doctoral dissertations were most prepared at the gazi university. when the total number of theses is examined, the number of master theses was observed to be approximately 9 times more than doctoral dissertation. in a study made according to theses’ status of being open to the reader or not, the majority of doctoral dissertations and master theses are seen to be open to the reader, a great many of them are found to belong to 2006 and after. when the distribution of theses’ topics is examined, it is found that, in the master theses and doctoral dissertations respectively curriculum and instructional methods were studied mostly. keywords: social studies education, master theses, phd dissertations türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler eğitimi tezleri üzerine bir değerlendirme sosyal yaşama uyum, hayat boyu devam eden bir süreçtir. bu süreç, bireyin hem sosyal bir varlık olabilmesini, hem de toplumun sürekliliğini sağlamaktadır. sosyalleşme ile bireyler temel davranış yollarını öğrenmekte, belli idealler edinmekte ve toplumsal değerleri kazanmaktadırlar (ozankaya, 2007). eğitim sisteminde öğrencileri bu amaca ulaştırmada, onlara ilk temel bilgileri kazandırmak için, ilköğretim okulları programına öncelikle hayat bilgisi, ardından da sosyal bilgiler dersleri konmuştur. sosyal bilgiler dersi, bireyin yaşamında karşısına çıkacak olan çeşitli sorulara en uygun cevabı verebilmesi için bireyi hayata hazırlamayı, ona hayatın içinden olaylarla bu olaylardan nasıl ders alması gerektiğini, hatırlatır ve öğretir (sözer, 2009). sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin dünyada ne zaman ve nerede başladığı kesin olarak bilinmemekle birlikte, bu alandaki çalışmalar ve eğitim etkinlikleri oldukça eskilere journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 98 dayanmaktadır. abd’de ulusal eğitim konseyi 1892 yılında, ülkede “ulusal toplum” anlayışını oluşturmak üzere tarih, coğrafya ve vatandaşlık bilgisi konularından oluşan bir tür sosyal bilgiler dersi içeriğinin okutulmasını kararlaştırmış ve böyle bir dersin öğretimi başlatılmıştır. bununla birlikte, sosyal bilgiler terimi abd’de ilk kez 1916 yılında kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. 1960’lara kadar ağırlıklı olarak tarih ve coğrafya konuları çerçevesinde okutulan sosyal bilgiler derslerinin içeriği 1960’lardan sonra sosyoloji, ekonomi, siyaset bilimi ve sosyal psikolojiye de kapsayacak hale getirilmiştir (hamilton, 1998; klibeard, 2002; spring, 2005). sosyal bilgiler derslerinin türkiye’deki gelişimi ise çok daha yenidir. sosyal bilgiler müfredatları değişerek ve gelişerek günümüze gelmiştir. 1968 ilköğretim müfredatında sosyal bilgiler adını alan bu ders önceleri tarih, coğrafya ve yurttaşlık bilgisi adıyla okutulmaktaydı. 1998 ve 2005 yıllarında yapılan müfredat değişiklikleriyle sosyal bilgiler dersleri dünyadaki örnekleriyle daha benzeşir hale gelmeye başlamıştır (öztürk, 2006; safran, 2008). sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ile ilgili akademik çalışmaların gelişimi türkiye’de oldukça yenidir. yaklaşık 20 yıllık gelişimi bulunan sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmalarının değerlendirmesiyle ilgili çalışmalar çok sınırlıdır. oruç ve ulusoy (2008) tarafından yapılan araştırmada 2000-2007 yılları arasında türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler öğretimi alanında yapılmış olan tezlerden rastgele 100 adedi seçilmiş ve tezlerin konu dağılımlarına ilişkin yüzdelik oranlar verilmiştir. söz konusu araştırmada yeterli bulgu verilmemiştir. geçit (2010) yaptığı araştırmada 2000-2010 yılları arasında sosyal bilgiler eğitimi üzerine yapılan akademik çalışmaları belirlemiş ve farklı açılardan değerlendirmiştir. tarman ve acun (2010) tarafından yapılan çalışmada ise sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanındaki yeni hareketin türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin geliştirilmesine yapacağı katkılar ile abd’deki yeni hareketin deneyimleri analiz edilmiştir. tarman, acun ve yüksel (2010) çalışmalarında türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler alanında yapılmış lisansüstü tezlerin, sosyal bilgiler eğitimine ve birbirlerine olan etkisini ve katkısını ele almışlardır. geçit ve kartal (2010)’ın çalışmalarında 2000-2010 yılları arasında sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yayınlanan yazılar ve kongre bildirileri konu alanlarına göre ana hatlarıyla sınıflandırılmıştır. arık (2009) ve apaydın (2009)’ın çalışmaları da eğitim bilimleri ve fizik eğitimi alanında benzer nitelikli araştırmalardandır. araştırmanın amacı ve önemi bu araştırmanın amacı, 1990-2010 yılları arasında sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili yapılmış tezlerin nasıl bir dağılım gösterdiğinin incelenmesidir. araştırmanın problem cümlesi “türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili yapılmış tezlerin bazı ölçütlere göre mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 99 nasıl bir dağılım gösterdiği” şeklinde belirlenmiştir. araştırmada yanıtı aranan sorular şunlardır: sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili yapılmış tezler; a) yıllarına, b) yapıldığı üniversitelere, c) yök ulusal tez merkezi’nde okuyucuya açık olup olmamalarına, d) hangi yıllarda hangi temaların daha çok çalışıldığına göre nasıl bir dağılım göstermektedir? uzun yıllardır okutulmakta olan sosyal bilgiler dersleriyle ilgili araştırmaların geçmişi ağırlıklı olarak 1990’lara dayanmaktadır. aradan geçen 20 yıllık sürede sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili hazırlanmış olan yüksek lisans ve doktora tezlerinin durumu merak konusu olmuş ve araştırılmak istenmiştir. yapılan incelemelerde konuya ilişkin yeterli çalışma yapılmadığı görülmüştür. araştırmanın sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin genel çerçevesini görmek bakımından yararlı olacağı umulmaktadır. yöntem doküman incelemesi yapılan bu araştırmada belli başlı beş aşama izlenmiştir: (1) dokümanlara ulaşma, (2) orijinalliğin kontrol edilmesi, (3) dokümanların anlaşılması, (4) verinin analiz edilmesi ve (5) verinin kullanılması. tez dokümanlarından elde edilen verilerin analizinde, betimleme amacıyla frekans tablolarından yararlanılmıştır. ayrıca son araştırma sorusu için tematik bir çerçeve oluşturma, tematik çerçeveye göre verilerin işlenmesi, bulguların tanımlanması, bulguların yorumlanması aşamalarını kapsayan betimsel analiz tekniği kullanılmıştır (yıldırım & şimşek, 2008). araştırmanın ilk aşamasında yök ana sayfasından ulaşılan ulusal tez merkezi’ndeki ayrıntılı tarama seçeneğiyle “sosyal bilgiler” “vatandaşlık” ve “insan hakları” anahtar kelimelerinde geçen tezlere ulaşılmıştır. sosyal bilgiler anahtar kelimesiyle yapılan aramada 550 yüksek lisans ve 62 doktora tezine ulaşılmıştır.4 4 verilere ulaşılan son tarih 31.12.2010’dur. bu tezler içinden konusu “eğitim-öğretim” alanına girenler ele alınmış ve bunların “sosyal bilgiler dersi” ile ilgili olanları incelenmiştir. ardından her biri ayrı olmak üzere “vatandaşlık” ve “insan hakları” anahtar kelimeleriyle tarama yapılmıştır. vatandaşlık anahtar kelimesi ve eğitim öğretim konu sınırlaması ile yapılan taramada 57 yüksek lisans ve 4 doktora olmak üzere toplam 61 teze ulaşılmıştır. i̇nsan hakları anahtar kelimesi ve eğitim öğretim konu sınırlamasıyla yapılan taramada ise, 43 yüksek lisans ve 4 doktora tezine ulaşılmıştır. ardından araştırmanın sosyal bilgiler dersi çerçevesinde gerçekleşmesinden dolayı, “vatandaşlık ve insan hakları” konularını içeren tezler “sosyal bilgiler” dersi içeriği açısından yeniden değerlendirilmiş ve araştırma kapsamına giren tezler belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. söz konusu tezler son olarak sosyal bilgiler başlığı altında birleştirilerek “yüksek lisans ve doktora” sınıflaması yapılarak incelenmiştir. yapılan bu incelemeler journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 100 sonunda araştırmaya toplam olarak 550 yüksek lisans tezi ve 62 doktora tezi konu edilmiştir. i̇zlenen aşamaların ardından “sosyal bilgiler dersi” alanına giren tezler listelenmiştir. belirlenen tezler; yıllarına, yapıldığı üniversitelere, yök ulusal tez merkezi’nde okuyucuya açık olup olmamalarına göre sınıflandırılmış ve frekans tabloları oluşturulmuştur. araştırmanın son alt amacını gerçekleştirmek amacıyla sözel içeriği tanımlayıcı temalar belirlenmiş ve bunlara ilişkin sayısal veriler kaydedilerek tablolaştırılmıştır. bu aşamada ilk olarak tez doküman analizleri sırasında ulaşılan kodlar not edilmiştir. ardından benzer kodlar bir araya getirilerek temalar oluşturulmuştur. belirlenen temalar şu şekildedir: 1) eğitim müfredatı, 2) öğretim yöntemleri, 3) öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci, veli çalışmaları, 4) öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı, 5) değer, beceri kazandırma, 6) ölçme, değerlendirme, 7) sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin sorunları, 8) genel ifadeler. bu temalara giren tezler belirlenerek ilgili temalar altında sıralanmıştır. temalarına göre sınıflandırılan bu tezlerin 20 yıllık süreç (1990-2010) içinde nasıl bir değişim gösterdiğini görmek amacıyla her bir tema altındaki tezler yıllarına göre sıralanmış ve gözlenen değişiklikler yorumlanmaya çalışılmıştır. bulgular tezlerin yıllara göre dağılımı i̇le i̇lgili bulgular araştırmanın ilk alt problemi “sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili yapılmış tezlerde yıllarına göre nasıl bir dağılım görülmektedir?” olarak belirlenmiştir. bu alt probleme ilişkin bulgular iki grafik halinde verilmiştir. grafik 1’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan yüksek lisans tezlerinin yıllara göre dağılımları görülmektedir. grafik 1 yüksek lisans tezlerinin yıllara göre dağılımı 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 20 09 20 10 sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ile ilgili ilk yüksek lisans tezi 1990 yılına aittir. 1997 yılına kadar sınırlı sayıda tezin yapıldığı görülmektedir. 1997 yılıyla birlikte tez sayılarında önemli mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 101 artışlar gözlenmiş, 2007 yılında bu sayı yetmiş sekiz olarak belirlenmiştir. i̇zleyen yıllarda tez sayıları 2008 yılında yetmiş üç, 2009 yılında elli bir ve 2010 yılında yirmi yedi olmak üzere 1990’dan 2010 sonuna kadar toplam 550 yüksek lisans tezi ulusal tez merkezinde yayımlanmıştır. grafik 2’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan doktora tezlerinin yıllara göre dağılımları sunulmuştur. grafik 2 doktora tezlerinin yıllara göre dağılımı 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 19 97 19 98 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 20 09 20 10 sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan doktora tezleri yıllara göre incelendiğinde; 1997 yılında üç, izleyen yıllarda 2006’ya kadar her yıl bir ya da iki doktora tezi yayınlandığı görülmektedir. 2006 yılıyla birlikte yayınlanan tez sayılarında önemli artışların olduğu yüksek lisans tezlerine benzer olarak en fazla doktora tezi yayınlanan yılların 2007 ve 2008 olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. 2005 ilköğretim programlarıyla ilgili uygulamalar bu çalışmalara ilham kaynağı olduğu düşünülebilinir. 2005 sosyal bilgiler programına dair merak edilen çok sayıdaki araştırma sorusuna bu tezlerde cevap bulunmaya çalışılmıştır. 2009 ve 2010 yıllarında tez sayılarında düşmeler görülmüştür. sosyal bilgiler programı ile ilgili çalışmalarda doygunluk sağlanması ya da tezlerin bürokratik işlerden dolayı ulusal tez merkezine ulaşılamaması nedeniyle bu yıllarda tez sayılarında bir azalma tespit edilmiştir. dalgalanmaların olduğu 1997-2010 yılları arasında toplam 62 doktora tezi ulusal tez merkezinde yayınlanmıştır. tezlerin üniversitelere göre dağılımı i̇le i̇lgili bulgular araştırmanın ikinci alt problemi “sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili yapılmış tezlerde yapıldığı üniversitelere göre nasıl bir dağılım görülmektedir?” olarak belirlenmiştir. bu alt probleme yönelik elde edilen bulgular iki grafikte verilmiştir. grafik 3’te sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan yüksek lisans tezlerinin üniversitelere göre dağılımları sunulmuştur. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 102 grafik 3 yüksek lisans tezlerinin üniversitelere göre dağılımı 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 a .i̇. b ay sa l a .k oc at ep e a na do lu a nk ar a a ta tü rk c el al b ay ar ç .1 8 m ar t ç uk ur ov a d ok uz e yl ül f ıra t g az i g .o .p aş a h ac et te pe i̇n ön ü k af ka s m ar m ar a n iğ de s ak ar ya s el çu k y ed ite pe y t ü 10 0. y ıl d iğ er grafik 3 incelendiğinde 1990’dan günümüze toplam 51 üniversitede yüksek lisans tezi sonuçlandırıldığı gözlenmektedir. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış 550 yüksek lisans tezinden 91’inin sonuçlandırıldığı gazi üniversitesi, hazırlanan tez sayısıyla türkiye üniversiteleri içinde sosyal bilgiler alanında hazırlanan yüksek lisans tezleri arasında birinci sırada yer almaktadır. gazi üniversitesi’ni marmara (56), selçuk (47), atatürk ve çukurova (34), hacettepe (33), ve niğde (28) üniversiteleri izlemektedir. “diğer” kolonundaki üniversitelerde toplam 57 yüksek lisans tezi hazırlanmıştır. 5 gazi üniversitesi tezlerin yoğunluğu açısından, niğde üniversitesi ise yeni kurulan bir üniversite olmasına karşın, üretilen tez sayıları bakımından diğer eski ve köklü üniversitelerle yarışması açısından oldukça dikkat çekicidir. grafik 4’te sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan doktora tezlerinin yıllara göre dağılımları sunulmuştur. grafik 4 doktora tezlerinin üniversitelere göre dağılımı 0 5 10 15 20 25 an ad ol u an ka ra at at ür k çu ku ro va do ku z ey lü l ga zi ha ce tte pe m ar m ar a se lçu k di ğe r 5 adnan menderes (4), başkent (1), balıkesir (3), beykent (1), dicle (2) dumlupınar (3), ege (1), erciyes (3), erzincan (2), gaziantep (2), harp okulu komutanlığı (1), harran (1) i̇stanbul (1), ktü (4), kocaeli (1), koç (1), mehmet akif ersoy (1), mersin (1), mimar sinan (1), muğla (2), mustafa kemal, (3), odtü (2), ondokuz mayıs (3), osmangazi (2), pamukkale (2), rize (1), trakya (2),uludağ (2), zonguldak karaelmas (4) olmak üzere toplam 57 tez. mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 103 grafik 4 incelendiğinde 1997’den günümüze toplam 15 farklı üniversitede doktora tezinin sonuçlandırıldığı gözlenmiştir. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış 62 doktora tezinden 22’unun sonuçlandırıldığı gazi üniversitesi, hazırlanan tez sayısıyla türkiye üniversiteleri içinde sosyal bilgiler alanında hazırlanan doktora tezleri arasında birinci sırada yer almaktadır. gazi üniversitesini marmara (8), hacettepe ve anadolu (5), atatürk (4), çukurova (4), dokuz eylül (3), selçuk (3) ve ankara (2) üniversiteleri izlemektedir. “diğer” kolonundaki üniversitelerde toplam 6 doktora tezi hazırlanmıştır.6 tezlerin okuyucuya açık olup olmamasıyla i̇le i̇lgili bulgular araştırmanın üçüncü alt problemi “sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili yapılmış tezlerin yök ulusal tez merkezi’nde okuyucuya açık olup olmamalarına göre nasıl bir dağılım görülmektedir?” olarak belirlenmiştir. bu alt probleme yönelik elde edilen bulgular iki grafikte verilmiştir. grafik 5’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan yüksek lisans tezlerinin yök ulusal tez merkezi’nde okuyucuya açık olup olmamalarına göre dağılımları sunulmuştur. grafik 5 yüksek lisans tezlerinin okuyucuya açık olup olmamalarına göre dağılımı 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 20 09 20 10 i̇zinli i̇zinsiz grafik 5’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılan yüksek lisans tezlerinin izin durumuna bakıldığında izinli tezlerin sayısının 315, izinsiz olanların 235 adet olduğu görülür. grafik 6’da sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan doktora tezlerinin yök ulusal tez merkezi’nde okuyucuya açık olup olmamalarına göre dağılımları sunulmuştur. 6 abant i̇zzet baysal (1), fırat (1), i̇tü (1), i̇stanbul (1), mersin (1), uludağ (1) olmak üzere toplam 6 tez. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 104 grafik 6 doktora tezlerinin okuyucuya açık olup olmamalarına göre dağılımı 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 19 97 19 98 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 20 09 20 10 i̇zinli i̇zinsiz grafik 6’da sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılan doktora tezlerinin izin durumuna bakıldığında, tezlerin sayısal çoğunluğunun izinli tezlerde yoğunlaştığı gözlenmiştir. buna göre izinli tezlerin sayısı 46, izinsiz tezlerin sayısı ise 16’dır. genel olarak bakıldığında 2006 yılıyla birlikte hemen hemen tüm tezlerin izinli olduğu görülmektedir. bu durum 2006 yılıyla birlikte tüm tezleri elektronik olarak alması ve okuyucuya açık olma ile ilgili izni tez teslimiyle birlikte almasının etkisi olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. bazı araştırmacılar tezlerini farklı bilimsel ortamlarda yayımlamak için okuyucuya açıklığı erteleyebilmektedir 2008 itibariyle okuyucuya açık olmayan doktora tezinin nedeni böyle bir düşünce olabilir. hangi yıllarda hangi temaların daha çok çalışıldığı i̇le i̇lgili bulgular araştırmanın dördüncü alt problemi “sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgili yapılmış tezlerin araştırma temaları ile hangi yıllarda hangi temaların daha çok çalışıldığı görülmektedir?” olarak belirlenmiştir. bu alt probleme yönelik elde edilen bulgular iki grafikte verilmiştir. grafik 7’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan yüksek lisans tezlerinin temalarına göre dağılımları sunulmuştur. grafik 7 yüksek lisans tezlerinin tema dağılımı 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 1 e ğit im pr og ra m ı 2 ö ğr eti m y ön t. 3 ö ğr t-m üföğ rc -v eli 4 ö ğr et. t ek m at 5 d eğ er -b ec er i 6 ö lçm e d eğ . 7 s os . b il. so ru n. 8 g en el i̇fa de ler mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 105 grafik 7’ye göre sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılan yüksek lisans tez temalarına bakıldığında, tezlerde 188 sayı ile en çok eğitim programı temasında çalışıldığı görülmüştür. bunu 151 sayıya sahip öğretim yöntemlerini tema alan tezler izlemektedir. bu sayıyı 70 ile öğretmenler, müfettişler, öğrenciler ve veliler teması üzerine hazırlanmış tezler ve 61 ile öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması üzerine hazırlanmış tezler izlemektedir. değer ve beceri kazanımına yönelik hazırlanan tez sayısı 26 ve sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin sorunlarına ilişkin hazırlanmış tez sayısı ise 23 olarak belirlenmiştir. bu temaları toplam 22 tezin araştırma konusu olan ölçme-değerlendirme teması izlerken, tez başlıklarının genel ifadelerle oluşturulduğu tezlerin sayısı dokuz olarak belirlenmiştir. grafik 8’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan doktora tezlerinin temalarına göre dağılımları sunulmuştur. grafik 8 doktora tezlerinin tema dağılımı 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 e ğit im pr og ra m ı 2 ö ğr eti m yö nt. 3 ö ğr t-m üföğ rc -v eli 4 ö ğr et. t ek m at 5 d eğ er be ce ri 6 ö lçm e d eğ . 7 s os . b il. so ru n. 8 g en el i̇fa de ler buna göre 27 tezle en çok öğretim yöntemleri temasında çalışıldığı görülmektedir. bunu 10 tez ile eğitim programı teması, 9 tez ile öğretmenler, müfettişler, öğrenciler ve veliler teması, 7 tez ile değer ve beceri kazandırma teması üzerine hazırlanmış tezler izlemektedir. genel ifadeler başlığı altında, tez başlıklarının genel ifadelerle oluşturulduğu tezlerin sayısı da 5 olarak belirlenmiştir. bu tezleri 2’şer tez ile öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı ve ölçme değerlendirme temaları izlemiştir. ancak doktora tezleri temalarına bakıldığında, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunlarını konu alan tezlere rastlanmamıştır. grafik 9’da sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan yüksek lisans tez temalarının yıllara göre dağılımları sunulmuştur. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 106 grafik 9 yüksek lisans tez temalarının yıllara göre dağılımı 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 1 eğitim programı 2 öğretim yönt. 3 öğrt-müf-öğrc-veli 4 öğret. tek-mat 5 değer-beceri 6 ölçme değ. 7 sos. bil. sorun. 8 genel i̇fadeler grafik 9’da sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılan yüksek lisans tez temalarının yıllara göre dağılımına bakıldığında, ilk tezin 1990 yılında yapıldığı ve eğitim programı teması içinde yer aldığı belirlenmiştir. bu tezin sosyal bilgiler ders hedeflerinin gerçekleştirilmesi konusu üzerine yapıldığı görülmektedir. bunu 1991 yılında ölçme ve değerlendirme üzerine, 1992 yılında sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin ders hedeflerine ilişkin algıları üzerine hazırlanmış olan birer tez izlemiştir. 1993 yılında biri eğitim programı teması içinde yer alan ders hedeflerinin öğretmen algılarına göre değerlendirilmesi üzerine, diğeri ise sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin teknoloji kullanım yeterlilikleri konusunda olmak üzere toplam iki adet tez hazırlandığı görülmüştür. 1994 yılında hazırlanan bir adet tezin sosyal bilgiler programının öğretmen görüşleri çerçevesinde değerlendirilmesi konusu üzerine yapıldığı görülmüştür. 1995 yılında toplam iki tez hazırlanmıştır. bu tezlerden birinin eğitim programları teması içinde yer alan sosyal bilgiler programının öğretmen ve müfettiş görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi konu başlığında, diğerinin ise genel ifadeler kapsamında olduğu belirlenmiştir. 1996 yılına bakıldığında, sosyal bilgiler programının niteliğinin incelendiği bir tez, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri temasında yer alan problem çözme ve eğitsel oyunların öğrencilerin erişi ve duyuşsal özelliklerine olan etkilerinin konu alındığı iki tez olmak üzere toplam üç tez hazırlandığı görülmüştür. 1997 yılında hazırlanan yedi tezden dördünün sosyal bilgiler dersi program ve amaçlarının değerlendirilmesi, birinin karma yöntemin akademik başarı üzerine etkisi ve ikisinin de sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunları konu başlıkları altında yer aldığı görülmüştür. mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 107 1998’de eğitim programları temalı iki, öğretim yöntem teknikleri temalı bir, öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli temalı üç, öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı temalı iki olmak üzere, toplam sekiz tez hazırlanmıştır. bu yıl içinde öğretmen yeterlilik ve algıları en çok çalışılan konu olarak ön plana çıkmıştır. 1999 yılında ise tez sayısı artmakla beraber çalışılan konu sayısı azalmıştır. bu yıl içinde altı kez eğitim programları teması, üç kez öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması, iki kez değer ve beceri kazandırma teması tezlere konu edilmiş ve toplam 11 tez hazırlanmıştır. eğitim programı teması altında ders kitapları inceleme ve program değerlendirme konulu tezler, yöntem ve teknikler temasında ise kubaşık öğrenme, yaratıcı drama ve soru cevap yöntemini ele alan tezler ön plandayken; sosyal bilgiler dersinin öğretiminde düşünme becerisi gibi beceri kazandırma etkinliklerinin de tezlere konu olduğu görülmüştür. 2000 yılında ise sadece iki konu üzerinde çalışılmış ve toplam hazırlanan tez sayısı 15 olarak belirlenmiştir. bu tezlerin dokuzu eğitim programları temasında, altısı ise öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri temasında hazırlanmıştır. eğitim programları temasına bakıldığında, daha çok amaçlara ulaşma ve kitap değerlendirme gibi konuların ağırlıklı olarak çalışıldığı görülmüştür. öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması altında, hikaye anlatım yönteminin ele alındığı bir tezin dışında kalan beş tezin sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde kullanılan yöntemlere ilişkin karşılaştırmalar ve genel değerlendirmeler çatısı altında yer aldığı belirlenmiştir. 2001 yılında, eğitim programları teması 11, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması altı, öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması üç, öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması iki, değer ve beceri kazandırma teması iki, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunları teması bir kez çalışılmış, başlığı genel ifadeli tezler arasına giren bir adet tez belirlenmiştir. bu yılda toplam 26 tez hazırlanmıştır. 2001 yılında en çok çalışılan iki temadan birincisinin eğitim programları, ikincisinin ise öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri olduğu belirlenmiştir. eğitim programları başlığı altında sosyal bilgiler programının tarihsel gelişimi ve program, plan, ders işlenişine yönelik müfettiş, öğretmen ve öğrenci görüşleri ele alınmıştır. öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması kapsamında öğrenme stratejileri, işbirlikli öğrenme, drama ve problem çözme yöntemlerinin konu alındığı tezler ön plana çıkmıştır. 2002 yılında, eğitim programları teması 19, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması 10, öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması iki, öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması beş, değer ve beceri kazandırma teması üç, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunları teması iki kez tezlere konu edilmekle beraber, bu yıl içinde toplam 41 tez hazırlanmıştır. eğitim programları teması altında sosyal bilgiler programının öğeleri açısından incelenmesi yanında; türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler programının başka ülkelerdeki programlarla journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 108 karşılaştırılarak değerlendirilmesine yönelik hazırlanmış olan tezler göze çarpmaktadır. bazı tezlerde ders kitapları ele alınmış ve kitapların ders amaçları ve içerik açısından değerlendirildiği görülmüştür. bu yıl içinde vatandaşlık ve insan hakları konularının sosyal bilgiler programındaki yeri ve programda belirlenen amaçların gerçekleşme düzeylerinin ele alındığı tezler nicel olarak artış göstermiştir. vatandaşlık ve insan hakları konuları ele alınmış ve öğrencilerdeki demokratik tutum geliştirme düzeyleri incelenmiştir. ayrıca geçmişten günümüze sosyal bilgiler programının değerlendirilmesi ve belli dönemlere ait programların karşılaştırmasının yapıldığı tezler de hazırlanmıştır. öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri temasına bakıldığında hazırlanan tezlerin öğrenme stratejileri, anlamlı öğrenme, işbirliğine dayalı öğrenme, çoklu zekâ, problem çözme gibi yöntemler üzerine olduğu görülmüştür. bu yıl içinde hazırlanan öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı temasına dâhil edilen tezlerde öğretim materyali olarak bilgisayarın kullanıldığı çalışmalar ele alınmıştır. değer ve beceri teması içindeki tezlerde ise; sosyal bilgiler dersinin meslek, sanat, tarih düşüncesi ve milli bilincin kazanımına etkisi incelenmiştir. 2003 yılında hazırlanan toplam tez sayısı 47 olmakla beraber; eğitim programları teması 21, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması 11, öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması altı, öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması üç, değer ve beceri kazandırma teması iki, ölçme değerlendirme teması bir, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunları teması iki kez çalışılmıştır. bir adet de başlığı genel ifadeli tezler arasına giren tez görülmüştür. bu yıl içindeki tezlere bakıldığında, tezlerin en çok eğitim programı ve öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması altında yoğunlaştığı görülmüştür. eğitim programı teması altında ders kitaplarının sosyal bilgiler programının hedefleri açısından tezlere konu olmasının yanı sıra; tezlerde kitapların müfettiş, öğretmen ve öğrenci görüşlerince incelendiği belirlenmiştir. ayrıca programın ders hedefleri, içerik, öğretim etkinlikleri ve değerlendirme boyutları açısından ele alındığı tezler hazırlanmıştır. tezler öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması altında incelendiğinde eğitici drama, öykü tabanlı öğrenme, tartışma, problem çözme, işbirlikli öğrenmenin ön planda olduğu belirlenmiştir. ayrıca sosyal bilgiler dersi içinde kullanılan farklı öğretim yöntem ve tekniklerin karşılaştırılması tezlere konu edilmiştir. önceki yıllara bakıldığında, 2003 yılında hazırlanan tezlerde sosyal bilgiler öğretimi alanında ölçme ve değerlendirme boyutunun tezlere konu edilmeye başlandığı görülmüştür. söz konusu tema altında hazırlanan bir tezde sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hazırladıkları yazılı sınav sorularının kapsam geçerliği ve taksonomik boyutu incelenmiştir. 2004 yılında, eğitim programları teması sekiz, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması 19, öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması üç, öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 109 kullanımı teması dokuz, ölçme değerlendirme teması bir, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunları teması iki kez çalışılmış olmakla beraber, bir adet de başlığı genel ifadeli tezler arasına giren tez görülmüş ve toplam 43 tezin hazırlandığı görülmüştür. grafikte de görüldüğü gibi 2004 yılına kadar tezler en çok eğitim programı teması altında yoğunlaşmış ve bunu öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması izlemiştir. ancak 2004 yılı ile birlikte bu durum değişmiş, bu kez öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri temasındaki tezlerde artış olmuş ve en çok tez hazırlanan tema olarak belirlenmiştir. bunu izleyen eğitim programları temasında hazırlanan tez sayısında ise önceki yıllara kıyasla bir azalma olmuştur. eğitim programı teması altında sosyal bilgiler ders hedeflerinin gerçekleşme düzeyi, eğitim politikalarının sosyal bilgiler dersinin genel amaçlarına yansımaları, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin geçirdiği muhteva değişimi, farklı ülkelerdeki tarih, coğrafya ve vatandaşlık öğretiminin analizi ve bu ülkelerin türkiye ile karşılaştırılması gibi hususlar tezlere konu edilmiştir. öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması altında önceki yıllarda olduğu gibi işbirlikli öğrenme, çoklu zekâ, drama, problem çözme, soru-cevap yöntemlerinin yanı sıra, eğitsel oyunlar, örnek olay kullanımı ve oluşturmacı yaklaşım temelinde tezler hazırlanmıştır. aktif öğrenmenin sosyal bilgiler öğretimi alanındaki kullanılabilirliği üzerinde durulmuş ve sosyal bilgiler dersinde sözel bilgilerin kazandırılmasına yönelik yöntemler tezlere konu olmuştur. bu yıl içinde en çok tez hazırlanan diğer bir tema öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması olmuştur. bu alanda kavram haritası ve görsel materyallerin kullanımı, ders konusu ile ilgili hatıra, hikâye ve siyasetname kullanımı, tepegöz ve harita kullanımının yanında bilgisayar destekli öğretim konuları üzerine tezler hazırlanmıştır. bu yıl içinde hazırlanmış tezlere bakıldığında değer ve beceri kazandırmaya yönelik herhangi bir tez hazırlanmadığı belirlenmiştir. 2005’de, eğitim programları teması 11, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması 18, öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması dört, öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması yedi, değer ve beceri kazandırma teması iki, ölçme değerlendirme teması üç kez çalışılmış, bir adet de başlığı genel ifadeli tezler arasına giren tez görülmüştür. 2005 yılında toplam 46 tez hazırlanmıştır. eğitim programları teması altında daha çok sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarına ve programına yönelik tezler hazırlanmıştır. 2004 yılında olduğu gibi bu yılda da en çok öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması altında tez hazırlanmıştır. çeşitli öğrenme yöntem ve stratejileri ele alınmıştır. bunlardan drama, çoklu zeka, problem çözme stratejisi, çözümlemeli öykü yöntemi, altı şapkalı düşünme tekniği, işbirliğine dayalı öğrenme, edebiyat temelli öğretim yöntemi, beyin temelli öğrenme ve yapılandırmacı öğrenme ilkelerine göre tezler hazırlanmıştır. bu yöntem ve tekniklerin sosyal bilgiler dersine, journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 110 öğrenme ortamına, öğrenci akademik başarısı ve ders karşı tutumuna ilişkin etkisi incelenmiştir. öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması altında ise öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersinden beklentileri ve sosyal bilgiler dersine ilişkin öğretmen ve öğrenci algıları incelenmiştir. öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı temasında ise sosyal bilgiler dersinde görsel materyaller, harita, grafik ve bilgisayar kullanımının öğrencilerin akademik başarı ve derse ilişkin tutumlarına etkisi araştırılmıştır. belirlenen temalar ışığında incelenen tezlere bakıldığında 2005 yılı içinde sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunlarına yönelik tez hazırlanmadığı belirlenmiştir. 2006 yılında, eğitim programları teması 16, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması 17, öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması sekiz, öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması 11, değer ve beceri kazandırma teması dört, ölçme değerlendirme teması bir, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunları teması altı kez çalışılmış, üç adet de başlığı genel ifadeli tezler arasına giren tez görülmüştür. buna göre 2006 yılında toplam 66 tez hazırlanmıştır. eğitim programları temasındaki tezler daha çok 1998-2004 sosyal bilgiler programının karşılaştırılması konusunda yoğunlaşmıştır. bunun yanı sıra program hedeflerini gerçekleştirme düzeyi, küreselleşmenin sosyal bilgiler programına yansımaları ve kavram kazanımları konulu tezler hazırlanmıştır. öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması içinde çoklu zekâ, işbirlikli öğrenme, drama, eğitsel oyunlar, proje tabanlı öğrenme, öğrenme stratejileri, konu ya da ünite ile ilgili öykü kullanımının sosyal bilgiler dersine, öğrenme ortamına, öğrenci akademik başarısı ve ders karşı tutumuna yönelik kazanımlarının ele alındığı tezler hazırlanmıştır. müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli temasına dahil edilen tezler sosyal bilgiler dersi amaçlarının öğretmen ve müfettiş görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi, öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersine ilişkin tutumlarının ele alınması, üstün ve özel yetenekli öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersine ilişkin tutumları ile akademik başarıları arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi konuları üzerine hazırlanmıştır. öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı temasındaki tezlere bakıldığında; sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde harita, grafik, resim, kavram haritası ve karikatür kullanımının derse etkisinin incelendiği görülmüştür. i̇ncelenen yıllar içinde sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunlarına ilişkin en çok tez 2006 yılında hazırlanmıştır. bu alanda incelenen konu başlıklarının genel olarak sosyal bilgiler dersi program ve uygulamalarında karşılaşılan güçlükler olarak belirlendiği görülmüştür. 2007 yılında, eğitim programları teması 38, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması 21, öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması beş, öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması üç, değer ve beceri kazandırma teması dört, ölçme değerlendirme teması dört, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunları teması üç kez çalışılmış ve toplamda 78 tez mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 111 hazırlanmıştır. grafikte de görüldüğü gibi 2007 yılı incelenen yıllar içinde sosyal bilgiler öğretimi alanında hazırlanan tezlerde eğitim programları temasının en çok ele alındığı yıl olarak göze çarpmaktadır. eğitim programları teması içinde en çok sosyal bilgiler programının, amaçlarının ve müfredatının sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerince değerlendirilmesi üzerine yoğunlaştığı dikkati çekmektedir. geçmiş dönemlerdeki sosyal bilgiler programlarının incelenmesi ele alınan konular arasındadır. bunların yanı sıra sosyal bilgiler dersi hedeflerinin gerçekleşme düzeyi, sosyal bilgiler dersi kitabının içindeki görsel materyaller ve kitapların öğrencileri sosyalleştirmeye yönelik etkinliklerinin konu alındığı tezler mevcuttur. ayrıca türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler dersi program, kitap ve konularının i̇ngiltere, abd ve almanya gibi ülkelerdeki uygulamalarla karşılaştırması da incelenen tezler arasındadır. öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması altında birçok yöntem, teknik ve öğrenme stratejileri ele alınmıştır. bunlar arasında tam öğrenme modeli, beyin temelli öğrenme modeli, kanıt temelli öğrenme modeli, proje tabanlı öğrenme modeli, oluşturmacı kurama dayalı öğrenme teknikleri, işbirlikli öğrenme, çoklu zeka, beyin fırtınası, eleştirel okuma tekniği, gezi-gözlem metodu kullanımının sosyal bilgiler dersi kazanımlarına etkisinin incelendiği tezler dikkati çekmektedir. 2007 yılı içinde öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması altında özellikle sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine verdikleri değer, ilgi ve tutumlarının yanında beklenti düzeylerinin ele alındığı tezler hazırlanmıştır. öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı temasında sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde harita, grafik ve resimlendirilmiş öykü kullanımının öğrenme ortamına etkisini incelenmiştir. sosyal bilgiler dersinde harita okuma becerisinin, sorun çözme becerisinin ve belli üniteler kapsamındaki evrensel değerlerin kazandırılmasına yönelik hazırlanan tezler değer ve beceri kazandırma teması içinde değerlendirilmiştir. tezler sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunları teması açısından incelendiğinde bu alanda karşılaşılan güçlükler, problemler ve çözüm önerilerine ilişkin hazırlanan tezler göze çarpmaktadır. 2008’de, eğitim programları teması 26, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması 21, öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması dokuz, öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması beş, değer ve beceri kazandırma teması üç, ölçme değerlendirme teması dört, sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin sorunları teması üç kez çalışılmış, bir adet de genel ifadeli tezler arasına giren tez hazırlanmıştır. 2008 yılında toplam 72 tez hazırlanmıştır. bu yıl içinde hazırlanan tez sayısı bir önceki yıla göre azalmakla beraber, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli teması altındaki tez sayısında artış meydana gelmiştir. eğitim programları temasında sosyal bilgiler program ve müfredatının öğretmenler ve müfettişler tarafından incelenmesi, sosyal journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 112 bilgiler programlarının karşılaştırılması, sosyal bilgiler ders kitabındaki etkinliklerin öğretmenlerce değerlendirilmesinin yanı sıra ders kitaplarındaki etkinliklerin pedagojik açıdan değerlendirilmesine yönelik tezler hazırlanmıştır. i̇nsan hakları, vatandaşlık ve demokrasi kavramlarının sosyal bilgiler müfredatındaki yeri de incelenen tezler arasındadır. öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması altında algısal öğrenme stilleri, proje tabanlı, işbirlikli, kanıt temelli, öykü tabanlı, proje tabanlı öğrenme; drama, yaratıcı düşünme ve çoklu zeka gibi yöntemlerin sosyal bilgiler dersine olan etkileri ele alınmıştır. öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı temasında daha önceki yıllarda olduğu gibi tezler bilgisayar temelli öğrenmeye ilişkin konular üzerine hazırlanmıştır. değer ve beceri kazandırma temasında değer eğitiminin sosyal bilgiler dersine olan etkisi ele alınmıştır. ölçme değerlendirme temasında tezler performans ödevleri ve alternatif değerlendirme etkinlikleri konusu üzerine hazırlanmıştır. 2009 yılında 21 sayı ile en çok çalışılan temanın öğretmen öğrenci veli teması göze çarpmaktadır. bu sayıyı dokuz sayı ile öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri ve her biri yedi adet olmak üzere öğretim programları ve öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması izlemektedir. bu temaları dört sayı ile değer ve beceri kazandırma teması takip ederken, ölçme değerlendirme temasında hazırlanan tez sayısı üç olarak belirlenmiştir. 2009 yılında genel ifadeli tez olarak bir tez göze çarparken, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sorunlarının ele alındığı bir tez hazırlanmadığı, toplamda ise 2009 yılı içinde 52 tez hazırlandığı görülmüştür. en çok çalışılan öğretmen, öğrenci ve veli teması içindeki tezlerde genel olarak öğretmenlerin belli değerler, kazanımlar ve eğitim yaklaşımları çerçevesinde görüşlerine başvurulmuştur. öğretmenlerin algı, tutum ve becerilerine yönelik konular tezlere konu edilmiştir. türkiye’deki öğretmen yetiştirme sistemi ele alınmış ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği adaylarına yönelik tezler hazırlanmıştır. ayrıca anne-baba tutumlarının öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersine ilişkin başarısına etkisinin incelendiği tez de bu tema içine dahil edilmiştir. eğitim programları temasındaki tezler öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler program ve ders kitabının çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelemesi üzerine hazırlanmıştır. program incelemelerine ilişkin tezlere bakıldığında, kanada, abd, finlandiya, yeni zelanda gibi ülkeler ile türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler programının karşılaştırmalı olarak incelendiği tezler dikkat çekmektedir. bu yıl içinde en çok tez hazırlanan diğer bir tema öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri temasıdır. bu tema altında oluşturmacı yaklaşımın konu alındığı tez sayısı oldukça fazladır. bunun yanı sıra; çoklu zeka, proje tabanlı öğrenme, drama, rol yapma, gezi gözlem ve inceleme yöntemleri üzerine hazırlanan tezler mevcuttur. ünite ya da konu ile ilgili karikatür ve çocuk edebi ürünlerinin kullanılması ve bilgisayar mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 113 destekli öğrenmenin konu alındığı tezler öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı teması içindedir. bu yıl içinde hazırlanan tezlere bakıldığında sosyal bilgiler öğretimindeki sorunlara ilişkin herhangi bir tez hazırlanmadığı belirlenmiştir. 2010’da her biri altı adet olmak üzere en çok tez sayısının öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri ve öğretim teknolojileri ve materyal kullanımı temasında hazırlandığı görülmüştür. bu sayıları beşer sayı ile eğitim programları ve öğretmen müfettiş, öğrenci, veli teması izlemiştir. sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin sorunlarının iki tezde ele alındığı belirlenirken; değer ve beceri teması ve ölçme ve değerlendirme temasında birer tez hazırlanmıştır. son olarak bir tezin genel ifadeli tezler arasında olduğu belirlenmiştir. 2010 yılında toplam 27 tez hazırlandığı görülmüştür. bu yıl içinde genel olarak çoklu zeka, örnek olay, çoklu ortam, öğretimde güncel olay kullanımı, aktif öğrenme teknikleri, sosyal bilgiler ders kitabı incelenmesi, öğretmen soru sorma becerisinin değerlendirmesi, sosyal bilgiler programına ilişkin öğretmen görüşü, öğretmen öz yeterlilikleri, kavram karikatürleri, biyografi, film, kavram haritası kullanımı ve öğrencilerin yaratıcı düşünme becerilerini konu alan tezler belirlenmiştir. grafik 10’da sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan doktora tez temalarının yıllara göre dağılımları sunulmuştur. grafik 10 doktora tez temalarının yıllara göre dağılımı 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1997 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 eğitim programı öğretim yön. ve tek. öğrmen,müf,öğrci,veli öğretim tek. ve mat. değer-beceri kaz. ölçme değ. sos. bil.öğrt. sorunları genel i̇fadeler grafik 10’da sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılan doktora tez temalarının yıllara göre dağılımına bakıldığında, ilk çalışmaların 1997 yılında yapıldığı görülmüştür. 1997 yılındaki tezlerin iki adedi öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması altında yaratıcı drama ve örnek olay konusu üzerine, bir adedi de öğretmen, öğrenci etkileşimlerinin başarıya ve akademik benlik kavramına etkisi üzerine yapılmıştır. 1998 yılında hazırlanan bir tez olmakla beraber, bu tezin öğrenci özellikleri ve başarı arasındaki ilişkiyi ortaya koyan betimsel bir çalışma olduğu görülmektedir. 1999 yılında sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilişkili journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 114 herhangi bir doktora tezi hazırlanmamıştır. 2000 yılında iki, 2001’de bir ve 2002 yılında iki tez hazırlanmıştır. söz konusu yıllarda sadece öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması üzerine çalışılmıştır. bu yöntem ve tekniklerin sırasıyla; bellek destekleyiciler, işbirlikli öğrenme, yaratıcı düşünme, probleme dayalı öğrenme, süreç temelli öğretim konuları üzerinde yoğunlaştığı belirlenmiştir. 2003 yılına bakıldığında, hazırlanan tezlerin birinin bilişsel stillere uygun olarak hazırlanan eğitim durumlarının etkililiği, diğerinin ise öğretmen tutumlarının problem çözmeye dayalı öğretime etkisi konusu üzerine yapıldığı görülmüştür. 2004 yılında, toplam 6 tez hazırlanmıştır. bunlardan ikisi eğitim programları, üçü öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri ve biri de öğretmen, müfettiş, öğrenci ve veli temalarında hazırlanmıştır. proje yaklaşımı, öğrenme stratejileri, işbirlikli öğrenme bu yılda en fazla çalışılan öğretim yöntemi temasının konularını oluşturmaktadır. 2005’de, öğretmen yeterlilikleri ve sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde arkeoloji müzelerinin kullanımı konusu olmak üzere toplam iki tez hazırlanmıştır. 2006 yılında, eğitim programları teması iki, öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması üç, değer ve beceri kazandırma ve ölçme ve değerlendirme teması birer kez çalışılmış, bir adet de genel ifadeli tez olmak üzere toplam sekiz tez hazırlanmıştır. en çok çalışılan öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri teması başlığında öğrenme stilleri, bildiklerim-bilmek istediklerim-öğrendiklerim stratejisi ve proje tabanlı öğrenme yöntemi kullanılarak hazırlanan tezler dikkati çekmektedir. bu yılda otantik değerlendirmenin kullanımı ve öğrencilerde eleştirel düşünme becerisinin araştırılması da belirlenen bir başka noktadır. 2007 yılında kitap incelemesi, coğrafi bilgi sistemi, beyin temelli yaklaşım, sözlü tarih, empati becerilerine dayalı öğretim, mekansal biliş becerileri, öğrencilerde nedensellik kavramının gelişimi gibi konuları temel alan toplam 13 tez hazırlanmıştır. toplam 10 tezin hazırlandığı 2008 yılı, araştırmaya dayalı öğrenme, proje tabanlı öğrenme, yansıtıcı öğrenme gibi çağdaş öğretim yöntemlerinin kullanılmasıyla birlikte değer eğitimi, öğretmen öz yeterlilik algısı gibi yeni kavramların tezlere konu olduğu bir yıl olmuştur. 2009 yılında öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri temasında üç, öğretmen, öğrenci, veli temasında iki ve ölçme değerlendirme temasında bir tez hazırlandığı görülmüştür. bu tezlerde, probleme dayalı öğrenme, bilişsel farkındalık stratejileri, öğrenme stilleri, öğretmen tutumları ve görüşleri ölçme değerlendirme teknikleri gibi konuların tercih edilerek çalışıldığı görülmüştür. 2010 yılında ise toplam dört tezin biri öğretmen algıları konusunda, kalan üç tez de değer ve karakter eğitimi konusunda hazırlanmıştır. mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 115 sonuç-tartışma bu araştırmanın bulgularına göre sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılan ilk tez bir yüksek lisans tezidir ve 1990 yılına aittir. hazırlanmış olan ilk doktora tezi ise 1997 yılına aittir. hazırlanan tezlerin 2000 sonrasında hızlı bir artışa geçtiği ve 2007 yılında 78 yüksek lisans tezi ve 13 doktora teziyle en yüksek düzeye ulaştığı görülmüştür. sayının 2000’li yıllarla birlikte artmasının nedeni olarak 1998 yılındaki eğitim fakültelerinin yeniden yapılandırılması sonucunda, ilköğretim bölümlerine bağlı olarak sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği bölümlerinin ve bu bölümlere bağlı yüksek lisans programlarının açılması gösterilebilir. ayrıca son yıllarda eğitim fakültelerinin sayılarının giderek artmış olması, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılan tezlerin sayılarını arttırmış olabilir. tez sayılarının 2007’den sonra azalmış olarak görünmesinin nedenleri şu şekilde açıklanabilir: a) hazırlanmış olan tezlerin bürokratik işlemler nedeniyle henüz ulusal tez merkezine ulaşmaması, b) 2007’e kadar hazırlanmış olan tezlerde meb 2005 ilköğretim programının yoğunluklu çalışılması ve sonrasında azalması. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan tezlerin üniversitelere göre dağılımları incelendiğinde iki önemli sonuca ulaşılmıştır. bunlardan birincisi, görece daha önceki yıllarda kurulmuş üniversitelerin ön sıralara yerleşmesidir. bu noktada söylenebilecek en önemli konu ise yüksek lisans tezi bakımından gazi üniversitesi’nin kendisini izleyen üniversitelerden oldukça önde olduğudur. bunu gazi üniversitesi’nin öğretim üyesi kadrosuyla ve öğrenci potansiyeliyle açıklamak mümkün olabilir. i̇kinci önemli sonuç ise eski üniversiteler kadar uzun geçmişi olmayan üniversitelerin özellikle yüksek lisans tez yaptırmada gösterdikleri performanstır. abant i̇zzet baysal üniversitesi, fırat üniversitesi, niğde üniversitesi ve sakarya üniversitesi gibi üniversiteler gerçekleştirdikleri yüksek lisans tezleriyle sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanındaki çalışmalara katkı sağlamışlardır. doktora tezlerinin hazırlandığı üniversitelere göre dağılımda da benzer durum görülmüştür. gazi üniversitesi kendisini izleyen üniversitelerden önemli bir farkla öndedir. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan tezlerinin yüksek lisans/doktora tezi olmalarına göre dağılımına bakıldığında, 1990’dan günümüze 550 yüksek lisans tezi ve 1997’den günümüze toplam 62 adet doktora tezi görülür. yüksek lisans/doktora tezleri rakamsal olarak karşılaştırıldığında yüksek lisans tezlerinin lehine yaklaşık 1/9’luk bir oran ortaya çıkmaktadır. bu oranın doktora aleyhine azlığı üniversitelerdeki alana ilişkin yetişmiş öğretim üyesi kadrolarının sayıca yetersizliğiyle, doktora kadrolarının doğal olarak daha sınırlı tutulmasıyla açıklanabilir. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 116 yüksek lisans ve doktora tezlerinin yök ulusal tez merkezi’nde okuyucuya açık olup olmamalarına ilişkin veriler incelendiğinde 2006 sonrasında izinli tezlerin sayısında önemli bir artış görülmüştür. bunun nedeni merkez’in 2006 yılından itibaren elektronik uygulamaya geçmesi ve tezleri kabul ederken yazardan ilk başta izinlilik durumunun alınmasıyla açıklamak mümkündür. 2006 öncesi tezlerin izinsiz olması ise değişik nedenlere bağlanabilir: a) yazarların akademik süreçlerden kopmuş olması, b) böyle bir uygulamanın olduğunun farkında olunmaması, c) izin verilme işlemiyle ilgili prosedürel işlerin ihmal edilmesi, d) tezin okuyucuya açık olmasının yazarı akademik açıdan zora sokabileceği endişesi vb. diğer araştırma (geçit, 2010) bulgularıyla da benzer olarak, “eğitim programları” ve “öğretim yöntemleri” temaları yüksek lisans ve doktora tezlerinde yoğunlukla çalışılan konulardır. ancak yüksek lisans tezlerinde eğitim programı teması daha fazla çalışılırken doktora düzeyinde öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri üzerinde daha fazla çalışılmıştır. bunun nedeni öğretim yöntemi çalışmalarının deneysel çalışmalar olması nedeniyle daha kapsamlı hazırlıklar gerektirmesi ve bunların daha fazla doktora düzeyinde tercih edilmesi olabilir. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılmış olan yüksek lisans tezlerindeki temaların yıllara göre dağılımına bakıldığında, 1990’dan günümüze tüm yılların en çok çalışılan temasının “eğitim programları” olduğu görülmüştür. i̇kinci sırada ise “öğretim yöntemleri” gelmiştir. bunun nedenlerinden biri, bu iki çalışma konusunun eğitim bilimlerinin de alanına girmiş olması ve ortak olarak çalışılan bir konu olması gösterilebilir. bu iki temanın çok fazla çalışılmasında türkiye’deki bilimsel ve siyasal alandaki gelişmelerin de önemli katkı sağladığı düşünülebilir. örneğin eğitim programı ve öğretim yöntemleri alanında çalışmaların özellikle 1998 sonrasında hızla artmasında ertürk (1998), varış (1996), fidan (1996), özçelik (1998), büyükkaragöz (1997) gibi önemli bilim insanlarının eğitim programları ve öğretim alanın yapılandırılmasıyla ilgili çalışmalarının ciddi etkisi olduğu düşünülebilir. ayrıca bu alanda yetişen çok sayıda akademisyenin de bu çalışmaların sayısının artmasında katkıları olduğu da açıktır. bunlara ek olarak bu yıllarda da siyasal alandaki değişim taleplerinin eğitim yoluyla gerçekleştirilebileceğine olan inancı görmek mümkündür. örneğin 1996 yılında toplanan xv. milli eğitim şurasında diğer şuralardan farklı olarak alternatif kavramların yoğun kullanıldığı eğitim sisteminde yeni arayışların gündemde olduğunu aşağıdaki şura sonuç maddelerden anlaşılmaktadır. sekiz yıllık zorunlu ilköğretim uygulamasına geçilmeden önce ilköğretimin amaçları ve ders programları bütünlük ilkesine uygun olarak yeniden düzenlenmelidir. mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 117 bilişsel, duyuşsal ve psikomotor alan hedefleri ilköğretim programlarında dengeli olarak yer almalıdır. eğitim programlarının bilgi yükleme karakterli yapısı, yerini bilgiye ulaşma ve araştırma tekniklerinin kazanılmasına bırakmalıdır. 1998 yılında 8 yıllık eğitime geçilmesiyle birlikte diğer derslerde de olduğu gibi sosyal bilgiler, vatandaşlık ve i̇nsan hakları eğitimi alanında da programlar geliştirilmiştir. bu gelişmeye paralel olarak özellikle yüksek lisans tezlerinde 1999-2004 yılları arasında en çok çalışılan tema eğitim programı olmuştur. alandaki ihtiyaca bağlı olarak ders kitabı inceleme, içerik analizi, programın öğeleri (hedef-içerik-eğitim durumudeğerlendirme) açısından incelenmesi gibi konular üzerinde durulmuştur. bu yıllar doktora tezleri açısından da yeni arayışların yeni söz söyleme isteklerinin yoğun olduğu yıllardır. 19972004 yılları arasında yapılan 19 tezden 13’ü öğretim yöntem ve teknikleri alanında yapılmıştır. bir başka deyişle doktora düzeyinde öğretim boyutuyla ilgilenmek birçok araştırmacı için çok daha ilgi çekici olmuştur. 2000, 2001 ve 2002 yıllarında yapılan tüm doktora tezlerinin bu alanda üretilmesi yurt dışında geliştirilen öğretim yöntemlerinin türkiye’de de uygulanmasına yönelik merakın göstergesi olarak yorumlanabilir. 2004 yılına kadar doktora tezlerine konu olan başlıca yöntemler işbirlikli öğrenme/kubaşık öğrenme, probleme dayalı öğrenme, yaratıcı drama yöntemleridir. bu yöntemlerden işbirlikli öğrenme yurtdışında 70’lerden bu yana çalışıla gelinen yöntemlerdir. türkiye’de de açıkgöz (1992) ve gömleksiz (1993) tarafından ilk kez kullanılan işbirlikli öğrenme/kubaşık öğrenme birçok teze araştırma konusu olmuştur. aynı şekilde probleme dayalı öğrenme ilk kez 1960’larda, yaratıcı drama ise ilk kez 1950’lerde çalışma konusu olmuştur. 2004–2010 yıllarının eğitim alanındaki çok önemli gelişmelere tanıklık ettiği oldukça açıktır. örneğin 2006 yılında gerçekleştirilen xvii. milli eğitim şurasında alınan kararlar türkiye’deki yenilik ve değişim ihtiyaçlarının yazılı birer belgesi olarak yorumlanabilir. örgün ve yaygın eğitim merkezlerinde düzenlenen eğitim programlarının uluslararası standartlara uygun olmasına dikkat edilmelidir. yurt dışında uygulanan eğitim öğretim programlarındaki materyallerin kullanımına yönelik eş güdümlü çalışmalar yürütülerek materyal geliştirme ve mevcut materyalleri iyileştirmeye önem verilmelidir. eğitim fakültelerinin programları, öğrencilerin yaratıcılıklarını, düşünme becerilerini, yazılı ve sözlü anlatım güçlerini geliştirecek şekilde düzenlenmelidir. “e-öğrenme” yaygınlaştırılmalı; internet üzerinden öğretim materyallerinin geliştirilmesi ve kullanılması eğitimin tüm paydaşları için özendirilmelidir. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 118 bu anlayışa paralel olarak hazırlanan 2005 ilköğretim programları, yapılandırmacı anlayışı temel alan; yetiştirilmek istenen insan yapısı gereği her öğretim yönteminden yerine göre faydalanılmasını öneren eklektik bir yapı sunmaktadır. programın bu anlayışla düzenlenmesinde bilim insanlarının yaptığı çalışmaların oldukça önemli yeri olduğu kabul edilmelidir. bir diğer kabulünde eğitim programı yapısındaki bu değişikliklerin alanda çalışan araştırmacıların çalışmalarını etkilemesi olmalıdır. yeni ilköğretim programlarının hazırlandığı 2004 ve 2005 yılları arasında yüksek lisans düzeyinde eğitim programı teması altında yapılan çalışmalarda bir azalma görülmüştür. ancak 2006, 2007 ve 2008 yılları arasında sosyal bilgiler programının uygulanışı, programın hedefleri, içeriği ve değerlendirilmesine yönelik çalışmalar yüksek bir ivme kazanmıştır. eğitim programı alanında yapılan bu çalışmalardaki doygunluk, 2009 ve 2010 yıllarında yeniden öğretim yöntemleri temasına dönüşü ve 2006 şurasında da vurgulanılan öğretmen yeterlilikleri gibi bir başka eğitim ihtiyacına yönelmeyi beraberinde getirmiştir. 2005 yılında yeni programları uygulayacak öğretmenlerin yeterlilikleri merak konusu olmuş doktora düzeyinde araştırılmaya değer görülmüştür. bu yılda yeni arayışlardan ziyade var olan durumun tespiti yapılmış gibi görünmektedir. ancak 20062009 arasındaki yıllar xvii. milli eğitim şurasında da vurgulandığı üzere yurt dışındaki farklı öğretim yöntem ve tekniklerinin sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında uygulandığı yıllar olmuştur. birey vurgusunun oldukça güçlü yapıldığı bu yeni dönemde yüksek lisans ve doktora düzeyinde en çok çalışılan işbirlikli öğrenme/kubaşık öğrenme yöntemi ile ilgili çalışmalar azalırken, beyin temelli öğrenme, araştırmaya dayalı öğrenme, proje tabanlı öğrenme, probleme dayalı öğrenme, gibi yöntemler daha fazla çalışılmıştır. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında ilk kez 1997 yılında yapılan doktora tezinden günümüze en çok çalışılan tema “öğretim yöntemleri” olmuştur. 62 tezden 27’si yani neredeyse yarısı öğretim yöntemleri üzerinde yapılmıştır. bunda dünya çapında öğretim yöntemlerindeki arayışların türkiye’deki tez çalışmalarına olan etkisinden söz etmek mümkün görünmektedir. diğer temalar yıllara göre incelendiğinde “öğretim teknolojileri” kullanımına yönelik tezlerde 2001 yılı sonrasında bir artış olduğu söylenebilir. bu da teknoloji alanındaki gelişmelerin eğitime olan yansımaların etkisiyle açıklanabilir. xvii. milli eğitim şurasında vurgulanan değer ve beceri kazandırma etkinliklerinin 2006 yılından itibaren değer ve karakter eğitimi başlığında geniş bir çalışma alanı oluşturduğu görülmektedir. örneğin 2010 yılında yapılan doktora tezlerinin önemli bir bölümünün bu tema başlığı altında toplandığı tespit edilmiştir. bunda ihtiyaç duyulan insan tipinin mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 119 geliştirilmesine yönelik bir çabanın önemli yer tuttuğu anlaşılmaktadır. 2000’lerle birlikte eğitim alanındaki hızlı bilgi üretimlerinin yansıması ve ihtiyaç duyulan insan tipinin değişikliğe uğratılması vb. nedenlerle beceri ve değer kazandırmaya yönelik çalışmaların da ön plana çıktığı görülmektedir. araştırmacıların beceri ve değer kazandırmada sosyal bilgiler dersini seçmelerinin nedeni sosyal bilgilerin bir yandan sosyal beceriler ve değerleri; öte yandan içeriği öğretmeye çalışması olabilir. bilişsel hedefleri gerçekleştirmenin yanında duyuşsal alan özellikleri geliştirmeyi amaçlayan ve bunu mümkün kılabilen ders genelde sosyal bilgiler dersi (bacanlı, 2006) olması nedeniyle araştırmacılar tarafından bu dersin seçildiği görülmektedir. öğretim yöntemlerindeki çeşitliliğin “ölçme değerlendirme” çalışmalarına da hareketlilik sağladığı 2000’lerden itibaren bu alanda yüksek lisans tezlerinin yapılmaya başlandığı görülmektedir. doktora tezlerinde ölçme değerlendirmeye yönelik ise sadece iki çalışma bulunması düşündürücüdür. 1997’den beri çalışılan bir başka tema ise “öğrenci, öğretmen, müfettiş ve veli” çalışmalarıdır. bu çalışmalarda da sosyal bilgiler eğitimine yönelik algılar, görüşler alınmaya çalışılmış sosyal bilgiler eğitimine yönelik öznel veriler elde edilerek alana katkı sağlanmıştır. son olarak yüksek lisans düzeyinde çalışılmasına rağmen, doktora düzeyinde sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin sorunlarına yönelik herhangi bir çalışmanın yapılmaması dikkat çekicidir. bu tür çalışmalar daha çok tarama düzeyinde ve genellikle ölçek uygulamaları şeklinde yapılmış ve doktora düzeyinde ele alınmamıştır. ancak sorunların daha kapsamlı ilişkilendirmelere tabi tutulması ve çözüm önerileri getirilmesi açısından doktora düzeyinde de ele alınması sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanına katkı sağlayabilir. bu araştırmanın bulgularına göre hem yüksek lisans hem de doktora düzeyinde yapılan tez sayısında yıldan yıla bir artış gözlenmektedir. yakın süreçte sosyal bilgiler eğitimine ilişkin yüksek lisans ve doktora araştırmalarının sayısının artışının üniversite sayısına, sosyal bilgiler eğitimiyle ilgilenen akademisyen sayısına ve lisansüstü programlarının artışına paralel olarak artacağı düşünülmektedir. kaynakça / references açıkgöz, k. (1992). i̇şbirlikli öğrenme. malatya: uğurel matbaası. apaydın, s. (2009). “2000-2008 yılları arasında türkiye’de fizik eğitimi araştırmaları”, the first international congress of educational research, “trends and issues of educational research”, (1-3 mayıs), çanakkale onsekiz mart üniversitesi, http://oc.eab.org.tr/egtconf/pdfkitap/pdf/574.pdf journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 96-121 120 arık, r.s. & türkmen, m. (2009). “eğitim bilimleri alanında yayınlanan bilimsel dergilerde yer alan makalelerin i̇ncelenmesi”, the first international congress of educational research, “trends and issues of educational research”, (1-3 mayıs), çanakkale onsekiz mart üniversitesi, http://oc.eab.org.tr/egtconf/pdfkitap/pdf/488.pdf bacanlı, h. (2006). duyuşsal eğitim, ankara: pegema yayıncılık. bolat, m. (1989). siyasal toplumsallaşmada ders kitaplarının i̇çeriği ve etkililiği, i̇stanbul üniversitesi, yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. büyükkaragöz, s. (1997). program geliştirme-kaynak ve metinler. konya: tuzcular ofset erden, m. (tarihsiz). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi, i̇stanbul: alkım yayınevi. ertürk, s. (1998). eğitimde program geliştirme. ankara: meteksan yayınları fidan, n. (1996). okulda öğrenme ve öğretme. ankara: alkım yayınları geçit, y. & kartal, a. (2010). “türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırma konuları üzerine bir i̇nceleme”, international conference on new trends in education and their implications, (11-13 november), antalya, http://www.iconte.org/fileupload/ks59689/file/19.pdf geçit, y. (2010). “sosyal bilgiler eğitimi “öğretim programları konulu çalışmalar” üzerine bir araştırma”, 9. ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği eğitimi sempozyumu (20-22 mayıs), elazığ, ss..50-55, http://usos2010.firat.edu.tr/bildiriler/pdfs/159.pdf gömleksiz, m. (1993). kubaşık öğrenme yöntemi ile geleneksel yöntemin demokratik tutumlar ve erişiye etkisi. adana: çukurova üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü yayımlanmamış doktora tezi. hamilton, d. (1998). curriculum history, victoria: deakin university press. klibeard, h. m. (2002). changing course: american curriculum reform in the 20th century, new york: teachers college press. oruç, s. & ulusoy, k. (2008). “sosyal bilgiler öğretimi alanında yapılan tez çalışmaları”, selçuk üniversitesi ahmet keleşoğlu eğitim fakültesi dergisi, sayı.26, ss.121-132. ozankaya, ö. (2007). toplumbilim, i̇stanbul: cem yayınevi, 11. baskı. özçelik, d. a. (1998). eğitim programları ve öğretim. ankara: ösym yayınları. öztürk, c. (2006). “sosyal bilgiler: toplumsal yaşama disiplinlerarası bir bakış”, hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi (editör: cemil öztürk), ankara: pegema yayıncılık. http://www.iconte.org/fileupload/ks59689/file/19.pdf� http://usos2010.firat.edu.tr/bildiriler/pdfs/159.pdf� mustafa şahi̇n & derya göğebakan yildiz & ruşen duman 121 safran. m. (2008). “sosyal bilgiler öğretimine bakış”, özel öğretim yöntemleriyle sosyal bilgiler öğretimi (editör: bayram tay & adem öcal), ankara: pegema yayıncılık. sönmez, v. (2005). hayat ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi öğretmen kılavuzu, ankara: anı yayıncılık. sözer, e. (2009). “sosyal bilgiler programının amaçları, i̇lkeleri ve temel özellikleri”, http://www.aof.anadolu.edu.tr/kitap/ioltp/2295/unite02.pdf spring, j. (2005). the american school: 1642-2004, new york: mc graw hill, sixth edition. tarman, b. & acun, i̇. & yğksel, z. (2010). “sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanındaki tezlerin değerlendirilmesi”, gaziantep üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, cilt. 9, sayı. 3, ss. 725-746, www1.gantep.edu.tr/~sbd/index.php/sbd/article/download/300/186 tarman, b. & acun, i̇. (2010). “sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ve yeni bir sosyal bilgiler hareketi”, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi, cilt.1, sayı.1, ss.1-16. yıldırım a. & şimşek, h. (2008). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri, 6. basım, ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. http://www.aof.anadolu.edu.tr/kitap/ioltp/2295/unite02.pdf� www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1), 1-20 1 development of global identity in the social studies classroom anatoli rapoport1 abstract global citizenship is a citizenship model that draws growing attention of practitioners and education theorists. global identity is an important prerequisite for the development of global citizenship. this empirical study conducted in three social studies classrooms investigated whether social studies classroom discourse contributes to the emergence and development of students’ global identities and what linguistic elements of discourse impact the development of students’ global identities. using the framework suggested by bucholtz and hall (2010), which analyzes identity as constituted in linguistic interaction, the study demonstrated how teacher mediated discourses are pertinent to the construction and development of global identity among students. by applying the indexicality principle, it was determined which linguistic symbols students identified as indexes of global identity. the study concluded that the use of words and phrases that relate indexically to global identity in the teacher’s narrative or a textbook affects the development of students’ global identities. key words: global citizenship, global identity, classroom discourse, indexicality introduction citizenship education – the preparation of young people to make informed and reasoned decisions, and the education of citizens of a “culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world” (ncss, 2001) – has been the primary purpose of social studies education. for the past several decades, however, the attention to citizenship education has been mostly the result of the belated attempts to coordinate curricular development with the rationalization of numerous emerging models of citizenship. the rising wave of globalization has profoundly influenced the very notion of citizenship and citizenship education rationales by infusing a global perspective and by challenging the core principles of citizenship as a nation-state related concept. identity in a time when both group and individual students’ characteristics have become a focus of research in education, identity, at the core of human perceptions, motivations, and actions (karlberg, 2008), 1 assoc. prof. purdue university, rapoport@purdue.edu mailto:rapoport@purdue.edu journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20 becomes the centerpiece for understanding the many processes that impact various patterns of behavior. identity, a role-specific understanding, expectation, and projection of self (bowell & stokoe, 2006; wendt, 1992), is particularly significant in citizenship education research because of the multiple features common to both concepts. erikson (1964) described identity as a dynamic process between the self and community. identity is constructed and performed rather than essential and possessed, resulting in “each of us performing a repertoire of identities that are constantly shifting, and that we negotiate and re-negotiate according to the circumstances” (joseph, 2010, p. 14). the construction of identity begins when an individual identifies with significant others such as parents or siblings, and develops as a selection of norms or ideals with which the individual identifies (mansoory, 2012). for educators, the most important features of identity are the relative flexibility and constructivist nature. identities are not once-and-for-all given characteristics; they appear at some point in a person’s life and are gradually developed and constructed over time. among various identities, such as gender, racial, ethnic, national, or social identities, one’s global identity occupies a special place. as a collection of various imaginary norms, behaviors, or ideals that one believes she or he voluntarily shares with other people, identity is an exclusionary concept that individuals use to separate themselves from those who do not seem to support those norms, behaviors, or ideals. unlike exclusionary identities, however, global identity is inclusive because there is no known community that stands in opposition to global community. the universally inclusive global identity allows people to live without compromising their other multiple collective identities (abizadeh, 2005; karlberg, 2008; mansoory, 2012). although the existence of norms, behaviors, and ideals shared by humanity remains questionable to some, the very admission of the lack or nonexistence of shared norms allow us to talk about individuals with weak or strong, developed or undeveloped, global identities. therefore, as in any developmental process, an individual global identity is a continuum on which the “zero” starting point is a complete unawareness of one’s global identity. erikson (1964) specifically highlighted the importance of future replacement of any imaginary distinctions that divide people with a universal identity. he believed that a “specieswide… more inclusive human identity” (p. 242) will result in the emergence of truly global ethics. the recognition that one shares imaginary norms and ideals with individuals who live beyond national borders is expedited by the progression of globalization, characterized by the rise of rapoport supraterritoriality and cosmopolitanism, in which social relations become increasingly less tied to territories and locations (appiah, 2008; scholte, 1997). our world is becoming “far more equal, far more active and energetic” (zakaria, 2005, p. 92). global processes in economy, science, and technology have given a tremendous impulse to changes in values, customs, and social mores. regardless of how positively or negatively it is perceived by various groups, globalization has already irreversibly changed the world. arnett (2002) argued that globalization has its primary psychological influence on issues of identity, particularly among adolescents. unlike children, adolescents are more mature and autonomous in pursuing information and new experiences, but unlike adults, they have not yet committed to certain habits, beliefs, or behaviors. arnett (2002) concluded that “as a consequence of globalization… identity becomes based less on prescribed social roles and more on individual choices. globalization [will result] in increasingly complex bicultural, multicultural, and hybrid identities” (pp. 781-782) that give young people an awareness of practices and information that are part of a global culture as well as a sense of belonging to the worldwide culture. global identity and global citizenship what are the relationships between global identity and global citizenship? to what extent are these constructs similar or different? is there an intrinsic connection between them, or are they tied only by the global nature of both? these questions are particularly important because, despite a growing number of empirical studies (see: davies, harber, & yamashita, 2005; lilley, barker, & harris, 2015; merryfield, 2008; rapoport, 2013, 2015; sant, davies, pashby, & schultz, 2018) educators and education theorists are still at the initial stage of developing a methodological basis for teaching global citizenship. indeed, there is controversy regarding these concepts and skepticism among some educators and theorists about the legitimacy of the status of global identity and global citizenship – in other words, whether or not they exist (koyama, 2015). identifying relationships between global citizenship and global identity is critical for global citizenship education (gce). despite ongoing debates and skepticism regarding global citizenship (armstrong, 2006; cory, 2006; koyama, 2015; standish, 2012; wood, 2008), global citizenship education has gained a significant momentum in the last decade (harshman, 2015; maguth & hilburn, 2015). the increase in the use of global citizenship and critical cosmopolitanism (byker & marquardt, 2016) frameworks in the classroom resulted in the steady growth of empirical journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20 analytical studies directed at codifying specific methodologies and teaching devices to improve global citizenship education. research on a methodological approach to gce demonstrates the importance of mediation and teacher agency. to develop global awareness and engagement in students, teachers use (a) reflection on their own cultural assumptions and the frameworks that help other people make sense of the world; (b) learning from scholarship in other countries; and (c) techniques that help engage students as citizens of the world (merryfield, 2008). despite many teachers’ reluctance to teach controversial topics or de-politicize views of citizenship, most teachers and students agree that appropriate teaching of global citizenship includes (a) debates and discussions (sometimes generated from role playing or simulations); (b) experiential learning; (c) visits or visitors; and (d) research and information (davies, harber, & yamashita, 2005). discourse as origin of identity identities, like citizenship, are social constructs. despite being dynamic and evolving in nature, identities, “once established, exist as mental representations [that] makes them every bit as real as if they were grounded in anything natural” (bourdieu in joseph, 2010, p. 12). as social constructs, identities appear and develop as the result of discourses (bowell & stokoe, 2006; cuberto & ignacio, 2011; joseph, 2010; karlberg, 2008). identities, particularly social and collective, are demonstrated through enactment and performance rather than connections to people’s internal ideas or thoughts, which gee (2001) called “internal states” (p. 99). both discourse theory and identity theory postulate that individuals develop projections of themselves in the course of interactions. people who are engaged in interaction establish their identities through verbally performing social acts and verbally displaying certain attitudes (ochs, 1993). we explain much meaning to ourselves with the help of inner speech and by defining things or phenomena through language. language and linguistic devices become the essential tools that help us define and project ourselves. on the other hand, identities are also constructed by other people who engage an individual in interaction, and by non-verbal elements of environment. in other words, identity is a response to the activities of others (bowell & stokoe, 2006). thus is discourse the primary locus where identity is constructed. rapoport theoretical framework this study is informed by two theoretical frameworks: epistemological constructivist theory (dewey, 1925/2003; garrison, 1997; von glasersfeld, 1989) and the framework suggested by bucholtz and hall (2010), which analyzes identity as constituted in linguistic interaction. while the theory of social constructivism (berger & luckman, 1966) examines the construction and institutionalization of social reality and concepts, such as identity or citizenship, the epistemological constructivist theory explains how knowledge and understanding of these concepts are constructed through negotiation of meanings. discourse analysis will be used to explore linguistic, extra-linguistic, visual, or other devices that are used to create global discourse in the social studies classroom. discourse theory is concerned with human expressions, often in the form of language, and highlights how such expressions are linked to human knowledge. discourse analysis considers how language (spoken or written) and extra-linguistic devices enact social and cultural perspectives and identities (gee, 2014a). meanings are created and negotiated through language, so language (oral, written, symbolic) and speech play a critical part in discourse analysis. in social studies classrooms, as in all other classrooms, teachers use language to construct their students’ identities and shape their own by creating discourses and inviting students to participate in them. the second framework that informed this study was suggested by bucholtz and hall (2010). it analyzes identity as a product of linguistic interaction. broadly defined as “social positioning of self and other” (p. 18), identity is approached as a dynamic relational and socio-cultural phenomenon that emerges and is negotiated in local intersubjective dialogical discourse contexts, rather than being individually produced or a priori assigned. the classroom involves an example of such a local dialogical intersubjective context that provides mediated linguistic interaction. the identity analysis framework is based on five principles:  the emergence principle maintains that identity, as a social and cultural phenomenon, is an emergent product rather than the source of linguistic and other meaning-creating practices. thus, identity is not a psychological mechanism of self-classification but a reflection of the self-established through social action and language. according to this principle, global identity is not something that already preexists in a student, but emerges as the result of intersubjective dialogical local discourse in the classroom and elsewhere. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20  the positionality principle reflects the dynamic state of identities that, besides macro level demographic categories, also incorporate local cultural and social positions as well as temporary interactionally determined participant roles. because identities are determined through enactment, students’ roles and positions in an intersubjective classroom discourse are demonstrative of their identities, including global identity, that otherwise may be less identifiable.  the indexicality principle. the concepts of indexical order (silverstein, 2003) and indexicality (johnstone, 2010; ochs, 1993) are fundamental to understanding how linguistic forms are used to construct identity positions. index is any linguistic form that depends on the interactional intersubjective context for its meaning. indexicality, created through linguistic reflexivity and metapragmatics (johnstone, 2010), demonstrates the establishment of semiotic links between linguistic forms such as words or phrases and meanings. indexical ties are inherently ideological and created either in bottom-up or topdown fashion, prompting ideological expectations among discourse participants (bucholtz & hall, 2010). in the latter case, they are imposed by media or authorities, including textbooks and instructors. among the most important concepts within indexicality are labeling and categorization, in which speakers use or react to very specific words or phrases that in their views constitute identity categories and labels. the indexicality principle maintains that identity and identity relations emerge through overt mention of identity labels and categories. therefore, as bucholtz and hall (2010) pointed out, the circulation and frequency of such categories and labels within active discourse, and their explicit or implicit juxtaposition with other categories, provide important information about identity construction. in other words, we can assume that a student’s global identity is being constructed when the language devices that the student labels and categorizes as related to “global” are being used in classroom discourse.  the relationality principle emphasizes identity as a relational phenomenon. identities are never independent, for they acquire meanings in relation to other identity positions.  the partialness principle is based on the notion that “identities are constituted by context and are themselves asserted as partial accounts” (visweswaran in bucholtz & hall, 2010, p. 25), which means that any identity construction may be in part intentional and in part habitual and not fully conscious. it can be affected by both small group interaction and rapoport much larger ideological or cultural processes. therefore, not only is identity unstable and dynamic, it also shifts as interaction unfolds. the basic premises or general philosophical assumptions that underpin the analysis of classroom discourse as a tool in constructivist research (jongensen & phillips, 2002) state that:  our knowledge of the world is accessible to us through categories; therefore, knowledge of the world is not a reflection of reality but is instead the product of discourse.  we are fundamentally historical and cultural beings; therefore, the ways in which we know, understand, and interpret the world are historically and culturally specific.  knowledge is created through social interaction by constructing common truths and meanings. because identity is constructed in a discourse, the analysis of a classroom discourse, particularly the construction of meanings and interpretations, is critical for understanding the mechanism of identity construction and development. if education is an epistemological process that consists of the development of mental contexts, shared terms of reference, and intersubjective dialogical conversations (cuberto & ignacio, 2011), then verbal and non-verbal elements of the discourse will serve as pieces of mosaic that will eventually help us see a bigger picture of identity. language, on the one hand, helps construct and shape identities and, on the other hand, helps to observe, track, and analyze the identity construction process. verbal communication and language, whether oral or written, are indicators of what we say, what we do, and what we are (gee, 2014a). as individuals, we listen, speak, write, or read differently and this difference is reflected through language and through meanings that we assign to elements of language. we are how and what we say, and the words we use and how we use them are what we are (gee, 2014a; 2014b). the following research questions guided this study:  does social studies classroom discourse contribute to the emergence and development of students’ global identities?  what linguistic elements of discourse in the social studies classroom impact the development of students’ global identities? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20 methods and modes of inquiry data were collected through observations, tape-recording of classroom discourses, and participants’ responses to identify words and phrases that relate indexically to global identity. participants in this study included three teachers and 55 students from three high school social studies classes: ap world history, sociology, and history of world armed conflicts. the researcher and teachers collaboratively identified three lessons in each class (nine lessons total) in which teachers and students engaged in discourses pertinent to the development of global identity and global citizenship. all lessons were observed by the researcher, recorded, and transcribed. lesson transcripts were then given to students to identify (by highlighting) linguistic elements that they believed impacted the development of their global identities. all participants were instructed on the meaning of global identity through short presentations in each class. students’ choices were then grouped into categories. the same transcripts were analyzed by teachers, who were asked to read the transcripts of their lessons and identify the elements of the discourse that they believed were essential to the development of students’ global identities. to determine the effect of classroom discourse on the construction of students’ global identities, the results of the linguistic discourse analysis were triangulated with the analysis of observations (field journals). the results of data analysis and original transcripts were used to determine what elements of classroom discourse and linguistic devices potentially impact the development of students’ global identities, how identity emerged from linguistic interaction (emergence principle), to what extent students’ and teachers’ temporary roles and orientations influenced global identity construction in classroom discourse (positionality principle), what categories and indices students and teachers selected as constructing elements of global identity (indexicality principle), and to what degree teachers’ choices were similar to or different from students’ choices. findings and discussion fifty-five students (sophomores and juniors) in three social studies classes were invited to participate in the study. after student participants had been asked to review lesson transcripts and highlight words or phrases that they believed impacted the development of their global identities, 48 transcripts (87%) with at least one highlighted word were returned: from ap world history, 12 rapoport out of 14; from history of world armed conflicts, 17 out of 20; and from sociology, 19 out of 21. the following categories emerged after the analysis of the highlighted words and phrases:  geographic names examples england, europe, anglo-saxon, germany, france, belgium, italy, mexico, iraq, austria-hungary, rwanda, dominican republic  phrases with at least one ethnic, non-us related qualifier/adjective examples irish heritage, mexican restaurant, indian food, asian grocery store, mexican insurgent leader, rwanda genocide  proper names of historical or political actors examples saddam, pancho villa, hitler, mussolini, roger waters, archduke franz ferdinand, gavrilo princip  foreign words and phrases examples danke shön, manheim, chimichanga  words and phrases that determine relations between nations, cultures, or ethnic groups examples war, conflict, skirmish, big stick diplomacy, upheaval, assimilation, dominant culture, cultural differences, migration, unique identity, identifiable culture, authentic, ethnicity, genocide, assert dominance  historical dates and international organizations examples un, 1914-1918, 1991  racial identifiers, personal pronouns, and phrases with possessive pronouns examples white people, these people, we, their country, them teachers’ choices were limited to only five categories: a) geographic names, b) phrases with ethnic qualifiers, c) proper names, d) foreign words, and e) international organizations and dates (only one teacher selected a single date). people use language in order to be recognized as who they believe they are, to demonstrate their identities or roles. discourse helps people present and enact their identities. at the same time, discourse helps people develop, shape, negotiate, reevaluate, reflect upon, and renegotiate their identities. because people possess multiple identities, all of them can be identified to various degrees in a discourse (gee, 2014b). my task as researcher was to determine whether and to what journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20 degree classroom discourse allows students to present and consequently develop and negotiate their global identities, and what language devices among “identity building tools” (gee, 2014b, p. 116) helped them to do so. it is not possible to objectively categorically confirm whether or to what degree the given part of a discourse lead to the development of any social identity, including global identity. i operated on the assumption that words and phrases that students identified as possible global identity indexes (labels or categories) marked those parts of classroom discourses that could potentially and to a degree greater than other parts be pertinent to the development of students’ global identity. to select excerpts from classroom discourses that demonstrate to various degrees the emergence, development, or negotiation of students’ global identities, i used indexes (labels and categories) of global identity selected by students. several intersubjective dialogical conversations in which those indexes were used by students or teachers are presented as examples. excerpt 1 (in ap world history, the teacher and students are discussing an artifact, a traditional chinese female garment, brought to class by a female student.) teacher: who else has an east asia* briefing for us today? you ready? [students mumbling] who’s ready? do you want to give your briefing now? [chatter] okay. what’s your topic? [students mumbling] okay, go ahead. [student produces an artifact] teacher: oh look at you! wonderful. oh my gosh. female student 1: pass it around, be careful. this one would be the most traditional because it’s in red. also i would like to bring your attention to the phoenix* on the front of this one. phoenixes usually represent the empress, and most people, when you get married or at least if you have a traditional chinese wedding*, they’re considered the phoenix empress*, so… and this one also has a phoenix on it. it’s called chi pow*, i believe. female student 2: yes, remember? when we did puyi* and he was the last emperor of china*, so after the qing* fell. he was the last emperor of china*, and he was also the emperor of macedonia* after the japanese* took over, and he was basically just a puppet emperor in…? teacher: are you sure it’s macedonia*? rapoport male student: manchuria*. female student 2: they have two different names, wait. teacher: it’s manchuria*, how did you get macedonia*? female student 2: i have no idea. male student: maybe because when you type… teacher: maybe it was spell-check, okay. female student 1: right now, actually, i looked it up. manchuria* actually is now parti didn’t realize before that it had been a separate state*, but this section right here of china* is what people might say is the head of the dragon, i suppose you could say, if you look at it. teacher: hey yeah, folks, the qing* were a foreign invader*. they were manchus*. they were a different ethnic group*. they didn’t speak chinthey didn’t speak mandarin*, they spoke manchu*. i mean, they probably spokewe’re kind of oversimplifying. notice puyi*, the last emperor, he’s in the lower right-hand corner there, he looks like he could be maybe russian*, you know, caucasian, so they were a lighter skinned, not so east-asian-looking people. 1644*, manchurians*by the way, manchuria, it’s northeast china, i guess you could say. so this fellow was the last emperor of china. so china was ruled by a foreign force until you have all these other events of westernization come in in the first part of the 20th century. ladies, go ahead, sorry. based on the principle of indexicality (bucholtz & hall, 2010; ochs, 1993), a number of words and phrases that students later distinguished as global identity indexes demonstrate that this part of the lesson was pertinent to the development of global identity. the indexes marked in excerpt 1 with asterisks (*) belong to several categories: geographic names – east asia, china, macedonia, manchuria phrases with ethnic qualifiers – chinese wedding, mandarin [language], russian, eastasian-looking people names of political or historical actors – puyi, the qing [dynasty] foreign words or phrases – chi pow (a transliterated name for a traditional chinese female garment) journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20 words and phrases that determine relations between nations, cultures, or ethnic groups – foreign invader, different ethnic group historical dates – 1644 this excerpt also demonstrates the ontological status of global identity. based on the emergence principle (bucholtz & hall, 2010), it is fair to assume that female student 1’s global identity emerged and developed when she tried to resolve the problem caused by her confusion of manchuria with macedonia. she had prepared her material using the incorrect geographic term macedonia, but she discovered her mistake only by using the term and the related story in the discourse. without the use of the indexed term macedonia in the discourse, she would not have learned the difference between macedonia and manchuria, or the fact that manchuria had been a separate state and had the shape of a dragon’s head. her discovery was so important to her that she asked her peers to support and legitimize her new knowledge by looking at manchuria on the map. the positionality principle, another principle that determines the ontological status of identity, is demonstrated in this excerpt when female student 1 displayed the traditional chinese wedding garment. when she explained the meaning of the color and phoenix on the dress, she assumed the role of a museum guide or teacher lecturing about elements of foreign culture unknown to her fellow students. the same role was assumed by female student 2 when she asked her classmates if they remembered talking previously about puyi. bucholtz and hall (2010) noted that the temporary roles and orientations that discourse participants assume at the most basic level contribute to the formation of subjectivity and intersubjectivity in discourses. james paul gee (2014a) asserted that people use language and discourse not only to build identities for themselves in different contexts but also help build identities for other people that they invite them to take up. this identity-building “technique” can be well illustrated by the following excerpt from one of the classroom discourses. the excerpt contains a number of elements that students later identified as indexes of global identity. excerpt 2 (in sociology, the teacher discusses how the holocaust was ignored.) teacher: so adolf hitler* comes along, and when he invades poland, he gives direct orders, “kill them all,” and literally says, “as nobody has cared or noticed about others, that’s what people will think about the poles. nobody will care.” we’ll argue later about whether or not it even rapoport happened. i mean, hell, are we still arguing about the holocaust*? there are people, there are holocaust deniers, right? they’re like, “it never happened!” student 1: i don’t understand how you can deny that. send them on a trip [makes plane noise] to concentration camps in germany. teacher: [laughs] i’m laughing about it because it seems insane, but most famously, the president of iran*, mahmoud ahmadinejad* – he’s no longer the president, he was the once-president – he was a holocaust* denier and he would host holocaust* denier conferences, and is this still relevant today? a little bit. i don’t know if you guys follow what’s going on in iran* today, and… yeah? student 2: when my dad came to the us, and my momi don’t know how they got into a conversation about the holocaust, but he was like, “what? that happened?” and he was like, “that can’t be true. they never taught us that in school, so that’s a lie.” and he was, like, going off about how it’s not true and it’s a lie, and my mom’s like, “no, i’m serious. this actually happened. they went and tried to kill all these jews.” and he didn’t believe it at all. to this day, he’s just like, “no, i don’t think it happened.” teacher: yeah, just an example of how people, once it happens, people just want to look the other way and go, “huh? sure, it just happened a long time ago and won’t happen again.” so yeah. have we done this in the united states? obviously, what we did to the native americans seems kind of harsh. the reactions of the two students provide examples of how the teacher’s story about the holocaust triggered students’ personalization of global tragedies and prompted different emotional reactions. by relating the holocaust story to his family’s history, student 2 legitimized and authenticated the teacher’s account of holocaust deniers. at the same time, he globalized his initially small and unmemorable family conversation by connecting his family identity to his developing global identity. student 1, who sincerely could not understand how such a tragedy can be denied, demonstrated the development of his global identity through artificial deligitimation of the teacher’s information. this delegitimation is not genuine, as student 1 does not question the authenticity of the teacher’s account; his delegitimation is emotional rather than rational. by the expression of his disbelief in journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20 the denial of the holocaust, he authenticated and legitimized the horrible nature of the event. the complementary relations, such as genuineness/artifice and authority/delegitimacy are features of the relationality principle (bucholtz & hall, 2010) of a developing identity. the following excerpt demonstrates how global identity is affected by students’ immediate ideological and cultural environment, and how the teacher tries to reconstruct elements of student’s global identity by redefining the meaning of an indexical label: excerpt 3 (sociology) teacher: look, if somebody were to open a mexican restaurant when i was in school and refused to speak english when they served people, and served identifiable mexican food, i’m not so sure that place wouldn’t have been burned down in a week. i’m really not. we accepted mexican food, it was chichi’s, a whole bunch of high school honkies walking around in sombreros singing “happy birthday” doesn’t seem very mexican to me, but that was acceptable. you would order a chimichanga and you would feel like, “i just accomplished something there. i just used the word chimichanga in a sentence.” and that was cultural pluralism… there’s a restaurant here in this town that’s in an asian grocery store, anybody hear about this place? i don’t know where it’s at. student 1: i’ve been there. student 2: is it that place by b-dub’s? student 1: yeah, over on 11th [street]. teacher: i just know that it is, like, really authentic. student 1: there’s some weird crap. teacher: hey, hey… student 1: i mean, i’ve seen the restaurant because i’ve been lost up in the store, but i haven’t eaten there because it’d probably be gross. from what i think. teacher: yeah, but nobody’s burned the place down, nobody’s protesting, nobody cares. in fact, increasingly, you’re getting a lot of honkies going to places likewhat’s that bakery on [name of the street]? and you’re, like, really actually getting perhaps some authentic flavors that you certainly wouldn’t have gotten 20, 30 years ago. rapoport student 2: the acropolis. before this conversation, student 1’s global identity was affected by someone’s negative opinion about an asian restaurant at which he had never eaten. by shifting the focus of the conversation from negative opinions about ethnic food to the positive changes that have occurred in the last several decades, the teacher renegotiated student 1’s imaginary experience without noting that the student had never had that bad experience. bucholtz and hall (2010) called this the partialness principle of identity, stating: “because identity is inherently relational, it will always be partial, produced through contextually situated and ideologically informed configurations of self and other” (p. 25). this dialogue is also an example of the positionality principle described earlier. through the choice of words and grammatical structure, the student positions himself as a white “macho.” conclusion in 1992, the national council for the social studies determined that the primary purpose of social studies is to help young people make decisions as citizens. although this purpose has not changed much since then, the notion and concept of citizenship has indeed changed. it has become more dynamic, contextualized, and discourse-dependent. one of the elements of the citizenship paradigm is a global model of citizenship that is slowly but steadily entering scholarly and classroom discourses; however, research shows that teachers and teacher educators do not pay much attention to teaching or discussing global citizenship in the classroom (myers, 2006; rapoport, 2010; schweisfurth, 2006). the analysis of reasons why social studies curricula, or any other curricula, lack gce instruction demonstrates that teachers do not know much about global citizenship and are unaware of methodological tools of gce. i approached this research with an assumption that global identity and global citizenship, although ontologically different, are still interconnected constructs, and thus the development of global identity in the social studies classroom is imperative for the education of global citizens. i saw my task in the study as twofold: a) to investigate whether a discourse in the social studies classroom contributed to the development of students’ global identities, and b) to discover what elements of discourse were particularly effective for the development of students’ global identities. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20 by applying the indexicality principle, it was determined which linguistic symbols students identified as indexes of global identity. therefore, if those indexical symbols were used in classroom discourses, it was logical to assume that the discourses were pertinent to the development of global identity. further evidence of emerging or developing students’ global identities was the example of five principles that bucholtz and hall (2010) considered fundamental to the study of identity. besides the indexicality principle, which helped recognize indexical symbols of emerging or developing global identity, the observed classroom discourses illustrated the emergence principle, the positionality principle, the relationality principle, and the partialness principle. based on the observed classes, the following recommendations can be made:  any discourse in the social studies classroom is conducive to the development of students’ identities.  frequent use of words and phrases that relate indexically to global identity in the teacher’s narrative or a textbook positively affect the development of students’ global identities. in other words, the more teachers talk and teach about the world, the stronger the students identify themselves with the world and global activities.  connecting world historical or contemporary events with students’ social, gender, ethnic, or cultural selves and encouraging students to talk about and judge international events from the positions of their multiple identities positively impact the development of students’ global identities.  discussions of the discursive nature of identities are visibly missing from social studies education curricula. educators should emphasize the importance of discourse in the development of student identities. as it follows from the data presented, there is evidence that students’ global identities were being constructed during classroom discourse in the observed classrooms. because any social identity is constructed in discourse and determined through discourse or enactment, it was difficult to conclude whether students’ global identities were constructed or emerged during classroom discourse or were solely a result of out-of-classroom environments or activities. this challenge, however, presents an opportunity for further research: what is the role of a global discourse in students’ identities construction outside the classroom? how do teachers rapoport of other subjects use classroom discourse to develop students’ global identity? what is the impact of literacy and social studies integration in elementary school on the development of students’ global identity? answers to these and other questions will help educate citizens who are ready to develop new allegiances in a globalized democratic world. references abizadeh, a. (2005). does collective identity presuppose an other? on the alleged incoherence of global solidarity. american political science review, 99(1), 45-60. abowitz, k. k. & harnish, j. (2006). contemporary discourses of citizenship. review of educational research 76(4), 653-690. appiah, k. a. (2007). cosmopolitanism: ethics in the world of strangers. n.y.: norton. armstrong, c. (2006). global civil society and the question of global citizenship. voluntas, 17(4), 349-357. arnett, j. j. (2002). the psychology of globalization. american psychologist, 57(10), 774-783. berger, p. l. & luckman, th. (1966). the social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of knowledge. garden city, ny: doubleday & company, inc. bowell, b. & stokoe, e. (2006). discourse and identity. edinburgh university press. bucholtz, m. & hall, k. (2010). locating identity in language. in c. llamas & d. watt (eds.), language and identities (pp. 18-28). edinburgh university press. byker, e. j., & marquardt, s. k. (2016). using critical cosmopolitanism to globally situate multicultural education in teacher preparation courses. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 30-50. corry, o. (2006). global civil society and its discontents. voluntas, 17(4), 303-324. cuberto, r. & ignacio, m. (2011). accounts in the classroom: discourse and the construction of meaning. journal of constructivist psychology, 23(4), 234-267. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20 davies, l., harber, c., & yamashita, h. (2005). global citizenship education: the needs of teachers and learners. birmingham, uk: center for international education and research (cier), university of birmingham. dewey. j. (1925/2003). experience and nature. whitefish, mt: kessinger publishing. erikson, e. h. (1964). insight and responsibility. london: faber and faber. garrison, j. (1997). an alternative to von glasersfeld’s subjectivism in science education: deweyan social constructivism. science & education, 6, 301-312. gee, j. p. (2001). identity as an analytic lens for research in education. review of research in education, 25, 99-125. gee, j. p. (2014a). an introduction to discourse analysis: theory and method. n.y.: routledge. gee, j. p. (2014b). how to do discourse analysis: a toolkit. n.y.: routledge. von glasersfeld, e. (1989). cognition, construction of knowledge, and teaching. synthese, 80(1), 121–140. johnstone, b. (2010). locating language in identity. in c. llamas & d. watt (eds.), language and identities (pp. 29-36). edinburgh university press. jongensen, m. & philipps, l. (2002). discourse analysis as theory and method. london: sage. joseph, j. (2010). identity. in c. llamas & d. watt (eds.), language and identities (pp. 9-17). edinburgh university press. harshman, j. (2015). introduction to research in global citizenship education. in j. harshman, t. augustine, & m. merryfield (eds.), research in global citizenship education (pp. 1-8). charlotte: information age publishing. karlberg, m. (2008). discourse, identity, and global citizenship. peace review: a journal of social justice, 20(3), 310-320. koyama, j. (2015). the elusive and exclusive global citizen. new delhi: mahatma gandhi institute of education for peace and sustainable development/unesco. rapoport lilley, k., barker, m. & harris, n. (2015). exploring the process of global citizen learning and the student mind-set. journal of studies in international education, 19(3), 225-245. maguth, b. & hilburn, j. (2015). introduction: the state of global education: learning with the world and its people. in b. maguth & j. hilburn (eds.), the state of global education: learning with the world and its people (pp. 1-10). n.y.: routledge. mansoory, sh. (2012). exploring global identity in emerging adults. available at: http://www.diva-portal.org/smashlget/diva2-549930/fulltext01.pdf merryfield, m. m. (2008). scaffolding social studies for global awareness. social education, 72(7), 363–366. myers, j. (2006). rethinking the social studies curriculum in the context of globalization: education for global citizenship in the u.s. theory and research in social education., 34(3), 370-394. ncss (2001). preparing citizens for a global community. a position statement of the national council for the social studies. retrieved february 22, 2015 from http://development.ncss.org/positions/global ochs, e. (1993). constructing social identity: a language socialization perspective. research on language and social interaction, 26, 287-306. rapoport, a. (2010). we cannot teach what we don't know: indiana teachers talk about global citizenship education. education, citizenship and social justice, 5(3), 1-11. rapoport, a. (2013). global citizenship themes in the social studies classroom: teaching devices and teachers’ attitudes. the educational forum, 77(4), 407-420. rapoport, a. (2015). global citizenship education: classroom teachers’ perspectives and approaches. in m. merryfield, t. augustine, & j. harshman (eds.), research in global citizenship education (pp. 119-136). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. sant, e., davies, i., pashby, k., & schultz, l. (2018). global citizenship education: a critical introduction to key concepts and debates. london: bloomsbury scholte, j. (1997). global capitalism and the state. international affairs, 73(3), 427-452. http://www.diva-portal.org/smashlget/diva2-549930/fulltext01.pdf http://development.ncss.org/positions/global journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 1-20 silverstein, m. (2003). indexical order and the dialectics of sociolinguistic life. language and communication, 23, (193-229). standish, a. (2012). the false promise of global learning: why education needs boundaries. new york: continuum. schweisfurth, m. (2006). education for global citizenship: teacher agency and curricular structure in ontario schools. educational review, 58(1), 41-50. wendt, a. (1992). anarchy is what states make of it: the social construction of power politics. international organization, 46(2), 391-426. wood, p. (2008). the impossibility of global citizenship. brock education, 17, 22-37. zakaria, f. (2005). education for global citizenship. independent school, 64(3), 86-92. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1), 21-41 21 the relationship between teachers’ grade level and views on immigration and immigrant students william david mccorkle1 abstract there is limited research on the variance in teachers’ beliefs on social issues such as immigration, particularly related to the grade level they teach. this research is centered on a nationwide sample of k-12 teachers (n=5190) with an examination of their views on immigration and educational rights for immigrant students, particularly those students who are undocumented. additionally, there is an analysis of the awareness of false immigration narratives. a series of anova analyses indicates that teachers from the secondary level have the most inclusive views followed by middle grades and elementary teachers. secondary teachers were also more likely to be aware of false immigration narratives. consideration is given to the possible reasons for these disparities based on grade level as well as the implications for teachers and teacher educators, particularly because of the need for teachers with an inclusive positionality towards the immigrant population and a critical approach towards structural barriers these students face within the school system. key words: immigration, teacher attitudes, critical migration theory, critical theory, immigrant students. introduction the difference in the social perspectives of teachers is an area that has been analyzed to an extent in areas such as race and gender (sas, 2009; youngs & youngs, 2001). however, there has been little research on the differences that teachers may have on social outlook based on grade level. this study examines a specific area of this social outlook: their awareness and views on immigration and immigrant students. more specifically, the paper analyzes four key constructs: awareness of false immigration narratives, beliefs about broader ideas of borders and migration, beliefs about current controversial immigration issues, and attitudes towards educational rights for immigrant students. consideration is then given for the relevance of these results for both teachers and teacher educators. 1 asst. prof. college of charleston, usa, mccorklewd@cofc.edu journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 theoretical framework this paper is based on the framework of critical citizenship education (de andreotti, 2014; dejaeghere & tudball, 2007; johnson & morris, 2010) that seeks to create students that are merely compliant with government wishes but informed and willing to examine the government in a more critical manner (johnson & morris, 2010; mcdonough, & cormier, 2013). one of the earliest proponents of this model is horace mann (1848) who argued that essential to the health of the republic is an educated populace. this is not just a population that knows how to read and write, but one that also knows how to think critically and serve as a type of check on destructive elements within the republic. as horace mann stated, and hence it is, that the establishment of a republican government, without wellappointed and efficient means for the universal education of the people, is the most rash and fool-hardy experiment ever tried by man... it may be an easy thing to make a republic; but it is a very laborious thing to make republicans; and woe to the republic that rests upon no better foundations than ignorance, selfishness, and passion (p. 6) his argument was that if the newly formed american government did not have a well-informed populous than its republican form of government would be a great folly. it could be argued that it would be better to have a traditional monarchy than a republic without a civically aware and critically-minded populous. jefferson (1787) in his notes on the state of virginia makes a similar argument. he believed that all governments would eventually skew towards tyranny, and only an educated populace with a strong knowledge of history and of world events would be able to stop this natural authoritarianism from occurring. there has been strong emphasis both at the elementary and secondary levels on areas like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem). while this can be helpful, it has also been used as a way to lessen the focus on areas like civics and social studies (maguth, 2012). as wise (2019) argues. we need to have a renewed focus on areas which he defines as mesh (media literacy, ethics, sociology, and history). he argues that this is necessary “because if these are not given equal attention, we could end up with incredibly bright and technically proficient people who lack all capacity for democratic citizenship.” this reduced focus on “mesh” areas is not only damaging for students, but can also leave teachers without the proper knowledge that they need to teach social studies. without that knowledge, teachers may not be able to thoroughly examine modern issues and how they relate to the lives of students in their classrooms. mccorkle in this study, the central area of focus is immigration. more specifically, the lived experiences of migrant populations and the policies that affect the lives of the immigrants in the united states. furthermore, this study is based on the desire to understand if our teachers are grasping the elements of critical citizenship that mann and jefferson argued are so essential. are they truly realizing that educators should prepare students to not blindly serve their country, but rather to be active members in the nuanced realities of a democratic republic? are they preparing students to think through modern, contentious issues and the relevance that these issues have on the lives of those in their communities? literature review this literature review first covers the centrality and importance of teachers’ attitudes towards students, by particularly examining the effect of implicit attitudes. there is a further examination of the relationship between broader social beliefs on controversial issues and the attitudes towards students. finally, the literature review explores the reasons for the lack of research on difference in teachers’ attitudes based on grade level as well as the relationship between attitudes and a more culturally relevant approach (ladson-billings, 2008). centrality of teachers’ attitudes of particular relevance to this study is the scholarship demonstrating that teachers’ attitudes towards students have a strong relationship to self-esteem, retention rates, and student outcomes in the classroom (alvidrez & weinstein, 1999; berktold, geis, & kaufman, 1999; rist, 1970; umaña-taylor, wong, & dumka, 2012). however, it is often difficult to truly discern the attitudes of teachers especially when it pertains to a contentious and sensitive area like race or immigration. teachers may not honestly relay what they think about their immigrant students. this is part of the reason why there has been a lack of research on teachers’ attitudes towards immigrant students in particular. van den bergh et al. (2012) analyzed the attitudes of dutch teachers towards refugee students from morocco and turkey and then compared it to student outcomes. the results showed that while there was no relationship between the explicitly stated attitudes of the teachers towards immigrants and student outcomes, there was a significant relationship between the implicit attitudes of teachers and student outcomes. the teachers that had the more inclusive implicit beliefs had students that were more likely to be successful in the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 classroom. these results imply that many teachers are less than honest or perhaps unaware about their own implicit beliefs towards minoritized students, and thus directly questioning teachers about these attitudes may prove ineffective. due to the difficulties of obtaining straightforward answers from teachers on their attitudes towards students, this study focuses on more indirect questioning (fisher, 1993) that centers around policy questions. in this area of immigration educational research there is little scholarship. cruz (2012) in her study of high school teachers in the midwest did ask questions regarding teachers’ attitudes towards educational rights, and mccorkle (2018a) expanded upon this in his nationwide study of teachers. sas (2009) looked at pre-service teachers’ beliefs towards immigration (legal) and then explored the relationship with their views regarding teaching and accommodation of english language learners (ell) learning. there has been more expansive research on teachers’ attitudes towards ell students (karabenick & noda, 2004; youngs & youngs, 2001) that show a range of results with more inclusive attitudes overall. there are some substantial differences between measuring attitudes towards immigrant rights and attitudes towards ell students. for one, much of the research is looking at teachers’ views of accommodations in the classroom for ell students, so many of the issues that are being analyzed are quite different from broader issues of rights for immigrant students (mccorkle, 2018a). relationship between societal beliefs and attitudes towards students the purpose of this research is based on the contention that there is a strong link between broad attitudes on current social issues and attitudes towards individual students. this can be related to the ideas of culturally relevant teaching. we cannot expect teachers to be fully supportive of their students from different backgrounds without understanding and even embracing the backgrounds of the students (gay, 2010; ladson-billings, 2008). likewise, if we would not expect a teacher with racist views to treat their students of different races in an equitable fashion, why would we then expect this when it comes to issues like immigration? (mccorkle, 2018a). though this appears valid on a theoretical level, it has not been examined greatly before on an empirical level. the results from this research did show a strong correlation between beliefs about borders and migration in general and teachers’ attitudes towards rights for immigrant students (r=.73, p=<.01). likewise, there was a strong negative correlation between mccorkle embrace of false narratives in the immigration debate and attitudes towards rights for immigrant students, (r=-.579, p=<.01) as well as a strong correlation between beliefs about modern immigration issues and attitudes towards rights for immigrant students (r=.827, p=<.01). though the attitudes towards rights for immigrant students may seem like the area most directly relevant to teachers given the strong relationship between these attitudes and broader beliefs about immigration, this research explores teachers’ attitudes and beliefs in all these areas as well as the differences based on grade level. variance in attitudes based on grade level though areas such as teacher beliefs about immigration and ell students have been explored in relation to race and gender (sas, 2009; youngs & youngs, 2001), there is a scarcity of research on the differences in attitudes between elementary, middle school, and secondary teachers on social issues. there are several possible reasons for this lack of research. for one, much scholarship that centers on these crucial social issues does so in the context of a particular instructional level of teachers. in the cases of cruz (2012), the research was from teachers at the high school level, and van den bergh et al (2010) work was based on teachers at the elementary level. another issue is that much of the research regarding teachers’ attitudes towards crucial social issues is done with more qualitative than quantitative methods (rodriguez, monreal, & howard, 2018; soutullo, smith-bonahue, sanders-smith, & navia, 2016). in this context, it is not necessarily possible to delineate any differences in attitudes between different grade levels. attitudes and a culturally relevant approach there has been significant scholarship that shows the inherent dangers of teachers from largely white middle-class backgrounds teaching in poor and more minority schools without a proper understanding of the cultural background (aronson, 2017; ladson-billings 2008). gloria ladson-billings (2008) argues that it is essential for teachers to not only learn how to teach students from diverse backgrounds but to intentionally engage themselves within the culture and the issues that students are facing. howard (2001) found that there is greater comfortability with teachers who take on this more culturally relevant approach. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 research question this study has two research questions. (1) what are the differences between elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers on beliefs about immigration (awareness of false immigration narratives, beliefs about borders and migration, and beliefs about current immigration issues) ? (2) what are the differences between elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers on specific attitudes towards educational restrictions for immigrant students? methods this study is based on a quantitative correlational design (braun, 2002). the analysis does not seek to claim cause-and-effect relationships, but rather seek to understand the broader relationships between variables. for example, in this study the analysis may show that teachers of certain grade levels may be more inclusive or exclusive towards immigrant students, but it cannot be proven that teaching at a certain grade level caused those changes. this study employed a survey design (rossi & wright, 2013). this type of survey research is appropriate for this type of study as it allowed for the inclusion of a large group of teachers from various backgrounds, types of schools, and different grade levels. this type of survey research was also appropriate given the quantitative nature of the study. a more ethnographic or case study qualitative-based research may be more effective in understanding the reasons behind these broader differences. however, a survey base quantitative design is the most effective in seeking to understand the initial statistical differences between these groups. the large n of this study was also instrumental in helping to understand the variance between factors that could not be identified with a smaller sample. sample this sample originally came from another study that the author was involved with. it is based on a sampling plan by wright et al. (2015) based on a sampling plan of congressional districts. all the congressional districts were lined up according to population density and then the second district and every fourth district were chosen for a total of 109 districts. within these districts the school districts were arranged alphabetically and the second, fourth, and fifth districts were chosen for approximately 60% of the school districts. for the congressional districts with only one school district present, that district was selected. a similar pattern was mccorkle used with the individual schools within the district. once these schools were selected the researchers gathered the teacher emails from those schools. teachers from all grade levels were selected. however, the sample did not include administrators, counselors, or specialists like speech therapists. this led to a large sample of emails that could be used for the study. wright et. al (2015) highlights that this model of using congressional districts is especially helpful because it draws on a large population from both rural and urban districts. it is also geographically diverse, so there was an opportunity to see the difference based on region of the country. the initial email was sent out in october 2017 and then two additional emails were sent out for those who did not respond to the initial request. this led to a final n of 5190. instrument all of the constructs measured in this research were self-generated by the author though the inspiration for certain items came from previous research (cruz, 2014; sas 2009) as well as from talking to experts in the field. the items were validated through a previous pilot study conducted among south carolina educators in the summer of 2017. the reason for the original elements was due to specific items related to immigration, particularly those related to attitudes towards educational rights and the broader abstract beliefs about borders and migration, which were unique and not readily available. there were a few individual items taken from other surveys such as cruz (2014) and sas (2009) that were modified for this survey. for this research, there were four main areas that were observed. the first was the embrace of false immigration narratives. this area examined how much teachers accepted the false narratives around refugee involvement in terrorism, undocumented immigrants’ eligibility to obtain federal benefits, higher crime rates for immigrants, and the ease of undocumented immigrants obtaining citizenship. these false narratives are not necessarily new, but they have become more mainstream particularly during the trump administration as they are often presented by the president himself (ojeda, wynn, & chen, 2016.). the cronbach alpha of this area was .688. the second category was broad beliefs about borders and migration. this is an area that has not been as extensively studied either in education or in the broader scholarship. there has been more research on specific issues of immigration related to individual countries (issp, 1995, wilson, 2001), but less related to the broader concepts of the rights of migration and the role of borders in the modern world. this construct looked at the ideas regarding the rights of migration, how much power countries should have in restricting migration at their borders, the morality of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 breaking immigration laws to provide for one’s family, and the whole concept of having an open border. the cronbach alpha of this construct was .904. the third construct was teachers’ views towards relevant modern immigration issues. since this survey was developed in 2017, the items that were chosen reflect the issues that were occurring in the context of immigration during that year. more specifically, it examined the areas of trump’s travel ban, the move to deport most of the country’s undocumented immigrants, the rights of those who would qualify as dreamers, and a pathway to citizenship for those who are undocumented. this construct had a cronbach alpha level of .851. the final construct, and arguably the most central in this study, was attitudes towards educational restrictions for immigrant students. this construct centered primarily on the issue of access to higher education for immigrant students as this is an area that is not protected by the case of plyler v. doe (1982), which prohibited discrimination based on immigration status at the k-12 levels. some states have used this gap to not only restrict in-state tuition and state licensure, but also to prohibit undocumented immigrants from even studying at state colleges and universities as is the case in south carolina and alabama (mccorkle & bailey, 2015). questions from the study regarding immigrant educational restrictions centered on the right of undocumented students to study at state colleges and universities, obtain in-state tuition, and be eligible for state scholarships and grants. there were also questions related to rights of us citizens with undocumented parents and deferred action for childhood arrivals recipients receiving in-state tuition. finally, there was a question related to undocumented students having to pay additional fees to attend public school at the k to 12 level. this question essentially asked if teachers agreed with the case of plyler v doe. all these questions are based on the model of indirect questioning that fisher (1993) argues can be more effective. this area had a cronbach alpha of.925 (see appendix for the survey items). statistical analyses in order to understand the variance in teachers’ attitudes based on grade level, a one-way anova analysis was employed to measure the differences between elementary (k-5), middle school (6-8), and high school (9-12). the grouping was determined based on the lowest grade that the teacher taught. for example, if a teacher taught at a small school and taught seventh through ninth grades, they would be marked as a middle school teacher in the analysis. these analyses were run for all four areas: awareness of false immigration narratives, attitudes towards mccorkle rights for immigrant students, beliefs about borders and migration more broadly, and beliefs about current immigration issues. in addition to the broader anova analysis of the constructs, there were also descriptive analyses of individual items within the constructs. results the first surveys were sent out in october 2017 using the qualtrics online program. then, two additional surveys were sent out for those who did not respond to the initial one. this led to a final n of 5190.2 after the data was collected, the survey was closed, and the initial cleaning and analysis of the data began. the demographic results for gender and race were compared to similar nces (2016) data. though these numbers were not identical to the numbers from nces, they were relatively close. 72.4% of respondents were female compared to 24.4% who were male. when examined by grade level, 88.4% percent of elementary teachers were female compared to 69.8% percentage at the middle grades and 59.4% at the high school level. overall, 84% identified as white non-hispanic, 7.2% identified as hispanic, 3.7% identified as african-american, and 2.3% identified as asian. table 1 teacher demographics column head study nces data male 27.4 23.4 female 72.4* 76.6 hispanic/latino 7.2 8.8 non-hispanic white 84 80.1 non-hispanic african american 3.7 6.7 asian 1.1 2.3 native american .4 .4 more than 1 race 3.7 1.4 * .2% identified as transgender3 2 this research was part of mccorkle (2018a) ph.d. dissertation. 3 this demographic data is the same as an article that is in press from rodriguez & mccorkle. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 research question 1 for the first research question the areas of awareness of false immigration narratives, beliefs on borders and migration more broadly, and beliefs on current controversial immigration issues were examined. awareness of false immigration narratives for the first area of awareness of false narratives, the anova analysis revealed that there was a significant difference between elementary, middle school, and secondary educators; there was stronger awareness among the secondary teachers as compared to middle grades or elementary (f=28.34, p=<.01). for this construct, several items were examined individually based on the differences between grade levels (see table 2). the one area of unawareness where there was the greatest tendency to embrace the false narrative was the ease of undocumented individuals obtaining citizenship. among elementary teachers, 67.1% percent strongly agreed, agreed, or somewhat agreed with this false narrative compared to 64.7% of middle school teachers, and 60.4% of high school teachers. the individual variance was also analyzed on perhaps one of the most prevalent false narratives during the trump era; that undocumented immigrants are taking federal government benefits (and thus being a drain on the system). 44.7% percent of elementary teachers strongly agreed, agreed, or somewhat agreed with the false narrative compared to 42.8% of middle school teachers and 41.8% of high school teachers. table 2 descriptive statistics and anova of embrace of false immigration narratives n mean std. deviation std. error elementary 1557 14.6519 4.21691 .10687 middle grades 1187 14.1870 4.30346 .12491 secondary 1713 13.5137 4.49363 .10857 sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 1071.645 2 535.823 28.343 .000 within groups 84203.735 4454 18.905 total 85275.380 4456 mccorkle beliefs on borders and migration in the second category of broad beliefs about borders and migration, there was also a statistically significant difference though to a lesser degree between the different grade levels (f=3.93, p=.02). similar to awareness of narratives, elementary teachers had the most exclusive views on borders and migration, followed my middle grades and secondary teachers (see table 3). when the items were examined individually, there were only two items that had a significant difference based on grade level. the first item asked if breaking immigration laws was immoral. 35.6% of elementary teachers strongly agreed, agreed, or somewhat agreed that it was compared to 32.7% of middle school teachers, and 30.1% of secondary teachers. the other item asked if it was moral for people to break immigration laws if they were providing for one’s family. 59.4% of elementary teachers strongly agreed, agreed, or somewhat agreed with the statement compared to 62.1% of middle school teachers and 66% of high school teachers. table 3 descriptive statistics and anova on beliefs on borders and migration n mean std. deviation std. error elementary 1164 27.4631 10.34243 .30314 middle grades 888 27.4279 10.61998 .35638 secondary 1353 28.4878 10.79420 .29346 sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 882.446 2 441.223 3.930 .020 within groups 381968.848 3402 112.278 total 382851.294 3404 beliefs on current immigration issues in the third area of beliefs in modern immigration issues the same pattern was seen with secondary teachers having the most inclusive beliefs followed by middle grades and elementary teachers (f=10.04, p=<.01) (see table 4). the item with the strongest variance was the question about deporting the majority of undocumented immigrants within the country. 31.2% of elementary teachers strongly agreed, agreed, or somewhat agreed with this item compared to 30.3% of middle school teachers and 26.2% of secondary teachers. on the item that specifically asked about children who were brought to the country as children being able to stay, 79.3% of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 elementary teachers strongly agreed, agreed, or somewhat agreed with the item compared to 78.1% of middle school teachers and 81.4% of secondary teachers. table 4 descriptive statistics and anova for beliefs on modern immigration issues n mean std. deviation std. error elementary 1300 20.8508 5.95693 .16522 middle grades 1016 21.1663 5.97638 .18750 secondary 1519 21.8361 5.96886 .15315 sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 714.700 2 357.350 10.037 .000 within groups 136430.121 3832 35.603 total 137144.821 3834 research question 2: attitudes towards rights for immigrant students the final construct of attitudes towards educational rights for immigrant students is where the most variance was seen (f=9.73, p=<.01). it should be noted that the majority of the items centered on students’ rights in higher education, which may be why there was a greater variance on this construct with teachers at higher grade levels holding more inclusive views than those at middle grades or elementary levels. there was no significant difference on the item about k-12 students who were undocumented having to pay extra fees (the issue that the case of plyler v. doe centered on). on the contentious issue of daca recipients being able to obtain instate tuition, 79.4% of elementary teachers strongly agreed, agreed, or somewhat agreed compared to 81.4% of middle grades teachers, and 82.5% of secondary teachers. mccorkle table 5 descriptive statistics and anova for attitudes towards rights for immigrant students n mean std. deviation std. error elementary 1370 31.6255 9.58835 .25905 middle grades 1039 32.1376 9.43670 .29276 secondary 1534 33.1408 9.24041 .23593 sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 1725.208 2 862.604 9.733 .000 within groups 349191.810 3940 88.627 total 350917.017 3942 discussion an expanded notion of care though the differences between elementary, middle school, and secondary teachers were not overwhelming compared to some other areas such as nationalism, political ideology, etc., the large data set did allow for analyses that showed significant differences between grade levels in all four areas. the items dealing with the rights of immigrant students to obtain higher education can at least partially be explained by the greater proximity of middle and, especially, secondary teachers to students who may be hindered by these barriers to obtain higher education. a kindergarten teacher, for example, may not even be considering the framework of one of their children being unable to obtain higher education due to their immigration status. while these differences can partially by contributed to these factors, it still does raise some concerns. as ladson-billings (2008) highlights, teachers must see their positions as advocates for students for their whole lives not just as temporary students while they are with them. teachers at all grade levels must see their responsibility as not only educating the child in their individual classroom, but truly being advocates for their students throughout their educational experiences and lives. the reality is that even many of the secondary teachers had relatively low means on some of the items that dealt with these issues of higher education. there were many high school teachers, where the connection between their classes and higher education should be obvious, that were still not supportive of educational access for these students. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 it should be noted that teachers with a higher percentage of immigrant students in the class did show slightly more inclusive attitudes towards rights for immigrant students (r=.078, p=<.01). the same trend was not seen, however, when the area of beliefs about borders and migration was analyzed. for at least some teachers, the closer proximity towards immigrant students did make them aware of the struggles and more empathetic at the personal level, but it was not at the levels that one might expect, neither did it seem to have as large an impact on their broader views on immigration. this harkens back to what scholars such as rodriguez (2015) and valenzuela (1999) have warned about in having an uncritical view of care. teachers may have a strong notion of care on an individual level, but not allow that vision of care to extend to the political and social realities of the child. increasing understandings of immigration, ethics, and critical pedagogy in the area of beliefs about borders and migration, there was a similar trend in the gap between elementary, middle school, and secondary teachers though not to the same extent as the attitudes towards educational rights. this difference between the constructs cannot be explained by more inclusive beliefs by elementary teachers on these items but rather more exclusive views from secondary teachers. overall, teachers’ beliefs about borders and migration were more exclusive among all teachers than the attitudes towards rights for immigrant students. on one hand this shows a notable trend that some teachers have more inclusive attitudes on issues directly related to their students than in broader discussion of immigration. however, as noted earlier, there is also a strong correlation between beliefs about borders and migration and attitudes towards rights for immigrant students (r=.729, p=<.01). it could be argued that in numerous ways these beliefs about borders and migration influence teacher attitudes towards immigrant students. if a teacher really does not believe that immigrant students have the right to migrate, then when they are being intellectually honest, are they actually going to support instate tuition for undocumented students? the reasons for the variance based on grade level are not immediately obvious, but several theories could help explain this difference. for one, could part of the reason for this variance be due to the fact that secondary social studies and english teachers may have been exposed to more classes that deconstruct some restrictive ideas about immigration? did they at least explore readings that highlighted some of these tensions surrounding nationalistic mccorkle immigration policies? could it also be due to the fact that some of these critical discussions may be more likely to take place in the middle or secondary classroom and thus allow teachers to entertain the critique of the nationalist narratives themselves? perhaps experiences such as these have allowed secondary teachers to have stronger backgrounds in the area of ethics, allowing them to take more nuanced positions. the two questions with the strongest variance within this construct were on the morality of breaking immigration laws generally and the moral justification of breaking immigration laws to provide for your family. it appeared that elementary teachers had a more clear-cut and rigid view of morality while the secondary teachers views were a little more relative and flexible. in the construct of attitudes towards modern issues of immigration, the same variance between grade levels is seen. there was a stronger variance on this construct compared to the beliefs about borders and migration. all the individual items showed a statistically significant difference between grade levels. however, it had less variance than in the area of attitudes towards rights for immigrant students. this area, as well, had a strong correlation with both attitudes towards rights for immigrant students (r=.827, p=<.01) and beliefs about borders and migration (r=.825, p=<.01). it is hard to decipher whether teachers’ views on these immediate issues shape their views on these broader more abstract issues or the inverse. however, it does show the practical implications and relevance of teachers’ beliefs on these issues. on areas such as deportation of the majority of undocumented immigrants or a pathway to citizenship for undocumented immigrants, teachers’ views really matter. teachers are more likely to have contact with the undocumented population than much of the american public. they can therefore help shape public policy in a more inclusive manner or they can allow the public opinion to drive their views more than their personal experiences with students. centrality of awareness arguably the most important area for examination is the area of the embrace and belief in false narratives. while the other three categories were based strongly on the beliefs of teachers, this category sought to understand the actual awareness of issues of immigration policy. the differences in levels of awareness between elementary, middle school, and secondary teachers can be more fully understood by understanding the issues, content, readings, and classroom discussions with which secondary teachers may be more inclined to be involved. this category is journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 of special importance because it could be argued that the unawareness towards these different immigration narratives could be driving some of the more exclusive attitudes. there is a strong negative correlation between embrace of false narratives and attitudes towards immigrant students (r=-.597, p=<.01), beliefs about borders and migration (r=-.593, p=<.01), and beliefs about modern immigration issues (r=-.68, p=<.01). though it is not possible to empirically prove that an unawareness of immigration issues or a tendency to believe false immigration narratives causes these more exclusive beliefs, it does follow logically. for example, if one does not believe that it is difficult for undocumented immigrants to obtain citizenship, that migrants commit crimes at higher rates, and that migrants are able to obtain easy government benefits without paying taxes, it might be harder to feel empathy for a student trying to obtain in-state tuition. it might also cause one to be more sympathetic to ideas like mass deportation. the reality is that is hard to change the attitudes of teachers on such a sensitive issue as immigration. however, if one can dispel teachers’ false narratives on illegal immigration with facts and information, they will perhaps be able to have an impact on their attitudes overall (mccorkle, 2018a). implications there are numerous implications from these results for both teachers and teacher educators. for one, there needs to be a stronger emphasis in educational philosophy, history, and current events for all teachers, including teachers in subject areas and grade levels where those topics may be less discussed. as a teacher educator who has taught education students at the elementary, middle school, and secondary levels in social studies methodology, this variance in historical and philosophical understanding can be fairly large. while one would expect a secondary social studies teacher whose primary emphasis is in social studies to have more content knowledge, the often near absence of social studies and historical knowledge of elementary and some middle school teachers should be examined. studies have shown that with greater education individuals tend to lean toward more progressive beliefs (harris, 2018). thus, it could be logically inferred that exclusive and xenophobic beliefs may be associated with less knowledge, particularly less knowledge in the social studies. there has been a growing focus on stem at all grade levels. while this is not necessarily a negative trend, it can be detrimental if it means that areas such as social studies and current events are less prominent in the curriculum. mccorkle there may also be a temptation among some teacher educators, particularly those working with elementary education majors, to avoid engaging fully with these issues. because elementary teachers may not be directly dealing with issues like deportation, nationalism, and xenophobia in their formal curriculum, there could be a tendency by teacher educators to not focus on these issues as part of their curriculum. however, this is ill informed pedagogy with possibly damaging results. even if second-grade teachers are not directly discussing the topic of deportation, it is important that they are informed and wrestle with these ideas not only to grow in their own critical thinking, but also in order to become better advocates for their students. it is essential to encourage future elementary teachers to teach their students about critical citizenship even if it is done in a more simplistic way at the earlier grade levels. conclusion overall, this research points to the need for greater training and teacher education on issues of immigration, rights for immigrant students, and most importantly the awareness of immigration policy and false immigration narratives. further mixed-methods research could be conducted with teachers at all grade level to understand more fully the reasons for these differences in attitudes. furthermore, there could be research conducted with principals, particularly those who have worked at different levels, to offer insight in the variance in attitudes they have witnessed. in times of conflict on issues like immigration, it may be easy for teachers to not discuss these controversial issues. however, it is essential for teachers as advocates to do so with a president that wants to make it nearly impossible for refugees to seek asylum or infers that he does not want any refugees coming into the country (blitzer, 2019; hesson, 2019). teachers must not only engage and discuss these issues but actively stand against the dehumanization of immigrants and the administration’s failure to stand up for basic principles of human rights. as mccorkle (2018b) highlights, it will be up to teachers to stop these false immigration narratives and xenophobia from extending into the future. as mann (1848) warned us almost two centuries ago, if we do not have an educated populace that undermines these types of dangerous thinking, the republic will not remain strong, and could even cease to exist entirely. as teacher educators we should take mann’s warning to heart and make sure our education students are critically engaged with the societal issues that will be affecting the students within their classrooms. it is journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 the responsibility of educators and teacher educators to ensure that this critical engagement supersedes a problematic status quo that normalizes restrictive immigration narratives and policies. references alvidrez, j., & weinstein, r. s. (1999). early teacher perceptions and later student academic achievement. journal of educational psychology, 91(4), 731-746. aronson, b. a. (2017). the white savior industrial complex: a cultural studies analysis of a teacher educator, savior film, and future teachers. journal of critical thought and praxis, 6(3), 3. berktold, j., geis, s., & kaufman, p. (1998). subsequent educational attainment of high school dropouts. postsecondary education descriptive analysis reports.statistical analysis report. washington d.c.: us government printing office. braun, j. (2002). part i. correlational versus experimental studies [course notes]. retrieved from http://psych.wisc.edu/braun/281/research/research.html. cruz, e. (2014). examining teachers' knowledge and attitudes towards immigration and undocumented immigrants [master’s thesis, purdue university]. de andreotti, v. o. (2014). soft versus critical global citizenship education. in development education in policy and practice (pp. 21-31). palgrave macmillan. dejaeghere, j. g., & tudball, l. (2007). looking back, looking forward: critical citizenship as a way ahead for civics and citizenship education in australia. citizenship teaching and learning, 3(2), 40-57. fisher, r. j. (1993). social desirability bias and the validity of indirect questioning. journal of consumer research, 20(2), 303-315. gay, g. (2010). culturally responsive teaching: theory, research, and practice [abridged]. teachers college press. shorturl.at/ubg59 harris, a. (2018, november 7). america is divided by education. the atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/11/education-gap-explains american-politics/575113/ hesson, t. (2019, july 18). trump officials pressing to slash refugee admissions to zero next year. politico. https://www.politico.com/story/2019/07/18/trump-officials-refugee-zero 1603503 mccorkle howard, t. c. (2001). telling their side of the story: african-american students' perceptions of culturally relevant teaching. the urban review, 33(2), 131-149. issp research group (1995): international social survey programme: national identity 1 issp 1995. gesis data archive, cologne. za. jefferson, t. (1787). notes on the state of virginia. retrieved from https://docsouth.unc.edu/southlit/jefferson/jefferson.html johnson, l., & morris, p. (2010). towards a framework for critical citizenship education. the curriculum journal, 21(1), 77-96. karabenick, s. a., & noda, p. a. c. (2004). professional development implications of teachers' beliefs and attitudes toward english language learners. bilingual research journal, 28(1), 55-75. ladson-billings, g. (2008). “yes, but how do we do it?”: practicing culturally relevant pedagogy. in w. ayers (ed.), city kids, city schools: more reports from the front row (pp.162-177). new york: the new press. maguth, b. m. (2012). in defense of the social studies: social studies programs in stem education. social studies research & practice, 7(2). mann, h. (1891). 12th annual report to the massachusetts state board of education. life and works of horace mann. ct dillingham. available from: hathi trust. https://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/democrac/16.htm mccorkle, w. the awareness and attitudes of teachers towards educational restrictions for immigrant students [doctoral dissertation, clemson university]. mccorkle, w. (2018b). the rationale and strategies for undermining xenophobia in the classroom. the social studies, 109(3), 151-166. mccorkle, w. d., & bailey, b. (2015). un human rights violations here at home? the plight of undocumented and daca students in south carolina, usa. journal of international social studies, 6(1), 161-167. mcdonough, k., & cormier, a. a. (2013). beyond patriotic education: locating the place of nationalism in the public school curriculum. education, citizenship and social justice, 8(2), 135-150. national council for educational statistics (2016). characteristics of public school teachers. retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_clr.asp#info journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 21-41 ojeda, r. h., wynn. m., & chen, z. . (2016). donald trump’s false narrative on mexican migration and trade: a geopolitical economic analysis. ucla institute for research on labor and employment. available online at http://www.naid.ucla. edu/uploads/4/2/1/9/4219226/trumptrade_execsum_v16. pdf. rist, r. (1970). student social class and teacher expectations: the self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education. harvard educational review, 40(3), 411-451. rodriguez, s. (2015). the dangers of compassion: the positioning of refugee students in policy and education research and implications for teacher education. knowledge cultures, 3(2), 111-126. rodriguez, s., monreal, t., & howard, j. (2018). “it’s about hearing and understanding their stories”: teacher empathy and socio-political awareness toward newcomer undocumented students in the new latino south. journal of latinos and education, 1 18. rossi, p. h., wright, j. d., & anderson, a. b. (eds.). (2013). handbook of survey research [abridged]. academic press. shorturl.at/vacw3 sas, m. m. (2009). teacher candidates’ attitudes toward immigration and teaching learners of english a second language. [doctoral dissertation, university of nevada-las vegas]. shear, m.d. & davis, j.h. (2019, october 1). shoot migrants’ legs, build alligator moat: behind trump’s ideas for border. the new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/01/us/politics/trump-border-wars.html soutullo, o. r., smith-bonahue, t. m., sanders-smith, s. c., & navia, l. e. (2016). discouraging partnerships? teachers’ perspectives on immigration-related barriers to family-school collaboration. school psychology quarterly, 31(2), 226. umaña-taylor, a. j., wong, j. j., gonzales, n. a., & dumka, l. e. (2012). ethnic identity and gender as moderators of the association between discrimination and academic adjustment among mexican-origin adolescents. journal of adolescence, 35(4), 773-786. van den bergh, l., denessen, e., hornstra, l., voeten, m., & holland, r. w. (2010). the implicit prejudiced attitudes of teachers: relations to teacher expectations and the ethnic achievement gap. american educational research journal, 47(2), 497-527. valenzuela, a. (1999). subtractive schooling: issues of caring in education of us-mexican youth. state university of new york press. wilson, t. c. (2001). americans' views on immigration policy: testing the role of threatened group interests. sociological perspectives, 44(4), 485-501. mccorkle wright, b. r., wallace, m., wisnesky, a. s., donnelly, c. m., missari, s., & zozula, c. (2015). religion, race, and discrimination: a field experiment of how american churches welcome newcomers. journal for the scientific study of religion, 54(2), 185-204. wright, m. (2011). policy regimes and normative conceptions of nationalism in mass public opinion. comparative political studies, 44(5), 598-624. youngs, c. s., & youngs, g. a. (2001). predictors of mainstream teachers' attitudes toward esl students. tesol quarterly, 35(1), 97-120. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (4), 446-469 446 extra causers and how they create conflict between religion and science in dan brown’s angels and demons, including pedagogical implications bayu dewa murti1, m. r. nababan2, riyadi santosa3 & tri wiratno4 abstract this study investigates extra causers, their types, and their application in angels and demons, a novel by dan brown. this study also attempts to establish the function of extra causers in constructing a mysterious conflict between religion and science throughout the various stages of the novel. the study was conducted using a descriptive qualitative method with a qualitative analysis derived from a combination of miles and huberman’s and spradley’s qualitative analysis (domain, taxonomic, and componential analyses) and finding cultural values. the results show that there are four different types of extra causers in all stages of the novel, with there being 412 occurrences in total. they exist both with and without prime agents, as well as in both the active and passive voice. the various types of extra causer constructions include initiators (126), inducers (89), attributors (131), and assigners (66). in addition, they are found throughout the novel’s stages, including the orientation (19), complication (306), evaluation (42), and resolution (45). the results indicate how extra causers contribute to developing the mystery of the conflict between religion and science throughout the novel’s stages. the results also reflect that when modeling a text like a detective novel for students, extra causers should be delicately introduced in the orientation, complication, evaluation, and resolution. pedagogically, the stages of the novel and the way they create conflicts between the values of religion and science indicate that modeling a novel in a genre-based model of language teaching provides critical insights for social teaching values. keywords: extra causers, function, mystery of conflict, novel stages, genre model. introduction a novel is a literary work that usually takes the form of a long narrative following fictional characters, settings, and events related to daily life. novels can fall into more than 25 different genres, such as crime, thriller, or fantasy, to name but a few (bork, 2016; martin, 2012). a novel in the crime genre usually involves a mystery. these are developed through a clue–puzzle structure that complicates and extends the mystery throughout the novel (effron, 2010). the 1doctor candidate, universitas sebelas maret, surakarta indonesia, bayudewamurti@gmail.com 2prof. dr.universitas sebelas maret, surakarta indonesia, amantaradja@yahoo.com 3prof. dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta indonesia, riyadisantosa@staff.uns.ac.id 4dr. universitas sebelas maret, surakarta indonesia, wiratno.tri@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 mystery not only unfolds in the pages of the novel but also makes the reader want to learn the resolution. in this way, the mystery is spread over the entire novel until the reader finds closure at the end of the text (martin, 2012). when a mystery is investigated, often by a detective, it will have hidden elements that are revealed through clues. the investigator therefore speculates about the mystery through propositions about possible cause-and-effect relations (effron, 2010; martin, 2012). thus, the reader is also led to experience and unravel the mystery through these causeand-effect relations. sometimes these relations are realized as consequences of complex clauses (martin & rose, 2007; santosa, 2011), while in other cases, they are represented through extra causer clause construction (martin et al., 2010). mystery in crime and detective novels characterize all the stages of the stories, but it is managed in such a way that it rises and falls throughout the orientation, complication, evaluation, and resolution (martin, 2012). this means that cause-and-effect relations are present throughout the novel. an extra causer is a peculiar construction of transitivity that presents the prime or ultimate agent of events in the experiential meanings of clauses. this type of construction is also called an ergative system, because it makes the actor become a medium of a process. extra causer constructions usually employ causative verbs, such as have, let, get, make, call, name, and so on. a number of these verbs—such as have, let, get and make—can also be combined with other verbs to perform events (martin et al., 2010; halliday & matthiessen, 2014). other verbs—such as call, name and pronounce—may be use alone to realize events. there are four types of extra causer in english, namely initiator, inducer, attributor, and assigner. they are constructed from different processes ranging from material, mental, behavioral, attributive, and indicative of relational processes (martin et al., 2010). angels and demons, which was published in 2000, is a best-selling mystery novel by dan brown. the novel introduces the protagonist robert langdon, who is a college professor specializing in “symbology” (calabrese & rossi, 2015). he is forced to solve enigmas and decipher the puzzle as he investigates the murder of leonardo vetra, a roman catholic priest and scientist who has created “antimatter,” which has applications as an alternative energy source but could also become a weapon of mass destruction in the hands of the illuminati, a secret and supposedly extinct society (jacob & laxman, 2018). in this novel, the mystery involves a conflict between the vatican and the illuminati, which has been stigmatized for centuries (moritz, 2009), and this is delicately blended in the various stages of the novel. murti, et. al. to date, no previous studies have looked at detective novels from the perspective of how extra causers are used to contribute to the development of mystery. most research into detective novels has dealt with how the mystery and detection are structured in the different stages of the novel (effron, 2010) or how readers are forced to wait to learn the outcome (martin, 2012). murti et al. (2018) mention the presence of extra causers but fail to address their role in developing the different stages of the novel. research questions drawing from the perspectives of extra causers and the pedagogical implications for the angels and demons novel, the following three research questions were developed to guide the research process: 1) what are the types of extra causers, both with and without prime agents, in passive and active voice? 2) what are the functions of extra causers in developing the different stages of the novel to construct a mystery of conflict between religion and science? 3) what are the pedagogical implications for detective novels from the perspective of extra causers? literature review text and novel a novel is a literary work that describes events, characters, and settings. novels may have different types of stories with various themes (bork, 2016), but they are usually packaged as a narrative that typically comprises four stages: orientation, complication, evaluation, and resolution.it is generally accepted that a narrative is more of a process for presenting fictional events rather than ordering events to influence an audience. the presentation also exploits the use of language (tan, 2011), so a novel is also a verbal social process that employs language to achieve its aim. in other words, a novel employs text to realize its social goal. as a text, a novel is an instantiation of a register, which is a configuration of the meanings of simultaneously integrated aspects of field, tenor, and mode (hasan, 2014). this configuration limits the use of language features, including the use of certain types of phonology or graphology, lexico grammar, and discourse semantics, including text structure (martin et al., 2010; santosa, 2011; taboada, 2011; hasan 2014; lecompte-van poucke, 2016), which is itself a realization of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 generic structure potential (gsp) (matthiessen, 2015a, 2015b; matthiessen & khasyaf, 2014). this contextual configuration (or register), is therefore a resource pool of meanings for analyzing the type and role of language as a social process (bowcher, 2018). therefore, a crime or detective novel has a particular register that presents mystery and investigation through causeand-effect relations in clause complexes and extra causers. genre is defined as a staged goal-oriented social process, a type of recurring culture (martin & rose, 2007; martin et al., 2010; martin, 2014) that constructs a recognized pattern that is used to respond and act within a culture (liddicoat, 2009). the stages may contain phases of logically connected clauses that lead to the goal (santosa, 2011). two different types of genres relate to the genericity of their goals: micro-genres with more generic goals and macro-genres with less generic goals. micro-genres can in turn be divided into two kinds of genres: factual and fictional. the factual genres include descriptions, reports, recounts, procedures, explanations, expositions, discussions, and exploration (ibid). the fictional genres, meanwhile, can be further classified into recount, anecdote, exemplum, and narrative. the differences between the four types of fictional genre are based on the types of events being presented and how they are enacted, interpreted, and resolved. a recount, for example, begins with an orientation and continues with a record of events. an anecdote, meanwhile, begins with orientation and continues onto crisis and reaction. next, an exemplum starts with the orientation and continues onto an incident and its interpretation. finally, a narrative, which is the basis of novels, starts with orientation and continues onto complication, evaluation, and resolution (martin, 1992). pedagogically, this concept of language introduces a genre-based model of language teaching, something that lim (2018) calls a systemic functional approach to language teaching. it implies that the aspects of what, as well as how, language is constructed in social literacy should be experienced through a teaching–learning process (parker, 2019; rose, 2018). therefore, this genre-based model of language teaching generates four stages of teaching–learning processes: building knowledge of the field (bkof), modelling, joint construction of the text, and independent construction of the text (rose, 2014). the stages of teaching vary according to the text type, the genre, and the register (matthiessen, 2015a, 2015b; kartika-ningsih & rose, 2018). a discussion of what extra causers are and how they can create conflict between religion and science will contribute to teaching students about detective novels. murti, et. al. in general, detective novels, which are often called crime novels, have the typical stages of a narrative, namely orientation, complication, evaluation, and resolution. the difference lies in how a detective novel incorporates clues and puzzles that are spread throughout the different stages of the novel, causing the reader to engage in the investigation and solve the puzzles or greater mystery while reading the novel (effron, 2010; martin, 2012). mysteries result from greed, corruption, jealousy, or in sanity that may have persisted for centuries (robinson & haney, 2000). the course of events, or happenings, in this genre resembles a development of complications. it begins with a murder followed by suspicion and possibly a false arrest before finally ending with a resolution (erdmann, 2009). the mystery moves from stage to stage and culminates at the end with the closure of the novel. thus, throughout the different stages of the novel, the reader is presented with mysteries that are usually resolved when the reader finishes the novel (segal, 2010). the puzzles or mysteries often result from deeds that transgress order or law, so they require investigate onto solve them. these unlawful deeds are often accompanied by mayhem, disgust, or horror, since detective fiction often exploits murder as the vehicle for the enigma. within the disgust and horror, however, the detective character manages to find clues. these are all things that give a detective novel its flavor of mystery and investigation (pittard, 2016). when a transgression of order occurs, it results in a murder, often accompanied by mayhem and horror. the criminal and the detective then create speculations about the mystery and investigation in the form of causes and effects. in language, causes and effects are often realized in clause complexes, but in some cases, they are represented in an ergative type of clause known as “extra causers” (martin et al., 2010; santosa, 2011). in this novel, the mystery results from a conflict between the vatican and the illuminati, an ancient, supposedly extinct, secret society of anti-religious scientists. this underpins brown’s idea of a conspiracy theory in this novel (jacob & laxman, 2018). however, this conflict has been stigmatized in european society, resulting in the taking of life (moritz, 2009). the mystery of the conflict, as the result of a conspiracy theory, is realized in the form of extra causers and unfolded in a narrative genre. the use of extra causers in the types and functions of the narrative genre represent a type of language use, or register and genre (rose, 2018), and it implies the introduction of a genre-based approach when scaffolding detective novels (lim, 2018). this way, the author definitely emphasizes how pedagogical implications are served through the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 entire staging of the novel. these pedagogical implications can be described through the conflict between religion and science, the particular characteristics of angels and demons, and the role of a mystery novel in teaching literature. extra causers an extra causer is a type of prime agent from an ergative perspective. it causes an actor to act, a sensor to sense something, a carrier to carry some attribute, or a token to become associated with something else. an extra causer presents the prime agent as the cause of an event through transitivity (martin et al., 2010; halliday & matthiessen, 2014). for example, in the following clause, through transitivity, “the boat” is the actor, while “is sailing” is the material process and “to the river” is the circumstance, in this case a location or place. the boat is sailing to the river actor material process circumstance: location: place however, from an extra causer perspective, “the boat” is the medium, “is sailing” is the process, and “to the river” is the circumstance. the prime agent in this construction is absent, because it has been hidden for a specific reason. medium voice the boat is sailing to the river medium process circumstance therefore, this construction is referred to as a medium voice. however, when a prime agent is present, it is called an effective voice (halliday & matthiessen, 2014), and in the works of martin et al. (2010), this agent is referred to as an “extra causer.” effective voice the man made the boat sail to the river agent promedium -cess circumstance apart of the effective voice perspective is the extra causer. from this perspective, the agent is the extra causer. the man made the boat sail to the river extra causer proactor -cess circumstance from the effective voice perspective, there are four types of extra causers. this classification is based on the types of the prime agents and the types of processes being executed by the medium. an extra causer can bean initiator, inducer, attributor, or assigner, with each type depicting a murti, et. al. certain kind of process. for example, an initiator is the prime agent for a material process, an inducer is the prime agent for a mental or behavioral process, an attributor is the prime agent for an attributive relational process, and an assigner is the prime agent for an identifying relational process (martin et al., 2010; halliday & matthiessen, 2014). the presence of an extra causer is characterized by accompanying causative verbs, such as let, have, make, get, and so on. table 1. types of extra causer constructions you initiator will help process us actor do -material this goal other verbs: make, let, get (something) do these programs inducer let process parents sensor understand -mental their responsibilities phenomenon other verbs: persuade, convince, assure, satisfy his experience assigner makes process him token (be) -identifying the best judge value other verbs: elect, name, vote, call, make the new school attributor has made process him carrier (be) -attributive more rebellious attribute other verbs: keep, leave, drive (martin, 2010) methods this research took the form of stylistic research that applied a descriptive and qualitative method. it made use of a systemic functional linguistics (sfl) approach to collect data in the form of extra causer constructions. this research aimed to describe how mystery and investigation were portrayed throughout different stages of the angels and demons novel. it used total sampling by collecting all types of extra causers in dan brown’s novel that were used to depict mystery and investigation. the data were analyzed based on a combination of a modified version of miles and huberman’s and spradley’s stages of qualitative analyses—namely domain, taxonomic, and componential analyses—and finding cultural values (santosa, 2017). in the domain stage, the extra causers were collected and classified into the stages of orientation, complication, evaluation, and resolution. for each stage, the extra causers were then classified based on the presence or absence of prime agents and according to the use of passive or active voice. in the taxonomic analysis, the extra causers in each stage were analyzed to establish whether their functions were in accord with the functions of each stage. in the componential stage, the categories from the domain and taxonomic stages were combined in a componential matrix to find patterns that journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 revealed how each stage was portrayed through extra causers that realize mystery and investigation. finally, these patterns were returned to their original contexts, and the chosen approach method and underlying theory were used to establish how the extra causers helped contribute to the development of mystery and investigation in the novel. the patterns and the extra causers that create conflict between religion and science would be potential materials for modeling a text in a genre-based model of language teaching. findings and discussion in this section, the findings are described and discussed according to the research questions, namely to find the extra causer constructs and their variants and establish the functions of these constructs in developing the different stages of the novel. types and roles of extra causers the data reveals four types of extra causer constructs in the novel: initiator, inducer, attributor, and assigner. not all these types are found in both the active and passive voice and both with and without an agent, however. table 2 presents the classification and presence of extra causers in the novel. table 2. classification and presence of extra causers in the novel types of extra causers presence of agent type of voice number of occurrences active passive initiator agent 90 126 agentless 36 inducer agents 59 89 agentless 29 1 attributor agent 124 131 agentless 7 assigner agent 47 1 66 agentless 18 total number of extra causers 412 as mentioned in the literature review, extra causers are prime agents that make the medium do something. martin et al. (2010) and halliday and matthiessen (2014) name each type of extra causer depending on the types of processes in the transitivity system. an initiator is the prime agent in a material process, while an inducer is the prime agent of a mental or behavioral process, an attributor is the prime agent of an attributive relational process, and an assigner is the prime agent of an identifying relational process. table 2 shows that there are 412 extra causers in murti, et. al. the novel in total. the attributor is the most commonly used type of extra causer in the novel, followed by initiator, inducer, and assigner, with each performing its own particular function. initiator an initiator is used in a material process. it can appear to be both doing and encouraging material processes. it is accompanied by an actor in an ongoing process and by an actor and a goal in performing a material process, such as in clauses 1 and 3. however, it appears without a goal when encouraging a material process, such as in clause 2. table 2 indicates how initiators occur both with and without an agent but are not present in the passive voice. for example: 1. he led langdon across the tarmac toward the plane he led langdon across the tarmac toward the plane initiator proactor -cess range cir: loc: place 2. we must let them go. we must let them go for the good for the whole initiator process actor material process cir: cause: reason 3. i need you to take us to your lab. i need you to take us to your lab initiator proactor -cess goal cir: loc: place the process for using an initiator usually involves a combination with a causative and material process. for example, led is combined with across in clause 1, let appears with go in clause 2, and need is used with take in clause 3. in general, the function of the initiator is to depict the cause and effect in some material processor do something that occurs in a series of events in crime and investigation. inducer the inducer is present in mental and behavioral processes, so it is accompanied by a sensor and a phenomenon, a behaver and a phenomenon, or a behaver and verbiage. this is because an inducer can also occur in both mental behavioral and verbal behavioral processes. unlike with the findings of murti et al. (2018), examples 2 and 3 do not belong to the category of inducer with a mental process but rather resemble an inducer with mental behavioral and verbal behavioral processes. this is because the constituents of the processes of acclimatize and talk journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 match the characteristics of a behavioral process. first, it can be constructed into a continuous form or “present in present,” so it can work with the pro-verb “do.” finally, it cannot be followed by a meta-phenomenon (martin et al., 2010). for example: 1. langdon made him understand what he was about to say langdon made him understand what he was about to say. inducer process sensor process phenomenon 2. it helps people acclimatize to the new faith. it helps people acclimatize to the new faith inducer process behaver mental behavioral phenomenon 3. couldn’t you make him talk? couldn’t you make him talk proinducer -cess behaver verbal behavioral process inducers occur in both the presence and absence of an agent, but there is only a single occurrence in the passive voice. inducers convey the extra causers’ persuasions to the sensor or behaver in order to perform the process. attributor an attributor is found in an attributive relational process. its presence is accompanied by a carrier and attribute. some attributive relational verbs can stand alone, such as in examples 2 and 3 below with the verbs earned and viewed, while others are combined attributive relational verbs, such as make…look, make…feel, make…become, and so on. 1. it makes me look clever. it makes me look clever attributor process carrier attributive r p attribute 2. recreation with an infectious fanaticism that had earned him a fraternal acceptance among his students recreation with an infectious fanaticism that had earned him a fraternal acceptance among his students attributor process carrier attribute 3. langdon’s friends had always viewed him as a bit of an enigma langdon’s friends had always viewed him as a bit of an enigma attributor attributive r p carrier attribute murti, et. al. the function of an attributor is to label or characterize the carrier, which can be a person or thing. in example 3, “langdon’s friends” play the role of attributor, because they assign the label “as a bit of an enigma” to “him,” who then becomes the carrier of this label. assigner an assigner can be found in an identifying relational process. the participants that follow the process are the value and token. this process associates a value with the token, which again can be a person or thing. 1. i will make your cardinals media luminaries i will make your cardinals media luminaries assigner process token value 2. they called it their luciferian doctrine. they called it their luciferian doctrine assigner process token value 3. sometimes he called her maria benedetta — the blessed mary. sometimes he called her maria benedetta — the blessed mary assigner process token value extra causers without an agent the data also reveals extra causer constructions in the active voice without an agent. these usually begin with a causative process—such as let, get, make, call, help, keep and allow—and they are realized in an imperative clause of the english mood system to serve as a proposal (martin et al., 2010; halliday & matthiessen, 2014). 1. get a fixed cell read. get a fixed cell read process actor material process 2. help me find the next marker. help me find the next marker process behaver mental behavioral p phenomenon 3. call it whatever you like call it whatever you like identifying relational p token value journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 4. keep your eyes open keep your eyes open process actor material process in addition, agentless, active extra causers can also be realized in a noun clause with a wh construction that is also translated in the same construction. for example: 5. how to make the people believe again. how to make the people believe again circumstance process sensor mental p circumstance however, the verbs are frequently combined with others to perform more specific processes. the use of get…read, help…find, keep…open, make…believe in examples 1, 2, 4, and 5 above show such combinations. extra causers in the passive voice finally, extra causer constructions in the passive voice are also found in the novel, although not all types of extra causers occur in the passive voice, only inducers and assigners. usually, the prime agent is omitted. examples 1, 2, 3, and 4 below show the absence of a prime agent in extra causer constructions using the passive voice. 1. it is called the trinacria. it is called the trinacria token process value 2. scientific facts <<he held to be true but>> was not allowed to share. scientific facts <<…>> was not allowed to share phenomenon process mental behavioural process 3. … already seven different cardinals had been named. already seven different cardinals had been named token identifying r p 4. it is called “acclamation by adoration.” it is called acclamation by adoration token identifying r p value these passive extra causers also indicate that the writer finds it unnecessary to introduce the prime agent, since it is already clear from the context. murti, et. al. pedagogically, the types of extra causers, both with and without prime agents and in both passive and active voices, implies what should also be incorporated into material development when teaching about detective novels (rose, 2014; matthiessen, 2015a, 2015b). there now follows a discussion of the function or role of extra causers in contributing to the development of mystery and investigation throughout the different stages of the novel. function of extra causers in developing different stages of the novel in this section, the function of extra causer constructions in developing the text structure in the novel is described and discussed according to four stages: orientation, complication, evaluation, and resolution. the discussion focuses on how they help to develop the mystery and investigation throughout the different stages of the novel. table 3. the distribution of extra causers over the different stages of the novel stages distribution of extra causers over the novel total initiator inducer attributor assigner orientation 8 4 5 2 19 complication 81 63 106 56 306 evaluation 22 10 7 3 42 resolution 15 12 13 5 45 total 126 89 131 66 412 as table 3 suggests, the number of extra causers in the source language varies substantially between the different stages of the novel. in the orientation, there are 19 occurrences of extra causers, but this increases dramatically to 306 in the complication. this increase seems to support the function at this stage, which presents many problems that contribute to the climax of the story. it is therefore logical that this stage employs extra causers more frequently. following this stage, the number of extra causers decreases sharply to 42 in the evaluation. this accords with the function of this stage, which is to illustrate how problems are recognized and evaluated in the story, which requires fewer extra causers. finally, in the resolution, the number of extra causers continues at roughly the same level with 45 occurrences. this is because the function of this stage is to unravel the mystery and solve the problems that arose in the complication, which again requires fewer extra causers than the complication stage. nevertheless, despite the uneven spread, the presence of extra causers contributes to developing the mystery and investigation throughout the novel (pittard, 2016). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 the following section discusses the role of extra causers in developing the mystery and investigation a teach stage. extra causers in the orientation the orientation introduces the setting and the characters in the novel (martin, 1992). the extra causers that appear in this stage also depict the function of a cause-effect relation. for example: 1. langdon’s friends had always viewed him as a bit of an enigma — a man caught between centuries. langdon’s friends had always viewed him as a bit of an enigma — a man caught between centuries assigner process token value in this example, langdon’s character is described from the point of view of his friends. instead of using verbal projection in a clause complex to describe langdon’s character, the writer uses an assigner construction to associate langdon’s character with a constituent value, namely that he is “a bit of an enigma — a man caught between centuries.” a mystery lies within this value, because an enigma refers to a mysterious or inexplicable person or thing. in the latter part, when langdon is described as “a man caught between centuries,” he is depicted as a man who somehow straddles both the 20th and 21st centuries, meaning that he adheres to both old and new norms and values and adding to his character’s mystery. 2. he relished recreation with an infectious fanaticism that had earned him a fraternal acceptance among his students. he relished recreation with an infectious fanaticism that had earned him a fraternal acceptance among his students sensor mental p phenomenon attributor process carrier attribute in example 2, langdon is described using an attributor construction to present his character as carrying an attribute, namely as someone who is seen as a father figure by his students. the attribute “fraternal acceptance” is due to his character being described as having “an infectious fanaticism,” which may imply an excessive intolerance of opposing views transmitted from an older generation. again, in this case, the writer succeeds in positioning the attributor of “recreation with an infectious fanaticism” as the prime agent to bring about the attribute “a fraternal acceptance among his students” in the description. murti, et. al. 3. it was vaguely reminiscent of the space shuttle except that the top had been shaved off, leaving it perfectly flat. … leaving it perfectly flat process carrier attribute in this example, the writer describes a setting in which langdon has to fly an aircraft, one he is actually afraid of flying. the aircraft is portrayed as a space shuttle without a top, so it is perfectly flat. “it” refers to the aircraft as the carrier, while the constituent “perfectly flat” is used as the attribute. from examples 1, 2, and 3, it can be seen that although the orientation is normally used to introduce characters, settings, and events, the writer succeeds in presenting these in a mysterious manner. in this way, elements of mystery are introduced into this crime novel right from the beginning (effron, 2010; segal, 2010; martin, 2012). extra causers in the complication the complication starts to describe the problems as they happen, and they are introduced and developed continually with the mounting action, culminating in the climax (martin, 1992). extra causers are also used to describe the mystery and investigation at this stage of the novel. for example: 1. now she had returned home. but home to what? cern, her world since she was twelve, seemed suddenly foreign. her father, the man who had made it magical, was gone. the man who made it magical attributor process carrier attribute in this example, the writer attempts to introduce a mounting conflict between religion and science by illustrating the effect that the murder of vittoria vetra’s father, leonardo vetra, has had on her. his murder results in her adopting a contradictory perception of cern, a place where her father had raised her but with which she was no longer familiar, because her father’s death had made cern no longer magical. this rising mystery is portrayed in an attributor construction. 2. then he would beam with fatherly pride as he explained to them how it had been one of vittoria’s ideas that had helped him make the project a reality… that his daughter had been integral in his breakthrough. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 one of vittoria’s idea that had helped him make the project a reality attributor 1 process attributor 2 process carrier attribute in this double extra causer, attributors 1 and 2 are used to add to the increasing mystery by revealing that it was not leonardo vetra but rather vittoria that contributed the ideas that helped her father realize his project at cern. in this clause, the presence of a double extra causer with two attributors is a rare form of extra causer construction, and it is used here to project the mysteriousness of cern. 3. the caller laughed. “i fear the prolific nature of your religion will make that a trying task. have you not counted lately? there are over four hundred catholic churches in rome. cathedrals, chapels, tabernacles, abbeys, monasteries, convents, parochial schools…” …the prolific nature of your religion will make that a trying task. attributor process carrier attribute when threatening to blow up catholic churches in rome, the criminal attempts to make olivetti, a cardinal, understand that he is not bluffing. the criminal truthfully points out that the cardinal’s attempt to guard every church in rome will be a futile attempt with no effect on the bombing. the writer presents this idea in an attributor construction, with the attempt to guard every church, represented as the carrier “that,” being associated with the attribute “a trying task.” 4. “play into their hands?” olivetti said. “believe me, removing all protection from vatican city in order to stake out hundreds of churches is what the illuminati hope we will do…wasting precious time and manpower when we should be searching… or worse yet, leaving the vatican bank totally unprotected. not to mention the remaining cardinals.” removing all … to stake…churches…, leaving the vatican bank totally unprotected attributor process carrier attribute another function of an extra causer is to introduce a critical situation. in this case, the vatican bank will be totally unprotected should the attributor “removing all protection from vatican city” be performed. the use of this extra causer also forms part of the discussion about the possibilities that may occur if the threat is executed, so the extra causer is also being used to increase the tension in the mystery (erdmann, 2009; segal, 2010). murti, et. al. extra causers in the evaluation the evaluation describes how the problems in the story are observed and analyzed by the characters, so they understand the situation before deciding what action to take (martin, 1992). extra causers are also used to evaluate and solve the problems at this stage of the novel. for example: 1. a commotion in the doorway behind them caused everyone to turn. chinita macri’s large frame lurched through the entry. her camera was shouldered, and the glowing red light on top revealed that it was still transmitting. glick was running behind her, microphone in hand, yelling for her to slow down. langdon could not believe these two. this is not the time! a commotion in the doorway behind them caused everyone to turn initiator process actor material p the commotion came from macri and glick, the journalists who want to report the news in the basilica. it makes everyone in the basilica turn toward them, including langdon. langdon then remarks that the time is not right. 2. it seemed unthinkable. and how had kohler managed all this treachery within the vatican walls? rocher was kohler’s inside man, vittoria told herself. rocher was an illuminatus. no doubt captain rocher had keys to everything —the pope’s chambers, il passetto, the necropolis, st. peter’s tomb, all of it. he could have placed the antimatter on st. peter’s tomb — a highly restricted locale — and then commanded his guards not to waste time searching the vatican’s restricted areas. rocher knew nobody would ever find the canister. he <<…>> commanded his guards not to waste time searching the vatican’s restricted areas inducer process behaver mental b p phenomenon in the context of the story, vittoria knows that captain rocher is kohler’s inside man and has keys to every secret place or chamber. this means he can place the antimatter in a highly restricted area, specifically st. peter’s tomb, and then command his guards to carry out an immediate search of the vatican’s restricted areas. however, vittoria knows that this is just a ruse so that no one will get the antimatter. 3. vittoria wishes her father were there to give her faith. he once explained divine communication to her in scientific terms, and made her believe. she still remembers the day journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 she saw him praying and asked him, “father, why do you bother to pray? god cannot answer you.” and he had made her believe conjunction inducer process sensor mental p this extra causer appears when vittoria remembers that her father once attempted to convince her to believe in god, but she still retained her skeptical views. 4. leonardo vetra had looked up from his meditations with a paternal smile. “my daughter the skeptic. so, you don’t believe god speaks to man? let me put it in your language.” he took a model of the human brain down from a shelf and set it in front of her. “as you probably know, vittoria, human beings normally use a very small percentage of their brain power. however, if you put them in emotionally charged situations — like physical trauma, extreme joy or fear, deep meditation — all of a sudden, their neurons start firing like crazy, resulting in massively enhanced mental clarity.” let me put it in your language process behaver verbal b p verbiage circumstance vittoria is skeptical about anything related to god. unlike her father, vittoria’s convictions are definite. her father is certain that science and religion are related to each other, but this is not the case with vittoria. in addition, she does not believe that humans are able to interact with god. therefore, this extra causer appears when vittoria’s father tries to explain the communication between humanity and god in a way that makes more sense to her. extra causers in the resolution a resolution tells about an execution that the characters have analyzed in the previous stage. here, extra causers help depict their actions in solving the problems at this stage of the novel. for example: 1. “i confronted his holiness,” mortati said. “and he confessed. he explained the entire story and asked only that i let my heart guide my decision as to whether or not to reveal his secret.” “and your heart told you to bury the information?” “he was the runaway favorite for the papacy. people loved him. the scandal would have hurt the church deeply.” i let my heart guide my decision inducer process behaver mental b p phenomenon your heart told you to bury the murti, et. al. information initiator process actor material p goal mortati had discovered the pope’s secret relationship with a woman, and he had asked the pope about it directly until he finally confessed. the extra causer here is used by the pope to ask mortati to follow his heart when deciding whether to reveal the secret. he then duly follows his heart and decides not to disclose the secret. the other extra causer is used by carmelegno to question mortati’s decision to keep the secret. it is impossible for mortati to tell the truth, because people love the pope so much, and it would be very dangerous were the public to learn this secret. 2. slowly, sadly, mortati let the tale unfold. slowly sadly mortati let the tale unfold cir cir inducer process phenomenon verbal b p very carefully, mortati tells carmelegno the secret from the beginning, so that later on, he will understand why mortati had kept the secret all that time. mortati’s aim is to convince carmelegno that his holiness has not broken his sacred vow of celibacy. the role of the extra causer in this stage is to express mortati’s intention. 3. mortati now had tears in his eyes. “carlo, this is why his holiness has always had an affection for the sciences. he felt he owed a debt to science. science let him experience the joys of fatherhood without breaking his vow of celibacy. his holiness told me he had no regrets except one — that his advancing stature in the church prohibited him from being with the woman he loved and seeing his infant grow up.” science let him experience the joys of fatherhood inducer process behaver mental b p phenomenon the extra causer here is used to express his holiness’s gratitude toward science, which has helped him conceive an infant from his relationship with a woman without violating his vow of celibacy (i.e., not having physical sex). science had given him a child through artificial insemination, enabling the pope to experience the bliss of biological fatherhood without breaking his covenant with god. it can be seen here how the exemplary extra causers above also contribute to the construction of the conflict and the broadening of the resolution, so the reader will be curious enough to read on to the end of the story (segal, 2010). the examples also confirm that extra causers follow journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 through on the functions of the narrative stages. the number of extra causers rises and falls according to the function of each narrative stage. this also implies material developments in the types of extra causers being employed and how they build conflict between religion and science (rose, 2014). pedagogical implications of the detective novel from the perspective of extra causers the pedagogical implications of the angels and demons novel are associated with values of ethics and morality where amoral framework should act as a reference to guide science. from the text, we can identify two instances where values are perceived, indicating that the moral values of this novel are sensitive. in essence, the moral and ethical values are defined in this novel, thus emphasizing the role of “angels and demons” and subsequently the conflict between science and religion (book review, 2019). the following quote involves a dialogue between camerlogno and a bbc journalist during an interview: “who is this god science? who is the god who offers his people power but no moral framework to tell you how to use that power? what kind of god gives a child fire but does not warn the child of its dangers? the language of science comes with no signposts about good and bad. science textbooks tell us how to create a nuclear reaction, and yet they contain no chapter asking us if it is a good or a bad idea.” (dan brown, 2000, p. 341). the above quote definitely conveys the moral of this novel concerning religion and science. religion and science are both tools of humanity. people use these ideas, processes, and tools to achieve their goals. however, religion and science do not act on their own volition. religion acts as a moral framework. it is a shared, ritualized belief or idea among individuals to answer questions concerning humanity’s existence. science, meanwhile, is a tool to objectively observe and study the world we live in. it is neither good nor evil. the focus is on the scientist when ethical and moral questions are addressed. the results or products of science are not inherently good or bad, and a certain piece of scientific technology is also neither bad nor good. individuals instill ethical and moral values in our children and our students. teaching values helps them when they face dilemmas, so they can make the right choices, specifically ethical and moral choices. in short, it is not religion or science that is good or evil but rather the choices and motivations of those individuals utilizing them (book review, 2019). murti, et. al. other values relate to the use of dan brown’s angels and demons novel as a tool for teaching literature. evidence shows that when teaching literature, a technical analysis of a novel can be applied to the construction of extra causers and the staging process. in an analysis of a mystery novel, extra causers can be robustly constructed through an initiator, inducer, attributor, and assigner. in addition, extra causers may also be frequently defined in the stages of orientation, complication, evaluation, and resolution. evidence also shows that the moral values of a novel can be central to the teaching of literature. we frequently find that sensitive issues—such as religion, terror, and murder—can be valuable. our findings show that issues centered around religion, murder, ethics, and terror can effectively encourage readers to continue reading. in other words, the pedagogical implications of this novel can be applied to technically explore how we can analyze a mystery novel through extra causers. for teaching goals, the focus for this novel could bean analysis of moral values, which in turn relate to religious issues, science, terror, and murder. the intentions of the author manifest through such values, and the teacher should indicate to students how values and warnings are attached to notions of good or evil. conclusion and implications in summary, the extra causers in dan brown’s angels and demons mystery novel were identified based on their construction and presence in stages throughout the entire novel, revealing 412 occurrences. in general, the four types of extra causers used include initiators, inducers, attributors, and assigners. the inducers in this novel are not only constructed in a mental process but also in verbal and mental behavioral processes. in addition, extra causers appear in all stages of the novel (i.e., orientation, complication, evaluation, and resolution). angels and demons is much like other crime and detective novels. it commences with an orientation, continues with a complication and evaluation, and ends with a resolution. specifically, this novel presents a mysterious conflict between religion and science throughout its different stages. the distribution of extra causers varies, however, to help develop the mystery of the conflict. the mystery begins to unfold in the orientation already while describing the characters and setting. the mystery of the conflict between religion and science is subsequently increasingly developed throughout the complication and evaluation. it then increases further and broadens out in the resolution before journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 “unexpectedly” being resolved. in this way, the readers are led to experience and resolve the conflict between religion and science in the novel. in terms of pedagogical implications, this finding suggests that the conflict between religion and science is a fertile issue. contradictory values in religion and science are matched with each other, and readers are expected to see how a certain value should apply. in general, moral and ethical values are identified to see the author’s mission in writing the novel. in the area of teaching literature, our findings reveal the use of various extra causers, how they are developed over the stages of the novel, and how the moral values are applied, and these are significant results of this investigation. pedagogically speaking, the findings imply that extra causers, the way in which they develop the stages of the novel, and the way they construct a conflict between religion and science should be incorporated into a genre-based model of language teaching. indeed, extra causers and their roles in creating mysterious conflicts should be introduced, practiced, and utilized when writing and modelling detective novels, both in the joint and independent construction of text. future research is recommended that will go beyond the genre and linguistic aspects of the novel, so the social and pedagogical values, specifically those intended by the author, can be explored. references book review. (2019). angels and demons by dan brown. available on https://reviewsofaselfproclaimedbibliophile.wordpress.com/2014/10/10/book-reviewangels-and-demons-by-dan-brown/. retrieved on 22 october 2019. bork, e. (2016). writing the ten best story types. usa: the writer store. bowcher, w.l. (2018). the semiotic sense of context vs the material sense of context. functional linguistics. 5 (5). 1-19. calabrese, s. & rossi, r. (2015). dan brown: morphology of a bestsellersaurus. enthymema 12, 427-440. effron, m. (2010). on the borders of the page, on the borders of genre: artificial paratexts in golden age detective fiction. narrative. 18 (2). 199-219. erdmann, e. (2009). nationality international: detective fiction in the late twentieth century. translated by fiona fincannon.first published in: investigating identities: questions of https://reviewsofaselfproclaimedbibliophile.wordpress.com/2014/10/10/book-review-angels-and-demons-by-dan-brown/ https://reviewsofaselfproclaimedbibliophile.wordpress.com/2014/10/10/book-review-angels-and-demons-by-dan-brown/ murti, et. al. identity in contemporary international crime fiction. edited by marieke krajenbrink. amsterdam: rodopi.11-26. http://uni-kontanz.de/bitstream/ handle/123456789/3567. halliday, m.a.k. & matthiessen, c.i.m.m.(2014). halliday’s introduction to functional grammar. oxon: routledge. hasan, r. (2014). towards a paradigmatic description of context: systems, metafunctions, and semantics. springeropen journal: functional linguistics. 1 (9). 1-54. jacob, a.m. & laxman, v. (2018). representation of secret societies by dan brown in angels and demons and the da vincicode. international journal of pure and applied mathematics. 119 (15). 1955-1967. kartika-ningsih, h. & rose, d. (2018). language shift: analyzing language use in multilingual classroom interactions. functional linguistics. 5(9). 2-22. lecompte-van poucke, m. (2016). exploiting the ‘non-dit’ and other discursive tactics in the new caledonian independence debate: a pragma-functional approach to critical discourse analysis. a springeropenjournal:functional linguistics. 3 (2). 1-30. liddicoat, a.j. (2009). communication as culturally contexted practice: a view from intercultural communication. australian journal of linguistics. 29 (1). 115-133. lim, f.v. (2018). developing a systemic functional approach to teach multimodal literacy. functional linguistics. 5 (13). 1-17. martin, j.r. (1992). english text: system and structure, amsterdam: john benjamin. martin, j.r.& rose, d. (2007). working with discourse: meaning beyond the clause. london & new york: continuum. martin, j.r., matthiessen, c.m.i.m. & painter, c. (2010). deploying functional grammar. beijing the commercial press. martin, j.r. (2014). evolving systemic functional linguistics: beyond the clause. a springeropen journal: functional linguistics. 1 (3) 1-24. martin, t. (2012). the long wait: timely secrets of the contemporary detective novel. novel. 45 (2). 165-183. matthiessen, c.m.i.m. (2015a). register in the round: registerial cartography. a springeropen journal: functional linguistics. 2 (9). 1-48. matthiessen, c.m.i.m. (2015b). modelling context and register: the long-term project of registerial cartography. letras, santa maria. 25 (50). 15-90. http://uni-kontanz.de/bitstream/%20handle/123456789/3567 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 446-469 matthiessen, c.m.i.m. &khasyaf, a.k. (2014). the construal of space in different register: an exploratory study. language and science. 45. 1-27. miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1992). analisis data kualitatif.(t. r. rohidi, trans.). jakarta: ui-press. moritz, j.m. (2009). doubt, deception, and dogma: science and religion in film. theology and science. 7(3), 207-212. murti, b.d., nababan, m.r., santosa, r. (2018). the role of ergative clauses in developing narrative genre: a case study of a detective novel entitled angels and demons by dan brown. prasasti: proceeding of fourth prasasti international seminar on linguistics. parker, j. (2019). second language learning and cultural identity. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 33-42. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/7 pittard, c. (2016). purity and contamination in late victorian detective fiction. london: routledge. robinson, l.s. & haney, l. (2000). detection in the land of mysteries in ray b, browne & lawrence a. kreiser, jr. (eds) the detective as historian: history and art in historical crime fiction. university of wisconsin press. rose, d. (2014). analyzing pedagogic discourse: an approach from genre and register. functional linguistics. 1 (11), 1-32 rose, d. (2018). pedagogic register analysis: mapping choices in teaching and learning. functional linguistics. 5 (3). 1-33. santosa, r. (2011). logika wacana: analisis hubungan konjungtif dengan pendekatan linguistik sistemik fungsional. surakarta: uns press. santosa, r. (2017). metodepenelitiankualitatifkebahasaan. surakarta: uns pers. segal, e. (2010). closure in detective fiction. poetics today. 31 (2). 153-215. spradely, j. p. (2006). metode etnografi(m. z. elizabeth, trans.). yogyakarta: tiara wacana. taboada, m. (2011). stages in an online review genre. text and talk. 31 (2). 247-269. tan, ed s. (2011). emotion and the structure of narrative film: film as emotion machine. routledge: new york & london. https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/7 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (1), 76-94 cinder and soul: the biography of a historically significant african american school in dallas, texas vicki g. mokuria1 & diana wandix-white2 abstract this paper provides an approach for social studies education that includes investigative research into an old school building that has traditionally served predominantly african american children, along with a narrative inquiry into the experiences of one of that school’s former students. we offer a unique approach to experiential global citizenship education, in conjunction with an exemplar of this kind of social studies research. the first half of this paper is a “building biography” of n. w. harllee school, followed by memories of dr. njoki mcelroy, who attended harllee as a young child. in the us, african american life is often misrepresented, devalued, or completely expunged from history books and historical documents. the implication of this novel approach to uncovering the truth about the education of african americans in the 1930s is that educators around the world can use a similar approach to honor and highlight voices of marginalized people, creating rightful spaces for their stories in our collective history and memory. key words: african american education, n. w. harllee elementary, dr. njoki mcelroy, global citizenship education, black dallas history introduction for years, social studies educators around the world have grappled with finding engaging ways for students to bring history to life, while connecting that history to students’ lives and further extending such links to the world. in this paper, we present a novel approach to conduct social studies research in order for students to broaden their understanding of the communities in which they live, as well as the social-historical-political roots linked to their immediate environments and the world at large. this paper is an exemplar of the kind of research we suggest that can be conducted by learners of all ages in any community in the world. the research we present consists of doing historical research of a school building in conjunction with a series of interviews with a community member who holds strong ties to that building in order to support students in developing qualities of global citizens, specifically around areas of social justice. this paper is an 1 dr., stephen f. austin state university, vicki.mokuria@sfasu.edu 2 dr., texas a&m university san antonio, dwhite@tamusa.edu mailto:vicki.mokuria@sfasu.edu mailto:dwhite@tamusa.edu journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 76-94 77 exemplar of this kind of research, and we share the findings about what would otherwise appear as an ordinary old school building, together with the excavated memories of one of its former students. in order to replicate a similar research project, teachers could develop an assignment (possibly called “cinder and soul”) in which students can choose to do research on their school, parent’s or grandparent’s homes, a local place of worship, store, market, park, government building, or other place important to them or their community. in addition to conducting historical research on the physical history of the place the student has chosen, this type of research also includes an interview with one or more community members about their connections and remembrances of that place. in this way, the memories of that place hold important lessons in history, civics, economics, politics, and religion through physical spaces they inhabit and in the memories and relationships to those spaces of people in their community. ideally, this kind of research brings history to life and unlocks a deeper understanding of one’s community and its link to our world. the exemplar presented here consists of historic research on n. w. harllee elementary school in dallas, texas, which was the oldest elementary school for african american children in dallas. we link the findings about the school building with dr. njoki mcelroy’s narratives based on her early childhood experiences attending this segregated school in the 1930s, in order to elucidate the ways her formative education shaped her life. through her experiences as a young child marginalized from an early age, we glean a depth of understanding of the value, urgency, and significance of honoring stories of marginalized people the world over. conceptual framework of global citizenship education this research utilizes the conceptual framework of global citizenship education (gce). unesco (2016) provides a clear and succinct definition of gce framework, stating that the framework focuses on the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes required by citizens to lead productive lives, make informed decisions and assume active roles locally and globally in facing and resolving global challenges [and] can be acquired through education for sustainable development (esd) and global citizenship education (gced), which includes peace and human rights education as well as intercultural education and education for international understanding. (p. 49) mokuria & wandix-white this definition provides a road map for educators and scholars to link local communities with international understanding of human rights issues that affect millions of people, specifically around the issue of racism and its impact on students and/or marginalized peoples of the world. davies (2006) further recognizes the value of precisely this kind of research by stating that “part of the skill of being a global citizen is the capacity for research, and one can at least start the process in a school by encouraging research skills and working out the effect of action” (p. 23). since elements of social justice, issues of equity, and respect for diversity are foundational principles in a gce conceptual framework (ibrahim, 2005), these ideas inform this research. the question arises as to how educators can support students to develop a mindset of global citizenship. in order to foster students to become global citizens, researchers recognize the need to take action within one’s local community as a first step before linking that research to larger issues related to human rights and social justice. the significance of focusing on one’s locality, which is within the gce framework, is called “community studies.” anchoring knowledge within one’s community aligns with john dewey’s (1897) idea that “education, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation for future living” (p. 22), which provides a foundational notion of grounding students’ education in their lives and communities. a japanese educator, tsunesaburo makiguchi (1871-1944), believed, like dewey, in experiential education that centered on community studies (bradford & shields, 2017; goulah & gebert, 2009). the social studies research project presented in this paper provides an ideal research project for learners of all ages, since it is grounded in students’ local communities and engages community members to reflect on the significance of a community building or landmark, and thus, provides an experiential component to students’ education. one other aspect of gce is to support students in developing empathy, which links to human rights education and the importance of recognizing how the sufferings of others are connected to us. for social studies teachers who seek to go beyond dates in history, how can educators foster empathetic students? ikeda (2010) suggests an essential element of global citizenship is “the compassion to maintain an imaginative empathy that reaches beyond one’s immediate surroundings and extends to those suffering in distant places” (p. 112-113). the kind of research in this paper provides an approach for students to develop this kind of “imaginative empathy.” this research brings together a local school in dallas, texas with a community elder who attended that school and sheds light on ways racism affected her life, along with the other african american journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 76-94 79 children in her community. in this way, gce as a conceptual framework ties the local community with those around the world who have similarly experienced the negative impacts of hegemonic racism. both cinder and soul come together in our research. this kind of social studies research is valuable and important today to connect students with their communities and support them to link their experiences to larger global issues. method research design this paper is a qualitative research design called “bricolage,” which maxwell (2013) describes as an approach to research “which rejects the idea of following a pre-established plan or set of methods in favor of a more spontaneous and improvised use of the resources at hand” (p. 6). we encourage our audience to see the history of african american education in an unexpected way (wibberley, 2017), by weaving together the story of a building with the story of an individual’s experiences in and connection with that edifice. once the researchers chose a school to study, they established connections with the school’s principal to arrange a visit and, based on seeking a purposeful selection (maxwell, 2013), a former student of the school, now an elder in the community, was contacted to be interviewed for this research. participants and procedures due to the nature of this research that focuses on both a school building and a former student, the main participant of the study is dr. njoki mcelroy, who was interviewed for this research. the interview was recorded audibly and visually with the consent of the participant. the principal of the school also provided helpful historical information. the researchers began with historical research on the school’s founding, along with investigation into other illustrious students who attended the school. after conducting a visit to the school, taking a tour of it, and meeting with the principal, the researchers interviewed the participant who had attended the school as a young child. the participant also joined the researchers for the tour of the school; thus, the interview was conducted in two parts: during the tour of the school and later in the residence of the participant. notes, pictures, and sporadic video were taken during the tour. the in-home interview was fully recorded, audibly and visually, with the consent of the participant, mokuria & wandix-white and lasted for about an hour. after the interview was completed and transcribed, the researchers conducted an analysis of the data and searched for themes. mimicking a key characteristic of a bricolage, the chunks of data--information about the building and the participant--were pieced together in the creation of a more meaningful whole (wibberley, 2017). the “pieces” of this bricolage are presented in two sections. in the section below, we present the historical research uncovered about the school, n. w. harllee, and in the section following that, we present data from the interviews with the participant. n. w. harllee elementary school: findings and discussion erecting a building allows that space to hold memories, and the installation of memories transforms that structure into a place—space that is known and can become a place to which an individual is emotionally bonded (milligan, 1998; rich, 2012). as we began our journey of discovery to formulate a building biography of n. w. harllee school, we began to pay attention not only to the episodic progression of the building and its uses, but also to the people whose experiences and memories give this old edifice a soul. thus, if one of the oldest elementary schools for african american children in dallas, texas could talk, what would it tell us of its struggles, its challenges, the children who attended and their families, and the teachers’ indomitable spirit to lift children up—against all odds? of the two definitive books available that recount the history of education in dallas, texas – a century of class: public education in dallas 1884-1984 (rumbley, 1984) and education in dallas: ninety-two years of history 1874-1966 (schiebel, 1966), there is no mention of the elementary school, n. w. harllee school beyond the names of the principals and scant biographical information about the school’s namesake, norman w. harllee. together, these books on the history of education in dallas cover over 600 pages, replete with photos, information on curriculum, school leaders, details on many schools, and yet, not a word about a school that played a central role in the education of so many african american children who resided in the oak cliff section of dallas, specifically the areas known as “the heights,” “tenth street,” and “the bottoms.” the focus and emphasis on the history of education in dallas was whitewashed and excluded the rich histories of african american schools. this is evidence of the kind of systemic and institutional racism in which the histories of african americans have been ignored and overlooked. looking at a brief history of education in dallas may be helpful. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 76-94 81 segregated schools when the dallas public schools were organized on june 16, 1884, historians note that there were four “white” schools and two “colored” schools, and that all of the schools were numbered, rather than named (rumbley, 1984; schiebel, 1966). it is possible that one of those original “colored” schools became n. w. harllee, but there is no information to back that up or clarify that point. rumbley (1984) further states that in 1884, there were six black teachers for the one hundred and eighty-one black students and three black principals (p. 4). rumbley’s research also revealed “in 1884, the only education for black children was offered in the basement of st. paul methodist church. there was preaching on sunday and teaching during the week, and the same man did it all, the reverend harris swann” (p. 16). scheibel (1966) uncovered two of the principals’ salaries in 1885: the principal of white school no. 3, j. p. vaughn, earned $630.00 per year as a principal and j. w. ray, principal of colored school no. 1 from 1888-1895 earned $650.00 per year. it is difficult to imagine that two principals in dallas, texas in the late 1800s—one white and one african american—earned similar salaries. was this a rare moment in dallas history when ideas about economic equity, parity, and justice prevailed? possibly, but it is also conceivable that another reason can account for this: as there were no public schools [for african american children] in dallas and vicinity at that time [late 1800s], he [j.w. ray] settled in dallas and organized private schools at plano, jefferson, white rock and dallas. the dallas school was taught at the boll street c. m e. church. (brewer, 1938, p. 8) since the private schools that ray founded were then incorporated into the dallas public school system, it is possible that some kind of financial arrangements may have been made for those functioning private schools to become part of the larger public education system. while this is purely speculation and beyond the scope of this paper, this may be a reason why ray’s salary was on par with the white dallas principal’s salaries. the contradictory accounts about the early education of the descendants of enslaved africans in dallas shows us the consistent pattern of a lack of accurate historical information about the education of african americans in dallas. different historians present conflicting information: one states that private schools for blacks existed, founded by j. w. ray, while another states that the only education for blacks was in the basement of a church. the current [white] “definitive” mokuria & wandix-white histories of education in dallas, however, reveal no shortage of documentation on the education of immigrants and early colonial settlers who controlled the educational system in dallas from its inception. ironically, rumbley (1984) indicates that “the first school board report stated that all children of dallas from the ages of eight years to sixteen years regardless of race and color were invited to come to school” (p. 4). while the term “segregation” is never mentioned, it is evident (rumbley, 1984; schiebel, 1966) that dallas public schools were strictly segregated by race from the very beginning. the community & the school’s namesake what was the community around n. w. harllee school like, and what do we know about the people who resided there? according to the booklet the tenth street historic district: a historic african american neighborhood in dallas, texas (1994), the site of the n. w. harllee school on 8th street was originally called hord’s ridge, named after the hord family, who owned enslaved africans. in that booklet (1994), we learn that after the civil war, the formerly enslaved africans learned of their freedom on june 19, 1865 and the freed men and women were deeded 10 acres of land (p. 2). the neighborhood of n. w. harllee became a thriving freedmen’s town that centered around two churches, harllee school, the cemetery, a bottling plant, pharmacy, barbershops, movie theater, nightclubs, and funeral homes. in the late 1800s, the community clearly had a school, and according to a texas-based non-profit organization called buildingcommunityworkshop (2013), the ninth ward negro school, originally built next to the oak cliff cemetery along eighth street in 1893, was also a center of community life. later rebuilt as n. w. harllee elementary in 1928, the school was attended by students from the heights, the bottoms, and tenth street, furthering their chances of a better life. (p. 12) this information about the school and community has only recently been uncovered by organizations that are putatively seeking to preserve the rich history of this freedmen’s community. however, due to the neighborhood’s view of and proximity to downtown dallas, as well as the costly revitalization of the trinity river area, fears and concerns of impending gentrification have been expressed, even by the principal (onjaleke brown, personal communication, march 9, 2018) who shared similar concerns on the day we visited the school. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 76-94 83 david perry, a former resident of the 10th street neighborhood where harllee is located, shared in an interview conducted by buildingcommunityworkshop on june 15, 2013 that “we were a community, self-sustaining in every way, as far as family support and neighborhood support, political support; whatever it was, 10th street provided for its own.” in an interview that aired on the dallas pbs radio affiliate kera, another former harllee student, margaret benson (2018), remembers that “the streets were nothing but sand” until she was eight or nine, but benson further reminisced about how “it was [a] very nice neighborhood and the neighbors all worked together at that time.” most businesses gradually left the area beginning in the 1940s, as residents began to move out, since their incomes increased and they sought to live in newer home developments in other parts of the city. some residents refer to this community as “the hills” because oak cliff is a hilly part of dallas; others call it “the bottoms” since it’s so close to the trinity river; others call it the “tenth street” area, while others refer to it as “the heights.” right next to the school and clearly visible from harllee’s playground is the oak cliff cemetery, dallas’s oldest public cemetery, which is a segregated cemetery. in a magazine article in advocate oak cliff, rachel stone (2011) writes that the “african american portion of the cemetery, which dates from around 1840, is at the rear, in a low place where water from the rest of the cemetery drains.” it seems that disrespect for african americans in dallas has been so deeply entrenched that it impacts the living and the dead. and yet, education was seen in the community around harllee as a critical pathway to rise above such indignities. the presence of the cemetery next to the school—clearly visible and separated only by a chainlink fence about four feet tall—seemed to affect all the students. in an interview with margaret benson (2018), she reminisces about recess, saying that “we would play…we would sit over close to the graveyard when we wanted to relax or whatever with our friends over there because it was still on the school grounds but you had the graveyard next to it and we weren’t allowed over the fence.” for close to one hundred years, dallas’ oldest public cemetery has been part of the physical and emotional landscape for children attending n. w. harllee; almost everyone who has been interviewed or has written about the school mentions the cemetery in the same breath as harllee. how many other elementary schools have been built directly next to and in clear sight of a cemetery? this, too, is beyond the scope of this research, but worthy of contemplation and further mokuria & wandix-white research to demonstrate the many ways that racism functions in our society--geographically, psychologically, and institutionally. n. w. harllee school was built in 1928, and since then, it has undergone six renovations, according to information provided by the dallas isd, under the texas public information act. in 1952, the gym was added; in 1963, building “b” was added; in 1987, the multipurpose “cafetorium” was added; and three other renovations occurred in 2011, 2016, and 2017. the original building was 26,246 square feet, and it is currently a two-story structure with 45, 447 square feet. for whom was the school named? norman washington harllee was born an enslaved man in 1852 in north carolina, where he also graduated from biddle university in charlotte, north carolina. according to an article by bolton (n.d.) on the website, the “afrotexan” harllee moved to texas in 1885 and “served for a number of years as principal of the grammar school no. 2.” while the information by bolton (n.d.) from the website “afrotexan” also states he is the “author of ‘harllee’s tree of history,’ a new and graphic method of teaching history; also harllee’s ‘simplified long division,’ a new graphic method of teaching long division; also harllee’s ‘diagram system of geography,’” an extensive search for any of these works proved to be futile. it is truly unfortunate such works have not been preserved. this pattern, however, of erasing, ignoring, disregarding, and silencing the works of african american educators persists. this research on the n. w. harllee school seeks to challenge that far-too-long-dominant narrative of a euro-dominant whitewashed version of history. former principals one of the first principals of the 1st-7th grade harllee school was h. b. pemberton, jr., who served in that position for almost 30 years, from 1927 to 1953. pemberton’s obituary states he came to dallas in 1921 and served as a teacher at the old pacific avenue school, before becoming principal of n. w. harllee in 1928. pemberton’s 1934 master’s thesis was from the university of wisconsin and it was entitled “survey of instruction in the 5th, 6th, & 7th grades of the n. w. harllee school.” it is important to note pemberton pursued graduate studies in the state of wisconsin because texas universities did not accept african american students. pemberton sought to engage in the kind of rigorous scientific academic research that had become popular in the 1920s and 1930s, and in his thesis, he writes journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 76-94 85 no surer foundation for constructive progress in achievement may be had than a systematic survey of instruction. facts gathered through this source designate not only the place of improvement but will indicate the quality and quantity to meet the particular needs of all concerned. (p. 1) it is clear from reading mr. pemberton’s thesis that he desired to improve his own understanding about the most current educational practices by working towards his master’s degree in the summer, while also being genuinely concerned about improving the quality of teaching and the level of education for all students at n. w. harllee. according to a bulletin entitled “the texas standard” (1966), both h. b. pemberton, jr., as well as his father, h. b. pemberton, sr. assumed leadership roles in the texas state teachers association, with the father serving as the 38th president and the son serving as the 54th president. this organization sought to improve education for all african american students, as well as the working conditions of teachers. other principals of n. w. harllee school were e. c. anderson—from 1953 to 1955; thomas tolbert—from 1955-1956; c. l. dennard from 1956-1957; harold lang—from 1957-1971 (schiebel, 1966). dr. delores seamster was the school’s principal before becoming the director of literacy for dallas isd. at the time of our interview, onjaleke brown served as the school’s principal, and according to a 2017 dallas morning news article, brown is breathing new life into the school by emphasizing social-emotional learning and focusing on ways to infuse the school with innovative practices. for example, at the time of this research, the harllee classrooms all had mini trampolines outside their doors for students needing to go outside the room to release some energy and regain their focus. (since the completion of this research, a new principal has been named, amber shields.) n. w. harllee has always served mostly african american students, and its rich history in the african american community is significant. according to data provided by the dallas independent school district (disd), n. w. harllee saw a gradual decline in students from a total of 845 1st-6th graders in 1971 to 200 students in 2011. disd closed the school in 2013, due to low enrollment. however, in 2015, n. w. harllee reopened as an early childhood center, and it now serves children in pre-kindergarten through 1st grade and plans to add one grade each year. research on n. w. harllee elementary school reveals a tradition that historically served to unite the students, teachers, and parents. for example, students participated in the maypole dance, which has its origins in europe and celebrates may 1st and spring by having students weave around mokuria & wandix-white a pole holding various brightly colored ribbons, while the girls all wore pastel-colored dresses. rumbley (1984) provides some insight into how and why this became so popular in disd schools by referencing the ways that dallas teachers were influenced by the work of john dewey, who “said that the teachers should make the most of the holidays” (p. 32). it seems that all dallas schools held festive pageants towards the end of the school year, and the maypole dance was central to the activity for students at n. w. harllee in the 1930s and 1940s. famous former students several well-known people attended n. w. harllee, including the blues musician “t-bone” walker; singer erykah badu; rafer johnson, a 1960 olympic gold medalist and actor; as well as dr. njoki mcelroy, former professor at northwestern university and southern methodist university (smu), storyteller, performer, entrepreneur, and author. aaron thibeaux “t-bone” walker was born in 1910 in linden, texas, just outside of tyler. his mother sought a better life for herself and her son, so she left his father and they moved to dallas when t-bone was two years old. t-bone attended n. w. harllee elementary school for seven years. his mother and stepfather, marco washington, were musicians and influenced t-bone from a young age, as did the family’s friends who were blues musicians, blind lemon jefferson and huddie “leadbelly” ledbetter (dance, 2010). ultimately, t-bone walker’s virtuosity was in playing the acoustic guitar, and “walker thus linked the texas folk tradition with modern blues as exemplified by the work of b. b. king, who was much influenced by him” (oliver, 2001). soulful, electrifying, and powerful blues music, then, came from t. bone walker, a former student of n. w. harllee school. another famous musician linked to n. w. harllee is erykah badu, who the former principal, onjaleke brown, shared had attended harllee as a child. badu’s birth name was “erica wright,” and she grew up in south dallas. while there is scant information about her early education, badu bloomed while attending dallas’ booker t. washington high school for the performing and visual arts. as a 2016 new yorker article suggests, badu is considered the “godmother of soul,” which links another soulful musical genre to n. w. harllee (sanneh, 2016). an olympic athlete and 1960 decathlon gold medal winner, rafer johnson, wrote about his memories of n. w. harllee in his 1998 autobiography, the best i can be. his vivid memory is that the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 76-94 87 n. w. harllee school was a rectangular brown brick building, two stories high, with a scruffy schoolyard spread out behind it. all the students, maybe fifteen to twenty per class, were black, as were all the teachers. the tenor fifteen-minute walk from home took us over some open fields, across a small bridge that spanned the trinity river, and through the cemetery. (p. 16) johnson further shares in his writings how his teachers, particularly miss bailey, had such a strong impact on him; he clearly credited her influence on him, which be believed was central to his lifelong success as a world-class athlete and actor. finally, dr. njoki mcelroy, author of 1012 natchez, playwright, entrepreneur, author, performer, storyteller, and professor, also attended n. w. harllee elementary school. mcelroy also credits much of her lifelong success on her experiences as a young child at harllee, and she acknowledges how fortunate she was to have had caring and supportive teachers during those key formative years. dr. njoki mcelroy, a former student: findings and discussion in order to have a broader and deeper understanding of the history and significance of n. w. harllee elementary school, an interview with a former student provided important insights. for this reason, the authors interviewed dr. njoki mcelroy, (referred to as “dr. njoki), who attended harllee from 1931 to 1937--when it was thriving as n. w. harllee school. she returned with us on march 9, 2018. the reunion of cinder and soul was moving. the cemetery & other memories when asked if there was something about the physical building that stood out to her and brought back memories, dr. njoki mentioned the cemetery that sits just beyond the school playground. in the united states, it is highly unusual for a school to be located directly next to a cemetery that has only a chain-link fence separating it from the school, and for that reason, this quote shines a light on how african american students were treated, when considering this important detail. i think it was first of all, before we got inside, that cemetery was such a marker that it was a daily -we interpreted the sorrow through knowing that sadness, sorrow was a part of our lives. so we began to get used to – we knew about death…. it was unbelievably compelling. at playtime, that was our view, we often played along the fence, and sometimes there were mokuria & wandix-white funerals. it was a somber experience for us, but i think the teachers made sure that our experience in the school made up for a lot of the outside. as black children, we often encountered sadness outside school so the teachers made sure we had happy pleasant experiences.… (2018) this quote echoes research uncovered that illustrates the depth of systemic racism because of the psychic toll caused by having children play in a schoolyard next to a cemetery to remind them of death and instill fear, subconsciously showing these children they were not revered enough to have joyful surroundings in their schoolyard. dr. njoki also mentioned a second-floor auditorium that held memories for her. currently, the second floor houses a computer lab and an unused media center. the stairs to the second floor were blocked for the safety of the smaller children, but dr. njoki gazed up nostalgically as we stood in front of the stairs. later, she made the following comments: …then inside i think what was remarkable to me was that— we didn’t see it— but i remember the auditorium. the auditorium was on that second level and that was closed off, but we used to meet daily in that auditorium. all the classes would meet for certain activities in there, and i remember that i had a nemesis, a girl… and something had happened and i started screaming…i was saying, ‘i hate you, i hate you, i hate you!’ something she had done to me and, and that stayed with me throughout my life, because one of the students, the male, he was one of those that remembered every detail, everything that ever happened to us and every time, the rest of his life—he died pretty early—but every time i would come back to dallas and see him he would say, ‘oh i hate you, i hate you!’ [laughs] and so the lesson that i learned from that is if you don’t want to be reminded of your craziness the rest of your life, [laughs] don’t do it. (2018) while thoughts of the auditorium brought back memories of classmates, and the cemetery reminded her of how early she and her young schoolmates learned the truth of their mortality, dr. njoki recalled how her teachers spoke life into their students and inspired them to be their very best. exceptional teachers her thoughts traveled back to her teachers several times during the interview. the first time dr. njoki mentioned her teachers was when she shared with us contents from her antique autograph journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 76-94 89 book that her mother had kept in the base of an entryway umbrella holder and storage bench in dr. njoki’s childhood home. i found this autograph book from 1937, the year i graduated. and it’s worn, but it has all of the teachers listed and the grades they taught…. my teachers, the comments that they made…. my birth name was hilda and she said, ‘dear hilda, may success and happiness always attend you wherever you may go and in all you do. ms. emory, your teacher and friend.’ they insisted that they were our friends.…and, another teacher was vivian thomas, and she lived on romine street, that’s in south dallas, and she wrote, ‘hilda, darling, always remember that i am as interested in your success as your parents are, so always be very careful. your friend.’ these teachers were absolutely exceptional. during the era dr. njoki attended elementary school, students ended their year by bringing a small empty book to school and asking friends and teachers to sign their autograph book. in the quote above, we can glimpse how close the teachers felt towards their students, as if they were friends. since only african american teachers taught african american children during the many years of segregated schools in the us, dr. njoki is conveying the close bonds they shared, which is not generally the norm in the more formal teacher-student relationships in us schools. later that afternoon, we accompanied dr. njoki back to her home where we enjoyed lunch together. after lunch, we sat in her informal living room. the walls told a story of dr. njoki’s life beyond that of harllee—separate, but intricately woven together, as the past has a hand in shaping our present and driving our hope for the future. pictures of her life and experiences in senegal, nigeria, ghana, haiti, the caribbean, and the french west indies were mesmerizing. each picture had a story of how it came to be, but as she sat on her white sofa, bathed in the natural light from the sliding glass doors to the balcony, she returned her attention to harllee and the teachers who had such an impact on her life: …a lot of the teachers lived in the community, so that they went to the same churches and, so we would see them other than in the classroom, and my parents were friends with the teachers. they were on the same social level with – attended the same social events, and then the teachers made sure that we related to them. they knew us, as opposed to my husband, who went to a public school in chicago, and he had a teacher in the 5th grade, and she never learned his name during the whole semester, so that distance between the teacher and student was prevalent in the public schools in chicago, where n. w. harllee, there was mokuria & wandix-white not this broad distance between the teacher and the student. there seems to have beenthey showed us that they were always there to listen to us, to advise us, and it was a feeling that they were able to import that we—we felt they were more than just teacher; that they were part of our unit, being close to our parents, and we knew that our behavior had to be such that we didn’t want the teacher knowing that our parents would be able to tell them without, you know, a lot of writing letters andto report our behavior. they could just pick up the phone and call our parents and they would realize thatand we knew that and it affected our behavior. (2018) when asked if she remembered a particular teacher who may have been her favorite, dr. njoki had this to say: …her name was viola dixon, and she had this very sophisticated air about her. the way she moved like-you know, a wave, and the way she tossed her hands and just her manner was striking, and she had all the mannerisms of a wellborn lady [laughs]. and so, i thought that she was just so fabulous. always well dressed, and another thing too– those teachers never had to raise their voices. so her voice was always modulated and that was one of the reasons why i thought i could be a concert pianist--because of her. in the above quote, dr. njoki conveys how the teachers were part of the fabric of students’ lives and deeply connected to their communities. this, again, is not always the norm in us schools, where teachers live in neighborhoods far away from the schools where they teach. we see in her quote a depth of closeness african american teachers and students experienced because they lived together in racially segregated communities. the teachers at harllee set high expectations for their students. college was not a hope, but an expectation. they felt they had an obligation to make sure students not only had a love for learning, but also that the students knew they each had an obligation to represent themselves in a way that honored their parents and their teachers. with the bar being set high, dr. njoki and many of her classmates went on to make some great accomplishments because, as dr. njoki shared, “…they trained us to be champions” (mcelroy, 2018). even though the classrooms were physically similar to the classrooms of today—rows of desks facing in one direction, with the teacher’s desk at the head of the class—the harllee teachers made that space one of social and academic support, high expectations, authentic caring, and genuine interest. this gave harllee students the confidence they needed to work hard and reach their goals, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 76-94 91 in spite of living in an oppressive and segregated society. instilling confidence in their students was a key role of the african american teachers at n. w. harllee. on september 17, 2016, a historical marker was unveiled on the front lawn of harllee. the ceremony not only served to commemorate the remarkable things that happened in the 10th street historical district, formerly known as “freedman’s town,” but also served as the official ribboncutting to celebrate the previous year’s reopening of harllee as the n. w. harllee early childhood center. “at the historical marker unveiling ceremony, families that had sent up to seven generations of students to harllee smiled on proudly” (davis, 2016). choosing harllee as the site for the marker is evidence of the respect, affection, and appreciation that the community has had for harllee for over ninety years. conclusions and implications it is no easy task to conduct historical research on schools for descendants of enslaved african people who have sought to ensure their children receive a quality education. the pervasive patterns of euro-dominant male historians have created a narrative that minimizes, hides, or eliminates the true history of people of color, making it difficult to find the stories that report the authentic biography of people cast aside. we are left with puzzling fragments to piece together. therefore, a pragmatic disquisition regarding the life of the building that bears the name of n. w. harllee would not have been complete without including the narrative account given by an individual whose being was greatly impacted by the existence of the building and its teachers. as such, this building biography revealed the cinder and soul of a structure that has provided schoolchildren with space, shelter, and sanctuary for over 90 years, while also providing an exemplar of social studies research educators around the world can find helpful. a research project, such as this one, that brings together cinder and soul, can support students in developing a mindset of global citizenship through community studies. social studies students can develop critical thinking that links their communities with issues of social justice, and this kind of research on a community site, along with interviews of elders’ remembrances of that site, can contribute to students’ developing transformational knowledge and “imaginative empathy” (ikeda, 2010, p. 112). finally, this paper provides important research and data on a school building and the experiences of dr. njoki mcelroy, who attended that school during a time of severe oppression mokuria & wandix-white of african americans in the us. this kind of data and research is essential before such historical information is erased from our books and memories. references bolton, t. (n.d). beacons of light: the education of the afro-texan. afrotexan.com. http://afrotexan.com/teachers22/tsat/harllee.htm bradford, m., & shields, m. k. (2017). resistance to neoliberal ways of thinking through soka and ecojustice teaching traditions. the journal of school & society, 4(2), 15-29. http://www.johndeweysociety.org/the-journal-of-school-andsociety/files/2017/12/vol4_no2_3.pdf brewer, j. m. (ed.). (1938). a history of the dallas high school for negroes. from the collections of the dallas public library. buildingcommunityworkshop. (2013). neighborhood stories: tenth street. https://issuu.com/bcworkshop/docs/booklet_final_web buildingcommunityworkshop (interviewer) & perry, d. (interviewee). (2013). neighborhood stories: tenth street [interview vimeo file]. https://vimeo.com/68448526 city of dallas. (1994). tenth street historic district: a historic african american neighborhood in dallas, texas. http://dallascityhall.com/departments/sustainabledevelopment/historicpreservation/hp%2 0documents/districts%20page/tenth%20street%20an%20historic%20african%20am erican%20neighborhood%20in%20dallas.pdf dance, h. o. (2010). aaron thibeaux [t-bone] walker. in texas state historical association online. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/walker-aaron-thibeaux-t-bone davies, l. (2006). global citizenship: abstraction or framework for action? educational review 58(1), 5-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131910500352523 davis, g. (2016, september 20). community celebrates historical marker unveiling at harllee. dallas isd the hub. https://thehub.dallasisd.org/2016/09/20/community-celebrateshistorical-marker-unveiling-at-harllee/ dewey, j. (1897). my pedagogic creed. the school journal, liv(3), 77-80. goulah, j., & gebert, a. (2009). tsunesaburo makiguchi: introduction to the man, his ideas, and the special issue. educational studies, 45(2), 115-132. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131940902762144 ibrahim, t. (2005). global citizenship education: mainstreaming the curriculum? cambridge http://afrotexan.com/teachers22/tsat/harllee.htm http://www.johndeweysociety.org/the-journal-of-school-and-society/files/2017/12/vol4_no2_3.pdf http://www.johndeweysociety.org/the-journal-of-school-and-society/files/2017/12/vol4_no2_3.pdf https://issuu.com/bcworkshop/docs/booklet_final_web https://vimeo.com/68448526 http://dallascityhall.com/departments/sustainabledevelopment/historicpreservation/hp%20documents/districts%20page/tenth%20street%20an%20historic%20african%20american%20neighborhood%20in%20dallas.pdf http://dallascityhall.com/departments/sustainabledevelopment/historicpreservation/hp%20documents/districts%20page/tenth%20street%20an%20historic%20african%20american%20neighborhood%20in%20dallas.pdf http://dallascityhall.com/departments/sustainabledevelopment/historicpreservation/hp%20documents/districts%20page/tenth%20street%20an%20historic%20african%20american%20neighborhood%20in%20dallas.pdf https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/walker-aaron-thibeaux-t-bone https://doi.org/10.1080/00131910500352523 https://thehub.dallasisd.org/2016/09/20/community-celebrates-historical-markerhttps://thehub.dallasisd.org/2016/09/20/community-celebrates-historical-markerhttps://doi.org/10.1080/00131940902762144 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 76-94 93 journal of education 35(2), 177-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057640500146823 ikeda, d. (2010). soka education: for the happiness of the child. middleway press. johnson, r. (1998). the best that i can be: an autobiography. doubleday dell. kumler, j. (interviewer) & benson, m. (interviewee). (2018). the oral history of margaret benson [interview transcript]. https://commitpartnership.org/blog/the-oral-history-ofmargaret-benson light, n. (2017, may 10). this principal is not normal: a sofa office, glittery shoes and a trampoline make learning cool. dallas news. https://www.dallasnews.com/news/education/2017/05/10/this-principal-is-not-normal-asofa-office-glittery-shoes-and-a-trampoline-make-learning-cool/ maxwell, j. a. (2013). qualitative research design: an interactive approach. sage publications. mcelroy, n. (2010). 1012 natchez: a memoir of grace, hardship, and love. brown books publishing group. mcelroy, n. (2018, march 9). visit to harllee. (d. wandix-white, interviewer) milligan, m. j. (1998). interactional past and potential: the social construction of place attachment. symbolic interaction, 21(1), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.1998.21.1.1 oliver, p. (2001). t-bone [aaron thibeaux] walker. in oxford music online. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.29832 pemberton, h. b., jr. (1934). survey of instruction in the fifth, sixth and seventh grades of the n. w. harllee school. [unpublished master’s thesis]. university of wisconsin, madison. rich, s. c. (2012, august 6). the architecture of memory. smithsonian magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-architecture-of-memory-14396375/ rumbley, r. m. (1984). a century of class: public education in dallas 1884-1984. eakin press. sanneh, k. (2016, april 25) godmother of soul: erykah badu’s expanding musical universe. the new yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/04/25/erykah-badu-thegodmother-of-soul scheibel, w. j. (1966). education in dallas: ninety-two years of history 1874-1966. taylor publishing company. stone, r. (2011, september 22). the dark shadows of oak cliff. advocate oak cliff. https://oakcliff.advocatemag.com/2011/09/haunting-season/ teachers state association of texas (formerly the colored teachers state association of texas) https://doi.org/10.1080/03057640500146823 https://commitpartnership.org/blog/the-oral-history-of-margaret-benson https://commitpartnership.org/blog/the-oral-history-of-margaret-benson https://www.dallasnews.com/news/education/2017/05/10/this-principal-is-not-normal-a-sofa-office-glittery-shoes-and-a-trampoline-make-learning-cool/ https://www.dallasnews.com/news/education/2017/05/10/this-principal-is-not-normal-a-sofa-office-glittery-shoes-and-a-trampoline-make-learning-cool/ https://doi.org/10.1525/si.1998.21.1.1 https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.29832 https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-architecture-of-memory-14396375/ https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/04/25/erykah-badu-the-godmother-of-soul https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/04/25/erykah-badu-the-godmother-of-soul https://oakcliff.advocatemag.com/2011/09/haunting-season/ mokuria & wandix-white (march-april 1966), 40 (2), 4. unesco (2016). education 2030: incheon declaration and framework for action for the implementation of sustainable development goal 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656 wibberley, c. (2017). bricolage research methods. in e. a. glasper, & c. rees (eds.), nursing and healthcare research at a glance (pp. 106-107). wiley-blackwell. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 490-505 490 impact of computer-assisted instructional strategy on schoolchildren’s social skills olugbenga a. ige1 abstract this paper examined the effects of computer-assisted instructional strategy on schoolchildren’s social skills. the study participants were 28 male and 36 female schoolchildren randomly assigned to experimental and control groups in four schools located in some rural ecologies of southern nigeria. the research was conducted using the pretest-posttest control group quasi experimental design and underpinned by the constructivist learning theory which provided the theoretical support for the evaluated computer-assisted instructional strategy. the study discovered that there was no significant effect of computer-assisted instructional strategy on schoolchildren’s social skills. however, male schoolchildren benefitted more from the computerassisted instructional strategy than female schoolchildren. the study recommended the use of computers to complement traditional lecture methods in fostering the social skills of schoolchildren in developing countries. future research could focus on blending computer-based instructional strategies with traditional teaching methods. keywords: computers, computer-assisted instructional strategy, schoolchildren, social skills. introduction the use of computer and other devices that provide support for teaching and learning of school children has gained widespread support in many schools across the world. the escalation in the use of computer to support teaching could be linked to globalization especially with the evolution of internet. these devices enabled teachers in different nations to communicate spontaneously, without leaving their school locations, on best practices for teaching skills that would equip school-children to function effectively in the economy-based environment created by the fourth industrial revolution. there are various technological tools that are available to teachers to foster school children learning outcomes. tomesko, touger-decker, dreker, zelig, and parrott (2017) maintained that a method which has proved convenient and inexpensive is computer-assisted instruction. similarly, mckissick, davis, spooner, fisher, graves (2018) 1 lecturer/researcher, school of social sciences and language education, university of the free state, qwaqwa campus, south africa, olugbengaige@gmail.com mailto:olugbengaige@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 490-505 attested to the veracity of tomesko’s et al (2017) claim of how an instructional intervention that has proved effective in delivering grade-aligned scientific instruction to students has been aided by computer-assisted instruction. in this paper, computer-assisted instructional strategy aligns with odom, thompson, hedges, boyd, dykstra, duda, szidon, smith, and bord’s (2014) definition as an electronic apparatus that is used to give an intervention to foster the social or competence skills of learners. grabowska (2018) states that a social skill has complexities that make it difficult to be related only with classifications such as age, gender, educational status and career position. in this paper, social skill is operationally defined as a product of learners’ diversity attitudes, social justice and leadership skills (moely, mercer, illustre, miron & mcfarland, 2002). this research reviewed the social constructivist theory propounded by lev vygotsky to explain the model of learning that describes how students’ skills are developed in a computer-aided learning environment and presented the questions that were answered. finally, the intricacies that were used to ensure data discipline and results of the research are discussed to enable researchers and teachers understand how computer-assisted instruction was used to cultivate schoolchildren’s social skills. computer-related strategies and students’ social skills the drive to improve schoolchildren's learning outcomes has led researchers and teachers to develop diverse teaching strategies in all nations of the world. the teaching field became more interesting with the advent of modern computers in the nineteenth century because of the added value they brought to the teaching-learning process. the need to foster schoolchildren’s social skills became expedient because the inculcation of these skills is deemed extra-curricular by most schools across the world. womack, marchant, and borders (2011) emphasize the importance of social skills instruction but decry the non-provision of the teaching of these skills in the curricular framework of most education systems. it is consequent on this shortcoming that this study drew on the opportunities presented by the computer-assisted instructional strategy to develop the social skills of schoolchildren (baez zarabanda, 2019; tadeu et al., 2019). in a recent study, leach (2018) affirms that technological, cognitive and social skill subsets are at the heart of post-industrial skills. the identification of crucial skills that are central to making learners functional according to leach (2018) could not come at a better time than now when discussions are underway on the fourth industrial revolution. ige leach (2018) further asserted that communication, collaboration, and interpersonal social skills are the most popular skills that are relevant in the current global economy. despite the benefits inherent in fostering schoolchildren’s skills, goodwin (1999) cautions that teachers should premise the inculcation of students’ social skills on those skills in which students have no mastery. in this study, the social skills identified in schoolchildren are leadership, social justice, and diversity attitudes which were taken from the research of moely, mercer, iiustre, miron, and mcfarland (2002). leadership, social justice and diversity attitudes researchers have emphasized the roles that inculcation of skills for leadership could play in helping schoolchildren become competent citizens. the inculcation of leadership skills by teachers has great potentials to improve students’ civic competence and transform them into great leaders in the future. collins (2003) describes leadership as the provision of direction for one or more persons who share common goals. the definition of collins (2003) shows that leaders require skills that would enable them to determine a course of action that is appropriate to give direction to their followers. in this vein, this research aims to foster social skills in schoolchildren that would enable them give direction to their colleagues. furman (2012) observed that social justice has become a consternation for numerous educational researchers with factors such as diversity, achievement gaps, and deficit thinking being the sources of these concerns. these concerns are deepened by the myriads of factors relating to globalization and these differ from one country to the other. goodman, liang, helms, latta, sparks, and weintraub (2004) while reflecting on the definitions of different philosophers and scholars, conceptualized social justice as the scholarship and professional activities directed to transform societal values, structures, and policy-related practices that grant self-determination to marginalized groups (students). it is evident from the definition of goodman et al. (2004) that a study of this type aims at helping schoolchildren control their social activities and lives in a dynamic society. goodman et al. (2004) further identified six primary features of global social justice research: ongoing self-examination, sharing power, giving voice, promoting consciousness-raising, building on strengths, and clients with the tools for social change (rea et al., 2017). it is appropriate to clarify that the ‘clients’ specified by goodman et al. (2004) in these primary features could be taken to mean ‘schoolchildren’ that were used in this current journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 490-505 research. these ‘schoolchildren’ were the primary beneficiaries of this study, and as such, they could be ‘clients’ in the context of goodman et al. (2004). regarding diversity attitudes, sobottka (2010) affirms that the recognition of challenges with formal diversity experiences has increased the attention given to diversity attitudes by educational researchers. middelkoop, ballafkih, and meerman (2017) caution that diversity matters because the outcomes of learning vary between groups of learners. pieces of evidence from research confirm that diversity is not an indifferent term (see middelkoop, ballafkih, & meerman, 2017). strauss (2007) affirmed the prejudicial nature of diversity by stating that people who regard themselves as minority would have positive attitudes toward diversity than those in majority. it is consequent on these facts from previous studies that this current research fostered schoolchildren’s social skills to enable them adapt to diversities inherent in their schools. theoretical framework the computer-assisted instructional intervention evaluated in this study is premised on social constructivism, propounded by lev vygotsky. duelen (2013) opined that social constructivism is not only a social but a cultural model of learning. duelen (2013) hence highlights vygotsky's (1978) core concepts of social constructivism as the zone of actual development, potential development, and proximal development. the zone of actual development was originally called ‘the actual development level’ by vygotsky. it describes the developmental level at which a leaners’ mental function was established as a result of specifically completed developmental cycles (vygotsky 1978). deulen (2013) observed that the potential development level is the point where the learner could be or potentially should be. from the explanations of vygotsky (1978) and deulen (2013), the difference between the zones of actual development and potential development is the learners’ ability to utilize skills that are not inherent in the current developmental state without receiving the support of the school or other agents of socialization. regarding the zone of proximal development, vygotsky (1978) uses the analogy of the difference between twelve and eight or between nine and eight to demonstrate it. vygotsky (1978) demonstrated the distance between the actual developmental level and the zone of potential development in the learners’ ability to ige utilize skills that are not inherent in their current developmental state through the support of an adult or in collaboration with more capable peers. from the assertion of vygotsky (1978), independent problem solving is constant in the zone of proximal development. the technicalities of social constructivism expounded by vygotsky (1978) might have propelled scholars such as walker and shore (2015) to remark that constructivism is an understanding that emanates from learners’ mental activities. consequent on the knowledge established by vygotsky (1978), cole, john-steiner, scribner, and souberman (1979) emphasize that the learning experiences that are in the zone of proximal development in schoolchildren at present could change to developmental level because they might not need any support to carry out such tasks. in this research, the computer-assisted instructional strategy is designed to provide the support required for learners to transit what deulen (2013) and vygotsky (1978) described as the zone of actual development to the zone of potential development. based on these dynamics, this research raised the following hypotheses. hypotheses  there is no significant main effect of computer-assisted instructional strategy on schoolchildren’s social skills.  there is no significant main effect of gender on schoolchildren’s social skills.  there is no significant main effect of cognitive ability on schoolchildren’s social skills.  there is no significant interaction effect of computer-assisted instructional strategy and gender on schoolchildren’s social skills. method research design the pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design that used a 2x2x3 factorial matrix was adopted for this research. the independent variable was manipulated at two levels, namely, computer-assisted instructional strategy and conventional lecture method while the confounding variable of gender was varied at two levels: male and female. also, the cognitive ability was at low, average and high levels. the data collected before and after the commencement of treatment, were subjected to analysis of covariance (ancova), while the estimated marginal journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 490-505 means aspect of ancova was used to calculate the magnitude of performance across the experimental and control groups. participants the sample comprised sixty-four students who were selected from intact classes in four secondary schools in rural areas in southern nigeria. the experimental group comprised twentysix students, while thirty-eight were in the control group. twenty-six schoolchildren were in the experimental group, while thirty-eight schoolchildren were in the control group. twenty-eight of the selected schoolchildren were male, while thirty-eight were female. eleven students were of low academic ability, seventeen were of average ability, while thirty-six were of high academic ability. data collection tools 1. computer-assisted instructional guide 2. lecture method guide (lmg) 3. social skills scale (sss) 4. academic ability test (aat) data collection computer-assisted instructional guide the computer-assisted instructional guide was developed by the researcher and featured concepts on information and communication technology, citizenship, values, and social issues. the guide was given to two academics at a state university in southern nigeria to ascertain the appropriateness of the guide for the selected students. the suggestions of these academics were used to improve the instructional guide before the commencement of the treatments. lecture method guide (lmg) the lecture method guide was used to teach the selected concepts for participants in the control group. ige the lecture method guides comprised steps such as: introduction → discussion of facts in steps-taking/giving note → questioning (i.e evaluation) → handing out assignments (see ige & hlalele, 2017; amosun, ige & choo, 2015; ige, 2012, ige, 2013). social skills scale (sss) the social skills were tapped with the civic attributes and skills questionnaire designed by moely, mercer, llustre, miron and mc farland (2002). the sections of the questionnaire on skills of leadership, social justice, and diversity attitudes were used to evaluate students’ social skills. the reliability co-efficient of the social skills scale that was pilot tested on a sample of students that were not part of this research was 0.76. the section of the questionnaire on leadership has items such as ‘i am a good leader’, ‘i am a better follower than a leader’, ‘i would rather have someone else take the lead in formulating a decision’. the social justice section has items such as ‘it is important that equal opportunity be available to everyone’, ‘people are poor because they choose to be poor’; while diversity attitudes scale has statements such as ‘i find it difficult to relate to people from a different race or culture’, and ‘cultural diversity within a group makes the group more interesting and effective’. this instrument was administered on the selected schoolchildren before the treatment commenced and after the treatment ended. academic ability test (aat) this instrument was a modified form of the sigels cognitive style test used by ige (2001). the aat comprised 20 cards with different pictorial representations. each student selected two pictures that have shared characteristics from three, selected two pictures that have complementary characteristics, and gave reasons for making such choices. the reliability coefficient using person product moment correlation was 0.72. data analysis the analysis of covariance (ancova) and estimated marginal means aspect of ancova programs on international business machines corporation’s statistical package for social sciences (spss) 25.0 was used to analyse the data collected from the participants in this research journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 490-505 using the pretests as a covariate. ting (2018) stated that ancova is a popularly trusted data analytical program with a treatment effect, stratification factor, and uninterruptible baseline as a covariate. ancova is an appropriate program to analyse the data in this research because it partials out the initial incongruities in the pre-social skills scores (ige, 2018; ige, 2019). the estimated marginal means aspect of ancova was used to indicate the magnitude of social skills in the experimental and control groups. findings hypothesis one: there is no significant main effect of computer-assisted instructional strategy on schoolchildren’s social skills. table 1 characteristics of the schoolchildren in experimental and control groups treatment variable n 1.00 experimental group (computer-assisted instructional strategy) 26 2.00 control group (traditional lecture method) 38 gender 1.00 male 2 8 2.00 female 36 academic ability 1.00 low 11 2.00 average 17 3.00 high 36 table 1 shows that twenty-six schoolchildren were in the experimental group, while thirty-eight schoolchildren were in the control group. twenty-eight were male schoolchildren, while thirtysix were female schoolchildren. regarding the academic ability of the schoolchildren, eleven had low academic ability, seventeen were of average academic ability, while thirty-six were of high academic ability. table 2 effect of computer-assisted instructional strategy on school children’s social skills dependent variable: post_schoolchildren_skills source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 5950.311a 12 495.859 4.370 .000 .507 intercept 5446.857 1 5446.857 48.005 .000 .485 pre_social_skills 2249.511 1 2249.511 19.826 .000 .280 treatment 295.699 1 295.699 2.606 .113 .049 ige gender 862.789 1 862.789 7.604 .008 .130 academic_ability 439.772 2 219.886 1.938 .154 .071 treatment * gender 493.408 1 493.408 4.349 .042 .079 treatment * academic_ability 424.265 2 212.132 1.870 .165 .068 gender * academic_ability 175.077 2 87.539 .772 .468 .029 treatment * gender * academic_ability 323.130 2 161.565 1.424 .250 .053 error 5786.689 51 113.464 total 183962.000 64 corrected total 11737.000 63 a. r squared = .507 (adjusted r squared = .391) table 2 shows the effect of the treatment on school children’s social skills was not significant (f1, 51) =2.606; p>0.05; η 2 = .049). this result implies that there is no significant difference in the social skill scores of the schoolchildren in the experimental and control groups. therefore, hypothesis one is not rejected. in order to ascertain the variations in the social skill attainment between the schoolchildren exposed to computer-assisted instructional strategy and conventional teaching method, the estimated marginal means aspect of ancova is used to evaluate the subgroup means. table 3 is, therefore, presented. table 3 magnitude of performance across groups treatment n mean std.error intercept pre_social skills 64 44.766 post_social skills 64 52.291 1.716 treatment experimental (computer-assisted instructional strategy) 26 55.354 a,b 2.997 control (conventional teaching method) 38 49.227 a 2.027 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: students_social_skills = 44.7656 b. based on modified population marginal mean. table 3 shows that despite the non-significant influence of the treatment, students that were taught with the computer-assisted instructional strategy still had a higher mean score (55.35) than students exposed to conventional teaching method (49.23). the output of the estimated marginal means aspect of ancova affirms that despite the non-influence of the treatment on social skills of the selected schoolchildren, the schoolchildren that were exposed to computerassisted instructional strategy still had a better social skills development than schoolchildren in the control group. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 490-505 hypothesis two: there is no significant main effect of gender on schoolchildren’s social skills. table 4 magnitude of performance across gender dependent variable: post_social_skills treatment n mean std.error male 28 56.973 2.267 female 36 47.608 2.552 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pre_social_skills = 44.7656 b. based on modified population marginal mean. table 4 shows that gender had a significant effect on school children’s social skills (f(1,51) = 7.604; p < 0.05; η2 = .130). table 3 shows computer-assisted instructional strategy was effective in fostering male school children’s social skills (x = 56.973) than female school children’s social skills. table 4 shows that the social skills of male schoolchildren were cultivated more than the female schoolchildren’s social skills during the experimental activities. the implication of this finding is that the computer-assisted instructional strategy evaluated in this research is gender sensitive. the experimental instructional programme is more suitable to improve the social skills of male schoolchildren than female schoolchildren. therefore, hypothesis two is rejected. hypothesis three: there is no significant main effect of cognitive ability on schoolchildren’s social skills. table 5 magnitude of performance across academic ability dependent variable: post_social_skills treatment n mean std.error low 11 52.105 3.741 moderate 17 48.861 2.996 high 36 55.905 1.924 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pre_social_skills = 44.7656 b. based on modified population marginal mean. ige table 5 shows that cognitive ability had no significant effect on school children’s social skills (f(2,51) = 1.938; p> 0.05, η 2 = .071). this result implies the computer-assisted instructional strategy is friendly to schoolchildren of varied academic ability. table 4 shows that there are marginal differences in sub-group means of schoolchildren with low, moderate, and high academic abilities. therefore, hypothesis three is rejected. hypothesis four: there is no significant interaction effect of computer-assisted instructional strategy and gender on schoolchildren’s social skills. it could be seen in table 1 that the interaction effect of the treatment and gender was significant (f(1,51) = 4.349, p<0.05; η 2= .079). therefore, hypothesis four is not rejected. discussion despite the non-influence of computer-assisted instructional strategy on school children’s social skills in this research, the outputs of the estimated marginal means show a marginal difference in the means of students exposed to computer-assisted instructional strategy (x=55.354), and traditional lecture method (x = 49.227). the outcome of computer-assisted instructional strategy on school children’s social skills did not support earlier research by hitchcock and noonan (2000), who tried out computer-assisted instruction on early academic skills of pre-school children. the results of hitchcock and noonan (2000) suggest that computer-assisted instruction with constant time delay proved effectual in developing the foundational academic skills of preschool children with disabilities. the computer-assisted instruction used by hitchcock and noonan (2000) might have proved effective than the computer-assisted strategy in the current research because it was designed with an adapted alternating treatments design which was replicated in each of the skill areas targeted by hitchcock and noonan (2000). the influence of gender on the social skills of the selected school children shows that the computer-assisted strategy used in this research was more beneficial to male schoolchildren. this finding contradicts the outcomes of earlier research by ige and hlalele (2017) which affirmed that gender had no influence on school children’s attainment in citizenship education concepts. the findings of this research are comparable to ige and hlalele (2017) because both used the pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design. the insignificant influence of academic ability on the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 490-505 social skills of the selected school children shows that the computer-assisted strategy used in this research was suitable for school children of varied academic abilities. this finding confirms the position of ige (2019) that academic ability had no significant influence on students learning outcomes in social studies concepts. the non-influence of academic ability on school children’s social skills presents opportunities for teeming teachers in schools across the world to draw on the potentials of the computer-assisted instructional strategy used in this research. a high point in this research was the significant influence of computer-assisted instructional strategy and gender on school children’s social skills. this finding concurs with the outcome of a research conducted by ige (2018) on the effects of gender and technological fluency on learners’ attitudes to cybercrime prevention in urban learning ecologies with documented implications for swedish gymnasiums. ige (2018) discovered that the two-way interaction effect of sex and technological fluency was substantial on learners’ attitudes to crime prevention. though, ige's (2018) research focused on learners’ attitude to cybercrime prevention, the current research focus is on school children’s social skills. it should be noted that these variables are both students’ learning outcomes. conclusion the hypotheses tested in this research determined the impact of computer-assisted instructional strategy on schoolchildren’s social skills. the findings of data analysed with ancova shows the importance inherent in using computers to nurture the social skills of schoolchildren in rural learning ecologies. it is, therefore, recommended that teachers in rural schools could make use of the computer-assisted strategy used in this research to develop the skills that are desirable in children where the use of other teaching strategies have not produced the desired results. it should be noted that the random assignment of school children into experimental and control groups could not be carried out to avoid the disruption of class arrangements in the schools selected for this research. hence, intact classes were used. due to this this limitation, future researchers should be cautioned not to generalize the outcome of this research. pedagogical implications the computer-assisted instructional strategy used in this research is suitable for instructors in rural schools to develop the social skills of schoolchildren to enable them to compete favourably with other schoolchildren in urban schools. however, it should be noted that this computer ige assisted instructional strategy seems more favourable to developing male schoolchildren than female schoolchildren social skills. this finding implies that instructors in schools with male schoolchildren social skills deficit would this computer-assisted instructional strategy invaluable. the friendly nature of the computer-assisted instructional strategy to schoolchildren of different academic abilities shows that it can be used to develop the social skills of male schoolchildren irrespective of their academic abilities. additionally, it is recommended that instructors in schools experiencing severe students’ social skills deficit could blend the computer-assisted instructional strategy and conventional teaching method to achieve optimum social skills change. this research is recommended for teeming teachers in rural learning ecologies in developing nations of the world for improving schoolchildren’s social skills. acknowledgements the researcher is highly indebted to mrs. oluwaseun amusa at adekunle ajasin university, nigeria; titilade adegbola (nee oyebade) at federal university of technology, akure, nigeria; and dr. daniel ajayi at technische universitat chemnitz, germany that edited this article at no cost. references amosun, p.a., ige, o.a., & choo, k.k.r. (2015). impact of a participatory cyber crime prevention programme on secondary school students' attainment in crime prevention concepts in civic education and social studies, education and information technologies, 20(3), 505-518. baez zarabanda, d. (2019). ict and its purpose in the pedagogical practice. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 83-95. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/410 collins, j. (2003). developing pupils’ leadership skills. improving schools, 6(1), 44-50. deulen, a.a. (2013). social constructivism and online learning environments: toward a theological model for christian educators. christian education journal: series 3, 10(1), 90-98. furman, g. (2012). social justice leadership as praxis. developing capacities through preparation programs. educational administration quarterly, 48(2), 191-229. https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/410 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 490-505 goodman, l. a., liang, b., helms, j. e., latta, r. e., sparks, e., & weintraub, s. r. (2004). training counseling psychologists as social justice agents: feminist and multicultural principles in action. the counseling psychologist, 32, 793-837. goodwin, m.w. (1999). cooperative learning and social skills: what skills to teach and how to teach them. intervention in school and clinic, 35(1), 29-33. grabowska, i. (2018). social skills, workplaces, and social remittances: a case of post -accession migrants. work, employment and society, 32(5), 868-886. hitchcock, c.h., & noonan, m.j. (2000). computer-assisted instruction of early academic skills. topics in early childhood special education, 20(3), 145-158. ige, o.a. (2012). action cybercrime prevention programme in civics and social studies: the nigeria experience. lambert academic publishing, germany. isbn 978-3-659-14758. ige, o. a. (2013). impact of an action cyber crime prevention programme on secondary school students’ learning outcomes in civic education and social studies concepts. unpublished ph.d. thesis, university of ibadan, nigeria. ige, o.a & hlalele d.j. (2017). effects of computer-aided and blended teaching strategies on students’ achievements in civic education concepts in mountain learning ecologies. education and information technologies, 22(6), 2693-2709. ige, o.a. (2018). effects of gender and technological fluency on learners’ attitude to cybercrime prevention in urban learning ecologies: lessons for swedish gymnasiums. international journal of cyber criminology, 12(1), 151-170. ige, o.a. (2018). effects of value clarification and action learning instructional strategies on school-age children’s attitude to civic education concepts: the mountain learning ecologies experience. pedagogika, 131(3), 83-98. ige, o.a. (2019). using action learning, concept-mapping, and value clarification to improve students' attainment in ict concepts in social studies: the case of rural learning ecologies. journal of social studies education research, 10(1), 301-322. ige, t. a. (2001). concept of mapping and problem-solving teaching strategies as determinants of achievement in secondary school ecology. ibadan journal of educational studies, 1(1), 290-301. leach, n. (2018). impactful learning environments: a humanistic approach to fostering ige adolescents’ postindustrial social skills. journal of humanistic psychology, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167818779948. mckissick, b.r., davis, l.l., spooner, f., fisher, l.b., & graves, c. (2018). using computer assisted instruction to teach science vocabulary to students with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. rural special education quarterly, 37(4), 207-281. odom, s.l., thompson, j.l., hedges, s., boyd, b.a., dykstra, j.r., duda, m.a., szidon, k.l., smith, l.e. & bord, a. (2014). technology-aided interventions and instruction for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. journal of autism and developmental disorders, 45(12), 3805-3819. rea, d. c., carter, c. f., parfitt, c. m., wilkerson, j. r., & valesky, t. c. (2017). using dispositional surveys to improve individual and program quality in educational leadership. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 81-87. sobottka, a.g. (2010). correlates of attitudes toward diversity among college white college students. an honours project retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/59211381.pdf. tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 ting, n. (2018). statistical interactions in a clinical trial. therapeutic innovation & regulatory science, 52(1), 14-21. tomesko, j., touger-decker, j., dreker, m., zelig, r., & parrott, j.s. (2017). the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction to teach physical examination to students and trainees in the health sciences professions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. journal of medical education and curricular development, 4, 1-11. van middelkoop, d., ballafkih, f., & meerman, m. (2017). understanding diversity: a dutch case study on teachers’ attitudes towards their diverse student population. empirical research in vocational education and training, 9(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40461-016-0045-9. moely, b.e., mercer, e., sterett, h., et al. (2002). psychometric properties and correlates of the civic attitudes and skills questionnaire (casq): a measure of students’ attitudes related to service-learning. michigan journal of community service learning, 8(2), 15-26. vygotsky, l. s. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167818779948 https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/59211381.pdf https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40461-016-0045-9 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 490-505 boston, ma: harvard university press. vygotsky, l.s. (1979). mind in society. in m. cole, v. john-steiner, s. scribner, e. souberman (eds.), the development of higher psychological processes (pp. 1-159). boston, ma: harvard university press. walker, c.l., & shore, b.m. (2015). understanding classroom roles in inquiry education: linking role theory and social constructivism to the concept of role diversification. sage open, 1-13. womack, s.a., marchant, m., & borders, d. (2011). literature-based social skills instruction: a strategy for students with learning disabilities. intervention in school and clinic, 46(3), 157-164. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(1), 73-95 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 embedding literacy strategies in social studies for eighth-grade students alishia gaston1, james martinez2 & ellice p. martin3 abstract this action research study evaluated the effects of literacy strategies on academic achievement, motivation, and engagement of eighth-grade social studies students. incorporating literacy strategies included teaching students to construct meaning, think critically, and build content knowledge, while stimulating their interests, using multiple texts and technology, and providing collaborative opportunities and high engagement during instructional activities. students were divided into a literacy group and a direct instruction group with each class being taught the same content. literacy strategies were incorporated in one class, and direct instruction activities were used in the other class. results were determined using pre and posttest scores, a student motivation questionnaire, and a student engagement checklist. results indicated significantly higher student achievement and engagement when literacy strategies were a part of the social studies instruction. motivation also increased when literacy strategies were used. literacy instruction was a beneficial strategy to improve student achievement, motivation, and engagement. keywords: literacy strategies, sandardized testing, social studies, middle school introduction literacy is deeply woven into the fabric of successful social studies classes and can be used successfully to provide accommodations and modifications for diverse learning needs (lindsay & horn, 2011; parr & campbell, 2012; soares & wood, 2010). students often enter social studies classes having predetermined they will not pass, they will not like the class, or they will not view the class as beneficial. some students may have no idea how social studies or history can benefit them in the future. simultaneously, students know they must pass the social studies portion of the georgia state content test, titled the criterion referenced competency test (crct), and they must pass their eighth-grade social studies course, which is a course in georgia studies, to meet requirements for promotion to the ninth grade. despite these realities, consistently low scores on state-mandated tests (governor’s office of student achievement, 2011) and students voicing preconceived notions about social studies alerted both teachers and students at the research site that something was missing in the social studies instruction. 1 teacher, lonwdes county schools, alishiagaston@lowndes.k12.ga.us 2 assoc. prof., valdosta state university, jammartinez@valdosta.edu 3 prof. dr., valdosta state university, epmartin@valdosta.edu journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 74 there is no magic elixir for students’ lack of motivation, engagement, and achievement in social studies, but literacy strategies were seen as a help that teachers might use to pique students’ interest and help them succeed. the incorporation of literacy strategies into instruction can be a tool for teachers to address achievement for the diverse learning modalities and learner preferences in their classrooms (santamaria, taylor, park, barett, & van der mandele, 2010). literacy has become much more than just the ability to read the written word (alberta education, 2008). definitions of literacy have continued to evolve and parallel changes in society, culture, and education. the definitions have come to encompass traditional or direction instruction descriptions of literacy skills as well as more of the broadly defined standards for the 21st centurylearner, and literacy is not limited to vocabulary acquisition, library and reference skills, reading strategies, and knowledge and skill transfer from one context to another. teaching students to become independent thinkers and learners who can remember and reuse what they have read to gather meaning, think critically, and solve problems is part of literacy, which involves not only reading, but speaking, listening, viewing, and understanding all forms of communication (gross, 2010). gross affirmed that literacy is a means for broadening teachers’ instructional repertoires and student engagement, ensuring students connect ideas across academic disciplines, and ensuring students connect content to their life experiences. in recent years, gross noted, the concept of literacy has come to encompass how students comprehend and convey meaning through technology and web-based texts. one of the main goals of literacy instruction is to help students develop the ability to think deeply about content material and communicate effectively about learned concepts, and another is to equip students to use the abundance of information they are presented and apply that information to various settings (alberta education, 2008). integration of literacy and social studies can be critical for student success (kent & simpson, 2008; parr & campbell, 2012). social studies learning is promoted through the use of critical literacy perspectives when learning tasks include opportunities for interaction with various modes of text, discussion, critical thinking, and engagement in real world activities (soares & wood, 2010). embedding literacy to improve social studies achievement includes teaching to improve students’ understanding of content, improve critical thinking, foster student motivation, increase student engagement, create strong content readers and writers, and improve vocabulary. key, bradley, j., and bradley (2010) declared that in order to stimulate students’ alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 75 interest in social studies and promote literacy, students must be actively involved. they also affirmed the reciprocal nature of social studies and literacy by which motivation is linked to engagement (key et al., 2010). effectively embedding literacy in social studies includes using reading comprehension strategies, including vocabulary acquisition and development strategies, using web-based tools, incorporating non-traditional texts, building contextual knowledge, examining multiple perspectives, and expanding the depth and quality of teachers by building their confidence. according to kent and simpson (2008), literacy strategies can be used in social studies to enforce reading skills students will need throughout their lives. research focusing on literacy also includes work by reed (2009), who expressed an increased concern about literacy needs of young adults as well as challenges for teachers who stress reading across the curriculum. in the same manner, damico, baildon, exter, and guo (2009) noted guiding students to become strategic readers in disciplines such as mathematics, science, and social studies comes with many challenges. many researchers describe increased literacy as the best way to improve all students’ learning. bayer and staley (2003) suggested literacy will be the most effective tool for eradicating poverty and sustaining the healthy development of children and families in any country because strategies will help students find ways to work through and communicate their hopes, fear, and dreams as well understand other cultures and the world around them. from a teacher’s perspective, students struggle with social studies because they are uninterested or unable to comprehend contextual information and make it relevant to their lives. some students simply do not understand the importance of social studies content and cannot make connections between what has happened and how it has shaped what is happening on global, state, and local levels. social studies is often deemed boring and filled with too many dates and people to remember. at the research site, more than 100 of the 314 students in the eighth grade did not pass the 2011 criterion referenced competency test (crct) (governor’s office of student achievement, 2011). less than two-thirds of all georgia studies students at the site met proficiency levels, and very few exceeded achievement levels. according to the school improvement plan for the research site, only 53% of all eighth-grade students met requirements to pass the social studies portion, and only 15% scored in the category for exceeding journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 76 expectations. the test results warranted much consideration and reflection by teachers and administrators about what could be done to improve student achievement in social studies overall without focusing merely on test-taking strategies. there was an obvious need to help students see content material as more than a series of stories about people, events, and places from the past. key et al. (2010) suggested that students can be forced to complete an assigned task, but they cannot be compelled to learn effectively or to care about what they are learning. the school improvement plan for the research site included goals for improving eighthgrade social studies test scores. the first goal was simply to have more students pass the social studies portion of the crct. the second goal was to move more students from the meets to exceeds category to show not only mastery of content material but also extended learning and understanding. in addition, one aspect of the school improvement plan focused on student motivation and engagement. soares and wood (2010) affirmed a good curriculum involves planning for student conversation to allow engagement in real world activities. the principal, leadership team, and teachers in this professional learning community made a commitment to keep students actively involved at all times. “in response to the pressure that schools face to produce students who are literate members of society, the current mantra of accountability and high stakes testing has forced teachers to reconsider the best means for teaching social studies content” (soares & wood, 2010, p. 488). pressure about student performance on high stakes tests has compelled teachers to tailor instruction to parallel student interest and accommodate for changes with technological advancements. social studies teachers can no longer contemplate whether or not to incorporate literacy strategies. they must be able and willing to meet students’ literacy needs while simultaneously meeting content performance objectives. review of the literature parr and campbell (2012) believed it is essential that literacy strategies and skill instruction be purposefully and appropriately planned and embedded within social studies instruction. many teachers face challenges trying to integrate literacy into the curriculum, and some of those challenges include lack of ability, lack of confidence, lack of resources, and lack of training. gross (2010) wrote that this change in instructional practices and focus requires teachers to experiment with new approaches while still meeting academic discipline demands. alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 77 according to hagood, provost, skinner, and egelson (2008), teachers may lack the ability to effectively implement literacy strategies without compromising important parts of the social studies curriculum. santamaria et al. (2010) declared bolstering teachers’ confidence and competence with the use of literacy strategies is essential to effective integration into instructional activities. reed (2009) suggested that while literacy demands in the workplace, military, college, and citizenship have been increasing, materials and instruction seemingly have not kept pace or focused on keeping students motivated to learn. in a two-year study of social studies classes with 41 students at two low-performing middle schools (grades 6-8), hagood et al. (2008), examined teachers’ and students’ understandings and uses of literacy. they noted although teachers were excited about new literacy strategies and were introduced to new strategies, they had difficulty implementing them in instruction and often viewed literacy in a traditional, direct instruction manner. damico et al. (2009) believed content area teachers often resist responsibility for reading and literacy instruction and think literacy instruction is the sole responsibility of reading teachers. some continue to rely on ineffective methods to present content information. strong professional development should include opportunities to experience literacy strategies from a student’s perspective, to see examples that are relevant to teachers’ unique classrooms, and to work with literacy coaches while integrating strategies into their lesson plans (santamaria et al., 2010). gross (2010) endorsed the practice of using literacy coaches to assist teachers as they take advantage of the multiple modes of literacy and learning that stimulate student curiosity, promote inquiry, and generate critical problem-solving. some students struggle in social studies because they are disengaged, disinterested, and disconnected from classroom instruction. when students have the opportunity to bring their life experiences into the classroom, and teachers provide instructional activities for students to examine multiple perspectives and plan for student conversation allowing engagement in realworld activities, high levels of engagement are fostered (soares & wood, 2010). literacy strategies allow students to engage with relevant reading materials from varied sources including current events and reading materials written from varied perspectives and for various purposes. social studies is a discipline that requires a great deal of reading. kent and simpson (2008) claimed literacy and social studies instruction can be integrated in meaningful ways such as posing questions to students about the world in which they live, allowing opportunities for journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 78 writing about relevant experiences in their own lives, and using gateways to get the students thinking about the basic concept behind what they are studying in order to meet the challenge of increasing both reading achievement and content knowledge. key et al. (2010) suggested student interest is stimulated by involvement with content during prereading, guided reading, and post-reading activities, and that these activities provide students with opportunities for comprehension. according to kent and simpson (2008), such strategies helped students effectively comprehend content material and allowed them to make connections, ask questions, make inferences, engage in critical thinking, and differentiate between key ideas and less important information. this comprehension occurred in a social studies class that used websites on nazi germany to teach students about the impact of the holocaust on the world. in a first-grade classroom in the teacher-researcher’s school district, a teacher used literacy strategies to teach about the american flag and emphasize patriotism. the teacher opted not to use the course text and rather chose a book from the student class library. important key words and vocabulary for understanding the text were identified, and a concept map was used to help students organize new information and distinguish between significant and less important ideas. kent and simpson (2008) argued vocabulary is critically linked to comprehending social studies content. social studies texts have technical vocabulary that can be challenging for students; therefore, opportunities for vocabulary acquisition and concept learning are vital. santamaria et al. (2010) believed some strategies such as word maps and vocabulary webs, often used at the beginning of a lesson, helped students improve vocabulary, while others such as jigsaw and think-pair-share focus on summarizing information and are often used at the end of a lesson. in recent years, the concept of literacy has come to encompass how students comprehend and convey meaning through technology and web-based texts (bean & dagan, 2011). across academic disciplines, the practice of learning through literacy has increased as digital texts, webquests, online tutorials, and interactive websites have transformed direction instruction approaches to teaching and learning. soares and wood (2010) affirmed literacy and content converge in social studies courses with the goal of developing in students the capacity for critical thinking within a global society. today’s socials studies classes offer many opportunities for content teachers to make learning alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 79 relevant, provide engaging instruction, and draw on personal experiences from students’ lives that have been fashioned by cultural, societal, and economic influences and have been transformed by technology, information, and social media. purpose of the study the purpose of this study was to examine the effects that incorporating literacy strategies in social studies would have on student achievement, motivation, and engagement compared to the effect of those variables of direct instruction. as a teacher, the researcher could use data from this study to make informed decisions about how to tailor instruction to meet students’ diverse learning needs. results from the study have the potential to help other content teachers and to help administrators, department heads, academic coaches, and curriculum directors when considering changes in social studies curriculum and appropriate professional learning workshops for teachers. additional research would have important implications for educators with the implementation of new state performance standards and could help teachers draw objective conclusions about how to most effectively teach the new standards. research questions research question 1. will incorporation of literacy strategies into instruction improve student achievement in social studies compared with student achievement after direct instruction? research question 2. will incorporation of literacy strategies improve student motivation during social studies instruction compared to student motivation during direct instruction? research question 3. are students more engaged when teachers use literacy strategies to teach social studies content compared to student motivation during direct instruction? definition of variables literacy strategies. literacy strategies allow students to interact with a variety of texts, to view content from multiple perspectives, and to use their prior knowledge along with clues from the text to construct meaning. in this study, literacy strategies included the incorporation of webbased tools within lessons before, during, and after reading and vocabulary instruction. direct instruction. direct instruction was used for comparison of achievement using that strategy to achievement with the inclusion of literacy strategies. the teacher-directed instruction journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 80 involved students reading from a social studies textbook and completing worksheets. direct instruction was used to introduce new content with vocabulary definitions and other key terms. achievement. in this study, achievement was a measure of the skills, knowledge, and concepts a student had learned and retained at the culmination of an instructional unit. the skills, knowledge, and concepts reflected students’ aptitude and ability to meet content performance objectives. achievement was measured using questions from the georgia online assessment system test bank. the test bank was a pool of questions from common assessments on specific topics and from georgia’s statewide assessment, called the criterion referenced competency test (crct). motivation. motivation is the desire to achieve a goal such as meeting social studies performance objectives, combined with energy to work toward that goal. motivation was measured using responses from a student questionnaire. engagement. engagement was defined in this study as the students’ on-task behavior and participation in instructional activities, and was measured using an engagement checklist. the checklist was used to record students’ active and willful involvement in learning activities. methods setting and participants this research study took place at a middle school in one of southern georgia’s largest school districts. the population in 2010 for the county was estimated at 109,000 and about 22% of the population lived below the poverty line. the study, therefore, took place in an economically challenged school district. the school served grades 6 through 8 and had a school population of 905 students (governor’s office of student achievement, 2011). the participants were eighth-grade students (n = 43) in two georgia studies classes from the research site. one class (n = 24) was randomly selected and designated the literacy instruction group, and literacy strategies were incorporated in instruction. the other class (n = 19) formed the direct instruction group. the average age for this population of students was 13. students were randomly assigned to classes, and the student populations of both groups were comparable in terms of academic achievement. alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 81 the achievement characteristics of the population were derived from the previous year’s criterion referenced competency test (crct) scores. a student who scored 800 met the standard for achievement in social studies. a score of 800 was considered passing, and scores on the social studies portion ranged from 745 to 950. students identified as level one (those who did not pass the crct in 2012) in georgia studies accounted for 31% of the sample population. further demographic characteristics of the population are shown in table 1. table 1 demographic and achievement data of participants demographic ga studies direct n = 24 ga studies literacy n = 19 race white 13 7 black 9 8 hispanic 2 4 gender males 9 10 females 15 9 free/reduced-price lunch 12 8 english language learners (ell) 2 1 the teacher-researcher, the only adult participant in this action research study, taught the lessons and administered assessments. she was in her 12th year of teaching and was certified in social studies, english, and reading for middle grades as well as in secondary english education. ten years of her teaching experience were at the middle school level. intervention the intervention consisted of a 9-week research period at the beginning of the school year, during which one 50minute georgia studies class was taught using literacy strategies and the other was taught with direct social studies strategies. the same teacher-researcher taught both classes with no co-teachers or paraprofessionals. a unit in georgia studies was taught to both classes. the same standards, performance objectives, and assessments were part of achievement expectations for both classes. an identical pretest was administered to both groups prior to week 1 of the study. the intervention variable for this study was the method of journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 82 instruction used to teach the unit. the teacher used a listing of important people and terms and discussed unit standards and learning objectives for both classes at the beginning of the unit. students in each group received the same amount of time on task and completed the same required assignments. the groups were compared in terms of how literacy strategies impacted the overall achievement, attitude, and motivation of the groups. students in one class were taught using direct teacher-centered strategies and direct instruction. direct strategies included the teacher-researcher using direct lecture, vocabulary definitions, the textbook, and worksheets as the main resources to present content information. student participation included note-taking, answering questions orally, completing worksheets, and reading from the textbook. students also worked in groups to research important topics and historical figures and presented the information to the class. during the study, the teacherresearcher lectured on topics in the social studies curriculum and assisted students as they completed questions from the crct test prep workbook (blankenship & wood, 2009). as students progressed through the unit lessons, the teacher-researcher reviewed important vocabulary by making sure students had written the correct definitions in their notebooks. at the end of the unit, the teacher-researcher reviewed important people and events, and students answered true-false questions about those persons and events. weekly formative assessments such as reading check questions, homework checks, and quizzes were used to help students and the teacher monitor progress, understanding of particular topics, and familiarity with important historical figures and events. direct strategies such as k-w-ls (before), thinkpair-share (during), and ticket-out-the-door (after) were used. these students made an outline to take notes and learn about important concepts. their interaction with text was through oral class reading. new vocabulary words were taught using term and definition lists. for the literacy class, the researcher incorporated literacy strategies into instruction. active literacy strategies included using before, during, and after reading strategies for learning new vocabulary terms and comprehending text, as well as using frayer models and word maps to take notes and learn about important concepts. specific passages from the text were given to students, and they interacted with the text by marking the margins with words and ideas that occurred as they were reading with partners. students also highlighted important ideas, terms, and dates, and they analyzed text structures. the teacher-researcher taught new vocabulary using marzano and pickering’s (2005) six step process for building academic vocabulary. for alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 83 weekly formative assessments, students chose from a menu of activities to show their mastery of unit concepts. the menu included summarizing activities such as acrostic poems, three facts and a fib, 3-2-1, which one doesn’t belong?, and alphabet soup. both groups were given a mini-assessment halfway through the research period and were given a posttest after week 9 of the intervention. although different methods were used to present the same content information, both groups took the same tests. questionnaires were given to both groups simultaneously before and after the intervention. engagement checklists were completed by both groups after the intervention. data collection techniques the teacher-researcher used several data collection instruments to determine whether the incorporation of literacy strategies improved the achievement, motivation, and engagement of eighth-grade georgia studies (social studies) students. unit one: geography, colonization, and exploration test. the georgia geography, exploration, and colonization (gce) test contained 20 multiple-choice items that assessed students’ understanding of the geography, native american exploration, and british colonization in georgia. the questions were taken from the georgia crct test prep workbook (blankenship & wood, 2009), which was used to help students better prepare for tests. the content validity of this test was established by peer review of three content teachers as well as through the publisher. it was administered to students in both groups, and a score was recorded before and after the intervention. descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze data. pretest and posttest scores for both groups were analyzed by interpreting the results of unpaired one-tailed t-tests to compare the change in means from the pretest to the posttest. student motivation questionnaire. the student motivation questionnaire (smq) was a 10-item likert-scale survey measuring students’ levels of motivation during their georgia studies class. student responses ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). this survey was developed by the teacher-researcher and administered to all students in the study before and after the intervention. construct validity was established through peer review by three georgia studies teachers and one academic coach. the information was analyzed by comparing responses to determine any differences in attitudes of students in the two groups following the intervention. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 84 student engagement checklist. the student engagement checklist (sec) was a 10-item checklist that students completed at the end of the study. the survey was designed by the teacher-researcher, and students rated themselves on their levels of engagement. construct validity was established by pilot testing with 23 participants, and revisions were made based on their input. all students completed the checklist after the intervention, and descriptive statistics were used to analyze data. results were interpreted by identifying patterns for subgroups of students and discussing emergent themes in data. fieldnotes. during this study, the teacher-researcher used a journal to make anecdotal notes about student performance, test scores, levels of engagement, attitudes, and student interest. additionally, the journal was used to make notes about discipline and potential limitations of the study. data from fieldnotes were analyzed by coding and then determining any themes related to the research questions. results the purpose of this research was to ascertain the effectiveness of literacy instruction on achievement, motivation, and engagement in eighth-grade georgia studies classes. data collection provided relevant information to achievement, motivation, and engagement of a direct instruction georgia studies class with a literacy strategies georgia studies class. both classes were taught the same information based on state performance objectives by the same teacherresearcher; however, one class had specific literacy strategies embedded into instruction. the data collection instruments included a unit test (gce test), which served as the pretest and posttest, a student motivation questionnaire, and an engagement checklist. results of this study are based on analyses of these data. to determine the effectiveness of literacy instruction on student achievement, a pretest on georgia studies content was administered to both the direct and literacy classes at the beginning of the study. this same test also served as the posttest administered at the conclusion of the intervention. means and standard deviations of the pretests given in each class are given in table 2. the mean pretest score for students in the literacy class (m = 59.38, sd =11.73) was not significantly different (t(41) = -1.10, p = 0.14) from the mean pretest grade for students who took the pretest in the direct instruction class. the classes were similar enough for comparison. alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 85 table 2 comparison of achievement on pretest results class n m sd t-value p literacy 24 59.38 11.73 -1.10 0.14 direct 19 63.16 10.45 means and standard deviations for achievement on the posttest administered after the intervention are shown in table 3. the mean posttest score for the literacy class (m = 86.46, sd = 8.66) was significantly higher than the mean posttest score (m = 75.53, sd = 10.53) for the direct instruction class. students in the georgia studies class receiving literacy strategies scored significantly higher on the posttest than students receiving direct instruction in a georgia studies class. table 3 comparison of achievement on posttest results class n m sd t-value p literacy 24 86.46 8.66 3.74 < .001 direct 19 75.53 10.53 there was a significant difference in the mean posttest scores (see table 3) of the students in the literacy class compared to the mean posttest scores for students in the direct class. the intervention had a very large effect (d = 1.18). an average student (at the 50th percentile) in the literacy class would be expected to score at about the 86th percentile of students in the direct instruction class. using literacy strategies increased average posttest scores by 14%. to adjust for differences in the mean pre-intervention scores for the two classes, the pretest/posttest was used to determine students’ knowledge of eighth-grade georgia studies content before and after the intervention. a comparison of mean gains for each class is shown in table 4. the pretest mean for the literacy class (m = 59.38) was slightly lower than the pretest mean for the direct class (m = 63.16). the posttest mean for the literacy class (m = 86.46) was journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 86 higher than the posttest mean for the direct class (m = 75.53). the mean gain for the literacy class was significantly greater than the mean gain for the direct instruction class. table 4 comparison of mean gains for achievement class pretest posttest comparison of mean gain m m mean gain t-value p literacy 59.38 86.46 27.08 3.11 0.002 direct 63.16 75.53 12.37 students participating in the study completed a questionnaire measuring their motivation during georgia studies class. table 5 shows the results from the literacy class questionnaires administered before and after the intervention. the number of students out of the literacy class (n = 24) who agreed, were undecided, or disagreed are recorded in table 5. statements reflect levels of motivation during instructional activities. the results of the student motivation questionnaire from the literacy class showed distinct differences in the number of students agreeing with statements before and after the intervention. the results indicate that after the intervention, nearly all students agreed with positive statements related to motivation during ga studies instruction. in some cases, all students agreed with the statements after the intervention, and this result was indicative of increased levels of motivation. before the intervention, only half of the literacy class thought learning was interesting and fun, and only 8 students could relate to what was being taught. after the intervention, however, all of the 24 students thought learning was interesting and fun and deemed content material as relevant. all 24 students indicated they learned through the various kinds of activities as well as looked forward to earning good grades. in the same manner, nearly all students indicated they were confident and eager to learn more about their state and were excited to complete projects and assignments. the number of students disagreeing with statements about motivation before the incorporation of literacy strategies decreased considerably after the intervention. alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 87 table 5 questionnaire results for literacy group statements before intervention after intervention agree neutral disagree agree neutral disagree learning is interesting and fun. 12 5 7 24 0 0 i can relate to what is being 8 4 12 24 0 0 taught. i am focused and interested. 6 9 9 18 3 3 i can learn through various 15 6 3 24 0 0 kinds of activities. i am confident and eager to 5 10 9 22 2 0 learn more about my state. i think about what i have 2 6 6 12 8 4 learned from other classes. i look forward to earning 8 8 8 24 0 0 good grades. i study hard to pass tests. 5 8 11 16 4 4 i am excited to complete 7 7 10 20 2 2 projects and assignments. i think about what topics 4 4 16 8 8 8 will be discussed next. table 6 shows the results of the student motivation questionnaire administered to the class (n = 19) receiving direct instruction. results show responses to many statements about motivation were consistent at both points of the study. at the beginning of the study, 10 students considered learning interesting and fun. at the end of the study, 11 students had the same regard for learning. the number of students who found content relevant, were confident and eager to learn more about their state, and were excited to complete projects and assignments only increased by 1 student after the intervention. fifteen students believed they could learn through various kinds of activities at the beginning of the study, and 15 students believed the same at the conclusion of the study. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 88 interestingly, the number of students who looked forward to earning good grades increased from 12 to 17 students at the end of the study. considering the number of students who were undecided or disagreed with statements about being interested, being focused, being able to relate to content, and being confident to learn more about the state of ga, teachers must be aware that methods of instruction can have diverse effects on different students, and they must be cognizant of the impact of distinct learning activities on students’ motivation. table 6 questionnaire results for direct group statements before intervention after intervention agree neutral disagree agree neutral disagree learning is interesting and fun. 10 6 3 11 8 0 i can relate to what is being 9 9 1 10 8 1 taught. i am focused and interested. 7 7 5 7 7 5 i can learn through various 15 2 2 15 2 2 kinds of activities. i am confident and eager to 10 7 2 11 5 3 learn more about my state. i think about what i have 5 8 6 5 5 9 learned from other classes. i look forward to earning 12 3 4 17 2 0 good grades. i study hard to pass tests. 9 5 5 15 2 2 i am excited to complete 8 5 6 9 3 7 projects and assignments. i think about what topics 4 9 6 8 7 4 will be discussed next. results from the student engagement checklist are shown in tables 7 and 8. the checklist was given to students in both the literacy (n = 24) and the direct (n = 19) classes after alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 89 the intervention. engagement behaviors of students in the literacy class tended to increase as a result of the intervention. there were key differences between the literacy and direct students’ responses regarding the incorporation of literacy strategies. question 10 specifically asked students about being fully engaged. results show the number of students responding sometimes or always increased, and the number of students indicating they were always engaged doubled. other student responses reflect students in the literacy class indicated they interacted more with the teacher and other students and were on task more during instruction. table 7 student engagement checklist responses after intervention literacy class direct class response never sometimes always never sometimes always 1. i interacted with other students during class. 0 12 12 2 17 0 2. i interacted with my teacher during class. 0 14 10 3 14 2 3. i participated in group activities, reading, etc. 0 16 8 7 12 0 4. i followed directions on individual assignments. 0 5 19 0 7 12 5. i was on task during instructional activities. 0 5 19 3 10 6 6. i was often thinking about other things during class. 6 14 4 5 9 5 7. the teacher gave specific feedback on tests and projects, when i made corrections/revisions to my work. 0 10 14 5 7 7 8. when i didn’t understand something, i asked questions. 6 12 6 1 9 9 9. i contributed to class discussions and shared my experiences. 5 11 8 7 9 3 10. i was fully engaged during lessons and activities. 0 8 16 4 7 8 journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 90 more specifically, table 8 shows mean comparisons of student engagement for the literacy class and the direct class. students scored their engagement levels as 1 (never), 2 (sometimes), or 3 (always). the highest average rating per student was 30, and the lowest average rating per student was 10. a score closer to 30 reflected high levels of engagement, and a score closer to 10 indicated lower levels of engagement. the mean for the literacy class (m = 27.92) was statistically significantly higher than the mean for the direct class (m = 19.84). a comparison of means of the ratings from the checklist from both classes (p < .01) proved it was highly unlikely that the higher levels of engagement occurred by chance. table 8 student engagement checklist mean comparison class n m t-value p literacy 24 27.92 10.43 .00002 direct 19 19.84 the teacher-researcher observed students during instructional activities and recorded fieldnotes. analysis of the data collected in those notes revealed that during instruction and class activities, students in the literacy class were more on-task than students in the direct class. students in the direct class were more likely to exhibit poor work ethic on written assignments, talk and play during instruction, put their heads down on their desks, and fail to complete assignments. students in the literacy class also seemed more attentive, asked questions, and were eager to complete collaborative and group activities, which rarely required them to use a traditional text. one student participant even commented, “i now see why social studies is so important.” during the study, no discipline infractions were recorded for the literacy class. three discipline referrals were written for students in the direct class during the study. findings from analysis of fieldnotes supported the statistical findings. alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 91 discussion conclusions did literacy strategies in ga studies instruction affect achievement of eighth-grade students? the results from the use of all three instruments during the intervention indicated that incorporating literacy strategies does impact achievement in ga studies. at the beginning of the study, both classes appeared to be at the same level of achievement. the pretest scores (p < 0.14) of the literacy class and the direct class were not significantly different. posttest scores between both classes, however, were significantly different. mean gain comparisons showed that posttest scores were statistically higher (p < .01) for students in the literacy class. the observed increase in student achievement is consistent with previous research by bean and dagan (2010), who found that effective literacy strategies are proven methods for improving instruction, achievement, and assessment. the findings also agree with kent and simpson (2008) who found that integrating literacy strategies increased students’ achievement in social studies and strengthened skills that affect achievement in future social science classes. did the incorporation of literacy strategies increase student motivation during ga studies? the use of literacy strategies in ga studies did increase student motivation. at the end of the study, all students in the literacy group indicated in their responses that learning was interesting and fun. all participants in this class also viewed content as relevant, denoted they learned through the various collaborative activities, and looked forward to earning grades. nearly all students indicated in their responses on the motivation questionnaire that they were confident and eager to learn more about their state. these findings are consistent with reed (2009), who determined that using literacy strategies to make class experiences more relevant to students’ interests, everyday life, or important current events motivates students because meaningful learning is taking place. key et al. (2010) mentioned that we may be able to make students complete assignments, but we cannot compel them to care about what they are learning, but the current study did not support this assumption. are students in ga studies classes more engaged when literacy strategies are incorporated into instructional activities? the results of the student engagement checklist indicated students in the literacy class were more engaged than students in the direct class. a comparison of means of ratings on the checklist from both classes proved it was highly unlikely (p < .01) that students were more engaged by chance. the results of the checklist further journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 92 showed all of the students in the literacy class indicated in question 10 that they were sometimes or always fully engaged during instructional activities. these findings are consistent with gross (2010), who concluded that using literacy strategies is a means for enhancing student engagement and is a viable way for helping students learn. it should be noted that off-task behaviors and discipline problems were recorded only for the direct class, and key et al. (2010) found that such conduct often minimizes engagement when students deem instructional activities as boring, beyond their ability to understand, or disconnected from their personal experiences. significance/impact on student learning students in the literacy class scored higher on the unit test and made greater gains on the posttest than did students in the direct class. the incorporation of literacy strategies could lead to increased achievement on future formative and summative assessments in georgia studies classes as well as on state mandated tests. the impact of literacy strategies in georgia studies was positive for the study population and caused students to be more motivated and engaged in learning activities in georgia studies. students were also more involved, overall, in their own learning. results show student interaction with the teacher and with classmates fostered collaboration. factors influencing implementation there were several factors that could have influenced the implementation of this study. the direct ga studies class contained 2 english language learners (ell). language barriers could have been a hindrance to comprehension and learning for english language learners in the classes. even though instructional activities and content focused on the state of georgia, there was no guarantee students would have an endearment toward subject matter related to their home state. some students in the class were not born or reared in georgia and may have been disinterested because of that fact. another factor that could have influenced this study was the lack of a current georgia studies textbook, which was the main resource used to present content in the direct class. the text used was outdated, and some of the information in it conflicted with the information in the crct test prep workbook that was also used. equally important were some students’ initial perceptions of a social studies class. because several students had not passed the previous year’s social studies class or the social studies portion of the crct, they could have entered the class with an unfavorable attitude about learning in georgia studies. also, because the pretest was alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 93 given at the beginning of the school year, some students may have perceived the test as unimportant due to the fact that it was given before “real” instruction began. implications and limitations a significant difference in achievement and engagement between students in the literacy class versus students in the direct class provided evidence that the incorporation of literacy strategies can be a beneficial strategy. the findings of this study are consistent with the findings of most researchers, particularly in the area of literacy instruction in social studies or history classes. most research supports the use of literacy strategies to teach social studies content. therefore, the researcher will continue to use literacy instruction as part of a learner-focused georgia studies classroom. the results of this study are significant for, but not limited to, social studies teachers, and lend credence to research on the effectiveness of embedding literacy strategies into instruction. literacy strategies can be used across grade levels, as well as across academic disciplines. the higher achievement from using literacy strategies may lead to more project-based learning. the results of the motivation questionnaire and engagement checklist also offer suggestions teachers can use to make informed decisions about lesson planning, instructional practices and materials, and activities that will be more engaging for students. the findings of this study support a curriculum rich with technology, differentiated instruction, and collaborative learning. although the study did return a positive impact, there are limitations that must be addressed. the study was conducted over a 9-week period, which may not have been a sufficient length of time. it might have been more advantageous to monitor student achievement, motivation, and engagement throughout an entire school term. other instruments such as semester exams, crct scores, and final grade point averages might be used to corroborate achievement findings. further research is needed to validate the finding of this study. research including the use of literacy strategies with students with disabilities, gifted students, and students who have been retained may provide more conclusive results. more research should be conducted using other grade levels, other schools including other complex other academic disciplines, and with populations with different demographics for the results to be more reliable and generalizable. also, using additional teachers to implement the intervention would decrease the potential for journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 73-95 94 bias in observations recorded in fieldnotes and would also allow multiple groups of student results to be analyzed. references alberta education. (2008). supporting the literacy learner: promising literacy strategies in alberta. alberta school improvement association publications. alberta, canada. bayer, e. & staley, l. (2003). literacy: the keys to success. childhood education, 79(4), 228-320. bean, r., & dagan, a. (2011). best practices of literacy leaders: keys to school improvement. new york: guilford press. blankenship, g. & wood, v. (2009). georgia crct test prep: teaching the georgia performance standards. atlanta: clairmont press. damico, j., baildon, m., exter, m., & guo, s. (2009). where we read from matters: disciplinary literacy in ninth-grade social studies classroom. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 53(4), 325-335. governor’s office of student achievement. (2011). 2010-2011 report card. retrieved from http://gaosa.org/report.aspx gross, p. (2010). not another trend: secondary-level literacy coaching. the clearing house, 83(1), 130-137. hagood, m., provost, m., skinner, e., & egleson, p. (2008). teachers’ & students’ literacy performance in & engagement with new literacy strategies in underperforming middle schools. middle grades research journal, 3(3), 57-95. kent, a., & simpson, j., (2008). social studies and literacy integration: making the most of our teaching. social studies research and practice, 3(1), 142-152. alishia gaston, james martinez & ellice p. martin 95 key, l., bradley, j., & bradley, k. (2010). stimulating instruction in social studies. the social studies, 101(3), 117-120. lindsay, d., & horn, e. (2011). strategies for supporting early literacy development. young exceptional children, 14(3), 29-40. marzano, r., & pickering, d. (2005). building academic vocabulary: teachers manual. alexandria, va: ascd. parr, m., & campbell, t. (2012). understanding literacy as our world inheritance: revisiting literacy discourse and its implications for teaching practice. international review of education, 58(4), 557-574. reed, d. (2009). a synthesis of professional development on the implementation of literacy strategies for middle school content area teachers. rmle online: research in middle level education, 32(10), 1-12. santamaria, l., taylor, m., park, t., barett, k., & van der mandele, e. (2010). practical literacy matters: teacher confidence is key. techniques: connecting education and careers, 85 (5), 45-47. soares, l. & wood, k. (2010). a critical literacy perspective for teaching and learning in social studies. the reading teacher, 63(6), 486-494. u. s. census bureau. (2011). state and county quick facts. retrieved from http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/13/13185.html visualizing the white spaces: beginning the journey toward social education www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(1), 1-20 our journeys: paths toward social education cameron white1, phd & susan mccormack2, edd & sabrina marsh3 , edd abstract: for educators and students to have the chance to become more critically aware, we believe educators need opportunities to experience different realities about teaching and learning, and to critique their own views of education and their role within it. thus social education emerges as a lifelong journey for us – to question, to challenge, to do, and to create. it is our hope that our common shared experiences, designed around a basic belief in the rightness of social education to transform individuals and communities, may help inform views of learning and reflective knowledge construction, and open the way for emancipatory critical dialogue and action among multiple voices. keywords: social education, critical pedagogy, social construction our journeys: paths toward social education introduction the social education journey comes from within. the great poet rilke (1945) said it most beautifully: the future enters into us, in order to transform itself in us, long before it happens (p. 36). and yes, friends, it really is all about the journey and not the destination. our personal journeys began for each of us years ago with school, life, family, and friends. shamelessly glamoured by history, politics, and current events ever since we can remember, we question the status quo and the traditional, especially with respect to issues of social justice. we do not just teach social studies, we teach social education, and delight when students leave our classes smiling and shaking their heads, trying to make it all make sense. what in this lesson connects with you we will ask at every opportunity. students tell us, too. they want to do history and geography, economics and popular culture. they do not want to sit and have it “done to them.” so, that is what we do. we debate, we question, we make movies and plan programs, we make mistakes, we march the streets and halls, and we investigate the community. our students teach us more than we could ever teach them. life experience leads us along our social education 1 cameron white, ph.d., university of houston, cswhite@uh.edu 2 susan mccormack, ed.d., university of houston clear lake, sumccormack@uhcl.edu 3 sabrina marsh, ed.d., university of houston, smarsh@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 2 journey. learning to play the school game, learning to tell what matters, vacations to state capitals and civil war battle sites, reading, volunteering, trips abroad . . . all contribute to our travels. we planted the seeds early on . . . but the freedom of the academy is necessary to allow the forging of a new path. beginning with teaching traditional social studies education, and bridging from that point to collaborations with future teachers, graduate students, other professors, schools, teachers, and the community, allows additional critical investigation. the traditional social studies program area at our university eventually morphed into “social education”, with courses focusing on critical pedagogy, popular culture, and social issues. projects and research took hold, focusing on the community, global education, international experiences, and rethinking american history. students graduate carrying a torch for something called social education – something that has no “true” definition, that is always evolving and always questioning, but is comprised of common personal themes. given the ongoing debate and struggle with “defining” social education, our bulletin board outside our lab provides one definition to encourage dialog: "we believe that social education emphasizes three areas of study: critical pedagogy, cultural/media studies, and social studies education. we also stress that education, interpreted broadly, has the potential to advance social justice." thus social education emerges as a lifelong journey for us – to question, to challenge, to do, and to create. and through the years, especially as professors, new pathways emerge ripe with possibilities: social justice, community activism, cultural studies, popular culture, experiential learning, critical pedagogy. and yes, the foundation – social studies. we invite others to share our journey: teachers, administrators, and professors out there struggling along the social education path. connecting present and past, merging current issues with traditional curriculum, integrating alternative texts and perspectives, empowering and emancipating kids and educators, and transforming schools and society – the transgressions of teaching without a social education scream out. dewey, freire, kincheloe, zinn, greene, giroux, apple, hooks, mclaren, kozol, loewen, said, chomsky, marx, even such diverse characters as bob dylan and the coen brothers provide the maps. our friendships and personal stories supply the compass. cameron white & susan mccormack & sabrina marsh 3 beginning the journey the journey between social studies and social education leads travelers down a mysterious path with "white spaces" on a map that continuously needs to be examined. our exploration into the heart of social education is fraught with twists and turns requiring us to realign our internal compass and hold tight to our traveling partners. navigating this social education journey we discover that each traveler’s itinerary is an individualized process allowing for divergent teaching and learning opportunities. in this context, the "white spaces" are rough hewn educational landscapes that create exhilarating learning experiences well worth the effort in the end in spite of the difficulties one encounters when exploring the road that is “wanting wear” (frost, 1920). following are shared moments from our travel log, which highlight our attempt to choose the “less traveled” (frost, 1920) pathway toward social education. our “enlightenment” came gradually in her teaching career. after years of working happily in elite high schools and private middle schools, the envy of her peers because she “got to teach in good schools,” she slowly began to question her complicity in the process. the students were delightful and sophisticated but entitled, even from an early age. the administrations clung to a fanatical bordering on fascist educational belief regarding the role of teacher and student and principal, indeed the very purpose of education. parents did not expect their children to receive a great education as much as they expected them to receive the right kind of education to get ahead. the status quo was firmly in place, no questions asked please. although not yet aware of the concept, we knew the vibe we each were getting in her teaching deskilling. innovative teaching techniques were not appreciated; treating students as equals with something important to say was frowned upon. however, we knew we were passionate teachers with a great love of learning who cared about students, and knew that something about traditional education was just not right. it made people uncaring of others, focused on the bottom line, and dismissed the individual. so we each went in search of a different path. we started masters, then doctoral degrees and we taught additional years. we traveled, became more involved in our communities, and tried to come to terms with what was going on in our schools. fortunately, we ultimately came together under the banner of social education. although kincheloe (2001) argued a radical overhaul of the entire educational system is required for true reform, we needed to forge a trail toward transformative practice through the journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 4 social studies discipline, because it served as the umbrella and anchor over all other disciplines. along the way we explored numerous theories for transformative teaching and learning in our individual classroom spaces. in the social studies, theories aimed at reform bombard teachers with so many pedagogical choices that we become wrought by confusion or indecision (ross, 2001; stanley, 2001; evans, 2004; kincheloe, 2001; dewey, 1908). our first road block revealed we expect “experts” to define the teaching and learning environment by allowing them to choose what we teach and how we teach it without questioning the viability of their choices in our own courses. the substance of curricula most often mirroring traditional values that do not usually align to our own thought and those of our students is woven throughout the traditional social studies curricula (meuwissen, 2006). belief in one’s potential transformative ability might empower us as educators to seek the path as change agents and promote decisions that could affect our future practice, but it is not possible without critical reflection regarding the status quo; moving forward begins with the empowerment felt by the simple act of choosing curriculum. is it possible for educators to choose what we teach and how it should be taught? kincheloe, slattery and steinberg (2000) believe profit seeking corporations drive this decision with insidious goals to promote a dominant national agenda, thereby effectively eroding away teachers' public status and power. thus, the heavy reliance by teachers on curriculum designed by perceived experts becomes a major roadblock for most reform efforts. most recently, national and state efforts with reconceptualizing and reforming curriculum standards have illustrated this. in lieu of transformative, culturally responsive curricula, proponents for the continued traditional treatment of social studies defy classroom teachers serving on restructuring committees. many proponents for the traditional treatment of social studies education have no experience in the field leaving one to question the nature of the "expert." who should be the perceived social studies experts? adler, dougan and garcia (2005) define the role of experts in social studies teacher preparation: [it] involves colleges of education and the liberal arts, k-12 schools, state departments of education, social studies/social science professional organizations, and these major players are influenced by societal trends; by interest groups; by research in social studies, in the social sciences, and in education; and by society’s proclivity for developing programs that are cost-effective, well grounded in research, sufficiently flexible to be cameron white & susan mccormack & sabrina marsh 5 implemented in a variety of settings, and capable of satisfying the ever-changing demand for teachers. moreover, the preparation of social studies teachers is influenced by the ideologies espoused by the various groups involved in this complex enterprise (p. 396). and the various groups involved in this endeavor introduce their expert interpretations through profit driven programs and to a lesser degree, when referring to public school educators, professional journals. tread carefully though, because even though interest groups and their ilk are listed as experts, they must also align their philosophical stance with tradition. often, educators conform to a structure that is predetermined by corporate programs, if one believes that the “[e]xperts are best positioned to determine what ought to be taught and how in schools” (mathison, ross & vinson, 2001). this common practice promotes lack of attention that does not ensure that students will actually learn (fordham, wellman & sandmann, 2002). it is giroux's critique of technocratic policy which follows the assumption that teachers’ behaviors are controlled and the experts continue to do the thinking (marker, 2000). paulo freire (1998) strongly opposed curricula of this nature and argued that it served as the antithesis for professional development of educators, essentially teacher proofing curricula. the assumption was that by packaging the course with expert created materials, or by distributing goals endorsed by the state board of education, there would be no way that teachers could mess it up, a process of deskilling teachers (kincheloe, slattery & steinberg, 2000). this further advanced the ideas that teachers are incapable of creating their own teaching materials, and may serve to demoralize transformative educators who might construct valuable curriculum in their classes. illuminating the pathways with tentative steps off the beaten path, we began our journeys toward social education by rejecting the prescribed "teacher-proof" curriculum and co-designing replacements. in spite of the fact that students enrolled in our classes were likely to participate in rigorous activities not common to textbook material and use methods for learning in collaborative groups, we took solace in the fact that we still chose the curriculum. nevertheless, freire (1971) would describe the teacher/student relationship in the above educational setting as “narrative” (p. 71); the teacher is the narrator or the subject and the students are listeners or the objects. the treatment of the material was still a superficial treatment in many ways. our preferred "surface" treatment of curricular themes and topics and often our reliance on single interpretation answers continued journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 6 to follow freire’s (1971) banking concept. initially we imagined that we could pass on our supreme "knowing" of the state and national curricula to students who would act as passive receptacles waiting to be filled with information that was static and quantifiable (kutz & roskelly, 1991; hooks, 1994; marker, 2000).clearly, we had more miles to travel. the above, well-worn path for learning is often unquestioned and even expected in the classroom (brooks, 2004). staying on that narrow traditional pathway to learning was our reward; many of our teacher preparation classes and formal teaching evaluations reinforced this concept. we found few reasons to change the status quo and step off the path (dewitt & freie, 2005). this trend is very prevalent in the social studies genre and social studies methods courses only serve to perpetuate it (kincheloe, 2001). depending on the educator, a social studies methods course may follow several routes, but the most common path is one in which students experience “simplistic, rote-based exercises” which are “marked by an absence of analytical questions about and critical examination of the nature of the social studies curriculum” (kincheloe, 2001, p. 19). moving into higher education coincided with our pursuit of social education. as we became involved in teaching social studies methods to pre-service teachers, the role of the educator with regard to their interest in developing curriculum became our concern. we wanted to model thinking and refused to adopt textbooks for the course that would define the course. constructing curricula was important and would empower beginning teachers to seek information beyond anything that they would learn in the short time they would be in the methods courses. their journeys could not be neatly mapped out for them, but would have to be forged out of the experience. it became important to reconcile the practice of teaching with the “where” and with the “why.” we strongly reconsidered the long held views and traditions associated with the social studies, how might this expected route for learning be rejected to forge a new path? how might we encourage prospective and in-service teachers to see through the white spaces? the most important step is to contextualize teaching and learning (kincheloe, 2001; kincheloe, slattery & steinberg, 2000). much of social studies teaching and learning is what kincheloe (2001) calls the “nonconceptual, technical view of social studies teaching” (p. 19). a lack of concern for the nature of social studies curriculum and a disregard for the connections between the social studies discipline and larger socio-political issues characterizes this type of teaching. we began to cameron white & susan mccormack & sabrina marsh 7 question: how is it possible to teach social studies without contextualizing it? is it possible to teach us history without educating students on both civic competence or responsibility and constitutional history? if civic education is the hallmark of social studies, should social studies education be removed from the elementary curriculum? more importantly, what is actually meant by civic responsibility? the answer to these questions has long placed social studies in the middle of a seemingly unsolvable quandary (stanley, 2005; ross & marker, 2005; singer, 2005; leming, ellington & porter-magee, 2003; adler, dougan & garcia, 2006). critically considering this debate signifies our awakening transition between social studies and social education. the national council for the social studies (1994) explains that “democratic societies are characterized by hard choices” which “involve personal behavior” (p. 9). the choices become problematic when they involve issues that pit values against one another. in the case of social studies education, questioning fundamental values is everything. social studies scholars charge teachers with the pedagogical decision – “transmission or transformation” (stanley, 2005). white (2003) argues that “reforming, reacting, improving, acquiescing, and adapting are not approaches or methods we should be using. educators need to be thinking in terms of transformation” (p.2). "the true teacher defends his pupils against his own personal influence, he inspires selfdistrust. he guides their eyes from himself to the spirit that quickens him. he will have no disciples." (amos bronson alcott) we borrow this quote as it perfectly illustrates our circuitous paths toward social education. we are both educators and learners. becoming a life-long learner is revolutionary and became our next step toward teaching social education through a democratic education. to embrace social education, we need to understand critical pedagogy ideas where the classroom is a laboratory for the empowering pursuit of democratic goals (kincheloe, 2005). to be truly democratic, would mapping out their educational path involve the students themselves? kincheloe (2001) argued that the existing curriculum is disconnected from the realities of students' lived worlds. as critical pedagogues, we understand that teaching and learning are not isolated to the traditional space of the classroom, but that they emerge through experience (dewey, 1938). society, culture, and media all serve as strong bodies of knowledge for teachers and learners alike (kincheloe, 2005). and everything that we experience outside schools influences or even interferes with the learning environment within the formal classroom journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 8 (hinchey, 1998). should we allow children to sprinkle the path to learning with their own stories? will students of immigrant families finally have a forum to discuss their experiences? will this allow them to unpack critical moments in their lives when they have been treated in undemocratic ways? critically examining the intersection of personal knowledge and academic knowledge is a theoretical playground for us and becomes the nexus for our scholarly research pursuits (kincheloe, 2005) in social education. for us, it is impossible to disregard the issue of race, class, and privilege in a social studies education situated in social justice (wade, 2007), because it has been ignored by traditional social studies for far too long. the national council for social studies (ncss, 1994) suggests that content must include examination and understanding of multiple points of views and values to ensure that we are committed to the goals of a democratic society. this is the only way that we can promote a citizenry devoted to others' rights a goal aligned to the foundations of our educational philosophy social justice (wade, 2007). the aim of this layer of our journey is to promote transformative learning environments where one avoids the crippling practice of the educational banking system (freire, 1971) in exchange for one that engages students in the production of knowledge through a critical dialogic process. we present this with the understanding that this type of critical instruction involves tremendous rigor that rankles many students (kincheloe, 2005). in spite of this discomfort, our pre-service teachers must examine multiple perspectives so they may better serve students' needs in communities undergoing rapid demographic changes. unfortunately, barely disguised objections from students who strongly reject the philosophy and rigor of the course during the semester occur through subtle online discussions and outright discussions in class. they voice their discomfort in the end through course evaluations, which further encourages us to teach critically in spite of the objections. our travels are bumpy as we realize that not all students share the same road nor have they traveled down the same path as we. this leads to great tension as we continue on our social education journeys. forever travelers searching the white spaces on the globe, but now interested in the context of those spaces for humanity, the journey is an ongoing process that reveals hidden paths at every turn. experiencing the journey cameron white & susan mccormack & sabrina marsh 9 as social educators, we have a moral obligation to do more than read and discuss and endlessly debate with like-minded individuals in a safe classroom. we need the experience of community outside ourselves to ground us and make us aware that social injustices are not something that is merely happening to “someone else over there,” that critical awareness is not just a catch phrase for academics but rather the defining reason for our existence as social educators. it is vitally important to us, as educators and as members of a larger world, to conceptualize a curriculum centered upon social experiences, and to visualize social education as part of an educational philosophy that “embodies forms of experience in which teachers and students display a sense of critical agency and empowerment” (giroux, 1988, p.87). this type of curriculum, by necessity, must explore the concepts of teachers as intellectuals who are capable of establishing classrooms where they and their students are free to discover, debate and embrace an experiential language of knowledge and skills. we believe social education serves to consolidate two essential elements of critical pedagogy: a thoughtful criticism of traditional truths and a celebration of a socially just community. if what we learn experientially, and indeed teach in schools, could be represented as a mere ideology, if it were presented as just the practices of the dominant culture it would be easier to shake off its influence in our minds and critically examine it for what it is. but our lessons are presented as socially legitimate knowledge that is made available to students. at no time are students encouraged to critically question and actively explore: who determines this knowledge is important? who does it serve and why is it presented in the way it is presented? why is it taught this way to this particular group? all these questions center on the issue of social justice, of course. and addressing these questions requires more than just a new way of thinking consciously, for it demands a need for a complete restructuring of schools and society, as well as a rethinking of the social contract that binds us together. we see the greatest hope of a truly transformative and emancipatory vision of education in social education. social education is not a universal pedagogy that transcends all situations and offers a solution to what is wrong with education today. but we do envision it as a link between critical social theory, critical pedagogy and actual educational practices. social education has the power to function as both a political mechanism and a pedagogic tool. the very act of students, teachers and communities engaging one another and theorizing around the journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 10 languages of resistance and possibility can become the framework, and in many cases the tentative beginnings, of transformative practice. michael apple (2003) called this rejection of neutrality within our thinking, while simultaneously becoming aware of our own complicity within the community and the classroom, “repositioning.” grounded in critical theory, repositioning says that “the best way to understand what any set of institutions, policies and practices does is to see it from the standpoint of those who have the least power” (p. 99). by active explorations of communities and individuals, by examining the reality of those who have the least power, social educators begin to understand the implications of a curriculum based on accepted standards and traditional knowledge. tellingly, by creating a “one size fits all” curriculum that advances a sham of equality for all, we render ourselves and our students helpless in the face of differences. the current state of education, which supposes that students are of a cookie cutter like sameness and respond in the same way to the same curriculum, suppresses our ability to recognize diversity within others in the community, and makes critical thinking impossible. freire (1971) said “those who authentically commit themselves to the people must re-examine themselves constantly” (p. 47). throughout our studies in social education we struggle with how to define just what social education might look like through our eyes and as seen by others. constructing boundaries serves to keep things out, but those same boundaries also limit how far we can travel and experience. dewey (1916, 1938) continuously stressed that people develop intellectual and moral growth in and through the world around them from democratic involvement within the community. dewey was highly critical of curriculum-centered education apart from the genuine experience of community. in fact, dewey’s (1902) appraisal of traditional forms of education was that teachers and their administrators tend to view students as somehow disconnected from the community that surrounds them. students are viewed as identical interchangeable parts, capable of producing the same answers at the same time with the same stimulation, all while remaining on the same page. dewey’s observations of community within education revolved more around liberation of the human communal spirit through experiential means. indeed, in the entire second chapter of experience and nature, dewey (1925) addressed the hard work involved in self-realization and the consummatory experience within a communal setting. dewey (1916) defined community as “common history and objects of allegiance” (p. 4). yet despite this rather traditional definition, cameron white & susan mccormack & sabrina marsh 11 dewey was conscious of the obligation of educators to create a social order that nourished all peoples’ inner as well as outer lives. he saw community experiences as shared paths to selfactualization and discovery. this logic of discovery refers to future experiences, and expects received truths to be regarded critically as something that should be tested by new experiences rather than something that is dogmatically disseminated and learned within a classroom setting. even the most carefully constructed truths then become open to further inquiry. we believe this questioning of the truths speaks directly to social education. dewey (1920) saw our existing body of knowledge within a classroom setting as something made up of two parts: one is an examination of the mistakes and prejudices of our ancestors organized around accident, class interest, and bias; and the second is the construction of accepted beliefs that come from an instinctive and dangerously biased human mind. these two bodies of knowledge revolve around mental inertia and sluggishness and, dewey (1920) believed, could only be counteracted by an “actual adventure of travel and exploration [which] purged the mind of fear of the strange and the unknown” (p. 40) and that allowed the mind to be opened up to critical examination of existing knowledge. maxine greene (1992) spoke admiringly of community as “different voices conditioned by different perspectives” (p. 251). this is a very different conception of the notion of community from hirsch (1987) and d’souza (1991), who claim the idea of “variousness” distracts from the commonality to be desired in all communal experiences and serves to disunite. evers (1997) said different voices and outlooks would “defeat the most important ends of education in democracy,” which is achieving “as high a level of common culture as possible” (p. 11). yet community for many of us speaks of a place not of conformity but rather a place that is attuned to diversity through the multi-layered voices we hold in common. indeed, for maxine greene (1992) “the many who ended up ‘lying outside history’ diminished the community, left an empty space on the common ground, and left undefined an aspect of reality” (p. 253). that reality becomes a sum of all the experiences by all the people. in the words of fenwick (2000), “adults don’t learn from experience, they learn in it” (para. 35) through a process of cognitively analyzing and reflecting upon a problem they have encountered and through further reflecting during and after the experience in ways that serve to reconstruct existing beliefs. students and educators must be willing to investigate and understand journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 12 the roots of their beliefs and to be able to courageously explore opposing perspectives within a community that allow for connections between individuals, education, and the social order. in this way, social studies education provides students and educators with a way of actively traveling in an authentic experience that has recognizable consequences. kraft and sakofs laid out the framework for social studies education in 1988 as: students make discoveries and experiment with knowledge themselves instead of hearing or reading about the experiences of others. students also reflect on their experiences, thus developing new skills, new attitudes, and new theories or ways of thinking (as cited in stevens & richards, 1992, para. 2). according to kolb (1984),this type of questioning learning stands apart from cognitive theories of learning that tend to give heavy emphasis to acquisition, manipulation, and recall of abstract symbols, and from behavioral learning theories that deny any role for consciousness and subjective experience in the learning process. experiential learning is a holistic integrative perspective that combines experience, perception, cognition, and behavior. in the case of experiential pedagogies, the learner is viewed as inextricably linked with his experiences, as being-in-the-world (kolb, 1984). because of this viewpoint, current theories of pedagogy would seem to be straddling the line between the two extremes in education that dewey (1916) identified – traditional and progressive education, between the stances of traditional education’s goal to further the transmission and transference of cultural knowledge and the more progressive outlook that the role of formal education is to allow for complete freedom and individual expressions of needs and interests within the context of a school setting or a community. true social studies education allows for formal education to support students in their efforts to make sense of their subjective experiences within a cultural and social framework. over the past one hundred years, education has involved “the purposeful manipulation of students toward predetermined ends and ignores the experience of the students themselves, viewing it as a contamination of the process” (hopkins, 1994, p. 12). traditionally, children learn in school at an early age that there are right and wrong answers to most questions. their curriculum is prescribed in small doses that attempt to limit knowledge that might be controversial or upsetting, avoiding ideas that are difficult to quantify or define (hansen, 2000). cameron white & susan mccormack & sabrina marsh 13 we believe this ideology of passivity and non-critical absorption threatens to define many educators. experiential social education calls for a fundamental shift in the role of the teacher. it calls for students to experience an action or a communal event before they make an effort to synthesize knowledge (stevens & richard, 1992). students’ explorations frequently take them outside the classroom walls, placing the onus on teachers to become active learners along with their students. traditionally, teachers at any level of instruction are not encouraged to collaborate with their students, and social education forces them to reevaluate their role and become more than the engines that disperse curriculum decisions and school policy as they experience with their students, reflect upon the learning opportunities they have designed, interact with differing communities and ideas, and respond to their students’ reactions to these experiences. if, as walter and marks (1981) suggested, fully half of an individual’s reality resides in action, might not a social education curriculum provide the bridge for those students who are struggling to adjust to an educational world that holds no meaning to their sense of identity in the real world? generalizing this educational model to life lessons, dewey’s program of experiential education becomes a radical agenda of educational reform and emancipatory participation that can serve as life-long learning. in the words of dewey (1916), “we use our past experiences to construct new and better ones in the future” (p. 134). in this way, “the very fact of experience thus includes the process by which it directs itself in its own betterment” (dewey, 1916, p. 134). writing shortly after the end of world war i, dewey (1920) stated “when experience ceased to be empirical and became experimental, something of radical importance occurred” (p. 134). experience explored outside the bounds of classroom and pragmatic concerns allows us to extend a sense of freedom into every part of our lives. we begin to critically investigate problems, to question and learn for ourselves, and to take the crucial step toward developing standards and values as we go along independent of external authorities. experience becomes constructively self-regulating and emancipatory. radical stuff indeed in the educational field. education is full of inequalities, and it is not a neutral process. educators, whether they choose consciously to be or not, are involved in political acts of power and knowledge (apple, 1996, apple, 1999; apple, 2003; apple, 2004; freire, 1971; foucault, 1977; giroux, 2003; giroux, 2005; gramsci, 1930/1971; greene, 1992; jardine, 2005; kincheloe, 2004; kincheloe, 2005; mclaren, 2003; shor, 1992; shor &freire, 2003). when examining the role of a social journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 14 educator, social justice becomes the most cogent framework for organizing thoughts and actions in relationship to the reality of education and its role with the world. in the words of paulo freire (1971), it becomes imperative to realize that educator efforts “must coincide with those of the students to engage in critical thinking and the quest for mutual humanization”(p. 62). with the emancipatory writings of paolo freire in the 1970s, a new wave of social education emerged, which many researchers describe as “post-experientialism” because of its attempt to move beyond traditional experiential thinking by deconstructing traditional views of experience. proponents of post experientialism, driven by influences from post-modern theory, began by incorporating issues of power into what had heretofore been viewed as the rather neutral phenomenon of experience. giroux (2005) said that citizenship and community do not, in fact, have any transcendental significance “outside the lived experiences and social practices of individuals who make up diverse forms of public life” (p. 5). the ideal, an emancipatory form of community, would aim at eliminating oppressive social practices and building forms of moral reawakenings that strengthen the possibilities of human existence as individuals situated within their common realities (giroux, 2005, p. 6). we argue for social education for five reasons: it directly acquaints the learner with realities referred to by words and ideas in theories, it evokes greater interest and more sustained motivation than words or ideas alone, it facilitates memory, it provides unmatched means for practice and skill development, and it provides a means for questioning the truth of concepts and for testing the adequacy of concepts for application to intended realities. social education serves more than the individual sense of awareness. with its interest in acquainting learners with realities greater than themselves, social education allows us to question the truths we have been taking for granted. greene (1992) assured us “to open up our experiences (and yes, our curricula) to existential possibilities of multiple kinds is to extend and deepen what we think of when we speak of a community” (p. 254). within the parameters of the culture of silence, concepts of “struggle, debate, community, and democracy have become subversive categories” (giroux, 2005, p. 4). henry giroux (2005) wrote that america is quickly becoming what he called “a land without a memory” (p. 4) because only historical memories in the form of lived experiences allow us to “transform the seemingly fixed and internal in our lives into things that can be changed” (p. 3). he wrote that cameron white & susan mccormack & sabrina marsh 15 this is in part because the people in power have worked toward developing a public philosophy that “distorts the desires and experiences of many people in this country” (giroux, 2005, p. 4). many different things are said to be just or injust; not only people and groups but also institutions and ideologies. rawls (1999) defines social justice in the following way: the intuitive notion here is that […] various social positions and that men born into different positions have different expectations of life determined, in part, by the political system as well as by economic and social circumstances. in this way the institutions of society favor certain starting places over others. these are especially deep inequalities. not only are they pervasive, but the affect men’s initial chances in life; yet they cannot possibly be justified by an appeal of the notions of merit or desert. it is these inequalities, presumably inevitable in the basic structure of any society, to which the principles of social justice must apply (p.49). living the experience as we move along our journeys as social educators, we continue to believe absolutely that learning is a series of experiences, some formally within the classroom educational system but increasingly informally situated in the world. education is still just the means to the ends of understanding our experiences. we do not believe experience has ever been valued in education, and certainly not the individual experiences that color the thoughts of both children and adults. education, as it currently stands, does not contribute to learning in any real sense of the word because it does not allow for the individual experiences that come before and the communal experiences we bring to any discussion. nor does it allow for critical transformative thinking that allows us to place ourselves in the world and identify the injustices we see all around us. after touching the surface of freire’s concepts of critical pedagogy and reading dewey’s insistence in his work that experience be the heart of the educational process, we have formed a philosophy of education that is increasingly based within a framework of experiential education within the community. ira shor (1992), working closely with the ideas of paulo freire, attempted to define and conceptualize this idea of critical engagement through social education in broad experiential terms: journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 16 habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action, event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse (p. 129). for educators and students to have the chance to become more critically aware, we believe opportunities need to be provided to experience different realities about teaching and learning in ways which allow students and educators to critique their own views of education and their role within it. they need to develop an awareness of the historical perspectives of their cultural and structural ideologies. until we can do this, we cannot clearly understand or express our own attitudes, feelings, interests, or motives as positions which have a cultural history and a social context. it is our hope that common experiences designed around a basic belief in the rightness of social education to transform individuals and communities may help inform views of learning and reflective knowledge construction, and open the way for emancipatory critical dialogue and action among multiple voices. references adler, s., dougan, a. and garcia, j. (2006). ncate has a lot to say to future social studies teachers: a response to sam wineburg. phi delta kappan, 87(5), 396-400). alcott, a. b. (1841). orphic sayings. the dial i:1:85–98 (july 1840); i:3:351–361 (january 1841); ii:4:423–425 (april 1842), ‘days from a diary.’ ed. paul s. christensen. retrieved 2 july 2009 http://www.alcott.net/alcott/archive/editions/orphic_sayings.html. apple, m. (1996). cultural politics and education. new york: teachers college press. apple, m. (1999). power, meaning, and identity: essays in critical educational studies. new york: peter lang publishers. apple, m. (2003). making critical pedagogy strategic – on doing critical educational work in conservative times. in i. gur-ze’ev (ed.), critical theory and critical pedagogy today: towards a new critical language in education (pp. 94-113). haifa, israel: university of haifa. apple, m. (2004). ideology and curriculum. london: routledgefalmer. cameron white & susan mccormack & sabrina marsh 17 brooks, j. g. (2004). to see beyond the lesson. educational leadership, 62(1), 8-9. dewey, j. (1902). the child and the curriculum. in r. archambault (ed.), john dewey on education: selected writings (pp. 339-359). chicago:university of chicago press. dewey, j. (1980/1906/1908). the educational situation. in journal of curriculum and supervision, 17(2), 104-119. dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education. new york: the free press. dewey, j. (1920). reconstruction in philosophy. mineola, ny: dover publications. dewey, j. (1925). experience and nature. mineola, ny: dover publications. dewey, j. (1938). experience and education. new york: touchstone press. dewey, j. (1948). reconstruction in philosophy: the definitive edition. boston: beacon press. (original work published in 1920). dewitt, s. w. and freie, c. (2005). focusing methods on goals: problems and possibilities. the social studies, 96(6), 241-245. d’souza, d. (1991). illiberal education: the politics of race and sex on campus. new york: the free press. evans, r.w. (2004). the social studies wars: what should we teach the children? new york: teachers college press. evers, w. (1997). what’s gone wrong in america’s classrooms. stanford, ma: hoover institution press. fenwick, t. (2000). experiential learning in adult education: a comparative framework. retrieved august 20, 2009 from http://www.ualberta.ca/~tfenwick/ext/pubs/print/aeq.htm fordham, n. w., wellman, d., and sandmann, alexa. (2002). taming the text: engaging and supporting students in social studies readings. the social studies, 93(4), 149 – 58. foucault, m. (1977). power/knowledge: selected interviews and other writings 1972-1977. (c. gordon, ed.). new york: pantheon books. freire, p. (1971). pedagogy of the oppressed. new york: continuum. freire, p. (1998). teachers as cultural workers: letters to those who dare teach. boulder: westview press. frost, r. (1920). the road not taken. mountain interval. new york: holt and co. http://www.ualberta.ca/~tfenwick/ext/pubs/print/aeq.htm� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 18 giroux, h. (1988). teachers as intellectuals: toward a critical pedagogy of learning. granby, ma: bergin & garvey publishers. giroux, h. (2003). education incorporated? in a. darder, m. baltodano, & r. torres (eds.), the critical pedagogy reader (pp. 119-125). new york: routledgefalmer. giroux, h. (2005). schooling and the struggle for public life: democracy’s promise and education’s challenge. boulder, co: paradigm publishers. gramsci, a. (1930/1971). selections from the prison notebooks. london: lawrence and wishart. greene, m. (1992). the passions of pluralism: multiculturalism and the expanding community. the journal of negro education, 250-261. hansen, r. (2000). the role of experience in learning: giving meaning and authenticity to the learning process in schools. journal of technology education, vol. 11 no. 2, spring 2000, 23-32. retrieved january 14, 2008, from jstor database. hinchey, p. (1998). finding freedom in the classroom: a practical introduction to critical theory. new york: peter lang publishers. hirsch, e. (1987). cultural literacy. boston: houghton mifflin. hooks, b. (1994). teaching to transgress. new york: routledge. hopkins, r. (1994). narrative schooling: experiential learning and the transformation of american education. new york: teachers college press. jardine, g. (2005). foucault and education. new york: peter lang publishing. kincheloe, j. l. (2001). getting beyond the facts: teaching social studies/social sciences in the twenty-first century. second edition. new york: peter lang. kincheloe, j. l. (2004). critical pedagogy. new york: peter lang publishers. kincheloe, j. l. (2005). critical constructivism. new york: peter lang publishers. kincheloe, j. l., slattery, p. and steinberg, s. (2000). contextualizing teaching: introduction to education and educational foundations. boston: allyn and bacon. kolb, d. (1984). experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice-hall, inc. kutz, e., and roskelly, h. (1991). an unquiet pedagogy: transforming practice in the cameron white & susan mccormack & sabrina marsh 19 english classroom. portsmouth: boynton/cook. leming, j., ellington, l. and porter-magee, k. (2003). where did social studies go wrong? washington, dc: thomas b. fordham institute. retrieved august 20, 2009 from http://www.edexcellence.net/foundation/publication/publication.cfm?id=317. marker, p. (2000). not only by our words: connecting the pedagogy of paulo freire with the social studies classroom. in d. w. hursh & e. w. ross (eds.) democratic social education: social studies for social change, (pp. 135-148). mathison, s., ross, e. w. and vinson, k. d. (2001). defining the social studies curriculum: the influence of and resistance to curriculum standards and testing in social studies. in. e. w. ross (ed.) the social studies curriculum: purposes, problems, and possibilities (pp. 87-102). albany: state university of new york press. mclaren, p. (2003). critical pedagogy in the age of terror. in i. gur-ze’ev (ed.), critical theory and critical pedagogy today: towards a new critical language in education (pp. 69-94). haifa, israel: university of haifa. meuwissen, k. w. (2006). maybe someday the twain shall meet: exploring disconnections between methods instruction and “life in the classroom.” the social studies, 96(6), 253258. national council for the social studies. (1994). expectations of excellence: curriculum standards for social studies. washington, dc: national council for the social studies. rawls, j. (1999). on justice as fairness. in m. clayton & a. williams (eds.), social justice (pp. 49-84). bodmin, cornwall: blackwell publishing. rilke, r.m. (1945). letters to a young poet. mineola, n.y.:dover publications. ross, e. w. (2001). social studies teachers and curriculum. in. e. w. ross (ed.) the social studies curriculum: purposes, problems, and possibilities. (pp 3-15). albany: state university of new york press. ross, e. w. and marker, p. m. (2005a). social studies: wrong, right, or left? a critical response to the fordham institute’s where did social studies go wrong? the social studies, 96(4), 139-142. shor, i. (1992). empowering education: critical teaching for social change. chicago: the university of chicago press. http://www.edexcellence.net/foundation/publication/publication.cfm?id=317� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 1-20 20 shor, i., & freire, p. (2003). what are the fears and risks of transformation? in a. darder, m. baltodano, & r. torres (eds.), the critical pedagogy reader (pp. 479-496). new york: routledgefalmer. singer, a. (2005). strange bedfellows: the contradictory goals of the coalition making war on social studies. the social studies, 96(5), 199 – 205. stanley, w. b. (2001). social studies: problems and possibilities. in w. b. stanley (ed.) critical issues in social studies research for the 21st century. (pp. 1-13). greenwich: information age publishing. stanley, w. b. (2005). social studies and the social order: transmission or transformation? social education, 69(5), 282 – 286. stevens, p., & richards, a. (1992). changing schools through experiential education. charleston, wv: clearinghouse on rural education and small schools. retrieved november 23, 2009, from the eric database. walter, g., & marks, s. (1981). experiential learning and change. new york: john wiley and sons. wade, r. c. (2007). social studies for social justice: teaching strategies for the elementary classroom. new york: teachers college press. white, c. (2003). an indictment of social education. in true confessions: social efficacy, popular culture, and the struggle in schools. (pp. 1-9). sonuç bi̇ldi̇ri̇si̇ www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi i from editor greetings, despite chaotic events experienced in our region during 2012, we still cling to the hope of creating a world in which peace and democracy dominate, human rights and freedoms are experienced, and welfare is shared fairly. as the social studies educators gathered under the roof of sbeb/asse: assocation for social studies educators, we believe that we have a strategic role about this issue. it is the requirement of both scientists and educators to adopt this role. as sbeb/asse which acts with this awareness, we have planned to take sound steps to improve social/political participation through generating and sharing information being a civil trade body: (i) make scientific and popular publications, (ii) arrange national and international symposiums/congresses and workshops. towards the end of 2012 what makes us happy was that we could considerably actualized two of our predetermined goals. that is;  in november, 2012; 5th issue of sbead/jsser: journal of social studies education research was published. this journal which draws great interest completed its institutionalization to a great extent. with the advantage of being an –ejournal; it has achieved international recognition.  the first usbes/issse: international symposium on social studies education which was organized by sbeb/asse was held in istanbul in april, 2012 with marmara university hosting the event. this symposium which has the theme of education of democracy and citizenship was edi̇törden merhaba, 2012 yılında bölgemizde yaşanan kaotik olaylara rağmen, barış ve demokrasinin egemen olduğu, insan hak ve özgürlüklerinin yaşandığı, refahın adilce paylaşıldığı bir dünya kurma idealinin bir gün gerçekleşeceğine dair umudumuzu koruyoruz. türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği derneği (sbeb/asse: assocation for social studies educators)’nin çatısı altında toplanan sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri olarak, bu konuda bizlere stratejik bir rol düştüğüne inanıyoruz. bu role sahip çıkmak hem entelektüellik ve bilim adamlığının hem de eğitimciliğin gereğidir. bu bilinçle hareket eden sbeb/asse, söz konusu idealin gerçekleşmesi için bir sivil meslek örgütü olarak bilgi üretme ve paylaşımı ile sosyal/siyasal katılımın gelişmesine yönelik sağlam adımlar atmayı planlamıştık: (i) bilimsel ve popüler yayınlar yapmak, (ii) ulusal ve uluslararası sempozyum/kongre ve çalıştaylar düzenlemek. i̇şte, 2012 yılı sona ererken bizi mutlu eden şey, yola çıkarken belirlediğimiz hedeflerden ikisini büyük ölçüde gerçekleştirmiş olmamız. şöyle ki;  kasım 2012 itibariyle sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi (sbead/jsser: journal of social studies education research)’nin 5’inci sayısı yayınlandı. büyük bir ilgi gören bu dergi artık kurumsallaşmasını önemli ölçüde tamamladı. e dergi olmanın sunduğu avantajla uluslararası ölçekte iyi bir tanınırlık seviyesine ulaştı.  sbeb/asse tarafından organize edilen uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu (usbes/issse: international symposium on social studies education)’nun ilki nisan journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2) ii supported by turkish republic ministry of education (meb) and eruopean council. the second symposium will be held in april, 2013 with aksaray university hosting the event (for info see. http://usbes.aksaray.edu.tr). the first symposium took place in the mood of science festival and the second one already draws attraction. this is a pleasing development for the future of social studies education as an academic discipline. new social studies movement in turkey and sbeb/asse in fact, the developments mentioned above can be regarded as quite moderate and ordinary events when they are considered through the eyes of countries which have strong tradition in social studies; however these things have much more importance in turkey which have spent ¾ of their 50-year lifetime. it can shortly be said that these moderate developments are the products of new social studies movement which has been experienced in the last 15 years. the term which was firstly used by bülent tarman and i̇smail acun in the article titled as social studies education and a new social studies movement” (www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/vie wfile/17/pdf) published in the first issue of sbead/jsser, is the name of innovation and development period which began in the second half of 1990’s in the field of social studies education. in fact it is a movement which induces serious developments practically if not in the sense of philosophical and theoretical activity and depth. seminars conducted under the chairmanship of prof. dr. james l. barth in the scope of yök and world bank teacher pre-service education project, programs of training instructors in foreign countries which began earlier and finally postgraduate education programs have important roles in the birth of this movement. then as a result of these studies many scientists were raised, tens of books and hundreds of articles and notices were published. non-governmental 2012’de marmara üniversitesi’nin ev sahipliğinde i̇stanbul’da yapıldı. demokrasi ve vatandaşlık eğitimi temalı bu sempozyum türkiye cumhuriyeti millî eğitim bakanlığı (meb) ve avrupa konseyi tarafından da desteklendi. sempozyumun ikincisi aksaray üniversitesi’nin ev sahipliğinde nisan 2013’te yapılacak (bilgi için bak. http://usbes.aksaray.edu.tr). i̇lki tam bir bilim şöleni havasında geçen kongrenin yenisine de daha şimdiden ilgi büyük. bu veriler dahi sempozyumun kurumsal bir kimlik kazanmaya başladığını gösteriyor. bu da akademik bir disiplin olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin geleceği bakımından sevindirici bir gelişme. türkiye’de yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi ve sbeb/asse esasında yukarıda değinilen gelişmeler sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında güçlü bir geleneği olan ülkelerden bakıldığında çok mütevazı ve olağan bir hadise olarak görülebilir; fakat elli yıllık yaşantının ¾’ünü boşa geçiren bir ülke olan türkiye’de bunlar çok daha derin anlamlar taşımaktadır. bunların ayrıntısına girmeden kısaca, bu mütevazı gelişmelerin son on beş yılda yaşanan yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin ürünleri olduğu söylenebilir. burada kastedilen anlamda ilk kez bülent tarman ve i̇smail acun tarafından sbead/jsser’nin ilk sayısında yayınlanan “sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ve yeni bir sosyal bilgiler hareketi . social studies education and a new social studies movement” başlıklı makalede kullanılan (www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/vie wfile/17/pdf) bu terim, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında 1990’ların ikinci yarısında başlayan yenilik ve gelişme döneminin adıdır. gerçekten de türkiye söz konusu tarihten itibaren felsefî ve kuramsal etkinlik ve derinlik bakımından değilse de uygulama alanında ciddî gelişmeleri tetikleyen bir harekettir. bu hareketin doğuşunda yök ve dünya bankası hizmet öncesi öğretmen eğitimi projesi kapsamında prof. dr. james l. barth’ın başkanlığında yürütülen http://usbes.aksaray.edu.tr/� http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/viewfile/17/pdf� http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/viewfile/17/pdf� cemil öztürk iii organizations which were in the aim of contributing this field were founded; national and international meetings were held. in short, important developments have been experienced since the second half of 1990’s up to now. both sbeb/asse itself and publication and symposium projects actualized by it are the manifestations of the mentioned accumulation in the field of practice. sbead/jsser which was searched by various domestic and foreign indexes is an important contribution of turkey made periodicals which form basis to international interaction and sharing in the field of social studies. the next goal of sbeb/asse is to sustain and improve scientific publications and organizations, while developing publication and education projects for educators at schools. publication of a popular journal in a short time is on the agenda. ii. symposium of international social studies education as we have mentioned above, one of our most important activities is international social studies education symposium and the second one is will be held in aksaray which is one of the middle anatolian cities on april 26-28, 2013. one of the guest speakers of the symposium which will be hosted by aksaray university is prof. dr. murry nelson. the main theme is “disadvantageous groups and social participation”. subthemes are: a. social studies and social participation b. ict (information and communication technologies) and social participation c. new school system and citizenship education d. children rights, disadvantageous groups and social participation e. european union, life-long learning and education of human rights and citizenship f. values, education of values and seminerlerin, daha erken tarihlerde başlayan yurt dışında öğretim elemanı yetiştirme uygulamalarının ve nihayet yurt içinde lisansüstü eğitim programların önemli rolü vardır. zira gerçekleştirilen çalışmaların sonunda bu alanda bir kariyer sistemi kurulmuş, çok sayıda bilim adamı yetiştirilmiş, onlarca kitap, yüzlerce makale ve bildiri yayımlanmıştır. bu alana katkıda bulunmayı amaçlayan sivil toplum kuruluşları tesis edilmiş; ulusal ve uluslararası bilimsel toplantılar yapılmıştır. özetle 1990’lı yılların ikinci yarısından bugüne türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında önemli gelişmeler olmuştur. gerek bizatihi sbeb/asse’nin kendisi gerekse onun hayata geçirmiş olduğu süreli yayın ve sempozyum projeleri, sözü edilen birikimin uygulama alanındaki tezahürleridir. birçok yerli ve yabancı indeks tarafından da taranan sbead/jsser sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında uluslararası etkileşim ve paylaşıma zemin hazırlayan süreli yayınlara türkiye’nin yaptığı önemli bir katkıdır. sbeb/asse olarak bundan sonraki hedefimiz, bir yandan başlatılan bilimsel yayın ve organizasyonları geliştirerek sürdürmek, diğer yandan de okullardaki uygulamacılar için yayın ve eğitim projeleri geliştirmektir. yakın vadede popüler bir derginin çıkarılması gündemde. ii. uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu yukarıda belirttiğimiz gibi, en önemli faaliyetlerinden biri uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu’dur ve ikincisi 26-28 nisan 2013’te bir orta anadolu kenti olan aksaray’da yapılacak. ev sahipliğini adını kentten alan aksaray üniversitesi’nin üstlendiği sempozyumun çağrılı konuşmacılarından biri prof. dr. murry nelson. ana tema “dezavantajlı gruplar ve sosyal katılım”. alt temalar ise şunlar: a. sosyal bilgiler ve sosyal katılım b. bi̇t (bilgi i̇letişim teknolojileri) ve sosyal katılım journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2) iv education of social studies we wish to be together in this symposium which will be held in aksaray that gives the opportunity to explore or revisit cappadocia which has extraordinary natural beauty and gorgeous historical richness. in this issue in the 5th issue of sbead/jsser, we have published five articles, four of which are about education of democracy/citizenship. halil i̇brahim sağlam analyzes perception of sufficiency of elementary school teacher about efficient citizenship in the sense of various variables. stephen lafe and hasan aydın discuss the importance of decision making processes in education programs and practices which aim to realize the ideal of democratic society. alexander pope and timothy patterson emphasize the fact that education of sustainable citizenship should focus on natural life as much as political and urban issues. on the other hand, kasım kıroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten and şule egüz enlighten another issue about education: tolerance among university students as a democratic value. derek l. anderson, don barr and christina labaij study the effect of “repetitive microeducation” practices carried out at elementary schools on the skills of learning teaching of pre-service teachers. all these five studies have valuable contributions on education literature of social studies. therefore i do congratulate researchers. acknowledgment as final remarks, i would like to thank everyone who provides support to reach readers of jsser which has been growing quality with every passing day; especially to the co-editor bülent tarman , to all my teammates, advisory council and reviewer committee and to authors. also, i would like to thank to our readers for motivating with their attention and constructive criticism to be better. very truly yours prof. dr. cemil öztürk c. yeni okul sistemi ve sosyal bilgiler ve vatandaşlık eğitimi d. çocuk hakları, dezavantajlı gruplar ve sosyal katılım e. avrupa birliği, hayat boyu öğrenme ve i̇nsan hakları ve vatandaşlık eğitim f. değerler, değerler eğitimi ve sosyal bilgiler eğitimi olağan üstü doğal güzelliğe ve muazzam tarihî zenginliğe sahip kapadokya’yı keşfetme veya yeniden görme imkanı bulacağınız bir konuma sahip aksaray’da gerçekleşecek sempozyumda birlikte olmayı diliyoruz. bu sayıda sbead/jsser’nin 5. sayısında dördü demokrasi/vatandaşlık eğitimi ile ilgili olmak üzere, beş makaleye yer verdik. halil i̇brahim sağlam ilköğretim öğretmenlerinin etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarını çeşitli değişkenler açısından inceliyor. stephen lafe ve hasan aydın demokratik toplum idealini gerçekleştirmeyi hedefleyen öğretim program ve uygulamalarında demokratik karar verme süreçlerinin önemini tartıştışıyor. alexander pope ve timothy patterson ise sürdürülebilir vatandaşlık eğitiminin siyasal ve kentsel konular kadar doğal yaşama da odaklanması gerektiğini vurguluyor. diğer taraftan kasım kıroğlu, cevat elma, alper kesten ve şule egüz vatandaşlık eğitimiyle ilgili bir başka konuya ışık tutuyor: üniversite öğrencilerinde demokratik bir değer olarak hoşgörü. derek l. anderson, don barr ve christina labaij ilköğretim okullarında yapılan “tekrarlanan mikroöğretim” uygulamalarının öğretmen adaylarında öğretmeyi öğrenme becerilerinin gelişimi üzerindeki etkilerini araştırıyor. beş araştırma da sosyal bilgiler eğitimi literatürüne değerli katkılar getiriyor. bu nedenle araştırmacıları kutluyorum. teşekkür sözlerime son verirken sbead/jsser’nin cemil öztürk v editor in chief her geçen gün artan bir kaliteyle okuyucuyla buluşmasını sağlayan herkese; başta yardımcım doç. dr. bülent tarman olmak üzere tüm ekip arkadaşlarıma, danışma ve hakem kurulu üyeleri ile yazarlara müteşekkirim. ayrıca, ilgileri ve yapıcı eleştirileriyle bizi daha iyi olmak için motive eden okuyucularımıza da teşekkür ediyorum. en derin saygılarımla. prof. dr. cemil öztürk baş editör öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersi ödevlerine yönelik tutumlarının ölçülmesi: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2014: 5(1), 38-78 © 2014 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutumlarına etkisi ve dijital vatandaşlık anlayışlarına yansımaları1 the effects of activities for digital citizenship on students’ attitudes toward digital citizenship and their reflections on students’ understanding about digital citizenship hıdır karaduman2 and cemil öztürk3 özet bu araştırmanın amacı, 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin, öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutumlarına etkisini belirlemek ve gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık anlayışlarına yansımalarını incelemektir. araştırmada deneme modellerinden ön test-son test ve kontrol gruplu yarı deneysel model tercih edilmiştir. ayrıca 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlık dayalı etkinliklerinin uygulanma sürecini betimlerken araştırmanın geçerliğini ve inanırlığını artırmak amacıyla deneysel desen ile birlikte nitel veriler kullanılmıştır. araştırma sonucunda elde edilen bulgular, dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulanmasının öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumlarını olumlu yönde etkilediğini göstermektedir. anahtar kelimeler: dijital vatandaşlık, sosyal bilgiler dersi, vatandaşlık eğitimi extended abstract problem: advances in info-communication technologies have brought many social, cultural, and economic changes along across the world. recent reflections of these changes over citizenship studies are noteworthy. one of the relevant concepts, digital citizenship can be defined as applying and advocating behaviors necessary for legal, ethical, safe, and responsible use of info-communication technologies in online settings (iste, 2007). day by day, individuals are becoming more and more digital citizens with the spread of the internet and digital communication devices. however, this gives rise to discussions about problems related with ethics, privacy and security, health, communication, and etc. (symantec, 2010; deniz, 2010; kadll, kumba & kanamad, 2010; gunduz & ozdinc, 2008; kabakci & can, 2009). all these hot issues, debates, and current technological competence standards point that teachers should teach this concept to their students as efficiently as possible by adopting digital citizenship (greenhow, 2010). ribble (2006) states that this 1 bu makale, “i̇lköğretim 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumlarına etkisi ve öğrenme öğretme sürecine yansımaları” adlı doktora tezinden üretilmiştir. 2 yrd. doç. dr., anadolu üniversitesi, eğitim fakültesi, hidirk@anadolu.edu.tr 3 prof. dr., marmara üniversitesi, eğitim fakültesi, cemilozturk@yahoo.com hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 39 education can be carried out through 9 dimensions such as digital ethics, digital communication, digital literacy, digital access, digital commerce, digital rights and law, digital privacy and security, digital responsibility, and digital health & wellness. considering the definition, dimensions, and scope of digital citizenship, social studies course can have a significant role in applying digital citizenship training because of its content and main aim, which is to raise citizens. in this sense, since it aims to raise effective and responsible citizens (ncss, 1992), social studies course can functionally serve raising future digital citizens by improving individuals’ skills to access information and make decisions in a democratic society hosting cultural differences in an inter-dependent world. although literature contains several studies on digital citizenship, its dimensions, or internet use (nebel, jamison, & bennett, 2009; heafner & friedman, 2008; crowe, 2006; lee, doolittle & hicks, 2006; risinger, 2006; berson, & balyta, 2004; berson, & berson, 2003; vanfossen, 2001; shiveley, & vanfossen 1999), there seems to be no direct study on the effect of activities designed in accordance with digital citizenship and used in social studies course over students’ attitudes and behaviors in online settings. this study is a result of the need to fill the gap in the literature and to determine the influence of activities designed along digital citizenship and employed in social studies course over students’ attitudes in online settings. aim: the aim of this research is to identify the effects of activities for digital citizenship education on students’ attitudes towards digital citizenship and to investigate their reflections on students’ understanding about digital citizenship in 6th grade social studies course. method: one of the experimental models, pre-test, post-test, and quasi-experimental design with a control group have been employed for the study. furthermore, in order to increase the validity and reliability of the study, triangulation has been carried out, and less outweighing qualitative data has also been collected together with more dominant quantitative data. quantitative data has been gathered through “pre-test, posttest, and quasi-experimental model with a control group” whereas qualitative data was recorded via semistructured interviews and document analysis. totally 60 students, both in experimental and control groups, have participated in the research. activities based on digital citizenship were administered during 36 class hours between 03.23.2009 and 06.01.2009. research data has been collected through various tools such as demographic information form, digital citizenship attitude scale, semi-structured interview form, activities based on digital citizenship, and msn messenger logs of the conversations with students. quantitative data has been statistically analyzed through spss 17 while qualitative data has been examined via qsr-nvivo 7 and descriptive analysis. results: research results have indicated that activities based on digital citizenship have statistically significant positive influence over students’ attitudes in terms of ethics and responsibility, communication, privacy and security, and rights and access, and that all these influences, except for communication, are permanent. following the implementation of activities based on digital citizenship, students have been described as digital citizens who can use technology and the internet effectively. participants have stated that activities based on digital citizenship had positive reflections on copyright issues, plagiarism, respecting others in digital settings, being clear during talking with others in digital settings, avoiding inappropriate language, being careful about turkish language rules, not sharing personal information, not believing in deceitful messages, and not sharing personal passwords. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 40 discussion: after the application of activities based on digital citizenship, students’ definition of digital citizenship has been noted to be similar to the one in the literature and related with all the dimensions except for health & wellness (ribble, & bailey 2007; iste, 2007; childnet international, 2007; mossberger, tolbert, & mcneal, 2008; greenhow, 2010). in this sense, it is possible to conclude that the activities caused students to grow a more holistic view towards the concept of digital citizenship. findings have shown that the administration of activities based on digital citizenship in social studies course had a positive impact over students’ attitudes in digital settings. this finding of the current research is compatible with those determined by education, research, and development group in england (2002). besides, findings have indicated that this study has led to positive student behaviors in terms of intellectual property, copyright issues, plagiarism, respecting the others in the digital settings, being clear during communicating on the internet, checking the reliability of websites, using website evaluation forms, and being aware of digital citizenship rights, all of which are frequently underlined subjects related with the dimensions of digital citizenship such as digital ethics (ribble, 2006; sendag & odabasi, 2006; baum, 2005; atabek, 2006; uysal & odabasi, 2006; reynolds & tymann, 2008; botterbusch & talab, 2009; ersoy & karaduman, 2010); digital communication (ekhaml, 1998; harper, 1999; sullivan, 2002; childnet international, 2007; roberts & settle-murphy, 2007); digital privacy and security (brooks-young, 2006; farmer, 2010; peckham, 2008); and digital rights and access (westen, 2006; eurocities, 2005) suggestions: for practice: digital citizenship should be regarded as a unifying theme or skill for primary education instructional programs, and it should be integrated with the outcomes of all courses. therefore, sample activities modeling the principles of digital citizenship training should be incorporated into the instructional programs. inappropriate behaviors on the internet should be solidified through stories enclosed to the activities within learning-teaching process, and they should be interesting to ease students’ understanding. for future research: other studies investigating the effect of activities based on digital citizenship in other courses can be designed. further research can be conducted on digital literacy, digital health & wellness, and digital commerce, which were excluded in the study on the effect of activities based on digital citizenship over students’ digital citizenship attitudes. surveys with school managers, students, parents, and the society as a whole can be conducted in order to identify the needs and things to be done about digital citizenship training. keywords: digital citizenship, social studies course, citizenship education giriş çağımız şu ana kadar yaşanmış olan en hızlı teknolojik dönüşüm çağıdır. dijital teknolojilerin icadı ve dünya çapında 1 milyardan fazla kişiye ulaşması, yalnızca birkaç on yıl almış ve günümüzde dijital teknolojiler pek çok kültürün vazgeçilmez bir parçası haline gelmiştir. aynı zamanda bu dijital teknolojiler, insanların yaşayışlarını, gerek birbirleriyle gerekse dünyayla olan bağlarını hızlı bir dönüşüm sürecine sokmuştur. bilgisayar kullanıcılarının ilk kuşağı, bilgisayarları işlerinin yürütülmesini sağlayan bir araç olarak görmekteyken, günümüzün vatandaşları bilgisayarı keşif, oyun ve iletişim için bir araç olarak görmekte ve bunları çevrimiçi olarak da sürmektedir (palfrey & gasser, 2008). hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 41 prensky (2001) bu yeni nesli “dijital yerliler” olarak adlandırmaktadır. dijital yerliler, internete daima bağlıdırlar ve gerek gerçek dünyada, gerekse sanal dünyalarda pek çok arkadaşları vardır. arkadaşlık ilişkileri, bilgi ile olan ilişkileri ailelerinkinden farklıdır ve bilginin kolayca biçimlendirebilecekleri bir şey olduğunu düşünürler. hayatlarını sürdürmek için gerekli tüm bilgileri bağlı bulundukları sanal ortamdan alabileceklerine sonsuz güvenirler. dijital yerlilerin dijital bilgiyle etkileşim, toplumsal ortamlarda kendilerini ifade etme, yeni sanat şekilleri yaratma, yeni iş modelleri hayal etme ve eylemsel girişimlerde bulunma yolları, parlak bir geleceğe yönelik önemli adımlar olarak görülmelidir. dijital ekosistem içerisinde yer alan dijital yerliler dünyanın farklı yerlerinden internete bağlanarak dijital ortama katkıda bulunmakta, bilgilerini paylaşmakta, iletişim kurmakta, örgütlenerek haklarını aramaktadır (prensky, 2001). bu nedenle onları dijital ortamın tebaası olarak değil, smith’in (2002) yapmış olduğu “bir gruba üye olma ve o gruba üye olmanın gerektirdiği davranışları benimseme”yi içeren vatandaşlık tanımından yola çıkarak, bu ortamın vatandaşları olarak görmek gerekmektedir. bu bağlamda, iste’nin [international society for technology in education] (2007) 21. yüzyıla ilişkin olarak belirlediği altı yeterlilik alanı içerisinde de dijital vatandaşlık kavramına yer verdiği görülmektedir. mossberger, tolbert & mcneal (2008) dijital vatandaşlık kavramın son yıllarda ön plana çıkmasının ve tartışılmasının altında yatan nedenlerin (a) bilgi teknolojilerinin hem toplum hem de ekonomi üzerinde olumlu etkilerine; (b) internet erişiminin ve kullanımının eşit ekonomik fırsatlar sağlandığına, vatandaşların topluma etkin katılımlarını ve demokrasiyi desteklediğine; (c) internet erişim ve kullanım politikalarının gelir ve eğitim düzeyi düşük kişiler ile azınlıklar aleyhine eşitsizlik yaratmasına dayandığını belirtmektedirler. bu bağlamda dijital vatandaşı, internetteki yazıları okuma, yazma, anlama ve gereken yerlere yönlendirme yetisine, ekonomik gücünün el verdiği bir geniş band erişimine sahip olan ve düzenli bir biçimde interneti etkin olarak kullanan kişiler olarak tanımlamaktadırlar (mossberger, tolbert & mcneal, 2008). farmer (2010) ise dijital vatandaşı elektronik bilgileri uygun biçimde seçip ayırarak siber alana etkin bir biçimde katılan, elde ettiği bu bilgileri hem toplumsal hem de kişisel gelişim için bilgece kullanan bireyler olarak nitelendirmektedir. dijital vatandaşlık ise bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin yasal, etik, güvenli ve sorumlu bir şekilde kullanımını sağlayan journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 42 davranışları çevrimiçi ortamda savunmak ve uygulamak olarak tanımlanmaktadır (iste, 2007). dijital vatandaşlığın bir diğer tanımı ise teknolojiyi kullanırken temel normları (kural olarak benimsenmiş, yerleşmiş ilke veya kanuna uygun durumları) göz önünde bulundurmak ve bu doğrultuda hareket etmektir (ribble & bailey 2007). dijital vatandaşlık tanımlarının ortak noktalarına bakıldığında öncelikle çevrim içi ortama etkin katılımın ön plana çıktığı görülmektedir. ayrıca dijital vatandaşların bilgi iletişim teknolojilerini, etik, yasal, güvenli ve sorumlu bir biçimde kullandıkları vurgulanmaktadır. bu öğeleri dijital vatandaşlığın boyutları olarak ele almak mümkündür. ancak, dijital vatandaşlığın sanal ortamlarda karşılaşılabilecek risklerin farkında olunması ve bunlarla mücadele edilmesi olarak düşünülmesi yeterli değildir. dijital vatandaşlık aynı zamanda, güvenilir ortamların ve toplulukların oluşturulması, kişisel bilgilerin nasıl düzenlenebileceğinin kavranması ve internet konusunda yetkinleşmeyi içermelidir. bu da bir bakıma bireyin dijital ortamdaki varlığını, yaşadığı dünyayı güvenilir ve yaratıcı bir biçimde şekillendirmek ve başkalarını da bu şekilde davranma yönünde etkilemek amacıyla kullanması olarak yorumlanabilmektedir (childnet international, 2007). dijital vatandaşlığın tanımlarında da görüldüğü üzere bu kavramın farklı boyutları bulunmaktadır. dijital vatandaşlığın boyutları üzerinde yapılan çalışmaları inceleyen ribble (2006) zaman içerisinde farklı sınıflamaların ortaya çıktığını belirtmiş ve ilgili çalışmalardan yola çıkarak, dijital vatandaşlığın boyutlarını 9 başlık altında ele almıştır. bunlar dijital etik, dijital iletişim, dijital okuryazarlık, dijital erişim, dijital ticaret, dijital haklar ve hukuk, dijital gizlilik ve güvenlik, dijital sorumluluk ve dijital sağlıktır. özellikle son yıllarda internet kullanımının artmasıyla birlikte gerçekleştirilen araştırma sonuçları çocukların çevrim içi ortamın erişim, gizlilik, güvenlik, sağlık, etik, iletişim vb. boyutlarında sorunlar yaşadıklarını göstermektedir (symantec, 2010; deniz, 2010; kadll, kumba & kanamad, 2010; gündüz & özdinç, 2008; kabakçı & can, 2009). bu noktada ailelerin çocuklarının internette saldırılara uğramaları, şiddet içerikli video oyunlarına bağımlı olmaları, kötü ya da pornografik görüntülere maruz kalmaları gibi kaygıları da önem taşımaktadır (palfrey & gasser, 2008). ayrıca ailelerin ve öğretmenlerin de bu konularda deneyimsiz olmaları, sorunların giderek derinleşmesine yol açmaktadır. değişen ve küreselleşen dijital dünyanın işleyişine etkin bir biçimde katılabilmek için, çocukların hem kendi bulundukları ortama hem de dünyadaki gelişmelere eleştirel bir biçimde ve farkındalık bilinciyle bakmaları önemlidir. özellikle çocukların günlük hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 43 yaşamlarının önemli bir bölümünde dijital ortamı etkin bir biçimde kullanmaları yaşanan sorunların çözümüne yönelik önlemlerin zaman kaybedilmeden alınmasını gerektirmektedir. bu doğrultuda, dijital vatandaşlık eğitimi, öğrencilerin interneti, farklı bağlamlarda ve dijital vatandaş olarak hem toplumsal, hem de siyasi süreçlere katılım anlamında yasal, etik, güvenli, sorumlu ve saygılı biçimde kullanmayı nasıl öğrenebilecekleri ile ilgili çalışmaları kapsamalıdır. günümüzün teknolojik yetkinlik standartları, öğretmenlerin dijital vatandaşlığı model alarak, bu kavramı öğrencilerine en iyi şekilde kavratmalarını gerektirmektedir (greenhow, 2010). ribble (2006) dijital vatandaşlık konularının ve becerilerinin bilgisayar laboratuvarları ile sınırlı tutulmayarak tüm disiplinlerde müfredatın ayrılmaz bir parçası haline getirilmesi gerektiğini belirtmektedir. bu bağlamda, dijital vatandaşlık eğitimi dünyada yaşanan gelişmeler çerçevesinde değerlendirilmesi ve ulusal programlara çeşitli yollarla bütünleştirilmesi gereken bir konu alanı olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. dijital vatandaşlık eğitimi açısından ilköğretim süreci önemlidir. çünkü toplumlar için çağdaş bireylerin yetiştirilmesinin yolu, nitelikli bir ilköğretim sürecinden geçmektedir. bu dönemde çocuklara bilgi iletişim teknolojilerinin oluşturduğu toplumsal alan içerisinde diğer üyelerle uyum içinde ve etkin bir biçimde yaşamaları için gerekli olan temel bilgi, beceri, değer ve tutumlar kazandırılmalıdır. dijital vatandaşlık kavramının tanımı, boyutları ve içeriği göz önünde bulundurulduğunda eğitim programlarında temel amacı vatandaşlık eğitimi olan sosyal bilgiler dersin amaçları ve içeriği bakımından, dijital vatandaşlık eğitiminin gerçekleştirilmesinde önemli bir rol üstlenecektir. bu bağlamda, birbirine bağımlı bir dünyada, kültürel farklılıkları barındıran demokratik bir toplumda yaşayan bireylerin bilgi edinme ve karar verme becerilerini geliştirerek, etkili ve sorumlu vatandaş yetiştirme (ncss, 1992) amacını taşıyan sosyal bilgiler dersinden geleceğin dijital vatandaşlarının yetiştirilmesi konusunda işlevsel olarak yararlanılabilir. bilgi iletişim teknolojilerinin gelişmesi ile birlikte internetin oluşturduğu çevrimiçi ortama kayan vatandaşlık yetkinliklerine sosyal bilgiler dersi programı içerisinde yer verilerek hem etkili bir sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin gerçekleştirilmesi hem de geleceğin dijital vatandaşlarının yetiştirilmesine destek sağlanabilir. alanyazında sosyal bilgiler dersi ile dijital vatandaşlık, dijital vatandaşlığın boyutları veya internet kullanımına ilişkin kimi çalışmalar bulunmakla birlikte (nebel, jamison & bennett, 2009; heafner & friedman, 2008; crowe, 2006; lee, doolittle & hicks, 2006; risinger, 2006; berson & balyta, 2004; berson, & berson, 2003; vanfossen, 2001; shiveley & vanfossen 1999) doğrudan sosyal journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 44 bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin, öğrencilerin çevrim içi ortamdaki tutum ve davranışlarına etkisine yönelik herhangi bir çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır. araştırma, alan yazındaki boşluğu doldurmak ve sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumlarına etkisinin belirlenmesi ihtiyacından kaynaklanmıştır. araştırmanın amacı bu araştırmanın amacı, 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin, öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumlarına etkisini belirlemek ve gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık anlayışlarına yansımalarını incelemektir. bu genel amaç doğrultusunda araştırmada şu sorulara yanıt aranmıştır: 1. 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlık uygulamalarına dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinlikler, öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutumları üzerinde etkili midir? bu amaç kapsamında aşağıdaki hipotezler sınanmıştır: hipotez 1.1. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nden aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubu lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 1.2. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nin “etik ve sorumluluk” alt boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 1.3. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nin “iletişim” boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubunun lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 1.4. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nin “gizlilik ve güvenlik” alt boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubu lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 1.5. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nin “haklar ve erişim” alt boyutundan aldıkları son test puanları arasında deney grubu lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. 2. 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinlikler, öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutumlarının kalıcılığı üzerinde etkili midir? bu amaç kapsamında aşağıdaki hipotezler sınanmıştır: hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 45 hipotez 2.1. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nin bütününden aldıkları kalıcılık puanları arasında deney grubu lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 2.2. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nin “etik ve sorumluluk” alt boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık puanları arasında deney grubu lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 2.3. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nin “iletişim” boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık puanları arasında deney grubunun lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 2.4. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nin “gizlilik ve güvenlik” alt boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık puanları arasında deney grubunun lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. hipotez 2.5. deney ve kontrol grubunda bulunan öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nin “haklar ve erişim” alt boyutundan aldıkları kalıcılık puanları arasında deney grubunun lehine istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark vardır. 3. öğrencilerin, dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin dijital vatandaşlık anlayışlarına ve dijital vatandaşlık tutumlarına yansımalarına ilişkin görüşleri nelerdir? sınırlılıklar bu araştırma 2008–2009 öğretim yılı bahar döneminde eskişehir milli eğitim müdürlüğü’ne bağlı bir i̇lköğretim okulu’nun, 6/c ve 6/d sınıfı öğrencilerinden elde edilen verilerle; sunulan içerik açısından araştırma, 13 hafta boyunca (39 ders saati) uygulanan dijital vatandaşlık uygulama ve etkinlikleri ile; dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinlikler; dijital etik ve sorumluluklar, dijital iletişim, dijital gizlilikgüvenlik, dijital erişim ve haklar boyutları ile; dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerden elde edilen veriler açısından araştırma, türkiye’deki dijital vatandaşlık uygulamalarının, uygulayıcıya sağladığı olanaklar ve uygulamanın gerçekleştirildiği okulda sağlanan olanaklar ile sınırlıdır. yöntem araştırmanın modeli 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumlarına etkisi ile öğrenme sürecine yansımalarını belirlenmeyi amaçlayan bu araştırmada deneme modellerinden ön test-son journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 46 test ve kontrol gruplu yarı deneysel model tercih edilmiştir. ayrıca 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlık dayalı etkinliklerinin uygulanma sürecini betimlerken araştırmanın geçerliğini ve inanırlığını artırmak amacıyla deneysel desen ile birlikte nitel veriler kullanılmıştır. bu açıdan araştırmada çeşitlemeden yararlanılmıştır. araştırmanın genel amacına ulaşabilmesi için nicel ve nitel yöntemler birlikte kullanıldığından, yöntem çeşitlemesi tercih edilmiştir. araştırmanın baskın boyutu: yarı deneme modellerinden “öntest-sontest kontrol gruplu model”e göre desenlenen bu araştırmada, daha önce oluşmuş bulunan iki sınıftan yansız atama yoluyla bir deney bir de kontrol grubu belirlenmiş ve her iki grupta da deney öncesi ve sonrası ölçümler yapılmıştır. araştırmada bu doğrultuda 6. sınıflar içinden uygun koşulları taşıyan iki grup (sınıf) yansız atama yoluyla belirlenmiştir. deney grubunda dijital vatandaşlık uygulamalarına dayalı etkinlikler uygulanırken diğerinde uygulanmamıştır. araştırmada her iki gruba da hazırlanan dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği (dvtö) öntest olarak uygulanmıştır. dijital vatandaşlık uygulamalarına yönelik etkinlikler sadece deney grubunda uygulanmıştır, kontrol grubu normal eğitimine devam etmiştir. bu amaçla araştırmada her iki gruba da dvtö sontest ve kalıcılık testi olarak uygulanmıştır. araştırmada elde edilen öntest, sontest ve kalıcılık verileri bilgisayara girilerek üzerinde gerekli istatistiksel işlemler gerçekleştirilmiştir. araştırmanın daha az baskın boyutu: araştırmanın daha az baskın olan nitel boyutunda ise, görüşme ve doküman analizi tekniklerinden yararlanılmıştır. araştırmada süreçte gerçekleştirilen işlemlerin ayrıntılı betimlenebilmesi öğrencilerle yapılan görüşmeler yoluyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. ayrıca öğrencilerin uygulama sürecinde gerçekleştirdikleri öğrenme etkinlikleri ve ders planları ve msn messenger yazışma kayıtları analiz edilmiştir. katılımcılar araştırmada amaçsal örnekleme yöntemlerinden ölçüt örnekleme kullanılmıştır. araştırmada dijital vatandaşlık uygulamalarına dayalı etkinliklerin, hazırlanan uygulama yönergesine uygun bir biçimde gerçekleştirilebilmesi için araştırmanın amacı ve alt problemleri doğrultusunda kullanılan ölçütler araştırmacı tarafından belirlenmiştir. bu bağlamda çalışma grubunu oluşturan deney ve kontrol grubunun belirlenmesinde; araştırmanın yapılacağı sınıf düzeyinin ilköğretim altıncı sınıf olması; araştırmanın yapılacağı okulda bilgi teknolojileri sınıfı ve bu sınıftaki bilgisayarların internet erişiminin olması; araştırmanın yapılacağı okulda sınıflarda bilgisayarın olması ve bu hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 47 bilgisayarlara internet erişiminin olması; araştırmanın yapılacağı deney ve kontrol gruplarında yer alan öğrencilerin her hangi bir yerden internet erişim sağlayabiliyor olması dikkate alınmıştır. bu bağlamda 2008–2009 eğitim öğretim yılının bahar döneminde eskişehir iline bağlı bir i̇lköğretim okulu’nun 6-c ve 6-d sınıfları saptanmış ve rastlantısal olarak deney ve kontrol grubu olarak atanmıştır. araştırmaya deney grubunda 13’ü kız ve 17’si erkek, kontrol grubunda 14’ü kız ve 16’sı erkek olmak üzere toplam 60 öğrenci katılmıştır. uygulama süreci ve etkinlikler araştırma uygulaması başlamadan önce alanyazından yararlanılarak dijital vatandaşlığın boyutları belirlenmiş ve uygulama süresince dijital vatandaşlığın hangi boyutlarının üzerinde durulacağı saptamıştır. boyutların hangisinin uygulama sürecinde ele alınacağına ise 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi ünitelerine ait kazanımlar ve uygulama süresi göz önü alınarak karar verilmiştir. bu bağlamda “etik ve sorumluluklar”, “gizlilik ve güvenlik”, “iletişim” ve “haklar ve erişim” boyutları araştırma kapsamında ele alınmıştır. bu boyutlara ilişkin uygulama sürecinde sosyal bilgiler dersi kazanımları ile ilişkilendirebilecek dijital vatandaşlık kazanımları (5 temel 25 alt kazanım) oluşturulmuştur. daha sonra belirlenen dijital vatandaşlık uygulama kazanımları doğrultusunda 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulamanın yapılabileceği üniteleri ve ünitelerin kazanımları saptamıştır. bu doğrultuda, i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin uygulanmasının 6. sınıf “ülkemiz ve dünya”, “demokrasinin serüveni” ve “elektronik yüzyıl” ünitelerinde gerçekleştirilmesine karar verilmiştir. uygulama yapılacak öğrenme alanları ve kazanımlarını belirledikten sonra dijital vatandaşlık uygulama kazanımları ile ilişkilendirmeler yapılmış ve bu kazanımlara uygun etkinlikler hazırlanmıştır. etkinliklerin tümü hazırlandıktan sonra uzman görüşü alınmış, ön denemeleri gerçekleştirilmiş ve gerekli düzenlemeler yapılarak son biçimi verilerek deney grubunda uygulanmıştır. veri toplama araçları bu araştırmada hem nitel hem de nicel veri toplama araçları kullanılmıştır. araştırmanın nicel verilerinin toplanmasında kişisel bilgi formu ve dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeği’nden (dvtö) yararlanılmıştır. dvtö’nun geliştirilme aşamalarıyla ilgili detaylı açıklamalar karaduman (2011)’de yer almaktadır. aşağıda ise sürece ana hatlarıyla değinilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 48 ölçeğin geliştirilmesi aşamasında dijital vatandaşlıkla ilgili alan yazın taranmış ve dijital vatandaşlığın boyutları saptanmaya çalışılmıştır. madde havuzu oluşturulmasında ilgili alan yazından ve i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı’ndan yararlanılmıştır. bu süreçler tamamladıktan sora dijital vatandaşlığın 8 boyutunu içeren 130 maddelik form oluşturulmuştur. görünüş/yüz ve kapsam/içerik geçerliğini sınamak amacıyla hazırlanan form sosyal bilgiler eğitimi, türkçe eğitimi, psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik, ölçme ve değerlendirme, eğitim programı geliştirme, bilgisayar ve öğretim teknolojileri ve sınıf öğretmenliği alanlarında akademik çalışma yapan 15 öğretim elemanı ile 4 sosyal bilgiler ve 1 türkçe öğretmenine uzman görüşü almak amacıyla sunulmuştur. uzmanların en az % 90 oranında ölçekte kalsın yönünde görüş bildirdiği ifadeler ölçek maddesi olarak tutulmuştur. bu düzenleme sonrası 80 maddeden oluşan dvtö deneme formları oluşturulmuştur. ölçeğin geçerlilik çalışmaları kapsamında yapı geçerliliğini için faktör analizi, ölçüt geçerliliği için madde ayırt edicilik çözümlemesi yapılmıştır. ölçeklerin faktör analizi çalışmasının başlangıcında boyut sayısına herhangi bir sınırlama getirilmemiştir. bundan dolayı özdeğer (eigen) 1 olarak alınmış, faktör yükleri için en küçük değer .40 kabul edilmiştir. bu işlem sonucunda elde edilen sonuçlar tablo 1’de verilmiştir. tablo 1 faktör analizi sonucunda elde edilen değerler ölçek boyut özdeğer varyansın % toplam % madde sayısı faktör yük değeri dvtö 1 4,669 8,884 8,884 5 .642 ila .571 2 2,924 7,547 16,430 3 .693 ila .680 3 2,017 7,001 23,432 7 .712 ila .470 4 1,553 5,885 29,317 3 .748 ila .528 5 1,371 5,631 34,947 3 .745 ila .669 6 1,287 5,521 40,468 4 .697 ila .519 7 1,148 4,899 45,367 3 .673 ila .528 8 1,046 4,680 50,047 4 .756 ila .643 madde analizi çalışmalarında ölçeklerde yer alan her bir madde için alt ve üst % 27’lik grupların puan ortalamaları arasında fark olup olmadığına bağımsız grup t-testi ile bakılmış ve tüm maddelerin alt ve üst grupları, sahip olduğu geçiş becerileri açısından ayırt ettiği bulunmuştur (p<0.01). ölçeklerin güvenirlik çalışmaları kapsamında oluşturulan ölçek ve alt ölçeklerin her biri için güvenirlik analizleri uygulanmıştır. uygulanan iç tutarlılık analizi sonucunda, 32 maddeden oluşan dvtö için cronbach alfa değeri 0,743, parallel değeri 0,744 ve strict parallel değeri ise 0,697 bulunmuştur. buna göre ölçeğin güvenilir bir ölçek olduğu hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 49 söylenebilir. dvtö alt boyutlarının iç tutarlılık katsayıları analizi sonucunda ise, cronbach alpha değerlerinin 0,461 ile 0,755, parallel değerlerinin 0,463 ile 0,756 ve strict parallel değerlerinin 0,404 ile 0,752 aralarında değiştiği saptanmıştır. ortaya çıkan bu değerlere göre, dvtö ve bağımsız olarak alt boyutlarının iç tutarlılıklarının yüksek olduğunu söylenebilir. ölçeğin geliştirilmesi aşamasında elde edilen değerler ilgili alan yazında vurgulanan gereklilikleri karşılayabilecek nitelikte olduğu için araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak kullanılmasının uygun olduğuna karar verilmiştir (altunışık ve diğer, 2007; balcı, 2004; baykul, 2000; büyüköztürk, 2004; büyüköztürk ve diğr., 2010; kalaycı, 2005; neuman, 2008; sipahi, yurtkoru & çinko, 2006). araştırmanın nitel verilerinin toplanmasında 20 öğrenciyle gerçekleştirilen yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler, öğrenme etkinlikleri ve ders planları ile öğrencilerle msn messengerda gerçekleştirilen yazışma kayıtlarından yararlanılmıştır. yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşme formu anlaşılır olma, çok boyutlu sorulardan kaçınma, odaklı sorular hazırlama, yönlendirmekten kaçınma, alternatif ve sonda sorular hazırlama ve soruları mantıklı bir biçimde düzenleme gibi ilkeler dikkate alınarak hazırlanmıştır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2006). görüşme formunda uygulama sonrasında, öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tanımlarını ve gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin dijital vatandaşlığın boyutları açısından neler kazandırdığını belirlemeye yönelik sorulara yer verilmiştir. görüşme formu hazırlandıktan sonra içerik geçerliği amacıyla 5 uzman incelemiş ve gerekli düzenlemeler yapılarak iki öğrenci ile pilot görüşme yapılmıştır. pilot görüşmeler çözümlenerek öğrencilerin anlamadığı noktalar tekrar gözden geçirilmiş ve forma son biçimi verilmiştir. deney grubundaki tüm öğrencilerle görüşme yapılması planlanmış olmakla birlikte, okulun son haftası olması, öğrencilerin sbs sınavına hazırlanmaları ve rapor almaları nedeniyle 20 öğrenciyle görüşme gerçekleştirilebilmiştir verilerin analizi ve yorumlanması araştırmanın nicel verilerinin çözümlenmesinde spss 17.0 paket programından yararlanılmıştır. dijital vatandaşlık tutumlarının düzeyiyle ilgili olan verilerin analizinde kovaryans analizi (ancova) kullanılmıştır. kovaryans analizi (ancova) ile sınanma gerçekleştirilmeden önce her bir boyuta ilişkin olarak analizin gerektirdiği varsayımlar test edilmiştir. bu bağlamda frigon ve laurellence’nin (1993; akt. büyüköztürk, 1998, s.94) ancova’nın kullanımına yönelik olarak önerdiği; a) gruplar içi regrasyon eğilimlerinin homojen olması, b) randomize (seçkisiz) bir desende bağımlı journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 50 değişken (y) ve ortak değişken (x) arasındaki pearson korelasyon katsayısının r ≥ 0.3 olması. c) x ve y değişkenleri arasındaki ilişkinin doğrusal olması varsayımları dikkate alınmış ve her bir analiz için sınanmıştır. bütün varsayımlar sağlandıktan sonra kovaryans analizine geçilmiştir. araştırmanın nitel verilerinin çözümlenmesi ve yorumlanmasında “betimsel analiz” tekniğinden yararlanılmıştır. araştırmacı yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden elde edilen verilerin görüşme formlarına dökümünü yapmış ve bu formlar qsr-nvivo 7 paket programında sources [kaynaklar] bölümüne tek tek aktarılmıştır. ayrıca, yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmelerin ses kayıtları özgün biçimleriyle uzmana verilmiş ve özgün kayıtlar ile dökümler arasında tutarlılık olduğu saptanmıştır. daha sonra, qsr-nvivo 7 paket programında kaynaklar bölümüne aktarılan veriler okunmuş ve düzenlenmiştir. araştırmada araştırmacı yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden elde edilen verileri, qsrnvi̇vo 7 paket programında, diğer bir uzman görüşme formuna ayrı ayrı kodlamış ve oluşturulan temalarda görüş birliğine varılmıştır. bir uzman ve araştırmacı birbirinden bağımsız olarak, yansız atamayla saptanan görüşme formlarının %20’lik bir bölümünü kodlama anahtarından her bir soru için uygun temaya işaretleme yapmaktadırlar. araştırmacı ve uzman işaretlemelerinden görüş birliği ve görüş ayrılığı sayıları belirlenmiştir. bu araştırmada araştırmacı ve uzman tarafından gerçekleştirilen kodlamalarda güvenirliğin hesaplanmasında miles & huberman’ın (1994) önerdiği “güvenirlik = (görüş birliği/görüş birliği+görüş ayrılığı) x 100” formülü kullanılmış ve araştırmanın güvenirliği %96.4 olarak belirlenmiştir. qsr-nvi̇vo 7’de kodlanan veriler, araştırma sorusu doğrultusunda gerekli yerlerde doğrudan alıntılarla desteklenerek bulgular tanımlanmıştır. ayrıca diğer destek veri toplama araçlarında elde edilen verilerden doğrudan alıntılara yer verilerek yararlanılmıştır. araştırmada inanırlığı sağlamak amacıyla araştırma uzun süreli bir etkileşim sürecinde gerçekleştirilmiş, sürecin her aşaması kayıt altına alınmış, elde edilen bulguların uzmanlar tarafından denetlenmesi sağlanmış, çalışma ortamı ve çalışma grubu ayrıntılı olarak betimlenmiş, farklı veri kaynakları ve farklı veri toplama araçları kullanılarak verilerin ve bulguların doğruluğu için farklı araştırmacılardan yararlanılmıştır. hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 51 bulgular araştırma bulguları araştırma soruları çerçevesinde aşağıda sunulmuştur. 1. 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlık uygulamalarına dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumları üzerinde etkisine ilişkin bulgular tablo 2. dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeğinin bütünü ve alt boyutları i̇çin gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları ölçeğin bütünü kaynak kt sd ko f η2 model 2455,061 2 1227,531 18,384 ,392 kovaryet 1337,045 1 1337,045 20,024 ,260 müdahale* 1837,116 1 1837,116 27,514 ,72 hata 3805,922 57 66,771 toplam 6260,983 59 etik ve sorumluluk model 370,183 2 185,092 18,316 ,391 kovaryet 276,433 1 276,433 27,355 ,324 müdahale* 157,350 1 157,350 15,571 ,215 hata 576,000 57 10,105 toplam 946,183 59 i̇letişim model 54,403 2 27,201 6,194 ,179 kovaryet 22,136 1 22,136 5,040 ,081 müdahale* 40,985 1 40,985 9,332 ,141 hata 250,331 57 4,392 toplam 304,733 59 gizlilik ve güvenlik model 121,293 2 60,646 2,940 ,094 kovaryet 17,276 1 17,276 0,838 ,014 müdahale** 116,206 1 116,206 5,634 ,090 hata 1175,690 57 20,626 toplam 1296,983 59 haklar ve erişim model 135,593 2 67,797 16,143 ,362 kovaryet 15,176 1 15,176 3,614 ,060 müdahale* 132,509 1 132,509 31,551 ,356 hata 239,390 57 4,200 toplam 374,983 59 * p<.01, ** p<.05 tablo 2 incelendiğinde, deney ve kontrol gruplarının dvtö’nün bütününe ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(1:59)=27,514 p<.01]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin %32,6’sını açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli de anlamlıdır [f(2;59)= 18,384 p<.01]. bu sonuçlara göre, dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin gerçekleştirildiği deney grubunun dijital vatandaşlık tutum puanları, dijital journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 52 vatandaşlık etkinliklerinin uygulanmadığı kontrol grubuna göre istatistiksel olarak anlamlı derecede daha yüksektir. tablo 2’ye göre, deney ve kontrol gruplarının “etik ve sorumluluk” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(1:59)=15,571 p<.01]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin %21,5’ini açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli de anlamlıdır [f(2;59)= 18,316 p<.01]. 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlık uygulamalarına dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin uygulandığı öğrencilerin “etik ve sorumluluk” puanları, bu etkinlikleri almayan öğrencilere göre istatistiksel olarak anlamlı derecede daha yüksektir. tablo 2 incelendiğinde deney ve kontrol gruplarının “iletişim” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(1:59)= 9,332 p<.01]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin %14,1’ini açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli de anlamlıdır [f(2;59)= 6,194, p<.01]. 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin uygulandığı öğrencilerin “iletişim” puanları, bu etkinlikleri almayan öğrencilere göre istatistiksel olarak anlamlı derecede daha yüksektir. tablo 2’ye göre, deney ve kontrol gruplarının gizlilik ve güvenlik alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(1:59)= 5,634 p<.05]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin %9’unu açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli ise anlamlıdır. [f(2;59)= 2,940 p>.05]. bu sonuçlara göre, 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin uygulandığı öğrencilerle, bu etkinliklerin uygulanmadığı öğrenciler arasında dvtö’nün “gizlilik ve güvenlik” alt boyutundan aldıkları puanlar arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark bulunmaktadır. tablo 2 incelendiğinde, deney ve kontrol gruplarının “haklar ve erişim” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş son test ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(1:59)= 31,551 p<.01]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 53 değişkenliğin %35,6’sını açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli de anlamlıdır [f(2;59)= 16,143 p<.01]. bu sonuçlara göre, 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin uygulandığı öğrencilerin haklar ve erişim puanları, bu etkinlikleri almayan öğrencilere göre anlamlı derecede daha yüksektir. 2. 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlık uygulamalarına dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumlarının kalıcılığı üzerinde etkisine ilişkin bulgular tablo 3 incelendiğinde, deney ve kontrol gruplarının dvtö’ne ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(1:59)= 27,514 p<.01]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin %32,6’sını açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli de anlamlıdır [f(2;59)= 18,384 p<.01]. bu sonuçlara göre, dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin gerçekleştirildiği deney grubunun dijital vatandaşlık tutum puanları, dijital vatandaşlık etkinliklerinin uygulanmadığı kontrol grubuna göre istatistiksel olarak anlamlı derecede daha yüksektir. tablo 3’e göre, deney ve kontrol gruplarının “etik ve sorumluluk” alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(1:59)= 15,820 p<.01]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin %21,7’sini açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli de anlamlıdır [f(2;59)= 22,251 p<.01]. bu sonuçlara göre, 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin uygulandığı öğrencilerin dvtö’nün “etik ve sorumluluk” alt boyutuna ait kalıcılık puanları, bu etkinlikleri almayan öğrencilere göre istatistiksel olarak anlamlı derecede daha yüksektir. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 54 tablo 3. dijital vatandaşlık tutum ölçeğinin bütünü ve alt boyutlarının kalıcılığı i̇çin gerçekleştirilen ancova analizi sonuçları ölçeğin bütünü kaynak kt sd ko f η2 model 2455,061 2 1227,531 18,384 ,392 kovaryet 1337,045 1 1337,045 20,024 ,260 müdahale* 1837,116 1 1837,116 27,514 ,326 hata 3805,922 57 66,771 toplam 6260,983 59 etik ve sorumluluk model 445,592 2 222,796 22,251 ,438 kovaryet 359,192 1 359,192 35,873 ,386 müdahale* 158,407 1 158,407 15,820 ,217 hata 570,741 57 10,013 toplam 1016,333 59 i̇letişim model 30,101 2 15,051 3,160 ,100 kovaryet 17,034 1 17,034 3,576 ,059 müdahale 18,215 1 18,215 3,824 ,063 hata 271,499 57 4,763 toplam 301,600 59 gizlilik ve güvenlik model 329,198 2 164,599 5,865 ,171 kovaryet 138,381 1 138,381 4,930 ,080 müdahale* 246,590 1 246,590 8,786 ,134 hata 1599,786 57 28,066 toplam 1928,983 59 haklar ve erişim model 79,727 2 39,864 7,890 ,217 kovaryet 34,661 1 34,661 6,860 ,107 müdahale* 59,336 1 59,336 11,743 ,171 hata 288,006 57 5,053 toplam 367,733 59 * p<.01 tablo 3 incelendiğinde, deney ve kontrol gruplarının iletişim alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olmadığını görülmektedir [f(1:59)= 3,824 p>.01]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin %6,3’ünü açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli de anlamlı değildir [f(2;59)= 3,160 p>.01]. bu sonuçlara göre, 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin uygulandığı öğrencilerle, bu etkinliklerin uygulanmadığı öğrenciler arasında dvtö’nün “iletişim” alt boyutundan aldıkları puanlar arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir fark yoktur. tablo 3’e göre, deney ve kontrol gruplarının gizlilik ve güvenlik alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(1:59)= 8,786 p<.01]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin %13,4’ünü açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli de anlamlıdır [f(2;59)= 5,865 p<.01]. bu sonuçlara göre, 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin uygulandığı hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 55 öğrencilerin dvtö’nün “gizlilik ve güvenlik” alt boyutuna ait kalıcılık puanları, bu etkinlikleri almayan öğrencilere göre istatistiksel olarak anlamlı derecede daha yüksektir. tablo 3 incelendiğinde, deney ve kontrol gruplarının haklar ve erişim alt boyutuna ait ön teste göre düzeltilmiş kalıcılık testi ortalama puanları arasındaki farkın anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir [f(1:59)= 11,743 p<.01]. eta-kare değerleri göz önüne alındığında ise farklı gruplarda olmanın ön test puanlarından bağımsız olarak son test puanlarındaki değişkenliğin %17,1’ini açıkladığı görülmektedir. bunu tanımlayan ancova modeli de anlamlıdır [f(2;59)= 7,890 p<.01]. bu sonuçlara göre, 6.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin uygulandığı öğrencilerin dvtö’nün “haklar ve erişim” alt boyutuna ait kalıcılık puanları, bu etkinlikleri almayan öğrencilere göre istatistiksel olarak anlamlı derecede daha yüksektir. 3. öğrencilerin, dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin dijital vatandaşlık anlayışlarına ve dijital vatandaşlık tutumlarına yansımalarına ilişkin görüşleri 3.1.öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin dijital vatandaşlık anlayışlarına yansımalarına ilişkin görüşleri şekil 1. öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tanımları şekil 1’de görüldüğü gibi öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık olgusuna ait tanımlamaları, “etik davranışlarda bulunan”, “interneti etkin kullanan”, “internet üzerinden iletişim kuran”, “internetteki kural ve yasalara uyan”, “güvenliğini koruyan ve gizli bilgilerini paylaşmayan”, “internete alışveriş yapan”, “interneti çok iyi kullanabilen”, “haklarını ve sorumluluklarını bilen” biçiminde ortaya çıkmıştır. öğrencilerden zeynep dijital vatandaşlığı, “dijital vatandaşlık kavramı benim için internetle ve teknolojiyle yani gelişmelerle yeni gelişmelerle çok ilgili bir insan aklıma geliyor. bu ilk aklıma gelen. bilinçlidir yani her şeyden haberdar olduğu için bilinçli bir insan olur. haklarını sorumluluklarını bilir” biçiminde tanımlayarak, dijital vatandaşın journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 56 interneti ve teknolojiyi yakından takip eden, haklarını ve sorumluluklarını bilen bilinçli bir kişiliğe sahip olduğunu vurgulamıştır. gülay ise dijital vatandaşlığı, “dijital vatandaş bence teknolojiyi doğru kullanan teknoloji ile yakından ilgilenen teknolojiyi kötü amaçlar için kullanmayan vatandaştır. teknolojiyi doğru kullanmak, takip etmek, etik olmak, sorumluluk sahibi olmak ise genel özellikleri” biçiminde tanımlayarak teknolojinin ve internetin etik kullanımına vurgu yapmıştır. demet ve volkan ise aşağıda yer alan görüşlerinde dijital vatandaşlığın birçok boyutunu içine alan bir tanımlama yapmıştır: verimli internette kullanmak geliyor dijital vatandaş deyince. i̇nternetten bir şeyler satın almak alışveriş yapmak ve interneti etkin kullanabilmek geliyor. dijital vatandaşlar kötü sitelere girmezler örneğin arkadaş bulma sitelerine ve bunun gibi sitelere girmezler. güvenilir siteleri kullanırlar. çoğunlukla mesela kaynağından kullanırlar güvenilir kaynak kullanmaya dikkat ederler ve kaynak belirtirler. i̇nternetten korsan indirmezler kasetlerini alırlar (demet, görüşme, 03 haziran 2009). dijital vatandaşlık kavramı benim için internete giripte internetten alışveriş yapan. gidipte mahkemeniz var akrabanızla aranızda bir şeylik oldu. onu gidipte mesela adalet sarayından halledeceğiniz yere internetten oranın sitesine girip oradan işlemlerimizi yaptırabiliyoruz. ulaşım yerine internet aracılığıyla yapmak benim için dijital vatandaşlık. özellikleri ise korsan şeyler yasalara uygun olmayan şeyleri indirmemek. bunlara, kurallara yasalara uymak (volkan, görüşme, 02 haziran 2009). öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tanımlamaları, teknolojinin ve internetin uygun ve etkin kullanılmasına odaklanmıştır. öğrencilerin ilgili alanyazındaki tanımlamalara benzer tanımlamalar gerçekleştirdikleri görülmektedir. bu bağlamda uygulama sürecinde gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital vatandaş kavramına bütüncül bir bakış sergilemelerini sağladığı söylenebilir. 3.2.öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin etik ve sorumluluk tutumlarına yansımalarına ilişkin görüşleri şekil 2. öğrencilerin “etik ve sorumluluklar” açısından kazanımlarına ilişkin görüşleri hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 57 şekil 2’de görüldüğü gibi öğrencilerin uygulama sürecinde “etik ve sorumluluk” kazanımlarına ilişkin görüşlerine ait alt temalar “fikri mülkiyet ve telif hakkı”, “aşırma”, “saygı duyma” ve “etik ilkelere ve internet yasalarına uyma” şeklinde belirlenmiştir. öğrenciler sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin dijital ortamdaki etik tutumları açısından “fikri mülkiyet ve telif hakkı” konusunda olumlu katkılar getirdiklerini belirtmiştir. örneğin bu konuda öğrencilerden nazan, “mesela ben mp3 indiriyordum pardon ben indirmiyordum arkadaşımın indirdiğini alıyodum. oda bir suç gibi düşündüm” biçimindeki görüşüyle mp3’ü kendisi indirmediği halde indiren bir arkadaşından almanın bile suç olduğunu düşünmeye başladığını ifade etmektedir. asya ise bu konudaki görüşünü “… eskiden ablam alıyodu ikimiz izliyoduk ama şimdi ablam aldığında uyarıyorum. korsan cd alma zararlı. sanatçılara zararlı olabiliyor yani onlar şey olabilir ama bize karşı zararlı diye düşünüyorum” biçiminde dile getirmiş ve eskiden korsan cd aldıklarını ancak bunun hem sanatçılar açısından hem de kendisi açısından zararlı olduğunu belirtmiştir. sibel ise, “mesela cd satıcılarından falan korsan alıyordum şimdi pahalı olsa da orijinal alıyorum” biçiminde görüşünü belirtmiş pahalı bile olsa uygulama sonrasında orijinal ürün aldığını belirtmiştir. öğrencilerden beril “korsan cd de çok şey kazandırdı. korsan cd almamaya dikkat ediyorum. pek fazla müzik indirmiyorum mesela …… müzik diye şeyler var. onlara üye oluyorum. onlardan indiriyom” biçimindeki görüşüyle sanatçıların para kazanabileceği bir siteye üye olduğunu ve oradan şarkı indirdiğini belirtmiştir. volkan ise, “…………. ben kendim indirmiştim parayla bu sanatçıların kendi sitesi vardı. yine parayla diyebiliriz ama yine onlara katkı sağlıyor” biçiminde görüşüyle sanatçılara para kazandırabileceği bir siteden indirme işlemi yaptığını söylemiştir. dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinlikler sonrasında hem eser sahiplerinin belirli bir ücret kazandığı hem de tüketicinin ürünleri daha uygun ücretle elde edebildiği sitelere başvurulması öğrenciler açısından önemli bir seçenek olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. öğrenciler uygulama sürecinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin “aşırma” davranışları üzerinde etkili olduğunu belirtmiştir. özellikle bu konuda ön plana çıkan görüşler internetten ödevleri kopyalayıp kendininmiş gibi öğretmene vermeme, internetten alınan ödevlerde kaynakça gösterme ve alınan metinlerde düzenlemeler yapma üzerine yoğunlaşmaktadır. öğrencilerden beril aşağıda yer alan görüşleriyle, internetin kendisi için zengin bir kaynak olduğunu, internette bilgilerin journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 58 paylaşımının zaten onlardan yararlanılmak için yapıldığını ve kendisinin bu zengin bilgi kaynağından bazı noktalara dikkat ederek yararlandığını belirtmiştir: ödevlerimde de dikkat ediyorum hocam. eskiden kopyala yapıştır yapıyodum. bazen arkadaşlarda öyle yapıyor büyük ihtimal. daha çok yazım yanlışlarını falan görünce ben biraz daha okuyorum okuyarak yapıyorum. mesela direk kopyalayınca bir okuyorum yazım hataları varsa düzeltiyorum, anlamsız gelen bir şey varsa aileme soruyorum. o da şöyle derse anlam bozukluğu varsa başka siteden bakıyorum. aslında çok fazla etik değil ama o siteye onu veren bizim almamızı istemeseydi vermezdi zaten diye düşünüyorum verdiği içinde bize katkısı olduğunu düşünüyorum. burada kaynak göstermeye dikkat ediyorum. kaynak göstermeden öne sürersek bu hırsızlık olur. eğer bir kaynak göstererek ben ondan aldım dersek o hırsızlığa girmiyor bence bilgi paylaşımına giriyor (beril, görüşme, 04 haziran 2009). beril’in ifade ettiği gibi internet öğrenciler açısından zengin bir bilgi kaynağı olarak görülmektedir. ancak öğrencilerin bu zengin veri kaynağından nasıl yararlanmaları gerektiğini öğrenmelerinin aynı zamanda bu zengin veri kaynağının öğrenciler tarafından etik kurallara uygun biçimde kullanmalarını sağladığı söylenebilir. nazan da bu konuda “ben şimdi ödevlerimi yaparken de dipnot yazıyordum. şimdi daha bir özen gösteriyorum” sözleriyle ödevlerinde alıntı yaparken kaynakça göstermeye daha fazla dikkat etmeye başladığını ifade etmiştir. öğrenciler uygulama sonrasında dijital etik ile bağlantılı olarak dijital ortamda diğer insanlara “saygı duyma”ya başladıklarını belirtmiştir. örneğin bu konuda onur, “eskiden msn de falan hakaret ediyorduk şimdi etmiyoruz” sözleriyle açıklamıştır. benzer bir biçimde can, “herkes birbirini mesela internete tehdit etmemeli onlara kötü şeyler göndermemeli” sözleriyle insanların internette birbirine karşı saygılı olmaları ve tehdit etmemeleri gerektiğini belirtmiştir. öğrenciler uygulama sürecinin sonunda “etik ilkelere ve internetle ilgili yasalara uyma”ya dikkat edilmesi gerekliliğini vurgulamış ve bunların kendilerinin sorumluluğu olduğunu ifade etmiştir. öğrencilerden ahmet uygulama sürecinde dijital vatandaşların ne gibi sorumlulukları olduğunu, “ dijital vatandaşın ne gibi görevleri olduğu, neler yapabileceğini öğrendim. yasalara uygun davranması gerektiğini” biçimindeki görüşüyle ifade etmiş ve dijital vatandaşın yasalara uygun davranması gerektiğini belirtmiştir. ayşe ise, “mesela sorumluluğumda ben korsan indirmedim bu benim sorumluluğumdu” biçimindeki görüşüyle internette etik kurallara uymanın sorumluluğu olduğunu belirtmiştir. öğrencilerden özgür, “çoğunlukla mesela sitelere üye olurken orda yapacağımız davranışlar falan bizim sorumluluklarımız olur yani mesela bizden yüksek rütbeli olan hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 59 adminler falan bize görev verdiğinde biz o görevleri yapıyoruz. bizim sorumluluklarımıza giriyor” biçimindeki görüşüyle internet sitelerinin kendi kurallarına uymanın sorumluluğu olduğunu ifade etmiştir. öğrenciler, çalışmalarında görüldüğü gibi dijital vatandaşın en önemli sorumluluğunun teknolojiyi doğru ve etik kullanmak olduğunu belirtmiştir. ayrıca öğrencilerin, sorumluluk davranışını etik kavramı ile bütünleştirdikleri görülmektedir. nitel verilerden elde edilen bulgular araştırmanın amaçlarından hipotez 1.2 ve hipotez 2.2’de elde edilen bulgularla örtüşmektedir. bu bağlamda araştırmanın hem nicel hem de nitel verileri sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulanan dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin, öğrencilerin “etik ve sorumluluk” tutumları üzerinde etkili olduğunu göstermektedir. 3.3.öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin iletişim tutumlarına yansımalarına ilişkin görüşleri şekil 3’te görüldüğü gibi öğrencilerin uygulama sürecinde dijital iletişim açısından kazanımlarına ilişkin görüşlerine ait alt temalar “kötü söz kullanmama” ve “anlaşılır olma” şeklinde belirlenmiştir. şekil 11. öğrencilerin iletişim açısından kazanımlarına ilişkin görüşleri öğrenciler uygulama sonrasında dijital iletişim ile bağlantılı olarak dijital ortamda diğer insanlarla konuşurken “anlaşılır olma”ya dikkat ettiklerini ifade etmiştir. bu bağlamda özellikle “animasyonlu ve süslü yazı kullanmama”, “türkçe dil kuralların dikkat etme” ve “yazdıklarını gözden geçirme” gibi noktalara vurgu yapmışlardır. örneğin nalan, “i̇nternette konuşurken mesela, çok veya uzun şeyler yazdığımızda bilgisayar takılabilir. onun için hem daha anlaşılır hem kısa ve öz yazmamız gerekiyor. yazarken kısa çok kısa yazmamalıyız. mesela yazarken “öd” yazıyorlar. önemli değil mi? özür dilerim mi bu anlaşılmıyor. anlaşılır yazmalıyız gibi” sözleriyle internette anlaşılır bir biçimde iletişim kurulması gerektiğini belirtmiştir. zeynep de bu noktada özellikle çok journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 60 fazla kısaltma kullanmadığını, sadece genel kullanımı olan sözcükler dışında anlaşılır yazdığını aşağıdaki ifadeleri kullanarak dile getirmiştir: mesela kısaltmaları çok yazıyorduk. ben çok yazmasam da arkadaşlarım bana çok kısa şeyler yazıyorlardı. ünlü harfleri alıyorlar kötü oluyor anlamıyorum hiçbir şey. artık daha dikkatli [dikkat] ediyoruz. genelde kullanılanlar dışında pek fazla kullanmıyoruz. öyle şeyler ya da ifadelerimiz vardı msn de onlar da çıkınca yine anlamıyorduk. onların da çoğunu sildim yada karakterini değiştirdim. daha rahat konuşuyorum arkadaşlarımla onları daha rahat anlayabiliyorum (zeynep, görüşme, 02 haziran 2009). zeynep’in ifadesinde belirttiği bir diğer önemli değişiklik msn messenger’da kullanılan “animasyonlu ve süslü yazıların kullanılmaması” veya birçoğunun kaldırılmasıdır. zeynep bunun nedenini de anlaşılır olmamalarına bağlamaktadır. özgür’de aşağıda yer alan ifadesiyle animasyonlu ve süslü yazıların anlaşılmasında güçlük yaşadığını, bu tür metinleri anlamak için çeşitli yollar ürettiğini ancak uygulamayla birlikte bunları iptal etmeye başladığını dile getirmiştir: msn dilini daha çok değiştirdik sizin açınızdan bi de ifadeler kullanıyorduk. biz daha çok arkadaşlarımız falan anlıyorduk. bende özellikle anlamıyodum fazla. onun için onları hep ekle deyip ne anlama geldiğine bakıyoduk. ondan sonra eklemiyoduk. i̇ptal ediyordum işte o şekilde anlamaya çalışıyordum yavaş yavaş. i̇şte her ifadeyi anlamaya çalıştım. siz de dediniz hatta hep beraber konuşurken düzgün yazılar yazmaya, yazdığım yazıların anlaşılır olması için yazdıktan sonra kontrol etmeye başladım (özgür, görüşme, 03 haziran 2009). öğrencilerin internet üzerinden iletişim kurarken kimi özellikleri kullanmaya devam ettikleri uygulama sürecinde gerçekleştirilen msn messenger sohbet kayıtlarında kendini göstermektedir. öğrenciler bu bağlamda “mrb (merhaba), oki̇ (okey), evt (evet), tmm (tamam), ii (iyi), ok (okey) vb.” bazı genel kısaltmalardan yararlanmıştır. öğrenciler ayrıca “ewet, yhaw vb.” türkçe alfabesinde olmayan kelimeleri; alfabe dışındaki “:d (gülme), :( (üzülme) vb.” simgeleri ve konuşma dilinde kullanılan “valla, noluo, saolun, meraba vb.” kelimeleri süreç içerisinde zaman zaman kullanmaya devam etmiştir. öğrencilerden asya aşağıda yer alan ifadeleriyle, dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinlikler sonucunda internette kullandıkları iletişim dilinde yukarıda belirtildiği gibi türkçe hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 61 kelimelerde kısaltmaların kullanılması ve animasyonlu yazıların (ifadelerin) silinmesi konularında kendilerini geliştirdiklerini belirtmiştir: i̇şlediğimiz her şeyde düzeltmeye başladım böyle bilgisayarda sizin gibi. önceden kısaltmalar yazıyoduk. şimdi yazmıyorum o kadar fazla. i̇nternette açıkça konuşmaya başladık. neci olduğu belli olmayan bir şey mesela cnm yazıyoduk. canım yerine daha düzgün öğrendik hem bilgisayardan ders yapabildik. bir de ben neredeyse bütün ifadeleri sildim mesela. önceden mesela okudum yazıcam ok olarak kaydettiysem onu çok garip bir şey oluyo. ok ve dum çıkıyodu. yani simge varsa çok saçma oluyodu (asya, görüşme, 04 haziran 2009). dijital iletişim konusunda öğrencilerin uygulama sürecinde kazandıklarını düşündükleri bir diğer önemli davranış ise internette “kötü söz kullanmama” olmuştur. öğrencilerden gülay bu konudaki düşüncelerini, “bazen kötü söz ve davranışta bulunan insanlara cevaplarda kötü söz ve davranışlar sergileyebiliyoruz. çünkü çok sinirleniyoruz ama ben böyle şeyler yapmam. bu ders sayesinde iyice kafama yerleşti. asla yapmayacağım” biçiminde ifade etmiş ve derste gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin kendisine internette iletişim kurarken başkalarına kötü söz söylememe ya da kötü davranışta bulunmama açısından katkı sağladığını belirtmiştir. asya ise, “tanımadığım kimsenin bana yazmasını istemiyodum. o bana kötü söz söylüyordu ben de ona. artık etmiyorum” sözüyle bu durumu dile getirmektedir. yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden ve msn messenger yazışmalarından elde edilen bulgular araştırmanın amaçlarından hipotez 1.3’ten elde edilen bulgularla örtüşmektedir. bu bağlamda araştırmanın hem nicel hem de nitel verileri sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulanan dijital vatandaşlığa yönelik etkinliklerin, öğrencilerin dijital iletişim tutumları üzerinde etkili olduğunu göstermektedir. ancak araştırmanın amaçlarından 2.3.’ün reddedilmiş olması iletişim boyutu açısından araştırmanın kalıcı tutum değişikliklerine yol açmadığını göstermektedir. 3.4.öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin gizlilik ve güvenlik tutumlarına yansımalarına ilişkin görüşleri şekil 13’te görüldüğü gibi öğrencilerin uygulama sürecinde “gizlilik ve güvenlik” kazanımlarına ilişkin görüşlerine ait alt temalar “sitelerin güvenirliğini araştırma”, “güvenli journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 62 sitelerden araştırma yapma”, “şifrelerini paylaşmama”, “aldatıcı mesajlara inanmama” ve “kişisel bilgilerini paylaşmama” şeklinde belirlenmiştir. şekil 13. öğrencilerin “gizlilik ve güvenlik” kazanımlarına ilişkin görüşleri öğrenciler uygulama sonrasında “gizlilik ve güvenlik” ile bağlantılı olarak dijital ortamda “kişisel bilgileri paylaşmama”ya dikkat ettiklerini ifade etmiştir. bu bağlamda özellikle “adres”, “tc kimlik no”, “ad-soyad”, “telefon no” ve “kredi kartı no” gibi bilgilerini paylaşmamaları gerektiğini belirtilmiştir. öğrencilerden demet, “kredi kartımız yok ama büyüyünce olabilir. mesela annemizin babamızın kredi kartı var. onların üzerinde numaralar var. onları da vermiyoruz hiçbir yere. tc kimlik numaramızı hiçbir yere vermiyoruz. zaten vermiyorduk. sonra kendi adımızı kullanmıyoruz çoğunlukla” sözleriyle hem kredi kartı numarasına, hem t.c. kimlik numarasına hem de ad-soyad kullanımı konusuna vurgu yapmıştır. nalan ise bu konuda öğrendiklerini, “mesela internette konuşurken falan mesela t.c. kimlilik numaramızı, büyüyünce kredi kartımız olduğunda kredi kartı bilgilerimizi vermememiz gerektiğini öğrendim” ifadeleriyle dile getirmiştir. özgür, uygulama sırasında oynanan bir oyunun gizliliklerini koruma açısından yararlı olduğunu aşağıda yer alan sözleriyle belirtmiştir: şey biz oyun oynamıştık wildwebwood [vahşi web ormanı] diye. orada üç kuzular vardı. herhalde orada bizim her şeyi anlamamız için bir sohbet penceresi vardı. orada sindirella vardı. bir de selam falan yazıyordu. bizde ona bir şeyler yazıyorduk. ondan sonra evimizi adresini istedi, nerede oturduğumuzu sordu, istedi. i̇şte bu yönde bize yani kötü bir yani vermeyelim diye şey yaptık vermedik. bu yönde bizim için iyi oldu (özgür, görüşme, 03 haziran 2009). özgür’ün konuşmasında belirttiği gibi dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinlikler yoluyla internetteki tehlikelerin çeşitli oyunlar aracılığıyla öğrencilere kavratılması bazı öğrencilerin hem ilgisini çekmiş hem de daha iyi öğrenmelerini sağlamıştır. ayrıca, 21.05.2009 tarihinde msn messenger yazışmasında da gerçekleştirilen sohbette hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 63 teknolojiyi kullanmanın olumlu/olumsuz yönleri tartışılmış ve teknolojinin yararlarının yanı sıra zararlarının da olduğuna dikkat çekilmiştir. bu doğrultuda derste anlatılan ve bir bilgisayar oyunu içerisinde geçen “7 küçük keçi” hikâyesinin öğrenciler tarafından vurgulandığı görülmüştür. bu doğrultuda özellikle internetteki olumsuz davranış örneklerinin hikâyeleştirilerek somutlaştırılmasının öğrenciler tarafından daha çok hatırlanabildiği ve bu konudaki tutumlarının değişmesinde etkili olabileceği görülmektedir. öğrencilerden volkan internette sadece devlet kurumlarına ait sitelerden kişisel bilgilerin paylaşılabileceğini ve bu bağlamda devlet kurumlarının sitelerine güvendiğini ve bir vatandaş olarak bu kurumlarla kişisel bilgilerini paylaşabileceğini aşağıdaki ifadeleriyle söylemiştir. her yere adresimizi telefon numaramızı vermememiz lazım. güvendiğimiz bir site devletin sitesine girdiğimizde güvenlik açısından bunları vermemiz lazım dediği zaman girebiliriz. çünkü o devletin sitesi ama emin olmamız lazım bundan. çünkü sahte siteler girip facebooktada var. birçok sanatçı adına facebook açıp buluşalım diyor. o sanatçı adına kendine yer yapıyor (volkan, görüşme, 02 haziran 2009). öğrencilerin gizlilik ve güvenlik ile ilgili vurguladıkları bir diğer önemli nokta “şifrelerini paylaşmama”ları olmuştur. hakan oyun şifresini paylaştığını ve başkasının bu şifreyi alarak kendi adına oyun oynadığını ifade etmiştir. sosyal bilgiler dersinin dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilmesi, öğrencilerin dijital ortamda yaşadıkları çeşitli sorunları derste ve msn messenger konuşmalarında arkadaşlarıyla paylaşmalarını sağlamıştır. öğrenciler arkadaşlarının deneyim ve yaşantılardan yola çıkarak bu sorunları tartışmış, kendi deneyimleri ile karşılaştırarak değerlendirmiş ve bilgilerini yapılandırmıştır. hakan ayrıca görüşmede aşağıda yer alan ifadeleri kullanarak şifrelerini paylaşmadığını belirtmiş ve güvendiği/güvenmediği siteler için iki ayrı e-posta adresi kullanarak güvenliğini sağlamaya çalıştığını belirtmiştir. bu doğrultuda bazı öğrencilerin gizlilik ve güvenliklerini sağlamak amacıyla kendilerine uygun çeşitli teknikler geliştirdikleri söylenebilir: eskiden şifremi falan birilerine verirdim ama artık şimdi vermiyorum kimseye benim gizli şeyim sonra güvenmediğim sitelere email adresimi vermiyorum başka bir email adresim var onu kullanıyorum güvenli olmayan siteler için iki email adresim var birini başka siteler için kullanıyorum birini güvenilir olmayan siteler için kullanıyorum (hakan, görüşme, 05 haziran 2009). journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 64 öğrencilerden “türkiye i̇statistik kurumu i̇nternet sitesi” adlı etkinlikte, internette araştırma yaparken, yapabileceklerini ve yapamayacaklarını listelemeleri istenmiştir. kaan yapabilecekleri bölümüne, “güvenilir kaynaklardan araştırma yapma”, yapamayacakları bölümüne ise, “zararlı sitelere girme ve adımı soyadımı, tc kimlik nomu ve bunun gibi önemli şeyleri verme” yazmış bunun nedenini ise, “bilgisayara trojen girer ve başıma dert açabilir. bu durumda benimle ilgili her şeyi karıştırırlar” şeklinde belirtmiştir. orkun ise, yapabileceklerini sırasıyla “güvenli kaynaklardan ödev yapmak; ad soyad ve tc isteyen sitelerden uzak durmak; oyunu güvenli sitelerden indirmek” şeklinde yazmıştır. orkun bunların nedenin ise sırasıyla, “doğru ödev yapmam için; hesabımdan para çekilmemesi için; bilgisayarımın bozulmaması için” şeklinde açıklamıştır. demet’in öğrenme günlüğünde interneti nerelerde kullanabiliriz sorusuna karşılık olarak, “i̇nterneti sırf oyun için kullanmamalıyız. i̇nternetten araştırma yapabiliriz. ama araştırma yaparken güvenli sitelerden yararlanmalıyız” ifadelerini kullanmış ve “güvenli sitelerden araştırma yapma”nın önemini vurgulamıştır. ayrıca, öğrencilerden “i̇nternet, ben ve diğerleri” adlı etkinlikte internette güvendikleri ve güvenmedikleri siteleri yazmaları istenmiştir. pınar güvendikleri bölümüne, “güvendiğim siteler resmi siteler” yazarken, güvenmediklerine “genelde oyun siteleri, indirme siteleri” yazmıştır. gizem ise güvendiklerine, “sitenin sonları org, edu gibi uzantılı olursa o sitelere güvenirim. araştırmalarımı orada yaparım” yazarken güvenmediklerine, “sitenin sonları org, edu gibi uzantılar olmazsa o sitelere güvenmem. yani pek güvenmem. araştırmalarımı pek oralarda yapmam” yazmıştır. bu doğrultuda, öğrencilerin internette, “site güvenirliğini kontrol ettikleri” ve sitelerin alan uzantılarına baktıkları görülmektedir. öğrencilerden beril, “mesela bir girdiğim siteye mesela bir şarkı indiriyodum. bir resim indiriyodum. güvenliği olup olmadığını hiç düşünmüyodum. bu dersten sonra mesela güvenli olup olmadığını sizin verdiğiniz formla değerlendirip bakıyorum. güvenli değilse girmiyorum” biçimindeki ifadesiyle, internet sitelerinin güvenirliğini uygulama sürecinde kullanılan bir site değerlendirme formu ile gerçekleştirdiğini ifade etmiştir. i̇nternet sitelerinin güvenliğini kontrol edebilecekleri bir değerlendirme formunun uygulama sürecinde öğrencilerle paylaşılması ve sürece dahil edilmesi öğrencilerin ilgisini çekmiştir. form aracılığıyla öğrencilerin bazıları internet sitelerini daha kolay değerlendirebildiklerini ve böylelikle internette daha güvenli sitelerden yararlanabildiklerini belirtmiştir. hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 65 öğrencilerin gizlilik ve güvenlik konusunda vurguladıkları bir diğer önemli nokta “aldatıcı mesajlara inanmama” olmuştur. fatih bu durumu, “msn şifreni bana ver ya da kazandınız diye yazılar geliyor onlardan kaçıyorum” sözleriyle ifade etmiştir. nazan da aynı biçimde bu konudaki görüşlerini, “evet öğretmenim mesela bazen sitelerde msn şifreni bana ver ya da kampanyalar oluyor. şunları kazandınız diye yazılar geliyor. o sitelere girmiyorum” biçiminde dile getirmiştir. bu konudaki görüş belirten öğrencilerden biri de sibel olmuştur. sibel, “yararı oldu çünkü msn adresime e-mailler geliyordu. i̇şte şifrenizi falan verirseniz böyle böyle şeyler size gelicek. dedim mi onlara bir kez güvenmiştim. msn adresime falan ulaşmışlardı. numaramı falan vermemeyi öğrendim. o yüzden araştırıyorum” sözleriyle aldatıcı mesajlara artık inanmadığını ve bu tür durumlarda mesajın güvenirliğini araştırdığını belirtmiştir. yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden, öğrenci etkinlik örneklerinden ve msn messenger görüşme kayıt dosyasından elde edilen bulgular araştırmanın amaçlarından hipotez 1.4 ve hipotez 2.4’de elde edilen bulgularla örtüşmektedir. bu bağlamda araştırmanın hem nicel hem de nitel verileri sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulanan dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin, öğrencilerin “gizlilik ve güvenlik” tutumları üzerinde etkili olduğunu göstermektedir. 3.5.öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin haklar ve erişim tutumlarına yansımalarına ilişkin görüşleri şekil 15’te görüldüğü gibi öğrencilerin uygulama sürecinde “haklar ve erişim” açısından kazanımlarına ilişkin görüşlerine ait alt temalar “düşünce özgürlüğünü kullanma”, “çeşitli hizmetleri kullanma”, “gizliliği koruma”, “internet sitesi kurma” ve “iletişim kurma” şeklinde belirlenmiştir. şekil 15. öğrencilerin dijital haklar ve erişim kazanımlarına ilişkin görüşleri öğrenciler uygulama sonrasında dijital haklar ve erişim konusunda görüşlerini ifade ederken haklar ve erişim konularına birbirleriyle bağlantılı olarak değinmiştir. öğrencilerden beril, “haklarımı yani internet yararlanmak olduğunu düşünüyorum” journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 66 ifadesiyle internetten yararlanmanın dijital vatandaşın hakkı olduğunu dile getirmiştir ve bu bağlamda erişimin önemini vurgulamıştır. orkun ise kendine ait, “internet sitesi kurma”nın hakkı olduğunu “i̇nternette bizde site kurabiliriz” sözleriyle ifade etmiştir. öğrencilerden zeynep internette, “yorum yaptığını ve görüşlerini paylaş”tığını aşağıda yer alan sözleriyle belirtmiştir: mesela düşünce özgürlüğümü kullanıyorum. mesela internette bir haber gördüğümde altta yorumlar falan yazılmış oluyor. bende yorum ekliyorum bence böyle olur bence şöyle olur diye. ya da başka bir sitede yorum gördüğümde site güzel olmuş kötü olmuş diye yazabiliyorum ya da puanlar varsa onları değerlendiriyorum (zeynep, görüşme, 02 haziran 2009). seda uygulama sürecinde internette yapabileceklerini öğrendiklerine değinerek bu görüşünü, “haklarımız öğrendik internette yapabileceklerimizi öğrendik. bilet alabiliyoruz mesela tren otobüs, uçak. oy kullanabiliyorduk” biçiminde dile getirmiş ve internette “çeşitli hizmetleri kullanma”nın hakkı olduğunu ifade etmiştir. hakan ise, “i̇nternette gizliliği koruma hakkımız var” diyerek bu konudaki görüşünü, “i̇nternette bir kere gizlilik hakkımız var yani kimse bize zorla şifremizi söyletemez sonra e-mail adresimizi isteyemez. adımızı, soyadımızı, adresimiz kimse zorla isteyemez” biçiminde ifade etmiş ve “gizliliğin ve güveliğin sağlanması”nın hak olduğuna vurgu yapmıştır. ayrıca, öğrenciler etkinliğe ilişkin yazdıkları görüşlerinde dijital vatandaş haklarının güvenliğinin ve gizliliğinin sağlanması, internette dolaşma ve “iletişim kurma” olduğunu ifade etmiştir. yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden, öğrenci ürün dosyalarından elde edilen bulgular araştırmanın amaçlarından hipotez 1.8 ve hipotez 2.8’de elde edilen bulgularla örtüşmektedir. bu bağlamda araştırmanın hem nicel hem de nitel verileri sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulanan dijital vatandaşlığa yönelik etkinliklerin, öğrencilerin dijital haklar ve erişim tutumları üzerinde etkili olduğunu göstermektedir. sonuç ve tartışma araştırma sonucunda elde edilen bulgular, dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulanmasının öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumlarını olumlu yönde etkilediğini göstermektedir. araştırmanın bu bulgusu, i̇ngiltere’de, eğitim araştırma ve geliştirme grubu tarafından (2002) gerçekleştirilen araştırma bulguları ile örtüşmektedir. i̇lgili araştırmada da vatandaşlık eğitimi kapsamında e-vatandaşlıkla ilgili eğitim verilen öğrencilerin genellikle e-vatandaşlık davranışlarına ilişkin olumlu tutum geliştirdikleri saptanmıştır. hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 67 ribble (2006) yaptığı araştırmada dijital vatandaşlığın 9 boyut üzerinden ele alınabileceğini belirtmiş ve dijital vatandaşlığı ayrı bir modül olarak ele almıştır. ayrıca dijital vatandaşlıkla ilgili uygulamaların farklı derslerde hazırlanacak etkinlikler çerçevesinde ele alınması gerekliliğine vurgu yapmıştır. araştırmada dijital vatandaşlığın boyutları sosyal bilgiler dersi kazanım ve etkinlikleriyle bütünleştirilmiştir. bu bağlamda araştırmanın temel amacını türkiye’de vatandaşlık eğitiminden birinci derecede sorumlu sosyal bilgiler dersi ile bi̇t’in bütünleşmesinin sağlanarak etkili dijital vatandaşların yetiştirilmesini sağlamak oluşturmuştur. araştırma sonuçlarında görüldüğü gibi öğrenciler hem sosyal bilgiler dersine ilişkin hem de dijital vatandaşlığa ilişkin kazanımları birlikte elde etme fırsatı yakalamıştır. bu durum i̇ngiltere’de, eğitim araştırma ve geliştirme grubu tarafından (2002) gerçekleştirilen araştırmanın bulgularıyla benzerlik göstermektedir. i̇ngiltere’de yapılan çalışmada öğrencilere e-vatandaşlıkla ilgili eğitim verilmiş ve öğrenciler, hem vatandaşlıkla, hem de bi̇t’le ilgili olarak eşit miktarda bilgi edindiklerini ifade etmiştir. ayrıca shelley ve diğerleri (2004) tarafından gerçekleştirilen araştırmada bilgisayar becerilerini geliştirme isteğindeki artışın, dijital vatandaşlık kavramıyla olumlu bir ilişkisi olduğu ortaya konulmuştur. bu bağlamda araştırma sürecinde sosyal bilgiler dersinde teknolojinin ve internetin hem dijital vatandaşlık hem de bi̇t’in kullanım becerilerinin geliştirilmesi açısından kullanımı, dijital vatandaşlık kavramına ilişkin öğrencilerin farkındalık sağlamasına ve olumlu tutumlar geliştirmesine neden olmuştur. öğrenciler uygulama sürecinde diğer derslerden farklı olarak, aynı zamanda bilgisayar ve internet kullanma becerilerini de geliştirdiklerini belirtmiştir. araştırmanın bu bulgusu turan (2010) tarafından gerçekleştirilen araştırmanın bulgularıyla benzerlik göstermektedir. turan’ın (2010) gerçekleştirdiği araştırmada bi̇t’in tarih derslerinde kullanımının artmasıyla öğrencilerin bilgisayar ve internet kullanım becerilerinin arttığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. şendağ & odabaşı (2006) yaptıkları çalışmada siber etik konusuna odaklanmış ve öğretmenlerin bu konuya günlük sınıf etkinlikleri içerisinde yer verebileceklerini belirtmiştir. bu araştırma ile şendağ & odabaşı’nın (2006) belirttiği bütünleşme sosyal bilgiler dersi aracılığıyla gerçekleştirilmiş ve öğrencilerin dijital etik tutumlarının olumlu yönde değişmesi sağlanmıştır. ayrıca, öğrenciler uygulama sürecinin alanyazında (baum, 2005; atabek, 2006; uysal & odabaşı, 2006; reynolds & tymann, 2008; botterbusch & talab, 2009) dijital etik ile bağlantılı olarak vurgulanan fikri mülkiyet ve telif hakları, aşırma, dijital ortamda yer alan diğer bireylere saygı duyma gibi konularda olumlu katkılar journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 68 sağladığını belirtmiştir. bu bağlamda bell’in (2002) belirttiği gibi daha fazla eğitimci teknolojiyi sınıflarla bütünleştirdikçe, bi̇t’in ve internetin kullanımının beraberinde getirdiği çeşitli sorunların belirginleşmekte ve bu doğrultuda etkin önlemler alınabilmesi mümkün olabilmektedir. öğrenciler uygulama sürecinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin aşırma davranışları üzerinde etkili olduğunu belirtmiştir. özellikle bu konuda ön plana çıkan görüşler internetten ödevleri kopyalayıp kendininmiş gibi öğretmene vermeme, internetten alınan ödevlerde kaynakça gösterme ve alınan metinlerde düzenlemeler yapma üzerine yoğunlaşmıştır. mccabe (2005; akt. mcgowan, 2008) internetten bilginin kopyalanarak elde edilmesi, gözden geçirilmeden, anlaşılmadan ve rapor hazırlama kurallarına uyulmadan kullanılmasının öğrenciler arasında yaygınlık gösterdiğini vurgulamaktadır. yapılan çalışmalarda internet genellikle dijital aşırmanın nedeni olarak algılanmaktadır (ersoy & karaduman, 2010). smith (2008) bunun nedenini internet aracılığıyla birkaç saniye içerisinde binlerce kaynağa ulaşılabilmesine ve bu kaynaklardan bölümler alınarak birkaç dakika içerisinde ödev hazırlanabilmesine bağlamaktadır. mclafferty & foust’da (2004) internet sayesinde aşırmanın sıradan ve etkili bir biçimde gerçekleştirilen bir eyleme dönüştüğünü belirtmektedir. ancak ersoy & karaduman’ın (2010) belirttiği gibi internet bu eylemin temel sorumlusu değildir. i̇nternet aşırma eylemini kolaylaştıran bir ortam ya da kaynaktır. önemli olan öğrencilerin bu zengin bilgi kaynağından yararlanarak alıntı kurallarına uygun ödevler hazırlamalarıdır. araştırmanın bulguları ersoy & karaduman’ın (2010) belirttiği bu görüşü desteklemektedir. öğrenciler internetten nasıl yararlanmaları gerektiğini öğrenmelerinin, bu zengin veri kaynağını etik kurallara uygun biçimde kullanmalarını sağladığını belirtmiştir. özden & yılmaz’ın (2008) gerçekleştirdikleri araştırmaya göre aileler, öğretmenlerden internetin doğru kullanımı ve yararları hakkında öğrencileri bilgilendirilmelerini beklemektedirler. bu bağlamda araştırmada elde edilen uygulama sürecinde gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin bazı öğrencilerin aşırma davranışları konusunda ailelerin uyarılarından daha işlevsel olduğu sonucu, ailelerin bu beklentilerini kısmen doğrulamaktadır. aileler her ne kadar bu konularda evlerinde çocuklarını bilgilendirseler de okullarda planlı bir biçimde gerçekleştirilen etkinlikler bu etkiyi artırabilecektir. araştırmada öğrenciler, uygulama sürecinde öğretmenin bilgisayar ve internet kullanımı hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 69 konusunda bilgilendirmeler yaptığını ve bu konuları örneklendirilerek daha iyi anlaşılmasını sağladığını belirtmiştir. ancak, bazı öğrenciler önceki derslerde, bilgisayar ve internet kullanımı konusunda öğretmenlerin kendilerini bilgilendirmediği, tersine kendilerinin öğretmenleri bilgilendirdiği ve yönlendirdiğini belirtmiştir. araştırmanın bu bulgusu kadll, kumba & kanamad’ın (2010) gerçekleştirdiği araştırmanın, çocukların pek çoğu, aileleri veya eğitimciler tarafından yönlendirilmediklerinden, internet becerilerini ya kendi çabalarıyla, ya da arkadaşları aracılığıyla edinmiştir bulgusuyla benzerlik göstermektedir. demiraslan & usluel (2005) tarafından gerçekleştirilen araştırmada da öğretmenlerin çoğunluğunun bilgisayar kullanmayı bilmesine rağmen bi̇t’in öğrenmeöğretme sürecine entegrasyonuyla ilgili herhangi bir etkinlikte bulunmadıkları ortaya çıkmıştır. özellikle teknoloji ve internet kullanımının okul çağındaki çocuklar açısından önemli bir araç olarak sıklıkla kullanılması, bu durumu önemli bir sorun haline getirmektedir. çocuklar özellikle kendilerine bi̇t’in ve internetin uygun ve doğru kullanımı açısından model olunmadığından symantec’in (2010) araştırmasında belirtildiği gibi hızla değişen çevrimiçi ortama ayak uyduramamaktadır. bu nedenle gizlilik ve güvenlik, sağlık, etik, iletişim vb. konularda sorunlar yaşamaktadır (symantec, 2010; deniz, 2010; kadll, kumba & kanamad, 2010; gündüz ve özdinç, 2008). ailelerin de bu konuda sorunlar yaşadığı göz önüne alındığında, yeri ve zamanı geldikçe bütün öğretmenlerin teknolojinin ve internetin uygun kullanımına yönelik bilgilendirmeler yapması ve öğrencilere model olması önemli bir gereklilik olarak görünmektedir. araştırma süresince sosyal bilgiler dersinde etik, gizlilik ve güvenlik, iletişim, haklar ve erişim konularında etkinlikler gerçekleştirilmesinin öğrencilerin ilgili boyutlardaki tutumlarında olumlu değişikliklere neden olması bu durumu desteklemektedir. araştırma sonucunda ortaya çıkan bilgisayar ve internet kullanımı konusunda öğrencilerin öğretmenleri yönlendirmelerinin nedenlerinden biri olarak prensky’nin (2001) “dijital göçmen” ve “dijital yerli” kavramlarına atıfta bulunmak mümkündür. bu bağlamda günümüzde öğrencileri dijital yerliler, öğretmenlerin bir bölümünü ise dijital göçmenler olarak nitelendirilebilir. bu durum öğretmen ve öğrencilerin teknolojiye bakışlarındaki temel farklılıklardan biri olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. öğrencilerin, bi̇t ve internetle ilgili bilgi ve becerileri öğretmenlerinden çok arkadaşlarından öğrenmelerinin arka planında yatan nedenlerden biri bu olabilir. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 70 araştırma sonucunda dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital iletişim tutumlarını olumlu yönde etkilediği ancak bu tutumlarda kalıcılığı sağlamadığı görülmektedir. bu durum internetin kendine özgü bir iletişim dili oluşturmasına bağlanabilir. öğrencilerin dersin sona ermesinden sonra da internet üzerinden iletişime devam etmeleri ve internetin kendine özgü iletişim dili ile sıklıkla karşılaşmaları, iletişim tutumlarında kalıcılığın gerçekleşmemesine neden olmuş olabilir. ayrıca, zha, kelly & park (2006) tarafından gerçekleştirilen araştırmada öğrencilerin, farklı toplumsal ve kültürel ortamlara uygun iletişim biçimlerini seçtikleri gözlemlenmiştir. öğrencilerin de internetin kendine özgü iletişim biçimine ayak uydurdukları ve bu ortamda oluşan dil kullanımını devam ettirdikleri görülmüştür. ayrıca bu durum çakır & topçu’nun (2005) belirttiği internetin kendine özgü yaratmış olduğu simgesel iletişim dilini, öğrencilerin benimsediğini ve kullandıklarını göstermektedir. ancak araştırmanın aynı zamanda öğrencilerin kullandıkları bu iletişim dilini gözden geçirme ve yaptıkları hataları görme şansı yarattığı ve bazı uygun olmayan kullanım biçimlerinde değişimleri gerçekleştirmelerini sağladığı söylenebilir. araştırma sonuçları doğrultusunda anlaşılır olma öğrencilerin internette kullandıkları iletişim dilindeki değişikliğin ana vurgusu olmuştur. bu bağlamda araştırmanın ekhaml (1998), harper (1999), sullivan (2002) childnet international (2007) roberts & settle-murphy (2007) gibi çalışmalarda dijital iletişimle ilgili olarak vurgulanan anlaşılırlık konusunda öğrencilerde değişimlere neden olduğu söylenebilir. i̇nternet güvenlik şirketi symantec (2006) tarafından yapılan araştırma sonuçlarına göre çocukların %27’si denetimsiz olarak internette gezinmekte, %34’ü internet kullanım ilkeleriyle ilgili bilgi ve öneri almamaktadır. ayrıca öğretmenlerin internete nasıl yaklaşılması gerektiği konusunda emin olmadıkları belirtilmektedir. symantec (2006) tarafından bu sonuçlar doğrultusunda ilköğretim düzeyinde eğitimin gereğine vurgu yapılmış ve internetin çocukların eğitimine katkıda bulunan, kişiliklerini geliştirebilecekleri bir ortam olması gerekliliği vurgulanmıştır. aynı biçimde symantec’in (2010) yılında gerçekleştirdiği araştırmada ise çocukların çevrimiçi ortamda güvenli bir biçimde gezinmenin genel geçer kurallarından haberdar oldukları, ancak hızla değişen çevrimiçi ortama ayak uyduramadıkları ifade edilmektedir. kabakçı & can (2009) tarafından gerçekleştirilen araştırmada ise ilköğretim öğrencilerinin bilgisayar ve interneti kullanırken pornografik siteler ve bilgisayara virüs bulaştırma gibi tehlikelerle karşılaştıkları saptanmış ve bilgisayar öğretmenlerinin, güvenli bilgisayar ve internet hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 71 kullanımı konusunda, lisans düzeyinde eğitim almalarına rağmen kendilerini yeterli görmedikleri sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. belirtilen araştırma bulgularında görüldüğü gibi çocuklar interneti kullanırken çeşitli güvenlik sorunlarıyla karşılaşmakta, sürekli değişen çevrim içi ortama ayak uyduramamakta, okullarda güvenli internet kullanımıyla ilgili yeterli bilgi ve öneri alamamaktadır. ayrıca bu bilgilendirme konusunda bilgisayar öğretmenlerinin de kısmen sorunlar yaşadığı söylenebilir. bu araştırmada sosyal bilgiler dersi ile dijital vatandaşlık etkinliklerinin bütünleştirilmesi, öğrencilerin bağlam içinde güvenlik ve gizlilikle ilgili olarak bilgilendirilmelerini sağlamıştır. araştırma sonucunda dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital gizlilik ve güvenlik tutumlarını olumlu yönde etkilediği görülmektedir. bu bağlamda araştırma sürecinde uygulanan etkinliklerin öğrencilere dijital ortamda güvenliklerini korumalarına yönelik bilgi ve öneriler sunarak, onlara yardımcı olduğu söylenebilir. national cyber security alliance (ncsa, t.y.) çocukların çevrimiçi dünya ile gerçek dünya arasındaki bağlantıyı anlamaları gerektiğini belirtmektedir. çünkü internet bir oyun değil gerçek hayattır. öğrenciler bu ortamda kendilerini koruyacak çevrimiçi davranışları öğrenmelidir. berkowitz’de (2000) gerçek ve sanal dünya arasındaki boşluğu kapatan program ve materyaller geliştirilmedikçe gizlilik, telif hakları, bilimsel hırsızlık, kırma veya giriş, yetkisiz yazılım yükleme gibi konuların öğretilmesinin güç olduğunu ifade etmektedir. bu bağlamda öğrenciler araştırmada, dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinlikler aracılığıyla gerçek yaşamla bağlantılı olarak çevrimiçi ortamdaki tehlikelerin farkına varmıştır. araştırmanın bu bulgusu bell’in (2002) belirttiği gibi öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki eylemlerin olumsuz etkilerini görmelerini sağlamıştır. bu doğrultuda internetteki olumsuz davranış örneklerinin gerçek yaşamla bağlantılı hikâyeler ve oyunlarla somutlaştırılmasının öğrenciler tarafından daha çok hatırlandığı ve çevrimiçi ortamdaki güvenlik ve gizlilik tutumlarının değişmesinde etkili olduğu söylenebilir. öğrenciler uygulama sonrası güvenli sitelerden araştırma yapmanın önemini vurgulamıştır. öğrencilerin internette, site güvenirliğini kontrol ettikleri ve sitelerin alan uzantılarına baktıkları saptanmıştır. ayrıca, internet sitelerinin güvenliğini kontrol edebilecekleri bir değerlendirme formunun uygulama sürecinde öğrencilerle paylaşılması ve sürece dahil edilmesi öğrencilerin ilgisini çekmiştir. öğrenciler bu form aracılığıyla internet sitelerini daha kolay değerlendirebildiklerini ve böylelikle internette daha güvenilir sitelerden yararlandıklarını belirtmiştir. bu durum öğrencilerin teknik anlamda bilgisayarı journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 72 iyi kullansalar bile, internet sitelerinin güvenilirliğini kontrol etmede sorunlar yaşadıklarını; ancak onlara güvenirlik konusunda model olunarak sitelerin nasıl değerlendirilebileceğinin kavratılmasının, daha güvenilir bir şekilde internette gezinmelerini ve bu konuda çeşitli stratejiler geliştirmelerini sağladığı söylenebilir. bu bağlamda, brooks-young (2006), farmer (2010) ve peckham’da (2008) öğretmenlerin çeşitli internet sitelerini kullanmadan önce, kullanacakları siteleri site değerlendirme formları ile değerlendirmelerinin yararlı olacağını belirtmektedirler. öğrenciler derslerde vurgulanmasına rağmen, dijital vatandaşlığın gizlilik ve güvenlik boyutlarındaki görüşlerinde anti virüs programı yükleme, verilerin korunması, bilgisayarların güncellenmesi gibi bilgisayarların korunması ile ilgili konularda sınırlı sayıda görüş belirtmiştir. öğrencilerin özellikle kişisel bilgilerin paylaşılmaması, dolandırıcılık gibi teknik konulardan daha çok kişisel güvenliğin sağlanma yollarıyla ilgili görüşler paylaştıkları görülmüştür. bu duruma ilişkin olarak deney grubunda yer alan öğrencilerin henüz anti-virüs programı kullanma, bilgisayarları güncelleme, verileri koruma vb. teknik konularda yeterli bilgi birikimi ve deneyimi olmadığı söylenebilir. bu nedenle okulda öğretmenlerin ve evde ailelerin çocukların teknik anlamda gizlilik ve güvenliklerini sağlayabilmesi açısından destek olmalarının önemi ortaya çıkmaktadır. ancak, bell’in (2010) belirttiği gibi pek çok eğitimci çocukların internetteki güvenliklerini korumaları sorununun antivirüs programları ve güvenlik filtreleri ile çözülebileceğine inanmaktadır. filtre programları tüm kötü durumları çocuklardan uzak tutukları gibi, önemli bilgilere de erişimi sınırlayabilmektedir. ayrıca çocuklar filtreme programlarının kullanılmadığı internet kafe gibi çeşitli ortamlarda güvenliklerini tehdit edebilecek olumsuz durumlarla karşılaşabileceklerdir. bu nedenle sadece teknik anlamda önlem alınması veya destek olunması sorunun çözümüne yeterince katkı sağlamayabilecektir. öğrencilerin güvenliklerini tehdit eden olumsuz bir duruma ilişkin çözümler üretebilmeleri konusunda da bilinçlendirilmeleri gerekmektedir. öğrenciler görüşmelerde dijital haklar ve erişim konusunda görüşlerini ifade ederken haklar ve erişim konularına birbirleriyle bağlantılı olarak değinmişlerdir. bu bağlamda öğrenciler internet erişiminin, bu ortamda iletişim kurmanın, gizliliğin ve güvenliğin sağlanmasının, çeşitli internet siteleri aracılığıyla hizmetlere ulaşmanın dijital vatandaşların hakkı olduğunu belirtmiştir. bu bağlamda öğrencilerin westen (2006) ve hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 73 eurocities’de (2005) ifade edilen dijital vatandaşın haklarından kimilerine görüşlerinde yer verdikleri görülmektedir. sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin uygulanması sonrasında öğrenciler, dijital vatandaşı, teknolojiyi ve interneti etkili bir biçimde kullanan bireyler olarak tanımlamışlardır. öğrenciler, bu bireylerin etik, hak ve sorumluluk sahibi, internete etkin katılan, internet üzerinden iletişim kuran, araştırma yapan, gündemi takip eden, yorum yapan, eleştiren, alışveriş yapan ve bu ortama katkıda bulunan vatandaşlar olduklarını ifade etmişlerdir. öğrencilerin dijital vatandaşlık tanımlarının alan yazında kullanılan tanımlamalar (ribble & bailey 2007; iste, 2007; childnet international, 2007; mossberger, tolbert & mcneal, 2008; greenhow, 2010) ile ilişkili olduğu ve sağlık boyutu dışında tüm boyutlara yönelik görüş ifade ettikleri saptanmıştır. bu bağlamda uygulama sürecinde gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital vatandaş kavramına bütüncül bir bakış sergilemelerini sağladığı söylenebilir. araştırma sonucunda aşağıdaki öneriler getirilebilir: uygulamaya yönelik öneriler: dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin sosyal bilgiler dersinde uygulanmasının olumlu sonuçları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, dijital vatandaşlığın ilköğretim programlarının bütünleştirici bir teması veya becerisi olarak ele alınarak tüm derslerdeki kazanımlarla bütünleştirilmesi yararlı olabilir. ayrıca araştırmada elde edilen sonuçlar doğrultusunda, öğretmenlerin sınıflarında, öğrencilerin dijital ortamda kullandıkları uygun olmayan iletişim dilini örneklendirerek uygun kullanımı modellemeleri; internetteki olumsuz davranış örneklerini, öğrenme-öğretme süreci içerisinde yer alan etkinlikler aracılığıyla hikâyeleştirilerek somutlaştırılmaları ve ilgi çekici hale getirilerek öğrencilerin bu konuları kavramaları kolaylaştırılmaları; internet sitelerini çeşitli formlar aracılığıyla öğrencilerine inceletmeleri ve öğrencilerin internet sitelerini güvenirliğini araştırmalarına ilişkin çeşitli stratejiler geliştirmelerine model olmaları dijital vatandaşların yetiştirilmesine katkı sağlayabilecektir. yapılacak araştırmalara yönelik öneriler: dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı olarak gerçekleştirilen etkinliklerin farklı derslerdeki ve farklı sınıf düzeylerindeki etkililiğini sınamaya; yönelik araştırmalar yapılabilir. ayrıca, dijital vatandaşlık eğitimi konusundaki gereksinimleri ve yapılabilecek çalışmaları belirlemek amacıyla okul yöneticileri, öğrenciler, veliler ve toplumun görüşlerinin alınması amacıyla tarama niteliğinde araştırmalar gerçekleştirilebilir. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 74 kaynakça / references altunışık, r., çoşkun, r., bayraktaroğlu, s., & yıldırım, e. (2007). sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri spss uygulamalı. sakarya: sakarya yayıncılık. atabek, ü. (2006). i̇nternette etik sorunların ekonomi politik bağlamı. küresel iletişim dergisi,2,1 9.http://globalmediatr.emu.edu.tr/guz2006/hakemli_yazilar/%c3%9cmit%20atabe k.%20internette%0 etik.%20onaylı.pdf adresinden 17 haziran 2010 tarihinde edinilmiştir. balcı, a. (2004). sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntem, teknik ve ilkeleri. ankara: pegem yayınları. baum, j.j. (2005). cyberethics: the new frontier. techtrends, 49(6), 54-55. baykul, y. (2000). eğitim ve psikolojide ölçme: klasik test teorisi ve uygulaması. ankara: ösym yayınları. bell, m. a. (2002). cyberethics in schools: what is going on?. book report, 21(1), 33-35. berkowitz, m. (2000). industry expert research report. the cybercitizen partnership. www.cybercitizenpartners.org/berkowitz%20report.htm adresinden 10 mart 2008 tarihinde edinilmiştir. berson, i. r., & berson, m. j. (2003). digital literacy for effective citizenship. social education, 67(3), 164-167. berson, m. j., & balyta, p. (2004). technological thinking and practice in the social studies: transcending the tumultuous adolescence of reform. journal of computing in teacher education, 20(4), 141-150. botterbusch, h. r., & talab r. s. (2009). ethical issues in second life. techtrends, 53(1), 9-12. brooks-young, s. (2007). critical technology issues for school leaders. california: corwin pres. büyüköztürk, ş. (1998). kovaryans analizi: varyans analizi ile karşılaştırmalı bir inceleme. eğitim bilimleri fakültesi dergisi, 31 (1), 91-105. büyüköztürk, ş., kılıç çakmak, e., akgün, ö. e., karadeniz, ş., & demirel, f. (2010). bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. (5. baskı). ankara: pegema. büyüköztürk, ş. (2004). sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı (4. baskı). ankara: pegema. childnet international (2007). what makes you such a good digizen?. http://old.digizen.org adresinden 14 şubat 2010 tarihinde edinilmiştir. hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 75 crowe, a. (2006). technology, citizenship, and the social studies classroom: education for democracy in a technological age. international journal of social education, 21(1), 111. çakır, h., & topçu, h. (2005). bir iletişim dili olarak internet. erciyes üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi, 19 (2), 71.96. sbe.erciyes.edu.tr/dergi/sayi_19/4-%20(7196.%20syf.).pdf adresinden 22 haziran 2010 tarihinde edinilmiştir. demiraslan, y., & usluel y. k. (2005). bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin öğrenme öğretme sürecine entegrasyonunda öğretmenlerin durumu. the turkish online journal of educational technology, 4 (3), 109, 113. http://www.tojet.net/articles/4315.pdf adresinden 10 aralık 2009 tarihinde edinilmiştir. deniz, l. (2010). excessive internet use and loneliness among secondary school students journal of instructional psychology, 37 (1), 20-23. educational research and evaluation group. (2002). ecitizenship: case study. http://promitheas.iacm.forth.gr/icurriculum/restricted/docs/case%20studies %201/uk%20case1%20%20e-cit.pdf adresinden 14 mart 2008 tarihinde edinilmiştir. eurocities. (2005). eurocities charter on rights of citizens in the knowledge society. http://www.telecities-prague.cz/download/e-rights-en.pdf adresinden 02 nisan 2008 tarihinde edinilmiştir. ekhaml, l. (1998). technology manners for the 21st century. school library media activities monthly, 14 (10), 35-37. ersoy, a., & karaduman, h. (2010). sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının hazırladıkları araştırma raporlarında dijital aşırma: google arama motoru örneği. 9.ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği eğitimi sempozyumu içinde (529– 534). elazığ: fırat üniversitesi. farmer, l. (2010). 21. century standarts for information literacy. leadership, 39 (4), 20 22. greenhow, c. (2010). a new concept of citizenship for the digital age. learning & leading with technology, 37 (6), 24-25. gündüz, ş., & özdinç, f. (2008). i̇lköğretim ikinci kademe öğrencilerinin internet özyeterlilikleri. http://ietc2008.home.anadolu.edu.tr/ietc2008/204.doc adresinden 24 aralık 2009 tarihinde edinilmiştir. harper, d. (1999). how's your netiquette?. industrial distribution, 88 (11), 112. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 76 heafner, t. l., & friedman, a. m. (2008). wikis and constructivism in secondary social studies: fostering a deeper understanding. computers in the schools, 25(3-4), 288-302. iste. (2007). national education technology standarts for students. http://www.iste.org/standards/nets-forstudents/nets-student-standards 2007.aspx adresinden 12 şubat 2010 tarihinde edinilmiştir. kabakçı, i., & can, v. (2009). i̇lköğretim öğrencilerinin bilgisayar ve internet güvenliğine ilişkin bilgisayar öğretmenlerinin görüşleri. çağdaş eğitim dergisi, 361. kadll, j. h., kumba b.d., & kanamad s.j. (2010). students perspectives·on internet usage: a case study. information studies, 16 (2). kalaycı, ş. (2005). faktör analizi. ş. kalaycı (ed..), spss uygulamalı çok değişkenli istatistik teknikleri içinde (s.321-334). ankara: asil yayın dağıtım. karaduman, h. (2011). 6. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde dijital vatandaşlığa dayalı etkinliklerin öğrencilerin dijital ortamdaki tutumlarına etkisi ve öğrenme öğretme sürecine yansımaları. (doktora tezi, marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü) lee, j. k., doolittle, p. e., & hicks, d. (2006). social studies and history teachers’ uses of non-digital and digital historical resources. social studies research and practice, 1(3), 291-311. mcgowan, u. (2008). a conceptual framework for dealing with unintentional plagiarism. in t. roberts (ed.), student plagiarism in an online world: an introduction (p. 92-107). hershey: information science reference mclafferty, c. l., & foust k. m. (2004). electronic plagiarism as a college instructor's nightmare--prevention and detection. journal of education for business, 79 (3), 186-189. miles m. and huberman, m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. thousand oaks, ca: sage. mossberger, k., tolbert, c. j., & mcneal r. (2008). digital citizenship: the internet, society, and participation. london: the mit press. ncsa (t.y.). three key pillars http://www.staysafeonline.org/in-the-classroom/three key-pillars adresinden 02 aralık 2009 tarihinde edinilmiştir. ncss. (1992). a vision of powerful teaching and learning in the social studies: building social understanding and civic efficacy. http://www.socialstudies.org/ positions/powerful adresinden 21 şubat 2005 tarihinde edinilmiştir. hıdır karaduman & cemil öztürk 77 nebel, m., jamison, b., & bennett, l. (2009). students as digital citizens on web 2.0. social studies and the young learner, 21(4), 5-7. neuman, w. l. (2006). toplumsal araştırma yöntemleri nitel ve nicel yaklaşımlar. (s. özge, çev.). i̇stanbul: yayınodası. özden, m., & yılmaz, f. (2008). 4–5. sınıflar ilköğretim programının internet kullanımına etkisinin aile görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi. http://ietc2008.home. anadolu.edu.tr/ietc2008/132.doc adresinden 03 haziran 2010 tarihinde edinilmiştir. palfrey, j., & gasser, u. (2008). born digital: understanding the first generation of digital natives. new york: basic books. peckham, s. (2008). virginia adds internet safety to the curriculum. the education digest, 73 (5), 75-76. reynolds, c., & tymann, p. (2008). princibles of computer science. new york: the mcgraw-hill companies. prensky, m. (2001). digital natives, digital immigrants part 1. on the horizon, 9(5), 1-6. ribble, m., & bailey, g. (2007). digital citizenships in scholls. washington: iste. ribble, m. s. (2006). implementing digital citizenship in schools: the research, development and validation of a technology leader's guide (doctoral dissertation, kansas state university). risinger, c. f. (2006). using blogs in the classroom: a new approach to teaching social studies with the internet. social education, 70(3), 130. roberts, s.l., & settle-murphy, n. (2007). global netiquette. pm network, 21 (3), 50. shelley, m., thrane l., shulman, s., lang e., beisser s., larson, t. ., & mutiti j. (2004). digital citizenship: parameters of the digital divide. social science computer review, 22 (2), 256–269. shiveley, j. m., & vanfossen, p. j. (1999). critical thinking and the internet: opportunities for the social studies classroom. the social studies, 90(1), 42-46. sipahi, b., yurtkoru, e.s., & çinko, m. (2006). sosyal bilimlerde spss’le veri analizi. i̇stanbul: beta basım yayım dağıtım a.ş. smith, w. s. (2008). plagiarism, the internet and student learning: improving academic integrity. new york: taylor & francis. smith. p. n. (t.y.). the cybercitizen partnership: teaching children cyber ethics. http://www.cybercitizenship.org/ethics/whitepaper.html adresinden 02 aralık 2008 tarihinde alınmıştır. journal of social studies education research 2014: 5(1), 38-78 78 smith, r. m. (2002). modern citizenship. isın, e. f. ve turner, b. s. (ed.), handbook of citizenship studies (p. 105–115). london: sage. sullivan, b. (2002). netiquette. computerworld, 36 (10), 48. symantec. (2010). the norton online family report http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb ?did=2058416671&sid=1&fmt=3&clientid=41947&rqt=309&vnam e=pqd adresinden 12 eylül 2010 tarihinde edinilmiştir. symantec. (2006). safe surfing: kids and the internet. http://us.norton.com/products/library/article.jsp?aid=safe_surfing_kids adresinden 14 mart 2008 tarihinde edinilmiştir. şendağ, s., & odabaşı, f. (2006). “i̇nternet ve çocuk: etik bunun neresinde?” 6. uluslar arası eğitimteknolojileri konferansı, gazimağusa, kktc, 19–21 nisan 2006, volume 3, ss.1508–1515. tonta, y. (2009). dijital yerliler, sosyal ağlar ve kütüphanelerin geleceği. türk kütüphaneciliği, 23 (4), 742-768. turan, i̇. (2010). öğrencilerin teknoloji destekli tarih eğitimi karşısındaki tutumları: türk ve amerikan öğrencileri arasında karşılaştırma. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi, 1 (1), 152-167. uysal, ö., & odabaşı, h. f. (2006). bilgisayar etiği öğretiminde kullanılan yöntemler. vi. international education technology conference. gazimagusa: doğu akdeniz üniversitesi. vanfossen, p. j. (2001). degree of internet/www use and barriers to use among secondary social studies teachers. international journal of instructional media, 28(1), 57-74. westen, t. (2006). digital citizens’ bill of rights. http://www.cgs.org /images/publications/digital_citizens_bill_of_rights.pdf adresinden 10 aralık 2008 tarihinde edinilmiştir. yıldırım, a. ve şimşek, h. (2006). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. (5. baskı). ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. zha, s., kelly, p., & park, m. k. (2006). an investigation of communicative competence of esl students using electronic discussion boards. journal of research on technology in education, 38 (3), 349–367. giriş yöntem bulgular www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (2), 1-26 1 race, discrimination, and the passive voice: hardship narratives in u.s. social studies textbooks: 1860 to the present jeremy jimenez1 abstract while united states historians’ inclination to write in affect-inducing ways has waxed and waned throughout the past 150 years, racial biases concerning such writing have persisted through today. adapting mark phillips’ (2013) concept of historical distance coupled with a form of linguistic analysis known as stylistics, i examine 50 u.s. social studies textbooks from 1860 to 2016 chosen by variation sampling and analyze which individuals and groups are discussed as experiencing suffering and whether or not these hardship narratives are apt to elicit compassion from their readers. i find that textbooks published after the u.s. civil war consistently contain discourses that at first encouraged readers to be primarily concerned with the welfare of white elites and, over time, extended their compassionate writing styles to eventually all white people. at the same time, these texts consistently neglected to acknowledge the hardship experiences of domestic marginalized groups and, when their hardships were discussed, their narrative styles were likely to limit readers’ inclination to be concerned about their oppression. specifically, i find that the most enduring writing characteristic for u.s. textbook authors from the mid-19 th century through today was to discuss acts of violence by non-white groups towards white people using the active voice while describing violence by white north americans (first british and then u.s. nationals) towards non-whites in the passive voice, which previous studies had found differentially impacts readers’ capacity not only to recall but also to empathize with such hardship narratives. identifying how textbook authors may selectively use these stylistic discourses in biased ways has significant implications for understanding and addressing not only history instruction, but for contemporary civil rights struggles as well. key words: social studies textbooks, racism, language, empathy, historical distance introduction when people hear of racism in textbooks today, it is often because a particularly egregious example surfaces, such as when a student’s mother raised awareness that her son’s 2015 world geography textbook minimized the horrors of slavery by referring to kidnapped africans as “immigrant workers”.2 however, such examples should not be understood as mere 1 assistant professor, suny cortland, jeremy.jimenez@cortland.edu 2 https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-asworkers.html https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 2 outliers, but rather emerging from a long, historical legacy where u.s. social studies textbook authors routinely marginalized non-white people in their historical narratives (yacovone, 2018). this study analyzes how social studies textbook authors crafted their historical writing in ways that emphasized the suffering of white people of all regional, religious, and socioeconomic backgrounds while they downplayed the hardships of non-white people, most notably through their selective use of passive voice sentence constructions. literature review the use of emotion in historical writing has varied over time (phillips, 2013). elson (1964) discussed how 19th century u.s. textbook accounts frequently penned affect-inducing tales concerning elite white males: the king refused to furnish columbus the ships he wanted. who can describe his disappointment, after waiting so many years? there was yet once chance. perhaps queen isabella would listen to him with more favor…alas! she too refused him. almost in despair, columbus almost quit spain forever. (quackenbos, 1869, p.9) this melodramatic style expressing someone’s inner turmoil would likely appear unfamiliar to readers of considerably more dry contemporary textbooks. such sympathetic textbook discussions concerning white elite males’ hardships continued throughout the early 20th century (elson, 1964). over time, however, textbook writers gradually shifted from this exclusive concern with elites’ suffering to include compassionate discourses concerning all white people, regardless of their social class (yacovone, 2018). peter novick (1989) argued that these historical writing shifts emerged, in part, from the traumatic legacy of ‘whites fighting whites’ during the u.s. civil war. that is, in order to help unify the previously divided white populations of the union and the confederacy, novick (1989) asserted that northern and southern historians sought to reconcile their historical narratives by first concurring that prior northern narratives regarding the evils of slavery were generally exaggerated, and then constructing new accounts emphasizing how both northern and southern whites suffered during the civil war and its aftermath. jimenez 3 in this vein, i similarly find that u.s. social studies textbook authors increasingly emphasized similar hardship narratives by expanding their frontier of concern beyond white elites to be inclusive of all white people, often by using affect-inducing language in discussing their hardships. signaling non-white hardships weren’t worthy of their (ostensibly) white readers’ concern, these authors would often express immense compassion for southern whites’ suffering during the civil war and reconstruction era while simultaneously downplaying or ignoring the worsening plight of contemporary people of color; instead, they focused on hardship narratives that would help unite their northern and southern readers’ in common cause – that is, white supremacy (novick 1989). at first glance, contemporary textbooks may seem to buck this trend. while a plethora of textbook studies have documented the sparse or negative coverage of various non-white persons in social studies textbooks throughout the 20th century (carpenter, 1941; henry, 1970; foster, 1999), textbooks from the 1970s onwards were more likely to at least acknowledge their experiences (jimenez & lerch , 2019). nevertheless, even as many u.s. textbooks have extolled the societal contributions of non-white people, these discussions were often still biased; for instance, in crawford and foster’s (2006) study of immigrant discussions in u.s. textbooks over the past 200 years, they noted that when textbooks discuss immigrants as experiencing discrimination, they seldom assigned any blame to dominant societal groups in society that oppressed them. expanding on this, i examine the relatively neglected aspect of textbook sentence construction–specifically, what scholars of linguistics refer to as linguistic valence –that describe whites’ hardships vis-à-vis non-whites, particularly black and indigenous people. linguistic valence: active vs. passive voice passive voice writing can have unintended consequences. previous research has noted that readers are less likely to remember content using passive voice constructions (turner & rommetveit, 1968). previous studies had also found that when participants read passive voice constructions, they were both less likely to blame perpetrators for their violent acts and to be emotionally impacted by the accounts (waller, 2002; henley et al., 2005). this has been particularly notable in accounts of sexual assault or domestic violence (frazer & miller, 2009; attenborough, 2014). researchers had also documented considerable racial biases in media accounts, noting journalists were more likely to write passively when describing crimes against people of color (smitherman-donaldson & van dijk, 1988). overall, these studies journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 4 demonstrated that a text’s linguistic valence can significantly influence how readers both emotionally engage and accurately recall its content. in my next section, i share my theoretical framework for examining how differential historical writing styles can thus shape readers’ emotive experience. theoretical framework mark phillips’ (2013) concept of historical distance provides a useful theoretical framework for evaluating how readers’ affect may be impacted by differing historical writing styles. historical distance refers to how historical narratives draw in or distance a reader from identifying with historical persons’ experiences; phillips explained that historical narratives can be experienced as approximative (facilitating “warm encouragement”) or distanciating (facilitating “deliberate estrangement”) based on variables such as tone, time, and writers’ “normative calls for action” (phillips, 2013, p.18). in doing so, writers can manipulate readers’ emotional responses in ways that can subtly inculcate readers to unknowingly adopt these writers’ ideological values (phillips, 2013). as such, the terms approximative and distanciating refer to the impact that various textbook passages are likely to have on their readers. for examining writing style, i utilize a type of discourse analysis known as stylistics, which is an applied linguistic subfield that focuses on how readers are likely to derive meaning from texts (jeffries & mcintyre, 2010). as stylistics typically draws upon concepts from other disciplines rather than generating its own theories, it is a useful supplementary framework for understanding the relationship between texts, their writers and readers (jeffries & mcintyre, 2010). by thus combining stylistics with phillips’ (2013) concept of historical distance, i primarily analyzed textbook authors’ linguistic valence, that is, when –and with what racial or ethnic groups—authors wrote using the active or passive voice constructions in describing historical persons’ hardships. to supplement this examination with a broader view of historical distance, i also examined additional related variables such as whether the textbook authors’ tone is dry or sentimental, when authors used clear and direct language as opposed to vague wording or euphemisms, and whether authors explicitly identified perpetrators when describing violent events. my study analyzes how u.s. textbook authors may have routinely presented historical jimenez 5 accounts in ways that draw in readers to empathize with the experiences of suffering whites while they may have similarly distanced their readers from the hardships experienced by nonwhite people through potentially discriminating use of linguistic valence, among other techniques that mediate historical distance. with this in mind, the following broad research question guides my analysis: to what extent have u.s. social studies textbook narratives mediated historical distance differently when discussing hardships of whites and elites compared to non-white people? method research design in this study, i analyze 50 u.s. social studies textbooks dating from 1860 to 2016. i used variation sampling to select textbooks (cohen & crabtree, 2006); this method involves choosing texts with a variety of publication years, subjects, geographic regions, and grade level in order to maximize heterogeneity in my sample (see table 1). i categorized books as being elementary level (grades 1-5), middle (grades 6-8) and high school (grades 9-12); i usually based this categorization on an explicit description somewhere in the text such as the title, preface, or introduction; at times when there was no explicit information available, i made a judgment based on factors such as language complexity or types and numbers of images included. my study did not, though, examine grade level differences; as such, i was not aiming to ensure any given text undoubtedly belongs to a particular grade level category, especially given the possibly variable reading proficiency expectations over the sample’s 150-year range. i used these categorizations merely as a guide to augment the diversity and chronological range of my sample u.s. textbooks. i prioritized choosing textbooks that novick (1989) identified as having high distribution rates in their respective eras in order to minimize the likelihood of including outliers with minimal school penetration into my sample. i also excluded multiple editions of the same textbook, used no textbook author more than twice, and aimed to have at least two textbooks per decade (the only decade with less than 2 textbooks is the 1880s). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 6 table 1 textbook sample distribution (es=elementary, ms=middle school, hs=high school) title subject year american history volume 2: discovery of america hs history 1860 american history volume 5: wars of the colonies es history 1863 elementary history of the united states es history 1869 a junior class history of the united states es history 1878 young folks’ history of the united states ms history 1879 a popular school history of the united states. ms history 1880 bill nye’s history of the united states ms history 1894 a history of the united states of america ms history 1897 a formation of the union es history 1897 a history of the united states for schools hs history 1899 the story of american history for elementary schools es history 1901 first lessons in united states history es history 1903 united states history for schools ms history 1912 american history ms history 1913 progress of a united people ms history 1918 history of the united states hs history 1922 the history of the american people hs history 1928 the making of our country: hs history 1929 a history of the united states for schools exploring american history ms history 1931 a history of the united states hs history 1931 socialized history of the united states hs social studies 1931 america our country ms history 1934 the growth of a nation: the united states of america ms history 1934 the birth and growth of our nation hs history 1936 a history of american civilization: hs history 1937 economic and social american today and yesterday. es history 1937 a history of our country: a textbook for high-school es history 1937 america, its history and people hs history 1944 american history: 1492 to the present day ms history 1946 story of america ms history 1957 the united states: story of a free people ms history 1958 rise of the american nation hs history 1961 united states history for high schools hs history 1966 exploring american history ms history 1968 exploring our nation’s history ms history 1969 perspectives in united states history hs history 1971 jimenez 7 the american dream hs history 1977 the free and the brave: story of the american people ms history 1980 the united states: a history of the republic hs history 1988 united states and its neighbors: the world around us ms history 1990 history of the united states hs history 1992 world history: continuity & change hs history 1999 world history: the human experience hs history 2001 united states history hs history 2001 history alive! the united states ms history 2001 american odyssey: the united states in the 20th century hs history 2002 texas and texans ms history 2003 world history: modern era hs history 2005 florida world history and geography hs social studies 2015 texas world cultures and geography ms social studies 2016 sample given the century and a half range of publication years, i primarily relied on a convenience sample, choosing social studies (primarily history) textbooks from among the extensive collection at the stanford graduate school of education library. because world history school textbooks (with u.s. content coverage) were considerably less common in the library than u.s. history textbooks, my sample is skewed towards the latter; however, as such world history textbooks became more available within the stanford collection in recent years, my 21st century textbooks are an even mix of u.s. and world history textbooks. some additional limitations of this data set are that the collection generally skewed towards elementary and middle school level textbooks for the first 70 years, and then more towards high school texts in the mid-20th century onwards; some decades (1930s) had particularly large textbook availability while others were more limited (1880s). lastly, there were no textbooks in this collection published after 2005. data collection in order to further strengthen the geographic diversity in my sample and address a few decade gaps missing from this collection, i also acquired several textbooks in u.s. bookstores or online with subject orientations besides history (such as geography) or that were state-specific (texas) in order to explore if passive voice constructions were as readily observed in these texts as in my sample’s primarily non-state specific u.s. history textbooks. time and funding constraints limited the purveyance of additional textbooks. upon opening a textbook to confirm that it met the aforementioned criteria (i.e. avoiding having any decades, editions or authors journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 8 overrepresented), i automatically included it in my study; the only exception was regularly excluding world history textbooks that had little to no u.s. content coverage. i adopted this ‘no exclusion’ orientation so that i could not exclude a textbook, consciously or not, that may have challenged any of my theoretical preconceptions. therefore, in the absence of a randomized data set, i employed these varied measures in order to make my convenience sample more robust. data analysis after selecting texts, i coded them for the word “suffering” as well as words with similar meanings such as distress, hardships, or misery.3 next, i recorded these mentions and distinguished when each respective term referred to elite (defined as someone either wealthy and/or recognized as holding noteworthy leadership roles) or non-elite persons, an individual or a group, and whether the people discussed as suffering were white or non-white. i then coded these selected passages according to four criteria (see table 2) in order to measure whether a textbook passage draws in readers (approximative discourse) or distances them (distanciating discourse) to the historical persons’ suffering. table 2 markers of historical distance in history passages coded variable approximative distancing linguistic valence active voice passive voice word choice unambiguous or clear vague or euphemistic tone (including punctuation) emotional or pleading dry or factual perpetrator explicitly identified yes no lastly, i copied each coded passage verbatim for later analysis, such as distinguishing between which groups involved in hardship discussions were the subjects or objects in these sentence constructions. my coding scheme is loosely based upon a similar discursive framework provided by coats and wade (2004), whose work analyzed how texts conceal violent actions through obfuscating perpetrators’ responsibility. below are examples of how i coded textbook excerpts according to the criteria listed in table 2. code 1: does a passage use active or passive voice constructions? 3 given that it is seldom possible to know which specific author wrote a particular sentence, i usually identify “textbooks” as the discussing agents rather than “textbook authors”. jimenez 9 american marines were sent to the dominican republic to see that a ‘fair election’ was held. they were resisted by a revolt. (adams & almack, 1931, p.727) here, the depersonalizing expression “revolt” and passive voice constructions (e.g., were sent, were resisted) omit –and thus remove –the agency of those “revolting”, namely, the dominican people. the passage also does not explicitly identify the perpetrator (i.e. the united states) as sending marines of subjugate the revolt. this passage is likely to have a distancing effect on readers by inhibiting their capacity to imagine suffering dominican people fighting against an occupying power (turner & rommetveit, 1968). code 2: does the passage use words that are clear or vague? sometimes, however, poorer classes of whites who felt injured by competition with negroes, did take violent action. (harlow & miller, 1957, p.454) it is unclear if “did take violent action” meant that white people threatened, assaulted or killed black people. such ambiguous expressions can disengage readers from emotionally responding to the text (bohner, 2001). furthermore, it noted whites “felt injured” but failed to address how black people felt. this account aligns to textbook authors’ inclination to discuss white persons’ hardships approximatively and black persons’ experiences in a distanciating manner. code 3: does the passage use dry or sentimental language and/or punctuation? the english determined to tear these poor people {acadians}, more than seven thousand persons in all, from their native homes, and scatter them abroad… now a desolate wife might be heard calling for her husband. he, alas, had gone, she knew not whither; or, perhaps, had fled into the woods of acadia, and how now returned to weep over the ashes of their dwelling. o, how many broken bonds of affection were here! (anderson, 1880, p.105-106) this passage draws in readers with exclamation points and sentimental words as it enlists readers to put themselves in these suffering acadians’ shoes. u.s. textbooks very seldom described nonwhite oppression so approximatively, such as when americans kidnapped and enslaved millions of africans throughout history. however, as this sentimentalist style of writing largely disappears from later 20th century textbooks, i primarily included this to illustrate how earlier sentimentalist writing was biased in favor of sympathizing with whites’ suffering. code 4: does the passage identify a perpetrator in the same sentence as the oppression or violence described? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 10 negroes were almost entirely excluded from the exercise of the suffrage, especially in the far south. special rooms were set aside for them at the railway stations and special cars on the railway lines. in the field of industry … they lost ground … a condition which their friends ascribed to discriminations against them in law and in labor organizations and their critics ascribed to their lack of aptitude. (beard & beard, 1922, p.398) by regularly employing the passive voice, this passage avoids identifying white people as perpetrators discriminating against black people, thus likely to distance readers’ affective responses (bohner, 2001). furthermore, by giving equal weight to a “blame the victim’ explanation for why black people have not advanced (i.e. “lack of aptitude”) alongside possible “discrimination”, the author employed a problematic “both sides” rhetoric that minimizes perpetrator responsibility (jimenez, 2019); in other words, by presenting discrimination as the argument offered by ‘friends’ and lower ability as the critical perspective, this downplays how jim crow legislation (and its supporters) significantly oppressed black people. lastly, regarding my researcher positionality, i am a second-generation u.s. citizen with latino heritage raised in a predominantly latinx community. i have previously taught high school social studies for over a decade and i am currently an education professor in a teachertraining program. my doctoral training and previous research has primarily focused on social studies curriculum designed for, and by, high school students. findings and discussion my sample’s textbooks only approximately discussed specific individuals as suffering if they were elites, and all but 2 of the 26 people mentioned had european heritage. interestingly, the only accounts discussing non-white elites’ hardships were written by the same 19th century textbook, and both referred to indigenous american leaders (anderson, 1878; anderson, 1880).4 being a foreign spy or a traitor did not necessarily exclude approximative textbook treatment. for instance, one textbook sympathized with disgraced general benedict arnold, as it 4 although i cannot generalize from these examples given that my textbooks are not a representative sample, they nevertheless provide an example concerning how u.s. historians were less disinclined to write about non-whites’ hardships approximately before the u.s. civil war, as northern and southern historians writing later in the 19th century focused on reconciling their historical narratives, with the priority of emphasizing white unity (novick, 1989). jimenez 11 empathically asserted that his traitorous actions stemmed from having “been mistreated and humiliated by congress” (adams & almack, 1933, p.233). this text also had a particularly sympathetic account of a captured british spy: but poor andre! what became of him? … all americans felt deep pity for him because of his youth, his virtues, his many accomplishments, his belief that he was serving his country, and because he had been the victim of a villain. but americans could not forget that the british, four years before, had captured a brave young american officer, captain nathan hale, and hanged him as a spy without any manifestation of pity or sympathy… washington, who shed tears when he signed the death warrant, would gladly have saved andre’s life; but the stern rules of war and the good of the american cause left no room for mercy. (adams & almack, 1931, p.282-3). my sample texts consistently implored their readers to empathize with whites’ suffering –even when treasonous—before approximatively describing non-white americans’ hardships. while more recent textbooks had frequently discussed the persecution of important non-white leaders such as martin luther king jr., these textbooks had rarely, if ever, discussed their experiences approximatively. while this no doubt may stem more from distanciating historical writing norms from the mid-20th century onwards (phillips, 2013), it should be noted that my sample textbooks seldom discussed non-whites’ suffering approximatively even in the heyday of 19th century sentimentalist writing. my sample textbooks gradually extended compassionate discourse beyond just white elites to include all whites. groups with the most ‘suffering’ mentions were religious sects, especially quakers and pilgrims/puritans (found in 46% of my sample textbooks); this is perhaps unsurprising, given the deeply-ingrained traditional narrative in u.s. history textbooks of being a refuge for those persecuted for their faith (fitzgerald, 1979). the next five most common groups who were mentioned as experiencing hardships were indigenous americans (38%), cubans (34%), southern whites (32%), debtors/prisoners (28%), and non-pilgrim colonists/settlers (26%). only 24% of textbooks in my sample discussed blacks’ suffering, the same proportion attributed to soldiers experiencing hardship. although it is noteworthy that indigenous groups’ hardships were the second most commonly discussed, this coverage paled in comparison to considerably more frequent racist and other negative depictions (henry, 1970). and while the other groups were seldom explicitly journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 12 identified as white, previous research has found that, in absence of such specificity, readers in the united states would presume that such texts were referring to the dominant group, namely, white people (giroux, 1997). table 3 below contains representative excerpts of the aforementioned white groups. table 3 typical approximative discussions of white groups in u.s. textbooks in the 20th century group textbook quoted passage debtors years ago, it was the custom to put men in prison whether they could not pay their debts. it is a terrible thing now to think of such a condition, for the misery was unspeakable. (meany, 1912, p.84) immigrants in his efforts to find a place for himself in his new homeland and in the industrial age, the immigrant did not always meet with sympathy and understanding. (todd & curti, 1961, p.511) mormons the latter-day saints suffered persecution because of their custom of plural marriage. (harlow & miller, 1957, p.149) pilgrims thus it came about that the pilgrims suffered severely from exhaustion and disease. (blaisdell, 1901, p.61-62) settlers what sacrifice and suffering! with what bodily fatigue and mental suffering! with what loss of dear ones, breaking up of families, and cutting off of rich friendships! the luxuries, even the comforts, of the established communities of the east were given up by this restless horde of land-hungry pioneers (rugg, 1937, p.290). soldiers the condition of the american soldiers was deplorable. clad in clothes unsuited to the climate, fed on food equally unsuited to the climate, and often not fed at all, the men stood hour after hour ankle deep in mud (barstow, 1912, p.567-8) foreigners textbooks in my sample usually only discussed non-whites’ suffering if their perpetrators were not english-speaking white people. much like other countries’ state-mandated textbooks keen to focus on human rights abuses outside their borders (bromley & russell, 2010), many u.s. textbooks in my sample similarly emphasized the suffering of marginalized people abroad only when such accounts could help rationalize u.s. military interventions, purportedly on their behalf. typically, these textbook examples focused on violence committed by countries or empires with whom the u.s. had recent conflicts, as when these textbooks discussed the “syrians that have fled from the tyranny of the turkish government” (burnham, 1929, p. 547) during wwi, “the cruel treatment of jews and other minorities in the axis countries” (southworth & southworth, 1946, p.457) during wwii, the “starving people of russia” under the soviet jimenez 13 government (adams & almack, 1931, p.730), and how “harsh and brutal” spaniards persecuted filipinos during the spanish american war (rugg, 1937, p.477). by far, though, no groups’ hardships were discussed approximatively as often as the “cuban people that suffered the most” (graff, 1980, p.546) during the spanish-american war as “thousands of helpless old men, women, and children (were) shut up like cattle” (blaisdell, 1901, p.408). many of my sample textbooks composed quite lengthy accounts of cubans’ oppression during the spanish-american war with clear and approximative language such as “extreme harshness and cruelty” (scudder, 1897, p.473). among my textbooks discussing the spanishamerican war, nearly all portrayed the cubans’ plight more approximately than discussing the hardship experiences of any non-white americans throughout u.s. history. furthermore, rationalizations of subsequent u.s. military responses generally accompanied these accounts, with concomitant appeals to readers’ sentiments in order to justify u.s. intervention on behalf of the oppressed cuban people. while later 20th century accounts of cuban suffering (in my sample) constructed their narratives less sentimentally, more recent textbooks in my sample still frequently shared approximative hardship accounts whenever doing so justified u.s. military actions or helped to advance other u.s. national goals, whether these goals were national protection (supporting u.s. soldiers), territorial expansion (supporting u.s. settlers) or industrial/ economic expansion (welcoming the economic contributions of immigrants). indigenous americans my sample textbooks generally adopted notably distanciating writing styles when discussing non-white oppression, with occasional exceptions. the passages in table 4, written a century apart, illustrate vastly differing moral judgments concerning indigenous genocide. table 4 textbook discussions of indigenous genocide passage 1 the white man’s past treatment of the redmen is open to serious question. however, one cannot with reason question the advantages that the european settlements brought to america. the natural resources which now support over one hundred seventy million people and many others in foreign lands provided less than a million redmen with a wretched existence. (schwartz, 1968, p.201) passage 2 our forefathers too, in those days, drew sometimes something like a sanction for their unsparing severity in dealing with the indians from the examples set them, in the mosaic history, by the children of israel, in the pagan aborigines of canaan. neither of these excuses seem to us at the present day to justify their proceedings…an impartial reader at the present day can hardly fail coming to the conclusion that by their own showing the whites were most in the wrong. (abbott, 1863, p.110-111) journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 14 while both accounts acknowledged whites’ mistreatment of indigenous people, they differed in key ways. in addition to using the derogatory expression “redmen,” the first account paid lip service to the suffering of indigenous people while advancing the position that –however whites may have mistreated them– such mistreatment was justified because of the resulting ‘progress’. in short, this author used ends-justifies-the-means logic to silence potential affective concern that might move readers to at least acknowledge the enduring trauma endured by indigenous people. meanwhile, the second account compared the indigenous experience with the biblical canaanites, thus encouraging readers to empathize with both. dramatic expressions such as “unsparing severity” are more likely to emotionally engage readers than the previous vague expression of past treatment being ‘open to serious question’ (phillips, 2013). interestingly, the more approximative account originated from the earlier textbook (abbott, 1863), while the unsympathetic passage comes from a textbook published over a century later (schwartz, 1968). considering the historical context of each textbook, though, it is perhaps unsurprising that the mid-20th century textbook passage lacks any attempt to empathize with indigenous people, given novick’s (1989) assertions that post civil war textbooks were especially keen to disregard nonwhite suffering in order to promote white solidarity. in short, nearly all of the u.s. textbooks in my sample from the late 19th century through the 21st century discussed indigenous hardships in distanciating ways, seldom explicitly identifying white people as perpetrators. however, when indigenous people committed violent acts, textbooks used clear and affect-inducing language to describe, for example, how presumably (giroux, 1997) white “men, women, and children were cruelly put to death, often with the hideous tortures at which the indians were expert” (southworth & southworth, 1946, p.68). even when textbooks used the passive voice to describe indigenous violence, any distanciating impact is mitigated by explicitly identifying them (eg indians) as perpetrators, and by other approximative signifiers such as provocative descriptions of violence (e.g., “cruelly put to death”, “hideous tortures”). the intersection of indigenous americans and foreigners perpetrator identification is another key variable mediating historical distance. for instance, my sample textbooks often used approximative narratives when discussing spain as persecuting indigenous people in the americas. this may, in part, reflect anti-spanish sentiment jimenez 15 following the spanish-american war, as attested by this representative excerpt stating a “band of spaniards left a most miserable record of downright cruelty toward the indians, whom they enslaved and tortured” (meany, 1912, p.33). this sentence uses both affect-inducing terms (e.g., “miserable”, “cruelty”) as well as active sentence constructions (e.g., “enslaved, tortured”). the same applies to when spaniards killed indigenous people in their conquests of central and south america. if the perpetrators were not english-speaking north americans, my textbooks usually condemned these non-american perpetrators with approximative punctuation, clear verbs, and active voice sentence construction: another spaniard named francisco pizarro … and his greedy soldiers could think of nothing but gold! the lives of the indians seemed to mean nothing to them! they plundered the inca cities, stole their gold, and robbed them of their wealth. they captured the inca emperor and killed many of his people! (aker et al., 1937, p.505) many of these sample textbooks that drew attention to suffering foreigners simultaneously failed to extend any compassion to domestic marginalized groups, unless non-u.s. nationals were the oppressors. for example, a few textbooks highlighted –and discussed approximatively—a fairly obscure historical event concerning dutch atrocities against indigenous people, namely, when dutch governor william kieft “ordered the massacre of some fugitive indians who were encamped where jersey city now stands” (channing, 1903, p.57). nearly all my sample textbooks typically reserved direct language (e.g., massacre) and active voice construction (e.g., ordered) for when non-english speakers (such as the dutch or spanish) oppressed indigenous people. textbooks, however, did not similarly describe the british or u.s. mistreatment of indigenous americans; for instance, one textbook maintained that “the english colonists usually treated the indians fairly” (southworth & southworth, 1946, p.44). thus, my sample textbooks usually described non-white hardships (taking place within the united states borders) in an approximative manner only if foreigners (excluding the british prior to u.s. independence) were the responsible agents. approximative language in these excerpts serves to elevate american moral superiority vis-à-vis the deplorable behavior of foreigner perpetrators, while many domestic groups being simultaneously persecuted by english-speaking settlers at the same time were not afforded the same concern. africans and black americans journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 16 the mexican workers, or peons, were again almost slaves. they were paid such small wages for their work they could scarcely buy enough to eat. they were not treated nearly so well as the negro slaves in the united states had been treated before the civil war. (aker et al., 1937, p.493) the quote above exemplifies a disturbing trend regarding such selective compassion, namely, the whitewashing of blacks’ suffering throughout u.s. history. after the civil war, many u.s. historians were keen to heal the wounds of a war in which whites killed each other (novick 1989). northern historians became “harshly critical of the abolitionists” and “accepted a considerably softened picture of slavery”, because “for northern historians to resist these efforts would be adding ‘insult to injury’ and would show a want of understanding and sympathy” (novick, 1989, p.77). northern historians sought to build compassion towards southerners in order to unify white northerners and southerners through a single historical narrative, namely, that slavery wasn’t as bad as the abolitionists might have you believe (novick 1989). as such, many of my sample textbooks emphasized whites’ (especially southern) hardships, both during and after the civil war: what additional agony must the man have felt who pressed the trigger knowing that he might be killing his own father, his own brother, or the son he had reared to young manhood! and, what is seldom considered, how must the hearts at home have bled, the hearts of mothers, sisters, daughters, as they prayed and waited for the gloomy news of battles with their long lists of dead! (meany, 1912, p.409) this passage draws in readers with its exclamation marks and sentimental language (e.g., ‘agony’, ‘gloomy’). similarly, another textbook from half a century later stated: widows and helpless orphans, beggared and hopeless, are everywhere... diseases, always the companion of hunger and lack of sanitation, swept across the south...tens of thousands of people – men and women and children – died during the summer and winter of 1865-66. in some crowded urban areas disease swept away as many as one quarter to one third of all the negroes, and the death rate among the white population was almost as grim. (todd & curti, 1961, p.16) this passage discussed the suffering and “death rate” of the white people that “died”, yet used the distancing euphemism “swept away” to refer to black victims. my sample textbooks also applied the suffering southerner narrative to justify why jimenez 17 reconstruction policies had to be abolished, as when another textbook asserted “southern people, already impoverished by the combined afflictions of war, blockade, and a paper currency, were still further burdened with taxes assessed by negroes and northern adventurers” (fiske, 1899, p.447). although written in the passive voice, this passage clearly identified perpetrators (“negroes and northern adventurers”) and employed affect-inducing language to empathize with these whites’ suffering (e.g., “impoverished”, “afflictions” and burdened”). even charles beard, considered a ‘progressive’ historian, highlighted suffering women and children as a justification to extol the racist ku klux klan as merely a “social club” whose primary purpose was to “protect the weak, the innocent, and the defenceless from the indignities, wrongs, and outrages of the lawless, the violent, and the brutal; and to succor the suffering, especially the widows and orphans of the confederate soldiers” (beard & beard, 1922, p.382).5 at the same time, many textbooks routinely minimized blacks’ oppression (carpenter 1941) sometimes by emphasizing the fundamental goodness of most slave-holders (meany, 1912, p.141; burnham & jack, 1934, p.172-175), rationalizing how africans were better able to “bear long hours of work tilling the soil or harvesting a crop under the hot southern sun” (rugg, 1937, p.224), and making outlandish claims that black people “would rather be slaves than try to earn a living for themselves” (aker et al., 1937, p.442-3). in fact, the only textbook example i found where a post-civil war textbook explicitly identified whites as committing violence against black people referred to the fairly obscure historical event concerning a new york riot that broke out in response to the civil war draft, when it discussed how a mob of northern whites assaulted free black men in new york city (fiske, 1899). though for every textbook in my sample that defended, justified, or minimized the harmful effects of slavery, another textbook entirely ignored the issue. textbooks from the post-civil rights era from the 1960s onwards, social studies textbooks began incorporating the experiences of people of color into their narratives (fitzgerald, 1979), and some of my sample textbooks even included primary source materials and images that approximatively described marginalized groups’ suffering (meyers, 2001, p.35). nonetheless, textbooks’ proclivity to differentiate their 5 it should be noted that ‘progressivism’ has had not only different meanings over time, but also within the same time period; for instance, while many educators associate progressive education today with the student-centered pedagogy championed by john dewey, other educators in the early 20th century, who considered themselves ‘progressive’, were more focused on reforming administrative efficiency (labaree et al., 2004). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 18 linguistic valence in racially biased ways still persisted in my sample’s more contemporary textbooks. for instance, this same textbook passively described u.s. violence towards its indigenous people, indicating that “hundreds of native american men, women, and children were killed” and “native americans were forced to move to reservations” (meyers, 2001, p.223). one page later, however, the textbook actively stated how indigenous chiefs sitting bull and crazy horse “killed custer and all of his men” (meyers, 2001, p.224). the only time this textbook used approximative language to describe white or american violence occurred when it discussed racist groups like the kkk (meyers, 2001, p.200) or well-known and undisputed atrocities, such as the wounded knee massacre (meyers, 2001, p.226). although another contemporary textbook explicitly discussed marginalized groups’ hardships, it described foreign oppressors’ brutality more approximatively than similar actions by americans. for instance, when americans were the perpetrators of forced internment, the textbook passively stated, “120,000 japanese were moved from their homes to relocation camps” (nash, 2002, p.546). however, when spain was similarly interning its people, it expressed that spanish troopers “forced some 300,000 cubans into concentration camps” (nash, 2002, p.221). similarly, the text reserved highly approximative words such as ‘murdered’ for indigenous acts of violence, as when the textbook mentioned that “native americans had murdered the unlucky estevanico” (nash, 2002, p.34). however, when the text used the word “murder” and active voice construction to discuss whites’ violence (albeit rarely), the text described them using the race-neutral terms “low-paid workers” and “rioters”: the draft riots had racial overtones as low-paid workers blamed african americans for the war. rioters…began lynching african americans, murdering them in ruthless mob attacks. (nash, 2002, p.178) on the other hand, it used the active voice when recounting how indigenous people “repeatedly attacked settlers, killing more than 800 soldiers”, yet it passively presented white perpetrators’ violence, describing how “the native americans were soundly defeated” by the (unmentioned) u.s. army (nash, 2002, p.119). when chronicling white violence towards black people, this textbook sometimes used the antipassive voice, meaning the text identified white perpetrators but not their victims: jimenez 19 klan members participated in violent activities – tarring and feathering, flogging, and lynching…in a single year, oklahoma’s klan was responsible for no less than 25,000 floggings. (nash, 2002, p.400) furthermore, this book seldom pointed out victims of u.s. wars. when discussing the vietnam war, for instance, it narrates u.s. enemies as active agents that kill, such as “vietcong forces attacked…and killed eight americans” (nash, 2002, p.772). when the text did note the united states as a perpetrator, it used dehumanizing language as when it reported that the “united states forces killed 220,000 communists” (nash, 2002, p.773). similarly, although its concluding remarks used the active voice to state that the “united states forces routed the vietcong, killing an estimate 33,000 enemy troops” (nash, 2002, p.773), the dehumanizing use of “enemy troops” strips the vietnamese of their humanity. lastly, while the textbook acknowledged the large vietnamese death toll in its concluding chapter paragraph, it passively noted (without identifying a perpetrator) that “12,500 vietnamese civilians were killed” (nash, 2002, p.773). a contemporary world history textbook described oppression approximatively provided that the oppressor is historically distant and foreign, as when it actively recounted the “cruel punishments of the assyrians” (farrah, 2001, p.50), the mongols that “killed large numbers of people” (farrah, 2001, p.140), crusaders that “killed most of (a city’s) muslim and jewish inhabitants” (farrah, 2001, p.145), and the khmer rouge that “killed more than 3 million people (through) starvation, torture, and executions” (farrah, 2001, p.688). this textbook also actively described foreigners killing americans, stating how the japanese “killed more than 2400 people (farrah, 2001, p.619)” and “beat, bayoneted, shot, and even beheaded many of the prisoners” or used them “for research in chemical and biological warfare, and for cruel medical experiments” (farrah, 2001, p.700-701). in contrast, when the united states was the violent agent, the textbook passively stated that “nearly all 21,000 of the japanese on the island died” at the battle of iwo jima and how “thousands of others soon died from the radiation release by the {atomic} bomb” (farrah, 2001, p.709). it similarly defaulted to the passive voice for other events with u.s. perpetrators, as when it passively related that “thousands of africans were being imported to the americas as slave labor” (farrah, 2001, p.433) and that “an estimated 1.3 million vietnamese soldiers and civilians had lost their lives” (farrah, 2001, p.762) during the vietnam war. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 20 the same pattern emerged in state-specific history books. for instance, although a texas textbook actively stated that the (ostensibly white) “texas army attacked the cherokees”, it doesn’t mention the indigenous victims until the next sentence, passively stating that “nearly 100 cherokees were killed” (anderson et. al., 2003, p.277). compare this, however, with how it both used active voice constructions and identified white victims when it stated that the indigenous “comanches killed many of their white captives” (anderson et. al., 2003, p.277). this inequality in historical distance was also not limited to history books. a contemporary geography textbook discussed marginalized groups’ oppression passively without identifying perpetrators, as when it described how indigenous people “were forced to live on areas of land that had been set aside for them” (mcgraw hill, 2015, p.145) and “were required to provide contribution in the form of food and periods of labor” (mcgraw hill, 2015, p.205), and how it was not settlers but rather westward expansion that “brought suffering – loss of land, culture, and often life – to native americans” (mcgraw hill, 2015, p.144). however, it actively described similar actions by foreign perpetrators, describing how british landowners in the caribbean “brought enslaved people from africa to work on the plantations” (mcgraw hill, 2015, p.200) and how settlers in canada “pushed native peoples off their lands” (mcgraw hill, 2015, p.300). another geography textbook passively described an entire paragraph of slavery without ever mentioning perpetrators: by the mid-nineteenth century, slavery had become a threat to american unity. four million enslaved african americans were in the south by 1860, compared with one million in 1800. the south’s economy was based on growing cotton on plantations, chiefly by slave labor. the south was determined to maintain the cotton economy and plantation-based slavery. abolitionism, a movement to end slavery arose in the north and challenged the southern way of life. as opinions over slavery grew more divided, compromise became less possible. (spielvogel, 2015, p.331) overall, this textbook’s victimization accounts were nearly always written passively, whether it was jews in nazi germany (spielvogel, 2015, p.458), armenian genocide victims (spielvogel, 2015, p.455), victims of pinochet (spielvogel, 2015, p.547), or rwandan genocide victims (p.591). interestingly, though, the active voice dominated accounts in which foreign socialist governments committed violence. for instance, when describing the russian revolution, the text jimenez 21 described the russian revolution using clear language and the active voice, stating that “members of the local soviet murdered the czar and his family” (spielvogel, 2015, p.423); elsewhere, the romanian “secret police murdered thousands of people who were peacefully demonstrating (spielvogel, 2015, p.574).” conclusion and implications to some degree, u.s. historical writing conventions describing people’s hardships have changed over the past centuries. specifically, social studies textbook authors have gradually moved from melodramatic language describing people’s hardships that was commonplace in the 19th century to considerably more dry accounts today. if these authors applied such writing shifts universally to all historical persons, this adjustment would merely signify changing cultural norms of historical writing over time. what is problematic, though, is the inconsistent application when referring to dominant groups of people versus marginalized groups of people, particularly people of color. this study has provided evidence that u.s. textbooks have long emphasized elite and white hardships while they have minimized the oppression experienced by people of color. although u.s. social studies textbooks have –to varying degrees –gradually increased their celebration of diversity and have begun to acknowledge the oppression of various marginalized groups over time, their continued discriminating use of affect-inducing strategies (i.e. linguistic valence) in discussing marginalized groups’ oppression can potentially inhibit readers’ from empathizing with their experiences (bohner, 2001; frazer & miller, 2009). while this study makes no empirical claims about demonstrated impacts on students’ capacity to empathize with marginalized groups’ experiences after reading such textbooks, it invites further studies to explore the extent to which students reading these textbooks may be internalizing more affective responses to the hardships of dominant group members (i.e. white americans) while developing more tacit acceptance of the historical suffering of non-white people, based on the textbooks’ continued discriminating use of linguistic valence and other approximative measures. thus, this research calls upon scholars and educators alike to look beyond just the textbook content coverage of marginalized groups to also examine how writers’ discriminating use of affective language can negatively impact students’ perceptions of historical oppression. as such, this research serves two purposes. first, it encourages textbook authors to scrutinize their writing for such potential biases, most notably through utilizing more conscientious journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 22 applications of passive voice constructions. but equally important, it seeks to alert social studies teachers of this phenomena so they can more effectively equip their students to be cognizant of how textbooks’ discriminating use of approximative language may shape how they remember and process their course content. in doing so, students can further be encouraged to probe for such biases themselves, whether in their school textbooks, contemporary media narratives, or even in their own writing. references abbott, j. (1860). american history volume 2: discovery of america. sheldon & co. abbott, j. (1863). american history volume 5: wars of the colonies. sheldon & co. adams, e.d. & almack, j.c. (1931). a history of the united states. harper & brothers. aker, v.n., ferris, h., & hilton, e. (1937). american today and yesterday. harr wagner. anderson, a., wooster, r., de leon, a., hardt, w., & winegarten, r. (2003). texas and texans. glencoe mccraw-hill anderson, j. (1878). a junior class history of the united states. clark and maynard. anderson. j. (1880). a popular school history of the united states. clark & maynard. attenborough, f. (2014). rape is rape (except when it’s not). journal of language aggression and conflict, 2(2). 183-203. john benjamins publishing company. barker, e.c., webb, w.p., & dodd, w.e. (1934). the growth of a nation: the united states of america. row, peterson and company. barstow, c.l. (1918). progress of a united people. the century co. barton, k. & levstik, l. (2003). why don’t more history teachers engage students in interpretation?. social education, 67(6), 358-361. beard, c. & bagley, w. (1928). the history of the american people. the macmillan company. beard, c. & beard, m. (1922). history of the united states. the macmillan company. beck, r., black, l., krieger, l.s., naylor, p.c., & shabaka, d.i. (2005). world history: modern era. mcdougal littell, division of houghton mifflin co. jimenez 23 blaisdell, a. (1901). the story of american history: for elementary schools. ginn & co. boddington, t. (1980). empathy and the teaching of history. british journal of educational studies, 28(1), 13-19. bohner, g. (2001). writing about rape: use of the passive voice and other distancing text features as an expression of perceived responsibility of the victim. british journal of social psychology, 40, 515–529. bower, b., & lobdell, j. (2002). history alive! the united states. teachers' curriculum institute. bromley, p. & russell, s.g. (2010). the holocaust as history and human rights: a cross national analysis of holocaust education in social science textbooks, 1970–2008. prospects, 40, 153–173. burnham, s. (1929). the making of our country: a history of the united states for schools. john c. winston co. burnham, s. & jack, t. (1934). america our country. john c. winston co. carpenter, m.e.r. (1941). the treatment of the negro in american history school textbooks: a comparison of changing textbook content, 1826 to 1939, with developing scholarship in the history of the negro in the united states. banta books. casner, m.b. & gabriel, r.h. (1931). exploring american history. harcourt brace. channing, e. (1903). first lessons in united states history. the macmillan company. clark, m.g. & gordy, w.f. (1936). the birth and growth of our nation. c. scribner’s sons. coats, l. & wade. a. (2004). telling it like it isn’t: obscuring perpetrator responsibility for violent crime. discourse and society, 15(5), 1-28. cohen, d. & crabtree, b.f. (2006). qualitative research guidelines project. robert wood johnson foundation. davidson, j. w., & lytle, m. h. (1988). the united states: a history of the republic. prentice hall. dibacco, t. v., mason, l. c., & appy, c. g. (1992). history of the united states. houghton mifflin. elson, r. (1964). guardians of tradition: american schoolbooks of the nineteenth century. university of nebraska press. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 24 farah, m. (2001). world history: the human experience. glencoe/ mcgraw-hill. faulkner, h.u. & kepner, t. (1944). america, its history and people. harper & bros. fernandez, m. & hauser, c. (2015, october 5). texas mother teachers textbook company a lesson on accuracy. the new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbookrefers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html fiske, j. (1899). a history of the united states for schools. houghton, mifflin and company. fitzgerald, f. (1979). america revised: history schoolbooks in the twentieth century. little brown & co. foster, s.j. (1999). the struggle for american identity: treatment of ethnic groups in united states history textbooks. history of education, 28(3), 251–279. foster, s. j. & crawford, k.a. (2006). what shall we tell the children? international perspectives on school history textbooks. information age pub. inc. frazer, a., & miller, m. (2009). double standards in sentence structure: passive voice in narratives describing domestic violence. journal of language and social psychology, 28(1), 62-71. giroux, h. (1997) rewriting the discourse of racial identity: towards a pedagogy and politics of whiteness. harvard educational review, 67(2), 285-321. graff, h. (1980). the free and the brave: the story of the american people. rand mcnally. hanes, w. t., falola, t., & rabb, t. k. (1999). world history: continuity & change. holt, rinehart and winston inc. & harcourt brace & company. harlow, r. & miller, r. (1957). story of america. henry holt. hart, a.b. (1897). formation of the union, 1750-1829. longmans, green. henley, n. m., miller, m., & beazley, j. a. (1995). syntax, semantics, and sexual violence: agency and the passive voice. journal of language and social psychology, 14(1-2), 60–84. henry, j. (1970). textbooks and the american indian. indian historian press. higginson, t.w. (1879). young folks’ history of the united states. lee & shepherd. hovenier, p.j., rosentreter, f.m., gandy, w.e., anderson, r.o.m., feller, i., mcgraw, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html jimenez 25 f.m., & weaver, n.f. (1971). perspectives in united states history. field educational publications. jeffries, l., & mcintyre, d. (2010) stylistics. cambridge university press. jimenez, j. d. (2019). i need to hear a good ending: how students cope with historical violence. in teaching and learning difficult histories: comparative perspectives: 565-585, routledge. jimenez, j.d. & lerch, j. (2019). waves of diversity: depictions of marginalized groups and their rights in social science textbooks, 1900-2013. comparative education review, 63(2), 166-188. doi: 10.1086/702606 labaree, d., hirsch, e., & beatty, b. (2004). the ed school's romance with progressivism. brookings papers on education policy, (7), 89-129. retrieved may 27, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/20067267 macmillan-mcgraw hill. (1990). united states and its neighbors: the world around us. macmillan-3mcgraw hill. mcgraw hill. (2016). texas world cultures and geography. mcgraw hill. meany, e. (1912). united states history for schools. the macmillan company. muzzey, d.s. (1937). a history of our country: a textbook for high-school students. ginn and company. myers, p. (2001). united states history. globe fearon educational publisher. nash, g. (2002). american odyssey: the united states in the twentieth century. glencoe/mcgraw-hill. novick, p. (1989). that noble dream: the 'objectivity question' and the american historical profession. cambridge university press. nye, b. (1894). bill nye’s history of the united states. grosset & dunlap. perry, a.c. & price, a. (1913). american history. american book co. phillips, m. s. (2013). on historical distance. yale university press. quackenbos, g.p. (1869). elementary history of the united states. d. appleton. rugg, h. (1937). the conquest of america: a history of american civilization: economic and social. ginn and company. schafer, b.c., mclemore, r.a., & augspurger, e. (1966). united states history for http://www.jstor.org/stable/20067267 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 1-26 26 high schools. laidlaw brothers. schwartz, m. (1968). exploring american history. 4th edition. globe book co. schwartz, s. & o’connor, j. (1969). exploring our nation’s history. globe book co. scudder, h.e. (1897). a history of the united states of america. sheldon and co. smith, l. (1977). the american dream. scott, foreman. smitherman-donaldson, g., & van dijk, t.a. (eds.) (1988). discourses and discrimination. wayne state university press. southworth, g.v.d. & southworth, j.v.d. (1946). american history: 1492 to the present day. iroquois publishing company, inc. spielvogel, j. (2015). florida world history and geography. mcgraw-hill networks. steinberg, s. (1958). the united states: story of a free people. allyn and bacon. todd, l.p. & curti, m. (1961). rise of the american nation. harcourt brace jovanovich. turner, e. & rommetveit, r. (1968). experimental manipulation of the production of active and passive voice in children. journal of language and speech, 10(3), 169 180. vannest, c.g. & smith, h.l. (1931). socialized history of the united states. c. scribner’s sons. waller, j. (2002). becoming evil: how ordinary people commit genocide and mass killing. oxford university press. yacovone, d. (2018, april 08). textbook racism: how scholars sustained white supremacy. the chronicle of higher education. https://www.chronicle.com/article/how-scholars-sustained-white/243053 https://www.chronicle.com/article/how-scholars-sustained-white/243053 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 128-138 the potential of folk tabletop games in the development of the intelligence and creativity of children mariia i. baisheva 1, alexey i. golikov 2, maria m. prokopieva 3, ludmila v. popova 4, alexandra i. zakharova5, tatiana ju. kovtun6 abstract the modern education is dominantly targeted at the left hemisphere. it draws insufficient attention to the harmonization of the functioning of both brain hemispheres. this has a negative impact on the development of the abilities of children and is especially detrimental to boys and those children who are brought up in the natural environment. in this regard, one of the solutions is folk tabletop games, but their potential in the development of the intelligence and creativity of children has been insufficiently explored. the goal of the research is to identify and substantiate the potential of the sakha’s tabletop games for the development of the intellectual and creative abilities of children aged 5-7 years. the scientific novelty of the research consists in the fact that the problem under study enriches the theoretical and methodological bases of using tabletop games in the intellectual development of children in preschool education. the study was carried out longitudinally. the following was studied: the influence of games on the development of intellectual, creative, and insight abilities of children aged 5-7 years, as well as their interconditionality. the obtained results are discussed from the point of view of their correspondence with both the data available in science and the hypothesis of the study. the discussion emphasizes that the tabletop games of the sakha are the most meaningfully represented in the study as the functional space for the development of intellectual and creative abilities of children. in the conclusion, it is emphasized that folk tabletop games are the means for qualitative enrichment of all the basic factors of intelligence in operations, contents, and final products of thinking. the study has proven the idea of treating tabletop games as a substantial source of development of the harmonious activity of both brain hemispheres. keywords: tabletop games, preschool child, development, intelligence, creativity, insight ability, harmony, two cerebral hemispheres. 1 asst. prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk, mesoln@yandex.ru 2 prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk 3 prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk 4 asst. prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk 5 asst. prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk 6 asst. prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),128-138 introduction in the sakha’s philosophical doctrine of aiyy (“aiyy” comes from the word to create), it is emphasized that a person must achieve wisdom not only through the rational and logical approach, but also through the intuitive, irrationally eidetic way. various research proves this statement and emphasizes that any creativity is based on intuition and insight (tarman & tarman, 2011). in this respect, there are some contradictions in the intellectual development of children: – ignoring the mental living principles has a negative impact on the intellectual development of the personality. it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the national psychology, natural and climatic conditions that determine the personality development. – for a child who has not yet lost his connection with nature, the right hemisphere is stimulated naturally. ensuring the harmonious activity of both cerebral hemispheres stimulates the thoughtful mental activity. – the figurativeness of the mother's speech requires the active processing of information and assimilation of the conceptual side of the speech in the right hemisphere of the brain. the yakut speech is known for its figurativeness. children raised in the conditions of the priority of figurativeness of thinking encounter considerable problems in “left-hemisphere-based” education. – the insight as the basis of creativity and talent certainly develops based on intuition. however, the value of intuitive cognition, which “limits” the intellectual and creative uniqueness of the person, is still underestimated. these really existing factors in science and education virtually have not been approached yet. of particular importance in the research are the publications that study the intelligence in terms of thinking and creativity, including that of children aged 5–8 years: piaget (1996), gilford (1967; 2003), gardner (2006), sternberg (2012), vygotsky (2010), rubinshtein (2009), leontiev (2012), elkonin (1999), kholodnaya (2002), berulava (2009), zack (1996), veraksa (2003), korchitsky (2011), mikhaleva and stozharova (2013) houdyshellm, (2017), yurtseven & altun, (2015) and others. in the above publications, the intellectual development is disclosed through different approaches and aspects: sociocultural, educational, genetic, process-activity, baisheva et al. information-based, etc. in this respect, we have the opportunity to compare our ideas and experience with the authors of fundamental research. tabletop games of the sakha, as sources of intellectual development of children, are considered in the studies of barakhsanova (1995) and golikov (1997). concerning the purpose of our study, barakhsanova (1995) found that the yakuts’ intellectual tabletop games develop the flexibility of thinking. the author paid special attention to the study of the child's assessment of the position as the main type of the intellectual activity of children. the studies of golikov (1997) substantiate the pedagogical conditions for the use of dynamic games of pursuit as the means of developing the mathematical thinking in preschool and primary school age children. he believes that “dynamic games of pursuit built on the well-known and native to children folklore and ethnographic material have a significant potential... and the system of solving the problems of pursuit games based on maneuvering the moves of the fleeing and the pursuing players with the correct methodological instrumentation develops spatial imagination, logical reasoning, flexibility, depth, and rationality of thinking, as well as the counting skills”. nevertheless, we believe that the potential of the sakha’s tabletop games: khabylyk, khayamyska, tyryynkay, bagda, baaya, dyugdyuur, tyxaan, in the development of the children’s intelligence is not sufficiently studied. therefore, the goal of the research is to identify and substantiate the potential of the sakha’s tabletop games for the development of the intellectual and creative abilities of children of the senior preschool age. at the same time, we assume that the potential of folk tabletop games (based on the sakha’s materials) in the development of the intellectual abilities of children aged 5-7 will improve qualitatively in the following case: – the thinking activity involves the development of a variety of options of assumptions, prediction of their results, and achievement of the arbitrariness of intellectual skills. – games encourage children to switch from the end result of the activity to the ways of achieving it and to apply their skills to new situations. – the game process stimulates the transition of the external orientation of mental efforts to the internal one. – games provide for the flexibility of combining intellectual skills with the development of insight abilities and intuition of judgment. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),128-138 the scientific novelty and theoretical significance of the research consist in revealing the potential of folk tabletop games in the development of intellectual abilities combined with the creativity in children aged 5-7 years, which enriches the theoretical and methodical bases of desktop intellectual games’ application in preschool education. research methods research methods: theoretical, empirical methods, methods of processing the obtained data (mathematical, statistical). the theoretical methods include: the study and analysis of psychological, pedagogical, and ethnographic literature; description and classification of folk tabletop games of the sakha; empirical methods and methods of processing the obtained data include: the study of the experience of nursery teachers in kindergartens; pedagogical experiments with subsequent statistical processing of its results; mathematical modeling, statistics, questionnaires, interviews, and conversations. the study was carried out longitudinally with children aged 5-7 years in seven basic kindergartens of the republic of sakha (yakutia). research results the obtained results are discussed from the point of view of their correspondence with both the data available in science and the hypothesis of the study, which allows us to draw the following conclusions: in games, we purposefully focused children on the theoretical reasoning development: planning, predicting, memorizing, reasoning and identifying relationships and elementary regularities. results: the children’s visual and figurative thinking have been qualitatively developed. the performance of gaming operations actively stimulates the process of transition from the externally oriented mental activity to the internal one. children began to identify independently common ties, relationships, derive elementary intellectual patterns in the games. thanks to the theoretical reasoning, children became able to classify objects on a conceptual basis. folk tabletop games stimulate the development of creative and intellectual abilities. berulava (2009) believes that in assessing the mental abilities of children, two aspects must be taken into account in the zone of proximal development: the learning activity and the creative independence of the child. their interdependence is observed in games. games that do not require flexibility and originality of judgments simply will not be exciting and interesting. therefore, in the exciting versions of tabletop games, the child always develops his own game baisheva et al. strategy and tactics. for example, in tyxaan (shooting chips), the child must first determine, which chips are interfering and must be removed in order to facilitate further shooting. in this case, the child is not limited to performing a single intellectual task. consideration of several options of positions for convenient shooting requires the performance of a variety of intellectual operations. several options of the precise destruction of chips from a variety of positions are considered: the location of the chips, convenience of the shooting methods with the estimation of various parameters of the chips’ arrangement, convenience of aiming (visual estimation), assessment of personal abilities in terms of the fingers’ involvement and their strike power relatively to the remoteness or proximity of the spatial arrangement of the chips, possibilities of turning the body and hands, etc. the game engages the process of forecasting, i.e. developing a strategy and testing the tactic options of the game that lead to a victory. as a result of active mental activity, the child generates numerous hypotheses. the desire to test them increases the motivation for creativity. and the growth of creativity in children generates gushing associations. consequently, the child satisfies his cognitive need with not only the result, but also the solution of numerous intellectual problems, search for and discovery of a variety of options for solving the game problems. tabletop games require the correlation of the variety of intellectual operations that are responsible for specific types of abilities. at the same time, each specific intellectual ability can manifest itself separately, but in the course of the game, certain abilities are necessarily correlated. for example, in tyxaan, as a result of intellectual operations, the child develops the ability to operate spatial relationships in his mind, memorize, reproduce, identify the correlation of the supposed results with the realistic results, operate arithmetic actions, reason, and identify regularities. as is seen, numerous intellectual operations are performed during the game, which give rise to a variety of options for solving difficult problems, heuristic discoveries, which qualitatively enrich the intellectual abilities of children. in any desktop intellectual game, there are manifestations of convergent and divergent thinking. the necessity of these two types of mental operations proves the interdependence of the intelligence and creativity in games, although, as orthogonal factors, they manifest themselves independently of each other. in the game, the child is looking for the only correct solution among the suggested ones, i.e. demonstrates the convergence of mental operations. at the same time, the child makes the choice, generating as many possible solutions as possible. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),128-138 this indicates the divergence of mental operations. as a result of the diversity of the content, ways of solving intellectual problems, intellectual products of various levels are obtained. in folk tabletop games, two of the most popular kinds of activities among children are combined: the game and the experiment. the timely and fullest use of these children's activities ensures the amplification of the intellectual and creative development of the personality. in the process of popular intellectual tabletop games, it is necessary to pay attention to the intentionality of the cognitive enrichment of the content, materials, and teaching methods. it is necessary to constantly stimulate the children's perseverance and transfer of intellectual skills to other games and situations. it is necessary to know that it is the emotional and value-related motivation and favorable communicative and social interaction that directly influence the intensity of the children’s creativity development (flexibility, originality, out-of-the-box thinking, etc.) in games. it was observed that in games other than the externally oriented initiation, children experience a substantive internal initiation of the intellectual activity. tabletop games allow the child to act in accordance with his inner motives, demonstrate rich internal initiation of the intellectual activity. these qualitative changes bring the child to the level of subjectivity and improve his readiness for the learning activity. discussion games of each ethnic group are endowed with special cultural meanings and developmental functions. according to sternberg (2012), different cultures support creativity in different ways. according to the concept of heyzinga (2011), the game is a cultural and historical universal. in its essence, it is a purely childish activity with inherent characteristics. in the yakut folk tabletop games khabylyk, khaamyska, tyryynkay, bagda, baaya, dyugdyuur, tyxaan, the intellectual activity of children is very high. but it has not virtually been studied. today, the khabylyk and khaamyska tabletop games are treated as sport games and are mainly studied in this regard. in our study, the pedagogical potential of folk tabletop games was first presented as a functional space for the development of intellectual and creative abilities of children aged 5–7 years. baisheva et al. heyzinga (2011) believes that “within the game sphere, the rules and customs of everyday life are not valid. we are the essence, and we are doing ‘something else’”. through the motivation for creativity and manifestations of flexibility, originality, and non-standard judgments in games, high levels of intellectual and insight abilities are achieved. it is traditionally considered that the cognitive activity of children of preschool age should be organized based on the practical operation with objects or their symbols. in our games, virtually all intellectual operations are performed theoretically. games encourage children to actively model intellectual actions and engineer their results, develop intuition and a hunch to achieve the goal. we agree that each ability certainly develops as a result of performing certain groups of intellectual operations. observation of the games helped us find out that the various abilities in the games necessarily correlate with each other, causing higher levels of intellectual operations in the future. in the process of children's games, divergent and convergent types of mental operations can be clearly traced. such types of mental operations as estimation, memorization, cognition, etc. are also observed in them. it turned out that despite the seeming simplicity, tabletop games of the sakha abound with interesting facts that had not previously been revealed in relevant studies. in the thinking activity of children in the process of games, we observed the development of insight abilities, which are fueled by their emotionality (excitement). games, in particular tyryynkay, khaamyska, bagda, require the identification of a significant goal and problems for further advancement in the game, i.e. selective coding. such games simply will not take place, if we do not provide selective combining, i.e. unification of unconnected actions in a single whole and their relevant consideration in order to achieve the goal. in games, we also observed a selective comparison, i.e. children linked the solution of new problems with their past experience in the game, including their previous erroneous judgments. children's games provide for the flexibility of combining intellectual skills with the development of insight abilities and intuition of judgment. thus, we believe that with targeted stimulation, children successfully develop insight abilities in games, which, on the other hand, is evidenced by the interdependence of the intelligence and creativity. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),128-138 scientific research emphasizes that the interdependence, correlation of intelligence and creativity is a complex process. of course, it is especially important in the correlation to study the manifestations of the intellectual range and intellectual threshold. observation of the children's games clearly shows the interdependence of the intellectual and creative abilities of children. active thinking activity in the game generates intensive creativity. any tabletop game simultaneously develops the child's ability to detecting and defining the problem, generating, promoting, producing a variety of ideas, solving the defined problem, and obtaining a creative product. gut (2007) pointed out that “creativity (the process of creativity) is a productive mental activity that yields a non-trivial (qualitatively new, unobvious) result”. the problem should be associated with the intellectual development of the children, depending on their gender-role features. it is known that for boys the right cerebral hemisphere, which is responsible for the figurativeness of mental processes, is typically more active. and as for girls, their left hemisphere dominates, which is responsible for the logical thinking. these specific features of children are not considered in the organization of their cognitive activities. in this case, it is appropriate to say that folk tabletop games are the excellent tools for ensuring the communication between the two hemispheres of the brain. they are especially important for boys in stimulating and developing their mental processes provided by the function of the right hemisphere. in this respect, ethnic games are a lifesaving means that stimulates the harmony of the functioning of the two brain hemispheres. we believe that the main pedagogical mechanism that triggers the development of the intellectual, creative, and insight abilities of children in games are: – accessibility: the rules and content of all the above-mentioned games are comprehensible for preschool children; – multifunctionality: communicative, creative, developing, emotiogenic, combinatorial, etc.; – the multivariance of games, gameplay, and intellectual operations to achieve the goal; – the presence of excitement, intrigue, and a different level of complexity in achieving the game goal with a variety of ways of its achievement and the range of transformations. conclusion folk tabletop games, conditioned by the mental traditions of the ethnic group, specifics of national psychology, and natural and climatic features, are one of the most effective personality baisheva et al. development means, including the intellectual development. they are the source of the inquisitive mind of the ethnic group. their direct purpose is the development of intellectual, creative, volitional, communicative, and other abilities in children. the results of the research have proven that by means of folk tabletop games, all “basic factors of intelligence in operations, contents, final products of mental activity” are enriched qualitatively (according to guilford). the research has confirmed that the game process qualitatively enriches the visually figurative thinking, as well as basic principles of verbally logical, deductive and inductive, convergent and divergent, intuitive and creative thinking. it should be recognized that the introduction of folk games in the education content enables the successfully development of the basic principles of the divergent and convergent, intuitive and insight thinking. the interdependence of creativity and intellectual abilities was clearly manifested in the games of children aged 5-7 years. the constantly winning children have the intellectual skill of looking at the problem from a new perspective and finding non-standard tactical and strategic solutions to solve the game problems. the pedagogical idea of the intellectual development of senior preschool children is to teach them to think abstractly. folk tabletop games without assistance contribute to analyzing the game operations in mind, i.e. theoretically. a fundamentally new idea in the study of the games’ potential is the assertion that folk tabletop games ensure the harmonious development of the two cerebral hemispheres. this is very important in the context of the priority of “left-hemisphere education,” particularly for boys. our research does not pretend to provide a complete substantiation of the pedagogical potential of folk games in the intellectual and creative development of children. it is the next step on the way to their solution. in the long term, special attention should be paid to identifying the potential of games in the spiritual and moral formation and socialization of the personality, the mathematical development of children, and the development of their specific abilities. it is also necessary to analyze the structure and components of folk games in the context of intellectual development. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),128-138 references barakhsanova, e.a. (1995). pedagogical conditions for the use of yakut folk table games in the intellectual development of children aged 4-11. ph.d abstract. yakutsk. (in russ.) berulava, g.a. (2009). methodological guidelines of modern psychology. moscow: urao publishing house. (in russ.) elkonin, d.b. (1999). psychology of the game. moscow: vlados. (in russ.) gardner, h. (2006). multiple intelligences: new horizons. new york: basic books, perseus. gilford, j. p. (1967). the nature of human intelligence. new york: mc. graw-hill. gilford, j. (2003). human intelligence. in: psychological encyclopedia (253-257). st. petersburg: peter. (in russ.) golikov, a.i. (1997). pedagogical conditions of the mathematical thinking of preschool and primary school children development by means of dynamic intellectual games of persecution (dip). ph.d abstract. yakutsk. (in russ.) gut, r. (2007). on creativity in science and technology. questions of psychology, 4, 130-139. (in russ.) houdyshellm, m. (2017). academic integrity in an emerging democracy: how university students in a former soviet republic balance achievement and success in education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(1), 14-25. heyzinga, j. (2011). homo ludens. a man playing. st. petersburg: publishing house of ivan limbakh. (in russ.) kholodnaya, m.a. (2002). psychology of the intellect. st. petersburg: peter. (in russ.) korchitsky, s.a. (2011). intellectual games as a means of intellectual development of younger schoolchildren. ph.d abstract thesis. minsk. (in russ.) leontiev, a.n. (2012). mental development of the child in preschool age. in: age and pedagogical psychology (122-138). moscow: norma. (in russ.) mikhaleva, s.g., & stozharova, m.yu. (2013). development of intellectual abilities of children of senior preschool age in mathematical activity: monograph. moscow: flinta. (in russ.) piaget, j. (1996). on the nature of creativity. bulletin of the moscow state university. series 14: psychology, 3, 8-17. (in russ.) rubinshtein, s.l. (2009). fundamentals of general psychology. st. petersburg: peter. (in russ.) baisheva et al. sternberg, r.j. (2012). the assessment of creativity: an investment-based approach. creativit research journal, 24(1), 3-12. tarman, b. tarman, i. (2011). teachers’ involvement in children’s play and social interaction, elementary education online (ilköğretim online), 10 (1). 180-194. veraksa, n.e. (2003). individual features of the cognitive development of preschool children. moscow: perse. (in russ.) vygotsky, l.s. (2010). imagination and creativity in childhood. st. petersburg: union. (in russ.) yurtseven, n. & altun, s. (2015). intercultural sensitivity in today’s global classes: teacher candidates’ perceptions. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 2(1), 49-54. zack, a.z. (1996). development of intellectual abilities in 6-7 years old children. moscow: new school. (in russ.) article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (1),192-212 192 teaching values of islamic communism in surakarta: issues in the first quarter of the 20th century syamsul bakri1 abstract this study explores teaching values of islamic communism in the colonial era in surakarta indonesia in the 20th century. as islam and communism are generally viewed as being incompatible, this looked at the distinctive and uncommon fusion of these two ideologies and the main ideas behind islamic communism. using content analysis this study examined three popular magazines in this era whose news affected political and social changes in the overall java. four steps of historical methods were applied including: heuristic, source critic, interpretation, and historiography. results show that the history of the indonesian movement and its ideologies included a blend of ideas from islam and communism, which later led to the notion of islamic communism. to achieve this, its proponents sought to find the matching points between the two ideologies and erase any notion that might disassociate them allowing syncretism ideology. the two ideologies, when combined, were employed in the struggle against capitalism and colonialism. islam was perceived as defending the rights of the indigenous people being oppressed by colonialism. the emergent of communists then claimed that their doctrine, which rejected colonialism and capitalism, was wholly in line with islamic jihadism idea in terms of fighting the negative effects of the above two ideologies. keywords: islamic communism, ideology of resistance, theology of liberation, revolution, anti-capitalism introduction mainstream muslims view islam and communism from a polarized point of view. much like christianity and liberalism, communism is largely viewed as an enemy of islam. the integration of islam and communism is therefore unusual, because communism is perceived as an antireligious ideology (marx and engels, 2009). however, in certain historical epochs, such as the movement period in surakarta, the integration of communism and islam became a popular notion. indeed, the actions of the leftist scholars in surakarta during the colonial era of the early 20th century were viewed as a radical movement. 1assoc. prof. state islamic institute (iain) of surakarta, indonesia; syamsbakr99@gmail.com mailto:syamsbakr99@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 islamic communism once flourished in surakarta in the early 20thcentury. this school of thought was driven by pious scholars, such as hadji misbach, achmad dasoeki and haroenrasjid, as well as the religious teachers at moe’allimin mardi boesono surakarta (misbach, 2000; hongxuan, 2018). they criticized capitalism, colonialism, and the establishment through theirspeeches (redaksi kbbi, 2002). these peasant-based activists viewed communism as being compatible with basic islamic principles (ricklefs, 2007), something that is considered unconventional among mainstream muslims. this research was inspired by several previous studies, including shiraishi’s (1997) study entitled zaman bergerak: radikalisme rakyat di jawa, 1912–1926 (an age in motion: popular radicalism in java, 1912-1926). this study explored the political movement of the early 20thcentury that became a source of inspiration for modern indonesian politics and the forerunner of indonesian nationalism and islamic communism as a political movement. other research by huda (2013), entitled discourse on islamism and communism: tracking intellectual genealogy of hadji mohammad misbach 1876-1926), tracks the intellectual roots of hadji misbach, and early communist figure who raised the idea of islam and communism. recent research conducted by hongxuan (2018) examined the confluence of islam and communism in the netherlands east indies from 1915 to 1927. it examined the nature of the discourses linking communism with islam by exploring the profusion of anti-colonial printed works from the period. it also includes a brief examination of dutch reports and oral testimonies about the role of islam and communism in motivating participants in the 1926–1927 communist uprisings. however, none of those studies specifically discussed islamic communist thinking, which resulted from a unique blend that existed only in the dutch east indies in the early quarter of the 20th century. we outline this research to figure out the integration of communism and islam and the character of islamic communism, namely its basic nature (penyusun, 1990). in terms of its thinking, the character of islamic communism considered in this study differed from other schools of thought at the time. indeed, a different interpretation of islam emerged through the combination of islam and communism (ranuwihardjo, 2000), resulting in a revolutionary new religious outlook that opposed colonial government and sided with the oppressed. specifically, we focus two issues on syncretism thoughts and characteristic of islamic communism doctrines. the islamic communism doctrines are elaborated into (a) islam as the foundation of islamic struggle bakri progressiveness, (b) radicalism in anti-capitalism, (c) commitment to social advocacy, (d) islamic anti-formalism, and (e) the “equally equal” principle. methods this study was a content analysis from which corpora were analyzed. thematic content analysis that emphasized on qualitative content approach was applied. definitely, this research assigned a historical method, which consisted of four stages, namely heuristic, source criticism, interpretation, and historiography. the primary data source for this research was three popular magazines published in surakarta from the early quarter of the 20th century, the so-called movement period. these magazines were medan moeslimin (published 1915–1926), islam bergerak (published 1917–1923), and ra’jat bergerak (published 1923). in the heuristic stage, we searched for material on which to work to acquire sources of information and focus on the magazines available. in the criticism, we made appraisement of the material or sources from the viewpoint of evidential values that pertained to islamic values, communism and social phenomena. we conducted evaluation and criticism to find the accurate data and verify to achieve a fixed data. having the data accurate, we made synthesis and exposition by defining formal statement of the findings of heuristic and criticism, and writing the historical data (spinning clino, 2005). in the last step, we wrote systematically in logical view about the people, meanings, events, and ideas, and themes of the past that shaped the present (ecu university australia, 2019). findings and discussion syncretism ideological thoughts the first section of the findings is syncretism of islamic thoughts. this study found that islamic communism was a blend of ideas that later transformed into a social movement. syncretism is a new idea formed from an amalgamation of two or more different ideas to make something that is harmonious and balanced (redaksi, 2002), and the anti-capitalist movement of islamic communism is an example of this. communism is a political ideology that embraces the teachings of karl marx and friedrich engels, as written in their manifest der kommunistischen partei (manifesto of the communist party) (marx & engels, 2007), which was first published on february 21, 1848 in london and soon reached paris. this manifesto covered communist theory journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 and an analysis of the class struggle, and it later became the basis of one of the most influential political movements in the world of international politics (misbach, 1925a; turner, 1981). communism teaches that social improvement needs to begin with the workers (the proletariat). the proletariat’s struggle against the hegemony of the bourgeoisie (i.e., the capitalists) has affected the emergence of communism as a political movement in various parts of the world. from the perspective of communism, the history and dynamics of society is essentially a history of class inequality (turner, 1981). communism attempts to mobilize the proletariat in the struggle against the bourgeoisie to eliminate social divides. the term proletariat, which derives from the latin word proletarius for the lowest class of roman citizens, was used by marx and engels to refer to paid laborers, who, having no means of independent production, sell their labor to continue surviving (hunt, 1957). the term bourgeoisie, meanwhile, refers to the capitalists that own the means of production and capital and thus employ laborers for their economic activities. communism is actually not just a political dogma. following karl marx’s death, communism developed into a comprehensive worldwide view as a political doctrine (outhwaite, 2008). based on the magazine archives de philosophie, which was published in france before world war ii, njoto (1962) describes how the teachings of karl marx were not merely related to the procedures and the design of government. they represented not just a technical solution to an economic problem, an alternative stance, or a catchy slogan in a moving speech but rather a vast interpretation of humanity’s history, of beings and society, and of nature and god. in short, it is a comprehensive system. as such a comprehensive system, communism is built upon three interrelated concepts of political economics, philosophy, and history. the material dialectic that became one of its philosophies distanced it from religion (communism, n.d.). communism is, in essence, a revolutionary movement presuming that the entire structure of society must be improved (hunt, 1957). it is therefore classified as leftist. however, there is a distinction between a leftist and a communist, although there is some overlap. soekarno (1966) claimed that a communist is a leftist, but a leftist is not necessarily a communist. indeed, any desire to enhance social justice can be said to be leftist. socialism, meanwhile, refers to providing welfare for the economically vulnerable people in order to achieve social and political stability (islam bergerak, september 1, 1919, 1). to achieve social welfare in a political and economic system, it is necessary to make some capital public bakri property. some movements perceive socialism as apolitical and economic system that expects the results of production to become public property by removing the property and capital of individuals. such a socialist doctrine is part of the larger leftist ideology (socialism), but while every communist is also a socialist, not every socialist is a communist (islam bergerak, august 1, 1922 p. 2.) communism is a socialist ideology that has its own distinctive philosophical model that includes political radicalism, proletarian revolution, revolutionary social movement, and militant action against capitalism (schwartz, 2009; soekarno, 1963). islam, meanwhile, is one of the abrahamic religions that teaches monotheistic principles. islam has an ideology of change, as well as a culture in social life. it occupies the same position as previous religions, such as judaism and christianity (saikal, 2007). from a theological perspective, islam and communism are often perceived as being diametrically opposed. in a socio-political context, movements rooted in religious principles are often viewed as being right wing, while communism is left wing. communism is also seen as anti-religious, because marx and engels (2009, p.8–9) called religion “the opium of the people.” however, not all people feel a need to alienate communism from religion, as seen in various regions, including the east indies, where communism began to support the movement of muslims (soekarno, 1963). the integration of islam and communism occurred because both have a corresponding social doctrine, namely an attitude of responsibility toward the weak. what is more, the universal nature of islam has implications for the emergence of the interpretive variants of this religion. in this context, islamic communism is viewed as a model of islam for the world of anti-capitalist movements. the communist movement, which aims to fight for the workers, is considered by anti-capitalist islamists as being in line with islam (ricklefs, 2007). in addition, communism and leftist movements tend to flourish in societies where people’s quality of life is deteriorating (gie, 1999). in the colonial era, most of the affected indigenous people were marginalized. they were poor and oppressed, and they were often referred to as krama (materu, 1970; hm nasruddin anshoriy, 2008). to liberate themselves from the grip of the capitalist colonial rulers, the krama embarked on a socialist revolution (islamic communism, 2004). in the history of the national movement, efforts to integrate socialism and islam were widely pursued. tan malaka, who was well aware of the contradiction between islam and communism, presented a view for merging pan-islamism and communism (schwartz, 2009). marco also initiated the integration of socialism and islam, while misbach presented the case of communism journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 as a form of islamic struggle (gie, 1999). tjokroaminoto (2003) also presented a concept for harmonizing the ideals of socialism and islam, one that explains islam from the perspective of the people’s struggle against the evil of capitalism. the integration of islam and communism was intended to bring about a just social order under a religious command and thus prevent capitalism from exploiting people. both conform to ideals of equality, and they echoed the struggle of the oppressed indonesian people (soekarno, 1963). by ignoring the element of atheism, it became possible to combine communism with islam. this led to the thoughts and movements that came to be referred to as islamic communism (ricklefs, 2007; mcvey, 2006). misbach (1925d, 1926a), however, referred to the movement as revolutionary islam or the islamic communist party of indonesia. islamic communism is therefore regarded as a variant of islam (tim syarikat, 2003), but this understanding is flawed because the noun in the phrase is “communism” rather than “islam.” the term islamic communism therefore implies an islamic tone in a communist movement, thus emphasizing a concern for the plight of oppressed people (islam bergerak, august 20, 1922 p. 2). this movement was intended to address the challenges of the socio-political dynamics of the early 20thcentury in the east indies. islamic communism differs from the islamic socialism of modern intellectuals like agoes salim and tjokroaminoto. it is defined as a movement to implement the teachings of islam using the case of communism. the term islamic communism is considered more appropriate than the term communist muslim or communist islam (effendi, 2010). the term communist muslim would refer to a communist-minded muslim, but this would be far from unique because most indonesian communists were muslims. this study also avoids the term communist islam to avoid confusing it as an islamic sect. instead, islamic communism is an islamic movement that uses the perspective of communism as a tool for its struggle. it is a movement to realize the ideals of islam through communism, namely by freeing people from the oppression and misery caused by capitalism and colonialism. from this perspective, islamic communism can be viewed as an ideology of resistance (syari’ati, 1994). as syari’ati (1994) argues, islam needs to be viewed as an ideological and political superstructure in order to shape human nature and create just societies. it is a revolutionary ideology that transforms the status quo into a humanistic social order. in a more concrete form, islam needs to be regarded as a protest religion and the ideology of resistance to oppression. bakri islamic communism is, in essence, an interpretation of the religion from the perspective of communism (gie, 1994). this perspective then becomes a form of thought based on religious beliefs (islam), using communism as a way to struggle (tim syarikat, 2003). islam is often associated with indigenous interests, thus acting as a unifying force against the “infidel” aggressors. this interpretive variant of islam, in the history of thought and its aftermath, is often confronted by a dominant islamic ideology that views islam at one end of the spectrum and communism at the opposite end. despite the constant resistance from the guardians of islamic orthodoxy, however, the strong communists consistently showed their militancy in their struggle to defend the oppressed. characteristics of islamic communism thought the second findings describe islamic communism doctrines by which integration of communism ideology and islam is persuasively used as the tool of the struggles. the doctrines infuse five teachings whose values have been acculturated to the recent contexts of the struggle at that time. the doctrines are (a) islam as the foundation of islamic struggle progressiveness, (b) radicalism in anti-capitalism, (c) commitment to social advocacy, (d) islamic anti-formalism, and (e) the “equally equal” principle the strong communist group intended to do what casanova (1994) called religious deprivatization, which is an effort to bring religion into the public sphere. islam is therefore used as the ideology of resistance in social and political thought. the character of islamic communist thinking is depicted through six points: 1) islam as the foundation of struggle, 2) progressive islam, 3) radical anti-capitalism, 4) commitment to social advocacy, 5) islamic anti-formalism, and 6) the “equally equal” principle. islam as the foundation of struggle a common feature of islamic communism is to use the holy verses of the qur’an to show the compatibility between islam and communism (pringgodigdo, 1967). misbach (1926a) meanwhile, made islam a cornerstone of the struggle while at the same time fighting for islam using the case of communism. islamic communism uses the teachings of islam as the basis for fighting the slander that stems from the existence of capitalism. misbach (1926b) also called the struggle a war against the causes of people’s suffering. islamic communist thinking, as s. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 hardjowijoto put it in the vergadering of sarekat islam (si) in pekalongan on december 23–24, 1923, was intended to fight capitalism as an obstacle to indigenous people exercising their religion (verslag pendek, 1923). misbach, meanwhile, asked muslims to review the qur’an before undertaking various activities. in the vergadering of si in kebumen on may 14, 1920, he said that anyone who did not obey the qur’an did not practice islam correctly (wongsodimedjo & slamet, 1920). from this perspective, acting according to the qur’an is compatible with a having a communist spirit and fighting capitalism. misbach therefore activated islam as a religion of protest with the ideology of resistance to capitalism and colonialism. islam is then implemented in the world of thought as follows: “i. b. views islam not to be separated from politics, but i. b. views islam not just as words and abase for the suppression of fellow human beings” (pembatja kita, november 10, 1922). he also said that the effort to uphold justice is an obligation for every muslimin order to achieve public salvation regardless of tribe and religion. the obligation for muslims is not just to foster individual transition but also emphasize the importance of promoting social transition through the world of thought (misbach, 1926a). from the perspective of islamic communism, revolutionary thought wars against people who worship lust and spread corruption with oppression (capitalism and imperialism) (i.e., people only interested in self-pleasures, including foreign and domestic capitalists). the struggle of communists is viewed as a struggle to ground islamic values in the context of social improvement and economic and political order to make society more just and civilized. the concept of misbach’s thinking can also be called a theology of liberation, which is a theology from the perspective of struggling to liberate society from colonialism. islam as practiced by communists is not merely intended to position islam as a principle of legal, symbolic, and organizational formality—it may be better interpreted as a mindset that puts islam at the base of thought, spirit, and morality, as well as a source of value. the presence of islamic communism, from the perspective of the intellectuals, is seen as favoring islam because the strong communists in surakarta were able to playa role in a liberation that generally left behind the leaders of islamic associations. in explaining the relationship between islam and communism, misbach quotes the qur’an, specifically letter az-zumar verse 18, about the necessity for a muslim to be a true muslim by way of communism (misbach, 1925b). this bakri means that communism is viewed as an effort to bring salvation to people in the world, as well as in the hereafter. this thought is similar to the idea of islamic teachings. in medan moeslimin, there is a strict expression: “muslims must involve themselves in the communist movement” (verslaggever 1925). this expression arises from the fact that it is the communists who are squarely focused on the struggle against capitalism and colonialism, while other indigenous people have become accomplices of the invaders. achmad dasoeki also used the verses of the qur’an as the basis for the struggle. he and sastrowidjono claimed that the way to allah (sabilillah) lay in communism (solo dan pemikirannja, 1924). in the vergadering of the sarekat indies (insulinde) in surakarta on 21–22 march, 1920, dasoeki described how the revolutionary struggle against the capitalists and the government was in accordance with islam (sastrosiswojo, 1920). islam became the foundation of every activity for misbach and the strong adherents of communism. when asked about public instigations against the policies of the colonial rulers, misbach firmly replied that such attitudes arose because they were motivated by islamic factors (verslaggever, 1920). capitalism is regarded as the enemy of islam, because it is considered the root cause of the collapse of morality, humanity, and religion (misbach, 1925a). for the strong adherents of communism, capitalism is considered to have lured muslims away from their religion because it only concerns itself with monetary gains, which is an affront to religion. in a meeting, the clerics of surakarta shouted anti-capitalist slogans like “insult religion! get down! get down!” while using a hammer as a symbol for the communist party of indonesia (pki)” (soekirno, 1923a). after misbach left java, islam was still considered to be a source of value in the communist struggle. in the si vergadering in mangkuyudan, surakarta on november 22–23, 1924, it was agreed that si and pki were true practices of muslim expression (redaksi, 1914). islamic communism viewed itself as part of an islamic social missionary endeavor, because islam suggests a fight against evil (gie, 1999). it is this islamic spirit that makes the strong adherents of communism radical in the fight against capitalism and the government. such an islamic perspective was not found in the doctrines of the comintern and the pki, so it became a distinctive characteristic of islamic communism. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 progressive islam as an ideology of resistance, islamic communism also opposed fatalistic religious ideology (deterministic, predestination) (glasse, 2002), such as the decrees of religious leaders who consider oppression as part of god’s will. the fatalistic view of this era of thought was represented by a group that considered poverty and oppression to be rules and plans unrelated to capitalism and colonialism (fakih, 2002). the condition is rather considered part of humanity’s long journey from which people must gain wisdom, because it is a situation created by god. this fatalistic view of islam is considered as weakening the anti-oppression spirit, so it opposes the ideology of resistance, where communists engaged in a progressive interpretation of islam in response to a static islamic understanding (jumud). in addition to undermining the spirit of revolution, fatalistic ideals helped the oppressors to assert their control more (sastrosiswojo, 1919). a student at jamsaren islamic boarding school asked muslims to interpret patience progressively rather than as a passive doctrine (djamsaren, 1920). this opinion came to be adopted by the people of surakarta, especially those emerged in the world of thought. misbach and his followers made efforts to ground islam in the realm of thought, and they regarded fatalistic theology as poison for the people. the communists conflicted with the politieke economische bond (djama’atoel chasanah) because this organization stressed the importance of a receptive attitude, passive (fatalistic) patience, and not resisting the oppressors (choesen, 1923). although the strong communist group was anti-fatalistic and opposed traditional islamists, this does not imply that they belonged to a modernist group. this group was actually in an opposite position to the modernist islamic group (mcvey, 2006), as represented by muhammadiyah and central sarekat islam (csi), because the modernist group cooperated with the dutch east indies government and the capitalists, and they did not want a revolutionary struggle. based on this explanation, it can be concluded that the strong communists deliberately developed a progressive interpretation of islam to counter the fatalistic orthodox understanding, as well as the modernists who did not view islam as an ideology of resistance. at the same time, it became the spirit of the anti-government and anti-capitalism struggle. bakri radicalism in anti-capitalism islamic communist thinking was radical and uncompromising toward capitalism (choesen, 1923). this can be seen in the calls in islam bergerak to use radical thought against the arbitrary acts perpetrated by the usurper (perpemikiran di hindia, 1918). in general, radical thinking often uses a distinctive idiom, such as revolution. the radical way of thinking was a central feature throughout misbach’s history and the communist struggle in surakarta. radical and revolutionary thought was seen as an effective way of resisting colonialism and capitalism (rachmad, 1919).revolution is therefore a religious command, just as misbach expressed in the sarekat islam (si) vergadering in kebumen: “brothers! the muslims are god’s warrior. they are obliged to sweep away any slander” (wongsodimedjo & slamet, 1920) and “al-quran letter 2, verse 189 says fight all slanders until they are cleansed” (misbach, 1923c). the call to fight against the enemies of islam shows that misbach’s thinking was radical and uncompromising in upholding the truth. the radicalism of the strong communists arose from cumulative events. the hatred culminating from tyranny was then systematically acquired in the form of islamic teachings and the platform of communism, because there is a doctrine in both that fosters a radical attitude in the fight against injustice (islam bergerak, august 1, 1918 p. 1). politically speaking, the radical attitude of islamic communism was influenced by semaun’s revolutionary thought. when he led the si of semarang, he undertook a paradigmatic revolution in politics and managed to influence half of the local sarekat islam associations. misbach himself was mentioned as semaun’s cadre in influencing the si in solo to become revolutionary (gie, 1999). this radical style emerged when anti-oppressive action was rarely voiced by members of indigenous associations. sjarief (1919), a student of a boarding school in surakarta, criticized the islamic leaders because they did not act decisively or play an active role in declaring islam in this mode of thought. the use of islamic teachings against oppression is seen as a fundamental aspect of islam. this radical style was an antithesis to capitalism and imperialism, as well as to the islamic formalists who remained silent. this attitude, which characterized the thinking of islamic communism, was very effective in mobilizing people. indeed, radicalism, from the perspective of social thought, was a prerequisite for mobilizing mass action. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 commitment to social advocacy the main similarity between the teachings of islam and communism lies in the commitment to social advocacy, especially defending the rights of the oppressed. applying the teachings of communism is therefore seen as practicing the teachings of islam without intending to equate the two. in essence, communist thinking is then a form of islamic practice (sirodj, 1923). islamic communism strongly condemned those who are solely concerned with their own affairs and refuse to enter the world of thought. they were referred to as a sleeping fool who need to be awakened (djalasoetra, 1923). the government of the dutch east indies fooled people in two ways, namely expanding the world of education and promoting moral decay through a culture of drinking liquor (redaksi, 1924). the former made people more sympathetic to the government, while the latter made people lazy and impoverished, so they had little opportunity to sharpen their minds. social advocacy is also achieved by rejecting the interest-based financial system that further adds to the suffering of the economically weak. this rejection is part of islamic communist thinking (islam bergerak, august 20, 1922, 2) while muhammadiyah strengthened the issue of economic practice with an interest-based financial system. based on this explanation, it can be inferred that the strong communist commitment to social advocacy is shown in populist thinking, namely that which directly touches upon the problem of poverty. this was characteristic of the communists when the bourgeoisie developed a discourse of indigenous progress through western models of education and the orthodox guardians of islam. islamic anti-formalism the communists viewed themselves as opponents of the islamic formalism from clerics, the leaders of islamic societies, and muslims who lacked any real political desire to oppose persecution. this attitude implies that the role of worship in cultivating social transgressions does not necessarily bring about political thought (hurgronje, 1999). they were opposed by misbach’s group for not wanting to carry out their religious duty, namely to fight oppression, and misbach called them hypocrites (misbach, 1922; red, 1919). misbach also dared to say that a true islamist is not a formal muslim but rather one who hones god’s teachings for salvation. the formalist islam group, in the opinion of the communists, was considered as too often feeling that it was always right, and it only thought about its own benefit, bakri especially for the leaders. on the other hand, true muslims are those who view religion as a guide and path to salvation, both in the world and the hereafter (misbach, 1925b). in the vergadering of the si of pekalongan, misbach opposed discussing the problem of religious formalism, which was not related to the expression of thought. theoretical discussion was considered to be an unproductive, non-transformative way of liberating the oppressed nation. misbach actually led the idea of islamic communism while criticizing the religious leaders and the bourgeoisie in the vergadering (verslag pendek dari open bare open lucht vergaddering si pekalongan pada tanggal 23-24 desember 1922, 1923). the orthodox guardian leaders of islam were accused of making islam a theory rather than practicing it (loebis, 1923). true islam, from the perspective of the communists, was a form of islam manifested in the world of political thought (dasoeki, 1923). islamic groups who withdrew from the world of political thought, such as muhammadiyah and djama’atoel chasanah, were considered to be organizations that reduced islam to a theory. the same was put to al-irsyad in betawi, which he called an opportunistic wahhabist who refused to enter the world of thought (jufrij, 1923). for the communists, religion had to be used as an inspiration for the anti-capitalism struggle. the islam practiced by the silent clerics was therefore questionable. islam in that era of thought in surakarta was dynamically activated by the strong communists as an ideology of change. the muhammadiyah leaders were also criticized as sycophants (troenodjojo, 1921). misbach and the strong communists considered muhammadiyah, djama’atoel chasanah, and the politieke economische bond (peb) as hypocritical and untrue islamic groups (islam bergerak, january 20,1922). the discourse of true islamists and the mild (i.e., pseudo, hypocritical) islamists became a distinctive feature of islam bergerak after the split between the satv revolutionary group and thesatv muhammadiyah. muhammadiyah and peb were accused of being mild islamist groups that sold religion for personal and group interests (islam bergerak, april 10, 1923, 2). the peb was considered a slave to the capitalists and a colonial spy (soekirno, 1923a). in turn, the muhammadiyah group accused misbach’s group of being traitors to muhammadiyah, sarekat islam, and muslims in general (oetoesan hindia, 1922). from the perspective of islamic communism, islamic associations such as muhammadiyah, central sarekat islam (csi), and djama’atoel chasanah were more engaged in islamic thought in a symbolic sense, especially for typical formal islamic issues (e.g., mahdloh worship, morals, islam, etc.). they did not discuss matters of injustice, oppression, and exploitation, and they journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 were perceived as being trapped in the world of colonialism and capitalism, thus preventing religion from plunging into the world of thought. the peb group accused misbach of creating an atheistic form of thinking that went against islamic principles (soekirno, 1923a). thecsi, under the leadership of tjokroaminoto, also viewed communism as a danger that could mislead muslims. the book of islam and socialism, written in 1924, was intended to ensure that muslims acted consistently with religion-based socialism, and rejected marxism, which was thought to diminish the importance of religion (tjokroaminoto, 2003). csi and muhammadiyah were representative islamic associations that consistently advocated socialism based on islam, namely the progress of manners and virtue in society according to the teachings of muhammad (tjokroaminoto, 2003). the pki itself, however, claimed it did not diminish religious beliefs. communist thinking in the east indies was so strict that the pki maintained the sanctity of religion, but it opposed any group that used religion as a mask (soekirno, 1923b). the islamic associations representing the status quo were referred to as masked moslems, because they talked about religion but never sought to resist capitalism, which was the major cause of public suffering (soetera, 1923b). for misbach, islam had to manifest in the form of reflection by seeking the causes of people’s suffering and removing them (misbach, 1923a). through this way of thinking, misbach and the communists of surakarta assumed that the mild islamic associations refused to entertain anti-capitalism thinking (misbach, 1925a). misbach’s harsh attitude in attacking muhammadiyah and the peb actually triggered a negative response from some muslims. the attack was seen as a clumsy attempt, one likened to burning down a house to kill the rats, to cleanse islam of hypocrites by destroying islam itself (choesen, 1923). in response to such criticism, the editor of islam bergerak claimed that muhammadiyah was just an association and not a religion, so criticizing muhammadiyah did not constitute attacking islam (red, 1923). the “equally equal” principle the term “equally equal” was first used by marco kartodikromo (1918a) in the sinar djawa newspaper (sinar djawa, number 81 on 10 april 10, 1918). on april 16, 1918, kartodikromo (1918b) wrote another article entitled equally equal in the same newspaper. this article sought to ask the indigenous people to get along well and think about the condition of oppression and bakri occupation being imposed by foreign nations. the term then became popular among the mindset and was adopted as a communist idiom (islam bergerak august 1, 1922 and red (1919) this was not surprising given how this term resonated with popular thought, which was antithetical to capitalism (soedjopranoto, 1921). by the end of 1919, the formation of a democratic “equally equal” government was an aspiration of various indigenous groups in vorstenlanden (s. h., 1919). this ideal was a typical manifestation of the struggle to create a classless society, as evidenced in the political doctrine of karl marx. this idea is also considered compatible with islamic teaching, which views that all human beings have the same value (pakoealaman, 1922; rachmad, 1919). froman islamic perspective, this principle could be interpreted as al-musawah (egalitarianism) (boeroeh, 1918), and it became the forerunner to the struggle to create a rule based on togetherness and public interest, which is an important part of islamic teaching (misbach, 1923b). the basic idea behind islamic communism is achieving egalitarianism by creating a classless society (i.e. an “equally equal” society) (misbach, 1926). like misbach, dasoeki (1921) also claimed that being “equally equal” was the utopian ideal of a classless society achieved by upholding justice. indeed, justice is part of islamic teaching and a prerequisite for achieving an egalitarian society (hidajat, 1918). the doctrine of “equally equal” can be interpreted as religious egalitarianism in that god alone is greater, with all others having the same value. the notion was not just theoretical, because it had the practical effect of evoking the indigenous people’s attitude against the oppressors (prawirowinoto, 1919). the emergent islamic communist thinking was actually intended as a protest against muslim leaders who promoted islam as merely formal worship. they judged them as liking to question amoral behavior but preferring to be silent about anti-social behavior (ranuwihardjo, 2000). the communists thus came to oppose religious formalism because it was seen as diminishing religious thought. islamic communism emphasized an effort to bring religion into the public sphere, while the proponents of the status quo desired to lead religion into the private sphere. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 conclusion and pedagogical implication our study has described syncretism in the islamic communism and doctrines of islamic communism as the main ideology of surakarta communism. in summary, the integration of communism and islam in surakarta in the early quarter of the 20thcentury was a syncretism fusion, one where communist thinking could not be separated from the perspective of islam. in other words, islam was interpreted through the lens of communism. this demonstrates how islamic thought grows and evolves according to the historical dynamics surrounding it. the basic idea behind islamic communism doctrine is achieving egalitarianism by creating a an “equally equal” of society apparently appears in capitalism. the early quarter of the 20thcentury was a time of movement for the indigenous people of indonesia, specifically in terms of a growing desire to resist colonialism and capitalism. at the same time, this popular movement grew in tandem with both moslems and communists. due to having similar views about the causes of the indigenous people’s oppression, the ideologies within islam and communism were considered compatible, so islamic communism became established. this fact asserts that islamic communism has a revolutionary style with a religious spirit, and it can be viewed as an ideology of resistance. it gained strong support in surakarta in the first quarter of the twentieth century, because islamic communism begins with the assumption that the poverty and suffering of people are caused by injustices in the economic systems and structures, culture, and social and political systems. from the perspective of islamic communism, islam is viewed as a religion that should encourage resistance to various forms of oppression. the findings of the study evidently identify that recent phenomena that address islam and radicalism addressed and polarization of destructive islamic values are misleading issues. this implies that teaching history should define distinctive historical value between communism and islam. future researches are suggested to focus on recent development of the doctrines viewing islamic teaching that are now growing in the society in harmony. references arkoun, m. (1994). nalar islami dan nalar modern. (rahayu s. hidayat, trans.) jakarta: inis. bakri, s. (2015). gerakan komunisme islam surakarta 1914-1942. yogyakarta: lkis. bakri, s. (2018) surakarta bergerak. penamas, 31(2), 361–378. boekalah mata jang lebar. (october 18, 1923). ra’jat bergerak. bakri boeroeh, i. (june 10, 1918). sociaal democraatie dalam igama islam. islam bergerak. casanova, j. (1994). public religion in the modern world. chicago:the university of chicago press. choesen (1923, april 1).menoendjoekkan kesalahan.islam bergerak. communism (n.d.). in encyclopedia.com. retrieved from http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/communism.aspx communism and islam. (n.d.). in the oxford dictionary of islam. retrieved from http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e441 dasoeki. (1921, november 1). demit di tanah hindia. islam bergerak. dasoeki. (1923, january 10). perbarisan islam bergerak, kepada mochammadijah. djalasoetra. (october 11, 1923). pendoedoek kota klaten bangoenlah.ra’jat bergerak. djamsaren, s. (1920, june 1). toeroet toekar fikiran.islam bergerak. ecu university australia. (2019). what is historical research? retrieved on 11 july 2019. available online on: https://ecu.au.libguides.com/historical-research-method effendi, d. (2010). pembaruan tanpa membongkar tradisi: wacana keagamaan di kalangan generasi muda nu masa kepemimpinan gus dur. jakarta: penerbit buku kompas. fakih, m. (2002). islam sebagai alternatif in eko prasetyo (ed.),islam kiri, melawan kapitalisme modal dari wacana menuju pemikiran. yogyakarta: insist press. fatwa, j. (2004). sekilas nahdlatut tujjar. yogyakarta: pustaka pesantren. foja-foja sikapnja wakil pemerintah manokwari. (1925). medan moeslinin, 9. gie, s.h. (1999). di bawah lentera merah. yogyakarta. bentang budaya. glasse, c. (2002). ensiklopedi islam. (ghufron a. mas’adi.trans.). jakarta: raja grafindo persada. hanafi, h. (1991), agama ideologi dan pembangunan. (sonhaji sholih,trans.).jakarta: p3m. hanafi, h. (1995). islam in the modern world. kairo: the anglo-agyptian bookshop. hidajat. (may 10, 1920). hak kemanoesia’an. islam bergerak. hm nasruddin anshoriy, c. (2008). rekam jejak; dokter pejuang & pelopor kebangkitan nasional. lkis pelangi aksara. hongxuan, l. (2018). sickle as crescent: islam and communism in the netherlands east indies, 1915-1927. studi islamika, 25(2), 309–350. https://ecu.au.libguides.com/historical-research-method journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 huda, n. (2013). wacana islamisme dan komunisme: melacak genealogi intelektual hadji mohammad misbach 1876-1926. (unpublished doctoral dissertation). uin sunan kaljaga,yogyakarta. hunt, c. (1957).sebuah petundjuk guna memahami istilah-istilah komunis. (savitri. djakartatrans.). badan penerbit masa. hurgronje, s. (1999). seorang arab sekutu pemerintrah hindia belanda 1886 in kumpulan karangan snouck hurgronje vii. (soedarso soekarno trans.). jakarta: inis. islam, b. (june 10, 1918). sociaal democraatie in igama islam. islam bergerak. islamic communism. (2004). retrieved fromhttp.//www.workersliberty.org/node/1864 jufrij, a. a. (march 1, 1923). perbarisan islam bergerak, toeroet berkata. islam bergerak. kartodikromo, m. (april 10, 1918a). sama rasa dan sama rata.sinar djawa,(81). kartodikromo, m. (april 16, 1918b). sama rasa sama rata. sinar djawa. loebis, r. s. m. (february 10, 1923). rekening kepada bp. seloeroeh hindia. islam bergerak. marx, k.& engels, f. (2007). manifesto of the communist party. new york: international publisher. marx, k. & engels, f. (2009). on religion. california: foreign languages publishing house. materu, m.s.d. (1970). sedjarah pergerakan nasional indonesia. djakarta: n.d. mcvey, r. (2006). the rise of indonesian communism. jakarta and singapura: equinox publishing. misbach, h. m. (1922) assalamoe’alaikoem waroehmatoe’lohi wa barokatoeh. medan moeslimin, 20. misbach, h. m. (1923a). islam dan atoerannja. medan moeslimin, 19. misbach, h. m. (1923b). semprong wasiat, partij diesipline s. i. tjokroaminoto mendjadi ratjoen perpemikiran ra’jat hindia ii. medan moeslimin, 9. misbach, h. m (1923c). pemandangan. islam bergerak. misbach, h. m. (1925a). islamisme dan kommunisme. medan moeslimin,2. misbach, h. m. (1925b). islamisme dan kommunisme. medan moeslimin, 3. misbach, h. m. (1925c). islamisme dan kommunisme. medan moeslimin,4. misbach, h. m. (1925d). soerat terboeka, medan moeslimin, 9. misbach, h. m. (1926). nasehat. medan moeslimin,19. misbach, k. m. (2000). panji masyarakat, 4(9). http://www.workersliberty.org/node/1864 bakri njoto. (1962). marxisme: ilmu dan amalnya. jakarta: harian rajat. oetoesan hindia (1922). number 111. outhwaite, w. (ed.). (2008). ensiklopedi pemikiran sosial moder. (tri widodo bs,trans.). jakarta: prenada media group. p. r. (september 1, 1918). boemipoetra hindia terboeka fikirannja. islam bergerak. pakoealaman, b. (may 8, 1922). islam dan pemikirannja. sinar hindia, 89. palmier, l. h. (1973).communists in indonesia: power pursued in vain. california: anchor press. pembatja kita. (november 10, 1922). islam bergerak. penyusun, t. (1990). kamus pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa, kamus besar bahasa indonesia. jakarta: balai pustaka. perpemikiran di hindia. (october 1, 1918) islam bergerak. prawirowinoto, s. (june 20, 1919). kang kromo sekarang soedah brani melawan londo. islam bergerak. pringgodigdo, a. k. (1967).sedjarah pergerakan rakjat indonesia. jakarta: dian rakyat. putuhena, m. s. (2007). historiografi hadji indonesia. yogyakarta: lkis. rachmad. (december 20, 1919). haloean kita. islam bergerak. ranuwihardjo, d. (january 13, 2000). fenomena komunis muslim. simponi, 37. reaksi perpemikiran di daerah klaten. (september 20, 1923).ra’jat bergerak. red, i. b. (april 1, 1923). noot red. islam bergerak. red, i. b. (september 10, 1919). de soesoehoenan.islam bergerak. redaksi, m. m. (1924) h. m. misbach diboeang, ra’jat solo teroes bergerak, wasjawirhoem fil amri.medan moeslimin, 10. redaksi kbbi. (2002). kamus besar bahasa indonesia (3rd ed.). jakarta: balai pustaka. ricklefs. (2007).sejarah indonesia modern. (dharmono hardjowidjono, trans). yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. s. h. (december 20, 1919). soedara dr. tjipto.islam bergerak. saikal, a. (2007). radical islamism and the war on terror.in shahram akbarzadeh & fethi mansorui (eds.), islam and political violence: muslim diaspora and radicalism in the west. london: ib tauris & co ltd. sastrosiswojo. (december 20, 1919). kewadjiban manoesia. islam bergerak. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(1), 192-212 sastrosiswojo. (june 10, 1920). openbare vergadering sarekat hindia afd. solo di hari minggoe malam pada 21-22 maart 1920.islam bergerak. schwartz, s. s. (2009). islam and communism in the 20th century: an historical survey. washingtonandlondon: center for islamic pluralism. shimogaki, k. (2012). kiri islam: antara modernisme dan postmodernisme. yogyakarta: penerbit lkis. shiraishi, t. (1997). zaman bergerak: radikalisme rakyat di jawa 1912 – 1926. jakarta: pustaka utama grafiti. sirodj, m. (february 10, 1923). peredaran zaman. islam bergerak. sjarief. (march 10, 1919). perasaan.islam bergerak. soedjopranoto. (january 20, 1921). tentoekan dan tetapkanlah haloean.islam bergerak. soekirno. (march 20, 1923a). menghina agama, communist dan communisme.islam bergerak. soekirno. (may 1, 1923b). staat dan agama. islam bergerak. soekarno. (july 1, 1932). perbedaan komunis dan sosdem.fikiran ra’jat. soekarno. (1957). kepada bangsaku: karya-karya bung karno pada 1926-1930-1933-19411945-1947 dan 1957. djakarta: prapantja. soekarno. (1963). di bawah bendera revolusi,djilid pertama, tjetakan kedua. jakarta: panitya penerbit di bawah bendera revolusi. soekarno. (1966). bung karnopenjambung lidah rakjat indonesia. cindy adams (ed.). (abd. bar salim, trans.). djakarta: gunung agung. soetera, d. (october 11, 1923a). pendoedoek kota klaten bangoenlah.ra’jat bergerak. soetera, d. (november 1, 1923b). seroean terhadao sedjawat kaoem kita. ra’jat bergerak. solo dan pemikirannja. (1924). medan moeslimin, 10. spinning clio. (2005). introduction to historical method: practicing the historical method. retrieved on july 20, 2019. available online on: http://cliopolitical.blogspot.com/2005/08/introduction-to-historical-method_25.html syari’ati, a, (1985). peranan cendekiawan muslim, mencari masa depan kemanusiaan. sebuah wawasan sosiologi (ahmad fanani and mustofa w. hasyim, trans.). yogyakarta: shalahuddin press. syari’ati, a. (1993). islam agama ‘protes’ (satrio pinandito, trans.). jakarta: pustaka hidayah. http://cliopolitical.blogspot.com/2005/08/introduction-to-historical-method_25.html bakri syari’ati, a. (1994). ideologi kaum intelektual: suatu wawasan islam(syafiq basri &haidar baqir, trans.). bandung: mizan. tawassuli, g. a. (1996). sepintas tentang ali syari’ati.in ali syari’ati, humanisme: antara islam dan mazhab barat (afif muhammad, trans.). bandung: pustaka hidayah. tim syarikat. (2003). bertukar ingatan, membongkar stigma. in eksperimentasi syarikat. jakarta: t.p. tjokroaminoto. (2003). islam dan sosialisme. yogyakarta: tride. tosh, j. (1984). the persuit of history: aims, method and directions in the study of modern history. london: longman,. trager, f. n. (ed.). (1959). marxism in southeast asia: a study of four countries. london: oxford university press. troenodjojo, a. (march 10, 1921). pendidikan mohammadijah. islam bergerak. turner, j.h. (1981). the emergence of sociological theory. illinois: the dorsey press. verslag pendek dari openbare openlucht vergaddering si pekalongan pada tanggal 23-24 desember 1922. (january 1, 1923). islam bergerak. verslaggever. (november 1, 1920). perkara saudara misbach.islam bergerak. verslaggever. (1925). tjatatlah in hati dengan baik-baik.medan moeslimin, 7. wongsodimedjo & slamet. (july 1, 1920). openbare vergadering kring s. i. alijan (keboemen) pada 14 mei 1920. islam bergerak. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2), 117-129 teacher to student epistemological interaction in the contemporary paradigm of university education irina charikova1, victor zhadanov2 abstract the relevance of the problem under study is conditioned by the socially important need of the contemporary university education to train highly qualified personnel in all directions of activity, to form and develop a professional person of a high intellectual, moral and spiritual culture. the objective of the paper consists in giving theoretical grounds for the significant aspects of pedagogical implementation of training technologies and methods that are associated with the humanitarian vectors of generating the personal, "living" knowledge in the course of epistemic transformation of the content-related and essential parameters of interaction between subjects of the educational process at higher school. the leading approach to studying this problem was the activity-based one. it is consistently implemented in the competency-based paradigm of the contemporary higher education and it implies the epistemologically centered transformation of the pedagogical functions range of a university teacher. this would become a qualitative foundation for the new level of organizing the project, creative, scientific and research activities of students within the problem-solving and reflexive discourse of working within the group and interactive communication. in particular, in the contemporary university education paradigm, the epistemological interaction of teachers and students is to be the fact of the creative availability of intellectual relationships in the co-being reality of gaining the personally important, "living" knowledge. it acts as a factor of productive performance for the project-oriented epistemic technologies of forming a professional person of a high intellectual and spiritual culture. so it implies a generalized ability of a teacher to mentally activate the motivation and need sphere of the learners' personality pushing it towards intellectual openness to new knowledge and towards sensible responsible actions in the constructive context of project image of being. the materials of the paper can be of use for higher school teachers who are actual and effective participants in the innovation process of cognitive transformation that the contemporary university's mission undergoes, it being implemented within the epistemological paradigm "education through scientific research, heuristic cooperation and creative discoveries". keywords: epistemology, "living" knowledge, personal development, knowledge acquisition, projecting, problem-solving, pedagogical projection. introduction in all times of cultural and historical development of the society, the university education has been called on to open up new and reassuring horizons for development and selfdevelopment of the learners' personality. it ensures this by introducing the knowledge about the world, the others, the man himself as a professional sphere employee and making them more 1 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, orenburg state university, irnic@bk.ru 2 prof., doctor of engineering, head of the department, orenburg state university, vikira@list.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 117-129 popular. the rapid development of scientific and technical advance creates an increasingly higher volume of educational information as the "ready-made" information, data, knowledge. as a consequence, it is often the case when a better student can be (and proves to be) the one who has a better memory for the "formal", "ready-made" knowledge – the one who can handle correctly the growing quantity and kinds of accompanying data – and not at all his study peer having a vast luggage of personally centered knowledge, the "living", lived through and experienced one by the fact of an intellectual effort (wedman & wang, 2005, stamou, 2017). the traditional fact of "solid" acquisition of a fundamental knowledge store has a no doubt important, however, not the determining meaning for a successful educational training and the subsequent professional activity of the future professional (kopish, 2016; lafer & aydin, 2012; yigit, 2017). this is so because the current labor market badly needs specialists tending to continuous self-education, being able to think, analyze, generalize independently, to obtain and creatively apply the knowledge and, ideally, to build their own knowledge in line with the certain properties of the problem-solving situation changing (demirhan & yücel, 2016; leek, 2016). with regard to this, the contemporary russian researchers quite fairly provide grounds for "the need of total transition from the previously habitual scheme "subjectand informationbased" education (the "knowledge by experience" education, reproductive one, mainly pragmatic and standardized one) to the "business, professional and prospective" education (lushchikov, 2012). in its name-bearing typology, a "noticeable place" belongs to the phenomenon of "cgatyrevreative education" (efremova, 2010) which is oriented to "consolidating" in the future specialist's "professional conscience of attitudes to look for innovations, to analyze problems and solution options" that help "turning the knowledge into the potential of thinking and selfdevelopment". it is this that takes place in the epistemological imperative of the contemporary educational interaction at higher school: "comprehending not only what is known but also what is unknown, while productively mastering the expanding cognitive area of knowledge about ignorance" (ghenisaretskiy, 1994). a creative person always has an essentially insatiable need of acquiring and creating new knowledge, ideas, ideals, images, working out new behavior and activity models and forms. it is the qualitatively increasing human needs that are a creative source of development of the project knowledge which is innovational in its constructive focus on the future and acts both as an charikova et al. 119 intellectual foundation and the educational matrix of the progressive development of the society. literature review in the foreign humanitarian thought, such an important epistemological reference point of the contemporary university education in the changing world was most prominently worded by r. barnett, professor of the institute of education, london university. according to him, the today's university "is designed not only to multiply the schemes of understanding the world but also to teach more or less comfortable life under the radical uncertainty… the university generates super-complexity and teaches us to live with it" (barnett, 2008, p. 46). moreover, today, there arises a threatening educational problem of "information overflow" in the contemporary students, exactly corresponding to the known saying by k. prutkov "one cannot embrace the unembraceable!". the problem may "fatally" border on the "physical limits" of the relevant opportunities of human brain (barnett, 2008, p. 46). hence, at the time of globalism becoming firmly established, the universities can efficiently perform their high mission only in the case if they are not only social and cultural translators of the "ready-made" knowledge but if they also turn into actual centers of producing the "new", "living", personally significant knowledge and one promoting the productive life in conditions of continuously changing "super-complicated" world, one that exists by generation, first of all, at humanitarian centered basic segments of the university's educational interaction: "teacher – student", "student – group – teacher". with regard to this, the educational process at the russian higher school today is viewed as an academic form of non-linear, individually centered and variative interaction (makarova, 2014, timova, 2014). it is performed in the project and environment conditions of humanitarian support and it is aimed at multiplying the intellectual (human, knowledge-based, intellectrelated) capital of a personality in order to further use it efficiently in a constructive activity (bogoslovskiy & glubokova, 2008, moiseev, 1993). this is so because knowledge always exists just in a certain kind of busy activity, it always "exists in the processes of usage generating it" (gromyko, 2011, p. 8) and it fundamentally has no limitations in all scopes and at all angles of its "life-related" measurement and creative understanding. the above factors of the comprehensive pedagogical support for epistemological (epistemic) reference points of the profound upgrade of the russian higher education directly correlate with the general directives on innovation transformation ("the transformation") of the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 117-129 russian education in the 21st century. they have been worded by academician d.i. feldshtein (1994, 2012) and they are associated with focused formation of a "new" man who is capable of productive life activity in the drastically changed "time/space" of his being, who is internally prepared for "solving the complicated, objectively facing him non-standard tasks containing a huge amount of uncertainties" while at the same keeping "all the best human qualities and human potential" (feldshtein, 2012, p. 1). while fairly pointing out the fact that "the classical pedagogical paradigm is objectively exhausted" under the present-day rapidly changing life conditions, d.i. feldshtein calls on the contemporary russian education "to prepare a creative person, a creatively thinking one" who is oriented not to "imitation" and "repetition" of a having already occurred experience but rather to "creation of a new, one's own way". this implies, in particular, forming the ability to not only acquire the necessary scope of the existing knowledge but also to "adopt a creative attitude towards it while also participating in their further elaboration" (charikova, 2016, p. 29). moreover, there is an epistemically important moral and esthetic component that stands out in the detailed register of the "best human qualities" to be programmed. it characterizes the desirable (due) image of a modern young person – an intellectual demiurge and a dedicated creator of the new knowledge: the person "likes change" and is ready to "bravely face the completely unforeseen situations" (feldshtein, 2012, p. 9). directly associated with the relevant style of the upbringing influence, this statement, on the one hand, proceeds with justifying the imperishably relevant "enlightment" task of education which was worded by i. kant as an imperative "have the courage to use your own reason!" on the other hand, in a similarly important cognitive respect, it accompanies the desirable condition of an approving acceptance by the young people of broadly understood life "change" (not in the latest turn as "difficulties", "impediments", "obstacles"). here it can be spoken about pedagogically mediated progress of learners towards an inspiring constancy of a "stable" condition of the "joy of thinking", of expecting the onset of the "fair and honest joy of thought" conditioned by work, as worded by m.k. mamardashvili (2000). this is conformable to nature to the limit and so a profoundly natural condition. the above is the source of problem-solving and epistemological foundations of pedagogical organization of educational subjects' interaction. equally, the problem-solving project character of epistemic technologies of the higher school students' personal growth is charikova et al. 121 justified which is located within the theoretical, methodological and practical plane of ideals and ideas in "thoughtand activity-based pedagogy" (gromyko, 2011; shchedrovitskiy, 2001). here it is the learning of radically new, epistemic technologies of working with knowledge that goes to the foreground: students have not only to remember something, they have – they are called on by the circumstances of time – to understand how knowledge emerges and in which way it can be used. this is why in the reference points of the competency-based approach being established, the educational and pedagogical functions range of a higher education institution teacher is transformed essentially. the requirements for his didactic competency are increased, in particular, ones in the aspect of students' cognitive activity support within the information educational environment using the techniques of critical thinking development technology, problem-solving questions and assignments (dakhin, 2010; tarman & acun, 2010; tarman, 2016). this implies a transition to a qualitatively higher level of the teacher's mastery of the learners' project, creative, scientific and research activity organization technologies to be applied in the personally developing environment of group interaction (coaching and workshops) and interactive communication (moderating and facilitating). other spheres include the contentand meaning-related cognitions of critical thinking, problem-solving and reflexive learning and metacognitive activity (lektorskiy et al., 2014) that are implemented within the educational chronotope of teachers and students' joint epistemological being (co-working, co-operation) (lazarev, 2015). methodological framework generalizing the above, the prevailing objectives of our research can be made more precise: developing the conceptual bases for implementing the higher school students' project activity within the personality developing space of educational epistemology (the humanitarian mission of supporting the project activity in a multi-national educational space, 2008). in terms of tasks, this implies having to conduct a focused research exploration in further expansion area of conceptual opportunities opened up by the pedagogical toolkit in the process of actualizing the epistemic foundations for the contemporary university students' educational activity, the foundations being associated with project vectors and personal development technologies of learners as the actual subjects of "living" (personal) knowledge. epistemological transformation of the educational content and pedagogical meanings of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 117-129 students' project activity which acts as a determining factor in forming a "new" type specialist emphasizes the effective foundations of the competencyand activity-based methodology. this methodology is axiologically implemented within the personality developing context of heuristically focused methods, tools and techniques that generate ascending to professional and life-related results and meanings of being. results and discussion in this research, functions range of forming a "new" professional specialist in an epistemically centered university educational interaction (which was outlined in terms of tasks and objectives) is designed to take into account within its implementation not only the developing opportunities of time-proven foreign and russian methods and technologies for boosting a personality's creative capacities ("brainstorming", "synectics", "theory of solving the inventor's problems" etc.) but quite expectedly it relies on the cognitive and heuristic resource of communication and information technologies. they expand the space for obtaining the personally centered, "living" knowledge considerably (karagapoltsev & charikova, 2016) and they act as a determining humanitarian attribution of teacher to student epistemological interaction within the contemporary "thoughtand activity-based" paradigm of the university education ("episteme collection", "the method of creating problem epistemic situations", "the method of educational estheticization of the content of professional and life-related epistemes" etc.). the provisions and vectors of thoughtand activity-based pedagogy that are oriented to creating fundamentally new educational modules / structures – episteme collections which are a kind of informational "superstructures" – are highly important for this research, within the plane of higher education institution training of further specialists-innovators, creative professionalsdesigners who are able to find their bearings easily in the modern society's increasingly complicated information space. the architecture of the information support of teacher to student epistemological interaction can be presented as a model given in figure 1. charikova et al. 123 figure 1. the architecture of information support for teacher to student epistemological interaction. note: the following figure and note are each adapted from charikova (2016). in the constructive plane of activity-based approach of the episteme collection, by "creating a bank of problems over which the entire humanity struggles", a fundamentally new cognitive focus of the learners' intellectual view is set heuristically. in particular, this involves drawing the boundaries between the "known" and the "unknown, and students are project-based oriented to mastering the new ways of individual and group work with knowledge. thus, the "knowledge about the subject knowledge structure" is presented as the meta-knowledge, the "knowledge about ignorance", no matter in what subject form it exists (efremova, 2010, p. 207, p. 236), which directly promotes actualizing the efforts and energies of intellectual exploration and gaining the epistemological – extremely life-relevant and profoundly personal – meanings of the being learned in the endless diversity of its cognitive interpretations. speaking about the gnoseological context of personal gaining the "epistemological meanings" of the being learned, it is the created availability of the "problem-solving situation" that acts as the pedagogical principle of the learners' project and research exploration. meanwhile, the very scientific problem is understood to have a status of a "special form of knowledge", a "structural unit of scientific knowledge" which "alongside with essentially debatable and polemic functions" is viewed as a "consequence of dissociation, controversy and journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 117-129 incompleteness of knowledge" – or, in fact, as the previously mentioned "knowledge about ignorance" (mikeshina, 2005, p. 258-261). this has the most direct attitude to heuristic actualization of epistemic foundations and vectors of teacher to student interaction within the changing paradigm of the university education. the so-called "method of educational estheticization of the content of professional and life-related epistemes" is extremely important for achieving the objectives and tasks set in this research. here the "synectically" centered esthetic parameters range is manifested not only in the feelings of unconditional (sensual) hedonistic nature of the formal characteristics of the beauty in cognitive structures and intellectual constructs opened up (symmetry, harmony, integrity, proportionality) (kovalenko & nikitina, 2012) which is actualized by the teacher in learners. it also manifests itself in situations of mental penetration into (touching at) the inviting and alluring world of the mystery, riddle, miracle to be comprehended that is happening here and now, literally "in the very eyes" of the learners while being artistically (by script-writing and acting out) built by the teacher. the point is that the tool-related (formal) category of "how?" that is associated with presentation style frequently plays a not less significant part – and perhaps a more important one too – as compared to the unshakable content-richness of the knowledge structure "what?" in the educational subjects' epistemological interaction (bogatyrev & ustinova, 2008). hence at the initial stages of building an epistemologically centered interaction, the principal pedagogical task of a teacher consists in not only conveying to the learners an essential minimum of ready-made (formal) knowledge and teaching them to obtain the required knowledge-related information independently (to process, to filter, to invert and to integrate), but also to form their ability to turn the initial (formalized) cognitive structural nature into a new, personally important, "living" typology of knowledge in a generating way (jones, 1986, zianghirova, 2007). with regard to this, possessing the generalized ability to "place the miracle inside the law" (berezhnova, 2008) acts as a professionally important attributive feature of teachers – participants of this research. it implies a pedagogical total of the relevant techniques and training methods that produce a favorable effect on raising the university teacher to student educational interaction to the level of epistemological cooperation and creativity. charikova et al. 125 conclusion in their joint educational cooperation with university teachers, the today's students are actually directed towards a diverse and discernible set of cognitive epistemic units – pieces of knowledge, facts, data, information, various kinds of models and schemes, theories and techniques – that are mainly presented as the intellectual and meaning-related content-richness which is still evolving and fundamentally uncompleted. the extent of the learners' actual and effective acquisition of the outlined epistemic fundamentals of their learning and educational activity largely depends on the extent to which the future professionals are capable of the independent cognitive reflection of the generalized cognitive units (epistemes) – whether they understand their structure, whether they can assess them in the plane of generating emergence and completing uncertainty, whether they can perform a calculation, construction, scheme drawing up etc. in pedagogical actualization of these processes, the teacher is given a fundamentally important place. he is designed to become not only a subject of joint epistemological being which is to inspire the students, but also an undoubted authority in intellectual and life professionalism and, thus, an attractive example to imitate in the learners' eyes. as "imitating acquisition of behavior stereotypes and moral norms opens up a direct path to the sphere of the subconscious" (timova, 2014, p. 28), therefore, this conditions the behavioral and activityrelated efficiency of the process of upbringing formation of a personality in the epistemologically centered educational interaction. it seems no kind of the most modern technologies, methods and tools will lead to the desired educational result, or (which is the same) will allow a today's teacher to act as a fullfledged "coach" – a professional specialist at making his students intellectually succeed – unless the teacher holds a firm belief into the learners' intellectual resource, unless he possesses the optimizing hope for a favorable pedagogical forecast on the cognitive rise of the student's personality. without these, epistemological teacher to student interaction is fundamentally impossible within the contemporary paradigm of the university education. the questions of identifying the status for axiological dominant in teacher to student interaction within the contemporary paradigm of the university education remain debatable and beyond the scope of this paper. thus, teacher to student epistemological interaction in the contemporary university journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 117-129 education paradigm has the following features: – it is the fact of creative availability of intellectual relationships between the educational subjects that occur on the occasion of achieving (gaining, ascending to) a level of cognitive cobeing in personally important, "living" new knowledge having an intention for self-development; – it acts as a factor of actual performance of the learners' project activity which is associated with the project-oriented epistemic technologies of personal development, and with forming of people distinguished by a high intellectual, spiritual culture, ones who are capable of making responsible professional and daily life decisions in the constructive contexts of project image of being; – it implies the teacher's having certain qualities that promote mental actualization of motivation and need sphere of personality with the learners in a lively, attractive, "engaging" plane of an educative mystery and riddle, provoking as an incentive the condition of a "tomorrow's joy" (a.s. makarenko) as the desirable intellectual openness to a new knowledge and new cognitive (contentand meaning-related) worlds. charikova et al. 127 references barnett, r. (2008). understanding the university. alma mater, 6, 46-56. bogatyrev, a.i. & ustinova, i.m. (2008). theoretical foundations of pedagogical modeling: essence and efficiency. url: http://www.rusnauka.com/snd/ pedagogica/2_ bogatyrev% 20a.i..doc.htm bogoslovskiy, v.i. & glubokova, e.n. (2008). knowledge management in educational process of the modern university: scientific and methodological materials. – spb.: knizhniy dom ltd. charikova, i.n. (2016). activity-based epistemology in teaching automated design: a study guide. orenburg: "university" ppc ltd. dakhin, a.n. (2010). modeling in pedagogy. ideas and ideals, 1(3), vol. 2, 11-20. demirhan,g. & yücel, c. (2016). a prediction for teacher commitment; effects of managerial style, burnout and demographics. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1). http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/2 efremova, n.f. (2010). forming and assessing the competences in education: a monograph. rostov-on-don: arkol. feldshtein, d.i. (2012). attestation of scientific personnel in pedagogical and psychological specialties. education and science, 10. url: http://archive.edscience.ru/ru/article/d-ifeldshteyn feldshtein, d.i. (1994). psychology of the rise of personality. moscow: publishing house of the international pedagogical academy. ghenisaretskiy, o.i. (1994). the activity of projecting and projective culture (preface to the unpublished book on project culture of 1994. url: http://www.ckp.ru/biblio /g/gen/gen_project_culture.htm gromyko, n.v. (2011). activity-based epistemology and the problem of translating the theoretical knowledge in educational practice: phd thesis. moscow. jones, j.ch. (1986). methods of design. moscow: mir. kargapoltsev, s.n. & charikova, i.n. (2016). epistemological angles of project activity of the university students. bulletin of osu, 9, 15-19. http://www.rusnauka.com/snd/%20pedagogica/2_%20bogatyrev%25%2020a.i..doc.ht http://www.rusnauka.com/snd/%20pedagogica/2_%20bogatyrev%25%2020a.i..doc.ht http://archive.edscience.ru/ru/article/d-i-feldshteyn http://archive.edscience.ru/ru/article/d-i-feldshteyn http://www.ckp.ru/biblio%20/g/gen/gen_project_culture.htm http://www.ckp.ru/biblio%20/g/gen/gen_project_culture.htm journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 117-129 kovalenko, yu.a. & nikitina l.l. (2012). students' project activity in the educational process of higher educational institutions. bulletin of kazan technological university, 20(15), 229231. kopish, m.a. (2016). preparing globally competent teacher candidates through cross cultural experiential learning. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 75108. lafer, s. & aydin, h. (2012). educating for democratic societies: impediments. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 45-70. lazarev, v.s. (2015). project activity at schools: non-used opportunities. questions of education, 3, 292-307. leek, j. (2016). global citizenship education in school curricula. a polish perspective. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 51-74. lektorskiy, v.a., kudzh, s.a. & nikitina, e.a. (2014). epistemology, science, and the human life world. bulletin of mstu mirea, 2(3), 1-12. lushchikov, v.v. (2012). the content of designer competence of a teacher. bulletin of the south ural state university, 26, 82-86. makarova, n.s. (2014). the reflection of changes in the higher education institution educational process in the teacher's activity. theory and practice of social development, 2, 191-194. mamardashvili, m.k. (2000). esthetics of views. moscow: school of moscow political research. mikeshina, l.a. (2005). philosophy of science: modern epistemology. scientific knowledge within the dynamics of culture. methodology of scientific research: a study guide. moscow: progress-tradition: mpsi : flinta. moiseev, n.n. (1993). ascending to reason. lectures on universal evolutionism and its applications. moscow: atomizdat. shchedrovitskiy, p.g. (2001). lecture on design space. url: http://www.shkp.ru/lib/archive/second/2001-1/7 stamou, a. (2017). knowledge management in doctoral education toward knowledge economy. international journal of educational management, 31(3), 320-331. tarman, b. & acun, i. (2010). social studies education and a new social studies movement. journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 1-16. http://www.shkp.ru/lib/archive/second/2001-1/7 https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85015062264&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=knowledge+management+in+education&st2=&sid=26a3137d3a0b1376b90b34151a6d6291&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=48&s=title-abs-key%28knowledge+management+in+education%29&relpos=12&citecnt=0&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/144741?origin=resultslist charikova et al. 129 tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. the humanitarian mission of supporting the project activity in a multi-national educational space: a study guide. (2008). ed. l.n. berezhnova. spb. timova, a.v. (2014). non-linear educational process as the condition for higher education institution students' self-managing the knowledge. pedagogical sciences, 19. url: http://novainfo.ru/article/1951 wedman, j. & wang, f.-k. (2005). knowledge management in higher education: a knowledge repository approach. journal of computing in higher education, 17(1), 116-138. yigit, m.f. (2017). value priorities of public and private university students. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1). url: http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/38 zianghirova, l.f. (2007). retrospective analysis of the project method phenomenon in the foreign and russian pedagogy. bulletin of bashkir university, 2(12), 111-114. http://novainfo.ru/article/1951 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=6603038156&zone= https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?origin=resultslist&authorid=7501311683&zone= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84874001292&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=knowledge+management+in+education&st2=&sid=26a3137d3a0b1376b90b34151a6d6291&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=48&s=title-abs-key%28knowledge+management+in+education%29&relpos=16&citecnt=3&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84874001292&origin=resultslist&sort=r-f&src=s&st1=knowledge+management+in+education&st2=&sid=26a3137d3a0b1376b90b34151a6d6291&sot=b&sdt=b&sl=48&s=title-abs-key%28knowledge+management+in+education%29&relpos=16&citecnt=3&searchterm= https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/17600155502?origin=resultslist http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/38 öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersi ödevlerine yönelik tutumlarının ölçülmesi: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(2), 55-78 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 bir öğretim alanı’nın doğuşu: abd’de sosyal bilgilerin gelişimi (1893-1916)1 the birth of an instructional field: the development of social studies in usa (1893-1916) sümer aktan2 ve nevin saylan3 özet: yurttaşlık eğitimi bireylerin yurttaşlık bilincine sahip olması, vatanseverlik duygularının gelişmesi ve bireyin içinde yaşadığı toplumun kültürel mirası ile normlarını benimsemesine yönelik eğitim süreci olarak tanımlanabilir. bu eğitim sürecinin odak noktasını yurttaşlık bilinci oluşturmaktadır. 1789 devriminin ardından fransız okullarında önemli tartışmalara konu olan yurttaşlık bilincinin nasıl kazandırılacağı ve yurttaşlık eğitiminin nasıl yapılacağı 19. yy. boyunca kıta avrupa’sında ve amerika birleşik devletleri’nde önemli bir tartışma konusu olmuştur. sanayileşme, göç ve beraberinde gelen şehirleşme süreci yurttaşlık eğitiminin nasıl verileceğine ilişkin tartışmaları yoğunlaştırmış ve bu tartışmalar sosyal bilgilerin bir öğretim alanı olarak gelişimine zemin hazırlamıştır. abd’de 1865 sonrası dönemde hızlanan sanayileşme, iç ve dış göç gibi etkenler sayesinde büyük bir nüfus artışı ortaya çıkmış ve bu artışa paralel olarak şehirler büyümeye başlamıştır. i̇ç savaş sonrası kölelikten kurtulan afro-amerikalıların yeni toplum yaşamına uyumları çok farklı sosyo kültürel ortamlardan gelen göçmenlerin amerikan toplumuna entegrasyonu ve üretken bir yurttaş olmaları ciddi bir sorun olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. okul bu sorunu çözebilecek etkili bir aktör olarak görülmüştür. bununla beraber okul programlarında verilen sosyal eğitim anlayışının ya da daha özel bir ifade ile yurttaşlık eğitiminin sorgulanmasının gerekliliği de bir zorunluluk olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. yeni gelişen sosyal bilimlerin ışığı altında okullarda verilen tarih eğitimini sorgulayan james h. robinson “yeni tarih” yaklaşımı ile disiplinler arası ve yakın çevre odaklı bir tarih öğretimine dikkat çekmiştir. bununla beraber john dewey’in çocuğun ilgileri doğrultusunda ve öğrenme sürecinde aktif metotların kullanılmasına yönelik önerileri ile öğretmenin ve ders kitabının egemenliğine yönelik eleştirileri ve hampton ziraat okulu’nda yaptığı çalışmalarla thomas j. jones’un yurttaşlık eğitimine getirdiği yeni bakış açısı sosyal bilgilerin gelişim sürecini derinden etkilemiştir. yurttaşlık bilincinin kazandırılmasına yönelik farklı yaklaşımların birbirleri ile mücadelelerinin sonucunda yurttaşlık eğitiminin sosyal bilgiler şemsiyesi altında verilmesi kabul edilmiştir. bu bağlam içinde çalışmanın amacı 18931916 yılları arasında tarih merkezli yurttaşlık eğitiminin sosyal bilgilere doğru nasıl geliştiğini ve ortaöğretim de sosyal bilgilerin bir öğretim alanı olarak gelişim sürecini abd bağlamında irdelemektir. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler, sosyal bilgilerin gelişimi, vatandaşlık eğitimi 1 bu çalışma sümer aktan tarafından hazırlanan “sosyal bilgilerin bir öğretim alanı olarak gelişimi ve türkiye deki program tasarılarına yansımalar 19232004” başlıklı yüksek lisans tezinin bir bölümünden alınmıştır. 2 yrd. doç. dr., balıkesir üniversitesi, sumeraktan@balikesir.edu.tr 3 prof.dr., balıkesir üniversitesi, nsaylan@balikesir.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 56 extended abstract the emergence of culture depends on the mutual interaction of the individuals in the society, cooperation of the occupational groups and their coordination. such kinds of interactions brought about a number of regulations and certain rules governing the communal living were introduced. in order to make progress and develop the society conformably, it is of great importance that individuals follow these established rules and raise the new generations within the scope of these rules to maintain the sustainability of the society. the major instrument for the new generations to internalize these rules, to comply with the culture and to be the bearers of the culture is the education system. whereas the family and the social environment were influential in cultural transmission before the industrial revolution, the role of the family gradually decreased after the industrial revolution. following the schools becoming widespread and the fact that the education was undertaken by the government as a public liability, the school began to come into play in the cultural transmission and the socialization of the new generations. in order to achieve this function, the school resorted to the curriculum being devised and thus the school curriculum became a road map for a socialization process. this course of education for the purposes of providing the individuals with such attributes as the development of patriotism through cultural transmission and culture, becoming an efficient individual in the society and loyalty to the government’s ideology or in other words, ensuring the consciousness of citizenship can be defined as social education. earlier attempts for modern civics in europe began after the french revolution (1789). a government order issued on january 27th, 1794 in french declared that republic laws and declaration of the rights of man and citizen shall be instructed to the students. whereas these developments occurred in the continental europe, thomas jefferson, the president of the united states in the same period, reminded that each and every citizen living under the republican regime was required to become aware of its responsibilities, indicating the target of social education. development of the consciousness of citizenship in the continental europe and the united states was considered as one of the major duties of the schools. on the other hand, the primary concern was to figure out how this education should be provided. this concern has led to quite deep discussions and coming up with many ideas from a number of intellectual movements in competition with one another especially in the united states of america (usa). the consciousness of citizenship considered as the basis of the social education and attempted to be developed through history lessons was subject to criticism due to the problems arising from the modernization occurred in the usa and the changes in the social structure as a result of heavy immigration and this sense of education was claimed to be unsuitable for training efficient citizens. whereas the committee of ten, assembled in 1893 for the objective of ensuring the schools to address the needs of changing social structure, adopted a traditional approach in social education for the consciousness of citizenship in secondary schools, the committee on social studies assembled in 1916 approached the civics that was instructed in secondary schools and essentially carried out based on history lessons from a different perspective and restructured the civics by defining social education within the scope of social studies. although there is a significant intellectual accumulation abroad about the development process of social studies, the researches about the development process of social studies in our country appear to address the problem within a shorter period. the majority of these researches analyze social studies isolated from their historical basis and focus on the second hand sources rather than the first hand sources and the development process is provided as the statement of chronological basic information. however, social studies have a considerably rich intellectual development process and a careful analysis of this development process will contribute substantially to understand the nature of social studies. within this perspective, the objective of this study is to analyze the development process of social studies within the context of the usa and in accordance with the developments occurred during the period between 1893 and 1916. this study can be qualified as a descriptive-historical research carried out with an aim to describe the development process of social studies as a field of education and to understand the contribution of this process to the nature of social studies. descriptive researches are essentially those analyzing a phenomenon the way it exists whether it has occurred in the past or currently exists in the present. since this study predominantly refers to historical data to observe the emergence of a certain phenomenon or event in a defined period of time and to understand the role of the factors influential during the development process of this phenomenon or sümer aktan & nevin saylan 57 event, the main data source of the study consists of historical documents as well as printed and published studies about the research problems. the study intends to address three basic as the following: what kind of process does the development of teaching history as a traditional approach in social education undergo? what is the role of the social studies in the hampton curriculum, new history approach and progressive approach in the development process of social studies? what is the significance of the 1916 report for the development process of social studies? as the results of the research suggest, in addition to such factors as socioeconomic status and industrialization followed by immigration and emigration during the period after 1865 in the usa, the social problems emerging particularly subsequent to the abolition of slavery gave rise to the criticism of the civics taught in schools and alternative approaches were put forward. there was a perpetual intellectual struggle between the group in favor of history-oriented civics and those in favor of progressive approach during that period and social studies emerged as a field of education by the publication of 1916 report at the end of this struggle. key words: social studies, the development of social studies, civic education. giriş tarih boyunca yaşamış her insan grubu toplumsal yaşam içinde ve toplumsal ilişkiler bağlamında bir değerler sistemi ortaya koymuştur. bu değerler sistemi aynı zamanda o toplumun kültürünü de meydana getirmiştir. tylor,(1887, 3) kültürü medeniyet kavramı ile eşanlamlı olarak “toplumun bir üyesi olarak bireyin kazandığı bilgi, inanç, ahlak, hukuk, sanat, örf ve adet gibi alışkanlıklardan oluşan karmaşık bir bütün” olarak tanımlarken, turhan (1994, 45) kültürün çok daha geniş ve kapsamlı bir tanımını şu şekilde vermektedir. kültür, bir cemiyetin sahip olduğu maddi ve manevi kıymetlerden teşekkül[oluşan] eden öyle bir bütündür ki, cemiyet içinde, mevcut her nevi[çeşit] bilgiyi, alâkaları, itiyatları [alışkanlıkları], kıymet ölçülerini, umumi atitüd[tutum], görüş ve zihniyet ile her nevi davranış şekillerini içine alır. bütün bunlar, birlikte, o cemiyet mensuplarının ekserisinde müşterek[ortak] olan ve onu diğer cemiyetlerden ayırt eden hususi bir hayat tarzı temin eder. toplumların kendilerine ait hayat tarzı olan kültür aynı zamanda yeni yetişen kuşaklara da aktarılır. böylece toplumlar yarattıkları kültürel birikimi bir sonraki kuşağa devrederek kültürel zenginliğin gelişimine katkıda bulunurlar. bu kültürel aktarım süreci sosyalizasyon yolu ile gerçekleşir. sosyalizasyon süreci ile yeni yetişen kuşaklar kültürü özümser ve toplumun bir parçası haline gelirler. sosyalizasyon sürecinde en etkili olan faktör ise eğitim sistemidir (baker, 2011; bugental ve grusec, 2006; dewey, 1916; egemen, 1965; grusec ve goodnow, 1994; turhan, 1994; ülken, 1967; ward, 1898). eğitim sistemlerinin sosyalizasyon açısından önemi özellikle sanayi devrimi sonrasında giderek artmıştır. sanayi devriminden önce kültürün aktarımında aile ve toplumsal çevre etkili olurken, sanayi devrimi sonrasında ailenin rolü giderek azalmış ve bu rolü okul üstlenmiştir (berns, 2010; tanner ve tanner, 1975). okulun bu rolü oynayabilmesi hazırlanan programlar aracılığı ile olmuş ve okul programları ile programlarda yer alan dersler sosyalizasyon sürecinin yol haritası haline gelmiştir (apple, journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 58 2000; 2004). kültürün aktarımı ve kültür aracılığı ile vatanseverlik duygularının gelişimi, toplumsal yaşam içinde etkili bir birey olma, devlet ideolojisine bağlılık gibi niteliklerin bireylere kazandırılması ya da diğer bir ifade ile yurttaşlık bilincinin kazandırılmasına yönelik bu eğitim süreci sosyal eğitim olarak tanımlanabilir. amerika birleşik devletleri’nde (abd) 19.yüzyıl ile 20. yüzyılın başlarına kadar olan süreçte sosyal eğitimin temelini tarih dersi oluşturmuştur (evans, 2004; lybarger, 1981; hertzberg, 1981). tarih odaklı bir sosyal eğitim düşüncesi özellikle 19. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru önemli eleştirilere uğramıştır. bu eleştirilerin temel nedeni abd’de ortaya çıkan modernleşmeye bağlı sorunlar, şehirleşme ve yoğun dış göç ile toplumsal yapıda meydana gelen değişim ve dönüşümdür (blumin,1976; chudacoff, 1975; ward, 1975). özellikle sanayi, ticaret ve ulaşım alanındaki gelişmeler ve beraberinde gelen yoğun iç-dış göç ülkenin çehresini değiştirmiştir (cochran, 1981; laurie, 1997; sellers, 1991). bu değişimin sonuçlarını abd’nin 1860-1900 arasındaki sanayi üretiminde görmek mümkündür. sanayi üretiminde en önemli kısmı oluşturan demir-çelik üretimine bakıldığında abd’de 1860’da yıllık çelik üretimi 13000 ton iken bu miktarın 1900’de 11.412.000 tona yükseldiği görülmektedir (hogan,1971; misa, 1995; temin, 1964). yaşanan bu sosyo-ekonomik değişim doğal olarak eğitimin işlevinin yeniden sorgulanmasına neden olmuştur. özellikle artan dış göçle sanayide çalışan göçmenlerin çoğalması ve beraberinde gelen şehirleşme yurttaşlık eğitimi ile ilgili bir kısım itirazların temel nedeni olmuştur. göçmenlerin endüstri ve şehir hayatına uyum sağlaması ve amerikan toplumunun bir parçası haline gelmesinde eğitim kritik bir rol oynayan bir faktör olarak görülmüştür. eğitim aracılığı ile yeni bir toplum inşa edilebileceğine yönelik kuvvetli bir inanç dönemin ruhunu -zeitgeistoluşturmaktaydı (curti, 1959; lannie, 1974; soltow ve stewens, 1981). bu aşamada yurttaşlık eğitiminin yeniden sorgulanması gerekmiştir. okulların değişen toplumsal yapıya cevap verebilmeleri amacıyla 1893 yılında toplanan onlu komite ortaöğretimde yurttaşlık bilinci için sosyal eğitimde tarih merkezli gelenekçi bir çizgiyi benimserken, 1916 yılında toplanan sosyal bilgiler komitesi ortaöğretimde verilen ve temelde tarih dersi merkezli yürütülen yurttaşlık eğitimini çok daha farklı bir perspektiften ele almış ve sosyal eğitimi sosyal bilgiler bağlamında tanımlayarak yurttaşlık eğitimini yeniden yapılandırmıştır. sosyal bilgilerin bir öğretim alanı olarak gelişim süreci ve 1916 raporu üzerine abd’de zengin bir entelektüel birikim olduğu görülmektedir. abd’de yapılan çalışmaların sosyal bilgilerin tarihsel gelişimi (davis, 1981; lybarger, 1991; woyshner, 2006), sosyal bilgilerin gelişiminde rol oynayan önemli bilim insanları (keels, 1994; sümer aktan & nevin saylan 59 mcaninch, 1990; osborne, 2003) ve sosyal eğitimin farklı boyutlarını inceleyen (karier, 1973; spring, 1970, woyshner, 2004) çalışmalar olduğu görülmektedir. yapılan bu çalışmalar sosyal bilgilerin bir öğretim alanı, bir ders olarak gelişim sürecine ışık tutmakta ve sosyal bilgilerin iç tarihine önemli katkı sunmaktadır. bununla beraber aynı zengin entelektüel birikim türkiye’de görülmemektedir. türkiye’de sosyal bilgilerin gelişimi üzerine yapılan çalışmalar incelendiğinde alanın tarihsel gelişimi 1916 raporu’ndan sonraki süreç ile birlikte ele alınmaktadır (güngördü, 2002; kan, 2010; öztürk, 2006; öztürk ve dilek, 2002; safran, 2008; sönmez, 2005). bu çalışmalarda 1916 raporunun yayınlanmasından sonraki gelişmeler tarihsel süreç açısından verilmiştir. bununla beraber bu çalışmalarda sosyal bilgilerin 1916 raporuna gelinceye kadar geçirdiği evrimsel süreçten söz edilmemektedir. bu durum 1916 raporunun sonuç değil de bir neden olarak ele alınmasına neden olmaktadır. oysa 1916 raporu farklı sosyo ekonomik nedenlerin yanı sıra farklı felsefi ve pedagojik yönelimlerin mücadelesi sonucunda ortaya çıkan bir belgedir. dolayısıyla sosyal bilgilerin doğasını anlamak, günümüzde sosyal bilgiler ile ilgili yaşanılan epistemolojik ve ontolojik sorunların aşılmasında bu gelişim sürecinin bilinmesi önemli katkılar sağlayabilir. bu perspektif içerisinde bu çalışmanın amacı abd’de sosyal bilgilerin -yurttaşlık bilinci kazandırmak amacıylaortaöğretim düzeyinde bir öğretim alanı olarak gelişim sürecini ve bu bağlam içinde sosyal eğitimin önemli bir parçası olan yurttaşlık eğitiminde 1893-1916 arası dönemde ortaya çıkan pedagojik yaklaşım ve içerik problemlerini incelemektir. bu amaç doğrultusunda araştırmanın problemleri şu şekilde verilebilir: • sosyal eğitimde gelenekçi yaklaşım olarak tarih öğretiminin gelişimi nasıl bir süreç izlemiştir? • sosyal bilgilerin gelişim sürecinde hampton sosyal bilgiler programı, yeni tarih yaklaşımı ve i̇lerlemeci (progressivist) düşünce nasıl bir rol oynamıştır? • 1916 raporu’nun sosyal bilgilerin gelişim sürecindeki yeri nedir? literatüre dayalı olarak yapılan bu tarihsel çalışma iki bölüm olarak kurgulanmıştır. birinci bölümde sosyal eğitimin temel odak noktası olarak tarih disiplini ve tarih öğretimine dayalı sosyal eğitim düşüncesi irdelenmiştir. çalışmanın ikinci bölümünde sosyal bilgilerin bir öğretim alanı ve sosyal eğitimin temel noktası olarak 1900-1916 arası dönemdeki gelişim çizgisi betimlenmiştir. bu bölümde sosyal bilgilerin gelişiminde önemli journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 60 rol oynayan düşünüler ve konu ile ilgili görüşleri, dönemin sosyoekonomik gelişim çizgisi bağlamında ele alınmıştır. buna ilave olarak bu gelişim sürecindeki birbirine rakip yaklaşımların sosyal eğitime ilişkin bakış açıları da irdelenmiştir. çalışmanın son kısmı ise sonuçları içeren bir değerlendirmeden oluşmaktadır. sosyal eğitimde gelenekçi çizgi: tarih odaklı sosyal eğitim tarih, thomas carlyle’ın ifadesi ile ilkel kabilelerden itibaren insanların dikkatini çeken bir alan olmuştur (carlyle, 1969’ dan akt breisach, 2007). eski yunan medeniyeti ise tarih yazımının ve tarihe yönelik bakış açılarının filizlendiği bir dönem olarak görülebilir. hikâyeler ya da efsaneler insanların dikkatini uzun süre çekmekte başarısız olmuş, insanlar böyle gerçeküstü hikâyeleri dinlemektense kendi hayatları ile olgusal bilgileri öğrenmek için kuvvetli bir arzu duymaya başlamıştır. bunun temel nedenleri arasında insanın geçmişten geleceğe doğru giden yaşantısına belirli bir anlam katmak ihtiyacının önemli bir yer tuttuğu ileri sürülebilir. böylece belirli kültürel değerler ışığında siyasi kimlik kazandırma ve vatanseverlik duygularının gelişimi açısından tarih dikkatleri çeken bir disiplin olmuştur. siyasi kimlik kazandırma ve vatanseverlik duygularına dayalı bir sosyal eğitim düşüncesi amerika’da bağımsızlığın hemen ardından üçüncü başkan olarak görev yapan thomas jefferson’ın da gündemindeki önemli konular arasında yer almıştır. “cumhuriyet idaresi altında her yurttaş yurttaşlık görevlerini tam olarak yerine getirmelidir” diyen jefferson için cumhuriyetçi eğitim yurttaşlara kendi kendini yönetmenin temellerini vermelidir (winterer, 2000). jefferson’na göre cumhuriyetçi eğitimin temel amacı “bilgiyi halk katmanlarına olabildiğince yaymaktır” (lasch, 2006, 209). böylece cumhuriyetçi eğitim on sekizinci yüzyılda yararlı olarak görülen bilgilerle ve jefferson’ın ifadesi ile “insan edimlerini ve tasarımlarını [yargılamayı], girebileceği her kılıkta ihtirası tanımayı ve ihtirası tanıyarak ona dayalı düşünceleri bozguna uğratmayı” öğreteceğini umduğu antik çağ tarihine büyük önem vermiştir (akt lash, 2006). jefferson’a göre tarihsel olguların öğrencilere öğretilmesi geçmiş çağların ve ülkelerin tecrübelerinin anlaşılmasını sağlayacak ve aynı zamanda bu geçmiş uygarlıkları biçimlendiren unsurları öğrenmelerini temin edecektir jefferson’ın bu görüşleri ilkokul ve ortaöğretim düzeyinde tarihin sosyal eğitimin temeli olarak görülmesinde önemli rol oynadığı ve aynı zamanda antik çağ uygarlıkları ile ilgili konuların tarih programlarında daha fazla yer almasında etkili olduğu düşünülebilir. sümer aktan & nevin saylan 61 19. yy. boyunca ders kitabı, ezber ve öğretmen odaklı olarak devam eden tarih merkezli sosyal eğitim aslında kendi içinde bir takım çelişkileri de beraberinde getirmiştir. bu çelişkilerin ilki programın doğasından kaynaklanırken diğer çelişki öğretim metodolojisinden kaynaklanmaktadır. özellikle orta dereceli okulların programlarında yer alan derslerin öğrencilerin yaşamları ile ilişkisi problemli bir durumdu. antik çağ uygarlıkları tarihi, avrupa tarihi, latin ve yunan edebiyatına ilişkin derslerin yurttaşlık becerilerini edinme boyutunda işe yararlılığı tartışmalı bir konuydu. öğretim metodolojisi ise bir başka problemli alandı. ders kitabına ve ezbere dayalı öğretim anlayışı öğrencilere pasif bir rol veriyor, öğretmen bir nevi kürsü kralı konumuna yükseliyordu. anlatıma dayalı ders işleme yaklaşımının verimliliği ise ayrı bir sıkıntı kaynağı olarak görülmüştür. bu sıkıntıların temel nedeni ise 17.yy’dan itibaren pedagojik düşünce üzerinde egemenlik kuran zihni disiplin teorisidir (tanner ve tanner, 1975). 17.yy ile birlikte bir eğitim teorisi olarak olgunlaşmaya başlayan zihni disiplin teorisi, 19. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren yetenek psikolojisi olarak anılmaya başlanmıştır. alman filozof christian wolf’un 18.yy’da katkıda bulunduğu bu yaklaşım zihni disiplin veya formal disiplin teorisini bir adım daha ileriye götürmüştür. özellikle 19.yy başlarında franz gall tarafından yapılan katkılar zihni disiplinden yetenek psikolojisine geçişi kolaylaştırmıştır. bu yaklaşıma göre, tıpkı zihni disiplin teorisinde olduğu gibi, bireyin bedensel ve zihinsel olarak gelişimi esastır. gall, ortaya attığı teori ile bu yaklaşımı bilimsel bir boyuta taşımıştır. bu yaklaşımda insanın zihni bedenden ayrı bir yapı olarak ele alınıyor ve zihnin irade, duygu ve zekâdan ibaret olduğu kabul ediliyordu. bu üçlü yapıdan hareketle, zekâ bir kas olarak ele alınıyordu ve eğitimin görevi zekâyı egzersizlerle geliştirip duygu ve iradeyi kontrol edebilecek bir olgunluğa eriştirmekti. i̇lkokul düzeyindeki çocuklar için alıştırma ve ezber önemli yer tutarken, ortaöğretim de okuyan öğrenciler latince, yunan edebiyatı, antikçağ tarihi ve ileri matematik gibi dersler alarak zihinlerini keskin bir hale getireceklerdi. böyle bir eğitim alan bireyin artık hayata hazır ve her türlü zorluğu yenebilecek bir olgunluğa sahip olduğuna inanılıyordu (bennett, 1907; rippa, 1996). bu görüşlerin yanı sıra 1880’lerden başlayarak amerikan tarih düşüncesinde de bir değişim göze çarpmaktadır. 1884 yılında amerikan tarih derneği’nin kurulması bu değişimin somut örneğidir. dolayısı ile tarih öğretiminin değerine ilişkin olarak öne sürülen düşüncelerin bu gelişmelerden bağımsız olarak ele alınması mümkün değildir. öyle ki, 1890’ların başlarında ulusal eğitim derneği tarafından ortaöğretim programlarında yapılacak reform için toplanan komitenin tarih dersi ile ilgili kısmında bu journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 62 derneğin üyelerinin önemli rolleri olmuştur. tarih dersinin sosyal eğitimin odak noktasını oluşturmasına yönelik düşünce yapısının bu komite çalışmalarıyla daha güçlü bir destek kazandığı söylenebilir. onlu ve yedili komite çalışmaları onlu komite, amerikan ulusal eğitim derneği (nea) tarafından özellikle ortaöğretim kademesindeki okul programları üzerinde yoğunlaşan bir çalışma grubu olarak kurulmuştur. lise programlarında yer alacak olan sosyal eğitim programının parçaları üzerine ilk sistemli tartışmaların yapıldığı onlu komite, dönemin önde gelen entelektüellerini bir araya toplamıştır. komitenin hâkim bakış açısını yetenek psikolojisi ve esasici düşünceler tayin etmiştir. 19.yy sonunda amerikan ortaöğretiminde reform yapmak amacını taşıyan bu komite içinde taşıdığı düşüncelerle aslında 1828 yale raporu’ndaki klasik düşünceleri 20.yüzyıla taşımıştır (kliebard, 1995). onlu komitenin sosyal eğitim bağlamında aldığı en önemli kararlardan biri de bu derslerin niçin programda yer alması gerektiğine ilişkin gerekçeler ortaya koymasıdır. buna göre tarih dersi ortaöğretim kurumları programlarında resmi bir disiplin olarak kabul edilmiştir. tarih, artık, modern tarzda öğretilecek bir disiplin haline gelme noktasında çok önemli bir kazanım sağlamıştır. rapor, tarihin bu şekilde öğretilmesi için bir çerçeve taslak olarak hazırlanmıştır. bu taslak çerçevede tarih dersinin yararları ve amaçları betimlenmiş ve okullar için yol gösterici öneriler sıralanmıştır komisyonun önerilerine göre, tarih dersi 5. sınıftan başlayarak 12. sınıfa kadar sekiz yıllık bir aşamalılık göstermelidir. 7. ve 11. sınıflarda amerikan tarihi, yunan ve roma tarihi, fransız ve i̇ngiliz tarihi ağırlıklı olarak yer almalıdır (report of the committee of ten, 1894). ulusal eğitim derneği tarafından organize edilen onlu komite çalışmasının ulaştığı temel sonuç, lise eğitiminden sonra üniversiteye devam edecek öğrenciler ve eğitimlerini lise ile sonlandırmak isteyen öğrencilerin aynı eğitimi almasının gerekli olduğu ve bu bağlam içerisinde tarih dersinin de her iki öğrenci grubu için aynı kalması gerektiği iddiasıdır. onlu komite raporunun onaylanmasından bir süre sonra amerikan tarih derneği 1896 yılında amerika’nın önemli üniversitelerinde görev yapan yedi profesörden oluşan bir komite kurarak büyük ve küçük ölçekli yerleşim birimlerinde bulunan liselerde yapılan tarih öğretimi uygulamalarını araştırmıştır. yedili komite olarak adlandırılan bu kurul okullarda tarih öğretimi için “dörtlü blok” adı verilen bir yaklaşım öne sürmüştür. buna göre tarih dört temel kısma ayrılmıştır: ilk çağ tarihi, orta çağ, modern tarih ve amerikan tarihi. komite öğrencilerin özellikle tarihsel bir biçimde sümer aktan & nevin saylan 63 düşünmesinin öğretimi üzerinde ısrarla durmuştur. onlu komite raporu ile mukayese edildiğinde yedili komitenin raporu daha ayrıntılı ve kapsamlı olarak hazırlanmıştır ama temel olarak bakıldığında her iki raporun özü aynı noktayı vurgulamaktadır. bu ortak nokta tarih biliminin doğasının anlaşılmasını sağlamaktır (evans, 2004; lybarger,1981; nelson, 1992). yedili komitenin yaptığı çalışmanın önemli bir özelliği de ilk defa tarihin sosyal eğitimde, özellikle yurttaşlık eğitimindeki rolüne dikkat çekmesidir. kendinden önceki uygulamalardan faklı olarak sadakat ve vatanseverlik temasından modern zamanların yurttaşına geçiş sürecinde tarihin kilit rolüne vurgu yapılmıştır. tecrübeli her öğretmenin temel amacı, öğrencilerine tam anlamıyla doğru bir biçimde düşünmesini öğretmektir. bu sadece bilgilerin aktarılması ve biriktirilmesi ile değil fakat doğru düşünme alışkanlıkları ile mümkün olur. okulda politik konular üzerinde düşünmeyi öğrenen, sorunlara tarihsel olarak bakabilen öğrenci, günlük yaşamında karşılaşacağı politik ve sosyal problemleri kavrayacak yeterli zihni donanıma sahip olacaktır ve yurttaşlık ile alakalı etkinliklerde güçlü bir katılım ortaya koyacak, sosyal uyum sahasında da pratik bir hazırlık almış olacaktır (aha, 1899, 18). raporda, tarih dersinin, öğrencinin doğru ve mantıklı bir biçimde düşünmesinde etkili olacak özenle hazırlanmış kaynakları ve kitapları vererek onun faydalı bir vatandaş olmasına katkıda bulunacağı vurgulanmıştır. tarih –aynı zamandaöğrencinin nedensonuç ilişkisini görmesini sağlayacak yargılarının gelişimini temin edecektir. tarihin irdelenmesi ve incelenmesi sadece öğrencinin bir kısım olguları kazanmasını değil, onları sistematize etmesi ve düzenlemesi açısından da öğrenciye çok önemli kazanımlar temin edecektir. tarih aynı zamanda bilimsel düşünme alışkanlıkları olarak bilinen alışkanlıkların kazanılmasında da etkili olacak bir disiplin olarak betimlenmiştir (aha, 1899, 21). öğretmenlere dönük olarak hazırlanmış somut ve belirli öneriler de raporda yer almıştır. öğrencilerin derste verilen konuyu tam olarak kavramaları için ders kitabı kullanmanın önemi vurgulanmış, sadece okuma faaliyetleri değil aynı zamanda yardımcı etkinliklerin sınıflarda kullanılması gerektiği de önerilmiştir. rapor biçiminde hazırlanmış yazılı ödevlerin öğretmenler tarafından sıkça kullanılması tavsiye edilmiştir. derste temel kaynakların kullanımı noktasında, öğretmenin ders kitabı ile bağlantılı bir biçimde hareket etmesi önerilmiştir. komite aynı zamanda belge tarzındaki kaynakların daha sınırlı fakat edebiyatın daha ağırlıklı bir biçimde kullanılmasını tavsiye ederken, incelenen döneme ait eşyaların ve fotoğraflarında kullanılmasını önermiştir. bütün bunlar ise temelde ders kitabının bulunduğu bir öğretim faaliyetine ek olarak düşünülmüştür (aha, 1899, 94). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 64 yedili komite raporunun yayımlanmasından sonra pek çok farklı çevreden değişik tepkiler gelmiştir. bu tepkilerin bir bölümü, programda ilk çağ tarihi konularına daha fazla yer verildiği buna karşılık olarak modern çağ döneminin incelenmesine yetersiz zaman ayrıldığı noktasında birleşmektedir. bazı itirazlarda komitenin yaptığı önerilerin çok fazla somut olmadığı vurgulanmış ve daha somut öneriler için çağrıda bulunulmuştur. bazı itirazlar ise derslerin kaynaşık yapısına dönük olarak gelmiş ve amerikan tarihi ile yurttaşlık bilgisi dersinin ayrılmasını isteyen gruplar olmuştur. birtakım eleştiriler ise tarih dersinin temel amacını ülkeye gelen göçmenlerin amerikanlaştırılması gibi sosyal bir amaca bağlamışlardır. bu eleştiriler bağlamında ortaya çıkan bir diğer soru da şu olmuştur: liseler için bu program kabul edildi fakat mesleki teknik eğitim veren okullarda okutulacak tarih dersinin programı nasıl olmalıdır? (evans, 2004). bu soru tarihçiler ve tarih öğretmenleri arasında bir anlaşmazlığa ve çatışma sürecinin başlamasına neden olmuştur. daha önce onlu komite’de görev yapan ve tarih öğretiminde gelenekselci çizgide yer alan james h. robinson tarih öğretimi ile ilgili görüşlerini yeniden kavramsallaştırmış ve alternatif bir görüş ileri sürmüştür. kronoloji üzerinde aşırı derecede duran tarih öğretimine karşı çıkan robinson’un görüşleri daha sonraları sosyal eğitimin tarihten sosyal bilgilere doğru evrilmesinde önemli bir teorik perspektif sağlamıştır (singleton, 1980). sosyal bilgilere giden yolda önemli bir dönüm noktası: yeni tarih ve james h. robinson robinson tarafından ortaya atılan bu yeni bakış açısının temelinde aslında tarih biliminin doğasına ilişkin tartışmalar büyük bir yer tutmaktadır. tarihin sadece kronolojiye dayalı ve siyasi olayları anlatmaya dayalı yapısını eleştiren robinson, tarihi, bir akademik disiplin olarak, sosyal bilimlerin bir parçası olarak yeniden anlamlandırmıştır. tarih ile ilgili yazılan kitaplarda ve okullarda öğretilen tarih dersinin içeriklerinin bir sürü anlamsız isimle ve gereksiz olaylarla dolu olması, okullarda tarih öğretiminde gereksiz pek çok şeyin öğrenciye yüklenmesi ve bunların işe yaramaz olgusal bilgiler olmasına karşı çıkan robinson, tarihin hem araştırma metodolojisi ve hem de okullarda öğretimi üzerinde yeniden durulması gerektiğini vurgulamıştır (robinson, 1912). robinson için tarih sosyal bilimler ailesinin bir üyesidir. ele aldığı sosyal konuları farklı sosyal bilimlerin bulguları doğrultusunda disiplinler arası bir bakış açısıyla irdeleyen bir bilim olarak tarihin amacı insanlık âleminin ortaya koyduğu büyük gelişim ve ilerlemeyi irdeleyerek bugünün toplumunun kendi mahiyetini ve sosyal gelişim düzeyini sümer aktan & nevin saylan 65 anlamlandırmasıdır (whelan, 1991). tarihi kendisi ile müttefik bilimlerin eşliğinde özellikle antropoloji, sosyoloji ve psikoloji-toplumun içinde bulunduğu zamanla ilgili sorunlarına ışık tutabilecek bir disiplin olarak ele almanın gereğine vurgu yapmaktadır: eğer tarih en yüksek bir gelişim çizgisine ulaşmak istiyorsa, kendine has tutkularından vazgeçmeli ve insanlığın tetkik edilmesinde kullanılan pek çok yoldan biri olduğunu kabul etmek zorundadır. jeoloji, biyoloji ve diğer pek çok bilim dalı gibi tarihin de kardeş bilimler üzerinde inşa edilmesi gerektiğini itiraf etmek gereklidir. ancak bu şekilde tarih bilimi ilerleyebilir (robinson, 1912, 74). robinson’un tarih biliminin doğasına ilişkin düşünceleri doğal olarak tarih öğretimine ilişkin düşüncelerini de etkilemiştir. tarihin özellikle sanayi devrimi ile başlayan büyük sosyal değişimi ve bu sosyal değişimin toplumsal hayat üzerindeki farklı yansımalarının irdelenmesi yeni tarihin odak noktası olmaktadır. böylece, okullarda öğretilen tarih dersinin ilk olarak kapsamının değiştirilmesi gerekmektedir. robinson, gereksiz biyografiler ve kronolojiden ibaret tarih programı yerine içinde yaşanılan çağın sıkıntı ve problemlerine ışık tutacak konuların tarih programının temel parçaları olması gerektiğini ileri sürmüştür. yeni tarih her ne kadar tarih biliminin doğasına ilişkin bir bakış açsısını yansıtsa da, ortaya koyduğu perspektif ile ilk defa geleneksel tarih öğretimine yönelik bir itirazı gündeme getirmesi ile dikkat çekmektedir. tarih programının içerik olarak yeniden düzenlenmesi, öğrencinin hayatı ile ilgili konuların programda yer elde etmesi, yaşadığı toplumun sorunlarının bilincinde yurttaş yetiştirilmesi bağlamında tarih öğretimini yeniden ele alması açısından robinson’un görüşleri geleneksel çizgide bir kırılmayı beraberinde getirmiştir. bu kırılma daha sonra sosyal bilgilerin inşa edileceği bir temel olarak kullanılacaktır. sosyal bilgilerin prototipi olarak hampton enstitüsü sosyal bilgiler programı sosyal bilgilerin bir öğretim alanı olarak gelişim çizgisi incelendiğinde toplumsal alanda meydana gelen değişimlerin bu gelişim çizgisinde etkili olduğu görülebilir. amerika da 19. yy’ın ortalarında meydana gelen en önemli toplumsal olay ise 1861-1865 arasında gerçekleşen amerikan i̇ç savaşıdır. i̇ç savaşın bir sonucu olarak köleliğin resmen kaldırılması beraberinde pek çok sorunu da gündeme getirmiştir. bu sorunların ilki bu kadar büyük bir insan topluluğunun yerleşimi ve istihdamı meselesiydi. bir diğer ve belki de en önemli sıkıntı bu kadar büyük bir kitlenin toplumsal hayatta etkili birer yurttaş olmasının nasıl sağlanacağıydı. bu sorunlara yönelik ilk çözüm önerisi i̇ç savaş sırasında journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 66 general olarak hizmet veren benjamin f. butler (1818-1893) tarafından sunulmuştur. butler programında matematik, okuma, yazma, coğrafya, dilbilgisi, matematik ve ev işleri gibi derslerin bulunduğu bir okul açılmasını sağlamıştır. bu okulda afrika kökenli amerikan çocuklarının temel bir eğitim alması hedeflenmişti. 1868 yılında bir başka generalin öncülüğünde ve butler’ın okuluna yakın bir yerde hampton ziraat enstitüsü açılır. okulun amacı şu şekilde ifade edilmiştir: burada yapmamız gereken şey açıktır: seçilmiş yetenekli afro-amerikan [afrika kökenli amerikalı] gençleri eğiterek afro-amerikan [afrika kökenli amerikalı] toplumu için bu insanların birer örnek olmasını sağlamak ve kendi ırkdaşlarının eğitiminde görev alarak onların kendileri için para kazanmalarını, emeğe saygı duymalarını, bilinçsizce çalışmanın yerini becerikli ellerin almasıyla sadece kendi ihtiyaçları için ya da zeki bir işçi olmak için değil tam tersine karakter gelişimine dayalı bir endüstri sistemi inşa edilmesi için çalışılacaktır (http//:www. hamptonu.edu/about/history.cfm). hampton ziraat okulu aynı zamanda sosyal bilgilerin gelişim çizgisinde önemli bir yer işgal etmektedir. günümüzde anladığımız şekilde yurttaşlık eğitimi ve üretken etkili vatandaşlık düşüncesinin sosyal bilgilerin temel hedefi olması ve tarih odaklı sosyal eğitimden sosyal bilgilere geçiş sürecinde hampton ziraat okulunun bir laboratuar işlevi gördüğü ileri sürülebilir. hampton okulunu böyle bir laboratuar haline getiren kişi ise sosyal bilgilerin isim babası olan thomas jesse jones’tur. doktora eğitimini bitirmesini takiben hampton ziraat enstitüsünde ekonomi öğretmenliğine başlayan jones’un dini ve kültürel altyapısı ile columbia’da almış olduğu sosyoloji eğitimi ve göçmenler üzerinde yaptığı doktora araştırmasının bulgularının bir araya getirilmesi açısından hampton ideal bir ortam sunmuştur (johnson, 2000). burada yaptığı gözlemlerin ardından tarih programı ile ilgili bir kısım düşünceleri olgunlaşmaya başlayan jones, tarih programının bütünüyle terk edilmesi gerektiğini savunuyordu. bu okullarda okutulan tarih dersinin hayatla hiçbir ilgisi yoktu, öğrencinin yaşam becerilerine katkısı ise hiç derecesindeydi. tarih dersinin sosyalizasyon açısından katkısı ise tartışmalı bir konuydu. jones için sosyalizasyon yurttaşlık görev ve sorumlulukları açısından oldukça önemli bir süreçti. tarih dersinin yapamadığı bu işi yeni bir ders ve yeni bir program yapabilirdi. bu düşünceden hareketle yaşam için hazırlık, toplumsal ve yurttaşlık bilinci ve toplumun yararı için eğitim ülküsü amaçlarına hizmet edecek bir dersin içeriğini hazırlamıştır. bu yeni ders sosyal bilgiler adını taşıyacaktı. hampton ziraat enstitüsünde uygulanacak sosyal bilgiler programının ilk taslağı 1905-1906 arasında güneyli i̇şçi (southern workman) dergisinde yayınlanan beş makale ile açıklanmıştır. bu makaleler daha sonra 1906 yılında kitap olarak basılmıştır (jones, sümer aktan & nevin saylan 67 1906). hampton programında sosyal bilgiler başlığı altında basılan bu eser sırasıyla (a) niçin bunlara ihtiyacımız var? (b) yurttaşlık ve sosyal refah, (c) ekonomi ve maddi refah, (d) birleşik devletlerde nüfus sayımı ve gerçek durum, (e) afrika kökenli amerikalılar arasında tüberküloz, (f) sosyoloji ve toplum, (g) yerlilerin i̇lerlemesi gibi yedi başlıktan oluşmuştur (jones, 1906). jones bu kısımları tasarlarken hampton’da yaptığı gözlemler, doktora danışmanı sosyolog franklin h. giddings’in çalışmaları ve yayınlarından büyük ölçüde yararlanmıştır (jorgensen, 2010). niçin bunlara ihtiyacımız var? başlığı altında sosyal bilgiler için sağlam gerekçeler öne sürmekte ve sosyal eğitime yönelik pek çok dersin sosyal bilgiler şemsiyesi altında bir araya getirildiğini vurgulamaktadır. afro-amerikalılar [afrika kökenli amerikalılar] ve yerliler ev, okul, kilise, devlet ve diğer sosyal kurumlara ait düşüncelerden ve bunlara ait bilgiden yoksun bulunduklarından dolayı general armstrong ve yardımcıları ekonomi politik, sivil yönetim, zihin ve ahlak ile ilgili bilimler, genel tarih ve kitab-ı mukaddesin tarihsel tetkiki gibi derslere önemli yer ayırmışlardı. bu durum, okulun diğer çalışmalarının tamamında olduğu gibi, herhangi bir teorik yada geleneksel eğitim düşüncesine dayanmaktan ziyade öğrencinin gerçek ihtiyaçlarını karşılamanın bir sonucuydu. şurası muhakkak ki, bu düşünceleri yukarıda anılan derslerle öğretmek, düzenli bir orta öğretim veya kolej eğitimi alanların aksine, daha üç sene öncesine kadar temel okuma yazma becerisinden yoksun bu öğrenciler için mümkün değildir. atılan bu radikal adımın temel nedeni ise yerlilerin ve afrika kökenli amerikalıların gelişmemiş bir sosyal hayattan ani ve hızlı bir şekilde daha ileri bir sosyal hayata geçiş yapmalarından dolayı hazırlık için yeterli zamanın olmayışıdır. zira, bir sosyal aşamadan diğerine doğal bir evrim ile geçebilmek için zamana ihtiyaç vardır. bireylere ve bireylerden oluşan ırkların bir ileri adım atabilmeleri için gerekli alışkanlıkları ve idealleri benimsemelerine yetecek zamanın verilmesi lazımdır. böyle bir zamanın yokluğunda ise, bu ideal ve alışkanlıkların bilgisinin verilebilmesi için bir takım önlemler alınmalıdır. bu yapay önlemler doğal gelişim ile eşit olamaz ama bu ırkların içinde yaşayacakları yeni sosyal aşamanın ideal ve düşünceleri mümkün olduğu kadar sunma noktasında, yapılan bu çalışmalar büyük önem taşımaktadır (jones, 1906, 4). yurttaşlık ve sosyal refah başlığı hampton okulunda uygulanan yurttaşlık eğitimine ilişkin temel bir çerçeve çizmektedir. jones bu çerçeveyi şöyle izah etmiştir. hampton enstitüsünde yurttaşlık dersleri bu dersin geleneksel anlamdaki içeriği ile sınırlı değildir. dersin kapsamı ve karakterini şekillendiren temel etken dersin mantıksal analizi olduğu kadar öğrencinin ihtiyaçlarıdır. bu noktada yapılacak incelememizde zirai ıslah metotları, iyi yollar, okulların daha etkin bir hale konulması, organize olmuş hayır cemiyetleri, hapishane reformu ve hükümet tarafından uygulamaya konulan diğer yararlı hareketlerdir. ders üç ana bölüme ayrılmıştır: (1) hükümetin gelişimi, (2) hükümet ve toplumsal refah, (3) hükümet düzeneği (jones, 1906, 6). hampton enstitüsünde derslerin kapsamını belirleyen temel etken dersin mantıksal analizi ve öğrenci ihtiyaçlarıdır. bu bağlam içinde özellikle öğrenci ihtiyaçlarına sürekli journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 68 olarak atıf yapılması dönemin ilerlemeci anlayışını göstermesi açısından önemlidir. dersin temel amacı ise öğrencinin demokrasinin değerini kavraması, hükümetin önemi ve demokratik bir toplumdaki işlevinin anlaşılmasıdır (jorgansen, 2010). ekonomik ve maddi refah başlığı altında sosyal bilgilerin ikinci temel konu alanı irdelenmektedir. sosyal bilgilere yönelik çalışmalar içinde ekonomi önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. kar, zarar, işletme vb gibi temel kavramların bilgisinden yoksun kitlelerin ekonomik açıdan üretken yurttaşlar haline gelmesi de sosyal bilgilerin gerçekleştirmesi gereken önemli amaçlar arasında yer almaktadır. ekonomi ve sosyal refaha ilişkin konuların programdaki amacı şu şekilde ifade edilmiştir. ekonomi ile ilgili konuların amacı zenginliğin kullanımı ve elde edilmesinin altında yatan nedenler ile ilgili basit ilkelerin kazandırılmasıdır. i̇ncelenecek başlıklar arasında yönetim, tasarruf kurumları, borç veren kurumlar ve sigorta şirketleri, yardım ve hayır kuruluşları, iş yerinde farklı ırklarla verimli çalışma, işbirliği, gelişmenin temel faktörleri olarak toprak ve emek gücü yer almaktadır. konular içinde en çok zaman ayrılması gerekenler ise mal üretimi ve tüketim ile ilgili mevzulardır. kambiyo ve zenginliğin dağılımı ile ilgili konular öğrencinin hayatı ile daha ilişkili olduğundan pratik değeri yüksek konulardır (jones, 1906, 12). ekonomi dersindeki temel amaç zenginliğin nasıl oluştuğunun anlaşılması ile ilgili basit ilkelerin öğrenciye kazandırılmasıdır. toplumsal yaşam içinde bireylerin üretken birer yurttaş olmaları, tasarruf, işbirliği içinde çalışma alışkanlıklarının edinilmesi çiftliklerde ya da fabrikalarda çalışacaklar için kapitalizmin ruhunu anlamaları açısından oldukça önemlidir. diğer taraftan böyle bir ders yardımıyla amerika’nın resmi ekonomi rejimi olan kapitalizmin öğrenciler tarafından benimsenmesi de sağlanacaktır. dersin öğretiminde dikkat çeken bir diğer önemli nokta ise öğrencinin yaşamı ile konular arasındaki bağlantının ekonomi dersinde de vurgulanmasıdır. böylelikle ekonomi dersi olguların ezberlenmesinden daha çok hayat ile doğrudan ilgili bir konu olarak ele alınmaktadır. bu bakış açısı özellikle amerika’da i̇ç savaş sonrası dönemin ekonomik atılımının ruhunu yansıtması açısından önem taşımaktadır. birleşik devletlerin nüfusu ve gerçek koşullar başlığı sosyal bilgilerin üçüncü konu alanını oluşturmaktadır. bu başlık aslında jones’un ekonomi konusundaki duyarlılığını yansıtması açısından önem taşımaktadır (correia, 1993). nüfusun dağılımı ve oranları ile ilgili verilerden hareketle öğrencilerin afrika kökenli amerikalı nüfusunun niceliksel yapısını kavraması, bu nicel veriler doğrultusunda çalışmaların yönlendirilmesi, öğrencilerin istatistiksel verileri yorumlaması bu dersin amaçları içinde yer almıştır. ders dört ana konu başlığından oluşmuştur: afrika kökenli amerikan toplumunun dağılımı, eğitim ve okumazyazmazlık, ekonomik koşullar ve önemli istatistikler (jones, 1906). sümer aktan & nevin saylan 69 jones’un tasarladığı sosyal bilgiler programı bu üç önemli konu alanını ve bu konular üzerinde yapılan incelemeleri içermektedir. bu konu alanları dışında programda yer alan bazı başlıklar ve bu başlıkları sosyal bilgiler çatısı altında incelenmesi de dikkat çekicidir. bu başlıklardan biri de “afrika kökenli amerikalılarda tüberkülozun yayılması” dır. bu başlık altında jones, o dönem için afrika kökenli amerikalılar arasında oldukça yaygın olan tüberkülozun yayılması ve nedenleri üzerine istatistiksel veriler üzerinden yorumlar getirmektedir. özellikle ülkenin ekonomik gelişmişlik düzeyi ile tüberkülozun yayılması arasında bağ kurması, afrika kökenli amerikan toplumunun iktisadi açıdan gelişmesinin önemine dikkat çekmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. i̇lerleyen yıllarda öğretmen olacak afrika kökenli amerikalı gençlerin böyle hayati bir konuda incelemelerde bulunması ve bu konu üzerinde bilgilendirilmesi sosyal bilgilerin ne anlama geldiğinin anlaşılması açısından dikkat çekicidir. thomas j. jones için en önemli konu etkili ve üretken yurttaş yetiştirme işidir. bir yurttaş toplumsal hayatı anlayabildiği ve yorumlayabildiği kadar üretkendir. böyle üretken bir yurttaş hem devletin koyduğu yasalara uyan, hem de ekonomik kalkınmaya hizmet edebilen bir yurttaş tipini oluşturmaktadır. nüfusun büyük bir kısmını oluşturan afrika kökenli amerikalıların ve kızılderililerin yeni yaşam tarzına alışmaları, toplumsal yapıyı öğrenmeleri ve toplumun etkili bir parçası olmaları açısından eğitime büyük bir rol veren jones için hampton çalışmaları laboratuar işlevi görmüştür denilebilir. jones’un ortaya koyduğu program anlayışı ise sosyal bilgilerin gerçek ruhunu yansıtması açısından oldukça önemlidir. dönemin zeitgeist’i doğrultusunda tasarlanan bu program içerdiği konular ve pedagojik perspektifle günümüzdeki sosyal bilgilerin bir prototipi olarak görülebilir. yurttaş yetiştirme, ekonomik bilinç, devlet mekanizması, sosyal refah gibi konular, verilerin yorumlanması, analiz gibi bilişsel becerilerin yer aldığı hampton sosyal bilgiler programının sosyal bilgilerin bir öğretim alanı olarak gelişim sürecinde önemli bir kilometre taşı olduğu ileri sürülebilir. diğer taraftan sosyal bilgilerin burada bir şemsiye kavram olarak kullanıldığını belirtmek gerekiyor. dolayısıyla sosyal bilgilerin belirli dersler aracılığı ile kazandırılan yurttaşlık becerilerini içeren dersler dizisi olarak tanımlamak daha uygun olabilir. jones’un almış olduğu akademik eğitimin ve özellikle sosyoloji alanında yaptığı doktora çalışması sosyal bilgiler programının şekillenmesinde önemli rol oynadığı düşünülebilir. göçmenlerin sosyalizasyon sürecinde yaşadıkları sıkıntıları inceleyen jones için önemli olan yaşamın olduğu gibi okulda hayat bulmasını sağlamaktı. i̇çinde yaşanılan zamanın ruhu ders içeriğinde yansıtılmalıydı. bu düşüncenin gelişiminde sosyoloji biliminin büyük journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 70 bir rolü olduğu söylenebilir. sosyoloji toplumu bir bütün olarak içinde bulunduğu zaman dilimi içinde inceleyen, nicel verileri doğrultusunda hareket eden ve bu nicel verilere dayalı olarak problemleri kavrayan bir yapısı vardı. tarih ise bu yaklaşımdan uzaktı. dolayısıyla yurttaşlık etkili bir sosyalizasyon süreci ise bu süreç içinde toplumsal yaşamın ve bu yaşamı oluşturan kurumların aktif bir şekilde incelenmesi gerekliydi. i̇şte bu anlayışı verecek olan şey sosyal bilgiler ya da sosyal incelemelerdi. daha sonraki yıllarda yapılacak olan sosyal bilgiler komitesinde jones’un hampton uygulaması tartışmalarda önemli yer işgal edecektir. sosyal bilgilerin gelişim sürecinde i̇lerlemeci düşüncenin etkisi francis parker ve daha sonraki yıllarda dewey’in düşünceleri bağlamında gelişen ilerlemecilik kendi içinde farklı kliklere ayrılmış olsa bile ortaya konulan perspektifin temel esasları hemen hemen aynı kalmıştır. buna göre öğretmenin rehberlik rolü, çocuğun tüm faaliyetlerde merkez olması, okul, ev ve ailenin işbirliği ve okulun yeni uygulamalar için bir laboratuar olarak kullanılması gibi fikirler ilerlemeci düşüncenin ortak kabulleridir (dewey, 1897, 1899, 1902; gutek, 1997). bu ortak kabullerden hareket eden ilerlemecilerin eleştiri getirdikleri alanlardan biri de sosyal eğitim uygulamalarıydı. tarih odaklı sosyal eğitime, öğrencinin yaşamı ile ilgisi olmayan olguların öğretimine, ezberciliğe karşı olan ilerlemeciler için sosyal eğitimin temel amacı etkili ve üretken yurttaş yetiştirmektir (anderson, 1973; egan, 1980). bunun gerçekleşebilmesi için öğrencinin yaşamı ile doğrudan ilgili konuların öğretilmesi ve öğretim sürecinde öğrencinin etkin bir rol üstlenmesine dikkat çekiliyordu. okul hayat için bir hazırlık değil hayatın kendisidir yaklaşımı doğrultusunda etkili bir vatandaşın ancak belirli deneyimlerle yurttaşlık becerilerini içselleştirebileceği vurgulanıyordu. öğretimde yeni metotların kullanılması, ders kitabı yerine gerçek yaşam deneyimlerine önem verilmesi, öğretimin gerçek yaşam problemleri etrafında yapılandırılması gibi öneriler ilerlemeci düşünürlerin önem verdikleri konular arasında yer almaktadır. bu anlayış doğrultusunda verilecek sosyal eğitim öğrencilerin sosyalleşmesine katkı yapacak, onların üretime katkıda bulunmasını ve demokratik yaşamı benimsemelerini sağlayacaktı. bu durum aynı zamanda ekonomik açıdan bilinçli kuşakların yetişmesini temin ederken, amerika’nın ulusal ekonomi düşüncesi olan kapitalizminde benimsenmesine yardım edecektir. i̇lerlemeci düşüncenin sosyal eğitime bakış açısını biçimlendiren temel etkenler içinde sosyal değişim olgusu önemli bir yer tutmaktadır (cremin, 1961). on dokuzuncu sümer aktan & nevin saylan 71 yüzyılın sonlarına doğru sürekli göç alan amerika için yeni göçmenlerin toplumsal yaşama uyum sağlayabilmesi önemli bir sorun olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. bu sorunun çözümünde okul sosyal değişim sürecini etkili bir biçimde yöneten sosyal bir ajan olarak hizmet edecek, böylece birbiri ile uyumlu, birbirini seven bir toplum ortaya çıkacaktır. dewey ve diğer ilerlemeci eğitimcilerin görüşleri 1916 raporunda kendi açık bir şekilde hissettirmiştir. demokrasi kavramına yapılan vurgu ve eğitimde demokrasi gibi kavramların raporda yer alması bu durumun en açık örneğidir. 1916 raporunu hazırlayan komitede dewey olmamasına rağmen dewey’ci perspektif raporu biçimlendiren temel etkenlerden bir olmuştur (fallace, 2009). sosyal bilgilerin doğum belgesi olarak 1916 raporu sosyal eğitimin temeli olarak sosyal bilgilerin kabul edilmesinde 1916 raporu önemli bir dönüm noktasıdır. sosyal bilgilerin gelişim süreci üzerine çalışan tarihçiler genelde sosyal bilgilerin gelişim süreci ile ulusal eğitim derneği’nin (national education association) sosyal bilgiler komitesi tarafından 1916 yayınlanan raporu ile sosyal bilgilerin gelişim sürecini beraber ele almaktadırlar. ravitch bu raporu sosyal bilgilerin doğum sertifikası olarak nitelendirmektedir (ravitch, 1987’den akt fallace, 2009). ulusal eğitim derneği 1913 yılında sosyal bilgiler üzerinde bir rapor hazırlanması ve yurttaşlık eğitiminde yaşanan sorunlara bir çözüm olması için bir komite oluşturur. bu komite yayınlamış olduğu hazırlık raporu’nda sosyal bilgileri bir öğretim alanı olarak tanımlamış ve sosyal bilgilerin konu alanlarını tarih, yurttaşlık ve ekonomi olarak belirlemiş ve iyi vatandaş yetiştirmek sosyal bilgiler dersinin temel hedefi olarak kabul edilmiştir (u.s. bureau of education, 1913, 16 akt jorgansen, 2010). 1913 raporu sosyal bilgiler konularının öğretiminde sadece basit ezbere dayalı olguların öğretiminden kaçınılması, bunun yerine öğrencinin yaşadığı toplumsal çevreden hareketle konuların seçilmesi ve etkili öğretim yöntemlerinin kullanılmasına dikkat çekmektedir. sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin toplumun sosyal refahına katkıda bulunacağı, kız ve erkek çocuklarını içinde bulundukları sosyal grubun etkili bir üyesi yapacağını belirten rapor bu şekilde dersin önemine dikkat çekmektedir (jorgansen, 2010). 1913 raporunun yayınlanmasından iki yıl sonra 1915 yılında toplumsal yurttaşlık raporu yayınlanmıştır. 1913 raporunun devamı olarak nitelenebilecek bu çalışma temelde yurttaşlık eğitiminde yapılacak çalışmalar, yurttaşlık için belirlenen konulara yer verilmiştir. 1915 raporunda dikkat çeken noktalardan biri de öğrenen merkezli öğretime, yakın çevreden hareket etme gibi ilerlemeci uygulamalardır. bu açıdan bakıldığında 1913 journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 72 ve 1915 raporlarının ilerlemeci nitelikleri göze çarpmaktadır. bu yaklaşım kendisini 1916 raporunda da hissettirmiştir. 1916 yılında ulusal eğitim derneğinin girişimi ile oluşturulan sosyal bilgiler komitesi thomas j. jones başkanlığında toplanır ve bir rapor yayınlanır. 1916 raporu temelde dört bölüm olarak planlanmıştır. i̇lk bölümde, sosyal bilgilerin tanımı, sosyal bilgilerin amaçları, komitenin bu çalışmadaki bakış açısı ve sosyal bilgilerin genel bir çerçevesi verilmiştir. i̇kinci bölümde, yedinci, sekizinci ve dokuzuncu sınıflar için sosyal bilgilerin amaçları verilmiştir. üçüncü bölüm ise, on, on bir ve on ikinci sınıflar için sosyal bilgiler dersinin hedeflerini içermektedir. dördüncü ve son bölüm ise, öğretmenlerin yetiştirilmesi, standartların belirlenmesi ve ders materyallerinin kullanılması ile ilgili sorunlara ayrılmıştır (dunn, 1916). 1916 raporu ilk olarak sosyal bilgilerin anlamı üzerinde durmuştur. bunun temel nedeni, uzun bir dönem akademik ağırlıklı ve tarih merkezli bir sosyal eğitim programı uygulanması yüzünden, yedili komite ve onlu komite’nin direktifleri doğrultusunda gelişen tarih merkezli eski anlayışa alışkın olan eğitimcilerin ve akademisyenlerin zihninde net bir bakış açısı oluşturmaktır. sosyal bilgilerin tanımı raporda şu şekilde verilmiştir: “sosyal grubun bir üyesi olarak insanı ve insan toplumunun gelişimini ve nasıl düzenlendiğini anlamak maksadı ile doğrudan ilişkili olan konu alanıdır”(dunn, 1916, 9). sosyal bilgilerin amacı ise raporda, toplumsal verimlilik bağlamı içerisinde bireyin toplum ve iş hayatında olabildiğince etkili ve üretken olmasını sağlamak olarak verilmiştir. böylece sosyal verimlilik resmi olarak bir dersin temel hedefi olmuştur. ders konularının seçiminde dikkate alınması gereken ilk nokta, konuların olabildiğince öğrencinin ihtiyaçlarına göre ele alınması ve içinde bulunulan toplumsal yapının geliştirilmesinin önemine dikkat çekilmiştir (saxe 1991). bu şekilde rapor açık bir biçimde dewey’in ve j.h. robinson’un ileri sürdüğü düşüncelerin yansıdığı bir metin olmuştur (hertzberg, 1981). raporda bireyin ilgi ve ihtiyaçları ön planda vurgulanırken, asıl önemli olanın toplumun gelişimi olduğu önemle vurgulanmıştır. böyle bir anlayış ile toplumun bütün kesimlerinde etkili bir sosyalizasyonun gerçekleşmesinin mümkün olacağı ileri sürülmüştür (saxe, 1991). 1916 raporu’nun getirdiği öneriler içerisinde iki kademeli bir sosyal bilgiler eğitimi öngörülmüştür. i̇lk kademe başlangıç aşaması olarak belirlenmiştir. bu aşamada temel bilgi ve becerilerin kazandırılması hedeflenmiştir. i̇kinci kademede ise coğrafya, avrupa tarihi, amerikan tarihi ve toplumsal yurttaşlık bilgisi alanındaki derslerden alınan içerikle oluşturulmuştur. i̇kinci kademe için komitenin önerdiği tasarım içinde; avrupa sümer aktan & nevin saylan 73 tarihi, amerikan tarihi, sosyal, politik ve ekonomik açıdan demokrasinin sorunlarını içeren konulardan oluşan bir tasarım önerilmiştir (evans, 2004, 25). amerikan tarih derneği’nin yedili komite raporundaki önerileriyle karşılaştırıldığında, 1916 raporunun önerdiği yurttaşlık bilgisi ve demokrasinin problemlerini içeren bir sosyal eğitim programı gerçek anlamda bir devrim olmuştur (evans, 2004). sonuç ve değerlendirme 19. yüzyıl boyunca tarih odaklı ve zihni disiplin yaklaşımı doğrultusunda şekillenen sosyal eğitim uygulamaları, yüzyılın sonlarına doğru eleştirilmeye başlanmıştır. bu eleştirilerin dayandığı temel düşünce amerikan toplumunda i̇ç savaşı takip eden yıllarda meydana gelen sosyo ekonomik ve demografik değişim olgusudur. büyük sanayi tesislerinin kurulması, üretim artışı, şehirleşme, iç-dış göç olgusu, ülkenin batıya doğru gelişimi, artan ihracat ve yeni gelişen meslek alanlarının ortaya çıkması, sermaye birikimindeki artış gibi ekonomik olguların yanında gelişen entelektüel ortamında önemli bir etkisi olduğu söylenebilir. özellikle 18801910 arası dönemde ekonomi, tarih, coğrafya, sosyoloji, siyasal bilimler gibi pek çok bilim dalındaki kurumsallaşma çabaları bu entelektüel gelişim sürecine örnek olarak verilebilir. kurumsallaşan bu bilim dalları doğal olarak sosyal nüfuz sağlayıp meşruiyetlerini sağlamlaştırmak amacıyla bir kısım girişimlerde bulunmuşlardı. okul programları ve programların yapısı da bu kurumların ilgi sahasına girmiştir. sosyo-ekonomik ve sosyo-kültürel değişim olgusunun yoğun bir biçimde kendini hissettirmesi ve bu hızlı değişim sürecinin yönetilebilmesi önemli bir sorun olarak ortaya çıkınca, başta amerikan tarih derneği olmak üzere yurttaşlık eğitimi üzerinde durmaya başlamıştır. tarih odaklı yurttaşlık eğitiminin iyileştirilmesi amacıyla yapılan komite çalışmalarına paralel yurttaşlık eğitiminde farklı arayışlar ortaya çıkmaya başlamıştır. öğretimde öğrenen merkezli yaklaşımları savunan ilerlemeci düşünce öğretim sürecine ilişkin eleştirileri sistemleştirirken, thomas j. jones ilk defa yurttaşlığın odak noktasını oluşturan bir sosyal bilgiler programını hampton ziraat enstitüsünde uygulamaya koymuştur. 1913 yılında j.h. robinson’un yeni tarih yaklaşımı tarihin disiplinler arası bir yaklaşımla incelenmesi gerektiğini öne çıkarmıştı. bu üç yaklaşım sosyal bilgilerin doğasını biçimlendiren temel unsurlar olmuştur denilebilir. bu bağlam içinde hertzberg’in 1916 raporunu biçimlendiren etkenler içinde dewey ve robinson’un görüşlerinin ön planda yer aldığını ileri sürmesi önemli bir tespittir(hertzberg, 1981). böylece sosyal bilgiler ortaöğretim düzeyinde resmen bir ders olarak kabul edilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 74 sosyal bilgilerin gelişim sürecinin aynı zamanda tarih eğitiminin de sorgulanmasını beraberinde getirdiği ileri sürülebilir. 1899 yılından başlayarak ortaöğretim ve ilköğretim düzeyinde tarih öğretiminde reformist bir eğilimin ortaya çıktığı görülmektedir. bu eğilimin öncülüğünü de amerikan tarih derneği yapmıştır. yine bu reformist eğilimin bir yansıması olarak görülebilecek bir diğer gelişme de tarih öğretimine yönelik kitapların yayınlanmasındaki artıştır. sosyal bilgilerin gelişim süreci irdelendiğinde türkiye’deki gelişim süreci ile bazı benzerlikler dikkat çekicidir. bu benzerliklerin ilki türkiye’de uzun yıllar (1924-1968) sosyal eğitim ilk ve ortaöğretimde tarih, coğrafya ve yurttaşlık bilgisi dersleri ile verilmiştir. konu merkezli bir program anlayışı 1968 yılında yerini sosyal bilgilere bırakmıştır. 1968 programında sosyal bilgiler tarih, coğrafya ve yurttaşlık bağlamında ele alınmış ve diğer sosyal bilim dalları görmezden gelinmiştir. oysa 1916 raporu sosyal bilgilerin kendine mahsus doğasını açıklarken, sosyal bilgilerin disiplinler arası bir alan olduğuna dikkat çekmiştir. sosyal bilgilerin bir öğretim alanı olarak gelişiminde 1916 raporunun ayrı bir yeri vardır. bu raporun ortaya koyduğu tanım ve kapsamın çağdaş sosyal bilgilere giden yolda önemli bir kilometre taşı olduğunu söylemek mümkündür. kaynakça / references american history association. (1899). the study of history in schools: a report to the aha by the committee of seven, new york: mcmillan company. anderson, w. g. (1973). progressivism: an historiographical essay. the history teacher, 6, 427–542. apple, m. w. (2000). offical knowledge: democratic education in a conservative age. second edition, new york: routledge. apple, m. w. (2004). ideology and curriculum. third edition, new york: routledge falmer. baker, d. p. (2011). the future of the schooled society: the transforming culture of education in postindustrial society. (editor: hallinan m. t.). frontiers in sociology of education. springer bennett, c. j. c. (1907). formal discipline. new york: teachers college, columbia university. berns, r. m. (2010). child, family, school, community: socialization and support. belmont: wadsworth cengage learning. sümer aktan & nevin saylan 75 blumin, s. m. (1976). the urban threshold: growth and change in a nineteenthcentury american community. chicago: university of chicago press. breisach, e. (2009). tarihyazımı (h. kocaoluk, çev.). i̇stanbul: yapı kredi yayınları. bugental, d. b., & grusec, j. f. (2006). socialization processes. in w. damon & r. m. lerner (eds.), handbook of child psychology (6th ed., vol. 3). hoboken, nj: wiley. chudacoff, h. p. (1975). the evolution of american urban society. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall. cochran, t. c. (1981). frontiers of change: early industrialism in america. new york: oxford university press. correia, t. s.(1993). for their own good: an historical analysis of the educational thought of thomas jesse jones. unpublished doctoral dissertation. the pennsylvania state university. cremin, l. (1961). the transformation of the school. new york: knopf curti, m. e. (1959). the social ideas of american educators, with new chapter on the last twenty-five years. totowa, nj: littlefield, adams. davis, o. l. (1981). understanding the history of the social studies. in h. d. mehlinger & o. l. davis (eds.), eightieth yearbook of the national society for the study of education: part ii. the social studies (pp. 19–35). chicago: university of chicago press. dewey, j. (1897). my pedagogic creed. the school journal, 54, 77–80. dewey, j. (1899). the school and society. chicago: university of chicago. dewey, j. (1902). the child and the curriculum. chicago: university of chicago. dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education. newyork: the mcmillan company. dunn, a.w. (1916). the social studies in secondary education. washington: goverment printing office. egan, k. (1980). john dewey and the social studies curriculum. theory and research in social education, 8(2), 37-55. egemen, b. z. (1965). terbiye ilminin problemleri ve terbiye felsefesi. a.ü. i̇lahiyat fakültesi yayınları, a.ü.basımevi. evans, r. w. (2004). the social studies wars. new york: teachers college press. fallace, t. (2009). john dewey’s influence on the origins of the social studies: an analysis of the historiography and new interpretation. review of educational research, 79(2), 601-624. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 76 grusec, j. e. ve goodnow, j. j. (1994). impact of parental discipline methods on the child’s internalization of values: a reconceptualization of current points of view. developmental psychology, 30, 4–19. gutek, g. (1997). eğitime felsefi ve ideolojik bakışlar. (n.kale, çev.).ankara: pegem yayınları. güngördü, e. (2002). i̇lköğretimde hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. ankara: nobel yayıncılık. hertzberg, h. w. (1981). social studies reform 1880-1980. boulder, co: social science education consortium inc. hogan, w. t. (1971) economic history of the iron and steel industry in the united states. lexington, ma: d. c. heath. johnson, d. (2000). w.e.b. dubois, thomas jesse jones and the struggle for social education 1900-1930. the journal of negro history, 85(3), 71-95. jones, t. j. (1906). social studies in the hampton curriculum. hampton: hampton institute press. jorgansen, g. c. (2010). unraveling conflicting ınterpretations: a reexamination of the 1916 report on social studies. unpublished doctoral dissertation. logan: utah state university, umi 3404291. kan, ç. (2010). a.b.d ve türkiye’de sosyal bilgilerin tarihsel gelişimi. gü, gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi,30(2), 663-672. karier, c. j. (1973). liberal ideology and the quest for orderly change. in c. j. karier, p. violas, & j. spring (eds.), roots of crisis: american education in the twentieth century (pp. 84–107). chicago: rand mcnally. keels, o. m. (1994). in the beginning—albert mckinley and the founding of the social studies. the social studies, 85(5), 198–205. kliebard, h. m. (1995). the struggle for american curriculum. [second edition]. new york: routledge. lannie, v. p. (1974). henry barnard, american educator. new york: teachers college press. lasch, c. (2006). narsizm kültürü (s.öztürk ve h.ü. yolsal, çev.). i̇stanbul: bilim ve sanat yayınları. laurie, b. (1997). artisans into workers: labor in nineteenth-century america. urbana: university of illinois press. sümer aktan & nevin saylan 77 lybarger, b. m. (1981). origins of the social studies curriculum. doctoral dissertation, university of wisconsin, madison. umi. 81-12548. lybarger, m. b. (1991). the historiography of the social studies: retrospect, circumspect and prospect. in j. p. shaver (ed.), the handbook of social studies teaching and learning (pp. 3–15). new york: macmillan. mcaninch, s. a. (1990). the educational theory of mary sheldon barnes: inquiry learning as indoctrination in history education. educational theory, 40(1), 45–52. misa, t. j. (1995) a nation of steel: the making of modern america, 1865–1925. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press. national educational association. (1894). report of the committee of ten on secondary school studies, new york, cincinnati, chicago: american book company. nelson, m. (1992). first efforts toward a national curriculum: the committee of ten’s report on history, civil government, and political economy. theory and research in social education, 20(3), 242-262. osborne, k. (2003). fred morrow fling and the source-method of teaching history. theory and research in social education, 31(4), 466–501. öztürk, c. (2006). sosyal bilgiler: toplumsal yaşama disiplinler arası bir bakış. c.öztürk (ed.), hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi / yapılandırmacı bir yaklaşım (ss.2150). ankara: pegem akademi. öztürk, c. ve dilek, d. (2002). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretim programları. c. öztürk ve d. dilek (ed.), hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi (ss 48-107). ankara: pegem akademi. rippa, s. a. (1996). education in a free society: an american history. [eight edition]. new york: longman. robinson, j. h. (1912). the new history. new york: the mcmillan company. safran, m. (2008). sosyal bilgiler öğretimine bakış. b. tay ve a.öcal (ed.), özel öğretim yöntemleri ile sosyal bilgiler öğretimi (ss.2-17). ankara: pegem akademi. saxe, w. d. (1991). social studies in schools: a history of the early years, new york: state university of new york press, albany. sellers, c. (1991). the market revolution: jacksonian america, 1815–1846. new york: oxford university press. singleton, h. w. (1980). problems of democracy: the revisionist plan for social studies education, theory and research in social education, 8(3), 89-103. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 55-78 78 soltow, l. ve steven, e. (1981). the rise of literacy and the common school in the united states: a socioeconomic analysis to 1870. chicago: university of chicago press. sönmez, v. (2005). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi öğretmen kılavuzu: yeni programa göre düzenlenmiş yeni ders planı örnekleri. ankara: anı yayıncılık. spring, j. (1970). education and progressivism. history of education quarterly, 10(1), 53– 71. tanner, d. ve tanner, l. n. (1975). curriculum development theory into practice, new york: macmillan publishing co inc. temin, p. (1964) iron and steel in nineteenth-century america: an economic inquiry. cambridge, ma: mit press. the hampton normal school, http://www.hamptonu.edu/about/history.cfm adresinden 10.05.2011 tarihinde alındı. turhan, m. (1994). kültür değişmeleri: sosyal psikoloji bakımından bir tetkik. i̇stanbul: marmara üniversitesi i̇lahiyat fakültesi yayınları, no: 16. tylor, b. e. (1887). primitive culture: researches into development of mytology, philosophy, religion, language, art and custom. new york: henry holt and company. ülken, h. z. (1967). eğitim felsefesi. i̇stanbul: milli eğitim basımevi. ward, d. (1975). cities and immigrants; a geography of change in nineteenth-century america. new york: oxford university press. ward, f. (1898). outlines of sociology. new york: the mcmillan company. whelan, m. (1991). james harvey robinson, the new history, and the 1916 social studies report, the history teacher, 24(2), 191-202. winterer c. (2000). review of gilreath, james, ed, thomas jefferson and the education of a citizen. h-shear, h-net reviews. may, 2000. http://www.hnet.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=4086 adresinden 12 mart 2011’de alındı. woyshner, c. (2004). women’s associations and the origins of the social studies: volunteers, professionals, and the community civics curriculum, 1890-1920. international journal of social education, 18(2), 15–26. ej718716. woyshner, c. (2006). notes toward a historiography of the social studies: recent scholarship and future directions. in k. barton (ed.), research studies in social studies education: contemporary issues and perspectives (pp. 11–38). information age publishing. http://www.hamptonu.edu/about/history.cfm%20adresinden%2010.05.2011� http://www.hamptonu.edu/about/history.cfm%20adresinden%2010.05.2011� www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(2), 18-30 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 pay it forward: teacher candidates’ use of historical artifacts to invigorate k-12 history instruction scott m. waring1, cheryl torrez2, & george lipscomb3 abstract as advocates of engaging students in historical inquiry and of the use of primary sources to aid in this inquiry, we support the claims of numerous student benefits, such as learning to detect bias, appreciating the interpretive nature of historical thinking, and the drawing of conclusions based on judgments about evidence (fehn & koeppen, 1998; haeussler bohan & davis, 1998; seixas 1998; yeager & davis, 1996). we developed a unit of study for our history and social studies teacher candidates that would address several issues: (a) motivate and inspire future teachers to use inquiry as a tool to build k-12 students’ historical understanding and facilitate purposeful utilization of artifacts with ease; (b) help future teachers increase their knowledge of local history; and (c) present a unit that could be easily used in a secondary history course and, with some modifications, could be adapted for elementary and middle school history classrooms. keywords: history education, primary sources, social studies, teaching introduction the history education literature is replete with a call to help teachers understand that history should be taught as being inquiry-based and interpretive. we are encouraged, and rightfully so, to do history, to perform history, to do democracy, and to motivate students for inquiry and action by using primary sources (boyle-baise, 2003; fresch, 2004; levstik & barton, 2005; national council for the social studies, 1994, 2013; otten, stigler, woodward & staley, 2004; wyman; 2005). research on teaching children history strongly supports theories of constructivism (brophy & vansledright, 1997; levstik & barton, 2005; national center for history in the schools, 1996; national council for history education, 2007; national council for social studies, 1994). this construction of knowledge is a focus point of robust history and social studies teaching and learning (barton & levstik, 2004; grant & gradwell, 2005). 1associate professor, university of central florida, scott.waring@ucf.edu 2associate professor, university of new mexico, catorrez@unm.edu 3associate professor, furman university, george.lipscomb@furman.edu journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 18-30 19 as advocates of engaging students in historical inquiry and of the use of primary sources to aid in this inquiry, we support the claims of numerous student benefits, such as learning to detect bias, appreciating the interpretive nature of historical thinking, and the drawing of conclusions based on judgments about evidence (fehn & koeppen, 1998; haeussler bohan & davis, 1998; seixas 1998; yeager & davis, 1996). however, classroom teachers may not use artifacts and primary sources for various reasons, including their beliefs about their students’ developmental immaturity, feeling such materials are time-consuming and not getting enough bang for the buck, having difficulty creating appropriate lessons, or simply lacking a sufficient understanding of history themselves (levstik & barton, 2005). in addition to our stances on the teaching and learning of history as being interpretive and inquiry-based, which therefore demand an investigation of primary and other sources including artifacts, we framed the work described in this article within the classroom realities of k-12 schools. teachers often do not engage students in inquiry nor use artifacts in history instruction, and teachers generally have limited financial resources with which to purchase classroom materials. as teacher educators, we set out to develop an assignment that would help teacher candidates strengthen their historical knowledge, increase their capacity to engage in historical inquiry, and provide them with a model and lesson plans that could be used in k-12 classrooms. this assignment was given to teacher candidates at three universities across the united states (two in the southeast and one in the southwest). the following sections address the specifics of the assignment, assessment and learning, and we provide suggestions for adaptations. what we wanted to know as a result of this study were: 1. are our teacher candidates seeing the importance of engaging students in the complete processes of historical inquiry? in what ways do teacher candidates enact their understanding of inquiry into curriculum design and instruction? 2. do these teacher candidates see the relevance in using artifacts and other visuals in instruction and do they put theory into practice? in what ways do they make sense of theory and strategies learned in methods courses? scott m. waring, cheryl torrez, & george lipscomb 20 the assignment: pay it forward we developed a unit of study for our history and social studies teacher candidates that would address several issues: (a) motivate and inspire future teachers to use inquiry as a tool to build k-12 students’ historical understanding and facilitate purposeful utilization of artifacts with ease; (b) help future teachers increase their knowledge of local history; and (c) present a unit that could be easily used in a secondary history course and, with some modifications, could be adapted for elementary and middle school history classrooms. the assignment was named pay it forward: invigorating instruction through local history. this multifaceted assignment included the development of a lesson plan that would (a) demonstrate a robust understanding of engaging students in historical inquiry and local history, and (b) focus on an artifact that the teacher candidate would find as part of the investigation. each teacher candidate was provided ten dollars with which to purchase artifacts for the lesson; hence, the teacher candidates were encouraged to search a variety of resources for artifacts. specific criteria for the spending of the money were provided for the teacher candidates, as well as a lesson plan format. they were instructed to only use sources appropriate for their grade level of choice and to find items that would capture interest and hopefully necessitate conversation and further inquiry. finally, the candidates were to teach the lesson either to k-12 students or peers within the methods course, and write a brief reflective narrative. the notion of pay it forward was enacted in various ways. for instance, the teacher candidates in one of the courses each kept their artifacts as thus began their own artifact collection for teaching; the candidates in another course gave their artifacts to the ‘course artifact box’ for use by future teacher candidates, hence paying it forward. preparation for this assignment included readings, course discussion, and in-class activities relating to the facets and importance of historical inquiry, use of artifacts, visuals, and other materials in history instruction. also included was attention to lesson design. a significant strand throughout each methods course was historical inquiry or doing history that included local and community history, pedagogically sound uses of primary and secondary sources, and the use of artifacts in teaching (dillon, 2007; lindquist, 2002; turner, 2008). yet, we were also aware that teacher candidates enjoy and need practical examples of classroom teachers using historical artifacts with local history. therefore, we included those in coursework prior to introducing the project. assessment of assignment journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 18-30 21 in addition to the collection of the lesson plans for analysis, the purchased artifacts (ex. journals from the early 20th century, ration stamp books, comic books, antiques, etc.) also served as data sources. by using a variety of data collection methods, triangulation of data occurred (denzin, 1970; maxwell, 2005). analysis of the lesson plans included adherence to the assignment criteria (a) evidence of historical inquiry, (b) a relevant historical topic, (c) a thorough knowledge of a local history topic, (d) grade level appropriateness, and (e) use of limited resources. in addition to basic analysis of the lesson plan, the content of the lesson plan and use of artifacts were analyzed. lastly, the lessons were examined using four of the ten history’s habits of mind from the national center for history education (2007) plus an additional criterion, that we constructed, related to the artifact: • distinguish between the important and the inconsequential. • develop historical empathy as opposed to present-mindedness. • comprehend the interplay of change and continuity. • grasp the complexity of historical causation, respect particularity, and avoid excessively abstract generalizations. • primary source artifact(s) is seamlessly integrated into lesson and enhances understanding of the content to be conveyed. each lesson was rated on a scale of 1-4 for each of the five criteria: 1=no evidence/focus 2=minimal evidence/focus 3=evidence/focus 4=strong evidence/focus the ratings were entered into spreadsheets and analyzed for overall mean scores. the researchers coded their respective data. a limitation of this study is due to interrater reliability. although efforts were made to score assignments across institutions, this limitation remained likely. results these teacher candidates were enthusiastic about the assignment and being able to “get materials” inexpensively, albeit creatively. many were also excited about the opportunity to learn more about local history. in one reflection, a teacher candidate noted, “i’ve lived here all scott m. waring, cheryl torrez, & george lipscomb 22 my life and didn’t know about this. by studying where we live, history is more real. the artifact helps students relate to history.” ninety percent of the teacher candidates located appropriate artifacts that met the assignment criteria. however, 10% of the candidates had a difficult time identifying artifacts. this was a surprise, given that significant class time had been spent using and developing artifact sets, using a variety of primary and secondary sources, and experiences with document and source analysis. we wondered if this might be due to difficulty defining or locating primary sources. several participants spent their 10 dollars on items that would not support the content of the lesson or spent their money unnecessarily. for example, one teacher candidate purchased a copy of the u.s. constitution from ebay days after a lesson showing students the our documents section of the national archives and records administration (bower & lobdell, 2003; wiggins & mctighe, 1998). this lesson was focused on showing students how, for free, they could access, save, and print digital versions of the charters of freedom. an additional concern was that the copy of the constitution was not even utilized in this teacher candidate’s lesson. analysis of the lesson plans indicated a working knowledge of state history standards and a general ability to address standards while designing curriculum that followed formats endorsed in understanding by design or history alive, texts used in the methods courses. the artifact use was not always seminal to the lessons, however. notably absent from nearly 80% of the lesson plans was historical inquiry and evidence—k-12 students reaching conclusions based upon evidence. with a few exceptions, there was not a significant difference between the scores of the elementary and secondary candidates’ lesson plans. the secondary candidates’ choice of artifacts more closely aligned with the topic of inquiry than those of the elementary candidates’. however, across grade levels, there was often a noticeable lack of evidence related to engaging students in the process of historical inquiry (i.e. asking questions, gathering and evaluating relevant evidence, and reaching conclusions based upon that evidence). the following section presents the findings by habit of mind/artifact criteria ratings and provides narrative examples and excerpts from the lessons. distinguish between the important and the inconsequential journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 18-30 23 there was evidence in 63% of the lesson plans that the teacher candidates endeavored to design curriculum that helped students attend to this criterion. for example, one lesson designed for kindergartners focused on the “structure and reasons for adobe houses in the southwest.” in addition to visiting adobe houses and pueblos and making adobe bricks, the kindergartners learned about the characteristics of adobe and developed constructs for why adobe has been an important building material in their neighborhoods. a fifth grade lesson on “the home front during world war ii” used a university yearbook from 1941 to engage students in a study of daily life during the war era. this lesson contained several authentic resources (photographs, newspaper articles, and pamphlets) for students to examine as they assembled a newspaper showing significant changes in society that occurred during the war. however, not all of the teacher candidates were able to make these distinctions. in an attempt to highlight changes in a local farming community and to “help elementary students make connections between science and the community”, one candidate cut a hole in a stuffed toy cow to represent a fistula (a window cow). the window cow was the artifact for the lesson in which change was the dominant theme. beyond drawing attention to a scientific anomaly, there was no arguable purpose for inclusion of the stuffed toy cow. the distinction between the important and the inconsequential was not evident in either the lesson design or in the work these elementary students were to do. in another lesson, entitled a look back in history through children’s literature, third grade students, as a class, were asked to read adventures of sonny bear and discuss the words and subject matter that they had trouble understanding. next, they would “find out what life was like in 1916”. a kwl was utilized, as they conducted research online. lastly, the students were paired up to write and illustrate what they found to be the most interesting aspects about life in 1916. the completed pages were to be combined into a class book about life in 1916. there was no structure to the lesson, and there was no guarantee that any of the students completing this lesson would have any ability to distinguish between the important and the inconsequential in regards to life in 1916. develop historical empathy as opposed to present-mindedness there was mixed evidence across the lesson plans that focused attention was given to this habit of mind with only 46% providing a strong focus on this criterion. in a weak example teaching about the great depression, the creator of the lesson expected fifth grade students to be “paired off into groups and told they will have 10 minutes on the internet to find specific scott m. waring, cheryl torrez, & george lipscomb 24 information on the great depression,” using only three web sites (wikipedia and two others) assigned by the teacher. after some discussion of their findings, the students were asked to take on the persona of a child during the time of the great depression and to write a paragraph explaining what life is like for them. although this individual found this as a time when the teacher could “get creative” by allowing the students an opportunity to “choose their level of wealth, family size, even if anyone in the family including them has an illness”, the students were not provided with enough information or instruction to adequately perform this task. although there was little to no evidence throughout most of the lesson plans, effort to develop empathy rather than present mindedness was strong in a few of the lessons. it is noteworthy that each of these lessons included role-playing. a fourth grade lesson, agriculture in the upstate, integrated a scythe as the artifact and had the students “take on roles of plantation owners, sharecroppers, etc.” a lesson on life in a mill village clearly focused on developing historical empathy among second graders and emphasized roles taken on by children. a fifth grade lesson on agriculture after the civil war included several activities that asked students to take on the role of common people during this era. with extensive background information provided, students were to take on the role of a small farmer, plantation owner, or sharecropper and make a case for aid from the government. comprehend the interplay of change and continuity the data indicated that this criterion was the middle ground for the teacher candidates. nearly 60% of the lesson plans provided strong evidence/focus of this habit. in the lesson stereotypes of women in the 1950s, students examined common household products created in the 1950s and looked at their uses today. later in the lesson, students compared and contrasted advertisements from the post-war era to those in modern life and later created their own commercial focusing on the roles of women in selling these ads. an example of comprehending the interplay of change and continuity was evidenced in the lesson an ad is worth 1000 words, a look at culture through advertisements. in this lesson, eleventh grade students were asked to examine and discuss common advertisement themes in magazines, including how advertisements portray women, minorities, smoking, drinking, cars, colors used, slogans, etc. using a scaffolding worksheet to record thoughts and observations, students examined current newsweek and time magazines. after a discussion about how magazines are considered to be an important information medium and how they have journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 18-30 25 changed over time, the students discussed what they think would be advertised in magazine in the 1960s and to whom these products should appeal. students had an opportunity to examine various issues of newsweek and time from the 1960s. further analysis and comparison was then conducted examining the current issues and those from the 1960s. next, students went through and picked three advertisements for the same product in both the 1960s magazine and a current magazine, looking at differences occurring from culture changes, laws, and technology. the students focused on the following questions for each • what is the ad trying to do? • who is the intended audience? • what strategies are used? • what do ads reveal or conceal about an era, etc.? as a final part of the lesson, students picked a product and created their own vintage ad and contemporary ad for the product. students were allowed to either draw the advertisement on a piece of paper or create their own on the computer. grasp the complexity of historical causation, respect particularity, and avoid excessively abstract generalizations attention to this habit was missing from 76% of the lesson plans. we found this to be unfortunate, but not surprising. many of the teacher candidates simply lacked the historical depth and breadth to help k-12 students make these distinctions. this may account for the no evidence/focus score for this criterion in most of the lesson plans. a typical representation of this habit is illuminated in a middle school lesson about wwii. among other topics taught in the united states at home during wwii, students were asked to examine the following: taxes and controls, labor, labor unions, civilian support for war effort, the draft, population movements, rationing, the role of women and minorities, volunteer activities, and propaganda and culture during the second world war. the creator of this lesson tried to avoid excessively abstract generalizations being conceived about life in the american home front through the examination of primary sources from the time. thus, elements of this habit were clearly present in this lesson; however, other areas were entirely absent, such as historical causation. scott m. waring, cheryl torrez, & george lipscomb 26 a solid attempt to grapple with the complexity of historical causation was made in a fifth grade lesson on route 66: the mother road. using primary source artifacts, such as 1939 license plates, vintage route 66 pins, postcards from the 1940s, period maps, and primary source newspapers, the elementary students eventually constructed working theories of reasons for the growth of route 66, its impact, importance, and eventual demise. several students at one of the southeastern universities crafted lessons on life in the mill villages surrounding textile mills in the area. the main problems, with these lessons, were that students generalized life in one mill village to all villages in the area and weren’t able to capture key elements of daily living. primary source artifact(s) is seamlessly integrated into lesson and enhances understanding of the content to be conveyed the use and integration of artifacts was the highest rated of all five criteria and the easiest for teacher candidates to understand; 90% of the lesson plans indicated strong evidence of attending to this criterion. one student purchased a series of picture postcards from the early 1900s to use in a second grade lesson entitled our city: then and now. these postcards were used extensively in the lesson to describe city life 100 years ago, to discuss continuity and change among the downtown area of the town, and to assist students in developing their own postcards from the time period. a third grade lesson, entitled world war two: the sacrifices at home, required students to examine life in the united states during the second world war. students learned about propaganda, victory gardens, rationing, conservation, recycling, and other issues relevant to this time period. the artifact, a canning jar, was utilized by asking students to think about its uses and how canning could have helped with the war effort, as well as what else children could have done to help their communities with the war effort. after viewing primary source movies, advertisements, and documents about victory gardens, discussions were held focusing on what kind of plants can be grown in a victory garden and why the government encouraged people to grow their own food. an option for allowing students to can their own items was included. in the next section of the lesson, the teacher held up a hershey's chocolate bar and put the chocolate to the side and the foil wrapper on the table. next, she showed the class some rubber bands and placed them with the foil. the teacher continued, in the same manner, with a brown paper bag, pair of nylon stockings, and any scrap metal (hairpin, paperclip, wire, tin can, pots, etc.) until a journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 18-30 27 minor pile of stuff was accumulated. the students were then asked, "does anyone know what these items have in common?” to begin further examination of recycling, conservation, and rationing, specifically focusing on efforts made by children. ten percent of the teacher candidates acquired artifacts that were not necessary to the lesson and were weak examples of artifacts. one student purchased a paper helmet and a gold paper crown for use in a fifth grade lesson designed to describe how contemporary and historical people/events have influenced communities in the southwest. the paper helmet was to shown to students and represented conquistadors and the paper crown was representative of english colonialists. in this lesson, the students were also asked to list christopher columbus’ ships and to choose a spanish, english, or french settlement to investigate. not only was the choice of artifact less than ideal, its use in the lesson was superfluous. summary most of the teacher candidates addressed the habits to some degree in their lesson plans, and nearly all of lesson plans seamlessly integrated a primary source/artifact. as we consider the findings in light of the original research questions: (a) in what ways do teacher candidates enact their understanding of inquiry into curriculum design and instruction? and (b) in what ways they make sense of theory and strategies learned in methods classes?, the findings inform us that inconsistencies exist within lesson plans. teacher candidates attended to distinguish between the important and the inconsequential and comprehend the interplay of change and continuity the most frequently. the teacher candidates had the most difficulty with grasping the complexity of historical causation, respecting particularity, and avoiding excessively abstract generalizations. the majority of the teacher candidates in this study did show evidence of, albeit limited at times, designing curriculum that encouraged k-12 students to engage in historical inquiry. making the bridge between theory and practice, or showing evidence of learning from the methods courses, was clearly evident across the lesson plans. suggestions for adaptations this assignment and study sprung forth from our wondering, “are our teacher candidates seeing the importance of engaging students in the complete processes of historical inquiry?” at the outset of the project, we were confident that in our courses, teacher candidates learn the importance of inquiry and teaching with artifacts and other visuals, but we were unsure if our intended curriculum becomes a learned or enacted curriculum. to some extent, this remains the scott m. waring, cheryl torrez, & george lipscomb 28 case. several adaptations arise to better address this wondering. all students (k-12 and university) need more purposeful experiences with artifacts and historical inquiry. within a k12 history class, we suggest beginning these lessons early in the academic year and building upon them throughout the year. by the end of the school year, all students should be able to locate at least one artifact that will engage others and understand the significance of the source to understanding the associated historical content. we had also hoped that by giving the teacher candidates the small stipend with which to purchase artifacts, they would see how inexpensively a teacher could actually find materials and build their own artifact library. the teacher candidates were creative in their finds, and several of them began a reference resource list that will serve them well, as novice teachers. as teacher educators, not only have we been able to support our teacher candidates and assist them in developing a different type of professional resource library, but we have also learned, once again, not to underestimate the willingness, creativity, and passion of our students. within a teacher preparation course, we suggest giving more class time to deconstructing historical inquiry and to helping students differentiate between what is and what is not a primary source artifact. clearly, within a k-12 classroom, a teacher is not dolling out cash to students; however, k-12 students can be encouraged to gather artifacts from a variety of sources, especially in the study of local history---from family members, local historical societies, and field trips, to suggest a few. also of importance is the idea that solely using digital artifacts, rather than realia and digital artifacts, is an easy fix for lack of resources. as history teacher educators, we remain passionate about the integration of digital artifacts; however, there is much to be said for holding a postcard from 1945 in your hand and wondering about its journey rather than simply viewing a digital image of the same postcard. perhaps, too often, we teacher educators find ourselves shrinking from our roles as advocates of history education, as we acquiesce to the perceived marginalization of history rather than encouraging ourselves to maintain our critical stance. by giving our teacher candidates a bit more encouragement and scaffolding to build their agency, we found that our agency was shored up, as well. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 18-30 29 references barton, k., & levstik, l. s. (2004). teaching history for the common good. mahwah, n.j.: lawrence erlbaum associates. bower, b., & lobdell, j. (2003). social studies alive!: engaging diverse learners in the elementary classroom. palo alto, ca: teachers' curriculum institute. boyle-baise, m. (2003). doing democracy in social studies methods. theory and research in social education, 31(1), 51-71. brophy, j. e., & vansledright, b. (1997). teaching and learning history in elementary schools. new york: teachers college press. denzin n. k. (1970). the research act: a theoretical introduction to sociological methods. new york: mcgraw-hill. dillon, j. p. (2007). “all history is local”: researching the place where you live. middle level learning, 30, m2-m7. fehn, b., & koeppen, k. e. (1998). intensive document-based instruction in a social studies methods course and student teachers' attitudes and practice in subsequent field experiences. theory and research in social education, 26(4), 461-484. fresch, e. t. (2004). connecting children with children, past and present: motivating students for inquiry and action. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. grant, s. g., & gradwell, j. m. (2005). the sources are many: exploring history teachers' selection of classroom texts. theory and research in social education, 33(2), 244-265. haeussler bohan, c., & davis, o. l., jr. (1998). historical constructions: how social studies student teachers' historical thinking is reflected in their writing of history. theory and research in social education, 26(2) 173-197. levstik, l. s., & barton, k. c. (2005). doing history investigating with children in elementary and middle schools, 3rd ed. mahwah, nj: l. erlbaum associates. lindquist, t. (2008). seeing the whole through social studies. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. maxwell, j. a. (2005). qualitative research design: an interactive approach. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. national center for history in the schools. (1996). national standards for history. los angeles: national center for history in the schools. scott m. waring, cheryl torrez, & george lipscomb 30 national council for history education. (2007). history’s habits of the mind. baltimore: national council for history education. national council for the social studies. (1994). expectations of excellence: curriculum standards for social studies. washington, d.c.: national council for the social studies. national council for the social studies. (2013). the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver spring, md: author. otten, m., stigler, j. w., woodward, j. a., & staley, l. (2004). performing history: the effects of a dramatic art-based history program on student achievement and enjoyment. theory and research in social education, 32(2), 187-212. seixas, p. (1998). student teachers thinking historically. theory and research in social education, 26(3), 310-341. turner, d. (2008). pennsylvania dutch crafts and culture. social studies and the young learner, 20(3), 16-17. wiggins, g. p., & mctighe, j. (1998). understanding by design. alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. wyman, r. m. (2005). america's history through young voices: using primary sources in the k12 social studies classroom. boston: pearson/allyn & bacon. yeager, e. a., & davis, o. l., jr. (1996). classroom teachers' thinking about historical texts: an exploratory study. theory and research in social education, 24(2), 146-166. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 291-299 291 white willow in russian literature: folklore “roots” of image marianna a. dudareva1, nina p. goeva1 abstract the article deals with a complicated archetypal tree complex in russian literature. the object chosen here is “white willow” (vetla) as one of the species of willow in its different variations daphne willow (verba) and goat willow (rakita), and willow itself. in the 19th century russian literature we can find the image of white willow is in v. zhukovsky’s translated poem “the forest tsar”; in prose it appears in poetics of f. dostoevsky where it is embedded in ritual mythological context. in the 20th century literature, both in poetry and in prose, white willow has also held its place. for instance, i. bunin and m. gorky used this image giving the tree a metaphysical meaning. s. yesenin writes about the meaning of this tree in poetry in his treatise “the keys of mary” (1918) where he draws parallels with russian folklore. the image of white willow is also live in modern poetry: it traced back to russian literary and folklore tradition. in children's folklore (cradle songs with “scary plot”) we can see “other-worldly” nature, semantics of a tree which functions as the world tree. keywords: russian literature, folklore, symbolism of trees, metaphysics, modern poetry. introduction as a rule, the writers’ reference to the image of a tree has reason behind it. judging on from the world mythological and folklore tradition, the archetype of a tree is associated with the world axis. a tree is used in many rituals; it is a part of ritual complex in slavic folklore where it often replaces a person. symbolism of trees in the artistic world of different russian writers has been mentioned by many researchers. materials and methods linguists consider a tree as a special concept embodied into the great context of national axiology. literary scholars also see an archetypal structure in the image of a tree. however, it is worth to specify the type of a tree to which russian literature implies. we mostly find the symbolization of birch, oak and daphne willow. these are the trees which both folklorists and linguists who deal with issues of vocabulary and phraseology in the context of national culture 1 peoples' friendship university of russia, moscow, russian federation, e-mail: marianna.galieva@yandex.ru. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 291-299 indicate (krass, 2000). if there are no special questions concerning birch and oak in terms of nomination, then it is worth to pay attention to daphne willow because we can find this tree in different variations: willow, goat willow and white willow. these names of trees do not mean one tree but the artistic reality always refracts the reality as it is and dissolves boundaries of perception. but to our opinion, white willow still holds a special place in lexicon and aesthetics of russian literature. literature review let's refer to genesis of the image of a white willow. in the 19th century russian literature it came to us from free interpretation of goethe's mythological “the alder king” made by v. zhukovsky who titled it as “the forest tsar” and the latter overgrew the original. it was m. tsvetaeva (1994) who nicely and precisely wrote about this in her essay “two “forest tsars” drawing attention to great difference between the king and the tsar. the latter is entirely russian and is placed in the national context where white willow is one of the symbols. let's look at the following lines: dear, the forest tsar summoned his daughters: i see somebody nods behind dark branches. “oh no, in night shade all is tranquil: these are white willows stand aside” (zhukovsky, 2008) on the one hand, there is secular consciousness in the father's answer: he does not see and even does not wish to see miracle and he rejects all relating to metaphysics. on the other hand, here the white willows are replaced by the figures of “daughters” and this is not by chance since according to the laws of ritual logic a woman is quite compatible to represent a tree. besides, taking into account variability of tree nomination (white willow willow daphne willow), it is worth to consider the meaning of daphne willow in the slavic rites. daphne willow is relatable to female principle and a bride (tolstoy, 1982). it is likely that this semantics is a little bit “fuzzy” in zhukovsky’s poem but tsvetaeva has caught on to this quite precisely: “we came up to the very top of temptation and ballad, to the place where the forest tsar, restrained passion, finds intonations which are much more deeper than those of father and mother, and leads us through the whole scale of female impact and gamma of female intonation: from female insinuative tones to maternal tenderness; we came to the stanza which is, in addition to the sense dudareva & goeva thereof, a real cradle song due to its sounding” (tsvetaeva, 1994). so, the eidology of the feminine is anyway strong in the poem and backed up with the image of white willow which has still other additional connotations in folklore. perhaps the word “lullaby” (cradle song) in tsvetaeva's essay appeared by chance but it refers us to children's folklore and cradle songs “scary plot”. in the well-known text about “the grey wolf” beginning with the words “bayu-bayushki-bayu” (lullaby), a lulling motive is combined with stable images: the edge (crack willow bush / small forest) and the wolf (gorbunova, 2013). these words and images indicate a special space: here is a model of the edge of light, i.e. boundaries between the worlds are given. it is on this “frontier” where initiation takes place with the hero. the forest and the crack willow bush are the loci potentially associated with the other world. we may further reconstruct the elements of maternity to which cradle songs are related but in this case we only point out ambivalence of the image of goat willow (daphne willow and white willow) to which the folklorists often pay attention (kopytov, 2017). returning to literary context, let’s once again note the semantic richness of “white willow” in zhukovsky’s poem. the image of a tree is associated with a female archetype and indicates “borderline” state of the hero. though, of course, a thin silvery willow looks like a ghost in the dark but the poem is not about that. in this context the white willow carries mythological and folklore load. such a combination of images (the forest and the female principle) is also found in the 20th century poetry. there are many poets who repeatedly used the image of white willow: esenin mentioned and theoretically grounded this in his treatise “the keys of mary” where he wrote about symbolism of a tree: “everything comes from a tree: this is the religion of our nation but very few people can understand and see the festivity» (yesenin, 1997). the image of white willow also has a metaphysical sense in ivan bunin's prose (the novel “the life of arseniev”): “its old ruts were overgrown with grass, and old white willows still standing on the left and right along its deserted space looked lonely and sad” (bunin, 2005). the white willows seem to accompany arseniev’s path and meditation (we’ll return to this fragment later on). referring to this context and to prose, we can show significance of a white willow for russian axiology. a white willow also has similar metaphysical meaning in m. gorky’s story “once autumn night”. without delving into metaphysics of the plot, let's pay attention to the paradigm of “a broken white willow an inverted boat”. the narration begins just with these journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 291-299 details: “the sky is heavy and gloomy; hardly visible drops of rain were unceasingly pouring down from it; two broken and ugly white willows and the boat turned upside-down lying by their roots emphasized the sad elegy in nature surrounding me” (gorky, 1949). analyzing this story in folklore and mythological context, the specialists point to expansion of semantic content of the text by means of images and symbols white willows and a boat: “...in gorky’s story, a common (“secular”) detail has a certain sacral content (khanov, 2005). we can find similar ambivalent meaning of the image of white willow in f. dostoevsky's poetics. the literary critics who deal with problems of symbolism and folklore, in f. dostoevsky's “the brothers karamazov” drew attention to infernality of the image of rakitin and that of a goat willow tree (rakita) which are associated with each other not only by nominal sense but at the internal level. thus, v.e. vetlovskaya (1971) points out the pivotal (for alyosha) nature of the meeting nearby a lonely goat willow: “among softly details connecting alyosha's entrance “the world” and return from “the world” on the first day, we note connection between rakitin and that “lonely goat willow” nearby which he is waiting for his brother mitya. this goat willow appears here twice more associated with the motive of hanging”. thus, semantics of the surname here is ritually significant. if we consider a goat willow tree/shrub (let’s here remember cradle songs) in archetypal key and take into account the other-worldly meaning, we can see ritual markers in dostoevsky's text. results has this semantic tension and significance of this image preserved in modern literature? has the word “white willow” itself been lost? strangely enough but in modern poetry we find the book by v. dudarev (already reprinted and revised) named as “white willow”. his white willow opens the collection of verse and impresses the reader from the very first line: we may abandon everything, we can go crazy and go on the bottle ... but this white willow never will catch fire! (dudarev, 2016) you may do what you wish and “waste” your life («we can go crazy and go on the bottle») but the white willow will remain on its place. here there is something archetypal and dudareva & goeva metaphysical: it is no by chance that the poem begins with a thunderstorm during which even faces are visible: when night is bright thanks to the lightning we see the faces shuddering with fear in the windows but our old white willow will hardly catch the fire from the lightning. thunderstorm is a borderline time, the other hour for a human being. so it is in dudarev’s poem and that’s why the faces “shudder”. it is worth noting that the white willow is old, however, this does not detract it but extols. this tree has seen a lot and and so did bunin’s white willow. analyzing the book “white willow”, the literary critics has already referred and neatly approached to bunin's name when drawing parallels with his poetry. however, association with the work of this classic seems to us more subtle and has a latent character. so, in another poem (“the province”) a white willow appears once again but not as the world tree: it is only slightly shown here: let the mirages win! each spring will vanish into them but you when saying ‘bye’ please, tell me: oh, how many versts and white willows in the world! (dudarev, 2016) the action of the poem begins in “outer space” as it is indicated by the image of the universe ladles. while the universe ladles are pouring happiness on us please, hurry up to love entire world on each haphazard path! (dudarev, 2016) such cosmogonic paradigmatics goes on in the symbolic pair “versts and white willows”. and this is not only the author’s rhythmic finding; the semantic side is also extremely important here. traveling with his father, young arseniev looks at bumpy roads and sees old white willows as if they see him off and stir up his imagination with a dimly remembered world: “...especially i remember one white willow and its hollow trunk shattered by thunder storm. a large black raven sat on the tree like a black firebrand and my father said that crows may live for several hundred journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 291-299 years and this one maybe lived in the time of the tatars…and this caught my imagination so much...” (bunin, 2005). here it is temptation to associate this passage with the first poem (besides, dudarev greatly appreciates bunin's works and he is familiar with the novel “the life of arseniev”) but his white willow is not stricken by thunder. here semantic intensity is quite different. the white willow is given at archetypal level as something metaphysical and alive which has seen a lot: “from the tatar times” to our days. and it is this very impression which the lyrical hero must communicate to descendants. the versts and white willows have become one: this reminds mythological and ritual path of the cultural hero who must reach the world mountain or the world tree. in folklore this is clearly expressed in poetics of arcane rites since the world voodoo model includes primarily the hero's way, his familiarity with / acquisition of sacral knowledge and the world axis expressed by a tree / mountain / stone / sun (shindin, 1993). dudarev's text by its intonation resembles incantation and spell of a man and his fate: while chapels in russia still stay by the sides of the roads please, swear an oath in the night more adamantly and in short! (dudarev, 2016) but in this author’s works there are the other white willows associated not only with fate but with love: one sip of khvanchkara is firm and dear and so bright and wind makes sunny sonnets silver between white willows. the clavier is full of sounds, the trout is vibrant, lamb is bleating and this is life. so loves the world. but only poet who can love. when summing up his fate he realizes dudareva & goeva that the time has come! that love and death are one and the same! and madrigal appears (dudarev, 2016). most certainly, we are talking about the high modus of love. the imagery structure in this poem is deceptively simple: wind, trout and fish. but this view of life makes you think and leads to philosophical formula: “love and death are one and the same!” wind and white willows, like versts and white willows, is not only a good intonation and rhyme but a special paradigm: combination of air, wind, being already silver, with a white willow and the world tree. and finally, all three lexical items are united in the poem “the goddess” forming a harmoniously sounded and metaphysical fateful line. what a space was keeping silent! what the dreams were becoming true! the sun was first hot and then scarlet like being ashamed of its nude. the versts and white willows, the winds, / even when thinking of it! / and the dark branches became at once much darker. and ash in mantel tubes sang like in the kingdom of shadows. the funerary bale-fire ashes became much darker in woods. no niche was for its rays! the ovary’s cracked at the node! being weaker journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 291-299 and darker and quieter we’re waiting for it on the earth (dudarev, 2017). here the concepts and “fate” and “love” are expressed. however, now the white willow is no longer silver but dark, thoughtful and waiting. so one can see transformation of the image of white willow in dudarev's poetry (although the last poem is not included into the book: it was written a year later). the eternal, monumental and steady white willow a prophetess, just bunin’s white willow – a silvery, tender and airy white willow a dark, fateful white willow. the carefully made cover of the book also shows significance of the image of white willow (and a tree in general) for the author: a white willow bark on one side and h. bosch’s picture “the hearing forest and the seeing field” on the other. the forest and trees can hear and see. natural philosophy, even paganism, presented in various forms, is observed in the poet's book. but pagan barbarian theme is a separate one in dudarev’s poetics. conclusions so, the image of white willow/willow/goat willow is already found in the texts of russian folklore and in cradle songs with “scary plot” where it has an archetypal character since this very tree “is close to the image of the world tree”. in russian literature of the 19th early 20th century, a white willow took its place both in poetry and in prose. in the works of zhukovsky, dostoevsky, gorky and bunin this image contains “boundary" semantics; a white willow is like a marker of the hero's state of threshold. in modern poetry, the lexical unit “white willow” is also preserved and fully realized in the poetic language of v. dudarev who made the image of this tree as a title one. references bunin, i.a. (2005). complete works in 13 volumes. мoscow: sunday. (in russ.) dudarev, v. f. (2016). white willow and other poems. moscow: fiction literature. (in russ.) dudarev, v. f. (2017). yats, yery, yeri. independent newspaper, march 16. (in russ.) gorbunova, k.a. (2013). the plot about grey wolf in russian cradle songs. url: http://www.scienceforum.ru/2013/18/5298 (accessed date: 09.07.2017). (in russ.) gorky, m. (1949). once autumn night. moscow: fiction literature. (in russ.) khanov, v.a. (2005). folklore and mythological “roots” in m. gorky’s story “once autumn night”. bulletin of n.i. lobachevsky university of nizhny novgorod, 1: 37-42. (in russ.) kopytov, n.y. (2017). on semantics of phytonomic symbols in folkore texts (a case study of song tradition in karagaisky district, perm region). url: ford foundation: web-site (accessed date: 09.07.2017). krass, n.a. (2000). concept of tree in lexical and phraselogical semantics of russian language (a case study of mythology, folklore and poetry). ph.d.thesis. мoscow. (in russ.) shindin, s.g. (1993). spatial arrangement of russian voodoo universe: image of center of the world. in: research in the field of baltic and slavic spiritual culture. incantations (108-127). мoscow: science. (in russ.) tolstoy, n.i. (1982). from “grammar” of slavic rites. works on sign systems, xv: 65-71. (in russ.) toporov, v.n. (1971). on structure of some archetypal texts associated with concept of “world tree”. works on sign systems, v: 9-62. (in russ.) tsvetaeva, m.i. (1994). collected works in 7 volumes. мoscow: ellis luck. (in russ.) vetlovskaya, v.e. (1971). number symbolism in “the brothers karamazov”. in: works of department of old russian literature (139-150). leningrad: science; leningrad division. (in russ.) yesenin, s.a. (1997). collected works in 7 volumes. moscow: science; voice. (in russ.) zhukovsky, v.a. (2008). complete works in 20 volumes. мoscow: russian literature language. (in russ.) http://www.scienceforum.ru/2013/18/5298 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (3), 1-17 1 a national survey of u.s. social studies teacher educators’ professional habits and preferences stewart waters1 & matt hensley2 abstract social studies teacher educators represent a small subset of higher education faculty in the united states. however, within this small subset exist a great deal of diversity in terms of habits and preferences of social studies educators. the purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the types of research studies most commonly being conducted by social studies teacher educators, preferred research methods, professional organization affiliations, and preferred publication outlets. findings revealed that social studies teacher educators in the u.s. most commonly conduct qualitative research studies focusing on the secondary (6-12) level. additionally, insights are provided into which national organizations and journals are most popular among social studies teacher educators in the united states. this study will provide teachers, educators, and scholars from around the world with valuable information regarding the current state of social studies teacher educators’ professional preferences in the united states. key words: social studies education, demographics, teacher education, survey research introduction the field of education continues to be a vast and complex landscape around the world encompassing dynamic realms of pedagogy and social justice (gay, 2018). since the field’s inception, teacher education researchers have sought to answer fundamental questions about how to improve teaching and learning in all aspects of the field. social studies teacher education certainly contributes another layer of complexity, with scholars and researchers from a variety of social science disciplines seeking to advocate for new approaches to teaching and learning in public schools. as the educational landscape continues to change and evolve with each passing year, so too do the instructional needs of students entering into the p-12 classroom setting (banks, j.a., 2019; gay, 2018). additionally, increased demographic diversity in p-12 students in the united states (united states census bureau, 2010) has influenced social studies education programs and research to emphasize 1 assoc. prof., university of tennessee, kswaters@utk.edu 2 m.s., university of tennessee, mhensl13@vols.utk.edu mailto:kswaters@utk.edu mailto:mhensl13@vols.utk.edu journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 1-17 2 multicultural dispositions in pedagogical practice (banks, j.a., 2019; gay, 2018) to navigate the chasm of racial disparity between typically white male social studies teachers (fitchett, 2010; howard, g.r., 2016; nces, 2008) and their demographically diverse students (banks, j.a., 2019; gay, 2018; bower-phipps, homa, albaladejo, johnson, & cruz, 2013; sleeter, 2008; matias, 2013; waters & busey, 2016). this work requires a great deal of flexibility, adaptability, and introspection to effectively and appropriately prepare future social studies teachers to navigate a field that is constantly in flux and has an abundance of variables (adler, 2008; gay, 2018; laughter, 2011; ladson-billings, 2011). according to a national survey administered by busey & waters (2016) preferred research topics among social studies teacher educators showed that 46% of respondents preferred researching democratic and citizenship education; 41% of respondents preferred researching preservice/in-service social studies teacher preparation; and 38% of respondents preferred researching instructional methods and social studies education (busey & waters, 2016). these research topics demonstrate the various avenues and approaches that social studies education scholars are taking to investigate and address the grander concerns in social studies education and teacher preparation. in the social studies research handbook, adler’s (2008) conclusions express the significance of well-designed empirical research and its potential contribution to improved practice. however, if we are to envision teachers employing and using the scholarly work being produced to inform their practice, it is imperative to shed light on the professional habits of the researchers and how their habits may in turn influence scholarship and teachers’ practice (adler, 2008). thus, the purpose of this article is to examine the types of research studies most commonly being conducted by social studies teacher educators, preferred research methods, professional organization affiliations, and preferred publication outlets. while it is common for educators to contribute new knowledge to the field in the form of scholarly articles and conference presentations, what is less known is the type of studies they prefer to conduct and where they prefer to share their work. as the outlets where educators share their work continues to expand (journals, online journals, blogs, editorials, books, textbooks, etc.), we believe it is critical for fields to begin sharing information regarding their professional preferences to help establish reputable outlets to share their work. this is especially critical during times when predatory journals and conferences continue to thrive on the “publish or perish” nature of higher education. finally, data from this study will be helpful in strengthening the link between research and practice by providing teachers, educators, and scholars waters & hensley from around the world with valuable information regarding the current state of social studies teacher educators’ professional preferences in the united states. theoretical framework we employed network effects theory (net) to undergird our study, beginning with the theory’s assertion that the value of a “good or service” increases as more people start to use that “good or service” (clements, 2004; easley & kleinberg, 2010; network effects, 2017). while the net framework is traditionally used in economics research (clements, 2004; easley & kleinberg, 2010; network effects, 2017), the foundational principles of the theory are germane and translate well to our study, which focuses social studies teacher educator scholarly preferences. specifically, the types of research studies most commonly being conducted, preferred research methods, professional organization affiliations, and preferred publication outlets (metaphorically and literally) exemplify “goods or services” within the field. following this theory, the more social studies teacher educators select certain outlets to publish scholarship, conduct certain types of studies, employ certain research methods, attend certain conferences, and join certain organization affiliations, the more valuable and appealing these preferences become in moving the field forward. this in turn, attracts more social studies teacher educators to these specific scholarly outlets and habits. thus, these scholarly outlets and habits continue to increase in value and attract more social studies teacher educators simultaneously. we maintain that the net theoretical framework provides a necessary contextual lens to guide our study and aid readers in conceptualizing our findings beyond just reported social studies teacher educator scholarly preferences. rather, we aim to employ net to be able to provide theory-laden rationalizations for why these scholarly preferences among social studies teacher educators help explain the current focus of the field. processing the data through this framework allows us to demonstrate to the reader how and why the types of research studies most commonly being conducted, preferred research methods, professional organization affiliations, and preferred publication outlets influences and shapes the field of social studies education research moving forward. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 1-17 4 scholarly preferences of social studies teacher educators: a need for research regardless of an individual’s role in the field of social studies education, i.e. teacher educator or pre/in-service teacher, it is important to map the field. understanding the scholarly preferences of social studies teacher educators conducting research is crucial for both teachers and other teacher educators to discern the direction the field is heading. moreover, this knowledge is valuable because teachers and scholars alike should be able to identify whether or not the research partialities of social studies teacher educators adequately reflect/align with the diverse nature of multiculturalism needs in 21 st century schools (gay, 2018). to improve the teaching and learning of social studies, teacher education should be informed by robust research that transcends paradigmatic debates, makes solid contributions to the field that address gaps in the literature, and highlight the in/effectiveness and impact of certain practices and strategies on diverse populations (aera, 2006; adler, 2008; gutierrez, penuel, 2014; tarman & acun, 2010; zeichner, 2005). zeichner (2005) called for “multimethodological approaches to studying the complexities of teacher education (p.740).” these considerations for education research are useful for both the pre/in-service teachers, as well as other social studies researchers as they decide to take action to address various needs in the field. this allows other social studies researchers to see what types of studies have been conducted regarding a particular topic, what methodologies have been employed to study particular topics, and what critical areas are still in need of additional research. relatedly, understanding preferred research studies and methodologies allows other education scholars and teachers to discern the researcher’s world view and ontological and epistemological leanings (lincoln & guba, 1985), and arguably more important, the generalizability of the results and findings (adler, 2008; creswell, 2007; gay, 2018;). for example, a case study approach may have specific parameters that define the case being studied, therefore the results and findings may not be applicable in all social studies classrooms around the world. nonetheless, this information should be taken into consideration when evaluating research and deciding whether or not use it to inform pedagogical practice (adler, 2008). waters & hensley professional organization preferences understanding what professional organizations and associations that social studies teacher educators belong to is important because this indicates where social studies scholars go to collaborate and network. this knowledge is useful to both teachers and scholars that are seeking to break out of isolation in the field and receive professional development, while surrounding themselves with individuals who share similar passions in the field (lewis, 2015; lynn, 2002). professional organizations and associations is also a good indicator of the preferred type of work that the social studies teacher educator engages in for specialized development and sharing their research/scholarship (eraut, 1994). for example, certain education organizations, such as the national council for the social studies (ncss) tend be geared more towards pedagogical practice and teaching theory (ncss, 2019), while others, such as the college and university faculty assembly (cufa) are geared more towards higher education and empirical research (cufa, 2019). both beneficial to the overall field of social studies education, but some organizations and associations may better suit certain teachers and teacher educators more than others. publication outlet preferences knowing where social studies teacher educators disseminate their scholarship is also very salient in understanding the field as whole. in the field of education some journals publish “how to” narratives regarding pedagogical strategies and interventions, while others are more researchdriven and seek to highlight findings of empirical studies. the type of manuscript produced greatly determines the journal outlet to be selected to disseminate this work (knight & steinbach, 2008). this works vice versa also, if a particular journal is selected first, then the manuscript will be tailored to meet the parameters or works typically published in that particular journal (knight & steinbach, 2008). for example, in the field social studies education, “social education”, the flagship journal of ncss, is geared more towards practitioner and theory-based publications (social education manuscript submission guidelines, 2019). in journals such as “the journal of social studies research” and “theory and research in social education”, the publications from these outlets tend to be much more research-laden (jssr, 2019; trse, 2019). both types of publication outlets serve to inform future social studies teachers and teacher educators but have different missions and visions for how their journals strive to do so. the national council for the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 1-17 6 social studies promotes a number of research, theory, and mixed journals that are advantageous for social studies teachers and teacher educators alike (ncss, 2019). rationale for the study there is no uniform way to be a social studies teacher educator. there exists a plethora of ways to research phenomena and contribute to the literature, and to organizations that provide professional development and give inspiration to the scholar as they prepare their students. the purpose of this study is not to perpetuate the idea that there is a right way of conducting research, a certain professional organization that should be joined over another, or a “best journal” that should be considered by all scholars. creativity and diversity in scholarship are useful and necessary to explain a field that is constantly in flux and has so many overlapping areas of interest within diverse fields of research. we aim to unpack this discussion further and investigate the various preferences of social studies education scholars to gauge what social studies teacher educators are doing in regard to scholarship, associations, and dissemination of research. this study is salient as we seek to extend the conversation a step further and look at what social studies teacher educators are doing to prepare preservice teachers to teach an ever increasing demographically diverse p-12 student population (gay, 2018; banks, 2019). this article strives to fill a gap in the literature and highlights the scholarly preferences of social studies teacher educators in the united states and informs those in and entering the field of “what they are doing” as it relates to their role as a researcher and social studies teacher educator. purpose and research questions the purpose of this descriptive quantitative study was to examine the types of research studies most commonly being conducted by social studies teacher educators, preferred research methods, professional organization affiliations, and preferred publication outlets. to explore this query, the researchers formulated the following research questions to focus to drive the study: 1. how do social studies teacher educators define themselves as researchers with regards to their p-16 level of focus, research concentrations, and preferred research methods and avenues for research dissemination? waters & hensley in our analysis and findings, we hope to provide teachers, educators, and scholars from around the world with a valuable understanding of the field regarding the current state of social studies teacher educators’ professional preferences in the united states. this information could potentially be useful in future studies to glean whether or not social studies teacher educators’ research effectively and appropriately informs practice and supports the ever-increasing diverse demographics of 21st century students. methods the questionnaire utilized in this survey research study was constructed by the researchers based on a plethora of peer-reviewed studies focused on collecting demographic data of teachers and teacher educators (crase & hamrick, 1990; faculty demographics, 2000; fitchett & vanfossen, 2013; hodgkinson, 2002a; nelson & brammer, 2010; zabel & white, 1988). the questionnaire was piloted with a group of twenty colleagues to assess the reliability and validity of the items on the questionnaire and if any information needed to be removed from the instrument. additionally, we drew on the work of creswell (2007), and sought critical peer-reviewers and constant member checking for each item on the questionnaire. after this process, we consulted with colleagues within our departments that were experts in survey research, quantitative research methods, and evaluation for additional input on the questionnaire in this study. data collection the survey instrument was uploaded into the online platform known as qualtrics, which allowed the researchers the ability to solicit participation from social studies teacher educators across the united states. to identify potential participants for this study, we drew upon multiple listservs which we had access to for professional organizations within the field of social studies teacher education (journal of social studies research and the college and university faculty assembly). additionally, we manually collected information about possible participants from university websites, social studies publications, editorial review boards, conference programs, and professional relationships we have established with colleagues to construct a detailed database of 258 possible participants. the database of participants excluded graduate students, as they were not the intended audience of this study, which sought to provide data driven evidence of what current social studies teacher educators were doing in relation to professional habits and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 1-17 8 preferences. while we recognize the limitations of identifying potential participants in this fashion, our objective was to recruit as many participants as possible, while also focusing in on participants that had a clearly defined association with the field of social studies teacher education (punch, 2003). we also acknowledge that the use of journal/organization listservs has limitations, as not all scholars in the field are part of those organizations or are on editorial review boards. again, this method was not meant to be exclusionary, rather, we wanted to begin with a foundation of possible participants from which we could actively work to build a more inclusive database of social studies teacher educators. we invited participants to complete the survey via email once every two weeks for three months. once someone completed the survey, their ip address was logged in qualtrics, preventing them from completing the survey multiple times from the same computer. data analysis of the 258 total possible participants, we received a total of 149 completed responses to our survey, for a response rate of 58%. since the survey was completed anonymously and participants could skip any questions or segments of the survey that they did not want to complete or feel comfortable answering, not all 149 respondents completed every section of the survey. all data from qualtrics was transported into the statistical package for the social sciences (spss), where the researchers ran descriptive statistics to report exactly what the data indicated and not make any broad generalizations or comparisons between different indicators or independent variables. limitations we acknowledge that our study has several limitations. firstly, compiling a comprehensive database of all faculty, educators, teachers, researchers, and scholars associated with the field of social studies teacher education would be a nearly impossible task, as the field itself has several overlapping areas of interest and responsibilities. while building from a participant pool from selected listservs associated with the field is certainly exclusionary to those not associated with those organizations, this was only used as a starting point for participant recruitment. other limitations included not inquiring about prior teaching experience in p-12 classrooms (e.g., urban, suburban, rural, private, etc.). we also did not inquire about linguistic backgrounds or why these educators choose to enter into the field of social studies teacher preparation, information which waters & hensley would certainly prove to be illuminating and insightful. however, no questionnaire can be so comprehensive without being overwhelming to participants and as we were asking for their help and insights, we needed to be mindful of the time required to complete the survey instrument. we encourage future research to include and build upon all of these limitations. the nature of conducting survey research itself also has substantial limitations. for example, all survey research relies on data that is self-reported by participants. self-reported data always has the inherent risk of participants not being entirely truthful, a limitation we attempted to moderate by having the survey instrument completed anonymously. additionally, as referenced above, a larger and more comprehensive population sample could have possibly uncovered different findings. however, the researchers worked to minimize the limitations of this study by aligning our methods with common characteristics associated with high quality survey research (punch, 2003; salant & dillman, 1994). while our population sample certainly does not reflect the entirety of everyone associated with social studies teacher preparation in the united states, it does offer some data driven evidence about what a fair segment of these educators are doing professionally. results what are we doing? in an effort to better understand what social studies educators are actually doing in the field, the researchers collected information on a variety of different topics ranging from preferred methods of research to professional organization associations. one of the first questions the researchers asked the participants to answer was their primary focus area of research in the p-12 school setting. participants were allowed to select multiple options as their primary area of focus in p-12 research, which lead to percentage responses that total greater than 100%. of our respondents, 70% (n=82) identified secondary as their primary area of focus, while 30% (n=35) selected middle and 27% (n=32) selected early childhood and elementary (see table 1). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 1-17 10 table 1 primary area of focus in p-12 research grade level n= percentage of respondents early childhood and elementary 32 27% middle 35 30% secondary 82 70% the next series of questions collected information on social studies educators preferred research methodologies, types of research conducted, research topics, and critical areas in need of additional research. firstly, the researchers asked participants to rank from 1-3 (1 being most preferred and 3 being the least preferred) their research methodologies. 73% of respondents (n=66) identified quantitative as their least preferred methodology. qualitative was identified as the most preferred methodology by 65% (n=59) of the participants, while mixed methods garnered the highest number of “neutral” (2) responses with 66% of participants (n=60) (see table 2). after collecting information on preferred research methodologies, we asked participants to identify what types of research studies they most commonly conduct. participants in this section of the survey were allowed to choose as many areas as they desired, with no minimum or maximum restrictions. a majority of respondents, 68% (n=78), identified case study research as their preferred study type. survey and questionnaire research was the second most commonly selected method with 40% (n=46) of respondents, followed closely by action research, selected by 37% (n=42) of respondents. there was a fair amount of consistency and frequency among multiple types of research, as ethnography, grounded theory, historical research, content/textbook analysis, and narrative research each garnered selections by at least 20% of respondents. self-study research had the lowest frequency of selection with 11% (n=13) respondents (see table 3). table 2 preferred research methodologies method 1 2 3 total responses quantitative 16 9 66 91 qualitative 59 22 10 91 mixed methods 16 60 15 91 total 91 91 91 91 *respondents were asked to “rank” the methodologies in order of most preferred (1) to least preferred (3). waters & hensley table 3 preferred types of research research type n= percentage of respondents action research 42 37% case study research 78 68% content/textbook analysis 29 25% ethnography 30 26% grounded theory 28 25% historical research 36 32% narrative research 23 20% phenomenology 18 16% self-study research 13 11% survey and questionnaire research 46 40% other 9 8% the final section of the questionnaire asked participants to provide information about their professional organization memberships, conferences they are most likely to attend, and professional journals they are most likely to read and/or submit manuscripts to for publication. for the professional organization membership and professional conferences likely to attend sections, the researchers provided participants with a preliminary list of organizations and conferences that they could choose from, while also including an “other” option for write-in responses that may not have been included as one of the provided options. participants in this section of the survey were allowed to choose as many organizations and conferences as they desired, with no minimum or maximum restrictions. the “national council for the social studies (ncss)” was the organization most frequently chosen, with 95% (n=106) of respondents claiming to be members of the organization. 78% (n=87) of respondents claimed to be members of the “college and university faculty assembly (cufa),” while 71% (n=79) of respondents claimed to be members of the “american educational research association (aera) (see table 4). when asked to identify which professional conferences participants attend or are likely to attend for research and collaboration/dissemination, 71% (n=77) of respondents indicated “college and university faculty assembly (cufa).” “american educational research association (aera)” was chosen by 66% (n=72) of respondents likely to attend, while “national council for the social studies (ncss)” closely behind with 65% (n=71) of respondents likely to attend (see table 5). to find out what professional journals participants were most likely to read and/or submit manuscripts to for publication, the researchers chose to collect this data by written responses only (no preliminary list of potential journals was provided). the researchers hoped to find out more journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 1-17 12 information about what journals social studies educators prioritize in terms of reading about and publishing research in the field. of all the journals provided by respondents, the two most frequently cited were “the journal of social studies research (jssr)” 72% (n=71) and “theory and research in social education (trse)” 70% (n=69). other top choices of respondents included “social education” 49% (n=48), “the social studies” 36% (n=35), “american educational research journal (aerj) 27% (n=26), “action in teacher education” 23% (n=23), and “social studies research and practice” 23% (n=23). it is also important to note that the “other” category for the professional journals likely to read and/or submit manuscripts was expansive, 63% (n=62), because of all the variety contained within the write-in responses. the researchers decided to include only the journals that were identified by at least 5% of respondents (see table 6). table 4 professional organization membership of respondents name of organization n= percentage of respondents american association of colleges for teacher education (aacte) 27 24% american educational research association (aera) 79 71% association of teacher educators (ate) 15 13% college and university faculty assembly (cufa) 87 78% international society for the social studies (isss) 29 26% national association for multicultural education (name) 18 16% national council for history education (nche) 9 8% national council for the social studies (ncss) 106 95% national social science association (nssa) 9 8% state council for the social studies (acronym dependent upon the state organization in which the participant is active) 53 47% other 47 42% table 5 professional conferences likely to attend name of organization/conference n= percentage of respondents american association of colleges for teacher education (aacte) 13 12% american educational research association (aera) 72 66% association of teacher educators (ate) 9 8% college and university faculty assembly (cufa) 77 71% international society for the social studies (isss) 18 17% national association for multicultural education (name) 16 15% national council for history education (nche) 6 6% national council for the social studies (ncss) 71 65% state council for the social studies (acronym dependent upon the state organization in which the participant is active) 40 37% other 50 48% waters & hensley table 6 professional journals most likely to read and/or submit manuscripts name of organization n= percentage of respondents action in teacher education 23 23% american educational research journal (aerj) 26 27% the history teacher 9 9% the journal of social studies research (jssr) 71 72% the journal of teacher education 8 8% social education 48 49% the social studies 35 36% social studies research and practice 23 23% social studies and the young learner 18 18% teachers college record 7 7% teaching and teacher education 9 9% theory and research in social education (trse) 69 70% other 62 63% professional organizations and research dissemination. in the last section of the questionnaire, the researchers wanted to find out more about social studies educators’ professional affiliations and publication preferences. the researchers wanted to know where are social studies educators going to disseminate and collaborate about research as well as what research journals are most popular among social studies faculty members. in terms of professional organization membership, respondents indicated that the “national council for the social studies (ncss)” was by far the most popular with 95% of respondents claiming membership. the “college and university faculty assembly (cufa) was the second most frequently identified, with 78% of respondents claiming membership, followed by the “american educational research association (aera)” with 71% of respondents claiming membership. the researchers found this data encouraging because it highlights that social studies education faculty members are engaging in collaborative organizations dedicated to advancing the field and improving social studies education. engagement in collaborative organizations was further demonstrated by the selection of conferences participants were likely to attend, with ncss garnering (65%), cufa (71%), and aera (66%) of respondents claiming they were likely to attend these gatherings to disseminate or collaborate about research. again, doctoral students or scholars new to the field of social studies may find this data helpful because it offers insight into meeting locations and organizations popular among contemporary social studies education faculty. the final question on the questionnaire sought to find out what professional journals participants were most likely to read and/or submit manuscripts to for publication. the researchers believed journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 1-17 14 this data would be helpful to everyone in the field of social studies education due to the increasing number of publication outlets utilized in higher education. the two journals most frequently identified by respondents were “the journal of social studies research (jssr)” (72%), and “theory and research in social education (trse)” (70%). the sample population in this study clearly favored jssr and trse, likely because these are two in a small number of peer-reviewed journals dedicated solely to social studies research and some of the participants for this study were recruited using listserves associated with these journals/organizations. based on the indicated popularity of jssr and trse, it can be assumed that these journals are highly regarded among participants in this study and journals that aspiring scholars and social studies educators should consider reading if they wish to maintain an understanding of contemporary research in the field. discussion not surprisingly, most of the respondents in this study (70%) classified secondary schools as their primary focus area in p-12 research. this high percentage could be attributed to the fact that social studies classes are only offered consistently at the secondary level. as social studies becomes increasingly and continually absent from the elementary school curriculum (heafner & fitchett, 2012), research in this area may prove difficult to conduct. social studies teacher educators must also seek to differentiate between middle level and secondary education, as the two have different factors to consider in light of adolescent development, cognitive challenges, and overall purposes (conklin, 2011, 2014). when asked to rank preferred research methodologies in terms of favorite to least favorite, a large majority of the sample population (65%) identified qualitative as their preferred methodology. the sample population clearly did not prefer quantitative research, with 73% of respondents identifying it as their least favorite research method. based on these findings, the case could be made that more quantitative focused researchers are needed in the field of social studies education to offer diversity in presentation of research findings. among all the research types utilized by participants in this study, case study research was the most frequently identified (68%) among social studies educators. somewhat surprisingly and contradictory, survey and questionnaire research was the second most identified type of study, preferred by 40% of participants. the researchers found the popularity of survey and questionnaire research surprising due to the lack of preference towards waters & hensley quantitative research found in the previous question. perhaps participants utilize survey and questionnaire research to inform qualitative studies, as opposed to focusing primarily on quantitative statistical analysis of findings. in all other research areas, there was a great deal of balance among the participants in this study, indicating a good deal of diversity in terms of the methods of research being conducted in the field of social studies. the researchers found the diversity of research types identified among participants as encouraging because it suggests that social studies education faculty are attempting to answer complex issues from a variety of different research paradigms. conclusion this descriptive study was designed to examine the types of research studies most commonly being conducted by u.s. social studies teacher educators, preferred research methods, professional organization affiliations, and preferred publication outlets. the researchers discovered that social studies teacher educators in the u.s. most commonly conduct qualitative research studies focusing on the secondary (6-12) level. moreover, insights were provided into which national organizations and journals are most popular among social studies teacher educators in the united states. extrapolating information such as this from a national survey will set up the opportunity for future research to be conducted to examine why u.s. social studies teacher educators have these professional habits and preferences (perhaps a qualitative interview study), as well as offer a model for similar studies to be conducted in other countries around the world. we believe international studies similar to this one that attempt to offer insights into the professional habits and preferences of social studies educators would be a valuable addition to the literature and help scholars from around the world have a more thoughtful understanding of social studies teacher education on an international level. references about national council for the social studies (ncss). (2019). retrieved from https://www.socialstudies.org/about adler, s.a. (2008) the education of social studies teachers. in l.s. levstik, and c.a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp.329-351). new york: routledge. american educational research association (2006). standards for reporting on empirical social science research in aera publications. educational researcher, 38(6), 481-486. https://www.socialstudies.org/about journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 1-17 16 banks, j. a. (2019). an introduction to multicultural education. new york, ny: pearson. bower-phipps, l., homa, t.d., albaladejo, c., johnson, a.m., & cruz, m.c. (2013). connecting with the “other” side of us: a cooperative inquiry by self-identified minorities in a teacher preparation program. teacher education quarterly, 40(2), 29-51. busey, c. & waters, s. (2016). who are we? the demographic and professional identity of social studies teacher educators. the journal of social studies research, 40(1), 71-83. clements, m. t. (2004). direct and indirect network effects: are they equivalent? international journal of industrial organization, 22(5), 633-645. college and university faculty assembly (cufa). (2019.). retrieved from https://connected.socialstudies.org/cufa-main/home easley, d. & kleinberg, j. (2010). networks, crowds, and markets. reasoning about a highly connected world. cambridge university press. eraut, m. (1994). developing professional knowledge and competence. london ; washington, d.c.: falmer press. fitchett, p.g. (2010). a profile of twenty-first century secondary social studies teachers. journal of social studies research, 34(2), 229-265. gay, g. (2018). culturally responsive teaching: theory, research, and practice. new york, ny: teachers college press. gutierrez, k. d., & penuel, w. r. (2014). relevance to practice as a criterion for rigor. educational researcher, 43(1), 19–23 howard, g. r. (2016). we cant teach what we dont know: white teachers, multiracial schools. new york: teachers college press. journal of social studies research (jssr) (2019). retrieved from https://www-sciencedirectcom.proxy.lib.utk.edu/journal/the-journal-of-social-studies-research/about/aims-andscope knight, l. v., & steinbach, t. a. (2008). selecting an appropriate publication outlet: a comprehensive model of journal selection criteria for researchers in a broad range of academic disciplines. international journal of doctoral studies, 3, 59–79. ladson-billings, g. (2011). asking the right questions: a research agenda for studying diversity in teacher education. in a.f. ball and c.a. tyson (eds.), studying diversity in teacher education (pp. 385-398). lanham, md: rowman & littlefield publishers. https://connected.socialstudies.org/cufa-main/home https://www-sciencedirect-com.proxy.lib.utk.edu/journal/the-journal-of-social-studies-research/about/aims-and-scope https://www-sciencedirect-com.proxy.lib.utk.edu/journal/the-journal-of-social-studies-research/about/aims-and-scope https://www-sciencedirect-com.proxy.lib.utk.edu/journal/the-journal-of-social-studies-research/about/aims-and-scope waters & hensley laughter, j.c. (2011). rethinking assumptions of demographic privlige: diversity among white preservice teachers. teaching and teacher education, 27, 43-50. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2010.07.001. lewis, c. c. (2015). what is improvement sciences? do we need it in education? educational researcher, 44(1), 54–61. lynn, s. (2002). the winding path: understanding the career cycle of teachers. the clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues and ideas, 75(4), 179-182. matias, c.e. (2013). on the “flip” side: a teacher educator of color unveiling the dangerous minds of white teacher candidates. teacher education quarterly, 40(2), 53-73. national center for educational statistics. (2008). schools and staffing survey (sass), public teacher questionnaire, 2007-2008, table 82. washington, dc: u.s. department of education. network effects. (2017). retrieved july 30, 2020, from https://www.learningtheories.com/network-effects.html sleeter, c.e. (2008). preparing white teachers for diverse students. in m. cochran smith, s. feiman-nemser, d.j. mcintyre, and k.e. demers (eds.), handbook of research on teacher education: enduring questions in changing contexts (3 rd ed.) (pp. 559-582). new york, ny: routledge. social education manuscript submission guidelines. (2019, april 18). retrieved from https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/howtosubmit tarman, b. & acun, i. (2010). social studies education and a new social studies movement, journal of social studies education research. 1(1), 1-16. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/116/111 theory and research in social education (trse). (2019) retrieved from https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/theoryandresearch zeichner, k. (2005). a research agenda for teacher education. in m. cochran-smith and kennth m. zeichner (eds.), studying teacher education: the report of the aera panel on research and teacher education (pp.737-759). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. https://www.learning-theories.com/network-effects.html https://www.learning-theories.com/network-effects.html https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/howtosubmit https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/116/111 https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/theoryandresearch www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (2), 186-203 186 technological dimension of pre-school teacher training at tertiary school: fine arts conceptbased case study akhmetzhan s. seitenov1, rakhila zh. aubakirova 2, nataliia iu. fominykh3 & oxana g. вelenko4 abstract the purpose of this study was to experimentally test the impact of the author's concept and the corresponding educational and methodological support on the technological development of the pedagogical process (based on teaching fine arts to pre-schoolers). quantitative research methods like surveys, interviews, questionnaires, tests, tutor observation check-lists, students’ and learners’ performance records experiment were utilised. three knowledge field and measurement and evaluation experts were involved to assess the validity of the instruments. the internal reliability of the questionnaire was validated through running the kuder-richardson formula 20 that resulted in a reliability coefficient, which was 0.72 and indicated internal reliability. the variables to this experiment were the students’ creativity, learning performance, computer skills, motivation of the professional growth and preschool learners’ creative and cognitive thinking and communication skills. it has been found that there was the dynamics in the variables of both student-teachers and children. the mean values for the cg students increased by 0.65 points on average in every variable after the participating in the experiment and the mean figures for children improved by 0.70 points on average as well which proved that the designed model had been efficient in upgrading the pedagogical process at preschools and developing students’ future job-related competencies like creating an interactive technology-mediated and game-based learning environment in fine arts which could encourage children’s initiative, creativity curiosity (autonomous cognitive activity) and collaboration along with creation of an emotionally significant situation for autonomous activity of both an individual and a group in which a child's right to their own evaluation, opinion are welcomed. the results met objectives of this study, boosted previous knowledge, and filled the research gaps. after the treatment, there was a 10-12% improvement in learning performance, 79% in the eg students’ creativity, 8-10% in computer skills, and 10-11% in motivation of the professional growth and 8-10% in preschool learners’ creative and cognitive thinking and communication skills. the course and methodical complexes for arts and design can be recommended for use in the pedagogical process of preschool groups and classes of the republic of kazakhstan. key words: technological development, pedagogical process, pre-school preparation, visual activity. 1 director of the limited liability company “ahseyt”, oyna.pvl@gmail.com 2 prof., pavlodar state university named after s. toraighyrov, rakhilaaubakirova@gmail.com 3 prof., plekhanov russian university of economics, shvidko72@rambler.ru 4 assoc. prof., shakarim state university of semey, oksanapp2005@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 186-203 introduction the necessity of pedagogical upgrade of the concept of technological development of the pedagogical process in the settings of preschool environment has been driven by the real requirements that modern life makes for preschool education (plowman et al., 2010; aubakirova, 2012; 2013; jensen & rasmussen, 2019; enygin et al., 2018). this study was initiated and performed within the framework of educational policy developed by the ministry of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan (order of the ministry of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan no 214, 2015). the study is theoretically and methodologically based on theory of the integrity of the pedagogical process (samuelsson & carlsson, 2008; avšič & rifel, 2016; fominykh et al., 2016); scientific ideas about the continuity of preschool and primary education (babić, 2017; zarudnaya et al., 2018); scientific work related to the introduction of innovative technologies in the educational process (garavaglia, 2016; ilomäki & lakkala, 2018); scientific research devoted to the study of age characteristics of preschool children through the prism of psychological science (ansari & pianta, 2019); the concept of a professional approach to pedagogical activity (johnson & hammond, 2018); latest studies revealing the basics of the organization of classes in the visual and theatrical, as well as game-based and constructive activities in the kindergarten (ali et al., 2018; tarman & tarman 2011; yan, 2019). review of literature this literature review found that different aspects of the problem of technology introduction in kindergartens were studied by edwards et al. (2017), schriever (2017), rvachew (2016), turgut et al. (2016), higgins et al. (2012). the literature review of the sources on digital technologies applied in the kindergarten settings was conducted by schriever (2017) (university of the sunshine coast, australia) to determine and specify the ways of employing the mobile devices and smart gadgets by the instructors within both the teacherand child-centered educational environments. additionally, it analyses the approaches to surmounting the obstacles like lack of instructors personal/occupational potential to meet curriculum outcomes and parental expectations. it emphasises the potential of digital technologies, which are to be seen by the instructors, who are https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/2110132644_goekben_turgut seitenov et al. supposed to build up their confidence and self-efficacy in using them, as a valuable and beneficial attribute to a game-based kindergarten environment. rvachew (2016) accents attention to the fact that those teachers who took part in the survey, 96% of the surveyed instructors, according to his experiment (mcgill university, canada), expressed their positive attitude and inclination to integrate technology in their classes for toddlers and 4-5year-olds. however, while the above research data suggests that the overwhelming number of instructors advocate the use of electronic (smart) devices for the purpose of both delivering classes and their professional development, they still report the need to be provided better access to technology at their educational institutions and show their readiness to boost the use of technology in class. higgins et al. (2012) made a number of conclusions concerning the use technology for the instructional purpose. those were as follows: 1. it requires a comprehensive rationale for the contribution of digital technology which it makes to instructing: whether it (digital technology) is capable to make the instructional process to be beneficial for the learner; whether it is capable to increase learner’s productivity; whether it is to be supportive for the educator in terms of helping the learners. 2. it is prerequisite to define the role of technology in the involvement of a learner in education: whether it is to ensure easier interaction based on learner-content, learner-teacher, learner-peers model; whether it is supposed to be a platform for the learners to get their work commented and assessed or better self-management. 3. technology exercises a supportive function in terms of getting learners to collaborate and interact: it seems to bring more benefits to the latter activities when used to organize discussions, communication and feedbacks. 4. it is recommended to provide any assistance to educators and learners in their attempts to boost using digital technology if it stimulates and eases learning. moreover, it was discovered that though computer skills are essential for the teacher, teacher’s creativity (henriksen et al., 2018; wheeler et al, 2002) and commitment (motivation) to grow professionally (baek et al., 2008; pischetola & heinsfeld, 2018; meier, 2019) matter even more as teachers are supposed to create the technology mediated learning environment engaging students in creative activities, encouraging students’ motivation, cooperation, curiosity and critical thinking (brownell & rashid, 2020;.gibss, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 186-203 in the view of the above, the purpose of this study was to experimentally test the impact of the author's concept and the corresponding educational and methodological support on the technological development of the pedagogical process (based on teaching fine arts to preschoolers). the research questions were: 1. to what extend does the conceptualised technology-involving learning environment affect both students’ creativity, learning performance, computer skills, motivation of the professional growth? 2. how does the conceptualised technology-involving learning environment implemented by the trained students effect preschool learners’ creative and cognitive thinking and communication skills? methods research design this was a three-stage-based experimental study of pre-test post-test experimental design using quantitative and qualitative research methods. at the first stage, which was a prior-experimental stage, best practices in technologization of the pedagogical process in the pre-schools were analysed, the course entitled “modern educational technologies in the system of professional activity of the teacher” and educational-methodical complexes for fine arts and design, and manual labor (tempus educa jep 517504-de-2011, 2011) were revised and improved. cooperation agreements with the kindergartenswere signed. the dependent variables and measurement tools were specified. those were students’ creativity, learning performance, computer skills, motivation of the professional growth and preschool learners’ creative and cognitive thinking and communication skills. at the experimental stage, the pedagogical experiment was run and the surveys, interviews, questionnaires, tests, check-lists, students’ and learners’ performance records, observation, were utilised to collect data. at the post-experimental stage, the analysis of the statistical data was performed and the results were interpreted (see the research flow visualised in fig. 1). seitenov et al. figure 1.the research flow sample throughout the empirical and experimental stages (this comprised running two pilot projects and dissemination) of this study involved about 700 preschool teachers, 450 of bachelor (4th year) and master programme students majoring in “preschool education and upbringing” of the psychological and pedagogical faculty of the semipalatinsk state pedagogical institute (sspi) and the humanities faculty of the semipalatinsk state university named after shakarim, and 1500 preschool children. the preschool teachers (n=493), who were supposed to participate in the empirical surveys were sampled randomly. the first pilot experiment was carried out, that involved 74 students and undergraduates (68 females and 6 males) at the semipalatinsk state pedagogical institute between 1999 and 2011. the second pilot study was run at the pedagogical faculty of the shakarim state university semey between 2011 and 2015 and relied on the randomly selected sample of 54 students (43 females and 11 males) obtaining the bachelor's and master’s degree in “preschool education and upbringing” (reference of speciality: bachelor’s degree – reference # 5b010100; master’s degree – reference # 6m010100). for the second pilot project, whose results this study highlight, the number of 54 students the semipalatinsk state university named after shakarim was sampled to form experimental and control groups (eg and cg). eg involved 27 students (23 females aged 21-23 and 4 males aged 21-22) and cg comprised 27 students (25 females aged 21-23 and 2 males aged 22). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 186-203 the purposefully sampled children aged 5-6 from 20 kindergartens located in semipalatinsk were involved as the subjects of teaching for the eg students to increase the validity of the experiment. the consolidated entry results of the measurements for eg and cg obtained through selfassessment of vocational and pedagogical motivation (see table 1), creative personality scale (see table 2), computer literacy and internet knowledge test andacademic performance records (see table 3) are presented below. table 1 entry results of the measurements obtained through self-assessment of vocational and pedagogical motivation (distributed by aspects, in % and grades) groups рn рi dc oi ec ia mean (12-grade scale) eg (n = 27) 33 31 21 14 1 0 8.86 cg (n =27) 32 31 22 13 2 0 8.41 note: рn = professional need; рi = functional interest; dc = developing curiosity; oi = ostentatious interest; ec = episodic curiosity; ia = indifferent attitude. table 2 entry results of the measurements obtained through creative personality scale group multiple correlation coefficient r r2 f value net f value standardized regression coefficient comparative fit index eg (n=27) 0.622 0.382 45.589 18.115 0.309 .974 cg (n=27) 0.631 0.410 45.554 18.121 0.307 .963 note: p<0.001 table 3 means of entry grades for computer literacy and internet knowledge test (clit) and academic performance records (apr) group clit (20-grade scale) apr (ects100-grade scale) eg (n=27) 17 74 cg (n=27) 16 77 as the above suggests, both groups (eg and cg) were homogeneous and could participate in the experiment. seitenov et al. the sampled children aged 5-6 from were diagnosed using bayley scales for infants and toddlers (iii) (see table 4). table 4 entry results of measurement from bayley scales for infants and toddlers (iii) (n=72) variables mean 95% ci p value adaptive behaviour 10.4 10.1-10.7 <0.001 physical development 89.2 88.5 – 91.3 0.863 cognitive abilities 91.9 89.7 – 93.1 0.775 receptive and expressive language skills 102.2 99.4 – 105.4 0.001 interpersonal and self-regulatory skills 93.4 91.2 – 96.3 0.004 the scores from the above test indicates that children were within the normal range for their function of adaptive behaviour, physical development, cognitive abilities, receptive and expressive language skills, and interpersonal and self-regulatory skills. instrumentation including validity and reliability testing multiple data collection tools were used in this study to respond both research questions. they were: surveys, interviews, questionnaires, tests, tutor observation check-lists, students’ and learners’ performance records, self-monitoring. three knowledge field experts and the expert in the field of measurement and evaluation were involved to assess the validity of the instruments. the internal reliability of the questionnaire was validated through running the kuder-richardson formula 20 that resulted in a reliability coefficient, which was 0.72 and indicated internal reliability. a set of diagnostic methods were used to identify levels of formedness of the future teachers’ pedagogical competencies making the technological development in the pedagogical process possible (see table 5). experts in this field of the research were involved to establish validity of the content of the diagnostic methods below. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 186-203 table 5 diagnostic methods, which are correspondent to the indicators of pedagogical process effectiveness no. indicators diagnostic methods 1 diagnosis of relationships in the system "teachers-pupils" regulation of interaction in the educational mechanisms of the pedagogical process of the preschool self-improvement of the teacher's personality testing questionnaires observation ranging scaling self-monitoring statistical methods of research 2 awareness of the general pedagogical goal and tasks forecasting and designing the pedagogical process of the preschool planning of educational activities in the conditions of pre-school preparation survey methods observation ranging scaling self-monitoring studying the products of pedagogical activity 3 realization of the content of education application of effective forms, methods and ways of the pedagogical process in the preschool creative design of the pedagogical process of the preschool studying the products of pedagogical activity experiment self-analysis of pedagogical activity 4 step-by-step control of the implementation of the goal and objectives at each stage and in each microelement of the pedagogical process of the preschool introduction of elements of the scientific organization of pedagogical work studying the products of pedagogical activity experiment self-analysis of pedagogical activity survey methods 5 analysis of the initial data of a specific pedagogical situation comprehension of the pedagogical goal and tasks at each stage and in each microelement of the pedagogical process further transformation of the technology taking into account the introduced corrections for the purpose of improving the fpp of the preschool self-analysis of pedagogical activity survey methods mathematical methods of research the outline of the research procedure the research involved three basic stages, which were the empirical, experimental and summative evaluation and interpretation stage. seitenov et al. the empirical stage was intended to work out the components and indicators of the overall effectivenessof technological development of the pre-school pedagogical processmodel so that it could be assessed (see table 6 below). table 6 the components and indicators oftechnological development of the pre-school pedagogical process model effectiveness # components indicators 1 the technology of establishing pedagogically efficient relationships in a pre-school analysis of relationships in the "teacherpupil" system regulation of interaction in the educational mechanisms of the pedagogical process of the preschool self-improvement of the teacher's personality 2 the technology of modelling the pedagogical process of the preschool awareness of the general pedagogical goal and tasks forecasting and designing the pedagogical process of the preschool planning of educational activities in the conditions of pre-school preparation 3 technology of pedagogical process in pre-school realization of the content of education application of effective forms, methods and ways of the pedagogical process in the preschool creative design of the pedagogical process in the preschool 4 technology of controlling the pedagogical process step-by-step monitoring of the implementation of the goal and objectives at each stage and in each microelement of the pedagogical process introduction of elements of the scientific organization of pedagogical work 5 analysis of the implemented technology of the pedagogical process and modelling of a new one for solving another pedagogical problem analysis of the initial data in a specific pedagogical situation comprehension of the pedagogical goals and tasks at each stage and in each microelement of the pedagogical process of the preschool further transformation of the technology taking into account the introduced corrections for the purpose of improving the fpp of the preschool the experiment was aimed at pursuing pedagogical tasks through the developed mechanisms. see the outline of the experimental stage in table 7 below. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 186-203 table 7 the outline of the experimental stage no. the tasks of the experiment the mechanism for realizing the tasks 1 to develop educational and methodological complexes for fine arts activity, design and manual activity in solving the problems of teaching, developing and educating children in the pre-school settings approbation of educational and methodical complexes for fine arts activity, design and manual activity in the preschool settings 2 to develop a special course for the purpose of forming a teacher's readiness to use modern educational technologies approbation of the special course "modern educational technologies in the system of professional activity of the teacher" 3 to reveal the level of the formation of professionally significant qualities in the organization of pre-school education on the basis of technological development of the pedagogical process in the future teachers diagnostics of the level of the formation of professionally significant qualities in the organization of pre-school education on the basis of technological development of the pedagogical process among future teachers 4 to implement a modular educational program and educational and methodological support in the specialty 5b010100 "preschool education and upbringing" taking into account innovative technologies. implementation of the international project tempus educa jep 517504-de-2011 (2011) in the countries of central asia on the theme "modernization and development of curricula in pedagogy and management of education", taking into account innovative technologies in the bachelor's degree 5в010100 – "preschool education and upbringing". at the summative evaluation and interpretation stageresearch data were consolidated and processed. data collection procedure the statistical data were collected at both prior-, whileand postexperimental and stages. there was administered the methodology of self-assessment of vocational and pedagogical motivation (fetiskin et al., 2009), creative personality scale (gough, 1979), computer literacy and internet knowledge test (clik) (n. /d.), academic performance records to assess the student-teachers. bayley scales for infants and toddlers (iii) were used to measure the involved preschoolers’ (aged 5-6) adaptive behavior, physical development, cognitive abilities, receptive and expressive language skills, interpersonal and self-regulatory skills (bayley, 2006) before and after the experiment.the pedagogical process run in 20 kindergartens was also assessed by application of the checklists. ibm spss statistics 25.0.0.1. software was used to process research data. seitenov et al. data analysis technique quantitative analysis was used to analyse the changes in pedagogical process and children’s performance. the three-level scale – low efficiency level, medium efficiency level and high efficiency level ‒ was developed to assess the effectiveness of the structural model of technological development of the pedagogical process run in the pre-school settings (see the detailed description of the efficiency levels in table 8 below). table 8 the detailed descriptions of the efficiency levels efficiency level description low efficiency level use of technological advances is insufficient; teachers are unaware of general pedagogical goals and tasks, they are loose-handed in performing their duties and running the pedagogical process; the teachers are reluctant to self-improvement and professional self-development; teacher-pupil system and pedagogical situation are not regularly monitored; the implementation of the content of education is needed. further transformation of the technology to comply with the fpp is not systematic. medium efficiency level use of technological advances is progressing but still insufficient; teachers are generally aware of pedagogical goals and tasks; they are situational in performing their duties and running the pedagogical process; the teachers self-improve and professionally self-develop but not consider it a priority; the implementation of the content of education is not always sufficient. teacher-pupil system and pedagogical situation are not regularly monitored; further transformation of the technology to comply with the fpp is non-systematic in nature. high efficiency level use of technological advances is sufficient, is rapidly progressing, and is updated; teachers are aware of pedagogical goals and tasks; they are committed to performing their duties and running the pedagogical process; the teachers are reluctant to self-improvement and professional self-development; the implementation of the content of education is always sufficient. teacher-pupil system and pedagogical situation are regularly monitored; systemic application of effective means, forms, methods and ways of the pedagogical process; there is a phased control of the implementation of the goal and objectives at each stage and in each microelement of the pedagogical process. a three-grade scale – low level, average level and high level – was applied to interpret the results of the above diagnostics. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 186-203 in the course of the pilot work, we also determined the qualities that occupy the leading and significant places in the professional activity of teachers of preschool groups. the first place was given to professional knowledge by teachers, the second to love for children, the third pedagogical cycle, the fourth and fifth places shared by communication and patience, the sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth places are divided by the following qualities: dedication, creativity, erudition, responsiveness and tenth place is awarded to such quality as the desire for self-improvement. results and discussion the experiment results proved the relationship between the research model and changes in students’ creativity, learning performance, computer skills, motivation of the professional growth. the consolidated results of the post-experimental measurements that are presented below prove that the conceptualised technology-involving learning environment effects positively on both teacher-students and pre-schoolers(see the measurements based on self-assessment of vocational and pedagogical motivation (see table 9), creative personality scale (see table 10), computer literacy and internet knowledge test, academic performance records (see table 11), and bayley scales for infants and toddlers (iii). table 9 results of the measurements obtained through self-assessment of vocational and pedagogical motivation (distributed by aspects, in % and grades) groups рn рi dc oi ec ia mean (12-grade scale) eg (n = 27) 36 37 18 9 0 0 10.06 cg (n =27) 33 32 23 11 1 0 9.11 note: рn = professional need; рi = functional interest; dc = developing curiosity; oi = ostentatious interest; ec = episodic curiosity; ia = indifferent attitude. table 10 results of the measurements obtained through creative personality scale group multiple correlation coefficient r r2 f value net f value standardized regression coefficient comparative fit index eg (n=27) 0.669 0.457 47.327 19.025 0.389 .994 cg (n=27) 0.621 0.415 45.774 18.219 0.317 .973 note: p<0.001 seitenov et al. table 11 means of grades for computer literacyand internet knowledge test (clit) and academic performance records (apr) group clit (20-grade scale) apr (ects100-grade scale) eg (n=27) 19 88 cg (n=27) 17 79 to confirm the statistically significant relation between the conceptualised technology-involving learning environment and the results obtained from the measurements descriptive statistics analysis was applied (see table 12). table 12 descriptive statistics analysis of the variables variable experimental group control group anova pre-test post-test post-pre pre-test post-test post-pre post-pre m sd m sd m sd m sd m sd m sd f(1,113) 2 sc 2.34 .56 3.10 .60 .28 .44 2.41 .54 2.39 .55 .08 .28 14.12*** .075 lp 2.67 .57 4.23 .68 .27 .47 2.59 .55 2.59 .61 .02 .26 11.25** .064 cs 2.41 .59 4.11 .71 .32 .51 2.44 .61 2.51 .62 .07 .22 12.03** .068 mpg 2.47 .58 3.93 .57 .29 .53 2.43 .60 2.49 .62 .05 .25 17.51*** .095 note: **p<.01; ***p<.001; sc ‒ students’ creativity; lp ‒ learning performance, cs ‒ computer skills, mpg ‒ motivation of the professional growth furthermore, the results obtained through the experiment showed the relation between the research model and preschool learners’ creative and cognitive thinking, adaptive behaviour, and communication skills. it is clear that the latter improved due to interferences performed (see table 13). table 13 results of measurement from bayley scales for infants and toddlers (iii) (n=72) variables mean 95% ci p value adaptive behaviour 11.1 10.1-10.7 <0.001 physical development 90.1 89.3 – 93.1 0.869 cognitive abilities 94.6 91.3 – 96.2 0.784 receptive and expressive language skills 107.1 103.5 – 109.2 0.001 interpersonal and self-regulatory skills 98.2 95.1 – 99.1 0.004 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 186-203 as it can be seen for the above tables, there was the dynamics in the variables of both studentteachers and children. however, the figures suggest that due to implementation the model and the modular educational program and educational and methodological support their improvements in eg sampled students were greater compared to the cg students. the same dynamics is seen in those children who were the subjects to this study. as it can be seen in tables 12 and 13, the mean values for the cg students increased by 0.65 points on average in every variable after the participating in the experiment and the mean figures for children improved by 0.70 points on average as well which proved that the designed model had been efficient in upgrading the pedagogical process at preschools and developing students’ future job-related competencies like creating an interactive technology-mediated and game-based learning environment in fine arts which could encourage children’s initiative, creativity curiosity (autonomous cognitive activity) and collaboration along with creation of an emotionally significant situation for autonomous activity of both an individual and a group in which a child's right to their own evaluation, opinion are welcomed. furthermore, the students improved in using the technology tools and interactive media like keynote, haikudeck, 30hands etc., incorporating the developmental technology in the lessons appropriately and teaching children to freely explore the functions of a computer, experience digital storytelling, taking photos of artwork that children have created, recording their stories about their drawings etc which was the expected outcome of the project. the results met objectives of this study, boosted previous knowledge, and filled the research gaps. after the treatment there was dynamics of approximately 10-12% in learning performance, 7-9% in the eg students’ creativity, 8-10% in computer skills, and 10-11% in motivation of the professional growth and 8-10% in preschool learners’ creative and cognitive thinking and communication skills. this study complies with the previous research revealing the impact of using technology in the classroom on learners’ engagement, social interactions, and mathematics skills, sequencing, visual perception, creative thinking, and fine motor capability (zomer & kay, 2016). it goes in line with the research of blackwell et al. (2013), garavaglia (2016), ilomäki and lakkala (2018) suggesting, that it is easier to change the teacher attitudes to the use of technology through the initial seitenov et al. pedagogical training at university. it supports the research findings of jónsdóttir (2015) claiming that cooperation between the university and a preschool can be fruitful for both. the novelty of this study was that it contributed to the improvement of the quality of preschool purpose pedagogic education in the republic of kazakhstan. conclusions and recommendations thus, the use of modern pedagogical technologies in the preschool provides an increase in the effectiveness of the pedagogical process if the technology is expedient and leads to a definite result. the choice of methods, ways of training is supposed to be determined by the technology targets and each of these technologies is based on the age and individual characteristics of children of the senior preschool age, based on the psychological characteristics of cognitive activity. the pedagogical process should be based on the principles of the integrity of the, the system and the sequence of the actions to be formed, and the age and individual characteristics of children of preschool age. the implementation of the concept of technological development of the pedagogical process for fine arts activity, design and manual activity in the preschool is easier if based on the design of educational and methodological complexes containing technological maps, diagrams, information not only about drawing, modeling and other activities, but also the methodological tools for their implementation. the result of our experimental and pedagogical work has a potential to bring a significant change to the formation of pedagogical competencies in the preschool students-teachers, which is proved by significant dynamics in the future teachers. a modular educational program and educational and methodological support for the specialty 5bo1o100 –“preschool education and upbringing” was implemented within the framework of the tempuseducajep 517504-de-2011 project "modernization and development of curricula in pedagogy and management of education". the developed materials have a certain potential for the preparation of future teachers for the technological development of the pedagogical process in preschool institutions, including in the preschool. the course "modern educational technologies in the system of professional activity of the teacher" and educational-methodical complexes for fine arts activity, design and manual labor are recommended by the ministry of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan for use in the pedagogical process of preschool groups and classes of the republic of kazakhstan. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 186-203 the further study is needed in the formation of the technological culture of the teacher, the study of the conditions for the use of computer technologies in the pre-school. pedagogical implication there are several implications to this study to mention. first, it might be difficult to establish partnership between a university and a preschool establishment as children at the age of 5-6 should be treated especially delicately – infants are easy to establish the emotional ties but it is commonly difficult for them to part with those who become dear to them. in this regard, the cooperation should be long-term and regular. the latter is also important for both students and infants to succeed in training and learning. references ali, e., constantino, k. m., hussain, a., & akhtar, z. (2018). the effects of play-based learning on early childhood education and development. journal of evolution of medical and dental sciences, 7(43), 6808-6811. ansari, a., & pianta, r. c. (2019). teacher-child interaction quality as a function of classroom age diversity and teachers’ beliefs and qualifications. applied developmental science, 23(3), 294-304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2018.1439749 aubakirova, r. zh. (2012). conceptual foundations of technological development of the pedagogical process in the conditions of pre-school preparation of the republic of kazakhstan: monograph. semey: psust. aubakirova, r. zh. (2013). technological development of the pedagogical process of the preschool: monograph. moscow: lap lambert. avšič, š., & rifel, t. (2016). holistic pedagogy and early childhood education. nova prisutnost, 14(3), 429-442. babić, n. (2017). continuity and discontinuity in education: example of transition from preschool to school. early child development and care, 187(10), 1596-1609. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1301935 baek, y., jung, j., & kim, b. (2008). what makes teachers use technology in the classroom? exploring the factors affecting facilitation of technology with a korean sample. computers & education, 50, 224-234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.05.002 bayley, n. (2006). bayley scales of infant and toddler development. 3-rd ed. san antonio, tx: harcourt assessment. blackwell, c. lauricella, a., wartella, e., robb, m., & schomburg, r. (2013). adoption and use of technology in early education: the interplay of extrinsic barriers and teacher attitudes. computers & education, 69, 310-319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.024 brownell, c., & rashid, a. (2020). building bridges instead of walls: engaging young children in critical literacy read alouds. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 76-94. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.5 computer literacy and internet knowledge test (clik). (n./d.). criteria: pre-employment testing. url: https://www.criteriacorp.com/solution/clik.php https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2018.1439749 https://www.criteriacorp.com/solution/clik.php seitenov et al. edwards, s., henderson, m., gronn, d., scott, a., & mirkhil, m. (2017). digital disconnect or digital difference? a socio-ecological perspective on young children’s technology use in the home and the early childhood centre. technology, pedagogy and education, 26(1), 117. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939x.2016.1152291 enygin, d. v., fominykh, n. y., bubenchikova, a. v., arregi-orue, j. i., & aubakirova, r. (2018). to the definition of the notion “multicultural educational environment”. astra salvensis, 1(11), 601-616. fetiskin, n. p., kozlov, v. v., & manuilov, g. m. (2009). socio-psychological diagnostics of the development of personality of small groups. moscow: psychotherapy. fominykh, n., barsova, o., zarudnaya, m., & kolomiytseva, n. (2016). approaches to prospective economists professional foreign language training in computer orientated language learning environment. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(18), 12067-12083. garavaglia, a. (2016). innovation in education technology: what is the point? is immersive education the next step? rem – research on education and media, 8(1), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1515/rem-2016-0001 gibbs, b. (2020). critical teaching in classrooms of healing: struggles and testimonios. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 95-111. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.6 gough, h. g. (1979). a creativity personality scale for the adjective check list. journal of personality and social psychology, 37(8), 1398-1405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/00223514.37.8.1398 henriksen, d., henderson, m., creely, e., ceretkova, s., černochová, m., sendova, e., sointu, e., & tienken, c. (2018). creativity and technology in education: an international perspective. technology, knowledge and learning, 23, 409-424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-018-9380-1 higgins, s., xiao, z., & katsipataki, m. (2012). the impact of digital technology on learning: a summary for the education endowment foundation. retrieved february 25, 2020, from https://www.academia.edu/31764995/the_impact_of_digital_technology_on_learning _a_summary_for_the_education_endowment_foundation ilomäki, l., & lakkala, m. (2018). digital technology and practices for school improvement: innovative digital school model. research and practice in technology enhanced learning, 13(1), article 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-018-0094-8 jensen, p., & rasmussen, a. w. (2019). professional development and its impact on children in early childhood education and care: a meta-analysis based on european studies. scandinavian journal of educational research, 63(6), 935-950. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2018.1466359 johnson, c., & hammond, l. (2018). learning professionalism on the touch-line: pedagogical challenges and recommendations. athletic training education journal, 13(3), 290-298. https://doi.org/10.4085/13032910 jónsdóttir, a. (2015). university–preschool partnership and workplace-based learning: a collaborative ‘third space’ or no space at all? early years: journal of international research and development, 35(2), 184-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2015.1026248 meier, l. (2019). questioning the problematic nature of school culture in elementary teacher education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 34-44. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.3 https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939x.2016.1152291 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.8.1398 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.8.1398 https://www.academia.edu/31764995/the_impact_of_digital_technology_on_learning_a_summary_for_the_education_endowment_foundation https://www.academia.edu/31764995/the_impact_of_digital_technology_on_learning_a_summary_for_the_education_endowment_foundation https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2018.1466359 https://doi.org/10.4085/13032910 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 186-203 order of the ministry of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan no 214. (2015). about approval of the standard of the state service “issue of the expert opinion to authors and group of authors on educational editions of preschool, initial, main average, general secondary, technical and professional, postsecondary, higher and postgraduate education”. retrieved february 25, 2020, from https://cislegislation.com/document.fwx?rgn=78310https://tengrinews.kz/zakon/pravitelstvo_respu bliki_kazahstan_premer_ministr_rk/obpazovanie/id-v090005550_/ pischetola, m., & heinsfeld, b. d. (2018). technologies and teacher’s motivational style: a research study in brazilian public schools. ecps journal, 17, 163-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.7358/ecps-2018-017-pisc plowman, l., stephen, c., & mcpake, j. (2010). supporting young children's learning with technology at home and in preschool. research papers in education, 25(1), 93-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671520802584061 rvachew, s. (2016). technology in early childhood education. in r. e. tremblay, m. boivin & r. de v. peters (eds.), encyclopedia on early childhood development [online]. retrieved february 25, 2020, from http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/dossierscomplets/en/technology-in-early-childhood-education.pdf samuelsson, i. p., & carlsson, m. a. (2008). the playing learning child: towards a pedagogy of early childhood. scandinavian journal of educational research, 52(6), 623-641. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313830802497265 schriever, v. (2017). digital technology in kindergarten: challenges and opportunities. in a. a. khan & s. umair (eds.), handbook of research on mobile devices and smart gadgets in k-12 education (pp. 57-76). hersey, pa: igi global. tempus educa jep 517504-de-2011. (2011). modernization and development of curricula on pedagogy and educational management in the central asian countries. compostela, spain. tarman, b. & tarman, i. (2011). teachers’ involvement in children’s play and social interaction, elementary education online (ilköğretim online), 10 (1). 180-194. turgut, g., tunga, y., & kisla, t. (2016). technology education in preschool: an applied sample lesson. international journal on new trends in education and their implications, 7(1), 81-92. wheeler, s., waite, s., & bromfield, c. (2002). promoting creative thinking through the use of ict. journal of computer assisted learning, 18, 367-378. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.02664909.2002.00247.x. yan, y. (2019). application of learning through play in designing school playgrounds (preschools to kindergartens) to aid in children’s development (unpublished master's thesis). auburn university. retrieved february 25, 2020, from http://hdl.handle.net/10415/6885 zarudnaya, m., fominykh, n., enygin, d., kudysheva, a., epifanov, d., & eferova, a. (2018). methodological approaches to university instructors professional foreign languages competence development. the journal of social sciences research, 5(special issue), 375-381. zomer, n., & kay, r. (2016). technology use in early childhood education: a review of literature. journal of educational informatics, 1, 1-25. https://cis-legislation.com/document.fwx?rgn=78310 https://cis-legislation.com/document.fwx?rgn=78310 https://tengrinews.kz/zakon/pravitelstvo_respubliki_kazahstan_premer_ministr_rk/obpazovanie/id-v090005550_/ https://tengrinews.kz/zakon/pravitelstvo_respubliki_kazahstan_premer_ministr_rk/obpazovanie/id-v090005550_/ https://doi.org/10.1080/02671520802584061 http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/dossiers-complets/en/technology-in-early-childhood-education.pdf http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/dossiers-complets/en/technology-in-early-childhood-education.pdf https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/digital-technology-in-kindergarten/186173 https://www.igi-global.com/book/handbook-research-mobile-devices-smart/178210 https://www.igi-global.com/book/handbook-research-mobile-devices-smart/178210 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/yeliz_tunga http://hdl.handle.net/10415/6885 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2), 39-61 knowledge management as an approach to learning and instructing sector university students in post-soviet professional education irina s. volegzhanina 1, svetlana v. chusovlyanova2, vladimir a. adolf 3, ekaterina s. bykadorova4, elena n. belova 5 abstract the relevance of the study depends on addressing to the issue of knowledge management in learning and instructing students of post-soviet sector universities. in this regard, the article is intended to reveal the nature of knowledge management approach compared to the knowledge-based one predominated in soviet education. the flagship approach of this study is the systemic-activity approach to explain knowledge management advantages for learning and instructing social disciplines in sector universities. the relevant literature is reviewed to show evolution of approaches. it is stated that knowledge reflecting specificity of an industry may be defined as industry-oriented and can be represented by a new international web standard (ontology). to determine significant factors for knowledge absorption with the proposed approach an experiment was conducted. the results prove the didactic potential of ontologies, so the knowledge management approach is considered promising. this article may be of practical interest for professors of sector universities. keywords: approach, sector university, knowledge management, factor, ontology. introduction it seems clear that the amount and quality of knowledge that students absorb during their university studies have an impact on quality of education they receive. this is particularly significant in case of universities supplying sectors of russian economy with a workforce of required competencies in knowledge and skills. the quality of education received by sector university leavers and their willingness to pursue a carrier in a particular industry could determine whether they are competitive in the global industrial markets. as an essential part of the “willingness = aspiration + knowledge + skills” equation, knowledge accounts for all the 1 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, siberian transport university, erarcher@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof., candidate of sociology, siberian transport university, cl0506@yandex.ru 3 prof., doctor of pedagogy, krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astafiev, adolf@kspu.ru 4 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, siberian transport university, bykadorova_es@mail.ru 5 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astafiev, belovaen@list.ru mailto:erarcher@mail.ru mailto:cl0506@yandex.ru mailto:bykadorova_es@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 40 components of sector workforce education such as theoretical courses, practical training and corporate value navigating (adolf et al., 2011; kilinç et al., 2016). focusing on transferring a parcel of knowledge from an instructor to students for further knowledge accumulation was illustrative of soviet professional education. the technological break-through caused by onrush of information and communication technologies has rendered this approach ineffective. mining of information that may be useful has become problematic for students and resulted in expanded learning time and rather poor knowledge absorption. under current socio-economic conditions, “natural” knowledge management in education has exhausted its potential and required information technology solutions. in this article, we consider knowledge as a data entity that is a result of cognitive activity of an agent (human or artificial) represented in a well-structured form and “stored in memory in a way that makes it useful for application and task performance” (de jong & ferguson-hessler, 1996, p. 107). this data entity has a potential to develop within an environment that is intelligence. due to an agent is an entity that must have a goal to act, it uses knowledge as a main resource to achieve the required goal in a certain space. if an agent is a learning agent, it has an ability to generate new knowledge applying to already absorbed knowledge both independently and with an instructor (a human or a computer). this understanding of knowledge described in literature on expert knowledge representation (guillou, 2007; sim 2015) seems to be useful for capturing didactic potential of ontologies as a new international web-standard for knowledge representation (iso/iec 200161:2014). this standard has differentiated virtual learning environment 2.0 (chua & tay, 2011; bykadorova et al., 2014) with hypertext knowledge representation and 3.0 based on semantic web technologies (hussain, 2013). literature review knowledge-based, competency-based and knowledge management approaches a knowledge-based approach predominated in soviet education and considered scientific knowledge as intellectual wealth of a person. hence, to accumulate knowledge by memorising theoretical facts for their further reproducing was the key objective for students. pedagogical studies paid much attention to knowledge absorption (bespalko, 1989, ginecinskij, 1989; nurminskij & gladysheva, 1991, poljakova, 1978). however, the knowledge resource of a student remained poor-structured and unproductive for decision-making. volegzhanina et al. changes in post-soviet society resulted in replacement of this approach by the competency-based one (ivanova, 2007). after 1990s within the knowledge economy development, the term “knowledge management” has been introduced. it refers to a multidisciplinary approach to achieving organisational objectives by making the best use of knowledge (introduction to knowledge management, 2007). nowadays the value of knowledge management approach to university education is widely discussing among russian researchers. some studies consider a university as an enterprise where all concepts and principles of corporate knowledge management could be applied the same way (kudinov, 2010, dorokhova, 2015). others recognise it effective to improve academic performance (andrianova, 2013, lishilin et al., 2015). due to a wide variety of knowledge management definitions in education, we consider important to distinguish the following concepts: knowledge management is a strategy focused on corporate objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage and continuous improvement (gupta & sushil, 2004); knowledge management is a process of creating, using, sharing and transferring knowledge based on the knowledge life cycle (girard & girard, 2015). industry-related knowledge in the literature on learning and instructing, different types of knowledge are described and many terms to identify them are used. de jong and ferguson-hessler (1996) explained complex nature of a knowledge base of a person and constructed a knowledge-in-use matrix relevant for problem solving. this knowledge matrix shows types and qualities of knowledge as its dimensions. another important conclusion was that all types of knowledge are frequently bound to a domain. due to this, educational programmes concentrating on general problemsolving are usually less successful compared to domain-specific programmes (de jong & ferguson-hessler, 1996; alexander, 2003). be knowledge acquired at a university theoretical or practice-oriented it means academic knowledge. this knowledge is adopted and edited for better digestion by students and exists mainly in textual form. eraut (2004) described it as codified academic knowledge in contrast to codified non-academic knowledge that can be found at workplaces. thus, transferring and adapting codified knowledge between an industry and a university considers an important issue. one might assume that all knowledge circulating within a particular industry is industryspecific as well as the knowledge base of a sector university graduate. the national research journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 42 council of canada (2015) interprets industry-related knowledge as a pool of knowledge developing by industry enterprises, businesses, scientific centres and educational establishments. this means that universities could be essential suppliers of knowledge and graduates to some industries in a global knowledge society and economy (edler, 2003, leisyte & horta 2011, wright, 2015). the importance of knowledge transfer between universities and a workplace has been described in (eraut, 2004, varga & parag, 2009, bellucci & pennacchio, 2016). however, only a few researches explain the nature of industry-related knowledge (pathirage et al., 2008, mitsuk et al., 2016). as eraut (2004) stated, transfer of codified knowledge between education and workplace is a learning process where a person adopts previously absorbed knowledge to a new situation that could be time and effort consuming. as a rule, knowledge adaptation occurs at workplace and may be more or less effective. early adaptation of codified academic knowledge through the integrative life cycle and storage in the open knowledge resource could reduce time and efforts devoted to its transfer to a workplace. this also could broaden managing knowledge beyond the industry or the university in order they both develop and assess academic knowledge of students through common educational resources. thus, an industry could employ a workforce with a required level of knowledge. finally, the interconnection between an industry and education determines the domainspecific and task dependent nature of industry-related knowledge to be absorbed by sector university students. we have proposed three components in its structure: general professional knowledge, restricted professional knowledge and corporate knowledge (volegzhanina, 2016). following alexander and judy (1988), the levels of industry-related knowledge include declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge. we have added motivating knowledge or “want-to-know-why” knowledge to this list. this highest level of knowledge relates to personal desire, intrinsic interest and the will to success. evaluation of knowledge absorption knowledge is a valuable intellectual resource of a student who uses it for decisionmaking and an indicator of educational progress (bittman & russell, 2016). it is related to both personal efficiency (know-how) and effectiveness (know-what) (zeleny, 2006), therefore its volegzhanina et al. absorption capacity should be sufficiently evaluated. a number of dimensions can be found in zhi-xiong xiao (2017), who introduced acquisition of knowledge capacity, digestion of knowledge capacity, knowledge transformation capacity and knowledge utilization capacity to evaluate knowledge absorption process. from the perspective on knowledge-in-use, this means that task performance forms the basis for testing knowledge in learning and instructing. it is also advisory to distinguish surface-level and deep-level knowledge (de jong & ferguson-hessler, 1996). eraut (2004) concluded that education at most provides surface knowledge, which is well supported by textbooks. deep knowledge means to know how to use the acquired knowledge in a range of possible situations and “support for such learning is minimal” (eraut, 2004, p. 15). the above listed dimensions can also allow for evaluating how efficient educational resources using by students are. we will consider an educational resource as a certain managerial instrument for didactic (learning and instructing) purposes. to evaluate whether an educational resource effective, one should calculate cost, time and efforts for its development. in the literature on school and university education, a great number of didactic instruments have been described and the results of their implementation into practice have been evaluated (bykadorova & skibitsky, 2009; kybartaite et al., 2010; diaz redondo, 2012; jung, 2013; hornos et al., 2012; uzun, 2012, asoodar et al. 2014; grammes & açıkalın, 2016; tarman & acun, 2010; tarman, 2016). all of them to any extent allow for knowledge absorption and improving academic performance (demirhan & yücel, 2016). experience has proven that their effectiveness depends on many factors and conditions and it is difficult to get reliable understanding which of them are significant for managing knowledge to be reproduced in skills. user studies may help to evaluate the potential of a proposed approach. materials and methods aim, tasks and method the aim of the experiment is to determine the factors that are significant for absorption of knowledge by students of a sector university (as an example of a railway university). with this in view, the following questions are asked to generate a hypothesis: is focus of academic knowledge on a particular industry significant? is a type of knowledge holder significant? is a way to transfer knowledge significant? is a student’s major significant? is a form of knowledge representation in educational resources significant? journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 44 to achieve the goal we have established the following tasks: to design proper didactic materials; to define the requirements for the participants; to define the dimensions to evaluate knowledge absorption; to describe the procedure of experiment; to analyse the results obtained. as a method to evaluate the didactic potential of ontological content, we applied to student performance tests and a questionnaire survey. this experimental work is an ascertaining experiment of more comprehensive study applying to the issue of knowledge co-management within the “sector sector university” system. materials we tested our hypothesis in the english for professional purposes course that is compulsory for all students in russian railway universities. it is practice-oriented and allows for assessing student performance in absorption of knowledge within a single course. it provides integration of social and engineering disciplines therefore the level of knowledge absorption (surface or deep) can be assessed as well. common methods of teaching english as a second language makes it possible to assess linguistic knowledge and communication skills separately through knowledge-oriented and skills-oriented exercises. as didactic materials, we used the english for railways study package (ersp) (volegzhanina & chusovlyanova, 2016). its framework consists of the two interconnected blocks. the inner block has the ersp modules: course books in a text format (.pdf), exercise programme files for student self-work in a hypertext format, test programme files in a hypertext format and vocabulary in both formats. the outer block comprises the guidance for students and instructors, the list of organisational conditions, the database. participants the experiment to be described was performed on 186 participants engineering and business students of a railway university. the requirements for the participants have been defined as follows: they had to be first and second year students of bachelor or specialists programmes (on average 20 years old) and learn english as a second language. at least preintermediate skills in general english were required. the participants were divided into two groups – an experimental group – group 1 (93 students) and a control one – group 2 (78 students). students in group 1 used printed english course books supported by audio and video materials. students in group 2 used the ersp. testing was conducted with the ersp test programme files. volegzhanina et al. we also conducted two questionnaire surveys in the different phases of an experiment. 160 students of a railway university participated in the first questionnaire survey and 270 students of three sector universities (railway, information and communication, building and construction) participated in the second questionnaire survey. dimensions as a first dimension, student performance was chosen. we used knowledge-oriented and skills-oriented tests to receive a feedback about absorbing knowledge by students and understanding whether there was a dependency of knowledge and communication skills. progress tests assessed the overall result of learning. as a second dimension, time of student selfwork study was taken to indicate progress in a learning time. as a third dimension, we looked at the ersp advantages to see whether the students would mention a content representation format. the questionnaire that the participants filled in after the experiment contained questions about advantages and disadvantages of learning with the ersp. to specify the choice of participants about the preferable format of knowledge representation we conducted a supplementary questionnaire survey. procedure the experiment started in december 2013 and completed in may 2017. the overall procedure consisted of four phases: instruction phase, learning phase, testing phase and questionnaire. for the instruction phase, the participant received a file with the user guidance that explained how to use the ersp programme modules for self-work study and testing. this is also required a preparatory training of instructors. because the students and the instructors experienced an adaptation period of approximately one month, the course team provided their methodological assistance. during the learning phase, students in group 1 use .pdf course book files and exercise programme files available in a university computer room and through lcd moodle and dropbox cloud storage. the students combined two ways of learning: “face-to-face” with an instructor and self-work study with the ersp online exercise programme files. to gain student knowledge in professional vocabulary, instructors asked the participants to learn the key word lists by heart. during the testing phase, student performance in their self-work was tested. the students in the experimental group performed their self-work in the exercise programme files in a hypertext journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 46 format. testing of their works was automatic and the results were sent to the database. the students in the control group worked with the exercise book files and their works were checked by the instructors. knowledge and skills were checked separately. we used progress tests to assess student performance for understanding their communication competence level. to evaluate the student performance results the following scale matching the international assessment scale for learner performance results was accepted (see table 1). table 1 assessment scale for student performance results mark score level а (excellent) 95-100 % high в (good) 81-94 % adequate с (satisfactory) 70-80 % threshold d (poor) <70 % unacceptable testing was also automatic. test evaluation reports were sent to the monitoring database upon completion of student self-study work and progress tests. in this way, it was also investigated how much time the participants needed to learn during their self-work. finally, the students received a questionnaire form inquiring about their experience during the experiment. they were asked to list the advantages and disadvantages of the ersp. to investigate the preferable form of knowledge representation in educational resources another questionnaire survey among sector-university students was conducted. results and discussion the results of the experiment allow for comparing didactic instruments to manage knowledge of sector university students in a learning process on the basis of student performance results, time required by the participants, and answers they gave in the questionnaires. it also had to be evaluated whether the format of content representation in educational resources was a significant factor or not. student performance results student performance results indicated in their practice work automated reports are given in table 2. 171 works were analysed in total. table 2 volegzhanina et al. student performance results (self-study work) 2013-2017 student group number of works number of works at a-c level knowledge-oriented works skills-oriented works score level score level number of works % number of works % group 1 93 63 55 59 а-с 41 44 а-с group 2 78 53 43 55 а-с 29 37 а-с total 171 149 difference in rates 23 +4% +17% the works were divided into knowledge-oriented (vocabulary) and sills-oriented (listening, reading and writing). the results were assessed automatically. as table 2 shows, group 1 performed better than group 2 did. sixty-three students made their self works at a-c levels that made 67%. fifty-three students in group 2 performed their self-work at a-c level that also made 67%. however, it is not a considerable and statistically significant difference. to evaluate the significance of the results we use the criterion χ2 which was calculated by . the results of calculations are given in tables 3 and 4. table 3 criteria for evaluating the significance of differences depending on the performed works criterion value significance chi-square 0.001 p>0,05 chi-square test with yates' correction 0.018 p>0,05 the minimum value 25.09 table 4 criteria for evaluating the power of connection between the representation type of educational resource and performance level journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 48 criterion value power of connection pearson's contingency coefficient 0.002 irrelevant normalized value of the pearson correlation coefficient 0.003 irrelevant but, if we look more closely at the results of performing knowledge-oriented and skillsoriented works we may notice greater difference. fifty-five knowledge-oriented works at group 1 were performed at a-c level, that makes 59 %. students in group 2 performed 43 works at a-c level that makes 55%. by percentage, the first group shows a little better result. as for skillsoriented works there are bigger differences. 59 % of knowledge-oriented works were performed at the а-с level in case of group 1 and 55% in case of group 2. thus, the result in the experimental group was on average 4 points better than the result in the control group. forty-four per cent of skills oriented works were performed at a-c level in case of group 1 and 37 % in case of group 2. thus, the result in the experimental group was on average 14 points better than the result in the control group. this is not a considerable and statistically significant difference. because the critical value is 0.576, while χ2 at significance level is 0.070, which is >0.05. according to these results, one can say that knowledge-oriented works were performed better by both groups of participants compared to skills-oriented works. the power of connection is irrelevant, so, we may see a poor dependence between knowledge and skills. the reason might be that knowledge of vocabulary or grammar structures is mainly surface which store in students’ memory as a copy of external information. for understanding the difference between deep-level and surface-level knowledge see, e.g., de jong and ferguson-hessler, 1996. table 5 shows the progress tests results. table 5 student performance results (progress test) 2013-2017 student group number of works score, % level (communication competence) / number of works a b c d group 1 93 86 26 17 25 10 group 2 78 84 16 22 28 12 volegzhanina et al. total 171 difference in rates 2 10 -5 -3 to evaluate the significance of the results we also use the criterion χ2. the criterion χ2 is 2.394. so, critical value χ2 at significance level p<0.05 is 5.991. thus, there is no correlation between results in group 1 and group 2. in summary, the performance results show that the ersp is a little more effective in learning english by sector-university students. however, it is difficult to argue that the form of content representation in educational resources (text or hypertext with multimedia) is a significant factor. time as a next step, we can look at the time values. the learning time in self-work study was not restricted, 186 works were analysed in total. the results of participants in group 1 and group 2 are given in table 6. table 6 time for learning during self-study work 2013-2017 student group number of works average time, hour knowledgeoriented skillsoriented knowledgeoriented works skills-oriented works group 1 93 93 13 min 38 min group 2 78 78 25 min 69 min total 171 171 difference in rates 12 min 31 min the results show that learning with the ersp requires less time that learning with printed english course books. in case of group 2, students needed more than 0.3 hours for performing knowledge-based tasks, whereas in case of group 1 the students needed around 0.2 hours. as for skill-oriented tasks group 1 spent 0.6 hours, whereas group 2 spent 1.6 hours. thus, learning with the ersp required around 50% less time compared to traditional way of learning. however, it is not a considerable and statistically significant difference. because the critical value is 13.37, while χ2 at significance level is 0.021, which is >0.05. note that these results can be evaluated together with the results described concerning with the student performance tests. the smaller learning time for the ersp can also be explained journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 50 by no time spent on handwriting. in addition, we should say about time that instructors spent to check student self-study works. in case of teaching english with the ersp, student works were check by a computer. on the other hand, test generation had remained manual and timeconsuming. questionnaire at the questionnaire phase, the participants in group 1 were asked about their experience and make a list of advantages and disadvantages for the ersp, where one participant could gave several characteristics. as shown in table 7, most students mentioned usability and sectororiented content of the ersp among its advantages, little fewer students wrote about time and effort consuming. table 7 the ersp advantages (93 participants) no feature number of students 1 time consuming 57 2 usability 81 3 effort consuming 58 4 sector-oriented content 78 the ersp disadvantages were about software failures and mistakes in tests due to their manual implementation into the programme shell. looking at the characteristics given by the participants, we can see that the ersp is little different from other well-developed study packages for english learning. the only significant factor is the way to transfer knowledge (a printed text-book or a computer). thus, we cannot consider the ersp to be an innovative instrument to make knowledge absorption by sector-university students more effective. it remains a question concerning a student’s personal performance open: is a form of knowledge representation in educational resources significant? content representation format we proposed that a breakthrough can be made with ontology as a promising alternative to hypertext educational resources. what is of primary importance, both human and computers can volegzhanina et al. understand it. such a formal logical representation is a kind of universal form that is low dependent on a human way of thinking and national languages (kuhn, 2014). to answer the question about a preferable form for knowledge representation in sectororiented educational resources, a questionnaire survey among engineering and business students of three sector universities was conducted. in the questionnaire, we looked at the following dimensions: information perception, way of memorising and preferable content representation format. the participants were asked what information they found easier to percept in their selfwork study. they could choose from four options: “linear text” (1), “graphical representation” (2), “combination of linear text and graphical representation with graphical representation predominance” (3) and “combination of linear text and graphical representation with linear text predominance”. figure 1 shows the choice of participants. overall, the students preferred to have graphical aid in their learning materials. 57 % of the students chose graphical representation or its combination with a linear text, whereas 43% of the respondents pointed out that linear text predominance was better for understanding. fig. 1: distribution of answers about information perception. to understand how information perception influences the choice for educational resources format, the respondents could choose from the following four options: “paper-printed textbooks” (1), “internet recourses” (2), “lecture notes” (3) and “slide-shows” (4). they could also write about other resources they used. figure 2 presents that lecture notes and slide-shows were very popular answers (53%), whereas text and hypertext resources had less score (42%). internet and slide-show files given students by their instructors were the most popular educational resources and paper printed textbooks turned to be the least popular. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 52 fig. 2: educational resources using by students in their self-work study. figure 3 shows the choice of the participants about the way of memorising in learning. here the students could choose from three options: “learning useful information by heart” (1), “structure new learning material” (2) and “copy out useful information from a textbook” (3). we do not have a convincing explanation for this distribution and it might be misunderstanding about the meaning of “memorising” by the students and the authors. anyway, approximately 50% of the respondents tried to structure new learning material to memorise it. fig. 3. distribution of answers about ways of memorising in learning by the students. thus, structured educational content seems to be better for perception and memorising. the students can do it on their own or receive from the instructors. this demonstrates that students of real sector universities prefer thinking on the system level and logically. the final question was about asking the participants which format of content representation they would prefer. the students were presented a structured text (a piece of ontology) and an ontograph. the ontograph framework was described in (kuhn, 2010). volegzhanina et al. we thought that there would be a difference in the answers of business and engineering students. however, figure 4 shows little difference. the survey results indicate that the criterion χ2 is 7.395. so, critical value χ2 at significance level p<0.01 is 105.07. thus, there is irrelevant correlation between the results. fig. 4. distribution of answers about learning content representation formats throughout engineering and business students. due to there was a difference in the business and engineering students choice, we distributed their answers throughout the faculties. figure 5 shows that we could not find a considerable difference in the data obtained. overall, almost half of the participants chose a structured text, and rest of the participants chose an ontograph. fig. 5. distribution of answers throughout faculties. significance the charts with the experiment and survey results indicate no statistically significant values except time saving due to automation of self-learning process. the evaluation was done journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 54 by using χ2 criterion, which is a non-parametric statistical method for testing the difference between measurements of a paired sample. evaluation finally, it can be evaluated what factors determine the gain of knowledge by sector university students. according to the results, we could say that either text or hypertext content representation format has no difference in gaining knowledge by students. the only significant factor was gaining time with the ersp work. the evaluation of the test results has revealed that communicative competence level is gained at the same level by both ways multimedia hypertext and text. furthermore, the results of survey show that the ersp was noticed as a resource having usability and sector-oriented content also being time-consuming. it should be noted that there is no significant dependence between getting knowledge and applying knowledge in performing tasks. the results of a questionnaire survey have shown that advantages for better knowledge absorption and their reproducibility in skills can be found in ontology. however, this needs further studies and a prototype of an ontology editor called onto.plus has been developed in siberian transport university (russia). conclusion the knowledge-based approach predominated in soviet professional education. in the post-soviet period russia’s integration into the global educational space required new approaches to learning and instructing sector university students, therefore the competency-based approach has replaced the conventional knowledge-based one. due to transition to the knowledge economy and application of information technologies in almost all spheres of human activity, researches turned back to the issue of knowledge management within the competencybased approach via new information technology solutions and standards. the latest international web-standard for knowledge representation is ontology. many post-soviet researches apply to a number of factors that can be significant to achieve educational results described in competences. although there is a relation between these results and knowledge absorbed by university students, factors significant for effective knowledge absorption in the context of evolution of the approaches and virtual learning environments have been still fuzzy. issues specific for sector universities do not count as well. volegzhanina et al. this explains the need to explore factors that are significant for absorption of knowledge by sector university students. the results of the experiment demonstrate that a type of knowledge holder (a printed textbook or a programme module) is not significant. there is a poor dependence between knowledge and skills of students in the control and experimental groups. thus, the performance results show that the ersp is little more effective compared to a printed textbook. a student’s major in sector universities is also not significant. both engineering and business students prefer thinking systematically and logically. this is a reason to choose well-structured texts. at the same time, a focus of content on a particular industry is important. the reason is that industryspecific knowledge is reproduced in particular skills needed for profession problem solving. a way to transfer knowledge is another significant factor. time saving due to automation of student self-study and its assessment by instructors has been stated during the experimental work. whereas many students mentioned usability of the ersp as its advantage, we can see no big difference between text or hypertext representation for knowledge digestion. the results of a questionnaire survey have shown that ontology can be a preferable form of knowledge representation in future. we may consider knowledge management approach promising to learning and instructing sector university students. it stays within the competency-based approach but addresses the achievements of soviet educators in meeting the challenge of knowledge absorption by students. another advantage is applying to the international web standard of knowledge representation. all these unveil the didactic potential of ontologies for learning and instructing social academic disciplines in post-soviet sector universities. acknowledgements the ersp development was supported by the grant of siberian transport university (novosibirsk) (an agreement no. 10, 28.05.2013). further study is conducted within the state contract no. 30/16 dated may 31, 2016 signed between training and methodology centre for railway transport (moscow) and siberian transport university (novosibirsk). we appreciate the feedback we received from igor mitsuk, the deputy head of federal agency for railway transport, and we thank professor valeriy khabarov, the dean of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 56 information technologies in business faculty in siberian transport university for his scientific consulting. volegzhanina et al. references adolf, v.a., anjushin, s.v. & grishaev, s.v. (2011). managing the development of professional training of a humanities university alumnus within competitive business environment: monograph. moscow: atiso publishing house. alexander, p.a. (2003). the development of expertise: the journey from acclimation to proficiency. educational researcher, 32(8), 10-14. alexander, p.a. & judy j.e. (1988). the interaction of domain-specific and strategic knowledge in academic performance. review of educational research, 58, 375-405. andrianova, s.v. (2013). ontology in english technical terminology learning. philology and linguistics, 5(68), 100-104. asoodar, m., atai, m.r., vaezi, sh. & marandi, s.s. (2014). examining effectiveness of communities of practice in online english for academic purposes (eap) assessment in virtual class. computers & education, (70), 291-300. bellucci, a. & pennacchio, l. (2016). university knowledge and firm innovation: evidence from european countries. journal of technology transfer, 41, 730-752. bespalko, v.p. (1989). summands of a pedagogical technology. moscow: pedagogy. bittman, b.l. & russell, w.b. (2016). civic education in united states: a multiple regression of civic education scores from the national assessment of educational progress. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 1-23. url: http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/16/15 bykadorova, e.s. & skibitsky, e.g. (2009). information means as a pedagogical tool for preparation of competent graduates of transport higher schools. siberian pedagogical journal, 3, 85-95. bykadorova, e.s., volegzhanina, i.s. & chusovlyanova, s.v. (2014). web 2.o tools perspectives at technical university when teaching a foreign language. in the world of scientific discoveries, 5.1(53), 299-308. chua, f.-f. & tay, e.-s. (2011). developing virtual learning environment 2.0 using web services approach. icalt, 230-234. demirhan, g. & yücel, c. (2016). a prediction for teacher commitment: effects of managerial style, burnout and demographics, research in social sciences and technology, (i)1, 24-43. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/16 http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/16 http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/16/15 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 58 de jong, t. & ferguson-hessler, m.g.m. (1996). types of qualities of knowledge. educational psychologist, 31(2), 105-113. diaz redondo, r.p. (2012). collaborative and role-play strategies in software engineering learning with web 2.0 tools. computer applications in engineering education, 2(44), 110123. dorokhova, o.e. (2015). semantic model competence in adaptive system for automated learning]. modern problems of science and education, 3, 434-543. edler, j. (2003). knowledge management in german industry. study in the framework of an oecd initiative of the centre for educational research and innovation (ceri) on behalf of the donors’ association for the advancement of science in germany (stifterverband für die deutsche wissenschaft) with the support of the federal ministry for education and research (bundesministerium für bildung und forschung/bmbf). final report. fraunhofer institute for systems and innovation research (isi) karlsruhe. url: http://www.isi.fraunhofer.de/isiwassets/docs/p/de/publikationen/km_study_isi_oecd_edler_final_report.pdf eraut, m. (2004). transfer of knowledge between education and workplace settings. in: rainbird, helen, fuller, alison and munro, anne (eds.) workplace learning in context. routledge, london & ny, 201-221. ginecinskij, v.i. (1989). knowledge as a category of pedagogics: an experience of pedagogical knowledge engineering. leningrad: leningrad university press. girard, j.p. & girard, j. l. (2015). defining knowledge management: toward an applied compendium. online journal of applied knowledge management 3(1):14, 1-20. url: http://www.iiakm.org/ojakm/articles/2015/volume3_1/ojakm_volume3_1pp120.pdf grammes, t. & açıkalın, m. (2016). qualitative data collection and interpretation: a turkish social studies lesson. journal of social studies education research, 7(1), 1-40. guillou, c. (2007) the corporate knowledge power for decision support systems. institut für algorithmen und kognitive systeme universität karlsruhe (th) ss. url: http://crypto.iti.kit.edu/fileadmin/user/calmet/stdip/da-guillou.pdf gupta, j. & sushil, sh. (2004). creating knowledge based organizations. boston: idea group publishing. http://jsser.org/article/view/5000149338 http://jsser.org/article/view/5000149338 volegzhanina et al. hornos, m.j., hurtado, m.v., fernández-sánchez, m.p., lópez-martínez, á., benghazi, k., rodríguez-almendros, m.l. & abad-grau, m.m. (2012). hierarchical role-based design of web-based educational systems for blended learning in higher education. journal of research and practice in information technology, (2), 223-243. hussain, f. (2013). e-learning 3.0 = e-learning 2.0 + web 3.0?. 3(3), iosr journal of research & method in education (iosr-jrme), 39-47. introduction to knowledge management. university of north carolina at chapel hill. (2007). url: www.unc.edu iso/iec 20016-1:2014 information technology for learning, education and training language accessibility and human interface equivalencies (hies) in e-learning applications part 1: framework and reference model for semantic interoperability. url: https://www.iso.org/standard/50963.html ivanova, e.o. (2007). competency approach vs knowledge-based and cultural approach approaches. internet-journal “jejdos”. url: http://www.eidos.ru/journal/2007/093023.htm (june 26, 2017). jung, yu. (2013). development of virtual worlds in agriculture and natural resources for simulation experiments and e-learning using ontology-based simulation. proquest dissertations & theses a & i. kilinç, e., kilinç, s., kaya, m., başer, e., türküresin, h., & kesten, a. (2016). teachers’ attitudes toward the use of technology in social studies teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 59-76. kudinov,v.a. (2010). model of educational field on the bases of technology of knowledge management. rudn herald. series: educational information, (1), 81-85. kuhn, t. (2010). an evaluation framework for controlled natural languages in proceedings of the workshop on controlled natural language (cnl 2009). url: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-14418-9_1#page-1 kuhn, t. (2014). a survey and classification of controlled natural languages. computational linguistics, 1(40), 121-171. kybartaite, a., nousiainen, j. & malmivuo, j. (2010). technologies and methods in virtual campus for improving learning process. computer applications in engineering education, 21(1), 185-192. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-14418-9_1#page-1 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 39-61 60 leisyte, l. & horta, h. (2011). introduction to a special issue: academic knowledge production, diffusion and commercialization: policies, practices and perspectives. science and public policy, 38(6), 422–424. lishilin, m.v., belov, m.a., tokareva, n.a. & sorokin, a.v. (2015). conceptual model of knowledge management system for forming professional competence in the field of it in a virtual computer lab. fundamental research, 11(part 5), 886-890. mitsuk, i.v., khabarov, v.i. & volegzhanina, i.s. (2016). sector-related knowledge management in the “sector – sector educational establishment” system. educational technologies and society, 3, 473-491. industry sector knowledge (core competency). (2015). national research council canada. url: http://www.nrccnrc.gc.ca/eng/careers/behavioural_competencies/mg_industry_sector_knowledge.html nurminskij, i.i. & gladysheva, n.k. (1991). statistic patterns of formation of knowledge and skills of students. moscow: pedagogy. pathirage, c.p., amaratunga, r.d.g. & haigh, r.p. (2008). the role of tacit knowledge in the construction industry: towards a definition. cib w89 international conference on building education and research (bear), 11th 15th february, sri lanka. poljakova, a.v. (1978). knowledge absorption and development of schoolchildren. moscow: pedagogy. sim, w.w. (2015). applying persona concept and ontology-based approach to support the requirements engineering process. proquest dissertations & theses a & i. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, (1)1, 77-97. tarman, b. & acun, i. (2010). social studies education and a new social studies movement. journal of social studies education research, i (1), 1-16. uzun, l. (2012). the internet and computer-mediated artefacts for foreign language learning and practice, and intercultural communication: moodle, second life, and others. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 46, 3296-3300. varga, a. & parag, a. (2009). academic knowledge transfers and structure of international research networks. universities, knowledge transfer and regional development: geography, entrepreneurship and policy. edward elgar, cheltenham. volegzhanina et al. volegzhanina, i.s. (2016). formation of a sector-related knowledge definition. problems and tendecies of higher education development in russia and abroad. in: nagornova, а.yu. (ed.). ulyanovsk: zebra publishing, 6-20. volegzhanina, i.s. & chusovlyanova, s.v. (2016). english for railways. part i. railway track and railway structures. digital resource, certificate of registration no. 21720 dated 22.03.2016, novosibirsk. zeleny, m. (2006). knowledge-information autopoietic cycle: towards the wisdom systems. international journal of management and decision making, 1, 3-18. xiao, zh.-x. (2017). the impacts of trust relationship on knowledge absorptive capacity: an empirical study from service outsourcing enterprises. proceedings of the 23rd international conference on industrial engineering management 2016. ed. ershi qi,jiang shen, runliang dou. tianjin university. atlantis press, 81-86. wright, s. (2015). universities in the knowledge economy: mapping, managing, gendering and contesting boundaries in the new university-industrial complex. universities in the knowledge economy -transforming higher education in the asia-pacific rim and europe. international conference, university of auckland, 10-13 february 2015, 6. url: https://cdn.auckland.ac.nz/assets/arts/documents/unike_abstracts.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (2), 80-99 80 buddhist religious education in the context of modern russian policy of multicultural education: a case of the republic of buryatia oyuna dorzhigushaeva 1, bato dondukov2, galina dondukova3 abstract the increase of ethnocultural and ethnoconfessional interactions in the context of modern cultural and religious diversity of russia demands modernization of learning process according to the existing educational policy of multicultural education and defines the relevancy of the article. the purpose of the article is to analyze retrospectively the functioning of buddhist religious education system in the republic of buryatia taking into account the multicultural component. the central methods in this research along with analysis, synthesis, abstraction, induction, deduction, generalization are the analysis of interactive documents and the method of case-study, an active problem-contextual analysis. the article briefly characterizes the main stages of buddhist education development and the current religious situation in the republic of buryatia, reveals the peculiarities of introducing the subjects studying the basics of religious cultures and secular ethics in educational process, defines national and territorial characteristics of buddhist education implementation in secular schools in the republic of buryatia, justifies its preventive educational potential for multicultural society. the study material can be useful for orientalist scholars and also both theorists and practitioners of general pedagogics, buddhist and multicultural education. keywords: buddhist education, buddhist culture, multicultural education, educational policy, the republic of buryatia. introduction nowadays when complex socio-political processes develop in the context of strengthening of the “buddhist factor” in the republic of buryatia, studying of buddhist religious education gains particular importance. the present stage of public and academic thought in buryatia can be defined as a historical retrospective stage, which can be characterized by active studying of spiritual heritage of the buddhism, attempts to connect the past and the present, to find the binding threads that would add historical importance to the revival of buddhist tradition. 1 assoc. prof., candidate of philosophy, east-siberian state university of technology and management, oyuna79@mail.ru 2 junior researcher, candidate of sociology, east-siberian state university of technology and management, bato_d@mail.ru 3 senior researcher, candidate of philology, east-siberian state university of technology and management, mggn@mail.ru mailto:oyuna79@mail.ru mailto:bato_d@mail.ru mailto:mggn@mail.ru dorzhigushaeva et al. the academic reflection and formulation of the contemporary religious and cultural situation, search of its spiritual sources will help to reveal the general and specific regularities of the buddhism as the system of ideas and theories and to track the stages of its revival in the former soviet union. post-perestroika and post-soviet revival of religious education in russia is a significant historical event of deep spiritual meaning which demands academic interpretation by the contemporaries. the research gains special importance due to the educational policy realized in the russian federation of multicultural education which was put on paper in such documents of the state level as: “the concept of multicultural education development in the russian federation” (2004), and further in “the concept of the federal target educational program for 2016-2020” (2014) where it is clearly defined that “within the framework of distributing contemporary models of children’s successful socialization throughout the entire territory of the russian federation integrated models of the basic and additional education will be widespread throughout all territorial subjects of the russian federation. these innovative educational and inttitutional models will shape the civil identity of students in the conditions of multicultural and polyconfessional society” (the concept of the federal target educational program for 20162020, 2014). thus, the ideas of equality and equivalency of the people, respect of national dignity and religious freedom, need for strengthening and improvement of people’s friendship, systematic cultural and pedagogical work against negative phenomena in this area come to the forefront in modern educational process. literature review the russian buddhist studies appeared not so long ago, a little over a century ago. during these years, scholars have finished to some extent the research of the main buddhist treatises. it is a truly monumental work taking into account a huge number of philosophical treatises written within the 25 centuries of buddhism history as the philosophical doctrine. linnart mäll, the known buddhologist, has written an article “dharma as text and text-producing mechanism” in “bulletin of the university of tartu” (mäll, 1968) on this issue. in the buddhist studies, the priorities were given to translation and analysis of philosophical treatises, while studying of buddhist educational systems which actually allowed the buddhism to become highly intellectual religion stayed in the background. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 80-99 in the end of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th century prominent buryat scholars bazar baradin, gombozhab tsybikov, tsyben zhamtsarano, the graduates of the oriental school of the university of saint-petersburg, have laid the basis for studying of the buddhist monastic universities of tibet. by order of the russian geographical society, they went on several expeditions to tibet under the guise of pilgrims and collected unique materials about buddhist monasteries and buddhist religious education. all of them in the 1930-s were repressed and, except g. tsybikov, were shot. in these latter days, their traveling diaries and academic papers are mostly republished. and it is obvious that their contribution to studying of buddhist education will be seriously researched in the nearest future. some aspects of buddhist education are mentioned in works of scholars from the saint petersburg oriental school such as pozdneev (1896), shcherbatskoy (1988), pyatigorsky (2004), mäll (1968), dandaron (1996) and also in the textbooks published by the staff of the institute of oriental manuscripts of the russian academy of sciences ermakova, ostrovskaya and rudoy (1999). these authors pay attention mostly to the philosophical content of the buddhist religious education, which is the main objective of their researches. a number of foreign researchers study the potential of buddhist education within a certain country or a specific geographical region. in such a way, j. li and d. moore (2014) try to find balance between traditional faith-based education and state education system in one of china prefectures with theravada buddhist religious identity. t. hyland (2013) considers the statefunded education in england and argues against the faith-based education, however, he does not deny opportunities of using the buddhist traditions in secular approach to educational practice. a number of works of contemporary orientalists are turned to the resource potential of buddhist theory (yao, 2006) which can be used both for shaping an adequate view on peacekeeping around the world, economic balance, the uniform rights and freedoms for all especially among migrant population (murakami, 2012; tarman & gürel, 2017), and for personal (kim & choi, 2016) and educational reasons (lafer & aydin, 2012;thanissario, 2011; mamgain, 2010). recently one can notice a growing interest of russian and foreign scholars to the problems of multicultural education (lonshakova, 2010, ten, 2007, saint-hilaire, 2014, ngo, 2010, forrest et al., 2016, barzanò et al., 2017, byker & marquardt, 2016; kopish, 2016; yigit, 2017). however, there are almost no researches on the buddhist education in the republic of buryatia in the foreign periodicals. the publication by petrova (2013) retrospectively considers dorzhigushaeva et al. underground hindu and buddhist-inspired religious movements in soviet russia between the late 1950s and the late 1980s while the article of holland (2014) presents the comparative analysis of across faith and national groups of religious practice and belief in the republic of buryatia. however, they both do not fully reflect the research issues chosen by the authors. methodological framework this research aims to provide the authors’ interpretation of the modern system of buddhist religious education in the republic of buryatia through the prism of multicultural education which is widely propagandized in modern russia on state and regional levels. the main tasks of the research are: to submit a short retrospective analysis of the development of buddhist religious education in the republic of buryatia; to analyse and critically evaluate the existing religious situation in the contemporary buryatia; to reveal the advantages of introducing the courses studying the basics of religious cultures and secular ethics into the school curricula in the republic of buryatia; to define national and territorial characteristics of buddhist education implementation at secular school in the republic of buryatia and its preventive educational potential for multicultural society. the following methods were used in order to achieve the objective and the tasks of this theoretical research: analysis, synthesis, abstraction, induction, deduction, generalization. interdisciplinary methodological synthesis was carried out with the help of sociological method of analysis of interactive documents (sivovolov, 2007) directly or indirectly connected with the issues of buddhist education on sociological, analytical, religious and educational web pages; and also with the help of a method of active problem-contextual analysis – case study, which is mainly used in social and economic researches. results and discussion economic and geographical characteristics of the republic of buryatia the republic of buryatia is the subject of the russian federation, which is included into the siberian federal district. ulan-ude city is the administrative and cultural center of the republic. the buryat-mongolian autonomous soviet socialist republic was created on may 30, 1923. in 1937 aga buryatia and ust-orda buryatia were detached from the buryat-mongolian assr and merged with neighboring chita and irkutsk oblasts, respectively. in 1958 the buryatjournal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 80-99 mongolian assr was renamed into the buryat assr. buryatia is located in the southern part of eastern siberia, to the south and to the east of lake baikal. the republic of buryatia borders with mongolia in the south, the republic of tuva in the southwest, the irkutsk region in the northwest and zabaykalsky krai in the east. on the territory of the republic, there are 21 municipal districts with 2 city districts and 273 urban and rural settlements. the resident population for january 1, 2013 is 971,8 thousand people, an average population density is 3,0 people on 1 km2. the ethnic composition of the republic, according to the 2010 census is as follows: russians – 66,1%, buryats – 30%, ukrainians – 0,6%, other nationalities – 3,3%. representatives of indigenous ethnic groups – evenks and soyots, who live on the territory of the republic of buryatia comprise 0,3% and 0,4% respectively out of the total number of the population. in order to analyze the religious situation in the republic of buryatia we have addressed the “arena” project of the independent research service “sreda”. “arena” (the atlas of religions and nationalities) is the first russian research aiming to give a full picture of religiousness of the population both across russia in general and in each region in particular. the data on the republic of buryatia received during the sociological survey which was conducted in 2012 among urban and rural population aged from 18 years and more are as follows (research service "sreda", 2012). table 1 religious priorities of inhabitants of the republic of buryatia religious confession in russian federation, % in the subject of the russian federation, % i practice orthodoxy and belong to russian orthodox church 41 27 i believe in god (the highest power), but i do not practice any specific religion 25 25 i do not believe in god 13 13 i practice islam, but i am neither sunnite, nor shiite 5 <1 i practice christianity, but i consider myself neither orthodox christian, nor catholic, nor protestant 4 4,2 i practice sunni islam 2 0 i practice orthodoxy, but i do not belong to russian orthodox church and i am not an old believer 1,5 <1 i practice traditional religion of the ancestors, i worship gods and forces of nature 1,2 1,8 i practice buddhism <1 20 i practice orthodoxy, i am an old believer (starovyery) <1 <1 i practice protestantism (lutheranism, baptism, evangelism, anglicanism) <1 more often dorzhigushaeva et al. i practice shiite islam <1 0 i practice catholicism 0 0 i practice judaism 0 <1 i practice east religions and spiritual practices 0 0 i practice pentecostalism 0 0 other <1 <1 source: the atlas of religions and nationalities on the website of the research service “sreda” (2012). the authors of the project note that its purpose is “to create a picture of religions and nationalities taking into account the number of inhabitants, geographical and administrative distribution, abiding by religious practices, worldview and social-demographic characteristics of russians” (research service "sreda", 2012). according to sociologists of the research service “sreda”, the orthodox christians who identify themselves belonging to the russian orthodox church are the most numerous religious group in buryatia (27%). further on go believers who do not practice any specific religion (25%), buddhists (20%), atheists (13%) and hesitating (6%). sergey basaev, the analyst of “the new buryatia” newspaper expresses some doubts about representativeness of this research. and we, from our part, have to notice that this research does not display the real number of followers of islam in the republic. whereas, the web page “muslims of russia” (“muslims of russia”, 2011), has the section “the republic of buryatia” and reports about 20 thousand muslims in the republic of buryatia that makes about 2% of the population. airat khazrat gizatullin, the imam of the cathedral mosque of ulan-ude, speaks in an interview to “the islamic portal”: “our mosque can welcome seven hundred people and on fridays it is filled almost completely. without women. therefore, for women we have singled out a separate day which is sunday” (“islamic portal”, 2010). sergey basaev pays attention to low percentage of old believers and shamanists in the table. “concerning these two religious groups the research data of the arena project can also be questioned. it is known that, for example, old believers make the majority of population in three districts of buryatia (tarbagataisky, mukhorshibirsky and bichursky districts) and there are villages with the prevalence of “semeiskie” in some other districts. descendants of the old believers who moved here in the 18-19th centuries represent a considerable layer of the population of buryatia estimated by experts from 100 to 200 thousand people (including residents of ulan-ude – descendants of the old believers), which constitutes 10 to 20% of the population of the republic. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 80-99 many of them still keep the subethnic and religious identity, visit old belief temples and religious meetings. therefore, the data of sociological service “sreda” about old believers (0,4%) obviously do not reflect the real situation. most likely, the selection of cities and villages for the survey was not made correctly; respondents from those three areas where old believers prevail did not participate in the research. otherwise results on old believers would be different. it is possible to draw the same conclusion about so-called “shamanists”. it is known that from the 1920s the irkutsk buryats who are traditionally keeping “religion of ancestors” have begun to move to ulan-ude and some other settlements on the territory of buryatia. their ancestors were protected by orthodox missionaries from the influence of buddhist lamas and thus they have preserved in relative purity the traditional religion widespread among mongols and buryats even before the adoption of the buddhism. even those irkutsk buryats who were formally baptized into orthodoxy (about a half of western buryats), actually remained shamanists. in soviet period the traditions of “shamanism”, or “tengrism”, have been destroyed. however, from the 1990s there were founded several religious associations of shamans-boo who actively engaged in restoration of almost lost religious traditions. this process takes place due to the growing popularity of neoshamanism adapted by its adherents to the urban culture. in this situation, many irkutsk buryats began to declare again their religious identity and commitment of traditional national religion. in this regard “shamanists” obviously go beyond the statistical error (of 2-3%), and, most probably constitute a steady and rather numerous group” (how many orthodox christians, old believers and buddhists are there in buryatia? 2012). in the researches of “arena” there is a special analytical article devoted to the buddhists of russia. in the article of the july 6, 2014 with the speaking name “715 thousand russian buddhists: relatively young and convinced that religion is important”, kuzmicheva, the researcher of the “arena” project writes: “in comparison with an average russian citizen the buddhists twice more rare agree with the statements “i support traditional family principles when the man is the head of the family”, “i would like to believe in god more, than i believe now” and “i pray every day, with my own words or fixed prayers” (kuzmicheva, 2014). at the same time, buddhists speak about the important role of religion in their lives almost twice more often: 27% of buddhists and 15% of russians in general agree with this statement. buddhists dorzhigushaeva et al. admit that they love russia rarer than an average (35% of buddhists and 52% of russians in general). they also declare they respect and always observe the law less than average (36% of buddhists and 44% of russians in general). at the same time buddhists demonstrate greater tolerance to labor migrants: the alerted attitude towards the people of other nationality who arrived in job searches is inherent to 20% of russians in general and to only 8% of the buddhists” (kuzmicheva, 2014). two of these statements – “i would like to believe in god more, than i believe now” and “i pray every day, with my own words or fixed prayers” (kuzmicheva, 2014) are not exactly correct for buddhists as the buddhism is the religion which denies the existence of god creator unlike judeo-christian tradition, and buddhist religion does not practice obligatory daily prayers for laymen. for reading mantras the buddhist has to undergo special initiations and take vows in front of the teacher. nevertheless, the statistics of the “arena” project is the only one, which can show some conclusions across russia in general at the moment. only sociologists of the “arena” project have counted buddhists outside the traditional buddhist republics – buryatia, tuva and kalmykia – about 200 thousand people. this figure speaks about rather large number of buddhist neophytes and also demonstrates the attractiveness of the buddhism as a doctrine on the territory of the russian federation. history of buddhist religious education in the republic of buryatia pre-revolutionary buryat-mongolia contained 46 buddhist monasteries. many of them were famous for their philosophical, medical, tantric faculties. during the soviet period all buddhist monasteries were destroyed, tens of thousands of buddhist monks were repressed. after the great patriotic war in 1945 buryats have been allowed to build one datsan for religious needs. for a long time the ivolginsky datsan remained the only buddhist temple of the ussr. buddhist religious education endures a stage of revival and re-establishment now. until 1991 the young men from the buddhist republics who have chosen a buddhist way had to go to study in mongolia and india. many of them experienced difficulties of adaptation to other culture, climate, food, etc. with the establishment of the buddhist institute “dashi choinhorlin” those who couldn't study abroad due to health reasons received the opportunity to continue religious education in the homeland. considering the level and traditions of buddhist education in mongolia and india the buddhist traditional sangha of russia (governing body of the buddhists) continues to send students to the central buddhist universities. in 1991, 25 students have been sent to the buddhist university drepung gomang in india. at present 50 students from journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 80-99 buryatia, 16 from tuva and 15 students from kalmykia study at the buddhist universities of india. in 2007 with the help of donations from tuva compatriots the hostel for students from tuva was built at the buddhist university drepung gomang (zhironkina, 2007), in 2008 – a hostel for students from kalmykia (yancheglov, 2008), in 2013 the three-storied hostel for students from buryatia was built (the hostel for students from buryatia is built at the monastic university in india, 2013). buddhist institute “dashi choinhorlin” was open on february 16, 1991 in tapkhar village 40 km from ulan-ude. in 1993 because of difficulties of perestroika period the institute had to move to the ivolginsky datsan. khambo-lama choi-dorzhi budaev, dashinima shiretui (abbot of the monastery) of ivolginsky datsan and lama zhamyan shagdarov initiated the creation of the buddhist institute. buddhist institute “dashi choinhorlin” is the first educational institution in russia, which trains buddhist priests for traditional buddhist regions of russia (buryatia, tuva and kalmykia). its creation was caused by the increased need for buddhist priests for re-opened buddhist datsans. in june, 1999 the buddhist institute “dashi choinhorlin” obtained the license of the ministry of the basic and professional education of the russian federation. there are four faculties at the institute: philosophical (tsanid), tantric, medical (manba) and iconographic. the faculty duynhor (kalachakra tantra) was opened in 1997 at the institute “dashi choinhorlin”. tibetan geshe agvan zhamtso, the specialist in kalachakra tantra was the head of this faculty from 1997 to 2002. since 2002, after finishing his studies in india, geshe (the doctor of philosophy), lama buda tsydenov became the dean of faculty duynhor. the iconographic faculty was open in 1999. the students of this faculty study iconography canons, minting, buddhist sculpture, elements of decoration of buddhist dugans and temples in the buryat tradition. nowadays there are approximately 150 students at the institute, 15% of whom are students from non-buddhist regions. in 2000 the buddhist institute “dashi choinhorlin” became the university and the first official graduates with state-recognized diplomas have finished their studies. since april 1998 with the help of its students the buddhist institute “dashi choinhorlin” publishes an almanac “legshed” which transformed from a six-page newspaper into the color magazine where one can find translations of the main canonical buddhist texts and practices. in 1994 the aga buddhist buryat institute which later received the name “spiritual professional educational institution “aga buddhist academy” was opened at the aga datsan which is located in 10 km from the settlement of aginskoye of the aginsky district in dorzhigushaeva et al. zabaykalsky krai of the russian federation. in 1998, it has also obtained the license of the ministry of the basic and professional education of the russian federation. the spiritual professional educational institution “aga buddhist academy” trains in specialty 033400 – theology (buddhist sciences). confessional sample diplomas in specialties: philosophertheologian, instructor-researcher of buddhist medicine, master of buddhist painting are issued, the degree of the bachelor of buddhist sciences is conferred. basics of religious cultures and secular ethics in 1991-1992, optional courses focused on traditional religions and cultures of the republic were introduced at schools and pre-school educational institutions of the republic of buryatia. in the national doctrine of education in the russian federation (2000) the strategic objective of education is defined as “laying the groundwork for sustainable socio-economic and spiritual development of russia, providing life of quality for people and national security”. in 2010-2011 in the framework of implementation of the doctrine the project plan on approbation of complex training course for educational institutions “basics of religious cultures and secular ethics” (brcse) was developed. this course includes the basics of orthodox culture, basics of islamic culture, basics of buddhist culture, basics of judaic culture, basics of world religious cultures and basics of secular ethics. in 2011, the ministry of education and science of the russian federation recommended to the ministry of education of the republic of buryatia “the methodical materials for teachers and organizers on introduction of a complex training course “basics of religious cultures and secular ethics” by e.v. manakova (2011). in this document of the ministry of education and science of the russian federation beside of very useful methodical instructions for working out the courses of brcse, the author recommends to search for additional materials on the web pages of official religious organizations. while the web pages of russian orthodox church, council of muftis of russia, federation of jewish communities of russia are correct, instead of the web page of nonexistent association of buddhists of russia the document offers the web page of non-traditional missionary school “russian association of diamond way buddhists of karma kagyu tradition” under the leadership of the danish buddhist ole nidahl (diamond way buddhism karma kagyu lineage, 2011), instead of the official website of buddhist traditional sangha of russia (2017). in general, the ministry of education and science of the russian federation has carried out great preparatory work on implementation of brcse in regions. according to the report of the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 80-99 ministry of education of the republic of buryatia, the total number of 815 teachers have completed professional training of brcse course in the buryat republican institute of educational policy. in 2016-2017 academic year 553 teachers teach brcse at schools of the republic. schools are completely equipped with textbooks on brcse. teacher-parent meetings of third-graders on choice of modules are organized in full measure, however, sometimes the parents are insistently recommended to choose a specific module. on the web page of the ministry of education of the republic of buryatia there is a textbook for parents “basics of religious cultures and secular ethics” in free access (the ministry of education of the republic of buryatia, 2011) in which myths about brcse are destroyed and fears of parents about introduction of brcse are dispelled. it is interesting to consider the figures reflected in data on preliminary choice of brcse modules for 2016-2017 academic year made by parents (lawful representatives) of pupils of the 3rd grade published by the ministry of education of the republic of buryatia. table 2 data on preliminary choice of brcse modules for 2016-2017 academic year made by parents (lawful representatives) of pupils of the 3rd grade district number of 3rd grades in 20152016 academic year total number of pupils of the 3rd grade number of pupils who chose modules basics of world religi-ous cultures basics of secular ethics basics of orthodox culture basics of judaic culture basics of buddhist culture basics of islamic culture barguzinsky 22 350 16 279 14 41 bauntovsky 11 142 29 113 bichursky 21 284 91 25 151 17 dzhidinsky 30 309 70 213 5 21 yeravninsky 17 224 46 102 41 35 zaigrayevsky 39 630 257 336 14 23 zakamensky 31 378 95 165 118 ivolginsky 26 576 158 418 kabansky 38 699 137 488 64 10 kizhinginsky 10 216 85 85 2 44 kurumkansky 14 195 171 15 9 kyakhtinsky 31 503 320 141 17 25 muysky 8 141 33 108 mukhorshi-birsky 25 301 16 259 26 okinsky 6 86 70 16 pribaykkalsky 24 393 124 241 28 dorzhigushaeva et al. severo-baykalsky 10 136 5 122 9 selenginsky 34 524 106 360 2 56 tarbagataysky 15 221 17 181 23 tunkinsky 23 321 68 200 53 khorinsky 21 247 49 189 3 6 ulan-ude 296 5804 1486 4269 45 4 severobay-kalsk 13 350 290 60 republican buryat national boarding lyceum № 1 2 60 60 ust-alacheyskaya secondary boarding school 1 10 10 shimkinskaya secondary boarding school 1 7 7 total: 769 13107 3449 8616 418 564 60 source: website of the ministry of education of the republic of buryatia the table shows that parents generally choose “the basics of secular ethics” module – 8616 out of 13107 people (65.77%), the second place is taken by “the basics of world religious cultures” module – 3449 (26.3%), traditional for the republic of buryatia “the basics of buddhist culture” module was chosen by only 564 parents (4.3%), while “the basics of orthodox culture” module even less – 418 people (3.1%). the fact that 60 people have chosen “the basics of islamic culture” module in severobaykalsk inspires optimism – it demonstrates that there is choice and possibilities for teaching this module, at least in severobaykalsk. the possible reason of such choice of modules lies in the so-called “banal religiousness” inherent to people in the post-soviet period. “banal religiousness means lack of contact between religious ethics and secular practice, poor knowledge of dogmatics and the meaning of ceremonies, simplified and pragmatic attitude towards religion, occasional visits to temples… today it is obvious that for many if not for the majority, banal religiousness acts as religion, it does not contradict to the belief, but also is not equal to it” (amogolonova, et. al., 2016). apart from this factor, religious syncretism inherent to the region of transbaikalia and noticed by many researchers also cannot be disregarded. “religious and cultural syncretism typical to the religious situation of the contemporary buryatia can be considered to some extent as the result of interaction of former generations who evinced not only the possibility of appealing to different religions, but also the efficiency of such way of religious confession” (amogolonova, et. al., 2016). tatiana bernyukevich defines the peculiarities of religious syncretism among the people of transbaikalia: “the russian people have been closely contacting with the buddhism for more journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 80-99 than three hundred years in a number of russian regions of traditional distribution of the buddhism. religious syncretism in this case was the result of interaction of cultures when buddhist culture was perceived if not “their” one, but the close one as it was professed by the people with whom they were in good relations and the representatives of buddhist priesthood never refused aid to any layman including an orthodox christian. such historically developed positive image of the buddhism, undoubtedly, encourages russian population of such regions (most vividly it is shown in buryatia and zabaykalsky krai) to actively visit astrologers, doctors in datsans, attend buddhist ceremonies and holidays. what is more, the majority of such “dvoyeverets” identifies themselves as christians, more often orthodox christians” (bernyukevich, 2013). let us return to the fact that parents of pupils of the 4th grade hardly ever choose the module with a specific religion, even the one they profess. on focus groups at schools of the republic of buryatia parents, irrespectively of their own religious views, expressed fears of possible clericalisation of education and showed unwillingness to emphasize the ethnicity and religious affiliation of family. this situation is surprising because the buryat metropolitanate and the buddhist traditional sangha of russia received with big enthusiasm the news about implementation of brcse course. for example, m.g. alisova, the head of the press service of the ulan-ude and buryat diocese developed video-annex considering the local material as the additional source to “the basics of orthodox culture” module for pupils of the 4th grade of the general education organizations. the priest roman nikolaevich khlybov, the head of the department of religious education and a catechetesis of the ulan-ude and buryat diocese, took active part in meetings of the republican expert commission on brcse. excursions to the temples were offered to pupils, representatives of religious faith willingly attend teaching events. in 2010 year the buddhist university “dashi choinhorlin” of buddhist traditional sangha of russia published the book “buddha's world” (2010) within the actions for approbation of brcse. in this book, buddhist lamas in a form, understandable for children, articulates the key moments of buddha’s (siddhartha gautama) biography, basic principles of buddha’s doctrine and stories from lives of buddhist teachers. each paragraph includes tasks for independent work and colorful illustrations of tanka-artists of ivolginsky datsan. there is a dictionary on “fundamentals of the buddhism”, biographies of outstanding buddhists of buryatia. despite all advantages, it is impossible to call this book a textbook on brcse, as it is published in a4 size dorzhigushaeva et al. on heavy chalk overlay paper, the book cannot easily be fixed in the open position because of the hard cover. that is why the book can be recommended to pupils for home reading. on december 13, 2011 in the aga medical college the meeting of teachers of high schools from agin-buryat autonomous area and lamas of the aga datsan was held. there the discussion of released textbook “the basics of religious cultures and secular ethics. basics of buddhist culture” (chimitdorzhiyev, 2010) within all-russian school course “the basics of religious cultures and secular ethics” (brcse) for 4-5 grades of secondary general education institutions took place. the author of this book is chimitdorzhiev babu-lama, the rector of the aga buddhist academy. the textbook is included into completed course line “the basics of religious cultures and secular ethics”. it was developed according to the requirements of the federal state educational standard of the primary general education and the concept of spiritual and moral development and character education of the citizen of russia. the textbook in a form, understandable for pupils of the 4th grade, acquaints them with the basics of the buddhist culture: its founder, buddhist doctrine, moral values, sacred books, rituals, shrines, holidays and art. the topics of the first block are “spiritual values and moral ideals in lives of human and society” and “russia – our homeland”. in the second block acquaintance with buddhist spiritual tradition begins with such topics as “buddha and his doctrine”, “buddhist sacred canon”, “buddhist worldview”, “basic concepts of buddhist ethics”, such as, good and evil, non-violence, love to a person and life value, mercy and compassion, care of nature, family in buddhist culture and its values. these concepts are fixed by the topic “buddhist teachers”. the third block is devoted to rituals and symbolics of the buddhism, the buddhist calendar and holidays, architecture of sacral constructions, buddhist art and sacral objects. the final fourth block of the textbook pays attention to spiritual traditions of the multinational people of russia. the fourth block assumes presentations of pupils on topics: “how i understand orthodoxy”, “how i understand islam”, “how i understand buddhism”, “how i understand judaism”, "”what is ethics?”, “value of religion in lives of human and society”, “monuments of religious culture (in my city / village)”. the culmination of “the basics of buddhist culture” course is presentation of creative projects on the topic “dialogue of cultures for civil peace and harmony” (folk art, verses, songs, kitchen of the people of russia, etc). the textbook by v.l. chimitdorzhiev (2010) “the basics of religious cultures and secular ethics. basics of buddhist culture” has a workbook. each section begins with the note “you will learn” where the main journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 80-99 sub-topics of the paragraph are revealed, and is accompanied by illustrations of buddhist attributes or architecture with commentaries. at the end of each section there are questions and tasks. the textbook is oriented to motivate a younger teenager to conscious moral behavior based on knowledge and respect of cultural and religious traditions of the buddhism and to dialogue with representatives of other cultures and world views. for this purposes the value of buddhist cultural and religious traditions is revealed taking into account educational opportunities of younger teenagers. the textbook creates conditions for upbringing of highly moral, creative, responsible person with respect to spiritual and cultural traditions of the multinational people of russia, and develops skills to communicate in the multi-ethnic and multi-religious environment on the basis of mutual respect and dialogue. nevertheless, parents of modern children, irrespective of their own religious views, prefer to choose “the basics of secular ethics” module because of fears of possible clericalisation of education and unwillingness to emphasize the ethnicity and religious affiliation of family. in june 2013 on the basis of the buryat state university the department of religious studies and theology was opened. on september 1, 2013, the subject “the basics of religious cultures and secular ethics” never taught before at the soviet school was introduced to the obligatory school program and is studied to the present day. it gives the chance “to minimize risks in the multicultural environment and to help civil society and religion to compromise and respect each other. in this regard, in our opinion, clericalisation of education is impermissible, but children should know more about religion which acts in many respects as the basis for culture” (the department of religious studies and theology at bsu opens against the background of heated discussions about the place of religion in life of society, 2013). conclusion the observed revival of religious education within the promotion of multicultural education in russia is a significant historical event of deep spiritual meaning which demands further academic interpretation. over the last couple of decades, the buddhist university and buddhist academy with licenses for educational activity from the ministry of education and science of the russian federation have been created in russia. buddhist priests received with big enthusiasm the idea of teaching brcse course at schools, with the help of buddhist lamas dorzhigushaeva et al. the textbook and the book for additional reading within “the basics of buddhist culture” module were prepared. it is very important that throughout its history buddhist education instills tolerance – an important human quality for the multicultural and multi-confessional world. buddha told his pupils that when going to the other countries one should respect foreign gods because if they exist in minds of these people, they really exist. his followers practiced the similar attitude to other religions. in all countries the buddhism peacefully gets on with other religions, in india – with hinduism and islam, in japan – with shintoism, in china – taoism and confucianism, etc. moreover, the buddhist tradition does not insist that people who address buddhist priests, come to buddhist temples and even practice the buddhism, have to be the buddhists who have taken a buddhist refuge. the concept of tolerance is one of the main ethical categories of the buddhist ethics. tolerance to other people, to a life situation and other beings speaks about open mindedness, general emancipation of a person and readiness for dialogue. acknowledgements the article was prepared according to the rfbr project n 17-03-00808. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 80-99 references amogolonova, d.d., sodnompilova, m.m., batomunkuev, s.d., varnavsky, p.k. & belkova, a.a. (2016). church society power: religious processes and practices in modern buryatia. ulan-ude: bsc sb ras press. barzanò, g., cortiana, p., jamison, i., lissoni, m. & raffio, l. (2017). new means and new meanings for multicultural education in a global–italian context. multicultural education review, july 7, 1-14. bernyukevich, t.v. (2013). religious syncretism of buddhism in russia as a result of a cultural frontier. in: buddhist culture: history, source studies, linguistics and art: the fifth dorjiev readings. spb.: giperion, 57-62. “buddha's world”. (2010). ulan-ude: republican press. buddhist traditional sangha of russia. (2017). url: http://sangharussia.ru byker, e.j. & marquardt, sh. (2016). curricular connections: using critical cosmopolitanism to globally situate multicultural education in teacher preparation courses. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 30-50. chimitdorzhiev, v.l. (2010). the basics of religious cultures and secular ethics. basics of buddhist culture. textbook for general educational institutions. moskva: “prosveshhenie” press. dandaron, b.d. (1996). buddhism (collection of papers). spb.: “dacan gunzjechojnjej” press, 5-7. diamond way buddhism karma kagyu lineage. (2011). url: http://www.buddhism.ru/en eden, d. & kang, s. (2016). between ‘homeland’ and ‘diaspora’: multicultural education in israel and south korea. intercultural education, 27(3), 292-306. ermakova, t.v., ostrovskaya, e.p. & rudoy v.i. (1999). classical buddhist philosophy. spb.: “lan’. forrest, j., lean, g. & dunn, k. (2016). challenging racism through schools: teacher attitudes to cultural diversity and multicultural education in sydney, australia. race ethnicity and education, 19(3), 618-638. holland, e.c. (2014). religious practice and belief in the republic of buryatia: comparing across faiths and national groups. nationalities papers, 42(1), 165-180. https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=55932710100&amp;eid=2-s2.0-85023182814 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57194836058&amp;eid=2-s2.0-85023182814 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57194836715&amp;eid=2-s2.0-85023182814 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57194831353&amp;eid=2-s2.0-85023182814 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57194833703&amp;eid=2-s2.0-85023182814 https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/21100456197?origin=recordpage https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/21100456197?origin=recordpage http://sangharussia.ru/ http://www.buddhism.ru/en https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=35896990700&amp;eid=2-s2.0-84979008665 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=57190302470&amp;eid=2-s2.0-84979008665 https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/5600155537?origin=recordpage https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/16047?origin=recordpage https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/16047?origin=recordpage https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=16238538500&amp;eid=2-s2.0-84892998653 dorzhigushaeva et al. how many orthodox christians, old believers and buddhists are there in buryatia? (2012). new byryatia. url: http://www.newbur.ru/articles/10352 hyland, t. (2013). buddhist practice and educational endeavour: in search of a secular spirituality for state-funded education in england. ethics and education, 8(3), 241-252. “islamic portal”. (2010). url: http://www.islam-portal.ru/novosti/104/4150/ kim, h.m. & choi, s.h. (2016). engaged buddhism for the curative self among young jungto buddhist practitioners in south korea. journal of korean religions, 7(2), 11-36. kopish, m.a. (2016). preparing globally competent teacher candidates through crosscultural experiential learning. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 75108. kuzmicheva, m. (2014). 715 thousand russian buddhists: relatively young and convinced that religion is important. url: http://sreda.org/arena-news/715-tysyach-rossiyskih-buddistovsravnitelno-molody-i-schitaut-chto-relegiya-eto-vazhno lafer, s. & aydin, h. (2012). educating for democratic societies: impediments. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 45-70. li, j. & moore, d. (2014). reconsideration of the coexistence of buddhist temple education and state education in xishuangbanna, china. british journal of religious education, 36(2), 139-154. lonshakova, v.v. (2010). multicultural education in russia and france: comparative analysis. humanitarian vector, 2(22), 18-20. mamgain, v. (2010). ethical consciousness in the classroom: how buddhist practices can help develop empathy and compassion. journal of transformative education, 8(1), 22-41. manakova, e.v. (2011). the methodical materials for teachers and organizers on introduction of a complex training course “basics of religious cultures and secular ethics. (2011). url: http://tyrnovo.ucoz.ru/roditeli/pismo_orkseh.pdf mäll, l. (1968). dharma as text and text-producing mechanism. bulletin of the university of tartu, 754, 22-26. murakami, t. (2012). buddhism on the border: shan buddhism and transborder migration in northern thailand. southeast asian studies, 1(3), 365-393. “muslims of russia”. (2011). url: http://dumrf.ru/regions/3/history http://sreda.org/arena-news/715-tysyach-rossiyskih-buddistov-sravnitelno-molody-i-schitaut-chto-relegiya-eto-vazhno http://sreda.org/arena-news/715-tysyach-rossiyskih-buddistov-sravnitelno-molody-i-schitaut-chto-relegiya-eto-vazhno https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=6507404137&amp;eid=2-s2.0-79957869698 https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/6400153174?origin=recordpage http://tyrnovo.ucoz.ru/roditeli/pismo_orkseh.pdf https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=55451528100&amp;eid=2-s2.0-84976262135 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (2), 80-99 ngo, b. (2010). doing "diversity" at dynamic high: problems and possibilities of multicultural education in practice. education and urban society, 42(4), 473-495. petrova, m. (2013). underground hindu and buddhist-inspired religious movements in soviet russia. usuteaduslik ajakiri, 64(1), 99-115. pozdneev, a.m. (1896). mongolia and the mongols. saint-petersburg: printing house of the imperial academy of sciences. pyatigorsky, a.m. (2004). lectures on buddhist philosophy. v: nonstopping dialogue. spb.: “azbuka-klassika”, 38-102. research service “sreda”. (2012). url: http://sreda.org/arena saint-hilaire, l.a. (2014). so, how do i teach them? understanding multicultural education and culturally relevant pedagogy. reflective practice, 15(5), 592-602. shcherbatskoy, f.i. (1988). selecta on buddhism. mosсow: science. sivovolov, d.l. (2007). web-page as the subject of sociological research: method of interactive documents analysis. herlad of chelyabinsk state university, 16, 139-143. tarman, b. & gürel, d. (2017). awareness of social studies teacher candidates on refugees in turkey, the journal of social studies research, 41(3), 183-193. ten, yu.p. (2007). cultural science and cross-cultural communication. rostov-on-don: phoenix. thanissaro, p.n. (2011). a preliminary assessment of buddhism's contextualisation to the english re classroom. british journal of religious education, 33(1), 61-74. the concept of the federal target educational program for 2016-2020. (2014). url: http://static.government.ru/media/files/mlorxfxbbck.pdf the concept of multicultural education development in the russian federation. (2004). url: http://mon.gov.ru/work/vosp/dok/6988/ the department of religious studies and theology at bsu opens against the background of heated discussions about the place of religion in life of society. (2013). url: http://www.moyulanude.ru/index.php?id=13760446725204c680f4143&mod=education&pag=viewarticle&pod rub=%20of%20%%20c2%fb%f1%f8%e5%e5%20(august%2020,%202017)%5c the hostel for students from buryatia is built at the monastic university in india. (2013). url: http://savetibet.ru/2013/10/23/india.html https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=12241766600&amp;eid=2-s2.0-77951517791 https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/14116?origin=recordpage https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/21100202142?origin=recordpage http://sreda.org/arena https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=56117911300&amp;eid=2-s2.0-84912051088 https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=36601256300&amp;eid=2-s2.0-78650442146 https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/16400154714?origin=recordpage http://static.government.ru/media/files/mlorxfxbbck.pdf http://mon.gov.ru/work/vosp/dok/6988/ http://www.moy-ulan-ude.ru/index.php?id=13760446725204c680f4143&mod=education&pag=viewarticle&podrub=%20of%20%25%20c2%fb%f1%f8%e5%e5%20(august%2020,%202017)%5c http://www.moy-ulan-ude.ru/index.php?id=13760446725204c680f4143&mod=education&pag=viewarticle&podrub=%20of%20%25%20c2%fb%f1%f8%e5%e5%20(august%2020,%202017)%5c http://www.moy-ulan-ude.ru/index.php?id=13760446725204c680f4143&mod=education&pag=viewarticle&podrub=%20of%20%25%20c2%fb%f1%f8%e5%e5%20(august%2020,%202017)%5c http://www.moy-ulan-ude.ru/index.php?id=13760446725204c680f4143&mod=education&pag=viewarticle&podrub=%20of%20%25%20c2%fb%f1%f8%e5%e5%20(august%2020,%202017)%5c http://savetibet.ru/2013/10/23/india.html dorzhigushaeva et al. the ministry of education of the republic of buryatia. (2011). url: http://edu03.ru/brcse/materials-for-teachers/index.php?sphrase_id=45713 the resolution of the government of the russian federation of october 4, 2000 № 751 “national doctrine of education in the russian federation”. (2000). url: http://base.garant.ru/182563/#ixzz4pueahpga yancheglov, i. (2008). photoreport: “monks from kalmykia on whom dalai lama put hopes on”. url: http://savetibet.ru/2008/01/02/kalmyk_monks.html yao, w. (2006). buddhist thought and several problems in the world today. frontiers of philosophy in china, 1(1), 144-147. yigit, m. f. (2017). value priorities of public and private university students. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1), 1-17. zhironkina, yu. (2007). in the tibetan monastery drepung gomang the construction of the hostel for monks from tuva is finished. url: http://savetibet.ru/2007/12/08/tuva_monks.html \ http://base.garant.ru/182563/#ixzz4pueahpga https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorid=14044347700&amp;eid=2-s2.0-33746141224 analysis of the image of russia and belarus formed in the union state print media www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1), 254-266 254 analysis of the image of russia and belarus formed in the union state print media (and their electronic analogues) nadezhda vinogradova1 abstract high-quality print press of russia and belarus is actively involved in the coverage of the communication process between these countries. at the present stage the legacy of the soviet union continues to influence on interaction between the countries. both countries form their own identity on the basis of patriotism and love for their homeland. these trends have a negative impact on the development of the union state, as neither side is ready to sacrifice its identity, which will inevitably lead to a change in the format of relations. the aim of the study is to identify the image of russia formed in the quality press of the republic of belarus, and the image of belarus formed by the quality press of russia. the author reveals the image of the country, which consists of a spatial image, the image of the population, the image of power and the image of the leader. the formation of the image is influenced by object, subject, spatial, temporal and communication factors. the analysis uses cognitive, behavioral, and emotional positions. empirical base of research: during the study publications for the period 2015-2019 of three russian newspapers – “rossiyskaya gazeta”, “kommersant”, “vedomosti” and three belarusian newspapers – “belarus today”, “belgazeta”, “belarusian business newspaper” were analyzed with method of qualitative and quantitative content analysis. for the quantitative analysis 11 462 messages in the qualitative press of the union state were considered. qualitative analysis showed the difference in the presentation of materials: in the communication space of the republic of belarus the image of russia is shown neutrally, and in the russian media the republic of belarus is presented positively and neutrally. key words: union state of russia and belarus, image of russia and belarus, spatial image, image of people, higher education introduction since the 1990s, civil society in the post-soviet space has been divided into those who remember life in the soviet union and those who were born and formed as individuals after the collapse of the ussr. in belarus, the older generation is focused on friendship and interaction with russia by inertia; they do not need proof of the need for this friendship. the perception of the older generation of the country is built not only friendly, but also on equal. with the younger generation the situation is more complicated – they need evidence of the need for cooperation with russia. at the same time, there is a painful perception of any topics related 1 ph.d. in political sciences, professor, k.g. razumovsky moscow state university of technologies and management (the first cossack university) (razumovsky msutm (fсu)), nadivinogradova@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 254-266 to national identity. patriotic young people are ready to do anything to defend their identity and independence. the reminder of the common historical past is perceived by them as an insult to their national feelings. common history is not a criterion of economic and political choice of personal (individual) vector of development of citizens of belarus, that is, if it is profitable to work and study in europe, they will go to europe, not to russia. the current union state does not have the powerful unifying factor that it had in the soviet era, when the identity of the republics was preserved, but the priority strategy was a single socialist community and the unity of the soviet people (kudryavtseva et al., 2020). the legacy of the soviet union is preserved in belarus – the economy is made up of enterprises of the soviet economic model period (prodanova et al., 2019). if in russia all industry rose or was destroyed in the 1990s, in belarus it was possible to keep it as the basis of modern development of the country. the same trend is observed in agriculture, medicine and education. belarusians constantly feel it, which affects the positive perception of russia as the heiress of the ussr. a typical example is cooperation in production processes: for example, a modern belarusian tractor consists of 60% of russian components. and belarusian goods are focused on the russian market. a.g. lukashenko’s line aimed at obtaining russian energy carriers is built on the basis of the cooperation between the countries that has developed over the past 30 years. this term defines the field of cooperation between belarus and russia in the union state in the field of education. in recent years, we have made many steps towards each other – more than 300 agreements have been signed between our states in the educational field – at the government, departmental and university levels. (uriadova, 2009). and yet many of them – so far only on paper. the analysis of mutual perception of russia and belarus, formed with the help of publications in the media of the union state, is based on the classical model of communication by g. lasswell, the theory of political perception (shestopal, 2012) and political identity (semenenko, 2007). the first makes it possible to identify the role of the media in the communicative space of the union state, the second – to identify the mechanisms of perception of images of russia and belarus, the third – makes it possible to identify the identity of the peoples of russia and belarus. also, this study is based on the development of political geographers, which allow assessing the spatial factor of political perception of the country (zamyatin, 2003). vinogradova conceptual formation model of russia and belarus images at the heart of the conceptual model of the study is the g. lasswell’s communication model: communicator – message – channel – recipient – effect (feedback). this model was refined in accordance with the goals and objectives of the study. psychologically, rational and unconscious components were analyzed, including cognitive, behavioral and emotional components. the parameters of attractiveness, strength and activity were also tracked in the psychological structure. structurally, the image of the country is a spatial image (the image of territories), the image of the population, the image of power and the image of the leader. factors influencing the structure of the country's image: object, subject, temporal, spatial and communicative. the object factor is represented by political culture and event series. the subjective factor relating to the subject of perception is the values and identity of the representatives – citizens of russia and belarus. the temporal factor is represented by transitions from the past to the future, that is, reflects the development and change of images of countries in the dynamics. in this study, one of the main factors is the communicative factor. it is the process of broadcasting messages in print media has a direct impact on the formation of images of countries. the selected sources are high-quality media, oriented to the transmission of news and factual messages based on expert opinions (shestopal & smulkina, 2018). research question the main question of the study was: does the development vector of relations between the countries diverge? methods the method of content analysis was chosen for analytical activity. content analysis – a research method of quantitative analysis of the documents content in order to identify or measure the various facts and trends reflected in these documents (bryman & bell, 2011). the peculiarity of content analysis is that it examines documents in their social context. it can be used as the main method of research (for example, content analysis of the text in the study of the newspaper political orientation), parallel, i.e. in combination with other methods (for example, in the study of the media effectiveness), auxiliary or control (for example, in the classification of answers to open questions of questionnaires). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 254-266 the empirical base of the study was obtained as a result of content analysis of materials, stories presented in the reports of the leading russian and belarusian media for the period 2015-2019: “rossiyskaya gazeta”, “kommersant”, “vedomosti” and “belarus today”, “belgazeta”, “belarusian business newspaper”. the choice was based on the following criteria: • main communication channels – leading printed publications and electronic analogues participate in the research; • credibility – published for more than 30 years; • audience – interested in international political and economic news; • wide scope of audience; • ability to access archives. the analysis area – current news events that resonated in these media: political events reflected in the speeches of leading politicians: the president of the russian federation, prime minister of russia, members of the federation council, deputies of the state duma, experts, etc. results the image of a country is based on the spatial image (the image of the territories), the image of population, image of the government and the image of the leader. all components of the image of the country are independent entities and can also be analyzed. this study analyzes the components of the image of the country to identify the image of the country as a whole. table 1 quantitative calculation of references to the image of russia and belarus in media reports in an approving, condemning, and neutral context media name type of reference to russia positive negative neutral russia rossiyskaya gazeta (5296) 1948 840 2508 kommersant(1640) 804 212 624 vedomosti (400) 120 40 240 total (7336) 2872 1092 3372 belarus belarus today (3000) 564 1036 1400 belgazeta (766) 401 285 80 belarusian business newspaper (360) 78 92 190 total (4126) 1043 1413 1670 vinogradova according to the table, the reference to the image of belarus in neutral terms is the majority – 45.96%, positive – 39.16%, negative – 14.88%. the analyzed mass media are focused on the russian audience and publish information messages of the international character which strengthen patriotic relation of two brotherly peoples; in this regard mass media seek to show republic of belarus positively. the media often focuses on the common roots of the russian and belarusian people, the words of the president of belarus alexander lukashenko are quoted in a favorable context, and mainly attention is paid to his positive statements. it is important to note that the positive and neutral characteristics are almost equal, the difference is 6.8%. negative characteristics are too small and represent mainly news related to scandals. also from the data of the table it follows that the reference to the image of russia in the belarusian media in a neutral way is the majority of reports – 40.47%, negative messages – 34.24% and positive – 25.27%. the analyzed media are focused on the belarusian audience and tell about the events important for belarusians, in this regard, the media tend to show their own country positively, so the image of russia is presented in a negative and neutral context. translation of the image of belarus in russia and the image of russia and belarus is very different. russian media publish news about the republic of belarus in a neutral and positive manner; belarusian media provide information about russia in a neutral and negative way. discussion object factors are primarily understood as the political context of perception, which includes both a changing event context and a stable political culture. this study analyzes the event context. political culture is a constant background and is not raised in media reports. for the period under review the following event context that had resonance in the russian mass media was highlighted: 15.03.2011 – to the present – conflict in syria; 16.03.2014 – to the present – conflict in the ukraine; 16.03.2014 – to the present – sanctions against russia and russian counter-sanctions; 09.2015 – to the present – constant conflicts in connection with the export of products from belarus to russia; 01.01.2015 – to the present – cooperation with the eaeu countries; 08.11.2016 – charges of russia meddling in the us presidential election; 18.03.2018 – to the present – election of the president of the russian federation; 15.12.2015 – to the present – political, economic and social reforms in russia; 01.01.2015 – to the present – emergencies in the russian federation; 01.01.2015 – to the present – emergencies in the republic of belarus; journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 254-266 25.12.2019 – to the present – gradual zeroing of export duties on oil; 19.04. 2019 – to the present– oil and gas conflict with belarus. the presented event series goes beyond the analysis (2015-2019). most events have a long resonance. it is impractical to consider events without analytics of the initial period, as the development vector of the event is most often specified at the beginning of the event. basically, all the media broadcast the current series of events. the image of the country in time perspective, temporal factor, is formed around significant historical events. the topics related to the crimea, relations with the ukraine, the eu, the usa, belarus, the military conflict in syria, emergencies in russia and belarus are the most vivid and constant in the print media. the modern context has expanded from the current moment for several years and decades. there are references to the historical past, to the era of the ussr, while references are used as an example for comparison; the belarusian media emphasize that they are more successful as an independent state, the russian media – on the future reunification. the subjective factors are focused on the socio-demographic portrait of citizens and their psychological characteristics. in this study, the subjective factor is represented by the image of the population. the image of the population is formed by thematic reports through public events and raising socially significant topics. the spatial factor of the media of both states is revealed through geographical characteristics, neighborly relations and relations with the international community. in many ways, the spatial component of the image of the country is formed, based on discussions or references to topics such as: frequent disputes about the state border (the collapse of the ussr, the separation of the crimea from the ukraine and accession to russia (belarus today, donbass no longer has anything in common with kiev, 2019), the separation of the lpr and dpr from the ukraine (belarus today, whether the ukraine can go west without donbass, 2019), discussion of nato actions on the deployment of weapons complexes in the eu countries bordering russia and belarus (borisov, 2018), the nord stream 2 issue (belarus today, munich security conference is over, 2019) and references in different contexts to state territories and natural resources. the communicative factor can be traced in all aspects of the analysis, as the image of belarus in russia and the image of russia in belarus are analyzed in media reports. it is the media that broadcasts the current agenda, sets the tone for analysis and shapes public opinion by attracting experts. vinogradova meaningful image of belarus russian media, such as “rossiyskaya gazeta”, “kommersant”, “vedomosti”, seek to generate and maintain readers’ interest in the geopolitical and economic state of belarus, focusing on belarus’ dependence on the natural resources of the russian federation, as well as publishing news about the participation of the republic of belarus in the peaceful settlement of foreign policy conflicts between russia and the west. the image of territories (spatial image) is built cognitively complex and clear, as the media often mentions various belarusian cities, news reports tell about the historical significance of a city. it is also important to note that the russian media shaping the news about belarus, but rather show an image of your own state of clear and challenging, as the focus is on russia’s natural resources, but topics related to military subjects, transmit the total power, the emphasis is on protection of territories of the slavic people and of the peoples of russia and belarus. the russian media seek to show belarus with clear data on the geographical, political and economic state of the country, which increases the cognitive clarity of the russian population – the recipient of the formed image. however, the russian media present the image of belarus as economically weak: “in august, the russian government approved a draft agreement on a ten-year state loan to belarus in the amount of $700 million” (vedomosti, the belarusian government approved an agreement with russia on a state loan of $700 million, 2017) – while the image of russia appears economically strong. the emotional position of the spatial image of belarus is presented vividly. reports have a clear color, the image of the country is presented as positive because of the connection with the ussr, and the friendly relationship between the two states is emphasized. the complexity of the spatial component of the image of belarus in the domestic media is in military cooperation, references to common sources – the unity of peoples are offered. the image of the population is presented in a positive and neutral character. in news reports, the image of the belarusian people is presented clearly; belarusians are often mentioned, for example, schoolchildren – winners of international competitions (brizgalova, 2018). there are often references to the historical community and the principle of indivisibility of the slavic people. the image of the government is positioned cognitive clearly, the news often refers to various departments of belarus: for example, news headlines show this “the ministry of agriculture of belarus interested in the kuban selection and seed-growing” (miheenko, 2018), “the foreign journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 254-266 ministers of russia and belarus will hold talks in moscow” (rossiyskaya gazeta, the foreign ministers of russia and belarus will hold talks in moscow, 2019), “belarus will toughen antismoking law”, (rossiyskaya gazeta, anti-smoking legislation to be toughened in belarus, 2019). the russian media often mentions events in which certain authorities are involved, such reports are not subject to emotional overtones. in a number of reports, the image of the authorities is unclear, as the reports are factual. the image of the leader is personified by the image of the president of the republic of belarus alexander lukashenko. in the domestic media image of the belarusian leader emerged as a strong and reliable partner for russia, and the strict head in the internal matters – to the population of the country: “lukashenko confirmed the role of russia in preserving the sovereignty of belarus” (samognev, 2019), “lukashenko: belarus and russia need to be together” (sizov, 2019). it is also worth quoting: “our peoples made a great feat, defended their freedom and independence in that war, because they were together. today, we must also jointly preserve the common history; prevent the revision and falsification of the heroic past...” (sizov, 2019) – russian media often focus on the patriotic statements of the belarusian leader. thus, we can say that the russian media has created an attractive image of a. lukashenko – the president of the republic of belarus. meaningful image of russia belarusian mass media, such as “belarus today”, “belgazeta” and “belarusian business newspaper”, also seek to create and maintain interest in the geopolitical and economic state of russia among the citizens of their country, focusing on the partnership between russia and belarus in the field of natural resources. news reports often comment on the position of western countries in relation to the state borders of some federal districts of russia. belarusian media broadcast both the opinion of the west on this issue and the opinion of the russian side. image of territories – spatial image – is cognitive simple and clear. russia is presented as a resource rich, militarily powerful country, focusing on an alliance with a strong state (belarus today, russian armored vehicles “trying on” a more powerful caliber, 2019). at the same time, the image of russia is presented in the belarusian media unclear, as the emphasis is on the economy of belarus itself. basically, the media can be traced to negative material supply of spatial image, the negative supply is connected with restriction of trade in russia: “the director of the center for strategic and foreign political studies arseniy sivitsky in interview to “belgazeta” suggested that the compromise with the kremlin, allowing to maintain the status quo vinogradova is impossible. therefore, it is necessary to take urgent measures to reform the economy, diversify foreign policy, change the very structure of power, making it less vulnerable to the impact of russia” (sivitsky, 2019). the simplicity of the spatial component of the image of russia in the belarusian media is due to the unity of the two peoples, russia is shown as a neighbor and “elder brother”. the image of the population is presented ambiguously. positive news is published: “russian hockey players beat the americans and reached the semifinals of the world championship” (sundalov, 2019). it should be noted that the population of russia is not shown as multinational. image of power is positioned strong – in connection with the fact that the news often publishes reports about economic cooperation or conflicts, which involved various members of the russian elite: “rosselkhoznadzor took under special control 18 belarusian enterprises” (bg – business newspaper, rosselkhoznadzor took under special control 18 belarusian enterprises, 2019); “the prosecutor’s office of russia is confident in kokorin and mamaev’s collusion, and requests to change the sentence” (bacerenko, 2019); “as a result of negotiations between deputy prime minister of the republic of belarus igor lyashenko and russian deputy prime minister dmitry kozak, steps were outlined to clean up the pipeline system in our country, necessary for the resumption of oil transit to poland and germany” (bacerenko, 2019). there is a wide range of information reports, which indicate the different types of russian authorities that regulate both russia’s foreign policy and national one. it should be noted that the image of the power is broadcast in a negative way – most of the negative messages fall on the image of the authorities: “on the eve the rosselkhoznadzor took under enhanced control 18 belarusian enterprises. “bellakt”, volkovysk and grodno meat processing plants, turov dairy plant, “smolevichi broiler” were in the list. and this is after the head of the russian ministry of agriculture dmitry patrushev at a joint meeting of the boards of agricultural departments of the two countries said that all restrictions in trade relations between the two fraternal peoples should be removed. and a little later said roughness in the relationship – it is normal. the main thing – there should be no difficulties. i do not think that the reputation of 18 belarusian enterprises put at risk falls under the definition of an ordinary working moment. in addition, the mind does not fit the situation that two dozen processors overnight, synchronously stalled and messed up all the work. previously, for some reason there were no claims to them. now journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 254-266 are all indiscriminately under close monitoring?” (belarus today, restrictions on the supply of belarusian agricultural products are associated with lobbying interests of the russian side, 2019). the image of the leader is personified by the image of the president of the russian federation v. v. putin. in the media, the image of the leader is broadcast as tough and ambitious in foreign policy towards the west, but in relation to neighboring countries, the image of v. putin is presented in a softer, “brotherly” way. “congratulating belarusians and russians on the day of unity, vladimir putin noted that over the past period, our countries have made significant progress on the path of mutually beneficial cooperation and integration: “large-scale joint projects are being implemented in trade and economic, humanitarian, scientific and technical and other sectors, interregional cooperation is expanding. coordination of efforts in the spheres of foreign policy and defense contributes to strengthening the international positions of russia and belarus, ensuring the security of our citizens”. vladimir putin praised the achieved level of allied relations, which allows discusing in detail the most complex issues on the bilateral agenda, finding solutions that best meet the interests of the fraternal peoples of the two countries” (isaenok & vasyanin, 2019). thus, in the belarusian media, the image of the russian leader v. putin is created attractive and the emphasis is on the unity of the two peoples. conclusion as a result, answering the main question of the study, does the development vector of relations between the countries diverge? it became clear that the spiritual bonds that unite the union state weaken. quantitative results suggest that the image of russia is presented in a neutral and negative way, but qualitative analysis of the study shows that most of the reports with a negative color are mainly on the image of the russian federation authorities, and the image of the leader is presented rather in a neutral and positive way. the image of belarus in the russian media is presented exclusively in a positive context – this is evidenced by both quantitative and qualitative results; russian reports often mention such a thing as the unity of the people, which obviously has a positive impact on the formation of a positive image of the state. the international community considers the countries of the former ussr not as countries with their own identity, but as russians or representatives of the russian world. vinogradova western society considers citizens of belarus as russians. the belarusian community strives for self-identification and painfully perceives this fact. russians are patriots of russia, belarusians are patriots of belarus; the russians are eurasian, the belarusians are europeans, with the development of these vectors, there is a high probability of divergence of countries. it is more likely that belarus will become a part of the european union. in the minds of belarusian youth there is no place for the unification of the peoples of russia and belarus. the economy of belarus works in the vector of the russian economy development, but as a result of the policy of import substitution in russia, belarusian goods are presented as imported. import substitution measures to support russian businesses do not apply to belarusian producers. russian economic preferences do not apply to the union state. references anti-smoking legislation to be toughened in belarus (2019). rossiyskaya gazeta. retrieved from https://rg.ru/2019/05/15/v-belarusi-uzhestochat-antitabachnoe-zakonodatelstvo.html bacerenko u. (2019). the prosecutor’s office of russia is sure of mamayev and kokorin’s collusion and asks to change a sentence. belarus today. retrieved from https://www.sb.by/articles/prokuratura-rossii-uverena-v-sgovore-mamaeva-i-kokorina-i-prositizmenit-prigovor.html bacerenko u. (2019). jsc “naftan” is still working at a reduced load due to lack of clean oil. belarus today. retrieved from https://www.sb.by/articles/oao-naftan-vse-eshcherabotaet-na-snizhennoy-zagruzke-iz-za-nekhvatki-chistoy-nefti.html borisov a. (2018). lavrov: nato and the eu are stepping up efforts to “develop” further the balkans. rossiyskaya gazeta. retrieved from https://rg.ru/2018/12/07/lavrov-nato-i-esnarashchivaiut-usiliia-po-dalnejshemu-osvoeniiu-balkan.html brizgalova i.a. (2018). great hope. kommersant. retrieved from https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3777112 bryman a., & bell e. (2011). business research methods 3rd edition. oxford university press, 756 p. donbass no longer has anything in common with kiev (2017). belarus today. retrieved from https://www.sb.by/articles/u-donbassa-bolshe-net-nichego-obshchego-s-kievom.html https://rg.ru/2019/05/15/v-belarusi-uzhestochat-antitabachnoe-zakonodatelstvo.html https://www.sb.by/articles/prokuratura-rossii-uverena-v-sgovore-mamaeva-i-kokorina-i-prosit-izmenit-prigovor.html https://www.sb.by/articles/prokuratura-rossii-uverena-v-sgovore-mamaeva-i-kokorina-i-prosit-izmenit-prigovor.html https://rg.ru/2018/12/07/lavrov-nato-i-es-narashchivaiut-usiliia-po-dalnejshemu-osvoeniiu-balkan.html https://rg.ru/2018/12/07/lavrov-nato-i-es-narashchivaiut-usiliia-po-dalnejshemu-osvoeniiu-balkan.html https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3777112 https://www.sb.by/articles/u-donbassa-bolshe-net-nichego-obshchego-s-kievom.html journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 254-266 isaenok s., & vasyanin a. (2019). belarus and russia have widely celebrated the day of unity of peoples. belarus today. retrieved from https://www.sb.by/articles/v-ritme-myuzikla.html kudryavtseva, k. l., bubekova, l. b., & danilova, j. j. (2020). use of associative data dictionary for ethno-linguocultural interpretation of animated film. media watch, 11(1), 206-242. doi:10.15655/mw/2020/v11i1/49765 miheenko d. (2018). the ministry of agriculture of belarus is interested in kuban breeding and seed production. kommersant. retrieved from https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3766724 prodanova, n., savina, n., kevorkova, z., korshunova, l., & bochkareva, n. (2019). organizational and methodological support of corporate self-assessment procedure as a basis for sustainable business development. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 7(2), 1136-1148. doi:10.9770/jesi.2019.7.2(24) rosselkhoznadzor took under special control 18 belarusian enterprises. (2019) bg business newspaper. retrieved from https://bdg.by/news/economics/rosselhoznadzor-vzyal-podosobyy-kontrol-18-belorusskih-predpriyatiy russian armored vehicles “trying on” a more powerful caliber (2019). belarus today. retrieved from https://www.sb.by/articles/rossiyskaya-bronetekhnika-primeryaet-boleemoshchnyy-kalibr.html samognev a. (2019). lukashenko confirmed the role of russia in preserving the sovereignty of belarus. rossiyskaya gazeta. retrieved from https://rg.ru/2019/04/20/lukashenkopodtverdil-rol-v-rossii-v-sohranenii-suvereniteta-belarusi.html shestopal e.b. (2012). psychology of political perception in modern russia. ed.. m.: rosspen, 432 p. shestopal e.b., & smulkina n.v. (2018). what do russian citizens see their country today? polity, № 2 (69), p. 51–68. semenenko i.s. (2019). culture, society and image of russia. inviolable reserve. debate about politics and culture. no. 1. p. 51-57. retrieved from http://www.intelros.ru/2007/05/29/irina_semenenko_kultura_obshhestvo_i_obraz_rossii. html sivitsky a. “russia is a source of challenges and threats”. (2019). belgazeta. retrieved from http://www.belgazeta.by/ru/1190/topic_week/38815/ https://www.sb.by/articles/v-ritme-myuzikla.html https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3766724 https://bdg.by/news/economics/rosselhoznadzor-vzyal-pod-osobyy-kontrol-18-belorusskih-predpriyatiy https://bdg.by/news/economics/rosselhoznadzor-vzyal-pod-osobyy-kontrol-18-belorusskih-predpriyatiy https://www.sb.by/articles/rossiyskaya-bronetekhnika-primeryaet-bolee-moshchnyy-kalibr.html https://www.sb.by/articles/rossiyskaya-bronetekhnika-primeryaet-bolee-moshchnyy-kalibr.html https://rg.ru/2019/04/20/lukashenko-podtverdil-rol-v-rossii-v-sohranenii-suvereniteta-belarusi.html https://rg.ru/2019/04/20/lukashenko-podtverdil-rol-v-rossii-v-sohranenii-suvereniteta-belarusi.html http://www.intelros.ru/2007/05/29/irina_semenenko_kultura_obshhestvo_i_obraz_rossii.html http://www.intelros.ru/2007/05/29/irina_semenenko_kultura_obshhestvo_i_obraz_rossii.html vinogradova sizov u. (2019). lukashenko: belarus and russia need to be together. rossiyskaya gazeta. retrieved from https://rg.ru/2019/03/01/lukashenko-belarus-ne-protiv-obshchej-valiuty-srf.html sizov u. (2019). lukashenko urged to prevent falsification of the history of the second world war. rossiyskaya gazeta. retrieved from https://rg.ru/2019/05/23/lukashenko-napravilprivetstvie-uchastnikam-xiv-mediaforuma.html sundalov v. (2019). russian hockey players beat the americans and reached the semifinals of the world cup. belarus today. retrieved from https://www.sb.by/articles/rossiyskiekhokkeisty-obygrali-amerikantsev-i-vyshli-v-polufinal-chempionata-mira.html the foreign ministers of russia and belarus will hold talks in moscow. (2019). rossiyskaya gazeta. retrieved from https://rg.ru/2019/05/23/glavy-mid-rf-i-belarusi-provedutperegovory-v-moskve.html the government of belarus has approved an agreement with russia on a state loan for $ 700 million. (2017). vedomosti. retrieved from https://www.vedomosti.ru/economics/news/2017/09/06/732666-belorussii-soglasheniegoskredite the munich security conference is over. (2017). belarus today. retrieved from https://www.sb.by/articles/myunkhenskaya-konferentsiya-po-bezopasnostizavershilas.html uriadova n. (2009). higher education in the framework of the union state. belarus today. retrieved from https://www.sb.by/articles/vysshee-obrazovanie-v-ramkakh-soyuznogogosudarstva.html whether ukraine will be able to go to the west without donbass. (2017, march 16). belarus today. retrieved from https://www.sb.by/articles/smozhet-li-ukraina-uyti-na-zapad-bezdonbassa.html zamyatin d.n. (2003). political and geographical images of the russian space. bulletin of eurasia. № 4. p. 34–45. https://rg.ru/2019/05/23/lukashenko-napravil-privetstvie-uchastnikam-xiv-mediaforuma.html https://rg.ru/2019/05/23/lukashenko-napravil-privetstvie-uchastnikam-xiv-mediaforuma.html https://rg.ru/2019/05/23/glavy-mid-rf-i-belarusi-provedut-peregovory-v-moskve.html https://rg.ru/2019/05/23/glavy-mid-rf-i-belarusi-provedut-peregovory-v-moskve.html https://www.vedomosti.ru/economics/news/2017/09/06/732666-belorussii-soglashenie-goskredite https://www.vedomosti.ru/economics/news/2017/09/06/732666-belorussii-soglashenie-goskredite https://www.sb.by/articles/smozhet-li-ukraina-uyti-na-zapad-bez-donbassa.html https://www.sb.by/articles/smozhet-li-ukraina-uyti-na-zapad-bez-donbassa.html www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),161-175 161 teachers’ attitudes and practices towards formative assessment in primary schools vjollca ahmedi1 abstract the continual and swift reforms the education system in kosovo has endured in the recent decade have continuously challenged the teaching staff. the aim of this study is to ascertain whether there is a connection between the teachers’ attitudes towards formative assessment and the application of this assessment method. the alternative hypothesis is that there is a statistically significant correlation between the teachers’ attitudes and actions towards formative assessment. results indicate that a connection between the teachers’ attitudes and practices towards formative assessment, r=0.620, is noticeable. tellingly, t-test results indicate that there are differences between attitudes towards formative assessment and its implementation in practice. the average of the teachers’ attitudes towards formative assessment is higher than the average of teachers who apply formative assessment. keywords: primary education, teachers, practice, attitudes, formative assessment. introduction formative assessment is a strategy through which teachers and students are introduced to the results achieved during the teaching/learning process. formative assessment is applied with the purpose of identifying the level of the students’ knowledge, and it is thought to instigate the students’ learning. this kind of assessment helps the teachers to get information about their students’ level of knowledge in relevant subjects. it also guides them to the steps that have to be undertaken to improve their knowledge. through the received feedback from teachers, students can also become aware of their strengths as well as their weaknesses in certain subjects. based on the aforementioned feedback, they will engage more or less in the relevant subjects. both parties, 1 assistant of pedagogy, faculty of education, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, kosova. vjollca.ahmeti@uni-pr.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 161-175 teachers and students, benefit from formative assessment. teachers may use it to keep the class in control, whereas students use it to keep their personal results in control. regardless of its advantages, formative assessment has started to be introduced too late in kosovo. kosovo’s education system went through immense and continues reforms for the past two decades. teachers were tasked with a lot of training and other forms of professional development which also included advancing skills in using formative assessment (osmani, 2011). despite the efforts for changing traditional education practices with contemporary ones, it appears the changes have happened at a slow rate. we will take the example of formative assessment which still can not find sufficient implementation by teachers. in most cases, teachers were trained and have positive attitudes, and not only towards formative assessment but also towards other innovations, however, when it comes to their application in practice, they show hesitation. there could be many reasons that make the teachers have certain attitudes towards the innovations, and different actions when it comes to their implementation in practice. perhaps they are simply accustomed to their daily work routine and do not want to change their long-time practices, or perhaps their long work experience within a certain system, without innovations, has influenced this resistance towards implementing the innovations. a research study that will document their attitudes and actual practice would be valuable for knowing what exactly is going on in the field. results from such a study and its further recommendations would be very important for the education policies in kosovo. we hope that formative assessment, as an immensely important strategy for the improvement of quality in education, finds the appropriate space in kosovar schools. we also hope that teachers apply it in practice as a common teaching strategy, and not as a “recipe” to be used when they have problems. questions and hypotheses question: are there differences between the attitudes and implementation of formative assessment in practice by kosovar teachers? hypothesis: there are significant differences between the attitudes towards formative assessment and its implementation in practice by kosovar teachers. ahmedi formative assessment practices in the classroom formative assessment is supported by active chain reactions that help the students’ learning (iowa core, 2010). one of the strongest assumptions concerning the connection between formative assessment and the student in the teaching/learning process has been made by john hattie. the significance of teachers who receive feedback from their students is known to be an important topic in hattie’s book (hattie, 2008), and he uses the term “formative assessment” to describe this special process of the teachers who continually assess their effects on teaching, especially in regard to their students’ learning advancement. furthermore, according to brookhart (brookhart, 2011), formative assessment has dominated the educational discourse during recent decades, thus placing the attention towards the assessment practices that help the learning, and it is believed to be very productive when applying the teaching practices that support the students' learning (yan & cheng, 2015). likewise, research conducted by lyon and leusner (2008), confirms that when teachers offer their students reactions to foster their thinking, to identify the specific fields that need improvement, and to take time for the said improvement, students act based on those reactions to improve their work. formative assessment is not a simple strategy of the teachers’ work that swiftly regulates the assessment process, it rather requires time and a step by step change of the teaching/learning quality (black & william, 1998; kenna, j., & russell, 2018). in a philosophical aspect, formative assessment originates from the constructivist theory since this kind of assessment targets the stimulation of learning. the increasing focus on the development of conceptual learning, the ability to apply the skills gained on scientific/learning bases and the way it is enabled by formative assessment, is closely related to the theory of constructivism. implications of this philosophical/theoretical approach in the process of teaching/learning, as well as assessment, are well-known, and some scholars have even considered them as both sides of the same coin (badders, 2000). in this way, constructivists believe that a meaningful assessment should include the examination of the students’ whole conceptual net (cognitive concepts previously formed), and not only focus on facts and mechanic principles. therefore, it can be rightfully concluded that these beliefs or approaches have preceded the formative assessment idea. both the theory and research suggest the critical role that formative assessment can play in the students’ learning. through evaluation of the students’ needs and the monitoring of their journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 161-175 progress, the teaching/learning sequences can be designed appropriately with instructions to regulate the teaching/learning course and refined programs, so that the focus of the students’ learning aims are more effective. studies regarding the teachers’ perceptions on assessment indicate that teachers have opinions that favor the formative assessment (sach, 2012). black and william’s research concerning the teachers’ autonomy indicates that "each teacher should find his/her own ways of incorporating assessment in his/her model of work in the classroom and the norms and cultural expectations of a special school community” (black & william, 1998, p.143). hence, teachers should create structures in their classrooms that offer students the opportunity to practically engage during the learning process. the change of methodology requires, in the first place, the change of what teachers believe to be their students’ ways of learning, and in the second place, what teachers qualify as effective teaching strategies (webb, nemer, & ing, 2006). the main principles of formative assessment enable the identification of the weaknesses and strengths by increasing the students’ motivation and metacognition, and by ensuring the teaching/learning reactions inform them about their capacities for improving the learning (wiliam, lee, harrison, & black, 2004). both teachers and students can benefit from formative assessment, from receiving the teaching/learning data that may be used to support the personalized teaching/learning. according to marzano and pickering (1997), it is a common responsibility of both teachers and students to work and to maintain positive attitudes and perceptions, or when possible, to change the negative attitudes and perceptions. there is confusion among teachers regarding the meaning of formative assessment, this as a result of different viewpoints, definitions, and approaches in applying formative assessment at school (chappius & chappius, 2007/2008). attitudes are the learned predispositions that lead us actively towards specific behavior and are manifested through evaluation of a certain subject with a degree of likeness or dissimilarity. individuals usually have attitudes that concentrate on objects, people or institutions and they also concern the mental category (mest, 2016). attitudes are defined as the state of mind, behavior, or action concerning several issues expressed as an opinion or purpose. thus, teachers’ attitudes and perceptions influence their teaching style, their choice of sources, and the creation of a certain climate in the classroom. many researchers ahmedi consider attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs to be subgroups of a group of constructs that designate, define and describe the structure and content of the mental state which is thought to instigate a person’s actions. it is very important to emphasize that “the teacher’s attitudes” are often transferred to his/her students through teaching (barnyak & paquette, 2010). therefore, the teachers’ attitudes can impact not only the students’ motivation to learn, but also affect the entire teaching/learning environment (oecd, 2009). researchers have conducted numerous studies about the attitudes and practices regarding the assessment. however, most of the studies have focused only on one assessment aspect (dixon & haigh, 2009). attitudes are formed from people’s direct experience, and information and data they have about a certain issue. fazio and olson (2003) define attitudes as formed convictions when an individual believes that an object or person owns desirable or undesirable features that will bring desirable or undesirable results. the perception, on the other hand, according to musai (1999), is defined as “the ability to know the usual, the ones we know, and to understand what you do not know.” (p129). according to ballantine and spade (2006), understanding the teacher’s role is the key to understanding the education system, since the teachers' attitudes are very important for understanding and improving the teaching/learning process. researchers have studied the teachers’ attitudes and practices regarding assessment, but they have not managed to detect the connection between these variables under a theoretical frame (buyukkarci, 2014). they are formed through the stipulation, on the basis of experience with the parents, schools, peers and the means of information. as attitudes are related to a group of individual values, there are several factors that affect their formation or their change. there is a considerable similarity between the terms of knowledge and beliefs in the concept of teachers’ personal knowledge. practical knowledge, researched for the first time in the teaching practice by elbaz (2018), and further developed by connelly and connelly (1998), is an explanation of the way a teacher knows or understands the situation in the classroom. attitudes are important concepts in the teaching process, actions in the classroom and the acceptance of the change. attitudes and actions in the classroom affect the teachers changing process, hence they are considered very important in understanding the classroom practices and helping the teachers develop the critical thinking as well as aiming the change of practices within the process (connelly & clandinin, 1998). considering the teachers’ attitudes is very important for the teaching/learning process, different authors have focused on studying the teachers’ attitudes (darling-hammond, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 161-175 2000) as the biggest polemic in the literature about the teachers’ change is related to the difficulty of changing the attitudes and practices. several researchers argue that the change is very difficult, if not impossible. this obvious difficulty is often used as an explanation that teachers are unchangeable in their attitudes. however, some other researchers and teachers are optimistic that teachers and students can change, in fact, their attitudes and practices often change, and that programs can help them do this in an important and valuable way. comparing the use of formative assessment and other basic teaching practices may be quite challenging, and this can serve as an explanation why most studies about formative assessment conducted until today are based more on theoretical discussions rather than empirical research. if formative assessment really supports the students’ learning, it is important to empirically demonstrate that it does precisely that, in order to avoid its disappearance. to do this, we should develop a method to measure its use in the classroom. method the study aim the aim of this study, among other things, is to ascertain if there is a positive or negative correlation between the attitudes and implementation of formative assessment in practice by kosovar teachers. research design in this research, we have used a quantitative approach. “the quantitative approach originates from philosophy of rationalism, and it follows a range of exploring procedures that are inflexible and prior structured and defined, that aim the determination of the quantity of change in a phenomenon; it focuses on measuring the variables and process objectivity; it trusts the support of the truth on the basis of the sample size; it gives validity and credence to findings and it imparts the findings in the analytic and synthetic form, drawing conclusions and meanings that can be generalized.” (kumar, 2017, p.15). our study is an observational analytic one. it gathers data to document and analyze a certain phenomenon within a certain population. this implies the use of the teachers’ questionnaires that measure the implementation of formative assessment, the correlation of attitudes and actions ahmedi towards the implementation of formative assessment. the derived values have been used to express the frequency, differences, correlation, etc. the study population and groups the study targeted primary school teachers in kosovo who are engaged in teaching grades 1-5. the research included 47 primary school teachers, 43 female teachers, and 4 male teachers. these teachers were randomly selected from 10 different kosovo schools. research instrument the main instrument of this research was the structured questionnaire for teachers, used to highlight the actual situation of the formative assessment application in primary education and effects of this methodological approach in the teaching/learning process in completing the curriculum requests. the instrument used for the teachers was the questionnaire for formative assessment designed by the qualifications and curriculum authority (qca) from the united kingdom. through the teachers’ instrument for formative assessment, the state of formative assessment, and the teachers’ attitudes and actions in applying formative assessment have been analyzed. the research instrument for formative assessment was a likert-scale questionnaire which consists of 30 questions/articles and is divided into two parts. the first part includes variables for demographic characteristics (age, sex, teaching experience), whereas the second part includes variables that consist of four scales:  students’ inclusion in the teaching/learning process it consists of 6 items;  quality modeling it consists of 8 items;  giving feedback it consists of 10 items;  self-assessment it consists of 6 items. the teachers’ attitudes towards formative assessment as well as their actions in implementing formative assessment have been evaluated through the instrument for formative assessment. for the teachers’ attitudes evaluation, these five following alternatives have been used: a= very valuable, b= valuable, c= i don’t have a strong viewpoint, d= little valuable, e= not at all valuable. regarding the alternatives about the teachers’ actions in relation to the frequency of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 161-175 using the strategies in the classroom, there are also five alternatives: 5= in most classes, 4= in most days, 3= every week, 2= every term, 1= never. reliability of the measuring instrument for teaching according to cronbach’s alfa model in order to test the internal reliability of the instrument, cronbach’s alpha and guttman models have been used, taking the value of over 0.7 as a value that proves whether the questionnaire has internal reliability or not. for results evaluation of all statistical tests, it has been appointed the level of statistical significance 0.05. in order to measure the differences between the teachers’ attitudes and actions, the t-test has been applied. thus, the use of this statistical test has served to test the zero hypotheses (h0). the pearson correlation coefficient has been used to measure the correlation between the variables, by calculating the values as follows: • 0.00-0.25very weak correlation; • 0.26-0.49weak correlation; • 0.50-0.69average correlation; • 0.70-0.89high correlation; • 0.90-1.00very high correlation.  cronbach’s alfa model from results presented in the table, we can see that the measuring instrument that measures formative assessment completely satisfies the most important condition for the application of the measuring instrument, respectively the reliability values of the cronbach’s alfa model. it has a high-reliability scale, so reliability is excellent, as α=0.927. ahmedi table 1 reliability of the measuring instrument of formative assessment for teachers according to cronbach’s alfa model reliability statistics cronbach's alpha cronbach's alpha based on standardized items n of items 0.927 0.907 57  guttman model according to the guttman model, the instrument for measuring formative assessment satisfies the most important condition for application. in table 2, it can be seen that out of 6 calculated coefficients, the lowest value is 0.859 lambda, whereas the highest value is 0.949 lambda. based on these results, it can be ascertained that the measuring instrument is very reliable. table 2 reliability coefficients for the instrument of formative assessment for teachers according to the guttman model reliability statistics lambda 1 0.949 2 0.933 3 0.949 4 0.890 5 0.859 6 0.943 n of items 57 based on results presented in the tables above concerning the reliability of the measuring instrument formative assessment through cronbach and guttman models, it can be ascertained that the instrument is very reliable. data collection procedure and data analysis data collection procedure in the field started with delivering the questionnaires to the participating teachers in the appropriate time, without hampering the teaching/learning process. a teacher needed about 25-30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. after data collection, the database in the spss program has initially been created for the teachers’ questionnaires. after inserting all the data, they have been analyzed, and the statistical data of results have been obtained. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 161-175 results and discussion the results show that the study hypothesis is accepted. there is a correlation between attitudes toward formative assessment and its implementation in practice by kosovar teachers. interestingly this correlation when compared with t-test results, seems as if it would have been negative. t-test results indicate that teachers show positive attitudes towards formative assessment but they do not practice it enough in their daily work. so there are differences between attitudes towards formative assessment and its implementation in practice. frequencies results indicated that 63.5 % of the teachers have a completely positive attitude towards formative assessment, whereas 40 % of these teachers have a completely positive action; 25.1 % have a partially positive attitude, whereas 35.2 % have a partially positive action; 5.1 % have a neutral attitude, whereas 15.2 % have a neutral action; 4.6 % have a partially negative attitude, whereas 3.7 % have a partially negative action; 1.7 % have a completely negative attitude, whereas 5.9 % of the teachers have a completely negative action regarding formative assessment. table 3 results of the attitudes and actions towards formative assessment total completely negative partially negative neutral partially positive completely positive attitudes formative assessment 1.7% 4.6% 5.1% 25.1% 63.5% actions formative assessment 5.9% 3.7% 15.2% 35.2% 40% correlation and t-test results based on the results (see table 4), it can be noticed that the average of the teachers’ attitudes towards formative assessment is 4.3808, and the standard deviation is 0.61745, whereas the average of actions is 3.9199, and the standard deviation is 0.74296 (t=5.178, p=0.000). results indicate that there are statistically important differences between the teachers’ attitudes and actions regarding formative assessment. based on this data, it can be ascertained that the teachers’ attitudes are at a higher level than their actions. generally, teachers have a fairly positive attitude towards formative assessment, but they do not apply it in practice accordingly. ahmedi table 4 teachers’ attitudes and actions paired samples statistics mean n std. deviation std. error mean total of attitudes 4.3808 146 .61745 .09104 total of actions/behavior 3.9199 146 .74296 .10954 paired samples test paired differences t sig. (2-tailed) mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper differences between attitudes and actions regarding formative assessment 46094 .60374 .08902 .28165 .64023 5.178 .000 based on the results, it can be noticed that there is a correlation of an average level, that is statistically important between the teachers’ attitudes and actions/ behavior in practice regarding the implementation of formative assessment, r=0.620, whereas p=0.000<0.05. so, the teachers’ attitudes regarding the formative assessment influence on the average its application in their teaching practice. based on this result, teachers with a positive attitude towards formative assessment do not necessarily apply it in their teaching practice and vice versa. table 5 correlation between the teachers’ attitudes and actions paired samples correlations n correlation sig. total of attitudes & total ofactions/behaviour 146 .620 .000 this study also provided a correlational analysis for the teachers. based on the teachers’ results, there is a correlation of an average level, positive and important between the teachers’ attitudes and actions. the correlation coefficient is r=0.620, and it is statistically important p=0.000. the ttest results indicate that there are notable differences between the teachers’ attitudes and their actions in implementing the formative assessment. results derived from the correlation and testing through the t-test indicate that there are differences between the teachers’ attitudes and actions regarding the implementation of formative assessment. thus, teachers have different attitudes and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 161-175 different actions towards formative assessment. it is not enough that they have a positive attitude towards formative assessment if they do not undertake concrete actions to implement it. while formative assessment may have an important effect on the students’ attitudes and their achievements, the research results indicate that attitudes and actions in the classroom influence the teachers’ changing process, and are thus considered very important in understanding the classroom practices that help the teachers develop the critical thinking and aim at changing the practices within the process. according to (schoenfield, 1992), attitudes do not only affect the teachers’ way of teaching, but also the content they teach. teachers’ attitudes towards formative assessment are positive, but in many cases, they do not apply formative assessment or do not apply it in the right way and to the right degree (schoenfield, 1992). hence, there are differences between the teachers’ attitudes and actions in implementing formative assessment in practice. it takes time for an individual to form an attitude and implement it in practice. since formative assessment may be considered an innovation in kosovar schools, its lack of implementation or its inappropriate implementation may be justified. as time goes by, with a more frequent implementation of formative assessment, kosovar teachers will see the positive results it provides in increasing the teaching/learning quality and will be encouraged to apply formative assessment with the purpose of identifying the problems and achievements of the learning results. actions are defined as activities undertaken by people in regard to a certain issue that is related to their attitudes towards that very issue. the connection between the individual’s attitudes and actions is not always direct, and it is not necessarily powerful. there are cases when a person might have a certain attitude towards an issue, but not implement his/her attitude in practice (morris & albert, 2008). some people consistently harmonize their actions and their attitudes, whereas others are more reserved and their actions mostly do not coincide with their attitudes (morris & albert, 2008). hence, it is not sufficient for the teachers to only have a positive attitude towards formative assessment, it is rather necessary to also see the results derived from formative assessment. this helps to analyze the constructive actions to be undertaken instead of a rapid adjustment (boody, 2008). the challenge is to make the student demonstrate what he/she learned in the classroom. many teachers do not achieve the connection between their teaching process and what they are really practicing and vice versa (rudd, 2007). ahmedi conclusion it can be ascertained that the teachers’ attitudes are not in harmony with their actions in regard to the implementation of formative assessment. therefore, it is important for the state institutions to measure the success of these practices in order to approve them for replication. this conclusion derives from descriptive results, where differences between the average of the teachers’ results concerning their attitudes towards formative assessment and the results of its implementation in practice are more than noticeable. in most cases, teachers theoretically agree with the application of innovations in teaching, but they hesitate to practice these innovations. based on the results, it can also be ascertained that there are differences between the teachers’ attitudes and their practical actions in implementing the formative assessment. so, kosovar teachers, regardless of their positive attitudes towards formative assessment, may or may not implement it in practice, whereas teachers who do not have a positive attitude towards formative assessment may implement it. references badders, w. (2000). methods of assessment. (h. m. company, ed.) retrieved december 2016, from education place: http://www.eduplace.com/science/profdev/articles/badders.html ballantine, j. h., & spade, j. z. (2006). schools and society: sociological approach to education, 3rd edition. california, usa: pine forge press. barnyak, n. c., & paquette, k. r. (2010). an investigation of elementary preservice teachers' reading instruction beliefs. reading improvement, 47(1), 7-17. black, p., & william, d. (1998). inside the black box: raising standards through classroom assessment. phi delta kappa, 1-13. boody, r. m. (2008). teacher reflection as teacher change, and teacher change as moral response. education, 128(3), 498-506. brookhart, s. m. (2011). educational assessment knowledge and skills for teachers. educational measurement: issues and practice, 30(1), 3-12. buyukkarci, k. (2014). assessment beliefs and practices of language teachers in primary education. international journal of instruction, 7(1), 107-120. chappius, s., & chappius, j. (2007/2008). the best value in formative assessment. educational leadership, 65(4), 14-18. http://www.eduplace.com/science/profdev/articles/badders.html journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 161-175 connelly, f. m., & clandinin, d. j. (1998). teachers as curriculum planners. new york, ny: narratives of experience. teachers college press. darling-hammond, l. (2000). teacher quality and student achievement. education policy analysis archives, 8(1), 1-44. dixon, h., & haigh, m. (2009). changing mathematics teachers’ conceptions of assessment and feedback. teacher development, 13(2), 173-186. elbaz, f. (2018). teacher thinking: a study of practical knowledge, 1st edition. new york, ny: routledge. fazio, r. h., & olson, m. a. (2003). implicit measures in social cognition research: their meaning and use. annual review of psychology, 54(1), 297-327. hattie, j. (2008). visible learning: a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. new york, ny: routledge. iowa core. (2010). iowa core. retrieved november 2016, from literature review, assessment for learning/formative assessment: http://www.gwaea.org/iowacorecurriculum/docs/assessmentforlearning_litreviewfina l.pdf kenna, j., & russell iii, w. (2018). the culture and history of standards-based educational reform and social studies in america. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 26-49. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/2 kumar, r. (2017). research methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners, 4th edition. bloomington: sage. lyon, c., & leusner, d. (2008). research rationale for the keeping learning on track®program: integrating assessment with instruction through teacher learning communities. pear-08-01. princeton, nj: educational testing service. marzano, r. j., & pickering, d. j. (1997). dimensions of learning: teacher's manual, 2nd edition: association for supervision and curriculum development. alexandria, va: ascd. mest. (2016). curriculum framework on pre-university education of the republic of kosovo. prishtina: blendi. morris, c. g., & albert, a. m. (2008). psikologjia (shkenca e proceseve mendore dhe e sjelljes njerëzore). prishtinë: cde. http://www.gwaea.org/iowacorecurriculum/docs/assessmentforlearning_litreviewfinal.pdf http://www.gwaea.org/iowacorecurriculum/docs/assessmentforlearning_litreviewfinal.pdf http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/2 ahmedi musai, b. (1999). psikologji edukimi, zhvillimi, të nxënit, mësimdhënia. tirane: pegi. osmani , n. (2011). reforma e sistemit te arsimit ne kosove, 2000-2010. prishtine. rudd, r. d. (2007). defining critical thinking. techniques, 82(7), 46-49. sach, e. (2012). teachers and testing: an investigation into teachers’ perceptions of formative assessment. educational studies, 38(3), 261-276. schoenfield, a. h. (1992). learning to think mathematically: problem-solving, metacognition, and sense-making in mathematics. handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning. new york: macmillan. webb, n. m., nemer, k. m., & ing, m. (2006). small-group reflections: parallels between teacher discourse and student behavior in peer-directed groups. the journal of the learning sciences, 15(1), 63-119. wiliam, d., lee, c., harrison, c., & black, p. (2004). teachers developing assessment for learning: impact on student achievement. assessment in education: principles, policy & practice, 11(1), 49-65. yan, z., & cheng, e. c. (2015). primary teachers' attitudes, intentions, and practices regarding formative assessment. teaching and teacher education, 45, 128-136. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(2), 91-111 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 “my assessment didn’t seem real”: the influence of field experiences on preservice teachers’ agency and assessment literacy j. spencer clark1 abstract to date, there is little or no research that specifically examines assessment literacy in social studies education, or the relationship between preservice teachers assessment literacy and their thinking about their own agency. this article focuses on three preservice social studies teachers who demonstrated a high degree of assessment literacy in their lesson plans, by developing assessments that supported their purpose for teaching social studies and their instructional decisions. the preservice teachers’ thinking about their assessment decisions in their field experience classrooms was examined through artifacts, interviews, and reflections. the preservice teachers’ thinking demonstrated that their assessment literacy was distinct based upon their views of the teaching profession. the findings from this case study highlight the ways that the authoritative discourses of assessment can influence the agency of preservice teachers. the discussion of findings highlights several implications for social studies teacher education. keywords: assessment literacy, preservice teachers, agency, discourse, field experiences introduction assessment is a vital component of effective instruction and a common concern for many preservice teachers (grant & salinas, 2008; heafner, 2004; mcgee & colby, 2014; mertler, 2003; mertler & campbell, 2005; sigel & wissehr, 2011). district, state, and national entities expect teachers to accurately assess student achievement, yet many novice teachers feel ill prepared to effectively and accurately assess their students upon leaving teacher education (mertler & campbell, 2005; otero, 2006; sigel & wissehr, 2011). in many teacher education programs and social studies methods courses, inadequate attention is given to developing preservice teachers’ knowledge of assessment and evaluation methodology (heafner, 2004; stiggins 2002). with limited time and an abundance of possible content to cover, curricular and instructional methodology is often given priority over assessment strategies in teacher education courses. as a consequence, preservice teachers inadequately understand the role of assessment in 1 assistant prof., utah state university, spencer.clark@usu.edu j. spencer clark 92 their instruction and student learning (campbell & evans, 2000; heafner, 2004; stiggins, 2002), and are often left to learn more about assessment from their school experiences (clinical experiences, student teaching, their first position, their own schooling) than in their teacher education coursework (mertler & campbell, 2005; sigel & wissehr, 2011). preservice teachers’ school experiences can shape their perception of assessment and significantly impact their assessment decisions, as well as many other instructional decisions (campbell & evans, 2000; heafner, 2004). yet, all teachers retain some agency and make decisions that mediate the accepted practices of schools, or even the official curriculum comprised in texts and mandated curriculum (apple, 1992). the potential of a teacher’s agency is subject to the range of their instructional capabilities, and their confidence in those capabilities (danielewicz, 2001). for novice teachers, developing confidence in their capabilities to assess student learning effectively is an increasingly difficult component of instructional practice, primarily because assessment methods in schools are associated with many conflicting discourses, curricular influences, and accountability measures that are associated with “a wide variety of evidence-eliciting techniques” (popham, 2009, p. 5). recently, researchers have examined preservice teachers assessment literacy to measure the assessment capabilities and knowledge of preservice teachers, and to better understand the assessment decisions they make with those capabilities (deluca & klinger, 2010; mertler, 2004; mertler & campbell, 2005; sigel & wissehr, 2011; popham, 2009 & 2011; sloan, 2009; volante & fazio, 2007). many of these studies suggest that teacher educators should focus on preservice teacher’s assessment literacy, or on gaps in their assessment literacy, to help preservice teachers make better assessment decisions. these suggestions are based solely on the preservice teachers’ decisions and the assumption that their assessment decisions directly represent the extent of their assessment literacy and assessment capabilities. these studies have failed to consider preservice teachers thinking about their own assessment literacy, their thinking about the social and institutional constraints on their assessment capabilities, and how their thinking contributes to their assessment decisions and ultimately their own agency. to date, there is little or no research that examines assessment literacy in social studies education (anderson et al., 2014), or the relationship between preservice teachers assessment literacy and their thinking about their own agency. this article will focus on three preservice teachers who demonstrated a high degree of assessment literacy in their lesson plans, by journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 93 developing assessments that supported their purpose for teaching social studies and their instructional decisions. the preservice teachers thinking about their assessment decisions, in interviews and reflections, demonstrated that their assessment literacy is distinct based upon their views of the teaching profession. theoretical framework and related literature the initial research question for this study asked: how does preservice teachers understanding of assessment influence their thinking about their own agency? in consideration of this question, the study was designed through a constructivist lens (denzin & lincoln, 2008) because the preservice teachers in this study were continually constructing their own conceptions of assessment and agency, while also considering how each conception is enabled and constrained in the curriculum development process. from this perspective, the theoretical framework for this study focused on the problematic discourses of the teaching culture (britzman, 2003), the discourses associated with the assessment literacy of preservice teachers (popham, 2011; willis, adie, & klenowski, 2013), and the ecological aspects of an individual’s agency (biesta & tedder, 2006). this study focused on the discourses used by preservice teachers to describe how they thought about their assessment and curricular-instructional decisions. discourse, in the study, was broadly conceived as systems of thinking comprised of ideas, attitudes, courses of action, beliefs, and practices that set the conditions by which decisions were interpreted and reflected upon to determine one’s location in institutional, political, and social contexts (britzman, 2003; foucault, 1986). assessment, and thus assessment literacy, represents a formalized discourse that requires educators to understand broadly “those concepts and procedures thought likely to influence educational decisions [and] things apt to make a real-world difference in the day-today decisions” (popham, 2011) they make. from a socio-cultural perspective, assessment literacy is: a dynamic context dependent social practice that involves teachers articulating and negotiating classroom and cultural knowledges with one another and with learners, in the initiation, development and practice of assessment to achieve the learning goals of students. (willis, adie, & klenowski, 2013, p. 242) j. spencer clark 94 the preservice teachers’ in this study made choices among a variety of assessment related discourses and demonstrated their priorities through their decisions. britzman’s (2003) discussion of contradictory and problematic discourses included the formalized discourses that constitute assessment literacy, and also incorporated the discourses that drive preservice teachers in using their assessment literacy in personally relevant ways, within the social and institutional constraints of schools. assessment literacy as problematic discourse and a basis for agency in teacher education and social studies methods courses, preservice teachers are confronted with a variety of discourses regarding assessment, curriculum, and instructional methodology. they have to negotiate any new discourses with prior discourses that have derived meaning from their experiences in schools. often times many of these discourses can appear contradictory in teacher education, especially regarding assessment, and these contradictory meanings are at the heart of the “problematic nature of education and the language we use to describe our experiences” (britzman, 2003, p. 38). to distinguish between contradictory educational discourses, britzman (2003), borrowing from bakhtin, described two types of discourse used by individuals: authoritative discourse and internally persuasive discourse. britzman (2003) described authoritative discourse as “discourse that demands allegiance, an a priori discourse that operates within a variety of social contexts and partly determines our ‘symbolic practices,’ or the normative categories that organize and disorganize our perceptions” (p. 42). authoritative discourse is always in dialogue with internally persuasive discourse because they occupy the same space. internally persuasive discourse “is denied all privilege” and “pulls one away from norms and admits a variety of contradictory social discourses” (britzman, 2003, p. 42). internally persuasive discourse represents a starting place for preservice teachers’ thinking, or “the site of departure…. a tentative discourse, subject to negotiation and shifting contexts, and able to voice possibilities unforeseen…a discourse of becoming” (britzman, 2003, p. 42). preservice teachers bring experiences from both the k-12 classroom and teacher education, where they have encountered and used multiple and contradictory discourses – some authoritative, some internally persuasive. when preservice teachers discuss and demonstrate their assessment literacy they utilize communities of discourse that influence their assessment decisions. as britzman (2003) noted, “our words signify communities of discourse that realize language as social and these journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 95 communities – authoritative and personal – are always in conflict” (p. 44). social studies methods courses are often sites where these discourses come into conflict. some recent studies have examined the context of a social studies methods course, and how preservice teachers negotiate conflicting discourses in their thinking about a variety practices (e.g., fragnoli, 2006; mathews & dilworth, 2008; pryor, 2006; segall & gaudelli, 2007; slekar, 2009; waring, 2010). while there are no studies that examine assessment literacy specifically in social studies methods courses, or the assessment literacy of preservice social studies teachers, there have been several studies examining preservice teachers assessment literacy in other content areas (deluca & klinger, 2010; mertler, 2004; mertler & campbell, 2005; sigel & wissehr, 2011). as a whole, the small body of research on assessment literacy indicates that preservice teachers often develop their assessment literacy more in their school experiences. furthermore, preservice teachers viewed the process of becoming literate in assessment as more of an adoption of traditional assessment practices, or the practices and strategies of the school context where they taught. the research on assessment literacy demonstrates that preservice teachers prioritize the authoritative discourses associated with traditional forms of assessment (tests, quizzes, multiple choice, true/false, short answer, etc.) when they implement their lessons and related assessments (sigel & wissehr, 2011). assessment decisions are deeply connected to many other aspects of the instructional decision-making process, and a teacher’s assessment literacy is just the starting place for those decisions. teachers need to have assessment literacy in order to meet the needs of diverse learners, and teachers would ideally be able to use a wide “range of formative and summative assessment strategies” (banks et. al., 2010, p. 74). preservice teachers who fail to develop the ability to utilize a wide range of assessment strategies during their time in teacher education are susceptible in their school experiences to a variety of influences (colleagues, district outcomes, packaged curriculum, state and national standards, state tests, etc.) that may promote a narrow view of assessment or the use of traditional forms of assessment (kenna & russell, 2015; sigel & wissehr, 2011). since social studies teachers have long used traditional forms of assessment – such as multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay questions on course exams – it is difficult to directly attribute the extent to which these influences have affected teachers (grant & salinas, 2008). a teacher’s assessment literacy represents the assessment strategies that they are capable of implementing in the instructional decision-making process, but not necessarily the strategies j. spencer clark 96 they will decide to use. a teacher’s awareness of their capabilities to develop and use assessments are important because, in coordination with their purpose or rationale for teaching, these capabilities open-up possibilities for agency. danielewicz (2001) noted that a novice teacher’s agency is heavily dependent on their belief that they are capable of a specific decision or action. yet, how teachers’ use their assessment literacy to make assessment choices is much more complex, and encompasses a process in which they consider not only their capability to make assessment and instructional decisions, as well as the possibilities of their agency, but also the perceived constraints of their own school context (cornbleth, 2001; willis, adie, & klenowski, 2013). a teacher’s agency, then, represents a constant process of negotiation, which “can only be understood if it is conceived…as an effect of particular social and institutional practices” (donald in britzman, 2003, p. 53). thus, assessment is one of many instructional components that teachers’ constantly have to negotiate as they gauge their capabilities in the classroom and the variety of social and institutional constraints that vie to control and normalize their practice. with an increased focus on accountability and high-stakes testing in many social studies classrooms (doppen, 2006; grant & salinas, 2008), new teachers’ understanding of their capabilities to make decisions about assessment can be especially conflicted and constrained by the perceivably accepted assessment practices of their mentors, colleagues, districts, and states (cornbleth, 2001). the concept of agency is helpful in making sense of individuals’ actions, decisions, and practices within societal and institutional constraints. this study is informed by an ecological conception of agency. biesta and tedder (2006) have most recently theorized about an ecological perspective on agency combining several well-known agency theorists (archer, 1995; bourdieu, 1977; emirbayer & mische, 1998; giddens, 1984). biesta and tedder (2006) described agency as an achievement of action under particular ecological conditions. they described that even if actors have appropriate capacities, their ability to achieve agency depends on the interaction of the capacities and the ecological conditions. therefore, biesta and tedder (2006) view agency as an individual’s personal capacity to act in combination with the affordances of the environment or context of action. priestley et al. (2012) noted “viewing agency in such terms helps us to understand how humans are able to be reflexive and creative, acting counter to societal constraints, but also how individuals are enabled and constrained by their social and material environments” (p. 196). human capacity to be reflexive and creative journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 97 empowers agents to be “influenced by, but not determined by, society” (priestley et al., 2012, p. 197). research methodology participants in order to investigate preservice teachers thinking about assessment and agency in a social studies methods course, the study utilized a qualitative case study design (yin, 2009). the participants were selected because they were students in a secondary social studies methods course, which was taken immediately before their student teaching experience. this specific methods course was the second social studies methods course the participants had taken and it focused specifically on curriculum development, whereas the first social studies methods course focused more on the content, rationale, and purpose for teaching social studies. these criteria were important because the researcher wanted participants to have had a significant amount of time to think about their purpose for teaching social studies outside of the current methods course, while also beginning to think about the transition into student teaching and the teaching profession. these students were part of a cohort and had taken education courses together for three full semesters by the conclusion of this study. middle states university (msu), a public research university in the midwestern united states, was the site of the methods course and study. the students were part of the main secondary teacher education program at msu, which represented the most common path to secondary social studies teaching. therefore, the sample was both purposeful and convenient because of my role as instructor of the students’ second social studies methods course. merriam (2008) noted that samples chosen purely out of convenience can lead to poor information and lack credibility; however, since the researcher primarily chose the sample due to its representation of the average participant associated with the study’s focus, then the limitations brought on by the convenience of the sample were less relevant. there were twenty undergraduate participants who provided informed consent to take part in the study. six of the participants were female, and fourteen were male. the participants were mostly white and from the state that msu is situated, with one asian student and one black student. the study focuses on three participants – buddy, franny, and holden – in this paper, due to the amount of descriptive data collected for each participant. the three participants were chosen for this paper j. spencer clark 98 based on the similarity of their purposes for teaching social studies – to facilitate studentcentered and discussion based learning. they were part of a larger group that similarly identified as facilitators; however, their purpose for teaching was evident in each of their data items and provided triangulation (merriam, 1998) between their purpose statement, lesson plans, reflections, in-class activities, and interviews. data collection case study methodology does not set aside specific procedures for data collection (merriam, 1998) and it has often been labeled “eclectic” (bassey, 1999, p. 69) and specific to the context and judgment of the researcher. the data collection for this study was confined to a semester, and all data was collected within the context of a secondary social studies course and the related field experience. there were four main sources of data collected for this study, which included a purpose statement for teaching social studies (1), student developed lesson plans and related reflections for both the methods course and field experience teaching (6), in-class activities (8), and individual interviews (1). each participant interviewed with the researcher individually at the end of the semester using a semi-structured protocol. each interview was audio-recorded and ranged from 30-60 minutes in length. data analysis the study utilized the constant comparative method as a qualitative data analysis procedure (creswell, 2002; glaser & straus, 1967; merriam, 1998), which allowed me to compare the various data sources collected in this study and identify related themes across the data sources. the data of each participant was analyzed in four distinct stages. first, the researcher began by analyzing the participants’ statement of purpose for teaching social studies and identified initial codes that would be used to analyze the rest of their data sources. for example, the statement of purpose for each participant in this article produced the codes facilitator, student-centered, and discussion/deliberation. second, the researcher used the codes established in the participants’ statement of purpose to analyze their lesson plans, lesson plan reflections, and in-class activities. this demonstrated that the participants understood how to articulate their purpose for teaching social studies in their curriculum development and thinking about curricular-instructional issues. third, the researcher initially analyzed the interviews as a means of triangulation to verify the participants’ statements of purpose and their thinking about curricular-instructional decisions. the analysis of the interviews also produced new codes, which journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 99 were compared across participants and narrowed to codes that were found across each participant’s data sources. these codes included assessment, acceptance, and resilience. finally, the codes that emerged from the interviews were used in the last stage of analysis to re-analyze the other data sources. findings buddy, franny, and holden each developed a lesson that they intended to use in their field experience classroom. they each demonstrated their capacity to create lesson plans that fit their purpose for teaching and that would also be relevant to the students in their field experience classrooms. when buddy, franny, and holden implemented their lessons in their field experience classrooms they each achieved agency in different ways as they engaged with the context of their classrooms. the transaction between each preservice teacher and the context of their field experience classroom resulted in three distinct modes of achieving agency, which are made evident by their assessment decisions in the classroom context. buddy: assessment decisions as pursuing acceptance buddy entered his teacher education courses with a distinct view of what a teacher’s role in the classroom would be. he noted this in his interview, “like i said in my paper [purpose statement], i just assumed teaching history would be like 80% lecture, like…maybe 15% discussion, and 5% of the other stuff, but now…like there is so much other stuff.” in both his interview and purpose statement, buddy described how he had become an advocate of studentcentered learning during his time in teacher education. buddy also demonstrated his devotion to student-centered learning in the lessons he developed for the methods course utilizing methods and activities that would all be categorized as discussion and “other stuff” that had been discussed in each of his methods courses. buddy was very confident in his capacity to develop and implement student-centered lessons; however, he was also very sensitive to the context of the school. buddy stated in his interview, “all my experiences in schools are like mini job interviews…getting a job is priority number one,” and in this way professional acceptance was important buddy, even as a preservice teacher. buddy planned to teach a lesson on the controversy surrounding the building of an islamic cultural center in new york city. he developed a multiple perspective reading on the j. spencer clark 100 issue, and centered the activity on the simple question “should new york city allow for the building of an islamic cultural center?” the goal of the lesson was to discuss first amendment rights, while situated in the context of a current event. the culminating activity was to have the students deliberate the question in a student-run town hall meeting, which was an activity he had adapted from a model we had engaged with in our methods course. the assessment he had planned for the lesson asked the students to right a politician at some level. buddy asked the students to provide their perspective using points and arguments from the reading and the class discussion. in the requirements for the letter, buddy asked that students “2) provide three – five reasons for your opinion… 3) recognize and discuss your understanding of at least one perspective that you do not agree with… 4) provide two – three actions you would like the congressman think about or support…” (controversial issue lesson plan). buddy was optimistic about implementing his lesson in his field experience classroom when he reflected on the development of the lesson, “my cooperating teacher said that the students will be learning about first amendment rights all week…then i will do this on a friday, so i think the students should be ready to have a good deep discussion about a heated issue” (buddy, lesson plan reflection). buddy was a little concerned that the issue may be “too hot” or that the students wouldn’t use their “background knowledge of first amendment rights” (lesson plan reflection). more importantly, buddy was concerned that it would not fit with his cooperating teacher’s goals and stated in his reflection, “my teacher approved the lesson, but you never know how it will go. he is very concerned about wasting class time, so hopefully he doesn’t see it as a waste” (lesson plan reflection). regardless, buddy had developed a student-centered lesson, which involved deliberation, a current controversial issue, and an authentic assessment that he was excited to implement it in his field experience classroom. in his interview, buddy discussed the implementation of his lesson. overall, he was happy with the students’ level of engagement and was thinking of ways to improve it for use in the future, “i think all of the students participated and they used the reading and stuff we talked about in class…so i think it went well and my teacher did too” (buddy, interview). after discussing some of the logistical issues with his lesson, i asked buddy about the assessment that he used and how it illustrated the students’ engagement with the lesson. in his response, buddy explained that he did not use the assessment that he had originally developed, “most of the students’ did well with the matching and struggled a little on the short answer, but i think most journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 101 of the class got above 80%. i think they got it” (buddy, interview). i asked buddy “what happened to the assessment in your lesson plan?” buddy explained that he could have used it and replied: i had planned on using it. my teacher…said it sounded like a lot of grading and that the students would spend most of their time writing instead of thinking about the content. he showed me his quiz…worksheet that he usually uses. it had the students’ match the clauses of the first amendment to definitions and then it had court cases which the students were supposed to describe what happened and what rights were discussed. it seemed ok, i mean i had put some of the court cases in the paper for the deliberation and they had spent all week talking about the first amendment, so, i figured it was a good compromise…and it was probably better because the students don’t write papers very often in there. it was how they are usually assessed. (buddy, interview) buddy compromised his assessment decisions due to his cooperating teacher’s comments. even though he did not authentically assess the students as he had planned, buddy thought that the lesson was effective and that the assessment was appropriate. in his interview, i asked buddy if he would use his original assessment (letter to a politician) when he had his own classroom. buddy shifted the conversation to discuss the social studies profession and thought that social studies educators have difficultly choosing and using appropriate assessments: i would have to think of a proper assessment, probably. i think assessment in social studies is…kinda tricky. in talking with others in the class i feel like social studies teachers don’t know how to assess, and they’ll just have them write a paper…like i did…or we always hand students worksheets that focus on vocab, which is fine i guess. i want to create awesome assessments, but i find it challenging to come up with an assessment that is appropriate, but interactive and relevant to student’s interest.…ideally i hope i can find a happy medium between mine and mr. brights assessment. (interview) buddy was frustrated with assessment strategies and thought that it was not only a problem for him, but for the whole social studies profession. despite having a suitable assessment (letter to a politician), buddy questioned its appropriateness within the social studies profession. buddy thought there were appropriate assessments that he would have to use to be accepted in the social studies profession. buddy’s concern with future acceptance into the profession influenced his j. spencer clark 102 decisions, and even changed his assessment decisions in order to achieve agency within his field experience. buddy’s assessment literacy would be limited to the authoritative discourse of schools that would allow him to be accepted by his colleagues into the profession. franny: assessment decisions as seeking improvement franny described her purpose for teaching social studies truly as a negotiation between two discourses. franny viewed the authoritative discourse related to assessment much like buddy and holden – lecture, worksheet, and test based. yet, franny viewed these aspects of the classroom as something she would have to accommodate, “my colleagues will more than likely be the lecturing type, and like, that is fine, i will do it at times too to develop certain skills and bits of knowledge” (interview). regardless, franny thought that she would teach with studentcentered methods often: [teacher education] helped me explore new areas and like, now i’d be definitely more open like, to having students research and discuss things…to be honest, like, two years ago i would have never like really thought of doing that at all. so it’s changed from before. (interview) franny framed her purpose for teaching between the two perceivably different discourses regarding social studies education in secondary classrooms and teacher education. she explained how aspects of the two discourses would be articulated in her teaching, “ideally, i want to be someone who, like, is there to give information in a traditional way but also get the students to build on the knowledge they have, apply it, and then kind of facilitate inquiry or a discussion” (interview). even though franny identified primarily as an advocate of student-centered methodology, it was clear that she planned to incorporate traditional teaching and assessment methods into her future teaching of social studies. in comparison to buddy and holden, franny demonstrated a more history-oriented approach to her curriculum decisions. for example, she developed an inquiry-based lesson around the concept of immigration. franny used primary sources related to immigration in different periods of american history (e.g. the alien and sedition acts 1798, the chinese exclusion act 1882, president roosevelt’s gentleman’s agreement 1907, a jane addams excerpt, a caesar chavez speech, the dream act 2010). franny wanted students to read three or four of the documents and then develop an inquiry question related to immigration, research the journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 103 question, and then present it to the class. students would then discuss immigration policy in small and large groups after the presentations. franny thought that this lesson fit her purpose for teaching well, as she described in her lesson plan reflection: i think the best part of my lesson is the activity because the students get to learn facts, read primary sources, research their interests, and discuss a relevant topic. i think it is a good mix of critical thinking, discussion, and research…. i am just not sure if the documents will provide enough information or be a good way of creating questions. (inquiry lesson plan reflection) to assess her students beyond the presentation, franny would also have her students keep a reflective journal throughout the lesson, and then write a two-page explanation of immigration in the united states after they had heard all of the presentations. franny also noted in her interview her satisfaction with this lesson and said, “i did not think i could develop a lesson like that, like, it had so much stuff going on and it made sense…i definitely hope i can use it again” (interview). franny was surprised at her ability to develop lessons and assessments that effectively supported her purpose for teaching, and she gained confidence in her ability to develop curriculum. franny used her immigration lesson in her field experience classroom and negotiated the classroom similarly to buddy. franny thought that she had successfully implemented her lesson in her field experience classroom: i got to teach it [lesson] in her american history class and they were discussing the progressive era, so it fit pretty well. my teacher let me have three class periods, and that was barely enough. but she seemed impressed with it and said she wanted copies of the documents i used. (interview) to follow-up, i asked franny about the effectiveness of her assessments and she said: well, that was a mess. i wanted to create one with mrs. haas so i could learn more about classroom assessments, and we ended-up just making a graphic organizer that students could record information as they listened to their classmates’ presentations. all we assessed was that they paid attention! (interview) when i complemented her use of assessment in her lesson plan for the course, franny said: my assessment didn’t seem real. i mean, i liked them too…hopefully i can use those down the road…but like, i want to learn the basics because i will use that stuff more j. spencer clark 104 often…you know like true/false, multiple choice, map tests…and i really like a good dbq [document based question]. that is what i hoped mrs. haas would help me with. (interview) i asked franny about her purpose for teaching and how “the basics” related to it: well – i will still do the activities i planned, i will just assess differently…that is why i want to learn the basics so that i can create really effective test questions that combine my purpose and get at the critical thinking that i focus on in my activities. i mean i will have to test like my colleagues, right? …but i want to learn to do it really well. i want my activities to help my students do better on the tests, and i don’t think my assessments will help. (interview) franny’s thinking about assessment was surprising given the detailed assessments she had created in her lesson plans. she clearly had separated the discourse on assessment into two distinct perspectives. franny thought that her ability to create more traditional forms of assessment was deficient, especially in terms of assessing for key outcomes, such as critical thinking. her desire to use more traditional forms of assessment stemmed from her thinking that she would have to formally assess her students similarly to her colleagues, once in a school setting. unlike buddy, franny was not concerned with being accepted by her colleagues. she viewed her assessment decisions that utilized “the basics” as a trade-off for using her studentcentered activities. she thought that the combination of student-centered activities and traditional assessments would possibly make her a more effective teacher than her colleagues. franny had a clear vision of her teaching in the future and she was using her field experience to work toward and achieve that future. in trying to learn “the basics,” franny was similar to buddy in that she struggled with developing assessments that she thought were appropriate for her curriculum decisions. franny was disappointed with her field experience and hoped to gain more insight about assessment strategies from her student teaching experience: finding a good assessment strategy i think is hard. you got to…be able to say like… does this work for this kind of lesson or what you're trying to have the students learn – a lot of times i just…don’t know? hopefully, i will learn some of the basics from like… my teacher in student teaching. (franny, interview) journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 105 franny thought that she could preserve her purpose for teaching by developing the capacity to utilize “the basics” of assessment much better than her colleagues. holden: assessment decisions as resilient reinforcement/improvement holden entered teacher education with a clear vision of how he wanted to teach. in clarifying his purpose for teaching social studies, holden took an oppositional stance toward some of his own social studies teachers and the teachers he had observed in his field experiences. much of his purpose for teaching was shaped by his dissatisfaction with methods he had observed in his own experiences. for example, holden noted that the emphasis in his school experiences was traditional and focused on facts, instead of focusing more on essential questions. when holden was asked what he would change about social studies education, he responded: teachers still focus on dates and facts, and don’t bother with causes and consequences. i had a teacher in high school, who would…drill dates and names into our heads, instead of having us think about why. i look back now and just think about how ineffective his teaching was for all of those students all of those years. (interview) holden identified worksheets and tests as part of traditional assessment methods. his observation of these types of methods in his field experiences further contributed to shaping his purpose for teaching, “i sat there and watched worksheet after worksheet…and the funny thing was that i can hear mr. ford saying each time…‘it’ll be on the test’…. it was just shameful, i could never teach like that” (interview). when holden thought about his own experiences with what he perceived to be the norms in classrooms, his opposition to what he experienced consequently justified his intentions to facilitate a student-centered classroom. in his field experience classroom, holden chose to teach a lesson that combined problembased inquiry and socratic questioning. he was in the same classroom as franny and taught his lesson one week after her. holden chose to have the students discuss the issue of racial/ethnic violence in america from the late 1800’s through the progressive era. holden wanted his students to think about the ways that racial violence took place and think about the role of citizens and society in preventing such acts. he planned on having a socratic seminar as the culminating activity for which the first question would be: “how could ethnic/racial violence have been prevented?” holden was happy with his lesson plan: i like the combination of activities best, i have never seen it before. students will be able to learn from each other. they will come together after reading and researching the topic, j. spencer clark 106 discuss their views with their classmates, and then make a decision. (lesson plan reflection) when holden implemented the lesson in his field experience he provided some resources on topics such as lynching and the experiences of chinese, irish, and latino/a immigrants. he then allowed the students to use one class period to engage in their own inquiry about the topic. holden then facilitated a socratic seminar in the next class period. to assess his students learning, he asked them to track the discussion topics of the socratic seminar and create a concept map of the discussion. lastly, holden also asked his students to write a one page position statement on: “how could violence against minorities be prevented today?” in his interview, holden described the implementation of his lesson as fairly successful, “it went pretty well, i mean i need to improve several things.” when i asked holden what he would improve to make it better, he replied, “don’t worry, my teacher liked it.…the research part went well, they had a good discussion, but their papers were not that good” (interview). when i asked holden what was wrong with the papers, he replied “i think next time i need to make a stronger connection between the historical topic and the present…before i have them try to write something like that. they just didn’t get it in several ways” (interview). to follow-up and compare holden’s experience with franny’s, i asked holden what his cooperating teacher thought about his assessments. holden said, “her only comment was that is would be a lot…and she was right, it took me a long time to explain the concept map, which took away from explaining the paper…but now i know for next time and i can make it work” (interview). unlike buddy and franny, holden maintained his assessment decisions in his field experience classroom, and in the process, he identified ways in which he could improve his lesson. in comparison to buddy and franny, holden was more focused on his own professional growth. he had a clear vision of the teacher he did not want to be, not necessarily the teacher wanted to be. holden was not concerned with fitting in to the profession or competing with his colleagues on test scores. holden wanted to improve the assessment methods he thought were most effective for his teaching. discussion buddy, franny, and holden represent three distinct views of assessment literacy. for buddy, assessment literacy meant assessing like his colleagues. he foresaw his continual journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 107 challenge as an educator to be finding an appropriate assessment for lessons. appropriate meant accepted by his colleagues and other stakeholders in his school context. thus, buddy prioritized the authoritative discourse of professional acceptance (clark, 2013; clark et al., 2015) in developing his assessment literacy. franny also prioritized the authoritative discourse to develop her assessment literacy. she wanted to be the most effective teacher possible, which also meant using traditional assessment effectively. holden, on the other hand, prioritized his internally persuasive discourse in developing his assessment literacy. while he utilized assessment strategies that were part of the authoritative discourses of either traditional assessments or teacher education methods courses, he viewed his assessment literacy as the ability to assess the needs of his students. in this way, holden differed from buddy and franny in that his assessment literacy was reflexive and responsive to his students, instead of static and normalized. another distinction is that buddy and franny both defined their assessment literacy in terms of summative assessment, whereas holden defined his assessment literacy in terms of formative assessment. both buddy and franny were concerned that they were measuring their students’ learning in line with the authoritative discourse: for buddy, measuring in ways acceptable to his peers and administrators, and for franny, measuring in ways that demonstrated she was an effective teacher. in the spectrum of assessment literacy, buddy and franny viewed the use of formative assessment as the equivalent to being able to speak a language, but not being able read or write in a language. holden created, and actually used, summative assessments to assess his students, but used these assessments as indicators about how well he formatively assessed his students. at no point did holden use the summative assessments to measure either his students or his teaching, they were purely used to assess his students learning. this distinction between assessing and measuring students is important (kohn, 2013), especially in terms of discourse and assessment literacy. assessing students can happen without grading or tests being the sole determinate of success. however, measuring requires grading and testing, and implies judgment about a teacher’s accountability, acceptance, and effectiveness as a professional. measuring students, and thus teachers’ effectiveness, demands that learning outcomes be quantifiable, controllable, and competitive, which has little to do with learning and more to do with counting the bits of knowledge students know, managing a classroom of students, and sorting students (kohn, 2013). the authoritative discourse of assessment has morphed the acts of assessing and measuring, which makes developing assessment literacy a j. spencer clark 108 confusing and often contradictory endeavor for preservice teachers. many preservice teachers believe the sole purpose of assessment literacy is not to be able to assess students’ learning effectively, but to be an accepted and effective member of the profession. for these preservice teachers, assessment literacy represents a measure of their own ability to be part of the teaching profession. regarding agency, the preservice teachers all achieved agency, by working to develop what they perceived to be their assessment literacy. buddy, franny, and holden each used their field experience teaching to further develop their assessment literacy. each chose to prioritize certain discourses regarding assessment to achieve goals within their field experience. for buddy, he viewed the field experience as a job interview in which he needed to be accepted, make connections, and fit the mold in order to get hired. franny viewed her field experience as an opportunity to effectively learn how to use assessment strategies she had not learned in teacher education. she felt by becoming an effective assessor of student learning she would also be a highly desirable candidate for a teaching position. holden wanted to use his field experience as a means to become a better facilitator of learning. he believed in his own lesson development and thought that the field experience was an opportunity for him to test and improve his lessons for student learning. each effectively achieved agency in their field experience and used it to develop their assessment literacy in ways that would perceivably make them better professionals. implications there are a few implications for teacher education and the development of preservice teachers’ assessment literacy. first, and possibly the most difficult, is to help preservice teachers understand the authoritative discourse associated with assessment in schools and the ways that it seeks to separate learning from assessment. this would include helping preservice teachers think about and understand the purpose of formative and summative assessment inside and outside of the classroom. second, and related to the first, teacher education needs to help preservice teachers think more about connecting assessment to student learning, and thus their practices in field experiences, student teaching, and their first jobs. it is important for student teachers to understand assessment literacy as the ability to effectively assess and facilitate student learning, as opposed to simply measuring student learning. third, in thinking about the field experiences, teacher educators should help preservice teachers understand that assessment literacy is journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 109 contextual and reflexive in relation to the students. therefore, practice in field experiences should not be seen as generalizable to other contexts, because they are “articulating and negotiating classroom and cultural knowledges” with the specific learners of their classroom, “in the initiation, development and practice of assessment to achieve the learning goals of students” (willis, adie, & klenowski, 2013, p. 242). references anderson, d. l., mathys, h., & mills, a. (2014). pre-service teachers’ assessment of 7th-grade students’ social studies learning. journal of curriculum and teaching, 3(1). apple, m. w. (1992). the text and cultural politics. educational researcher, 21(7), 4-11. archer, m. (1995). realist social theory: the morphogenetic approach. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. bassey, m. (1999). case study research in educational settings. buckingham, uk: open. university press. biesta, g. & tedder, m. (2006). how is agency possible? towards an ecological understanding of agency-as-achievement. working paper 5. exeter, uk: the learning lives project. bourdieu, p. (1977). outline of a theory of practice. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. britzman, d. p. (2003). practice makes practice: a critical study of learning to teach (revised ed.). albany, ny: suny press. campbell, c., & evans, j. a. (2000). investigation of preservice teachers' classroom assessment practices during student teaching. journal of educational research, 93(6), 350-356. clark, j. s. (2013). “your credibility could be shot”: preservice teachers’ thinking about nonfiction graphic novels, curriculum decision making, and professional acceptance. the social studies, 104(1), 38-45. clark, j. s., brown, j. s., & jandildinov, m. (2015). enriching preservice teachers’ critical reflection through an international videoconference discussion. technology, pedagogy and education, 1-20. creswell, j. w. (2007). qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among five approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage. j. spencer clark 110 cornbleth, c. (2001). climates of constraint/restraint of teachers and teaching. in w. b. stanley, critical issues in social studies research for the 21st century. greenwich, ct: information age publishing. danielewicz, j. (2001). teaching selves: identity, pedagogy, and teacher education. albany, ny: state university of new york press. deluca, c., & klinger, d. (2010). assessment literacy development: identifying gaps in teacher candidates’ learning. assessment in education: principles, policy & practice, 17:4, 419438. emirbayer, m., & mische, a. (1998). what is agency? the american journal of sociology, 103, 962–1023. foucault, m. (1986). the care of the self: the history of sexuality of sexuality (r. hurley, ed. & trans.) new york: vintage books. fuchs, s. (2001). beyond agency. sociological theory, 19, 24–40. giddens, a. (1984). the constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration. cambridge, uk: polity. grant, s. g., & salinas, c. (2008). assessment and accountability in social studies. in l. levstik & c. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. heafner, t. (2004). assessment as magnification of internal, parallel, and external reflection. action in teacher education, 25(4), 14-19. kenna, j. l., & russell iii, w. b. (2015). secondary social studies teachers' time commitment when addressing the common core state standards. journal of social studies education research, 6(1). kohn, a. (2013) the case against grades. in j. bowers & p.l. thomas (eds.), de-testing and de grading schools: authentic alternatives to accountability and standardization (pp. 143153). new york: peter lang. kurfman, d. g. (1991). testing as context for social studies. in j. p. shaver (ed.), handbook of research on social studies teaching and learning (pp. 210-221). new york: macmillan publishing company. mcgee, j., & colby, s. (2014). impact of an assessment course on teacher candidates’ assessment literacy. action in teacher education, 36(5-6), 522-532. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 91-111 111 merriam, s. b. (2008). qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. mertler, c. a. (2003, october). preservice versus in-service teachers’ assessment literacy: does classroom experience make a difference? paper presented at the annual meeting of the mid-western educational research association, columbus, oh. mertler, c. a. (2004). secondary teachers’ assessment literacy: does classroom experience make a difference? american secondary education, 33 (1). mertler, c. a., & campbell, c. (2005, april). measuring teachers’ knowledge & application of classroom assessment concepts: development of the assessment literacy inventory. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, montreal, quebec, canada. otero, v. k. (2006). moving beyond the “get it or don’t” conception of formative assessment. journal of teacher education, 57, 247–255. popham, w. j. (2009). assessment literacy for teachers: faddish or fundamental? theory into practice,48: 4-11. popham, w. j. (2011). classroom assessment: what teachers need to know (6th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. priestley, m., edwards, r., priestley, a. and miller, k. (2012). teacher agency in curriculum making: agents of change and spaces for manoeuvre. curriculum inquiry, 42: 191–214. siegel, m., & wissehr, c. (2011). preparing for the plunge: preservice teachers’ assessment literacy. journal of science teacher education, 22(4), 371-391. sloan, k. (2006). teacher identity and agency in school worlds: beyond the all good/all-bad discourse on accountability-explicit curriculum policies. curriculum inquiry, 36(2). stiggins, r. j. (2002, june). assessment crisis: the absence of assessment for learning. phi delta kappan, 83(10), 758-766. volante, l., & fazio, x. (2007). exploring teacher candidates’ assessment literacy: implications for teacher education reform and professional development. canadian journal of education 30, (3): 749–70. willis, j., adie, l., & klenowski, v. (2013). conceptualising teachers’ assessment literacies in an era of curriculum and assessment reform. the australian educational researcher, 116. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4),201-225 201 exploring jordanian children's perceptions of the characteristics of an ideal school and learning environment ann m. alnajdawi1 abstract based on the grounded theory, this study aimed to elicit the views of jordanian children on the ideal school and learning environment. school children aged 9–11 years participated in the study, and the data was collected through individual interviews. moreover, 40 of the children’s narratives were coded and analysed through various analytical processes. thus, their views on the ideal learning environment were understood. this ideal school is considered as an attractive, supportive and strengthened learning environment that’s been conceptualised to meet the children’s physical, educational and socio-emotional welfare needs. it became apparent that children, as the beneficiary group of education, are aware of the characteristics of future schools and ideal environments that would increase their motivation and enthusiasm to learn. it was found that this could be achieved when jordanian public schools employ various policies that ensure the holistic physical, social, emotional and educational learning and environmental welfare of the child. key words: jordanian children’s ideas, future public school, ideal school, ideal learning environment introduction a close correlation can be observed between school learning environments and children’s willingness to learn (bazzar, 2014). however, schools and classrooms are mostly designed to fit adults’ and professional’s needs and do not account for the different needs of children (samani, 2012). although children are the main stakeholders of education, they are neither consulted on school issues (ghaziani, 2008; rudduck & flutter, 2004) nor on the design process; they are passive recipients of adults’ decisions. while education systems encourage child-centred pedagogical activities such as collaborative learning, the circumstances of learning environments that encourage such practices may not always offer the required empowering aspects (derek & brymer, 2012). the quality of jordanian public education has been critiqued several times. the 1 assist. prof./social work department, jordan university, a_najdawe@ju.edu.jo mailto:a_najdawe@ju.edu.jo journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 most common ones include the competence of teachers and quality of learning environments, which are significant in children’s everyday learning (national centre for human rights [nchr], 2017). both formal and public jordanian discourses emphasise the need for comprehensive school reforms because schools are supposed to provide the required social, psychological, cultural and physical learning environments. otherwise, the learning conditions of children may be negatively influenced (ministry of social development [msd], 2016). this study presents a holistic view provided by children of their definition of the ideal school and learning environment, which includes meeting the children’s physical, educational and socioemotional welfare needs. research questions to meet the aims of the study, a group of stimuli in the form of open-closed questions, was used to help children understand the general concept of an ideal school and learning environment. a few examples are given below:  imagine the kind of school you would be enthusiastic to study in.  what kind of activities would your ideal school provide?  what things help you to learn?  how, when and where do you learn best?  if you could choose any location for your school lessons, which place would you choose? literature review according to valijarvi and sahlberg (2008), educational excellence goes beyond the statistical rates of student achievement; it also requires that children enjoy learning in school. this is an important area to examine. there is a rising concern about children who do not enjoy schooling (spencer, lucas, & claxton, 2012). children in many countries seem reluctant about gaining an education, but this has not been reported in official discourses (burnard, 2011). indeed, school is understood as an environment for learning that needs continuous development (msd, 2016). based on the socio-cultural approach, learning is seen as a phenomenon that alnajdawi cannot be segregated from the activity, culture and context in which it takes place (lafer & tarman, 2019; saljo, 2004; vygotsky, 1978). thus, learning is a tool-dependent social phenomenon that focuses not only on the individual but also the school’s social community wherein children share their experiences about the school environment through communication (boutelier, 2019; marjaana, 2010). learning is understood as the production of new, interesting and relevant knowledge and less as a repetition of what is already known (saljo, 2004). thus, schools need to concentrate not only on achieving the educational curricula but also on creating and sustaining the school culture and a functional learning environment to best enhance students’ skills for the future (claxton, 2007). according to gilavand, espidkar, and fakhri (2015), this means that in addition to the role that schools play in providing children with intellectual knowledge and skills, they are also responsible for considering the holistic development and welfare of the child (cognitive, emotional, social, physical and cultural). unesco (2015) defines education as learning to know, to do, to live together and to be. this highlights the close relationship between education and physical, intellectual, emotional and cognitive learning environments (burnard, 2011; rubin, 2018). the functioning of traditional schools has become challenging due to the rapid expansion of information, media and communication technology and their effects on people’s everyday life (lewinski, 2015; tadeu, fernandez batanero & tarman, 2019). alongside learning in a formal setting and through formal methods, learning in various informal environments and through informal methods have also been acknowledged as important for children’s knowledge acquisition (anderson, lucas, & ginns, 2003; ash & wells, 2006; halpern, 2017). accordingly, the following three developments are noticeable. first, formal education and schools have lost control of the education process and imparting of knowledge to children. second, sometimes, children have better access to information from around the world than the previous generations. third, a gap has emerged between the understanding gained from daily experiences and the approach to understanding provided by formal education (saljo, 2004). as a result of the rapid social changes over the recent decades, many governments have realised that the current structure of the educational systems may not be able to cope with the challenges of the twentyfirst century (anderson et al., 2003). this means that the traditional policies of education and models of thinking need serious revision to make formal education consistent with societal journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 developments (a. gilavand, gilavand, & gilivand, 2016). awartani, whitman, and gordon (2008) stressed the necessity of creating learning environments that nurture the welfare of children. children’s welfare, defined as “the realisation of one’s physical, emotional, mental, social and spiritual potential” (p. 51), is closely related to the learning environment. aims and goals at present, educational planners and policy makers of several countries across the world seem to be taking note of children’s preferences for deciding their learning environments and how they learn. the international democratic education conference (idec) of 2010 agreed on the following statement: we believe that, in any educational setting, children have the right to decide individually how, when, what, where and with whom they learn to have an equal share in the decision-making as to how their schools – are run. (idec, 2010, p. 5) this leads to my research topic of exploring jordanian children’s perceptions of what an ideal school would consist of. this article aims to present the children’s perspectives about the features of an ideal school learning environment. the children participating in the study were 9– 11 years old and attended three public schools for boys under the amman governorate; therefore, they had experienced several years of formal schooling and had many ideas to offer. the following was the key research question of this study: how do children impart their perceptions of the ideal school learning environments? in jordan, the most recent research carried out on, rather than with, children (nchr, 2017) was based on the assumption that children are often developmentally incomplete compared to adults (mayall, 2002). this demonstrates a gap in the research related to children; i.e. as the beneficiary group of school education, children are marginalised in the research process. this indicates that they have not been understood as competent social actors. emerging sociological perspectives and political changes, on the other hand, view children as independent political social actors (james, jenks, & prout, 1998). the present study contributes both theoretically and practically to research pertaining to school children’s opinions. it provides insights into children’s ideas and expectations of a alnajdawi learning environment that would make them enthusiastic and happy about learning. examining children’s own perspectives on the ideal school and learning environment is essential for identifying the children’s issues regarding their current school environments. the intended benefit was to provide children with the opportunity to express their opinions on a subject in which their behaviours within the school setting is always scrutinised but their voices ignored. the reported study could also help officials and policymakers develop techniques and implement methods that would add stimuli to the school environment, making it an effective space to learn. by seriously considering the children’s perspectives, this study not only serves to enhance academic knowledge but also produce new tools for defining and designing future jordanian schools and learning environments. methods methodologically, this study draws upon the grounded theory (glaser & strauss, 1967; strauss & corbin, 1998), which involves approaching the topic under investigation using databased information. grounded theory allows the researcher to inductively develop a theoretical account of the general characteristics of a topic while grounding the account in empirical observations. it is functional for managing and comparing concepts and is relevant in theory building. the aim of a grounded theory is not to examine existing theories but to develop new ones, and it results from a study of the subject under consideration. as strauss and corbin (1998, p. 25) stated, “the theory does more than provide understanding or paint a vivid picture. it enables users to explain and predict events, thereby providing guides to action.” by utilising the grounded theory, the present study gained an in-depth understanding of children’s perspectives of the ideal school—that ensures the holistic physical, social, cultural, emotional and educational learning and environmental welfare of the child. these results will be presented and discussed in the findings section. data collection to explore the participants’ perceptions about ideal school environments, both verbal and visual participatory methods were employed, namely, individual interviews that incorporated drawings and writing techniques to stimulate discussions and interactions. these tools have journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 previously been used in many contexts to explore children’s views (dan et al., 2011; lehman, 2011). since children tend to lack experience of direct contact with unfamiliar adults in one-toone interviews, more innovative techniques can enable children to feel more comfortable with the adult researcher (mayall, 2002). for this reason, task-centred activities of visual and written tasks were developed (james et al., 1998). therefore, the researcher used the visual and written activities (drawing and writing) as “child-friendly” techniques to facilitate, stimulate and maximise the children’s capacity to freely express themselves, thereby aiding the discussion while enabling data to be gathered. the children were given the opportunity to choose the type of activity they were interested in to express themselves while engaging in a straightforward conversation. unstructured interviews seeking their views were conducted with children in each school during the school day. the decision to use this method of data collection was inductively governed by the study’s objective to seek the participants’ perspectives about the ideal school; this is the nature of an exploratory study (denzin, 1989). the study participants were 40 children from three public schools— abdullah ibn rawahah school, al norian school and tareq bin ziad school, which are all located in amman governorate, the capital city of jordan. the children were involved in the study after gaining their consent for participation as well as their parents’ permission. individual interviews with the children were carried out over a two-month period (march 2019 to may 2019). each interview lasted about 50 minutes. there were 12 children from school a, 13 from school b and 15 from school c. the researcher interviewed children of different ages between 9 and 11 years (classes 4–6) to obtain a variety of responses. of these children, 10 were in class 4, 18 in class 5 and 12 in class 6. all the participants were boys, as public schools in jordan do not allow for mixedgender schooling. the children were encouraged to imagine the kind of school and environment they would be eager to learn in. it was observed that 11 children preferred to draw, 10 preferred to write and 19 preferred to only talk. all the interviews were tape-recorded and consequently transcribed and converted into a digital format for analysis. it was essential to ensure that no harm came to any of the participants during the field work and data dissemination stages. therefore, confidentiality and anonymity were guaranteed to the participants during the process of data collection, data analysis as well as the writing up and dissemination of findings. in the alnajdawi reports produced as a result of this study, the participants’ responses and the names of their schools have been anonymised through the use of pseudonyms and the removal of any identifying details. data analysis the data was coded using the nvivo qualitative research software designed for the grounded theory approach (strauss & corbin, 1998). the data was broken down, conceptualised and put back together in new ways (strauss & corbin, 1998). thus, the analytic process was based on repeated data sorting, coding and comparison. strauss (1987) described a three-stage data analysis model, involving open coding, axial coding and selective coding. this approach was used for the present study. during the initial open coding process, the data was organised into broad analytic themes, named and categorised through a close examination of the data and coded on that basis. at the axial coding stage, a second pass through the data helped develop the links between the emergent themes as well as new themes. the axial coding phase tends to overlap with the open coding process. the main categories and subcategories were extracted from the open coding categories through constant and systematic comparison, and the data was brought back together as a coherent whole (strauss & corbin, 1998). the third phase, selective coding, was focused on the core concept for the identification of its key features and implications in an ideal learning environment. relating the core concept to all the major categories was central to the procedure (strauss & corbin, 1998). data from the current study were analysed this way; however, this was not a linear or straightforward process, and i moved back and forth between these phases at various stages of the analytical process. during the third phase of analysis, extracts from the data which best illustrate the main themes were selected for inclusion in the final report. findings three partly overlapping elements of the ideal learning environment were identified as “physical welfare and environmental comfort”, “educational welfare and cultural stimulating environment” and “socio-emotional welfare and safety environment”. according to the holistic concept of the learner as part of the learning environment, there is a growing expectation that journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 education must take responsibility for the development of the welfare of the child holistically (awartani et al., 2008). physical welfare and environmental comfort the classroom the ideal school is characterised by a comfortable, attractive and suitable physical environment in the classroom, which all the participants associated with the visual, acoustic, thermal, and spatial elements. the visual element is represented in providing “adequate lighting for the whole classroom ... a balance between the sun lighting and artificial lighting levels in classroom” (ahmad, personal communication, march 3, 2019). additionally, “there must be lockers, curtains, board … comfortable tables and seats, coloured walls, and beautiful decorations at classrooms” (jad, personal communication, april 7, 2019). the acoustic element is represented by the absence of any internal and external noise. “boys shouldn’t make any noise in classroom. we shouldn’t hear the sounds of car horns nor traffic congestion” (saif, personal communication, march 20, 2019). the sampled children confirmed that the quieter the classroom, the higher their effective participation and concentration levels. the thermal element is represented by the presence of adequate and suitable heating and ventilation devices in the classrooms as these affect the children’s psychological status, behaviour and performance during the learning performance “there must be ceiling fan, heating system … big windows that allow much fresh air to enter the classroom” (oday, personal communication, may 5, 2019). the spatial element is represented by the classroom size and order. as ali (personal communication, march 10, 2019) stated, “we want big classrooms with less number of students to move freely”, a statement 22 other children agreed with. the ideal school must ensure flexible arrangements for the classrooms’ furniture, which would make the educational process more effective and promote cooperation among the children. “the tables and seats must be placed in a circular manner and seats must be movable … that helps us to do group activities and interact with each other” (ahmad, personal communication, april 1, 2019). eight children suggested that an ideal classroom would be the one designed with dynamic teaching areas. they also insisted that there must be separate areas designated for performing individual activities, paired activities and group activities. further, 11 alnajdawi of the children shed light on the significance of ensuring that their personal and educational tools are protected from getting lost or damaged by providing them with personal lockers inside the classroom. the location, building and facilities more than half of the children indicated three factors that they imagine in an ideal school that would raise their enthusiasm and motivation to learn. first, the school must be located “in a quiet place that is far away from crowded places” (nader, personal communication, march 4, 2019) and “the school building must be built from stones and decorated with attractive rainbow colours” (omar, personal communication, march 14, 2019). second, a short distance between home and school is emphasized on. “i prefer going to a school that is near my house. however, there isn’t any school near my house … i feel dizzy when travelling a long distance in the car to reach school. in such a case, i always reaching the school late and feeling exhausted and not capable to study” (anas, personal communication, may 5, 2019). third, the ideal design of the school consists of “pyramid or circular shape” and “several close units” that have the least number of partitions (i.e. open doors). “we don’t want to have too many doors. school is not a prison” (hasan, personal communication, april 11, 2019). all the respondents preferred having school with green areas. “a garden, grass, flowers, shrub and trees in and around the school” (ali, personal communication, march 14, 2019). subsequently, 13 of the children suggested that having a school garden would encourage them to learn things related to the science course. “instead of having the science teacher explaining the steps of planting, we can apply these steps through planting fruits and vegetables by ourselves … that shall make the learning process fun” (monther, personal communication, march 22, 2019). feeling comfortable and satisfied inside the school environment requires “adequate and healthy drinking and wash water available constantly” (oais, personal communication, april 8, 2019). moreover, nine respondents stated that, “we wish to have private rooms to change our clothes to get ready for the sport class” (mohammad, personal communication, april 25, 2019). food and nutrition are integral elements of the school environment. seven children highlighted the importance of ensuring the safety of saving the foods provided at school. “the chips shouldn’t be placed in the sun” (jad, personal communication, march 16, 2019). the ideal school is the one that also has “a cafeteria that providing variety of meals and must provide children journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 with lunchroom to set on in a manner that is safe, comfortable and healthy. sitting on the ground is usually dirty and hurts my back” (hasan, personal communication, april 11, 2019). more than half of the respondents said that the duration of the break time should be made longer than it currently is. the participants also discussed the need to include playgrounds and various sports activities in the schooling system. the statement, “we would like to play football, basketball, tennis, and billiards … we want to have playgrounds, golf course and swimming pool” (ahmad, personal communication, may 6, 2019), reflected 12 children’s inclination to practice new sport activities every day. educational welfare and a stimulating cultural environment based on their imagination of an ideal school, all the participants gave their opinions about the curricula and highlighted the following. “the curricula should be easy; consistent with our age; simpler than they are; not be stiffed with too much information; and should not repeat what we learnt through the 1st grade … that’s boring” (sami, personal communication, march 12, 2019). additionally, “the subjects in curricula must be various, interesting and enjoyable” (sameer, personal communication, march 11, 2019). audio and visual educational technology plays a significant role in the teaching-learning process. “teaching through using the computer, radio, data show, and internet make us enthusiastic to learn” (ibrahim, personal communication, march 16, 2019). to make the learning process easier and more enjoyable, in 15 children’s view, the teacher should present the information in a clear and simple manner. two children also suggested that the teacher should promote a competitive spirit among the students. “i like to compete with others and challenge them and strive to know the answers. in this manner, the information would be difficult for me to forget” (adam, personal communication, april 18, 2019). feeling at ease during the learning process, according to six children, requires a teacher who does not repeat instructions and guidelines about the way of performing classroom activities. “we end up concentrating on what teacher says instead of concentrating on the activity ... time would run out without finishing the required task” (maher, personal communication, april 19, 2019). the children also claimed that, “for stopping the teacher from rushing us into finishing the task we are working on and the duration designated for finishing a task must be alnajdawi extended in accordance with the nature of the required task” (yamen, personal communication, march 21, 2019). over half of the respondents said that enjoying the learning process would require the use of a variety of teaching methods. “it would be better to do activities through five-member groups or in pairs” (ali, personal communication, may 3, 2019). for those children, adopting collaborative and cooperative teaching approaches would help them to “learn better and get new information and ideas” (mousa, personal communication, march 16, 2019). however, nine children suggested that they preferred learning in pairs or individually because according to them, “learning in groups may not enable me to focus well on doing the activity as required” (mohammad, personal communication, april 9, 2019). the provision of a variety of activities to enable the avoidance of routine activities would motivate the children to learn. “we must change the activities that we do from one day to another ... i don’t like that” (tareq, personal communication, may 4, 2019). in addition, 25 children agreed with the suggestion, “the duration of lesson should be short, and the number of writing activities, homework, and monthly exams should be reduced” (ahmad, personal communication, march 12, 2019). as 11 children indicated, the ideal school would provide suitable learning conditions by preventing students from “talking to each other, messing around and doing disruptive behaviours during the lesson” (samer, personal communication, april 16, 2019). according to one of the respondents, ayman, “naughty boys must be kicked out of class because we want to concentrate in lessons” (personal communication, may 1, 2019). all the children expressed their desire to learn in various environments. “we can learn in the school garden, library, playgrounds, museum, and places around the school. we don’t want to learn always in classroom. that would be boring to do” (adam, personal communication, march 5, 2019). scientific journeys were also suggested as an innovative method for learning outside the classroom. “it would be nice to have the teacher providing us with information about petra while we are on the site itself” (oday, personal communication, april 7, 2019). a supportive learning environment develops a child-centred environment. more than half the children expressed their desire for opportunities to engage themselves in the learning process as active learners. “why do we always study through using the curriculum? for instance, in the arabic language class, we can choose stories that we love from the library. then, the teacher can journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 teach us how to identify the main ideas of the story. in this way, we can enjoy learning more” (talal, personal communication, april 14, 2019). the children also expressed their desire to learn by using attractive, exploratory and creative teaching methods. “why can’t we learn math through going to the supermarket and do sale and purchasing processes?” (salah, personal communication, april 17, 2019). a respondent further stated, “we can learn math through playing with a nice computer game. through such a game, we can do a mathematical operation” (mahmoud, personal communication, march 20, 2019). most of the respondents suggested conducting manual and experimental work in the science course. “it would be better and enjoyable if the science teacher makes us do experiments” (hashim, personal communication, may 3, 2019). apparently, teaching methods that are based on playing, creativity and exploration are more effective than the conventional teaching methods. most importantly, an ideal school ensures all the children’s right to receive educational care. “the school must help all the children—without exception—in achieving success” (nader, personal communication, april 11, 2019). further, ali stated, “everyone must understand the information” (personal communication, march 19, 2019), and 10 other children expressed their agreement. while talking about the characteristics of the ideal supportive learning environment, 11 children who have learning difficulties provided a variety of suggestions that would help them achieve academic success. some children with reading difficulties said, “we want help to become able to recognise words ... we want additional time to finish tasks” (amjad, personal communication, may 4, 2019); “we wish to have the questions of the exam read by our teacher instead of reading them by ourselves because that takes much time” (qsai, personal communication, april 23, 2019). the respondents with dyslexia suggested being allowed to take “oral exams instead of taking written exams” (maher, personal communication, march 20, 2019). they also added that, “the teacher should help us in writing hard words” (mazen, personal communication, may 1, 2019). to help children with poor mathematical abilities develop them, “the teacher can use the drawing way to explain mathematical operations” (mousa, personal communication, march 9, 2019). as for children with low academic achievement due to fear and anxiety, they suggested providing “a quiet place for doing exams” (rashid, personal communication, april 23, 2019). alnajdawi this should be done to eliminate the impacts of the noisy environment on those children. “i get tensed when hearing any sound especially if the exam is hard” (mazen, personal communication, may 1, 2019). in general, an ideal school is one that integrates children with special educational needs into classroom activities instead of isolating them. “the teacher doesn’t allow me to participate because i read slowly. thus, i stopped raising my hand.” social-emotional welfare and safety environment promoting positive relationships between children and their teachers as well as among the children themselves enables the development of their socio-emotional welfare. “if we have a good relation with teachers and peers then we will feel with psychological satisfaction” (marwan, personal communication, april 14, 2019). all the children suggested that a good teacher is the one who is “firm and fair; sympathetic; model; tolerant; patient; nice; kind; caring; encouraging; respectable and has a good sense of humour” (abdullah, personal communication, march 17, 2019). in terms of teachers’ response to children’s academic achievement, “the good teacher must love all students equally regardless their marks” (omar, personal communication, april 25, 2019). also, teachers should have a positive attitude towards the child and accept his/her mistakes. “it’s not the end of the world if one forgot to bring a book or do homework. however, the teacher gets mad when doing so” (khaleel, personal communication, march 19, 2019). for 22 children, the ideal school involves a safe learning environment that is free from physical, verbal and emotional abuse against children. “the teacher mustn’t hit us or threaten us with punishment” (ahmad, personal communication, march 12, 2019). further, “the teacher mustn’t tell me that i am dumb if i didn’t understand the lesson” (nadeem, personal communication, april 15, 2019). the responsibility of teachers in protecting children from getting bullied by their peers was also highlighted. “the teacher should be firm with the boys who take everything from me. sometimes, those boys hit me” (ali, personal communication, march 17, 2019). being encouraged to take part in group activities, as 19 children pointed out, provided them with the opportunity to make new friends because “we don’t have time to make new friends during the break” (adam, personal communication, may 2, 2019). “when we learn in groups, each group will have its own leader who allocates tasks to the members of the group” (waleed, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 personal communication, may 5, 2019). another 18 respondents recommended conducting cultural and sports competitions among the various grades. “i wish if there are competitions between various grades in terms of assessing our knowledge about subjects that we have already studied. i wish if the school can hold football matches. in this way, we’ll get to know each other and love the school” (naseem, personal communication, april 9, 2019). discussion three partly overlapping elements of the ideal learning environment were identified as “physical welfare and environmental comfort”, “educational welfare and cultural stimulating environment” and “socio-emotional welfare and safety environment”. the current study offers valuable information on improving the future of jordanian schools and their learning environments. the interviewed children described their ideal school and learning environment based on several characteristics. implementing their suggestions would greatly enhance their schooling welfare and increase their enjoyment in learning. the present study echoed previous discourses which talked about how children have valuable and realistic insights on several aspects of what constitutes an ideal learning environment (smith & parr, 2007; thomas, 2010). this study delved into children’s views of an ideal learning environment in the light of the specified research questions; i.e. one that focuses on their physical, educational and socioemotional welfare. an ideal physical classroom environment would contain mobile furniture, colourful walls, proper heating, natural lighting, pure and adequate ventilation and good indoor air quality. this acts as the “silent curriculum” of the classroom’s physical environment, as miller (2012) described it. this means that a school with a suitable and attractive environmental design and high-quality classrooms can ease and develop learning process like in an overt curriculum (suleman et al., 2011). to be aesthetically pleasing, the school should be beautifully structured, colourful, located in a quiet area that’s close to the students’ residences. the physical features of the school and its classrooms help increase the children’s retention and concentration throughout the learning process. this finding resonates with fisher’s (2008) statement that the physical environment of a school can affect the students’ comfort and their ability to learn. according to the results from the present study, an ideal school would provide a variety of physical sports activities as well as non-traditional sports and consist of alnajdawi wider playgrounds and outdoor learning spaces. as barrett et al. (2015) argued, traditional classrooms provide small spaces that facilitate children’s listening skills but may not always be useful to empower them to achieve the contemporary aims of curricular and extracurricular activities. according to the interviewed children, an effective learning process would be linked to proper and attractive arrangements of the school’s features and the physical environment of the classroom. this relates to the claims of hussain et al. (2012). the results of this study highlighted several aspects of educational welfare and a culturally stimulating environment. a school’s curriculum should be easy to understand, suitable for the children’s cognitive developmental age, presented smoothly, interesting and related. it should also avoid repetition of content and include a variety of subjects. this finding confirms saljo’s (2004) argument that learning is a production of new, interesting and relevant information and less a repetition of what is already known. based on the results obtained from the current study, the integration of several educational technologies plays a vital role in making the learning process more interesting, successful and profitable. this emphasises the socio-cultural approach wherein the role of cultural tools and artefacts is seen as central in learning (vygotsky, 1978). as saljo (2004) stated, schools should employ new resources for providing knowledge as traditional textbooks have gradually become obsolete due to the availability of new information in several databases, particularly ones that are online. interestingly, children view the opportunity to actively participate in several learning activities and be involved in practical activities as a significant factor contributing to their enjoyment of learning in school. this finding supports the views of hopkins (2012) and watkins (2010) as well as the contemporary understanding of children as competent social political actors (mayall, 2002; james et al., 1998). specifically, motivation and enjoyment to learn are achieved under the following conditions: short lessons, minimal homework, a variety of assessment methods, a variety of teaching techniques, a variety of activities, appropriate length of activities, activities with challenging tasks, reduced expected routine and stereotypical schoolwork and the provision for more collaborative work activities. this result highlights the recommendations given by previous researchers (lehman, 2011; wall, 2012). conventionally, the teaching process occurs primarily in classrooms. in this study, children talked about the classroom as being a space to learn, but they also expected fun, creative and exploratory ways of learning; i.e. they expressed a desire to learn in multiple contexts journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 outside classrooms. this echoes the studies on learning in informal settings (bekerman, burbules, & silberman-keller, 2006). learning in informal settings refers to the learning environments outside the classroom such as the playground, library, around school building, school garden and educational trips for specific curriculum subjects. in addition, children talked about outdoor playgrounds as informal learning places that could help them encompass learning and play activities. ultimately, this would help children meet the learning requirements and would ensure their cognitive, social and emotional development. as claxton (2002) said, schools should focus not only on delivering academic curricula but also on establishing and maintaining school cultures and useful learning environments that best encourage students’ skills as future citizens. according to the results from this study, an ideal school must employ several policies to ensure that all the children receive suitable educational care to meet the requirements of academic success. children, specifically those with learning difficulties, stressed the importance of receiving multi-dimensional learning support by listening to their suggestions in this regard. this finding confirms that children’s right to education is not simply measured by the extent of their enrolment in school but, more importantly, through the extent of educational care they receive (james et al., 1998). therefore, as per the argument made by hyvonen (2008) and sajlo (2004), it can be argued that children with hard-to-manage learning difficulties may feel suspicious about what the school can offer them and view it as meaningless. the importance of a socio-emotional environment was obvious in relation to the children’s expectations of an ideal school. teachers should be fair, encouraging, respectful, kind, nice, caring, patient, friendly and strict and should not be abusive. several studies show that children’s admiration for and the agreeability of a teacher are strongly linked to the students’ satisfaction with the school (aingeal, kelly, molcho, gavin, & saoirse, 2012; covell, 2010). providing a safe atmosphere and positive relationships among and between teachers and peers along with the absence of bullying and abuse have been highlighted as necessary characteristics. according to the unesco’s recommendations, children have the right to be protected from all forms of harassment (qvortrup, 1994). in the reported study, the children’s concept of an ideal school was linked to lovely, caring, and satisfying circumstances, which were the emotion-oriented aspects. robinson and alnajdawi fielding (2010) highlighted the importance of building encouraging socio-emotional relationships in schools to ensure children feel happy and are eager to learn. in this study, children stressed the need to build a sense of belonging in a school community, making friendships and developing social skills. this echoes the suggestion made by john-akinola et al. (2013). conclusion and implications this study aimed to ascertain school children’s (aged 9–11) views about an ideal school and learning environment. the children were considered competent social and political actors who have the ability and right to speak about learning environments that make them happy and eager to learn. based on these children’s views, three distinct categories emerged for the ideal school: ones that ensured physical welfare and provided environmental comfort, ones that ensured educational welfare and provided a stimulating environment and ones that ensured socio-emotional welfare and provided a safe environment. the creation and designation of these categories was based on the grounded theory, and the core concept along with its main aspects were derived from these. consequently, an ideal learning environment was conceptualised as an attractive, supportive and strengthened learning environment (assle), with characteristics that significantly contribute to children’s welfare in the school setting and stimulate them to learn. the assle model was generated according to the jordanian children’s perspectives on an ideal school and learning environment. thus, “attractive” requires an ideal learning environment to be physically stimulating. the assle places great importance on providing school and classrooms with aesthetic features, attractive classroom equipment, amazing halls, harmonious classroom building, beautiful gardens, multiplicity of green spaces and sports fields and other physical elements that ensure children’s physical welfare. according to awartani et al. (2008), physical well-being refers to “feeling comfortable with one’s body and physical ability and being in healthy physical state and a healthy physical environment” (p. 60). the interviewed children anticipated engaging in comfortable spaces and expressing themselves through several physical activities. therefore, the assle must supply a variety of athletic, playful and pleasing learning practices and support physical welfare and environmental comfort. johnson et al. (2005) argued that many learning aims can only be achieved through outdoor play activities. the assle offers purposeful indoor and outdoor spaces and places for physical activities and games. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 for example, the idea “to learn math through computer games” implies the utilisation of classroom (indoor space) to enjoy learning, while the idea “to learn math by selling items in supermarket” implies the utilisation of (outdoor classroom space) to exercise physical activity to enjoy learning. this refers to achieving a combination of educational goals and enjoyment. thus, the assle model implies that a combination of learning and enjoyment can be achieved by the provision of both indoor and outdoor spaces and places. “supportive” refers to encouraging and enjoyable strategies for educational and cultural welfare. the assle sponsors the inclusion of educational technology and creative, participative, explorative and playful tasks in the learning process as well as strategies for providing additional support to children with learning difficulties. thus, the assle promotes several ideas of informal learning. this supports livingstone’s (2006) definition of informal learning: “any activity involving the pursuit of understanding, knowledge or skill that occurs without the presence of externally imposed curricular criteria” (p. 206). “strengthened” reflects the importance of assuring conditions that promote positive and mutually respectful relationships among the school members. the assle provides a friendly, collective and delightful learning environment. it ensures the promotion of a safe socioemotional environment among peers, on the one hand, (i.e. group activities and cultural activities) and between the students and teachers (i.e. no violence), on the other. this, in turn, enhances children’s socio-emotional welfare, enjoyment and school satisfaction. our findings also support akinola et al.’s (2014) argument that positive interpersonal relationships and a sense of belonging significantly contribute to maintaining children’s enjoyment in school. based on this study, an ideal school and learning environment would focus on the children’s physical, educational and socio-emotional welfare. the joy of learning emerged as a key element in all these categories. this corresponds with claxton’s (2002) argument that children would enjoy learning if their needs are met. therefore, the assle supports a holistic view of the ideal learning environment (awartani et al., 2008) which emphasises the importance of school children’s developmental welfare from multi-dimensional aspects, thereby achieving the pedagogical aims of the learning process. to conclude, this study provides valuable information that contributes to the discussions on improving the learning environments of jordanian public schools in accordance with the alnajdawi current criticisms about the quality of public education. this study recommends that the provision of a conducive learning environment would address the multiple interconnected holistic needs of the child. thus, offering a holistic learning environment is necessary to aid in the children’s holistic growth physically, socially, emotionally and academically. as indicated by runco (2010), educational achievement is intertwined with the social, emotional and physical welfare of school children. this study is not without its limitations. first, the aims and methodology focused on jordanian school children’s needs and suggestions. thus, comparative studies would be valuable for examining the social similarities and differences in the children’s view of an ideal school environment from diverse societies and cultures. second, this study mainly considered the viewpoints of boys as the public schools in jordan are not mixed-gender ones. this gap reinforces the need to conduct future research on girls’ experiences. third, this study explored the ideas of children aged 9–11. therefore, conducting similar studies with other age groups would also be helpful. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 references aingeal, r., kelly, c., molcho, n., gavin, a., & saoirse, g. (2012). is school participation good for children? associations with health and well-being. health education, 112(2), 88–104. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24234393394 anderson, d., lucas, k., & ginns, i. (2003). theoretical perspectives on learning in an informal setting. journal of research in science teaching, 40(2), 177–99. retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tea.10071 ash, d., & wells, g. (2006). dialogic inquiry in classroom and museum: actions, tools, and talk. in z. bekerman, n. burbules, & d. silberman-keller (eds.), learning in places: the informal education reader (pp. 35–54). new york, ny: peter lang publishing. awartani, m., whitman, c., & gordon, j. (2008). developing instruments to capture young people’s perceptions of how school as a learning environment affects their well-being. european journal of education, 43(1), 51–70. retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1465-3435.2007.00337.x barrett, s., zhang, y., barrett, c. (2011). a child’s eye view of primary school built environments. intelligent buildings international, 3, 107–23. retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17508975.2011.582315 bazzar, r. (2014). the role of educational environment on students’ achievement in elementary period. european academic research, 2(5), 6240–57. bekerman, z., burbules, n., & silberman-keller, d. (2006). introduction. in z. bekerman, n. burbules, & d. silberman-keller (eds.), learning in places: the informal education reader (pp. 1–8). new york, ny: peter lang publishing. boutelier, s. (2019). limiting learning environments through domestication. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 45-55. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 burnard, p. (2011). constructing assessment for creative learning. in j. sefton-green, k. jones, & l. bresler (eds.), the routledge international handbook of creative learning. abingdon, ox: routledge. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24234393394 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tea.10071 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1465-3435.2007.00337.x https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17508975.2011.582315 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 alnajdawi claxton, g. (2002). education for the learning age: a sociocultural approach to learning to learn. in g. wells, & g. claxton (eds.), learning for life in 21st century: sociocultural perspectives on the future of education (pp. 21–33). cambridge, ma: blackwell. claxton, g. (2007). expanding young people’s capacity to learn. british journal of educational studies, 55(2), 115–34. retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2007.00369.x covell, k. (2010) school engagement and rights-respecting schools. cambridge journal of education, 40(1), 39–51. retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057640903567021 dan, d., jindal, d., collier, c., digbya, r., haya, p., & howea, a. (2013). creative learning environments in education: a systematic literature review. thinking skills and creativity, 8(5), 80–91. retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s187118711200051x denzin, n. k. (1989). the sociological interview. in the research act: a theoretical introduction to sociological methods (pp. 102–20). new jersey: prentice hall. derek, c., & brymer, v. (2012). imagination in school children’s choice of their learning environment: an australian study. international journal of educational research, 56, 57–88. retrieved from https://eprints.qut.edu.au/54847/ fisher, e. s. (2008). the effect of the physical classroom environment on literacy outcomes: how 3rd class teachers use the physical classroom to implement a balanced literacy curriculum. thesis, graduate school university of missouri, us. ghaziani, r. (2008). children’s voices: raised issues for school design. codesign, 4(4), 225– 236. doi: 10.1080/15710880802536403 gilavand, a., espidkar, f., & fakhri, a. (2015). a comparative evaluation of depression and anxiety rate among native and non-native students of dentistry school at ahvaz jundishapour university of medical sciences. educational development of jundishapur, 6(2), 185–90. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281826498_ gilavand, a., gilavand, m., gilavand, s. (2016). investigating the impact of lighting educational spaces on learning and academic achievement of elementary students. international https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2007.00369.x https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057640903567021 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s187118711200051x https://eprints.qut.edu.au/54847/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15710880802536403 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281826498_ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 journal of pediatrics, 4(5), 1819–28. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301754596_ glaser, b. g., & strauss, a. (1967). the discovery of grounded theory. chicago, il: aldine. halpern, c. (2017). book review: in search of understanding: the case for constructivist classrooms (2nd ed.). american journal of qualitative research, 1(1), 32-36. hopkins, a. (2008). classroom conditions to secure enjoyment and achievement: the pupils’ voice. listening to the voice of every child matters. education 3–13, 36(4), 393–401. retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03004270801969386 hussain, i., ahmad, m., ahmad, s., suleman, q., din, m. q., & khalid, n. (2012). a study to investigate the availability of educational facilities at secondary school level in district karak. language in india, strength for today and bright hope for tomorrow, 12(10), 234–50. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275972934_ hyvonen, p. (2008). affordances of playful learning environment for tutoring playing and learning. rovaniemi, finland: university of lapland printing centre. james, a., jenks, c., & prout, a. (1998). theorizing childhood. polity press: cambridge, uk. john-akinola, y. o., gavin, a., o’higgins, s. e., & gabhainn, s. n. (2013) taking part in school life: views of children. health education, 114(1), 20–42. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263554470_ johnson, j., christie, j., & wardle, f. (2005). play, development and early education. boston, ma: pearson education inc. lafer, s., & tarman, b. (2019). editorial 2019: (2)1, special issue. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), i-v. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 lehman, m. (2011). how sensory design brings value to buildings and their occupants. intelligent buildings international, 3(1), 46–54. retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3763/inbi.2010.0011?journalcode=tibi20 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301754596_ https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03004270801969386 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275972934_ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263554470_ http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3763/inbi.2010.0011?journalcode=tibi20 alnajdawi lewinski, p. (2015). effects of classrooms’ architecture on academic performance in view of telic versus paratelic motivation: a review. frontiers in psychology, 6, 746. retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4453269 livingstone, d. w. (2006). informal learning: conceptual distinctions and preliminary findings. in z. bekerman, n. burbules, & d. silberman-keller (eds.), learning in places: the informal education reader (pp. 203–27). new york, ny: peter lang publishing. marjaana, k. (2010). finnish children’s views on the ideal school and learning environment. learning environmental research, 13, 205–23. mayall, b. (2002). towards a sociology of childhood: thinking from children’s lives. buckingham, uk: open university press. miller, j. (2010). curriculum as a consciousness of possibilities: a review of “curriculum and consciousness”. curriculum inquiry, 40(1), 125–41. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-873x.2009.00471.x ministry of social development. (2016). rethinking children’s education. amman, jordan: ministry publications. national centre for human rights. (2014). children and schools education. amman, jordan: centre publications. national centre for human rights. (2017). school education. amman, jordan: centre publications. qvortrup, j. (1994) childhood matters: an introduction. in j. qvortrup, m. bardy, g. sgritta, and h. wintersberger (eds.), childhood matters: social theory, practice and politics (pp. 1–23). aldershot, uk: avebury press. robinson, c., & fielding, m. (2010). children and their primary schools: pupils’ voices. in r. alexander, c. doddington, j. gray, l. hargreaves, r. kershner (eds.), the cambridge primary review research surveys (pp. 17–48). cambridge, uk: routledge. rubin, d. (2018). adapting teaching strategies to arab student needs in an efl classroom. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 16-26. rudduck, j., & flutter, j. (2004). how to improve your school. london, uk: continuum. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4453269 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-873x.2009.00471.x journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 201-225 runco, m. (2010) divergent thinking, creativity, and ideation. in j. kaufman, & r. sternberg (eds.), the cambridge handbook of creativity. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. saljo, r. (2004). learning and technologies, people and tools in coordinated activities. international journal of educational research, 41(6), 489–94. retrieved from https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/elsevier/ samani, a. s. (2012). the impact of indoor lighting on students’ learning performance in learning environments: a knowledge internalization perspective. international journal of business and social science, 3(24), 127–36. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281146405 smith, a., & parr, m. (2007). young people’s views on the nature and purposes of physical education: a sociological analysis. sport, education & society, 12(1), 37–58. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/13573320601081526 spencer, e., lucas, b., & claxton, g. (2012). progression in creativity: a literature review. newcastle, uk: creativity, culture and education. retrieved from https://www.creativitycultureeducation.org/publication/ strauss, a. (1987). qualitative analysis for social scientists. new york, ny: cambridge university press. strauss, a., & corbin, j. (1998). basics of qualitative research. newbury park, ca: sage. suleman, q., aslam, h. d., javed, t., & hussain, i. (2011). barriers to the successful integration of educational technology in teaching learning process at secondary school level in khyber pakhtunkhwa, pakistan. international journal of research in it and management, 1(8), 97–119. tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/elsevier/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281146405 https://doi.org/10.1080/13573320601081526 https://www.creativitycultureeducation.org/publication/ https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 alnajdawi thomas, h. (2010). learning spaces, learning environments and the dis‘placement’ of learning. british journal of educational technology, 41(3), 502–11. retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00974.x valijarvi, j., & sahlberg, p. (2008). should ‘failing’ students repeat a grade? retrospective response from finland. journal of educational change, 9(4), 385–89. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225525256_ vygotsky, l. s. (1978). mind in society. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. wall, k. (2012). “it wasn’t too easy, which is good if you want to learn”: an exploration of pupil participation and learning to learn. the curriculum journal, 23(3), 283–305. watkins, c. (2010) learning, performance and improvement. international network for school improvement, 34, 1–15. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00974.x https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225525256_ tilman grammes & mehmet acikalin, www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(1), 1-40 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 qualitative data collection and interpretation: a turkish social studies lesson nitel veri toplama ve yorumlama: türkiye’den bir sosyal bilgiler dersi tilman grammes1 & mehmet açıkalın2 abstract the classroom with its teaching-learning dynamics creates a kind of “embryonic society” in which the micro-policies of collective social knowledge construction and meaning can be re-constructed; therefore, it can be considered as a kind of “mirror” of political culture. thus, comparative lesson research, which requires indepth classroom observation, has been getting much attention among educational community. on the other hand, there have not been done many studies that represent social studies and civics in particular, in this research tradition. naturally, this research tradition is based on qualitative research paradigm. likewise, qualitative research tradition has been getting increasing attention among educational community. thus, the first purpose of this article is to explain all documentation and pre-interpretation process of this lesson so that it can provide an example for qualitative researchers. the second purpose of this article is to provide an example lesson of political education from turkey so that educators worldwide can compare one example of social studies education practice in turkey and with their countries. keywords: social studies, qualitative data collection and interpretation, human rights introduction in a few countries there is a tradition of lesson research at school which is related to teaching or learning styles. but what about representing social studies and civics in particular, in this research strand? compared to math, turkish or english, the pisa subjects, social studies might be regarded as a “minor” subject that it is not worth paying attention. to discuss this issue, it might be useful to activate our social imagination for a moment: estimate the number of social studies lessons taught, e.g. in a country like turkey. social studies courses are taught three lessons a week from grades four to seven in turkey. according to current statistic provided by the ministry of national education there are almost five and half million students from grades four to seven in turkey and they are taught in more than 200 000 classrooms (milli eğitim bakanlığı [ministry of national education], 2016). this results in 600 000 social studies lessons a week, 21.6 million lessons a year! if civics topics in a narrower sense attain 10% in the social studies teaching/curriculum, it still means 2 100 000 civics lessons are taught in turkey/a year. this number could be achieved easily as the role of 1 prof. dr., universität hamburg, tilman.grammes@uni-hamburg.de 2 assoc. prof. dr., istanbul university, acikalin@istanbul.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 2 civic, global perspective and media literacy increasing in social studies education in turkey (see ayas, 2015; çulha-özbaş & güryay, 2014; günel & pehlivan, 2015; öcal & yakar, 2015). even in a worst case scenario where 50% of the lessons are cancelled due to illness, lack of qualified teachers, and several other reasons the sheer number would remain more than one million which is very powerful. according to john dewey (1915) the classroom with its teaching-learning dynamics creates a kind of “embryonic society” in which the micro-policies of collective social knowledge construction and meaning can be re-constructed. as a “mirror of political culture” (schmidt, 2011) a lesson can reveal the macro dimensions in the micro. therefore, it is expected that a single social studies lesson recorded from turkey (açıkalın, 2014), which we are going to discuss in this article, can reflect not only educational norms and practice but also the civic attitudes, civic culture (almond & verba, 1989), and social life of the society in turkey. tradition and state of art but do we know what is going on in these classrooms systematically and in detail? today, as a frame of research, comparative research in the field of democratic citizenship and civic education around the world “seems to undergone an explosion of interest” (levinson, 2011; hahn, 2010). however, most studies are limited only with what we would like to call the “hardware” of political education which refers to the conditions of educational policies and educational systems, the “input” of related normative documents, and the “output” of measured student competencies. this limitation to the outer side of political education applies to a far extent to the recent international studies such as: international civic and citizenship study [iccs] by international association for the evaluation of educational achievement [iea]. (2009). a new iccs study is about to start in 2016 (iea, 2016), the eurydice network [eurydice] (education, audiovisual and culture executive agency [eacea], 2012), citizenship educational longitudinal study in united kingdom [cels] (national foundation for educational research [nfer], 2010; kerr, 2008), ethnic differences in education and diverging prospects for urban youth in an enlarged europe [eudmigrom], (2008), a comparative investigation in ethnically diverse communities with second-generation migrants and roma youth, which provides tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 3 numerous observation related to formal and informal citizenship teaching in czech, denmark, france, germany, hungary, romania, slovakia, sweden and uk. we have numerous research about intended curriculum (input) on the one hand, and student performance and competencies (“outcome”) on the other. in contrast, the so called “software” of citizenship education, the inner side of the teaching-learning-processes within a social studies lesson or in informal learning situations, are neither documented nor interpreted. thus, the situation in a minor subject like social studies is far beyond from research in a main subject such as math or the foreign languages. here, the timss’s (the trends in international mathematics and science study) (1999) video study established a benchmark for research in all other school subjects. the timss video study provides a comparative study of eighth-grade mathematics and science teaching in seven countries. the study involved videotaping and analysing teaching practices in more than one thousand (!) classrooms (leung, graf, & lopez-real, 2006). in subject matter lesson research, there are a few countries in the world, which provide a specific tradition (hudson & meyer, 2011). among them is germany. due to its history with a totalitarian nazi state, this appeal to civics [politische bildung, in german language] is particular (state of the art: reinhardt, 2015). starting in 1980’s, in a few so called “video books”, a single civics lesson has been documented and reflected with the following order (gagel, grammes, & unger, 1992): lesson plan of the teacher (topic: asylum seeking in germany) full verbatim protocol stimulated recall 3 with a) teacher b) student group reflections by leading subject matter educators, which deliver multiple perspectives on the lesson experience from use of the lesson document in teacher training, including recommendations for “culture of conversation” regarding such documents. in addition to the book, a full video tape (vhs) of the lesson can be obtained. in turkey, we could identify only a few published verbatim protocols, so far (see çoşkun-keskin, 2007; kılınç, 2014) and the one we are going to discuss in this article (açıkalın, 2014). sevgi çoşkun-keskin studied empathy based teaching in social studies classrooms and as a main data collection method for her dissertation study, she video recorded 3 until now, we did not make use of stimulated recall in the lesson research reported here. for method and possibilities of triangulation see busse & borromeo ferri (2003). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 4 and documented several social studies’ lessons. in a more recent master thesis regarding student question asking skills in social studies lessons, güneş kılınç also video recorded and documented more than thirty course hour social studies’ lessons. with regard to comparative lesson research in the subject matter field of social studies, the study of schiffauer, baumann, kastoryano, & vertovec (2002) gives a research paradigm. as a milestone in research, this study has been published bilingually, there is an english as well as a german edition, so it becomes really accessible for international comparative scientific community in the field. a team of four social scientists spend a whole term/year in a secondary school to take ethnographic field notes, as videography is regarded sceptically as interfering in the field. the study schools were chosen in metropolitan regions in berlin, london, paris, and rotterdam. two researches from different countries always stayed at one school together; within the research team a constant international exchange about the field notes was organized. as qualitative research methodology, an inspiring mixed method strategy with participant observation, document analysis of guidelines and textbooks, individual and group interviews with headmasters, teachers as well as with students was used. these observations were summed up to well readable reports and imaginative portraits of the school’s citizenship culture. focus of observation is the performance of so called “turkish” student/youth in those urban schools. lesson research in a narrower sense is delivered in the chapter about strategies of argumentation, which differs in the british, dutch, french and german classroom significantly. this is shown in short scenic documentation and vignettes from student discussion moments in the classroom.4 in turkey, comparative education became apparent as an academic field just around 1960’ (erdoğan, 2003; genç-sel, 2004), although there had been numerous attempts to investigate and observe european educational systems by turkish educators in the past. many turkish educators had been sent to european countries since the late ottoman and early republic era to observe schools and interact with international educators (erdoğan, 2003; genç-sel, 2004). although some of the educators stayed in these countries for months, it seems that they mostly collected information about educational and schools’ systems – what we call the ‘hardware’ of education of these countries. although they observed several classrooms and took notes and reported their impressions, all the reports do not seem to be indepth by including what was practiced in the classroom as mostly they were interested in the general structure of educational systems of these countries and wanted to import some parts of 4 there are a few more examples in the didactical research tradition, for example the study of nonnenmacher (2008), observing teaching units about migration in four countries, italy, france, uk and germany. tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 5 these systems. according to genç-sel (2004), these attempts of modeling educational systems of other countries have not been able to enrich the educational system in turkey as the local and cultural aspects were not taken under consideration. as stated above, there have only been a few lesson protocol studies done to date and even less studies with a comparative perspective. to overcome this deficit of research, the journal of social science education took an initiative and published a number of themed issues focusing on teaching practice in civic and political education from different parts of the world (see grammes, 2010; bruen & grammes, 2014a, 2014b). this civic social studies lesson that is going to be the focus of this paper was also documented and published in one of these themed issues. thus, the first purpose of this article is to provide an example lesson regarding the “software” of political education from turkey so that educators worldwide can compare one example of civics/political education practice in turkey and with their countries. in order to do that a social studies lesson about human rights was recorded, fully transcribed, and presented in both turkish and english versions for the readers (açıkalın, 2014). the second purpose of this article is to explain all documentation and pre-interpretation process of this lesson so that it can provide an example for qualitative researchers. thus, this study might not be a classical comparative education study like the ones cited in the former section. nevertheless, a fully transcribed lesson, as provided in this study, can reflect not only educational norms and practice but also the civic attitudes, civic culture (almond & verba, 1989) of a country and can be a “mirror of political culture” (schmidt, 2011). therefore, it is expected that the content of the documented lesson itself would be source of comparisons for educators worldwide. moreover, we see this lesson research tradition in this paper as an opportunity to describe and discuss the documentation and interpretation process of qualitative research. how to conduct qualitative lesson research there is a three-step research process for qualitative lesson research: documentation and archiving (representation of practice, creating data corpus) understanding of meaning interpretation documentation and archiving: in this three-step process, the first step, the re-presentation and documentation of social practices, is completely underestimated or even ignored in educational research. in fact, documentation is not only about “collecting information” as it is journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 6 sometimes understood but also about observation which is very crucial for qualitative lesson research. documentation of a full lesson can be done either by observation and field notes/report, voice, stills, or video recording. if possible, video recording is preferred as it allows researcher(s) to see body languages of the teacher and students and may provide clues on the physical and psychological atmosphere of the classroom. video recording of a whole lesson session is more complicated than it seems. first of all, the video cam must see the whole classroom, the students, and the teacher. using more than one camera is a good idea in order to take visual from different angels. also, all voices must be recorded. thus, the camera must have the capacity and be located in a suitable spot to get all voices in the classroom. there is new classroom video technology which provides a single microphone not only to the teacher, but to each (!) individual student, making cooperative phases of group work accessible to detailed documentation and interpretation; or allowing the learning process of a single student during a teaching/curriculum unit to be tracked (see kuno & ikura, 2014). after getting good quality (visual and audio) recoding, the next step is the transcription process. transcription must be done word by word and always requires careful watching and listening several times for precise wording. visual aids would also help the researcher(s) in the transcription process to identify the students who commented and talked in the classroom and the attitudes of students and the teacher. by viewing the full recorded video many times, researcher(s) could explain students’ or teachers’ actions such as nodding, smiling, or raising a hand within the brackets. thus, transcription process must be very thorough. archiving qualitative data through a lesson transcript also requires careful organization and planning. especially, if you have numerous lesson videos and other documents such as classroom observation notes and interviews archiving could be messy. so, all documents must be dated and have indexical information, page numbers, and so on. also, researchers must find a system to organize all voice and visual recording, and all documents such as lesson/activity plans, classroom observation or other field notes in files or folders so that when they need to reexamine the specific source they can track them back easily. understanding of meaning: when interpreting qualitative data such as lesson or interview transcripts understanding the exact meaning of the words can sometimes be tricky. especially, if you need to translate the transcript to another language, providing appropriate meanings of the words becomes much more complicated. nevertheless, when you read a transcript even in your own language, words may not always provide the exact meaning of the participants. in tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 7 this case, we may understand what the participant meant by interpreting his/her body language. another way to make the reader to understand the meaning of what happened in the classroom is to provide contextual information in the details. this is called rich or “thick” description (lincoln & guba, 1985) which allows the reader to enter the research context. in this description, additional information like still photos, notes on the blackboard, handouts (learning materials, textbook sources …) and gendered seating plan are necessary to provide for readers. if students should remain anonymous or no “right of picture” is given, a good solution can be a sketch. the researcher must describe the participant’s background, school, and classroom context in a very detailed way in order to give the reader as much contextual information as possible, (lincoln & guba, 1985; merriam, 1998; patton, 2003; yıldırım & şimşek, 2013) which may help the reader to understand the meaning in the lesson protocol. interpretation: interpretation of the qualitative data like other processes of qualitative research is a prerequisite rich process. the nature of interpretation remains subjective as long as it is not carefully embedded within an explicit theoretical framework which makes the interpretation process almost always argumentative. no interpretation without making theoretical assumptions is explicit! nevertheless, researchers / interpreters must be aware and identify their subjectivity in order to increase the trustworthiness of the research (creswell, 2013; glesne, 1999; peshkin, 1988). peshkin (1988) states that “researchers should systematically identify their subjectivity throughout the course of research” (p. 17). basically, in reading exactly the same text, two different people may reach completely opposite conclusions. one reason is every person has a different cultural and educational background and personality. we are going to discuss and exemplify how interpretation could be so different in the following sections when presenting the comments of social studies educators about the lesson protocol coming from different parts of the world. nevertheless, it must be noted that the power of the comments lie in providing evidence that support it from the protocol and it’s context. thus, just reaching a conclusion by quoting the protocol is not sufficient. we also need to provide candid evidence for the conclusion and explain the process and idea behind it. criterion of quality: documentation there is no "typical" turkish civics lesson, and this one that we are discussing definitely is not! although it is not possible to say this single lesson can “represent” all elements of the turkish society and educational culture – in fact, a single document/case does not represent anything else as itself it allows various different ideas and perspectives to be journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 8 identified from the lesson. thus, applying a qualitative research method is exploratory, which seems reasonable in this case as our initial purpose is to understand or at least get familiar with the various types and styles of turkish social studies education practice and civic lesson culture. this single case can be used for exploration and heuristic, creating a hypothesis for further more systematic research. the following case study of a single civics lesson is explorative. this means, no “regular” research has been done so far, but the necessary steps towards it. the task is to gain/develop questions for further and more systematic research on a broader corpus of lessons. this also can be considered as “qualitative heuristic” research which is based on systematic exploration and discovery in psychological and sociological research (kleining & witt, 2000). the documented lesson was recorded in a 7th grade social studies [sosyal bilgiler] classroom. the lesson was videotaped/recorded in march 2013 and two cameras were used for recording. the lesson topic was about human rights which is a core topic in social studies education. the topic has also been part of the school development programs by the council of europe and the other organizations’ projects in turkey (arat, 2007; council of europe [coe], 2011-2014; the european wergeland centre, 2014) – thus it can be regarded as a representation of “official knowledge” (apple, 2000) and therefore of specific relevance. this topic was selected because it is a common topic often associated with social studies and civic education curricula worldwide. therefore, presenting a social studies lesson with a topic of “human rights” might be easier for teachers and scholars worldwide to follow and understand as the content has a prominent position in world curriculum (see meyer, bromley, & ramirez, 2010). also, this lesson might be more valuable for teachers and scholars worldwide as it provides an opportunity to show how this universal topic is constructed / taught in a turkish educational context and allows them to compare this lesson bearing in mind their countries’ educational contexts. criterion of research ethics questions concerning research ethics arouse from the very beginning, when you try to get access to the field. the establishing of a stable, trustful relationship between schools, teachers, and a research team requires more than one attempt in most cases, until a mutual agreement for recording is given. a pro-active procedure can be to make the teacher visible as member of the research team, e.g. by including/naming in the authorship. in our case, all commentaries, which we are discussing in the following sections, agree in the admiration of tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 9 the teacher, mr. engin yolcu, the true hero of our project. all commentaries praise him for his courage to open the doors of his classroom for an international anonymous audience which might be very critical. as a fundamental ethics rule we completed all the required research permission processes before recording the lesson. first we submitted a detailed research protocol to the school district to obtain research permission. we also obtained written consent from the parents of the students to complete the permission process. students’ faces are unrevealed during video recording. although we had all the required permissions, we preferred to locate the cameras at the back of the classroom so that cameras did not view students’ faces. students’ identity is also concealed. pseudonyms are used instead of students’ real names, but gender is noted. criterion of quality: translation in qualitative research methodology in social and educational science, highly sophisticated systems of notation for the video material have been proposed. nevertheless, we preferred a simple verbatim protocol first. lesson study researchers should always keep in mind that this procedure inevitably causes a reduction of the original material anyway! regarding translation, it is extremely important to validate the transcript (verbatim protocol) in the original language first by a controlling group, before starting the translation process into the target language, english (bittner & günther, 2013). it is not at all professional to make a verbatim protocol from a lesson in turkish directly into english. in order to keep processes of translation transparent for other researchers and for later secondary analysis, the bi-lingual re-presentation of the material is highly recommended, as we did in the journal of social science education (but it is not the international standard at all!). translation has to be proofed, counseled, and validated by two native speakers from each of the languages. in our case, the turkish and english versions of the social studies lesson texts were edited several times by dr. jenifer bruen who has academic degrees in english language teaching and yasemin çidem who is a native turkish speaker and has an undergraduate english teaching degree. here is an excerpt from the protocol of the lesson. turkish english ö: en akıllı canlı… en akıllı canlı. hem canlı olması gerekiyor hem de akıllı olması gerekiyor. öyle mi? peki en akıllı canlı insan. peki insan diğer varlıklardan veya t: the smartest living being! so, it must be “a living being” and “smart” at the same time. is it like that? … ok. the smartest living being. so is the human being different journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 10 diğer yaratılmışlardan farklı mıdır? yavuz: evet. ö: farklıdır. ne diyoruz bunun için? hem kuranda da var bu. ne diyor? veya diğer dinlerin kutsal kitaplarında da var. kuran‘da ne diyor? eşrefi… mahlukat. nedir? mahluk… yaratılmışların, mahlukların en şereflisi. bu şeref onlara nereden veriliyor?… düşünceden. peki insan… insan hakları nelerdir? from other species and living beings? yavuz: yes. t: ok. they are different. what do we call this? it is also in the koran. what does it say? or it is also in other religions’ holy books. what does it say in the koran? it says the human being is the most honorable creature in the world [eşrefi mahlukat]. where does this honor come from?... from their [humans’] thinking. ok, human… what are human rights? several issues came up during the translation process especially about the picking up of the most appropriate words that represent the meaning. here are some examples of these struggles. in turkey, usually students address their teachers not by their names, but by using the word hocam [my teacher]. this salutation is used 31 times during the lesson. it has been decided, not to translate this form of addressing literally as this would cause another meaning and impression in english. there were also other words used frequently in the transcripts. one of them was “başka?” [what else?]. the teacher used this word 42 times in the lesson in order to elicit various answers from his students. as it can be seen from the verbatim protocol (açıkalın, 2014), the teacher used a question & answer method extensively. thus, he asked students “başka?” many times. another extensively used word was “şey” [something/thing]. it was used 39 times in this lesson. it is both difficult and easy to translate this word in a sentence. “şey” can be used as a substitute word for almost any word in turkish. thus, in most cases, “şey” translated as “something” or “thing”. but in some cases we had to omit the word from the english translation. more information for the reader about translation or context can always be added within brackets. to secure quality in translation, the “politics” of translation as invisible/hidden decisions/assumptions must be kept visible. here, another common trap/mistake in educational research aims at finally “solving” problems of translation. this might be useful in the translation of fiction. in social sciences, it is better to document problems of translation in transparency, giving alternative reading options and the pro and con arguments as well as the final decision about the translation. this can be done by giving the alternative translation in tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 11 [brackets], footnotes (as not to disturb the reading flow), or even by providing a glossary for readers.5 outline and structure of the lesson the teacher started the lesson by asking what human rights meant to the students. for most of the lesson the teachers asked the students questions and got answers from them which were shortly evaluated by the teacher again. the key points discussed in the lesson are listed below (açıkalın, 2014): various human rights such as the “right to settle /shelter”, “right to vote and get elected” human rights violations and racial discrimination violence towards women (march 8 ‐ international women’s day) modern colonization (some students believe that the u.s.a. exploits other countries such as afghanistan and iraq.) the right to life and how this right can be violated (wars, blood revenge, assassination, and murder, etc.) the right to receive healthcare, property rights, and the right to travel the right to communicate (tapping phones illegally: teacher gave the life of howard zinn as an example for that. when howard zinn wrote his autobiography, he asked the fbi for his personal file which included all of his telephone conversations and other forms of communication, everything related to his life.) discrimination between rich and poor (teacher gave example of police searching random teenagers on the street and he suspected that the police specifically chose these boys mostly because of their poor clothing and appearance.) violation of private life (paparazzi shows) according to the timss reference study mentioned above, lesson/teaching style is regarded as the focus of comparative interpretative lesson research. the teacher, mr. yolcu, acted/performed a lesson plan mostly focused on lecturing, and he used his notes many times during the lesson. tentatively, this can be called “teaching as preaching” and could be explained by internal cultural teaching habits. this view of the commentaries would validate 5 the european wergeland center in oslo launched the clear project (concept learning for empowerment through analysis and reflection formerly known as the intercultural glossary project) to provide an online resource for education professionals. it facilitates discussions around such key concepts, as well as methods for the study of concepts: www.theewc.org/content/resources/clear.project/ www.clear-project.net/ http://www.theewc.org/content/resources/clear.project/ http://www.clear-project.net/ journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 12 a prior characteristics of turkish lesson/teaching style as “targeted/purposeful presentation of the content knowledge without discussion” (niermann, 1990, pp. 83.) and as a “method to install the new (knowledge)” (pp.110). in fact, this notion of teaching has been challenged by implementing curriculum reforms and introducing student centered pedagogy in turkish schools while turkish teachers are still struggling with this transition (altinyelken, 2011; nohl & somel, 2015). dialog: negotiation of the commentators as a next step, we established a second layer of interpretational level: three educators with different cultural backgrounds were invited to give feedback/ their first impression on the protocol of this human rights lesson. each educator provided their comments independently and these comments were published in the following issue of the journal of social science education (see kesten, brodsky-schur, & gürsoy, 2014). reading the commentaries, it is fascinating and a kind of productive irritation to see the multiplicity and extensity of comments that can be given for a single social studies lesson. nevertheless, when we look at the diversity of the reviewers, it helps us to understand the reason behind the variety of the comments and multiple perspectives: one of the reviewers is a turkish social studies professor (alper kesten), the other is an american educator (joan brodsky schur), and the last one is a teacher in germany with turkish descent (kudret gürsoy). all three reviewers commented on this particular social studies lesson from very different perspectives as all they have diverse cultural and educational background. while each reviewer highlighted very different aspects of the lesson, in some cases they share very similar opinions about the lesson. in some cases, they viewed and interpreted the same facts in the lesson very different from each other. this is the power of the qualitative research perspective, as one single protocol may receive various comments –often times opposing commentsthat make it possible for us to see multiple aspects of the lesson. observation and judgement of the reviewers depends on theoretical framework that they conceived for this lesson and this cannot be seen not clearer than here. all commentaries agreed that the lesson started about giving general “information” about human rights, taking a deductive approach from general definition to case application and not using an inductive approach from case to the general terms. some in depth discussion even appears about various human rights violations during that lesson. the case discussion seems to be continued in the second lesson which is documented but not yet commented on. it seems clear that the main goal of the teacher was to have his students grasp the principal tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 13 concepts of human rights by using lecturing and questions & answers teaching strategies. this whole goal and the strategies could be criticized when considering the educational context in the united states or germany. for instance, schur pointed out that a lesson on the same topic in the united states would be more than defining and listing human rights. she states that “what makes the american context different is that the discussion would be based on helping students to understand the founding documents in u.s. history, the declaration of independence from great britain…” (p.150). similarly, gürsoy pointed out a number of times where the lesson was lacking intensive discussion. here a couple of excerpts from gürsoy: “… the teacher does not provide an opportunity to deal more intensively with the issue” (p.155); “the teacher does not discuss the issues presented in detail” (p.155). nevertheless, prof. kesten indicated that turkish teachers had to deal with an extensive work load and overpopulated classrooms, which could be considered one of the main reasons that teachers in turkey come to class unprepared. on the other hand, kesten acknowledged that this particular teacher was well prepared and organized for this particular lesson. kesten also criticized the teacher for not writing the human rights concepts on the blackboard. he stated that “… the teacher simply enumerating human rights concepts one after another could lead to long-term problems for the students grasping them. as the saying goes ‘verba volant, scripta manent’ i.e. ‘word fly away, writing remain’” (p.148). thus, what we can see that all three reviewers agreed that this lesson is a content based lesson, while schur and gürsoy specially pointed out the topic should have also covered more primary documents and included in-depth discussion about human rights. however, kesten was more interested in improving the teacher’s teaching strategy by encouraging him to use the blackboard for the listing of human right concepts. we believe this discrepancy between the reviewers is mostly based on which educational context they take under consideration when writing their commentaries. another noteworthy criticism about the lesson comes from kudret gürsoy as his impression is that the teacher overwhelmingly controls the lesson and the classroom interaction process. the reasons behind this situation can be found in schur and kesten’s reactions. although neither of them had not known about gürsoy’s comment, they kind of provided some answers or explanations to this comment. this is an interesting example that shows how subjectivity of observer plays role in qualitative research, since theoretical framework of interpretation is not made explicit. the quote from the üsküdar american academy (üsküdar amerikan lisesi) website conveyed by schur can explain this phenomenon. “turkish students are conditioned from an early age to respect authority … journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 14 students are used to, and are more comfortable with, traditional teacher directed learning” (p. 151). thus, as this quote indicated turkish students generally are very comfortable with their teachers controlling the lesson. carl rogers (1994) called this a “tourist classroom”, instead of a (active participating) “citizen classroom”. however, schur also pointed out that she is puzzled as to why students in this class do not ask questions while american students ask frequently, even sometimes to an annoying degree. the answer is in the former quote from the üsküdar american academy website and kesten’s commentary. kesten stated that “in line with their role traditionally cut out by society teachers continue to see themselves as imparting the right knowledge, and the students as storing that information for later use. as a result of this, students’ talking time in the classroom drops to very low levels. even more significantly some students resign themselves to not talking or participating at all in the long run” (p.147). controversy between the commentators this brings us to the students’ participation issue which is interpreted very dissimilarly by the reviewers. prof. kesten in his review stated that “the analysis of the classroom data suggests that the pupils participate at least as much as the teacher, and express their views in total freedom. throughout the lesson students had a chance to bring their experiences and opinions into the classroom freely and to link their experiences with lesson and general human rights problems in turkey” (p.146). on the contrary, kudret gürsoy believes that the teacher dominated the whole classroom conversation as he counted the number of words spoken by the teacher and students. the teacher achieves 3,000 words (83.2 %) and the students achieve 607 words (16.8 %). accordingly, gürsoy stated that “… i assume that frequently the teacher implicitly and sometimes, by way of his statements, explicitly controls the lesson. in that case the teacher is the one who controls communication and interaction process” (p. 155). we must consider why two different reviewers had precisely opposing comments on the same protocol/source/document. this could be based on several aspects such as cultural background or educational beliefs. nevertheless, we must also think about the relativity based on the educational context and the relativity that set the expectations implicit educational theory (teaching and learning concepts, concept of knowledge, concept of “knowledge transmission” and so on). we may assume that prof. kesten, knowledgeable about the context in turkey, compares this particular lesson and the teacher with the mainstream social studies lessons and fellow turkish teachers. as a result of this comparison, he evaluates this lesson as tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 15 very successful in terms of students’ participation. on the other hand, gürsoy considering the participating classroom environment and students’ attitudes in german cities like hamburg, he sets his expectation levels more critically which influences his comments about the lesson. finally, despite certain weaknesses, this lesson was generally found to be quite “successful” by the reviewers, avoiding a “rhetoric of dismay”, which can often be found in lesson practice reviews. conclusion – no interpretation without explicit theory/no judging before description a more ethnographic approach would take the alienation and productive irritation caused via comparative approach into serious account and attempt understanding the logic of social practice, the performative and visible structure of teaching and learning, while avoiding a “rhetoric of dismay” by hastily judging or even bashing teachers and students as being insufficient in some way. thus, in regards to qualitative research methodology, the three commentaries reveal common traps of interpretation: nationalization: the commentators generally characterized or considered this lesson as a “typical” turkish lesson. so this brings us to the question of “what is characteristic of a ‘typical’ social studies lesson?” it is hard to answer this question, and everybody may have different opinions about judging whether the features of this particular lesson are “typical”. so, this is another question “what is typical for social studies lessons in turkey and what is not?” as it is impossible to document a typical lesson – as there is none! , researchers should instead concentrate on documenting the varieties of teaching styles. thus, as qualitative researchers we should avoid reaching a firm conclusion or trying to find a “correct” place for a lesson in a scale of typical lessons or such. rather, we must document and present all evidence thoroughly (interviews, observation etc.) in order to encourage discussions and interpretations about the documents among the educational community. culturalization: there might be a tendency to depict turkish lessons as “typical” muslim education culture, e.g. the teachers’ remark about “what the koran says” which refers to the authority of a holy book. perhaps the proposal to name the teaching style as “teaching as preaching” is a kind of culturalization exoticization: this approach regards a lesson document as “strange” and “alien”, but interesting and fascinating as such. as a result, only differences are stressed against similarities in comparison. on the level of lesson style, a different code/coding of activities of listening and speaking, of attentiveness and performance can be observed according to the mode of so journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 16 called “democratic” speaking. different perceptions and comments can be explained with different expectations and research interests, which are applied to the individual case (study). whilst kesten, against the background and experience with standard lesson culture in turkey, judges this lesson as progressive. however, the expectations of gürsoy and schur, coming from backgrounds of german or american classroom culture experiences, are different and more oriented towards student participation. the latter leads them to a deficit of perspective (a modest trap) in their interpretation. as the authors of this article we may be asked in one of the international symposium on social studies education [uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu usbes], which is the prominent social studies education conference in turkey, by a foreign researcher for a video of a “typical” turkish social studies lesson. or, supposedly, during a european council international project on democratic learning a colleague from the netherlands or italy might kindly ask one of us how a lesson in turkey is conducted. in these cases, it would be nice and a professional courtesy if we could give him/her examples of verbatim protocol or even video from three different lessons, regions, topics, or teaching styles. thus, it would be nice to be able to refer these colleagues to institutions such as the scientific and technological research council of turkey [tubitak] or any similar agency assuming these agencies have archives containing various documented lesson examples. in that sense, we would like to promote a qualitative research paradigm in lesson documentation research. references açıkalın, m. (2014). a social studies education lesson from turkey: human rights. journal of social science education, 13(1), 82-107. doi: 10.2390/jsse-v13-i1-1315 ayas, c. (2015). the role of media in geography courses from the perspectives of pre-service social studies teachers. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 172-189. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17499/jsser.62774 almond, g., & verba, s. (1989). the civic culture: political attitudes and democracy in five nations. newbury park, ca: sage. altinyelken, h. k. (2011). student‐centred pedagogy in turkey: conceptualizations, interpretations and practices. journal of education policy, 26(2), 137-160, doi: 10.1080/02680939.2010.504886 apple, m. w. (2000). official knowledge: democratic knowledge in a conservative age (2nd ed.). new york: routledge. arat, z.f. k. (2007). human rights in turkey. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. http://dx.doi.org/10.17499/jsser.62774 tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 17 bittner, m., & günther, m. (2013). verstehensprozesse in interkulturellen forschungsgruppen -übersetzung als eine herausforderung qualitativer forschung [processes of understanding in intercultural research teamstranslation as a challenge to qualitative research]. in r.bettmann & m. roslon (eds.), going the distance (pp.185-201). wiesbaden: springer. bruen, j., & grammes, t. (2014a). insights into citizenship classrooms: the art of documentation & description [special issue]. journal of social science education, 13(1). doi: 10.2390/jsse-v13-i1-1339 bruen, j., & grammes, t. (2014b). the social sciences in higher education [special issue]. journal of social science education, 13(2). doi: 10.2390/jsse-v13-i2-1383 busse, a. & borromeo ferri, r. (2003). methodological reflections on a three-step-design combining observation, stimulated recall and interview. zentralblatt für didaktik der mathematik, 35(6), 257-264. coşkun-keskin, s. (2007). sosyal bilgiler derslerinde empati becerilerine dayalı öğretim tekniklerinin kullanılması [use of education techniques which is based on empathy skills in social studies]. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi [unpublished doctoral dissertation], marmara university, istanbul council of europe [coe] (2011-2014). democratic citizenship and human rights education in turkey. retrieved from http://www.edchreturkey-eu.coe.int/description_en.asp creswell, j. w. (2013). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (3rd. ed.). los angeles: sage. çulha-özbaş, b., & güryay, b. (2014). can social studies and language lessons be integrated via global education? english language teacher candidates’ perceptions. procedia – social and behavioral sciences, 116, 1132-1136. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.357 dewey, j. (1915). school and society. chicago: the university of chicago press. education, audiovisual and culture executive agency [eacea]. (2012). eurydice: better knowledge for better policies. retrieved from http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice erdoğan, i̇. (2003). karşılaştırmalı eğitim: türk eğitim bilim çalışmaları içinde önemsenmesi gereken bir alan [comparative education: an important field in turkish educational science studies]. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi [turkish educational science journal], 1(3), retrieved from http://www.tebd.gazi.edu.tr/index.php/tebd/article/view/143 eudmigrom (2008). ethnic differences in education and diverging prospects for urban youth in an enlarged europe. retrieved from www.edumigrom.eu gagel, w., grammes, t., & unger, a. (eds.) (1992). politikdidaktik praktisch. ein videobuch [didactics of civics a practical approach. a video book.] schwalbach: wochenschau. genç-sel, v. (2004, temmuz). dünyada ve türkiye’de karşılaştırmalı eğitim: kavram, kapsam ve eğilimler [comparative education in turkey and the world: concept, scope and tendencies]. xiii. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kurultayı [paper presented xiii. national http://www.edchreturkey-eu.coe.int/description_en.asp http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.357 http://www.tebd.gazi.edu.tr/index.php/tebd/article/view/143 http://www.edumigrom.eu/ journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 18 educational science convention], i̇nönü üniversitesi, türkiye de sunulmuştur. retrieved from https://pegem.net/dosyalar/dokuman/344.pdf glesne, c. (1999). becoming qualitative researchers: an introduction (2nd ed.). new york: longman. grammes, t. (2010). qualitative research – voices from civic education classrooms [special issue]. journal of social science education, 9(3). doi: 10.2390/jsse-v9-i3-1138 günel, e., & pehlivan, a. (2015). examining the citizenship and democracy education textbook and curriculum in terms of global education. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 123-171. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17499/jsser.88468 hahn, c. (2010). comparative civic education research: what we know and what we need to know. citizenship teaching and learning, 6(1), 5-23. hudson, b.,& meyer, m. (2011). beyond fragmentation. didactics, learning and teaching in europe. opladen /farmington hills: barbara budrich. international association for the evaluation of educational achievement [iea]. (2009). international civic and citizenship study [iccs]. retrieved from http://www.iea.nl/iccs_2009.html international association for the evaluation of educational achievement [iea]. (2016). international civic and citizenship study [iccs]. retrieved from www.iea.nl/iccs_2016.html kerr, d. (2008). research on citizenship education in europe: a survey. in v. b. georgi (ed.), the making of citizens in europe: new perspectives on citizenship education (pp.167-178). bonn: bundeszentrale für politische bildung. kesten, a., brodsky-schur, j.,& gürsoy, k. (2014). teaching human rights in turkey: commentaries on a single lesson from multiple perspectives. journal of social science education, 13(2), 147-156. doi: 10.2390/jsse-v13-i2-1381 kılınç, g. (2014). sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sınıf içi ders işleme sürecindeki soru sorma becerileri: bir durum çalışması [questioning skills of social studies teachers during teaching: a case study]. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi [unpublished master thesis], sakarya university, sakarya. kleining, g. & witt, (2000). the qualitative heuristic approach: a methodology for discovery in psychology and the social sciences: rediscovering the method of introspection as an example. forum qualitative sozialforschung [forum: qualitative social research], 1(1), article 13, retrieved from http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0001136 kuno, h., & ikura, g. (2014). investigating society “close‐up”: a case‐study of an individual student, yumiko, and the construction of a footbridge on route 419. journal on social studies education, 13(2), 87-103. doi: 10.2390/jsse‐v14‐i2‐1368 leung, f., graf, k. d., & lopez-real, f. (eds.). (2006). mathematics education in different cultural traditions. a comparative study of east asia and the west. new york: springer. https://pegem.net/dosyalar/dokuman/344.pdf http://dx.doi.org/10.17499/jsser.88468 http://www.iea.nl/iccs_2009.html http://www.iea.nl/iccs_2016.html http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0001136 tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 19 levinson, b. (2011). toward an anthropology of (democratic) citizenship education. in b. levinson & m. pollock (eds.), a companion to the anthropology of education (pp.279298). hoboken: wiley-blackwell. lincoln, y. s., & guba, e. g. (1985). naturalistic inquiry. newbury park, ca: sage. merriam, s. b. (1998). qualitative research and case study applications in education: revised and expanded from case study research in education. san francisco: jossey-bass. meyer, j. w., bromley, p., & ramirez, f. o. (2010). human rights in social science textbooks: cross-national analyses, 1970–2008. sociology of education, 83(2), 111-134. doi: 10.1177/0038040710367936 milli eğitim bakanlığı [ministry of national education]. (2016). milli eğitim istatistikleri: örgün eğitim 2015 / 16 [national education statistics: formal education 2015 /16]. ankara: yazar [author]. retrieved from http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/icerik_goruntule.php?kno=232 national foundation for educational research [nfer]. (2010). citizenship educational longitudinal study in uk [cels]. retrieved from www.nfer.ac.uk/research/projects/cels/ niermann, j. (1990). methoden des lehrens und lernens in türkischen schulen [methods of teaching and learning in schools in turkey]. köln: önel-verlag. nohl, a. m., & somel, r. n. (2015). education and social dynamics: a multilevel analysis of curriculum change in turkey. new york: routledge. nonnenmacher, f. (2008). unterricht und lernkulturen. eine international vergleichende feldstudie zum themenbereich migration. [teaching and learning cultures. an international comparative field study on the lessons’ topic migration]. schwalbach: wochenschau. öcal, a., & yakar, h. (2015). 1968-2005 sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarında küresel farkındalık eğitimi [global awareness education in 1968-2005 social studies curriculums]. abant i̇zzet baysal üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, [abant izzet baysal university journal of faculty of education]15(1), 307-327. retrieved from http://www.efdergi.ibu.edu.tr/index.php/efdergi/article/view/1786/2777 patton, m. q. (2003).qualitative research & evaulation methods (3rd. ed). thousand oaks: sage. peshkin, a. (1988). in search of subjectivity – one’s own. educational researcher, 17(2), 1722. reinhardt, s. (2015). teaching civics. a manual for secondary education teachers. london: barbara budrich. rogers, c. (1994). freedom to learn in the 80s (3rd edition). columbus: charles merrill. http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/icerik_goruntule.php?kno=232 http://www.nfer.ac.uk/research/projects/cels/ http://www.efdergi.ibu.edu.tr/index.php/efdergi/article/view/1786/2777 journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 20 schiffauer, w., baumann, g., kastoryano, r.,& vertovec, s. (eds.).(2002). civil enculturation, nation-state, school and ethnic difference in four european countries. oxford/new york: berghahn. schmidt, c. (2011). politische bildung als spiegel politischer kultur? ein deutschfranzösischer vergleich [political education as a mirror of political culture? a germanfrench comparison]. marburg: verlag. the european wergeland centre (2014). generation democracy. retrieved from http://www.theewc.org/news/view/generation.democracy/ the trends in international mathematics and science study [timms]. (1999). the timss video study. retrieved from www.timssvideo.com/timss-video-study yıldırım, a., & şimşek, h. (2013). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (9. baskı) [qualitative research methods in social sciences]. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. http://www.theewc.org/news/view/generation.democracy/ http://www.timssvideo.com/timss-video-study tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 21 nitel veri toplama ve yorumlama: türkiye’ den bir sosyal bilgiler dersi qualitative data collection and interpretation: a turkish social studies lesson tilman grammes & mehmet açıkalın özet: ders ve sınıf ortamının öğretme ve öğrenme dinamikleri ortak sosyal bilginin oluşturulduğu ve yeniden yapılandırıldığı adeta “mikro topluluklar” olarak kabul edilmekle beraber “politik kültürün bir aynası” olarak ta değerlendirilebilir. dolayısıyla, sınıf içini ayrıntılı gözlemleyerek öğretim ve öğrenme ile ilgili karşılaştırmalı eğitim yaklaşımı ile yapılan araştırmalar önem kazanmaya başlamıştır. ancak bu araştırma geleneğinin sosyal bilgiler ve vatandaşlık derslerinde çok yaygın olduğu söylenmez. böyle bir araştırma geleneği doğal olarak nitel araştırma yöntemine dayanmaktadır. benzer şekilde nitel araştırma geleneğine olan ilgi son yıllarda artmaya başlamıştır. bu nedenlere, bu makalenin amacı türkiye de insan hakları konulu bir sosyal bilgiler dersinin kayıt ve belgelenme sürecini ayrıntılı bir şekilde nitel araştırma yaklaşımı ile anlatmaktır. böylece bu çalışmayla nitel araştırmacılara yararlı olabilecek nitel ders kayıt ve belgeleme sürecinin açıklayan bir örnek sunmakla birlikte uluslararası eğitim camiasına da türkiye’ de kaydedilmiş bir sosyal bilgiler dersini kendi ülkelerinde ki sosyal bilgiler dersleriyle karşılaştırabilme ve değerlendirebilme olanağı sağlanmıştır. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler, nitel veri toplama ve yorumlama, i̇nsan hakları giriş ders içi öğretim ve öğrenme ile ilgili karşılaştırmalı eğitim yaklaşımına dayanan araştırmalar bazı ülkelerde yapılmaktadır. ancak bu araştırma geleneğinde sosyal bilgiler ve özellikle vatandaşlık eğitimi konusunda ne durumdayız? matematik, türkçe veya i̇ngilizce gibi pisa projelerinde değerlendirilen dersler ile karşılaştırıldığında sosyal bilgiler “basit” veya “önemsiz” bir ders olarak değerlendirilebilir. bu durumu değerlendirmek için biraz hayal gücümüzü kullanalım: örneğin türkiye gibi bir ülkede sosyal bilgiler derslerinin sayısını düşünelim… bu ders türkiye’ de dört ila yedinci sınıflar arasında haftada üç saat okutulmaktadır. milli eğitim bakanlığı verilerine göre türkiye’ de dördüncü sınıf ile yedinci sınıf arasında yaklaşık beş buçuk milyon öğrenci 200 000 derslikte öğrenim görmektedir (milli eğitim bakanlığı [ministry of national education], 2016). bu da türkiye de haftada 600 000 yılda 21.6 milyon sosyal bilgiler dersi yapıldığı anlamına gelir! sosyal bilgiler derslerinde vatandaşlık ile ilgili konular programın % 10 bile olsa, bu durum türkiye de bir yılda 2 100 000 vatandaşlık konularıyla ilgili derslerin yapıldığı anlamına gelir. türkiye’ de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanı, vatandaşlık, küresel eğitim ve medya okuryazarlığı gibi konularla genişlediğinden bu ders sayısına ulaşmak kolaylıkla mümkündür (bkz ayas, 2015; çulhaözbaş & güryay, 2014; günel & pehlivan, 2015; öcal & yakar, 2015). bu derslerin öğretmen yetersizliği, hastalık ve izin gibi çeşitli nedenlerle yarısının yapılamaması durumlarında bile bu sayı bir milyon fazladır ve bu çok yüksek bir rakamdır. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 22 john dewey (1915)’ e göre sınıf ortamı öğretme ve öğrenme dinamikleri ortak sosyal bilginin oluşturulduğu ve yeniden yapılandırıldığı adeta “mikro topluluklar” olarak kabul edilmelidir. “politik kültürün bir aynası” (schmidt, 2011) olarak bir ders bile makro boyutları mikro seviyeler indirgeyerek görmemizi sağlayabilir. dolayısıyla, bu çalışmada değerlendireceğimiz, türkiye de kaydedilmiş olan bir sosyal bilgiler dersi (açıkalın, 2014) bile bize yalnızca bu ülkedeki eğitim normları, kuralları ve uygulamaları hakkında değil, ülkedeki vatandaşlık kültürü ve yaklaşımları (almond & verba, 1989) ile toplumu ve sosyal hayat hakkında da fikirler verebilir. ders kayıt / nitel ders belgeleme araştırmaları geleneği ancak bu sınıflarda/dersliklerde sistematik ve ayrıntılı olarak neler olduğunu biliyor muyuz? günümüzde ve dünyada demokratik vatandaşlık eğitimi konularında karşılaştırmalı eğitim araştırmaları adeta “bir ilgi patlaması” altındadır (levinson, 2011; hahn, 2010). ancak bu konuda yapılan çoğu araştırma daha çok o ülkenin vatandaşlık ve politik eğitiminin “teknik donanımı” olarak adlandırabileceğimiz sadece eğitim sistemleri ve politikaları üzerine yoğunlaşmakta ve o ülkenin koşullarına ve normlarına göre öğrenme “girdileri” ve buna paralel olarak öğrenme “çıktılarını” değerlendirmektedir. dünyada vatandaşlık ve politik eğitim üzerine yapılan ve aşağıda sözü edilen uluslararası birçok araştırmada bu sınırlılığı görüyoruz: uluslararası akademik başarı değerlendirme derneği (international association for the evaluation of educational achievement [iea], 2009) tarafından yapılan uluslararası vatandaşlık araştırması (international civic and citizenship study [iccs]). iea, 2016 yılında yeni bir araştırma yapmayı planlıyor; eğitim, görsel ve i̇şitsel kültür kurumu tarafından yürütülen (education, audiovisual and culture executive agency [eacea], 2012), eurydice ağı [eurydice] projesi; ulusal eğitim araştırmaları fonu tarafından (national foundation for educational research [nfer], 2010) desteklenen uzun erimli i̇ngiliz vatandaşlık eğitimi araştırması (citizenship educational longitudinal study in united kingdom [cels] (kerr, 2008); genişleyen avrupa’da gençler arasında etnik bakış açıları farklılıkları (eudmigrom, 2008) projesi: çek cumhuriyeti, danimarka, fransa, almanya, macaristan, romanya, slovakya, i̇sveç ve i̇ngiltere’nin örgün ve yaygın vatandaşlık eğitimi ile ilgili ayrıntılı bilgiler veren ve aslında roma’da yaşayan farklı etnik tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 23 kökenden gelen ikinci kuşak gençlerin vatandaşlık bilinçlerinin karşılaştırmalı bir araştırması. yalnızca planlanan program (girdileri) üzere yoğunlaşan çalışmalara karşın öğrenci performansı ve yeterlilikleri ile öğrenme “çıktıları” üzerine yoğunlaşan çok sayıda araştırma örneği mevcuttur. bunun aksine vatandaşlık eğitiminin “teknik donanımı” ile değil daha çok “yazılımı” ile yani bu derslerin içeriği ile öğretme ve öğrenme sürecinin içyüzü üzerine durulan ve bunları belgeleyen ve yorumlayan çalışmalar yok denecek kadar azdır. ancak matematik ve yabancı dil eğitimi ile ilgili yapılan araştırmalarda sosyal bilgiler eğitimine kıyasla durumun çok farklı olduğunu görüyoruz. matematik ve fen eğitiminde eğilimler (the trends in international mathematics and science study) [timss], 1999) adlı uluslararası araştırma bu tür video çalışmaları için bir dönüm noktası olmuştur. timss video araştırması yedi ayrı ülkede ki 8. sınıf matematik ve fen eğitimi hakkında karşılaştırmalı bilgiler ortaya koymuştur. bu araştırma binden fazla (!) sayıda ders video ile kayıt altına alınmış ve bu dersteki öğretim uygulamaları analiz edilmiştir (leung, graf, & lopez-real, 2006). çeşitli disiplinler üzerine yapılan bu tür ders kayıt ve belgeleme araştırmaları az sayıda ülkede gelenek olmaya başlamıştır (hudson & meyer, 2011). almanya’da bu ülkelerden bir tanesidir. tarihinde totaliter nazi rejimi tecrübesi olduğu için almanya’ da özellikle vatandaşlık eğitimi [politische bildung] üzerine bu tür araştırmalar yapmaya ilgi çok fazladır (reinhardt, 2015). 1980’ li yıllardan başlayarak vatandaşlık eğitimi ile ilgili kayıt edilmiş tek tek dersler “video kitapları” olarak yayınlanmaya başlamıştır. gagel, grammes ve unger (1992) yayınladıkları video kitabında kayıt ettikleri dersi aşağıdaki şekilde okuyucuya sunmuşlardı: öğretmenin ders planı (ders konusu: almanya da mülteciler sorunu) dersin tamamının transkripsiyonu/dökümü öğretmen ve öğrenci grupları ile uyarılmış hatırlama1 alan eğitimi uzmanlarınca ilgili ders için verilmiş ve çoklu bakış açıları içeren dönütler ders kaynaklarının öğretmen yetiştirme programlarında kullanım örnekleri, özellikle “iletişim kültürü” adlı etkinliğin kullanımı kitaba ek olarak ders video kaydının tamamı vhs kaseti olarak sunulmuştur. 1 burada değerlendireceğimiz derste uyarılmış hatırlama yöntemi kullanılmamıştır. bu yöntemle ilgili olarak ayrıntılı bilgi için busse & borromeo ferri (2003)’ e bakınız. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 24 türkiye de bu makalede değerlendireceğimiz olan dersle (açıkalın, 2014) birlikte çok az sayıda (bkz. çoşkun-keskin, 2007; kılınç, 2014) bu türde ders kaydı ve dökümünün yapıldığı çalışma belirledik. sevgi çoşkun-keskin’in sosyal bilgiler derslerinde empatiye dayalı öğretimi araştıran doktora tezinde çok sayıda sosyal bilgiler dersini video ile kayıt ettiğini görüyoruz. son yıllarda güneş kılınç sosyal bilgiler derslerinde öğrencilerin soru sorma becerileri üzerine yaptığı yüksek lisans tezinde 30’ dan fazla dersi video ile kayıt altına alıp belgelemiştir. schiffauer, baumann, kastoryano ve vertovec (2002) tarafından sosyal bilgiler alan eğitimi ile ilgili karşılaştırmalı ders araştırması yaklaşımı ile yapılmış olan bu çalışma, alanda yeni bir araştırma paradigması geliştirmiştir. bu alanda yapılan araştırmalar için bir dönüm noktası olarak kabul edilen bu çalışmada kayıt edilen dersler i̇ngilizce ve almanca olarak yayınlanmış ve böylece karşılaştırmalı eğitim ile ilgilenen uluslararası eğitim camiasına sunulmuştur. bu araştırmada dört kişinden oluşan sosyal bilimler uzmanlarından oluşan bir ekip bir yıl boyunca lise ve üniversite seviyesinde video çekimlerinin araştırma alanını olumsuz etkileyebileceği düşüncesinden dolayı yalnızca ethnoğrafik bir araştırma yaklaşımı ile ayrıntılı alan ve gözlem notları almışlardır. araştırma berlin, londra, paris ve rotterdam şehirlerinin merkezi bölgelerindeki okullarda gerçekleşmiştir. bu araştırma sürecinde her zaman için her okulda iki ayrı ülkeden gelen araştırmacı aynı anda gözlem yaparak notlar alıyor ve aldıkları notları sürekli karşılaştırarak değerlendiriyorlardı. bu araştırmada nitel ve karma araştırma yöntemlerinin gereği olarak katılımcı gözlem; ders kitabı veya ilgili belgelerin incelenmesi için doküman analizi; öğrenci, öğretmen ve okul müdürü ile bireysel ve grup görüşmeleri gibi yöntemler kullanılmıştır. bütün bu araştırmalardan elde edilen bilgiler okul genel durumu betimleme ve okuldaki vatandaşlık kültürü bağlamında rapor haline getirilerek okuyucuya sunulmuştur. bu araştırmada özelikle “türk” kökenli gençlerin/öğrencilerin bu şehir okullarındaki performansı ve akademik başarısı üzerine odaklanılmıştır. bu tür bir ders araştırmaları yöntemi i̇ngiliz, hollanda, fransız ve almaya’ da ki derslerin özellikle tartışma konuları ve yöntemleri açısından ne kadar çok ve nasıl farklılaştığını da göstermiştir. bunu bu derslerde geçen sınıf içi tartışmaları içeren kısa alıntılar da bile görmek mümkündür.2 türkiye de özellikle avrupa eğitim sistemini incelemek ve gözlemlemek için çok sayıda eğitimci yurtdışına gönderildiyse de karşılaştırmalı eğitim bir araştırma alanı olarak ancak 1960 lı yıllarda gelişmeye başlamıştır (erdoğan, 2003; genç-sel, 2004). osmanlı’nın 2 sınıf içi öğretimi inceleyen bir kaç araştırma daha vardır. örneğin nonnenmacher (2008) araştırmasında italya, fransa, i̇ngiltere ve almanya’ da göç konusu ile ilgili dersleri gözlemlediği bir çalışma yapmıştır. tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 25 son dönemleri ile cumhuriyetin kuruluş yıllarında okullarda incelemelerde bulunmak ve uluslararası eğitimcilerle iletişim kurabilmek için avrupa ülkelerine çok sayıda türk eğitimci gönderilmiştir (erdoğan, 2003; genç-sel, 2004). bu gönderilen eğitimcilerin bazıları aylarca o ülkelerde kalmış olsalar bile, bunların daha çok o ülkenin eğitim ve okul sistemi – bizim “teknik donamım” olarak adlandırdığımız ile ilgili bilgiler topladıkları görülmüştür. yurtdışına gönderilen türk eğitimcileri daha çok gittikleri ülkenin genel eğitim sistemi ve yapısıyla ilgilendikleri ve bu sistemleri türkiye’ye uygulama amacını güttükleri için, çok sayıda sınıf gözlemi yaparak çeşitli raporlar yazdıkları halde, bu raporlarda sınıf içi uygulamalar ile ilgili derinlemesine ve ayrıntılı gözlemlere fazla yer verilmemiştir. genç-sel (2004)’ e göre, diğer ülkelerin eğitim sistemlerini model almaya yönelik sayısız denemeler, türkiye’nin yerel kültürel öğeleri ve kendine özgü özellikleri yeterince dikkate alınmadığı için ülkenin eğitim sitemini zenginleştirme konusunda pek başarılı olamamıştır. yukarıda da belirtildiği gibi özellikle karşılaştırmalı eğitim yaklaşımı ile yapılmış bu tür ders kayıt ve belgeleme araştırmaları pek fazla değildir. bu konudaki araştırma eksikliğini gidermek için journal of social science education [sosyal bilimler eğitimi dergisi] adlı dergi bir öncülük yaparak dünyanın çeşitli ülkelerindeki özellikle vatandaşlık ve politik eğitim derslerini içeren özel sayılar yayınlamaya başlamıştır (bkz. grammes, 2010; bruen & grammes, 2014a, 2014b). bu makalede değerlendireceğimiz sosyal bilgiler dersi de bu özel sayılardan birinde yayınlanmıştır. bu makalede ki birinci amacımız türkiye de ki bir sosyal bilgiler ve vatandaşlık eğitimi konusundaki ayrıntılı bir ders örneğini –metafor olarak bilgisayar “yazılımına” benzettiğimizuluslararası eğitimcilere tanıtmak ve onlara bu ders örneğini kendi ülkelerindeki vatandaşlık eğitimi ile karşılaştırabilme olanağı sunmaktır. bunu yapabilmek için insan hakları konulu bir sosyal bilgiler dersi tamamen kayıt edilerek transkripsiyonu (dökümü) yapılmış ve türkçe ve i̇ngilizce olarak okuyucuya sunulmuştur (açıkalın, 2014). bu makalenin ikinci amacı ise nitel araştırmacılar için bu dersin kayıt, belgeleme ve yorumlama öncesi süreçlerini ayrıntılı bir şekilde anlatan bir örnek sunmaktır. bu çalışma, yukarıda sözü edilen araştırmalar gibi klasik bir karşılaştırmalı eğitim araştırması olmayabilir. ancak bu çalışmada da sunulduğu gibi tamamen dökümü yapılmış bir ders yalnızca bu ülkedeki eğitim normları, kuralları ve uygulamaları hakkında değil, ülkedeki vatandaşlık kültürü ve yaklaşımları (almond & verba, 1989) hakkında da fikirler vererek adeta o ülkede ki “politik kültürün bir aynası” olarak düşünülebilir (schmidt, 2011). bu çalışmada değerlendirdiğimiz dersin içeriğinin dünyada ki eğitimciler için bir karşılaştırma unsuru olabileceğini düşünülmelidir. ayrıca bu çalışmada, bu dersin değerlendirme sürecini journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 26 nitel araştırma geleneğinin belgeleme ve yorumlama süreçlerini tanıtma ve tartışmak için bir fırsat olarak görüyoruz. nitel ders belgeleme araştırması nasıl yapılır? nitel ders belgeleme araştırmasının üç aşaması vardır: belgeleme ve arşivleme (uygulamayı sunma, veri dosyası/arşivi oluşturma) anlam çıkarma yorumlama belgeleme ve arşivleme: bu üç aşamalı araştırma sürecindeki ilk aşama olan ders uygulamalarının belgelenmesi ve olduğu gibi sunulması genellikle önemsenmeyen veya üzerinde durulmayan bir durumdur. aslında, belgeleme sanıldığı gibi yalnızca “bilgi toplama” değil nitel ders araştırmalarının en önemli öğelerindendir. bir dersin tamamının belgelenmesi gözlem yaparak alan notları alma, ses kaydı, fotoğraf çekimi veya video kaydı almak suretiyle yapılabilir. öğretmen ve öğrencilerin beden dilini inceleme ve dersliğin fiziksel ve psikolojik ortamını anlamaya yönelik çeşitli ipuçları vereceği için eğer mümkünse video kaydı almak tercih edilmelidir. bir dersin tamamını kaydetmek göründüğünden daha zor bir iştir. öncelikle kullanılan video kamerası bütün sınıfı, öğretmeni ve öğrencileri görmelidir. birden fazla kamera kullanarak farklı açılardan çekim yapmak iyi bir fikir olabilir. görüntünün yanında seslerinde sağlıklı bir şekilde kayıt altına alınması gereklidir. kameranın ortamdaki bütün sesleri alacak uygun bir konumda ve kapasitede olması gereklidir. günümüzde yeni geliştirilen bir teknoloji sadece öğretmene değil her bir öğrenciye özel birer mikrofon bağlanarak (!), öğrencilerin bireysel ve grup çalışmalarında yaptıkları konuşmaları ve öğrenme sürecini ayrıntılı bir şekilde belgeleme olanağı sunmaktadır (bkz. kuno & ikura, 2014). görsel ve işitsel olarak kayıtlar tamamlandıktan sonra yapılacak ilk iş transkripsiyon sürecini başlatmaktır. transkripsiyon kayıtları tekrar tekrar izleyerek veya dinleyerek bir sözcük bile atlamadan özenli bir şekilde yapılmalıdır. görsel kayıtların izlenmesi araştırmacıya derste söz alan öğrencileri kim olduğunu belirleme ve öğrenci ile öğretmenlerin dersteki genel tutumlarını anlamak için yardımcı olacaktır. bunun yanında video kayıtlarının defalarca izlenmesi araştırmacıya öğretmen ve öğrencilerin kafa sallama, gülme, el kaldırma (söz almak için) gibi hareketleri tespit etme ve bunları transkripsiyon metninde köşeli parantez içinde göstermesine olanak sağlayabilir. böylece ders transkripsiyonu ayrıntılı ve özenli bir şekilde yapılmış olur. tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 27 ders transkriptleri gibi nitel verileri arşivlemek dikkatli bir organizasyon ve planlama gerektirir. özellikle video ve görüşme kayıtları, ders gözlem formları/notları gibi çok sayıda ve çeşitli veri kaynaklarınız varsa bunları organize etmek karışık ve zor olabilir. bunun için bütün belgeler ve kayıtların tarihleri, tanıtıcı bilgileri, sayfa numaralı gibi bilgiler belirtilmelidir. ayrıca araştırmacı görsel ve işitsel kayıtlar ile ders planları, ders gözlem formları ve diğer alan notlarını kendine göre bir adlandırma sistemi oluşturarak dosyalamalı ve istenildiğinde kolay ulaşılabilir hale getirmelidir. anlam çıkarma: ders veya görüşme transkripti gibi nitel verileri yorumlarken, sözcüklerin gerçek anlamlarını ortaya çıkarmak bazen zor olabilir. özellikle, bu transkriptleri başka bir dile çevirmeniz gerekiyorsa sözcüklerin gerçek anlamının karşılığını bulmak daha da zorlaşabilir. ancak bazı durumlarda transkriptleri kendi dilinizde okuduğunuzda bile sözcükler her zaman katılımcının ne demek istediğini açıklayamayabilir. bu durumlarda, katılımcının ne demek istediğini onun beden dilini yorumlayarak anlayabiliriz. transkripsiyonun okunarak sınıf içinde ne olduğunun daha iyi anlaşılabilmesi için ortamı ayrıntılı bir şekilde anlatmak iyi bir yoldur. okuyucunun adeta araştırma ortamının içine girmesine sağlayan bu yönteme “ayrıntılı betimleme” denir (lincoln & guba, 1985). bu betimlemede sınıfta ders tahtasında yazılı bilgiler, öğretmenin verdiği çalışma yaprakları ve öğrencilerin oturma planı gibi bilgiler sınıf içi fotoğraflar çekilerek verilebilir. eğer öğrencilerin fotoğrafların çekimine izin verilmiyorsa, sınıf ortamının bir sanatçı tarafından resmedilmesi sağlanabilir. araştırmacı ayrıca katılımcıların kendileri, sınıf ve okul ortamları hakkında ayrıntılı betimlemeler yaparak okuyucuya bu bilgileri sağlayabilir ve bu onların ders sürecini daha iyi anlamaları ve yorumlamalarına yardımcı olabilir (lincoln & guba, 1985; merriam, 1998; patton, 2003; yıldırım & şimşek, 2013). yorumlama: nitel verilerin yorumlaması nitel araştırmanın her aşaması gibi zengin bir süreçtir. yorumlama özenli bir şekilde teorik bir yapının içine yerleştirilmediği müddetçe hemen her zaman öznel ve tartışmalıdır. teorik varsayımlar net bir şekilde açıklanmadan yorumlama yapılmaz! ancak nitel araştırmacı/yorumcu araştırma sonuçlarının inandırıcılığını arttırmak için kendi öznelliğinin farkında ve bilincinde olmalıdır (creswell, 2013; glesne, 1999; peshkin, 1988). peshkin (1988) “araştırmacının nitel araştırma süresince sistematik olarak süreçte karşılaşılan durum ve olaylara ile ilgili kendi öznelliğini tanımlaması gerektiğini” (s. 17) belirtmektedir. basit bir şekilde söylemek gerekirse, aynı metni okuyan iki kişinin tamamen karşıt sonuçlara ulaşması olasıdır. bunun nedeni her bireyin kendine özgü bir kişiliği, kültürel ve eğitim altyapısının olması olarak gösterilebilir. yorumlamanın ne kadar farklılaşabileceğini, journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 28 dünyanın farklı yerlerinden gelen eğitimcilerin bu sosyal bilgiler dersi ile ilgili yorumlarını değerlendireceğimiz makalenin ileriki bölümlerinde tartışacağız. ancak yapılan yorumların gücünün de ders sürecinde geçen olayların ve durumların dersin transkripsiyonu ve ortamından yararlanarak sağlam ve güçlü kanıtlar gösterilerek sunulmasına dayandığını belirtmek gereklidir. yalnızca ders sürecinde geçen olayların veya durumların alıntılanarak bir sonuca ulaşmak yeterli değildir. bir sonuç çıkarmak için derste geçen sağlam kanıtları açık ve net bir şekilde ortaya koyarak bu kanıtların oluşum sürecini ve bunların arkasındaki fikri ayrıntılı bir şekilde açıklamamız gereklidir. nitelikli belgeleme tipik bir sosyal bilgiler veya vatandaşlık bilgiler dersi olamayacağı gibi bu makalede sözünü edeceğimiz ders kesinlikle türkiye de yapılan tipik bir sosyal bilgiler dersi değildir! bu makalede konu ettiğimiz dersin tek başına türkiye toplumu ve kültürünü “temsil ettiğini” söylemenin mümkün olmadığını belirtmekle birlikte aslında bu ders kendisi dışında başka bir şeyi temsil etmez bu dersten birçok farklı görüş, düşünce ve bakış açısı elde edeceğimiz kesindir. genel olarak nitel araştırma inceleme amaçlıdır ve bu örnekte de olduğu gibi bu sosyal bilgiler dersini kaydederken asıl amacımız türkiye deki sosyal bilgiler ve vatandaşlık eğitimi ve uygulamalarını tanımak ve anlamaktır. bu tek örnek ders kendi başına incelenerek ve yorumlamalar yapılabilir ve ileriki sistematik araştırmalar için bu dersten hipotezler geliştirilebilir. bu makalede değerlendireceğimiz sosyal bilgiler bilgisi dersi tamamen inceleme/keşif amaçlıdır. bu durum şu ana kadar yapılan “olağan” bir araştırma sürecinin tamamı değil ancak bu süreç için gerekli olan basamaklar olarak kabul edilebilir. burada amaç bir dersten yola çıkarak daha sistematik ve geniş ders araştırmaları için sorular geliştirmektir. bu yöntem sosyal bilimlerde sistematik inceleme ve keşfetmeye dayalı “nitel heuristik” araştırma olarak kabul edilebilir (kleining & witt, 2000). sözü edilen ders 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi olup mart 2013 yılında iki kamera kullanılarak kayıt edilmiştir. dersin konusu sosyal bilgilerinen temel konularından biri olan “insan hakları” konusudur. bu konu avrupa konseyi’nin okul geliştirme programının türkiye’ deki birçok kurumun yürüttüğü projelerin bir parçasıdır (arat, 2007; council of europe [coe], 2011-2014; the european wergeland centre, 2014). böylece insan hakları konusu michael apple’ (2000) in deyimi ile “resmi bilgi” olarak kabul edilebilir. özellikle insan hakları konusunun ders kaydı yapmak için seçilmesinin nedeni, bu konunun genel olarak dünyada sosyal bilgiler ve vatandaşlık eğitimi programlarının bir tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 29 parçası olmasıdır. böylece “insan hakları” gibi dünya sosyal bilgiler/vatandaşlık bilgisi programlarında yer alan bir konu ile ilgili bir dersi uluslararası eğitim camiasına sunarak bu dersi onların daha kolay ve rahat anlaması ve değerlendirmesi mümkün olabilir (bkz. meyer, bromley, & ramirez, 2010). ayrıca bu ders, öğretmenler ve akademisyenler açısından böyle evrensel bir konunun türkiye’ de sınıf içinde nasıl öğretildiğini göstermesi ve bunu kendi ülkeleriyle karşılaştırmalarına olanak tanıması açısından değerli olabilir. araştırma etik kuralları araştırma etiği ilgili konular araştırma alanına girmeye çalıştığınız andan itibaren karşınıza çıkmaya başlar. araştırma yapmayı planladığınız okullar ve öğretmenler ile iyi ve karşılıklı güvene dayanan ilişkiler kurmak ve izin almak çoğunlukla biraz zaman alır ve birkaç deneme yapmayı gerektirebilir. bu zorlukları aşmanın bir yolu da ilgili öğretmen veya öğretmenleri araştırma sürecine hatta bazı durumlarda yazar/araştırmacı ekibine katmak olabilir. bizim örneğimizde öğretmen engin yolcu’nun adı zikredildiği için ileriki bölümlerde sözünü edeceğimiz yorumcuların tamamı öğretmeni takdir ediyor hatta onu adeta projenin kahramanı olarak görüyor. bütün yorumcular öğretmeni sınıfını zaman zaman çok eleştirel olabilen uluslararası eğitim camiasına açtığından dolayı takdir ediyor. temel etik kuralların gereği olarak o dönemde gerekli olan bütün araştırma izin onayları alınmıştır. i̇lk olarak i̇l milli eğitim müdürlüğü’ne araştırma izni için araştırma sürecini anlatan ayrıntılı metin sunulmuştur. i̇lgili müdürlükten onay alındıktan sonra izin sürecini tamamlamak için öğrenci velilerinden de yazılı izinler alınmıştır. video kaydı sırasında öğrencilerin yüzleri gizlenmiştir. bütün gerekli izinler verilmiş olmasında karşın video kameraları derslik içinde arka taraflara yerleştirerek öğrencilerin yüzlerinin görülmemesine özen gösterilmiştir. ayrıca öğrencilerin kimlikleri gizlenmiş gerçek adları yerine takma adlar kullanılmıştır. ancak öğrencilerin cinsiyetleri oturma düzeni tablosunda belirtilmiştir. nitelikli çeviri kriterleri sosyal bilimler ve eğitim alanında nitel araştırmalarda video kayıtlarının belgelenmesi ve transkripsiyonu için ileri yöntemler mevcuttur. ancak biz öncelikle basit bir yöntem olan birebir transkripsiyon (döküm) yöntemini benimsedik. bu tür ders belgeleme araştırmaları yapan nitel araştırmacılar unutmamalıdırlar ki bu süreç kaydın/materyalin orijinalliğini/gerçekliğini bir şekilde azaltıyor! journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 30 i̇ngilizce veya başka bir dile çeviri sürecine başlamadan önce ilk olarak yapılması gereken şey, ders transkripsiyonun tekrar tekrar başka kişiler tarafından orijinal dilinde kontrol edilerek doğruluğundan emin olunmasıdır (bittner & günther, 2013). bizim örneğimizde olduğu gibi türkiye de kaydedilmiş bir dersin transkripsiyonunu orijinal dili olan türkçe de değil de direkt olarak çevrilecek dil olan i̇ngilizce olarak yapmak profesyonel olmayan bir yaklaşımdır. çeviri süresinin şeffaflığını sağlamak ve diğer araştırmacıların kendi analizlerini yapmalarına olanak sağlamak için ders transkripsiyonunu -uluslararası bir standart olmasa dasosyal bilimler eğitimi dergisinde [journal of social science education] yaptığımız gibi çift dilli olarak verilmesi önerilir. çeviri metni de muhakkak en az iki ayrı dil uzmanı ve mümkünse anadil olarak bu dilleri konuşan kişiler tarafından tashih edilmeli ve doğrulanmalıdır. sözü edilen ders kaydında da ders transkripsiyonunun, türkçe ve i̇ngilizce versiyonları i̇ngilizce eğitimi alanında doktora derecesine sahip dr. jenifer bruen ve anadili türkçe olan almanya’ da i̇ngilizce öğretmenliği lisans mezunu yasemin çidem tarafından defalarca tashih edilmiştir. aşağıda dersin küçük bir bölümünü çeviri örneği olarak sunuyoruz. türkçe i̇ngilizce ö: en akıllı canlı… en akıllı canlı. hem canlı olması gerekiyor hem de akıllı olması gerekiyor. öyle mi? peki en akıllı canlı insan. peki insan diğer varlıklardan veya diğer yaratılmışlardan farklı mıdır? yavuz: evet. ö: farklıdır. ne diyoruz bunun için? hem kuranda da var bu. ne diyor? veya diğer dinlerin kutsal kitaplarında da var. kuran‘da ne diyor? eşrefi… mahlukat. nedir? mahluk… yaratılmışların, mahlukların en şereflisi. bu şeref onlara nereden veriliyor?… düşünceden. peki insan… insan hakları nelerdir? t: the smartest living being! so, it must be “a living being” and “smart” at the same time. is it like that? … ok. the smartest living being. so is the human being different from other species and living beings? yavuz: yes. t: ok. they are different. what do we call this? it is also in the koran. what does it say? or it is also in other religions’ holy books. what does it say in the koran? it says the human being is the most honorable creature in the world [eşrefi mahlukat]. where does this honor come from?... from their [humans’] thinking. ok, human… what are human rights? tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 31 çeviri sırasında özellikle sözcüklerin en uygun karşılığını bulmak gibi birçok sorun ortaya çıktı. aşağıda bunlarla ilgili örnekler vereceğiz. türkiye’ de öğrenciler öğretmenlerin ad ve/veya soyadları ile hitap etmek yerine “hocam” sözcüğünü kullanırlar. bu sözcük derste 31 kere kullanılmış. ancak bu sözcüğü “my teacher” olarak i̇ngilizceye çevirdiğimizde doğru bir anlam ifade etmediği için bu sözcüğü çevirmekten kaçındık. bunun dışında derste çok kullanılan başka sözcüklerde vardı. bunlardan bir tanesi “başka?” sözcüğü “what else?” olarak çevrildi. öğretmen bu derste soru cevap yöntemimi uyguladığı için bu sözcüğü 42 kez kullanmış oldu. sıklıkla kullanılan diğer bir kelime “şey” 39 kez derste geçti. bu sözcüğün çevirisi hem kolay hem zor oldu denebilir. türkçede “şey” sözcüğü her sözcüğün yerine kullanıldığı için “something” veya “thing” olarak çevrildi. ancak bu sözcüğü bazı durumlarda çeviri metninden tamamen çıkartmak gerekti. gerektiği durumlarda köşeli parantezler kullanılarak okuyucuya ek bilgiler verildi. çevirinin niteliğini arttırmak için süreçte yaşanan zorlukları şeffaf olarak ortaya koymak daha doğru bir yol olacaktır. eğitim araştırmalarında yapılan en büyük hatalardan biride çeviri sürecinde yaşanan problemleri “çözmeye” çalışmaktır. öykü ve ya romanlarda bunu yapmak mümkün olabilir. ancak sosyal bilimlerde yapılan bu tür çevirilerde karşılaşılan problemleri açıkça ortaya koymak ve olası çeviri seçenekleri değerlendirerek verilen son kararı okuyucuya belirtmek daha iyi bir yaklaşım olacaktır. bu yaklaşımı köşeli parantez kullanarak alternatif çeviri sözcüğünü vermek; metnin akışını engellememek için dipnotlar kullanarak veya metnin sonunda okuyuculara bir tür terimler sözlüğü sunarak uygulamak mümkündür.3 dersin ana başlıkları ve yapısı öğretmen derse öğrenicilere insan haklarının ne olduğunu sorarak başladı. dersin büyük bölümünde öğretmen öğrencilere sorular sordu ve aldığı yanıtları değerlendirerek dersi işledi. derste konuşulan ana noktalar aşağıda listelenmiştir (açıkalın, 2014): “barınma”, “seçme ve seçilme” gibi çeşitli insan hakları konuları insan hakları ihlalleri ve ırksal ayrımcılık kadına şiddet (8 mart‐ kadınlar günü) modern sömürgecilik (bazı öğrenciler a.b.d.’ nin afganistan ve irak gibi bazı ülkeleri sömürdüğüne inanıyor.) 3 oslo’ daki avrupa wergeland center (the european wergeland center) eğitimciler için bir tür terimler sözlüğü içeren bir proje (intercultural glossary project) geliştirmiştir. bu proje, eğitimcilerin araştırma yöntemleri, eğitim ile ilgili temel kavramları ve terimleri tartışarak değerlendirmesine olanak sağlamıştır: www.theewc.org/content/resources/clear.project/ www.clear-project.net/ http://www.theewc.org/content/resources/clear.project/ http://www.clear-project.net/ journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 32 yaşama hakkı ve bunun ihlalleri (savaşlar, kan davaları, suikast ve cinayet vb.) sağlık hizmetlerine erişim, mülk edinme hakları, ve seyahat özgürlüğü iletişim hakkı (yasal olmayan telefon dinlemeleri: öğretmen a.b.d. li yazar howard zinn’ in kendi hayat hikayesini yazarken fbi a başvurarak kendi kişisel dosyasını ve izinsiz dinlemelerini ortaya çıkarmasını örnek olarak veriyor.) zengin ve yoksul ayrımı (öğretmen polisin kişileri durdurup arama konusunda kıyafet ve dış görünümlerini göre karar verdiği ve yoksul görünümlü kişilerin durdurulup aranmasının daha yüksek olasılıklı olduğunu yaşadığı bir örnek üzerinden anlatıyor.) özel hayatın gizliliğinin ihlal edilmesi (paparazzi programları) yukarıda sözü edilen timss araştırmasında da belirtildiği gibi ders öğretim yöntemleri/stillerinin incelenmesi karşılaştırmalı/yorumlamalı eğitim araştırmalarının temelini oluşturur. öğretmen önceden hazırladığı ders notlarını kullanarak ve genellikle anlatım yöntemini ile dersi işledi. buna ülkeye “özgü” öğretim kültürü/alışkanlığının gereği olarak “telkin yoluyla” öğretim denebilir. bu dersi değerlendiren bütün yorumlar türkiye de ki eğitimin ve derslerin genel karakteristiğinin niermann (1990)’ nın da belirttiği gibi “içeriği tartışmadan, amaçlı bir sunum ve anlatım ile adeta bilgiyi yükleme” (ss. 83, 110) olarak tanımlama konusunda birleşmektedir. türkiye de yerleşik olan bu öğretim yöntemi son yıllarda yapılan kapsamlı program yenileme ve öğrenci merkezli öğretime geçiş çalışmalarıyla aşılmaya çalışılsa da öğretmenlerin halen bu geçiş sürecinde zorlandıkları görüyoruz (altinyelken, 2011; nohl & somel, 2015). yorumcuların diyaloğu bir sonraki aşamada ikinci bir yorumlama süreci olarak farklı ülkelerden üç ayrı eğitimci insan hakları ile ilgili bu dersin transkripsiyonunu değerlendirmeleri ve yorumlamaları için davet edildi. her bir eğitimci değerlendirmesini birbirinden bağımsız bir şekilde tamamladı ve bu yorumları journal of social science education (bkz. kesten, brodsky-schur, & gürsoy, 2014) dergisinin sonraki sayısında yayınlandı. yapılan yorumları okudukça, yalnızca bir ders için ne kadar çok ve çeşitli yorumların yapılabildiğini görmek hem ilginç hem de biraz şaşırtıcı oluyor. ancak yorumcuların geçmişlerine baktığımızda bu kadar farklı yorumun neden yapıldığını çok net bir şekilde anlayabiliyoruz: yorumculardan biri bir türk akademisyen (alper kesten), diğeri bir amerikalı eğitimci (joan brodsky schur), ve sonuncusu da türk asıllı bir alman öğretmen (kudret gürsoy). bu üç yorumcuda farklı kültürler ve eğitim altyapısına sahip oldukları için bu dersi çok farklı bakış açılarıyla değerlendirdiler. her bir yorumcu dersin çok farklı noktaları üzerine dursa da, bazı tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 33 durumlarda ders konusunda benzer değerlendirmelerde yaptılar. bazı durumlarda ise dersteki bazı nesnel bilgileri birbirinden çok farklı bir bakış açısıyla değerlendirdiler. tek bir ders transkripsiyonuna bile çoğunlukla birbirinin karşıtı olarak çok farklı yorumlar yapılması bize dersi farklı açılardan görme olanağı tanımakla birlikte, nitel araştırma yaklaşımın gücünü gösteriyor. yorumcuların bu ders hakkındaki gözlemleri ve değerlendirmeleri onların bu ders hakkında geliştirdikleri teorik altyapı ile yakından ilişkilidir ve burada bu ilişkiyi çok net görebiliyoruz. bütün yorumcular, ders süresince örnek olaylar üzerinde çeşitli tartışmalar yapılsa da dersin tümevarım değil daha çok tümdengelim –genelden özele – yaklaşımına uygun olarak tasarlanmış ve insan hakları ile ilgili “genel bilgiler” içerdiğini belirtiyor. bunun yanında insan hakları ihlalleri ile ilgili yoğun sınıf içi tartışmalarda gözlemleniyor. örnek olaylar üzerine sınıf içi tartışmaların kayıt edilen ama dökümü yapılmayan ikinci derste de devam ettiği görünüyor. öğretmenin anlatım ve soru cevap yöntemlerini kullanarak öğrencilerin insan hakları ile ilgili temel kavramları anlamalarını hedeflediği açıkça görülüyor. amerika birleşik devletleri veya almanya eğitim sistemi ve uygulamaları açısından bakıldığında öğretmenin uyguladığı yöntemler ve öğretim hedefi eleştirilebilir. örneğin, schur aynı konulu veya buna benzer bir dersin amerika birleşik devletleri’nde bir sınıfta işlendiğinde insan haklarını tanımlamak veya listelemekten daha fazlasını içereceğini belirtiyor. schur’a göre bu ders amerika birleşik devletleri’nde olsaydı öğretmen öğrencilere i̇ngiltere’ye karşı bağımsızlık ilan edilen belge olan amerikan özgürlük bildirgesi metnini tartışma yöntemiyle anlatmaya ve kavratmaya çalışırdı (s.150). benzer şekilde kudret gürsoy’ da bu dersin sınıf içinde derinlemesine tartışmalar geliştirmek konusunda yetersiz kaldığını belirtiyor. birkaç yerde, gürsoy öğretmenin sınıf içinde bir konunun ayrıntılı ve derinlemesine tartışılmasına yeterince olanak vermediğini belirtiyor (s.155). alper kesten ise türk öğretmenlerin genellikle derse hazırlıksız gelme alışkanlığına karşın bu öğretmenin derse çok hazır geldiğini belirtmekle birlikte onun sınıf tahtasını yeterince kullanmadığını belirtiyor. kesten “söz uçar yazı kalır” değiminden yola çıkarak insan hakları ile ilgili kavramlarının sınıf tahtasına yazılmasının öğrencilerin bu kavramları anlamalarına yardımcı olabileceğini belirtmektedir (s.148). sonuç olarak, üç yorumcuda bu dersin bilgi/içerik temelli bir ders olduğu konusunda birleşmekle beraber, schur and gürsoy özellikle bu derste birinci elden kaynakların kullanılması ve ayrıntılı tartışmaların yapılması gerektiğini belirtiyor. kesten ise öğretmenin kendi seçtiği öğretim yöntemini geliştirmesine yönelik olarak onun tahtayı daha çok kullanmasını öneriyor. yorumcuların bu türden çok farklı değerlendirmeler yapmaları ve journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 34 öneriler getirmeleri onların kendi bulundukları ve yetiştikleri öğretim ortamlarını dikkate alarak bu değerlendirmeleri yaptıkları düşündürmektedir. öğretmenin dersi ve öğrenciler arasındaki etkileşimi fazlasıyla kontrol altında tutma eğilimi olduğuna dair bir diğer önemli eleştiri yine kudret gürsoy’dan geliyor. bu eleştiriye yanıt belki de schur and kesten’ nin yorumlarında bulunabilir. her ne kadar onlar bu yorumları yaparken gürsoy’ un ne dediğini bilmiyor olsalar da, sanki ona bir yanıt veya bir açıklama getiriyorlar. yazarlar arasında yaşanan bu durum aslında öznelliğin nitel araştırmada önemini açıklıyor. schur bu durumu üsküdar amerikan lisesi (üsküdar american academy) web sitesinde yaptığı alıntı ile açıklıyor. “türk öğrenciler küçük yaştan beri otoriteye saygıya şartlanarak yetiştiriyorlar… öğrenciler geleneksel öğretmen merkezli öğrenmeye yöntemine hem alışkınlar hem de bundan memnunlar” (s. 151). bu alıntıda belirtildiği üzere türk öğrencilerin öğretmenin dersi kontrol altında tutmasından hoşnut oldukları söylenebilir. carl rogers (1994) bunu aktif katılımın olduğu “vatandaş sınıfı” yerine “turist sınıfı” olarak adlandırmaktadır. öte yandan schur, amerikalı öğrencilerin bazen rahatsız edecek boyutlarda soru sormasına karşın türk öğrencilerin neden pek soru sormadığını anlayamadığını belirtiyor. bu duruma yanıtı üsküdar amerikan lisesi web sitesinden yapılan alıntı ile kesten’ in yorumlarında bulmak mümkün. kesten yorumlarında şunları belirtiyor: “türk öğretmenler toplumun onlara verdiği rol gereği kendilerini doğru bilgileri öğrencilere -bu doğru bilgileri almaları ve ileride kullanmak için saklamaları içinsunan veya veren kişiler olarak görmekteler. bunun sonucu olarak ta öğrencilerin ders içinde konuşma süreleri çok ciddi şekilde aşağıya düşüyor. hatta uzun vadede bazı öğrenciler derste hiçbir şekilde konuşmamayı veya derse katılmamayı da tercih edebiliyor” (s.147). yorumcular arasında tartışmalar / anlaşmazlıklar bu durum bizi yorumcular arasında çok farklı değerlendirmeler yapılan öğrencilerin derse katılım konusuna getiriyor. kesten değerlendirmesinde: “ders verisinin/dökümünün analizine göre öğrencilerin derse katılımın en az öğretmen kadar olduğu ve öğrencilerin görüşlerini özgürce ifade edebildiği söylenebilir. ders boyunca öğrenciler kendi tecrübeleri/yaşantılarını ve görüşlerini özgürce dile getirerek bunları türkiye’ deki insan hakları sorunları ile ilişkilendirebildiler” (s.146) şeklinde bir ifadede bulundu. bunun tam tersine, kudret gürsoy ise bu ders süresince öğretmen ve öğrencilerin kullandıkları sözcükleri sayarak öğretmenin ders tartışmalarında ağırlığının daha fazla olduğunu belirtiyor. bu sayıma göre ders süresince öğretmen 3,000 sözcük (% 83.2) ve öğrenciler yalnızca 607 sözcük (16.8 %) kullanıyor. buna paralel olarak gürsoy “… benim değerlendirmeme göre öğretmen tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 35 çoğunlukla üstü örtülü olarak bazen de açıkça yaptığı konuşmalar ve söylemleri ile dersi kontrol altında tutuyor. bu durumda öğrenciler arasındaki iletişim ve etkileşim sürecini kontrol eden kişi öğretmen oluyor” (s. 155) şeklinde düşüncelerini belirtmiştir. aynı ders dökümünün incelemesi sonucu iki farklı yorumcunun tamamen birbirinin karşıtı olan değerlendirmeler yapmasının nedenlerini düşünmek gereklidir. bunu kişilerin kültürel altyapısı veya eğitim inançları gibi birçok nedene bağlamak mümkündür. bunun yanında, bu durumu yorumcuların eğitim ortamının göreceliliğine dayanarak öğrenme ve öğretme süreci, “kavram ve bilgi aktarımı” gibibazı beklentiler oluşturmasına bağlayabiliriz. kesten’ in, türkiye’ deki eğitim ortamını çok iyi tanımasından hareketle, özellikle bu dersi türkiye’ de başka bir öğretmen tarafından işlenen ana akım bir sosyal bilgiler dersi ile karşılaştırdığını düşünebiliriz. bu karşılaştırmanın sonucunda, bu dersi diğer derslere göre öğrenci katılımı açısından çok başarılı bulmuş olabilir. öte yandan, gürsoy’un ise değerlendirmesini yaparken hamburg gibi almanya şehir okullarında ki öğrenme ortamı, öğrencilerin tutumları ve sınıf içi derse katılımlarını dikkate alarak daha yüksek beklentiler içinde olduğu ve bu derse biraz daha eleştirisel yaklaştığı söylenebilir. sonuç olarak, bazı eksikliklerine karşın bu ders yorumcular tarafından epey başarılı bir ders olarak bulunmuştur. sonuç bir teori olmadan yorumlama yapılmaz / tanımlama yapmadan karar verilmez bu tür bir araştırmada etnoğrafik bir yaklaşımın kullanılması, o ülkedeki sosyal ortamı ile öğretim yapısı ve düzeyini anlamaya çalışırken karşılaştırmalı araştırma yaklaşımında ortaya çıkabilecek öğretmen ve öğrencileri ağır bir şekilde eleştirmenin önüne geçebilir. ancak bu üç farklı ders yorumu nitel araştırma yönteminin doğası gereği yorumlama sürecinde karşılaşılabilecek bazı tehlike ve tuzakları da hatırlatıyor. bunları şu şekilde açıklayabiliriz: milliyetleştirme: yorumcular bu dersi genel olarak “tipik” bir türk sosyal bilgiler dersi olarak kabul ettiler. bu bize şu soruya götürür: “ ‘tipik’ bir sosyal bilgiler dersinin temel özellikleri nelerdir?” bu soruyu yanıtlamak zor olmalı çünkü bu dersin özelliklerinin “tipik” olup olmadığına dair çok farklı görüşler olabilir. bu bizi ikinci bir soruya götürür: “türkiye’ de tipik bir sosyal bilgiler dersi nedir/nasıldır veya ne/nasıl değildir?” tipik bir dersi belgelemek mümkün olamayacağına göre, bunu yapmak yerine araştırmacılar farklı öğretim yöntemleri ve stillerinin kullanıldığı dersleri belgelemeye yoğunlaşmalıdırlar. nitel araştırmacı bir dersin “tipik ders skalasında” tam olarak bulunduğu “doğru yeri” tespit etmeğe çalışmaktan kaçınmalıdır. bunu yapmak yerine nitel araştırmacı görüşmeler ve gözlemlere journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 36 dayalı bütün kanıtları, eğitim camiası tarafından yorumlanması ve tartışılması için ortaya koymalıdır. kültürlerle özdeşleştirme: öğretmen ders içerisinde kullandığı bir cümlede kuran’ atıf yaptığı için bu dersi müslüman ve i̇slam eğitimine uygun “tipik” bir ders olarak değerlendirme eğilimi olabilir. yukarıda da belirtildiği gibi bazı kişiler tarafından bu dersin öğretim yöntemi dini eğitim yaklaşımına uygun olarak adeta “telkin/vaaz” yöntemi olarak değerlendirebilir. bu da yorumcunun bu dersi yalnızca i̇slam kültürü açısından değerlendirme tuzağına düşürmüş olur. egzotikleştirme: bu yaklaşımla bu ders dokümanı “farklı/acayip” ve “yabancı” ancak ilginç veya hayret verici olarak ta değerlendirilebilir. böyle bir değerlendirme yaklaşımını önceleyen bir araştırmacı/yorumcu karşılaştırma yaparken benzerliklerden daha çok farklılıkların üzerine durulması tuzağına düşebilir. bu dersin öğretim tarzı, öğrencilerin dersi dinleme, konuşma, ders aktivitelerine katılım ve performansları açısından değerlendirildiğinde bu dersin “demokratik” konuşma ve katılıma olanak verdiği izlenimi doğabilir. her bir yorumcunun ders dökümü ile ilgili yaptığı farklı yorumlar ve bakış açıları onların farklı beklentileri ve araştırma ilgi alanları ile açıklanabilir. kesten, türkiye de ki genel bir dersin standartları ile ilgili tecrübelerine dayanarak, bu dersi ilerici ve yenilikçi bir ders olarak değerlendirirken, gürsoy ve schur ise amerika birleşik devletleri ve almanya’ da ki sınıf kültürünü daha iyi bilmeleri ve derslerde öğrenci katılımına daha önem verdikleri için bu dersle ilgili farklı beklentiler içine girebiliyorlar ki bu durum onları yukarıda kısaca söz ettiğimiz tuzaklara iterek yorumlarının eksik/ zayıf olmasına neden olabiliyor. bu makalenin yazarları olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ile ilgili başlıca sempozyum olan uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumunda [usbes] (symposium on social studies education) yabancı bir araştırmacı türkiye de ki “tipik” bir sosyal bilgiler dersi videosu isterse veya avrupa konseyinin uluslararası demokratik öğrenme projesi (european council international project on democratic learning) toplantısında mesela hollanda veya i̇talya’ dan bir meslektaşımız türkiye de bir sosyal bilgiler dersinin nasıl işlendiğini bize sorarsa, ona türkiye’nin farklı bölgelerinden, farklı konular ve öğretim yöntemleri içeren üç veya beş tane ders dökümü veya videosu sunabilmek akademik dayanışma ve yardımlaşmanın gereğidir. bu meslektaşlarımıza tubitak veya benzeri bir kuruluşun oluşturduğu ve farklı konular içeren dersleri içeren bir arşivi önermek çok iyi olurdu. ancak bu tür arşivlerin ülkemizde olmadığı ve ileride yaygınlaşması gerektiğini de belirtmek gerekir. bu nedenle, biz bu tür ders belgeleme araştırmalarını nitel araştırma metodolojisi içinde geliştirmek istiyoruz. tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 37 kaynaklar açıkalın, m. (2014). a social studies education lesson from turkey: human rights. journal of social science education, 13(1), 82-107. doi: 10.2390/jsse-v13-i1-1315 ayas, c. (2015). the role of media in geography courses from the perspectives of pre-service social studies teachers. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 172-189. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17499/jsser.62774 almond, g., & verba, s. (1989). the civic culture: political attitudes and democracy in five nations. newbury park, ca: sage. altinyelken, h. k. (2011). student‐centred pedagogy in turkey: conceptualizations, interpretations and practices. journal of education policy, 26(2), 137-160, doi: 10.1080/02680939.2010.504886 apple, m. w. (2000). official knowledge: democratic knowledge in a conservative age (2nd ed.). new york: routledge. arat, z.f. k. (2007). human rights in turkey. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. bittner, m., & günther, m. (2013). verstehensprozesse in interkulturellen forschungsgruppen -übersetzung als eine herausforderung qualitativer forschung [processes of understanding in intercultural research teamstranslation as a challenge to qualitative research]. in r.bettmann & m. roslon (eds.), going the distance (pp.185-201). wiesbaden: springer. bruen, j., & grammes, t. (2014a). insights into citizenship classrooms: the art of documentation & description [special issue]. journal of social science education, 13(1). doi: 10.2390/jsse-v13-i1-1339 bruen, j., & grammes, t. (2014b). the social sciences in higher education [special issue]. journal of social science education, 13(2). doi: 10.2390/jsse-v13-i2-1383 busse, a. & borromeo ferri, r. (2003). methodological reflections on a three-step-design combining observation, stimulated recall and interview. zentralblatt für didaktik der mathematik, 35(6), 257-264. coşkun-keskin, s. (2007). sosyal bilgiler derslerinde empati becerilerine dayalı öğretim tekniklerinin kullanılması [use of education techniques which is based on empathy skills in social studies]. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi [unpublished doctoral dissertation], marmara university, istanbul council of europe [coe] (2011-2014). democratic citizenship and human rights education in turkey. http://www.edchreturkey-eu.coe.int/description_en.asp adresinden edinilmiştir. creswell, j. w. (2013). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (3rd. ed.). los angeles: sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.17499/jsser.62774 http://www.edchreturkey-eu.coe.int/description_en.asp journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 38 çulha-özbaş, b., & güryay, b. (2014). can social studies and language lessons be integrated via global education? english language teacher candidates’ perceptions. procedia – social and behavioral sciences, 116, 1132-1136. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.357 dewey, j. (1915). school and society. chicago: the university of chicago press. education, audiovisual and culture executive agency [eacea]. (2012). eurydice: better knowledge for better policies. http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice adresinden edinilmiştir. erdoğan, i̇. (2003). karşılaştırmalı eğitim: türk eğitim bilim çalışmaları içinde önemsenmesi gereken bir alan [comparative education: an important field in turkish educational science studies]. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi [turkish educational science journal], 1(3), http://www.tebd.gazi.edu.tr/index.php/tebd/article/view/143 adresinden edinilmiştir. eudmigrom (2008). ethnic differences in education and diverging prospects for urban youth in an enlarged europe. www.edumigrom.eu adresinden edinilmiştir. gagel, w., grammes, t., & unger, a. (eds.) (1992). politikdidaktik praktisch. ein videobuch [didactics of civics a practical approach. a video book.] schwalbach: wochenschau. genç-sel, v. (2004, temmuz). dünyada ve türkiye’de karşılaştırmalı eğitim: kavram, kapsam ve eğilimler [comparative education in turkey and the world: concept, scope and tendencies]. xiii. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kurultayı [paper presented xiii. national educational science convention], i̇nönü üniversitesi, türkiye de sunulmuştur. https://pegem.net/dosyalar/dokuman/344.pdf adresinden edinilmiştir. glesne, c. (1999). becoming qualitative researchers: an introduction (2nd ed.). new york: longman. grammes, t. (2010). qualitative research – voices from civic education classrooms [special issue]. journal of social science education, 9(3). doi: 10.2390/jsse-v9-i3-1138 günel, e., & pehlivan, a. (2015). examining the citizenship and democracy education textbook and curriculum in terms of global education. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 123-171. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17499/jsser.88468 hahn, c. (2010). comparative civic education research: what we know and what we need to know. citizenship teaching and learning, 6(1), 5-23. hudson, b.,& meyer, m. (2011). beyond fragmentation. didactics, learning and teaching in europe. opladen /farmington hills: barbara budrich. international association for the evaluation of educational achievement [iea]. (2009). international civic and citizenship study [iccs]. http://www.iea.nl/iccs_2009.html adresinden edinilmiştir. international association for the evaluation of educational achievement [iea]. (2016). international civic and citizenship study [iccs]. www.iea.nl/iccs_2016.html adresinden edinilmiştir. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.357 http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice http://www.tebd.gazi.edu.tr/index.php/tebd/article/view/143 http://www.edumigrom.eu/ https://pegem.net/dosyalar/dokuman/344.pdf http://dx.doi.org/10.17499/jsser.88468 http://www.iea.nl/iccs_2009.html http://www.iea.nl/iccs_2016.html tilman grammes & mehmet açikalin 39 kerr, d. (2008). research on citizenship education in europe: a survey. in v. b. georgi (ed.), the making of citizens in europe: new perspectives on citizenship education (pp.167-178). bonn: bundeszentrale für politische bildung. kesten, a., brodsky-schur, j.,& gürsoy, k. (2014). teaching human rights in turkey: commentaries on a single lesson from multiple perspectives. journal of social science education, 13(2), 147-156. doi: 10.2390/jsse-v13-i2-1381 kılınç, g. (2014). sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sınıf içi ders işleme sürecindeki soru sorma becerileri: bir durum çalışması [questioning skills of social studies teachers during teaching: a case study]. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi [unpublished master thesis], sakarya university, sakarya. kleining, g. & witt, (2000). the qualitative heuristic approach: a methodology for discovery in psychology and the social sciences: rediscovering the method of introspection as an example. forum qualitative sozialforschung [forum: qualitative social research], 1(1), article 13, http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0001136 adresinden edinilmiştir. kuno, h., & ikura, g. (2014). investigating society “close‐up”: a case‐study of an individual student, yumiko, and the construction of a footbridge on route 419. journal on social studies education, 13(2), 87-103. doi: 10.2390/jsse‐v14‐i2‐1368 leung, f., graf, k. d., & lopez-real, f. (eds.). (2006). mathematics education in different cultural traditions. a comparative study of east asia and the west. new york: springer. levinson, b. (2011). toward an anthropology of (democratic) citizenship education. in b. levinson & m. pollock (eds.), a companion to the anthropology of education (pp.279298). hoboken: wiley-blackwell. lincoln, y. s., & guba, e. g. (1985). naturalistic inquiry. newbury park, ca: sage. merriam, s. b. (1998). qualitative research and case study applications in education: revised and expanded from case study research in education. san francisco: jossey-bass. meyer, j. w., bromley, p., & ramirez, f. o. (2010). human rights in social science textbooks: cross-national analyses, 1970–2008. sociology of education, 83(2), 111-134. doi: 10.1177/0038040710367936 milli eğitim bakanlığı [ministry of national education]. (2016). milli eğitim istatistikleri: örgün eğitim 2015 / 16 [national education statistics: formal education 2015 /16]. ankara: yazar [author]. http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/icerik_goruntule.php?kno=232 adresinden edinilmiştir. national foundation for educational research [nfer]. (2010). citizenship educational longitudinal study in uk [cels]. www.nfer.ac.uk/research/projects/cels/ adresinden edinilmiştir. niermann, j. (1990). methoden des lehrens und lernens in türkischen schulen [methods of teaching and learning in schools in turkey]. köln: önel-verlag. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0001136 http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/www/icerik_goruntule.php?kno=232 http://www.nfer.ac.uk/research/projects/cels/ journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 1-40 40 nohl, a. m., & somel, r. n. (2015). education and social dynamics: a multilevel analysis of curriculum change in turkey. new york: routledge. nonnenmacher, f. (2008). unterricht und lernkulturen. eine international vergleichende feldstudie zum themenbereich migration. [teaching and learning cultures. an international comparative field study on the lessons’ topic migration]. schwalbach: wochenschau. öcal, a., & yakar, h. (2015). 1968-2005 sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarında küresel farkındalık eğitimi [global awareness education in 1968-2005 social studies curriculums]. abant i̇zzet baysal üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, [abant izzet baysal university journal of faculty of education]15(1), 307-327. http://www.efdergi.ibu.edu.tr/index.php/efdergi/article/view/1786/2777 adresinden edinilmiştir. patton, m. q. (2003).qualitative research & evaulation methods (3rd. ed). thousand oaks: sage. peshkin, a. (1988). in search of subjectivity – one’s own. educational researcher, 17(2), 1722. reinhardt, s. (2015). teaching civics. a manual for secondary education teachers. london: barbara budrich. rogers, c. (1994). freedom to learn in the 80s (3rd edition). columbus: charles merrill. schiffauer, w., baumann, g., kastoryano, r.,& vertovec, s. (eds.).(2002). civil enculturation, nation-state, school and ethnic difference in four european countries. oxford/new york: berghahn. schmidt, c. (2011). politische bildung als spiegel politischer kultur? ein deutschfranzösischer vergleich [political education as a mirror of political culture? a germanfrench comparison]. marburg: verlag. the european wergeland centre (2014). generation democracy. http://www.theewc.org/news/view/generation.democracy/ adresinden edinilmiştir. the trends in international mathematics and science study [timms]. (1999). the timss video study. www.timssvideo.com/timss-video-study adresinden edinilmiştir. yıldırım, a., & şimşek, h. (2013). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (9. baskı) [qualitative research methods in social sciences]. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. http://www.efdergi.ibu.edu.tr/index.php/efdergi/article/view/1786/2777 http://www.theewc.org/news/view/generation.democracy/ http://www.timssvideo.com/timss-video-study coşkun-keskin, s. (2007). sosyal bilgiler derslerinde empati becerilerine dayalı öğretim tekniklerinin kullanılması [use of education techniques which is based on empathy skills in social studies]. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi [unpublished doctoral diss... council of europe [coe] (2011-2014). democratic citizenship and human rights education in turkey. retrieved from http://www.edchreturkey-eu.coe.int/description_en.asp creswell, j. w. (2013). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (3rd. ed.). los angeles: sage. çulha-özbaş, b., & güryay, b. (2014). can social studies and language lessons be integrated via global education? english language teacher candidates’ perceptions. procedia – social and behavioral sciences, 116, 1132-1136. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01... dewey, j. (1915). school and society. chicago: the university of chicago press. erdoğan, i̇. (2003). karşılaştırmalı eğitim: türk eğitim bilim çalışmaları içinde önemsenmesi gereken bir alan [comparative education: an important field in turkish educational science studies]. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi [turkish educational scienc... eudmigrom (2008). ethnic differences in education and diverging prospects for urban youth in an enlarged europe. retrieved from www.edumigrom.eu gagel, w., grammes, t., & unger, a. (eds.) (1992). politikdidaktik praktisch. ein videobuch [didactics of civics a practical approach. a video book.] schwalbach: wochenschau. genç-sel, v. (2004, temmuz). dünyada ve türkiye’de karşılaştırmalı eğitim: kavram, kapsam ve eğilimler [comparative education in turkey and the world: concept, scope and tendencies]. xiii. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kurultayı [paper presented xiii. natio... coşkun-keskin, s. (2007). sosyal bilgiler derslerinde empati becerilerine dayalı öğretim tekniklerinin kullanılması [use of education techniques which is based on empathy skills in social studies]. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi [unpublished doctoral diss... council of europe [coe] (2011-2014). democratic citizenship and human rights education in turkey. http://www.edchreturkey-eu.coe.int/description_en.asp adresinden edinilmiştir. creswell, j. w. (2013). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (3rd. ed.). los angeles: sage. çulha-özbaş, b., & güryay, b. (2014). can social studies and language lessons be integrated via global education? english language teacher candidates’ perceptions. procedia – social and behavioral sciences, 116, 1132-1136. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01... dewey, j. (1915). school and society. chicago: the university of chicago press. erdoğan, i̇. (2003). karşılaştırmalı eğitim: türk eğitim bilim çalışmaları içinde önemsenmesi gereken bir alan [comparative education: an important field in turkish educational science studies]. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi [turkish educational scienc... eudmigrom (2008). ethnic differences in education and diverging prospects for urban youth in an enlarged europe. www.edumigrom.eu adresinden edinilmiştir. gagel, w., grammes, t., & unger, a. (eds.) (1992). politikdidaktik praktisch. ein videobuch [didactics of civics a practical approach. a video book.] schwalbach: wochenschau. genç-sel, v. (2004, temmuz). dünyada ve türkiye’de karşılaştırmalı eğitim: kavram, kapsam ve eğilimler [comparative education in turkey and the world: concept, scope and tendencies]. xiii. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kurultayı [paper presented xiii. natio... www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (3), 134-155 the engagement of learning management on civic education for civic disposition building in senior high school sarkadi1 & dini nur fadhillah2 abstract the implementation of the curriculum in indonesia has an impact on the engagement of learning management in civic education in senior high school. adjustment of the learning process is made by civic education teachers to build civic disposition in students. the purpose of this study is to describe the learning management in civic education to be achieved more effectively, efficiently, and productively. this study uses a qualitative method. data was collected by interviews with 14 civic education teachers, 10 senior high school students, and two senior high school principals in jakarta. interviews were conducted for 120 minutes 3 times before and after the learning process took place. to present display data in qualitative research with narrative-evoking texts. the results of this study indicate that to be able to build civic disposition, civic education teachers should apply learning plans, learning implementations, and learning evaluations. therefore, students can be responsive and proactive to the material taught. civic disposition helped students understanding the material of human rights and the obligations of citizens in the life of the nation and state. to improve students in civic disposition building, teachers must start learning by using management. based on theoretical practice, the teacher can improve learning innovation to build civic disposition with learning media and good learning strategies. on the other side, students able to show the attitude of civic disposition in the community. keywords: management learning; civic education; civic disposition; senior high school introduction civic education is the right tool to internalize the character values (zurqoni, retnawati, arlinwibowo, & apino, 2018). therefore, civic education is a course of learning that has a mission to shape the nation's personality, namely, conscious effort in the nation and character-building (roldão, 2003). according to yuen (2016), civic education aims to foster student knowledge about the country and instill a sense of nationalism. the development of civic education is needed for a strong state as a transmitter in maintaining democracy and preparing citizens in the future (tolstenko, baltovskij, & radikov, 2019). in america, school is a place to form a unity of citizens through civic education (campbell, 2007). on the other side, civic education in indonesia is a 1 associate professor, universitas negeri jakarta, sarkadi@unj.ac.id 2 postgraduate student, universitas sebelas maret, dininurfa08@student.uns.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 135 compulsory subject in accordance with constitution no. 20 of 2003, about national education standards. the role of civic education becomes important as a basis for students to understand civic disposition (nogueira & moreira, 2012). that is in line with wheeler-bell (2014) research that civic dispositions such as support for justice and equality and a sense of personal responsibility. to show this sense, civic education are curricular designed as learning subjects, which include spiritual and social attitudes (hahn, 2015). in addition, civic education is to develop the potential of individuals to become indonesian citizens who have morality, intelligent, participatory, and responsible (galston, 2004). according to branson (turner, 1997), there are three main components in civic education, namely civic knowledge, civic skills, and civic disposition. the main purpose of civic disposition is to foster the character of citizens, both private characters (wheeler-bell, 2014). the civic education learning process is natural for students to show an attitude of moral responsibility, self-discipline, and respect for the dignity and human dignity of each individual, as well as the public character (japar, 2018). fives (2013) explained that civic disposition becomes important because it relates to caring as a citizen, politeness, and heeding the rules of law. students must have the ability to think critically, and the willingness to listen, negotiate and compromise as a civic disposition (turner, 1990). civic education, develop several educational programs and models for their implementation in preparing students to become mature adults with a character through educational institutions (komarudin, alkhudri, ubedilah, syaifudin, & casmana, 2019). besides that, civic disposition has connected with the socio-cultural of civic education to implement the learning process to the community to become a good citizen (manning & edwards, 2014). moral education is one of civic disposition dimension in civic education. there are mission to shape good citizenship and following the values (alshammari, 2015). one of the implementations through a critical element of good citizens to own and develop characters by a national culture. students will be able to take a role in carrying out community development (payne et al., 2019). civic education building can connected with learning management in the classroom as one aspect of education management (h. m. lin & tsai, 2008). according to anderson et al. (2018), there are three essential dimensions in school management, namely the organizational aspect, the educational component dimension, and the process dimension. as a management process, learning in the classroom must be built from all stages that are comprehensively (albert & grzeda, 2015). learning activities naturally begin from planning, organizing, coordinating, implementing, and sarkadi & fadhillah evaluation through assessment (dejarnette & sudeck, 2016). the teacher is supposed to do the simultaneous interventions on learning management. as a tool, learning management made for the teacher to organize the learning process. the issue of civic education needs to get attention and better handling regarding the importance of the management of learning. empirical evidence of the weakness of the old pattern in national education control and the roll-out of regional autonomy has encouraged the adjustment—the old pattern of management of future education, which is more nuanced of autonomy and more democratic. civic disposition as a form of good citizens needs to be instilled in students. based on the identification of problems and previous research, the formulation of the problem-focused on this research is how the planning of civic education teacher learning management in high schools in civic disposition building. literature review civic education civic education also becomes the basis of knowledge for students in maintaining unity and integrity (isin & turner, 2002). students need the process of receiving consciously and the reasoning to feel compatible with it (comer & schwartz, 2020). then, the student responding process that provides study further, when the values are perceived to be needed (donovan, 2017). valuing process becomes important as a stage of evaluating studied to obtain consideration and become a characterizing student (shrivastava, mitroff, & alpaslan, 2013). civic disposition develops as a result of what has been learned and experienced by someone in their environment (galston, 2004). therefore, the complexity of investing in all aspects of students makes the learning process in the classroom requires proper management (davis, 2014; kilinc & tarman, 2018). private characters such as moral responsibility, self-discipline, and respect for the dignity and human dignity of each individual are mandatory (engelen, thomas, archer, & van de ven, 2018; woofter, 2019) whereas public character is related to students' concern as citizens (klien, 2005). in addition, politeness and compliance with applicable regulations students needed (percival & pulford, 2019). a teacher is a manager who must manage existing resources in the school environment for the benefit of the learning process. based on previous research on learning management, civic education teacher is must be able to manage and empower potential in schools to achieve learning goals (sarkadi & rudi casmana, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 137 2018; tarman, 2018). then, social studies teachers have a responsibility and a duty to refocus their classrooms on teaching (ajaps & obiagu, 2020; hawkman, 2020). therefore, the management of civic education must be adjusted to the process of planning, organizing, and controlling as an effort to realize civic disposition (iasha, sumantri, sarkadi, & rachmadtullah, 2018). learning management of civic education according to wong et al. (2017), learning management on civic education helped the teacher to determine the goals or framework of action needed to achieve specific goals. this is done by examining the strengths and weaknesses of learning strategies, determining learning media, and adjusting the assessment process (murphy, 2007; white, 2020). the learning process can be carried out effectively and efficiently; it requires the learning program management activities (somers, passerini, parhankangas, & casal, 2014). civic education learning management, which conducts discussions related to civic disposition (isac, maslowski, & van der werf, 2011). therefore, learning management is needed by the teacher as a strategy in the classroom to give concepts and principles of civic disposition in political, legal, and moral civic education (rahmadi et al., 2020; somers et al., 2014). moreover, the involvement of learning management in civic education is carried out to prepare students in the democratic process towards efforts to protect and defend the country (haigh, murcia, & norris, 2014). for this reason, civic disposition plays a role in developing confidence to be able to participate in civic life (osanloo, 2009). civic disposition in indonesia civic disposition is aim to prepare students to become global citizens (karliani, kartadinata, winataputra, & komalasari, 2019). it is shown as global citizenship to covers various dimensions such as political, moral, social, critical, environmental, and spiritual (warren, jaafar, & sulaiman, 2016). according to lukitoaji (2017), in conducting civic disposition training, it is usually through learning models such as project citizens. in line with the regulation of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia no. 37 of 2018 in the senior high school, the curriculum must include civic education subject relate to civic skills and civic disposition. based on winataputra (karliani et al., 2019), explained that civic disposition must appear in the material. students are trained to have responsibility for the assignments given, to accept suggestions from friends, and to show a democratic attitude. sarkadi & fadhillah liem, and chua (2013) explained civic dispositions are strictly related to the character of students in their lives as members of the citizens. to form students' understanding of the equality of human rights, it has become imperative for students to advance the common good by caring about social problems of the surrounding environment. that way, research pantic and wubbels (2012) also explained popularized educational goals to grow smart and good citizens who were influenced by the teacher's role. the teacher's task is to teach virtue through trials and direct communication in facilitating students to carry out the dimensions of civic disposition by giving them reinforcement. these civic disposition criteria provide opportunities for students to participate in shared problems in an open manner. in connection with that matter, the conception by village and francis (2016) guides what is truly worth following and implementing by students in their environment on civic disposition. thus, on civic education subjects, the teachers instill social, cultural, and moral values to overcome a value education approach using a value clarification approach (msila, 2015). in other words, through sorenson (2013) civic disposition offered focus on moral behavior based on ethical reasoning and developing the ability to make decisions and solve problems. the need for civic disposition felt urgent to be done optimally because the formation of good and intelligent citizens must carefully consider the moral development of each citizen. therefore, beerthuizen and brugman (2016) explained there is a correlation between moral value evaluation with externalizing behaviour across value areas in adolescents students. the reason is that after all, a person's education process to become an adult citizen is influenced by his own moral development (nasir, 2020; swalwell & payne, 2019). to shape the morals included in civic disposition need to be built with civic education. so, there is innovation in the learning process on developing civic disposition through action civic education (blevins, lecompte, & wells, 2016). method research design this research used qualitative approach (creswell, 2017). the qualitative approach is carried out as a research procedure that produces descriptive data in the form of oral data from the teachers and observed behavior (blalock, 2018). the intended behavior is when the teacher is in charge of compiling a teaching system. this qualitative research was conducted looking at the conditions journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 139 and data requirements. to be able to describe the implementation of learning management in the civic education learning process, interviews and observations are conducted. participants the main participant of this study was 14 civic education from 7 high schools in jakarta who had been selected, from the age of 27 to 50 years, and had teaching experience from 2-25 years. as we know, the teacher has experience in dealing with students and mastering the principles and techniques of teaching. the substance of the learning development process begins with identifying problems, continues with developing strategies and learning materials, and ends with evaluating their effectiveness and efficiency. in this research, the author collaborated with ten students. this research was conducted in jakarta, indonesia. the choice of research sites is due to the proximity to the authors' work environment. ease of access related to participants makes the authors choose sma 1 cengkareng, sma 36 jakarta, sma 52 jakarta, sma 12 jakarta, sma 34 jakarta, sma garuda cendekia, and sma perguruan cikini as a research setting. this research was conducted in the classroom and the teacher's room. that is because participants often do activities at the place. the seven schools have different learning qualities. all teachers in the school have the same teacher qualifications, namely bachelor's degree qualified teachers. data from civic education teachers, students, other teachers, and headmasters are needed. so, it requires an in-depth search of the management techniques used by the teacher. data collection the main instrument in this study is the researcher himself. researchers as instruments can deal directly with respondents and are able to understand and assess various forms of interaction in the field. to help researchers as the main instrument, the researchers make supporting instruments. thus, researchers chose to conduct data collection in senior high school. researchers conducted a preliminary survey that is by looking for the subject as a resource. during the survey process, the researchers conducted a field study of the research setting, looking for data and information about the civic education learning process in sma 1 cengkareng, sma 36 jakarta, sma 52 jakarta, sma 12 jakarta, sma 34 jakarta, sma garuda cendekia, and sma perguruan cikini. the second instrument in this study is the interview method. in general, the preparation of data collection instruments in the form of interview guidelines. sarkadi & fadhillah table 1 civic disposition instrument research question component sub-component how does the civic education learning management on civic disposition building?  formulation of purpose  formulation of learning objectives is included attitude competencies, knowledge, and skills.  learning material  arrange learning material that is relevant to the content standards and standards competence.  learning media  use of sources and media learning that is relevant to competency standards.  method  the use of learning methods is based on problem-solving.  learning source  determination of steps principle-based on learning scientific approach.  assessment techniques and instruments using authentic judgment and comprehensive includes assessment source: private document (2020) the interview process for each informant was carried out for three meetings with 40 minutes after the learning process. with regard to the focus of research related to civic disposition, civic education material that is appropriate in the data collection process is a violation of the rights and denial of the obligations of citizens in the life of the nation and state. observations were made while the learning process lasted for 2 x 60 minutes. the selection of interview subjects is based on the experience of civic education teachers who have used the 2013 curriculum in accordance with the regulation of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia no. 37 of 2018. besides that, interviews were also carried out on 35 minutes for students. the students became as a source in collecting research data because the researchers were very hopeful of obtaining data and information from them about various matters regarding improving student civic disposition through learning management conducted by civic education teachers. this research also works with the school principal to find out the obstacles faced by civic education teachers in arranging learning management. this study conducted observations and interviews as a collection of data describing the management of civic education learning in public senior high school (sma 1 cengkareng, sma 36 jakarta, sma 52 jakarta, sma 12 jakarta, sma 34 jakarta), and private school (sma garuda journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 141 cendekia, and sma perguruan cikini). the observation process was carried out when the civic education teacher was conducting the learning process. then, the question component at the time of the interview relates to the civic education learning planning variable, teacher's understanding is related to basic competencies and learning plans, and how the teacher's learning management process is in conducting civic education learning innovations. in addition, this interview was also conducted to students to find out how their understanding of the material violations of rights and denial of the obligations of citizens in the life of the nation and state. and how they respect differences in the context of respecting human rights through civic education learning. however, before learning begins, the teacher has prepared to learn management, which is done through learning plans, learning implementation, and learning evaluation (buchs, filippou, pulfrey, & volpé, 2017). as an effort to build civic disposition, this study seeks to describe the learning management of civic education teachers in grade 3 of senior high schools. researchers followed the learning process carried out by the teacher on material violations of rights and denial of the obligations of citizens in the life of the nation and state for four meetings. each meeting begins with a review of the issues that are around students. the learning process is carried out for 90 minutes. the data reduction process this study continues after the fieldwork until the final report is thoroughly arranged. in the triangulation stage, researchers compare the observational data with the interview data. and, compare the results of the interview with the contents of a document related. data analysis after the data is collected, then analyzed using data management techniques. analysis of the data used by the authors in this study aims to answer the questions listed in the identification of problems. data analysis techniques used by miles and huberman model (1994) in (miles, huberman, & saldana, 2014) such as research include interview transcript, data reduction, analysis, data interpretation, and triangulation. the reduction is made since the collection of data, starting with making gains related to the collection of existing data. then, discuss themes, write memos, and set aside data or information that is not relevant, then the data is announced. the presentation of qualitative data is presented in the form of narrative text, with the aim of being designed to facilitate information arranged in a coherent and easily understood form. sarkadi & fadhillah results implementation of civic education learning management on civic disposition building to answer research questions, the privacy of informants in accordance with the code of ethics of the study, we disguise participant data. following is the biography of the interviewee: table 2 biography interviewee's no interviewee school of origin age education background teaching experiences 1 sd sma n 1 cengkareng 27 bachelor degree 3 years 2 dk sma n 36 jakarta 29 bachelor degree 5 years 3 am sma n 52 jakarta 32 bachelor degree 9 years 4 sr sma n 12 jakarta 28 bachelor degree 4 years 5 mr sma n 34 jakarta 40 master degree 17 years 6 fa sma perguruancikini 42 bachelor degree 20 years 7 mj sma garuda cendekia 37 bachelor degree 15 years 8 mp sma n 1 cengkareng 48 master degree 25 years 9 ph sma n 36 jakarta 46 bachelor degree 23 years 10 rd sma n 52 jakarta 33 bachelor degree 8 years 11 ds sma n 12 jakarta 27 bachelor degree 2 years 12 nt sma n 34 jakarta 28 bachelor degree 2 years 13 lk sma perguruancikini 37 bachelor degree 12 years 14 aj sma garuda cendekia 45 master degree 20 years source: finding data (2020) all teachers use learning management in civic education. some of their comments illustrate this learning plan: "learning planning is important in management education. therefore, i feel that there is a standard of competency to be achieved to help teachers understand the limits of learning "(dk) "the importance of learning management is the key for me to understand the material that will be delivered. by planning to learn, i can determine what learning strategies to use. " (mr) "making a learning plan is included in the management of learning to guide teachers. for me, the teacher must have a learning plan to find out what media is in accordance with the material. " (ph) based on the understanding of the three teachers about learning management and the objectives of the learning plan. however, management of learning on material rights violations and denial of citizens' obligations in the life of the nation and state. to initiate learning, elementary, dk, am, sr, mr, and fa open the material by inviting students to analyze cases of rights violations and denial of citizens' obligations regarding the 2019 presidential election participation. on the other hand, mj, mp, ph, rd, and ds open material by inviting students to identify images about violations of citizens' obligations. nt, lk, and aj opened the material by showing a video related journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 143 to the 2019 general election. how do you build a civic disposition through material that will be studied by students? "pictures are media that make students interesting to give real examples of violations of rights and obligations. when students know the consequences of violations, they will respect differences as a gift. " (mj) "to see students' responsive and proactive attitudes, it is important to provide cases for analysis. students are trained to read, then analyze and respond. with good learning management, i find it helpful to find learning innovations" (fa) "the characteristics of students are different, and i feel challenged in innovating learning. for this reason, it is important to implement learning management in civic education. moreover, videos can help students identify the nature of citizens' rights and obligations. " (aj) learning is the assistance given by educators so that the process of acquiring knowledge and transformation character skills, as well as the formation of attitudes and beliefs in students (martins, detmer, & rubery, 2005). in other words, learning strategy is a process to help students to improve academic performance (lee, wang, & ren, 2019). based on interviews mj, fa, and aj on learning strategies required interesting learning media. good management determines the pros and cons of learning, how instructors use the right methods, provide the right learning tools and create conditions that are conducive to teaching and learning in progress (alexander-shea, 2011). during the learning process, lk provides a video related to citizens who decide not to vote in the general election of students interested in watching it. "a teacher in implementing the learning process in education will need certain learning methods in order to achieve his goals easily. students can build civic disposition in the community. " (ph) "human resource management in carrying out interaction activities between teaching staff and students and learning resources becomes the learning objective to be achieved. moreover, civic education material trains students to implement civic disposition"(nt) learning management is carried out as a collaborative process to achieve common goals. to develop civic education management, the principal plays a role by sending teacher representatives to attend training activities. "every activity that has the effect of increasing hr expertise, we try to always follow it. because we continue to need it for the advancement of quality schools and graduates "(jk, principal 1) "learning management is very important for teachers to do. especially in civic education because the material is more on theoretical concepts. for this reason, teachers must have learning innovation. " (op, principal 3) sarkadi & fadhillah interviews of principals were conducted separately at the fifth meeting. from the results of the interview, jk and op explained that learning management is important to be implemented, and to improve the expertise of teachers is allowed to participate in training activities. "by the regulations of the minister of education and culture in the management of learning, teachers must have planning, implementation, and evaluation of learning. especially in civic education that has indicators of achievement for students to be able to build civic disposition. "(rd) human rights are the basic obligations of everyone (hamelink, 1998). in other words, human rights are irrespective of the citizenship status held by that person (bromley, 2011). meanwhile, the obligations of citizens are limited by one's citizenship status (japar & nur fadhillah, 2018). however, the concept of civic obligation has a broader scope because it also covers human rights obligations (leung, 2008). sr conveyed the competencies to be achieved and their benefits in everyday life. then ph delivered an outline of the scope of material and activities to be carried out. the teacher has a role as one of the elements of education management in an educational institution that is seen directly in transferring knowledge to students (farrow, wetzel, farrow, & wetzel, 2020). besides that, the teacher manages his class and formulates learning objectives in an operational manner (jalloh, collins, lafleur, reimer, & morrow, 2020). determine learning material, establish methods appropriate to the learning objectives, and carry out learning activities (s. lin et al., 2020). after that, evaluating the learning outcomes and other professional abilities of the teacher so that the learning process can run according to the objectives to be achieved (erikson & erikson, 2019). in the process of implementing student learning in am, sr, mr, and mj classes are divided into several groups with 4-5 people each group. students are given themes related to violations of citizens' rights and obligations. students in accordance with their group assignments looking for further information by reading various other relevant sources both from the internet; the web, as well as other social media, to answer questions contained in the discourse of cases of violation of rights and denial of citizens' obligations. students are given the opportunity by the teacher to present the results of their analysis. "civic education learning strategies in building civic disposition are by training students' literacy, collaboration, and critical thinking. it can show a responsive and proactive attitude of students "(am) "the rights and obligations of citizens are also inseparable because after all those obligations arise rights and vice versa. for this, it is important for students to build journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 145 civic disposition. so students have a responsible attitude towards their rights and obligations "(sr) "through the evaluation given by the teacher, students understand that every citizen is required to attend primary education, and the government is obliged to finance it. this can build civic disposition for students. they understand their purpose of learning is a right that is obtained from the state "(mj) based on the interview of am, sr, and mj, the student carries out what is their duty and fight for what is rightfully through civic education. the teacher must try to make things clear to students and skilled in solving problems. for this reason, researchers also conducted interviews with students in understanding civic disposition. the following are the results of the interview of researchers and students: table 3 student interviews name school of origin age finding student 1 sma garuda cendekia 15 there is a change compared to when i was in class 2 yesterday; the teacher gives more orders now. i feel happy with the group learning system. student 2 sma n 1 cengkareng 16 the current learning process for teachers is very varied. when identifying video cases of violations of citizens' rights and obligations, i become more respectful of differences. student 3 sma n 36 jakarta 15 ... before the lesson begins, the teacher provides information on the learning objectives. this makes it easier for us to adjust to learning. student 4 sma n 52 jakarta 16 through interesting learning media, i can identify examples of behaviors to prevent violations of citizens' rights and obligations student 5 sma n 12 jakarta 16 with the discussion group, i can respect the differences of opinion of other students and be able to analyze cases of violations of rights and obligations. student 6 sma n 34 jakarta 16 the current civic education learning process is different. the teacher allowed students to find information related to violations of rights and denial of civic obligations in the life of the nation and state through internet sources or books; these activities train us to be responsible for obligations; that is the task. student 7 sma perguruan cikini 16 through learning civic education in the material rights and obligations, i was trained to be honest when doing the task by not copy and paste. my group is committed to doing the task well. in my opinion, these activities make me more respectful of the rights received, especially education. student 8 sma garuda cendekia 16 as a student, i realize that being a good citizen must have an attitude of tolerance. the group assignments given by the teacher make me respect the opinions of friends and do a good collaboration. student 9 sma n 1 cengkareng 15 the learning process carried out by the teacher is well structured. so, i dare to be responsive to violations of rights and obligations student 10 sma n 36 jakarta 15 through civic education, i understand cases where the implementation of rights and obligations. so, caring attitude towards others is necessary. the teacher explains material that is easy to understand. source: finding data (2020) sarkadi & fadhillah based on table 2 regarding the results of interviews with students, almost all participants gave positive responses to civic education. student 1 explains the comparison of the learning process before grade 1. aj, as student 1 teacher, shows the progress of teaching using good learning management and building positive perceptions and attitudes towards civic education subjects. this is indicated by the learning media used by the teacher. sd, dk, am, sr, mr, and fa open the material by inviting students to analyze cases of violation of rights and denial of citizens' obligations. mj, mp, ph, rd, and ds begin the material by inviting students to identify images. on the other hand, nt, lk, and aj opened the material by presenting videos related to the 2019 general election. in the context of global life, civic education must equip students to live in the global arena as global citizenship(japar, fadhillah, & syarifa, 2019). therefore, the substance and learning of civic education are oriented to equip indonesian citizens to be able to live and contribute optimally to the dynamics of 21st-century life. the manifestation of these skills is explained by student 6. evaluation management conducted verbally and in writing. daily assessments are carried out more flexibly according to the fundamental competencies discussed(lam, 2019). one teacher revealed that after the process of implementing learning with competency standards of violation of rights and denial of the obligations of citizens in the life of the nation and state, students were asked to describe orally(meijer, hoekstra, brouwer, & strijbos, 2020). besides that, students are also given an attitude assessment questionnaire. the results of attitude assessment during the period of one semester are written in the form of descriptions that describe the behavior of students(jopp & cohen, 2020). discussion based on the findings show that the implementation of civic disposition through good learning management can increase student motivation. this is in line with syahruddin (2017) who conducted research related to the management of civic education learning through lightening the learning climate. guided discovery learning has a positive impact in improving student achievement. this can be seen from the increasingly solid understanding of students towards the material presented by the teacher. according to students 9. the learning process carried out by the teacher is well structured. so, he dares to be responsive to violations of rights and obligations. the findings show that in learning, students are encouraged to find out for themselves and transform journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 147 complex information and develop their abilities to the environment and the era in which they live (sarkadi & rudi casmana, 2018). because, on learning process must be related to the opportunities given to students to construct knowledge in their cognitive processes (roldão, 2003). for this reason, building good civic disposition requires good learning management students need to be encouraged to work to solve problems, find everything for themselves, and strive to realize their ideas (dejarnette & sudeck, 2016). the teacher develops a learning atmosphere that allows students to discover, apply their own ideas, become aware, and consciously use their own strategies for learning. this was shown by students 4 and 6 that learning management helps teachers develop learning processes that make students understand and become more independent (albert & grzeda, 2015). as explained by campbell (2007) or students, learning must shift from being given "know" to "actively finding out." thus, the research is in accordance with the results of interview student 7, which shows that indeed in learning management, a good learning plan must be available. this is because civic disposition is related to the quality of human resources in the present and the future(iasha et al., 2018). whereas the activities of the teacher during the learning process have carried out the steps of the learning method in accordance with the process of transformation during which the teacher creates ideas based on the problems and interests of the content of the lesson itself (somers et al., 2014). for that, learning management in civic education can be considered as a process of transformation where the teacher creates ideas for learning (isac et al., 2011). civic education teacher can be able to experience obstacles in the learning process (haigh et al., 2014). in the statement of teacher mj learning management can build civic disposition for students. they understand their purpose of learning is a right that is obtained from the state. in line with shrivastava et al. (2013) that building civic disposition requires learning plans because planning is a learning guide. in the context of a civic education learning plan, a teacher must understand that the characteristics of civic education subjects are different from the characteristics of other subjects (davis, 2014) because students realize that being a good citizen must have an attitude of tolerance. this attitude of tolerance goes into the characteristic of mutual respect for civic disposition. even though percival and pulford (2019) state that civic education is related to civic knowledge. however, based on the findings, it is important to build students' civic disposition as a form of implementation of attitudes and ethics following existing norms in the community where they live (engelen et al., 2018). sarkadi & fadhillah the process of implementing civic education learning must be carried out with a holistic approach in a learning system. that can help teachers for civic disposition building in the form of general guidelines and a framework of activities. a teacher must pay attention to two things, namely the variation of learning and the steps of learning. variations in learning will make the classroom lively and more interesting, while the steps of learning are more time management. the management of learning gives birth to more active and creative learning methods, where the method is a tool to achieve school learning goals. so, the of this study indicate that the involvement of learning management makes it easier for teachers to innovate civic education learning. in addition, students are able to be responsive and proactive to violations of rights and denial of citizens' obligations in daily life. this study indicates that to be able to build civic disposition, the teacher implements learning management in civic education. civic education teachers apply learning plans, learning implementations, and learning evaluations. so, students can be responsive and proactive to the material taught; one of them is the material violations of rights and denial of the obligations of citizens in the life of the nation and state. building civic disposition is not easy for high school students. for this reason, through this research, it is explained how important is good learning management in civic education. teachers cannot teach without good preparation. because, in the process of building a civic disposition required variable learning planning, teacher's understanding is related to basic competencies and learning plans, and how the teacher's learning management process is in conducting civic education learning innovations. as explained by buchs, et al. (2017) that the teacher must start learning by using management. theoretical implications, students are able to show an attitude of respect for human rights and obey their rights and obligations as citizens. in practice, the teacher can improve learning innovation to build civic disposition with learning media and good learning strategies. on the other side, students able to show the attitude of civic disposition in the community. conclusion implementation of learning management on civic education in students at sma 1 cengkareng, sma 36 jakarta, sma 52 jakarta, sma 12 jakarta, sma 34 jakarta, and private school sma garuda cendekia, and sma perguruan cikini can build civic disposition. they can be responsive and proactive to the material taught; one of them is the material violations of rights and denial of the obligations of citizens in the life of the nation and state. this is shown by the response of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 149 students who realize that understanding related to human rights and the ability to behave is important to build. so that the goal of civics to be good and smart citizens can be achieved well. civic disposition can be interpreted as features or signs that indicate something different from others. civic education as a crucial subject for students has characteristics that are quite different from other branches of knowledge. civic disposition can be seen from the object, the scope of the material, learning strategies, to the final goal of this education. civic education is a subject that focuses on the formation of citizens who understand and are able to carry out their rights and obligations to become intelligent, skilled, and characterized. learning management helped the teacher to civic disposition building. students show their values of kindness, togetherness, sacrifice, respect other people, and keep unity in the learning process. therefore, they really need improvement in their civic disposition. for this reason, it is important to involve learning management in civic education to build civic disposition in the younger generation, especially high school students. therefore, in the future, it is needed for the development of media and learning strategies to be more varied. researchers appeal to observers (lecturers, teachers, researchers, government, community) to support civic education scholarship. in addition, in order to improve student learning achievement, teachers should train students more often with discovery activities, even at a simple level, where students can later discover new knowledge, gain concepts and skills so students succeed or are able to solve the problems they face. references ajaps, s., & obiagu, a. (2020). increasing civic engagement through civic education: a critical consciousness theory perspective. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 albert, s., & grzeda, m. (2015). reflection in strategic management education. journal of management education, 39(5), 650–669. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562914564872 alexander-shea, a. (2011). redefining vocabulary: the new learning strategy for social studies. the social studies, 102(3), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377996.2010.509371 alshammari, d. a. k. (2015). the perspectives of research in educational management and role of leadership. international journal of science and research (ijsr), 4(6), 71–75. retrieved from https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v4i6/sub155124.pdf anderson, l., hibbert, p., mason, k., & rivers, c. (2018). management education in turbulent times. journal of management education, 42(4), 423–440. sarkadi & fadhillah https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562918779421 beerthuizen, m. g. c. j., & brugman, d. (2016). the relationship of moral value evaluation with externalizing behaviour across value areas in adolescents. european journal of developmental psychology, 13(1), 84–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2015.1066669 blalock, a. e. (2018). incorporating critical qualitative inquiry in nonprofit management education. administrative theory and praxis, 40(1), 43–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2017.1420839 blevins, b., lecompte, k., & wells, s. (2016). innovations in civic education: developing civic agency through action civics. theory and research in social education, 44(3), 344–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2016.1203853 bromley, p. (2011). multiculturalism and human rights in civic education: the case of british columbia, canada. educational research, 53(2), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2011.572363 buchs, c., filippou, d., pulfrey, c., & volpé, y. (2017). challenges for cooperative learning implementation: reports from elementary school teachers. journal of education for teaching, 43(3), 296–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2017.1321673 campbell, d. e. (2007). sticking together classroom diversity and civic education. american politics research, 35(1), 57–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/01619566809537597 comer, d. r., & schwartz, m. (2020). adapting mussar to develop management students’ character. journal of management education, 44(2), 196–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562919871083 creswell, j. w. (2017). research design: qualitative, quantitative mixed methods approaches. london: sage publication. davis, h. (2014). towards leadingful leadership literacies for higher education management. journal of higher education policy and management, 36(4), 371–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080x.2014.916467 dejarnette, n. k., & sudeck, m. (2016). advocating for a cause: civic engagement in the k-6 classroom. journal of social studies education research, 7(1), 140–162. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.27299 donovan, p. (2017). a threshold concept in managing: what students in introductory management courses must know. journal of management education, 41(6), 835–851. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562917704869 engelen, b., thomas, a., archer, a., & van de ven, n. (2018). exemplars and nudges: combining two strategies for moral education. journal of moral education, 47(3), 346–365. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 151 https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2017.1396966 erikson, m. g., & erikson, m. (2019). learning outcomes and critical thinking–good intentions in conflict. studies in higher education, 44(12), 2293–2303. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1486813 farrow, c. ben, wetzel, e., farrow, c. ben, & wetzel, e. (2020). an active learning classroom in construction management education : student perceptions of engagement and learning an active learning classroom in construction management education : student perceptions of engagement and learning. international journal of construction education and research, 00(00), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/15578771.2020.1757536 fives, a. (2013). non-coercive promotion of values in civic education for democracy. philosophy and social criticism, 39(6), 577–590. https://doi.org/10.1177/0191453713485723 galston, w. a. (2004). civic education and political participation. ps political science and politics, 37(2), 263–266. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1049096504004202 hahn, c. l. (2015). comparative civic education: an introduction. research in comparative and international education, 10(1), 3–6. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745499914567815 haigh, y., murcia, k., & norris, l. (2014). citizenship, civic education and politics: the education policy context for young australian citizens. journal of education policy, 29(5), 598–616. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2013.865080 hamelink, c. j. (1998). human rights. journal of international communication, 5(1–2), 54–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/13216597.1998.9751864 hawkman, a. m. (2020). swimming in and through whiteness: antiracism in social studies teacher education. theory and research in social education, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2020.1724578 iasha, v., sumantri, m. s., sarkadi, s., & rachmadtullah, r. (2018). development media interactive learning in education pancasila and citizenship education to improve tolerance of students in elementary school. advances in social science, education and humanities research, 251, 311–314. https://doi.org/10.2991/acec-18.2018.71 isac, m. m., maslowski, r., & van der werf, g. (2011). effective civic education: an educational effectiveness model for explaining students’ civic knowledge. school effectiveness and school improvement, 22(3), 313–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2011.571542 isin, e. f., & turner, b. s. (2002). handbook of citizenship studies. london: sage publication. jalloh, c., collins, b., lafleur, d., reimer, j., & morrow, a. (2020). mapping session learning objectives to exam questions: how to do it and how to apply the results. medical teacher, 42(1), 66–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159x.2019.1652261 sarkadi & fadhillah japar, m. (2018). the improvement of indonesia students ‘engagement in civic education through case-based learning.’ journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 27–44. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.11273 japar, m., fadhillah, d. n., & syarifa, s. (2019). civic education through e-learning in higher education. retrieved from https://classroom.google.com japar, m., & nur fadhillah, d. (2018). do we need to learn about human rights values?: jurisprudential inquiry model of teaching in senior high school. jopp, r., & cohen, j. (2020). choose your own assessment–assessment choice for students in online higher education. teaching in higher education, 0(0), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2020.1742680 karliani, e., kartadinata, s., winataputra, u. s., & komalasari, k. (2019). indonesian civic engagement among college students. journal of human behavior in the social environment, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2019.1571980 kilinc, e. & tarman, b. (2018). global citizenship vs. patriotism: the correlation between preservice teachers’ perception of patriotism and global citizenship. in a. rapoport (ed.), competing frameworks: global and national in citizenship education. charlotte, nc: information age publishing. klien, s. a. (2005). public character and the simulacrum: the construction of the soldier patriot and citizen agency in black hawk down. critical studies in media communication, 22(5), 427–449. https://doi.org/10.1080/07393180500342993 komarudin, alkhudri, a. t., ubedilah, syaifudin, & casmana, a. r. (2019). the nationality education model: the implementation of a score-a training model for youth across different cultures in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 308– 322. lam, r. (2019). writing portfolio assessment in practice: individual, institutional, and systemic issues. pedagogies, 00(00), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554480x.2019.1696197 lee, s., wang, t., & ren, x. (2019). inner speech in the learning context and the prediction of students’ learning strategy and academic performance. educational psychology, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2019.1612035 leung, y. w. (2008). an ‘action‐poor’ human rights education: a critical review of the development of human rights education in the context of civic education in hong kong. intercultural education, 19(3), 231–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675980802078590 liem, g. a. d., & chua, b. l. (2013). an expectancy-value perspective of civic education motivation, learning and desirable outcomes. educational psychology, 33(3), 283–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.776934 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 153 lin, h. m., & tsai, c. c. (2008). conceptions of learning management among undergraduate students in taiwan. management learning, 39(5), 561–578. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507608096041 lin, s., luo, w., tong, f., irby, b. j., alecio, r. l., rodriguez, l., & chapa, s. (2020). databased student learning objectives for teacher evaluation. cogent education, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2020.1713427 lukitoaji, b. d. (2017). the guidance of civic disposition through the model project of citizen learning in the course of civics 2 to foster the moral value of the students [pembinaan civic disposition melalui model pembelajaran project citizen dalam mata kuliah pkn 2 untuk menum. jurnal moral kemasyarakatan, 2(2), 102–116. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 manning, n., & edwards, k. (2014). why has civic education failed to increase young people’s political participation? sociological research online, 19(1), 1–12. martins, h. m. g., detmer, d. e., & rubery, e. (2005). perspectives on management education: an exploratory study of uk and portuguese medical students. medical teacher, 27(6), 493– 498. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590500046726 meijer, h., hoekstra, r., brouwer, j., & strijbos, j. w. (2020). unfolding collaborative learning assessment literacy: a reflection on current assessment methods in higher education. assessment and evaluation in higher education, 0(0), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2020.1729696 miles, m. b., huberman, a. m., & saldana, j. (2014). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook. london: sage publications. msila, v. (2015). moral values and moral purpose: the missing links in failing schools? international journal of educational sciences, 8(3), 665–674. https://doi.org/10.1080/09751122.2015.11890287 murphy, j. b. (2007). against civic education in public schools. international journal of public administration, 30(6–7), 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900690701216019 nasir, m. (2020). curriculum development and accreditation standards in the traditional islamic schools in indonesia. journal of curriculum studies research. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 nogueira, f., & moreira, a. (2012). a framework for civic education teachers’ knowledge. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 47(1990), 1179–1183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.797 osanloo, a. f. (2009). civic responsibility and human rights education: a pan‐educational alliance for social justice. intercultural education, 20(2), 151–159. sarkadi & fadhillah https://doi.org/10.1080/14675980902922176 panti, n., & wubbels, t. (2012). the role of teachers in inculcating moral values: operationalisation of concepts. journal of beliefs and values, 33(1), 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2012.650030 payne, k. a., adair, j. k., colegrove, k. s. s., lee, s., falkner, a., mcmanus, m., & sachdeva, s. (2019). reconceptualizing civic education for young children: recognizing embodied civic action. education, citizenship and social justice. https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197919858359 percival, n. m., & pulford, b. d. (2019). do say “thank you”: verbal expressions of politeness and gratitude influence interpersonal perceptions. journal of general psychology, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2019.1690970 rahmadi, i., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113-133. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 roldão, m. (2003). civic education: what are we getting from research? european educational research journal, 2(3), 455–460. https://doi.org/10.2304/eerj.2003.2.3.1 sarkadi, s., & rudi casmana, a. (2018). management of attitude assessment, knowledge and skills-based on the 2013 curriculum. 3rd international conference on education management and administration (coema 2018), 269, 26–31. https://doi.org/10.2991/coema-18.2018.8 shrivastava, p., mitroff, i., & alpaslan, c. m. (2013). imagining an education in crisis management. journal of management education, 37(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562912455418 somers, m., passerini, k., parhankangas, a., & casal, j. (2014). management education and the professions. organisation management journal, 11(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/15416518.2014.903092 sorenson, r. l. (2013). how moral and social values become embedded in family firms. journal of management, spirituality and religion, 10(2), 116–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2012.758050 swalwell, k., & payne, k. a. (2019). critical civic education for young children. multicultural perspectives, 21(2), 127–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/15210960.2019.1606641 syahruddin. (2017). the learning management of civics with lightening the learning climate [manajemen pembelajaran pkn dengan lightening the learning climate]. manajer pendidikan, 11(6), 584–589. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 134-155 155 tarman, b. (2018). the awareness of social studies teacher candidates’ regarding special area competencies and the overlap level of these competencies with social studies degree, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5 (2), 16-28. tolstenko, a., baltovskij, l., & radikov, i. (2019). chance of civic education in russia. sage open, 9(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019859684 turner, b. s. (1990). outline of a theory of citizenship. sociology, 24(2), 189–217. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038590024002002 turner, b. s. (1997). citizenship studies: a general theory. citizenship studies, 1(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621029708420644 village, a., & francis, l. j. (2016). the development of the francis moral values scales: a study among 16to 18-year-old students taking religious studies at a level in the uk. journal of beliefs and values, 37(3), 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2016.1232568 warren, a. m., jaafar, n. i., & sulaiman, a. (2016). youth civic engagement behavior on facebook: a comparison of findings from malaysia and indonesia. journal of global information technology management, 19(2), 128–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/1097198x.2016.1187527 wheeler-bell, q. (2014). educating the spirit of activism: a “critical” civic education. educational policy, 28(3), 463–486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904812465113 white, c. (2020). wielding social media in the cyber-arena: globalism, nationalism, and civic education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 wong, k. l., lee, c. k. j., chan, k. s. j., & kennedy, k. j. (2017). constructions of civic education: hong kong teachers’ perceptions of moral, civic and national education*. compare, 47(5), 628–646. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2016.1262756 woofter, s. (2019). book review: building equity: policies and practices to empower all learners. american journal of qualitative research, 3(1), 136139. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5815 yuen, t. w. w. (2016). civic education stuck in a quagmire: a critical review of civic education in hong kong? citizenship, social and economics education, 15(2), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/2047173416650447 zurqoni, retnawati, h., arlinwibowo, j., & apino, e. (2018). strategy and implementation of character education in senior high schools and vocational high schools. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 370–397. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.01008 preservice teachers' attitudes toward the inclusion of www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(2),1-21 © 2011 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 preservice teachers’ attitudes toward the inclusion of “heritage education” in elementary social studies cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa1 & keith c. barton2 abstract: this study explores pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward heritage education, an approach to teaching history grounded in first-hand experiences with material culture. the research was conducted at a large midwestern university in the united states, in a methods course that included 28 pre-service teachers. data were derived from both quantitative and qualitative instruments, including attitude surveys completed before and after classroom activities and a field trip to a local history museum; these activities aimed to introduce teachers to the meaning and purpose of using material history in elementary classrooms. we found that pre-service teachers already had highly positive attitudes toward inclusion of heritage education; that they considered heritage resources educationally valuable; and that they wanted to use such resources in their teaching. participants’ attitudes, however, showed little or no change after participating in classroom activities, presumably because their initial perceptions of heritage materials were so uniformly positive. keywords: heritage education, historic places, social studies introduction heritage education is a term that is rarely used in the united states, and the word “heritage” is likely to call forth a host of problematic social, cultural, political, and ideological perspectives. defending one’s “heritage” can be a way of justifying particularistic and exclusionary perspectives, as when white southerners defend symbols of the confederacy by referring to it as their “heritage.” in his book possessed by the past: the heritage crusade and the spoils of history, lowenthal (1996) uses the word to point to all the ways in which the past can be twisted, exploited, and mythologized for political, religious, nationalistic, and even commercial purposes. from this perspective, “heritage” suggests highly selective readings of the past that are meant to impose specific beliefs about society by cloaking them in the guide of timelessness. some authors place history and heritage in direct opposition— 1 arş. gör., gazi university, yesilbursa@gazi.edu.tr 2 prof. dr., indiana university, kcbarton@indiana.edu mailto:yesilbursa@gazi.edu.tr� mailto:kcbarton@indiana.edu� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 2 the former a rational, inquiry-based process, the latter a biased, unreflective, and usually nationalistic undertaking (vansledright, 2008). in the united states, the word “heritage” is indeed most often used by those with conservative cultural and political agendas—precisely the people who are most likely to oppose hands-on encounters with primary source evidence. it may come as a shock to u.s. educators, then, that in much of the rest of the world, “heritage” (and its equivalent in languages other than english, such as patrimonio in spanish) does not inevitably carry this kind of political baggage. unesco’s world heritage program, for example, simply defines heritage as “our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what we pass on to future generations.” the concept of world heritage, it maintains, is characterized by its “universal application,” and world heritage sites “belong to all the peoples of the world, irrespective of the territory on which they are located” (united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization, 1992-2011). in addition, “heritage education”—a term generally used in the united states only by archeologists or the national park service—is in common use among teachers and other educators throughout europe. its use calls forth associations almost directly opposed to the negative connotations found in the united states. as defined by the council of europe, heritage education is an approach to teaching history that makes use of material and tangible aspects of the past; is grounded in primary sources and first-hand experiences; and is directed toward understanding cultural similarities and differences in hopes of overcoming intolerance and ethnic nationalism (copeland, 2007). although some european educators have a more explicitly multicultural agenda in developing heritage education materials, most agree on certain basic concepts. “heritage education” almost always refers to an approach to teaching and learning about history and culture that uses information from material culture and the human and built environments as primary instructional resources. it involves the study, appreciation, and conservation of all aspects of a community, including historic architecture, museums and historic sites, landscapes and streetscapes, cemeteries, folkways, photographs, newspapers, documents, court records, family papers and memorabilia, and objects and artifacts (huhta & hankis, 1988). the heritage education approach is intended to strengthen students' understanding of concepts and principles related to history and culture and to enrich their appreciation for the artistic achievements, technological abilities, and social and economic contributions of men and women from diverse groups (hunter, 1988). these are the senses in which “heritage” and “heritage education” will be used in this paper. cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 3 as yet, however, recommendations for using heritage resources in teaching about the past have not been matched by an equivalent research program into the effects of such approaches, nor into teachers’ attitudes toward including heritage education in the curriculum. this study attempts to stimulate such research by investigating preservice teachers’ receptiveness toward using heritage resources, as well as the impact of a small-scale intervention in one preservice methods course. although the results are necessarily limited by the study’s small sample size, the research nonetheless holds some implications for how teacher educators might go about introducing teachers to the use of material resources and the built environment in teaching about the past. why heritage education? for over one hundred years, scholars have debated the content of history education and methods for teaching the subject. scholars and educators have suggested using materials such as primary sources, museums, art and architecture, objects, documents, stories, photographs, pictures, and films (krug, 1970; levstik & barton, 1997; nash & symcox, 1991; percoco, 1998; barton, 2001; veccia, 2004; d’sa, 2005). at the same time, critics of history teaching have noted the frequent emphasis on chronology, the narrow interpretation of historical phenomena, the overuse of frequently boring and even factually incorrect textbooks, and classrooms that are overly teacherand textbook-centered (yarema, 2002). textbooks, in particular, have been criticized for encouraging students to believe that history is comprised of facts to be learned and memorized, and for failing to engage students (barton, 2008). vanderstel (2002) indicates that students have preconceptions that “history is boring; history is about a bunch of dead people and generally meaningless for the present; and historians teach and write books and articles about the past” (p. 5). similarly, vansledright (2002) notes that history teaching often consists of consuming and reproducing events and details found mostly in books. likewise, vella (2005) states that traditional history teaching rests on the assumption that history is a ready-made product; therefore history teaching involves only transmitting knowledge and facts. krug (1970), on the other hand, argues that teaching history is an inquiry into the past, and this presupposes the extensive use of historical sources in the classroom. yet in teaching history, one of the most important difficulties teachers face is enlivening events from distant times for students. they must look for the ways to capture student’s interest (boland, 2002), including the visual aspect of history (levstik and barton, 1997). journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 4 heritage education provides important resources for enlivening history for children and developing their imagination. the content of heritage education easily fits into established strands of the social studies curriculum, including both history and geography. consider the five themes of geography education (location; place; human-environment interactions; movement of people, ideas, goods; and formation and change of regions): teaching and learning about each of these themes is greatly enriched through use of the built environment. the same point can be made about areas of historic literacy such as time and chronology, continuity and change, historical empathy, and cause-effect relationships. these ideas can be included in the curriculum more realistically, and in more interesting ways, through the use of historic places and artifacts (hunter, 1988). percoco (1998) states that the contemporary history teacher faces the task of trying to make sense of the past for students, as well as the task of helping them develop their own critical thinking skills. using heritage sites provides gains for both teachers and students, by capturing students’ interest, helping them develop knowledge of the past, and developing their understanding of the value of these historic sources (boland, 1994). historic sites provide both an emotional connection, which creates interest and excitement, and an intellectual gateway into investigating and understanding people and events in history. and we can find them all around us, in the towns and cities where we live (boland, 2002). analyzing material culture traces of historical events are found in objects as well as in words and images. taken together, objects are known as “material culture,” but they are in fact only the creations and products of culture. the inspiration for making them comes from the bundle of knowledge, beliefs, norms, and values that compose a culture, and they therefore present events and ideas in the lives of people. expressed another way, material culture is the part of the physical environment that has been transformed from the natural state by human action for human purposes. to understand human action and human purposes in a community, it makes sense to look carefully and in many different ways at artifacts from its past (kyvig & marty, 2000). artifacts are part of recorded history. they are invented and designed, and thus they represent part of humanity’s desires and achievements, and they embody a culture’s ideals and symbols. they present examples of how emotions and ideas can be expressed apart from words; as concrete rather than abstract entities, they are likely to be remembered longer by students, since physical stimulations, experiences, and emotions stick in the mind longer than purely verbal facts and ideas (durbin, morris, &wilkinson, 1990). knowledge provided from cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 5 objects not only supplements the knowledge gained from two-dimensional historical sources but also enlivens that knowledge by illustrating how events and changes in a particular period affected daily life and the built environment of individuals and families (johnson, 1983). analyzing objects and artifacts made by people in history helps students understand past and present. there are five basic properties of an artifact: its history, material, construction, design, and function. history includes where and when it was made, by whom and for whom, why it was made, and successive changes in ownership, condition, and function. material involves the components of construction such as wood, glass, fiber, ceramic, and metal. construction involves the production techniques and workmanship. design includes the structure, style, form, ornamentation, and iconography of the object. function embraces both the uses (intended functions) and the roles (unintended functions) of the objects in its culture, including utility, delight, and communication (fleming, 1974). these features help the students to read an object, which is a form of research that begins with looking, touching, and exploring. using objects and artifacts to teach the curriculum in classrooms, museums, or historic places thus provides an opportunity for students and teachers to read and learn from these materials made and used by people. as a result, objects and artifacts can lead to gains in knowledge, skills, and concepts (see figure 1). the importance of the built environment cultural landscapes—the environments that surround us and consist of buildings, roads, bridges, monuments, etc., are an important part of our heritage. they present a cumulative record of human activity and land use in the environment, and as such can offer insights into the values, ideals, and philosophies of the communities forming them, as well as their relationship to the place. cultural landscapes, then, can be read as historical documents, and their study can suggest the feelings of a community towards its environment and indicate the social networks developed by the community. cultural landscapes have a strong role in providing the distinguishing character of a locale, a character that might have varying degrees of aesthetic quality, but, regardless, is considered to be important in establishing the community’s sense of place (pearson and sullivan, 1995). traces of the past are embedded in the shape of the buildings and their original functions, name of streets, monuments, bridges, ways in which the area has developed, and the location of private and public housing (stradling, 2001). journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 6 figure1. knowledge, skills and concepts, (durbin, morris, &wilkinson, 1990). knowledge skills concepts • to learn different materials and what for they are used for • to learn words and techniques of decoration and construction • to learn economic, social, and historical context from the features of objects • to learn physical effects of time • to learn the meaning of symbolic figures • to learn about the nature and reasons for existence of particular museums, galleries, and collections • to know the importance of cultural values • placement, realization, identification and planning • tactual preservation and storing • observation and examining • discussion, hypothesis, analysis, and evaluation • experiment, deduction and comparison • classifying and cataloguing • writing, drawing, labeling, calculating • responding, reporting, explaining, demonstrating, presenting, summarizing, and criticizing • chronology • change • continuity and progression • design and function • aesthetic quality • relic • bias • unique • fashion • style • pleasure • original, fake and imitation • heritage • conservation • collection sustentation many scholars consider the built environment a document that predecessors left for future generations, much like a book (crimmins, 1992). ruskin, for example, noted that “buildings are documents embedded in time” (vallis, 2005, p. 5). buildings especially, being intimately and intensively used by people, are among the most authentic and interesting of cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 7 heritage documents. while people are usually not aware of the historical importance of buildings, they are an inescapable part of the built environment for most of us. they shape our cities and towns, our suburbs and our streets, and affect the whole of our environment (pearson & sullivan, 1995). buildings are not only the most prominent objects on the cultural landscape but also are the center of human activity. people walk around them, go into them, move up and down and about in them, look at them from the outside and out of them from the inside, work, eat, play, sleep, relax, entertain, make love, worry, and squabble in them. buildings interact with the economic, social, aesthetic, and physical life of those who use them. there is an organic link between people and buildings (kyvig & marty, 2000). hunter and shull (1992) also note that buildings, and the relics in them, generally are the best record and only document of many people’s lifestyle, activities, successes, house architecture, agriculture, industrial labor, and more many activities. brand (1994) suggests that buildings tell stories if given the opportunity and if their past is exhibited rather than hidden. according to beaumont (1993), historic places and buildings come alive with their stories and become teachers that explain the attitudes of people who lived in the past. students, meanwhile, can become advocates of a district, site, structure, or object by documenting what might be forgotten or willfully demolished (tomlan, 1994). by examining the real places where history happened, students can become excited about the past and begin to appreciate the value of cultural resources in their own communities and beyond (olio, 2000). white and white (2000) argue for the importance of “an empathetic understanding of place as a stage on which the lives of real people and events played out, which creates powerful bonds between students and history” (p.28), and they suggest that students should engage in historical inquiry by using historic places. similarly, patrick (1993), in emphasizing that “historic places are tangible forms of our legacy from preceding generations, and, like written primary sources, they embody and reflect the traditions, experiences, ideas, and controversies of our past” (p. 8), adds that historic places can be used by teachers and students as objects of inquiry, in the same way that written primary sources are used in the classroom. historic places also can serve as a supplement to reading about topics and events in textbooks (boland 1994; hunter & shull, 1992), by providing primary or secondary written and visual materials, and also by teaching such skills as observation, working with maps, interpreting visual evidence, evaluating bias, analysis, comparison and contrast, and problemsolving (harper, 1997). teachers and students can use historic places for gathering information and generating concepts through observation, exploration, and interpretation. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 8 historic places enrich instruction by integrating written material and other kinds of sources (hunter and shull, 1992). connecting past to present heritage education goes beyond simply gathering knowledge about historic places and objects. the most important goal of heritage education is to encourage students, in intelligent and creative ways, to take ownership of historic monuments, artifacts, and traditions. it is not enough only to observe and analyze these things; students should be aware that they can play an active role in the continuity of history and can take responsibility for the preservation of the past, rather than serving only as an audience (hereduc, 2005). according to kammen (1989), heritage education has the merit of emphasizing the importance of the community’s shared values, institutions, and experiences. one of the advantages of this dimension of heritage is the way in which it brings together people in a community. patrick (1989) states that without a solid sense of their past, a sense of identity rooted in time and space, people are poorly equipped to face the future. heritage education, if designed properly, can help members of our successor generations think about where they came from and where they should be going. as hunter (1988) notes, heritage education nourishes a sense of continuity and connectedness with our historical and cultural experience; encourages citizens to consider their historical and cultural experiences in planning for the future; and fosters stewardship towards the legacies of our local, regional, and national heritage. of course, this is also potentially the most politically-loaded use of heritage education, because it raises issues of power and authority: which experiences are included in the study of heritage, and which are left out? whose identities are promoted, and whose are suppressed? this is why heritage education must be an inquiry-oriented endeavor, in which questions such as these are opened for investigation, instead of a process of authoritarian transmission of limited, and limiting, historical and cultural meanings. heritage education also encourages students to see their environment as a lifelong source of knowledge, social understanding, and individual success (hatch, 1988). it helps them understand places and traditions, and it also helps them understand why is important to preserve such historical traces (copeland, 2004). because the concept of heritage is so closely related to the past—including its emphasis on historic places, cultural landscapes, buildings, artifacts, written and pictorial documents, and so on, it can be central to the learning and teaching of history (hatch, 1988; hunter, 1988; patrick, 1989; kammen, 1989). cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 9 research on educators’ attitudes toward heritage education despite the existence of numerous clearly-articulated rationales for heritage education, little is known about teachers’ ideas about this approach to history, despite the key role that teachers have to play in heritage education. if teachers do not have positive attitudes toward heritage sites, after all, they probably will not teach using such sites. noel and colapy (2006) suggest that learning on a field trip depends on the extent to which children have been cognitively prepared for the trip, and this shows the importance of teachers’ attitudes toward heritage education. as we mentioned above, there has been scholarship on the importance and educational value of the practices of heritage education, particularly field trips and museum visits. however, very little research has been done with teachers. in one such study, baron (2010) suggested that historic sites could be considered by teachers as tools to be used as a mode of presentation rather than as a document; baron suggested that teachers should think about how they can use such places in their courses, and how they can integrate them into the curriculum. stern and stern (2010) explored a historic city using the format of a classroom without walls. they worked with american university students enrolled in a semester abroad program in florence, italy using an approach called persia, which consisted of the political, economic, religious, social, intellectual, and aesthetic aspects of a geographical location as a framework for building a deep understanding of its people and its culture. the authors believed that this approach helped participants master interdisciplinary relationships and the complexity of the city as history, and that is was transferrable to other study abroad settings or for any place based education course. however, to the authors’ knowledge, there has not been any research carried out related to pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward heritage education. for this reason, we developed a research project to investigate pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward the topic. we hoped to model the integration of heritage education into the social studies curriculum, by including sample lesson in an undergraduate methods course. these lessons included analysis of historic sites, the use of artifacts in the classroom, and a field trip to a local history museum. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 10 research procedures participants participants included elementary pre-service teachers at a large midwestern university near the end of their teacher education program. there were 28 students who took the pretest, and at posttest, 23 of the original pretest group were available. written reflections were also collected from 23 students, and five students were interviewed. materials, task and process students’ exposure to heritage education consisted of two main activities. the first took place in the university classroom and involved analysis of historic artifacts, photographs, and images of buildings. pre-service teachers were asked to analyze and interpret the artifacts and photographs. the second activity took place in a local history museum. the museum included three main sections—a recreated classroom from about 100 years ago, a recreated log cabin from about 200 years ago, and a set of exhibits on technological and economic developments in the local community. teachers divided into groups and were given worksheets to help them explore and identify the museum materials. at the end of the visit, the instructor and one of the researchers conducted a meeting, during which students shared their findings and opinions. both the in-class activities and the field trip are the kinds of experiences that are frequently included in preservice methods courses in the united states. method the research relied on both quantitative and qualitative data, which were collected in two steps. in the first step, the heritage education attitude survey (appendix), consisting of 26 likert questions, and created by the first author, was applied as both a pretest and a posttest. the scale included 14 positive and 12 negative items. positive items were scored so that “strongly disagree” received a score of 1, “disagree” received a score of 2, “ no opinion” received a score of 3, “agree” received a score of 4, and “strongly agree” a score of 5. negative items were scored with the reverse values. as a result, the average score can vary from 1 to 5, with higher numbers indicating more positive attitudes toward heritage education. because this was a newly-created scale, we analyzed its reliability by calculating cronbach’s α (on the pretest) as a measure of internal consistency. the resulting value was .89, which indicates that the heritage education attitude survey is a highly reliable instrument. in the second step, at the end of the course, students were asked to answer questions about historic places on a written survey; in addition, the first author conducted an interview with 5 pre-service teachers to supplement findings from the survey and to probe their ideas cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 11 about heritage education. these participants were purposefully selected, with the assistance of the course instructor, to represent more highly engaged and articulate students from the course. data analysis statistical processes were used in analyzing quantitative data. pretests and posttests were analyzed in terms of means. the first set of qualitative data (open-ended survey questions) was analyzed using categories generated at the beginning of the research. interviews, the second set of qualitative data, were transcribed, and a set of coding categories were developed inductively from participants’ responses. results there was little difference from pretest to posttest in the attitudes of preservice teachers after learning about heritage education in the classroom and in the museum. average scores are presented in table 1. although the difference from pretest to posttest was positive, it was not statistically significant. this can be explained by noting that pre-service teachers already had highly positive initial attitudes toward heritage education, leaving less room for a positive impact as a result of instruction. table 1. mean attitude towards heritage education pretest posttest heritage education mean 4.10 4.16 instruction n 28 23 one item with a statistically significant difference from preto posttest was the third item, “i would like to use old homes, where important people lived, as a teaching method.” (table 2) this item may have shown a greater change because an example of using an old home in teaching was explicitly included in course instruction. table 2. pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward old homes as a teaching tool. pretest posttest sig. (2-tailed) i would like use old homes, mean 3.60 4.04 .000* where important people lived, as a teaching tool. n 28 23 *(p<0.05) journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 12 another item demonstrating a statistically significant change from preto posttest was the fifth item, “old factories that are important in a community’s history should be preserved.” (table 3) notably, on the pretest 2 students indicated that they “strongly disagree” with this item, 2 indicated “disagree,” and 10 marked “no opinion”; on the posttest, however, no students disagreed or strongly disagreed, and only 5 students had no opinion. (the negative form of the item showed a similar result, although the numerical difference was not statistically significant.) the reason for this improvement might be due to the museum visit, because there was a technological development section that included artifacts, information, and photographs about old factories in the local community. table 3. pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward old factories. pretest posttest sig. (2-tailed) old factories that are important mean 3.28 3.86 .013* in a community’s history should be preserved. n 28 23 *(p<0.05) note also that, while preservice teachers have positive attitudes toward the preservation of old factories, their attitudes are relatively less positive than toward other aspects of heritage. other items with relatively low scores are presented in table 4. table 4. the other items that pre-service teachers’ attitudes relatively low. pretest posttest historic landscapes should be mean 3.64 3.86 turned into places for entertainment n 28 23 (item 8) old battlefields should be used for mean 3.89 3.69 farming or recreation n 28 23 (item 10) when i visit a historic building or place, mean 3.67 3.60 cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 13 i feel as if i were alive back then n 28 23 (item 13) i do not think it is necessary to visit mean 3.92 3.95 a place when we study a historical topic n 28 23 in school (item 22) in interviews conducted at the end of the museum visit, we found that all the preservice teachers (27 in attendance) agreed that they were interested in historic artifacts, photographs, and so on, as teaching tools, and they all agreed that they would use these as teachers, either in the classroom or on field trips. however, some thought that visiting historic places would not be necessary because they could use materials such as photographs, pictures, artifacts, or heritage-related internet sites, within the classroom. in responses to open-ended, written surveys at the end of class, these preservice teachers’ indicated a sense of the nature and range of heritage sites, and of their purpose in teaching, that was in keeping with current scholarship on heritage education. they identified a range of different kinds of historic sites, for example, they identified a variety of reasons why historic places are preserved, and they gave numerous reasons why such preservation is important. their answers to each question are summarized below. question 1: other than homes, what are other historic places? preservice teachers indicated 37 different kinds of historic sites. the most common responses are presented in figure 1. it is interesting that the most common answer was “battlefields,” even though respondents’ attitudes toward battlefields were relatively low. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 14 figure 1. kinds of historic sites question 2: why do people preserve historic places? preservice teachers emphasized the following reasons: to learn and understand the past to appreciate the past the places are important and valuable these places give students an opportunity for comparison with the present these places indicate change in time periods so that new generations can see or experience these places firsthand question 3: do you think it is important to preserve historic sites? why or why not? all the preservice teachers indicated that preserving historic sites is important. the most common reasons they gave were the following, which can be roughly summarized as relating to tools for teaching and learning, sources of identity, and means for appreciating the past: these sites are a great teaching and learning tool these sites are much more effective than textbooks or lectures the sites show students what life was like in the past, or what the past was like these places provide firsthand experiences the need to appreciate what we have knowing where we came from honoring our culture cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 15 remembering good things and avoiding the bad it is important to see how time have changed question 4. what is the value of using historic sites? preservice teachers described the value of historic sites in the following ways: these places are concrete examples students can engage in their lesson more actively these places make history real students can compare time periods between present and past these places spark students interest and attention these places provide firsthand / real life experiences they would be valuable ways of learning rather than texts and lectures conclusion in this research we aimed to measure pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward heritage education, which includes historic places, buildings, museums, and artifacts. we were interested in two issues: the first related to students’ attitudes toward heritage places, and the second related to their intention to use such places as a teaching tool. pre-service teachers already had highly positive attitudes toward heritage education. therefore it was difficult to increase attitudes much beyond their initial point. this finding shows that pre-service teachers are likely to think heritage places are important and valuable to preserve, even before learning about them in teacher education programs. this is an important finding, because if they did not believe that these places were valuable or important they would probably not use such resources as teaching tools when they become teachers. they also would probably not attempt to develop these values in their students. the qualitative findings also supported these findings. the results of the museum interview and document analysis showed that all the preservice teachers in this study found heritage education valuable, and they stated that they were going to use heritage places or materials as teaching tools. from the results of the document analysis, it was observed that they thought these places and materials were a way of enlivening history for students. they explained that seeing heritage sites was important, because such places are concrete and make history real, spark students’ interest, and provide students first-hand experiences. they thought that heritage education was a better way to teach the past than textbooks or lectures. most of these findings endorse the perspectives on heritage education mentioned above journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 16 (hatch, 1988, hunter, 1988, kammen, 1989, hunter and shull, 1992, patrick, 1993, boland, 1994, hunter, 1998, percoco, 1998, boland, 2002). this finding further suggests that teacher education programs might begin at a higher “starting point” than simply introducing preservice teachers to the nature and purpose of heritage education resources. although some differences in survey results—such as students’ improved attitudes toward historic homes and old factories—indicate that including specific elements of heritage education can have a beneficial effect, students could already identify many different kinds of historic sites and a number of valid reasons for their preservation. given this level of prior understanding, it might be more beneficial to engage preservice teachers in a deeper analysis of how such sources can be used to extend and refine their students’ understanding of history—by analyzing the cultural values found in such sources, the relationship of these sources to societal institutions, and other aspects of historical thinking that form the rationale for heritage education. for most preservice teachers, it is probably not necessary simply to convince them that material culture and the built environment are useful in teaching history. instead, they will be better served by a richer understanding of how such sources can lead to sophisticated forms of historical understanding. further research might investigate how teacher educators can develop this kind of professional knowledge among preservice teachers. references baron, c. (2010, november). of pelicans and pearl divers: understanding teachers’ and historians’ different approaches to using historic sites. paper presented at the annual meeting of the college and university faculty assembly of the national council for the social studies, denver. barton, k. c. (2001). a picture’s worth: analyzing historical photographs in the elementary grades. social education, 65(5), 278-283. barton, k. c. (2008). research on students’ ideas about history. in l. s. levstik & c.a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 239-258). new york: routledge. beaumont, c. e. (1993). property rights and responsibilities. historic preservation forum, 7 (4), 30-35. boland, b. m. (1994). our past / ourselves: teaching with historic places. crm online, 17 (2), 33–39, retrieved april 5, 2010, from http://crm.cr.nps.gov. http://crm.cr.nps.gov/issue.cfm?volume=23&number=08� cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 17 boland, b. m. (2002). historic places: common ground for teachers and historians. oah magazine of history, 16 (2), 19-21. brand, s. (1994). how buildings learn: what happens after they’re built. new york: viking, penguin group. copeland, t. (2004). heritage and education: a european perspective. proceedings of the europa nostra forum 2004, 19-22. the hague, netherlands: pan european federation for heritage. retrieved november 4, 2011, from http://www.europanostra.org/uploads/fils/forum_heritage_education_proceeding s.pdf. copeland, t. (2007). heritage education and citizenship in the council of europe. in l. branchesi (ed.), heritage education for europe: outcome and perspective (pp. 65-84). rome: armando. crimmins, t. j. (1992). the city as document: heritage education’s unique text. historic preservation forum, 6 (1), 37-40. d’sa, b. (2005). social studies in the dark: using docudramas to teach history. social studies, 96 (1), 9-13. durbin, g., morris s., & wilkinson, s. (1990). a teacher’s guide to learning from objects. english heritage. egan, k. (1982). teaching history to young children. phi delta kappan, 63 (7), 439-441. fleming, e. m. (1974). artifact study: a proposed model. winterthur portfolio, 9, 153-173. harper, m. (1997). including historic places in the social studies curriculum. eric document reproduction service no. ed 415178. hereduc. (2005). heritage in the classroom: a practical manual for teachers, retrieved september 25, 2010, from http://www.hereduc.net/hereduc. huhta, j. k, & hankins, j.s. (1988). approaching heritage education from every angle. the journal of museum education, 13 (2), 13-15. hunter, k. (1988). heritage education in the social studies. eric document reproduction service no. ed 300306. hunter, k., & shull, c. d. (1992). teaching with historic places. social education, 56 (5), 312. johnson, m. (1983). what’s in a butterchurn or a saridon? some thoughts on using artifacts in social history. the public historian, 5 (1), 60-81. kammen, m. (1989). history is our heritage: the past in contemporary american culture. in p. gagnon and the bradley commission on history in schools (eds.), historical http://www.hereduc.net/hereduc� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 18 literacy: the case for history in american education (pp. 138-156). new york: macmillan publishing company. krug, m. m. (1970). primary sources in teaching history. the history teacher, 3 (3), 41-49. kyvig, d. e., & marty, m. a. (2000). nearby history: exploring the past around you. (second edition). walnut creek, ca: altamira press. levstik, l.s., & barton, k.c. (1997). doing history: investigating with children in elementary and middle schools. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. noel, a. m. & colopy, m. a. (2006). making history field trips meaningful: teachers and site educators’ perspectives on teaching materials. theory and research in social education, 34, 553-568. olio, b.k. (2000). creating place-based classroom recourses: teaching with historic places lesson plans. crm online, 23 (8), 20-11, retrieved april 8, 2010, from http://crm.cr.nps.gov. patrick, j. j. (1989, november). heritage education in the school curriculum. paper prepared for the national trust for historic preservation and the waterford foundation, waterford, va. eric document reproduction service no. ed 315333. patrick, j.j. (1993). prominent places for historic places in the k-12 social studies curriculum. crm online, 16 (2), 8-9, retrieved april 5, 2010, from http://crm.cr.nps.gov. pearson, m., & sullivan, s. (1995). looking after heritage places: the basic of heritage planning for managers, landowners and administrators. melbourne: melbourne university press. percoco, j.a. (1998). a passion for the past: creative teaching of u.s. history. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. lowenthal, d. (1996). possessed by the past: the heritage crusade and the spoils of history. new york: free press. stern, b. s. and stern, m. (2010, october). the city as classroom: teaching in and with historic places. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american association of teaching and curriculum at their annual meeting, st. louis. stradling, r. (2001). teaching 20th century european history. germany: council of europe publishing. tomlan, m. a. (1994). learning to identify and evaluate: the national register and higher education. crm online, 17 (2), 35–36, retrieved march 29, 2010, from http://crm.cr.nps.gov. http://crm.cr.nps.gov/issue.cfm?volume=23&number=08� http://crm.cr.nps.gov/issue.cfm?volume=23&number=08� http://crm.cr.nps.gov/issue.cfm?volume=23&number=08� cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 19 united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization. (1992-2011). world heritage. retrieved november 4, 2011, from http://whc.unesco.org/en/about/. vallis, a. (2005) looking back to project future. the point (university of technology, sydney), 29, 5. retrieved june 13, 2011, from http://www.uts.edu.au/fac/hss/student_community/student_publications/print_publicat ions/the_point_29_p01_17.pdf. vanderstel, d. g. (2002). and i thought historians only taught: doing history beyond the classroom. oah magazine of history, 16 (2), 5-7. vansledright, b. (2002). confronting history's interpretive paradox while teaching fifth graders to investigate the past. american educational research journal, 39 (4), 10891115. vansledright, b. (2008). narratives of nation-state, historical knowledge, and school history education. review of research in education, 32, 109-146. veccia, s. (2004). uncovering our history: teaching with primary sources. chicago: american library association. vella, y. (2005). creating on-site history activities for school children: an action research project. journal of maltase education research, 3 (2), 23-32, retrieved april 20, 2010, from http://www.um.edu.mt/educ/about/publications/mrer. white, c. s., & white, d. j. d. (2000). preparing teachers to teach with historic places. crm online, 23 (8), 28-30, retrieved april 7, 2010, from http://crm.cr.nps.gov. yarema, a. e. (2002). a decade of debate: improving content and interest in history education. the history teacher, 35 (3), 389–399. http://crm.cr.nps.gov/issue.cfm?volume=23&number=08� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(2), 1-21 20 appendix heritage education attitude survey for each statement below, please indicate strongly disagree, disagree, no opinion, agree, or strongly agree st ro ng ly d is ag re e d is ag re e n o o pi ni on a gr ee st ro ng ly a gr ee 1. i think that historical battlefields should be preserved. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2. i do not think that museum visits will be useful in teaching social studies. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 3. i would like to use old homes, where important people lived, as a teaching tool. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 4. historic buildings should be torn down so new ones can be built. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 5. old factories that are important in a community’s history should be preserved. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 6. railways do not tell us much about the history of a community. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 7. i like to go to places where people lived long ago. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 8. historic landscapes should be turned into places for entertainment. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 9. i like to visit history museums. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 10. old battlefields should be used for farming or recreation. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 11. historic landscapes should be protected. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 12. it is not important to save homes where important people lived in the past. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) cemil c. yeşi̇lbursa & keith c. barton 21 13. when i visit a historic building or place, i feel as if i were alive back then. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 14. it is boring to visit places where people lived long ago. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 15. railways can tell us something important about a community’s history. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 16. old factories that are important in our community’s history should be torn down so modern ones can be built. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 17. when we study history in school, i would like to take my class to visit places connected with that topic. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 18. it is not practical to use historic places in the classroom. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 19. using historic places in social studies would make me more interested in the topic. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 20. i feel nothing when i visit a historic building or a place. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 21. it is practical to use historic places in the classroom. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 22. i do not think it is necessary to visit a place when we study a historical topic in school. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 23. i would like to use museum visits as a teaching method. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 24. i do not believe that using artifacts is a useful way to teach history. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 25. i would like to use historic places in the classroom as teaching method. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 26. i think using artifacts to teach history would be useful. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 506-529 506 language analysis of convention on the rights of the child to enhance societal awareness on the issue anastasia a. atabekova,1 rimma g. gorbatenko,2 tatyana v. shoustikova3 & nebojša radić4 abstract the research aims to explore the cognitive-semantic structure of the above child rights phenomenon through the language analysis, and compare the perceptions of different stakeholders as target audiences with regard to diverse formats of the convention contents and its essence representation. the research data combines academic literature on the topic, the text of the convention on the rights of the child, its child friendly version as the background material for empirical study, and the data from the open-ended questionnaire. the research sample includes social workers, teachers, and lawyers who deal with children’s rights issues. the research methods integrate theoretical analysis of relevant literature, textual analysis of the convention text (including content analysis, manual and automated coding, distributional analysis), and open-ended questionnaire of the experts in the field under study. spss was used for statistical data processing. the research findings show that the linear enumeration of rights through the convention articles leads just to the same linear perception of the above. meanwhile, schematic verbal-visual representation of the convention as a cognitive-semantic macrostructure provides grounds for synergetic interpretation where not just the rights, but the stakeholders, the scope and specifics of their duties and obligations, societal contexts of their activities and measures to ensure child’s rights can be explicitly introduced. the findings lead to the conclusion that the interpretation of the convention text through its cognitive-semantic structure can contribute to enhancing public awareness and education on the child’s rights within social care, legal, secondary and higher education settings. the research results cast new light on the potential of discourse analysis for the convention interpretation within legal, educational and academic contexts. key words: interdisciplinary discourse studies, language, cognitive linguistics, semantic analysis, societal awareness. introduction the concepts of individual rights and freedoms in one form or another have existed for a significant part of the humankind history. in the ancient world, traditional communities usually had a developed system of responsibilities, concepts of justice, political legitimacy and prosperity, which 1 prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia –rudn university, aaatabekova@gmail.com 2 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, gorbatenko_rg@pfur.ru 3 prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, shoustikova@yandex.ru 4 dr., university of cambridge, nr236@cam.ac.uk journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 were an attempt to ensure human dignity, prosperity and success in complete isolation from human rights. the concept of “human rights” has come a long way, important milestones along the way included magna carta (1215), twelve articles (1525), english bill of rights (1689) and american bill of rights (1791), french declaration of the rights of man and a citizen (1789). these documents had an impact on the text of the un universal declaration of human rights (1948. m. luther, j. smith, t. helvis and r. williams, j. milton, j. locke and other prominent minds of the past and recognized scientists of the present have influenced the development of the human rights concept. at the end of the 20th and the first quarter of the 21st century, the interest to the discourse on human rights has been increasing in the context of growing globalization and migration. scholars agree on the importance of verbal representation of economic, social and cultural rights (chirwa, 2018). particular attention is drawn to the children’s rights (lindkvist, 2018). scholars insist that more attention should be given to the child’s rights advocacy (prendergast, et al., 2018). international community strives to view childhood in a global perspective (wells, 2015). the adoption of the united nations convention on the rights of the child (1989, further in the article – the convention) served as the interdisciplinary framework (political, legal, social, cultural) to use a concept of rights as a basis for practice (nyland, 1999; collins, 2018). the present research explores the cognitive-semantic structure of the above convention, and considers alternative ways of its contents and essence representation for educational and public awareness raising purposes. currently most research focuses on the convention norms and their implementation (moody, 2017; tobin, 2019). researchers underlined the importance of the child rights concept and its multi angle structure for the social sciences at the end of the past century (cohen & naimark, 1991). in the new millennium academic community stresses, the need for the critical analysis of this concept and sub concepts that form its conceptual structure (vandenhole et al., 2015), argues for structural and non-liner approach to explore the essence of conceptualization of general principles of the convention on the rights of the child (hanson & lundy, 2017). researchers confirm that text analysis does matter in case when its validity and reliability are explored with regard to the basic legal sources, etc. (söylemez, 2018). scholars argue for stronger interdisciplinary research to support discourse on children’s rights, and specify that this research should focus on children’s rights discourse for educational purposes (caplan & hotez, 2018). atabekova et al. the above academic rationale shaped the present research hypothesis, goal and questions. research hypothesis the research assumes that the language of the convention takes it beyond simple liner-sequential enumeration of rights in the respective articles and introduces child’s rights as integrated sociocognitive macro structure through the use of particular language units and their ties across the articles of the convention text. research goal and questions the research goal is two-fold, namely to discover the cognitive-semantic structure of the above child’s rights phenomenon through the language tools analysis and to compare the perceptions of different stakeholders as target audiences with regard to the convention conceptual representation through above structure and tools. to reach the above goal the following research questions shave been addressed: 1. what are current trends in academic research on the convention discourse? 2. what are major cognitive slots, semantic concepts and respective language units that form the conceptual structure of the child’s rights throughout the convention text? 3. what is the distribution of cognitive slots and semantic concepts within/across the convention articles? 4. what are the opinions of experts in children’s rights on diverse formats of the convention content and concepts representation? methods the research stood on the mixed methodology tradition (halcomb, 2019), rested on qualitative approach to the analysis, combined diverse data, sample, procedures, and methods. data collection the materials included academic literature on the topic under study, the text of the convention and its child-friendly version, replies to the questionnaire from the focus group that included a pool of experts on the child’s rights issues related to the convention. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 sample the study engaged experts of different background who work on child rights issues were invited to take part in the questionnaire with regard to the convention content analysis findings and research team proposals. the respondents’ pool included 50 lawyers who worked on child’ s issues within international and national settings, 30 social workers, and 30 teachers of secondary schools who specialized in teaching the subject named knowledge of society. the participants were invited through e-mail. the pool of respondents included the equal number of persons in terms of gender, and working experience from 10 to 20 years in moscow legal, social, and educational institutions, respectively. the participants worked and lived in the russian metropolitan area. the above variables regarding the experts’ pool were taken into account in the course of the statistical data processing. data collection techniques and procedures first, the investigation of relevant literature on the discourse features in the convention the rights of the child was implemented. the theoretical analysis of literature was used to reply to the research question on major current trends in academic research on the convention discourse. this analysis used mendeley and google scholar digital databases, that were subject to search with key words “discourse/language of the convention on the rights of the child” to find relevant publications. the period covered the year of 1989 to present, bearing in mind the data of the convention entry into force (1989). the second stage included an integrated text analysis of the convention text in line with the research question on major cognitive slots, semantic concepts and respective language units that form the conceptual structure of the child’s rights throughout the convention text. this investigation used the methods of manual and computer-based content analysis. to identify the conceptual fabric of the human rights phenomenon in the convention, its text was subject to automated search for key word combinations from the angle of their frequency. the app.sketchengine.eu, textalizer.net was used to this end and led to the initial list of language units and specified key concepts within the convention. further, the text of the convention was subject to manual coding that the authors implemented independently. the coding process rested on predetermined and emerging codes (savage, 2018). atabekova et al. the thematic background for the predetermined codes was outlined through the above mentioned automated search for key word combinations frequency. emerging codes were specified individually by the authors. the results of author’s manual coding were compared and checked for consistency. initially the coders found 66 thematic codes in the text, including 9 codes on the reasons for the convention adoption (preamble), 43 codes on the child rights-related issues (part i, art 1-41), 5 codes that focused on member states procedural activities (part ii, art 42-45), 9 accession to, ratification and denunciation of the convention (part iii, art 46-54). therefore, the content analysis further concentrated on part one of the convention. 43 thematic codes were identified within the mentioned scope. further they were arranged into six major groups, namely the following: definition of the child, key principles with regard to child’s rights provision and convention implementation, stakeholders for the above principles implementation, system of child’s rights, specific audiences of children who are subject to rights, areas for protection, and measures for protection in the above areas. the mentioned groups were identified as key conceptual slots. the codes that were found within each slot were considered as concepts that formed the frame of each conceptual slots. next, the computer-based content analysis of the text under study took place. qda minor lite was applied. all the nominal structures used to name the above mentioned codes (major conceptual slots and concepts that build their frames) were uploaded in the text analysis soft tools. it was done to discover how the mentioned topics are organized and verbalized throughout the text. the above technology was used to apply the method of distributional analysis. it aimed to reply to the research question on ways for cognitive slots, semantic concepts and respective language tools distributions within/across the convention articles. the method was strongly linked to the text content analysis and coding in terms of thematic codes (and respective language units) appearance within one and the same convention article or their verbal representation across several articles of the convention. further, the scheme of major slots, their constituent concepts, their distribution and verbal representation was drafted to introduce non-liner vision of the convention conceptual structure and scope. finally, three groups of respondents were questioned. the method of open-ended questionnaire was uses to rely to the research question regarding opinions of experts in children’s rights on diverse formats of the convention conceptual representation. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 the respondents were introduced the results of the convention text content analysis and the nonliner scheme of the convention conceptual structure and scope, and were invited to reply to the following questions: 1. how (in what cases and contents) do you refer to the convention text? 2. does the text of the convention require from you any expanded interpretation or commentary for particular professional settings you worked within? (no/yes, please, specify) 3. (if the reply to the previous question is “yes”) what kind of interpretation or commentary is necessary? 4. what is your perception of the proposed description of the cognitive slots and their key conceptual semantic features the text of convention part i, with regard to the child’s rights phenomenon in your professional activity? the factor analysis was used to classify the respondents’ replies; spss was used for data processing. results and discussion current trends in academic research on the convention discourse a closer look at contemporary understanding of children’s rights in academic sources reveals that it rests on the integrated international legislation which content includes us universal declaration of human rights (1948), international covenant on civil and political rights (1966), and international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights (1966) (symonides, 2017). legal framework traditionally considers personal, civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights (kairys, 2015), while identifying that personal fights represent the first generation of rights, political and civil ones come as that of the first or second generation, and social and cultural belong to the third generation (altman, 2017; symonides, 2017). the adoption of the un convention on the rights of the child (1989) has motivated academia to the study of the concepts and their interpretation with regard to the convention provisions implementation (karp, 1998). the analysis of literature reveals that academia tends to conduct interdisciplinary analysis of the convention concepts with the view to interpret them within social, legal, cultural, educational dimensions (international human rights of children, 2019). scholars consistently underline cultural variability of the convention provisions (liebel, 2012). thus, researchers mention atabekova et al. possible cultural differences in the interpretation of concepts with regard to distribution of powers and responsibilities between families and institutions, the understanding of the essence of the child best interests, relations between rights and values (douglas & sebba, 2016). this, in turn, might require culturally sensitive policy on children’s rights (murphy-berman etal.,1996; skivenes & sørsdal,2018). however, the policy is materialized through discourse. therefore, the study of the convention discourse should bear in mind the desirable generalized concepts and interpretations that would contribute to the equality of child rights across the world. the investigation confirms that there are studies on particular concepts of the convention and their conceptual framework. for instance, particular attention is drawn to the conceptual wording of article 12 that announces the child’s right to free express views and to be heard in any judicial and administrative proceeding (stern, 2017), to the interpretation of concept of evolving capacities within the convention text, as the concept is mentioned and not verbally developed or specified (varadan, 2019). the study of academic research papers shows that there is a consistent tradition from the past century to consider children’s perception of their rights (melton, 1980). children’s participation is one those concepts that researchers deliberate over most intensively, while considering current definitions and narratives (baraldi&cockburn, 2018; wyness, 2018). academic literature tries to understand children’s perceptions of their participation (lloyd & emerson, 2017), tries to conceptualize and verbalize the guiding principles of children’s engagement in the discussion on their rights implementation (andersen& dolva, 2015; nyland, 2009). some studies focus on particular areas of the child’s participation concept and explore children’s participation in their education, research and society (howell, 2018). particular attention is drawn to the concept of child vision of the family role (archard, 2018; woodhouse, 2017). scholars also discuss the issue of related concepts correlation within the convention texts and argue for the need to differentiate them and not treat them as equal ones. this concerns the correlation of such concepts as national, cultural, language rights and values of the children (freeman, 2017; douglas & sebba, 2016), children’s rights, wellbeing, and their wishes and show that these are not equivalent concepts (tisdall, 2015). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 another area of research relates to the view of the convention as a frame of reference for pedagogical action to help children understand their rights and to make their rights be realized (roose & bouverne-de bie, 2007). with regard to this area, researchers elaborate on the need for education on human rights doctrine, theory, policy and practice, identify this area of education as a tool for inclusion and protection, specify the role of various actors (desai, 2018; robinson et al., 2018). publications in the area identify a number of dominant topics that shape the perspective of educationalization on children’s rights practice and policy (reynaert et al., 2009). this list includes the concept of autonomy and participation rights, children’ and parents’ rights, and global children’s rights industry. further, researchers underline that the convention explicitly verbalizes the politics of protection (beier, 2019). moreover, some scholars underline that the convention wording just declares the children’s rights and does not contain any verbal statements that directly aim to empower children, do not move forward to provide for greater children’s participation (gadda et al., 2019). in this respect, researchers insist on the need to move from protective rhetoric and make shift towards concrete worldwide actions (eisler, 2018), urge to view the convention as background for professional practice and policy (falch-eriksen & backe-hansen, 2018). in general, scholars argue for the need to revisit children’s rights as a considerable period has passed since the convention adoption (fottrell, 2001), dynamic perception of the convention is required within their interpretation (eekelaar, 2017). moreover, legal studies insist that in the current text of the convention, there are inconsistencies and contradictions, and the text, should be revisited (quennerstedt et al., 2018). all the above mentioned trends in academic studies confirm that no research so far has consistently focused on the verbal tools for the representation of the conceptual structure of rights, their contents, and those audiences that are subject to these rights and actors who are responsible for these rights provision. major cognitive slots, semantic concepts and respective language units that form the conceptual structure of the child’s rights throughout the convention text the content analysis and manual thematic coding of the convention text took into account the text division into three logical parts, namely preamble, part i (articles 1-41) and part ii (articles 4254). the preamble puts the convention under study into the framework on the uno conventions on the human rights issues. part ii specifies the access to the convention and its implementation atabekova et al. governance (through the committee on the rights of the child activities and monitoring of the state parties reports, ratification and amendments proceedings, etc.). it is part i which focuses directly on the child’s rights as multidimensional and multifaceted phenomenon as language semiotic macrostructure. therefore, the text of this part was subjected to content analysis and manual coding that led to the identification of the following cognitive slots and key semantic concepts that characterize their content. table 1 cognitive slots, their semantic concepts, and respective language units in the convention part i text cognitive slots semantic concepts and language units, number of article(s) in the convention text definition of the child art. 1 key principles with regard to child’s rights provision and convention implementation art. 2-3,7, 41 nondiscrimination (art 2) best interest of the child (art 3) best law for children (coordination of international and national law ) (art 7, 41) stakeholders for the above principles implementation for instance, art 3,5, 18 and others across the text -state parties (institutions, services, facilities, activities) -parents/guardians (care of children) system of child’s rights art. 6-10,12-15,17,24-29,31-32,40 -fundamental rights (for birth, life, identity, family relations) -political and civil rights (freedom of thought, conscience and religion, expression, religion, access to information, peaceful assembly, rights in penal law, etc.) -economic, social, and cultural rights (education, housing, standards of living, rest and leisure, cultural identity, social development, etc.) -rights of the child who is subject to penal law specific audiences of children who are subject to rights art. 10, 20,21,22,23,25,30,38,39 -a child whose parents reside in different states (art 10) -child temporarily or permanently deprived of his or her family environment (art 20) -child who is subject to adoption (art 21) child who is seeking refugee status (art 22) mentally or physically disabled children (art 23) child who has been placed by the competent authorities for the purposes of care, protection or treatment of his or her physical or mental health (art 25) -children of ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities or of indigenous origin (art 30) -children in armed conflicts (art 38) -child victims (art 39) areas for protection art. 9 -11,16,19,24,32-37 -situation with child’s separation from his/her family (art 9) -situation with a child whose parents reside in different states (art 10) -illicit transfer and non-return of children abroad (art 11) -interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence (art 16) all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse (art 19) -disease and malnutrition (art 24) -protection from economic exploitation (art 32) -illicit use of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances as defined in the relevant international treaties, and to prevent the use of children in the illicit production and trafficking of such substances (art 33). -all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse through prostitution, pornography, other sexual practices (art 34) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 -prevention from abduction of, the sale of or traffic in children (art 35) -protection against all other forms of exploitation (art 36) -protection from torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, including context of liberty deprivation (art 37) measures for protection in the above areas art.4,10,18,20-24,28,32,37,40 “legislative, administrative, social and educational measures, national, bilateral and multilateral measures for the implementation of the rights recognized in the present convention” (art 4) -measures in case of child’s separation from his/her family (art 9) and family reunification/relations maintenance (art 10) -child-care services and facilities (art 18) -alternative care in case of deprivation from family (art 20) system of adoption (art 21) refugee child contexts (art 22) special care of disabled children (art 23) medical assistance and health care, food and water issues (art 24) measures within primary, secondary, higher, and vocational education (art 28) measures to prevent exploitation within employment (art 32) measures to protect the child who is deprived of liberty (art 37) measures to protect the” child alleged as, accused of, or recognized as having infringed the penal law” (art 40) the content analysis and coding made it possible to identify seven major cognitive slots and 43 concepts that specify their constituent features. however, the above mentioned structure is not explicit throughout the convention text. moreover, even the above list confirms that there is no strong grouping and/or sequence of the items. they do not explicitly follow each other within the framework of the theme that they refer to in the convention text. the following paragraph casts light on the mentioned topic. distribution of cognitive slots and semantic concepts within/across the convention articles the previous data showed major slots and concepts, and language units that verbalize them in the text. however, a thorough review of their relations show that the above elements go beyond particular article boundaries. to a considerable degree, the cognitive slots and semantic concepts as their building components are structured and systematized across the convention articles. thus, the concept «system of rights» (see the respective column in table 2) shows that the topic is introduced through articles 6-10, and then 12 to 15, further 24 to 29, and finally, by articles 3132. in a similar fragmented manner, the topic on «areas of protection» are discussed in articles 9 to 11,16, 19, 33 to 37, and 39. the above situation has been visualized in the form below. see table 2. atabekova et al. table 2 the schematic representation of slots and concepts structure, their distribution in the convention part i articles and extra-article relations definition principles stakeholders to convention implementation system of rights specific audiences areas of protection measures of protection 1 2 3 4 3 5 6 7 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 18 ? 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 26 27 27 28 28 29! core purposes of the right implementation 30 31 32 core items of the right implementation 33 34 35 + concretisation of areas 36 37 37 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 41 the above scheme also reveals that the scope of the articles cognitive-semantic content differs, as well. thus, some articles just name the rights. see for instance the text of article 6: 1. states parties recognize that every child has the inherent right to life. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 2. states parties shall ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and development of the child. meanwhile, there are articles that cover a number of topics. thus, article 20 identifies a special category of children (“a child temporarily or permanently deprived of his or her family environment”). it also mentions the measure for his/her protection (special assistance, alternative care, description of the respective options, i.e. foster placement, adoption, institutional settings, with regard to “child's ethnic, religious, cultural and linguistic background”. further, the child-friendly version of the convention text (see the source https://www.unicef.org/sop/convention-rights-child-child-friendly-version) has been analyzed with regard to the thematic structures, considered above. it should be mentioned that the advantage of this version is that articles 1 to 41 have headings that name the type of rights. there is no word “article” throughout the text. there is number of the article and the word combination that summarizes the core topic, for instance: “31. rest, play, culture, arts”. however, the child friendly version follows the convention tradition not to consider the key themes revealed through cognitive-semantic structures and introduce topics in their numerical order. for instance, item 37 focuses on specific audiences that is named: “children in detention”. the next two items (38 and 39) specify particular types of tights, namely the right to be protected (“protection in war” and “recovery and reintegration”). the following item in the list (40) turns back to a specific audience (“children who break the law”). the above situation makes it possible to conclude that both the text of the convention and its child friendly version reveal some lack of textual consistency with regard to the verbalization of the cognitive slots and their key conceptual semantic features. opinions of experts in children’s rights on diverse formats of the convention content and concepts representation the survey of three groups of respondents -legal practitioners, educators and social workersused two types of the data. the participants were introduced the results of the convention text content analysis, the schemes of figures 1 and 2 and overall findings regarding the cognitive slots and their key conceptual atabekova et al. semantic features, distribution of topics in the within the text of convention part i (the material is introduced earlier in this section). the participants were also offered open-ended questions that were specified in the methods section. the questionnaire results are introduced below in table 3. it introduces the statements that appeared in the all the responses of each group members. table 3 opinions of experts in children’s rights regarding diverse formats of the convention conceptual representation open-ended questions respondents and their replies legal practitioners at public and private institutions dealing with child’s rights professors of legal sciences at university law schools (course for students and cpd courses) teachers of the course “knowledge of society” at secondary schools social workers 1. how (in what cases and contents) do you refer to the convention text ? -interstate adoption -family reunification -defense of child’s rights and interest (relation with birth family, guardians, authorities) teaching practice at university law schools teaching practice at secondary schools awareness raising and prevention activities with parents within social care services 2 does the text of the convention require from you any expanded interpretation or commentary for particular professional settings you worked within? what kind of interpretation or commentary is necessary? yes yes . yes yes 3 what kind of interpretation or commentary is necessary? 1) depending on a particular case, the reference to relevant legal provisions of other legislation sources (national and international ones) 1) relation among international, regional, national legislation on the topic; development of initial legislation, new emerging topics. 2) systematization of rights and tools for their implementation; subjects to the rights; actors who are responsible for the implementation; areas and measures for the convention implementation 1) the topics of the convention are supported by concrete cases through training. 2) cases aim to show the types and system of rights. 3) comments on subjects to the rights; actors who are responsible for the implementation; areas and measures for the convention implementation 1) explanations on types and system of rights, subjects to the rights; actors who are responsible for the implementation; areas and measures for the convention implementation journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 4 what is your perception of the proposed description of the cognitive slots and their key conceptual semantic features in the text of convention part i, with regard to the child’s rights phenomenon in your professional activity? it is interesting, but does not bring any additional value for my professional field as i should refer to particular article and wording. however, it can be useful for governance of child rights and their reconceptualization in new millennium when used for teaching students it helps to systematize the phenomenon pf child’ rights in current legislation, to show the convention scope. when used for cpd course it is a good tool to train relevant audiences (novice lawyers and teachers) about ways to teach their students it helps to systematize the phenomenon of child’ rights in current legislation, to show the convention scope. each item should be further supported by visual aids and case examples. in this way schematic representation of the convention scope will enhance children’s participation in their rights implementation it helps to systematize child’ rights as a subject of stakeholders’ responsibilities (authorities, parents, other actors) each item should be further supported by visual aids and case examples. in this way schematic representation of the convention scope will enhance children’s participation in their rights implementation the results of the questionnaire reveal that the non-liner scheme of the convention conceptual content and scope consistently matters within professional development, awareness-raising and educational settings. legal educators, secondary school teachers, and social workers have expressed explicitly their positive view of the proposed non-liner vision, introduced by the present research team. the above statement and previous data can be interpreted through the factor analysis of reasons for the use of the mentioned version. among the pool of participants’ that amounted to 110 members, only lawyers (n=25) who conduct legal practice and provide legal services to clients do not mention the need for the non-liner presentation and interpretation of the convention text. the rest (n=85) specifies a number of factors that shaped their opinion. the 1st factor that is mentioned by the above mentioned respondents (n=85) emerges from the need to systematize rights and tools for their implementation; subjects to the rights; actors who are responsible for the implementation; areas and measures for the convention implementation, this need is of current importance for legal educators, secondary school teachers, and social workers. the 2rd factor is relevant for secondary schools’ teachers (n=30) and social workers (n=30) who have accepted the idea of on-liner representation of the convention as possible and promising part of their existing practice to use visual aids and case examples in the course of the convention text study and discussions atabekova et al. the 3rd factor is underlined by social workers (n=30) who have specified the relevance of the proposed scheme as a tool to systematize child’ rights as a subject of stakeholders’ responsibilities (authorities, parents, other actors). the 4th factor is related to specificity of professional activity settings emerges from the need to show relation among international, regional, national legislation on the topic; development of initial legislation, new emerging topics in the course of training; this factor is mentioned by legal educators (n=25). as it was mentioned earlier only statements that reach 100% mentions among each group of respondents were considered. in terms of variables, regarding the experts’ field of professional activities was the only point that caused differences in their replies. such variables as gender, age, length of working experience did not influence the respondents’ replies. the research results confirm the relevance of systemic analysis to the issues of child protection (wulczynet al., 2010) and show that the study of language tools for explicit representation of the child rights as a complex phenomenon leads to the issues of its cognitive-semantic modelling. this data goes in line with previous research on the critical role of language studies for public needs and social awareness raising (belenkova et al., 2017; udina & stepanova, 2018). the findings also confirm that the research should go beyond vertical sequential listing of rights and related topics. the obtained empirical data also proves that the linear enumeration of rights through the convention articles, on the one hand, and verbal-visual (schematic)multi-dimensional representation of the convention macrostructure can be relevant for different actors depending on the field of the professional activities. the findings also make it possible to state that the above verbal-visual representation of the convention scope can help to consider study of child rights phenomenon within the initial and latest legislation in force (veerman, 1992). thus, after the convention has been adopted further international and regional legislation was set fourth concretizing earlier generalized provisions, see for instance the development of conceptual framework for child protection against sexual abuse (rendel, 2018). further, the convention does not mention minors’ rights in digital ages that scholars consider necessary to specify (livingstone& third, 2017; nawaila et al., 2018). moreover, some concepts are not present in the convention however, they are part of current national and international journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 legislation, and academic research as well, see, for instance the concept of mediation as an instrument to implement the principle of the best interests of a child (see, for instance, salminen, 2018). the options offered by the research team contribute to the idea of governance of child rights and their reconceptualization with regard to current international development (hanson & nieuwenhuys, 2013; ferguson, 2013; holzscheiter et al., 2019). the data support previous academic statements that further promotion and education on child rights should clear the specificity of political, civil, social-economic and cultural rights for educational purposes (cohen et al., 2019). the findings go in line with the social sciences vision of the need to consider child rights policy and concepts (bradshaw et al., 2007; tisdall, 2015) within regional administrative-legal discourses. the analysis among eu countries has already been implemented (kutsar et al., 2019). the proposed methodology confirms the relevance of discourse analysis for child rights promotion and implementation with regard to key actors, their contribution and measures, that scholars consider critical for “making children’s rights real’ (gadda et al., 2019). the discourse analysis of the convention structure in terms of its cognitive slots and language semantic tools also can be used for identifying ways to structure settings for children and youth’s participation and their rights protection. this trend is considered of paramount importance within contemporary development of children’s rights vision (duncan, 2019) and students’ perception of social realities (belenkova, 2018). it also should be mentioned that cognitive-semantic modelling can also help in legal drafting the document structure in the course of law making. scholars point out that the importance of explicit structure in the legal documentation (stepanova, 2015). the identification of frames and their slots, search for the best language unites to present them in the text can contribute to document drafting quality in terms of logic, coherence and cohesion, meaning specifics representation. conclusion the findings have confirmed the preliminary assumptions and led to a number of conclusions. the theoretical analysis of academic sources has revealed that academia acknowledges the importance of interdisciplinary studies of the convention discourse. however, verbal tools for the representation of the conceptual structure of rights and their essence, audiences that are subject to atabekova et al. these rights and actors who are responsible for these rights provision have not been puton the research agenda so far. meanwhile, the analysis of literature proved the importance of considering the above issue as the respective necessity was voiced by scholars within interdisciplinary studies of the convention discourse. the research results have confirmed the hypothesis that the language of the convention takes it beyond simple liner-sequential enumeration of rights in the respective articles and introduces child’s rights as integrated socio-cognitive macro structure through the use of particular language units and their ties across the articles of the convention text. this finding enhances current awareness of the role of the language that serves to materialize child’s rights as integrated sociocognitive macro structure within which the language units are used for cognitive purposes that go beyond pure information and linear sequential enumeration of rights in the convention text and. the study has made it possible to introduce and characterize the cognitive-semantic macrostructure of the children’s rights in the convention. the content analysis, manual and computer-based coding have resulted in the identification of the convention major cognitive slots and concepts, their linguistically expressed key constituent elements, and the intra textual relations among the concepts. the analysis has showed that there is different number of concepts that form the content of a particular slot. the distributional analysis highlighted that concepts which serve as building tools for the major slots are used across the articles of the conventions that specifies a particular slot. moreover, the verbal tools for discourse on children rights in the convention text reveal the lack of consistency and coherence in terms of semantic relations representation among the major concepts with regard to the rights types, groups of target audiences that are subject these rights, and actors, that are responsible for their implementation. the questionnaire offered to the pool of experts in the child’s issues has confirmed that the convention scope can be represented in non-linear form, not just as a text. the convention scope can be conceptualized as a verbal-visual schema of relations among major concepts, their content characteristics and key features. this can be done through the analysis of language tools use and their distribution across the text. the verbal-visual schema can be used for educating purposes and enhancing public awareness of child’s rights phenomenon and scope. moreover, there results of the questionnaire showed that clear and explicit intra textual representation of the mentioned relations semantic-logical structure could contribute to the current international legislation interpretation within particular national journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 legal cultures, systems and children’s rights industry practice. such a representation requires the observance of logical sequence and hierarchy in the verbal representation of concepts, taking into account their status in the general semantic macrostructure of the children’s rights in the convention text. the analysis of language units helps to characterize the essence of this structure. the methodology applied for the empirical study has made it possible to introduce the phenomena under study in the multimodal form, integrating verbal, visual, and graphic tools. moreover, the research data can contribute to interdisciplinary discourse and language studies in terms of methods and techniques related to exploring and building such macrostructures of other concepts that are politically, legally, socially, and culturally significant within the international communication on the children’s rights doctrine, its application in legislation and practice. further, verbal-visual representation of the convention macrostructure reveals its multidimensional content essence and provides grounds for synergetic interpretation where not just rights but the stakeholders, the scope and specifics of their duties and obligations, societal contexts of their activities, etc. are identified. this, in turn, leads to the conclusion that the format of the convention representation that shaped through the present study can contribute to enhancing awareness and education on child’s rights within diverse social settings. the present data also enhances the vision of constructivist approach to the analysis of the semanticlogic relations within the conceptual macrostructure of the phenomena that reflect human rights and activities. acknowledgments the publication has been prepared with the support of the rudn university program 5-100, research project number 090512 -1-274. references altman, a. (2017). civil rights. the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (winter 2017 edition), edward n. zalta (ed.). retrieved august 11, 2019, from url = https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/civil-rights/ american bill of rights (1791). retrieved august 10, 2019, from https://billofrightsinstitute.org/founding-documents/bill-of-rights/ atabekova et al. andersen, c.s., & dolva, a.s. (2015). children's perspective on their right to participate in decision-making according to the united nations convention on the rights of the child article 12. physical & occupational therapy in pediatrics, 35(3), 218-230. archard, d.w. (2018). children, family and the state. london: routledge. beier, j. m. (2019). ultimate tests: children, rights, and the politics of protection. in children and the responsibility to protect (pp. 158-181). brill nijhoff. belenkova, n. (2018). linguistic and cultural identity of the university students. proceedings of the 11th international conference on innovation in language learning, 265-267. belenkova, n., lutskovskaya, l., & gorbatenko, r. (2017). developing new learning resources for the linguistic mediators' training in modern social environment. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 13(10), 6953-6961 bradshaw, j., hoelscher, p., & richardson, d. (2007). comparing child well-being in oecd countries: concepts and methods. innocenti working papers. retrieved august 12, 2019, fromhttps://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/464-comparing-child-well-being-in-oecdcountries-concepts-and-methods.html caplan, a.l., & hotez, p. j. (2018). science in the fight to uphold the rights of children. plos biology, 16(9), e3000010. chirwa, d.m. (2018). the universal declaration of human rights, economic, social and cultural rights and human rights discourse. in: c.ferstman, t. gray (eds). contemporary human rights challenges: the universal declaration of human rights and its continuing relevance (pp. 183-193). uk, london: routledge cohen, c. p., & naimark, h. (1991). united nations convention on the rights of the child: individual rights concepts and their significance for social scientists. american psychologist, 46(1), 60-65 cohen, s.s., fry-bowers, e., bishop-josef, s., o'neill, m.k., & westphaln, k. (2019). reframing child rights to effect policy change. nursing outlook, 67(4), 450-461. collins, t. (2018). a brief background to children’s rights. cyc-online, 24. desai, m. (2018). child rights education for inclusion and protection: primary prevention. springer. douglas, g., & sebba, l. (2016). children's rights and traditional values. london: routledge. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 duncan, m. (2019). the structural conditions of children’s participation in the child protection system. in participation in child protection (pp. 185-199). palgrave macmillan, cham. eekelaar, j. (2017). the interests of the child and the child’s wishes: the role of dynamic selfdeterminism. in children's rights (pp. 129-148). london: routledge. eisler, r. (2018). protecting children: from rhetoric to global action. interdisciplinary journal of partnership studies, 5(1), 7-7. english bill of rights (1689). retrieved august 10, 2019, from https://www.parliament.uk/about/livingheritage/evolutionofparliament/parliamentaryauthority/revolution/collections1/collections -glorious-revolution/billofrights/ falch-eriksen, a., & backe-hansen, e. (2018). human rights in child protection. implications for professional practice and policy. palgrave macmillan. ferguson, l. (2013). not merely rights for children but children’s rights: the theory gap and the assumption of the importance of children’s rights. international journal of children’s rights 21(2), 177–208. fottrell, d. (2001). revisiting children’s rights: 10 years of the un convention on the rights of the child. refugee survey quarterly, 20, 2. freeman, m. (2017). the value and values of children’s rights. in children's rights (pp. 91106). london: routledge. french declaration of the rights of man and a citizen (1789). retrieved august 10, 2019, from https://www.conseilconstitutionnel.fr/sites/default/files/as/root/bank_mm/anglais/cst2.pdf gadda, a.m., harris, j., tisdall, e.k.m., & millership, e. (2019). ‘making children’s rights real’: lessons from policy networks and contribution analysis. the international journal of human rights, 23(3), 392-407. halcomb, e. (2019). mixed methods research. journal of advanced nursing, 75(3), 499-501. hanson, k., & nieuwenhuys, o. (2013). reconceptualizing children’s rights in international development: living rights, social justice, translations. new york: cambridge university press. atabekova et al. hanson, k., & lundy, l. (2017). does exactly what it says on the tin? a critical analysis and alternative conceptualisation of the so-called “general principles” of the convention on the rights of the child. international journal of children's rights, 25(2), 285-306. holzscheiter, a., josefsson, j., & sandin, b. (2019). child rights governance: an introduction. childhood, 26(3), 271-288 howell, a. (2018). children’s participation in their education, research and society. discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education, 39(3), 478-485. international covenant on civil and political rights (1966). retrieved august 10, 2019, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights (1968). retrieved august 10, 2019, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cescr.aspx kilkelly, u., & liefaard, t. (2019). international human rights of children. singapore: springer. kairys, d. (2015). civil rights. international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (second edition). netherlands, amsterdam: elsevier, 686-690. karp, j. (1998). concepts underlying the implementation of the convention on the rights of the child. loy. poverty lj, 4, 113. kutsar, d., soo, k., strózik, t., strózik, d., grigoraș, b., & bălțătescu, s. (2019). does the realisation of children’s rights determine good life in 8-year-olds’ perspectives? a comparison of eight european countries. child indicators research, 12(1), 161-183. liebel, m. (2012). children's rights from below: cross-cultural perspectives. springer. lindkvist, l. (2018). rights for the world’s children: rädda barnen and the making of the un convention on the rights of the child. nordic journal of human rights, 36(3), 287-303. livingstone, s., & third, a. (2017). children and young people’s rights in the digital age: an emerging agenda. new media and society, 19(5), 657-670. lloyd, k., & emerson, l. (2017). (re)examining the relationship between children’s subjective wellbeing and their perceptions of participation rights. child indicators research, 10(3), 591-608. magna carta (1215). retrieved august 7, 2019, from https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/magnacarta-1215 melton, g.b. (1980). children's concepts of their rights. journal of clinical child & adolescent psychology, 9(3), 186-190. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 moody, z. (2017). transnational treaties on children’s rights: norm building and circulation in the twentieth century. paedagogica historica, 50(1-2), 151-164. murphy-berman, v., levesque, h.l., & berman, j.j. (1996). u.n. convention on the rights of the child: a cross-cultural view. american psychologist, 51(12), 1257-1261. nawaila, m.b., kanbul, s., & ozdamli, f. (2018). a review on the rights of children in the digital age. children and youth services review, 94, 390-409. nyland, b. (1999). the united nations convention on the rights of the child: using a concept of rights as a basis for practice. australasian journal of early childhood, 24(1), 9-14. nyland, b. (2009). the guiding principles of participation: infant, toddler groups and the united nations convention on the rights of the child. in participatory learning in the early years (pp. 42-59). london: routledge. prendergast, t., diamant-cohen, b., & goldsmith, a. y. (2018). advocating for children's rights. children & libraries, 16(2), 37-38. quennerstedt, a., robinson, c., & i’anson, j. (2018). the uncrc: the voice of global consensus on children’s rights? nordic journal of human rights, 36(1), 38-54. rendel, m. (2018). sexuality and the united nations convention on the rights of the child. in: of innocence and autonomy: children, sex and human rights (pp. 49-63). london: routledge. reynaert, d., bouverne-de-bie, m., & vandevelde, s. (2009). a review of children’s rights literature since rhe adoption of the united nations convention on the rights of the child. childhood, 16(4), 518-534. robinson, c., phillips, l., & quennerstedt, a. (2018). human rights education: developing a theoretical understanding of teachers’ responsibilities. educational review, 1-22. retrieved august 12, 2019, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00131911.2018.1495182 roose, r., & bouverne‐de bie, m. (2007). do children have rights or do their rights have to be realised? the united nations convention on the rights of the child as a frame of reference for pedagogical action. journal of philosophy of education, 41(3), 431-443. salminen, k. (2018). is mediation in the best interests of a child from the child law perspective. nordic mediation research. springer, cham, 209-222. atabekova et al. savage, t. (2018). creative arts technicians in academia: to transition or not to transition? art, design & communication in higher education, 17(2), 237-253. skivenes, m., & sørsdal, l. m. (2018). the child’s best interest principle across child protection jurisdictions. in human rights in child protection (pp. 59-88). palgrave macmillan, cham. söylemez, y. (2018). the development of the text evaluation scale for child rights: a study of validity and reliability. world journal of education, 8(5), 139-159. stern, r. t. (2017, july). concepts and theories: on ‘the child’,‘childhood’, and rights. in implementing article 12 of the un convention on the rights of the child (pp. 16-44). brill nijhoff. stepanova, v. (2015). legal drafting and editing in academic studies. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 214, 1116-1124. symonides, j. (2017). human rights: concept and standards. london: routledge. tisdall, e. k. m. (2015). children's rights and children's wellbeing: equivalent policy concepts? journal of social policy, 44(4), 807-823. tobin, j. (ed.). (2019). the un convention on the rights of the child: a commentary. oup oxford. twelve articles of 1525 (manifesto of the reformation and peasant war in germany) (1525). retrieved august 7, 2019, from http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/doc.52eng-12%20articles_en.pdf udina, n.n., & stepanova, v.v. (2018). language of international migration: terminology and concept analysis. european research studies journal, 21(3), 579-590. united nations convention on the rights of the child (1989). retrieved august 10, 2019, from https://downloads.unicef.org.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2010/05/uncrc_press200910web.pdf?_ga=2.185331689.114794618 2.1573629042-1911474919.1573629042 un universal declaration of human rights (1948). retrieved august 7, from https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ vandenhole, w., desmet, e., & reyneart, d. (2015) introduction: a critical approach tto children’s rights. in: vandenhole, w, desmet, e, reyneart, d. (eds.) routledge international handbook of children’s rights studies. abingdon: routledge, 1–23. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 506-529 varadan, s. (2019). the principle of evolving capacities under the un convention on the rights of the child. the international journal of children's rights, 27(2), 306-338. veerman, p.e. (1992). the rights of the child and the changing image of childhood. vol. 18. martinus nijhoff publishers. wells, k. (2015). childhood in a global perspective. london: polity press. woodhouse, b.b. (2017). out of children’s needs, children’s rights: the child’s voice in defining the family. children's rights (pp. 107-127). london: routledge. wulczyn, f., daro, d., fluke, j., feldman, s., glodek, c., & lifanda, k. (2010). adapting a systems approach to child protection: key concepts and considerations. new york: unicef. wyness, m. (2018). children’s participation: definitions, narratives and disputes. theorising childhood (pp. 53-72). palgrave macmillan, cham. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3), 103-117 103 kinship terms as proof of genetic relationship ramilya sagdieva1, damir husnutdinov2, ramil mirzagitov3 and radik galiullin4 abstract the purpose of this article is to conduct a comparative study of peculiarities of kinship terms in the kazakh, kyrgyz, turkish, uzbek and uyghur languages. the study of kinship nomenclature of the turkic peoples makes it possible to draw a number of conclusions on the genetic kinship of languages, reveals the history of development and interrelations of these peoples, contributes to the creation of a comprehensive description of the lexical-semantic system of these turkic languages. this article is the first experience of the comparative study of kinship terms in the kazakh, kyrgyz, turkish, uzbek and uygur languages. a statistical comparison of the phonetic, nominal and semantic similarities of genetic features of kinship terms has been made. in the course of the study, it has been stated that each language has distinctive features and peculiarities, although they are included in the turkic group. for the development of a typology of kinship systems, the authors chose to conduct the synchronous-comparative study of languages, which will apparently remain among the leading ones in the near future. following it, the article fixes the kinship systems that currently exist in the turkic languages (in particular, on the material of the kazakh, kyrgyz, turkish and uighur languages) and are available for direct observation. this method allowed the authors to analyze the actual material. key words: turkic-speaking people, common words, common turkic dictionary, terms, semantics, statistical data. introduction every nation living in the world has its own history, language and culture, customs and traditions, but they are closely connected with this world, communicate with many peoples, nationalities. the ethnic affinity of people, i.e. the similarity of linguistic elements, traditions, folk art, is an important element. one of these affinities is found among the turkic peoples. this nation is close both in culture and in history (ermachkov et al., 2018; degtyarev et al., 2018; kuznetsova et al., 2019; magsumov, 2018a, b; lysytsia et al., 2019; tarman, 2018; alajmi, 2019; shevchenko et al., 2016; bozhkova et al., 2019; nechaev et al., 2018; zhuravlev et al., 2018; volchik and 1 kazan federal university, russian federation,,ramsag777@rambler.ru 2 kazan federal university, russian federation, domer1982@mail.ru 3 kazan federal university, russian federation, mirza_ramil@mail.ru 4 naberezhnye chelny pedagogical university, russian federation, r.galiullin@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 103-117 maslyukova, 2019). religious similarities are also an important factor for the interrelation and mutual understanding of these peoples. therefore, a comparative analysis of kinship terms of turkic-speaking peoples makes it possible to draw interesting conclusions. this determines the relevance of the topic. this article analyzes kinship terms of turkic-speaking peoples from two sides: in terms of morphology and semantics. the scientific novelty of this article is determined by the comparative analysis of the terms of the kazakh, kyrgyz, turkish, uzbek, and uighur languages. a word as a linguistic unit corresponds with a subject or a phenomenon of the real world. in different cultures, not only objects or phenomena but also cultural ideas of them can be different. after all, they live and function in different worlds and cultures (sadokhin, 2004). in other words, a language does not simply reflect the world; it builds an ideal world in people’s mind. modern linguistics pays more and more attention to the comparative analysis of languages; this is a natural phenomenon: a rapid process of awareness of one’s singularity, cultural identity, which swept many peoples, affected the development of the humanities in its own way. first of all, the attention of public consciousness was drawn to those areas and sectors that allow supplementing or developing the understanding of each people of the specifics of the national path within the general course of civilization, determining the value of its culture, the peculiarity of the language, i.e. to the directions characterizing the national mentality (bliznyuk, 2006). when studying the history of language, scientists found that kindred peoples have many common words (mykytenko, 2004; mukhamadieva, 2012). the language of the turkic people, which has a common spiritual treasure, still exists; common concepts can serve as the basis for creating intercultural dialogue nowadays. in this regard, many scientists have recently considered the characteristic linguistic properties of kindred nations as their research subjects (fattahova et al., 2016; konuratbayeva et al., 2018; abduali et al., 2017; husnutdinov et al., 2016, 2017; kadasheva et al., 2016; omarova and galymzhanova, 2017). modern turkic linguistics has significant achievements in understanding the nature and essence of the various phenomena of the phonological, grammatical and lexical structure of turkic languages. in turkic languages, there are words that remained from the old lexicon and are common these days. they are called common turkic words. the common turkic dictionary is proof of the same origin of these languages. sagdieva et al. depending on the similarities and differences of semantics, researchers divide common turkic words into the following groups: names related to human life; kinship conditions; names of animals and plants; natural phenomenon; names representing quality and quantity; pet names. a vocabulary layer that conveys kinship relationships takes one of the first places among thematic vocabulary layers in terms of the time of origin and high stability of the concepts denoted by them. such words are often used to reinforce one or another of the conclusions of the authors of various papers (butinov, 1979; zelenetsky and monkhov, 1983), devoted to the issues of a comparative study of kindred languages and the basic word stock. however, the history of their forms and values, stylistic functions, prevalence, derivational potentiality remain insufficiently studied. in the language of any nation, a group of words that denote kinship relations between people is of particular interest – these are the so-called kinship terms (kryukov, 1972). every nation has a traditional vocabulary, which reflects a unique tradition of its people. kinship terms are cognitive values that are important for intercultural communication. the essential characteristic of this relationship, which is commonly understood as kinship, is the absolute interdependence and interdetermination of the participants in this relationship. it is not difficult to make sure that a father and a mother exist to the extent that there is a son or a daughter, and vice versa; talking about a brother or a sister only makes sense if there are other brothers or sisters, etc. in the context of kinship, there is no division into a subject and an object; each of the elements of kinship relationship is a subject, regardless of whom the relationship starts. kinship terms are not a disorderly set of words; they form a certain system, and these systems are different among different nations. studying them, ethnographers can learn a lot about family forms, their historical development and social organization of various peoples and tribes. among the turkic peoples, including the kazakhs, the tradition of the seven ancestors – “zheti ata” (seven ancestors) is very important. in a turkic family, young people should not marry each other until the seventh generation from the side of one man. akseleu seydimbek said: “certainly, the tradition of a girl who marries a man who is not among the seven ancestors, zheti atu, was the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 103-117 only reason for the expansion of kinship in kazakh society” (akseleu seydimbek, 2008, p. 180). the principle of comparing the kinship system of the kazakh people from the point of view of the three groups of ego relatives – relatives of his father, relatives of his mother, relatives of his wife – is also common among the kyrgyz, uzbeks, turks, and uighurs. as an important part of the vocabulary in a language, kinship terms are a linguistic phenomenon, which is determined by the laws of the internal development of the language. the laws of language development are directly related to the culture of a particular country. as for cultural linguistic knowledge, kinship terms are included in appellatives. they belong to specific lexical and semantic categories, which give a clear picture of national traditions and customs. method research design this research paper contains the analysis and synthesis of empirical materials, their generalization, and classification. for the development of a typology of kinship systems, the authors chose to conduct the synchronous-comparative study of languages, which will apparently remain among the leading ones in the near future. following it, the article fixes the kinship systems that currently exist in the turkic languages (in particular, on the material of the kazakh, kyrgyz, turkish, and uighur languages) and are available for direct observation. this method allowed the authors to analyze the actual material. the method of monitoring of the language material was also used. this method implies the study of the actual material, as well as the synthesis, interpretation, and classification. at the beginning of the twentieth century, an american cultural anthropologist alfred louis kroeber summarized the experience of previous generations and conducted more in-depth studies and identification of kinship, the social structure of humanity (kröber, 2004). the authors are guided by the kinship system created by a.r. kroeber, on the basis of statistical and comparative methods, the purpose of which is to study the kinship systems of kazakh, kyrgyz, uzbek, turkish, and uighur languages. the actual linguistic material (nouns, denoting the terms of kinship and properties) has been extracted by the method of continuous sampling from the kyrgyz-russian dictionary by k.k. yudakhin (kyrgyz-russian dictionary, 1985), the uighur-chinese dictionary (uygur-chinese sagdieva et al. dictionary, 2006), the explanatory dictionary of the kazakh language (explanatory dictionary of the kazakh language, 2008), the turkish-russian dictionary by r.r. yusipov (turkish-russian dictionary, 2005), from the textbook on the uzbek language (uzbek for the cis countries, 2012). data collection kinship terms are selected with due account for their usage. the practical material was classified on the basis of a structural-semantic analysis. special linguistic methods such as methods of semantic analysis, linguistic description, thematic classification, and statistical analysis were also used. findings 1. every nation has a traditional vocabulary that reflects a unique tradition and is a unique feature of a nation. among them are a number of words that are characterized by deep history, systematic structure, and cognitive values, which are especially important for intercultural communication. these are kinship terms. the kinship system correlates with the terms, by which various types of family relationships are expressed, as well as with a certain system of social attitudes. 2. having conducted a statistical comparison of the nominal and semantic similarities of genetic features of kinship terms, a clear understanding of the corresponding basic kinship terms of these turkic languages has been developed. there are many similarities in basic terms. summarizing the comparative study of genetic traits of kinship terms, it can be noted that a number of words expressing kinship in the kazakh language are common. certainly, there is a difference between the kazakh and four other languages (turkish, kyrgyz, uyghur, uzbek). 3. since the phonetic contradictions of words of the same meaning are insignificant in many turkic languages, they are often not displayed in borrowed words. it is necessary to pay attention to changes in the phonological level of a word during borrowing. the sound substance of lexemes in the turkic language is subject to specific laws and characteristic of a particular language. 4. many of kinship terms in the above-mentioned languages have the same semantics, but differ in pronunciation. in some terms, this difference may be insignificant, and in some cases cognate journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 103-117 words are used. this means that the languages of the turkic group differ not only in phonology, but even in the lexical structure. 5. compared languages have their own characteristics in a sound system for hundreds of years: audio functions that occur at the beginning and at the end of a word; a combination of two vowels at the beginning or at the end of a term; sound exchange, reduction and features of the use of sounds in the middle of a word. it can be concluded that common kinship terms of turkic languages can be called universal terms of these aforementioned kindred languages. discussion all three components of a speech event – a speaker (addresser), a listener (addressee), and a subject of speech are most fully expressed in dialogue. for that reason, each speech attribute is polyfunctional. the functioning of kinship terms in speech is based on a “kinship event”, or the simultaneous presence of three participants in communication: ego, alter and connector (connecting relative). a connector is not only a father for the relationship “ego – father’s brother” or a mother for the relationship “ego – maternal grandfather” (i.e. a genealogical connector), but also, for example, a mother for the relationship “ego – father” or parents (a pair connector) for the relationship “ego-sibling”. strictly speaking, an ego, an alter and a connector are subjects that embody those roles of a subject, which are considered to be the speaker’s functions in cognitive linguistics (demyankov, 1994). an ego in the act of using a kinship term acts only as a subject of speech; its “partners” – an alter and a connector – are respectively the subjects of consciousness and reference. the trialogue nature of the act of using kinship terms is obvious: a third person is necessary for the speech process, as well as an addressee and an addresser are necessary for him/her. kinship terms can take into account or, on the contrary, ignore the gender, age, the genealogical status of a connector, but the verbal structure of a message will always reflect the unity of three, not two “persons”. according to researchers, kinship terms can be divided into two types, mainly based on peculiarities of the language and its use. the first is potential kinship terms that are rarely used or easily generated on demand. the second is the basic kinship terms, i.e. a group of active relative names that are constantly used. here, 17 kinship terms, common to five nations, and 4 kinship terms, which differ from the kazakh language, are a research object. the table below (table 1 – sagdieva et al. similarity of kinship terms based on genetic characteristics) summarizes the nominative similarities and differences of kinship terms based on genetic characteristics, divided into 8 categories, which are comparative and statistical data. a symbol “+” in the table indicates that this kinship term has a difference in this category, and a symbol “-” means that this one does not have a difference in this category. thus, the authors have divided 17 kinship terms, listed in the table, into 8 categories based on genetic characteristics. the following differences can be observed: 1. different or one generation. generation is an integral structural principle in terms of kinship, as well as an element of coordination of marital relations. it also defines the nominal use of kinship terms. of the 17 basic terms to be compared in the kazakh, kyrgyz, uzbek, turkish, and uighur languages, only 35.29% demonstrate a generation principle. a total of six kinship terms “grandfather, grandmother, father, mother, grandson, nephew” show the generation principle, and the remaining 11 terms are not very clear. for example, the term “aga” is an elder brother of the youngest child, and it is not only the term of the kinship of one generation, but it is also used in previous or next generations. besides, the generation principle is not taken into account in the kinship term “kelin”. in the kazakh language dictionary, the word “kelin” means “a married woman, a daughter-in-law of the husband’s elder relatives and cousins” (explanatory dictionary of the kazakh language. 2008). 2. kinship relationship. in terms of comparing kindred languages, only 47.06% of the basic kinship terms are subject to this category. 3. linear or incidental relationships. the similarity of 17 basic kinship terms in the kazakh, kyrgyz, uzbek, turkish, and uighur languages is 100% in this category. consequently, the kinship terms, which are linear or related, are connected with each other, correspond to each other, in other words, they have nominative and semantic match. 4. sex of a relative. common properties of these languages in this category reach up to 82.35%. with the exception of 3 related terms (child, grandson, and nephew), the sex of kinship terms is known. 5. sex of a person who is a link with one relative. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 103-117 comparison of compared languages in this category is 35.29%; this similarity is evident from the conditions of kinship between a father, a mother, a daughter-in-law, a son-in-law, and a sister-inlaw. these terms are used for marital relationships. relations are endless and always clear. 6. sex of a speaker. the genetic similarity of the index of kinship terms in this category is 0%. this means that there are no kinship terms in the languages of this category. thus, kinship conditions do not depend on the speaker’s sex. 7. relative age within one generation. nominal and semantic correspondence of the kinship terms in this category showed 47.10%, this similarity includes 8 terms that define one generation. 8. a relative who links a person with the previous generation. in this category, the presence of “c”, which is a link between “a” and “b”, does not affect the relationship between “a” and “b”, in other words, the difference is 0%. kinship terms are translated as follows: ata (grandfather), ezhe (grandmother), eke (father), sheshe/ana (mother), bala (child), ul (son), kyz (daughter), azha (elder brother), іnі/bauir (younger brother), kepke/apa (elder sister), sinly (younger sister), kelin (daughter-in-law), klyai bala (sonin-law), zhezde (son-in-law), zhenge (daughter-in-law), nemere (grandson), zhien (nephew). table 1 affinity of kinship terms based on genetic characteristics category (генетикалық белгі бойынша) family name different or same generation consang uine or affinal relations hip lin eal or coll ater al relat ion sex of relati ve sex of person who is a link betwee n one relativ e and anothe r sex of a speake r relativ e age within the same generati on whet her a linki ng relati ve is dead or alive kazakh kyr gyz uzb ek turkish uighur 1 ata cho n ata bob o, buva ded e + + + boya بوۋا 2 ezhe cho n ene mo mo, buvi ebe موما moma + + + 3 eke ata ota, dada bab a dada/a دادا / ئاتا ta + + + + + sagdieva et al. 4 sheshe /ana ene/ apa ona, opa ann e ana/ap ئانا / ئاپا a + + + + + 5 bala bala bola çöc uk + bala باال 6 ul uul o’g’ il oğu l + + + ugul ئوغۇل 7 kyz kyz qiz kız قىز kiz + + + 8 aga aga aka ağa bey + + + aka ئاكا 9 іni/ba uir ini ini, uka erke k kard eş + + + uka ئۇكا 1 0 epke/a pa ezh e opa abl a / ئاچا ھەدە acha/k hede + + + 1 1 sinli sind i sing il kız kard eş + + + sinil سىڭىل 1 2 kelin keli n keli n geli n كېلىن kilin + + + + + 1 3 kuyeu bala kuy ee bala kuy ov bola da mat ئوغۇلكۈ يۆ kui ugul + + + + + 1 4 zhezd e zhe de ezn a eniş te + + + + + iezne يەزنە 1 5 zheng e zhe ne yan ga, kenn oyi yen ge + + + + + ienge يەڭگە 1 6 neme re neb ere nev ara, nabi ra tor un + + neure نەۋرە 1 7 zhien zhe en jiya n yeğ en + + zhien جيەن 6 8 17 14 6 0 8 0 35.29% 47.0 6% 100% 82.3 5% 35.29% 0% 47. 06 % 0% in conclusion, after having conducted a statistical comparison of nominal and semantic similarities of genetic features of kinship terms, the authors developed a clear understanding of the corresponding basic kinship terms of these kindred languages. there are many similarities in basic terms. certainly, there is a difference. this difference is shown in the following table (table 2 – the lexemic difference of the basic kinship terms). table 2 the lexemic difference of the basic kinship terms kindred languages turkish uzbek kyrgyz uighur father’s elder or younger brother amca amaki aba taga father's elder or younger sister hala amma aba ezhe khamma mother's elder or younger brother dayi tog’a taga mother's elder or younger sister teyze xola tai ezhe khamma journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 103-117 summarizing the comparative study of genetic features of kinship terms, it can be noted that a number of words expressing kinship in the kazakh language are common. there is a difference between kazakh and four other languages (turkish, kyrgyz, uighur, and uzbek). for example, the kazakhs call a father’s elder brother “father” or “brother” and use the word "nagashi" in relation to a mother’s elder brother. other kindred languages have a separate term for addressing this relative. since phonetic contradictions of words of the same meaning are insignificant in many turkic languages; they are often not displayed in borrowed words. it is necessary to pay attention to changes in the phonological level of a word during borrowing. the sound substance of lexemes in the turkic language is subject to specific laws and characteristic of a particular language. kinship terms in the study have the same semantics but differ in pronunciation. this can be seen in table 3. table 3 kinship terms with phonetic differences kazakh kyrgyz uzbek turkish uighur 1 zhien zheen jiyan yeğen جيەن zhien 2 ul uul o’g’il oğul ئوغۇل ugul 3 kyz kyz qiz kız قىز kiz 4 kelin kelin kelin gelin كېلىن kilin 5 aga aga aka ağabey ئاكا aka 6 zhenge zhene yanga,kennoyi yenge يەڭگە ienge the words in this table are similar in pronunciation, and there are differences in alternation: the consonant [қ] in the kazakh language is replaced by [k] in kyrgyz, and the kyrgyz and uighur languages should not be exchanged within the consonant [қ] and [k]. for example: a girl in kazakh – “kyz” (“қыз”), in kyrgyz – “kyz” (“кыз”), in uzbek – “kiz” (“киз”), in turkish – “kiz” (“киз”), in uigur – “kiz” (“қіз”). besides, the sound [қ] in the kazakh language is replaced by [k] in the turkish, uighur and uzbek languages. in the kazakh, kyrgyz, uzbek, and turkish languages, after the letter [к] there is [e] in the word “kelіn” (“келін”); in the uighur language, it is replaced with [и]. sagdieva et al. it can be seen that in the kyrgyz language two vowels in words “zheen” and “uul” coexist. the word “ul” (“ұл”) in the uzbek, turkish and uighur languages is pronounced as [г – ғ]. in the word “aga” (“аға”), the consonant “ғ” is replaced with the deaf consonant [қ] in the uzbek and uighur languages. besides, the sound [e] in the first syllable of the word “zhenge” (“жеңге”) in the uzbek language will be replaced with the sound [a]. in the kazakh, uzbek, turkish, and uighur languages, the sound [ң] sounds in the first syllable of the word “zhenge” (“жеңге”), but in kyrgyz [ң] does not sound. the following table (table 4 – words with a different sound composition in kindred languages) compares the pronunciation and spelling of kinship terms. as can be seen from the examples, there are several similarities of words in the sound composition (child – in 3 languages, brother and younger sister – in 2 languages) and differences. table 4 the words with a different sound composition in kindred languages kazakh kyrgyz uzbek turkish uighur 1 ata chon ata bobo, buva dede بوۋ bowa 2 ezhe chon ene momo, buvi ebe موما moma 3 eke ata ota, dada baba دادا / ئاتا dada/ata 4 sheshe/ana ene/apa ona, opa anne ئانا / ئاپا ana/apa 5 bala bala bola çöcuk باال bala 6 іni/bauir ini ini, uka erkek kardeş ئۇكا uka 7 epke/apa ezhe opa abla ھەدە /ئاچا acha/khede 8 sіnіl sindi singil kız kardeş سىڭىل sіnіl 9 kuyeu bala kuyee bala kuyov bola damat ئوغۇلكۈيۆ kui ugul 10 zhezde zhezde ezna enişte يەزنە iezne 11 nemere nebere nevara, nabira torun نەۋرە neure for example, the kazakh words ana, nemere and the uzbek words ona, nevara have differences with the letters a-o, m-v, e-a. for example: ana in kazakh; in uzbek; nevara in uzbek, etc. besides, there are words that have a great difference in pronunciation. for example: elder sister in kazakh – “epke”, in kyrgyz – “ezhe”, in uzbek – “opa”, “abla” – in turkish and “acha” in uighur. the word “groom” is called “kuyeu bala” – in kazakh, “keyeu bala” – in kyrgyz, “kuyov bola” – in uzbek, “damat” – in turkish and “kui ugul” – in uighur. in turkish, this word is fundamentally different from other above turkic languages. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 103-117 conclusion kinship terms found in ethnic kazakh, kyrgyz, uzbek, turkish and uighur languages reflect their way of life and features in the traditional social space. the turkic-speaking people correspond to the traditions of family life, namely, upbringing the young generation, respect for the elderly, protection and care for the youth. all five nations that have been analyzed have had the same history and roots for a long time, as well as one religion, common language and culture. acknowledgments the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references abduali b., konuratbayeva z. m., abikenova g. t., karipzhanova g. t., sagdieva r. k., akseleu seydimbek. (2008). kazakh oral history: study. astana: foliant, 728 p. alajmi, m. a. (2019). the impact of e-portfolio use on the development of professional standards and life skills of students in the faculty of education at princess nourabint abdul rahman university, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4) 1714-1735. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) bliznyuk o.v. (2006) comparative semantic analysis of kinship terms in various linguistic cultures: dis. ... cand. filol. sciences: 10.02.20. tver, 163 p. bozhkova g.n., shastina e.m., kalimullina o.v., shatunova o.v. (2019). study of literary images of gifted characters in optional activities as a means to develop capable and talented youth. space and culture, india,vol. 7:1, pp. 264273. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 butinov h.a. (1979). typology of kinship. problems of typology in ethnography. m.: science. – р. 66-75. demyankov v.z. (1994). cognitive linguistics as a kind of interpretive approach. questions of linguistics, n 4, p. 17-33. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 sagdieva et al. degtyarev, s.i., zavhorodnia, v.m., & polyakova, l.g. (2018). on the establishment of the ruthenian (ukrainian) university in austria-hungary and its coverage in "kievskaya starina" journal. european journal of contemporary education, 7(4), 911-917. ermachkov, i.a., ekimov, a.i., & vazerova, a.g. (2018). students' humanitarian science club activity in 2006-2012. european journal of contemporary education, 7(2), 286-290. explanatory dictionary of the kazakh language (2008). soc. ed. t. zhanuzakov. almaty: dyke press, 968 p. isbn 9965-798-99-0 fattahova, r. f., sagdieva, r. k., aydarova, s. h., & giniyatullina, l. m. (2016). on the origin, phonetic variants, semantic and stylistic peculiarities of the use of the affix-lar in the turkic languages. man in india, 96(10), 3529-3539. husnutdinov d. h., mirzagitov r. h., giniyatullina l. m. (2017). historical and linguistic system of turkic names and some specific features of creating vocabulary. man in india, 97 (18), 443 – 456. husnutdinov d.h, akalin s.h, giniyatullina l.m. (2017). linguistic means of expression in proverbs of tatar, russian, turkish. astra salvensis. vol. 2017, 639-646. husnutdinov d.h, sagdieva r.k, mirzagitov r.h. (2016). comparative constructions in g. ibragimov's works. journal of language and literature, (7).4, 42-45. kadasheva k., omarova s.k., asanova u.o. (2016). the study of closely related languages: the features of compiling an educational complex. bulletin of the peoples' friendship university of russia. a series of theory of language. semiotics. semantics. moscow. № 3,194-202. konuratbayeva, zh.m., karipzhanova, g.t., sagdieva, r.k., husnutdinov, d.h., mirzagitov r.h., kurbangalieva, g.m., galiullin, r.r. (2018). influence of urbanonyms on city image development. international journal of mechanical engineering and technology, 9(11), 405-415. kröber a.l. (2004). k 79 favorites: nature of culture. trans. from english. m .: russian political encyclopedia (rosspen), 1008 p. kyrgyz-russian dictionary. (1985). in two books. under total. ed. k.k. yudahin. frunze: main edition of the kirghiz soviet encyclopedia, 503 p. kryukov m.v. (1972). the system of chinese kinship (evolution and laws). – m.: publishing house: science. 333 p. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 103-117 kuznetsova, i. g., bulyga, r. p., rakhmatullina, l. v., titova, s. v., shichiyakh, r. a., & zakirov, r. a. (2019). problems and prospects of human capital development in modern russia. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 164-175. lysytsia, n.; martynenko, m.; prytychenko, t.; gron o.; us m. (2019). prospects for innovations in marketing of economic educational services in ukraine, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 17711783. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(16) magsumov, t.a. (2018a). apprenticeship in secondary vocational schools during the economic modernization in late imperial russia. part 1. european journal of contemporary education, 7(4): 918-926. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2018.4.918 magsumov, t.a. (2018b). vocational school and studying youth in the russian revolution of 1905. terra sebus, 10, 289-313.mykytenko n.yu. (2004) comparative analysis of russian and czech kinship terms (in diachrony and synchrony): dis. ... cand. filol. sciences: 10.02.20 – elista. – 137 p. mukhamadieva z.a. (2012). comparative analysis of the terms of marital relationship in the english and tajik languages: dis. ... cand. filol. sciences: 10.02.20. dushanbe, 142 p. nechaev, v., mikhailushkin, p., & presnyakov, d. (2018). priorities of social and economic safety. paper presented at the matec web of conferences, , 212 doi:10.1051/matecconf/201821204015 omarova s.k., galymzhanova z.t. (2017). history of research of kazakh anthroponyms and appelative lexicon. bulletin of kokshetau state university named after sh. ualikhanov. series of philology. kokshetau. №2,р. 69-74. tarman, b. (2018). editorial. journal of culture and values in education, 1(2), i-iii. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/17 sadokhin a.p. (2004) intercultural communication. m .: alpha-m; infra-m, 288 p. shevchenko, n.a., vidishcheva, e.v., & emelyanova, o.v. (2016). the establishment of the system of public education in the caucasus (1802-1917 years): the characteristic features. bylye gody, 40(2), 363-372. uygur-chinese dictionary. (2006). ئۇيەرغۇتەرجىم – xinjiang uygur autonomous region: national publishing house, 645 p. isbn: 9787105078035 uzbek for the cis countries: textbook (2012). g.kh. bakiyev, b.kh. karaeva, e.n. korshunova, i.a. kraeva, d.m. teshabaeva, g.m. frolov. m.: rema, 330 p. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(16) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/17 sagdieva et al. yusipova r.r. (2005). turkish-russian dictionary.m .: “russian language. media”. 2005. 693 p. isbn 5-9576-0131-4 volchik, v.; maslyukova, e. (2019). trust and development of education and science, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(3): 1244-1255. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(27) zelenetsky a.l., monkhov p.f. (1983). comparative typology of german and russian languages. m .: enlightenment, 240 p. zhuravlev, p. v., poltarykhin, a. l., alkhimenko, o. n., & kuksova, o. d. (2018). human capital and its efficiency in the knowledge economy: the role of continuing education. espacios, 39(46). http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(27) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 249-258 249 ships in russian literature: folklore aesthetics marianna a. dudareva1, anna v. pogukaeva2, evgeniya a. polyantseva3, yulia v. karpova4 abstract the paper studies a genesis of the ship image in the russian literature and folklore, an idea of “other kingdom” in the russian literature poetics of the 19-20 centuries. an emphasis is put on the issues related to the metaphor of a ship, a boat in the artistic world of lermontov, turgenev, dostoevsky and in the poetry of the early 20th century. a paradigm “the moon – boat” is studied in detail. the image of a boat, which regularly appears in russian literature, various word-painters’ art works, is associated with semantics of funeral ceremonial boat typical for different folk genres. addressing to riddles about death, to russian epic tradition, to plots dedicated to razin demonstrates complexity and significance of the symbol of a boat/ferry/ship for the national culture. this symbol encapsulates the supreme idea of death as cosmic regeneration, character’s initiation, which appeared highly sought by russian literature, both realistic prose and avantgarde and modernism poetry. keywords: literature, poetics, folklore, ship image, the moon, lermontov, turgenev, dostoevsky, mayakovsky, yesenin. introduction ethnographic material and world folklore make it possible to have a complete idea of the image of a ship as a transport means between worlds, a means for achieving the character’s goal. afanasyev (1994) and anuchin (1890) did write about it following the traditions of comparative ethnography. however, the best part of modern studies is dedicated to “the ship of the dead” in the culture of oceania and indonesia nations (petrukhin, 1980) due to the material for study itself: these people’s life is tightly bound to the sea, water transport. although it should be nonetheless mentioned that ship for them is not just a means for crossing but a ritually significant thing; a parallel is drawn between ship and the world axis. braginsky (1988) wrote about ship typology in the world culture, paying great attention to the sufi ship. ship is also of considerable 1 dr., peoples' friendship university of russia, russian federation, dudareva.marianna@yandex.ru 2 dr. peoples' friendship university of russia, russian federation, annapogukaeva1@rambler.ru 3 dr., peoples' friendship university of russia, russian federation, evgeniya.said@icloud.com 4 dr., peoples' friendship university of russia, russian federation, julia475@yandex.ru mailto:dudareva.marianna@yandex.ru mailto:annapogukaeva1@rambler.ru mailto:evgeniya.said@icloud.com mailto:julia475@yandex.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),249-258 importance for russian folklore and national axiology, however, it may not be so distinct as in the scandinavian tradition. the goal of the paper is studying a genesis of the ship image in the russian literature of the 19th – the early 20th century. for analysis purposes the texts of lermontov, turgenev, mayakovsky, yesenin and others are used. methodology the methodology of our study entails the use of historical-functional, historical-genetic, system-typological and structural analysis methods. folkloristic commenting the works of russian literature will allow revealing complexity, multidimensionality of the ship image, which is transformed into different forms – boats, ferries. results and their discussion the first unusual ship to be mentioned is falcon ship from russian epics. this ship is a cosmic model, since it has animals-totems located on each side (the nose snakes) and star patterns. notably, a song about falcon ship, which people sang on the holiday at the turning point of the year cycle (from christmas to the baptism of christ), incorporates it in the ritual context (ivanova, 2001). it is reasonably to give here statements on the metaphor of cloud = ship from the views of afanasyev (1994), who analyzed the image of a ship in the culture of teutons and slavs and concluded the world ideas of the cope of heaven as the sea, and heavenly bodies as a ship, boat. a question can be therefore put on the direct correlation of the ship archetype with celestial, star symbolics, which also makes us wonder about cosmic, mediating meaning of ship/boat. we meet the archetypical structure “bird” + “boat” in a russian riddle, where both symbols are transitional, belonging to the other world. moreover, if we touch upon the image modification, we need to recall wonderful ivanov’s yard or czarevna’s tower from russian folklore, which personify a cosmic model. house is sacral in russian axiology, it’s located between this world and the world to come, inviting the main character to get to know the knowledge of other order (petrova, 1999). the shared pattern and mediating functions unite the image of ship and house. the comparison is seemingly unexpected, but when we addressing the texts of russian literature we also meet a cosmic ferry or the image of a boat, a ship also matched with lunar, star symbolics. for example, turgenev’s asya has a remarkable moment we’re interested in in the context of the subject. when asya is putting across her new friend after their dudareva et al. date, she cries: “you’ve broken the moon pillar”. this detail could be attributed to the girl’s contentious temper (she’s wild, a chameleon, high-handed) or vagrancy of the turgenev’s landscape, which echoes the characters’ psychology, however, firstly, it is asya who agreed on the crossing, before the young people, secondly, this gesture in the ritual language indicates the man’s incapacity, the difference between asya and him. the image of the moon accompanies the protagonist all the time, highlighting different sides of his character. in this episode the boat and the moon (the moon pillar) take on a ritual meaning within the single paradigm. the girl’s secret nature is ambivalent – it’s both moon and sun. afterwards the protagonist understood it: “<...> she appeared to me a half-mysterious creature (turgenev, 1955). the similar matching of the image of a boat and celestial bodies are found in the poetics of lermontov. in hero of our time pechorin, having met a gang of honest smugglers, comes into contest with an undine girl turning into an agon, a ritual battle (according to freudenberg (2008), agon is understood as a cosmic ritual contest, a catartic sacrifice). the offer to “go boating” has a sacral meaning itself. let’s remember the olga’s offer to “go boating” addressed to the drevlians. pechorin was to grow suspicious, besides, his “fellow traveller” had a strange dialogue with him shortly before that. it was rather a challenge test, than a common talk: "tell me, my pretty one," i asked, "what were you doing on the roof today?" "looking where the wind blows from." "why?" "whence the wind blows, thence blows happiness." "indeed, were you invoking happiness by song?" "where there is song there is also good fortune." "supposing you sing in grief for yourself?" "what of it? if things will not be better, they'll be worse, and then it's not so far from bad to good." "who taught you that song?" "no one taught it to me. i sing whatever comes to my mind; he to whom i sing will hear; he to whom i don't won't understand." "what is your name, my nightingale?" "whoever named me knows." journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),249-258 "and who named you?" "how should i know?" "you are furtive! but i've learned something about you" (lermontov, 1957). this dialogue consists of two parts: pechorin’s questions and girl’s answers-riddles. the man gets ciphered answers to his mediocre questions, where the moment of sacral letting/ not letting pechorin into the secret of an honor circle of smugglers is the key one: “he to whom i sing will hear; he to whom i don't won't understand” (lermontov, 1957). the ritual context of the boat image is seen in dostoevsky’s demons. it is no coincidence that verkhovensky offers stavrogin to go boating in a nonexistent boat with maple oars: “we shall take to our barque, you know; the oars are of maple, the sails are of silk, at the helm sits a fair maiden, lizaveta nikolaevna … hang it, how does it go in the ballad?" (dostoevsky, 1957). folklore specialists interpret this plot through the poetics of a cosmic boat, where stavrogin could be helmsman (smirnov, 2001), and the “boat”, being an esoteric symbol, could unite verkhovensky, liza, and stavrogin. in this case liza is a kind of apophasis, but she arranges and manages the journey at the same time. this fragments was also in the spotlight because of razin’s plot, “razin’s painted boat” (bocharov, 1995), however folklore ritual logic should be taken into account as well. the ship, facade image can be found in the literature of the early 20th century, in new peasant yesenin’s esthetics, poetics. the poet described it in detail in his philosophical tractate of 1918 mary’s keys: “the creativity essence in images is divided the same way the human essence is divided into three components – soul, flesh and mind. the image given by flesh could be named facade, the image given by soul – ship, and the third image by mind – angelic one” (yesenin, 1997). yesenin’s ship (boat) is related to the star and moon symbolics: yellow reins the moon dropped. the ship represents a cosmic model, which is also related to the woman archetype, with a motif of death – rebirth: dudareva et al. in the charms of star tune poplars are startled ……………………………… the bicorn crescent like a carrying pole smoothly slides across the sky (yesenin, 1996). or in i’m tired of living in my land: the moon will float up in the sky dropping the oars into the water... as ever, russia will get by and dance and weep in every quarter (yesenin, 1995). the echos of the image of a boat/ferry that takes the character to other space and performs a mediating function is also found in the poetics of v.v. mayakovsky (1957a; 1957b). in the poem about it the protagonist turns into a bear, and the room, space around is being transformed into the sea; the bed, pillow – into a raft: there’s the ice of pillow. it blows from ladoga. the water is flowing. the pillow-raft flies. i’m floating. fevering on the ice raft-pillow (mayakovsky, 1957a). the imagery of a russian riddle about death, about “a duck on the raft” sheds light on a ritual raft /boat – a means of transportation into the world of the dead, land of ancestors: there is a duck just on the raft and no one can escape from it journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),249-258 nor tsar in moscow, (nor) fish afloat, nor beast that's in the field (sadovnikov, 1876). the mayakovsky’s character is floating on the raft, fevering and looking at “the second person” ahead, as of made by him: he! he — next to heavens against inflamed background, a man i tied stands. stands (mayakovsky, 1957a). however, mayakovsky has other image of a boat, which is seemingly simpler, – in his poem vladimir ilyich lenin: people boats. although on land. when you’re getting through life, many different dirty shells stick to your sides (mayakovsky, 1957b). there’s an idea of man’s managing his life at the bottom of this seemingly simple metaphor. the man is a steerer, helmsman, who struggles through the fraud of daily life (yigit, 2017). besides, a similar ship-travesty motif is found in yesenin’s iconic a letter to the woman, where the earth itself is represented in the form of a ship: dudareva et al. the world is but a ship! but all at once, someone, in search of better life and glory, has turned it, gracefully, taking his chance, into the hub of storm and flurry (yesenin, 1998). a pronounced mortal and cosmogonical implication also reads beyond the boat image in nikolay tikhonov’s (the serapion brothers) works. here we can find matching the boat symbol and the sun symbol: the bush has melted and the pine trees have got so sparse, one cannot run. and only boat there has been resting within the chips of the broken sun (tikhonov, 2002). notably, the boat is associated with the “world’s end”, which, obviously, suggests a boundary nature of the situation, a space model implicitly related to the next world: and thus it rested on its side alone on golden sand, and seemed to speak to you and me so, welcome to the world's end. conclusion the analysis of the russian literature texts of the 19th – the early 20th century demonstrates the boat/ship image importance for russian writers. in the creative works of turgenev, lermontov, dostoevsky, and yesenin, mayakovsky, tikhonov the ship, boat image is related to cosmic, moon, star symbolics, it also reads a mortal implication. on the one hand, it is due to the old russian literature based tradition (the drevlians and olga plot), on the other hand – folkloristic world view, national axiology. all the above-mentioned word-painters well knew russian and world folklore. the typology of cultures demonstrates the significance of the ship journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),249-258 structural-archetypical complex in different nations. this complex is complicated with the ideas about the next world, which was reflected in russian folklore both openly (in ritual funeral complex – the maslenitsa funeral) and latently (in fairy-tales, in the wonderful house/palace archetype, in riddles). 1 references afanasyev, a.n. (1994). slavs’ poetics opinions on nature in three volumes. moscow: indrik. anuchin, d.n. (1890). sledges, boat and horses as funeral tradition accessories. in: antiquities. works of the moscow archaeological society (81-226). moscow: o.o. gerbeks printing and word-making. bocharov, s.g. 1995. french epigraph to eugene onegin (onegin i stavrogin). in: moscow pushkinist: v annual collection (212-250). moscow: heritage. braginsky, v.i. (1988). sufi symbolism of ship and its ritual and mythological archetypics (to historical-poetological studying of topography). in: the issues of historical poetics of east literatures (198-242). moscow: science. dostoevsky, f.m. (1957). collected works: in 10 vol. vol. 7: demons. moscow: goslitizdat. freudenberg, o.m. (2008). antiquity myth and literature. ekaterinburg: u-faktoriya. ivanova, t.g. (2001). “small epicenters” of the north russian epic tradition. in: research and texts (7-14). st. petersburg: dmitry bulanin. lermontov, m.yu. (1957). collected works: in 6 vol. vol. 6: taman. moscow; leningrad: academy of sciences of the ussr publishing house. mayakovsky v.v. (1957a). collected works: in 13 vol. vol. 4. moscow: goslitizdat. mayakovsky v.v. (1957b). collected works: in 13 vol. vol. 6. moscow: goslitizdat. petrova, m. (1999). the image of home in folklore and myth. esthetics today: status, prospects. scientific conference proceedings (59-61). st. petersburg: st. petersburg philosophical society. petrukhin, v.ya. (1980). viking’s funeral boat and oceania and indonesia nations’ “ship of the dead” (comparative analysis experience). in: symbolics of abroad asia nations’ cults and rituals (79-91). moscow: science. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),249-258 sadovnikov, d. (1876). russian people’s riddles: collection of riddles, questions, parables and problems. st. petersburg: n.a. lebedeva printing house. smirnov, v.a. (2001). literature and folklore tradition: poetics issues (archetypes of woman in the russian literature of the 19th – the early 20th century). ivanovo: yunona. tikhonov, n.s. (2002). a crossing of utopias. poems. essay. 1913-1929. moscow: new key. turgenev, i.s. (1955). collected works: in 12 vol. vol. 6: asya. moscow: goslitizdat. yesenin s.a. (1995). collected works: in 7 vol. vol. 1. moscow: science: voice. yesenin s.a. (1996). collected works: in 7 vol. vol. 4. moscow: science: voice. yesenin s.a. (1997). collected works: in 7 vol. vol. 5. moscow: science: voice. yesenin s.a. (1998). collected works: in 7 vol. vol. 2. moscow: science: voice. yigit, m. f. (2017). value priorities of public and private university students. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1), 1-17. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (4), 52-83 cultural ecoliteracy of social science education at junior high school in north java indonesia wasino1, r suharso2, cahyo budi utomo3, fitri amalia shintasiwi4 abstract the objectives of this research are to analyze the implementation of social science education learning and the construction of students’ knowledge after participating in social science education learning activities using cultural eco-literacy approach. this research is a qualitative approach using a case study design, that focuses on analyzing curriculum content, learning activity, methods, and learning outcomes. this research involves 40 students and 4 teachers in social science education learning. data were analyzed using critical discourse analysis and cultural content analysis. the important findings found in this research are 1) social science education learning is able to accommodate the importance of historical heritage preservation, which was originally considered as the weakness in social science curriculum content. curriculum content strengthened by cultural eco-literacy and carried out using direct instruction model leads to the dialogic social science education learning in the formation of students’ knowledge related to cultural environment preservation. the results of learning showed that cultural eco-literacy approach works successfully and is compatible with new curriculum content in social science education learning; and 2) social science education learning which places eco-literacy as education successfully shapes students’ understanding concerning representation, relation, and identity of historical heritage preservation. students are able to think analytically and see critically that cultural environment preservation is everyone’s responsibility that can be conducted collectively. it indicates the advanced thoughts about the impact of eco-literacy activity. the conclusion of this research is that eco-literacy as curriculum content, educational rationale, and learning activity has successfully led to more progressive learning in achieving the purpose of the formation of cultural environment preservation thought. key words: social science education learning, cultural eco-literacy, knowledge construction, students introduction social science curriculum issue which is not applicable for solving the problem of the damage to cultural environment such as historical heritage existing in the northern part of java has been becoming a concern of academics in indonesia. in addition to being less applicable, in-class 1 prof., dr., m.hum., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, wasino@mail.unnes.ac.id 2 dr (cand.)., drs., m.pd., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, harsohapsoro@mail.unnes.ac.id 3 dr., drs., m.pd., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, cahyo.bu@mail.unnes.ac.id 4 m.a., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, shintasiwi93@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 53 learning seems theoretical and considers social science as a non-contextual subject. the contextuality of social science itself, when referring to barr (1978), can be seen from the extent to which social science curriculum can be dynamically implemented to solve social issues in society. according to the case in northern java, people tend to lack awareness in preserving historical heritage. besides, the community also does not possess a strong collective memory connection to realize that they are agents of change who have the duty and big responsibility to preserve ancestral heritage. the existing social science curriculum only considers social science as an arena for theorizing social sciences that has never provided praxis guidance for solving issues in society. such cultural environmental issues do not obtain a sufficient portion in the process of associating knowledge for the benefit of society. genealogically, when referring to previous studies (suryadarma and jones, 2013), social science in indonesia has failed to be adapted correctly. as a consequence, social science has lost its spirit. this is reflected in the social science teaching that is irrelevant and less contextual for the cultural environment preservation in northern java. the idea of ecopedagogy arose at the initiative of various parties concerned with social science education and the preservation of historical heritage in northern java. cultural environment such as historical heritage, according to wasino et al (2019), has specific characteristics that are relevant for strengthening environmental-based social science education learning. ecopedagogy is considered to be a theory that will patch up the weaknesses of social science as explained above. social science education learning based on ecopedagogical theory has become an alternative way to encounter cultural environmental issues in society. this concept was then socialized through academic forums that have been taking place since 2017. teachers consensus points (musyawarah guru mata pelajaran, henceforth mgmp) of social science education for junior high schools (henceforth, smp) in north java responds quickly to this idea by making a consensus to implement policies on the use of social science education learning resources with cultural environment perspective. the teachers then choose to implement a concept from ecopedagogy theory namely cultural ecoliteracy concept which is an essential part of the theory (akagawa, 2014; kahn & kahn, 2010; kahn, 2011; mcnaughton, 2010; niswatin et al, 2020). social science education learning which is integrated with ecopedagogy theory and implementation of cultural ecoliteracy concept have been contained in the curriculum text. therefore, social science teachers are obliged to apply this stipulation. until today, the implementation of social science education learning using this new formulation is still going slow because teachers are accustomed to applying the old style wasino et al. in teaching social science (suharso et al, 2020; utomo & wasino, 2020). they have not been able to optimally implement social science education learning with the guidance concerning cultural ecoliteracy concept. social science education learning is still patterned with the old style for a long time. moreover, the contextuality and relevance in the efforts to resolve cultural environment issues have not yet been achieved. barr (1978) describes social studies as a subject taught to help students gain a fundamental understanding of history, geography, and other social sciences. barr believes that through social science education learning, teachers are able to bequeath good values, which have developed for a long time in the community. this opinion is in line with the opinion of woolover and scoot (1987) who explain that social science is taught as the inheritance of civic values derived from history and culture, social science is also the most progressive subject in taking care of, conserving, and living the legacy of the past. in this context, social science functions as a way of reflective thinking. kahn and kahn (2010) believe that social science is very compatible with ecopedagogy, especially in the context of conserving cultural and natural environment. by looking at this argument, malot, and pruyn (2006), gaard (2009), davis (2013), sonu and snaza (2015), and payne (2015) believe that the framework of critical thinking, reflective learning, empowerment, and saving the cultural environment can be conducted through integration between cultural ecoliteracy and social science education learning. the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning in indonesia is very interesting to trace and reveal, bearing in mind that so far, there has not been any study aimed at investigating this matter. to study this, it is essential to note several previous studies, such as grigorov and fleuri (2013) who studied ecopedagogy as an education for intercultural society. their researchreveals the influence of ecopedagogy in making people aware of harmonization in diverse social environments. turner and donnelly (2013) investigate critical ecoliteracy as a curriculum for analyzing social foundations in environmental problems. supriatna (2016) informed the results of a collaboration between ethnopedagogy and ecopedagogy which was interpreted through the construction of students' ecoliteracy concerning local wisdom. misiaszek (2016) has successfully discussed ecopedagogy and citizenship. the results of this discussion showed the urgency of critical environmental education to create citizens who are aware of their cultural environment (donohue, 2020; masud, 2020). to this day, cultural ecoliteracy is still the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 55 most popular discourse in indonesia. however, given that the age of implementing cultural ecoliteracy is relatively short, no scientific study has been conducted to find out how the process has taken place in schools and what kind of impact it has on students. based on the discussion above, it can be said that the implementation of social science education learning using cultural ecoliteracy approach is essential to be revealed. the novelty of this research lies in the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning. in addition, the orientation of learning that leads to cultural environment preservation through social science is a unique focus in this research. research questions all this time, the implementation of cultural eco-literacy has not been noticed by scholars who concentrate on social science education learning. in addition, the effort to develop students' knowledge about the cultural environment through social science is important because there are many cases of damaged cultural environment caused by lack of awareness and human’s deviant behavior. after conducting a review, the facts found show that the factor of knowledge is the root cause of the community who does not have the desire and drive to take care of the cultural environment as ancestors’ legacy that is full of historical values and meanings. this research focuses on the implementation of social science education learning in accommodating the importance of preserving historical heritage in society in the northern part of java. the research questions are: 1) how is social science education learning using cultural eco-literacy approach conducted at smps in north java indonesia? 2) how is the construction of students' knowledge at smps in north java indonesia about cultural environment preservation after participating in cultural ecoliteracy activities? theoretical review as a part of ecopedagogy theory, cultural ecoliteracy has a mission of fostering, taking care of, and maintaining the existence of cultural environment by means of socialization, provocation, and persuasion towards the young generation (kahn, 2011). eco-paedagogy itself is an wasino et al. environmentally conscious movement by society oriented to the future and the existence of mankind (kahn, 2008). tsegay (2016) believes that as a critical approach, ecopedagogy is very suitable to educate people in communicating between social and environmental issues. the issue can be naturalistic (natural) or cultural. according to gadotti (2008), both are the symbols of the existence of mankind. therefore, both must be conserved and harmonized as a living space that symbolizes the identity and dignity of society. correspondingly, freire (2010) emphasizes ecopedagogy as resistance to environmental capitalization, due to capitalism, the existence of cultural environment is threatened, and the greatest damage to the environment is caused by human ambition itself. thus, education as an instrument which educates human must be seen as a focus and study material in creating a more harmonious situation between humans and their environment. a number of reasons why cultural ecoliteracy is important to be integrated with social science education, with regard to expert opinions, are 1) building collective awareness to play an active role in conserving and taking care of cultural environment, not just natural environment; 2) historical heritage should not only be seen as a cultural environment but also as a means of interpreting life, (lebenstraum) social identity; 3) education that can change the paradigm of science from being mechanistic, reductionist, partial, and value free to ecological, holistic, and bound to values so that it can generate wisdom, for an example, by building mentality and dignity; 4) education emphasizes more onstructuralism approach (the belief that human life has a very close relationship with the life of the entire universe or a theory that places culture as something that has the highest value separated from the interest of capitalism) and ecocentrism (the view or theory which sees that living things are valuable and have value in itself), no longer anthropocentrism (a theory that prioritizes human interests as the next generation, so humans and human interests have the highest value) or humans as the center of the universal system according to anthropocentrism's view; 5) education to recognize the cultural environment, both traditional and architectural, so that it can generate love and pride which will shape the mentality and dignity of the society (ajaps & obiagu, 2020; gadotti, 2008; freire, 2010; kahn, 2010; misiaszek, 2012; okur & berberoglu, 2015; palmer, 1998). in addition to having an advanced perspective on solving cultural environmental issues, some scholars also agree that cultural ecoliteracy is the best idea to prepare a generation that has a transformative perspective in terms of knowledge and conservative perspective in terms of environmental conservation derived from history and culture. moreover, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 57 according to barr (1978), social science education learning, which pays attention to the community context as a source of learning, will have stronger implementation, given that the current social science curriculum is still too theoretical and does not provide practical guidance. thus, cultural ecoliteracy-based social science education learning will provide practical guidance through the formulation of social science education learning plans in an effort to encounter cultural environmental issues (boutelier, 2019; karatas & oral, 2015). based on some opinions above, the idea of integrating cultural ecoliteracy into social science education learning is a very actual alternative solution and this is a bold breakthrough offered by social science teachers in the northern part of java. referring to barr's argument (1978), social science education learning is defined as a subject that functions to pass on positive values derived from history and culture. as a legacy of the pedagogy of the oppressed, ecopedagogy itself is based on popular education which contains the dialogue of participation as the main methodology, namely action-oriented learning and learning which begins from the responses concerning people's life experiences. issues such as social and economic justice, democracy, integrity, and ecology are interconnected and interdependent. thus, none of them can stand alone. educators can choose which issues are important for students who are connected as the entry point or places to start moving towards a progressive and integrated understanding (freire, 2010). therefore, social science teachers in the northern part of java want social science education learning to be contextual and relevant for the preservation of the cultural environment whose damage is influenced by people's behavior. cultural ecoliteracy and social science education learning are successfully combined as a new idea to prepare the community to solve their cultural issues (supriatna, 2016). according to hsu (1979), cultural issues that are solved by the combination of social science and cultural ecoliteracy include the fading of collective memory concerning local traditions, the damage of the historical heritage environment, the loss of community identity, and the unwillingness to be involved in cultural activities. all these things lead to the inferiority feeling towards the cultures of other people. the damage to the historical heritage environment is the most alarming problem to be solved in indonesia over the last ten years (fitri et al, 2015; jayusman et al, 2020). the emergence of ideas to combine cultural ecoliteracy and social science education learning is the solution to solve these problems. all of these ideas are packaged in a unique learning plan which can provide practical guidance to teachers concerning the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy-based social science wasino et al. education learning in the northern part of java that aims to stimulate people’s awareness of the environment and encourage them to be the agents of the preservation of the cultural environment around them. method research design this research is an educational project which aims to investigate the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy through social science education learning. therefore, this research is a qualitative that uses case study design as the approach (yin, 2011). the case discussed in this research is the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy in the social science curriculum as the impact of the lack of responsiveness of the social science curriculum in schools in dealing with issues of the community who do not have the awareness to preserve cultural environment. the typical characteristic of this case study lies in the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy-based social science education learning as a contemporary phenomenon. the contemporary aspect, in this case, is the relevance of cultural ecoliteracy-based social science education learning as a new strategy in fostering people’s awareness and courage to be the agents of the preservation of the cultural environment in society. researchers followed the recommendations of stake (1995) and yin (2017) that in revealing a case, a researcher must pay attention to the aspects of the accuracy of information, the suitability of informants, and critical interpretation. therefore, in terms of seeing the accuracy of information, triangulation was used (carter et al, 2014), this triangulation involved sources of data, such as informants, documents, and learning activities as subjects of information. the informants were chosen based on expertise. social science teachers and students were the most important sources of information. aspects of the discourse and language studied were sourced from informants and documents about the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning in schools (fairclough, 2013). research participants the participant quota that must be met is 40 students and 4 teachers from 4 different smps. for selecting participants, this research used two types of techniques, namely purposive and quota techniques (neuman, 2016). the researchers selected informants based on certain criteria to fulfill predetermined quotas. this research involved 4 schools to make a collaboration on the learning journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 59 process ideas developed by each school. these schools are the members of the mgmp and strategically located around the historical heritage buildings in the northern part of java. this research also involved 4 teachers in total. it means that each school has one delegation. each delegate representing each school is the teacher who has fulfilled certain criteria such as having more than 5 years of teaching social science experience, having achievements and activeness in environmental issues, and having a professional certificate issued by the ministry of education and culture. in determining the number of students who will become research participants, the researchers refer to barr, barth, and shermis (1978) who say that the ideal social science learning is attended by at least 40 students in one class. in addition, those 40 students were selected based on the needs of ethnic and cultural diversity criteria. it was intended to make the learning more contextual, given the historical heritage environment in northern java is the result of the acculturation of various cultures. regarding the characteristics of participants in this research, more details can be seen in table 1. the schools chosen to be the location of this research were state smp 1 kudus, state smp 2 kudus, state smp 3 kudus, and state smp 4 kudus. these four schools were well-known schools and have received good assessments from the ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia. therefore, it can be said that the quality of learning carried out will be qualified and guaranteed. the well-known junior high schools can be determined by referring to the junior high school cluster in the northern part of java document number 13/xi/2019. while, to see and determine students who are interested in history and culture, the list of student interest in extracurricular activities is used. these 40 students, who have been chosen, are incorporated in the historical site visit and discussion extracurricular. besides, they are also active in participating in communities outside the school which concern about historical and cultural preservation. these 40 students came from various ethnic backgrounds, there were 12 javanese, 7 chinese, 7 indians, 6 arabs, and 8 sundanese. from these five ethnic groups, there were only two ethnic groups considered as indonesian native and recognized by the country, namely javanese and sundanese with a total of 17 students, while ethnic chinese, indians, and arabs were migrants who have come historically to indonesia on certain missions, such as trading or spreading religion. uniquely, all selected students were born and raised in indonesia, and are now indonesian citizens. therefore, the variant of information from the data source is very important to consider, to see the impact of cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning with an insight of cultural environment. wasino et al. table 1 characteristics of teacher participants no characteristics information frequency 1 gender male 2 female 2 2 age 35-45 years old 2 46-50 years old 2 3 length of work 1-10 years 1 11-15 years 3 4 education bachelor of social science education (s. pd.) 2 master ofsocial science education (m. pd.) 2 5 professional recognition certified professional teacher 4 6 awards/ achievements environmental care teacher 2 preservation of historical heritage pioneer teacher 3 cultured school pioneer teacher 4 excellent characterized teacher 4 7 involvement in cultural community historical and cultural enthusiasts community 4 environmental care community 4 table 2 characteristics of student participants no characteristics information frequency 1 gender male 20 female 20 2 age 14 years old 26 15 years old 14 3 ethnic javanese 12 chinese 7 indians 7 arabs 6 sundanese 8 4 religion islam 15 christian 11 hinduism 6 buddhism 5 confucius 3 5 involvement in community historical and cultural enthusiasts students community 40 sustainable environmental care students community 40 pro-tolerance students community 40 research procedure research procedure of this study adapted a case study suggested by yin (2019). the procedure has four stages, namely 1) the researcher determines whether the case study approach that will be journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 61 used is in accordance with the research problem; 2) the researcher identifies a case or cases to be observed; 3) the researcher analyzes the case; and 4) as the final stage of interpretive analysis, the researcher reports the meanings or main ideas that can be learned from the research conducted, both learning of the issues behind the cases carried out through instrumental case research, and learning of the unique or rare conditions conducted through in-depth case study research (intrinsic case study research). this unique condition is the process of constructing students' knowledge in the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning. to analyze the cultural ecoliteracy activity in raising the awareness of the cultural environment, the researchers followed the opinion of langeveld (2000) that the most important part of the reconstruction of knowledge is the ability of students to reflect. it can be developed through a fun learning experience. seeing this condition, with the agreement made between the central java provincial government through the department of education and culture, indonesian historian society, mgmp throughout central java, teachers are required to use direct instruction model (dim) (becker and carnine, 1980) in social science education learning. dim itself refers to the opinion of gersten et. al. (1988) that it is a learning system designed to directly observe the object or learning source, in this case, the building of kudus ancient tower, which is the most monumental islamic heritage building in indonesia and southeast asia (salam, 1997a; 1997b; 1990). dim provides an opportunity for teachers to improvise in learning. teacher usually combines playing, learning, and researching. therefore, the students are not easily bored with the classroom atmosphere (ellis, 1991). the dominant instrument in this research is the interview guideline that functions to see how far cultural ecoliteracy-based social science education learning is carried out and its impact on students in northern java. in-depth interviews are conducted to emphasize critical analysis of each conversation carried out. therefore, this interview guideline is carefully set to obtain good results. in addition to the dominant instrument, there is also a nondominant instrument, which is an observation guideline used to see the process of cultural ecoliteracy-based social science education learning. the aspects of observation in this research are students’ behavior in interacting with the environment, students’ interaction with the teacher, and the interaction among students when the discussion takes place. overall, data sources of this research are derived from participants, namely students and teachers in cultural ecoliteracy-based social science education learning. wasino et al. the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy-based social science education learning is carried out directly at the historical and cultural heritage objects of the northern javanese community. the distance between the school and historical heritage objects is 150 meters away and it can be reached in about 5 minutes on foot. in the vicinity of kudus ancient tower, there are also kauman village, kelenteng, langgar bubrah, the tomb of kyai telingsing, and the tomb of prince purge which are the integral parts of historical heritage in the northern part of java. thus, the learning becomes more fun and contains tourism elements. the plan to implement the learning in cultural ecoliteracy activity in social science education learning is as follows: table 3 lesson plan for cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning learning objectives : 1. initiating cultural environment-friendly social science education 2. creatinggeneration that aware of the cultural environment 3. bequeathing positive values of the past approach : cultural ecoliteracy learning model : direct instruction model (dim) strategy : the power of two learning section time (minutes) activities 1 5 teachers convey the purpose of cultural ecoliteracy activities 2 15 teachers instruct the following learning steps: a. teacher divides the students into 20 groups with 2 members each b. teachers ask 5 questions concerning environment, conservation, and cultural-historical heritage c. teachers instruct that the answers can be obtained from direct observation towards historical heritage d. teachers ask the students to answer individually e. after being answered, teachers ask every student to collaborate their answers f. the students present their answers g. conducting inter-group discussion h. conclusion drawing 3 30 a. teachers give questions b. students observe the historical heritage building to obtain the answer 4 20 a. students collaborate their answers b. students present their answers c. inter-group discussion 5 15 conclusion drawing 6 5 formative test this learning implementation plan became a guide for researchers in managing research procedures. in this context, the researchers acted as activity participants, who closely observed the progress of cultural ecoliteracy activity. therefore, the researchers can understand the condition journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 63 and development of the students better, as a note, the learning implementation plan was used for social sciences education system of smp in indonesia in response to the threat of historical heritage objects. the advantage of participatory techniques in data collection, according to yin (2017), is that researchers can understand the objects being researched better, for example, behavior, thinking constructs, social interaction, and the responses to circumstances. research instrument in the case study and other qualitative research, the researcher plays a role as the key instrument. the advantages of the researcher as the key instrument are their responsiveness and adaptability. researcher as the instrument will be able to emphasize the holism, develop a knowledge basis, conduct prompt processing, obtain opportunities to clarify and summarize, and investigate specific or unique responses (yin, 2019). to facilitate the researcher’s roles, as the key instrument, the researchers used additional instruments in the form of interview and observation guidelines. interview guideline is a reference sheet containing questions designed by researchers to determine the extent of the efforts made by teachers in the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning. the interview guideline can develop according to the situation and condition at the time the interview is conducted. the observation guideline is a tool to facilitate researchers in observing complete data at the time of the research process. researchers used the observation guideline to determine the condition of facilities and infrastructure, the atmosphere of activities, and the educational environment that lead to the cultural ecoliteracy values. instrument validation was carried out using the triangulation of data acquisition results from the instruments used (yin, 2019). therefore, this process was carried out after the instruments were utilized. the instrument of the research was carried out by means of in-depth interviews, open questionnaires, field observations, and document analysis of formative test results (merriam, 1988; polkinghorne, 2005; yin 2019). according to cleary et al (2014), to be able to reveal a case in qualitative research, interview and observation are the two most dominant techniques. the techniques were used to reveal the aspects of awareness, thinking construct, and students' attitudes concerning cultural ecoliteracy in the context of conserving historical heritage. while, the questionnaire and document analysis supported the cda process to reveal new discourses and knowledge that students have after conducting cultural ecoliteracy activity. wasino et al. the object of this research was cultural ecoliteracy activity in social science education learning. according to kahn (2011), the activity is teaching and learning activity which contains the elements of provocation and discussion which lead to enlightenment and public awareness development concerning the importance of conserving the cultural environment. this research tries to examine how the process takes place within the framework of social science education learning. the data obtained through in-depth interviews, field observations, open questionnaires, and document analysis were transcribed as representations of pre-learning, learning, and post-learning activities. the results of this transcription became the materials analyzed using cda. in this context, the three focuses of this research analysis were 1) conservation consciousness (erder, 1986); 2) idealism of conservation (darling, 1964); and 3) action of conservation (de la torre, 2013). the results of the data transcription generated nine transcripts, which in this research were shown through coding, student data 1 = sd1, student data 3 = sd3, etc. and the remaining transcripts were sd5, sd7, sd9, sd11, sd13, sd15, and, sd17. diverse ethnic conditions among students made the data collected more varied, although ethnicity was not the main benchmark in the grouping or data transcription. in addition to student data, there were also teacher data that were used as additional information in revealing cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning. these teacher data were divided into two transcriptions with codes of teacher data 1 = td1 and teacher data 2 = td2. data analysis data analysis of this research uses two models, namely cda and spradley’s (1980) model data analysis. cda, in this research, by referring to fairclough (2013), is an analysis that connects micro texts with a macro society context. his expertise has been tested in building a discourse analysis model that has contributed to social and cultural analysis so that in practice, the discourse analysis he developed combines textual analysis with the broader context of society. this research tries to connect the context of the community with the conservation of historical heritage objects which was carried out through cultural ecoliteracy activity in social science education learning. the focus point of fairclough’s cda is to see the text as a political and cultural practice. the text in question in this research is the language spoken by students and teachers through interviews and document analysis. language is socially and culturally constituted in dialectical relations with journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 65 social structures. the analysis must focus on how language is formed from social relations and certain social contexts. language, as a social practice, contains a number of implications, namely: 1) discourse is a form of action, someone uses language as an action to the world and in particular, as a form of representation when seeing the world or reality, and 2) the model implies a reciprocal relationship between discourse and social structure. cda, according to fairclough (1992), can be seen in table 3: table 4 three elements of fairclough’s cda element text analysis object representation how people, group, environments, and situations are displayed and described in the text relation how participants display the situation and describe it in the text identity how participants are displayed and described in the text the three elements above imply the formation of cda framework in this research. the aspect of representation is related to how people, groups, environments, and situations are displayed and described by students concerning awareness, idealism, and attitude in responding to the issue of historical heritage and its conservation process. the aspect of relation shows students' participation in conserving historical heritage through social science education learning. the identity aspect shows new knowledge after participating in cultural ecoliteracy activity through social science education learning oriented to the conservation of historical heritage objects. the next data analysis is the cultural content analysis which refers to spradley (1980). this data analysis is used to strengthen the position of research findings and achieve the determined research objectives. the use of data analysis, both with the cda model and spradley model takes place in a combinational way. spradley's (1980) data analysis involves four main stages, namely domain, taxonomic, componential, and thematic analyses (the discovery of cultural themes). in domain analysis, researchers collect all data relating to the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning. all data is collected through an interview process and re-observed thoroughly to see the extent of the data useful for research. according to yin (2019), taxonomic analysis is the continuation of domain analysis. in the taxonomic analysis, the domain chosen has to be analyzed more deeply through more comprehensive field data collection. thus, the domain that has been determined to be a cover term by researchers can be described in more in-depth wasino et al. details. in this stage, the researchers begin to make deeper observations of the data that had been arranged by category. the observations are more focused on each category so that it will result in a more detailed picture of each data that has been collected. if the data collected are considered lacking, the researchers return to the field to supplement the data with more specific data criteria. the next analysis is componential analysis.in this research, it is used to organize the differences or contrast gaps in the domain. the data is sought through observation and follow-up interviews that are more selective (spradley, 1980). with the triangulation of the data collection technique, a number of specific and different dimensions on each element have been found. after feature and pattern similarities from taxonomic analysis data are found, the researchers then made deeper observations to reveal certain images or patterns in the data. in this case, the researchers conducted it by arranging the ratio used. after finding certain figures and patterns from the data, the researchers then continued the process of interview guideline making by adding a number of questions that can confirm the researchers’ findings in the componential analysis. the final stage of spradley's (1980) analysis process is cultural thematic analysis. it is an attempt to find the main ideas that integrate the existing cross-domain. after the main ideas from the results of the domain, taxonomy, and componential analyses are found, the establishment of social or cultural situations will then be constructed. after conducting the research, subjects that were previously still dark or unclear become brighter and clearer. certain images or patterns found in the data are then connected and arranged by the researchers so that a complete, clear, and full image of the data can be seen. the process of constructing students' knowledge in the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy that has been processed in the componential analysis may generate interrelating relationships or disclosure of the causes of certain patterns that arise. until this stage, researchers have been able to draw conclusions of the main idea concerning the problems that arise at the beginning. therefore, when this analysis is finished, the researchers have gotten a clear image of the process of students' knowledge construction in the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 67 findings research question 1: how is social science education learning using cultural ecoliteracy approach conducted? curriculum content in cultural ecoliteracy-based social science education learning is more interesting than the content of social science education curriculum before cultural ecoliteracy is formed. the contents of this curriculum include the aspect of actual cultural environment issues, factors which triggers the cultural environment damage, human discourse as the preserving or damaging agent, and the role of social science education in generating the agents of cultural environment preservation. these contents make the learning process to be more contextual and relevant to the community's needs. therefore, social science education can function well and be practical in encountering the issues in society. the researchers have recorded the results of my correspondence with the students regarding their interpretation of historical heritage objects. at this stage, the researchers invited teachers to give more provocation and campaigns about the threat of damage to the historical heritage building. the provocation process took place dialectically between teacher and student as well as students and students. this stage has triggered the students to talk about the problem using the basic arguments that they have. besides, students also showed a fairly representative attitude to describe their knowledge concerning the problem. according to their initial knowledge, principally, they tended to be apathetic in responding to the cultural environment issue. testimonies below indicate how cultural enviroment is perceived. a respondent identified with sd3 says: "the issue of cultural environment is the responsibility of the government, the community can complete other activities". likewise, respondent sd9 defines: "historical heritage is maintained by an institution which manages cultural heritage objects, the community does not need to be involved in it". wasino et al. in additon, respondent sd11 clarifies: "cultural conservation issue is often told by my father, who is an official of the department of culture, but that is not very important for me to think about". these opinions show the apathetic attitude of students concerning the conservation and cultural ecoliteracy activity. basically, students are white papers that do not have a broad understanding. therefore, dialectics are needed to build new understandings in their minds. this apathetic condition becomes fairness for students who have just graduated from elementary school because their world views of conservation have not yet been formed through the process of transmission and reflection. after listening to students' initial opinions about historical heritage and its issues, students were then encouraged to argue through the medium of text which contains provocations and campaigns to conserve historical heritage. one of the texts reads, "historical heritage is our identity", another text reads "conserving historical heritage means conserving civilization", or the most provocative text reads "saving national identity by conserving historical heritage". to further provoke students, those texts were equipped with illustrations such as the tilted kudus ancient tower building, mosque building whose materials were stolen, and the ancient tombs that were damaged. the texts were given through leaflets intended for students to reflect on the conditions of historical heritage that exist in the current environment. after the texts were given, then the students were given time to present the results of their analyses. at this stage, students' knowledge concerning conservation began to emerge for several reasons. from the opinions that exist, there is a sense of interconnectedness between students and their cultural environment which begins to grow as the result of provocation. it can be seen from the opinion of sd5: "the leaflet has made me aware of the importance of conserving historical heritage, it turns out that the historical heritage building is a part of the nation's identity, so its existence needs to be maintained and taken care of". the opinion of sd1: "the conservation of the historical heritage from the campaign shows an urgency, there is a common interest, so it concerns the lives of many people, not just the responsibility of the government, so the community needs to play a role". a similar opinion is conveyed by sd13: "conservation of the cultural environment requires joint responsibility, both the community and the government, we witness the damage of buildings every day (historical heritage), we were silent journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 69 because we do not understand yet, after seeing the leaflets given, it turns out that the building needs to be saved". the provocation process has produced a new thinking construct. students were able to show a representative argument concerning the conservation of historical heritage, as stated by sd5. the arguments of sd 1 and sd13 have described the aspects of relations and identity. both of them were included in the discourse that made students feel compelled to get involved in the process of conserving historical heritage. the important information in this process was demonstrated by the ability of students to show their open minds about the concept of "society" as the most representative element in the conservation process. research questions 2: how is the construction of students' knowledge about cultural environment preservation after participating in cultural ecoliteracy activities? after analyzing students' initial knowledge, provocation processes, and campaigns about conservation as a basic pre-learning activity of cultural ecoliteracy, cultural ecoliteracy activity was carried out by bringing environmental issues of historical heritage and conservation efforts. researchers participated directly in the activity, seeing students with the teacher and students interacting with other students according to the prepared learning plan. first, the students were invited to go around historical heritage as an implementation of dim. this learning method eased the teachers to give students an understanding of the meaning of preservation and cultural environment damage that is being faced by people in northern java. this method also triggered the birth of a new discourse in cultural environment preservation which is currently triggered by human behavior. placing social science education learning as an arena filled with criticism and observation has made the learning atmosphere more fun and dialogic. this method has also made the learning arena democratic and inclusive. then, the teacher guides them to observe the building. besides, the teacher showed some parts that have been damaged to stimulate students' critical thinking skills. after getting provocation and campaign in the beginning, students got instinct which was stronger for examining issues concerning historical heritage in more detail. their curiosity has been managed by themselves by asking questions and arguing when teachers pointed out the damage to the historical heritage building. this stage has stimulated students to think idealistically in terms of environmental conservation, idealism is reflected in students' views, the concepts they mention, and ideas for the future they have planned. this was stated through language by conducting declaration and presentation. they competed to show their commitments in terms of conserving historical heritage. wasino et al. based on the initial observation activity, students tended to be critical and began to be skilled in seeing an issue and managing it as a source of new knowledge for them. that is shown by sd7 when making an argument: "when people steal material objects of historical heritage for unimportant purposes, the existence of the building begins to be threatened. historical heritage buildings are shared property, and therefore must be taken care of and maintained together". "a range of slope of the tower building is caused by the original material in the building which is being replaced with artificial materials. thus, it is very detrimental to the conservation of the tower building. the building should be closely guarded for 24 hours to ensure there is no theft in the building surrounding". that opinion shows the concern which has been created. students were able to think critically about the risks and impacts of theft or damage to buildings. students were also able to take an idealistic view by arguing that historical heritage building needs to get strict guard to ensure that the building remained safe from destructive actions or theft. correspondingly, sd11 states: "the stairs leading to the top of the tower are damaged due to shoes’ steps. it is very detrimental to the building. if it continues, then we (the community) will suffer the losses because the building is the symbol of islamic civilization in java. there is a scientist who considers it as the most aesthetic islamic building in southeast asia. " likewise sd17: "damage must be prevented in any way, don't let we (society) lose the most important building in the history of islamic civilization in indonesia". researchers saw that, from the beginning,the impact of the campaign and provocation has entered the hearts of students. hence, students were able to think strategically and in detail. besides, they also seemed very idealistic in responding to existing issues. based on the opinion above, it is found that the aspects of conservation are starting to be students' priority in solving the issue in the form of damage and threat to historical heritage objects. after observing the whole historical heritage building, students were then divided into several groups. each group consisted of two people (implementation of the power of two strategy). at this stage, the interrelation between students increasingly showed the formation of knowledge concerning the conservation of historical heritage buildings. the teacher gave a number of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 71 questions that must be answered by each student. some questions that must be answered were 1) how the damage done to kudus ancient tower can be resolved? and 2) what is our attitude towards the problem? the answers from each student were then discussed and combined with the opinions of others in each group. thus, a new opinion was generated. herein lies the importance of the power of two strategy, which is to combine the power of arguments from two students. sd15, as a representative of his group states: “the damage to kudus ancient tower is caused by capitalism and human behavior itself, namely: they do not want to know the historical environment, do not want to learn about the history of the nation, and do not love their cultures. the issue is quite fundamental, so the solution also needs to be fundamental such as loving the history and culture of the nation, starting to pay attention to historical heritage around us, and starting to learn about the importance of conserving historical heritage. one thing needs to be remembered is that historical heritage is the identity of a nation ". that opinion reflects the awareness of the importance of conserving historical heritage. the phrase "identity of a nation" shows the idealism of a student concerning the identity of his nation. sd11 represents the group and states that: "we need to take care of historical heritage buildings by cleaning and paying attention to each part. for example, every sunday we can conduct a community service to clean the building. collective work can be a spirit of conserving historical heritage objects. i consider heritage buildings as part of our lives. therefore, we must be able to look after and take care of one another. maintaining historic buildings means protecting our collective identity”. the opinion above reflects the idealism and attitude of students towards the conservation of historical heritage objects. students have the bravery to declare the urgency of conserving historical heritage buildings. that opinion is supported by sd3 in a further discussion session. he states: "i agree with sd11 and sd15, the progressive view concerning maintenance and conservation of historical heritage must be started with each individual. the benefits derived certainly cannot be felt immediately, but in the long term, we will see this building still exists and our social identity is maintained". the argument is quite substantial. cultural ecoliteracy has reduced the number of apathy in the context of conserving historical heritage. students who originally did not know about conservation, they were more likely to be apathetic. however, after wasino et al. carrying out cultural ecoliteracy activity, they are able to construct awareness, idealism, and attitudes all at once in terms of conserving historical heritage. in a further discussion session, unexpectedly, it turned out that some students consider the attitude that is too idealistic is not good for the conservation of historical heritage. it is because an overly idealistic view is considered naive to be followed up as an action plan. for example, sd1 spontaneously argues: "conservation of historical heritage building is a priority of the government and the community. in my opinion, it is too naïve because the community is unlikely to monitor historical heritage buildings for 1 x 24 hours". this opinion is supported by sd5: "the issue concerning historical heritage is not as simple as we have mentioned. the issue is quite complex because it is related to our conscience and condition. we must not be so naïve that we end up being poor in action. both opinions show the attitude of idealism in different forms”. researchers saw that the emerged arguments lead to one point, namely the conservation of historical heritage building. however, in that context, it seems that students have their own way to achieve it. the researcher presume that after the end of the session, the teacher confirms the two forms of answer and unites them as one idea in order to conserve historical heritage. td1 states: "basically, historical heritage objects that we are studying are part of our lives. therefore, i ask all students to actively participate in supporting the conservation of the building. in any way, as stated in the discussion session earlier, i value everything positively. there is already a sense of empathy that can be used as capital to build an action plan. " similarly, td2 states: "i see the importance of conserving historical heritage building has become a common interest. the arguments that emerged earlier reflect the future attitude to support the collaboration between the government and the community in the process of maintaining, paying attention to, and protecting historical heritage building". both td1 and td2 have delivered normative messages about today's activity. cultural ecoliteracy has become an activity that inspires and enlightens students to actively participate in the process of conserving historical heritage buildings. historical environmental literacy has succeeded in forming new knowledge, awareness, idealism, and progressive attitudes to achieve these interests. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 73 at the end of the learning, the teachers gave a sheet of paper that contains some analytical problems concerning the material being studied by students at that time. there were 10 questions. all of them were arranged using varying degrees of difficulty. the aim was to see how far this learning has succeeded in achieving the objectives set beforehand, and more importantly to see how far the consistency between the learning implementation plan prepared and the implementation of the learning undertaken. after making observations on the student worksheets, the results of the analysis were obtained that it is much easier for the students to understand the context of the problems faced by the community through direct learning. cultural ecoliteracy has succeeded in strengthening curriculum content in social science education. besides, the process of ecoliteracy had represented the process of social science education in providing knowledge to students regarding the agency in the process of cultural environment preservation. ecoliteracy is considered important because this process provides a pleasant experience for students. all students stated that it is important to cultivate ecoliteracy through social science education learning in schools. the most important learning outcomes are the transfer of knowledge and inheritance of socio-cultural values in the process of ecoliteracy worked effectively. this is indicated by students' explanations reflecting the awareness in maintaining, caring for, and preserving the cultural environment around them to avoid the damage. after examining and analyzing the process of cultural ecoliteracy on the basis of the cultural environment issue and its conservation, researchers then tried to reveal the impact of cultural ecoliteracy from three aspects, namely awareness, idealism, and students' attitudes concerning the conservation of historical heritage building. these three aspects are reflected in the language declared through discussion and formative tests after cultural ecoliteracy activity. the aspect of awareness becomes the initial fundamental of students. this aspect is constructed after students get provocation and campaigns on environmental issues. the awareness aspect has been tried to be instilled through the pre-learning process. aspects of idealism and attitude are constructed during the process of observation and discussion. both of these processes have the most influence in shaping students' knowledge about conserving historical heritage building. formative tests become important documents to examine the overall results of cultural ecoliteracy activity. the context of students' language becomes a reflection of the new knowledge they have constructed during their participation in cultural ecoliteracy activity. wasino et al. sd11, sd17, and sd15 were the most progressive ones who responded to historical heritage building damage. they expressed their views naturally with the most normative assumptions. they brought out the awareness of the importance of conservation through the results of formative tests. their arguments were long enough to describe the conditions that must be achieved, conservation strategies, and elements that need to be involved in the conservation. they stated that heritage buildings must obtain strict maintenance in the future after the material from the building began to weaken the condition.protection and maintenance must be improved. important elements involved in the conservation process, according to students' views, were: 1) community; 2) department of culture; 3) history enthusiast community; and 4) schools. the role of these four elements was quite essential so far. students were able to construct their views strategically to see the existing conservation potential. they also succeeded in developing action plans, such as: 1) community service agenda; 2) weekly duty agenda for the community to clean historical heritage buildings; 3) regular visits for elementary school students; and 4) making historical heritage buildings in northern java as historical tourism objects. these four action plans explain the formation of sufficiently well-established knowledge from students after participating in cultural ecoliteracy activity. the activity was able to be followed enthusiastically because students were able to follow the rules of the system built. the emergence of a narrative about capitalism argued by sd15 reflects the students' critical awareness of conserving historical heritage building. capitalism is considered as one of the causes of environmental damage. it seems that this is in line with what has been the discourse so far. students have been encouraged to be able to be critical towards environmental issues. this opinion also emphasizes the formation of awareness, idealism, and attitudes which are the main impacts of cultural ecoliteracy activity. cultural ecoliteracy activity also has an impact on students' understanding concerning the aspects of representation, relations, and identity about the conservation of historical heritage environments. students are able to represent the historical heritage environment as "common ownership". in addition, students can relate between capitalism and damage to the cultural environment. furtherly, students can show their identities with the phrase "identity of a nation" which shows that cultural ecoliteracy has fostered complex knowledge. td1, at the end of the research, argues: "the achievement of the cultural ecoliteracy goal becomes collective efforts that journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 75 are influenced by progressiveness. hidden curriculum in this activity is to create progressive people in responding to the cultural environment damage". td2 also argues: "environmental damage is an urgent problem to be solved by any country. social science in indonesia is deliberately managed to resolve the issue. as an approach, cultural ecoliteracy is ideal to support the resolution of the problem". both opinions indicate a high work ethic of social science teachers in conducting cultural ecoliteracy activities. they are well aware of the great objectives of the activity. thus, they try to explore the role of a social science teacher who loves the cultural environment. the results obtained also show a satisfying success for all circles of people. discussion the main purpose of this study is to see the construction of students' knowledge after participating in cultural ecoliteracy-based activities in social science education learning, the explanation of research findings becomes the basis in the discussion process that will formulate the results of the research and the accuracy of the narrative which is in accordance with the objectives of this research. the straight-line analysis presented in the discussion is drawn from social science education learning issues that are both theoretical and not contextual in responding to social issues in the community. the evidence shows that cultural ecoliteracy has successfully given birth to more progressive student thinking construction as an indicator of success in improving social science curriculum content in mgmp. the first evidence to discuss in this study is that the initial knowledge of students about the cultural environment damage tends to be weak. this affects their perspective in formulating further processes in solving cultural environment issues. with the formulation in the content of social science education learning material that is reinforced by the concept of cultural ecoliteracy, social science education learning stimulates the possibility of the emergence of new discourses that help students to form their knowledge about cultural environment preservation. the provocation process that takes place and the new curriculum content makes students more active and responsive to the phenomena of cultural environment damage. this research strengthens the opinions of yisan and lin (2003), kahn and kahn (2010), kahn (2011), mcnaughton (2010), and akagawa (2014) concerning cultural ecoliteracy that supports the implementation of social science education learning oriented to the conservation of the cultural environment, one of them is historical heritage building. as an integral part of the social science wasino et al. education learning process, cultural ecoliteracy brings a progressive enthusiasm for teachers to create cadres who are in charge of the conservation of the cultural environment. following up on freire's (2010) argument, it is stated that cultural ecoliteracy is the most progressive approach to support the movement to conserve the cultural environment. society, schools, and government are key elements in achieving this. education is no longer centered on achieving the goals of a nation, but rather the goals of society and the existence of a nation. this research also supports fairclough (2013) that language is shaped and formed by discourse that connects social relations and certain social contexts. students are able to correlate environmental damage, capitalism, and activism all at once. environmental damage caused by capitalism and human behavior must be countered by activism, which is a progressive attitude to make changes and reforms. in addition, the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy through social science education learning is carried out dialogically. this is triggered by the application of the direct instruction model to further understand the learning material. with direct observation, students can easily construct their thoughts about phenomena that are happening. analysis of learning outcomes reinforces the notion that this ecoliteracy process creates a more fun learning atmosphere, so that students are able to conduct dialogues with teachers and fellow students in the discussion sessions. this research has correlated the opinion of hsu (1979) and supriatna (2016), that environmental damage and the loss of the community's collective memory concerning culture can be responded by using cultural ecoliteracy practices. this research also answers barr's (1978) doubts about the progressive function of social science education learning. practically, cultural ecoliteracy in social science education learning is capable of making teachers and students move progressively in answering cultural environmental issues. the practice of cultural ecoliteracy shows critical thinking activities. as this research supports the arguments of tsegay (2016) and turner and donelly (2013) that a critical approach in ecopedagogy strongly supports the formation of new knowledge, which is different from the old knowledge that students have. this is reflected when the provocation and campaign process takes place, students who were initially apathetic are able to raise their critical awareness to answer the issue of damage to the cultural environment. many students highlight the problems of the cultural environment in terms of awareness, idealism, and attitude. in the aspect of attitude, students have reached the stage of the action plan where this knowledge is the result of the deconstruction of the knowledge in the past. this view is quite progressive, as stated by palmer (1998), gadotti (2008), kahn (2010), freire (2010), misiaszek journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 77 (2012), and okur and berberoglu (2015), the anthropocentrism view has begun to be abandoned because it is no longer relevant with current conditions. students have been able to construct their understanding of structuralism that basically humans do not live alone and have power over everything, but humans live side by side with environments that are formed naturally or culturally. thus, there is a demand to protect, take care of, and maintain one another. this awareness has been developed through cultural ecoliteracy activities. further, the construction of students’ thinking about cultural environment preservation is more progressive because the ongoing dialogue process creates an analytic situation that makes students critical and skeptical towards the circumstances that occur, namely cultural environment damage. cultural ecoliteracy activities also have an impact on students' understanding of the aspects of representation, relations, and identity about cultural environment preservation. this research supports grigov and fleuri (2013) that cultural ecoliteracy activities have encouraged the development of awareness to live in harmony in a social and cultural environment. cultural ecoliteracy activities have made social science education learning more progressive in responding to environmental problems. this progressiveness, as explained by kahn (2011), is that cultural ecoliteracy encourages teachers and students to move forward to solve the problem of environmental damage. the action plans arranged by students through formative tests become the proof of that argument. students are able to master the material delivered by connecting it to the context of the problem. the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy by referring to the dim model of gersten et. al., (1988) and becker and carnine (1980), has succeeded in proving that direct learning makes students understand the context more easily. the issue of discussion concerning environmental damage with dim model made students active in investigating their ignorance. this learning model has also stimulated students not only to think but also to learn to act. therefore, it can be said that dim model is compatible with the implementation of cultural ecoliteracy in an effort to conserve the cultural environment. in all, social science learning which uses cultural ecoliteracy approach has not only constructed students' new knowledge concerning the conservation of the cultural environment, but the activity has also successfully managed to develop conservation consciousness, idealism of conservation, and action of conservation as it is stated by erder (1986), darling (1964), and de la torre (2013). these three things are reflected through the pronunciation of the language as the results of the argumentation and interpretation of students in answering the problem of damage to the cultural wasino et al. environment. through ecoliteracy activities, social science education learning seems to be more progressive in responding to challenges in the future. students can translate their anxiety about the future of historical heritage buildings through argumentative and declarative language. the arguments and declarations show the students' attachment to their environment. this research has proven langeveld's (2000) argument that the most important aspect of knowledge reconstruction is the ability to reflect, hold the desire, and concentrate the knowledge on essential things such as change, conservation, and improvement. the results of the reconstruction of knowledge concerning the conservation of the cultural environment can be reflected in action plans that are realistic enough to fix, take care of, and maintain the existence of historical heritage environments. therefore, it supports the argument that social science education learning integrated with cultural ecoliteracy becomes more progressive and responsive in responding to the issue of damage to the cultural environment. conclusion in summary, the implementation of social science education learning and the construction of students’ knowledge after participating in a social science education learning activities using cultural ecoliteracy approach, have made social science education learning more progressive in responding to the issue of environmental damage. in general, cultural ecoliteracy as an observative activity has made students able to understand issues contextually. students are also able to correlate the problems conveyed with the solutions needed as the effect of direct learning activities. specifically, autonomous students are able to shape their knowledge independently. the process of discussion and adjustment of arguments has made students more confident with the ideas and thoughts that they have generated. the presentation and dialectics processes show rapid progress. students, who were originally apathetic become progressive in responding to the problems of the cultural environment. students, with full of confidence, show the results of their thinking and analysis about the solutions to cultural environmental problems. they consider this problem quite essential. this is influenced by the teacher's role as an agent in the process of cultural ecoliteracy. the teacher is able to campaign and provoke students regarding the urgency of conserving the cultural environment. this combination has made students active in searching for information that they did not know before. they begin to investigate with great curiosity so that they are able to get journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 79 maximum results. the results of their information processing have shown a successful social practice. with the formation of new knowledge, awareness, idealism, and attitudes concerning the conservation of cultural environment in students, cultural ecoliteracy has become a formula for more progressive social science education learning. references ajaps, s. & obiagu, a. (2020). increasing civic engagement through civic education: a critical consciousness theory perspective. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 barr, r., barth, j. l., and shermis, s. s. (1978). the nature of the social studies. etc. becker, w. c., & carnine, d. w. (1980). direct instruction. in advances in clinical child psychology (pp. 429-473). springer, boston, ma. boutelier, s. (2019). limiting learning environments through domestication. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 45-55. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.4 carter, n., bryant-lukosius, d., dicenso, a., blythe, j., & neville, a. j. (2014). the use of triangulation in qualitative research. oncology nursing forum, 41(5). cleary, m., horsfall, j., & hayter, m. (2014). data collection and sampling in qualitative research: does size matter? journal of advanced nursing, 70(3), 473-475. darling, f. f. (1964). conservation and ecological theory. the journal of animal ecology, 39-45. davis, r. (2013). a place for ecopedagogy in community literacy. community literacy journal, 7(2), 77-91. de la torre, m. (2013). values and heritage conservation. heritage & society, 6(2), 155-166. donohue, d. (2020). culture, cognition, and college: how do cultural values and theories of intelligence predict students’ intrinsic value for learning? journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 ellis, e. s. (1991). an instructional model for teaching learning strategies. focus on exceptional children, 23(6), 1-24. erder, c. (1986). our architectural heritage: from consciousness to conservation. unesco. fairclough, n. (1992). discourse and social change (vol. 10). cambridge: polity press. wasino et al. fairclough, n. (2013). critical discourse analysis: the critical study of language. lodon and new york: routledge fitri, i., ahmad, y., & ahmad, f. (2015). conservation of tangible cultural heritage in indonesia: a review current national criteria for assessing heritage value. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 184, 71-78. freire, p. (2010). pedagogy of the oppressed. new york: the continuum international publishing group inc. gaard, g. (2009). children’s environmental literature: from ecocriticism to ecopedagogy. neohelicon, 36(2), 321-334. gadotti, m. (2008b). education for sustainablity: a critical contribution to the decade of education for sustainable development. green theory and praxis: the journal of ecopedagogy, 4(1), 15-64. gersten, r., keating, t., & becker, w. (1988). the continued impact of the direct instruction model: longitudinal studies of follow through students. education and treatment of children, 318-327. grigorov, s. k., & fleuri, r. m. (2013). ecopedagogy: educating for a new eco-social intercultural perspective. visão global-descontinuado a partir de, 15(1-2), 433-454. hsu, f. l. (1979). the cultural problem of the cultural anthropologist. american anthropologist, 81(3), 517-532. jayusman, j., wasino, w., suyahmo, s. 2020. chinese in lasem: the struggle for identity and living space. in the second international conference on environmental geography and geography education (icege 2019). iop conference series: earth and environmental science. kahn, r. (2008). from education for sustainable development to ecopedagogy: sustaining capitalism or sustaining life. green theory & praxis: the journal of ecopedagogy, 4(1). kahn, r., & kahn, r. v. (2010). critical pedagogy, ecoliteracy, & planetary crisis. the ecopedagogy movement, 359(1). kahn, r. (2011). ecopedagogy. london and new york: routledge. karatas, k. & oral, b. (2015). teachers’ perceptions on culturally responsiveness in education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 2(2), 47-57. knight, g. r. (2001). a case of mistaken identity? suikerlords and ladies, tempo doeloe and the dutch colonial communities in nineteenth century java. social identities, 7(3), 379-391. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 81 langeveld, m. j. (2000). reflections on phenomenology and pedagogy. ualibraries site administrator test journal, 1(1), 5-7. malott, c., & pruyn, m. (2006). marxism and critical multicultural social studies. the social studies curriculum: purposes, problems, and possibilities, 157-170. masud, m. m. (2020). international student migration and polymedia: the use of communication media by bangladeshi students in germany. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 95-110. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.5 matthews, j. (2011). hybrid pedagogies for sustainability education. review of education, pedagogy, and cultural studies, 33(3), 260-277. mcnaughton, m. j. (2010). educational drama in education for sustainable development: ecopedagogy in action. pedagogy, culture & society, 18(3), 289-308. merriam, s. b. (1988). case study research in education: a qualitative approach. new york: jossey-bass. misiaszek, g. w. (2012). transformative environmental education within social justice models: lessons from comparing adult ecopedagogy within north and south america. in d. n. aspin, j. chapman, k. evans & r. bagnall (ed.).second international handbook of lifelong learning (vol. 26, pp. 423-440). london: springer. misiaszek, g. w. (2016). ecopedagogy as an element of citizenship education: the dialectic of global/local spheres of citizenship and critical environmental pedagogies. international review of education, 62(5), 587-607. neuman, w. l. (2016). understanding research. london: pearson. niswatin, n., et al. (2020). education of value based on larung sesaji ritual (case study in coastal communities in bluru village, sidoarjo regency). international journal of scientific & technology research, 9(02), 2312-2315. okur, e, and berberoglu. (2015). the effect of ecopodagogy-based environmental education on environmental attitude of inservice teachers. international electronic journal of environmental education, 5(2), 86-110 palmer, j. a. (1998). environmental education in the 21st century: theory, practice, progress and promise. london and new york: routledge payne, p. g. (2015). critical curriculum theory and slow ecopedagogical activism. australian journal of environmental education, 31(2), 165-193. polkinghorne, d. e. (2005). language and meaning: data collection in qualitative research. journal of counseling psychology, 52(2) wasino et al. salam, solichin. (1977a). kudus purbakala dalam perjuangan islam. kudus: penerbit menara salam, solichin. (1977b). kudus purbakala dalam perjuangan islam. kudus: penerbit menara. salam, solichin. (1990). menara kudus: the minaret of kudus. jakarta: centre for islamic studies and research. sonu, d., & snaza, n. (2015). the fragility of ecological pedagogy: elementary social studies standards and possibilities of new materialism. journal of curriculum and pedagogy, 12(3), 258-277. spradley, j. p., & mccurdy, d. w. (1980). anthropology, the cultural perspective. new jersey: john wiley & sons. stake, r. e. (1995). the art of case study research. los angeles: sage. suharso, r., et al. (2020). teaching multiculturalism based on islamic historical relics in northern java. international journal of innovation, creativity and change, 11(10), 445463. supriatna, n. (2016). ecopedagogy: membangun kecerdasan ekologis dalam pembelajaran ips. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. supriatna, n. (2016). local wisdom in constructing students’ ecoliteracy through ethnopedagogy and ecopedagogy. in 1st upi international conference on sociology education. atlantis press. suryadarma, d., & jones, g. w. (eds.). (2013). education in indonesia. institute of southeast asian studies. turner, r., and donnelly, r. (2013). case studies in critical ecoliteracy: a curriculum for analyzing the social foundations of environmental problems. educational studies, 49(5), 387-408. utomo, c., & wasino, w. (2020). an integrated teaching tolerance in learning history of indonesian national movement at higher education. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 65-108. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2471/461 wasino, hartatik, e. s., & nawiyanto. (2019). from royal family-based ownership to state business management: mangkunegara's sugar industry in java from the middle of the 19th to early 20th century. management & organizational history, 14(2), 167-183. widiyati and wasino. (2011). pemberdayaan masyarakat untuk berpartisipasi dalam pelestarian situs patiayam di kabupaten kudus. paramita: historical studies journal, 21(1). https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2471/461 https://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/paramita/issue/view/120 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 52-83 83 yin, r. k. (2017). case study research and applications: design and methods. los angeles: sage publications. yin, robert k. (2011). applications of case study research. los angeles: sage. yufariani, a. (2015). tipologi arsitektur masjid-masjid bercorak jawa–hindu di kota kudus. doctoral dissertation. semarang: diponegoro university. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 190-200 deictic elements as means of text cohesion and coherence in academic discourse elzara v. gafiyatova 1, irina v. korovina 2, marina i. solnyshkina3 & iskander e. yarmakeev4 abstract the article presents the results of the research aimed at analyzing some functions and features of deictic elements in academic discourse in english. the material under analysis covers 20 academic texts written by english-speaking linguists. in the article it is proved that in academic discourse deictic elements can operate only within the fixed scheme of deictic coordinates, which has got three main elements: deictic center, deictic element, and antecedent/subsequent element. out of this scheme deictic elements fail to fulfill referential procedure. all deictic elements in academic discourse are divided into two big groups: conventional deictic elements and endemic ones. the result of the research shows that conventional deictic elements in most cases provide text cohesion (within small text units, such as adjoining sentences); whereas endemic deictic elements tend to serve for text coherence (in larger text units, such as paragraphs, chapters, etc.). thus, deictic elements can be considered important units providing textbuilding. keywords: deictic element, theory of deixis, academic discourse, text cohesion, text coherence introduction academic discourse differs from other types of discourse by its lexical, syntactical and stylistic features. among the lexical peculiarities of academic discourse, it is worth mentioning deictic elements, whose functions and forms in academic discourse may differ from the ones in texts of other styles and genres. in the 20th century deictic procedure in fiction texts and oral speech was deeply analyzed and well described in academic research; whereas specific features of deictic procedure in academic texts has not been observed yet. fiction texts reflect real life situations, which take place within temporal and 3-dimensional spatial coordinates. that is why deictic elements in fiction texts function the same way they function in the real physical coordinate system, which depend much on a speaker's location and time of speech producing. in comparison with fiction texts, academic texts have nothing to do with temporal and 3 1 asst. prof, kazan federal university kazan, rg-777@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof, ogarev mordovia state university saransk, korirfox@gmail.com 3 prof, kazan federal university kazan, mesoln@yandex.ru 4 prof, kazan federal university kazan, ermakeev@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),190-200 dimensional spatial coordinates in which real life situations take place: these texts function within fixed textual coordinates, which makes it simpler to analyze the mechanism of deictic procedure. this fact explains why we decide to concentrate on the deictic procedure in academic texts precisely. moreover, fixed textual coordinates serve for text cohesion and text coherence. taking into account the requirement for academic texts to contain precise and accurate ideas with a single meaning, we assume that deictic elements can serve to provide text cohesion and coherence, alongside with other lexical units. thus, the goal of the research is to analyze the characteristics of deictic procedure in academic discourse in order to elicit its text-building functions. the text material of the research covers 20 academic discourse texts in english, the content of which lies in the field of linguistics, and the theory of deixis in particular. method the linguistic texts under analysis present unique material as they cover various aspects of the theory of deixis and at the same time contain deictic elements to be analyzed. in other words, such texts can be used as both a source of theoretical material and a source of lexical units the research is aimed at. all the texts under analysis are research articles written by english-speaking linguists. the first step of the analysis was collecting data samples: deictic elements of various types. during the second stage we classified all the deictic elements into the following groups: conventional deictic elements (personal and demonstrative pronouns) and 'endemic' deictic elements, which can be found primarily in academic discourse (specific adjectives, adverbs and adverbials). then all the deictic elements were analyzed in terms of their capacity to perform the text-building function. results and discussion as a philological and linguistic notion, “deixis” appeared in the ancient times but became an object to research only at the end of the 20th century (bühler, 1982; cruse, 2000; lyons, 1977; marmaridou, 2000; bittman & russell iii, 2016). the research of the first part of the 20th century was devoted to summarizing the theoretical background on deixis issues, which allowed the researchers to introduce detailed definitions of this notion. “deixis is the location and identification of person, objects, events, processes and activities being talked about, or referred to, in relation to the spatiotemporal context gafiyatova et al. created and sustained by the act of utterance and the participation in it, typically, of a single speaker and at least one addressee” (lyons, 1977). “deixis is «pointing» (from greek) <...> the concept is regarded as comprising lexical items that make little or no sense without some information about the position of the speakers in relation to their world and to what they are saying” (ruthrof, 2000). in other words, deixis is the speech function of lexical elements that do not name objects and notions but point at them. thus, nomination and deixis are considered two different mechanisms of referential procedure. in speech, deixis is realized through deictic elements, the most widely-spread of whose are personal and demonstrative pronouns, which point at objects, rather than name them. since deixis is considered one of the basic mechanisms of referential procedure, we should comment on what we mean by referential procedure in this paper. referential procedure here is a semantical link between lexical units (words) and objects of the real world (referents). d. alan cruse (2000) defines reference as one of the most important and basic aspects of linguistic system, which allows a person to keep in touch with the outer world through speech. “reference is one of the most fundamental and vital aspects of language and language use, namely, the relations between language, as a medium of communication between human beings, and the world, about which we communicate” (cruse, 2000). we might assume that in academic discourse the mechanism of referential procedure differs in case of nomination (provided by notional words) and in case of deixis (provided by deictic elements). this assumption is based on the fact that notional words possess denotation meaning, whereas deictic ones do not. it is worth mentioning that the mechanism of deictic procedure has been actively studied in fiction texts, which reflect real or real-like situations, with the system of spatial and time coordinates. in this regard, the deictical procedure has never been examined in texts of academic prose (articles, research papers, thesis, etc), which fulfill a different function and have a number of differential characteristics. we believe these characteristics inevitably influence the way deictic mechanism works. thus, studying parameters of deictic procedure in texts of academic prose will complete the notion of deixis and provide a more detailed scheme of deictic coordinates. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),190-200 even though there are plenty of classifications of deixis types, we can identify the types mentioned by researchers most often: personal, spatial and temporal types of deixis (cruse, 2000; fillmore, 1998; marmaridou, 2000; bondarenko, 1998; vinogradov, 1947; kibrik, 1983; srebryanskaya, 2003; waters & russell 2016). the three types of deixis mean, respectively, pointing at objects, places and time points. in case of deixis in academic discourse, all the three types operate under so-called contextual deixis, whose effectiveness depend on fixed textual coordinates. the main elements in the scheme of deictic coordinates are deictic center (a deictic element itself), deictic vector (pointing at textual elements that are placed in either preceding or subsequent context), and antecedent/subsequent elements of the text (referents). for example: among these is the distinction between expressions which are linked immediately to the speech act… it has either been ignored by those who do not want to deal with it or respectfully but rather consistently mishandled by those who know something must be done about it but are struggling to determine exactly what. the demonstrative pronoun 'these' and the personal pronoun 'it' here fulfill the deictic function in the text. we can see the abstract deictic vector pointing at some element of the preceding/antecedent context. however, without the textual units the deictic elements point at it is impossible to get the meaning of the phrases in (1) and (2). let us find these textual units: (1a) bühler presents and discusses various basic features of language and concepts which are relevant to its investigation. among these is the distinction between expressions which are linked immediately to the speech act… (2a) for years, meaning has been treated like nuclear waste by theoretical linguists. it has either been ignored by those who do not want to deal with it or respectfully but rather consistently mishandled by those who know something must be done about it but are struggling to determine exactly what. the underlined words and phrases give us the third missing element of the scheme of deictic coordinates – the antecedent element the deictic elements 'these' and 'it' point at: 'various basic features of language and concepts' and 'meaning'. identifying all the three elements appears to be the obligatory requirement for effective referential procedure in case of contextual deixis in academic discourse. if at least one of the elements (deictic element, deictic vector or antecedent/subsequent element) is missing (as we see in (1) and (2)), referential procedure fails. gafiyatova et al. let us bring up more examples illustrating the deictic procedure in academic discourse, in which deictic elements refer to textual units (lexemes, word combinations or paragraphs) placed in either preceding or subsequent context: (3) leading on from the discussion of grammatical phenomena at the end of the previous section, in this section we illustrate hanks’s view… ('previous' refers to the section preceding the one containing the deictic element; 'this' refers to the section containing the deictic element) (4) this suggests that the notion that demonstratives like ‘you’ can be used nondeictically may be problematic – a suggestion that we’ll pick up later when we look at real uses of deictics in extended talk. ('later' refers to the subsequent sections of the article/book) thus, deictic procedure in academic texts works within fixed deictic coordinates, which cover contextual extracts of any size: from the very sentence containing a deictic element to a whole text. analyzing the deictic procedure in academic discourse, we should focus on endemic deictic elements, which were first mentioned by korovina (2013), she defines deictic elements as “речевые единицы, встречающиеся исключительно в текстах научного регистра речи и являющиеся таким образом своеобразными маркерами данного речевого регистра” [rechevye edinicy, vstrechajushhiesja iskljuchitel'no v tekstah nauchnogo registra rechi i javljajushhiesja takim obrazom svoeobraznymi markerami dannogo rechevogo registra] (= speech units that can be found primarily in academic discourse and therefore serve as specific markers of this functional style of texts). examples of endemic deictic elements in academic discourse are the following adjectives, adverbs and adverbials: hereafter, in the previous chapter, above-mentioned aspects, the following reasons, in the last section, etc. as we can see all these elements are unable to point at their referents out of the scheme of deictic coordinates. “координаты дейктических систем могут размещаться в пределах небольших отрезков текста, а именно, в соседних предложениях или в одном абзаце. не исключено расположение дейктического антецедента на достаточно большом контекстуальном расстоянии от дейктического центра, то есть в пределах целой главы, всей статьи или книги” [koordinaty dejkticheskih sistem mogut razmeshhat'sja journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),190-200 v predelah nebol'shih otrezkov teksta, a imenno, v sosednih predlozhenijah ili v odnom abzace. ne iskljucheno raspolozhenie dejkticheskogo antecedenta na dostatochno bol'shom kontekstual'nom rasstojanii ot dejkticheskogo centra, to est' v predelah celoj glavy, vsej stat'i ili knigi] (coordinates of deictic systems can be placed within short text units, namely in adjoining sentences or the same paragraph. however, antecedent elements can be placed quite far from a deictic center: for example, within a chapter, article or book) (kirdyashkina & korovina, 2016). pointing at other elements of a text, deictic elements help connect phrases and sentences. this fact allows us to suggest deixis serve for text coherence and text cohesion. first of all, we should define the difference between text cohesion and text coherence, since in many works the two terms are used as synonyms. text coherence has always considered the main category of text-building that provides the unity of form and meaning. the category of text coherence is widely discussed in the works of russian and foreign linguists such as arutyunova (1972), van dijk (1977), galperin (2006), milevskaya (2003), moskalskaya (1981), halliday and hasan (1976) and others). the principal thesis on which the theory of text-building is founded states the following: a text does not exist without text coherence. according to milevskaya (2003): “связность — необходимое условие успешности коммуникации: бессвязный текст не может быть адекватно декодирован адресатом” [svyaznost' – neobhodimoe uslovie uspeshnosti kommunikatsii: bessvyazny tekst ne mozhet byt' adekvatno dekodirovan adresatom] (coherence is an obligatory requirement for effective communication: an incoherent text cannot be properly understood by the recipient). thus, the mechanisms of text coherence can be found at different levels of text structure. the term “cohesion” was introduced in linguistics by halliday and hasan (1976) in their paper “cohesion in english”. they define text cohesion as a set of “the means whereby elements that are structurally unrelated to one another are linked together, through the dependence of one upon another for its interpretation” (halliday & hasan, 1976). the more narrow definition of text cohesion is given by van dijk (1977), who states that text cohesion is formed through elements providing links between two (or more) adjacent sentences. van dijk (1977) also defines the difference between text coherence and text cohesion, saying that text cohesion operates in linear local context, whereas “coherence is a semantic property of discourse, based on the gafiyatova et al. interpretation of each individual sentence relative to the interpretation of other sentences”. in other words, many linguists take cohesion as the necessary condition for coherent discourse. taking all the above-mentioned opinions into account, we can claim that both text cohesion and text coherence deal with interrelated text elements: in a text interpretation of an element is based on its relation to other elements. the best example of such a relation is the deictic procedure in academic texts: each deictic element must refer to an element of precedent or antecedent context (a referent). in case referents of deictic elements are placed in so-called mini-context (consisting of the sentence containing a deictic element, one preceding sentence and one subsequent sentence), deictic elements realize text cohesion: they make linear connection within small text units (word combinations and sentences). (5) how remarkable it is that what the logic of the ancient grammarians and modern formal logic say about the deictic words fits, in crucial respects, so neatly together. the former stated that deictic words, unlike naming words, provide no ‘what-determination’, and the latter denies that as conceptual signs they are as simple to define objectively as other words. in (5) 'the former' and 'the latter' are deictic elements, fulfilling referential procedure through the antecedent elements (the underlined phrases in the first sentence). thus, the deictic elements here provide text cohesion and help avoid tautology. it is worth mentioning that according to the statistics in most cases text cohesion is realized through conventional deictic elements (personal and demonstrative pronouns). as it was said above, deictic coordinates can be placed within both small and large text units (adjoining sentences, paragraphs, chapters, articles, etc). in case of adjoining sentences deictic elements provide cohesion; whereas in case of larger text units the text-building function of deictic elements differs and results in text coherence. text coherence is considered one of crucial factors of text unity, since it provides links between bigger text units (paragraphs, chapters, etc.). in academic texts deictic elements are often used to refer to other parts of a text (later, in the previous section, mentioned above, earlier, etc.). (6) as noted previously, givon would have morphological affixes derive from frequently co-occurring syntactic elements. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),190-200 (7) it is now possible to address the three problems which were described at the beginning of this chapter. (8) we shall return to these experiments in the next chapter, but for now let us note that… (9) in the following paragraphs, bühler extensively discusses brigmann’s theory of the indoeuropean deictic system. (10) there are additional senses that apply to syntactic forms that derive from deictics by means discussed earlier in this chapter. extracts (6) – (10) illustrate the type of deixis that is specific to academic discourse. we call it 'intratextual deixis' – the type of deixis in which deictic elements point at any other parts of a text. intratextual deixis can be rarely seen in fiction texts, for example. along with other lexical means, intratextual deictic elements serve for text coherence as they connect text elements placed not in adjacent sentences, but in more distinct parts of a text (paragraphs, chapters, etc.). also, it should be mentioned that unlike text cohesion text coherence is realized primarily through endemic deictic elements, rather than through conventional ones. in spite of this difference, deictic elements are able to provide both text cohesion and text coherence. summary to sum up, deixis is considered one of the referential mechanisms, alongside with nomination. in academic discourse deictic procedure operates within the fixed scheme of deictic coordinates: deictic center, deictic vector and antecedent/subsequent element (which lies in either preceding or subsequent context). all deictic elements in academic discourse can be divided into two groups: conventional deictic elements, which can be seen in texts of various styles and genres, and endemic deictic elements, which are used primarily in texts of academic discourse. conclusion one of the main functions fulfilled by deictic elements in texts of academic discourse is text-building. soul in ordinary discourse is a set of consciousness motives (and at the same time the basis) of a living being, the antithesis of body and matter concept (zamaletdinov, 2006; zamaletdinov et al., 2014). deictic elements are especially effective in avoiding tautology and providing text cohesion and text coherence. the fixed scheme of deictic elements helps to achieve text cohesion and coherence throughout a whole article/text. therefore, providing text gafiyatova et al. cohesion and text coherence, deixis can be considered a significant mechanism of text-building. in theoretical implementation, the results of the research seem to be valuable for developing deixis theory. in terms of practical use, the research can give material for designing software dealing with text-building. acknowledgements the authors would like to thank administration of the program of competitive growth of kazan federal university for their support and assistance with the preparation and publication of the article as well as their appreciation of the benefits to be gained from the research conducted. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),190-200 references arutyunova, n.d. (1972). sintaksis [syntax]. in: obshhee jazykoznanie. vnutrennjaja struktura jazyka [general linguistics. the internal structure of the language] (297-331). moscow: science. bittman, b.l. & russell iii, w.b. (2016). civic education in united states: a multiple regression of civic education scores from the national assessment of educational progress. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2): 1-16. bondarenko, о.g. (1998). funkcional'no-semanticheskoe pole dejksisa v sovremennom anglijskom jazyke [functional-semantic field of deixis in modern english]. ph.d thesis. rostov-on-don. bühler, k. (1982). the deictic field of language and deictic words. in: speech, place, and action. studies in deixis and related topics (9-30). chichester: john wiley & sons ltd. cruse, d.a. (2000). meaning in language. an introduction to semantics and pragmatics. new york: oxford university press. espersen, o. (1996). filosofija grammatiki [philosophy of grammar]. moscow: avanta +. fillmore, ch.j. (1998). deixis and context. in: context in language learning and language understanding (27-41). cambridge, u.k.: cambridge university press. galperin, i.r. (2006). tekst kak ob`ekt lingvisticheskogo issledovanija [text as an object of linguistic research]. moscow: komkniga. halliday, m.a.k. & hasan, r. (1976). cohesion in english. london: longman. kibrik, a.a. (1983). ob anafore, dejksise i ih sootnoshenijah [on anaphora, deixis and their relationships]. in: razrabotka i primenenie lingvisticheskih processov [development and application of linguistic processes] (107-129). novosibirsk: computing center of the ussr academy of sciences. kirdyashkina, i.v. & korovina, i.v. (2016). dejktichnost' avtorskih abbreviatur i terminov kak mehanizm tekstopostroenija (na materiale anglojazychnogo nauchnogo diskursa) [dictitiveness of the author's abbreviations and terms as a text-constructing mechanism (on the basis of the english-language scientific discourse)]. linguistic and extralinguistic problems of communication: theoretical and applied aspects: interuniversity collection of scientific papers, 10: 28-34. gafiyatova et al. korovina, i.v. (2013). endemic deictics in the english-speaking scientific text. rssu proceedings, 3(115): 166-170. lyons, j. (1977). deixis, space and time. in: semantics, vol. 2. (636-724). cambridge, u.k.: cambridge university press. marmaridou, s.s.a. (2000). pragmatic meaning and cognition. amsterdam, philadelphia: j. benjamins publishing. milevskaya, t.v. (2003). grammatika diskursa [grammar of discourse]. rostov-on-don: publishing house of the russian state university. moskalskaya, o.i. (1981). grammatika teksta [grammar of the text]. moscow: higher school. ruthrof, h. (2000). the body in language. new york: cassell. srebryanskaya, n.a. (2003). dejksis v edinicah jazyka [deictics in terms of language]. voronezh: voronezh state pedagogical university. van dijk, t.a. (1977). text and content. london; new york: london. vinogradov, v.v. (1947). russkij jazyk. grammaticheskoe uchenie o slove [russian language. grammatical doctrine of the word]. moscow: uchpedgiz. waters, s. & russell, w.b. (2016). virtually ready? pre-service teachers’ perceptions of a virtual internship experience. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1): 1-23. zamaletdinov, r.r. (2006). language realization of the inner world concepts (for example, jan, kunel, mon in tatar language picture of the world). philology, 6: 71-84. zamaletdinov, r.r., zamaletdinova, g.f., nurmukhametova, r.s. & sattarova, m.r. (2014). the lexicon and its reflection in the inner world of the individual (on the tatar language). journal of language and literature, 5(4): 333-335. öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersi ödevlerine yönelik tutumlarının ölçülmesi: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(1), 41-72 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 how can i describe social studies curriculum in the first three years of primary school? a case study1 sümer aktan2 abstract: the aim of this study is to determine the opinions of a multigrade class teacher on the nature of social studies lesson, the structure of the social studies curriculum, and the teaching process of social studies lesson. the study was structured in line with a holistic single case design which is contained in the tradition of qualitative research. the teacher participating in the study is 29 years old and has been serving as a teacher for 7 years. the data collection tools used in the study were semi-structured interview form and observation form. in the process of designing the data collection tools, the literature was reviewed and the expert opinions were taken into account. the expert opinion was also considered with regards to the validity and reliability of the questions included in the interview form and the questions on which the experts had a mutual consensus were determined and included in the list of questions. the content analysis was used in the analysis of the findings obtained from the study and the themes were determined after the records of the interviews had been deciphered. three themes, which are the nature of the social studies, opinions on the social studies curriculum, and opinions on how to put into practice the social studies curriculum more efficiently in village schools, were determined within the scope of the study. the themes determined in this regard were analyzed within the context of the problematic of the study. based on the findings obtained from the study, the opinions of the multigrade class teacher on the nature of social studies were found to be consistent, social studies were found to be an essential discipline to achieve citizenship skills, and the opinions of the teacher on putting into practice the social studies curriculum were found to be positive. the suggestions provided by the study within the context of the challenges encountered in the process of teaching social studies in village schools include the following: a separate curriculum should be designed for village schools, teacher’s guidebooks should be adapted to the village conditions, and particularly, the information technology applications should be developed in terms of quality. keywords: primary school social studies curriculum, the first three years of primary school, multigrade class, village school, case study introduction in the most general sense, education is an intentional enculturation process (ertürk, 1966; 1972). this enculturation process not only helps individuals adapt to the 1 in the most general sense, social education in turkey in the first three years of primary school is introduced by hayat bilgisi [hayat bilgisi is a lesson which basis of social studies the first three years of primary school] lesson followed by social studies lesson from the 4th grade to the 7th grade. in this context, hayat bilgisi form the basis for social studies. the main objectives of hayat bilgisi, much the same as social studies, are to ensure efficient adaptation of the individual to the environment and culture in which the individual lives as well as helping the individual to help solve problems encountered throughout life. the term life science is used in some studies conducted in turkey. however, science rather connotes natural sciences. in this context, science and studies reflect two different disciplines of philosophy of science. this distinction is most pronounced in the philosophy of science tradition of anglo-saxon and continental europe. science mostly describes concepts associated with natural sciences whereas the german word wissenschaft is mostly used to describe the human world. in this context, the author prefers to use the phrase social studies instead of life sciences due to some philosophical reasons. within the scope of this text, social studies represent hayat bilgisi lesson introduced in the first three years of primary school. 2 asst. prof. dr., balikesir university, saktanus@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 42 society in which they live, but also aims to ensure that individuals become a productive citizen. therefore, it is ensured that the citizens constituting the society interlock around common values and live with a common purpose (baker, 2011; dewey, 1916; egemen, 1965; turhan, 1994). this intentional enculturation process has been implemented by almost all civilizations since the days on which people began to have a communal life (aytaç, 1992; kanad, 1963; monroe, 1901). in the societies of the antiquity, family played the most influential role in the enculturation process whereas the role of the family gradually decreased during the years following the industrial revolution and schools began to play this role thereafter. therefore, school played a main role in this intentional enculturation process by means of the lessons contained in the school curriculum and established its impact as an influential institution day by day. the fact that the governments have explored the influence of education played a significant role particularly in the establishment of this impact (fraser, 2009; heater, 2001; 2004; katz, 1976; tilly, 1995). the fact that governments have explored the influence of education also raised some questions. how would this comprehensive enculturation process be organized? how would it be implemented? most importantly, which information would be used in this process? addressing these questions was required because the future of the society and the state depended on the new generations to adopt the culture of the society and to become productive members of the society. the answers to these questions were found in the lessons contained in the school curriculum. the culture would be a priority for the development of the school curriculum and the contents of the lessons included in the curriculum would be designed in this scope with an aim to ensure that new generations internalize the culture, adopt the value judgements of the society, and become productive citizens (günel & pehlivan, 2015). in this designation process, the lessons that would play the predominant role were determined to be history, geography, literature, native language, and citizenship lessons. especially during the 19th century and until the beginning of the 20th century, the intentional enculturation process was implemented through the abovementioned lessons. on the other hand, the transformation and industrialization in the usa, the uk, and the continental europe towards the end of the 19th century and in the beginning of the 20th century have sparked off some debate about social studies based on history and geography. the main reason for such debate was especially due to the change and transformation process taking place in the usa. as a consequence of such debate, sümer aktan 43 social studies have been recognized as an academic field within the curriculum (davis, 1981; hertzberg, 1981; jorgansen, 2010). the main objective of social studies was to help individuals adopt the culture in which they live to become a natural part of the society through the socialization process as well as assuming citizenship responsibilities to be productive, to find solutions to various life problems, and to think critically whenever required as the members of the society (akınoğlu, 2002; sönmez, 2010). in order for this socialization process to become successful, social studies education was required to be comprehensive. undoubtedly, the primary and the most fundamental requirement for this type of social studies education was to educate teachers to make them understand the nature of social studies and become aware of the unique characteristics of social studies to distinguish social studies lesson from other lessons. these qualities are especially important for classroom teachers who will instruct social studies in primary school. for an efficient and competent social studies education, classroom teachers should have a clear perspective on the nature of social studies. this perspective will have a positive influence on their skills to put into practice the curriculum as well as their attitudes towards this process. teacher qualification is an essential factor, which is more instrumental than any other variables, in the academic achievement of the students and the attainment of the objectives of the curriculum (ferguson 1991; goldhaber and brewer 2000; mayer, mullens, and moore, 2000). for a classroom teacher who considers social studies as the foundation of the social structure and the cultivation of citizens, social studies teaching would require a teaching and learning process based on application as well as a number of interactions among various methods and techniques. on the other hand, a classroom teacher who does not share such a perspective would adopt an ordinary teaching process without paying attention to or being aware of such intricate details. from this point of view, providing an efficient teaching service in social studies lesson and achieving the objectives of the curriculum depend on the teacher’s perception of the social studies lesson and opinions on the social studies curriculum. it is possible that these perception and opinions would affect the behaviors of the teacher, or in other words, they would affect the behaviors of the teacher on teaching and learning processes. individuals structure their behaviors based on how they perceive phenomena or their environment (cüceloğlu, 2004; kağıtçıbaşı, 2013). therefore, it can be said that a teacher’s perception about the social studies lesson and opinions on the curriculum can be considered to be significant variables to have an influence on the attainment of the objectives of the curriculum. in this context, it can be suggested that the first step to journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 44 understand a teacher’s perception includes an analysis of the objectives of the social studies and the role of social studies in this enculturation process. the main objectives of the social studies lesson are preparing children to life and educating them to become citizens to internalize the culture of the society (ata, 2006; binbaşıoğlu, 2003; meb, 2005; ochoa-baker, 2007; sönmez, 2005; 2010, tarman & acun, 2010). the social studies curriculum, which is designed in line with the psychological development of the students based on the organization of the knowledge obtained from such fields as natural sciences and social sciences, has a suitable structure for broad field design (taba, 1962; tanner & tanner, 1975). broad field design is efficiently used for combining various information especially obtained from specific scientific fields based on the principles of horizontal and vertical coherence (tanner & tanner, 1975). from this perspective, social studies accommodate a wide range of information network such as history, geography, sociology, anthropology, and physical sciences (kenworthy, 1973). therefore, it can be said that the nature of the social studies lesson is multi-dimensional. the primary requirements for a teacher to make students attain the objectives of the social studies lesson are comprehension of the social studies as a lesson and identification of its structure. once this structure is identified, the teacher will explore the nature of social studies. the exploration process of the nature of social studies by teacher is also important for explaining teaching and learning process. once a teacher comprehends the nature of social studies, s/he may manage teaching and learning process by taking into account the multi-dimensionality of the lesson. this may also be reflected in the teacher’s opinions on the social studies curriculum. for a teacher who does not perceive social studies as a multidimensional discipline, teaching and learning process would probably become a monotonous process. on the other hand, it is also possible to reduce the lesson to one dimension and teach the lesson in this way. however, comprehension of these multidimensional relations may have an effect on various variables from teaching social studies lesson to the teacher’s opinions on the curriculum. for a teacher perceiving social studies as a multi-dimensional discipline, social studies lesson would go beyond the boundaries of the classroom to merge with life out there and would be used to find solutions to the students’ problems associated with daily life. sümer aktan 45 social studies lesson 3was introduced in the primary school by the 1926 curriculum for the first time in turkey. the main objective of the social studies lesson was defined as ensuring efficient adaptation of the individuals to their environment (mv, 1926). during the following years thereafter, the objectives of the social studies lesson included in the first three years of primary school within the scope of the 1936, 1948, 1962, 1968, 1998 curricula have been developed in line with the general objective stipulated in 1926. furthermore, the multi-dimensionality of the social studies lesson was emphasized and a comprehensive perspective on the nature of social studies was provided within the framework of curriculum development efforts taking place in 2004 (meb, 2005). on the other hand, some problems were identified in terms of putting into practice the social studies curriculum. previous studies demonstrated that classroom teachers especially serving in village schools with multigrade class encounter a number of problems arising from the attainments of the curriculum, lack of classroom materials, failure to fully implement assessment and evaluation activities, and the problems arising from the practice of multigrade class itself (abay, 2007; akpınar, turan and gözler, 2006; gözler, 2009; kazu and aslan, 2012; sınmaz, 2009). in terms of teaching and learning process, similar problems were also encountered in the foreign literature. one of the most important problems in teaching social studies in foreign primary schools is teacher qualifications. it was emphasized that the teacher’s qualifications as well as attitudes and expectations played a significant role in academic achievement and social education applications in primary school (brophy, alleman, & halvorsen, 2012). teachers’ opinions on the nature of social studies playing an important role in the context of social education in primary school were found to have an influence on teachers’ attitudes adopted during the teaching process (farris, 2015; goodman & adler, 1985; owens, 1997; rapoport, 2015). teachers’ attitudes and beliefs on the teaching field can be considered as a significant factor having an effect on putting the curriculum into practice. this proposition is not limited to life sciences or social studies alone. studies on teachers from various fields demonstrated that teachers’ attitudes and beliefs on their respective teaching fields in general had affected their perspectives on the teaching process (bartos & lederman, 2014; cess-newsome, 1999; fishman, konstantopoulos, kubitskey, vath, park, johnson & edelson, 2013; morine-dershimer & kent, 1999; nilsson, 2008; nilsson & loughran, 2012). teachers’ attitudes and beliefs are significant variables having a wide range of effects on teachers 3 social studies reflects hayat bilgisi lesson in the first three years of primary school. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 46 from encouraging them to use various methods and techniques to the integration of technology (funkhouser & mouza, 2013; kim, kim, lee, spector & demeester, 2013). the aim of the study identification of teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions is essential for understanding the problems associated with teaching in multigrade classes and especially for the determination of the teachers’ perspectives in small village schools providing education for the first four grades of primary school. this is due to the fact that these schools are deprived of many facilities and opportunities compared to other larger schools. the difficulties encountered by the teachers, who are considered as the direct practitioners of the curriculum, on putting the curriculum into practice are also included among the factors that may affect the quality of the teaching service. teachers’ opinions on putting the curriculum into practice may shed light on the efforts to create a quality teaching environment as well as ensuring the attainments of the teaching objectives of the social studies lesson. moreover, teachers’ perceptions of social studies are equally important. it can be suggested that teachers’ perceptions of social studies have a wide range of effects on teachers from the teaching methods and techniques they use to the teaching style they adopt in the class. if the teacher perceives social studies lesson as a multi-disciplinary approach as well as a lesson helping students internalize the culture of the society, become a productive citizen, and providing means to overcome problems encountered throughout life, then the teacher would possibly have a novel approach towards the social studies lesson. understanding how the conditions in which teachers serving in village schools find themselves affect putting the curriculum into practice and how teachers deal with such conditions may also contribute to classroom teachers who have problems especially in terms of practice. another objective of the study is to reveal how classroom teachers feel when they put the social studies curriculum into practice. some of the most crucial variables having an influence on the teacher’s efforts in terms of practice are the teacher’s dedication to the curriculum and attitudes towards practice. it is observed that the level of dedication of a teacher to the curriculum and positive attitudes towards practice are two significant factors having an effect on the teacher’s performance in the classroom (kelly & carbonaro, 2012). in this context, the aim of this study is to determine the opinions of a teacher serving in a village school with multigrade class on the nature of social studies, the sümer aktan 47 social studies curriculum, and the teaching process of the social studies lesson to provide suggestions in line with these opinions. method in this section, details of the research model, participants of the study, data collection tools as well as the techniques used in data collection and data analysis are provided. research model the aim of this study is to identify the opinions of a classroom teacher serving in a multigrade class on the nature of the social studies lesson, the structure of the social studies curriculum, and the teaching process of the social studies lesson. due to the fact that the conditions to be analyzed have an idiosyncratic structure and the requirement for an in-depth and comprehensive analysis of the problem, case study method contained in the tradition of qualitative research was used in the study. in the literature, case study is defined as a research method studying a current phenomenon within its real life environment, where the boundaries between the phenomena and its environment are not conclusively defined, and multiple sources of evidence and/or data exist (yin, 2002; yıldırım & şimşek, 2008). merriam (1998) emphasized that case studies were valuable as it allowed for accounting for phenomena and events in their respective contexts. in this study, a holistic single case design model was used. this is due to the fact that the aim of the study is to determine the opinions of a classroom teacher, serving in a multigrade class for around 5 years, on the nature of social studies, the structure of the social studies curriculum, and the teaching process of the social studies lesson based on her experiences (in the form of observations and interviews), and that the case in question has idiosyncratic conditions. participants holistic single case design is especially useful in the analysis of the problem in a comprehensive manner under its idiosyncratic conditions. only one teacher was selected to participate in the study since the case has idiosyncratic conditions and for the purpose of analyzing the problem in depth and in more detail. therefore, the said classroom teacher employed in a village school with multigrade class is the only participant of this study. in other words, the unit of analysis in this study is single. the teacher, who provided her journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 48 opinions within the scope of this study, is 29 years old (teacher a is abbreviated as ta in this study). ms. ta has been working as a teacher for seven years. in her occupational carrier, ta has worked in larger schools as well as small village schools. the teacher, a graduate of classroom teaching of the faculty of education, has a five-year experience in terms of teaching a multigrade class. data collection tools within the scope of qualitative studies, data collection tools and data collection process are crucial for the validity and reliability of the findings obtained. the main problem as well as the relevant sub-problems associated with the problem of the study have been taken into account in designing the appropriate data collection tools for the study. semi-structured interview form and observation form were determined to be the most appropriate data collection tools for the analysis of these sub-problems. the subproblems of the study have also been taken into account in preparing the semi-structured interview form. accordingly, the main sub-problems of this study are the nature of social studies, the structure of the social studies curriculum, and the teaching process of social studies. the relevant questions for these sub-problems were directed to the teacher based on a literature review to identify such questions. upon the approval of the questionnaire form by an academician specialized in linguistics, the questionnaire form was presented to five academicians specialized in pedagogy and qualitative research. these experts reviewed the relevance of the questions to the problem and sub-problems of the study and assigned a score for each question accordingly. the forms scored by the experts were analyzed in accordance with davis (1992) content validity index (cvi) and the items whose average are 0.80 and above were included in the questionnaire. the questions included in the semi-structured form are as follows. 1what is the place of the social studies lesson in the curriculum according to your opinions? 2how do you describe the social studies lesson? which dimensions of the social studies lesson are different from other lessons according to your opinions? 3what are your opinions on the attainments of the social studies lesson? 4what do you think about the content of the social studies lesson? sümer aktan 49 5how do you evaluate the activities included in the social studies curriculum? 6how do you teach the social studies lesson? can you describe, please? 7what do you think about the evaluation activities in the social studies lesson? 8what are your opinions and suggestions for a more active and efficient teaching of the social studies lesson? another data collection tool used in the study is observation. the observations in this study are based on participation. the teacher participating in the study was observed especially in the social studies lesson twice weekly. the author prepared an observation form to keep the observation records. expert opinion was requested for the conformity of the observation form and the observation form was revised to its final form in line with the relevant criticism from the experts. all activities and behaviors of the teacher during class were accurately recorded in the observation form by the author. this observation form was used as a promoter within the scope of data analysis. in addition to the observation process, another data collection tool is casual unstructured conversations. conversations with the teacher took place in a casual manner during the break times and lunch breaks, and these data were also analyzed in combination with other data obtained during the process of the study. procedures the study had continued for approximately 3 months. first of all, the participant teacher was provided with the aim of the study and the author proceeded with the procedures upon the consent of the teacher. questions included in the semi-structured interview form were directed to the teacher within a period of approximately 75 minutes in a session that took place outside the school hours. before asking the questions, the author explained to the teacher that voice records would be kept and whether the teacher gave consent thereof, and the interview process took places after the required consent was given by the teacher. the observations were performed for two class hours (40x2=80 minutes), one hour (40 minutes) for each, twice weekly. the observations records were approximately accounted for a total of 24 class hours during the period of 3 months. the observation form kept at the end of each class was also shared with the teacher. on the other hand, casual conversations took place outside the class hours and completely journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 50 developed in a natural and casual manner. the main theme of these conversations was the sub-problems related to the process of the study. data analysis in this study, the content analysis was used in the analysis of data. within this scope, firstly, the interview records were deciphered and transcribed. following the descriptive analysis of the observation form(s), the descriptive analysis of the interviews in the form of conversations was also performed. following deciphering of the interview records, encoding was performed based on the themes determined. the themes determined in the study are as follows: opinions on the nature of the social studies lesson (the place of the social studies in the curriculum, can you describe social studies? what is the difference of social studies lesson from other lessons?), opinions on the social studies curriculum (opinions on the attainments, opinions on the content, opinions on teaching conditions, opinions on the evaluation activities), opinions on the more efficient application of the social studies curriculum in village schools (opinions on the more efficient application of social studies in village schools). the findings of the interviews in the form of conversations and the analyses obtained from the observation form were also processed in line with these themes with an aim to support the analysis. interviews in the form of conversations were abbreviated as (ifc). likewise, the data obtained from observation forms were abbreviated as (of), interview records were abbreviated as (ir). in the analysis of data, (ta) abbreviation was used to represent the teacher. reliability and validity of the study in qualitative research and particularly in case studies, reliability is of great concern. one of the most efficient way to address reliability and validity issues is to extend the period of data collection and observation. this study has been completed after a period of approximately 3 months. the total planned observation period was 24 class hours consisting of 2 class hours each week. in addition, casual conversations continued during the period of the study and the records of these conversations were kept in a study logbook. another method recommended to ensure the validity and reliability of the study is an approach called triangulation or trivet method. triangulation or trivet method can be described as investigating the case in question using different methods (glesne and peshkin, 1992). in reference to the literature on qualitative research, it was remarked that sümer aktan 51 using different methods had a positive effect on the quality of qualitative researches (patton, 2002; poggenpoel and myburgh, 2003). three main methods have been used in this study with an aim to ensure reliability. the first method is interview. the form intended for the interview was structured in line with the problematic of the study and revised, as required, following the review of a group of academicians specialized in the field. the assignment of the scores to the questionnaire by a group of specialized academicians as well as the calculation of the forms based on the formula of the davis content validity index (cvi) were also crucial for the determination of the structural validity of the data collection tools used in the study. following the interview process, determination of the themes and encoding process were completed and the process related to theme and encoding was repeated by an academician specialized in the field. any section was revised in case of difference of opinions, and the encoding was performed to reflect the highest level of consensus based on the common perspective. following deciphering of the observation form, the deciphered form was reviewed by another expert for control purposes. another method used in the study is observation. the author has shared the same environment with the teacher participating in the study. thus, teacher a was observed both in various environments within the school as well as the classroom environment. the results of the observations were compared to the text obtained from the deciphered interview form and put into writing. another method is the interviews in the form of conversations. the author conducted casual and open-ended conversations with teacher a at break times and lunch breaks, and he was engaged in note-taking during these conversations. all records obtained from the data collection process were put into writing after reviewed in terms of consistency among each another during data processing. based on the review, all data obtained from the interviews, observations, and casual conversations were found to be consistent among each other. another effort for the purpose of ensuring the reliability of the study was made in collaboration with teacher a. the analyses performed were shared with teacher a and her opinions were received. in this regard, utmost care was taken to avoid any potential error during the analysis process. regarding the validity of the study, the process of the study was described in detail and an explicit framework of the process was intended to be revealed as much as possible. findings and commentary journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 52 findings and commentary chapter of the study includes the interpretation of the opinions based on the themes determined. three main themes have been determined within the scope of the study. these themes are the opinions on the nature of the social studies lesson, opinions on the social studies curriculum and opinions on the efficient application of social studies curriculum in village schools, respectively. opinions on the nature of the social studies lesson firstly, the opinions of ta on the nature of the social studies lesson were determined within the scope of the study. for this purpose, questions about this theme were asked to her in the question form. the objective of these questions was to determine how ta makes sense of social studies. in this section, the data obtained from both the recordings of the interviews and the interviews in the form of conversations were used. the recordings of the interviews were coded as (ri) and the interviews in the form of conversations were coded as (ifc). the numbers next to ifc and ri show the question number and the letters next to the numbers show the respective orders of the answers given to the related questions. in this context, the following questions were asked to ta: what is the place of the social studies lesson in the curriculum according to your opinions? how do you describe the social studies lesson? which dimensions of the social studies lesson are different from other lessons according to your opinions? the answers for these questions provided by ta are as follows: “in my opinion, social studies lesson is in the center during the first three years of the primary school curriculum (ifc, 1 /a).” “social studies lesson is different from other lessons in that social studies lesson includes a process to help students to define the properties of their character during the first three years of the primary school education (ri, 1 /a-ifc1/a).” “this lesson is definitely different from other lessons as it prepares students for life, providing a basis to understand the society in which they live and to acquire awareness, thus, this lesson is in the center of the curriculum because our main objective in primary school education is to help individuals to adjust to the society in which they live and to form a character with good nature (ri, 1/ b).” “in my opinion, the social studies lesson covers the curriculum as a whole. i think that all the other lessons should be taught in parallel with this lesson (ri, 1 /c-ifc, 1/c).” sümer aktan 53 “social studies lesson provides a basis during the first three years of the primary school to help students adjust to the society in which they live and teach them about the culture, providing useful information and skills to solve problems they encounter in life (ri, 2 /a)” an analysis of the opinions of ta on the first question indicates that ta clearly thinks that social studies lesson is different from other lessons. this is due to the fact that ta perceives social studies as a lesson that helps students form a character with good nature and helps them understand the society in which they live and internalize the cultural values. suggesting that the main objective of the other lessons contained in the curriculum is to achieve the objectives of the social studies lesson, ta thinks that social studies is a special and privileged lesson for the primary education level. in this perspective, ta has a significant integrity in her opinions on the nature of the social studies. an analysis of the social studies curriculum from past to present (1926, 1936, 1948, 1968, 2004) shows that the main emphasis and objective of the social studies lesson is the adaptation of the individual to the culture in which they live, acquisition of values, and thus becoming an individual with a good character. opinions on the social studies curriculum the opinions on the social studies curriculum were mainly analyzed by five questions contained in the interview form. in addition, the data obtained from the observation form were used within the context of this section. the first emphasis under this heading is the attainments of the social studies lesson. subsequently, the dimensions of the context, activities, teaching and learning process as well as assessment and evaluation have been analyzed, respectively. social studies curriculum and attainments the concept of attainment contained in the curriculum emphasizes the qualities to be acquired by the students at the end of the teaching process. an analysis of the social studies curriculum implemented in primary school shows that a total of 86 attainments distributed in 3 themes in the first grade, a total of 95 attainments in 3 themes in the second grade, and a total of 111 attainments in 3 themes in the third grade can be identified. attainments contained in the scope of the social studies curriculum essentially aims to help students acquire certain skills. ta thinks that the attainments contained in the social studies curriculum are suitable for the comprehension level of the students and in compliance to the nature of the social studies lesson. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 54 “the attainments contained within the scope of the social studies lesson are basically about certain skills to be acquired by the individual. for instance, the main focus of the social studies lesson is about attainments providing for proficiency on such issues as critical thinking, self-care, self-confidence, gaining experience, learning about the society and culture in which the individual lives, etc. (ri, 3 / a).” ta thinks that the quality of attainments is of great importance. she emphasizes that the attainments especially contained in the first grade are quite simple and more applicable to daily life compared to previous curriculum. this feature plays a major role in achieving the attainments of the social studies curriculum in a more efficient fashion. “the most beneficial feature of the new curriculum is perhaps the close relations between the attainments of the social studies lesson and the students’ lives. for instance, if we discuss a subject in class about family, students are able to give direct examples from their families. likewise, students can easily provide examples during the lesson about their life and the environment in which they live. this is quite important for me because it allows for the attainments to be achieved in a more efficient way (ri, 3/b)”. on the other hand, this perspective is not applicable for the entire curriculum and thus certain attainments are rather difficult to be achieved by students especially those growing up in a village environment. “i’d like to state that some of the attainments provided in the social studies curriculum are not suitable for children who grow up in a village environment. i mean that they are not associated with the student’s life. however, i should note that this is not the case in most of the attainments contained in the curriculum. (ri, 3/ c).” it was also emphasized that the attainments are quite possible to be achieved by using a variety of teaching methods. “we make use of various methods such as acting and drama in our lessons and after learning a subject, the students immediately warn their friends if they behave in a wrong way. i observed this in a number of occasions this year. although we may not observe this in every student, i still think that it is very successful. the attainments seem to be more practical to make use of various active learning techniques (ri, 3 /d).” the fact that the attainments contained in the curriculum are associated with each other and that they have an interdisciplinary nature enable the curriculum to have an integrated perspective and since an attainment supports another attainment, the learning process becomes richer and more efficient by means of the integrity of these attainments within the curriculum. sümer aktan 55 “the association of an attainment contained in a theme of the social studies lesson with other themes and attainments are indicated. this feature contributes positively to the learning process especially in terms of the review of a lesson as well as associations with other subjects contained within the scope of the lesson. (ri, 3/e)”. furthermore, the fact that the attainments contained in the curriculum are presented at a simple and elementary level is considered significant according to ta. “these attainments (contained in the social studies curriculum) are brilliant. that is to say, the curriculum is not like a crash program. the attainments are quite simple. i am able to teach an attainment within 4 hours. students efficiently associate these attainments with their life within these 4 hours and thus, i observe very positive results about it (ri, 3 /f).” social studies curriculum and content one of the four components of a curriculum is content (demirel, 2007). it is important to design the content as it is an essential factor for achieving the attainments contained in the curriculum. designing the content in compliance to the pedagogical characteristics of the students and their life experiences plays an essential role in achieving the attainments. ta emphasized that the content of the social studies program is simple. “in my opinion, the number of the attainments is not much but it is enough. primary school education requires introduction of less attainments and more time for teaching them. in other words, the number of the attainments provides teachers with enough time to teach them. perhaps, the curriculum could be simpler. it may be better for educational activities. nevertheless, i think that the new curriculum is simple and plain in terms of the content. consequently, it is possible to engage in more activities and devote enough time for each attainment (ri, 4 /a).” another dimension about the content is textbooks. ta thinks that the textbook designs and illustrations clearly reflect the content and attainments of the curriculum. “the textbooks are essentially based on illustrations. what i most like in the textbooks is that two pages are completely composed of pictures and subject is summarized by one sentence. this helps the students actively participate in discussion during the lesson and the students simply interpret what they see in the illustrations. how does this work? if the illustrations are about something that the student has not seen in his or her immediate surroundings, we close our textbooks and dream about it. what else can we do? we can give examples from our village or journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 56 from our environment. in general, the illustrations in the textbooks are quite enough in terms of the context.” (ri, 4/b).” the design of the textbooks and the fact that the context of the lesson is presented in a simple fashion are also significant contributors to the efficient management of the teaching and learning process by the teacher. “i like the design of the textbooks very much. they are quite practical for teachers. because, we open our textbooks and the students interpret these pictures. the teacher ensures active class participation as much as possible and students take the floor to talk about the subject during the class. this facilitates the teacher’s function and the teacher provides guidance to the students. as we make use of the materials around us, the teacher does not encounter any difficulty to find resources about the lesson. in my opinion, the fact that the context is designed in this way is very helpful to the teacher (ri, 4 /c).” “we usually do not prefer literal verbalism in social studies lessons. the lesson is primarily based on the interpretations of the illustrations by the students. in other words, the interpretations of the students determine how the lesson will continue. we focus on the themes chosen by the students associated with the illustrations they interpret (ri, 4/ d).” the data shows that ta emphasized that the content dimension of the social studies curriculum is presented quite simple and plain. she also stated that these characteristics as well as the design of the textbooks contribute to teaching and learning process to be more efficient through student-oriented activities. social studies curriculum and teaching & learning activities based on the constructivist approach which accounts for the philosophy of the new social studies curriculum, playing an active role in the learning process by student-oriented activities is a significant variable that has an influence on the teaching and learning process (çalışkan, 2015). for this purpose, students make use of activity books in addition to textbooks. thus, it is possible to carry out activities about the attainments following the associated lesson. another useful instrument is the teacher’s guidebook. whereas ta thinks that the activities contained within the scope of the curriculum and the teacher’s guidebook are quite helpful, she brings forward some criticism about the context of the teacher’s guidebook. sümer aktan 57 “with regard to the activities contained in the guidebook, it is not possible to apply them all in exactly the same way. although the attainments are simple, the activities are not economical and they include some activities that are impossible to carry out in a village environment. for this reason, we sometimes modify the activities based on our available resources. for instance, if the activity requires us to buy some materials from the stationery shop, we rather prefer to use available materials (ri, 5/a).” ta emphasized the significance of the perspective set forth by the teacher’s guidebook with regard to carrying out teaching and learning activities in class and she described the process of teaching social studies lesson as follows: “students have textbooks and workbooks about the social studies lesson. the first page contains questions about familiarization. firstly, we ask these questions to the students and the students answer the questions based on their life experiences. then we look at the illustrations in the book. we discuss about the illustrations. the lesson is completely based on speaking and answering the questions. we make use of acting and drama especially about certain subjects. after completing a subject, we follow the activities contained in the workbook (ri, 5/b).” the observation records about the lesson confirm the description provided by ta about teaching of the lesson. based on the observations, ta carried out various activities in the beginning of the social studies lesson with an aim to draw the attention of the students to the lesson in addition to using question and answer teaching method and she made use of student-oriented activities as much as possible within the scope of teaching and learning activities. in consideration of teaching and learning activities, ta is of the opinion that both the curriculum and the teacher’s guidebook overlook village schools. “honestly, village schools are overlooked within the framework of activities contained in the curriculum. although the attainments have been presented in a simple fashion, the activities have been intended for urban schools. if the teacher focuses on the attainments and designs the activities individually, there is no problem. however, if the teacher focuses on both the attainments and activities and attempts to carry out these activities, he or she would encounter a number of problems. in other words, we ask ourselves what do we intend to provide students with this attainment? we comprehend the answer to this question and then we intend to find examples about these attainments from our lives and immediate environment to include in the teaching and learning process. otherwise, most of the activities are not suitable for the students in general because these students did not experience anything like these in their life before. on the other hand, i think that the journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 58 attainments are simple enough and they are fine but teachers in village schools should make more efforts than teachers in urban schools. (ri, 5/c).” social studies curriculum and evaluation process one of the four main elements of the curriculum is evaluation (demirel, 2007). assessment and evaluation activities have a crucial place in the determination of the achievement of the attainments during the teaching and learning process and also decision making about the quality of this process. evaluation within the scope of the social studies lesson especially for the first 3 grades bears a number of differences compared to the subsequent grades. the social studies curriculum emphasizes that the evaluation in the first 3 grades should be based on the participation of the students to the learning process rather than written examinations and multiple-choice tests (meb, 2009). ta adopts this emphasis provided by the social studies curriculum. “in general, active participation of the students to the discussion of the subjects is very important for me with regard to evaluation. in my opinion, it is more important to evaluate students based on their participation to the discussions taking place during the class rather than evaluation based on written exams. i observe students during class. i pay attention to class participation in my observations. as a matter of fact, it is almost impossible for a student to avoid class participation within the scope of this lesson because the examples are based on their environment and their families. in addition, evaluation is also possible based on the scales contained in the teacher’s guidebook for social studies. however, i think observation and active class participation are more important (ri, 6 /a).” according to ta, the most important factor to determine students’ success is based on their active class participation. ta considers class participation, playing an active role during the learning process and assuming responsibilities during the class are efficient criteria for evaluation. on the other hand, ta emphasized that some evaluation activities contained in the teacher’s guidebook are not suitable for village schools. “although the teacher’s guidebook is quite useful, some dimensions of evaluation as well as teaching and learning processes overlook the conditions of village schools (ri, 6/b).” “whether such applications as product file or scaled grading key contained in the curriculum may be applicable for village schools especially for the first three grades was not taken into account. in my opinion, the most efficient evaluation within the scope of the social studies lesson during the first three years of primary school should be based on the observations of the teacher (ri, 6/ c).” sümer aktan 59 an analysis of the opinions of ta on evaluation in general shows that although ta knows about the forms and scales contained in the curriculum, she considers that the level of class participation of the students is more important for the evaluation process. another problem is that some evaluation activities contained in the curriculum may not be applicable for village schools. suggestions for more efficient application of social studies curriculum in village schools the final theme of the study deals with the questions with regard to the problems encountered in the social studies lesson and these questions are as follows: what can be done for an efficient teaching of social studies lesson? what kind of suggestions can be put forward? ta points out that the drawbacks of the conditions of village schools are one of the most significant problems for the teaching process of social studies lesson. “the new social studies curriculum is a big step. it put forward a new philosophy and a new perspective however village schools have been rather overlooked in this curriculum. in particular, the application of certain teaching and learning activities contained within the scope of the teacher’s guidebook and the curriculum is either quite difficult or quite impossible. as far as i understand, the curriculum has been designed based on urban schools. in other words, the curriculum is intended for students going to urban schools. this condition leads to certain problems during the learning process (ri 7/ a).” according to ta, another problem is the level of readiness of students. although ta emphasizes that the new curriculum is remarkably a significant step to contribute to rather restricted dream world of the village students, she states that some problems arise with regard to the application of teaching and learning methods as well as the evaluation activities introduced in the curriculum. “to be honest, i am very upset about the fact that the comments of the students after they have looked at the illustrations are rather limited. this is a common situation in general especially as far as the students in village schools are concerned. dream world of the students in village schools is not much developed and thus the students are often unable to interpret the illustrations efficiently. nevertheless, they are still able to make some comments provided that we focus on the illustrations and discuss about them in detail and at length. i also think that the level of the evaluation activities provided in the new curriculum is higher than the level of the students in village schools. (ri, 7 /b).” in the context of the aforementioned problems, ta brings forward some suggestions intended for a more efficient teaching of social studies in village schools. she suggests that journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 60 the efficient use of information technologies and the internet would be a significant step in this framework. “although our school has internet access, we have some problems about connection speed and quality. in my opinion, we could make efficient use of the internet for the resolution of the problems encountered in the social studies subjects especially in the teaching and learning process (ri, 7 / c)”. emphasizing that the activities and evaluation processes provided in the curriculum and the teacher’s guidebook could be reviewed for adaptation, ta thinks that designing a curriculum intended for village schools would be a significant step. “the philosophy of the curriculum is based on student-oriented teaching. this is quite important. on the other hand, a curriculum taking into account the conditions of village schools with multigrade classes could be designed. a life in the village could be more emphasized and thus the students would be able to give more examples from their environment during teaching activities (ri, 8 / d).” ta thinks that introduction of activities encouraging students to participate more actively in teaching and learning process and providing activity books in this respect would be more useful than allocating time for some unnecessary bureaucratic procedures contained in the scope of the curriculum. “the curriculum requires certain evaluation scale forms to be filled. we are also required to fill up other documents. for instance, a supervisor visits the school and asks whether i filled up a certain form or performed a certain task. as a teacher, we are required to carry out these tasks but it would be more efficient to allocate time for various teaching activities instead of these bureaucratic procedures. for instance, i think that additional activity books could be designed and provided to teachers (ri, 8 / e). amongst the suggestions put forward by ta for more efficient teaching of social studies lesson, the following suggestions are significant: the curriculum should also take into account the conditions of village schools, the quality of internet access should be increased and learning environment with the internet support should be provided. in addition, the conditions of village schools with multigrade classes should be considered and more comprehensive activity books should be provided to be used in these schools. conclusions in this case study, the opinions of a classroom teacher instructing in a village school with multigrade class on the nature of social studies and the social studies curriculum were analyzed and identified based on the questions designed within the scope of three main sümer aktan 61 themes titled as the nature of the social studies lesson, opinions on the social studies curriculum and opinions on more efficient application of the social studies curriculum in village schools. based on the findings obtained from the study, the teacher participated in the study maintained a consistent perspective about the nature of social studies. ta perceives social studies as a lesson that helps students acquire a good character and provides an insight to understand the society in which they live. in particular, ta makes a good point by emphasizing that social studies as a lesson which helps students build a good character and make sense of the culture of the society in which they live is the core component and focus of the primary school curriculum as a whole. within the scope of the issues emphasized in the social studies curriculum and in consideration of ta’s emphasis on the contributions of the social studies lesson to an individual to become a productive and capable citizen among the society, ta indeed displays a comprehensive perspective on the nature of the social studies lesson. based on the literature review of the descriptions of social studies, the perceptions of ta about the nature of social studies have also been found to be consistent. for instance, sönmez (2005) described social studies as a process of association based on proof provided by environmental and social reality whereas öztürk and dilek (2005) described it as a lesson that enables primary school students during the first three grades to acquire basic behaviors required to become a good individual and a good citizen in addition to adapting to their environment as a productive individual with good nature. the fact that the teacher comprehends the nature of social studies or more precisely the fact that the teacher has a consistent and realistic perspective about the objectives, development process and the function of social studies has a crucial effect on the perception about teaching of the lesson. based on the process of interview with ta and class observations, the student-oriented activities carried out by the teacher in the social studies lesson and the fact that she pays attention to the attainments result from the teacher’s perspective about the nature of social studies. as a matter of fact, this issue was greatly emphasized in the interviews with ta during the analysis process. the fact that the teacher had a full grasp of the nature of the teaching field was also a crucial variable for the expectations and attitudes of the teacher towards the lesson (fishman et al., 2013). in this context, this finding obtained from the research was also consistent with the literature (bartos & lederman, 2014; cess-newsome, 1999; morine-dershimer & kent, 1999; nilsson, 2008; nilsson & loughran, 2012). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 62 the opinions on the social studies curriculum have been obtained within the context of the elements of the curriculum. in this scope, the opinions of the teacher on the attainments have been obtained in the first place. ta thinks that the attainments are in the core of the social studies curriculum. ta stated that although most of the attainments are applicable for the intellectual level of the students, she considered that some attainments were designed without taking into account village schools and schools with multigrade classes. a review of various studies on the social studies curriculum indicates similar findings to those included in this study. the findings of the studies conducted on this subject indicate that the attainments contained in the new curriculum overlook the conditions of multigrade classes and village schools (gür, 2009; sınmaz, 2009; kazu and aslan, 2012; kudal and altun, 2012). an analysis of the opinions on the social studies curriculum and its context indicates that the teacher participated in this study has positive opinions on the contextual structure of the curriculum. in particular, ta emphasized that the design of the textbooks and workbooks clearly reflects the spirit of the curriculum whereas she stated that it is very important in terms of teaching purposes that the curriculum has been designed in a simple and straightforward fashion. this finding of the study is also consistent with the findings of other studies on this subject. kazu and aslan (2012) also stated in their research that teachers in general favor the contextual elements of the curriculum and textbooks whereas gözler (2009) has also obtained similar findings. in addition, voltz, sims & nelson (2010) also emphasized that the textbooks, interactive applications, and workbooks used during the teaching process had a positive contribution to the students with regards to focusing on the lesson. an analysis of the opinions on teaching and learning activities within the scope of the social studies curriculum indicates that ta adopted student-oriented activities in line with the principles stipulated in the curriculum. on the other hand, ta stated that she was unable to make efficient use of some activities contained in the teacher’s guidebooks since these chapters of the curriculum were designed based on urban schools in general. nevertheless, she points out the fact that the textbooks and workbooks intended for the students are quite practical and useful in terms of teaching and learning activities. kazu and aslan (2012), as well as gözler (2009) stated in their studies that teachers are often unable to make efficient use of some activities contained in the new curriculum although sümer aktan 63 they consider such activities would be beneficial. as a matter of fact, dursun (2006) and dalka (2006) stated that the activities contained in the new primary school curriculum were not efficiently applicable for schools with multigrade classes. in this context, the findings of this study are consistent with the findings of the previous studies. the findings obtained under this heading were also consistent with the foreign literature. in a study in which the integration of the information technologies to teaching and learning process was discussed, buabeng-andoh (2012) emphasized that environmental factors had both positive and negative effects on the teaching process undertaken by teachers. this condition is also considered to be influential in the motivation process. the students in the classrooms with relatively better environmental conditions compared to those of other classrooms were found to have higher motivation levels for their lessons. in this context, the methods and techniques used during teaching and learning process were also considered to be crucial variables (dinç & doğan, 2010; entwisle, 2013; schunk, meece, & pintrich, 2012). based on the analysis of the answers provided under social studies curriculum and evaluation process, it was found out that the evaluation activities of the curriculum are in line with the constructivist approach but such activities are often inapplicable for village schools with multigrade classes. some of the possible causes of this case are composed of factors such as class structure (at least two classes are instructed in one classroom), conditions of the village, and lack of class equipment for teaching and learning purposes. a review of literature indicates similar findings have been obtained in previous studies (gündoğar, 2006; kazu and aslan, 2012; özden, 2005; yıldız, 2009). as a matter of fact, the literature demonstrated that the conditions surrounding teachers had an influence on the quality of the applications during the practice of the activities included in the constructivist evaluation applications and the curriculum. windschitl (2002) emphasized that the challenges encountered by teachers emerge as an important problem in practice. onosko (1991) stated that any problem encountered by teachers was a challenging obstacle against the achievement of high-level thinking skills and indicated that this obstacle resulted that the lessons focused on lower cognitive products. furthermore, killen (2012) indicated that unfavorable classroom size and technological incapacity could be considered as significant disadvantages to hinder an effective teaching and learning process. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 64 the final question of the study is associated with suggestions about more efficient application of the social studies curriculum in village schools and schools with multigrade classes. the findings related to this question indicate that the teacher’s guidebooks and some of the attainments contained in the curriculum have been designed without taking into account the conditions of village schools. furthermore, it is also suggested that evaluation activities could be designed in a simpler fashion and the number of bureaucratic documents required to be filled with regard to the teaching process could be reduced so as to enable the teacher to focus on the teaching process in a more efficient way. other suggestions include more efficient provision of the internet access and improvement of the internet connection speed with an aim to deal with the problems encountered during the teaching process. designing a new curriculum intended for village schools and provision of more equipment to village schools for the purposes of teaching and learning process would contribute significantly to more efficient teaching of the social studies lesson. a review of literature with regard to this question of the study indicates that similar findings have been found in previous studies (özden, 2005; kazu and aslan, 2012; özden, 2005; priestley & biesta, 2013; woods, dooley, luke, & exley, 2014). suggestions 1teachers should be educated in an efficient way prior to serving as a teacher in order to have a sound perspective on the nature of social studies since comprehension of the nature of social studies plays an important role in teaching activities. 2the social studies curriculum and the materials required in association with the curriculum should be reviewed in order to take into account the social and economic conditions of village schools. 3improvement of the internet access facilities, connection speed and quality in village schools would contribute significantly to the teaching quality of the social studies lesson. for this reason, the internet access facilities in village schools should be improved. 4the bureaucratic procedures such as evaluation forms and filling up documents required within the scope of the curriculum should be minimized to help teachers dwell on the problems of teaching and focus on such problems encountered during the teaching process. sümer aktan 65 5workbook sets containing further activities in addition to textbooks and activity books could be designed and provided to village schools with a view to significantly improve the quality of teaching service. recommendation for further studies this study was conducted in a small village school with idiosyncratic conditions. in this context, the level of generalization of case studies can be considered to be lower compared to that of quantitative studies; however, they may provide guidance to quantitative studies through the extensive and comprehensive information they obtain. from this point of view, conducting a study on a larger sample and conducting a survey on the teachers instructing in a multigrade class may significantly contribute to the generalization of the findings throughout the world. similarly, qualitative research on the teachers and school directors may also contribute to the analysis of various aspects related to the subject matter. for example, problems such as teachers’ opinions on the technology integration in the social studies lesson, or the effects of constructivist evaluation applications on the academic achievement and attitudes towards the lesson may positively contribute to the quality of teaching of social studies. moreover, analyses of classroom teachers’ perception about the curriculum as well as their commitment to the curriculum and their ability to efficiently apply the curriculum may also contribute to deepening the perspective provided in this study. references abay, s. (2007). birleştirilmiş sınıflarda sosyal bilgiler öğretimindeki sorunlar. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, on dokuz mayıs üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü i̇lköğretim ana bilim dalı, samsun: türkiye. akınoğlu, o. (2002). hayat bilgisi öğretimi. c. öztürk ve d. dilek (ed.), hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi (2-11). ankara: pegema yayıncılık. akpınar, b., turan, m. ve gözler, a. (2006). birleştirilmiş sınıflarda görev yapan öğretmenlerin yeni ilköğretim müfredatına ilişkin görüş ve önerileri, ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği kongresi, gazi üniversitesi gazi eğitim fakültesi 14–16 nisan 2006. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 66 ata, b. (2006). sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı. (ed. cemil öztürk), hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi: yapılandırmacı bir yaklaşım. (70-83). ankara: pegem akademi. aytaç, k. (1992). avrupa eğitim tarihi. i̇stanbul: marmara üniversitesi i̇lahiyat fakültesi vakfı yayınları. baker, d. p. (2011). the future of the schooled society: the transforming culture of education in postindustrial society. in m.t. hallinan (ed.), frontiers in sociology of education. springer. bartos, s. a. & lederman, n. g. (2014). teachers' knowledge structures for nature of science and scientific inquiry: conceptions and classroom practice. journal of research in science teaching, 51(9), 1150-1184. binbaşıoğlu, c. (2003). hayat bilgisi öğretimi. ankara: nobel yayın dağıtım. brophy, j., alleman, j., & halvorsen, a. l. (2012). powerful social studies for elementary students. cengage learning. buabeng-andoh, c. (2012). factors influencing teachers' adoption and integration of information and communication technology into teaching: a review of the literature. international journal of education and development using information and communication technology, 8(1), 136-155. bugental, d. b., & grusec, j. f. (2006). socialization processes. in w. damon & r. m. lerner (eds.), handbook of child psychology (6th ed., vol. 3). hoboken, nj: wiley. cess-newsome, j. (1999). secondary teachers’ knowledge and beliefs about subject matter and their impact on instruction. in julie cess-newsome & norman g. lederman (eds.), examining pedagogical content knowledge (pp. 51-94). springer netherlands. cüceloğlu d. (2004). i̇nsan ve davranışı. i̇stanbul: remzi kitabevi. çalışkan, h. (2015). an investigation into the organization levels of social studies teachers with regard to constructivist learning environments in terms of several variables. journal of social studies education research (sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi). 6(1). 49-83. http://link.springer.com/search?facet-creator=%22julie+gess-newsome%22 http://link.springer.com/search?facet-creator=%22norman+g.+lederman%22 http://link.springer.com/search?facet-creator=%22norman+g.+lederman%22 sümer aktan 67 dalka, s. (2006) birleştirilmiş sınıflı köy okullarının problemleri ve durum tespiti: doğu beyazıt örneği. ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği kongresi, gazi üniversitesi gazi eğitim fakültesi 14–16 nisan 2006. ankara. davis, o. l. (1981). understanding the history of the social studies. in h. d. mehlinger & o. l. davis (eds.), eightieth yearbook of the national society for the study of education: part ii. the social studies (pp. 19–35). chicago: university of chicago press. davis, l. l. (1992). instrument review: getting the most from a panel of experts. applied nursing research, 5(4), 194-197. demirel, ö. (2007). eğitimde program geliştirme. ankara: pegema yayıncılık. dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education. newyork: the mcmillan company. dinç, e. & doğan, y. (2010). i̇lköğretim ikinci kademe sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ve uygulanması hakkında öğretmen görüşleri. journal of social studies education research (sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi). 1(1). 17-49. dursun, f. (2006). birleştirilmiş sınıflarda eğitim sorunları ve çözüm önerileri. sosyal bilimler araştırmaları dergisi, (2), 33-57. egemen, b. z. (1965). terbiye ilminin problemleri ve terbiye felsefesi. a.ü. i̇lahiyat fakültesi yayınları, ankara: a.ü. basımevi. engle, s. h. & ochoa, a. s. (1988). education for democratic citizenship: decision making in the social studies. new york: teachers college press. entwistle, n. j. (2013). styles of learning and teaching: an integrated outline of educational psychology for students, teachers and lecturers. new york: routledge. ertürk, s. (1966). planlı eğitim ve değerlendirme. ankara: güzel i̇stanbul matbaası. meb ertürk, s. (1972). eğitimde program geliştirme. ankara: yelkentepe yayınları. evans, r. w., newmann, f. m., & saxe, d. w. (1996). defining issues-centered education. in r. w. evans and d. w. saxe (eds.) handbook on teaching social issues. washington: ncss. farris, p. j. (2015). elementary and middle school social studies: an interdisciplinary, multicultural approach. waveland press. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 68 ferguson, r.f. (1991). paying for public education: new evidence on how and why money matters. harvard journal of legislation, 28 (2), 465-498. fishman, b., konstantopoulos, s., kubitskey, b. w., vath, r., park, g., johnson, h., & edelson, d. c. (2013). comparing the impact of online and face-to-face professional development in the context of curriculum implementation. journal of teacher education, 64(5), 426-438. fraser, d. (2009). the evolution of the british welfare state: a history of social policy since the industrial revolution. london: palgrave macmillan. funkhouser, b. j., & mouza, c. (2013). drawing on technology: an investigation of preservice teacher beliefs in the context of an introductory educational technology course. computers & education, 62, 271-285. glesne, c. & peshkin, a. (1992). becoming qualitative researchers: an introduction. white plains, ny: longman. goldhaber, d. d. ve brewer, d. j. (2000). does teacher certification matter? high school teacher certification status and student achievement. education evaluation and policy analysis, 22(2), 129-45. goodman, j., & adler, s. (1985). becoming an elementary social studies teacher: a study of perspectives. theory & research in social education,13(2), 1-20. gözler, a (2009). birleştirilmiş sınıflı okullarda görev yapan öğretmenlerin yeni ilköğretim programına yönelik görüşleri. e-journal of new world sciences academy, 4(3), 815-832. gündoğar, a. (2006). 2005–2006 yılında değişen ilköğretim programının uygulanma durumu (adıyaman i̇li örneği), yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, fırat üniversitesi, elazığ. heater, d. (2001). the history of citizenship education in england. curriculum journal, 12(1), 103-123. heater, d. (2004). citizenship: the civic ideal in world history, politics and education. manchester university press. hertzberg, h. w. (1981). social studies reform 1880-1980. boulder, co: social science education consortium inc. sümer aktan 69 jorgansen, g. c. (2010). unraveling conflicting ınterpretations: a reexamination of the 1916 report on social studies. unpublished doctoral dissertation. logan: utah state university, umi 3404291. kağıtçıbaşı, ç. (2013). günümüzde insan ve insanlar: sosyal psikolojiye giriş. i̇stanbul: evrim yayınları. kanad, h.f. (1963). pedagoji tarihi. i̇stanbul: milli eğitim basımevi. katz, m. b. (1976). the origins of public education: a reassessment. history of education quarterly, 16(4), 381-407. kazu, h. ve aslan, s. (2012). birleştirilmiş sınıf öğretmenlerinin hayat bilgisi dersi öğretim programına yönelik görüşlerinin incelenmesi: nitel bir araştırma. turkish studies, 7 (2), 693-706. kelly, s. & carbonaro, w. (2012). curriculum tracking and teacher expectations: evidence from discrepant course taking models. social psychology of education, 15(3), 271-294. kenworthy, l.s. (1973). guide to social studies teaching (4th edition). belmont, california: wadswort publishing company. killen, r. (2006). effective teaching strategies: lessons from research and practice. cengage learning. kim, c., kim, m. k., lee, c., spector, j. m., & demeester, k. (2013). teacher beliefs and technology integration. teaching and teacher education, 29, 76-85. maarif vekâleti. (1926). i̇lkokul müfredat programı. i̇stanbul. mayer, d. p., mullens, j.e., & moore, m.t. (2000). monitoring school quality: an indicators report (nces 2001-030). u.s. department of education, national center for education statistics. washington, dc: u.s. government printing office. meb. (2009). i̇lköğretim hayat bilgisi programı. ankara: milli eğitim basımevi. merriam, s. b. (1998). qualitative research and case study applications in education. san francisco: jossey bass. milli eğitim bakanlığı. (2005). i̇lköğretim 1. 2. ve 3. sınıflar hayat bilgisi dersi öğretim programı ve kılavuzu. ankara: devlet kitapları müdürlüğü basımevi. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 70 monroe, p. (1901). source book of the history of education: greek and roman period. new york: the macmillan company. morine-dershimer, g. & kent, t. (1999). the complex nature and sources of teachers’ pedagogical knowledge. in julie gess-newsome norman g. lederman (eds.), examining pedagogical content knowledge (pp. 21-50). springer netherlands. nilsson, p. (2008). teaching for understanding: the complex nature of pedagogical content knowledge in pre‐service education. international journal of science education, 30(10), 1281-1299. nilsson, p., & loughran, j. (2012). exploring the development of pre-service science elementary teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. journal of science teacher education, 23(7), 699-721. ochoa-baker, s.a. (2007). democratic education for social studies: an issue centered decision making curriculum. new york: information age publisihng. onosko, j. j. (1991). barriers to the promotion of higher-order thinking in social studies. theory & research in social education, 19(4), 341-366. owens, w. t. (1997). the challenges of teaching social studies methods to preservice elementary teachers. the social studies, 88(3), 113-120. öğretmeni i̇şbaşında yetiştirme bürosu yayınları. özden, y. (2005). 2004 yeni hayat bilgisi programının, öğretmen görüşleri esas alınarak değerlendirilmesi (samsun ili örneği). eğitimde yansımalar viii: yeni i̇lköğretim programlarının değerlendirilmesi sempozyumu, erciyes üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, kayseri. 440-445, tekışık eğitim araştırma vakfı, ankara. öztürk, c. ve dilek, d. (2005). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. ankara: pegema yayıncılık. patton, m.q. (2002). qualitative research & evaluation methods. london: sage publications, inc. poggenpoel, m., & myburgh, c. (2003). the researcher as research instrument in educational research: a possible threat to trustworthiness? education, 124(2), 418-421. http://link.springer.com/search?facet-creator=%22julie+gess-newsome%22 http://link.springer.com/search?facet-creator=%22norman+g.+lederman%22 sümer aktan 71 priestley, m. & biesta, g. (eds.). (2013). reinventing the curriculum: new trends in curriculum policy and practice. a&c black. rapoport, a. (2013). teacher exchange as a means of social studies curriculum internationalization. journal of international social studies, 3(1), 69-76. schunk, d. h., meece, j. r., & pintrich, p. r. (2012). motivation in education: theory, research, and applications. pearson higher ed. sınmaz, a. (2009). birleştirilmiş sınıf öğretmenlerinin yeni ilköğretim programının uygulanmasına ilişkin görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi (düzce i̇li örneği). yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, abant i̇zzet baysal üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü eğitim programları ve öğretim ana bilim dalı, bolu: türkiye. sönmez, v. (2005). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler öğretimi öğretmen kılavuzu. ankara: anı yayıncılık. sönmez, v. (2010). hayat bilgisi öğretimi ve öğretmen kılavuzu / yeni programa göre düzenlenmiş ders planı örnekleri. ankara: anı yayıncılık. taba, h. (1962). curriculum development: theory and practice. new york: harcourt brace jovanovich. tarman, b. & acun, i̇. (2010). sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ve yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi. journal of social studies education research (sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi). 1(1). 1-16. günel, e. & pehlivan, a. (2015). küresel eğitim çerçevesinde vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programı. journal of social studies education research (sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi). 6(1). 123-171. tanner, d. & tanner, n.l. (1975). curriculum development: theory and practice. new york: macmillan publishing co. tilly, c. (1995). citizenship, identity and social history. international review of social history, 40(3), 1-17. turhan, m. (1994). kültür değişmeleri: sosyal psikoloji bakımından bir tetkik. i̇stanbul: marmara üniversitesi i̇lahiyat fakültesi yayınları, no: 16. voltz, d.l., sims, j.m. & nelson, b. (2010). connecting teachers, students and standarts: strategies for success in diverse and inclusive classrooms. alexandria, va: ascd. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(1), 41-72 72 windschitl, m. (2002). framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: an analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. review of educational research, 72(2), 131-175. woods, a., dooley, k., luke, a., & exley, b. (2014). school leadership, literacy and social justice: the place of local school curriculum planning and reform. in ira bogotch & carolyn m. shields (eds.), international handbook of educational leadership and social (in) justice (pp. 509-520). springer netherlands. yıldırım, a. ve şimşek, h. (2008). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. yıldız, s.ş. (2009). 2005 hayat bilgisi dersi öğretim programının birleştirilmiş sınıflarda uygulanabilirliğinin öğretmen görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi (nitel bir araştırma). yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. afyon: afyon kocatepe üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017: 8(1), 35-46 © 2017 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 the effect of using cartoons on developing omani grade 4 students’ awareness of water issues and their attitudes towards using them in teaching social studies ahmed hamed al-rabaani 1 & intisar hamed al-aamri2 abstract the study aimed at investigating the effect of using cartoons on developing grade four students' awareness of water issues. it also aimed at examining their attitudes towards using cartoons in social studies lessons. an experimental design was used with pre-posttest. the experimental group consisted of (33) male and female students while the control group consisted of (33) male and female students. an awareness of water issues’ test and attitudes questionnaire was used to collect data. the results showed that using cartoons were significantly increased students' awareness of water issues. it also found that students had very high positive attitudes toward using cartoons in social studies lessons. keywords: cartoons, water awareness, attitudes, social studies, oman. introduction social studies textbooks include a lot of political, economic, social, culture, environmental, scientific and technological events. these events are viewed differently by people and presented in several ways (tarman, 2016). cartoons are one of the most popular tools that artists use to express their opinion about different situation in a very simple, attractive, critical and meaningful manner (martin, 2007; cundall, 2007). these cartoons are used widely in newspapers because they are welcomed by young and old people and are easily understood. according to özay (2013, 932) the cartoons can be used for both children and adults because they are favored by both and the image is "easy on the eye and easy on the brain". thus they are used in teaching with different ages of students as visual tool that allow the teacher to present issues, phenomenon or events that society is concerned about them. the cartoons have the ability to attract students’ attention through humor, caricature, irony, stereotypes symbols and encourage to them to focus on the main idea of the image. they also develop their reading, analysis and interpretation skills. these cartoons motivate students to think 1 assoc. prof. sultan qaboos university, rabaani@hotmail.com 2 med. sultan qaboos university, entesar8310@gmail.com mailto:entesar8310@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 35-46 36 critically, evaluate artists' views and present their own views on the image focal idea (özer, 2005; dalacosta et al., 2009). the effectiveness of image symbols enhances students' concentration on the topic which is being discussed which is very important element of the learning process and in creating an active learning environment (kleeman, 2006; naylor, 2007; birisçi et al., 2008; fleischer, 2010). according to teke et al (2013) cartoons are a powerful tool that includes entertaining elements which encourage critical thinking of their main idea. the entertaining elements also motivate students to laugh and make a funny comment which is important in enhancing their interaction with the idea of the cartoons and drives their brain to think deeply about the issue. wanzer (2006) indicates that laughing promotes social cooperation between people and enhances motivation, imagination and creativity. it also reduces stress, enhances self-confidence and motivates shy students to participate effectively (chiasson, 2002; parrott 1994). the students' concentration on the main idea of the image leads them to establish their own ideas and raise arguments (fleischer, 2010). it also encourages them to make comments and establish connections and weaves a story in minds (cevat & oguzhan, 2014; zousel, rule, & logan, 2013). such process expands their understanding of the idea being discussed and encourages them to search for more information in different resources. the use of cartoons increases the productivity of the active learning environment by increasing students’ creativity and their abilities to organize what they have learned, and apply this in their daily life (ross, 2012). the effectiveness of cartoons on the learning process and development of educational outcomes has received wide attention by researchers who examined it empirically. it has been found that cartoons have effectively increased students achievement (keogh et al., 1998; alqurashi, 2001; baksh, 2002; özalp, 2006; rule & auge, 2005; üner, 2009). and have also enhanced students' attitudes and motivation (hackett & betz, 1989; özalp, 2006; çiğdemtekin, 2007; üner, 2009; cengizhan, 2011; şengul & derelih, 2013) and increased their critical thinking skills (micheal, 2011). based on the proved effectiveness of using cartoons as a teaching tool, the researchers are concerned in this study with investigating their effectiveness on developing four grade students' awareness of water issues. the concern about awareness of water issue comes from the issue of fresh water shortage in oman where oman located in one of the driest areas on the planet. according to ministry of municipality and water resources (2010) the annual rainfall is 100 mm ahmed hamed al-rabaani & intisar hamed al-aamri 37 and 93% of it evaporates because of high temperature. the issue of fresh water shortage is increasing due to the rapid growth of population, development projects and change in life style where people consume more water than in the past where people used to use the falaj system, which is still in use in some villages today, and consists of a small man made irrigation steam. (al-rabaani, 2005; al-rabaani & al-salami, 2010). the increased demand has driven the government to build many water dams on wadies (rainfall water stream) to charge underground water reserves and increase number of desalination plants to (47) by the year 2007. it also has started a cloud ionization project to increase the amount of rainfall and runs many water awareness campaigns through media, environmental associations, mosques and through education (ministry of municipality and water resources, 2015). in spite of all government efforts, the shortage of fresh water is a continuing issue and there is a need to change people's water behavior through enhancing their realization of its seriousness in both short and long term the studies which are concerned with students water awareness sadly showed that they have low levels of water awareness (al-yahyeei, 2012, alrabaani & al-meklafi,2009; al-shauli & al-rabaani,2011). this disturbing finding has encouraged the researchers to consider the issues which might lie behind low levels of water awareness. a previous study of social studies text books used in omani schools showed that there is in fact a focus on water issues, so ignorance cannot be considered an attributing factor (alrabaani, 2005; al-abri, 2011; al-rabaani & al-salami, 2010). thus, the researchers think about using a teaching tool which can make difference in students' water awareness and based on the literature it found that cartoons can make differences. the selection of cartoons as a teaching tool to promote students' water awareness is due to that water issue is controversial where some belief that as the government increase number of desalinations plants and people pay the cost of water consumption so why we should ask them to rationale its use. the cartoons are the best tool to present this controversial issue that allow students to argue and try to come up with a rational view. also the cartoons are suitable for age of grade four students and it is important to start raising water awareness early. also, the reason for targeting the fourth grade students is due to the fact that the social studies' textbook includes a unite about water which enabled the researchers to teach it through using cartoon for experimental group. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 35-46 38 research questions: what is the effectiveness of using cartoons on developing grade four students' water awareness? what are grade four students' attitudes towards using cartoons in social studies lessons? research objectives: the study aimed at: examining the effectiveness of using cartoons in developing water awareness. examining students' attitudes toward using cartoons in social studies lessons. methodology a quasi-experimental design with pre-test/posttest for both experimental and control group was used. the experimental group studies with using cartoons while the control group studies with the traditional method (kumar, 2011). to ensure the equivalence of both groups, a pretest was applied and a t-test was used which showed that there was no significant difference between the two groups. table 1 a quasi-experimental design groups pre-test treatment post-test experimental group water awareness test instructional techniques using cartoons water awareness test & attitudes questionnaire control group water awareness test traditional methods water awareness test sample ahmed hamed al-rabaani & intisar hamed al-aamri 39 the study was conducted with a total of (65) 4th grade male and female' students' at one school in al-dakiliah province. of total (33) students were part of the experimental group and (32) of the control group. the number of male and female students in each group is equal and they were at age of 10 years. these students come from different socio-economic status. data collection data was collected by using an awareness test and attitudes questionnaire. the awareness test was developed based on the analysis of a unit from the grade 4 social studies textbook, which focused on water issue (al-yahyaeei, 2012; al-rabaani, 2005; al-abri, 2011). the test consisted of 20 questions, (5) of them were multiple choice, (10) of them were complete and (5) of them were open sentences. the five likert scale consisted of (13) items divided into two domains: the importance of using cartoons in teaching social studies and using cartoons as teaching tool the validity of water awareness test and attitudes questionnaire was examined by a panel of judges from sultan qaboos university and social studies supervisors from the ministry of education .the reliability of the awareness test was also examined by applying it to a trial group which consisted of 30 students from different schools. the results of chronbach's alpha were (.74). the reliability of the questionnaire was obtained from applying it to the experimental group after treatment, this was .89). the pretest and the questionnaire were administered before starting the conducting the experiment for both groups (experimental and control) in fifth of april. the implementation took around three weeks, three lessons per week for both groups from 12 april 2015 till 30 april 2015. the control group was taught by the school teacher while the experimental group was taught by the researchers. before the implementation, the experimental group was taught for two lessons about cartoons reading and drawing to ensure that they can easily understand and use them during the experiment lessons. during the experiment, the experimental group was divided into subgroups (5-6 students in each group). they were asked to read cartoons, explain what they understand from them, express their views about the presented issue in the cartoon, why it was presented in this way, voice their agreement/disagreement to artist’s point of view and how they view such issue in their local area. also the experimental group students were asked to draw their own cartoons about water issue. at journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 35-46 40 the end of the experiment the group the students who drew the best cartoon was awarded by the researchers. results: what is the effectiveness of using cartoon on developing grade four students' water awareness? table 2 t-test results of post-test results of experimental and control group groups mean sd t-value df sig experimental group 14.59 4.95 4.76 63 .000 control group 9.43 3.64 the results showed statistically significant differences between experimental and control groups in favor of the experimental group. the mean of the experimental group as (14.59) from a total of (20) which means that the awareness level reached 72.9% compared to the control group, whose mean was (9.43) out of a total score of (20) which represents 47.1%, in other words less than 50%. in comparison, we can see that the use of cartoons has increased the awareness of water issues of the experimental group by about 25.8%. what are grade four students' attitudes towards using cartoons in the social studies lessons? table 3 students' attitudes towards using cartoons in social studies lessons domains mean sd iimportance f using cartoons in social studies lessons 4.7 .5 using cartoons as teaching tool 4.8 .3 ahmed hamed al-rabaani & intisar hamed al-aamri 41 average 4.7 .4 the results showed that students have high positive attitudes towards using cartoons in social studies lessons and toward using them as a teaching tool. the students displayed high levels of interest in using cartoons as an effective tool for creating a positive learning environment. results discussion based on the findings, it can be said that using cartoons in the social studies lessons has significantly increased students' water awareness level compare to the traditional method. the cartoons created an active learning environment when students began to look at them and read them. the change in students’ interaction with their teacher and with their peers was observed even with those students who were considered normally to be less active participants in class. one reason for this could be that comics, irony, satire symbols included in the cartoons. it could also be due to the humorous ways that artists often present water issues which drive students to laugh initially, but later makes them concentrate more when they start to analyze the cartoon content. the cartoons create a new learning environment where students enjoy analyzing their content, trying to understand the main point of the artists. the students’ deep concentration is obvious as they keep working till the last minute of the lessons, they cooperate more fully with peers and can be seen making comments to each other about water behavior. their attention drives them to focus on the main point, and discuss links with their daily life and environment. these results are in line with previous studies which show the effect of cartoons in harnessing students’ attention. (cevat & oguzhan, 2014; zousel, rule, & logan, 2013; teke etl, 2013; fleischer, 2010; burner, 2009). the cartoons also motivate students to express their opinions freely, debating ideas with each other and giving examples of poor water behavior observed in some people. it has even been observed that students start to express their concerns about water behavior by drawing their own cartoons. their drawings reflect their views of water behavior in their local environment like protection of water stream from pollution and rational use of water in irrigation of plants at home or farms they air their concerns for the future when they observe cartoons showing the increase journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 35-46 42 of desertification and death of plants in farms due to the shortage of water. these cartoons drove them to suggest solutions to change water behavior, rational use of water and protecting water from pollution. such results prove what has been stated on literature hat using cartoons develops students' imagination and creativity (ross, 2012; chiasson, 2002; parrott 1994). the cartoons create an amusing learning environment which is important for students at this age, who prefer playing and moving around during lessons. the funny learning environment encourages students to use their multiple -intelligence during drawing of their own cartoons and students' have also been inspired to draw posters and to tell friends and family about water awareness issues, as a result of what they have viewed in the cartoons. such results are in line with previous studies which showed that the use of cartoons positively affects attitudes and interests towards the topic (hackett & betz, 1989; özalp, 2006; çiğdemtekin, 2007; üner, 2009; cengizhan, 2011; şengul & derelih, 2013) the results of the questionnaire showed that students have strong positive attitudes toward using the cartoons in social studies lessons. they believe that using cartoons has enabled them to understand water issues to a greater degree, to interact effectively in the classroom and to develop their knowledge, critical thinking skills and attitudes they also believe that teaching through the use of cartoons creates a more open learning environment and helps to develop students’ selfconfidence. it also showed that students' belief that using cartoons made social studies lessons more attractive and they recommend using them in other lessons and subjects. conclusion the results show that using cartoons has a positive effect on students water awareness because they were able to enrich the learning environment and created a student-centred learning environment. the use of cartoons encourages students to think and discuss their ideas and to link these with their local environment. the research found that teachers strongly support using cartoons in the social studies lessons and find them to be a supportive learning tool. acknowledgement we would like to acknowledge all those who have contributed in conducting this study and students in experimental and control groups and cooperative teachers. ahmed hamed al-rabaani & intisar hamed al-aamri 43 references al-abri, z. ( 2011). the extent of including water concept in social studies textbooks of basic education (5-10) in the sultanate of oman. ma thesis, college of education sultan qaboos university. al-qurashi, a .(2001). the effect of using cartoons in developing third preparatory students current events interpretation skills , egyptian association of curriculum & instruction, 21, 52-70 http://kenanaonline.com/users/haresammar/posts/282028 al-rabaani, a & alsalme, h.(2010). information related to the world continent in social studies textbooks in the sultanate of oman, arab journal of education & psychology, 8(2) 40 – 64. al-rabaani, a. & al-mekhlafi, m .(2009). attitudes of sultan qaboos university students towards some environmental problems and their willingness to take action to reduce them, journal of social science, 5(1), 9 – 15. al-rabaani, a. (2005). the extent of including water problem dimensions in omani secondary school geography textbooks, egyptian council for curriculum & instruction, 105 (august), 33 – 52. al-shuaili,a & al-rabaani, a. (2010) the climate changes awareness among science and social sciences student teachers at sultan qaboos, journal of educational science, 6 (4) 269-284 al-yahyeei, r. (2012). water awareness among post basic education students in the sultanate of oman, ma thesis. college of education, sultan qaboos university. baksh, g. (2002). the effect of using cartoons on achieving cognitive aim of society subject among first secondary students in yemen. ma thesis, http://www.yemennic.info/contents/studies/detail.php?id=9378 birisçi, s., metin, m. & karakas, m. (2010). pre-service elementary teachers’ views on concept cartoons: a sample from turkey. middle-east journal of scientific research, 5 (2), 91-97 cengizhan, s. (2011). modüler öğretim tasarımıyla entegre edilmiş kavram karikatürleri hakkında öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri. eğitim ve bilim, 36(160), 93-104. cevat, e & oguzhan, k. ( 2014). the effect of educational practice with cartoons on learning outcomes, international journal of humanities and social science, 4 (14)223-234 http://kenanaonline.com/users/haresammar/posts/282028 http://www.yemen-nic.info/contents/studies/detail.php?id=9378 http://www.yemen-nic.info/contents/studies/detail.php?id=9378 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 35-46 44 chiasson, paul-emile. 2002, humor in the second language classroom; çiğdemtekin, b. (2007). fizik eğitiminde elektrostatik konusu ile ilgili kavram yanılgılarının giderilmesine yönelik bir karikatüristik yaklaşım. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, gazi üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, ankara. retrieved on 4 march 2015 from http://tez2.yok.gov.tr cundall, m. k. jr. (2007). humor and the limits of incongruity. creativity research journal, 19(23), pp. 203-211. dalacosta k, kamariotaki-paparrigopoulou m., palyvos j.a., spyrellis n. (2009). multimedia application with animated cartoonss for teaching science in elementary education. computers & education, 52:741–748. fleischer j.a. (2010).using cartoonss for type education. retrieved on 17 january 2015 from http://www.docstoc.com/ docs/31863960/using-cartoons-for-type-education fleischer. j.a. (2010).using cartoons for type education. http://www.docstoc.com/ docs/31863960/using-cartoons-for-type-education greenwald, s. j., & nestler, a. (2004). engaging students with significant mathematical content from the simpsons. primus, 14(1), 29-39. hackett, g., & betz, n. e. (1989). an exploration of the mathematics self efficacy, mathematics performance correspondence. journal for research in mathematics education, 20, 261-273. kleeman, g. (2006). using cartoons to investigate social and environmental issues. ethos, 14(3), 9-19 kumar, r. (2011) research methodology a step-by step guide for beginners. loss angelees: sage martin, r. a. (2007). the psychology of humor: an integrative approach. burlington, ma: elsevier academic press. micheal, m. (2011). the use of cartoons as a teaching tool to enhance students learning economic education, j soc sci, 26(2): 117-130 ministry of municipality and water resources,( 2015) water projects. retrieved on 15 august 2015 from. http://mrmwr.gov.om/new/page.aspx?id=71&li=8&type=w_sec&slide=false naylor, b., naylor s. & mitchell, g. (2000). the snowman's coat. london, hodder childre's books http://mrmwr.gov.om/new/page.aspx?id=71&li=8&type=w_sec&slide=false ahmed hamed al-rabaani & intisar hamed al-aamri 45 özalp, i. (2006). karikatür tekniğinin fen ve çevre eğitimde kullanılabilirliği üzerine bir araştırma. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, celal bayar üniversitesi, fen bilimleri enstitüsü, manisa retrieved on 4 march 2015 from. http://tez2.yok.gov.tr özay, e. (2013). effect of cartoons on students' achievement and attitudes in biology teaching ( endocrine system), eylül 2013 cilt:21 (3),931-944 parrott, t. (1994). humour as a teaching strategy. nurse educator, 19(3): 36-38. ross p.m. (2012). the use of cartoonss in teaching and learning invertebrate biology. retrieved on 12 april 2015 www. bioassess.edu.au. rule, a. c., & auge, j. (2005). using humorous cartoonss to teach mineral and rock concepts in sixth grade science class. journal of geoscience education, 53(5), 548-558. şengul, s. & dereli, m. (2013). the effect of learning integers using cartoonss on 7th grade students’ attitude to mathematics, educational sciences: theory & practice 13(4 ) 25262534. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. teke, e., pehlivan, m & haceminoglu, e. (2013) the effect of the science and technology course integrated with cartoonss on students achievement and attitudes, journal of educational and instructional studies, 3 (2) 129134. üner, i̇. (2009). i̇lköğretim okullarında karikatürle öğrenmenin öğrencilerin başarı ve tutum düzeylerine etkisi. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, marmara üniversitesi, fen bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. retrieved on 26 march 2015 from http://tez2.yok.gov.tr van wyk mm .(2007). the use of cooperative learning in economics in the further education and training phase of the free state province. ph.d thesis, unpublished. bloemfontein: university of the free state van, w.( 2009). students’ reflections regarding the use of cartoonss as a teaching technique in the economics classroom. paper presented at easa international conference, illovo beach, durban, south africa 13-16 january wanzer, m., frymier, a., wojtaszczyk, a., & smith, t.(2006).appropriate and inappropriate uses of humor by teachers. communication education http://tez2.yok.gov.tr/ http://tez2.yok.gov.tr/ journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 35-46 46 zousel, m. l., rule, a. c., & logan, s. r. (2013). teaching primary grade students perfectionism through cartoonss compared to bibliotherapy. international electronic journal of elementary education, 5(2), 199-218. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(1), 73-96 * bu makale 20-22 nisan 2012 uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu’nda sözlü bildiri olarak sunulmuştur. **this article was presented in the international social studies education symposium in 20-22 april 2012. 1arş. grv. dr., abant i̇zzet baysal üniversitesi 2yrd. doç. dr., anadolu üniversitesi 3arş. grv. dr., anadolu üniversitesi © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 teknolojinin değerlere yansıması konusunda sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri* pre-service social studies teachers’ views about reflection of technology on values** e. özlem yi̇ği̇t1, tuba çengelci̇2 ve hıdır karaduman3 özet teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki etkileşim eğitim yoluyla genç bireylere tanıtılmakta, onların bu konuda farkındalık kazanmaları amaçlanmaktadır. türkiye’de ilköğretim programında yer alan sosyal bilgiler dersi de kazanımları ile bu amaca hizmet etmektedir. bu derste bilim ve teknolojinin toplumsal yaşam üzerindeki etkisi ve bu etkinin değerlere yansıması karşılıklı olarak ele alınmaktadır. bu ilişkinin etkili biçimde ortaya konulmasında ise öğretmenlere büyük görev düşmektedir. dolayısıyla bu araştırmanın amacı, mesleki yaşamlarında sosyal bilgiler dersini yürütecek öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin değerlere yansıması ile ilgili görüşlerinin belirlenmesidir. araştırmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerine dayalı olarak hazırlanan ve öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin değerlere yansımasına ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemeye dönük açık uçlu soruların yer aldığı bir veri toplama aracı kullanılmıştır. araştırmanın katılımcılarını iki devlet üniversitesinde ikinci sınıfa devam eden ve “bilim, teknoloji ve sosyal değişme” dersini alan 122 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayı oluşturmuştur. araştırmada elde edilen veriler içerik analizi tekniğiyle çözümlenmiştir. araştırma sonucunda, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine yönelik journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 74 bakış açılarının teknolojik iyimserlik çerçevesinde, teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkiye dair yaklaşımlarının ise teknolojik kötümserlik çerçevesinde yorumlanabileceği saptanmıştır. anahtar kelimeler: teknoloji, değerler, sosyal bilgiler, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayı e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 75 extended summary differentatition of the tools has been effecting human life in every area since they first formed a blade from a piece of flint. technology extends human potential by allowing them to do things they couldn’t otherwise do. as time passed, they became more sophisticated at making tools and learned to put different parts together to improve existings and to create new technologies. to understand technology better, it must be put into a broad context and be interpreted together with social, cultural and environmental issues. technology effects the society and the society effects technology, and they go hand in hand. over the course of time, technology has become and increasingly larger part of people’s lives. people live in apartments, work and shop in large buildings, eat prepared foods, use television and internet for communication and travel by vehicles, so we can say that people occupy a technological world and the world has become a virtual platform (itea, 2007). technology’s effects are widely regarded as desirable but sometimes it has negative effects both on physical and social environment. traditional ways of life have been displaced by technological development and as the pace of technological change continues to increase, questions arise as to whether society can effectively keep up with the changes (itea, 2007). people take the advantages of technology with rapid changes in production systems, but criticism is also voiced against the monotony of human life, people’s emotional deprivation and the extensive loss in the viability of valuable things in societal life (çelikcan, 2011, p.168). technological development also tends to magnify the inequalities among people and among societies by creating a situation in which a minority of people control and use a majority of the world’s resources (itea, 2007). such factors make it important that desicions be made by individuals and societies with care about any technology. there are lots of options in dealing with technology and decisions about technology represent the individual’s and society’s values. the values and beliefs of societies also shape their attitudes toward journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 76 technology. social and cultural priorities and values are reflected in technological devices and systems. in this context, people need to be educated as technologically literated and technorealist individuals. sociologists have stated that there are two opposite opinions, technological determinism and technological pessimism, as to the effects of technology to society and, technorealism is an opinion which defends that we must use the technology as appropriate to our values (kabakçı & odabaşı, 2004). science and technology could be risky in the hands of people who were far from ethical values (doğanay, 2009, p. 226-227) and those people might use their knowledge to either people’s or environment’s disadvantage. thus, success in attainments of the social studies course is important in making people useful for society, nation and the world. the social studies curricula which was introduced in 2005 include subjects both in technology and the values. in 6th and 7th grades, students ask to give their opinions about technological issues. the effects of copyright and patent on scientific developments are issued through this learning area and it is aimed to make students aware that the scientific research and richness are maintained by law. students ask to give samples about scientific and technological contributions of people starting from the pre-historic periods and it is expected them to be aware of the parallelism between creative, critical, scientific thinking and developments in science and technology through summarizing the history of science and technology (meb, 2005). it is not enough that science and technology included in curricula. to have an impact, it is vital that social studies teachers and pre-service teachers get knowledge and skills about the effects of science and technology on society and, the importance of values in maintaining scientific and technological studies and transmitting them to next generations. in this context, views of social studies pre-service teachers about technology’s reflection on values gain an importance because these views influence what happens in their classrooms. however, there e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 77 is any research about teachers’ perspectives about technology’s reflection on values. thus, this research was derived from the need toward finding out these pespectives, because social stucies pre-service teachers would teach the interactions among science, technology and society to their students. in this study, a data collection tool was developed based on qualitative means which included open-ended questions regarding the pre-service social studies teachers’ views about reflection of technology on values. in two state universities, 122 second grader pre-service social studies teachers who were attending to the “science, technology and societal change” course formed the participants of this research. the data gathered in this study were analysed through content analyse technique. data were examined and evaluated in the context of the classification about the usage of technology (kabakçı & odabaşı, 2004). in conclusion, it was found that pre-service social studies teachers’ views about todays’ technological developments could be interpreted in the framework of technological optimism and their attitudes towards the relationship between technology and the values could be understood within the scope of technological pessimism. they stated their concerns about the negative effects of technology on values. thus, it should be taught to teachers to see each technology is neither good nor bad in itself. the development and the usage of technology is influenced by a variety of factors, including individuals, groups and the society. it was also seen that social studies pre-service teachers’ technology definitions were focused on product dimension and goal-directed structure of technology. all this makes it important that teachers understand and are comfortable with the concepts and workings of technology and the interaction between technology and the values in society. this is also important for citizenship because an informed citizen can participate to the decisions about science and technology. technology influences cultural patterns and the daily life. social studies preservice teachers specified the values like unity of familiy, to being scientific and hardworking journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 78 in relation with technology. but, it was noteworthy that they didn’t talk about ethics and estetics in the context of technology. they just gave importance to the values like being scientific, freedom and independence. besides, they thought that television, computer and internet were having much more influence on values than other technologies. keywords: technology, values, the social studies, pre-service social studies teacher e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 79 giriş tarih boyunca kullanılan araç gereçlerdeki faklılaşmalar insan yaşamını çok yönlü bir biçimde etkilemiştir. bu araç gereçleri kullanabilme ve daha da önemlisi kendi ihtiyaçlarını giderebilecek olanı icat edebilme becerisi insanı diğer canlılardan ayıran temel özelliklerden biri olmuştur. teknoloji, insanın dünya üzerinde var olmasından bu yana yaşanılan ortamı şekillendirmiş ve insan yaşamının vazgeçilmez bir parçası durumuna gelmiştir. antropolog margaret mead, arkeolog gordon childe ve sosyolog william ogburn tarafından sosyal değişime yönelik olarak vurgulanmış olduğu gibi insanoğlunun doğadaki varlığını sürdürebilmek için ürettiği teknoloji onun diğer insanlarla ilişkilerinde de belirleyici rol oynamıştır (ata, 2008). yaşadığı teknolojik dünya insanı ve yaşamını sadece olumlu anlamda etkilememekte, teknoloji olumsuz yönleri ile eleştiri konusu da olmaktadır. üretimin hızlı ilerlemesi ile teknolojinin üstünlüklerinden yararlanan insanın monoton bir yaşam içine girmesi, duygusallığından uzaklaşması, sosyal yaşamdan kopması ve toplumun değer verdiği çoğu şeyin önemini yitirmeye başlaması (çelikcan, 2011, s.168) teknolojinin olumsuzlukları konusunda getirilen eleştiriler arasında yer almaktadır. ürün, süreç, bilgi, amaç ve anlam boyutlarıyla yaşamın her alanında kendini gösteren teknoloji; sağladığı kolaylıklarla birlikte birtakım kaygı ve tehlikeleri barındırmaktadır. i̇nsan tarafından oluşturululan teknoloji icat eden kişilerin bakış açısını ve kültürünü de yansıtmaktadır (maguth, 2009). dolayısıyla teknoloji hem insandan etkilenmekte, hem de onu etkisi altına almaktadır. bilim ve teknoloji alanında gücü elinde tutan bir azınlığın dünya üzerindeki kaynakların büyük çoğunluğunu kontrol edebilmesi ve kullanabilmesi de insanlar ve toplumlar arasındaki eşitsizliği artırmaktadır (itea, 2007). teknolojik süreçlerin etkisi dolayısıyla, günümüzde bireylerin ve toplumların çeşitli teknolojik sistemlerin gelişimi ve kullanımı konusunda kararlar almaları gerekmektedir. bu noktada birçok seçenek bulunmakta ve alınacak kararlar bireyin ya da journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 80 toplumun değerlerini yansıtır nitelikte olmaktadır (itea, 2007). tüm bu olgular ise teknoloji ile değerler arasındaki ilişkiyi ve etkileşimi ortaya koymaktadır. teknoloji değerleri etkileyerek biçimlenmesinde rol oynadığı gibi, değerler de teknolojinin gelişiminde yönlendirici ve denetleyici olabilmektedir. straub, loch ve hill (2001) tarafından arap dünyasına yönelik olarak yapılmış çalışmanın sonuçlarının da gösterdiği gibi, kültür ve değerler belirli bir teknolojinin benimsenmesinde ya da reddedilmesinde etkili olabilmektedir. teknoloji, belirli eylemlerin iyi ya da istenen olup olmadığı konusunda yargıda bulunmaya hizmet eden standartlar olarak tanımlanan (halstead ve taylor, 2000) ve sosyal etkileşimden ve kültürden bağımsız olarak düşünülemeyen (turiel, 2008) değerleri etkileyen öğeler arasında yer almaktadır. teknolojideki gelişmeler dolayısıyla ülkeler arasındaki sınırlar neredeyse kalkmış ve küreselleşmenin etkisiyle ortak bir kültür oluşmuştur. teknoloji ile kültür arasındaki bu ilişki özaydın (2010)’ın çalışmasında da dile getirilmiş; üniversite öğrencilerinin kulaklıkla müzik dinlerken bir tanıdıkları ile karşılaşınca kulaklıklarını çıkartma, arkadaşları ile konuşurken aynı zamanda cep telefonları ile ilgilenmeyi uygun bulmama, toplu kullanım alanlarında telefonlarını sessize alma, e-mail yazışmalarına kişiye özel hitapla başlamaya özen gösterme, gelen e-mailleri geciktirmeden cevaplama gibi ortak davranışlar geliştirmiş oldukları belirtilmiştir. bijker (2001) ise iletişimde bilgisayar teknolojisi aracılığıyla gelişmiş deyimlerin sıklıkla kullanıldığı, farklı değer yargılarının oluştuğu, kimlik numarası ve kredi kartları gibi teknolojik olgular yoluyla kimliğin çeşitli açılımlarının doğduğu bir teknoloji kültürünün varlığından söz etmekte ve bu kültürü anlamanın önemine değinmektedir. teknoloji ile birlikte yaşam koşullarının değişmesi sonucu bireylerin değerlerinde yaşanan farklılaşmayı ele alan bir başka çalışma ise inglehart ve diğerleri (2007) tarafından gerçekleştirilmiştir. 1981-2004 yılları arasında 85 ülkede değerlerin ve inançların değişiminin incelendiği değişen değerler ve i̇nançlara yönelik bir tarama başlıklı bu çalışmanın e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 81 sonuçları insanların politika, din, cinsiyet rolleri, çalışma motivasyonu gibi konularda eğilimlerinin değiştiğini, bilim ve teknolojiye ilişkin görüşlerinin farklılaştığını ortaya koymaktadır. bunun yanı sıra ahlaki ilkelere saygı, çocuk-aile bağları gibi konularda çok büyük değişimin meydana gelmediği, bu alanda değerlerin varlığını sürdürdüğü ancak insanların dini normlar ve politik görüşleri konusunda daha büyük değişim olduğu ortaya konulmuştur. alanyazında öğretmen eğitiminde değerleri ele alan çalışmalara bakıldığında genel olarak öğretmen adaylarının değer algılarını ve tercihlerini belirlemeye yönelik çalışmalar (balcı ve yelken, 2010; dilmaç ve diğ., 2008; kolaç ve karadağ, 2012; koruklu ve aktamış, 2012; sarı, 2005; yalmancı, 2009) ve onların değerler ve değerler eğitimi ile ilgili görüşlerinin (fidan, 2009; yazar, 2012) yanı sıra sosyo-bilimsel konular üzerindeki ahlaki sorgulamalarını (lee, 2012) ele alan araştırmalar yapıldığı görülmektedir. bunun yanı sıra öğretmen adaylarının teknolojiye ve bilgisayara yönelik tutumlarını belirlemeyi amaçlayan çalışmalar (çelik ve kahyaoğlu, 2007; deniz ve diğ., 2006; teo ve diğ., 2007) da göze çarpmaktadır. teknoloji ile değerler arasındaki ilişkiyi ortaya koyan ve öğretmenlerin ya da öğretmen adaylarının bu bağlamdaki görüşlerini ele alan çalışmalara ise rastlanmamaktadır. dolayısıyla bu araştırma sosyal bilgiler dersinde bilim, teknoloji ve toplum arasındaki ilişkiyi öğrencilere kavratma görevini üstlenecek sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin değerlere yansıması konusundaki görüşlerinin belirlenmesi gereksiniminden kaynaklanmaktadır. bilim ve teknoloji etik değerlere sahip olamayan insanların elinde zarar verici bir güç haline gelebileceğinden (doğanay, 2009) ve bireylerin bilgi birikimlerini insanlığın ve çevrenin zararına kullanmaları da olası olduğundan, sosyal bilgilerin amaçlarının tüm aşamalarıyla gerçekleşmesi toplum için dengeli bireylerin yetiştirilmesi bakımından da önem taşımaktadır. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 82 teknolojinin gelişim hızı arttıkça toplumların siyasi ve sosyal normlarını bu değişime ayak uyduracak biçimde nasıl dengede tutabileceğine dair sorular gündemdeki yerini korumaktadır. toplumun kültürü ve benimsemiş olduğu değerler bu soruya verilecek yanıt üzerinde etkili olmaktadır. farklı teknolojilerin kullanımına yönelik olarak alınan kararlarda da toplumun kültürü ve değerleri söz sahibidir. örneğin gen teknolojisi tarımın gelişmesine ve hastalıkların tedavisine katkıda bulunduğu gibi, çok sayıda etik sorunu da beraberinde getirmektedir. bu tür konulara yönelik kararlarda ise tüm toplumun söz hakkının olması ve vatandaşların sorumluluklarının bilincinde davranmaları gerekmektedir. vatandaşlık eğitiminde önemli bir yere sahip olan sosyal bilgiler dersi ve bu dersi verecek öğretmenler bu bağlamda incelenmesi gereken konular arasında bulunmaktadır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişki konusundaki farkındalıkları ve bunu öğrencilerine aktarmadaki başarıları teknoloji ile ilgili kararlara yönelik sorumluluklarının farkında olan ve bunları yerine getiren, aktif vatandaşların yetişmesine katkıda bulunacaktır. dolayısıyla bu çalışma, geleceğin sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri olacak öğretmen adaylarının bu konudaki görüş ve düşüncelerini ortaya koyması bakımından önem taşımaktadır. bu görüşlerden yola çıkılarak sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarına bilim, teknoloji ve toplum bağlamında sunulan derslerin yeterliliği ve yapılması gerekenler konusunda bir öngörüye ulaşılması da mümkün olacaktır. bu araştırmanın amacı mesleki yaşamlarında sosyal bilgiler dersini yürütecek öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin değerlere yansımasına ilişkin görüş ve anlayışlarını belirlemektir. araştırmada bu genel amaca bağlı olarak şu sorulara yanıt aranmıştır: 1. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojiyi nasıl tanımlamaktadır? 2. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine ilişkin görüşleri nelerdir? e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 83 3. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının sosyal yaşamda değerlerin rolüne ilişkin görüşleri nelerdir? 4. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişki konusundaki görüşleri nelerdir? 5. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında bulunan değerler üzerinde teknolojinin etkisine ilişkin görüşleri nelerdir? 6. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji üzerinde en fazla etkiye sahip olduğunu düşündükleri değerler hangileridir? yöntem betimsel nitelikteki bu araştırmanın verileri nitel araştırma yöntemine dayalı olarak hazırlanan ve öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin değerlere yansımasına ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemeye dönük açık uçlu soruların yer aldığı bir veri toplama aracı ile elde edilmiştir. kullanılan veri toplama aracının oluşturulmasında, literatür taraması sonucunda elde edilen konu başlıklarından yararlanılmıştır. sorular bu konu başlıklarına uygun olarak hazırlanmış ve oluşturulan soru havuzu uzman görüşüne sunulmuştur. uzmanlardan gelen dönütler çerçevesinde sorular belirlenerek, veri toplama aracının taslağı oluşturulmuştur. söz konusu veri toplama aracının güvenirliğini test etmek amacıyla, on öğretmen adayını kapsayan bir pilot uygulama yapılmıştır. pilot uygulamadan elde edilen veriler araştırmacıların her biri tarafından ayrı ayrı analiz edilmiş ve açık uçlu anketin nihai şekline karar verilmiştir. araştırmanın katılımcılarını iki devlet üniversitesinde ikinci sınıfa devam eden ve “bilim, teknoloji ve sosyal değişme” dersini alan 59 kadın, 63 erkek toplam 122 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayı oluşturmuştur. katılımcılar amaçlı örneklem seçimi doğrultusunda belirlenmiştir. teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkiye yönelik olarak sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerinin derinlenmesine incelenebilmesi amacıyla, öğretmen journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 84 adaylarının “bilim, teknoloji ve sosyal değişme” dersini alıyor olmaları katılımcı grubun oluşturulmasında etkili olmuştur. açık uçlu anketler katılımcılara araştırmacılar tarafından yüzyüze uygulanmış ve katılımcıların gerek duymaları halinde onlara açıklamalar yapılmıştır. araştırmaya katılan öğretmen adaylarının açık uçlu soruların yer aldığı anketteki sorulara yazılı olarak verdikleri yanıtlardan elde edilen veriler, içerik analizi ile çözümlenmiştir. i̇çerik analizi, belirli kurallara dayalı kodlamalarla bir metnin bazı sözcüklerinin daha küçük içerik kategorileri ile özetlendiği sistematik, yinelenebilir bir teknik olarak tanımlanmaktadır (büyüköztürk ve diğ., 2012). bu doğrultuda ankette yazılı olarak ifade edilen görüşler incelenerek belirli kelimelere ve kavramlara ulaşılmış, bunlar arasındaki ilişkilerden yola çıkılarak metinlerdeki mesajlar yorumlanmıştır. analiz birimleri literatüre dayalı olarak belirlenmiştir. toplanan verilerle hedefler arasındaki ilişkiyi açıklayacak mantıksal bir yapı oluşturulmuştur. veriler gizli içerik kullanılarak kodlanmış, yani kullanılan kavramların altında yatan anlamlar dikkate alınmıştır. gizli içerik kullanılarak yapılan kodlamalarda, yazılı ifadenin altında yatan anlam farklı kişiler tarafından farklı anlamlandırılabileceği için güvenirlikle ilgili sorunlar ortaya çıkacaktır (büyüköztürk ve diğ., 2012). bu nedenle araştırmacılardan her biri kodlamayı ayrı ayrı yapmış ve en az %80 oranında hem fikir olunan ortak kodlar temel alınmıştır. i̇çerik analizi yoluyla çözümlenen veriler doğrudan alıntılarla desteklenerek sunulmuştur. böylece araştırmanın güvenirliğinin sağlanması da amaçlanmıştır. çünkü nitel araştırmalarda katılımcılardan alıntıların yapılması ve alıntıların ekleme yapılmadan olduğu gibi verilmesi güvenirliği artıracaktır (büyüköztürk ve diğ., 2012). verilerin araştırmacıların her biri tarafından incelenmesi ile iç geçerliğin de artırılması amaçlanmıştır. araştırma verileri teknoloji kullanımına ilişkin sınıflandırma (kabakçı ve odabaşı, 2004) çerçevesinde ele alınmış ve değerlendirilmiştir. bu çerçevede teknolojinin topluma etkileri teknolojik iyimserlik ve teknolojik kötümserlik olarak iki görüş temelinde ele e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 85 alınmaktadır. teknolojik iyimserlikte teknoloji doğal bir gelişme olarak değerlendirilmekte ve bu gelişmeye müdahale edilmezse toplumun mutlu yarınlara ulaşacağı ifade edilmektedir. teknolojik kötümserlik ise teknolojinin bazı egemen güçlerin elinde insanı ve doğayı etkileme gücüne sahip olduğunu ve dolayısıyla bu egemen güçlerin toplumu daha fazla denetim altına alacağını, bunun yanı sıra teknolojinin insanları sürekli tüketime, sığ bilgilere, uyuşukluğa ve bağımlılığa sürüklediğini savunmaktadır (kabakçı ve odabaşı, 2004). bulgular ve yorum sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji tanımları şekil 1. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji kavramına i̇lişkin tanımları şekil 1’de görüldüğü gibi sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji kavramına ilişkin tanımları sırasıyla “ürün ve amaç” (81), “bilgi ve süreç” (20) ve “anlama” (2) boyutlarına yöneliktir. öğretmen adaylarından a1. teknolojiyi “i̇nsan hayatını kolaylaştıran, ihtiyaçlar sonucunda ortaya çıkmış her türlü araç gereçlerdir”, a31 ise “günlük ihtiyaçlarımızı karşılamak için kullandığımız her türlü alettir” biçiminde tanımlayarak journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 86 teknolojinin amaç ve ürün boyutuna vurgu yapmışlardır. teknolojiyi bilgi ve süreç boyutunda değerlendiren öğretmen adaylarından a6 teknolojiyi “teknoloji bilim ve uygulama arasında bir köprüdür.” a11 ise “teknoloji bilimin uygulamaya geçmesidir” biçiminde tanımlamıştır. teknolojinin anlama boyutuna ilişkin olarak iki öğretmen adayı görüş bildirmiştir. bu bağlamda a122 nolu öğretmen adayı “teknoloji meraktır” a79 nolu öğretmen adayı ise “merak sonucu ortaya çıkan gelişmeler” biçiminde teknolojiyi tanımlamışlardır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknolojiye ilişkin tanımlarının çoğunlukla teknolojinin ürün ve amaç boyutuyla ilişkili olduğu ve teknolojiyi genellikle insan hayatını kolaylaştıran araçgereç ve ürünler olarak tanımladıkları görülmektedir. bu bağlamda sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının çoğunluğunun teknoloji kavramının doğasını ve kapsamını yeterince anlamadıkları söylenebilir. çünkü teknoloji, katılımcıların 81’inin ifade etmiş olduğu gibi yaşamı kolaylaştıran ürünlerle sınırlı değildir. söz konusu ürünlerin ortaya konulması için gerekli olan bilgiyi ve bu bilginin ve sonuçta ortaya çıkan ürünün gelişim sürecini de içermektedir (itea, 2007). dolayısıyla insanın doğuştan sahip olduğu potansiyel ile gerçekleştiremeyeceği şeyleri yapmasına imkân tanıyan herşey teknoloji olarak değerlendirilmektedir. ancak, katılımcıların büyük çoğunluğunun (81 kişi) teknolojiyi bu bağlamda tanımlamadıkları görülmektedir. e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 87 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine i̇lişkin görüşleri şekil 2. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine yönelik görüşleri şekil 2’de görüldüğü gibi sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine genellikle “teknolojik iyimserlik (70)” çerçevesinde yaklaşmaktadırlar. öğretmen adaylarının günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine yönelik olarak “teknogerçekçi (21)” ve “teknolojik kötümserlik (20)” bağlamında ise daha sınırlı sayıda görüş belirttikleri görülmektedir. günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine teknolojik iyimserlik çerçevesinde yaklaşan sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojinin ileri ve gelişmiş olduğu, hayatımızı oldukça kolaylaştırdığı, hızlı ve dinamik bir yapıya sahip olduğu, ulaşılmaza ulaştırdığı, toplumsal yaşamla iç içe olduğu, müthiş, olumlu ve yaygın olduğu gibi görüşler ortaya koymuşlardır. bu bağlamda görüş belirten a48 nolu öğretmen adayının görüşü şöyledir: aslında ben 2100'de falan yaşamak istiyorum şimdiki teknoloji az bile... işınlanma da icat edilse bir de gezegenler arası seyahat... harika bir dünya olur avatar gibi! ancak journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 88 gelinen nokta hiç de küçümsenecek cinsten değil bugün teknoloji o kadar gelişti herşeye o kadar çabuk ulaşabiliyoruz ki bir "tık" fazla basmak bile istemiyoruz mouse ile… günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine teknogerçekçilik çerçevesinde yaklaşan öğretmen adayları teknolojinin hem olumlu hem olumsuz olduğunu, hayatı kolaylaştırdığı gibi sakıncalarının da bulunduğunu ve bu nedenle doğru kullanılması gerektiğini vurgulamışlardır. a71 nolu öğretmen adayı teknogerçekçilik bağlamında “kolaylık sağlamak amacıyla olumlu olduğu gibi olumsuz sonuçları da gitgide artmaktadır. buda bireyin ve toplumun bilinçsiz kullanımından kaynaklanmaktadır.” biçiminde görüşünü belirtmiştir. günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine teknolojik kötümserlik çerçevesinde yaklaşan öğretmen adayları ise teknolojinin zararlı, tahripkâr ve korkutucu, mutsuzluk kaynağı olduğuna; bireylerin teknolojiye ayak uyduramadığına; bilinçsizce ve kötü amaçlı kullanıldığına atıfta bulunmuşlardır. bu bağlamda görüş belirten a42 nolu öğretmen adayı “çok hızlı olması insanda olumsuz etkilenmeye sosyal hayatı etkilemeye ülkeler arası çıkar çatışmasına neden olduğunu düşünüyorum” biçiminde görüşünü dile getirmiştir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine yönelik olarak belirttikleri 111 görüşün 90’ının teknolojik iyimserlik ve teknolojik kötümserlik çerçevesinde gerçekleşmesi, öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji tanımları ile ilişkilendirilebilir. bu bağlamda teknolojinin tüm boyutlarıyla bir bütün olduğunun farkında olan bireylerin teknogerçekçi bir bakış açısıyla teknolojinin ne tamamen iyi nede tamamen kötü olmadığının farkında olmaları beklenmektedir. e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 89 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüz sosyal yaşamında değerlerin rolüne i̇lişkin görüşleri temalar şekil 3. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüz sosyal yaşamında değerlerin rolüne i̇lişkin görüşleri şekil 3’te görüldüğü gibi sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüz sosyal yaşamında değerlerin rolüne ilişkin görüşleri “önemini yitiriyor” , “toplumsal yaşamı düzenliyor”, “insan yaşamını her an etkiliyor”, “değerlerimizi kaybediyoruz”, “insanlar üzerinde yaptırım gücü var”, “değişmekte ve tartışılmakta”, “yarardan çok zararı var”, “küreselleşiyor”, “zamana ve topluma göre değişiklik gösteriyor” ve “gelecek kuşaklara aktarılmakta” biçimindedir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüz sosyal yaşamında değerlerin rolüne ilişkin görüşlerinden örneklere aşağıda yer verilmiştir: bilindiği gibi sosyal yaşamın gerekliliği olan birlikte yaşamak zordur. öyle ki bu toplu yaşamayı daha mümkün kılmak için bir çok yazılı ve yazısız kurallar vardır. bu noktada değerler önem kazanır. sosyal yaşamın olmazsa olmazı olan toplu yaşamayı kolaylaştırır, mümkün kılar (a47). günümüzde bir çok değer yok olmuş gibi eski nesil yeni nesilden yeni nesil şimdiki nesilden bu konuda şikayetçi denilebilir (a35). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 90 değerlerimiz sayesinde toplum olarak birlik, beraberlik ve dayanışma içindeyiz. fakat günümüzde değerler göz ardı edilmeye başlanmıştır (a41). değerler çok ikinci planda kalmakta ve önemini teknoloji karşısında yitirmektedir. tabi ki bu bilinçsiz teknoloji kullanımında var olan bir durum (a114). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüz sosyal yaşamında değerlerin rolüne ilişkin görüşleri incelendiğinde görüşlerin, yaşanan sorunlar ve değerlerin sosyal yaşama olumlu etkileri odağında yoğunlaştığı söylenebilir. öğretmen adayları değerlerin sosyal yaşamdaki yeri konusunda önemini yitirdiğinden söz etmektedirler. değerlerin sosyal yaşamdaki olumlu etkisi kapsamında ise toplum yaşamını düzenlediğinin ve insan yaşamını etkilediğinin altını çizmektedirler. öğretmen adaylarının değerler konusunda sosyal hayatta yaşanan değişimi genellikle olumsuz biçimde değerlendirdikleri söylenebilir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki i̇lişkiye yönelik görüşleri temalar şekil 4. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki i̇lişkiye yönelik görüşleri e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 91 şekil 4’te görüldüğü gibi öğretmen adayları teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkiye genellikle teknolojik kötümserlik (46) çerçevesinde bakmaktadırlar. öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkiye yönelik olarak teknogerçekçilik (14) ve teknolojik iyimserlik (12) bağlamında daha sınırlı sayıda görüş belirttikleri görülmektedir. teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkiye teknolojik kötümserlik bağlamında yaklaşan öğretmen adayları teknolojinin değerleri yok ettiğine, değerleri zayıflattığına, değer yargılarını değiştirdiğine ve değerlere ters düştüğüne vurgu yapmaktadırlar. bu doğrultuda görüş belirten öğretmen adaylarından a106 “bence olumsuz bir ilişki bulunuyor ağırlıklı olarak. çünkü teknoloji yüzünden insanlar birbirinden uzaklaşıp yalnızlaştırılıyorlar. bu da ortak değerlerimizin yavaş yavaş ortadan kaybolmasına neden oluyor.” biçiminde görüşlerini dile getirmekte ve teknolojinin özellikle ortak değerleri yok ettiğini vurgulamaktadır. a98 nolu öğretmen adayı ise “teknolojik gelişme güzel ancak, teknoloji insanlar arasındaki değerleri öldürüyor. kanımca önümüzdeki yıllarda insanların birbirleriyle ilişkileri de tamamen yok olacak.” şeklindeki görüşüyle teknolojinin değerler üzerindeki olumsuz etkisinden söz etmektedir. teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkiye teknogerçekçilik bağlamında yaklaşan öğretmen adayları teknoloji ve değerlerin kullanım amaçları doğrultusunda birbirini karşılıklı olarak etkilediklerini ve her ikisinin de insan yaşamını kolaylaştırdığını ifade etmektedirler. bu doğrultuda görüş belirten öğretmen adaylarından a24 “teknoloji ve değerler arasında olumlu ve de olumsuz ilişki vardır. teknolojinin kullanım alanına göre değişir” biçiminde görüşünü dile getirmiştir. teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkiye teknolojik iyimserlik bağlamında yaklaşan öğretmen adayları ise toplumların değer verdikleri teknolojilere odaklandıklarını, teknolojinin değerlerin etkisiyle geliştiğini, teknolojinin yeni değerleri ortaya çıkardığını ve farklı kültürlerdeki değerleri tanıma fırsatı sağladığını ifade etmişlerdir. bu doğrultuda görüş belirten öğretmen journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 92 adaylarından a109 “teknoloji sayesinde başka kültürlerdeki değerler hakkında bilgi sahibi olabiliyoruz” biçiminde görüşünü ifade etmiştir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkiye teknolojik kötümserlik çerçevesinde baktıkları ve bu bakış açısının öğretmen adaylarının değerleri durağan olgular olarak görme eğilimlerinden kaynaklanıyor olabileceği söylenebilir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında bulunan değerler üzerinde teknolojinin etkisine i̇lişkin görüşleri sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında bulunan değerler üzerinde teknolojinin sırasıyla “aile birliğine önem verme” (83), “bilimsellik” (82) ve “çalışkanlık” (80) değerleri üzerinde etkili olduğu ifade edilmiştir. en az görüş belirtilen değerler ise sırasıyla “hoşgörü” (48), “vatanseverlik” (51) ve “dürüstlük” (52) tür. aile birliğine önem verme şekil 5. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının aile birliğine önem verme değeri üzerinde teknolojinin etkisine i̇lişkin görüşleri şekil 5’te görüldüğü gibi sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojinin “aile birliğine önem verme” değeri üzerindeki etkisine genellikle teknolojik kötümserlik (46) çevresinde bakmaktadırlar. öğretmen adaylarının, teknolojinin aile birliğine önem verme değerine e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 93 etkisine ilişkin olarak teknolojik iyimserlik (12) ve teknogerçekçilik (9) bağlamında daha sınırlı sayıda görüş belirttikleri görülmektedir. teknolojinin aile birliğine önem verme değerine etkisine ilişkin teknolojik kötümser bir yaklaşım sergileyen sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojinin aile bağlarını zayıflattığını ve yok ettiğini, aile içi iletişimi yok ettiğini, aileye verilen önemi azalttığını, çocukları içe dönük bireyler haline getirdiğini, biz yerine ben anlayışını hakim kıldığını ve aile bireylerini birbirinden uzaklaştırdığını ifade etmektedirler. bu doğrultuda görüş belirten a39 nolu öğretmen adayı “teknolojiyle gelişen ve değişen toplum yapısı aile birliğinde de kendini göstermiştir. göçler teknolojik imkanların daha fazla olduğu kentlere doğru olmuştur. kırsal kesim geleneksel aile modeli kentler de değişime uğramıştır. bence aile birliğine önem de bu noktada azalmıştır. çok klişe bir örnek olacak olsa da internet ya televizyon aile içi iletişimi sınırladığından yine aile birliğine negatif katkı yaptığını düşündüğüm noktalar oluyor.” biçimindeki ifadeleriyle teknolojinin aile birliğine önem verme değerini olumsuz etkilediğini ifade etmiş ve teknolojik kötümser bir bakış açısı sergilemiştir. teknolojinin aile birliğine önem verme değerine etkisine ilişkin teknolojik iyimser bir yaklaşım sergileyen sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojinin uzakta olan aile bireylerinin birbirine erişimini sağladığını ve ailelerin çocuklarından daha kolay haberdar olabildiklerini ifade etmişlerdir. a109 nolu öğretmen adayı “teknoloji aile birliğini etkilemiştir. gelişen iletişim araçlarıyla uzakta olan akrabalar, yakınlarıyla istediği zaman görüşebilme imkanına sahiptir.” biçimindeki görüşüyle teknolojinin aile birliğine yansımasını teknolojik iyimserlik çerçevesinde değerlendirmiştir. teknolojinin aile birliğine önem verme değerine etkisine ilişkin teknogerçekçi bir yaklaşım sergileyen sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları ise teknolojinin doğru kullanıldığında aile birliğini sağladığını doğru kullanılmadığında ise aile birliğine zarar verdiğini ifade etmişlerdir. a58 nolu öğretmen adayı “doğru kullanıldığı takdirde bağları arttırır. fakat yanlış kullanıldığında aradaki bağları zedeleyebilir” journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 94 şeklindeki görüşleriyle teknoloji ve aile birliğine önem verme değeri arasındaki ilişkiyi teknogerçekçi bakış açısıyla vurgulamıştır. bilimsellik şekil 6. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının bilimsellik değeri üzerinde teknolojinin etkisine i̇lişkin görüşleri şekil 6’da görüldüğü gibi sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojinin “bilimsellik” değeri üzerindeki etkisine teknolojik iyimserlik (52) ve teknogerçekçilik çerçevesinde bakmaktadırlar. teknolojinin bilimsellik değerine etkisine ilişkin teknolojik iyimser bir yaklaşım sergileyen sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojinin bilimin ilerlemesini sağladığını, bilgiye ulaşmayı kolaylaştırdığını, bilimin daha hızlı ve kolay gerçekleştirilmesini sağladığını ve bilimi teşvik ettiğini belirtmişlerdir. bu konuda görüş belirten a35 nolu öğretmen adayının görüşleri şöyledir: “bilimsellik günümüz eğitim sisteminin olmazsa olmazlarındandır. çocuk i̇nternet ve teknolojinin sunmuş olduğu görsel öğelerden faydalanarak dünyanın farklı bir yerindeki teknolojik ve bilimsel gelişmeleri yakından takip etme fırsatını yakalayacaktır. bu durumda e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 95 çocuğun ön yargılı bir tutumdan sıyrılıp olaylara ya da durumlara bilimsel bir tutum sergilemesine zemin hazırlayacaktır.” a35 nolu öğretmen adayı yukarıda yer alan görüşüyle teknolojinin bilimsellik değerinin gelişmesinde olumlu rol oynadığını ifade etmekte ve bu konuya teknolojik iyimserlik çerçevesinde yaklaşmaktadır. teknolojinin bilimsellik değerine etkisine ilişkin teknolojik iyimser bir yaklaşım sergileyen sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojinin bilimin ilerlemesine katkı sağladığını, bilgiye ulaşmayı kolaylaştırdığını, bilimi teşvik ettiğini, bilimin daha hızlı gerçekleştirilmesini sağladığını, bilimsel bilgilerin daha hızlı elde edilebildiğini ve bilimselliğin arttığını belirtmişlerdir. a39 nolu öğretmen adayı “teknoloji ile bilimselliğin birbirlerini tamamlayan unsurlar olduğunu düşünüyorum. teknolojinin gelişebilmesi için bilimsel bilgilerin olması gerekir. bilimsel bir bilgiye ulaşabilmek içinde teknolojiden yararlanmak gerekir. dolayısıyla da her ikisi birbirinden ayıramayacağımız bir bütündür” şeklindeki görüşüyle teknoloji ve bilimsellik değeri arasındaki karşılıklı ilişkiye dikkat çekerek teknogerçekçi bir yaklaşım sergilemiştir. çalışkanlık şekil 7. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının çalışkanlık değeri üzerinde teknolojinin etkisine ilişkin görüşleri journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 96 şekil 7’de görüldüğü gibi sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojinin “çalışkanlık” değeri üzerindeki etkisine, çoğunlukla teknolojik kötümserlik (45) ve teknolojik iyimserlik (32) çerçevesinde bakarken teknogerçekçi (3) görüş ifade eden öğretmen adayı sayısı oldukça azdır. teknolojinin çalışkanlık değerine etkisine ilişkin teknolojik kötümserlik çerçevesinde görüş ifade eden öğretmen adayları teknolojinin insanları tembelleştirdiğini, çalışkanlığı azalttığını, insanları rahata alıştırdığını ve üretkenliği azalttığını belirtmektedirler. bu doğrultuda görüş belirten a102 nolu öğretmen adayı “bu yönde teknolojinin çocuktaki çalışkanlık duygusunu körelteceğini düşünüyorum. çocuk hazıra konmaya meyilli bir duruma gelebilir.” ifadesiyle teknolojinin özellikle çocukları hazıra alıştırdığını ve çalışkanlığı azalttığını belirtmiştir. teknolojinin çalışkanlık değerine etkisine ilişkin teknolojik iyimserlik çerçevesinde yaklaşan öğretmen adayları teknolojinin çalışkanlığı arttırdığını, çalışma ortamını zenginleştirdiğini, yeni çalışma ortamları yarattığını ve teknoloji kullanımının öğrenciyi çalışmaya yönlendirdiğini belirtmektedirler. bu doğrultuda görüş belirten a107 nolu öğretmen adayı “öğrenciler ya da çalışanlar bilgisayar ve teknolojik aletlerle daha istekli ve uzun süre çalışabilirler ve görsel hafızamız daha çok kuvvetlenir” biçimindeki ifadesiyle teknolojinin çalışma süresini uzattığını ve insanları çalışmaya istekli hale getirdiğini söylemektedir. öğretmen adaylarının, teknolojinin çalışkanlık değerine etkisine ilişkin olarak teknogerçekçilik açısından ise daha sınırlı sayıda görüş ifade ettikleri görülmektedir. bu doğrultuda görüş belirten a55 nolu öğretmen adayı “artık bilgilere kolay ulaşım sağlandığından bana göre teknoloji çalışmayı kolaylaştıran ve verimliliğini artıran bir etmen olmuştur fakat bu yine teknolojinin nasıl kullanıldığıyla alakalı olan bir durum olduğundan kişilerin kendi yapılarına göre teknoloji iyi ya da kötü olur. öğrencileri kolay bilgiye ulaşmasını sağladığından aynı zamanda araştırma duyarlılığını kötü yönde de etkileyebilir” şeklindeki ifadesiyle teknoloji ve çalışkanlık değeri arasındaki karşılıklı etkileşime değinmiştir. e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 97 sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının aile birliğine önem verme değerine teknolojik kötümserlik, bilimsellik ve çalışkanlık değerlerine ise teknolojik iyimserlik çerçevesinde bakmaları, teknolojinin değerler üzerindeki etkilerine dair görüşlerinin ele alınan değere göre farklılaştığını göstermektedir. bu bağlamda öğretmen adayları kimi değerleri teknolojik iyimserlik, kimi değerleri ise teknolojik kötümserlik çerçevesinde değerlendirmektedir. teknogerçekçi bir bakış açısının ise sınırlı sayıda ifade edildiği görülmektedir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji üzerinde en fazla etkiye sahip olduğunu düşündükleri değerler: şekil 8. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji üzerinde en fazla etkiye sahip olduğunu düşündükleri değerlere ilişkin görüşleri şekil 8’de görüldüğü gibi sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji üzerinde en fazla etkiye sahip olduğunu düşündükleri değerler sırasıyla “bilimsellik” (21), “özgürlük” (8) ve “bağımsızlık” (8) olmuştur. aşağıda ilgili değerlerin teknoloji üzerindeki etkisine yönelik kimi görüşlere yer verilmiştir: bilimsellik bilimselliktir. çünkü teknoloji ve bilimsellik içiçe olan öğelerdir. teknolojinin olduğu yerde mutlaka bilimsellik vardır (a3). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 98 özgürlük özgürlük...i̇nsanlar teknoloji sayesinde özgürlüğün ne olduğunu öğrendiler ve bu uğurda mücadele etmeyi öğrendiler son 2 yılda cereyan eden "arap baharı" ya da adı her ne ise facebook ve twitterda insanların haberleştiği, birlikte olmak için onlara zemin hazırladığı kendi ağızlarından ve bilim adamları tarafından doğrulandı (a44). bağımsızlık bağımsızlıktır. çünkü herşeye ulaşabilme isteği teknolojinin gelişimini sağlamıştır (a88). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji üzerinde en fazla etkiye sahip olduğunu düşündükleri değerler arasında etik, dürüstlük, çalışkanlık, sağlıklı olmaya önem verme, temizlik, sorumluluk, duyarlılık, estetik gibi değerlerin hiç yer almaması ya da sınırlı sayıda yer alması teknoloji kavramının yapısını ve doğasını tam olarak anlayamadıklarının bir başka göstergesi olarak kabul edilebilir. bu bağlamda, teknolojiyi tüm boyutlarıyla algılayan bir öğretmen adayının özellikle etik, dürüstlük, sorumluluk, duyarlılık, estetik gibi değerlere daha fazla vurgu yapması beklenmektedir. sonuç ve tartışma araştırmada elde edilen veriler doğrultusunda sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji tanımlarının çoğunlukla teknolojinin ürün ve amaç boyutuna odaklandığı görülmektedir. bu bağlamda sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojiyi genellikle insan hayatını kolaylaştıran araç-gereç ve ürünler olarak tanımlamışlardır. oysa, çok kapsamlı bir terim olması dolayısıyla teknolojinin tanımının yapılmasında güçlükler yaşansa da, teknoloji konusu ele alınırken öncelikle bu kavramın yapısının ve içeriğinin ortaya konulması gerekmektedir. öğrencilerin teknolojiye yönelik olumlu tutum geliştirmelerinde de teknolojiyi doğru bir biçimde ve kapsamlı olarak anlamış olmalarının rolü büyüktür (rohaan, e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 99 taconis ve jochems, 2010). yiğit (2011) tarafından çalışmanın sonuçları incelendiğinde, kendilerinden teknoloji kavramını tanımlamaları istenildiğinde ürün, sistem ve bilgi boyutlarının tümünü vurgulayan sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının, teknolojiye ilişkin olarak verdikleri örneklerde bilgisayara ve i̇nternet’e vurgu yaptıkları görülmektedir. bu da sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin tanımı ve kapsamı konularında bilgi düzeyinin ötesine geçememiş olduklarını ve sahip oldukları bilgiyi içselleştiremediklerini ortaya koymaktadır. bu sonuç 2001 ve 2004 yıllarında gallup tarafından yapılmış olan anket çalışmalarının sonuçları ile de benzerlik göstermektedir. söz konusu çalışmada yer alan “teknoloji kelimesini duyduğunuzda aklınıza ilk gelen nedir?” sorusuna katılımcıların üçte ikisinin vermiş olduğu yanıt bilgisayar olmuştur (eisenkraft, 2010). solomonidou ve tassios (2007) tarafından yapılmış olan çalışmada da 9-12 yaş arası 60 öğrencinin teknoloji algıları ortaya konulmuş ve öğrencilerin büyük çoğunluğunun teknolojiyi modern teknolojiler (bilgisayar, televizyon, cep telefonu, uydu) ile eşdeğer tuttuğu görülmüştür. rennie ve jarvis (1994) de benzer düşünceleri dile getirmekte, öğrencilerin teknolojiyi bilgi ve i̇letişim teknolojileri bağlamında tanımlandığını ve teknolojik etkinliklerin sosyal boyutunu göz ardı ettiklerini belirtmektedir. jarvis ve rennie (1996) tarafından yapılmış diğer bir çalışma sonucunda da teknolojinin bilgisayar ve modern araç-gereçler bağlamında değerlendirildiği görülmüştür. cunningham ve diğerleri (2005) ilk ve ortaöğretim öğrencilerinin teknoloji konusunda çok az bilgiye sahip olduğunu ya da yanlış düşüncelere sahip olduklarını, teknolojiyi genellikle güç ve elektirik ile ilişkilendirdiklerini belirlemişlerdir. tunus’ta gerçekleştirilmiş olan ve öğretmenlerin merkeze alındığı benzer bir çalışmada da teknolojinin bilimin uygulamaya konulması olarak değerlendirildiği ve ilerleme ve tüketim ile ilişkilendirildiği ortaya konulmuştur (bouras ve albe, 2008). rubba ve harkness (1993)’ın fen bilgisi öğretmen adayları ve fen bilgisi öğretmenleri ile gerçekleştirmiş oldukları çalışma journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 100 yine paralel sonuçları göz önüne sermiş ve her iki grubun da teknolojiyi “bilimin yaşamı zenginleştirmek adına uygulamaya konulması” olarak değerlendirdikleri belirlenmiştir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüzde teknolojinin gelişimine ilişkin görüşlerinin çoğunlukla teknolojik iyimserlik çerçevesinde olduğu görülmektedir. gaskell ve diğerleri (2005) tarafından yapılmış olan bir çalışmada ise abd’deki ve avrupa’daki teknoloji algıları karşılaştırılmış ve amerikalıların bu konuda daha iyimser bir bakış açısına sahip oldukları sonucuna varılmıştır. söz konusu çalışma toplumsal değerlerin teknolojiye yönelik tutum üzerindeki etkisini göstermesi açısından da önem taşımaktadır. teknolojik iyimserlik, toplumların belirli bir teknolojiyi daha çabuk benimsemesini de sağlamaktadır. başka bir deyişle, teknolojik iyimserliğe sahip bireyler ve toplumlar yeni teknolojileri daha kolay benimserken, bu konuda kötümser bir bakış açısına sahip olunması teknolojinin kabulünü güçleştirebilmektedir. dolayısıyla, çalışmanın bu bulgusunun katılımcıların teknolojinin tanımına dair yetersizliklerinden kaynaklandığının söylenmesi mümkündür. çünkü teknolojinin bilgi, beceri, süreç ve ürün boyutlarıyla bir bütün olduğunun bilincinde olan bireylerin ve toplumların, teknoloji okuryazarlığının gereklerinden biri olan teknolojinin ne tamamen iyi, ne de tamamen kötü olamayacağı yönündeki kazanıma sahip olmaları beklenir. bu çalışmanın katılımcılarının ise teknolojiyi sadece ürün boyutuyla görmeleri ve hayatı kolaylaştırması yönündeki tek boyutlu teknoloji algıları dolayısıyla teknolojik bir iyimserliğe sahip oldukları söylenebilir. bunun yanı sıra, teknoloji ile ilgili kararlarda yönetime olan güvenin ve toplumun yönetime dair sahip olduğu değerlerin de teknolojik iyimserlik bağlamında etkili olduğu görülmektedir (gutteling ve diğerleri, 2006). dolayısıyla sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknolojik iyimserliklerinin yönetime ve yöneticilere saygı değeri çerçevesinde ve toplum için olumsuz girişimlerde bulunmayacaklarına dair güven temelinde yorumlanması da mümkün görünmektedir. bu durum ise sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında yer alan duyarlılık değerinin göz ardı edilmesini de beraberinde e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 101 getirmektedir. çünkü, teknolojinin sadece olumlu sonuçları değil olumsuz sonuçları da beraberinde taşıyabileceği doğrultusundaki farkındalık ile öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin sonuçları konusunda duyarlılığa sahip olmaları beklenmektedir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları değer kavramını genellikle toplum düzenini sağlama açısından ele almakta ve değerleri toplumu yönlendiren kurallar, adetler ve ilkeler olarak görmektedirler. öğretmen adaylarının önemli bir bölümü günümüz sosyal yaşamında değerlerin önemini yitirdiğini düşünmektedirler. değerin en genel tanımının dünyaya yönelik bir bakış açısı olarak yorumlanması mümkündür. değerler toplumu ayakta tutar ve toplumsal devamlılığı sağlar. dolayısıyla değerlerin sosyal yaşamda önemini yitirmeleri mümkün değildir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının günümüz sosyal yaşamında değerlerin önemini yitirdiği yönündeki görüşleri ise değerleri durağan olgular olarak görmeleri temelinde yorumlanabilir. söz konusu bulgu katılımcıların teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkiye genellikle teknolojik kötümserlik çerçevesinden bakmalarını da açıklığa kavuşturmaktadır. çünkü, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları teknolojinin değerleri yok ettiğini düşünmektedir ve bu düşünce de onların günümüzde değerlerin önemini yitirdiği yönünde bir görüşü benimsemelerine neden olmaktadır. oysa, bireylerin ve toplumların belirli teknolojileri kabul etmeleri ve bazılarını reddetmeleri ya da teknolojiden yararlanma biçimleri de onların değerlerini yansıtmaktadır. bu nedenle, teknoloji dolayısıyla günümüzde değerlerin önemini yitirdiği şeklindeki görüşü doğru kabul etmemiz mümkün görünmemektedir. ancak teknolojinin değerler üzerindeki etkisi ve bu konudaki endişeler 1972 yılında durbin tarafından yapılan bir çalışmaya da yansımış ve teknolojinin amerikan ruhu üzerine etkileri tartışılmıştır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları, sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında bulunan değerlere teknolojinin etkisine ilişkin olarak en fazla aile birliğine önem verme, bilimsellik ve çalışkanlık değeri üzerinde görüş belirtmişlerdir. aile birliğine önem verme ve çalışkanlık journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 102 değerlerine teknolojik kötümserlik çerçevesinde yaklaşırlarken, bilimsellik değerine teknolojik iyimserlik çerçevesinde bakmışlardır. teknolojinin aile bireylerini bir arada olmaktan ve ortak etkinliklerden uzaklaştırması gibi olumsuz etkilerine dair görüşlerinin, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının bu değer ve teknoloji arasındaki ilişkiye teknolojik kötümserlik doğrultusunda yaklaşmalarına neden olduğu söylenebilir. bilimsellik ve çalışkanlık gibi değerler ise teknoloji ile birebir bağlantılı görülmeleri ve bilimsel ve teknolojik çalışmaların bu değerlere olumlu etkide bulunduğunun düşünülmesi dolayısıyla teknolojik iyimserlik çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin kullanımı konusundaki etik değerlere hiç değinmemiş olmaları ise dikkat çekici bir bulgudur. bu bağlamda, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarına verilen eğitimde bilim, teknoloji ve toplum anlayışı çerçevesinde teknolojinin kapsamına ve toplumla olan karşılıklı etkileşimine daha fazla yer verilmesinin gerekliliği bir kez daha ortaya çıkmaktadır. ayrıca, dürüstlük değerinin teknoloji üzerinde en az etkisi olan değerler arasında sıralanması öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin üretiminde, seçiminde ve kullanımında etik değerlerin öneminin farkında olmadıklarının göstergelerinden biri olarak değerlendirilebilir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının değerler üzerinde en fazla etkiye sahip olduğunu düşündükleri teknolojiler sırasıyla televizyon, bilgisayar ve internettir. çalışmanın bu bulgusu sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknolojinin ürün boyutunun dışına çıkamadıklarını bir kez daha göstermekle birlikte, günümüzde medyanın bireyler ve toplumsal değerler üzerindeki etkisine yönelik görüşleri de ortaya koymaktadır. bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin hızla gelişmesiyle kültürler arasındaki etkileşimin boyutu ve kapsamı artmıştır. becker ve diğerleri (2002) tarafından yapılan çalışmada da görüldüğü gibi yemek kültüründe dahi önemli değişiklikler olmuş, yenilen yemekler ve yeme biçimleri neredeyse tüm dünyada benzer hale gelmiştir. bu durum teknolojinin sosyal değişme üzerindeki etkisini açıkça ortaya koyar niteliktedir. bilgi iletişim teknolojilerinin insan yaşamı üzerindeki sosyal etkisinin e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 103 incelendiği bir başka çalışmada ise (perugini, 1996) insanlar arasındaki sınırları kaldıran teknolojinin insanları bilgisayar ekranında bir araya getirdiği ancak yüzyüze ilişkileri olumsuz yönde etkilediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. bununla birlikte televizyon yoluyla değerlerin öğretimini öngören çalışmalar da mevcuttur (raffa, 1985; samaniego ve pascual, 2007). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji üzerinde en fazla etkiye sahip olduğunu düşündükleri değerler sırasıyla bilimsellik, özgürlük ve bağımsızlıktır. çalışkanlık, dürüstlük, estetik, sağlıklı olmaya önem verme, sorumluluk ve temizlik gibi teknoloji ile ilgili diğer değerlere ise yeterince değinilmediği görülmektedir. oysa teknolojik gelişmeler için çalışkanlık değerine önem verilmesi gerekirken, teknoloji ile ilgili kararlar dürüstlüğü gerektirmektedir. teknolojinin temel öğelerinden biri olan tasarım ile estetik değeri arasındaki ilişki de açıktır. sağlık teknolojileri sağlıklı olmaya önem verme değeri ile ilişkiliyken, temizlik için de farklı teknolojilerden yararlanılmaktadır. teknolojik gelişmeler ve bu konudaki kararların sorumluluk gerektirdiği tartışılmazdır. gdo, biyolojik silahlar, gen teknolojisi gibi oldukça güncel oldukları düşünülen konulara ve bu çerçevedeki etik değerlerin teknoloji üzerindeki etkilerine sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları tarafından hiç değinilmemiş olması ise ilgi çekicidir. bu durum teknoloji kavramının doğasının ve kapsamının henüz tam olarak anlaşılamamış olduğunun da bir diğer göstergesidir. çalışmanın yukarıda ifade edilen sonuçları ve yapılan tartışma ışığında aşağıdaki öneriler getirilebilir: 1. sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarına bilim, teknoloji ve toplum yaklaşımı çerçevesinde bilgi, beceri, tutum ve değer kazandırılmasına yönelik bir eğitim sunulmalıdır. 2. bilim-teknoloji ve toplum öğrenme alanı teknoloji ve değerler arasındaki ilişkinin kavranmasını sağlamaya yönelik olarak yapılandırılmalıdır. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 104 3. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği programında öğretmen adaylarına sunulan bilim, teknoloji ve sosyal değişme dersi bilim ve teknoloji tarihinin ötesinde teknoloji ve toplumsal yapı arasındaki güncel konu ve sorunlar temelinde ele alınmalıdır. 4. öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji ve medya okuryazarlıklarının artırılmasına yönelik çalışmalar yapılmalıdır. e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 105 kaynakça/references ata, b. (2008). bilim ve teknolojinin sosyal değişime etkisi. i̇çinde b. ata (ed.). bilim teknoloji ve sosyal değişme (s. 1-11). ankara: pegem akademi yayınevi. balcı, f.a. ve yanpar yelken, t. (2010). i̇lköğretim öğretmenlerinin “değer” kavramına yükledikleri anlamlar. hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 39,81-90. becker, a. e., burwell, r. a., gilman, s. e., herzog, d. b., ve hamburg, p. (2002). eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic fijian adolescent girls. british journal of psychiatry, 180, 509-514. bijker, w.e. (2001). understanding technological culture through a constructivist view of science, technology, and society. i̇çinde s. h. cutcliffe ve c. mitcham (ed.). counterpoints of science, technology, and society studies (19-34). state university of new york press. bouras, a., ve albe, v. (2008). viewpoints of higher education teachers about technologies. international journal of technology and design education, 18(3), 285-305. büyüköztürk, ş., kılıç çakmak, e., akgün, ö. e., karadeniz, ş., ve demirel, f. (2012). bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri (11. baskı). ankara: pegem akademi yayınları. cunningham, c., lachapelle, c., ve lindgren-streicher, a. (2005). assessing elementary school students’conceptions of engineering and technology. 2005 american society for engineering education annual conference & exposition bildirileri, american society for engineering education, portland. çelik, h. c. ve kahyaoğlu, m. (2007). i̇lköğretim öğretmen adaylarının teknolojiye yönelik tutumlarının kümeleme analizi. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi, 5(4), 571-586. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 106 çelikcan, ş. (2011). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde bilim, teknoloji ve toplum öğrenme alanının yeri ve önemi. i̇çinde r. turan, a.m. sünbül ve h. akdağ (ed.). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde yeni yaklaşımlar ii (s. 164-176). ankara: pegem akademi yayınevi. deniz, s., görgen, i̇., ve& şeker, h. (2006). tezsiz yüksek lisans öğretmen adaylarının teknolojiye yönelik tutumları. eğitim araştırmaları, 23, 62-71. dilmaç, b., bozgeyikli, h. & çıkılı, y. (2008). öğretmen adaylarının değer algılarının farklı değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. değerler eğitimi dergisi, 6 (16), 69-91. doğanay, a. (2009). değerler eğitimi. c. öztürk (ed.). i̇çinde sosyal bilgiler öğretimi (s. 225-256). ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. durbin, p. t. (1972). technology and values: a philosopher’s perspective. technology and culture, 13(4), 556-576. eisenkraft, a. (2010). retrospective analysis of technological literacy of k-12 students in usa. international journal of technology and design education, 20(3), 277-303. fidan, kurtdede n. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının değer öğretimine ilişkin görüşleri. afyonkocatepe üniversitesi kuramsal eğitimbilim dergisi, 2(2), 1-18. gaskell, g., eyck, t. t., jackson, j., ve veltri, g. (2005). imagining nanotechnology: cultural support for technological innovation in europe and the united states. public understanding on science, 14(1), 81-90. halstead, j. m. ve taylor, m. j. (2000). learning and teaching about values: a review of recent research. cambridge journal of education, 30(2), 169-203. inglehart, r., diez-medrano, j., ve luijkx, r. (2007). european values studies, volume 11: changing values and beliefs in 85 countries : trends from the values surveys from 1981 to 2004. leiden, nld: brill. e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 107 international technology education association (2007). standards for technological literacy: content for the study of technology. http://www.iteaconnect.org/taa/publications/taa_publications.html adresinden 19. 10. 2009 tarihinde edinilmiştir. jarvis, t., ve rennie, l. j. (1996). perceptions about technology held by primary teachers in england. research in science and technological education, 14(1), 43–54. kabakçı, i. ve odabaşı, f. (2004). teknolojiyi kullanmak ve teknogerçekçi olabilmek. sosyal bilimler dergisi, 1, 19-27. kolaç, e., ve karadağ, r. (2012). türkçe öğretmeni adaylarının "değer" kavramına yükledikleri anlamlar ve değer sıralamaları. i̇lköğretim online, 11(3), 762-777. koruklu, n. ve aktamış, h. (2012). öğretmen adaylarının kavramsallaştırma boyutundaki değer tercihlerinin incelenmesi. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri dergisi değerler eğitimi sempozyumu ek özel sayısı, 12 (2), 1303-1307. lee, h., chang, h., choi, k., kim, s.-w. ve zeidler, d. l. (2012). developing character and values for global citizens: analysis of pre-service science teachers’ moral reasoning on socioscientific issues. international journal of science education,34 (6), 925-953. maguth, b. m. (2009). investigating student use of technology for informed and active democratic citizenship in a global and multicultural age. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi. the ohio state university, ohio. özaydın, b. (2010). teknoloji kültürü ve etik. yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, süleyman demirel üniversitesi, isparta. periguni, v. (1996). anytime, anywhere: the social impact of emerging communication technology. professional communication, ieee transactions on, 39(1), 4-15. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 73-96 108 raffa, j. b. (1985). television and values: implications for education. the educational forum, 49(2), 189-198. rennie, l. j., ve jarvis, t. (1994). helping children understand technology: a handbook for teachers. key centre for schools science and mathematics & science, curtin university, perth & technology awareness program, australian department of industry, science and technology. rohaan, e. j., taconis, r., ve jochems, w. m. g. (2010). reviewing the relations between teachers’ knowledge and pupils’ attitude in the field of primary technology education. international journal of technology and design education, 20(1), 15-26. rubba, p.a., ve harkness, w.l. (1993). examination of preservice and in-service secondary science teachers’ beliefs about science-technology-society interactions. science education, 77(4), 407-431. samaniego, c. m., ve pascual, a. c. (2007). the teaching and learning of values through television. review of education, 53, 5-21. sarı, e. (2005). öğretmen adaylarının değer tercihleri: giresun eğitim fakültesi örneği. değerler eğitimi dergisi, 3 (10), 73-88. solomonidou, c., ve tassios, a. (2007). a phenomenographic study of greek primary school students’ representations concerning technology in daily life. international journal of technology and design education, 17(2), 113-133. straub, d. w., loch, k. d., ve hill, c. e. (2001). transfer of information technology to the arab world: a test of cultural influence modeling. journal of global information management, 9(4), 6-28. e. özlem yi̇ği̇t, tuba çengelci̇ & hıdır karaduman 109 teo, t., lee, c.b. ve chai, c.s. (2007). understanding pre-service teachers' computer attitudes: applying and extending the technology acceptance model. journal of computer assisted learning, 24 (2), 128-143. turiel, e. (2008). thought about actions in social domains: morality, social conventions and social interactions, cognitive development, 23 (1), 136-154. yalmancı, s. (2009). öğretmen adaylarının değer yönelimlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. zonguldak karaelmas üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. yazar, t. (2012). öğretmen adaylarının değerler hakkındaki görüşleri. pegem eğitim ve öğretim dergisi, 2 (1), 61-68. yiğit, e. ö. (2011). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının teknoloji okuryazarlığı düzeylerinin ve teknoloji ile bütünleştirilmiş sosyal bilgiler öğretimine yönelik görüşlerinin belirlenmesi. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. microsoft word barber makale inceleme asıl.docx   www.sosyalbilgiler.org   journal  of  social  studies  education  research   sosyal  bilgiler  eğitimi  araştırmaları  dergisi     2014:  5(1),  20-­‐37   ©  2014  journal  of  social  studies  education  research,  issn:  1309-­‐9108 bir üniversite müzesinde aktif sanat eğitimi: barber enstitüsü örneği active art education in a university museum: the example of the barber institute şehnaz yalçın wells 1 özet bu çalışmada i̇ngiltere’de birmingham üniversitesi’nde bulunan barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü galerisi, sanat eğitimi potansiyel ve işlevi bakımından incelenmektedir. bu temel amaca paralel olarak araştırmada müzenin tarihsel gelişimi, müze olarak sahip olduğu koleksiyonun sanatsal değeri ve müze/sanat eğitimi bağlamında yapılan faaliyetler ortaya konmaktadır. araştırma bir kurum ve süreci herhangi bir müdahalede bulunmadan mevcut haliyle ortaya koymayı amaçladığından durum çalışması yöntemi kullanılmıştır. verilerin toplanmasında ise gözlem, görüşme ve doküman incelemesi teknikleri işe koşulmuştur. elde edilen bulgular değerlendirildiğinde şu sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır: (i) barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü’nün kuruluş ve gelişim süreci, sanat ve sanat eğitiminin gelişiminde kişi, aile ve özel sektörün maddî ve manevî desteklerinin ne kadar olumlu rol oynayabileceğini göstermektedir. bu konuda i̇ngiltere’den başka ülkelerde ve bu arada türkiye’de de benzer gelişmeler gözlemlenmektedir. (ii) adı geçen enstitü, yerinde ve aktif müze eğitimi yönünden de önemli bir örnek oluşturmaktadır. son yıllarda müze eğitimi alanında yapılan çalışmalarda belirgin bir artışın görüldüğü türkiye’de barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü tecrübesinin incelenmesinin müze kültürü ve sanat eğitiminin gelişiminde olumlu rol oynayacağı düşünülmektedir. anahtar kelimeler: barber sanat enstitüsü, müze eğitimi, sanat eğitimi extended abstract museums provide individuals with access to a variety of artworks at a quality and quantity that is not possible any other way. museum education is of great importance to get effective benefit from museums. nowadays museum education starts at an early age, and is simultaneously given in appropriate subjects of different lessons. turkey has made important progresses in museum education and museum studies in recent years, but clearly there is much more to do when compared to more developed countries. these steps can be summarised (a) increasing research into museum education and museology, (b) staff training, (c) creation of social awareness, (d) development and application of new projects. managing all these is not possible with the state’s efforts. private entrepreneurs and civil society should take the initiative and contribute towards museum education and museology. the aim of this research is to determine the potential and function of art education, and to introduce the museum/art activities made in this context in the barber museum of fine arts institute at birmingham university, england. in line with these aims the answers to these questions are being sought: 1. how was barber institute museum been established and developed? 1 yrd. doç. dr., marmara üniversitesi, sehnazwells@marmara.edu.tr şehnaz yalçın wells     21 a) what is the history of the museum’s foundation? b) in the context of the development of museology and art, how can the establishment of the museum by a person/family be evaluated? 2. what are the institutional features of the barber institute museum? a) what are the administrative features of the museum? b) what are the spatial features and importance of the museum? c) what is the artistic significance of its collections? 3. how is museum/art education applied at the barber institute museum? 4. how can the example of the barber institute be assessed in terms of museology and museum/art education? method: this is a qualitative research study, and the case study method is used accordingly. this method foresees the portrayal of the investigated situation without any intervention (şimşek and yıldırım, 2006). in parallel with this research, observations, interviews, document analysis and visual recording techniques made by the researcher during visits to the museum in 1995 and 2012 were used. in addition, the museum’s web page has been examined at various dates to monitor the development of institution. the current situation is set forth in the clarification of the data obtained. findings: as well as being an important place in terms of its architecture, the barber museum houses examples of the most spectacular art collections of 20th century. the fact that it was established by a wealthy person and transferred to the university of birmingham is what makes it unique. the museum contains artworks of artists such as bellini, veronese, rubens, poussin, murillo, gainsborough, manet, degas and magritte, pissarro, renoir, toulouse lautrec, gauguin and van gogh. in this important collection there are drawings, prints, oil paintings, sculptures, decorative arts and coins. it has a sculpture collection including roubiliac’s alexander pope's bust and bronze sculptures by rodin and degas’s. there are also significant collections of books and object arts (bubifa, 1995; interview, 1995, 2012; bifa, 2013a). the main objectives of the training program in barber institute are: • increasing curiosity about art and art history, • development of critical faculties by creating a discussion environment around original works focusing on the criticism techniques and criteria, • gaining greater confidence in trust and perception • inspiring and creating interest, • increasing appetite for learning (bubifa, 1995; interview, 1995, 2012). study groups start at age 5 through to adult. the barber institute’s own educators help with the education. every possible kind of tools materials and equipment is available for the trainers. participants can touch and look objects. students can create their own works depending on the subject, such as creative works like paintings or ceramics, sculpturing, drawing, writing, and modelling. the institute’s teachers are given prior notification about the kind of work the students will do. the institute also offers training for teachers and learners of all ages. they even have the dramatization of famous painting open to the public, which is another example of the wealth of training (bubifa, 1995; interview 1995, 2012). journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(1),  20-­‐37   22 conclusion: in the 20th century, student-centred education, learning by doing and active learning approaches have come to the forefront in education. the art education in barber institute of fine arts examined in this research is one of the best examples of art education in museum applications. it offers students the chance to see, touch and learn about original works and most importantly helps them to improve artistic cognitive and psychomotor abilities. barber provides training to teachers in order to increase the effectiveness of the implemented program. in addition, having the training in a university environment and being in a building which is a work of art with a worldwide reputation provides an impressive experience to students. one of the important features of the barber institute is that it was established by one of the richest families in england, and its educational activities are sustained by the support of a foundation established by that same family. according to research, the training conducted in museums in turkey is extremely ineffective compared with barber (aktekin, 2008). the reason is that the philosophical foundations of museum education have not been laid, and long-term policies have not been determined (onur, “foreword”, 1999). although museum education in turkey has a history of over a hundred years, not enough has been done (önder et al, 2009). however, museums are appropriate places to educate in affective, psychomotor and cognitive aspects (buyurgan and mercin, 2005; seidel and hudson, 1999; günay, 2012) and, especially in art education, museums/galleries should be used more widely and effectively. it is essential to identify the aim of museum education correctly and establish the components (human and non-human) through accurate evaluation and coordination between administrators, experts and educators. it is important for museums to be autonomous and to be able to use their own income in order to carry out the services for education sufficiently. keywords: the barber institute of fine arts, museum education, art education giriş son yıllarda eğitime ilişkin paradigmalarda köklü bir değişim yaşanmaktadır. artık bilginin aktarıldığı, tutum ve değerlerin telkin edildiği eğitim uygulamalarının yerini, öğrenenin aktif olduğu öğrenme süreçleri almaya başlamıştır. kuşkusuz bu dönüşümü doğru anlayabilmek için, her şeyden önce onun felsefi ve kuramsal temellerine bakmak gerekir. günümüzde çağdaş eğitim uygulamaları, ilerlemecilik ve yeniden kurmacılık eğitim felsefelerine dayanan sosyal yapılandırmacılık kuramı temele alınarak tasarlanmaktadır. aktif sanat eğitimi ve müzeler bağlamında bu kuramın şu önermesi son derece önemlidir: birey yeni bir bilgi oluşturur ve/veya bir şeyi anlamlandırırken, konuyla ilgili geçmiş yaşantı ve deneyimlerinin şekillendirdiği zihin şemasını kullanır. daha açık bir ifadeyle bireyin herhangi bir sanat eserini bilgiye dayalı ve doğru teknikler kullanarak anlamlandırabilmesi için belli bir bilgi birikimine ve teknik donanıma sahip olması gerekir. şehnaz yalçın wells     23 bunların kazanılmasında müzelerin önemi son derece büyüktür. çünkü müzeler bireylere başka herhangi bir şekilde olanaklı olmayacak kadar farklı nicelik ve nitelikte sanat eserine erişmelerini sağlar. erişilen eserler sanat kültür ve bilincimizin gelişimi kadar, tarih, edebiyat, antropoloji, teoloji, mimarlık, sosyoloji ve ekonomi gibi inşa yaşamının farklı boyutlarını ele alan disiplinlere ilişkin konularda analiz ve sentez yeteneğimizin artmasına olanak verir. örneğin londra’daki national gallery’deki dönemsel eserlerin sergilendiği kısımlar [sections] kronolojik sıra ile gezildiğinde söz konusu dönemlerin düşünce ve inanç dünyaları hakkında çıkarımlarda bulunmak mümkündür. o kadar ki batı ortaçağı ile rönesans’a ait tablolar karşılaştırıldığında birincisinde etkin olan tanrı/din merkezli [teosantrik] dünya algısının yerini ikincisinde insan merkezli [hümanistik] dünya algısının aldığı açıkça görülür. bu noktada sanatçıların fırçasından çıkan tablolar, söz konusu dönemin düşünce ve inanç dünyasıyla ilgili çıkarımlarda bulunmada kullanılan birer tarihsel kanıta dönüşür. kısaca müzeler her yaş grubundan insanın farklı alan ve türlerde öğrenmelerine olanak veren mekânlardır. müzelerden etkili bir biçimde faydalanılabilinmesi için, müze eğitimi son derece önemlidir. günümüzde müze eğitimi çok erken yaşlarda başlatılmakta ve ders ayırımı yapmaksızın farklı derslerin uygun konularında, çoğu zaman eş zamanlı olarak verilmektedir. dahası son yıllarda müze eğitiminin yeri ve zamanı konusunda da önemli gelişmeler vardır. bunların başında, a) 19. yüzyılda yetişkinler için tasarlanan ve görmek için bazen bir yaşam boyu hayal edilen ülkeler ve/veya yaşam boyu seyahat gerektiren farklı yaş gruplarına uygun sanal müzelerin geliştirilmesi, b) farklı türlerdeki müzelerde erken çocukluk dönemi müze eğitimi birimlerinin oluşturulması, c) müzelerin etkileşimli [interactive] hale getirilmesi, gelmektedir. sözü edilen gelişmeler ülkelere farklı şekillerde yansımaktadır. bu konuda ülkelerin genel gelişmişlik düzeyleri, genel eğitim ve kültür seviyeleri ile müze eğitimine ilişkin bilinç ve politikaları en belirleyici etkenlerdir. müze eğitimi sanat eğitimi içinde önemli bir alandır. çağdaş müze, eğitsel, araştırmacı, yaratıcı ve yönlendirici etkinlikleri olan geçmişini yansıtan ve geleceğini biçimlendirecek öğeleri araştıran, toplayan, sergileyen, belgeleyen, yaşatan ve yönlendiren yaygın bir eğitim kurumudur (atagök, 1997). i̇deal bir müze eğitimcisi ise, başarılı bir ögretim deneyimine, müze koleksiyonlarının tamamını bilecek kadar bilgiye, müzecilik alanında bir öğrenim derecesine ve müze tecrübesine sahip olmalı, görsel-işitsel medya ve sergiler de dahil olmak üzere bütün medyada becerileriyle akıcı iletişimde bulunabilmeli, nesnelerle çalışma konusunda özel bir yeteneğe sahip olmalı, mesai saatleri dışında da journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(1),  20-­‐37   24 çalışmaya hazırlıklı olmalı ve farklı uzmanlarla birlikte çalışabilmelidir (hooper greenhill, 1999) şeklinde tanımlaması yapılırken bu özelliklerin zamanlada kazanılabilineceği vurgulanmıştır. müzeler topluma veya öğrenciye kazandırılması gereken pek çok tutum, nitelik ve beceriyi verebilir. öğrencilerin yaparak ve yaşayarak öğrenmeleri, aktif bir eğitim alabilmeleri için müze eğitimi önemlidir. müzeler, kültür ve bilim tarihine ait eserleri toplayıp, koruma, sergileme işlevini yerine getirmekte, yayınları, hazırladıkları eğitim programları, sanatsal ve kültürel etkinlikleri ile toplumun eğitimine katkıda bulunmaktadırlar. okulun devamı olarak, sanat eğitimi içinde müzede yapılan etkinlikler tarih bilincinin, estetik beğeninin oluşmasını, düşünmeyi, öğrenmeyi sağlamaktadır (kuroğlu maccario, 2002). müzelerde aktif eğitimi sağlamak için çeşitli yöntem ve projeler gereklidir. müze ziyaretinde yöntem ve tekniklere örnek olarak; düz anlatım (ön bilgilendirme gibi), drama, gözlem ve gözlemsel çizim, problem çözme, sözlü etkinlik ve tartışmalar, çalışma yaprağı etkinlikleri, soru sorma, dokunarak etkileşim, empati, grup çalışmaları, öyküleme (demircioğlu, 2005) gibi çalışmalar uygulanabilmektedir. ama bu etkin bir şekilde uygulanabilmekte midir? çağdaş eğitimin amacı, sorgulayan, düşünen, yaratıcı bireyler yetiştirmektir. öğrenme, düşünme, sorgulama, gözlem ve uygulama süreçlerinin birlikte gerçekleştiği eğitim ortamında, birey aktif olarak yer almaktadır. müzede geçmiş uygarlıklarda yaratılan eserlerle ve yaşam biçimleri ile ilişki kurma, yorumlama, oyun ya da canlandırma ile o anı yaşama, sınıfa göre aktif bir eğitim ortamı oluşturmaktadır (kuroğlu maccario, 2002). peki bu aktif eğitim gerçekten verilebilmekte midir? müze ziyaretlerinde öğretmenlerin konu gereksinimlerini karşılamak müze eğitimi servisinin temel politikalarındandır (seidel ve hudson, 1999). acaba öğretmenler müze eğitimi hakkında donanımlı mıdır? bir ilkokul öğretmeni, ilkokul müfredatının çeşitli konu alanlarını ve çocuk gelişiminin, yaptığı bir müze ziyareti aracılığıyla ilerleyen alanlarını; toplumsal-diğer çocuklarla ve yetişkinlerle etkileşim, duygusal-haz, korku, ikna, gülme, doyum, zihinseltahmin etme, değerlendirme, dil, bedensel-elişleri, hareket becerileri, evirip çevirme becerileri, oyunlar, çaba, eşgüdümleme, duyusal-görülecek, dokunulacak, duyulacak, koklanacak, tadılacak şeyler (hooper greenhill, 1999) diye belirleyerek analiz etmiştir. şehnaz yalçın wells     25 türkiye de son yıllarda müzecilik ve müze eğitimi konularında önemli gelişmeler kaydetmiş ülkelerden biridir. fakat aşağıda verildiği gibi gelişmiş ülkelerle kıyaslandığında yapması gereken çok şey olduğu görülmektedir. bunlar; (a) müzecilik ve müze eğitimi alanında tarihsel birikimi ve çağdaş yönelimleri yansıtan araştırmaları arttırmak, (b) personel yetiştirmek, (c) toplumsal bilinç oluşturmak, (d) yeni projeler geliştirmek ve uygulamak olarak özetlenebilir. bütün bunların başarılması devletin çabası ile gerçekleşememektedir. modern çağda sanat ve kültürün her alanında olduğu gibi, müzecilik ve müze eğitimi konularında özel girişimciler ve sivil toplumun daha çok inisiyatif alması ve katkıda bulunması gerekmektedir. son yıllarda hem sanat eğitimi hem de diğer alanların öğretiminde müze kullanımı üzerinde yapılan araştırmaların sayısında önemli bir artış gözlenmiştir (akengin, 2014; aktekin, 2008; buyurgan ve mercin, 2005; demircioğlu, 2005; erbay, 2009; göğebakan, 2012; günay, 2012; önder ve diğ. 2009; pekgözlü karakuş, 2012). nicel yöntem kullanılarak yapılan araştırmaların kapsamı genişlemiş, niteliği de artmıştır. fakat dünyanın farklı ülkelerindeki uygulamaları keşfetmeye kapı aralayacak araştırmalar hala çok yetersizdir. i̇ngiltere’nin birmingham üniversitesi bünyesindeki barber enstitüsü müzesi’ni ve müze/sanat eğitimi etkinliklerini irdeleyen elinizdeki araştırma literatürdeki bu boşluğu doldurmak üzere gerçekleştirilmiştir. bu araştırmanın amacı i̇ngiltere’de birmingham üniversitesinde bulunan barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü müzesi sanat eğitimi potansiyelini ve işlevini belirlemek ve bu çerçevede müze ve sanat eğitimi bağlamında yapılan faaliyetleri ortaya koymaktır. bu amaca paralel olarak aşağıdaki sorulara yanıt aranmaktadır: 1) barber enstitüsü müzesi’nin kuruluş ve gelişimi nasıl olmuştur? a) müzenin kuruluş tarihçesi nedir? b) müzenin bir kişi/aile tarafından kurulması, batıda sanatın ve müzeciliğin gelişimi bağlamında nasıl değerlendirilebilir? 2) barber enstitüsü müzesi’nin kurumsal özellikleri nelerdir? a) müzenin yönetimsel özellikleri nelerdir? b) müzenin mekânsal önemi ve özellikleri nelerdir? c) müze koleksiyonlarının sanatsal önemi nedir? 3) barber enstitüsü müzesi’nde müze/sanat eğitimi nasıl yapılmaktadır? 4) barber enstitüsü müzesi örneği müzecilik ve müze/sanat eğitimi bakımından nasıl değerlendirilebilir? journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(1),  20-­‐37   26 yöntem nitel araştırma yönteminde gerçekleştirilen bu çalışma durum çalışması olarak desenlenmiştir. bir ya da daha fazla olayın ortamın veya sistemlerin derinlemesine incelendiği (büyüköztürk ve diğ., 2008) durum çalışmalarında bir birey, bir kurum, bir grup ya da bir ortam çalışılacak durum olarak ele alınmaktadır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2006). bu çalışmada barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü müzesinin sanat eğitimi potansiyeline ve niteliğine yönelik derinlemesine analizler yapmak istenmesinden dolayı durum çalışması tercih edilmiştir. verilerin toplanması araştırmacının mümkün olduğu ölçüde birden fazla veri kaynağı ve türünü kullanması durum çalışmalarında göz önünde bulundurulması gereken en önemli ilkelerden biridir (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2006). bu yeterliliği sağlayabilmek için bu çalışmanın verileri gözlem, görüşme ve doküman analizi yapılarak elde edilmiştir. bu kapsamda yapılan işlem ve analizler aşağıda ayrı ayrı detaylandırılmıştır. gözlem: herhangi bir ortamda ya da kurumda oluşan davranışı ayrıntılı olarak tanımlamak amacıyla kullanılan bir yöntem (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2006) olan gözlem araştırmalarda farklı amaçlar için yapılandırılarak veya yapılandırılmadan gerçekleştirilmektedir (büyüköztürk ve diğ., 2008). bu çalışmada hem yapılandırılmış hem de yapılandırılmamış gözlem yapılmıştır. bu kapsamda 1995 yılında yapılan ilk gözlem yapılandırılmadan gerçekleştirilmiştir. bir anlamda kurumu tanıma faaliyeti olarak da değerlendirilebilecek ve bir iş günü süren bu gözlem sürecinde barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü galerisi potansiyel ve müze eğitimi faaliyeti odağa alınarak incelenmiştir. bu süreçte görsel kayıtlar alınmış ve araştırmacı notları tutulmuştur. 2012 yılında gerçekleştirilen yapılandırılmış gözlem ise dört iş günü sürmüştür. bu gözlemde, 1995 yılında gerçekleştirilen ilk gözlem notlarından da faydalanarak hazırlanan form kullanılmıştır. bu form yardımıyla daha sistematik bir gözlem gerçekleştirilmiştir. bu kapsamda öğrencilerin enstitüye gelişlerinden enstitüden ayrılışlarına kadar geçen tüm süreç detaylı bir biçimde gözlemlenmiştir. i̇lgili durumlarda araştırmacı notu tutulmuş ve alınan bazı notlar müze görevlilerinden alınan bilgiler ışığında derinleştirilmiştir. görüşme: nitel araştırmalarda en çok tercih edilen veri toplama yöntemlerinden biri olan görüşmede, katılımcıya önceden hazırlanmış sorular belli bir sistematiğe göre yöneltilir (demir, 2009). bu kapsamda çalışmada barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü’nde gerçekleştirilen eğitim öğretim süreci ile ilgili kurum görevlileri ile görüşme yapılmıştır. şehnaz yalçın wells     27 görevlilere kurumda gerçekleştirilen eğitim programının amaçları, öğretmenin müze eğitimindeki rolü, eğitim programı ve uygulamalarına yönelik sorular yöneltilmiştir. doküman analizi: bu çalışmada doküman analizi kapsamında her iki ziyaret sırasında gerek galeri gerekse eğitim faaliyetleri ile ilgili çekilen fotoğraflar ve enstitüye ait tanıtım broşürleri, notları gibi basılı materyaller analiz edilmiştir. bunun yanı sıra barber enstitüsü’nün resmi web sitesinde yer alan, enstitü ve faaliyetlerinin tanıtımına yönelik bilgiler araştırma amaçlarına uygun olarak incelenmiştir. verilerin analizi gözlem, görüşme ve doküman analizi ile elde edilen araştırma verileri, elde edilen bulguları düzenli ve yorumlanmış olarak sunmayı hedefleyen betimsel analize tabi tutularak işlenmiştir. bu çerçevede elde edilen bulgular araştırma amaçlarına uygun olarak temalandırılarak bulgular kısmında verilmiştir. bulgular bu bölüm, tarihsel gelişim bir ailenin sanat ve eğitim girişimi, mekân, koleksiyon, sanat enstitüsü müzesi’nde müze/sanat eğitimi, eğitim programının amaçları, eğitim programı ve uygulamaları, öğretmenlerin rolü başlıkları altında ele alınmıştır. tarihsel gelişim: bir ailenin sanat ve eğitim girişimi barber müzesi, i̇ngiltere'nin birmingham şehrinde olan birmingham üniversitesi’ne bağlı barber enstitü içinde bulunmaktadır. müze 20. yüzyılda toplanmış en muhteşem sanat koleksiyon örneklerine sahip mekânlardan biridir. ülkenin en önemli kültürel ve turistik merkezlerinden birinde bulunması, müzeyi daha da önemli kılmaktadır. müzeyi farklı kılan özelliklerinden biri, zengin bir kişi tarafından kurulup birmingham üniversitesi’ne devredilmesidir. gerçekte bu batıda istisnai bir durum değildir; aksine rönesans öncesi yıllara kadar inen köklü bir geleneğin ürünüdür. çünkü burjuvazinin doğuşu, bir yandan sanatı kilise ve hanedanların tekelinden çıkarırken, diğer yandan da zengin koleksiyonların kitlelerin istifadesine sunulmasını sağlamıştır. böylece modern dönemde sanat devletin yanısıra burjuvazi tarafından da himaye edilmeye başlanmıştır. sanayi devriminden sonra batıda sermaye birikiminin hızlanması sanat eserlerine olan talebi, koleksiyoner kişi/ailelerin sayısını arttırmıştır. barber enstitüsü/müzesi’ni kişi veya ailenin kurması ve bu kişinin de sanayi devriminin beşiği olan birmingham kentinin en zengin ailelerinden birine mensup olması tesadüfi değildir. journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(1),  20-­‐37   28 barber enstitüsü’nün kurucusu dame matha constance hattie barber (lady barber), mayıs 1869'da earl's crome, worcestershire’da doğdu. lady barber'in babası simon onions zengin bir iş adamıydı ve lady barber tek çocuktu. zengin aileden gelen barber i̇ngiltere'nin en ünlü özel kız lisesi olan cheltenham ladies kolejinden mezun oldu. amatör olarak sulu boya yaptı ve başarılı bir piyanisti. 1893’te birmingham'da müteahhit olan william henry barber ile evlendi. sir william henry barber (1860-1927) birmingham üniversitesi’nin kurucularından biriydi. lady barber kocasının ölümünden birkaç yıl sonra aralık 1932’de barber enstitüsü’nü kurdu; 4 ay sonrasında öldü. çocuğu yoktu ve bütün malını barber enstitüsü’ne bıraktı (bubifa, 1995). lady barber enstitüyü kocası sir hanry barber anısına kurdu. amacı sanat ve müziği teşvik etmekti. bıraktığı parayla bina alındı. vasiyetine göre binada resimler bulunacak ve konserler olacaktı. enstitü’nün resmi açılışı 1939’da susan mary tarafından yapıldı (bubifa, 1995). sergi yerleri geniş ve estetik açıdan mükemmel olan müze/enstitü, o tarihten beri uluslararası önem taşıyan eserlere ev sahipliği yapmaktadır. galerinin en önemli özelliği, resimlerin tüm batı sanatının gelişimini gösteriyor olmasıdır. 13. yüzyıldan 20. yüzyıla kadarki dönemlerin resimlerini kapsamaktadır. müzede bulunan eserlerin sanatçıları arasında bellini, veronese, rubens, poussin, murillo, gainsborough, manet, degas ve magritte bulunmaktadır. bu önemli koleksiyon içinde çizimler, baskılar, yağlı boyalar, heykeller, dekoratif sanatlar ve madeni paralar vardır (bubifa, 1995; görüşme, 1995, 2012; bifa, 2013a). bu haliyle barber müzesi, lady barber'in ilk amacını gerçekleştirdiğini göstermektedir. çünkü lady barber, burada national gallery veya wallace koleksiyonundaki kadar kaliteli ve önemli resimlerin olmasını hedeflemişti (bifa, 2013b). müze 2012’de prestijli bir ödül olan national museums + heritage ödülü almıştır (bifa, 2013c). mekân bugün gördüğümüz bina 1935-1939 arasında i̇ngiltere'nin iki dünya savaşı arası çağın en önemli mimarlarından biri olan robert atkinson (1883-1952) tarafından yapıldı. bu bina onun en başarılı eserleri arasında değerlendirilmişti. the times’da, sir john summerson (i̇ngiltere'nin en ünlü mimarlık tarihçelerinden biri) bu binayı 1930’ların i̇ngiliz mimarlığının ruhunu en iyi gösteren yapısı olarak göstermişti (bubifa, 1995; görüşme, 1995, 2012). şehnaz yalçın wells     29 atkinson'un çizimleri enstitü’nün ilk yöneticisi prof. thomas bodkin'den etkiler taşır (bubifa, 1995). binanın ortasında müzik salonu vardır. birinci katta sanat galerileri bulunmaktadır. 1965-1966’da müzik kütüphanesi de eklenmiştir. barber enstitü temmuz 1939’da açıldı. enstitüye 1946’da riba (royal institute of british architects) tarafından bronz madalya verildi. 1981’de çevre bakanlığı tarafından koruma listesine alındı (bubifa, 1995). koleksiyon lady barber ölmeden önce bu galerinin koleksiyonun çok güzel ve mükemmel sanat eserlerinden oluşmasını ve 20. yüzyılın öncesini kapsamasını istemişti. mobilya, işleme, elişleri ve ortaçağdan kaligrafi ve diğer kitaplarda olabilir diye eklemişti. simone martini'nin sadece i̇ngiltere'de olan 6 tane resmi barber'da bulunmaktadır. i̇ki tane bellini resmi vardır. bellini'nin en erken imzasını taşıyan resmi st. jerome in the wilderness'de burada bulunmaktadır (bubifa, 1995). barber’da olan bir diğer resim erken hollanda resimleri örneklerinden olan gassaert'ın hercules ve deianira (1517)’dır ki bu resmin önemi kuzey avrupa'daki mitolojik resimlerden biri olmasındadır. sonrasındaki i̇talyan ressamlardan veronese, jacopa bassano, canaletto'nin birkaç tane önemli resimleri de bulunmaktadır. 17. yüzyıl sebastiano mazzoni'nin three fates adlı resmi vardır (bubifa, 1995). barok dönemden de barber enstitü çok zengin geniş resimleri içermektedir. bu koleksiyon içinde poussin, claude ve murillo'nun eserleri de bulunmaktadır ki murillo'nun marriage feast at cana adlı ünlü eseri de buradadır. rubens'e ait peyzaj bulunmaktadır. rubens, constable'dan önce olmasına rağmen constable'ı tahmin edebilmiştir. yani rubens'in manzarasını constable zannedebilirsiniz. van dyck’ın, frans hals, ruisdael ve cuyp’un resimlerini de görebilirsiniz (bubifa, 1995). i̇ngiliz koleksiyonlarından reynolds'tan portreler ve gainsborough'ın peyzajı olan harvest wagon (1767) da bulunmaktadır. diğer önemli i̇ngiliz peyzaj ustalarından wilson ve turner'ı da görmek mümkündür. turner'ın ilk yıllarından olan the sun risingthrough vapour burada sergilenmiştir. boticelli, magritte’nin ünlü eserleri de görülmektedir (bubifa, 1995; bifa, 2013a). 19. yüzyıl ingres'in önemli yağlı boyalarını ve delocrox, whistler'in symphony in white no iii (whistler'in ilk müzikal isimli resmi) ve muhteşem fransız empresyonist resimleri içermektedir. fransız empresyonist grup içinde monet'nin the church at journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(1),  20-­‐37   30 varengeville'si, degas'nın jokeys before the race (1879) ve manet, pissarro, renoir, toulouse lautrec, gauguin ve van gogh bulunmaktadır (bubifa, 1995; bifa, 2013a). fonun ilk kurulduğundaki 20. yüzyıla kadarki resimlerin alımına izin veren maddenin değiştirilmesi ve sonraki dönemlerden eserlerin de alınmasına olanak tanınmasıyla koleksiyonun zenginliği artmıştır. bunun üzerinde barber enstitü önemli heykel koleksiyonuna sahiptir ve bu önemli koleksiyon için de roubiliac'ın alexander pope'un büstü ve rodin ve degas'nın bronz heykelleri de yer almaktadır. enstitüde baskı ve çizim koleksiyonlarından ise en önemlileri sergilenmektedir. baskı ve çizimlerin hepsini aynı anda görmek mümkün değil fakat belli dönemlerde değişmektedir. sergilenenler arasında rembrandt tarafından yapılan 3 çizim ve van dyck tarafından yapılmış çok nadir sulu boya, manzara ve dürer, tintoretto, tiepolo'nun çok önemli eserleri ve degas'nın en önemli çizimlerinden olan mille malo'da vardır. en ilginç koleksiyonlarından biri de 243 portre ve edmond kapp tarafından yapılmış karikatür çizimleridir. bu çizimler king george vi, jacgues tati ve aga khan gibi ünlü insanlara aittir. bu resimlerden sergilenmeyenleri randevu alarak görmek mümkündür (bubifa, 1995). ayrıca çok önemli kitaplar vardır. object art ve çok kapsamlı madeni para koleksiyonu (toplam 10,0000 adet) bulunmaktadır (bifa, 2013a). peki böyle güzel bir müze ortamında eğitime dair neler yapılmaktadır? sanat enstitüsü müzesi’nde müze/sanat eğitimi barber enstitü güzel sanatları ziyaret etmek her seviyedeki öğrenci için çok verimlidir ve öğrenciler burada aldığı eğitimi canlı yaşayabilmektedir. bilindiği gibi aktif eğitim en kalıcı öğrenme şeklidir. barber enstitü eğitim ziyaretleri için çok uygun bir mekandır. çünkü koleksiyonun kalitesi mükemmel olduğu gibi sergi alanı da topludur ve atmosferi de sıcaktır. ayrıca kaliteli bir sunuşu verebilecek ortama sahip olduğu kadar verimli bir eğitim programına da sahiptir. ayrıca eğitimi geliştirmeye yönelik seminerler de düzenlenmektedir (bifa, 2012). eğitim programının amaçları barber enstitüsü eğitim programının temel amaçları şunlardır: • merak arttırma-sanata ve sanat tarihine, • eleştiri yeteneğinin geliştirilmesi-orijinal tablolar üzerinde tartışma ortamları oluşturularak eleştiri teknik ve ölçütleri üzerinde durulmakta, • güven kazandırma-algılama yeteneğine daha fazla güvenme, • sevdirme, heyecanlandırma, şehnaz yalçın wells     31 • öğrenme isteğini arttırma (bubifa, 1995; görüşme, 1995, 2012). bu amaçları gerçekleştirmek için aşağıdaki eğitim ve öğretim faaliyetleri yapılmaktadır. eğitim programı ve uygulamaları i̇ngiltere'de bilindiği gibi okul 5 yaşında başlar ki barber'da da eğitim programı çalışmaları bu yaş grubu ile başlamaktadır. eğitim gruplar halinde verilmektedir. 5 yaştan lise sona kadar maksimum grup sayısı çalışma programlarında 30 kişi ile sınırlanmaktadır. gruplara verilen bütün eğitim malzemeleri (çalışma kağıtları, içerikler, soru cevap kağıtları ve bir çok meteryaller...) barber enstitü tarafından sağlanmaktadır. yapılan eğitim çalışmalarından bir örneği ele alırsak; aynı konuda olan 5-6 eser toplanmakta ve bu eserler üzerinde sunuş ve tartışmalar yapılmaktadır. sanat okuryazarlığı üzerinde durulmaktadır. bu eğitimin verilmesinde barber enstitü’nün kendi eğitimcileri yardımcı olmaktadır. eğitimcilerin ihtiyacı olabilecek her türlü alet, materyal, slayt, projeksiyon gibi materyaller enstitü tarafından temin edilmektedir. eğitimlerde bakmak, dokunmak serbesttir. resimlerin seçilmesi, sunuş, tartışma ve bunlara bağlı özgün çalışmalar da gerçekleştirilmektedir. uygulama gibi mesela; edebiyat öğrencileri veya sanat tarihi öğrencileri resim üzerine birşeyler yazabilmekte, sanat öğrencileri resim veya seramik heykel, çizim, yazı, modelaj, baskı gibi yaratıcı çalışmalar yapabilmektedirler. ayrıca barber enstitüsü eğitmene çocukların düzeylerine uygun eser seçimi ve uygun çalışmaların planlanması gibi hususlarda danışmanlık da vermektedir. bu danışmanlıkta konular örneklerle de sunulmaktadır. bu örneklemeler bazı konu başlıkları altında sıralanabilmektedir (bubifa, 1995; görüşme 1995, 2012). bunlar; • portreler • manzara resimlerine bakış ve incelenmesi • pentürde öyküler (resmin konusu, tarihi, edebi bağlantıları, dönemi...) • barber'da heykel • ortaçağ ressamları (çalışmaları, atölyeler...) • emprestyonistler okullar bu tür atölye çalışmaları için randevu alıp eğitimlerini verebilmektedirler. i̇lköğretimler (5-11 yaş arası) en az 6 ay önceden randevu almalıdır diye tavsiye edilmektedir. sonraki dönem öğrencileri için ise 6 hafta öncesi yeterlidir diye tavsiye edilip, ön çalışmaları başlatmaktadırlar ki bu eğitimin içinde öğrencileri getiren journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(1),  20-­‐37   32 öğretmenleri de kapsayan ön çalışmalar bulunmaktadır (bubifa, 1995; görüşme 1995, 2012). öğretmenlerin rolü öğrencileri getirecek öğretmenler, barber enstitüsü’ne gelmeden önce öğrencilerle yapılmak üzere belirlenen çalışmalar üzerine bilgilendirilmektedirler. ön bilgi olması için öğretmenlere, programı içeren bilgiler, ziyaret sırasında ve sonrasında yapılacak çalışmalar gönderilmektedir. yani öğrencilerin alacakları eğitim ile ilgili öğretmene ön hazırlık sunulmaktadır. ayrıca öğretmenlere yönelik ücretsiz eğitim hizmeti de verilmektedir ki bunun için de öğretmenliğin nasıl geliştirilebileceği gibi eğitimler de bulunmaktadır. i̇steyen öğretmenler bu eğitimi de alabilmektedir (bubifa, 1995; görüşme 1995, 2012). 14 yaşından büyük öğrenciler için yine en fazla 30 kişilik gruplarla özel çalışmalar yapılmaktadır. öğrenciler eskiz defterlerini getirmekte ve yapılan çalışma günlerinde bir konu üzerinde odaklanmaktadırlar. slayt gösterileri ile başlanmakta, verilerden sonra tartışmalar olmakta ve arkasından bireysel çalışmalara geçilmektedir. tabii ki odaklanılan konu seçimleri içinde de çeşitlilikler bulunmaktadır. mesela bir gün manzara resmi üzerinde durulmakta, çeşitli konular gösterilmekte, çeşitli yapıtlar incelenmekte, bunlardan sürreale, modern sanata, farklı daha zor teknikli konulara geçilmektedir. bu yaş grubu ile farklı galerilerin veya yerlerin çalışmaları da birleştirilebilmektedir. bakış açıları geliştirilmekte mesela botanik bahçede inceleme yapılmakta, sonra çiçekler üzerinde çalışılmaktadır. yani öğrenciler farklı yerlerden de yönlendirme alırlarken farklı bakış açıları ile araştırmacı ve kavrayıcı bir kişilikle öğrenmekte, yaşamakta ve yaratmaktadırlar. burada her zaman barber enstitü’sünün de tek başına olmadığı farklı programlarla da işbirliğine girildiği görülmektedir. genelde 14 yaş üstü için ayrıca rehberle galeri turları da yapılmaktadır. bu turlar içinde bir rehber öğretmen 30 kişilik grupları gezdirmekte ve anlatmakta fakat bu gezi sırasında yalnızca mevcut eserler hakkında bilgi verilebilmektedir. tabi ki sergilenenler haricinde mevcut eserler de vardır ve bu eserler zaman zaman değişmekle birlikte bu değişimler özel günlere göre de sergilenebilmektedirler. gündeme göre de eserler değişebilmekte ve ayrıca gelen okulun randevusu, özellikle çalışmak istedikleri konulara göre sergilenmeyen mevcut eserlere de ulaşmak mümkün olabilmektedir (bubifa, 1995; görüşme 1995, 2012). şehnaz yalçın wells     33 her yaş düzeyi için eğitim almak mümkündür. ailece de katılabilinen ünlü tablolara ait tiyatro çalışmalarının aktarımı ise eğitimde kalıcılığı ön plana çıkaran ilgi çeken bir başka eğitim zenginliğidir. tartışma ve sonuç 20. yüzyılda öğrenci merkezli eğitim, yaparak yaşayarak öğrenme ve aktif öğrenme gibi yaklaşımlar eğitimin yükselen değerleri haline gelmiştir. radikal bir paradigma değişiminin göstergesi olan bu yaklaşımların yansımalarından biri de müzede sanat eğitimi yaklaşımının benimsenmesi ve uygulama sahasına taşınmasıdır. söz konusu eğitim, müze eğitimini içeren sanat eğitiminin doğası gereği kapsamlı bir öğrenme yaşantısı sunan bir süreçtir. araştırmaya konu olan barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü’ndeki sanat eğitimi, müzede sanat eğitimi uygulamalarının en iyi örneklerinden biridir. barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü’ndeki sanat eğitimi, öğrencilere orijinal eserleri görme, duyumsama ve onlar hakkında bilgi sahibi olmanın yanında müze/galerinin en önemli kısımlarından biri olan "eğitim bölümleri"nde nitelikli programlarla ilgi çekerek sanata ilişkin bilişsel ve devinişsel özelliklerini geliştirebileceği atölye çalışmaları yapma olanağı sunmaktadır. barber, uygulanan programın etkinliğini artırabilmek için öğrencilerin öğretmenlerine de eğitim vermektedir. ayrıca bu eğitim ortamının bir üniversite bünyesi içinde olması, dahası dünya çapında üne sahip bir sanat eseri olan binada bulunması, öğrencilere etkileyici bir deneyim sağlamaktadır. bu açıdan müze eğitimi/müzede sanat eğitimi konusunda son derece önemli bir kurum olarak, dünyanın pek çok ülkesi gibi türkiye için de örnek oluşturmaktadır. barber güzel sanatlar enstitüsü ve sanat galerisi/müzesi’nin önemli özelliklerinden biri de ülkenin en zengin ailelerinden biri tarafından kurulması; müze ve eğitim faaliyetlerini aynı aile tarafından kurulan bir vakfın desteğiyle sürdürmesidir. bu konuda da olumlu bir örnek oluşturmaktadır. son yıllarda türkiye’de sabancı, koç ve eczacıbaşı aileleri başta olmak üzere bazı varlıklı ailelerin müzeler üzerinde desteği bulunmaktadır ve olumlu çalışmalar yapılmaktadır. ama barber örneğinde ki eğitim anlayışı türkiye genelinde hala oturmamıştır. türkiye’nin müze/müzede sanat eğitimi konusunda barber örneğinden alacağı çok şey bulunmaktadır. zira yapılan araştırmalara göre türkiye’de müzelerde yapılan eğitim son derece etkisizdir (aktekin, 2008). onur’a göre bunun nedeni müze eğitiminin felsefi temellerinin atılmamış, ilkelerinin konulmamış, uzun vadeli politikalarının belirlenmemiş journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(1),  20-­‐37   34 olmasıdır (onur, “sunuş”, hooper-greenhill, 1999). maalesef türkiye’de müze eğitimi yüz yıldan uzun bir geçmişe sahip olmakla beraber çalışmalar yeterli değildir (önder vd., 2009; erbay, 2009). oysa bireylerin duyuşsal, devinişsel ve bilişsel yönden eğitilebilmeleri için müzeler uygun mekânlardır (buyurgan ve mercin, 2005; seidel ve hudson, 1999; günay, 2012) ve özellikle sanat eğitiminde müze/galerilerin daha yaygın ve etkin hale getirilmesi gerekir. maalesef müzeler türkiye eğitim sistemi içerisinde çok yaygın bir şekilde kullanılmamıştır. pekgözlü karakuş (2012), eğitim sürecinde müzelerden daha aktif ve verimli bir şekilde yararlanılabilmesi için; kültür ve turizm bakanlığı, vakıflar genel müdürlüğü, milli eğitim bakanlığı, yerel yönetimler, sivil toplum örgütleri ve çeşitli kuruluşların işbirliği içinde çalışmalarının gerekliliğini belirtmiştir. kuroğlu maccario’da (2002), müzelerin çeşitleri, genel ve özel de eğitim işlevini gerçekleştirmeye yönelik politikaları ele almış, çağdaş müzelerin çocuk genç-yetişkinlerin eğitimine yönelik olarak uyguladıkları etkinlikleri araştırmıştır. müze eğitimi ile ilgili olarak hedeflerin doğru saptanması önemlidir. programların hazırlanması, destek olabilecek kurum ve kişilerle gerekli ilişkilerin kurulması ve bunların doğru değerlendirilmesi gibi pek çok bileşeni olan müze eğitimi, yönetici, uzman ve eğitimcilerin karşılıklı eşgüdümü sağlanarak gerçekleşebilir. akengin (2014) ise son yıllarda türkiye’deki müzelerde dünyada gelişen müzecilik çalışmalarına paralel olarak müze eğitimi öncesi ve sonrasındaki testlerde müze eğitimi kazanımları üzerinde anlamlı farklılık bulmuştur. buna karşı göğebakan (2012) ise müzelerin eğitim-öğretim içerisinde kullanılması öğrenmenin etkinliği bakımından çok fazla önem taşımasına rağmen, ülkemiz eğitim sistemi içerisinde çok yaygın bir şekilde kullanılmadığını ifade etmektedir. kıvılcımlar olsa da istenilen düzeyde değildir. son zamanlarda çok olumlu gelişmeler yaşanmasına rağmen ülkemizde eğitim ve öğretim kurumlarının müzeleri ve galerileri etkili bir biçimde kullandığını söylemek güçtür sonucuna ulaşmıştır. müze “tabiat ve toplum gelişimini gösteren, toplayan, saklayan, koruyan, onarımını, bilimsel araştırmalarını yapan, sergileyen ve tüm insanları eğiten bir kurum” olarak tanımlanırken, müzelerin eğitimdeki rolü de bu kadar önemli iken, çağdaş müzecilik anlayışı içindeki amaç, toplum tarihini koruma, sergileme ve eğitimdir ki eğitim okul dışında da devam ettiğine göre sadece uzmanların mesleklerini ilerletmek veya ilgili kişilerin ulaşmasını sağlamak değil ilgili bir toplum yaratmak, kökten gelen yeni nesil eğitimine önem vermekle olur. şehnaz yalçın wells     35 öneriler § müzecilik ve müze eğitimi alanında tarihsel birikimi ve çağdaş yönelimleri yansıtan araştırmalar arttırılabilir ve böylece toplumsal bilinç de oluşturulabilir. § fon, sponsor gibi eğitime ayrılan bütçe önemlidir ve eğitim bütçesine olanaklar sağlanabilinmelidir. § üniversitelerde sanat eğitimi veren yerlerde galeri veya müzeler oluşturulabilir ve buralarda eğitim yapılandırılabilir. özel sektör ve sanata yapılan yatırımların önemi vurgulanabilir ve teşvik edilebilir. § eğitim sürecinde müzelerden daha aktif ve verimli bir şekilde yararlanılabilmesi için, kültür ve turizm bakanlığı, vakıflar genel müdürlüğü, milli eğitim bakanlığı, yerel yönetimler, yüksek öğretim kurumu ve çeşitli kuruluşların işbirliği içinde etkin çalışmalarına daha önem verilebilir. § müzelerde farklı yaş gruplarına göre eğitimler olmalıdır. böylece yaş gruplarına göre oyunlaştırılmış bilgi aktarım ve keşiflerle birlikte etkin bir eğitimle bilginin kalıcılığı yapılandırabilir. § müzenin koleksiyonları ile müze ziyaretçisinin gereksinmeleri ve ilgileri arasında ziyaret öncesinde müzeyle iletişim kurulabilir. önceden seçilebilen doğru iletişim, doğru plan ve program, doğru eğitimi de getirebilecektir ve bu ilgiyi de arttırabilir. § sanata herkes ulaşabilmelidir. bu bağlamda düzenlenebilecek etkinlikler ilgi çekici olmalı ve her düzeyde hazırlanmalıdır. yetişkinler için ayrı konferans ve tartışma grupları yapılıp aile katılımları da sağlanabilir. tur sonrası konuşma grupları olabilir. § merak arttıran, algılama ve eleştiri yeteneği geliştiren, farkındalık oluşturan ve buna bağlı güven geliştirici çalışmalar yaptırılabilir. § müze eğitimi ve ziyaretleri yaratıcılığı geliştirme yönünde olmalıdır. öğrenci merkezli aktif etkinlikler yapılmalıdır böylece etkin öğrenme gerçekleşebilir. § teknolojik gelişmelerle eş zamanlı çalışmalar geliştirilebilir ve bu da teknolojiyi kullanan çocukların ilgisini daha çok çekebilir. § etkin bir müzede eser değişimleri ve sergiler olmalıdır. böylece farklı eğitimlerle farklı bilgilendirmeler verilebilineceğinden yaratıcılık ve düşünce gelişimi açısından farklı zamanlarda tekrar aynı müzeye gitme programları oluşturulabilinir. böylece bir müzeye her gidişde farklı şeyler görüp farklı şeyler öğrenilebilinir. journal  of  social  studies  education  research  2014:  5(1),  20-­‐37   36 § müze gezisi sonrası pekiştirici bilgilerin kalıcılığını sağlayacak çalışmalar yaptırılabilir. bu çalışmalar sonucu istenilen amaca ulaşılıp ulaşılamadığı da ölçülebilir. burada yapılabilecek kazanım çalışmaları sonraki çalışmaları şekillendirebilmek adına önemli bir etkinlik olabilmektedir. § üniversitelerle eş zamanlı projeler üretilebilir. farklı ülkelerle ortak proje ve uygulamalar ve farklı araştırmalara gidilebilir. § kişiye veya gruba göre özel yöntemler seçilebilmesi için eğitimci iyi bir gözlem gücüne sahip olmalı ve kendini geliştirebilmelidir. burada alanında yetkin personel yetiştirmenin önemi üzerinde durulmalıdır. § öğretmenlere eğitim verilebilir. seminerler düzenlenebilir. kaynakça akengin, ç. (2014). i̇lköğretim 6. sınıf görsel sanatlar dersinde müze kaynaklı işbirliğine dayalı öğretim yönteminin öğrenci kazanımlarına etkisi. gazi üniversitesi endüstriyel sanatlar eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 33, 178-188. buyurgan, s. & l. mercin (2005). görsel sanatlar eğitiminde müze eğitimi ve uygulamaları. özsoy, v. (eds.). ankara: görsel sanatlar eğitimi derneği yayınları. aktekin, s. (2008). müze uzmanlarının okulların eğitim amaçlı müze ziyaretlerine ilişkin görüşleri. ahi evran üniversitesi kırşehir eğitim fakültesi dergisi (kefad), 9 (2), 103-111. atagök, t. (1997). müzecilik, eczacıbaşı sanat ansiklopidisi, c. 2, i̇stanbul: yem yayın, 1320-1325. bifa [the barber institute of fine arts] (2013a). [available online at: http://barber.org.uk/the-collections/], erişim tarihi: 22.09.2013. bifa [the barber institute of fine arts] (2013b). [available online at: http://barber.org.uk/patrons/], erişim tarihi: 29.12.2013. bifa [the barber institute of fine arts] (2013c). [available online at: http://barber.org.uk/barber-wins-prestigious-national-award-forexcellence/], erişim tarihi: 29.12.2013. bifa [the barber institute of fine arts] (2012). [available online at: http://barber.org.uk/contemporary-responses-to-portrait-collections/], erişim tarihi: 22.11.2012. bubifa [birmingham university the barber institute of fıne arts] (1995): kurum koleksiyon sergi program broşürleri. büyüköztürk, ş., kılıç çakmak, e., akgün, ö. e., karadeniz, ş. & demirel, f. (2008). bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: pegema. demir, o. ö. (2009). nitel araştırma yöntemleri. k. böke (der.), sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri (s.3-30). i̇stanbul: alfa yayınları. şehnaz yalçın wells     37 demircioğlu, i̇. h. (2005). tarih öğretiminde öğrenci merkezli yaklaşımlar. ankara: anı yayıncılık. erbay, f. (2009). müze yönetimini kurumsallaştırma çabası (1984-2009). i̇stanbul: mimarlık vakfı enstitüsü. hooper greenhill, e. (1999). müze ve galeri eğitimi, çev: meltem ö. evren ve emine g. kapçı (yayına hazırlayan: bekir onur), no.4, ankara: ankara üniversitesi çocuk kültürü araştırma ve uygulama merkezi yayınları. göğebakan y. (2012). müzelerin eğitim-öğretim içerisindeki önemi ve türk eğitim sisteminde kullanılmalarının tarihsel gelişimi, proceedings of the 1st cyprus international congress of education research full text book, 06-09 december, kyrenia north cyprus, 34-51. günay, b. (2012). museum consept from past to present and importance of museums as centers of art education, procedia – socialand behavioral sciences, 55, 1250-1258. kuroğlu maccario, n. (2002). müzelerin eğitim ortamı olarak kullanımı. uludağ üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi ,15(1), 275-285. onur, b. (1999). sunuş, 6 hooper-greenhill, e. (1999). müze ve galeri eğitimi. çev: meltem örge evren. emine gül kapçı, no.4, ankara: ankara üniversitesi çocuk kültürü araştırma ve uygulama merkezi yayınları, 5-10. önder, a., abacı, o. & kamaraj, i. (2009). müzelerin eğitim amaçlı kullanımı projesi. pamukkale üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 25(1), 104-117. pekgözlü karakuş, d. (2012). müzelerde uygulanabilecek müze eğitim etkinlikleri. mediterranean journal of humanities, 2(1), 131-138. seidel, s. & hudson, k. (1999). müze eğitimi ve kültürel kimlik. çev: bahri ata (yayına hazırlayan: bekir onur), no.1 ankara: ankara üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü müze egitimi anabilim dalı yayınları. yıldırım, a. & şimşek, h. (2006). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin yayınevi. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3),93-113 93 readiness of educational activity subjects for results-oriented cooperation in the inclusive educational practice of higher school vladimir ts. tsyrenov1, klavdiya g. erdyneeva2, tuyana ts. tudupova3, pavel g. boronoyev4, nataliya n. popova5 abstract the relevance of the research is due to the necessity of integration of persons with health limitations and disabilities into the educational space of higher education institutions. with regard to this, the paper is aimed at finding out the extent of readiness of the educational activity subjects for results-oriented cooperation in inclusive educational practice of the higher school. the leading approach to studying this problem is the retrospective interdisciplinary analysis that allows an integrated consideration of the universities' readiness for full-fledged integration of people with health limitations and disabilities into the educational process. in the paper, the results of research into students' attitude toward the disabled and hl people and their readiness for results-oriented cooperation are presented, and the specific problems of psychological and social support rendering are described. the value references system of students with health limitations and disabilities has been found out, and grounds have been provided for having to include the subjects that form a tolerant attitude to special needs people into the student-training content. it has also been proven that qualified professional training has to be ensured for the academic teaching staff, infrastructure has to be provided, and an integrated program has to be developed that would allow personifying the academic process adjusted for the development particularities of students with health limitations. the materials of the paper are of practical importance for educational activity subjects involved into the higher-school inclusive educational practice. keywords: people with health limitations, the disabled, inclusive practice, inclusive education, educational activity subject, results-oriented cooperation. introduction the rise of the open educational environment implies ontological modeling and networkbased multi-level coherence of educational activity subjects, establishing the self-education, selflearning and self-development as the leading forms of education. it also involves a flexible and individualized character of education, the systemic integration of politics, science, business technologies, education and production into a single cluster, and the introduction of competencebased approach relying on the generalized ability of the educational process subjects to perform a 1assoc. prof., doctor of pedagogy, buryat state university, volod_1963@mail.ru 2prof., doctor of pedagogy, buryat state university, eridan58@mail.ru 3assoc. prof., candidate of psychology, buryat state university, tuyanatu@mail.ru 4assoc. prof., candidate of sociology, buryat state university, boronoevpg@mail.ru 5assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, transbaikal state university, nnp18@mail.ru mailto:volod_1963@mail.ru mailto:eridan58@mail.ru mailto:tuyanatu@mail.ru mailto:boronoevpg@mail.ru mailto:nnp18@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 multi-purpose practical activity (erdyneeva, 2012, tsyrenov, 2014, tsyrenov, 2015, yarovova, 2015, erdyneeva & popova, 2016, tarman & chigisheva, 2017). according to the data of the world health organization (who), about 15% of the world population has some form of disability, with 80% of them living in the developing countries. according to the global review of healthcare, around 785 million people aged 15 and over (15,6%) live with disabilities, and 975 million people (19,4%) have a severe form of disability, the global burden of disease report reads. provision of the inclusive education systems depends on adopting the relevant laws, determining a certain direction of policy, developing a nation-wide action plan, and creating the infrastructure. monitoring and evaluation of the state policy in relation to using the accessible technologies for ensuring inclusive education are especially important (estevez et al., 2016). the students form a particular social and cultural space in which adverse life factors conditioned by the change of social status, formed behavior and thinking stereotypes may act. alongside with that, the cognitive and learning activity aimed at acquiring the professional and general human competences allows the young people to find out many meanings that were previously not available for them and to gain understanding of new values. therefore, the life activity in the new space triggers the intensification of behavior of the mental and physiological processes and mobilizes the reserves of the organism. higher stressfulness of the environment is one of dysadaptation factors and imposes stricter requirements for reflecting on emotional conditions as a way of controlling the situational negative emotions (bashanaeva & shumilkina, 2017; houdyshellm, 2017). with regard to this, the most vulnerable to the impact of negative factors are students with health limitations (hl), including the disabled ones. the particularity of students of this social group due to the ontogenesis disorder consists in blocking the perception of social standards and requirements. the analysis of practice shows they in fact have problems in interaction with their social surrounding and the accessible fragments of social and cultural reality. the analysis of scientific and theoretical sources and practice of educational activity with this category of students allows recognizing that difficulties of student life can be overcome, with reserves for this to be found in organization of the educational process. and this undoubtedly is an indispensable prerequisite for succeeding. adverse factors accompanying the educational process, together with pathological phenomena developing due to diseases, destroy the integrity and natural character of functioning tsyrenov et al. of the organism and cause in students with health limitations a complex of psychological inferiority. the latter is characterized by anxiety, loss of confidence in themselves, passivity, and isolation or, on the contrary, by egocentrism and aggressiveness. this results in the most serious stress conditions and affects the efficiency of acquisition of the educational material and, as a consequence, the professional training. however, it has to be understood that life activity limitations cannot be an insuperable obstacle for one's integration into the full-fledged active life. a mechanism the action of which allows one to get involved into such life is adaptation that has both a natural (biological) basis and a social one. unfortunately, the traditional professional education is not oriented to solving the problem of social and professional adaptation of people with health limitations. meanwhile, their receiving a professional education is one of the crucial and inseparable conditions for their successful socialization, for provision of their full-on participation in the social life, and for the successful self-fulfillment in various kinds of the professional and social activity. literature review the analysis of scientific research shows that the problem of social and professional adaptation of students with hl remains understudied, with the new realia borne in mind. this circumstance is due to the fact that inclusive approaches in the russian educational practice have not been a standard for quite a long time. it is only the emerging trends of humanization of the society that initiated the introduction of integration education models, including that into the higher education system. however, individual aspects of the problem studied by the authors did attract the attention of the researchers. thus, starobina (2003) voiced a supposition that solving the problem of education for people with health limitations and disabilities will be furthered by the creation of an integral system of continuous professional education. some researchers (lebedeva, 2000) believed that optimization of institutional and non-institutional education models for this group of students would allow ensuring the efficiency of their education and social and professional adaptation. in the work by tarasenko and zbirovskaya (2016), the idea of building the concept of education on the basis of generalization and dissemination of the foreign experience can be traced. the precise question of the social and professional adaptation of students with hl was studied by gudozhnikova (2016) at the level of secondary vocational education. currently, the area of research associated with studying the readiness of the educational journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 activity subjects for results-oriented cooperation in the higher-school inclusive practice is in much dynamic and unites various approaches, with its methodological toolkit being still under development. given this, having to assist the teachers in forming a responsible attitude when implementing the inclusive values in practice implies planning of the process of introduction of inclusive education – with its unpredictability and complexity to be borne in mind. alongside with that, the experience of introducing the inclusive education practices at universities within the systemic and activity-based approach has to be developed and evaluated. meanwhile, the said approach involves the consistent analysis of the essential features of inclusion, among them analyzing the subject, object, tools, rules, teaching community and units, the specific nature of work, forecasting the risks, difficulties and uncertainties, modeling a productive environment, organizing the cooperation between teachers, forming an appropriate style of activity, and adopting the relevant agreements between subjects of education for satisfying their needs at inclusive classes (smith & mccully, 2013; pearson, 2007; safder et al., 2012; tarman, 2016). a comparative analysis of teachers' attitudes toward inclusive education allowed identifying the distinctions of the "soft inclusion" – it only actualizes the problem of necessity but not the essence of inclusive education. inclusive education implies enhanced attention to the students' life worlds within the context of the entire multi-cultural ecosystem (rasi et al., 2015). the introduction of inclusive education in multi-national regions requires a previous ethnographic study. due to the widespread and ongoing segregation of students having severe disabilities this problem has to be considered within the constructivist and interpretation approaches. the analysis of the data of direct observation, video recordings of interaction between the participants, field notes, the content-analysis and the interviews has outlined the following problems in students with health limitations: 1) fear of the different, fear of peers, 2) difficulties establishing the social and academic status, 3) realizing the disability as a demerit or a risk (tan, 2017). the academic program becomes an all-encompassing means of learning, a tool of research and preparation of the graduates for life. the transformation of the educational environment into a space for individualization and multi-centered way of cognition creates a global future where inclusive education occupies the rightful place (dei, 2016; mauch & tarman, 2016). inclusive education is viewed as a continuous process of studying, identifying, reducing and eliminating the barriers for learning of students, of their participation in events with the educational support granted, tsyrenov et al. including the professional competence for teaching the special-needs people, cooperation in methodological studies, and optional research in the area of special education. it may also involve studying the opportunities of the use practical field sites, granting the expert knowledge on the typical difficulty areas in people having special educational needs (naukkarinen, 2010). in order to successfully satisfy the educational needs of students with health limitations, due to the particularities of inclusive education, teachers engaged in this form of education have to possess psychological, pedagogical and methodological competences that will not only enable them to use a more varied range of didactic strategies but also to show a high level of empathy (blândul & bradea, 2017). a critical reflexive approach to self-learning and cultivation of practical judgments are recognized as the most efficient ones when training teachers for inclusive education (gilham & tompkins, 2016; karatas, k. & oral, 2015; valiandes & tarman, 2011). participation in the higher education and professional employment of people with health limitations are the two key components of achieving the relationships under civil law. universities and colleges are designed to generate a space of justice where the individual paths of professional development of students with health limitations is formed by means of developing an integrated program of professional rehabilitation (aylward & bruce, 2014; raynor et al., 2016). thus, against the background of the modern realia, the capacity of the social and upbringing environment of educational organizations for enhancing the efficiency of the social and professional adaptation of the hl students is understudied. materials and methods for solving the set problems, theoretical research methods were used, in particular: the retrospective interdisciplinary analysis, the study of theoretical condition and elaboration extent of the problem, the study of definitions of the problem and making them more consistent, singling out the key notions that reflect the content of the theory under development, and constructing the theoretical provisions based on the logical reasoning mediated by the subject professional experience of the authors. the objective of the paper consists in studying the extent of readiness of educational activity subjects for results-oriented cooperation in the higher-school inclusive educational practice. as empirical research methods, the authors used sociological survey, interview, and studying the pedagogical experience. these methods allowed finding out the attitude of the healthy students to the disabled and the hl people, their readiness for resultsoriented communication and describing the problems in the specific psychological and social journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 support rendering, as well as identifying the value references system of students with health limitations and disabilities. results and discussion in the concept of the federal target program of the development of education for the years 2016-2020 (2014), the problem associated with the development of full-fledged mechanisms of support and granting equal educational opportunities for people with special educational needs at the level of the secondary vocational and the higher education received clear wording. within the implementation of measures on creation of conditions for the hl people receiving the secondary vocational and the higher education, it is provided for rendering the secondary vocational and the higher education more accessible for this category of people by upgrading the technologies and infrastructure (the concept of the federal target program of the development of education for the years 2016-2020, 2014; gudozhnikova, 2016). quite importantly, the successful implementation of inclusive practices in the higher education system, their efficiency for social and professional adaptation and development of social competences will depend much on the extent to which all educational process subjects are ready for the joint activity and dynamic communication. given this circumstance, the ideas about the essence of educational process transform into it being viewed as another coordinates system furthering the change of roles of all educational activity subjects. hence the key question in the problem under consideration becomes that of readiness of the system of education. meanwhile, the readiness is understood much broader than the creation of an accessible environment, legal and organizational support of the inclusive education only – it also involves a respectful attitude of the educational process subjects (teachers, the administration of educational organizations, and students) to students having life activity limitations. it is this condition that is the principal one for transition of the higher education system to a qualitatively new level of educational environment of the university. ultimately, this will promote the actual humanization of the educational and social and cultural spaces of higher education institutions. regrettably, the results of some studies confirm a low level of readiness for the society's full-fledged acceptance of the hl people (strure, 2001). the works state that unlike healthy students, their peers with developmental disorders are reserved and cut off from the people. as a cause of that, they identify the lack of the basic feeling of trust for the world, a stable positive self-esteem, sufficient motivation and communication skills (lebedeva, 2000). tsyrenov et al. the specific features of the higher-school educational process have to be taken into account. they are characterized by a need of dynamic interaction with the social environment, communication with peer students, with the academic teaching staff etc. within this context, the question of studying the students' attitude toward the disabled and the hl people, their readiness for results-oriented communication with them and rendering them psychological and social support becomes especially important. the way how the students with health limitations feel within the space of the university and the extent to what conditions of learning and its educational space are adapted to their capacities matter as well. in order to identify the attitude of students of buryat state university and transbaikal state university toward the people with health limitations, their readiness for results-oriented cooperation under the introduction of inclusive practice, to find out any problems of the hl students, and readiness of the academic teaching staff for teaching this category of students, the authors conducted a survey. three groups of the surveyed ones took part in the poll: students of the universities of various training areas, students having health limitations, and teachers. the survey was conducted from june 27 to september 15, 2017. now, the results of the survey of the university students are going to be analyzed. 754 students of 16 faculties and institutes of the above universities studying at different years took part in the research, among them those of the university college (0,6% of the total university students number). the poll covered students of all years, various age, belonging to different ethnic groups, income levels and differing in the gender attribute. the coverage of the scope of the respondents surveyed ensures meeting the requirements for the investigation to be representative. first of all, the authors were interested in the way how students having no health problems interpret the notion "people with health limitations". most university students (47,7%) questioned believe the people having certain physical and mental particularities to belong to the group of people with health limitations. a slightly smaller quantity of the respondents (37%) thinks it is the disabled, i.e. people with physical development disorders who are the representatives of this social group. yet other students, numbering about one third (31,4%), refer to this category the people having various deviations. by generalizing the answers, it can be stated that the students surveyed understand the particular condition of the social group outlined in the research sufficiently. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 the authors also wondered if the healthy students distinguish between the notions "people with health limitations" and "people with the disabilities". less than half of the questioned ones (41,3%) consider people having physical defects to be disabled. 42,4% of the respondents believe the disabled are those who are incapable of any activity without the support by others. meanwhile, 20,2% of the students call people having intellectual problems the disabled ones. however, in the "other" box, 8 people of 18 tried to differentiate the disabled according to the developmental deviation types. the analysis of the two last questions allows pointing out that on balance the respondents have an accurate idea about the people with hl and the disabled. however, they find no substantial difference between them. a part of the questioned ones refers only the people having mental deviations to the group of the disabled. this emphasizes the insufficient level of awareness about the disabled in some students; they have a poor knowledge of the structure of disability. next, the authors tried to find out if the surveyed ones had an experience of communication with people of the social group under study. so the following item of the questionnaire concerned the experience of communication with people of this group. over half of the respondents (56,5%) had an opportunity to be friends and communicate with representatives of this social group. in particular, 53% had no problems in communication with them while 39,8% sometimes had certain difficulties. the total of 7,2% answered the question about problems in the positive, i.e. they had difficulty communicating with the said group of people. such figures reflect the orientation of the russian public to inclusion of people with health limitations and disabilities into the society, which results from the recent years' institutionalization of the integration education models in the country. so, what problems are faced by students in communication with people having developmental disorders? although 72,68% of the questioned ones (548 people) encountered no barriers in communication, yet so much as a quarter of students (25,5%) felt some discomfort from communication with people having physical particularities. it was also important for the authors to find out to what extent one's life activity limitations are an insuperable obstacle for one's integration into the full-fledged active life. with regard to this, 74,2% of the students said this circumstance was not an insuperable obstacle for inclusion of such a person into the active tsyrenov et al. social life. unfortunately, each fifth respondent (20,9%) believe the circumstance to be a serious obstacle for leading the full-fledged active life. it is encouraging that the majority of students (77,1%) are ready to render any aid to a hl person in solving their problems. such an attitude to people with hl stems from most questioned ones having an experience of communication and friendship with them, understanding of their problems, and readiness of the society to change the attitude to people with health limitations. nevertheless, 4,2% of the respondents will refuse to help, which is also a reflection of the public opinion. the question of co-education is important. a little less than half of the students think people with health limitations have to study together with the healthy ones. regrettably, 41% of the students are not ready to study with them, believing that people with health limitations have to study at specialized educational organizations. the figures clearly demonstrate the segregation thinking still existing among the public that is oriented to separating such citizens in the process of education. it is also confirmed by the fact that it is only half of the questioned ones who feel positive about the idea of inclusive education. 27,8% of the students are not satisfied with some aspects of inclusion, while the negative attitude was expressed only by 3,2% of the survey participants. 4,1% of the questioned students do not support the idea of inclusive practice, which gives evidence about the existing negative stereotypes about conditions, mechanisms and means of inclusive education and the insufficient understanding of essence of the inclusive process. the answers obtained by the authors are quite controversial, which once again emphasizes the ambivalent acceptance of inclusion ideas by the russian public as a whole and by students in particular. if a hl student joined the group, 54,3% of the students would be indifferent to the fact and 36,3% of them would even be glad at the event. 4,3% would be displeased at the situation, and 2,9% of the surveyed ones would avoid communicating with such students. the answers contradict some attitudes of the students toward integrated education forms mentioned above. according to 12,6% of the respondents, the academic process will not be influenced by a hl student joining the group, while the fact will affect the educational results for 3,8%. 79,1% of the respondents spoke about having to create special conditions for students with hl, while 18,2% do not think so. further on, the authors asked to specify what conditions had to be created for people with health limitations for them to successfully master the educational journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 program. the students turned out to be quite well informed about the list of special conditions for ensuring the successful acquisition of the educational program. the respondents pointed out forms and methods of learning, the use of special teaching aids and textbooks. it is only 3,8% of the students deny the necessity of creating special conditions for them. thus, most students understand the importance and necessity of creating special conditions for studying because the majority of students said the conditions had to be created when answering the previous question. two more questions were asked to check the sincerity of the respondents in their previous answers. the first of them was designed to find out the feelings which the questioned ones would experience when meeting a person with health limitations. the majority (55,2%) would not have any particular feelings. in 34,1% of the surveyed ones (which is over one third), meeting a special person evokes pity. this is alarming because pity toward any person humiliates rather than makes a good impression. some students cannot control their emotions and feel fear (4,5%) and dislike (3,4%). meanwhile, such answers as the wish to help (0,8%) and respect (1,2%) confirm that the society has got the future, even though the quantity of students thinking so is not high. 74,9% of the students who participated in the questionnaire survey will consider a person with health limitations to be an ordinary one, i.e. they do not differentiate people according to the condition of their health. and yet 12,6% believe that such people have to stay in their social group, that is, to communicate, study and work with other hl people. so, the university students show an altogether positive attitude toward people with hl, they understand their problems and realize the necessity of co-education with them at the university, they are also ready to render psychological support. it is encouraging that they have the experience of communication and friendship with such people. however, a minor part of the students is of the opposite opinion. some discrepancies in the answers to similar questions have been found too. according to the authors, this reflects the actual situation at this stage of development of the russian public and generally emphasizes the ambivalent attitude of the healthy part of population toward those having health problems. the second group of participants of the survey consisted of students with health limitations and disabilities. at the time of the research, 72 students of this social group were registered, with 28 of them in ten training units agreeing to take part in the poll. tsyrenov et al. under the harsh social stratification of the society, the question of the income level is quite important. with regard to this, according to half of the surveyed ones, their income level is characterized by having enough money to buy food only. one of the respondents admitted he even lacks the money for food. he certainly needs additional social support. in 44,4% of the students having developmental disorders, the income is sufficient to cover everything except the expensive household appliances. the system of value references previously formed in the students is of interest. it would be not quite precise if the students questioned did not single out health as a priority value (21,4%). good relationships within their family, faithful friends and an interesting job are especially significant for people of this group, with education, material welfare, availability of their own housing and children being a less important value. in 4,2% of the surveyed students, all the above values matter very much. on the whole, the students are interested in studying at the university. however, 16,7% of them could not clearly identify their attitude to learning, with 5,6% saying they were not attracted by studying at the university. this suggests that the educational process is not motivated for them; they might be dissatisfied with the future profession. half of the respondents are happy with the conditions created at the university, and the third of the students participating in the survey are partially happy with them. again, half of the students pointed out they felt psychologically comfortable at the educational institution, and 16,7% of this group of students said they felt more comfortable than not. unfortunately, for 27,8% of the developmental disorder students, the psychological conditions can hardly be called comfortable. yet other 5,6% cannot identify their psychological condition in the process of learning. slightly over one quarter of the students, 27,6%, have no serious difficulties in their studies. however, 20,7% of the students find it difficult to focus, and as many students encounter problems with understanding the study material in a number of subjects. according to 17,2%, their health condition hinders them. the minority is composed by ones who lack time for selftraining and who have difficulties controlling their emotional state. bad peer relationships and a complicated family situation are also an obstacle. the authors believe the difficulties of various nature interfere with the full-fledged mastering of educational program of the university, and the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 controversies revealed have to be taken into account when working with the students of this group. it is evident that full-time education does not allow some students having particularities to study at the rate meeting the specific character of their needs. here, the distance learning may have its advantages and allow organizing a personified educational process with the features of their thinking, memory, attention, cognitive activity mode considered. it is only a third of the questioned ones (33,3%) that recognize the efficiency of distance learning. a slightly larger quantity of the students (38,9%) do not consider it efficient for them, with 27,8% being at a loss to answer this question. what is important in implementing the inclusive approaches is the opportunity of getting individual counseling from the teachers. regrettably, as of now, the opportunity is only available to a third of the students with health limitations and disabilities, with another third occasionally getting this opportunity. the above renders urgent the question about the list of special conditions the creation of which ensures the people with special educational needs successfully studying at higher education institutions. half of the questioned students mentioned there was no need of creating special conditions. yet 3 students (15,8%) of this category need classes with domain specialists – psychologists, language speech therapists, special education teachers. an individual program of studies and assistance of a tutor is needed for 5,3% of the survey participants. 10,5% were at a loss to answer, with one student giving no answer. the opinions of the students differ considerably, yet their claims for conditions of studying that correspond to their particularities to be created are justified and consolidated by law. so, these wishes have to be borne in mind when developing a model of support for people with health limitations and disabilities studying at the university. what exactly conditions do the university have for education of the hl and the disabled people? the students are happy with access ramps and lifts available (21,1%), they point out distance learning opportunities (18,4%), the medical room (18,4%), and a spacious sports hall (16,5%). in 7,9% of the answers, the availability of comfortable furniture and wide aisles between desks, the comfort of the canteen, provision with modern pcs and interactive whiteboards are pointed out. only 1 student knows about the special equipment available at the tsyrenov et al. university for hearing and visually impaired students. it is also important that 66,7% of the students have an opportunity to pursue a creative or research activity or sport. the question about relationships with peer students was very valuable for the research. it is encouraging that the absolute majority – 72,2% – recognize the fact that peer students build normal relationships with them. yet it also requires attention that it has not become a norm for 11,1% they do not behave so always, and as many students were at a loss to answer this question. the result of development of inclusive practice in the general education system is that so few as 5,6% of the students have had problems communicating with people due to their physical particularities. sadly enough, 27,8% sometimes encounter such forms of attitude; however, 66,7% have no problems of this kind, which is very important. due to this, the question arises as for which of the educational activity subjects the students find it difficult to communicate with. the fact can only alarm one that the students questioned experience problems in communication with almost all educational activity subjects. it is especially sad that 26,3% of the answers mention problems in communication with teachers. it is also alarming that 36,8% of the developmental disorder students evade from answering this question. regrettably, teachers and peer students have not become close ones for these students. in a situation they find difficult for them, 51,7% of the students with health limitations and disabilities turn to their own parents and 37,9% – to friends. it is only 3,4% who would turn to their peer students for help in a difficult situation. this could also be associated with the fact that since childhood, it is from their closest ones that people of this group have got used to seek help. unfortunately, this is a problem running throughout the russian society. the possibility of conflicts between subjects of education cannot be denied; in fact, conflicts are encountered in their life practice. at least, their answers in the survey confirm that. such situations can emerge in 42,1% of cases if they do not like somebody's behavior and in 36,8% of cases – when they do not like the attitude toward them. during the research, the authors questioned 44 teachers of all faculties and institutes of the university of the total of 806 who were employed as of the survey point. the analysis of answers of the university teachers questioned has shown that a considerable part of the teachers (42,9%) associate people with health limitations with the disabled, while 46,9% identify them as people having physical and mental deviations. as for the notion "the disabled", the respondents journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 gave the following answers: 32% think the disabled are people having a physical defect, 8% ones having intellectual deficiency, while a half (50%) refer those incapable of the independent, i.e. unassisted, activity to the disabled. 6% think that all the above groups of people belong to the disabled. it is encouraging that 77,3% of the teachers have a certain experience of communication with the hl people while only 18,2% of them have no such experience. it was interesting to find out what feelings the teachers have when meeting a person with health limitations. in particular, 52,2% of the questioned ones have no special feelings whatever. this suggests that when encountering the people of this category the teachers do not identify them as special ones. this is actually a positive point that allows building the inclusive educational space of the university with confidence. what is sad is that 37% of the respondents feel pity toward people with health limitations and 2,2% feel fear toward them. the authors are convinced that pity does not allow reasonably perceiving people with health limitations as equal subjects of social life. pity humiliates one altogether, and the feeling is shared by such an impressive quantity of the questioned ones due to the segregation thinking having previously formed in the society. it should also be pointed out that 8,7% of the surveyed ones specified in the "other" box that such people required a special attitude, called a feeling of guilt or the necessity to render assistance. according to the authors, the answers reflect the total palette of feelings existing in the russian society toward the special people quite brightly. the fact that 90,9% of the university teachers will respond to a call for assistance on the part of a hl person is positive too. it is a little embarrassing that 9,1% more of them might respond. it follows from them that they might as well fail to respond to a request for assistance. certainly, this point has to be taken into account when implementing the inclusive approach in the educational process. it must be difficult for such a teacher to perceive a student7 having physical defect, to accept the student's particularities and the specific nature of educational needs in full. in this case, this will keep under the development of inclusive thinking of the society. this falls in line with the answers to the question in what form people with health limitations have to study. namely, 66,7% admit that these people have to study together with healthy children. this must be quite a high percentage at the stage of development of the society. however, 21,6% of teachers believe they have to study at specialized educational organizations, and 9,8% under individual form of education, with 2% of the questioned ones thinking that the tsyrenov et al. form of education should depend on the degree of condition. two questionnaire forms had marks for all three options, i.e. they agree with variability of the form of education for people with health limitations. in three of the forms filled in, two options were marked with an explanation that people having intellectual problems had to study at specialized educational organizations while those with physical disorders – either with healthy people (form one), or at special educational organizations and together with healthy people (form two), and individually with a teacher or with healthy children (the third form). thus, in general, most respondents anyway consider the necessity for people with health limitations to study together with healthy students, except persons having intellectual problems. this is but obvious, because people with mental retardation get educated in practical life skills mainly and inherently they have no opportunity to receive the higher education. all in all, 65,9% of the university teachers who participated in the survey feel positive about the idea of inclusive education. in particular, 27,3% of them are satisfied with only some of its aspects and 6,8% are at a loss to answer. the authors believe that the figures are high enough for this stage of introduction of the inclusive educational practice. if the hl students joined the group taught by the questioned teachers, 65,9% of them would take the fact without much problems and 34,1% of them would be glad at the event. in the aspect of possible change of the quality of education, teachers evaluate the process of introduction of co-education for healthy students and the developmental disorder ones quite positively. half of the teachers surveyed think this will not influence the academic process in any way while 36,4% of them see an opportunity for improvement in it. only 6% were at a loss to answer. the answers obtained to a certain extent contradict the fact that 72,7% of teachers say they are ready to teach the hl and the disabled people while 25% of them are not. with regard to this, it is curious enough that 78,7% of the respondents consider the hl and the disabled people to be ordinary people. and the opinions of higher education institution teachers do not correlate with the above opinions about the disabled and the people with hl in any way, nor with the fact that 10,6% of teachers who participated in the research deem it necessary for this category of people to be in their social group. according to them, such people have to communicate and work with the hl people only. it is even sadder that 2,1% of the respondents point out they should be isolated from the public. and 8,5% of the questioned ones were at a loss to answer this question. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 thus, the research conducted allows stating that inclusive approaches to design of education for the hl and the disabled people develop both at buryat state university and transbaikal state university. the attitude of educational activity subjects toward people having health limitations and disabilities, the experience of interaction with them, an understanding of their role and place in the society, readiness for accepting the ideas of including them into the educational space are on balance positive, which certainly is reassuring. most university students show a tolerant attitude to the hl and the disabled people which is expressed in having no discomfort in communication with them or dislike for them. moreover, they feel positive about the idea of co-education. nevertheless, some results are of concern. to these, a lack of unambiguous positive acceptance of special people can be referred. a part of students is wary of people with developmental disorders. a minor part of the students surveyed are not prepared for co-education. given this circumstance, the necessity of including the subjects that form a tolerant attitude to special needs people into the student-training content becomes more urgent. so, the survey of the hl and disabled students has allowed identifying a set of strain points in the process of their education. with these issues resolved, the process of their social and professional adaptation and acquisition of professional competences will be rendered more efficient. conclusion the theoretical study of the essence of the problem has allowed determining that the integrated result of education of people with health limitations and disabilities at higher school is their social and professional adaptation. an important condition for achieving the said result is not only creation of an accessible environment for them, but also the adaptation of the system of education to needs and capacities of students of this group, as well as readiness of the educational activity subjects for perceiving them in a reasonable manner. the implementation of this condition will allow students with health limitations to integrate into the active social life of educational institutions in full. the results of the empirical research have allowed revealing a set of problems that would help design the models of organization of inclusive educational space of higher education institutions that is oriented to rendering support and assistance to students with health problems. as of today, an insufficient level of awareness about the disabled can be stated in a certain part of students; they have a poor knowledge of the structure of disability. alongside with that, the tsyrenov et al. orientation of the public to the inclusion of people with health limitations and disabilities into the society is evident, which results from institutionalization of the integration education models in russia in the recent years. with the answers given by the respondents, the question of ambivalent acceptance of inclusion ideas by the public at large and particularly by students can be reconsidered. meanwhile, most students understand the importance and necessity of creating special conditions for people with health limitations and disabilities to be able to study. thus, the university students demonstrate an altogether positive attitude toward people with health limitations; they understand their problems, realize the necessity to study alongside with them at higher education institutions, and are ready to help them out. it is encouraging that they have an experience of communication and friendship with the hl and the disabled people. during the survey, some discrepancies in answers to similar questions have been found. the authors believe one of the reasons behind the discrepancies being the ambivalent attitude of the healthy population to those having health problems. according to a certain part of the hl and the disabled students, their condition of health prevents them from successfully mastering the educational program. another obstacle is the bad peer relationships and a complicated family situation. in the opinion of the authors, difficulties of whatever nature hinder the full-fledged acquisition of the educational program of higher education institutions. the results of the survey allow identifying a set of strain points in introducing the inclusive practice at universities. according to the authors, the situation is quite typical for russia. hence it becomes relevant to design a model of support in the process of studying at higher education organizations for people with health limitations and disabilities. thus, the results of the research allow outlining the prospects of further study of the problem, adjusting and reconsidering the objectives, content, methods, means and forms of organizing the activity under implementation of the inclusive educational practice so that they will ensure creation of conditions for a comprehensive introduction of inclusion as an actual educational practice into the higher school. acknowledgements the work was performed within the implementation of the project "social and professional adaptation of students with health limitations and disabilities" that was supported in the contest of grants of buryat state university. the authors express their gratitude to the administrators of buryat state university for supporting their initiatives. in their work, the authors made use of the comments received from the rector of buryat state university, doctor of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 technical sciences, professor nikolay i. moshkin, head of the department of universal and russian history, doctor of history, associate professor elizaveta n. palkhaeva, rector of transbaikal state university, doctor of technical sciences, professor sergey a. ivanov, and dean of the faculty of psychology and pedagogy, doctor of pedagogy, professor tatiana k. klimenko. tsyrenov et al. references aylward, m.l. & bruce, c. (2014). inclusive post-secondary education in canada: transition to somewhere for students with intellectual disabilities. journal of the international association of special education, 15(2), 42-47. bashanaeva, g.g. & shumilkina, m.s. (2016). reflection on emotional conditions as a way of controlling the situational negative emotions. research review, 6(2), 80-98. blândul, v.c. & bradea, a. (2017). developing psycho pedagogical and methodical competences in special/inclusive education teachers. problems of education in the 21st century, 75(4), 335-344. dei, g.g. (2016). decolonizing the university: the challenges and possibilities of inclusive education. socialist studies, 11(1), 23-61. erdyneeva, k.g. (2012). educational environment of higher education institutions as an object of the humanitarian expert examination. humanitarian vector, 1, 82-90. erdyneeva, k.g. & popova, r.e. (2016). student as a subject of biological, psychological and social adaptation in the educational environment (a case study of the transbaikal territory). in: relevant problems of education: challenges and trends. chita: transbaikal state university publishing house, 58-98. estevez, e., janowski, t., & lopes, n.v. (2016). policy monitoring on accessible technology for inclusive education research findings and requirements for a software tool. journal of computer science & technology (jcs&t), 16(1), 29-37. gilham, c.m., & tompkins, j. (2016). inclusion reconceptualized: pre-service teacher education and disability studies in education. canadian journal of education, 39(4), 125. gudozhnikova, o.b. (2016). social and professional adaptation of students with health limitations in condition of the inclusive secondary vocational education. phd thesis. tomsk. houdyshellm, m. (2017). academic integrity in an emerging democracy: how university students in a former soviet republic balance achievement and success in education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(1), 14-25. karatas, k. & oral, b. (2015). teachers’ perceptions on culturally responsiveness in education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 2(2), 47-57. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),93-113 lebedeva, s.s. (2000). development of the system of education for the disabled. in: adult education on the verge of centuries: questions of methodology, theory and practice, vol. 4, book 3. development of systems of education for the disadvantaged groups of adult population, n.a. toskina (ed.). spb., 50-96. mauch, j., tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, (1)2, 55-66. naukkarinen, a. (2010). from discrete to transformed? developing inclusive primary school teacher education in a finnish teacher education department. journal of research in special educational needs, 10(s1), 185-196. pearson, s. (2007). exploring inclusive education: early steps for prospective secondary school teachers. british journal of special education, 34(1), 25-32. rasi, p., hautakangas, m., & väyrynen, s. (2015). designing culturally inclusive affordance networks into the curriculum. teaching in higher education, 20(2), 131-142. raynor, o., hayward, k., francis, w., & campisi, c. (2016). changing systems to provide inclusive higher education for students with intellectual disabilities. journal of postsecondary education & disability, 29(3), 271-276. safder, m., saeed akhtar, m.m., fatima, g. & malik, m. (2012). problems faced by students with hearing impairment in inclusive education at the university level. journal of research & reflections in education (jrre), 6(2), 129-136. smith, r., & mccully, a. (2013). organizational self-evaluation and teacher education for community relations in a transforming society? european journal of teacher education, 36(3), 320-345. starobina, e.m. (2003). professional education of the disabled. moscow: intellect-centre. sturte, t.k., guslova, m.n., ryabova, t.v. & obukhova, l.f. (2001). the phenomenon of egocentrism in adolescents with disabilities. questions of psychology, 3, 40-48. tan, p.p. (2017). toward inclusive mathematics education for "inferior students with no brains:" a case study of a student with autism and his peer. journal of ethnographic & qualitative research, 11(3), 229-242. tarasenko, e.a. & zbirovskaya, e.p. (2016). the experience of russian universities: creation of inclusive educational environment for the disabled students and students with health limitations. bulletin of rshu. series: psychology. pedagogy. education, 4, 33-41. https://publications.hse.ru/view/203937469 https://publications.hse.ru/view/203937469 https://publications.hse.ru/view/203937469 tsyrenov et al. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, (1)1, 77-97. tarman, b. & chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education (editorial). journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. the concept of the federal target program of the development of education for the years 20162020. (2014). approved by decision of the government of the russian federation no. 2765-p dated december 29, 2014. url:http://government.ru/media/files/mlorxfxbbck.pdf tsyrenov, v.ts. (2014). methodological approaches to studying the problem of education of children with health limitations. european social science journal, 4-2(43), 136-144. tsyrenov, v.ts. (2015). the experience of organization of education for children with health limitations in the republic of buryatia. business. education. law, 1(30), 285-289. valiandes,s. & tarman, b. (2011). “differentiated teaching and constructive learning approach by the implementation of ict in mixed ability classrooms”, ahi evran university journal of education faculty, (kefad) vol. 12, issue: 1. 169-184, yarovova, t.v. (2015). competence-based approach in the aspect of psychological and pedagogical support. scientific review. series 2: humanities, 1, 59-67. http://government.ru/media/files/mlorxfxbbck.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 315-336 315 language policy and youth development: international background and russian multinational practice valentina v. stepanova1 & larisa yu. lutskovskaia2 abstract the issues of language policy and rights of younger generation are especially topical in the view of the 20-21th century international legislation concerning linguistic and ethnic diversity of a multinational state. the research aims to outline key stages of language policy development through federal and regional laws in russia, to reveal contradictions between federal and local national laws on language, to look at positive experience and legal collisions entailing social disturbances in the country that communicates in 277 languages and dialects. the methodology integrates theoretical and analytical processing realized in search, investigation and analysis of the material, historical approach allowing to follow the development of cultural and language strategy, comparative and contrastive analysis contributing to identifying discrepancies between federal and national laws and case study techniques contributing to illustrate the challenges the state faces in this social sphere. the materials include core international legislation and major legal sources of the russian federation and its entities, academic review of publications on language policy in russia, including linguistic, political, socio-cultural and legal, and attracts various factual, mass media and internet sources. the findings reveal pitfalls in designing and enforcing the state strategy on culture, language and education in the russian federation. the study shows that language and culture issues envisaged in laws of different levels and contradictions between them entail social and political collisions and are subject to further development and regulation. the critical situation with a number of national languages needs attention and regulation by the state, however the balance and harmony of language variety in a multinational country can only be reached through legal consolidation of the status of official languages with the russian language as the bond of multicultural diversity. key words: state/official/national language, minority languages, language policy in education, laws on education, language of instruction. introduction since the end of the twentieth century, the urgency to develop ideology of an integral nature (multiculturalism) for current and future generations’ development has been determining the world philosophy. language issues have long-standing traditions and have always played a crucial role 1 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, valentina0222@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, laravas@list.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 in the international education development (unesco, 2003). consistent international and regional legislations protect human rights and equality with regard to language and education. one can refer to the universal declaration of human rights (1948), european convention on human rights (1950), international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights (1966) and some others. the language policy considerations within a national landscape vary from education to mass media and administrative-legal settings (spolsky, 2007). as far as international context is concerned, there are strong and consistent deliberations over the balance between english as a lingua franca and national languages with the view to foster quality education (atabekova, 2016; guangwei & jun, 2014, chigisheva et al., 2017). meanwhile, others underline that vernacular languages should have their say in national landscape (garret & gallego balsà, 2014; gorter et al., 2018) and consider the respective policies as a tool to preserve national identity through education pathways (atabekova, et al. 2016; boutelier, 2018; bulajeva & hogan-brun, 2014). as for the national landscape, there are many states that are historically multinational. in this case, the balance and coordination of federal and regional languages, the state national language and minority languages is subject for specific concern (rivers & brecht, 2018; gorter et al., 2018). particular attention is drawn to the issues of language rights with regard to refugees (atabekova & shoustikova, 2018). the data concerning the number of languages and people speaking those languages in their everyday lives is very confusing. according to the 2010 census, residents of the russian federation speak 230 languages. in addition to russian, the most common are tatar, ukrainian, bashkir, chuvash, chechen and armenian. more recent figures refer to 277 languages and dialects. the state education system involves 89 languages, 30 of them as the language of instruction and 59 as the subject of study. out of 137 million people (97.9%) who speak russian, about 130 million (92.8%) consider it their native language. about 3 million citizens, living mainly in the national republics of the russian federation, do not speak russian (bondarenko, 2017). according to unesco (2003), 136 languages of russia are in danger. of these, 22 are in critical condition (including aleutian, terek-saami), 29 are in grave danger (including chukchi, karelian) and 49 are endangered (including kalmyk, udmurt and yiddish). some scholars assert that political decisions may be very destructive for minority languages in a short period of time (zhemukhov, 2015; zamyatin, 2012; oding et al., 2019). stepanova & lutskovskaia the above-mentioned linguistic variety across multinational state makes it obvious that the federal legislation on languages might come into contradiction with regional policy on national languages and ethnic minorities, thus affecting youth development. the research goal aims to outline key stages of language policy development through federal and regional laws in russia, to reveal contradictions between federal and local national laws on language, to look at positive experience and legal collisions in the course of legislation implementation with regard to young generation prospective. the mentioned objective requires a number of research tasks, namely the following: specifying research conceptual background through the analysis of relevant literature, providing overview of russian laws on languages, identifying legislation constrains and language policy challenges in the federal and regional contexts, finding solutions to remove the existing problems. method research design the research data incorporates diverse sources, including a number of landmark provisions of international legislation and those of the russian federation and its entities. besides, the study integrates academic review of publications investigating various aspects of language policy in russia, including linguistic, political, socio-cultural and legal, and attracts various factual, mass media and internet sources to better understand the challenges in designing the state language strategy. the procedures have been implemented in line with research tasks. data analysis the data analysis has been conducted with methodology that integrates theoretical and analytical approaches in terms of search, investigation and processing the academic and other resources on the topic under study. historical approach to the material allows looking at designing the national language strategy in a retrospect, thus contributing to better visualising and assessing the evolution of state policy in this field. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 comparative and contrastive analyses contribute to revealing differences, discrepancies and inconsistences in legal approach to the language policy at federal and regional levels. case study techniques help to highlight the critical situations, identified in the research. the methods of synthesis and logical syllogism have been applied to work out concluding part of the research. findings research conceptual background language issues in russia have been in the focus since the october revolution of 1917. some of the young republics had never had either sovereignty or written languages. the state helped develop alphabets, grammar, orthography and organized free schools for young and old to learn the basics of literacy. later, the national academies of sciences were set up to conserve, develop and nurture the language and culture as well as to map out the other spheres of socio-economic and scientific development. there are currently 37 state languages in the republics and 15 languages with the official status in addition to russian as the state language in the russian federation. some of them are: altai (republic of altai), buryat (republic of buryatia), tatar (republic of tatarstan), veps (republic of karelia), dolgan (republic of sakha), kazakh (republic of altai), karelian (the republic of karelia), komi (komi republic) / komi-permyak (komi-permyak area of the perm region), mansi (khanty-mansi autonomous area), nenets (yamal-nenets autonomous area), khanty (khanty-mansi autonomous area), selkup (yamal-nenets autonomous area), chukchi (republic of sakha), finnish (republic of karelia), evenki (republic of sakha), yukaghir (republic of sakha). there are republics that have several languages as state and/or official, but the champion is certainly the republic of dagestan that recognizes 14 local written languages equal in status with russian (safaraliev, 2015). russian policy in education has been discussed by scientific society for many years; it is especially topical in the view of the recent laws concerning the linguistic and ethnic diversity of the multinational state and challenges connected with their further support and development. a number of russian and foreign scholars has looked at this issue with a historical approach starting with the russian empire (bowring & borgiakova, 2017). b. bowring (2018) looks at minority stepanova & lutskovskaia language rights in connection with political shifts and striving for sovereignty and selfdetermination of the republics after the ussr disintegration and afterwards, whereas k. zamyatin (2014) contemplates on relationship of minority and dominant majority languages within titular republics. legal aspects of the local official languages in russia are central in the works of v.p. neroznak and n.y. oding (neroznak et al., 2001; oding et al., 2019). numerous studies focus on language situation in republics including in the sphere of education (turkic and finno-ugric languages – zamyatin (2012); khakas language – guseinova (2015); kalmyk language – denisova (2015); tatar language – wigglesworth-baker (2015); tuvan language – zhuravel (2015); dagestan languages – ramazanova (2015) and others). the issues of bilingualism in ethnic republics are investigated at by s.k. malkhanova (malkhanova et al., 2019). the analytical data reveals that very often titular languages suffer from numerous shortcomings in terms of the diversity of functional styles, lack of well-developed teaching methods and educational materials that meet modern requirements. they are not able to perform public functions to the extent of russian as the main language of communication in the multinational state. at the same time, the russian language gives more opportunities to continue education, get the desired profession and work in any corner of the vast country. this does not mean that minority languages are neglected. for example, in tatarstan around 25% of pre-school institutions are tatar spoken whereas 21% schools practice tatar as the language of instruction during the whole course of education. the native component in russian schools and russian component in tatar schools contribute to language and cultural education in the republic (valeev, 2016). all kinds of extracurricular classes, courses, and activities in a native language are also encouraged and can attract both native speakers and children with other mother tongues. the legislative status of the russian language in the regions was heavily discussed in the 90s. the matter is that in constitutions and other laws of some republics, russian was not defined as the state language of the entire russian federation, but as the state language of the republic and often took the secondary position after the national language. it can be found in the texts in the constitution of the republic of bashkortostan (2014), in other regional laws on languages (the law of the republic of altai on languages, 1993; the law of the republic of buryatia on languages, 1992; the law of the republic of tatarstan on languages, 1992; etc. such interpretation (the republican state language) ignores the federal status of the russian language and puts it into the secondary position. lawyers believe that language status (federal or journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 republican) must comply with the art. 68, par. 2 of the constitution of the russian federation (1993), which affirms the right of ethnic republics to establish their national state languages but does not allow those languages to rise above the state language of the country in status. that is why, academia underlines that today, only one state language of the russian federation – the russian language – successfully performs its function, remaining the only language of inter-ethnic communication in the multinational society, which performs the state-forming and consolidating role (bitkeeva, 2014). at the same time, it should be mentioned that the state pays great attention and renders support for indigenous cultures (the law on state support for indigenous small-numbered peoples of the north in murmansk region, 2018; the law on the languages of indigenous minorities of the north living in the territory of the khanty-mansiysk autonomous area, 2013). the state finances programmes of fundamental scientific linguistic researches of ethnic minority languages. for example, karelian, finnish and veps languages have been granted substantial financial support for the period of 2013-2020 (the law of the republic of karelia on the state support of karelian, veps and finnish languages in the republic of karelia, 2017). the above analysis confirms that the state, the publics, and academia are aware of the language policy challenges. however, no integrated analysis of existing constrains, their reasons, promising practices and possible ways to balance federal and regional legislations has been implemented. meanwhile, such an approach might help find solutions to overcome the above-mentioned challenges. overview of russian laws on languages the 1936 constitution of the new soviet state was the first in the world to establish compulsory secondary education; it opened up opportunities to vocational, secondary special and higher education free of charge; it created favorable conditions for evening education and learning by correspondence, and provided the students with state scholarships and benefits, free school textbooks, and other advantages. this sphere is regulated by a number of laws adopted at different times after dissolution of the soviet union in 1991. among them are: constitution of the russian federation (1993) is the main legal source that enshrines the system of public values. all constitutional rights and freedoms are declared by the state as natural, equal, stepanova & lutskovskaia inalienable and protected by law. of particular importance in the system of constitutional values is the right to education set out in article 43. the state guarantees the general accessibility and free preschool, basic general and secondary vocational education. basic general education is compulsory until the age of 16 (nine forms). any person has the right to acquire free higher education on a competitive basis after completing the full secondary school course. in accordance with article 68, the russian language is the state language of the russian federation. the state language is recognized as the means of communication in the most spheres of official relationship between the state and citizens: public administration in state and local government bodies, state institutions, legislation, referendums, elections, legal proceedings, education, mass media and others. across the country, the russian language is the only one that enjoys the status of compulsory in the most important official spheres of communication. the reason is obvious: russian is the language of the most numerous nation. the republics as part of russia are entitled to establish their own state languages that are used along with the russian language. the same also refers to autonomous regions and areas that have the right to establish the official status of national languages through their own statutes and laws. the state guarantees to all the peoples the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development. the national languages in russia differ in their legal status, social functions they perform and spheres of their application. languages with the status of the state or official tongues in the republics are communicated in different spheres such as the local or ‘community’ official language at the places of residence of those who speak it, in official communication in the native speakers’ densely populated areas or at places of traditional residence of indigenous minorities, and in local mass media. current russian legislation uses both terms state and official language – however, it does not disclose their content, which prevents direct conclusions about identity and differences in their nature (dorovskih, 2007). by granting the similar status to the national languages as the russian language a number of ethnic republics created the situation allowing to “squeeze out” russian from the sphere of official communication. such ethnocratic approach demanded the interference of the state. a number of laws (the federal law on languages of the peoples of the russian federation, 1991; the federal law on national and cultural autonomy, 1996; the federal law on the state language of the russian federation, 2005) regulate the implementation of the state and official languages policy in the regions of the russian federation including in the state bodies, enterprises journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 and institutions. the emphasis is also laid on conservation of indigenous languages and creating favorable conditions for their study and development. the state undertakes to provide social, economic and legal protection of ethnic minority languages within its territory. the right to preserve and develop the national language, the freedom to choose and use the language of communication, education and training are established by the constitution of the russian federation, federal laws, constitutions (charters) and laws of the constituents of the russian federation and by the art. 8 of the federal law on national and cultural autonomy (1996). the need in legal regulation of language issues was really urgent due to the manifested centrifugal tendency of the republics in the late eighties. it was balanced by the legal regime of the national languages granting the so-called “linguistic sovereignty” (art. 2 of the law on languages, 1991), which guaranteed the freedom of choice and use of the language of communication with the absolute right (dorovskih, 2007). supported by the state, “the non-slavic tongues of russia have retained their vitality and have grown more prevalent in some regions. this trend is especially visible as autonomy of language becomes an important symbol of the struggle to preserve distinct ethnic identities” (hays, 2016; bowring, 2018). unfortunately, it sometimes led to social conflicts, prejudice, and/or opposition thus undermining the aims of the national language policy. the federal law on education in the russian federation (2012) is one of the key priorities in socio-economic development of the state. since 1992 when it was first adopted it has undergone numerous amendments. according to experts, an ever-increasing number of amendments made russia’s educational legislation self-contradictory (kozyrin & troshkina, 2017). the law of 2012 guarantees education in the state language of the russian federation as well as the choice of language of instruction and tuition within the options provided by the education system. instruction in and study of the state languages in the republics may be introduced in accordance with their laws. russian nationals have the right to acquire pre-school, primary basic and general basic education in their native language from among the languages of the peoples of the russian federation, as well as the right to learn their mother tongue, including russian, within the opportunities provided by educational system in the manner prescribed by the legislation on education. the language(s) of education are determined by the local normative acts of the organization carrying out educational activities under the educational programmes implemented by it, in accordance with the legislation of the russian federation (art. 14). stepanova & lutskovskaia these general provisions of the federal law on education can have its regional component represented by laws and local regulations within the republics. sometimes respective legal provisions bear contradictions and inconsistencies specifying language rights in the republics some of which we have highlighted above. a special issue under study are the norms concerning the language of instruction in the system of education. some republics correctly interpret the federal law and demonstrate the dispositive character, that is, citizens have the right to choose the language of education for their children (art. 14 of the law on state languages of the udmurtian republic, 2015). adversely, in some republics teaching is conducted in the imperative manner, that is, the native language is compulsory for all the schoolchildren irrespective of nationality. according to the ministry of education, over 1.5 million schoolchildren studied national languages in 2017 (vostok media, 2018). most of these students live in dagestan, chechnya, bashkiria and tatarstan. language of instruction is a burning issue also in the volga region, yakutia, altai and in the north caucasus. many russian families in yakutia complain that their children cannot receive a quality education because the best local schools with specialized profiles accept only children from indigenous families (ibid). most heated debates however took place in tatarstan; they led to the ethnic conflict of interests in the sphere of education. president`s order no. 1666 of 19.12.2012 on the strategy of the state national policy of the russian federation for the period of up to 2025 (2012) contributes to strengthening the role of the russian language and reflects the trend of recent years. it is a fundamental document for the strategic advancement of the country, whose development is determined by the changed socioeconomic and ethno-cultural situation. the main goal of the strategy is formation of the society that is held together by a holistic self-consciousness, solidarity and awareness of the unity of its past, present and future, i.e. the single civic nation. the strategy outlines four key directions, among which the language policy is of prime importance up to 2025. on july 25, 2018, the russian state duma adopted the bill that will be introduced into the law on education as an amendment. it specifies the rules of teaching state languages in pre-school, primary general and basic general institutions in national republics. according to this law parents as legal representatives of minor students will determine the choice of the native language among the national languages of the country, including russian as the native language. thus, those who choose russian can study it instead of buryat, adyghe, mari or tatar. ethnic minorities may now journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 decide whether they will study their national tongues. the subject called ‘native language’ is compulsory. such provision shall be enshrined in the federal state educational standard (2018). these standards set out mandatory requirements for implementation of programmes for all levels of education from elementary general, to basic/secondary general, to initial/secondary vocational, to higher education by educational institutions formally recognized by the state through licensing. they specify requirements on educational programmes structure and scope, competences and areas of professional activities, requirements concerning personnel, financial, logistical and other conditions. the standards have the force of law and must be followed by all educational institutions. this part of social sphere is within the powers of state authorities of the constituent entities of the russian federation and their governments and is funded and administered locally. that is why there are many discrepancies, differences and specifics in teaching and learning throughout the country. to introduce consistent regulation and countrywide law enforcement, the russian government by its order no. 637-r approved the concept of teaching the russian language and literature in the russian federation (2016) (hereinafter the concept); it defines the approaches to the study of the russian language according to key provisions of the historical and cultural standard. the concept recognises different levels of learning outcome across the country and suggests working out and introducing modern teaching technologies in a multilingual setting. the results of the final exams in russia revealed the need for additional measures to improve education quality. the mechanisms for removing the drawbacks at state and local levels have been thoroughly considered but are currently at the initial stage of their realisation. the concept recommends developing specialpurpose educational programmes to improve the quality of teaching russian in the regions. legislation constrains and language challenges in federal and regional contexts the section focuses on language policy constrains at federal and regional level and explores conflict situations that have developed in the regions since disintegration of the ussr. mari el’s case an example of the intra-ethnic conflict in russia is the mari language. the art. 15 of the constitution of mari el (2014), enshrines two state languages: mari (mountain and meadow) and russian. this provision has aroused a wide debate concerning the status of two literary stepanova & lutskovskaia norms of the mari language. according to the russian census of 2010 ethnic mari account for more than 290 thousand people, whereas the mountain mari comprises about 23 thousand people. some linguists representing the meadow mari majority oppose the state status of the mountain mari language, as they believe it is just a dialect but not the literal language. they insist that mountain mari should not be mentioned in the constitution of the republic. the discussion raised up a wide range of aspects related to understanding the origin and history of mari as a nation, their language and dialects, literary norms, influence of the russian language on the minority languages, language and social status of people speaking their mother tongue, and many others. the above tensions have revealed the social conflict between two groups of mari elite belonging to different ethnic societies in the strive to conserve their identities. in contrast to the nationalist trends, introduction of the state language of the russian federation demonstrates adverse incentives. it does not aim at strengthening the position of the russian language by granting a special status but highlights the urgency of legal consolidation of the principles of a nation-wide language policy in the context of a multinational federation. accelerated growth of national identity, sometimes reaching various forms of nationalism and separatism, puts forward the issue of language unity of the state in terms of its federal structure and multinational population (dorovskih, 2007). tatarstan’s case an inter-ethnic language conflict in tatarstan (the republic of tatarstan) is of a protracted character, which reached its acute stage after the introduction of the tatar language in schools as a compulsory subject for all students irrespective of nationality the law of the republic of tatarstan on languages, 1992; law on education, 2013). tatar and russian are learnt in the same amount. according to parents’ complaints, russian children lose the chances of learning russian more thoroughly because the language sessions are equally divided between two languages. russian is not recognized as the native tongue in tatarstan, so schoolchildren have less class sessions in this discipline than students in other regions of russia. such decision caused outrage and led to regular street protests. some parents are even considering moving from tatarstan in search for better educational opportunities for their children (yemelianova, 2000; sulejmanov, 2014). adygea’s case journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 numerous court cases connected with the language school policy have developed a contradictory interpretation of this issue in judicial practice. the supreme court of adygea (republic of adygea) confirmed that the imperative duty to learn adyghe contradicts parts 1 and 2 of art. 9 of the federal law on languages (1991), which establishes the right to choose the language of education and training (decision of the supreme court of the republic of adygea of december no. 3-32, 2006). it asserted that the requirement for adyghe students to study the adyghe language and the introduction of the adyghe language as a compulsory school subject cannot be an imperative, since it leads to violation of the principles of equality of human rights and freedoms guaranteed by the russian constitution. such requirement is not provided for by the federal legislation and violates its own legislation on education by obliging the adyghe students to learn the adyghe language, which impairs and limits the rights of citizens according to their language and nationality. dagestan’s case similar case heard in dagestan was resolved adversely. the supreme court of the russian federation later upheld that the norm of dagestan law establishing the duty of studying the native language as a compulsory subject does not contradict the federal legation (the russian supreme court decision, 2009). further debates on the issue attracted attention of president putin who expressed his viewpoint. he said that “it’s unacceptable to force a person [at school] to study the language that is not their mother tongue” (ria novosti, 2017). president also noted that the russian language is the language of the state, the language of inter-ethnic communication. “it is impossible to replace it with anything. it is the natural, spiritual pillar of our entire multinational country. everyone should speak it. the languages of the peoples of russia are an integral part of the unique culture of the peoples of russia; to study these languages is the right guaranteed by the constitution, a voluntary right” (ibid). after the prosecutor’s inspections of 2017 two republics (out of eight) changed their legislation on education eliminating compulsory language learning, one of them is kalmykia (jankiewicz & kniaginina, 2018), where studying the national language also bore an imperative character. cyrillic or latin script the alphabet challenge arose in the 1990s, when some republics attempted an alphabet reform. currently all the written languages across russia use cyrillic. however, initially it was different. stepanova & lutskovskaia the switch to russian script took place because most of the new alphabets for spoken languages were formed on cyrillic and russian became the language of inter-ethnic communication in the multinational state. there was the opinion that the same graphics within the same country would facilitate mastering ethnic minority languages and russian. besides, roman or latin is not as rich in vowels as cyrillic and the task was to bring a written language as closely to the spoken language as possible. for this end, additional letters were created and introduced into cyrillic depending on the phonetics of a specific language. there are languages that formally employed three scripts (arabic, latin and russian) during their history. they are turkic (alai, bashkir, chuvash, tuvan, yakut and others) and caucasian (abazin, chechen, adyghe and avar) languages. they have favoured russian graphic since 1938-1939. on the other hand, there are languages of nakh-dagestan groups that are still only spoken and do not have a written form. according to the federal law on languages (1991), the state language of the country (russian) and the state languages of the republics are based on the cyrillic graphic. other graphics may be established by federal laws (par. 6 of art.3). however, this rule has been violated on one occasion. the constitution of the republic of tatarstan (1992) envisages the right of the republic to identify the alphabet graphic of the tatar language as the state language of the republic; this provision was confirmed by the constitutional court of tatarstan in its resolution of december 24, 2003. by this resolution the tatar constitutional court arbitrarily interpreted the legal norms of the russian federation currently in force and formalized latin as the graphic alphabet of the national language contrary to the federal law on the languages, according to which the use of any other alphabet has to be approved by a special federal law. after heavy criticism and heated debates and following the russian constitutional court ruling no. 16-p (of november 16, 2004), on december 28, 2004, the tatar supreme court overturned the ruling. however, latin script is used in a limited sphere, while arabic calligraphy is very popular in various national settings. the issue of latin script was also raised in the fourth opinion on the russian federation by the advisory committee on the framework convention for the protection of national minorities, para. 107 (2018). in their comments, the russian government asserts that introduction of latin script into turkic and/or finno-ugric languages would mean using a significant number of diacritical marks and letter combinations, which slow down rather than facilitate the transliteration journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 of speech. the decision taken in the republic of tatarstan was criticized as an attempt to violate the linguistic unity of the tatar people, the greater part of whom live outside the republic, as well as to break cultural ties between the peoples living together; it could also create additional difficulties for russians in mastering the tatar language (sokolovkij, 2005). adversely, cyrillic allows preserving a single information space in the vast territory of the russian federation. russian language and ethnic minority languages despite its obviously humanistic aims, the strategy was criticized by the council of europe in its fourth opinion by the advisory committee on the framework convention for the protection of national minorities (2018) claiming that the programme is dedicated not only to the advancement of national minorities, but also to the patriotic education of the youth and promotion of the russian language (para 30, 31, 62) (as cited in the russian government comments on the fourth opinion of the advisory committee on the fcnm implementation by the russian federation, 2018). the russian government argues that the main objectives of any state are to preserve and strengthen itself as a single and indivisible community with formed civil identity. however, a mature civil identity does not mean the elimination of any other self-identifications, rather promoting interethnic stability and harmonious development of ethnic minorities in a single socio-political dimension. russian scientists believe that relationship-building process among the peoples of russia is constantly evolving and improving: the implementation of constitutional, ethnic and confessional rights of citizens is a pledge of national peace and harmony. in this regard, the multiple tasks allotted to the federal agency for ethnic affairs are not excessive, as concluded by the advisory committee; they rather strengthen russia’s multi-ethnic unity with the concurrent implementation of the linguistic, cultural, religious and other rights of ethnic minorities. same educational standards and different results on completion of secondary general education (form 11) the students take exams called the unified state examinations (use). two subjects are obligatory for state assessment, russian and mathematics; others depend on the student’s priorities and are optional. the matter of great concern is the dramatic discrepancy in the results of these exams among regions. traditionally, students from moscow demonstrate much greater progress than students from the regions. in perm, the average marks in the russian language are steadily higher by 5 points than in the stepanova & lutskovskaia neighbouring republic of komi. students from altai get 70 points at best whereas muscovites – 80-85 (konyuhova, 2017). russian scholars (national research university higher school of economics, 2017) investigated the reasons and concluded that final exam results heavily depend on economic environment of the region, namely parents’ capacity to invest in their children’s additional training, regional educational systems’ capacity to invest in teachers’ professional competences. the existing laws provide an option to take the use in a native language; however, such an exam is not very popular among school leavers. for example, in 2018 only 24 students passed the use in the tatar language in tatarstan (idel.realii, 2018). many regional representatives wish the exams were in native languages instead of russian, but the russian ministry of education does not currently suggest any comments on the issue. the reasons are obvious: limited budgets, huge additional administrative and organizational workload, and questioned effectiveness of the work done. the problem is that most of the minority languages lack the environment where students could communicate in their mother tongue out of school. conclusion the analysis of academic literature has made it possible to specify the research conceptual background. it accepts legal, societal and academic focus on language policy challenges, but argues that there is lack of integrated analysis with the view to search for tools and promising practices to balance federal and regional legislations on language issues. the language and cultural policy must be well balanced and demonstrate respect and equal opportunities to all the nations within the state. a varied network of legal norms, regulations and rules concerning languages in russia, including the russian constitution, reflects the importance the state attaches to this sphere of social life. the research findings reveal contradictions between federal and local national laws on a number of language issues that, in turn, lead to language problems in the federal and regional context. they happen when the state powers of the ethnic republics are focused on ensuring the linguistic rights of the titular nations. however, many national tongues, that acquired the status of the state languages of the republics do not evolve functional styles and are not able to perform certain public and organisational functions. the level of their functional development does not always meet the sociolinguistic needs of society but is not taken into consideration when establishing a state or journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 official language. more confusion is added by the presence of several standard varieties of the language, insufficient language knowledge, code switching and language mixing. the task can be reached by preserving the country unity through strengthening the position of the russian language as the bond of multinational diversity. however, regional ethnocratic policies reveal legal and social collisions hindering the progress in this field. ousting of the russian language is accompanied by pushing the native russian speakers out of political and other spheres, thus relegating them to the position of alien, not indigenous people. the concern of the state powers of the republics is focused on ensuring the linguistic rights of the titular nations, which does not contradict the federal laws but highlights their conceptual incompleteness. in this respect, a special role has to be attributed to legal regulation of critical issues throughout the vast and multicultural state. the findings make it possible to identify possible solutions to remove challenges and constrains that have been detected in the course of studies. the language issues in youth development should be in the constant focus of the government and the state. continuous revision of the existing laws, adopting new norms and regulations are a powerful instrument in establishing social justice in the country with multicultural perspective. the national task is to raise culturally minded members who treasure historical heritage, natural wealth and social values. however, the state educational strategies are facing constrains and challenges revealed at schools that demand solutions in legal, financial, organizational, scientific, educational and other spheres. in our view, such important social domain cannot be managed from the legal entities’ local budgets. the leading role of the state seems to be urgent to remove legal and other inconsistences throughout the vast and culturally diverse country. the study asserts that the state pays great attention and renders support for indigenous cultures (see the examples in the conceptual background section). at the same time, the accomplished legal consolidation of the status of official languages for the titular nations is intended to enhance their social role, to strengthen or create conditions for their further development and improvement. there are vast practices of successful bilingualism where minority language performs social and private functions and majority language compliments them in public spheres. the role of the russian language among state languages of the country is to unite nations in the multicultural environment. it does not have to compete with minority languages, on the contrary, it complements them to meet all social language needs in different areas of communication including education. stepanova & lutskovskaia acknowledgements the publication has been prepared with support of the rudn university program under 5-100 russian academic excellence project, research project number 090512 -1274. references advisory committee on the framework convention for the protection of national minorities. fourth opinion on the russian federation (2018). retrieved june 25, 2019, from https://rm.coe.int/4th-advisory-committee-opinion-on-the-russian-federation-englishlangu/1680908982 atabekova, a. (2016). multilingualism in higher education: pros and cons according to university students. in: 10th international technology in education and development conference (pp. 4947-4954). valencia: iated academy atabekova, a. & shoustikova, t. (2018). language issues within forced migration at borders and temporary settlements: an integrated content analysis. european research studies journal, 21, 690-700. atabekova, a.a., gorbatenko, r.g. & shoustikova, t.v. (2016). university academic excellence and language policy: a case of russia. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(16), 8390-8397. bitkeeva, a.n. (2014). national language policy of russia: new challenges, latest trends. in: language policy and language conflicts in contemporary world. proceedings of the international conference (pp. 80-88). moscow: institute of linguistics of the russian academy of sciences. retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://ilingran.ru/library/sociolingva/2014_language_policy.pd_ bondarenko, d.v. (2017). brief overview on key issues of language law implementation in the russian federation. r&d materials on language policy implementation and preparing suggestions on law developing. federal center for educational law. retrieved july 21, 2019, from http://www.lexed.ru/obrazovatelnoepravo/analitika/stati/detail.php?element_id=6778 https://rm.coe.int/4th-advisory-committee-opinion-on-the-russian-federation-english-langu/1680908982 https://rm.coe.int/4th-advisory-committee-opinion-on-the-russian-federation-english-langu/1680908982 https://iling-ran.ru/library/sociolingva/2014_language_policy.pd_ https://iling-ran.ru/library/sociolingva/2014_language_policy.pd_ http://www.lexed.ru/obrazovatelnoe-pravo/analitika/stati/detail.php?element_id=6778 http://www.lexed.ru/obrazovatelnoe-pravo/analitika/stati/detail.php?element_id=6778 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 boutelier, s. (2019). limiting learning environments through domestication. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 45-55. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 bowring, b. (2018). minority language rights in the russian federation: the end of a long tradition? in: the palgrave handbook of minority languages and communities (pp.7399). london: palgrave macmillan uk. bowring, b. & borgiakova, t. (2017). language policy and education in russia. in: language policy and political issues in education. ed. mccarty, t, may, s. encyclopedia of language and education, 3d ed., 349-365, springer, cham. bulajeva, t. & hogan-brun, g. (2014). internationalisation of higher education and nation building: resolving language policy dilemmas in lithuania. journal of multilingual and multicultural development, 35(4), 318-331. chigisheva, o., soltovets, e., & bondarenko, a. (2017). functional foreign language literacy for global research career development: analysis of standardized open-ended interview responses. xlinguae, 10(4), 138-153. comments of the government of the russian federation on the fourth opinion of the advisory committee on the implementation of the framework convention for the protection of national minorities by the russian federation (2018). retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://rm.coe.int/government-comments-on-the-4th-acfc-opinion-on-switzerlandenglishlang/1680908a1b constitution of mari el (1995). retrieved june 20, 2019, from http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_mariy/ constitution of the republic of bashkortostan (1993). retrieved june 20, 2019, from http://docs.cntd.ru/document/935100256 constitution of the republic of tatarstan (1992). retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_tatar/ constitution of the russian federation (1993), retrieved june 15, 2019, from http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm decision of the supreme court of the republic of adygea of december no. 3-32 (2006). retrieved june 15, 2019, from http://vs.adg.sudrf.ru/ http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 http://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_mariy/ http://docs.cntd.ru/document/935100256 http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm stepanova & lutskovskaia denisova, a.v. (2015). linguistic situation in the republic of kalmykia. theory and practice of social development, 24, 92-95. dorovskih, e.m. (2007). russian language: improving legal regulation. russian law journal, 4, 39-52. european convention on human rights (1950). retrieved june 15, 2019, from https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/convention_eng.pdf federal state educational standard (2012). retrieved july 21, 2019, from https://fgos.ru/ garrett, p., & gallego balsà, l. (2014). international universities and implications of internationalisation for minority languages: views from university students in catalonia and wales. journal of multilingual and multicultural development, 35(4), 361–375. gorter, d., marten, h. f., & van mensel, l. (2018). linguistic landscapes and minority languages. the palgrave handbook of minority languages and communities, 481-506. london: palgrave macmillan. guangwei, h. & jun, l. (2014). english-medium instruction in chinese higher education: a case study. higher education: the international journal of higher education and educational planning, 67 (5), 551-567. guseinova, f.v. (2015). the specifics of the development of legislation on the khakas republic language. the world of science, culture, education, 5(54), 322-324. hays j. (2016). languages in russia. facts and details. retrieved june 20, 2019, from http://factsanddetails.com/russia/people_and_life/sub9_2c/entry-4996.html idel.realii (2018). tatarstan internet site. retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://www.idelreal.org/a/ekzamen-tatarskiy-yazik-ege/29361295.html international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights (1966). retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cescr.aspx jankiewicz, s. & kniaginina, n. (2018). the language of the republic at school: who decides? national research university higher school of economics. working papers, series: law. retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://wp.hse.ru/data/2018/04/16/1150781577/83law2018.pdf konyuhova, k. (2017). what has federal service on monitoring education and science in russia concealed concerning use. komsomol truth newspaper, retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://www.kp.ru/daily/26687.7/3710326/ http://factsanddetails.com/russia/people_and_life/sub9_2c/entry-4996.html https://www.idelreal.org/a/ekzamen-tatarskiy-yazik-ege/29361295.html https://wp.hse.ru/data/2018/04/16/1150781577/83law2018.pdf https://www.kp.ru/daily/26687.7/3710326/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 kozyrin, a. & troshkina, t. (2017). the law on education of 2012 and development of educational law in russia. law, journal of the higher school of economics, 1, 80-91. malkhanova, s.k., kim, h.j. & agranat, t.v. (2019). bulingualism and its influence on ethnic media use: a case of buryats. in: smart technologies and innovations in design for control of technological processes and objects: economy and production. proceedings of the international science and technology conference fareastcon-2018, vol. 2, 656661, springer. neroznak,v.p., oreshkina, m.v. & sabatkoev, r.b. (2001). russian language in the russian legislation. available at reference and information portal gramota.ru supported by the federal agency for press and mass communications, retrieved july 21, 2019, from http://gramota.ru/biblio/magazines/gramota/society/28_73 oding, n.y., yushkov, f.o. & savulkin, l.i. (2019). the use of local languages in the republics of the russian federation: legal and economic aspects. terra economicus, 17(1), 112130. president’s order no. 1666 of 19.12.2012 “on the strategy of the state national policy of the russian federation for the period of up to 2025” (with amendments), retrieved july 21, 2019, from http://base.garant.ru/70284810/ ramazanova, d.s. (2015). the language policy in dagestan: historical aspect in theory and practice of public development, 9, 169-174. ria novosti (2017). retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://ria.ru/20170720/1498850306.html rivers, w.p., & brecht, r.d. (2018). america's languages: the future of language advocacy. foreign language annals, 51(1), 24-34. russian government by its order no. 637-r approved the concept of teaching the russian language and literature in the russian federation (2016). retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://www.garant.ru/products/ipo/prime/doc/71280432/ safaraliev, g.k. (2015). about the problems of preservation and development of native languages of the peoples of russia in connection with the implementation of the strategy of state the national policy of the russian federation in the republic of dagestan. bereginya – 777 – sova, 1 (24), 51-55. spolsky, b. (2007). towards a theory of language policy. working papers in educational linguistics, 22(1), 1–14. http://gramota.ru/biblio/magazines/gramota/society/28_73 https://ria.ru/20170720/1498850306.html stepanova & lutskovskaia sulejmanov, r.r. (2014). ethno-linguistic conflict in modern tatarstan: the struggle for the russian language in the schools of the national republic. in: language policy and language conflicts in contemporary world, proceedings of the international conference, moscow, 16-19 september 2014, 226-234, retrieved july 20, 2019, from https://ilingran.ru/library/sociolingva/2014_language_policy.pd_ the federal law on education in the russian federation (2012). retrieved june 15, 2019, from https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail%3fp_lang%3den%26p_isn%3d93529 the federal law on languages of the peoples of the russian federation (1991). with amendments as of march 12, 2014, retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_15524/ the federal law on national and cultural autonomy (1996). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://base.garant.ru/135765/ the federal law on the state language of the russian federation (2005). retrieved june 20, 2019, from https://www.prlib.ru/en/node/352171 the law of the republic of altai on languages (1993). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://docs.cntd.ru/document/802008526 the law of the republic of buryatia on languages (1992). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://docs.cntd.ru/document/802039037 the law of the republic of karelia on the state support of karelian, veps and finnish languages in the republic of karelia (2004). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://www.kareliazs.ru/zakonodatelstvo_rk/prav_akty/759-zrk/ the law of the republic of tatarstan on languages (1992). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://kitaphane.tatarstan.ru/rus/legal_info/zrt/lang.htm the law on state languages of the udmurtian republic (2001). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://www.minnac.ru/minnac/info/13993.html the law on state support for indigenous small-numbered peoples of the north in murmansk region (2008). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://docs.cntd.ru/document/913513909 the law on the languages of indigenous minorities of the north living in the territory of the khanty-mansiysk autonomous area (2001). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://docs.cntd.ru/document/991009915 https://iling-ran.ru/library/sociolingva/2014_language_policy.pd_ https://iling-ran.ru/library/sociolingva/2014_language_policy.pd_ https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail%3fp_lang%3den%26p_isn%3d93529 http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_15524/ http://base.garant.ru/135765/ https://www.prlib.ru/en/node/352171 http://docs.cntd.ru/document/802008526 http://docs.cntd.ru/document/802039037 http://www.karelia-zs.ru/zakonodatelstvo_rk/prav_akty/759-zrk/ http://www.karelia-zs.ru/zakonodatelstvo_rk/prav_akty/759-zrk/ http://kitaphane.tatarstan.ru/rus/legal_info/zrt/lang.htm http://www.minnac.ru/minnac/info/13993.html http://docs.cntd.ru/document/913513909 http://docs.cntd.ru/document/991009915 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 315-336 the law on education (2013). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://docs.cntd.ru/document/463304037 the russian supreme court decision (2009). retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://www.supcourt.ru/en/news/2019/ unesco (2003). education in a multilingual world. education position paper, france, paris, retrieved july 20, 2019, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297/129728e.pdf universal declaration of human rights (1948). retrieved july 20, 2019, from https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ valeev, r. (2016). the law on languages turns 25 years old; it was possible to learn a little bit. business online, april 13, 2016, retrieved july 20, 2019, from https://www.businessgazeta.ru/article/307607 accessed on june 26, 2019. vostok media (2018). national languages at school. retrieved july 20, 2019, from https://vostokmedia.com/news/society/29-05-2018/natsionalnye-yazyki-v-shkolah-kak-vrossii-i-chto-v-primorie wigglesworth-baker, t. (2015). language policy and russian-titular bilingualism in post-war tatarstan. unpublished phd thesis. the university of sheffield, united kingdom retrieved july 20, 2019, from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30268682.pdf yemelianova, g.m. (2000). shaimiev’s ‘khanate’ on the volga and its russian subjects. asian ethnicity, 1(1), 37-52. zamyatin, k. (2012). from language revival to language removal? the teaching of titular languages in the national republics of post-soviet russia. journal on ethnopolitics and minority issues in europe, 11(2), 75-102. zamyatin, k. (2014). an official status for minority languages? a study of state languages in russia’s finno-ugric republics. helsinki: finno-ugrian society. zhemukhov, s. (2015). the movement towards a monolingual nation in russia: the language policy in the circassian republics of the northern caucasus. journal of caucasian studies (jocas), 1(1), 33-67. zhuravel, t.n. (2015). ethno-linguistic situation in usinska dolina krasnoyarsk territory. unpublished phd thesis. siberian federal university, russia. http://docs.cntd.ru/document/463304037 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297/129728e.pdf https://www.business-gazeta.ru/article/307607%20%20accessed%20on%20june%2026 https://www.business-gazeta.ru/article/307607%20%20accessed%20on%20june%2026 https://vostokmedia.com/news/society/29-05-2018/natsionalnye-yazyki-v-shkolah-kak-v-rossii-i-chto-v-primorie https://vostokmedia.com/news/society/29-05-2018/natsionalnye-yazyki-v-shkolah-kak-v-rossii-i-chto-v-primorie https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30268682.pdf jsser/sbead ailesi olarak yeni bir sayımızla daha sizleri selamlıyor olmanın vermiş olduğu mutluluğu ifade ederek sözlerime başlamak istiyorum i from the editor hello, thanks for joining us again in this november 2014 issue (v/2) of journal of social studies education research (jsser). our journal has completed its 5 years with this current issue. as the family of association of social studies educators (asse), we are extremely delighted and proud to see the blossoms that we first watered in 2009. jsser has turned to a qualified electronic journal that has been acknowledged and indexed by various indexes in recent years. one of those indexes has been recognized by turkish higher education council as a database that includes periodicals regarded as publishing quality academic papers that fulfills the requirements for applying associate professorship. since its foundation, asse, the publisher of the jsser has been playing the role of an instrument to manifest and improve the “new social studies movement” which emerged through the end of 1990s. the mission of jsser in this context is to meet the requirement for academic periodical, publishing studies on social studies education. being published as an electronic journal, jsser gives us an opportunity to take advantages of the so called information age. as a matter of fact, today’s electronic journals have a potential to reach more readers than most of the best-selling published periodicals of late 20th century. nevertheless, the same technologies present some risks that we cannot keep under control. the problems that the have been experiencing in the preparation processes of the last two issues are in this kind. in this issue, we have also experienced some communication problems as result of the moving of jsser’s technical substructure to the turkish journal park. as a result, only three papers, whose peer-reviewing processes had completed could be published in this current issue: rishabh kumar mishra “social constructivism and teaching of social science”, hatice türe and arife figen ersoy “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısı” (social studies teachers’ perceptions of tolerance) and feryal çubukçu “values education through edi̇törden merhaba, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi / journal of social studies education research (jsser)’nin kasım 2014 sayısıyla yeniden birlikteyiz. elinizdeki sayıyla 5 yılı geride bırakmış bulunuyoruz. sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği / assocation of social studies educators (asse) ailesi olarak 2009 yılında can suyunu verdiğimiz jsser’nin bugün geldiği evreye tanık olmanın mutluluk ve gururu içindeyiz. gerçekten de jsser, bu kısa sürede birçok indeks tarafından taranan nitelikli bir e-dergi haline gelmiştir. bu indekslerden biri, yök tarafından doçentlik başvurusu için yayın yapma koşulu konan dergilerin tarandığı indeksler arasında yer almaktadır. 1990’ların sonunda başlayan türkiye “yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi” içinde kurulduğu günden beri asse’nin oynadığı misyonun temel araçlarından biri jsser’dir. bu görevin jsser’ye düşen kısmı; sosyal bilgiler eğitimine dair akademik çalışmaların neşredildiği alana özgü süreli yayını ihtiyacını karşılamaktır. jsser’nin e-dergi olarak yayınlanması bize bilgi çağının nimetlerinden faydalanma imkânı sunmaktadır. nitekim bilişim teknolojisi sayesinde bugün herhangi bir e-dergi, yarım asır önce dünyanın en fazla satan dergisinden çok fazla okuyucuya ulaşma potansiyeline sahiptir. fakat aynı teknoloji bazen bizi kontrol altında tutamayacağımız süreçlerle karşı karşıya bırakarak tamamen etkisiz hale getirmektedir. bir önceki sayıyı hazırlarken yaşadığımız, kısmen bu sayıda da devam eden aksaklıklar, bu türdendir. elinizdeki sayıda ayrıca dergimizin teknik altyapısının tübi̇tak ulakbi̇m dergi park’a taşınmasından kaynaklanan iletişim sorunları yaşanmıştır. bunlardan dolayı bu sayıda da hakem değerlendirme süreci tamamlanabilen şu üç makale yer alabilmiştir: rishabh kumar mishra “social constructivism and teaching of social science”, hatice türe ve arife figen ersoy “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hoşgörü algısı” ve feryal çubukçu “values education through literary texts”. bunlar sosyal bilgiler eğitimi literatürüne katkıda bulunan değerli çalışmalardır. ii literary texts”. these valuable papers have potential to contribute the literature on social studies education. one of the main aims of asse was to establish a regular scientific event through which social studies educators from turkey and abroad get together to share their academic works and ideas. in conjunction with the faculty of education of bolu abant izzet baysal university we are organizing the fourth international symposium on social studies education (isse) in april 2015. the main theme of isse the 4th is “peace education”. the preference of this theme emphasizes on our hopes and determination for our envision for peace in the late ottoman geography, in which guns have still been on fire and people have still been shedding tears. and this could be regarded as something similar to the action of mustafa kemal pasha who thought of about the reconstruction of the country after the war and assembled an “educational congress” in ankara to discuss educational issues, during the most difficult days of the war of independence in 1921. adopting this approach, we have been considering putting effort to institutionalize the values of democracy, human rights, justice, freedom of thought and freedom of conscience. as a final remark, i would like to thank everyone who contributed to the production of this issue and special thanks to assoc. prof. dr. erkan dinç who acted as issue editor. best regards and hope to meet you in isse the 4th… prof. dr. cemil öztürk editor asse’nin amaçlarından biri türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerinin bir araya geldiği, çalışmalarını paylaşarak bilgi alışverişinde bulunduğu ve yurt dışından katılan meslektaşları ile tanışarak etkileşime girdiği bir bilim şenliği geleneği başlatmaktı. bu amaç doğrultusunda nisan 2015’te abant i̇zzet baysal üniversitesi eğitim fakültesinin işbirliği ile uluslararası sosyal bilimler eğitimi sempozyumu’nun (usbes) dördüncüsünü düzenliyoruz. usbes iv’ün ana teması “barış eğitimi”. kadim osmanlı coğrafyasında silahlar susmaz, kan ve gözyaşı dinmezken böyle bir temayı tercih etmek, her koşulda geleceğe dair tasavvurlarımızda kararlılığımızı işaret ediyor. bu türk i̇stiklal harbi’nin en karanlık günlerinde savaş sonrasında ülkenin yeniden inşasını düşünerek, eğitim sorunlarını tartışmak üzere ankara’da bir “maarif kongresi” (1921) toplayan mustafa kemal paşa’nın yaptığından farklı bir şey değildir. nitekim biz aynı yaklaşımla demokrasi, fikir ve inanç özgürlüğü, insan hakları ve adalet gibi değerlerin gerçekleşmesi yolunda çalışmayı görev addediyoruz. nihayet jsser’nin kasım 2014 sayısının okuyucuyla buluşmasını sağlayan herkese, özellikle sayı editörü doç. dr. erkan dinç’e teşekkür ederim. usbes iv’te buluşmak dileğiyle... prof. dr. cemil öztürk editör www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(2),30-50 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 using critical cosmopolitanism to globally situate multicultural education in teacher preparation courses erik jon byker1 & sheila k. marquardt2 abstract globally-minded teachers often beget globally-minded students. the same relationship seems to hold true for multiculturalism; teachers who are committed to multiculturalism often nudge students toward the same commitment. global citizenship and multicultural education share a strong bond. yet, in the field of social studies teacher preparation, the bond between global competencies and multiculturalism often seems permeable and quite fragile. in the context of multicultural education in the united states, teachers engage with issues of privilege, power, and oppression but with a heavy us-centric focus. the article contends that the predominant united states’ focus of multiculturalism limits the opportunities to engage the global: global competencies, global voices, and global citizenship. the article seeks to wed multiculturalism and global education. it does so by introducing and explaining critical cosmopolitan theory (byker, 2013), which is a theoretical framework to guide the preparation of globally competent and culturally responsive teacher candidates. utilizing findings from an artifact analysis study of teacher candidates (n=51), the article discusses ways to assist teacher candidates in their development of becoming critically cosmopolitan citizens who embrace social justice by being informed by the global and multicultural. keywords: critical cosmopolitan theory, culturally responsive, global citizenship, multiculturalism, paulo freire, teacher preparation introduction we begin with two vignettes of teacher preparation. it is the mid-semester point in a social foundations course about teaching and schooling. teacher candidates are both intrigued and unsettled by the content. as teacher candidates mill into the university classroom, the topic for today’s presentation is perspective: what is it? how do we get it? what role does it play in understanding experience? the teacher candidates begin by reading two women (rethinking schools, 2009), which is a two person poem. the poetry is framed as a dialogue between two women from chile. one woman is rich; the other woman is poor. their rhythmic dialogue is about the impact of chile’s political history and events on their livelihoods. teacher candidates read the 1 assist. prof., university of north carolina at charlotte, ebyker@uncc.edu 2 assist. prof., minnesota state university moorhead, sheila.marquardt@mnstate.edu journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 poem aloud and analyze the poem for the perspectives that are represented in the lives of the two characters. in particular students seem struck by the following stanza related to food: we had to eat rice. we had rice. we had to eat beans! we had beans. the wealthy woman was suddenly surprised that she could not access her luxurious food items while the poor woman was grateful to have food to give her children. after reading the poem, the teacher candidates watch a usaid video, which shows a split screen about the lives of two children. one child lives in a western country with many privileges. the second child works in a factory making shoes. by the end of the video, it shows how the shoes worn from the child from the western country were made by the child who labors in the factory. the goal of the video is not to evoke sympathy or pity, but to help teacher candidates see the ways in which experience is connected, and to investigate experience in relation to perspective. after the video, the teacher candidates discuss and compare the two texts: the two women poem and the usaid video. they evaluate the texts by examining the encounters with perspectives embedded within each text. the discussion includes probing questions like: how are our lives connected to each other? how can a teacher put “oneself in place of the other” ? (naval, et. al., 2011). how are we connected to the world? what is the role of teachers and schools in sharing perspectives? how is it important to your role as a future educator? these are teaching questions, of course, but they are also social studies related questions. social studies bears a unique place in the school curriculum to open learners’ eyes to the diversity of perspectives and how the globe is interconnected. the second vignette opens in a social studies methods course for elementary education teacher candidates. the course focuses on the relationship between social studies and citizenship development. it is also around mid-semester and the topic for the day is global citizenship. after reading and brainstorming definitions for what it means to be a global citizen, teacher candidates interrogate their definitions through the exploration of internet based activities and online simulations. there are a dozen or so activities, which they can choose from but in short time most teacher candidates are playing an online simulation called against all odds (http://www.playagainstallodds.ca/). the interactive website, which was developed by the united nations high commissioner for refugees (unhcr), simulates what it is like to be a refugee. as http://www.playagainstallodds.ca/ erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 32 teacher candidates get more involved in the against all odds simulation they share about the ordeals they encountered as part of the experience. teacher candidates then reflect on how they would apply the experience in their own classroom. for example, teacher candidates describe how they would use the simulation as a large group class activity about universal human rights. another teacher candidate states that the simulation provides a powerful way to build empathy for refugees especially during the current election period where there is so much of global focus on syrian refugees. the discussion closes with teacher candidates dialoguing about how against all odds is an interactive activity that raises awareness and spurs action while gaining deeper perspective about refugees. many report how against all odds broadened their own perspectives and even made the rethink many of the myths and stereotypes that are untrue about refugees. teacher candidates also share how the simulation concludes with ways to take action in order to help refugees in the united states and around the world. web based resources—like against all odds and the usaid perspectives video in the first vignette—are dynamic ways to examine issues of power, privilege, and oppression. these issues are at the heart of multiculturalism and the issues are also global. the two opening vignettes reflect the larger purpose of this article, which is to wed multiculturalism and global education in preparing teacher candidates for social studies instruction. to meet this purpose, we organize the article into four sections. first, we provide background information related to multiculturalism and global education within the larger context of teacher preparation policies. second, we introduce and explain critical cosmopolitan theory (byker, 2013), which is a theoretical framework to guide the preparation of globally competent and culturally responsive teacher candidates. third, we examine applications of critical cosmopolitan theory by examining global education artifacts that teacher candidates (n=51) analyzed for global competencies and multicultural themes. fourth, we discuss and recommend ways to assist teacher candidates in their development of becoming critically cosmopolitan citizens who embrace social justice by being informed by the global and multicultural. background we argue that the field of social studies education lacks a strong alignment between global education, multiculturalism, and social justice. rather than being interconnected these topics are taught in disparate ways so as to dilute their potency (deandreotti, 2014; kirkwood, 2001). in turn, global education often gets marginalized (banks, 2004). it is imperative that teacher educators journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 equip teacher candidates to critically examine the relationship between global education, multiculturalism, and social justice so that teacher candidates can effectively foster these pedagogies in their social studies instruction. such an examination should begin with common definitions and contextual understanding. definitions definitions for global education, multiculturalism and social justice are various. yet, there are similarities in the notions and terminology surrounding these concepts. we unpack the terminology in order to provide clarity regarding the key words and ideas that shape the article. global education. definitions for global education often have to do with the development of global citizenship and global competencies. for example, global education has been associated with educational efforts that seek to better prepare learners to become global citizens (anderson, 1979). such a notion relates well to what saglam (2012) posits as common good of global citizenship education in serving the best interest of humanity. for the purposes of this article, we define global education as the purposeful facilitation of guiding learners towards global citizenship. infused in that definition is the understanding that global education includes a deep awareness of global issues—especially those that affect young learners like children—and the desire to take action in response to such issues. in describing the importance of global education, many non-governmental organizations (ngos) have focused on the development of global competencies. the asia society, an ngo headquartered in new york city, explains that global competency is “the capacity to understand and act on issues of global significance” (mansilla & jackson, 2011, p. 2). we contend that the development of global competencies is part and parcel of global education. for the purposes of this article, we employ byker’s (2016) definition for global competency, which is “the symmetry of knowledge and skills to critically act as a citizen of the world” (p. 265). multiculturalism. there are a number of definitions for multiculturalism. the word itself is nuanced as it is wrapped the contextual complexity of culture, diversity, equality, identity, and recognition (taylor, 1994; sleeter, 1996). much of the literature refers to rosado’s (1996) working definition for multiculturalism as the starting place for defining the term. the rosado definition is based on the premise that multiculturalism is a belief system that both “recognizes and respects the presence of all diverse groups in a society, acknowledges and values their socio-cultural differences, and encourages and enables their continued contribution within an inclusive cultural erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 34 context which empowers all within the organization or society” (p. 2). some scholars move multiculturalism beyond just recognition and respect to the critical examination of how the term is situated and speaks to systems of power, privilege, and oppression (giroux, 1992; mcclaren, 1993; sleeter, 1996). for the purposes of this article, we define multiculturalism as the critical analysis and recognition of the diversity of identities and cultures in a society, which encompasses and values the intersectionality of race, culture, class, and gender in order to examine the impact of systems of power on people groups. social justice. social justice is one of the larger themes of this article and of this special issue of the journal of social studies education research. the issue calls for the examination of teaching and learning in a multicultural infused social justice education. we contend that the commitment to social justice is made stronger when there is a robust linkage between global education and multiculturalism. what does social justice mean, though, and how do we define it? social justice definitions often are grounded in john rawls’ (1999) assertion that justice is fairness. what rawls means is that justice—as a conceptual idea—is rooted in near universal notions about the importance of the common good and equality. amartya sen (2001, 2009) is another social justice oriented scholar. sen argues that social justice works for the removal of societal injustices rather than just focusing on working to a utopian like state. for sen (2009), social justice is wrapped up in the sanskrit term, nyaya, which means “realized justice of how justice emerges in the lives of people” (p. 20). in defining social justice, we merge sen’s and rawls’ notions about justice and follow byker’s (2014) description that “social justice is consciousness of societal inequalities and injustices that dehumanize people and the cognizant action to reveal and root out these inequalities and injustices” (p.22). context now that we have established some working definitions for the themes in this article, we move to the larger context of global education and multiculturalism in teacher education. with an increased insistence on giving attention to globalization in education (zhao, 2010), teacher education has recognized the need to take responsibility in responding to the national imperative to give more attention to global competence of teachers (aydarova & byker, 2016). while there is much debate about what these global learning modules may look like (hovland, mctighe musil, skilton-sylvester, & jamison, 2009), the interstate teacher assessment and support consortium (intasc) has issued a call via its model core teaching standards and learning progressions for journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 teachers (council of chief state school officers, 2013). while most of these standards are quite vague in their inclusion of “global issues”, many are situated in relation to the global economy and global competition (aydarova & marquardt, 2016), rather than on global competence, global citizenship, or critical global awareness. at the same time, the diversity oriented classes required in most teacher education programs in the united states address issues of multicultural education with limited exposure or integration of global education (allard & santoro, 2006; fergusonpatrick, et al., 2012; garmon, 2004; mills, 2008). given the intense standards issued by intasc and the council for the accreditation of educator preparation (caep), teacher educators often find it difficult to incorporate additional content into the course, which is often, how global education is perceived. the field of social studies in teacher education seems like it is well situated to provide guidance about ways to bridge multiculturalism with global education. many social studies oriented scholars are calling for such a vision to infuse the local with global in the context of education and schooling (banks, 2004; byker, 2015; de andreotti, 2014; gaudelli, 2014). william guadelli (2014), for instance, discusses how global education and multiculturalism are both intertwined with issues related to power and privilege. social studies methods instruction and other social studies related courses are well-positioned to guide teacher candidates in their development of global education as well as the interplay of multiculturalism in the schools. such a vision is equally important for the preparation of learners in terms of how they prepare their students to become global citizens as well, and how they engage critical thinking in the context of global citizenship (acun, demir, & goz, 2010). there are a number of teacher educators who are reimagining ways to incorporate more global education into courses that are already engaging students in critical thinking around systems of privilege, power and oppression (meyers, 2006; schmidt, 2011; segall & gaudelli, 2007). conceptual frameworks are also beneficial for guiding and supporting these endeavors. we now turn to one such framework-called critical cosmopolitan theory (byker, 2013)--that shows the linkage between global education and multiculturalism through a vision of social justice informed by the works of paulo freire. theoretical framework critical cosmopolitan theory adopts kwame appiah’s (2010) notion that being cosmopolitan is wrapped up in shared humanity. for appiah, being cosmopolitan is synonymous with being a citizen of the world, who is committed to social justice. critical cosmopolitan theory erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 36 depicts the development of global citizenship as a continuum of four global competencies that are connected to paulo freire’s notion about critical consciousness about the world (byker, 2013). figure 1 illustrates a conceptual model for critical cosmopolitan theory. figure 1. a graphic representation of critical cosmopolitan theory as figure 1 depicts, critical cosmopolitan theory strikes a parallel between the asia society four global competencies and paulo freire’s (1970; 1994; 1998) concepts related to the development of critical consciousness, which freire coined with the term, conscientization. mansilla and jackson (2011) identify the asia society’s four global competencies as: 1) investigate the world; 2) recognize perspectives; 3) communicate ideas; and 4) take action. investigate the word means that a global citizen shows a curiosity about countries around the world as well as about global issues. recognize perspectives means that a global citizen is aware of and shows respect for the different perspectives and viewpoints held by others. communicate ideas is the competency that reflects a global citizen’s ability to discuss and listen to various ideas. take action means that a global citizen is an active member of society and stands up for social justice. taken together, these four competencies are part of what it means to be a global citizen. yet, there is a danger in just limiting global citizenship to a set of competencies, which may or may not include criticality within the competencies. many scholars have pointed out that the popular milieu about competencies of smacks of neoliberalism, which is more focused on managing the development of skills rather than nudging citizens to social responsibility (byker, 2016; gaudelli, 2014; segall & gaudelli, 2007). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 competencies often lack a critical lens. critical cosmopolitan theory addresses that gap by mapping global competencies on to freirean notions of critical consciousness. as figure 1 depicts, each of the asia society’s four global competencies are matched with a freirean concept about the development of conscientization. freire (2001) asserts that the true goal of education is emancipation, which is the liberation of people injustices whether social or global. freire explains emancipation starts with critical thinking or being able to “read the world” (freire, 1970, p. 9). reading the world corresponds with the global competency of investigating the world, but it goes beyond just an investigation to an analysis of the relationship of power in global systems. freire explains how the process of reading the world means a citizen’s eyes are also opened to the world. eyes being opened correspond with the global competency of recognizing perspectives. yet, freire pushes further to explain that eyes being opened also means that a citizen is ready to make denunciations, which means denouncing social injustices that limit another person’s humanity (freire, 1994). eyes being opened also mean that a citizen is ready to communicate ideas--another global competency--through the process of what freire terms annunciations (freire, 1994). annunciations are the respect and communication of each person’s dignity and common humanity. in correspondence with the global competency of taking action is the robust freirean notion of “rewriting the world” (freire, 1998, p. 31). rewriting the world is how a citizen takes social action through communal, creative, and transformative endeavors in order to right societal wrongs. freire’s features of critical consciousness add much greater depth and rigor to the asia society’s global competencies. in sum, critical cosmopolitan theory is underpinned by the development of critically conscious global competencies that move citizens towards acting as citizens of the world on behalf of each other. it is a theory that seeks to bridge the multicultural with the global. the purpose of this article is assert critical cosmopolitan theory provides a way to scaffold and provide a more robust alignment among global citizenship, multiculturalism, and social justice methodology to examine applications of this theory, we investigate how teacher candidates (n=51) identify and analyze global education related resources for multicultural and global competency themes. the teacher candidates were tasked with going to a school library—preferably at the elementary school level—and inquiring with the school librarian or media specialist about resources that the school had that pertained to multiculturalism, global education, or building erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 38 global awareness. teacher candidates then selected one resource to analyze based on the features critical cosmopolitan theory. the analysis included how the resource connected to the asia society’s four global competencies and how the resource could be used to help deepen critical consciousness of global issues. the teacher candidates wrote up a detailed annotation of the resources that they analyzed; they shared their analysis on a class wiki in order to create an online library of global education and multicultural resources. we use an artifact analysis research design to investigate the teacher candidates’ wiki annotations of their shared resources. the artifact analysis was guided by the following research questions: 1. what types of resources do the teacher candidates analyze for critical cosmopolitan themes? 2. what critical cosmopolitan themes do the teacher candidates emphasize in their annotations? 3. how, if in any way, do the teacher candidates describe the future applications of their selected resource to future teaching practice? participants the study’s participants are drawn from the sample population of teacher candidates in elementary teacher preparation programs. the sample is made up of 51 elementary teacher candidates from a state university in the southcentral region of the united states. the university is referred to by the pseudonym pine state university. the teacher candidates were all enrolled in an elementary social studies methods course and were in their junior year of the university’s elementary education teacher preparation program. the teacher candidates were between 20 and 30 years of age. the gender breakdown of this group was all (100%) females. among the teacher candidates, 2 (4%) were african-american or black; 5 (10%) were latina; and 44 (86%) were white. data analysis the teacher candidates’ annotations of their analyzed global resources comprised the data collected for this study. these data were analyzed qualitatively. the data analysis happened after the teacher candidates completed the elementary social studies method course in which they were enrolled. we used features of interaction design methodology (wiberg, 2013) to analyze the teacher candidates’ artifacts. wiberg (2013) explains that interaction design is a useful journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 methodology for analyzing digital artifacts and materials. interaction design goes beyond artifact analysis to the investigation of the “materiality of a resource” (wiberg, 2013, para. 2). there are four main components of interaction design: 1) material, which is the characteristics of the potential and limitations of artifact; 2) detail, which is the quality of the artifact; 3) texture, which is the authenticity of an artifact; and 4) wholeness, which is larger composition and meaning of the artifact. the analysis feature of interaction design is based on the concept of “working back and forth between the materials and textures and the details and wholeness” to understand an artifact’s dimensions (wiberg, 2013, para. 4). while interaction design is most commonly used in the fields of computer science and human-computer interaction (hci), we apply features of the methodology here to guide our analysis of the teacher candidates’ artifacts. we specifically use the interaction design feature of working back and forth between the detail and wholeness of the teacher candidates’ artifacts to guide our analysis. this feature shares similarities to glaser and strauss’ (1967) constant-comparative method in that the analysis is on-going. however, the analytical focus on an artifact’s detail and wholeness is useful in uncovering the quality details in the larger composition of the artifact. to conduct this analysis, we first read and re-read all of the annotations that the teacher candidates contributed on the class wiki. then we probed the details of each annotation to look for patterns in the details that emerged from these data. the patterns were categorized into larger themes that represented the wholeness of the annotations about the artifacts. we analyzed these themes into findings that help answer the research questions, which guided the study. findings we now describe research findings. this section is organized by the study’s three research questions. first, we describe the types of resources the teacher candidates highlight and analyze for critical cosmopolitan themes. second, we summarize the critical cosmopolitan themes that the teacher candidates emphasize in their artifact annotations. third, we report on how the teacher candidates describe the future teacher applications of their analyzed artifacts. artifact types. the first research question inquired about the type of resources that the teacher candidates highlight and analyze for their artifact annotations. to answer this question, we examined all the teacher candidates’ annotations on the class wiki. figure 2 shows a pipe chart with the percentages of teacher candidates’ selected artifacts that they analyzed in their annotations. erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 40 figure 2: pie chart of the percentage breakdown of teacher candidates’ artifact types like figure 2 shows, the most popular of all the resources was children’s literature as 32 of the 51 teacher candidates selected a children’s literature book to analyze for their artifact. websites were the second most popular type of artifact among 15 of the 51 teacher candidates. the website examples included culturegrams and discovery education’s global atlas. two of the teacher candidates selected magazines like scholastic news and time for kids to analyze for their resources. one teacher candidate selected a picture of a woven piece of artwork from china, which was a pen pal gift. another teacher candidate selected a youtube video traveling around the world. artifact themes. the second research inquired about the critical cosmopolitan themes that the teacher candidates emphasized in their artifact annotations. the majority of teacher candidates tended to emphasize the following two themes in their annotations: 1) investigating the world and 2) communicating ideas. in their analysis of the artifacts, the teacher candidates discussed how the resource was connected to having “eyes opened to the world” by investigating the world. here are some selected examples of what the teacher candidates wrote related to the global competency of investigating the world:  i would use this discovery education: global wrap resource as a social studies source to investigate the world in kid friendly terms. my students can find out what is happening in world news and then write about in their journals every morning. the children's literature 63% video 2% magazines 4% websites 29% artwork 2% journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 website also includes a place to watch videos and see images of what goes around the world so the students get visuals of what goes on.  a gooday cafe is a book that allows students to investigate how families who immigrate to the united states from another country are different, but also how they are the same as those who have lived in the us their whole lives. the little boy, mike, has lived in the us but his grandmother just recently moved and she is having some difficulties with the culture changes.  many of the scholastic news articles are about the cultures and traditions of different people around the world. these traditions may be very similar or different from how we do things in the united states. either way, scholastic news shows students that no matter how similar or different we are, it is still important to be knowledgeable of the different cultures around the world and how our perspectives affect each other. being able to use scholastic news to highlight the culture of various students in class would be a great way to create a global competent community. teacher candidates also identified how the artifacts they selected were a way to connect to global competency of communicating ideas; this competency aligns with critical cosmopolitan theory’s feature of “eyes opened to the world” through annunciations about global issues. in their annotations, many of the teacher candidates highlighted how their artifact was useful for communicating multicultural ideas and about diversity. here are some examples:  same, same but different shows how two pen pals communicate their ideas by writing to each other from across the world. we are so used to communicating through technology so this builds on their knowledge of communication in a different form. also students will see that their definition of living with family differs when compared to families in india.  the book all’s well? connects with the global competency of “communicating ideas” in several ways. one is explaining how a household water treatment bio-sand filter can help families have safe drinking water and help combat the millions of deaths each year from contaminated water. there are also multiple graphs students can analyze and see the differences that the filters make with sickness for people in the same areas.  time for kids teaches students about politics, health issues, and multiculturalism as they communicate their ideas about world events through reading and discussing the erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 42 information within the articles. the magazine also allows students to discuss how world events affect our lives in the united states. together students can generate ideas of how they can help those individuals in their own areas and in other countries. while the teacher candidates connected with critical cosmopolitan themes of reading the world through investigating the world and communicating ideas; they had fewer connections to recognizing perspectives and rewriting the world through taking action. when discussing multiculturalism, the teacher candidates mostly wrote about the broad themes like cultures, diversity, and identity rather than focusing on deeper issues like power and privilege. teacher candidates’ overall critique of the artifacts for bias, misconceptions, and stereotypes was also quite limited. future applications. thus far, we have reported on the details of the teacher candidates’ artifact annotations. now, we examine through wholeness of the artifacts related to the future teaching applications. almost all of the teacher candidates integrated future applications of their artifact throughout their annotations. the most common reference to future applications was for appreciation and awareness. for example, one teacher candidate wrote, “after reading romina’s rangoli, i would have students complete a set of “have you ever” type of game activities as well as learn about folk games from other cultures. these activities foster curiosity and a deeper appreciation for other cultures.” another teacher candidate shared the following application for the global awareness for kids website: “to investigate this resource, i would have students partner up and talk to their partner using words and phrases from one of the foreign languages on the website. they will become aware of greetings in other countries and languages.” again, the classroom applications that teacher candidates discussed were largely to raise awareness and appreciation for other cultures. about half of the teacher candidates included “taking action” type of applications, most of which were about taking action through creating a pen pals type of program with a classroom in another country. discussion critical cosmopolitanism, as a framework, offers a link between global experience and multicultural education courses in that it allows teacher candidates to take what they have learned about diversity in a domestic context and apply that understanding in global contexts. the findings from our study, though, suggest that the movement toward critical consciousness does not come naturally for teacher candidates. it takes mental rigor. even the analysis of resources for critical journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 cosmopolitan themes is a task that requires deliberation as well as reflection on how to make relevant connections to practice. many of the artifacts that the teacher candidates selected for their annotation did have social studies themes that pertained to the development of critical cosmopolitanism. in this section, we discuss resources and examine experiences that can help to build a stronger linkage between global education and multiculturalism. we conclude the section with recommendations for future research. critical cosmopolitan resources we started this article by highlighting vignettes of bridging the global and multicultural. the vignettes featured different resources like the usaid perspectives film and the against all odds website simulation that can guide teacher candidates towards examining global issues through a multicultural perspective. these resources equip teacher candidates to both read and rewrite the world. the resources reflect the features of being critical cosmopolitan. whether multimedia or print, there are a wide variety of texts and resources that can be used for the development of critical cosmopolitan dispositions. for example, one resource is the poem “home” by warsan shire. the poem is powerful in that it shares the shire’s personal experience with being forced to leave home because of violence. the poem is useful in deconstructing the experience of home, which for many teacher candidates is the safe place where they have been socialized with deeply held notions of individual meritocracy, colorblindness, and ascribe to systems of power that continue to oppress people with typically marginalized identities. like the “two women” poem from the first vignette in this article’s introduction, the “home” poem is about a life experience that is usually different from what many teacher candidates grow up experiencing. these poems highlight multiple perspectives and disrupt binaries (i.e., liberal and conservative) that are safe and familiar. this is a challenging skill set for members of primarily dominate social identity groups to acquire, and requires a process through which they are able to investigate the world, recognize perspectives, communicate various ideas and take action. another resource for the development of critical cosmopolitan dispositions is the believing game by peter elbow. elbow asks the reader to participate in methodological belief. in other words, he pulls the reader out of the habit of playing “devil’s advocate” with new ideas, and instead pushes them into finding the value of an idea that initially, may seem contrary to what they’ve been socialized to believe. the practice of methodological belief disrupts the binary of doubt and belief, and instead, allows for the development of multiple perspectives, and nuanced erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 44 understanding. thus, when presented with an idea that is contrary to one’s held belief; one is able to find the value in a nuance of the idea, without dismissing the entire idea. the practice of methodological belief in turn, can lead to more humane interactions and conflict resolution as one is able to practice a more intentional willingness to engage new ideas, whether or not their perspective is entirely changed. teacher candidates can practice the believing game by digging into a global issue, for example, that is often topical and contested in the united states: new americans and american citizenship. texts like the name jar, ezperanza rising, and two white rabbits open teacher candidates eyes to the possibility that the experiences of immigrants, for example, is not that which they have been socialized to believe. documentaries like precious knowledge, guest speakers in the classroom, story corp podcasts, and video blogs are additional resources that can be utilized for development of critical cosmopolitanism. experiences coming into direct contact with the stories of experience from a variety of people, in a context where exposure to these ideas is mediated, allows teacher candidates opportunity to consider the global. while it is not the same as looking more deeply and broadly at global systems, the global economy, and transnational politics, it does allow teacher candidates to consider the value of incorporating “global” in their own teaching contexts. one valuable experience for teacher candidates, in particular, is study abroad. while study abroad is only accessible by and affordable for a small number of teacher candidates (institute of international education, 2015), it is often offered by teacher education programs as an attempt to provide global experiences. however, even if the study abroad experience is mediated, it does not mean that teacher candidates have developed a deep understanding of culture (davies & pike, 2009), or that they will integrate this understanding, or lessons learned into their own future classroom teaching (holden & hicks, 2007). the intentional inclusion of global competencies in multicultural classes—such as critical cosmopolitan theory affords—along with the study abroad experience is a powerful way we can imagine helping teacher candidates consider the global within their own classrooms, particularly in relation to social studies. we have first-hand experiences with organizing and leading study abroad programs specifically for teacher candidates. in both our programs, we asked the teacher candidates to reflect on the impact of their study abroad experiences. though our study abroad programs were located in two different settings and among two different groups of teacher candidates, we found it journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 interesting to see the similarities in the reflections that the teacher candidates shared about their study abroad experiences especially in relationship to the development of critical ways of thinking about how the global and multicultural are connected. for example, we asked the teacher candidates to reflect on a perspective they had encountered during the study abroad experience that was different than their own, and to consider how this helps them become more globally minded. the majority of the responses related to two particular topics: 1) the experience of being an “other” and how that helps them understand new americans in schools in the united states and 2) the varying perspectives of educational success between the host country and the united states, which helps them understand the pressure some students feel to achieve the highest grades possible out of fear, rather than commitment to learning. several teacher candidates perceive themselves as a “minority” for the four weeks they participated in the study abroad program. while they are not a global minority, their physical experience being surrounded by people who did not look like them, speak or eat like them made trying to negotiate that space challenging for them. one teacher candidate explained it like this: i have learned that it is very difficult to communicate my wants and needs to people who do not speak english. i have been frustrated and even a little bit angry when trying to order food, asking for directions was nearly impossible, and sometimes merely pointing at something does not get you what you want. i feel like this experience helped me to understand just how hard it can be to someone new to america. she went on to write about how this experience was even helpful in understanding other kinds of difference as well, especially in terms of race, sexuality, and religion. she sees now that even if students are raised in this country, if they constantly have to negotiate meaning based on identity that it must be exhausting to be in school. the teacher candidate wrote that she sees this understanding transferring into a skill that can help her as a teacher. she described the skill with these words, “i will be able to understand the way they are feeling, at least a little bit, and i can use this empathy to drive me in my efforts to helping them get all the support they need. i do not want them to feel uncomfortable in my class and i do not want them to be afraid to ask for help or to express their feelings.” while this is one teacher candidate’s writing, it was a pattern throughout the reflective journals that the teacher candidates kept about their study abroad experiences. study abroad is just one type of experience that can open up teacher candidates’ eyes to how the global and multicultural are situated in schools. it is excellent if teacher candidate have erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 46 the opportunity to participate in study abroad experience during their teacher preparation. we recognize that this is not a possibility for all teacher candidates, a diversity of clinical type of teaching experiences is also important for teacher candidates to interact with students and children with whom they may have limited interactions and experiences. such experiences are ways to connect with critical cosmopolitan dispositions while breaking the notions of what chimamanda adiche (2010) calls “a single story” about a person or group of people. experiences like study abroad and having multiple teaching experiences in diverse clinical settings reflects what lo (2001) asserts is significance of preparing teacher candidates to engage with “the perspectives of others with the assumption that different is not synonymous with inferior" (p.85). the power of experience is captured in the words of one of our teacher candidates who wrote that her experiences “makes me realize that there are some kids, especially poor kids and students of color, in united states’ schools who give up because of what society tells them they are and what they can and should achieve. i think this will help me see my students more fully.” the idea of seeing students more fully is powerful and reflects the larger vision for critical cosmopolitan theory. conclusion it is not yet known whether or not these teacher candidates will carry these competencies with them into their future classrooms. however, we see some promising findings related to teacher candidates understanding the concepts of critical cosmopolitan theory through the analysis of classroom texts, through multimedia type resources like the usaid perspectives film and against all odds simulation, and through experiences whether in diverse schools or on study abroad trips. a future research agenda for critical cosmopolitan theory would include more research about the applications of the theory with teacher candidates at all levels of teacher preparation. our research primarily focused on teacher candidates in an elementary education teacher preparation program. it is likely, though, that there would be different findings for teacher candidates who are preparing for middle level or for the secondary level. future research is also needed about the relationship between internet websites—like online simulations—and the development of critical cosmopolitan theory. future research studies would also examine the effect of study abroad experiences on teacher candidates’ understanding of what it means to be a critically conscious global citizen. an additional area of research would be to investigate teacher candidates’ perceptions of what it means to rewrite the world in relationship to educating for social justice. our artifact analysis study was situated in the southern region of the united states, but journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 further comparative research is needed across teacher preparation programs in all of the united states’ different regions as well as in international contexts. longitudinal studies would also be beneficial in order to investigate the long-term impact of critical cosmopolitan theory on a teacher’s professional development. we are more and more convinced that global citizenship and multicultural education share a close bond. critical cosmopolitan theory provides a conceptual framework to help strengthen the bond with a vision for what it means to being informed by the global and multicultural and consciously take action accordingly. references adiche, c. (2010) danger of a single story. ted talk. retrieved from: http://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story.html acun, i., demir, m. and goz, n. (2010). ̈oğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri i̇le eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki i̇lişki (turkish), journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 107-123. allard, a., & santoro, n. (2006). troubling identities: teacher education students' constructions of class and ethnicity. cambridge journal of education, 36(1), 115-129. anderson, l. (1979). schooling and citizenship in a global age: an exploration of the meaning and significance of global education. bloomington, in: indiana university press. appiah, k. a. (2010). cosmopolitanism: ethics in a world of strangers. new york: ww norton & company. banks, j. a. (2004,). teaching for social justice, diversity, and citizenship in a global world. the educational forum, 68(4), 296-305. byker, e. (2013). critical cosmopolitanism: engaging students in global citizenship competencies. english in texas journal, 43(2), 18-26. byker, e. (2014). ict oriented toward nyaya: community computing in india’s slums. international journal of education and development using ict, 10(2), 19-28. byker, e. (2015). teaching for ‘global telephony’: a case study of a community school for india’s 21st century. policy futures in education, 13(2), 234-246. byker, e. (2016). developing global citizenship consciousness. journal of research in curriculum and instruction, 20(3), 264-275. http://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story.html erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 48 council of chief state school officers [ccsso]. (2016). global preparation lens for the intasc model core teaching standards. washington, dc: nafsa association of international educators. davies, i., & pike, g. (2009). global citizenship education: challenges and possibilities. in r. lewin (ed.), the handbook of practice and research in study abroad: higher education and the quest for global citizenship (pp. 61-77). new york, ny: routledge. de andreotti, v. o. (2014). soft versus critical global citizenship education. in development education in policy and practice (pp. 21-31). london: palgrave macmillan uk. ferguson-patrick, k., macqueen, s., & reynolds, r. (december, 2012). global education in teacher education programs: views from pre-service teachers. paper presented at joint aare/apera international conference, sydney, australia. freire, p. (1970). pedagogy of the oppressed. new york: continuum. freire, p. (1994). pedagogy of hope. new york: continuum. freire, p. (1998). teachers as cultural workers. boulder, co: westview press. freire, p. (2001). pedagogy of freedom: ethics, democracy, and civic courage. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield publishers. garmon, m. (2004). changing preservice teachers' attitudes/beliefs about diversity: what are the critical factors? journal of teacher education, 55(3), 201-213. gaudelli, w. (2014). world class: teaching and learning in global times. new york: routledge. giroux, h. a. (1992). post-colonial ruptures and democratic possibilities: multiculturalism as anti-racist pedagogy. cultural critique, (21), 5-39. glaser, b. g., & strauss, a. l. (1967). the discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. chicago: aldine. holden, c., & hicks, d. (2007). making global connections: the knowledge, understanding and motivation of trainee teachers. teaching and teacher education, 23(1), 13-23. institute of international education. (2015). fields of study of u.s. study abroad students, 2003/042013/14. open doors report on international educational exchange. retrieved from http://www.iie.org/ opendoors. kirkwood, t. f. (2001). our global age requires global education: clarifying definitional ambiguities. the social studies, 92(1), 10-15. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 30-50 mansilla, v.b., & jackson, a. (2011). educating for global competency. new york: asia society. retrieved from: http://asiasociety.org/files/book-globalcompetence.pdf mclaren, p. (1993). multiculturalism and the postmodern critique: towards a pedagogy of resistance and transformation. cultural studies, 7(1), 118-146. mills, c. (2008). making a difference: moving beyond the superficial treatment of diversity. asia-pacific journal of teacher education, 36(4), 261-275. myers, j. p. (2006). rethinking the social studies curriculum in the context of globalization: education for global citizenship in the us. theory & research in social education, 34(3), 370-394. naval, c., garcía, r., puig, j. & anxo santos, m. (2011). la formación ético-cívica y el compromiso social de los estudiantes universitarios. (spanish). encounters on education, 1(12), 77-91. rawls, j. (1971). a theory of justice. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. rosado, c. (1996). toward a definition of multiculturalism. retrieved from: http://rosado.net/pdf/def_of_multiculturalism.pdf saglam h. h. (2012). i̇lköğretim öğretmenlerinin etkili vatandaşlık yeterlik algılarının çeşitli değişkenler açısından i̇ncelenmesi. (turkish). journal of social studies education research, 3(2), 71-85. schmidt, s. j. (2011). making space for the citizen in geographic education. journal of geography, 110(3),107-111. segall, a., & gaudelli, w. (2007). reflecting socially on social issues in a social studies methods course. teaching education, 18(1), 77-92. sen, a. k. (2001). social justice and the distribution of income. handbook of income distribution, 1, 59-85. sen, a. k. (2009). the idea of justice. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. sleeter, c. e. (1996). multicultural education as social activism. new york: suny press. taylor, c. (1994). multiculturalism. princeton university press. wiberg, m. (2014). methodology for materiality: interaction design research through a material lens. personal and ubiquitous computing, 18(3), 625-636. zhao, y. (2010). preparing globally competent teachers: a new imperative for teacher education. journal of teacher education, 61(5), 422-431. doi:10.1177/0022487110375802 http://asiasociety.org/files/book-globalcompetence.pdf http://asiasociety.org/files/book-globalcompetence.pdf http://rosado.net/pdf/def_of_multiculturalism.pdf erik jon byker & sheila k. marquardt 50 öğretmen adaylarinin vatandaşlik yeterli̇li̇kleri̇ i̇le eleşti̇rel düşünme beceri̇leri̇ arasindaki̇ i̇li̇şki̇ www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2010: 1(1), 107-123 öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri i̇le eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki i̇lişki the relatioship between student teachers’ citizenship skills and critical thinking skills* i̇smail acun 1 , metin demi̇r 2 ve nur leman göz 3 özet: bu araştırmanın amacı uşak üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi’nde farklı bölümlerde birinci sınıfta öğrenim gören öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki ilişkiyi tespit etmektir. i̇lköğretim programları; yapısı, felsefesi, amaçları ve öğrenme çıktıları bakımından incelendiğinde modern toplumlarda etkin görev yapabilecek olan bireylere temel toplumsal ve akademik becerilerin kazandırılması gerektiğine vurgu yapmaktadır. bu yüzden öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterliliklerini ve eleştirel düşünme becerilerini birlikte araştırmak çok büyük önem taşımaktadır. bu çalışma tarama modelinde ilişkisel bir çalışmadır. çalışmada iki farklı ölçme aracı kullanılmıştır. öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterliliklerini ölçmek amacıyla yücel, acun, demirhan ve göz tarafından geliştirilen ‘vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ölçeği’ kullanılmıştır. i̇ki bölümden oluşan bu ölçeğin birinci bölümünde, öğretmen adaylarının kişisel bilgileri, ikinci bölümünde ise vatandaşlık bilgi düzeyleri, sergiledikleri vatandaşlık davranış düzeyleri ve vatandaşlık konularını önemseme düzeylerini ölçmeye yönelik 6 vatandaşlık temasını içeren bilgi, değer ve davranış olmak üzere 3 alt boyuttan oluşan toplam 84 madde yer almaktadır. eleştirel düşünme beceri düzeylerinin ölçmek amacıyla ise ennis ve arkadaşları tarafından geliştirilen ve akar, acun, gülveren ve yücel tarafından türkçeye uyarlanan cornell eleştirel düşünme testi düzey z (cedtdz) kullanılmıştır. bu araştırmada çalışma grubunun özellikleri uygun olduğundan düzey z kullanılmıştır. çalışma grubu uşak üniversitesi eğitim fakültesinde öğrenim gören 93 1. sınıf öğrencisinden oluşmuştur. araştırma sonuçlarına göre öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık konularına ait bilgi düzeyleri, sergiledikleri vatandaşlık davranışları ve vatandaşlık konularına atfettikleri önem seviyesi oldukça yüksek bulunmuştur. ayrıca öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasında orta düzeyde bir ilişki ortaya çıkmıştır. anahtar kelimeler: eleştirel düşünme becerileri, vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri, öğretmen adayları, vatandaşlık 1 yrd. doç. dr. i̇smail acun, uşak üniversitesi, ismail.acun@usak.edu.tr 2 yrd. doç. dr. metin demi̇r, uşak üniversitesi, metin.demir@usak.edu.tr 3 arş. gör. nur leman göz, uşak üniversitesi, nurleman.goz@usak.edu.tr * bu çalışmanın ilk versiyonu cice‟ nin 22-24 mayıs 2010 tarihinde barcelona‟ da düzenlediği konferansta sunulmuş ve “p.cunningham & n. fretwell (eds.) lifelong learning and active citizenship. london: cice, pp. 495 – 500” içinde yayınlanmıştır. © 2010 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 http://www.sosyalbilgiler.org/ mailto:acun@usak.edu.tr mailto:demir@usak.edu.tr mailto:goz@usak.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 107-123 108 extended abstract the aim of the research is to investigate the relationship between student teachers‟ citizenship skills and their critical thinking skills. the new turkish primary curriculum aims at educating pupils with pre requisite skills and knowledge that are necessary for operating efficiently in a knowledge based society. there is a strong emphasis on improving generic skills of students. the skills of critical thinking, reflective thinking, inquiry and working in groups are thought to be necessary skills for effective teaching and learning. when it comes to citizenship education those skills, especially critical thinking skills, become even more important. there has been a shift in policy with the curriculum both in terms of its structure and its philosophy from „creating good citizens‟ to „empowerment‟ . the teachers will be the agents for the proposed shift to occur in schools and in pupils‟ hearts and minds. that is why it is important that teachers themselves should be equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge. in order to predict whether those aims will be realized or not, it is important to know whether teachers have those knowledge and skills. thus, the question of whether there is relationship with citizenship qualifications and critical thinking skills will be investigated through student teachers. this study employs a survey research method. in order to collect data two different research tools are used. the data on student teachers‟ citizenship skills were gathered through a „citizenship qualifications scale‟ developed by yucel, acun, demirhan and goz. the scale has to parts. first part contains questions on demographic information about teachers and teachers‟ professional practice. second part of the scale includes question/statements to determine teachers‟ level of knowledge on citizenship themes, level of their behaviors and level of their importance attribution on the same themes. those themes are categorized as „active citizenship‟ , „enviromental issues‟ , „economy and consumer rights‟ , „global issues‟ , „democracy: equality and respect‟ and „society and individual‟ . in order to obtain information on their level of knowledge, behaviors and importance attribution on those 6 categories, 4 items were formulated. likert type scale was used ranging from 1 to 5. the total reliability of the scale was ,89 crombach‟ s alpha. in order to measure the level of student teachers‟ critical thinking skills, the cornell critical thinking test level z (ccttlz) developed by ennis and others and adopted into turkish by akar, acun, gulveren and yucel was employed. cornell critical thinking tests consists of two measurement tools, the first one is level x and the second one is level z. the level x is designed to be used for the students attending grades 4-14. on the other hand, the level z appropriate to be used to measure the thinking skills of talented secondary school students and bachelor degree students or those in graduate level. considering the age and education level of the participants, the level z test was used in this study. the reliability score of the adopted scale was ,60 crombach‟ s alpha. the reliability score of original scale ranged between ,49 and ,90 in different studies. the sample of this study consisted of 93 first year student teachers studying in the faculty of education in usak university. the data collected was analyzed by using spss 13.00. the analyzed data revealed that the highest score obtained was about student teachers‟ importance attribution to citizenship by 4,25 out of 5.. i̇smail acun, metin demi̇r & nur leman göz 109 according to the research findings, student teachers‟ level of information/knowledge on various aspects of citizenship, their citizenship behaviors and the importance they attribute to citizenship are all in quite high level. however, student teachers‟ score on critical thinking scale was relatively 19,60 out of 52. the findings also show that there is an average level of relationships between student teachers‟ citizenship skills and their critical thinking skills. key words: citizenship, critical thinking skills, citizenship skills, student teachers giriş günümüzde vatandaşlık eğitimi yaşam boyunca bireye kazandırılması hedeflenen iyi bir insan ve iyi bir birey olma davranışlarının kazandırılmasının yanında kendinin ve çevresindekilerin farkında, özsaygısı yüksek olduğu kadar çevresindekilere de saygı duyan bireyler yetiştirmek için çok önemli bir araçtır. bu açıdan bakıldığında vatandaşlık eğitimi, bireye eğitim, öğretimle kazanacağı temel becerilerin yanında temel hak ve özgürlüklerinin farkında olma, vatandaşlık bilincine sahip olma, ulusal ya da evrensel boyutta bu konulardaki hassasiyetleri anlayıp eleştirebilme ve benimseyebilme gibi çok önemli özelliklerin kazandırılabileceği bir fenomendir. vatandaşlık eğitimi son yıllarda çağdaş, demokratik, modern, eğitim sistemlerinde olduğu gibi ülkemizde de önem verilen bir konu haline gelmiştir. vatandaşlık eğitimi ilk başta devletine yararlı iyi vatandaşlar yetiştirmek iken günümüzde yaratıcı, eleştirel düşünen, katılımcı, işbirliği, içinde çalışabilen, empati becerisine sahip, çevresine duyarlı bireyler yetiştirme halini aldı. 2005 yılında uygulamaya giren ilköğretim programı bireyi ön plana çıkarmıştır. yeni ilköğretim programına göre 21. yy vatandaşı sorgulama, eleştirel düşünme, yaratıcılık, teknolojiyi doğru ve etkili kullanma, akademik araştırmalar yapabilme, problem çözme, girişimcilik gibi özelliklere sahip bireylerdir (i̇lköğretim programı, 2005). bu bağlamda açıkça görülüyor ki yeni programın özünde eleştirel düşünme becerisi kazandırmak ve bilinçli vatandaşlar yetiştirmek birbiriyle ilişkilidir. yapılan bu çalışma ileride vatandaşlık eğitimi vermekle sorumlu olan öğretmen adaylarının eleştirel düşünme, vatandaşlık beceri düzeylerini ve bu iki değişken arasındaki ilişkiyi ortaya çıkarmak açısından çok önemlidir. vatandaşlık ve vatandaşlık eğitimi eğitim faaliyetleri, kalıp bir insan tipi yaratmayı değil; çağın şartlarına uyum sağlayabilen, toplum hayatında başarılı bireyler yetiştirmeye yönelik olmalıdır. bunun journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 107-123 110 içinde eğitim sistemi sürekli değişime ve gelişime açık olmalıdır. bu tanımlardan hareketle vatandaşlık eğitimi de bireyin kendi haklarını, özgürlüklerini, sorumluluklarını kısaca toplum içinde uyumlu bir şekilde yaşaması için gerekli bütün yeterliliklerin kazandırılması sürecidir. vatandaşlık eğitimi tanrı egemenliğinden halkın egemenliğine geçiş, aydınlama süreci, bireylere değer verilmeye başlanması, toplumsallaşma ve ailenin ya da kilisenin yerine okulun geçmesi ile vatandaşlık eğitimi devletin görevi haline gelmiştir. vatandaşlık kavramı, demokrasinin ne olduğunun ve nasıl işlediğinin anlaşılmasında çok önemli bir ipucudur. bu nedenle demokrasi eğitimiyle ilgili öğrencilerin, vatandaşlığın ne olduğunu, çeşitli politik sistemlerde nasıl oluşup nasıl kaybolduğunu, ne gibi haklar, sorumluluklar, görevler getirdiğini ve ülkelerin kurumlarıyla ne şekilde bağlantılı olduğunu bilmeleri gerekmektedir (patrick, 1999). yaşam biçimi olarak kabul edilen demokrasinin değerlerinin kazandırılmasında, aileden sonra ikinci önemli toplumsal kurum okuldur. demokratik değerlerin yalnızca bilgi düzeyinde öğrencilere kazandırılması yeterli değildir. demokratik değerlere ilişkin bilgilerin kazanılmasından çok bu bilgilerin davranışa dönüşmesi önemlidir. bu nedenle, okuldaki yapılanma ve ilişki biçimleri demokratik ilkeler çerçevesinde gerçekleştirilmelidir (kıncal, 2002). günümüz toplumlarının okullarda beklentisi öğrencilerin, bilgi kaynaklarına ulaşabilen, bilgiyi yorumlayabilen, kullanabilen, bilgiyi günün koşullarına göre yeniden düzenleyebilen ve çağın gerektirdiği donanıma sahip, değişikliklere dinamik bir biçimde uyum sağlayabilen, öğrenmekten keyif alan bireyler olarak yetişmesidir. aynı zamanda bunlara ek olarak iletişim becerileri güçlü, problem çözebilen, teknolojiyi kullanabilen, eleştirel düşünebilen ve karar verebilen, işbirliği içinde takım çalışmalarına katılabilen, öğrenirken başkalarına da öğretebilen, toplum sorunlarına duyarlı ve çözümler üretebilen bireyler olarak yetişmesidir (fer & cırık, 2007; vural, 2008). bu nedenle okullar, bilgili, etkili ve sorumlu vatandaşlar yetiştirmek için öğrencilere gerekli olan entelektüel becerileri kazandırma yoluna gitmelidir. entellektüel beceriler içerisindeki en önemli beceri ise düşünme becerisidir. öğretmenlerin vatandaşlık eğitiminde, öğrencilere düşünme becerilerini kazandırmaları için her şeyden önce kendileri bu becerilere sahip olmalı ve öğrenci katılımlı bir sınıf i̇smail acun, metin demi̇r & nur leman göz 111 ortamı yaratarak, öğrencileri soru sormaya, araştırmaya, düşünmeye, analiz etmeye teşvik etmelidirler bireylerin toplum içinde etkili bir şekilde yaşamlarını devam ettirebilmeleri kendilerini ifade edebilmeleri yani anlamlı öğrenmelerin oluşabilmesi ve kalıcılığın sağlanabilmesi ancak bireyin öğrenme sürecine aktif katılımı ve çevresiyle etkileşimi sonucunda gerçekleşir (fer & cırık, 2007). kıncal (2002)‟a göre de öğrencileri deneyimlerinin ötesinde eleştirel düşünebilen, sağlıklı bir düşünce yapısına sahip bireyler olarak toplum yaşamına dahil etmek vatandaşlık ve insan hakları eğitiminin temel amacıdır. birleşmiş milletler on yıl eylem planı ile i̇nsan hakları eğitimi ulusal planları hazırlama yönergesinde şöyle tanımlamaktadır; vatandaşlık eğitimi bilgi, yetenek, anlayış ve davranışlardan oluşan evrensel bir insan hakları kültürü aşılayıp yetiştirmeyi amaçlayan, bilgilendirme ve eğitim etkinliklerinin tümüdür (gülmez, 2004). yukarıda da belirtildiği üzere yapılan çalışmalar incelendiğinde geçmişten günümüze kadar olan yurttaşlık eğitiminin ötesinde vatandaşlık eğitiminin amacı sadece yurdunu milletini seven, atatürk milliyetçiliğine bağlı gerektiğinde her türlü fedakârlığa hazır bireyler yetiştirmek değildir. aksine yaşam boyu bireye kazandırılması hedeflenen iyi bir insan ve iyi bir birey olma davranışlarının kazandırılmasının yanında kendini gerçekleştiren, özsaygısı yüksek, kendi potansiyelinin farkında olduğu kadar başkalarının da farkında olan, farklılıklara saygı duyan, hak ve sorumluluklarını bilen, yaratıcı, eleştirel düşünebilen yeni teknolojileri aktif ve doğru olarak kullanabilen bireyler yetiştirmektir. eleştirel düşünme kuşkusuz bireylerin güçlüklerle başa çıkmalarında onlara yol gösterme işinde en büyük sorumluluk eğitim kurumlarına düşmektedir. bu çerçevede okulların en önemli görevini; “geçmişi, şimdiyi ve geleceği anlayabilen ve yorumlayabilen ve ileride içinde yaşayacağı toplum tipine ve zaman kesitine uyum sağlayabilen insanlar yetiştirmek” şeklinde ifade etmek mümkündür (ergün, 1996). burada şu soru akla gelebilir: bireylerin bugünün koşullarına ve orta ve uzun vadedeki dünya koşullarına uyum sağlayabilmeleri için sahip olmaları gereken temel beceriler nelerdir? bugün pek çok bilim adamı ve düşünürün bireylerin sahip olmaları gereken en önemli becerilerden journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 107-123 112 birinin “eleştirel düşünme” olduğunu ifade ettiklerini söylemek mümkündür (fung, 2005; gomez, 2002; halpern, 2003; siegel, 1988). eleştirel düşünme becerisi ise şu şekilde anlatılmaktadır: eleştirel düşünme; kuşku temelli sorgulayıcı bir yaklaşımla konulara bakma, yorum yapma ve karar verme becerisidir. sebep-sonuç ilişkilerini bulma, ayrıntılarda benzerlik ve farklılıkları yakalama, çeşitli kriterleri kullanarak sıralama yapma, verilen bilgilerin kabul edilebilirliğini, geçerliliğini belirleme, analiz etme, değerlendirme, anlamlandırma, çıkarımda bulunma gibi alt becerileri içerir (i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler programı, 2005). ennis (1985), eleştirel düşünmeyi: „bireyin ne yaptığı veya inandığıyla ilgili karar verirken akla uygun ve derinlemesine biçimde düşünmesi olarak tanımlanmıştır. başka bir tanım ise: eleştirel düşünme herhangi bir konuda en mantıklı ve açıklanabilir noktaya ulaşmada, rasyonel düşünme önündeki birçok engeli fark etme ve üstesinden gelme çabalarında aklımızı ve zekâmızı etkili bir şekilde kullanma sürecidir (haskins, 2006). cüceloğlu (1999), eleştirel düşünmeyi, kendi düşünce süreçlerimizin bilincinde olarak, başkalarının düşünce süreçlerini göz önünde tutarak, öğrendiklerimizi uygulayarak kendimizi ve çevremizde yer alan olayları anlayabilmeyi amaç edinen aktif ve organize zihinsel süreç olarak tanımlamaktadır. watson ve glasser‟e göre ise eleştirel düşünme; geçerli çıkarsamaları yapabilme, tümdengelimli muhakeme ve değerlendirme yapabilme becerilerinin bir bileşkesi olarak tanımlanmaktadır. onlara göre eleştirel düşünme; problem çözme, sorgulama ve araştırma davranışlarını kapsayan bir süreçtir ve bu süreç hem beceri hem de tutum olarak ifade edilmektedir (beckett, 1996). araştırmacı ve teorisyenler eleştirel düşünmeyi farklı farklı tanımlamalarına rağmen, eleştirel düşünmenin tartışmaları değerlendirme ve bilgiyi doğru olarak kullanabilme yeteneği olduğu konusunda anlaştıkları görülmektedir (williams vd., 2003). tüm tanımların ortak noktaları gözden geçirilecek olursa eleştirel düşünmede geçen anahtar kelimelerin; “aktiflik, amaçlılık, derinlemesine düşünme, odaklanma, gözlem, yorumlama, sorgulama, yargılama, çıkarım, bilgiyi kullanma, kalıp yargıları fark etme, analiz, değerlendirme, mantık, problem çözme ve empati,” olduğu söylenebilir (akar, 2007). i̇smail acun, metin demi̇r & nur leman göz 113 genellikle ileri düzey düşünenlerin iyi vatandaş oldukları, eleştirel düşünme eğitiminin ileri düzeyde düşünebilen insanlar yetiştirdiğine inanılır. eleştirel düşünmenin öğrencilerde geliştirilmesi konusunda genelde bir söz birliği olmasına karşın bunun nasıl yapılacağı konusunda farklı görüşler bulunmaktadır. literatür incelendiğinde çok sayıda tanımın yapıldığı, özelliğin sıralandığı ve çok değişik eğitim programlarının önerildiği görülmektedir (fung, 2005). vatandaşlık eğitimi ve eleştirel düşünme hem eleştirel düşünme hem de vatandaşlık eğitiminin temel amacı kamu hayatında aktif katılımda ihtiyaç duyulan becerilerin kazandırılması, kendisini ve yaşadıkları toplumdaki bireyleri tanıyan, farklılığa önem gösteren, sosyal ve ahlaki sorumluluklara sahip, toplumun değerlerine saygılı, barışçıl şekilde çatışmalara çözüm yolu bulabilen ve dinlemeyi bilen bireyler yetiştirmektir. bazı yaklaşımlarda eleştirel düşünme bir beceri olarak tanımlanmaktadır. toplumda daha demokratik daha iyi vatandaşlar yetiştirebilmek için okullarda verilen vatandaşlık eğitiminde bir takım değişikliklerin yapılması gerekmektedir. öncelikle iyi bir vatandaş olmanın en önemli ölçütlerinden birisi eleştirel düşünme becerilerine sahip olmaktır. eleştirel düşünme becerilerini okullarda kazandırabilecek kişiler ise öğretmenlerdir. bütün öğretmenlerin özellikle de vatandaşlık eğitimini veren öğretmenlerin eleştirel düşünme becerilerini öğrencilere kazandırabilmesi için öncelikle kendilerinin bu becerilere sahip olması ve davranışlarıyla öğrencilere rol model olması gerekir. hicks ( 2001), çocukları daha eleştirel ve daha yaratıcı düşünen birer vatandaş olabilmeleri için su konularda eğitilmesi gerektiğini ifade etmektedir: • kendilerini ve toplumu etkileyen konular üzerinde kendi görüşlerini yazma ve konuşma, fikirlerini açıklama, • konu, sorun ve olaylar üzerinde tartışma, araştırma ve münazara yapma, • farklılıkları alternatiflere bakarak, kararlar vererek ve seçimleri açıklayarak çözme, • dünyayı global bir topluluk olarak görmek ve bunun politik, ekonomik, çevresel ve sosyal anlamları, • uzlaşma, karar verme, okul ve toplum temelli faaliyetlerde sorumluluk almak. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 107-123 114 yeni uygulamaya konulan programlar incelendiğinde 21. yüzyılın insanının sahip olması gereken temel becerilen kazandırılmasının hedeflendiği görülmektedir. tüm programların ortak hedefi olan bu beceriler; “eleştirel düşünme, yaratıcı düşünme, iletişim, araştırma-sorgulama, problem çözme, bilgi teknolojilerini kullanma, girişimcilik ve türkçeyi doğru, etkili ve güzel kullanma becerileri” olarak sıralanmıştır (i̇lköğretim programları, 2005). yeni programlarda eleştirel düşünme becerilerinin kazandırılmasına büyük önem verildiği, buna paralel olarak da kazanım ve etkinliklerin tasarlandığı görülmektedir (ata, 2009; safran, 2004). şüphesiz sadece program değişikliğinin bireylere bu becerileri kazandırması beklenemez. öğrencilerin eleştirel düşünme becerilerini öğrenebilmesi, öğretmenlerin de bu konuda eğitilmiş olmalarıyla ilgilidir (demirel, 2002). eleştirel düşünmenin başta verilmiş olan tanımı ışığında yukarıda söylenenlere bakıldığında, günümüz birey ve demokratik vatandaş profilinin ana boyutları içinde eleştirel düşünmenin önemi ve vazgeçilmez yeri açıkça görülmektedir. yeni öğretim programlarının amacına ulaşmasında en önemli faktörlerden bir tanesi şüphesiz ki öğretmendir. öğretmenler ideal olarak konulan hedeflere ulaşma ve 2005 yılından beri uygulanmakta olan vatandaşlık eğitimi ve eleştirel düşünme yeterliliklerinin kazandırılmasında değişimi gerçekleştirenler olması noktasındaki rolleri en vazgeçilmezlerdendir. öğrencilere programın öngördüğü bilgi ve becerilerin kazandırılmasında başarının ön koşulu bu eğitimi verecek öğretmenlerin kendilerinin bu bilgi ve becerilerle donatılmış olmasıdır. öğretmenlerin kendilerinin vatandaşlık yeterlilik düzeyleri ya da çağdaş değerler ışığında ne kadar iyi vatandaş oldukları çok önemlidir. ersoy (2007), yaptığı çalışmada demokratik sınıf ortamının, öğrencilere vatandaşlık yeterliklerini kazandırmada önemli bir role sahip olduğunu belirtmiştir. ayrıca başka bir araştırmada öğretmenlerin sınıf içindeki davranışlarının, öğrencilerin bilgi ve kavrama düzeyi ile akademik benliğini olumlu yönde geliştirdiği bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır (yağcı, 1997). aynı şekilde öğretmenlerin eleştirel düşünme beceri düzeyleri öğrencilere bu becerileri kazandırmada başarıları etkileyecektir. ülkemizde, öğretmen adaylarının eleştirel düşünme becerilerini ölçmeye yönelik yapılan çalışmalarda öğretmen i̇smail acun, metin demi̇r & nur leman göz 115 adaylarının eleştirel düşünme becerilerinin istenilen düzeyde olmadığı belirlenmiştir (akar, 2007; gülveren, 2007; kökdemir, 2003; kürüm, 2002). teorik olarak ilişkileri açıkça ortaya konmuş olan eleştirel düşünme becerileri ile vatandaşlık becerileri arasındaki ilişkinin ortaya çıkarılması için öğretmen adayları üzerinde bir araştırma bu çalışmanın konusunu oluşturmuştur. bu araştırmanın amacı uşak üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi sınıf, sosyal bilgiler ve türkçe öğretmenliği bölümünde öğrenim gören öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki ilişkiyi tespit etmektir. yöntem bu çalışma tarama modelinde ilişkisel bir çalışmadır. bu çalışmada aşağıdaki araştırma sorularına cevap aranacaktır. 1. öğretmen adaylarının; a. vatandaşlık konuları ile ilgili bilgi seviyesi b. sergiledikleri vatandaşlık davranışları c. vatandaşlık konularına verdikleri önem ne düzeydedir? 2. öğretmen adaylarının eleştirel düşünme becerileri ne düzeydedir? 3. öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık becerileri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasında anlamlı bir ilişki var mıdır? yukarıdaki sorulara cevap bulabilmek için iki farklı ölçme aracı kullanılmıştır. çalışma grubu uşak üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi sınıf, sosyal bilgiler ve türkçe öğretmenliği bölümünde öğrenim gören öğretmen adaylarından oluşmuştur. öğrencilerin vatandaşlık yeterliliklerini ölçmek amacıyla yücel, acun, demirhan ve göz (2010), tarafından daha önce bu konuda yapılan çalışmalar, kullanılan ölçme araçları incelenerek, evrensel düzeyde 21. yüzyıl ideal vatandaşlık özelliklerini temsil eden maddeler temel alınarak belirtke tablosu hazırlanmıştır. ölçek maddeleri havuzu oluşturulduktan sonra uzman görüşüne başvurularak „vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ölçeği ilk haliyle geliştirilmiştir. pilot çalışmanın sonunda toplam 94 maddeden 10 tanesi ölçekten çıkarılmıştır. hazırlanan bu ölçekte 5li likert tipi derecelendirme ölçeği kullanılmıştır. likert tipi derecelendirme ölçeğinde vatandaşlık konularına ait bilgi ve önemseme düzeylerini ölçen sorularda hiç ile çok, sergiledikleri vatandaşlık journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 107-123 116 davranışlarını ölçmek için ise hiçbir zaman ile her zaman arasında bir derecelendirme kullanılmıştır. şekil 1. vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ölçeği seçenekleri bilgi hiç çok davranış hiçbir zaman her zaman önemseme hiç çok vatandaşlık yeterliliği ölçeği iki bölümden oluşmuştur. birinci bölümünde, öğretmen adaylarının kişisel bilgileri, ikinci bölümünde ise vatandaşlık bilgi düzeyleri, sergiledikleri vatandaşlık davranış düzeyleri ve vatandaşlık konularını önemseme düzeylerini ölçmeye yönelik 6 vatandaşlık temasını içeren toplam 84 madde yer almaktadır. ölçek „vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ölçeği‟ nin pilot çalışması 20082009 öğretim yılı uşak üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi sınıf öğretmenliği bölümünde eğitim gören 150 öğretmen adayıyla yapılmıştır. ölçeğin güvenirlik değeri cronbach alpha ,89 dur. eleştirel düşünme beceri düzeylerinin ölçülmesi için ise ennis ve arkadaşları (1985) tarafından geliştirilen ve akar, acun, gülveren ve yücel tarafından türkçeye uyarlanan cornell eleştirel düşünme testi düzey z (cedtdz) kullanılmıştır. cornell eleştirel düşünme testleri düzey x ve düzey z olmak üzere iki ayrı ölçme aracını ihtiva etmektedir. düzey x, 4 ila14. sınıflara uygun bir ölçme aracıdır. düzey z ise yetenekli orta öğretim öğrencilerine ve lisans ve üzeri gruplara uygundur. bu araştırmada çalışma grubunun özellikleri uygun olduğundan düzey z kullanılmıştır. öğretmen adaylarının eleştirel düşünme becerileri anketinin güvenilirliğini tespit etmek için cronbach alpha katsayısı kullanılmıştır. güvenilirlik katsayısı ,60 bulunmuştur. cedtdx güvenirlik katsayısı ,67 ile ,90 arasında, cedtdz güvenirlik katsayısı ,49 ile ,87 arasında değişmektedir (ennis vd., 2005). orijinal dilinden başka bir dile uyarlanan bir ölçeğin güvenilirliğinde düşüş olması doğaldır. araştırmadan elde edilen verilerin çözümlenmesinde spss 13.00 paket programı kullanılmıştır. eleştirel düşünme becerileri için öğrencilerin cedtdz testinde yer alan sorulara verdikleri doğru cevaplar “1”, yanlış cevaplar ise “0” olarak kodlamış ve bilgisayar ortamına aktarılmıştır. öğrencilerin sorulara verdikleri cevaplar üzerinde i̇smail acun, metin demi̇r & nur leman göz 117 düzeltme formülü uygulanmamış, hesaplamalar öğrencilerin verdikleri doğru cevapların üzerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. cedtdz‟nin tümü ve alt boyutlarına ilişkin değerler ayrı ayrı toplanmıştır. tüm istatistiksel işlemler hesaplanan toplam puanlar üzerinden gerçekleştirilmiştir. elde edilen bulgular için ortalama ve standart sapma değerleri hesaplanmış ve bulgular ve yorumlar bölümünde tablolar halinde verilmiştir. cedtdz ile bağımsız değişkenler arasındaki ilişki pearson korelasyonu ile analiz edilmiştir. bulgular bu bölümde araştırmadan elde edilen bulgulara yer verilmiştir. bulgular üç aşamada sunulmuştur. birinci aşamada öğretmen adaylarının „vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ölçeği‟ne verdikleri yanıtlardan yola çıkılarak vatandaşlık konularındaki bilgi düzeyleri, vatandaşlık davranışı gösterme düzeyleri ve vatandaşlık konularına atfettikleri önem düzeylerine ait ortalamalar verilmiştir. i̇kinci aşamada ise öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilik düzeyleri ortalamaları ve eleştirel düşünme becerileri ortalamaları arasındaki ilişkiyi gösteren korelasyon değerleri tablo halinde verilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık bilgi, davranış ve önemseme düzeyleri tablo 1: öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık bilgi, davranış ve önemseme düzeyi ortalamaları bilgi davranış önemseme n 93 93 93 ortalama 3,70 3,82 4,25 tablo 1 de öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık konularına ait bilgi düzeyleri, sergiledikleri vatandaşlık davranış düzeyleri ve vatandaşlık konularına atfettikleri önem düzeyleri ortalamalarına yer verilmiştir. sonuçlar incelendiğinde öğretmen adaylarının bilgi, davranış ve önemseme düzeyleri ortalamalarının 3,50 nin üstünde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının sahip oldukları bilgi düzeyleri ve sergiledikleri davranış düzeyleri ortalamaları birbirine yakın iken en yüksek ortalamaya sahip kategorinin vatandaşlık konularına atfettikleri önem olduğu görülmektedir. sonuçlar açıkça gösteriyor ki öğretmen adayları iyi vatandaşlık davranışları sergilemenin önemli journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 107-123 118 olduğunu hissetmelerine rağmen, iyi vatandaşlık davranışlarını gösterme düzeyleri, bu davranışlara atfedilen önem derecesine göre düşüktür. bu durum beklenmeyen bir sonuç değildir. çünkü herhangi bir konuda bilgi sahibi olmak ve o konuya önem vermek, bireylerin gösterdikleri davranışlara da yansıyacağı anlamına gelmemektedir. öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ve eleştirel düşünme becerileri tablo 2: öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ve eleştirel düşünme becerileri ortalamaları n ortalama standart sapma cctt z t 93 19,60 4,93 vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri 93 3,95 (% 78) ,60 tablo 2 de öğretmen adaylarının „vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ölçeği ve cctz‟ye verdikleri yanıtların ortalamaları karşılaştırılmıştır. tabloda da görüldüğü gibi öğretmen adaylarının cctz yer verdikleri yanıtların ortalamaları 19,60 dır. testten alınabilecek maksimum puanın 52 olduğu düşünüldüğünde öğretmen adaylarının cedtdz testinden aldıkları puanların ortalamasının düşük olduğu söylenebilir. ennis ve diğerleri (2005), tarafından yapılan çalışmada üniversite 1. sınıf öğrencilerinin testin toplamından aldıkları puanların ortalaması ise 26,4 olarak bulunmuştur. araştırma bulgusu hem cornell hem de testten alınabilecek maksimum puanla karşılaştırıldığında çalışma grubunda yer alan öğretmen adaylarının eleştirel düşünme beceri düzeylerinin yeterli olmadığı şeklinde yorumlanabilir. öğretmen adaylarının cedtdz‟den testinden düşük puan almalarının bir nedeni de aldıkları eğitimin içeriği olabilir. geçmişten günümüze türkiye‟deki eğitim programları incelendiğinde 2005 yılında uygulamaya giren i̇lköğretim programına kadar uygulanan programların içeriğinde eleştirel düşünme becerilerinin geliştirilmesine yönelik kazanımlar ve etkinlikler çok fazla yer tutmamaktaydı. i̇smail acun, metin demi̇r & nur leman göz 119 öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ve eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki i̇lişki tablo 3: öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ve eleştirel düşünme becerileri ortalamaları arasındaki i̇lişkiyi gösteren korelasyon tablosu cctt z vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri cctt z vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri 1 ,314(**) ,314(**) 1 tablo 3‟te öğretmen adaylarının „vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ölçeği ve cedtdz „e verdikleri yanıtların ortalamaları arasındaki ilişki incelenmiştir. tablo incelendiğinde öğrencilerin eleştirel düşünme becerileriyle, vatandaşlık düzeyleri arasında ,31 lik pozitif bir ilişki tespit edilmiştir. bu (,31) düzeyindeki bir ilişki ortaya yakın düzeyde bir ilişki olmakla birlikte beklenenden daha düşük seviyededir (büyüköztürk, 2007). bununla birlikte bu sonuç eleştirel düşünme becerileri ile vatandaşlık davranışları arasındaki ilişkinin varlığına dair bir kanıttır. teorik olarak bu iki değişken arasında daha güçlü ve doğrudan biri ilişki bulunmaktadır (colville & clarken, 1992; leming, 1998). sonuç toplumların medeni milletler seviyesine gelebilmesi için o toplumu oluşturan bireylerin aktif, üretken ve sorumlu olma gibi yetileri taşıması çok önemlidir. bireylerin aktif, sorumlu ve üretken hale gelmesi hiç şüphesiz ki aldıkları eğitimlerden ve kişisel yaşantılarından kaynaklanmaktadır. o zaman gelişmekte ya da gelişmekte olan ülkelerin eğitim programların vatandaşlık ve eleştirel düşünme eğitimine yönelik kazanımların ve etkinliklerin olması gereklidir. öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ile eleştirel düşünme beceri düzeylerini ve bu iki değişken arasındaki ilişkiyi belirlemek amacıyla yapılan çalışmada öğretmen adaylarının yaklaşık %73 oranında iyi vatandaşlık davranışlarını gösterdikleri belirlenmiştir. bu oran düşün bir oran değildir. alanda yapılan diğer çalışmalarda incelendiğinde ancak bazı araştırmalar öğretmenlerin büyük bir çoğunluğunun sınıf ortamında da demokratik davranmadığı, hoşgörülü olmadığı veya nitelik olarak uygun yeterliliğe sahip olmadıkları sonuçlarına ulaşmışlardır (güven, 2002; kıncal, 2000). journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 107-123 120 diğer çalışmalar öğretmenlerin vatandaşlık ve demokrasiye dersine dair ya da demokratik uygulamalarının başka öğretmen grupları veya öğretmen adaylarıyla karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmiştir. bir çalışmada öğretmenlerin demokratik tutum ve davranışlarının öğretmen adaylarıyla karşılaştırılmıştır, öğretmen adayları ve öğretmenler arasında anlamlı bir fark bulmamıştır (gürşimşek & göregenli, 2004). öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterliliklerini çeşitli temalarda bilgileri, o temalarda gösterdikleri davranışları ve onlara verdikleri önem bakımından analiz eden bir çalışma yapılmamıştır. bu çalışmada eleştirel düşünme becerileri ise 52 soru üzerinden 19.60 bulunmuştur. türkiye‟de yapılmış olan çalışmalar üniversite öğrencilerinin eleştirel düşünme becerileri testlerinde düşük puanlar aldıklarını göstermektedir. watson glasser eleştirel düşünme gücü testini kullanarak yaptığı çalışmada, kürüm (2002) öğretmen adaylarının orta düzey bir eleştirel düşünme düzeyine sahip olduğunu bulmuştur. benzer şekilde, başka eleştirel düşünme testlerini kullanan araştırmacılarda üniversite öğrencilerinin eleştirel düşünme becerilerinin yüksek olmadığı sonuçlarına ulaşmışlardır (akar, 2007; gülveren, 2007). cedtdz ile aynı sınıf seviyelerinde yurt dışında yapılan çalışmaların sonuçlarını göre (26,4) bu puanlar nispeten düşük çıkmıştır (ennis vd., 2005). yurt dışında eleştirel düşünme becerileri ile ilgili çok sayıda çalışmalar yapılmıştır. bu da belirli normların oluşmasını sağlamış görünmektedir. ülkemizde de farklı sınıf ve seviyelerde çok sayıda yeni çalışmaya ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır. bu sayede ülke çapında normlara ulaşılabilecek ve ülke içi normlara göre değerlendirmeler yapılabilecektir. öğretmen adaylarının eleştirel düşünme becerileri ile vatandaşlık skorları arasında da ,31 lik düşük bir ilişki bulunmuştur. kavramsal olarak incelendiğinde bu iki değişken arasında pozitif bir ilişkinin bulunması beklenen bir durumdur. bu çalışmadaki ilişkinin düşük seviyede olmasını türk okullarında eleştirel düşünmenin sistem içerisine entegre edilmiş olmamasından ve öğrencilerin aldıkları eğitimlerden kaynaklandığı söylenebilir. konunun daha iyi aydınlatılabilmesi için yeni çalışmalara gereksinim bulunmaktadır bundan sonraki çalışmalarda cedtdz‟nin türkçe ye uyarlaması geliştirilmeli ve 2005 yılından itibaren uygulamaya koyulan eğitim programlarına göre eğitim almış öğrencilerle çalışılmalıdır. i̇smail acun, metin demi̇r & nur leman göz 121 ek olarak araştırmacılara iyi vatandaş olma davranışlarını etkileme olasılığı bulunan farklı değişkenler işe koşularak (medya okuryazarlığı, yaratıcı düşünme, problem çözme, girişimcilik becerisi vb.) farklı çalışmaların yapılması önerilebilir. kaynakça/references akar, c. (2007). i̇lköğretim öğrencilerinde eleştirel düşünme becerileri. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, gazi üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, ankara. ata. b. (2009). sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı. c. öztürk (ed). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. 34-47. ankara: pegema. beckett, r. g. (1996). critical thinking and self efficacy in autodidactic learning: the effects of program type, self esteem and program characteristics, 12.07.2010 from http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/dissertations/aai9639392 büyüköztürk, ş. (2007). sosyal bilimler i̇çin veri analizi el kitabı, 8.baskı. ankara: pegema colville, j.k. and clarken, r.h. (1992). developing social responsibility through law-related education. san francisco, ca: american research association. cüceloğlu, d. (1999). yeniden i̇nsan i̇nsana. i̇stanbul: remzi kitabevi. demirel, ö. ( 2002). eğitimde program geliştirme kuramdan uygulamaya. ankara: pegema. ennis, r. h. (1985). a logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. educational leadership. 43 (2). ennis, r.h., millman, j. and thomko, t. n. (2005). cornell critical thinking tests level x and level z manual. the critical thinking co. usa ergün, m. (1996). eğitim felsefesi. ocak yayınları. ankara. ersoy,a. f. ( 2007). sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğretmenlerin etkili vatandaşlık eğitimi uygulamalarına i̇lişkin görüşleri. doktora tezi, anadolu üniversitesi, eskişehir. fer, s. ve cırık, i̇. (2007). yapılandırmacı öğrenme: kuramdan uygulamaya. i̇stanbul: morpa yayınları fung, i. (2005). critical thinking as an educational goal: a fulfilled or unfulfilled promise, 06.08.2010 from http://www.pesa.org.au/papers/2005-papers/paper 14_irene_fung.doc. http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/dissertations/aai9639392 http://www.pesa.org.au/papers/2005-papers/paperjournal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 107-123 122 gomez, f. jr. (2002). education as if people matter: a call for critical thinking and humanistic education, 14.09.2010 from http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/ bnccde/belize/conference/ papers /gomez.html. göz, n. l. (2010). i̇lköğretimde demokrasi ve vatandaşlık. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, uşak üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, uşak gülmez, m. ( 2004). birleşmiş milletler sisteminde i̇nsan haklarının korunması. ankara: türkiye barolar birliği yayınları. gülveren, h., (2007). eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin eleştirel düşünme becerileri ve bu becerileri etkileyen eleştirel düşünme faktörleri. yayınlanmamış doktora tezi. dokuz eylül üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. i̇zmir. gürşimşek, i. ve göregenli, m. (2004). öğretmen adayları ve öğretmenlerde demokratik tutumlar, değerler ve demokrasiye ilişkin inançlar. ii. ulusal öğretmen yetiştirme sempozyumu içinde (ss. 77-85). mayıs 2000. çanakkale: çomü eğitim fakültesi yayınları. güven, s. (2002). i̇lköğretim 7. ve 8. sınıflarda okutulmakta olan vatandaşlık ve insan hakları dersini veren öğretmenlerin nitelikleri ve derste karşılaştıkları problemler. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. atatürk üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. erzurum. halpern, d. f. and riggio, h. r. (2003). thinking critically about critical thinking. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum assosiation, inc. publishers haskins, g. r. (2006). a practical guide to critical thinking, 10.06.2010 from http://skepdic.com/essays/haskins.pdf. hicks, d. (2001). re-examining the future: the challenge for citizenship education. educational review, 53 (3), 229-240. kıncal, r. y. (2000). i̇lköğretim öğretmenlerinin davranışlarının demokratiklik düzeyi. ii. ulusal öğretmen yetiştirme sempozyumu içinde (ss. 426-431). mayıs 2000. çanakkale: çomü eğitim fakültesi yayınları. kıncal, r. y. (2002). vatandaşlık bilgisi. ankara: mikro yayınları. http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/ http://skepdic.com/essays/haskins.pdf http://skepdic.com/essays/haskins.pdf i̇smail acun, metin demi̇r & nur leman göz 123 kökdemir, d. (2003). belirsizlik durumlarında karar verme ve problem çözme. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi. ankara üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. ankara kürüm, d. (2002). öğretmen adaylarının eleştirel düşünme gücü. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. anadolu üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, eskişehir. leming, j. s. (1998). some critical thoughts about the teaching of critical thinking. social studies, 89 (2), 61–66. meb (2005). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı ve kılavuzu 4-5 sınıflar. ankara: talim ve terbiye başkanlığı yayınları. patrick, j. j. (1999). the concept of citizenship in education for democracy. bloomington: eric clearinghouse for social studies/social science education safran, m. (2004). i̇lköğretim programlarında yeni yaklaşımlar: sosyal bi̇lgi̇ler. bilim ve aklın aydınlığında eğitim dergisi, 5, 54-55 siegel, h. (1988). educating reason: rationality, critical thinking, and education. routledge, new. york. vural, m. (2008). en son değişiklikleriyle i̇lköğretim okulu ders programları. erzurum: yakutiye yayıncılık. williams,r.l.( 2003). critical thinking as a predictor and outcome measure in a large undergraduate educational psychology course. office of educational research and improvement. yağcı, e. (1997). sınıf içi demokratik öğretimin öğrenci erişisi ve akademik benlik kavramına etkisi. hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 13, 171-179. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (3), 18-45 deferral, agency, and hope: pre-service social studies teachers making sense of the pedagogical demands of engaging climate crisis elaine alvey1 abstract this study works to answer the question: in what ways are pre-service social studies teachers conceptualizing the difficult knowledge of climate crisis? by analyzing a small group discussion following a pedagogical encounter with climate crisis in a teacher education program, and employing the notion of difficult knowledge, the author theorizes moments of hope, agency, and deferral in the sense-making processes. issues of ecological harm have largely been excluded from social studies education research, including social studies teacher education, and this omission, paired with the urgent need for climate crisis pedagogies, builds the case for research that seeks to understand the ways in which pre-service social studies teachers are making sense of the difficult knowledge of climate crisis and the ways they are conceptualizing this as part of their work as social studies educators. the analysis reveals the multitude of challenges pre-service teachers face as they work to make sense of climate crisis both for themselves and in imagining the pedagogical demands of engaging young adolescents in issues of climate crisis in their future classrooms. also highlighted are discourses of deep pessimism and deferral, running alongside hopefulness, as these pre-service teachers grapple with the size, urgency, injustice, and totality of the challenges that lay ahead. the ways these pre-service teachers are making sense of climate crisis has important implications for pedagogies of difficult knowledge regarding the complex challenges of climate justice relevant in the social studies classroom. keywords: climate crisis; difficult knowledge; pre-service teachers introduction we live in a time of rapid and accelerating climate crisis. young people today will bear the brunt of the malignant turning away by those in power during the past decades, of an unfailing love affair with capitalism in the midst of an already unfolding ecological collapse, and a robust dominant discourse which calls into question the very nature of the scientific truth regarding climate. there is overwhelmingly bad news about the unfolding climate crisis, and headlines delivering word of ecological disaster and the human costs seem constant. these ecological challenges are not easily solved. they are wicked in nature (rittel & weber, 1973), involving a web of complicated social, 1 ph.d. candidate, university of georgia, elaine.alvey@uga.edu journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 economic, and ecological solutions and ramifications. they are inextricably tied to values and it is not always easy to see how a possible solution may result in unintended consequences. although climate crisis and other environmental degradations have social and economic issues at their roots and are thus appropriate for inclusion in social studies education and research (crocco, marri, & chandler, 2013; houser, 2009; kissling & bell, 2020; kissling et al., 2017), issues of ecological harm have largely been excluded from social studies education research, including social studies teacher education. in a wide review of the field, houser (2009) concluded that social studies research has omitted meaningful engagements with the earth, except in passing mention of land as commodity or the impact of physical environments on economic development. he wrote that “the vast majority of scholarship precludes serious attention to the reciprocal relationships between humans and the earth” (p. 205). this omission, paired with the urgent need for climate crisis pedagogies, builds the case for research which seeks to understand the ways that pre-service social studies teachers are making sense of the climate crisis and the ways they are conceptualizing this as part of their work as social studies educators. drawing on discourse analysis qualitative methodologies (fairclough & wodak, 1997; wodak & meyer, 2001), this study works to answer the question: in what ways are pre-service social studies teachers conceptualizing the difficult knowledge of climate crisis? through an analysis of small group discussion following a pedagogical encounter with climate crisis in a methods course, and employing the theoretical notion of difficult knowledge, moments of hope, agency, and deferral as part of this sense-making processes and its pedagogical implications can be theorized. the purpose of this investigation is to contribute to the emerging body of research in social studies education around environmental issues and to add the experiences and conceptualizations of pre-service teachers entering the classroom, particularly as related to their emotional and affective responses to this challenging teaching and learning. this analysis reveals the multitude of challenges faced by pre-service teachers as they work to make sense of climate crisis, both for themselves and in imagining the pedagogical demands of engaging young adolescents in issues of climate crisis in their future classrooms. also analyzed are discourses of deep pessimism and deferral, running alongside hopefulness, as these pre-service alvey 20 teachers grapple with the size, urgency, injustice, and totality of both the global reality of climate crisis and the pedagogical challenges that lay just ahead. the wickedness of these problems compounds and exacerbates the emotional and affective difficulty of both learning and teaching about the direness of the situation, the impending humancaused harm, the urgency with which we must act, and our own implications in these problems. the notion of difficult knowledge (britzman, 2000; garrett, 2017; pitt & britzman, 2003; zembylas, 2013a, 2013b) is employed in this work to provide helpful insights into understanding the pedagogical possibilities and demands around such wicked ecological topics and for theorizing the pedagogical encounter with climate crisis. the ways in which these pre-service teachers are making sense of climate crisis have important pedagogical implications regarding the complex challenges of including environmental and climate justice relevant in the social studies classroom. objectives and rationale the aim of this research is framed by the need to better understand how pre-service teachers are making sense of climate crisis both in their own experiences and as a part of their work as social studies teachers. this is particularly needed as the bounds of social studies expand to include the pressing issues of our times and conceptualizations of citizenship, which include environmental issues, are necessitated by impending and already unfolding climate disaster. teachers face confounding challenges as they work to include these topics in their social studies classrooms. among these are the fact that learning about climate crisis and environmental injustice can take a toll; it can be traumatic to face the ways this crisis will impact us and our communities, and to engage with the trauma and pain of other people (berry et al., 2010; cunsolo & ellis, 2018; dickinson, 2008). there are significant tensions and anxieties that are part of learning about climate crisis (marks, 2019). research is needed to explore these emotional and affective experiences, the pushes and pulls of wanting to know but also wanting not to know, of worry and hope, of struggling to find some path of appropriate action forward, and the associated complex pedagogical and curricular implications. catastrophic climate crisis is an urgent issue already impacting the lives of children and their communities. while the seriousness of the crisis is coming into view, educational research, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 particularly in the field of social studies, has been slow to engage correspondingly urgent pedagogical questions. although much of the literature regarding classroom engagements with climate crisis is situated in science education, this study is located within the domain of social studies and citizenship education. in science education, the research literature typically draws on reductionist, fragmented, and outdated curricular frameworks which do not adequately prepare students to understand and act on problems that face them as citizens in a participatory democracy and which avoid the nexus between climate crisis and democratic living (sharma & buxton, 2018). the social and political causes and consequences of climate crisis are, however, central to a social studies education preparing students for civic lives in the 21st century. these issues are closely tied to economics, governance, civics, geography, human-environment interactions, public policy, international relationships, and trade, making them issues of importance in social studies and civic education. a majority of social studies teachers see these connections but fail to engage with environmental issues in their classrooms because of a range of significant barriers, among them not knowing how to engage the challenging nature of this topic (kissling & bell, 2020). the gap in both scholarship and practice of citizenship education to engage climate crisis has profoundly important implications on the way students are prepared for participation in civic life. the ways in which teachers and pre-service teachers are making sense of climate crisis have important implications for the complex challenges of teaching students how to confront the grand issues of our time, making the need for this research urgent. literature review: situating in social studies social studies classrooms are places where students might engage the world through “constructive, conceptual, inquiry-driven, deliberative, and action-oriented” thinking (boyle-baise & zevin, 2014, p. xv). the widely used college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies standards asserts that students need the “intellectual power to recognize societal problems” (ncss, 2014, p. 4). the issues of climate crisis and environmental injustice fall within these definitions of social studies and the profoundly powerful purpose of educating “thinking, knowledgeable and active citizens” (p. 3). environmental and climate justice issues are relevant in social studies education as both the causes and solutions to these catastrophic inequities are social in nature. vulnerable and marginalized communities experience environmental calamity at much greater rates than more privileged communities (bullard, 2008). the intersections of climate crisis alvey 22 with other social, economic, and environmental injustice make this conversation timely and vital in civic and democratic social studies education and urgently relevant in teacher education. the very purpose of civic and social studies education demands attention to the most urgent social, political, and environmental challenges of our times. across the social studies disciplines, there is compelling and purposeful rationale for the inclusion of environmental and climate justice issues (kumler & vosburg-bluem, 2014). furthermore, among the academic disciplines, “social studies is uniquely situated to provide an educational platform for developing a multifaceted and wellintegrated approach to teaching about sustainability” (crocco, marri, & chandler, 2013, p. 170). if social studies education is a place to prepare deliberative citizens for active participation in democracy, then it must include attention to issues of climate crisis. even as environmental issues have become more pressing, the discussion of these topics remains problematically sparse in the social studies educational research (chandler & marri, 2012; houser, 2009; kissling & bell, 2020). given the nature of ecological problems as inseparable from issues of society, there is an identifiable though relatively small group of scholars who insist that there is a need for socioecological issues to find places in social studies classrooms and conversations (e.g., crocco, marri, & chandler, 2013; goodlad, 2001; houser, 2009; kissling, 2016; kissling & calabrese barton, 2013). nearly 50 years ago, lawrence (1974) called for attention to these topics in social studies classrooms when he wrote in the 1974 national council for the social studies yearbook: “perhaps because of the extent to which we live surrounded by the products of technology: we expect science to rescue us from possible eco-disaster” (p. 202). despite this call, the field of social studies has largely built disciplinary boundaries that excluded environmental issues. hepburn (1974) wrote that “social studies curriculum has not kept pace with the growing needs for environmental understanding. the response in the social studies has been spotty, often weak and unsystematic” (p. 1). although written in 1974, this sentiment remains relevant in contemporary social studies research. chandler and marri (2012) argued that “in social studies education, where issues of civic engagement remain paramount, climate change is rarely discussed” (p. 48). despite the urgency of climate change as an issue for citizens, economies, and communities, social studies educational research is limited. this research project engages an important gap in existing research around the ways that social studies teachers are engaging climate and deepening scholarly understandings of how teachers are making sense of this as a difficult and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 emotional topic. in important and significant ways, we do not know enough about how social studies teachers are engaging climate crisis. we do not know anything about the ways they are making sense of climate crisis within the theoretical framework of difficult knowledge as they work to make pedagogical and curricular choices. while it is important to note that it is a myth that everything happening in a classroom depends on the teacher (britzman, 2003), teachers remain important decision-makers in their classrooms (thornton, 2005) and thus are uniquely situated to interrupt, resist, complicate, or introduce different discursive availabilities. teachers face significant barriers in engaging climate crisis issues in their classrooms. both preservice and in-service social studies teachers articulate lacking the content knowledge they need to successfully teach about climate crisis (kissling et al., 2017). teachers often lack tools and confidence for engaging students in pedagogies of difficult knowledge, which requires comfort with the uncertainty of student worry, anxiety, hopelessness, deferral, and grief. in addition to the challenge of finding appropriate curricular tools, a lack of content knowledge, worry about student affective responses, and potential conflict, many social studies teachers continue to believe that issues of climate crisis and environmental justice should be left comfortably situated within the disciplinary bounds of the natural sciences (kissling et al., 2017). this is further complicated by the artificial separations of human/nature and social science/natural science binaries, a theme that many land ethicists have engaged in their writing. aldo leopold (1949) famously wrote, “we abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. when we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect” (p. ii). the farmer, poet, and scholar wendell berry (2015) noted that “we must not speak or think of the land alone or of the people alone, but always and only of both together” (p. 58). similarly, in the field of social studies research, houser (2009) wrote that deeply engrained in social studies education “is a basic misunderstanding regarding the relationship that exists between humans and the environment” (p. 192). the complexity of this separation and the associated implication in how teachers operationalize these ideas in their own experiences and pedagogical choices make it all the more urgent to understand how pre-service teachers are making sense of discourses around climate crisis and how they are conceptualizing the topic as part of their work as teachers. alvey 24 theoretical framework: difficult knowledge conceptualizing and experiencing climate crisis can be deeply affecting. the emotional and affective nature of encountering the truth of climate crisis has been well documented in accounts of climate grief and anxiety. “eco-anxiety,” “climate grief,” and “climate depression” have appeared as terms to describe the phenomena in the field of mental health (berry et al., 2010; cunsolo & ellis, 2018; dickinson, 2008). the mental health impacts of climate crisis include increasing trauma from the direct impacts of catastrophe like flooding, along with the increased fear and anxiety people experience in anticipation and worry (marks, 2019). worry and feelings of helplessness about climate crisis are increasing (leiserowitz et al., 2019). these trends and challenges in the field of mental health speak to the urgency of pedagogies that work to appropriately engage britzman’s (1998) call to move beyond exposure to difficult knowledges and engage teaching and learning that is “willing to risk approaching the internal conflicts which the learner brings to the learning” (p. 117). in the case of climate crisis, this internal conflict is increased in coping with personal culpability. of the unfolding climate crisis, wallace-wells (2019) wrote that “it’s worse, much worse than you think. the slowness of climate change is a fairy tale” (p. 3). in addition to this slowness, we tell ourselves other fairy tales, heightening the internal conflict, emotional response, and difficulty of facing this information: that this will happen to other people, that it will be in other parts of the world, that it will not be as bad as they say, that we will rise to the occasion before the consequences are dire, that the next generation will solve it, or that this simply cannot be true on a human time scale (mckibben, 2018). these lovely but false narratives illustrate the enormous complexity of engaging these issues in classrooms. in education research, scholars have deployed the theoretical construct of difficult knowledge in instances where learning can invite and involve such strong emotional reactions. difficult knowledge recognizes the affective components of encountering “painful and traumatic curriculum that represents history as the woeful disregard for the fragility of human life while seeking to create new meanings from the ravages of humanly induced suffering” (britzman, 2013, p. 100). while difficult knowledge has most often been used to interpret pedagogical encounters with historical traumas like genocide, war, slavery, or lynching, climate crisis (britzman, 1998, 2000; garrett, 2017; pitt & britzman, 2003; zembylas, 2013a) might also be defined through the theoretical framework of difficult knowledge. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 in the ecological trauma of the anthropocene, britzman’s (1998, 2000) notion of difficult knowledge provides a helpful framework for theorizing pedagogical encounters with such information and imagining the demands of such teaching and learning. its usefulness for this project is that it can help focus attention on the processes and challenges of learning from the trauma of others, facing our own implications in that trauma, and making sense of how we might be moved through uncertainty toward learning and civic action in the residual wake of that trauma. in applying the concept of difficult knowledge to environmental injustice and climate crisis, this definition might be extended to include both the historical trauma that britzman theorizes, along with the contemporary and future traumas of unfolding climate crisis. in both historical and contemporary applications, a key feature of difficult knowledge is that encounters with it can unsettle us deeply and “demand that we tell stories about the world differently” (garrett, 2017, p. 4). the news of climate crisis and injustice can function to disrupt our previous pictures of the world, it can be emotionally upsetting, and it can demand radically different understandings of the world. the theoretical framing of classroom experiences with difficult knowledge allows for an interpretation of this sort of tumultuous encounter. the anticipation of human-induced suffering becomes an important addition to existing theorizations of difficult knowledge in considering ecological problems. these pedagogical encounters are not only a reckoning with the past but a brace into the already impending, accelerating, and unknowable future storm. our own implications and personal experiences cannot be disentangled from this in the same ways that we might be able to distance ourselves from the horrors of historical trauma even as they disrupt our existing understandings of the world. this is an important distinction from previous bodies of work on difficult knowledge because the inability to intervene is a central tenet of what makes difficult knowledge traumatic. britzman (2000) wrote that “what makes trauma traumatic is the incapacity to respond adequately, accompanied by feelings of profound helplessness and loss, and a sense that no other person or group will intervene” (p. 202). the worst impacts of climate crisis is a catastrophe still to come, making available important and significant agitative options toward action and intervention. in addition to the complexities of encountering the brutality, trauma, and pain of human-inflicted suffering are the complex challenges of curriculum and instruction which engage this work. as alvey 26 garrett (2017) wrote, “if learning about the most terrible parts of human history were not difficult already, then the difficulty is reordered and made more complex by the demand to make it the stuff of a lesson plan” (p. 334). in this study, i attend to the difficult knowledge of climate crisis to theorize oscillations of anxiety, hope, worry, avoidance, and engagement that teachers experience and to explore pedagogies that engage these issues. methods of inquiry this paper is derived from a larger project that collected student work samples from a semesterlong project on the inclusion of news and current events as curriculum in social studies classrooms. this student work was gathered in a social studies methods course. over a 16-week semester, preservice social studies teachers followed news on a contentious political current event using both print and digital news sources. students could choose to follow one of four pressing news topics including climate crisis, immigration, gun control, and the investigation into russian meddling in the 2016 u.s. presidential election. in addition to tracking the news during the duration of the semester, the students were provided common texts to deepen their thinking in preparation for the semester’s summative task of teaching a news-related lesson to sixth-grade students. six pre-service teachers elected to follow issues of climate crisis-related news; the assignment required them to follow one print-based source (the new york times, wall street journal, or washington post) and one web-based source (cnn, npr, or bbc) and keep a daily log of news coverage related to their chosen topic. the course was divided into two separate sections, with four students from the first section tracking climate crisis and two students in the second section selecting climate crisis for investigation. the small group discussions were held separately. the common anchor texts included josh fox’s film how to let go of the world and love the things climate can’t change (2016) and a very grim forecast, an article penned by bill mckibben (2018). the data analyzed for this project draws on the small group discussions regarding these common anchor texts which took place near the end of the semester. the small group discussions were 30 minutes for each of the two groups of students. rather than an interview focus group, these small group discussions were a pedagogical encounter woven into the fabric of the course to debrief journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 students and to start the process of imagining how they might teach this topic to middle-grades students. the author was the facilitator of these small group discussions but not the instructor of the course. the facilitation included a three-part open discussion rooted in the common readings and the associated pedagogical implications. the first segment of the facilitated discussion asked students to reflect on the texts by noting and discussing compelling passages, particularly those that evoked an emotional response. the next segment of the discussion prompted students to imagine the solutions that may be available to them and their future students. the final segment of the discussion was aimed toward helping students begin the process of planning and delivering a lesson for sixth-grade students on this topic. the pre-service teachers were asked to anticipate the prior knowledge of students, as well as any emotional responses they could imagine that might be relevant to the instructional planning process. they were also asked to think through the visual resources that might be helpful in engaging climate crisis as a matter of pedagogy in a social studies classroom and articulate any worries they had about teaching such a lesson. participants the six students who participated in the small group discussions were each enrolled in the firstsemester methods course of a social studies program at a large land grant state institution. they each elected to follow the news of climate crisis among a variety of current event topics provided by the course instructor. demographically, the students participating in the discussions analyzed in this paper closely mirrored those of the larger program, including two female-identifying students and four male-identifying students. each of the students self-identified as white. three of the students noted that they would consider themselves “conservative” or “republican” and the other three self-classified as “liberal” or “democrat.” these ideological identifications are slightly more “liberal”-identifying than the state at large, but more “conservative” than the immediate community surrounding the institution. the students were all traditionally aged undergraduate university students and did not have prior teaching experience. each of the students articulated their intention to proceed directly into social studies classrooms following the completion of their undergraduate initial certification program. data analysis the small group discussions were audio-recorded. following transcription, the data coding process was informed by an open coding methodology (dyson & genishi, 2005, p. 86) and drew on alvey 28 conceptual frameworks related to difficult knowledge (garrett, 2017; pitt & britzman, 2003) as well as climate crisis-related themes emergent in social studies and civics education research (crocco, marri, & chandler, 2013; houser, 2009; kissling et al., 2017). in drawing on these themes, attention was given to the purpose and power of discourse as it circulated through these conversations and was experienced by the participating pre-service teachers. in focusing on the circulation of discourse, the analysis drew on data analysis methodologies of discourse analysis. schmeichel (2015) wrote that “[d]iscourse analyses are concerned, in particular, with unraveling taken-for-granted constructions” (p. 4). discourse is both material and productive, constructs all of our ways of knowing and being, shapes our realities, and gives form to our notions of what seems commonsensical. schmidt (2010) added that “[d]iscourse analysis pays attention to contexts as a way of understanding particular words and phrases through cultural, political, and historical meanings as it affects consumption of the text” (p. 316). this methodological framework underpins a careful analysis of discourse as manifesting and functioning in the spoken language of the preservice teachers taking part in the study and as it serves as an indicator of the affective and emotional experiences of the pedagogical encounter explored here. this is the language that makes possible the ways in which they are thinking about and making sense of the phenomena of climate crisis. this language has been produced and reproduced by larger discursive systems related to power and knowledge. threadgold (2000) noted that when conducting discourse analysis, it is important to avoid a deep “burrowing” into meaning and to instead “look for the external conditions of its existence… we should explore the conditions of its possibility” (p. 49). in a practical sense, this resulted in analysis with close attentiveness to the function of the words used by the participants, the larger discursive themes present, and to the production and reproduction of dominant and resistant discourse as manifested in the spoken language used by the pre-service teachers. these data collection processes and analysis methodologies were employed to answer the research question: in what ways are pre-service social studies teachers conceptualizing the difficult knowledge of climate crisis? while these methods allow for interpretations of the ways in which teachers are conceptualizing this urgent contemporary issue, both for themselves and as part of their pedagogical work as teachers, the limits mandate that “any attempt the researcher makes to tell what it is s/he sees/hears/smells/feels/believes/desires, is understood to produce no more than a possible reading” (davies, 2003, p. 144). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 analysis & discussion discouragement, empowerment, disengagement, deferral, and hope, along with the imagined pedagogical implications, emerged as pre-service teachers engaged in a small group discussion on climate crisis. the participants consistently identified the seriousness of the problem, drawing on discourses that tie together both personal action on climate crisis and a need for more collective action. as pre-service teachers and students in a course on teaching social studies, they were also engaged in thinking about the intersections between the difficult knowledge of climate crisis and the pedagogical tact required when teaching young adolescents about this topic. one participant likened teaching climate crisis to talking to children about “the death of a close friend.” in this study, the difficulty of climate crisis is evidenced repeatedly, as one student remarked that this is a “very dark subject that is looming over us,” and another stated that the climate crisis is “really, really, really overwhelming.” the inseparability and impossibility of isolation of discourses are evident in the excerpts highlighted below. woven together are discourses of grief, hope, hopelessness, seriousness, silliness, individualism, collectivism, anger, indifference, turning away, deferral, and sadness for ourselves and others; these are often contradictory and always partial. discourses of hope: “i am hopeful, but…” tensions between hope and hopelessness were woven throughout these discussions and are inseparable from discourses around action. the words “hope” and “hopeful” appeared on seven occasions while the phrase “hopeless” or “hopelessness” appeared 13 times. hope serves an important function in and beyond these theorized moments. at the most basic level, hope functions to allow us to get out of bed in the morning; it allows us to proceed into a world made only of uncertainty and unknowability. solnit (2016) theorized that “hope locates itself in the premises that we don’t know what will happen and that in the spaciousness of uncertainty there is room to act” (p. xiv), but she also made an important distinction between hope and both pessimism and optimism, which offer certainty and thus an excuse from action. she noted that “it’s the belief that what we do matters even though how and when it may matter, who and what it may impact, are not things we can know beforehand” (p. xvi). so, while it is “fatally complacent,” “willfully deluded” (wallace-wells, 2019), and pedagogically irresponsible to continue to idealize or turn away from climate crisis, discourses of hope and hopefulness function in important ways. these tensions and complexities, alongside the deferrals of total optimism or pessimism, are present in alvey 30 these conversations as they are in larger discourse. in this exchange between students, the tension in the function of these discourses are evident: student 1: i think one reason that i am hopeful is people like [rep. alexandria] ocasiocortez. there are not going to be less of them in the future. you know? this latest wave is the start of the next generation of people. people that refuse to accept climate change or ignore climate change aren’t going to be around to see all the consequences, so their interest isn’t really that heavy in it, but there is always going to be less of them from now on. student 2: but the only question is: will they die, or will the planet die first? just to be really dark and blunt about it. student 1: well, the planet is going to be fine, it’s just everything on it. student 2: okay, so are they going to die or are all of us going to die? this exchange suggests the pre-service teacher’s recognition of a possible impending and unfolding change to the discursive conditions that support the current power structures and allow for inaction on climate crisis. the pre-service teacher is also making connections to these issues as matters of social studies content, constructing this as connected to discourses of democracy. the statements of both pre-service teachers are also woven together with implicit frustration that previous generations have so seriously failed to act toward solution that the survival of our species is in question. the interaction is imbued with seriousness and devastation. these comments function to mirror the larger discursive trends as the gap between worry and hope grows (ballew et al., 2018). fewer and fewer people express hopefulness about global warming, while more express serious worry. the language around death and urgency employed by the pre-service teachers here seems to serve to open space for affective responses as they consider the future both for themselves and for their students. drawing upon the realization that one possible outcome of climate crisis is the extinction of our species illustrates the difficulty of this knowledge for the preservice teachers and is an important component of how they are making sense of this. these remarks may draw on discourses of urgency and the need for collective political action, in line with recent youth activists and young people around the world (ballew et al., 2019), in realizing that those with power are turning away. while the anger of young people is understandable, in some circumstances the discourse around this being the fault of older generations could function as a type of deferral, suggesting that the only thing to be done is wait journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 for new people to be in power: the waiting surpassing the urgency. another student noted that regardless of hope, worry is present in their conceptualization of climate crisis: “that’s scary… you can’t imagine what 50 years would be like. but if we start now… i... i am… i am hopeful, but its gonna get worse. it could get a lot worse or it could get a little worse.” here, the student is recognizing this role of action in the face of uncertainty. as in solnit’s (2016) theorization of the meaning and function of hope, the student seems to recognize that there are a range of outcomes hinging on human action and intervention. the student’s pause could also indicate a real consideration of the reasonableness of hope, a sense of grappling with this notion, as they pause for a moment before asserting hopefulness. implicit in each of these conceptualizations of hope are the possibility of action and agency; these represent an important way that preservice teachers are making sense of the difficult knowledge of climate crisis and are interpreted in-depth in the following section. metal straws & marching: making sense of possible actions in several instances, the pre-service teachers expressed an eagerness toward action and were conceptualizing their agency in relation to this crisis. in some cases, they were startled by the seriousness of the problem. for several students, it was their first thorough experience in a study of climate crisis, and they expressed a new or renewed sense of urgency. after all, the only thing between a worst-case scenario climate catastrophe and “the world we live in now lies only the question of human response” (wallace-wells, 2019, p. 14). one student remarked, “i feel like i knew about climate change before, but i wasn’t too updated before this. i can’t read the news or i get, like, super depressed. but just having to do this, i have made a couple of changes in my life.” this functions as a reproduction of discourses of responsibility toward a collective. the student learned new information about climate crisis and felt compelled to make personal changes out of responsibility to a collective whole. in this moment, the pedagogical interaction functioned to remove the ability to comfortably defer both knowledge of and action around climate crisis. the student went on to note that they “work at a coffee shop and now i make sure we are recycling the stuff that we can, and i went vegetarian after this because it’s better for the environment. like i am buying a reusable straw, it should ship to my apartment pretty soon.” these are individual actions connected to consumer choice and are representative of larger discourses around appropriate solutions to climate crisis. people living in the united states are more likely to engage in forms of consumer activism than political activism as a solution, and these acts of engagement alvey 32 with climate crisis are most likely to be private and individual choices rather than public pressure exerted toward corporations (roser-renouf et al., 2016). this discussion on possible individual choices serves to function as a reification of these discourses. after listing the personal changes, the student went on to say, “i don’t know, it’s just like knowing that a lot of the people with a lot of the power to change aren’t doing anything makes me want to do as much as i can to help.” this recognition of power engages with resistant discourses as the student positions themselves as reclaiming power from those able to make larger, swifter change. it recognizes the difference in power that exists between affected actors in this network. the student is working to make sense of the catastrophe of climate crisis by engaging in some sort of personal change, however partial and insufficient that action may be. recognizing the need for collective action was also present in these conversations. one student said that they have worked to convince close friends and family to care about the climate and that it has not been a pedagogically easy task: i’ve noticed that i have just been becoming a hassle. like my roommate will go to throw something out the window, and i say no, don’t do that. then he just gets really aggravated. like he’ll leave the water running and i will say, no don’t do that. he gets really aggravated. in this instance, the participant speaking has engaged others in pedagogies of difficult knowledge and is recalling the resistance often present when we encounter ideas that challenge our deeply held and fundamental understandings about the way the world works. this noticing of a roommate’s wasteful behavior is a helpful reflection. at the same time, it also functions as a way to distance the speaker’s own culpability. in speaking of an aggravated roommate in need of constant reminding, the speaker in some ways removes their own implication in the unfolding harms of climate change. the student’s words here are an example of the complicated balance of working to see and name our own continuous implication in discourses and systems of harm, and the pedagogical tact which might lead to possibilities of more participation in resistance to the current dominant discursive conditions and the systems they enable. it is easiest to construct an understanding of ourselves as critically aware do-gooders working to undo these harms in the face of fossil fuel interests and annoyed roommates rather than equally implicated in the collapse of the earth’s biosphere, and yet a yearning to do something remains. the student’s earnest attempt to journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 encourage a littering roommate to change behavior is important and also perhaps an example of what bendell (2018) identifies as one of the many ways we do something without actually doing anything about the urgent emergency of climate crisis. several students spoke about marching and protesting and working collectively to push for systemic change. in thinking about more direct action, this exchange unfolded regarding the outcomes they have observed in watching fellow young people take to the streets: student 1: yeah, but not to get dark again, i feel like sort of with the parkland shooting, if they followed that in the news; they can see that even though they marched and got together, we haven’t really had much policy change. that can be really discouraging because that was a reaction where tons of young people across this country, not over in europe, then that is discouraging. not to get dark again… student 2: yeah, that is discouraging. a couple of times recently we have seen huge numbers of young people participating in something and the results still don’t go the way they want. that happens too many times in a row and we might be back at square one. these students are noticing the ways discourses around guns and gun violence have not been moved drastically by large-scale student mobilizations. this does not represent an entirely accurate characterization of the resulting changes: just three weeks after parkland, as students marched in the streets, the republican governor of florida signed into law the marjory stoneman douglas high school public safety act, against the wishes of the nra. the law raised the age to purchase a gun and imposed a waiting period. although there is progress still to be made on this issue, this legislative action represents progress nonetheless. in this moment, the comment functioned to create space for students to engage with ideas of protest and tactics of resistance. the student’s unfamiliarity with possibilities for resistance perhaps speaks to the need for pedagogical encounters with climate crisis to explicitly create space for this discursive introduction by exploring the historical and contemporary successes of many social movements. we have to teach people what resistance looks like (ayers, 2010). solnit (2016) reminded us that “popular power has continuously been a powerful force for change” (p. 1). in this moment, the pre-service teachers seem to be missing information or failing to make connections between themselves and the successful social movements history has to offer as examples. despite this, the students do not seem to be constructing collective social actions, including marching in alvey 34 the streets, as a successful way to achieve the change and action they articulate a desire for. while they are conceptualizing some responsibility to act and agency toward creating meaningful change, language regarding individual choices remains dominant. in this exchange, it functions to limit the ways that these students are able to understand and conceptualize action regarding climate change. another student saw and named inaction rooted in pessimism as they recalled one of the articles they read during the semester in response to the proposed green new deal (ocasio-cortez et al., 2019). they summarized the author’s argument to the group saying that “the basic gist of it was that we shouldn’t try to change… it pointed to other countries. i think it pointed to india and china and was like if they don’t do anything then it doesn’t matter… it was just like pointing fingers to other people. but it’s like change is change. you know?” in this instance, the student is making sense of the difficult knowledge of climate change by constructing that “all change counts” and recognizing our own implication in these discursive conditions and resulting systems. the student’s reminder that “change is change” is reminiscent of wendell berry’s (2015) idea that “we cannot immunize the continents and the oceans against our contempt for small places and small streams. small destructions add up, and finally, they are understood collectively as large destructions” (p. 17). the student’s statement functions as a rejection of either collective or individual change, recognizing that both will be important in challenging climate crisis. this statement functions to reveal another possible path toward action. despite these evidenced moments of hope, agency, and the possibility of action, discourse functioning as a deferral or turning away was also present; the ways in which this competing discourse manifested are explored in the subsequent section. cat memes & turning away there were many moments during the discussions when the students drew on widely circulating and dominant discourses around the faraway places impacted by climate crisis and the future consequences. one student noted that they had “never really processed what a threat rising sea levels would be since i have never really lived on the coast and i haven’t really seen it for myself.” this statement is the product of discursive conditions which allow us to imagine that the most ravaging impacts of climate crisis will be for others rather than for ourselves. while the student spoke with great empathy for those who were already experiencing these losses, there is comfort journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 in this otherness; it seemed to cushion the difficulty of this knowledge. these discourses of otherness, through distance, time, space, race, or class, can function as a way to turn away, as one student pointed out: “it’s right there, we just have to look at it, but we would rather look at cat memes.” this observation is one that recognizes the function of these discourses in a collective avoidance; in using the word “we,” the student recognized their own implication in this turning away. another student spoke about the “longness” of the consequences, again drawing on a widely circulating discourse that there is time remaining to save our species and planet as we know it. despite wallace-wells’s (2019) reminder that the situation is “worse, much worse than you think” (p. 3), the student spoke of a collective deferral, saying: it’s like you hear about it and then you’re like, wow, that’s going to be awful and we need to do something right now, and then the next day goes by and you’re still going to do life the same. you know what i mean? it’s kinda hard. it’s hard to worry about problems when the consequences are long, not immediate. it’s hard to convince people to change their whole life because that’s what's going to have to happen if we want to actually stop some of this. the imagining that this is a problem with impacts long into the future is no surprise. in the entire calendar year of 2018, abc’s evening news program world news tonight spent just six minutes and three seconds on stories related to climate crisis (yoder, 2019); it spent more time on the birth of the royal baby in a single evening (yoder, 2019). this turning away is part of the discursive condition that makes possible the dominant social paradigm (as in sharma & buxton, 2018, p. 4). this student might be drawing on larger discourses of resistance including frustration with this continued and collective avoidance, evidenced by repeated use of the word “hard.” the student suggests that we will all need to make changes, in line with the notion that “the burden of responsibility is too great to be shouldered by a few, however comforting it is to think all that is needed is a few villains to fall” (wallace-wells, 2019, p. 30). however, during the conversations, students also demonstrated grappling with the ideas of collective responses as related to civic life. as wallace-wells (2019) reminded us, we are all implicated in these systems and the discursive conditions that make them possible. this sort of discourse often becomes entangled with notions of green consumerism and can function to support the continued dominant axiological assumptions that maximizing wealth is a priority worth the risks and costs (field, 1997), that it can be ethical, and that the current structures of government, economics, and society are sufficient (harper & snowden, 2017). in these examples, the students are making sense of climate crisis by reflecting, alvey 36 refining, producing, and reproducing larger discursive trends toward varying levels of deferral and avoidance. climate citizenship & the role of social studies despite the dominance of avoidance and deferral both in this conversation and in social discourse more generally, these students are conceptualizing the inclusion of climate crisis as part of their work as social studies teachers. this does seem to reproduce emerging discourses available among social studies practitioners (kissling & bell, 2020), although much of teacher education and research has not yet followed. although climate crisis and environmental justice issues are often thought of as content most comfortably situated within the boundaries of science education, the urgency and social nature of these problems requires that we include them within the expanding contours of social studies education and educational research. these pre-service teachers indicated that this is already part of how they are making sense of both social studies and their possible actions in response to climate crisis. during these small group discussions, students mentioned the words vote, voting, civics, and democracy a total of 21 times, making them among the most dominant themes. although the students in these small group discussions had not been given explicit instruction on the intersections between social studies education, climate crisis, and ecological harm, they made robust connections between the content of social studies and issues of climate crisis; these included connections to economics, trade, population, democracy, civic participation, community building, governance, issues of domestic and international policy, and civil disobedience. one student noted that there is “a lot resting on the next presidential election,” and another noted that “i am not very hopeful unless we change our mindset and change who is in various offices in washington.” while the field of social studies education has not yet robustly picked up these networks of connection, these pre-service teachers were deeply engaged in thinking about climate change as an issue for social studies education. the teachers drew on and produced discourses around what it means to be a citizen and active participant in democracy. in response to a question about why climate crisis should be taught in social studies classrooms, one student said: our main thing as social studies educators is to teach people how to get along in civic life… so this is about as good as you can get for teaching about how to be a decent and how to be a good person and how to participate in a democracy. this is about as good as you can get journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 for teaching them about how to make change and how to bring about change through democracy. another student added: it’s also a place to teach about voting and citizenship. i mean, we vote people into power and then those people have a big influence on policy. including environmental policy and also trade and economic policies; all of those contribute to climate change. you know, we buy things from countries using their factories and means of production and those things influence climate change; even though we don’t directly impact climate change we contribute indirectly, and those are ways we can teach and learn about climate change. thinking about the ways that trade relationships and the economy work together provide a broader context. these responses contain important insights into how the students are making sense of discursive availabilities around climate crisis as a personal and pedagogical challenge and how they are making connections between ecological harm and social studies content. as environmental issues have become more evident and pressing, as we encounter information about the seriousness of the threat of climate change, these issues have found their way into more theorizations of citizenship education. crocco, marri, and chandler (2013) argued that civics education provides a space for “applying disciplinary tools and pedagogical approaches to the economic, ecological, and social questions associated with sustainability” (p. 171). similar spaces have been recognized by houser and kuzmic (2001), who advocated for connected, interdisciplinary recognitions of the ways anthropogenic harms are social in nature and thus a necessary topic for ethical consideration in a postmodern world. these pre-service social studies teachers also seem to take up the mantle of this reconceptualization of social studies education in the face of the difficult knowledge of climate crisis. these answers also seem to indicate a sense of the responsibility of teachers in responding to climate crisis. the preservice teachers articulate ways that their work can contribute to this larger project of responding to global catastrophe and thus enrich the possibilities of action. these are manifestations of the ways that they are making sense of the difficult knowledge of climate change; despite the darkness and hopelessness these students drew upon and articulated throughout these conversations, they also see a place for themselves as teachers. it is important to note the ways that these responses continue to support many dominant discourses, power structures, and worldviews, alvey 38 “which permeate or ignore environmental problems and the social inequalities that are so often found in relation to them” (chandler & marri, 2012, p. 48). one example of this function can be found in a student’s assertion that we “don’t directly impact climate change.” although the student is constructing connections between citizenship education and climate, they are still working to distance themselves from implication in these discursive systems and the power structures they support. another instance of this support of dominant discourse is when the student noted that “we buy things from countries using their factories”; this oversimplification of global trade systems could serve as a distancing move, as if other people in other parts of the world are committing the most harm. this represents a commonly available discourse around the need for change in other places, made by other governments, or far-away bureaucrats in our own government who will solve the problem, allowing us to continue blissfully unaffected. the issues that gave rise to climate crisis are social in nature; they are economic, political, and discursive, and the web of solutions that might rise to meet the greatest challenge faced in the history of our species will also be social in nature. despite rich and deep ties to social phenomena, climate crisis and issues of ecological harm have largely been left within the disciplinary bounds of science classrooms. the urgency of these issues and the expanding bounds of social studies education has allowed an opportunity for this to change. contemporary social studies teachers are uniquely situated to prepare students to address the collective ecological challenges we face (crocco, marri, & chandler, 2013; kissling et al., 2017). lawrence (1974) wrote that teaching students to engage with these issues “is a classic example of how the social studies can really matter” (p. 192). he goes on to argue: “scientific tinker is no long-range answer… social studies do not have the answers either. they do offer students an opportunity to approach a critical problem…and face the urgent problems of our times.” (p. 192). as evidenced in part by the student’s assertion that “this is about as good as you can get for teaching about how to be a decent and how to be a good person and how to participate in a democracy,” these pre-service teachers are already conceptualizing climate crisis as an important part of civics and social studies education. despite the readiness of these pre-service teachers to engage pedagogies of climate crisis and construct incisory bounds for social studies content, they articulated continued grappling with the pedagogical implications of such a commitment; this is explored further in the following section. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 “get ‘em a little depressed about it”: pedagogical implications as these students grapple with their own affective experiences of hope and grief, they are also beginning to imagine what it might be like to teach issues of climate crisis in their future classrooms. in imagining the challenges of teaching such difficult knowledge to others, they struggled to make sense of the already unfolding nature of this disaster and expressed worry about balancing urgency, darkness, and hopefulness: student 1: and i think it’s important to not be too dark and leave them without hope. i mean, it’s going to impact them even more than it’s going to impact us. i feel like we can go a certain amount of darkness and deepness, but we have to emphasize that there is something to be done about it. so, i think that it needs to be counteracted with messages of hope. student 2: i agree. if we go too dark and leave them totally hopeless, it’s like why do anything. get ‘em a little depressed about it, but then tell them there is still time to get a solution to this, but it’s only if we start right away, doing something now…definitely provide hope, or else it will be a pointless lesson. student 3: it’s almost like trying to explain to a 6th grader the death of a friend or something. it’s that serious of a thing. it’s like, how do you not overwhelm them with hopelessness and still instill a sense of duty in them to do something?… in this exchange, the students seem to recognize the purpose of hope as more than just an abstract concept; they see that discourses of hopefulness can serve to promote and prompt action. it is hope rather than optimism these pre-service teachers are talking about as they imagine their own pedagogical actions allowing for change and empowering action. in this interaction, they recognize that action will be required and express a responsibility to share those possibilities with young people as they engage in pedagogies of climate crisis. likening this pedagogical challenge to the death of a friend implies seriousness, both a seriousness in learning and in teaching. these comments represent the ways in which pre-service teachers are working to make sense of climate crisis as a pedagogical encounter. wallace-wells (2019) wrote that the rhetorical tools, the language, “often fails us on climate because the only factually appropriate language is of a kind we’ve been trained by a buoyant culture of sunny-side-up optimism to dismiss categorically as hyperbole” (p. 29). like all of us, failed by our social training, these students have little idea how to engage in this sort of teaching. like all of us, the language they have to describe it is too gentle, their ability to comprehend it is muddled by its incomprehensibility, and their understanding of alvey 40 appropriate political action is underdeveloped by dominant social paradigms which nudge us into order. teaching in these conditions is a “troubled knowledge” (kumashero, 2015) in itself, and “there is no promised land in teaching just the aching and persistent tension between reality and possibility. we teach toward democracy; we reach toward freedom; we crawl toward love” (ayers, 2010, p. 15). it is a bold and important commitment to guide students to difficult knowledge and then guide them to the other side, and it is perhaps the most important challenge they might undertake as teachers. ayers (2010) argued that “there are no easy answers and we must make our wobbly ways into teaching as best we can, with ambiguity, uncertainty, incompleteness and flawed reality our constant companions” (p. 30). in this exchange, the students seem to sense the challenge ahead and this realization is an important part of how they are conceptualizing the difficult knowledge of climate crisis as pre-service social studies teachers. conclusion learning of wicked issues of environmental catastrophe can be difficult. it can disrupt our previously held understandings of the world and provoke us to think and be in the world differently. while encounters with such difficult knowledge are deeply and profoundly personal, they are also connected to larger discursive availabilities. both teachers and students experience encounters with wicked ecological problems as difficult and thus our pedagogies must attend to this as a central component of designing instructional engagements with these issues. pedagogies of difficult knowledge might serve to provoke unsettling feelings, and ultimately they may lead through uncertainty to hope, reparation, and new possibility. tarc (2011) wrote that, together with our students, we are “learning to face what is most undesirable about feeling and being human in a world teeming with unspoken atrocity” (p. 369). the task of creating curriculum, instruction, and pedagogical encounters that honor both the wickedness and the difficulty of climate crisis remains a tall order. however, pedagogies that attempt to undertake such a task are absolutely necessitated by the urgency of the impending, accelerating, and unfolding climate crisis. climate crisis is perhaps among the most difficult of difficult knowledges. as wallace-wells (2019) reminded us, “our best-case outcome is death and suffering at the scale of 25 holocausts and the worst-case outcome puts us on the brink of extinction” (p. 29). these pre-service teachers were conceptualizing climate crisis in a variety of ways, drawing on both dominant and resistant webs of discourse and the power and knowledge they allow. they journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 experienced hope, sadness, grief, and uncertainty regarding appropriate action. producing and reproducing larger discourses, the pre-service teachers spoke of turning away from climate crisis, sometimes implicating themselves and sometimes deferring to others. their conceptualizations of this difficult knowledge offer important implications for climate crisis education, including a need to attend to the ways teachers and researchers might attend to the increased inclusion of more complete and complex histories of political and social change. the pedagogical implication of these discussions is the demonstration of need to attend to the grief of this difficult knowledge and imagine how we might teach through such difficulty. these pre-service teachers largely already construct this issue as appropriate and necessary in the social studies classroom, something that is not reflected robustly in the scholarship and which represents an important avenue of possibility for social studies classrooms and researchers into the future. references ayers, w. (2010). teaching in and for democracy. curriculum and teaching dialogue: vol. 12 (1 & 2), 1. http://doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2009.10516688 ballew, m., marlon, j., maibach, e., gustafson, a., goldberg, m., & leiserowitz, a. (2018). americans are more worried about global warming and show signs of losing hope. yale university and george mason university. yale program on climate change communication. ballew, m., marlon, j., rosenthal, s., gustafson, a., kotcher, j., maibach, e., & leiserowitz, a. (2019). do younger generations care more about global warming? yale university and george mason university. yale program on climate change communication. bendell, j. (2018). deep adaptation: a map for navigating climate tragedy. institute for leadership on sustainability: university of cumbria, unpublished paper. http://insight.cumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/4166/ berry, h. l., bowen, k., & kjellstrom, t. (2010). climate change and mental health: a causal pathways framework. international journal of public health, 55(2), 123-132. http://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-009-0112-0 berry, w. (2015). our only world: ten essays. counterpoint. boyle-baise, m., & zevin, j. (2009). young citizens of the world: teaching elementary social studies through civic engagement. routledge. http://doi.org/10.4324/9780203880609 http://doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2009.10516688 alvey 42 britzman, d. p. (2013). between psychoanalysis and pedagogy: scenes of rapprochement and alienation. curriculum inquiry, 43(1), 95-117. http://doi.org/10.1111/curi.12007 britzman, d. p. (1998). lost subjects, contested objects: toward a psychoanalytic inquiry of learning. state university of new york press. britzman, d. p. (2000). if the story cannot end: deferred action, ambivalence and difficult knowledge. in r. i. simon, s. rosenberg, & c. eppert (eds.), between hope and despair: pedagogy and the remembrance of historical trauma (p. 27-56). rowman & littlefield. britzman, d. p., & pitt, a. j. (1996). pedagogy and transference: casting the past of learning into the presence of teaching. theory into practice, 2, 117-123. http://doi.org/10.1080/00405849609543711 bullard, r. d. (2008). dumping in dixie: race, class, and environmental quality. westview press. http://doi.org/10.4324/9780429495274 chandler, t., & marri, a. r. (2012). civic engagement about climate change: a case study of three educators and their practice. journal of social studies research, 36(1). crocco, m. s., marri, a. r., & chandler, t. (2013). social studies and sustainability: a global competency framework. in r. mckeown & v. nolet (eds.), schooling for sustainable development in canada and the united states (pp. 169-182). springer. cunsolo, a., & ellis, n. r. (2018). ecological grief as a mental health response to climate change-related loss. nature climate change, 8(4), 275. http://doi.org/10.1038/s41558018-0092-2 davies, b. (2003). frogs and snails and feminist tales: preschool children and gender. hampton press. dickinson, e. (2008). the green issue: eco-anxiety. new york times magazine online. dyson, a. h., & genishi, c. (2005). on the case (vol. 76). teachers college press. fairclough, n., & wodak, r. (1997). critical discourse analysis. in t. van dijk (ed.), discourse as social interaction (p. 258-284). sage. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781315834368 field, r. c. (1997). risk and justice: capitalist production and the environment. capitalism nature socialism, 8(2), 69-94. http://doi.org/10.1080/10455759709358736 fox, j. (2016). how to let go of the world and love all the things climate can’t change. hbo documentary film series. garrett, h. j. (2017). learning to be in the world with others: difficult knowledge & social studies education. peter lang. http://doi.org/10.3726/978-1-4331-3966-6 http://doi.org/10.4324/9781315834368 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 goodlad, s. j. (2001). making democracy real by educating for an ecocentric worldview. in r. sodor, j. i. goodlad, & t. j. mcmannon (eds.), developing democratic character in the young (p. 69-92). jossey-bass. harper, c., & snowden, m. (2017). environment and society: human perspectives on environmental issues. routledge. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781315463254 hepburn, m. a. (1974). environmental socialization and the social studies. the high school, 5(2), 1-20. houser, n. o. (2009). ecological democracy: an environmental approach to citizenship education. theory and research in social education, 37(2), 192-214. http://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2009.10473394 houser, n. o., & kuzmic, j. j. (2001). ethical citizenship in a postmodern world: toward a more connected approach to social education for the twenty-first century. theory and research in social education, 29(3), 431-461. http://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2001.10505950 kissling, m. t. (2016). place-based social studies teacher education: learning to teach for ecological citizenship while investigating local waste issues. in rethinking social studies teacher education in the twenty-first century (p. 321-338). springer, cham. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22939-3_17 kissling, m. t., & bell, j. (2020). teaching social studies amid ecological crisis. theory & research in social education, 1-31. http://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2019.1673267 kissling, m. t., & calabrese barton, a. (2013). teaching social studies for ecological citizenship. social studies research and practice, 8(3), 128-142. kissling, m. t., bell, j. t., beltrán, a. c. d., & myler, j. l. (2017). ending the silence about the earth in social studies teacher education. in c. c. martell (ed.) social studies teacher education: critical issues and current perspectives, (p. 193-121). information age. kumashiro, k. k. (2015). against common sense: teaching and learning toward social justice. routledge. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781315765525 kumler, l., & vosburg-bluem, b. (2014). climate change in the social studies classroom: a “why” and “how to” guide using the c3 framework. social education, 78(5), 225-229. lawrence, a. p. (1974). am i relevant to history?: the environment. in a. o. kownslar (ed.), teaching american history: the quest for relevancy (p. 189-214). national council for the social studies, yearbook no. 44. ncss press. http://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2001.10505950 alvey 44 leiserowitz, a. maibach, e., roser-renouf, c., rosenthal, s., cutler, m., & kotcher, j. (2018). climate change in the american mind: march 2018. yale university and george mason university. yale program on climate change communication. leiserowitz, a., maibach, e., rosenthal, s., kotcher, j., ballew, m., goldberg, m., gustafson, a., & bergquist, p. (2019). politics & global warming, april 2019. yale university and george mason university. yale program on climate change communication. leopold, a. (1949). a sand county almanac. oxford university press. marks, a. (2019, may 16). how the mental health community is bracing for the impact of climate change. rolling stone. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culturefeatures/how-climate-change-affects-mental-health-835807/#! mckibben, b. (2018). a very grim forecast. new york review of books. national council for the social studies [c3]. (2014). college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. national council for the social studies. https://www.socialstudies.org/standards/c3 ocasio-cortez, a., et al. (2019). recognizing the duty of the federal government to create a green new deal. h. res. 109. https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/houseresolution/109/text pitt, a. j., & britzman, d. p. (2003). speculations on qualities of difficult knowledge in teaching and learning: an experiment in psychoanalytic research. international journal of qualitative studies in education, 16(6), 755-776. http://doi.org/10.1080/09518390310001632135 rittel, h. w., & webber, m. m. (1973). dilemmas in a general theory of planning. policy sciences, 4(2), 155-169. http://doi.org/10.1007/bf01405730 roser-renouf, c., atkinson, l., maibach, e., & leiserowitz, a. (2016). climate and sustainability: the consumer as climate activist. international journal of communication, 10(1), 24. schmeichel, m. (2015). skirting around critical feminist rationales for teaching women in social studies. theory & research in social education, 43(1), 1-27. http://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2014.1002648 schmidt, s. (2010). queering social studies: the role of social studies in normalizing citizens and sexuality in the common good. theory & research in social education, 38(3), 314335. http://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2010.10473429 https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/how-climate-change-affects-mental-health-835807/ https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/how-climate-change-affects-mental-health-835807/ https://www.socialstudies.org/standards/c3 https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-resolution/109/text https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-resolution/109/text http://doi.org/10.1007/bf01405730 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 18-45 sharma, a., & buxton, c. (2018). a sustainability science-based framework for science education. in the natural world and science education in the united states (pp. 169206). springer. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76186-2_7 solnit, r. (2016). hope in the dark: untold histories, wild possibilities. haymarket books. http://doi.org/10.1215/9781478007135-086 solnit, r. (2019, june 1). rebecca solnit: 'every protest shifts the world's balance'. the guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/jun/01/rebecca-solnit-protestpolitics-world-peterloo-massacre?fbclid=iwar2b3w_dxjkesaaqifgw3qofg9jcmawsbmivagt1bqlc7vepqrsoeop-qy tarc, a. m. (2011). reparative curriculum. curriculum inquiry, 41(3), 350-372. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-873x.2011.00554.x thornton, s. j. (2005). teaching social studies that matters: curriculum for active learning. teachers college press. threadgold, t. (2000). poststructuralism and discourse analysis. in c. poynton & a. lee (eds.), culture & text: discourse and methodology in social research and cultural studies (pp. 40-58). rowman & littlefield. wallace-wells, d. (2019). the uninhabitable earth: life after warming. tim duggan books. wodak, r., & meyer, m. (eds.). (2015). methods of critical discourse studies. sage. yoder, k. (2019, april 30). why your brain doesn't register the words 'climate change'. grist. https://grist.org/article/why-your-brain-doesnt-register-the-words-climate-change/ zembylas, m. (2013a). critical pedagogy and emotion: working through troubled knowledge in posttraumatic societies. critical studies in education, 54(2), 176-189. zembylas, m. (2013b). pedagogies of hauntology in history education: learning to live with the ghosts of disappeared victims of war and dictatorship. educational theory, 63(1), 69-86. http://doi.org/10.1111/edth.12010 https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/jun/01/rebecca-solnit-protest-politics-world-peterloo-massacre?fbclid=iwar2b3w_dxjkesaaqifgw3qofg9j-cmawsbmivagt1bqlc7vepqrsoeop-qy https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/jun/01/rebecca-solnit-protest-politics-world-peterloo-massacre?fbclid=iwar2b3w_dxjkesaaqifgw3qofg9j-cmawsbmivagt1bqlc7vepqrsoeop-qy https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/jun/01/rebecca-solnit-protest-politics-world-peterloo-massacre?fbclid=iwar2b3w_dxjkesaaqifgw3qofg9j-cmawsbmivagt1bqlc7vepqrsoeop-qy https://grist.org/article/why-your-brain-doesnt-register-the-words-climate-change/ www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (2), 223-250 223 civic environme ntalis m: inte grating social studie s and environme ntal education through curricular mode ls matthew s. hollstein1 & gregory a. smith2 abs tract presently, we are being inundated with climate news and its ever-expanding impact on the world around us. we are at a tipping point and how we choose to respond will have long term consequences for current and future generations. historically, we have responded with the view that these issues are scientific and not social and have been addressed through scientific advancements. however, this approach has fallen short. specifically, this is due to social studies and civic responsibility being framed as entirely separate from environmental education and environmental responsibility. we need to reframe our thinking and view these areas as cohesive and civic responsibility includes environme nta l responsibility. the purpose of this paper is to describe the need for integrating social studie s education and environmental education to foster a new framework of civic environmentalism. civic environmentalis m is the extension of civic responsibility to include all human and non-human life forms and the entire natural world around us. we showcase that this can be achieved through new ways of curricular modeling to create an integration between these two areas which have been traditionally viewed as separate. we present the frameworks of three nations who have started to reframe their perspectives as well as various practitioner models. we believe that civic environmentalis m and an accepted responsibility to the environment is essential for all the world’s inhabitants. key words: social studies education, environmental ed ucation, civic activism, curriculum introduction by integrating social studies education and environmental education in a way that instills a sense of civic duty to be environmentally aware and responsible, collective environmental activism can be achieved in order to address ecological issues such as climate change. some believe that civic engagement is the duty of all members of a democracy, and thus, it is required for successful governance. in this paper, we argue that these duties extend beyond civic responsibilities such as 1 assist. prof. kent state university, mhollste@kent.edu 2 assist. prof. kent state university, gsmith62@kent.edu journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 voting, and include civic responsibilities to one’s local, regional, and global environment. an education system that is geared towards educating a citizenry that is informed, engaged, and active will ensure success in the fight over environmental matters. this can be achieved through several objectives outlined by the national council for the social studies (ncss) and the north american association for environmental education (naaee). our paper focuses on the united states and the integration of social studies and environmental education for three reasons. first, both authors are educators in the united states and are heavily involved in teaching social studies and environmental education. second, the united states has the world’s largest economy with a gdp per capita of $65,111 us dollars and with this comes a great deal of consumption (bajpi, 2020). presently, resource consumption has the largest impact on the global environment due to a shift towards a throw away view of materials which drives further resource consumption and the united states is a key player in global consumption (chen et al., 2018). third and lastly, we believe that integrating social studies and environmental education in order to foster a civic responsibility to the environment will do much to reduce existing consumption and address pressing environmental issues which can no longer be passed on to another generation. the discipline of social studies is one that is ubiquitous in many curricula across the globe. a common theme in these curricula is to create responsible citizens who are aware of problems and possess the necessary skills to address them. the curriculum model for social studies in the united states is centered in the social sciences, which includes but is not limited to the following courses: history, geography, government (political science), economics, psychology, and sociology (ncss, 2011). the primary goal of social studies is to facilitate the development of citizens, who will become active and engaged members of local, regional, and global communities (ncss, 2010; 2013). it is possible to consider the goals of the social studies curriculum as goals that are directed towards the civic and the collective, rather than the personal and the individua l. environmental education is a way to affect real change in a world currently besieged with numerous issues that are threatening our planet such as climate change, access to fresh water, population growth, pollution, land use, and human sprawl. today, environmental education has been included in various curricular models across the globe (chan et al. 2017; short, 2010). environmental education is a tool to combat global ecological stresses whose causes draw from a hollstein & smith variety of events which may be centered locally or globally (chen et al., 2018; johnson et al., 2012). globalization is causing existing environmental issues to be exacerbated, further impacting local, regional, and global environments (chen et al., 2018; palmer, 1998). the purpose of environmental education is to produce citizens who are aware of their environment and who have the tools and knowledge necessary to deal with current and emerging environmental issues (meyer, 2002). there are a number of ways in which individuals may combat environmental issues, but education is key in first creating awareness. to create a more participatory population in the 20th century, leaders in the u.s. used education to create a new generation of citizens that could participate fully and eventually lead the country (dewey, 1954). the impact of human beings on the global environment is felt more today than it has been in the past. this may be due to industrialization, modernization, and the progressive lengthening of human life spans (simmons, 2003). as human populations grow and continue to utilize more of the world’s resources, we must find a means to alleviate these existing pressures and adequately deal with new pressures that emerge. proble m presently, what is known as environmental education began with the tbilisi conference in 1977, where the major goals of environmental education were discussed by the united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization (unesco) (potter, 2010). the global importance of environmental education can be seen in the outlined values of the tbilisi declaration, which focuses on concern, skills, action, and change on the part of citizens (potter, 2010). the united states congress passed the national environmental education act of 1990, which gave the u.s. environmental protection agency (epa) the responsibility of providing national leadership regarding environmental education in the united states (potter, 2010). since the passage of this act, the epa has spent almost $100 million dollars towards this effort (potte r, 2010). this commitment to environmental education is important. there are various reasons this curricular merger has not happened previously. first, environmental issues by their very nature are controversial which can push teachers towards not addressing the issues (ho & seow, 2015). in addition, environmental issues are framed in the sciences as they are viewed as issues of science and not civics which furthers the afore mentioned compartmentalized approach to the issues. this is also exacerbated by the fact that some may view issues in science as less controversial given the scientific lens through which one can view events around them. lastly, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 the capitalist’s system within the united states does not always lend itself to addressing environmental issues through a civic lens as this can run counter to the intended goals of the existing economic model. however, all these issues are exactly why these curricula should be merged and framed cohesively. there is a confluence of goals between civic education and environmental education. in each of these models there is an objective to be active in one’s community (unesco, 1977). community buy-in is vital to any civic or environmental education model because it allows participants to draw upon their commitment to the local to foster change (chen et al., 2018). environmental education in the united states has been predominantly framed in the sciences over recent decades and currently is still primarily framed in science disciplines in k -12 education (naaee, 2011). we argue that co-framing environmental education in the social studies and the sciences may be a more effective way to accomplish environmental civic action. framing in this way could do much for the activism required in environmental education and could lead to a much stronger sense of duty than one currently may observe. it must be noted that some see the term activism in a very narrow view of what it might mean. for the purposes of this paper, the idea of activism will be drawn from the national council for the social studies (1994) definition, which advocates individua ls take an active role in their civic and environmental community. the national council for the social studies (2010) national curriculum standards stress active citizenship at the local, regional, national, and international levels with ten goals that focus on culture, time, continuity and change, people, places, and environments, individual development and identity, individua ls, groups, and institutions , power, authority, and governance, production, distribution, and consumption, science, technology, and society, global connections, civic ideals and practices (ncss, 2011). these standards are expansive in order to reflect the complexity of social studies as a discipline and the necessity to cut across multiple disciplines in order to fulfill the goals of an active 21st century citizen. furthermore, ncss has designed these standards with inherent flexibility so they may be applied by multiple stakeholders across the diverse geographic, social, political, and demographic strata. these standards are very closely aligned with the expressed goals of environmental education, which according to unesco (1978) and the north american association of environmental educators (naaee) (2011) center on five main topics: awareness, knowledge, attitudes, skills, and participation. in contrast, three out of four goals identified by hollstein & smith the national science foundation (nsf) suggest how students can use science in a personal way, while only one goal suggests the use of science in a public way which appears to support a curricular model of co-framing and integration of environmental education and the social studies (nsta, 2011). there is a clear confluence of terms, goals, and standards between the methodologies of environmental education and social studies (social sciences). environmental education has been framed primarily in the sciences and the curriculum in most primary and secondary schools reflect this model (naaee, 2011). in addition, when environmental education is a topic in other disciplines it tends to be presented in a limited and supplemental role (ho & seow, 2015; lange, 2009). framing environmental education in one discipline creates a fragmented approach (drake, 2004; johnson et al., 2012). for exa mple, sustainability has become an environmental issue that is being addressed in the social studies and only provides a very limited offering of materials (ncss, 2011). in addition, issues such as climate change, acidification of oceans, and a rise in global temperatures are all issues that citizens in every part of the planet must face (evans, 2010). according to the ncss (2011), the goals of the social studies curriculum are to ensure that citizens are prepared to be active, engaged, and participatory citizens at every level, while the goals of environmental education are to ensure that students are aware, understand, and know what to do about issues concerning the environment (naaee, 2011). the synergy between social studies and environmental education is drawn from each suggesting that students be active, engaged, and participatory in order to fully be stewards of that which surrounds them. recognizing the benefit of creating a strong and reciprocal relationship between civic education and action and environmental awareness and action through the integration of these two curricula is the goal of this paper. this paper will examine how two nations, australia and the republic of south korea, frame environmental education to determine how they might inform curricular practices in the united states and offer a pathway for the integration of social studies and environmental education while broadly examining the paths taken by england and italy. the ore tical frame work our paper is underpinned by the following theories radical constructivism, discovery learning, and democratic education. these four theories underscore how learning takes place in the classroom, what that learning looks like, and how knowledge is constructed. curriculum is in a journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 position of authority therefore our paper focuses on a merger of curriculum as the most effective way to facilitate a confluence of social studies and environmental education. radical constructivism suggests that students possess a great deal of power in the construction of their cognitive framework when encountering new constructs like the merging of civic and environmental responsibility. it espouses that knowledge construction is not a passive endeavor but one that is intentional (gibson, 1999). radical constructivist views of knowledge construction align with critical pedagogy and the work of social justice with regard to the belief that work towards solving issues of social justice and inequity must be taken up through action, not through passive education (freire, 2000, gibson, 1999). constructivism focuses on the construction of knowledge and is intended to be an active process. discovery learning research highlights that learning is active and based upon prior experiences (bruner, 1961). discovery learning suggests that when students discover ideas and issues on their own they will better learn and retain information (xuan & perkins, 2013). discovery learning also fosters the creation of relationships between existing knowledge and newly acquired knowledge, which is important in social studies (bruner, 1961; xuan & perkins, 2013). an example of discovery learning includes problem-based learning which requires students to solve problems through a combination of pre-existing knowledge and new information (svinicki, 1998). discovery learning fosters cognitive growth and deep individuals must first understand their positions regarding the environment and their previous experiences in order to make tangible connections between their understandings of environmental issues. when fostering change, it is important to connect the social and the environmental (bruner, 1961; svinicki, 1998; wilson, 2006). john dewey’s (1963) theory of democratic education suggests that for true, legitimate, and lasting learning to take place, instruction must occur under the conditions of a free and democratic classroom. ncss’ (2010) goals of developing engaged, active, and informed citizens who are capable of defining problems, fostering solutions, and enacting those solutions are framed in the context of democratic citizenship. the nature of dewey’s (1963) theory of democratic education requires inclusion, participation, and the belief that all stakeholders’ ideas are valid. environmental stewardship and the nature of citizenship are two sides of the same coin as they intersect through a shared responsibility to what and who surrounds them. (dewey, 1963; kim, 2013). hollstein & smith radical constructivism, discovery learning, and democratic education all come into play when examining the convergence of social studies and environmental education. current events and controversial issues are crucial ingredients of a democratic education; of which civics and environmental stewardship are both (dewey, 1963; freire, 2000; letizia, 2013). constructivism’s focus on the construction of knowledge is important to understanding how teachers construct knowledge and impact their students’ construction of knowledge (doolittle & hicks, 1994). because of the classroom and the use of curriculum as a guide it is imperative to view the convergence of social studies and environmental education environmental as two important issues citizens must effectively address and solve as members of a diverse democracy, discovery learning theory is relevant to this study as well (bruner, 1961). de finition environmental education is a very broad topic that cuts across many areas of focus. for the purposes of this paper, the focus will be on the following goal of environmental education, which is to “teach children and adults how to learn about and investigate their environment and to make intellige nt, informed decisions about how they can take care of it” (naaee, 2011). the planet has a finite amount of natural resources, which in most cases, cannot be increased through human effort. this leads to added environmental concerns, as humans attempt to deal with these issues. environmental education is not exclusive to the united states and many nations throughout the world practice some variation of environmental education (ho & seow, 2015; chan et al., 2017; veeravatnanond & singseewo, 2010). the actions various nations take to implement the practice of environmental education in national curricula may provide insight into best practices for implementation in the united states. according to short (2010), two major foci of environmental education include sound, researchbased educational methodologies engaging learners as active participants, and an environmentally literate and active citizenry capable of thinking critically about environmental issues to work toward improvement or maintenance of environmental conditions. additionally, chan et al., (2017) suggests that in order to achieve these goals one must have cultural capital which helps to create sense of shared success. unesco discerns three major goals of environmental education. first, to foster a clear awareness of and concern about economic, social, politica l, and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas. second, to provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 skills needed to protect and improve the environment. third, is to create a new pattern of behavior among individua ls and groups towards the environment (unesco/unep, 1978). for this paper environmental education will be defined as “the process aimed at developing a local, national, regional, and global population that is aware of and concerned about the total environment and its associated problems, and which has the knowledge, attitudes, motivations, commitments and skills to work individua lly and collectively toward solutions of current problems and the prevention of new ones” (nnrec, 2005). educating about issues that concern the environment to elicit critical thinking to counteract the passive reception of knowledge is the goal of environmental education (short, 2010). critical thinking is an important aspect of any curriculum because it is a skill set that is required of any citizen to be able to navigate an ever increasingly complex and diverse global landscape (freire, 1973). issues concerning the environment are numerous but one that is particularly important is climate change. the trends that exist presently regarding climate change are very difficult to ignore. issues such as reductions in sea ice, thinning ozone, increasing global temperatures, increases in greenhouse gas emissions, and water scarcity are just a few of the major issues facing the planet (chan et al., 2017; solomon, et al, 2007). to many, non-science persons, these may appear to be issues for science to address, but these are issues that face all persons, regardless of education level, wealth, gender, or any other classifying indicator (powers, 2004). the alte rnative social studies education and civic engagement are defined by ncss (1994; 2011) as providing help to students to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world. the goals of the social studies curriculum and those of environmental education may appear to be very different, at first. however, upon further review the goals of these two disciplines have a much stronger connection than may be initially gleaned (schug, 2000). ncss (2010) standards on civic responsibility and activism are a great starting position to begin to consider change in discipline. this section will conclude by establishing cohesion between environmental education and social studies while making the suggestion that it is easier to meet the goals of environmental education with integration and co-framing it in social studies. the goal of a democratic education is to facilitate the development of citizens who are informed decision makers and who possess the ability to make choices for the well-being of one’s hollstein & smith community (dewey, 1954). these were the goals outlined by john dewey, a prominent american educational philosopher in 1954, long before the formal idea of environmental education existed. when reading those statements, it seems to be apparent that ensuring the wellbeing of a citizen’s surroundings could be easily extended to include the environment. ncss (2011) released standards included the specific topic of sustainability education in social studies, for the first time. the standards in social studies cite sustainability education a s a requirement of a 21st century curriculum (ncss, 2011). however, these standards are limited to awareness and activity that do not go beyond basic actions (ncss, 2011). the alternative model to this is to frame environmental education in the social studies to achieve a stronger and broader impact for change through collectivism. presently, environmental education is framed in a supplemental fashion that allows curricula to plug in parts of environmental education into current curricular models where they are deemed to fit best (potter, 2010). an alternative model for an integration of social studies and environmental education is to frame much of what is done in social studies through environmental concerns. presently, the complete list of academic disciplines that fall under the social studies are anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology (ncss, 2011). incorporating environmental education with social studies is important to do especially considering that there is a convergence of goals between these two disciplines; both the social studies and environmental education seek to facilitate critical thought, awareness, and action (lange, 2009). increasing students’ environmental awareness between in-class activities and external nonacademic experiences is an important component to fully incorporating environmental education into social studies classrooms (stern et al., 2011). it is important that students in the social studies see and believe that environmental concerns are important to the overall role of a citizen. encouraging a tangible connection to one’s community, both human and non-human, is especially important for many students who are attempting to understand a world often characterized by a nature deficit (louv, 2005). when presented with the question of what do tadpoles, environmental education, and social studies education have in common, the answer may not be clear. therefore, nature deprived students may well have difficulty in determining a connection. place-based learning and education is the use of direct environmental surroundings as a teaching tool. this teaching style journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 allows students to make direct connections between the school curriculum and the loca l environment (smith, 2002). considering place-based learning and the abundance of small ponds that some schools may have access to, it is understandable that examining ecological systems is a natural fit for environmental education. the existence of tadpoles, spiders, and ants may seem trivial. however, social studies teachers can use local social and environmental issues to integrate environmental education and social studies (basile & white, 1999). what do the rainforests do for the environment around the world and why should students care that rainforests regions are disappearing at the alarming rate of 240 square miles every day (cline & van leuvan, 2009)? these types of questions are the foundation for a model of education in which the experiences of student advocates are used to facilitate the convergence of social studies standards and environmental education standards into one model curriculum (cline & van leuvan, 2009). in this model, the work of one student, who sought to make an impact through civic and environmental action, is used as a model for civic action while promoting the ecological and biologica l diversity of the rainforest through the use of inquiry. this model begins with an essential question that all educators must ask their students which is “why are the rainforest disappearing” (cline & van leuvan, 2009). through this question teachers can begin to mold the curriculum into a joint model of social studies, environmental education, and science education, by developing a plan of analysis that examines the rainforest from multiple perspectives and layers of civic and environmental responsibility and how we might respond to each (cline & van leuvan, 2009). civic responsibility can take many forms, and for most students, the main example of civic responsibility is voting. the notion of civic, social, and environmental responsibility all being connected through the use of environmental causes initiated by “green kids”, who are students seeking to make a lasting impact upon the civic and environmental landscape (lange, 2009). presently, much is being done to expose students to these responsibilities. lange (2009) calls students who answer these calls “earth angels” (those who are watchful of the earth) or “environpreneurs” (those who raise money for environmental causes), which allows students to examine economic, environmental, and civic based actions. lange (2009) suggests that these titles should be given to those who are determined to make a difference socially, civically, and environmentally. some critical questions that are raised are: first, how do kids begin to think about joining a global effort to save the earth; and second, how can teachers assist in promoting hollstein & smith critical thinking skills that will increase civic literacy through these sorts of actions? the main premise of this curricular model is to suggest to young people that critical action must accompany critical thought because separately these are endeavors that may produce a less impactful result. simply put, critical thought requires critical action (freire, 1973). in this curricular model, lange (2009) presents a series of case studies of young people, ranging in age from 12 up to 18 years, and showcases how these students are model examples of the integration of the social studies civic action requirement and the call for action in environmental education. allowing students to see other students making an environmental impact does much to foster future involvement (lange, 2009). teachers should present stories of active students that have similar ages to those students in the teacher’s classroom. this ensures that the stories presented are the most relatable to the classroom students (lange, 2009). much of what is presented by lange (2009) suggests lesson applications, detailing how social studies teachers might be able to teach civic engagement through environmental issues that are locally based with global applications. this plays heavily upon the notion of place-based learning on the part of the students and allows for the organic creation of a sense of civic responsibility. economic issues and concerns are at the forefront of many headlines and are a wonderful means by which there can be an integration of social studies and environmental education. mark schug’s (2000) article titled, “what does economics contribute to environmental education?”, presents examples of economic issues that may be examined in a social studies classroom while simultaneously examining these issues from an environmental education perspective, thereby achieving an integration of the two curricula. examples of issues showcasing the intersection of economic and environmental issues include population shift and the economic and environmental impact of change that is associated with population shift, both de mographically and geo-spatially. current projections suggest that the world population will exceed 10 billion people by the year 2050. using this projection, teachers can educate social studies students about the economic and environmental influence of humans on a global scale (schug, 2000). it is acknowledged that comprehending these numbers may be difficult for some students. however, if teachers encourage discussion about the effects that humans have on the environment, especially at a local level, this will allow for a more global discussion to take place naturally (schug, 2000). economic factors that are directly associated with environmental factors include food use, water consumption, land use, natural resource use, pollution, and the need for journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 employment of a growing population. schug (2000) suggests that by co-framing economic issues with environmental education, one may be able to better present material that is relevant to the students. in the last five years research about and for environmental education as an extension of citizenship has started (chan et al., 2017). however, there is limited research about the confluence of social studies and environmental education. furthermore, in many cases this research has not focused exclusively on social studies curriculum changes but has instead examined informal education, the work of ngo’s, and environmental education separate from social studies (chan et al., 2017; ching & seow, 2015; williams & chawla, 2016). much of this research connects to our work but does so in a way outside of curriculum and does not attempt to foster systematic change through organized curricula. our paper focuses on the intersection of social studies and environmental education in order to achieve the goals of other existing research but through a sense of civic environmentalism through merging the two curricula in order to frame civic and environmental responsibility as synonymous. the goals of the social studies and environmental education have more areas of convergence than they have areas of divergence. ultimately, there must be teacher and teacher educator buyin to ensure that environmental education and social studies are fully integrated (ho & seow, 2015). the national social studies standards include requirements for the e xamination of sustainability issues, the interaction of people and their local environments, and the need for action. however, standards are only meant to be a loose framework for teachers to use in their classrooms. it is up to the all parties involved in the educational process to decide to fully embrace the integration of social studies and environmental education (ncss, 2011). inte rnational mode ls of social studie s and environme ntal education there are currently nations which are already leading the way through curriculum that are focused on the convergence of human and non-human species through the lens of citizenship. furthermore, these nations have created the curricular support for classroom teachers to begin to tackle these issues with students and for students. the use of critical examination and inquiry is a truly powerful recipe for merging social studies and civic responsibility with environmental responsibility to create a sense of civic environmentalism. we have chosen to highlight the work of australia, the republic of south korea, and offer an overview of england and italy. each of these nations has a curriculum which is fostering these ideas and attempting to create a sense of hollstein & smith responsibility to the environment. these countries, while not perfect, are examples of a beginning to fostering civic environmentalism through a systematic curriculum for students, teachers, and the environment. aus tralia australia was again in the top ten of world education rankings, finishing 9th (oecd, 2011). this paper has chosen to examine australia, in part because of the numerous similarities that exist between it and the united states. however, in addition to similarities, there are many examples of differences that make australia unique, not only from the united states, but from many other parts of the world. particularly, the geography, political framework, and history of the nation offer, what may be unique views and responses to social and environmental issues. australia is the world only continental nation and is subject to a unique set of environmental, economic, and educational circumstances. in addition, much of australia’s operating systems are based upon western models. australia has traditionally had a western style application of both economics and education, with an emphasis placed upon industrial manufacturing and core subjects in education (australian department of education, 2011). when examining the social studies and environmental education in australia, one realizes that what is outlined in the united states as social studies is not necessarily the same as in australia (australian department of education, 2011). in australia, the four major curricular areas are science, math, english, and history. for the purposes of this paper, the focus is upon the subject of history because it is the subject that most relates to the discipline of social studies in the united states (australian department of education, 2011; 2019). in the australian national curriculum (2011), there are thre e crosscurricular areas that must be covered in all four academic disciplines. these areas are aboriginal and torres strait islander histories and cultures, asia and australia’s engagement with asia, and sustainability (australian department of education, 2011). of these, the focus will be upon the third cross-curricular item, which is sustainability. in the goals outlined by the australian national curriculum (2011), sustainability education addresses the ongoing capacity of earth to maintain all life. australia’s national government recently established a council on sustainability, whose goals are to equip all australians with the knowledge and skills required to live sustainably (australian department of education, 2019; australian department of sustaina bility, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 2011). according to the department of sustainability, environment, water, population and communities (2011) the listed goals of this council are: 1. ‘demonstrating australian government leadership' aims to strengthen the government's leadership role in education for sustainability as an exemplar for change through its own policies, programs and operations and by promoting system-wide change through greater coordination and collaboration with state, territory and local governments. 2. ‘reorienting education systems to sustainability' focuses on achieving a culture of sustainability in which teaching and learning for sustainability are reinforced by continuous improvement in the sustainability of campus management. 3. 'fostering sustainability in business and industry' will build capacity in business and industry to plan for sustainability, adopt appropriate frameworks and tools, and harness incentives for change such as improved efficiencies, cost savings, corporate reputation, and staff morale and retention. 4. 'harnessing community spirit to act' emphasizes collaboration with the many diverse providers of education for sustainability to help improve community and practitioners' access to knowledge and tools. it also supports research to better understand issues, attitudes and behavior. these goals are lengthy and may not seem like they are entirely about education, but it is important to examine all because they are directly tied to goals of the social studies. these goals are related to the social studies in the following reasons: the first goal is associated with the study of government action, goal two is associated with sociology to achieve sustainability, goal three is based on economics, and goal four is most notable because it discusses the issues of being civically engaged in one’s community. merging environmental education in the social studies via the use of literature in a classroom is a curricular model teachers can use to find a bridge point between the two disciplines (imeson & skamp, 1995). imerson and skamp (1995) present the use of children’s books in australian social studies classrooms. these books offer the view of a landscape from the position of a young child, which allows the teacher to use the child’s perspective of landscape as a point of connection. this framework relies upon the use of students’ prior knowledge and preexisting hollstein & smith social and environmental constructs. the author of the children’s book suggests that humans are changing the world so rapidly that eventually all landscapes will have been experienced and there will be no more wild areas to experience (baker, 1991). this belief is an example of a position statement that can used to frame an entire unit of study that integrates the social studies and environmental education. this unit allowed classes to meet both the social studies and the environmental education standards, while framing the lesson in the social studies curriculum. according to imeson and kamp (1995) teachers arranged a lesson that allowed the students to examine local, historical, and geographical landscapes to facilitate a general appreciation for the environment and the need to be civic environmentalists. allowing students to see the connections that exist between the social studies classroom and environmental educa tion will only benefit students understanding of the civic environmentalist. framing environmental education questions in the social studies questions allows educators to present concepts and material in such a way as to encourage a civic environmentalist approach to education (imeson & skamp, 1995). at the time the imeson and kamp (1995) study was conducted, the regional government of queensland had recently issued an environmental education curriculum statement that required curriculum wide integration of environmental education (eecs, 1989). many see this statement as the beginning of incorporating environmental education across curricula. a more detailed evaluation of children’s literature may lead to an enhanced ability to evaluate the types of resources that teachers select for presentation in their classrooms. meyer (2002) suggests that there are three paradigms being used in environmental education today and that these must be addressed. the first view is a dominant western worldview where humans see themselves as being above all other creatures. the second view is human exceptionalism paradigm, where humans are different from other creatures because of the existence of human culture. the last view is the new ecological paradigm, which suggest that humans are but one of many species that exist in the biosphere (meyer, 2002). the human culture model is currently used by most environmental education authors (meyer, 2002). due to the third paradigm being the most widely used in environmental education, meyer (2002) suggests that there might be a bias that needs to be addressed when presenting information from only one standpoint. presenting a model of literature that ensures exposure to all three paradigms is important. integrating social studies and environmental education with a goal of a democratic representation of ideas is acceptable to ensure that all sides are presented (ncss, 1994; 2010; 2013). it appears journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 that in some cases, one set of goals might overshadow the goals of the other discipline, causing a disproportionate understanding of relevant material (potter, 2010). considering how environmental education, place-based education, and the social studies in australia are framed, one must realize the distinct set of circumstances that australia finds itself in. there are several local, national, and regional issues that are unique to australia. putting those aside, the objective of its educational system is to educate children to become knowledgeable of the environment, which is essential to the long-term environmental viability of the continent. furthermore, the australian model that requires cross-curricula incorporation is a sound starting point for ensuring long-term environmental education through the social studies with the use of literature. using a model of required introduction to these issues may enable a civic environmentalist opinion of the responsibilities of all citizens. re public of south kore a the republic of south korea has been ranked in the top ten of world nations, by the oecd (2011) and based upon data, is considered to be a top performer academically (national center on education and the economy, 2020). due in part to these rankings, this paper chose to examine south korea to determine what, if any, material differences exist regarding social studies and environmental education. the republic of south korea has many similar parallels to the united states, in terms of economics, education system, and political structure. however, much like australia, south korea has a unique set of geographic, social, and educational components sets south korea apart from the united states and other world nations. as an emerging market from the 1970’s to the late 1990’s, south korea’s economic plan was growth first, followed by distribution, with economic advancement and environmental responses last (national center on education and the economy, 2020; chung-in & sung-hack, 2003). the philosophy of environmental responsibility is a relatively new idea that has emerged in the last 20 years in south korea. presently, the republic of south korea is the world’s 7th largest emitter of co2, and is the 3rd largest in asia (jo et al., 2009; union of concerned scientists, 2020). with a rapidly expanding economy that required double and sometimes triple previously used levels of coal and petroleum based products, environmental degradation became a big issue but was not addressed for fear of slowing economic growth (chung-in & sung-hack, 2003). seventy-five percent of the south korean population lives in cities. additionally, since 1953 the south korean population has expanded 130 percent (jo et al., 2009). these changes are due in hollstein & smith large part to improved living conditions, improvements in infrastructure, and the end of the korean war (national center on education and the economy, 2020; jo et al.,, 2009). a little less than half of the entire south korean population lives in what is called the seoul metro region, which consists of the city of seoul proper and adjoining suburbs that surround the city (jo et al., 2009). given all these conditions that face the republic of south korea, this nation of 40 million citizens faces a unique set of challenges regarding environmental education with some unique benefits (jones & yoo, 2010). when considering a model for integrating social studies and environmental education, educators must be mindful of the local, national, and regional social implications of the country in which the models are being implemented (lange, 2009). the korean model of education is similar to the united states in framing environmental education in the sciences. environmental education in social studies is framed in much the same way as in the u.s., which is in a limited role with minimal amounts of focus. in the korean model of education, an element of choice allows for students to mold their curriculum in later grades and select elective classes, so that it best fits their learning goals (hye-eun, et al., 2007). this model provides an opportunity for integration of social studies and environmental education by allowing students with interest in environmental education, however, the issue pertains to how does one address those with no interests. the korean educational model is centered upon core values, one of which is moral education (hye-eun, et al., 2007). the republic of korea ministry of education, science, and technology is focused on the creation of citizens who possess the proper moral attitudes towards all interactions, to ensure that individua ls can be successful in whatever they might choose to do (korean ministry of education, 2011; 2018). according to the qualification and curriculum development agency (2011), these are the core goals of the korean education system: ● seeks to develop his/her individua lity on the basis of well-rounded and wholesome development. ● demonstrates creative ability on the basis of a solid grounding in basic knowledge and skills. ● explores career paths on the basis of broad intellectual knowledge and skills in diverse academic disciplines. ● creates new values on the basis of understanding the national culture. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 ● contributes to the development of the community where he/she lives, on the basis of democratic citizenship the last goal contributes to the development of the community on the basis of democratic citizenship and is most significant to the integration of environmental education and social studies. being aware of one’s surroundings and having an additional sense of responsibility to those surroundings is especially important to the development of a sense of civic duty and environmental responsibility (potter, 2010; smith, 2002). given the amount of stress placed on the environment in south korea and limited space, the requirement for civic environmental education is especially important. while the present south korean model primarily frames environmental education in the sciences, there is room for cross curricular integration. a curricular model used in south korea is the use of stories that aim to pass on moral and academic knowledge simultaneous ly (hye-eun, et al., 2007). it is understood that the goal of these personal stories or experiences of the students, along with traditional classroom models of education will make students aware of the pressing need for heightened environmental awareness, concern, and activism (hye-eun, et al., 2007). in south korea, as determined by hye-eun et al. (2007), environmental awareness and activity are increased only when science test scores increase, suggesting a need for basic science knowledge and understanding, in order to facilitate an increases environmental awareness. although this fact seems to contradict the use of stories as a model of integration between social studies and environmental education, it is important to understand that while science scores indicated an increased understanding of environmental education, the curricular model in place was still one that encouraged cross-curricular integration of disciplines and concepts (qualification and curriculum development agency, 2011). the primary model of integration for social studies and environmental education is “sul-gi-roun-sang-hwal”, a term which refers stories of wisdom in hangul, the native language of korea (hye-eun, et al., 2007). these stories are intended to teach students how to be mindful of themselves in respect to their surroundings, interactions, and overall place in society (hye -eun, et al., 2007). through the use of these literary stories, students are presented with moral and ethical dilemmas that they might face in everyday life. an example might center on the following question: how does one ensure economic viability while still maintaining environmental sustainability? the use of questions meant to elicit moral thought meets one of hollstein & smith the primary goals of the korean national curriculum, while setting the framework for an integration of social studies and environmental education to become civic environmentalis ts. the korean model for framing environmental education meets the goals of the national curriculum by placing heavy emphasis on the increase in science education. formal integration of environmental education in the social studies in south korea may be a selection of the individua l student and this does not occur until the later grades. the model outlined above is used in the primary grades of the south korean curriculum and was deemed to be effective in increasing awareness only when students had what was deemed required knowledge for a basal understanding of materials regarding environmental awareness and activism (hye -eun, et al., 2007). the use of similar stories may be much more effective in the upper grades as well, given the emphasis placed upon civic responsibility and the assumption that upper level students will possess the required scientific knowledge to not only understand the environmental concerns, but also the underlying causes, potential solutions, and the means by which to take appropriate civic action. england and italy environmental standards vary across the european union and the united kingdom. we have chosen to focus briefly on two countries, england and italy, due to differences in their approaches. although ranked in the top-five in oecd indicators for graduation rates (oecd 2011), the united kingdom has experienced a reduction in curricular requirements for environmental education, while italy (below average in graduation rates) will become the first country to require climate change and sustainability education beginning in the fall of 2020. in 1990, environmental education was introduced as a cross-curricular theme in the national curriculum for england (green, 2015). at the time, there were seven cross-curricular topics: climate; water; energy; plants and animals; soil, rocks and minerals; buildings, industrialization and waste; and people and communities. however, a revision of the curriculum in 1994 made no mention of these cross-curricular topics (green, 2015). subsequent revisions in 2000 and 2006 introduced non-statutory elements of sustainability into the curriculum, but these were mostly focused on the school buildings themselves based on the government’s sustainable schools strategy (s3). incorporating principles of buildings and grounds; energy and water; travel and traffic; food and drink; purchasing and waste; local well-being; inclusion and participation; and global dimensions was left to the individua l journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 schools (green, 2015). these principles were eliminated in 2010. the 2006 revisions also called for inclusion of outdoor learning in the curriculum, again left to the individua l schools to decide how to implement local and residential field trips and outdoor opportunities. a 2014 revision of the curriculum lacked explicit references to environmental education and the government itself has reduced its focus on sustainable development since 2010 (glackin & king, 2018; green, 2015). although the uk has signed-on to the sustainable development goals stemming from the 2015 paris agreement, england has not agreed to incorporate the goals into the curriculum in any meaningful way, unlike wales, scotland, and northern ireland. the later countries will make them statutory, while england will leave implementation up to individua l schools (naee, 2019). there is, at least, recognition of the importance of global citizenship education and civic competency while appearing to push the environmental responsibility on to local efforts (bourn et al. 2016). italy has also responded to recommendations from the paris agreement, with a more direct approach than any other nation. beginning in september 2020, italy will make lessons on climate change and sustainability mandatory (bbc, 2020). initially, teachers will incorporate 33 hours per year of instructional time devoted to climate change and environmental sustainability. method of content delivery will vary by student age (stories in younger children, specific lessons in older students), with the goal of eventually having the topics of climate change and sustainability incorporated across the entire curriculum (bbc, 2020). italy has made great strides in a relatively short amount of time. at the time of the incorporation of cross-curricular environmental education in the uk, which were eventually abolished, italy was taking its first steps (mayer, 1991; galvani, 2000). such topics as ‘man and the environment,’ ‘environmental education,’ scientific progress and society,’ ‘energy,’ or ‘ science and society,’ would have typically been introduced within the geography and science curriculum which the us has also traditionally done (mayer, 1991). these early curricular models lacked any initiative for converting knowledge into action; the focus was content delivery and not application (mayer, 1991). more recently, education initiates have been more fluid, sometimes statutory, sometimes not (mayer, 2005). even with a lack of government-led directives for environmental education, there continued to be action supporting some level of education on the environment and sustainability (mayer, 2005). into the early 2000’s, environmental education in italy focused on parameters of environmental education established in 1996. at that time, environmental hollstein & smith education was defined as: “education for responsible and caring citizenship; a means for connecting the school world with what goes on outside school; a cross-curricular subject which shows the links between disciplines and concrete issues; something that acts on the real world and on the present with a view to the future; a subject which takes complexity into account and does not simplify or reduce problems; a subject which deals with local issues in a responsible manner in solidarity with the rest of the planet” (mayer, 2005, p. 256). italy has continued to make progress toward the incorporation of environmental education standards, no greater example of which is the new requirement for specific climate change education. while italy moves forward, england has taken a step back with respect to environmental education in public schools. as with the united states, education policies often fluctuate with national leadership from the administrations of chief executives. nevertheless, both countries provide examples, at various times, of a strong commitment to environmental education, even if that commitment is lessened at other times. it will be interesting to observe the development of italy’s plan for curricular lessons on climate change and sustainability, and to monitor changes in the strategies of neighboring european countries. as has been shown in the other examples presented, a strong cross-curricular incorporation of environmental education and sustainability is the most effective model for fostering students’ sense of civic environmentalism while embracing a connection to other people, other species, and the planet. conclus ions legitimate impacts on climate change begin with education (potter, 2010). civic environmentalism is the integration of social studies education and environmental education. the key issue is to decide how to best create lasting change through an educated populace (dewey, 1954). before educators can educate students in the affairs of environmental concerns such a s climate change, they must first be educated in these areas (chan et al., 2017; palmer, 1998). the benefits of creating a curricular model that integrates social studies and environmental education are social, environmental, and economic (schug, 2000). this model makes students aware of pressing environmental issues such as species and subsequent biodiversity losses through a civic education model. creating an understanding of the underlying causes of these changes can only benefit current and future generations to be able to effectively deal with continually increasing environmental stresses being placed upon the earth (evans, 2009). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 as educators are given the task of facilitating a thoughtful, thorough, and insightful education, it seems that one might border on negligence to not include environmental identity into the discussion. ultimately, our goal has been to facilitate the co-framing of social studies and environmental education and to ensure that this model is conscious of the many factors that play out in the lives of individua l students before, during, and after they are in a classroom. for this to be achieved all factors of influence must be deemed relevant to the process. thus far, we collectively tend to find marginalizing humans and non-humans entirely too easy. however, it is still possible to alleviate some of these issues if models of thinking, structure, and instruction are changed to accommodate all factors of influence. as the united states, australia, the republic of south korea, england, and italy progress through the twenty-first century and beyond, the global citizenry is faced with a number of environmental concerns, of which climate change is the most impactful (evans, 2010). climate change is the result of many other environmental factors; for example, rapid population growth in some of the poorest parts of the world creates a much larger need for economically driven resource consumption (evans, 2010). population and resource use leads to increased co2 production based upon consumption of fossil fuel based resources, which in turn will lead to further environmental degradation! how nations choose to respond to anthropogenic environmental pressures resulting in climate change will be critical to the long-term environmental health of the world. there are those that suggest that these pressures are not real or are caused by non-human factors. however, regardless of one’s position on climate change, the fact remains that climate change is occurring (solomon et al, 2007). the main issue is that many determine the language of environmental issues to be described in science terms, such as global warming related to the rise in co2, caused by a spike in the use of carbon based fossil fuels that increase rates of sulfur related chemicals such as sulfur-dioxide , hydrosulfide , and other sulfur based chemicals that contribute to the growing problem. but citizens cannot separate themselves from the environment and the impact they have on the world around them. we are the creators of our future, regardless of whether we care about what this future will look like. it is every citizens responsibility to be active, informed, and engaged in these issues. these problems are identified in scientific terms, the natural transition is that the solution will be a result of science-based interventions. however, while the problems may be framed in the sciences, the solutions may be found in the social sciences due to the civic activism and hollstein & smith specifically civic environmentalism. a key component of the social studies curriculum is to encourage civic environmental activism and a viable solution to the problems we are currently facing is the transition of environmental concern and activism from an option to a civic duty. while we are not suggesting that the health problems and well-being of our ecosystems and greater planetary environment can be solved over night by citizens who take environmental action and view it as a requirement of citizenship, we do believe that by co-framing environmental education in this model will do much to effect real change for an environment that is currently under siege. we have seen that the works of greta thunberg and other young climate activists have already begun to take up these efforts on their own and without the benefit of an integrated curriculum. young people across the united states and around the world have merged the civic and environmental outside of the formal classroom. amazingly, most teachers want their students to see their content beyond the four walls of their classroom and to see it in the world they exist in every day. a merged curriculum of social studies and environmental education which fosters civic environmentalism through a civic responsibility to and for the environment and all it contains can help to begin to address the environmental degradation which has put the world at a tipping point. our suggestion is that we begin to frame these conversations in the classroom and leverage these movements for lasting change. the curricular models presented in this paper are just the beginning of affecting educational change. the use of literature, personal stories, moral tales, and other examples found in this paper are wonderful examples of how a curricular model of integration between the social studies and environmental education might look if applied at the classroom and school level. it is the suggestion of this paper that more needs to be done to impact curricular changes at the local, national, and regional levels of education to ensure there are much broader applications of educational models that place an emphasis upon environmental concerns and begin to view them as environmental necessities and civic responsibilities. teaching environmental education through the social studies to allow for a framing of issues like climate change, acidification of oceans, water scarcity, and species loss in a civic duty model may do much to elicit a response among those students who may not hold the same moral convictions of greta thunberg and who presently view environmental action as a choice. this has now become a civic and environmental duty, just as important as any other civic responsibility. using this model can journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 create a new generation of civic environmentalists who, as citizens, understand both the social and environmental concerns of a changing globe and that we all must act to save ourselves and all that surrounds us. re fe re nces alston, m. (2011). gender and climate change in australia. journal of sociology, 47 (1), 53-70. australian department of education, (2011). australian national curriculum. retrieved from australian department of education, employment, and workplace relations: http://www.deewr.gov.au/schooling/progra ms/pages/rnc.aspx australian department of education. (2019). environmental conservancy and advocacy. retrieved from australian department of education, employment, and workplace relations: https://docs.education.gov.au/node/53001. australian department of sustainability, e. w. (2011). national action plan for education for sustainability. retrieved from department of sustainability, environment, water, population and communities: http://www.environme nt.gov.au/education/nap/ bajpai, p. (2020). the five largest economies in the world and their growth in 2020. retrieved from https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/the-5-largest-economies-in-the-world-and-the irgrowth-in-2020-2020-01-22. baker, j. (1991). window. sydney: random house. basile, c., & white, c. (1999). tad poles and tought questions: integrating social studies education and environmental education. social studies and the young learner, 12 (2), 15-19. bbc. (2020). newsround. retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/50318843 bourn, d., hunt. f, blum, n., & lawson, h. (2016). primary education for global learning and sustainability. york: cambridge primary review trust. bruner, j. s. (1961). the act of discovery. harvard educational review, 31, 21-32. chan, y., mathews, n. & li, f. (2017). environmental education in nature reserve areas in southwestern china: what do we learn from caohi?. applied environmental education & communication, 1-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1533015x.2017.1388198 chen, h., hao, y., li, j, & song, x. (2018). the impact of environmental regulation, shadow economy, and corruption on environmental quality: theory and empirical evidence from china. journal of cleaner production, 195, 200-2014. chung-in, m., & sung-hack, l. (2003). weaving through paradoxes: democratization, globalization, and environment politics in south korea. east asian review, 15 (2), 4370. cline, d., & van leuvan, d. (2009). janine licare-andrews: saving the rainforest. social studies review , 48 (2), 28-33. dewey, j. (1954). democracy and education. new york: macmillian. dewey, j. (1963). experience and education. new york: collier books. doolittle, p. e., & hicks, d. (2003). constructivism as a theoretical foundation for the use of technology in social studies. theory & research in social education, 31(1), 72-104. drake, s. b. (2004). meeting standards through integrated curriculum. alexandria, virginia, united states: ascd. https://docs.education.gov.au/node/53001 https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/the-5-largest-economies-in-the-world-and-their-growth-in-2020-2020-01-22 https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/the-5-largest-economies-in-the-world-and-their-growth-in-2020-2020-01-22 hollstein & smith education, n. a. (2011). naaee: what is environmental education. retrieved from naaee: http://www.naaee.net/what-is-ee evans, j. (2010). the immediate challenge of climate change: reducing impacts on the poorest communities in the poorest countries. proceedings of the american philosophical society, 154 (2), 183-191. evans, k. m. (2009). endangered species: protecting biodiversity. endangered species, 46-49. freire, p. (1973). education for a critical consciousness. new york, new york, us: continuum publishing. freire, p. (2000). pedagogy of the oppressed. new york: continuum international publishing group. galvani, a. (2000). environmental education: the italian perspective. observatorio medioambiental 3,123-134. gibson, r. (1999). paulo freire and pedagogy for social justice. theory and research in social education, 27(2), 129-159. glackin, m., & king, h. (2018). understanding environmental education in secondary schools in england. perspectives from policy (report 1). london: king’s college london. green, j. (2015). the environmental curriculum: opportunities for environmental education across the national curriculum for england. national association for environmental education (uk). retrieved from https://naee.org.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2015/06/naee_the_environmenta l_curriculum.pdf ho, l. & seow, t. (2015). teaching controversial issues in geography: climate change education in singaporean schools. theory and research in social education , 43 (3), 314344. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2015. 1064842 hye-eun, c., eun ah, l., hee ryung, k., dong hee, s., moon nam, l., byeong mee, m., et al. (2007). korean year 3 children's environmental literacy: a prerequisite for a korean environmental education curriculum. international journal of science education, 29 (6), 731-746. imeson, j., & skamp, k. (1995). a novel use of literature to integrate environmental education with social studies. the social studies , 86 (5), 215-220. jang, s. (2006). research on the effects of team teaching upon two secondary school teachers. educational research , 48 (2), 177-194. jo, j., golden, j., & shin, s. (2009). incorporating built environment factors into climate change mitigation strategies for seoul, south korea: a sustainable urban systems framework. habitat international, 33 (1), 267-275. jones, r. s., & yoo, b. (2010). korea's green growth strategy: mitigating climate change and developing new growth engines. paris: organization for economic co-operation and development. johnson, b., duffin, m.. & murphy, m. (2012) quantifying a relationship between place -based learning and environmental quality. environmental education research, 18 (5), 609-624, doi: 10.1080/13504622. 2011.640748 kim, s. (2013). the problem of authority: what can korean education learn from dewey?. education and culture, 29(1), 64-83. doi:10.1353/eac.2013.0009 korean ministry of education, (2011). overview of education. retrieved from korean ministry of education, science, and technology: http://english. mest.go.kr/web/1692/s ite/contents/en/en_0203. jsp http://english.mest.go.kr/web/1692/site/contents/en/en_0203.jsp journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 korean ministry of education, (2018). overview of education. retrieved from korean ministry of education, science, and technology: http://english. moe.go. kr/sub/info.do?m=020101&s=english lange, c. (2009). green kids: a new generation stepping up to make a difference! social studies review, 48 (2), 6-10. letizia, a. (2013). battle for the enlightenment: neoliberalism, critical theory and the role of circumvential education in fostering a new phase of the enlightenment. journal for critical education policy studies (jceps), 11(3), 164-193. louv, r. (2005). last child in the woods. chapel hill, nc, u.s. : algonquin books. mccright, a. (2010). the effects of gender on climate change knowledge and concern in the american public. population and environment, 32 (1), 66-87. mayer, m. (1991) environmental education in italy: proposals for an evaluation strategy. european journal of education 26, 325-337. mayer, m. (2005). country report: italy. pages 254-276. in eco-schools: trends and divergences, a comparative study on eco-school development in 13 countries (f. mogensen and m. mayer, eds.). vienna: austrian federal ministry of education, science, and culture. meyer, j. (2002). accuracy and bias in childern's environmental literature: a look at lynn cherry's books. the social studies, 93 (6), 277-281. national association for environmental education (uk). 2019. environmental education and the sustainable development goals: exploring curriculum opportunities in primary and secondary schools. retrieved from https://naee.org.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2019/04/naee_ee_sd g_publication.pdf national center on education and the economy. (2019). south korea overview. retrieved from http://ncee.org/what-we-do/center-on-international-e ducation-benc hmarking/topperforming-countries/south-korea-overview/ national council for the social studies. (1994). expectations of excellence: curriculum standards for social studies. national council for the social studies national conference. washington d.c.: national council for the social studies. national council for the social studies. (1994). expectations of excellence: curriculum standards for social studies. washington d.c.: national council for the social studies. national council for the social studies. (1994). national council for the social studies executive summary. retrieved from national council for the social studies: http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/e xecsummary national council for the social studies. (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies: a framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. silver spring, ma: author. national council for the social studies. (2011). about the national council for the social studies. retrieved from national council for the social studies: http://www.socialstudies.org/about national council for the social studies. (2013). college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k -12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver spring, md: author. north american association for environmenta l education. (2011). naaee: what is environmental education. retrieved from naaee: http://www.naaee.net/what-is-ee http://english.moe.go.kr/sub/info.do?m=020101&s=english hollstein & smith nsta. (2011). national science standards. retrieved from national science teachers association: http://www.nsta.org/publications/nses.aspx oecd. (2011). organization for economic cooperation and development 2011 education rank ings. retrieved from organization for economic cooperation and development: http://ourtimes.wordpress.com/2008/04/10/oecd-education-rankings/ palmer, j. (1998). environmental education in the 21st century: theory, practice, progress, and promise. new york: routledge publishing. potter, g. (2010). environmental education for the 21st century: where do we go now? journal of environmental education 41 (1), 22-23. potter, g. (2010). environmental education for the 21st century: where do we go now? journal of environmental education 41 (1), 4 (1), 22-23. powers, a. l. (2004). teacher preperation for environmental education: faculty perspectives on the infusion of environmental education into preservice methods courses. journal of environmental education, 35 (3), 3-11. qualification and curriculum development agency. (2011, november 03). international review of curriculum and frameworks for south korea . retrieved from qualification and curriculum development agency: http://www.inca.org.uk/1398.html#5.4. 2 compulsory subjects ryghaug, m., & skjølsvold, t. m. (2010). the global warming of climate science: climategate and the construction of scientific facts. international studies in the philosophy of science, 24 (3), 287-307. schug, m. c. (2000). what does economics contribute to environmenta l education? the social studies, 91 (2), 53-57. shimek, r. l. (2001). reef temperature and salinity levels. aquarium fish international, 44 51. short, p. c. (2010). responsible environmental action: its role and status in environmenta l education and environmental quality. journal of environmental education, 7-21. simmons, i. (2003). the student's companion to geography. malden, ma: blackwell publishing. smith, g. (2002). place-based education: learning to be where we are. phi delta kappan , 83 (8), 584-594. solomon, s., qin, m., manning, z., chen, m., marquis, k., averyt, m., et al. (2007). ipcc, 2007: summary for policymak ers. in: climate change 2007: the physical science basis. contribution of working group i to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change . cambridge, united kindgom: cambridge university press. stern, m., powell, r., & ardoin, n. (2011). evaluating a constructavist and culturally responsive approach to environmental education for diverse audiences. journal of environmental education, 42 (2), 109-122. street, c. (2006). tech talk for social studies teachers earch day: online resources. the social studies, 97 (2), 85-86. svinicki, m. d. (1998). a theoretical foundation for discovery learning. american journal of physiology, 275, s4-s7. teterault, m. k. (2001). the journey from male-defined to gender balanced education. theory into practice , 25 (4), 228-234. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 223-250 underhill-sim, y. (2006). environmental education and gender justice. convergance , 39 (4), 55-65. unesco. (1977). intergovernmental conference on environmental education. tblisi: united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization. unesco/unep. (1978). intergovernmental conference on environmental education. tbilisi: united nations. union of concerned scientist (2020). each country’s share of co2 emissions. retrieved from https://ucsusa.org/resources/each-countrys-share-co2-emiss ions. veeravatnanond, v., & singseewo, a. (2010). a developmental model of environmental education school. european journal of social sciences, 17 (3), 391-403. williams , c.c., & chawla, l. (2016). environmenta l identity formation in nonformal environmental education programs. environmental education research, 22(9), 978-1001. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2015. 1055553 wilson, e. o. (2006). the creation: an appeal to save life on earth. new york: norton. wolk, s. (2008). joy in school. educational leadership , 8-14. xuan, j., & perkins, k. (2013). a conceptual paper on the application of the picture word inductive model using bruner's constructivist view of learning and the cognitive load theory. interdisciplinary journal of teaching & learning, 3(1), 8-17. https://ucsusa.org/resources/each-countrys-share-co2-emissions microsoft word without table 6 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 1-25 1 relationship of instructional time configuration, gender and race on seventh grade social studies performance kenneth e. vogler,1 susan schramm-pate2 & audrey allan3 abstract this study compared the academic performance of seventh-grade students on a state-mandated social studies accountability test by the instructional time configuration used and explored the relationship among the variables of gender, race and poverty on this performance. results of 24,919 seventh-grade student social studies test scores from 117 middle schools as well as a survey given to principals of the same 117 middle schools were analyzed. while controlling for poverty, students in schools using a 61-79 minute block all year schedule configuration earned significantly higher test scores than students using any other schedule configuration. additionally, white students scored significantly higher on the test than hispanic students, and hispanic students scored significantly higher on the test than black students regardless of the instructional time configuration used. key words: instructional time, middle level education, scheduling, social studies, testing introduction many teachers and administrators are still struggling with how the content area of social studies fits into the educational transparency and accountability world first created by the no child left behind act (nclb, 2002) and continuing with the every child succeeds act (essa, 2015). with the focus on reading/language arts and mathematics, this national legislation does not mandate standardized testing in social studies nor does it include social studies in its school performance calculations. because of this omission, the legislation has had a dramatic impact on social studies instruction. in addition, the adoption of common core state standards in many states added even more pressure on teachers’ curricular decisions. these more rigorous standards have caused teachers to focus additional attention on implementing and teaching the english 1 associate professor, university of south carolina, kvogler@mailbox.sc.edu 2 associate professor, university of south carolina, sschramm@mailbox.sc.edu 3 vice principal, york public schools, audrey@audreyallan.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 2 language arts and literacy standards and mathematics standards at the expense of other subject areas (alberti, 2012/2013). past studies show the pressure on schools to perform well in the tested subjects of reading/language arts, mathematics, and science impacts both the schedule (i.e., time allocated to instruction) and the actual amount of time spent teaching social studies (abrams, pedulla, & madaus, 2003; bailey, shaw, & hollifield, 2006; burroughs, groce, & webeck, 2005; heafner, 2018; houser, krutka, roberts, pennington, & coerver, 2017; kavanagh & fisher-ari, 2018; leming, ellington, & schug, 2006; lintner, 2006; pace, 2012; segail, 2003; vanfossen, 2005; vogler, 2003; vogler & virtue, 2007; zamosky, 2008). lintner (2006) found in a study of kindergarten through fifth-grade social studies in south carolina that “with such a tremendous emphasis being placed on reading, writing, and math, social studies has to fight for instructional time” (p.3). bailey et al. (2006) determined that the actual amount of instructional time spent on social studies in kindergarten through fifth-grade, self-contained classrooms in title i schools in the state of alabama confirmed the assault on social studies’ instructional time reported by lintner (2006). bailey et al. (2006) also found that not only was the instructional time spent on social studies reduced in alabama’s elementary schools, but the amount of time actually spent on social studies on average was far less than the amount of time allocated by the school district and mandated by the state. in fact, there were weeks in some schools when social studies was not taught at all (bailey et al., 2006). also, researchers vonzastrow and janc (2004) surveyed over 900 elementary-level and secondary-level principals across the united states and found that schools spent more time on and allocated more resources to instruction in reading and math than to social studies because of pressures to meet state and federal accountability mandates. south carolina’s testing program before the national education accountability legislation nclb (2002) and its successor the essa (2015), the state legislature passed the south carolina education accountability act in 1998 which enacted a review process for evaluating k-12 schools in south carolina (south carolina department of education, 2009). the primary instrument for measuring student progress according to this law was the palmetto achievement challenge test (pact). in 1999, the pact was first administered to students in grades 3-8 and scores were categorized as advanced, proficient, basic, or below basic. the tests first included only sections in mathematics and english, but in spring 2003 the assessment was expanded to include science vogler et al. 3 and social studies. however, in spring 2007 the state cutback on its testing program and introduced the census testing of social studies and science in grades four and seven; this meant that only students in grades four and seven would be required to take both the social studies and science tests. for students in grades three, five, six, and eight, they would take either the social studies or science test but not both. in june 2008, the assessment system was renamed the palmetto assessment of state standards (pass). the only major difference between the pact and the pass was the categories used to report student scores. whereas the pact categorized student scores as advanced, proficient, basic, or below basic, student scores on the pass were to be reported as exemplary, met, or not met. individual student scores on these tests would be used to help determine a ranking for the state’s school report card that rates schools as excellent, good, average, below average, and unsatisfactory (south carolina department of education, 2009). in 2014, the pass was changed to the south carolina palmetto assessment of state standards (scpass). at the time this study was conducted, the pass was the state’s testing program and the social studies portion consisted of 45 items for third grade up to 60 items for eighth grade. each item was a 1-point, four-option, multiple-choice question aligned to the standards for that particular grade level (south carolina department of education, 2009). in addition, the test contained 6 to 12 embedded field test items. these items were for test development purposes only and were not included in the calculation of student scores (south carolina department of education, 2009). modern learning theory a fundamental tenet of modern learning theory, that different or expanded learning goals require different approaches to instruction, also suggests that expanded opportunities to learn may also be required (bransford, brown, & cocking, 1999). because prior knowledge forms the foundation needed to efficiently acquire new knowledge (wanzek, roberts, vaughn, swanson, & sargent, 2019) and a student’s level of background knowledge can predict future academic achievement cromley & azevedo, 2007; taboada, tonks, wigfield, & guthrie, 2009), the relevancy of allocating appropriate amounts of instructional time is particularly significant (dochy, segers, & buehl, 1999). it is not a stretch to conclude that scheduling configurations have the power to not only compromise a teacher’s ability to provide time to ensure their students have an in-depth coverage journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 4 of a subject such as social studies, but also their ability to provide the type of quality of instruction necessary for their students to learn the material and relate it to their lived worlds. these types of relevant connections to the skills and to other areas of the curriculum are essential to prepare elementary and middle-level students for future studies at the secondary-level (abrams et al., 2003; bloom, 1974; carroll, 1963; hirsch, 2006; leming, ellington, & schug, 2006; national education commission on time and learning, 1994; slavin, 1994; walberg, 1988). this is especially true in the era of high-stakes testing when developmentally-appropriate practices for students, particularly at the middle-level, are incongruent with the standards-based summative accountability expectations of academic rigor within content-discreet oriented curriculum and instruction (anfara & waks, 2001). therefore, the challenge for educators is how to allocate, organize, and employ instruction time so that curriculum content and pedagogy can be aligned in ways that are integrated, relevant, exploratory, and engaging, while simultaneously enabling students do well on standardized state-sanctioned tests (thompson, 2000). scheduling configurations most states have laws that define the minimum number of days per year and hours per day that students must attend school. the minimum amount of instructional time is specified; however, the way time is allocated is not prescribed and thus enables schools to have considerable flexibility in instructional time configurations based on prioritized instructional and non-instructional activities. unfortunately, criticism of how instructional time is structured has a history spanning over 300 years (zepeda & mayers, 2006); the latest epoch of this issue has included publications such as a nation at risk: the imperative for education reform (national commission on excellence in education, 1983), a place called school: prospects for the future (goodlad, 1984), and prisoners of time: report of the national education commission on time and learning (national education commission on time and learning, 1994), all demanding the restructuring of instructional time. in response, an unprecedented wave of schools moved away from traditional schedules and adopted different configurations touted as a way to maximize instructional time (canady & rettig, 1996). for example, in texas, the number of high schools using block scheduling rose from 4 percent to over 40 percent in a four-year span between 1992 and 1995 (texas education agency, 1999). block scheduling was seen as an instrument to maximize instructional time by (1) reducing the number of students for whom teachers must prepare and with whom teachers vogler et al. 5 and arrived each day and/or each term; (2) reducing the number of classes, and assignments, tests, and projects that teachers must address during any single day of term; (3) reducing the fragmentation in traditional schedules, a complaint especially pertinent to classes requiring extensive practice and laboratory work; (4) providing teachers with lots of time that allow and encourage the use of active teaching strategies promoting greater student involvement; and (5) allowing students variable amounts of time for learning without lowering standards, and without punishing those who need more or less time to learn (hottenstein, 1998). currently, the most commonly used configurations are the traditional instructional time configurations and the flexible instructional time configurations (daniel, 2007). traditional schedules traditional schedules are those with “a fixed number of daily periods of uniform length, with delivery of instruction strictly adhering to departmental classifications” (hackmann & valentine, 2000, p. 6). traditional schedules generally contain from five to ten instructional periods (hackmann & valentine, 2000). flexible schedules flexible schedules are those that are characterized by a shift from fixed-time instructional periods (e.g., 40-50 minutes) towards longer instructional periods (e.g., 75-150 minutes). these extended amounts of time within flexible instructional time configurations are often associated with inquiry or constructivist pedagogies rather than didactic lecture (bevevino, snodgrass, adams, & dengel, 1999; daniel, 2007). the two most commonly used flexible instructional time configurations are known as block scheduling and alternate day class scheduling or what is referred to as the a/b schedule (daniel, 2007). block schedules block scheduling uses blocks of time created from combining instructional time allotted for a traditionally scheduled period (45-minutes) into two or more combined periods (hackmann, 2002). this can include periods of all the same length (e.g., 90 minutes) or can adjust the length of time devoted to each time block according to the instructional needs of students (e.g., core academic subjects such as math and language arts may be assigned longer blocks of time while subjects not considered core or academic such as physical education and art may be assigned shorter blocks of time). the length of time of a block can also vary from day to day and week to week. common block instructional time configurations in middle-level use what is referred to as journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 6 a 4x4 (four-by-four) schedules where students take four classes for half an academic year and then four different classes the second half of the academic year (daniel, 2007). a/b schedule flexible instructional time configurations may also utilize an alternating day schedule. in this arrangement, classes may be assigned to meet on an every-other-day basis with evennumbered and odd-numbered class periods meeting on alternating days (hackmann, 2002). for example, students may attend one set of classes on certain days of the week and another set of classes on the remaining days. statement of the problem the federally mandated nclb and later essa legislation’s focus on reading/language arts and mathematics testing outcomes has forced administrators and teachers to allocate more instructional time to these content areas at the expense of other content areas. however, 28 states, including south carolina, still include social studies as part of their accountability system and mandate scores in this content area to be included as part of a school’s review (mullen & woods, 2018). if students are expected to score within a particular range in the area of social studies on the state’s accountability test, in spite of the pressure and focus on reading/language arts and mathematics, it stands to reason that there needs to be a re-examination in the ways in which instructional time is allocated vis-à-vis scheduling configurations to teach these content areas. purpose of study the purpose of this study was to compare the social studies performance of middle school students by the instructional time configuration used and examine the relationship among the variables of gender, race, and poverty on this performance. specifically, this study was designed to identify how instructional time configuration affects scores on a state-mandated social studies test and how the variables gender, race, and poverty impact this relationship. research questions the following are the study’s research questions: 1. how does instructional time configuration affect seventh-grade social studies test scores on a state-mandated test? 2. how does instructional time configuration impact seventh-grade students’ achievement on the social studies portion of a state-mandated test relative to gender and race/ethnicity? vogler et al. 7 this article begins with a description of the study’s method followed by an examination of the results of the research questions and concludes with information about the study’s limitations and directions for future research. method the data to answer the research questions were obtained through: (1) an examination of 2009 seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores, (2) south carolina poverty index data,1 and (3) the results of a survey instrument given to south carolina middle-level principals designed to elicit information about the instructional time configuration used at their school.2 archived pass and poverty index data the south carolina state department of education (scsdoe) archival data set for the 2009 spring administration of the social studies seventh-grade pass test (school level, aggregate data only) was used in the present study. the data set was accessed from scsdoe’s pass data website. in addition, poverty index data for 2009 was also retrieved from the scsdoe’s data website archives. the poverty index data served as a covariate in this study—to control for poverty. survey instrument a survey instrument was used to collect data on scheduling configurations and principals’ perception data. the instrument asks for demographic information and includes 10 likert item questions. the validity of the survey instrument was previously established through a longitudinal study that began in 2003 (see rock et al., 2006). survey questions were developed by university social studies education professors and reviewed by preservice elementary-level and middle level education teachers, practicing teachers, and other university faculty. the questions were edited to improve clarity, reduce bias, and guarantee consistency in interpretation. survey questions were pilot tested with 25 preservice and 25 practicing teachers. the questions were then redesigned to accommodate recommendations in order to insure the validity of the instrument. permission to use the survey instrument and to modify questions for the present study was received from the developing researchers and the review board of the university of south carolina. an internal consistent reliability analysis was used to assess the reliability of scores yielded by the survey instrument. cronbach’s alpha was used to assess score reliability of the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 8 survey instrument. the survey instrument had an alpha of .73, this is slightly above the .70 suggested as being indicative of adequate score reliability (nunnally & bernstein, 1994). sample the target population for this study consisted of seventh grade students attending traditional public middle-level schools (excluding charter schools and schools with multiple elementary and secondary grades) in south carolina who took the pass social studies test in spring 2009. there were 210 schools in 73 school districts that met these criteria and they were contacted for possible participation in this study. after contacting these schools and school districts, 117 schools representing 58 districts agreed to participate. meaning, there was a 56% response rate from schools eligible to participate in the study and a 79% response rate from the eligible districts in the state. the participating schools in this study are representative of the state in terms of percentage rural and urban and student characteristics of race, income, and past performance on state accountability assessments. the principals of the 117 participating middle-level schools completed the survey instrument. this survey instrument, as previously mentioned, elicited information regarding the instructional time configuration used at the school. this information, in combination with the data set containing the individual student results of the 2009 spring administration of the social studies seventh-grade pass test, provided data on the instructional time configuration used in each school and the individual pass social studies test results, including gender, and race of every seventh grade student in the 117 participating middle-level schools. the total sample size for this study was 24,506 students. findings research question 1 1. how does instructional time configuration affect seventh-grade student social studies test scores on a state-mandated test? the information to answer this question begins with the study’s sample. descriptive statistics about the sample, including size, percentage, mean, and standard deviation of the variables instructional time configuration, gender, and race are displayed in table 1. vogler et al. 9 table 1 descriptive statistics of seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores by instructional time configuration, gender, and ethnicity variable n % m sd instructional time configuration trad 45-60 min blk all yeara 15928 63.7 617.23 48.95 61-79 min blk all yearb 5780 23.1 621.34 51.59 80-90 min blk all yearc 1710 06.9 609.36 47.28 a/b 80-90 min blk all yeard 1336 05.4 624.97 49.67 a/b 45-60 min blk all yeare 131 00.5 599.05 38.25 otherf 106 00.4 612.98 48.45 gender male 12859 51.5 621.48 53.66 female 12132 48.5 614.23 44.57 ethnicity white 14670 58.7 628.55 50.69 black 8600 34.4 598.72 40.93 hispanic 1196 04.8 612.39 45.19 asian 371 01.5 652.67 23.34 american native/alaskan 72 00.3 622.96 45.72 missing 82 00.3 note. a73 schools used this configuration. b25 schools used this configuration. c10 schools used this configuration. d7 schools used this configuration. e1 school used this configuration. f1 school used this configuration. in terms of instructional time, traditional 45-60 minute block all year (63.7%) and 61-79 minute block all year (23.1%) were the configurations most frequently used by the sample school population; hence, most widely used by the sample student population. these instructional time configurations were followed by 80-90 minute block all year (6.9%) and a/b 80-90 minute block all year (5.4%). one school used an a/b 45-60 min block all year configuration (n = 131, % = .5) and another school used an unnamed “other” instructional time configuration (n = 106, % = .4).3 in regards to the independent variable gender, the sample population was made up of 51.5% males and 48.5% females. among the different race/ethnicities of students, white (58.7%) and black (34.4%) comprised 93.1% of the total sample population. they were followed by hispanic (4.8%), asian (1.5%), and american native/alaskan (.3%).4 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 10 to answer the first research question, an analysis of variance (anova) was used to compare the variable instructional time configuration to the 2009 seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores. this statistic was used because we compared one independent variable (instructional time configuration) with one scale level dependent variable (2009 seventh-grade student pass test scores). results of the anova show that there was a significant interaction between instructional time configuration and seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores, f (3, 24346) = 35.72, p = .000, partial eta2 = .004. the levene’s test was used to check the assumption that the variances of the four instructional time configurations were equal. results showed the levene’s test was significant and therefore the assumption of equal variances was violated. since the levene’s test was significant, a games-howell post hoc test was used. results of the games-howell post hoc test revealed there were significant mean differences (p = .000) between all the combinations of the four instructional time configurations with the exception of the difference between the 61-79 minute block all year and the a/b 80-90 minute block all year instructional time configurations (p = .083). then, because poverty has been identified as a variable with potential to significantly impact student achievement (anderson, 1993; guo & harris, 2000), an analysis of covariance (ancova) was conducted on the interaction between instructional time configuration and 2009 seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores using a covariate, 2009 poverty index, to control for student poverty level. table 2 shows the result of this analysis. table 2 analysis of covariance for seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores as a function of instructional time configuration, using poverty level as a covariate source df ms f p partial eta2 instrtime 3 12119.14 5.18 .001 .001 poverty 1 1394527.32 596.26 .000 .024 instrtime*poverty 3 10147.92 4.34 .005 .001 error 24342 2338.79 as shown in table 2, the result of the ancova showed a statistically significant interaction between seventh-grade pass social studies test scores and instructional time configuration, vogler et al. 11 while controlling for poverty, f (3, 24342) = 5.18, p = .001, partial eta2 = .001. in other words, after controlling for students’ poverty level, there is a significant difference among the four instructional time configurations and seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores. table 3 presents the means and standard deviations of seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores by instructional time configuration before and after controlling for poverty level. table 3 adjusted and unadjusted means and variability for seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores as a function of instructional time configuration, using poverty level as a covariate instructional time configuration unadjusted adjusted n % m sd m se trad 45-60 min blk all year 15660 64.3 617.23 48.95 617.56 0.39 61-79 min blk all year 5687 23.4 621.34 51.59 620.27 0.64 80-90 min blk all year 1684 06.9 609.36 47.28 617.42 0.46 a/b 80-90 min blk all year 1319 05.4 624.97 49.67 614.64 1.63 as displayed in table 3, after controlling for students’ poverty level, the 61-79 minute block all year instructional time configuration had the greatest seventh-grade student pass social studies test score mean (620.27). this configuration was followed by the traditional 45-60 minute block all year (617.56) and 80-90 minute block all year (617.42) instructional time configurations. the a/b 80-90 minute block all year instructional time configuration had the greatest seventh-grade student pass social studies test score mean (624.97) before controlling for poverty, but after adjusting for students’ poverty level this configuration had the lowest seventh-grade student pass social studies test score mean at 614.64. question 2 2. how does instructional time configuration impact seventh-grade students’ achievement on the social studies portion of a state-mandated test relative to gender and race/ethnicity? in addition to poverty, the impact of gender and race/ethnicity on student achievement has been well documented in the literature (clotfelter, ladd, & vigdor, 2009; fryer & levitt, 2004, 2006; holman, 1995; hull, 2017; kohlhass, lin, & chu, 2010; thomas & stockton, 2003). an anova was used again to answer the research question. however, for this research question, a three-way anova was used to help understand the impact students’ gender and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 12 ethnicity, as well as the instructional time configuration used, had on seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores. table 4 shows the results of the three-way anova. table 4 three-way analysis of variance for seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores as a function of instructional time configuration, gender, and race source df ms f p partial eta2 instrtime 3 12955.06 5.90 .001 .001 gender 1 40951.41 18.63 .000 .001 race 2 1079244.18 491.06 .000 .040 instrtime*gender 3 1923.23 .88 .453 .243 instrtime*race 6 11691.84 5.32 .000 .001 instrtime*gender*race 6 2634.33 1.20 .304 .001 error as presented in table 4, the interaction among the variables instructional time configuration, gender, and ethnicity on seventh grade student social studies pass test results was not statistically significant, nor was the interaction between instructional time configuration and gender. however, there was a statistically significant interaction between instructional time configuration and ethnicity, f (6, 23814) = 5.32, p = .000, partial eta2 = .001. the levene’s test was used to check the assumption that the variances of the four instructional time configurations and three race/ethnicities (white, black, and hispanic) were equal. results showed the levene’s test was significant and therefore the assumption of equal variances was violated. since the levene’s test was significant, a games-howell post hoc test was used. results of the gameshowell post hoc test revealed there were significant mean differences (p = .000) between the combinations of the four instructional time configurations and white students, white and black students, and black and hispanic students. an ancova was then used to analyze the interaction between instructional time configuration and ethnicity using the poverty index data as a covariate to control for student poverty level. table 5 shows the result of this analysis. vogler et al. 13 table 5 analysis of covariance for seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores as a function of instructional time configuration and race, using poverty level as a covariate source df ms f p partial eta2 insrtime 3 7956.93 3.68 .012 .001 race 2 59532.45 27.51 .000 .000 poverty 1 131934.14 60.98 .000 .000 instrtime*race*poverty 6 6644.05 3.07 .005 .001 error 23814 2163.73 as shown in table 5, the result of the ancova showed a statistically significant interaction between instructional time configuration and ethnicity, while controlling for poverty, f (6, 23814) = 3.07, p = .005, partial eta2 = .001. table 6 presents the means and standard deviations of white, black, and hispanic students on the seventh-grade student pass social studies test before and after controlling for poverty level. as shown in table 6, white students scored significantly higher on the test than hispanic students, and hispanic students scored significantly higher on the test than black students regardless of the instructional time configuration used both before and after controlling for poverty level. in other words, white students scored highest on the test followed by hispanic and then black students in all instructional time configurations. also, table 6 shows that after controlling for poverty level there were only slight differences in the test results for white, black, and hispanic students—with two exceptions. the mean test score for white students using an a/b 80-90 minute instructional time configuration dropped 9.4 points (from 637.58 to 628.18) after controlling for poverty level. for black students using a 80-90 minute block configuration, the mean test score rose 8.17 points (from 593.91 to 602.08) after controlling for poverty level. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 table 6 adjusted and unadjusted instructional time configuration means and variability by race for seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores, using poverty level as a covariate instr time white black hispanic unadjusted adjusted unadjusted adjusted unadjusted adjusted n m sd m se n m sd m se n m sd m se trad 45-60 min blk all year 9430 626.98 50.01 626.05 .48 5143 598.35 40.31 599.56 .69 768 610.78 43.60 610.61 1.73 61-79 min blk 3084 634.71 52.46 631.55 .90 2203 601.78 43.66 603.90 1.03 265 614.54 43.13 615.20 2.88 80-90 min blk 908 620.10 50.24 621.53 1.60 702 593.91 37.62 602.08 3.86 57 619.93 50.84 620.86 6.64 a/b 80-90 min blk 860 637.58 49.44 628.18 2.22 355 595.57 38.11 594.09 2.57 63 614.29 41.92 613.38 5.87 vogler et al. 15 discussion research question 1 how does instructional time configuration affect seventh-grade student social studies test scores on a state-mandated test? results of an anova comparing the sample’s four most frequently used instructional time configurations by the sample school population to the 2009 seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores and an ancova using the 2009 poverty index to control for student poverty level found a significant difference among the instructional time configurations and the seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores. students in schools using a 61-79 minute block all year schedule configuration earned significantly higher seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores than students in schools using a traditional schedule configuration or the sample’s two other frequently used types of block scheduling configurations. this finding supports previous research concluding block-scheduled students perform better on standardized tests than traditionally scheduled students (cobb, abate, & baker, 1999; evans, tokarczyk, rice, & mccray, 2002; hess, wronkovich, & robinson, 1999; mattox, hancock, & queen, 2011, payne & jordan, 1996; queen, algozzine, & eaddy, 1996) and refutes findings of previous studies that either conclude there are no significant differences in student performance with regard to the scheduling configuration used at the school (duel, 1999; lare, jablonski, & salvaterra, 2002; snyder, 1997; veal & schreiber, 1999) or traditionally scheduled students outperform block-scheduled students (arnold, 2002; gruber & onwuegbuzie, 2001; knight, deleon, & smith, 1999; lawrence & mcpherson, 2000; pisapia & westfall, 1997). however, these findings show that there is a limit to the effectiveness of block scheduling on students’ academic performance. after controlling for student poverty level, the instructional time configurations with the greatest amount of per period class time (80-90 minute yearlong block and a/b 80-90 minute block all year schedule) had the lowest student achievement performance levels while the instructional time configurations with the least amount per period class time (61-79 minute yearlong schedule and traditional 45-60 minute schedule) had the highest performance levels. while the research literature addressing the relationship of achievement and instructional time configuration impact is sparse with regard to middle-level social studies testing scenarios, the findings of this study support those of similar studies (gainey & brucato, 1999; lewis et al., 2003). evidence that longer instructional periods fail to journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 16 adequately support average attention spans or the retention of general knowledge in core areas (gould, 2003; gullatt, 2006) supports the present study’s finding that the schedules with the greatest amount of instructional time allocated to social studies (80-90 minute yearlong block and the a/b 80-90 minute block all year schedule) have the lowest student achievement level of all the instructional time configuration types. research question 2 how does instructional time configuration impact seventh-grade students’ achievement on the social studies portion of a state-mandated test relative to gender and race/ethnicity? a three way anova comparing the sample’s four most frequently used instructional time configurations by the sample student population’s gender and race/ethnicity to the 2009 seventhgrade student pass social studies test scores followed by an ancova on the interaction among instructional time configuration, student gender, and student ethnicity using the 2009 poverty index to control for student poverty level was used to answer this question. results showed a significant interaction among the variables instructional time configuration, student ethnicity, and the seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores. white students, both before and after controlling for poverty, scored significantly higher on the seventh-grade student pass social studies test than hispanic students, and hispanic students scored significantly higher on the test than black students regardless of the instructional time configuration used at the school. this result is consistent with general research findings that subgroup membership impacts achievement (holman, 1995; kohlhaas, lin, & chu, 2010; thomas & stockton, 2003), and is consistent with specific research addressing the race/ethnicity academic achievement gap (clotfelter, ladd, & vigdor, 2009; hull, 2017; phillips & chin, 2004; reardon & galindo, 2009). additionally, results show hispanic and black students scored higher on the seventh grade student pass social studies test in the instructional time configurations meeting daily for a longer period of time (61-79 minute yearlong block and the 80-90 minute yearlong block schedule) than the traditional configuration. this finding coincides with previous research showing hispanic and black students perform better in block schedules with longer, concentrated periods of time than a traditional instructional time configuration (candy & rettig, 1995; carroll, 1994; evans, 2005; fisher & frey, 2007; gill, 2011). also, research on social studies instruction shows that longer class periods allow teachers increased opportunities for vogler et al. 17 group activities and in-class projects (bryant & bryant, 2000; dibiase & queen, 1999; hamdy & urich, 1998; johnson & johnson, 1989) and to abandon lectures and utilize strategies more compatible with individualized instruction (slavin, karweit, & madden, 1989). limitations the scope and of this study was limited to south carolina public middle-level schools meeting the criteria for inclusion in this study and whose principal completed the survey instrument. only schools designated as public middle-level schools that contained grade seven were eligible for inclusion in the target population. schools classified as charter schools and schools with multiple elementary and/or secondary grades were not included. because south carolina assesses social studies state-mandated test results as part of a school’s report card calculation, caution must be used in making generalizations about social studies achievement in states that either do not assess social studies or do not assess it at the middle-level. further, because the results of this study considered instructional time configurations and achievement in social studies only at the seventh-grade, results could not be generalized beyond this grade level. additionally, because this study was an initial study, only how instruction time is configured over the course of a school year was considered. the analysis was limited to the most commonly used instructional time configurations. finally, data was only available at the school level. therefore, intervening variables such as differences in how time was used within schedules/classrooms, instructional strategies, teacher quality, teacher experience and training, skill in teaching social studies, or the amount of engaged learning time were not addressed. conclusion and future research the study’s first research question, comparing the social studies performance of middle school students by the instructional time configuration used at the school, results showed that while controlling for poverty, students in schools using a 61-79 minute block all year schedule configuration earned significantly higher seventh-grade student pass social studies test scores than students in schools using a traditional schedule configuration or schools using either an 8090 minute block or an a/b 80-90 minute block scheduling configuration. the second research question, the relationship among the variables instructional time configuration, gender, race, and poverty on student test performance, results indicated that while controlling for poverty, white students scored significantly higher on the seventh-grade student pass social studies test than journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 18 hispanic or black students regardless of the instructional time configuration used at the school. additionally, results show that hispanic and black students performed better in block schedules meeting daily for a longer period of time (61-79 minute yearlong block and the 80-90 minute yearlong block schedule) than the traditional configuration. although this study has provided valuable information about the effect instructional time (scheduling) configuration has had on students’ social studies test performance, many questions still remain. for example, what are teachers’ perspectives regarding traditional and block instructional time configuration and student achievement on state-mandated tests? what differences are there in the instructional practices used by teachers in meeting state standards in block and traditional instructional time configurations? finally, what differences are there in students’ grades and state-mandated testing performance in block instructional time configurations compared with the traditional time configuration? vogler et al. 19 footnotes 1the south carolina poverty index is a calculation that ensures that student achievement among districts and schools across the state are being compared with districts and schools with similar student and demographic characteristics. the index is based on free and reduced-price lunch data and medicaid eligibility data. it was developed in direct response to a mandate of the code of laws of south carolina, section 59-18-900(c) which required the state to set criteria for academic performance ratings and performance indicators and to establish guidelines for statistical analysis for data-reporting purposes. 2the survey instrument used in this study is available upon request from kenneth vogler, department of instruction and teacher education, university of south carolina, columbia, sc 29208. e-mail: kvogler@mailbox.sc.edu. 3students in schools using an a/b 45-60 min block all year instructional time configuration and an unnamed “other” instructional time configuration were removed from further calculations because they made up only .9% of the total sample population. 4asian and american native/alaskan students were excluded from further calculations because they collectively comprised only 1.8% of the total sample population. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 20 references abrams, l. m., pedulla, j. j., & madaus, g. r. (2003). views from the classroom: teachers’ opinions of statewide testing programs. theory into practice, 42, 1-29. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4201_4 alberti, s. (2012/2013). making the shifts. educational leadership, 70(4), 24-27. anfara, v. a., jr., & waks, l. (2001). resolving the tension between academic rigor and developmental appropriateness (part ii). middle school journal, 32(3), 25-30. retrieved from eric database. (eric document reproduction service no. ej628437) arnold, d. e. (2002). block schedule and traditional schedule achievement: a comparison. nassp bulletin, 86(630), 42-53. doi:10.1177/019263650208663006 bailey, g., shaw, e. l., & hollifield, d. (2006). the devaluation of social studies in the elementary grades. the journal of social studies research, 30(2), 18-29. retrieved from http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do”prodid=prof bevevino, m. m., snodgrass, d. m., adams, k. m., & dengel, j. a. (1999). an educator’s guide to block scheduling. needham heights, ma: allyn & bacon. bloom, b. s. (1974). time and learning. american psychologist, 29, 682-688. bransford, j. d., brown, a. l., & cocking, r. r. (eds.). (1999). how people learn: brain, mind, experience, and school. washington, dc: national academy press. bryant, c., & bryant, r. (2000). social studies in the block schedule: a model for effective lesson design. the social studies, 91(1), 9-16. doi: 10.1080/00377990009602435 burroughs, s., groce, e., & webeck, m. l. (2005). social studies education in the age of testing and accountability. educational measurement: issues and practice, 24(3), 13-20. canady, r. l., & rettig, m. d. (1995). block scheduling, a catalyst for change. new york, ny: larchmont. canady, r. l., & rettig, m. d. (1996). block scheduling: what is it? why do it? how do we harness its potential to improve teaching and learning? in r. l. canady & m. d. rettig (eds.), teaching on the block (pp. 1-27). larchmont, ny: eye on education. carroll, j. b. (1963). a model of school learning. teachers college record, 64, 723-733. carroll, j. m. (1994). the copernican plan evaluated: the evolution of a revolution. phi delta kappan, 76, 104-110, 112-113. retrieved from eric database. (ej490904) clotfelter, c. t., ladd, h. f., & vigdor, j. l. (2009). the academic achievement gap in grades 3 to 8. review of economics and statistics, 91(2), 398-419. cobb, r. b., abate, s., & baker, d. (1999). effects on students of a 4 x 4 junior high school block scheduling program. education policy analysis archives, 7(3). retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v7n3.html cromley, j. g., & azevedo, r. (2007). testing and refining the direct and inferential mediation model of reading comprehension. journal of educational psychology, 99, 311-325. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.311 vogler et al. 21 daniel, l. (2007). research summary: flexible scheduling. retrieved from http://www.nmsa.org/research/researchsummaries/flexiblescheduling/tabid/ 110/default.aspx dibiase, w., & queen, j. a. (1999). middle school social studies on the block. the clering house, 72(6), 377-384. doi: 10.1080.00098659909599428 dochy, f., segers, m., & buehl, m. m. (1999). the relation between assessment practices and outcomes of studies: the case of research on prior knowledge. review of educational research, 69, 145-186. doi: 10.3102/00346543069002145 duel, l. s. (1999). block scheduling in large, urban high schools: effects on academic achievement, student behavior, and staff perceptions. high school journal, 83(1), 14-25. evans, r. (2005). reframing the achievement gap. phi delta kappan, 86(8), 582-589. evans, w., tokarczyk, j., rice, s., & mccray, a. (2002). block scheduling: an evaluation of outcomes and impact. clearing house, 75(6), 319-323. doi:10.1080/00098650209603964 every child succeeds act (essa) of 2015, public law no. 114-95, s.1177, 114th cong. (2015). retrieved from http:/www.congress.gov/114/plaws/publ95/plaw-114publ95.pdf fisher, d., & frey, n. (2007). a tale of two middle schools: the difference in structure and instruction. journal of adolescent and adult literacy, 51(3), 204-211. doi: 10.1598/jaal.51.3.1 fryer, r.g., jr., & levitt, s. d. (2004). understanding the black-white test score gap in the first two years of school. review of economics and statistics, 86(2), 447-464. fryer, r.g., jr., & levitt, s. d. (2006). the black-white test score gap through third grade. american law and economics review, 8(2), 249-281. gainey, d. d., & brucato, j. m. (1999). questions & answers about block scheduling: an implementation guide. larchmont, ny: eye on education. gill, w. w. a. (2011). middle school a/b block and traditional scheduling: an analysis of math and reading performance by race. nassp bulletin, 95(4), 281-301. doi: 10.117/0192636511420998 goodlad, j. i. (1984). a place called school: prospects for the future. new york: mcgraw-hill. gould, p. f. (2003, may 7). scheduling choice. education week, 22(34), 34-35. gullatt, d. e. (2006). bolck scheduling: the effects on curriculum and student productivity. nassp bulletin, 90(3), 250-266. doi: 10.1177/0192636506292382 gruber, c., & onwuegbuzie, a. j. (2007). effects of block scheduling on academic achievement among high school students. high school journal, 84(4), 32-42. doi:10.1353/hsj.2001.0010 hackmann, d. g. (2002). block scheduling for the middle-level: a cautionary tale about the best features of secondary school models. middle school journal, 33(4), 22-28. hackmann, d. g., & valentine, j. w. (1998). designing an effective middle-level schedule. middle school journal, 29(5), 3-13. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 22 hamdy, m., & urich, t. r. (1998). principals’ perceptions of block scheduling. american secondary education, 26(3), 8-12. heafner, t. l. (2018). more social studies? examing instructional policies of time and testing in elementary school. the journal of social studies research, 42, 229-237. hess, c., wronkovich, m., & robinson, j. (1999). measure outcomes of learning under block scheduling. nassp bulletin, 83(611), 87-95. hirsch, e. d., jr. (2006). the case for bringing content into the language arts block and for a knowledge-rich curriculum core for all children. retrieved from http://archive.aft.org/pubs-reports/american_educator/issues/spring06/ hirsch.htm holman, l. j. (1995, april). impact of ethnicity, class, and gender on achievement of border area students on high stakes examination. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, san francisco. hottenstein, d. s. (1998). intensive scheduling: restructuring america’s secondary schools through time management. thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. houser, n. o., krutka, d. g., roberts, p. r., pennington, k., & coerver, n. f. (2017). navigating the reform: accountability culture in oklahoma social studies. theory and research in social education, 45, 7-42. hull, m. c. (2017). the academic progress of hispanic immigrants. economics of educational review, 57, 91-110. johnson, d. w., & johnson, r. (1989). cooperation and competition: theory and research. edina, mn: interaction book co. kavanagh, k. m., & fisher-ari, t. r. (2018) curricular and pedagogical oppression: contradictions within the juggernaut accountability trap. educational policy, 54(2), 1-29. knight, s. l., deleon, n. j., & smith, r. g. (1999). using multiple data sources to evaluate an alternative scheduling model. high school journal, 83(1), 1-13. kohlhaas, k., lin, h., & chu, k. (2010). disaggregated outcomes of gender, ethnicity, and poverty on fifth-grade science performance. national middle school association: rmle online research in middle-level education, 33(7), 1-12. lare, d., jablonski, a. m., & salvaterra, m. (2002). block scheduling: is it cost-effective? nassp bulletin, 86(630), 54-71. doi:10.1177/019263650208663007 lawrence, w. w., & mcpherson, d. d. (2000). a comparative study of block scheduling and traditional scheduling on academic achievement. journal of instructional psychology, 27(3), 178-182. leming, j. s., ellington, l., & schug, m. (2006). the state of social studies: a national random survey of elementary and middle school social studies teachers. social education, 70(5), 322-327. lewis, c. w., cobb, r. b., winokur, m., leech, n., viney m., & white, w. (2003). the effects of full and alternative day block scheduling on language arts and science achievement in a junior high school. education policy analysis archives, 11(41). retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v11n41/ vogler et al. 23 lintner, t. (2006). social studies (still) on the back burner: perceptions and practices of k-12 social studies instruction. journal of social studies research, 30(1), 3-8. manning, m. l. (2000). child-centered middle schools: a position paper. childhood education, 76(3), 154-159. mattox, k., hancock, d., & queen, j. a. (2005). the effect of block scheduling on middle school students’ mathematics achievement. nassp bulletin, 89(642), 3-13. mullen, j. & woods, j. r. (2018). 50-state comparison: state summative assessments. retrieved from education commission of the states website: http://www.ecs.org/50-statecomparison-state-summative-assessment. national commission on excellence in education. (1983). a nation at risk: the imperative for educational reform. washington, dc: author. national education commission on time and learning. (1994). prisoners of time: report of the national education commission on time and learning. washington, dc: u.s. government printing office. no child left behind act, pub. l. 107-110, 20 u.s.c. 6301, 115 stat. 1425 (2002). nunnally, j. c., & bernstein, i. h. (1994). psychometric theory (3rd ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill. pace, j. (2012). teaching literacy through social studies under no child left behind. journal of social studies research, 36, 329-358. pascopella, a. (2005). staying alive: social studies in elementary schools. social studies and the young learner, 17(3), 30-32. payne, d., & jordan, m. m. (1996). the evaluation of a high school block schedule: convergence of teacher and student data. american secondary education, 25(2), 16-19. pedulla, j. j., abrams, l. m., madaus, g. f., russell, m. k., ramos, m. a., & miao, j. (2003). perceived effects of state-mandated testing programs on teaching and learning: findings from a national survey of teachers. chestnut hill, ma: center for the study of testing, evaluation, and educational policy, boston college. pisapia, j., & westfall, a. l. (1997). alternative high school scheduling: student achievement and behavior. richmond, va: metropolitan educational research consortium. retrieved from eric database. (ed411337) phillips, m. & chin, t. (2004). school inequality: what do we know? in k. neckerman (ed.), social inequality, new york: russel sage foundation. queen, j. a., algozzine, b., & eaddy, m. (1996). the success of 4 x 4 block scheduling in the social studies. social studies, 87(6), 249-253. doi:10.1080/00377996.1996.10114496 reardon, s. f., & galindo, c. (2009). the hispanic-white achievement gap in math and reading in the elementary grades. american educational research journal, 46(3), 853-891. rock, t. c., heafner, t., o’connor, k., passe, j., oldendorj, s., good, a., & byrd, s. (2006). one state closer to a national crisis: a report on elementary social studies education in north carolina schools. theory and research in social education, 34(4), 455-483. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 1-25 24 segail, a. (2003). teacher’s perceptions of the impact of state-mandated standardized testing: the michigan educational assessment program (meap) as a case study of consequences. theory and research in social education, 31(3), 287-325. slavin, r. e. (1994). quality, appropriateness, incentive, and time: a model of instructional effectiveness. international journal of educational research, 21(2), 141-157. slavin, r. e., karweit, n. l., & madden, n. a. (1989). effective programs for students at risk. boston, ma: allyn & bacon. south carolina department of education. (2009). palmetto assessment of state standards (pass) social studies test blueprint for grades 3-8. retrieved from http://ed.sc.gov/agency/accountability/assessment/documents/pass_ssblueprint10_06 _09.pdf snyder, d. (1997, october). 4-block scheduling: a case study of data analysis of one high school after two years. paper presented at the annual meeting of the mid-west educational research association, chicago. taboada, a., tonks, s. m., wigfield, a., & guthrie, j. t. (2009). effects of motivational and cognitive variables on reading comprehension. springer science+business media, 22, 85-106. doi: 10.1007/s11145-008-9133-y texas education agency office of policy planning and research: division of research and evaluation. (1999). block scheduling in texas public high schools. austin, tx: author. retrieved from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/research/pdfs/prr13.pdf thomas, j., & stockton, c. (2003). socioeconomic status, race, gender, & retention: impact on student achievement. retrieved from www.usca.edu/ essays/vol72003/stockton.pdf thompson, s. c. (2000). overcoming obstacles to creating responsive curriculum. middle school journal, 32(1), 47-55. vanfossen, p. j. (2005). “reading and math take so much of the time…”: an overview of social studies instruction in elementary classrooms in indiana. theory and research in social education, 33(3), 376-403. veal, w. r., & schreiber, j. (1999). block scheduling effects on a state-mandated test of basic skills. education policy analysis archives, 7(29), 1-14. vogler, k. e. (2003). where does social studies fit in a high-stakes testing environment? the social studies, 94(5), 207-211. doi:10.1080/00377990309600208 vogler, k. e., & virtue, d. (2007). “just the facts, ma’am”: teaching social studies in the era of standards and high-stakes testing. the social studies, 98(2), 54-58. doi:10.3200/tsss.98.2.54-58 von zastrow, c., & janc, h. (2004). academic atrophy: the condition of the liberal arts in america’s public schools. retrieved from http://www.menc .org/documents/legislative/academicatrophy.pdf. walberg, h. j. (1988). synthesis of research on time and learning. educational leadership, 45(6), 76-85. vogler et al. 25 wanzek, j., roberts, g., vaughn, s., swanson, e., & sargent, k. (2019). examining the role of pre-instruction academic performance within a text-based approach to improving student content knowledge and understanding. exceptional children, 85(2), 212-228. doi: 10.1177/0014402918783187 zamosky, l. (2008). social studies: is it history? district administration, 44(3), 46-48, 50. zepeda, s. j., & mayers, r. s. (2006). an analysis of research on block scheduling. review of educational research, 76(1), 137-170. teacher shortages and cultural mismatch: district and university collaboration for recruiting www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3), 39-63 39 teacher shortages and cultural mismatch: district and university collaboration for recruiting douglas carothers1, hasan aydin2, michael houdyshell3 abstract u.s. schools are facing chronic shortages of qualified teachers, resulting in the hiring of unqualified teachers who are disproportionately assigned to disadvantaged students. further, changing demographics are resulting in racial/ethnic and cultural mismatch between teachers and students they serve, causing additional educational problems. this solution to the shortage and mismatch lies in attracting more students to teacher preparation programs, especially culturally and racially/ethnically diverse students. this study describes collaboration between a university and school districts to offer dual enrollment courses and a summer camp for high school students considering teaching careers. the researchers examined the effect of camp participation on perceived readiness to enroll in college and teach a class in a public school, as well as participants’ likelihood of entering a teacher preparation program. study results suggest early exposure to teaching experiences positively influence high school students’ perceptions of teaching as a career. impact on participants and implications for teacher recruitment are discussed. key words: teacher shortage, recruitment, cultural mismatch, collaboration, teacher education introduction it takes a lot of teachers to educate america’s youth. the national center for educational statistics (nces) reported that the number of public school teachers employed in the united states exceeded 3.5 million for the first time in 2010 and that the size of the teaching force will continue to grow through 2025, the last year for which data were projected (garcia & weiss, 2019; institute of educational sciences, 2015). the number of qualified personnel does not equal the number of available jobs, however, so public schools across the united states are facing shortages of teachers. this is reflected in a 2015 report, (malkus, hoyer, & sparks, 2015) that 68% of schools in the united states had at least one teaching vacancy during the 2011 – 2012 academic year. moreover, the number of teaching vacancies is likely to continue to increase as school populations grow and current teachers leave the field due to retirement or other reasons. 1 corresponding author; assoc. prof. of special education, college of education, florida gulf coast university, dcarothe@fgcu.edu 2 assoc. prof. of multicultural education, college of education, florida gulf coast university, haydin@fgcu.edu 3 asst. prof. of higher education, college of education, florida gulf coast university, mhoudyshell@fgcu.edu mailto:dcarothe@fgcu.edu mailto:haydin@fgcu.edu mailto:mhoudyshell@fgcu.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 sutcher, darling-hammond, and carver-thomas (2016) note that the demand for new teachers is steadily increasing; they project a plateau at an annual level of about 300,000 new teachers needed per year by the 2017 – 2018 academic year. they conclude that “based on the evidence available, the emerging teacher shortage appears to be driven by four main factors: 1. decline in teacher preparation enrollments, 2. an effort to return to pre-recession course offerings and class sizes, 3. increasing student enrollment, and 4. high teacher attrition (sutcher et al., 2016, p.37.). problems arising from the shortage of teachers are compounded because unqualified teachers are hired when too few qualified personnel are available to staff classrooms. these less qualified teachers are not assigned randomly, nor are they assigned to those students best able to learn independently and who have the most resources for learning at home. instead, disadvantaged students are most likely to be affected. schools with the fewest resources tend to have the least qualified teachers, and in 2013-2014 the nation’s high-minority schools had four times as many uncertified teachers as low-minority schools. what’s more, teachers of disadvantaged youth have less career stability and the turnover rate for teachers in title i schools is nearly 50% greater than that of teachers in non-title i schools (sutcher et al., 2016). further, minority students have few racially/ethnically/culturally relevant role models teaching in their classrooms. according to boser (2014), while students of color comprise nearly 50% of our public school population, 82% of teachers are white. the shortage of qualified teachers in specific instructional fields is also especially severe (arslan & yigit, 2016; cowan, goldhaber, hayes, & theobold, 2016). the field of special education, for example, has a long history of teacher shortages. boe (2006) described chronic and increasing shortages of certified special education teachers in an investigation spanning the 1987/1988 to 2003/2004 school years. moreover, while dewey et al. (2017) cite fewer students being identified with disabilities and increasing class sizes as reasons for a decrease in hiring of special education teachers between 2005-2012, zhang and zeller (2016) assert that the demand for special education teachers remains especially high due to high levels of employee turnover. many school districts also experience chronic shortages of mathematics and science teachers (feng & sass, 2017). low retention rates are not the only source of teacher shortages, however. according to the south carolina center for education recruitment, retention, and carothers et al. advancement (cerra), the state lost 9% of its teaching force in 2017. further, cerra reports that the number of students graduating with baccalaureate degrees who are also eligible for teaching certification has dropped 30% in the past four years, thus reducing the pool of applicants from which school districts can hire (gilreath, 2017). the latest demographics indicate that diversity among schools’ teacher and administration populations is not keeping pace with the diversity among student populations (leavell, 2009). indeed, compared with their peers, teachers of color and teachers from diverse contexts are employed in public education and pursue higher education at far lower rates (bailey & dynarski, 2011; stephens, townsend, & dittmann, 2019). in addition, there is limited research on teacher shortage, in this vein, the purpose of this study is to examine the effects collaboration between a mid-sized public university and school districts to offer dual enrollment courses and a summer camp for high school students considering teaching careers in the southwest florida. the research questions guiding this study are as follows: 1. how does participation in educamp impact high school students’ perceptions of their preparedness to enroll in college? 2. how does participation in educamp influence high school students’ perceptions of their preparedness to teach a class in a public school? 3. how does participation in educamp influence high school students’ likelihood of attending college to become a teacher? review of the literature cultural mismatch not only is there a nationwide shortage of teachers, there is also a growing gap in the racial, cultural, and experiential match between teachers and students. the demographic makeup of public schools has changed, and in 2014 minority students made up most of the student body in states including california, texas, new york, and florida (aydin, ozfidan, & carothers, 2017) though the teaching force continued to be overwhelmingly white (lynskey, 2015). further, a recent study found that children of teachers are more than twice as likely as others to enter the teaching profession (gershenson & jacinto, 2019), which indicates that the racial/cultural mismatch between teachers and students is unlikely to improve unless more people of color are brought into the teaching profession. specifically, the study found that sons journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 and daughters of white teachers, and daughters of black teachers were twice as likely as others to enter teaching as a profession, and that this propensity was even more pronounced among the daughters of hispanic mothers (gershenson & jacinto, 2019). as such, increasing the number of black and hispanic women in teacher preparation programs is likely to increase the future supply of black and hispanic female teachers and male hispanic teachers. the sons of black mothers, however, didn’t follow in their mother’s occupational footsteps (gershenson & jacinto, 2019), resulting in the need for another approach to increasing the number of black males in the teaching force. for the past several decades, researchers have reported that school districts nationwide faced serious teacher shortages that left many schools scrambling to find qualified teachers (papay, bacher-hicks, page, & marinell, 2018). in addition, leavell (2009) stated that some first-year teachers report not being prepared to work with the diverse populations found in the schools. according to papay, bacher-hicks, page, and marinell (2018), “today, halfway through the academic year, many students are being taught by a temporary teacher because their schools could not fill positions in time” (para 1). strauss (2017) asserted that the problem has grown more acute in recent years due to poor morale over low pay, unfair evaluation methods, assaults on due-process rights, high-stakes testing requirements, insufficient resources, and other issues. moreover, nearly 8% of the teaching force leaves every year, the majority before retirement age (sutcher et al., 2016). this is especially problematic because studies report many pre-service teachers need significant training for the challenging tasks of filling knowledge gaps, questioning dominant assumptions, and creating space for different opinions (maxwell, 2014; sleeter, neal, & kumashiro, 2014; subedi, 2006; woofter, 2019; yigit & tatch, 2017), and ng (2003) argued that high quality teachers improve student learning and performance. it is unlikely that temporary teachers have received adequate preparation to meet the needs of the diverse students they encounter. at the same time public schools have faced serious shortages of teachers, shortages of students in teacher education programs has also become a serious problem. according to the learning policy institute (2016), enrollment in teacher education programs dropped from 691,000 to 451,000, a 35 percent reduction, between 2009 and 2014, the last year for which data are available. taking a longer-range view of the issue, the u.s. census bureau (2016) reported that education was the most popular major for college students in 1975 and was selected by 22% carothers et al. of students. the percentage of students selecting this major has declined sharply, however, and in 2015 fewer than 10% of those pursuing higher education majored in education. in addition, passy (2018) emphasized that the percentage of female college students selecting education as a major has significantly declined over the past 40 years, shrinking from 32% to 11%, and as interest in education degrees dwindled more students pursued course work in sciences, fine arts, communications, and computer science. in 2017 the u.s. department of education reported that 37% of education majors changed majors, reportedly due to low salary and micromanagement in the era of accountability. american higher education institutions also face a shortage of students of color and those representing ethnically diverse populations. for instance, the u.s. department of education (2016) reported that most students in public schools are students of color while 82% of teachers are white. research shows that diversity in schools, including racial diversity among teachers, can provide significant benefits to students (kaya & aydin, 2014; johnson & hinton, 2019; martinez & tadeu, 2018; wu & ida, 2018). while students of color are expected to make up 56 percent of the student population by 2024, the elementary and secondary educator workforce remains overwhelmingly white. still, improving teacher diversity helps all students in several ways. teachers of color are positive role models for all students and reduce negative stereotypes, better preparing students to live and work in a multiracial society (faltis, 2014; james, 2019; u.s. department of education, 2016). a more diverse teacher workforce can also supplement training in the culturally sensitive teaching practices most effective with today’s student populations (the state of racial diversity in the educator workforce, 2016). in addition, partelow, brown, and johnson (2014) emphasized that teachers of color tend to have more positive perceptions of students of color—both academically and behaviorally—than other teachers and a recent study found that african american teachers are less likely than white teachers to perceive african american students’ behavior as disruptive (startz, 2016). moreover, the lack of diversity in the teaching profession, combined with teachers’ differing interpretations of student ability and behavior, may partially explain why students of color drop out of school (gershenson, holt, & papageorge, 2015; karakus, 2018), and students who drop out of school do not enter college or the teaching profession. studies have raised concerns about the difficulties of teaching in predominantly black and latino, low-income communities including inadequate training, poor classroom conditions, and inability to maintain journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 work-life balance (blanchard, 2013; barkhorn, 2013; boutelier, 2019; deniz & ersoy, 2015; neason, 2014; riggs, 2013). in addition, ingersoll (2005) found that teachers of color left the profession 24% more often than white teachers. according to the national education association, “the declining numbers of black and hispanic students majoring in education is steeper than the overall decline in education majors” and “minority teachers leave teaching at higher rates than white teachers do” (machado, 2013, para 2). a study of 127 biology students at mississippi state valley university, the nation’s youngest historically black college and university (hbcu), reported college enrollment by race and gender and proposed reasons for the underrepresentation of black males among the college population (dunn, 1988). it found that barriers to black students attending college include economic disadvantages that result in inadequate preparation for college studies, low levels of personal motivation, and inadequate counselling. it also indicated that most believed black males avoided college because of a desire to achieve financial independence immediately after high school, with lack of motivation as the second most frequently given explanation (dunn, 1988). further, in a study by wood (2014) a large portion of black male participants indicated that academic disengagement negatively affected their college achievement. these are not the only explanations suggested for diverse students’ failure to enroll or succeed in college. for example, matute-bianchi (1986) interviewed 35 students of mexican ancestry over 2 years to assess their aspirations and perceptions of their adult future, their understanding of strategies to achieve adult success, their definitions of adult success and failure, and their perceptions of the value of schooling in achieving their goals. the results showed that students of mexican ancestry had greater problems negotiating ethnicity because of the broad range of social divisions among the population as well as within-group cultural differences and differences in ability or willingness to adapt to the mainstream school environment. these and other factors that contribute to the achievement gap for diverse students reduce their ability to enter college, which also results in their underrepresentation in teacher preparation programs. solutions to the shortage of teachers and the cultural/racial/ethnic mismatch of teachers and students must be found. a logical starting place for this solution is through recruitment of students to teacher preparation programs. this study describes a university’s educamp, an ongoing project to recruit high school students, including those representing racial/ethnic and cultural minorities, to the university’s college of education and careers as teachers. how the carothers et al. camp was formed and the activities it entails are described, and data are presented to examine the effect of university summer teaching camps on recruitment to a teacher preparation program. teacher recruitment university teacher education preparation programs and their k-12 partners have used several methods to address teacher shortages and recruit students into the field of education, especially minority student teacher candidates (andrews, 2017). two recruitment methods are discussed: dual enrollment college courses formed and housed in local high schools, and education camps run by universities for high school students aspiring to become teachers. this study describes initiation of dual-enrollment courses in district high schools and analyzes survey data from a summer education camp sponsored by a college of education with six teacher education preparation programs. summer programs designed to recruit future teachers have been sponsored by colleges or schools of education for nearly 30 years. referred to as summer academies, camps, or institutes, these programs are designed to recruit future teachers while also helping diversify the pool of those entering the teaching profession. inspired by the phi delta kappa summer camp/institute for prospective teachers, in 1989 emporia state university’s teacher college began sponsoring a state-wide kansas future teacher academy for high school students aspiring to become teachers (caswell, 2018; harris & azwell, 1992). emporia state university indicated that the future teacher academy “has provided select students with the opportunity to learn more about the challenges and rewards of teaching and has become recognized as an established and highly respected training opportunity for students throughout the state of kansas” (2018, p. 1). like other summer programs, the kansas future teacher academy provides a “variety of activities that will help them to better understand what teachers do and to determine whether or not they have the potential for meeting this professional challenge” (2018, p. 1). in its almost 30-year existence, the kansas future teacher academy has graduated over 1,200 students. using emporia state university’s program as a model, the arkansas state university (asu) college of education also started a summer academy for future teachers with the intent to “recruit some of the best and brightest high school students into the teacher education program at asu” (holifield, bradley, strickland & carroll, 1994, p 343). in addition, asu saw a need to diversify its future teacher applicant pool, at the time recognizing that only ten percent of their current students were from a minority group (holifield et al., 1994). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 “grow your own” programs are now receiving recognition as a method of addressing the racial and ethnic gaps between teachers and students (gist, 2019). defined as “ highly collaborative, community-rooted, intensive supports for recruiting, preparing, placing, and retaining diverse classroom teachers” (rogers-ard, knaus, bianco, brandehoff, & gist, 2019, p. 27), these types of programs, especially education/teacher academies, have been used to help build future teacher pipelines in districts across the united states and are used to recruit minorities into the teaching profession. irvine and fenwick (2011) describe investment in recruitment efforts at high schools with pre-collegiate programming such as education academies and dual enrollment as important in attracting more minority students into teaching. these education/teacher academies within high school settings allow students to take education related courses, complete internships in local schools, and connect to university teacher preparation programs. in 2016, florida had three such programs in pasco, pinellas and st. johns county school districts. pinellas county school district began its teacher academy in 2010 and now enrolls over 320 students in the program (solochek, 2016). other states including ohio, colorado, michigan, delaware, rhode island, and wisconsin also have education/teacher academies. (beck, 2015; borg, 2001; holbrook, 2009; quealy, 2018; will, 2018). these types of programs have also emerged as an initiative by school districts in southwest florida. educamp summer programs like the ones at emporia state university and arkansas state university were designed to recruit and diversify the pool of teacher candidates that will meet the future needs of school districts across the country. their example led to the 2017 establishment of the university’s educamp, a summer camp for future teachers in southwest florida. the camp was created by two faculty in the college of education who worked extensively with five local partner school districts. while similar programs have been used to recruit future teachers, this project used existing grant and university funds, leveraged existing partnerships with five local school districts, and received partial district sponsorship to fund student participation in the camp. as such, the university and districts partnered to situate the camp within the districts’ “grow your own” efforts to recruit teachers through high school teaching academies. this resulted in district support for advertising the camp, providing student scholarships to participate in the camp, and local teachers supporting activities during the camp. researchers cite this type of collaboration between colleges of education and districts as crucial carothers et al. to how teacher education programs evolve to support the changing face of future teacher recruitment (duffy, wickersham-fish, rademaker, & wetzler, 2018; stein & stein, 2016). in its first year, the university’s educamp attracted 27 future teachers from seven area high schools in three districts. the initial success led to expansion of the camp in 2018. educamp 2018 served as the source of data for this study. method participant sample participants in educamp 2018 attended voluntarily and consisted of three males and 36 females drawn from collier, glades, and lee counties in southwest florida, though one female withdrew after the second day of camp. purposive sampling was used to select participants for this study who enrolled in educamp. all camp participants took the initial survey and all in attendance on the final day of camp took the closing survey. at the time of the pretest, one participant was rising to the ninth grade, 11 were rising to tenth grade, 11 were rising to eleventh grade, 15 were rising to twelfth grade, and one was starting college in fall 2018. though data on racial/ethnic background were not collected, over 50% over students identified as racial/ethnic minorities. each of these participants also took the post test, except for four the twelfth-grade students, including the female who withdrew. data collection tools schedule educamp 2018 was held during the third week of june, with the participants arriving at 7:00 a.m. and being escorted to their rooms in the residence halls to store their belongings. by 8:30 a.m. the participants had reassembled for ice-breaking activities and to take the pre-survey. the survey was administered in the university library using checkbox, a widely available internet survey tool. participants engaged in a variety of activities for the rest of the week. activities during the first day were primarily designed to orient participants to the camp and consisted of a campus tour, small group discussions (i.e., what makes a good teacher?), and planning, followed by recreational activities in the evening. tuesday’s curriculum focused on special education, integration of art and steam education, and included sessions conducted by university and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 public school faculty, work with drones, and a campus environmental wet walk before concluding with pizza and recreation at the residence halls’ swimming pool. wednesday morning consisted of making final preparations for a visit by a group of children from grace place for children and families, a community center in naples, florida whose mission is to provide pathways out of poverty by educating children and families. this was followed by three hours of hands-on activities with children from grace place, debriefing, planning for the next day’s visit to the grace place campus, and evening recreation. the rest of the day consisted of sessions related to various aspects of teaching, followed by choices of live music and swimming at the pool or movies for evening recreation. participants also spent thursday morning making final preparations for another visit by an older group of children from grace place, followed again by three hours of hands-on activities with the children from grace place, debriefing, planning for the next day’s visit to the grace place campus, and evening recreation. finally, friday consisted of participant teaching presentations on the grace place campus, followed by a session to prepare participants for the american college testing (act) and a debriefing session. the camp closed with participants taking a post-survey to measure the camp’s effectiveness. instrumentation the survey given at the beginning of educamp consisted of eight questions. the first two questions asked about participant perceptions of their preparedness to teach a lesson and enroll in college; these questions were answered on a five-point likert-type scale. the third and fourth questions were rated on a four-point likert-type scale and asked participants to rate their knowledge of the university’s college of education and the likelihood of their enrolling in the coe followed by a follow-up question to examine their reasons for or against enrolling in the university. the final three questions were open-ended and asked about participants knowledge and expectations about teaching and educamp, participants were surveyed again at the end of the camp. the first two questions were the same as on the first survey, and the third question was an open-ended question about participants’ future career and educational plans. the survey concluded with seven open-ended questions about participants’ perceptions of educamp, how educamp could be improved, and what participants would tell their peers about the experience. data analysis carothers et al. data were analyzed across two dimensions. first, quantitative data were coded, analyzed, and computed in microsoft excel. second, open-ended questions and solicited and unsolicited comments were read and synthesized and paraphrased within content analysis (prater & sileo, 2002). a content analysis was used for open-ended questions, which was analytically examining narrative survey materials from responses by breaking the text into relatively small units of content and submitting them to descriptive treatment (sparker, 2005). it should be noted that content analysis approaches allow for open-ended questions. by using content analysis, it is possible to analyze data qualitatively and at the same time quantify the data (gbrich, 2007). content analysis also uses a “descriptive approach in both coding of the data and its interpretation of quantitative counts of the codes” (morgan, 1993; vaismoradi, turunen & bondas, 2013, p. 400). research results, compiled using the analysis and interpretations of the data, were prepared by three different researchers for ‘member checks’ to establish credibility, reliability, and confirmability (lincoln & guba 1985), and to assess and strengthen the accuracy of the data. findings recruitment of prospective teachers to the university’s college of education was one of the main goals of educamp 2018, so surveys were administered to participants at the beginning and end of the camp to determine effectiveness. because many of the participants would be firstgeneration college students, the program devoted time to teaching how to apply, enroll, and pay for college. when asked how prepared they were to enroll in college on the first day of the program, 40% felt prepared, very prepared, or could teach others how to enroll in college. asked the same question on the final day of the program, 81% of participants indicated they felt prepared, very prepared, or could teach others how to enroll in college. another major goal of educamp was to introduce participants to the career of teaching. when asked how prepared they felt to teach a lesson before coming to educamp, 39% said they felt prepared, very prepared, or could teach others how to teach. when asked the same question at the end of camp, 95% of participants said they felt prepared, very prepared, or could teach others how to teach a lesson. finally, to measure how well the camp achieved its goal of recruiting students to become teachers, participants were asked how likely they were to enroll at the university to become a teacher. at the beginning of the program 54% of participants indicated they were either likely, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 very likely, or that the university was their #1 choice of a place to study to become a teacher. when the participants who selected “somewhat likely” were included, the percentage of participants responding positively increased to over 87%. participants were also asked about their likelihood of enrolling at the university to become a teacher at the end of the program. 63% indicated they were either likely, very likely, or that the university was their #1 choice for study to become a future teacher. when the “somewhat likely” category was included the percentage increased to 95%. because the decision to enroll in college and become a teacher is influenced by many complicated factors, participants were asked to explain why they would or wouldn’t enroll at the university to prepare for a career as a teacher on each the first and last days of the program. while responses were varied on the first day, several participants focused on the strength of the college of education at the university. “i heard the university has a great teaching program” and “i think it’s a great way to learn about becoming a teacher” are examples of the responses. however, participants who didn’t respond positively to the likelihood of enrolling at the university for teacher preparation didn’t focus on program quality but instead indicated they weren’t yet sure what they wanted as a career or that they were considering other institutions. one participant said, “i’m debating on what i still want to do” and another indicated “i am young i wanna see what else there is to pursue.” a few described teaching as a backup choice to their first career choice. “thinking of going into the medical field,” “i want to major in criminal justice,” and “i would like to become a teacher if my other plans don’t work out” were example responses. when asked the same question at the end of the program, participants indicated increased intensity in their desire to teach, calling it a “passion” and responding, “i loved teaching this week.” the number of participants who viewed teaching as a viable career option also increased. “i want to think more about what i want to do, but being a teacher is a choice” or “the experience i have gotten has been amazing and has opened my eyes to new things” were example responses. participants were also asked how attending the camp changed their view of teaching as a profession. several indicated it was “harder” than they imagined, “there is a lot more than you see,” or “how hard things can get.” one participant connected the difficulties teachers face and their experience, “that it’s not easy as it seems you must have passion to continue teaching for a long time.” for those participants interested in becoming teachers, many indicated the camp carothers et al. experience helped solidify their choice. one said, “i’ve always wanted to be a teacher and this made me 100% sure” while others stated that it “made me realize that it is truly my passion” and “it showed me that i could really make a difference to someone.” also, some participants who had not considered a career in teaching prior to camp re-evaluated their options. sample responses included, “it made me get closer to teaching,” “it makes me think that teaching isn’t that bad after all,” and “it’s one of the top five careers i want to do. before it was not in my top five.” as stated by one participant, “at first being a teacher was not in my mind but this week this camp opened my eyes as to what i want to do in the future and being a teacher is for sure something i want to do,” and others indicated that they would consider teaching as a short-term profession. many of the educamp participants were also involved in their high school’s education/teaching academy and/or taking dual enrollment education courses for college credit. because of this, the survey at the end of camp asked what they would share with fellow students about becoming a teacher. many described their intentions to bring back lesson plans, teaching techniques, tips, or strategies, and advice to their fellow students. one participant said she would take back “everything that i learned this week and i hope to learn more.” more important to the goals of educamp, many also cited the intention to share encouragement and support for becoming a teacher. one participant said teaching “…was wonderful” and another advised peers “to be passionate and that teaching is great.” some indicated they were taking back “a new view on teaching” or “more patience and experience,” and one participant summed up their experience by responding “…it’s the best job out there!” finally, a participant offered a quote that is likely to encourage education camp organizers: “that it’s so worth coming even if you want to be something else because you might change your mind.” discussion, conclusion, and implications this paper examined the effects of collaboration between a mid-sized public university in southwest florida and several regional school districts to recruit students into university teacher preparation programs. one goal of the collaboration was to create a larger and more diverse pool of qualified teachers from which the districts can hire. while the collaboration is still in its early stages, trends emerged that may offer guidance regarding how to solve the nation’s shortage of teachers while also ensuring that the teaching force is culturally, racially, and ethnically relevant to the students it serves. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 the first key observation is that though it is still in its early stages, the collaboration appears to be expanding in both its size and its effects. the collaboration started with discussions between the college of education and two local school districts regarding how the development of dual-enrollment courses could impact teacher recruitment. as these discussions continued, talk of starting a summer education/teaching camp emerged, resulting in 27 high school students with an interest in teaching attending a weeklong camp on the university campus during the summer of 2017. these initial camp participants were drawn from seven area high schools located in three school districts located in southwest florida. during the 2017 – 2018 academic year, the first dual enrollment course was co-taught by university and school district faculty and held on a public high school campus. this course was attended by 12 students with an interest in teaching, and five of the eight seniors who took the class have enrolled in the university for the fall 2018 semester. additionally, 16 students are projected to take another dual-enrollment course, housed on a high school campus in a different district, starting in fall of 2018. dual enrollment courses are also slated to be offered in both the original school and in another high school in the third district during the spring 2019 semester. as a result, what began as discussions of offering a dual enrollment course has resulted in projected expansion of these courses to three school districts with student participation expected to increase significantly during the second year of practice. arkansas state university had a similar result in their summer academy and perceived the effort as important in strengthening the partnership between the college of education and school districts (holifield, bradley, strickland, & carroll, 1994). the growth of educamp in its first two years is also notable. the camp hosted 27 prospective teachers in 2017; this number grew to 39 in 2018, a nearly 50% increase in participants. further, the sophistication of the camp improved, with the addition of a fifth day of instruction, hosting more local students from grades 3-8 on campus, and incorporating an instructional theme throughout the entire week. additionally, during the second year data were collected from participants to gauge their perceptions of the camp and how it could be improved as well as to measure possible changes in their attitudes toward employment in the teaching profession. while the increase in the number of participants in educamp is important, the camp’s apparent influence on participants’ perceptions of teaching and desire to enter the teaching carothers et al. profession may be even more remarkable. data collected during preand post-camp surveys during educamp 2018 revealed changes in participants’ perceptions of teaching as a profession, with responses indicating that it was more challenging and required higher levels of skill than previously imagined. still, despite the perceived increased difficulty of the work, a post-camp increase was found in the number of participants with a desire to become teachers, and in those interested in teaching as a back-up or temporary career. further, participant responses to openended questions revealed increased enthusiasm among those who wanted to become teachers prior to entering the camp. similarly, one of the stated missions and results of the summer academy at arkansas state university was to attract a more diverse pool of teacher candidates and show the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for teachers (holifield, bradley, strickland, & carroll, 1994). several other findings can also be drawn from the data. first, educamp participants’ perceived confidence in their ability to enroll in college increased during this experience. this is significant because a high percentage of educamp participants identified as racial/ethnic minorities, a demographic in short supply in the current teaching force, and the ability to enroll in college removes one barrier that prevents them from entering the profession. second, the quality of the teaching force, as well as its quantity, is critical to the success of the nation’s schools. educamp participants, despite noting that the profession was more challenging that they previously thought, reported increased perceived ability to teach lessons. arkansas state university reported a similar goal with their summer academy; they also wanted participants “to become acquainted with the characteristics of effective teachers” (holifield, bradley, strickland, & carroll, 1994, p. 344). both confidence and competence are critical to a teacher’s success, and this measure indicates that participants now have the needed confidence and if their perceptions are correct, also have higher levels of competence. another outcome of the camp, though not measured, is the participants’ increase in cultural awareness and sensitivity. because this was the first experience being away from home for many of the campers and because they came from diverse districts serving rural, suburban, and urban populations and vastly different socio/economic strata, participants were exposed to previously unexperienced ways of thinking and behaving. unscripted interactions in both classroom and social situations introduced participants to activities, conversational styles, and manner of dress unseen in their home environments. an individual’s recognition that his concept journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 of “normal” is not shared by all is likely to result in teachers who are more sensitive to the differences brought to school by their students. because of this potential benefit, future educamps should be intentional in planning for intercultural exchanges between participants representing different backgrounds. there are many ways that this could be easily accomplished, including but not limited to:  participant discussions at the beginning of the camp could be expanded to included topics such as participants’ perceptions of how they are alike and different from other campers and how they expect to be alike and different from their future students. this discussion could be expanded to topics that assist participants in identifying their own biases as well as the biases others may hold toward them.  thoughtful assignment of roommates so that individuals are exposed to others from vastly different backgrounds;  interspersing team-building and diversity-awareness activities throughout the calendar of events, including activities that require participants to identify “us and them” thinking and explore possibilities for differing constituencies to work together to create school cultures that are adaptable and reflect changing student and teacher populations. internet searches for “diversity activities” and similar terms retrieve a broad variety of approaches that can be used to assist participants in examining their own thinking and biases as well as interacting appropriately when the biases of others are recognized.  the school and its teachers, administrators, and staff members must intentionally facilitate the collaboration process not only making students feel a part of the school, but also by making the school become a part of the students. finally, one purpose of educamp was to increase enrollment in the university’s college of education, ultimately resulting in an increase in the pool of qualified teachers available to local school districts. though empirical evidence is not yet available, survey responses indicate that this purpose was achieved. no participant cited a lowered opinion of either the college of education or the teaching profession because of their experience. rather, participants described improved opinions of both the college of education and the profession and indicated that they would report their thoughts to their peers on their high school campuses. in this context, this study recommends that future studies of effective recruiting approaches be based on solid experimental design to help solve the shortage of demographically representative teachers. carothers et al. several limitations in the present study unveil a need to interpret the findings with caution while a long-term study is designed. first, for many of the participants, educamp was their first opportunity to spend time away from home surrounded by peers and, as a 20-year old institution, the university has a beautiful, modern appearance that offers desirable recreational opportunities for residents. participants’ perceptions of teaching as a profession and the university as an institution for career preparation may have been influenced by the novelty and excitement of the experience, and the long-term impact of the experience on participants’ professional goals cannot yet be ascertained. additionally, because the camp was not designed to function as a research project, data were not collected that may have been useful in demonstrating how successfully the camp met its objectives. survey data that were collected were analyzed; however, more thought should be given to the specific types of data that will be collected if future camps are to be considered a valid source of information on their value for recruiting students and teachers. the nation’s schools face chronic shortages of teachers, and the effect of these shortages disproportionately affect disadvantaged students. further, as the country’s racial and ethnic demographics change there is an increasing mismatch between the experiences of teachers and the students they teach. these different experiential backgrounds result in numerous problems including teachers misunderstanding students, students misunderstanding teachers, and students being undermotivated due to a lack of role models that they perceive as like themselves. one approach to increasing the supply of teachers, and especially teachers who represent the diverse backgrounds of their students, is to increase interest in prospective teachers before they have finalized their career choices. as modeled by this study, this can be done through collaborative efforts between school districts and universities using approaches including dual enrollment courses and summer academies on university campuses. márque, peña, jones, orange, and simieou (2018) indicated that to increase the opportunity to recruit diverse students into the teaching profession, it is important that these efforts be undertaken early, before students at the low end of the achievement gap are academically disqualified from gaining admission to teacher preparation programs. the present study illustrated a collaboration between school districts and a state university teacher preparation program that was started with a long-term goal of increasing the number and diversity of qualified candidates to fill local teaching vacancies. small scale journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 discussions initially led to establishment of a dual-enrollment course and, encouraged by early signs of success, led to plans for similar courses in two additional school districts and the staging of two summer camps to give prospective teachers an in-depth introduction to the career. in their first two years, enrollment in both the dual enrollment classes and educamp have increased, and early signs are that the stated goals of increasing enrollment in a teacher preparation program and increasing the supply of home-grown teaches are being achieved. feedback from camp participants, likewise, has been encouraging and provided guidance for collaborators who continue work to expand and improve educamp in the summers ahead. further, camp participants indicated their intention to share their enthusiasm with peers when they return to their high schools, providing the benefit of word-of-mouth advertising for the teaching profession. additional room exists for improvement in the recruiting of teachers whose cultural and ethnic backgrounds are representative of the public schools they attended. for example, guidance counselors can be encouraged to discuss the possibility of teaching as a short-term profession. further, high school students who are unsure about their career choices and those for whom teaching is not the first career choice can be educated about the benefits of earning a minor in teaching, assuring that they graduate from college with skills needed for employment. the need for teachers is great and the potential supply of teachers is large. carothers et al. references arslan, s. & yiğit, m. f. (2016). investigation of the impact of emotional intelligence efficacy on teachers' multicultural attitudes. journal of education and practice, 7(11), 147-157. aydin, h., ozfidan, b., carothers, d. (2017). meeting the challenges of curriculum and instruction in school settings in the united states. journal of social studies education research, 8(3), 76-92. bailey, m. j., & dynarski, s. m. (2011). gains and gaps: a historical perspective on inequality in college entry and completion. in g. duncan & r. murnane (eds.), whither opportunity? rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances (pp. 117–132). new york, ny: russell sage foundation. barkhorn, e. (2013). i almost quit teach for america: but i didn't. why? retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/10/i-almost-quit-teach-for america/280522/ beck, m. (2015, june 12). 11 madison high school students picked for future teacher program. wi state journal. retrieved from https://madison.com/wsj/news/local/education/local_schools/madison-high-school students-picked-for-future-teacher-program/article_d6306c91-1017-5cd5-8f7d 7882537bbf42.html blanchard, o. (2013). i quit teach for america. retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/09/i-quit-teach-for-america/279724/ boe, e. e. (2006). long-term trends in the national demand, supply, and shortage of special education teachers. the journal of special education, 40(3), 138-150. borg, l. (2001, january 9). urban high school ‘teacher academies’ score high. providence journal. boser, u. (2014). teacher diversity revisited: a new state-by-state analysis. washington, d.c.: center for american progress. boutelier, s. (2019). limiting learning environments through domestication. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 45-55. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 caswell, r. (2018). kansas future teacher academy. retrieved from https://www.emporia.edu/teach/kfta/index.html cowan, j., goldhaber, d. hayes, k., & theobald, r. (2016). missing elements in the discussion of teacher shortages. educational researcher, 45(8), 460-462. deniz, m., & ersoy, e. (2016). examining the relationship of social skills, problem solving and bullying in adolescents. international online journal of educational sciences, 8(1), 1 -7. dewey, j., sindelar, p. t., bettini, e., boe, e. e., rosenberg, m. s., & leko, c. (2017). explaining the decline in special education teacher employment from 2005 to 2012. exceptional children, 83(3), 315-329. d doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.edu/10.1177/0014402916684620 duffy, j., wickersham-fish, l., rademaker, l., & wetzler, b. (2018). using collaborative autoethnography to explore online doctoral mentoring: finding empathy in mentor/protégé relationships. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 57-76. dunn, j. r. (1988). the shortage of black male students in the college classroom: consequences and causes. the western journal of black studies, 12(2), 73-76. andrews, k. (2017). culture, curriculum, and identity in education. [book review]. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 99-101. faltis, c. (2014). toward a race radical vision of bilingual education for kurdish users in turkey: a commentary. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 1-5. feng, l. & sass, t. r. (2017). the impact of incentives to recruit and retain teachers in “hard to-staff” subjects. journal of policy analysis and management, 37(1),112 – 135. doi:10.1002/pam.22037 garcia, e. & weiss, e. (2019). the teacher shortage is real, large and growing, and worse than we thought. washington, d.c.: economic policy institute. gbrich, c. (2007). qualitative data analysis: an introduction (1st eds).london: sage publications. gershenson, s., holt, s. b., & papageorge, n. w. (2016). who believes in me? the effect of student–teacher demographic match on teacher expectations. economics of education review, 52, 209-224. doi:10.17848/wp15-231 carothers et al. gershenson, s., & jacinto, a. (2019). the teacher diversity gap is literally inherited. washington: the brookings institution. retrieved from http://ezproxy.fgcu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest com.ezproxy.fgcu.edu/docview/2201907805?accountid=10919 gilreath, a. (2018). 9 percent of teachers left sc classrooms in 2017. retrieved from http://www.indexjournal.com/news/breaking/percent-of-teachers-left-sc-classrooms in/article_092b5efd-10ba-5171-9f2f 28fe33c95372.html?utm_medium=social&utm_source=email&utm_campaign=user share gist, c. d. (2019). for what purpose? making sense of the various projects driving grow your own program development. teacher education quarterly, 46(1), 9. retrieved from http://ezproxy.fgcu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest com.ezproxy.fgcu.edu/docview/2165624719?accountid=10919 harris, c. n. & azwell, t. (1992). a summer academy for future teachers. phi delta kappan, 73(6). 1-3. holbrook, s. s. (2009). get’em hooked early: teaching high school teacher academy students the value of the library media center. ohio media spectrum, 61(1). 13-18. holifield, m., bradley, m. j., strickland, h. & carroll, f. (1994). recruiting future teachers via summer academies. education, 114(3). 343-345. ingersoll, r. (2005). what do the national data tell us about minority teacher shortages? retrieved from http://scholar.gse.upenn.edu/rmi/files/the_state_of_teacher_diversity_ingersoll_chapter_v 2.pdf ingersoll, r., may, h., & collins, g. (2019). recruitment, employment, retention and the minority teacher shortage. education policy analysis archives, 27(37), 1-37. http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.3714 institute of educational sciences, national center for educational statistics (2015). digest of educational statistics (nces 2016014). washington, d.c.: u.s. department of education. irvine, j. j. & fenwick, l. t. (2011). teachers and teaching for the new millennium: the role of hbcus. the journal of negro education, 80(3). 197-208. http://ezproxy.fgcu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquesthttp://ezproxy.fgcu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquesthttp://www.indexjournal.com/news/breaking/percent-of-teachers-left-sc-classroomshttp://www.indexjournal.com/news/breaking/percent-of-teachers-left-sc-classroomshttp://ezproxy.fgcu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquesthttp://ezproxy.fgcu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquestjournal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 james, w. y. (2019). imprint of racism: white adult males’ transformational experience from racial antipathy to racial reconciliation. american journal of qualitative research, 3(1), 93-116. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5813 johnson, c., & hinton, h. (2019). toward a brillant diversity. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 56-70. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/27 karakus, m. (2018). the moderating effect of gender on the relationships between age, ethical leadership, and organizational commitment. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 74-84. kaya, i. & aydin, h. (2014). pluralism, multiculturalism and bilingual education [çoğulculuk, çokkültürlü ve i̇kidilli eğitim]. ankara: ani press. leavell, k. b. (2009). cultural mismatch or opportunities for mutual growth. in p. dam & coward, m. (eds), understanding the english language learner (pp. 228-242). denton, tx: texas woman’s university press. learning policy institute. (2016). a coming crisis in teaching? teacher supply, demand, and shortages in the u.s. retrieved from https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/coming crisis-teaching lincoln, y., & guba, e. (1985). naturalistic inquiry. beverly hills, ca: sage. lynskey, a. c. (2015). countering the dominant narrative: in defense of critical coursework. the journal of educational foundations, 28(1-4), 73-86. machado, a. (2013). why teachers of color quit. retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/12/why-teachers-of-color quit/282007/ malkus, m., hoyer, k., & sparks, d. (2015). teaching vacancies and difficult-to-staff teaching positions in public schools. (nces 2015065). washington, d.c.: u.s. department of education. márque, j., peña, c., jones, l., orange, a., & simieou, f. (2018). academic success and resiliency factors: a case study of unaccompanied immigrant children. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 162-181. http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/27 https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/cominghttps://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/comingcarothers et al. martinez, i., & tadeu, p. (2018). the impact of pedagogical leadership on pedagogical coordination in secondary schools. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 1 15. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/373 matute-bianchi, m. e. (1986). ethnic identities and patterns of school success and failure among mexican-descent and japanese-american students in a california high school: an ethnographic analysis. american journal of education, 95(1), 233-255. doi: 10.1086/444298 maxwell, l. a. (2014). u.s. schools become 'majority minority.' education week, 34(1), 1-15. morgan, d., l. (1993). qualitative content analysis: a guide to paths not taken. qualitative health research, 3, 112–121. neason, a. (2014). where have all the black and brown teachers gone?. retrieved from http://hechingerreport.org/black-brown-teachers-gone/ ng, j. c. (2003). teacher shortages in urban schools: the role of traditional and alternative certification routes in filling the voids. education and urban society, 35(4), 380-398. papay, j., bacher-hicks, a., page, l., & marinell, w. (2018, january 9). america’s teacher shortage can’t be solved by hiring more unqualified teachers. the washington post. retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/posteverything/wp/2018/01/09/americas-teacher shortage-cant-be-solved-by-hiring-more-unqualified teachers/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.6bdfb6a175be partelow, l., brown, c., & johnson, s. (2014). america needs more teachers of color and a more selective teaching profession. retrieved from https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education-k 12/reports/2017/09/14/437667/america-needs-teachers-color-selective-teaching profession/ passy, j. (2018). fewer americans are majoring in education, but will students pay the price? retrieved from https://www.marketwatch.com/story/fewer-americans-are-majoring-in education-but-will-students-pay-the-price-2018-02-14 prater, m. a., & sileo, t. w. (2002). school-university partnerships in special education field experiences: a national descriptive study. remedial and special education, 23(6), 325 335. doi.org/10.1177/07419325020230060301 http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/373 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 39-63 quealy, b. (2018, april 29). michigan teacher academy program wins national award. the daily telegram. riggs, l. (2013). why do teachers quit?: and why do they stay? retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/10/why-do-teachers-quit/280699/ rogers-ard, r., knaus, c., bianco, m., brandehoff, r., & gist, c. d. (2019). the grow your own collective: a critical race movement to transform education. teacher education quarterly, 46(1), 23. retrieved from http://ezproxy.fgcu.edu/login?url=https://search proquest-com.ezproxy.fgcu.edu/docview/2165625227?accountid=10919 sleeter, c. e., neal, l. i., & kumashiro, k. k. (eds.). (2014). diversifying the teacher workforce: preparing and retaining highly effective teachers. new york, ny: routledge. solocheck, j. s. (2016, may 27). river ridge to coach teachers of the future: the high school is starting a teacher academy to provide experience in the field. tampa bay times. sparker, a. (2005) narrative analysis: exploring the what’s and how’s of personal stories. in: holloway, i. (ed.). qualitative research in health care (1st eds) [pp.191-208]. berkshire: open university press. starz, d. (2016). teacher perceptions and race. washington, d.c: brookings institute press. stein, l. & stein, a. (2016). re-thinking america’s teacher education programs. the clearing house, 89(6), 191-196. doi:10.1080/00098655.2016.1206427 stephens, n. m., townsend, s. s., & dittmann, a. g. (2019). social-class disparities in higher education and professional workplaces: the role of cultural mismatch. current directions in psychological science, 28(1), 67-73. strauss, v. (2017, august 28). teacher shortages affecting every state as 2017-18 school year begins. the washington post. retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2017/08/28/teacher-shortages affecting-every-state-as-2017-18-school-year-begins/?utm_term=.5c86d2fec990 subedi, b. (2006). pre-service teachers' beliefs and practices: religion and religious diversity. equity &excellence in education, 39(3), 227-238. doi:10.1080/1066568 0600788495 sutcher, l., darling-hammond, l., & carver-thomas, d. (2016). a coming crisis in teaching? teacher supply, demand, and shortages in the u.s. palo alto, ca: learning policy institute. http://ezproxy.fgcu.edu/login?url=https://searchhttp://ezproxy.fgcu.edu/login?url=https://searchcarothers et al. u.s. department of education. (2016). the state of racial diversity in the educator workforce. retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/highered/racial diversity/state-racial-diversity-workforce.pdf u.s. department of education. (2017). the condition of education 2017. retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2017/2017144.pdf vaismoradi, m., turunen, h., & bondas, t. (2013). content analysis and thematic analysis: implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study. nursing &health sciences, 15(3), 398-405. doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12048 the state of racial diversity in the educator workforce. (2016). report. retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/highered/racial-diversity/state-racial-diversity workforce.pdf the u.s. census bureau. (2016). education. retrieved from https://www.census.gov/prod/1/gen/95statab/educ.pdf will, m. (2018). latino male teachers: building the pipeline. education week, 37(18), 12-14. wood, j. l. (2014). apprehension to engagement in the classroom: perceptions of black males in the community college. international journal of qualitative studies in education, 27(6), 785-803. doi:10.1080/09518398.2014.901575 woofter, s. (2019). book review: building equity: policies and practices to empower all learners. american journal of qualitative research, 3(1), 136 139. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5815 wu, b. & ida, k., a. (2018). ethnic diversity, religion, and opinions toward legalizing abortion: the case of asian americans. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 94-109. yigit, i. h., & tatch, a. (2017). syrian refugees and americans: perceptions, attitudes and insights. american journal of qualitative research, 1(1), 13-31. zhang, g., & zeller, n. (2016). a longitudinal investigation of the relationship between teachers preparation and teacher retention. teacher education quarterly, 43(2), 73-92. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5815 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (2), 204-222 204 cognitive emotion regulation: its relationship to parenting stress iswinarti1, gerdaning tyas jadmiko2 & nida hasanati3 abstract a child’s condition not being in line with the parent’s expectations can cause mothers to experience pressures that can lead to them not parenting effectively. the condition of children with special needs in particular can cause some anxiety and pressure that may induce parenting stress. this research aims to understand the correlation between cognitive emotion regulation and parenting stress, as moderated by the need to belong. a quantitative approach was employed in this research, whose participants comprised 428 mothers of children with special needs. the data were collected using the parenting stress index–short form, the cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire, and the need to belong scale. the data were then analyzed using the process macro analysis moderation method. the results reveal a significant negative correlation between cognitive emotion regulation and parenting stress (β= -0.55; p=0.00), while the need to belong significantly weakened the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation and parenting stress (β= -0.29; p=0.04). keywords: parenting stress, cognitive emotion regulation, need to belong introduction children’s development can result in stress for the parents raising them, especially when a child has special needs. children with special needs are assumed to cause more stress and unhappiness in families due to the greater burden when compared to an average child (hassall, rose & mcdonald, 2005; hodapp, 2007). the challenges experienced by children with special needs may contribute to the stress that their parents experience. parenting stress can lead to psychological and physiological harm, and it arises from efforts to adapt to the demands of parenthood (matthew, 2006). research into parenting stress has shown that the parents of children with special needs experience a higher level of stress than those with average children. indeed, parents of children with special needs have to deal with issues like disabilities, learning difficulties, and limited social skills in the situations that their children experience (oelofsen & richardson, 2006). previous research has indicated that the severity of a 1dr. the university of muhammadiyah of malang, indonesia; email: iswinarti.psi@gmail.com 2dr. the university of muhammadiyah of malang, indonesia; email: gerdaning@gmail.com 3dr. the university of muhammadiyah of malang, indonesia; email: nida3105@gmail.com mailto:iswinarti.psi@gmail.com mailto:gerdaning@gmail.com mailto:nida3105@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 204-222 child’s disability and characteristics such as hyper activity are related to greater parenting stress (yousefia, far & abdolahian, 2011). there are different challenges to development for each disability, so they induce differing levels of parenting stress. for example, research has revealed that the parents of children with autism tend to experience a greater level of stress than parents of children with down syndrome (pisula, 2007; cuzzocrea et al., 2016). likewise, parents of children with behavioral development problems experience a greater level of stress than those whose children have a chronic medical condition like asthma, hiv, or other general medical disease (gupta, 2007). the high number of children with special needs is accompanied by the level of care they need. based on data from the central bureau of statistics (bps), as cited by the ministry of education (2017), the number of children with special needs in indonesia reached 1.6 million in 2017, yet schools for such children are inadequately provided, with only 18% of these children being served. the data show how a great number of children with special needs are not being provided suitable education services, and there is limited information available to help parents deal with their children. some effects arise when parents experience stress due to a child’s disability, and these may lead to less effective parenting and possibly violence or abandonment (gupta, mehrotra & mehrotra, 2012). it may cause depression in some parents and degrade their behavior resulting in suffering for the children (maclnnes, 2009). it may cause conflict between the father and the mother, possibly leading to marriage disputes and divorce (singer & floyd, 2006). parenting stress develops differently among parents, however, with mothers usually experiencing a higher level of stress than fathers (theule, wiener, tannock & jenkins, 2013). women are more likely to bear a greater psychological burden and have disturbing thoughts than fathers (scott, doolan, harry & cartwright, 2012). this is thought to occur because women exhibit a different response pattern on encountering stressful situations, and they tend to associate more with the stress they experience (taylor et al., 2000). various disabilities may also involve challenges that further contribute to parents’ differing stress levels (maclnnes, 2009). stress can also trigger a feeling of being unwanted (abbeduto et al., 2004). when someone experiences pressure, emotions, and stress, that person will often try to apply some method to solve the problem. such methods differ, and they may be effective or ineffective (jenaabadi, 2017). cognitive emotion regulation (henceforth, cer) is such a iswinarti, et al. strategy that is rooted in the cognitive domain, and it may control help unwanted the emotions and feelings arising from a problem (garland, gaylord & park, 2009; lazarus, 1991; inn, holtzman & delongis, 2007). the strategy someone adopts on encountering a problem plays a vital role in avoiding stress and determining one’s wellbeing and quality of life (jenaabadi, 2017). cer is divided into two approaches, namely maladaptive and adaptive (garnefski & kraaji, 2001). a person develops a strategy in line with his or her condition. a stressful condition may be remedied using this chosen strategy, but this also determines whether the strategy will reduce or increase the level of stress on encountering a number of problematic situations (garland, gaylord & fredrickson, 2011). research into dealing with parenting stress and cer among the parents of children with down syndrome over an eight-month period showed that high levels of maladaptive strategies were related to high parenting stress. after eight months, however, something changed, and despite maladaptive strategies being continuously employed, the parenting stress decreased (veek, kraj & garnefski, 2009). this finding is supported by another previous study that found that when a maladaptive strategy is employed by parents after their children are diagnosed for the first time as having special needs, this strategy may change over time, with a maladaptive strategy gradually turning into an adaptive strategy as the child ages and develops (miklosi, szabo, martos, galambosi & forintos, 2013). this means that as time passes and children develop, it influences the way in which people determine strategies. in the case of parenting stress, besides cer, support can also play an important role in making mothers of children with special needs better able to adapt to caring for, and parenting, their children. one study found that the levels of stress that parents experience is associated with support, with a higher level of support reducing the stress that parents experience (bannink, idro & van hove, 2016; hassall et al., 2005; huang, costeines, kaufman & ayala, 2014; lima, cardoso & silva, 2016). feeling supported in turn creates a sense of belonging and helps begin a process of acceptance (ballew, 2005; camara, bacigalupe & padilla, 2017). support in the form of belonging is one of the better predictors, more so than social support, when addressing stress and depression (choenarom, williams & hagerty, 2005). such support plays a significant role in reducing parenting stress and helping individuals to form relationships with others, because a person feels respected, accepted, needed, and connected to the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 204-222 environment (turner & mclaren, 2011). the need to belong results in searching to meet one’s needs by receiving acceptance, attention, and support from a group (baumeister & leary, 1995). when a parent is strongly supported, he or she will not feel alone when facing and solving problems. when such support is available, a situation that may normally be considered stressful can instead be managed well (skok, harvey & reddihough, 2006). previous research has explained that strong support in the form of feeling accepted helps deal with parenting stress, and greater support may contribute to decreasing levels of parenting stress (ayala-nunes et al., 2017; lima et al., 2016; long, 2009). another study concluded that support in the form of belonging is one of the more notable aids in resolving any stress experienced by parents (bannink et al., 2016). in addition, a stronger sense of belonging will significantly decrease parenting stress and depression (choenarom et al., 2005; tomlin, 2014). research questions the research questions for this study are formulated as follows: 1. is there any relationship between cognitive emotion regulation and parenting stress among the mothers of children with special needs? 2. can the need to belong moderate the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation and parenting stress? literature review cognitive emotion regulation and parenting stress some researchers have stated that mothers experience a higher level of parenting stress than fathers (theule, wienner, tannock & jenkins, 2013; ricci & hodaap, 2003). mothers often experience greater pressure and stress when facing problematic situations (longest & thoits, 2012). psychologically, a mother loses hope in her “abnormal” child, but she should accept the fact that her child is not perfect (lam & mackenzie, 2002). the long-term certainty about the development and condition of a child with special needs causes specific challenges for a mother, and the level of stress is greater when there is less support from her spouse, family, or other relatives, so she will find it difficult to manage the characteristics of her child’s behavior (galkiene & puskoriene, 2020; gupta, mehrotra & mehrotra, 2012). iswinarti, et al. cer is an important predictor for stress, anxiety, and depression (extremera & rey, 2014). when someone suffers from stress, he or she adopts a certain strategy to manage the stress and regulate her or his emotions (lazarus & folkman, 1984). cer is one method that some people adopt to control their emotions through cognition, so they can manage their responses after a challenging experience (garnefski, kraaij & spinhoven, 2001). cer as a coping strategy refers to specific efforts to moderate either one’s behavior or psychology in order to reduce and minimize the impact of an experienced stressful occurrence (kumari, gupta, piplani, bhatia & upadhayay, 2011). cer can be divided into two substrategies: adaptive and maladaptive (gross & john, 2003). adaptive cognitive emotion regulation includes concepts like, among others, acceptance, positive refocus, refocused planning, positive reappraisal, and putting things into perspective. maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation, meanwhile, comprises notions like self-blame, rumination, catastrophizing, and blaming others (gross & john, 2003). people tend to use different forms of cer, and there are gender differences between men and women. previous research states that compared with men, women tend to be less adaptive when solving problems, choosing instead to employ more maladaptive strategies, such as rumination and catastrophizing, when they encounter problems (folkman, 2013; garnefski, teerds, kraaij, legerstee & van den kommer, 2004). the need to belong as a moderator of the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation and parenting stress the need to belong represents how a parent of a child with special needs wishes to share experiences with others and receive support that may play an important role in mitigating stress and influencing that person’s evaluation of any stressful occurrences (baumeister & leary, 1995). the need to belong is a basic need of human beings, who need frequent and meaningful communication to develop an optimal state of wellbeing (baumeister & leary, 1995). one study states that the need to belong is a better predictor than social supports for realizing a good state of wellbeing in life and preventing stress and depression from occurring (turner & mclaren, 2011). support develops in a context of people helping one another by belonging to a process where they realize the need for support, namely through acceptance (ballew, 2005; camara et al., journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 204-222 2017). such support can give someone a sense of social belonging as that person becomes involved in activities and interacts with other people (wills, 1991). one study found that when people have greater access for forming relationships with others, they will have a stronger sense of belonging, so their parenting stress will be less (tomlin, 2014). belonging provides social support in the context of mutual support, where people both give and receive support (ballew, 2005; camara et al., 2017). another study revealed that belonging has direct, negatively correlated effects on stress and depression, so when people experience high levels of stress and depression, if they are involved in a community and feel part of it, the degree of stress and depression may be lower (choenarom et al., 2005). the need to belong is a form of support gained by looking for help from others in order to receive attention and feel accepted (baumeister & leary, 1995). some emotional problems— such as anxiety, depression, and loneliness—are often caused by an individual’s failure to satisfy his or her need for belonging (baumeister & leary, 1995). in other words, the need to belong is not focused on the individual but rather on significant social relationships where one tries to become involved in interactions, and this serves as a basis for behavior (choenarom et al., 2005). one study found that belonging and social support have direct and indirect effects on depression (turner & mclaren, 2011). an important role played by the need to belong in dealing with parenting stress relates to a person’s great need to belong and be involved in relationships and feel a valued part of the environment (choenarom et al., 2005). fulfilling the need to belong can influence stress, but it also serves as a basis for establishing relationships (leary, kelly, cottrell & schreindorfer, 2013). feeling a need to belong is an antecedent to having a sense of belonging (wilczynska, januszek & bargiel-matusiewicz, 2015). the word antecedent here refers to past occurrences that reveal one’s nature through attitudes, beliefs, and experiences that express one’s needs (wilczynska, januszek & bargiel-matusiewicz, 2015). the factors influencing stress in an individual are numerous, and they affect the behaviors and strategies that will be employed (ochsner & gross, 2008). theoretically, cer contributes to changes in parenting stress for the mothers of children with special needs (fink, 2016). a stressful situation arises when those special needs become a threat ora source of problems. cer functions by helping people to cope in solving problems and manage their emotions in the face of the stress experienced (garnefski et al., 2001). when person is unable to accept any stressors iswinarti, et al. when dealing with parenting a child with special needs, the need for support should be recognized and action taken to improve the child’s condition (hayes & watson, 2013). based on the descriptions in the theoretical reviews, a framework of the correlation between cer and parenting stress, as well as the moderating role of the need to belong, for the mothers of children with special needs can be established (figure1). fig. 1. framework research hypotheses h1: there is a negative correlation between cognitive emotion regulation and parenting stress. h2: the need to belong weakens the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation and parenting stress. methods research design this study applied a quantitative method to examine the correlation between independent variables, dependent variables, and variables as moderators. this research measured the strength of the correlation among variables and the contribution that the moderating variable makes to the correlation between the independent and dependent variables (winarsunu, 2015). this quantitative research aims to explain variations in the variables based on the correlation coefficient (sarwono, 2006). research subject the subject of this research is the mothers of children with special needs. a judgment sampling technique was adopted where the sample was chosen based on the researchers’ evaluation of which subjects were most appropriate for the research (darmawan, 2013). the participants were all mothers who had birthed and raised children who had been diagnosed with a disability or having special needs. these children were all studying at special schools (slb) in malang city and malang regency, with there being a total of 428 children spread over 13 such schools. a detailed description of the characteristics of the research participants is presented in table 1. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 204-222 table 1. description of the research participants (n=428) characteristics f percentage (%) special needs in children intellectual disability autistic adhd cerebral palsy specific learning disorder blind deaf speech impaired no explanation 219 46 5 36 3 19 59 7 34 51.1% 10.7% 1.2% 8.4% 0.7% 4.4% 13.8% 1.7% 7.9% child age 3 10 years 10 15 years 15 17 years no explanation mother age 2130 years 3140 years 4150 years 51 65 years no explanation mothers’ recent education not graduated from elementary school elementary school junior high school higher education no explanation 149 155 92 32 33 154 148 40 53 13 73 228 61 53 34.8% 36.2% 21.5% 7.5% 7.7% 36% 34.6% 9.3% 12.4% 3% 17% 53.3% 14.3% 12.4% the variables and research instruments three instruments were used in this research. parenting stress was measured using the parenting stress index–short form (psi–sf) of abidin (1990), which is based upon (i) parent distress, (ii) difficult child, and (iii) the parent-child dysfunctional interaction. the measure comprises 36 items and has a reliability of 0.925 and a validity index of 0.24–0.75. some examples of the items in this tool include (i) “i often feel that i cannot attain something well enough” (parent distress), (ii) “my child rarely does something that makes me happy” (difficult child), and (iii) dysfunctional interaction “there are several things done by my child that bother me” (the parent-child dysfunctional interaction). each item has five possible answers with different scores: 5 for “very appropriate,” 4 for “appropriate,” 3 for “between appropriate and inappropriate/neutral,” 2 for “inappropriate,” and 1 for “very inappropriate.” the higher the iswinarti, et al. score, the greater the parenting stress is. based on the results, the established parenting stress has a reliability index α = 0.91 where all items are valid. garnefski and kraaji’s (2001) adapted cognition emotion regulation questionnaire (cerq) comprises 36 items based on nine types of coping strategy, divided into adaptive and maladaptive strategies (gross & john, 2003). the score is calculated according to five answer choices ranging from “very appropriate” to “very inappropriate.” the favorable aspects cover adaptive cognitive emotion regulation forms like acceptance, positive refocusing, refocus of planning, positive reappraisal, and putting things into perspective. the unfavorable aspects, meanwhile, include forms of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation like self-blame, rumination, catastrophizing, and blaming others (gross & john, 2003). the reliability of this questionnaire is 0.85 with a validity index of 0.75–0.87. an example from the adaptive side is “i think that i can learn something from situations that happened,” while an example from the maladaptive side is “i feel that it is me who should be blamed for the occurrence of problems.” based on the results of the test for cognitive emotion regulation, it has a reliability index (α) of 0.88, and from 36 items, 30 are valid and may be used to measure cognitive emotion regulation. the need to belong was measured using the need to belong scale (ntb) of leary, kelly, cottrell and achreindorfer (2005). this scale covers the fulfillment of the need and desire to be motivated and accepted by others. this scale was adapted, and it expresses 10 items. the reliability of the questionnaire is 0.81 with a validity index of0.78–0.87. an example item in this tool is “if other people seem not to accept me, i will not let it bother me.” answers are expressed through five choices: 5 (very appropriate), 4 (appropriate), 3 (between appropriate and inappropriate/neutral), 2 (inappropriate), and 1 (very inappropriate). based on the result of the test of the scale, from 10 items, there were valid items with are liability index (α) of 0.80. research procedure this research was conducted over three stages, namely preparation, data collection, and data analysis. the preparation stage started by formulating the problem and determining the variables that would be studied, as well as performing some theoretical reviews to get proper explanations for the variables studied. the next step was to determine and organize the measuring tools to be used. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 204-222 the data-collection stage was conducted in 13 slbs of malang city and the surrounding regency, with the sampling criteria being that participants must be mothers of children with special needs whom they had birthed and raised. the researchers distributed the questionnaires in two ways: firstly, they were given out to the schools, who then passed them onto the students’ mothers, so they could complete them and return them a week later. secondly, questionnaires were distributed to the mothers at school during the session, with the goal and instructions for completing the questionnaires being explained. the data collection then followed, and any data that was found to be incompatible with the criteria was eliminated before the remaining data were analyzed. data analysis a hayes’ process macro, applied with the aid of the ibm spss version 22.0 software for windows, was used to analyze the data. this identified the correlation between the independent variable (cer) and the dependent variable (parenting stress), as well as established the role played by the moderating variable (need to belong) in influencing the relationship between the cer and the parenting stress experienced by the mothers of children with special needs (preacher & hayes, 2004). results description of the research variables the results of the statistical test showed the mean, standard deviation, and inter-correlation values for each variable. the respondents answered the need to belong questionnaire with a moderately high average score (m=2.7; sd=0.39). the cer variable also had a moderately high average score (m=3.67; sd=0.36), as did the parenting stress variable (m=2.56; sd= 0.52). table 2 shows that the result of the inter-correlation test for the variables revealed an insignificant positive correlation between the need to belong variable and the cer variable (r=0.01; p<0.01). a significant positive correlation was found between the need to belong variable and the parenting stress variable (r= 0.17; p<0.00). there was also a significant negative correlation between the cer variable and the parenting stress variable (r= -0.36; p=0.00). iswinarti, et al. table 2. statistical description among variables variable mean sd 1 2 3 1. cognitive emotion regulation 3.67 0.36 1 -0.36** 0.01 2. parenting stress 2.56 0.52 1 0.17** 3. need to belong 2.70 0.39 1 note: n=428; ** p<0.01 hypotheses testing the effect of cer on parenting stress the results of the data analysis using the hayes model revealed a significant negative correlation between cer and parenting stress (β=-0.55; p= 0.00). this implies that the greater the cognitive emotion regulation, the lower the parenting stress will be. cer was able explain 13% of the variance in the level of parenting stress experienced by the mothers of children with special needs (see table 3). the effect of cer on parenting stress with the need to belong as a moderating variable the presence of the need to belong as a moderating variable weakened the correlation between the cer and parenting stress (β=-0.29; p= 0.04). therefore, the greater the need to belong, the weaker the correlation there is between cer and parenting stress. the moderating variable was able to explain17%of the variance in parenting stress among the subjects (see table 3). the influence on the regression lines among variables is portrayed in figure 2. table 3. the results of the regression analysis of the moderating effect of the need to belong on the correlation between cer and parenting stress path effect β se t sig. rsquare constant 2.55 0.02 115.71 0.00 cognitive emotion regulation -0.55 0.05 -8.71 0.00 0.13 need to belong 0.31 0.07 5.55 0.00 0.16 moderating -0.29 0.14 -2.90 0.04 0.17 note:x= cognitive emotion regulation; m= need to belong; y= parenting stress journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 204-222 figure 2. the regression lines of the average scores for parenting stress and cer for low, moderate, and high levels of the need to belong based on figure 2, it can be deduced that a strong/weak correlation between cer and parenting stress is determined by the subject’s need to belong. in a subject with a strong need to belong, the correlation between cer and parenting stress is relatively weak. in contrast, when a subject has a moderate need to belong, the same correlation becomes moderately stronger. finally, when the subject possesses a low need to belong, the correlation becomes stronger still. discussion the results of this research show that cer has a negative and significant correlation with parenting stress, meaning that the greater cer there is, the less parenting stress there is for mothers of children with special needs. stress is viewed as something inherent in the responses of a family that faces difficult situations (cuzzocrea, murdaca, costa, filippello & larcan, 2016), but the level of stress experienced is related to the strategies employed. one study revealed that cer refers to a process of changing one’s thinking with the aim of changing one’s behavior, because this can play an important role in achieving mental wellbeing because a person believes in his or her own ability to solve problems (miklósi, martos, szabó, kocsis-bogár & forintos, 2014). a high degree of cer in mothers of children with special needs can reduce their parenting stress. this finding is supported by previous research that found that parents experienced much more stress when raising children if they tended to use maladaptive parenting styles (hastings & beck, 2004). this finding also agrees with research that stated that cer is associated with stress, iswinarti, et al. with maladaptive cer being applied more than adaptive cer by the parents of children with intellectual disabilities (martin & dahlen, 2005). disturbances experienced by children will lead to parenting stress, and this correlates with anxiety and depression, which may be influenced by the ineffective use of a coping strategy (walsh, mulder & tudor, 2013). the contribution of cer to parenting stress is 13% in this study, meaning that there are also other factors that may contribute to parenting stress, possibly more so, in the mothers of children with special needs. these could include parenting competence, self-esteem, quality of life, and attachment (baker, perilla & norris, 2001; lubiewska & derbis, 2016; miklosi et al., 2013; moreira, gouveia, carona, silva & canavarro, 2015). this study also found that the need to belong negatively and significantly moderates the correlation between cer and parenting stress. the moderating effect of the need to belong means that an increasing need to belong decreases the predicting effect of cer on parenting stress (preacher & hayes, 2004). in other words, it weakens the correlation between cer and parenting stress. this happens because the mothers of children with special needs look for support in their surrounding environments to overcome their parental stress. therefore, if a mother uses a high degree of cer and is supported through her need to belong, she will experience less stress when raising her child. this finding is supported by previous research that found that satisfying the need to belong also positively impacted on reducing stress, and this may lead to positive appraisal, which is an adaptive cer that is key to resolving stressful incidents (wilczynska, januszek & bargiel-matusiewicz, 2015). this research also showed that the need to belong correlates with the variable representing negative emotions like anxiety and worry. a strong need to belong may lead to someone forming a strong relationships, and negative emotions in his or her mind will decrease in accordance with a greater need to belong and the subsequent interactions that often happen (pillow, malone & hale, 2015). a need to belong develops when people invest more time in looking for, and interacting with, support from others, thus leading to a stronger sense of belonging. when someone interacts positively with another person, it improves the need to belong in the person. in contrast, when someone interacts negatively with someone else, it will reduce that person’s need to belong (baumeister & leary, 1995). this finding supports the results of previous research that found that support is important for someone to overcome difficulties in caring for children with journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 204-222 special needs (dunn, burbine, bowers & tantleff-dunn, 2001). various types of support can be given, but it is not only the amount of support but also its quality that determine show such support may yield benefits (dunn et al., 2001; smith, greenberg & seltzer, 2012; gibbs, 2020). as a whole, this study was conducted using scientific procedures to reach findings that answer the research questions and which are in line with previous research. this research does have some limitations, however, namely because when comparing the research variables, it did not perform a deep analysis that considered the particular characteristics of the individual children’s special needs, nor did it establish how stress develops after raising children with special needs over time. conclusion and implications the results of this research show the existence of a significant negative correlation between cer and parenting stress. the greater the cer, the lower the parenting stress will be. the need to belong also significantly influences the correlation between cer and parenting stress, such that if the need to belong in a mother is strong, it can reduce the effect of the cer on the parenting stress of mothers. it is recommended for future research to investigate moderating variables other than the one used in this research, because these may have a stronger influence on parenting stress. this could cover factors like competence, closeness, and self-esteem and the use of moderating variables from different and new perspectives. it is also recommended that future research focus more on the subject by distinguishing the particular needs of the subjects’ children, so more diverse research results can be obtained about the contributions that particular special needs make. for health workers, this study has the implication that they should give guidance and make interventions like psycho education, so the mothers of children with special needs can learn cer skills in order to reduce and minimize their parenting stress. iswinarti, et al. references abbeduto, l., seltzer, m. m., shattuck, p., krauss, m. w., orsmond, g., murphy, m. m., & floyd, f. (2004). psychological well-being and coping in mothers of youths with autism, down syndrome, orfragile x syndrome. american journal on mental retardation, 109(3), 237–254. abidin, r. (1995). parenting stress index manual. odessa, fl: psychological assessment resources ahern, l. s. (2004). psychometric properties of the parenting stress index-short form. thesis. north caroline state university ayala-nunes, l., nunes, c., & lemos, i. (2017). social support and parenting stress in at-risk portuguese families. journal of social work, 17(2), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017316640200 baker, c. k., perilla, j. l., & norris, f. h. (2001). parenting stress and parenting competence among latino men who batter. journal of interpersonal violence, 16(11), 1139–1157. ballew, m. s. d. (2005). role of cultural and social variables in parenting stress and acceptability of parent-training with native american parents. amerika : oklahoma state university. bannink, f., idro, r., & van hove, g. (2016). parental stress and support of parents of children with spina bifida in uganda. african journal of disability, 5(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v5i1.225 baumeister, r. f., & leary, m. r. (1995). the need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. psychological bulletin, 117(3), 497529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 camara, m., bacigalupe, g., & padilla, p. (2017). the role of social support in adolescents: are you helping me or stressing me out ? international journal of adolescence and youth, 22(2),123–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2013.875480 corey, g. (2013). teori dan praktek konseling dan psikoterapi. bandung: refika aditama. choenarom, c., williams, r. a., & hagerty, b. m. (2005). the role of sense of belonging and social support on stress and depression in individuals with depression. archives of psychiatric nursing, 19(1), 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2004.11.003 cuzzocrea, f., murdaca, a. m., costa, s., filippello, p., & larcan, r. (2016). parental stress, coping strategies and social support in families of children with a disability. child care in practice, 22(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/13575279.2015.1064357 darmawan. 2013. metode penelitian kuantitatif. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. dalby, j. (1987). dr. albert ellis and rational-emotive therapy. canada: alberta psychology deater-deckard, k. (1998). parenting stress and child adjustment: some old hypotheses and new questions. clinical psychology: science and practice, 5,314332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00152.x dunn, m. e., burbine, t., bowers, c. a., & tantleff-dunn, s. (2001). moderators of stress in parents of children with autism. community mental health journal, 37(1), 39– 52.https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1026592305436 ellis, a. (1980). rational-emotive therapy and cognitive behavior therapy: similarities and differences. cognitive therapy and research, 4(4), 325– 340.http://doi.org/10.1007/bf01178210 http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 204-222 extremera, n., & rey, l. (2014). health-related quality of life and cognitive emotion regulation strategies in the unemployed: a cross-sectional survey. health and quality of life outcomes, 12(1), 172.http://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-014-0172-6. folkman, s. (2013). stress: appraisal and coping. in encyclopedia of behavioral medicine. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_215 fink, g. (2016). stress: concepts, cognition, emotion, and behavior: handbook in stress, volume 1. australia : elseiver harris, v. s. , & mchale, s. m. (1989). family life problems, daily caregiving activities, and the psychological well-being of mothers of mentally retarded children. american journal on mental retardation, 94, 231-239 galkiene, a., & puskoriene, g. (2020). development of adaptation tools for pupils on the autism spectrum in microsystems. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 121. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.1 garland, e. l., gaylord s., & park j. the role of mindfulness in positive reappraisal. explore. 2009; 5: 37-44. https://doi:10.1016/j.explore.2008.10.001. garland, e. l., gaylord, s. a., & fredrickson, b. l. (2011). positive reappraisal mediates the stress-reductive effects of mindfulness: an upward spiral process. mindfulness, 2(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-011-0043-8 garnefski, n., kraaij, v., & spinhoven, p. (2001). negative life events, cognitive emotion regulation and emotional problems. personality and individual differences, 30(8), 1311– 1327.https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00113-6 garnefski, n., teerds, j., kraaij, v., legerstee, j., & van den kommer, t. (2004). cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms: differences between males and females. personality and individual differences, 36(2), 267–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00083-7 gibbs, b. (2020). critical teaching in classrooms of healing: struggles and testimonios. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 95-111. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.6 gross, j. j., & john, o. p. (2003). individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. journal of personality and social psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348 gupta, v. b. (2007). comparison of parenting stress in different developmental disabilities. journal of developmental and physical disabilities, 19(4), 417–425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-007-9060-x hassall, r., rose, j., & mcdonald, j. (2005). parenting stress in mothers of children with an intellectual disability: the effects of parental cognitions in relation to child characteristics and family support. journal of intellectual disability research, 49(6), 405–418. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00673.x hastings, r. p., & beck, a. (2004). practitioner review: stress intervention for parents of children with intellectual disabilities: stress intervention for parents. journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 45(8), 1338–1349. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14697610.2004.00357.x hayes, s. a., & watson, s. l. (2013). the impact of parenting stress: a meta-analysis of studies comparing the experience of parenting stress in parents of children with and without autism spectrum disorder. journal of autism and developmental disorders, 43(3), 629–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1604-y https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00113-6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.6 iswinarti, et al. hodapp, r. m. (2007). families of persons with down syndrome: new perspectives, findings, and research and service needs. mental retardation and developmental disabilities research reviews, 13(3), 279–287. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.20160 huang, c. y., costeines, j., kaufman, j. s., & ayala, c. (2014). parenting stress, social support, and depression for ethnic minority adolescent mothers: impact on child development. journal of child and family studies, 23(2), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826013-9807-1 kementrian pendidikan dan kebudayaan indonesia. (2017). sekolah inklusi dan pembangunan slb dukung pendidikan inklusi. retrive from https://www.kemdikbud.go.id/main/blog/2017/02/sekolah-inklusi-dan-pembangunan-slbdukung-pendidikan-inklusi lam lw, mackenzie ae. (2002). coping with a child with down syndrome: the experiences of mothers in hong kong. qualitative heath research (12) 223–237.https://doi.org/ 10.1177/104973202129119856. lazarus, r., & folkman, s. (1984). stress, appraisal, and coping. new york: springer. lazarus, r. s. (1991). emotion and adaptation. new york: oxford university press. jenaabadi, h. (2017). effect of emotion regulation training on depression, anxiety, and stress among mothers of children with mental disorders. journal of research and health, 7(1), 663–671. https://doi.org/10.18869/acadpub.jrh.7.1.663 leary, m. r., kelly, k. m., cottrell, c. a., & schreindorfer, l. s. (2013). construct validity of the need to belong scale: mapping the nomological network. journal of personality assessment, 95(6), 610–624. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2013.819511 lima, m. b. s., cardoso, v. dos s., & silva, s. s. da c. (2016). parental stress and social support of caregivers of children with cerebral palsy. paidéia (ribeirão preto), 26(64), 207–214. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-43272664201608 long, a. c. j. (2009). parenting stress and social support in families with children with fragile x syndrome: a comparison of mothers and fathers. thesis. the university of north carolina at chapel hill. longest, k. c., & thoits, p. a. (2012). gender, the stress process, and health: a configurational approach. society and mental health, 2(3), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869312451151 lubiewska, k., & derbis, r. (2016). relations between parenting stress, attachment, and life satisfaction in mothers of adolescent children. polish journal of applied psychology, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.1515/pjap-2015-0056 maclnnes, l.k. (2006).parenting self-efficacy and stress in mothers and fathers of children with down syndrome. thesis. simon fraser univeristy marin, t. j., holtzman, s., delongis, a., & robinson, l. (2007). coping and the response of others. journal of social and personal relationships, 24(6), 951-969. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407507084192 martin, r. c., & dahlen, e. r. (2005). cognitive emotion regulation in the prediction of depression, anxiety,stress,and anger.personality and individualdifferences,39(7),12491260.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.06.004 matthew, r. f. (2006). relation of maternal support and maternal stress to children’s behavior problems in african american families. dissertation. university of maryland http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0265407507084192 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 204-222 miklósi, m., martos, t., szabó, m., kocsis-bogár, k., & forintos, d. (2014). cognitive emotion regulation and stress: a multiple mediation approach. translational neuroscience, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.2478/s13380-014-0207-9 miklosi, m., szabo, m., martos, t., galambosi, e., & perczel forintos, d. (2013). cognitive emotion regulation strategies moderate the effect of parenting self-efficacy beliefs on parents’ anxiety following their child’s surgery. journal of pediatric psychology, 38(4), 462–471. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jss174 moreira, h., gouveia, m. j., carona, c., silva, n., & canavarro, m. c. (2015). maternal attachment and children’s quality of life: the mediating role of self-compassion and parenting stress. journal of child and family studies, 24(8), 2332–2344. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0036-z ochsner, k. n., & gross, j. j. (2008). cognitive emotion regulation: insights from social cognitive and affective neuroscience. current directions in psychological science, 17(2), 153–158. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00566.x oelofsen, n., & richardson, p. (2006). sense of coherence and parenting stress in mothers and fathers of preschool children with developmental disability. journal of intellectual and developmental disability, 31(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668250500349367 pianta, r. c., & egeland, b. (1990). life stress and parenting outcomes in a disadvantaged sample: results of the mother-child interaction project. journal of clinical child psychology, 19(4), 329-336.http://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp1904_4 pillow, d. r., malone, g. p., & hale, w. j. (2015). the need to belong and its association with fully satisfying relationships: a tale of two measures. personality and individual differences, 74, 259–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.031 pisula, e. (2007). a comparative study of stress profiles in mothers of children with autism and those of children with down's syndrome. journal of applied research in intellectual disabilities, 20(3), 274-278. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2006.00342.x preacher, kj., &hayes af. (2004).spss and sas procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models.behavior research methods instrumen & computer.36(4):71731. ricci, la., &hodapp, rm. (2003).fathers of children with down's syndrome versus other types of intellectual disability: perceptions, stress and involvement. journal of intellectual disability research. 47(4-5): 273-84.http://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2788.2003.00489.x sarwono. (2006). metode penelitian kuantitatif dan kualitatif. yogyakarta. :graha ilmu scott, s., doolan, m., harry, s., & cartwright, s. (2012). how is parenting style related to child antisocial behaviour ? preliminary findings from the helping children achieve study. london: departemet for education singer, g. h., & floyd, f. (2006). meta-analysis of comparative studies of depression in mothers of children with and without developmental disabilities. american journal on mental retardation, 111(3), 155–169.http://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017 skok, a., harvey, d., & reddihough, d. (2006). perceived stress, perceived social support, and wellbeing among mothers of school‐aged children with cerebral palsy. journal of intellectual and developmental disability, 31(1), 53-57. http://doi.org/10.1080/13668250600561929 smith, l. e., greenberg, j. s., & seltzer, m. m. (2012). social support and well-being at midlife among mothers of adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00566.x https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15641418 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13668250600561929 iswinarti, et al. journal of autism and developmental disorders, 42(9), 1818–1826. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1420-9 taylor, s. e., klein, l. c., lewis, b. p., gruenewald, t. l., gurung, r. a., & updegraff, j. a. (2000). biobehavioral responses to stress in females: tend-and-befriend, not fight-orflight. psychological review, 107(3), 411.https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.107.3.411 theule, j., wiener, j., tannock, r., & jenkins, j. m. (2013). parenting stress in families of children with adhd: a meta-analysis. journal of emotional and behavioral disorders, 21(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426610387433 tomlin, d. a. (2014). the impact of participation in online social networking on parenting stress levels of single mothers. chattooga : the university of tennessee turner, l., & mclaren, s. (2011a). social support and sense of belonging as protective factors in the rumination-depressive symptoms relation among australian women. women and health, 51(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2011.558004 turner, l., & mclaren, s. (2011b). social support and sense of belonging as protective factors in the rumination-depressive symptoms relation among australian women. women & health, 51(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2011.558004 veek, s.m.c., kraaij, v., & garnefski, n. (2009). cognitive coping strategies and stress in parents of children with down syndrome: a prospective study. intellectual and developmental disabilities, 47(4), 295-306.https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-47.4.295 walsh, c. e., mulder, e., & tudor, m. e. (2013). predictors of parent stress in a sample of children with asd: pain, problem behavior, and parental coping. research in autism spectrum disorders, 7(2), 256–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2012.08.010 wilczynska, a., januszek, m., & bargiel-matusiewicz, k. (2015). the need of belonging and sense of belonging versus effectiveness of coping. polish psychological bulletin, 46(1), 72–81. https://doi.org/10.1515/ppb-2015-0008 wills t a. social support and interpersonal relationships. (clark m s. ed) review of personality and social psychology. newbury park. ca: sage, 1991. vol. 12. p. 265-89 winarsunu, t. (2015). statistik dalam ilmu penelitian psikologi dan pendidikan. malang: umm press. yousefia, s., far, a. s., & abdolahian, e. (2011). parenting stress and parenting styles in mothers of adhd with mothers of normal children. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 30, 1666–1671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.323 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 58-74 58 architecture + design as a means for constructing an experiential & democratic learning environment in the social studies classroom rory p. tannebaum1 & ashley e. tannebaum2 abstract the purpose of this conceptual work is to explore ways in which k-12 classrooms can be used as a physical and abstract model for society in which students can practice becoming effective, participatory citizens. the authors framed this manuscript around ways in which the k-12 learning environment can be transformed into “a miniature community an embryonic society” as envisioned by john dewey (1916). more specifically, the authors seek to use this scholarship to address a gap in the literature between the field of architecture + design and the broad aims of education that often connect to principles of democracy and citizenship. following a discussion on the intersection of architecture + design and the social studies, the authors present a lesson for how to effectively teach preservice social studies teachers about ways to both think about and manipulate their classroom for the benefit of their students as well as recommendations for the field going forward in this area of scholarship. keywords: social studies education, learning environments, democratic practices . introduction the field of education is often tasked with the responsibility of developing reform-oriented citizens prepared to live and work within a democratic, pluralistic society (barton, 2012; gutmann & ben-porath, 2014; hess, 2009; ncss, 2010). students in k-12 classrooms, to that end, are expected to learn how to become citizens who are both participatory in democratic practices and tolerant of the views and beliefs of those who come from differing perspectives than their own (gutmann, 1999; ncss; 2010; parker, 2005). though there certainly does not exist one sole method for accomplishing such lofty goals, scholars and teachers often cite the work of john dewey when describing both the purposes of 1 assistant professor of education, merrimack college, tannebaumr@merrimack.edu 2 doctor of design student, harvard university, ashleytannebaum@gsd.harvard.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 58-74 the field of education and the means for obtaining such aims. and while dewey (1916) wrote on a number of topics in the field of education, a consistent theme throughout his scholarship was the value in learning environments conducive to students being able to “practice” living in a democratic society where they could learn to participate in shared decision-making and collective growth as part of the process of becoming ideal citizens. to that end, dewey (1900) famously noted that the classroom should serve as “miniature community an embryonic society” (p. 15). with this, dewey expressed the need for students to have a context to practice citizenship through collaboration with peers on real-world projects and discussions that explored a wide-range of perspectives and ideas. a small number of pedagogical approaches in recent years have begun to consider the built environment as a tool to support higher academic aims. these approaches, including montessori, reggio emilia, and waldorf, highlight the need for physical environments that support the active, social nature of learning (bjørnholt, 2014; cadwell, 1997; ceppi and zini, 1998; schieren, 2010). within these pedagogical approaches, the built environment is designed to create opportunities for students to actively engage in learning, interact with their peers, and possess the autonomy to manipulate the physical environment as a means to accommodate their own particular learning needs (see table 1). spaces organizationally and materially provide visual and physical connection to peers and the surrounding community, allowing for active learning, creativity, and interaction among peers. here, the built environment is conceptualized as a model of society, celebrating the identity of the collective school and the well-being of its individual students. tannebaum & tannebaum table 1. how selected pedagogical approaches consider the built environment as contributor to the learning environment pedagogical approach montessori reggio emilia waldorf age of students (in years) 2-6+ 0-5 0-18+ role of student active learner developing citizens physical learner role of caregivers guide, cooperator “the first teacher” participators role of instructor guide, helper “the second teacher”, facilitator leader, curator of learning context impact of the built environment supports confidence, creativity, and collectivity “the third teacher”, supports collaboration and open to individual supports emotions through openness, warmness, and collectivity function of classroom setting flexible, including levels of engagement workshop home of class and teacher organization of school open to provide transparency of function establishes individual identity within community articulated to support individual and community identity sources: (al, sari, and kahya, 2012; bjørnholt, 2014; ceppi and zini, 1998; edwards, gandini, and forman, 1998; montessori and holmes, 1912; schieren, 2012; steiner and bamford, 1996) outside of these relatively new environments, the traditional k-12 classroom has rarely reflected larger society either in either a physical or an abstract sense and, in this way, has done somewhat of a disservice to students in regards to their understanding of how the “real world” operates. with both physical spaces and classroom activities often perpetuating independent work, classrooms often teach students that compliance and autonomy are valued over collaboration and collectivity (certainly counter to how a progressive democracy ideally works). thus, even without factoring teachers or other students into the equation, the traditional learning journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 58-74 environment has come to reflect a seemingly obsolete context whereby students are taught that learning is passive-in-nature and an individualistic processes and that growth comes on an individual level (as opposed to in a collective sense) (hope, 1996; gross, 2006; kolb, 2014). the authors of this article seek to build upon the contributions from each of these approaches to explore the extent to which the physical design of the social studies classroom can be manipulated to provide students with learning opportunities that will help them become the citizens that scholars in the field consistently advocate for in their research. because, for that matter, the social studies is uniquely poised to provide students with opportunities to explore topics connected to the world around them, the context it which such learning occurs could benefit greatly from a rethinking of how those in the field approach physical spaces. purpose and guiding questions this manuscript was written to be applicable to both social studies teachers as well as scholars and teacher educators in the field of social studies education. to best do this, the authors divided the paper into two broad sections: one meant to provide a wide conceptual framework for which the main arguments will be grounded and another to describe a practical activity used to make the broad arguments applicable to teachers and teacher educators. more specifically, the purpose of the conceptual portion of this work is to explore ways in which k-12 classrooms can be used as a model for society in which students can practice becoming effective, participatory citizens. expanding upon these ideas in the second section of the manuscript, the authors seek to take this theoretical information and use it to offer those in the social studies with a practical lesson for engaging social studies teachers in a meaningful conversation about how to manipulate their classroom space for the benefit of their students. the purpose of this manuscript, therefore, was to both explore and emphasize the mechanisms through which the k-12 learning environment can be transformed into “ a miniature community an embryonic society” as envisioned by john dewey (1916). more specifically, the authors sought to use this scholarship to address a gap in the literature between the fields of architecture + design and the broad aims of education that often connect to principles of democracy and citizenship (with a specific emphasis on the social studies). tannebaum & tannebaum in an attempt to explore the physical design of learning environments, the two authors – one a former k-12 teacher and current professor of education and the other a practicing architect specializing in the design of educational spaces – seek to describe the ways in which the fields of education and architecture + design intersect and serve as a means for creating a classroom space more likely to promote democratic ideals and practices. it is with these aims in mind that the authors constructed the following questions as a guide for this conceptual scholarship: 1) to what extent do the fields of education and architecture + design intersect to create a “miniature community” in the k-12 classroom? 2) in what ways can the reconfiguration of the physical classroom space impact students’ learning and experience within a democratic, community-based space? a. in what ways can the intentional design of a physical classroom space strategically assist students in modeling how to be a “good” citizen capable of participating in a democratic environment? b. to what extent can those in the field of education prepare novice educators to understand the impact of design on students’ learning and the goal of achieving a democratic, constructivist space? these questions served as the foundation of the current conceptual work and the authors’ aims of shedding light on how to best prepare educators to see value in design in the k-12 classroom as a means for building an environment reflective of the “miniature community” described by dewey. literature review in recent decades there has been a steady growth of scholarship in the field of architecture + design detailing the impact of the physical space and design of both schools and classrooms in terms of students’ health and well-being (e.g., boese & shaw, 2005), the integration of new and progressive technology (e.g., brown & long, 2006; dede, 1995), and environmentally-friendly and sustainable design (e.g., taylor, 2009). textbooks, for that matter, have been written specifically about how to design an effective, practical school (taylor, 2009) and countless articles have been published providing nuanced arguments about how to best create school and classroom spaces that will be beneficial to students (e.g., bingler, quinn, & sullivan, 2003; christopher, 1991; dudek, 2012; long, & ehrmann 2005). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 58-74 despite this new and progressive body of literature exploring the design of school spaces and the increased consideration of the built environment in the pedagogical realm, there exists limited scholarship in recent years exploring the design of a classroom space and its effects on student learning alongside a democratic education (with specific references to the aims of education as widely-noted by scholars within the field). moreover, the fields of architecture + design and educational foundations have largely remained mutually exclusive and little has been written about how the strategic design of the physical classroom environment can be used to improve classroom spaces to align with the primary aims and mission of the field of education. the conceptual paper seeks to bridge this gap by connecting classroom design with democratic principles of education as discussed by leading scholars in each field. conceptual framework since dewey wrote about the importance of students “practicing” being citizens within an “embryonic society”, many scholars have echoed his calls by trying to reimagine learning environments and make recommendations for how to best achieve this critical pedagogical practice. however over a century after dewey’s writings countless k-12 classrooms still rarely reflect the type of collaborative space dewey wrote about in his scholarship. this is despite the fact that the environments in which students and citizens exist today is markedly different from that of a century ago and despite a wide-range of research supporting the notion that classroom spaces have a large impact on the experience of k-12 students (burke, 2005; lyons, 2001; taylor, 2009). the way in which society operates in the twenty-first century is not the same as it was in the early-twentieth century. to that end, the old “industrial model” of physical spaces in schools is no longer viable given the changing environment that awaits students upon leaving school (taylor, 2009). therefore, the spaces in which students [ideally] practice citizenship should reflect modern spaces of a communal democracy and those both in the fields of education and architecture + design must work together to construct spaces that properly reflect dewey’s vision of an effective learning environment. the failure of physical learning environment configurations to evolve into the types of spaces that could truly lead to experiential learning, shared decision-making, and communal growth tannebaum & tannebaum could be attributed to a wide-variety of reasons including though certainly not limited to teachers having: (a) a lack of knowledge about classroom design and its connection to student growth, (b) the belief that rows help prevent classroom management issues, (c) little to no exposure to creative ways for how a classroom can be designed, or simply (d) the inability to rearrange a classroom space due to permanent fixtures. regardless of the reasons, however, scholarship in both the fields of education and architecture + design have demonstrated a strong connection between the physical design of a learning space and the experience of the students in the classroom (e.g., lyons, 2001; secretary general organization, 2011). such links have consistently proven how students learn and the impact that a teacher can have on their education (darling-hammond, 1997; moore & lackney, 1993). because of the connection between classroom design and a students’ opportunity for experiential learning, it is essential that classroom teachers are familiar with broad concepts and ideas underlying both fields. exploring components of an “effective classroom space” if one consensus exists in the field of education, it is that a one-size-fits-all approach to teaching and learning rarely works for students or teachers (pratt, 2002). the same idea is true for the design of an effective classroom that has the potential to support students emotionally, socially, and academically. there is no one right answer about how to best design a classroom that is both welcoming to students and conducive to their growth as students and citizens (taylor, 2009). however, certain elements to a learning environment can largely be viewed as necessary to create a space in which students have the best chance of succeeding. this manuscript does not claim to have all the answers, but it seeks to provide a broad overview of certain critical elements identified in the literature in order to justify the use of the provided lesson. to that end, the authors deduced that a ‘conducive learning environment’ contains the following properties: 1. conducive to collaboration and collectivity: upon completing their formal schooling – be it after high school or obtaining a formal degree the vast majority of citizens will be expected to collaborate with colleagues on a daily basis to solve problems and increase efficiency. the ideal modern classroom offers students opportunities to practice collaborating with peers in a manner reflective of a miniature society (dewey; 1916; hess, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 58-74 2009). this could effectively occur through collegial discussions on complex topics, collaborative efforts within a group project, or by having students campaign on a topic and reach out to local representatives with their aims. regardless of the means, the impact of creating an environment that values opinions and collaboration is critical to the development of a classroom that is conducive to meaningful learning. 2. open to varying opinions and belief systems: the phrase “safe space” is often used in the field of education to describe a classroom in which students feel comfortable sharing their own belief systems without concern of being ostracized or criticized (dalton & fairchild, 2004; holley & steiner, 2005). this idea is one that aligns with the aim of creating an environment in which students feel comfortable to a point in which they feel free to express their opinions without fear of consequence. teachers can create this type of environment both in the abstract (by placing value on every opinion and showing students respect) and through the physical design of the classroom (by encouraging discussion and group-talk in which every individual can participate). such an environment increases the chances for students to feel supported in a social sense, where they can feel confident in their own belief system and free to seek assistance from those around them when there exists disequilibrium (ghaith, 2002). 3. emotionally supportive: a classroom conducive to learning, ideally, creates a space in which students feel safe and comfortable on an emotional level. broadly speaking, an emotionally supportive classroom provides context “for the development of positive perceptions of student-teacher relationships” (gasser, grutter, buholzer, wettsetin, 2018, p. 82) the teacher has designed a space – both in an abstract and tangible manner – that is welcoming. this includes encouraging respect and open-mindedness, valuing everyone’s opinion, hanging up artwork from students, and providing a bright, colorful space (fedorenko, 2014; milkie & warner, 2011). these three elements are certainly not the sole answer to what creates an environment conducive to learning, but they reflect a broad attempt at defining physical and abstract characteristics to an effectively designed and constructed classroom space. if even one of these pieces is not up to a certain standard, a students’ ability to succeed within the classroom becomes largely hindered – thus making it essential that teachers are aware of the ways in which a classroom space can impact a student’s ability to learn. tannebaum & tannebaum preparing social studies teachers to manipulate classroom spaces the fields of architecture + design and social studies education are both extremely complex and gaining a mastery of either takes years of both exploration and practice. however, preservice teachers (and those who are in-service) can easily be exposed to the basic premises that link the two fields together in a manner that will help them to manipulate their classroom spaces to best achieve the aims of the field of education. it was with this belief in mind that the two authors designed the following lesson. the intent was to combine both theoretical underpinnings of the power of classroom design with a practical approach to have educators ‘practice’ how to construct an environment conducive to meaningful learning. the lesson described here has been used in multiple teacher preparation classrooms in the united states as a way to expose future teachers to these ideas in an engaging and meaningful way. though the design of schools within the united states can certainly differ based on the region of the country, the lesson itself presents ideas that are transferable to educators regardless of where they are teaching. initially, students are asked to broadly consider their aims as an instructor and to write 1-3 sentences describing their particular pedagogical approach. students of this lesson are then briefly exposed to how classrooms tend to be designed in the twenty-first century (reflecting much of the first half of this manuscript). questions are posed to students about how they remember their traditional k-12 classrooms being set up as they were going through their formal schooling and whether they had frequent opportunities for collaboration within these spaces. this process is briefly paired with the broadest aims within the field of social studies education (e.g., citizenship skills, reform-oriented ways of thinking, collective action). ideally, these beginning pieces of the presentation take only a few moments and serve solely as a foundation to the full experience. once this content has been covered, students are broken into groups of three or four and asked to create a hypothetical “program sheet” of what their ideal classroom would contain (e.g., 20desks, 24 chairs, 1 teacher desk, cabinets). such documents are standard in the process of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 58-74 designing and constructing schools and provide architects and designers with both guidelines and specific requirements as they design and construct academic buildings. figure 1 demonstrates what one of these could look like. figure 1: example of a project sheet . once each group has created a project sheet, groups are asked to ‘trade’ their project sheets with another group. the purpose of this is to simulate the fact that, more often than not, teachers are given a classroom with a set of objects and restrictions and asked to create a space conducive to learning with what they have been given. in other words, students are asked to work within unanticipated parameters that they will likely experience when they begin teaching. the next step in this activity involves students using the parameters they have been given to physically design a classroom space that could lead to experiential and democratic learning. to do this, students should be provided materials to both construct their classroom to meet the requirements of the project sheet they are working with while, simultaneously, serving as a classroom capable of providing a democratic space capable of fostering experiential learning. though the types of materials used can certainly vary based on the facilitators means and interests, students are typically given markers, construction paper, glue-sticks and scissors. once provided with these supplies, students are asked to create a birds-eye view of their classroom (for examples, see figures 2 and 3). typically, students are not shown examples in advance, as doing so much influence the way in which they think about the project. tannebaum & tannebaum figure 2: example of “ideal” classroom. figure 3: example of “ideal” classroom. once groups have had ample time to both design and construct their ideal classrooms, they are asked to present their “new” classroom models and describe how their newly-designed space can better lend itself to the types of learning written about by scholars in the field of education. the groups, therefore, must do more than simply stand up and describe their classroom. rather, they are expected to justify their decision-making and directly connect those choices their initial pedagogical statement. if, for instance, the facilitator of the classroom has repeatedly described the academic benefits to having students discuss content, students will be expected to detail how their model classroom could lead to more opportunities for discussion than a traditional classroom environment where students are, in many cases, facing forward in rows. ideally, this will allow students the opportunity to reconsider how their classroom is set-up, connect the lesson to broad themes in the social studies, and get feedback from peers who may have creative ideas of their own. further recommendations suggesting that novice educators or seasoned professors of education become experts in architecture + design is an impractical solution for upending the traditional ways in which classrooms are physically manipulated. however, it is reasonable to imagine an environment in which new teachers are at least exposed to the various ways in which a classroom’s design is inextricably linked to previously-noted aims of creating citizens capable of entering into society as participatory and tolerant individuals. brief activities resembling the one described in this article are a good way to get preservice social studies teachers to contemplate how they can and should manipulate their classroom to benefit their students. however, more work needs to be journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 58-74 done to help teacher education and architecture + design find a clearer and more accessible intersection. as such, the authors of this work have several recommendations: 1. preservice teachers’ education: a more concerted effort needs to be made by those in higher education to model how physical design can impact a students’ learning experience. in other words, instructors need to use the spaces they are provided to demonstrate to novice educators about how a classroom can be used as a way to positively impact students’ classroom experiences. if teachers teach how they were taught (reflecting lortie and clement’s 1975 ‘apprenticeship of observation’ theory), it is also fair to assume that teachers will design their classroom in the ways in which they experienced learning environments throughout k-12 and higher education. thus, those in teacher education need to model how a classroom space can be used to stimulate discussion, encourage collaboration, and promote a more fluid and progressive environment for academic and social growth. 2. in-service teachers’ professional development: professional developments should be offered to in-service teachers as a way to introduce them to strategies and designs for making the most out of their classroom space. such sessions could be done by pairing architectural firms and local design-based academic programs with teachers and districts or by simply having professional developments that offer educators with opportunities to learn how to manipulate their classroom spaces. as has been noted throughout this manuscript, it is impossible to imagine that a single session or course can teach educators how a classroom space can improve the experience of k-12 students. however, exposing educators to the fundamental ideas that can shape a students’ experience in a physical space in a way that improves both their ability to practice being an effective citizen and their social and emotional well-being is reasonable. 3. academic research: more scholarship either empirical or conceptual needs to focus on the links between dewey’s vision of a classroom serving as a “miniature community” and the physical design of a classroom space. while there has certainly been good work completed in the field of education regarding the value of schools in creating good citizens, there has been limited empirical research that has sought to connect classroom spaces with such goals. future research by researchers in both fields needs to explore the tannebaum & tannebaum extent to which the physical classroom design can help achieve the primary goals of education. preservice teachers need to be introduced to the idea that the physical space – albeit a critical component to a successful and effective classroom – is not the only piece to the proverbial puzzle that is an effective classroom. as with many components of effective teaching, classroom space extends beyond simply the organization of desks and whiteboards. rather, the abstract nature of the space needs to be constructed in a manner that lends itself to the social and emotional well-being of the students in the class (boese & shaw, 2005; fedorenko, 2014; milkie & warner, 2011). such an idea is reflected in many of the aims of the social studies which, at their foundation, promote inclusivity, reform-oriented action, and openness to new perspectives and belief systems (ncss, 2010; ncss, 2013). to that end, a classroom that is set up in a progressive and modern way can only reach its full potential if the students in the classroom feel comfortable in the classroom and free to participate amongst their peers. again, it would be impractical to assume that the three recommendations listed above could fully assist k-12 educators to understand why and how to design their classroom in the vision of dewey. however, exposing educators at all levels in their career to the importance of using classroom space in a way that reflects modern society has the potential to make a significant difference in the way k-12 students experience their education. students who may have only experienced a classroom in which they passively listen to a teacher’s perspective can have a better chance of participating in an environment that reflects that types of spaces they will frequent after having graduated from their formal schooling. if educators, for that matter, can better understand the parallels between modern and progressive classrooms and the way in which society operates within the contexts of diversity and collaboration, then they can be better prepared to use the classroom space as a way to prepare students to be “good” citizens. further, educators who have gone through this type of training can help students practice collaborating with peers and participating with individuals holding different values and beliefs – both inevitabilities the further one goes in their personal and professional lives. this understanding allows teachers another powerful tool to help them create truly effective learning environments. conclusion journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 58-74 as duke (1998) eloquently notes, “even if no links between learning and facilities could be demonstrated scientifically, our society still would have a moral obligation to assign young people to safe and well-designed schools” (p. 4). albeit referring to the physical design of school facilities in the broadest sense, duke’s works can and should be related to the design of the classrooms in which students spend up to eight hours in each day. because of this, both preservice and in-service teachers are often well-intentioned in their aims and ambitions as classroom teachers. however, without the proper exposure to the possibilities for the k-12 classroom, it is unlikely that they can reach their full potential as educators. because of this, it is critical that novice educators are introduced to a wide-variety of theories and strategies prior to entering into the classroom as an in-service teacher. and while teacher preparation programs are notoriously robust programs, it is essential that the physical space and design of the classroom is explored in the curriculum as a means for exposing new teachers about the power of space and design in the largely context of constructing a democratic and experiential learning environment for k-12 students. tannebaum & tannebaum references al, s., sari, r. m., & kahya, n. c. (2012). a different perspective on education: montessori and montessori school architecture. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 46, 18661871. barton, k. c. (2012). agency, choice and historical action: how history teaching can help students think about democratic decision making. citizenship teaching & learning, 7(2), 131-142. bingler, s., quinn, l., & sullivan, k. (2003). schools as centers of community: a citizen's guide for planning and design. national clearinghouse for educational facilities. bjørnholt, m. (2014). room for thinking—the spatial dimension of waldorf education. rose– research on steiner education, 5(1). boese, s., & shaw, j. (2005). new york state school facilities and student health, achievement, and attendance: a data analysis report. healthy schools network, inc. brown, m., & long, p. (2006). trends in learning space design. learning spaces, 9-1. burke, c. (2005). “play in focus”: children researching their own spaces and places for play. children youth and environments, 15(1), 27-53. cadwell, l. b. (1997). bringing reggio emilia home: an innovative approach to early childhood education. teachers college press. ceppi, g., & zini, m. (1998). children, spaces, relations. metaproject for an environment for young children. milan: domus academy research center. christopher, g. (1991). effect of architecture on education. educational facility planner, 29(1), 11-15. dalton, j., & fairchild, l. (2004). the compassionate classroom. chicago, il: zephyr press. delamont, s.(2007). arguments against auto-ethnography. qualitative researcher, 4(2). darling-hammond, l. (1997). the right to learn: a blueprint for creating schools that work. the jossey-bass education series. jossey-bass, inc., publishers, 350 sansome street, san francisco, ca 94104. dede, c. (1995). the evolution of constructivist learning environments: immersion in distributed, virtual worlds. educational technology, 35(5), 46-52. dewey, j. (1900). the school and society/being three lectures by john dewey. dewey, j. (1916/1944). democracy and education: an introduction to the philosophy of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 58-74 education. new york: free press. dudek, m. (2012). architecture of schools: the new learning environments. routledge. duke, d. (1998, february 18). does it matter where our children learn? paper commissioned by the national research council of the national academy of sciences and the national academy of engineering for an invitation meeting in washington d.c. edwards, c. p., gandini, l., & forman, g. e. (eds.). (1998). the hundred languages of children: the reggio emilia approach--advanced reflections. greenwood publishing group. fedorenko, e. i. (2014). classroom space and child’s health. journal of siberian federal university, 12(7), 2173-2180. gasser, l., grütter, j., buholzer, a., & wettstein, a. (2018). emotionally supportive classroom interactions and students' perceptions of their teachers as caring and just. learning and instruction, 54, 82-92. ghaith, g. m. (2002). the relationship between cooperative learning, perception of social support, and academic achievement. system, 30(3), 263-273. gross, l. a. (2006). using classroom space and routine to promote democratic opportunities. social studies and the young learner, 19(1), 24-27. gutmann, a., & ben‐porath, s. (2014). democratic education. the encyclopedia of political thought, 863-875. hess, d. e. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. routledge. holley, l. c., & steiner, s. (2005). safe space: student perspectives on classroom environment. journal of social work education, 41(1), 49-64. hope, w. c. (1996). it's time to transform social studies teaching. the social studies, 87(4), 149-151. kolb, d. a. (2014). experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. ft press. long, p. d., & ehrmann, s. c. (2005). the future of the learning space: breaking out of the box. educause review, 40(4), 42-58. lortie, d. c., & clement, d. (1975). schoolteacher: a sociological study (vol. 21). chicago: university of chicago press. lyons, j. b. (2001). do school facilities really impact a child’s education. cefpi brief, 1-7. tannebaum & tannebaum milkie, m. a., & warner, c. h. (2011). classroom learning environments and the mental health of first grade children. journal of health and social behavior, 52(1), 4-22. montessori, m., & holmes, h. w. (1912). the montessori method: scientific pedagogy as applied to child education in" the children's houses". frederick a. stokes company. moore, g. t., & lackney, j. a. (1993). school design: crisis, educational performance and design applications. children's environments, 99-112. national council for the social studies. (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies: a framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. national council for the social studies. (2013). college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. national council for the social studies. parker, w. c. (2005). teaching against idiocy. phi delta kappan, 86(5), 344-351. pratt, d. d. (2002). good teaching: one size fits all?. new directions for adult and continuing education, 2002(93), 5-16. schieren, j. (2012). the concept of learning in waldorf education. rose–research on steiner education, 3(1), 63-74. secretary general organization for economic co-operation and development. (2011). designing for education: compendium of exemplary educational facilities 2011. oecd. steiner, r., & bamford, c. (1996). the education of the child (vol. 25). steinerbooks. taylor, a. (2009). linking architecture and education: sustainable design for learning environments. unm press. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 228-238 228 project method in preparation of future preschool teachers ellina anisimova1 & rinat ibatullin2 abstract this article covers the issue of formation of information competence of future preschool teachers. efficiency of using information technologies in educational process depends on the level of information competence of a teacher. a modern teacher has to use information technologies reasonably, that contribute to enriching of development of cognitive processes of a child and, at the same time, saving his health. this paper suggest project method for formation of information competence of future preschool teachers. students from the training course on 44.03.05 “pedagogical education” specialty “preschool education. primary education” of elabuga institute of the kazan (volga region) federal university participated in this experiment. the results of the studies performed showed high efficiency of application of the project method in formation of information competence of future teachers. key words: smart-technologies, project method, information competence, multimedia didactic game. introduction today, information technologies are actively penetrating into all spheres of our lives (smirnov, 2013). education is one of the areas, where influence of information technologies is the greatest (ibatullin & anisimova, 2017). nowadays, kindergartens and schools are rapidly implementing information technologies. and, whereas using information technologies in the educational process of schools is more or less reasonable, using information technologies in pre-school educational institutions raises many questions (korableva et al., 2017b). scientists are still discussing positive and negative aspects of using information technologies in teaching of preschool children. scientific studies on the use of developing and teaching computer games, arranged and performed by the experts of the computer and childhood association in cooperation with scientists from many institutes, since 1986, and studies performed in france, have shown that the following results are achieved due to the use of information technologies (abramov & zima, 1989): • children understand concepts of shape, color and size more easily; 1 senior lecturer, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, republic of tatarstan, russian federation, ellin_a@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute, republic of tatarstan, russian federation, rribatullin@mail.ru mailto:ellin_a@mail.ru mailto:rribatullin@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 228-238 • they cognize concepts of number and multiplicity deeper; • they acquire ability to orient themselves in the plane and in space faster; • they train their awareness and memory; • children learn to read and write earlier; • they replenish their vocabulary actively; • they develop fine motor skills, and finest coordination of eye movements is formed; • a sense of purpose and concentration is brought up; • imagination and creative abilities are developed; • elements of visual-figurative and theoretical thinking are developed. however, doctors express concern about the health of children, citing many arguments “against” early education of preschool children in computer science: the effect of electromagnetic radiation of the monitor, sitting for a long time and as a result – occurrence of fatigue, nervous and emotional tension, emotional stress, eyesight and body posture get worse (gurjev, 2018). according to the researchers, every sixth child today is diagnosed with a “developmental disorder” (hamilton, 2006), every sixth is obese (casey et al., 2004), and 14.3% of children have psychiatric disorders (waddell et al., 2007). diagnoses like attention deficit syndrome and hyperactivity, autism, coordination disorders, sensory disorders, anxiety, depression, sleep disorders, may be related with excessive enthusiasm for new technologies that are growing at an alarming rate (hancox et al., 2005). from this it follows directly that “virtual world” is more dangerous for a child’s physical and psychological health, rather than useful (tarman et al., 2015; yiğit and tarman, 2016; akhmetshin et al., 2017; aydarova et al., 2017; korableva and kalimullina, 2014). thus, question “information technology for preschool children: harm or benefit?” is still open. of course, one may not mindlessly go on about the rapidly developing progress, neglecting health of the future generation, but we should not forget that information technologies are our future. thus, we need a “golden mean” (bochkareva et al., 2017; osadchy and akhmetshin, 2015). therefore, a modern teacher should be able to use information technologies so that on the one hand, they contribute to intellectual development of children, and on the other, do not harm their health. the system that uses informational technologies in pre-school didactics should be based on the principle of unity of developing cultural communication of adults with children and developing object environment of a child’s activity (magsumov, 2016; korableva et al., 2017a). the concept anisimova & ibatullin of this approach should be implemented in toys, environment-forming game objects for preschool children and sports equipment (gorniz et al., 1998). many pre-school educational institutions do not use computers directly in classes, they have interactive whiteboards. interactive whiteboards are functional and easy to use. they allow you demonstrating educational material, visualizing text and graphic information (borisenko & volodina, 2015; dong & jong, 2013; tikhomirov, 2011). special software tools, e.g. smart notebook, wizteach, rm easiteach next generation are provided to work with the interactive whiteboard. with their help, one can develop various multimedia didactic materials for classes. therefore, a preschool teacher should be able to work with programs to develop interactive materials, so that the materials that he/she uses are useful for mental development of a child and do not harm his/her health. that is why his/her information competence should be high. information competence of a pre-school teacher is a part of professional competence, including ability of a preschool teacher to find required information, make analysis, select, process information material, apply data obtained in his/her professional activities in a pre-school educational institution. the purpose of this work is to contribute to development of information competence of preschool teachers forming a holistic view of the role of information technologies in contemporary educational environment and pedagogical activity on the basis of mastering their capabilities in solving pedagogical tasks and understanding the risks associated with their application. in our opinion, using information technologies has a desired pedagogical effect only when a teacher supervising teaching has an appropriate level of readiness to use information technologies in teaching and development of preschool children. even now it becomes obvious that the extent of a teacher’s willingness to use information technologies in his/her professional activities is one of the most important components of the professional competence. the issues of using information technologies in educational process and necessity to train pedagogical staff are covered in papers of yu.k. babanskiy, v.p. bespalko, v.s. gershunskiy, s.a. zhdanov, s.d. karakozov, v.g. kinelev, o.a. kozlov, g.a. kruchinina, a.a. kuznetsov, m.p. lapchik, e.i. mashbitsa, v.m. monakhov, e.s. polat, i.v. robert, n.f.talyzina, a.yu. uvarov, etc. (varchenko & larina, 2007; galimullina et al., 2017). training of future preschool teachers on using information technologies in teaching and upbringing is a very relevant and essential task for pedagogic education. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 228-238 method we suggest project method using smart technologies as a method of study. the project method is a way to achieve didactic goal through detailed development of an issue (technology), which should end in a very real, tangible practical result, designed in one way or another (e.s. polat); is a combination of techniques, actions in their specific sequence to solve the task solve the problem, personally significant for students and designed in the form of a certain final product. the project method is designed to provide students with an opportunity to acquire knowledge themselves in the process of solving practical tasks or problems requiring integration of knowledge from different subject areas (magsumov, 2013a; magsumov, 2015). if we talk about the project method as a pedagogical technology, then this technology involves a set of research, search, problem methods, creative in their nature (tarman, 2016; tünkler et al., 2016). the teacher is a developer, coordinator, expert or consultant in a project. in this study, students are invited to develop projects multimedia didactic games on the interactive whiteboard. the subjects of projects are selected by the students preschool future teachers directly. students should make the entire thematic class plan, its summary, think over at which stage it would possible to use a multimedia game, duration of this game, its content, ergonomics, and a complex of visual gymnastics. after that, students start developing an application a multimedia game. thus, a project comprises a thematic plan, class summary, description of the game content and application file. at the stage of project defense, every student will have to make an open class demonstrating his/her application to classmates who will act as experts for his/her project. every expert evaluates the proposed application by the following criteria: 1) color arrangement (1-5 points); 2) animation effects (proper load with animation is estimated) (1-5 points); 3) location of information on the page (1-5 points); 4) the font size (1-5 points); 5) conformity with the subject of the class (1-5 points); 6) conformity with the age category (1-5 points); 7) duration in time (1-5 points); 8) fascination (1-5 points). arithmetic mean in all criteria, i.e. the score varies from 1 to 5 points, is taken as a final estimate of the application. the presented set of criteria may be extended. but, in our opinion, this set is sufficient to evaluate the project application. what is defense of the projects provided for. the fact anisimova & ibatullin is that implementation of a new technical tool into educational activities normally occurs with violations of safety measures for children’s health. for example, some teachers neglect obvious, even at the level of common sense, requirements. they use yellow text on a white background or black on a gray, small font size, at the same time apply a large number of colors, what is unacceptable of course. preschoolers are not able to detain attention on a large number of objects, so the video should not be overloaded. take care to using animation effects. do not forget that interactive whiteboard screen, like a tv or computer monitor, is a source of electromagnetic radiation. the results of measuring the levels of electromagnetic fields directly at the board do not exceed maximum permissible ones. but these regulations have been developed for the adults. based on this and increased eye strain, it is recommended to use interactive board in classes with children above 5 years old. therefore, mind duration of the application. ophthalmologists have proved that eye strain with the use of electronic teaching aids is much higher than when the one perceiving similar information from a paper medium. therefore, remember of prevention of development of children’s visual disorders. for that purpose, it is recommended to use complexes of visual gymnastics. they are based on exercises to develop eye fixation, tracing and oculomotor functions. the main task is to include inactive eye muscles in the dynamic work and relax the overloaded ones. such exercises normally last for 3 minutes. proper and systematic performance of simple exercises will minimize influence of the interactive whiteboard on the developing eyeball of children. after scoring, experts who analyze the project, given their strong and weak points. thus, as early as at the teaching stage, future preschool teachers learn to work on pc, they learn to use information technologies to solve pedagogical problems and assess their strong and weak points, as well as possible risks for children. findings the experiment based on the project method was performed at elabuga institute of the kazan (volga region) federal university, when students of the specialty 44.03.05 “pedagogical education” and profile “pre-school education. elementary education” were studying discipline “multimedia technologies in education”. it should be noted that the experiment was performed in two stages. the first stage is training. nevertheless, the students began to develop their own projects even then. the following project topics were chosen: “colors”, “vegetables and fruits”, “seasons”, “wild animals getting ready for the winter”, “space travel”, “decompose in the order” (into values), “dishware”, “planet journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 228-238 earth”, etc. during the semester, students studied possibilities of smart technologies, thought over the structure and scope of the class, design and course of application-games, objects used, possible feedback of children to work with. implementation of the projects was followed by their defense with demonstration of an open session and demonstration of the application. one cannot say that the projects were made on a low level. but the teacher and other students had a number of remarks almost to every application: • color arrangement of almost 60% applications was inharmonious, too bright, which could lead to fatigue of the children’s eyes; • 75% of applications were overloaded with animation effects; • in 40% of applications information location on the page did not correspond to the average growth of children; • in 30% of applications the text was unreadable; in 55% of cases interactive whiteboard session lasted for more than 7 minutes, what exceeds tolerable time for using interactive whiteboard for preschool children. final stage is the second stage. the students had to prepare the project themselves and defend it during the test. it should be noted that quality of the final projects was significantly higher than at the first stage. the students have already chosen other topics of the projects and prepared them for classes and applications. one should note importance of this stage. he represented correction of mistakes. here, students took defects of their own and other projects into account and treated development of new projects more consciously. fig. 1 shows a comparative analysis of student project evaluations at the training and final stages. students’ numbers are marked horizontally, and score values – are marked vertically. figure 1. comparative analysis of student project evaluations at the 1st and 2nd stages as one can see, results of the second stage are much higher than results of the first stage, and besides, scores at the second stage are not lower than “4”, i.e. the level of the students’ preparation 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 stage 1 stage 2 anisimova & ibatullin is very high. on this basis, we may conclude that students have opportunity of using information technologies in solving pedagogical tasks and are aware of the risks related with their use. consider the final work of one of the students. it was a didactic tatar language game called “doll dress” (“kurchaklarny kiender”). the didactic game is designed for 5-6 year children to remember color names in the tatar language (red, yellow, green and blue) and use verbs “put on”, “take off” in the tatar language. the didactic game is very interesting, it is aimed at the fact that small children like to play dolls and change their dresses. this game will certainly attract attention of children. dolls – a boy and a girl are on the left side of the slide (figure 2). a “wardrobe” closed with a “curtain” is on the right side. when you open it, you can see beautiful colorful dresses for the girl and shirts with trousers for the boy contained in the wardrobe. the game takes the basics with the famous game “paper dolls”, where children try to act as designers of clothes. children can go up to the board and drag this or that item of clothing for the girl or the boy, thereby dressing them, and at the same time to pronounce colors of the clothes they put on (dress or trousers, or shirts): red, green, yellow or blue. or the teacher himself can dress the dolls and ask the children: “what color is the girl’s dress?”, or “what color are the boy’s pants?” etc. figure 2. slide of a didactic game the task for the children is quite simple. it is made in bright and vibrant colors and can be interesting for children, what is very important. when you open this game, it catches children’s eye at once; they are trying to guess what is behind the curtain? and then they put clothes, shirts journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 228-238 or trousers on their dolls with pleasure. this game takes into account age category of children, their hobbies and interests. the didactic game is not very difficult from the technical point of view, however, it corresponds to the high level of preparedness of the student who made it (specialty 44.03.05 “pedagogical education”, discipline “multimedia technologies in education”). discussion the use of information technologies in pre-school institutions is the subject of multiple disputes and discussions. on the one hand, information technologies contribute to enrichment of intellectual, moral, aesthetic development of a child, and on the other hand, their misuse may be dangerous for his physical and psychological health. in this regard, a preschool teacher should use information technologies wisely, respecting hygienic requirements and taking into account specific features of development of every child. thus, much attention should be paid to information training of future teachers. the work (kalinina & dmitriev, 2014) offers to form information competence of future teachers using as separate special courses, information blocks on this subject, as well as preparation and defending various creative works, abstracts, course and final qualification works of the students on the following topics: 1) innovative trends in teaching preschool children with the help of information technologies (korableva and kalimullina, 2016). 2) ict competence of a preschool teacher. 3) influence of computer games on intellectual and cognitive development of preschool children, their preparation for school. 4) formation of creative activity in the process of computer-game activity of preschool children. the work (sazonova & alekseenko, 2017) suggests formation of information competence of preschool teachers on the basis of a system for improving qualifications of the teachers, who have been working already. this system is based on acquiring fundamentals of working with information technologies, demonstrating the best pedagogical experience in information environment (magmusov, 2013b; mauch and tarman, 2016). however, it is unlikely that the proposed advanced training courses will be sufficient to form information competence of an already established teacher, therefore we think that it is better hold such work at the stage of his/her formation. anisimova & ibatullin conclusion this paper offers the project method in teaching of future preschool teachers. in our opinion, such work is required at this stage of study of the future teacher, who in the future could be a solid foundation for his/her pedagogical activity. the results of the studies performed showed high efficiency of application of the project method in formation of information competence of students of the specialty 44.03.05 “pedagogical education” and profile “pre-school education. elementary education” of elabuga institute of the kazan (volga region) federal university. as early as at the teaching stage, future preschool teachers learn not just to work on pc, they learn to use information technologies to solve pedagogical problems and assess their strong and weak points, as well as possible risks for children. the extent of a future teacher’s willingness to use information technologies in his/her professional activities is one of the most important components of the professional competence. acknowledgments the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references abramov, s. a., & zima, e. v. (1989). beginning of computer science. moscow: nauka. akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. aydarova s h, giniyatullina l m, sagdieva r k, husnutdinov d h, mirzagitov r h, gabidullina f i (2017) models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) borisenko, i. g., & volodina, d. n. (2015). educational smart technologies in the educational process. journal of siberian federal university. series: the humanities, 8(3), 489-493. casey, l. & crumley, e. (2004). addressing childhood obesity: the evidence for action. ottawa: canadian association of paediatric health centres, paediatric chairs of canada, cihr institute of nutrition, metabolism and diabetes. dong, u. i., & jong, o. l. (2013). mission-type education programs with smart device facilitating. international journal of multimedia and ubiquitous engineering, 8(2), 8188. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 228-238 galimullina, e. z., ljubimova, e. m., sharafeeva, l. r., & ibatullin, r. r. (2017). foresight requirements to the teacher on the verge of cognitive revolution. man in india, 97(22), 157-166. gorniz, j. m., chajanova, l. d., poddjakov, n. n., & zvorygina, e. v. (1998). new information technologies in preschool education. moscow. gurjev, s. v. (2018). modern information technologies and their influence on the development of children of preschool age. in gurjev, s. v. (ed.), problems of the development of physical culture and sports in the new millennium materials of the vii international scientific and practical conference (pp. 348-364). yekaterinburg, russia: russian state vocational and pedagogical university. hamilton, s. (2006). screening for developmental delay: reliable, easy-to-use tools. journal of family practice, 55(5), 416-422. hancox, r. j., milne, b. j., & poulton, r. (2005). association of television during childhood with poor educational achievement. archives of pediatric and adolescent medicine, 159(7), 614-618. ibatullin, r. r., & anisimova, e. s. (2017). construction of individual educational trajectory of students based on e-learning. application of information and communication technologies, aict 2016 conference proceedings. azerbaijan: institute of electrical and electronics engineers inc. doi:10.1109/icaic kalinina, t., & dmitriev, j. a. (2014). information competence of the teacher of preschool education. teacher of the xxi century, 1, 100-108. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2014) the formation of a single legal space as a prerequisite for overcoming systemic risk. asian social science, 10(21): 256-260. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016) strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a) building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b) research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. magmusov, t.a. (2013a). school and children during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the romanov dynasty. bylye gody. (4) 30: 79-87. magsumov, t.a. (2013b). educational excursions in technical schools of pre-revolutionary russia. bylye gody. (1), 27: 52-60. anisimova & ibatullin magsumov, t. (2015). charity societies for helping needy students in the volga region, late 19th early 20th centuries. rossiiskaia istoria. 4: 63-69. magsumov, t.a. (2016). the jigets: a great history of a small people. rusin. (3), 45: 247-253. doi: 10.17223/18572685/45/17 mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. osadchy, e. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2015). integration of industrial and educational sphere in modernization of economic relations. journal of applied economic sciences, 10(5) sazonova, n. p., & alekseenko, p. n. (2017). formation of ict competence of a teacher in the conditions of preschool educational institution. in basargina, t.p. (ed.), international forum "electronic week in the altai", (pp. 1-6). barnaul, russia: association of training centers. smirnov, a. a. (2013). the role of computer processing of information in the modern development of society. influence of increase of volumes of the information on development of a society. materials of the international scientific-practical conference "values and interests of modern society", (pp. 171-176). moscow, russia: moscow state university of economy, statistics and informatics. tikhomirov, v. p. (2011). the world on the way to smart education: new opportunities for development. open education (3), 22-28. varchenko, v. i., & larina, a. b. (2007). use of computer training programs for preschool children. in alekseev, m. j. (ed.), materials of the xviii international conference "application of new technologies in education". troitsk, russia: baitik. waddell, c., hua, j. m., garland, o., peters, r., & mcewan, k. (2007). preventing mental disorders in children: a systematic review to inform policy-making. canadian journal of public health, 98(3), 166-173. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a tünkler, v., tarman, b., & güven, c. (2016). a metaphorical approach regarding the equipment of students with abstract concepts and values included in the citizenship and democracy education curriculum. egitim ve bilim, 41(185), 123-145. yiğit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 https://doi.org/10.17223/18572685/45/17 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 139-148 spiritual dominance of the sakha people traditional belief in the personality development of children mariia i. baisheva 1, antonina a. grigoryeva 2, anna n. neustroeva 3 tatyana m. borisova 4, evdokia e. sidorova5, tamara l. iliynova6 abstract the relevance of the article stems from the need to comprehend the spiritual dominance of the traditional belief of the sakha people. the essential idea of the article is to consider the religious worldview of the sakha people as a source of spiritual values. the purpose of the article is to justify the spiritual potential of the sakha people in the personality development of their children. the scientific novelty of the article is to provide the most comprehensive picture of the existing views of the researchers on the issue of the beliefs of the sakha people and the rationale for it as a source of the self-organizing system of personal spiritual formation. research methods: dialectic and indigenous methodology. the main part of the article is the concept of "ichi" (spirits) and nine tusculums (programmes) of the supreme gods as sources of human spirituality. the findings of the study are reflected in the conclusion. keywords: spiritual dominance, tengriism, ichi concept, the program of spirituality, establishment, personality. introduction gumilev (2001) in the foreword of his book "ancient turks" emphasizes that the history of mankind has been extremely unevenly studied, and that "especially the period before the advent of the historical arena of genghis khan, when two great people, xiongnu and ancient turks, were formed and died in the central asian steppe, as well as many others who did not glorify their names". the sakha people, in their language and culture, belong to the turkic folk group. as petersburg archaeologist savinov (2010) believes, "this perspective can be considered ...and 1 asst. prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk, baish_m@mail.ru 2 prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk 3 asst. prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk 4 asst. prof, north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk 5 sen. lect., north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk 6 method., north-eastern federal university named after m.k. ammosov yakutsk journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),139-148 140 many elements of spiritual culture: the cult of the sky, sanctification of the vertically set objects (serge), the ritual value of the receptacle, the construction of seasonal (kumissal) holidays, taken by the ancient turks from their predecessors, xiongnu, and at the same time manifested in the traditional culture of yakuts. according to religion, all turkic peoples have common roots. okladnikov (1949) in the history of yakutia indicates that "...the ancient stock raising religion of the southern ancestors of yakuts, with its cult of the heaven gods, the creators, the givers of happiness and abundance, was reflected on the lenian rocks. at the beginning of the 10th century, the arab writer ahmed ibn-fadlan, wrote about turks adoration to god tengri in his stories about the journey to volga bulgars (krachkovskii, 1939). bezertinov (2004) believes that tengriism emerged at the end of the second and early millennium, before our era. according to the scientist, the dogma of tengri by the 12th-13th cc. adopted "the form of a complete concept with ontology (the doctrine of a single deity), cosmology (the concept of three worlds with the possibilities of mutual communication), mythology and demonology (the distinction of ancestral spirits from the spirits of nature)". in the republic of sakha (yakutia), the northern branch of tengriism, as aar aiy, was officially recognized in 2014. the traditional religion of the sakha people was distributed in the province until the end of the 17th century, when the people were converted into orthodox christianity. in the pantheon of the gods the principal deity is the urung ai toyon, the father and creator of everything. there are three worlds in views of sakha: upper, middle, and lower. the upper world, where urung ai toyon is living, is the world where different godheads and godss live. it is made up of nine layers. each layer corresponds to a certain deity. they symbolize the planets of the solar system. the middle world is the world of people aiy (айыы) and godlike the spirits (yakut "ichi"). the lower world is the world of abaasy (абааһы) spirits ("imps and demons") that embody the negative energies of the universe. the three world combines into a single whole the sacred tree of aal kuduk mas, which organizes the entire universe. sanctification in tengrianism has its own characteristics. there are no special ritual premises and ceremonies are conducted in nature. the main essence of the tengrianism of sakha is the upbringing of the ecoharmonious spiritual personality. it may be that the revival of the traditional religion will be said to be incorrect, because it has always been and is in the genetic, ethnocultural memory of the people and their traditions. but it is clear that the study of the religious outlook of sakha is scientifically relevant and useful. baisheva et al. by d. grace (2011), "today's world is not only a secular place; it is full of various forms of religious life ...". indeed, in modern society, religion in various forms is actively influencing all spheres of public life and the process of socialization of the human being. its role also increases significantly in the development of new initiatives in all areas of science and life. in the context of our study, it should be said that the main message and the essence of the sakha people's religion are the upbringing of the human aiy, creating the life, confirming the ecoharmony in nature and the universe. the purpose of the article is to justify the spiritual potential of the sakha people in the personality development of their children. the scientific novelty of the article is to provide the most comprehensive picture of the existing views of the researchers on the issue of the beliefs of the sakha people and the rationale for it as a source of the self-organizing system of personal spiritual formation. research methods the underlying methods of the study are the dialectic method and indigenous methodology. the use of the dialectic method is an opportunity, firstly, to justify the spiritual values of the sakha people which are concluded in religious views; secondly, to prove the dialectical unity of the spiritual values of the person-people and their creations and acts; thirdly, to humanize the education by the amplification of its spiritual-value vector. it is of fundamental importance for us to consider the spiritual values that are found in traditional belief, not as local and static, but as dynamic and universal essential features. it is in recognition of our spiritual values that each people clearly represents its identity and dignity, is open to others and is tolerant, capable of being integrated and recognizing planetary selfsufficiency. indigenous methodology focuses on the enrichment of science and the experience of indigenous peoples, the interpretation of their own scientists to ensure better understanding and acceptance of the autochthons as subjects of history with a rich cultural and intellectual heritage. results the establishment of universal harmony between man and nature, the consideration of the human being not as a primacy, but part of nature, is the fundamental essence of the religious beliefs of the sakha people. the "ichi" (yakut for "spirit") concept that we have highlighted reflects the comprehension of the people about the world duality, which is based on two journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),139-148 142 independent substances: material and spiritual, rational and irrational in organic unity. the regulatory and psychological functions of ichi-spirits are of particular importance in the concept. the spirits of the middle world are the regulators of the spiritual manifestations of man and his interaction with nature. in everyday life, the different nature of the traditional ichi-spirits thanksgivings are performed. various aspects of cultural and ritual rites of yakuts analyzed in the works of bravina (2002), portniagin (1998) etc. however, the ethnopsychological aspect of the "ichi" theory has not actually been studied. in this context, it should be noted that the oldest pre-school age is considered a "fabulously mythological" period for the development of the personality of children. because of the animation of nature's objects, the animistic perception of the world for children of this age is completely natural. piaget (1994) believed that animism was a convincing proof of the qualitative nature of the world of pre-school children, contrasting with the dominant in the culture of the human being, the normative dichotomy of living and nonliving. the study showed that the animist perception of nature provides children with direct and sensuous guidance in the surrounding world, strengthens their spirit, eliminates fears, heightened anxiety, and provides them "going outside themselves" (rubinstein), develops the essential personal qualities of the individual, and their values of global infinity (nepomniashchaia) all this has been made possible with the active inclusion of the psychological mechanisms as recognition and visualization of the image, the reflection of the functions of "ichi", the inclusion of a teacher and a child in ritual traditions of the spirits ichi, etc. thus, a person's religious beliefs touch his deepest feelings and experiences, regulate the ecoharmony, and are the spiritual foundation of the life creation. the phenomenon of the religious beliefs of the sakha people is the discovery of a coherent self-organizing system of spiritual development of the human aiy. in this respect, we are allocated nine spiritual tusculums (we call programmes) of nine supreme gods. the point is that a person, through all nine programmes, becomes formative and spiritually perfect. briefly consider the essence of each program. aisyt tusculum-programme aisyt is a goddess of fertility, creatively contributing to the reproduction of people, a patroness of a parturient woman, giving the child a mother-soul and the spiritual bracing of the family. baisheva et al. in the spiritual and moral sphere, the main idea of the programme is to ensure the spiritual, physical protection and awareness of the child's own safety, the cohesion with the parents: family, hearth, and home grounds. the child from birth has a value relationship to the parents: mother, father, relatives, ancestors; hearth, home, homeland, earth. ieiiekhsit aiy tusculum programme ieiiekhsit is the goddess of nature, all living in the world. the programme provides for order, that is, a universal harmony of the world. unity with nature is the foundation of life and creation. the programme has an invaluable role to play in shaping human relations, defining normative requirements and stereotypes of human thought and behaviour. the ecocongruity of life of the people is ensured by harmony, animation of nature and the adoration to the spirits ichi. dzhiosiohei toion aiy tusculum programme dzhiosiohei toion ai is the most revered deity of sakha, because it is the epitome of diligence, physical conditioning and endurance. it is believed that the uraankhai tribe (the old name of sakha) came from dzhiosiohei and should inherit all the qualities that the gods have revered. therefore, the physical perfection of the human being is compared to the qualities of the horse: perseverance, will, endurance, hardening, flexibility, strength, intelligence, loyalty, etc. the programme also lays down the people's idea of labour, "creating life". work is considered to be the most effective source of physical fitness, intellectual perfection, humanization and the unity of man with the world of nature. khotoi aiy tusculum programme khotoi aiy represents the focus beginning, power, authority, invincibility, solidarity, and consolidation. such qualities must be developed in person to achieve perfection in his spiritual development. the views emphasize that life is full of many binary oppositions: good-evil, positive-negative, birth-death. the existence of many contradictions, on the one hand, shows that life is in constant movement and development and, on the other, that even an established harmony is not eternal, destroyable, if it is not preserved or defended. therefore, the people see different ways of resuming and achieving sustainable development of life. in the sakha religion, abaasy (demons) from the lower world represent the disorder of life. the reason for the disorder of life is rooted in the spirit of the abaasy tribethe loss of life affirming influences. these creatures use their enormous energy, their physical strength to destroy the harmony of the world. they have fleshliness over the spirit. in religion, a free and doing world is a man of aiy. all its journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),139-148 144 actions are imbued with the idea of creation and unity (harmonization). the ideas, values of this programme are the indispensable guide to create life. uluu suorun aiy tusculum programme uluu suorun aiy represents ability, professionalism, creativity. the basic idea of his program is that a man, like a thinking creature, must have a favorite craft and a creative passion. the program emphasizes that a man aiy in his life must correctly choose from the three main path of the craft his own, which corresponds to his own spirit. these paths include: farriery(applied crafts), healing and word creation. the blacksmiths are equated to the supreme gods. mastery of the gift of healing by the shaman and the udahanki, who affect the energy nature of man, is considered god-given talent. and word creator can only become the man who knows how to accumulate the spiritual power of words and the thoughts. owner of the word gift is spiritually unattainable for nobody. in religious views, all the supreme gods, spirits, people aiy in the middle world possess these gifts. sung dayyn aiy (сүҥ дьааһын айыы) tusculum programme sung dayyn aiy is a keeper of peace, decency, honesty, reason, morals, "immortality of the spirit and destiny". love and devotion to the breed, the human tribe, is the supreme purpose of man aiy. according to the programme, the people of the aiy tribe should not compete each other. but, under the influence of evil creatures, a human, humankind, and thirty-six aiy tribes are sometimes distorted, and they begin to degrade. this condition continues until the next spiritual cleansing of the man with the "spoiled program". the view emphasizes that even the highest human benefactors which are: good, nobility, justice, generosity, undergo constant trials of life. this tusculum defines the foundations of the honor, conscience and human aiy destiny in the middle world, and his duty to all who begat and raised him. dylsa toion aiy (дьылҕа тойон айыы) tusculum programme dylsa toion aiy embodies the predetermined destiny of the human being, in accordance with his spirit and deeds. it is the view of the people that there is great spiritual and creative potential and wisdom in the knowledge of the world. the program has a variety of multidimensional space knowledge in the multidimensional person aiy. according to tusculum, if a person lives in spiritual harmony with nature, if he is "spirit open to nature", he has "hypersensitive flesh", "foreseed eyes that are likely to anticipate a future day." demons from the lower world, like the world harmony destroyers, do not have that capability. their body and baisheva et al. spirit are "closed" for the gift of knowledge. in religious terms, the kinds of knowledge of the world are presented by the gods of tankha, dylsa, bilhe (таҥха, дьылҕа, билгэ). these godheads embody the development of irrational and eidetic, rational and logical abilities of man. tankha, according to researchers, is linked to the astro control of the life and the apprehension of the world. dylsa implies the development of genetically-included gifts and abilities. bilhe is responsible for the logic of knowledge. it is believed that, in harmony with the spirit, a man has tankha, dylsa, bilhe ability developed , he becomes unattainable and a spiritually free person. odun khaan and chynhys khaan aiy tusculum programme odun khaan and chynhys khaan aiy open the regularities of the world and manage the destiny of the people. they are the lords of fate and destiny. the tusculum says that fate and destiny depend on the person of aiy. if the human race follows the patterns of aiy, the mighty odun khaan and chynhys khaan "fates are not unsteady to determine", and they will have "with an inexhaustible good for three hundred centuries the wealth will grow, four centuries the abundance will blossom, nine centuries will be happiness, and never will pass" (oiunskii, 1975). and if the tribe aiy disturb the spiritual harmony with nature and peace, then odun and chynhys khaan will turn up and let seth (punishment, repayment) or kyryys (curse for evil). it should be noted that this tusculum is designed to regulate the spiritual and social norms of relations in the human community, to maintain the conditions of continuity of life and to reveal the truth that everyone's fate is always in his own hands. ai toyon (yрүн айыы тойон таҥара) tusculum programme ai toyon s the creator of world, a symbol of life and universal harmony. the main function of this program is to backbone the link, which enables all eight tusculums to interact. a single structural whole is created, universal harmony aiy. the establishment of a spiritual man aiy occurs only through the passage of all tusculum programmes. each tusculum is functionally different and peculiar to reflect the values of human life, but in a holistic way they provide the conditions for a perfect human being. in the view of the sakha people, the perfect man is a deeply harmonious and universally spiritual man aiy. creative projects have been developed in experimental work for each programme. a testing model has been developed to create value views for children and to develop their values as personal qualities. the component educational programme "utum" ("heritage") was successfully implemented in the nyurbinsky districtrs of the sakha (yakutia) republic. the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),139-148 146 program's methodological support has designed: the chrestomathy, justified forms and methods of working with children 3-8 years. these include philosophical conversations, creative storytelling, analytical interpretations, psychodynamic and static meditations, game procedures, training methods, visualizations, and etc. the model and programme have proved their selfsustainability and efficiency in the spiritual and moral development of the children of pre-school age. discussion the religion of aar aiy should be attributed to the cosmogony religion. the people of sakha always had a canon: a man is a child of nature. but man is a sentient creature. because of its activities, a lot of nature depends. a person can sustain or cause serious damage to nature. according to timofeeva (2014), "...our faith is believed to be the northern branch of tengriism. but our entire religion does not correspond to any other (religion)". there are also opinions that the tengriism is so different from buddhism, islam and christianity that spiritual contacts between the representatives of these religions could not be possible. the only religion with which tengriism had a lot in common is the japanese religion, the shintoism. krivoshapkinaiyna (2002) considers tengriism the dogma that shaped the sakha people's mentality, brought individuals into the people, and allowed him to learn the inclement northern region. aar aiy religion is based on profound moral and spiritual teachings. its essence is the upbringing of the human aiy (yakutsk "create and mature work), forming and creative human. in the religious beliefs of the sakha people, we have for the first time the programmes of the self-organizing educational system of creative human aiy. these programs are called tusculum of nine supreme gods. the system provides for seven stages of human aiy development (baisheva & hrihoreva, 2008) and nine programmes of his or her approach to spiritual excellence. the main ideas of these programmes are: ˗ ensuring the continuation of the species, its immortality and the continuity of life; ˗ the establishment of a ecoharmony and ecoorderliness of the world; ˗ the formation of industriousness and the development of physical fitness as basic virtues; ˗ development of power, solidarity and consolidation; ˗ apprenticeship in the spirit and development of creative passion; baisheva et al. ˗ respect for the peace, decency and purity of the spirit; ˗ enriching the variety of knowledge of multidimensional space by a multidimensional person; ˗ support for the conditions of continuity of life and understanding of the truth that the fate of each is in its own hands; ˗ the fulfilment of a person's highest purpose-the creation and construction of life. conclusion the traditional belief of sakha people, with its codes, constant rituals, sustained in time, is the spiritual nucleus of the people. the upbringing of the perfect and creative man aiy is the main idea of religion. in the study we have established a system of holistic formation of the spiritual personality, which is concluded in nine programmes of the supreme gods. we underline that, in addition to the value level, there is a practical level that preacts, governs, regulates the development of the creative personality. the global values of the sakha religion have a significant impact on socialization and the development of the spiritual foundations of the younger generation. in conclusion, we emphasize that the spiritual integrity of peoples will be strong, alive, natural, if the peoples of different faiths: -recognize the equivalence of different religious beliefs and preserve the openness of the culture and traditions of all other peoples; -reproduce traditional spiritual values into their own and national cultural dignity; -adopt a natural community in an open dialogue from the heart of the individual and of each people. the power of russia and of the whole world will grow only through mutual recognition and respect for cultural autonomy. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),139-148 148 references baisheva, m.i., & hrihoreva, a.a. (2008). the ethnoeducational views of the sakha people. novosibirsk: science. bezertinov, r.n. (2004). tengriism is a religion of turks and mongols. kazan: word. bravina, r.i. (2002). man and destiny. yakutsk: bichik. davie, g. (2011). thinking sociologically about religion: a step change in the debate? (arda guiding paper series). state college, pa: the association of religion data archives at the pennsylvania state university. url: /http://www.thearda.com/rrh/papers/guidingpapers.asp. gumilev, l.n. (2001). ancient turks. moscow: od book. krachkovskii, i.yu. (ed.) (1939). the journey of ibn fadlan to volga/translation of comments under edition of academician. moscow, leningrad: publishing house of academy of sciencies of ussr. krivoshapkinaiyna, a.i. (2002). tengriism and human development.yakutsk: smik. oiunskii, p.a. (comp.) (1975). niurgun bootur stremitelnyi. the yakut heroic epic olonkho. yakutsk: yakutsk publishing house. okladnikov, a.p. (1949). history of yakutia. the past of yakutia before joining the russian state. yakutsk: yakutia state publishing. piaget, zh. (1994). child's speech and mentality. moscow: pedagogy-press. portniagin, i.s. (1998). ethnopedagogy "cut-siur". moscow: academia. savinov, d.h. (2010). pre-turkic shelf in the paleoethnography of the yakuts. in: the siberian collection (68-81). st. petersburg: mae ras. timofeeva, t. (2014). the ancient religion of yakuts is officially recognized in russia. url: /http://www.newsru.com/religy/23may2014/aar_aiyy.html. as an instructional technology the contribution of geography information systems (gis) to social studies education and teacher’s attitudes related to gis www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2012: 4(1), 49-72 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 as an instructional technology the contribution of geography information systems (gis) to social studies education and teacher’s attitudes related to gis bir öğretim teknolojisi olarak coğrafi bilgi sistemlerinin (cbs) sosyal bilgiler dersinin öğretimine katkısı ve öğretmenlerin cbs’ye i̇lişkin tutumları nihat şi̇mşek1 abstract the aim of this study is to determine whether the teacher of social studies uses the gis technologies in primary schools. an attitude scale which was build up by thomas r. baker and adapted to turkish by author is used in the study. the reliability coefficient of this scale was computed and it was found cronbach alpha as 84. without making any changes, the scale was administered to 84 teachers of social studies in turkey. the results were analysed by using the program spss 16.0. in this study variables such as the attitudes of the teachers about using gis, their gender, graduation level, seniority, the number of the classes which they take, whether they entered any courses about gis, and whether they have laboratories in the schools they work were investigated. according to the results obtained in the study, although an important difference was found between the teachers’ attitudes and having computer laboratories in schools, there was not an important difference between the variables previous gis experience, gender, graduation level, seniority, the number of the classes. keywords: social studies, instructional technology, geography information systems, attitude 1 assoc. prof. dr., , kilis 7 aralık university, faculty of education, nihatsimsek23@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 50 özet araştırmanın amacı, ilköğretim sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin cbs teknolojisini bilip bilmediklerini biliyorlarsa, kullanıp kullanmadıklarını ortaya koymaktır. bu amaçla thomas r. baker tarafından geliştirilen ve tarafımızda türkçeye çevrilmiş olan bir tutum anketi kullanılmıştır. bu anketin güvenirlik (34 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenine uygulanmış) çalışması yapılmış ve alfa güvenirlik katsayısı. 84 olarak tespit edilmiştir. güvenirlik çalışması yapılan anket aynen kabul edilmek kaydıyla türkiye’de değişik okullarda görev yapan toplam 84 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenine uygulanmış ortaya çıkan sonuçlar spss 16.0 paket programında değerlendirilerek yorumlanmıştır. bu araştırmada öğretmenlerin cbs’yi kullanma konusundaki tutumları; cinsiyet, kıdem, öğrenim durumları, eğitim öğretim yaptıkları sınıfların mevcutları, cbs ile ilgili herhangi bir kursa katılıp katılmama, uygulama yapıp yapmama, okullarında bilgisayar laboratuarı bulunup bulunmama gibi çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. çalışmadan elde edilen sonuçlara göre öğretmenlerin, cbs’ye yönelik tutumları ile okullarında bilgisayar laboratuarı bulunup bulunmaması arasında anlamlı bir fark tespit edilmiş, cinsiyet, kıdem, öğrenim durumu, sınıf mevcudu, kurs alıp almama, uygulama yapıp yapmama değişkenleri ile tutumları arasında anlamlı bir farklılık tespit edilememiştir. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler,öğretim teknolojisi, coğrafi bilgi sistemleri, tutum nihat şi̇mşek 51 introduction a geographic information system (gis) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information (esri). in the national educational councils (nec), it is suggested that, instead of transferring information, the content of the course and teaching methods should focus on teaching how to learn and equipping students with problem solving skills and scientific thought which enable them to understand, interpret and apply main concepts (özden, 2002). according to national council for social studies (ncss, 1990) basic thinking skills in social studies are: 1.skills about acquisition of information reading skills (understanding, reading rate, vocabulary) studying skills (achievement of information, coordination of information) reference and skills dating of information (benefit from library, usage of special reference and map, globe and graphic foundation in environment) technical skills (computer, tv, and the internet) 2. skills about using and organization of information consideration skills (classification of knowledge, explanation, analyses, summing up, synthesize and evaluation of knowledge), skills of deciding, awareness of cognitive skills 3. skills about social participation and interpersonal relationship personal skills interaction of group, skills of social-politic participation in the past, the information was acquired by resources like books. today, the information can be obtained through communication technologies like computers and the internet. using these kinds of resources helps students achieve information easily journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 52 and accordingly it can be said that it has positive effects on developing new technical skills (e.g. using computers and software.) the main goals of social studies are to develop problem solving skills and to make students being active citizens in the future. teachers always have different ideas about how to improve these skills and on the purpose of ensuring negotiation about this issue, national council for social studies (ncss, 1970) suggested four skills for social studies teaching-literature published; 1. developing skills for acquisition of information about the condition of person’s in the past, today and present, 2. developing skills for data processing 3. developing of skills to interpret beliefs and values, 4. implementation of knowledge for active participation in society (barth, 1991 as cited in öztürk, 2007) in social studies, instead of memorizing books and transferring events and incidents based on activities should be implemented. apart from that, during the preparation of these kinds of activities skills and interest of students who have different learning methods and intelligence should be taken into account (meb, 2005) one of the aims of social studies is to have in multiple skills in students as mentioned in social studies program. in addition aim of teaching social studies, nine abilities to teach five different skills (meb, 2005). one of these nine abilities is using information technology and with this students learn how to reach knowledge and use information technology to solve daily problems. the one of the five skills is space perception and by this, students gain the skills of drawing maps, plans, charts, graphics and diagram and nihat şi̇mşek 53 interpreting them. in order to teach students this skills geographical information system (gis) computer software and an information communication technology. gis, as layers of mapping incorporates data group has the capacity of using effectively this data and is an important technological tool for students to see relationship among spatial events (bednarz & schee, 2006). kemp and godchild (1990) suggest that gis should be included in educational stages before higher education and their reasons are listed as; 1. gis is a crucial tool to analyses environment and solve problems. 2. gis calls student’s attention to geography and social studies 3. gis helps students make decisions about selection of science and engineering departments. to do scientific research in classroom, students and teachers benefit from online learning and by this way, students have the chance of describing differences, composing of target-studies, classification of information constitution of buffer zone and classification of areas on the web. in this respect, internet based classroom are ideal for encouragement of geographical analysis (baker, 2005). gis technology and education esri creator of gis; described it as a tool which stores and analysis geographical information in computer environment. in this respect, although it is an analysis program, gis technology is seen as a tool for interpretation of analysis results. as mentioned above, gis is software and it does not cause any waste of time and chaos in classroom during usage in classroom when the present program is organized according to this condition. actually this method has many advantages for teachers and journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 54 students. the advantages for students: subjects are materialized and visualized. this provides the permanency of the information learned about the subjects. in addition, it helps students improve their skills about decision making and provides students an opportunity to work in a democratic environment. the advantages of using information and communication technologies for teachers as follows: subjects are not studied in a classical manner but they will be studied in a constructivist understanding, which teachers take the role of guidance to achieve information. according to research teaching lesson is more effective and the stress level is not high for teachers who use modern education technology (descy, 1990, cited as; şimşek, 2008). according to esri, the software company of gis, the benefits of using gis in classrooms are listed as follows: 1. gis improves computer literacy 2. gis improves information about software 3. gis improves literacy of map and graphic 4. gis supports to achieve information about geographical information 5. gis shows how to achieve information (www.esri.com) as noted above, there are many benefits of using gis for students. as gis improves computer-literacy and supports how to achieve information, it is necessary to use it in social studies. in addition, it contributes directly to students about how to achieve information and use of computer. is gis, a separate discipline that has been used recently or should it be adapted in a specific disciplines as a software? there is no definite answer about this question; in nihat şi̇mşek 55 1992 kemp, goodchild, dobson, and sui indicated that they had been thinking to teach gis in geographic courses and they categorized gis as; 1: a geographic tool, 2: software to improve marketing skills, 3: a tool for academic research, 4: a new discipline. people who think gis as a new discipline say that this new discipline is the geographic information science (gis). according to them, gis at first is software which stores geographic information and analyses and then demonstrates. besides, they note that gis is a new occupation (sui, 1995). when teachers start to acquire skills to use the software, they have the questions about how to use it in classrooms. for some educators, gis is on hand model as it has the fundamental research. the improvements of technical skills will be difficult and time-consuming for teachers who do not educate with model-based system as the needs of software during studies about education and curriculum. as a result, the teacher who does not allow methods of research at classroom needs little to incorporate gis to curriculum (baker, 2005). collecting data is the basic of gis technology. during the 1990s, data were seen as a difficulty for planning of usage of gis in primary education. difficulties can be categorized under two topics; there are no data about specific study, and data are not used according to their purpose. these conditions were obstacles for the effective use of the data (baker, 2005). the bureaucratic obstacles to achieve data and the difficulties about the usage of gis in classrooms are the main reasons for not giving importance of usage gis in many country and our country. however, researches (alibrandi, 2003; artvinli, 2010; donert, journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 56 2006; johansson, 2006; kerski, 2000, 2003; mark & dan, 2003) found the importance of usage of gis in education. even the important point in usage of gis in school programs creates a culture that means usage of gis with different methods and put it actively in research (jenner, 2006). in conclusion using gis has positive effects on the works of teachers, motivation of students and attitudes of students towards lessons, and skills of multiple-thinking (solving problems, analysing geographic information, making decisions etc.) and skills of usage of informationtechnology (şimşek, 2007). method in this research, screening model which is a research approach aiming at describing case was used (karasar, 2006). in this study, the attitudes of teachers of social studies about gis at upper part of primary education were examined. the data were collected through gathering information from teachers, and this formed the descriptive nature of the research. sample the population of the study is composed of the teachers of social studies in primary schools in adıyaman, gaziantep, hatay, kilis in turkey. the data were collected with the method of face to face meeting, and in total, 91 teachers were studied. instruments in this study, the attitude scale for gis which was created by thomas r. baker (2001) was used. the items of the scale were evaluated and translated into turkish and then to determine the validity of extent of scale, opinion of the experts was taken. after translating this scale was applied to 58 teachers and the alpha reliability of coefficient nihat şi̇mşek 57 was founded as .82. as the reliability of co-efficient was high, none of the items was taken out from the scale and also the reliability of coefficient of items which were translated was done. the value of scale was as follows; the scale including 35 likert type questions to measure attitudes to gis. there are 24 and 11 negative sentences in the scale. teachers were asked to mark items to one of these statement;’ definitely agree’, ‘agree’, ‘neutral’, ‘disagree’, ‘definitely disagree’. arithmetic means of gap width of scale which was calculated according to formula of row divided by number of groups (tekin, 1996), ‘1,00-1,80’ =definitely disagree, ‘1,812,60’= disagree, ‘2,61-3,40’= neutral, ‘3,41-4,20’= agree, 4,21-5,00=definitely agree’. as the point of scale among 1, 00 to 5, 00, when the point was near of 5, 00, the participation of students was high and when the point was near of 1, 00, the participation of students was low. the scale was implemented by the face-to-face meetings with teachers of social studies, and by this way, problems that could happen while answering the questions of the scale were prevented. the scale which was translated into turkish consisted of two chapters. the first chapter focuses on the personal information about the teachers, and in the second chapter, the attitudes of the teachers to gis are questioned. to analyse the results, spss 16 was used. in this research, frequency-analysis, oneway analysis of variance and t-test were performed. validity of scale analysis of items and structure of factor to determine factorstructure of scale, factor analysis was applied with method of varimax rotation to points of 91 teachers’ answers. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 58 for the validity of scale, factor analysis was used and according to results, the validity of items was determined as all items’ value of factor was higher than .30. in addition, for the analysis of kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) and barlett test were analyzed and the result should have been higher than .60, and this means valid of chi-square test was appropriate. in the statistic of kmo,’0, 50-0, 70’= medium level, ‘0, 70-0, 80’= good, ‘0, 80-0, 90’=very good, ‘0, 90 and above it = perfect’ (field, 2002). according to this categorization, the results of scale in terms of kmo, were medium level, all this showed the validity of scale as for the applying scale, factor analyse of kmo should be higher than 0,50. table 1 results scale of self-efficacy of kmo and barlett’s the categorization of factor of varimax is ‘0, 32-0, 44= bad, ‘0, 45-054 = normal ‘0, 55-0, 62= good’ ‘0, 63-0, 70’= very good and ‘0, 70 and above =perfect’ (comrey & lee, 1992). according to table, the value of items was regarded as, ‘good’ ‘very good’ and ‘perfect’. also the scale included 10 factors. aim the aim was to increase the motivation of students about using education technology and a software which was used to plan activities in classroom and to apply these activities. however, this software which is suitable for education of social studies is not in the program. the aim of this research is to find out attitudes of social studies teachers kmo .64 chi-square df sig barlett’s 1.71 595 0,01 nihat şi̇mşek 59 about using gis, information-communication technology and by this way, to raise awareness about gis. assumptions in the research; 1: the sample represents the universe 2: the data of instruments has the quality for the aim of research 3: teachers stated their own opinions. limitations the research is limited by; 1: the 2010-2011 academic years 2: the instruments used in the research 3: the opinions of social study teachers at second level of primary education. sub-problems in the research, the following questions are asked; 1: what was the range of opinions of social studies teachers about using gis and similar methods? 2: what was the opinion of social studies teachers about benefits of using gis? 3: what were the difficulties faced teachers during usage of gis? 4: does using gis make a difference for teachers in terms of: a) gender? b) the school types they work? c) their seniority? d) their educational level? journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 60 e) classroom size? g) making practice? 5: what was the effect of having computer laboratory or not on attitudes to gis? finding and discussion findings about these five problems and comments were taken in this part. table 2 the range of gender of teachers participated in the research and type of school were presented below options 1 2 3 4 total gender man woman η 57 34 91 % 62.6 37.4 100 type of school public private η 67 24 91 % 66.7 15.5 100 nihat şi̇mşek 61 1.findings and comments about the subproblems table 3 opinions of social studies teachers about using of gis and similar type of methods in their lectures statements d ef in ite ly ag re e a gr ee n eu tr al d is ag re e d ef in ite ly di sa gr ee f % f % f % f % f % 1:i do not have a plan to use gis 48 52,7 24 26.4 8 8.8 9 9.9 2 2.2 2:if i have an opportunity, i think to use and introduce gis 71 78.0 16 17.6 3 3.3 1 1.1 3:i prepare lesson plan to use gis 3 3.3 9 9.9 12 13.2 40 44.0 27 29.7 4: gis can be used as a helpful material for teachers. 62 68.1 26 28.6 3 3.3 21: gis must be used in other branches of science. 59 64.8 26 28.6 6 6.6 27. i encourage students to adopt learning methods depending on research. 51 56.0 39 42.9 1 1.1 29. i frequently use helpful education material besides school books. 32 35.2 51 56.0 8 8.8 30. i want to try complex education methods (i want to know and use them.) 40 44.0 39 42.9 6 6.6 5 5.5 1 1.1 35.i give examples and subject which are coincide with curriculum 44 48.4 30 33.0 10 11.0 7 7.7 journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 62 as seen in table, most of the teachers (71, 78%) indicated that they want to introduce and also use gis in their lectures. this result can be interpreted as teachers are not reluctant about usage of gis even they are willing. apart from that, most of teachers (62, 68.1) stated that gis can be used as helpful material for teachers. in addition, for the other science branches, it can be used and this opinion constitutes an important rate (59, 64.8%). on the other hand, majority of the teachers who are willing to use gis (88, 96.7%) stated that they do not have a preliminary about usage of gis. this condition can be explained by the fact that there is no necessity for the use of the program or an obligation originated from program about usage of gis. nihat şi̇mşek 63 2. findings and comments about the subproblems table 4: the opinion of teachers about benefits of using gis in social studies lectures there are various benefits of using gis for students, and this can be understood from table 4. most of the teachers (69, 75.8%) stated that the usage of gis supported students’ understanding the lecture easily. in addition, teachers stated that gis taught students how to reach information (60, 65, 9%) and that (59, 64.8%) gis developed students’ spatial thinking skills. gis gives the opportunity for visualizing and analysing statements d ef in ite ly ag re e a gr ee n eu tr al d is ag re e d ef in ite ly di sa gr ee f % f % f % f % f % 5.gis supports students to learn the lecture easily 69 75.8 19 20.9 3 3.3 6.gis teaches how to reach information 60 65.9 25 27.5 6 6.6 7. gis provides consolidation of different issues. 54 59.3 31 34.1 3 6.6 8. gis increases motivation and interest of students. 58 63.7 30 33.0 3 3.3 9. it support learning with group methods. 51 56.0 35 38.5 5 5.5 10. it has the qualification of supporting employment opportunity. 47 51.6 22 24.2 20 22.0 2 2.2 21. gis should be used for the other science branches. 59 64.8 26 28.6 6 6.6 32. gis develops students ‘skills of problem solving. 57 62.6 30 33.0 4 4.4 33. gis develops skills of students about opinion of spatial. 59 64.8 31 34.1 1 1.1 journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 64 secret relationships, shapes, and inclination with a new method (shin, 2006; wiegand, 2001). in the table, although the rate is not high (51, 56%), teachers stated that gis is not appropriate for learning with group method. however, according to research, gis develops skills of group working and personal working during activities (kidman& palmer, 2006). 3. findings and comments about the subproblems table 5 the opinion of social studies teachers about difficulties on using gis statements d ef in ite ly ag re e a gr ee n eu tr al d is ag re e d ef in ite ly di sa gr ee f % f % f % f % f % 11. the complexity of gis program makes the usage difficult. 2 2.2 16 17.6 23 25.3 30 33.0 20 22.0 12. the high price of the hardware and software makes buying difficult. 35 38.5 42 46.2 11 12.1 2 2.2 1 1.1 13. students’ not using the computer properly makes practice difficult. 3 3.3 8 8.8 9 9.9 43 47.3 28 30.8 14. the insufficient properties of computers at schools makes practice of program difficult 31 34.1 38 41.8 16 17.6 5 5.5 1 1.1 15. course hours are not enough to practice of gis. 52 57.1 25 27.5 9 9.9 4 4.4 1 1.1 16.the difficulty of reaching useful and available data prevents usage of gis 32 35.2 44 48.4 11 12.1 3 3.3 1 1.1 nihat şi̇mşek 65 the questions answered by teachers about difficulties during usage of gis are in table 5, and according to this table, many of teachers (definitely agree 52, 57, 1%, agree 25, 27, 5%) shared same ideas about inadequate social studies lessons hours to teach a lesson. also, the teachers asserted difficulties of usage gis and these can be listed as the high price of buying implement, the insufficient information of students about geography and the insufficient of properties of computers. in addition, as it can be understood from table that a considerable number of the teachers (definitely agree 27, 29, 7%, agree 44, 48, 4%) said schools did not have enough technical equipment to use gis. also there are many teachers who said they did not have enough time to learn new information. as it can be understood from results, gis can be a useful method for teaching and learning social studies. however, inadequate number of the teachers and background problems are obstacles to integrate this method to social studies program. 17. the inadequate skills and information of students about geography prevents usage of gis. 33 36.3 33 36.3 9 9.9 7 7.7 9 9.9 18.schools do not have enough technical equipment to use gis 27 29.7 44 48.4 12 13.2 8 8.8 26. i do not have enough time to learn new education technology. 16 17.6 35 38.5 24 26.4 13 14.3 3 3.3 journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 66 4(a).findings and comments about the subproblems table 6 the results t-test of attitudes of teachers to use of gis in terms of gender gender n x ss t sd p woman 34 1.26 9.50 1.02 89 .311 man 57 1.24 10.48 according to results of analysis, there is no difference on attitudes of teachers about using gis in terms of gender (t (89) = 1.02, p>05). in other words, the attitudes of female and male teachers towards the usage of gis do not differ according to gender. however, although there does not seem to be a significant difference, it can be said that female teachers ( x =1.26) had more positive ideas than male teachers ( x =1.24). 4(b).findings and comments about the subproblems table 7 the results of t-test of attitudes of teachers towards using gis in terms of type of schools they work type of school n x ss t sd p public 67 1.23 9.70 3.25 88 .002 private 24 1.30 9.58 nihat şi̇mşek 67 there is a significant difference between attitudes to gis and the type of school teachers work (t (89) =3.25, p<05). in other words, the attitudes about usage of gis change according to type of schools. both the average of attitude score of teachers in public schools and the average of attitude score of teachers in private schools show this difference. the average of attitude score of the teachers using gis in private schools ( x =1.30) is more positive than those in public schools ( x =1.23). 4(c).findings and comments about the subproblems table 8 the results of anova that shows the change of attitudes of teachers about using gis according to seniority seniority n x ss sd p 1-5 years 18 1.24 7.08 90 .464 6-10 years 42 1.24 9.55 11-15 years 23 1.28 11.70 16-20 years 4 1.20 10.55 20 years and over 4 1.22 17.42 total 91 1.25 10.12 according to the results of analysis, there is not a significant difference in the attitudes of the teachers towards gis according to their seniorities (f (3-83) =1.11, p>05). in other words, either the teacher is senior or not, his/her attitude towards gis does not show a significant difference. the result of scheffe test which was done to show the change of attitudes towards gis according to seniorities supports the above journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 68 opinion. although there is no significant difference between groups, the more positive attitude to gis is in seniority group who have worked 11-15 years (x=128.13), the other group who have worked 6-10 years is at second level (x=125.02),the average of the attitudes of the teachers who just start their work is normal (x= 123.69),on the other hand, the attitudes of the teachers who have worked 16-20 years is most negative of all seniority levels, and the teachers who has worked 20 years and above are at the second level in terms of negative attitudes. this condition can be explained by the notion that when the seniority of teacher increases, the belief of benefit of using technology in lectures decreases. 4(d).findings and comments about the subproblems table 9 the result of anova that shows attitudes of teachers to gis according to their education level education level n x ss sd p faculty of science and letters 18 1.26 9.89 90 .504 education faculty 42 1.24 10.48 postgraduate 23 1.24 9.59 total 91 1.25 10.12 according to the results of analysis, there is no a significant difference in the attitudes of the teachers to gis in terms of education level of teachers (f (2-81) =1.91, p>05). in other words, there is no a significant difference in attitudes of teachers to gis nihat şi̇mşek 69 based on education level. according to results of scheffe test showing specific difference between groups, the average attitudes of persons graduated from science and letter faculty (x=128.39) is higher than others. the average of the attitudes of those who graduated from faculties of education (x=123.84) and of postgraduates (x=123.41) are equal. the significant result is that the attitudes of postgraduates are the lowest, but postgraduate teachers were expected to show positive attitudes for integrating new technology into education environment and to have more information about education technology. however, this condition can be explained with the possibility that this technology is not known in detail yet. 4(e).findings and comments about the subproblems table 10 the results of anova of attitudes to gis according to class size class size n x ss sd p 0-20 14 1.21 10.51 90 .337 21-30 21 1.26 13.65 30 over 56 1.25 8.35 total 91 1.25 10.12 according to results at table 9, there is no a significant difference in attitudes of teachers to gis in terms of their class size (f (2-81) =.747, p>05). in other words, the size of classroom –high or notdid not make a difference on attitudes of teachers to usage of gis. according to scheffe test which was done to see a difference among groups, the attitudes of teachers who have 21-30 students in their classroom are higher journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 70 than others (x=126.42). the average of attitudes of teachers who have 30 and over students in their classroom is x=125.61, the average of attitudes of teachers who have 11-20 students in their classroom is x= 121.81 which is the lowest level. 4(f).findings and comments about the subproblems table 11 the results of t-test of attitudes of teacher to gis according to they took a course or not the condition of course n x ss t sd p yes 34 1.26 6.63 .629 89 .474 no 57 1.24 11.75 according to results of analysis, taking a course did not make a significant difference on attitudes of teachers to gis (t(82)=.508, p>.613). however, the average of attitudes of teachers who took a course about gis (x=1.26) is more positive than the others who did not(x=1.24). 4 (g). findings and comments about the subproblems table 12 the results of t-test of attitudes of teachers who make or not a practice about gis to gis making practice n x ss t sd p yes 49 1.26 7.28 .969 89 .336 no 42 1.23 12.66 nihat şi̇mşek 71 as it can be seen in table 11, there is no a significant difference between the attitudes of the teachers towards gis and using gis (t (82) =.859, p>.393). in other words, whether or not having previous gis experience did not make a significant difference on attitudes of teachers about using gis. however, even a little difference attitudes of teachers with previous gis experience (x=1.26) showed a positive change than teachers who did not (x=1.24). these values do not affect results of study. 5. findings and comments about the subproblems table 13 results of t-test of attitudes of teachers to gis according to the ownership of a computer laboratory in schools condition of laboratory n x ss t sd p has got 57 1.27 11.09 2.52 89 .003 not enough or has not got 34 1.21 7.21 according to results of analysis, there is a significant difference between attitudes of teachers whose schools having a computer laboratory and whose do not have one. (t (82) =3.08, p<.05). in other words, there is a meaningful relationship between attitudes of teachers’ with a computer laboratory in their schools and attitudes of teachers whose schools do not have a computer laboratory. attitudes of teachers whose schools have computer laboratory to gis (x=1.27) is more positive than those without one (x=1.21). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 72 conclusion gis has recently become important software. the usage of this software is very common, but it is not as much as expected. social studies lectures are important programs for using gis in education or schools. besides science studies and math are suitable for using gis. this software was integrated to programs in usa and some european countries (in finland it was integrated to secondary education at 2005, ratinen & johanson, 2005), in the uk, gis made an early appearance in the first version of the national curriculum for england and wales in 1991 (des, 1991), although the emphasis at this time was on the concept rather than the technology (wiegand, 2001). unlike these examples, our country (turkey) is a little late to have such integration. this condition may have resulted from old programs’ not having encouragement to use technology. why is this software important? firstly, as all new education technologies make sensation and cause excitement on both teachers and students or provide them with new perspectives about the course. also, gis helps students to learn through research-based learning and to find information easily (baker, 2002; keiper, 1999; ratinnen & johanson, 2005; tinker, audet & abegg, 1996). it is a small step to argue, that gis can serve a constructivist pedagogy within this intellectual core by developing student research experience and highlighting the constructed nature of research problems and policy outcomes (summerby-murray, 2001). in addition, gis helps students at elementary and secondary schools to easily understand abstract issues about space that are difficult to understand for students at geography lectures and social studies. the researches which were done about students who took education from 5th to 12th grade show that gis helped students to analyse and to interpret complex spatial data nihat şi̇mşek 73 (baker 2002, kaplan 2003, keiper 1999, kerski, 2001, wiegand, 2001,). also researches showed that gis supported important benefit in terms of analysing spatial skills (keiper 1999,), skills of self-sufficiency and developing positive attitudes to technology (baker 2002,), and information about geography (kerski 2001). gis supports the opportunity of defining land forms with supporting opportunity of geographic competence and visual-literacy at social studies lectures (baker, 2001). as so gis is one of the basic learning materials to increase information and skills, it is among the important materials for supporting interdisciplinary learning (baker, 2002). according to the study, teachers are very willing to use gis. many of them said that they wanted to use this technology in geography and social studies, and by doing this, they will increase the motivation and interests of students. this statement is frequently seen in findings of many researches. the studies done about this issue have results to confirm this statement (artvinli, 2010; baker & white, 2003; johansson, 2006; kerski, 2003; şimşek, 2007). in turkey, the change of philosophy of education program in 2005 removed the obstacles for using gis program and also it encouraged the practice of this program and paved the way for new studies. all educators share the idea that new methods and new technologies help constitute rich lives that are full of variety. according to results of research, teachers were willing to use of gis at schools, despite the high price of software and equipment and difficulty of accessing and not having enough time and planning for using the program. similar results can be seen at studies of audet & paris, 1997; houtsonen 2003; johansson & kaviola, 2003. according to study of johansson (2003), the main problem is that many journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 74 of teachers did not use gis before and there are no computers and source at schools. however, many of the teachers showed positive attitudes to use of gis. in this study, which sheds light on using gis in social studies, the usage of gis did not reveal a significant difference in terms of gender; that means gender did not affect the attitude to gis. the similar results also found at the study of al kamali (2007) which was about the effect of using gis in social studies on attitudes in higher education. however, in our study, the attitudes of the female teachers are more positive than the male teachers. one of the results of study is that there is not a significant difference in attitudes to gis of teachers according to their seniority, education level, class size, attending an introduction course for gis, or having previous gis experience or not. however, when the seniority of teachers and class size increase, negative attitudes towards the use of gis start. the most important result in this study is that the teachers whose schools have computer laboratory were more willing to do gis activities than those whose schools do not have one. suggestions the distinction between gis education and education with gis should be made well. in order to have education with gis, firstly the basic functions of the equipment of gis should be understood, and then training about using gis should be given. as it was stated above, the usage of gis is not at the expected level. for the common use of the program, teachers and especially administrations have important duties. nihat şi̇mşek 75 for using gis, there needs to be a computer laboratory first, and then software and equipment, and internet connection with sound infrastructure. collecting information from variety sources needs time, patience, and having information about gis. the collecting of data and preparing it for using in gis is very important. for this reason, suitable data base has to be created. gis is a piece of computer software and to use this software, teachers and students should adequately know about the computers and use them. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 76 references alibrandi, m. (2003). gis in the classroom: using geographic information systems in social studies and environmental sciences. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. al-kamali, a. a. (2007). an investigation of northwest arkansas high school students’ attitudes towards using gis in learning social studies, university of arkansas. proquest digital dissertations document id no. 130949391. artvinli, e. (2010).the contribution of geographic information systems (gis) to geography education and secondary school students’ attitudes related to gis, educational sciences: theory & practice (estp) 10 (3), 1277-1292. audet, r.h. ve abegg, g. l. (1996). geographic information systems: implications for problem solving. journal of research in science teaching, 33(1), 21-45. audet, r. h. ve j. paris. (1997). gis implementation model for schools: assessing the critical concerns. journal of geography. 96(6), 293-300. baker, t.r.(2001). the history and application of gis in k-12 education, gis development, 5 (1), 29-31, 42. baker, t. r. (2002). the effects of geographical information systems (gis) technologies on students’ attitudes, self-efficacy, and achievement in middle school science classrooms. doctoral dissertation. department of teaching and the faculty of the graduate school of the university of kansas, usa. baker, t. r. ve white, s. h. (2003).the effects of gis on students’ attitudes, self efficacy, and achievement in middle school science classrooms. journal of geography, 102(6), 243-254. nihat şi̇mşek 77 baker, t.r. (2005). internet-based gis mapping in support of k-12 education kancrn collaborative research network center for research on learning, university of kansas. bednarz s. w. ve schee, j. v. (2006). europe and the united states: the implementation of geographic information systems in secondary education in two contexts technology. pedagogy and education, 15(2), 191–205. büyüköztürk, ş. (2001). deneysel desenler, öntest-sontest, kontrol grubu desen ve veri analiz kitabı,ankara: pegema press. comrey,a. l. & lee, h. b. (1992). a first course in factor analysis. (2th edition), new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates, publishers, hillsdale. donert, k. (2006). the use of ict e-learning in ggeography. in k. purnell, j.lidstone & s. hodgson, (eds.), herodot perspectives in european higher education, changes in geographical education: past, present and future, igu, cge symposium (pp.146-154). brisbane: royal geographical society of queensland. houtsonen, l. (2003). maximising the use of communication technologies in geographical education. in: gerber, r. (ed.), international handbook on geographical education. kluwer academic publishers. jenner, p. (2006). engaging students through the use of gis at pimlico state high school. international research in geographical and environmental education,15(3), 278-282. johansson, t. (2006). geographical information systems applications for schools gisas. finland: university of helsinki. karasar, n. (2006). scientific research methods, 16th edition, ankara: nobel press. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1), 49-72 78 keiper, t.a. (1999). gis for elementary students: an inquiry into a new approach to learning geography. journal of geography, 98 (2), 47-59. kemp, k. k. ve goodchild, m. f. (1990). the ncgia core curriculum in gis: national center for geographic information and analysis, university of california-santa barbara ca. kerski, j. (2000).the implementation and effectiveness of gis, technology and methods in secondary education. unpublished doctoral dissertation, university of colorado, usa. kerski, j. (2003). the implementation and effectiveness of geographic information systems technology in secondary education. journal of geography, 102 (3), 128-137. kidman, g., ve palmer, g. (2006). gis: the technology is there but the teaching is yet to catch up.international research in geographical and environmental education, 15(3), 289-296 mark, w. p., kay, r., ve dan, p. (2003).integrating geographic information systems into the secondary curricula. journal of geography, 102(6), 275-281. meb. (2005). elementary social studies education program and guide,6 and 7th. classes, ankara ncss. (1992). the social studies professional washington dc: national council for the social studies, january-february. öztürk, c. (2008). life studies and social studies instruction; a constructivist approach. ankara:pegema press. özden, y. (2002). transformation in eeducation, new values in education (6th. edition), ankara: pegema press. nihat şi̇mşek 79 ratinen, l. ve johansson, t. (2005). teacher’s opinions of the incorporation of gis in the upper secondary schools in finland. www.cartesia.org/.../icc2005/.../ilkka. sui, d. z. (1995).a pedagogic framework to link gis to the intellectual core of geography. journal of geography, 94(6), 578-591. summerby-murray, r. (2001). analyzing heritage landscapes with historical gis: contributions from problem-based inquiry and constructivist pedagogy. journal of geography in higher education, 25 (1) (2001), pp. 37–52. şimşek, n. (2007). the influence of applications and activities based on gis in the teaching of social studies on the student’s success and attitudes to the social studies, unpublished doctoral dissertation, university of gazi, ankara. şimşek, n. (2008). using geography information systems (gis) technologies in social studies lessons, kastamonu university, kastamonu education journal, 16 (1), 191-198), march 2008. tekin, h. (1996). measurement and evaluation in education (9th edition), ankara: yargı press. tinker, r. f. (1992). mapware: educational applications of geographic information systems. journal of science education and technology. 1 (1), 35-48. wiegand, p. (2001). geographical information systems (gis) in education. international research in geographical and environmental education. 10 (1), 68-71. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 282-290 mortal subtext in o.e. mandelstam’s poem “oh, how we love to be a hypocrite”: folklore reality marianna a. dudareva1, irina s. milovanova1, yulia v. anisina1, elena n. shorkina1 abstract the article dwells upon the problem scarcely investigated in literary studies: a folklore tradition in o. mandelstam’s poetry. the researchers studied manifestation of mythological tradition in the poet’s artistic world and revealed different archetypal models but they paid no attention to folklore elements. only folklorists and ethnographers, while describing children's games associated with the theme of death, refer to one text of the poet illustrating their scientific research. this remark made it possible to develop the idea of folklore tradition existing in the acmeist’s works having a latent character. the folklore commentary of one of the poems makes it possible to understand an image structure of the text in other way and brings a reader to the ontological level of the content. keywords: mandelstam, russian literature traditions, folklore, myth, ideal topos. introduction the question of folklore essence in o. mandelstam’s poems was not put directly though his poetry is usually studied in the context of the world literature traditions, ancient heritage and myths mostly of eschatological nature (the latter is much more closer to the problem of our interest). quite a lot was written about mythological concept of his works: it was developed in details in the studies of kikhney (2005) and kosterina (2001) as well as in petrova’s (2012) thesis “cultural and religious paradigm in the works of osip mandelstam” where the researcher mentions folklore as an important mode (a medium) for the acmeist’s creative work. actually, one should not reproach these researchers because the other goals and tasks have been put by them. however, interest in a folkloric component in mandelstam's poetics arose not in the literary scholars’ works but in the folklorists’ studies devoted, oddly to say, to children's folklore, namely children's death-related games. 1 peoples' friendship university of russia, moscow, russian federation. e-mail: marianna.galieva@yandex.ru. dudareva et al. methodology so, the article by nesanelis & sharapov (1994) “the theme of death in children's games: ethnosemiological analysis (based on the materials of traditional komi culture)” dwells upon the complicated semantics of children's games “kar tui” and “yoma tui” the main essence of which is travel to “the other kingdom” and overcoming the threshold of daily reality. besides, there are some games with a direct meaning, for instance, a dead man game. the purpose of this article is not only to describe children's games related to death but also to think on a liminal (transitional) nature of a child as a member of society (turner, 1983). quoting the poem of our interest, the scholars draw literary parallels and address to marquez, eco and mandelstam. this is most probably the only folklore commentary on the present text which certainly deserves more attention (nesanelis & sharapov, 1994). results and their discussion the mortal subtext appears immediately in the first stanza but its meaning is revealed through opposition of two social categories – a mature “adult” human being and a “child”: oh, how we love to be a hypocrite and all we easily forget that in the childhood we are closer to the death than in mature years (mandelstam, 1991). if you do not address to a folklore and archetypal component, then a natural question of the child’s position arises. why is one closer to death in childhood? is a child defenseless and vulnerable? but does the poet care about these second-rate things? it appears that this is quite the other thing. based on popular notion of status of children and old men, we determine their borderline position between this and the other world. this has been reflected in various genres of folklore, pre-genre works and ritual culture (in fairy tales and games) (bernstam, 2011). in childhood one is closer to death because a child is much more sensitive to the other world and even strives to lift the veil as the games described above indicate (see also the image 1). an adult no longer believes in a miracle and loses a sacred sense of the world. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),282-290 image 1. “road to ema”. gleb nesanelis (6 years) painting. the child's drawing depicting its vision of a road (curved and wandering) to “land of the dead”. this drawing is taken from the above-mentioned article written by ethnographers who asked children to draw a line, a road leading to ema, i.e. the other kingdom. the road is twisty and curved; it is fully associated with “curved” invisible paths to a cemetery, abandoned places – the topoi of the other world. the phrase “to be a hypocrite” with vivid expressive semantics clearly indicates that an adult intentionally forgets about existence of the secret world and that the end of life is one and the same for all of us. besides, the ontological plan of mandelstam's poetics includes the “child-adult” paradigm. the researchers have long noted that in the poet's later works the image of a child is related to the theme of the universe, and philosophy of life and death: “the image of a child in mandelstam's poetry is often associated with infinity” (porol, 2011) and “in his later poems the connection of infant / child state with death becomes an independent object of a lyric hero’s selfreflection” (buraya, 2014). so, our folkloristic guess is confirmed: the point is not of social but existential status of a child. now let’s turn to the second stanza. in the second stanza, the image of a child also appears but here this image is included to the phraseological unit at the lexical level: “the sleepy child still pulls its grievance out of the saucer”: the sleepy child still pulls dudareva et al. its grievance out of the saucer, but i have no one to be angry with and i'm alone in all my paths. o.v.kumanyuk (2008), studying idioms in acmeists’ works, notes: “in o. mandelstam’s poetry, “time” concept objectified by phraseological units is often associated with historical and cultural context of the depicted object: cries of dark green needles of the pine, wreaths with depth of well pull the life and time which’s dear leaning on the mortal tools hoops of red and banner needles, the wreaths which’re common and so huge! (o. mandelstamp. “not by a mealy white butterfly...”) (kumanyuk, 2008). in our case, the phraseological unit is changed: the sleepy child “pulls out of the saucer”. on the one hand, this can be understood as slowing-down of time and reluctance to get out of the state of “grievance” but on the other hand, a sleepy child being between sleep and reality. again, this indicates the state of “threshold”, the borderline between this and the other world. however, the lyrical hero here still opposes himself to this “child” but at the same time he does not give up the sacred world and does not focus on everyday life like other adults and the third stanza indicates to this: i do not wish to fall asleep like fish in deep and fainting waters. the only thing which is to me so dear it’s free choice of my misery and worries. this part of the poem is also interesting and semantically tensed. here, there is responsibility for one's own path: “the only thing which is to me so dear, it’s free choice of my journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),282-290 misery and worries”. but why is a fish image suddenly embedded into the poem tissue? here, to our mind, the biographical and ethnographic commentary is quite possible and appropriate. in the 1930s, the poet lives in armenia. and he does not just live there with his wife but penetrates into spirit of the east and creates a lot of poetical works. as the researchers state, this fascination with armenia began long ago before this trip (kubatyan, 2012). at first, this fascination was a bookish one but then the poet's dream came true and he created a cycle of poems. the poem being studied here is written after the trip and though it does not contain a direct reference to the eastern theme but it can be associated with the culture of armenia (yigit, 2017). for a long time (until the 20th century) in armenia there was the cult of the mother fish. it was brightly represented in statues of the deity placed along the banks of waters: “... a cult of giant stone fishes preserved in the territory of south georgia and armenia belonging to the epoch of megalithic culture <...> these stone steles in the form of fishes, sometimes reaching several meters in height, stand vertically at the sources of rivers and lakes and are called as veshapas in georgia and vishapas in armenia (virsaladze, 1973). while talking about the mythological tradition, we should mention that “in armenia, mainly in the high mountain areas, the sculptures of vishaps-fishes are preserved” and besides, “there is an ancient legend of the world fish leviathan ever floating in the cosmic ocean <...>” (mirzoyan, 2013). so, the fish is a mythical animal connecting the worlds. how does this relate to previous parts of the text? if we draw parallels with the image of the child who appears twice in the poem, then we can somehow associate the image of a fish with the image of the child. the child in mandelstam’s poem is a human being who feels the bordere between daily and existential things but it is still a blank child from the rational point of view. a fish is also a borderline creature like a child. in addition, a fish in folklore is often associated with the other kingdom; the plot about transformation of a cultural hero into a fish is known in the russian fairy tale (propp, 1986). mandelstam’s lyrical hero turns out to be “alone on all the paths” and feels responsible for the course of his life. thus, all the images stay in architectonics and ritual logic of the verse. the child and the fish set the archetypal and folklore plan in the text. vishap is a stone idol of a large fish personifying the ancient cult (see image 2). dudareva et al. image 2. vishap. caucasus. conclusions so the poem of mandelstam is a whole poetic cosmos where every detail is important and creates its own plan. the folklore commentary, revealing archetypal structures associated with the image of a child and a fish (they are quite interchangeable) allows us to notice the ontological space in the text. besides, it is necessary to make biographical and ethnographic commentary since, according to o. lekmanov's (2003) subtle observation, many things in the poet's “worldview and poetry has been radically changed” after his trip to armenia. such holistic commentary on the text also makes it possible to raise a question of folklore nature of mandelstam's works, a question which has not been raised before and now needs to be carefully studied both theoretically and practically. so, using the example of one poem we can see how literary and folkloric traditions interact within one text. it is also worth to pay attention to latent nature of folklore imagery manifestation which seems to make future researchers’ task more complicated and sometimes even makes them to stop their research. references bernstam, t.a. (2011). the hero and his women: ancestors’ image of in the mythology of eastern slavs. st. petersburg: mae ran. (in russ.) buraya, m.a. (2014). the eastern universals in o.e. mandelstam’s works. vladivostok: far eastern federal university. (in russ.) kikhney, l.g. (2005). eschatological myth in mandelstam’s later works. mgu herald. series 9: philology, 6: 108-122. (in russ.) kosterina, e.n. (2001). artistic mythology in osip mandelstam’s works. ph.d thesis. neryungri. (in russ.) kubatyan, g. (2012). escape to armenia and other essays about mandelstam. issues of literature, 3: 65-99. (in russ.) kumanyuk, o.v. (2008). idiomatics in poetry of acmeists (cognitive and discourse aspect). ph.d. thesis. belgorod. (in russ.) lekmanov, o. (2003). life of osip mandelstam. documentary story. st. petersburg: star publishing house. (in russ.) mandelstam, o.e. (1991). selected poems. мoscow: interprint. (in russ.) mirzoyan, e.a. (2013). ancient armenian mysteries and their transformations. borders of epoch, 54.url: http://grani.agni-age.net/index.htm?issue=70&article=5407. (in russ.) nesanelis, d.a. & sharapov, v.e. (1994). the theme of death in children's games: ethnosemiological analysis (based on the materials of traditional komi culture). in: death as a phenomenon of culture. inter-university collection of research papers (122134). syktyvkar: syktyvkar university. (in russ.) petrova, n.i. (2012). cultural and religious paradigm in osip mandelstam’ works. ph.d. thesis. мoscow. (in russ.) porol, o.a. (2011). ontological space in mandelstam’s poetry. ogu herald, 6: 38-43. (in russ.) propp, v.y. (1986). the historical roots of fairy tale. leningrad: lgu publishing house. (in russ.) turner, v. (1983). symbol and ritual. мoscow: science. (in russ.) virsaladze, e.b. (1973). georgian folk tales and legends. мoscow: science. (in russ.) http://grani.agni-age.net/index.htm?issue=70&article=5407 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),282-290 yigit, m. f. (2017). value priorities of public and private university students. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1), 1-17. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 158-167 158 the role of reading in the development of giftedness in the context of globalization and national identity elena shastina1, olga shatunova 2, tatyana borodina3, anatoly borisov4 & yury maliy5 abstract the article explores the cultural potential of reading as one of the factors in the development of children's giftedness. the role of the book as the bearer of culture in the process of preserving national identity is revealed. the authors of the article discover the growing importance of family reading in the process of a gifted person development. the survey of respondents, university teachers living in multiethnic environment in the territories of armenia and the republic of tatarstan, confirmed the importance of national literature in future teachers training. the question of the correlation of such phenomena as globalization and the preservation of national identity is touched upon. key words: reading, cultural factor, national and cultural identity, traits of giftedness. introduction at present preserving national and cultural identity becomes one of the most important problems of the civilizational world order. the statement of the issue is relevant for the post-soviet area, which witnesses, on the one hand, the loss of identification foundations, on the other hand, the search for a new identity (bozhkova, 2014). according to e.a. matveyeva the essence of the national identity is constituted by "national representations common to a certain social community and formed in the process of intra-cultural socialization and interaction with other nations" (matveyeva, 2004, p. 9). the basis for ethnocultural consciousness should be the desire for mutually enriching communication between representatives of various ethnic groups. in this process national literature is of special 1 professor, kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, shastina@rambler.ru 2 associate professor, kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, olgashat67@mail.ru 3 senior lecturer, kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, tatjanabaschina@yandex.ru 4 associate professor, kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, anatboris@rambler.ru 5 senior lecturer, kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, maly_jura@list.ru shastina et al. significance. in this process not the last place is occupied by national literature since national identity is connected with the concept of national culture (bochkareva et al., 2017), which includes the results of spiritual and material activities. s.g. ter-minasova emphasizes the relevance of the approach to the study of "national literatures in the historical dialogue of cultures" (ter-minasova, 2012) which becomes especially necessary in the context of globalization (korableva and kalimullina, 2016; lyubimova et al., 2015). the national character that underlies the national identity is best embodied in national literature. it should only be added that the trinity "national character national identity national literature" is reflected in the native language, therefore it is legitimate to talk about "native literature" along with the notion of "national literature". reading is viewed upon as a multidimensional process having to do with comprehension, meaning, or understanding. reading is a cultural event since it takes place in a given culture that affects what, how, where, when and even why people read. still there are other dimensions of reading that go beyond purely mental perception an affective dimension (erbilgin, 2017; osadchy and akhmetshin, 2015). it sees reading as enjoyment, pleasure, excitement, even magic (winner, 2012). readers can travel in time and space, visit even nonexistent places and people (shkilev, 2013). readers open to this magical dimension of reading get a flow experience. the first contact with native literature occurs, as a rule, in the family (zetkina, 2011). in this connection it seems crucial "in the conditions of the negative influence of the modern sociocultural and information situation, the reading crisis, the weakening of the role of the book in the family upbringing, parents’ not being ready for participation in the upbringing and development of children as readers" to preserve and develop the tradition of family reading (kurganskaja, 2013, p. 41) as home environment. “<…>home environments of very gifted children <…> tend to be enriched <…> with lots of books and stimulation. even if the parents don’t have lots of money, they have very high values in education” (winner, 2012, p. 79). produced by educationalists lists of characteristics of very able and gifted children invariably includes being a good reader and very articulate or verbally fluent for their age [a report for the council of curriculum, 2006, p. 11, large vocabulary, good memory of things read and strong comprehension of texts (smith, 1991). a priori that reading is one of the cultural factors of personality development. it is obvious that education should correlate with culture, not only with the world literary heritage, but also with native literature (ter-minasova, 2012), the acquaintance with which begins, as a rule, already at journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 158-167 the preschool age. as our research has shown, fairy tales are a favorite literary genre for preschoolers and junior schoolchildren (74%). this is explained by the fact that a fairy tale contributes to the development of the child's emotional sphere (shkilev, 2015; ibatullin and anisimova, 2017), a fairy tale is accessible for comprehension of concepts such as the good and the evil, a fairy tale forms a sense of justice, because, as a rule, the good conquers the evil (yiğit and tarman, 2016; magmusov, 2017; aydarova et al., 2017). one of the many advantages of a fairy tale is the reliance on national roots. from early ages a child gets acquainted with the tales of different peoples, gets the first lessons of acquiring and appropriating national identity, gets the first idea of a different culture, learns self-identity gradually mastering the unique intellectual, emotional and behavioral patterns of the ethnos (tarman, 2016; magmusov, 2013; korableva and kalimullina, 2014). the earlier the awareness of the importance of reading occurs, the more successfully the development of the child's personality progresses. the so-called "cultural development" (vygotskij, 1991) creates the conditions for the intellectual development of the child, contributes to the manifestation of signs of giftedness in early childhood. as the survey shows, in a multilingual environment reading aloud as the main form of family communication should be based on texts of native literature. method the problem of supporting and developing gifted children is not new in the psycho-pedagogical science. however, the question of how to make each gifted child a gifted adult still remains urgent. it's no secret that very often the endowments which used to admire people around disappear after the child starts schooling (mauch and tarman, 2016; tünkler et al., 2016). it also happens that a person who was not considered gifted or even capable in childhood achieves success (tarman, et al.,2015; korableva and litun, 2014). this suggests that some children do not show their talent in any way or adults for some reason do not create the conditions for the activity in the course of which the development of a gift of a certain type is possible" (savenkov, 2012, p. 57-58). scholars have found out that the greatest effect in the upbringing and education of gifted children is obtained by investing resources in preschool and primary not higher education, as is done now. the nobel laureate james heсkman and his students proved that investments at the earliest age shastina et al. (0-6 years) are the most effective from the point of view of man development (heckman, 2000). in this respect, perhaps, the most important effect is produced by those measures that the society is taking to create developing environment for working with children of preschool age. as it is stated in the federal state educational standard, "understanding of literature as one of the main national and cultural values of the people" becomes the primary goal of school education in russia, as it is called upon to ensure "cultural self-identification" (prikaz ministerstva, 2010). in the multilevel model of outstanding talent, developed by b.s. bloom, at each stage a central role is assigned to the teacher who is capable of making contribution to the talent evolution that elicits progress (bloom, 1982, p. 664–668). a gifted child should be taught and brought up by a gifted teacher, while future educators and teachers who are able to work with gifted children can be prepared only by a gifted teacher (akhmetshin et al., 2017; waters and russell, 2016). it seems that everything is logical and simple. but in reality gifted teachers are not so numerous. therefore, it is very important to identify the so-called pedagogical giftedness in children and young people on time and support it in every way possible (kotelnikova, 2014). t.m. khrustaleva regards pedagogical giftedness as a psychological prerequisite for the development of the endowments that will allow the gift-bearer to achieve success in the field of "man-man" activity. in her opinion, this is a certain dynamic system that has certain age characteristics and is formed in the process of life activity through interaction with the cultural and social environment of the child (khrustaleva, 2012). there are several factors that influence the development of giftedness: social, psychological, pedagogical and others. in our opinion, among them a cultural factor deserves special attention. unfortunately, recently the latter is considered by researchers only in the context of linguistic endowments development (scherbatyh, 2015). however, the significance of the cultural factor should be considered in a broader way since it is culture that makes the core of the spiritual upbringing of a person, his activity and life-building. a person who can be considered quite cultural, as a rule, views reading as a vital mental creative process leading to the knowledge of the world and the enrichment of the mind (korableva et al., 2017 a; korableva et al., 2017 b). in order to determine the role of reading as a cultural factor in the disclosure of an individual's potential and development of giftedness, we carried out a survey in two universities: yelabuga institute of kazan federal university and h. abovian armenian state pedagogical university. in our survey, 136 teachers aged between 25 and 79 took part. since the research was aimed at solving journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 158-167 several problems, it took into account the nationality of the respondents, the majority of which were tatars, russians and armenians (representatives of other nationalities accounted for 7% of all those who took part in the survey). the following sub-headings should be used in this section. findings we believe that only gifted people are able to become successful university teachers with high performance indicators. however, only 38% of respondents with confidence confirmed that they showed talent in childhood. this suggests that there is a hidden talent that under certain favorable conditions may become obvious. all teachers who took part in the survey confirm the importance of reading as a cultural factor in the development of giftedness. they believe that reading promotes development of any kind of giftedness (in practical, cognitive, artistic and aesthetic, communicative and spiritual and value activities). 89% of the teachers interviewed also noted that books read in childhood remain relevant during life and the process of personal development. in the respondents’ opinion, reading promotes development of general children’s talent into the special endowment of an adult, thereby ensuring achievement of high results in the activities. it should be noted that leisure reading is meant, which, for example, in the process of the formation and development of talented teachers is not related directly to pedagogical activity. respondents believe that leisure reading should be diverse in genre and style and at the same time correspond to the age and personality characteristics of the child (100% of the interviewed teachers); it is under these conditions that the realization of developmental function of reading is ensured. discussion of the results the survey shows that among the books that teachers consider important and significant in their lives are those written by national authors. for example, teachers working in armenia prefer and recommend for reading literary works of armenian writers. 80% of the respondents (in a group that was allocated by nationality) indicated them among their favorite works. the same can be said about the teachers of tatarstan. 28% of respondents, tatars by nationality, named the works of shastina et al. tatar writers as their favorite books. these results testify to the importance of the role of native literature in the formation and development of future educators. teachers who took part in the survey believe that a successful personality with high achievements in various fields of activity, without abstracting from the processes of globalization, should strive to maintain national identity (100% of respondents).this is confirmed by the fact that interviewed teachers mention the representatives of both native and world literature as favorite authors. the quantitative correlation of national and international authors (classics and contemporaries) mentioned in the answers of the representatives of the three main groups of nationalities among the respondents (tatars, armenians, russians) can be represented as 63% to 37%. the quantitative analysis of the works by national and international authors mentioned by respondents as favorite and recommended also indicates the importance, in the opinion of the respondents, in the process of personal development in general and the development of general and special giftedness in reading both national and world literature (average ratio 49% to 51%). the respondents also note that reading of national literature is necessary at all stages of growing up and personal development. however, this is especially important in childhood (pre-school and junior school age) (see table 1). table 1 the importance of reading literature of national authors depending on the readers’ age (in the opinion of the survey participants) reader’s age teacher 6-10 63 10-15 59 15-18 56 18-23 41 it can be assumed that the formation of national identity is laid precisely in early and middle childhood (2-6 and 6-12 years), and the effectiveness of the processes of national selfidentification and familiarizing with other cultures within the framework of interculturization and globalization depends on the family. all the teachers who participated in the study confirm the importance of the family not only in the development of the child, his general and special giftedness, but also in the specified processes that predetermine the success of the individual in achieving high rates of professional and social performance (100% of respondents). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 158-167 conclusion thus, our study showed that irrespective of the country of residence, the teachers of higher education recognize in the absolute majority the importance of reading as a cultural factor in the development and support of the individual’s giftedness, pedagogical included. therefore in the context of the decline in reader’s activity it is necessary to develop additional measures to attract the attention of children and young people to the literary heritage both of their nation and the peoples of other countries. the carried out research, on the one hand, confirms the correctness of the hypotheses put forward by the authors, on the other hand, it indicates the direction of further research of the problems under consideration. for example, the question of the influence of reading native literature in the early childhood on the development of children's talent remains open for research. of importance is also a more detailed study of the role of family reading and the specifics of its organization in the context of globalization and the preservation of national identity. acknowledgements the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. aydarova s h, giniyatullina l m, sagdieva r k, husnutdinov d h, mirzagitov r h, gabidullina f i (2017) models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) bloom, b. s. (1982). the master teachers. phi delta kappan, 63(10): 664–668. bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) bozhkova, g.n., frolova, g.a. & shabalinа, n.n. (2014). the educational crisis as reflected in russian literature in the 20th century. life science journal, 11(7): 192-197. shastina et al. erbilgin, e. (2017). a comparison of the mathematical processes embedded in the content standards of turkey and singapore. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1), 5374. gifted and talented children in (and out) of the classroom. a report for the council of curriculum, examinations and assessment (ccea) (2006). date views 28.01.2018 http://www.nicurriculum.org.uk/docs/inclusion_and_sen/gifted/gifted_children_060306.pdf heckman, j.j. (2000). policies to foster human capital. research in economics, 54: 3–56. ibatullin, r. r., & anisimova, e. s. (2017). construction of individual educational trajectory of students based on e-learning. paper presented at the application of information and communication technologies, aict 2016 conference proceedings, 10.1109/icaict.2016.7991799 khrustaleva, т.м. (2012). pedagogical giftedness of schoolchildren: theoretical grounds and empirical research. vector of science of tolyatti state university. series: pedagogy, psychology, 1: 312-315. kotelnikova, i.m. (2014). professionalism and pedagogical giftedness of the university teacher. scientific and methodological electronic journal "concept". v. 20, 4561-4565. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2014) the formation of a single legal space as a prerequisite for overcoming systemic risk. asian social science, 10(21): 256-260. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016) strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a) building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva, o., & litun, v. (2014). the potential of transitive economies’ growth based on innovative strategy. wseas transactions on business and economics, 11(1), 725-736. korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b) research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 158-167 kurganskaja, l.i. (2013). family reading: history of question. theory and practice of social development, 12: 40-43. lyubimova, e. m., galimullina, e. z., & ibatullin, r. r. (2015). practical orientation increase for future teachers training through the integration of interactive technologies. social sciences (pakistan), 10(7), 1836-1839. 10.3923/sscience.2015.1836.1839 magmusov, t.a. (2013). school and children during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the romanov dynasty. bylye gody. (4) 30: 79-87. magsumov, t.a. (2017). family and school in russia at the beginning of the 20th century: attempts to bridge the gap. european journal of contemporary education. 6 (4): 837-846. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 matveyeva, e.a. (2004). library as a factor of preserving national identity in the era of globalization: author's abstract of dis. candidate of philosophy. omsk, pp. 24. mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. order of ministry of education and science of russian federation of december 17, 2010 #. 1897 "on approval of the federal state educational standard of basic general education". date views 01/05/2018 url: http://base.garant.ru/55170507/. osadchy, e. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2015). integration of industrial and educational sphere in modernization of economic relations. journal of applied economic sciences, 10(5) savenkov, a.i. & karpova, s.i.. (2012). children's giftedness as a predictor of educational and life success in pedagogy and psychology of the 20th century. bulletin of moscow state university, 2: 53-65. scherbatyh, l.n. & eremin, ju.v. (2015). methodological features of foreign-language preparation of gifted schoolchildren in conditions of additional education. herald of nekrasov o.n. kostroma state university, 21: 177-180. shkilev, r. (2015). the concept of otherness in american ethinc literature of latin american origin. social sciences (pakistan), 10(7), 1915-1918. 10.3923/sscience.2015.1915.1918 shkilev, r. e. (2013). nominative-expressive and expressive nominative word combinations in english and russian legal terminology. middle east journal of scientific research, 17(4), 419-423. 10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2013.17.04.12192 smith, c. b. (1991). literature for gifted and talented. reading teacher, 44: 608–609. shastina et al. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a tünkler, v., tarman, b., & güven, c. (2016). a metaphorical approach regarding the equipment of students with abstract concepts and values included in the citizenship and democracy education curriculum. egitim ve bilim, 41(185), 123-145. ter-minasova, s.g. (2012). the role of classical national literatures in the formation of national identity. date views 09/01/2018 url: http: //www.lihachev.ru/pic/site/files/lihcht/2012_sbornik/2012_dokladi/2012_plen/051_2012_ plen.pdf. vygotskij, l.s. (1991). the problem of cultural development of the child (1928). herald of moscow university. ser. 14. psychology, 4: 5-18. zetkina, i.a. & nikolaeva, e.a. (2011). family reading in russia: in search of lost traditions. bulletin of chelyabinsk state academy of culture and arts, 3 (27): 6-10. waters, s., & russell, w. b. (2016). virtually ready? pre-service teachers’ perceptions of a virtual internship experience. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1) winner, e. (2012). on gifted children. parentedge, may –june: 75-81. what is reading? date views 06.01.2018 http://www.tesol.org/docs/books/bk_ eltd_ reading_ 998 yiğit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 http://www.tesol.org/docs/books/bk_%20eltd_%20reading_%20998 http://www.tesol.org/docs/books/bk_%20eltd_%20reading_%20998 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017: 8(1), 69-92 © 2017 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 developing globally minded, critical media literacy skills jason harshman1 abstract the transnational movement of people and ideas continues to reshape how we imagine places and cultures. considering the volume of information and entertainment delivered and consumed via mass media, global educators are tasked with engaging students in learning activities that help them develop skill sets that include a globally minded, critical media literacy. grounded in cultural studies and framed by andreotti’s (2006) theory of critical gce and appadurai’s (1996) concept of mediascapes, this article examines how eleven global educators in as many countries used films to teach about what they considered to be the “6 c’s” of critical global media literacy: colonialism, capitalism, conflict, citizenship, and conscientious consumerism. how global educators foster globally minded, critical media literacy in their classrooms, the resources they use to teach about perspectives too often marginalized in media produced in the global north, and how educating students about media informs action within global citizenship education is discussed. findings from the study revealed that the opportunities to interact with fellow educators around the world inspired teacher’s to revisit concepts such as interconnectedness and crosscultural learning, along with shifts in thinking about how to teach media literacy by analyzing the coded messages present in the resources they use to teach about the world. keywords: critical literacy, global education, films, mediascapes. introduction technologies that include netflix, youtube, hulu, satellite television, tablets, and smartphones, to name a few, have democratized production and consumption, as well as provided cheaper and quicker access to information and entertainment in some parts of the world. researchers argue that because of this increased access, many u.s. students are more likely to learn about history and the current state of the planet by engaging with film and web-based media outside of a classroom rather than reading books or conducting primary source research in one (stoddard & marcus, 2010). as more avenues of access become available and cultures are deterritorialized, social studies teachers are faced with challenges and opportunities to include more voices and perspectives when teaching about culture, conflict, and citizenship in our global society (appadurai, 1996; gaudelli & siegel, 2010; merryfield, 1998). already charged with developing civic literacy, social studies educators are well positioned to utilize films as texts for 1 assist. prof., university of iowa, jason-harshman@uiowa.edu mailto:jason-harshman@uiowa.edu journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 70 building critical thinking, disrupting how students imagine the world, and including voices too often marginalized by media produced about the global south in the global north. using films that elevate counter-narratives within world history is an important, but rare approach when developing students’ global perspectives. relying upon richard attenborough’s film gandhi (1982) to teach about india’s fight for independence or ridley scott’s black hawk down (2001) to teach about east africa or post-cold war u.s. foreign policy, instead of films produced in the places where the events one is teaching about transpired and/or that center on perspectives that disrupt narratives that favor the global north, tend to perpetuate a colonizer’s gaze. based on data drawn from a research project that included educators from around the world, this article couples theory and practice to answer the question: how do educators teach about perspective to develop globally minded critical media literacy skills? findings from a five-month study that utilized on-line discussion forums to bring 120 international baccalaureate (ib) teachers in 36 countries together revealed that educators used films to: (1) help students think more critically about images and messages encoded in media; (2) introduce the perspectives of those who are often marginalized in films produced in the global north to develop perspective consciousness and a critical lens for analyzing inequity within global systems; and (3) prompt students to reflect on media production and consumption habits away from school as a way to selfevaluate their media and civic literacy skills. the positionality of the teachers who participated in the study is also considered, since participants came from countries that have been, and to some extent still are, colonizers and colonized. participants shared that because the discussion forums gave them opportunity to interact with educators who teach a similar curriculum but live in different parts of the world and are from different cultural backgrounds, the importance of context and perspective when teaching about people and places became clearer to them. data analysis revealed that teachers in the global south tended to challenge the ways in which narratives were constructed and the degree of criticality used to analyze films more often than teachers in the global north. teachers in the global south not only discussed problems they see with films, but offered alternatives to better capture the perspectives of people who live in the areas and who deal with the issues teachers identified as part of the ib curriculum. these perspectives—which ib teachers agreed are not often included within discussion of film and other texts—provided new ways of thinking about how to teach about inequality and power dynamics within a shared curriculum. jason harshman 71 data show that across the history, english, science, art, and civics courses that were represented in the discussion forums, the most frequently discussed global issues were capitalism, citizenship, and colonialism, along with concepts related to conflict and consuming media. yet, how the teachers approached the issues and the films they use differed, and the discussion forums provided space for deep discussions about experiences related to these global issues, and the shaping of their own perspectives and biases. these “6 c’s”—capitalism, citizenship, colonialism, conflict, and conscientious consumerism—provide a framework that global educators can employ when they teach critical thinking skills related to global issues and media consumption. the films that teachers used, the questions and concepts they presented to students, and what these practices mean for the future of critically minded global education and digital media literacy are discussed below. cultural studies and critical global education teaching students about culture and its complexities, while trying to provide a conceptual understanding with which they can work, is a “messy” endeavor (mcrobbie, 1992). teaching about culture is further complicated because the expedited movement of people and ideas in our global age means that cultures “have their locations, but it is no longer easy to say where they originate” (hall, 2006, p. 164). as “an interdisciplinary endeavor concerned with the analysis of cultural forms and activities,” cultural studies can inform the work of global educators, because like critical global education, cultural studies provides theoretical tools for analyzing the power relations “which condition [the] production, circulation, deployment and, of course, effects” of culture (bennett, 1998, p. 60). for ib teachers and global educators alike, teaching for global mindedness, or world mindedness as the concept is referred to within the ib curriculum, comprises “a frame of reference, or value orientation, favoring a worldview of the problems of humanity, with mankind, rather than nationals of a particular country as the primary reference group” (sampson & smith, 1957). developing global mindedness also involves a willingness to be open-minded (merryfield, 2012) and continual reflection upon why and how people come to have a different perspective of global systems and global issues (case, 1993; hanvey, 1976; tarman, 2016). pertinent to the geopolitical dynamics present within this study—where participants teach as well as the production sites of the films they used—is andreotti’s (2006) distinction between soft and critical gce. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 72 when analyzing the “justification for positions of privilege (in the global north and south),” a “soft gce” tends to focus on tropes about the north that emphasize “development, [a] harder work [ethic], better use of resources, and technology,” whereas a “critical gce” approach includes analyzing systems of oppression that examines how people and nations “benefit from and [execute] control over unjust and violent systems and structures” that disproportionately disadvantage the global south (andreotti & pashby, 2013, p. 426). critical examination of these global systems requires including people from a spectrum of places and social positions, however, despite their best intentions, educators often use films to teach about the world that are produced by american and european companies and often wrought with biases and incomplete narratives of historical events or contemporary global issues (merryfield, 1998). interested in the extent to which global educators think critically about media resources used in the classroom, this article features the films and strategies used by educators in countries still scarred by colonialism, yet largely absent from work in global education. attention is given to the questions and strategies used to analyze the content of films, as well as the significance of who directs, produces, and stars in a film. culture and media studies media constitutes the whole range of modern communications—television, cinema, video, radio, internet, music, magazines, and games—and media texts are the programs, films, images, websites, and more consumed by mass audiences (buckingham, 2003, p. 2). meaning making through media is an on-going process of encoding and decoding messages that are widely distributed because the codes are often learned at an early age (such as racism, sexism, and “othering” more broadly) and thus reach near universal or “naturalized” meaning (hall, 2006, p. 165). the symbols and “naturalized” codes embedded in films and television programming that are often passively consumed by audiences have, over time, combined to form a mass or popular culture that works to build consensus around shared values and beliefs. consequently, the (re)presentations of people, time, and place that are presented to us in school or that we consume at home and in public spaces shape how we imagine the world, what we purchase, and what we come to accept as “normal” behaviors. the development of a media and culture industry during the twentieth century combined to form a dialectic between economic production and social and cultural production (giroux, 2011, p. 22). adorno argued that a “non-spontaneous, reified, phony” ideological mass or popular culture jason harshman 73 had been manufactured by the culture industry so that “the subliminal message of almost all that passed for art was conformity and resignation” (jay, 1972, p. 216). while critiques of hollywood’s role as a homogenizing force have not elapsed, according to giroux (2011), a more contemporary analysis of the relationship between media and mass culture finds that industrial capitalism has infiltrated education since society and schools have became saturated with media technology and consumerism (giroux, 2011, p. 23). concern with the manufacturing of an americanized mass culture that is disseminated through media—what hoggart termed “shiny barbarism”— frames this discussion about why the use of film to teach about global issues in schools must include analysis of the production process as well as the product. theorizing global media consumption through “scapes” as global communication networks expand, “the processes of so-called free and forced migrations are changing the composition, diversifying the cultures and pluralizing the cultural identities of the older dominant nation states…and indeed the globe itself” (hall, 1999, p. 16). appadurai’s (1996) mediascapes, ideoscapes, and technoscapes help us understand that “as the shapes of cultures grow less bounded and tacit, more fluid and politicized, the work of cultural reproduction becomes a daily hazard” (p. 45), thus requiring a critical global media literacy education aimed at ensuring that the subaltern speak and are heard in social studies classrooms (spivak, 1988). the suffix “scape” “allows us to point to the fluid, irregular landscapes…that are constructed according to perspectives formed across multiple, intersecting networks” (appadurai, 1996, p. 3). it is important to see “scapes” not as the physical wires, satellites, or other means by which information and signals are transferred (although these play a role), but the political, historical, and linguistic situation of individuals across interconnected networks that influence how they imagine the world. therefore, we understand mediascapes to be transmitters of images that are embedded with “codes” that serve to reify the meanings mass media outlets want to convey about people, places, cultures, events, and ideas (appadurai, 1996; hall, 2006). similar to anderson’s (1991) discussion of the formation of “imagined communities” through print culture, mediascapes disseminate information digitally and, due to a growing rate of accessibility, erase distance to provide a sense of connectedness for people around the world who may never meet in person. regardless of the medium, consumers must recognize that information can be manipulated journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 74 to highlight differences as part of a national and transnational project undertaken by nation-states and media producers to mold ideologies for political purposes (p. 15). politicizing media images to counter ideologies that aim to undermine state power constitute ideoscapes (p. 36). important to understanding the function of ideoscapes is that they are flexible and often the meaning ascribed to an image, idea, or place differs from how they are received. increased accessibility due to technoscapes—the fluid, global configurations that include high and low, mechanical and informational technologies that move across multiple boundaries (p. 34)—furthers the reach of ideoscapes, but the views and voices included remain inequitable and disproportionately from the global north. as multinational media conglomerates such as time warner, news corp, the star media group, naspers, to name a few, continue to expand globally, examining transnational mediascapes, ideoscapes, and technoscapes is important for understanding how power holders shape ideology and manipulate culture through media. methodology discussion forums were identified as the most appropriate tool for conducting research because in order to discuss teaching about global perspectives, it is important to include as many educators from as many places as possible (harshman & augustine, 2013). a benefit of online research is a high level of participant interaction, leading to greater emphasis on participant perspective and a decrease in researcher bias, therefore increasing the credibility of the study (gaiser, 2008). the flexibility afforded by the use of asynchronous communication compared to in-person interviews meant participating teachers could focus on topics they found interesting or relevant to their teaching responsibilities and avoid those that were not (hewson & laurent, 2008; kazmer & xie, 2008; wang, 2011). since exchanges in the forums often generated new topics under the general research questions, participants, rather than the researchers, determined whom they interacted with, what topics they focused on, and what new topics they were interested in pursuing (harshman & augustine, 2013). participants representatives of the international baccalaureate organization (ibo) at the hague contacted 150 teachers about participating in the study and 120 in 36 different countries agreed to participate. a four-person research team was organized at a large midwestern university in the united states to create, facilitate, and troubleshoot the online discussions and produce a research jason harshman 75 report based on data generated within the forums for the ibo. upon giving consent, each participant was randomly assigned to a discussion forum of 10-15 teachers based on recommendations that small groups are more conducive for conducting on-line discussions so that participants do not have to navigate an exhaustive number of messages (mann & stewart, 2000). although assigned to a discussion group, participants could read posts in any forum and one forum was designated for spanish speakers so as not to privilege english as the only language in which one could participate. the spanish language forum included participants from the united states, mexico, guatemala, colombia, and ecuador and a translator was hired to help facilitate discussions and transcribe forum posts. all of the teachers featured in this article were part of one of the twelve discussion forums that were used during the study. table 1 participant demographics. teachers (*all names are pseudonyms) birth country location of school subject(s) taught martin canada taiwan environmental science vijay india india theory of knowledge, humanities joyce england england humanities marlene hungary hungary art betty ghana ghana theory of knowledge nadine india india history, civics shawn united states united states economics angela china canada history, global issues luis dominican republic costa rica humanities maria colombia colombia literature llana brazil brazil art data analysis triangulation, or the use of different sources of information during research, enhances the validity of the research as well as the accuracy with which the participants’ descriptions of their lived experiences is represented (moustakis, 1990). data were drawn from written responses by teachers to questions posed by the researchers and fellow participants in the discussion forums, one-on-one skype interviews with participants who volunteered to speak with a researcher about ideas generated around media literacy and resources, a review of lesson plans and resources posted journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 76 by teachers to the discussion forum, and email correspondence between teachers and researchers that included an exit reflection on one’s participation in the project. in total, participants contributed 1,465 messages over the course of five months, with six participants volunteering to participate in one, thirty-minute skype interview after their respective on-line sessions concluded (augustine, harshman, & merryfield, 2015). discussion posts, emails, interview transcripts, and resources posted to the forum were collated and identifying data such as names and schools were replaced with pseudonyms to protect confidentiality. the country in which the participants teach, the types of schools in which participants work (public, independent, international), and the subject(s) they teach were maintained. using the constant comparative method of content analysis, the researchers coded the data and organized it into categories of tentative findings. categories were initially created in relation to the first part of the research question—how do educators teach about perspectives?— and what emerged included: cross-cultural learning, analyzing stereotypes, multiple texts, selfreflection, guest speakers, inquiry and research, use of films and other media, and interacting with people in the community. interested in pursuing the role of media in the classroom and how teachers develop critical literacy skills by teaching with media, the initial categories were further analyzed to develop new categories to answer the second part of the research question: how do teachers develop globally minded critical media literacy skills? while teachers identified music, books, online news sources, blogs, and youtube videos as tools for teaching perspective and literacy skills in tandem, films were clearly the preferred means for teaching these skills and concepts. the categories that emerged from data drawn from twelve discussion forums were compared by the researchers for inter-rater reliability on interpretation of data into emergent categories. categories on how teachers conceptualize and teach about perspectives using films that emerged include: open-mindedness; attitudes and values such as empathy, respect, and caring; perspective consciousness; and cross-cultural learning. closer analysis, however, revealed that the geographic location of the teachers was important to evaluations of films because teachers living in areas of the world that had been or remain under colonial structures—which also constituted the areas of the world that ib teachers living in the global north more often associated with global issues such as poverty, conflict, human rights, injustice, etc.—raised questions and offered points that were more critical of films identified as “good resources” for teaching about global issues. jason harshman 77 this led researchers to pursue how participants, in discussing the tools and strategies they use to teach for perspective building and critical media literacy, also engaged one another in a critical analysis of the films they recommend and use in their classrooms to accomplish these goals within the discussion forums. analysis of categories and examples shared by participants showed that teachers tend to highlight what i am calling “6 c’s” when using films to teach for and about perspectives and critical global media literacy: colonialism, capitalism, conflict, citizenship, and conscientious consumerism. the questions and conceptualizations provided in table 2 are derived from analysis of discussions between participants on how they use films to teach about global issues while building media literacy skills and, within those discussions, points raised that challenged the way in which narratives about “others” were presented. the recommended questions were generated from a synthesis of lesson ideas shared by teachers in the forums, one-on-one skype interviews on how films are used to teach concepts and skills pertinent to developing critical media literacy about global power dynamics, and the questions participants asked each other regarding the films and media sources they use. table 2. teaching and learning critical global media literacy skills “six c’s” conceptualization recommended questions colonialism (including neocolonialism and anticolonialism) beyond political and economic forces, cultural hegemony operates as a neocolonial force that can cause people to compromise cultural practices, take actions to resist the “soft power” of culture, and/or engage in practices that demonstrate cultural hybridity. colonialism should not be treated as a backdrop or relegated to the past when viewing films, but understood as a constant presence across time and place. how is power distributed in the film?, who are the writers, directors, producers, and stars of the film?, what stereotypes did filmmakers rely upon to represent a people or place? how does the film making process operate as a colonizing force and/or provide agency? capitalism in addition to discussions of wealth, poverty, and who and what constitutes the middle class, issues of labor, property, access, scarcity, freedom of choice, and the significance of transnational global institutions, including hollywood, bollywood, nollywood, and more, can be analyzed. how are issues of class and inequity depicted or ignored in the film?, how does global capitalism directly or indirectly affect the characters and plot lines?, what myths regarding capitalism are portrayed and/or disrupted in journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 78 the film? conflict examine macro and micro-level systems and institutions, as well as person vs. person, person vs. self, person vs. nature, and person vs. technology. all other aspects of this table can be explored through this lens. how do issues and people change over time within the film?, what are the counter arguments to the narrative presented in the film?, are the solutions presented in the film sustainable, responsible, ethical, and inclusive? citizenship citizenship includes, but is not limited to, issues of civil and human rights, belonging, inequality, mobility, “othering”, and privilege. films can be used to evaluate how citizenship and belonging is engaged or denied based on intersections of geography, gender, sexuality, race, ethnicity, language, religion, history, ability and disability, age, class, culture, and institutions. who is represented in, and absent from, the film?, what statuses and identities are privileged and marginalized in the film?, in what ways is citizenship presented as being local, national, and/or global, and for whom? conscientious consumerism critically self-reflect on preferred sources of information and entertainment, including examination of what takes place “behind the scenes” to create the film and one’s connectedness to the issues presented in the films. what and who did the narrative(s) presented in the film leave out?, what sources and new information are needed to develop a more wellrounded perspective on the issues depicted?, what roles do viewers play in perpetuating and/or what are the viewer’s responsibilities for minimizing the issues and concerns viewed in the film? the online forums provided space for teachers to start new discussion threads around topics they were interested in pursuing, thus decentering the role of researcher as facilitator. data collected over the five month study revealed that teachers in the global north, though working to improve student understanding of the world, often relied upon resources about the global south that were not produced in those areas of the world. the opportunity for teachers in the global north to interact with teachers who lived and taught in the countries depicted in the films and other media sources they used to teach about global issues provided more context and sometimes counter narratives to the perspectives included in the films teachers in the global north described in the discussion forums as “insightful” and “balanced.” as a result, participants were simultaneously discussing how they teach for critical global media literacy while engaging in cross-cultural jason harshman 79 learning experience that assisted in their own perspective building and critical media literacy. findings films are often used as a “visual textbook” to convey what happened in history or to teach historiography, as well as prompt analysis of the accuracy and reliability of the images and narratives students are bombarded with in and out of a classroom (gaudelli & siegel, 2010; russell, 2012a, 2012b). also considered to be an entertaining way of presenting content information, films, as texts to be interpreted, help students develop literacy skills applicable beyond the classroom (kaya & çengleci, 2011). further, as the production of visual entertainment has become decentered, allowing more people to create and distribute videos, as well as lowbudget motion pictures and documentaries, more perspectives on global issues are available for consideration. although covering all perspectives and angles of a global issue is not possible in a given class session or even school year, introducing students to different ways of thinking about the world so that they can develop a skill set as critically minded consumers of global media is possible. for joyce, an ib humanities teacher in england, students “can engage in the global community by striving to be informed through a variety of sources of information; [particularly] their home media and that which they can access from abroad.” similarly, marlene, who grew up in hungary when it was under soviet occupation and is now an ib art teacher there, emphasized the importance of “looking for voices not typically included in curricula and mainstream media” so as to consider global issues for multiple perspectives that include people across the socioeconomic spectrum. according to martin, an ib environmental science teacher in taiwan, in order for educators to teach about global mindedness, they must be aware that much of our academic knowledge and news reflects a western perspective and is limited by cultural assumptions. understanding people different from us seems more necessary because of the world’s increasing globalisation and our own interconnectedness with it but to create genuinely global students we need to be genuinely global teachers. the essence of martin’s argument couples andreotti’s call for critical perspectives when teaching and learning about the world with appadurai’s theoretical discussion of the distribution of power and privilege through media and information technology. by teaching about biases within journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 80 media, as martin suggests, globally minded educators not only reflect upon their own media consumption habits, but help students develop similar habits of mind and skills as part of critical global media literacy education. the remainder of the article discusses the three most common issues addressed by teachers across their respective courses—global capitalism, colonialism, and citizenship—and how the approaches taken by ib teachers in the study generated the aforementioned framework that can inform how social studies educators use films to teach about and for critical global media literacy. teaching about capitalism with films for betty, a theory of knowledge teacher in ghana, discussions about capitalism and poverty are often colored by the privilege most of her students possess. betty posted in a discussion forum that it is not uncommon for her students to “comment negatively on people’s poverty as self-inflicted or generalize the reasons of poverty. therefore, my task as a teacher seems to [be to] work on clarification on the variety of reasons of poverty and the privilege of other factors such as education, socioeconomic circumstances, etc.” betty’s post led nadine to share a few resources she uses to teach about poverty, including websites (mostly produced in the global north, including the bbc and the media awareness network), the value of using youtube, and her use of bollywood produced films. however, it was her use of a film about an indian family produced by a branch of the walt disney corporation located in india that included the most detailed discussion. nadine’s choice of the film do dooni char (2010) is significant because it was the first disney international film produced in india. in this film the family patriarch and main character, santosh duggal, must balance family honor and multiple jobs—including the familiar trope of working at a call center in india—as santosh tries to become more “western” by purchasing his own car. although produced and directed by indian filmmakers, life for people in the city of delhi (where most of the movie was filmed) appears destitute. part commentary on income inequality in india, cultural norms are also called into question as problems are created and resolved when characters, to an extent, compromise indian culture by comsuimg what represents western culture (i.e. clothing, a car, music, etc.). in fact, comparing the presentation of india in do dooni char with disney’s depiction of nineteenth century india in around the world in 80 days (2004), as was suggested by the research team in the discussion forum, not only reveals the continued presence of colonialism in the more contemporary disney film, but a troubled narrative that favors jason harshman 81 cultural binaries instead of hybridity created through cross-cultural and technologically mediated exchanges (appadurai, 1996; bhabha, 1994). to learn more about how nadine uses a film, a skype interview was conducted after the discussion forums concluded. recognizing that the film is incomplete and depicts only a certain sector of india’s population, nadine uses the story of dhirubhai ambani, the founder of reliance industries—the largest corporate conglomerate in india and located only five miles from where nadine teaches. nadine stated that it is well known that the man who became the ceo of reliance—a company ranked 135th on the 2014 forbes global 2000 list—was born into extreme poverty (chen, murphy, & bigman, 2014). ambani achieved a place of power and great wealth not because of where he went to school, according to nadine, but how he received it and what he did with it. through this local example, students discuss the extent to which upward mobility is possible in india and whether such opportunity is equally accessible for everyone, and compare their research with the narrative presented in do dooni char. most students, nadine reported, point out that while capitalism may allow some people to advance in society, the film does not address the social hierarchies and cultural traditions around class, gender, and religion in india that prevent all people from doing the same. some students in her classes see the compromises that santosh and his family are willing to make with regard to their cultural practices as necessary in order to advance in society, while others thought that the film is just a modern version of how globalization can destroy local cultures and economies. some of the questions listed in table 2 were generated from the examples nadine shared as part of her work with students on developing deeper understandings of how neo-colonialism operates as an oppressive force, the complexity of cultures, and different forms of resistance against poverty and cultural imperialism across time and place. nadine’s discussion of how she teaches about the intersection of culture and capitalism prompted shawn, an ib economics teacher in the united states, to share how he uses the documentary film the end of poverty (2008). narrated by american actor martin sheen, the film interjects images of slums in south africa and latin america with interviews with nobel prize winning economists and scholars joseph stiglitz and amartya sen, as well as activists from venezuela, brazil, kenya, and tanzania. for shawn, this film is a useful tool for not only teaching students about the causes of institutionalized poverty around the world, but also fostering critical media literacy through consideration of questions that require them to analyze who was involved journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 82 with the production and distribution of the film: an american narrator, scholars and academics who are not currently living or working in the areas discussed in the film, and a director, phillippe diaz, who has produced a number of films about neo-colonialism and the global south, and activists seeking to end the damaging effects of global capitalism. shawn’s approach reflects appadurai’s discussion of infoscapes and mediascapes because he used the film to teach critical thinking not just about global issues, but about how media is constructed and distributed, and how points of view are privileged depending on who tells the story. shawn also exemplifies the need for teachers to alert students to the fact that even the best intentions to include discussion of global systems and oppression can be incomplete if one relies upon films produced in the global north to teach about the global south because they too often perpetuate and fail to critically address another example of the “6 c’s” framework: colonialism. teaching about colonialism with films colonialism and the “soft power” of media culture have not only marginalized the voices of many people, but from a cultural studies perspective, as nadine, an ib history and civics teacher in india pointed out, “colonization has had a major impact on how we see our culture and our rigid traditions. it hasn’t enabled people to think beyond the social norms that have been laid down by the community and that is one of the reasons that this social disparity between classes still exists.” as a tenth grade history and global issues teacher in canada, angela encourages her students to think of the world as being made up of “many different economies that create many different worlds, all in one.” to help her students understand the perspectives of colonizers and the colonized with regard to global economics, angela uses a case study and films to study jamaica and ethiopia. the film life and debt (2001) focuses on attempts at decolonization as well as the continued control exerted by the international monetary fund (imf) over jamaica when the country “tried to open markets to trade, particularly bananas, and how that has basically been detrimental to jamaica.” angela’s unit also includes a case study on ethiopia and use of the film black gold (2006) to examine the multiple parties and perspectives involved in the production and trade of coffee in the world market. when asked during a skype interview why she uses these films to teach about poverty, angela pointed out that a single film does not cover enough and jason harshman 83 if students are to understand the consequences of their purchases and the way the world conducts trade, they have to see people affected by those systems. poverty has different levels, not just living on the street. when students see working conditions and corrupt governments, but the countries involved practice democracy, they see these types of poverty and how they are connected. the role it [poverty] plays in developing nations, so they [students] ask themselves: do i need this? while effective teaching tools, angela admitted that she was conflicted over the fact that the aforementioned films were produced and distributed by american film companies. although the films address the complexities and conflicts of colonialism and capitalism that led to poverty in jamaica and ethiopia, like shawn’s approach to teaching about mediascapes, angela goes beyond the content of film by teaching about who the producers of these films are and the presence of biases in the storytelling. angela’s use of questions such as “what stereotypes did filmmakers rely upon to represent a people or place?” and “how does the film making process operate as a colonizing force and/or provide agency?” (listed in table two), prompts students to analyze the power structures that shape the codes and scapes involved in the production and consumption of films. in response to angela’s discussion of films and colonialism, luis, a humanities teacher in costa rica, shared why he used blood in the mobile (2010) to teach about conflict caused by in the democratic republic of congo over the illegal mining of minerals used to make cellular phones. according to luis, this film provides opportunity to “teach students about how complex global issues are and, as a teacher, why talking about imperialism and colonialism as nineteenth century topics that disappeared after wwii is just not true. we are still living in a world of colonizers and colonized and the phones students use literally connect them to those issues.” class discussions about blood in the mobile included reflection by students on their responsibility as conscientious consumers since they use phones that contain the very minerals people in the film dig out of the ground. luis shared that some of the questions he posed to students included “how does global capitalism directly or indirectly affect the characters and plot lines?” and “what roles do viewers play in perpetuating and/or what are the viewer’s responsibilities for minimizing the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 84 issues and concerns depicted in the film?” (see table two). luis’s students also analyze advertisements sponsored by the corporations mentioned in blood in the mobile as part of a discussion on how mediascapes and technoscapes can be manipulated by power holders to provide a one-sided narrative about the benefits of globalization and technology. how students consume and the extent to which they critically examine these codes related to global issues such as migration, borders, technology, and more, is an integral component of critical global citizenship (andreotti, 2006). teaching about citizenship with films maria, a literature teacher in colombia, believes it is important that students understand that the hardships people experience in bogota, colombia are, in some ways, shared across multiple places. to accomplish this goal she uses the film al otro lado (“the other side”) (2001) to teach about the complexities of citizenship, emigration, and immigration, with particular attention to the multiple local and international causes of poverty. based on the experiences of three different children who are looking to reconnect with their respective fathers, the films addresses immigration and citizenship in mexico, the united states, morocco, spain, and cuba. this spanish language film was written and directed by gustavo loza, who was born and still lives in mexico and not only addresses the push and pull factors often associated with migration, but also how where a person is and/or who they are effects the extent to which they possess a sense of belonging and citizenship. of particular significance to this film is the issue of gender, as all three children are looking to reconnect with their fathers, providing students with an opportunity to discuss patriarchy within and across cultures, as well as the intersection of gender and citizenship through the use of case studies. maria shared that when her students watch al otro lado, they discuss national and global citizenship, how national borders came to be drawn, and how the continued displacement of indigenous peoples around the world impacts debates about citizenship today. in response to maria’s discussion post about al otro lado, llana, an ib art teacher in brazil, started a new thread on women and citizenship in film. llana recommended the 2009 iranian film zanan-e bedun-e mardan (“women without men”) because, as she wrote in the discussion forum, “it tells the story of how four iranian women stand up to the oppressive beliefs and abuses of the men in their lives (mostly relatives) and religion while the country deals with the political and cultural influence of the united states.” mention of this film led teachers to jason harshman 85 recommend two other films about women in in the middle east. one, entitled veiled voices (2009), is a one-hour documentary about women who serve as religious leaders in syria, egypt, and lebanon. what makes the film compelling is that although the views of the women in the film focus on what islam entails could be considered conservative, their movement to unite women across the middle east is interpreted as liberal since they are engaging in resistance against their exclusion from positions of power by men. the second film recommended by teachers was persepolis (2007)—based on the graphic novel published in 2000—because the protagonist in the story is an iranian woman seeking to be free of the oppressive manner in which women are treated despite being citizens of iran. set in the late 1970s at the time of the iranian revolution, persepolis is opposed to the conservative cultural change that is taking place and resists the oppressive nature of her family, her culture, and her country. the “6 c’s” of what to address when teaching for critical global media literacy through film—colonialism, capitalsm, conflict, citizenship, and conscientious consumerism—are present across all of the films shared by the ib teachers. while the use of films from around the world, and the development of a critical media literacy to dissect how films are constructed, are positive steps towards teaching for global mindedness, teachers identified making connections to local issues of capitalism, colonialism, and citizenship to be a limitation of using films to teach about global issues. the most often cited reasons for this difficulty is the belief by students that poverty is faced by people in “other” countries, colonialism ended decades ago, and becoming a citizen requires a few forms and passing a test. discussion students are often situated between social studies curricula that prioritize the past and personal technologies that connect them almost exclusively to current trends and issues. although increased access and connectivity to multiple global “scapes” is a reality for some, the existence of a digital divide between and within the global north and south means many people are not equitably represented in classrooms. for vijay, an ib humanities and theory of knowledge teacher in india, access to technology and media “are a privilege, not a right [and] coming from a developing nation, i came to understand that…there is a language power structure: the amount of quality content varies across languages—english seems to take over in the digital realm. what happens with those who don’t speak english?” as consumers of digital media, it is important that journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 86 students and teachers not only think critically about the messages encoded in a film, but the power holders who determine what and who is edited out as part of education for digital citizenship (goode, 2010). teaching about global issues with film, while important, has limits since all films contain mediated codes that are often incomplete and produced in the interest of advancing a particular perspective. engagement by teachers and students in analysis of the “scapes” that operate behind the scenes (so to speak), and that disseminate the narratives and messages that are present in all films, is of equal importance to reading for information in literacy education. that is, using a film to teach about a topic, era, or event in history must be accompanied by discussion of the company or companies involved in the production of the film, the reliance upon or attempt to disrupt stereotypes, and the evidence offered to forward an argument, just as one would with any text used in a classrom. the strategies, conceptualizations, and discussion questions offered by the teachers involved in this project are part of the broader application of the digital media literacy skills students need to be prepared to employ when they are away from the classroom (greenhow, 2010). global educators who use some or all of the questions listed in table two can create learning experiences that require students to think deeper about the narratives used to teach about places and people, as well as those that are not discussed in a visual, audio, or print text. the teachers who participated in this study illustrate well the benefits of bringing educators together to converse with people in the places they teach about in order to develop more nuanced understandings of perspectives and issues. findings from the study revealed that the opportunities to interact with fellow educators around the world inspired teacher’s to revisit concepts such as interconnectedness and cross-cultural learning, along with shifts in thinking about how to teach media literacy by analyzing the coded messages present in the resources they use to teach about the world. the absence of a central task in favor of a decentered space allowed participants to initiate and participate in a range of discussion topics and proved to provide a greater level of ownership on their part. many participants shared in post-study reflections that the discussion forums provided a rare and valuable opportunity to learn from colleagues from around the world; something that they had not previously experienced. conversations about environmentalism, citizenship, and the resources used to teach about global perspectives revealed that educators in the global south, by sharing local realities and perspectives on a global issue that fellow participants taught about, provided insights that even the most well researched films overlooked. jason harshman 87 the very nature of the on-line group discussions meant that teachers were engaged in the critical text analysis they all agreed was important for students to complete. the on-line discussion forums proved to be a valuable tool that not only provided participants with new resources, but challenged them to re-evaluate how they used films to teach about point of view analysis, power, and media production. a limitation to the study, however, was that beyond the biographies, not much time was spent exploring the relationship that exists, if any, between a teacher’s experiences and how they approached teaching about a global issue. building perspective consciousness—a key component of global mindedness (hanvey, 1976)—means going beyond the surface of one’s opinion to better understand the intersecting influences that makeup one’s view of the world. the extent to which a teacher’s cultural, historical, political, and educational background influenced their decision making when teaching about capitalism, colonization, citizenship, and other topics discussed above, was not fully investigated within this project. future research that brings educators from around the world together through a virtual discussion forum would do well to ask participants to reflect on how their life experiences shape their global mindedness, the biases they still possess, and how these characteristics consciously and unconsciously influence what they choose to include and leave out of the curriculum. research that uses on-line discussion forums to pursue these lines of inquiry would provide opportunities for participants to ask questions and pursue topics that can help them and others better understand the complexities of cultures, histories, places, and more so that educators can transfer this type of thinking and work on cross-cultural learning into their classroom. the “6 c’s” provide teachers and students with concepts and tools to analyze the messages encoded in any audio, video, or print text, while also ensuring students consider the importance of authorship and point of view analysis. the questions and resources provided can also be used to foster reflection by students on how influences that “emanate from multiple points in the global system” affect their sense of identity and citizenship, as well as how they imagine the organization of nations (pike, 2000, p. 71). further, this framework aids in the facilitating of critical thinking exercises that interrogate both the means (“scapes” and technologies) and the messages (codes and content) that continue to deterritorialize as well as define cultures. global educators are right to use sources that allow people to speak for themselves because if “the strangeness of their ways [are to] become less strange” students need to develop a perspective consciousness that includes journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 88 “getting inside the heads of those strangers and looking out at the world through their eyes” (hanvey, 1976, p. 165). supporting students in the development of critical media literacy skills based in global education is essential to their ability to look beyond the arbitrary divisions used to organize the world. as we exist in an evermore interconnected and media saturated world, critical media literacy and global education are integral if students, as citizens, are to become responsible consumers and producers of information. jason harshman 89 references augustine, t., harshman, j, & merryfield, m. (2015). “real world” project-based learning for global citizenship. in j. harshman, t. augustine, & m. merryfield (eds.), research in global citizenship education. (pp. 59-82). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. anderson, b. (1991). imagined communities. london: verso. andreotti, v. (2006). soft versus critical global citizenship education. policy and practice: a development education review, 3, 40-51. andreotti, v., & pashby, k. (2013). digital democracy and global citizenship education: mutually compatible or mutually complicit? the educational forum, 77, 422-437. appadurai, a. (1996). modernity at large: cultural dimensions of globalization. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. bennett, t. (1998). culture: a reformer's science. sydney. bhabha, h. (1994). the location of culture. london and new york: routledge. black, s. (2001). life and debt. u.s.a.: tuff gong pictures. buckingham, d. (2003). media education: literacy, learning, and contemporary culture. cambridge, uk: polity press. case, r. (1993). key elements of a global perspective. social education, 57(6), 318-325. chen, l., murphy, a., & bigman, d. (2014, may 7). forbes global 2000. forbes, retrieved from: http://www.forbes.com/global2000/list/. coraci, f. (2004). around the world in 80 days. u.s.a.: walt disney company. culross, r., & tarver, e. (2011). a summary of research on the international baccalaureate diploma programme: perspectives of students, teachers, and university admissions offices in the usa. journal of research in international education, 10(3), 231-243. diaz, p. (2008). the end of poverty. u.s.a.: cinema libre studio. chaudhuri, a. & faisal, h. (2010). do dooni char. india: the walt disney company. francis, m., & francis, n. (2006). black and gold: wake up and smell the coffee. uk: fulcrum productions. gaiser, t. (2008). online focus groups. in n. fielding, r.m. lee, & g. blank, (eds.), the sage handbook of online research methods (p. 290 – 306). los angeles; london: sage. gaudelli, w., & siegel, b. (2010). seeking knowledge through global media. curriculum inquiry, 40(5), 582-599. http://www.forbes.com/global2000/list/ journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 90 giroux, h. (2011). on critical pedagogy. new york, ny: continuum. giroux, h. (2012). disposable youth: racialized memories and the culture of cruelty. new york, ny: routledge. goode, l. (2010). cultural citizenship online: the internet and digital culture. citizenship studies, 14(5), 527-542. greenhow, c. (2010). a new concept of citizenship for the digital age. learning & leading with technology, 37(6), 24-25. hall, s. (2006). encoding/decoding. in m. durham & d. kellner (eds.). media and cultural studies: key works. (pp.163-173). london: blackwell publishing. hall, s. (1999). thinking the diaspora: home-thoughts from abroad. small axe, 6, 1-18. hall, s. (1993). culture, community, nation. cultural studies, (7)3, 349-363. hanvey, r. (1976). an attainable global perspective. the american forum for a global perspective, 1-47. harshman, j. & augustine, t. (2013). fostering global citizenship education for teachers through on-line research. the educational forum, 77(4). 450-463. hewson, c., & laurent, d. (2008). research design and tools for internet research. in n. fielding, r.m. lee, & g. blank, (eds.), the sage handbook of online research methods (p. 58 – 78). london, uk: sage. hlebotwitsh, p. (2009). navigating the normative. curriculum inquiry, 39(1), 15-28. hoggart, r. (1957/2006). the uses of literacy. new brunswick, new jersey: transaction publishers. jay, m. (1973). the dialectical imagination: a history of the frankfurt school and the institute of social research, 1923-1950. boston, ma: little, brown, and company. lewis, m., & wigen, k. (1997). the myth of continents: a critique of metageography. california: university of california press. loza, g. (2004). al otro lado. mexico: adicta films. kaya, e. & çengelci, t. (2011). pre-service teachers’ opinions regarding using films in social studies education. journal of social studies education research, 2(1), 116-135. kazmer, m., & xie, b. (2008). qualitative interviewing in internet studies: playing with the media, playing with the method. information communication & society, 11(2), 257-278. kenny, a. j. (2005). interaction in cyberspace: an online focus group. journal of advanced nursing, 49(4), 414–422. maher, b. (2009). veiled voices. u.s.a.: american university. jason harshman 91 mann, c., & stewart, f. (2000). internet communication and qualitative research: a handbook for researching online. london: sage publications. mcrobbie, a. (1992). post-marxism and cultural studies. in l.grossberg, c. nelson, & p. treichler (eds.), cultural studies, (pp. 719-730). new york, ny: routledge. merryfield, m. m. (2012). four strategies for teaching open-mindedness. social studies and the young learner, 25(2), 18-22. merryfield, m. m. (1998). pedagogy for global perspectives in education. theory and research in social education, 26(2), 342–379. moustakis, c. (1990). heuristic research design, methodology, and applications. newbury park, ca: sage publications. neshat, s., & azari, s. (2009). zanan-e bedun-e mardan (women without men). italy: essential filmproduktion gmbh. paulus, t. (2009). online but off-topic: negotiating common ground in small learning groups. instructional science, 37(3), 227-245. pike, g. (2000). global education and national identity: in pursuit of meaning. theory into practice, 39(2), 64-73. poulsen, f. p. (2010). blood in the mobile. denmark: koncern-tv og filmproduktion. rigault, x., satrapi, m., & paronnaud, v. (2007). persepolis. u.s.a.: sony pictures. russell, w. (2012a). the art of teaching social studies with film. the clearing house, 85(4), 157-164. russell, w. (2012b). teaching with film: a research study of secondary social studies teachers’ use of film. journal of social studies education research, 3(1), 1-14. sampson, d.l., & smith, h.p. (1957). a scale to measure world-minded attitudes. journal of social psychology, 45, 99-106. spivak, g. c. (1988). can the subaltern speak? in c. nelson & l. grossberg (eds.). marxism and the interpretation of culture (pp. 271-313). urbana, il: university of illinois press. stoddard, j., & marcus, a. (2010). more than “showing what happened”: exploring the potential of teaching history with film. the high school journal, (93)2, 83-90. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education, research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 69-92 92 vonderwell, s., liang, x., & alderman, k. (2007). asynchronous discussions and assessment in online learning. journal of research on technology in education, 39(3), 309-328. wang, c. (2011). instructional design for cross-cultural online collaboration: grouping strategies and assignment design. australasian journal of educational technology, 27(2), 243-258. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 11-27 asian educational discourse: construction of ontological security natalya v. khalina1, alla v. kovaleva2, maksim s. voronin3, denis v. anikin4, ekaterina v. valyulina5 abstract this article considers the problem of ontology security through asian educational discourse, which is structurally determined by the process of moral self-improvement. considered are trends in improving the management of educational system by developing the culture of quality, which is considered as the next stage of the asian education systems development after the “quality of education” stage. we suggest an approach for assessing the vitality of educational process and its product based on monitoring trainees’ aptitudes system and school capabilities in developing and maintaining this system. in this study we refer to the concept of vitality and viability when describing the general theory of viability in connection with the core principles of asian educational discourse. we outline main trends in the development of modern educational system in asian university given the process of globalization and its impact on educational reforms in the asia-pacific region. thus, the category of education quality in asian system of higher education and narrative monitoring of chinese students’ cognitive structures viability at altai state university are introduced. keywords: vitality, ontological security, asian university, educational discourse, habitus. introduction the problem of ontological security becomes especially relevant in modern conditions of human civilization survival. kozlova (1998) associates the category of ontological security with the concept of vitality in terms of life on the edge of survival, balancing on the brink of life and death. according to modern postclassical methodologies, social processes are reconstructed as the system of relational determinations, which allows describing social construction of the ontological security. the construction of ontological security is carried out by rethinking the consumption as an element of reproduction (bart, 1996, baudrillard, 1999, toffler, 1986, de certeau, 1984; yigit & tarman, 2016), thus making it possible to fit in with the dominant order by developing skills of adaptability, resistance, sneaking and escaping. 1 prof., doctor of philology, altai state university, nkhalina@yandex.ru 2 prof., doctor of sociology, altai state university, alla_k65@mail.ru 3 candidate of philology, altai state university, ermviort@gmail.com 4 assoc. prof., candidate of philology, altai state university, aden109@mail.ru 5 assoc. prof., candidate of philology, altai state university, serev@ya.ru mailto:ermviort@gmail.com mailto:aden109@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 11-27 12 toffler (1986) created neologism “prosuming” (produclion + consuming) to show the active nature of consumption. “vitality”, “viability” and “survival” are used in western social sciences of the 19th century. vitality was used for the ability to keep up with the times, to move to the future as in the latin saying “non progredi est regredi”. within the classical science discourse, vitality is often associated with the ability to “be part of progress”, part of modernization, and civilization, as the ability to resist the barbarism (kozlova, 1998). akhiezer (1996) defines the terms “survival” and “viability” as connotations of the concept “vitality”. and while the survival can be identified with the process of life (“real life”), the viability is seen close to the “reproduction” category (akhiezer, 1996). the survival is reduced to the inertia of life: the subject survives because it exists. in the course of their life people continuously face different dangers, and their lives depend on the ability to break through limited experience and constantly extend and build it up. educational processes should take a special place in developing the vitality of modern society and crating certain forms of institutionalization and socialization within the educational discourse. the concept of vitality as survival is developed in the asian educational discourse, which promotes the reproduction of human capital basing on the human personality improvement. asian countries show the largest most rapidly growing world economy, which demonstrates no signs of slowing or stagnation (zhao et al., 2011; tarman & yigit, 2013; tarman, chigisheva, 2017). some researchers believe that the 19th century is the asian century. since great attention is paid to the wonderful asian economic performance, asian education also becomes the object of study. analytical studies on asian education say that chinese civilization or confucian civilization form the dominant culture in china and chinese communities in southeast asia including hong kong, taiwan, singapore, korea and vietnam. major objectives of education in chinese communities are formed under the influence of confucian doctrine and represent the cultivation of humanity, integrity, beauty, justice and impartiality through self-development, which is the basis for strong family, government and peace. it is believed, that life quality in a society depends on the level of its members’ selfdevelopment (tu, 2000). some researches of cultural perspectives of asian education believe that the postulates of eastern philosophy remain relevant and influence the modern educational paradigm in asian khalina et al. countries (ip, 1996; li, 2008). confucius paid special attention to the role of education in building an ideal life and social order. education shall help an individual to live a dignified life in the community and state. thus, as li notes, the objectives of asian education are based on moral cultivation. according to the moral philosophy of confucius, everyone can get an idea of civilized personality from the text of the great teachings (大學). according to confucius teachings, those who want to bring order to the state shall first bring order to their families, and those who want to bring order to their families shall first bring order to their own lives, and those who want to bring order to their lives shall strengthen up their minds, and those who want their mind be strengthened up shall make their thoughts sincere (ip, 1996; li, 2008). thus, moral self-improvement is a person’s most fundamental goal in life, and only by reaching this goal one can start a family, govern the state, and keep peace in the world (修身、 齊家、治國、平天下). literature review studying the impact of globalization on educational reforms in the asia-pacific region, currie (1998) identified several interesting trends, including the following: 1. moving from elite to mass education; 2. privatization of education; 3. corporate management in education (managerialism); 4. spread of transnational education. besides, cheng (2005) in the study of educational reforms in the asia-pacific region identified different trends on macro-, meso-, siteand operational levels of different educational systems. as a response to globalization challenges, the asia-pacific region reforms its education management systems by: 1. creating new national strategies and educational objectives; 2. rearranging educational system at different levels; 3. making changes to marketing, privatization and diversification of education; 4. strengthening decentralization based on the institute of management; 5. focusing on education quality and standards, bringing tools to estimate education outcomes. these trends characterize changes in the education management in sinitic communities of the asia-pacific region, particularly in such leading countries as china, hong kong, taiwan, south korea, singapore and vietnam (cheng, 2005). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 11-27 14 taiwan has recently developed the concept of “taiwan innovation and global strategy: education of new citizens with full individual potential”, in which the ministry of education identifies three core concepts of education: 1. developing individual abilities, 2. acceptance of globalization, 3. support for poor people. in addition to these three concepts, four core concepts of education are introduced (tu, 2006): table 1 core concepts of taiwan innovative educational strategy principle 1: education/development of modern citizens and related strategies principle 2: establishing national consciousness, and related strategies principle 3: expanding global vision, and related strategies principle 4: enhancing social concern and related strategies enhancing language skills promoting taiwan's distinguishing features promoting educational internationalization supporting economically disadvantaged (poor) enhancing culture and technology respecting diversity of culture innovation and character expression supporting educationally disadvantaged (uneducated) enhancing diverse and common values national power advancement expanding international student exchange lessening regional disadvantages enhancing responsibility education note. source: tu, 2006, p. 198. the general trend in asian education is cultivating the culture of quality, which is considered as the next stage of asian educational systems development after the quality of education stage (mishra, 2006). the development is defined by the quality assessment system represented in the educational market by different models adapted by asian countries to their national priorities and cultural features. sanaya mishra identifies five main models for assessing the quality of education, which are accpeted in the asian segment of global education, namely: the baldrige criteria, iso 9000:2000, capability maturity model, six sigma, and total quality management. the tools and methods of quality assessment are represented by: process flowcharts, graphs, pareto analysis, fishbone diagrams, scatter diagrams, check sheets and control charts. below is an example of a fishbone diagram (see fig. 1). khalina et al. figure 1. conceptual map of quality assessment elements: fishbone diagram source: mishra, 2006, p. 39. in order to survive in the competing world of globalization, universities pay special attention to quality issues in the system of higher education (a study on quality assurance models in southeast asian countries: towards a southeast asian quality assurance framework, 2012). thus, quality is considered as a social construct, which can be determined: ▪ in terms of exclusiveness (excessively high standards), ▪ in terms of sequence, consistency and logic demonstrated by «zero defects» and «getting right the first timе» that make the quality a culture, • in terms of purpose consistency (product or activity is consistent with the purpose, meet the customer needs (specifications), • in terms of money equivalent (through productivity and efficiency), • in terms of predisposition to transformations (in terms of qualitative transformations). quality in higher education requires the establishment of an institutional culture not so much as a matter of total quality management, but rather as part of total quality care, when every professional understands their responsibilities and cares of professional achievements (barnett, 1992). we assume that the general theory of viability 世界生活力理论. 世界生活力理论, which considers the viability as an ability of a living organism, an artificial system or an idea of self-preservation and capabilities reactivation in different environments, shall be recognized as the managing theory in the network production of knowledge under the culture-developing journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 11-27 16 educational environment, which is modeled by eurasian cultural identity. any system organized to survive in changing environment is considered as viable. the rules of a system viability as normative aphorisms, principles of organization, axioms, recursions unity law and recursiveness theorem are identified. the process of education in asian university, according to global requirements, shall be structured basing on a ksc modeling frame (knowledge, skill, competence). we believe that given the network nature of knowledge production and the creation of network intellectual capital, this framework in the asian university shall be represented by the following regulators of knowledge production: viability, catching, and literacy. the frame which models educational discourse in asian university is the vcl frame or 生存能力 — 学习能力强 — 读写的能力. we believe that the following markers of 世界生活力理论 in educational discourse can be represented by the following terminological combinations: process knowledge 过程知识, condition institutions 条件制度, factor institutions 因素制度, intellectual capital 智力资本 , network production manager 传销生产经理, self-management 自管理, network production of knowledge 传销知识生产, intellectual production system 智力制造制度, intellectual capital accumulation 智力资本积累, forming a person’s character 性格造成, selftransformation 自改造, extended education technology 教育扩展技术 (khalina, 2014). the system of competences and quality assessment in eurasian education is aimed at creating new episteme, which is the oriental episteme founding eurasian cultural and communicative space, and reflecting the features of eurasian cultural landscape. bgazhnokov (2002) correlates the concept of cultural landscape with the concept of community power, while the territory power (its natural and geographical characteristics) comes up with all processes and results of its interaction with the community power. bgazhnokov (2002) notes that a human being is simultaneously and alternately the consumer and creator of the living environment, who bares moral responsibility as the creator and an independent unit of the cultural landscape. khalina et al. united eurasian cultural landscape presupposes creating a functional model of mental landscapes interaction within the asian university, when ethical and aesthetic component of the human and living environment interaction becomes especially important, so that the main goal of a human being is to improve and rationalize this interaction (bgazhnokov, 2008). in this case the quality of educational shall be aimed at forming human needs in favorable environment conditions and tools to satisfy these needs. bgazhnokov (2002) identifies the empathy culture as the tool of forming human needs in environment favorable conditions, as the system of human values, norms, and institutions aimed at producing and reproducing sympathetic, understanding, and aesthetically matured thinking and behavior (cicek, ulker, & tarman, 2012). the system of education quality assessment, namely the assessment of vitality/viability/ feasibility of the educational process and product, is based on testing the viability of students’ cognitive structures are formed by the need to acquire and process knowledge relevant to the cultural landscape. methodological framework we study the viability of cognitive structures of asian educational discourse through the narrative analysis of spatial abilities of students coming to altai state university from china. the spatial ability relates to such skills as recovering, saving and transformation of visual information within the spatial context (lohman, 2000). in a more narrow sense, spatial abilities interrelate with individual skills to explore the visual space, recognize forms, shapes and position of objects, create mental representations of these forms, shapes and positions, and manipulate these representations mentally (carroll, 1993). the spatial ability is revealed through spatial cognitive engineering focused on human perception of space, its conceptualization and communication with it. the method of spatial cognitive engineering can be used in a foreign language teaching when a teacher acts as the process manager to develop one’s innate spatial abilities on the one hand, and, on the other hand, to develop the spatial competence as a set of skills to engineer spatial relations. spatial relations here are understood as a system of principles of contacting with the environment based on either natural (direct) or formal (indirect) communication assuming rules of transformation from deep to surface structures and vice versa. the formation of spatial competence as a set of skills to design spatial relations in the university educational environment becomes possible through the creation of students’ narrative. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 11-27 18 smith (1981) understands narratives as “verbal acts consisting of someone telling someone else that something happened” (smith, 1981, p. 168). polkinghorne (1988), while noting that the term "narrative" can be used in describing both oral and written presentations, limits its use to the variant of organizational pattern in the form of a story. the author uses this term to describe the story creation process, its internal logic (the plot and themes), and the story, fairytale or poem actual results (the product) as an integrity. sarbin (1986) also emphasizes the organizational aspect of the narrative. the narrative is identified as a method for organizing episodes, actions and accounts of actions. the integrity, which integrates facts of everyday life and fictional realities, incorporates the time and place. the narrative allows to include actor’s motives into their actions as reasons of things happening. polkinghorne (1988) believes that the approach to studying the process of narrative accumulation of knowledge in philosophy and linguistics provides a significant methodological basis for the narrative studies. studying personal traits through the narrative is seen as a breakthrough in the study of personality, radically different from the traditional studies, which brings us closer to understanding the context of narrative methodology. some researches focus on people’s traits and features instead of purposive / deliberate nature of human experience (cantor & zirkel, 1990). psychologists became more interested in personal accounts and stories as the methods to analyze social-cognitive-motivational aspects of personality. according to mcadams (1985), psychologists began creating mew structures and models to describe new understanding of personal identification in terms of narration. organizational and cognitive viability of the asian university, including altai state university since it has been recently recognized as an asian university, is identified by the narrative analysis of narratives created by students came to altai state university from china. thus, we consider the narrative analysis and narrative studies as the methodological basis for local spatial cognitive engineering. clandinen and connelly (2000) identify dynamic and interactive nature of the narrative research when studying educational discourse. they note that the narrative research questionnaire is a way to understanding the experience. lieblich, tuval-mashiach and zilber (1998) suggest the following definition for the narrative study: “the data can be collected as a story (a life story provided in an interview or a literary work) or in a different manner (field notes of an anthropologist who writes up his or her khalina et al. observations as a narrative or in personal letters). it can be the object of the research or a means for the study of another question. it may be used for comparison among groups, to learn about a social phenomenon or historical period, or to explore a personality” (lieblich et. al., 1998, p. 2). bruner (1990) characterizes the narrative analysis as “how protagonists interpret things” (bruner, 1990, p. 51). riessman identifies the systematic character of interpreting interpretations (riessman, 1993). mishler (1995) divides narrative studies into three classes: 1. referential and temporal order, 2. textual sequence and structure concerning linguistic and narrative strategies to construct the narrative, 3. narrative functions relate to a broader social and cultural context of the story. our study, in mishler’s classification (1995), belongs to the third class: studying narratives on impressions of russia formed upon arrival to russia and after spending some time in the country and at altai state university. the purpose of our work is to study the features of the narrative aspect of social construction of ontological security, which allows adapting to the new conditions of cultural and linguistic existence in russian university. the narrative text we analyzed was created by more than 40 chinese students came to the faculty of mass communication, philology and political science of altai state university to obtain a bachelor's degree in linguistics. some texts in which the style of giving impressions showed the probability-oriented model of the author's personality were organized in a special group. the probability-oriented model of personality is developed by modern russian philosophers nalimov and drogalin (1995) with the concept of a multidimensional space-time continuum, the central place in which is occupied by the temporal duad "linear (casual time) time field (continual) time". causal relationships are absent in continuum time, and the events of the past, present and future are combined and exist “always potentially now". the goals of this study are: 1. to select narrative texts, in which the probability-oriented model of the author's personality is actualized; 2. to analyze the selected texts in order to identify syntactic and lexical ways of adapting the individual to new spatial realities and through them to a new time order linear time; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 11-27 20 3. to further use observation results as an actual material for improving the language skills of individuals and adjusting their spatial abilities. results and discussion spatial cognition is realized in creating life stories when a person structurally associates different episodes of their past with the episodes of their present together with the expectations of the future into an axiologically significant narrative text. mcadams (1996) believes that the description of personality requires a clear distinction between the i and the me features of personality. the researcher identifies three levels of personality description: 1. the level of traits, 2. the level of personal goals, 3. the realm of meaning. first level related to “the process of “selfing” of narrating experience to create a self and the me as the product, the self which the i narrates”. second level is about “life tasks, coping strategies, values, and various strategic constructs that are contextualized in time, place, or role” (mcadams, 1996, p. 301). third level identifies “the constructions that form identity. in the modern world, such constructions assume the form of stories of the self—internalized and evolving life stories that integrate the reconstructed past, perceived present, and anticipated future” (mcadams, 1996, p. 301). the life story represents most characteristic methods using which “each individual i arranges the elements of the me in a temporal sequence complete with setting, scenes, characters, plots, and themes” (mcadams, 1996, p. 307). thus, the life story is not only about the me creation, but also about what is created by the culture and human social interrelations. being socially constructed, life stories are based on empirical factors. mcadams (1987, 1993, 1996) suggests a number of aspects to analyze life stories: 1. narrative tone, 2. imagery, 3. theme, 4. ideological setting, 5. nuclear episodes, 6. imagoes, 7. endings. basing on suggested aspects of life stories analysis, we attempted to identify the peculiarities of spatial cognition ability found in narratives created by chinese students on the following topic: “my impressions of russia”. we focused on the narrative tone, imagery, and nuclear episodes. narrative tone is set by: khalina et al. 1. indexation of impressions: in the first place, secondly, in the third place; this is the first impression, this is the second impression; my first impression; 2. using the "aphoristic" structures: "learn well, live well", "my goal is to learn russian"; 3. verbal representation of the basic emotion conditioned by the narrative genre “impression”: "i love russia. that's all. thank you"; "i love barnaul"; "i am very happy to be here learning and living"; "although we live without parents, but we are also happy! until now, we are all used to it, and we are sure that everything will be super!"; "what a nice day! i love this city"; "i like this city"; "i love asu, which occupies a large area"; 4. creation of syntactic patterns with the target word "impression": "there are many impressions about russia, i want to talk about them"; "these are my impressions of russia"; "when we got out of the plane we got very cold! this is the first impression for me! and in barnaul pigeons and birds are very fat, this is my second impression"; 5. blending of indexation, verbal representation of the basic emotion, and the use of target word “impression”: "when we got off the plane we got very cold! this is the first impression for me! then a few days later we walked along the street. i love buildings of this style. and in barnaul pigeons and birds are very fat, that is my second impression". imagery. the authors of life stories create the imagery of a place where they explore not only new living environment, but also new aesthetic environment, using their poetic and axiological matrix: "today we got up in a hurry. the bird did not have time to beat the windows to wake me. i got up, the weather in the fog is like a fairy tale. the city will be very nicely dressed barnaul pedestrians. in a hurry, the air is clean. one day all are happy and free. now the sun has appeared. fog gradually disappears, barnaul city eyes"; "i came to barnaul. although it is a very small city. but this city is very beautiful, full of art. there are many pigeons there. many birds. trees are very tall here. many different and flowers are here"; "when the landing of the aircraft. most lovely. the blue sky and fresh air. barnaul is small, but the surroundings are clean"; "it's a small, beautiful, clean, quiet city"; "there are many flowers along the street. pigeons and birds everywhere. but the weather is cold especially. frequent rains. today, under a great fog"; "my favorite. the blue sky and fresh air. barnaul is small, but the surroundings are clean". journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 11-27 22 nuclear episode. the nuclear episode is the arriving to barnaul as the final episode of achieving the goal, namely coming to altai state university. location “barnaul” in author’s life story is a unit of a mini-network “harbin – novosibirsk”. major local unit of the network is “harbin”, which is associated with the past and the system of values and visual imagery. local unit novosibirsk is a transfer zone, which is atemporal and aspatial, the threshold of the future, symbolically correlating with the most beloved barnaul to appear beautiful, clean, with the blue sky and fresh air. impressions of the "real" barnaul associated with the present are revealed precisely in the nuclear episodes of narrative. these are the impressions of a completed journey: a fine rain, colder than in harbin, fatigue, very cold, it's hard for us to stay in the car for five hours: a. when i got out of the plane, it was drizzling on the street. to tell the truth, it is colder in barnaul than in harbin. after 5 hours i arrived to altai state university; b. we immediately went to barnaul by bus. in the bus we slept a little because of fatigue. as we arrived in barnaul, we started to issue various necessary documents. we did not sleep well, because the room was very cold. and the blanket was not warm, we did not eat well, because we were not used to the food. it's hard for us, especially to communicate. c. got on plane. i came to novosibirsk for the first time. i felt russian frosts. sit five hours in the car. i came to barnaul. specific nature of narrative texts created by students came to altai state university from china for studying required the introduction of additional categories missing in the list of p. mcadams for assessing narrative parameters: state, verbalized impression, exact temporal marking of the event, initiation (narrative beginning). state. the state of the author’s life story is identified by corresponding lexical units and syntactic constructions like i feel that i love; i hope that everything is fine; i'm very worried! we are very cold. verbalized impression. impressions of students who came to russia are identified not only by the word “impression”, but also by syntactic and emotionally complete phrases introduced into the text: a. original communication cliche: what a nice day! thank you for meeting! thanks to all. b. sentences completing visual observation: sometimes i think, are not they cold? maybe it's beautiful; i am very happy to be here, study and live. khalina et al. exact temporal marking of the event. specifying exact or relatively accurate date may connect visual and audible perceptions of events thanks to implicitly expected change of the everyday communication code with temporal domination of the visual component for matching content plans and communicative environments. the first of september. i get on a plane to russia, because it will study russian language in the altai state university september 9, 2014 at 6:25 i arrived at the novosibirsk airport. this is the first time i'm flying to russia to study. i am very excited! initiation (narrative beginning). certain narrative beginning serves as a tuning fork, which, on the one hand, tunes to the corresponding tone-melodic perception of the communicative environment and events, and, on the other hand, it sets the narrative rhythm itself. since my childhood, i have heard a lot about russia from my parents. they say that the russians are serious and cautious. as the analysis of students’ narrative texts shows, arranging facts in a certain significant order requires author’s special imagination and adherence to special aesthetic standards. bringing order to facts of your life requires activating special spatial cognition, which is the ability not only to navigate in your own life, identifying semantic nodes relevant to you and interesting to others, but also to find linguistic units functionally equivalent to terms marking a certain place for an individual’s life content in the social cognitive map. the specificity of identified spatial ability is that it is based on the harmonization of spatial and temporal parameters of environment, the coordination of linear and field time, i.e. harmonization and coordination of logical thinking (discrete) and information field (continual in its properties). conclusion the quality assessment criteria require, first of all, a rational model of national development, which presupposes the extension of concept “nation” basing on its definition suggested by soviet linguistics and modified taking into account modern tasks of the state and individual development. transition to the eurasian environment, which reflects binary mental specifics of the organizational structure of eurasia, appears to be more appropriate when journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 11-27 24 describing the educational discourse in the context of modernized system of relations in eurasian countries ideologically founded by the concept of russian eurasianism. the system for assessing vitality of educational process and product in the eurasian environment is based on monitoring the system of students’ predispositions (“habitus” system) and school capabilities to create and support this system. according to p. riker (2004), habitus is the principle of separation into logical series, which makes up the perception of the social world. this principle allows, on the one hand, linking together the representations and forms of behavior, and on the other hand, combining these representations and forms of behavior into a social space structure, which might be useful for a reader or researcher in developing their own view of the social world. according to p. bourdieu (1979), this is the habitus to form an individual "system of classifications" that "continuously transforms needs into strategies, constraintы into preferences, and generates a set of basic "choices" distributed and distributing life styles” (bourdieu, 1979). the system of predispositions – habitus – includes different ways to communicate with reality and imagination, to believe in fictions or reality they imitate. the concept of habitus changes the scale of vision and “scaling” of historical events, contributes to the historical view flexibility, methodological freedom of interpretation, which is implemented, according to riker (2004), in the search for truth in the history. the ontological security of eurasian territory is determined by the culture of quality modeled in the asian university by the educational process frame vcl or 生存能力 — 有传染 性的 — 读写的能力. the modeling frame of educational process 生存能力 — 有传染性的 — 读写的能力 makes up the system of personal predispositions, which drives the vitality of eurasian cultural landscape. the ontological security of a person in the eurasian (asian) educational environment is connected with the development of corresponding spatial ability, which coordinates the linear time (logical thinking) and the field time (information field). one of the ways to develop this ability for a trainee is the creation of a narrative text with the following permanent elements: narrative tone, imagery, nuclear episodes. khalina et al. references a study on quality assurance models in southeast asian countries: towards a southeast asian quality assurance framework. (2012). bangkok: seameo rihed. adams, d.p. (1985). power, intimacy, and the life story: personological inquiries into identity. new york: guilford. akhiezer, a.s. (1996). viability of russian society. social sciences and modernity, 6, 58-66. barnett, r. (1992). improving higher education: total quality care. buckingham: srhe&ou, 145 – 159. bart, r. (2000). mythology. moscow: publishing house named after the sabashnikovs. baudrillard, j. (1999). the system of things. moscow: rudomin. bgazhnokov, b.kh. (2002). culture of empathy. moscow: tolerance and cultural tradition. bgazhnokov, b.kh. (2008). the subject and tasks of moral ecology. izvestiya kabardinbalkarskiy scientific center ras, 3(23), 9. bourdieu, p. (1979). la distinction. critique sociale du jugement. paris: minuit. bruner, j. (1990). acts of meaning. cambridge, ma: harvard university press, 51. cantor, n. & zirkel, s. (1990). personality, cognition, and purposive behavior. in: l. pervin (ed.), handbook of personality theory and research. new york: guilford, 145-164. carroll, j.b. (1993). human cognitive abilities: a survey of factor analytic studies. new york: cambridge university press. cheng yin, c. (2005). new paradigm for re-engineering education: globalization, localization and individualization. the netherlands: springer. cicek, v., ulker, r., & tarman, b. (2012). comparison of character education in us and turkish educational systems: globalizing american education system. energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 4(3), 1311-1322. clandinen, d.j. & connelly, f.m. (2000). narrative inquiry. san francisco: jossey-bass. currie, j. (1998). globalization practices and the professoriate in anglo-pacific and north american universities. comparative education review, 42(1), 15-29. de certeau, m. (1984). the practice of everyday life. berkeley: university of california press. halpern, d.f. (2000). sex differences and cognitive abilities. mahwah, nj: erlbaum. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 11-27 26 ip, p.-k. (1996). confucian familial collectivism and the underdevelopment of the civic person. in: research and endeavours in moral and civic education. hong kong: hong kong institute of educational research and the chinese university of hong kong, 39-58. khalina, n. (2014). network and epistemological management as the constants of educational discourse of asian university. in: international educational forum "altai asia 2014": "eurasian educational space new challenges and best practices": a collection of materials (september 25-26, 2014, barnaul). barnaul: publishing house of altai university. kozlova, n.n. (1998). vitality as a socio-philosophical problem. social sciences and modernity, 2, 95-106. li, ch.-y. (2008). the confucian concept of ren and the feminist ethics of care. in: confucian political ethics. princeton, nj: princeton university press, 175-198. lieblich, a., tuval-mashiach, r., & zilber, t. (1998). narrative research: reading, analysis, and interpretation. thousand oaks, california: sage publications, vol. 47, 2. lohman, d. (1993). implications of cognitive psychology for ability testing: three critical assumptions. in: personnel measurement: directions for research. hillsdale nj: erlbaum. mcadams, d.p. (1987). a life story model of identity. in: perspectives in personality, hogan, r. & w. jones, w. (eds). greenwich, ct: jai. vol. 2, 15-50. mc mcadams, d.p. (1996). personality, modernity, and the storied self: a contemporary framework for studying persons. psychological inquiry, 7(4), 295-321. mcadams, d.p. (1993). stories we live by: personal myths and the making of the self. new york: morrow. mishler, e.g. (1995). models of narrative analysis: a typology. journal of narrative and life history, 5, 87-123. mishra, s. (2006). quality assurance in higher education: an introduction. bangalore: jwalamukhi job press. nalimov, v. & drogalin, zh.a. (1995). the reality of the unreal. probabilistic model of the unconscious. moscow: the world of ideas, acron jsc. polkinghorne, d. (1988). narrative knowing and the human sciences. albany: state university of new york press. khalina et al. riker, p. (2004). memory, history, oblivion. мoscow: publishing house of the humanitarian literature. sarbin, t.r. the narrative as a root metaphor in psychology. in: narrative psychology: the storied nature of human conduct. sarbin, t.r. (ed.). new york: praeger. smith, b.h. (1981). narrative versions, narrative theories. in: american criticism in the poststructuralist age. konigsberg, i. (ed.). michigan: university of michigan press, 162186. tarman, b., & chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. 10.17499/jsser.93128 tarman, b., & yigit, m. f. (2013). turkish economy and vocational education system: regressive or progressive? energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 5(1), 159-170. toffler, o. (1986). the future of labor // a new technocratic wave in the west. moscow: progress. tu, w.-m. (2000). implications of the rise of “confucian” east asia. journal of the academy of arts and sciences, 129(1), 195–218. yigit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 zhao, y., lei, j., li, g., he, m.f., okano, k., megahed, n., gamage, d. & ramanathan, h. (eds.). (2011). handbook of asian education. a cultural perspective. new york and london: taylor & francis. journal of social studies education research, 1(1)1-16 sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi ,1(1)1-16 jsser www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2010: 1(1), 1-16 © 2010 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ve yeni bir sosyal bilgiler hareketi social studies education and a new social studies movement bülent tarman1 ve i̇smail acun2 özet: bu çalışmanın amacı teorik bir bakış açısıyla sosyal bilgiler eğitimin bilimsel-pedagojik temellerde geliştirilmesi için yapılması gerekenleri ve bu işe kalkışan yeni bir sosyal bilgiler hareketi’nin hedeflerini ve alana yapacağı katkılar açısından bir analizini yapmaktır. bilgi çağında toplumsal hayata etkin bir şekilde katılmak için bireylerde arananlar arasında var olan bilgi, beceri, değer ve tutumların da kazandırılmasında sosyal bilgiler eğitimi önemli bir öğretim alanıdır. bu öğretim alanının bugün abd’de köklü yapısının oluşmasında 1960’larda başlayan yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi’nin (the new social studies movement) çok önemli katkıları olmuştur. bu hareket sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin yapılandırmacı bir bakış açısıyla araştırmacı/sorgulayıcı yaklaşımla, eleştirel ve yansıtıcı düşünme, işbirliğine dayalı çalışma gibi becerilere vurgu yapılan, gerçek hayat problemlerini zengin bir sınıf ortamında işleyen bir sosyal bilgiler eğitimi’ni yerleştirmeye çalışmıştı. ancak, yeterince bilimsel araştırma desteğinden, uygun materyal ve kitaplardan ve yapılandırmacı anlayışa göre eğitim verebilecek donanımlı öğretmen desteğinden yoksun olan bu hareket kısa zaman içinde sönüp gitmişti. buna karşılık bu hareketin ortaya koyduğu prensipler dünyanın bir çok ülkesinde gelişti ve gelişmeye devam etmektedir. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi türkiye’de çok yeni bir öğretim alanıdır ve hem teorik olarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimin bilimsel temellerinin oluşturulmasında hem de okullarda öğretmenlerin pratik uygulamasında ihtiyaç duyulan yöntem–teknik yeterliliklerinde, materyal ve kaynak niteliklerinde eksiklikler mevcuttur. sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin geliştirilmesi için türkiye’de akademik bir hareket başlamıştır. bu hareket sosyal bilgilerin geliştirilmesi için araştırma yapmak, akademisyen, öğrenci ve öğretmenler için kaynak kitaplar ve materyaller oluşturmak, politikalar geliştirmek, bilimsel toplantılar düzenlemek, alana özel yüksek standartta akademik ve uygulama dergileri neşretmek, bu alanda çalışan akademisyen, öğrenci ve öğretmenler için ortak platformlar oluşturmak gibi hedefler doğrultusunda kurumsal kimliği ile akademik hayatına başlamıştır. bu makalede yeni hareketin sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin türkiye’de geliştirilmesine yapacağı katkılar, abd’de hareketin tecrübeleri analiz edilerek tartışılmaktadır. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler eğitimi, yapılandırmacılık, yeni sosyal bilgiler eğitimi, sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği (sbeb) 1 yrd. doç.dr., selçuk üniversitesi, btarman@selcuk.edu.tr 2 yrd. doç.dr., uşak üniversitesi, ismail.acun@usak.edu.tr mailto:btarman@selcuk.edu.tr� mailto:ismail.acun@usak.edu.tr� journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 1-16 2 extended abstract the aim of this article is to analyze theoretically the need to improve social studies education in turkey in a pedagogical manner and on the basis of the intended contributions and goals of a new social studies movement to the field. social studies education is an important teaching discipline to equip individuals with the necessary knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to operate efficiently in a knowledge society. the new social studies movement of 1960s in the usa contributed to the development of social studies education. this movement tried to establish a constructivist approach. the pioneers of this movement emphasized on the importance of an inquiry based approach, and rich and real life situation in the classrooms and skills such as critical thinking, reflective thinking, cooperation and collaboration in social studies education. the movement started to test their theories in 1960s. they published 4 consecutive reports called the indiana experiments in inquiry: social studies. they stated that the inquiry approach provides students with critical thinking skills in social, economical, political and personal situations at any age providing appropriate teaching methods and techniques are employed. another important conclusion that they reached was that reflective thinking is not something that occurs itself without really taking measures to improve it. they also came to realization that the ideas that set out to test were likely to fail without proper training of teachers and students. they also realized that the hidden curriculum plays and important role in creating the desired social studies teaching tradition. the movement diminished in a short while due to the lack of research to support their theoretically sound ideas, appropriate teaching resources for teachers and students and ill-equipped teachers while their ideas were and still are gaining impetus in many countries in the world. social studies education is relatively new in turkey. social studies as we know it started officially in turkey with the joint decision of yüksek öğretim kurulu and milli eğitim bakanlığı (cohe and mone) in 1996. in 2005, the radical changes started to take place in turkish primary and elementary education. the theoretical approach to education has shifted towards constructivist approach. therefore, social studies education has also supposedly taken a turn constructivism. nevertheless, the expected improvement has yet to be realized in turkey in this field. social studies education in turkey has weaknesses in terms of both in theoretically and practically. the literature suggests that there are at least 4 different areas to be improved: knowledge and skills of teacher trainers and teachers, learning environment and access to resources, education system and policy, and social studies curriculum and its implementation. the quality of teaching resources and materials and teacher qualifications are not up-to-standards to carry out a constructivist social studies education. although attempts to improve situation in teaching and learning of social studies education have been made by officials of ministry of education, non-governmental organizations and academics, they remain sporadic and unorganized faith wishful acts. they remain in policy and on paper at best. in order to bridge to gap between rhetoric and reality in social studies education, a new movement has started in turkey. this movement consists of scholars and teachers of social studies. this bülent tarman & i̇smail acun 3 new social studies movement aims to do research in the field on the area; print books and teaching resource for both teachers and students; develop policies; hold academic meetings; publish high quality journals for both academics and practitioners; and to create opportunities and gateways for networking. this article critically argues the proposed contribution of the new social studies movement to the field in turkey drawing upon the experiences of the movement of 1960s in the usa. keywords: constructivism, social studies, new social studies, association for social studies educators (asse) sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ve yeni bir sosyal bilgiler hareketi 21.yüzyıl, nitelikli insan kaynaklarıyla bilgiyi elinde tutan toplumların gelecek yıllara hâkim olacağını gösteren bir yüzyıldır. bu yüzyılın gereklerine uygun insan tipi yetiştirmek pek çok kurum ve uzman tarafından irdelenmekte ve çağın gerektirdiği insan profilinde olması gereken bilgi ve becerilerin neler olduğunu orataya koymaya çalışmaktadırlar. bu açıdan bakıldığında sosyal bilgiler eğitimi türkiye’de diğer disiplinlere göre daha yeni bir alandır. bu yüzden türkiye’de güçlendirilmesi maksadıyla neler yapılması gerektiği ortaya konulmalı ve dünyadaki gelişmeler yakından takip edilerek yeni bir “sosyal bilgiler hareketi” başlatılmalıdır. bu sebeplerden dolayı amerika birleşik devletleri’nde (abd) benzer bir hareketin 1960’larda başlayıp günümüze kadar devam eden sürecini ve aradan geçen onlarca yıldan sonra bizzat bu hareketi başlatanların yaptıkları değerlendirmeleri iyi anlamak ve alan eğitimcilerini bilgilendirmek bu alana önemli bir akademik katkı olacaktır. bu nedenle, bu çalışma ile bir yandan massialas’ın 2009 yılında “social studies”dergisinde yayınlanan makalesini inceleyerek yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin abd’de gelişimini tespit etmeye çalışırken, diğer yandan da türkiye’de başlatmaya çalıştığımız yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin fikirsel altyapı tartışmalarının başlatılması planlanmaktadır (sbeb, 2010). massialas (2009) otuz yıldan fazla bir süre geçtikten sonra yaptığı değerlendirmede 1960’larda abd’de çok güçlü başlayan fakat aniden dağılan “yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi” kapsamında kendisinin de içinde bulunduğu bir grup eğitimcinin neleri başarıp neleri başaramadıklarını ortaya koyarak bir öz değerlendirme yapmıştır. bu değerlendirmeler türkiye’de böyle bir hareket başlatmaya çalışan bizler için de dikkatle incelenmesi gereken bir deneyimdir (sbeb, 2010). aslında “yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi” adı verilen ve abd’de ortaya çıkan bu hareket, sosyal journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 1-16 4 bilgiler eğitimini yeniden canlandırmak için nasıl bir revizyona gidilmesi ve ne tür reformların yapılması gerektiğini bildiklerini düşünen, sosyal bilimler ve eğitimcilerden oluşan bir gurubun hareketiydi. daha basit ifade ile sosyal bilgiler eğitimini zevkli ve hoşlanılır bir hale getirmek ve kendisi için düşünüp sağlam kararlar verebilen vatandaşlar yetiştirilmesine yardımcı olmak amacıyla yola çıkmışlardı. sosyal eğitim (social education) dergisi 1963 yılındaki sayısının bir kısmını yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi taraftarlarının “sosyal bilgileri gözden geçirin” başlıklı bir sempozyumda ortaya koydukları vizyonu açıklamaya ayırdı. shirley engle, byron massialas, paul hanna ve lawrence metcalf gibi isimler yazdıkları makaleler ile kuram ve uygulamadaki temel elementleri ifade ederek sosyal bilgilerde yapılması gereken revizyona temel oluşturmaya çalıştılar. takip eden yıllarda bu saydığımız isimlere yeni araştırmacılar da eklenerek sosyal bilgilerde reform yapılması için kendi görüşlerini ve neler yapılması gerektiğini ortaya koydular (massials, 2009). yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin bir yönünü engle’nin sosyal bilgilerin ne olması gerektiğini belirten vizyonu oluşturmaktadır. engle (1960) yeni ufuklar açan makalesinde sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde olması gereken temel amaçları ayrıntılı bir şekilde ortaya koymuştur. karşılaştıkları temel sorunlar karşısında vatandaşların karar verme yeteneklerinin geliştirilmesi reform hususunda engle’nin ortaya koyduğu en temel amaçlar arasında bulunur. bu amaca ulaşılabilmesi için sosyal bilgiler sınıflarının karar verme mekanizmalarına dönüştürülmesi, öğretmen ve öğrencilerin ders kitabı, gazete gibi materyallere ve tarih kitaplarında yer alan güncel olaylara eleştirel bakabilme yetenekleriyle donatılmış olarak yetiştirilmesi gereklidir (engle, 1960). sınıftaki her bir bireyin tarihsel ve güncel olayları analiz edebilmesi ve çeşitli sonuçlara ulaşabilmesi bireylerin iyi kararlar verebilme yeteneklerinin gelişmesini sağlayacaktır. engle’in indiana üniversitesindeki lisansüstü öğrencilerinden massialas, cox, cousins, ve elsmere engle'nin vizyonunu devam ettirerek sistematik bir şekilde yeni sosyal bilgiler için gerekli olan bir çok temel elementi içeren yeni bir öğretim kuramı (teaching through inquiry) formüle etmeye başladılar (massialas, 1963). 1960’ların başında bu kuramı test etmeye başladılar ve the indiana experiments in inquiry: social studies adı altında dört rapor yayınlandı. bu çalışmalar benzer görüşe sahip diğer sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri tarafından devam ettirilerek daha ileri seviyeye götürüldü. bülent tarman & i̇smail acun 5 mesela bu araştırmacılar araştırmacı/sorgulayıcı yaklaşımın (inquiry approach) öğrencilere sosyal, ekonomik, politik ve kişisel meselelerde daha sistematik bir karar verme fırsatı sağladığını ortaya koymuşlardır. uygun bir sınıf ortamı ve öğrenme metotu ile bütün öğrenciler her yaşta eleştirel düşünüp bunu yansıtabildiklerini göstermişlerdir (massialas, 2009). bu araştırmaların ortaya koyduğu ana sonuçlardan birisi öğrencilerin yansıtıcı düşünmesinin (reflective thinking) kazara veya tesadüfî olmadığının ortaya konmasıdır. bilakis yansıtıcı düşünme için öğretmen ve öğrenciler bilinçli ve doğrudan bir şekilde tüm araç ve kaynakları işleterek seferber etmelidirler. bu çalışmalar araştırmacıları ayrıca izole edilmiş bir düşünme modelinin kendi başına bireyin yeteneklerini geliştirmek için yeterli olmadığı konusunda ikna etti. öğrenmenin psikolojik yönünü içermesi açısından entellektüel sorgulama boyutunun genişletilmesi gerekir. akıllıca kararlar verebilme, geniş anlamda bilişsel, sosyal ve duygusal güçlerin etkileşiminin bir neticesidir (massialas, 1963). aslında ilginç bir şekilde, daha 1961-62 yıllarında bile bu araştırmacılar sosyal bilimlerdeki sorgulama veya araştırma yönteminin okulların sosyo-politik yapısı ve öğretmen-öğrencilerin duyuşsal özelliklerini göz önüne almadan düzenleme yapılamayacağını anlamışlardı. başka bir ifade ile bu çalışmalar hareketin daha en başında, örtük öğretim program (hidden curriculum) faktörünün göz önüne alınmadan sosyal bilgilerdeki reform çabalarının başarısız olacağının anlaşılmasını sağladı. belki de ilk defa indiana experiments in inquiry kavramsal öğretim ve karar verme fikrinin klasik test yöntemiyle ölçülemeyeceğini gösterdi. daha sonra özellikle jack zevin ve massialas’ın “araştırmacı/sorgulayıcı (inquiry)” ve “keşfedici (discovery)” öğretim yöntemleri kullananarak derslerini işleyen öğretmenleri gözlemlemesi ve bunları kayıt altına alması ile bu yaklaşım güzel sonuçlar ortaya koydu (massialas ve zevin, 1967). daha sonra 9. sınıf dünya tarihi derslerinde kullanılmak üzere jack zevin ve massialas tarafından hazırlanan 9 öğretim ünitesini içeren eser, eleştirel düşüncenin yazılı materyallerin kullanımı aracılığı ile nasıl sergilenebileceğini ortaya koymuştur (massialas ve zevin, 1969; 1970). bu hazırlanan yazılı eser daha önceki materyallerden çok farklı olarak kronolojik sıralama yerine kavramlara göre düzenlenmiştir. sosyal yapı, politik sistem, kültürel değişim, tarihsel araştırma gibi kavramlar bu ünitelerde kullanılan kavramlardan bazılarıdır. çoğu durumda olduğu gibi bu ünitelerde yazarın yorumunu içeren ve ezberlenmesi gereken yazılı materyaller journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 1-16 6 yerine öğrenciler tarafından analiz edilebilecek dokümanlara yer verilmiştir. tarihsel konular öğrencilerin güncel fenomenler ve yerel sorunlarla ilişki kurabileceği şekilde verilmiştir. böylece öğrencilerin içinde yaşadıkları toplumun sorunlarını algılamaları sağlanmış ve katılımcı bir yaklaşımla düşünen ve çözüm arayan çalışmalar yapmalarını gerekli hale getirilmiştir (massialas, 2009). yıllar ilerledikçe yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi belirgin bir biçimde ülke çapında gerilemeye başladı. veliler, öğretmenler, okul yöneticileri ve toplumun geniş bir kesimi eşitlik, adalet, empati ve sosyal ilişkilerde vatandaş katılımı gibi konuları daha fazla sorgulamaya başladı. hatta bazıları “3r”3 fenton (1991) yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin niçin başarılı olamadığını ve tuhaf bir şekilde sonlandığını açık bir şekilde analiz etmiş ve massialas (2009)’ın da aynı fikirde olduğu sebeplerin önemlilerini şu şekilde sıralamıştır: nin bu sorunlara cevap olacağını düşünmeye ve eski usülde ders kitaplarının basılarak buna uygun bir müfredatın getirilmesinin gerektiği fikrini savunmaya başladılar, ve 1975’lere gelindiğinde ülke çapında bir hareket olan yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi tamamen sona erdi. massialas (2009)’ın “çok ilginçtir ki” diyerek belirttiği şu durumu vurgulamak yerinde olacaktır: “abd’de sona eren bu hareket dünyanın farklı yerlerinde henüz yeni başlama safhasındaydı” (p. 248). aslında ulusal anlamda bu hareket 1970’lerin ortalarına doğru sona ermiş gibi görünse de pek çok öğretmen bu program kapsamında öğrencilerini 21. yüzyıl için hazırlamaya devam etti. 1. yayıncılar entellektüel yayınlar yaparken henüz yayının kalitesi test edilmeden ve farklı fikir alışverişleri yapılmadan piyasaya sürerek, yine piyasa beklentilerine göre hareket ederek bu yayınların üretimi, çoğaltımı ve dağıtımı konularında maksimum çaba sarfettiler. 2. reformcuların çoğu ortaya attıkları fikirlerin geçerliliğini destekleyecek bir araştırma olup olmadığını düşünmeden hareket ettiler. sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde izlenecek en iyi yolların neler olduğu ile ilgili ortaya attıkları fikirleri, araştırmalar ile destekleme konusunda yetersiz kaldılar. araştırmalara dayanmadan ortaya atılan fikirler bu yaklaşımı uygulayan öğretmenlerin bireysel 3 bu geleneksel öğretimde kullanılan ve öğrencilerin öğrenim hayatlarında 3 konunun çok önemli olduğu vurgusunu yaparak bunlara göre öğretimin şekillenmesinin gerekliliğini savunan bir anlayıştır. bu 3r denilen şey de reading (okuma), writing (yazma) ve rhetoric (dili etkili kullanma sanatı veya becerisi, retorik)’tir bülent tarman & i̇smail acun 7 çabaları olarak informal bir biçimde kaldı ve yaygınlaştırılamamış oldu. hatta o dönemin öğretmen el kitapları ve ilgili kaynakları incelendiğinde, iyi düşünülerek hazırlanmış bir eğitim-öğretim teorisinin eksikliği hemen farkedilecektir. bruner (1960)’in klasikleşmiş olan the process of education adlı eserinde her ne kadar bu reform hareketini motive edecek bir tarzda olsa da sözünü ettiğimiz teorik boşluğu dolduracak nitelikte değildi. çünkü bu eser reformcuların ortaya attıkları fikirleri destekleme konusunda yetersizdi ve reformacıların ihtiyacı olan teori ve araştırmayı sistematik bir şekilde destekleyecek nitelikte değildi. 3. bilginin yapısı oluşturulurken başlangıçta önem verilen öğrenci ve öğretmenin bireysel karakterleri ile ilgili vurgular ileride yeterince yapılmadı veya bu özellikler gözardı edilmeye başlandı. bu durum neticesinde eğitim-öğretim materyalleri ve yöntemleri, vatandaşların veya öğrencilerin günlük yaşamda karşılaştığı sorunlar, problemler, yapılması gereken görevler ve karar verilmesi gereken konulardan uzaklaşarak reform hareketi öncesindeki duruma döndü. 4. çoğu reformist tarafından örtük öğretim programı çok fazla dikkate alınmadı. yeni program geliştirilirken cinsiyet, sosyal sınıf veya statü, etnik yapı, din ve dil farklılıkları gibi faktörlere yeterince önem verilmedi. hemen hemen tamamıyla yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi toplumun geneli yerine orta-tabaka beyaz öğrencileri dikkate aldı. diğer bütün azınlıklar göz ardı edildi ve azınlıkların hakları ile ilgili konular belirgin bir şekilde toplum içerisinde tartışılmaya başlandığında sosyal bilgiler öğretimi buna öncülük edebilecek bir yapıda değildi. halbu ki john goodlad (1984) ve diğerleri örtük öğretim programının çok güçlü bir etken olduğunu sergileyecek kadar kanıt üretmişlerdi. bu faktörü gözardı eden program geliştiriciler doğal olarak başarısız oldu. massialas bu örtük öğretim programının önemini vurgulamak için okul içindeki eğitim-öğretimini %90 oranında örtük öğretim programının etkisiyle gerçekleştiğini öne sürmektedir (massialas, 1989). massialas (2009)’a göre bir anlamda bu hareket tamamıyle başarısızlıkla sonuçlandı fakat reformcuların ortaya attığı pek çok fikir (özellikle vatandaşlıkla alakalı olan fikirler) halen sosyal bilgiler eğitim ve öğretimini etkilemektedir. bu hareketten journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 1-16 8 alınması gereken pek çok ders olduğunu ifade etmektedir. birincisi eğer program sınıf içi ve içinde yaşanılan toplumdan bağımsız geliştirilirse başarısız olması kaçınılmazdır. yani üniversite profesörlerinin çocuklar ve gençler için fonksiyonel bir öğretim programı geliştirebilmesi mümkün değildir. bu fonksiyonel öğretim programının mümkün olabilmesi için öğrencilerin ihtiyaçlarının, problemlerinin, istek ve özlemlerinin göz önüne alınması gereklidir. bu nedenle bireysel ve toplumsal problemler veya sorunlar sosyal bilgiler programının temelini oluşturur. massialas (2009) ayrıca yenilk (inovasyon) için yeterince araştırmanın yapılması gerektiğinin farkına vardıklarını da itiraf etmektedir. başka bir ifade ile, bir yenilik yaratmak için sınıflarda yapılan araştırmalar ile sürekli desteklenen bir kuramsal altyapının oluşturulması gerekmektedir. yaptığı değerlendirmenin sonucunda massialas, okulların artık gençler ve çocuklar için eskisi kadar güvenilir bir yer olamadığını ve daha büyük sosyal sorunlara karşı öğrencileri koruyamadığını belirtmektedir. aids, uyuşturucu, suç, erken yaşta hamilelik gibi konuların artık okul kültürünün bir parçası ve içsel problemleri haline geldiğini söyleyerek bunların görmezlikten gelinemeyeceğini belirtmektedir (2009). i̇çinde bulunulan zaman diliminin getirmiş olduğu sosyal, ekonomik ve kültürel sorunların farkında olarak gerek geliştirilen yeni programlar gerekse yapılması planlanan araştırmalara ışık tutması açısından günümüz sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerinin massialas’ın bu son tespitinden çıkartmaları gereken pek çok ders bulunmaktadır. bu durumu da göz önüne alarak takip eden bölümde türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler eğitimini güçlendirmek için vizyon belirlenmesi ve yol haritası niteliğini taşıyan öneriler verilmiştir. türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler öğretimine yönelik öneriler sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin daha iyi bir seviyeye getirilebilmesi için aslında ünlü amerikalı filozof j. dewey’in daha 20. yüzyılın başlarında kaleme aldığı eserinde belirttiği üzere ve pek çok disipline de uygulanabilecek genellikte olan tavsiyesine yer vermekte fayda var. dewey (1916)’e göre, mevcut şartların sistematik olarak incelenmesi, amaçların önünde engel teşkil edebilecek faktörlerin belirlenmesi ve sorun veya engellerin ortadan kaldırılması için kapsamlı bir çalışma ve planlamanın yapılması gereklidir. yapılacak bu planlama ile kısa, orta ve uzun vadede ulaşılması gereken bülent tarman & i̇smail acun 9 hedefler ve bu hedeflere nasıl ulaşılabileceği özellikle alan eğitimcileri tarafından ortaya konulmalıdır. sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin amaçlarının ve sorunlarının net bir şekilde ortaya konulmasının yanı sıra öğretimde teori ile pratik arasında dengeli bir sistemin kurulması gerekmektedir (yılmaz, 2008). öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerine dayalı olarak lisans seviyesinde sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde karşılaşılan sorunların incelendiği nitel bir çalışmada (yılmaz, 2009) bu sorunlar dört temel kategoride toplanarak şu şekilde sıralanmıştır: (1) öğretim elemanları ve öğrenciler, (2) öğrenme ortamı ve kaynaklara erişim, (3) eğitim sistemi ve politikası, ve (4) sosyal bilgiler eğitimi programının planlanması ve uygulanması ile ilgili sorunlardır. araştırma bulgularına göre yapılan önerilere dikkat çekilmesi gerektiği gibi benzer nitelikte nitel araştırmalarla çalışmanın evrenini genişletmenin ve nicel türde çalışmalar ile de bulguların desteklenmesinin gerekliliği ifade etmek yerinde olacaktır. böylece ortaya konulan her bir kategori daha kapsamlı ve derinlemesine ele alınmakla kalmayıp, daha farklı kategorilerin de eklenmesi durumu meydana gelecektir. bu bulgularla bağlantılı olarak, sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerinin kuram ile uygulama arasında görülen dengesizliği veya uyumsuzluğu gidermek için çalışmalar yapmaları bir zorunluluk olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. ama, ülkemizde sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde karşılaşılan sorunlara ilişkin yeterli sayıda araştırma bulunmamaktadır (yılmaz, 2009). aslında bu durum massialas’ın yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin abd’de neden başarılı olamadığı hususunda yapmış olduğu önemli tespitlerden biri olan yeni hareketin kuramsal temellerinin oluşturulamaması ve ortaya atılan yeni fikirlerin alan araştırmaları ile yeterince desteklenememesi ile paralel olarak düşünüldüğünde ne kadar önemli bir problem olarak karşımızda bulunduğunu ve buna göre tedbirler alınması gerekliliğini ortaya koymaktadır. lisans seviyesinde ortaya konulan bulgularla birlikte lisansüstü ile ilgili de benzer çalışmalar yapılmalıdır. hali hazırda yapılmış çalışmalar incelendiğinde sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılan lisansüstü araştırmaların gerek incelenen konuların çok çeşitlilik içermemesi ve gerekse bu çalışmaların çoğunun büyük benzerlikler göstererek ulaşılan sonuçların hemen hemen aynı olması da (tarman, acun ve yüksel, 2010; geçit, 2010; aksoy vd, 2009; şahin vd, 2009; oruç ve ulusoy, 2008) durumun ciddiyetle ele alınması gerektiğini ortaya koymaktadır. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 1-16 10 2004-2005 öğretim yılında uygulamaya konulan yeni sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı hem yapısı hem de dayandığı eğitim felsefesi olarak daha önceki programlardan çok büyük bir değişimi, bir ilerlemeyi ifade etmektedir. yapılandırmacılık üzerine kurulmuş olan bu program günümüz dünyasında bireylerin sosyal bilgiler eğitimi yoluyla elde etmeleri gerekli olduğu düşünülen bilgi, beceri, değer ve tutumları kazandırmayı amaçlamaktadır (safran, 2004; ata, 2009). ancak burada önemli olan programın ne getirmeye çalıştığının yanında, öğretmenlerin yeni programı nasıl algıladıkları ve uyguladıkları ile ilgilidir. başka bir ifadeyle öğretmenlerin ‘değişimi’ değil mevcut durumu korumayı amaçlayan bir yaklaşım benimsedikleri, bunu gerçekleştirmek için de anlatım ve soru-cevap gibi geleneksel öğretim yöntemlerini kullanmayı tercih ettikleri tespit edilmiştir (demircioğlu, 2004). oysa, sosyal bilgiler programları, sürekli olarak değişen ülke ve dünya sorunlarını tanımlayan, anlayan ve çözmek için üzerinde çalışan insanları yetiştirme sorumluluğuna sahip olması gerekmekle birlikte (öztürk, 2009), tek başına yeterli olmayıp bu programın uygulayıcısı durumunda olan öğretmenlerin de yeteri kadar programın içeriğine ve kuramsal altyapısına sahip olmaları gerekmektedir. 2005’te uygulamaya konulan sosyal bilgiler programı felsefesinin ve getirdiği kuramsal farklılığın, önceden beri geleneksel yaklaşıma göre yetiştirildikleri için derslerini buna göre öğretmeye devam eden öğretmenlerin durumu bir dereceye kadar anlaşılabilir. ne varki yeni yetiştirilen sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının da sosyal bilgilerin kavramlarını, felsefesini ve amaçlarını tam olarak kavrayamadıkları, öğretim ve öğrenme kavramlarının yüzeysel olduğu, öğrenci-merkezli öğretim şemalarının (düşünce yapıları) basit olduğu, ileri düzey düşünme becerilerinin yeterince gelişmediğinin tespit edilmesi (güven, 2004; demircioğlu, 2006) dikkatle irdelenmesi gereken önemli sorunlar olarak karşımızda bulunmaktadır. yapılandırmacı yaklaşıma göre hazırlanan programın önündeki en önemli engellerden biri, sosyal bilgileri öğretme işini, programı tam olarak anlayamamış öğretmenlerin eline bırakılmış olmasıdır. bu tür öğretmen profilinin varlığı programın etkili ve başarılı olarak hayata geçirilmesinin önünde çok ciddi bir engel teşkil etmektedir. yapılan araştırmalar programın ilerlemeci-çağa uygun yapısı ve felsefesine rağmen öğretmen uygulamalarının aynı paralelikle olmadığını göstermektedir (tuncer, 1998). aslında uzun bir dönem geleneksel yaklaşım ile öğretmen merkezli bir sisteme bülent tarman & i̇smail acun 11 göre yetişmiş eğitimcilerin bir anda yapılandırmacı yaklaşımın gereklerine uygun bir sistemi uygulamalarını beklemek çok gerçekci olmayacaktır. bu da bizi daha önce sözünü ettiğimiz kısa, orta ve uzun vadeli sistematik bir planlama yapılmasısın zaruriyeti noktasına getirmektedir. bu planlama dahilinde çok önemle ele alınması gereken ve kapsamlı bir çalışma yapılmasını gerektiren bir diğer sorun, gerek i̇lköğretim programı gerekse lisans programı için sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı standartlarının geliştirilmesidir. 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler programı için standartlar geliştirilmesinin gerektiğini vurgulayan ve bu standartların fakültelerde uygulanmasına ilişkin akademisyen, öğretmen ve öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerini inceleyen çalışmada, katılımcıların “amaçları davranışa dönüştürmenin gereğine inanmadıkları, amaçların öğrenciye nasıl kazandırılacağı ve bunların nasıl değerlendirileceği konusunda eksiklikleri olduğu” sonucuna varılmıştır (taş, 2004). sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni yetiştiren kurumların iyi donanımlı akademik kadro ihtiyacının karşılanmasında görülen yetersizliklerin yanısıra, yapılandırmacı yaklaşıma uygun sınıf veya öğrenme ortamının oluşturulmasında da eksiklikler vardır. eğitim ve öğretim faaliyetlerinin daha etkili yürütülebilmesi ve çağın gerektirdiği teknolojik gelişmelerin farkında olan ve bunları etkili bir şekilde kullanabilen öğretmen adaylarının yetiştirilebilmesi için altyapısal bir düzenleme gerekmektedir. bu altyapısal düzenlemenin başında fiziksel mekanların daha işlevsel bir duruma dönüştürülmesi için gerekenler ele alınmalıdır. sosyal bilgiler laboratuarlarının kurulması ve tüm dersliklerin yeniden düzenlenmesi bu bağlamda ele alınması gereken bir konudur (tarman, 2010). fakültelerin sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği anabilim dallarındaki sınıflarda geleneksel anlatım veya sunum yöntemine uygun olarak herkesin dersin hocasına bakmasını sağlayacak bir sınıf oturma düzeni vardır. sınıfların fiziksel tasarımı, öğrencilerin aktif olmasını, birbirleriyle ve dersin hocasıyla etkileşimini gerektiren grup çalışması ve tartışma gibi yapılandırmacı yaklaşıma dayalı öğrencimerkezli öğretim yöntemlerinin etkili bir şekilde uygulanmasına imkan vermemektedir. bu nedenle yukarıda da işaret edildiği gibi dersliklerin oturma düzenine ilave olarak öğretim materyal, araç-gereç ve teknolojileri de yapılandırmacı yaklaşımın gerektirdiği seviyede değildir. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 1-16 12 sonuç ve öneriler bu kısımda gerek abd’de ortaya çıkan yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin analizi ile edinilen bilgiler ve gerekse türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler öğretimini güçlendirmek için ortaya koymaya çalışılan fikirler doğrultusunda alanı geliştirmek maksadıyla, burada sadece yapılması gerekenler sıralanmakla kalmayıp, bunlardan nelerin yapılmaya başlandığını da belirtilecektir. türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler eğitimini geliştirmeye yönelik yapılması gerekenler: 1abd’deki amerikan sosyal bilgiler ulusal konseyi (ncss) gibi işlevsel ulusal kapsamlı bir sosyal bilgiler eğitimi birliği (association) kurulmalı ve tüm sosyal bilimcilerin bu birliğe üye olmaları teşvik edilmelidir. demokratik ve hiyerarşik olmayan bir yönetişim anlayışı benimsenmelidir. alt komisyonlar kurularak uzmanlık alanları geliştirilerek desteklenmelidir. böylece aynı alanda araştırma ve çalışma yapan akademisyenler bir araya gelerek ve fikir alış verişini hızlandırarak yeni ortak projeler üretebilmelidir. bu ihtiyacın giderilmesi yönünde önemli bir adım atılarak sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği (sbeb) adında bir dernek kurulmuş bulunmaktadır liderliğini prof. dr. cemil öztürk’ün yaptığı ve hepsi sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde uzman olan dernek mensupları dünyada alandaki gelişmeleri takip edecek bilgi ve tecrübeye sahiptirler. bu da yıllardır giderilmesine ihtiyaç duyulan konular noktasında önemli bir adımdır. 2 aynı zamanda akademik ve bilimsel araştırmaların ve tartışmaları yapılabilmesi için bir akademik platform olan sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları adı altında bir yayın organı da oluşturulmuş. bu dernek aracılığı ile tüm alan uzmanlarının bir araya gelerek türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin çalışma ve araştırma alanları tespit edilerek herkesin mutabık kalabileceği bir çerçeve geliştirilerek alanın sınırları belirlenmeye çalışılacaktır (sbeb, 2010). bilindiği gibi onlarca yıl benzer sorunları yaşayan abd bu sorunu ncss gibi bir birliği kurarak aşabilmiştir. aslında bu birlik, massialas’ın işaret ettiği yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi’ndeki kuramsal altyapının oluşturulamaması sorununu ortadan kaldırmıştır. hatta tanımı hususunda bile üzerinde geniş katılımlı bir mutabakatın sağlanamadığı “sosyal bilgileri” net bir bülent tarman & i̇smail acun 13 şekilde tanımlayarak alanın sınırlarını ve standartlarını tespit etmiştir. böylece bu ulusal düzeyde kurulan birlik (ncss), sosyal bilgiler alanında yaşanılan kavram karmaşasına son vererek bir anlamda alan uzmanlarının tartışmalarını daha düzeyli ve verimli hale taşıyabilmiştir. türkiye’de de sbeb ile yapılması planlanan en önemli işlerden birisi ülke çapında geniş katılımlı bir hareket meydana getirerek sosyal bilgiler öğretimi standartlarının oluşturulması ve yaşanılan kavramsal karmaşalara son verilmesini sağlamaktır (sbeb, 2010). 3düzenli bir şekilde her yıl farklı bölgelerde bilimsel toplantılar düzenlenmelidir. sempozyum, konferans ve çalıştay gibi bilimsel toplantılar, bilimsel bilginin yayılımında olduğu kadar, araştırma ve eğitim-öğretim açısından etkili bir ağ oluşturulması için platform görevi yapacaktır. 4yüksek lisans ve doktora ögrencilerinin araştırmalarını bu konferanslarda sunma fırsatının verilmelidir. 5sosyal bilgiler eğitimi anabilim dalında bulunan öğretim üyelerini içine alan bir elektronik posta ağının oluşturulması ve web ortamında sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ile ilgili farklı düşüncelerin rahat bir şekilde tartışılmasına imkan sağlanmalıdır. yapısal ve sistemsel sorunlar yukarıda sözünü ettiğimiz konferans, panel veya çalıştaylarda masaya yatırlarak sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin standartları ve sınırları belirlenmelidir. alanın sınırlarının tepit edildiği bir akademik çerçeveye ihtiyacı olduğu ve bunun için milli eğitim bakanlığı (meb) ve yüksek öğretim kurumu (yök)’ün sıkı bir işbirliği yapmalarının gerekliliği anlatılmalıdır. 6yetişmiş kaliteli insan gücü ile alakalı sorunların nasıl aşılacağı ortaya konulmalıdır. 7gelenekselci zihniyet veya zihinsel yapının değişmesi için köklü, sistematik ve uzun soluklu bir reform hareketinin planlanması gereklidir. 8kuram ve uygulama boyutundaki sorunlara yönelik nitel ve nicel araştırmalar yapılmalıdır. yukarıda sıralanan maddelerin her birini kapsamlı bir şekilde irdeleyecek araştırmalar ve bu araştırmaların sonuçlarına dayalı planlamalar yapılmalıdır. sonuç olarak, burada sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin türkiye’de güçlendirilmesi maksadıyla neler journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 1-16 14 yapılması gerektiği ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. ayrıca dünyadaki gelişmeleri yakından takip ederek, yeni bir sosyal bilgiler hareketine türkiye’de duyulan ihtiyaca dikkatleri çekerek, ülke çapında bilimsel araştırma ve tartışmaların yoğunlaştırılması hedeflenmiştir. bu nedenle 1960’larda abd’de başlatılan hareketin analizi yapılarak benzer hatalara düşülmemesi ve planlı bir hareketin başlatılabilmesi hususunda vizyon ve yol haritası belirlenmesi için adım atılmak istenmiştir. kaynakça / references ata, b. (2009). sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı. c. öztürk (ed.). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi. 34-47. pegema: ankara. aksoy, b., sönmez, f., merey, z. & kaymakçı, s. (2009). sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında yapılan yüksek lisans ve doktora tezlerinin değerlendirilmesi. iv. sosyal bilimler eğitimi kongresi, i̇stanbul: meb ve marmara üniversitesi. demircioğlu, i̇. h. (2004). tarih ve coğrafya öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilimler öğretiminin amaçlarına yönelik görüşleri (doğu karadeniz bölgesi örneği). bilig, 31,71-84. demircioğlu, i̇. h. (2006). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının sosyal bilimler hakkındaki görüşleri. kastamonu eğitim dergisi, 14(1), 161-172. dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education. new york: free press. engle, s. h. (1960). decision-making: the heart of social studies instruction. social education, 24, (7), 301–304. fenton, e. (1991). reflections on the “new social studies.” the social studies, 82 (may-june) 84-90. geçit, y. (2010). sosyal bilgiler eğitimi “öğretim programları konulu çalışmalar” üzerine bir araştırma”, 9. ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği eğitimi sempozyumu (20 22 mayıs), elazığ, 50-55. goodlad, j. (1984). a place called school. new york: mcgraw-hill. massialas, b.g.(2009). the new social studies: retrospect and prospect. the social studies, november/december, 246-250 massialas, b. g. (ed.). (1963). the indiana experiments in inquiry: social studies. bulletin of the school of education, indiana university, 39 (3). bülent tarman & i̇smail acun 15 massialas, b.g. & zevin, j. (1967). creative encounters in the classrooms: teaching and learning through discovery. new york. 1983. malabar, fl., robert e. krieger publishing. massialas, b.g. & zevin, j. (1969; 1970). world history through inquiry, a series of nine books. chicago: randy mcnally. massialas, b.g.(1989). the inevitability of issue-centered discourse. the social studies, 80 (5), 73-75. oruç, ş. & ulusoy, k. (2008). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi alanında yapılan tez çalışmaları. selçuk üniversitesi ahmet keleşoğlu eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 26, 121-132. sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği (sbeb) (2010). sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği misyon ve vizyonu. retrieved september 12 2010 from http://www.sosyalbilgiler.org. öztürk, c. (2009). sosyal bilgiler: toplumsal yaşama disiplinlerarası bir bakış, cemil öztürk (ed.). sosyal bilgiler öğretimi, 1–28. ankara: pegema yayınları. safran, m. (2004). i̇lköğretim programlarında yeni yaklaşımlar: sosyal bilgiler. bilim ve aklın aydınlığında eğitim dergisi, 5 (54-55). şahin, m., göğebakan, d. & duman, r. (2009). türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler eğitimi tezleri üzerine bir değerlendirme. iv. sosyal bilimler eğitimi kongresi, i̇stanbul: meb ve marmara üniversitesi. tarman, b. (2010). sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde sosyal bilgiler labaratuarlarının yeri ve önemi, r. turan, a. m. sünbül, h. akdağ (ed.). sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde yeni yaklaşımlar ii. ankara: maya akademi yayınları. tarman, b., acun i̇. & yüksel, z. (2010). sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanındaki tezlerin değerlendirilmesi, gaziantep üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 9, (3), 725746. taş, a. m. (2004). sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği eğitimi program standartlarının belirlenmesi. ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi dergisi, 37(1), 2854. yılmaz, k. (2008). social studies teachers’ views of learner-centered instruction. european journal of teacher education, 31(1), 35-53. http://www.sosyalbilgiler.org/� journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 1-16 16 yılmaz, k. (2009). lisans düzeyinde sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde karşılaşılan sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri: öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri. ondokuz mayıs üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 27, 31-53. öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersi ödevlerine yönelik tutumlarının ölçülmesi: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(2), 1-26 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 hidden in plain sight: preservice teachers’ orientations toward inquirybased learning in history anthony m. pellegrino1 and jessica kilday2 abstract in order to implement models of reform-based history education in the classroom there is a fundamental need to address preservice and practicing teachers’ understanding of learning and teaching history, mindful of the role inquiry must play in the process. the project described in this paper employed a comparative case design to explore how prospective social studies educators perceived inquiry-based instruction and the extent to which it aligned with relevant history education for middle and secondary students. results suggest that the process undertaken by the independent inquiry group may have an implicit impact on shaping how preservice teachers understand inquiry. yet these preservice teachers included more inquiry-based activities in lesson plan products analyzed as part of this project. after the implementation of both means of learning about historical inquiry, many remained conflicted about what the ideal model of inquiry represents for student learning and at what ability level students are capable of engaging in inquiry in social studies. keywords: preservice teacher education, inquiry-based instruction, history education, teacher education over the last half century, social studies pedagogy has evolved to reflect ways of knowing and thinking in the disciplines (farley, 2009; vansledright, 2009), to support literacy skills that promote historical thinking (wineburg, 2001; wineburg, martin & monte-sano, 2011), and as an opportunity to incorporate a process of inquiry that will sustain multidisciplinary learning beyond secondary school (common core state standards initiative, 2010; council of chief state school officers, 2012 national center for history in schools, 1996; national council for the social studies, 2013). inquiry has, in fact, become the central theme anchoring the national council for the social studies’ (ncss) c3 framework (national council for the social studies, 2013). an inquiry approach in social studies helps teachers to, as freire notes, “provoke the discovering of need for knowing and never to impose the knowledge whose need was not yet perceived” (bell, gaventa, & peters, eds., 1990, p. 66). of course, in the process of pedagogical evolution, however effective or necessary, a number of challenges manifest and must be negotiated to facilitate theory into practice. in order to implement models of reform-based social studies education in the classroom there is a fundamental need to address preservice and practicing teachers’ understanding of learning and teaching history, mindful of the role inquiry must play in the process (national council for the social studies, 2013). in recent decades, research has provided rich qualitative descriptions of students’ abilities to think historically (lee & ashby, 2000; wineburg, 2001; vansledright, 2000) and case studies offer evidence of successful implementations of inquiry-based projects (ching yang, 2009; guccione, 2011; hernandez-ramos, 2009). lacking however, is sufficient research on developing teacher candidate capacity for making informed instructional decisions in social studies (adler, 2008), which are grounded in what we know about teaching and learning (williamson mcdiarmid & clenvenger-bright, 2008), and supportive of the ncss framework. the 1 george mason university 2 george mason university journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 2 project described in this paper contributes to social studies teacher education scholarship by exploring how prospective social studies educators perceived inquiry-based history instruction and the extent to which it aligned with relevant history education for middle and secondary students. conceptual framework and review of literature framing our study was the conceptual nature of inquiry and how teacher development in the area of inquiry facilitates exploration and utilization of inquiry as an instructional method. we looked to the national research council (2000) which, in their report titled how people learn, emphasized that: teachers must come to teaching with the experience of in-depth study of the subject area themselves. before a teacher can develop powerful pedagogical tools, he or she must be familiar with the progress of inquiry and the terms of discourse in the discipline, as well as understand the relationship between information and the concepts that help organize that information in the discipline. (p. 20) the preservice teachers with whom we worked in this project were simultaneously engaging in the study of history content through inquiry while learning about instructional design models to incorporate in their teaching for middle and secondary social studies students. from this project we call attention to preservice teacher education in the transition from learner to instructor specific to inquiry-based instruction. theoretical perspectives on teachers’ conceptions of inquiry pedagogy preservice teacher education is often used as a setting to understand changes (or lack thereof) in teacher beliefs about good instruction (gregoire-gill, ashton, & algina, 2004; holt-reynolds, 1992; salisbury-glennon & stevens, 1999). holt-reynolds (1992) investigated the interactive role of preservice teachers’ pre-existing beliefs, referred to as lay theories about teaching and learning, which were firmly grounded in students’ own experiences as students in k-12 classrooms. from in-depth interviews with these preservice teachers, she elaborated on the likelihood of students’ personal experience to preempt research pedagogical based practices. students’ firmly believed that a single case analysis of their own experience was more generalizable to teaching practice than the empirically derived theories with which they were presented. this finding provides a rationale from which to investigate preservice teachers’ domain-specific beliefs regarding teaching practices in the social studies. in order to support teacher change in instructional practice, it is first necessary to recognize their initial and mis-conceptions to more effectively refute existing beliefs (holt-reynolds, 1992; salisbury-glennon & stevens, 1999). salisbury-glennon and stevens (1999) for example found that a historically progressive refutation of preservice teachers’ conceptions of intrinsic motivation had a more long-term effect on their knowledge and practice. yet still, much of the research on preservice teachers’ conceptions stems from preservice teacher education in math (gregoire-gill, et al., 2004) or science (windschitl & thompson, 2006). wineburg (2001) was one of the first theorists from a cognitive psychology perspective to recognize the very process of historical inquiry as an unnatural act. in his qualitative investigations of teacher and student beliefs about history instruction, he found the strongly embedded belief that knowing and learning history fundamentally entails memorization of facts (wineburg, 2001). preservice teacher educators, particularly in the anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 3 social studies, may do well to refer to conceptual change research to examine the pathway by which teachers may attempt to reevaluate their understanding of history teaching. in alignment with the piagetian theory of assimilation and accommodation, posner, strike, hewson, and gertzog (1982) posited a four-component model for conceptual change, which they tested regarding college physics students’ understanding of scientific theory. according to this model, one must first be dissatisfied or recognize some cognitive discord in his or her present beliefs. once this is recognized, there must be an alternative that is comprehensible, reasonable, and have lasting potential benefits and opportunities for extension (posner et al., 1982). adding to this model of conceptual change, pintrich, marx, and boyle (1993) proposed that one’s cognitive conceptions are equally preceded by individual motivation and one’s interaction with the classroom context (e.g. teacher and peers), which mediate his ability to accommodate new with existing ideas. in this context, research in social studies teacher education must be attentive to these conditions when examining the perspectives of preservice teacher educators. further, the conceptual framework detailing the state of research on historical inquiry sets the stage from which to compare preservice teachers’ perspectives and motivations regarding inquiry instruction. such an exploratory analysis with this juxtaposition may delineate conditions or barriers to preservice teachers’ conceptual and practical inclinations toward inquiry pedagogy. the process of inquiry in pedagogy and design pedagogically speaking, inquiry has modern curricular roots in learning theory from dewey’s (1910) reflections on systematic thinking and inductive reasoning to bruner’s (1961/2006) and vygotsky’s (1962) ideas about purposeful, self-directed discovery. broadly, inquiry-based learning emerged from research which suggests that learning by seeking information through questioning heightens student interest and allows for creative investigations and deep analysis (rone, 2008). kuhn, black, keselman, and kaplan (2000) defined inquiry as “an educational activity, in which students individually or collectively investigate a set of phenomena –virtual or real – and draw conclusions about it” (pp. 497-498). inquiry-oriented curricula have been incorporated into the schools and classrooms for several decades, and much of the research that has come from these classrooms suggests greater student engagement and learning as a result of inquiry-based instruction (foster & padgett 1999; fragnoli 2006). in his synthesis of meta-analyses of teaching approaches for example, hattie (2008) found that inquiry-based teaching practices in science positively affect student learning of processes and skills. inquiry-based learning in history and social studies classrooms. situated within this context, the framework for inquiry in the social studies as recently outlined by the national council for the social studies c3 framework (2013) focuses on an “inquiry-arc” whereby teachers construct lessons and activities around “compelling questions.” acknowledged in the ncss framework are the connections this focus on inquiry in social studies makes to four specific dimensions that define the process of investigation. these include “(1) developing questions and planning investigations, (2) applying disciplinary concepts and tools, (3) gathering and evaluating evidence, and (4) working collaboratively and communicating conclusions” (council of chief state school officers, 2012, p. 5). although these guidelines are associated with the recent ncss c3 framework and the common core standards, like other disciplines, history classrooms have known inquiry models for several decades (fenton, 1991) and have employed journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 4 processes akin to these in an effort to engage students in learning social studies content in ways that are more relevant and consequently more meaningful in the minds of learners. beginning in the 1960s, federally funded social studies projects, which were grounded in inquiry, proliferated (evans, 2011). even while many of these programs were unable to demonstrate impact on student outcomes and were in part flawed in their adherence to inquiry-based learning, their legacy continues to affect research on student learning in social studies (evans, 2011). one prominent example was the nutfeld foundation sponsored experimental inquiry-based social studies curricula, which allowed students opportunities to investigate historical evidence and practice inductive reasoning skills as they examined primary and secondary source evidence such as images and cultural artifacts to draw inferences and conclusions about the past. students in these classrooms not only demonstrated more nuanced understanding of the past but also achieved higher scores on fact-based knowledge assessments (fenton 1991; rogers 1968). the pedagogy that grounded the nutfeld foundation’s work aligns closely with elements of historical thinking which more recently has focused on students’ development of habits of mind that propel them into issues-analysis and decision making, often stemming from student queries (drake & nelson, 2005). in current history education scholarship, inquiry is characterized in part as “doing” history where students develop and respond to queries about people, events and phenomena of the past through a cyclical process that engages primary and secondary sources to formulate evidence-based interpretations (barton & levstik, 2001; doolittle, hicks, & ewing, 2004). as a means to facilitate student learning, husbands (1996), asserted that inquirybased historical analysis ought to be central to any historical examination allowing students to discern from multiple perspectives the nature of historical events or eras. bain (2005) further suggested that instead of eschewing inquiry-based approaches in history instruction, “placing inquiry in the heart of education” was the most appropriate way for students to learn about the past (p. 180) and encourage them to more expertly access and apply knowledge to novel situations (bransford, brown & cocking 2005). although inquiry-based instruction offers compelling opportunities for students to learn history in ways that are more relevant and applicable to their lives and prior knowledge, it poses significant challenges to teachers and their students. kirschner, sweller and clark (2006) lambasted inquiry related instructional practice as unfounded in terms of how students learn best. in their review of “human cognitive architecture” (p. 76), these researchers noted that minimal guidance exerted by a teacher may not have any desired learning effect for students whose prior knowledge and experience is limited. specifically too, developing lessons where student inquiry is employed requires more adept and frequent assessment to monitor and measure student learning—a paradigm with which many teachers struggle (lesh & doerr, 2003). as well, students learning in a standards-based environment are often far more familiar with convergent thinking rather than interpreting and formulating responses to queries which have no “right” answer (abrams, southerland & evans, 2008). challenging students to put aside those expectations takes patience and practice. likewise, since teachers are increasingly evaluated on their students’ performance on standardized assessments, which to this point require little higher-order thinking skills, there might be less appetite to employ inquirybased practice. and finally, since most teachers learned history through traditional teachercentered instructional models, their familiarity with inquiry-based learning is likely minimal. to them, direct instruction is what they commonly saw as history students and is what they continue to see in their field experiences (levine, 2006). as teacher educators consider the extent to which inquiry-based learning should be part of their methods anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 5 curricula, both the intriguing potential of inquiry-driven learning and the contextual challenges therein must be taken into account. inquiry and teacher development providing understanding of and experiences with inquiry-based practice is critical to teacher development particularly when beginning teachers are challenged to engage students in the content in which they specialize while ensuring that students, who are not likely disposed to enjoying history, are successful on standardized assessments. teacher educators must be aware that most prospective teachers will begin their careers in those circumstances. they will have to navigate the challenges of balancing the theory and scholarship of social studies education that typically exalts a constructivist approach to learning with the political realities of a school system focused on student assessment data as a means to demonstrate student and teacher achievement. that tension is played out often in teacher preparation classrooms where teacher candidates note a persistent disunion of coursework and what they encounter in clinical practice (levine, 2006). likewise, this discord is evident in researchers’ attempts to provide rich descriptions of preservice teachers’ transition to their first years teaching and to design interventions that support inquiry-based instruction. kang, bianchini, and kelly (2013) recently explored this transition from a sociocultural perspective, which they referred to as “border crossing” (p. 428). using this framework, they asserted that preservice teachers move between two cultures (student and teacher) with distinctly different ways of approaching and understanding their discipline. further, they describe the complexity of this transition. kang et al.’s (2013) case study, incorporating a 10-week science inquiry investigation in a methods course, followed the transition of eight preservice teachers. in their analysis, four themes emerged to categorize teachers involved in this transition, including: (1) traditional teachers, (2) teacher of inquiry in theory rather than practice, (3) teacher of inquiry but with questions, and (4) inquiry-oriented. all of the teachers from the intervention were placed in categories 3 and 4. the researchers discovered that specific aspects of inquiry did not strongly crossover from student to teacher of inquiry. that is, the peer review component was least mentioned in their ideas about teaching inquiry. these findings are specific to preservice teachers’ understanding of inquiry in science. however, it is also important to recognize that, regardless of teaching domain, there may be differences in how preservice teachers “cross the border” between theory and practice. longitudinal studies likewise highlight the transitional role of teacher preparation coursework in developing preservice teachers’ understanding and application of historical inquiry and social studies methods in their teaching. a program design that incorporates adolescent development, for example, has revealed significant long-term differences in teachers’ beliefs about their students’ ability to think critically (conklin, 2010) – a belief that is fundamental to the teaching of inquiry. yeager and wilson (1997) found, however, that even when preservice teachers’ are exposed to the nature of historical inquiry in methods courses, there is great variance in how they understand its application given students’ maturity level and the perceived need for classroom control in clinical practice. these cases highlight the significance of teachers’ pre-existing beliefs in their incorporation of theory to instruction. research design attending to the stark contrasts in preservice teachers’ experiences from learner to instructor, as well as the empirical theory-based practices that are encouraged throughout journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 6 their college education coursework, there is an immediate challenge for those involved in preparing social studies teachers. preservice teacher educators must enjoin the scholarship of inquiry-based instruction with the practical possibilities of doing so in k-12 classrooms. given the broadly defined scope and application of inquiry in learning and teaching, systematic research that explores how methodological means of instruction shapes teachers’ understanding and approach to inquiry models in their teaching may serve to provide insight on how teachers form beliefs about the practice of inquiry instruction. such comparative analysis is generally lacking in social studies education literature, though the transition period is documented across disciplines (kang, et al., 2013; yeager & wilson, 1997). in some cases, preservice teachers have not been exposed to a variety of inquiry models in their own learning, and their teacher education programs may be their first formal experience with instructional design that incorporates inquiry. it is, therefore, the responsibility of teacher preparation programs to expose teacher candidates to such models as part of teacher development in ways that address implementation in k-12 classrooms. in exposing these models, preservice teachers will accommodate new instructional strategies based on their current conceptions of inquiry pedagogy. if preservice teachers are not dissatisfied with how they have come to understand history, then an integration of these theories in practice is far less likely (holt-reynolds, 1992; salisbury-glennon & stevens, 1999). to that end, the purpose of this research is to elucidate teachers’ perceptions and inclinations toward inquiry-based learning in the middle and secondary history classroom given contrasting instructional methodologies to compare how preservice teachers make adaptations to their beliefs. specifically, we examine how two groups in a social studies teacher preparation course viewed inquiry-based instruction as effective for middle and secondary students. we chose two modes of inquiry by which to compare preservice teacher beliefs in order to be able to contrast the likelihood of activating cognitive discord regarding teacher beliefs. preservice teachers’ also were asked to align these approaches with their own goals for history instruction by elaborating on how these models have applications for their own teaching. including comparative cases increased the likelihood of detecting how preservice teachers’ calibrated contrasting ideas with their existing conceptions and goals. the division of the two groups is detailed in the following methods section. however, a core component to the study design was the inclusion of online modules designed to induce historical inquiry by presenting an unidentified object in u.s. history. the modules were selected from an online course, hidden in plain sight. although the course was designed at the researchers’ university affiliation, it was created independently from the college of education. rather, it was designed in collaboration among history professors, social studies education researchers, and with pilot test feedback from practicing teachers in the interest of making historical inquiry strategies more accessible to practicing k-12 educators. this overall conceptual frame and research design, including the process of inquiry incorporated in hidden in plain sight, is outlined in figure 1. anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 7 figure 1: conceptual frame and research design instructional design teacher directed student directed more specifically, the following research questions will be explored: 1. how does methodological means of instruction in teacher preparation coursework impact preservice teachers’ ideas about inquiry learning as instructional practice in history? 2. what patterns emerge in preservice teachers’ discussion of the challenges and utility of inquiry instruction in history? methods participants this study is a mixed-methods action research project using comparative cases. the participants were purposefully sampled from a social studies methods course that was part of a large mid-atlantic university graduate program for secondary (grades 6-12) education in which candidates are prepared for 6-12 social studies licensure. the course in which the investigation took place is the first course in the graduate program that links theories of learning and instruction with history content for middle and secondary classrooms. this sample and context allowed the investigation to focus specifically on inquiry as it related to social studies teaching. participation in the study was voluntary and fifteen of the sixteen process of historical inquiry directed inquiry group (b) instruction independent inquiry group (a) instruction journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 8 students registered for the course agreed to participate. in this sample, 36% were female and 64% were male. forty-three percent of these students were between the ages of 26 and 35, while 38% were between 21 and 25 years old, and 21% between the ages of 36 and 45. since the course was part of a licensure program, only one student had any full time teaching experience, while others had experience as substitute teachers or teaching assistants. all of the participants had undergraduate degrees in the social sciences. eleven majored in history, four in government and one in international affairs. in the project, one researcher also served as the course instructor. this researcher was responsible for the delivery of procedural instructions for assignments, obtaining consent, and leading direct instruction about inquiry methodological content to students in the comparison group. a second researcher, uninvolved with course instruction or administration, orchestrated student access to the online inquiry modules, collected student data from surveys, student responses in modules, and recorded observations in class discussions. this researcher also coded all of the identifying information so that the course instructor was not bias to student responses. students did not know the research questions at the outset of the project, and the researchers took care to ensure all participants that responses would not affect course grades or status in any way. this was done verbally as the project was introduced and included on consent forms. as we approached the project commencement, the class was randomly divided into two groups in order to investigate how methodological means of instruction elicited preservice teachers’ ideas. the independent inquiry group (a) learned about inquiry instruction through their own research, participation in an online historical inquiry module, their own presentation on inquiry instruction to peers, and a concluding module with accompanying reflection on inquiry instruction. the directed inquiry group (b) learned about inquiry through direct instruction from the course instructor and from peers via class discussion. in the week following direct instruction, these students also completed the same online historical inquiry module with a final reflection on inquiry instruction. and as a comparative data source, we examined student lesson plan products produced by all students in both groups. the lesson plan assignment included no explicit direction of instructional strategies to employ. rather teacher candidates were tasked to develop lessons that addressed state and local standards and themes, and were grade-level appropriate in terms of content and complexity. the lesson plans were submitted near the end of the semester and were content analyzed— after final course grades were submitted—for inclusion of inquiry-based strategies. instructional procedures inquiry instruction was introduced in the second half of the semester. therefore, students had equal grounding in social studies teaching methods, the ideas of historical thinking, and the general tenets of historical cognition based on course readings of barton (2011), wineburg (2001), stearns (1998), vansledright, and others. furthermore, students had some (<15 hours) practicum experience in secondary social studies classrooms by this time. however, each group of students learned about inquiry as an instructional approach in a fundamentally different way. the following is a description of the instructional methodologies implemented with the two groups of preservice teachers. independent inquiry (a): hidden in plain sight. group a consisted of seven preservice teachers who researched inquiry instruction and who participated in two online modules from a course designed for social studies teachers called hidden in plain sight. this course was chosen specifically for its inquiry-based design and content aligned with state standards and the ncss framework—both of which are familiar and important to anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 9 these preservice teachers. the focus of the intervention was on preservice teachers’ practice of historical inquiry through this online experiential model. although students also conducted independent research on inquiry instruction, this was part of a separate project that was regularly incorporated in the social studies methods course. members of this group were tasked with developing a presentation to the class on inquiry-based instruction. this presentation was assessed on content presented and presentation effectiveness. for their part in this assessment, the remaining members of the class researched instructional strategies including cooperative learning and direct instruction and were similarly assessed. central to group a’s participation in the project was their exposure to the hidden in plain sight course, which currently includes 13-modules that span different periods in u.s. history beginning in the 17th century and continuing through the 20th century. each module centers on an everyday object that is “hidden in plain sight” and requires that users hypothesize and investigate how this object is significant to u.s. history. on closer examination, connections between these objects with broader themes in american history become evident. for this project, we selected two modules, chosen for their attention to a wide range of u.s. history topics and time periods. preservice teachers in this group first completed a module on the invention of the dishwasher and its role in contemporary u.s. history. following group presentations, in a later class session, these preservice teachers completed an additional module on the significance of the manufactured nail to u.s. history, which emphasized early u.s. expansion. each module in the hidden in plain sight course is built with the same structural design and follows a model of inquiry consistent with social studies and common core standards and the scientific method of generating a hypothesis and accumulating data to “test” that hypothesis before reaching an evidence-based conclusion. at each module, students are first presented with an image of an object and asked to craft a short hypothesis that notes observations and predicts the broader contributions of the object to history (see figure 2). next, students proceed to a resources page containing twelve supplementary items, which they are able to explore to the extent that serves their interest. these include primary and secondary source documents, images and multimedia enrichments. these resources help to place the object in historical context. to review background knowledge, students are asked to complete a five-question quiz before proceeding to a “rethink” page. on this page, students are given the opportunity to review their initial hypotheses and reflect on how their ideas about the object may have changed. students are also asked to write a revised hypothesis that incorporates the knowledge they have gained from the supplemental resources before reading the conclusions about the object’s role in history. finally, students write about how they will apply what they have learned from the process or content in their teaching. on the wrap-up page, students have the option to read one another’s revised hypotheses and ideas about classroom applications that were drawn from the content of the module and the model of historical inquiry. teacher-directed inquiry (b): eight preservice teachers were assigned to group b and learned about inquiry largely through direct instruction. the teacher-directed instruction was incorporated into a class session that lasted approximately thirty minutes. the idea of inquiry learning was introduced through an initial presentation of a wellknown painting from the period of westward expansion – “american progress,” (crofutt, 1872). through a teacher-led lecture, inquiry learning was described as a constructivist approach based around a question, artifact or source in which learning is built on a process similar to the scientific method. preservice teachers in this group learned that the expectations for students in this model are to form hypotheses, collect data, analyze and interpret data, and draw conclusions, while the role of the teacher is as coach and journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 10 facilitator. the final segment of this instruction included focus on historical analysis and connections to tenets of historical thinking. during this initial class session, preservice teachers described what they saw in the painting and were occasionally prompted to reflect on what is needed for teachers to employ inquiry-based learning and what examples support student inquiry. the questions presented were largely convergent in nature, but often prompted students to reflect on their experiences in history classrooms. the responses revealed some of these preservice teachers’ perceptions regarding inquiry instruction that had been formed through prior experience and in direct instruction. figure 2: hypothesis page from the historical inquiry module in a subsequent class session, preservice teachers’ peers from the independent inquiry group (a) presented their ideas about inquiry in a similar direct instruction format. this presentation included various inquiry models, information about the spectrum of inquiry from open-ended to teacher-guided and the centrality of investigation and research to the inquiry process. there were no opportunities for preservice teachers in the teacherdirected inquiry group (b) to participate in an inquiry model prior to completing the post surveys. in the final class session, all preservice teachers completed a hidden in plain sight module on the role of the manufactured nail in history before writing reflections on inquiry instruction and their inclinations to incorporate this method of instruction in their own teaching. data collection data were collected in the fall 2012 semester. first, all students completed a presurvey to obtain demographic information, quantitative ratings, and qualitative descriptions of teachers’ ideas about the utility and challenges of inquiry learning. near the end of the next class session, students assigned to the independent inquiry group (a) were dismissed to complete an online module from hidden in plain sight, while those in the teacherdirected inquiry group (b) remained for the aforementioned period of direct instruction on historical inquiry. following this introduction, and in the following week, preservice anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 11 teachers in group a presented their research on inquiry instruction to those in group b. the co-researcher recorded qualitative field notes from each of these class sessions, totaling approximately 120 minutes. the field notes were used to record preservice teachers’ statements regarding inquiry instruction, as well as describe reactions and interactions between students discussing the utility and challenges of instructional methodologies for teaching social studies. observer comments also reflected on individual variations in preservice teachers’ ideas about inquiry instruction. all preservice teachers then completed an identical concluding survey as a post-assessment that was administered prior to group b completing an online module from hidden in plain sight. the preservice teachers composed reflective journal entries following these experiences. the lesson plans were submitted during the penultimate week of the course and subsequently analyzed attentive to learning objectives, instructional activities and assessment frameworks. quantitative measures. the preand post-survey contained items that were divided into three sections to assess preservice teachers’ ratings on the frequency they would plan inquiry lessons, the utility of inquiry lessons, and how challenging they perceive inquiry instruction to be (see appendix). questions in each section asked teachers to provide ratings for each of the following categories: for middle school students, for high school students, for student engagement, for student learning, for their own learning, and for developing historical thinking. all quantitative ratings were assessed on a 4-point scale to encourage participants to take a less neutral stance (creswell, 2008) and because preservice teachers are less likely to have fully developed ideas about instructional practice. in rating the frequency of incorporating inquiry into instruction, preservice teachers selected between 1 (never) and 4 (often), while utility was measured in a similar direction, between 1 (not at all) and 4 (very). when rating challenges however, a lower score indicated a more positive response with 1 anchored at “not challenging” and 4 anchored at “very challenging.” qualitative analysis. the qualitative data were derived from preservice teachers’ responses to open-ended items on the preand post-survey, field notes from observations of class sessions, student work in the online modules, reflective journal entries and lesson plan content. the data were approached inductively; with the purpose of the study to capture preservice teachers’ ideas about instructional practice based on their own learning experiences. therefore, organization codes for all data excluding the lesson plans were generated from the data to categorize various influences on teachers’ instructional practice related to inquiry learning (maxwell, 2005). in doing so, the data were spliced into a total of 251 “data bits” (dey, 1993) and emic codes were identified in the subsequent content analysis (creswell, 2008; maxwell, 2005). analytic memos were used throughout the process to explore patterns as well as areas of divergence between the preservice teachers’ ideas in the independent and teacher-directed inquiry groups. this opportunity for comparison helps to highlight discrepant cases to draw out the interpretation of preservice teachers’ perceptions both related and unrelated to the instructional methods. finally, quasi-statistics from these coding procedures accentuated areas to enrich with details from the participants’ perspectives (maxwell, 2005). content analysis (patton, 2002) was employed in the examination of lesson plans to describe and make inferences about the characteristics of the language used in the lesson objectives, instructional activities and assessment frameworks. since this assignment was common to all students in the course, data examining the instructional strategies, objectives and assessments served as an important comparison for both groups in terms of their perceptions of inquiry as effective practice. in addition to looking for certain terms associated with inquiry found in the lesson plans, we also looked more holistically at each lesson plan and its components for evidence of inquiry. this process was employed to journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 12 better capture student intentions in their planning strategies. taken together, these data sources allowed us to compare how these preservice teachers perceived inquiry-based instructional practice for social studies and sought to include inquiry-oriented activities in their instructional planning. limitations the limitations of this research derive from the research design. patterns found among preservice teachers’ in the independent inquiry group a cannot be attributed to any specific component of the instruction, but rather the overall process of independent research, participation in an historical inquiry model, and presentation to the group. some differences in ideas may have been associated with different components of the instruction. for example, preservice teachers’ group presentation may have included research as an explicit example because that is how they gathered data about inquiry instruction. meanwhile statements in the post-reflections may have been more immediately prompted by their work in the historical inquiry modules, rather than their overall understanding of inquiry learning. there is less information about how these ideas merge to be adapted in different contexts. likewise, the relationship between one of the researchers and the teacher candidates should not be overlooked. although it was made clear participation in this study would not affect assessment in the course, there are risks associated with such a relationships. students may seek to present perspectives aligned with the instructor to gain academic advantage in the course or teacher preparation program. furthermore, the intervention and data collection took place over a relatively short period of time. we relied on preservice teachers’ survey responses, class discussions, work in the inquiry module, and final reflections that may have been more limiting in providing more rich individual details. with data collected for this project it is not possible to make generalizations about preservice teachers’ practice writ large. after the implementation of both means of learning about historical inquiry, many remained conflicted about what the ideal model of inquiry represents for their students’ learning and at what cognitive level students are capable of inquiring. and although lesson plans included instances of inquiry-oriented activities and ideas, which helped us see the extent to which these preservice teachers are willing to use inquiry-oriented activities in lessons, these products were not employed with secondary students and as such cannot be seen as evidence of inquiry-based instruction finding its way into social studies classrooms. findings the quantitative results from this project can be used to address the first research question regarding the differences in preservice teachers’ ideas about inquiry instruction between groups. the means for preservice teachers’ ratings at preand postsurvey are presented in table 1, as well as differences in preservice teachers’ ratings between groups. the differences in preservice teachers’ ratings at pre-test indicate that there is some variance, regardless of the intervention. however, eleven out of eighteen of these ratings are closer to zero at pre-survey than at post-survey, suggesting that differences between groups becomes slightly more pronounced and therefore trends can be interpreted relative to post-survey findings. of the seven that do not follow this pattern, many are categorized as challenges of employing inquiry in instruction or are related to historical inquiry for one’s own learning or developing historical thinking skills. for preservice teachers in both groups, their ratings on the challenges of inquiry instruction suggest that they are becoming anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 13 more confident as they learn more about how to incorporate inquiry in their teaching. yet still, the concentration of negative numbers describing the differences between groups shows that teaching inquiry appears to be somewhat less challenging for preservice teachers more fully exposed to the online model of historical inquiry. table 1: preand postsurvey means for pre-service teachers’ responses, including differences calculated between groups frequency independent inquiry (a) teacher-directed (b) difference1 prepost prepost prepost middle school students 3.00 2.67 3.38 3.00 -.38 -.33 high school students 3.67 3.50 3.75 3.29 -.08 .21 student engagement 3.67 3.83 3.62 3.29 .04 .55 student learning 3.33 3.50 3.38 3.00 -.04 .50 own learning 3.33 3.67 3.50 3.86 -.17 -.19 developing historical thinking 3.17 3.67 3.88 3.43 -.71 .24 utility middle school students 3.50 3.33 3.50 3.14 0.0 .19 high school students 3.83 4.00 3.62 3.43 .21 .57 student engagement 4.00 3.83 3.88 3.57 .12 .26 student learning 3.50 3.83 3.62 3.57 -.12 .26 own learning 3.67 3.83 3.88 3.86 -.21 -.02 developing historical thinking 3.67 3.60 3.88 3.71 -.21 -.11 challenging middle school students 3.17 3.33 3.38 3.57 -.21 -.24 high school students 3.17 3.00 3.00 3.00 .17 0.0 student engagement 2.83 2.67 2.88 2.71 -.04 -.05 student learning 2.83 2.67 3.00 2.71 -.17 -.05 own learning 2.33 2.17 2.38 2.43 -.04 -.26 developing historical thinking 3.00 2.50 2.75 3.00 .25 -.5 1 note: negative numbers indicate that students in group a (intervention group) reported ratings lower than those in group b (comparison group) results from the post-survey provide additional descriptive information about preservice teachers’ ideas about inquiry instruction. noting the brevity of the intervention, these patterns are important given the relative stability in ratings. the means at post-test (see table 1) indicate that preservice teachers in group b would more frequently use this approach with middle school students than those in group a. when assessing how useful inquiry-based learning is, the ratings indicate that preservice teachers believed that it was more useful for high school students than middle school students. these ideas are journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 14 supported in the qualitative data, where preservice teachers frequently mentioned age and maturity-level of students to be an important perquisite for inquiry-based instruction. one preservice teacher in group a mentioned that “it is not useful in age groups where they [students] have a hard time focusing and listening to others,” (a7). another from group a suggested, “students must have enough background knowledge for new information to be pertinent” (a1). table 2: chi-square analysis for independent samples, representing frequency counts for changes in survey ratings. category p frequency increased ratings 1.72 .189 decreased ratings 10.5 .001 utility increased ratings 1.98 .160 decreased ratings 2.55 .110 challenging increased ratings 2.55 .110 decreased ratings .476 .490 patterns suggest that preservice teachers in the group a generally would use inquiry instruction more often than those in the group b. furthermore, these preservice teachers reported that inquiry instruction is more useful for student learning and engagement, regardless of grade-level. one important distinction to note between groups is that preservice teachers in group b rated inquiry to be more often incorporated in their own learning and to be more useful for their own learning and development of historical thinking. this finding suggests that the preservice teachers who did not participate in the inquiry module could have a harder time envisioning how to facilitate inquiry, but perceive it to be an important component to their own learning; a challenge found in research focused on the transition from learner to teacher (kennedy, 1997). in order to capture differences in ratings between groups from pre-/post-tests, frequencies were calculated to explore significant proportionate changes in ratings between groups. items assessing frequency, utility, and level of challenge were collapsed into one category where the number of instances for preservice teachers to report increases or decreases in ratings was equal to the number items (n = 6) multiplied by the number of people who submitted both surveys (n = 13). therefore, the proportional differences were calculated based on n = 78, because one post-survey was not returned. the chi-square statistics for independent samples are reported in table 2. results in table 1 indicate that the only significant difference was found in the number of preservice teachers who decreased their ratings on how frequently they would use inquiry instruction from preto post-survey. a higher percentage of ratings declined among students in the group b than would be expected by chance, . more closely examining the means, it is clear that preservice teachers in group a started with much lower ratings on how frequently they would incorporate inquiry instruction. therefore, preservice teachers in the group b may anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 15 have had a less clear understanding about inquiry instruction prior to coursework and reported ratings overconfidently. although these differences were present from the start, as preservice teachers developed their understanding, direct instruction more significantly impacted ratings in the negative direction than the historical inquiry modules supported preservice teachers’ inclinations positively. the non-significant differences in the remainder of the categories indicate that responses remained relatively stable between groups at each survey administration. the most visible patterns however can be elaborated on based on preservice teachers’ verbal discussions, written reflections about inquiry and in the lesson plans they submitted. central to this study, these qualitative elaborations provide for further speculations regarding how these differences emerged. the idea of inquiry broad categories emerged to group the kinds of ideas that preservice teachers’ talked about when referring to learning and teaching social studies from an inquiry model. these categories served as organizational codes (maxwell, 2005), which are summarized in table 3. within these categories, a number of content codes were assigned to the data using language that was common among preservice teacher responses. for example, when discussing the prerequisites that preservice teachers perceived to be necessary in order for inquiry to be successful, many often cited a strong “foundation” of knowledge, “maturity”, or “motivation.” when referring to the effects of inquiry, preservice teachers most often mentioned student “ownership” and “interest.” the process of assigning such content codes brought attention to key ideas within and between groups. table 3: organizational categories, perceived influences on the implementation of inquiry instruction category definition sample data code freq. a b student prerequisites describes the prerequisites, traits, or behaviors that are needed for the student to engage and learn from inquiry instruction. “it is not useful…when the student does not know enough to ask a question that necessitates inquiry.” 2 1 18 teacher prerequisites describes the prerequisites, traits, or behaviors that teachers need to exhibit or practice in order to use inquiry in their teaching. the teacher needs to trust the students and be confident that students are able to process this idea (b5) 1 11 students do (roles/actions) describes what students do when engaging in inquiry learning. this could be a specific learning task, characteristic that describes the process, or products that may result. “…engaging with primary source material. it requires students to search for answers on their own, and truly wrestle with a text or item.” (a3) 1 2 23 teachers do (roles/actions) describes what teachers do when utilizing inquiry-based instruction. this could be regarding the teacher’s general role in the process or characteristics that describe the process. “to probe” and “to get middle school students to think ‘outside’ the box.” (a4) 1 7 6 effects addresses the outcome, effectiveness, or importance of “allows students to take charge of his/her own learning.” (a2) 9 19 journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 16 inquiry-based learning. classroom context locus of control, elements of the classroom environment or teacherstudent relationships that effect inquiry learning. “inquiry based learning is sometimes hard because you may not have a class that likes to engage and speak in front of one another.” (a7) 1 2 21 academic knowledge addresses the relation between inquiry instruction and academic knowledge. “inquiry based learning could also result in students missing out on some information that might be acquired through a lecture or other teaching method.” (a5) 1 3 9 sources of perceptions statements when teachers attribute their beliefs to various aspects of their educational experience. “i’ve also noticed that in my own educational experience growing up that whenever i had more involvement in the content, i was much more eager to learn.” (b5) 4 15 classroom applications includes teachers’ descriptions of how they would apply what they’ve learned in their teaching. “a nail is such a simple object and something that we have many of lying around at home, so to see it in a historical sense makes a connection between us and the people of the past.” (b2) 1 6 11 affect general sentiments about incorporating inquiry into social studies instruction. “i love the idea, but i’m not sure how much you use it.” (b7) 4 9 although the intervention was relatively short, the form of instruction experienced by preservice teachers in each group revealed some qualitatively different patterns in how preservice teachers focused their attention on the implementation of inquiry instruction in the social studies. differences may be due, in part, to their experience in course instruction over this time. those in group a developed their own understanding of inquiry instruction through research, group collaboration, and experience with the hidden in plain sight modules. meanwhile, preservice teachers in group b were told about inquiry instruction both by the instructor and by their peers. this difference may have led group b to develop a more reactionary stance toward inquiry while the group a may have had more opportunities to assimilate the new information and thus share more classroom application language. at the same time, most preservice teachers tended to have similar descriptions of the challenges and utility of this form of instruction in the secondary classroom, as found in the content codes within the organizational categories. analysis of the lesson plans produced as part of the course echoed suggestions from quantitative data analysis that the preservice teachers with whom we worked on this project were confident as they learn more about how to incorporate inquiry in their teaching. eight of the 15 participants included specific inquiry-based elements in their lesson plans. activating strategies were most the common places where participants employed inquiry. activities such as image or music analysis were employed by four of the participants as part of the activating strategy. four of the seven participants in group a also included inquiry as part of instructional activities or assessment framework, while two from group b did likewise. one group a student, for example, included u.s. census data sets from the mid-twentieth century to guide students toward discovering how the growth of the automobile market paralleled growth in suburban living. another from that same anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 17 group asked students to examine maps, agricultural output data and climate data to infer economic strengths of regions in colonial america. independent thinking vs. independent work. overall, preservice teachers’ responded positively to the idea of inquiry learning. however, their descriptions of inquiry instruction and their discussion of what students do when learning through their own inquiry offers some insight to subtle distinctions about inquiry in practice. for example, preservice teachers in group b described inquiry learning as “self-directed,” “independent,” “student-based,” and as a student selection of “own topics.” meanwhile, preservice teachers in group a described inquiry as “studentoriented,” allowing students to “draw connections,” and teachers to include students’ “own conclusions.” though the differences are subtle, the first set of descriptions seems to associate inquiry learning more with a self-contained method of teaching where students are working independently, an inclination aligned most closely with self-regulatory behavior. these descriptions offer only a small portion of preservice teachers’ thinking, but these are elaborated on further through qualitative survey responses and in the presentation of inquiry instruction to the comparison group. first, it is important to note that the analytical nature of inquiry learning is evident through each lens – independent work and thinking. preservice teachers mentioned the opportunity for classroom discussion about primary and secondary sources to be an important component for this approach to instruction. one student explained that “…engaging with primary sources and material – it requires students to search for answers on their own, and truly wrestle with a text or item” (a3). however, teachers in group b tended to also emphasize choice and independence in their ideas about what students do. for example, inquiry instruction is useful in practice because “…the students got to choose what they are studying” (b5) and not challenging because “students are eager for the chance, many times, to work more independently.” they also mentioned the challenging nature of inquiry learning projects, especially in middle school, because they may not be ready to work independently or think critically. as one student explained, “it might be harder for younger students to understand” and “it can be more challenging for some middle school students because some may still be moving into higher order thinking more slowly than some of their peers” (b4). these details help to explicate some of the quantitative findings where teachers in group b rated inquiry instruction to be less useful and more challenging for middle school students. the idea of inquiry being an opportunity for independent work may also be partly explained by the research design for group b – that these teachers were told from multiple sources (teacher and peers) about “what is” inquiry learning. the peer presentation on inquiry instruction presented this methodology as very research-oriented, that it involves “research obviously, primary sources – they’re using their own tools to find the answers to their questions…” (a7) yet “…in high school, students aren’t required to do real research” (a3). these preservice teachers group a had the opportunity to draw their own conclusions about inquiry instruction based on their research and their participation in an online historical inquiry model. this fact seems to have implicitly impacted their inclinations about inquiry as an opportunity to draw conclusions and make connections, although their explicit descriptions emphasized independence. analysis of lesson plans likewise illustrated a pattern that while a majority of students explicitly included inquiry in activities and as part of assessments, these instances largely adhered to teacher-guided inquiry. these patterns suggest that it may be important to distinguish between journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 18 independent work and opportunities for independent thinking in how teachers incorporate inquiry in practice at different grade-levels. learner and teacher orientations. next, the frequency counts derived from the coding of preservice teachers’ statements reveal some differences in how they focused their attention in their comments about inquiry learning and instruction. one category that emerged was in the pre-requisite skills and traits that teachers need to have in order to be able to facilitate inquiry. some of these included time management, planning, practice, training, flexibility, and trust. one preservice teacher explained the challenge of “making good use of time when adapting this method, not letting discussion drag on at times...” (b8) and that it “requires a great deal of preparation and explanation to the students and requires effective classroom management…” (b3). these statements were generally written as conditional, reflecting requirements of the teacher. although preservice teachers in this group talked about the challenges for the teacher, they associated these challenges with specific teacher behaviors. for example, the provision of models or use of probing questions for students may be challenging, but “teachers could gradually build up students’ investigative and analytical abilities so that eventually they can complete an inquiry task on their own” (a5) and that inquiry can require “spending a lot of time with each student in order to push them to get involved and follow questions through properly” (a6). while teachers in group a more frequently addressed the role of the teacher in facilitating an inquiry activity, students in group b more frequently referred to overall effects of inquiry instruction on student learning and development, as well as the teacher pre-requisites in order for instruction to be successful. these orientations are also reflected in the language of preservice teachers’ post reflections. although preservice teachers in both groups may have expressed interest (or disinterest) in using an inquiry approach, there were some subtle differences in how they framed their comments. for example, student b7 expressed interest, but indicated “i am excited about the potential of using it for my own purposes right now,” suggesting that it is more practical for her own learning than teaching, given her level of comfort with such thinking processes. other teachers in group b focused on the general benefits or overall value of the idea: “i believe, if effectively utilized, teachers can accurately assess a student’s knowledge and understanding” (b6). furthermore, they primarily discussed their own experience as learners participating in college-level inquiry. in contrast, students in group a offered slight adaptations for inquiry in teaching, sometimes in comparison to the online model. one preservice teacher suggested, “i think i would make it more interactive and discussion based” (a7) and another commented “i would want to be sure to guide my students into realization of the larger themes and movements going on in the nation that made these things possible” (a5). the opportunity for independent research and experience seems to have encouraged preservice teachers to reflect more on the transition from learner to teacher. clearly, there are trends in what preservice teachers talk about when discussing the incorporation of inquiry into their teaching. however, these should be interpreted most accurately as general descriptors. preservice teachers’ intended instructional practices in association with the intervention would need to be further investigated through longitudinal studies which followed teacher candidates through to clinical practices and beyond. with no students or actual classroom context to guide preservice teachers’ implementation intentions, it is difficult to go beyond an expectancy model of general effects and applications. when teaching preservice teachers about this form of instruction, it could be helpful to address their ideas about the traits and contexts with which they associate inquiry instruction. preservice teachers may be more adaptive if they can find anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 19 ways to attribute student learning in an inquiry model to their role as facilitator rather than an outcome of instructional methodology. discussion with national standards and social studies curricular frameworks moving toward disciplinary reading and critical inquiry, it is important to understand how teachers’ learning about inquiry instruction influences their perceptions and inclination to support student-centered inquiry in their classrooms. the national research council’s (2000) how people learn report brought these ideas to the fore by asserting that teachers best develop knowledge of the inquiry process through “in-depth study of the subject area themselves” coupled with understanding of how learning occurs within disciplines (p. 20). the results from this comparative case design informs social studies teacher educators about the need to address the means of instruction and the nature of learning in teacher preparation programs as important factors to impact instruction with k-12 students (adler, 2008; williamson mcdiarmid & clenvenger-bright, 2008). results of this research suggest that an experiential process may have an implicit impact on how preservice teachers talk about implementing inquiry with middle and secondary education students. participating in a model that could be adapted for these students prompted preservice teachers to discuss what they would change if they were to use a similar approach – namely that they would rely more on teacher-led interaction and discussion. these teachers engaged in more discussion about plausible alternatives when considering how they approach inquiry instruction, suggesting that they experienced some dissonance around which to react. this process is key when identifying the likelihood of incorporating similar modes of inquiry in instruction (posner et al., 1982). following the recommendation of pintrich, et al. (1993) the learning context plays a crucial role in understanding individual’s conceptual change. the data that were collected focused particularly on preservice teachers’ ideas about external expectancies regarding inquiry instruction as they emerged from contrasting instructional approaches, though and there is little information beyond the lesson plans about how these ideas would be implemented. overall, however, when discussing the utility, challenges, and their own inclinations to use inquiry instruction, similar factors were identified among preservice teachers. these factors included time and curriculum constraints, as well as the necessity to transfer information. these factors are often cited, even in content methods courses that focus on the epistemic nature of the discipline with opportunities for preservice teachers to participate in classroom inquiry investigations (yeager & wilson, 1997). these patterns indicate that preservice teachers’ overarching goals for social studies teaching remain relatively independent to their exposure to varying instructional approaches, including historical inquiry. the pre-requisite traits that preservice teachers identified for their students to be able learn through inquiry seemed to inform their ideas about when and how it should be used. students’ level of knowledge, maturity, and motivation, for example, were related to tendencies toward implementing inquiry at the high school level. this association of inquiry with adolescent cognitive development has been found in other cases examining preservice social studies teacher education. conklin (2010) described the differences in preservice teachers’ inclinations comparing a middle years-focused program with a secondary teacher preparation program. in this case, preservice teachers in the middle school program more often expressed positive beliefs about middle school students’ abilities to think critically – at 77% compared to only 23% in the secondary (6-12) preparation program. therefore, addressing preservice teachers’ beliefs about students and journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 20 the idea of inquiry as practice in different contexts may help them reframe the utility and value of inquiry instruction as they weigh the costs and benefits of the model for their own instruction. regardless of the limitations that come from this research design, there do seem to be patterns in how and what preservice teachers talk about regarding inquiry learning and instruction. while these findings are informed by researchers’ prior knowledge in teacher education, motivation, teacher self-efficacy, and historical cognition, there were no pre-set ideas about what to expect. the pre-/postdesign was incorporated with intent to investigate growth as a product of the methods of course instruction, but data instead supported a relatively stable comparison between groups. furthermore, the data were not coded using names of individual students to minimize bias regarding the researcher’s relationship with individual students as instructor. one data source in particular may have contributed to more reactive responses from preservice teachers in group b – those from student responses led by the course instructor. in these sessions student responses were not necessarily candid. however, all preservice teachers had the same opportunity for more reflective responses in journal entries and in providing classroom applications of their learning at the end of the second historical inquiry module. given some differences in data sources, attention was directed in analytic memos not to overemphasize language elicited from specific data sources that may have been absent in one group. recognizing these threats, among other limitations, helped support the validity of the emerging patterns we discerned from these data. significance and future research unique in this study was the opportunity to map out preservice teachers’ responses based on different instructional processes experienced. although preservice teachers’ were not explicitly categorized based on how they made the transition from learner to instructor, there were patterns that indicated some differences from this perspective, and these patterns were mirrored in lesson plans. preservice teachers’ in the independent inquiry group (a) more often reflected on their role as instructor, although most preservice teachers’ seemed to have questions about its implementation in practice. there were statements to suggest that inquiry is more practical in their own learning than teaching and one student in group b was “nonplussed” despite exposure to the historical inquiry module in the latter part of course instruction. the teacher-directed inquiry in this case did not seem to prompt preservice teachers’ reevaluation of history teaching. as holt-reynolds (1992) found, preservice teachers commented on how their own beliefs about history education challenged research-based practices – rather than attuning to research as a challenge to their own beliefs. the findings from this study are significant given the limited attempts in social studies teacher education research to explore how learning context interacts with preservice teachers’ instructional beliefs. the comparative cases reveal differences in preservice teachers accommodation of methods of historical inquiry evidenced in their ratings on how frequently they would use inquiry instruction and in their reflections that focused on contrasting perspectives about inquiry from the perspective of learner and teacher. interventions that have sought to encourage historical inquiry as regular practice have relied on large problem-based units that are met with challenge against preservice teacher conceptions, which express genuine interest in these ideas but largely deem them impractical in k-12 instruction (mcdiarmid & vinten-johansen, 2000). the contrasting instructional methods explored here, however, employ an independent inquiry component in which preservice teachers reflected on their own beliefs independently from their peers anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 21 (e.g. during class discussion) and were presented with a unique model of inquiry that emphasized the induction of an historical thinking process rather than the instructional design of a complex unit. researchers have long lamented that instruction designed to stoke curiosity and challenge them to think creatively and critically is less emphasized as students progress through the school system (mitra & negroponte, 2012; robinson, 2011). as students move toward secondary school they are more often required to memorize names and dates rather than to inquire and discover interpretations of the past through historical evidence (bain, 2005). preservice teachers’ conceptions are firmly grounded in this approach, which they have experienced over the course of their educational careers. this phenomenon becomes more significant as curriculum developers and policymakers begin to include inquiry as part of standards and frameworks (e.g. common core state standards and ncss c3 framework). to breach this divide, this research purports that teacher education programs must present more practical possibilities for incorporating historical inquiry in instruction that is attentive to teacher beliefs about students’ capabilities, effective history instruction, and their role as educator in the standards driven environment. a key component to posner et al.’s (1982) theory of conceptual change is that the alternatives presented must be perceived to be plausible. therefore, this research provides unique details regarding preservice teacher beliefs as they pertain to two different means of presenting inquiry as an effective and useful approach to history education. to elaborate on these findings, future research could draw out this interaction between teachers’ preconceptions and the learning context during the transition period in more detail using comparative cases. kang et al. (2013) examined preservice science teachers’ transition from learner to instructor and was able to map out preservice teachers in only two of four categories: teacher of inquiry with questions and inquiry-oriented. in this case, preservice teachers who had questions about inquiry focused on the long-term and research aspects of scientific inquiry – a focus that we also found among preservice teachers, particularly those in the independent inquiry group (a) who presented inquiry to their peers as an analytic research model. therefore, an emphasis on how preservice teachers form their ideas about inquiry instruction through an experiential learning process may provide more useful information regarding instructional design for secondary methods teachers. an extension of this investigation could draw on interviews about how research informs preservice teachers’ ideas, in addition to prompted comparisons for preservice teachers to reflect on inquiry more explicitly, both as learner and as instructor. this approach could facilitate more explicit distinctions between these two roles during preservice teachers’ transitional period. overall, the methods course provides a unique opportunity to explore the development of ideas and expectancies regarding approaches to instruction in the social studies. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 22 references abrams, e., southerland, s., & silva, p. (eds.). (2008). inquiry in the classroom. charlotte, nc: information age publishing. adler, s. (2008). the education of social studies teachers. in (l.s. levstik & c.a. tyson). handbook of research on social studies education (pp. 329-351). new york: routledge. bain, r. (2005). they thought the world was flat: applying the principles of how people learn in teaching high school history. in m.s. donovan and j.d. bransford (eds.), how students learn history, mathematics and science in the classroom (pp. 177 198). washington, d.c.: national academies press. barton, k. c. (2011). history: from learning narratives to thinking historically. in w. b. russell (ed.), contemporary social studies: an essential reader. charlotte, nc: information age publishing. barton, k.c., levstik, l. s. (2001). doing history: investigating with children in elementary and middle schools. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. bell, b., gaventa, j., & peters, j. (eds.). (1990). we make the road by walking: conversations on education and social change: myles horton and paulo freire. philadelphia, pa: temple university press. bransford, j. d., brown, a.l., & cocking, r.r., (eds). (1999). how people learn. national research council, washington, dc: national academy press. bruner, j. s. (1961). the act of discovery. in j. bruner (ed.), in search of pedagogy: the selected works of jerome s. bruner, (pp. 57-66). new york: taylor & francis. excerpts retrieved from google books. ching yang, s. (2009). a case study of technology-enhanced historical inquiry. innovations in education and teaching international, 46(2), 237–248. doi:10.1080/14703290902844040 common core state standards initiative (2012). retrieved september 25, 2012, from http://www.corestandards.org/in-the-states council of chief state school officers (2012). vision for the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for inquiry in social studies state standards. retrieved from http://www.ccsso.org/resources/publications conklin, h. g. (2010). preparing for the educational black hole? teachers’ learning in two pathways into middle school social studies teaching. theory & research in social education, 38(1), 48–79. creswell, j.w. (2008). educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). upper saddle rive, nj: pearson crofutt, g.a. (1872). american progress. [after 1872 painting of the same title by john gast]. retrieved from http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/97507547/ dewey, j. (1910). how we think. boston : d.c. heath & co. retrieved from http://archive.org/details/howwethink00deweiala dey, i. (1993). qualitative data analysis: a user-friendly guide for social scientists. new york, ny. doolittle, p., hicks, d., & ewing, t. (2004). historical inquiry: understanding the past. historical inquiry: scaffolding wise practices in the history classroom. retrieved january 26, 2013, from http://www.historicalinquiry.com/inquiry/index.cfm drake, f.d. & nelson, l. r. (2005). engagement in teaching history: theory and practices for middle and secondary teachers. upper saddle river, nj: pearson. driscoll, m.p (2005). psychology of learning for instruction. (3rd ed.). boston, ma: pearson. anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 23 edsel, d.c., gordin, d.n., & pea, r.d. (1999). addressing the challenges of inquiry-based learning through technology and curriculum design. journal of the learning sciences, 8(3+4), 391-450. evans, r.w. (2011). the hope for american school reform: cold war pursuit of inquiry learning in social studies. new york: palgrave. farley, l. (2009). radical hope: or, the problem of uncertainty in history education. curriculum inquiry, 39(4), 537-554. fenton, e. (1991). reflections on the ‘new social studies.’ social studies, 82(3), 84-90. foster, s. j. & padgett, c. (1999). authentic historical inquiry in the social studies classroom. clearing house, 72(6), 357-65. fragnoli, k. (2005) historical inquiry in a methods classroom: examining our beliefs and shedding our old ways. the social studies, 96(6), 247-25. doi: 10.3200/tsss.96.6.24-252 geier, r., blumenfeld, p. c., marx, r.w., krajcik, j.s., fishman, b., soloway, e., & clay chambers, j. (2008). standardized test outcomes for students engaged in inquiry based science curricula in the context of urban reform. journal of research in science teaching, 45(8), 922-939. greene, m. (1978). landscapes of learning. new york: teachers college press. gregoire-gill, m., ashton, p. t., & algina, j. (2004). changing preservice teachers’ epistemological beliefs about teaching and learning in mathematics: an intervention study. contemporary educational psychology, 29(2), 164–185. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.01.003 guccione, l. m. (2011). in a world of mandates, making space for inquiry. the reading teacher, 64(7), 515–519. doi:10.2307/41203442 hattie, j. (2008). visible learning: a synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. new york: routledge. hernández-ramos, p., & de la paz, s. (2009). learning history in middle school by designing multimedia in a project-based learning experience. journal of research on technology in education, 42(2), 151–173. holt-reynolds, d. (1992). personal history-based beliefs as relevant prior knowledge in course work. american educational research journal, 29(2), 325–349. doi:10.3102/00028312029002325 husbands, c. (1996). what is history teaching? bristol, pa: open university press. kang, e. j. s., bianchini, j. a., & kelly, g. j. (2013). crossing the border from science student to science teacher: preservice teachers’ views and experiences learning to teach inquiry. journal of science teacher education, 24(3), 427–447. doi:10.1007/s10972-012-9317-9 kennedy, m.m. (1997). defining an ideal teacher education program. paper for the national council for accreditation of teacher education. retrieved from: https://www.msu.edu/~mkennedy/publications/kennedy%20to%20ncate.pdf kirschner, p.a., sweller, j., & clark, r.e. (2006). why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential and inquiry-based teaching. educational psychology, 41(2), 75-86. kuhn, d., black, j., keselman, a., & kaplan, d. (2000). the development of cognitive skills to support inquiry learning. cognition and instruction, 18(4), 495–523. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1804_3 lee, p., & ashby, r. (2000). progression in historical understanding among students ages 7-14. in p. stearns, p. seixas, & s. wineburg (eds.), knowing, teaching, and journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 24 learning history: national and international perspectives (pp. 199–222). new york: new york university press. lesh, r. & doerr, h. (2003). beyond constructivism: models and modeling perspectives. mahwah, ny: lawrence erlbaum associates. levine, a. (2006). educating school teachers. washington, dc: education schools project. maxwell, j. a. (2005). qualitative research design : an interactive approach . thousand oaks, calif.: sage publications. mitra, s., & negroponte, n. (2012). beyond the hole in the wall: discover the power of self-organized learning. new york: ted books. national center for history in schools (1996). history standards. retrieved march 15, 2013 from http://www.nchs.ucla.edu/standards national council for the social studies (2013). college, career & civic life: c3 framework for social studies state standards. silver spring, md: national council for the social studies: national research council. (2000). how people learn: brain, mind, experience and school. national committee on developments in the science of learning. j.d. bransford, a.al. brown & r.r. cockling (eds.). washington, dc: national academy press. neill, a.s. (1995). summerhill school: a new view of childhood. edited by albert lamb. london: st. martins press. palmer, p. j. (1980). the courage to teach. exploring the inner landscape of a teacher’s life. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. patton, m.q. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd. ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. pintrich, p.r., marx, r.w. , & boyle, r.a. (1993). beyond conceptual change: the role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. review of educational research, 63, 167-199. posner, g. j., strike, k. a., hewson, p. w., & gertzog, w. a. (1982). accommodation of a scientific conception: toward a theory of conceptual change. science education, 66(2), 211–227. doi:10.1002/sce.3730660207 robinson, k. (2011). out of our minds: learning to be creative. london: capstone. rogers, v.r. (1968). the social studies revolution begins in britain. phi delta kappa international, 50(3), 162-165. rone, t.r. (2008). “culture from the outside in and the inside out: experiential education and the continuum of theory, practice, and policy.” college teaching, 56(4), 237 245. singer, a.j. (2010). social studies for secondary schools: teaching to learn, learning to teach (3rd ed.). new york: routledge. salisbury-glennon, j. d., & j. stevens, r. (1999). addressing preservice teachers’ conceptions of motivation. teaching and teacher education, 15(7), 741–752. doi:10.1016/s0742-051x(99)00023-2 stearns, p.n. (1998). why study history? american historical association. retrieved from: http://www.historians.org/pubs/free/whystudyhistory.htm vansledright, b. (2009). narratives of nation-state, historical knowledge and school history education. review of research in education, 32, 109-146. vansledright, b. (2000, august). can ten-year-olds learn to investigate history as historians do? bruce a. vansledright. oah outlook. retrieved from http://www.oah.org/pubs/nl/2000aug/vansledright.html vygotsky, l.s. (1962). thought and language. cambridge, ma: mit press. anthony m. pellegrino & jessica kilday 25 williamson mcdiarmid, g., & clevenger-bright, m. (2008). rethinking teacher capacity. in (m. cochran-smith, s. feiman-nemser, & d.j. mcintyre, (eds.). handbook on teacher education: enduring questions in changing contexts (3rd ed.), 134-156. windschitl, m. & thompson, j. (2006). transcending simple forms of school science investigations: can pre-service instruction foster teachers’ understanding of model based inquiry? american educational research journal, 43, 783-835. wineburg, s., martin, d., & monte-sano, c. (2011). reading like a historian: teaching literacy in middle and high school classrooms. new york: teachers college press. wineburg, s. s. (2001). historical thinking and other unnatural acts : charting the future of teaching the past. philadelphia: temple university press. yeager, e. a., & wilson, e. k. (1997). teaching historical thinking in the social studies methods course: a case study. social studies, 88(3), 121. journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 1-26 26 appendix pre/ postteacher survey provide three words or phrases that you would use to describe inquiry-based learning. in response to each of the following items, how frequently would you plan to use inquirybased learning? for middle school students? never seldom sometimes often for high school students? for student engagement? for student learning? for your own learning? for developing historical thinking? in response to each of the following items, how useful is inquiry-based learning? for middle school students? not at all not very somewhat very for high school students? for student engagement? for student learning for your own learning? for developing historical thinking? considering your ratings, address some of the ways you believe inquiry-based learning is: (a) useful; (b) not useful in response to each of the following items, how challenging is inquiry-based learning? for middle school students? not at all not very somewhat very for high school students? for student engagement? for student learning? for your own learning? for developing historical thinking? considering your ratings, address some of the ways you believe inquiry-based learning is: (a) challenging; (b) not challenging www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 283-294 283 the role of grandparents in the child's personality formation (on the material of children's literature) galina boshkova1, elena shastina2 & olga shatunova3 abstract in the article the concept of "a family reading" is analyzed, the significance of " the family reading" model is disclosed, the role of grandparents in the formation of the child's personality is revealed. the goal of the article is to point out the possibility of improving the reading culture in the case of an awareness of the grandparents’ role in the children upbringing. the research is based on the methodological interdisciplinary and systematic principles, presented in the modern socio-humanistic knowledge. comparative-contrastive methodology allows you to consider the features and patterns of the figurative structure of a work of fiction recommended for the family reading. relying on the historical, cultural, sociocultural, typological approaches, it allows establishing a typological commonality of the artistic image of "grandparents”. the biographical method, as well as the linguistic analysis of the literary text, makes it possible to take into account the individual style of the authors while selecting works for the family reading. it is proved that images of "active" grandmothers and grandfathers dominate in the literary texts of the world literature, in the creation of which zoological and floral portraits-comparisons are used. the material for the study is the works of russian and foreign literature. the works of russian literature were the material of the study: m. gorky (childhood, grandfather arkhip and lyonka), v. astafyev (the horse with a pink mane, the last bow), n. nosov (shurik at grandfather's place) , n. abgaryan ("manyunya", "chocolate grandfather"), d. sabitov ("your three names"), m. aromshtam ("when angels rest"), v. vostokov ("frosyakorovina"), as well as some works of foreign children's prose: a. nanetti ("my grandfather was a cherry"), m. lobe ("grandma on the apple tree"), m. parr ("waffle heart"), i. prokhazkina ("grandmother with wings" ). key words: the family reading, "elder parents", "formal grandmother", "active grandmother", foreign and russian literature. introduction writers, teachers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (ushinskiy, 1990; korchak, 2014) called the elderly people to be instinctively understanding and knowing from the experience of subtlety of education, "natural russian educators." the teachers' opinion is changing in the 21st century: the pedagogical discourse about the influence of elder parents on grandchildren is very 1assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, bozhkova.galina@mail.ru 2 prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, shastina@rambler.ru 3 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, olgashat67@mail.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=bozhkova.galina@mail.ru mailto:shastina@rambler.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=olgashat67@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 283-294 contradictory. kulikova in the book "family pedagogy and home education" (kulikova, 1999) argues that in the age of informational technology, the experience of grandparents is not a model for the future generation, as it is difficult for them to understand modern life and the interests of the younger generation. a long-time experienced teacher kargapolova in her article "grandparents, children and grandchildren" (kargapolova), on the contrary, notes that elder parents play an important role in the grandchildren’s education , since their authority depends on respect and recognition in a society and the family, but there are also negative aspects of such an education: elder parents fall into extremes (either excessively pampered or use old conservative methods of upbringing), so they are not able to raise a competitive personality. researchers (kuramshev, kutyavina & sudyan, 2017) characterize the relationship between grandmothers and grandchildren as distantly friendly: they do not show a particular affinity, while they are taken for granted. their research shows that only 33% of grandmothers often share their thoughts with grandchildren, while only 19% of their grandmothers can boast of a conflict-free relationship with their descendants. 35% of grandmothers trust their grandchildren with their secrets, 67% believe that their affairs are approved and supported by their grandchildren. however, this relationship can not be completely trusted: only 26% of grandmothers talk with grandchildren about topics that it would be undesirable to discuss with other interlocutors. but still 56% of respondents feel that their grandchildren are proud of them, only 8% of grandmothers do not feel this attitude towards themselves. author n.а. dorokhina notes (dorokhina, 2009) that for parents, the influence of grandparents on the child's cognitive-speech development (acquaintance with history, reading books, teaching reading and math, stories about their childhood, the history of the country (tarman et al., 2015; yiğit & tarman, 2016; magsumov, 2013b; magsumov, 2015), their personal achievements) is significant. according to her research, this fact is confirmed by 33% of the parents surveyed. on the degree of activity and initiative o.v. krasnova identified three main types of grandmothers (krasnova, 2000). "formal" ("ordinary") cares for grandchildren mainly through the fulfillment of household duties and / or financial support for the family. "active" ("enthusiastic") grandmother takes care of her grandchildren, helps with studies, plays, reads a lot, goes to theaters and exhibitions. "enthusiastic" grandmothers support the grandchildren's manifestations of kindness, sympathy; they are sensitive to the moments when grandsons need support, boshkova et. al. encouragement. "far away" ("removed", "symbolic") grandmothers give their grandchildren minimum attention and time, confining themselves to only those activities that they like and at the time when it is convenient for them. the the family reading can be a camertone of the family generations' relations as one of the reading models, where, unlike other models, practically all the most important functions of reading are simultaneously realized: cognitive, educational, developing, entertaining, and communication (melentieva, 2011). identifying the role of "elder parents" grandparents in the the family reading as an important factor contributing to the child's personality'sdevelopment, is the goal of the present study. method the authors of the article are guided by the methodological principles of interdisciplinarity and system. based on the principles of pedagogy, psychology, literary criticism, this work includes theoretical research methods: analysis, synthesis, comparison. comparative-comparable methodology allows you to consider the features and patterns of the figurative structure of an art work recommended for the the family reading. relying on the historical, cultural and sociocultural approaches, one can state a typological commonality of the artistic image of "elder parents". biographical method, as well as linguistic analysis allow to take into account the individual style of the author when selecting works for the family reading, conditioned by the epoch and artistic and aesthetic views of the writer. findings most of the children's literature selected as representative texts actualize the positive model of generations' communication in the family, so they can be successfully used in the family reading. in addition to an obvious aesthetic function, these works perform an educational function (korableva and kalimullina, 2016). familiarizing the child with the biography of the writer, adults pay attention to the children's years of the author, to the important role played in their lives by "elder parents" (aminov, 2014). biographical material not only broadens the horizon of the young reader, but also brings him up, introduces to reading from early childhood. based on the classification of the grandmother's typology (krasnova, 2000), we have proved that images of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 283-294 "active" grandmothers and grandfathers become dominant in artistic texts, in the creation of which zoological and floral portraits-comparisons are used, as well as an olfactory code. grandma is compared with a cat (m. gorky), with a river korableva bank (v. astafiev), with an apple tree (m. lobe), with the "fire-breathing dragon", "a granite rock" (n. abgaryan), with a goose (a. nanetti) , ahen (v. vostokov), etc. obviously, children have a more developed creative imagination, they tend to compare adults with animals, plants, and reincarnate themselves in other ways (akhmetshin et al., 2017; aydarova et al., 2017). children's writers, keenly sensitive to childhood problems, give a hint to parents that the zootypes used for the comparison can be a worrying sign, indicating lack of attention, warmth and love (kerr & bowen, 1988). in the course of the comparative typological analysis of children's literature it was revealed that the artistic image of the elder generation reflects the changes in a society (tarman, 2016; tünkler et al, 2016): in the children's literature of the twentieth century, grandparents, for objective reasons, replace parents to their grandchildren because many of them either died tragically or disappeared without to lead, in modern children's literature grandparents also try on themselves the role of parents, but for other reasons (bad habits of biological parents, total employment , etc.) (magsumov, 2016; magmusov, 2013a; osadchy & akhmetshin, 2015). in this connection, it is legitimate to talk about the "therapeutic effect" of the family reading that promotes the rapprochement of generations (verevkina, 2016; il’yashchenko et al., 2014; тesleva and belkova, 2014). discussion in the works of the nineteenth century, the images of elder parents are extremely contradictory: some of them simply perform an attendant function, while others contribute to the spiritual and moral formation of their grandchildren. without the grandparents'influence russian culture, perhaps, would not recognize such names as pushkin, m.yu.lermontov, f.m.dostoyevsky and many others. lack of love, attention, care, which could not get in his childhood a.s. pushkin, managed to fill the grandmother maria alekseevna hannibal, her image was reflected in the poem "yezerskiy". the main woman in the life of m.yu. lermontov was his grandmother elizabeth alekseevnaarsenyeva. the powerful, active, survived her husband, daughter and even her grandson, the woman believed that her main goal was mikhail yurievich's upbringing, so she spoiled the child with foreign sweets, bought rare books. lermontov expressed his gratitude to his boshkova et. al. grandmother in the drama "menschen und leidenschaften" and could not help but admit that the mater did not teach him to perceive the reality correctly. unlike a.s. pushkin and m.yu.lermontov f.m. dostoevsky did not know either his grandmother or grandfather, since maria fyodorovnanechaeva's parents were against the daughter's marriage with the surgeon m.a. dostoevsky, but the nanny alena frolovna replaced the grandmother, she will become the prototype of many writer's selflessly loving heroines ("poor people", "white nights", "demons"). leo tolstoy also did not feel the poetry of feelings to his grandmother: pelagianikolaevna frightened the children with her irascible, wayward character, tolstoy would tell about it in the story "childhood". the elder parents' role in the authors' education who write for children or depict in their works children's images is very important. just remembering childhood, one can dispose a young reader. a huge role in the formation of m. gorky'spersonality the reformer of children's literature was played by his grandmother akulina ivanovna, whom he wouldlater describe in his autobiographical novel "childhood". an aging woman after the tragic death of her parents became alesha peshkov's closest person. m. gorky considered her a saint and very often compared with " abee, and the house with the beehive." grandmother akulina a woman with a very difficult fate: in her youth she begged to survive, survived many of her children and betrayal of her family. the tips of beloved grandmother alesha remembered for life. the zoological portraits-comparisonare interesting: the grandson compares his grandmother akulina with a large cat. the image of the cat in the description of akulina ivanovna's portrait was chosen not by chance, for all children the animal world is close and understandable, and the cat has always been considered to be a creature preserving and keeping the home. no less important role in the story "childhood" is played by the image of the grandfather. all the households obeyed his laws and rules. it is difficult for the child to watch behind the iron core of an aging male's worries for him, the grandfather, who knowing the life, tried to teach his grandson a literacy in church books, told stories and tales. the boy intuitively compares him to the house chimney, as it is not so noticeable, but it is very important for keeping the heat. close to the grandfather and the hero of m. gorky's story "grandfather arkhip and lyonka," the bony grandfather very much reminds the boy of a withered tree that has been beaten by a wave of the river to the sand. this comparison is the best way to reveal the end of the life journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 283-294 path that anticipates arkhip's death. unlike the hero of the "childhood", lyonka is burdened by his grandfather, he rebels against the way of life that the grandfather has to lead. in the story of astafieva "a horse with a pink mane" there is a bright image of the hero's grandmother, who played an important role in the upbringing of her grandson: katerina petrovna, replaced the mother for the boy. a feminine fussy, emotional, active grandmother, similar to the "sunny forest" is again opposed to the grandfather: he rarely scolds his grandson, but in the look, gestures of the hero, there is the complete agreement with his wife (korableva et al., 2017a). the motive of orphanhood in the story is not felt because of the excessive love of elder parents, but in the work "the last bow" the boy vitya seriously experiences his mother's death and considers his father’s indifference to be a betrayal. the grandmother helps the child, whom the hero compares to the forest fairy: she knew all the herbs and mushrooms, could heal people, and she teaches moral lessons to her grandson. the writer n.n.nosov in his story "shurik at grandfather's" depicts a kind and wise grandfather. for the boys, a man is an authoritative person, he is an example of courage and braveness. for sleight of hand during fishing, the heroes called him a sorcerer. so, in the works of the twentieth century, the role of grandparents in the formation of grandchildren is important. complex social life conditions, the political situation leads to child abandonment, so elder parents replace moms and dads: they not only pay attention, but also raise children, but in the educational aspect are weak, because they themselves are often illiterate (korableva et al., 2017b). in the twentieth century, both in life and in literature, the type of "active" grandmothers and grandfathers of the village type, living in their own houses, loving and appreciating nature, is widespread. if in the nineteenth century grandparents acted as a supplement to the home education of grandchildren: they told tales, spoiled, then in the twentieth century they became forced parents. active, working elder parents of the 21st century cannot pay due attention to their grandchildren, so in the modern reality there is the concept of "forced orphanhood" (kulikova, 1999): parents give themselves to work, so elder parents are forced to replace their mother and father with children. in the story of n. abgaryan "manyunya" the powerful grandmother rosa iosifovna shatz did her best to separate her granddaughter's parents. the woman immensely loves manya, but she has her own view on education: she is confident in the use of punishments (they are improvised: she can feed with the vegetables, cut off the hair). manya and narine are afraid and love ba at the same time, but never doubted her justice. heroines live in their fictional gaming boshkova et. al. world and the grandmother in it is a "granite rock", a "fire-breathing dragon" (abgaryan, 2007). grandfathers in the works of n. abgaryan are ironic, like children, that's why their grandchildren love them so much. martin sjursen and his parents eagerly wait for the grandfather oscar'sarrival (the story "chocolate grandfather"), who loves sweets (jam, gingerbread, chocolate). the hero is called chocolate, honey-gingerbread. lack of attention in modern families leads children to the need for communication with elder parents. the heroine of d. sabitova's story "your three names" rita has got alcoholic parents, so every day she goes to visit her neighbor muratovna. the heroines together watch tv, drink tea with pies, read pushkin’s writings, talk about hygiene and cleanliness in the house, but in the evening margo is forced to return home and eat potatopeelings with her small sister. the character of v. vostokov's novel "frosya korovina" is close to rietke and frosya,. "the village woman," that's what the girl calls herself, since her grandmother all says she wants to grow a real village woman from frosya (an aging woman fears that after frosya's death she will not be adapted to life, depriving her granddaughter of childhood), and the girl is afraid not to justify her hopes. frosya knows everything: to manage the economy, to plant a vegetable garden. with her parents alive, she is a complete orphan: she is raised by her grandmother aglaya yermolaevna (whom her granddaughter calls "a hen" for fussiness). a woman shows frosa photos of her parents and tries to justify them, assuring the girl of the employment of grown-up people they are geologists, and frosya with pleasure states: "so i'm not an orphan!" (vostokova, 2014). grandmother and grandfather are also authoritative for alina, the heroine of m. aromshtam's novel "when angels rest". mom does her personal life: she experiences disappointments in love, and elder parents have become the main educators. grandpa is happy, youthful; grandmother is attentive, caring. they are always and in all united (bochkareva et al., 2017; erbilgin, 2017; lyubimova et al., 2015; mauch & tarman, 2016). many of the grandparents' words remained for a long time in the maturing alina's memory, for example, the granddaughter's grandfather's expression recalls: "remember, baby, the most important thing in a person is the rod," "the teacher must give strong knowledge" (aromshtam, 2010). the images of grandparents are of interest to many writers around the world. the estonian writer mira lobe, who examined the elder parents’ influence on grandchildren in her story "grandma is on an apple tree" (lobe, 1973), refers to the image of a grandmother. the main character andi did not have a grandmother, but he really wanted to have her. the boy felt that he journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 283-294 is important to a lonely neighbor frau flink, so he got a grandmother. the author of the story tries to convey to the reader a simple truth: in the age of the “love scarcity", attention cannot be deprived of the child of close people, and the more children have love and affection, the happier and more stable to life peripeteias personality is. a similar idea appears in the work of the italian writer angela nanetti "my grandfather was a cherry" (nanetti, 2009). the main character remembers with warmth and gratitude the elder parents. the boy has a city and village grandmothers and grandfathers, but it's hard for him to understand grandpa's and grandmother’s selfishness, who are only engaged in themselves. but the child was very fond of elder parents living in the village. despite the fact that the grandmother theodolinda was busy with a large farm, she always found time for her beloved grandson, but more time with him the grandfather spent, who taught the hero to correctly perceive the life. rural senior parents even smell warm and pleasant, it does not look like the sharp perfume of antoniatta and luigi. the hero-narrator compares the grandmother theodolinda with the goose, and the grandfather-with the cherry, and he believes that after death they were not simply boarded into a wooden box, but the souls of close people reincarnated into the tree and the goose. amazing images of elder parents in the story of the norwegian writer m. parr "waffle heart". the grandfather of the boy trillet, whom the hero with love compares with the crow, because he has absolutely no hearing, but he does not hesitate to sing ("sings like a deaf crow") (parr, 2014), seeks to get closer to his grandchildren, does not accept edification and teaching, brings up the game (korableva and kalimullina, 2014). he learns knitting knots for weaving the cable road, and during ivanov's day the grandfather dressed up as a bride, taking a cactus instead of a bouquet, and baba aunt, the grandfather's sister, "spare grandmother" so called her children, turned into a groom and looked like a "fat penguin" .tea-parties with his grandfather and delicious baba aunt's wafers forever remained in childhood's memories, which save heroes in their adulthood. czech writer iva prochazkina in the tale "grandmother with wings" with the help of the grotesque tells of a wonderful grandmother, which for many years dreamed boy elias. he sat his grandmother out of the egg, and the boy was rewarded with a grandmother-fairy, loving and affectionate, because the no grownup parents are not able to give enough attention to elias: "parents, like the weather you do not choose them" (procházková, 2013). there was a new type of children's heroines a grandmother with wings. iva prochazkina combined sentimental touching and ultimate realism. boshkova et. al. conclusion to date, the decline in interest in reading causes serious concern around the world. the problem of reading went beyond the educational, cultural and moral development of the individual, having become the most important nation-wide social problem. the study emphasizes the importance of "the family reading" model in strengthening the family, reveals the role of "elder parents" grandparents in the development of the child's personality. grandparents acquire a new family significance, for them grandchildren are an important life stage: the ancestors have both life experience and precious time, which they, despite the misunderstanding of modern life, are ready to devote to their grandchildren who are not receiving due attention from parents engaged in making money, clarification of interpersonal relationships. senior parents provide household, psychological assistance, and also preserve and transmit family history and traditions. this problem is reflected in the world literature. the family reading not only brings people together, introduces children and adults to the best examples of world literature and their authors, instills a taste for good literature, but also brings up and so has a "therapeutic effect". acknowledgements the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references abgaryan n.yu. (2007). manyunya. moscow: ast. akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. aydarova s h, giniyatullina l m, sagdieva r k, husnutdinov d h, mirzagitov r h, gabidullina f i (2017) models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) aminov, t.м. (2014). system of professional education in regions of pre-revolutionary russia (through the example of bashkiria). voprosy obrazovaniya. 3: 244-262. aromshtam, m.s. (2010). when the angels rest. moscow: compassgid. bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 283-294 dorokhin, n.a. (2009). features of educational interaction between parents and the older generation in the families of preschool children.science and school, n 1, 60-62. erbilgin, e. (2017). a comparison of the mathematical processes embedded in the content standards of turkey and singapore. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1), 5374. il’yashchenko, d.p., chinakhov, d.a., gotovshchik, y.m. (2014) maw productivity development and reduction of its harmful effect on human organisms. applied mechanics and materials, 682, pp. 122-126 kargapolova, t.m. grandmothers, grandfathers, children and grandchildren. retrieved december 11, 2017, http: //kladraz.ru/blogs/tatjana-mihailovna-kargapolova/statjababushki-dedushki-roditeli-i-deti.html. kerr, m.e., bowen, m. (1988). "the emotional system" in family evaluation, chapter two. new york: w.w. norton&company. korchak, yu. (2014). how to love a child. moscow. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2014) the formation of a single legal space as a prerequisite for overcoming systemic risk. asian social science, 10(21): 256-260. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016) strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a) building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b) research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. krasnova, o.v. (2000). the role of the grandmother: a comparative analysis. psychology of maturity and aging, n 2 (10), 89-114. kulikova, т.а. (1999).family pedagogy and home education. moscow: academy. boshkova et. al. kuramshev, a.v., kutyavina, e.e. & sudyan, s.a. (2017). grandmother in the system of intrafamily relations: a sociological analysis. a woman in russian society, n 3 (84),70-79. lobe m. (1973).grandmother on the apple tree.tallinn: kirjastus eesti raamat. lyubimova, e. m., galimullina, e. z., & ibatullin, r. r. (2015). practical orientation increase for future teachers training through the integration of interactive technologies. social sciences (pakistan), 10(7), 1836-1839. 10.3923/sscience.2015.1836.1839 magmusov, t.a. (2013a). school and children during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the romanov dynasty. bylye gody. (4) 30: 79-87. magsumov, t.a. (2013b). educational excursions in technical schools of pre-revolutionary russia. bylye gody. (1), 27: 52-60. magsumov, t. (2015). charity societies for helping needy students in the volga region, late 19th early 20th centuries. rossiiskaia istoria. 4: 63-69. magsumov, t.a. (2016). the jigets: a great history of a small people. rusin. (3), 45: 247-253. doi: 10.17223/18572685/45/17 mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. melentieva, yu. p. (2011). family reading: theoretical aspect. the bibliosphere, n 4, 11-14. nanetti а. (2009). mio nonno era un ciliegio. verlag: einaudi ragazzi. osadchy, e. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2015). integration of industrial and educational sphere in modernization of economic relations. journal of applied economic sciences, 10(5) parr, м. (2014). waffle heart. kindle. procházková, i. (2013). eliáš a babička z vajíčka vydavatel. praha: mladáfronta. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a тesleva e., belkova t. (2014) acoustic and elastic properties of cu3au alloy between 4.2...300 к. applied mechanics and materials. vol. 682, p. 519-524. https://doi.org/10.17223/18572685/45/17 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 283-294 tünkler, v., tarman, b., & güven, c. (2016). a metaphorical approach regarding the equipment of students with abstract concepts and values included in the citizenship and democracy education curriculum. egitim ve bilim, 41(185), 123-145. ushinsky, k.d. (1990). pedagogical writings. in 6 volumes t.5. moscow: pedagogy. verevkina, i., bozhkova, g., shabalina, n. & fayzullina, o. (2016). adolescent dialogue with writers as a means of reading culture formation. the european proceedings of social &behavioural sciences, vol. xii, 417-423. vostokov, s. (2014). frosya korovina. moscow: clover-media group. yiğit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 89-105 89 particularities of speech readiness for schooling in pre-school children having general speech underdevelopment: a social and pedagogical aspect irina a. emelyanova1, elena a. borisova2, olga e. shapovalova3, olga v. karynbaeva4, irina m. vorotilkina5 abstract the relevance of the research is due to the necessity of creating the pedagogical conditions for correction and development of speech in children having the general speech underdevelopment. for them, difficulties generating a coherent utterance are characteristic, which prevents a sufficient speech readiness for schooling forming in them as well as successful socialization. with regard to this, the paper is aimed at finding out the particularities of coherent monologic and dialogical speech in senior pre-school children having the general speech underdevelopment. the leading method to studying this problem is experimental studying, which allows viewing the particularities of coherent dialogical and monologic speech in preschoolers having the general speech underdevelopment in an integrated way. the paper describes particularities of coherent monologic and dialogical speech in pre-school children having the general underdevelopment depending on the level of formation. the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data obtained has shown that pre-school children having the general speech underdevelopment have significant difficulty carrying on a dialogue and making up detailed utterances. examples of various lexical and grammatical, logical and meaning-related mistakes of the children are given. the materials of the paper may be of use for specialists rendering the psychological and pedagogical support for children having speech disorders in the educational process. key words: coherent speech, dialogical speech, monologic speech, general speech underdevelopment, pre-school children. introduction social adaptation and integration of children having health limitations into the society is the leading area of focus of the entire upbringing and educational process. currently, it is not only the approaches to psychological and pedagogical support of children of this category that are reconsidered but also tasks are put forward that are aimed at creating the conditions to promote harmonious development and socialization of personality in mass and special educational institutions (baytak, tarman, & ayas, 2011; tarman & tarman, 2011). 1 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, irrina79@bk.ru 2 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, bor-elenaz9u@yandex.ru 3 prof., doctor of psychology, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, olya.shapovalova.1962@mail.ru 4 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, olgavlad11@mail.ru 5 prof., doctor of pedagogy, sholom-aleichem priamursky state university, kaf_srsr@prgusa.ru mailto:irrina79@bk.ru mailto:olya.shapovalova.1962@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 89-105 children having health limitations are ones whose health condition prevents them from mastering educational programs unless special conditions of teaching and upbringing are ensured for them. some serious deviations from the normal mental and physical development are registered in them. the group of hl children is highly non-homogeneous. this is due first of all to the fact that it encompasses children with various developmental disorders (vygotskiy, 2003). one of the most widespread variants of deviant development is speech disorder. the general underdevelopment of speech is the most frequent case in speech therapy practice. the main signs of this speech defect are disorders of sounds pronunciation and phonemic processes, small active and passive vocabulary, grammar and syntax mistakes. the children have an especial difficulty making coherent monologic utterances and dialoguing, which leads to the children of this category having limited social contacts. coherent speech as a complex verbal and cogitative activity is one of the criteria for evaluating the child's thinking, the child's social maturity. a coherent utterance has to be extended, to have meaning and to be clear for the interlocutor. coherent speech is subdivided into dialogical and monologic. monologic speech is a logically consistent utterance that is stimulated by internal motives and is not intended to be immediately responded by listeners. an utterance not only has to be extended but it also has to be logically complete and syntactically structured. for delivering a monologue, one has to previously think over the utterance, to focus one's thought on the main point, and to use the paralinguistic means of communication as appropriate. in the contemporary studies, dialogical speech is understood as a form of communication; its particular features are ease, unprepared nature of the utterances and orientation to a just heard reply. underdevelopment of coherent speech affects the formation of ideas about the world around the children, their interpersonal relationships, speech communication and play activity in pre-schoolers. when studying at school, mistakes in rendering the sequence of events in a story and in lexical and grammatical structuring of an utterance, lack of initiative in dialoguing, misunderstanding of verbal and non-verbal means of dialogue used by the interlocutor lead to problems in learning the material of the russian language, literature reading, and elementary science. given this, in order to render them further qualified assistance, it is of a high social importance to solve the problem of timely detecting the disorders of coherent speech in children having the general speech underdevelopment. emelyanova et al. literature review the scientific interests of the teachers at the department of correctional pedagogy, psychology and speech therapy are associated with studying the psychological particularities of children having health limitations, developing and testing out the new technologies of correctional and developing experience. they also consider the most efficient options for training teachers who are capable to render qualified support to children of this category (shapovalova et al., 2015; 2017; karynbaeva et al., 2017). it should be pointed out that it is the speech disorders category that is the most numerous one among children with health limitations in the educational institutions of this region. the results of studies conducted by the leading scientists of the previous and current century prove that in children having the general speech underdevelopment, the coherent speech is characterized by incorrectly rendering the semantic relationships and cause-and-effect linkage. akhutina and pylaeva (2008), glukhov (2002), zhukova, mastyukova and filicheva (1998) register a wrong sequence of utterance in the children's communicating their thoughts. this is influenced by the abilities of the precise linguistic means selection and the internal logic and semantic organization being not formed completely. the faults of phonetic, lexical and grammatical organization of speech utterance that the gsu children have are clearly manifested in the dialogical speech. against the background of the generally lower speech performance, the dialogue is characterized by short duration and deficiency. a fast depletability of drives for utterances is observed which makes the conversation stop. a lack of information required for the answer, a poor vocabulary preventing them from forming the utterances are registered in the children too (broomfield & dodd, 2004). misunderstanding the interlocutor should also be mentioned: the pre-schoolers do not try to grasp what they are told so their speech responses turn out to be irrelevant and fail to support further communication. monologic speech is characterized by even greater difficulties. children having the general speech underdevelopment make serious errors when making up a story according to the pictures given. in their stories, there are inaccurate explanations of causes of the characters' behavior, and the semantic outline of the story does not match the plot shown in the picture. the pre-schoolers have difficulty understanding the true cause of the event and they need a prolonged time for thinking over the answer; they also need an adult's approval (ahern, 2014). the systemic and dynamic approach to studying the coherent utterances of children having the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 89-105 general speech underdevelopment has enabled the researchers to speak about a marked developmental delay in semantic organization of the utterance in this cohort of children. this manifests itself in a limited semantic space and in frequently changing topic landmarks. the phonetic and prosodic disorders are quite brightly manifested in the monologic utterances (hitos et al., 2013). the following difficulties are observed in children when describing an object: the main attributes of the object are listed in a sequence not always corresponding to the suggested plan; they skip from one thought to another; the logic nature of the narration is not adhered to. for children having the speech underdevelopment, it is also quite a difficult task to retell a fairy-tale or a story. they do not always understand the meaning of the text they have listened to and when retelling they skip important semantic links, mix up the sequence of events, repeat fragments and use the words incorrectly (zhukova et al., 1998). in the coherent monologic utterances of children of this category, the complex sentences are quite few; when they are used, they may have a wrong structure. the rare usage of adjectives is also peculiar for the coherent speech. mainly, the children name such attributes of the object as color (main colors) and size (big or small). tkachenko (2003) pays attention to the fact that a coherent utterance in pre-schoolers having the speech underdevelopment is not always relevant to the communicative task emerging in a certain situation. spirova (1980), just like many other researchers, argues that in gsu pre-schoolers, oral monological speech is not formed independently. in these children, the development of coherent speech needs a clearly organized consistent correctional work. relying on the experience of the leading russian specialists, the authors nevertheless take into account the practices of foreign researchers as well, in particular, ones touching on the following aspects of the problem of their concern: the study of particularities of speech disorders manifestation in children (hopkins & barr, 2005, ingram, 2007, barbarin, 2007, hamaguchi, 2010, leonard, 1998, broomfield & dodd, 2004, hitoset al., 2013); correction and development of speech in children having logopathies (plummer, 2011, isenberg & jalongo, 2014, michael & surian, 2012, hamaguchi, 2010, roth froma & worthington, 2010, felsenfeld, 1994). emelyanova et al. methodological framework this experimental research was conducted on the basis of the municipal budget-funded pre-school educational institution "kindergarten of compensating type no. 21" of birobidzhan in 2016-2017. it involved 50 pre-school children having the general speech underdevelopment. its objective was to develop and test out an experimental diagnostic technique for studying the coherent speech in children with speech underdevelopment. the novelty of the research is presented by the original diagnostic technique and a considerable scope of the experimental data characterizing the particularities of coherent dialogical and monologic speech in pre-schoolers having the speech underdevelopment. for finding out the particularities of dialogical speech mastery, such skills as the knowledge of speech etiquette, asking for information, replication, dialogue-making were studied in the children. the extent of formation of the skills was identified using the following indices: scope and variation of speech etiquette phrases; independence and consistency of questioning; speech performance of the children; scope and characteristics of dialogical units in dialogues made up by the children; structures of sentences used by the children (brief or extended), the presence of addresses, speech mistakes. the actual speech material (the children's answers) collected has allowed analyzing the condition of dialogical speech within three levels: the low, the medium and the high one. for experimental studying of the extent of formation of the speech etiquette skill, the most traditional and accessible for pre-school children topics were used for selecting the speech communication situations: 1) greeting, 2) getting acquainted, 3) a request, 4) an apology, 5) a conflict in a game, 6) addressing an adult. after presenting each situation, the response replies of the children were recorded. answers including a speech cliché that matched a given situation were considered as positive ones. in order to identify the children's extent of acquisition of the skill of asking for information, each tested one was put into conditions that encouraged the child to ask some questions with an objective, i.e. to question. the authors suggested that the child should identify the thought-of animal from those shown in pictures by means of questioning. as an example for the children, several questions were given: is it a wild animal or a domestic one? what kind of hair does it have? what does it eat? where does it live? and so on. the experimenter's help, if required, consisted in repeating the questions. the assignment was considered to be fulfilled if the child achieved the objective (if the child named the thought-of animal correctly). the children's performance of the assignment was assessed by the following indices: the ability to journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 89-105 word questions correctly; independence in questioning; whether the objective was achieved (the animal was named correctly) and by what means – as a result of questioning or by listing the names of all animals (guessing). moreover, when analyzing the children's questions, the authors paid attention to their quantity, type, logical consistency in asking, and the effect on the final result. studying the skill of replication was intended to find out what kind of replies were used by the children more frequently and what was their speech response in conversation. for this, the experimenter offered the children to talk. the incentive replies were pronounced by the adult, and the response replies – by the child. after each exchange, the experimenter gave the opportunity for the child to resume the conversation independently, but if it was not the case, the experimenter proceeded to the following prompt. for the experiment, the following kinds of prompts were chosen: information, encouragement to act jointly, suggestion, hesitation. the children's answers were analyzed according to the following criteria: the presence of prompts (incentives), the total quantity of replies pronounced, the quantity of dialogical units in microdialogues. when studying the extent of mastery of the dialogue-making skill, it was necessary to find out if the children used the skills they had of using the speech etiquette, asking for information, and replication when making up dialogues for the suggested situations (i.e. in stimulated communication). this assignment implied finding out the children's level of dialoguemaking according to the situation given in the picture. the experimenter showed the picture and suggested that the children should make up what the conversation there was about. in case of difficulties, the experimenter helped with leading questions. the dialogues were analyzed according to the following criteria: independence of dialogue-making, the quantity of dialogical units in it, kinds of replies, the scope of information, the content of the dialogue, after which they were distributed up to levels. for studying the coherent monologic speech in the children, the techniques "continue the fairy-tale" and "make up a fairy-tale" were employed (rodionova, 2012). the "continue the fairy-tale" technique involved composing the continuation of a well-known fairy-tale. when choosing the fairy-tales, the authors were guided by the following requirements: the fairy-tale had to be kind and instructive; its language, content and main idea had to be accessible to preschoolers having the speech underdevelopment; the end of the fairy-tale had to have a slight emelyanova et al. incompleteness of the plot due to the changes (internal or external) happening to the character(s). these requirements are met by the fairy-tale by brothers grimm "mother holle", so it became the basis of the technique. the pre-schoolers listened to the fairy-tale and then suggested their options of its continuation ("say what happened to the kind girl and to the lazy one later?"). the "make up a fairy-tale" technique was aimed at finding out the abilities to make up a monologic utterance using the minimum quantity of prompts. three subject pictures showing a cow, a cat and a pig were put in front of the child. the child was asked to name the animals (various answers were accepted – a cat, a tomcat, a kitten; a cow, an ox, a calf; a pig, a boar, a piglet). then the following instruction was suggested: "make up a fairy-tale with these characters". the criteria for evaluating the coherent monologic speech in pre-school children were as follows: the quantity of semantic units (the simplest ones, dynamic or static, descriptive units of the plot development), the extent of semantic units (how extended and detailed their presentation is), the logical harmony of the monologic utterance (the interrelation of semantic units), the grammatical and lexical expression of the utterance, and the independence of performing the assignment. results and discussion the condition of dialogical speech in the gsu children was evaluated from the viewpoint of the extent of formation of dialogical skills in them. studying the speech etiquette knowledge level has shown that the extent of formation of this skill in the children mostly corresponds to the low (40%) and the medium (50%) level. the high level was demonstrated by 10% of the children only – some features of which are the good knowledge of speech clichés for the situations suggested, an ability to replace some of them with the similar ones, the use of complex structure replies and addresses, the lack of grammar or syntax mistakes in the speech. generally, the greater part of correct answers were given in situations "greeting", "request" and "apology", because they are the most widespread in the daily use so the children have an opportunity to hear the patterns of speech clichés from the adults and from their peers. hence it is in these situations that the use of variant speech clichés and replacement of the pronounced phrase by a similar ones were observed. in the "greeting" situation, they are: "how do you do" (or a reduced "how d'you do"), "hi", "good afternoon", "good morning". in the "request" situation, the phrases used are "could you please help me", "could you please get me the flower", "could you please help bring the flower down", "could you please water the flower". in the "apology" situation, the clichés were "i'm sorry", "excuse me, please", "sorry, i've broken journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 89-105 it but i didn't mean to", "i'm sorry. i won't do that again". the situation "getting acquainted" turned out to be more difficult: the phrase "what is your name?" was uttered by so few as 42% of the children. the children often used the phrases "girl, can i play with you?", "let's play", "can i be your friend?" instead of the speech cliché. when answering, 30% of the children used the speech clichés of the "getting acquainted" situation: "hi", "hello, girl", commented "i have to say hello" or had difficulty answering. the "game" and "addressing an adult" situations were considerably difficult for the children. in particular, in the "game" situation, 16% of the children said "i'll go to tell the teacher", "i'll go and tell all about you". 1 child answered as follows: "then i'll just go away and do something else". the answers of 32% of the children summed up as "please, get up off the chair", "it was me, i decided to be the driver", "take another seat". only 10% of the children answered that "we have to play in turns", "next time i'll play". in general, it should be pointed out that the children's answers were characterized by deficiency and lack of variety of the speech clichés named. the children did not know and use in their speech the speech clichés well enough. it is only in situations that are the most frequent in daily life (greeting, request, apology) that they used them the most confidently. the children rarely used the extended replies – more often, the replies were brief and reduced and included speech clichés only. moreover, the children had difficulty replacing a speech etiquette form with a similar one. the lack of addresses should be noted too which were not included by the children into the sentence structure, and so should be the syntax and grammar mistakes the quantity of which increased if they tried using complex structures. when studying the skill of asking for information, it has been found that in 60% of the children the skill formation level is evaluated as a low one. the children could question only if the experimenter helped them. they could not word a question on their own, they repeated the experimenter's questions given as an example and they tried to guess the animal by listing the names of the pictures. the objective of questioning was not achieved. here is questioning by vanya z. as an example that is typical of this level: "a kitty. (the experimenter's help.) a goat? (no.) a cow? (the experimenter's help – offering to repeat the question pattern.) domestic? (no.) wild? (yes.) a bear. (no.) a bunny. (no.) a wolf. (no.) who then?". the medium mastery level of the skill of asking for information was shown by 40% of the children. for these children, it was characteristic to show independence in posing the questions, a wish to attain the objective and an interest in the assignment. a greater independence in questioning was observed, as compared to that of the low level. however, they needed the experimenter's help for achieving the objective of the questioning because the children did not have the logical link between asking for information and selecting the animal: emelyanova et al. they often tried to name the animal not as a result of questioning but by guessing. for example, daniil a. questioned as follows: "is it domestic or wild?" (domestic.) and what tail has it got? (a long one.) a cat. (no. ask on.) what color? (it is red in our picture.) a squirrel! (here the experimenter's reminds "it is but a domestic animal".) and does it give milk? (yes.) a cow? (correct.)". no high mastery level of the skill of asking for information was found during the experiment, because even when the objective of questioning was achieved it was conducted by the children in an inconsistent way, they did not always use the information received from the experimenter correctly, they asked questions just formally or tried to guess the animal. the children often got distracted and asked irrelevant questions: "are we going to guess all animals?", "who are you going to call after me?" or worded the questions for a long time. as a result, the questioning ran over time. when doing the assignment, the children needed the adult's assistance because they had difficulty wording the question on their own. most frequently, the questions worded were not associated between each other logically, which hindered the children's attaining the objective of questioning. the questioning was quite often replaced by trying to guess the animal the name of which was the objective of questioning by listing the pictures placed in front of the child. for individual children, the questioning process was rather formal because for them the experimenter's answers were not the information to guide to the next question. as for studying the replication skill in children having the speech underdevelopment, the analysis of the results has shown that the answers of 68% of the children were up to the low level. the children got involved into the dialogue passively, they responded to prompts in individual cases only, with the response replies being short, mainly one-word, and frequently replaced by gestures or motor reactions. the conversation progressed slowly and went on only upon the experimenter's initiative. throughout the conversation time, no more than 3 replies were uttered by the children, with micro-dialogues not exceeding one dialogical unit. the answers of 32% of the children were classified as the medium level. these children showed a greater extent of speech performance, they responded to the interlocutor's (experimenter's) replies fast, however, they gave few (1-2) incentive replies that allowed continuing the conversation. in general, it was observed that the children uttered a greater quantity of replies. now, the record of conversation with a child whose replies are characteristic for the medium level is given below as an example. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 89-105 the experimenter the child 1. i have got a kitten. dangerous? why? if you don't disturb the dog, it won't bite. a kitten, it's a very dangerous. no, it's a dog who is dangerous. it bites. then it's not dangerous. 2. let's draw a picture. what would you like to draw? what picture? little sun. 3. it must rain today. do you agree with it? why have you decided so? yes. it is dull outside and there are clouds … …(is silent) (nods) i feel it will rain (after some time). because it'll rain now. … (is silent) 4. i don't know what to buy: a construction kit or a ball? do you think so? and what would you choose? why? and you can play football and basketball with a ball. a ballie. no, a construction kit … or a ball … a construction kit. because it is built and it does not play. yes. no cases of a high replication skill mastery level have been found. generally, the children's answers confirm that among the diversity of replies the following types were the most frequently repeated: information ("i have got pet fishes", "my granny has got a cat and a dog"), agreement or disagreement ("let's do it" or "no, i can't draw"), a piece of advice ("it's better to buy a construction kit because it is built", "a ball, it can be kicked"), a question ("what kind of?", "what is the name?", "why draw?"), explanation for agreement or advice ("because the weather is good today"), a emelyanova et al. request ("could you draw", "make a present to me"), a suggestion ("next time bring your umbrella with you"). the analysis of results of studying the dialogue-making skill mastery has shown that the dialogue-making skill corresponds to a low level in 52% of the children. dialogue-making was very difficult for children and had to be helped by the experimenter. as a result, the independent dialogue-making was replaced by answers to the questions or responses to the experimenter's prompts. in particular, the only actions children could manage were identifying the topic of the talk and making up individual short, mainly one-word replies that. some replies were replaced with gestures. below a dialogue is given that is typical of the low level. the experimenter the child what do these hedgehogs talk about? what do the hedgehogs say to each other? what does this hedgehog say? he says … and what does this hedgehog answer? what does this hedgehog ask? he probably asks "where did you go?" and what does this one answer? what else will he ask? the hedgehog will probably ask "what are you going to do with the apples?" and what answer will he hear? about mushrooms… and little apple's. … (is silent) hi. hi. … (is silent) … (nods) i went at the forest, i picked up mushrooms and little apple's. … (is silent) i'll eat them. the answers of 48% of the children corresponded to the medium level. the children had difficulty starting the dialogue and they needed the experimenter's aid, though showing a greater extent of independence in making up the dialogue. the children made up brief dialogues the structure of which included 1-2 dialogical units. in particular, they more often used information journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 89-105 replies in the form of simple structure sentences. here is an example of a dialogue made up by a child having this level of the skill: the experimenter the child what does this hedgehog talk about? and what does this one answer? one has to get acquainted when meeting. how will hedgehogs do it? what are they going to say at parting? give me the mushroom. take another for yourself, here they stand. what is your name? my name is hedgehog, girl hedgehog. and my name is boy hedgehog. take my little apple, and you give me the mushroom. no cases of a high mastery level of the dialogue-making skill have been found in the children during the research. when making up dialogues, all children needed the experimenter's help. for the majority of the children, brief one-word sentences were characteristic, as well as partial replacement of replies with gestures, lack of initiative and independence. the dialogues were replaced by individual replies. using the experimenter's help other children could make up brief dialogues the structure of which nevertheless including 1-2 dialogical units. the replies usually were information ones presented as simple sentences, frequently the one-word ones. that is, the faults found in previous experimental assignments (failing to know the speech etiquette, to know how to ask for information, lack of variety of the replies etc.) were reflected in the dialogues made up by the children. thus, a low speech performance of gsu pre-school children, a lack of initiative and independence in communication, a small scope and lack of variety of the replies made up on their own, and failure to know how to unite them into dialogical units confirm the insufficient development of dialogical speech in this category of children. according to the results of studying the particularities of monologic speech, the authors have noticed that most children could start making up a continuation of a fairy-tale story (the "continue the fairy-tale" technique) independently. however, as they proceeded with the narration, they broke the logical harmony of the utterance and made logic and factual mistakes. it was the assignment in which they had to make up a fairy-tale with suggested characters (the "make up a fairy-tale" technique) that the pre-schoolers had the greatest difficulty doing. not all emelyanova et al. children understood the instructions to the effect that they had to make up an entirely new fairytale. many even failed to think of what their fairy-tale would be about (to create an idea), and far not everyone came up with completed plots. the pre-schoolers needed help in the form of leading questions or action development options. the fairy-tales told by the children usually had neither a logical end nor a correct sequence of events rendering. the majority of children did not describe the personal traits and appearance of the character; they spoke about the individual fairy-tale events in brief, i.e. the description was limited and contained only very few adjectives and adverbs. lexical and grammar mistakes were also made by the children. proceeding from the criteria developed and the empirically obtained results, the authors could subdivide all participants of the experiment into two groups. the first group included 33 children (66% of the total quantity of the tested ones) who had a low level of development of the coherent monologic speech. they had difficulty understanding the assignment to make up a fairy-tale with the given characters. the children either said "i do not know" or gave monosyllabic replies to the teacher's answers or tried retelling a fairy-tale they had known. even after being explained the assignment, they showed little interest in it. some tried making up an idea of further narration but failed to detail it completely; there were few semantic units and there was little connection between them. when the children had to make up a continuation of a fairy-tale, their utterances consisted of several simple sentences and were not always up to the original plot. in the children, mistakes in the use of prepositions ("take us out at the oven" instead of "take us out of the oven", "went from the house" instead of "went out of the house"), wrong formation of case forms ("the gaten were closed" instead of "the gates were closed", "there were many golds" instead of "there was much gold"), and repetitions of the words "there" and "then" were observed. when the children performed the "make up a fairy-tale" technique assignment, there were fairy-tales in which only one of the suggested characters acted. for example, "once upon a time there was a cat. once he saw… a lionee. and the lion ran after him. then the lion caught him and ate him." the question on what happened to the pig and the cow was answered by the child as "she was eating grass". in longer fairy-tales composed by the children having a low level of development of the monologic speech, the events were merely beaded on other events and individual episodes were not connected between each other. sometimes there also were quite a lot of characters who emerged and disappeared randomly journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 89-105 during the narration. so the children could not answer the question "what is your fairy-tale about?". the second group consisted of 17 children (34 % of the total quantity of the tested ones) who had the medium level of development of the coherent monologic speech. the children of this group understood the task and showed interest in it. meanwhile, some children had difficulty creating the idea. so the fairy-tale or the continuation were only told after the teacher suggested some action unfolding options. at the same time, other children had no difficulty creating the idea but they could not deliver it in detail. the fairy-tales were short and simple in the content. here is a fragment of a fairy tale as an example: "…they went to the river and drank. and then they ate little apples. the apple's were two. it was not enough for the cow. so they shared with it. and then they went home to sleep. and then they went for a walk. then everybody began eating and they gave to everybody five apple's". the utterances of the children of this group did not always feature logical consistency (not all semantic units were interrelated, they would sometimes "slip" on to images and plots from other fairy-tales). the pre-schoolers had some mistakes when rendering the cause-and-effect links and temporal relations. they needed the experimenter's stimulating help (not more than three questions). most frequently, the experimenter asked the children such questions as "what happened next?", "what did the character do?". the questions encouraged the children to continue their narration and unfold the plot in more detail. the authors have not identified a high level of development of coherent monologic speech in any child, which proves the necessity of a targeted work on developing the lexical and grammatical side of the speech, the ability to make up independent and logically complete utterances. conclusion the particularities of development of children having the general speech underdevelopment limit the children's ideas about the world around them and are not up to development of the need of speech communication. they also slow down the process of speech development and lend it a peculiar quality. the data of theoretical analysis and the experimental research conducted give evidence about difficulties in building coherent utterances, about singularity of the coherent dialogic and monologic speech in children of senior pre-school age emelyanova et al. having this pathology. the latter prevent a sufficient level of speech readiness for schooling and a successful socialization from forming in these children. this allows stating that the development of coherent speech is the main task of speech development for pre-schoolers having the general speech underdevelopment. for solving the problem, efficient methodological ways and means have to be found and implemented in conditions of a targeted and consistent correctional pedagogical work. one of the essential conditions for developing coherent speech in children of this category is the creation of a motivation for communicating, the formation of an aspiration to speak about oneself, one's friends and observations of life. during speech therapy classes, such situations have to be created that would make a need of speech utterances urgent and that would put each pre-schooler having the general speech underdevelopment into such conditions when they get an independent wish to speak out and to share their impressions. it is the directly speech motive that has to underlie the children's utterances. the use of speech situations in speech therapy classes will allow forming and developing in pre-schoolers having the general speech underdevelopment an ability to find one's bearings in the external conditions of situations, to plan the communication act content, to choose and use both verbal and non-verbal means according to the speech situation, to fulfill a program during communication and to evaluate its results. depending on the situation, they will learn how to change their communicative and speech behavior. references ahern, k. (2014). how do speech disorders affect your family and how might they be treated? online publication. url: http://todayschildmagazine.co.uk/2014/01/speech-disorders/ akhutina, t.v. & pylaeva, n.m. (2008). overcoming the difficulties of learning: a neuropsychological approach. spb.: piter. barbarin, o.a. (2007). mental health screening of preschool children: validity and reliability of able. american journal of orthopsychiatry, 77(3), 402-418. baytak, a., tarman, b., & ayas, c. (2011). experiencing technology integration in education: children's perceptions. international electronic journal of elementary education, 3(2), 139-151. http://todayschildmagazine.co.uk/2014/01/speech-disorders/ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 89-105 broomfield, j. & dodd b. (2004). children with speech and language disability: caseload characteristics. international journal of language and communication disorders, 39, 303–334. felsenfeld, s. (1994). developmental speech and language disorder. in: nature and nurture during middle childhood. defries, j.c., plomin, r. & fulker, d. (eds.). oxford, uk, 102-119. glukhov, v.p. (2002). the formation of coherent speech in pre-school children having the general speech underdevelopment. moscow: arkti. hamaguchi, p.mca. (2010). childhood speech, language, and listening problems. new york: wiley, john & sons, incorporated. hitos, s.f., arakaki, r., solé, d., weckx l.l.m. (2013). oral breathing and speech disorders in children. jornal de pediatria, 4, 361-365. hopkins, b. & barr ronald, g. (2005). the cambridge encyclopedia of child development. cambridge: cambridge university. ingram, j.c.l. (2007). neurolinguistics. an introduction to spoken language processing and its disorders. cambridge: cambridge university press. isenberg, j.p. & jalongo, m.r. (2014). creative thinking and arts-based learning: preschool through fourth grade. upper saddle river, nj: pearson. karynbaeva, o.v., shapovalova, o.e., shklyar, n.v., borisova, e.a. & emelyanova, i.a. (2017). formation of professional readiness in teachers for inclusive education of children with health limitations. man in india, 97(16), 263-274. leonard, l.b. (1998). children with specific language impairment. london, 335. michael, s. & surian, l. (2012). access to language and cognitive development. usa: oxford university press. plummer, d.m. (2011). therapeutic activities for teachers, parents and therapists. london and philadelphia: mpg books group. rodionova, g.s. (2012). the development of imagination in senior schoolchildren having the general speech underdevelopment in the process of working with fairy-tales. phd thesis abstract. nizhniy novgorod. roth froma, p. & worthington, c.k. (2010). treatment resource manual for speech-language pathology. cengage learning. emelyanova et al. shapovalova, o.e., shklyar, n.v., emelyanova, i.a., borisova, e.a. & karynbaeva, o.v. (2017). the attitude to learning of primary school students with health limitations. man in india, 97(3), 199-209. shapovalova, o.e., shklyar, n.v., emelyanova, i.a., borisova, e.a., rodionova, g.s., karynbaeva, o.v., dunaeva, e.s. & koryakina, n.v. (2015). support of disabled children's psychological and pedagogical development. biology and medicine, 7. online publication. url: http://www.biolmedonline.com/articles/vol7_4_2015/bm-13215_support-of-disabled-childrens-psychological-and-pedagogical-development.pdf spirova, l.f. (1980). particularities of speech development of students having severe speech disorders. moscow: pedagogika. tarman, b. tarman, i. (2011). teachers’ involvement in children’s play and social interaction, elementary education online (ilköğretim online), 10 (1). 180-194. tkachenko, t.a. (2003). modeling and playing out the fairy-tales at individual speech therapy classes with pre-schoolers. practical psychology and speech therapy, 3-4, 74-80. vygotskiy, ls. (2003). fundamentals of defectology. saint-petersburg: lan. zhukova, n.s., mastyukova, e.m., filicheva, t.b. (1998). speech therapy. overcoming the general speech underdevelopment in pre-schoolers. ekaterinburg: ard ltd. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2016: 7(2), 75-108 © 2016 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 preparing globally competent teacher candidates through crosscultural experiential learning michael a. kopish1 abstract this manuscript presents findings and implications from a case study of one global educator's attempt to develop globally competent teacher candidates in an elective teacher preparation course. global citizenship education served as the framing paradigm for the course and human experiences of immigrants and refugees served as the milieu for teacher candidates to learn critical inquiry. teacher candidates also participated in several cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities designed to facilitate the development of global competencies (longview, 2008) in teacher candidates. students' reflective journals were analyzed to determine the personal significance of different learning experiences and the extent to which teacher candidates’ perceptions of immigrants and refugees changed as a result of the course content and activities. the findings demonstrate the potential of critical inquiry and cross-cultural experiential learning as transformative teaching practices to develop globally competent teachers. keywords: global citizenship, teacher candidates, case study. introduction young people live in epochal times; a period when more people are displaced than at any time in world history, a time when one’s mobile device connects to others around the globe and brings events to the palm of our hands. connections allow young people to bear witness to the crisis of this generation: historic human migration (refugees and immigrants) and the impact on host societies’ social, economic, and political arenas (i.e. labor market, social and health services, the education system, housing policy). increasingly, we see images of refugees’ death and suffering, citizenship crises that strip people of human rights and dignity or detain people for indefinite periods of time. the growing population of people without citizenship status draws attention to the number of people living in countries without political rights and unveils the challenges to democracy and lack of democratic development in migration societies. our world is becoming increasingly interconnected which presents new challenges for teacher educators. the global scale of human migration and other issues such as social inequality, environmental and ecological degradation, war and violence, health and 1 assist. prof., ohio university, kopish@ohio.edu journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 poverty, trade and technology, human rights and social justice also manifest in local settings. these global issues and crises emerge as different problems across societies. they complicate notions of nation-state boundaries and the application of legal frameworks within and across borders; they place tremendous stress on global relations and international regulatory and security regimes. as we take these and other global challenges into consideration, it prompts the question: how should teacher educators prepare teacher candidates (tcs) with the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to address complicated and challenging global issues with students? as educators, we must open new ways of conceiving civic education and global education to promote global understanding and empower young people to engage to resolve local/global issues with social, cultural, political, economic, and environmental dimensions. the role of educators is imperative if we are to move beyond a limited notion of education for the development of knowledge. educators must work to expand opportunities for young people to build global competencies that include skills and dispositions that facilitate local/global inquiry and cooperation, promote critical reflection, and inspire action for social transformation. we need globally competent teachers who are able to facilitate the development of young people to become informed, engaged, and globally competent citizens. according to the longview foundation (2008), globally competent teachers possess the following attributes:  knowledge of the international dimension of their subject matter and a range of global issues  pedagogical skills to teacher their students to analyze primary sources from around the world, appreciate multiple points of view and recognize stereotyping  a commitment to assisting students to become responsible citizens both of the world and of their own communities (p. 7). there is no prescriptive path for teacher education programs that aspire to achieve these outcomes with tcs. therefore, teacher educators must identify and address the current challenges in efforts to prepare globally competent teachers by: enacting promising global education practices and developing global citizenship education (gce) courses and curriculum. michael a. kopish 77 teacher educators face many challenges in the preparation of globally competent teachers. scholars, for example, argue that opportunities for teacher training and professional development have not kept up with the demands and needs of a global society (o’connor & zeichner, 2011; osler & vincent, 2002). in fact, internationalizing efforts in teacher education has “often been a conversation on the fringes of teacher education or historically associated with specific subject matter such as social studies” (shaklee & baily, 2012, p. 11). other challenges for teacher educators begin before students are accepted into teacher licensure programs. in the u.s., for example, global education 2receives little attention in the k-12 school curriculum (rapoport, 2009); this results in students having limited global knowledge and few global experiences. given the present set of challenges for teacher educators, researchers and scholars have identified several practices to help overcome training and experience issues. the gold standard for teacher education programs continues to be international immersion experiences like study abroad or international student teaching (merryfield & kasai, 2010; pence & macgillivray, 2008. when international experiences are not an option, other practices for teacher educators to consider include: creating stand-alone global education courses (parkhouse, et. al. 2015; ukpokodu, 2010); infusing global content in courses and teach multiple perspectives and worldviews (carano, 2013; poole & russell, 2015); engaging teacher candidates in cross-cultural dialogue (braskamp & engberg, 2011; crose, 2011); and teaching global issues through critical inquiry (o’connor & zeichner, 2011). another promising practice, cross-cultural experiential learning, involves providing tcs with opportunities to learn with and from people of cultures different from their own (merryfield, 2000; ukpokodu, 2010). the global issues and crises of our time also require tcs to not simply learn about people in other parts of the world, but be active participants in a global civil society. gce is one framework that merits consideration among teacher educators. there are, however, tensions from competing ideologies of gce: one driven by economic aims (i.e. to prepare knowledge workers in a global economy) and one for social justice (i.e. to prepare students 2 in this study, global education is a term used internationally to designate the academic field concerned with teaching and learning about global issues, events and perspectives (hicks, 2003). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 to be active participants in a global civil society and work toward a more peaceful world) (dicicco, 2016). from a social justice perspective, gce moves beyond an exclusively national perspective of world affairs and seeks to avoid a social-studies approach that tends to tokenize and exocitize foreign places and people. as an ideal, the concept of global citizenship education encourages students to adopt a critical understanding of globalization, to reflect on how they and their nations are implicated in local and global problems, and to engage in intercultural perspectives (pashby, 2012, p. 9). in practice, gce for social justice requires students to explore global relations of power and privilege, legacies of exploitation and violence, and take action to interrupt injustices (andreotti, 2006; pashby, 2012; rizvi, 2009). however, because gce is politically and ideologically contested, teacher educators may need additional incentives and training to teach courses with gce-related ideas (rapoport, 2015). drawing from a case study (yin, 2009) of one global educator’s attempt to develop globally competent teachers, this manuscript offers insights into tcs’ development of global competencies and perceptual changes resulting from cross-cultural experiential learning in a gce-designed course. tcs were enrolled in an elective education course entitled issues in global education during the spring 2016 semester at a rural university in the united states. this case illustrates the potential of cross-cultural experiential learning in the development of globally competent teachers and offers several implications for global educators to consider. literature review the current need: more globally competent teachers in an increasingly diverse and globally connected world, we need teachers who possess global competencies, “a body of knowledge about world regions, cultures, and global issues, and the skills and dispositions to engage responsibly and effectively in a global environment” (longview foundation, 2008, p. 7). toward the goal of developing global competencies in students, colleges and universities and engaged in efforts to internationalize or globalize in some way, but this work has not been as widely undertaken in teacher education as in higher education more generally. in fact, education programs are often among the least internationalized on u.s. campuses (longview foundation, 2008). michael a. kopish 79 while there are various approaches and efforts to internationalize teacher education in the u.s., prominent approaches involve: infusing global content in existing courses, creating new global courses, and offering global experiences (quezada & corderio, 2016). despite these efforts, in the u.s. pre-service teachers 3 face several barriers to receive global education and global experiences in their teacher preparation courses. for one, coursework for pre-service teachers in global education is limited (kirkwood-tucker, 2009). often the content and opportunities for tcs are oriented toward local rather than global contexts (zhao, 2010) or global content is infused in courses that focus on culture and diversity (parkhouse, et al, 2015) and not specifically on global education. second, teacher education programs expect that lessons gained from these limited courses will transfer to and help form tcs’ global perspectives (ukpokodu, 2010). ultimately, more opportunities are needed for tcs to develop global knowledge, skills, and dispositions associated with global competencies (longview, 2008). to address the obstacles listed above and develop global competencies in teacher candidates, teacher licensure programs need to incentivize development of separate global education courses and offer more global opportunities and experiences for training teacher educators (kirkwood-tucker, 2009; parkhouse, et. al. 2015; ukpokodu, 2010). currently, if teacher education programs have a global education effort it is a patchwork of disparate emphases infused in courses by faculty rather than a coordinated approach as recommended by research (ferguson-patrick, macqueen, & reynolds, 2014; robbins, francis, & elliott, 2003). efforts to prepare globally competent teachers are often insufficient; this challenge is compounded by the fact tcs enter teacher licensure programs with little global knowledge and few global experiences. challenges to globally competent teachers begins with the k-12 curriculum teacher educators must also consider the prior experiences of tcs in k-12 classrooms both as former students and when working with practicing teachers during field placements and internships. in k-12 settings, social studies courses are the traditional home for global education. today’s tcs in undergraduate teacher training programs in the u.s. 3 in american teacher preparation programs, the terms ‘pre-service teachers’ and ‘teacher candidates’ can be used interchangeably to describe university students who are in a period of guided mentorship, supervised teaching, and university-based coursework prior to licensure. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 are products of a post 9-11 environment where the role of social studies in schools changed as a result of ideological pressures and shifts in curricular and pedagogical emphases. as a discipline, the social studies have a long and contentious history consisting of ideological battles over the purpose, content, and methods (evans, 2004); one such battle is over global education. on one side are those who think social studies should promote american history, heritage, and democratic ideals above all else. course content should cover western social, political, and historical foundations, and emphasize american exceptionalism and the contributions of individuals from the dominant culture (agresto et. al, 2003; leming, ellington, & porter, 2003). on the other side are global education scholars who argue the social studies are responsible for the development of global citizens (banks, 2007; merryfield, 1997; parker, 2004). these scholars argue for teaching global interconnectedness and interdependence, to explore shared values, ideals and goals to which all citizens are committed, and investigate critical issues of the day and critique issues of power relations through diverse voices and multiple perspectives. it is also important to acknowledge that most tcs’ k-12 social studies experiences occurred during an era of legislation that emphasized high stakes testing. in social studies, high stakes testing is associated with narrowing curricula to include only content tested on the examination (grant et al. 2002; vogler, 2006). narrowing of curricula often results in the exclusion of diverse content, voices, and perspectives (apple, 2014; apple & buras, 2006; au 2009; kumashiro, 2015). pedagogically, high stakes testing increases social studies teacher dependency on teacher-centered practices and emphasis on the textbook as curriculum (ross, 2000; segall, 2006; van hover & heinecke, 2005). against the backdrop of the two competing visions of social studies and the curricular challenges from high stakes testing, research on global education in the u.s. highlights additional issues and concerns. to begin, due to lack of teacher training in global education, teachers are often not comfortable teaching courses that cover world issues and global content (rapoport, 2010). this affects classroom instruction as american students have little knowledge about the world and global issues (merryfield, 1998) and lack crosscultural awareness and perspective consciousness (merryfield & subedi, 2003). scholars posit the lack of global knowledge, perspectives, and awareness is related to the fact that michael a. kopish 81 global education receives little attention in american k-12 school curriculum, in social studies state standards, and that few teachers engage in global education (rapoport, 2009, 2010) when global education is taught, curricula, teaching practices, and teacher perceptions reinforce american exceptionalism and the “us/them” binary of american citizens and the rest of the world (gaudelli, 2003; hong & halvorsen, 2010; merryfield & subedi, 2003) and may unintentionally increase misunderstanding and perpetuate stereotypes (crocco, 2010; merryfield & wilson, 2005; ukpokodu, 2010). to further illustrate the issues in the research presented thus far, myers (2006) conducted a study of global education efforts in the united states and offered a sobering critique. he found teachers in u.s. high schools excluded global human rights issues, affirmed national sovereignty, and were unaware of scholarship and efforts related to global education. myers (2006) concluded the united states “has not overcome the political and cultural stigma of globalism as anti-american” (p. 389). practices to develop globally competent teachers in the past several decades, researchers in the united states advanced a coordinated approach to global education in teacher training and facilitate the development of globally competent teachers. coordinated approaches involve the following practices: 1) crosscultural experiences such as international student teaching and study abroad (cushner & mahon, 2002; merryfield & kasai, 2010; pence & macgillivray, 2008); 2) cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities that model global perspectives and allow to students to practice with multiple perspectives and worldviews (merryfield & kasai, 2010; ukpokodu, 2010), local opportunities for intercultural dialogue in educational settings (braskamp & engberg, 2011; crose, 2011), and authentic learning and inquiry-based practices (o’connor & zeichner, 2011); and 3) courses that teach diverse content such as information about countries and regions outside the united states and western world and include multiple perspectives and worldviews of the world’s people (carano, 2013; merryfield & subedi, 2003; poole & russell, 2015) and incorporate pedagogy of comparisons through cross-case analysis of global issues (boix mansilla & chua, 2016). in combination, international travel, cross-cultural experiential learning, and courses with diverse global content are imperative in the development of globally competent teachers. for teacher educators, it is essential to create opportunities for tcs to meet and talk with journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 people from different cultures. these experiences enable tcs to develop cross-cultural awareness and perspectives, build cross-cultural relationships, and practice cross-cultural communication skills. given the set of challenges to develop globally competent teachers addressed in the research, the issues in global education course incorporated several pedagogical practices recommended by research: cross-cultural experiential learning, intercultural dialogue, authentic learning and critical inquiry. through these practices the issues course sought to effectively prepare tcs with the requisite knowledge, skills, and dispositions, to globally competent teachers. perhaps most importantly, global citizenship education (gce) framed the course content, student experiences, and teaching practices. conceptual framework: global citizenship education over the past several decades, various scholars traced global educational movements and argued for different emphases, aims, and perspectives (davies, 2006; gaudelli & hielman, 2009; hanvey, 1976; heilman, 2006, 2007; hicks, 2003; kirkwoodtucker, 2002; merryfield, 1997; osler & vincent, 2002; pike & selby, 1988; standish, 2012, 2014; tye, 2003, 2009). global citizenship, for example, has been part of educators thinking for many years but is relatively new issue in education (su, bullivant, & holt, 2013). many argue that in an increasingly interconnected and interdependent world, education for global citizenship is essential to make education relevant and engage young people in actions to address global issues (gaudelli & wylie, 2012; gaudelli, 2016; heilman, 2009; ibrahim, 2005;). global citizenship education (gce) is a “framing paradigm which encapsulates how education can develop the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes learners need for securing a world which is more just, peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure and sustainable” (unesco, 2014, p. 9). the content of gce centers on principles such as non-violence, human rights, cultural diversity, democracy, and tolerance. osler and vincent (2002) maintain, gce is “fundamentally about power –it is a space within which the young global citizen can learn not only about the massive global inequalities between rich and poor nations, but also about the ways in which globalization as a cultural and economic force aggravates local inequalities” (p. 51). thus, gce tends to be issues-centered (i.e., michael a. kopish 83 environmental degradation, cultural identity, war, migrant labor) with focus on issues in local-global contrasts. pedagogically, gce teacher educators facilitate development of global competencies through critical inquiry by encouraging tcs to investigate and question common judgment, and explore the past from historical-critical positions. through critical inquiry tcs learn to distinguish between reliable and biased information sources; to know and reflect on one’s point of view and interests; and to form an opinion and make judgments based on new information. when investigating local-global issues, tcs learn to read and interpret information, to collect, analyze and present data. they critically analyze information to recognize and critique power structures and realize there are multiple perspectives. as a political pedagogy, gce encourages tcs to identify and reflect upon their own standpoint, to listen to others and defend personal beliefs and opinions respectfully and argumentatively. as tcs develop global competencies, they are encouraged to put what they learn into action. perhaps most significantly, gce promotes commitment to social justice and citizen action (andreotti, 2006; dicicco, 2016; pashby, 2012; rizvi, 2009) and can enable tcs “to learn about their rights and responsibilities and equip them with skills for democratic participation, at all levels, from local to global” (ibrahim, 2005, pp. 178-179). methodology research design creswell (2005) posited qualitative research is used to study problems of which little is known and require a detailed understanding of a central phenomenon. this research employs qualitative methods using data from a case study (yin, 2009) to describe and explain a phenomenon of interest: to what extent cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities facilitate perspective change and foster the development of globally competent teachers in a teacher education program. specific to this research, the following research questions guided the inquiry: 1. what significant learning experiences contributed to global learning and development of global competencies? 2. as a result of course content and activities, to what extent did teacher candidates’ perceptions of immigrants and refugees change? journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 participants study participants included 23 undergraduate tcs enrolled in issues in global education at a medium-sized rural university in the appalachians. participants represented different undergraduate teacher training programs including: secondary social studies (n=6), early childhood (n=5), english/language arts (n=4), secondary science (n=3), preearly childhood (n=3), special education (n=1), and secondary math (n=1). confidentiality irb approval for this study was obtained and all 23 tcs provided written consent. to avoid coercion, written consent was collected from teacher candidates on the final day of the course by a colleague and not shared with the author until after grades were due. in the findings section of this manuscript efforts were made to preserve anonymity and confidentiality of the participants. specifically, “tc” was used instead of pseudonyms along with gender-neutral pronouns. the issues in global education course the author collaborated with globally competent educators from various programs and departments (i.e. global studies, african studies, the center for international studies, counseling and higher education, linguistics, and global health) to select readings and develop cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities for the issues course. using gce as a framing paradigm, human experiences of immigrants and refugees served as the milieu for tcs to learn critical inquiry and problem-based approaches. tcs examined the complexities of global problems, their interdependence, and the effects on human experiences through a critical country study inquiry that explored push/pull factors of migration in several understudied regions of the world: latin america, regions of africa, the middle east, and regions of asia. special attention was given to case studies focused on unaccompanied minors from central america and the ongoing refugee crisis in syria to model practices of critical inquiry and global perspectives. tcs were then called to take actions and apply their new understanding of issues to human migration. they designed educational materials to dispel myths about immigrants and refugees, which were used at an international medical conference on immigrant and refugee health. the critical country studies were opportunities for tcs to engage in authentic learning and inquiry (o’connor michael a. kopish 85 & zeichner), and pedagogy of comparisons through cross-case analysis of human migration (boix mansilla & chua, 2016). the issues course also provided multiple instances for tcs to participate in crosscultural experiential learning opportunities to learn about global issues and implications for teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students in schools. tcs were provided local opportunities for intercultural dialogue (braskamp & engberg, 2011; crose, 2011) and practice with multiple perspectives through cross-cultural dialogue (merryfield & kasai, 2010; ukpokodu, 2010). during three consecutive weeks, tcs were involved in three cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities which involved: a) one 90-minute intercultural communication training; b) one 3-hour cross-cultural dialogue session with international students from africa, the middle east, and south asia to discuss lived experiences and perspectives on issues related to human migration; and c) one 2-hour workshop on best practices for working with culturally and linguistically diverse students followed by an hour-long discussion with international students from the middle east and asia enrolled in an intensive english program. procedures tcs enrolled in the course completed five reflective journals during the semester over the following topics: 1) initial reflections on global knowledge and experience, 2) immigration critical country study, 3) refugee critical country study, 4) cross-cultural experiential learning workshops, and 5) summative reflection on the course. for each reflection, students responded to a series of open-ended questions (see appendix a). to encourage tcs to respond with rich descriptions of their experiences with course content and cross-cultural experiential learning, all journals required 1000-1500 words. a timeline of the writing and analysis process is provided in appendix b. analysis the analysis of data adhered to phases of thematic analysis as outlined by braun and clarke (2006). first, i became familiar with the data through immersion and repeated reading and generating an initial list of ideas about the data. for the second step i generated initial codes using a semantic approach (patton, 1990) and worked systematically through the entire data set giving full and equal attention to each written response. third, i searched for themes by sorting different codes into potential themes, gathering data relevant to the journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 themes, and considering the relationship across themes. fourth, i reviewed themes and examples within codes and across the entire data set. in the fifth step i defined and named themes by generating clear descriptive language for each theme and prepared this manuscript (see appendix c for example). trustworthiness in this section i provide evidence for how i addressed what lincoln and guba (1985) describe as four types of trustworthiness in qualitative research. in order to establish credibility i engaged in ongoing reflexive dialogue and memo writing, analyzed sufficient data from over 400 pages of reflective journals, coded and re-coded data with two-week intervals between sessions (krefting, 1991), and incorporated direct written quotes from participants in this manuscript. to establish transferability i engaged with the literature during analysis on an ongoing basis to enhance the relevance of findings (tuckett, 2005); as such, findings may inform future practices and desired outcomes of global teacher education. to establish dependability i offer transparency of research methods and procedures (attrride-stirling, 2001; holloway & todres, 2003), and explain the procedures adopted for thematic analysis (braun & clarke, 2006). finally, to establish confirmability i participated in peer debriefing with global education experts (lincoln & guba, 1985) and employed a semantic approach (patton, 1990) with these data, which allowed me to analyze themes aligned with previous research. findings the following section is organized by examining tcs’ experiences in high school social studies classes and their personal reflections regarding their knowledge and experience with global issues and cultures prior to entering class. from tcs’ prior global knowledge and experience as a baseline, i provide tcs’ assessment of significant learning experiences that contributed to student learning and the development of dispositional global competencies. finally, i present themes from the data as evidence of changes in perception about immigrants and refugees. fragmented facts and parochial perceptions: the disconnect of american students and the global community with few exceptions tcs’ described their high school social studies experiences as focused on us history with very little world history, global issues, or global current events. michael a. kopish 87 consistent with previous research (gaudelli, 2003; hong & halvorsen, 2010; merryfield & subedi, 2003) courses were typically taught from american perspectives; tcs described binaries that reinforced the perspective: “us vs. them,” “allies and enemies,” and “winners and losers of war.” classes where tcs learned about global current events or controversial issues involving human migration were “reserved for a privileged few” (i.e. ap/college track) and limited to a specific time period (i.e. after the ap exams in late april/early may). for most tcs, any study of countries outside the united states was limited to key events (i.e., immigrants coming to the u.s. through ellis island, the holocaust, or genocide in rwanda) or by teachers covering a “country’s geography, population, religion, and language and other information that was too general or abstract to have any impact or meaning.” in sum, as one tc described, “the extent of ‘what’s happening in the world?’ we never looked into immigrant or refugee statuses associated with different current events.” upon reflection tcs’ conceded having very little knowledge or awareness about immigrant or refugee experiences or the magnitude of conditions that force the displacement of people. the lack of coverage and opportunity afforded in high school social studies led to a knowledge gap where tcs’ knew little information, did not recognize global issues as complex, or see issues associated with human migration as important. as one tc described, “i didn’t know much about immigration or refugees and never took time to learn much about it. i think the main reason i didn’t take the time to learn more about immigration is because i was naïve and didn’t think it affected me in anyway.” tcs knowledge gap also demonstrated a lack of exposure and experience with global issues and people from around the world. their global knowledge and experience void was filled by the media and parents as the main sources of information. tcs recalled, “hearing about certain events” (e.g., donald trump’s mexico wall plan) or “seeing things online” (e.g., the 2015 image of the 2 year old washed ashore in turkey), but never felt empowered to learn more about these or other examples. to illustrate, a tc offered: i knew some things about immigration, but nothing concrete. i knew a limited amount about immigration from what i heard in the news, articles online, or things my parents told me. i heard people like donald trump talking about building a wall journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 along the mexico border, but never really looked into the actual policies or stories of real people. the disparate information that tcs consumed passively and uncritically from different sources led many to have misunderstanding from incomplete or inaccurate information. for example, tcs offered some of the following examples of misinformation: “all refugees from the middle east end up in america,” “all refugees are in iraq and syria,” “immigrants to the u.s. only come from mexico,” and “most immigrant and refugee issues are confined to the middle east and mexico.” the high school social studies opportunities coupled with tcs lack of global knowledge and experience demonstrate where students were at the beginning of the course. from this baseline knowledge and experience, the course offered unique opportunities to promote learning. dismantling perceptions and bridging connections: teacher candidates’ experiences with members of the global community a key pedagogical feature of issues in global education involved tcs four crosscultural experiential learning opportunities. while the aims and outcomes of the crosscultural experiences were unique, two dominant themes helped illuminate what tcs deemed were significant during the experiential components and contributed to learning: 1) experiencing cognitive dissonance and 2) forging human connections. experiencing cognitive dissonance. the theory of cognitive dissonance posits that people experience discomfort when they recognize a discrepancy or inconsistency between one’s own beliefs and their attitudes and behavior (festinger, 1957). during self reflection activities associated with different experiential components of class, tcs used phrases like “eye opening,” “shocked,” “uncomfortable,” and “challenged to think differently” to describe their experiences. most described experiences with cognitive dissonance that challenged tcs to reflect on their own privileges and to consider the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of others. reflecting on their personal and professional responsibilities as future educators tcs began to consider difficulties refugees and immigrants might experience culturally and linguistically in schools. one activity, community language learning (stevick 1976, 1980), was mentioned most prominently in tc’s reflections as an example of their experience with cognitive dissonance. as one student reflected: michael a. kopish 89 this taught me how hard it must be for people to come into a completely different culture where they don’t speak the native language and have no idea what people are saying. this really put us into that situation i know i was uncomfortable and i wouldn’t want others to struggle with that either. tcs offered sentiments like the one above and others, which combined putting one’s self in another’s shoes and described feelings or a sense of discomfort as significant experiences for learning. forging human connections. the cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities also enabled tcs to learn about critical human rights issues and to interact with people from around the world. for all cross-cultural experiential learning activities, tcs engaged in purposefully structured learning opportunities to discuss ideas, experiences, attitudes, personal stories, and global issues with international students (merryfield, 2000). these activities afforded the majority of tcs to “talk with someone from another country for the first time,” “learn from the perspective of others,” and “help challenge assumptions and misconceptions.” infusing personal stories through primary sources during critical inquiry activities and hearing firsthand experiences during discussions with international students were powerful learning opportunities for tcs. as one student wrote: personal stories were impactful when learning about the different issues. personable activities and content always facilitate the most drastic change in perspective for me. i think i can speak for most people when i say the personal stories, especially meeting real people, are the most powerful way to change perceptions of refugees and immigrants. the positive interactions and meaningful dialogue with international students allowed tcs to develop interpersonal relationships, practice cross-cultural communication, and share different viewpoints. these educational opportunities fostered changes in global knowledge and the development of global perspectives required of global educators. experiences that involved cognitive dissonance (coryell et al., 2010; dwyer, 2004; kissock & richardson, 2010; merryfield, 2001) and forged human connections (merryfield, 2000) were significant and led to changes in tcs perceptions of refugees and immigrants. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 transformed perceptions: teacher candidates’ affinity with members of the global community through the cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities and course content, tcs demonstrated changes in global knowledge and global dispositions and in perceptions of refugees and immigrants. prominent themes are discussed below. challenged misunderstanding and stereotypes. engaging tc’s in critical inquiry and cross-cultural experiential learning is one way to battle rampant nativism, xenophobia, and racism that plague discourses associated with global migration crises. tcs lack of prior knowledge about global issues or firsthand experiences with people from around the world left room for misinformation and uninformed stereotypes to take hold (crocco, 2010; merryfield & wilson, 2005; ukpokodu, 2010). as demonstrated through ongoing critical reflection, tcs began to view their “previous conceptions of refugees and immigrants as inaccurate and uneducated.” their reflections revealed a transformation in perception as they saw “refugees as humans,” no longer “equate refugees with terrorists,” and “stopped referring to immigrants as illegals.” as one student mentioned, i’ve become more sensitive and accepting of immigrants and refugees and look at their situations more critically and personally. i no longer view them as just a number or as terrorists, but real people trying to make a better life for themselves and their families. while these statements demonstrate powerful change, the simplest and most profound statement simply acknowledged, “immigrants and refugees alike are people just like you and me.” empathy. early in the course, tcs described being “unsure how i feel,” or as having an “uneasiness” when asked to describe their perceptions of immigrants and, refugees. as tcs participated in course activities, interacted with international students, and reflected on their experiences, some students expressed “regret for previous thoughts” as feelings of empathy developed. for many tcs, empathy development was connected with critical inquiry projects and class discussions, which explored human rights issues (i.e. “the lack of rights for women or the different views on education just amazes me. i can honestly say that over the course of this class i have developed more understanding and greater empathy for individuals whose rights are compromised.”). still others michael a. kopish 91 described, “empathy evolving from the study of oppression” and through talking with someone who had firsthand experience with oppression. as one tc offered, “meeting a real person that i could talk to from a place like eritrea really amplified my empathy for the citizens of that country and those fleeing persecution.” the critical country studies and cross-cultural experiential learning provided tcs with opportunities deconstruct us/them binaries and parochial legacies from k-12 curriculum to develop empathy (gaudelli, 2010: mangram & watson, 2011). respect and solidarity. as tc’s reflected on their various experiences they expressed becoming more aware of social and cultural diversity found on campus and in the world. through discussions with international students, tcs began to see culture as viewed through different vantage points and “came to appreciate the cultural perspectives of different individuals.” through cross-cultural communication tcs learned “the importance of finding out others individual stories and experiences” and to “not paint everyone from a region, country, or culture with one brush.” it was also clear that tcs began to “perceive immigrants and refugees more equally with the rest of society.” tcs indicated their perspectives changed during discussions with international students: i specifically saw my perspective change when [student] talked about how his brother was taken from his home and taken to jail just for expressing his opinion against the government. this is so different from the life that i know. being able to have a conversation with [student] and each of the international students opened me up to how we can all come from different places and have unique experiences but we are all connected by our humanity. as a result of the various cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities, tcs expressed a newfound sense of efficacy in cross-cultural communication, (i.e., “feeling more comfortable and confident communicating with people from different cultures”) and commitment to local/global engagement (i.e., “desire to advocate for immigrants and refugees). through cross-cultural experiential learning, tcs began to embody an ethos that is critical for learning about and with others (andreotti, 2006); that all people have rights and responsibilities toward others (myers & zaman, 2009; pike, 2008) to act upon issues of injustice (andreotti, 2006; rizvi, 2009). journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 the uncritical privileged: a challenge in the development of globally competent teachers: the findings presented thus far indicate tcs experiences in the course were overwhelmingly positive and resulted in significant changes in tcs’ perceptions, global learning, and the development of global perspectives. however, these changes were not present among all tcs. while limited, three consistently wrote reflections that uncritically acknowledged others’ circumstances or experiences with oppression in comparison with their own lives. they appeared unable to deconstruct us/them binaries and develop empathy (gaudelli, 2010: mangram & watson, 2011). for example, one tc reflected: i used to think that my life was unfair, but after learning about children who are forced to run away and leave their parents because of the amount of violence in their hometown, i haven’t experienced unfair. i have it a lot easier than i think and now after taking this class, i appreciate my life more. i almost feel guilty for not being aware of what is going on in the world. in this quote, the tc equated “unfair” personal experiences with structural forms of oppression (i.e. violence) that were explicitly and critically examined in the course. the language incorporated in their final sentence, “i almost feel guilty for not being aware,” demonstrates that despite course experiences, some tcs were unable to move beyond parochial perceptions of people and their circumstances nor willing to engage further to learn more or take action. this disconnect was also demonstrated by other tcs; language in reflections reified their own privilege rather than examining and critiquing underlying structures that create and sustain inequality. reflections on immigrant and refugees’ experiences from two other tcs also capture the essence of the theme: uncritical privilege. in the first example, the tc expresses a sense of pleasure from talking with international students, but remains uncritical of their own privilege. the tc shared, “i really enjoy hearing about their journey not because i enjoy hearing about how hard it was but because it reminds me how good we have it here in the united states.” a second example from a tc indicates a sense of pleasure from a discussion activity, but reflects inward to reify their privileged state of being. “i like to hear about how brave and all the amazing sacrifices they were forced to make to be able to have a life like a u.s. citizen. it helps me realize that i shouldn’t take michael a. kopish 93 time spent with my family, or going to school and having a well paying job for granted.” taken together, these examples suggest the need to identify student perceptions throughout the course and better scaffold critical self-reflection to probe individual thinking more deeply. discussion as stated earlier, there is no prescriptive path to develop global knowledge and global competencies through teacher training, but as global educators our collective effort and ongoing experimentation provide new insights. with more than 28% of the k-12 student population in the united states now children of immigrants (passel & cohn, 2009) it seemed appropriate to explore global issues related to human migration as a way to develop global knowledge and competencies in tcs. this research contributes to a growing body of literature for developing globally competent teachers. first, teacher candidates need more authentic opportunities to develop global competencies. at this particular university, students entered teacher preparation programs with very little global knowledge and few global experiences. some of this is due to ideological struggles over the curriculum in social studies, pressures for high-stakes testing, and what knowledge is privileged. the absence of a k-12 global education curriculum leaves tcs vulnerable to lack of global awareness, misinformation, uncritical perspectives, and stereotyping. but, this knowledge also empowered my work as a global educator to experiment with political pedagogies like gce to emphasize cross-cultural experiential learning, critical inquiry and take actions to develop globally competent teachers. second, the types of experiences offered to tcs matters greatly. in this study tcs participated in several cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities. merryfield (2000, p. 429) explored the impact of “lived experiences” on teachers and teacher educators engaging in “significant experiences with people different from themselves” (p. 440). when these experiences are combined with critical reflection on the dynamic interplay of identity, culture, and power, people begin to examine issues and events from others perspectives. thus, perspective consciousness – one of the defining characteristics of a globally competent educator – developed. during the course tcs engaged in knowledge transformation activities and cross-cultural dialogue with people from other countries and cultures for the first time. cross-cultural dialogue helped tcs synthesize the aims of the journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 course: “talking with the international students made everything we learned in this class come together.” dialogue also created opportunities for tcs to experience cognitive dissonance, forge human connections, and develop awareness of their perspectives and appreciation for others’ viewpoints. global educators have long-held the belief that placing students into situations of otherness will create dissonance and lead them to an awareness of their perspective and an appreciation of myriad other viewpoints (coryell et al., 2010; dwyer, 2004; kissock & richardson, 2010; merryfield, 2001). third, while study abroad, international student teaching, and other types of immersions experiences are the gold standard, tcs can still develop global perspectives (hanvey, 1976), global competencies (longview, 2008), and cognitive, affective, and participatory dimensions of gce (unesco, 2014; wintersteiner et. al, 2015) through local cross-cultural experiential learning. the course demonstrated the power of collaboration to create a local international experience for tcs and involved various programs and departments on campus (i.e., global studies, african studies, center for international studies, counseling and higher education, linguistics, and global health). the findings from this study should encourage teacher educators to collaborate with colleagues and members of their local communities to design opportunities for crosscultural experiential learning. fourth, the study also highlights there is no panacea when uncritical privilege exists. several questions emerged from the enactment of the issues course that merit reflection and consideration as we move forward. how should global educators challenge students that are resistant to change, whose perceptions still dehumanize or marginalized groups, perpetuate stereotypes, or continue believing an “us-them” dualism? what can teacher educators do for tcs who possess uncritical privilege and view others as charity and pity rather than with solidarity and humanity? to get to these issues and perhaps dig more deeply into others will require additional research with different instruments for investigation. therefore, i encourage future researcher into diverse dimensions of civic and global knowledge, identity, efficacy, and engagement. in closing, a tc shared, “i never thought about the fact that i could potentially have an international, immigrant, or refugee student in my classroom and how that would affect my teaching and their learning.” the naivety of this statement surprised me more than any michael a. kopish 95 other and encouraged me to think about opportunities for tcs that extend beyond the classroom. as global educators, we must design opportunities for students to develop critical global approaches and perspectives by working more closely with communities of global cultures. opportunities to engage tcs in meaningful service learning or volunteering in communities other than their own merits further consideration (rodriguez, 2011). future research also needs to extend beyond our own classrooms for teacher training. we need to investigate the extent to which cross-cultural experiential learning opportunities translate into action in k-12 classrooms (i.e., curriculum, pedagogy) and in communities (i.e., co-curricular, extra-curricular, service learning advocacy, international immersion, etc.) as tcs continue to develop global competencies through personal and professional experiences. references agresto, j., l. alexander, w. j. bennett, w. damon, l. ellington, and c. e. finn jr. (2003). terrorists, despots, and democracy: what our children need to know. washington, dc: thomas b. fordham institute. andreotti, v. (2006) soft versus critical global citizenship education. policy and practice: a development education review, 3, 40-51. apple, m. w. (2006). educating the" right" way: markets, standards, god, and inequality. new york: taylor & francis. apple, m. w. (2014). official knowledge: democratic education in a conservative age. new york: routledge. apple, m. w., & buras, k. l. (2006). the subaltern speak: curriculum, power, and educational struggles. new york: routledge. attride-stirling, j. (2001). thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research. qualitative research, 1 (3), 385-405. au, w. (2009). social studies, social justice: w(h)ither the social studies in high-stakes testing?. teacher education quarterly, 36(1), 43-58. banks, j. a. (2007). diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives. indianapolis, in: jossey-bass. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 braun, v., & clarke, v. (2006). using thematic analysis in psychology. qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77-101. braskamp, l.a. & engberg, m.e. (2011). how colleges can influence the development of a global perspective. liberal education, 97(3-4), 34-39. burack, j. (2003). the student, the world, and the global education ideology. in j. leming, l. ellington, & k. porter-magee (eds.), where did the social studies go wrong (pp. 40-69). washington, d.c.: the thomas b. fordham foundation. carano, k.t. (2013). global educators’ personal attribution of a global perspective. journal of international social studies, 3(1), 4-18. coryell, j., durodoye, b., wright, r., pate, e. & nguyen, s. (2010). case studies of internationalization in adult and higher education: inside the processes of four universities in the united states and the united kingdom. journal of studies in international education, 16(1), 75– 98. crocco, m. (2010). [how] do we teach about women of the world in teacher education? in b. subedi (ed.), critical global perspectives: rethinking knowledge about global societies (pp. 19-38). charlotte, n.c.: information age publishing. creswell, j.w. (2005). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. upper saddle, nj: pearson education, inc. crose, b. (2011). internationalization of the higher education classroom: strategies to facilitate intercultural learning and academic success. international journal of teaching & learning in higher education, 23(3), 388-395. cushner, k., & mahon, j. (2002). overseas student teaching: affecting personal, professional and global competencies in an age of globalization. journal of studies in international education, 6, 44-58. davies, l. (2006). global citizenship; abstraction or framework for action? educational review, 58(1), 5–25. dwyer, m. m. (2004). more is better: the impact of study abroad program duration. frontiers: the interdisciplinary journal of study abroad, 10, 151– 63. evans, r. w. (2004). the social studies wars: what should we teach the children? new york:teachers college press. michael a. kopish 97 ferguson-patrick, k., macqueen, s., & reynolds, r. (2014). pre-service teacher perspectives on the importance of global education: world and classroom views. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 20(2), 470–482. festinger, l. (1957). a theory of cognitive dissonance. stanford university press. gaudelli, w. (2003). world class: teaching and learning in global times. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates, inc. gaudelli, w. (2016). global citizenship education: everyday transcendence. florence us: routledge. gaudelli, w., & heilman, e. (2009). reconceptualizing geography as democratic global citizenship education. teachers college record, 111, 2647–2677. gaudelli, w., & wylie, s. (2012). global education and issues-centered education. in s. totten and j. pedersen (eds.) educating about social issues in the 20th and 21st centuries: a critical annotated bibliography, volume one 1, 293-320. grant, s. g., j. m. gradwell, a. m. lauri-cella, a. deme-insinna, l. puyllano, & k. tzetzo. (2002). when increasing stakes need not mean increasing standards: the case of new york state global history and geography exam. theory and research in social education, 30 (4), 488-515. hanvey, r. g. (1976). an attainable global perspective. new york: centre for global perspectives in education. heilman, e. e. (2006). critical, liberal, and poststrucutral challenges for global education. in a. segall, e. heilman, & c. cherryholmes (eds.), social studies the next generation: re-searching in the postmodern (pp. 189-208). new york, ny: peter lang. heilman, e. e. (2007). (dis)locating imaginative and ethical aims of global education. in k. roth & i. gur-ze’ev (eds.) education in the era of globalization (pp. 83-104). houten, the netherlands: springer. heilman, e. (2009). terrains of global and multicultural education: what is distinctive, contested, and shared? in t. f. kirkwood-tucker (ed.), visions in global education (pp. 25–46). new york, ny: peter lang. hicks, d. (2003). thirty years of global education: a reminder of key principles and precedents. educational review, 55, 265-275. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 holloway, i., & todres, l. (2003). the status of method: flexibility, consistency and coherence. qualitative research, 3 (3), 345-357. hong, w.p. & halvorsen, a. (2010). teaching asia in united states secondary school classrooms: a curriculum of othering. journal of curriculum studies, 42(3), 371 393. ibrahim, t. (2005). global citizenship education. mainstreaming the curriculum? cambridge journal of education, 35(2), 177-194. kirkwood-tucker, t. f. (2002). teaching about japan: global perspectives in teacher decision-making, context and practice. theory and research in social education, 30(1), 88–115. kirkwood-tucker, t. f. (ed.). (2009). visions in global education: the globalization of curriculum and pedagogy in teacher education and schools: perspectives from canada, russia, and the united states (vol. 29). new york: peter lang. kissock, c. & richardson, p. (2010). calling for action within the teaching profession: it is time to internationalize teacher education. teaching education, 21(1), 89– 101. krefting, l. (1991). rigor in qualitative research: the assessment of trustworthiness. the american journal of occupational therapy: official publication of the american occupational therapy association, 45(3), 214-222. kumashiro, k. k. (2015). against common sense: teaching and learning toward social justice. new york: routledge. leming, j., ellington, l., and porter, k., eds. (2003). where did social studies go wrong? new york, ny: fordham foundation. lincoln, y.s. & guba, e.g. (1985). naturalistic inquiry. beverly hills, ca: sage publications. longview foundation (2008) teacher preparation for the global age: the imperative for change. silver spring, md: longview foundation. merryfield, m.m. (1994). from teacher education to the classroom: reflections of teachers upon their teacher education experiences in global education. retrieved from: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed392724.pdf merryfield, m. m. (1997). a framework for teacher education in global perspectives. in m. merryfield, e. jarchow, & s. pickert (eds.), preparing teachers to teach michael a. kopish 99 global perspectives: a handbook for teacher educators (pp. 1-24). thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. merryfield, m. m. (1998). pedagogy for global perspectives in education: studies of teachers’ thinking and practice. theory and research in social education, 26(3), 342379. merryfield, m. m. (2000). why aren’t teachers being prepared to teach for diversity, equity, and global interconnectedness? a study of lived experiences in the making of multicultural and global educators. teaching and teacher education, 16(4), 429-443. merryfield, m. m. (2001). moving the center of global education: from imperial worldviews that divide the world to double consciousness, contrapuntal pedagogy, hybridity, and cross-cultural competence. in w. b. stanley (ed.), critical issues in social studies research for the 21st century (pp. 179–207). greenwich, ct: information age. merryfield, m. m., & kasai, m. (2010). how are teachers responding to globalization? in w. c. parker (ed.), social studies today: research & practice (pp. 165–174). new york, ny: routledge. merryfield, m m. & subedi, b. (2003). a global education framework for teaching about the world’s women. social education, 67(1), 10-16. merryfield, m.m. & wilson, a. (2005). social studies and the world. silver spring, md: the national council for the social studies. myers, j. p. (2006). rethinking the social studies curriculum in the context of globalization: education for global citizenship in the us. theory & research in social education, 34(3), 370-394. myers, j. p., & zaman, h.a. (2009). negotiating the global and national: immigrant and dominant culture adolescents’ vocabularies of citizenship in a transnational world. teachers college record, 111(11), 2589-2625. o'connor, k., & zeichner, k. (2011). preparing us teachers for critical global education. globalisation, societies and education, 9(3-4), 521-536. osler, a., & vincent, k. (2002). citizenship and the challenge of global education. london, uk: trentham. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 parker, w. c. (2004). diversity, globalization, and democratic education: curriculum possibilities. in j. a. banks (ed.), diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives (pp. 433–458). san francisco: jossey-bass. parkhouse, h., glazier, j., tichnor-wagner, a., & montana cain, j. (2015). from local to global: making the leap in teacher education. international journal of global education, 4(2). pashby, k. (2012). questions for global citizenship educations in the context of the “new imperialisms”: for whom, by whom? in v. andreotti & l. de souza (eds.), postcolonial perspectives on global citizenship education (pp. 105–123). new york, ny: routledge. passel, j. s. & cohn, d. (2009). a portrait of unauthorized immigrants in the united states. washington, dc: pew hispanic center, april. http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/107.pdf patton, m. q. (1990). qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). newbury park, ca: sage. pence, h. m., & macgillivray, i. k. (2008). the impact of an international field experience on preservice teachers. teaching and teacher education, 24(1), 14 25. pike, g. (2008b). citizenship education in global context. brock education journal, 17(1), 38–49. pike, g. and selby, d. (1988) global teacher, global learner. london: hodder & stoughton. poole, c. & russell, w. b. (2015) educating for global perspectives: a study of teacher preparation programs. journal of education, 195(3), 41-52. quezada, r. l., & cordeiro, p. a. (2016). internationalization in teacher education in the us: innovative programs and practices to meet the global challenges of tomorrow’s schools. in day, c., & sachs, j. (eds.) quality and change in teacher education (pp. 195-212). switzerland: springer international publishing. rapoport, a. (2009). a forgotten concept: global citizenship education and state social studies standards. the journal of social studies research, 33(1), 91-112. michael a. kopish 101 rapoport, a. (2010). we cannot teach what we do not know: indiana teachers talk about global citizenship education. education, citizenship, and social justice, 5(3), 179 190. rapoport, a. (2015). global aspects of citizenship education: challenges and perspectives. in maguth, b., & hilburn, j. (eds.), the state of global education. learning with the world and its people (pp. 27–40). new york, ny: routledge. rizvi, f. (2009). towards cosmopolitan learning. discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education, 30(3), 253–268. robbins, m., francis, l., & elliott, e. (2003). attitudes toward education for global citizenship among trainee teachers. research in education, 69, 93–98. rodriguez, e. (2011). reflections from an international immersion trip: new possibilities to institutionalize curriculum. teacher education quarterly, 38(1), 147-160. ross, e. w. (2000). redrawing the lines. in d. w. hursh & e. w. ross (eds.), democratic social education (pp. 43-63). new york: falmer press. segall, a. (2006). teaching in the age of accountability. in s. g. grant (ed.), measuring history (pp. 105-132). greenwich, ct: information age publishing. standish, a. (2012). the false promise of global learning: why education needs boundaries. new york, ny: continuum. standish, a. (2014). what is global education and where is it taking us?. curriculum journal, 25(2), 166-186. stevick, e. (1976). memory, meaning, and method. rowley mass: newbury house stevick, e. (1980). a way and ways. rowley mass: newbury house su, f., bullivant, a., & holt, v. (2013). global citizenship education. in w. curtis, s. ward, j. sharp, l. hankin (eds). education studies: an issue based approach (pp. 231-244). los angeles, ca: sage. tuckett, a. g. (2005). applying thematic analysis theory to practice: a researcher's experience. contemporary nurse, 19 (1-2), 75-87. tye, k. (2003) global education as a worldwide movement, the phi delta kappan, 85(2),165-168. journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 tye, k. (2009). a history of the global education in the united states. in t. fuss kirkwood-tucker (ed.), visions in global education (pp. 3–24). new york: peter lang. tyson, c., benton, p.l., christenson, b., golloh, a., & traore, o.m. (1997). cross cultural experiences in teacher education courses: reflections and advice from american and african teachers. in m.m. merryfield, e. jarchow, & s. pickert (eds.), preparing teachers to teach global perspectives: a handbook for teacher educators (pp.72-98). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. ukpokodu, o. (2010). teacher preparation for global perspectives pedagogy. in b. subedi (ed.), critical global perspectives: rethinking knowledge about global societies (pp. 121-142). charlotte, n.c.: information age publishing. unesco (2014) global citizenship education: preparing learners for the challenges of the twenty-first century. paris, france. van hover, s. d., & heinecke, w. (2005). the impact of accountability reform on the 'wise practice' of secondary history teachers. in e. a. yeager & j. davis, o.l. (eds.), wise social studies teaching in an age of high-stakes testing (pp. 89 105). greenwich, ct: information age publishing. vogler, k. e. (2006). impact of a high school graduation examination on mississippi social studies teachers' instructional practices. in measuring history: cases of state-level testing across the united states, ed. s. g. grant, 273-302. greenwich, ct: information age. preservice teachers. teaching and teacher education, 17, 505–517. wintersteiner, w., grobbauer, h., diendorfer, g., reitmair-juarez, s. (2015). global citizenship education: citizenship for global societies. austrian commission for unesco yin, r. k. (2009). case study research : design and methods. los angeles, calif.: sage publications. zhao, y. (2010). preparing globally competent teachers: a new imperative for teacher education. journal of teacher education, 61, 422-431. michael a. kopish 103 appendix a – reflection questions 1) initial reflections on global knowledge and experience 1. what were your social studies classes like in high school? 2. how were you taught about countries outside the united states? 3. how were you taught about immigration? 4. how were you taught about refugees? 2) immigration critical country study about immigration a. how much did you know about immigration before the class activities and project? b. after completing the project and activities, what are your perspectives on immigration? c. based on the reading and discussions in class, which approach to immigration policy do you agree with most? why? d. as you reflect on your experience, what more do you want to know about immigration? about the project e. what was satisfying about the project? what did you find frustrating about the project? f. if you were advising the professor, what is something about the critical country study that can be improved? g. as you look ahead to the critical country study on refugees, what is something you would like to improve for next time? 3) immigration critical country study about refugees journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 a. how much did you know about refugees before the class activities and project? b. after completing the project and activities, what are your perspectives on refugees? c. based on the reading and discussions in class, which approach to refugee policy do you agree with most? why? d. as you reflect on your experience, what more do you want to know about refugees? e. what did you find similar about your immigration and refugee projects? what did you find different? written policy response: what should be the united states policy for resettling refugees? your response needs to take into account the following: a. how do you strike a balance among humanitarian, economic, and security reasons? b. how should u.s. taxpayers pay? where should benefits go? are there limits to benefits? c. should the u.s. establish criteria for ‘who should be allowed to resettle and who should not?’ please explain. d. make a recommendation for where and how the u.s. should respond to refugee crises. about the project f. what was satisfying about the project? what did you find frustrating about the project? g. if you were advising the professor, what is something about the critical country study that can be improved? michael a. kopish 105 4) cross-cultural experiential learning workshops cross cultural communication 1. what did you know about effective communication before the workshop? 2. what did you learn from participation in the workshop? please provide evidence of skills, knowledge, and attitude/disposition that developed during the workshop. 3. how were you able to practice or use the skills you learned from the crosscultural communication workshop during the conversations outside of class or with international students? 4. as you think about your professional future, how will the skills you developed or knowledge you gained from the workshop help you in the long term? 5. what would you keep from the workshop for use with future classes? how might this workshop be improved for use with future classes? cross cultural dialogue 1. what did you know about the lives and experiences of international students before the workshop? 2. what did you learn from participation in the workshop? please provide evidence of skills, knowledge, and attitude/disposition that developed during the workshop. 3. what skills or knowledge from class were you able to practice or use during the conversations with international students? 4. as you think about your professional future, how will the skills you developed or knowledge you gained from the workshop help you in the long term?? 5. what would you keep from the workshop for use with future classes? how might this workshop be improved for use with future classes? best practices for working with english language learners 1. what did you know about working with ell students before the workshop? journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 2. what did you learn from participation in the workshop? please provide evidence of skills, knowledge, and attitude/disposition that developed during the workshop. 3. what skills or knowledge from class do you think will be most beneficial in the near term? 4. as you think about your professional future, how will the skills you developed or knowledge you gained from the workshop help you in the long term? 5. what would you keep from the workshop for use with future classes? how might this workshop be improved for use with future classes? 5) summative questions 1. think about the workshops we had in class as they relate to work with immigrants or refugees. what recommendations would make to someone in your professional field (i.e., teaching, engineering, law, journalism, child and family studies) when working with immigrants or refugees? answers should address key learning from the following workshops: a. cross-cultural communication b. cross-cultural mentoring c. best practices for working with english language learners 2. one of the overarching outcomes of this course and the activities chosen is for students to develop or enhance their global perspectives. please consider your experiences in this class to answer the following questions: a. in what ways did your awareness of and appreciation for different perspectives of the world change? b. to what extent did you develop an understanding of global issues and events and their cause-and-effect relationships. c. to what extent did you develop awareness of diversity of ideas and practices in human societies around the world? to what extent did you develop empathy and your own thinking about ideas covered in class? michael a. kopish 107 d. to what extent did you learn about aspects of the world, global change, and interconnectedness? e. to what extent did you develop awareness of the problems of choice confronting individuals, nations, and humans? 3. as a result of the course content and activities, to what extent did your perceptions of immigrants, refugees, and ell students change? please support your answer with specific examples of course content or activities that facilitated perception change. 4. what is next for you on your journey to further develop global competence and global awareness? to what extent has this course encouraged you to exhibit an ongoing willingness to actively seek out and participate in intercultural opportunities? please provide examples of opportunities you are seeking and a rationale for your participation or reasons you are not seeking opportunities and why. appendix b – timeline of data sources, collection, and analysis data sources – reflective journals date collected analysis 1) initial reflections on global knowledge and experience january 20, 2016 may through july, 2016 2) immigration critical country study february 3, 2016 3) refugee critical country study february 24, 2016 4) cross-cultural experiential learning workshops april 6, 2016 5) summative reflection on the course april 20, 2016 journal of social studies education research 2016: 7(2), 75-108 appendix c – selected examples of themes and subthemes codes theme definition quote  knew little  did not understand  was not aware  surprised by us involvement  issues more complex than realized fragmented facts and parochial perceptions: the disconnect of american students and the global community tcs possessed very little knowledge about immigrant or refugees’ experiences, the magnitude of conditions that force the displacement of people “i didn’t know much about before this class. i couldn’t tell you the difference between refugees and the process of immigration.” codes subtheme definition quote  see refugees differently  see immigrants differently  hearing stories elicited feelings  meeting people elicited feelings  put self in others shoes empathy tcs mention growing awareness and learning about issues, practices, and ideas around the world and the development of empathy through learning. “studying the different social norms has created, evolved, and grown my empathy for those oppressed.” www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 251-265 251 preparation of the future teacher for work with gifted children tatyana bochkareva1, elvir akhmetshin2, eduard osadchy3, petr romanov4 & elena konovalova5 abstract the paper is devoted to the problem of creating a system of training of future teachers for work with gifted schoolchildren in mathematics. the authors analyze the existing curricula and basic professional educational programs for the preparation of bachelors in the directions of training "pedagogical education" and "mathematics and computer science" in terms of ensuring the professional competencies of future teachers for the work in the conditions of existence of a professional standard. the authors propose a technology for preparation of students, involved the production of bachelors with high competencies in the field of working with gifted children in mathematics. the purpose of the article is to analyze the actual level of bachelor's training for working with gifted children in mathematics and, on this basis, to present the developed system of training future teachers for work with gifted schoolchildren in mathematics. the research methodology is based on a system of basic principles, methods and concepts of the psychological-pedagogical theory of mathematical giftedness: the content analysis of curricula and basic professional educational programs for bachelor's training, a test for determining the readiness of a teacher to work with gifted children, a test for determining the propensity of a teacher to work with gifted children. the authors have developed and proposed a structure of vocational training of students to work with mathematically gifted children. some shortcomings in the professional training of future teachers are revealed. the results of experimental work on the improvement of the basic professional educational program in the training directions "pedagogical education" and "mathematics and computer sciences" are presented. the existing problem of the lack of competencies of future teachers should be compensated with the help of development of means, techniques, technologies and methods that contribute to the competence of students in working with gifted children in mathematics. key words: gifted children; mathematical giftedness; professional training of future teachers; professional standard; competences. introduction formulation of the problem. the priority direction of russia’s modern social policy is the modernization of all levels of education. representatives of the society are involved in 1 assoc. prof., elabuga institute of kazan federal university, tatyana-n-boch@mail.ru 2 assist., elabuga institute of kazan federal university, elvir@mail.ru 3 assoc. prof. elabuga institute of kazan federal university eosadchij@mail.ru 4 prof. nosov magnitogorsk state technical university, institute of natural sciences and standardization, romanovmagu@mail.ru 5 senior lecturer of the department of pedagogics and psychology named after z.t. sharafutdinov, naberezhnye chelny state pedagogical university, ele4621@yandex.ru mailto:tatyana-n-boch@mail.ru mailto:elvir@mail.ru mailto:eosadchij@mail.ru mailto:romanov-magu@mail.ru mailto:romanov-magu@mail.ru mailto:ele4621@yandex.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 251-265 creating educational standards, updating the infrastructure and content of education, assessing the effectiveness of the work of educational organizations. the concept of the development of mathematical education, adopted in russia in 2013, determined the need for the organization of purposeful and systematic work of teachers to identify and develop gifted schoolchildren in this field (concept of development of mathematical education, 2013). it is noted in the concept that "... mathematics occupies a special place in science, culture and social life, being one of the most important components of the world scientific and technological progress (korableva et al., 2017). the study of mathematics plays a system-forming role in education, developing the cognitive abilities of the person, including logical thinking, influencing the mastering of other disciplines. quality mathematical education is necessary for everyone for his/her successful life in modern society" (rodionov et al., 2017; askhamov et al., 2016; ganeeva et al., 2017). new requirements for the psychological and pedagogical training of pedagogical staff of educational organizations are interrelated with changes in the approaches to the organization of the educational process with gifted children in mathematics. at the present time, the work of the teacher with gifted children acquires new content in connection with the adoption of the professional standard "teacher of the educational organization". the standard is designed to define the requirements and assess the competencies of teachers of various educational organizations, including the teachers of both schools and pre-school educational organizations (tarman et al., 2015). changes in the training of teachers of educational organizations are also connected with the introduction of federal state educational standards into educational practice, since for the first time the standard is defined as a form of social contract in education. in view of this definition of the standard, the training of pedagogues of educational organizations should be aimed at the production of specialists with high qualification in the field of working with gifted children. a special competence of the graduates of programs aimed at teaching math at school should be the ability to train students in accordance with their requests to the level of training in mathematics education. the future teacher should provide each student, regardless of the place of residence and living conditions, the ability to achieve any level of training according to his/her individual needs and abilities (diezmann et al., 2012). this suggests that when educating future pedagogues of educational organizations, attention should be paid to preparing them for inclusion in the educational process so that they can provide the number of graduates needed by bochkareva et al. the country, the mathematical preparation of which is sufficient for continuing education in various fields and for practical activities, including teaching mathematics, mathematical research, work in the field of information technology, etc. solving theoretical and practical problems of organization of the educational process with gifted children in mathematics in the educational organization is gaining a greater significance in connection with humanization and democratization, the growing role and importance of protecting human rights and freedoms, the development of market relations. therefore, for the effective organization of the educational process with gifted children in mathematics, the future teacher needs a deep understanding of the pedagogical and psychological foundations of the organization of the educational process with them. although these mechanisms are still poorly understood, the already available research results can significantly expand the teacher's abilities to create conditions fostering the formation of the interest of the members of the collective in the productive work of the organization (çalışkan, 2015). however, we should pay attention to the existence of disagreements in the requirements for the university graduate according to the federal state educational standard of higher education (fses he) in the directions of training "pedagogical education" and "mathematics and computer science" and the professional standard of the teacher (professional standard "teacher of the educational organization "). when analyzing these documents, it is revealed that the existing fses he in the preparation of future teachers does not prepare them for training children with a different abilities for mathematics. in the professional standard, much more personality qualities of the teacher are stated than in the federal state educational standard of higher education. to solve this problem, it is necessary to adjust the educational process at the higher education institution in such a way that in the future the graduate will meet the employer's requirements. this problem led to the urgency of developing a system for preparing future teachers to work with gifted schoolchildren in mathematics. the obtained results will allow discovering new mechanisms for preparing future teachers to work with mathematically gifted schoolchildren and to bring work with gifted children in line with the requirements of the professional standard. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 251-265 methodology the research methodology is based on the system of basic principles, methods and concepts of the psychological and pedagogical theory of mathematical giftedness; includes the notion of "mathematical giftedness"; the concept of the development of mathematical education; the principle of an integrated typological approach to the study of abilities and individuality. to solve the problem of the present paper, the methods of theoretical analysis and generalization of the results of completed studies in the field of mathematical giftedness were applied; empirical methods (content analysis of curricula and basic professional educational training programs, tests to determine the readiness and inclination of the teacher to work with gifted children) (erbilgin, 2017). a study of the preparation of future teachers for work with gifted schoolchildren in mathematics was conducted at the elabuga institute of the kazan federal university in november 2017. in the study, 125 students participated of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th year of study in the field of training 44.03.05 "pedagogical education" for the profiles "mathematics and physics" and "mathematics of informatics". the following methods were used for the study: 1. test for the determination of the teacher's readiness to work with gifted children (v.s. yurkevich) (yurkevich, 2000). 2. test to determine the inclination of the teacher to work with gifted children (d.b. bogoyavlenskaya, a.v. brushlinsky) (bogoyavlenskaya and brushlinsky, 1988). theoretical methods allowed specifying the definition of the concept of "mathematical giftedness" and identifying the problem associated with the professional preparation of the teacher to work with gifted students in mathematics. the method of concretizing the content of the principle of a complex typological approach to the study of abilities and individuality is in the foundation of the consideration of the curriculum and the basic professional education program (bpep) for the preparation of bachelors from the position of the main document sources designed to provide quality vocational training of teachers to work with the mathematical talent of students. an analysis was performed of the curriculum and the basic professional educational program in the direction of training 44.03.05 "pedagogical education" for the profiles of training "mathematics and physics" and "mathematics and informatics". bochkareva et al. literature review the results of analysis of scientific literature allow concluding that different researchers interpret the concept of mathematical giftedness in different ways. v.a. krutetsky believes that "mathematical giftedness is characterized by a generalized, compact and flexible thinking in the sphere of mathematical relations, numerical and sign symbolism and mathematical mentality. this feature of mathematical thinking leads to an increase in the rate of processing mathematical information (which is connected with the replacement of a large volume of information with a small amount, due to generalization and contraction) and, consequently, saving neuro-psychic forces" (krutetsky, 1988, p.85). the prominent russian scientist n.v. metelsky thinks that the basis for the development of mathematical gifts and abilities is "... only a good level of thinking in general and mathematical intuition" (metelsky, 1977). v.a. krutetsky sees in the mathematical giftedness the presence of innate functional characteristics of the brain and believes that the brain of gifted people in mathematics distinguishes from the surrounding world the stimuli such as spatial and numerical relations and is able to adequately perceive and operate with them (krutetsky, 1988). he notes that the teacher should awaken the interest of students in mathematics and the tendency to engage in it, believing that a student "captured" by mathematics can quickly achieve great success. and as an example, he refers to famous russian mathematicians n.i. lobachevsky, m.v. ostrogradsky, n.n. luzin, and others. kholodnaya m.a. also notes that mathematically gifted schoolchildren are distinguished by higher indicators of the formation of conceptual experience: when formulating questions, they construct a more complex semantic context in establishing connection between three isolated concepts, formulate more complex problems and connections with a given object on the basis of a deeper analysis of its characteristics (kholodnaya, 1977). shadrin v.yu. considers the mathematical giftedness of schoolchild as a complex formation, including the general and special intellectual abilities of the individual (shadrin, 2008). in her study, e.a. kryukova represents mathematical giftedness as an integral, multilevel, multicomponent, dynamic formation, which has various forms of manifestation (kryukova, 1996). like her predecessors, who studied the phenomenon of mathematical giftedness, she journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 251-265 notes the importance of special mathematical activity for the development of mathematical giftedness. in determining the development level of mathematical abilities, v.a. testov proceeds from the understanding that mathematical giftedness is a complex mental formation, a kind of synthesis of properties, an integral quality of the mind, encompassing its various aspects (attention, perception, thinking, memory), but developing in the process of mathematical activity (testov, 2010). thus, with all heterogeneity of the definitions of mathematical giftedness, it should be noted that the mathematical giftedness is undoubtedly connected with the features of thinking and the qualities of the man's personality. a decisive role in the development of mathematical giftedness of schoolchildren is played by a properly organized educational process. it is the competence and professionalism of the teacher that largely determines the level of interest of children in mathematics, the possibility of its development, the development of curiosity and the mathematical abilities of pupils (shagivaleeva et al., 2017; mirzagitova & akhmetov, 2015). results a study of the preparedness of future teachers for work with the schoolchildren gifted in mathematics was conducted at the elabuga institute of the kazan federal university during the 2017-2018 academic year among students of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th year of studying in the training directions 44.03.05 "pedagogical education" for the profiles "mathematics and physics" and "mathematics and informatics". let us analyze the curricula and the basic professional education programs for the training course in the directions 44.03.05 "pedagogical education" for the profiles "mathematics and physics" and "mathematics and informatics" in terms of their fostering the formation of the competencies of future teachers to work with the mathematically gifted schoolchildren. the basic professional educational programs for the bachelor’s degree in the profiles "mathematics and physics" and "mathematics and informatics" are a system of documents developed and approved, taking into account the tasks of forming competences regulated by the federal state educational standard of higher education (fses ho) in the corresponding area of training, and taking into account the recommended approximate basic professional education program (bpep), which regulates the objectives, the expected results, the content, conditions and bochkareva et al. technologies for the implementation of the educational process, the evaluation of the quality of the graduate's preparation in this area of training, and includes: the curriculum, the working programs of the academic courses, subjects, disciplines (modules) and other materials that ensure the quality of the trainees' training, as well as the programs of educational and production practice, a calendar training schedule and methodological materials that ensure the application of appropriate educational technologies. in the field of training, the overall goal of the basic professional education program in the training direction 44.03.05 "pedagogical education (with two training profiles)" is the students’ obtaining higher profiled education that allows the graduate: to successfully carry out research and development aimed at applying fundamental knowledge in the field of psycho-pedagogical and special disciplines in the future professional activity; successfully carry out research aimed at improving the methods of solving standard problems of professional activity on the basis of information and bibliographic culture using information and communication technologies and taking into account the basic information security requirements (faizrakhmanov & akhmetov, 2016); have universal and subject-specific competencies that contribute to his/her social mobility and stability in the labor market. the goal of training itself does not include the development and application of those psychological and pedagogical technologies (including inclusive ones) that are necessary for future teachers for individual work with different contingent of students, including gifted children. the curriculum contains the discipline "psychological and pedagogical support of inclusive education", but there is no discipline related to studying the special characteristics of gifted children, mastering skills of working with them and organizing the education of mathematically gifted children. the annotations of the academic disciplines and the program of practice also do not reflect the tasks set in the professional standard of the teacher. solving the research problems put forth the need to conduct an experiment to determine the teacher's readiness to work with gifted children and to determine the inclination of the teacher to work with gifted children. the purpose of this study is to analyze the formed competencies of fses ho in the future work with gifted children in mathematics. to achieve this goal, the following tasks of the research objectives were realized: 1. the base for carrying out the experiment was created. the elabuga institute of the kazan federal university (ei kfu) acted as an experimental base. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 251-265 2. the composition of the participants in the experiment with which the experimental work was carried out was determined. the participants included 125 students of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th year of studying in the direction of training 44.03.05 "pedagogical education" for the profiles "mathematics and physics" and "mathematics of informatics". all students are enrolled in fulltime study. the average age of the respondents was 20 years. the testing was attended by teachers bochkareva t.n., akhmetshin e.m., osadchy e.a. the testing was conducted during one working day. it was conducted on the basis of an educational organization. for systematization and analysis of the survey results, the microsoft excel spreadsheet was used. to conduct a survey and analyze its results, written permission was obtained from all respondents to use and process their personal data. no one refused to participate in the survey. the statistical error was 5%. diagnostic methods for the research have been prepared and selected. based on the study of psycho-pedagogical literature, the following methods for diagnosing were selected: a test for determining the readiness of the teacher to work with gifted children (v. s. yurkevich, 2000) and a test for determining the inclination of the teacher to work with gifted children (d. b. bogoyavlenskaya, a. v. brushlinsky) (bogoyavlenskaya and brushlinsky, 1988). 1. test for the determination of the teacher's readiness to work with gifted children (v. s. yurkevich, 2000). this test allows finding out how much the teacher understands the problem of nurturing giftedness, whether the teacher can judge the giftedness of the child, understand the reasons for the insufficient development of abilities in a healthy child. the questionnaire consists of 30 questions, including answers like "yes" or "no." in addition, it is impossible to find answers to certain questions in the text, and a correct answer to them indicates a pedagogical or parental intuition (or enlightenment in this area). after testing the students to determine the readiness of the future teacher to work with gifted children, we got the following results: out of 125 students interviewed, none answered all questions correctly, which indicates a possible decrease in the motivation and interest of students to work with gifted children. 29 students (23.2%) incorrectly answered only 5-7 questions, which is an indicator of their willingness and desire to work with gifted children. however, the overwhelming majority, 96 students (76.8%), gave incorrect answers to more than half of the bochkareva et al. questions, which testifies to the need for a quality organization of training students to work with mathematically gifted children (figure 1). figure 1. percentage of readiness of students to work with gifted children as can be seen from the diagram data in figure 1, the percentage of students who are not ready to work with gifted students exceeds by 3.3 times the number of students ready to work with such students. 2. test for determining the inclination of the teacher to work with gifted children according to the method of d. b. bogoyavlenskaya, a. v. brushlinsky (bogoyavlenskaya and brushlinsky, 1988). this technique allows identifying the propensity to work with gifted children, the presence of potential opportunities, the need for the correct choice of the object of focus of the creative interest of students. testing to determine the teacher's inclination to work with gifted children consisted of 18 questions aimed at identifying the abilities of the future teacher to work with gifted children. after testing the students to determine the propensity of the teacher to work with gifted children, the following results were obtained: the average level of propensity to work with gifted children was revealed in 95 students (76%), which indicates the need for additional educational and motivational resources for them. 10 students (8%) have low propensity to work with gifted children and are less capable of such work. a high level of propensity to work with gifted children was found in 20 students (16%), which indicates that these students have the necessary resources for such work (figure 2). 16 76 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 readiness for work (%) unreadiness for work (%) p e rc e n t o f st u d e n ts percentage of readiness of students to work with gifted children journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 251-265 figure 2. levels of propensity to work with gifted children, in percentage based on the analysis of the diagram data in figure 2, we can conclude that the overwhelming number of students have an average level of propensity to work with gifted children; thus additional motivation, resources and active self-regulation in the intellectual process is required for future teachers. students need the right choice of the object of focus of the creative interest of schoolchildren. discussion thus, it can be concluded that most students have the inclination to work with gifted children, but their degree of readiness for such work is low. the obtained data testify to the need for a purposeful organization of the educational process for the preparation of future teachers for work with mathematically gifted children. in their studies, e. f. vertyakova and i. v. zabrodina, considering the issue of preparing future teachers for work with gifted children, refer to the experience of studying the propensity of the teacher to work with gifted children according to the method of d. b. bogoyavlenskaya and a. v. brushlinsky at the department of training of primary school teachers at the chelyabinsk state pedagogical university of the russian federation (vertyakova and zabrodina, 2016). the research results of e. f. vertyakova and i. v. zabrodina are pretty much identical with the results that the authors obtained, which confirms the need to make adjustments to the educational process with the professional preparation of the future teacher. 16 76 8 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 high level (%) average level (%) low level (%) p e rc e n t o f st u d e n ts levels of tendency to work with gifted children bochkareva et al. e. p. grin’ko also considers it necessary to revise the system of training the future teacher in order to improve working with mathematically gifted children (grin’ko, 2014). to improve the efficiency of teacher training in the work in this direction, he proposes the following criteria and indicators: the motivation criteria (the desire to work with gifted children, the desire to gain the necessary professional knowledge and skills in working with gifted children, the ability to self-improvement); the criterion of knowledge (the level of knowledge in the academic disciplines aimed at creating a willingness to work with gifted children); the criterion of activity (the multidimensionality of the content of activity, the effectiveness of the activity); the criterion of management (the quality of pedagogical leadership, the level of self-organization, the level of self-regulation) (grin’ko, 2014). m. a. rodionov, a. i. tyapina and n. n. sharapova noted the existence of such problem as social underestimation of the importance of mathematical education, and in the process of analyzing scientific sources came to the conclusion that there is as yet no single position on the theory and methodology for preparing future teachers to work with gifted students in mathematics, in particular, concerning its structure, the possibilities of combining with the traditional components of pedagogical education, the specifics of the methods used for the lessons in math and methodological disciplines (rodionov et al., 2017). thus, on the basis of the conducted analysis of the basic professional educational program, the curriculum and the results of the diagnostic study, the authors developed and proposed a system of didactic units of professional training of students for working with mathematically gifted children. the following components were included in this system: 1. psychological features of gifted children. mathematical giftedness of schoolchildren. 2. psychological-pedagogical technologies of the organization of mathematical education of gifted children. 3. pedagogical conditions of the organization of interaction with the parents of gifted children. 4. organization of research and project activities of mathematically gifted children. 5. forms of the organization of psychological and pedagogical support of gifted children. 6. diagnostics of the mathematical giftedness of schoolchildren. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 251-265 as for the forms of organization of the educational process, it is necessary to make greater emphasis on interactive and active forms of teaching, such as trainings, master classes, seminars, conferences, colloquia, meetings with educators working with gifted children, attending their classes, etc. the next step in the work of the authors in improving the professional training of future teachers was the revision and adjustment of the work programs of the disciplines in order to provide the work with mathematically gifted children. conclusion thus, the professional training of future mathematics teachers to work with gifted children requires adjustment and improvement. this can be organized both at the stage of training in the higher education institution, and at the stage of post-graduate practical work of teachers. the problem of professional training is related to the need to prepare students for the specifics and characteristics of teaching gifted children directly in the subject area, adequately to the psychological characteristics of mathematically gifted children. the professional standard of the teacher will require from the teacher of mathematics the mastering of certain labor actions of teaching students with different educational needs – gifted children; socially vulnerable children; children in difficult life situations; migrant children; orphans; children with special educational needs (autistics, children with attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity, etc.); children with disabilities; children with behavioral deviations; children with addiction problems (liu et al., 2017). therefore, the task of professional training in the higher education institution of the future teacher is related to the need to develop the level of possession of certain competencies and relevant labor functions. the use of active learning technologies, different in form of the organization of the educational process, will improve the quality of preparation for the future mathematics teacher. however, from the authors' point of view, the most important is that in each academic discipline the student learns to perceive him/herself as a teacher at the lesson in school and simulate how he/she will teach schoolchildren with different levels of mathematical readiness. bochkareva et al. acknowledgements the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. endnotes [1] professional standard "teacher of the educational organization". retrieved february 19, 2018, from https://минобрнауки.рф/ references askhamov, a. a., konysheva, a. v., & gapsalamov, a. r. (2016). use of e-resources of the learning environment in teaching mathematics to future engineers. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(5), 673-684. doi:10.12973/ijese.2016.340a bogoyavlenskaya, d. b., & brushlinsky, a. v. (1988). working concept of endowments. moscow: master publishing house. çalışkan, h. (2015). an investigation into the organization levels of social studies teachers with regard to constructivist learning environments in terms of several variables. [sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını düzenleme düzeylerinin çe?itli değişkenlere göre i̇ncelenmesi]. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 49-83. doi:10.17499/jsser.00913 concept of development of mathematical education (2013). order of the government of the russian federation of december 24, 2013 of n 2506-p moscow (published 2013, december 27). russian newspaper rg.ru. retrieved february 28, 2018, from https://rg.ru/2013/12/27/matematika-site-dok.html diezmann, c., stevenson, m., & fox, j. (2012). supporting exceptional students to thrive mathematically. research in mathematics education in australasia 2008-2011 (pp. 89-109) doi:10.1007/978-94-6091-970-1_6. erbilgin, e. (2017). a comparison of the mathematical processes embedded in the content standards of turkey and singapore. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1), 5374. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 251-265 faizrakhmanov, i. m., & akhmetov, l. g. (2016). use of a targeted program approach in designing information space of the technology teacher's professional activity. journal of organizational culture, communications and conflict, 20(specialissue4), 1-6. ganeeva, a. r., anisimova, t. i., sukhanova, n. v., mugallimova, s. r., & prozorova, g. r. (2017). students' individual work on studying the discipline «mathematics teaching methodology» by using distance technologies. espacios, 38(40) grinko, e. p. (2014). about some aspects of training of future mathematics teacher for work with exceptional children. relevant directions of scientific research of the 21st century: theory and practice, 2(4-1 (9-1)), 17-19. doi:10.12737/4691 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017) research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. kholodnaya, m. a. (1997). intellectual endowments as manifestation of features of the organization of individual mental experience. main modern concepts of creativity and endowments. moscow: young guard, 295-314. krutetsky, v. a. (1998). psychology of mathematical abilities of school students. moscow: institute of practical psychology. kryukova, e. a. (1996). specific features of mathematical endowments of school students and a problem of their psychological support (from experience of the psychologist of physical and mathematical school). education of children and youth: modern approaches. moscow: university of the russian academy of education, 31-47. liu, j., utemov, v. v., & kalimullin, a. m. (2017). teaching mathematical subjects to students with musculoskeletal disabilities: public and peer discussions. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 13(6), 2111-2131. doi:10.12973/eurasia.2017.01217a metelsky, n. v. (1977). psychology and pedagogical fundamentals of didactics of mathematics. minsk: “vysheynaya schoola”, 149-160. mirzagitova, a. l., & akhmetov, l. g. (2015). self-development of pedagogical competence of future teacher. international education studies, 8(3), 114-121. doi:10.5539/ies.v8n3p114 bochkareva et al. rodionov, m. a., tyapina, a. i., & sharapova, n. n. (2017). training of future mathematics teachers for working with gifted school students (statement of the problem). bulletin of the nizhny novgorod university of n. i. lobachevsky. series: social sciences, 2(46), 143-150. shadrin, v. yu. (2008). mathematical endowments of the school student as social and pedagogical phenomenon. achievements of modern natural sciences, 2, 68-69. shagivaleeva, g. r., shterts, o. m., & pyanova, e. n. (2017). socio-professional competencies of students as an important condition for their professional training in the educational process of a pedagogical higher education institution. man in india, 97(25), 167-176. tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a testov, v. a. (2010). development of endowments as main task of education. intellectual and creative endowments. cross-disciplinary approach. proceedings of iii open international scientific and methodical seminar "april forum" (helsinki, april 05-12, 2010). novosibirsk: institute of psychology and education of the russian academy of education, 196-202. vertyakova, e. f., & zabrodina, i. v. (2016). to a question of training of future teachers for work with gifted children. collections of conferences of research center sotsiosfera, 25, 18-21 yurkevich, v. s. (2000). gifted child: illusions and reality. the book for teachers and parents. moscow: education. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (4), 427-445 427 teaching politeness for primary school students in indonesia: mediating role of self efficacy and self esteem of learners alif mudiono1 abstract emotional intelligence has been an emerging concept which refers to the capability and skill of a person to control one’s emotions and to have good interpersonal relationships with other people. this aspect is very closely related to education and educational environment. teachers are the pillars of any educational institute and emotional intelligence of the students really depends upon their attitude and teaching behavior. the teaching behavior must be polite and full of learning and knowledge so that the self-efficacy and self-esteem of the students may flourish and enhance. the main motive on which the whole study is based is the impact of teaching politeness on the level of emotional intelligence of the learners in indonesia along with two mediating factors i.e. selfefficacy and self-efficiency. the data for analysis in the current scenario was effectively collected from 301 students of different educational institutes of indonesia. confirmatory factor analyses as well as structural equation modeling approaches have been used by the author in order to study the impacts of different variables in detail. the results have accepted the significant impact of teaching politeness on emotional intelligence. in addition, the mediating role of self-efficacy and self-esteem has also been accepted as significant between the above mentioned two variables. keywords: teaching politeness, efficacy, self esteem, indonesia introduction for every nation, it is important to educate the young ones through the provision of cordial and learning environment at colleges and schools as well as providing them non-formal and formal learning spaces. in today’s environment, many of the technological innovations gadgets are considered in the teaching and learning environment (srivastava, de boer, & pijl, 2015). many different psychological actions and measures have also been undertaken for making learning experience long-lasting and very effective. many of the government institutions had undertaken this type of measures for improving the learning experience. for the effective learning and classroom management, schools need to consider the significance of the emotions of the students. classroom management is everything that is provided for the effectiveness of student’s learning in classrooms. teacher’s disruptive behaviors and their harshness have a confrontational stance by 1dr. universitas negeri malang, indonesia, alif,mudiono.fip@um.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 escalating tension; lowering self-esteem and making them feel combative. positive relationship between students and teachers empower the self-esteem of the students (demirdag, 2015; ferris, 2019; shehzadi & krishnasamy, 2018). politeness means that teachers should consider the use of proper sentences and words in suitable contexts that is determined from rules held in the society. words that do not support the society’s polite culture must need to be avoided. some words are appreciable in one culture while in some cultures they are considered inappropriate. teachers’ communication, politeness, attitude have a significant impact on the student’s behavior. high level of self-esteem is promoted with effective strategies that encourage responsible behaviors. due to the growth of the technological advancements, it is demonstrated that communities using the computer-mediated things have gained very prominence and success as well. they have considered the significance of politeness among the e-mail community and how positive behavior can be made in the computer-mediating environment (saidi & khosravi, 2015). usage of narrative and linguistic strategies at classrooms, shapes the oral and personal narratives and it is considered that many of the adults using verb-ending patterns which are considered as the signs of politeness markers. many cross-cultural studies revealed some of the discrepancies that exist between the listener and the speaker (shum & lee, 2013). in the proposed politeness taxonomy, different factors are included such as play downs, down toners, hedges, hesitators, and committers. figure 1: impact of emotional intelligence in indonesia, drastic fall has been observed in the emotional intelligence of the learners. this fall in ei affects academic performance as well the personal and professional life of the students. this problem is not faced only in indonesia but also in other parts of the world such as thailand and malaysia. it is essential for the teachers in the indonesian institutions to bring some important changes in education system to improve the educational quality. teachers need to highlight some mudiono important barriers which create hindrance in the formation of quality education (pan & kadar, 2011). it is the role of the teacher to raise standards of the education that guarantees the growth, prosperity, and the achievement of individual in society (terkourafi, 2011). punishment must be prohibited in the schools and teachers need to deal softly and avoid developing fears for the punishments. politeness intimacy, close relationships, nearness and social distance must be managed between the listener and speaker. speaker should provide friendship sense and comfort with the listener. although previous studies have been conducted in this context but this study has not been conducted in indonesia. moreover, the mediating role of self-efficacy and self-esteem in the relationship between teaching politeness and ei of learners has not been analyzed. in the students of indonesia, a research gap has been identified as there is lack of emotional intelligence in the students. students are not competitive enough to compete in different sectors of the country. it is attributed to different number of factors but one of the most important factors identified is the attitudes of the teachers towards students. teachers’ politeness is very important aspect for the student’s effective learning. the role of self-esteem and self-efficacy is very important in increasing the emotional intelligence of the learners. this study gap has been identified in the context of indonesia where there is lack of emotional intelligence among the learners. empirical evidences were lacking to find the relationship between teaching politeness and the emotional intelligence of the learners. for the purpose of exploring this, a research path has been identified to explore the association among the two concepts. research objectives of this study are as follows: 1. to analyze the significant impact of teaching politeness on ei of learners 2. to analyze the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between teaching politeness and ei of learners 3. to analyze the mediating role of self-esteem in the relationship between teaching politeness and ei of learners the significance and scope of this research allow the indonesian schools to develop some useful strategies and regulation for bringing more teaching politeness as politeness increases the selfefficacy and self-esteem of the students. both concepts therefore help in enhancing the ei of the learners. formulation of useful measures is quite helpful for the country as students with high academic performance lead the country’s future with more positive thoughts and feelings. the author has discussed the problem and the scope of this research in the above paragraphs. following journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 paragraphs are based on the literature review of different variables and the work of different variables related to this topic. the next section is based on the methodology that is considered for this research study. after the methodology, all the data gathered has been analyzed for the results. in the end of the report, conclusion is derived and some recommendations are also given for the purpose of improving ei among teachers. literature review social agency theory with respect to the social agency theory, teachers must consider the impact of politeness on achievement of students as students who learn from the polite teachers are able to demonstrate greater scores on tests. students learn many different things from their strict teachers but strictness is not helpful in achieving good grades (wiseman, cuevas‐rodríguez & gomez‐mejia, 2012). on the other hand, it has also been observed that politeness on weak students results in poorer performance of these students. intelligent students are able to get more knowledge and scores from the lectures of polite teachers instead of strict teachers. high level of cooperation and encouragement is needed from polite teachers if high academic performance is supposed to be achieved. social agency theory helps in understanding of the relationships among the two parties and agent is needed to act in the best interest which is demanded by the principal (cowgill, 2014). sources of conflicts arise among the two different parties involved and incompatible desires also cause inefficiencies. teaching politeness and emotional intelligence of the learners politeness refers to the display of good manners and politeness theories explain various factors, principles, and scales of politeness which contribute towards politeness. politeness is considered as the social aspect and is a belief. importance of politeness in teaching cannot be ignored as it is significant in developing communication between the listener and speaker. the method of developing interaction varies among people as they had to face the threats of with positive or negative response in return. positive face gives the impression of help whereas negative impression displays effort (uzair-ul-hassan & farooq, 2017). developing politeness in the communication, etiquettes, and courtesy is the custom and procedure of the society. in every field, developing and using politeness is a useful strategy for avoiding certain conflicts that might result and it helps in mudiono the formation of good relationships too. in the learning practice and classroom teaching, the use of politeness is important and relevant (lupton & hempel-jorgensen, 2012). in the learning and teaching process, teachers use different utterances for the communication with students and this is the politeness strategy. all teachers must use this strategy as it is appropriate for developing communication between the teacher and student. use of this strategy is depicted from the politeness behavior that teacher displays in front of the students. emotional intelligence is an important element of research and also the predictor of the well-being, health, and also the academic outcomes of the learners. ei refers to the cognitive ability of the learners to consider, perceive, understand, use, and also manage their emotions (pool & qualter, 2012). the characteristic of people having high level of confidence on emotional abilities is termed as emotional self-efficacy. adaptation of various emotional functioning helps in making the accurate prediction on work-related outcomes. emotional self-efficacy is the belief that one has on its own emotional-functioning capabilities. both ese and ei are important predictors for the academic success & increase the employability chances as well. examining and investigating attitudes are essential for the ei for designing appropriate interventions with academic performance (fernandez, salamonson & griffiths, 2012). h1: there is a significant relationship between teaching politeness and emotional intelligence of learners. mediating role of self-efficacy self-efficacy refers to the belief that one has on his or her anilities for the successful accomplishment of tasks. strong and motivated sense of self-efficacy allows the students to perform even harder tasks (honicke & broadbent, 2016). moreover, these students also increase and sustain their efforts to become successful. they approach all the difficult and threatening conditions with high level of confidence. any doubt about their ability will build difficulties on their way for achieving the task accomplishments (carroll et al., 2009). thus, they could either avoid doing task, lack of the encouragement and passivity as well. developing self-efficacy in the classrooms is a great aspect for the students to learn as one can see how students fight with the motivation (ansong, eisensmith, okumu, & chowa, 2019). it is the adrenaline for the motivation. students having high level of confidence are stress-free, which shows high level of propensity for being motivated. students in classrooms must practice self-observation, self-reaction time, and self-judgment. the role of self-efficacy is very important for students as it helps in attaining their journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 goals, sets new tasks and challenges, and develops progress. self-efficacy explains how the differences between the academic results and educational aspirations are related. academic selfefficacy is developed from the evaluation & interpretation of different tasks performance that is represented as the “self-judgment” (schunk & usher, 2011). the level of efficacy is high when students believe that they perform a specific task but diminishes when they feel they are making insufficient efforts. this study tends to explore the relational nature between the academic performance and academic self-efficacy of the students (britner, 2012). self-efficacy in classrooms can be increased by a number of different activities such as providing mastery experiences, emotional experiences, and modeling experiences. emotional intelligence can be built among the learners through a number of different ways. it includes the identification and stopping of emotions. teachers and parents must develop some communication with children to know about their feelings and examining their emotions (bakalar, 2017; kim, jung-eun yoo, lee & kim, 2012). listening to the child’s feeling is also very useful as it determines what students actually feel about a certain condition. taking out time for talking with the students also helps in improving some negative situations. teaching problem-solving is another effective method for obtaining the reflection of the student’s emotions and identifying reasons for the particular action (mohzan, hassan & halil, 2013). emotional intelligence is also improving if the speaker leads the conversation with the example. h2: there is a significant mediating impact of self-efficacy in the relationship between teaching politeness and emotional intelligence of learners. mediating role of self-esteem self-esteem refers to the understanding regarding what a person thinks of himself. it is the judgment of worthiness that a person holds for himself either through his sense of competency or from the concepts of others (cvencek, fryberg, covarrubias & meltzoff, 2018). an individual having positive expectations regarding self considers having the self-esteem. there is a high correlation between the self-esteem and academic performance. self-esteem leads to more academic performance (mbuva, 2017). development of self-concept of the students leads to increased academic performance. there are different factors affecting self-esteem such as the negative responses such as joking, violence, penalty, and criticism. moreover, failure and economic status moreover affects someone’s self-worth. student’s feelings are also affected by the religion, sex, culture, and race (jansen, scherer & schroeders, 2015). mudiono when negative emotions are developed early among the students, it results in development of more thinking habits. students having low self-esteem feel dissatisfied and unimportant. self-esteem of the students is built successfully when there is proactive interest of the educators in making improvements. it is the process that is developed from the beginning and continues for ages. for increasing the student’s confidence and self-esteem, different actions are undertaken by the parents of the children (zahra, mu'in & nasrullah, 2019). it is one of that area in which parents have a greater role to play. the self-esteem of the students is affected by the use of negative words that damages their image (moksnes & espnes, 2012). self-esteem is considered as the critical element in the prevention of certain discipline problems. as students having higher self-esteem score more on their academics than those having less self-esteem (godfrey, santos & burson, 2019). moreover, if teachers are aware of the student’s needs, and give respect and value to students, this enhances the self-esteem and motivation of the students. satisfaction with life is found to have a strong association with the self-esteem and is considered as the examined predictor on certain demographics characteristics, personality, and social connection (kong & you, 2013). personality which scores high on ei tends to have greater sense for their worth. politeness also induces healthy relationship among the listener and speaker. as one cannot ignore the significance of such cooperation and feelings (dunn, 2011). there are four different situations for the politeness and calls for politeness. in competitive situation, the impact of politeness is considered as the negative. in convivial situation, the impact of politeness is considered as positive (shokouhi & rezaei, 2015). politeness means that teachers should consider the use of proper sentences and words in suitable contexts that is determined from rules held in the society. there is strong connection between the self-esteem and emotional intelligence of the learners. higher self-esteem among the students will lead to more positive emotional intelligence and thus the academic growth of the students. ei value higher among the students means that students have better management skills (hen & goroshit, 2014). in this way they are able to develop enhanced self-motivation and improved communication skills which are considered essential to become more confident. students lacking in emotional intelligence tend to develop less connection with the school and its activities and thus negative performance is resulted. improving emotional intelligence through teaching politeness is very helpful for the students (kong, zhao & you, 2012). it results in better stress management, building of empathy, boosting of self-motivation, enhanced journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 self-awareness, effectiveness in developing communication and relationships, and finally increasing the decision-making power. h3: there is a significant mediating impact of self-esteem in the relationship between teaching politeness and emotional intelligence of learners. research framework methods population and sampling objective of this research study is to observe the impact of teaching politeness on emotional intelligence of learners, in mediating role of self-efficacy of learners and self-esteem of learner. researcher selects indonesia as the population of study because in indonesia education is compulsory, indonesia provides free charges education in public one to nine grade. country is struggling to provide high education level to low the illiteracy rate but nowadays indonesia has lower literacy level than other southeast asian countries that’s why researcher provide some specific parameters for enhancing the emotional intelligence of learners. as the large number of primary schools have been working in indonesia that’s why researcher accompanied mixed method sampling which enables the researcher to strengthen the research design on the account of social and behavioral sciences. moreover, it has been observed that mixed method sampling has key importance in social sciences research. further, researcher takes into account purposive teaching politeness self-efficacy of learners self-esteem of learners emotional intelligence of learners mudiono sampling technique in order to selects only those sample respondents such as individual students, which have the knowledge about concerned variables and have the interest in the study. in this study, sample size is 340 that’s why questionnaires have been distributed among 340 respondents but out of them only 316 responded. afterward, researcher attained only 301 valid responses because rest of responses gets rejected due to the incompleteness and invalidity. data collection procedure data collection procedure in this research study is structured questionnaire because researcher desired to collect the objective, quantitative data, which can easily be analyzed through statistical analysis techniques. researcher has to performed the pilot study or pretest the questionnaire before final administration because if the wording, language and items not understandable by respondents then accurate, upright and authentic outcomes can never be attained. due to these reasons, researcher has to verify the understandability of items and minimized the errors and mistakes in the survey questions. further, researcher self-visits the respondents such as students of schools in order to narrates them about filling process and solved their queries during questionnaire administration. measures many other researchers had already conducted the research studies on the impact of proposed variables but in totally different context or perspective, researcher adapts the measurement items from their studies because they have already been attested in context of reliability and validity. researcher adapts the 8 survey items for teaching politeness variable, from literature of (carrell & konneker, 1981) and for emotional intelligence of learners (dependent variable) measurement, researcher adapts the 5 survey items from research work of (mayer & cobb, 2000). further, selfefficacy of learner construct has been measured through 10 measurement items, which have been taken from (walker, 2003) and for self-esteem of learner construct,10 survey items have been adapted from (scott, murray, mertens & dustin, 1996). all these measurement items have been measured on the bases of 5-point likert scale, in which 1 stands as strongly disagree and 5 stands as strongly agree. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 data analysis techniques in this section, researcher entails that he or she takes into consideration spss and amos for analyzing the data of this specific study. researcher applied different tests for analyzing data such as regression test, descriptive statistics tests, reliability tests, correlation test, all these tests have been run under spss. in the reliability test, researcher examined two criteria such as composite construct reliability and cronbach’s alpha, for ensuring internal consistency and items reliability both of them must have values greater than cutoff value 0.70. further, researcher performed confirmatory factor analysis under amos, for assessing convergent validity such as items loading λ, its values have to exceed 0.70 and average variance extracted, its values have to be greater than 0.50 limit value. cfa also assessed the discriminant validity through criterion such as square root of ave has to be greater than other compared constructs and assessed model fitness. structure equation modeling run under amos, for performing hypothesis testing by evaluating structure path model. results and discussion for the purpose of this study a total of 301 participants from indonesia were selected out of which the female ratio was dominant, 58.8%, while the rest 41.2% were males. education-wise, most of the sample was highly educated, i.e. 48.5% had post-graduate degrees and 40.5% had master’s degrees. the prominent age group in the sample was 31-40 with 61.1% respondents lying in this group. the demographic details, as mentioned, helped enhance the validity of results since the majority of the sample was mature in both age and education aspects. table 1. descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean sd skewness statistic statistic statistic statistic statistic statistic se seflefficacyl 301 1.00 4.90 3.5824 1.07315 -.866 .140 seflesteeml 301 1.00 5.00 3.4013 1.17238 -.690 .140 teachpolit 301 1.00 5.00 3.4568 1.11883 -.572 .140 emointell 301 1.00 5.00 3.5482 1.14786 -.586 .140 valid n (listwise) 301 the descriptive statistics for this study have been summarized in table no.1. minimum and maximum statistic values depict the absence of any outlier in the data and the mean statistics show mudiono that most respondents either gave neutral responses or agreed to the questionnaire statements, the skewness lies between the threshold range of -1 and +1, showing that the data against all the variables is normally distributed. table 2. kmo and bartlett's test kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy. .955 bartlett's test of sphericity approx. chi-square 12489.962 df 528 sig. .000 table no. 2 is depicting the results of kmo and bartlett’s test. the result of kmo testing show the value of .955. the purpose of this test is to confirm that sample size of data is accurate and value should lie between threshold range of 0.8 and 1, thus for this study the sample is adequate. results for the rooted component matrix, which is a part of cfa, have been given in table no.3. all the components carry factor loading greater than 0.7 and no issue of cross loading is seen. this table validates the accuracy of data. table 3. rotated component matrix component 1 2 3 4 ef1 .701 ef2 .764 ef3 .842 ef4 .852 ef5 .830 ef6 .816 ef7 .817 ef8 .827 ef9 .848 ef10 .826 es1 .800 es2 .841 es3 .839 es4 .849 es5 .837 es6 .837 es7 .853 es8 .839 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 es9 .854 es10 .873 tp1 .843 tp2 .865 tp3 .868 tp4 .880 tp5 .881 tp6 .881 tp7 .864 tp8 .829 ei1 .846 ei2 .860 ei3 .853 ei4 .837 ei5 .851 table 4. convergent and discriminant validity cr ave msv maxr(h) es tp ef ei es 0.922 0.776 0.270 0.973 0.881 tp 0.919 0.799 0.256 0.986 0.427 0.894 ef 0.947 0.746 0.296 0.990 0.497 0.506 0.864 ei 0.963 0.837 0.296 0.992 0.520 0.357 0.544 0.915 the results for convergent and discriminant validity tests are summarized in table no.4. the first two variables (cr and ave) are indicators of convergent validity and the diagonal part of the table is for showing discriminant validity. all the values for cr and ave are above thresholds of 0.7 and 0.5 respectively, showing convergent validity. as for discriminant validity, each value in bold in the diagonal section is incrementing, showing that they are more associated among themselves then on other factor. table 5. confirmatory factors analysis indicators threshold range current values cmin/df less or equal 3 2.629 gfi equal or greater .80 .805 cfi equal or greater .90 .937 ifi equal or greater .90 .937 rmsea less or equal .08 .074 the model fitness results have been shown in table no.5. the results show that all values are within the threshold ranges. showing that the model is good fit for our hypotheses. mudiono figure 2: cfa table 6. structural equation modeling total effect teachpolit seflesteeml seflefficacyl seflesteeml .417*** .000 .000 seflefficacyl .491*** .000 .000 emointell .442*** .179*** .376*** direct effect teachpolit seflesteeml seflefficacyl seflesteeml .417*** .000 .000 seflefficacyl .491*** .000 .000 emointell .183** .179*** .376*** indirect effect teachpolit seflesteeml seflefficacyl seflesteeml .000 .000 .000 seflefficacyl .000 .000 .000 emointell .259*** .000 .000 for the purpose of hypothesis testing, sem was run on amos. the results have proved that there is a significant impact of teaching politeness on the emotional intelligence of the learner. increasing one unit of teaching politeness increasing the emotional intelligence by 18.3%. the indirect effect of teaching politeness on emotional intelligence is highly significant with a ratio of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 25.9% which exists due to the mediators if one unit of teaching politeness is increased, it causes for 49.1% and 41.7% increase in self-efficacy and self-esteem respectively. moreover, by increasing one unit of self-efficacy, emotional intelligence is increased by 37.6 percent and by increasing one unit of self-esteem, emotional intelligence is increased by 17.9 percent. thus, selfesteem and self-efficacy have significant mediating role in the relationship between teaching politeness and emotional intelligence. figure 3: sem in order to find the impact of the politeness of teachers in the classroom on the emotional intelligence of the students, some hypotheses were formulated by the author of this research in the previous section of this research paper. the first hypothesis regarding the impact of teaching politeness on emotional intelligence of students was accepted by the results discussed in the previous section and they have proven that the direct relationship between the two variables is significant in nature. similar results have been discussed in few previous studies as well (adams, 2014; hagenauer, hascher, & volet, 2015; zhang & sapp, 2013). the second hypothesis discussed the mediating role of self-efficacy between teaching politeness and emotional intelligence. results shown prove this hypothesis to be accepted as well, showing positive significant mediating role of self-efficacy. similar tests have been shown in a number of studies (hagenauer et al., 2015; parvaresh, bidaki & farahani, 2014; santamaría-garcía, 2017). the third hypothesis contested a mediating role of self-esteem between teaching politeness and emotional intelligence. the above given results accepted this hypothesis as well, proving similar to previous studies (sudarsana, mudiono 2016), that this role is significant and positive. in summary all of the proposed hypotheses by the author of this paper have been shown to have positive and significant results and all have been accepted by the tests that were conducted. conclusion the politeness of teachers in the classroom environment has an important role in building of the students’ character. the emotional intelligence of students affects the long term behavior development of the students and politeness of teachers at primary level helps in ensuring that the positive characteristics are enforced in the students. the current study was conducted to discuss the impact of these variables in detail, by using the self-esteem and self-efficacy of students as mediating factors. data was collected from primary school teachers in indonesia and a total of 301 participants were selected to obtain this data. the data was analyzed and studied in depth by application of various tests such as unit root tests and estimation techniques based upon the type of collected data. from the results, it was found that politeness of teachers has significant and positive effect on the emotional intelligence of teachers. based on these results, several theoretical, practical and policy making implications have been identified by the author. implications the emotional intelligence of students plays a key role in their learning abilities at school level and their life time character building. this study discusses effects of the politeness of teachers on the self-efficacy and self-esteem of the students and therefore has major literary and policy making implications. the literature can help peers understand the theoretical benefits of politeness in classroom scenarios. the teachers can use this study to modify their behavior in ways that increases the perception of their politeness in their students and helps them develop high self-esteem and efficacy in learning. the school level policy makers and the governments of countries having similar school structures can use this study as a guideline for designing teacher training policies and laws for controlling teacher behaviors in the classroom. limitations and future research recommendations the academic culture of indonesia cannot be taken as an international or even a regional level standard. thus, the small sample size imposes a limitation which can be overcome by taking larger journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 samples, like the sample of asean region for the analysis of similar factors in future studies. in addition, longitudinal studies should also be conducted, as this was a cross-sectional study. future researches can focus on studying how teacher politeness affects the students’ overall output and learning abilities and the negative effects on student behavior like lack of interest and innovation in homework should also be considered in future work. references adams, a. s. (2014). student perceptions of teacher emoticon usage: the effect on teacher credibility and liking. ansong, d., eisensmith, s. r., okumu, m., & chowa, g. a. (2019). the importance of selfefficacy and educational aspirations for academic achievement in resource-limited countries: evidence from ghana. journal of adolescence, 70, 13-23. bakalar, b. (2017). understanding the whole student: holistic multicultural education [book review]. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 96-98. britner, s. (2012). self-efficacy in school and community settings: nova science publishers. carroll, a., houghton, s., wood, r., unsworth, k., hattie, j., gordon, l., & bower, j. (2009). self-efficacy and academic achievement in australian high school students: the mediating effects of academic aspirations and delinquency. journal of adolescence, 32(4), 797-817. cowgill, g. l. (2014). “rationality” and contexts in agency theory agency in archaeology (pp. 67-76): routledge. cvencek, d., fryberg, s. a., covarrubias, r., & meltzoff, a. n. (2018). self‐concepts, self‐ esteem, and academic achievement of minority and majority north american elementary school children. child development, 89(4), 1099-1109. demirdag, s. (2015). classroom management and students self-esteem: creating positive classrooms. educational research and reviews, 10(2), 191-197. dunn, c. d. (2011). formal forms or verbal strategies? politeness theory and japanese business etiquette training. journal of pragmatics, 43(15), 3643-3654. fernandez, r., salamonson, y., & griffiths, r. (2012). emotional intelligence as a predictor of academic performance in first‐year accelerated graduate entry nursing students. journal of clinical nursing, 21(23-24), 3485-3492. mudiono ferris, e. (2019). lessons of policing and exclusion. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 25-43. retrieved from https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/50 godfrey, e. b., santos, c. e., & burson, e. (2019). for better or worse? system‐justifying beliefs in sixth‐grade predict trajectories of self‐esteem and behavior across early adolescence. child development, 90(1), 180-195. hagenauer, g., hascher, t., & volet, s. e. (2015). teacher emotions in the classroom: associations with students’ engagement, classroom discipline and the interpersonal teacher-student relationship. european journal of psychology of education, 30(4), 385-403. hen, m., & goroshit, m. (2014). academic procrastination, emotional intelligence, academic selfefficacy, and gpa: a comparison between students with and without learning disabilities. journal of learning disabilities, 47(2), 116-124. honicke, t., & broadbent, j. (2016). the influence of academic self-efficacy on academic performance: a systematic review. educational research review, 17, 63-84. jansen, m., scherer, r., & schroeders, u. (2015). students' self-concept and self-efficacy in the sciences: differential relations to antecedents and educational outcomes. contemporary educational psychology, 41, 13-24. kim, t., jung-eun yoo, j., lee, g., & kim, j. (2012). emotional intelligence and emotional labor acting strategies among frontline hotel employees. international journal of contemporary hospitality management, 24(7), 1029-1046. kong, f., & you, x. (2013). loneliness and self-esteem as mediators between social support and life satisfaction in late adolescence. social indicators research, 110(1), 271-279. kong, f., zhao, j., & you, x. (2012). emotional intelligence and life satisfaction in chinese university students: the mediating role of self-esteem and social support. personality and individual differences, 53(8), 1039-1043. lupton, r., & hempel-jorgensen, a. (2012). the importance of teaching: pedagogical constraints and possibilities in working-class schools. journal of education policy, 27(5), 601-620. mbuva, j. (2017). exploring teachers’ self-esteem and its effects on teaching, students’ learning and self-esteem. journal of higher education theory and practice, 17(3). mohzan, m. a. m., hassan, n., & halil, n. a. (2013). the influence of emotional intelligence on academic achievement. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 90, 303-312. https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/50 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 427-445 moksnes, u. k., & espnes, g. a. (2012). self‐esteem and emotional health in adolescents–gender and age as potential moderators. scandinavian journal of psychology, 53(6), 483-489. pan, y., & kadar, d. z. (2011). historical vs. contemporary chinese linguistic politeness. journal of pragmatics, 43(6), 1525-1539. parvaresh, h. r., bidaki, t., & farahani, a. a. k. (2014). refusal strategies of iranian efl learners: the role of sex, age, education levels, and politeness. international journal of education and applied sciences, 1(3), 121-128. pool, l. d., & qualter, p. (2012). improving emotional intelligence and emotional self-efficacy through a teaching intervention for university students. learning and individual differences, 22(3), 306-312. saidi, m., & khosravi, m. (2015). efl learners’ perceptions of (im) politeness: the possible gender differences. international journal of language and applied linguistics, 1(1), 1-11. santamaría-garcía, c. (2017). emotional and educational consequences of (im) politeness in teacher–student interaction at higher education. corpus pragmatics, 1(3), 233-255. schunk, d. h., & usher, e. l. (2011). assessing self-efficacy for self-regulated learning. handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance, 282-297. shehzadi, k., & krishnasamy, h.i.n. (2018). esl writing anxiety, writer's native language, esl writing self-efficacy and esl writing performance: insights into the literature. pakistan journal of humanities and social sciences, 6(2), 221-247. shokouhi, s., & rezaei, a. (2015). the importance of teaching pragmatics in the classrooms (focus on complimenting). journal for the study of english linguistics, 3(1), 101-107. shum, w., & lee, c. (2013). (im) politeness and disagreement in two hong kong internet discussion forums. journal of pragmatics, 50(1), 52-83. srivastava, m., de boer, a., & pijl, s. j. (2015). inclusive education in developing countries: a closer look at its implementation in the last 10 years. educational review, 67(2), 179-195. sudarsana, i. k. (2016). the importance of morals teaching in shaping the students’ characters in school. tittle. terkourafi, m. (2011). thank you, sorry and please in cypriot greek: what happens to politeness markers when they are borrowed across languages? journal of pragmatics, 43(1), 218235. mudiono uzair-ul-hassan, m., & farooq, s. (2017). teachers' politeness as a predictor of students' selfesteem and academic performance. bulletin of education and research, 39(1), 229-243. wiseman, r. m., cuevas‐rodríguez, g., & gomez‐mejia, l. r. (2012). towards a social theory of agency. journal of management studies, 49(1), 202-222. zahra, s., mu'in, f., & nasrullah, n. (2019). students’self-esteem level and their perception on the factors affecting self-esteem in intermediate speaking class. lingua educatia, 1(1), 51-61. zhang, q., & sapp, d. a. (2013). psychological reactance and resistance intention in the classroom: effects of perceived request politeness and legitimacy, relationship distance, and teacher credibility. communication education, 62(1), 1-25. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2012: 3(2), 1-20 © 2012 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 two sides of the megalopolis: educating for sustainable citizenship alexander pope1 & timothy patterson2 abstract: despite widespread focus on literacy and math at the expense of other subjects, citizenship and environmental education have an important role in american public education. citizenship and environmental education are broadly tasked with helping students develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to shepherd the body politic and natural world, respectively, into the future. for educators and administrators concerned with instructional efficiency, educational farm visits offer one means of pairing these two approaches into a unified learning experience. this paper presents findings from a qualitative case study analysis of two such programs, incorporating interviews with and observations of visiting students, teachers, and parents. the authors argue that sustainable citizenship—a typically european conception of citizenship that stresses the natural as well as the national world—is an important outcome of these types of educational experiences. keywords: civic education, environmental education, sustainability, field trips introduction citizens in the united states are generally detached from the natural world. in the american northeast alone, continued urban blending has created a megalopolis, “52,000 square miles with only 1.4% of the national land surface [that] still contains over 17.3% of the population” (vicino, hanlon, & short, 2007, p 346). by 2000, 97.8% of nearly 50 million megalopolis residents lived in a metropolitan area, a number that continues to grow (vicino, hanlon, & short, 2007). while green spaces do remain, contact between the residents and the natural environment is significantly limited, particularly during formal schooling. despite recent popular attention from various “green” movements, sustainable citizenship has historically been absent from broad social studies curricula (disinger, 1983; palmer, 1998). this paper presents two case studies of programs designed to stress sustainable citizenship by 1 teachers college, columbia university, pope@tc.columbia.edu 2 teachers college, columbia university, tjp2123@columbia.edu mailto:pope@tc.columbia.edu� journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 2 exposing school-age children to structured educational farm visits. based on interviews with visiting students, teachers, and parents; site educators; and a review of these programs’ curricula, we conclude that such experiences directly contribute to the development of sustainable citizenship in students. sustainable citizenship is “a national and international policy goal” for promoting a citizenry invested in making sustainable choices about society and nature (bullen & whitehead, 2005, p. 499). based on initial investigations of these two educational farm programs and the suggestions of sustainable citizenship, we developed a case study approach guided by two aligned research questions. these questions are detailed in the next section. from these research questions, we describe the relevance of sustainable citizenship to social studies education in the united states before addressing the specific methods, findings, and implications of this study. research questions field trip research is often the purview of environmental science (e.g., farmer, knapp, & benton, 2007), but we see a clear connection between field trip experiences and the stated goals of social studies education. generally concerned with educating students towards an understanding and acceptance of social justice and social activism (barton & levstik, 2008; hess, 2008; wade, 2008), social studies is a suitable lens through which to view and value such experiences. perhaps more importantly, this approach suggests two other implications. first, that such experiences reverberate beyond a specific consideration of life cycles or ecological systems, to include truly global concepts such as labor inequality. second, that ideas of active american citizenship (often focused on individual, quantifiable acts like voting) need to be expanded to include an appreciation of the natural world. the mission statements of both case study institutions directly reference sustainability and civics education, prompting us to ask: following educational farm visits, are student and teacher commentaries consistent with the ideals of sustainable citizenship? how do the particular locations of these farm visits promote sustainable citizenship among students? alexander pope & timothy patterson 3 conceptual framework we approached the research questions above through a framework adapting sustainable citizenship to established american educational thought. this framework combines three central theories that describe the goals and methods of social studies education in the united states (see figure 1). following bullen & whitehead (2005) this framework embodies the aim of social studies education (democratic citizenship) while incorporating a relevant theory (sustainability) and examining a pedagogical practice (place-based education) that we believe promotes a desirable outcome (sustainable citizenship). figure 1. framework for sustainable citizenship in this framework, educators may embody one or more established stances towards education while still working—perhaps unwittingly—towards sustainable citizenship. this qualification is necessary to allow room for american educators to demonstrate key components of a theory that is not commonly discussed in their country. that is, without including additional components to describe the goals and methods of this type of education, it could be impossible to investigate sustainable citizenship within the context of the american education system. in this section, we detail the particulars of these theories and describe how their interplay relates to the experiences of students and teachers during educational field trips such as farm visits. democratic education journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 4 social studies education should focus on education for democratic citizenship (kahne & middaugh, 2010). we agree that citizenship education must emphasize collective action, and the notion that students must be aware of the root causes of social issues (westheimer & kahne, 2004). we will examine how the efforts of manhattan country school (mcs) and snipes farm are linked to civic action, and correlate these with students' deeper understanding of their connection and responsibility to the earth. as social studies educators discuss and focus on the concept of democratic citizenship, they should acknowledge the global relevance of local decisions. such a “moral undertaking to consider other members of this generation in decisions” (sherren, 2008, p. 247) is ideally suited to discussions of the environment. decisions that impact the environment are not limited to the local areas of influence; the environment remains a “commons” for all of humanity (hardin, 1968) applicable to civics education. this approach to democratic education involves an integrated system of curricula and pedagogies designed to instill in the students an appreciation of their “ability to contribute to a healthy and abundant world” (federico & cloud, 2009, p. 109). this is a critical topic in areas like the northeastern united states, where urban development remains most widespread. critical geography critical geography emphasizes how identity is shaped by and reacts to power relationships based in space; “the ways in which the spatial sets limits on bodies, and the operations of people in making space” (helfenbein, 2006, p. 112). critical geography allows us to explore nontraditional sites of education, such as farms, and the impact these environments have on sustainability curricula and pedagogy. these sites are places where educators make space for the interplay of social justice and civic participation through a sustainability curriculum. places are imbued with histories and experiences that give and take power from certain groups (soja, 1989; storey, 2001). the two sites detailed in this study are products of their particular places. critical geography provides an avenue into our analysis of the philosophies of the mcs and snipes farm. the founders of both of these educational centers were concerned with power relationships, but geography (among other factors) shaped how their struggles manifested themselves. place-based education alexander pope & timothy patterson 5 like critical geography, place-based education (pbe) focuses on the importance of place to meaningful learning experiences, and the way that an awareness of place can impact our understanding of experience. pbe encourages community-minded, experiential learning opportunities integrated with traditional curricula (promise of place, 2009). the typical pbe program is heavily environmental, and most promote student senses of “environmental stewardship” (place-based education evaluation collaborative, 2009). commonly used for environmental and general science education, pbe has recently enjoyed more serious attention from social studies teachers and researchers (american institutes for research 2005; glenn, 2000; lieberman and hoody, 1998). such studies have demonstrated the ability of pbe to create meaningful learning experiences that result in significant academic gains relative to more traditional, school-based approaches. mcs and snipes farm both offer educational, field-based programs common to place-based education programs. sustainable citizenship sustainable citizenship is the ultimate goal for the promotion of a citizenry invested in making sustainable choices about society and nature (bullen & whitehead, 2005). this concept is primarily championed in the united kingdom (e.g., rsa, 2012) but has important implications for the united states. sustainable citizenship can be understood as an expansion of the more traditional view of citizenship that privileges individual acts such as voting. more narrowly still, transactional citizenship, which defines citizenship “as a set of skills necessary to get into college and obtain meaningful employment” (lautzenheiser et al, 2011, p. 8) has gained traction in the united states and other western democratic countries. in many locales, environmental education is associated with controversial issues. critics often try to reframe the debate to focus on the supposedly questionable nature of issues like global climate change. in these cases, teachers may feel pressure to avoid environmental topics. the de-professionalization of teaching (see ingersoll & perda, 2008) and continuing curricular squeezing in the social studies (see wills, 2007) have only added to a perception that teachers should focus on content delivery and not involve themselves in social or political issues (see hess, 2009). we present sustainable citizenship as the outcome of effectively paired social studies and environmental education. social studies is the primary school subject through which educators bring students’ attention to public issues relating to democracy and citizenship (barr, barth, & journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 6 shermis, 1977; woyshner, watras, & crocco, 2004). the concepts that fall under the umbrella of sustainability, such as preservation of ecosystems, access to water, and pollution, are themselves both social and public issues, worthy of inclusion in the social studies curriculum (chandler, 2009; dobson, 2003; fleury & sheldon, 1996; martusewicz, 2001; sterling, 1996). the specific methods through which teachers help their students reach this goal may vary. in the case studies described below, we review one such method: the educational farm trip. the sites and trips described incorporate clear references to democratic citizenship, critical geography, and place-based education. through discussions with visiting students, parents, and teachers, we conclude that these educational farm visits resulted in participant conceptions of citizenship consistent with the outcomes of sustainable citizenship. site descriptions this paper presents a study of two programs that promote sustainable citizenship by exposing school-age children to structured educational farm visits. our findings are based on qualitative investigations at two specific educational farm sites. both sites are located in the megalopolis, the portion of the american northeast characterized by urban sprawl and a reduced connection between residents and natural spaces (see figure 2). their mission statements directly reference sustainability and civics education, suggesting a connection between experiencing the natural word and developing the knowledge and attitudes associated with sustainable citizenship. this section includes an overview of the sites. we have kept the site names unchanged, but have used pseudonyms to refer to study participants. alexander pope & timothy patterson 7 figure 2. the american megalopolis (about the usa, 2012) manhattan country school (mcs) and snipes farm & education center are working to help residents and students maintain or uncover their relationship with the land. founded in 1966, mcs is partnered with a 180-acre working farm located in the catskills region of new york state; students visit the farm at least once per semester, and graduating 8th-grade students are required to complete a variety of farm activities. students are also exposed to concepts of civic engagement, social justice, and social activism, and are expected “to champion excellence and justice, compassion and peace, and the rights of all people to racial, economic, environmental, and educational equity” (manhattan country school, 2010). mcs seeks to help students in one of the most urban and human-altered areas on the planet maintain a relationship with nature. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 8 founded in morrisville, pa, in 1808 the snipes family farm is a relic surrounded by housing developments, four-lane highways, and shopping malls. in 2008, jonathan snipes and susan snipes-wells converted the for-profit farm into a nonprofit educational center “to model and teach sustainable farming, building community and reconnecting people to the land” (the farm school at snipes, 2009) through an outdoor 25-acre classroom. the farm conducts classes on sustainable food production throughout the growing season and hosts field trips for area schools. snipes’ educational vision of the farm is for visitors to “leave with a new understanding of agriculture, especially organic agriculture and the natural systems that allow for food production” (as cited in carey, 2009). the farm’s educational efforts reflect snipes’ belief that sustainable agriculture and open-space environmental issues are social-justice issues affecting the local and global communities. pope had an established professional relationship with mcs and patterson with snipes, but we had no knowledge of each other's site before we began discussing the potential study. through our conversations, we realized that the sites took similar approaches to their work. additionally, both sites address environmental education, sustainability, and democratic citizenship in their mission statements and seek to reach similar student populations. through our connections, we were able to secure multiple observation visits and interviews with site educators and visiting students, parents, and teachers. the particulars of these methods are addressed in the next section. methods & analysis based on an initial review of these sites based on our familiarity, we posed our guiding questions to focus on the role of these sites and their locations in promoting sustainable citizenship. to address these questions, we conducted interviews with faculty, visiting students and parents; formally reviewed program curricula; and observed field trip experiences. oral interviews (seidman, 2006) with one administrator from each program focused on their goals and guiding philosophies for the programs. oral interviews with three teachers from each program focused on their understanding of the farm/school missions and philosophies, as well as the pedagogies they use to implement those goals. oral interviews with five students from each program focused on student experiences in the programs, with particular attention alexander pope & timothy patterson 9 given to their prior understandings of sustainability and citizenship compared with those after the program. interviews were conducted based on availability and willingness. naturalistic observations were conducted at both farm sites during school trips. we observed one full-day field trip at each site. during observations we looked for examples of activities involving the larger environment or society. our focus was on lessons that involved hands-on activities. the process was iterative; observations also helped generate ideas for interviews and curricula analysis. we individually coded the resulting data using a pre-determined set of codes culled from extant literature regarding components of our conceptual framework (marhsall & rossman, 2011). during this process we revisited site curricula to look for examples of pre-existing activities that related to or deviated from the descriptions offered by administrators and visitors, as well as our own observations. the most frequently appearing codes concerned awareness of relationships, costs of production, and relationship to the land. we collected these and other recurring codes into two main themes: feeling the land and conscious consumerism. holistic curricula structured hands-on experiences with the natural environment around discussions of citizens’ roles in making sustainable choices as conscientious, active members of a global society. visits to mcs and snipes gave students the opportunity and tools to talk about issues of national and natural responsibilities. in the next section we detail the two themes, and argue that these sites directly contribute to the development of sustainable citizenship in students. discussion student, parent, and faculty interviews revealed a deep understanding of how individual choices have far-reaching consequences in the national and natural world. students from 3rd through 8th grade were able to verbalize clear examples of how their decisions impacted more than the food they ate. this and other data were used to identify the two themes detailed in this section: feeling the land and conscious consumerism. taken as a whole, our findings suggest that sustainability-minded field trips can be an important component of successful social studies and citizenship education. for those unable to commit to full field trips, we also offer suggestions for how to incorporate these concepts into an urban classroom. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 10 feeling the land one of the most prevalent notions expressed by site administrators and visiting students was that the farms help people feel a connection to the land. as one 3rd grader visiting snipes noted, “when you go to the store and buy an apple, you don’t know what the process is, what it goes through” but that through experiences like those at snipes “you can actually see everything and appreciate [that process] more.” margaret, an educator at snipes, reports that a lesson at snipes “does feel different than the typical educational system that a child finds his or herself in which is to say mostly indoors, and not very hands-on. i mean, we really want kids to discover things on their own through exploration and that’s a messy process sometimes.” feeling the land is about more than the sense of touch. participants consistently noted that part of that messy process evoked emotional reactions. students visiting a working farm were keenly aware of the distinctions between that farm and the urban area where they live. in many cases, this awareness was based on the experience of traveling from one area to the other, but students also discussed the intrinsic value of the spaces in themselves. for example, one student described the trip from manhattan to the mcs farm in roxbury. as he traced the route along a map of new york state, he emphasized the power of moving between his urban home in manhattan and the rural refuge of the farm in roxbury, connecting the physical trip with a new understanding of the land. “in new york city, we’re used to having everything just be on the street. you can just go within three blocks to the supermarket and find everything you need” without thinking about where it all comes from. he continued, “here, everything needs to be grown and everything needs to be raised.” this represents not just a different way of thinking about his food, but also a different way of thinking about his relationship with other people. through his narrative, this student echoed the voices of other new york city youth who expressed a simultaneous alienation from their own communities, while maintaining a desire to reform and better those spaces (kinloch, 2010). for this student, traveling to and being at the farm represents more than just a getaway from life in the city, but alexander pope & timothy patterson 11 also a means for critically engaging within a community of individuals through collective stewardship of the land. following the suggestions of place-based education, site programs are designed around the specific qualities of the farms that allow for physical contact with the land and communal sharing of responsibilities. as noted by roger, an educator at snipes, because they are located "in the midst of suburban sprawl" snipes arranges short-term events that offer a glimpse of what bucks county used to be like. this offers visitors the chance to feel what life on a farm was like in bucks county, a reality for only a small percentage of the population in the megalopolis. the educators at snipes feel that it is critical they do this work in such a densely populated area as a means of reconnecting young people with the land they inhabit and the food that they eat. experiences cater towards students who will visit for part of the day, then return home. the quick turnaround helps bring home the emotional shift that accompanies the physical change from farm to city, reinforcing that “for city kids, it’s about seeing that citizenship is not just the way we construct it in an urban environment.” in addition, roger hopes that these experiences that contrast heavily with the students’ daily existences have the possibility for civic engagement later in life: “if kids can learn to love one farm and understand how one farm works then when they grow up and they are in a position to make policy or vote they can begin to make changes that will mean that other small farms can survive.” at the same time, educators at both snipes and mcs expect that feeling the land will bring their students into a closer relationship with their own environment, be they suburban or urban settings. james, an educator at the mcs farm in roxbury, echoes dewey’s (1900) frustration that students study content divorced from its real life context: “kids are studying the rain forest but they’re not studying the forest outside their classroom window. say let’s go save an acre! let’s raise some pennies for it, but they’ve never measured an acre, they’ve never walked it.” thus these educators seek opportunities to meld the content of the classroom with learning in the natural environment. one teacher at the mcs school in manhattan enacts a pedagogy meant to “put children in natural situations, where what we’re studying is right around them.” to that end, she and her students visit central park every day. her expectation is that her students will have concrete and tangible experiences with the last bit of nature in the heart of the megalopolis. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 12 mcs maintains a deliberately low-impact and low-tech presence that echoes the traditionally rural routes of upstate new york. as long-term visitors, mcs students are responsible for running the farm, which includes collecting eggs, cleaning barns, and harvesting crops to prepare their own meals. the physical labor helps students get their hands dirty and feel the effort involved in sustainable living. eric, an educator at the mcs farm in roxbury, argues that by doing the work of the farmer, students internalize not only an appreciation for the effort that goes into food production, but also a realization of the interconnectedness of the systems of nutrition. this lesson is not lost on the students at mcs, because the work they perform is literally connected to the sustenance of the next class of students to visit the farm. reports one female mcs student: “one class supports the next class by getting all the food from the garden in the spring, and so it’s like, it’s all kind of a cycle. and so, if one class doesn’t do their job well, the other class doesn’t eat well, or they don’t eat well, and it’s just kind of a big circle of events.” conscious consumerism with their messages of sustainability, social justice, and raw environmentalism, we expected an anti-consumerism message to pervade snipes and mcs. instead, we found a version of consumerism we call conscious consumerism. this approach reflects how “sustainability has grown, and gotten to be a much broader term. i’m not saying they have to become environmentalists…say ‘oh this world is horrible.’ it’s just a different perspective of how people live.” sarah, an mcs educator, was describing the awareness that most people live in urban areas, and that all of the visitors to these sites depend on purchased goods to live. rather than challenge the basic economic systems in place, snipes and mcs expose students to experiences and questions that provoke introspection about the types of goods they buy, and the consequences of those choices. that said, sustainability is a central component to conscious consumerism, but it’s what one snipes visitor called “sustainability in general.” sandra, an educator at snipes, joked about one of the parents who said, “what did you teach my kid, he won’t let me take him to mcdonald’s anymore!” the parent was sharing how her son was considering the choice of what to eat and where. the new challenge this mother faced was helping her son make the good food choices that began with his visit to snipes. these sites certainly promote environmental alexander pope & timothy patterson 13 sustainability. in the main, this includes decisions about food and traditional environmental impact. relevance is a key component of good teaching, and these sites excel at helping students find connections with their everyday life. at its most basic level, this involves teaching their students what food actually is. at snipes, the educators expressed a concern that at home their students’ habits and knowledge are completely divorced from the production of the food they consume. a local teacher, who brings his classes of third graders to snipes five times throughout every school year, reported that his students believe the fruits and vegetables they eat are produced at the grocery store. confirming these concerns, a snipes educator argued, “a lot of families these days don’t even cook, so kids don’t understand what food really is, where it really comes from and how it can be healthful versus out of a bag and not all that healthful, just full of calories.” as a result, potential impacts often focused on personal health and well-being. perhaps that is expected; after all, these were youths in elementary and middle school. one of the teachers visiting snipes believed his students need to “see where their food is coming from [so] they’re more likely to try that broccoli, try that carrot before reaching for the mac n’ cheese for that snack.” students themselves associated these personal choices back to their source. for example, local third graders discussed with us the differences in nutritional value of vegetables found at a grocery store “that can be days old” and those found at a local and sustainable farm where “they just grow and [people] pick them,” and even noted a difference in the quality of produce they are used to eating. this conscious consumerism was not limited to an understanding of healthy eating choices, but also social awareness of the impact their purchases may have on other people. one activity we observed at mcs involved students spinning thread from wool taken from sheep on the farm. some students had tried spinning before, but for many of the students this was their first time. while the activity involved arts and crafts, there was also a clear focus on sustainability content. the activity began by helping students “appreciate more how much technique and effort you need to put into making one ball of string” as one of the spinners said. but the educators leading the lesson helped students make the connection with their choices. another student involved in the lesson told us that as a result of her education, she was more likely to reflect on the larger impact of her individual choices. she said, “it’s just like, next time journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 14 i buy a shirt or something, i think about how much it really costs and how much energy was put into it, and it’s still like only a dollar. going through it ourselves, it’s kind of, it’s enlightening.” through a study of life cycles, students are prompted to think about the ways in which other aspects of life are connected. in our observations and interviews, this was demonstrated as students reflected on the broad impact of their choices can have. for example, several mcs students also picked up on the impact their consumerism specifically with regard to clothing choices. through our conversations, they demonstrated knowledge of child labor practices, an empathy with those young people forced into such choices, and an ambition to right those wrongs in their own, personal ways. conscious consumerism directly addresses the hidden costs of what americans buy and use. talking with a group of mcs students, they bounced this idea off one another. student 1: a big part of coming to the farm is you learn where a lot of the stuff, like all the necessities come from. student 2: and you get a week away from your parents! student 1: but we’re learning about energy and we’re learning about solar energy, and so we’ve also been learning about oil drilling like up in the catskills, right? student 3: natural gas. student 2: natural gas, right, natural gas drilling. and so we’re like learning about our necessities and how the process of getting them is so complicated. but we think it’s so simple to get them, but it’s not. their free-form discussion demonstrated an easy connection with broad issues. even when discussing something outside their immediate experiences, like drilling in another part of the state, students were able to use the framework offered by their farm visits. we cannot say whether these students will act on their awareness as they grow up, but the suggestions at this point were clear. the educators at snipes and mcs believe that the powerful experiences their students have working on sustainable farms will lead to their achieving a lasting conscious consumerism. at mcs, tom suggested that the goal of their curriculum was not to influence career decisions, but to influence their lifestyle choices towards sustainable outcomes: “we’re not turning out farmers, but those kids are going to join a food co-op…they’re going to make those educated choices as opposed to based on someone’s opinion from a magazine.” one of his students alexander pope & timothy patterson 15 supported his hopes, describing how the experience “is one of those things where we can put a little social justice into decisions that are just getting started to get noticed.” the expectation of these programs is that the result of feeling the land will be powerful enough to affect their civic understandings throughout adulthood. critiques implicit in most approaches to sustainable citizenship is an assumption that a natural world exists or at least existed at one time. as mann (2006) argues, this assumption is often based on the premise that pre-columbian america was something of an environmental paradise, unaltered by the efforts of humans. presented as a new form of the white man’s burden (kipling, 1899) modern environmental stewardship is largely grounded in historically inaccurate attempts to roll back the clock to this idealized vision. educators concerned with accurate historic and contemporary interpretation might shy away from presentations that could offer such a simplified mythology about the american environment. however, our investigations of mcs and snipes educational programs suggest that these and other sites are more concerned with instilling attitudes of moderation and healthy choices in their visitors. as both sites are themselves evidence of human impact on the environment through agriculture, they do not take the final step of promoting ascetic environmentalism. significance and suggestions for further research these programs, as effective as they are, are limited by their structures and locations. although snipes farm offers adult education classes, summer camps, and a community supported agriculture program, their school partnerships are limited by available funding, primarily through donations and grants. even though third graders will meet with farm educators five times a year, their teacher noted that the program could be enhanced if it was something that students did every year. what snipes farm lacks in repetition they make up for with a focused curriculum that reaches dozens of schools each year. even without the repetition, this teacher and other educators were firm in their belief that it was important for students to see a working, sustainable farm early in their education. mcs is able to provide their students with this repetition, but reaches a smaller community. by eighth grade the average student has visited the partner farm 22 times. this journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 16 allows farm educators and students to build a personal and working relationship, which allows students and the curriculum to grow together. however, the farm in the catskills is primarily occupied by mcs students, limiting the farm’s ability to work with other schools. an administrator at mcs notes that they have “added a couple of extra trips for public schools in the last 10 years because we felt that it was as important to offer the opportunity for public school students.” mcs administrators are working to make the farm experience more accessible. one of their key concerns is cost. the importance of this type of education extends beyond students who live in the megalopolis. expanding on the wish that students in rural upstate new york were exposed to more experiential, place-based education, tom, a teacher at mcs reflected on his own family: “and here are urban kids who are just so comfortable in this, and i think it’s just such a telling tale of these rural kids not having a rural experience. again, they’re in this four-walled classroom, and they have all this outside, but they rarely use it. and i get it back because of my own kids. you know: what did you do today? it was a beautiful day! you know: we didn’t go outside…” this is particularly poignant because tom’s children live in a predominantly rural area, surrounded by farms. regardless of setting, these types of experiences are available; many new york city schools have begun rooftop gardens (ozer, 2006). future research could support this hope by investigating the ways teachers conceive of connections between traditional environmental and citizenship education. studies should also seek to assess increases in student content knowledge and performance on typical measures of content knowledge. both of these efforts should help provide support for these beneficial experiences. indeed, more research into the connections between sustainability, place, and social studies education is needed. as with our own research in this area, many available studies are too narrow in scope. for example, we did not directly compare the classroom experiences of the students who visited either farm; for that information, we relied on reports from the students, educators, and classroom teachers. the above limitations can be controlled in a future study. we alexander pope & timothy patterson 17 hope to continue our research in this area. the relationships we have established with mcs and snipes have allowed for long-term contact and deep longitudinal study. in order to give findings greater utility in the current standards-based climate, we suggest research that involves empirical investigations of student content-knowledge. we contend that place-based sustainability education does not in any way detract from students’ learning of standardized social studies content knowledge. yet, without quantitative evidence, many administrators are likely to maintain a concern over instructional time lost. as the common core state standards take effect around the country, interdisciplinary education is expected to gain greater attention. for educators concerned with the implications of education on their students' ideas about citizenship, educational farm visits offer a means to effectively address science content and social studies skills. on visits, students are tasked with real world applications of biology and chemistry. at the same time, they are prompted to consider the ways their daily actions impact a sometimes intangible community. this attention to the natural and national community is at the heart of education for sustainable citizenship. our hope is that educators will consciously seek out and leverage these opportunities. references about the usa (2012). about the usa: megalopolis. retrieved from http://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/outgeogr/map3.gif american institutes for research. (2005). effects of outdoor education programs for children in california. palo alto, ca: american institutes for research. barr, r.d., barth, j.l., & shermis, s.s. (1977). defining the social studies. arlington, va: national council for the social studies. barton, k. & levstik, l. teaching history for the common good, erlbaum, 2004. bullen, a., & whitehead, m. (2005). negotiating the networks of space, time and substance: a geographical perspective on the sustainable citizen. citizenship studies, 9(5), 499-516. chandler, t. (2009) civic engagement about climate change: a case study of three educators and their practice. unpublished doctoral dissertation, teaches college, columbia university, new york, ny. (proquest document reproduction). dewey, j. (1900). the school and society. chicago: university of chicago press. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 18 disinger, j. f. (1983). environmental education's definitional problem. clearinghouse for science, mathematics and environmental education information bulletin, 2, 17-32. dobson, a. (2003). citizenship and the environment. oxford: oxford university press. farmer, j., knapp, d., & benton, g. m. (2007). an elementary environmental education field trip: long term effects on ecological/environmental knowledge and attitude development. journal of environmental education 38(3), 33-42. farmer, j., knapp, d., & benton, g. m. (2007). an elementary environmental education field trip: long term effects on ecological/environmental knowledge and attitude development. journal of environmental education 38(3), 33-42. frederico. c., & cloud, j. (2009). kindergarten through twelfth grade education: fragmentary progress in equipping students to think and act in a challenging world. in j. dernbach (ed.), agenda for a sustainable america. washington, dc: eli press. fleury, s. c., & sheldon, a. (1996). environmentalism and environmental issues. in r. evans & d. saxe (eds.) handbook on teaching social issues: ncss bulletin 93. washington, d.c.: national council for the social studies. glenn, j. l. (2000). environment-based education: creating high performance schools and students. washington, dc: the national environmental education & training foundation. hardin, g. (1968). the tragedy of the commons. science, 162(3859), 1243-1248. helfenbein jr., r. (2006). space, place, and identity in the teaching of history: using critical geography to teach teachers in the american south. in a. segall, e., heilman & c. cherryholmes (eds.), social studies – the next generation (pp. 111-124). new york: peter lang. hess, d. (2008). controversial issues and democratic discourse. in l.s. levstik & c.a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 124-136). new york: routledge. hess, d. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. new york: routledge. alexander pope & timothy patterson 19 ingersoll, r.m. & perda, d. (2008). the status of teaching as a profession. in j. ballantine & j. spade (eds.), schools and society: a sociological approach to education (pp. 106-118). los angeles: pine forge press. kahne, j. & middaugh, e. (2010). high quality civic education: what is it and who gets it? in w. park (ed.), social studies today: research and practice (pp. 141-150). new york: routledge. kinloch, v. (2010). harlem on our minds: place, race and the literacies of urban youth. new york: teachers college press. lautzenheiser, d., kelly, a., & miller, c. (2011). contested curriculum: how teachers and citizens view civics education. aei program on american citizenship, 1–9. lieberman, g., & hoody, l. (1998). closing the achievement gap: using the environment as an integrating context for learning. state education and environment roundtable. poway, ca: science wizards. marshall, c. & rossman, g.b. (2011). designing qualitative research (5th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. martusewicz, r. a. (2001). seeking passage: post-structuralism, pedagogy, ethics. new york: teachers college press. ozer, e.j. (2006). the effects of school gardens on students and schools: conceptualization and considerations for maximizing healthy development. health education & behavior, 34(6), 846-863. palmer, j. (1998). environmental education in the 21st century: theory, practice, progress, and promise. london: routledge. place-based education evaluation collaborative. (2009). peec. retrieved from http://www.peecworks.org/index promise of place. (2009). home promise of place. retrieved from http://www.promiseofplace.org. rsa. (2012). rsa – sustainable citizenship. retrieved from http://www.thersa.org/actionresearch-centre/public-services-arts-social-change/citizen-power/sustainable-citizenship seidman, i. (2006). interviewing as qualitative research: a guide for researchers in education and the social sciences (3rd ed.). new york: teachers college press. journal of social studies education research 2012: 3(2), 1-20 20 sherren, k. (2008). a history of the future of higher education for sustainable development. environmental education research, 14(3), 238-256. soja, e.w. (1989). postmodern geographies: the reassertion of space in critical social theory. london: verso. sterling, s. (1996). education in change. in j. huckle & s. sterling. (eds.), education for sustainability (pp. 19-39). london: earthscan. storey, d. (2001). territory: the claiming of space. new york: prentice hall. the farm school at snipes. (2009). about snipes farm and education center. retrieved feb 13, 2010, from http://www.farmschoolatsnipes.org/about/. vicino, t., hanlon, b., & short, j. (2007). megalopolis 50 years on: the transformation of a city region. international journal of urban and regional research, 31(2), 344-367. wade, r. (2008). service-learning. in l.s. levstik & c.a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 109-123). new york: routledge. westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2). 237-269. wills, j.s. (2007). putting the squeeze on social studies: managing teaching dilemmas in subject areas excluded from state testing. teachers college record 109(8), 1980-2046. woyshner, c., watras, j., & crocco, m.s. (2004). social education in the twentieth century: curriculum and context for citizenship. new york: peter lang. two sides of the megalopolis: educating for sustainable citizenship alexander pope0f & timothy patterson1f abstract: despite widespread focus on literacy and math at the expense of other subjects, citizenship and environmental education have an important role in american public education. citizenship and environmental education are broadly tasked with help... keywords: civic education, environmental education, sustainability, field trips introduction citizens in the united states are generally detached from the natural world. in the american northeast alone, continued urban blending has created a megalopolis, “52,000 square miles with only 1.4% of the national land surface [that] still contains ov... despite recent popular attention from various “green” movements, sustainable citizenship has historically been absent from broad social studies curricula (disinger, 1983; palmer, 1998). this paper presents two case studies of programs designed to stre... based on initial investigations of these two educational farm programs and the suggestions of sustainable citizenship, we developed a case study approach guided by two aligned research questions. these questions are detailed in the next section. from ... research questions field trip research is often the purview of environmental science (e.g., farmer, knapp, & benton, 2007), but we see a clear connection between field trip experiences and the stated goals of social studies education. generally concerned with educating ... the mission statements of both case study institutions directly reference sustainability and civics education, prompting us to ask: following educational farm visits, are student and teacher commentaries consistent with the ideals of sustainable citizenship? how do the particular locations of these farm visits promote sustainable citizenship among students? conceptual framework we approached the research questions above through a framework adapting sustainable citizenship to established american educational thought. this framework combines three central theories that describe the goals and methods of social studies education... figure 1. framework for sustainable citizenship in this framework, educators may embody one or more established stances towards education while still working—perhaps unwittingly—towards sustainable citizenship. this qualification is necessary to allow room for american educators to demonstrate key ... democratic education social studies education should focus on education for democratic citizenship (kahne & middaugh, 2010). we agree that citizenship education must emphasize collective action, and the notion that students must be aware of the root causes of social issue... as social studies educators discuss and focus on the concept of democratic citizenship, they should acknowledge the global relevance of local decisions. such a “moral undertaking to consider other members of this generation in decisions” (sherren, 200... critical geography critical geography emphasizes how identity is shaped by and reacts to power relationships based in space; “the ways in which the spatial sets limits on bodies, and the operations of people in making space” (helfenbein, 2006, p. 112). critical geograph... places are imbued with histories and experiences that give and take power from certain groups (soja, 1989; storey, 2001). the two sites detailed in this study are products of their particular places. critical geography provides an avenue into our anal... place-based education like critical geography, place-based education (pbe) focuses on the importance of place to meaningful learning experiences, and the way that an awareness of place can impact our understanding of experience. pbe encourages community-minded, experientia... commonly used for environmental and general science education, pbe has recently enjoyed more serious attention from social studies teachers and researchers (american institutes for research 2005; glenn, 2000; lieberman and hoody, 1998). such studies h... sustainable citizenship sustainable citizenship is the ultimate goal for the promotion of a citizenry invested in making sustainable choices about society and nature (bullen & whitehead, 2005). this concept is primarily championed in the united kingdom (e.g., rsa, 2012) but ... in many locales, environmental education is associated with controversial issues. critics often try to reframe the debate to focus on the supposedly questionable nature of issues like global climate change. in these cases, teachers may feel pressure t... we present sustainable citizenship as the outcome of effectively paired social studies and environmental education. social studies is the primary school subject through which educators bring students’ attention to public issues relating to democracy a... site descriptions this paper presents a study of two programs that promote sustainable citizenship by exposing school-age children to structured educational farm visits. our findings are based on qualitative investigations at two specific educational farm sites. both s... figure 2. the american megalopolis (about the usa, 2012) manhattan country school (mcs) and snipes farm & education center are working to help residents and students maintain or uncover their relationship with the land. founded in 1966, mcs is partnered with a 180-acre working farm located in the catskills ... founded in morrisville, pa, in 1808 the snipes family farm is a relic surrounded by housing developments, four-lane highways, and shopping malls. in 2008, jonathan snipes and susan snipes-wells converted the for-profit farm into a nonprofit educationa... pope had an established professional relationship with mcs and patterson with snipes, but we had no knowledge of each other's site before we began discussing the potential study. through our conversations, we realized that the sites took similar appro... methods & analysis based on an initial review of these sites based on our familiarity, we posed our guiding questions to focus on the role of these sites and their locations in promoting sustainable citizenship. to address these questions, we conducted interviews with f... oral interviews (seidman, 2006) with one administrator from each program focused on their goals and guiding philosophies for the programs. oral interviews with three teachers from each program focused on their understanding of the farm/school missions... naturalistic observations were conducted at both farm sites during school trips. we observed one full-day field trip at each site. during observations we looked for examples of activities involving the larger environment or society. our focus was on l... we individually coded the resulting data using a pre-determined set of codes culled from extant literature regarding components of our conceptual framework (marhsall & rossman, 2011). during this process we revisited site curricula to look for example... holistic curricula structured hands-on experiences with the natural environment around discussions of citizens’ roles in making sustainable choices as conscientious, active members of a global society. visits to mcs and snipes gave students the opport... discussion student, parent, and faculty interviews revealed a deep understanding of how individual choices have far-reaching consequences in the national and natural world. students from 3rd through 8th grade were able to verbalize clear examples of how their de... feeling the land one of the most prevalent notions expressed by site administrators and visiting students was that the farms help people feel a connection to the land. as one 3rd grader visiting snipes noted, “when you go to the store and buy an apple, you don’t know ... for example, one student described the trip from manhattan to the mcs farm in roxbury. as he traced the route along a map of new york state, he emphasized the power of moving between his urban home in manhattan and the rural refuge of the farm in roxb... following the suggestions of place-based education, site programs are designed around the specific qualities of the farms that allow for physical contact with the land and communal sharing of responsibilities. as noted by roger, an educator at snipes,... at the same time, educators at both snipes and mcs expect that feeling the land will bring their students into a closer relationship with their own environment, be they suburban or urban settings. james, an educator at the mcs farm in roxbury, echoes ... mcs maintains a deliberately low-impact and low-tech presence that echoes the traditionally rural routes of upstate new york. as long-term visitors, mcs students are responsible for running the farm, which includes collecting eggs, cleaning barns, and... conscious consumerism with their messages of sustainability, social justice, and raw environmentalism, we expected an anti-consumerism message to pervade snipes and mcs. instead, we found a version of consumerism we call conscious consumerism. this approach reflects how “s... that said, sustainability is a central component to conscious consumerism, but it’s what one snipes visitor called “sustainability in general.” sandra, an educator at snipes, joked about one of the parents who said, “what did you teach my kid, he won’... relevance is a key component of good teaching, and these sites excel at helping students find connections with their everyday life. at its most basic level, this involves teaching their students what food actually is. at snipes, the educators expresse... as a result, potential impacts often focused on personal health and well-being. perhaps that is expected; after all, these were youths in elementary and middle school. one of the teachers visiting snipes believed his students need to “see where their ... this conscious consumerism was not limited to an understanding of healthy eating choices, but also social awareness of the impact their purchases may have on other people. one activity we observed at mcs involved students spinning thread from wool tak... conscious consumerism directly addresses the hidden costs of what americans buy and use. talking with a group of mcs students, they bounced this idea off one another. student 1: a big part of coming to the farm is you learn where a lot of the stuff, like all the necessities come from. student 2: and you get a week away from your parents! student 1: but we’re learning about energy and we’re learning about solar energy, and so we’ve also been learning about oil drilling like up in the catskills, right? student 3: natural gas. student 2: natural gas, right, natural gas drilling. and so we’re like learning about our necessities and how the process of getting them is so complicated. but we think it’s so simple to get them, but it’s not. their free-form discussion demonstrated an easy connection with broad issues. even when discussing something outside their immediate experiences, like drilling in another part of the state, students were able to use the framework offered by their farm... the educators at snipes and mcs believe that the powerful experiences their students have working on sustainable farms will lead to their achieving a lasting conscious consumerism. at mcs, tom suggested that the goal of their curriculum was not to inf... critiques implicit in most approaches to sustainable citizenship is an assumption that a natural world exists or at least existed at one time. as mann (2006) argues, this assumption is often based on the premise that pre-columbian america was something of an en... educators concerned with accurate historic and contemporary interpretation might shy away from presentations that could offer such a simplified mythology about the american environment. however, our investigations of mcs and snipes educational program... significance and suggestions for further research these programs, as effective as they are, are limited by their structures and locations. although snipes farm offers adult education classes, summer camps, and a community supported agriculture program, their school partnerships are limited by availab... mcs is able to provide their students with this repetition, but reaches a smaller community. by eighth grade the average student has visited the partner farm 22 times. this allows farm educators and students to build a personal and working relationshi... the importance of this type of education extends beyond students who live in the megalopolis. expanding on the wish that students in rural upstate new york were exposed to more experiential, place-based education, tom, a teacher at mcs reflected on hi... future research could support this hope by investigating the ways teachers conceive of connections between traditional environmental and citizenship education. studies should also seek to assess increases in student content knowledge and performance o... indeed, more research into the connections between sustainability, place, and social studies education is needed. as with our own research in this area, many available studies are too narrow in scope. for example, we did not directly compare the class... in order to give findings greater utility in the current standards-based climate, we suggest research that involves empirical investigations of student content-knowledge. we contend that place-based sustainability education does not in any way detract... as the common core state standards take effect around the country, interdisciplinary education is expected to gain greater attention. for educators concerned with the implications of education on their students' ideas about citizenship, educational fa... references about the usa (2012). about the usa: megalopolis. retrieved from http://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/outgeogr/map3.gif american institutes for research. (2005). effects of outdoor education programs for children in california. palo alto, ca: american institutes for research. barr, r.d., barth, j.l., & shermis, s.s. (1977). defining the social studies. arlington, va: national council for the social studies. barton, k. & levstik, l. teaching history for the common good, erlbaum, 2004. bullen, a., & whitehead, m. (2005). negotiating the networks of space, time and substance: a geographical perspective on the sustainable citizen. citizenship studies, 9(5), 499-516. chandler, t. (2009) civic engagement about climate change: a case study of three educators and their practice. unpublished doctoral dissertation, teaches college, columbia university, new york, ny. (proquest document reproduction). dewey, j. (1900). the school and society. chicago: university of chicago press. disinger, j. f. (1983). environmental education's definitional problem. clearinghouse for science, mathematics and environmental education information bulletin, 2, 17-32. dobson, a. (2003). citizenship and the environment. oxford: oxford university press. farmer, j., knapp, d., & benton, g. m. (2007). an elementary environmental education field trip: long term effects on ecological/environmental knowledge and attitude development. journal of environmental education 38(3), 33-42. farmer, j., knapp, d., & benton, g. m. (2007). an elementary environmental education field trip: long term effects on ecological/environmental knowledge and attitude development. journal of environmental education 38(3), 33-42. frederico. c., & cloud, j. (2009). kindergarten through twelfth grade education: fragmentary progress in equipping students to think and act in a challenging world. in j. dernbach (ed.), agenda for a sustainable america. washington, dc: eli press. fleury, s. c., & sheldon, a. (1996). environmentalism and environmental issues. in r. evans & d. saxe (eds.) handbook on teaching social issues: ncss bulletin 93. washington, d.c.: national council for the social studies. glenn, j. l. (2000). environment-based education: creating high performance schools and students. washington, dc: the national environmental education & training foundation. hardin, g. (1968). the tragedy of the commons. science, 162(3859), 1243-1248. helfenbein jr., r. (2006). space, place, and identity in the teaching of history: using critical geography to teach teachers in the american south. in a. segall, e., heilman & c. cherryholmes (eds.), social studies – the next generation (pp. 111-124).... hess, d. (2008). controversial issues and democratic discourse. in l.s. levstik & c.a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 124-136). new york: routledge. hess, d. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. new york: routledge. ingersoll, r.m. & perda, d. (2008). the status of teaching as a profession. in j. ballantine & j. spade (eds.), schools and society: a sociological approach to education (pp. 106-118). los angeles: pine forge press. kahne, j. & middaugh, e. (2010). high quality civic education: what is it and who gets it? in w. park (ed.), social studies today: research and practice (pp. 141-150). new york: routledge. lieberman, g., & hoody, l. (1998). closing the achievement gap: using the environment as an integrating context for learning. state education and environment roundtable. poway, ca: science wizards. marshall, c. & rossman, g.b. (2011). designing qualitative research (5th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. martusewicz, r. a. (2001). seeking passage: post-structuralism, pedagogy, ethics. new york: teachers college press. ozer, e.j. (2006). the effects of school gardens on students and schools: conceptualization and considerations for maximizing healthy development. health education & behavior, 34(6), 846-863. palmer, j. (1998). environmental education in the 21st century: theory, practice, progress, and promise. london: routledge. place-based education evaluation collaborative. (2009). peec. retrieved from http://www.peecworks.org/index promise of place. (2009). home promise of place. retrieved from http://www.promiseofplace.org. rsa. (2012). rsa – sustainable citizenship. retrieved from http://www.thersa.org/action-research-centre/public-services-arts-social-change/citizen-power/sustainable-citizenship seidman, i. (2006). interviewing as qualitative research: a guide for researchers in education and the social sciences (3rd ed.). new york: teachers college press. sherren, k. (2008). a history of the future of higher education for sustainable development. environmental education research, 14(3), 238-256. soja, e.w. (1989). postmodern geographies: the reassertion of space in critical social theory. london: verso. sterling, s. (1996). education in change. in j. huckle & s. sterling. (eds.), education for sustainability (pp. 19-39). london: earthscan. storey, d. (2001). territory: the claiming of space. new york: prentice hall. the farm school at snipes. (2009). about snipes farm and education center. retrieved feb 13, 2010, from http://www.farmschoolatsnipes.org/about/. vicino, t., hanlon, b., & short, j. (2007). megalopolis 50 years on: the transformation of a city region. international journal of urban and regional research, 31(2), 344-367. wade, r. (2008). service-learning. in l.s. levstik & c.a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 109-123). new york: routledge. westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2). 237-269. wills, j.s. (2007). putting the squeeze on social studies: managing teaching dilemmas in subject areas excluded from state testing. teachers college record 109(8), 1980-2046. woyshner, c., watras, j., & crocco, m.s. (2004). social education in the twentieth century: curriculum and context for citizenship. new york: peter lang. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3),76-92 76 meeting the challenges of curriculum and instruction in school settings in the united states hasan aydin1, burhan ozfidan2, douglas carothers3 abstract the united states is one of many countries currently undergoing significant changes in educational institutions, particularly in k-12 settings. most pronounced among these is the impact of unprecedented demographic changes on the curriculum and instruction provided in u.s. schools. four other factors are also influencing curriculum and instruction including 1) policy changes, 2) emerging new technologies, 3) globalization, and 4) the refugee and immigration issue. each of these areas provides challenges for both school settings and teacher educators. these challenges and the obstacles they create must be examined and specific recommendations must be developed for teachers, teacher educators, and policymakers to assist in meeting each challenge. among these recommendations, research shows that: 1) schools must change the structures, culture, and programs of curriculum and instruction to meet the needs of a diverse student body, 2) researchers in higher education institutions must focus their work to help the federal government, state leaders, and school districts decide upon the most appropriate reforms and changes to curriculum and instruction in school settings, 3) more resources from a variety of sources must be invested in technology-use training so teachers can better prepare students to use technology, especially in the context of new assessments, 4) educators should define and advance an agenda that prepares youth for global citizenship, and 5) the core values of educators must include respect, integrity, commitment and excellence, the promotion of diversity and gender equity, choice, and dignity for all students. keywords: challenges, demographics, policy, globalization, technology, refugees and immigration, education, united states introduction there has been a great deal of research on curriculum and instruction. still, issues including dramatic demographic changes, policy changes, globalization, emerging technologies, and concerns surrounding refugees and immigration remain challenging for both school settings and teacher educators. little discussion is present in the “literature about the challenges and problems that educators encounter during the implementation process and how these challenges and problems are overcome” (shilling, 2013; p.21). this study highlights the challenges to curriculum and instruction in u.s. public schools and analyzes both these challenges and the opportunities that exist for teachers, teacher educators, policy makers, and other practitioners as they work to overcome these challenges. in this context, the challenges 1 assoc. prof. dr., florida gulf coast university, fort myers, fl, usa, haydin@fgcu.edu 2 post-doctoral associate. texas a&m university, college station, bozfidan@tamu.edu 3 assoc. prof. dr. florida gulf coast university, dcarother@fgcu.edu mailto:haydin@fgcu.edu mailto:bozfidan@tamu.edu mailto:dcarother@fgcu.edu aydin et al. that exist for curriculum and instruction have the potential to result in significant benefits for a new generation of students in a rapidly changing world. this paper surveys scholarship related to the development of curriculum and instruction in public schools in the united states. it examines the issues and opportunities as well as the goals and strategies for curriculum and instruction and suggests guidelines to help ensure that emerging curricula are responsive to the needs of students in a rapidly changing world. this review also describes the available research on specific concepts that were chosen for analysis and represented the research efforts up to the end of may 2017. it incorporates data derived from various sources, including reviews of literature, books, research center reports, peerreviewed journals, international and national government reports, conference papers, websites of education departments of each state, and a review of school districts’ school improvement initiatives. ultimately, reactions to the following five challenges will dramatically influence the context of curriculum and instruction in the united states. these challenges are 1) demographic changes, 2) policy changes, 3) emerging technologies, 4) globalization, and 5) refugee and immigration issues. beyond curriculum and instruction, herrera (2012) argues that the extent to which educators succeed in adapting to these challenges may well determine the future quality of life in the united states. she further indicates that each challenge already involves a pattern of current constraints on an “educator’s ability to address that challenge while simultaneously offering the possibility of opening the door to promising perspectives for critical thinking about changes in the future for teaching and teacher education in diverse schools and classrooms” (p.1). challenge one: demographic changes the demographic profile of america’s population, including its public school population, is undergoing rapid and profound changes. according to hochschild and scovronick (2005), dramatic demographic changes will occur in the early decades of the 21st century, with racial and ethnic diversity increasing as baby boomers age and birth rates and immigration laws change. hochschild and scovronick also assert that school-aged children will be the most diverse segment of the u.s. population. they conclude that that though these demographic changes create the potential for serious disagreements about public education, they also offer the opportunity for the citizenry to strengthen its commitment to public education. thus, changes in classroom demographics caused by an increasingly heterogeneous student population should be viewed by educators as both a challenge and an opportunity. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),76-92 the 2014-2015 school year introduced a significant cultural shift: it was the first time that the the majority of students in american public schools were not white (the national center for education statistics nces, 2015). because the u.s. teaching force has historically been overwhelming white, this demographic shift presents challenges to an educational system that has historically struggled with educating students who are non-white, who come from a background of poverty, or for whom english is not the native language (corona, et al., 2017). this demographic change has widened the experiential gap between teachers and their students, presenting challenges for both teachers and teacher educators. in 2011-12, 82% of k-12 teachers in the united states were white but no other racial/ethnic group comprised more than 10% of the teaching force. a drop in white student enrollment has further exacerbated the cultural and experiential mismatch between teachers and their students. sixty-one percent of students in american schools in 2000 were white, but the percentage of white students had fallen to 49.7% by 2014 (nces, 2016). the national center for educational statistics (2014) expects this trend to continue and projects that 54.7% of u.s. students will be members of minority groups by 2022. thus, a largely homogenous white teaching force is charged with providing instruction to a student body that is increasingly culturally and ethnically diverse. students “come to class with various levels of competence and academic preparation, different degrees of motivation to succeed in school work, different social skills, and various levels of maturity” (florin & hall, 2008, p. 40;). these students also vary in regards to their race, culture, socio-economic status, and belief systems. even greater than the differences between students, however, are the differences between students and their teachers and between the learning styles and needs of the students and the types of instruction teachers have been prepared to offer (the keys to effective schools, 2007). as stated by florin and hall (2008), the traditional instruction is no longer effective for today's diverse learners. these learners require comprehensive programs that include components including guidance and counseling, character education, on-campus medical and social services, a full-time social worker, and multicultural education (florin & hall, 2008). these authors further assert that a differentiated curriculum must offer programs to address the social and emotional needs of diverse students as well as meeting their academic needs. two issues stand out: the challenge of multilingual classrooms and the need for more teachers of color (aydin, 2013c; aydin & ozfidan, 2014; faltis, 2014). recruitment of a more diverse teaching forces, including highly qualified bilingual education teachers and teachers of english language learners, is means of a addressing these challenges (ozfidan & burblaw, aydin et al. 2016; kaya, y. 2015). as boser (2014) indicated, “teachers of color can serve as role models for students of color and when students see teachers who share their racial or ethnic backgrounds, they often view schools as more welcoming places” (p.3). moreover, schools need to develop high-quality preschool programs, especially for young children whose first language is not english. both of these approaches will enable schools to provide a better education to a diverse student population. schools must now prepare students to interact in a more diverse society and collaborate in more diverse work environments. as a result, teacher preparation programs must create culturally relevant curricula and train teachers to deliver these curricula in culturally appropriate ways that increase the engagement of all students. curriculum and instruction must focus on teaching techniques that employ best practices and emphasize a broad swath of knowledge and skills reflecting the diverse cultural backgrounds of students (hoffmann, 2017). thus, a modern, world-class curriculum must be developed that will inspire and challenge all learners and prepare them for the future (waters, 2009). use of specific strategies and tactics to resolve these issues is essential. first, teachers must get to know each of their students as individuals and receive training on the use of culturally responsive instructional techniques. second, schools must develop cultures, structures, and programs that support diverse students, staff, and faculty and need to develop activities and curricula that provide opportunities to learn about cultural diversity, race, ethnicity, and gender (nasseh, 2000). regardless of culture, national origin, or level of english fluency, no student should feel isolated; teachers must be committed to the principle that all students have the right to be engaged in their education and to receive a high quality education. as nasseh (2000) wrote, schools should “develop processes and programs that encourage diversity and develop a sense of respect, understanding, and responsibility among students” while providing asynchronous educational programs with a multicultural orientation and universal values. challenge two: policy changes frequent changes in educational policy also influence curriculum and instruction. among recent changes, implementation of common core state standards (ccss) and 21stcentury skills “are not only beneficial to students and teachers but also necessary to prepare our youth for their future careers. in an age of education in which standardized tests determine the success of our schools, allowing students to be creative and to use the power of technology to support necessary skills and learn in unique ways is critical” (alismail & mcguire, 2015, p. 150). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),76-92 historically, u.s. education policies have been continuously debated and revised to reflect a continuously changing society’s views regarding appropriate methods of educating students and the overall goals of education. some of the goals of public education have been to: o prepare children for citizenship; o cultivate a skilled workforce; o teach cultural literacy; o prepare students for college; o help students become critical thinkers; and o help students compete in a global marketplace (the encyclopedia of american politics, 2014). school choice and academic accountability have emerged as two major trends in 21st century educational policy. research shows that parents want both more educational alternatives and a more active role in choosing schools that they believe will provide better education for their children. reform groups and federal and state government agencies have been wrestling with the issue of education standards, and whether there can or should be common standards for all educational instruction and achievement” (u.s. department of education, 2014a). two pieces of legislation have addressed these issues in recent years. the first was the no child left behind act (nclb), which was signed into law by president bush in 2001. this law was based on the premise that student achievement would increase if schools established measurable goals and set high standards for student performance (u.s. department of education, 2014a). second, the american recovery and reinvestment act (arra) established a $4.35 billion fund to support ‘race to the top’ grants. taking effect when the arra was signed by president obama in 2009, this grant program provided incentives for states and districts to develop and implement school reforms. the stated goals of race to the top were to encourage and reward states that were creating conditions for education innovation and reform; achieving significant improvement in student outcomes, including making substantial gains in student achievement; closing achievement gaps; improving high school graduation rates; and ensuring student preparation for success in college and careers (u.s. department of education, 2009). in addition to these two legislative actions, the development of common core state standards was a third attempt to improve students’ academic performance. their designers describe these standards as consisting of the highest, most effective standards from around the u.s. as well as from other countries (common core state standards, 2017a). consisting of aydin et al. high quality academic standards in english/language arts and mathematics at each grade level from kindergarten through twelfth grade, as of 2017 these standards have been adoted by 42 states, the district of columbia, four territories, and the department of defense educational activity (common core state standards, 2017b). government and policy-makers have attempted to make effective reforms, many of which also profoundly affect curriculum and instruction. for instance, david (2011) indicated that standards-based reform is based on the belief that curriculum and instruction will become richer and more rigorous if demanding standards for student achievement are set and student performance is measured using accurate tests that reflect the standards. further, serious consequences were created for schools that fail to increase test scores, forcing educators to pay attention to the content of the tests. the adoption of test-based teacher evaluation frameworks has come about in dozens of states, largely because of federal mandates. despite the good intentions, standardized testing may be having unintended consequences. valli and buese (2007) have argued that while educators pay attention to the content of high-stakes tests, even the most carefully designed standards are only as effective as the tests that assess how well students have achieved them, and standardized tests can only assess a small portion of the curriculum. indeed, the 10-year experiment in the use of federally mandated standards and tests under no child left behind (nclb) has been almost universally acknowledged as a failure. nonetheless, au (2007) reports that “high-stakes testing will likely remain the coin of the realm for the foreseeable future” (p.6). if the use of test scores to evaluate students is expanded to evaluate individual teachers, the stakes will increase even more. the challenge, then, “is to ensure that state tests do not continue to distort the curriculum in ways that deprive students of meaningful learning” (hamilton et al., 2007). two complementary approaches seem promising with respect to this issue. first, hamilton et al, (2007) indicated that “one is to improve testing by expanding both the number of subjects tested and items that tap understanding and reasoning; the challenge to do so rests in not increasing the total amount of testing” (as cited in david, 2011, p. 3). federal policy-makers must encourage states to give adequate emphasis to social science, history, english, art, and music. states should review their curriculum guidelines to ensure that they encourage adequate attention to and time for these areas. they should consider including measures of knowledge and skills in social science and humanity courses, such as language, literature, art, and music among the multiple measures used for nclb accountability. second, karp (2014) argued that common core is stalking us public schools as part of the corporate reform project. he also states that educators and policy-makers should fight back by challenging implementation journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),76-92 deadlines, resisting the stakes and priority attached to high-stakes testing, and exposing the truth about the commercial and political interests promoting this approach as a panacea for all that ails public education. another issue that researchers have raised is that, while most school districts have made progress toward implementing rich curriculum and textbooks that align with the standards, curriculum developers are still working hard to ensure that all educators in the system understand and embrace a view of curriculum that is focused on outcomes rather than content (bickford, 2017; the marzano center, 2017). in this context, schools must have more intentionality in terms of how they develop and implement policies affecting student outcome in school settings. challenge three: emerging new technologies emerging technologies also present a challenge to education. research has shown that today’s students are technophiles. they love video games — all fast-paced and addictive — and can’t put down their smart phones, ipods, or social networks (flannery, 2010). moreover, murphy (2015) emphasized that development of educational technologies is changing our beliefs about how learning occurs, resulting in increased pressure from the government as well as shifts from teacherto learner-centered approaches to instruction. in fact, some school distrcits have adopted “bring your own device” (byod) policies that encourage students to bring their own technology with goals of both increasing student engagement and reducing districts’ technology costs. as a result, some high school students now bring their mobile devices to school and use them to communicate, collaborate and solve problems, even if they are not part of a teacher’s lesson plan (daggett, 2014). and educators? they might also love new technologies, but even if they don’t, they realize that technology is often the key to unlocking a student’s interest. the challenge is in figuring out how to use technology to unlock that interest. nager (2013) argues that significant challenges are preventing effective implementation of technology on a large scale despite its increasing widespread adoption in virtually every aspect of k – 12 education. according to researchers, though some of those challenges are systemic and some are related to the technologies themselves, teachers and education leaders share in needing to meet these challenges (nager, 2013). moreover, teachers and teacher educators face several challenges in using technology successfully in their classrooms. one challenge that nager (2013) has emphasized is that teachers and school leaders often see technological experimentation as outside the scope of aydin et al. their job descriptions. a second is that some experienced teachers prefer using approaches they already understand and do not utilize the technology they have been given (harwen, 2013). they have been teaching for years and do not want to incorporate something new into their time-tested lesson plans. some schools are pushing instructors to incorporate technology into their syllabi but when that technology is poorly taught, it is not used at an optimal level. any teacher given a high-tech program and expected to teach it in the classroom deserves proper training, but sometimes that training isn’t provided (altuna, aydin, ozfidan, & amenabav, 2013). a third challenge for using technology in classrooms is the failure to develop personalized learning. researchers describe a gap between the vision of delivering personalized, differentiated instruction and the technologies available to make it possible. therefore, even when k-12 teachers see the need for personalized learning, adequate tools to provide it either don’t exist or aren’t given to the teachers. (the nmc horizon report, 2013). against the backdrop of these challenges, new digital technologies are enabling new methods of teaching and learning. the conundrum for educators is to develop curricula that do not simply replicate formats from the past but are also sustainable and meet the challenges of the future (torrisi, 2002). a responsive curriculum goes beyond the ever-changing influences of technology and responds to changes in society and students’ learning needs (aydin, 2013d; parson & beauchamp, 2012). this means considering notions, such as allowing more ‘white space’ to customize lessons using a variety of teaching and assessment methods to better meet student needs. an example of this can be found in singapore, where technology has been used to permit deeper learning and to make learning more accessible through various e-learning models (parsons & beauchamp, 2012, p. 143). in this context, teachers, teacher educators, and policymakers must embrace the power of technology to make learning relevant for all students and adults. the international center for u.s. department of education (2014b) has suggested that using technology effectively in everyday learning can help students strengthen their learning experiences and build on their intuitive technology skills. further, using technology thoughtfully for instructional purposes will allow teachers to stretch the thinking of learners in ways that will lead to success in today’s increasingly global economy and rapidly evolving digital environment” (daggett, 2014). moreover, e-learning, is “a rapidly expanding type of education not only in the united states, but throughout the world. although the first virtual classroom was an experiment that used closed circuit television and an early computer network, online education has improved alongside technology (aydin, 2013a, 2013b; bollotpedia, 2016; hossain & aydin, 2011). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),76-92 according to the national center for statistics (2012) “around 5.5 million college students took at least one online class in 2012. however, this data only accounts for a small fraction of students who participate in online education, as students of all ages, from anywhere in the world, and across all grade levels can potentially take classes online” (kolowich, 2014). because technology is a powerful tool, which allows students to independently access information and knowledge, teachers should give students the opportunity to research and obtain information to develop different skills. as a result, technology could prepare students to “learn how to learn” to get information from different online tools (alismail, 2015). jacobsen (2001) argued that using technological tools in teaching gives students the opportunity to engage in the real world, helping them to increase their understanding and develop creativity and innovation skills. alismail and mcguire (2015) indicate that “education needs to make an instructional shift to ensure that students succeed as the innovators of the future” (p. 150). as a result, educators need continuous professional development that allows them to use the newest continually evolving technology to plan their courses and improve their pedagogy. challenge four: globalization globalization, as a process or product, has challenged all dimensions of all human life and all social systems including the educational system and its core, curriculum and instruction. malcom waterz believes that globalization is a social process that has passed all the geographical limitations imposed on social and cultural relations, and people are increasingly becomin aware of these change (ranai et al., 2012). in addition, herrera (2012) indicated that “more than 200 million people worldwide live in a country other than the one in which they were born, with more than a third having moved from an underdeveloped to a developed country and at least another third having moved from one developed nation to another” (rotermund, n.d.). most pronounced is an unprecedented migration of people to the developing world that is both a cause and a consequence of globalization, and adapting to globalization poses monumental challenges for both teachers and teacher educators (herrera, 2012). today, the united states is one of the world leaders as a receiving country. reactions to educational challenges embedded in immigration will dramatically influence the course of curriculum and instruction in school settings in the united states. because many teachers have little working experience in globalization and diversity contexts, the need to develop culturally responsive pedagogies has become extremely urgent (santoro, 2009). these inadequacies also contribute to the desire of some teachers to leave globalized and diverse school settings, making those schools more difficult for students, staff, aydin et al. parents, and communities. as a result, students suffer greatly because of a high faculty turnover rate that often means that they are faced with teachers who are unprepared or unaware of diversity and globalization (martinez, 2004). to prevent scenarios like this from happening, teachers must know how to teach culturally diverse students and understand their needs (herrera, 2012). for “teachers to truly understand the nature of their students’ ethnic differences, teachers must understand the nature of those ethnic identities, cultural practices, values and beliefs” (santoro, 2009; as cited in herrera, 2012). to achieve this objective, researchers have recommended that teachers, teacher educators, policy-makers, and communities be better prepared to face the challenges that globalization brings and be prepared to be globally competitive entrepreneurs (stewart, 2007; zhao, 2010). in addition, herrera (2012) argued that stakeholders invoke persistent arguments, which stress that tomorrow’s graduates and their teachers must exhibit global competence with respect to diversity, and teachers must be involved in enhancing the efforts to promote capacity building for global citizenship among and between teachers, students, and societies. challenge five: refugee and immigration issues today, the united states resettles more refugees, immigrants and students of color than any other country in the world. in fact, changing patterns of fertility and immigration have combined to put the united states on an unprecedented path to population diversity in which all races and ethnicities are part of minority groups that make up a complex whole (center for public education, 2012). as a result, the nation’s classrooms are becoming more diverse and accountability models have exposed holes in education systems. school districts must now take steps to ensure that their principals and teachers are prepared for the challenges of teaching all students, thus ensuring that those from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds receive a highquality education (cooper, 2014; kaya, 2009). the “profound change in the demographic makeup of the school population is due primarily to immigration. according to the census bureau's 2010 american community survey briefs, in 2010 immigrants made up 13% of the nation's population, an increase from 12% in 2006,” (center for public education, 2012). moreover, in 2014, the percentage of white students’ enrollment dropped from 61% in 2000 to 49.7%, in 2014 (nces, 2016). furthermore, the projection for the public schools by 2022 is that minorities will be 54.7% and the white student population will be 45.3% (nces, 2014). this poses a challenge because 82% of teachers in the united states were white in 2011-2012 (nces, 2014). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),76-92 because of the scale of the programs and the growing diversity of the resettled immigrants and refugees, service providers face an increasing range of challenges (capps et al., 2015). immigrant and refugee students are “often placed into foreign learning environments in which they are forced to adapt to new academic settings while also adjusting to a new culture” (cooper, 2014, p.iii). cooper further argued that “often, these students are escaping a violent past and are placed with teachers who have limited training in dealing with such issues”. while it may be difficult to make generalized assumptions about all immigrants’ refugee communities, including their financial and language obstacles, many student groups must work to overcome cultural differences. students also face many challenges when they enter school. for example, many are refugees coming from countries that are facing challenges including war, disease, famine, or destabilizing conflicts. as a result, cooper (2014) emphasized that “educational opportunity either has not been a priority or is nonexistent. identifying the challenges these students must overcome within the school settings and providing strategies that may help them will allow teachers to reflect on their teaching and adjust as needed to meet the needs of these students” (p.2). capps et al. (2015) also have suggested that policymakers, educators, and communities consider improving the access of immigrants and refugees to mainstream education and job training programs, as well as increasing long-term integration prospects with a greater focus on predeparture programs for those immigrants and refugees who often have spent years in camps awaiting resettlement. on a broader level, capps emphasized the importance of support for the u.s. resettlement program in the face of a surging number of immigrants and refugees worldwide. based on increases of immigrants and refugee students in school settings, school districts and policy-makers must recruit more teachers and staff members from diverse cultural backgrounds as well as bilingual teachers and staff members. moreover, school districts must encourage teachers to understand and educate themselves to be aware of immigrants and refugee students who come from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds. teachers must read research materials and participate in professional development opportunities to learn more about diverse populations. such training will not only help teachers eliminate their personal biases and harmful language, it will also increase their ability to accept and welcome students with different beliefs and values. this benefits everyone in an increasingly diverse society. aydin et al. conclusion this paper has highlighted some challenging issues confronting curriculum and instruction. teachers, teacher educators, policy-makers, and families all need to assist in overcoming these challenges to ensure the continued functioning of educational systems that meet society’s needs. this essay addressed five major challenges to curriculum and instruction. the first and perhaps most relevant challenge is posed by a shifting demographic tide in school settings that is leading to increased diversity. this demographic change will require schools to adapt their curriculum and instruction, structures, cultures, and programs to accommodate and meet the needs of a diverse student body. these adaptations will not only assist in serving students, but will also support the social and economic development of society in several ways (lafer & aydin, 2012). for example, providing diverse students with a positive educational experience will encourage lifelong learning, and educating all students with peers from differing backgrounds has the potential to improve work and social interactions among people of different races, languages, religions, cultures, and ages. second, frequent policy changes also affect curriculum. although political leaders and school districts have tried to enact reforms that affect change in positive ways, many have failed. thus, higher education institutions must conduct more research, and then, based on their findings, the federal government, state leaders, and school districts must decide upon the most appropriate reforms and changes to curriculum and instruction in school settings. a third challenge facing curriculum and instruction is the role of emerging technologies in school settings. the use of social media, twitter, facebook, instagram, linkedin, and hi5 have become a vital part of our youth’s lifestyle. as the role of technology in schools has increased, however, differences in its use have arisen between the younger generation of students and the older generations of teachers. this has been described as a divide between ‘digital immigrant’ teachers and their ‘digital native’ students. to bridge this gap, the federal government, states, and school districts should increase investment in training to enable teachers to better prepare students to use technology, especially in the context of new assessments (act, 2016). research has also shown that teachers and teacher educators are taking advantage of open resources to expand their curricula with media-rich tools and texts that can be adapted for use with specific lessons. the nmc horizon report (2014) documents that teachers who were formerly bound by a framework of standardized course materials now have access to a wealth of digital information that they can use to meet district expectations. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),76-92 fourth, particular attention should be devoted to one of the most relevant challenges of curriculum and instruction: globalization with diversity. herrera (2012) suggests that “the future of this nation may depend on the extent to which students acquire the skills, knowledge, and dispositions necessary to become responsible global citizens”. accordingly, educators must clearly define and advance an agenda to prepare youth for global citizenship. the goals of curriculum and instruction should be clear, as should the aims of the topics presented in school textbooks (aydin & damgaci, 2017; leek, 2016). these goals should also be malleable to accommodate rapidly changing trends in contemporary global education. the final challenge examined in this paper relates to the refugee and immigration issue, something that will not disappear quickly in either k-12 or higher education settings. this issue will remain difficult in regards to classroom management and educators must have core values including respect, integrity, commitment and excellence, the promotion of diversity and gender equity, choice, and dignity for all students. teachers must change in response to changing student populations, and teacher education programs must prepare their students to meet the demands of increasingly diverse k – 12 classrooms. changes in policy and practice are occurring worldwide to address cultural shifts in the classroom, and many of these changes are teacher-driven. public education in the united states requires better-trained teachers who can meet the needs of specific student populations, understand the necessary role of cultural norms and values, and be willing to speak up regarding demographic changes in the classroom. without these teachers, effective reform to meet global demand is impossible. in this context, curriculum and instruction must adapt so all students can enjoy successful learning while developing as confident individuals who are able to live safe, healthy, and fulfilling lives as responsible citizens that make positive contributions to society. aydin et al. references alismail, h. a., & mcguire, p. (2015). 21st century standards and curriculum: current research and practice. journal of education and practice, 6(6), 150-154. altuna, j., aydin, h., ozfidan, b., & amenabav, n. (2013). the digital user of social networks: a comparative, transcultural and intergenerational study. international online journal of educational sciences, 5(3), 598-610. au, w. (2007). high-stakes testing and curricular control: a qualitative metasynthesis. educational researcher, 36(5), 258–267. aydin, h. (2013a). interaction between teachers and students in online learning. journal of environmental protection and ecology, 14(14a), 1337-1352. aydin, h. (2013b). students and teachers’ perceptions on technology enhanced turkish language learning environment in turkey. educational research and reviews, 8(13), 986-996. aydin, h. (2013c). a literature-based approaches on multicultural education. the anthropologist, 16(1-2), 31-44. aydin, h. (2013d). students and teachers’ perceptions on technology enhanced turkish language learning environment in turkey. educational research and reviews, 8(13), 986-996. aydin, h., & ozfidan, b. (2014). perceptions on mother tongue (kurdish) based multicultural and bilingual education in turkey. multicultural education review, 6(1), 21-48. aydin, h. & koc-damgaci, f. (2017). from empire to republic: citizenship, pluralism, and diversity in turkey. in ja banks (eds), global migration, structural inclusion, and education across nations. washington, dc: american educational research association (aera) press. ballotpedia. (2016). education policy in the united states. retrieved from https://ballotpedia.org/education_policy_in_the_united_states? bickford, j. h. (2017). the curriculum development of experienced teachers who are inexperienced with history-based pedagogy. journal of social studies education research, 8(1), 146-192. boser, u. (2014). teacher diversity revisited: a new state-by-state analysis. retrieved from https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/05/teacherdiversity.pdf capps, r., newland, k., fratzke, s., groves, s., fix, m., mchugh, g., & auclair, g. (2015). the integration outcomes of u.s. refugees: successes and challenges. washington, dc: migration policy institute press. https://ballotpedia.org/education_policy_in_the_united_states journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),76-92 common core state standards-ccss. (2017a). about the standards. retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/about-the-standards/ common core state standards. (2017b). standards in your state. retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/standards-in-your-state/ cooper, c., t. (2014). refugee students: educational challenges and strategies for leaders working with third world populations (unpublished doctoral dissertation). chapel hill: university of north carolina. corona, r., velazquez, e., mcdonald, s. e., avila, m., neff, m., iglesias, a., & halfond, r. (2017). ethnic labels, pride, and challenges: a qualitative study of latinx youth living in a new latinx destination community. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(1), 1-13. daggett, b. (2014). addressing current and future challenges in education. rexford, ny: international center for leadership in education press. david, l., j. (2011). research says high-stake testing narrows the curriculum. journal of educational leadership, 68(6), 78-80. faltis, c. (2014). toward a race radical vision of bilingual education for kurdish users in turkey: a commentary. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 1-5. florin, l. & hall, t. (2008). change issues in curriculum and instruction/reform proposals. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/change_issues_in_curriculum_and_instruction/reform _proposals hamilton, l. s., stecher, b. m., marsh, j. a., mccombs, j. s., robyn, a., russell, j. l., naftel, s., & barney, h. (2007). standards-based accountability under no child left behind: experiences of teachers and administrators in three states. santa monica, ca: rand. harven, m. (2013). top five problems with technology in education today. retrieved from https://edtechtimes.com/2013/11/06/top-5-problems-technology-education-today/ herrera, s. (2012). globalization: current constraints and promising perspectives. journal of curriculum and instruction, 6(1), 1-10. hoffmann, m. (2017). an exploratory study: mobile device use for academics. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 1-35. hossain, m. m., & aydin, h. (2011). a web 2.0-based collaborative model for multicultural education. journal of multicultural educational and technology, 5(2), 116-129. karp, s. (2014). the problems with the common core. retrieved from https://www.commondreams.org/views/2014/01/24/problems-common-core http://www.corestandards.org/about-the-standards/ aydin et al. kaya, i. (2009). identity across generations: a turkish american case study. the middle east journal, 63(4), 617-632. kaya, y. (2015). the opinions of primary school, turkish language and social science teachers regarding education in the mother tongue (kurdish). journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 2(2), 33-46. kolowich, s. (2014). exactly how many students take online courses? retrieved from http://www.chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/exactly-how-many-students-takeonline-courses/49455 lafer, s. & aydin, h. (2012). educating for democratic societies: impediments. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 45-70. leek, j. (2016). global citizenship education in school curricula. a polish perspective. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 51-74. murphy, a. (2015). curriculum: past, present, and future. australia. toowoomba, queensland: australian digital futures institute press. mcmurrer, j. (2007). choices, changes, and challenges: curriculum and instruction in the nclb era. washington, dc: center on education policy press. ozfidan, b., & burlbaw, l. m. (2016). perceptions of bilingual education model in spain: how to implement a bilingual education model in turkey. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 3(1), 49-58. parsons, j. & beauchamp, l. (2012). from knowledge to action: shaping the future of curriculum development in alberta. alberta, canada: alberta education press. rotermund, c. (n.d.). meeting the challenges of globalization with curriculum change. retrieved from https://cnx.org/contents/m85qxcli@1/meeting-the-challenges-ofglob santoro, n. (2009). teaching in culturally diverse contexts: what knowledge about ‘self’ and ‘others’ do teachers need? journal of education for teaching, 35(1), 33-45. stewart, v. (2007). becoming citizens of the world. educational leadership, 64(7), 8-14. the encyclopedia of american politics. (2014). education policy in the united states. retrieved from https://ballotpedia.org/education_policy_in_the_united_states#cite_notequotedisclaimer-2 the marzano center. (2017). teaching for rigor: three challenges for curriculum directors. retrieved from http://iowaascd.org/files/3814/6879/3787/whitepaper-essentialscurriculum-director.pdf https://cnx.org/contents/m85qxcli@1/meeting-the-challenges-ofhttps://cnx.org/contents/m85qxcli@1/meeting-the-challenges-ofhttp://iowaascd.org/files/3814/6879/3787/whitepaperjournal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),76-92 the national center for education statistics (nces). (2012). community college enrollment and completion. retrieved from http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/community-collegefaqs.html the nmc horizon report. (2014). six lingering obstacles to using technology in schools. retrieved from https://ww2.kqed.org/mindshift/2012/06/20/six-lingering-obstacles-tousing-technology-in-schools/ torrisi, g. (2002). technology for the sake of learning: a planning approach for integrating new technologies in tertiary learning environments. paper presented at ausweb 02: the eighth australian world wide conference, 5-10 july, sunshine coast, queensland, australia. retrieved from http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw02/papers/refereed/torrisi/paper.html u.s. department of education. (2014a). the federal role in education. retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html u.s. department of education. (2014b). learning technology effectiveness. retrieved from https://tech.ed.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/learning-technology-effectivenessbrief.pdf u.s. department of education. (2009). race to the top program executive summary. retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/executive-summary.pdf valli, l. & buese, d. (2007). the changing roles of teachers in an era of high-stakes accountability. american educational research journal, 44(3), 519–558. waters, m. (2009). a curriculum for the future making learning irresistible. carrickfergus, uk: qualifications and curriculum authority inc. yigit, m. f. (2017). value priorities of public and private university students. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1), 1-17. zhao, y. (2010). preparing globally competent teachers: a new imperative for teacher education. journal of teacher education, 61(5), 422-431. http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/community-collegehttp://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/community-collegehttps://ww2.kqed.org/mindshift/2012/06/20/six-lingering-obstacles-tohttps://ww2.kqed.org/mindshift/2012/06/20/six-lingering-obstacles-tohttps://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html https://tech.ed.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/learning-technology-effectiveness-brief.pdf https://tech.ed.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/learning-technology-effectiveness-brief.pdf https://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/executive www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9(2), 329-348 329 pedagogical technology for identifying the level of patriotism formation in senior school students within actualization of social commitment and initiative sariyat a. alieva1, magomed k. bilalov 2, ramazan d. gadzhiev3, raisa v. radzhabova4, dzhamila a. salmanova5 abstract the relevance of the problem under study stems from the new social and economic, moral and psychological situation in the society. in its development, the priority is currently given to both shared human values and national ones, to initiative and entrepreneurial spirit of the young people who can transform their homeland and improve russia's life in general. with regard to this, the objective of this research is to outline the pedagogical technology for measuring the patriotism formation level in senior school students in conditions of social commitment and initiative gaining importance. the leading method of studying the problem is the criteriaand levels-based approach which allows singling out the criteria and levels of formation of patriotism in the contemporary senior school students. in the paper, the following criteria are suggested for the extent of formation of patriotism: the needs-related and motivational one, the cognitive and emotional one, and the behavioral criterion. the authors distinguish between a very high, a high, an average, and a low patriotism formation level. they also discuss the foreign experience of shaping social commitment and initiative in children and youth. the materials of the paper are of practical importance for teachers, educators, class teachers of comprehensive institutions and further education institutions, as well as for the young teachers and students of pedagogical higher educational institutions. keywords: pedagogical technology; criteriaand levels-based approach, patriotism, social commitment, initiative, value orientations. introduction in all times, the idea of patriotism has occupied a special place not only in the spiritual life of the society but also in all major spheres of its activity – in ideology, in politics, in culture, in economics, in ecology and so on. the state program "patriotic upbringing of citizens of the rf for the years 2016–2020" (2015) and the "strategy of upbringing development in the rf for the years 2015-2025" (2015) pay quite a lot of attention to fashioning social commitment and initiative in both children and youth. 1 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, dagestan state pedagogical university, sabiyat-alieva@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, dagestan state pedagogical university, bilalov79@inbox.ru 3 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, dagestan state pedagogical university, gadjiev82@mail.ru 4 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, dagestan state pedagogical university, valiraya_9@mail.ru 5 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, dagestan state pedagogical university, djamila@mail.ru mailto:gadjiev82@mail.ru mailto:valiraya_9@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 currently, the problem of patriotic upbringing has not been completely resolved so far. there are some questions that remain understudied: the essence of patriotism as an integral phenomenon, the opportunities for development of social commitment and initiative and for creation of the new socially important projects influencing its upbringing, the ways for upbringing patriotism in schoolchildren, and the psychological and pedagogical conditions which would render the process of upbringing of patriotism in schoolchildren more successful. development of market relations has brought about into pedagogy the interest in senior school students' social commitment and initiative as the principal personal quality of a free and successful individual. the traditional pedagogy views the constituent of initiative – commitment – as a compulsory condition for the development of children's capacities and talents, as a means for succeeding, as a life need of children and an indicator of their achievements. there is almost no consideration of the process of making social commitment and initiative important as a factor for efficiently shaping patriotism in children and youth. the authors view social commitment and initiative not only as a result of upbringing but also as a prerequisite for development of the senior school students who do care both about their own well-being, about that of the others, and about their country's prosperity. shaping social commitment and initiative implies turning the activity of senior school students which they organize jointly with adults into their self-activity. recently, scientists have shifted their focus toward the content-related aspects of socially important activity. anyway, the need of a pedagogical technology to be developed for identifying the senior school students' patriotism formation level in conditions of social commitment and initiative gaining importance is quite an urgent question. literature review patriotic upbringing in the contemporary pedagogical discourse in psychological and pedagogical literature, various recommendations can be found on how to measure the formation levels of patriotism in students. some authors believe the level of social training should be identified by the total of patriotic qualities while others define social training as the individual's being oriented to the public. the third ones hold the schoolchildren's real actions for the decisive factor and yet the fourth authors emphasize the correlation to the activity and so on (lisovskiy et al., 2000; alieva, 2003). the validity of different approaches to finding out the level of patriotic social training in students is justified by the dependence of these alieva et al. approaches on certain pedagogical objectives. in particular, bondarevskaya (1995) suggests the criteriaand levels-based approach i.e. exploring the students' social training according to different criteria and at different levels. kraevskiy (2001) singles out three formation levels of readiness for defending one's motherland: the schoolchildren's complete understanding of the essence of patriotism; their positive attitudes toward the liabilities that follow from them; the ability and the habit to act in real life in line with the requirements learned. in this case, the levels of readiness for protecting one's motherland rely on understanding, attitudes, and ability to act in various situations (kraevskiy, 2001). the analysis of special literature shows that the contemporary school disposes of a large arsenal of methods for studying the personality and the condition of social training in patriotism worked out by psychological and pedagogical science (tarman, 2016; 2017; tarman & chigisheva, 2017; tarman & dev, 2018). for example, there are methods of exploring the students' social training in the natural conditions of the academic and upbringing process (pedagogical observation, the method of independent characteristics, and the method of projective questions) (alieva et al., 2017; belousov, 2001). some researchers support the method of spiral pedagogical diagnostics (involving the diagnosing moral situation, pedagogical concilium, rating method etc.). however, the range of criteria and indicators singled out by the authors for measuring the extent of patriotism being brought up in young men and women are covered by the techniques suggested only partially (likhachev,1997; nikolaev, 2003; sacks and levy research technique. practical diagnostics: technique and tests. samara. bakhrakh, 2001). patriotic upbringing as a social initiative the activity of the children and youth related to social initiative is in the focus of attention of many international structures. in the experimental research, the authors have looked into the foreign experience of different countries dealing with upbringing social commitment and initiative in children and youth. the countries in question view public service as an organized, more frequently institutionalized and usually non-governmental activity. the uniting role of public service is based on the general humanist idea of agape. so, for example, the educational program of the european council "youth" is aimed at supporting the young people's initiatives and international cooperation. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 the main objective of the european program "youth" is upbringing of a committed, initiative and responsible individual and assisting the young people in obtaining the required knowledge, competencies, skills, as well as ensuring various opportunities for participation in the public life. the main tasks of the program are: encouraging the young people to participate in creating the multi-cultural europe; orienting the upbringing of children and youth to perceiving the principal european values; respecting the human rights; preventing any manifestations of racism, anti-semitism, and xenophobia; creating favorable conditions for the young people to participate in international exchange projects. meanwhile, the usa have created the national corporation for national and community service the main functions of which are: implementing the current programs and establishing national organizations; accumulating the partners' investments; managing the innovations in social services; supporting the activity of not less than 400 educational associations and public organizations; teaching specialists and fulfilling the potential of services for solving the public problems. the corporation provides extracurricular programs that ensure partnership of members of the projects, national control bodies and non-governmental public organizations. it also holds contests for the best national service and leadership in many schools. the government of great britain pays attention to upbringing social commitment and initiative too. they provide support for social projects of the children, which is one of the essential means for achieving the ideas of social policy of the state, contributing to reduction of social tension and consolidation of communities. the country's policy also benefits from allocating larger resources for implementing the young people's initiative community projects. support of social initiatives develops the youth culture, encourages the young people to undertake responsibilities and bring up initiative in themselves, without which the progressive development of the state is impossible (alieva et al., 2017). the government of great britain has rendered considerable support to the program "millennium volunteers" which involves a system of awards for young initiative leaders – volunteers. the government has made accessible education for volunteers and has encouraged alieva et al. the young people to design and fulfill their own initiative projects (supported by adults). they have carefully laid out a system of privileges for sponsors of the youth projects. so, public organizations have come to act as "brokers" between the young people – volunteers – and people or services needing their assistance (preservation of health, social support, education, environmental protection etc.) (sviridova, 2011). germany is a country paying quite a lot of attention to social work; it sets an example to be followed – one of manifesting and upbringing the best qualities of charity and kindness in people. germany has a priceless experience of charity and aid for the under-privileged, of working with youth, the homeless and the disabled. having developed numerous social programs, the germans have quite a few points for other countries to learn from. the country's first state agency aimed at developing the social sphere was the german union of charity and care about the poor (deutscher verein für armenpflege und wohltätigkeit) founded back in 1880. the organization is quite functional nowadays, called the german association for public and private welfare, and counts around 2000 members. the association unites all charity organizations working in the country. social work is done by catholics, protestants, and numerous german public organizations with the state support. the state renders aid to the most vulnerable and low-income segments of the population – to the disabled, orphans, multi-child families, and the retired ones. there are organizations offering various "social year in germany" programs which enable children and the young people to pursue volunteering activities in the social sphere within the country. the voluntary social year has existed in germany since 1964. in 1993, they introduced additional voluntary ecological year. according to article 18 of the un declaration of human rights and article 9, items 1 and 2 of article 4 of the european convention on human rights, the principal laws of the federal republic of germany dated may 23, 1943, not only guarantee the religious freedom for citizens of the country but also establish its boundaries. alongside with that, the state recognizes not only freedom of person but also that of religious organizations (universal declaration of human rights, 1948). the above examples of the advanced world experience of upbringing social initiative and supporting social initiative in children and youth clearly show the trends of cross-sectoral social journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 partnership which is based first of all on rendering the relations between the state and the public more pedagogical, and on changing the approaches to the content of upbringing and educational policy in general. methodological framework the objective of the research is to develop the pedagogical technology for identifying the patriotism formation level in the contemporary senior school students in conditions of social commitment and initiative gaining importance. the tasks of the research are: to detail the essence and the content of notions "social commitment and initiative" and "pedagogical technology"; to find out the efficiency conditions for pedagogical technologies; to determine criteria and indicators of the extent of formation of patriotism in senior school students; to identify patriotism formation levels in senior school students; to explore foreign experience in shaping the social commitment and initiative of children and youth. the following methods were used in the research: theoretical methods of cognition: comparison (fedotova & chigisheva, 2015), generalization, modeling; methods of studying the social training of students in the natural conditions of the academic and upbringing process: pedagogical observation, survey, discussion; special pedagogical diagnostics methods: the sentence completion method, the experiment method, and the pedagogical monitoring method; qualimetry, scaling. results and discussion as the opportunities for development of social commitment and initiative and creation of new socially important projects influencing the process of patriotic upbringing are currently understudied, the authors set the task to develop a pedagogical technology which would allow finding out the formation levels of patriotism in the contemporary senior school students during their performing socially important and moral activities and social projects. alieva et al. in order to fulfill the task, in 2016-2017 an experimental study was conducted which involved senior school students of makhachkala (secondary school no. 17), kaspiysk (secondary school no. 1), derbent (secondary school no. 3), and levashi village (municipal state-owned educational institution "levashi gymnasium school"). the total of 850 people participated, with 750 of them being from urban schools and 100 – from the rural one. at the ascertaining stage, the following assignments were given to the students for them to have correct ideas about patriotism: 1. suggest words that are close or synonymous in meaning to the word "patriotism". 2. complete the sentence "patriotism is…" (sacks and levy research technique. practical diagnostics: technique and tests. samara. bakhrakh, 2001, p. 119). 3. write down examples that you know well for: a) actions characterizing patriotism; b) someone's acting up to patriotism. the analysis of the research results shows the students can fulfill the assignments but they give such words as "honesty" or "truthfulness" as synonyms for "patriotism", which means they do not fully understand the meaning of patriotism. some students considered this notion from one aspect only, listing as synonyms "devotion", "courage" and "heroism". the greatest difficulties were caused by the sentence completion assignment ("patriotism is…"). some wrong answers were: "patriotism is honesty"; "patriotism is hatred toward enemies"; "patriotism is studying well"; "patriotism is knowing how to protect one's motherland from enemies"; "patriotism is the ability to speak truth to everyone!". when doing the next assignment, a part of the tested ones showed not quite complete and clear ideas about actions characterizing patriotism. so, some of them wrote giving examples from life: "a person helps another one who is off badly", "…when you give your seat to an old-age person", "when people are considerate to each other". moreover, the majority of cases among the examples of manifestation of patriotism given list ones in which patriotism is expressed toward everything. for instance, "a man fed a stray dog", "people giving alms", "caretakers keep the streets clean", etc. among the answers, there are ones giving a one-sided perception of patriotism: "patriotism is manifested in emergency situations when one does something heroic", "patriotism is manifested during wars when people give up their lives for motherland". the fact that the students see no examples of people's patriotism in daily life around them causes deep concern. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 "adolescents of the time of troubles" – this definition by f. m. dostoevsky characterizes the young people of today as precisely as hardly another one can, because some processes and phenomena have emerged that are not peculiar for another time span (shchennikov, 2008, p. 140). the very nature of the young people's reproducing the values of the society inherited from their parents has changed. the young people face the necessity of rather negating than adopting the older generations' experience. nowadays the last thing the young people aspire is to be similar to some example. the contact of the rising generation with the new social mediators has scaled up (new forms of hired labor and its payment, the changed attitude toward property, small business). in many respects, the social position of youth has changed for the worse, which has considerably expanded the sphere of their conflict with the society. increasingly frequently, among the young people's values there are "career and business success", "material welfare", "good education", "an interesting occupation". a disregard of studies is shown by only 18% of the senior school students. the majority (62%) are intended to continue education. 20% of the senior school students are not sure about their future prospects yet. in the recent years, the professions of a lawyer, economist, and accountant are among the most attractive ones for the russian senior school students. very few students choose the career in the military, of an engineer, programmer, manager, or a law enforcement worker. being a teacher is considered a prestigious occupation by 2% of the schoolleavers. in these conditions, the problem of exploring the pedagogical technology for identifying the patriotism upbringing level in the contemporary senior school students is becoming increasingly relevant in the pedagogical theory and practice. a pedagogical technology is a strictly scientific and precise reproduction ensuring the success of pedagogical actions (kraevskiy, 2001). the process of creation and implementation of pedagogical upbringing technologies differs considerably from the technologies of teaching, because they always rely on teacher-tostudents interaction. the interaction urges the teacher to be an ideal for the schoolchildren, guided by which they develop their own viewpoints of certain things. proceeding from the general characteristics of pedagogical technologies (kraevskiy, 2001, p. 4), the following definition of pedagogical technologies can be given: a structure of scientifically proven practices alieva et al. and techniques using which such teacher-to-students relations are maintained as to attain the ultimate objective – introducing the schoolchildren to the shared human values. e. n. shchurkova believes that in order to fulfill a pedagogical upbringing technology a number of conditions have to be observed that will determine the efficiency of the upbringing technology: organizing and performing an upbringing action, with its logical structure strictly adhered to; a high cultural level of the content and forms of the action; tailoring the spiritual "exertion" of the upbringing action; informing about the action to an extent only – in order to keep interest in it; using all three perception channels: auditory, visual, and sensory ones (shchurkova, 2000, p. 7). the particularity of upbringing technologies, similarly to teaching technologies, is the capacity for reproduction and the analysis of the work done. the technological sequence of an upbringing situation is as follows: the preparatory or introductory stage (kindling the interest for it, collecting the required materials); the beginning of the upbringing situation (state of mind): greetings of the participants, the teacher's outlining the main objectives and tasks; the main stage: the content-related (subject) activity; completion: summing up the work done, any remarks and new ideas; prospects: insights on the plans for the future (likhachev, 1997, p. 6). in order to render the use of pedagogical technologies for upbringing patriotism in senior school students more effective, the technologies have to be selected which take into account the current social situation of schoolchildren – the young people – and are up to it. so, the best result of using pedagogical technologies is obtained when it is the technologies factoring in the present-day interests of schoolchildren that are applied. various methods are suggested by psychologists and teachers for identifying patriotism formation levels in senior school students. for example, v. v. kraevskiy singles out three formation levels of readiness for defending one's motherland: the schoolchildren's complete understanding of the essence of patriotism; their positive attitudes toward the liabilities that follow from them; the ability and the habit to act in real life in line with the requirements journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 learned. in this case, the levels of readiness for protecting one's motherland rely on understanding, attitudes, and ability to act in various situations (kraevskiy, 2001). the criteriaand levels-based approach has enabled the authors to identify the criteria and indicators of social training in patriotism in the senior school students: the needs-related and motivational criterion considers individual needs and motives of patriotically oriented activity; the cognitive and emotional criterion allows finding out to what extent the knowledge and understanding of patriotic notions turns into consistent patriotic ideas in the senior school students; the behavioral criterion enables the young people to direct their activity for the benefit of their motherland and for fulfilling their civic duty. the above criteria and indicators were used by the authors for measuring the main criteria and indicators of the extent of formation of patriotism in the senior school students (table 1). table 1 criteria, indicators, and methods of studying the extent of formation of patriotism in senior school students criteria and indicators of the extent of formation of patriotism methods of studying 1. needs-related and motivational realization of significance of actions done for the benefit of motherland discussion for understanding the social commitment, activity, and projects. questionnaire survey affection for one's native shore questionnaire survey, composition on the topic "i was born to make the fairytale come true". tell a tale about your motherland. the capacity for finding the projects that improve life of one's fellow countrymen discussion with students and class teachers the need of serving one's motherland through social commitment and initiative questionnaire survey 2. cognitive and emotional understanding of the essence of patriotism introductory questionnaire survey "what it means to be a patriot" confirming the theoretical knowledge by examples from real life discussions and interviews with students, questionnaire survey being interested in the nature and willing to enrich it questionnaire survey feeling of pride of one's homeland interviews, questionnaire survey 3. behavioral alieva et al. being a part of the society, extensively participating in public events and actions games "my choice", "volunteers, go for it!" having a steady positive experience of patriotic behavior skills technology "i'm growing up a citizen", questionnaire survey the capacity for acting patriotically both in daily-life and in extreme situations the problem situations method, questionnaire survey, training session tolerant behavior technology "you and me and he and she – the whole big country are we!", questionnaire survey source: lushnikov, 2014, p. 28 with the above criteria and indicators, the authors used the qualimetric method for measuring the formation levels of patriotism in senior school students (table 2). table 2 the indicators of manifestation and formation levels of patriotism in senior school students criteria indicators of manifestation and formation levels of patriotism very high (4) high (3) average (2) low (1) needs-related and motivational brightly developed need of serving one's motherland; being deeply concerned about the well-being of one's native shore; always finding something to do for the benefit of the small motherland and organizing other people's actions consciously; keenly understanding their social value and importance. developed need of serving one's motherland; feeling affection to one's native shore and motherland; finding something to do for the benefit of the small motherland and organizing other people's actions; understanding their value and importance. poorly developed need of serving one's motherland; there is some understanding of importance of acting for the benefit of the small motherland; not relying on the understanding of their value and importance. not developed need of serving one's motherland; not participating in actions for the benefit of the small motherland, not assisting in them. cognitive and emotional profound knowledge of the main attributes of patriotism; detailing notions of patriotism consciously and correctly; having the capacity for backing up theoretical notions with examples from real life; having a keen interest in the history and culture of one's motherland; profoundly developed feelings of love for one's motherland, pride of and devotion to it a knowledge of the main attributes of patriotism; detailing notions of patriotism correctly; having the capacity for backing up notions with examples from life; having an interest in the history and culture of one's motherland; sufficiently developed feelings of love for one's motherland, pride of and devotion to it knowing only certain attributes of patriotism; being unable to describe the essence of patriotism correctly; sometimes incorrectly backing up the notions with examples from life; having little interest in the history and culture of one's motherland; poorly developed feeling of love for and pride of one's motherland. having no idea about the notion and essence of patriotism; being unable and unwilling to support the notions of patriotism with examples from life; having disregard of the history and culture of one's motherland; not developed feeling of love for and pride of one's motherland. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 behavioral clearly seen capacity for solving problems from the standpoint of a patriot both in daily life and in difficult situations; steady positive experience, opinions and skills of patriotic behavior; being an organizer of various practical activities; clearly shown tolerance to dissenting views of people of other nationalities living in the same country; showing a deep respect for cultural heritage of other countries and peoples; expressing a protest against manifestations of nationalism. marked capacities for acting patriotically both in daily life and in difficult situations; steady positive experience, abilities and skills of patriotic behavior; being busy with participating in various practical activities; shown tolerance to dissenting views (opinions of people of other nationalities living in the same country); a respectful attitude toward cultural heritage of other nations and peoples; lack of nationalist traits of character. showing the capacity for acting patriotically in daily life situations (poorly pronounced); poorly pronounced experience, abilities and skills of patriotic behavior; participating in various activities only if urged by teachers; shown tolerance to dissenting views; a respectful attitude toward cultural heritage manifested mainly to the peoples living in the same country; occasional manifestation of nationalist traits of character. not showing any capacity for acting patriotically; frequent actions of anti-patriotic nature; no experience, abilities and skills of patriotic behavior; disregard of participation in various activities; a negative attitude to the opinion of people of other nationalities living in the same country; no respect for cultural heritage of other nations and peoples; no respect for people of other nationalities. source: lushnikov, 2014, p. 35 using the qualimetric method, the authors assessed each indicator according to the above criteria scoring points in the following way. needs-related and motivational criterion 1. affection for one's motherland and native shore: very developed 4, developed 3, poorly developed 2, not developed 1. 2. the need of serving one's motherland: brightly pronounced 4, pronounced 3, poorly developed 2, missing 1. 3. the ability to find actions for the benefit of the small motherland: very developed 4, developed 3, poorly developed 2, not developed 1. 4. the understanding of values and importance of actions done for the benefit of the homeland: formed 4, partially formed 3, poorly formed 2, not formed 1. cognitive and emotional criterion 1. the knowledge of the main attributes and essence of patriotism: clear 4, insufficiently clear 3, unclear 2, no ideas -1. 2. the capacity for backing up notions with examples from life: having the capacity 4, able 3, hardly any 2, unable 1. 3. the interest in the history and culture of one's motherland: existing 4, partially existing 3, poorly developed 2, missing 1. alieva et al. 4. the feeling of love for and pride of one's motherland: developed 4, insufficiently developed 3, poorly developed 2, not developed 1. behavioral criterion 1. the capacity for acting patriotically both in daily-life and in extreme situations: developed 4, insufficiently developed 3, poorly developed 2, not developed 1. 2. a steady positive experience, abilities and skills of patriotic behavior: developed 4, insufficiently developed 3, poorly developed 2, not developed 1. 3. extensive participation in various activities for the benefit of one's motherland: extensive participation 4, participation 3, passive participation 2, non-participation [lack of participation] 1. 4. tolerance: continuously present 4, present 3, partially present 2, missing 1. after scoring points according to this system of criteria and indicators of the extent of formation of patriotism in senior school students, the following figures were obtained (see table 3). table 3 criteria of the patriotism formation extent in senior school students quantity of indicators quantity of points difference min max needs-related and motivational 4 4 16 12 cognitive and emotional 4 4 16 12 behavioral 4 4 16 12 total extent of formation 12 12 48 36 source: the authors dividing the difference in points into three parts, the authors have determined the increment and limits of the low, average and high levels of formation of patriotism in the senior school students and obtained the following data (see table 4). table 4 limits of the low, average and high patriotism formation levels criteria limits of the levels, in points journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 low average high very high needs-related and motivational 4-6 7-9 10-13 14-16 cognitive and emotional 4-6 7-9 0-13 14-16 behavioral 4-6 7-9 10-13 14-16 total extent of formation 12-20 21-27 30-39 42-48 source: the authors table 5 shows the distribution of the senior school students depending on the points they scored according to their patriotism formation levels. table 5 patriotism formation levels in the senior school students (in % of the total quantity of the surveyed ones) patriotism formation levels in the senior school students grades 7-9 needs-related and motivational very high 13 high 27 average 26 low 34 total 100 cognitive and emotional very high 12 high 25 average 30 low 33 total 100 behavioral very high 10 high 21 average 33 low 36 total 100 total extent of formation very high 12 alieva et al. high 24 average 30 low 34 total 100 source: the authors it can be seen from the above data that it is only 12% of the senior school students who have the very high level of patriotism formed, with 24% featuring the high one, about 30% – the average one, and 34% having the low formation level of patriotism. it is also clear from the data that the cognitive and emotional sphere of the extent of formation of patriotism and the needsrelated and motivational one are almost the same in the senior school students. the studies have shown that the rural schoolchildren's patriotism formation level is higher than that of the urban ones. it can be seen from the table 6 and table 7 below. table 6 patriotism formation levels in the senior school students: control group ascertaining stage (2016-2017) patriotism formation levels in the senior school students urban rural very the high 8 13 the high 20 31 the average 26 30 the low 46 26 total 100 100 source: the authors table 7 patriotism formation levels in the senior school students: experimental group ascertaining stage (2016-2017) patriotism formation levels in the senior school students urban rural very the high 4 16 the high 20 27 the average 53 30 the low 23 27 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 total 100 100 source: the authors the main cause of a high extent of formation of the patriotic feeling in the senior school students of rural areas is the fact that there the children work side by side with adults since childhood. they work in the field, they help their parents with housekeeping, and they get in touch with nature quite frequently. all the factors nurture the feelings of patriotism and love for their motherland in them. the research conducted has enabled the authors to explore the discussed formation levels of this quality in the senior school students at the ascertaining stage. the very high formation level of patriotism made so few as 4%. it is characterized by the students having a profound idea, understanding and realization of what a true patriot must be, of a true patriot's main traits. these students deeply consciously and correctly detail the main notions of patriotism and can exemplify the described qualities by cases from their own experience and from life of the numerous literary characters – patriots. they know their native language, history and culture of their native country. the high patriotism formation level was shown by 20% of the students. they are characterized as having sufficient idea about the main qualities of a patriot, describing its main notions consciously and correctly, being able to give examples from life for the said qualities. they know the language of their people and they are massively keen on the history and culture of their motherland. the average extent of formation of patriotism amounted to 28%. these are the students who have a formed idea about the main criteria of patriotism; they cite quite good cases from life to exemplify patriotism. they show interest in customs and traditions of their people and a developed feeling of duty. they treat representatives of other religious denominations, their religion, customs and traditions with respect. the low level of patriotism was found in 48% of the senior school students. it is characterized by their poor interest in history and culture of their homeland, a lack of patriotic orientation of personality. the students have disregard for the history of their own land and the country's culture while also failing to know their native language well enough, which hinders their communication with others. alieva et al. it has to be pointed out that in the school practice, first of all, qualitative characteristics of certain formation levels of patriotism in the senior school students are more common as a symbiosis of different levels, and secondly, the qualitative attributes may contradict each other. for instance, a vague idea about the qualities of a patriot can be inherent in an adolescent who at the same time has a brightly pronounced feeling of social commitment and initiative and a wish to do something useful for others. however, some attributes are the principal ones for identifying the formation level of patriotism in the senior school students — such as love for one's small and great motherland, a wish to improve it, knowledge of one's native language and culture. the senior school students who have the clearly mature social commitment and initiative have a high formation level of patriotism too. the students whose social commitment and initiative are unsteady in nature have the average extent of formation of patriotism. finally, the students who have episodic and poorly pronounced social commitment and initiative show a low patriotism formation level. a conscious idea about having to use one's own hands to improve one's motherland, the "who if not me" guiding principle for senior school students, and consistent commitment and initiative – the total of these aspects forge an active life stance of the senior school students. they stimulate the students' participation in social projects, their feeling of being important and proud of having personally done something for their motherland, which in its turn nurtures the feeling of affection for the homeland, their native shore, social and patriotic activity. as a rule, such students demonstrate the high level of patriotism. conclusion the paper presents results of the ascertaining stage of the pilot research as well as testingout of the main theoretical and methodological statements concerning the process of patriotic upbringing through the lens of development of the pedagogical technology. the authors have developed mechanisms and conditions for making social commitment and initiative of schoolchildren relevant that in the practice of experiments confirm the efficiency of patriotic upbringing. the outlined criteriaand levels-based approach has allowed singling out the following criteria and indicators of the extent of formation of patriotism in dagestan senior school students: the needs-related and motivational one, the cognitive and emotional one, and the behavioral criterion. based on these criteria, the levels of formation of patriotism in the senior school students have been identified: the very high, the high, the average, and the low level. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 the research conducted in educating decent patriots of their homeland has shown that the following aspects can be emphasized among the qualities found out: commitment and social initiative; ongoing involvement of senior school students into activities of transforming their motherland; fostering the interest in social and public projects at the level of village, city, and the entire country; high organizing capacities available in many volunteering social projects. the described foreign social experience in shaping the social initiatives highlights the prevailing role of the young people: on the one hand, that as enthusiasts of social projects, and on the other hand, as patriots, subjects of civil service for the benefit of their state, their fellow countrymen, and their motherland. alieva et al. references alieva, s.a., alieva, s.t., radzhabova, r.v. (2017). foreign experience of upbringing social initiative and activities of children and youth. news-bulletin of southern federal university, 3, 55-61. alieva, s.t. (2003). psychological and pedagogical particularities of patriotic upbringing of senior pre-school children. in: personality development in educational systems of southrussian region. proceedings of the 10th annual session of the regional psychological and pedagogical readings of the south of russia. part iii. sochi: scientific and educational center of ras, 6-10. belousov, n.a. (2001). pedagogical framework of training the students of secondary educational institutions for protection of motherland. doctoral thesis. moscow. bondarevskaya, e.v. (1995). methodological strategies of learner-centred upbringing. bulletin of the russian academy of education, 3, 23-32. fedotova o., chigisheva o. (2015). comparative analysis: methodological optics in the ideological context. in: comparative sciences: interdisciplinary approaches. series: international perspectives on education and society, 26, 57-81. kraevskiy, v.v. (2001). methodology of pedagogy. – cheboksary: chuvash university publishing house. likhachev, b.t. (1997). introduction into the theory and practice of upbringing values in russia in the 19-20th centuries. samara: samara institute of management publishing house. lisovskiy, v.t., guriyanova, m.p., kozlov, a.a. (2000). life orientations and professional intentions of school-leavers of secondary schools (results of a sociological survey). moscow: association of social teachers and social workers (asopir) publishing house. lushnikov, i. d. (2014). the systemic technique of studying the patriotic upbringing: methodological guideline. vologda: viro (vide). nikolaev, g.g. (2003). upbringing of civic qualities in adolescents at children's public associations. phd thesis. chelyabinsk. sacks and levy research technique. practical diagnostics: technique and tests. samara. bakhrakh. (2001). moscow, 117-121. shchennikov, g.k. (2008). adolescent. in: f.i. dostoevsky: works, letters, documents. reference dictionary. spb, 139-145. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 329-348 shchurkova, n.e. (2000). new upbringing. m.: pedagogical society – russia. state program “patriotic upbringing of citizens of the rf for the years 2016–2020” (2015). url: http://static.government.ru/media/files/8qqyuwwzhuxzvkh1jskaerrx2de4q0ws.pdf strategy of upbringing development in the rf for the years 2015-2025 (2015). url: https://rg.ru/2015/06/08/vospitanie-dok.html sviridova, e.a. (2011). civic education in great britain. siberian trade and economics journal, 13, 77-83. tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), i-ii. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 tarman, b , chigisheva, o . (2017). editorial for special issue: transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education. journal of social studies education research, 8 (2), i-iv. retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/32450/360860 tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. universal declaration of human rights (1948). url: http://www.un.org/en/universaldeclaration-human-rights/index.html http://static.government.ru/media/files/8qqyuwwzhuxzvkh1jskaerrx2de4q0ws.pdf https://rg.ru/2015/06/08/vospitanie-dok.html http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/32450/360860 http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018: 9(1), 76-88 76 dynamics of russian employers' perceptions on the training quality of specialists in the system of secondary vocational education tatiana vlasova1, evgenia krasnova2, valentina abraukhova3, natalya safontseva4 abstract the paper deals with the evaluation of specialists' professional training quality within the framework of intersectoral, transborder, public and private models of social partnership described in theories by foreign and russian scientists. special attention is paid to providing methodological grounds for cooperation between the total subjects within the vocational education system. the procedure of studying the russian employers' ideas about the high-quality training for specialists relies on an innovation spiritual and ontological model of social partnership. the model comprises the following components: representation of the educational content through the lens of business futurology on the part of teachers; selection of the educational content through the lens of spiritual and ontological intentions on the part of students; expert evaluation of the educational through the lens of the competitive business environment on the part of the employers. the effectiveness of social partnership is determined proceeding from justified indices: the extent of variability, flexibility and mobility when performing the tasks of teaching the students possessing social and creative assets that are in demand at the labor market in the sphere of children and youth leisure. the paper presents the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data of questionnaire survey conducted among the directors of educational organizations of culture (a case study of rostov region of the russian federation). the survey has allowed detecting a slight positive dynamics in their evaluations of the quality of specialists' training and outlining the prospects in the development of social partnership between the employers and the educational organizations. key words: vocational education, college, pedagogical profile students, social partnership, employers, educational organizations of culture. introduction the actual scale of cooperation between the employers and the organizations performing the professional training of specialists reflects the stages of transformation of the russian economic sphere. in particular, the figures of employment of higher educational institution graduates have started to gradually increase, after the downturn of 2008-2009. in the central region of russia (moscow and saint-petersburg) they are maintained in industry, communication, and the sphere of business services. meanwhile, company executives believe 1 prof., doctor of pedagogy, don state technical university, tvlasova@rambler.ru 2 assoc. prof., candidate of philology, don state technical university, krasnova@inbox.ru 3 prof., doctor of pedagogy, don state technical university, childrenpalace@mail.ru 4 prof., doctor of pedagogy, institute of water transport named after g.y. sedov, a branch of national maritime university named after f.f. ushakov, safnat67@mail.ru mailto:krasnova@inbox.ru mailto:childrenpalace@mail.ru mailto:safnat67@mail.ru vlasova et al. that graduates lack entrepreneurial competencies (bondarenko, 2014), which makes it essential to study the employers' ideas about the entire set of competencies as well as about other components of the quality of education. on the one hand, articulation of this problem in such an aspect is especially relevant for other regions of russia, their economic sphere having considerable structural distinctions from that of the central russian regions. on the other hand, studying the social partnership becomes important due to professional standards adopted at the legislation level – ones where business has set out its own requirements for specialists. a special place within the general labor market system belongs to organizations of social and cultural segment targeted at the development of creative competencies in learners and providing further education of children, e.g. the children and youth creativity center and the center for the development of children and youth. on the one hand, the training of specialists for this sphere makes sense in conditions of the innovation economy that demands non-standard approaches from the rising generation. on the other hand, the specific nature of competencies of the employees at the said centers is associated with these teachers having to master not only pedagogical but also creative competencies. the results of studying the ideas of employers, directors of children development centers about the quality of specialists' training in educational organizations of rostov-on-don and rostov region are described in this paper. literature review in the foreign works (canning, 2006, hughes, 2007, carlson, 2017), when discussing the relationships between vocational education and corporations, their crisis and new challenges due to the information epoch are described. the effect expected by partners from mere investment of funds into education virtually came to naught in the second half of the 20th century (the uk commission's report on employer skills survey 2011: uk results, 2011, higher educationbusiness partnership, 2016, hughes, 2007). at the same time, the scientific literature suggests various models of cooperation between the state, the universities and the corporations: the transborder one (vincent-lancrin, 2006), the intersectoral one (siegel, 2010), and the public and private one (hawley, 2007, alexander, 2017) that are designed to overcome the said risks. this approach has brought about the necessity for employers to develop qualification framework for graduates (lempinen, 2013, wu, 2017, tarman & chigisheva, 2017). in the russian education, it has resulted in justification and implementation of professional standards journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 76-88 (ilyasov, 2009), which makes the problem of the quality of specialists' training relevant. so, it is the task of providing justification for the set of college and university graduates' competencies that are in demand with business in various countries within the concept of forming the "new human capital" that joins the range of scientific debates as an especially urgent one (higher education-business partnership, 2016, university-business partnerships, 2009, lempinen, 2013, draskovic et al., 2017; tarman & yigit, 2013). the articulation of the partnership problem is not new in the russian science (budnitskiy, 2009a, nazarova, 2012, ivanenko, 2013, rudneva & ovchinnikov, 2015, vlasova, 2016a, vlasova, 2016b). the analysis of literature shows that over the first decade of the 21st century the employers' relationships with higher educational institutions changed toward a positive dynamics of graduates being in demand. small-scale, medium and big business executives of six major sectors of the economy were questioned, and it was registered that generally business was satisfied with the quality of training of the specialists (bondarenko, 2014). however, a number of scientists come to the conclusion that it is not always that a higher quantity of higher educational institution graduates is up to the quality of their competencies, and the employers' stable demand for highly qualified specialists remains (manakhov & ryzhakova, 2014). in the process of social partnership between subjects, the development of innovation technologies in the economy is an essential factor, which leads to upgrading the vocational education as for the structure of competencies that are required for specialists (nazarova, 2012). the scientists have worded risks (low professional mobility and high prime cost of goods) the business runs into if it has to employ graduates who do not have the abilities captured by the work functions of certain professions. with regard to this, it is concluded that the profession and qualification structure of the russian labor market demand is not only far from norms (zadorina & teslenko, 2015) but also fails to meet the requirements that are current in the european union (higher education in the russian federation, 2012). within the framework of fulfilling the bologna agreements (gudkova & osadchikova, 2017), the authors face the task of studying the employers' ideas as viewed from the sphere of further education where the creative potential of youth, the future workers for other economic spheres too, is developed. given the topic selected, this angle of studying the social partnership is quite telling, because the competencies possessed by graduates are believed by the employers to lag greatly behind the society's request (vaskov, 2014, vislobokova, 2014). in the foreign vlasova et al. works, the question has been brought up repeatedly of having to change the set of competencies if based on innovations. in particular, whether the social media can bridge the gap between business and education and thus make a creative approach to the implementation of digital economy relevant seems way not a rhetorical question (jafferson, 2013). this has served as a methodological reference point for this research too. materials and methods the objective of this research was to study the opinion of the directors of educational organizations of culture on the quality of training of pedagogical profile specialists employed as further education teachers. the following tasks were set: 1) to determine the methodological basis of social partnership theories within the contemporary foreign and russian models; 2) to find and describe the pedagogical profile college directors' ideas about the conditions of learning; 3) to question the employers, directors of educational organizations of culture, on the entire range of the educational content targeted at satisfying the needs of the labor market in this social and cultural segment; 4) to compare the results obtained with the 2007 survey data and to identify the dynamics of the employers' ideas about the quality of specialists' training in the system of secondary vocational education. for questioning the directors, questionnaire forms of the same type were used, with standardized questions conventionally subdivided into two units: the objectives-values and the means-values of the educational content. the authors questioned: 1) the students – the future teachers in the sphere of children leisure; 2) the employers – directors of educational organizations of culture. here is an example of some questions of the survey: 1) must the students have a contract for the future work with the employers? 2) who has to control the quality of instruction at colleges (institutes)? 3) sponsorship should be aimed at: a. improving the conditions and means of learning; b. organizing a high-quality on-the-job training; c. enhancing the competitiveness for employment after graduation. 4) if students have learning-associated problems, who would you advise them to turn to for help? journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 76-88 a. to the director of the college; b. to the supervisory board; c. to the future employers; d. to the college teachers. 5) do you think the study programs used by the college are up to the current level of technical and humanitarian sciences? 6) do you think the college has to step up its contacts with cultural organizations (theatres, museums, guided tours etc.)? the questions for studying the respondents' opinions were edited proceeding from the model (fig. 1) that is oriented to ontological questions of the professional, social and cultural spaces: what is taught? how up-to-date the means of learning are? how can this content be used in the future profession? figure 1. spiritual and ontological model of cooperation source: vlasova, 2016b thus, in this research, the methods of questionnaire survey, interview, and statistical comparison are used for identifying the indices of social partnership according to the extent of variability, flexibility and mobility proceeding from the analysis of answers given by the total vlasova et al. subjects of education as for accomplishing the task of training the specialists having social and creative assets under market conditions. results and discussion in the russian science, the debates center on providing grounds for the essence of partnership that is determined as equal interaction of educational organizations, industrial subjects and business structures aimed at the relevant fulfillment of the social mandate for education. with regard to this, it is implied that the employers have to take part in: 1) forming the strategy; 2) determining the content of education; 3) the control of instruction; 4) staffing; 5) material and technical provision; 6) rendering sponsorship (budnitskiy, 2009a, p. 106). this is in line with the intersectoral model of social partnership (siegel, 2010). in the first decade of the 20th century, the russian business was used exclusively as an additional funding source for educational organizations and the partnership within the means-values was not formed (budnitskiy, 2009b). on the other hand, such an approach looks constructive under a stable economy, which is not the case of the current social and cultural situation. new studies of social partnership in the educational space have become necessary – ones with a focus on the developing economy. the methodological basis for this research was the notion of technological culture of the society as a "transforming activity in both material and humanitarian areas aimed at bringing the material and spiritual system of the actors' life into harmony with the state-of-the-art achievements of science and technology that allow at a high level of information confidence ensuring the relationships between various social subjects" (budnitskiy, 2009a, p. 65). the authors have succeeded in questioning the employers on the entire range of objectives-values and means-values that implicitly include the achievements of the certain historical stage of the technological culture. the data obtained were also compared to the similar research by the authors. thus, according to the 2007 survey results, the attitudes between colleges and governing bodies could be considered as stably trust-based within the means-values, with the partnership between colleges and business in the space of means-values being not formed (budnitskiy, 2009b). in particular, the results of questionnaire survey of the teachers and students bulk demonstrated that the responsibility for the quality of the education obtained failed to become a personal value with the students then. it was concluded that this task could only be solved by an innovation provision of education, which can be seen from the respondents' answers to the means-values unit of the questions. given the specific nature of educational organizations where specialists for the youth leisure sphere are trained, the justification of sampling of the respondents in 2017 is as follows. in rostov region, training in the pedagogical specialities unit having the social and cultural emphasis is performed at 18 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 76-88 secondary vocational education organizations. 9 executives of them were questioned, among them the directors, deputy directors and heads of guidance services of the colleges, i.e. 50,0% of the total quantity. among the organizations, there were: azov regional musical and pedagogical college, volgodonsk pedagogical college, zimovniki pedagogical college, zernograd pedagogical college, kamensk pedagogical college of rostov region, don pedagogical college, shakhty pedagogical college etc. questionnaire survey also had to involve the future employers in this social and cultural segment: they are the directors of creativity centers. the quantity of organizations performing further education of children and youth in rostov-on-don and in rostov region amounts to 21. in this survey, 9 employers (directors) were questioned, i.e. 42,6% of their total quantity, working at the children and youth creativity center of rostov-on-don, the center for further education of oktyabrskiy district, the center for the development of children and youth of pervomayskiy district, the center of creativity of shakhty (rostov region), and other educational organizations of culture. so, the validity of the sampling is evident, and the data obtained as a result of surveys can be raised to the entire general population. the results were compared according to three indices: variability, flexibility and mobility of social partnership between the pedagogical colleges and educational organizations of culture performing further education of children and youth that is designed to fill up the learners' leisure space. judging by the quantitative data (fig. 2), the employers have stabilized their ideas in the extent of mobility and variability, as it is on the condition of vocational education that the country's competitiveness greatly depends, among other things. however, the authors believe that the employers' disappointment with the flexibility of educational content is due to the fact that heads of colleges failed to create the spiritual and ontological educational space based on the information and technological culture, oriented to a new type of communication, to a free access to the information being – which is formed in conditions of the students, future teachers, being freed from the routine information and intellectual work. so, the extent of variability was identified proceeding from the analysis of answers to the questions associated with the way how educational content is formed (i.e. how much the college teachers draw it closer to the graduates' future occupation), which amounted to 61,8% in 2007 and to 57,4% in 2017. thus, the extent of flexibility was identified taking into account the students' rights, i.e. how much the content of elective courses is up to their personal and professional interests. it was 43,7% in 2007 and 33,4% in 2017. the extent of mobility was identified on the basis of the analysis of answers to the questions associated with specifying the employers' participation in all educational processes, management and http://www.spodon.ru/cgi-bin/bd.pl?gid=68&act=showgid http://www.spodon.ru/cgi-bin/bd.pl?gid=69&act=showgid http://www.spodon.ru/cgi-bin/bd.pl?gid=69&act=showgid http://www.spodon.ru/cgi-bin/bd.pl?gid=67&act=showgid http://www.spodon.ru/cgi-bin/bd.pl?gid=71&act=showgid http://www.spodon.ru/cgi-bin/bd.pl?gid=66&act=showgid http://www.spodon.ru/cgi-bin/bd.pl?gid=66&act=showgid http://www.spodon.ru/cgi-bin/bd.pl?gid=77&act=showgid http://www.spodon.ru/cgi-bin/bd.pl?gid=82&act=showgid vlasova et al. organization of on-the-job training for the future specialists included, which was 54,5% in 2007 and 53,7% in 2017 (fig. 2). figure 2. the quantitative dynamics of the employers' ideas according to three indices (%) source: the authors according to the 2007 survey results, it has been concluded that the direct transfer of the market economy mechanism into the secondary vocational education is unjustified because the training of specialists got into an internal conflict situation: on the one hand, equal access to education was declared, on the other hand, the young had to master the profession under profound social and cultural differences. what has changed in the employers' ideas over the 10 years? the qualitative analysis of the surveys of the executives is given below.  their opinion on the study programs conformity to the contemporary level of the humanities has changed toward the positive.  the attitudes concerning the employers' evaluation of students' self-government look fairly tense, as the perception of self-government shows it is impossible to expand the variability for the students within the educational space.  in organizing the activity of pedagogical colleges, a special place belongs to the standpoint associated with financing the vocational education in the form of a credit, dedicated or sponsor's contribution. with regard to this, the employers' answers have shown the impossibility of a full-fledge implementation of them, being dependent on the unstable economy. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 76-88  according to the creativity center directors, the quality of on-the-job (pedagogical) training, physical and cultural training of students has decreased because colleges have to complete urgent tasks first, e.g. it penetration of learning.  the functions of controlling the quality of education are quite painful for the employers, as there is disappointment with implementation of the functions, and the answers demonstrate a significant percentage decrease of this parameter: from 68,8% in 2007 to as low as 11,1% in 2017.  contrary to 2007, a positive attitude toward the private banking sector has virtually been reduced to naught: the creativity center directors opted for the "state bank" parameter only, when answering the question on educational loans for their own children.  in the cooperation, reserves are stably found on the questions of the necessary improvement of study programs, learning conditions improvement, enhancement of competitiveness when getting employed.  however, if students have any problems, the employers do not advise turning to them for assistance, which confirms again the previous conclusion about the directors' being disappointed in social partnership. meanwhile, it is "teachers" and "director of the college" who the employers believe to be actual subjects being capable of solving the students' problems.  there has been a slight increase according to the results of answering the question on the students' families participation in their learning process: from 50,0% up to 66,6%. the small positive dynamics may be viewed as a trend to form a stable system of social values in the russian federation and to preserve the traditional patterns of the society.  evaluation of the future employment of the students that is associated with making contracts is an essential aspect of trust in social partnership, which is evidenced by the unchanged viewpoint on this question in the employers. its figure is close to 90,0%. conclusion it is obvious that a slight shift toward the positive in the employers' perception of the quality of specialists' training confirms that the tasks of developing the secondary vocational education can only be solved within the framework of spiritual and ontological social vlasova et al. partnership which will thus expand the internal and external scopes of the total subjects' selfdevelopment. it should be pointed out that theoretical innovations have to be implemented too as they will help bring the cooperation in vocational education closer to the transborder model being debated in science (vincent-lancrin, 2006). studying the employers' opinions about the quality of specialists' training for other spheres of the labor market seems promising, and so does studying the particularities of social partnership from the viewpoint of other total subjects. acknowledgements the authors thank all participants of the survey for their careful and honest attitude to the research: teachers, pedagogical profile students, directors and specialists of pedagogical colleges of rostov region, the children and youth creativity center of rostov-on-don, the center for further education of oktyabrskiy district, the center for the development of children and youth of pervomayskiy district, the center of creativity of shakhty (rostov region), and other educational organizations of culture. references alexander, s. (2017). making public-private partnerships work in higher education. online publication. url: https://www.eaie.org/blog/public-private-partnerships-highereducation/ bondarenko, n. (2014). the nature of the russian companies' cooperation with the system of higher education as seen by employers. 2013 poll results, according to levada-center. questions of education, 1, 162-175. budnitskiy, a. (2009a). the contents of value references of social partnership in the regional system of secondary vocational education. rostov-on-don: mini type. budnitskiy, a. (2009b). value references of social partnership agents in the regional system of secondary vocational training: based on the rostov region data: phd abstract. rostov-ondon. canning, m. (2006). the modernization of education in russia. online publication. url: https://siteresources.worldbank.org/intecaregtopeducation/resources/russiaed ucationpolicypaper.pdf https://www.eaie.org/blog/public-private-partnerships-higher-education/ https://www.eaie.org/blog/public-private-partnerships-higher-education/ https://siteresources.worldbank.org/intecaregtopeducation/resources/russiaeducationpolicypaper.pdf https://siteresources.worldbank.org/intecaregtopeducation/resources/russiaeducationpolicypaper.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 76-88 carlson, r. (2017). college-business partnerships can solve the higher education affordability crisis. online publication. url: https://www.forbes.com/sites/schoolboard/2017/01/17/college-business-partnerships-cansolve-the-higher-education-affordability-crisis/#1d7fa59f513b draskovic, m., milica, d., mladen, i., chigisheva, o. (2017). preference of institutional changes in social and economic development. journal of international studies, volume 10, no. 2, 318-328. gudkova, s.a., osadchikova, e.v. (2017). a comparative analysis of the competitive specialist training concepts. scientific research azimuth: pedagogy and psychology, 6(2 /19), 38-41. hawley, j. (2007). public private partnerships in vocational education and training: international examples and models. online publication. url: https://siteresources.worldbank.org/extecaregtopeducation/resources/444607192636551820/public_private_partnerships_in_vocational_education_and_training.pdf higher education – business partnership. (2016). online publication. url: https://www.worcesterchamber.org/programs/higher-education-business-partnership/ higher education in the russian federation. (2012). online publication. url: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/tempus/participating_countries/overview/russia_country_fiche _final.pdf hughes, k.p. (2007). remarks at the business partnerships in higher education luncheon hosted by the indo-american chamber of commerce. online publication. url: https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/us/2007/82348.htm ilyasov, a.h. (2009).the european experience of social partnership in professional education. the north and the market: economic order formation, 3(24), 6a-9. ivanenko, i.a. (2013). social partnership mechanism implementation in professional education. bulletin of p.g. demidov yaroslavl state university. series: humanities, 4, 46-50. jafferson, j. (2013). could social media bridge the divide between business and education? online publication. url: https://www.theguardian.com/higher-educationnetwork/blog/2013/jun/28/social-media-business-education-internships lempinen, p. (2013). social partnership in vocational education and training. european training foundation. online publication. url: https://www.forbes.com/sites/schoolboard/2017/01/17/college-business-partnerships-can-solve-the-higher-education-affordability-crisis/#1d7fa59f513b https://www.forbes.com/sites/schoolboard/2017/01/17/college-business-partnerships-can-solve-the-higher-education-affordability-crisis/#1d7fa59f513b https://siteresources.worldbank.org/extecaregtopeducation/resources/444607-192636551820/public_private_partnerships_in_vocational_education_and_training.pdf https://siteresources.worldbank.org/extecaregtopeducation/resources/444607-192636551820/public_private_partnerships_in_vocational_education_and_training.pdf https://www.worcesterchamber.org/programs/higher-education-business-partnership/ https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/us/2007/82348.htm https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2013/jun/28/social-media-business-education-internships https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2013/jun/28/social-media-business-education-internships vlasova et al. http://www.etf.europa.eu/webatt.nsf/0/45a9c75b6aa860e1c1257b6c0056eb64/$file/i nform_15_social%20partners.pdf manakhov s.v., ryzhakova a.v. (2014). main development trends of the higher education in russia: quantitative and qualitative aspects. bulletin of g.v. plekhanov russian university of economics, 10(76), 19-28. nazarova, i.r. (2012). towards a high-quality education via social partnership. transactions of the russian state social university, 11(111), 54-58. rudneva, e.l., ovchinnikov, v.a. (2015). the shared and the specific in the approaches to the vocational education upgrade and the employers' part in it in russia and china. in: ongoing education of the young people vs. the labor market: the russian and foreign experience. blagoveshchensk, 133-150. siegel, d. (2010). organizing for social partnership: higher education in cross-sector collaboration. online publication. url: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.379.4014&rep=rep1&type=pdf tarman, b. & chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education (editorial). journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. tarman, b., & yigit, m. f. (2013). turkish economy and vocational education system: regressive or progressive? energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 5(1), 159-170. the uk commission's report on employer skills survey 2011: uk results. online publication. url: http://www.ukces.org.uk/assets/ukces/docs/publications/ukces-employer-skillssurvey-11.pdf university-business partnerships (2009). online publication. url: http://www.eua.be/policyrepresentation/research-innovation-policy/university-business-partnerships vaskov, m.a. (2014). further vocational education as evaluated by representatives of the major russian regional business: the results of sociological research in the south of russia. humanitarian, socio-economic and social sciences, 6(1), 71-74. vincent-lancrin, s. (2006). cross-border higher education for development. online publication. url: http://www.oecd.org/edu/research/37477437.pdf http://www.etf.europa.eu/webatt.nsf/0/45a9c75b6aa860e1c1257b6c0056eb64/$file/inform_15_social%20partners.pdf http://www.etf.europa.eu/webatt.nsf/0/45a9c75b6aa860e1c1257b6c0056eb64/$file/inform_15_social%20partners.pdf http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.379.4014&rep=rep1&type=pdf http://www.ukces.org.uk/assets/ukces/docs/publications/ukces-employer-skills-survey-11.pdf http://www.ukces.org.uk/assets/ukces/docs/publications/ukces-employer-skills-survey-11.pdf http://www.eua.be/policy-representation/research-innovation-policy/university-business-partnerships http://www.eua.be/policy-representation/research-innovation-policy/university-business-partnerships http://www.oecd.org/edu/research/37477437.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 76-88 vislobokova, m.v. (2014). social partnership in pedagogical education. in: education and science: the state-of-the-art and prospects of development. a collection of scientific works following the international scientific and practical conference: in 6 parts. moscow: ministry of education and science of the russian federation, 40-42. vlasova, t.i. (2016a). mary ellen richmond's views of social partnership in american social workers' vocational education. the world of science, 4(4), 8. vlasova, t.i. (2016b). spiritual and ontological approach to social partnership in vocational education and upbringing of students. news of volgograd state pedagogical university, 1(105), 24-30. wu, y. (2017). the chinese model of assessing the quality of higher education: procedures, criteria, practices. higher education discovery. online publication. url: http://www.akvobr.ru/data/ckfinder/files/hed-01.pdf zadorina, m.a. & teslenko, i.v. (2015). implementation of social partnership in professional education in sverdlovsk region: regulation problems and prospects. in: modern problems of science and education, 2 (part 13), 2895-2899. http://www.akvobr.ru/data/ckfinder/files/hed-01.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (3), 46-64 46 beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors abidin1, tulus suryanto2, pertiwi utami3 abstract covid-19 global pandemic has extensively affected various dimensions in life and changed socioeconomic behavior in society. in line with this, the tremendous growthof digital technology has brought about a positive influence on social education and muamalah (literally ”transaction”) activities due to, indirectly, the enactment of large-scale social restriction policy (lssr) in the capital city of indonesia: jakarta. consequently, digital transaction has increased immensely as digital technology ensures more safety and effectiveness. furthermore, the policy has created new perspectives in social education towards the use of digital technology and societies are prompted to learn how to use it. learning from the background, the authors employ the risk-need-responsive model (rnr model) and conditional approach in this study as a conceptual framework to reveal the impact of muamalah social education on digital payments for corruption prevention for public services in indonesia. in addition, quantitative research design is also applied in this study by distributing questionnaires to as many as 300 respondents in jakarta randomly chosen as a sample. this study revealed that they were influenced by lssr. data collection techniques are questionnaires combined with literature studies. this research has a novelty as it attempts to fill the impact of muamalah social education on digital payments for corruption prevention and is derived from people’s responsiveness affected by covid-19. the results revealed that although people were forced to use digital payments due to emergency conditions, in fact, social education has brought about major changes in social dynamics. the impact of muamalah social education on digital payments has improved individual cognitive learning abilities,demonstrated more wise actions and changed social behavior for better life. furthermore, the impact of muamalah social education on the use of digital payments in preventing corruption or digital anti-corruption likely minimizes corrupt practices in the public service sector. this research is likely a useful reference for stakeholders, especially the government, as a blueprint for preventing corruption by considering aspects of social education and the growing muamalah principle of digital payments in society. keywords: muamalah, corupption, digital payment, education, public service introduction the ministry of health noted that five provinces are recorded as the covid-19 transmission area and jakarta is known as the province with the highest rate of patients confirmed with covid-19, of which there are 463 cases and continues to increase day to day (cnn indonesia, 1assoc. prof., institut agama islam negeri (iain) palu, abidin@iainpalu.ac.id 2profesor,universitas islam negeri raden intan lampung, tulus@radenintan.ac.id 3lecturer,sekolah tinggi ekonomi dan bisnis islam (stebi) lampung university, utamipertiwi89@gmail.com mailto:abidin@iainpalu.ac.id mailto:tulus@radenintan.ac.id mailto:utamipertiwi89@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 46-64 47 2020). this condition affects people's behavior to make ends meet. society’s habits, rules, and ways of making a living have significantly changed. social distancing policy indirectly urges people to master digital technology, particularly, regarding digital payment systems. consequently, society are obliged to accept what has been regulated by the government and shaped by the social environment. the indonesian central bank noted the tremendous growth of digital transactions and a drastic decrease in cash transactions during the covid-19 virus pandemic. large-scale social restrictions, apparently, have transformed numerous conventional transaction systems to quick response code indonesia standard (qris) electronic transactions. such indications can be seen from the decrease of outflow of 5.2 percent during 2020 (ytd) and inflow which dropped 1.7 percent (ytd). in the following developments, the digital industry in indonesia has led to social changes in business and government environment. undeniably, social education subsequently arises as a result of the changes in people's behavior as they find digital technology, digital payment in particular, more practical, inexpensive, effective, and efficient than the cash payment system amid covid-19 pandemic outbreak. a person can pay for thingssimply by way of texting through internet banking, mobile banking, or electronic wallet; most of which are considered safer than keeping cash. people no longer have to use cash to meet to make numerous transactions. the high use of digital payments is unlikely separated from the use ofa great amount and costly internet network. based on the 2016 internet service providers association (ispa) survey, internet users reached 132.7 million users and as many as 86,339,350 million or 65 percents resided in java. for the first time, indonesia surpassed thailand and singapore to hit the largest e-commerce market in asean with a transaction value of us $ 1.1 billion in 2014 (indonesian internet service providers association (apjii), 2016). the term muamalah social educationis rapidlyand widely used in various contexts due to the current socio-economic activities. similarly, like social education in general, muamalah emphasizes the principles mandated in the teachings of religion; yet it holds the same goal as social education: to achieve mutual prosperity (habibullah, 2018). the methods of social education also vary, involving the inculcation of psyche foundation, maintaining the social rights of others, implementing social ethics,social control, and criticism. social education is a basis for fighting against damage and maintaining the values and morality of society (robbins et al., 2019; ulwan, 1991). the purpose of this study is specifically to develop a literature review to reveal the impact of social education on digital payments relatedto corruption mitigation, especially in the public services in indonesia. in a literature review social education undoubtedly plays an integral role in educating, fostering, building individuals in the social environment towards improved behavior in terms of morality, mentality, and action. by exercising the principles and values of religion and noble culture, social education digital payment shall affect corruption mitigation. most of the previous studies analyzed the use of information and communication technology (ict) in government in terms of increasing information disclosure and transparency, and diminishing corruption in public services. (bertot, abidin et al. jaeger, and grimes, 2010; fernández & do nascimento, 2019; sheryazdanova et. al, 2016; mutungi, baguma, and janowski, 2019; walle, janowski, and esevez, 2018). while social education from digital payments to the public service sector has yet been specifically discussed. the majority of developing countries worldwide hold similarly crucial problems in order to achieve development goals: society welfare. such problems deal with massive practices of corruption and how to minimize fraud, particularly in the public service and industry for corruption has immensely destroyed the economic order. according to statistics, the united nations (un) noted that approximately $ 2.6 trillion was lost due to corruption. this figure is equivalent to 5 percent of global gdp (gross domestic product). poor countries and developing countries such as libya, tunisia, and egypt have faced a number of corrupt delivery of public services (joel and crowther, 2012). corruption is a serious crime that likely weakens social and economic development and leads to sustained poverty. the united nations anticorruption convention (un) states that the un is concerned about the problems and threats posed by corrupt practices for significant effects they create on the stability of society’s security, institutions, or democratic values, sustainable development, and laws. with this anticorruption convention, the united nations (un) promotes and strengthens preventive measures in combating corruption more effectively and efficiently (irfan, 2017). the challenge in the current era of globalization is not only competition in terms of the use of information technology but also how the social impact of digital technology can prevent negative behavior in order to accelerate growth and development in developing countries (rapoport, 2020; swarts, 2020; tadeu et al. 2019). digital technology is being promoted as a primary mechanism against general administrative corruption in various parts of the world (walle, janowski, and esevez, 2018), and corruption in the delivery of public services, particularly practiced in many african countries which demonstrates the highest levels of corruption such as kenya, tanzania, ghana, ethiopia, malawi, nigeria, senegal, uganda and mali; which hold initiatives on digital anti-corruption (cummins and huddleston, 2013; holeman, cookson, and pagliari, 2016; holeman, cookson, and pagliari, 2016). however, much digital equipmement has yet been properly operated due to the lack of harmony within the society and the various forms of corruption that are supposed to be for prevention (lemaire, 2013). digital technology application is expected to create an understanding with stakeholders that digital anti-corruption isan effort to mitigate corruption. the social impact of digital technology is intended so that the existence of digital technology can be useful and contribute to the welfare of society. so that both public service institutions, government-owned enterprises, private companies, and state civil apparatus can carry out their obligations safely and do not cause problems for stakeholders. in indonesia, the government issued three legal products to accelerate the eradication of corruption by the use of digital technology in the public service sector, namely presidential instruction 7/2015, the presidential decree 10/2016, and presidential regulation 54/2018. presidential decree 7/2015 comprises 96 anti-corruption journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 46-64 49 actions; 32 of which aim to encourage the use of information technology ranging from online passport services to eradicate passport extortion, procurement of goods, and services online (eprocurement), and modernization of information technology to encourage state revenue not tax (srnt). this study is a form of further development of social education theory, muamalah, and previous research that discusses the impact of social education thatlikely benefits the attitudes and behavior of students or individuals since it serves as the basic concept of education with the aims to ensure prosperity and justice (yaspan and warraouw, 1980). as the basic concept in exercising muamalah where social interaction, according to the shari'a, aims to achieve mutual benefit. furthermore, the way to force seemingly occurs due to covid-19 emergency which results in the implementation of social education through digital payments as well as naturally educate society to understand the use of digital payments. in addition, such practice demonstrates an effect on corruption prevention, namely the emergence of anti-corruption digital innovations in the delivery of public services that are used to decide what digital actions should be implemented to combat certain corrupt practices or deal with corruption specifically to allow it to be overcome or prevented. digital payment is expected to be a solution for preventing corruption within government institutions that specifically serve the community such as tax payments and other obligations. as such, payments are made directly through an automatic machine without involving human; thus, such mechanism minimizes corrupt practices. this typology also highlights how social education from digital payments be useful in the practice of mitigating corruption and the challenges to befaced. for example: by minimizing money laundering and automatic auditing of payment of community obligations. the impact of social education from digital payments as an effort to prevent corruption is social research that has a positive influence as a result of changes in people's behavior. therefore, the development of digital technology which is felt to be increasingly complex in various aspects of life is expected to be able to bring a positive influence on the order of socio-economic development and cultural fundamental characteristics that include law, art, language, mobility, health services, religion, and even education. therefore, it is very clear that the main contribution of this research is to fill the gap of the previous study by revealing the impact of social education on digital payment as an effort to prevent corruption in public services in indonesia. conceptual framework muamalah social education generally, building the concept of social education in the digitalization era is done by paying attention to four main aspects, namely ethics, media and information literacy, participation or involvement, and critical resilience (choi, 2016). in order to meet the goals and expectations abidin et al. to be achieved and which can be determined so that success can benefit all parties, social education can be done with approaches that include two indicators. first, the approach is reviewed from the point of view including the mentalistic approach and the conditional approach. a mentalistic approach is an approach by influencing and changing attitudes and behavior directly for example through counseling and lectures. while a conditional approach is approaching by changing the conditions and situations around that have a direct influence on their appreciation. second, the approach in terms of implementation includes how to force the approach, how to adjust the approach, and how to approach encouraging. the forced approach is done by forcing the will and plans on the community and the community must accept what they have determined. the adaptation approach is carried out by providing certain equipment which is entirely about the plans and methods and their implementation aimed at the community. and how to encourage approaches implemented by stimulating community behavior to take the initiative and voluntarily implement programs that have been determined previously (garbe et al., 2020; palmer & witanapatirana, 2020; tétreault et al., 2020; yoesoef, 1992). there are several aspects that must be fulfilled to increase the totality of social education which includes three kinds of personal mental aspects, namely: 1) knowledge which is all forms of information from various sources that shape personal experiences and influence attitudes and actions towards an object; 2) attitude is the mental willingness and tendency of a person to act on an object that influences and changes behavior; and 3) actions or skills that focus on the intended educational goals. ease, speed, and motor behavior include aspects of manual skills, intellectual skills, and social skills (budiharso & tarman, 2020; vembriarto, 1984). there are several factors that must exist in social education, namely: 1) the goal factor, is the final frontier that is aspired and made the center of attention to be achieved through business. the goal of true education is to create a just and prosperous society; 2) educator factors namely all people who are authorized and responsible for guiding and fostering both individually and in groups; 3) student factors, namely individuals, groups, institutions concerned and other elements of society; and 4) environmental and natural factors that determine the nature of various types of social education (yaspan and warraouw, 1980). social education aims to enable individuals to implement their rights and obligations in life, both in the social environment, nation and state. specifically, the objectives of social education, namely: 1) to understand the social and human environment with activities and interactions between people; 2) the creation of a community that is sensitive to social problems that occur by the community so as to cause a sense of solidarity and a sense of humanity and shared responsibility in protecting the environment, and 3) fostering a positive mental attitude towards all inequality, and skilled at overcoming problems that occur in everyday life. furthermore, to change the behavior of individuals for the better, the goals of social education are directed towards the following matters: 1) completely changing certain attitudes (generally changing the character or unfavorable attitude) that has been previously owned; 2) change the direction journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 46-64 51 of individual attitudes (from extreme attitudes, anti, and other negative thoughts to pros and positive attitudes; 3) prevent the development of certain attitudes; 4) change the content and specific nature of an attitude, for example, materialist and anti-democratic; and encourage the development of certain attitudes in a good way so that individuals respect the environment and life more (clark, 1973; sumaatmaja, 1986). in the view of fiqh muamalah, the practice of fraud is not justified. likewise in social education. individual activities, where humans interact with one another to meet their needs are not permitted that it is forbidden in islamic law to carry out unethical actions or violate ethics. in essence, the principle of muamalah in social education is the prohibition of all forms of neglect or behavior that are contrary to religious teachings. namely, the prohibition to hurt others, do not comply with the ethics prevailing in society, and justice (habibullah, 2018). utilization of anti-corruption digital technology and the public service sector previous research reveals that digital transformation in the public service sector can improve the provision of health and education services, while improving the way people interact with their governments. keep in mind that digital transformation has negative impacts such as labor disruptions, loss of company, cybercrime, and social anomie (bertot, jaeger, and grimes, 2010). the delivery of effective and efficient public services with the right quantity and quality is the main responsibility of the government (ejue and madubueze, 2014). however, this responsibility has not been maximally realized because of corruption. transparency international defines corruption as an abuse of public power for personal gain(mutungi, baguma, and janowski, 2019). based on surveys that are oriented towards government policy in developing countries, corruption can be classified as large or small depending on the amount of money that is lost (mutungi, baguma, and janowski, 2019; andvig et. al, 2000). bribery is the act of offering and accepting extra-legal means to affect the performance of the responsibility. extortion involves coercive ways to extract financial benefits while carrying out one's official duties (suleiman and othman, 2017).abuse of power refers to situations where one's authority is imprudently applied to obtain preferential benefits (agbiboa, 2015). method research design the study uses quantitative research designs with a social education approach. data collection techniques use the study of literature by studying various previous research literature, official government documentation data published and validated using real-life examples from the large-scale social restrictions (lssr) in indonesia as a reference in the process of analysis and discussion to obtain research novelty. and valid conclusions. the risk-need-responsive model (rnr model) is used in guiding interventions to help actors reduce involvement in corrupt abidin et al. practices by developing a digital anti-corruption strategic move. the principle used consists of three, namely: 1) the principle of risk by encouraging all kinds of changes for the better; 2) the principle of need, targeting individual needs for the best results; and 3) the principle of responsiveness, reducing negative behavior by forming preferred behaviors based on cognitive abilities or motivating various types of interventions aimed at (andrews, bonta, and wormith, 2011). a simple non-parametric descriptive statistical analysis was also performed. most of the previous studies were published in the past 10 years. the aim is to describe the impact of social education on digital payments, and policies adopted by developing countries as the prevention of corruption. in addition, this study also describes a variety of supporting factors and inhibiting factors in the implementation of the process of the impact of muamalahsocial education on digital technology conducted in indonesia. academically, this research broadens knowledge and makes reference and study information material for observers, academics, and interested parties to understand and study the impact of social education from digital payments in efforts to prevent corruption. the practical benefits of this research can be input and information for government and private officials in developing countries who carry out government and corporate responsibilities. population and sample based on statistical data from the central statistics agency (csa) in 2020, the population of the jakarta special capital region (scr) in 2018 will reach 10.47 million. this figure consists of 5.24 million male population and 5.22 million female population. the highest population distribution is in the age group of 30-34 years and 35-39 years with 1.03 million and 971.3 thousand inhabitants respectively. aside from its administrative area, the population in east jakarta is 2.9 million, west jakarta is 2.6 million, and south jakarta is 2.2 million. furthermore, north jakarta with 1.8 million, central jakarta with 924.7 thousand and thousand islands with 24.13 thousand (central statistics agency, 2020). due to limited research time and too much population, samples were determined using the formula hair et. al namely the minimum number of samples 5 times, 10 times, 15 times and so on of the total number of existing indicators (hair et. al, 2010). in this study consists of four dimensions, namely: ethics, digital literacy and information media, participation or involvement, and critical resilience with a total of 20 question indicators. so that the respondent sample obtained by 15 times from 20 indicators, namely 300 sample respondents. samples were taken randomly from populations that met the probability sampling criteria, namely the people affected by lssr in scr of jakarta. not without reason, the special capital region of jakarta (scr) is the highest and shortest social transmission area in the covid-19 social area. while the public sector is the most vulnerable sector to corrupt practices. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 46-64 53 data collection tool questionnaires were distributed using the google form application in mid-may in 2020 to answer four dimensions of questions: whether social education specifically the ethics of using digital payments has an impact, whether the digital literacy and medical information that has been carried out has an impact, whether participation or involvement is carried out useful or not, and whether the critical resilience of the impact of digital payment social education to corruption impacts. it is hoped that the answers to the four dimensions can show a valid explanation in achieving the objectives of this study. the questionnaire consisted of 20 valid and reliable questions which were divided into four groups measuring 4 problems, namely: 1. group a contains screening questions about the impact of large-scale social restrictions (lssr) based on the ethical dimension; 2. group b contains questions about the perception of respondents about digital literacy and information media especially digital payment; 3. group c contains questions about the respondents' perceptions of participation or involvement in the implementation of the lssr and digital anti-corruption policies; 4. part d contains questions about the respondent's perspective on critical resilience by utilizing digital payment in the middle of lssr behavior. the following table 1 contains the results of the instrument reliability test: table 1 results of the instrument reliability reliability statistics cronbach's alpha cronbach's alpha based on standardized items n of items ,779 ,965 20 source: process data spss 19.0, 2020 the validity assessment was carried out at a significance level of 5 percent and n = 300 samples of respondents compared to the value of r table concluded that the instrument was valid. test the reliability of the measurement results in the cronbach alpha calculation at, 779>, 60, it can be concluded that the 20-item question instrument is consistent. result research question 1: does muamalah social education especially the ethics of using digital payments have an impact abidin et al. the five components of the question contain aspects of the objectives of muamalah social education from digital payments to prevent corruption in indonesia. the five components include ethical standards, behaviors, attitudes and responses due to lssr policies. to express respondents' agreement, a likert scale is used, namely: strongly agree (5), agree (4), neutral (3), disagree (2), and strongly disagree (1). to determine the response rate of each component is 40 percent as the threshold for dividing each element into an 'impact' if the percentage is the same or more than 40 percent and 'no impact' if the percentage is less than 40 percent. thus table 1 shows that 57 percent or 171 respondents agreed and strongly agreed with the overall positive regarding the ethics of the use of digital payments is beneficial amid the implementation of lssr has an impact on the skills to use digital payment and behavior change for the better and this is included in the category of 'impact'. table 2 respondents' perceptions of ethics ethics (indicators) % agree and very agree the level of ‘impact’ attitudes towards lssr policies and digital anti-corruption 47 % have an impact policy in meeting the needs of using digital payment 75% have an impact good student (community) behavior 54% have an impact good educator (official) behavior 40% have an impact changes in positive social behavior 69% have an impact total indicator 57 % have an impact source: process data, 2020 research question 2: whether the digital literacy and information media that have been carried out have an impact table 3 shows perceptions about digital literacy and media information that respondents have received as a result of the lssr. based on overall indicators, 70,6% or 212 respondents who agree or strongly agree that digital literacy and information media have a major impact on respondents and this is included in the 'impact' category. the results show that of the five indicators of questions overall included in the 'impact' category, it is valid to note that digital literacy and information media carried out in digital payment schemes promote better social behavior. table 3 respondents' perceptions of digital literacy and information media digital literacy and information media (indicators) % agree and very agree the level of ‘impact’ the importance of digital literacy amid lssr conditions 87% have an impact the importance of accessing media and information 72% have an impact the positive role of digital literacy in the use of digital payment 45% have an impact the positive role of media and information on social behavior 60% have an impact the importance of public information disclosure 89% have an impact total indicator 70,6% have an impact source: process data, 2020 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 46-64 55 research question 3: is participation or involvement carried out beneficial or not the overall results of the 3rd research question show that based on overall indicators only 20.1% of respondents did not believe that the participation or involvement of stakeholders was not useful. while the remaining 85,6% or 257 respondents said it was useful. in total, respondents agreed and strongly agreed that participation or stakeholder involvement, including the use of digital payments, was beneficial during the lssr. table 4 respondents' perceptions about participation or involvement participation or involvement (indicator) % agree and very agree the level of ‘impact’ the importance of community participation amid lssr conditions 89% have an impact the importance of local and central government participation 91% have an impact the goal of participation is to provide justice to the people affected by covid-19, especially middle to lower economic communities 85% have an impact active participation amid covid-19 is a shared responsibility 95% have an impact digital payment can be used for business and channeling assistance to people in need 68% have an impact total indicator 85,6% have an impact source: process data, 2020 research question 4: does the critical resilience of using digital payment have an impact to answer the last question, table 5 data explains that based on overall indicators 66,2 percent or 199 respondents believe that the use of digital payments in the midst of covid-19 emergencies has an important impact on meeting needs. respondents assume that digital payment is a part of critical resilience because they really need a way to meet their daily needs but must still comply with the lssr policy adopted by the government. table 5 respondents' perceptions about critical resilience critical resistance (indicator) % agree and very agree the level of ‘impact’ the importance of digital payment to meet needs while at home during the covid-19 pandemic 54% have an impact the importance of digital payment because it provides a sense of security and comfort and is more practical in making non-cash payment transactions 87% have an impact digital payment is part of critical resilience 60% have an impact the government must strive to maintain critical resilience 55% have an impact a wise attitude in various socio-economic aspects will help maintain critical resilience 75% have an impact total indicator 66,2% have an impact source: process data, 2020 discussion based on the findings based on four research questions, revealed that the four dimensions of social education in the digitalization era, namely: ethics, media and information literacy, participation or involvement, and critical resilience have an impact on the ability or skills to abidin et al. use digital payment, making action wiser, and change social behavior for the better. however, respondents' agreement to this question cannot explain that they agree with the large-scale social restrictions (lssr) policy implemented by the government. it is confirmed that respondents focus on the use of digital payments to meet needs, help others, and business transactions due to the implementation of lssr and the response to digital anti-corruption as a continuation of the use of digital payments. social impact due to covid-19 with the adoption of digital financial services the indonesian government is looking for ways to respond to the economic and social consequences of the covid-19 pandemic. until finally the government step by enacting the government regulation large-scale social restrictions (lssr) to minimize the spread of covid-19. this regulation refers to law no. 6/2018 concerning health quarantine which was endorsed by the president of the republic of indonesia on 7 august 2018 as a clear legal umbrella for the implementation of this policy. although the lssr is implemented by moving learning activities at school to home, restrictions on religious activities, restrictions on activities in public places that invite many people. however, the fact is, there are some people who do not understand and are still doing activities outside the home without wearing adequate personal protective equipment such as masks and hand sanitizers even traveling outside the area. even in the emergency situation of covid-19, public services must continue to run online through the website. the enactment of circular number: 800/359 /bkpsdm/ 2020 concerning adjustment of the state civil apparatus system in preventing the spread of corona virus disease 2019 (covid-19) to carry out official duties by working from home. services to people who want to take care of permits do not have to be face to face, but with online services. during the crisis, the government considered a cash transfer scheme that is direct transfers to households and small businesses, outside traditional social protection mechanisms. covid-19 has brought big changes in large-scale and safer money distribution. with a sophisticated and modern government to people (g2p) payment ecosystem, it can drive transfers out at lightning speed. unfortunately, this effort is considered ineffective because of the large number of invalid recipient data. aid recipients intended for the poor are actually accepted by some people who are economically capable due to mismatched input data. in addition, the adoption of larger digital financial services (dfs) is considered difficult in indonesia. this is because dfs has not been done maximally and regulations have not been modernized. over time, the emphasis on digital payment systems should not lead to vulnerable populations such as people who do not have access to technology, the elderly, the disabled, and people living in remote areas. on the other hand, people have begun to understand the importance of maintaining social distance and working from home to minimize the spread of covid-19. as a result, people are considering ways to make options that are more accessible, convenient, and safe for everyday transactions, namely through digital payment. covid-19's emergency conditions have forced journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 46-64 57 non-cash transactions into a new lifestyle of the people. like it or not, people must be able to use a digital payment system to fulfill their daily needs during the lssr. the impact of social education from digital payments as corruption prevention in the public service sector social media channels have become a digital market, where traders and consumers conduct goods and service transactions. social commerce (e-commerce), encouraging digital payments because it asks for payment, is more convenient and efficient. social trading by utilizing digital payment systems creates new economic opportunities and is able to empower human resources to improve their financial sector. the effects of social-economic growth and growth in indonesia. the development of digital payments seems to have been very rapid. now special communities in urban areas such as jakarta-bogor depok-tanggerang-bekasi (jabodetabek) are very ready to use non-cash payment facilities. digital payments are considered very easy in the midst of busy socio-economic activities. various needs can be offered only with digital payment systems such as credit cards, mobile banking, paypal and prepaid cards. the high growth of the internet in indonesia, one of which is caused by the large benefits of the internet for lifestyle needs. based on ispa indonesia (2018), 87.13 percent of internet users use it for social media purposes.(indonesian internet service providers association (ispa), 2018) the government itself supports the use of e-money by making bank indonesia regulation no.18/17/pbi/2016 dated 29 august 2016 concerning the second amendment to bank indonesia regulation no. 11/12/pbi/2009 concerning electronic money. the purpose of making this payment system regulation, one of which is to provide security and comfort for each member of the public in conducting buying and selling transactions so that no one feels disadvantaged. the rules regarding payment systems have been established by bank indonesia as the central bank. seeing the social impact of digital payment which is quite large for the community's economy, especially during the covid-19 emergency situation, the government is felt to see the need to transform the digital payment model and consider ways to innovate digital financial services in the public service sector. digital payment can increase the effectiveness of public services in digital government, making it more difficult to engage in corrupt practices without being caught (abdelghaffar et. al, 2018). at present, the government is adopting information system technology with digital technology-based services as one of the modern forms of public service. the digitalization of public services has been explained in law no. 25/2009 which regulates aspects of public services that must have a system that can provide convenience to the public. referring to article 23 paragraph (1) of law no. 25/2009 on public services which explains that, "in order to provide information support for the delivery of public services, a national information system needs to be held." abidin et al. without realizing it, scientifically the impact of social education from digital payment has forced and educated the public to change their socio-economic behavior in meeting the needs of life. for this to have a positive impact on corruption prevention in indonesia, an approach to aspects of social education that leads to the behavior of learners or individuals, noble values, and morality must be carried out so that later it will benefit the stakeholders and the surrounding environment. the muamalahsocial education methods employed are: 1) instilling noble psychic foundations, such as piety, brotherhood, compassion, social responsibility, and love to help others; 2) protect the rights of others; 3) implement courtesy; and 4) monitoring and social criticism. basically this method is intended for every individual, both the public and public officials, which is carried out through education and social media (ulwan, t.th). that way, people are able to control their attitudes and behavior so that the use of digital payment becomes more useful. in carrying out social education, it is expected to achieve a goal that is aspired, namely people who have a sense of concern for the problems that occur around them. what is clear is education is a social responsibility which has a positive impact on critical awareness, ongoing responsibility, and participation (nahdi and yasni, 2017). so it is important to promote social education from digital payments to society as a prevention of corruption. in other words, although the social impact of digital payment is currently felt compelling because it has changed a behavior or habit that was commonly practiced by the community before, but in fact this is able to have a positive impact on preventing corruption. this is because as the goal of social education can create justice and welfare of the community by accustoming themselves in carrying out good social behavior that is acting wisely, noble psychological principles and rooted in the faith and noble values of the nation (ulwan, n.d.). from the results of the development of theories and previous research on social education, as for ways that can be taken in an effort to increase the role of social education in the use of digital payments against corruption prevention are: 1) by giving good examples to the public, for example by providing education on how to use digital payments for priority needs and encourage the public to participate actively in preventing corruption through information systems in the public service sector; 2) helping the community to obtain their rights and obligations in terms of social and economic aspects, for example providing cash transfer assistance to meet the needs of the poor and providing free digital payment media that can be accessed by the public to fulfill their obligations; and 3) be fair and treat the community gently and respect each other and assume joint responsibility in efforts to prevent existing corruption. this needs to be instilled in the public and public officials so that they are enthusiastic in doing social work and in the future can be practiced as the experience they have felt before.(kreck and crutchfield, 1948; clark, 1973; sumaatmaja, 1986; choi, 2016; francis, mills, and lupton, 2017). furthermore, this effort has an impact on strategic steps to prevent corruption because it is more transparent. addressing corruption effectively is very important for economic development journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 46-64 59 especially because bribery and corruption in the delivery of public services is quite high (gordon, 2017). furthermore, digital anti-corruption which refers to digital technology tools is known to be quite effective in fighting corruption, especially in the delivery of public services (mutungi, baguma, and janowski, 2019). an irresponsible person or organization cannot bribe a computer (srivastava and teo, 2016). this is why the social challenges of corruption through digital payments are so high. furthermore, the facts on the ground reveal that the percentage of indonesian people is still low in accessing public information such as administration, laws, services, and complaints, which is no more than 15 percent on average.(indonesian internet service providers association (ispa) 2018). the low utilization of digital technology by both the government and the public is inversely proportional to the use of digital payment for other purposes. although muamalah social education from digital payments can minimize corrupt practices through ethics, media and information literacy, participation or involvement, and critical resilience. previous research has found some evidence that investing in digital technology and e-government is a serious challenge because it can provide greater opportunities for corruption. for example, even though digital technology investments by providing technology infrastructure to monitor and control corruption, if done excessively can provide opportunities for corruption because government officials can distort the required budget and expenditure to benefit themselves more than giving to society (charoensukmongkol and moqbel, 2014). other studies have found that although digital payment and e-government effects can have a positive effect on corruption prevention efforts by streamlining applications for public services, some communities often pay extra to service officers directly to speed up their processing. this is because even with a digital payment system, conventional processing may be deliberately delayed so that people have many alternatives to get public services other than paying 'the speed of money' so that the application is processed within a reasonable timeframe (srivastava and teo, 2016). the social impact education framework of digital payments towards the prevention of ongoing corruption, in particular, must be done by considering several important points. first, improve digital literacy education. digital literacy and awareness can improve digital skills in socioeconomic activities (nedungadi et. al, 2018). it cannot be denied, as the rapid use of digital payment that various modes of digital payment more and more kinds with the impact of muamalah social education on digital payments, people are expected to have the skills to transact using the digital payment system as well as possible. minimizing the crime of cybercrime, preventing corruption, and facilitating public officials in accessing the track record of public service transactions carried out by companies and individuals. with qualified social impact digital payment education, the community is contributing to the fight against corruption. second, improve efficiency and avoid the potential for human bias. for example with electronic or non-cash tax payments on digital payment accounts that can be accessed through the official link of the directorate general of taxes. this digital payment mechanism can minimize corrupt abidin et al. practices in the corporate and personal tax revenue sector because taxes are automatically calculated and directly paid electronically and included in the state treasury. this innovation is an extension of the previous e-government initiatives namely electronic tax filing (e-filling) which is able to replace submissions directly to tax officials. both companies and individuals who e-file have lower compliance costs, and make the distribution of tax payments arguably more equitable (okunogbe and pouliquen, 2018). third, with legal community fiqh muamalah education. the mechanism that is taught is to pay attention to matters that are not contrary to islamic religious law, do not commit fraud, violate ethics, and other prohibited practices such as obscurity and fraud (rodliyah and ramasari, 2018). to combat increasingly massive corruption, it is necessary to create an anti-corruption society.professionalism in service based on mumalah principles will encourage better performance(lyesmaya and siwiyanti, 2016). so, in addition to digital anti-corruption, anticorruption society through legal education society can create an anti-corruption culture in indonesia. intensive prevention is carried out by forming a commission to prevent criminal acts of corruption that carries a special task in the field of preventing corruption (seregig et. al, 2018). fourth, set a standard for digital payment systems, there is a digital service sector. in accordance with this standard has not been established, the current legislation is still required in information systems and electronic payment transactions not specifically payment for public services as an effort to repair corruption. in addition, islamic financial accounting standards are needed, the independence of the supervisory board is also needed to ensure digital payments that are truly in accordance with public service procedures are actually in accordance with the standard set by the government as a policymaker. the existence of a supervisory board of significant interest in large companies, and financial institutions in indonesia (suryanto and ridwansyah, 2016). conclusion community behavior in the era of digitalization has brought many big changes and is a supporting factor for the increasing role of social education. the impact of social education from digital payments on corruption prevention provides many lessons about educating the public to do something beneficial for the surrounding environment. the main challenge is the tendency of the community to instill a fast process in obtaining public services, thereby opening up opportunities for corrupt practices within public officials. nonetheless, changes in people's behavior make new opportunities and innovations in the development of digital payments for the prevention of corruption in the public service sector. covid-19's emergency conditions have created major changes in people's lifestyles in line with the importance of utilizing digital payment skills. although, people are forced to be able to use digital payments and follow the new lifestyle. finally, muamalah social education from digital payments can create a critical awareness of anti-corruption practices, ongoing social responsibility, and active participation journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 46-64 61 in preventing corruption through digital anti-corruption. furthermore, the impact on human relations and individual behavior facilitates social inclusion and communication and is expected to be able to prevent corruption on an ongoing basis, especially in the public service sector. references abdelghaffar, h., abdul khadir, abduljalil, a. h., ellatif, m. a., abolghasemi, s. j., abrarul-haq, m., ( ( .2018حسنی،محمد ). global innovation index 2019: summary. government information quarterly, 4(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98690-6 agbiboa, d. e. (2015). protectors or predators? the embedded problem of police corruption and deviance in nigeria. administration and society, 47(3), 244–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399713513142 andrews, d. a., bonta, j., & wormith, j. s. (2011). the risk-need-responsivity (rnr) model: does adding the good lives model contribute to effective crime prevention? criminal justice and behavior, 38(7), 735–755. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854811406356 andvig, j. c., fjeldstad, o.-h., søreide, t., amundsen, i., & søreide, t. (2000). research on corruption: a policy oriented survey. international affairs, (december). asosiasi penyelenggara jasa internet indonesia (apjii). (2016). penetrasi & perilaku pengguna internet indonesia: survey 2016. apjii. jakarta pusat: apjii. https://doi.org/10.5151/cidi2017-060 asosiasi penyelenggara jasa internet indonesia (apjii). (2018). buletin apjii edisi 23 april 2018. apjii. jakarta pusat. retrieved from https://apjii.or.id/downfile/file/buletinapjiiedisi23april2018.pdf badan pusat statistik. (2020). jumlah penduduk provinsi dki jakarta menurut kelompok umur 2018. databoks.katadata.co.id. retrieved from https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2020/03/20/jumlah-penduduk-dki-jakartaberdasarkan-usia bertot, j. c., jaeger, p. t., & grimes, j. m. (2010). using icts to create a culture of transparency: e-government and social media as openness and anti-corruption tools for societies. government information quarterly, 27(3), 264–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2010.03.001 budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 charoensukmongkol, p., & moqbel, m. (2014). does investment in ict curb or create more corruption? a cross-country analysis. public organization review, 14(1), 51–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-012-0205-8 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 abidin et al. choi, m. (2016). a concept analysis of digital citizenship for democratic citizenship education in the internet age. theory and research in social education, 44(4), 565– 607. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2016.1210549 clark, l. h. (1973). introductio to the principle of psycology. indianapolis: bob merrill. cummins, m., & huddleston, b. (2013). real time monitoring for the most vulnerable: unicef’s experience in uganda. ids bulletin, 44(2), 57–68. ejue, e. a., & madubueze, m. c. (2014). corruption and service delivery in local government system in nigeria: a content analysis. international journal of business and social science, 10(1), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315853178 fernández, a., camargo, c., & do nascimento, m. s. (2019). technologies and environmental education: a beneficial relationship. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 13-30. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.2 francis, b., mills, m., & lupton, r. (2017). towards social justice in education: contradictions and dilemmas. journal of education policy, 32(4), 414–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2016.1276218 garbe, a., ogurlu, u., logan, n., & cook, p. (2020). parents’ experiences with remote education during covid-19 school closures. american journal of qualitative research, 4(3), 45-65. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8471 gordon, m. b. (2017). bribery and corruption in public service delivery: experience from the ghana judicial service. ssrn electronic journal, (february). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2922519 habibullah, e. s. (2018). prinsip-prinsip muamalah. ekonomi dan bisnis islam, 25–48. hair, j. et. al. (2010). multivariate data analysis (7th ed). united states: pearson. holeman, i., cookson, t. p., & pagliari, c. (2016). digital technology for health sector governance in low and middle income countries: a scoping review. journal of global health, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.06.020408 irfan, m. f. r. (2017). catatan buruk korupsi di dunia. tirto.id. jakarta: pt tujuh cahaya sentosa. retrieved from https://tirto.id/catatan-buruk-korupsi-di-duniacbmq joel, e., & crowther, d. (2012). the enforcement of accountability in public governance in africa. in in proceedings of 2rd organisational governance conference. global governance: the raising of awareness. kreck, d., & crutchfield, r. s. (1948). theory any problems of social psychology. new york, usa: mcgraw-hill book company, inc. lemaire, j. (2013). scaling up mobile health: developing mhealth partnerships for scale. advanced development for africa, 1–70. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.2 https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8471 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 46-64 63 lyesmaya, d., & siwiyanti, l. (2016). the role professionalism role of al islam and muhammadiyah lecturer in forming islamic character. in international seminar on education “education trends for future society” (pp. 484–488). ponorogo: muhammadiyah university. mutungi, f., baguma, r., & janowski, t. (2019). towards digital anti corruption typology for public service delivery. in in proceedings of dg.o 2019: 20th annual international conference on digital government research (dg.o 2019) (pp. 1–11). united arab emirates. acm, new york, ny, usa. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1145/3325112.3325266 nahdi, k., & yasni, z. (2017). education and social responsibility. in icls: internationla conference on lesson study (p. 489). lombok, west nusa tenggara, indonesia: universitas hamzanwadi. nedungadi, p. p., menon, r., gutjahr, g., erickson, l., & raman, r. (2018). towards an inclusive digital literacy framework for digital india. education and training, 60(6), 516–528. https://doi.org/10.1108/et-03-2018-0061 okunogbe, o., & pouliquen, v. (2018). technology , taxation , and corruption : evidence from the introduction of electronic tax filing, (may). palmer, d., & witanapatirana, k. (2020). exposing bias through a deficit thinking lens using content-analysis of macro level policies. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 23-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.02.2 rapoport, a. (2020). editorial: technologization of global citizenship education as response to challenges of globalization. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), i-vii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.ed robbins, c., bishop, j., & tarman, b. (2019). against reactionary populism: opening a needed conversation in education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), ivi. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.ed rodliyah, n., & ramasari, r. d. (2018). implementation of syari’ah economic principles on the management of syari’ah mutual fund in indonesia. yuridika, 33(2), 316. https://doi.org/10.20473/ydk.v33i2.7380 seregig, i. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., rivai, e., & prasetyawati, e. (2018). preventing the acts of corruption through legal community education. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 138–159. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.65190 sheryazdanova, g. r., abdina, a. k., abdildina, h. s., kakimzhanova, m. k., sadykova, t. m., & gappasova, a. g. (2016). development of electronic government in kazakhstan as a tool to combat corruption. indian journal of science and technology, 9(5), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i5/87617 srivastava, s. c., & teo, t. s. h. (2016). you can’t bribe a computer: dealing with the societal challenge of corruption through ict. mis quarterly, 40(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.02.2 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.ed https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.ed abidin et al. suleiman, n., & othman, z. (2017). corruption typology: a review of literature. in chinese business review (vol. 16, pp. 102–108). usa, valley cottage: david publishing compan. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 sumaatmaja, n. (1986). pengantar studi sosial. bandung: alumni. suryanto, t., & ridwansyah, r. (2016). the shariah financial accounting standards: how they prevent fraud in islamic banking. european research studies journal, 19(4), 140– 157. https://doi.org/10.35808/ersj/587 swarts, g. (2020). re/coding global citizenship: how information and communication technologies have altered humanity… and created new questions for global citizenship education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 70-85. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.4 tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed tétreault, s., bétrisey, c., brisset, c., gulfi, a., schaer, m., leanza, y., & kühne, n. (2020). intercultural experiences prior to the educational program: occupational therapy and social work students. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.6 ulwan, a. n. (1991). pendidikan anak menurut islam (pendidikan sosial anak). bandung: remaja rosdakarya. ulwan, a. n. u. (n.d.). pedoman pendidikan anak dalam islam. semarang: asy syifa. vembriarto, s. (1984). pendidikan sosial. yogyakarta: paramitta. walle, y. ., janowski, t., & esevez, e. (2018). fighting administrative corruption with digital government in sub-saharan africa. in proceedings of the 18th european conference on digital government, ecdg 2018 (pp. 25–26). santiago de compostela. yaspan, & warraouw, c. (1980). pendidikan sosial dan masyarakat. bandung: jemmars. yoesoef, s. (1992). konsep pendidikan luar sekolah. jakarta: bumi aksara. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 398-409 the overcoming the communication barriers of students as means of a personalization of education khene barieva1, zarima kireeva2, nan zhou3, svetlana kadi4 abstract the article explores the emerging contradiction between the need of taking into account the individual characteristics of students and the lack of such opportunities during the preparation for the lesson. it consists in finding a point for the crystallization of the processes of working with children, taking into account their features and the integral process, which management will solve a whole range of problems. within the framework of the study of the hindered communicative interaction, the levels of severity of communication barriers were diagnosed. the study of barriers was carried out with the help of a threestage evaluation system: individual (self-assessment), group assessment, expert evaluation (of a teacher/an educator), based on three evaluations, a final indicator of the level of communication barriers. according to the levels of expression, the level of the need for the teacher's intervention in overcoming communication barriers was determined. keywords: personalization of education, communicative barriers, individual features of students, pedagogical communication, pedagogical process. introduction applied aspects concerning the preparation of students for the organization of a personalized educational process are not least related to the need of adjusting the basic standard technological maps of lessons to the conditions of a specific class and the characteristics of students who are in this class. this is one of the main problems of the modern education since the mistakes associated with the unified conduct of classes are quite common and have a negative impact on the quality of education (belomestnykh & tesleva, 2012; falyakhov, 2018; henriksen et al., 2017; kim et al., 2018; kurbanova et al., 2018). the federal educational standards, the professional standards of the teacher, as well as other regulatory and legal documents governing the activity of the school teachers, mean that the conduct of lessons should be carried out taking into account the multiple characteristics of students. a 1 pedagogics department assistant, kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, barieva.khene@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof., m. akmullah bashkir state pedagogical university, metodika-fr@yandex.ru 3 postgraduate student, akmullah bashkir state pedagogical university, stevenzhounan@163.com 4 lecturer of fl department, state polytechnic university, saint-petersburg, sv@kadi.su journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 398-409 teacher is required to perform labor activities related to the development and application of psychological and pedagogical technologies (including inclusive ones) that are necessary for a targeted work with different school enrolment: gifted children, socially vulnerable children, children in difficult life situations, migrant children, orphans, children with special educational needs (autistics, children with attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity disorder, etc.), children with disabilities, children with behavioral deviations, children with addictions (prikaz ministerstva, 2010). at the same time, the manifestation of these features under specific conditions is so diverse that it does not allow the teacher to analyze them in detail, taking into account his workload, and consider them in a particular educational action. let’s review, for example, the characteristics of 11 "a" class. there are 25 pupils, 13 of them are socially vulnerable children, including 6 having parents in divorce; 3 lost their fathers; 4 are brought up by a lone mother; 3 live in multi-child families. also, there are 2 gifted children in the class, 3 children with deviations of behavior, 3 children with limited health opportunities (hearing impairment 2 children, visual impairment 1 child). according to the analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature on the organization of the educational process, each group of children requires a differentiated approach. therefore, a targeted work with gifted children intends the use of elements of project activities; application of critical thinking technologies; organization of part search independent work; execution of forward-thinking tasks and advanced level tasks (kelemen, 2010). the work with children with limited health opportunities requires a phased explanation of tasks (akhmetshin, 2015; akhmetshin et al., 2017a; gapsalamov et al, 2017; korableva et al., 2018; magsumov, 2015; osadchy & szydlowski, 2018;); proximity to students during the explanation of the tasks; use of worksheets that require minimal filling; use of an individual scale of assessments in accordance with successes and applied efforts (radford, 2015). obviously, there is a contradiction between the need to take into account individual characteristics and the lack of such opportunities during the preparation for the lesson. method the solution of this contradiction is connected with the search for a certain point of crystallization of working processes with children, taking into account their features, and with the search for some integral process, which management allows solving a whole complex of barieva et al. 400 problems. we believe that the process of the organization of educational communication can be such a process, since the educational process itself is communicative in its nature. essentially, all the indicated individual features are expressed in the state of this communication process, so if we find the opportunity of managing the communication of children in the classroom, we will automatically solve the problem associated with their features (bejan, 2013; mahmud, 2014; magsumov & nizamova, 2015; samokhvalova, 2016; seghedin, 2012). analyzing the issues related to communication (duġă, 2015; il’yashchenko et al., 2014; klimova et al., 2012; korableva & kalimullina, 2016; lunenburg, 2010; magsumov, 2017; smith, 2013;), we concluded that, to date, it is possible to identify 6 main barriers or 6 major difficulties that prevent participants of the educational process from building the necessary system of interaction. the first group is represented by external barriers associated with external factors affecting the life's activity of a student. it is a group of circumstances that causes a certain psychoemotional state that prevents the active inclusion of a student in the process of the collective interaction within the class: it is characterized by a lack of motivation to actively participate in the educational activities. the examples of external barriers may be illness or feeling sick, problems in personal life, etc. the second group of barriers is instrumental barriers (akhmetshin et al, 2017b; bochkareva et al., 2017). it is associated with the difficulty of choosing a behavior strategy. instrumental barriers are expressed in the absence of tools among communication subjects, lack of knowledge about the methods of entering into the situation of communicative interaction. the third group of barriers is the barriers caused by the collective or the group nature of the work. the essential distinction of this type of barriers compared to the first two groups is the fact that the student actively enters into communication and can propose and advance his solution of the problem, but does not do it, since he believes that other participants of the process will do it for him. a vivid example of the manifestation of barriers of this type is a weakened sense of individual responsibility for the class decision. the fourth group is barriers of fear. this group is the most difficult to overcome in interaction. the student is often afraid to receive criticism, fail to solve a problem: not to live up to the expectations of the teacher or the class. the fifth group of barriers is related to overstated requirements of students to themselves, caused by the desire to match the image built up over years and the reluctance to look stupid. the sixth group of barriers is connected to the speech journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 398-409 aspect, namely with problems arising during the transfer of ideas. this group of barriers can be represented by the following manifestations: indistinct diction, fast or too slow speech, use of junk words. within the framework of the study of the hindered communicative interaction, we have diagnosed the levels of severity of communication barriers. we asked the students to solve several tasks in the framework of group interaction, after the presentation of the results, each student was asked to answer the questions of the questionnaire. the study of barriers was carried out through a three-stage evaluation system: individual (self-assessment), group assessment, expert evaluation (teacher), based on three assessments, a total score of the level of communication barriers is determined. according to the levels of severity, it is possible to determine the level of the need for the teacher's intervention in overcoming the communication barriers: from 5 to 4 high severity of communication barriers, the student is not included in the situation of communicative interaction, ignores the communicative task, the intervention of the teacher is required. from 3 to 2 average severity, the student is included in the communication interaction reluctantly, when necessary, additional monitoring of the student is needed. from 1 to 0 low severity of barriers or their absence, the student demonstrates the ability to quickly and efficiently engage in the situation of communicative interaction, understand the basic communicative task, the intervention of the teacher is not required. findings all of the above mentioned groups: gifted children, children with limited health opportunities, children with deviations in behavior, socially vulnerable children experience difficulties in entering into communicative interaction with the class and the teacher, are affected by various barriers of communication: external barriers; instrumental barriers; barriers of individual responsibility; barriers associated with fear of criticism; barriers of perfectionism; problems of communicative and speech aspect. analyzing the above mentioned barriers, we also came to the conclusion that for different groups of students they manifest in different ways. socially vulnerable children face all types of barriers, except for barriers of individual responsibility. children with limited health opportunities are barieva et al. 402 most susceptible to external, instrumental, barriers of individual responsibility, barriers associated with fear of criticism, barriers of communication and speech. children with deviations in behavior are hampered from building an effective interaction in the educational process by the following barriers: external, instrumental, barriers associated with fear of criticism, barriers of communication and speech. gifted children often face barriers of perfectionism and barriers of fear of criticism. however, in this area more detailed studies are needed, which will be the subject of the research task. let us analyze the situation of a particular student on the example of his individual map of communication barriers (figure 1): f figure 1. the example of his individual map of communication barriers the student has articulated instrumental barriers (expert evaluation 4, group assessment 4, selfassessment 3, average value 3, 7) and barriers of individual responsibility (expert evaluation 4, group assessment 3, self-assessment 3, average value 3, 3). taking into account the hypothesis concerning the interconnection of individual characteristics and various groups of communicative barriers, there is a program to overcome the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 398-409 communicative barriers according to the stages of the lesson: 1. the motivational and organizational stage of the lesson is built by the teacher from the position of overcoming and preventing external barriers of communication. creation of the following psychological and pedagogical conditions: emergence of an internal need for inclusion in activities ("i want"); actualization of the requirements to the student from educational activities ("it is necessary"); establishment of a thematic framework for educational activities ("i can"). 2. the second stage of the lesson is the creation of a problem situation, aimed at overcoming instrumental barriers. the problem situation is the creation of an environment in which the students have an intellectual and psychological difficulty. overcoming this difficulty requires finding new knowledge, new approaches, development of behavioral strategies in the communication, new communication paths within the framework of the group search for solutions, working out possible scenarios, deploying communication, and developing behavioral tools for the situation of communication. 3. the stage of the problem statement contributes to overcoming the barriers of individual responsibility. the creation of conditions for independence, student’s perception of oneself as a full participant of educational communication. independent analysis of the problem situation, awareness of the individual difficulty in solving the situation a specific vision of the problem, a verbal presentation of the problem formulation and its defense. 4. the stage of hypothesizing contributes to overcoming the barriers of perfectionism. in the process of group work on the promotion of hypotheses, students learn to receive joy from the process, rather than concentrate on the result; pay attention to the positive aspects of what you are doing before the goal is achieved; allow themselves to make mistakes and not be ideal in everything. 5. the stage of proving the hypothesis and solving the problem helps to overcome the problems of the communicative and speech aspect. in particular, students learn to express their thoughts, establish cause-effect relations, avoid substitution of concepts, select words and speech structures, correct the features of speech, stop being embarrassed about these features and start working on them or simply accept them. 6. the stage of verifying of the decision is connected with the working through barriers related to the fear of criticism. students learn to differentiate between criticism directed at them as a person barieva et al. 404 and criticism of a particular educational action, differentiate adequate criticism from inadequate, competently take adequate criticism and painlessly react to the inadequate. discussion on the example of a particular student, based on the individual map of barriers described above, we would like to present an adapted technological map of the lesson aimed at overcoming the instrumental barriers and barriers of individual responsibility. table 1 technological map of the lesson subject: social studies class: 11 lesson topic: moral feelings and moral behavior lesson type: combined the objectives of the lesson as the planned results of education, the planned level of achievement of the goals: the ability to determine moral categories within the moral culture of the individual, to find ways to solve specific problems arising in the situation of moral choice. level / planned result method of evaluating the result understanding: the ability to express one's own opinion with regard to the situation of moral choice, to understand the tendency of changing the content of moral categories in modern society. initiative during facilitation knowledge: ability to reproduce the definitions of "moral feelings", "moral behavior", agreeing them with one's own understanding. interview application: the ability to simulate the situation of moral choice, suggest ways to solve it. group report evaluation: the ability to make an opinion on a specific situation related to the problem of moral choice and moral behavior. case stage of the lesson time, mins teacher’s activities students’ activities 1. motivational and organizational stage 2 mins the movie "good and evil: your moral choice." they express their own opinion. they get acquainted with the definition, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 398-409 compare it with the results of facilitation. 2. creation of a problem situation 5 mins understanding: facilitation: "in what situations of moral choice did you find yourself?" knowledge: what is "moral choice? ", what is "moral behavior?". a student is appointed to be the moderator of his small working group in the framework of work on brainstorming technique. they express their own opinion. they get acquainted with the definition, compare it with the results of facilitation. they generate options for situations of moral choice. 3. problem statement 10 mins application: managing the discussion: "what qualities and actions are inherent in a moral person?" a student is instructed to make an individual report on the results of group work. discussion. finding the missing knowledge (what is not known?) formulating the problem: "what factors determine the level of a person's moral culture? what qualities are most valuable to you? he/she summarizes the results of group work, formulates and defends general conclusions in the discussion. 4. stage of hypothesizing 5 mins application: moderation on the topic "have you ever had to make a choice between good and evil?" search for possible solutions (what wrong solutions of the situations were found, why?) 5. proving the hypothesis and solving the problem 10 mins evaluation: simulation of a moral choice situation, formulating problems, finding ways to solve problems. they work in a group, prepare a report from the group 6. verifying of the decision 10 mins evaluation: case they solve the case. 7. homework 3 mins analysis: analyze the problems of a moral choice (on the example of 2-3 fiction books)? what role does the independence of heroes play in making decisions? synthesis: set common problems of moral choice? reflection: why do you think everything that you knew is important to you? conclusion as you can see from the map of the lesson, the teacher models additional psychological and pedagogical conditions that allow not only to study the topic of the lesson, but also to overcome the listed barriers through an active interaction of a student with the group in the barieva et al. 406 framework of educational communication. thus, our study showed that the overcoming of barriers in communication by students is directly related to the teacher's competence in creating the following psychological and pedagogical conditions: adapting the structure of the lesson's technological map for the targeted work; adjustment of pedagogical interaction with regard to the current educational situation; reflection of the results of pedagogical interaction; development and implementation of a long-term development program for a student, taking into account individual features. acknowledgements the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017a). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. akhmetshin, e. m., vasilev, v. l., puryaev, a. s., sharipov, r. r., & bochkareva, t. n. (2017b). exchange of property rights and control as a condition of the innovation process effectiveness at collaboration between university and enterprise. academy of strategic management journal, 16(specialissue1), 1-9. belomestnykh v.n., tesleva e.p. (2012) acoustic, elastic, and anharmonic properties of sm1– xrxs solid solutions with trivalent impurities (r = y, lа, tm). russian physics journal. vol. 55, № 5. p. 488–494. bejan o. (2013) intervention strategies in didactic communication. procedia social and behavioral sciences. volume 83, 4 july 2013, pages 590-594 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.112 bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) duġă n. (2015) from theory to practice: the barriers to efficient communication in teacherstudent relationship. procedia social and behavioral sciences. 187, pp. 625 – 630 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.112 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 398-409 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.03.116 falyakhov, i. (2018). corporate qualification of the mentor in the dual education system. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 89-103. doi:10.17499/jsser.07202 gapsalamov, a. r., vasilev, v. l., & ilyin, a. g. (2017). state planning of the russian economy: past and present. international journal of economic perspectives, 11(1), 474-480. henriksen d., richardson c., mehta r. (2017). design thinking: a creative approach to educational problems of practice. thinking skills and creativity volume 26, december 2017, pages 140-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.10.001 il’yashchenko, d.p., chinakhov, d.a., gotovshchik, y.m. (2014). maw productivity development and reduction of its harmful effect on human organisms. applied mechanics and materials, 682, pp. 122-126 kelemen g. (2010) a personalized model design for gifted children’education. procedia social and behavioral sciences volume 2, issue 2, 2010, pages 3981-3987 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.627 korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016) strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva, o. n., kalimullina, o. v., & mityakova, v. n. (2018). innovation activity data processing and aggregation based on ontological modelling. paper presented at the 2018 4th international conference on information management, icim 2018, 1-4. doi:10.1109/infoman.2018.8392659 kim l. e., klassen r. m. (2018) teachers' cognitive processing of complex school-based scenarios: differences across experience levels. teaching and teacher education 73, 215 226 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.04.006 klimova b. f, semradova i..(2012) barriers to communication. procedia social and behavioral sciences 31 (2012) 207 – 211 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.043 kurbanova e., korableva o., kalimullina o. (2018). enhancing the effectiveness of asset management through development of license management system on the basis of sccm 2012 program by microsoft company. paper presented at the iceis 2018 proceedings of the 20th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.03.116 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.10.001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.627 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.04.006 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.043 barieva et al. 408 171-178 lunenburg, f. c. (2010). communication: the process, barriers, and improving effectiveness. schooling, 1(1), 1-11 http://www.nationalforum.com/electronic%20journal%20volumes/lunenburg,%20fred%20c, %20communication%20schooling%20v1%20n1%202010.pdf mahmud m. m. (2014) communication aptitude and academic success. procedia social and behavioral sciences. volume 134, 15 may 2014, pages 125-133 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.230 magsumov, t.a. (2015). the additional professional training in the late russian empire. bylye gody. (2), 36: 327-337. magsumov, t.a. (2017). family and school in russia at the beginning of the 20th century: attempts to bridge the gap. european journal of contemporary education. 6 (4): 837846. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 magsumov, t.a., nizamova, m.s. (2015). the country council work on extracurricular enlightenment of adults in the volga-ural region. bylye gody. (4), 38: 1001-1010. order of ministry of education and science of russian federation of december 17, 2010 #. 1897 "on approval of the federal state educational standard of basic general education". date views 01/05/2018 url: http://base.garant.ru/55170507/ osadchy, e. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2015). integration of industrial and educational sphere in modernization of economic relations. journal of applied economic sciences, 10(5) radford j., bosanquet p., webster r., blatchford p. (2015). scaffolding learning for independence: clarifying teacher and teaching assistant roles for children with special educational needs. learning and instruction. volume 36, april 2015, pages 1-10 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.10.005 seghedin e. (2012). communication– the main component of teaching competence. procedia social and behavioral sciences. volume 69, 24 december 2012, pages 350-358 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.420 samokhvalova, a. g. (2016). parenting mistakes as a factor in communication difficulties in children. procedia social and behavioral sciences. volume 233, 17 october 2016, pages 123-127 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.164 szydlowski, a.v. (2018). a printing and publishing type as object of intellectual property in http://www.nationalforum.com/electronic%20journal%20volumes/lunenburg,%20fred%20c,%20communication%20schooling%20v1%20n1%202010.pdf http://www.nationalforum.com/electronic%20journal%20volumes/lunenburg,%20fred%20c,%20communication%20schooling%20v1%20n1%202010.pdf https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.230 https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 http://base.garant.ru/55170507/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.10.005 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.420 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.164 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 398-409 election law of russia and u.s. severo-kavkazskij juridicheskij vestnik, (1), 56-63. smith, c. (2013). the seven barriers of communication. ceo of opin software. http://opin.ca/article/seven-barriers-communication. http://opin.ca/article/seven-barriers-communication www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (1), 24-46 out of many, one people: jamaican teachers’ perspectives of global learning sarah a. mathews1 & carolyn reid-brown2 abstract 15 teachers from across jamaica participated in interviews that articulated ideas about, and methods of fostering global learning. this study explores jamaican teachers’ perceptions of global learning, as well as their thoughts of how to implement this into the k-12 classroom. the researchers applied various western definitions of the global learning process. according to these frameworks, all 15 teachers offered examples of global awareness that they incorporate into their classrooms. some described global awareness as a mechanism for developing a global perspective. teachers also noted that their students lacked exposure to diverse people and places, when diversity was interpreted as ethnic or cultural difference. religious education served as a space where students could encounter diverse others. these results problematize the practice of applying western conceptualizations of global learning in international contexts and highlight the importance of learning from the global south when thinking through the goals and processes of global education. key words: global learning, global perspective, global awareness, teacher education introduction educational institutions throughout the world recognize the need to equip 21st-century learners to navigate an interdependent and complex world. at minimum, citizens need a knowledge of the diversity of human cultures and the physical and natural world, critical reasoning that incorporates multiple perspectives, information literacy, and a sense of civic and social responsibility (american association of colleges and universities, 2012). these characteristics are synonymous with global competencies, or “the capacity and disposition to understand and act on issues of global significance” (p. xiii). to facilitate these 21st-century skills, policymakers and educators must promote goals that not only serve local neighborhood schools but also prepare globally competent citizens (brown et al., 2014). to respond to rapidly changing globalization processes, countries across the world align national goals with efforts to ensure the population and workforce are globally competent. in 2009, after years of examination and deliberation, the government of jamaica (goj) issued their national 1 dr. sarah a. mathews, florida international university, samathew@fiu.edu 2 dr. carolyn reid-brown, bloomsburg university of pennsylvania, creid@bloomu.edu journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 reform, vision 2030 jamaica, outlining a plan to bring the nation to “developed country status” by 2030. this plan targets areas that include industry, commerce, the environment, science and technology, and education, situating jamaica within its global context. of significance is that it highlights the expected roles and competencies of its citizenry that would allow the country to meet and sustain the national goals. according to vision 2030, the profile of the globally competent jamaican citizen includes the ability to “adjust to different situations,” “develop a perspective tolerant of diversity,” and “commit to a sustainable lifestyle” (government of jamaica, 2012, p. 57; see also gordon-brydson, 2013). these goals are consistent with the national motto, “out of many, one people.” the role of teachers in meeting these goals is paramount. in order to develop a globally competent citizenry, teachers must develop the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that are necessary to foster global competencies within their students. a curriculum centered on global learning can develop these competencies (landorf et al., 2018). however, a review of literature produced little research related to global learning within a jamaican context; that limited research will be outlined below. our study aimed to understand jamaican teachers’ perceptions of global learning to provide a reference point for those seeking to implement global learning within the nation. in particular, the researchers were interested in examining teachers’ perceptions and understandings of global learning, and their description of how global learning is or could be incorporated in classroom curriculum and practice. more importantly, this research also integrates another layer of voices, jamaican teachers’ voices, into the global discourse on global education. conceptual and theoretical framework many educational and political pundits call for global learning as a mechanism to prepare individuals to compete in a globalized world. for example, friedman (2012) describes globalization as an “invisible herd” and urges communities to develop the capacity to join the herd or risk being left behind. the neoliberal emphasis on 21st-century skills as a necessity for the global marketplace advocates for global learning as “globalized education.” according to this approach, institutionalized education should create a deeper pool of resources to avoid wasting human potential (bloom, 2004). these same neoliberal ideas often shaped the language surrounding the 21st-century skills graduates would need for success in a global marketplace. mathews & reid-brown 26 bosio and torres (2020) critique this neoliberal notion based on how policies of global education for globalization strong-hold many educational initiatives in developing nations (see also bosio, 2020 and gauelli 2016 for similar critiques). therefore, some scholars view global learning as a mechanism for transformative social change (maguth & hilburn, 2015; merryfield & subedi, 2006). this latter notion recognizes that global education is necessary to address or counter sociocultural and socio-political trends, not just for a changing industrial society. the focus here is on the ability to deliberate on global issues and protect universal human rights (landorf, 2009). the perspectives mentioned above present global learning as a continuum where one has to situate themselves between neoliberal and transformative goals. in this research study, we draw on a framework that conceptualizes global learning as holistic student development. landorf et al. (2018) present global learning as both a process and a product. the authors define global learning as “a process of diverse people working together to collaboratively analyze and address problems that transcend borders” (p.4). although global learning outcomes may vary according to institutional goals, context, and student needs, in most cases, they typically produce three competencies: 1. global awareness, or an understanding of the interconnectedness of global trends and issues 2. global perspective, or the ability to analyze local, national, and global issues from multiple perspectives 3. global engagement, or a willingness to participate in problem-solving on local, national, and global levels (landorf & doscher, 2015) developmental models of intercultural maturity (king & baxter-magolda, 2005) and lifetime development (kegan, 1994) also influence our notion of holistic global learning. braskamp et al. (2011) blended both models, outlining a framework for student-development through what the authors termed global perspective development. this model attends to three dimensions: the cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal dimensions. the cognitive domain adds greater complexity to the nature of knowledge, as individuals answer the question, “how do i know?” here individuals consider how their identities influence how they view knowledge. this domain also includes the knowledge one has of other people and places. individuals that rank high in the interpersonal domain feel comfortable working with people with different social norms. they can easily reflect on the question, “how do i relate to others?” finally, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 individuals ranking high in the intrapersonal domain have a strong sense of identity. this characteristic relates to the question, “who am i?” (braskamp et al., 2011, p. 2-3). these frameworks provide a definition of global learning and conceptual foundation for those seeking to engage students in global citizenship education that addresses economic, political, and social change. these frameworks also acknowledge the various areas educators seek to address when constructing learning activities – i.e., the cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal domains and offer a strategy for engaging students in the global learning process –i.e., collaboratively analyzing global issues. this conceptualization of global learning accounts for student learning outcomes – awareness, perspective, and engagement to determine areas of strength and growth. review of relevant literature as indicated above, our review of literature produced limited evidence of research related to global learning within the jamaican context. much of this literature examines westerners while studying or working abroad in jamaica. for example, renner et al. (2010) describe the evolution of an international service-learning program that established a partnership in jamaica. the white, american researchers describe how their perspectives of their work in the “global south”3 evolved (see also renner, 2011). hartman et al. (2020) explores how students of color and members of the lgbtq community experienced disruption, disconnection, and solidarity as a process of global learning during their study abroad in jamaica. finally, hardacre & kinkead-clark (2017) explore their own conversations across the uk and jamaica regarding family literacy projects in their respective countries, examining the importance of intercultural communication, a component of global education, to counter neoliberal policies and give participants agency. these pieces served as spaces for the authors to contemplate their role in facilitating global education yet did not offer empirical research on how global education is understood and enacted in jamaican educational institutions. in a previously conducted study, iuspa et al. (2016) administered the global perspective inventory (gpi) to 176 jamaican teachers to gauge these teachers’ global perspective as measured by braskamp, et al.’s (2011) domains of holistic learning. the overall t-test analysis reported that 3 the global south is a term used by the world bank and other organizations to demarcate the differences between nations based on the north/south global divide. countries in the global south, with exception of austria and new zealand, are typically developing, have newer or less stable democracies, and have or are emerging from histories of colonialism (dirlik, 2007). mathews & reid-brown 28 only two subscales knowing and interpersonal social interaction – demonstrated a statistically significant relationship regarding an individuals’ global perspective. this research did not demonstrate any additional significant difference based on the gpi subscales. there is limited empirical research demonstrating how global learning is incorporated in jamaican education, and iuspa et al.’s (2016) use of the gpi did not present a comprehensive overview of jamaican teachers’ global perspective. in reflecting on the dearth of research, we identified a need to use qualitative methods to further explore the state of global learning throughout the island, focusing on teachers. the purpose of this study was to examine teachers’ perceptions and understandings of global learning and their description of how they incorporate global learning in their pedagogical practices. methods this study attempted to fill in the gaps regarding the possibilities for implementing global learning throughout jamaica. research design this interpretive, qualitative research study (merriam & grenier, 2002) examined jamaican teachers’ understanding and perceptions of global learning. the following questions guided this research: 1. how do jamaican teachers’ define global learning? 2. how do jamaican teachers describe integrating global learning in their curricular choices and teaching practices? participants and context table 1 participants and context teacher pseudonym background information school information michelle female, math teacher taught programming non-traditional rural co-ed high school in the parish of westmoreland. this school is the main high school that serves the immediate and surrounding communities. most of the teachers are from the same community. regional needs, primarily erica female, social studies teacher journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 agricultural, influence the curriculum. the average student/teacher ratio is 50:1. carson male, business/accounting teaching technical high school in the parish of saint elizabeth. this is the largest and most successful technical high school in that part of the island. they have had success in sports, agriculture and technical trades in local, regional and international competitions. in the past 10 years greater attention has been given to more traditional academic subjects. average student/teacher ratio is 55:1. danieka female, administrator in charge of testing christine female, administrator in charge of curriculum private elementary school in the parish of manchester. this is the second campus of one of the more successful private elementary schools whose main campus is in the country’s capital. it serves a more affluent population with students being ranked among the top academic performers across the island. they also provide special education services which has been limited in that geographical area for years. the average student/teacher ratio is 20:1. grace-anne female reading specialist elementary school in the parish of clarendon. this school has a large student population but a low literacy rate. this school serves students from both urban and rural centers in that geographical region. the average student/teacher ratio is 55:1. claire female, sixth grade teacher/ all subjects kimberly female fourth grade teacher/all subjects private elementary school in the capital city of kingston. school has a long history of success in academics, sports and culture locally, regionally and internationally. while located in one of the city’s poorer urban centers, very few students from the community attend the school due to affordability. most the students who attend are typically from more affluent suburban communities. less than 1% of the teachers or staff is from the community. the average class size is 25 with two teachers per class rachel female, fifth grade/all subjects mathews & reid-brown 30 for k-2, and a floating teacher for each grade 3-6. ruth female, fourth grade teacher/all subjects rural government-run school in the parish of st thomas. it is one of the larger primary schools in the parish and serves students from both urban and rural centers. academically, it is one of the better performing primary schools in the region and has enjoyed success in regional and national academic and cultural competitions. many of the teachers do not live in the community with some travelling from neighboring parishes to work. janice female, fourth grade teacher/all subjects olivia female, third grade teacher/all subjects all-age school in the parish of portland. it is a small rural school with multi-grade classes. it serves the students in the immediate community. in addition to academics, students are exposed to gardening and animal husbandry which are the primary industries in the area. the literacy rate is low, but the school has been making strides in this area. class size is small with approximately 10 students in each room. daniel male, sixth grade teacher/all subjects krystal female, english teacher all-girl, traditional high school in the parish of saint ann. students attending this school have attained high academic grades in order to be admitted. the school is in a part of the island that is heavily influenced by tourism, mining and agriculture. some students are from the immediate community but the majority commute from other communities. some student board on campus. the average student/teacher ratio is 40:1 shanelle female, social studies teacher fifteen jamaican educators participated in one-hour individual, semi-structured interviews (see table 1). we included teachers from each of the six regions of the nation in the sample of teachers interviewed. the school system is divided into regions for administrative purposes. four of the regions have rural populations, and two are a mix of rural and urban. all interviews were conducted at the schools where the teachers were employed. we intentionally chose a variety of schools that journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 would cover a range of socio-economic status and exposure to diversity (see participant demographic table above). this convenience sample included two male teachers and 13 female teachers. those interviewed included teachers working in a range of schools: private and public elementary schools with grade levels ranging from k-6; all age schools with grade levels ranging from 1-9; and high schools with grade levels ranging from 7-11. the jamaican education system further distinguishes secondary institutions as traditional, non-traditional, and technical high schools. traditional schools refer to schools established prior to 1953 by various churches, have grade levels ranging from 7-13 (twelfth and thirteenth grades are pre-university), and currently receive grant aid from the goj. nontraditional high schools refer to schools established post-1970 by the goj and are fully funded by the government. technical high schools are also non-traditional schools; however, they focus on technical and vocational training. we included teachers from all three types of schools in our sample. the sample also included teachers serving at the classroom level, except for one teacher who recently transitioned into an administrative position. in this regard we attempted to use sandelowski’s (1995) notion of maximum variation sampling to interview a wide range of individuals in terms of the geographic location and institution type. data collection and analysis each semi-structured interview was digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim. the researchers first coded each transcript individually, looking for common and uncommon emerging themes using inductive coding procedures (patton, 2002). then the researchers compared both sets of codes, narrowing and grouping codes, once reaching a consensus. this process is consistent with the constant comparison process of qualitative data analysis (kolb, 2012). we then compared these codes to landorf and doscher’s (2015) definition and outcomes of global learning and braskamp et al.’s (2011) notion of global perspective development. the researchers’ positionalities at the time of this study, both researchers worked at florida international university (fiu), which provided a master of science in curriculum & instruction (msc&i) degree in collaboration with a tertiary institution in kingston, jamaica. every msc&i student enrolls in one specific global education course; however, global learning is embedded throughout the program due to faculty mathews & reid-brown 32 expertise. the faculty that teach in this program represent a range of nationalities, speak various languages, and have conducted research or engaged in professional educational experiences throughout the world. although the university values global learning, and many of the msc&i faculty have experience in this area, we believe it is essential to examine what global learning does, or can, look like within a jamaican context. this research was an attempt to go outside of the university setting to explore how jamaican teachers understood global learning. sarah: i am a white, faculty member from the united states who worked within the jamaican msc&i program. i am a social studies teacher educator, and i promote global education through my research and practice. i taught six semesters of courses in jamaica and have experience teaching in global programs in costa rica, ecuador, italy, kenya, and venezuela. however, i recognize that my race, gender, nationality, and position as a professor and researcher influences my perspective and interaction with the participants. carolyn: i am a black jamaican native who was completing doctoral research at fiu at the time of this study. my perspective is shaped by the fact that i was a former k-12 and higher education educator in the jamaican system and a graduate of the msc&i –jamaica program. i previously served as an education officer for special education services for the jamaican ministry of education (moe). i was able to recruit the participants for this study using my connections to the community and my previous position in the moe. while this provided an opportunity to access this population of teachers, i acknowledge that my position as a former administrator, and a lecturer within the jamaican university system, may influence how i view the research. i also recognize that this impacts how the participants interacted with the researchers during the research process. we recognize that ethical procedures are very important to adhere to within educational research, especially with research conducted in traditionally exploited locations. as a result, we adhered to the irb regulations at our university and consulted with the jamaican moe regarding the ethical procedures for conducting research in jamaica. findings global learning equals global awareness in this study, the global awareness outcome refers to the “the ability to demonstrate knowledge of the interrelatedness of local, global, international, and intercultural issues, trends, and systems” journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 (landorf & doscher, 2015, para 3). many of the teachers admitted that their understanding of global issues was limited. when asked to rank their global awareness level on a scale of one to five – one representing limited and five representing the highest level – all 15 teachers ranked themselves around a level three. however, these teachers were open about instances where they saw possibilities for strengthening their own and their students’ global understanding. global awareness demonstrated through instructional decisions. all 15 teachers in the study described global learning as a mechanism to help students develop global awareness. grace-anne4 and claire shared that they expose their students to different people and places through the books they read. grace-anne, a reading specialist, explained, well, some of the books that i have provide vicarious experiences for the students. they are not in japan, but they are learning about japan from the book. some of them cannot read the books. i have to read them. but it is important for them to imagine they are somewhere else. in kingston, rachel suggested that she would have her students research different countries. she said, “each group would complete a presentation, and they would circulate the information.” in portland, janice described a similar unit that she incorporates into her curriculum. students supplement their research by creating a dish that originated in the country they are researching. michelle stated, “to me, global learning would be not just limiting yourself to what is going on in your country or your geographical location but a wider scale.” however, she was concerned that in her region, students had limited access to other people and places. upon reflection, she added, “maybe not just overseas… i’m here in westmoreland but getting information about what is happening in clarendon.” this teacher lives in westmoreland, a parish located in western jamaica, and is emphasizing how important it is to understand similarities and differences between people and experiences in other parishes, i.e., clarendon, which is in the south. her pedagogies utilize glocal understandings (mathews, 2016; brooks & normore, 2010; courchene, 1995), or the awareness that global phenomena can be explored within a local context. in portland, ruth also utilized a glocal approach to global awareness. this teacher described an assignment she implemented at the beginning of the year, where she asked her fifth-grade students 4 all of the names used in this manuscript are pseudonyms. mathews & reid-brown 34 to examine their ancestral roots. she explained that “individuals often discover that their ancestors come from a different cultural or religious background.” this lesson reflects the national motto, “out of many, one people,” and provides a foundation to explore various other people and places throughout the year. erica thought a student’s global awareness was mostly limited to what the teachers told them or facebook©. she explained, coming into the high school system, they are very aware of what’s going on because quite a few of them are exposed through the internet. so when they come to class you just have to do some explanations and clarify certain things that they saw, because we all know that not everything on the internet is true. we have to just balance it out. you have to teach them to identify proper sources. collaborate sources. you have to teach them how to go about obtaining proper information. erica emphasized media literacy to correct students’ misunderstandings about global people, issues, and trends as they interacted with information on a global level. global awareness as a step towards developing a global perspective. while many teachers described lessons that remained at the global awareness level, some teachers hinted that awareness could help students develop a global perspective. braskamp et al. ’s (2001) framework suggests that individuals with high global perspective recognize there is no singular truth, are cognizant about how their identity shapes their worldview, and have the desire and ability to interact with those who hold diverse perspectives. in interviews, two teachers described how the religious education5 curriculum served as a space to help students learn that their view of the world is not universal. olivia explained how she would handle this in her class: if i’m teaching about religion, i would open a discussion about what [the students] do at church. then i would let them know that the bible is the holy book for christianity, but there are other holy books that other religions use. and other religions do things differently than christianity. so when they grow up and experience other religions, they can’t just say, 5 religious education in jamaica is about introducing students to different religions’ beliefs and traditions. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 well, that is not my religion, so i’m not listening. they ought to appreciate other persons’ views. her colleague also described the way that he incorporates global learning into his religious education course. daniel explained, we covered rites of passages, and [the students] were ok with christian rites of passage. when we went to judaism, i brought up the topic of circumcision, and they were condemning it. i was saying to them, “no. that is not the way we go about it. because we have to learn about different people from different backgrounds.” jamaica is primarily a christian nation, and it was daniel’s perception that his students started to take issue as they transitioned to learn about the rites of passage of other religions. daniel described how he brought in the students’ culture to highlight differences and make a comparison. he told them, “here we eat cow foot. what if they criticize us and say that we are not supposed to eat cow foot?” daniel wanted to help his students to become not only aware of global religious practices but also respect other traditions. the social studies curriculum provides opportunities to develop a global perspective while exploring global connections. daniel described how he fosters this through the geography curriculum. for example, he explained that environmental factors often influence the types of clothes that people wear or the foods they ate. this instruction is necessary because many students will never travel outside of jamaica. the teachers in this study all agreed that global awareness is an essential aspect of global learning. when the teachers recommended using books about other countries, helping their class understand colonial influences, encouraging students to explore their own ancestry, and implementing critical medial literacy, they were highlighting efforts to introduce their students to other people and places. although these examples primarily focused on the global awareness outcome, daniel, erica and oliva hinted that a secondary goal for global learning is to consider others’ perspectives; this notion is essential for global perspective development. notions of jamaican diversity as a tool for global learning according to landorf et al., global learning requires the opportunity and skills to work with diverse individuals and perspectives. most of the teachers initially interpreted diversity as ethnic diversity mathews & reid-brown 36 or, as grace anne suggested, “someone from a different country.” daniel expanded on this definition saying, in the sense that if i am a culturally diverse person, i am aware of other people’s cultures, what their cultures are about. and i have investigated these cultures. i have acquired information about many of these different nations. erica was the only teacher to discuss jamaica's rich ethnic diversity. she explained, we know that jamaica is made up of a lot of different ethnic groups. and so from the primary stage, our students know that stuff. they know that we have a lot of persons from chinese descent. they’re jamaican even though they are from a different background, and we learn that from an early stage. and with social studies, we learn about all of the different cultures and so forth. it sort of comes naturally, because we were taught that from like primary school. not because a man is not black does not mean that he is not jamaican. as we probed further through our interviews, the teachers’ explanations evolved into a more nuanced understanding of diversity within the jamaican context. perceived limited exposure to cultural diversity. all of the teachers referenced cultural diversity in terms of nationality; however, only three teachers offered an example of their students’ opportunities to interact with individuals from other countries. for example, carson mentioned that the athletes in his school often travelled to other countries, such as the u.s. and barbados, to participate in athletic events. in this case, only athletes had access to these experiences. carson was the only teacher to indicate that his students had the opportunity to travel abroad. olivia discussed an american peace corps volunteer who developed a garden at the school. she explained, this lady came, and she taught gardening. she worked wonders. the carrots were so big! everybody wanted our carrots at 4-h. and we really enjoyed her. in fact, when she was leaving, if you saw the children crying. she was really into it with them, and they were all over her. but since then we have not had anybody. the peace corps volunteer connected the students to the united states and provided the only interaction these students had with someone from outside of their country. this limited exposure to other nationalities was demonstrated when we visited an elementary school in portland. janice explained that her students were disappointed that we were not coming into the class to speak to journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 them. the students thought we were there to teach about the united states. janice explained, “you see, the children do not have much exposure to americans. they have seen some missionaries and such, but they do not interact with them much, and never at school.” only one teacher spoke of the cultural diversity found at the particular school where she taught; this institution happened to be an all-female, elite boarding school on the northern part of the island. krystal explained, well, now i think jamaica has grown toward [cultural diversity]. maybe fifteen years ago, you would see that we were not that diverse. we were more bi-racial. so you had the white jamaican and the black jamaican. but because we’ve had the influx, tourism, and the change in managerial styles…we have the hispanic community coming in. we have chinese. and we have their children in schools. now our children will have to appreciate them. we have other students that are of indian descent. this teacher worked in a region that serves much of the tourism industry on the island. many of the companies that support the infrastructure and tourist industries are often foreign companies (e.g., chinese road construction companies and finnish and swedish power companies). the leaders of these companies send their children to schools similar to the school where krystal teaches. religion as a marker of diversity. religion has played a significant role in the jamaican schooling process. in fact, the church historically created and maintained traditional high schools (evans, 2001). for many teachers, it was assumed and even taken-for-granted that the students in their classrooms practiced the christian faith. however, a few teachers were able to discuss how religious variations throughout the island affected their instruction, and the schools where they work. christine shared a story about her friend who moved from canada and did not cut her child’s hair. christine explained, she asked me if his hair had to be cut. and i said, “if it’s for religious reasons…i would have to check to see how i would have to approach that. but if it’s just because you don’t mathews & reid-brown 38 want to cut the child’s hair, then no. you would have to cut his hair for him to come to school. she said they took …what is called the nazarite vow.6 in this example, christine reflected on how she would handle this situation in her administrative role. her response suggests that she had never had to address these types of issues as a teacher. however, christine suddenly related that to rastafarianism, asking, “what do we do about rastas and their hair? i’ve never thought of that, maybe because there are no rastas at my school. so, where do the rastas go?” jamaican schools had historically excluded rastafarians based on their hairstyle or headgear; having a haircut has traditionally been used as a condition to attend schools in jamaica (evens, 2001). in our conversation, carolyn, explained that rastafarians typically go to non-traditional schools because the church does not run those institutions. christine finished this section stating that she would have the student just “comb his hair back” but would not know how to handle things if other children kept asking why he was allowed to wear his hair long. as stated in the previous section, shanelle taught in a boarding school near tourist and industrial centers. in her interview, she explicitly addressed the issue of religious diversity, explaining, we have other students that are of indian descent. they still have their cultural practices with them as well as religion. regarding the curriculum, we could provide a little more for them, in terms of religion, so to speak. as it is with the jamaican school structure, we don’t accommodate for all types of religion. it is only christianity that is covered. as our interview continued, we asked her to describe what it might look like to incorporate hinduism into her curriculum. she replied, i’m thinking about even starting with our regular devotion. we could start with one day per week…so the student who practices hinduism could maybe share her religion with us. because i am a christian does not mean i cannot think of other religions. how can i bash something that i don’t know about? in my grade 11 class, i have a student who is indian, and she practices hinduism. after i asked her to share, she said, “miss, i really appreciated that because sometimes i feel so left out, because they think i’m so different.” shanelle recognizes that an individual can learn about another’s religion while still maintaining their commitment to their own religious beliefs. daniel and oliva echoed these sentiments through their examples of using their religion lessons to help students become globally aware and honor 6 christine was referring to the nazarene or nazirite/nazarite vow (as practiced in the rastafarian religion) that prohibits individuals from cutting their hair as stated in the bible, numbers 6: 1-21. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 diverse perspectives. however, in this case, shanelle realizes that it is also vital for the student practicing hinduism to see herself reflected in the school culture. these examples demonstrate that religion can serve as a space to discuss “diversity” and diverse perspectives found within jamaica. the first sub-theme is that christianity is often taken-forgranted as the national religion in jamaican society. although jamaica, as a nation, has faced controversy and tension surrounding the acknowledgment of rastafarianism as an organized religion, those that practice this faith often do so on the fringes. because of institutionalized norms, rastafarians are “absent” from traditional schools (evans, 2001). the second sub-theme involves whether or not teachers use religious diversity as a tool to develop perspective consciousness. christine believes her students would not understand why she made allowances for one student to wear long hair if it reflected their religious beliefs because this practice violates school norms and rules. she never discusses if she thinks she can turn this into a teachable moment about various religious perspectives. shanelle, however, identifies how the tradition of morning devotion excludes a student practicing hinduism. she wants to incorporate inclusive practices to introduce her students to different belief systems and religious traditions. eventually, the teachers that we interviewed recognized that diversity is found throughout jamaica and explained how this diversity was emphasized in the national motto, “out of many, one people,” and celebrated in events like heritage day. however, claire and grace-anne in clarendon, and oliva and daniel in st. mary, also admitted that their students seldom have opportunities to leave their own towns, let alone their parishes or regions. these statements suggest that some jamaican students may have limited access to the rich diversity of their nation and indicate potential regional differences in this study. limitations this study was conducted during a two-week research trip to jamaica. as researchers, we attempted to gain access to as many teachers as possible across the nation. our efforts led to interviews with 15 teachers. we acknowledge that if we were provided extended time in the field, we would have been able to interview more teachers. another limitation to our study is that although carolyn was able to directly recruit teachers in two locations, the principals at many of the schools we visited actually chose the teachers we interviewed. this limitation impacted the variation of demographics (e.g., gender or years teaching). because of lack of funding and limited mathews & reid-brown 40 access to participants, we were also unable to conduct follow-up interviews with most of the participants. we were able to consult with the three teachers that carolyn recruited to check our analysis when appropriate. we recognize the limitations to this study as well as acknowledge that our positionalities influenced the entire research process. these acknowledgements are offered in an effort to make our research more transparent and solicit ideas for future research. yet, as onwuegbuzie & leech (2007) remind us, sample of voice in comparison to other voices can serve as another form of sampling decision. this notion suggests that the representative participants must be representative of the sample and that the “words must be representative of each key informant’s voice” (p.109). we chose to account for variation of region, though other researchers may have made different sampling decisions. as with most qualitative research, there were interesting variations amongst participants. what we find most interesting were the lack of words that also served as a representation of teachers’ voices, which give equal insight into what aspects of global education may be missing in jamaica. these ideas will be discussed further in the next section. discussion and conclusion jamaica’s vision 2030 includes a set of educational aspirations to facilitate 21st-century skills consistent with global citizenship education. we originally started this study to examine teachers’ understandings and perception of global learning, as well as their opinions of how global learning is implemented in the jamaican context. however, we quickly discovered that jamaican teachers’ voices have been missing in the global discourse on global learning, evident in the limited research on global education in jamaica. as we will discuss below, our results offer evidence of which aspects of global learning are currently implemented in jamaican schools. however, this research also highlights the challenge of applying u.s. definitions of global learning to educational practices within other nations without interrogating the purpose and process. our overarching research questions sought to explore jamaican teachers’ perceptions of global learning. the teachers that we interviewed answered this question with evidence related to our notion of the global awareness outcome. for example, they discussed opportunities for students to learn about other cultures through the books they read or by creating a meal from another country. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 rachel described how she would have her students research and then present information about another nation. these are examples of global awareness. having students research other countries or cultural groups is a good start; however, these types of activities also risk reinforcing narrow generalizations and stereotypes. these approaches often reflect a “heroes and holidays” or “foods, fun, and fashion” approach (bennett, 2010; nieto, 2010), and it is important to note that similar practices also occur in the u.s. nevertheless, surfacelevel approaches that remain at global awareness often do not lead to the types of transformative global learning that develop affirmation, solidarity, and critique (banks 2007; paris & alim, 2014). according to our framework of global learning, global perspective pushes individuals to ask, not only “how do i know?” but “who am i?” and “how do i relate to others?” (braskamp et al., 2012). these questions require individuals recognize that their “view of the world is not universally shared” (hanvey, 1982, p. 162) and develop the skills that are necessary to solve complex problems using multiple perspectives (landorf et al., 2018). four teachers included evidence that they saw global awareness as a process to develop a global perspective. for example, olivia and daniel described how they used discussions about different religious traditions and the food and clothing prevalent in various nations to push their students to understand their worldview is not universal. by asking students to interrogate what they were learning about the world through social media, erica was challenging students to answer braskamp et al.’s, (2012) question, “how do i know?” finally, ruth asked her students to research their ancestral roots, pushing them to answer the question, “who am i?” the jamaican teachers in this study saw the social studies, religious education, and geography curricula as appropriate spaces for helping students gain global awareness. however, research on holistic global learning suggests that it should be incorporated throughout the entire curriculum (braskamp et al., 2012). teachers in all disciplines should be trained to incorporate an interdisciplinary approach in their courses that help students study complex global issues (landorf & doscher, 2015; landorf et al., 2018). the jamaican ministry of education has moved in a direction that supports integrated learning, which would foster a holistic approach to global learning. landorf et al. (2018) present a definition of global learning: “global learning is the process of diverse people collaboratively analyzing and addressing complex problems that transcend borders” (p. 4). the teachers’ responses in this study reflect a fundamental understanding of the latter part mathews & reid-brown 42 of this definition, i.e., they were aware of the issues and problems that transcend borders. while some of the teachers offered specific instances where they helped their students develop this global awareness aspect (e.g., through children’s literature and researching other cultures), most of the teachers acknowledged that their students had limited exposure to diverse people and perspectives. significantly absent in all 15 interviews were examples of “collaboratively analyzing and addressing problems,” the core process outlined in this definition. this process is an essential component of global learning and one that global educators may choose to emphasize when preparing jamaican teachers to meet goals established in the vision 2030. there was little evidence that the teachers were promoting the global engagement outcome of global learning. perhaps this is because of the initial perception that diversity was limited to cultural diversity. using that definition of diversity, teachers may think it challenging to find opportunities to engage in what landorf et al. (2018) promote as global learning, i.e., a process requiring “diverse people” to work together. however, teachers did offer examples of diverse religious perspectives. whether a student should have to cut their hair, hair intentionally grown out because of religious reasons, would meet the qualification of a complex issue with multiple perspectives. in fact, this, or similar issues, impact other cultures around the world. global citizenship education should provide teachers opportunities to draw on the nation's diversity to help students make connections between the local, national, and global levels. community partnerships, engagement with ngos and other private and governmental sectors within jamaica (e.g., commerce, technology, and environment) could create opportunities for projects and programs that will allow teachers to make global learning integral to the teaching and learning process. global educators in similar educational systems may draw on their own contexts across regions throughout their nation to explore global engagement. this will push global learning beyond just global awareness, providing individuals with opportunities to develop a global perspective and engage on a global level. working with organizations or exploring diversity within a jamaican context helps students answer braskamp et al.’s (2011) question, “how do i relate to others?” conclusion as demonstrated through this research, the jamaican teachers we interviewed indicated that they were cognizant of similarities and differences of global people and places and understood how journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 global systems interact. this is the basis of global awareness. they also gave examples of classroom activities they could use to address this global learning outcome. four teachers discussed opportunities to use global awareness to help students gain a global perspective. missing in the data are examples of global engagement, including opportunities where students could work with diverse others to analyze issues that transcend boarders. this research attests to the notion that experiential forces of cultural and contextual aspects influence perceptions about global learning. therefore, it is important to incorporate diverse perspectives on global learning from outside of euro-centric and western academia. hardacre & kinkead-clark’s (2019) dialogues between the uk and jamaica remind us about the importance of having cross-cultural conversations that recognize the global politics of policy implementation while also honoring the agency of those facilitating and benefiting from these efforts. the jamaican teachers’ voices, as well as other teachers across the global south, non-western countries, and indigenous populations, are often left out of the narrative on global education. this research study also suggests that frameworks for global education should draw on local and cultural contexts to facilitate and expand global learning, especially in locations with a perceived lack of ethnic or cultural diversity. by focusing on the voices of jamaican teachers, global educators may be able to turn the goals of vision 2030 from a neoliberal globalization policy to a framework for developing authentic global learning. although this study took place in jamaica, key findings from this research can inform global learning around the world. notes 1 the global south is a term used by the world bank and other organizations to demarcate the differences between nations based on the north/south global divide. countries in the global south, with exception of austria and new zealand, are typically developing, have newer or less stable democracies, and have or are emerging from histories of colonialism (dirlik, 2007). 2all of the names used in this manuscript are pseudonyms 3religious education in jamaica is about introducing students to different religions’ beliefs and traditions. 4christine was referring to the nazarene or nazirite/nazarite vow (as practiced in the rastafarian religion) that prohibits individuals from cutting their hair as stated in the bible, numbers 6: 1-21. mathews & reid-brown 44 references american association of colleges and universities. (2007). college learning for the new century: a report from the national leadership council for liberal education & america’s promise. washington, dc: american association of colleges and universities. http://www.aacu.org/leap/documents/globalcentury_final.pdf bennett, c. (2010). comprehensive multicultural education: theory and practice (7th ed.). pearson. bloom, d. e. (2004). globalization and education: an economic perspective. in suárez-orozco, m. m. and qin-hilliard, d. b. (eds.), globalization, culture, and education in the new millennium (pp. 56-77). university of california press. bosio, e. (2020). towards an ethical global citizenship education curriculum framework in the modern university. in d. bourn (ed.), bloomsbury handbook for global education and learning (pp. 187–206). bloomsbury. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350108769.0025 braskamp, l. a., braskamp, d. c., merrill, k. c., & engberg, m. (2012). the global perspective inventory (gpi): its purpose, construction, potential uses, and psychometric characteristics. global perspective institute inc. brooks, j. s., & normore, a. h. (2010). educational leadership and globalization: literacy for a glocal perspective. educational policy, 24(1), 52-82. brown, r. a., lycke, k. l., crumpler, t. p., handsfield, l. j., and lucey, t. a. (2014). editors’ notes. action in teacher education, 36(4), 261-263. courchene, t. j. (1995). glocalization: the regional/international interface. canadian journal of regional science, 18(1), 1-20. dirlik, a. (2007). global south: predicament and promise. the global south, 1(1), 12-23. evans, h. (2001). inside jamaican schools. university of west indies press. friedman, t. (2012). the lexus and the olive branch. picador. gaudelli, w. (2016). global citizenship education: everyday transcendence. routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315683492 gordon-brydson, l. (2013). the challenges and opportunities with advancing co-operative education as a workforce preparedness model in a developing nation. https://www.waceinc.org/durban2013/refereed%20papers/jamaica/la cresha%20gordon-brydson%20university%20of%20technology%20jamaica.pdf government of jamaica. (2012). vision 2030 jamaica. kingston: planning institute of jamaica. http://www.vision2030.gov.jm/ journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 24-46 hardacre, c., & kinkead-clark, z. (2019). authentic family learning: reconceptualizing intergenerational education initiatives in jamaica and england through cross-cultural conversation. journal of childhood studies, 85-102. hanvey, r. g. (1982). an attainable global perspective. theory into practice, 21(3), 162-167. hartman, e., reynolds, n. p., ferrarini, c., messmoe, n., evans, s., al-ebrahim, b., & brown, j. m. (2020). coloniality-decoloniality and critical global citizenship: identity, belonging, and education abroad. frontiers: the interdisciplinary journal of study abroad, 32(1), 3359. iuspa, f., mathews, s. a., & dawkins, g. (2016). examining jamaican teachers’ global perspectives: prospects for vision 2030 jamaica. international research in higher education, 1(1), 19-33. doi:10.5430/irhe.v1n1p19 kegan, r. (1994) in over our heads: the mental demands of modern life. harvard university press. king, p. & baxter-magolda, m. (2005). a developmental model of intercultural maturity. journal of college student development, 46(6), 571–592. kolb, s. (2012). grounded theory and the constant comparison method: valid research strategies for educators. journal of emerging trends in educational research and policy studies, 3(1), 83-86. landorf, h. (2009). toward a philosophy of global education. in kirkwood-tucker, t. (ed) visions in global education: the globalization of curriculum and pedagogy in teacher education and schools, peter lang. landorf, h. & doscher, s. (2015). defining global learning at florida international university. association of american colleges and universities, 18. http://www.aacu.org/diversitydemocracy/2015/summer/landorf. landorf, h., doscher, s. & hardick, j. (2018). making global learning universal: promoting inclusion and success for all students. stylus publishing. maguth, b. & hilburn, j. (2015). introduction. in b. maguth & j. hilburn (eds.), the state of global education: learning with the world and its people (pp. 1-10). routledge. mathews, s. a. (2016). using digital participatory research to foster glocal competence: constructing multimedia projects as a form of global and civic citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 1-29. merriam, s. b. & grenier, r. s. (eds.) (2019). qualitative research in practice: examples for discussion and analysis. jossey-bass. http://www.aacu.org/diversitydemocracy/2015/summer/landorf mathews & reid-brown 46 merryfield, m. m. & subedi, b. (2006). decolonizing the mind for world-centered global education. in ross, e. w. (ed.) the social studies curriculum: purposes, problems and possibilities (pp. 283-296). suny. nieto, s. (2010). language, culture and teaching: critical perspectives. routledge. onwuebuzie, a. j. & leech, n. l. (2007). a call for qualitative power analyses. quality and quantity, 41(1), 105-121. paris, d. & samy alim, h. (2014). what are we seeking to sustain through culturally sustaining pedagogy? a loving critique forward. harvard educational review, 84(1): 85-100. patton, m. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). sage. renner, a., brown, m., stiens, m. & burton, s. (2010). a reciprocal global education? working towards a more humanizing pedagogy through critical literacy. intercultural education, 21(1), 41-54. renner, a. (2011). to build a sustainable international service-learning partnership. in b. j. porfilio & h. hickman (eds.) critical service-learning as revolutionary pedagogy: a project of student agency in action (pp. 95-114). information age. sandelowski, m. (1995). focus on qualitative methods: sample sizes in qualitative research. research in nursing & health, 18, 179 – 183. torres, c. a. & bosio, e. (2020). global citizenship education at the crossroads: globalization, global commons, common good, and critical consciousness. prospects. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-019-09458-w www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 65-79 65 methodical training of future teachers as a requirement of new standards tatyana anisimova1 & landysh sharafeeva2 abstract the article presents the experience of the teachers of the elabuga institute of kazan (privolzhsky) federal university to develop new educational programs for bachelors. the leading approach to the study of this problem is the analysis of existing basic professional educational programs for the preparation of bachelors of teacher education, which allows to conclude that it is necessary to introduce additional competencies. the developed training program is presented by the module "methodological preparation", the main purpose of which is to ensure students the ability to plan and implement the educational process in accordance with the requirements of the federal state educational standard of basic general education. key words: teacher's occupational standard, labor actions, competences, federal state educational standard, preparation of bachelors of pedagogical education. introduction occupational education in modern russia is the preparation of bachelors able to work efficiently in dynamically developing socio-economic conditions. the bachelor must independently, quickly and economically find and use new scientific data, organize the research, use all modern sources of information, and also see, understand, theoretically substantiate and practically solve professional problems, that is, have certain intellectual and professional competencies. however, all reforms in the field of education are impossible without solving the main problem – the training of a new type of teacher. a modern school require a universal teacher capable of building a comprehensive picture of the world at the level of the basic education (aminov, 2014; magmusov, 2013; tarman, 2016) giving the integrated knowledge, while focusing on the student as a unique, unrepeatable personality, which is not so much to be taught according to the model, standard, stereotypes, as "to accompany" in intellectual and personal formation, development (gavrikova & pevznera, 2001; valeeva et al., 2016). 1 assoc. prof. elabuga institute of kazan federal university, russian federation, tatarstan, anistat@mail.ru 2 senior lecturer, elabuga institute of kazan federal university, russian federation, tatarstan, shlandysh@yandex.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 65-79 in june 2016, russia launched the second project on modernization of pedagogical education aimed at development of the fundamental occupational educational program (foep), combining the requirements of three basic documents: the occupational standard of the teacher (ost) (occupational standard, 2013), the federal state educational standard of higher education in the field of training 44.03.01 pedagogical education (fses he 3+) (federal standard, 2015) and the federal state standard for educational institution of the compulsory education (fses ce) (federal standard, 2010). it should be noted that the occupational standards of teachers are studied in the works (mayer et al., 2005; thomas & kearney, 2008; nyshanova et al., 2014). within the framework of this project, the teachers of the elabuga institute of the kazan (privolzhsky) federal university (ei kfu) began to develop new (modernized) basic professional educational programs in the field of training 44.03.01 pedagogical education in two profiles "history" and "mathematics". this project is a logical continuation of the first project to modernize the pedagogical education in russia. the description and results of practical evaluation on the first project are presented in the works of the teachers of the ei kfu (anisimova, 2015; gilmullin & pupysheva, 2016; aydarova et al., 2017; fedorov, 2014). they point out that a transition from the traditional disciplinary to the modular principle of their formation must be carried out in the modernization of pedagogical programs (mauch & tarman, 2016). this principle is continued at the second modernization project. developed by foep consists of 13 interrelated modules: 1) general cultural basis of higher education 2) introduction to professional activities 3) normative bases of professional activity 4) culture of communications 5) methodology, methods and organization of professional activities 6) education, upbringing and development of students 7) scientific basis of psychological and pedagogical activity 8) design, management and implementation of educational processes in the main school 9) developmental psychology of students 10) fundamentals of a healthy and safe lifestyle 11) theoretical bases of research activity / design of educational programs 12) definitive training anisimova & sharafeeva 13) methodical training the author of the article, along with other teachers of ei kfu, participated in the development and practical evaluation of the programs of the last two modules. a literature review on the problems of the training of teachers, the analysis of the three standards of the ost, fses he 3+, fses ce. the analysis revealed the need to introduce additional competencies (ac), which should have a teacher, and which are based on the work of the module "definitive training" from the ost. the results of the implementation of the module "definitive training", as well as the recommendations for its refinement are presented in the work following the results of the first two stages of practical evaluation (anisimova & ganeeva, 2017). some results of the implementation of the module "methodological training" were presented at the conference "training of the teacher of compulsory education: challenges of time and implementation strategies" in october 2017 (anisimova and ganeeva, 2017). the purpose of this study is to present the results of the two final stages in the development and practical evaluation of the program module "methodological training". method the following research methods are used in this study: the analysis of scientific literature on psychological, pedagogical, philosophical, methodological and special aspects related to the field of study; the analysis of documents and literary sources (regulations, concepts, programs); conversation, pedagogical observations, questioning of students. experimental and testing work are carried out on the basis of the elabuga institute of the kazan federal university. the main goal of the pedagogical experiment is to test the assumptions of the hypothesis: the developed acs are fully aimed at forming the readiness of the graduate to carry out his professional activities in accordance with the ost; the proposed program of the module "methodological training" is aimed at the effective formation of the developed acs. let us consider the stages of the study. at the first stage, the present state of the problem under investigation is analyzed in pedagogical theory and practice; a questioning of the students of different years is conducted to study their readiness to carry out the labor activities from a special module of the ost "definitive training". journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 65-79 to study the readiness of the students for the implementation of the declared labor activities, a questionnaire was conducted for the ei kfu students of the 1st, 3rd and 5th year of study in the direction of training 44.03.05 "pedagogical education". in the questionnaire, the students assessed the level of his or her readiness (low, medium, intensive and high) to carry out the labor activities on a scale of 1 to 10. the results showed that in most cases, students note the intensive, and in some cases even the high level of readiness, which indicates that they do not fully understand the meaning of the questions of the questionnaire (anisimova and osedach, 2016). it's no secret that not all teachers are aware of the ost, and those teachers who claim to have studied the standard, a significant proportion is not aware of the information contained in it (margolis et al., 2016). all of the above require the development of a new foep for the training of future teachers, which would take into account the requirements of the ost. at the second stage, additional competencies and the module program "methodological training" are developed. the data sheet is drawn up for each ac, the planned results of training are determined. at the final stage, the systematization, comprehension and generalization of the study results are carried out; the theoretical conclusions are refined; processing and registration of the results of the research are carried out. findings the module "methodological preparation" is one of the thirteen developed modules of the main professional educational program of higher education in the field of pedagogical education, refers to the variable part of the opop and is implemented on 3-4 courses from the 6th to the 7th semester. the purpose of the module is to form the ability to plan and implement the educational process in accordance with the requirements of the federal state educational standard of basic general education. in the module "methodical preparation" the following tasks were set: formation of knowledge and understanding of the methods of collecting, systematizing, selecting and adapting information in accordance with the goals of the lesson and after-hour activities of students; formation of abilities to develop plans for various types of lessons, educational programs and implement them in the learning process; anisimova & sharafeeva the formation of the ability to evaluate and analyze the results of their pedagogical activities and learning activities of the students in the process of teaching and, if necessary, adjust the educational process; formation of the ability to explore own professional activities. the program of the module is implemented in the conditions of organizing the activity of the students to master the theory and methodology of teaching and has a practical focus (tarman et al., 2015; akhmetshin et al., 2017), which resulted in the application of modern methods for teaching the school children on the basis of programs, lessons and extra-curricular activities developed by the student. the module includes several sections: "methodology for teaching mathematics", "methods of teaching the solution of problems in mathematics", "internet technologies in mathematical education", "practice of teaching mathematics in the main school", educational and pedagogical practices. the volume of the module is 27 credit units (cu), of which 21 cu are assigned to various types of practices. mastering the module begins with the section "teaching methodology for mathematics", which is the main ensuring the awareness of: the content and principles of construction of school curricula and textbooks; the fundamentals of the theory and methodology of teaching the school course of the discipline, the basic principles of the activity approach, the types and techniques of modern pedagogical technologies; the features of teaching in different age groups of pupils and with special educational needs; modern methods of monitoring and evaluation of the educational outcomes of pupils. the abilities: to collect, systematize, select and adapt the information to the lesson and extracurricular activities of pupils; to apply the mathematical apparatus and computer tools in pedagogical activity; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 65-79 to develop and implement a lesson plan and to apply the educational technologies; to development the sections of educational programs on the basis of a model; to evaluate and to analyze the results of teaching, to adjust the educational process as necessary; to carry out the reflection on their own pedagogical activity; to conduct the research work under the guidance of a supervisor; to organize the project and study and research work of the pupils. the skills in: collection, systematization of the choice and adaptation of the information to the lesson and extracurricular activities of pupils; development of a lesson plan for mathematics and application of the latest educational technologies. in the seventh term, all other sections of the module are mastered, as well as educational and pedagogical practices. the student educational practice is one of the forms of the organization of the educational process aimed at forming the professional pedagogical activity skills. the purpose of the training practice is the acquisition of experience in the execution of professional research tasks in accordance with the training profile of the "teacher of basic general education", the acquisition of practical research skills in future professional activity, the development of professional competencies by means of practice (ganeeva et al., 2015). in connection with the development of informatics, its influence on the methodology of teaching mathematics is strengthened (yiğit & tarman, 2016; korableva and kalimullina, 2016; korableva et al., 2017a): a certain style of thinking is formed, related to the use of computers, the coding of information; information technologies are used to improve the efficiency of teaching. that is why the module (practice) "internet technology in mathematical education" is included in the module, the purpose of which is to ensure the student mastering the internet technologies necessary for the anisimova & sharafeeva pedagogical activity of the mathematics teacher in accordance with the requirements of the federal state educational standard of compulsory education (lyubimova and galimullina, 2016). the program of the module was tested on the basis of elabuga institute of kazan federal university in the mode of network interaction with educational organizations. discussion according to the student survey results and the comparative analysis of the educational standards, it can be concluded, that the fses he 3+ competencies do not fully correspond to the labor activities stipulated in ost, so it is required to introduce the additional competencies, directly aimed at the formation of the labor activities of the module "mathematics". table 1 presents the acs, as well as the labor activities (la), necessary skills (ns) and necessary knowledge (nz) from ost, on the basis of which the competence is developed. table 1 additional competencies competency code formulation of additional competence labor activities, necessary skills and knowledge from ost ac-1 able to form in the pupils the awareness of the absoluteness of mathematical truth and mathematical proof with an understanding of the meaning and the possibility of choosing different ways in solving the problem set. la: to form in pupils a belief in the absoluteness of mathematical truth and mathematical proof, to prevent the formation of a model of superficial imitation of actions leading to success, without a clear understanding of the meaning; to encourage the selection of various ways in the solution of the problem ac-2 able to form in the students the ability to adequately assess their own level of mastering mathematics, including using the mathematical methods la: formation in pupils of the ability to give the mathematical proof and counterexample journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 65-79 ac-3 able to form a mathematical culture in pupils, including special educational needs, using the mathematical language in the classroom and in extracurricular activities la: formation in pupils of the ability to check the mathematical proof and to give the counterexample ac-4 able to form in pupils the ability to apply the mathematical apparatus and computer tools in the search for information, analysis and solving the educational and practical problems ns: in cooperation with the pupils to analyze the educational and life situations in which the mathematical apparatus and mathematical tools (eg spreadsheets) can be applied, and the same – for the idealized (problem) situations described in words ac-5 able to create and use models of mathematical objects and processes in cooperation with pupils, using computer tools ns: to master the basic mathematical computer tools: visualization of data, dependencies, relationships, processes, geometric objects; calculations – numerical and symbolic; data processing (statistics); experimental laboratories (probability, computer science) the second and the third stages of practical evaluation of the program in the direction of 44.03.01 pedagogical education, including the module "methodological training" were conducted in the period from january 19, 2017 to september 28, 2017. the module was practically evaluated at the elabuga institute of kazan federal university. the practical evaluation was attended by 46 students. the practical evaluation was carried out in the form of implementation of the educational programs in accordance with the methodological recommendations (bochkareva et al., 2017; korableva et al., 2017b). the entrance to the module "methodological training" began with the following problem to be solved by the students: to develop a lesson or fragment of the lesson on one of the topics of mathematics of grades 5-6 in accordance with the requirements listed below, considering fses ce, and also using a textbook anisimova & sharafeeva from the list of textbooks recommended by the ministry of education of the russian federation. present this lesson in the form of a technological map. when solving the tasks, the following problems were identified: 1. inability to set the planned results of the lesson. 2. the difficulty in relating the planned levels of achievement of training results and activities. 3. difficulty in compiling assessment materials and evaluation criteria. the module "methodical training" is aimed at the solution of the above problems. conclusion development of the module begins with a section on the theory and methods of teaching the subject. the result of which was the study of the use of modern techniques for teaching students based on student-designed programs, lessons and extracurricular activities. as part of the development of this section, students had the opportunity not only to prepare theoretically, but also the opportunity to visit real lessons at school, develop lesson plans tailored to the individual characteristics of children, consult with teachers, and master the labor functions necessary for the future teacher to carry out pedagogical activities in compliance with standards. each of the sections provided for a certain form of reporting. as a report on the section "internet technology in mathematical education" it is required to prepare a master class and perform self-presentation on the internet. as a result of this work, students are to include in the report: a selection of web-resources and services on the considered problem. a selection of the urls of the most relevant pedagogical communities, forums, chats, web conferences, etc. files and videos of the master-class conducted by the student. a description and the url of the resource containing the self-presentation on the internet. essay-reflection. table 2 shows the correspondence between the competences, educational results and descriptors (indicators) in the section "internet technology in mathematical education" journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 65-79 table 2 planned results of training, correlated with the required competencies of a student competencies educational result descriptors (indicators) ac-4. able to form in pupils the ability to apply the mathematical apparatus and computer tools in the search for information, analysis and solving the educational and practical problems applies computer tools when searching, analyzing and selecting information and information resources of the internet when solving a methodological and mathematical problem. applies various computer tools for self-presentation on the internet as a teacher of mathematics. ac-5. able to create and use models of mathematical objects and processes in cooperation with pupils, using computer tools uses the internet resources and models of mathematical objects to solve the methodological and mathematical problems. simulates real objects and processes using the internet resources. communicates on the internet on pedagogical and methodological issues in the teaching of mathematics. similar work was carried out for each section of the module. the final assessment on the module "methodical training" is conducted in the form of "certification", which includes the development and implementation of the lesson construct (a technological map) for a given topic for a particular class, analysis of the own lesson. based on the results of mastering the sections of the module, a questionnaire was conducted. students are asked to answer the following questions: 1. evaluate the quality of the lessons conducted using a 5-point system. argument the assessment. 2. what sections (themes) have caused the greatest interest for you? 4. were there any difficulties (in mastering the course)? if any, name the reasons. 5. do you think the knowledge gained useful for your professional work? give reasons why. 46 students of the ei kfu took part in the survey. the quality of the lessons was assessed by all students at 4-5 points (100%). the main arguments: the acquired knowledge is necessary in the professional activity of the teacher; the lessons were substantial; a variety of creative types of work in the classroom is used; the use of active and interactive teaching methods; cognitive and interesting didactic material. anisimova & sharafeeva the topics of interest were "number, sum and product of natural divisors", "equations and inequalities containing unknowns under the modulus sign", "nonstandard methods for solving inequalities", "boundless circle". difficulties for students arose when mastering the topics "planimetric tasks of use", "parametric tasks of use." all students consider the knowledge acquired to be useful for future activities. the main arguments: the knowledge acquired is necessary in professional activity, it is necessary to understand the laws of development of algebra and geometry for solving the problems of training. in the process of practical evaluation of the module it was shown that the proposed acs contribute to the formation of the graduate's readiness to carry out their professional activities in accordance with the ost, and the program module "methodological training" is aimed at mastering these additional competencies. however, the stages of practical evaluation showed that several sections of the module require improvement, namely, with regard to the requirements for the use of e-learning technologies, including open online courses; the requirements for educational and methodological support of the educational process, including the ratio of auditor and extracurricular activities, the volumes of employer involvement and the conditions for the implementation of programs using online training. acknowledgements the work has been performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 65-79 references akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. aminov, t.м. (2014). system of professional education in regions of pre-revolutionary russia (through the example of bashkiria). voprosy obrazovaniya. 3: 244-262. anisimova t.i. (2015). forming bachelors labor actions in teacher training when studying disciplines of mathematical and natural science cycle. iejme-mathematics education, 10(3), 157-165. anisimova t.i. ganeeva a.r. (2017). features of subject training for future mathematics teachers. modern journal of language teaching methods. 2017. vol.7, is.9. p.634-641 anisimova t.i. sediment s.g. (2016) the study of the level of formation of labor activities in bachelors of teacher education [electronic resource]. pedagogical innovations: from theory to practice. url: https://interactive-plus.ru/article/116200/discussion_platform (reference date: 12/20/2016). anisimova t.i., ganeeva. a.r. (2017). features of methodical training of future mathematics teachers. training of the teacher of the basic general education: challenges of time and strategy of realization. collection of scientific papers. ed. r.a. valeevoy. kazan: fatherland, 2017. s. 23-28. aydarova, s. h., giniyatullina, l. m., sagdieva, r. k., husnutdinov, d. h., mirzagitov, r. h., & gabidullina, f. i. (2017). models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) fedorov, a. (2014). commitment to asia. the russian academic journal, 28(2). doi:10.15535/267 federal state educational standard of higher education in the field of training 44.03.01 pedagogical education (bachelor's degree) "from december 4, 2015 no. 1426. retrieved april 24, 2017, from http: //минобрнауки.рф/ocuments / 7995 anisimova & sharafeeva federal state educational standard of basic general education of december 17, 2010 no. 1897. (2010, desember 17). ministry of education and science of the russian federation. retrieved april 24, 2017, fromhttp: //minobarnauk.rf/documents/543 ganeeva, a. r. & pavlova, p. a. (2015). methodology of studying polygons using the computer system “mathematics”. international review of management and marketing, 5(4), 271278. gilmullin m. f. & pupysheva e. l.. (2016). workshop on design and implementation of education programs. mathematics education, 11 (1), (april 2016), pp. 35-44. doi:10.12973/iser.2016.2104a. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016). strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a). building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b). research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. lyubimova e.m, galimullina e.z. (2016). ensuring the readiness of the future teacher to implement information and communication activities in the context of strengthening the practical orientation of training. problems and prospects of informatization of physics and mathematics education: proceedings of the all-russian scientific and practical conference, elabuga, november 14, 2016, edited by f.m. sabirova (editorial editors) and others yelabuga: ei kfu. 2016. 351 p. magmusov, t.a. (2013). school and children during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the romanov dynasty. bylye gody. (4) 30: 79-87. margolis aa, arzhanykh ev, gurkina oa, novikova ye. m. (2016). readiness of teachers to introduce a professional standard: the results of sociological research. psychological science and education. 2016. t. 21. № 2. c. 22-34. doi: 10.17759 / pse.2016210204 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 65-79 mayer, d., mitchell, j., macdonald, d. & bell, r. (2005). professional standards for teachers: a case study of professional learning. asia-pacific journal of teacher education. 33(2). 159-179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13598660500121977/. mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. nyshanova, s.t., baimukhanbetov, b. m, abdigapbarova, u. m., mukhamedzhanov, b.k. (2014). developing future teachers creative abilities in competence-oriented educational process of high school. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 116. 4287-4292. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.933. pedagogical education at the university: contextual biographical approach. pevzner; novsu them. yaroslav the wise. veliky novgorod, 2001. 300 p. professional standard. teacher (pedagogical activity in the preschool, primary general, basic general, secondary general education). (2013). retrieved april 24, 2017, from http://www.rosmintrud.ru/docs/mintrud/orders/129 tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a thomas, s, kearney, j. (2008). teachers working in culturally diverse classrooms: implications for the development of professional standards and for teacher education. asia-pacific journal of teacher education [serial online]. 36(2). 105-120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13598660801971625/. valeeva r.a., aitov v.f., bulatbayeva a.a. (2016). the levels of english language acquisition on the basis of problem-solving and product-oriented tasks in the multilingual social medium. iejme: mathematics education, 11(1). pp. 255-262. yiğit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 zaripova i. m., ivanov v. n., zaripova z. f., khataeva r.s., ershova i.g., merlina n.i., ganeeva a.r., pavlova e.v. (2015). modern requirements to the content selection of teaching http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13598660500121977/ http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/18770428/116/supp/c http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.933 http://www.rosmintrud.ru/docs/mintrud/orders/129 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13598660801971625/ anisimova & sharafeeva physics and mathematics, aimed at the development of design and technical competence of technical university students. journal of sustainable development. 8(6), 104-110. doi: 10.5539/jsd.v8n6p104. öğrencilerin sosyal bilgiler dersi ödevlerine yönelik tutumlarının ölçülmesi: bir ölçek geliştirme çalışması www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2013: 4(2), 79-102 © 2013 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 değerler eğitimimin i̇lköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitaplarındaki yeri ve önemi the place and importance of values education in 4.th and 5th. grade primary school social studies textbooks mehmet fatih yiğit1 ve bülent tarman2 özet türkiye'de son yıllarda önem kazanmaya başlayan yaratıcı düşünme ve problem çözme becerilerinin kazandırılması konularının, 1980’li yıllarda batılı ülkelerde değer eğitimi kapsamında uygulamada olduğu gözlenmiştir. bu çalışmada başlıca değer eğitimi yaklaşımları ele alınmış, bu doğrultuda ortaya çıkan yaklaşımlar incelenmiş ve değerler eğitiminde temel süreç ve ilkelerin neler olduğu tartışılmıştır. bunlarla beraber değerler eğitiminin sosyal bilgiler eğitimi kapsamındaki yeri ve önemi de bu araştırmanın konusudur. araştırma kapsamında değerler eğitimi ile ilgili detaylı bir alanyazın çalışması yapılmıştır. sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitiminin yerini tespit etmek amacıyla 2004 yılında milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından yayınlanan sosyal bilgiler 4. ve 5. sınıf programları incelenmiş, bunun pratikte nasıl kullanıldığını görmek için de 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler kitapları ele alınmıştır. sosyal bilgiler kitaplarında değerlerin öğretimi özel olarak kullanılan resimlerle görsel hale getirilmiş ve bu anlamda soyut bilginin somutlaştırılmasının amaçlandığı görülmüştür. değerler eğitimine önem verilmeye başlanmış olması eğitim sistemimiz açısından ve geleceğimiz açısından sevindiricidir. anahtar kelimeler: değerler eğitimi, sosyal bilgiler, değerler eğitimi yaklaşımları extended abstract the term ‘value’ has been used in many different meanings until today in different areas and it has been the reason for confusion in values education. in this sense, weber (1990) has stated that different approaches to the term ‘value’ have played a negative role for the production of values. kohlberg (1981) has defined ‘value’ as giving moral decisions and acting accordingly while hill (1991) interpreted values as the beliefs that people care and direct the life of individuals. on the other hand, veugelers (2000) defined values as the beliefs that help individuals to decide what is good or evil. international organizations also saw the need to define values in accordance with their missions. in the declaration of human rights by the united nations, it is indicated that education should strengthen 1 süleyman şah üniversitesi, myigit@ssu.edu.tr 2 doç.dr., gazi üniversitesi, btarman@gazi.edu.tr mailto:myigit@ssu.edu.tr� mailto:btarman@gazi.edu.tr� journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 80 human rights and freedom while supporting tolerance among different religious groups, ethnicities and nations (universal declaration of human rights, 1948). unesco is another organization that defined the role of values in education. according to the report by unesco, education becomes valuable if one learns (a) how to know (b) how to do, (c) how to live together and (d) how to be. in this sense, unesco has also claimed that in order to develop intercultural and interfaith dialogue, common values accepted by everyone should be given in schools. it has been observed that critical thinking and problem solving skills were given in values education programs in western societies while those skills have started to be taught in turkey recently. in this study, the main values education movements and the processes and principles of teaching values education in real life are analyzed. we looked at the place of values education in 4th and 5th grade social studies textbooks in turkey. after analyzing the basic processes and principles of values education, we looked at the values to be given to the students in the textbooks. values education approaches have varied beginning from 1970s. superka and his colleagues (1976) argue that there are five basic approaches to values education: inculcation, moral development, analysis, values clarification and action learning. on the other hand, sunal and haas (2002) identified three approaches to values education: values clarification, value analysis and character education. while discussing the basic processes and principles of values education, we claim that values education should not be given only as theoretical knowledge. if the students are not supported with real-life examples and experiences, theoretical information will result in reducing the interest in values education. it is also stated that using concrete terms, instead of abstract ones, will help primary school children to get the idea more effectively. we also mention the limitation of rewarding a student for his/her good manners and actions. at this point, we analyzed several studies conducted in this area and found that rewarding a student too much will result in undermining the sense of helpfulness (batson, et al., 1978) and hindering intrinsic motivation (kohn, 1993; deci&ryan, 1985). other basic processes and principles of values education discussed in this study are; the role of teachers in values education, group study for effective values education, promoting reasoning and logic while developing empathy, the role of self-esteem, and developing the sense of ‘us’ instead of ‘me’. content analysis was conducted to collect data from the 2004 social studies program published by ministry of education and the 4th and 5th grade social studies textbooks. the researchers identified the frequencies of words and references regarding values and then categorized them to provide a meaningful content. after creating the coding frames, collected data was gathered under the relevant codes. five main characteristic features of values are defined in the 2004 social studies 4th and 5th grade program. those are: 1values are unifying phenomenon accepted by societies and individuals. 2values are the benchmarks that meet the needs of societies and are there for the sake of individuals. 3values are not only related to conscious but also to feelings and emotions. 4values are motives that take place in individual’s mind and direct his/her behaviors. 5the difference between values and norms is that the former is more general and abstract. in analyzing the textbooks, it is found that generally three approaches have been followed in order to teach students values. those are value clarification, moral reasoning and value analysis. mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 81 based on the findings, we state that it is good to see the integration of values education in social studies programs, however, in order to have an effective and permanent influence, infrastructure should be built accordingly. the first and most important point is to educate our teachers in that way so that they are not alien to the subject. we also claim that using different available resources, instead of just textbooks, can help educators to be more effective in their classrooms while teaching values. keywords: values education, social studies, values education movements giriş “değer” kelimesi çok çeşitli anlamlarda kullanılmış olan ve gün geçtikçe de farklı tanımlamaların olduğu bir kavram haline gelmiştir. değerler eğitiminde karşılaşılan kafa karışıklığının nedeni de “değer” kavramının tam olarak kesin bir tanımının yapılmamış olması olarak gösterilmektedir. bu çerçevede toplumda önemini kaybeden ahlaki değerlerin bu derece önemsizleşmesinin nedeni olarak “değer” kavramının kişiden kişiye farklı anlamlarda kullanılmasını gösteren weber (1990), kavramlara olan çok farklı sayıdaki yaklaşımların değer üretimine engel teşkil ettiğini belirtmiştir. “değer” kavramı üzerinde yapılan alanyazın araştırması göstermektedir ki aşağıda karışıklığı önlemek için verilen tanımlardan başka çok farklı tanımlamalara rastlamak mümkündür. kohlberg’e (1981) göre değer ahlaki yönde karar verme ve bu çerçevede tutum ve davranış sergilemek olarak yorumlamıştır. hill (1991), değerleri “bireylerin öncelik verdiği ve hayatlarını yönlendirmelerine izin verdikleri inançlar” olarak yorumlarken, veugelers (2000) değerleri adil bir hayat anlamına gelen “iyinin ya da kötünün ne olduğuna karar verdiren kanı” olarak yorumlamıştır. değer kavramına bir başka açıdan yaklaşan morrow (1989), değerlerden bahsederken aslında kural ve ilkelerden bahsedilmesi gerektiğini savunmuştur. morrow’a göre değerler toplumda oluşan kural ve ilkelerle aynı anlamlara gelmektedir. halstead ve taylor (1996) ise değerleri “davranışlarımıza yol gösteren kanaat ve ilkeler; belli davranışların doğruluğunun yada yanlışlığının kararlaştırıldığı standartlar” olarak yorumlamıştır. bireysel davranışların bir şekilde değerler tarafından yönlendirildiğini savunan özgüven (1994), bu değerlerin toplumların kültürel kalıplarını yansıttığını savunmaktadır. uluslararası kuruluşlar da değerleri kendilerine göre tanımlama ihtiyacı hissetmişlerdir. birleşmiş milletler tarafından sunulan i̇nsan hakları bildirgesi, eğitimin insan haklarını ve özgürlüğünü güçlendirmesi gerektiğini, aynı zamanda tüm dini gruplar, farklı ırklar ve milletler arasında da toleransı desteklemesi gerektiğini belirtmiştir (universal decleration of human rights, 1948). eğitim alanı ile ilgili değerlere yer verilen bir başka kuruluş unesco bünyesindeki uluslararası eğitim komisyonu olmuştur. buna journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 82 göre eğitimin değerli olmasının şartları şu şekilde sıralanmıştır: bilmeyi öğrenme, yapmayı öğrenme, birlikte yaşamayı öğrenme ve olmayı öğrenme. bu anlamda unesco son zamanlarda değer kavramına önem vermeye başlamış ve eğitim sistemlerinde ve okul müfredatlarında üzerinde anlaşma sağlanan ve herkesin kabul ettiği değerlere kültürler arası ve dinler arası diyalogu geliştirmek için yer verilmesi gerektiği üzerinde görüş bildirmiştir (unesco, 2005). değerlerin küresel anlamda her tarafta aynı düzeyde “değer” olarak görülmesi ve algılanması imkânsız bir durumdur. değerler sadece toplumdan topluma değişmekle kalmamakta, aynı zamanda bireysel olarak da değişiklik göstermektedir (zajda, 2009). bu kuralların tüm toplumlarda geçerli olması düşünülemez (solomons & fataar, 2011). değerleri kendi içinde farklı kategorilere ayıran winter, newton ve kirkpatrick (1998), üç farklı değer kategorisinden bahsetmişlerdir; toplumsal değerler, bireysel değerler ve aile değerleri. felsefi akımlara baktığımızda yine değer kavramına farklı bakış açılarının olduğunu görmekteyiz. i̇dealistlere göre evren, evrensel ve sonsuz olduğu için değerler her yerde aynı, değişmeyen ve tüm insanlara uygulanabilen ilkelerdir. realistler de buna benzer bir yaklaşım tarzıyla değer kavramını ele almaktadırlar. onlara göre doğa yasaları evrensel ve sonsuz olduğundan, değerlerin de bu yasalara göre inşa edilmesi gerekmektedir. bu iki düşüncenin tam tersi olan bir yaklaşımla değer kavramına yaklaşan pragmatistler, değerlerin yere ve zamana göre değişebileceğini, dolayısıyla da herkes için aynı değerlerin söz konusu olamayacağından bahsetmişlerdir. onlara göre sürekli değişen bir evrende değerlerin sabit kalması düşünülemez. doğal olarak değerler de değişmektedir. değer kavramına farklı bir bakış açısıyla yaklaşan varoluşçular ise bireyin önemli olduğu bir dünyada değerlerin topluluklar tarafından değil de bireyler tarafından kendi hür iradeleriyle seçilmeleri gerekmektedir görüşüne yer vermiştir. son olarak 1923 yılında almanya’da kurulan ve sosyoloji, siyaset bilim, estetik, felsefe, müzikoloji, tarih ve psikanaliz gibi farklı disiplinlerden insanların bir araya gelerek oluşturdukları frankfurt okulu, değerlerin toplumda hâkim olan güç tarafından oluşturulduğunu ve buna bağlı olarak eğitim kurumlarında güçlü olan sınıfların sahip oldukları gücü kullanarak kendi değer ve inançlarını güçsüzlere aşıladıklarını savunmuştur ( orstein & levin, 1997; akt. akbaba-altun, 2003). değer kavramı bu kadar farklı anlamlarda kullanılmışken “değerler eğitimi”ne nasıl anlamlar kazandırıldığı da merak konusu olmaktadır. değerler eğitimi genellikle ahlak eğitimi ya da karakter eğitimi tanımları ile aynı anlamda kullanılmışsa da, aslında değerler mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 83 eğitimi bunları da altında barındıran bir tür üst kavramdır (halstead & taylor, 1996). lickona (1991) değerler eğitiminden bahsederken karakter eğitiminin üzerinde durmaktadır. değerler eğitimi dünyanın farklı yerlerinde, özellikle i̇ngiltere ve malezya’da ahlak eğitimi anlamında kullanılmıştır (munn, 1995). buna karşılık olarak mclaughlin (2001) değer eğitiminin avrupa genelinde vatandaşlık eğitimi ile eş anlamlı olarak kullanıldığını söylemiştir. genel anlamda değer eğitimine iki tür yaklaşım görülmektedir. bunlardan ilkinde, değerlerin öğretmenler ve anne-baba tarafından çocuklara aşılanan süreçten oluştuğu, ikincisinde ise bunun sadece okul ve anne-baba ile sınırlı kalmadığı, kişilerin çalıştıkları yerlerde yada herhangi bir kurumda üst sınıflardan alt sınıflara, doğru ve yanlışların aktarılmasıyla hayat boyu sürdüğü görüşü hakim olmuştur (powney ve diğerleri, 1995). bunun yanında değer eğitiminin neleri kapsadığı ve hangi alanlarda karşımıza çıktığı/çıkması gerektiği konularında da değişik görüşler bulunmaktadır. bazı araştırmacılar, değer eğitiminin sadece okulla ya da aile ortamıyla sınırlı olduğunu söylemiş ve genel anlamda değerler eğitiminin ahlak eğitimi ve vatandaşlık eğitimini de kapsayacak şekilde geniş bir alan olduğunu vurgulamışlardır (cheng ve diğerleri, 2006; mei-lin ng, 2006). fakat değer eğitiminin sadece ahlak eğitimi ve vatandaşlık eğitimi ile sınırlı olmadığını, içerdiği başlıklar içinde karakter eğitimi, ahlaki gelişim, din eğitimi, ruhsal gelişim, kişisel gelişim, sosyal gelişim, ve kültürel gelişim gibi çok çeşitli başlıkların da bulunduğunu bildiren görüşler de mevcuttur (taylor, 1994). oluştukları zaman dilimi dikkate alındığında, her akımın zamanın ihtiyaçları ve gereksinimleri ya da meydana getirdiği sonuçlar doğrultusunda oluştuğu görülmektedir. buna en bariz örnek olarak 1960lı yıllarda amerika birleşik devletleri'nde ortaya çıkan ve bireyin kendi duygu ve değerlerinin farkında olmasını amaçlayan "değer oluşturma" (kirschenbaum, 1995) yaklaşımının yerini, 1970li yıllara gelindiğinde toplumda oluşan bunalımdan ve fazlaca rol model olmasından dolayı kendi değerlerinin farkında olma konusunda zorluk yaşayan gençlere karar alma süresince yardımcı olmayı hedefleyen "değer açıklama" (simon ve diğerleri, 1995) yaklaşımına bırakması verilebilir. birincisinde, öğrencilere telkinde bulunmadan kendi değer yargılarını bulmaları konusunda yardımcı olmak hedeflenmişken, ikincisinde bu durum kendi değer yargılarının farkına varamayan kişilere farkındalık kazandırmak şeklinde yeniden ele alınmıştır. türkiye'de son yıllarda önem kazanmaya başlayan yaratıcı düşünme ve problem çözme becerilerinin kazandırılması konularının, 1980li yıllarda batılı ülkelerde değer eğitimi kapsamında uygulamada olduğu gözlenmiştir (akbaş, 2008). buradan da journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 84 anlaşılacağı üzere, bazı yaklaşımların etkileri ve zamanlamaları ülkeden ülkeye değişebilmektedir. bunun en iyi şekilde anlaşılabilmesi için yaklaşımların çıkış yerlerinin, zamanlarının, ve etkilediği toplumların detaylı bir şekilde incelenmesi gerekmektedir. amaç bu çalışmada başlıca değer eğitimi yaklaşımları ele alınacak, bu doğrultuda ortaya çıkan yaklaşımlar incelenecek ve değerler eğitiminde temel süreç ve ilkelerin neler olduğu tartışılacaktır. ayrıca değerler eğitiminin sosyal bilgiler eğitimi kapsamındaki yeri ve önemi de tartışılacaktır. özellikle 2005-2006 eğitim öğretim yılında uygulamaya geçirilen sosyal bilgiler programında yer alan ve kazandırılması gereken değerlerin neler olduğu ve kazandırılması için ne tür etkinlikler önerildiği incelenerek bu değerlerin daha etkili bir şekilde verilebilmesi için neler yapılabileceği hususunda önerilere yer verilecektir. ayrıca bu değerlerin kazandırılmasında izlenilen yaklaşımlar arasında sıralanabilecek olan "doğrudan öğretim", "akıl yürütme sorgulama ve yansıtıcı düşünme" (doğanay, 2009) gibi yaklaşımlar ile değerlerin bir düşünme ve karar verme süreci olarak kazanımına yönelik okulun oynadığı rol ve en uygun yaklaşımın tespit edilebilmesi için dikkat edilecek hususlar tartışılacaktır. diğer taraftan sosyal bilgiler programı ile açık bir şekilde kazandırılması düşünülen değerlerin örtülü program da göz önüne alındığında daha etkili bir şekilde nasıl verilebileceği konusunu tartışmak da bu çalışmanın amaçları arasında sıralanabilir. başlıca değer eğitimi yaklaşımları değer eğitimi konusunda geçmişten günümüze değişik yaklaşımlar ortaya çıkmıştır. bu süreç zarfında farklı araştırmacılar farklı değer yaklaşımları üzerinde durmuş, ve farklı sayıda değerler eğitimi yaklaşımlarından bahsetmişlerdir. bunlardan superka ve diğerleri (1976) telkin, analiz, ahlaki gelişim, belirginleştirme ve eylem öğrenme olmak üzere beş farklı yaklaşım tarzından bahsederken, sunal ve haas (2002) değer belirginleştirme, değer analizi ve karakter eğitimi olmak üzere üç ana yaklaşımdan söz etmişlerdir (akt. çengelci, 2010). i̇simleri farklı olsa da, hepsinin ortak amacı zamanlarının körelen ve unutulan değerlerini farklı bir bakış açısıyla ele alıp öğrencilere yeniden kazandırmak olmuştur. 19. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru amerika birleşik devletlerindeki sosyal yapı hiç de iç açıcı bir durumda değildi. şehirleşmenin, makineleşmenin ve endüstrileşmenin sonucu olarak şehirlerde güvenlik sorunları ortaya çıkmaya başlamış ve önceleri hâkim olan huzur ortamının yerini insanların birbirleriyle konuşmaktan mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 85 çekindikleri ve uzak durmak istedikleri bir durum almaya başlamıştı. bilimin gelişmeye başlamasıyla beraber ortaya koyduğu doktrinler, yeni neslin ilgisini çekmeye başlamıştı. özellikle ruhban sınıfında olan kişiler ellerindeki gücü kaybetme korkusu yaşamaya başladılar. bu dönemde etik ve ahlak eğitiminin öneminin artmaya başlamasının sebeplerinden birisi bu olsa da, asıl sebep olarak şehirlerin kalabalıklaşmaya başlaması ve bunun sonucu olarak hastalıkların artması ve farklı kültürlerden ve dillerden insanların aynı toplumda yaşamaya başlaması sonucu iletişimin ve beraber yaşama kültürünün öneminin artması gösterilmektedir. (yulish, 1975). 18. ve 19. yüzyılda yaşamış olan filozoflardan bazıları insanın doğasındaki ahlaki değerlerin değişemeyeceğinden, dolayısıyla ahlak eğitimi vermenin bir anlamının olmadığından bahsetmişlerdir. bunlardan biri olan schopenhauer, karakterin değiştirilemeyeceğini, dolayısıyla da ahlaki değerlerin doğuştan insana verilenlerden ibaret olduğunu belirtmiştir (arthur, 1995). buna karşılık olarak 18. ve 19. yüzyılın önde gelen ve daha olumlu yaklaşan düşünürleri insan karakterinin geliştirilebileceğinden, doğal olarak ahlaki açıdan daha iyi konuma gelebileceğinden bahsetmişlerdir. bunlardan birisi olan john stuart mill, sınırsızlığa inanmış ve ahlaki ilerlemenin derece derece sürekli olabileceğini söylemiştir (heydt, 2006). ahlaki açıdan ilerlemeden bahsedilirken, doğal olarak gündeme gelen konuların başında değer yargıları gelmektedir. bu tür değer yargıları da kendi içinde objektif ve sübjektif değerler olarak ikiye ayrılmaktadır. emile durkheim bu konuda görüş bildirirken objektif ve sübjektif değer yargılarının birbirinden ayrılması gerektiğini belirtmiş ve bireylerin toplumun altında kalarak kendilerine iletilen değer yargılarına boyun eğmek zorunda olduklarını belirtmiştir (saintus, 1989). değer eğitimine gereksinim duyulmasının çok çeşitli nedenleri vardır. bu konuda kanada’da yapılmış olan bir yüksek lisans tezinde değer eğitimine ihtiyaç duyulmasının ardında yatan nedenler şu şekilde sıralanmıştır; modern ahlaki çelişkiler, aids, artan intihar olayları, alkol ve uyuşturucu kullanımının artması, yakın akrabalar arasındaki cinsel ilişkiler, güvensizlik duygusunun artış göstermesi ve aile değerlerinin öneminin azalması sonucu artan boşanma olayları (saintus, 1989). ahlaki değerlerin ‘değer eğitimi’ başlığı altında öğrencilere iletilmesine karşı çıkan geleneksel görüşe göre öğrencilere yönelik herhangi bir çalışma yapmaya gerek duymadan, öğrencilerin toplumda kabul gören olmazsa olmaz değerleri öğrenmeleri yeterli görülmüştür (saintus, 1989). buna karşılık olarak ortaya çıkmış olan ‘değer açıklama’ (value clarification) yaklaşımı, öğrencilerin kendi değerlerini kendilerinin keşfetmesine journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 86 olanak tanıyarak onlara farkındalık bilincini kazandırmayı ve alternatif değerleri ve bunların sonuçlarını da keşfetmelerini sağlayarak öğrencilere objektif değerlerini belirlemelerinde yardımcı olmayı hedeflemiştir (raths ve diğerleri, 1966). bu yaklaşıma göre bir şeyin “değer” sayılabilmesi için şu yedi adımdan geçmesi gerekmektedir: özgürce seçmek, alternatifler arasından seçim yapmak, her bir alternatifin sonucunu dikkatlice düşündükten sonra seçim yapmak, yapmış olduğu seçime değer vermek ve bundan memnun olmak, bu seçimleri etrafındaki insanlara duyurmak, yapmış olduğu seçimlere göre davranmak ve son olarak bu davranışları tekrarlamak (raths ve diğerleri, 1966). değer açıklama hareketi zamanının ihtiyaçlarını göz önünde bulundurarak değer eğitimini ele aldığı için önemli ölçüde destekçi bulmuştur. bu desteğin en önemli kaynaklarından birisi olarak öğretmenlerin yaklaşımın gereklerini kolayca anlayabilmeleri ve bunu sınıf ortamında rahatça gündeme getirebilmeleri olmuştur. ortaya çıktığı zamanlarda ‘değer açıklama’ hareketinin yeterli derecede ilgi görmesinin nedenlerini purpel ve ryan (1976) şu nedenlere bağlamaktadırlar: öncelikle değer açıklama yaklaşımının öğrencilere aktarılması aşamasının basit tekniklerle olduğunu ve öğretmenler tarafından bu tekniklere kolayca ulaşılabildiğini belirtmişlerdir. i̇kinci neden olarak öğretmenlerin önemli ve kritik konuları açıkça ve dürüstçe tartışabiliyor olmalarının vermiş olduğu memnuniyet gösterilmiştir. üçüncü neden, öğretmenlerin kendi değer yargılarını öğrencilere empoze etme çabalarının olmaması, ve son olarak da öğretmenlerin değer açıklama yaklaşımının işe yaradığına dair bildirdikleri görüşler öne sürülmüştür. değer açıklama yaklaşımının temel argümanlarından birisi ve en önemlisi hiç kimsenin tek doğru değer yargısına sahip olmamasıdır (simon, 1976). sorulması gerekli olan asıl soru hangi düşüncelere sahip olduğundan çok bu düşüncelere nasıl ulaştığı olmalıdır (raths, 1966). değer eğitimi kapsamında ele alınan konulardan birisi de vatandaşlık eğitimi (citizenship education) olmuştur. 19. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren gündemde olan ve ulusal birlik ve beraberliği sağlamayı amaçlayan vatandaşlık eğitimi, 1950lerden itibaren küreselleşen dünyanın oluşturduğu gereksinimler çerçevesinde yeniden şekillenmeye başladı (pike, 2008). bu bağlamda vatandaşlık eğitiminin amacı çeşitli araştırmacılar tarafından yeniden yorumlanmıştır. heater’a göre (1990) vatandaşlık eğitiminin amacı “birbirinin aynısı olmayan vatandaş” (multiple citizen) yetiştirmekken, selby’e (2000) göre “çoğulcu ve uyumlu vatandaş” yetiştirmektir. bunlardan farklı olarak lynch (1992) vatandaşlık eğitimini aktif global demokrasi eğitiminin bir parçası olarak tanımlamışken, banks (2001) ise küreselleşme ve küresel yeterlilik için vatandaşlık eğitiminin önemli mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 87 olduğunu vurgulamıştır. tüm bu tanımlar içerisindeki ortak nokta sorumlu vatandaş yetiştirmek olmuştur. sorumlu vatandaş yetiştirmenin gereklerinin başında da başta ulusal değerler olmak üzere küresel ve demokratik değerlere sahip bireyler yetiştirmek gelmektedir. uzun bir geçmişe dayanan vatandaşlık eğitimine bugün farklı yaklaşımlar olmakla beraber, eğitimde bir şekilde yer verildiği görülmektedir. günümüz avrupa ülkelerine bakıldığı zaman vatandaşlık eğitiminin ayrı öğretim konusu (seperate subject), müfredata yayılmış (cross-curricular theme) ve konularla bütünleşmiş olarak (integrated) üç farklı şekilde uygulandığı görülmektedir (eurydice, 2005). i̇lkokul seviyesinde sadece belçika ve romanya’da vatandaşlık eğitimi ayrı konular halinde sunulmaktadır. estonya, yunanistan, portekiz ve i̇sveç gibi ülkelerde vatandaşlık eğitimine müfredata dağılmış olarak yer verilmekteyken, bu durum diğer ülkelerin çoğu için konularla bütünleşmiş olarak görülmektedir. ne şekilde verilirse verilsin, vatandaşlık eğitimi vatandaşlık hakları ve görevlerini, insan haklarına ve demokratik değerlere karşı saygılı olmayı ve demokratik toplumda katılımcı ve aktif bireyler olmayı hedefleyen bir yaklaşım içerisinde olmuştur. 1960’lı yıllarda ortaya çıkan ve bu dönemde önemli oranda destekçi bulan değer açıklama hareketi, 1990lı yıllara gelindiğinde özellikle amerika birleşik devletleri’ndeki toplumda oluşan değer karmaşasından dolayı yerini “değer telkini”ne bırakmıştır. bu yaklaşımın önde gelen isimlerinden olan thomas lickona (1991), karakter eğitiminin toplum için şart olduğunu ve bunun da sadece okulda verilebilecek bir şey olmadığını, aynı zamanda tüm toplumun bu konuda sorumluluk altına girmesi gerektiğini vurgulamıştır. aynı zamanda karakter eğitimi bünyesinde sorumluluk ve saygı değerlerinin öğretilmesinin gerektiğini vurgulamıştır. lickona (1991) toplumun sorumlulukları erdemli insan yetiştirme, ailevi sorumluluklar, rol model olma, etkili akademik öğretim, ve etkili karakter eğitimi olarak özetlemiştir. aynı şekilde karakter eğitiminin sadece okuldaki derslerden ibaret olamayacağını, bunun yaşamın tüm alanlarında devam ettirilmesi gerektiği görüşü başka araştırmacılar tarafından da savunulmuştur (ryan & bohlin, 1999). değerler eğitiminde temel süreç ve i̇lkeler değerler eğitiminde dikkat edilmesi ve üzerinde durulması gereken konuların başında temel süreç ve ilkeler gelmektedir. okullarda değerler eğitimi konusunda öğrencilere yönelik olarak sadece teorik bilgilerin verilmesi, programın amaçlanan seviyede başarılı olmamasına sebebiyet vereceği gibi, değerler eğitimine olan ilgiyi de journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 88 azaltacaktır. bu anlamda atılması gerekli olan adımların başında değerler konusunda kuramsal bilginin yanında günlük hayatta karşılaşılan durumlardan da örnek verilerek öğrencilerin okul dışında karşılaştıkları ve ahlaki muhakeme gerektiren durumlarda ikilem içinden uygun olanı tercih etmesinin sağlanmasıyla olayları çözmelerini sağlamaktır. bunun nedeni ise çocukların ahlak eylemlerini öğrenme, ve yaşamlarında karşılaşacakları ahlaki çatışmaları çözmek için gerekli olan becerileri kazanmaya duydukları gerksinimlerdir (fisher, 2000; akt. çengelci, 2010). özellikle ilkokul çağında olan çocuklarına değerler eğitimi kapsamında nasıl yaklaşılacağı, konunun nasıl anlatılacağı üzerinde titizlikle durulmalıdır. bu dönem çocuklarının üzerinde olumlu ya da olumsuz etki bırakacak olan yaklaşımlar net bir şekilde bir birinden ayırt edilmeli ve bu şekilde yaklaşılmalıdır. değerler eğitimi süresince öğretmenlerin kendi duygu ve düşüncelerini empoze etmelerini sert bir şekilde yasaklayan değer açıklama yaklaşımı, bu bağlamda öğrencilerin kendi değer yargılarına varmalarında öğretmenlerin sadece yardımcı görev üstlenebileceklerini (raths ve diğerleri, 1966) belirtmiştir. öğretmenlerin i̇lköğretim birinci kademe çağındaki çocukların soyut kavramlar konusunda yaşayabilecekleri sıkıntıları göz önünde bulundurarak “değer” kavramlarını somutlaştırmaları (erden & akman, 1997) çocuklar için önemli derecede etkili olacaktır. değerler eğitiminde kullanılan yöntemlerden birisi de öğrenciyi iyi hal ve hareketleri karşısında ödüllendirmek olmuştur. fakat ödüllendirmenin de sınırlarının çizilmesi gerekmektedir. nitekim yapılmış olan bazı araştırmalar da göstermektedir ki dışarıdan gelen ödüllendirmeler ve teşvikler, bir süre sonra kişinin içinde daha önce bulunan yardımseverlik duygusunu zedelemekte (batson ve diğerleri, 1978) ve öğrencinin kendi kendine motive (intrinsic motivation) olmasını bir süre sonra tamamen engellemektedir (kohn, 1993; deci & ryan, 1985). yapılmış olan diğer araştırmalar da yine göstermektedir ki sürekli olarak ödüllendirilen çocukların bir süre sonra ödüllendirildikleri davranışları yapma sıkllıkları diğer çocuklara oranla düşmektedir (grusec, 1991; akt. kohn, 1997). öğrenci içsel motivasyonu yakalamadığı müddetçe ve dışarıdan motive edilmeyi karakterinin bir parçası haline getirdikten sonra, onun motive olması ve “değer” olarak algılanan davranışlarında devamlılık göstermesi de daha zor olmaktadır. bu bağlamda ulaşılması istenen amaç öğrencinin içsel motivasyona sahip olarak kendiliğinden bazı şeylerin eksikliğini hissetmesi ve bunların gereğini yapmasıdır. değerler eğitiminde öğretmenin rolü çok önemlidir. öğretmenler belli değerleri aşılamaya çalışırken ya da öğrencilerin kendi değer yargılarını bulmaları konusunda sadece mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 89 yol gösterici ve yönlendirici rolü oynarken, farkında olarak yada olmadan öğrenciler üzerinde gelecek hayatlarını etkileyebilecek pozisyonlarda bulunmaktadırlar. bu anlamda öğretmenlerin pozitif açıdan model olmaları gerekmektedir. öğretmenlerin değerler eğitimi kapsamında demokratik bir sınıf ve örtük programdan faydalanarak rol model olmaları ve aynı zamanda örtük programdan yararlanmaları önem arz etmektedir (can, 2004; akt. çengelci, 2010). öğrencile arasında değer eğitiminin istenilen seviyeye ulaşmasında önemli etkenlerden birisi de onları grup çalışmasına sevk etmektir. grup içinde öğrencileri yalnız bırakmamak öğretmenin sorumuluklarından olmalıdır. aksi halde özgür bir tartışma platformu olması gereken grup çalışmalarının belli öğrencilerin yönetiminde gitmesine ve onların düşüncelerinin hakim olmasında etkili olabilir. bunu önlemek için grup çalışmalarının öğretmen tarafından kontrol edilmesi gerekmektedir. aynı şekilde öğretmenin grup üyelerinin hepsinin eşit derecede katılım sağladığından ve fikirlerini iletebildiklerinden emin olmalıdır. bottry (2000) değer eğitiminde akıl yürütme ve mantığı teşvik etme, empati geliştirme, benlik saygısı geliştirme ve işbirliği geliştirme süreçlerinin takip edilmesinin gerekliliğinden bahsetmektedir. akıl yürütmenin tanımı yapılırken gözlemlemek, düşünmek, olayları çözümlemek, farklı olaylardan genellemeler yapmak ve sonuç çıkarmak olduğu vurgulanmıştır (hançerlioğlu, 1988). burada değerler takdim edildikten sonra sunulan bu değerlerin bireyin yaşamına ve kişisel tercihlerine uygunluğu kişinin kendisine bırakılmıştır. bu değerlerin kabullenilmesi ancak bu süreçlerden geçtikten sonra ortaya çıkacaktır (doğanay, 2006; akt. dilmaç, 2007). empati becerisini geliştirmede, didaktik yaklaşım, yaşantısal yaklaşım, rol oynama ve modelden öğrenme olmak üzere dört temel teknik vardır (payne ve diğerleri., 1972; dalton ve diğerleri., 1973; cooker ve diğerleri., 1976; fine,therrien, 1977; gladstein, feldstein, 1983; akt: sargın, 1993). didaktik yaklaşımda sağlıklı iletişim konusunda teorik bilgiler bir uzman tarafından deneklere sunulurken yaşantısal yaklaşımda deneklerin başkalarıyla iletişimleri uzman tarafından eleştirel bir gözle gözlemlenir. rol oynama yaklaşımında denek bazen kendisi olarak bazen de karşısındaki kişinin rolüne girerek iletişim kurarken, modelden öğrenme yaklaşımında denek uzmanların kendi aralarında gerçekleştirdiği iletişimleri gözleyerek empati kurmayı öğrenir ve bu uzmanları model alır. benlik saygısı kişiliğin olmazsa olmaz parçalarından biridir ve bireyin tüm hayatına yön verir. kişilik gelişiminde önemli bir yeri olan benlik saygısı aynı zamanda insanların journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 90 sosyalleşmesi için de önem arz etmektedir (hamarta, 2004). benlik saygısını geliştirmek değerler eğitiminin çok önemli yönlerinden birini teşkil etmektedir. değerler insanların kişiliğinin oluşmasında önemli katkı sağlar. değerlerin kaybı ve zarara uğraması, kişiliğin ve benliğin sarsılmasına ve güvensizlik hislerine neden olmaktadır (öner, 1999; akt: dilmaç, 2007). son olarak işbirliği geliştirme sürecinde öğrenciler küçük gruplar halinde çalışır ve bu şekilde öğrenme süresince birbirlerinden faydalanırlar. değerler eğitiminde önemli olan noktalardan birisi de ‘ben’ duygusundan ziyade ‘biz’ duygusunu geliştirmektir. bu bağlamda senemoğlu (2005) işbirliğine dayalı öğrenmenin yararlarını şu şekilde sıralamaktadır: • i̇şbirliğine dayalı öğrenme, öğrencilerin öğrenmeye güdülenmelerine ve dikkatlerini sürdürmelerine yardım etmektedir. • özellikle, düşük yetenekli öğrencilere, problem çözme ve üst düzey düşünme becerilerinin kazandırılmasında etkili olmaktadır. • bireyin, dünyayı diğer insanların bakış açısından görme yetisini kazandırmaktadır. böylece, öğrencilerde empati kurma becerileri artmakta; özel eğitime muhtaç çocukları daha kolay kabul ederek onların gelişimleri için rehberlik etmektedirler. • öğrenciler, başkalarının fikirlerine saygılı olmayı, hoşgörülü olmayı, tartışmayı öğrenmektedirler. kısaca, demokratik yaşama alışkanlığı kazanmaktadır. • öğrenme sırasında öğrencinin akranlarıyla etkileşimde bulunması, ona zevk vermekte; öğrenmeöğretme ortamı öğrenciler için eğlenceli hale gelmektedir. • i̇şbirliğine dayalı öğrenme, gruptaki her bireyin katkısını gerektirdiğinden öğrencilerin özsaygı ve öz yeterlilik duygularını geliştirmelerine yardım etmektedir. • öğrencilerin hata yapma korkusu ve kaygı düzeylerini en aza indirerek öğretme öğrenme sürecine etkin katılımlarını sağlamaktadır. • öğrencilerin “ait olma” gereksinimlerini karşılamalarına yardım etmektedir. yöntem bu araştırmada değerler eğitiminin i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 4. ve 5. sınıf derslerindeki yerine bakmak amacıyla içerik analizi yöntemi kullanılmıştır. i̇çerik analizinin temel amacı, eldeki yazıya dökülmüş bilgilerin içeriklerinin özetlenmesidir (cohen ve diğerleri, 2007). aynı zamanda sosyal bilimler alanında da sıkça kullanılan içerik analizi yöntemi, belli kodlama kuralların dikkate alınarak kitap, kitap bölümü, mektup, tarihsel dokümanlar, gazete başlıkları ve yazıları gibi metinlerin daha küçük içerik mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 91 kategorileri ile özetlendiği bir tekniktir (sert ve diğerleri, 2012). i̇çerik analizi dört temel aşamadan oluşmaktadır. bunlar; verilerin kodlanması, temaların bulunması, kodların ve temaların düzenlenmesi, ve bulguların tanımlanması ve yorumlanması (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2006). bu çalışmada ilk olarak çalışmanın ele aldığı 4. ve 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitapları taranarak belli kodlamalar yapılmış ve bu kodlamalardan yola çıkarak temalar elde edilmiştir. daha sonra elde edilen veriler bu temalara göre uygun başlıklar altında birleştirilmiş ve bu şekilde elde edilen bulgular yorumlanmıştır. sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitiminin yerini tespit etmek amacıyla 2004 yılında milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından yayınlanan sosyal bilgiler 4. ve 5. sınıf programları incelenmiş, ayrıca incelenmek üzere i̇lköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıfın sosyal bilgiler dersi kitaplarından her sınıf için bir kitap seçilmiştir. bu bağlamda koza yayıncılık tarafından yayımlanan ‘i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 5 ders kitabı’ ve tuna matbaa tarafından yayımlanan ‘i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 4 ders kitabı’ incelenmiştir. her bir kitap araştırmacılar tarafından ayrı ayrı incelenerek değerlerin bahsedildiği ya da dolaylı olarak gösterildiği bölümler belirlenmiştir. araştırmacılar bu incelemelerden sonra karşılıklı olarak belirledikleri kategorilerin uyuşup uyuşmadığı konusunda görüş birliğine varmıştır. bu şekilde araştırmada güvenirlik ve iç geçerliliğin sağlanması amaçlanmıştır. değerler eğitiminin sosyal bilgiler eğitimi kapsamındaki yeri ve önemi sosyal bilgiler dersi etkili bir şekilde verildiği zaman kapsayıcı rol üstlenmesinden dolayı ilköğretim çağındaki çocukların gelişimlerine olumlu katkıda bulunması kaçınılmazdır. bu bağlamda sosyal bilgiler ulusal konseyi’nin (ncss) sosyal bilgiler dersini tarif ederken kullandığı kelimeler, bu dersin ne düzey kapsayıcı olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır: “sosyal bilgiler, sosyal ve beşeri bilimlerin vatandaşlık yeterliliğini yerine getirilmesi için bir arada entegre edilmiş bir çalışmadır. okul programı çerçevesinde sosyal bilgiler, beşeri bilimler, antropoloji, arkeoloji, ekonomi, coğrafya, tarih, hukuk, felsefe, siyaset bilimi, psikoloji, din ve sosyolojinin yanı sıra matematik ve doğa bilimlerinden de uygun içerikleri alarak disiplinler arası sistematik bir çalışma alanı sağlar. sosyal bilgilerin amacı kültürel olarak çeşitlilik içinde yaşayan ve birbirine bağlı demokratik bir dünyada yaşayan gençlerin kamu yararı için bilgilenmeleri ve buna göre karar verebilmelerini sağlamaktır” (national council for the social studies, 1994). journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 92 yukarıdaki tanımda da geçmiş olduğu gibi, sosyal bilgiler dersi antropoloji, arkeoloji, ekonomi, coğrafya, tarih, hukuk, felsefe, siyaset bilimi, psikoloji, din, sosyoloji gibi çok değişik alanlarla yakından ilgilidir. farklı bir tanımı da milli eğitim bakanlığı 2004 sosyal bilgiler öğretimi programında şu şekilde vermiştir: sosyal bilgiler, bireyin toplumsal varoluşunu gerçekleştirebilmesine yardımcı olması amacıyla; tarih, coğrafya, ekonomi, sosyoloji, antropoloji, psikoloji, felsefe, siyaset bilimi ve hukuk gibi sosyal bilimleri ve vatandaşlık bilgisi konularını yansıtan; öğrenme alanlarının bir ünite ya da tema altında birleştirildiği; insanın fiziki ve sosyal çevresiyle etkileşiminin geçmiş, bugün ve gelecek bağlamında incelendiği; toplu öğretim anlayışından hareketle oluşturulmuş bir ilköğretim dersidir” (meb, 2004). yukarıda sosyal bilgiler dersi için verilmiş olan tanımlar iki farklı kaynaktan olmuş olsa da, birbirlerine önemli ölçüde benzerlik göstermektedirler. bu şekilde geniş bir alanı içine alan ve geçmiş ve gelecekle yakından ilgilenen sosyal bilgiler dersinin değerler eğitiminden yoksun olması düşünülemez. öğrencilerin toplumsal açıdan diğer bireylerle bir arada yaşamalarına imkan hazırlamak ve bu anlamda etkili bir vatandaş yetiştirmeyi hedefleyen sosyal bilgiler dersi, çok tabii olarak eğitim süresinde belli değerlerden bahsedilen ve bu sürede bahsi geçen değerlerin kazandırılması amaçlanan bir derstir. sosyal bilgiler dersi disiplinlerarası bir ders olmasından dolayı çok çeşitli sayıda değer kavramı üzerinde durmak mümkündür. çevreye karşı duyarlılık gösterme ve bireysel ve toplumsal sorumluluklar karşısında farkındalık kazanma, geçmiş kavimlerin ve milletlerin kültürel ve ahlaki değer çeşitliliklerini anlama (smith & montgomery, 1997) gibi değerler sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında iletilebilecek olan değer yargılarından sadece birkaçıdır. özellikle ilköğretim çağındaki öğrencilerin kendi değer yargılarını ve bulundukları toplumları oluşturan kurumların değer yargılarını anlamaları önem arz etmektedir. öğrencilerin günlük hayatta yaşayabilecekleri değer ikilemleri ve çatışmalarıyla baş etmeleri, vermiş oldukları değer yargılarının muhtemel sonuçlarının farkında olmaları ve başkalarının değerlerine karşı saygılı olmaları gerekliliğini bilmeleri açısından değerler eğitimi sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin önemli bir parçasıdır (naylor & diem, 1987; akt. keskin, 2008). mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 93 bulgular sosyal bilgiler dersi ilköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıf programında değerlerden bahsedilirken beş temel özelliğine değinilmiştir. bunlar; 1. değerler toplum ya da bireyler tarafından benimsenen birleştirici olgulardır. 2. toplumun sosyal ihtiyaçlarını karşıladığına ve bireylerin iyiliği için olduğuna inanılan ölçütlerdir. 3. sadece bilinç değil duygu ve heyecanları da ilgilendiren yargılardır. 4. değerler bireyin bilincinde yer alan ve davranışı yönlendiren güdülerdir. 5. değerlerin normlardan farkı normlardan daha genel ve soyut bir nitelik taşımasıdır. değer normu da içerir. (meb, 2004). 2004 yılında düzenlenen ve uygulamaya konulan sosyal bilgiler programında verilmesi planlanan değerler şu şekilde sıralanmıştır: adil olma, aile birliğine önem verme, bağımsızlık, barış, bilimsellik, çalışkanlık, dayanışma, duyarlılık, dürüstlük, estetik, hoşgörü, misafirperverlik, özgürlük, sağlıklı olmaya önem verme, saygı, sevgi, sorumluluk, temizlik, vatanseverlik ve yardımseverlik (meb, 2004). sosyal bilgiler dersi ilköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıflarda kazandırılması amaçlanan değerler tablo 1’ de verilmiştir. sosyal bilgiler dersi 5. sınıf kitabı incelendiğinde önceki programların aksine kitaplarda “değer” bölümlerinin eklenmiş olduğunu görmekteyiz. her ünitenin başlangıç sayfasında öğrencilerin dikkati çekecek ve görselliğin de gücünü kullanarak akılda kalıcılığı sağlayacak resimler kullanılmıştır. tablo 1: 2004 sosyal bilgiler dersi i̇lköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıf programında kazandırılması hedeflenen değerler 4. sinif öğrenme alani doğrudan veri̇lecek değer bi̇rey ve toplum duygu ve düşüncelere saygı, hoşgörü kültür ve mi̇ras türk büyüklerine saygı, aile birliğine önem verme, vatanseverlik i̇nsanlar, yerler ve çevreler doğa sevgisi üreti̇m, dağitim ve tüketi̇m temizlik ve sağlıklı olmaya önem verme bi̇li̇m, teknoloji̇ ve toplum bilimsellik journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 94 kaynak: meb (2004) değerlerin öğrencilere aktarılmasında genel anlamda üç farklı yaklaşım kullanılmıştır. bunlar sırasıyla; değer açıklamak, ahlaki muhakeme ve değer analizi olarak programda yerini almıştır (meb, 2004). “değer açıklama” yaklaşımına örnek olarak 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi ders kitabında 1. ünitede bulunan ve “toplumsal şemsiye” başlığı altında verilen kısımda sorulmuş olan sorular gösterilebilir. öğrencilerden hangi grupların üyesi oldukları istenildikten sonra, topluluk halinde yaşamanın herhangi bir etkisinin olup olmayacağı sorulmuştur. öğrencilere yöneltilen soru şu şekildedir: “bireyler ortak bir amaç doğrultusunda bir araya gelerek işbirliği içinde faaliyetler gerçekleştirirler. böylece grup oluşturmuş olurlar. sizce tek başımıza hareket etmemiz hayatımızı zorlaştırır mı? açıklayınız.” (i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 5. sınıf ders kitabı, 2008). yukarıdaki soruda da görüldüğü gibi öğrencilerden toplumsal yaşamın kendileri açısından ne demek olduğu, toplu yaşamanın ne tür artılarının ya da eksilerinin olduğu ve gruplar, kurumlar ve sosyal örgütler yardımseverlik güç, yöneti̇m ve toplum bağımsızlık küresel bağlantilar misafirperverlik 5. sinif öğrenme alani doğrudan veri̇lecek değer bi̇rey ve toplum sorumluluk kültür ve mi̇ras estetik i̇nsanlar, yerler ve çevreler doğal çevreye duyarlılık üreti̇m, tüketi̇m ve dağitim çalışkanlık bi̇li̇m, teknoloji̇ ve toplum akademik dürüstlük gruplar, kurumlar ve sosyal örgütler dayanışma güç, yöneti̇m ve toplum adil olma, bayrağa ve i̇stiklâl marşı’na saygı küresel bağlantilar tarihsel mirasa duyarlılık mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 95 grup halinde yaşamanın ne tür katkılarda bulunabileceği yönünde görüşlerini sunmaları istenmiştir. burada asıl amaç öğrenciye tek başına yaşamanın hayatı zorlaştırdığına yönelik düşünmesini sağlamaktan ziyade, bu yönde kendi görüş ve düşüncelerini sunmasıdır. sosyal bilgiler dersi 4. sınıf ders kitabında ahlaki muhakemeye örnek olarak “önce i̇htiyaçlarım sonra i̇steklerim” başlıklı 4. unitede ihtiyaçlar ve istekler arasındaki farklar konulu bir soru verilebilir. öğrencilerden cevaplamaları istenen soru şu şekildedir: “seda, sıla, ve selçuk üç kardeşler. seda, babasından gitar, sıla ayakkabı, selçuk ise basketbol topu almasını istemektedir. ancak babaları onlardan yalnız birinin istediği ürünü alabilecek durumdadır. sizce bu durumda baba çocuklarından hangisinin ihtiyacını yerine getirmelidir? neden?” (i̇lköğretim 4. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ders kitabı, 2010). yukarıda öğrencilere sorulmuş olan soruda öğrencilerden aslında işlenen konuya uygun olarak ihtiyaç ve istekler arasındaki farkları kavramaları ve buna göre karar vermeleri istenmiştir. öğrencilere durum olduğu gibi anlatılmış, fakat karar verme konusu kendilerine bırakılmıştır. nitekim sosyal bilgiler dersi ilköğretim 4. ve 5. sınıf programında belirtildiği gibi (meb,2004) öğrencilere ahlaki ikilemlerin bulunduğu durumlar verilerek kendi çıkmazlarını çözmeleri amaçlanmştır. bu aşamada öğretmen sadece yardımcı rolündedir ve bu soruya cevap vermek için kurulacak grup çalışmalarının sonucunda tüm öğrenciler birbirlerinin görüşlerini duyarak kendi ahlaki değerlerini oluşturabilirler. son olarak değer analizi yaklaşımına örnek olarak 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi ders kitabında 1. ünitede bulunan “sorumluluklarım” bölümünde sorulmuş olan soru verilebilir. öğrencilere yöneltilen soru şu şekildedir: “önce kendimize, sonra ailemize, çevremize ve ülkemize karşı sorumluluklarımız vardır. bunların ne kadarını biliyoruz ve yerine getiriyoruz?” (i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler 5. sınıf ders kitabı, 2008). değer eğitiminde dikkati, düşünceyi ve ayırt etmeyi gerektiren bir analiz olan değer analizi öğrencilerin ahlaki düşünme becerilerini kazanmalarını sağlamaktadır. değerlerle journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 96 ilgili sorunları anlamaları için öğrencilerin analiz yeteneklerinin geliştirilmesi gerekmektedir ve bu da bu anlamda sorulmuş olan sorularla mümkündür (meb, 2004). düşündürücü ve yol gösterici soruların yanında sosyal bilgiler 4. ve 5. sınıf ders kitaplarında değerlerin öğretilmesi yönünde etkili bir şekilde kullanılan araçlardan birisi de kullanılmış olan resimlerdir. görsel anlamda öğrenmeyi ve akılda kalıcılığı hedefleyen resimler, ünitelerde anlatılmak istenen değer yargılarının öğrencinin zihninde yer edinmesini sağlamakla beraber öğrenmeyi de kolaylaştırmaktadır. sonuç müfredatta verilmesi hedeflenen değerlerin hepsinin sadece aile ortamında verilmeye çalışılması beraberinde sistematik olmayan ve sonuçları ölçülemeyen davranışlara sebebiyet verebilir. bunların belli bir program çerçevesinde verilmesi ile beraber çocuklarda değerlerin nasıl geliştiğini anlamak kolaylaşacaktır (balat & dağal, 2006; akt. keskin, 2008). bu anlamda sosyal bilgiler dersi kapsamında programda belirtilen değerlerin sistematik ve bilinçli bir şekilde sunulması büyük önem arz etmektedir. eleştirmenler, gün geçtikçe artış gösteren sosyal problemlerin kaynağı olarak modernleşme ve globalleşme sürecini göstermektedirler (zajda, 2008). sürekli artış gösteren ve çeşitlilik arz eden bu tür sosyal problemler, beraberinde değerler eğitiminin önemini arttırmaktadır. değer yargılarının ne derece önemli olduğu sosyal ve kültürel sermaye araştırmalarında da kendini göstermiştir. çeşitli yazarlar tarafından sosyal ve kültürel sermaye alanında yapılan araştırmalara göre bir toplumun değer yargılarına bağlılığı o toplumun okullaşma, üretim, ve yönetimi konularında etki bıraktığı görülmüştür (bourdieu, 1977; inglehart, 1997; putnam, 1993). değerler eğitimine önem verilmeye başlanmış olması eğitim sistemimiz açısından ve geleceğimiz açısından sevindirici olmuştur. fakat unutulmaması gereken en temel nokta değerler eğitimini etkili ve kalıcı kılacak olan altyapıya sahip olma gerekliliğidir. bu bağlamda ilk ve en önemli görev öğretmenlere ve okul yöneticilerine düşmektedir. değerler eğitimi konusunda herhangi bir bilgisi olmayan ve bu konuda eğitimden geçmemiş olan öğretmenlerle böylesine önemli bir konunun süreklilik arz etmesi düşünülemez. bu doğrultuda ülkemiz genelinde de değerler eğitimi ile ilgili olarak öğretmenler bilgilendirilmeli ve eğitimden geçirilmelidir. mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 97 değerlerin öğretilmesi sürecinde çeşitli yöntemlerden faydalanmak mümkündür. yapılan bir araştırmada öğrencilerin değerler eğitimi süresince en çok dramadan etkilendikleri ve bu tür etkinlikler aracılığıyla öğretilen değerlere daha fazla ilgi duydukları gözlemlenmiştir. fakat öğrencilerin drama vasıtasıyla verilen değerlere daha fazla ilgi duydukları görüldüğü halde, sosyal bilgiler dersinde bu tür etkinliklere çok sık yer verilmediği gözlemlenmiştir. bu durum aslında öğretmenlerin yeterince eğitilememelerinden kaynaklanmaktadır. nitekim aynı araştırma sonucunda öğretmenlerin 2004 sosyal bilgiler öğretimi programını uygularken yapılandırmacı yaklaşımın belirlemiş olduğu uygulamalardan ziyade, klasik olarak geçmişten beri uygulanan sorucevap yöntemini kullandıkları gözlemlenmiştir (çengelci, 2010). bu da öğretmenlerin öncelikle yapılandırmacı yaklaşımın öngördüğü doğrultuda eğitim verebilmeleri için hizmetiçi eğitimden geçmeleri gerektirdiği düşüncesini ortaya çıkarmaktadır. değerler eğitiminin önemli bir parçası da bu süreçte kullanılan materyallerdir. yukarıda da belirttiğimiz gibi sosyal bilgiler kitaplarında değerlerin öğretimi özel olarak kullanılan resimlerle görsel hale getirilmiş ve bu anlamda soyut bilginin somutlaştırılması amaçlanmıştır. sınıf ortamında değerler eğitimi kapsamında kitaptan yararlanmanın yanında başta internet olmak üzere çok çeşitli kaynaklar bulunmaktadır. fakat yapılan bir araştırma değerler eğitimi kapsamında genellikle ders kitabıyla yetinildiğini, ve bu anlamda öğrencilerin farklı kaynaklara yönlendirilmediği gözlemlenmiştir (çengelci, 2010). sosyal bilgiler gibi çok çeşitli disiplinleri bir arada barındıran ve ilköğretim çağındaki tüm öğrencilerin almak zorunda oldukları bir derste, değerler eğitiminin yeri ayrıca önem kazanmaktadır. hayatın tüm alanlarını kapsayıcı nitelikte olan sosyal bilgiler dersi, bu anlamda aslında ülkemiz genelinde ‘değer’ olarak algılanan ve her birey tarafından kabul gören davranışların öğretilmesinde hayati öneme sahiptir. kişisel ve kültürel farklılıkların aslında birer zenginlik olduğu, bireye saygı göstermenin kendine saygı göstermek anlamına geldiği, yardımseverliğin toplumdaki birlik ve beraberliği pekiştirdiği, bireysel olarak çalışmanın yanında toplumsal olarak çalışmanın da bu beraberliğe olumlu katkı sağladığı gerçeklerinden yola çıkarak değerler eğitiminin öneminin yeterince kavranması ve bu konuda az da olsa atılmış olan adımlara yenilerinin eklenmesi gerekmektedir. bu anlamda 2004 yılında yayımlanan sosyal bilgiler ders programında öğrencilere öğretilecek olan değerlerin planlı bir şekilde yazılmış ve belirtilmiş olması umut vericidir. nitekim 1998 ve 2004 sosyal bilgiler öğretim programını inceleyen bir araştırmada, öğretmenlerin 2004 yılı programında vatandaşlık journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 98 değerlerinin ön planda tutulduğu belirtilmiştir. bu çerçevede yapılmış olan farklı araştırmalar da değerler eğitiminin 2004 sosyal bilgiler öğretimi programında önceki yıllara gore daha fazla yer aldığını ortaya koymuştur (mısırlı, ve diğerleri, 2008). fakat yukarıda da belirtildiği gibi özellikle yapılandırmacı yaklaşımın öngördüğü çerçevede öğretmenlerin hizmetiçi eğitimden geçmeleri önem arz etmektedir. kaynaklar / references akbaba-altun, s. (2003). eğitim yönetimi ve değerler. değerler eğitimi dergisi, 1 (1), 7 18. akbaş, o. (2008). değerler eğitimi akımlarına genel bir bakış. değerler eğitimi dergisi, 16, 927. arthur, s. (1995). on the basis of morality. hecke publishing company, indianapolis, 190. banks, j. a. (2001). cultural diversity and education: foundations, curriculum and teaching. boston: allyn and bacon. batson, c.d. ve diğerleri. (1978). "buying kindness: effect of an extrinsic incentive for helping on perceived altruism" personality and social psychology bulletin, 4 bottry, m.(2000). values education. teaching values and citizenship across the curriculum. (ed. r. bailey). london: kogan page. bourdieu, p. (1977) outline of a theory of practice cambridge: cambridge university press. cheng, r. h. m., lee, j. c. k. & lo, l. n. k. (2006). values education for citizens in the new century: meaning, desirability and practice. sha tin: the chinese university press. cohen, l., manion, l., & morrison, k. (2007). research methods in education (6th ed.). new york, ny: routledge. çengelci, t. (2010). i̇lköğretim beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitiminin gerçekleştirilmesine i̇lişkin bir durum çalışması doktora tezi, eskişehir: anadolu üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. deveci, h. ve dal, s. (2008). primary school teachers’ opinions on the efficacy of social studies program in value gain. humanity & social sciences journal, 3 (1), 1-11. dilmaç, b.(2007). bir grup fen lisesi öğrencisine verilen i̇nsani değerler eğitiminin i̇nsani değerler ölçeği i̇le sınanması, doktora tezi, konya: selçuk üniversitesi, eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 99 deci, e.l., & ryan, r.m. (1985). intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. new york: plenum doğanay, a. (2009). değerler eğitimi ed. cemil öztürk sosyal bilgiler öğretimi, pegem yayıncılık, ankara. erden, m., akman, y. (1997). eğitim psikolojisi. arkadaş yayınevi, ankara. eurydice (2005). citizenship education at school in europe. fisher, r. (2000). philosophy for children: how philosophical enquiry can foster values education in schools. r. gardner, j. cairns & d. lawton (eds). education for values morals, ethics and citizenship in contemporary teaching. (p. 50-66). london: kogan page grusec, j. (1991). socializing concern for others in the home. developmental psychology. 27 halstead j & taylor m (eds) (1996). values in education and education in values. london: falmer press. harper and row. hamarta, e. (2004). üniversite öğrencilerinin yakın i̇lişkilerindeki bazı değişkenlerin (benlik saygısı, depresyon ve saplantılı düşünme) bağlanma stilleri açısından i̇ncelenmesi., yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, konya: selçuk üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. hançerlioğlu, o.(1988). ruh bilim sözlüğü, i̇stanbul: remzi kitabevi. heater, d. (1990). citizenship. the civic ideal in world history, politics and education. london: longman. heydt, c (2006). rethinking mill's ethics : character and aesthetic education. london, , gbr: continuum international publishing retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/ suleymansah/ doc?id= 10224688&ppg =10 hill b.v. (1991). values education in australian schools. melbourne: acer. inglehart, r. (1977). the silent revolution. princeton, nj: princeton university press. keskin, y. (2008). türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler öğretim programlarında değerler eğitimi: tarihsel gelişim, 1998 ve 2004 programlarının etkililiğinin araştırılması. doktora tezi, marmara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü, i̇stanbul. kirschenbaum, h. (1995). 100 ways to enhance values and morality in schools and youth settings. massachusetts: allyn&bacon company. kohlberg l 1981. moral stages and the idea of justice: essays on moral development. new york http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/suleymansah/doc?id=10224688&ppg=10� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/suleymansah/doc?id=10224688&ppg=10� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/suleymansah/doc?id=10224688&ppg=10� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/suleymansah/doc?id=10224688&ppg=10� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/suleymansah/doc?id=10224688&ppg=10� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/suleymansah/doc?id=10224688&ppg=10� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/suleymansah/doc?id=10224688&ppg=10� http://site.ebrary.com/lib/suleymansah/doc?id=10224688&ppg=10� journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 100 kohn, a. (1993). punished by rewards: the trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, a's, praise, and other bribes. boston: houghton mifflin kohn, a. (1997). how not to teach values: a critical look at character education. phi delta kappan 78(6): 428-439. lickona t 1991. educating for character: how our schools can teach respect and responsibility. new york: bantam books. lynch, j. (1992). education for citizenship in a multicultural society. london: cassell. mclaughlin t 2001. "citizenship education in england: the crick report and beyond" journal of philosophy of education, 34:541-570. meb, (2004). sosyal bilgiler dersi (4-5. sınıflar) öğretim programı ve klavuzu. milli eğitim bakanlığı talim ve terbiye kurulu başkanlığı websitesinden 10/10/2011 tarihinde edinilmiştir. sosyal bilgiler dersi 5. sınıf ders kitabı (2008). koza yayın dağıtım sosyal bilgiler dersi 4. sınıf ders kitabı (2010). tuna matbaacılık mei-lin ng, m. (2006). valuation, evaluation, and value education on acquiring the ability to value: a philosophical perspective. i r. h. m. cheng, j. c. k. lee & l. n. k. lo (eds.), values education for citizens in the new century (pp.49-66). sha tin: the chinese university press. mısırlı, a., erdoğan, m., ve temiz, n. (2007). "a critical analysis of values in primary school curriculum: a case study from türkiye. " in n.p. terzis (ed.) education and values in the balkan countries. greece: publishing house kyriakidis brothers s.a. morrow w 1989. chains of thought. johannesburg: southern book publishers. munn p 1995. values education in scottish schools. in: d van veen & w veugelers (eds). vernieuwing van leraarschap en lerarenopleiding. leuven: gavant. national council for the social studies. (1994). expectations of excellence: curriculum standards for social studies. washington, d.c. naylor, d. t. & diem, r. a. (1987). elementary and middle school social studies. new york: random house. orstein, a. c., & levin, d. u. (1997). foundations of education (6th ed.). new york: houghton mifflin company. özgüven, e. (1994). psikolojik testler. ankara: psikolojik danışma rehberlik eğitim merkezi (pedrem) pike, g. (2008). citizenship education in global context. brock education 17: 38-49. mehmet fatih yi̇ği̇t & bülent tarman 101 powney, j., cullen, m-a., schlapp, u., johnstone, m. & munn, p. (1995). understanding values education in the primary school. york: reports express. p.vii purple, d. ryan, k, eds. (1976). moral education: it comes with the territory. berkeley,calif: mccutchan putnam, robert (1993). making democracy work: civic traditions in modern italy. princeton: princeton university press. raths, l., harmin, m. and simon, s.b.(1966). values and teaching. charles e. merrill, columbus. ryan, k. ve bohlin, k. (1999). building character in schools. san francisco: jossey-bass. saintus, g. e. (1989). the values clarification movement as a response to the need for moral education: an analysis and critique. mcgill university (canada)). proquest dissertations and theses, retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587 sargın, n. (1993). rehber öğretmenlerin empati düzeylerinin geliştirilmesine i̇lişkin bir model önerisi., yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, i̇zmir: dokuz eylül üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. selby, d. (2000). "a darker shade of green: the importance of ecological thinking in global education and school reform. " theory into practice, 39(2), 88-96. senemoğlu, n. (2005). gelişim, öğrenme ve öğretim., ankara: gazi kitabevi. sert, g., kurtoğlu, m., akıncı, a., ve seferoğlu, s.s. (2012). öğretmenlerin teknoloji kullanma durumlarını inceleyen araştırmalara bir bakış: bir içerik analizi çalışması. akademik bilişim, uşak üniversitesi. simon, s. b., leland, w h., & kirschenbaum, h. (1995). values clarification: a handbook of practical strategies for teachers and students. warner books. simon, s.b. (1976). values clarification vs. indoctrination, moral education, ed. d. purpel and k. ryan. moral education: it comes with the territory. berkeley,calif: mccutchan smith, a. ve montgomery, a. (1997). values education in northern ireland. northern ireland council for the curriculum, examinations and assessment. solomons, i. ve fataar, a. (2011). a conceptual exploration of values education in the context of schooling in south africa. south african journal of education. 31:224 232 sunal, c.s., & haas, m.e. (2002). social studies for the elementary and middle grades: a constructivist approach. boston: allyn and bacon. http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� http://search.proquest.com/docview/303776209?accountid=131587� journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(2), 79-102 102 superka, d.p., ahrens, c., hedstorm, j.e., ford, l.j., & johnson, p.j. (1976). values education sourcebook: conceptual approaches, material analysis and an annotated biblography. colorado: social science education consortium publication http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accn o=ed 118465 adresinden 11.10.2011 tarihinde edinilmşitir. taylor, m. (1994). values education in europe: a comparative overview of a survey of 26 countries in 1993 unesco (2005). education for shared values and for intercultural and interfaith understanding. canberra: australian national commission for unesco. universal declaration of human rights (1948). geneva: united nations office of public information. veugelers, w (2000). "different ways of teaching values." educational review, 52:37-45. weber, m. (1990). theories of modernity and post modernity. london: sage. winter, p. a., newton, r. m., & kirkpatrick, r. l. (1998). "the influence of work values on teacher selection decisions: the effects of principal values, teacher values, and principal-teacher value interactions. " teaching & teacher education, 14, 385-400. yıldırım, a. ve şimşek, h. (2006). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin yayıncılık. yulish, s. m. (1975). the search for a civic religion: a history of the character education movement in america, 1890-1935. university of illinois at urbana-champaign). proquest dissertations and theses, retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ docview/ 302749085? accountid=131587 zajda, j. (2008). globalisation and implications for equity and democracy in education. içinde: j.zajda, l. davies, & s. majhanovich (eds.), comparative and global pedagogies: equity, access and democracy in education (pp. 3–12). dordrecht: springer. zajda, j. (2009). values education and multiculturalism in the global culture. global values education. new york, springer. zajda, j. & daun, h. (2009). "global values education: teaching democracy and peace, globalisation". comparative education and policy research 7. springer science + business media b.v. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/contentdelivery/servlet/ericservlet?accno=ed118465� http://search.proquest.com/� http://search.proquest.com/� http://search.proquest.com/� http://search.proquest.com/� http://search.proquest.com/� http://search.proquest.com/� http://search.proquest.com/� http://search.proquest.com/� http://search.proquest.com/� extended abstract kaynaklar / references www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 145-162 145 the influence of pedagogical leadership on the construction of professional identity. systematic review. inmaculada garcía-martínez1 & pedro tadeu2 abstract this article corresponds to a systematic review that analyzes the relationship of pedagogical leadership with professional identity, both concepts highly demanded by international research. methods: the process has followed the guidelines recommended by the prisma statement (preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyzes), to predict its systematic nature. during the same, a thorough search was made of articles located in the databases scopus and web of science, during the period 2007 to 2017. after the application of the inclusion criteria, 24 articles constituted the sample of the present article. results: the selected articles highlight the strong influence of leadership in the construction of the professional identity of both the management and the teaching staff. in turn, the selected studies also contemplated the impact of professional identity on the figure of teachers as school leaders. discussion: there is a certain coincidence in highlighting the importance of certain factors such as teacher collaboration, greater flexibility of organizational structures or the empowerment of teachers as a way to potential the professional capital of the professional while generating internal changes in the organization leading to a school improvement. key words: the professional identity, teacher´s leadership, leadership, education, professional development. introduction professional identity is one of the strongest research trends at this time. both the concept and its implications have been related to other factors such as educational leadership (notman, 2017; tubin, 2017). the incorporation of the role of leaders in the professional identity of teachers can lead to a better performance of their teaching function on the one hand, together with a reduction in their reluctance to assume responsibilities in the design and implementation of processes of change in the educational organization. also, the teacher as a leader, facilitates school improvement, through collaboration with their peers, in the establishment of a common vision in the center, which influences student learning. thus, the research presented here arises from the convergence of both research lines and its purpose is the analysis of their relationship, based on the findings found in the different investigations that have been carried out at an international level. 1 ph.d. prof., university of granada, igmartinez@ugr.es 2 ph.d. prof., udi – polytechnic of guarda, ptadeu@ipg.pt journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 145-162 theoretical framework international studies have identified teacher professional identity as one of the most important factors to achieve educational improvement. there is a great coincidence that a double dimension is attributed to professional identity: the individual component and the collective (cardoso, batista & graça, 2014; luehmann, 2007; ryan, 2007), which gives strength to the assertion that professional identity is a variable process, in continuous reconstruction, fruit of the interrelation between both components. this variant concept is closely related to the career path of the professional, as well as his training. in addition, construction of professional identity involves factors such as teacher self awareness about its work (arvaja, 2016; jiang, ma & gao, 2016), motivation and dedication to their profession or the training. in addition, it is through the narrative of his personal and professional life, where the identity of the staff is found, revealing his trajectory from the point of view of his perception (silva gomes, pereira ferreira, pereira & fazendeirobatista, 2013). in this way, professional teaching identity could be defined as a process that takes place along the professional trajectory of the teacher, whose beginning dates back to initial training and which varies as he develops his professional practice, through experience and the feedback with other colleagues, so that it is incorporating, modifying and rejecting some values and practices, in order to face the demands imposed from the professional context. therefore, to speak of teacher professional identity means inexorably to speak of the set of knowledge and competencies that enable teachers to practice teaching. however, each teacher develops an individual and unique professional identity, as a result of their experiences and their negotiation for adaptation. in this sense, for the study of professional identity should be considered that there is no unique and supreme identity under which all teachers enroll. rather, as dubar points out (cited by bolívar, 2016: 10) "there is not a teaching identity, but multiple identity forms. this composites forms are expressed, unstable, within a professional group." at the same time, identity is the fruit of a social process, intervening social and cultural factors in its construction. as several authors have pointed out internationally (day and gu, 2007; sutherland, howard, & markauskaite, 2010), identity is the product of the individual's interaction with the social context, their interaction with peers and their interpretation of these experiences (hanuscin, chen, rebello, shina & muslu, 2014). on the other hand, metacognition is very garcía-martínez & tadeu important in the construction of professional identity. through the self-knowledge of oneself, the faculty is strengthening some aspects of their professional development, detecting some training needs, which leads them to continue learning and training to strength them (arvaja, 2016; jiang, ma & gao, 2016). often, this construction process is facilitated by the development of the life story, since verbalizing thoughts about how one sees oneself and the experiences that support it, entails a dialogue in the process of being constructed. following bolívar (2016), subscribing to a biographical-narrative approach implies that identities are constructed in a process of socialization "like a narrative (...) that changes and is reconfigured over time. what becomes a person or a teacher is the result of the process by which the professional identity has been shaped " (p. 1). in this process, the reflection that the subject makes about the different scenarios in which he participates gives strength to his narrative identity (arvaja, 2016). on the other hand, professional identity does not have to correspond to the role, since it covers other aspects such as the perception that the subject has about his profession, his perception of the image that others have of him and the real image that the rest have about his profession. in fact, authors like ryan (2007) make a distinction between role and identity, attributing to the role a more predetermined and static character, while the identity is impregnated with subjectivity and negotiation, acquiring different forms depending on the context where their professional performance takes place and their interaction with other professionals. one aspect to note is that is in the university where teaching begins to build professional identity, it is the first contact with the professional field. in turn, the different courses and training itineraries aimed at strengthening some aspects of training, also have their place in the aforesaid construction. another factor that has a decisive influence on the construction of the teaching identity is the educational level where he develops or will develop his later professional work (hökkä & eteläpelto, 2014). in fact, it is in the workplace that the teacher, through his experience, strengthens his identity essence. in turn, their professional practices will also be conditioned by the place they occupy within the organization, as well as by the relationship established with their peers. equally important will be the work environment that exists in the educational center. if there is a collaborative environment among the teaching staff (and even the management), the likelihood is that the teaching staff will develop a cooperative professional identity, with a willingness to change. on the contrary, if that environment does not favor the possibility of sharing practices or journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 145-162 feedback, professional identity of teachers will be more static, impassive to the changes demanded by the context (hanuscin et al, 2014). in the case of secondary education, for example, the formation of identity is a complex process. on the one hand, we find that the teachers at this level of education are specialists in the subject and present, at least at the beginning of their profession, certain training deficiencies, remedied by a course (former cap) or a master's degree. on the other, we find that secondary education runs a strong school culture, with very specific purposes: a) preparatory (propaedeutic) for certain higher studies -humanistic, scientific-; b) technical or professional (for certain medium-level professions); c) terminal or finalist (general training needed to live in society and participate in social life) (lorenzo-vicente, muñoz-galiano & beas-miranda, 2014). numerous studies addressed in this level of education have indicated that teachers are more open to change, showing greater degrees of commitment when establishing a common mission in school. the establishment of a common mission by the leader or school leaders will considerably affect the professional identities of the staff working at the center (medina revilla & gómez-díaz, 2014), since in most cases, the teaching staff tend to identify with the subject they teach, reducing their identity or their professional performance to a specific subject and not as the main part of the educational center as a whole. in this regard, other investigations have highlighted some problems that teachers often suffer in the process of building their identity. hökkä & eteläpelto (2014), for example, focus on (a) the obstacles to renegotiating professional identity, (b) internal competition among the thematic groups within the department, and (c) discrepancies between individual agency and development organizational (p. 39). another factor that also influences the development of teachers' professional identity is leadership. since its inclusion in the educational world for a few decades, leadership is increasingly being reevaluated, placing it at the top of the educational agendas between countries. however, as some authors indicate, despite the boom that is being given to leadership, few teachers feel themselves leaders (hanuscin et al, 2014). however, they recognize the importance of establishing an effective pedagogical leadership in the centers to build the necessary conditions for the achievement of an optimal professional development throughout the educational organization although they still reduce the possibility of being leaders to those who hold positions in the schools. in this sense, the pedagogical leadership in its distributed and shared variant is subject to a culture of collaboration garcía-martínez & tadeu in the school. this collaboration is forged by the management as the formal leader of the educational organization, who tries to build working conditions that facilitate exchange and professional learning shared among the staff. given that the professional identity of teachers is a result, in part, of the teachers' experience and the challenges they face in their day-to-day life, as well as their way of coping with them, the existence of pedagogical leadership in schools educational, facilitated by management, inexorably impacts on the construction of the identity of teachers as a leader. as the teachers have to assume responsibilities regarding the teaching and learning processes of the educational center and be empowered, their leadership role will be strengthened. as is the case with teaching, becoming a pedagogical leader requires knowledge, skills and a strengthened construction of professional identity, according to the prevailing values in the world of work. in this sense, following the findings of luehmann (2007), the formation of identity is nourished by the opportunities to carry out the professional exercise, of how professional practice is approached, as well as the competences shown by the teaching staff, the possibility of working in a collaborative environment where exchange of practices and feedback from colleagues prevails, the assumption of responsibility, whether or not it acts as a leader or key piece in the organization, a high degree of support and the ability to be pragmatic in the face of constant changes in society and the demands of the profession. as explained above, initial training is a central enclave in the construction of the identity of future teachers (lorenzo-vicente et al, 2014). the secondary case is especially critical. the professionals who practice in secondary school lack specific training as a teacher. because for decades, it has been committed to the mastery of content rather than the possession of pedagogical skills, this teacher has gaps that limit their teaching practices. the evolution of society, together with the new values, demands and requested a criteria in the field of education leading to the focus on the professional dimension of teachers, through a more strengthened initial training that enables the teacher to face the challenges encountered in their day-to-day work, while at the same time consolidating their professional identity (lorenzo vicente et al, 2014). as pointed bolívar (2007), it is necessary to achieve a balance between the disciplinary role, responsible for the domain of scientific and pedagogical content, more related to its didactic transposition, methodology, and ways of managing this knowledge in the classroom. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 145-162 method the systematic review presented in this article has been carried out according to the guidelines recommended in the prisma statement (preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyzes) of urrutia and bonfill (2010), with the intention of granting greater consistency and scientific rigor to it. at the same time, it is in tune with the standards set by fernández-ríos and buela-casal, (2009). the present work arose with the intention of analyzing all the scientific studies that accounted for the professional identity of high school teachers and their relationship with pedagogical leadership. for this, an exhaustive search was made in the web of science and scopus databases. we opted for these two databases due to the relevance and quality of the scientific articles included in them. likewise, the fact of being international databases allowed a better overview of the issue that was to be analyzed. the period of this search includes the dates between the months of july and august of 2017, the following keywords were used, both in spanish and english: "professional identity” and "teacher leadership ", in addition it was used the boolean operators “and” “or”. then, the temporary publication range was reduced to articles that had been published in a period between 2007 and 2017, resulting in 160 articles, divided into 72 in web of science and 88 in scopus. figure 1. distribution of publications from 2007 to 2017. in this way, the population of the present study could be determined. next, the search of articles included within "social sciences ". with the intention of delimiting the number, the language filter 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 wos scopus sample garcía-martínez & tadeu was introduced, reducing it to only those that were published in english or spanish. the research area was one of the criteria used for a smaller number, so those scientific manuscripts were included inside the education area. once the previously described filters were made, others were used in order to further reduce the sample. among them, articles that provided empirical evidence were selected; studies that had by sample or participants the teaching staff and management team and investigations that show statistical results. leaving out of the study works such as reviews, meta-analyses, doctoral thesis, books or communications. figure 2. articles selection flowchart. the process was characterized by a first reading where the focus was placed on the title and the summary of the manuscript. after this first phase, there was a second phase where special attention was paid to the method, results, and conclusions according to the relevance of the relationship between the dimensions that were intended to correlate: teacher leadership and professional teacher identity. the selection of the sample that constitutes this article concluded with a deep and search in database keywords in web of science and scopus: "professional identity"; "teacher leadership"; "education" 593 articles found criteria for inclusion: last decade, articles that are in the social sciences 160 articles review of selected articles based on relevance and impact on the field of education 24 articles journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 145-162 detailed reading of the complete text of the scientific manuscripts. after this process, obtained 24 potential items as a sample of the study detailed in this paper. for the processing of the data, a logical order comparison of the data was carried out and all the information obtained was synthesized to arrive at a truthful study. findings the 24 articles that make up the sample of this systematic review are characterized above all by being based on qualitative instruments, this leads to the participation of the sample, 852, is considerably less than if they were from studies whose sources were quantitative in nature. in order to expose the most notorious characteristics of the selected articles, the following coding process has been carried out (see table 1): (1) author / s; (2) year of publication; (3) type of study (ttransversal; l-longitudinal); (4) population; (5) sample and (6) the techniques and information collection tools used. in light of the selected articles, we observe how works have been developed that relate professional identity and leadership in practically all educational levels. however, according to the sample of the present study, those carried out in the secondary stage stand out in number, as shown in table 2. a striking aspect is the lack of studies developed in higher or university education, corresponding to barely 12%. at the same time, studies or programs implemented in primary education (40%) and secondary education (48%) stand out. regarding the analysis of studies carried out by countries, we find that most of them have been carried out in the anglo-saxon field, with the us at the head (40%), followed by the united kingdom and spain (see table 3). in addition, it is appreciated that despite the fact that one of the selected articles is a review, another corresponds to an international investigation, which includes the results obtained in the united kingdom and portugal, hence obtaining a total of 24. garcía-martínez & tadeu table 1. list of articles that make up the systematic review. author/s and year type of study* population sample instrument* crow, day & møller, 2017 r sinha & hanuscin, 2017 t teachers 3 multiple case study: i vaiz & altinay, 2017 t 76 teachers 6 directors i allen, 2016 t teachers 3 semi-structured i bahous et al, 2016 t s 40 teachers 4 directors 4 students group case studies semi-structured i bolívar and ritacco, 2016 t directors 15 biographical i netolicky, 2016 l educators 14 narrative i nielsen, 2016 t teachers, supervisors 236 26 questionnaire i sales et al, 2016 t s, hs, university 15 focus group cross & ndofirepi, 2015 t primary 200 unstructured i rigby, 2015 t directors 6 deep qualitative observations and i wilkins & comber, 2015 t hs 36 teachers semi-structured i wingrave & mcmahon, 2015 t university students 8 i hanuscin et al, 2014 t hs 3. 4 questionnaire i montecinos et al, 2014 l primary teachers 5 nelson & guerra, 2014 t teachers, qualitative leaders 111 qualitative instrument rayner, 2014 t s, hs 3 directors case study: i white, 2014 t teachers 7 case study: i gumeseli & eryilmaz, 2011 t hs 756 quantitative lópez-yáñez et al, 2011 l s, hs, special education 3 ethnography: an in-depth study wood, 2011 t professional learning community 2 participant observation collay, 2010 l s 20 graduate program wepner et al, 2008 t college 14 deans i day, flores and viana, 2007 t sand secondary teachers 240 questionnaire, i * t: transversal; l: longitudinal; s: school; hs: high school; i: interview table 2. percentage and number of studies according to educational level. education level percentage no. studies academic 12 % 3 secondary education 48 % 12 primary education 40 % 10 total 100% 24* * some of the studies contemplate several educational levels table 3. percentage and number of studies according to the country of development. country percentage no. studies usa 37.5 % 9 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 145-162 united kingdom 20.83 % 5 spain 12.5 % 3 portugal 4.17 % 1 lebanon 4.17 % 1 cyprus 4.17 % 1 australia 4.17 % 1 south africa 4.17 % 1 chile 4.17 % 1 turkey 4.17 % 1 total 100% 24 discussion first, the selected studies reveal that the dimensions of the analyzed study, that is, the professional identity of teachers and the leadership of the teaching staff, demand a more qualitative than quantitative analysis, a fact already contrasted in recent systematic reviews (crow, day & møller, 2017). one of the possible reasons that sustain this affirmation is the fact of deepening in the biography of the participants and knowing their personal and professional baggage (allen, 2016; bahous, busher & nabhani, 2016; lópez-yáñez, sánchez-moreno & altopiedi, 2011; wepner, d'onofrio & whilite, 2008) to answer how he exercises his professional performance and, above all, why. with respect to identity, bolívar and ritacco (2016) give an account of the complexity of this construct, stating that: "professional identity has a subjective dimension (individual experience and social perception) and a more objective one (set of objectively determined features or standards) subject to what others expect and demand from an individual regardless of compliance" (p. 5). related to this, these authors highlight the socializing component in the construction of identity, emphasizing the double influence between how professionals see themselves, how they think others see them, and how the rest see them. this research is based on the belief that professional identity is the result of the interaction between the role (goal and static aspect), the person (eminently subjective and dynamic) and social identity (multipurpose, in constant reconstruction, fruit the processes of interaction of the person with the context), contemplated by crow, day & møller (2017) in his review article on how to trues identity management. according to these authors, the professional identity of the directors is mediated by three fundamental characteristics: "cultural biographies, gender factors and their values (...); the dynamic interaction between identity, educational policies and the school and its community (...) and awareness and emotional management are important elements in the stability/instability of their identities " (p. 266). garcía-martínez & tadeu it seems evident that personal and professional life are tangled. however, in the analyzed literature we also find other factors that directly affect the teaching career and, therefore, also do so in the professional identity of the teaching staff. such is the case of sinha and hanuscin (2017), who in a study carried out in the usa, analyzed the process of teacher leadership development from a threeyear program that had 86 participants. the assumptions that guided the study were the incongruence between the need (already noted) of a leader in the teaching staff and the absence of empirical evidence to demonstrate how to carry it out. thus, based on the experience of 3 teachers with a long history of secondary education, they explained that teachers tend to increase their awareness of leadership through their experience as leaders, making a clear distinction between new and veteran teachers. in addition, they emphasize that "teacher leadership trajectories depend on the teacher's priorities and context " (p.367). this conception is similar to that advocated by crow et al. (2017), who consider that the professional identity is the result of the professional, personal and situational dimension and that its stability will depend on the ability of the teaching staff to manage these three dimensions. rayner's (2014) work is similar in a similar line, who besides considering the school context and the socioeconomic characteristics of the educational centers, affirms that the educational policy influences the development and identity of teachers. like other studies, such as those carried out by lópez-yáñez, sánchez-moreno and altopiedi (2011), sinha & hanuscin (2017), wood (2011) or the one led by vaiz & altinay (2017), who affirm that for both teachers and directors, playing their role in a socially disadvantaged context has a significant influence both on their professional identity and on their leadership skills. according to them, working in challenging contexts awakens the motivation and desire for improvement of the staff of the centers, establishing channels of dialogue and collaboration between them (gumeseli & eryilmaz, 2011; sales, moliner & amat, 2017), which, in turn, is reflected in the growth and improvement of teaching and learning processes (bahous, busher & nabhani, 2016; nelson & guerra, 2014). other factors such as the choice of teaching career as a first option (cross & ndofirepi, 2015) or the migration to such profession (nielsen, 2016; wilkins & comber, 2015), are another of the critical incidents analyzed in this review. they emphasize the ability of those who decide to change their work context for teaching, making an overexertion that affects their professional career. with regard to the difficulties evidenced in these studies, they tend to focus on the lack of support and recognition, to those who are exposed, to those who decide to break with their old professional trajectory and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 145-162 join the educational field. in parallel, among their results, a broader perspective of teaching is also evident, which enables them to reflect and make decisions (curricular, pedagogical and organizational), beyond the context where they are found. on the other hand, this review not only has manuscripts that analyze the teaching identity or the address in the first person. the study carried out by netolicky (2016) deals with the influence of coaching professionals, as external trainers, on the professional development and identity of teachers. among the benefits of the program carried out was an increase in the capacity for collaboration and improvement of teaching skills. as a consequence of the coaching, higher levels of empowerment were observed in the teaching staff, which is related to a horizontal distribution of school leadership. through it, therefore, organizational changes in the educational structure were seen, emerging in the teacher’s new identity concepts that make their professional capital evolve. some similarities are observed in the work of allen (2016), who analyzed the professional development and instructional capacity based on peer group strategy. according to this author, positive effects are appreciated when part of the teaching staff acts as facilitator and leaders of the rest, exercising as "teachers or supervisors". through the modeling and narration of their experience, and making use of their capacity for reflection, the facilitators or teacher leaders show the rest how their past experiences (both personal and professional), academic or social experiences, some skills learned, including of contexts foreign to the scholar, have had or have their impact on their professional practice and their identity. consequently, these narratives act as catalysts for the rest of the teaching staff, causing a dent in their identity, construction and making them turn into a more complex one that enables them to act as facilitators. in a similar way is the research conducted by hanuscin, chen, rebello, shina & muslu (2014), more focused on teacher training as a school leader, like sinha and hanuscin (2017), who through the design of a program enhanced the professional capacity of teachers as leaders, mcdonough & brandenburg (2012), which they did through a professional experience designed in an australian university or the one carried out by rigby (2015), which analyzed the professional performance of teachers from the perspective of six directors. instead, research such as wingrave & mcmahon (2016) or the one proposed by bahous, busher & nabhani (2016), are based on the motivating component of students as the ultimate goal of professional teacher performance. in it, the role and capacity of the leadership in the organization garcía-martínez & tadeu of the center and the creation of spaces and environments for collaboration among staff, to optimize their professional capacity in an unfavorable social and economic environment is examined. similar in nature, but on the basis of the budget to professional learning communities (plc – cpa (comunidad profesionales de aprendizagen) in spanish), is the study conducted by lópez-yáñez sánchez-moreno & altopiedi (2011) and undertaken by wood (2011), who appreciated the evolution of the identity of teachers when working at a plc. these studies, qualitative, ride towards educational improvement through promoting collaborative cultures (sales, moliner & amat, 2017), strengthening professional identities of staff through learning faculty, establishing a commitment to student learning, considering leadership as favoring such claims. finally, investigations such as those raised by rayner (2014), white (2014), montecinos, pino, campos-martinez dominguez & carreño (2014) and day, flowers & viana (2007) consider education policy as a factor impact on professional capacity and leadership of school personnel. while the former has a pessimistic view respects its effects on professional performance, identity and leadership skills of management, considering that legislation, school culture, and context limit the ability of management and management leadership the second has a more optimistic assessment. for white (2014) the idea proposed by the british government to include the educational leadership and promoting a "professional collaborative learning" in schools through "training" by the most experienced teachers, who acts as an educator (and teacher), involves positive throughout the organizational structure in most cases effects, while acknowledging that there are aspects that need to be improved. instead, the last two put the focus on the impact of reforms designed by the government (chile, england, and portugal, respectively) and their impact on the professional development of teachers. at the end of this section, the result(s) obtained in the study should be re-stated and related implications should be explained. implications should be based on and limited to the findings of the study. conclusions journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 145-162 the review conducted for this study has addressed the relationship between professional identity and leadership of teachers from different perspectives, making visible the voice of the protagonists of schools. proof of this is the variability of participants found in the analyzed research (teachers, management, external consultants...) and context of development studies (primary education, secondary education or higher education). although it is not so much the objective that motivated each of them, namely school improvement through the promotion of professional capital of teachers. thus, various methodological designs have happened, acquiring various forms, such as training programs, seminars, legislative, organizational decisions at different levels (macro, meso, and micro) forms. among the findings, we have identified some common factors to all of them: the importance of collaboration as a way for school improvement, the need for a greater role of teachers as educational leaders, the result of an establishment of organizational conditions that do not restrict professional development, among others. in this regard, it has also shown a need for a paradigm shift that will facilitate the development of management as a bureaucratic manager or only leader to a dynamic of internal changes. in this line, some of the studies examined in this review have predicted that forms distributed leadership that empowers teachers is the way to go. as it seems to be the transformation centers to an lpc. the creation of a climate of trust and collaboration in the school by the management has vital importance for the teacher to assume his leadership role and incorporate it into his identity. as it has been found in the literature when the teacher is empowered by the management and feels safe to assume the challenges implicit in the leadership, he feels able to exchange impressions with his colleagues and the shared professional learning arises, where all learn from everyone. likewise, this professional learning promotes an improvement in the quality of the teaching and learning processes in the students. despite the complexity that entails, especially in the spanish case, characterized by a strong school culture, with static structures, it encourages professional development and strengthens the identity of teachers can be the beginning of an arduous journey toward educational improvement. garcía-martínez & tadeu references allen, d. (2016). the resourceful facilitator: teacher leaders as facilitators of constructing identities teacher peer groups. teachers and teaching, 22(1), 70-83. doi: 10.1080/13540602.2015.1023029 arvaja, m. (2016). building teacher through the process of identity positioning. teaching and teacher education, 59, 392-402. bahous, r.; busher, h. & nabhani, m. (2016). teachers' views of professional learning and collaboration in four lebanese urban primary schools. teacher development, 20(2), 197-212. doi: 10.1080/13664530.2015.1124137 bolívar, a. (2007). the initial training of secondary school teachers and their professional identity. education studies. 12, 13-30. bolívar, a. (2016). life histories and construction of professional identities (text to publish (in portuguese) coordinated by maría helena in mb book abrahão). bolívar, a. & ritacco, m. (2016). impact of the spanish model of school management in the professional identity of school leaders. analysis archives educational, policies 24(119), 1-39. cardoso, i., batista, p. & graça, a. (2014). professional identity in analysis: a systematic review of the literature. the open sports science journal, 7(suppl-2, m2), 83-97. collay, m. (2010). retracing the roots of teacher activism in urban schools. education, citizenship and social justice, 5(3), 221-233. cross, m. & ndofirepi, e. (2015). on becoming and remaining a teacher: rethinking strategies for developing teacher professional identity in south africa. research papers in education, 30(1), 95-113. doi: 10.1080/02671522.2013.851729 crow, g., day, c. & møller, j. (2017). framing research on school principals' identities. international journal of leadership in education, 20(3), 265-277. doi: 10.1080/13603124.2015.1123299 day, c. & gu, q. (2007). variations in the conditions for teachers' professional learning and development: sustaining commitment and effectiveness over a career. oxford review of education, 33(4), 423443. day, c., flores, m.a. & viana, i. (2007). effects of national policies on teachers' sense of professionalism: findings from an empirical study in portugal and in england. european journal of teacher education, 30(3), 249-265. doi: 10.1080/02619760701486092 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 145-162 fernández-ríos, l. & buela-casal, g. (2009). standards for the preparation and writing of psychology review articles. international journal of clinical psychology and health, 9(2), 329-344. gumeseli, a. & eryilmaz, a. (2011). the measurement of collaborative school culture (csc) on turkish schools. new horizons in education, 59(2), 13-26. hanuscin, d., chen, y., rebello, c., shina, s. & muslu, n. (2014). the affordances of blogging as to practice to support ninth-grade science teachers' identity development as leaders. journal of teacher education, 65(3) 207-222. hokka, p. & eteläpelto, a. (2014). seeking new perspectives on the development of teacher education: a study of the finnish context. journal of teacher education, 65(1), 39-52. jiang, y., ma, l. & gao, l. (2016). assessing teachers' metacognition in teaching: the teacher metacognition inventory. teaching and teacher education, 59, 403-413. lópez-yañez, j., sánchez-moreno, m. & altopiedi, m. (2011). professional communities of practice that manage to sustain institutional improvement processes in schools. journal of education, 356, 109131. lorenzo-vicente, j., muñoz-galiano, i., & beas-miranda, m. (2015). models of initial teacher training secondary education in spain from a european perspective. revista complutense de educación, 26(3), 741-757. luehmann, a.l. (2007). identity development as a lens to science teacher preparation. science education, 91(5), 822-839. mcdonough, s. & brandenburg, r. (2012) examining assumptions about teacher educator identities by self-study of the role of mentor of pre-service teachers. studying teacher education: a journal of self-study of teacher education practices, 8(2), 169-182. medina-revilla, a. & gómez-díaz, r.m. (2014). the pedagogical leadership: skills required to develop an improvement program in a secondary school education. educational perspective, teacher education, 53(1), 91-113. montecinos, c., pine, m., campos-martínez, j., domínguez, and r. carreño, c. (2014). master teachers as professional developers: managing conflicting versions of professionalism. educational management administration & leadership, 42(2) 275-292. nelson, s. & guerra, p. (2014). educator cultural beliefs and knowledge: implications for school improvement efforts. educational administration quarterly, 50(1) 67-95. garcía-martínez & tadeu netolicky, d. (2016). coaching for professional growth in one australian school "oil in water". international journal of mentoring and coaching in education, 5(2), 6686. nielsen, a. (2016). second career teachers and (my) recognitions of professional identities. school leadership & management, 36(2), 221-245. doi: 10.1080 / 13632434.2016.1209180. notman, r. (2017). professional identity, adaptation and the self: cases of new zealand school principals during a time of change. educational management administration & leadership, 45(5), 759-763. rayner, s. (2014). playing by the rules? the professional values of head teachers tested by the changing policy context. management in education, 28(2), 38-43. rigby, j. (2015). principals' sense-making and enactment of teacher evaluation. journal of educational administration, 53(3), 374-392. ryan, j. (2007). dialogue, identity and inclusion: administrators as school mediators in diverse contexts. journal of school leadership, 17, 340-369. sales, a., moliner, l. & amat, f. (2017). collaborative professional development for teacher distributed school leadership towards change. school leadership & management, 37(3), 254-266. doi: 10.1080/13632434.2016.1209176 silva gomes, p., pereira ferreira, c., pereira, a., & fazendeiro batista, p. (2013). a identidade profissional do professor: um estudo of revisão systematic. revista brasileira educacion physica e esporte, 27(2), 247-67. sinha, s. & hanuscin, d.l. (2017). development of teacher leadership identity: a multiple case study. teaching and teacher education, 63, 356-371. sutherland, l., howard, s. & markauskaite, l. (2010). professional identity creation: examining the development of preservice teachers beginning 'understanding of their work as teachers. teaching and teacher education, 26(3), 455-465. tubin, d. (2017).leadership identity construction practices. educational management administration & leadership, 45(5), 790-805. urrutia, g. & bonfill, x. (2010). prisma statement: a proposal to improve the publication of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. medical clinic, 135(11), 507-511. vaiz, m.e. & altınay, z. (2017). reaching out merits of information technology: conflict management in schools. eurasian journal of mathematics, science & technology education, 13(7), 2979-2992. wepner, s.b., d'onofrio, a. & wilhite, s.c. (2008). the leadership dimensions of education deans. journal of teacher education, 59(2), 153-169. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 145-162 white, e. (2014). being a teacher and a teacher educator-developing a new identity? professional development in education,40(3), 436-449. wilkins, c. & comber, c. (2015). 'elite'career changers in the teaching profession. british educational research journal, 41(6), 1010-1030. wingrave, m. & mcmahon, m. (2016). professionalisation through academicisation: valuing and developing the industry in scotland early years. professional development in education, 42(5), 710-731. doi: 10.1080 / 19415257.2015.1082075 wood, d.r. (2011). and then the basals arrived: school leadership, learning communities and professionalism. international journal of leadership in education, 14(4), 475-497. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (2), 61-83 61 human rights education in religious culture and ethics courses emine zehra turan1 abstract all individuals expect to be informed about and respectful of human rights for the sake of international peace. this study aims to evaluate students' views and suggestions on religious culture and ethics courses regarding human rights education in turkey. a qualitative method was followed by adopting a case study inquiry. the participants were 7 th and 8 th grade students studying at a secondary school in turkey. there were 30 voluntarily participants who took part in the study, and completed a questionnaire on the religious culture and ethics course. the results indicated that religious culture and ethics courses were considered as one of the most suitable platforms in which to teach human rights. the results also reported that there were fundamental differences in the perception of religious education and the emphasis on human and individual rights in religious culture and ethics courses, and instead of universal values, the results show that islamic values were prioritized rather over universal values. the participants, who talked about the need to cooperate with other courses in a multidisciplinary way to ensure human rights education wanted to find solutions for the security of humanity in this age of wars and migrations. based on these results, the subjects and themes covered in religious culture and ethics courses can be reviewed and teachers should be more sensitive while teaching human rights. in this regard, educational researchers and practitioners need tools that can be applied in a range of local, national, and international contexts and scales in this age. key words: human rights education, religious education, ethics, turkey introduction individuals need to be able to understand human rights as a concept. people must know that their rights and freedoms are their priorities, and basic education for this knowledge must be provided through education both in families and schools. human rights education provides individuals with the skills to exercise their rights in daily life. within the scope of human rights education, it is aimed to provide the students with the knowledge of human rights as well as practices protecting and defending human rights. one of the subject areas that forms the basis of adequate social studies education is human rights education. social studies education, interdisciplinary religious culture, 1 dr. nevsehir haci bektas veli university, zturan@nevsehir.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 and ethics education present the main skills and objectives accordingly. human rights is one of the objectives of religious classes. human rights or universal rights, are for everyone and need to be taught to children from an early age. when we consider human rights globally, there are three conventions in the modern era: the french declaration of human rights (1789), the united nations universal declaration of human rights (1948), and the european convention on human rights (1950). when we consider the progress of human rights over time, we see how many states ratified the instruments of human rights, and how widely they were applied by the various states (ignatieff, 2017). as wars and conflicts increase all over the world, the need for human rights education also increases. by designing effective training programs on human rights, this need may be decreased. education is the first step and is essential in creating a more beautiful and happier world. democracy and human rights course curriculum needs to be prepared in order to create a society in which human rights are dominant, and it is necessary to design activities by associating with different courses and intermediate disciplines. it is possible to talk about the existence of human rights in the countries governed by democracy. the concepts of democracy and human rights are very close and often directly linked (beetham, 2013 & freeman, 2008). democratic education systems must establish an understanding of respect for human beings. human rights education, as a requirement for democratic education systems, provides individuals with the skills to defend their rights in daily life. within the scope of human rights education, the aim is to provide students with knowledge of human rights as well as practices aimed at protecting and defending these rights. human rights education without these dimensions, from pre-school to higher education, will not be successful (karatekin, merey, sönmez & kuş, 2012). anthropologists, social experts, political scientists and legal experts studied how human rights users around the world participated in international human rights norms and how they interacted with one another and influenced the development of human rights norms (merry, 2018). human rights education, which includes the processes of teaching, learning and implementing human rights, aims to develop and disseminate human rights culture in a society. the united nations human rights council was accepted by the general assembly of the united nations declaration on human rights education in 2011. the prevention of human rights violations and abuses contribute to the construction and promotion of a universal human rights turan culture (united nations declaration, 2011, para. 1). the united nations defined the decade of human rights education (1995-2004) as education, dissemination and information work for the creation of a universal human rights culture through the molding of knowledge, skills, and attitudes of human rights education (flowers, 2010). learning concepts correctly and attributing them to the same meanings for everybody is vital. a solution to teaching the concept is to do activities based on concept teaching. while teaching the concept of human rights, which also reveals the ethical aspect of human beings, there is a need for teaching programs and interdisciplinary approaches that contribute to the development of the culture of democracy through recognition, protection, and use of freedoms. human rights education helps to develop the communication skills of democracy and to acquire the critical thinking skills that form the very basis of thinking. human rights education provides a multicultural and historical perspective based on a universal strength that protects justice and dignity (flowers, 2015) and should be seen as an international process aimed at raising awareness about the process followed for the elimination of human rights conventions and violations (tibbitts, 2008). there are various approaches and models in human rights education. multiple approaches seem to be more applicable among them, we need an international, and comparative approach. it seems appropriate to apply these models to religious education. merey, karatekin and kuş (2012) stated that in primary schools in turkey and the usa, one of the objectives of social science courses is to introduce students to some basic concepts of citizenship, democracy, and human rights. at the same time, these courses equip them with awareness, sensitivity, thought, attitude, and behaviour regarding the issues related to human rights. objectives related to human rights education in turkey are clearly stated in the curriculum of social studies. studies about human rights are still in progress, which forms the basis of practical social studies education. social studies education and interdisciplinary religious culture and ethics education provide basic skills and objectives while social, economic, and cultural factors along with the effectiveness of educational practices are all essential in order to teach the concept of human rights (mulhan, 2007). the learning areas in the social studies program expand from the 4th grade level to 7th grade level. the curriculum for the human rights, citizenship and democracy course of the 4th grade journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 primary school consists of six units and are as follows; (1) being a human, (2) rights, freedom and responsibility, (3) justice and equality, (4) reconciliation, (5) rules, (6) living together. values, skills and concepts based on human rights must be gained considering the general objectives of the course. themes for the overall outcomes for the course are the democratic system and living democracy, human rights and freedoms, living democracy: active citizenship, a pluralistic view of diversity, peace and reconciliation (ministry of national education (mone), 2018). human rights education was integrated into primary education courses (social studies, life science, turkish, mathematics, science and technology, history of revolution and kemalism, religious culture and moral knowledge, music and physical education) through intermediate disciplines. in the general interpretation of the principles of toledo, religious education in public schools, as long as it is consistent with human rights commitments, accepts human rights (toledo guiding principles, 2007, p. 33). in turkey, in order for the students to gain democratic attitudes and skills, there are various courses at different levels and classes on the educational process (gömleksiz & akyıldız, 2012). the place of human rights in religious education programs has not been ent irely integrated in turkey yet. however, there are many examples of human rights throughout the life of muhammad. prophet muhammad's medina agreement (constitution of medina), which brought together different members of faith and ethnic groups in medina, his behaviour to the people around him throughout his life, his relations with various religions and slaves, and his recommendations on this subject are all examples of essential texts and practices in terms of human rights. human rights lists in international documents are taken as a basis by religious educators to justify human rights as they are based on the principles of law which derive from an understanding of humanity where everyone is regarded as a free and autonomous person with equal attention and respect, regardless of language, religion, race and gender (donnelly, 1995). human rights education is generally seen as the effort of educating, informing, and disseminating processes which promote human rights to a universal culture (flowers, 2000; rasmussen, 2012). turan aim of the study the culture and ethics program, which has a vital role in the acquisition of human values and moral characteristics, has to assume new roles in the procurement of concepts such as universal values, human rights and ethics. it is possible to revise the religious culture and ethics program by evaluating the human rights gains of the students from the course and revealing their significant achievements, skills and values. the content of the program itself is not designed to provide a comprehensive description of human rights. therefore, program development studies should be carried out on the subject and the religious culture and ethics course should better emphasize universal human rights. it should also be emphasized in the lessons that islamic values are compatible with universal values and that one's right to life is considered sacred. the religious culture and ethics course already focus on "being the free person as allah draws the boundaries in the qur'an" and "respecting others". however, when the literature is examined, there are very few studies on human rights, citizenship and democracy content related to the religious culture and ethics curriculum which necessitates the conduct of this study. as an academician studying in the religious culture and ethics teacher training program, there is controversy that human rights are not connected to religion today. if teacher candidates are equipped with the right information in a religious culture program, they can give the necessary information to students and contribute to the formation of a more peaceful society. in an environment, where terror and racism has recently increased, there is a necessity to raise more sensitive students for the next generation. the religious culture and ethics program sees itself as just such a tool for teaching human values and morality. as an academician studying in the field of teacher training, it seems that measuring how efficiently human rights education has been delivered and how it works would be of crucial importance. it can be useful to reveal if there are any missing objectives or achievements from this course, and to reorganize the religious culture and ethics program by revealing the opinions and suggestions of the students of the course regarding the education of human rights. the conclusions of this study may contribute to academicians, program developers, and stakeholders. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 method this study used a qualitative methodology, a literature review, interview and questionnaire as data collection. identifying plausible causal networks that shape an event, situation, or condition are very important for this kind of research. research design case studies are ways of looking at what is happening in the environment, collecting, analyzing data systematically and presenting the results (davey, 1991). this study was carried out to reveal what the students were taught about human rights in the religious culture and ethics course, and what perspective they gained on this subject. it was a study of a specific event from different perspectives and was conducted as a situation analysis (mcmillan, 2000). case studies are defined as one or more events, environments, programs, social groups or interconnected systems and are examined in depth. students in many countries have a general view of human right and see the concept in many courses. miles and huberman (1994) suggest three procedures such as data reduction, data display and conclusion in qualitative data analysis. data reduction is the process in which the mass qualitative data such as observation and interview is obtained. yinn (1984) describes a current phenomenon as a research method that works in reality and is used in cases where there is more than one data source and the boundaries between the fact and the content are not explicit. for this reason, the case study method was used primarily to reveal the students thoughts about the religion culture and ethics program. population and sample/ study group/participants the participants were selected from the 7th and 8th grade students who took the religious culture and ethics course. this is a compulsory course in turkey, so all of these students from 4th grade up to 12th grade take this course. we restricted it to 7th and 8th grade students because these students, who have taken the course for several years, would best show the relationship between human rights and religious culture and ethics. therefore, no selection was made from younger groups. the data was collected in the 2019/2020 academic year. the reason for selecting both 7th and 8th grade students is for typical case sampling. our reason for choosing that age group is that now they have the ability to think critically about an issue. these are students who know each other and interact on a daily bases. fifteen students were turan selected from the 7th grade and 15 people from the 8th grade. a total of 30 students were selected in order to correctly observe the group behaviours. these students are studying in the same class, therefore, they have common views about this course. additionally, they have taken the religious culture and ethics course for the last three years. all students are studying in the centre of nevsehir and were chosen from different socioeconomic levels so that we could form a heterogeneous group. data collection tools accordingly, the semi-structured interview technique was used. the semi-structured interview technique has benefits of providing flexibility for the researcher, a high response rate, ability to observe non-verbal behaviours of participants, having control over the environment of the researcher and providing in-depth information (neuman, 2000). therefore, it is thought that the selected method and technique would be useful in obtaining the data that corresponds to the aims of this study. the semi-structured interview form was prepared for this research, and three field experts were consulted for the validity of the form. the interview form was finalized in line with the suggestions from the experts. this study would shed light on whether religious culture and ethics lessons contribute to the knowledge of human rights education in turkey. to meet the aims of the study, a form of open-closed questions was used. a few examples are given below: 1. what are human rights? do you know anything about them? 2. do you think that the religious culture and ethics courses are related to human rights? why? 3. are human rights mentioned in religious culture and ethics courses? if so, how much are they mentioned? 4. is the concept of human rights emphasized in religious culture and ethics textbooks? 5. what do you think about the importance religion attaches to human rights? data collection researcher interviews were conducted alone by the researcher. interview forms were collected, and coding was made according to the concepts extracted from the data. the data was obtained in accordance with the interviews with the participants who took the religious culture and ethics journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 course. the coded data was gathered and classified and subject areas were determined from these classifications. the statements which were thought to be prominent among the views of the students were transferred directly. data analysis the content analysis method was used in the analysis of the obtained data. the purpose of content analysis is to reach concepts and relationships that can explain the collected data (neuman, 2000). therefore, the data analysis method was chosen for this study. the structured interview form was evaluated by content analysis. content analysis is defined as a systematic, repeatable technique in which some words of a text are summarized with smaller content categories based on certain rules-based encodings. the main purpose in content analysis is to combine data similar to each other within certain concepts and categories and to interpret them in a way that the reader can understand. in addition, thematic analysis was used for data analysis. frequencies of the same themes were found and ranked from small to large according to the frequency number. thus, the qualitative data was converted into quantitative data. inferences and comments were made on the messages of the students and direct quotations were made from the students’ opinions. the answers given to the interview form were classified as pt1 through pt30 in order to keep their personal information confidential. content analysis was carried out in three steps. firstly, answers were made into meaningful groups according to content. secondly, these answers were converted into tables. finally, the responses and frequencies given for each item were first literally and then broadly interpreted by applying a quantitative technique to the data items obtained. due to the quantity of answers, the numbers of answers were taken into account instead of student numbers. findings it was revealed that the religious culture and ethics course is one of the most successful courses for the covering of human rights education in turkey. however, according to the participants, there is still not enough emphasis on human rights in the course. among the reasons for this situation are that there are fundamental differences in the perception about religious education and the emphasis on human and individual rights in the religious culture and ethics courses and instead of universal values, it was reported that islamic values are prioritized more than universal turan values. in the period of increasing wars and migrations, we can take advantage of the human rights lesson to seek solutions for the security of humanity. if these findings are considered, the subjects and themes covered in religious culture and ethics courses should be reviewed, and teachers should be more sensitive about the issues regarding the teaching of human rights. findings findings obtained from the participants were reported under the 5 categories as follows:  views on human rights,  views on mentioning human rights in religious culture and ethics courses  views on how religious culture and ethics courses relate to human rights  views of religious culture and ethics books on human rights  views on how religions value human rights finding 1: participants' general opinions about the concept of human rights were revealed. they answered the question of what human rights are, which is independent from the course. when defining human rights, students firstly regarded human rights as equivalent to the concept of justice and equality. students who state that human rights are freedom, rights and law are around 50%. the students who perceive human rights as a value is only 3%. participants' views on the concept of human rights. pt 9: “in my opinion, human rights are to be fair and to treat everyone equally.” students can be considered to see human rights as protecting their rights. pt 3: “human rights mean freedom, that no one interferes with anyone, that everyone is equal, that no one is superior to anyone.” pt 7: “human rights is a concept in which everyone has an equal and free right.” pt 11: “it is an organization which was established to protect people and to prevent them from being oppressed, oppressed, humiliated by other people.” journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 according to the findings, the concept of human rights also imposes a responsibility on the person. racism and similar exclusions can be eliminated if a person can achieve a life of respecting the human rights. human rights not only protect people but also teach us to respect the rights of others. table 1 finding: views on human rights opinions frequency justice, equality 20 rights (s), law 15 freedom 19 responsibilities 5 protecting human beings 2 values 2 while defining the concept of human rights, the participants gave answers such as justice, equality, rights, freedom, responsibilities and protection of people. the fact that participants perceive human rights most as justice and equality shows that this is the result they expect most from the concept of human rights. finding 2: views on mentioning human rights in religious culture and ethics courses finding 2: participants' views on how human rights education and religious culture and ethics are related. with this question, the study tried to find out how students benefit from human rights in the religious culture and ethics courses. most of the participants (80%) stated that human rights were mentioned in their religious culture and ethics course, where only 20% stated that human rights were not mentioned at all. the subject of human rights in religious culture and ethics courses and the fact that it is voiced by participants show the importance religion puts on the topic. in this respect, just exposing participants to the topic may not be adequate; additionally, participants should be able to comprehend and adopt the values of human rights. turan table 2 views on mentioning human rights in religious culture and ethics courses f % yes 25 80 no 5 20 finding 2a: human rights mentioned in religious culture and ethics courses ten participants pointed out that the prophet was at equal distance to all religions and gave them the same rights: pt 4: “yes, they are mentioned. even if they are from different religions, our prophet gives them the same rights as muslims.” in the religious culture and ethics course, the belief that not only are the rights granted to humans but are also given to animals and plants are mentioned. pt11: “in religious culture and ethics, human rights are often mentioned. we also talk about protecting people, protecting animals, and protecting plants.” comprehension of human rights is also supported by tolerance and respect. pt 20 expressed this as follows: “in almost all of religious culture and ethics classes, our teacher talks about the concepts of human rights, tolerance and respect in every lesson.” table 3 human rights mentioned in religious culture and ethics courses human rights, opinions frequency are mentioned in the course content 11 are mentioned in the examples of the prophet’s life 10 are mentioned in the prophet’s life 3 are mentioned in the holy quran 4 are mentioned in teachers’ narrations 4 from past to present 2 10 participants who pointed out that human rights are mentioned in the examples of the life of the prophet emphasized the existence of human rights in the course content. they pointed out that journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 human rights are mentioned in the qur'an and stated in the religion itself, in the course content (especially in the examples of the qur'an and the life of the prophet) human rights were mentioned. finding 3: participants' views on religious culture and ethics courses’ relation to human rights by questioning the relevance of the religious culture and ethics course to human rights, the contribution (necessity) of the course to human rights can be demonstrated. in order to reveal the relationship between religious culture and ethics and human rights, the participants associate human rights with examples from the lives of the prophets. pt 8: “because, i think it is one of the rights given to man in choosing his morality. man determines morality. in religious culture courses, he speaks of the prophet's morality since ancient times.” participants who think that religious culture and ethics are directly related to rights and conscience say pt 28: “i think yes because rights are directly related to religion. the subjects are very similar.” table 4 religious culture and ethics courses’ relation to human rights f % related 27 90 not related 3 10 90% of the participants think that religious culture and ethics courses are related to human rights. most of the students think that religious culture and ethics courses are related to human rights. religious culture and ethics courses’ relation to human rights the religious culture and ethics course emphasizes the value of human beings. true peace and happiness in religion are taught by the prophets. pt 4: “if everyone in this world was like our prophet, we could now live in a peaceful and happy world with concepts such as rights, law, justice, equality and freedom". similarly, the religious culture and ethics course draws attention to respecting the rights of others. according to the opinions of the participants (57%), human rights are mentioned in the religious culture and ethics course in the examples of the lives of the prophets. therefore, the lives of the prophets represent human rights as they had spread the word of human rights turan throughout their lives. religious culture is directly related to tolerance, respect, rights, law and conscience. it acknowledges that the values of honesty and responsibility are related to human rights. based on the participants’ answers, it would be appropriate to examine the relationship between the course and human rights. when the concept of human rights is associated with the religion culture and ethics course, priority issues, examples from prophets, values of tolerance and respect, values of honesty and responsibility come to the fore. additionally, rights, law, conscience, women's and men's rights issues are all relevant concepts related to the course. rights, law and democratic concepts can also be added to the list of values to be taught in the education program of religious culture and ethics. table 5 religious culture and ethics courses’ relation to human rights opinions frequency seeing the prophets as role models, human rights 12 the values of tolerance and respect 7 rights, law, conscience issues 5 honesty, responsibility values 5 dignify human beings 4 god-human relationship 3 men and women have separate rights 2 being a person of good moral is a right ( choice). 2 the irrelevance of religious culture and ethics about human rights in finding 3b, the irrelevance of the course to human rights was questioned. some of the participants think that the religious culture and ethics course is not related to human rights. they stated that morality is the character of a man and that human rights are universal values, not religious. however, religious culture is directly related to tolerance, respect, rights, law and conscience. it acknowledges that the values of honesty and responsibility are related to human journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 rights. in the religious culture and ethics courses, the number of participants who think that dignifying human beings is related to human rights is 10%. pt 3: “because god gives man the right to choose his morality. man will determine morality. in religious culture class, he talked about the morality of the prophet since ancient times.” pt 16: “as the name implies, the importance of human rights are emphasized in this course in terms of culture.” pt 20: “if everyone in this world were like our prophet, we can now live in a peaceful and happy world with concepts such as rights, law, justice, equality and freedom.” table 6 the irrelevance of religious culture and ethics about human rights not related 3 the qur'an focuses more on worship parables 1 morality is the character of a man 1 human rights are already values of humanity. 1 finding 4: human rights in religious culture and ethics coursebooks the participants were asked how often human rights was mentioned in the textbooks of the religious culture and ethics course. in this way, it can be revealed whether there is enough emphasis on human rights resources in textbooks. religious culture and ethics textbooks contain human rights because god wants every man to treat others well. it is understood that the subject is mentioned in some parts of the book because the teachers of religious culture and ethics talk about human rights. participant p 22 stressed: "i saw it when the teacher talked a lot, he reminds me". also, since it was scattered in many parts of the curriculum of the religious culture and ethics education program, the participants ( pt 5) said: "it exists in many parts of the book.” pt 9: "yes, i did. if i had not learned human rights from the book, i would not have cared, and some people would come and take my rights away, so i am always careful.” when talking about the life of the prophet, the book gives priority to respect for human rights. the participant (pt 12): "it exists in the parts where the prophet is mentioned." the religious culture and ethics courses and the books of the course emphasized not only the religion turan course but also morality, and the participants stated that the book refers to morality and rights rather than worship. pt 23 : “yes, i think that human rights are mentioned in the books of religious culture and ethics because there are human rights in religious courses.” 33% of the participants stated that their religious culture and ethics teacher mentioned about human rights while using the coursebooks and made use of reminders from the book. participants who stated that morality and rights are explained in many parts of the book said that when the prophet is mentioned and human rights are also emphasized in the book. two of the participants stated that human rights were not of interest in the religious culture and ethics course book. pt 3: “not interesting, i have never paid attention.” pt 8: “might be mentioned, i have never paid attention.” table 7 human rights in religious culture and ethics coursebooks opinions frequency the teacher mentions a lot and uses the coursebooks to remind them. 10 they are mentioned in many parts of the book (morality and rights) 10 in the parts where the prophet is the subject 5 i saw it when i read the book to learn my rights. 2 general information about human rights was given. 3 finding 5: views on how religions value human rights the answers to the fifth question would reveal the value of religion given to human rights. in this way, the importance or influence of religion in human rights education can be revealed in the religious culture and ethics courses. most of the participants think that god is fair and believe that there is a lot of evidence of human rights in the qur'an. they believe that the prophets protected everyone by drawing attention to human rights and that islam gives people freedom. the religious culture and ethics courses give quotations and examples from the quran. in these examples, the lives of the prophets are explained and human rights are described by exemplifying the lives of the prophets. p7 stats: “islam has given importance to human rights journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 because they are seen as important in the holy quran, religious books and the lives of the prophets.” according to the course content, god is the very idea of ‘right’ personified, so god is already the defender and protector of human rights. with the emphasis on this in the lessons, the human model that god wants is the one that respects human rights and injustice in the period of jahiliyya is expressed by the participants as follows: pt 24: “these rights are fundamental in islam because during the jahiliyya period, girls were not valued at all, but now everyone is given equal rights.” in the courses of religious culture and ethics, the rights that islam brings to everyone are discussed which the participants came to realize and commented as such: pt 4: “in the past, humans were not given their rights. for example, people were slaves, and their freedom was taken away. islam gave us rights.” two of the participants stressed that religion and human rights are not specific to one religion but are taught in all. pt 7: “human rights are given in every religion, and it has nothing to do with our religion.” pt 11: “human rights are in every religion, but people do not know.” table 8 views on how religion values human rights human rights are highly valued because (opinions) frequency allah treats everyone equally. (he establishes the rights and secures the justice) 7 proven by the book (the qur'an gives people their rights) 5 prophets protected (everyone’s) human rights 5 they give humans their freedom (slavery ends) 4 they provide convenience 4 concept of justice 3 they are crucial in islam 2 discussion, conclusion and implications human rights have an important role in the promotion and consolidation of peace, democracy and development. each country has its education and training programs, and each country tries to teach turan its citizens to be aware of human rights. children's rights and democracy education play an essential role in educating the citizens of the world to respect human rights, have democratic values and be responsible for themselves and others (friedmann, 2013). there is a close relationship between peace and human rights. therefore, in order for this to be actualized, schools should be turned into environments where students can learn by contextualizing democracy and where democratic principles can prevail (kuzgun, 2000). respect for human rights is the basis of peace and democracy and if somebody knows his/her rights, he/she will respect the rights of others. therefore, it is the primary responsibility of every citizen to know what their duties and responsibilities are, protect their rights and make efforts to improve them (audigier, 2000). according to apple and beane (2007), educators with a democratic attitude are not only seeking to reduce the severity of social inequalities in the school but also seek to change the conditions that create them. in addition to social concerns, there has been an increase in international concerns as well (salman, 2004). terrorist incidents are at the top of these concerns. human rights education should take place at the national, regional and international levels as living in a multicultural and globalizing world, human rights education only taught at the national level will be incomplete. without universal efforts, human rights education will be inadequate. religious and moral education programs in other countries should be examined as well as individual studies on this subject will be insufficient. it is not only sufficient for students to learn about human rights, but they also need to be willing to learn and then be able to internalize these rights. with this, one can successfully know, understand, share and experience human rights (kirchschlaeger, 2014). in turkey, it is known that there has been a variety of applications for human rights and citizenship education at different points in time. human rights and citizenship education is sometimes organized as a course and sometimes as a program integrated within different courses (akdağ & taşkaya, 2011). one of these courses is the religious culture and ethics course. it is essential to teach the concept of human rights to students through teaching religion. with the emergence of religions, the concept of human rights has emerged as well and has survived to the present day. religions share a universal knowledge of people's teaching of the social duties to others (lauren, 1996), and the idea of human rights has existed in many religious traditions, including judaism, islam, buddhism, hinduism, confucianism, and christianity (hayden, 2001). one of the most critical points that all religions jointly emphasize is human rights. we must create journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 a comprehensive system of human rights education, embracing formal and non-formal education. universities play a special role in this as they train specialists who may ensure both the implementation of human rights standards and the dissemination of knowledge of human rights. conclusion with this research, we tried to reveal how much students know about their own rights. it is not enough for them to simply know their rights but how they apply them is also important. the students considered that the religious culture and ethics course is one of the most appropriate courses in which human rights education is taught. for the students, justice and equality is very important and they want to establish an environment of peace. however, they believe there is currently not enough emphasis on human rights in the religious culture and ethics courses. if there is not enough emphasis on human rights, islamic values are put in the forefront rather than universal values. however, students did give some examples from the qur’an where human rights were mentioned. if the teacher has a democratic attitude in the course of religious culture and ethics, this will help students gain intellectual perspectives. in the globalizing world, we need to find conventional solutions to human rights problems, otherwise collective success in education cannot be obtained. students generally thought that human rights education and religious education are related. it has been determined that the students consider the religious culture and ethics courses as one of the most suitable courses in which human rights education can be taught. in this regard, different countries could benefit from turkey's religious education programs. the religious culture and ethics coursebooks are tools for teaching values and morality. the importance of these courses is understood in the era of human rights in which human characteristics such as tolerance, justice, duties, powers, responsibilities, freedom of religion and conscience, and morality are emphasized and expressed. in order to establish a democratic world together, it is important to teach individuals their rights and responsibilities. students have an idea of what human rights are. the students who participated in the research also acknowledge that these rights are indispensable and we need to raise individuals who know and protect human rights. in order to create a culture of democracy, we should start educating people on human rights and democracy as early as possible. it is thought that the content of the turan religious culture and ethics course are already human rights. it is emphasized that the lives of the prophets were filled with examples of human rights. the prophets' lives and divine revelations contain enough material to explain a universal conceptual model of human rights and in fact, all orders made in the three religions are intended to protect and promote human rights. students should be able to synthesize national and universal values. human rights that can be granted universally are not only for the benefit of one society but for other societies as well. in addition, it would be appropriate to design educational programs to teach students that islamic values are similar to universal values. the course books put a greater emphasis on morality and rights than they do on worship. the qu’ran itself has a lot of evidence of human rights and more comprehensive descriptive books should be prepared in order to explain the qu’ran to the students in terms of human rights. the students who want to work together with other courses in a multidisciplinary way to ensure human rights education want to find solutions for the security of humanity in a period of increasing wars and migrations. social studies, which is one of the closest areas to religious culture and ethics, should be carried out jointly with the religious culture and ethics course. however, conducting religious culture and ethics courses based on a single religion in turkey is not appropriate for today's pluralistic society. therefore, it is necessary to prepare a more pluralistic program in turkey. teaching human rights is not just the task of social sciences or religious education as it is now a completely multidisciplinary field. human rights education, which includes elements of respect, acceptance, tolerance and empathy, seems to be essential for preventing or eliminating the sense of marginalization caused by differentiation. we must create a world where we strengthen respect for human rights. teachers need to know how to teach human rights and civic duties. therefore, teacher candidates of the religious culture and ethics courses should be trained on these subjects and it will be beneficial to take from the experiences of countries that have gained a greater awareness of human rights education. students primarily want to learn about human rights in order to raise awareness in their own lives. it can be more effective as the emphasis on human rights is related to religious emphasis in teaching concepts. in religious culture and ethics classes, students are taught about god and learn that the human model allah wants is a person who respects others. for this reason, respecting each other can be supported by the religious culture and ethics course as students learn that journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 respecting human rights is a responsibility. it is a pity that there is so much emphasis on human rights in the books, but not enough practice in real life. this should be investigated in more detail. another dimension that should be considered in human rights education is that religious life should not be confused with real religion. in fact, there is a general recognition that a distinction should be drawn between the 'internal' and the 'external' practice of a religion or belief. suggestions  religious culture and ethics courses can be used to establish an understanding of education based on respect for human beings.  based on these findings, it may be suggested that the subjects and themes covered in religious culture and ethics courses should be reviewed, and teachers should be more conscious about the issues in teaching human rights.  it could be necessary to examine the education systems of the countries where human rights violations are very low and to prepare sample programs for the countries that are weak in this regard by using the necessary data.  communication of future generations will take place much faster in virtual environments. therefore, teachers should adopt more interactive education or educational tools in these courses.  religious culture and ethics course teachers can teach the subject better by conducting multidisciplinary studies with social studies teachers.  in religious culture and ethics courses, explaining that universal values and islamic values are similar, students with a more pluralistic perspective can be trained.  in order to eliminate segregation, it is necessary to educate students who respect others. a human rights program which is based on respecting people will help everyone understand each other.  we may help to prevent issues such as racism and discrimination in the world by aiming to teach students to live by respecting human rights while creating educational programs.  the themes and subjects of the lessons can be reviewed, and better examples can be given from the lives of the prophets.  in countries where human rights violations are more frequent than others, it may be possible to prevent this by using religious or moral courses. turan  the medina agreement that the prophet made during the emigration with members of different faiths and ethnic groups in medina could be taught by adopting these lesson.  the course should be diversified with more concrete historical events rather than slogans.  different religious instructors can come together and benefit from religion when teaching human rights and religious traditions can be used to promote human rights. references akdağ, h., & taşkaya, s. m. (2011). vatandaşlık ve insan hakları eğitiminin sosyal bilgiler öğretimindeki yeri. r. turan & k. ulusoy (edt.) sosyal bilgilerin temelleri. ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. apple, m. w., & beane, j. a. (2007). demokratik okullar: güçlü eğitimden dersler, (çev: m..sarı), ankara: dipnot yayınları. audigier, f. (2000). basic concepts and core competencies for education for democratic citizenship. strasbourg: council of europe. beetham, d. (2013). demokrasi ve i̇nsan hakları, (çev: b. canatan), 2n edt, ankara: liberte yayınları. council of europe. (2010). council of europe charter on education for democratic citizenship directorate of education and languages and human rights education. retrieved from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/edc/source/charter/charterpocket_en.pdf. davey, l. (1991). the application of case study evaluations. practical assessment, research & evaluation, 2 (9). donnelly, j. (1995). teoride ve uygulamada evrensel i̇nsan hakları, türkçesi: mustafa erdoğanlevent korkut, p. 19, ankara. flowers, n. (2015). the global movement for human rights education, radical teachıng about human rights, https://doi.org/10.5195/rt.2015.237. flowers, n. (2000). the human rights education handbook: effective practices for learning, action, and change. human rights education series, topic book. minneapolis: human rights resource center. flowers, n. (2010). pusulacık: çocuklar için insan hakları eğitimi (m. çulhaoğlu, çev.). i̇stanbul: i̇stanbul bilgi üniversitesi yayınları. freeman, m. (2008). i̇nsan hakları disiplinler arası bir yaklaşım. (türkçesi: a. e. koca, a. topçubaşı), ankara: birleşik yayınları. friedmann, l. (2013). education for peace: empowering children to uphold liberty, equality, and dignity. link: childrensrightseducation.com. gömleksiz, m. n., & akyıldız, s. (2012). vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersi öğretim programının uygulamadaki etkililiğinin değerlendirilmesi. milli eğitim (196). hayden, p. (ed.). (2001). the philosophy of human rights. st. paul: paragon house. ignatieff, m. (2017). human rights, global ethics, and the ordinary virtues. journal of international law & international relations, 13 (1), p. 3-16. karatekin, k., merey, z., sönmez, ö. f. and kuş, z. (2012). sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının insan hakları eğitimine yönelik tutumları. turkish studies, 7 (4), p. 2193-2207. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/edc/source/charter/charterpocket_en.pdf https://doi.org/10.5195/rt.2015.237 https://philpapers.org/s/michael%20ignatieff https://www.questia.com/library/p408822/journal-of-international-law-international-relations https://www.questia.com/library/p408822/journal-of-international-law-international-relations journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (2), 61-83 kirchschlaeger, p. g. (2014). colleges and universities can make a difference: human rights education through study visits of human rights institutions. civic pedagogies in higher education teaching for democracy in europe, canada and the usa. (edt. by jason laker, concepción naval, kornelija mrnjaus), 23, p. 9-30, palgrave macmillan uk. kuzgun, y. (2000). eğitimde kendini gerçekleştirme. a. şimşek (ed.). sınıfta demokrasi i̇çinde, p. 1-26, ankara: eğitim sen yayınları. lauren, p. g. (1996). power and prejudice the politics and diplomacy of racial discrimination 2 nd ed. colorado: westview. mcmillan, j. h. (2000). educational research: fundamentals for the consumer ( 3. ed). new york: longman. merey, z., karatekin, k. & kuş, z. (2012). i̇lköğretimde vatandaşlık eğitimi: karşılaştırmalı bir çalışma. gazi üniversitesi gazi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 32 (3), p. 795-821. retrieved from http://www.gefad.gazi.edu.tr/tr/issue/6734/90529. merry s. e. (2018). measuring the world: indicators, human rights, and global governance. in: malito d., umbach g. & bhuta n. (eds) the palgrave handbook of indicators in global governance. palgrave macmillan, cham. miles, m. h., & huberman, m. a. (1994). qualitative data analysis. an expanded sourcebook 2nd edition. london: sage publications. ministery of national education (2019), müfredat. http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/dosyalar/2018120202622474insan%20haklari%20yurttaslik%20ve%20demokrasi%20ogretim%2 0programi.pdf. retrieved june 5, 2019, from http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr, 2018. mulhan, m. (2007). i̇lköğretim 7. sınıf vatandaşlık ve i̇nsan hakları eğitimi dersi kavramlarının öğrenilmesinde sosyal, ekonomik ve kültürel faktörler ile eğitim-öğretim uygulamalarının etkileri. unpublished master thesis, institute of education sciences, marmara university, i̇stanbul. neuman, w. l. (2000). social research methods: qualitative and quantitatice approaches. boston, m.a: allyn and bacon. rasmussen, m. l. (2012). the human rights education toolbox: a practitioner’s guide to planning and managing human rights education. copenhagen: the danish institute for human rights. salman m. a., & mcinerney-lankford, s. (2004). the human right to water: legal and policy dimensions, law, justice, and development (washington, dc: world bank), 3, retrieved july 20, 2019 from http://www.questia.com/read/120459466/the-human-right-to-waterlegal-and-policy-dimensions. tibbitts, f. (2008). human rights education. encyclopedia of peace education. teachers college, columbia university. retrieved june 10, 2019 from http://www.tc.edu/centers/epe. toledo guiding principles, general comment no.22, para. 6, op.cit. note 29’dan aktaran, toledo guiding principles, p. 33. toledo guiding principles on teaching about religions and beliefs in public schools, (haz. office for democratic institutions and human rights (odihr) advisory council), poland 2007. retrieved 10 february 2020 from, https://www.osce.org/odihr/29154?download=true. unesco (2018). the world programme for human rights education, https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/education/training/wphre/secondphase/pages/sec ondphaseindex.aspx (date of access, 23.11.2018). http://www.gefad.gazi.edu.tr/tr/issue/6734/90529 http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/dosyalar/2018120202622474-insan%20haklari%20yurttaslik%20ve%20demokrasi%20ogretim%20programi.pdf http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/dosyalar/2018120202622474-insan%20haklari%20yurttaslik%20ve%20demokrasi%20ogretim%20programi.pdf http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/dosyalar/2018120202622474-insan%20haklari%20yurttaslik%20ve%20demokrasi%20ogretim%20programi.pdf http://mufredat.meb.gov.tr/ http://www.questia.com/read/120459466/the-human-right-to-water-legal-and-policy-dimensions http://www.questia.com/read/120459466/the-human-right-to-water-legal-and-policy-dimensions http://www.tc.edu/centers/epe https://www.osce.org/odihr/29154?download=true turan united states, declaration on human rights education and training, https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/education/training/compilation/pages/unitednationsde clarationonhumanrightseducationandtraining(2011).aspx). retrieved july 15, 2019 from https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/education/training. yinn, r. (1984). case study research: design and methods. beverly hills, ca: sage publishing. https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/education/training/compilation/pages/unitednationsdeclarationonhumanrightseducationandtraining(2011).aspx) https://www.ohchr.org/en/issues/education/training/compilation/pages/unitednationsdeclarationonhumanrightseducationandtraining(2011).aspx) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (4), 190-203 virtual reality: pro et contra polina volkova1, anna luginina2, natalya saenko3 & vadim samusenkov4 abstract the article is devoted to the study of the dual nature of virtuality as a sociocultural phenomenon, which enables the outlining of recommendations for ensuring the integrity of a holistic personality and its stability in a world subject to transformation. the study is based on the methodology of systemic and structural research; comparative induction method; principle of complementarity; method of participant observation. the effectiveness of the study is determined by the following conclusions: the dual nature of virtuality correlates with the dual nature of a human, who is both an actual biological organism functioning at the level of the information system and a potential social organism functioning at the level of the conceptual system; if the information system forms an orientation to the priority of the individual over the collective (egoism), then the conceptual system forms an orientation to the priority of the collective over the individual (altruism); in contrast to the information system, which restricts the entire diversity of the individual’s life to a reaction to the natural reflex, the conceptual system frees the individual from the dictate of the biological program through reflection; interaction with virtual reality can either fix the status of a passive consumer to an individual, whose consciousness as a correlate of an information system represents an ideal object for all kinds of manipulations, or initiate the birth of a creative person with a spiritual identity, which is acquired in the unity of information and conceptual systems; virtual reality as an integral component of the global internet, the actualization of which is determined solely by external actions from the side of the user (pressing a processor button, paying for the internet, maintaining the equipment in working condition, etc.) acts as the simulacrum of an individual conceptual system, the updating of which is possible only through the inside of the conducted organization of the information system; the universal “simulator” providing the desired unity of information and conceptual systems is the art, which is due to the isomorphism of a human and the text of culture; if the true unity of the information and conceptual systems is the guarantor of the positive deviation of the individual, then the simulation of the desired unity through the external interaction of the individual and virtual reality generated by the global network inevitably becomes a source of negative deviation due to the fact that such virtual reality does not change anything in the biological substrate, saturating information system with additional information. key words: virtual reality, emotivity, meaning formation, individual information system, meaning, value. 1 prof., krasnodar higher military school named after general of the army s.m. shtemenko, russian federation, polina7-7@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof., kuban state agrarian university named after i.t. trubilin, russian federation, luginina.anna8@mail.ru 3 prof., moscow polytechnic university, moscow, russian federation, rilke@list.ru 4 assoc. prof., sechenov first moscow state medical university, russian federation, v.o.samusenkov@inbox.ru mailto:polina7-7@yandex.ru mailto:luginina.anna8@mail.ru mailto:rilke@list.ru mailto:v.o.samusenkov@inbox.ru journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 190-203 introduction in descriptions of the nature of virtual reality, as a rule, attention is paid to the dichotomy of true/untrue, real/unreal (illusory), and genuine/not genuine (ivanov, 2000; luginina, 2016; robbins et al., 2019; romanov, 2003; saenko et al., 2020; watson, 2020). moreover, defined as a simulation, virtual reality often generates a negative connotation. in this case, it is viewed as a space artificially created by computer technology that can absorb the internet user so much that the latter sometimes loses the feeling of reality, experiencing more comfort while being in the social network than in the surrounding society. in another case, the concept of virtuality is positioned as a potential reality, which requires its actualization from the individual. at the same time, outside of the desired actualization, such virtuality does not lose its real status, while remaining only potentially possible (borodina et al., 2019; gabidullina et al., 2020; ritter, 2020; savina, 2015). it is hypothesized that one of the universal systems that contribute to 1) recognition of the true nature of virtual reality as opposed to its simulation, and 2) minimization of simulacra, increasingly filling the living space of an individual, is the art system. purpose of the study the study aims to reveal the polyconceptuality of understanding the process of virtualization in the existence of a modern person. on the one hand, virtuality is positioned as something illusory, unreal, but relevant at the same time, and, on the other hand, as something real but at the same time extremely potential, requiring actualization. the search for the reasons for seeing in virtual existence not another, completely new phenomenon but the next mode of “going beyond one’s own boundaries,” outgrowing one’s nature, and reaching one’s spirit through the art functioning at the level of the text of culture is the main line of research. literature review despite the fact that the problem of virtual reality is relatively new, in recent decades there have been studies in which the terminology of virtualistics determines the vector of scientific research of their authors (see, e.g., afanasyeva, 2005; becker & paetau, 1997; bühl, 1997; castells, 2004; ivanov, 2000; krasnykh, 1998; kroker & weinstein, 1994; mcluhan, 1967; sterling, 2005; warner & witzel, 2004). shapiro’s (2008) analysis of the virtual phenomena of the sociocultural space is carried out taking into account the formation of a new type of society different from the volkova et al. 192 industrial one. there is a tendency of transition from the materiality of social space to its imagery, which initiates the formation of a new reality based on symbolism. this process is irreversible and asserts itself more and more. the theoretical and methodological features of considering the problem of virtualization of society are reflected in a number of works by representatives of the frankfurt school. noting the presence in social reality of a special sphere of life, filled with images and mirages, scientists pay attention to the fact that the designated sphere has a direct impact on the formation of the ideology of modern society. within the framework of the phenomenological direction, the work of berger and luckmann (1966) gives an idea of the process of constructing social reality, taking into account that the formation of realities of a different order, embedded in the reality of everyday life, is considered important. the postmodern perspective of the problem is also presented in the works of barthes (1994), derrida (1993), deleuze (1968), and baudrillard (1981). a new understanding of social reality was formed within the framework of post-industrial theory by such thinkers as bell (1973), touraine (1969), toffler (1980), and brzezinski (1970). attempts to predict and comprehend the changes emerging under the influence of new information and telecommunication technologies in various spheres of human life were undertaken by representatives of information theory (castells, 2004; naisbitt & eburdin, 1992; pham, 2018; porat & rubin, 1978) and in the research of forrester (2003), fukuyama (2006), huntington (2003), mcluhan (1967), markov (2000), and others. analysis of the epistemological and ontological aspects of virtualization and the proof of the methodological effectiveness of the concept of virtual worlds for scientific knowledge are found in the studies of rozin (2017), horuzhy (1997), and others. an excellent perspective on the study of virtuality, taking into account scientific and technical achievements, the increased role of information, changes in the parameters of spatio-temporal attitudes, and the formation of a new worldview through the telecommunication interpretation of reality and the creation of its analogs on the internet, are demonstrated by the works of grunbaum (1969), mikeshina (2007), openkov (2012), hamit (1993), and others. method based on a systematic approach that initiated “a movement from a multi-subject idea about an object to an integrated one-object idea” (shchedrovitsky, 1995, p. 80), it was possible to integrate journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 190-203 the achievements of a number of humanities (language philosophy, linguistic anthropology, socio and psycholinguistics, personality psychology), which allowed to qualify the work with the texts of culture as compensatory activities to eliminate the negative consequences of collisions with simulative virtuality. the appeal to the principle of complementarity of the ontological and historical aspects of socio-philosophical knowledge, justified by w. windelband, enabled the use of methods of social ontology, focusing on such methodological principles as self-organization and organization (grimov, 2019, pp. 42-52). moreover, philosophical anthropology became the methodological basis of the study, which is based on the polyparadigm nature of the study of humans in all their diversity and multidimensionality (nature, physicality, consciousness, sociality, language, and creativity). findings in order to answer the question of whether there is common ground between the person and the text, it should firstly be understood what a person is. from this point of view, it seems justified to consider an individual from the position of an individual information system as a unity of nonverbal and verbal elements, realized through the principle of interpretation (pavilenis, 1983). it is about a suitable “mechanism,” automatically launched by nature, for processing and storing information, designed to ensure the maximum adaptation of the biological organism to its surrounding reality. it is significant that the success of the adaptation process is directly related to the cognitive activity of the individual’s consciousness (shakhovsky & volkova, 2017, pp. 138163), which is realized through the communicative function of the language. in this case, the brain acts as an organ designed for survival. on the contrary, the brain becomes an organ of thinking only when the natural mechanism acting on the basis of individual organization is subjected to organization by its carrier, as a result of which the cognitive activity of consciousness initiated by nature is supplemented by sense-forming activity (kazmina et al., 2020; tarman, 2020; timberlake, 2020; voronkova et al., 2020). the latter marks a transition from a linguistic reflex to a reflection highlighted by a special doubling of the world. such “visual doubling,” when “the world first split, went crazy, for it turned around and looked at itself” (girenok, 2014, p. 41) is rock painting, the clearest evidence that non-verbal elements of an individual information system actually and logically preceded the verbal elements. according to pavilenis (1983), the latter arose exclusively in the service of the former with the volkova et al. 194 goal of coding the non-verbal experience and manipulating it through manipulating verbal elements. accordingly, a linguistic being is not necessarily a thinking person. it is clear that in this context, the act of speaking cannot be regarded as the basic difference between a person and an animal, to which girenok (2014) draws attention in his work “beyond language and instinct”: despite the fact that “going beyond the limits of the existent, a person ceases to be a natural being” (p. 26), such a transformation in no way provides this non-natural being with the status of a “cultural being”; indeed, “the transgression of the boundaries of biology does not mean a quick entry into the world of the society” (p. 26). in other words, even having mastered the language, a person, in essence, remains a two-legged talking animal, fulfilling a natural program that is the same for all living things: to survive at all costs. therefore, chomsky (2002) is unconditionally right, claiming that “inside the species (human species. – p.v., a.l., n.s.), it seems that there is no variability... it is a uniform system, and therefore there has been no significant evolution since the time of its appearance... in the case of the language, it is known that something appeared in the process of evolution and, since it appeared, there have been no indications of any evolutionary changes” (p. 218). in this context, it becomes obvious that a person who has mastered his or her natural mechanism through the organization of an individual information system is a supernatural being, i.e., an artificial one. the argument for the presented position is the fact that without any protective mechanisms inherent in natural beings—hooves, horns, fangs, claws, powerful jaws, etc.—a person has the ability to negotiate with similar people in such a way as to remove the contradictions, inevitable while interacting with others, although this inherently human ability is rarely needed. otherwise, substitutes for natural protective mechanisms, such as brass knuckles, knives, and any other types of knives or firearms up to nuclear weapons, would not be so in demand. nevertheless, despite the fact that such devices really increase the natural forces of a human, thanks to which they are able to win the battle with any beast, their essential—i.e., actually human—forces remain only in potency. how can a two-legged talking animal become a human? presumably, natural activity, consciously organized by the activity of a social subject, is removed through the following modes: 1) decoding of a verbal sign as a return to the initial point from which the formation of the individual system began, i.e., return to non-verbalism; and 2) coding of the verbal element of the non-verbal experience obtained as a result of decoding. it is emphasized that such an experience helps to journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 190-203 eliminate the formal, that is, automatically realized connection between the verbal (rational) and the non-verbal (irrational/emotional) in favor of their real interaction. accordingly, if in the first case the individual carries out the subjectivization of objective experience, then in the second case, the individual carries out the objectification of subjective experience, which lays the foundation for their intersubjectivity as a correlate of internal sociality. the essence of the latter was formulated by bakhtin (1994a) as follows: “i am the only one who proceeds from myself, and i find all the others – this is the ontological and eventual equivalence” (p. 66). the importance of gaining inner sociality is due to the fact that, outside of it, all the laws acting within the framework of society that enshrine the inviolability of the values of human society turn into external coercion for an individual, which inevitably provokes a protest. this state of affairs is a consequence of the dominance of an impersonal mechanism, under the sign of which the individual information system functions as an expedient process, automatically launched by nature. this is a situation where “... our mind is controlled by information alien to us, an implant that cares only about supporting its own existence” (sommer, 2014, p. 23). in this case, the socalled double morality arises when people say one thing and think another, acting in accordance with the so-called “self-serving” interest, guided in their actions by self-interest, which ultimately gives rise to a shadow economy, shadow communication, etc. from this point of view, sartre’s thoughts that a person is not a given, but a task, and the words of mamardashvili and pyatigorsky (1997), according to whom a person is a constant reincarnation, become clear. here, it is also appropriate to recall the dictum by augustinus sanctus: “each... first, due to the need, according to adam, is evil and carnal, and then, when he or she is reborn, he or she grows in christ, and becomes good and spiritual ...” and “although not every evil person will be good, no one however, will be good who was not evil” (augustine the blessed, 2000, p. 156). in relation to an individual information system, augustinus’s thought can be commented on as follows: the givenness of the self-organizing natural mechanism that dominates the individual limits one’s life to purely material problems, the solution of which is aimed at achieving personal comfort and well-being. since there are many hostages to such an impersonal system, the struggle for a place under the sun is becoming tougher for its carriers, embittering those who want to get everything at once. however, if an individual is able to realize that life, organized in this way, is just the implementation of a natural program, one may try to get out of the oppression of an impersonal volkova et al. 196 mechanism, which inevitably will make one more than oneself, i.e., more than the boundaries of one’s nature. the effort made in this direction inevitably make a person more than their self, i.e., more than the boundaries that nature imposes. at the same time, despite the fact that many representatives of the society live without even suspecting that their true human selves remain only potentially possible, none of those who managed to give up the power of nature could succeed as an authentic person without reliance on individual information system in the depths of which a social mechanism is formed. in other words, if a spiritual person as a potency, as a virtual reality, appears marked by the unity of the natural and supernatural origins, then the carnal person is only nature. since access to the space of the spirit as an actualized virtual potency requires the individual to have a special culture of thinking—a kind of opposition to the automatism of the mechanism that is expediently triggered by nature—each individual is confronted with the need to remain in constant spiritual wakefulness. it is in this context that virtual reality appears “as a co-existent being, and not as something completed and which happened once and for all” (mamardashvili & pyatigorsky, 1997, p. 150). on the contrary, passive adherence to nature, within which the individual uses the language as an object given by nature, is fraught with verbal or otherwise rational thinking of the status of a stable structure. the catastrophic nature of this state of affairs is due to the following point. the “fact that the individual remains in this state of linguistic thinking” signals their exit from consciousness (mamardashvili & pyatigorsky, 1997, pp. 39-40). it is obvious that, using language as a natural object, beyond setting it to transcode the verbal into the non-verbal and vice versa, an individual inevitably loses the realization that verbality itself is secondary in relation to non-verbality, as a result of which the whole is replaced by a part. it is assumed that one of the effective ways to restore the desired integrity, which corresponds to the integrity of nature, but at the same time is distinguished by a supernatural character, is the work with cultural texts. since any literary text is isomorphic to the individual, representing both the present reality (musical text, canvas, film footage, book) and the idea potentially installed into the bosom of objectivity (love, life, death, hatred, etc.) in its projection onto the universally human or otherwise, intersubjective values/disvalues, exactly the work with a piece of art, regardless of whether it is a painting, music, literature, etc., can become a precedent for the moment of truth (nalimov, 1989; volkova, 2019, pp. 258-264). what is the work with a text of culture? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 190-203 by building a dialogue with a work of art, the individual realizes the co-existence of the text (the given) and the context (created) as a continuing unity of the verbal and the non-verbal, the rational and the irrational, the external and the internal, which in the terminology by bakhtin (1994b) is called the dialogue of consciousness (pp. 257-321). as an example, it is suggested to turn to contemporary fine art, which, on the one hand, demonstrates the apparent primitivization of forms, and on the other, a complex space, pulsating with senses, recognizable in the paintings by richter, polke, baselitz, twombly, and others. if realism based on the idea of rationalism seems unconditionally understandable to a layman, who bases their self on habitual forms of the being, then abstract painting is designed to liberate the individual, removing them from the automatism of perception, stimulating the search for their own richter, polke, baselitz, and twombly. how can such a search—access to the continuing unity of verbal and non-verbal elements of an individual information system, as a dialogue opposing their mechanical connection is meant—lead to the desired result? or: what are the necessary conditions for the successful organization of such a dialogue? due to the fact that “from a historical point of view, it is doubtful whether there are unmotivated links in a language between the meaning and the form; the apparent lack of motivation should be explained by the fact that this connection has been erased, demotivated, and it is necessary to find the initial motivated state” (kibrik, 1992, p. 130), one should be aware of the following: both the cognitive process initiated by nature and the process of sense formation are under the sign of emotional breadth (it is recalled that it is about a language phenomenon as opposed to emotionality as a psychological phenomenon (shakhovsky, 2008)). notably, if the actual emotives present in the language determine the cognitive process, then virtual emotives show their involvement in the process of sense formation (shakhovsky & volkova, 2017, pp. 138-163). the argumentation of the presented position is based on the fact that meaning as a unit of consciousness also appears at the level of virtual reality, which is fundamentally different from its actualized state. moreover, preceding any actuality, being present in any of them exclusively at the level of potency, virtuality finds its existence “only in action, in dynamics, as a source of newer and newer urgencies..., being a condition for the creation of every act...” (kudryashova, 2005, p. 293). since the conditional existence of virtual emotives, the emotional valency inherent in any linguistic sign a priori allows to see a symbol in such a sign, one cannot but admit the correctness of mead, who insisted that it is symbols that play a decisive role in the formation of an individual’s ability volkova et al. 198 to act exclusively humanly, i.e., consciously (ritzer, 2007). accordingly, nothing more than virtual emotives leads the individual away, on the one hand, from the automatism of perception, on the other hand, from the spontaneity of the language, providing the individual with the opportunity “not to passively respond to reality, which imposes itself, but to actively create and recreate the world in which he or she acts” (kudryashova, 2005, p. 262). moreover, it is the emotiveness, actualized in the process of working with literary texts, that can be considered as a cultural dominant in the space of “post-symbolic communication,” with which lanier (2018), the author of the term “virtual reality,” connected the future of the globalizing world (p. 415). paying special attention to linguistic and symbolic forms in his works, pointing to their place and role in the communication process, lanier predicts their departure to the forefront of the society of the performance. returning to the virtual reality constructed by means of computer technologies, it is noted that, because of its simulative nature, it is dangerous simply because it creates the illusion of thought activity without any volitional effort on the part of the internet user. substituting a genuine space of the spirit, this virtual reality eliminates the need for an individual to create meaning in view of its accessibility. however, in reality, such enviable ease turns into a total defeat of the individual. according to lanier (2018), “the more technologically advanced we are in the future, the more chances we will have to put an end to the history of the mankind” (p. 421). conclusion the processes of the extreme degree of simulation and virtualization bring culture to a stage in which its true (pure) existence appears open or transparent. concluding the study, one cannot but admit that the processes of extreme degree of simulation and virtualization bring the art and general culture to the stage in which their true (pure) existence appears open or transparent. therefore, the current situation of total enthusiasm for virtual and global simulation of reality has a positive, productive aspect: a clear vision of the structure of the being of the culture, consciousness, and a human is formed. on the other hand, the virtualization of the being and the existing modern person is the process of crowding out the mode “here” with the mode “now”; that is, the chronotope of culture becomes pure chronos. this, in the authors’ opinion, is a painful point of the paradox: people today are aimed at success, comfort, and material well-being, but at the same time, they are more and more journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 190-203 rapidly and more drawn into virtuality, where all of the desired material goods are instantly replaced by simulacra. thus, a person is again torn between the aggressive procedure of material consumption and the accelerating stream of virtualization, which becomes a new mode of unity of nature and spirit in a person. within the framework of the latter, it seems essential to be aware of the following: • interaction with virtual reality can either fix the status of a passive consumer to the individual, whose consciousness represents an ideal object for all kinds of manipulations, or initiate the birth of a creative person with a spiritual identity; • in the second case, the optimal condition for the awakening of reflection is art as a space for the dialogues of the verbal and the nonverbal, the rational and irrational, the external and the internal, the discrete and the continuum; • coordination of contradictions between information and conceptual systems determines the integrity of a human personality, whose subjective values correlate with universal values, being marked by an intersubjective nature; • if the true unity of the information and conceptual systems is the guarantor of the positive deviation of the individual, then the simulation of the desired unity through the external interaction of the individual and the virtual reality generated by the global network inevitably becomes a source of negative deviation; • such an experiment is possible insofar as such a virtual reality does not change anything in the biological substrate, only increasing the amount of information in the individual information system. references afanasyeva, v. v. (2005). the totality of the virtual. saratov. augustine the blessed. (2000). on the grace of god. moscow: act. bakhtin, m. m. (1994a). to the philosophy of the act. in works of the 1920s. kiev: next. bakhtin, m. m. (1994b). problem of content, material and form in verbal artistic creativity. in works of the 1920s. kiev: next. volkova et al. 200 barthes, r. (1994). effect of reality. in selected works: semiotics, poetics (pp. 392-400). moscow: progress. baudrillard, j. (1981). simulacres et simulation. paris. becker, в., & paetau, м. (1997). virtualisierung des sozialen. die informationsgesellschaft zwischen fragmentierung und globalisierung. frankfurt am main: campus-verlag. bell, d. (1973). the coming of post-industrial society. new york. berger, p. l., & luckmann, t. (1966). the social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of knowledge. new york: vintage books. borodina, t., sibgatullina, a., & gizatullina, a. (2019). developing creative thinking in future teachers as a topical issue of higher education. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 226-245. brzezinski, z. (1970). between two ages: america’s role in the technetronic era. new york. bühl, a. (1997). die virtuelle gesellschaft: ökonomie, politik und kultur im zeichen des cyberspace. wiesbaden: springer vs. castells, m. (2004). the power of identity. oxford: blackwell. chomsky, n. (2002). on nature and language. new york: cambridge university press. deleuze, g. (1968). différence et répétition. paris: puf. derrida, j. (1993). spectres de marx. paris: galileè. forrester, d. (2003). world dynamics. moscow: ast. fukuyama, f. (2006). the end of history and the last man. new york: free press. gabidullina, f., galiullin, r., khakimova, i., & mansurov, i. (2020). elitist education: historical experience of the russian and tatar peoples. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 267-280. girenok, f. (2014). beyond language and instinct. in russian philosophy of the 21st century (pp. 3-78). moscow: ioi. grimov, o. a. (2019). digital reality: social ontology and empirical study methodology. complexity, mind, postnonclassics, 3, 42-50. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/tsifrovayarealnost-sotsialnaya-ontologiya-i-metodologiya-empiricheskogo-izucheniya grünbaum, a. (1969). philosophical problems of space and time. moscow: progress. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/tsifrovaya-realnost-sotsialnaya-ontologiya-i-metodologiya-empiricheskogo-izucheniya https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/tsifrovaya-realnost-sotsialnaya-ontologiya-i-metodologiya-empiricheskogo-izucheniya journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 190-203 hamit, f. (1993). virtual reality and the exploration of cyberspace. university of michigan. horuzhy, s. s. (1997). genus or crop failure? notes on the ontology of virtuality. problems of philosophy, 6, 53-68. huntington, s. (2003). clash of civilizations. moscow: ast. ivanov, d. v. (2000). virtualization of society. st. petersburg: petersburg oriental studies. kazmina, i., lukyanov, p., zhminko, n., savchenko, i., yusupova, g., & zatsarinnaya, e. (2020). fourth industrial revolution: engineering innovations for labor productivity increasing. talent development and excellence, 12, 477-487. kibrik, a. e. (1992). sketches on the general and applied questions of linguistics. moscow: msu. krasnykh, v. v. (1998). virtual reality or real virtuality? in person, consciousness, communication. moscow: dialogue-mgu. kroker, a., & weinstein, м. (1994). data trash: the theory of the virtual class. montreal. kudryashova, t. b. (2005). ontology of languages of knowledge. ivanovo: jsc ivanov. lanier, j. (2018). dawn of the new everything: a journey through virtual reality. moscow: exmo. luginina, a. g. (2016). models of network societies in post-industrial and information concepts. polythematic network electronic scientific journal of the kuban state agricultural university, 120, 903-913. mamardashvili, m. k., & pyatigorsky a. m. (1997). symbol and consciousness: metaphysical reasoning about consciousness, symbolism and language. moscow: languages of russian culture. markov, b. v. (2000). virtual city, virtual space of culture. proceedings of the scientific conference, april 11-13. st. petersburg philosophical society, 3, 136. mcluhan, м. (1967). the medium is the message. new york. mikeshina, l. a. (2007). epistemology of values. moscow. naisbitt, j., & eburdin, p. (1992). what awaits us in the 90s: megatrends. moscow: republic. nalimov, v. v. (1989). spontaneity of consciousness: probabilistic theory of meanings and sense architects of personality. moscow: prometheus, lenin mgpi. volkova et al. 202 openkov, yu. m., & lysochenko, m. n. (2012). twitter as a tool of culture. interaction on culture with the user. recommendations. baku. pavilenis, r. i. (1983). problem of meaning: modern logical-philosophical analysis of language. moscow: thought. pham, q. n. (2018). book review: visual method in social research. american journal of qualitative research, 2(2), 143-144. porat, m., & rubin, m. (1978). the information economy: development and measurement. washington. ritter, m. (2020). civility and shared fate: social studies teaching as teaching for belonging. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.1 ritzer, g. (2007). modern sociological theory. mcgraw-hill education. robbins, c., bishop, j., & tarman, b. (2019). against reactionary populism: opening a needed conversation in education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), i-vi. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.ed rozin, v. m. (2017). building the foundations of thinking and logic: programs by g. leibniz and d. hilbert. ideas and ideals, 2, 36-46. saenko, n. r., voronkova, o., zatsarinnaya, e., & mikhailova, m. (2020). philosophical and cultural foundations of the concept of “nihitogenesis”. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 88-103. savina, n. n. (2015). the structure and content of the module “research and experimental activities of a teacher”. the social sciences, 10(7), 1891-1895. https://doi:10.3923/sscience.2015.1891.1895 shahovsky, v. i. (2008). linguistic theory of emotions. moscow: gnosis. shahovsky, v. i., & volkova, p. s. (2017). emotivity as a principle of the knowing and meaning-forming activities of consciousness. the world of linguistics and communication, 4,138-163. www.tverlingua.ru shapiro, d. i. (2008). virtual reality and problems of neurocomputing. moscow: rfk-image lab. shchedrovitsky, g. p. (1995). systemic movement and prospects for the development of a systemic structural methodology. in selected works (pp. 57-87). moscow: school of cultural politics. sommair, d. s. (2014). space currency is the highest wealth. moscow: codex. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.ed https://doi:10.3923/sscience.2015.1891.1895 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 190-203 sterling, b. (2005). tomorrow now: envisioning the next fifty years. moscow: u-factory. tarman, b. (2020). editorial: reflecting in the shade of pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed timberlake, m. (2020). recognizing ableism in educational initiatives: reading between the lines. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 84-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.5 toffler, a. (1980). the third wave. new york. touraine, a. (1969). la societe postindustrielle. paris. volkova, p. s. (2017). language and speech in the space of culture: interpretation and reinterpretation. journal of volgograd state university, 16(4), 207-214. https://doi.org/10.15688/jvolsu2.2017.4.20 volkova, p. s. (2019). of people and text: to a question of isomorphism. scientific capacity of higher education institution to production and education. armavir: amhi: 258-264. voronkova, o. y., sadykova, l. r., avdeev, y. m., murzagalina, g. m., surikov, y. n., & zatsarinnaya, e. i. (2020). education in the field of technological entrepreneurship, based on the university’s innovative resource base. talent development and excellence, 12(3), 444-453. warner, m., & witzel, m. (2004). managing in virtual organizations. london: thomson learning. watson, e. (2020). #education: the potential impact of social media and hashtag ideology on the classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 40-56. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 138-159 preventing the acts of corruption through legal community education i ketut seregig1, tulus suryanto2, bambang hartono3, eddy rivai4, endang prasetyawati5 abstract the efforts to criminalize corruption committed by the indonesian police, attorney and criminal commission of corruption institutions have been intensified, but state officials, especially regional heads, such as governor / vice governor, regent / deputy regent, mayor / deputy mayor, members of people’s representative councils and other state officials are also not deterred by the actions of law enforcement officers. this condition has led to a gap between the prosecution and prevention with acts of corruption that occurred, that the impacts of criminal acts and the prevention of corruption are not directly proportional to the data of criminal acts of corruption that occurred. supposedly, the more action and prevention activities undertaken, the criminal acts of corruption will decrease. however, empirically, the situation in the field is the opposite. to combat this increasingly massive corruption, it is necessary to make more efforts to create an anti-corruption society. the strategic step that must be done by the government is to make intensive prevention efforts, through legal community education in realizing anti-corruption culture in indonesia. intensive prevention is done by establishing commission on prevention of corruption, which carries a special task of preventing corruption. the problems that have been hypothesized in this study have been tested by the researchers and resulted in a conclusion that officials given knowledge about the prevention of corruption acts tend not to do corruption, compared to those who do not follow socialization or get the knowledge; there is a positive influence of socialization activities conducted on the decrease of corruption. keywords: anticorruption culture, community education, and regulation. introduction the nawacita program, which is used as a guideline for the performance of the president republic indonesia, joko widodo, for five years consists of nine strategic programs. from the nine programs, two programs are related to the nation's education program, among others: the fifth program aims at "improving the quality of life of indonesians by improving the quality of education and training with the program of "smart indonesia" and improving the welfare of the people with the program of "indonesia work" and "prosperous indonesia" by encouraging land reform and land tenure programs of an area of nine hectares, subsidized house program or subsidized low-cost housing as well as social security for the people in 2019". the 1 faculty of law of bandar lampung university, ketut1183@gmail.com 2 *faculty of islamic and business, universitas islam negeri raden intan lampung, tulus@radenintan.ac.id 3 faculty of law of bandar lampung university, bambang.hartono@.ac.id 4 faculty of law of lampung university. email: eddyrifai63@gmail.com 5 faculty of law of bandar lampung university, endang.dosenubl@gmail.com mailto:ketut1183@gmail.com mailto:tulus@radenintan.ac.id mailto:bambang.hartono@.ac.id mailto:eddyrifai63@gmail.com mailto:endang.dosenubl@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 139 8th (eighth) program states that "implementing character revolution of the nation through the policy of rearranging the national education curriculum by putting forward the aspects of civic education that focus on proportional aspects of education, such as the teaching of nation history, patriotic values, the spirit to defend the state, and manners in the education curriculum of indonesia.2 improving the quality of education and the reorganization of the national education curriculum as stated in the nawacita of joko widodo-jusuf kala program is implemented through the launch of one of flagship programs "smart indonesia program" which aims to educate indonesian people as mandated in the opening of the 1945 constitution. the state of the republic of indonesia as the duty of internal security, based on the mandate of the law, is obliged to carry out the development of security and public order, contained in eleven priority programs of the indonesian police chief (general police prof.tito karnavian, ph.d). the seventh stated that the police seek to "build awareness and public participation on security, public order; and the eight year program stated that the police will make efforts in "strengthening the maintenance of security and public order". through these two priority programs, the police in its 8th mission aims to "realize law enforcement that is professional, fair, and uphold human rights and anti-corruption, collusion and nepotism". the two priority programs and objectives of the police mission are efforts to accelerate the program that has been established by the indonesian police chief as a policy that must be implemented by all police officers through "promoter" program professional, modern, trusted.3 the efforts to eradicate corruption committed by law enforcement officers (indonesian police, attorney and criminal commission of corruption) against corruptors in the field are already optimal, but the impacts of the action have not been able to deter corruptors. based on the yearend report of law enforcement agencies published by the indonesia corruption watch on the results of criminal acts of corruption committed by the indonesian police, attorney and criminal commission of corruption in 2016: investigation of 482 cases, the number of suspects of 1,101 people and losses of 1.450 trillion rupiah; by 2017: investigation of 575 cases, number of suspects of 1,288 people, losses of 1.814.4 trillion rupiah, bribery valued 211,075 billion rupiah. the details are as follows: police: there are 2016 criminal acts of corruption committed by the prosecutor's office: investigation of 140 cases with 327 suspects and 337 billion rupiah of state losses, while in 2017, there were 216 cases with 436 suspects and losses of 1.6 trillion rupiahs and bribes valued 975 million rupiah. procuratorate: in 2016 the criminal acts 2 quoted on february 25, 2018, from: http//yandex.ru/search/?text 3 quoted on february 25, 2018, from: http//yandex.ru/search/?text seregig et al. 140 of corruption committed by the prosecutor's office: investigation of 307 cases with 671 suspects and state losses of 949 billion rupiah, while in the year of 2017, there were investigations of 315 cases with 730 suspects, state losses of 4.4 billion rupiah and bribes of 21.8 billion dollars. criminal commission of corruption: in 2016, the corruption criminal acts committed by criminal commission of corruption: investigations of 35 cases with 103 suspects and state losses of 164 billion rupiah, while in 2017, the process of investigating 44 cases with 128 suspects, state losses of 210 billion rupiah and bribery of 188.3 billion rupiah.4 based on the professions of the perpetrators designated as suspects, who are 1,288 people, the 10 professions are: 495 state apparatus suspects, 241 private employees suspects, 102 village chiefs suspects, 59 community suspects, 50 president directors or state owned enterprises employees suspects, 44 chairmen / members of organization / group suspects, 38 village apparatus suspects, 37 chairmen / members of regional people’s representatives assembly suspects, 30 regional heads suspects and 30 suspects of main directors or employees of regional owned enterprises. meanwhile, 30 local heads who were caught in corruption cases during 2017 consist of 1 governor / deputy governor suspect, 5 mayor / deputy mayor suspects, 24 regent / vice regent suspects. from the 29 regions involved in corruption, 12 of them will hold elections in 2018. further, from the 12 regions involved in the corruption, five regional heads have been designated as suspects and one regional head has been dismissed by the judge because it is not proven to receive gratuities. the most common mode is bribery with 11 corruption cases. in addition to this mode, there is a misuse of authority amounting to about nine corruption cases.5 in addition to corruption eradication commission prosecution programs, the precautions cited from the corruption eradication commission 2015 performance accountability report, the number of prevention activities is quite extensive. in 2016 and 2017, corruption eradication commission, prevention activities through education, socialization and corruption wars campaign activities in the corruption eradication commission accountability report published in 2017 include the implementation of integrity in the education sector in the form of 21 program activities, political party integrity system 4 program activities, community involvement as public service advocacy 2 program activities 16 sub-activities, training certificate in corruption wars learning center 4 program activities, development of anti 4 quoted on april 22, 2018, from: https://antikorupsi.org/sites/default/files/tren_korupsi_2017.pdf 5 quoted on april 22, 2018, from: https://antikorupsi.org/sites/default/files/tren_korupsi_2017.pdf https://antikorupsi.org/sites/default/files/tren_korupsi_2017.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 141 corruption concept in sector private 3 program activities 18 sub-activities. all program activities are implemented conceptually and planned.6 the problem with regard to the increase of corruption crime is that the activities of law enforcement and prevention conducted by law enforcement officers resulted in a gap between the program activities that have been done and the results achieved, because there are many corruption cases that occurred. even, the cases involved all levels of society, ranging from the smallest corruption to large corruption. the criminal acts of corruption generally occur in the implementation of infrastructure development and procurement of goods and services as well as a small number of bribery cases against state officials done by entrepreneurs. to identify the problem of empirical differences (empirical gap), the authors will conduct research whose results will be written in a scientific article entitled "prevention of corruption crime through community education law". literature review in relation to research on community education in realizing the society against corruption, the authors will describe the results of some previous research published in international scientific journals. the results of the research will be used as a reference in the research that the authors will do, in terms of method, research approach and theory. however, the problems of the research are different from those in the previous studies. the results of research, entitled "training as a vehicle to empower carers in the community: more than a question of information sharing", published in the journal of "health and social care in the commnuity" suggest some conclusions: first, community-care agents must move beyond the preoccupations of those who participate in empowerment, since the empirical findings have shown a relationship between empowerment and psychological influence at the organizational and community level; secondly, training programs may provide opportunities for achieving research objectives; thirdly, in training programs, empowerment has incorporated learning experiences to improve self-agency (individuals) through psychological empowerment; fourth, in community activities, included in the training, there should be concerns about the activities that should be done to produce caregivers who can be empowered. to a certain extent, whether the community program is capable of generating changes as a result of empowerment needs to be investigated.7 6 dikutip tanggal 22 april 2018, dari laporan akuntabilitas kpk 2017: 363-386, website: https//www.kpk.go.id 7 clarke. international journal, health and care in the commnuity, 2001: quoted on april 7, 2018. seregig et al. 142 the conclusions of peisakhin's research have shown that to improve the outcomes of government activities through public policy, the provision of legal information to the public sphere specifically indicates that poor people in new delhi city who use rtia are more likely to receive ration cards than people who follow standard procedures. this indicates that the distribution of ration cards through rtia facilities is similar to bribery. this means that poor people who follow government procedures do not get services to meet the needs of the poor. this fact is significant in the context of a thriving and developed society. the definition of corruption, according to peisakhin (2001) quoted from nye (2001), is the misuse of public office for personal benefits, a form of economic politics of developing countries. roseackerman (1999) and bardhan (2006) declare various policies to combat corruption, among others; streamlining state apparatus and reducing incentives for corrupt bureaucracies. however, kaufmann et al. (2002) questioned many of the recommendations of anti-corruption strategies, based on the perceptions of cross-national survey data, most of whose surveys analysis failed to address the endogenous problems inherent in non-experimental studies of corruption. in their article, the authors propose the effectiveness of government transparency as an anticorruption strategy, which is likely to result in a decrease in corruption. this is in accordance with becker and stigler's (1974) deviation pattern which states that the crime will decrease once the potential victims are better.8 the results of a truex survey of corrupt behavior in nepal presented in an article entitled "corruption, attitudes, and education: survey evidence from nepal". it is stated that the cause of low country capacity among developing countries is based on migdal's opinion that the state is one of many organizations and social institutions that has to compete to control the rules governing citizen behavior (1988, p.29). the anti-corruption norms include, among others, values that emphasize the impartiality of an ethic, and the clash of public services with traditional values. in kathmandu, nepal, the definition of right and wrong, is inaccessible and actively debated actively, as education is a key driver of social norms which plays a central role in the debate. this gives an optimistic reason that more and more citizens will have access to education, and social norms can tip further in corruption education. despite much research on the causes of corruption, very few patterns of corruption change through the process of economic development and modernization. major corruption and embezzlement may be quickly denounced socially and then controlled, but the giving of small gifts, nepotism, and exchange of aid are continuing, still acceptable and unchanged (truex, 2011). 8 leonid peisakhin dan paul pinto. regulation & governance; 2010; 4, 261–280: quoted on april 9, 2018. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 143 in the conclusion of a scientific article entitled "taxonomy of corruption in higher education" written by nataliya l. rumyantseva, published online in peabody journal of education dated november 18, 2009, it is stated that corruption in higher education is common throughout the world. the consequences will be detrimental to the quality of education, morale, future opportunities and leadership qualities of the future. this article is based on the author's literature and knowledge, which describe corruption in higher education. the sample of five subcategories of corruption education depends on the participants involved in the exchange of students. different types of corruption may require a different theoretical and methodological approach if corruption education research is to be done. this taxonomy deconstructs national education of corruption and serves as a tool for further research(rumyantseva, 2005). social skills training as outlined by alex kopelowicz et al. in his article entitled recent advances in social skills training for schizophrenia, comprises learning activities that utilize schizophrenic behavioral techniques, which allow people with mental disorders to gain intermanagement and life skills independently to improve functionality in their communities. when the type and frequency of training is related to the phase of the disorder, patients can learn and maintain various social and independent living skills. generalization of skills used in everyday life occurs, when the patients are given the opportunity, encouragement, and reinforcement to train the skills in the relevant situation. recent advances in specialized skill training are included in adaptations and applications to improve the generalization of community training (kopelowicz, liberman, & zarate, 2006). in the book entitled "fighting corruption in developing countries: strategies and analysis", the authors want to provide strategic insights for policymakers to be effective, related to the misuse of public authority for personal gain(klitgaard, abaroa, & parris, 2000). when corruption manifests in various ways, a good and effective anti-corruption strategy is needed. according to kaufmann, kraay, & zoido-lobatón (2002) findings, an appropriate anticorruption strategy is to focus on developing law, strengthening law enforcement agencies, and establishing government institutions. the approach used is a sectoral or decentralized approach, because a sectoral approach offers one of the best ways to understand corruption behavior and develop strategic anti-corruption (spector, 2005). the theory described will be used as a reference in analyzing the problems to be studied. to give a clear direction in conducting research, the writers will take research samples in lampung province. the results of suryanto’s (2017) study on ifrs, skeptisism auditor professional, conflict agency for prevention of fraud and investors trust level show that ifrs, skeptical seregig et al. 144 of professional auditors, agency conflict simultaneously impacted fraud prevention on the island of sumatra, indonesia. in addition, the results suggest that fraud prevention has a positive effect on investor confidence. this paper provides the influence of ifrs, professional skepticism of auicitors, agency conflict for fraud prevention and its implications for investor confidence in the island of sumatra, indonesia (yazid & suryanto, 2017). methodology this research is a qualitative research in the analysis with quantitative data, to prove the truth of the research results described in the sentences. in collecting data, the researchers employed empirical approach method, that is observation, interview or document review in order to obtain the facts required in the form of texts, interviews, personal documents and other official documents(kaelan, 2005). in relation to qualitative research in the field of law community education in the non-formal education environment (community environment), the approach method used includes observations, interviews and script-tapping, concepts and practice practices that have been applied in preventing criminal acts of corruption by the function of police community coach and the prevention field at the criminal commission of corruption in accordance with its main duty. the development strategy used by the national police binmas is to utilize the potentials that exist in the community, among others: religious leaders, traditional leaders, community leaders and youth leaders. the three measures of empowerment (israel, checkoway, schulz, & zimmerman, 1994; kieffer, 1984) selected by clarke as a measure of psychological empowerment results in exploring empirical data will serve as a reference in measuring research results entitled to build anti-corruption culture through legal education. these three methods of empowerment include: first, the controls felt by the three social levels (individuals, organizations and societies; second, self-charisma; and third, self-esteem) (clarke, 2001). peisakhin (2001) field experiment in india (2001) was published in the journal is is transparency an effective anticorruption strategy. peisakhin has conducted a test, on the effectiveness of transparency as a factor that encourages the creation of anti-corruption society. the research used the method found by kaufmann & kraay (2003), suggesting that the appropriate anti-corruption strategy is focused on legal development, strengthening law enforcement agencies, and establishing government institutions. the approach used is a sectoral or decentralized approach, because a sectoral approach offers one of the best ways to understand corruption and develop strategic corruption wars. another method that will be used journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 145 in this research is the method of training approach, which clarke (2001) proposes, "through training programs can provide opportunities for achieving research objectives". in connection with this research, efforts to build an anti-corruption community will be done by providing training or upgrading that will be given to heads of agencies, agencies, institutions and agencies in the district government. in empirical data collection, yazid and suryanto used non probability sampling technique or not random sample random sampling method. the subjects taken as a sample are junior and senior auditors who have worked for more than 2 years. the tool used was the multivariate structural equation model (sem) with amos, which has been adapted in this study. the difference with this research is that the sampling technique used by writer is purposive sampling technique, with research subject of heads of service who have been working more than 20 year. there is a similarity in terms of the purpose of research conducted yazid and suryanto with this research. the study of yazid and suryanto is an attempt to prevent fraud against investors and increase confidence, while this study aims to prevent corruption through media education community law.(yazid & suryanto, 2017) results and discussions research results criminal acts of corruption can be categorized as an extraordinary crime that cannot be solved only with refresive actions. the actions must be run simultaneously with the prevention program intensively and continuously. in this prevention effort, the involvement of all government ministries and agencies is required through guidance, welfare, cultural corruption wars program. the intensity of anti-corruption education for all state civil apparatus at the central and regional should be increased. prevention programs through anticorruption education will be a strategic program that must be implemented conceptually, programmed and sustainable. therefore, the government must separate the field of corruption prevention tasks that have been carried out by the police and the corruption eradication commission by establishing a separate commission entitled commission on prevention of criminal acts of corruption, which specifically carries out prevention functions (preventive, preemtif) to build a corruption wars culture in the life of society, nation and state. separation of the function of prevention of corruption with the function of law enforcement (refresif), meant that the prevention function is able to change the mental and culture of indonesia into a society that has mental and anti-corruption culture, so that commission on seregig et al. 146 prevention of criminal acts of corruption will be equal in terms of its position with the criminal commission of corruption. to identify the success of methodology applied in this research, data of corruption crime that happened before socialization were collected by team socialization of lampung police. with regard to criminal acts of corruption occurring since 2013-2016, the conflicts are presented as follows: table 1: graft of corruption of the year 2013-2016 data source: lampung police (dit reskrimsus polda lampung) year 2017 based on the data above, it can be analyzed that in the year 2013, cases of corruption that occurred as many as 24 cases, can be resolved 27 cases; in 2014, cases of corruption that occurred as many as 10 cases, completion of 33 cases; in 2015 cases of corruption that occurred as many as 17 cases, can be resolved 28 cases; in 2016 cases of corruption that occurred as many as 18 cases, can be completed 34 cases. the average settlement of cases exceeds the case settlement target that occurred that year. this shows that theinvestigators handled the cases very well, because it can solve arrears of existing cases. the data of corruption case above is in line with the information of head of sub directorate iii corruption which states that the disclosure of corruption cases in lampung police in the last three years tends to decline. further, tackling corruption crime is not enough to do the mere action, but must be accompanied with prevention activities, among others by providing socialization of corruption behavior to officials who manage the budget.9 community law education program the pattern of education of legal community in building anti-corruption culture, in its implementation, refers to pancasila correctional method which is known as p-4 program (guidelines, appreciation and practice of pancasila) which has been grounded in the life of 9 quoted from the interview, on march 12, 2018. 0 10 20 30 40 2013 2014 2015 2016 jtp ptp journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 147 indonesian people. this program, in the new order period, was carried out by a separate body called “the organizing body of the guidance of appreciation and practice of pancasila”, whose institutional structure is structured from the center to regional areas under the supervision of the ministry of home affairs. with the existence of a separate commission that manages the field of prevention of corruption, then efforts in building a culture of anti-corruption through legal community education can be realized. the relevant pattern can be used to change the behavior of the society through the education of the law community. the underlying reason of this approach is because through educational methods, the results are more measurable and constructive, so that its development becomes easier. although the results of the criminal act of corruption committed by indonesian republic police, attorney and criminal commission of corruption have been very optimal, there is still a gap between the prosecution and prevention with the empirical facts of corruption in society. the facts show that the prosecution and prevention do not cause a significant deterent effect for state officials. so, another effort that should be done by the government is to maximize the prevention program implemented constructively, through the establishment of a commission specifically dealing with the prevention of corruption crime named "commission on prevention of criminal acts of corruption”. the establishment of commission on prevention of criminal acts of corruption in its implementation requires regulation and budget and commitment from the government in preventing corruption in indonesia. the reason for using the education of the law community as a pattern of approach in prevention, because the results of socialization conducted independently by directorate of special criminal investigation of lampung district police, it has a positive effect on the behavior of officials not to do corruption. in addition to the positive influence of socialization conducted independently for civil state apparatuses, based on the results of the questionnaire distributed to the informants through a purposive sampling approach, legal education in corruption prevention is not carried out intensively and continuously. so, the awareness that arises to combat corruption only exists in the apparatus that have been given knowledge about the dangers of corruption through legal education. therefore, in the implementation of the program of commission on prevention of criminal acts of corruption activities, the targets to be achieved are legal community education for all levels of society, civil state apparatus, indonesian national army, indonesian republic police, candidate echelon iii, ii and i officials, who will be prepared to hold certain positions in government institutions. educational plan seregig et al. 148 the anti-corruption community's upgrading plan is organized through preemptive activities, which are structured according to the annual program plan of the directorate of special detective of the special police of lampung police. the administrative completeness of upgrading activities consists of administration of activities containing contents of the activity orders signed by lampung police chief and activity plan containing time, place, number of participants, the amount used, and the instructors. educational materials upgrading materials presented to the participants are socialization on law number 39 year 1999 regarding corruption and presidential regulation number 57 year 2010 concerning procurement of goods and services as well as other laws related to corruption, among others; law no. 8 of 2010 concerning the prevention and criminal act of money laundering, law number 15 of 2006, concerning the supreme audit board and presidential regulation no.192 of 2014, concerning the supervisory board finance and development. the three items of the law are also made into subject matter which will complement the law enforcement of corruption. teachers the lecturers in this socialization activity are corruption investigators who have competence and professionalism in their respective duties, namely: the regional level (province, regency/municipality) the provision of material entitled "the role of the police in the racking of corruption crime". the lecturers are head of regional police, deputy regional police chief, superintendent of supervision regional police, and special crime director of regional police; the provision of material entitled "the role of the public prosecution service in corruption eradication", the teachers are kajati, aswas kejati and aspidsus kejati; and the provision of material entitled "the role of supervisory board finance and development in corruption crime", the teachers are head of supervisory board finance and development, head of supreme audit board and head of investigation of supervisory board finance and development. while for the central level (ministries and agencies), the provision of material entitled "the role of the police in the crime of corruption crime", the teachers are the chief of police, head of the regional police, general supervisory inspectorate, head of criminal investigation and director of corruption police criminal investigation; the provision of material entitled "the role of public prosecution service in corruption crime", the teachers are chief attorney general, the attorney general’s young supervisor and the special attorney general of the criminal; and the provision of material entitled "the role of supervisory board finance and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 149 development or supreme supervisory board in the eradication of corruption crime", the teachers are head of supervisory board finance and development, head of supreme supervisory board and head of investigation of supervisory board finance and development. the subject discussed above only refers to the implementation of socialization of the education of legal community that has been implemented by the dissemination team of directorate of special detective of the special police of lampung police, while in the strategic community education program that will be implemented thoroughly by the new body to be formed by the government, the materials will be given need to be reviewed specifically by experts and academics based on regulations issued by the government. pattern of law society education legal socialization the pattern of education used by the socialization team of special crime director regional police is to carry out socialization of the participants, head of departement in the environment of provincial, regency / city government in lampung province, using the lecture method entitled "socialization of corruption wars of provincial head of service, regency / city of lampung province". this lecture activity is conducted based on anti-corruption program (preventive activities) that has been planned in work program police regional of lampung. prior to organizing the socialization of head of service, internally police of lampung area, had conducted "corruption wars socialization to the criminal response, financial administration police of lampung" which was held on friday, march 20, 2015 at gedung wiyono siregar polda lampung. the impact of internal socialization of the polda is the financial accountability of lampung police in 2016, 2017 increased from unqualified (ungualified) to fair (reasonable). this shows that the budget management of lampung police is "very good". on october 4, 2016 at the pusiban building, lampung province conducted corruption wars socialization for the head of provincial, regency / city head of service lampung province. the aim is to create a clean government free of corruption, collusion and nepotism, and the heads of head of service after participating in corruption wars socialization, can carry out similar activities in their respective working environments. after the socialization of the head of head of service, the trend of corruption cases that occurred in 2017 rose one hundred per cent and the settlement of the case only reached sixty per cent. this fact indicates a gap in the field, that intensive prevention and prevention are not always directly proportional to the results achieved. seregig et al. 150 in line with the empirical facts that occurred in the field, based on the results of quisioners obtained from several informants selected based on purposive sampling method, namely; department of education and culture of lampung province two people are given code a.1 and a.2, lampung provincial health office two people are given code b.1 and b.2, planning consultant construction, building, road and bridge one person is coded c.1 and and partner / contractor (director of limited liability company) one person is given code c.2. quisionary material presented is as follows: table 2 list of questionnaires no. questions answer agree disagree 1. after i received the material on corruption laws, i learned that the influence of corruption is enormous on the economy of the country. 2. the material of the corruption laws granted as i participated in the socialization, deeply touched my feelings and the material was interesting. 3. i will refuse subtly, when given a gift by my intimate friend, whereas my intimate friend never asks for help related to my authority. 4. i prefer to listen to lectures on religion, rather than being given a business lecture. 5. i will perform the task given to my supervisor well, albeit deviating from the specified work execution procedure. 6. i disagree, if gift giving from my relatives or family is considered as an act of corruption. 7. i do not like when someone comes to me offering a gift, without any reasonable reason. 8. i do not like to see state officials whose lifestyle is glamorous in society. when i see a situation like this, i immediately think, where can i get money from? 9. i prefer to work following the applicable procedures rather than work that materially benefits me. table 3 answer key questionnaire journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 151 no questionnaire list answer key 1. question number 1 agree 2. question number 2 agree 3. question number 3 disagree 4. question number 4 agree 5. question number 5 disagree 6. question number 6 agree 7. question number 7 agree 8. question number 8 agree 9. question number 9 agree based on the key answers described in table 3 above, the results of questionnaires given to 6 informants representing the community in accordance with their profession can be used as an analysis to determine whether legal education society has a positive influence to build corruption wars culture in the apparatus civil state and society. the results can be described as follows: table 4 result of questionnaire no. informan (purposive sampling) data analysis right answer score quality (+ or -) 1. informan a-1 7 78 effect (+) 2. informan a-2 8 89 effect (+) 3. informan b-1 8 89 effect (+) 4. informan b-2 7 78 effect (+) 5. informan c-1 7 78 effect (+) 6. informan c-2 5 56 effect (-) seregig et al. 152 note: score lower than 60= negative effect (-) score higher than 60= positive effect (+) based on the data obtained from the results by using purposive sampling method to 6 (six) informants as described above, it can be analyzed that from the six informants who answered the quisioner, five of them provided answers which has a positive effect on the implementation of legal community education; one person again gave negative impact on legal education program. thus, the results are in line with the results of interviews conducted on the head of sub directorate of corruption crime police of lampung area, that the implementation of socialization has given influence for state officials not to commit acts of corruption. based on the data of criminal acts of corruption that occurred in the area of lampung police law, the corruption case conflicts that occurred in 2017 are as follows: table 5 data graph of corruption case of 2017 data source: lampung police ( dit reskrimsus polisi daerah lampung) year 2017 based on the confidentiality of the above data, there is a positive influence on the head of provincial head of service, district / city who have joined anti-corruption socialization. this is evident from 35 cases that occurred in 2017. no head head of service caught crime corruption. however, since the results of this socialization were not disseminated to the government structures, then from 35 cases successfully dealt with by the lampung police, the perpetrators were subordinates who had not joined anti-corruption socialization. from these data, it can be concluded that the implementation of legal community education can change the behavior of corruption into anti-corruption culture. if the program is implemented constructively, conceptually and continuously with the strategic education pattern, it will 0 9 18 27 36 45 2016 2017 jtp ptp journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 153 establish anti-corruption wars culture in government, both at the center and in the region and have a big influence in building a clean, corruption-free, collusion and nepotism government.10 research discussion pattern of strategic education this strategic education pattern is an idea to build an anti-corruption culture through the education of the law community, which must be followed by government officials (ministries and agencies), indonesian national army and indonesian police by making anti-corruption education a prerequisite for appointment in certain positions and appointment of employees. the educational pattern used in this educational program, using the upgrading approach, refers to the pattern of p4 upgrading (guidance, welfare, pancasila practice). this approach pattern is called guidance, appreciation, cultural practices corruption wars. practically, this activity is carried out with 12 hours (up to 2 days), 24 hours (for 3 days), 48 hours (maximum six days) and 96 hours (maximum nine days) and 120 hours (maximum 12 days). implementation of this program must involve all ministries and government agencies, so that the implementation of the field can run in accordance with the expected goals, which will eventually create a corruption wars culture in the life of society, nation and state. to be able to realize the results to be achieved in this upgrading, the government is expected to oblige all citizens who will become candidates for civil servants, indonesian national army, police and civil servants, police who will occupy the echelon iii, ii and echelon i, regional, directorate general, minister, chief of police and commander must follow guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture, education program which will be held by special agency formed by government either at central level or at regional level. in the development of strategic education, the organization of law community upgrading in building anti-corruption culture, for the first stage that must follow this upgrading are assistants and heads of local government bureau, assistants and heads of district government/city; the second stage, the upgrading is done for the head of department, head of institution, head of agency, representative of commissioner in region; the third stage, the upgrading is carried out by kdp, and the field supervisor of the existing development projects in each regency / city and province; the fourth phase, the consultants of development planners and the directors of limited liability company or cv who become partners in the implementation of development projects. to obtain maximum results in the implementation of 10 quoted from the results interview, on march 12, 2018. seregig et al. 154 this upgrading, it is necessary to have a strong commitment from on the commission on prevention of criminal acts of corruption and the central government and legislators who have the authority to make regulations for the tasks carried out commission on prevention of criminal acts of corruption in accordance with the law. to conduct an evaluation in the implementation of upgrading p3bak, at the end of the activity, the test was carried out to determine whether the material presented to participants can be understood or not. as guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture upgrading evaluation result, committee must issue guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture upgrading certificate containing assessment result (very satisfy=a, satisfy = b and less satisfy =c). to handle the guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture, program the government should establish a special commition that organizes a corruption prevention program called "commission on prevention of criminal acts of corruption”. this body has the authority to provide corruption wars public education, including guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture upgrading and authorized to issue certificates as evidence that certificate holders have followed guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture upgrading. the guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture certificate can also be formally assessed that, following the upgrading of guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture, some anticorruption behaviors have been held by the participants, and some of which are practiced in daily life in the community. implementation of upgrading in order to avoid disparity in this upgrading program, the implementation of this upgrading should be carried out by mutual agreement with the institution authorized to carry out corruption (indonesian police, attorney and corruption eradication commission) and other relevant institutions that have authority in the supervision of state finances. this activity is conducted based on recommendations produced in special coordination meeting involving the indonesian police, attorney and corruption eradication commission, as a guidance in the implementation of law community upgrading in an effort to build corruption wars culture, both at the central and regional levels. the description of the upgrading pattern in an effort to build a corruption wars culture through the education of legal communities is carried out as follows: journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 155 upgrading pattern 12 hours: description of anti-corruption public education activities with 12 hour upgrading pattern, held with upgrading materials; the role of the police in the handling of the criminal acts of corruption granted by the presenters of the special criminal directorate; role of public prosecutor in eradicating criminal acts of corruption given by speakers from special criminal assistant; the role of financial and development supervisory bodies in eradicating corruption crime which is given by head of investigation of financial and development supervisory bodies of lampung region. the upgrading of guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture with this 12 hour uptime pattern is only given to prospective civil servants who are not one hundred per cent who will be confirmed as civil state apparatus, one of the requirements is having guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture upgrading certificate. 24 hour upgrade pattern: description of anti-corruption public education activities with a 24-hour upgrading pattern, organized with upgrading materials; the role of the police in the handling of the criminal acts of corruption granted by the presenters of the special criminal director in two meetings (8 credits of practice and examination); role of public prosecutor in eradicating criminal acts of corruption given by speakers from special criminal assistant in two meetings (8 credits of practice and examination); the role of financial and development supervisory bodies in eradicating corruption crimes presented by the head of financial and development supervisory bodies field investigation in lampung in one meeting (4 credits of practice and examination); the role of the corruption eradication commission in the eradication of corruption in a single meeting (4 sks exam). the upgrading of the guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture with this 24-hour upgrading pattern is given to national civil appatures, indonesian national army, indonesian republic police, who will hold echelon iii, one of the requirements that must be fulfilled is to have guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture upgrading certificate. upgrading pattern 48 hours: description of corruption wars public education activities with upgrading pattern 48 hours, held with upgrading materials; the role of the police in handling the criminal acts of corruption granted by the speakers of kapolda and director of special crimes in three seregig et al. 156 meetings (16 credits of practice), role of attorney office in eradicating corruption crime given by head of the prosecutor’s office speakers and special criminal assistant in three meetings (16 credits of practice), the role of financial and development supervisory bodies in eradicating corruption crimes provided by head of financial and development supervisory bodies and head of region financial and development supervisory bodies investigation in one meeting (10 credits of practice and examination); he role of the corruption eradication commission in the eradication of corruption in a single meeting (6 sks exam). the upgrading of the guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture with this 24-hour upgrading pattern is given to national civil appatures, indonesian national army, indonesian republic police, who will hold echelon ii, one of the requirements that must be fulfilled is to have guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture upgrading certificate. participants who achieve the top 10 ranking in the 48 hour upgrading pattern are given additional certificate as manggala pratama guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture. upgrading pattern 96 hours: description of corruption wars public education activities with a 100 hour upgrading pattern, organized with upgrading materials; the role of the police in the handling of the crime of corruption provided by the chief of police, police chiefs and the director of corruption in four meetings (28 credits of practice), the role of financial and development supervisory bodies in eradicating corruption crimes provided by the head of financial and development supervisory bodies center and director of investigation of financial and development supervisory bodies in two meetings (12 credits of practice and examination), the role of the corruption eradication commission in corruption eradication commission is given by the chairman of corruption eradication commission and deputy of corruption eradication commission in two meetings (12 sks exam). the upgrading of guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture with a 100 hour upgrading pattern is given to national civil appatures, indonesian national army, and indonesian republic police, who will hold the echelon i position. participants who get the 10th ranking in the upgrading pattern 100 are given additional certificate as manggala madya p guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture. upgrading pattern 120 hours: description of anti-corruption public education activities with upgrading pattern 120 hours, held commission on prevention of criminal acts of corruption center with upgrading materials; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 157 the role of the police in handling the corruption crimes provided by the chief of police, irwasum and kabareskrim police officers in four meetings (30 credits of practice), the role of the prosecution service in the eradication of corruption is given by chief attorney general, the attorney general’s young supervisor, and the special attorney general of the criminal speakers in four meetings (30 credits of practice), the role of financial and development supervisory bodies in eradicating corruption crimes presented by the chairman of audit board of the republic of indonesia, head of financial and development supervisory bodies and director of supervision of financial and development supervisory bodies center in three meetings (30 credits of practice and examination); the role of the corruption eradication commission in corruption eradication commission is given by the chairman of the corruption eradication commission, deputy for action and deputy of corruption eradication commission in two meetings (30 sks). upgrading of guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture with 120 hour upgrading pattern is given to the ministers, commander of indonesian national army, chief of police and minister level officials. all participants of 120 pattern upgrading are given additional certificate as manggala uttama guidelines, appreciation and practice of corruption wars culture. draft law on corruption prevention in order for this idea to be implemented properly, the first step that must be done is the leadership of the police, attorney and corruption eradication commission should hold rakorsus corruption prevention division and issued a recommendation, to establish a new law on the establishment of a new body called “the prevention of criminal acts of corruption” with the main duty to carry out activities of prevention of corruption through program activity program, that is; education, training, upgrading, seminars, talk shows, socialization and others that are the guidance of the legal community in realizing the anti-corruption culture. conclusion based on the results of the research that have been described above, and the data obtained from the results of interviews conducted on the socialization team of corruption prevention directorate of special criminal investigation of local police of lampung, then the answers to the problems of this study can be summarized as follows: there is a positive influence on legal education activities conducted by using socialization methods of prevention of corruption conducted by the team socialization on the behavior of officials at the district government level for not doing the acts of corruption. positive influence seregig et al. 158 occurs for officials who have received knowledge about the criminal acts of corruption from socialization activities undertaken by the team, while those who have not received socialization is a priori and assumes it is mediocre. to obtain maximum results in building an corruption wars culture through legal community education, it is necessary to issue a strategic education policy based on regulation to establish a special conduct of prevention activities of corruption. the prevention body that will be formed, named commission on prevention of criminal acts of corruption. references clarke, n. (2001). training as a vehicle to empower carers in the community: more than a question of information sharing. health & social care in the community, 9(2), 79–88. israel, b. a., checkoway, b., schulz, a., & zimmerman, m. (1994). health education and community empowerment: conceptualizing and measuring perceptions of individual, organizational, and community control. health education quarterly, 21(2), 149–170. kaelan, m. s. (2005). metode penelitian kualitatif bidang filsafat (paradigma bagi pengembangan penelitian interdisipliner bidang filsafat, budaya, sosial, semiotika, sastra, hukum dan seni). yogyakarta: paradigma. kaufmann, d., & kraay, a. (2003). governance and growth: causality which way? evidence for the world, in brief. world bank, february. kaufmann, d., kraay, a., & zoido-lobatón, p. (2002). governance matters ii: updated indicators for 2000-01 (vol. 2772). world bank publications. kieffer, c. h. (1984). citizen empowerment: a developmental perspective. prevention in human services, 3(2–3), 9–36. klitgaard, r. e., abaroa, r. m., & parris, h. l. (2000). corrupt cities: a practical guide to cure and prevention. world bank publications. kopelowicz, a., liberman, r. p., & zarate, r. (2006). recent advances in social skills training for schizophrenia. schizophrenia bulletin, 32(suppl_1), s12–s23. peisakhin, l. (2001). does information disclosure reduce corruption? evidence from fieldexperiments in india. growth, 1967, 284. rumyantseva, n. l. (2005). taxonomy of corruption in higher education. peabody journal of education, 80(1), 81–92. spector, b. i. (2005). fighting corruption in developing countries: strategies and analysis. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 138-159 159 kumarian press bloomfield, ct. truex, r. (2011). corruption, attitudes, and education: survey evidence from nepal. world development, 39(7), 1133–1142. yazid, h., & suryanto, t. (2017). ifrs, professional auditor skepticism, conflict agency to prevention of fraud and investor confidence level. international journal of economic perspectives, 11(1), 250–259. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(2), 154-176 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 preservice social studies teachers’ perspectives and understandings of teaching in the twenty-first century classroom: a meta-ethnography rory p. tannebaum1 abstract this meta-ethnography explores the conceptions preservice social studies teachers have toward broad theories of democratic education. the author synthesizes and analyzes empirical research to find a consensus on preservice teachers’ conceptions of the social studies. findings suggest that social studies teacher candidates enter teacher education programs with limited understandings of the broad aims of education and often exit programs unable to make proper associations between the classroom and theories of social justice, democratic education, and equality and equity. the author calls for more research exploring the extent to which preservice teachers internalize theories advocated for within teacher education. keywords: social studies education, democratic education, teacher education, preservice teachers, meta-ethnography introduction the responsibility of fostering informed and participatory citizens is one that falls upon all educators. parker (2003) describes teachers from all content-areas as “stewards of democracy” who prepare students to become rational, justice-oriented citizens in a pluralist society (p. xvii). however, scholars frequently describe the social studies as being at the core of an effective democratic education (e.g., cuenca, 2010; hahn, 1999; hertzberg, 1981; parker, 2010). this is due – at least in part to social studies teachers’ ability to use the social studies to integrate an array of perspectives into the classroom (banks, 1993; hahn, 1999), engage students in critical thinking on current issues and events (hess, 2009; parker, 2003), and, more broadly, provide ample opportunities for students to develop into citizens capable of entering into the public sphere (barton, 2012; bickmore, 2008; dewey 1916; habermas, 1989; parker, 2005). the 1 assistant professor, merrimack college, tannebaumr@merrimack.edu rory p. tannebaum 155 preparation of effective social studies teachers capable of attaining these lofty objectives, therefore, is essential to the 21st century social studies classroom where society is becoming more diverse, the world is becoming more interconnected, and new issues requiring an educated populace are developing on a consistent basis. the purpose of this essay will be to analyze relevant literature describing how preservice social studies teachers conceptualize the teaching of social studies. the aim will be to generate a clearer picture of the “typical” preservice social studies teachers’ awareness of the potential and responsibility of the social studies in fostering democratic principles in students. in this sense, the essay will seek to better understand the extent to which preservice social studies teachers associate the practice of teaching social studies in the twenty-first century with the oft-referenced aims of a democratic education through a cross-case analysis (patton, 2002) of various empirical studies. the essay, therefore, will be a meta-ethnography (noblit & hare, 1988) in which individual empirical studies viewed as separate cases are synthesized to “aggregate and substantiate knowledge” (patton, 2002, p. 500). the author situates the article within the broad aims of democratic education (citing dewey, 1900/1915; gutmann, 1999; parker, 2003). further, the author builds on the present literature exploring the positive impact of teacher education (avery, 2003; darling-hammond, 2000; vanhover, 2008). beyond these two themes, critical and scholarly articles from the past three decades seeking to understand preservice social studies teacher’s thinking toward the social studies are presented and organized into several themes. the foundation of the study will be in dinkelman’s (1999) claim that three elementary preservice teachers used in his own case study “viewed themselves as teachers, in a general sense, more than they viewed themselves as social studies teachers” (p. 3; emphasis in original). in other words, though the teacher education program the candidates completed advocated for principles of a democratic education (especially in the social studies methods course the participants were enrolled in, the participants left unable to make the associations expected of them. such a claim is intriguing as it calls into question the extent to which preservice social studies teachers internalize the oft-referenced aims of the field. because there has not recently been a thorough analysis of the literature describing the perspectives of preservice social studies teachers, this essay will be critical to the field of social studies education and expand upon the field’s understanding of the extent to which teacher candidates understand the often-complex notions of democratic education. such a study will journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 156 assist social studies teacher education programs in developing curricula tailored to the knowledge preservice teachers bring into the program and develop throughout their experiences. the essay, additionally, will assist teacher educators to better understand the ways in which teacher candidates reflect upon complex and abstract notions of social justice, equality and equity, multiculturalism, and broader theories of democratic and civic education. moreover, the research questions underlying and guiding the present empirical study were as follows: 1. to what extent do preservice social studies teachers associate broad themes of democratic education with social studies education? 2. what is the nature of the present literature in social studies education detailing the conceptions, beliefs, and perspectives of preservice social studies teaches toward democratic education? 3. to what extent do preservice social studies feel prepared to incorporate instructional strategies predicated on theories of democratic education into their teaching? the presented research questions were meticulously worded and selected in an attempt to “avoid making (or trying to make) gross generalisations across disparate fields” (britten, campbell, pope, donovan, morgan, & pill, 2002). in other words, the study’s parameters were explicitly defined and heavily restricted to ensure both valid and reliable results (nolbit & hare, 1988). because the present study draws from such an array of sources, it hopes to obtain a high level of transferability (guba, 1981). methods once the research questions were generated, the researcher considered a variety of means to most effectively answer the questions. after much consideration, the use of a qualitative metaethnography (nolbit & hare, 1988) was selected. because the researcher sought to better understand how preservice social studies teachers conceptualized often complex and abstract notions of democratic education, a qualitative design was the most appropriate given its ability to produce a rich and clear picture of the phenomenon under examination. using qualitative research additionally allowed for the incorporation of much of the “noise” included within the articles to be analyzed and synthesized and find qualitative themes that may not be measureable in the same manner within a quantitative design (hodkinson & hodkinson, 2001; yin, 2009). such an approach allowed for the inclusion of a number of variables helping to describe the rory p. tannebaum 157 preservice teachers being analyzed. finally, when designing the study and analyzing an array of empirical articles, the use of a qualitative design allowed for the incorporation of participant quotes, author findings, and broad themes which could best be categorized and analyzed using a rigorous qualitative approach (yin, 2009). 2.1. meta-ethnography adler (2008) published a chapter titled “the education of social studies teachers” in the most recent edition of the handbook of social studies education research. adler’s chapter details the state of social studies education programs within the united states and is critical to the field in that it explores an area to the field of social studies education having not received proper treatment in upwards of two decades. a guiding resource for the present study was adler’s chapter and the methods she used to explore social studies education programs at the beginning of the twenty-first century. this present empirical study reflected adler’s chapter in that the author conducted a meta-ethnography meant to generate new knowledge through a synthesis and analysis of existing qualitative research (al-janabi, cost, & flynn, 2008; noblit & hare, 1988). meta-ethnography, therefore, was used to develop “translations of qualitative studies into one another” (nolbit & hare, 1988, p. 25). and while adler may not have explicitly associated her work as meta-ethnography, several themes arose from her work that presented a new understanding of the current state of social studies education. in order to properly conduct an effective meta-ethnography, the author sought a validated protocol to follow throughout the research. ultimately, direction was grounded in the works of nolbit and hare. nolbit and hare (1988) express seven steps to conducting a meta-ethnography: 1) getting started, 2) deciding what is relevant, 3) reading the studies, 4) determining how the studies are related, 5) translating the studies into one another, 6) synthesizing translations, and 7) expressing the synthesis. the following sections on data collection and data analysis provide the current study’s means for steps three through six. the results of the study – step seven – will be thoroughly detailed in the findings section of the current essay. 2.2. data collection data collection for the present meta-ethnography occurred in two distinct phases. the first phase included a keyword search through a variety of academic databases to find appropriate articles. the second phase involved the researcher using the references in the articles journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 158 found in the first phase to discover more relevant articles. the remainder of this section will detail the steps taken by the researcher throughout the data collection phase. 2.2.1 keyword search. the author began this study by conducted a thorough literature review using multiple databases (e.g., academic search premier, google scholar, and full text dissertations and thesis) to uncover empirical research detailing the conceptions preservice social studies teachers have of democratic education. keywords and phrases within this search included (though were not limited to): preservice social studies teachers conceptions of democratic education, teacher candidates conceptions of democratic education, preservice teachers perspectives toward democratic education, and democratic education within teacher education. often times, the researcher used a combination of these phrases to increase certainty that all relevant and applicable articles were discovered. articles found throughout the keyword search were scanned for relevance and saved for inclusion if they were found to be useful to answering the aforementioned research questions. 2.2.2. citation-tracking. once having sifted through the aforementioned search results to surface studies relevant to the current conversation, the researcher then used the citationtracking method to discover more qualitative studies which could offer a strong understanding of the associations preservice social studies teachers make between democratic education and pedagogical practices and teacher responsibilities. in other words, studies found in the first phase of the literature review were then used as conduits for finding similar pieces that may serve to inform the researcher. the two primary studies guiding this system were adler’s (2008) chapter in the most recent handbook of social studies education and dinkelman’s (2012) unpublished conference paper “conceptions of democratic citizenship in preservice social studies teacher education: a case study”. using the references from these two pieces led to the discovery of both newer and lesser-known articles which contributed to the argument of the present metaethnography. once these two phases were completed and the researcher felt confident about the inclusion of all relevant articles, a table was constructed to provide an overview of the sources to be included within the findings. in total, 19 articles were selected to be included in the present studies. of those, most were located within the existing body of relevant literature stemming form the united states. these studies were selected based on their relevance to the research questions. the table constructed throughout the data collection phase can be seen in table 1. rory p. tannebaum 159 article context type of qualitative study participants adler & confer (1998) secondary social studies teacher education program case study (observations and interviews) 14 alfano, m. (2001) psts in various ss programs case study 11 angell, a. (1998) preservice elem. ss. qualitative case study 2 author (2015) secondary social studies teacher education program qualitative multi-case study 6 crowe, hawley, brooks (2012) psts in ss programs for grades 7-12 standardized open-ended interviews 19 cutsforth, j. (2010) 3 ss methods courses qualitative case study 24 dinkelman, t. (1999) elementary ss multi-case study 3 doppen, f. (2007) graduate ss methods course case study 19 dumas, w. (1993) programmatic analysis in social studies education case study n/a fitchett, starker, salyers (2012) secondary social studies (6-12) methods course preand post-test (experimental study) 20 gulsvig (2009) secondary social studies program action research & case study 10 kubow, p. (1997) fifth year students in a secondary ss program descriptive study interview and questionnaire 147 marshall, j. (2004) elementary ss multi-case interviews 3 mathews s. & dilworth, p. (2008) preservice social studies teachers multi-case study 5 miscow & patterson (2007) undergraduate preservice teachers. 11-item online survey 40 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 160 o’brien & smith (2011) preservice elementary teachers questionnaire 309 pryor, c. (2006). elementary education pre& in-service teachers questionnaire 27 ross, d. d.; & yeager, e. (1999). elementary preservice social studies teachers teaching rationale analysis n/a ross, e. w. (1988) general teacher education interviews 21 wilkins, c. (1999) elementary and secondary preservice teachers surveyed 418 and interviewed 16 418 wilson, konopak, readence (1994) secondary social studies methods course survey (11 participants) to a case study (1 participant) 1 table 1: articles included in meta-ethnography 2.3 data analysis because this study involved an exhaustive exploration into a robust body of literature in social studies teacher education, an open-coding (merriam, 1998) process was implemented to continuously find relevant themes and codes to present as findings. the author, in other words, took notes and marked themes in the literature as the articles were initially being analyzed. such codes were continuously expanded upon as the literature was analyzed until the majority of empirical studies had validated consistent themes. after having conducted the thorough literature review in which the researcher felt as though he had exhausted all of his resources and collected all of the available literature relevant to the present study, the researcher coded the articles through careful readings and explorations into relevant themes. these codes were paired with the themes found while conducting the literature review (in a way that allowed for tailoring the themes). such analysis allowed for the synthesis of a variety of articles and the generation of new knowledge on preservice social studies teachers’ conceptions of democratic and citizenship education. though several findings emerged throughout the present study that will be detailed in the following section, it bears noting within the methods portion of this essay that that this appears to rory p. tannebaum 161 have been the first time a meta-ethnography was used within social studies teacher education to explore preservice social studies teachers’ conceptions of the underlying theories of democratic education. moreover, limited research appears to have been conducted on the extent to which preservice service social studies teachers associate their practice with that of the broad theories of democratic education. a number of articles exist which detail how preservice social studies teachers describe citizenship education or the extent to which such individuals understand various critical theories. however, both the data analysis and data collection phases surfaced no articles specifically detailing how social studies teacher candidates associate democratic education with their own returning to susan adler’s chapter regarding the state of social studies teacher education, this chapter seeks to focus specifically on the knowledge, dispositions, and conceptions of preservice social studies teachers. to that end, this chapter separates itself from adler’s work through its focus on the conceptions preservice social studies teachers have toward theories of democratic education and social studies education. in this sense, the author seeks to remove the research from the programmatic aspect to teacher education and, instead, focus on the teacher candidates who experience social studies teacher education. results both within the data collection phase as well as the data analysis phase, several prominent themes emerged from the data. these themes included: 1) preservice teachers having an unclear understanding of democratic and citizenship education, 2) preservice teachers making limited associations between pedagogy and democratic education, 3) preservice teachers entering into programs as malleable candidates, and 4) teacher educators advocating for theories of democratic education as advocated for by the leading organization of the social studies – national council for the social studies – as well as the current works of political theorists and educational scholars alike. the following section will specifically detail each of these themes. 3.1. unclear understandings of democratic education. though the current body of literature in social studies education detailing how preservice social studies teachers define theories of democratic education is lacking in substantial and longitudinal research, that which does exist paints a picture of teacher candidates in the united states who graduate from the traditional teacher education program without a true understanding of what democratic education is and how it can be incorporated into the social studies classroom. in other words, the vast journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 162 majority of literature available describes the typical teacher candidate who is about to graduate from an accredited teacher education program as limited in their understanding of how the social studies can help students think autonomously, correct social injustices, teach tolerance, and participate in the public sphere as engaged and informed citizens. for instance, kubow (1997) explored the attitudes and conceptions of 147 preservice social studies teachers to discover their understandings how they viewed civic education in the twenty-first century social studies classroom. kubow’s findings present an interesting and telling story. foundationally speaking, kubow’s results demonstrated that her preservice teachers maintained a limited understanding of what “true” citizenship entails and how it would be taught in the classroom. kubow’s participants’ conceptions of citizenship (under the umbrella of democratic education) were vague and lacking in the breath and depth necessary to promote citizenship within the classroom. more specifically, kubow notes, “for most of the students interviewed, the concept of citizenship education is quite vague and indistinct” (p. 20). and though citizenship is an often-vague term in a theoretical and philosophical sense, kubow describes this vague understanding as stemming from a lack of understanding on democratic processes. o’brien and smith (2011), like kubow, found through a questionnaire of 309 preservice elementary teachers enrolled in a social studies course that the participants’ general understanding of a “good citizen” is grounded in helping others and following the laws, what they referred to as a “legalist perspective” (p. 33). wilkins (1999) similarly surveyed 418 preservice teachers in the united kingdom and found preservice teachers have a limited understanding of what democratic and citizenship education entails and that “there was much confusion over what it means to be 'a good citizen’” (p. 217). though it again bears repeating that the definition of a “good citizen” is one that is both up for debate and frequently evolving (boyle-baise, 2003), wilkins’ findings of preservice teachers developing vague constructions of “good” citizens reflects the aforementioned studies detailing the conceptions preservice social studies teachers have of democratic and citizenship education. such views reflected that of kubow’s results in that the teacher candidates did develop some understanding of democratic and citizenship education, but not enough for them to have developed a definitive rationale or philosophy for teaching social studies education under the guise of democratic education. wilkins further found that the model presented to students in their courses (that of democratic education) ran counter to the one presented to preservice rory p. tannebaum 163 teachers in their field placements and as in-service educators. in this sense, they received mixed signals throughout their experiences that served to confused them about their responsibilities in the classroom in regards to the aims of education. in his dissertation, alfano (2001) explored the beliefs of 11 preservice social studies teachers through a multi-case study analysis. his intentions were to understand how preservice social studies teachers conceptualized the act of teaching in an urban setting. foundationally speaking and relating to the present conversation, two themes emerged within alfano’s study regarding how his participants conceptualized democratic education. the first was that participants viewed democratic education as a term related to government or politics. secondly, alfano found that for a couple of his participations, the term transcended politics to include ideas ranging from equality, equity, fairness, individuality, freedom, and fairness. though relatively uplifting to read the latter of the two notions, the former presents a picture of future educators who are unable to see beyond the foundational understanding of democracy within the field of education. similarly, doerre ross and yeager (1999) conducted a qualitative study in which they focused primarily on the reflections of preservice social studies teachers in an elementary education program. like kubow, wilkins, and alfano, the authors described their participants as having limited understandings of democratic and citizenship education (and democratic processes as a whole). specifically, the authors claimed that they “rated 3 papers high, 8 moderate, and 18 low in terms of demonstrated knowledge and understanding of democratic processes and principles” (p. 259). after reading and synthesizing the articles used for the present meta-ethnography, it became quite clear that preservice social studies teachers frequently lack definitive and clear understandings of the key tenets of democratic education (especially in regards to social justice). each of the aforementioned studies provided the present study with a vision of preservice teachers grappling with sophisticated and abstract notions of education that they had previously not been exposed to and failed to develop a full understanding of how such broad theories should influence their pedagogy. 3.2. limited associations between teaching and democratic education. in addition to having a limited understanding of the broad theories of democratic education, a prominent theme to surface from the present meta-ethnography was that of preservice social studies teachers failing to make the connections expected of them by teacher education regarding effective journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 164 pedagogy and democratic education. in other words, teacher candidates as described in the literature fell short of making the appropriate associations between their responsibility as “stewards of democracy” and their vision for the social studies classroom. though there are a number of reasons why this may be, gulsvig (2009) found that her teacher candidates “think of themselves as transmitters of content already determined by academics in their field.” (p. 93). here, it is argued that preservice social studies teachers see themselves as purveyors of knowledge, as opposed to curricular gatekeepers who make critical decisions on what students are taught. two decades ago, goodman & adler (1985) explored preservice elementary teachers conceptions of the social studies and details how participants placed the social studies as a subject in the american school system in six categories: social studies as a “non-subject”, human relations, citizenship, school knowledge, the great connection, and social justice. similarly, alicia crowe, todd hawley and, elizabeth brooks (2012) explored the perspectives of 19 preservice social studies teachers in a way that delved into how their experiences in schools as students affected their perceptions of the traditional social studies teachers. crowe, hawley, and brooks found that the participants created five categories for the social typical social studies teacher: information giver, content knowledge expert, “character”, caring and committed, “powerful”. much like goodman & adler, the authors found that the conceptions preservice social studies teachers had of in-service social studies teachers was disconnected from the ideals of democratic education as advocated for by scholars, teacher-educators and policymakers alike. similarly, mathews and dilworth (2008) found that their own preservice social studies teachers were reluctant to critically analyze their own understandings, experiences, and assumptions in regards to multicultural citizenship education. further, they discovered how their participants made claims mirroring the broad aims of the national council for the social studies, but were less likely to incorporate such pedagogical approaches leading to equity in their own classrooms on account of a limited amount of critical self-reflection. mathews and dilworth’s findings reflect the foundational justifications for the present study, as they – like dinkelman – found that preservice social studies teachers rarely internalized the critical theories of democratic education or incorporate such theories into their own practice. pryor (2006) conducted a study amongst 27 preservice teachers as they transitioned through their first year of in-service teaching. pryor discovered four themes among the rory p. tannebaum 165 participants: 1) they remembered the broad aims and ideals of democratic education, 2) they recognized the value of democratic education in enhancing their teaching, 3) they recognized the value of democratic education in enhancing students’ learning, and 4) they want strategies for democratic education to be modeled for them throughout their methods courses. pryor’s study is key in this sense in that it demonstrates how preservice teachers all value democratic principles of education in the classroom, but are often unsure or unclear on how to implement such strategies into their classroom practice. as a final example, author (2015) conducted a multi-case study on six preservice social studies teachers attempting to explore the associations the participants between democratic education and the use of discussion in the social studies classroom. the findings of the study suggested that the though the preservice social studies teachers did associate the use of discussion with broad theories of democratic education, these ideas were primarily linked to citizenship education, as opposed to principles of social justice including inequities, social reform, and multiculturalism. therefore, the available literature and present meta-ethnography describe how the theories of democratic education advocated for by teacher educators often do not resonate within preservice teachers’ aims for the classroom. 3.3. malleability of preservice teachers. an interesting finding to surface within the research was that of how malleable teacher candidates were upon entering into their teacher education program. multiple articles noted how preservice social studies teachers began their program without even a foundational understanding of the broad theories of democratic education and, therefore, remained malleable to the ideas advocated for in their coursework (including lectures, readings, and class discussions). providing anecdotal evidence, barton (2012) eloquently reflects upon his own experiences with preservice teachers by claiming: my own students, future social studies teachers from cities and towns speckled across the midwest, have admirable reasons for wanting go teach – from developing children’s potential, to making them feel valued, to providing role models. but there is one thing they never say, at least not at the beginning of their program: no one wants to be come a teacher to improve democracy. they are not alone. the reasons people have for becoming teachers are remarkably consistent, and while most of those reasons are commendable, they are not necessarily relevant to preparing students for democratic participation. (p. 167) journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 166 barton’s analysis is one that is reminiscent of many teacher educators. preservice teachers do not typically become teachers to help foster citizenship in students. rather, they become educators because they have family members who were teachers, enjoy working with the youth, or simply are drawn to the idea of working a 180-day school year. therefore, one would be hard-pressed to find a single scholarly article describing a preservice teacher citing theories of democratic education as their primary justification for entering into the field of social studies education. despite such findings, however, the literature on preservice social studies teachers carefully described such individuals not as blank slates, but as unfamiliar with theories of democratic education. this is seen in adler and confer’s (1998) research detailing the understandings of citizenship education prior to beginning their social studies methods course. what they found was similar to that of barton; preservice social studies teachers rarely have a foundation toward democratic and citizenship education upon beginning their social studies education program. in this sense, “students did not enter the methods class with a clearly articulated rationale for social studies [or] with an explicit focus on a central idea of citizenship” (p. 18). moreover, the teacher candidates described by both barton and adler & confer had preconceived notions of the social studies based on their own experiences as students (“apprenticeship of observation” as seen in lortie’s the schoolteacher). however, such experiences did not provide them with an understanding toward the broad aims and objectives of democratic education as put forth by the field of social studies education. therefore, the research seems to emphasize that teacher educators do not necessarily need to “undo” preservice social studies’ teachers’ conceptions of democratic education. rather, they had to be constructed from the foundation. marshall (2004) took a similar approach though with an emphasis on preservice elementary teachers and, specifically, their views on teaching the social studies (a subject they were not majoring in, but were required to take a course in for their coursework). marshall uses an interview case-study approach to investigate “initial and developing ideas of teaching elementary social studies overtime” (p. iv). marshall ultimately finds that prior experiences in the social studies impact the ways in which preservice teachers view the subject and intend on teaching it. however, she also notes that these views – though relevant – are fluid and subject to rory p. tannebaum 167 change. marshall found her participant’s conceptions toward the social studies changed throughout the course of her three-month study, but also found that the issues the preservice teachers faced throughout their student-teaching placement often prevented or limited the transfer of these newfound beliefs into practice. this was similarly seen in wilson, konopak and readence’s (1994) single case study in which they found that prior to taking more traditional approaches to teaching, their participant “espoused beliefs that generally reflected those of his methods instructor” (p. 376). in other words, marshall and wilson, konopak, and readence found that preservice social studies teachers can be influenced by their methods courses. what they found, however, was that these views often faded throughout student teaching. doppen (2007), likewise, found “that a teacher education program can make a difference [and] teacher educators can influence the beliefs preservice teachers hold about teaching and learning of social studies” (p. 62). doppen, more specifically, conducted a qualitative case study with 19 graduate social studies educators in which he sought to explore the effects of a teacher education program on the perspectives of preservice social studies teachers. broadly speaking, the results of his study found that the teacher candidates did have ideas toward education, but their notions and perspectives toward the social studies specifically could be crafted due to their lack of understanding of the field as a whole. though his focus was not on democratic education specifically (albeit certainly theories which fit under that umbrella term), he found that the participants in her study were influenced by their experiences in the program including – thought not limited to – field experiences, coursework, and professors’ ideals. fitchett, starker, and salyers (2012) similarly note that preservice social studies teachers can be taught to appreciate culturally responsive pedagogy and integrate it into their philosophies for teaching when they are thoroughly introduced to its meaning in their methods course. in other words, in their experimental study conducted with 20 secondary social studies education majors, they found a positive connection between their use of a model emphasizing culturally responsive teaching and their students’ dispositions toward its use in the social studies. again, such a finding confirms that teacher education does matter and can be used to create reform-oriented educators. ross (1988) found similar results to lortie’s text and marshall’s study regarding the apprenticeship of observation and teacher candidates’ malleability, respectively. ross found that his participants were reluctant to changing their personal beliefs and that “the influence of social journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 168 structural forces, such as teacher education course work and field experiences, was marginal and did not produce deep internal changes in the belief systems of the respondents” (p. 106). ross, rather, noted how participants’ perspectives were shaped through personal backgrounds, social structural forces, and how they actively affected their own experiences within their teacher education program. in this sense, ross notes that preservice teachers – though malleable – can change their perspectives toward education (including democratic education) on their own terms. in a manner reflective of ross, angell (1998) found that preservice teachers did have views upon entering into the program that created friction between program goals and teacher candidates’ prior beliefs. however, angell found that programs – when providing overlapping and consistent themes – had the potential to restructure preservice social studies teachers’ beliefs in a manner that could inform them on democratic education. angell’s findings suggest that the conceptions preservice teachers hold have more of an influence than author authors, but that these can be overcome with planned overlap between professors, field instructors, and cooperating teachers. angell, therefore, argues the same idea that teacher education does matter through its ability to restructure the beliefs of preservice social studies teachers through careful planning. in her dissertation, cutsforth (2010) conducted a qualitative multi-site case study exploring how preservice social studies teachers’ views in social studies developed over their methods course. though the entirety of her study was intriguing, the finding relevant to the present conversation was her discovery on the connections her participants made between citizenship education and the social studies by the time they had completed their social studies methods course. cutsforth, more specifically, followed her participants to discover how their views on citizenship education aligned more closely to the social studies as the semester progressed and their professors introduced them to such theories. these findings, therefore, reflected those of the rest of the literature detailing how preservice teachers could have their beliefs and understandings altered within their programs and provide another layer to the argument that teacher candidates’ views are adjustable and can be tailored to broad theories in democratic education. ultimately, the literature on the malleability of preservice social studies teachers reads rather positively. as adler and confer note, though the participants in their study had limited understanding of democratic and citizenship education, they took well to the theories and rory p. tannebaum 169 “almost every student was comfortable with the idea and found it to be a useful concept for focusing their thinking about curriculum” (p. 18). moreover, the literature suggests that teacher educators do have the potential to positively influence the views of preservice social studies in a manner aligning with broad theories of democratic education; they often just have to construct these notions from the foundation. whereas theories of “washing out” and teacher socialization (zeichner & tabachnick, 1981) and “apprenticeship of observation” were often evident, they were not definitive in the sense that teacher education was seen as effective in a variety of ways – including the shaping of teacher candidates’ conceptions of democratic education. what was consistent may not have been the level of influence prior beliefs had on preservice social studies teachers, but, rather, the ability of teacher education programs to restructure these beliefs to align in many ways to broad theories of democratic education. 3.4. teacher educators do advocate for democratic education. despite a seemingly bleak outlook regarding the understandings preservice social studies teachers have toward the field of social studies and the broad theories of democratic education, there existed a plethora of literature demonstrating teacher education’s emphasis on incorporating theories of democratic education into their courses (e.g., adler, 2008; cutsforth, 2010; dumas, 1993). such findings extended into critical theories of multicultural education (grounded in race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, esol students, and other diverse student characteristics), citizenship education (emphasizing political engagement and understanding), and autonomous thinking and acting predicated on rationality and evidence-based reasoning. dumas (1993) conducted the most recent and thorough analysis of what teacher educators at major universities teach in social studies education. dumas noted that an overwhelming majority of programs use the national council for the social studies as the foundation for both coursework and program themes. to that end, dumas noted that the organization’s aim of promoting citizenship education “to equip a citizenry with the knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed for active and engaged civic life” underlies the majority of social studies teacher education programs (national council for the social studies, 2013, para. 1). and though he notes that preservice teachers often do not fully comprehend the ncss strands (or their broader objectives), they are introduced to social studies teacher candidates both implicitly and explicitly. further – and perhaps a bit sophomoric of a statement – the present research study could not exist had the field of teacher education not advocated for prominent themes in democratic journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 170 education. in other words, this study’s foundation was contingent on finding evidence that teacher education does support the aforementioned broad aims of a democratic education. without such findings, seeking the extent to which preservice social studies teacher associate with and internalize principles of democratic education would seem arbitrary. to that end, the simply extensive review of the literature exploring the levels of democratic education infused into social studies teacher education curriculums proved the extent to which the field of social studies teacher education sees itself as responsible for preparing parker’s “stewards of democracy”. discussion the presented findings of this study paint both a positive and negative image of the field of social studies and teacher education. on the one hand, teacher education as a whole appears to be falling short of its goal of preparing preservice social studies teachers who are capable of incorporating the many theories of democratic education into their classrooms. in this sense, preservice social studies teachers are completing a multitude of courses where they are being exposed to ideas that they are not fully internalized or understood. the present research, therefore, demonstrates how the ideal social studies teacher is rarely developed within teacher education despite an enduring body of literature being produced on the necessity for such educators. at the same time, however, the same candidates who are not fully recognizing their responsibilities as “stewards of democracy” do appear to be leaving their teacher education programs having developed some understanding of democratic education. in other words, having entered into their programs as “blank slates” in terms of democratic education, they are leaving their programs with a foundational understanding of their roles within the society as developers of educated and participatory citizens who demonstrate tolerance and advocate for change. and though they may not be grasping every tenet of democratic education called for by the field of education, they have shown growth in this area. for instance, misco and patterson (2007) found that over 80% of the participants in their study viewed the use of controversial issues as aligning with the mission of the school system. though a microcosm of an example, this finding does illustrate how preservice teachers can hold a positive view of an essential component of a democratic education. this meta-ethnography, therefore, demonstrates that by the time the traditional preservice social studies teacher graduates from their teacher education program, they rory p. tannebaum 171 do have a working understanding of their role of fostering individuals capable of entering into a pluralist society as informed and participatory citizens. consider both of these points, it is clear to see that the field of education – like any large ecosystem – remains a fluid entity that is consistently reflecting upon and adapting to its many elements. in this sense, the field is still working to define democratic education and prepare its future educators to achieve this abstract concept’s underlying objectives in their own classrooms. however, doing so successfully is not something that happens over night (or within the traditional two year teacher-education program). rather, teacher educators must seek to generate the “lifelong learners” often called for within the k12 classroom to encourage in-service teachers to stay updated on current literature, consistently reflect both on their practice and the aims of education, and continue to adapt their practice to new ideas and understandings. teacher education, thus, must take into consideration the research on what preservice teachers know about democratic education and how they foresee themselves incorporating such ideas into their own practice. this information must subsequently be used within teacher education both on a macroand micro-scale to assist teacher educators in preparing teacher candidates in novel ways to assist them in internalizing theories of democratic education. additionally, such knowledge on preservice teachers must be used to assist preservice teachers to develop a sense of ownership and interest in their responsibilities as social studies teachers. in other words, only when teacher educators understand what preservice teachers know can they tailor curriculum and instruction to the generation of candidates who have an understanding and interest in the aims of education. conclusion this meta-ethnography has the potential to influence those in the field of social studies education in a manner grounded in empirical evidence and reflective of the aims of social studies education. in this sense, the researcher used evidence not to advocate for what preservice social studies teacher should know but, rather, present a consensus of what they do know. moreover, if the fields of teacher education and social studies education aim to prepare preservice teachers to foster the aims of both a democratic and civic education in the 21st century social studies classroom, an understanding of their knowledge bases must be developed. at the current time of the present essay’s generation, limited research existed detailing the perspectives, conceptions, and views of preservice social studies teachers (especially in journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 172 regards to teaching the social studies). therefore, more literature is needed on this critical area in teacher education. future research must look into how preservice social studies teachers are prepared, the extent to which this preparation differs internationally, and the most effective means for preparing preservice teachers to understand the promise of the social studies. ideally, this study will contribute to this aim and begin a dialogue amongst scholars on how to best prepare them to serve as effective “stewards of democracy”. rory p. tannebaum 173 references adler, s. (1984). a field study of selected student teacher perspectives toward social studies. theory & research in social education, 12(1), 13-30. adler, s. (2008). the education of social studies teachers. in l. levstik and c. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education, new york, ny: taylor and francis. adler, s., & confer, b. j. (1998, february). a practical inquiry: influencing preservice teachers’ beliefs toward diversity and democracy. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american association of colleges of teacher education, new orleans, la. alfano, m. p. (2001). preservice teachers' perceptions toward the meaning and purpose of democratic education in urban schools: a case study. (order no. 3025018, the university of connecticut). proquest dissertations and theses, pp. 236-236. retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/276153726?accountid=6167. (276153726). al-janabi, h., coast, j., & flynn, t. n. (2008). what do people value when they provide unpaid care for an older person? a meta-ethnography with interview follow-up. social science & medicine, 67(1), 111-121. angell, a. v. (1998). learning to teach social studies: a case study of belief restructuring. theory & research in social education, 26(4), 509-529. atkins, s., lewin, s., smith, h., engel, m., fretheim, a., & volmink, j. (2008). conducting a meta-ethnography of qualitative literature: lessons learnt. bmc medical research methodology, 8(1). author. (2015; manuscript in preparation). exploring the associations preservice social studies teachers make between democratic education and discussion as a pedagogical approach: a multi-case study. unpublished manuscript. avery, p. g. (2003). using research about civic education to improve courses in the methods of teaching social studies. in j. patrick, g. hamot, & r. leming (eds.) civic learning in teacher education: international perspectives on education for democracy in the preparation of teachers, office of educational research and improvement. wash., dc: 45-65. barton, k. c. (2012). expanding preservice teachers images of self, students, and democracy. in d. campbell, m. levinson, f. hess (eds.), making civics count: citizenship education for a new generation, pp. 161-182. cambridge, ma: harvard education press. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 174 bickmore, k. (2008). social justice and the social studies. in l. levstik and c. tyson (eds.). handbook of research in social studies education, 155-171. new york, ny: taylor and francis. boyle-baise, m. (2003). doing democracy in social studies methods. theory & research in social education, 31(1), 51-71. crowe, a. r., hawley, t. s., & brooks, e. w. (2012). ways of being a social studies teacher: what are prospective teachers thinking?. social studies research & practice, 7(2). cuenca, a. (2010). democratic means for democratic ends: the possibilities of bakhtin's dialogic pedagogy for social studies. the social studies, 102(1), 42-48. cutsforth, j. (2010). preservice teachers' changing understandings about teaching social studies: the role of three secondary social studies methods courses. (order no. 3447840, columbia university). proquest dissertations and theses, 332. retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/858622331?accountid=6167. (858622331). darling-hammond, l. (2000). how teacher education matters. journal of teacher education, 51(3), 166-173. dewey, j. (1900/1915). the school and society: revised edition. university of chicago, il: university of chicago press. dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education. macmillian press limited. london, uk. dinkelman, t. (1999 april). conceptions of democratic citizenship in preservice social studies teacher education: a case study. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, montreal, quebec, canada. doppen, f. (2007). the influence of a teacher preparation program on preservice social studies teachers' beliefs: a case study. journal of social studies research, 31(1). dumas, w. (1993). preparation of social studies teachers at major research universities. international journal of social education, 7(3), 59-65. fitchett, p. g., starker, t. v., & salyers, b. (2012). examining culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy in a preservice social studies education course. urban education, 47(3). goodman, j., & adler, s. (1985). becoming an elementary social studies teacher: a study of perspectives. theory & research in social education, 13(2), 1-20. guba, e. g. (1981). criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. ectj, 29(2), 75-91. rory p. tannebaum 175 gulsvig, p. k. (2009). teacher candidates' experience of ubd in a social studies methods course. proquest llc. ann arbor, mi. gutmann, a. (1999). democratic education. princeton, nj: princeton university press. habermas, j. (1989). the structural transformation of the public sphere (t. burger, trans.). cambridge, ma: massachusetts institute of technology press (original work published 1962). hahn, c. (1999). challenges to civic education in the united states. civic education across countries: twenty-four national case studies from the iea civic education project, 583 605. hertzberg, h. w. (1981). social studies reform 1880-1980. boulder, co: ssec publications hess, d. e. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. routledge press. kubow, p. k. (1997 april). citizenship education for the 21st century: insights from social studies teacher preparation students in three countries. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, chicago, il. lortie, d. c., & clement, d. (1975). schoolteacher: a sociological study (pp. 1-54). chicago: university of chicago press. mathews, s. a., & dilworth, p. p. (2008). case studies of preservice teachers' ideas about the role of multicultural citizenship education in social studies. theory & research in social education, 36(4), 356-390. misco, t., & patterson, n. c. (2007). a study of pre-service teachers' conceptualizations of academic freedom and controversial issues. theory & research in social education, 35(4), 520-550. national council for the social studies. (2013). a position statement of national council for the social studies. retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/revitalizing_civic_learning noblit, g. w., & hare, r. d. (1988). meta-ethnography: synthesizing qualitative studies (vol. 11). thousand oaks, california: sage publications. o'brien, j. l., & smith, j. m. (2011). elementary education students' perceptions of" “good" citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 2(1). parker, w. (2003). teaching democracy: unity and diversity in public life (vol. 14). teachers journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 154-176 176 college press. parker, w. c. (2005). teaching against idiocy. phi delta kappan, 86(5), 344-351. parker, w. c. (2010). social studies education ec21. social studies today: research and practice, 1-13. patton, m. q. (ed.). (2002). qualitative research & evaluation methods. thousand oaks, california: sage publications. pryor, c. r. (2006). pre-service to in-service changes in beliefs: a study of intention to become a democratic practitioner. theory & research in social education, 34(1), 98-123. ross, d. d.; & yeager, e. (1999). what does democracy mean to prospective elementary teachers? journal of teacher education, 50(4), 255-266. ross, e. w. (1988). becoming a teacher: the development of preservice teacher perspectives. action in teacher education, 10(2), 101-109. van hover, s. (2008). the professional development of social studies teachers. in l. levstik & c. tyson (eds.). handbook of research in social studies education, new york, ny: routledge publishing. wilkins, c. (1999). making 'good citizens': the social and political attitudes of pgce students. oxford review of education, 25(1-2), 217-230. wilson, e. k., konopak, b. c., & readence, j. e. (1994). preservice teachers in secondary social studies: examining conceptions and practices. theory & research in social education, 22(3), 364-379. yin, r. k. (2009). case study research: design and methods (4th edition). thousand oaks, california: sage publishing. zeichner, k. m., & tabachnick, b. r. (1981). are the effects of university teacher education 'washed out' by school experience?. journal of teacher education, 32(3), 7-11. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (1), 104-126 104 parents and teachers’ attitudes toward written communication and its impact in the collaboration between them: problem of social study education vlora sylaj1& alije keka sylaj2 abstract the study has the purpose of analyzing the process of parent – teacher cooperation and the written form communication as a factor with influence in this process. within the overall purpose, the study also has his specific objectives. it is also analyzed if there exists a statistically significant relationship between written communication and the level of cooperation by kosovo teachers and parents. the interest of the study was also understanding if there is a statistically significant relationship between attitudes towards written communication and its implementation by kosovo teachers and parents this study, designed as correlational survey method that was conducted with 298 teachers and 298 parents of third and fourth grade students from urban schools, as well as 297 teachers and 300 parents of third and fourth grade students from rural schools. the alternative hypothesis is that there is a statistically significant relationship between attitudes towards written communication and its implementation by kosovo teachers and parents. the results show a link between written communication and the level of cooperation of teacher-family. clearly, the results of the t-test show that there are differences between attitudes towards written communication and its implementation in cooperation. the average attitude of parents and teachers towards written communication is higher than the average of teachers and parents who apply written communication. keywords: communication, written communication, social studies, parent, school, collaboration introduction the beginning of a century is an appropriate time to reflect on the condition of social studies (stanley, 2001) and those of social studies education. the field of social studies is unique and complex. social studies education most commonly refers to the training of professional educators to teach social studies (russell iii, 2012). the article does not treat the objectives of social studies education as a whole, but only it as respect towards cultures and nations focusing on the language diversity while cooperating with the family. social studies education will continue to evolve as it is affected by events and trends. these include the shifts in schools and school demographics, 1 department of pedagogy, faculty of education, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”,vlora.sylaj@uni-pr.edu 2 asst..dr. phd, institute of anatomy,university of prishtina''hasan prishtina'',kosovo. alije.keka@uni-pr.edu mailto:vlora.sylaj@uni-pr.edu mailto:alije.keka@uni-pr.edu journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 teacher accreditation standards, changes in family, these changes will impact ideological perspectives and influence the direction of the social studies, among which the question of communication. the importance of parent–teacher collaboration and its positive impact on children is well documented (henderson & mapp, 2002; epstein & sanders, 2006). the connection between the school and family relates to communication. the lack of effective communication is the greatest barrier to increasing parental involvement (jesse, 1995). communication is the factor that strengthens or weakens the relationship between family and school. if communication is positive, it brings benefits to all involved parties, especially to students. on the other hand, if the communication is weak, it can lead to the misunderstandings and thus be an influencer in effective partnership between the family and the school (martin & shana, 2002). the way the communication is realized between teachers, especially with students, influences the proper communication between the students themselves. the communication model among the teachers dictates the mode of the communication among students, and the way of the communication between the family and school affects the education of the students towards a convenient communication with each other. this study is designed to determine the views of teachers and parents about communication. it is the influential factor in some negative phenomena in the school such as the fall of the academic success of the students, it also affects the climate of the school, causes school abandonment but also influences the creation of psychological illnesses in the students. in order to prevent it, it is important to know as pupils, teachers, and administrators determine violence and understand what their reasons are (altuna & bakerb, 2010), and other effective and adequate communication methods between the school and family. a family is a group of individuals related by blood, marriage or cohabitation approval. the family should be more involved in their child’s education and participate in school activities. school is the educational institution in which the organized activity of upbringing and education of the young generation takes place. cooperation with the family helps to increase the school role. cooperation between school and family are activities and cooperation agreements between them to achieve common goals. communication is the decisive factor in indispensable interactions and relationships including, but not limited to, businesses, between nations, interpersonal, and parental (olson & platt, 2004). “communications are also the ways which people used to form relationships with each other and understand each other’s feelings” (cambridge international dictionary of sylaj & sylaj english, 1996, p.271). while, parental involvement epstein and colleagues defined the components of parental involvement to include “parenting, communicating, volunteering or attending, supporting learning at home, partaking in decision making, and working in partnership with the community or schools” (epstein & dauber, 1991, p. 289). very little research has studied the relationship between written communication and its impact on parent-teacher collaboration. the information that is available concentrates on written communication as a predictor of the level of cooperation between teachers and parents. based on the literature of social studies education the school must help the family solve the problems that have to do with their child, even with others. the school communicates with the family in multiple ways (e.g. by email, phone, website, youth meetings, workbook, visits at home, etc.) and informs regularly about different school activities. our study addresses written communication. the objective of the study is to examine the interrelation of written communication with the level of cooperation therefore. more specifically, the study will investigate whether written communication impacts the average number of meetings that the school has with the family within a school year, this study will address the following research questions. the study has for purpose the realization of two objectives. the first objective is: to analyze the connection that the written communication can have with the level of teacher – parent cooperation. research question: does the connection between written communication and the level of cooperation parent – teacher exist? about this goal the assumption that a significant connection exists is also raised between written communication and the level of cooperation by kosovo teachers and parents. the second objective of this study is to ascertain if there is a difference between the attitudes towards written communication and its implementation by kosovo teachers and parents? research question: are there differences between the attitudes towards written communication and its implementation by kosovo teachers and parents? the assumption consists in significant positive expectations for the existence of the significant positive connection between the attitudes towards written communication and its implementation by kosovo teachers and parents. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 literature review a meta-analysis of 41 studies examined the relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement, confirming a strong association between them (jeynes, 2005).based on the findings of many studies, becomes known the fact that the most influential factor in supporting the success of the pupils is exactly the common communication frequently between the school and the parents (grant, 2011). however, based on the literature on communication, we also understand that communication negatively affects the family and school if it is not practiced effectively (bhering, 2003), this is one of the challenges of social studies education. this communication, according to chambers (1998) begins exactly when the parent enters the school building on the occasion of his/her welcome. according to sanders (1998), the involvement of the family in the school and the communication between these two cooperating parties influence the improvement of pupils' behavior, the communication must be twofold (christenson & sheridan, 2001, vosler-hunter, 1989). there must be close cooperation and partnership between the family and the school because in this way they learn from each other. after the exchange of information between them, they will understand specific educational competencies in order for this to be of benefit to the pupils (silvia, 2010). the education process itself to be successful, must work based on these friendly relationships between teachers and parents of the pupils, then between pupils and the teachers (swanson et al., 2010). they should build this collaboration on mutual respect and appreciation. rimm-kaufman and plan (2005) conducted a research in which they implemented an intervention to improve communication. the study included preschool and kindergarten teachers and family workers of 75 children from families with low ses logged the frequency and characteristics of family-school communication, resulting in over 22,000 contacts.” data were collected during a period of implementation of an intervention designed to enhance relationships upon the transition to school. family demographic information and information about family support for academics at home was assessed through parent interviews and children's behavior problems were measured through teacher questionnaires in preschool and kindergarten. family-teacher communication decreased between preschool and kindergarten, and there was a shift from shorter to longer types of communication between the two years. communication differed as a function of the program. counter to expectation, few family factors and experiences predicted the frequency of familyschool communication, and more frequent communication in preschool was unrelated to more sylaj & sylaj frequent communication in kindergarten. findings have several implications for practice. families experience a great decrease in communication between preschool and kindergarten and interventions designed to ease the transition to kindergarten need to either ameliorate the decrease or acknowledge its existence to prepare families. otherwise, this contrast may be interpreted negatively. given that our findings show no relation between a family's communication in preschool and kindergarten, it appears that it is not enough to support communication in preschool to ensure frequent communication in kindergarten”(rimm-kaufman & pianta, 2005, p.287). effective communication is essential to increase parents' involvement. effective relationships between parents and teachers are considered as basic in the school's development as the learning community (schussler, 2003). an interesting point of view is that "teachers and parents can learn from each other" extend this idea to include all partners in the learning enterprise, including policymakers, inspectors, students, community members"(macbeath et al., p.1). the family should be included in the school not only in focusing on the student's success but also in his discipline in the school, receiving information about his behavior, involvement and participation in school events, in the conferences between teachers and parents, then the help they need to give in the school (yamamoto et al., 2016). but school is the underlying factor that should contribute to the development of effective communication between her and the family. researchers have given different ideas on how to achieve effective communication. in addition, we find caspe's suggestion (2003) that teacher development programs should promote the development of communication skills for the teacher, but also the teacher's own preparation. while lawrence-lightfoot, (2004) considers that the development of effective communication happens if there is an appraisal between the parties and trust as well when the concerns are in the mutual direction. also, we understand that fair and effective communication is also reflected in the ability of parents and teachers to address the problem when a particular concern is expressed to the learner, this is an aspect of effective communication (allen & blackston, 2003). effective communication is essential for building family-school-community partnerships and is the foundation for strengthening relationships and all other partnership efforts. three central elements are essential for communication as a dynamic, two-way, and mutually beneficial process. effective communication is the foundation of successful relationships and partnerships. whether formal or informal, effective communication is respectable and clear. to communicate well, you need to know consciously the skills you need and plan the communication process. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 communication does not always enable a good partnership between school and family. apart from other factors, communication itself is one barrier in this direction. this factor is one that should be used for effective partnerships between school and family to prevent violence among pupils, among others. communication between school, family, and community should be mutual and focused on the strong points of the family/parents and pupils and in addressing problems jointly. communication can be such as direct or indirect, and also disguised or clear (epstein, n. b., peshkop, d., ryan, c., miller, i., and keitner, g. i. (1993). clear communication occurs when messages are clearly spoken and the masked communication occurs when the message is confusing or ambiguous. the family needs to be constantly informed about their child and his/her behavior at school. in order this to be achieved, the family should be actively present in the school and doing so, they will be well-informed. teachers have a decisive role in making the family more present in school. researchers epstein and doube, in their study, found out that teachers who have a more positive view of parent involvement give more importance to practices such as organizing meetings with parents of all students regarding school programs or sharing positive and negative outcomes with parents, than other teachers. strengthening the positive attitudes of teachers is also related to the achievement of success in the “parental involvement” with hard to reach parents. when the teachers involve parents in everyday teaching practices, the parents increase interaction with their children at home, have a more positive feeling about their ability to help their children, a better judgment for the teachers and students improve their attitude and academic performance. epstein (2001) states that the communication between the school and the family is a very important factor in the involvement and cooperation between the school and the family and also in preventing violence among students. communication is a rather complex issue and involves speaking, listening, reflecting on the feelings and interpreting of sage themes (berger, 2000). if the sent message is not adequately interpreted by the recipient, then we have a lack of communication. in communication, it is not important only to talk because it is considered that body language carries 93% of the message. whereas, smith (1986) describes hearing as a basis for the interaction among people. hearing, not speaking, according to him, is the most used form of the communication, with 45% of the verbal communication used to hear, 30% to talk, 16% for reading, and 9% for writing. in the communication between the school and the family, it is important how the school carries out conversations with parents because the communication can be a source of the conflict between the sylaj & sylaj family and the school (blue-banning, summer, frankland, nelson and beegle, 2004; tucker & schwartz, 2013). according to their research studies ouimette, feldman, tung, chamblin, & coyne (2002), have concluded that are two main obstacles to creating inclusive and welcoming schools for all parents. first, the parents' ideas about their role in the educating of their children, and second, the existence of the lack of communication between the families and the schools about parental involvement expectations. a study conducted in the kosovo schools by kosovo education center (kec) identified two perceived obstacles to the development of sustainable family-based cooperation with school and divides them into two categories: (1) the barrier in providing support to the family, and (2) obstacles in school-family communication. according to this study, communication is a factor that hinders the cooperation and realization of its sustainability. there are many researchers who have communication between the school and family as the focus of their research. in these studies, we understand that "researchers find that an effective communication between school and the family, and inclusion of the family in school is associated with improving student behavior in school, which in itself contributes to the student academic success” (hoover-dempsey, walker, jones & reed, 2002). the effects of the school's communication form on the families have also been researched, and the previous negative experiences of the parents with schools that can affect the family to expect bad news when receiving the communication from the school (tucker, 2014). other studies have found that the parents wanted to get more communication from the teachers, especially when there were early signs of an academic or behavioral problem (smrekar & cohen-vogel, 2001). another study by adams and christenson (2000), shows that the communication with the teachers was clearly positively correlated with the level of parental satisfaction with the parent-teacher relationship. the intentions that are made to raise the level of family and the school meetings rarely provide guidelines for the nature or quality of the communication. these findings suggest that regular, proactive, individual, and positive communications are key to improve the parents' attitudes toward the school and increasing their involvement in the school (tucker, 2014). the school should constantly communicate with the family for any visible change in the student behavior at regular intervals and give opportunities to the family for communication whenever they need it. common behavioral consultation provides a clear opportunity to establish the communication and the work relationships between systems of the family and the school (christenson & sheridan, 2001). for example, the specific teacher invitations for the involvement journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 of the parents may take different forms, including encouraging parents' communication to the child, suggesting ideas for practicing school work or in the community activities related to the child learning. (hall & quinn, 2014; hoover-dempsey, walker, jones & reed, 2002). in addition, according to the scientific research, co-operation between school and family, the partnership programs and the teacher practices involving the parents' involvement have positive effects on the ability of the parents to help their children throughout the schools years; the school about the parents' judgment on the teacher skills and the quality of the teaching; on the teachers' opinions about the capacity of the parents to help their children with homework at home and on the student opinions for the school (becker & epstein, 1982, epstein, 2001). communication is the most appropriate area through which the parents want to establish contacts with the school. parents' positive communication almost always gives positive results to the parents and the teachers. negative, superficial or insufficient communication almost always leads to problems throughout the school year. researchers consider that the way we have the parent-parent conversation is definitely important in the communication between the school and the family to prevent violence among the students. in order for this communication to be effective, it must be positive. according to ratcliff and hunt (2009, p.499): "for the family members to believe that their thoughts and feelings are respected, the teachers should engage in bilateral communication with the family members who are positive and supportive. when the relationships with the families are built on a positive and healthy communication base, the problems that may arise throughout the year are expected to be solved positively”. the key to building a relationship of co-operation between families and schools, as in any relationship, is the regular and effective communication. according to davies (1993) and moles (1993) this requires that in the interaction between teachers and the school we focus on the qualitative and the quantitative aspects, but although this is known both from the family, also from the school, these factors may encounter barriers to effective communication. parents may experience psychological barriers for the involvement: unpleasant personal school history, memories of the poor achievements, or poor treatment at school, and personal battles with poor physical or mental health can leave the parents feeling scared by the school authorities and poorly equipped to take part effectively (finders & lewis, 1994; gavin & greenfield, 1998; moles, 1993). then, the lack of confidence in personal teaching skills or the ability to work with parents, sylaj & sylaj fear of the parental criticism or lack of the knowledge about the strategies that teachers and the schools can offer to the parents for a more effective involvement(hoover-dempsey, bassler & brissie, 1992). among other reasons is also that the teachers are often quite unprepared by the preservice vocational training or in the effective family-school communication service (evansschilling, 1999; pang & watkins, 2000). but, of course, communication skills can be developed. the researchers dinnebeil and rule (1996) emphasize that the communication skills that significantly affect the parent-teacher relationships can be learned and improved through practice. the supporting roles that parents can play in educating their children should be sustainable topics in communication in the family-school (henderson, 1987). communication involves encoding messages, and it serves various goals in multiple levels of occupational, personal and social domains (stamatis 2013). family and school play a fundamental role in the upbringing and educating children; their collaboration is also crucial to the socialization of children. the mission of school and family should be ensured by their constant and mutual support at the institutional and functional level (dowling 2002). but, if the partnership is not properly managed, it can lead to a genuine conflict between opposing systems of rules to the requirements of the child by family, school or group of friends to be antagonistic (blandul, 2005). christenson and sheridan (2001) on the base of their research pointed out the fact that the climate of a school can support or tie down family relationship and they have examined the effect of approaches and attitudes of teachers towards parents. in an extensive study, j. l. epstein (2010) focused mainly on the building of relationships between school and family. also, according to scientific research, the cooperation programs and partnerships among the school-family, and the teachers’ practices regarding parent involvement have very positive effects on parents' ability to help their children throughout school years; in assessing the parents about the skills of teachers and the quality of teaching; on the opinion of the teachers about the parents' opportunities to help their children with homeschool assignments and the student's thinking…(becker & epstein, 1982; epstein, 2001). based on the literature of social studies education, written communication has been identified as a factor affecting engagement, no scientific research has focused solely on the relationship between written communication and its impact on the level of partnerships between teachers and the school. taking this into account this study sought to find whether there is a relationship between them. very little research has studied journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 the relationship between written communication and its impact on parent-teacher collaboration. the information that is available concentrates on written communication as a predictor of the level of cooperation between teachers and parents. this study used a quantitative framework, as following the article we will detail the rationale and hypotheses for this study, and explains the data collection and analysis process. method the study`s aim the aim of this study is to identify the impact of written communication on the level of cooperation between parents and teachers, as well as to ascertain if there is a positive or negative correlation between the attitudes towards written communication and its implementation by kosovo teachers and parents. research design our schools face different barriers and problems among which communication parent-teacher is one of them. therefore, our concern as researchers in this study was the level of communication in our schools. aiming at exploring this factor which is crucial for the quality of collaboration between parents and teachers, we employed a quantitative research design as it enabled collecting data from a wide geographic zone of our country. for the same reason, questionnaire is also considered as appropriate to apply when collecting data. through the survey/questionnaire, we gathered opinions from schools and families about the level of collaboration between school and family, identified the number of meetings between parents and teachers during a school year. we designed for a representative sampling from a large population spread throughout a large urban and rural geographical zone. we evaluate this method as appropriate for our study in order to use descriptive correlation analysis while we have presented the results accompanied with explanations. the reason why we decided to work with descriptive statistics was the fact that we had to do with comparison between attitudes of families and schools about collaboration between them, while it is known that descriptive statistics enables avoiding human errors in the way, avoiding any impact in study findings. further, through descriptive statistics we are able to better represent the distribution of frequencies in a table as well as correlational format. this enabled clarity in representation of findings, accompanied with comments and interpretations. considering the nature and goal of our study, descriptive statistics is the best way which enables us to explore sylaj & sylaj the problem of our study. we also used correlational study/statistics. variables used in this study have a common variance. in order to explore this variance, we conducted correlation between written communication and level of collaboration between parents and teachers. the approach in this study is a quantitative one. this study is an observational analytic one. therefore, it encompasses both descriptive and correlational designs in itself. participants the population is determined numerically. the type of sample is a stratified random sample. stratification is done by the respective geographic regions and according to urban/rural (twodimensional layered samples). the study analyzed the factor of the school information family in vast geography that represents the entire population of the country. the number of samples for each layer is made in order to fulfill the formula 30/ 2 * number from geographical regions). the method of selection was the random selection (proportional to the number from parents and students in school); lair methods (linear cumulative) of sampling were used. we have determined that the reliability level is 95%, with an error limit of 5%, like most other studies. so in the sample with 1520 subjects who are trusted in 95% of them and if wrong, the error rate is 5%. consequently, our findings on the worst case are taken at extent 90% because of the size of the sample. with these features, our theoretical champion should have been smaller, almost double from what we have. if we calculate certain (hypothetical) irregularities in the sample and in the administration of the questionnaires then the "excess" participants (in the sense of over-sampling) can compensate for any deficiency that may have come from the alleged irregularities. the study was done in seven regions of kosovo. the sample included 298 teachers and 265 parents of third and fourth grade students in urban schools, and 297 teachers and 300 parents of third and fourth grade students in rural schools. table 1. sample of research participants n % teachers of urban schools 298 52.93% parents of urban schools 265 47.07% teachers of rural schools 297 48.75% parents of rural schools 300 52.25% journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 research instrument the instruments used in the study were a questionnaire through which we came to the findings of written communication and collaboration of the parents with the teachers. the questionnaire consists of five likert scales as "strongly agree", "agree", "undecided", "disagree", "strongly disagree “. the questionnaire consists of the parts labeled as family trust in the school, effective communication, family information, decision-making, support the success of students, the school welcomed family and vice versa, separation of duties and responsibilities and previous experience of school with the family. the questionnaire was developed by us, the researchers. it was used to verify the reliability of the instruments used during the research. from the calculations, it emerged that the "questionnaire for teachers" instrument had α = .870, which indicates a high level of credibility. also, the other instrument that was used to collect data from teachers "questionnaire for parents", shows α = .987 which indicates good credibility. referring to this scaling, the reliability of the data from the instruments used in the study turns out to be good. each and every questionnaire is analyzed separately in order to understand its credibility, then each dimension of each questionnaire is analyzed in order to understand the relation between them with the goal of measuring validity. all the analysis are conducted through cronbach’s alpha coefficient and pearson’s coefficient. results show that questionnaires guarantee credibility and validity. it is due to cronbach’s coefficient and correlations with statistical significance that we can draw conclusions on the above metric features of surveys/questionnaires. credibility and validity of questionnaires for teachers are presented in table no 2. table 2. credibility and validity of questionnaires for teachers consistency is acceptable with cronbach’s alpha coefficient, reported as .870 for questionaries’ for teachers. reability statistics cronbach's alpha .870 cronbach's alpha based on standardized items 0.860 sylaj & sylaj while, in table no 2, we also understand that we have acceptable consistency for questionnaires for parents as well, that is, the reported cronbach’s alpha coefficient here is .987. table 3. credibility and validity of questionnaires for parents data collection procedure and data analysis the data were collected from a group of teachers who were trained prior to data collection. the study is divided into two phases. the first phase of the study is the review and examination of existing literature on the problem. in the second phase, we applied questionnaires. before conducting a survey, we respected the requirements for quantitative research ethics, such as confidentiality, anonymity, the consent of the persons involved, the right to privacy and the opportunity of attraction. the data collection process was coordinated with the permission obtained from the directorate of education as well as the principals of the schools involved in the research. questionnaires were distributed to primary and secondary schools in both urban and rural areas to ensure a more heterogeneous and representative sample. during the school visits, we have ensured full confidentiality on data processing and presentation only for scientific purposes. it should be noted that throughout the process of data collection, we have not encountered any hesitation for neither parents nor school teachers to participate in the study. a teacher and a parent each needed about 25-30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. after data collection, the database in the spss program has initially been created for the teachers’ and parent’s questionnaires. after inserting all the data, they have been analyzed, and the statistical data of results have been obtained. results and discussion this chapter describes the analysis results generated from the data collected. analysis and results are organized by respecting the objectives of the study, with the purpose of accomplishing them. reability statistics cronbach's alpha .987 contrabah alpha based on standardized items 0.947 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 first, we aimed to understand if there exists a connection between the parents and the teacher’s attitudes on written form communication and its implementation on the cooperation between these two pairs. data gained (see table 4), through statistical analysis between teachers’ attitudes toward written communication and level of collaboration show that the median for the attitude of teachers toward written communication is 2.442, standard deviation .37232, while the median for the level of cooperation is 4.8766. the value of t over the significance of the differences is t = 6.457and sig. of .000 and the level of cooperation. teachers’ attitudes about written communication are at a higher level than level of collaboration with parents table 4. written communication and the level of cooperation results indicate that there are statistically important differences between written communication paired samples statistics total of written communication & total of the level of cooperation mean n std.deviation std. error mean 6.4452 595 .37232 1.2434 4.8766 .263280.6373 paire paired sample test differences between written communication and the level of cooperation paired differences mean std. std. error deviation means 95% confidence interval of t sig.(2-tailed) t the difference lower upper 27856 .36654 .01002 27892 14267 6.457 .000 sylaj & sylaj based on the results (see table 5), data gained through statistical analysis between parents’ attitudes toward written communication and level of collaboration show that the median for the attitude of parents toward written communication is 7.3675, standard deviation .26543, while the median for the cooperation is 4.8920. therefore, based on these results, the attitudes of parents toward written communication show to be more positive/higher than the level of collaboration. table 5. written communication and the level of cooperation second objective of the study was examination of the connection between written form communication and the level of the parent – teacher cooperation by the urban and rural level. in this study the written form communication consists in relationship with the cooperation level. the data obtained by statistical analysis are shown on the tables below. paired samples statistics total of written comunication & total of the level of cooperation mean n std.deviation std. error mean 7.3675 565 .26543 .08730 4.8920 .46882 .10834 paired sample test differences between written communication and the level of cooperation paired differences mean std. deviation std. error mean 95% confidence interval of t sig.(2-tailed) the difference lower upper 47633.54381 .07843 .37689 .28291 4.783 .000 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 statistical tests (see table 6), to find if distribution was normal when conducted in advance and it was revealed that written communication between teachers and parents and the level of collaboration between them has a high correlation and with statistical significance (r=.891, s=.001, n=298). this means that teachers’ written communication with parents impacts the level of collaboration between them. table 6. correlation between written communication and the level of collaboration based on the attitudes of teachers of the urban environment the written communication relationship between parents and teachers from urban areas was measured through pearson’s coefficient. tests measuring conditions for the normal distribution and homogeneity were conducted in advance and it was noticed that there is a positive linear but weak relationship, though with statistical significance (r=.189, s=.000, n=265 ), see table 7. table 7. correlation between written communication and the level of collaboration based on the attitudes of parents of the urban environment based on the results (see table 8), the relationship between two variables, written communication and the level of collaboration that parents and teachers have, was investigated through pearson’s test. tests measuring conditions for normal distribution and homogeneity were conducted in advance. there was found a strong positive linear relationship with statistical significance (r=.621, s=.001, n=297). according to parents’ statements, the written communication that teachers has with parents increases the level of collaboration between them table 8. correlation between written communication and the level of collaboration based on the attitudes of teachers of the rural environment total of written communication & total of the level of cooperation n correlation sig. 298 .891 .001 total of written communication & total of the level of cooperation n correlation sig. 265.189 s=.000 total of written communication & total of the level of cooperation n correlation sig. 297. 621. 001 sylaj & sylaj the scale of correlation between the written communication variable and the level of collaboration between teacher and parents variable was investigated by using pearson’s correlation and as it can be seen from final results (r=.744, s=.000, n=300), correlation between teachers’ written communication with the family in rural areas is high and with statistical significance. table 9. correlation between written communication and the level of collaboration based on the attitudes of parents of the rural environment discussion about the connection between written communication and the level of parents-teachers cooperation, the results coincide with the expectations. the results show that the study hypothesis is accepted. a positive statistically significant connection between these factors exists. here, we confirm that statistical significance for communication is p<0.05. results reveal that this relationship in the urban family is (r=.189, p<0.00), and in the rural family (r=.621, p<0.01). among teachers from urban areas, the relationship between communication and level of meetings school-family is (r=.891, p<0.01), while among teachers from rural areas is (r=.744, p<0.01). this shows that from a statistical point of view this factorwritten communication has an important impact on the involvement of the parents in school. written communication has resulted and connected with the level of cooperation. the results obtained by the analysis for this objective of the study support the assumption by which the written communication will have a positive connection with the level of cooperation, thus referring the hypothesis zero of the study, according to which positive connections between the factors in question are not supposed. based on the results, according to parents’ statements, the written communication that teachers have with parents increases the level of collaboration between them. the study also finds that it can be ascertained that the correlation between teachers’ written communication with the family in rural areas is high and with statistical significance. the findings of the present study suggest that communication has an important impact on the involvement of the family in school, but at the primary school grades in kosovo is not at the needed level. total of written communication & total of number of the level of cooperation n correlation sig. 300 .744 .000 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 and the study of marchant et al. (2001) also focused on parents’ preferred approach to school communication, whose findings show that established school communication should be structured around the needs of parents. parents indicated that electronic communication from the schools would generate more involvement from them. the study found that the greater percentage of parents, represented by 38% and 31% respectively, preferred the use of electronic sources and combined methods individually. compatibility between the written communication and the level of cooperation between teachers and parents is also mentioned by moore (2015) having noticed which communication methods were considered by the parents as effective, the researcher used interview to explore the forms of communication the parents thought were less effective for eliciting involvement. the most articulated form of communication that was considered ineffective by the parents was the use of telephone. the parents revealed that in most cases, the calls came when they were not at home. meanwhile, trying to return all calls was always a primary challenge because they were either at their job or extremely exhausted after the work day. some parents noted that flyers often contained mistakes in regard to dates and times of events. alternatively, the printed message due to technology advances, it is always possible to ensure prompt communication and information delivery between teachers and parents. despite the two most effective communication methods documented were emails and combined methods. the effectiveness of emails has been supported in the literature because they were rapid and personalized (miedel & reynolds, 1999). miedel and reynolds (1999), advised the schools to ensure that the means of communication they select to reach parents would motivate the parents to partner with the school system. the importance of communication also is supported by kocyigita (2015) who mentioned that the most important step towards better parental involvement is for parents, teachers, and administrators to work together on effective communication. also, newer technologies could be used to deliver and receive messages constantly. on the other side, bittle (1975) revealed that communication is really only effective when the used method is accessible to the parents. bittle demonstrated an increase in parent-initiated contacts when an answering service was made available to the parents by a teacher. written communication has this advantage. “reaching the parents in person can be very challenging. through email, however, there are several platforms sylaj & sylaj (e.g., mobile phones, computers) that announce incoming emails. parents are highly comfortable with modern communication and would, therefore, benefit from analogous forms of school communication that mimic those of their everyday world (ramirez, 2001). results obtained by the second objective to ascertain are there differences between the attitudes towards written communication and its implementation by kosovo teachers and parents, support our assumption according to which there is a statistically significant relationship between attitudes towards written communication and its implementation by kosovo teachers and parents. the t-test results indicate that there are notable differences between the teachers’ attitudes about written communication and the level of their cooperation with parents. also, the t-test results indicate that there are notable differences between the parents’ attitudes about written communication and the level of their cooperation with teachers. thus, teachers and parents have different attitudes different actions towards written communication. it is not enough that they have a positive attitude towards written communication if they do not undertake concrete actions to implement it. so, results indicate that there are statistically important differences between written communication and the level of cooperation. teachers’ attitudes about written communication are at a higher level than level of collaboration with parents. therefore, based on these results, the attitudes of parents toward written communication show to be more positive/higher than the level of collaboration. canker, deutsch, and syntonic (2012) mentioned that the communication between parents and teachers that occurs frequently leads to developed trust and responsible relationships between teachers and parents (cankar et al., 2012). and similarly, epstein (1995) considers that teachers and parents with established, effective two-way communication have a firm foundation for mutual trust and respect that fosters increases in students’ academic achievement. conclusion the study has had for purpose to study the cooperation between parents and teachers and written form communication as an influential factor in this process. based on the analysis of the study findings, the results have been shown for positive correlation with statistical significance between the factors in question. based on this we can come to the conclusion that the written form communication connects with the level of the cooperation between parents and teachers. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 the other aim of the study on this issue is do the examination of the difference between the attitudes towards written communication and its implementation by kosovo teachers and parents. the results support four of the six study assumptions for this objective. while, based on results of the study, more specifically the difference between the median of results of teachers and families in relation with their attitudes toward written communication and results on how written communication is conducted in practice-for which data was the level of collaboration, the difference is more than obvious. in other words, despite the attitudes from both these parties, the level of written communication show to be low. to conclude, regarding the school’s written communication with the parents, a factor for parents’ involvement and in teachers-parents collaboration, it was revealed that it is at a high level and at a medium one. to raise the family and teachers’ awareness about effective and substantial communication between them, school and experts should find proper ways for delivering information to them about written communication and its importance and benefit. teachers should create such conditions which make the parents feel welcomed to communicate, which means making communication easy for them, in this way the family feels they are in focus. school should continuously written communicate with parents about every noticeable change in students’ behaviors, in regular intervals, and provide the family with opportunities for communication every time they need it. references berger, e.h. (2000). parents as partners in education: families and schools working together. upper saddle river, nj: prentice – hall. becker, h., & j. epstein. (1982). parent involvement: a survey of teacher practices. the elementary school journal, 83(2), 85-102. blue – banning, m., summer, j. a., frankland, h. c., nelson, l. l., & beegle, g. (2004). dimensions of family and professional partnerships: constructive guidelines for collaboration. exceptional children, 70(2), 167–184.10.1177/001440290407000203 bhering, e. (2003). percepções de pais e professores sobre o envolvimento dos pais na educação infantil e ensino fundamental. contrapontos, 3(3), 483-510. blandul, v. (2005). introduction in problems of special psycho-pedagogy, oradea, university of oradea press. caspe, m. s. (2003). how teachers come to understand families. school community journal, 13(1), 115-131. retrieved from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej666070 cankar, f., deutsch, t., & syntonic, s. (2012). approaches to building teacher-parent cooperation. ceps journal, 2(1), 35-55 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f001440290407000203 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej666070 sylaj & sylaj cambridge international dictionary of english, (1996). christenson, s. l., & sheridan, s. m. (2001). school and families: creating essential connections for learning. ny: guilford press chambers,l. (1998). how customer-friendly is your school? educational leadership,56(2),33-35 schussler, d. l. (2003). schools as learning communities: unpacking the concept. journal of school leadership, 13, 498-528. dowling,g. (2002).creating corporate reputations:identity, image,and performance.oxford university press. dinnebeil, l. a., hale, l. m., & rule, s. (1996). a qualitative analysis of parents’ and service coordinators’ descriptions of variables that influence collaborative relationships. topics in early childhood special education, 16(3), 322-347 evans-schilling, d. (1999). preparing educational leaders to work effectively with families: the parent power project. in m.s. ammon (ed.), joining hands: preparing teachers to make meaningful home-school connections (pp. 101-121). sacramento, ca: california department of education. epstein, j. l. & dauber, s. (1989). teacher attitudes and practices of parent involvement in innercity elementary and middle schools. paper presented at the american sociological association meeting, atlanta. crems report 31. baltimore: the johns hopkins university center for elementary and middle schools. epstein, j. l., & sanders, m. g. (2006). prospects for change: preparing educators for school, family, and community partnerships. peabody journal of education, 81(2), 81–120. epstein, n. b. bishop, d., ryan, c., miller, & keitner, g., (1993). the mcmaster model view of healthy family functioning. in froma walsh (eds.), normal family processes (pp. 138160). new york/london: the guilford press epstein, j. l. (2010). school, family, and community partnerships: preparing educators and improving schools. westview press. christenson, s. l., sheridan, m. (2001). schools and families: creating essential connections for learning. new york: guilford press. epstein, j. (1995). school/family/community partnerships: caring for the children we share. delta, kappan, 76(9), 701-712. emma j. martin &shanna hagan-burke. (2002). establishing a home school connection: strengthening the partnership between families and schools. preventing school failure: alternative education for children and youth, 46 (2), 6265.doi:10.1080/10459880209603347 finders, m., & lewis, c. (1994). why some parents don’t come to school. educational leadership, 51(8), 50-54 gavin, k.m., & greenfield, d.b. (1998). a comparison of levels of involvement for parents with at-risk african american kindergarten children in classrooms with high versus low teacher encouragement. journal of black psychology, 24(4), 403-417. grant, l. (2011). ‘i’m a completely different person at home’: using digital technologies to connect learning between home and school. journal of computer assisted learning, 27(4), 292–302. doi:10.1111/jca.2011.27.issue-4 hall, n. & quinn, r. (2014). parental involvement at the high school level: parents’ perspectives. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 13-21. https://www.tandfonline.com/author/martin%2c+emma+j https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880209603347 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (1), 104-126 hoover-dempsey, k. v., & walker, j. m. t. (2002). family-school communication: a report for the metropolitan nashville public schools. nashville, tn: vanderbilt university, department of psychology and human development http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.467.3740&rep=rep1&type=pdf hoover-dempsey, k. v., walker, j. m. t., jones, k. p., & reed, r. p. (2002). teachers involving parents (tip): results of an in-service teacher education program for enhancing parental involvement. teaching and teacher education, 18, 843-867. hoover-dempsey, k.v., bassler, o.c., & brissie, j.s. (1992). explorations in parent-school relations. journal of educational research, 85, 287-294. henderson, a. (1987). the evidence continues to grow: parent involvement improves student achievement. columbia, md: national committee for citizens in education. ed315199. henderson, a., & mapp, k. (2002). a new wave of evidence: the impact of school, family, and community connections on student achievement. austin, tx: southwest educational development laboratory. jenna, n. tucker. (2014). family-school relationships three papers addressing limitations in parent involvement theory and research. (unpublished doctoral thesis). university of north carolina at chapel hill, chapel hill. jeynes, w. h. (2005). a meta-analysis of the relation of parental involvement to urban elementary school student academic achievement. urban education, 40(3), 237–269. kocyigita, s. (2015). family involvement in preschool education: rationale, problems and solutions for the participants. educational sciences: theory & practice, 15(1), 117. k. s. h. hoover-dempsey, "parental involvement in children’s education: why does it make a difference? " teachers college record, vol. 95, pp. 310-331, 1997. k. v. hoover-dempsey & joan m. t. walker. (2002). family-school communication: vanderbilt university lawrence-lightfoot, s. (2004). building bridges from school to home. instructor, 114(1), 2428. macbeath, j., frost, d., frost, r., swaffield, s., & waterhouse, j. (2009). the essential conversation: reforming education through dialogue, proceedings of theinternational congress for school effectiveness and improvement (pp 2-14). vancouver, canada: icsei. retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265006783_the_essential_conversation_reformi ng_education_through_dialogue ouimette, m., feldman, j., tang, r., chamblin, n., & coyne, s. (2002). parent involvement in the boston pilot schools: lessons from a unique urban network. annual meeting of the new england educational research organization (pp. 1-14). boston: center for collaborative education. pupovci, d & tafarshiku. (2008). pjesëmarrja e prindërve në jetën e shkollës në në kosovë-një rrugë drejt ndryshimit. prishtine: kec. pang, i-w., & watkins, d. (2000). towards a psychological model of teacher-parent communication in hong kong primary schools. educational studies, 26(2), 141-163. doi.org/10.1080/713664272 ratcliff, n. & hunt, g. (2009).building teacher-family partnerships: the role of teacher preparation programs. education,129 (3). 495-505. retrieved from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej871593 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.467.3740&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265006783_the_essential_conversation_reforming_education_through_dialogue https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265006783_the_essential_conversation_reforming_education_through_dialogue https://doi.org/10.1080/713664272 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej871593 sylaj & sylaj rimm-kaufman, s. e. & pianta, r. c. (2005). family-school communication in preschool and kindergarten in the context of a relationship-enhancing intervention. early education and development, 16(3), 287-316.10.1207/s15566935eed1603_1 russell iii, w. (2012). comtemporary social studies: an essetial reader: iap sanders, m.g. (1998). the effects of school, family, and community support on the academic achievement of african american adolescents. urban education, 33 (1), 385-409. 10.1177/0042085998033003005 stamatis, panagiotis j. 2013. communication in education. athens: diadrassi. schussler, d. l. (2003). schools as learning communities: unpacking the concept. journal of school leadership, 13, 498-528. swanson, d.p, edwards, m., spencer, m. (2010).adolescence: development during a global era.boston: elsevier academic press smrekar, c. & cohen-vogel, l. (2001). the voices of parents: rethinking the intersection of family and school. peabody journal of education, 76(2), 75-100. doi: 10.1207/s15327930pje7602_5 sadegül akbaba altuna, özgür erdur bakerb. (2010). school violence: a qualitative case study. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 2(2). 3165–3169. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.483 stanley, william b., ed. (2001). critical issues in social studies research for the 21st century. research in social education series. retrieved from: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed453118 silva, p. (2001). interface escola-família, um olhar sociológico: um estudo etnográfico no 1º ciclo do ensino básico (tese de doutorado não publicada), universidade do porto, portugal. tucker,v., & schwartz, i. (2013). parents’ perspectives of collaboration with school professionals: barriers and facilitators to successful partnerships in planning for students with asd.school mental health, 5 (1), 3–14. retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs12310-012-9102-0 the power of family school community partnerships. a training resource manual. (2012). national education association. retrieved from: www2.nea.org/mediafiles/pdf/fscp_manual_2012.pdf vosler-hunter, r. w. (1989). changing roles, changing relationships: parent-professional collaboration on behalf of children with emotional disabilities. portland, or: portland state university, research and training center on family support and children’s mental health. retrieved from: https://www.pathwaysrtc.pdx.edu/pdf/pbchangingroleschangingrelationships.pdf yamamoto, y., susan, d. h., &suzuki, s. (2016). parental engagement in children’s education: motivating factors in japan and the u.s. school community journal, 26(1), 29-59. retrieved from: https://mafiadoc.com/parental-engagement-in-childrens-educationmotivating-eric_5a93e1241723dde51ca533f4.html http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1207/s15566935eed1603_1 http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327930pje7602_5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.483 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed453118 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs12310-012-9102-0 https://www.pathwaysrtc.pdx.edu/pdf/pbchangingroleschangingrelationships.pdf https://mafiadoc.com/parental-engagement-in-childrens-education-motivating-eric_5a93e1241723dde51ca533f4.html https://mafiadoc.com/parental-engagement-in-childrens-education-motivating-eric_5a93e1241723dde51ca533f4.html www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (3), 242-269 language policy and planning in russia, china and the usa through the lens of mass media of the 21-st century natalia v. yudina1, marina v. melnichuk2 & oksana a. seliverstova3 abstract the study focuses on defining specifics of the language policy and planning in the russian federation, the usa, and china within the modern political discourse of the 21st century by means of exploring materials from russian, american and chinese media. the empirical base of the study included statistical and sociological data describing the sociolinguistic situation in the studied countries as well as materials from the latest russian-language and english-language media which served as a source of factual and linguistic data. the authors investigated electronic publications of the following newspapers and their applications published from 2005 to april 2020: “arguments and facts”, “vedomosti”, “izvestia”, “kommersant”, “rossiyskaya gazeta” (835 extended contexts) in the russian federation, “the washington post”, “the new york times” (998 extended contexts) in the usa, “news.cn”, “shanghai daily”, “china daily” (846 extended contexts) in china. the examination of data was carried out using corpus linguistics methods (context selection, concordance analysis and frequency study) and lexical-semantic analysis as well as contextual (distribution) method, content analysis, indicative method, big data analysis, cawi method. furthermore, the study employed such analysis tools as time traveler, google trends, etc. the study reports current trends in the development of language policy and planning in russia, the usa and china in the 21st century. the analysis of media content allows to outline the prospects for mutual enrichment through integrating the latest positive trends in the development of language policy for a globalizing world while preserving and maintaining the orientation towards self-identity of every country, every language and every culture. key words: language policy, language planning, sociolinguistic situation, media. introduction in the 21st century multinational countries, especially those actively involved in foreign policy, have to face a number of challenges. by studying agendas and language policy and planning (lpp) tools employed by various countries we can get an idea of lpp strategies at all levels (including corpus, status and acquisition planning) and their outcomes. in this respect, comparative studies may have both research and practical value. 1 prof., dr., financial university under the government of the russian federation, dr.yudina@mail.ru 2 prof., dr., financial university under the government of the russian federation, mvmelnichuk@gmail.com 3 assoc. prof., dr., vladimir state university, oxana33@list.ru journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 243 while internal lpp issues require action at home, the issues of language spread abroad increase competition between countries on the global education market as well as soft power rivalry. the seemingly natural rivalry, however, may appear to hold opportunities to mutually beneficial cooperation. language policy and planning is extremely wide research and activity field where the language is considered primarily as an object. however, language can be a research tool that provides not exclusively linguistic data but gives valuable information on the social and political situation thus being an efficient instrument for policy-making decisions (parker, 2019; strunc, 2020; wildes, 2020). this study is an attempt to combine methods of sociology and linguistics emphasizing their mutually complementary nature. another idea behind this research is to find out if lpp in multinational and linguistically diverse countries may be mutually beneficial in some respect as well as discover possible areas of cooperation and sharing experience. thus, the paper aims to explore lpp of the usa, china, and russia, show its connection with the countries’ soft power, the latter being revealed through the use of mass media content analysis and quantitative data obtained using methods of corpus linguistics. by doing so we expect to arrive at conclusions relevant to lpp and soft power theory and check out if the findings of content analysis match those of corpus-based research. literature review this study is based on the four-component structure of lpp: status planning, corpus planning, acquisition planning (kloss, 1969; cooper, 1989; ricento, 2009) and external lpp (yudina & seliverstova, 2020a). the latter appears to have a direct bearing on soft power. the term soft power introduced by joseph nye was coined to contrast it to hard power, implying “the ability to establish preferences […] to be associated with intangible resources such as culture, ideology, and institutions.” (nye, 1990, p. 49). further evolution of his soft power concept shifts emphasis from the idea of appeal to pragmatic considerations. soft power comes to be defined as “getting others to want the outcomes that you want” (nye, 2004) or “the ability to affect others through the cooptive means of framing the agenda, persuading, and eliciting positive attraction in order to obtain preferred outcomes” (nye, 2011, p. 20). yudina et al. among soft power resources, nye (2011) lists culture, political values, and foreign policies. extending nye’s idea, the soft power index research focuses on the following assets: “the quality of a country’s political institutions, the extent of their cultural appeal, the strength of their diplomatic network, the global reputation of their higher education system, the attractiveness of their economic model, and a country’s digital engagement with the world” (https://softpower30.com/what-is-soft-power). the bi-directional connection between external lpp and soft power, as well as a review of external lpp with regard to the soft power of the usa, china, and russia is disclosed in our earlier paper “external language policy and planning as part of soft power policy” (yudina & seliverstova, 2020a). another view on the interdependence of soft power and lpp is proposed by g. pashayeva who claims the connection between the average english proficiency level of a country and its soft power index (pashayeva, 2017). based on the comparative analysis of data provided by ef english proficiency index and soft power rating list, she finds the correlation index that proves the proposed connection (pashayeva, 2017). of special significance, this factor is said to be for smaller countries now in the process of forming their soft power. another important point is the supposedly similar role of the russian language for countries of the former ussr (pashayeva, 2017). the idea of language possessing its own power and soft power potential laid the grounds for research on power language index that is “a systematic way of evaluating the influence and reach of languages using 20 indicators to measure 5 basic opportunities afforded by language: geography, economy, communication, knowledge & media, and diplomacy” (power language index, 2016, p. 6) based on the variables presented in table 1. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 245 table 1 sets of variables to measure the effectiveness of language count geography (22.5%) economy (22.5%) communication (22.5%) knowledge and media (22.5%) diplomacy** (10%) 1 countries spoken* gdp (ppp) native speakers internet content imf 2 land area gdp/capita (ppp) l2 speakers* feature films* un 3 tourists (in)* exports family size* top-500 universities wb 4 fx markets* tourists (out) academic journals* index of 10 snos 5 sdr composition* note. adapted from power language index. may 2016. kai l. chan. retrieved from http://www.kailchan.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/kai-chan_power-language-indexfullreport_2016_v2.pdf., p. 6 *half weight within its opportunity; indicator weights are otherwise distributed evenly within each opportunity. ** indicator variables that take on value of 1 if an official/working language of the institution and 0 otherwise. the variables of power language considerably resemble some of those considered by soft power index, which gives grounds for further investigation of the interdependence between language and power. methods the aim of this paper is to explore lpp of the usa, china, and russia in connection with their soft power concept revealed through the use of linguistic research tools. as the aim suggests, the article highlights two phenomena: lpp and soft power. in order to make the research more comprehensive, we will first give a review of the countries’ lpp using the traditional three-component lpp structure: corpus planning, status planning, acquisition planning. to give a brief insight into the background and more up-to-date data, we obtained information through statistics and media discourse analysis. in the case-study of russia, we also conducted a survey with the cawi method to get an idea of people’s awareness of language policy and planning in russia and their attitude to it. yudina et al. our second focus in this paper was each country’s external lpp and its supposed connection with soft power. with a view to finding out the universal and specific characteristics of soft power, we employed corpus analysis of media discourse. corpus aided analysis is instrumental to understanding the nature of each country’s soft power and the place held by language and culture in the corresponding soft power policy, since “ideologies are crystallized in and managed through language, and are distributed via powerful channels” (diaz & hall, 2020) the corpus for this analysis was collected from printed media and their official web-sites for the period from 2005 to 2020. for each country, we have chosen newspapers with the highest circulation and the biggest number of readers in the corresponding period. these newspapers included: “arguments and facts”, “vedomosti”, “izvestia”, “kommersant”, “rossiyskaya gazeta” in the russian federation, “the washington post”, “the new york times” in the usa, “news.cn”, “shanghai daily”, “china daily” in china. the authors have tried to analyze a different number of media in order to obtain a comparable size of corpora to make the results more valid. using the advanced search engine, we have collected all concordances of the word combination “soft power” making up in total 835 for russia, 998 for the usa, and 846 for china. the prepared corpora were analyzed with the help of a corpus manager to find out keywords and record their frequency value. based on the resulting data, we have made a graphic representation of the soft policy associative semantic field which represents the projection of people’s perception of items from their lexicon including all words creating the context (churilina, 2001). by ranking and ordering the words according to their frequency we can get a layered structure with the core in the center presenting the key component with the highest frequency value; other layers are organized in a descending order containing words with the lowest frequency but also inherent to understanding the concept under study. results and discussion usa case-study: language policy and planning the usa is known for considerable linguistic diversity which has been a distinctive feature of the country since the time of the founding fathers. although english is a predominant language in journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 247 the us, its status is not officially determined at the federal level. contemplating over the reason behind the decision of the founding fathers to stick to “policy not to have a policy” (crawford, 1999, p. 10), we can go back to their ideas of democracy and respect for human rights, language choice being one of them (alogali, 2018; girdap, 2020; liu, 2019). thus “language laws have been rejected as a threat to individual liberties” (crawford, 1999) moreover, the dominance of english was self-evident, rendering an official policy unnecessary (boutelier, 2019; wiley, 2004) language was meant to be as a unifying force rather than an apple of discord. the latter, however, contributed to making the status of english in the usa a highly disputable issue. while the de-jure status is still unspecified, the de-facto status is determined by immigration flows throughout the country’s history, which appear to be directly related to the protectionist public sentiment and the “official english movement”. this connection between the influx of immigrants and public sentiment can be clearly seen in the periods presented in the description by wiley with a focus on covert lpp (see table 2). table 2 periods in the united states lpp period description 1779-1880 no explicit designation of english at governmental levels and a great tolerance to the ‘use’ of other languages 1880-1920, then until wwii official designation of english at state and federal levels with clear use of these language requirements to exclude and discriminate against various minorities and immigrant groups wwii to 1980s relaxation of the restrictions and even encouragement of other languages until the mid-1980s 1980s to the present tendency back towards restrictions note. adapted from “comparative historical analysis of u.s. language policy and language planning: extending the foundations” by wiley, t., 1999. in e.b. davis, sociopolitical perspectives on language policy and planning in the usa., p.29. copyright 1999 by john benjamins publishing company. the described trend towards restrictions can be explained by the current sociolinguistic situation in the country. we have made some research into census and demographic data using the us official census website (https://www.census.gov) to find out a considerable increase of nearly 162% (since 1980) in the number of people who speak a language other than english at home and yudina et al. an even more considerable rise in the number of people with reported zero english proficiency of 176.4% meaning that as many as 20.7% of the total population over 5 years old live in non-english language households. the results of the comparative statistical analysis are presented in table 3. table 3 demographic trends in language use and english proficiency level in the usa measure 1980 1990 2000 2009-2013 changes 1980-2013 (%) total us population (5 years and over) 210,247,455 230,445,777 262,375,152 291,484,482 +38.6 speak nonenglish language at home 23,060,040 (10.96%) 31,844,979 (13.82%) 46,951,595 (17.9%) 60,361,574 (20.7%) +161.8 speaking english ability reported “not at all” 1,217,989 (0.6%) 1,845,243 (0.8%) 3,366,132 (1.3%) no data available +176.4 note. based on data from the us census official web-site https://www.census.gov. possible administrative and legislative lpp tools at the federal level in status planning include the following: 1) amendments to the constitution; 2) amendments to the united states code; 3) immigration-related acts; 4) education acts. while the former two would mean the implementation of overt status planning, immigration and education legislation means continuing with the covert policy by indirectly influencing language choice and language learning opportunities. the described sociolinguistic trends caused the appearance of two lobby movements to encourage the official status of english: us english and english first. the latest attempt has been made in 2017-2018 by introducing the english language unity act of 2017 which did not receive a vote in congress. even though their aim has not been achieved at the federal level, it has been rather successful at the state level, with 28 states having declared english as their official language since 1981 with the total number being 32 (as of june 2020). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 249 alabama (1990) massachusetts (1975) alaska (1998) mississippi (1987) arizona (2006) missouri (1998 & 2008) arkansas (1987) montana (1995) california (1986) nebraska (1920) colorado (1988) new hampshire (1995) florida (1988) north carolina (1987) georgia (1986 & 1996) north dakota (1987) hawaii (1978) oklahoma (2010) idaho (2007) south carolina (1987) illinois (1969) south dakota (1995) indiana (1984) tennessee (1984) iowa (2002) utah (2000) kansas (2007) virginia (1981 & 1996) kentucky (1984) wyoming (1996) louisiana (1812) west virginia (2016) to sum up the us status planning background and current agenda, we can clearly see the overt nature of bottom-up lpp and covert top-down policy at the federal level. thus, the de-facto status can be derived from the analysis of language acquisition planning through education policy. according to the education act of 1968, schools were supposed to offer instruction in their students’ native languages. however, with the flow of immigrants and increasing language diversity, schools could no longer meet this requirement which leads to a revised education act of 1984 with a focus on the transition to bilingual programs as well as family english literacy programs aimed at developing english proficiency with household and not limiting themselves to children. the no child left behind (nclb) act of 2002 put an added emphasis on the assessment of educational outcomes which appear to have a direct bearing on the level of english proficiency and are in reverse proportion to the share of non-english speakers in the student population. moreover, the idea of bilingual education was replaced by english language acquisition through english immersion. according to the american institutes for research, “els tend to fare worse than their non-el peers academically when assessed in english, and their graduation rates are lower” [https://www.air.org/resource/what-will-essa-mean-english-learners] which is a real challenge for schools considering that “english learners (els) have become an increasingly significant student population, outpacing the demographic growth of non-el students by more than 40 percent nationwide and growing by as much as 800 percent in some states” and schools’ yudina et al. obligation to provide els with “appropriate language assistance services to become proficient in english and to participate equally in the standard instructional program within a reasonable period of time” (ibid). the year 2015 was marked by the reauthorization of the elementary and secondary education act, the every student succeeds act (essa) which was focused on regular standardized assessment in key subjects, english being among them. major responsibility has been given to states (not districts as in the nclb act) in that they can develop their own accountability systems. they are to develop the entrance procedures and monitor progress to assess spot the moment when no additional language service is needed. unlike the nclb act, however, essa allows states to “include reclassified english learners in the el subgroup for four years – not just two” (ibid). from the short review above we can see two major trends in the us lpp: 1) a trend towards rapid assimilation of the non-english speaking student population with their language rights interpreted as the right for english learning support, rather than preserving their native language; 2) a trend towards centralization along with increased accountability and assessment. a detailed overview of english language policies in the us presented in the paper “from englishonly to multilingualism: english in the language policy of the united states” concludes by saying “as long as the u.s. remains a country committed to receiving immigrants from other countries, there will be a steady influx of speakers of other languages.” (wang, 2015, p. 38) the resulting multilingualism may become an asset rather than a hindrance, in the case of the english plus policy which may “produce well-developed skills in many languages to enhance international competitiveness and national security”. (wang, 2015, p. 38) corpus planning in the us appears to be historically no less disputable than status planning and goes back to 1780 when john adams proposed to establish “the american academy for refining, improving, and ascertaining the english language”. however, the proposal did not fit the ideology of liberty and was never accepted. the evolution of american lexicography that followed was a constant search for consistent language norms either based on johnson’s norms of the british english or distancing itself from it in pursuit of the american language own identity. in this view, lexicographic activity by noah webster aimed “to preserve the purity of the american tongue” is called by j. crawford “declaration of linguistic independence” (crawford, 1992, pp. 33-34). the absence of coordinated corpus planning in the usa resulted in the descriptive rather than the prescriptive nature of dictionaries and grammar reference books. lexicography is driven journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 251 considerably by publishing companies and market competition. thus, the choice of books made by educational institutions becomes a policy-making decision. another factor to be considered with regard to corpus planning is political correctness which accounts for a social ban on certain words because of their racist or other ethical issues, the appearance of new words, or developing new meanings of existing ones due to gender equality and feminism agenda. so, corpus planning similarly to status planning, is a bottom-up process, however unlike status planning it hardly encounters any top-down counteraction. usa case-study: external lpp and soft power the idea of external lpp has been a big part of the us lpp. going back to john adams with his language academy proposal, we read “english is destined to be the next and succeeding centuries more generally the language of the world than latin was in the last or french is in the present age. the reason of this is obvious, because the increasing population in america, and their universal connection and correspondence with all nations will aided by the influence of england in the world, whether great or small, force their language into general use” (crawford, 1992, p. 32). the prediction proved right. the opinions about reasons behind the spread of english are varied, from considering it a result of a well-targeted lpp to arguing that the decisive factor in language spread is “the power of people who speak it” (crystal, 2004, p. 10). d. crystal in his book provides a detailed description of historical, economic, political, and cultural factors for this large scale spread of english which taken together make up soft power. in this research, we would like to focus on the nature of soft power as reflected in printed media using corpus-driven approach. the corpus for this aim was made up of concordances containing the word combination “soft power” extracted from “the washington post” and “the new york times” (998 contexts in total). the collected corpus was subsequently analyzed with corpus management tools to find out keywords and their frequency. according to the frequency rate, they were sorted out to make a representation of associative semantic field which is indicative of the specific nature of the country’s soft power and the place of language and culture in its structure. figure 1 shows the resulting structure of the associative and semantic field of soft power in media discourse. yudina et al. figure 1. associative and semantic field of soft power in the us media discourse note. the lexemes in the figure are distributed the core to the shell according to their frequency in the collected corpus. each lexeme represents a set of all forms with the same meaning) and is accompanied by a number showing its frequency. the core is made up of two synonymous notions – military and hard, whose frequency taken together largely outnumbers each of the rest of the components. the essence of soft power is hence revealed through contrasting soft power and hard/military power as another way to achieve the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 253 goals needed. another evidence of the predominant position of this component is the lexeme war in the shell zone. predictable enough is the presence of lexemes like policy, world, country (in the core) and president, government, people, international (in the shell) which signifies that soft power is a country’s image in the world originated from its policy. the lexemes culture, economy, diplomacy, foreign specify the soft power assets. the lexeme language appears to have a low frequency and could not be included in the chart. it may signify that language is not perceived as a valuable soft power resource, and the cause-andeffect relationship may be different: language spread may be a result of the us soft power, gained by a policy in other fields. it may also have a bearing on the covert character of american llp. china case-study: language policy and planning similarly, to the us, mandarin in china does not hold the official language status; however, it is referred to as the national language. the constitution guarantees language rights by stating that “the people of all nationalities have the freedom to use and develop their own spoken and written languages, and to preserve or reform their own ways and customs” [https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/cn/cn147en.pdf]. the constitution also specifies languages used in trials and the use of autonomous languages in allowing “the organs of selfgovernment of the national autonomous areas, in accordance with the autonomy regulations of the respective areas, employ the spoken and written language or languages in common use in the locality”. thus, besides the national language there are also regional varieties and minority varieties (topolects), making up all together 298 living languages (lewis & simons, 2013). the main focus of chinese llp is on corpus planning rather than status planning. chinese society with 56 nations on its territory is extremely linguistically diverse. although the majority represent one nationality (han-chinese nationality), “the language spoken by this majority is by no means uniform, the varieties of chinese are so diversified, that most of them are mutually unintelligible, and some linguists even call them separate languages. the remaining 10% speak languages that are classified into five language families” (kurpaskathe, 2017, p. 14). according to zhou, there are 120 minority languages (zhou, 2004, p 179). the promotion of putonghua is guaranteed by article 19 of the constitution and stressed by the language law, adopted in 2001, declaring that “[a]ll citizens shall have the right to learn and use the standard spoken and written chinese language” (gov.cn 2000 site). yudina et al. in order to promote mandarin at home and abroad, china had to take considerable corpus planning effort for reforming the language, to simplify the spelling and make it uniform through standardization. this resulted in a unique situation when several sets of characters were in use simultaneously: 1) the first set mainly in use in continental china, singapore, and some countries of south-east asia, embraces traditional characters along with new simplified ones; 2) the second set is based on traditional elements only without newly introduced characters and is used in taiwan; 3) the third one includes traditional characters and cantonese ones and is widely spread in hongkong and macao; 4) the fourth one also combines traditional and cantonese elements and is used in guangzhou (zav'jalova, 2020). considering the population of china, this transition to uniform language use is likely to take much time. to facilitate the process, a massive campaign to control the use of normative language in mass media, theatre, cinema, and the internet was launched. another measure was unprecedented publishing activity resulting in a great number of dictionaries of all types, including bilingual dialect ones (zav'jalova, 2020). all these corpus planning measures go hand in hand with language acquisition planning and education policy. according to article 12 of the education law, “the chinese language, both oral and written, shall be the basic oral and written language for education […]” and “shall in their educational activities popularize the nationally common spoken chinese and the standard written characters”. the law also mentions the right of “schools or other educational institutions which mainly consist of students from ethnic minority groups” to use “the language of the respective ethnic community or the native language commonly adopted in that region”. considerable corpus planning efforts were put into creating scripts and writing systems for minority languages since the 1980s, however not all of them have been adopted, e.g. “the li preferred mandarin instead of the newly created writing system, the hani used one and abandoned another, and the yi did not like the new writing system created for them, but preferred the improved and standardized traditional one instead” (zuo, 2007). another problem discussed by zou is the impact of globalization and market economy: young people choosing putonghua in order to be more compatible in the labor market. spolsky also mentions this factor as one enhancing the spread of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 255 putonghua arguing that “the shift to putonghua is being accelerated in large measure by the phenomenal rate of internal rural-to-urban migration” (spolky, 2014, p. 168). promoting high literacy standards at home china has made proficiency in putonghua a compulsory requirement for state service. china case-study: external lpp and soft power in the recent decade, china has been focusing a lot on promoting chinese abroad. sometimes these efforts are referred to as language diffusion (spolky, 2014, p. 173). its external lpp is based on a wide network of confucius institutes, whose primary linguistic task is to teach mandarin, but they also aim to spread chinese culture, encourage trade, and improve china’s image abroad (ibid.) which is exactly what soft power is all about. describing the success of this soft-power policy, j. kurlantzick writes that “chinese-language and -cultural studies have skyrocketed in popularity in the developing world” which is especially noticeable in argentina, malaysia, thailand, cambodia. moreover, chinese has begun to challenge english as a second language. today chinese has reached far beyond asia, with educational institutions in australia, some european countries, and the usa are introducing it into their curriculum. however, the determination of china’s authorities and their dedication to language spread entails a controversial situation in education at home. ying wang describes an existing “discrepancy between international students-oriented language policy at national level and language practice at the interpersonal level, with language policy at institutional level taking a mediating position” arguing that despite promoting chinese medium instruction (cmi) for international students as necessary, “english is used and treated as essential in actual classroom interaction and disciplinary studies” (wang, 2017, p. 50). giving a detailed account of support offered by the ministry of education as well as by universities at the institutional level, y. wang claims that interviews and classroom observation show a considerable presence of english as a medium of instruction and personal interaction in class, thus revealing “a policy vacuum with regard to emi for international students in china” (ibid. p. 57). in the context of our research this idea also shows discrepancy between the overt nature of state level policy and language choices of grassroot users. the overt nature of china’s external lpp as well as its connection with the soft power concept (although the latter is not directly mentioned but skillfully described) is revealed in the statement on the ministry of education official web-site: “teaching chinese as a foreign language (tcfl) yudina et al. … is of strategic significance to popularize the chinese language and culture throughout the world, to enhance the friendship and mutual understanding as well as the economic and cultural cooperation and exchanges between china and other countries around the world, and to elevate china's influence in the international community” [http://en.moe.gov.cn/cooperation_exchanges/201506/t20150626_191367.html]. in order to take a closer look at the chinese idea of soft power, we have conducted a research on media discourse. based on “news.cn”, “shanghai daily”, “china daily” we have collected a corpus of 846 extended contexts including soft power. the results obtained by frequency analysis laid grounds for the associative-semantic field presented on figure 2. as we can see, the core concept of soft power with frequency value largely outnumbering the following components is culture, which supports the ideas presented in studies by a lot of researches about culture being the major tool of chinese soft power. the lexemes world, country, nation, global, foreign, policy, government are indispensable in understanding the agency and scope of soft power, just like in russia and the usa. noteworthy are lexemes develop, promote, boost that are specific to china and illustrate its determination to work and grow. diplomacy and economy present in figure 2 are rather typical for the idea of soft power as assets and tools allowing to influence other countries in a non-military way. industry is not a common element of soft power concept which is specific to china. international is linked with the scope of soft power and is its indispensable element just like in russia and the usa. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 257 figure 2. associative and semantic field of soft power in english language media discourse in china note. the lexemes in the figure are distributed the core to the shell according to their frequency in the collected corpus. each lexeme represents a set of all forms with the same meaning and is accompanied by a number showing its frequency. russia case-study: language policy and planning while speaking about lpp tools in russia, we should distinguish administrative, academic, educational, media, and cultural tools. yudina et al. administrative tools include laws and other legal acts of federal and regional levels specifying the status and use of languages on the territory of russia. the constitution is a major legislative tool laying grounds for federal and local acts, declaring the russian language “a state language on the whole territory of the russian federation” (article 68) [https://xn--2020-94damyi5albn6b6i.xn-p1ai/]. the recently adopted amendments to the constitution declare the russian language as a “language state-forming people in the multinational union of peoples with equal rights”. alongside russian, the republics of the rf “have the right to establish their own state languages. in the bodies of state authority and local self-government, state institutions of the republics they shall be used together with the state language of the russian federation” [http://www.constitution.ru/en]. under article 19 “the state shall guarantee the equality of rights and freedoms of man and citizen, regardless of […] language […]. all forms of limitations of human rights on social, racial, national, linguistic or religious grounds shall be banned” [http://www.constitution.ru/en]. language rights are specified in article 27 and include “the right to use his or her native language, to a free choice of the language of communication, upbringing, education, and creative work”. a comprehensive comparative and contrastive analyses conducted and presented in the paper “language policy and youth development: international background and russian multinational practice” by valentina v. stepanova and larisa yu. lutskovskaia reveals “differences, discrepancies and inconsistences in legal approach to the language policy at federal and regional levels” (stepanova & lutskovskaia, 2019, p. 318). basic principles laid down in the constitution are further developed in rf federal and state laws. the federal law “on the state language of the rf” specifies spheres of the state language use and describes responsibilities of the federal authorities in charge of language issues. the language norm establishing process is also stated in the law, declaring that the rf ministry of education is to compile a list of grammar reference books and dictionaries on the advice of a special committee including academics, researchers, linguists, and the government representatives. language acquisition policy and planning is regulated by federal state educational standards which list language competences to be developed at each level of education. the federal target program “the russian language” considers language as an administrative lpp tool; it sets lpp guidelines and goals for a period of four years. the program is to be implemented by allocating funds to certain academic, educational, and practical projects that journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 259 would contribute to achieving the goals. four programs of this type have been implemented since 2002. the lower level of administrative lpp tools is regulated by regional legislative acts. laws in the rf regions may vary to a certain extent; however, they must never contradict federal laws and mostly serve as intermediaries providing details as to the fulfillment of the above-mentioned acts and programs. academic tools are created by researchers and linguists working in the following areas: • investigating language changes and developing dictionaries, grammar reference books to establish the language norm; • studying language situation in regions and the entire country with the view to spot and resolve language conflicts, violation of language rights, assessing the results and implementation of llp; • developing methods of teaching russian at all levels of education, including teaching russian as a foreign language. the latter field is closely connected with educational lpp tools. language education is not limited to russian only; it also includes teaching foreign languages as well as national languages in republics that have established other languages as state ones alongside russian. such regions work on developing and introducing bilingual education. an account of problems and achievements multinational and linguistically diverse regions have to face are reviewed in tatarstan case-study in the paper “transformation of the system of bilingual education in the republic of tatarstan: crossover ethnolinguistic controversies” (maximova, belyaev & laukart-gorbacheva, 2017). the framework for language education is set by the aforementioned federal state educational standards which list language competences to be developed at each level of education. within the framework of language competences, schools develop their curriculum and choose methods, approaches and course books that better serve the specified aims. with regard to the vast size of russia, many languages, national, and economic diversity of its regions, the framework helps maintain the integrity of the educational system throughout the country. a more detailed review of lpp in higher education is provided in our earlier open-access paper “research and engineering at academic institutions as lpp factor: russia case study” (yudina & seliverstova, 2020b) media tools include mass media programs and internet resources designed to promote language learning to attain better levels of communicative competence. there has been a growing interest yudina et al. in popular projects (podcasts, blogs, etc.) sharing language-related facts and explaining intricate language norms. another case of media lpp tools is radio and tv channels broadcast in national languages thus satisfying the demand for native language information sources in republics and preserving national languages. cultural lpp tools involve projects by ngos, libraries and volunteer projects that are mainly aimed at dissemination of knowledge about the cultural heritage of the country presenting language diversity as its valuable asset, thus raising people’s awareness and creating motivation for learning languages. these tools also promote to successful intercultural interaction (kuzembayeva et al., 2019). to summarize the above, russia’s lpp can be described as an overt top-down activity with clearly stated aims designed by the governmental bodies and an extensive network of lower-scale actors undertaking the task of implementation. the overt nature of the russian language policy and planning is revealed by the survey conducted with the cawi method for this research. the survey conducted from april 1 to may 10, 2020, was designed to assess people’s awareness of lpp in russia and their evaluation of its tools, methods, and perspectives. five hundred six respondents from 40 regions of russia took part in the survey by filling up an online questionnaire. the results show that as many as 15% of respondents could not answer the question about the meaning of the lpp term. the majority of those who did (42%) defined it as government’s regulation of language norm and language promotion, with other 30% mentioning status planning of the official language and language rights of nations living in russia, and 13% specifying language education and language competence as issues constituting the scope of lpp. figure 3 represents graphic data of what respondents include in the scope of lpp in russia. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 261 figure 3. lpp scope as seen by respondents noteworthy is that only 5% are aware of regional authorities being involved in lpp, while the rest 95% attribute lpp to federal-level politics. as to lpp tools, respondents specified the following: • laws and legislation • education policy (with focus on compulsory russian in secondary schools) • state exams in russian • exams in russian for migrants • developing and publishing dictionaries and books • promoting russian via mass media • support to national languages and linguistic diversity • federal target program “the russian language” when asked to comment on the idea of legislative regulation of llp, 59% expressed their support, while 32% denied the need for one, 8% arguing that is a self-policing system requiring no interference. the results are presented in the figure 4. 42% 30% 13% 15% language norm and language promotion status planning and languege rights language education and language сompetence not sure yudina et al. figure 4. attitude to administrative lpp tools russia case-study: external lpp and soft power another important focus of russia’s lpp is the promotion of russian abroad. the roots of russia’s external lpp go back to 1966 when the centre for methods of teaching russian as a foreign language was established at the moscow state university followed by launching the international association of teachers of russian language and literature. however, after the break-up of the ussr and during the decades that followed the declining number of people speaking russian as a second language made the government put an added emphasis on preserving and enhancing the role of russian in the world. the connection between external lpp and soft power has become evident in recent years both to the authorities and the researchers in russia. describing the role of the russian language in its soft power policy, ” language presents itself as a useful public-relations tool – not only because it functions as a ‘common tongue’ with one of the largest diasporas in the world, but also because it serves as a means of defining national identity beyond the more restrictive parameters of bloodline or ethnic ties” (gorham, 2011, p. 24). external lpp in russia has been based on a series of federal target programs “the russian language” launched in 2001 and continuing into 2020 to address the most urgent needs in support and promotion of the russian language abroad. thus, in the field of corpus planning, the program encouraged a major project on creating the ‘national corpus of the russian language’, which 59% 32% 8% supporters of legislative regulatioin opponents of legislative кegulation advocated of language as self-policing system journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 263 gorham characterized as “an ambitious attempt to catalogue the entire living language in a searchable online database (http://ruscorpora.ru/) similar to cobuild” (gorham, 2011, p. 27). after year 2007 proclaimed as a year of the russian language, 2008 was marked by launching cyrillic-based domain ‘.рф, which was meant to become an area of internet communication of the russian speaking people across the globe, an active instrument for the establishment of a common russian-language cultural space (trofimova, 2004). the same ideas of unity, as well as language and culture spread were behind the establishment of the russian world (russkiy mir) foundation created in 2007. it has created a network of russian centers to support russian language learning programs abroad. it also provides grants to ngos engaged in language support and promotion. another major actor of russia’s soft power and external lpp is rossotrudnichestvo, federal agency for the commonwealth of independent states affairs, compatriots living abroad, and international humanitarian cooperation, established in 2008. the statement on its official website runs: “rossotrudnichestvo promotes the use and the teaching of russian language abroad. the federal target “russian language” program for 2016-2020 is a strategic instrument for the pursuit of this policy. today, thousands of people have an opportunity to learn russian with the help of russian language courses at the offices of rossotrudnichestvo in many countries around the world and to receive confirmation of the proficiency level of the russian language. with a view to help advance the russian language, the agency establishes conditions for its practical application and the acquirement of education in russian” (http://rs.gov.ru/en/about). the results of the program are yet to be evaluated, however, there’s a need for research into the nature of russia’s soft power and its potential. to sum up, on the one hand, the strategy of language spread is meant “to strengthen the role of the russian language in constructing an all-russian national identity”, stressing that “that russians are all part of the wider russian world, whether they live inside russia’s borders or outside” (tiido, 2018, p.1); on the other hand the efforts are made to show through language its cultural values and traditions with a view raise the appeal to this wider russian world and attract people who could share these values. the corpus analysis of media discourse revealed the following structure of the concept of soft power. as can be seen from figure 5, the core component (country) does not reveal the specifics of russia’s soft power representing an element inherent to the idea of soft power as such and present in both of the above countries along with such elements as policy, world, government, yudina et al. president. it may be accounted for relatively young model of soft power. however, the presence of such elements as economy, culture, education, language in the outer layers probably shows us its emerging face. especially noteworthy is the lexeme language which again shows the link between language and soft power. figure 5. associative and semantic field of soft power in english language media discourse in china note. the lexemes in the figure are distributed the core to the shell according to their frequency in the collected corpus. each lexeme represents a set of all forms with the same meaning and is accompanied by a number showing its frequency. conclusion the research presented in this paper shows that there are a number of lpp issues all the three countries have to face. the most burning controversial issue concerns intensive immigration journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 265 along with people’s considerable awareness of their civil rights and language rights and capabilities of education systems to meet the demands of ever-growing linguistic diversity. thus, in terms of status planning, the problem is to guarantee equal language rights to all people in the country and be able to observe these rights. another problem bringing forth the language policy and planning (lpp) issue is the controversy between the need for preserving minority languages and low demand for them in the education system due to advantages expected from proficiency in languages of wider communication because in highly competitive labor markets language proficiency may be treated as a valuable asset. in the case of acquisition planning, the increased immigration which brings about a steady rise of language diversity becomes a burden to the education systems. considering the evident benefit of language proficiency in more than one language, the resulting multilingualism should be treated as an asset, and implementing programs of bilingual education is likely to be beneficial both for the governments and individuals. in this respect, language promotion appears to be a unique field where cooperation between the countries is mutually beneficial. the country exporting its language benefits from enhancing its soft power, while the accepting country benefits from the multilingualism of its people and increased intercultural competence. along with the seemingly similar agendas, the nature of lpp varies considerably from top-down to bottom-up, from overt to covert lpp. however, one thing remains obvious: there are discrepancies between the declared overt policy at the state level and language choices at the level of grassroot users, often influenced by pragmatic considerations of the latter. as elana shohamy put it, “the real de-facto language policy occurs through a variety of additional devices, or mechanisms, beyond the official policies that are included into language policy statements and laws” (shohamy, 2006, p. 4). thus, the scope of lpp should be extended to include practices and language choices in different contexts and address discrepancies or “vacuum areas” discovered. in this respect media may offer valuable data along with surveys and observations. the corpus analysis of media discourse proved the validity of linguistic methods applied to social and political studies by revealing uniform and specific elements of soft power. soft power based on sharing culture and language appears to be a promising field of research and practical activities. the increased emphasis noticeable in recent years in understanding soft power as an alternative yudina et al. to hard or military power but having the same aims and agenda might be a dangerous view, which gives way to information wars and hinders potentially fruitful cooperation. acknowledging the potential of language spread in boosting soft power the language resource should not be treated as a primary soft power asset, since language choices are directly dependent on pragmatic needs, in other words, “the general rule of instrumental language learning seems to be that one learns the language of the group with more power than one’s own” (wright, 2016, p. 117). acknowledgements the research has been carried out at the financial university under the government of the russian federation in the framework of the state order for research work 2020. references alogali, a. (2018). world englishes: changing the paradigm of linguistic diversity in global academia. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 54-73. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.4 boutelier, s. (2019). limiting learning environments through domestication. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 45-55. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 brett, a.d., & marika, k.h. (2020). a corpus-driven exploration of u.s. language planning and language ideology from 2013 to 2018. journal of language and politics, .https://doi.org/10.1075/jlp.19108.dia. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342210409_a_corpusdriven_exploration_of_us_language_planning_and_language_ideology_from_2013_to_ 2018 churilina, l. (2001). lexical structure of text as key to individual world picture. the changing world of language: conf. proceedings, (pp. 103-105). perm. cooper, r. (1989). language planning and social change. cambridge: cambridge university. crawford, j. (1990). language freedom and restriction: a historical. proceedings of the annual international native (pp. 9-22). choctaw: nali board of executors and jon reyhner. crawford, j. (1992). language loyalties. a source book on the official english controversy. chicago: the university of chicago press. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 267 crystal, d. (2004). the language revolution: themes for the 21st century. cambridge: polity press. girdap, h. (2020). human rights, conflicts, and dislocation: the case of turkey in a global spectrum . american journal of qualitative research, 4(1), 6984. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8266 gorham, m. (2011). virtual rusophonia: language policy as ‘soft power’ in the new media age. studies in russian. eurasian and central european new media, 5, 23-48. kloss, h. (1969). research possibilities on group bilingualism: a report. quebec: international center for research on bilingualism. kurpaskathe, m. (2017). effects of language policy in china. język. komunikacja. informacja, 14-24. kuzembayeva, g., zhumakhanova, a., kulinich, m., sinyachkin, v., & maydangalieva, z. (2019). nobility in the linguistic consciousness of russians and kazakhs. xlinguae, 12(4), 30-40. liu, m. (2019). predicting effects of demographic, linguistic and psychological variables on university international students’ intercultural communication sensitivity, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 6(3), 123-133. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/27 lewis, m.p., & simons, g.f. (2013). ethnologue: languages of the world. 17th edn. dallas: sil international. maximova, o., belyaev, v., & laukart-gorbacheva, o. (2017) transformation of the system of bilingual education in the republic of tatarstan: crossover ethnolinguistic controversies. journal of social studies education research, 8 (2), 15-38 nye, j. (1990). bound to lead: the changing nature of american power. new york: basic books. nye, j. (2004). soft power. the means to success in world politics. new york: public affairs. nye, j. (2011). the future of power. new york: public affairs. parker, j. (2019). second language learning and cultural identity. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 33-42. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.3 pashayeva, g. (2017) global english as a universal translator of “soft power”. discourse-pi, 14(3-4), 108-114. power language index. may 2016. kai l. chan, phd. retrieved from http://www. kailchan.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/kai-chan_power-language-indexfullreport_2016_v2.pdf. yudina et al. ricento, j. (2009). an introduction to language policy: theory and method. blackwell publishing ltd. shohamy, e. (2006). language policy: hidden agendas and new approaches. new york: routledge. spolky, b. (2014). language management in the people's republic of china. language and public policy, 165-179. stepanova v.v., & lutskovskaia l.yu. (2019). language policy and youth development: international background and russian multinational practice. journal of social studies education research, 10 (4), 315-336. strunc, a. (2020). editorial: are they listening? policymakers and their role in public education. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.ed tiido, a. (2018). the russian language as a soft power tool: the construction of national identity by the kremlin, retrieved fromhttps://icds.ee/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/therussian-language-as-a-soft-power-tool-featured_anna_tiido_2018_10_web.pdf trofimova, g. (2004). language tasteof the internet era in russia. the functioning of the russian language on the internet. essential keynotes. moscow: izdatelstvo rossiiskogo universiteta druzhby narodov. wang, d. (2015). from english-only to multilingualism: english in the language policy of the united states. international journal of english language teaching, 3(1), 32-41. wang, y. (2017). language policy in chinese higher education: a focus on international students in china. european journal of language policy, 9(1), 45-66. wildes, a. (2020). the unethical practice of omitting language in state science standards: denying students true democratic freedom. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 112-128. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.7 wiley, t. (1999). comparative historical analysis of u.s. language policy and language planning: extending the foundations. in e.b. davis, sociopolitical perspectives on language policy and planning in the usa (pp. 17-39). amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. wiley, t. (2004). language planning, language policy, and the english-only movement. in &. j. e. finegan, language in the usa: themes for the twenty first century (pp. 319-338). cambridge: cambridge university press. wright, s. (2016). language policy and planning: from nationallism to globalization. new york: palgrave macmillan. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 242-269 269 yudina, n., & seliverstova, o. (2020a). external language policy and planning as part of soft power policy. proceedings of the iv international scientific and practical conference 'anthropogenic transformation of geospace: nature, economy, society' (atg 2019) (pp. 309-314). atlantis press. yudina, n., & seliverstova, o. (2020b). research and engineering at academic institutions as lpp factor: russia case study. iop conference series materials science and engineering, 828:012033. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/828/1/012033 zav'jalova, o. (2020). linguistic situation in language policy of the prc. retrieved from http://www.ifesras.ru/attaches/books__texts/zavyalova._language_situation_in_prc.pdf zuo, x. (2007). china’s policy towards minority languages in a globalising age. transnational curriculum inquiry, 4(1), 80–91. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (2), 111-119 111 building plurality and unity for various religions in the digital era: establishing islamic values for indonesian students syarif1 abstract with the all-encompassing pace of development in communication and information technology, the planet is constantly changing over time, yet the gap between the rich and the poor is widening. the research questions of this study are as follows: (1) is there a significant different in students’ values before exposure to the-learning platform, and (2) is there a significant difference in students’ values before and after being exposed to the e-learning platform. this study employs a quasi-experimental research design to assess the effectiveness of transmitting islamic values through an e-learning platform. teaching moral values is believed to be an important part of education in islam. the components of the syllabic formal education slowly impart information for the development of character. with the busy schedules of the individuals involved, the roles of family and the community in molding personalities is declining. the remaining hope for this country rests with teaching through an e-learning platform, but optimism is low due to the physical absence of a teacher. in contrast, this short report shows that using an e-learning platform with the integration of islamic values can be effective for enhancing students’ attitudes toward islamic values. it also suggests an ict-based model could help to define the development of muslim students through an e-learning environment. keywords: information and communication technologies; e-learning platform; islamic ethical values. introduction ethical values and principles are an important part of society, and they change and grow within a community. indeed, the coherence of a country’s work and efforts depends upon it (hayati & caniago, 2012; kurt et al., 2020; stivens, 2006). traditionally, students learn about ethics and acquire moral values from their communities, institutions, and teachers through conventional forms of education, ultimately integrating them into their character development. further reinforcing these principles in a growing personality is usually achieved through content contained in the usual subject matter. in many instances, specialized courses on ethical issues are 1dr. state islamic institute (iain) of pontianak, indonesia; email: syarififti@gmail.com mailto:email:%20ahmadsultrarustan@iainpare.ac.id mailto:syarififti@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 111-119 given to students (yigit & tarman, 2013). the climate and the cycle of socialization remain key factors in determining students’ academic achievement and character development (liu et al., 2020). learning and adhering to ethical values is seen as being just as essential to a student as learning about an industry. islam places great importance on respecting moral values. graduates who have technical skills but lack moral values are comparable to machines that function merely to meet their needs, irrespective of the potential benefits of participating in society. economic development is forcing educational institutions to become more business-oriented and offer courses that are in demand in the job market. consequently, the teaching of ethics is progressively fading from the syllabus (bigagli, 2019; james, 2018). similarly, households and especially teachers have increasingly less time to focus on children’s moral development. unity in communities is also weakening, and often no one cares about the behavior of a neighbor’s child, as would have been the case years ago. it is a major concern that the current education system, particularly in technology disciplines, is creating robots that lack moral principles and interpersonal skills (hoffman et al., 2020; miller, 2018). the incredible growth and inclusive pace of information and communication technology (ict) has led to tremendous shifts in all sectors of society, particularly in education and specifically elearning (baez zarabanda, 2019; montenegro rueda & fernández cerero, 2019). e-learning is a teaching–learning process that can be implemented without time or space constraints through the use of technology (shen & ho, 2020; tadeu et al., 2019). given these benefits, however, elearning often complicates conventional issues like cheating, plagiarism, and so on. compared to traditional schooling, students are more likely to deviate from the expected standards and conduct themselves unethically due to the lack of physical interaction with a teacher (graafland, 2020; morris, & chapman, 2019; zare, 2018). in short, the instructor, who acts as the conduit for learners’ internalization of ethical values, literally disappears in e-learning programs. this directly impacts the development of pupils, which is one of the main objectives of schooling from an islamic point of view and a key factor in creating a socially just community. with the advent of ict and the changed positions of teachers and students in an e-learning environment, including religious ethics and values in the education process becomes a major challenge for muslim teachers (abdullah & chong, 2019; bin salahudin et al., 2016; darko et al., 2020; marshall, 2018; tan et al., 2018; wahab, quazi & blackman, 2016). however, this obstacle should not be seen as insurmountable but rather embraced as an opportunity to create something syarif that can yield amazing results when resources are used appropriately. this paper therefore discusses the effectiveness of integrating e-learning for the character development of students. a paradigm is therefore introduced where ict and e-learning systems can be used to compensate for the absence of the traditional participants in the development of a student’s character. objective of the study the objective of the study was formulated based on the effectiveness of e-learning platforms, so it could answer the question of how the preand post-experiment attitude scores of the respondents differ with the use of an e-learning platform. through this model, friends, peers, general members of society, instructors, and course materials may play a role in the development of a student’s character when a course is presented online. the remainder of this study addresses the role of ethics in culture, the value of ethics and education in the islamic context, sustainable development and ethics, and e-learning with ethical concerns. following a review of all these, a concept is presented. a summary of the findings and suggestions for future work are offered at the end. research questions two research questions sought in this study are as follows: 1) is there a significant different in students’ values before exposure to the-learning platform? 2) is there a significant difference in students’ values before and after being exposed to the elearning platform? methods research design this study employs a quasi-experimental research design, which is commonly used in teaching– learning settings, specifically the pretest-posttest experimental research method. this method is considered appropriate for examining the effects of an innovation within educational settings, and it is a commonly used method for educational research because it measures learners’ performance before and after a particular intervention is introduced. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 111-119 research participants, sampling procedure, and ethical considerations the respondents of the study comprised 30 indonesian students, most of whom were female (n=24), with the rest being male (n=6). the sampling size was calculated using the t-test for the mean difference for the math pairs of g*power with a power of 0.90. meanwhile, the test for homogeneity in variances comprised levene’s test for the equality of variances set at the 0.05 alpha level. according to the study’s respect for ethical standards, the participants’ personal information and data were handled confidentially. a written request was approved by the school authorities before participants were selected and involved in the study. parental consent was also secured by the researcher, with the parents being supplied information about the risks and benefits of the study for their children. with the study’s purpose being made clear, the parents allowed their children to participate in the study along with the affirmation of the school headmaster and department head. the respondents and parents also completed a data privacy agreement form, with the anonymity of the respondents and their institutions being respected for ethical reasons. research instruments this study used a necessary research instruments that was developed by the researcher. the values instrument comprised ten items relating to the islamic values of students toward themselves and the community, and this was based on the instrument of padela et al. (2019) for measuring muslim modesty. modesty is distinctively characterized as an intra-psychic self-view, a public self-presentation, or a mixture of the two. the instrument has a cronbach alpha of 0.83. data analysis for scoring and interpreting the gathered data, descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean, and standard deviation were used. the preand post-test scores were analyzed and interpreted before and after their exposure to the values-based e-learning platform, and the following scale was adopted: 4.20-5.00 — highly favorable; 3.40-4.19 —favorable; 3.60-2.39 — neutral; 1.80-2.59 — not favorable; 1.001.79 — very unfavorable. syarif results and discussion research question 1. students’ values before and after exposure to the-learning platform the scores of respondents are described in this part of the study to provide a clear background for the pre-test and post-test attitude scores when using the e-learning platform. table 1 presents the differences between the preand post-test attitude scores of the respondents when considered as a whole. the respondents expressed a neutral (uncertain) level of attitude before being exposed to the e-learning platform. however, the results reveal that there was some improvement in the learners’ attitudes toward values after being exposed to the e-learning platform. table 1. students’ values before and after exposure to the e-learning platform n mean std. deviation descriptive interpretation clt attitude score pre-test 30 2.50 0.86 uncertain post-test 30 3.83 0.69 favorable notes: 4.20-5.00highly favorable; 3.40-4.19favorable; 3.60-2.39neutral; 1.80-2.59not favorable; 1.001.79-very unfavorable research question 2. is there a significant difference in students’ values before and after being exposed to the e-learning platform? the attitudes of the respondents toward values improved after being exposed to the e-learning platform, but was this significant? the post-test results were significantly higher than the pre-test results, with respondents being able to score at a significantly higher level on the attitude test after using the e-platform. it can be surmised that the exposure of respondents to thee-learning platform enhanced their attitudes toward values from a neutral to a favorable level. hence, there is a significant difference in the preand post-test attitudinal scores. table 2. difference in students’ values before and after exposure to the e-learning platform values mean score sd mean diff. t-value df p effect size pre-test 2.50 0.86 -1.33 -7.10 29 0.00** 0.75 post-test 3.83 0.69 *= significant at 0.01 level**=significant at 0.05 level ns= not significantd=effect size convention (cohen’s d):large effect size journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 111-119 from the findings, it can be concluded that using an e-learning platform that integrates islamic values can effectively enhance students’ attitudes toward islamic values, so an appropriate integration of such values into an e-learning platform can promote the development of these values in students. this finding will help teachers to apply e-learning in the classroom while also building up the moral and ethical personalities of the students. from an islamic point of view, ethics can be interpreted as a set of moral values and rules that allows people to distinguish what is right from what is wrong or what should or should not be done. islamic morality is therefore one of the most important aspects of islamic culture. since the inception of islam, the prophet muhammad was primarily concerned with educating and disciplining muslims to have the right personal qualities and show appropriate etiquette (kamla, 2019; leong et al., 2016; michalopoulos, naghavi & prarolo, 2016; smith, nixon & pearce, 2017). education is a means of transmitting moral values or wisdom that will then enhance people’s behavior, both physically and mentally, as stable and responsible persons who are capable of carrying out their duties as god’s representatives on earth. e-learning is an education process that leverages the possibilities of digital technologies to create content, measure student ability, and improve engagement between students and teachers. the delivery may be synchronous, where the interaction between students and the teacher and students with other students is simultaneous, or it may be asynchronous, where such interactions take place separately under time and location constraints. in both styles, students need to be adequately inspired to learn in order to compensate for the negative effect of the distance between themselves and their instructors (jando et al., 2017). students learn moral and ethical principles through their interactions with other students, communities, and other members of society, but e-leaning may also transmit these values. e-learning with a strong emphasis on islamic values may take place entirely online in a virtual world or in combination with face-toface settings, which is called mixed learning. conclusion and implications from the findings, it can be concluded that using an e-learning platform that incorporates islamic values is effective for enhancing students’ islamic values. indeed, an appropriate integration of islamic values into an e-learning platform was found to promote students’ development of values. syarif as an implication of the study, it is recommended for a learning management system (lms) to develop a collection of e-learning products based on different ethical values, with only one or two being included at random with each online course. it is of course expected for all teachers to have a firm grasp of all these ethical values. questions about the ethical values learned can be included in the final review of the online course taken by applicants. the site should have a list of different ethical principles that can be seamlessly integrated into various courses. a first step would be to establish course materials about the various aspects of academic integrity, with them also explaining the importance of these ethical values, their effect on culture, and the sanctions that could be levied on an individual for violating them. such content should be arbitrarily included in the various courses that a student takes online. academic institutions should also establish policies and rules on academic honesty and provide appropriate instruction to teachers. limitations and avenue for future research despite having satisfied its specified objectives, this study has several limitations that could be overcome in future reviews and studies. first, there is a need to replicate the study with the inclusion of specific variables. second, the data for this study were sourced through a selfassessment survey, which consequently limits any generalization of this study. the use of a mixed-methods approach is therefore encouraged to validate the findings of the present study. potential future research could also follow two avenues: the first would be to come up with facilities for lms service development. this should cover software innovations and their integration into e-learning courses. a framework for the involvement of volunteers in an ethical appraisal of participants—such as by friends, families, peers, and general volunteers—should also be developed. on the second avenue, future work could be based on an empirical examination of the model. such research could be carried out on the internalization of individual ethical values. in the first instance, this could focus on academic integrity and see how the new paradigm can be fully incorporated. primary evidence could then be obtained and systematically tested to establish the model’s validity. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 111-119 references abdullah, k. l., & chong, m. c. (2019). factors influencing professional values among indonesian undergraduate nursing students. nurse education in practice, 41, 102648. baez zarabanda, d. (2019). ict and its purpose in the pedagogical practice. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.6 bigagli, f. (2019). school, ethnicity and nation-building in post-colonial myanmar. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.1 bin salahudin, s. n., binti baharuddin, s. s., abdullah, m. s., & osman, a. (2016). the effect of islamic work ethics on organizational commitment. procedia economics and finance, 35, 582-590. darko, n., dallosso, h., hadjiconstantinou, m., hulley, k., khunti, k., & davies, m. (2020). qualitative evaluation of a safer ramadan, a structured education programme that addresses the safer observance of ramadan for muslims with type 2 diabetes. diabetes research and clinical practice, 160, 107979. graafland, j. (2020). competition in technology and innovation, motivation crowding, and environmental policy. corporate social responsibility and environmental management, 27(1), 137-145. hayati, k., & caniago, i. (2012). islamic work ethic: the role of intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 65, 1102-1106. hoffmann, r., blijlevens, j., chuah, s. h., neelim, a., peryman, j., & skali, a. (2020). the ethics of student participation in economic experiments: arguments and evidence. journal of behavioral and experimental economics, 101521. james, g. (2018). a narrative inquiry perspective into coping mechanisms of international postgraduate students’ transition experiences. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 41-56. jando, e., hidayanto, a. n., prabowo, h., & warnars, h. l. h. s. (2017, november). personalized e-learning model: a systematic literature review. in 2017 international conference on information management and technology (icimtech) (pp. 238-243). ieee. kamla, r. (2019). religion-based resistance strategies, politics of authenticity and professional women accountants. critical perspectives on accounting, 59, 52-69. kurt, y., sinkovics, n., sinkovics, r. r., & yamin, m. (2020). the role of spirituality in islamic business networks: the case of internationalizing turkish smes. journal of world business, 55(1), 101034. leong, m., olnick, s., akmal, t., copenhaver, a., & razzak, r. (2016). how islam influences end-of-life care: education for palliative care clinicians. journal of pain and symptom management, 52(6), 771-774. liu, l., xu, l., xiao, x., liu, l., & li, y. (2020). positive influence of peers' interpersonal character on children's interpersonal character: the moderating role of children's and peers' social status. journal of adolescence, 79, 157-172. marshall, k. (2018). global education challenges: exploring religious dimensions. international journal of educational development, 62, 184-191. michalopoulos, s., naghavi, a., & prarolo, g. (2016). islam, inequality and pre-industrial comparative development. journal of development economics, 120, 86-98. syarif miller, l., m. (2018). social networking strategy for creating public value in eastern india. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 85-93. montenegro rueda, m., & fernández cerero, j. (2019). main barriers to ict teacher training and disability. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 96-114. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.7 morris, c., & chapman, l. (2019). timeless learning: how imagination, observation, and zero-based thinking change schools. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 113-118. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.9 padela, a. i., nageeb, s., vu, m., & quinn, m. t. (2019). the development and validation of a modesty measure for diverse muslim populations. journal of religion and health, 58(2), 408-425. shen, c. w., & ho, j. t. (2020). technology-enhanced learning in higher education: a bibliometric analysis with latent semantic approach. computers in human behavior, 104, 106177. smith, d. r., nixon, g., & pearce, j. (2017, august). schools and the sanitising of religion: bad religion as false religion. in bera annual conference 2017. stivens, m. (2006, july). ‘family values’ and islamic revival: gender, rights and state moral projects in malaysia. in women's studies international forum, (vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 354367). pergamon. tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed tan, b. p., naidu, n. b. m., & jamil, z. (2018). moral values and good citizens in a multi-ethnic society: a content analysis of moral education textbooks in malaysia. the journal of social studies research, 42(2), 119-134. wahab, m. a., quazi, a., & blackman, d. (2016). measuring and validat ing islamic work value constructs: an empirical exploration using malaysian samples. journal of business research, 69(10), 4194-4204. yigit, m , tarman, b . (2013). the place and importance of values education in 4.th and 5th. grade primary school social studies textbooks. journal of social studies education research, 4 (2), 79-102. retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/19101/202712 zare, s. (2018). virtual coexistence in a persian diasporic weblog community. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(2), 77-88. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (2), 151-173 151 social conflict in indonesia: safeguarding a nation as a new approach for resolving national disintegration iffatin nur1 & susanto2 abstract the phenomenon of disintegration in indonesia has been occurring since the political reforms that started in 1998 through the advent of radicalism and terrorism, eroding the national sense of identity and unity. this paper explores the national safeguarding concepts by emphasizing two research questions: (1) how do the social conflicts in indonesia rooted in the religious perceptions threat the safety national buildings?, and (2) how are insights of national safeguarding nation approach from haramain al-juwayni’s view of maqāṣid sharī‘ah offer the way to resolve the national disintegration? this study takes the form of library research employing the content analysis from which various texts on islamic nation buildings were examined. as a qualitative approach, this study focused on the analysis of themes of the purstanding islamic influencers on usul fiqih. thematic analysis regarding misleading perceptions on islamic rules on the nation buildings and approach to resolve nation disintegration were presented. through this study, we discovered that islam offers a concept for safeguarding the sovereignty and unity of a nation, one that has not yet been extensively explored by previous scholars, namely maqāṣid sharī‘ah in the form of ḥifẓ al-dawlah (safeguarding a nation). there will hopefully be other comprehensive studies in future to bring forth other leading concepts for preserving national unity and integrity. keywords: ḥifẓ al-dawlah; maqāṣid sharī‘ah; national disintegration; radicalism; terrorism introduction the post-reform era has been marked by the onset of the democratization process, and it has become a fertile ground for groups that advocate conflict to grow (fealy & hooker, 2006). such groups use every mechanism they can to spread radicalism among people, including radicalism for religious issues. the phenomenon of radicalism among religious people is often based on a fanatical understanding of religious scripture, although it may originate for various reasons, such as in reaction to economic, political, or social issues, among others. for instance, as stated by muis and immerzel (2017; cf. mudde, 2007), nativists assert that a region should be exclusively inhabited by members of the indigenous population and that non-native elements of the population threaten the homogeneity of their nation. this situation provides the inspiration for 1dr. the state islamic institute (iain) of tulungagung, east java, indonesia; email: ifatinury@gmail.com 2dr. the state islamic institute (iain) of tulungagung, east java, indonesia; email: damarsusanto53@yahoo.co.id mailto:ifatinury@gmail.com mailto:damarsusanto53@yahoo.co.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 radical political parties. the phenomenon of diversity is characterized by a large number of ethnic groups within a single state. in addition to diverse races, the different languages and culture of indonesia positions it is as a country with a plural society. furnivall (1939, 2010) supplies an understanding of a plural society as one with two or more elements or social orders that live side by side but do not mingle within one political unit. rydgren (2017) views political parties as asserting national identity and national security through the “negative” lens of immigration, multiculturalism, and islamist threats, one where people struggle to maintain culture when political threats endanger the ideal image of a country. the potential for radicalism does not emerge only from the exclusivity of an islamist state identity. according to visser et al. (2014), it also derives from the attitudes of young people and unemployment, with those on lower incomes being more likely to support radical ideologies. smith (1965), meanwhile, sees a plural society as being characterized by the presence of two or more different cultural traditions. due to its structural configuration, a plural society faces a fundamental and chronic challenge in developing social integration between the various groups (beckett & kobayashi, 2020; calderon berumen, 2019; darolia, 2020; krynski, 2019). a plural society is often considered fragile, and it may experience conflict and disintegration (budiharso, & tarman, 2020). primordialism or tribal fanaticism, is one issue that is commonly identified as a cause of conflict. in its history, indonesia has experienced various conflicts, both with other countries and within its own people, and such domestic conflicts certainly open up the possibility of disintegration (ferris, 2019). for example, east timor’s separation from indonesia was preceded by conflict between pro-indonesian and pro-independence factions. jones (1997) states that in 1969,a research team found 160 disputes in indonesia that were expected to lead to a major conflict within fifteen years. this shocking finding broadly classified conflicts into three types. first, there were nationalism conflicts, which include disputes between ethnicities, races, religious followers, and same-language groups who proclaimed themselves as a nation. second, there were class conflicts, such as disputes based on economic exploitation. third, there were other conflicts in which the main drivers did not fit into the first two categories. nationalism and ethnic conflicts comprised around 70% of the cases, with class-based conflicts and other conflicts making up the remainder. it turns out that nationalism is indeed the primary nur & susanto factor leading to wars breaking out and causing bloodshed (jones, 1997). one solution to overcome the problems causing the ongoing national disintegration in indonesia is to look for better character-building systems. the question here is whether islam, as a religion that is embraced by most indonesian people, has something to offer for resolving this problem. in relation to this question, the researchers sought to probe what islam can offer in the effort to preserve the unity, sovereignty, and integrity of the indonesian nation. research questions to guide the research procedures in this study, the following two research questions were sought. 1) how do the social conflicts in indonesia rooted in the religious perceptions threat the safety national buildings? 2) how are insights of national safeguarding nation approach from haramain al-juwayni’s view of maqāṣid sharī‘ah offer the way to resolve the national disintegration? methods discourse analysis was used as the research method for this study. this is the study of social life as understood through an analysis of language in its widest sense, including face-to-face conversation, non-verbal interaction, symbols, images, and documents (shaw & bailey, 2008; cf. potter, 1987). it is used to analyze messages and manage them, thus acting as a tool for analyzing behavior. it makes use of various qualitative methods to increase our understanding of the human experience (shanthi, lee & lajium, 2015). it also offers a means to investigate meanings, whether in conversation or in patterns of signification and representation that denote a culture (wetherell, taylor & yates, 2001). such studies apply a wide range of theories, topics, and analytic approaches to explain how language is used. the analysis involves looking beyond the literal meaning of language, understanding the context in which social interaction takes place, and then exploring what was said, when, and why (shaw &bailey, 2008). considering the theme of this study, we observed how the problems affecting indonesia were very closely related to various moral messages, discourses, and images that can cause disunity. the disintegration of the nation is the most severe impact of the various conflicts and disunities that have arisen. we therefore chose this analysis method because it was necessary to more deeply read and analyze the implied messages in the various events and phenomena that are journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 triggering the disintegration of indonesia. this research first looked at the previous thoughts of islamic scholars about maqāṣid. in his book, al-raishuni (1995) explains how previous islamic scholars brought forward the concept of maqāṣid, with the most prominent figures being al-juwayni, al-shaṭibi, and ibn ‘ashur. their ideas regarding maqāṣid will be discussed briefly later. in addition, contemporary scholars who have discussed the concept of maqāṣid include abdul wahhab khallaf, yusuf al-qaradawi, and jasser auda, and their views are elaborated on as comparison to those above. after discussing the works of these two groups, a conclusion was drawn. data of this study were analyzed using the qualitative process of data analysis as suggested by cresswell (2012). a systematic analysis of qualitative data were defined in four steps, namely: coding the data, making the themes into groups, displaying the data in terms of statements, tables or diagrams, making interpretation of this findings that have been displayed, and verifying the results (cresswell, 2012). drawing this study is a content analysis, the researchers applied document analysis from krippendorff (2004). the first step in this particular analysis was begun by the first-pass document review to find specific meaningful and relevant texts that contain proper data for the analysis. secondly, the researchers did a thorough reading to examine the themes on disintegration concepts, issues and trends that were rooted on islamic insights, inferred the message of the documents to which massaqid views were presented (krippendorff, 2004). results social conflict in indonesia conflict and disintegration result from the human intuition to defend oneself and one’s people, and this has also occurred in indonesia. for example, the conflict that began in sampit, central borneo in february 2001 lasted throughout the year, causing more than 500 deaths and forcing over 100,000 madurese to abandon their homes (bbc editor, 2001). some stated that the conflict initially started because of jealousy on the part of the ethnic dayak people, who felt that they had less economic access than the madurese migrants. the dayaks were said to be frustrated by the increased competition from the more aggressive madurese. this was resulted from implementation of new laws that permitted the madurese to take control of many commercial industries in the province, including logging, mining, and the building of plantations (bbc editor 2004). such social jealousy triggered the instinct of aggression, leading people to nur & susanto commit violent acts. conflicts can occur due to internal factors, such as the human instincts of aggression and self-defense, but these instincts arise because of external factors, such as a dissatisfaction with unfair economic access. indeed, economic inequality and wide gaps in prosperity can certainly trigger social jealousy, leading to conflicts and disintegration. the behaviors of these groups, as mentioned in a paper by carter (2018), show certain political styles and strategies, and their platform for elections can be characterized as radical. radicalism appears, according to elgenyus and rydgren (2018), to embody a nostalgia for the past based on ethnic homogeneity, and through this, it gathers the spirit to strengthen itself. nevertheless, other external factors, such as foreign intervention, need to be monitored, because they also have the potential to cause disintegration. foreign interventions usually occur whenever domestic disputes affect another nation’s economic interests in some way. for example, the american intervention in vietnam was considered not just based on ideological and geopolitical motives but also economic and neo-imperialistic ones. in 1960, the united states was determined to stem the growing influence of the soviet union and china over third-world countries, many of which were rich in minerals and raw materials that were in demand in the american economy, which was shifting from an industrial age to a technological one (jones, 1997). the proposition that external warfare is an effort to foster domestic cohesiveness (i.e., within a country in the case of a nation state) is still difficult to prove, but the notion that a civil war often spills over into international war is supported by considerable evidence. addressing the relatively recent situation in indonesia in the post-reform era, it is clear that many unstable conditions have emerged in almost all of indonesia’s regions as a result of direct general elections being implemented. this conflict seems to threaten the sense of brotherhood among people. the dissatisfaction of the losing side combined with the arrogance of the winning side becomes a trigger for disintegration that can lead to ongoing conflict. missbach (2009) assumes that a certain degree of instability is congenital in democratizing countries during their transition to democracy, so they often prove to be weaker than authoritarian governments in terms of maintaining sovereignty over disputed territory. in indonesia, violence has been perpetrated in the name of religion for a long time, but such violence sharply escalated after the 1998 political reforms, accompanied by a strengthening of radical islamic movements (hamdi, 2012). only three months after soeharto stepped down, the islamic defenders front (fpi) was born. this radical islamic group is known to often persecute journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 anyone they consider as not being in accordance with islamic law. in august 2000, thousands of people came to yogyakarta to attend the first congress of the indonesian mujahedeen council (mmi). one of its recommendations was to bring indonesia more into accordance with islamic law (awwas, 2001). the mmi is a known radical islamic organization in indonesia, and it is suspected of having links with international terrorism. reports published by several institutions indicate a high rate of religious violence in post-reform indonesia. the moderate muslim society’s 2010 report noted that 81 cases of religious violence broke out in indonesia. of course, this report does not paint a perfectly accurate picture of the real situation because not all of indonesia’s regions were within its scope (bagir et al., 2011; the compilation team, 2010). even in the areas that were monitored, not all cases of religious violence were reported. for instance, the report cites only four cases of religious violence being reported in east java, whereas another report published by the setara institute found 28 cases in east java alone in 2010, as well as218 cases in the country as a whole that could be classed as violations of religious freedom (hasani & naipospos, 2010). broadly speaking, the 2010 picture of religious life that appeared in a report from the centre for religious & cross-cultural studies (crcs) at yogyakarta’s university of gadjah mada (ugm) did not differ significantly from that of the previous few years. this certainly does not reflect good news, and it rather suggests that there has been no encouraging progress in several respects over recent years (bagir et al., 2011). viewed from any perspective, such conditions are certainly very detrimental to humanity in general, but this is particularly true for the country and people of indonesia, which is in a very precarious condition for addressing the problem wisely, so it needs to creatively, systematically and thoroughly find solutions (a’la, 2007). mubarak (2002) mentions that the radical islamic movement in indonesia can be traced back to the emergence of political opposition under the darul islam (di) group led by karto suwiryo. this operated in several places in west java in the early 1950s, but it was still committing acts of terror in the 1970s under the name of komando jihad, which was led by former leaders of the indonesian islamic state (nii). the thoughts of leading movement figures, such as hasan albana and sayyid qutub from egypt with their muslim brotherhood and abul a'la al-maududi from pakistan, have also influenced and inspired the emergence of extreme thinking among some radical islamic activists in indonesia, as seen in their writings that circulate in indonesia. from the post-independence era to the new order era, the agenda of islamic radical movements nur & susanto could not be pursued, mainly due to the policies set by soeharto’s new order government not being conducive to them. the soeharto regime did not allow the slightest compromise, tolerance, or space for radical groups. mubarak (2002) explain show the current of the democratization movement that followed suharto’s resignation has had implications for the country’s political policies. in the post-suharto era, spaces for freedom have opened up widely, including freedom of religious expression, the establishment of large organizations and associations, and the emergence of political parties. in this situation, various islamic movements are increasingly free to openly advance their aspirations, many of which were considered subversive during suharto’s era. for instance, the enforcement of islamic law was promoted by several militant religious organizations, such as the indonesian hezbut tahrer (hti). some of the radical religious movements that stood out during the transition and reform periods include the fpi and the laskar jihad ahlus sunnah wa al-jamaah (the sunny army of jihad). this is the picture of conflict, radicalism, and terrorism in indonesia, which may well lead to the nation disintegrating. through our literature study, we found that according to al-raishuni (1995), perhaps the earliest person to use the word maqāṣid (purposefulness) was al-hakim al-tirmidzi (d. h 320/ad932) in his book titled al-ṣalātu wa maqāṣiduhā (prayers and their purposefulness). however, when we traced some essays that also contained the term maqāṣid sharī‘ah (purposefulness of islamic law), we found it being used long before al-tirmidzi. for instance, imam malik (d. h 179/ad 795) wrote in his book muwaṭṭa' (the approved) a hadith that points to the case of using maqāṣid at the time of the prophet’s companions. al-raishuni (1995) further explains that malik’s first step was followed by imam shafi'i (d. h 204/ad 819) in his very popular book al-risālah (the message), where he mentions a discussion about ta'lil al-aḥkām (legal reasoning), as well as some specific maqāṣid like ḥifẓ alnafs (protection of one’s life) and ḥifẓ al-māl (protection of wealth), which became the pioneers of sciences with maqāṣid themes. these were then followed by abu bakr muhammad al-qaffal al-kabir (d. h 365/ad 976) with his book maḥāsinu al-sharī‘ah (the beauties of islamic law), in which he tried to discuss legal reasoning and wisdom so that the law could be more easily understood and accepted by people. following al-kabir, al-raishuni (1995) notes that then came abu bakr al-abray (d. h 375/ad 985) with his book ‘ilalu al-sharā-i’ wa al-aḥkām (reasoning of laws and regulations), which collected narrations about ta'lilu al-aḥkām (legal reasoning) from shiite scholars. next, there was journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 abu hasan al-amiri (d. h 381/ad 991) with his book al-i’lām bi al-manāqib al-islam (information on the prospect of islam). although this book comparatively discusses religions, he alludes to ḍaruriyyāt al-khams, which are five primary matters that are protected in islam, namely one’s religion, soul, mind, offspring, and wealth. these afterwards became the main themes of the science of maqāṣid sharī‘ah. later on, other muslim scholars used the theme of maqāṣid sharī‘ahbut within a more complete discussion, and these included al-juwayni, alshaṭibi, and ibn ‘ashur, to name but a few. approaches to resolve the national disintegration of maqasid shari’ah a. imam haramain al-juwayni’s view of maqāṣid sharī‘ah imam al-juwayni can be said to be a scholar of uṣūl fiqh (the principles of islamic jurisprudence) who first laid the foundations for studying maqāṣid sharī‘a. one of the directions of his discussion concerns the enforcement of justice values and the suppression of arbitrariness through imāmah (leadership). this can also be seen in the title of his book ghiyāth al-umam fi iltiyāth al-ẓulm (helping people in shackling tyranny). according to al-juwayni (2006), imāmah is a plenary leadership that concerns certain general responsibilities for serving worldly and religious interests. these include securing the state, promoting welfare for its people, and implementing islamic propagation in a firm but good way. al-juwayni (2006) also said that uṣūl fiqh, which serves to produce the jurisprudence introduced by previous scholars, was considered empty of maqāṣid values. to him, ijtihād (intellectual exercise), ijmā' (scholars’ consensus), qiyās (legal analogy), qaṭ'i (certainties), and ẓanni (ambiguities), the concept of obedience, orders, prohibitions, and so on must be reviewed with a touch that favors the social context. in addition, those themes must be seen through the lens of maqāṣid. the first thing he did was to emphasize the importance of understanding the maqāṣid sharī‘ah in establishing islamic law. he explicitly said that one cannot be deemed capable of establishing a law in islam before fully understanding the purpose of god in issuing his commands and prohibitions. al-juwayni (1980) elaborated on the maqāṣid sharī‘ah in relation to illāt (legal causes). he divided the purpose of tashrī’ (law enactment) into three types, namely 1) ḍaruriyyāt (necessities), 2) ḥajiyyāt (needs), and 3) makramāt/taḥsiniyyāt (luxuries). he also explained the istinbāṭ (legal reasoning) of the law by matching it with the reality that happened and rather than nur & susanto only looking for the conformity to uṣūl (principles) with furu’ (branches) as previous scholars did. to him, if something is supported by reason and a proposition, then it is al-aṣl (principle). b. abu ishaq al-shaṭibi’s viewof maqāṣid sharī‘ah maqāṣid sharī‘ah is discussed from chapter 2 to the end of al-shaṭibi’s book al-muwāfaqāt. according to al-shaṭibi (1997), god decrees the sharī‘ahto humanity for nothing other than to gain benefit and avoid harm (jalbul maṣāliḥ wa dar'ul mafāsid) or, in other words, the legal rules set by god are purely for the benefit of humanity. he then divides maṣlaḥāt (benefits) into three important areas, namely ḍaruriyyāt (necessities), ḥajiyyāt (needs), and taḥsiniyyāt (luxuries). maṣlaḥāt or maqāṣidḍaruriyyāt (primary purposefulness) is something that must exist in order to realize worldly and religious benefits. if this does not exist, it will cause damage to, and even the loss of, one’s life and other things related to it, such as eating, drinking, praying, fasting, and other ritual services. five things are included in this maqāṣid ḍaruriyyāt, namely al-dīn (religion), al-nafs (soul), an-nasl (offspring), al-māl (wealth), and al-‘aql (mind). preserving them can be achieved in two ways: 1) in terms of its existence (min nahiyyati al-wujūd), protecting and maintaining things can perpetuate its existence. 2) in terms of its non-existence (min nahiyyati al-'adam), this is avoided by preventing things that can cause its extinction (alshaṭibi 1997). c. muhammad al-tahir ibn ‘ashur’sviewof maqāṣid sharī‘ah the original contribution of ibn ‘ashur was that the development of maqāṣid can be divided into three categories, namely 1) the legality of maqāṣid, 2) the urgency of its application in formulating laws, and 3) the categorization of maqāṣid into al-maqāṣid al-‘āmmah (general purposefulness)and al-maqāṣid al-khaṣṣah (particular purposefulness).according to ibn ‘ashur (2001), the legality of maqāṣid is mentioned in the quran, and it is impossible for god the almighty as al-shāri' (the legislator) to impose any law on people without accompanying it with purposefulness and wisdom. ibn ‘ashur (2001) mentioned that there are three ways to find out about maqāṣid sharī‘ah. first,istiqra' (an inductive method) is a way to examine the sharī‘ah from all aspects based on particular verses. second, maqāṣid can be found directly from the quranic theorems, which are ṣarīḥ (very clear) and less likely to deviate from their ẓahir (visible) meaning. third, maqāṣid journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 can be found directly in the theorems of sunnah/hadith, which are mutawātir (narrated by a group of trusted persons), both in terms of mutawātir ma'nawi (a practice of a group of companions who witnessed the prophet's actions) and mutawātir 'amali(a practice of just one companion) (al-tahhan, 1979). ibn ‘ashur (2001) also asserts that one of the concepts of maqāṣidsharī‘ahis that of taysir (easiness). furthermore, ibn ‘ashur (2001) also formulates twelve categories or dimensions when understanding the conduct of the prophet in relation to enacting islamic law. this categorization is very useful for knowing maqāṣid from a particular hadith. it comprises 1) al-tashrī’ (law enactment); 2) al-fatwā (religious opinion); 3) al-qaḍa’ (judiciary); 4) al-imārah (leadership); 5) al-hudā wa al-irsyād (guidance); 6) al-ṣulḥ (benefit); 7) al-ishārat (signs); 8) al-nasīhah (advice); 9) al-takmīl al-nufus (self-perfection); 10) al-ta'līm al-ḥaqīqah (teaching of essence); 11) al-ta'dīb (discipline); and 12) al-tajarrud wa al-irsyād (common practice). considering all these dimensions, he concludes that there is a singular destination for islamic law, but the paths to reach it are numerous and varied. therefore, it is unwise to debate wasāil (the means) while ignoring the main principle behind the selection of the wasāil, namely to benefit humanity. ibn ‘ashur (2001) adds that the validity of the concept of maqāṣid as a tool for legal formulation relies on the science of maqāṣid’s closeness to the predicate of qaṭ'ī (certain). on this basis, the maqāṣid sharī‘ahhe offers stands upright, and he dares to make a valuable breakthrough and contribution to the next generation by studying and formulating the format of maqāṣid sharī‘ah. at the end of his discussion on the legality of maqāṣid, ibn ‘ashur (2001) emphasizes the importance of following some requirements before establishing a maqāṣid: 1) knowing comprehensively the purpose of a naṣṣ (legal text) and the background to its revelation, 2) conducting methodological examinations of texts that seem to contain a paradox, 3) analyzing a text that allegedly has a double meaning by analogizing it with other texts that clearly show the law, and 4) methodologically compromising by putting maqāṣid sharī‘ah in line with religious texts and then annotating it with the current reality. this is for the sake of creating a concept of fiqh, which is living and humanistic and accommodates benefit for all. ibn ‘ashur (2001) defines al-maqāṣid al-'ammah as the wisdom, the secret, and the purposefulness of the sharī‘ah’s enactment in general without specifying one particular field. the spiritual characteristics of sharī‘ah and its general purposefulness are included in the category of al-maqāṣid al-'ammah. this also includes meanings that are not embodied in all nur & susanto types of law but implicitly embodied in many other forms of law. ibn ‘ashur (2001) asserts that maqāṣid sharī‘ah must be in the form of al-maṣlaḥah (benefit to many), because god the legislator has the prerogative right to determine the types of almaṣlaḥah, its limits, and its purposefulness, so that they act asa guide to follow. departing from this point, he then divides al-maṣlaḥah into three categories: 1) its influence on the affairs of people; 2) its relationship with the generality of the ummah (people), both collectively and individually; and 3) the existence of a human need to achieve it. for the first category, almaṣlaḥah is divided into three hierarchical levels, namely ḍaruriyyāt,ḥajiyyāt, and taḥsiniyyāt. the second category divides al-maṣlaḥah into two fields, namely kulliyyah (collective benefit) and juz'iyyah (individual benefit). the third category divides al-maṣlaḥah into three areas, namely qaṭ'iyyah (certainties), ẓanniyyah (judgmental), and wahmiyyah (something that seems useful but turns out to contain harm). discussing al-maqāṣid al-khassah, ibn ‘ashur (2001) defines it as a mean simplicitly intended by god the legislator to realize the purpose of his servants, as well as to ensure their benefit from certain activities and interactions. included in this category are all the attentions of sharī‘ah to wisdom, which is used as a barometer for which activities are decreed. for example, al-rahn (collateral) is decreed so that there will be trust between two individuals engaged in a loan activity, while divorce is decreed in order to prevent disharmony in a household for a long period (al-khatib, 2008). discussion the basic principle that becomes the purposefulness of sharī‘ah is to conduct good deeds and avoid wicked ones. this is formulated in the al-kulliyyāt al-khamsah (five basic benefits) that uphold human life, namely ḥifẓ al-din (safeguarding one’s religion), ḥifẓ al-nafs (safeguarding one’s soul), ḥifẓ al-nasl (safeguarding one’s offspring), ḥifẓ al-‘aql (safeguarding one’s mind), and ḥifẓ al-māl (safeguarding one’s wealth).these five things are necessary to ensure benefit in the world, so if they are not respected, worldly benefits can never be attained. in the context of the actualization of maqāṣidsharī‘a, ibn taymiyyah (1986) argues that the most authentic essence of maṣlaḥah lies in its empirical reality rather than its logical representation. the scholars of uṣūl fiqh state that the actualization of awareness of environmental conservation and restoration as a manifestation of maṣlaḥah is a practical awareness of a process of ijtihād as journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 “the fruit” of the ijtihād process itself. in the epistemology of hanafi's interpretation of formulating the concept of maṣlaḥah, there are at least three stages of hermeneutical work: 1) strengthening the historical awareness after testing the authenticity of the naṣṣ, 2) strengthening the eidetic awareness in a form that validates the hermeneutical understanding and interpretation, and 3) finally gaining a practical awareness to make use of legal provisions, understand the significance of orders and prohibitions, and transform revelations from normative ideas to practical historical movements (hanafi 2000). the most famous sources of islamic law fall into three types, namely the quran, the sunnah/hadith, and ra'yu (scholars’ thought). this is where the thoughts of various fiqh were developed, including fiqh al-bī‘ah (jurisprudence about the environment). unfortunately, its roots are very limited because they only reach the principles of legal formats. it is the principle of maṣlaḥah in the frame of maqāṣidsharī‘ah that is then to be developed in order to overcome contemporary environmental problems. the simultaneous stipulation and development of legal products absolutely requires a method for breaking down the dogmatic legitimacy of a sacred corpus into an order of historical reality. the main purpose of establishing islamic law is to bring human welfare into a reality that will continually change and develop as times progress. in such conditions, many new problems will inevitably emerge. it is very possible that the law regarding them has not yet been asserted in the quran and hadith. if a solution to these new problems is searched for solely by employing the qiyās method, many of them will not be solvable through islamic law, thus presenting a serious problem. even though the quran and sunnah/hadith contain legal rules, their number is very low compared to the number of social problems that require legal provision. therefore, a renewed interpretation is needed, yet it must still refer to the main islamic sources of law (i.e., the quran and the sunnah). however, an understanding of the two sources is not achieved solely based on literal meanings but rather on the non-literal, or contextual, meaning that is revealed according to the essential purposes of islamic law. the basic purposefulness of sharī‘ah is clearly implemented in the values of al-`adl (just), al-maṣlaḥah (benefit), al-ḥikmah (wisdom), almusawwah (equality), al-raḥmah (compassion), al-ta’addudiyyah (plurality), and al-huqūq alinsāniyyah (human rights). nur & susanto al-ghazali (2018) classifies the values contained in the maqāṣid sharī‘ah into five basic principles of human rights that the call sal-huqūq al-khamsah (five basic rights). these are the right to life, freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of religion, the right to property, and the right to reproduction. the concept of al-huqūq al-khamsah then leads to the importance of viewing humans as legal objects, in addition to subjects, in islamic law. al-jawziyah (1973), a fiqh expert from the hanbali school of thought, formulates the following: islamic sharī‘ah is actually built for human interest and universal humanitarian purposes, such as benefit, justice, blessing, and wisdom. these principles must be referenced when stipulating a law, and they must inspire every legislator. deviation from these principles is to violate the ideals of islamic law itself. a no-less-assertive statement was expressed by rushd (1985) when he said that maṣlaḥah is the root of the various sharī‘ah determined by god. furthermore, al-salam (1998) came to the conclusion that all religious provisions are actually solely intended to bring benefit to humanity. departing from the theories of maqāṣid sharī‘ah, muqaffa (1960) classifies the verses of the quran into two categories: uṣūliyyah verses, which are universal because they explain the main values of islam, and furu'iyyah verses, which are particular because they explain specific things. examples of the first category include verses that talk about justice, while the second category includes those that review ‘uqūbāt (forms of punishment) and hudūd (forms of sanctions), as well as verses that contain provisions for marriage, inheritance, and social transactions. maqāṣid sharī‘ah, as discussed above, indicates that maṣlaḥah needs to be given attention when mafsadah also needs to be monitored in an effort to make a decision based on sharī‘a. this can be summarized by placing emphasis on the administration of a state. al-juwayni (1980), for example, explained that the greatest purposefulness of the institution of imāmah is to compromise various views, regulate various human needs in one’s rule, and shape life with a system. this then avoids chaos and disadvantage in community life. al-salam (1998) also asserts that al-wilāyah (power), al-qaḍā’ (judiciary), and al-shahādah (information) are needed to conform with the principle of attaining benefit and rejecting wickedness. in fact, other methods serve as a basis for consideration in the name of siyāsah shar‘iyyah (islamic politics), which also emphasizes the need to take into account the aspect of maṣlaḥah. this includes using sources of islamic law that may not be agreed upon by all, such as istihsān (choosing the better), sadh al-dharā‘i (shutting the way to immorality), istiṣlāh (attaining journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 benefits), 'urf (tradition), and others in ijtihād siyāsi (political ijtihād). in addition, the qawā'id fiqhiyyah (theorems of islamic jurisprudence) also indicate the need for maṣlaḥah (hassan, 2008). the close relationship between maqāṣid sharī‘ah in a state administration also colors most definitions of siyāsah shar‘iyyah. for example, taj (1994) defines this as laws or regulations governing ways to manage a state and its people. such laws should concur with the spirit of sharī‘ah, be in harmony with uṣūl kulliyyah (universal principles), and achieve social purposefulness, even though those laws are not mentioned directly in the quran and sunnah. likewise, khallaf (1998) explains that siyāsah shar‘iyyah is about administrating an islamic state based on something that guarantees goodness and avoids wickedness in a way that it is not outside the limits of sharī‘ah and its general principles, although it may not conform with the proponents of every school of thought. furthermore, he affirms that maṣlaḥah is an important element for siyāsah shar‘iyyah, anda spotlight on the journey of the companions generation proves the existence of this. in his view, the companions acted solely according to maṣlaḥah, being guided by instructions born from their fitrah salīmah (sinless nature) and naẓr ṣaḥīḥ (true view). however, the subsequent generation reformulated the methods of ijtihād so much so that even in certain circumstances, they were forced to create an approach called istiḥsan (approbation). this was done to avoid the impression that applying ordinary methods would only cause difficulties. in line with this, he also stresses that in administering general issues, the use of principles or methods that concur with the principles of sharī‘ah may be called siyāsah. the pioneers of the study of siyāsah shar‘iyyah clearly relate it with the essence of maqāṣid sharī‘ah. this was also supported by al-qaradawi (1998), who proposed a model called fiqh alnuṣuṣ fi ḍaw-i al-maqāṣid (jurisprudence of texts in the light of maqāṣid) as one way to create law based on siyāsah shar‘iyyah. this analysis model revolves around the understanding that partial sharī‘ah texts must be harmonized with aspects of the comprehensive purposefulness of sharī‘ah, so the partial texts follow the cycle of the general ones. this implies that to achieve an understanding of islamic law, the texts must not be studied separately from the general purposefulness of sharī‘ah. in this case, the general purposefulness of sharī‘ah plays a role in interpreting the partial texts in a way that does not exclude the spirit of sharī‘ah. the most recent muslim scholar to discuss the concept of maqāṣid sharī‘ah is jasser auda. maulidi (2015) explains that auda offered changes in the study of islamic law in two dimensions nur & susanto at once: the approach of ijtihād and its methodology and the maqāṣid paradigm as a basis for islamic legal philosophy. he explained the importance of differentiating between sharī‘ah (islamic law), fiqh (islamic jurisprudence), fatwā (opinions), qānūn (written law), and ‘urf (tradition). in terms of approaching a study of islamic law, he also stressed the urgency of combining islamic legal study with other disciplines to answer contemporary fiqh problems. furthermore, maulidi (2015) states that auda’s contribution to the evolution of maqāṣid lies in his position as a philosopher of islamic law with a systematic approach. according to him, islamic law must be oriented toward maqāṣid sharī‘ah, which is human benefit. any legal reasoning cannot be justified if maqāṣid sharī‘ah, as the legal purposefulness, is neglected, even though it may have originated from a relatively correct interpretation. this was confirmed by auda (2008) when quoting al-qayyim's statement: sharī‘ah is based on wisdom and achieving people’s welfare in this life and the afterlife. sharī‘ah is all about justice, mercy, wisdom, and good. thus, any ruling that replaces justice with injustice, mercy with its opposite, common good with mischief, or wisdom with nonsense is a rule that does not belong to the sharī‘ah even if it accords to the same interpretation. meanwhile, according to rauf (2015), a maqāṣid approach to fiqhis a holistic one, meaning that it does not restrict itself to one narrative or partial ruling but rather refers to general principles and common ground. therefore, accomplishing the higher purposefulness of unity and reconciliation of muslims is more important than accomplishing the details of fiqh. haqan (2018) explained that in auda’s concept of maqāṣid, the values and principles of humanity become the main points. he also tried to reconstruct the concept of maqāṣid and came to the conclusion that the classical ones have the nature of “protection and preservation” whereas the contemporary ones relate to “development and rights.” from this explanation, jasser auda (2008), as explained by abdullah (2012), presents a paradigm shift in understanding maqāṣid sharī‘ah, one going from classical theories to the contemporary versions, which can be summed up as shown in table 1. table 1: the paradigm shift from classical maqāṣid to contemporary ones (source: abdullah, 2008) no. classical maqāṣid contemporary maqāṣid 1 safeguarding one’s religion (ḥifẓ al-dīn) maintaining, protecting and respecting one’s freedom of religion and belief. 2 safeguarding one’s soul maintaining and protecting human dignity; safeguarding and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 (ḥifẓ al-nafs) protecting human rights. 3 safeguarding one’s offspring (ḥifẓ al-nasl) orientating toward family protection and focusing more onfamily institutions. 4 safeguarding one’s mind (ḥifẓ al-‘aql) developing one’s mindset and scientific research; prioritizing efforts to seek knowledge; suppressing a mindset that prioritizes crimes; not underestimating one’s mental efforts. 5 safeguarding one’s wealth (ḥifẓ al-māl) prioritizing social care; paying attention to economic development; encouraging human wellbeing; eliminating the gap between the rich and poor. so far, however, no one has explicitly presented a specific discussion about safeguarding a nation or state with a plural society. the ideas presented by previous muslim scholars, both classical and contemporary ones, for the purpose of tashrī’ with its categorization of ḍaruriyyāt, ḥajiyyāt, and makramāt/ taḥsiniyyāt, as well as their further elaboration in the form of five primary needs or rights and such like, have not yet explicitly discussed the safeguarding of a state. the five primary needs or rights introduced thus far are often narrowly understood as preserving individual rights, especially those of muslims. such a comprehension needs to be revisited, because it does not reflect the true purposefulness of islam as a blessing to the entire universe, including all people, whether they are muslims or not. it is in this matter, researchers propose ḥifẓ al-dawlah (safeguarding a nation) as an addition to the five primary needs already mentioned. this is actually not a new thing in islam, because the quran and hadith often explicitly or implicitly talk about the need to preserve and safeguard one’s homeland from harm. god says in the holy quran surah al-nisa (4): 59, “o ye who believe! obey allah, and obey the messenger and those charged with authority among you” (ali, 2008). included in the obedience to ulil amr (government) is the duty to protect the state and defend against those who are hostile to it and seek to take over its lands. furthermore, when commenting on part of the verse that says “awikhrujū min diyārikum” (or to leave their homes) in surah al-nisa (4):66, al-zuhaily (1997) states that in those words, there is a symbol of love for the homeland and the people’s attachment to it, and god makes leaving a homeland comparable to suicide, making it difficult to migrate. therefore, loving and safeguarding a homeland is indeed regarded as noble by god. among the hadiths that may be understood as addressing the safeguarding of a nation is one narrated by muslim (2009), specifically no. 1852 from arfajah. he said that he heard the messenger of god say, “if anyone comes to you when you have taken oath to one person (as a leader), and he wants to break your unity or your congregation, then fight him!” muslim (2009) nur & susanto also narrates hadith no. 141 from sa'id bin zaid, where he says that he heard the messenger of god say, “whomever is killed when defending his property, he is martyred. whomever is killed when defending his religion, he is martyred. whomever is killed when defending his soul, he is martyred. whomever is killed when defending his family, he is martyred.” the first hadith instructs people to fight anyone who would seek to defy a legitimate and good government or disrupt people’s unity, whereas the second teaches us to defend our property, religion, soul, and family. thus, it may be concluded that safeguarding a nation and preventing it from disintegrating is deemed a noble endeavor. these hadiths, among many others, become the basis for protecting a state and its government from any action that may weaken it. regarding the ongoing social conflict in indonesia, throughout islamic history, there have been many examples of muslims living in harmony with various other religious groups. this can be seen in the medina charter, which dates back to 622 ce, almost six centuries before the english magna carta. this acted as a basis for a city state in the medieval city of medina, where the prophet and his companions lived alongside the jews. the prophet himself was a competent arbitrator, and he resolved conflicts on several occasions in mecca with a leadership quality that was missing in that area. the charter was therefore the first written constitution in islam and the first documented instance of constitutional law. it was arguably the first constitutional law in human society, and it acts as a historical example of how conflict resolution took place in the early years of islam (rahman, sami & memon 2008; yildirim, 2009). khashogi (2012) explains that the medina charter is a social construction that was established in the early history of islam under the direction of the prophet muhammad. this valuable written document is concrete proof of the egalitarian nature of islamic political practices, because it respected every human’s ethnicity, race, and religion and allowed people to live together in a society with principles of common responsibility and trust. patmawati (2016) adds that the charter was a consensus for managing various interests in a multi-ethnic, multi-racial, and multireligious society. research in both previous and contemporary studies positions the charter as indeed being a breakthrough achievement by the prophet. although it was written long ago, it is still applicable today, and it may be used as an inspirational source for establishing a plural community in which anyone may live peacefully. by employing the charter, the prophet successfully organized all the different ethnic and religious groups in medina, uniting them as journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 brothers and placing upon them the same obligation to defend the city of medina from any attack, whether from the outside or inside. the charter comprised many points that regulated the order of people’s lives in medina. applying this to what has been happening in indonesia, a state with the largest muslim population in the world, it would seem that some of these points would be appropriate for addressing the current situation. these are 1) fair and equal treatment for anyone without neglecting their unique identities, 2) promoting brotherhood among muslims and solidarity with non-muslims, 3) imposing a collective responsibility to safeguard society, and 4) recognizing and respecting the rights of non-muslims by a) ensuring security for all groups of people, b) protecting the political and cultural rights of non-muslims as much as those of muslims, c) allowing autonomy and freedom of religion, d) assuring no treachery between muslims and nonmoslems, and e) excusing non-muslims from participating the in religious fight of the muslims. thus, the medina charter presents a good source for addressing the questions that arise in this modern age of science and technology, such as how to live in peace and harmony and prevent and deal with conflicts and disputes between various groups of people that must live together in one state while comfortably practicing their diverse cultures and beliefs. it sets a superb example that is direly needed, and it should be emphasized, discussed, and referred to in the current conflicts plaguing many places, including indonesia. in summary, the charter represent the best model for upholding dialogues in a plural society and building and maintaining political and social interaction among diverse groups of people. the context of ḍaruriyyāt, ḥifẓ al-dawlah (safeguarding the nation) is very appropriate for inclusion, because islam requires muslims to have a state that rules them with god’s revealed law, one that propagates islamic messages to humans. in other words, such a state deals with islamic affairs, and people believe in it as part of their faith and system of life. according to alqaradawi, an islamic state is “a state based on faith and thought.” he states four objectives for an islamic government: 1) it does not aim to control people but rather preserve and protect them. 2) it fulfills sits owners’ trust. 3) it upholds justice for all of humanity. 4) it strengthens religion on earth as the most important objective by establishing creed and islamic law and implementing the law and its messages (abdullah, 2017). indeed, islam has guaranteed this right, so it has asserted that establishing an islamic state is a farḍu kifāyah (collective obligation), and it is one of the biggest and greatest obligations among those indicated in the sharī‘ah texts. nur & susanto conclusion radicalism, terrorism, and conflicts have occurred throughout indonesia’s history, especially since political reform. the high number of incidents is causing the disintegration of indonesia, and its people need to search for and apply concepts to avoid further declines in national integrity. this study reveals that one solution offered by islam is that of preserving the state according to islamic rules. an islamic state that adopts the universal values embodied in the medina charter, as well as other islamic values, and is governed under the principle of employing maqāṣid sharī‘ah should encourage the safeguarding of the nation from further disintegration. this concept could be applied when the country is already in an emergency situation. however, further studies probing new concepts for safeguarding a nation’s unity, sovereignty, and integrity are very much needed and encouraged. acknowledgment the study was self-funded, but we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the librarians at the iain tulungagung, east java for their tireless and time-consuming assistance in providing materials (e.g., books, journals, magazines, etc.) during our research. references ah, amin, m. (2012), “bangunan baru epistemologi keilmuan studi hukum islam dalam merespon globalisasi“ [the new structure of scientific epistemology on islamic law studies in responding the globalization].asy-syir’ah, 46(2): 1-65. available on: https://www.academia.edu/5868526/artikel_prof._m._amin_abdullah_m.a_pada_jurn al _asy-syirah_vol_46_no_2_desember_2012 [accessed on feb 1, 2020] abdullah, sr.(2017), “tujuan negara dalam islam menurut yusuf al-qaradhawi“ [the objectives of islamic state according to yusuf al-qaraḍawi].asy-syari’ah, 19(1): 15-36, doi: 10.15575/as.v19i1.4134. a'la, a.(2007), “konflik kekerasan; antara politisasi agama, etnisitas, dan politik kekuasaan” [conflict of violence: in the midst of politicization of religion, ethnicity, and politics of power]. paramedia,8(3). available on: http:///www.id.portalgaruda.org/index.php?ref= browse&mod=viewarticle&article=38628 [accessed on jan 29, 2020]. ali, abdullah yusuf. (2008),the meaning of the holy qur’an. maryland, usa : amana corporation, isbn-10: 0915957329, isbn-13: 978-0915957323. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 auda, jasser,. (2008), maqashid shariah as philosophy of islamic law: a systems approach.london:iiit, isbn: 978–1–56564–425–0. awwas, is. ed., (2001),risalah kongres mujahidin dan penegakan syari'ah islam.[the treatise of the mujahedeen congress and the establishment of islamic law].yogyakarta: wihdah press. bagir, za, cholil, s, saputro, e,asyhari, b,rahayu, m, and dwipayana, aagna. (2011), laporan tahunan kehidupan beragama di indonesia 2010 [annual report on religious life in indonesia 2010]. yogyakarta: crcs-ugm, isbn: 978-602-96257-2-1. available on: https:///www.crcs.ugm.ac.id/download/laporan-tahunan-kehidupan-beragama-diindonesia -2010. [accessed on feb 26, 2020]. bbc editor, the. (2001),“horrors of borneo massacre emerge.” bbc news, feb 27.available on:http:///www.news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1191865.stm.[accessed on jan 20, 2020]. bbc editor, the. (2004), “indonesia flashpoints: kalimantan.” bbc news, , june 28. available on: http:///www. news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3811219.stm. [accessed on jan 20, 2020]. beckett, g. h., & kobayashi, m. (2020). a meta-study of an ethnographic research in a multicultural and multilingual community: negotiations, resources, and dilemmas. american journal of qualitative research, 4(1), 85106. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8267 budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 calderon berumen, f. (2019). resisting assimilation to the melting pot:. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 81-95. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.7 carter, e. (2018),“right-wing extremism/radicalism: reconstructing the concept.” journal of political ideologies 23(2):157-182,doi: 10.1080/13569317.2018.1451227. compilation team, the, (2010), laporan kebebasan beragama/ berkeyakinan dan toleransi [report on the freedom of religion and tolerance]. jakarta: the wahid institute, available on: http:///.www.wahidinstitute.org/wiid/images/upload/dokumen/full_report_annual_wi _2010.pdf.[accessed on jan 28, 2020]. creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. 4th ed. new jersey: pearson education, inc. darolia, l. (2020). "he’s on fire for justice!”: using critical conversations to explore sociopolitical topics in elementary classrooms. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 elgenius, g. and rydgren, j. (2018), “frame of nostalgia and belonging: the resurgence of ethno-nationalism in sweden.” european societies: the official journal of the european sociological association,1-20. issn: 1461-6696 (print) 1469-8307 (online). published https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8267 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.7 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 nur & susanto online july 19, 2018, doi:10.1080/14616696.2018.[accessed on feb 2, 2020]. fealy, g and hooker, v. (eds.). (2006), voices of islam in southeast asia: a contemporary sourcebook. singapore: iseas,isbn 981-230367-7. ferris, e. (2019). lessons of policing and exclusion. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 25-43. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.2 furnivall, js. ([1939], 2010), netherlands india: a study of plural economy. cambridge: cambridge university press, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511707964.003 al-ghazali, abu hamid, (2018),al-mustaṣfā min ‘ilm al-uṣūl. translated and edited by azm. hammad, al-mustashfa min ‘ilm al-uṣūl: on legal theory of moslem jurisprudence. carolina: createspace independent publishing platform,isbn-10: 1984129899, isbn-13: 978-1984129895. hamdi, az. (2012), “klaim religious authority dalam konflik sunni-syi' i sampang madura” [the religious authority’s claims on the sunny-shiite conflict in sampang, madura]. islamica 6(2):215-231,doi: 10.15642/islamica.2012.6.2.215-231. hanafi, h. (2000), islam in the modern world: religion, ideology, and development. cairo: dar keeba, available on:http:///www.lib.sadra.ac.id/opac/index.php?p=showdetail&id=3645.[accessed on feb 10, 2020]. haqan, a. (2018), “rekonstruksi maqasid al-syari’ah jasser auda” [the reconstruction of jasser auda’s maqasid al-syari’ah]. jurnal pemikiran dan ilmu keislaman 1(1):135-152, available on: http:///www.jurnal.instika.ac.id/index.php/jpik/article/view/72. [accessed on feb 23, 2020]. hasani, i and naipospos, bt. (eds.). (2010), negara menyangkal: kondisi kebebasan beragama/berkeyakinan di indonesia [the state denies: the condition of the freedom of religion in indonesia]. jakarta: pustaka masyarakat setara, isbn: 978-602-99042-1-5. hassan, z. and rahman, mza. (2008), wanita sebagai calon pilihan raya [women as candidates in general election]. kuala lumpur: utusan publications & distributors, isbn: 978-967-61-2123-1. ibn ‘ashur, muhammad thahir, (2001), maqāṣid al-sharī'ah al-islāmiyyah [the purposefulnesss of islamic law]. jordan: dar al-nafais. ibn muqaffa, (1960), al-adāb al-ṣaghīr wa al-adāb al-kabīr wa risālah al-ṣaḥābah [the little and big ethics and the message of companions]. beirut: maktabah al-bayan. ibnu rushd, (1985), bidāyah al-mujtahid wa nihāyah al-muqtaṣid [the starting of an intellectual exerciser and the ending of an intender], beirut: dar al-fikr. ibn taymiyyah, (1986), minhāj al-sunnah al-nabawiyyah [the way of the prophet’s tradition]. vol. 1, riyadh-ksa: maktabah al-riyadh al-haditsah. al-jawziyah, ibn al-qayyim, (1973), i`lān al-muwaqqi’īn an-rabb al-‘ālamīn [signs of realities of god of the universe]. vol. 3,beirut: dar al-jil. jones, ws. (1997), the logic of international relations. 8th ed.london: longman, isbn-13: 978-0673524782, isbn-10: 0673524787. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.2 http://www.jurnal.instika/ journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 151-173 al-juwayni, imam al-haramain, (2006), ghiyāth al-umam fi iltiyāth al-ẓulm [helping people in shackling tyranny].1st ed.,alexandria-egypt: dar al-aqîdah. khallaf, abd al-wahhab. (1988), al-siyāsah al-shar'iyyah fi al-syuūn al-dustūriyyah wa alkharijiyyah wa al-māliyyah [islamic politics in the constitutional, foreign, and treasury affairs]. kuwait: dar al qalam. khashogi, lr. (2012), “konsep ummah dalam piagam madinah” [the concept of ummah in the medina charter]. in right: jurnal agama dan hak azazi manusia 2(1): 93-116. available on:http://www.ejournal.uinsuka.ac.id/syariah/inright/article/download/1234/1064.[accessed on feb 19, 2020]. krippendorff, k. (2004). content analysis: an introduction to its methodologies (2nd ed.) london, english; new delhi, india: sage publications, inc. krynski, a. (2019). in a state of fragility: the compromised dignity of communities, indignation, and the incapacitation of public education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.1 al-khatib, muhammad al-syarbini, (2008), al-iqnā' fī hill al-alfāz abi shujā' [figuring out the statements of abi shuja’], vol. 1, beirut: dar al-kutub. maulidi. (2015). “maqasid syari’ah sebagai filsafat hukum islam: sebuah pendekatan sistem menurut jasser auda” [maqāṣid al-sharī'ahas the islamic law philosophy: a system approach according to jasser auda]. al-madzahib3(1):1-19. available on: http:///www..ejournal.uin-suka.ac.id/syariah/almazahib/article/view/1377/1198.[accessed on march 3, 2020]. missbach, antje. (2009), “review: michelle ann miller: rebellion and reform in indonesia– jakarta’s security and autonomy policies in aceh.”journal of current southeast asian affairs 28(4):144-151.doi:10.1177/186810340902800409. mubarak, z, (2002), genealogi islam radikal di indonesia [the genealogy of radical islam in indonesia]. jakarta: lp3es, isbn : 9793330716, 9789793330716. mudde, c, (2007), populist radical right parties. cambridge: cambridge university press, isbn-10: 0-521-85081-9, isbn-13: 978-0-521-85081-0. muis, j and immerzeel, t. (2017),“causes and consequences of the rise of populist radical right parties and movements in europe.” current sociology review65(6): 909-930. doi:10.1177/0011392117717294. muslim, imam. (2009), sahih muslim:sayings and doings of the prophet(saw). new delhi: idara impex, isbn-10: 8171013554, isbn-13: 978-8171013555. patmawati, (2016), “inter-religious relations in the period of prophet muhammad” al-albab 5(2):175-193. doi:10.24260/alalbab.v5i2.354. potter, j. and wetherell, m. (1987), discourse and social psychology: beyond attitudes and behaviour. london: sage, isbn : 0-8039-8056-6, 978-0-8039-8056-3. al-qaradawi, yusuf, (2011), al-siyāsah al-shar‘iyyah fī ḍaw’i nuṣuṣ al-sharī'āt wa maqāṣiduhā [islamic politic in the light of legal texts and its purposefulnesss]. 4th ed., cairo: maktabah wahbah. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.1 http://www..ejournal.uin-suka.ac.id/ nur & susanto al-raishuni, a, (1995), naẓariyyāt al-maqāṣid ‘ind al-imām al-shaṭibi [analyzing the maqāṣid of imam shatibi]. virginia: the international institute of islamic thought (iiit). rahman, fn, sami, kand memon, f. (2008). “the medina charter and just peacemaking theory.” research journal of political science., vol. 4 :196-203.available on: http:///www.academia.edu/22161947/medina _charter_and_just_peacemaking_theory.[accessed on march 5, 2020]. rauf, ifa. (2015).. defining islamic statehood: measuring and indexing contemporary muslim states, 1st ed., london: palgrave macmillan uk, doi:10.1057/9781137446824. rydgren, j, (2017),“radical right wing parties in europe: what’s populism got to do with it?” journal of language and politics 16(4):485-495.doi: 10.1075/jlp.17024.ryd. al-salam, izzuddin ibn ‘abd, (1998). qawāid al-aḥkām fi masāliḥ al-anām [theorems of law for the human benefits].2nd ed.,beirut: muassasat al-rayyan. shanthi, a, lee, kw and lajium, d. (2015). “discourse analysis as a qualitative approach to study information sharing practice in malaysian board forums.” international journal on e-learning practices. 2,159-169. available on:http://www.scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster= 2077774103861318151&hl=en&oi=scholarr. [accessed on jan 15, 2020]. al-shaṭibi, abu ishaq, (1997),al-muwāfaqātfi uṣūl al-sharī'ah [approvals in the fundamentals of islamic law]. vol. 2. cairo: muhammad musthofa. shaw, seand bailey, j. (2009). “discourse analysis: what is it and why is it relevant to family practice?” family practice 26(5):413–419, doi:10.1093/fampra/cmp038 smith, mg, (1965).the plural society in the british west indies. berkeley and los angeles: university of california press. available on:http:///www.cifas.us/smith/books.htm. [accessed on jan 25, 2020]. al-tahhan, mahmud, (1979).taysīr musṭalah al-hadīth [simplifying the terms of hadith]. 8th ed., beirut: dar al-qalam al-karim. taj, abd al-rahman, (1994).al-siyāsah al-shar'iyyah wa al-fiqh al-islāmi [the islamic politics and jurisprudence]. cairo: al-azhar university press. visser, m, lubbers, m, kraaycamp, g, and jaspers, e. (2014):, “support for radical left ideologies in europe.” european journal of political research, 53: 541-558, doi: 10.1111/1475-6765.12048. wetherell, m, taylor, s, and yates,s.(eds.).(2001).discourse as data: a guide for analysis. london : sage in association with open university press, isbn 0‐7619‐7158‐0. yildirim, y.(2009). “the medina charter: a historical case of conflict resolution.”islam and christian–muslim relations20(4):439-450.doi: 10.1080/09596410903194894. al-zuhaily, wahbah. (1997), al-munīr fī al-‘aqīdah wa al-sharī'ah wa al-manhāj [the enlightenment in creed, law, and way of life]. damascus: dar al-fikr al-mu'ashir. http://www.scholar.google.com/ http://www.cifas.us/smith/books.htm https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410903194894 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3),24-49 24 integrating primary sources, artifacts, and museum visits into the primary years program inquiry curriculum in an international baccalaureate elementary setting sarah a. coppersmith1 & kim h. song2 abstract questions remain about inquiry instruction, while research confirms that using primary sources can aid students’ inquiry learning processes. this study questioned: “how do second-grade teachers at an international baccalaureate organization/ibo language immersion setting incorporate inquiry methods in instructional practices?”; “how does training in the use of primary sources, artifacts, and museum visits shape second-grade teachers’ instructional practice?” a library of congress teaching with primary sources grant supported this university-school social studies partnership, which accessed artifacts, primary sources, and a national archives and museum. data sources in this mixed methods study were from the sampi inquiry observation instrument, interviews, and observations in french and spanish language settings. analysis revealed teachers incorporating inquiry learning via museum/archives visits and using primary sources in a study of the history and geography of the french and spanish colonial fur trade era. results revealed a subsequent integration of primary sources and learning kits in the immersion school network’s ongoing inquiry curriculum design process. keywords: primary sources, social studies, history, inquiry learning; ibo/international baccalaureate organization, primary years program/pyp introduction inquiry learning is a well-known and respected method in education, yet many teachers around the world still do not employ inquiry methods in instruction (lawson, 2010). highly important in the social studies, inquiry now plays a pivotal role in the c3 framework (college, career, and civic life) of the national council for the social studies (pellegrino & kilday, 2013). yet, often teachers are unaware of how to implement inquiry teaching and learning (howes, lim & campos, 2009). wells (1999) suggests that inquiry should be positioned within the school curriculum, and the teacher plays an important role in complying with the curriculum and setting up this orientation in the classroom. therefore, this research describing how teachers 1 asst. prof, university of missouri-st. louis, coppersmiths@umsl.edu 2 assoc. prof, university of missouri-st. louis, songk@umsl.edu mailto:coppersmiths@umsl.edu mailto:songk@umsl.edu coppersmith & song and students overcome hurdles and use inquiry-based processes in their curricula and classrooms adds an essential dimension of understanding to the world-wide emphasis on inquiry in education. this study provides evidence from an inquiry-oriented language immersion network’s second-grade setting which uses an international baccalaureate inquiry curriculum called the primary years program of inquiry (pyp). this research reports how the second-grade french and spanish language immersion network integrated an emphasis on social studies via primary sources and museum/archives visits to support the network’s inquiry curriculum to develop investigations into the historic french and spanish colonial fur trade in their region. the purpose of this study was to examine second-grade teachers’ use of inquiry methods, primary sources, museum visits, and objects in their instructional practice at an elementary language immersion charter school setting implementing the primary years programme of inquiry (pyp) early grades curriculum. historically, “charter schools were established in the usa in 1993” (tarman, 2016, p. 88) and this charter school network’s pyp curriculum was set forth by the international baccalaureate organization (ibo) which designs educational programs and curricular frameworks globally (ibo, 2010). the curriculum focus for the ibo primary years programme is inquiry learning, and this school network has followed an inquiry planning template for developing the curriculum since its opening in 2009. how do the ibo goals for developing inquirers actually play out within elementary social studies; does the teachers’ use of primary source documents, within an inquiry-based school setting, inspire student-generated questioning? answering this main query within a setting that operates in an inquiry curriculum adds important knowledge for understanding the use of inquiry in elementary educational settings worldwide. literature review defining inquiry inquiry and inquiry learning have been defined in a variety of ways over the past century, and with the assortment of definitions “the reader is left to create his or her own images of what constitutes this form of teaching” (anderson, 2007, p. 3). minner et al. (2009) maintain that the focus on constructivism in the 1900s became “particularly prominent in science education through the focus on inquiry” (minner, levy, century, 2009, p. 476) and audet and jordan journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 (2005) agree that inquiry is “most commonly associated with science” (p. 6). in this study, the term constructivism is defined within a social constructivist approach which “emphasizes the interdependence of social and individual processes in the co-construction of knowledge” with the goal of understanding learning within a social environment (palincsar, 1998, p.345). edelson, gordon, and pea (1999) succinctly refine the definition of inquiry as the “pursuit of open questions” and remind us that “inquiry is active” (p. 393). the definition of inquiry doesn’t end with science, because inquiry is an important theme in learning in all manner of subjects. levstik and barton (2005) have defined inquiry as “the process of asking meaningful questions, finding information, drawing conclusions, and reflecting on possible solutions” (p. 16). moving through the definitions, we see the importance of student questioning as a basis for the inquiry process; the working definition of inquiry for this research is “a process of learning which begins with, preferably, student-generated questions”. inquiry and primary sources within social studies, barton and levstik (2004) related the challenges when attempting to engage students in historical inquiries while using primary sources; their research showed that students needed to engage with their own questioning for learning to be meaningful. they offer: “the critical task for the teacher is to help students develop questions that lead them toward inquiries that are meaningful and significant” (barton & levstik, 2004, p. 200). they argue that “primary sources can play two important roles in inquiry-oriented history education. first, they can inspire perplexity...... and second, to provide evidence that answers our questions about the past” (barton & levstik, 2004, p. 202). levstik and barton, (2008) contend that …although impressive achievements have been made in examining the content of students’ ideas in fields such as mathematics and science, research on their knowledge and understanding of history is still in the early stages – particularly at the elementary level” (p.159). primary sources can be accessed now more easily than ever (mauch & tarman, 2016), and be used as tools to prompt student inquiries. teachers should be supported with additional training in how to incorporate technology into social studies (kilinç et al, 2016), and now the library of congress offers training and online supports via technology for using primary sources in social studies teaching. this study adds to the area of elementary social studies learning via inquiry with primary sources, museum visits, and artifacts during a library of congress teaching with coppersmith & song primary sources (loc tps) funded collaborative project as well as adding to the knowledge base on how inquiry learning is practiced this way in a language immersion context. inquiry and historical thinking levstik and barton’s (2011) studies revealed that children as young as six were capable of engaging in historical thinking. when personal linkages were made, connecting to family histories or allowing children to interpret historic photographs, children could indeed learn history in the first grade (levstik & barton, 2011). levstik and barton (2011) found that visual images played an important role when children learn history, which was based on an epistemology of historical/temporal ways of knowing, and children have “multiple and parallel constructions” of time, not simple, separate understandings (levstik & barton, 2008, p.63). thus, they can understand concepts such as “close to now”, “long ago” and “really long ago” (levstik & barton, 2011, p.98). building on levstik and barton’s work (1996), fallace, briscoe and perry (2007) found that second-graders develop historical ideas at a variety of rates, yet their ideas are not yet solid or comprehensive, so additional studies at this grade level are beneficial. several sources disprove the prior assumption about young children’s inability to learn history (vansledright, 2004b). elementary students can practice some of the work of historians by using primary sources and by examining and questioning the various perspectives represented in the sources. historians use historical thinking when analyzing an assortment of evidence to piece together stories (vansledright, 2004a). learning to question evidence requires skill in using inquiry processes and historical thinking, by both historians and elementary students alike. teachers and students need to use historical thinking and to understand history (“history literacy”) (bickford iii, 2017, p. 180). while there has been a recent focus on using primary sources in teaching (mauch & tarman, 2016), there is a need for improved professional development for teachers to learn how to effectively participate in historical thinking in order to engage students in authentic historical inquiries (cowgill & waring, 2017) to effectively learn history. inquiry, language, and the ibo there is no current research on using primary sources in the ibo pyp language immersion setting to study the french and spanish fur trade era in the u.s., though there are a few studies on the ibo pyp that inform this work. twigg’s (2010) qualitative study reviewed an ibo school’s “culture of inquiry” in an ibo school in turkey (p. 51) and describes challenges journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 teachers face meeting requirements for inquiry within the curriculum in the ibo pyp; the author calls for research in other pyp schools to look more closely at inquiry learning in those situations (twigg, 2010). looking at inquiry learning in ibo settings, hartland (2006), notes that inquiry is understood theoretically but not often in a practical way within classroom settings. hartland (2006) uncovered one teacher and her students working around the difficulties of switching from teacher-centered to student-centered questioning, yet this project focused on the work of one teacher. no mixed methods research exists on inquiry within the ibo pyp within french and spanish language immersion settings using primary sources. this research is situated in the theoretical framework of the study of history learning with young children (vansledright, 2004b) based in a constructivist system (palincsar, 1998) appropriating inquiry methods within social studies, in an ibo language-school structure (pozuelos et al, 2010). constructivism, in this project, was the framework used at the school to allow teachers to help students “participate in the research processes” (çalışkan, 2015, p. 50), explore and communicate in a student-centered environment (çalışkan, 2015). methodology the project operated during the 2010-2011 school year with a partnership between the university, social studies methods course, a national park service archives and museum and the language immersion charter school (lics) second-grade french and spanish immersion schools network which offered kindergarten, first-grade, and second-grade. the network features spanish and french via full language immersion which means that the teachers and students use the immersion languages all day. the network is located in an old building in an urban neighborhood serving a mix of about 50% african-american students, 30% white, 10% hispanic, and 10% multi-ethnic or other. participants the purposeful sample (patton, 2002) was used as a result of the researcher’s involvement with the school through the university research group. a purposeful sampling method allows researchers to select the “most productive sample to answer the research questions” (marshall, 1996, p. 523). this purposeful sample (patton, 2002) included three second-grade teachers (one french immersion teacher, maxime, from france, and two spanish immersion teachers, calendaria and george, from the u.s.), one spanish teacher assistant, jose, coppersmith & song from spain, and one spanish student teacher, melinda, from the u.s. the participants were regularly involved with the university researchers on projects. an initial sample of three secondgrade teachers and one teacher assistant was selected. the sample expanded to include one student teacher mid-project by way of opportunistic/emergent sampling, offering the researcher “new opportunities during data collection” (patton, 2002, p. 240). the criteria for choosing these participants included their involvement in the library of congress teaching with primary sources project, where they received funding and training. the national archivist, along with the pre-service teachers and their instructor, (the researcher and principal investigator on the grant) led training and designed activities to accompany two learning resource kits featuring objects and replicas from the fur trade era, with books, digitized archival maps and clothing which are housed at the school and university international library. the focus on the french and spanish colonial history, set within a local geographic context, supported the school’s inquiry curriculum using the spanish and french language. the literature reviewed for this work was largely qualitative, from the important work of levstik and barton (2006) to vansledright (2004a) and others. barton (2008) noted that he “settled on interviews as our means for collecting data”, (p. 65). pozuelos, gonzalez, and canal de leon (2010) executed qualitative research to study inquiry internationally at two spanish primary schools. none of the studies mixed qualitative data with quantitative data to understand inquiry learning using primary sources in early elementary immersion classrooms, thus this mixed-methods study adds important knowledge to the field. research questions during the project, questions arose on how teachers employ inquiry methods as directed by the inquiry curriculum, enhanced by primary sources, supported by training and visits to an archive and museum, while using objects in a learning kit to support historical understanding. twigg’s (2010) research on inquiry learning with ibo teachers in turkey resulted in a plea for further research on inquiry in pyp schools. in response, this study explored the use of inquiry learning in pyp schools to inform elementary learning settings worldwide. if inquiry can be used as an organizing theme in the curriculum, (anderson, 2007) the researcher wondered what inquiry would look like in an elementary classroom operating within a school-wide curricular context based on inquiry learning. the two research questions that guide this study were: journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 1) how do second-grade teachers at an international baccalaureate organization/ibo language immersion setting incorporate inquiry methods in instructional practices? 2) how does training in the use of primary sources, artifacts, and museum visits shape second-grade teachers’ instructional practice? the design used in this mixed methods study to answer the research questions was the convergent (parallel/concurrent) design which allowed qualitative and quantitative data to be collected simultaneously to answer the research questions (creswell, 2012, p. 540). in this type of design, qualitative and quantitative data are collected concurrently, analyzed separately, and integrated in the final report. this design allowed collection of data in the school setting in the form of observations and interviews concurrently, and the timeframe was delineated based on the teachers’ schedules. in alignment with the convergent design, data collection and analysis are listed separately in this report, with data being triangulated, converged, and integrated in the integration section below. data related to the individual research questions are listed in the separate qualitative (interviews) and quantitative (sampi lesson observation) sections. data collection at the school, observation data included conventional observations with field notes at six professional development meetings in september and october, 2010, and six classroom inquiry observations from three classes (two per class) in november and may, 2010. field notes were recorded at planning meetings as the second-grade french and spanish teams worked to integrate the school’s pyp inquiry curricular goals with the project goals, at a primary sources training at the archives, and during the school museum visits. for the classroom inquiry observation, the researcher used the sampi lesson observation instrument. semi-structured interviews were conducted for each of the five participants to understand their viewpoints and to elicit the interviewee’s subjective ideas (flick, 2006). these multiple data sources were triangulated for deeper understanding (ivankova, creswell, & stick, 2006), to provide “more comprehensive evidence” (creswell, plano clark, 2007, p.18), to broaden understanding (creswell, 2009), and to allow “stronger inferences and divergent views” (teddlie & tashakkori, 2009, p. 33). interview protocol. using pre-identified questions helps maintain flexibility in the interview situation (merriam, 2009). interview questions were designed to address the research questions and interview times were arranged for the most convenient time for teachers. french coppersmith & song teacher maxime, spanish teacher george, spanish student teacher melinda and her supervisor calendaria were interviewed, as was teacher assistant jose. the five interviews were recorded in classrooms and lasted from 15 to 25 minutes each during the school day. the interview protocol included: 1. in your regular classes, not just this project, when and where do you see inquiry learning with your students? 2. how do you feel that the artifacts or the primary sources – that we talked about helped or hindered the students’ learning in that project? 3. has this project influenced student inquiry learning? if yes, then please explain how. 4. what are some of the challenges you face in having students being actively engaged in their own learning? sampi inquiry lesson observation system. sampi, (2003) tested and approved for reliability and validity, is a “comprehensive protocol for observing, analyzing and reporting data from observations in kindergarten through twelfth grade classrooms” (p. 3) designed by western michigan university to examine the use of classroom inquiry (p. 1). “on 120 sets of scores on all measures resulted in cronbach’s alpha .8769, and high (90 – 100%) interrater agreement” was found (sampi, 2003). this likert-based scale measures twenty-three items in five categories: lesson and classroom, planning and organization, lesson implementation, content and culture on a 7-point scale. to document each teacher’s inquiry practice, two observations in each of the three second-grade classrooms (n=6) were made to find mean scores using sampi criteria that are useful for assessing instructional practice (rudy, 2006). sampi data was collected in three second-grade classrooms in october and june during the 2010-2011 school year. times for observations were determined by each of the participants for when inquiry could be observed. observations ranged from 20 to 45 minutes. data were recorded for each lesson via means (from a likert-type scale, where ratings of 1-3 show “needs improvement”, 4-5 demonstrate “making important progress”, and 6-7 represents “well done” (sampi, 2003). sampi scale criteria are: 1. sampi lesson and classroom. 2. sampi planning and organization. 3. sampi lesson implementation. 4. sampi content. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 5. sampi culture. (sampi, 2003). field observations. field observations were made during six professional development meetings as participants worked to understand the primary years programme of inquiry to develop an inquiry learning unit incorporating museum and archives resources. data analysis in alignment with the convergent mixed methods design (creswell, 2012), qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed separately, and are reported separately, then integrated. in this type of analysis, both types of data strengthen the other, and are given “equal priority”, symbolized as qual + quan (creswell, 2012, p. 540). to illustrate one example, this design allowed different types of data to answer the research questions based on teachers’ reports of using inquiry in the classroom (qualitative) compared to actual classroom inquiry lesson observations (quantitative). the convergent mixed methods design allowed for collection of the data separately, and a convergence or triangulation of the data in the final phase. interview data analysis a preliminary examination of the data was accomplished with grounded theory data analysis, starting by “looking line-by-line” (strauss & corbin, 1998, p.57) permitting a “detailed analysis”, allowing researchers to focus on what is stated in each line (strauss & corbin, 1998, p. 57). from the initial analysis, a complete listing of concepts from the interviews was made. questions arose: “were all of the teachers saying similar things? how did participants’ views differ?” concept maps were designed for the developing ideas which supported a “detailed type of analysis” to “discover initial categories and discover relationships among concepts (strauss & corbin, 1998, p. 57). concept maps also supported axial coding (strauss & corbin, 1998, p. 126) by presenting a visual analysis of how categories “relate to each other” (p. 126), which allowed the next step of defining properties of the categories. the list of initial interview concepts was culled, categorized, and connected: “inquiry”, as “used by the teacher”; found “within instructional plans”; in the “pyp curriculum”; and as a tool for “generating questions”. the “inquiry process” emerged as “questioning”; within “instructional decision making”; in “learning activities”, and as having a range of “quality of questions”. the “learning process” was the first theme represented in the concept maps, with elements of a “timeframe” for learning, “thoughts and feelings” about; “teacher and student coppersmith & song interactions” as important within, and with “primary sources” used. another theme from the concept maps was the “learning kit” with elements of a “content focus” as important; with “student engagement” as related to;” museum visit/s” as part of, and “quantity of student questions” as another focus. interviewees revealed a range of inquiry learning and student conceptual development over time. axial coding noted how the categories “might relate to one another” (strauss & corbin, 1998, p. 126). from the themes, a category of “learning resource” arose, with the subcategories of learning tool kit, museum, and ‘resource provided by the teacher’. while inquiry was important in the social studies curriculum, the curriculum itself evolved as a category, with the subcategories of pyp, the subsequent curriculum (after the project), and content focus helping to detail the category further (table 1). teachers saw the inquiry process as important and believed in student-led questioning. the quantity of student questions was noted, as was when and how questions were generated. questions were related to student conceptual understanding, which varied over a range of levels. the main categories of teacher and student developed, with inquiry process as a subcategory of student, with properties and dimensions of questioning, conceptual understanding, engagement, and timeframe for inquiry being finally labeled. the inquiry process, thoughts and feelings, instructional plans, and personal learning were the subcategories developed under teacher in table 1. table 1 main categories and subcategories student teacher learning resource curriculum inquiry process inquiry process learning tool kit pyp level of learning thoughts and feelings museum subsequent inquiry curriculum demonstration of learning instructional plans provided or developed by the teacher content focus learning (teacher’s) teachers used the kit to spur inquiry thinking, such as at centers. teachers provided additional resources to support student understanding, via natural dyeing materials, student reading comprehension books in the target language, and clay for making osage village models. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 student social studies question topics ranged from geography to history to literacy. music from the kit enabled language practice and supported the pyp curriculum. thus, the subsequent categories of learning resource and curriculum were labeled, along with their properties of artifacts, support for inquiry utilized in learning activities, and properties of student engagement, support for inquiry, and conceptual connections. sampi lesson observations analysis to answer research question 1: “how do the second-grade teachers at the ibo school incorporate inquiry methods in their instructional practices”, quantitative data was collected in classrooms using the sampi observation instrument. the researcher received training on sampi, which has been tested and approved for reliability and validity. the twenty-three criteria on these measures were recorded for two observations for each of the three classroom teachers: learning interactions, lesson implementation, content, and classroom culture. mean scores were determined for each lesson (from a likert-type scale, where ratings of 1-3 show “needs improvement”, 4-5 demonstrate “making important progress”, and 6-7 represents “well done” (sampi, 2003) (appendix a). in addition, observation data from six meetings were examined for the themes and then related to the interview concepts: pyp, curriculum process, unit of inquiry and defining content concepts. interview and field observation data was analyzed alongside the sampi lesson observation instrument data from each classroom to compare, contrast, and integrate participant views and classroom inquiry practices to form a developing picture of inquiry learning supported by primary sources, museum visits and a learning kit in this unique setting. results interviews the interview protocol was designed to elicit the teacher’s perspective on student inquiry learning with the intent of later comparing perspectives with actual classroom inquiry observations using sampi (research question 1), and to learn how the primary sources training, use of artifacts and museum visits shaped their practice, (research question 2). after data analysis, results revealed that the interview data helped answer both research questions as noted in the following results. results showed that one teacher, george, reported that he observed his students using inquiry daily and he recognized student-generated inquiries as important. he implied that he and coppersmith & song the students have planned learning together. george shared that students frequently have a lot of inquiries themselves. this evidence explains the category of teacher and their role in the inquiry process. george described the inquiry learning process as having an instigation or genesis at a particular point in time. he said: “as soon as the topic comes up they have questions” and “when students can feel something it kinda sparks these questions, comparisons, and inquiries.” george saw inquiry on a continuum from the genesis of the idea, to focused questions to a quantity of questions to student responses to questions. this continuum of questioning was a dimension of the property of questioning, in the subcategory of inquiry process, under the larger category of student. teacher maxime mimicked this idea of inquiry instigation, or “provocation” from the pyp curriculum process: “we also start the inquiry with the pyp, with the provocation we call it” (m42). maxime provided evidence to answer research question 1: how do the second-grade teachers at the ibo school incorporate inquiry methods in instructional practices? maxime incorporated inquiry methods by using an inquiry starter to begin, directly within the pyp curricular framework. this gave evidence to the importance of the curriculum and the teachers’ use of the curriculum in supporting the inquiry process. george noted: “as soon as the topic comes up they have questions”, and he described the timing and process of inquiry as supported by the teacher: “they know it with a little supervision.” student questions often led to more inquiry and could even guide teacher preparation and planning. george showed his belief in student-centered inquiry: “you cannot think as a teacher, ok. well this is what they will learn and understand in this way.” this statement suggested that perhaps george tried this in his classroom in the past with limited success. george described the use of the learning tool kit as “sooo unbelievably helpful” and “the kit was awesome and we were able to integrate it into our centers.” he answered research question 2 regarding the use of the resources in instructional practice from their viewpoint. he not only integrated the resource into the curriculum, he designed centers’ learning stations to incorporate the kit materials and concepts. this explanation fit under the category learning resource. from maxime we also learned that the centers allowed children to demonstrate the knowledge gained, such as through sewing, writing, making tools and designing scripts for a play. this result was situated within the subcategory of ‘demonstration of learning’. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 george discussed a variety of student learning levels and challenges, however. the levels of student learning are explained further in the conceptual development property of the inquiry process below. melinda addressed the question on incorporating inquiry methods in instructional practices: “we take the pyp and we revolve everything around it except for math unless we can apply it to math. so, in the morning we have shared reading and in that we find a book that relates to the pyp and we read it as a class.” melinda’s interview showed the second-grade team using inquiry – they “revolve everything around it”, like when they “dyed hats” because the students had questions.... “...about how they dyed their clothes...and they said if sheep are white why are their indians’ clothes different colors?” “so that’s why we did the dyeing to show them that they used things from nature to dye their clothes.... we used fruits, blueberries, raspberries i think, coffee grounds, sweet potato...we boiled them for a while and then just dipped them in and let them dry. this gave further evidence to how teachers incorporate inquiry into their instructional planning and practice (research question 1) and relates to research question 2 about the use of the objects, artifacts and resources in their teaching – the learning kit contained some cloth and fibers dyed with osage orange tree fruits and local plants from the region. did the students and teacher have an inquiry provocation from observing the dyed materials in the learning kit? with melinda’s data we learned more about the assessments to demonstrate understanding, and also that calendaria, her supervisor, developed reading comprehension and assessment materials for each grade level with concepts from the project. this answered research question 2 on the use of the resources in teachers’ instructional practice. we found calendaria’s perspective: she desired to re-do this same unit next year; she enjoyed using the kit and ordered another learning kit for a subsequent unit (mammoth kit from south dakota), and she also observed different levels of student learning: “a lot of the kids may have come from another school where it’s pretty traditional, so it’s a different way of learning and some of the kids are really reluctant to try it.” student inquiry was also ignited by student-generated questions in calendaria’s room, beginning at the start of the day. calendaria said: “but very much when we are brainstorming at coppersmith & song the beginning, scaffolding, there’s a lot of inquiry there for introduction time.” to recapture levstik and barton’s (2005) definition, we know that inquiry learning is “the process of asking meaningful questions, finding information, drawing conclusions, and reflecting on possible solutions” (p. 19). this interview data supported the importance of student questioning as the origin of the inquiry process, which took place on a continuum, and included varieties of levels of learning. in addition, jose noted, “it wasn’t very right, you know”, regarding students’ initial ideas and misconceptions. he described a continuum of learning and conceptual development, from hypothesis generation to later understanding. this range of inquiry on a continuum is an important development found in the evidence. jose responded: “it’s about the questions they had before, their hypotheses...and then later when they know more they check if they were right or wrong.” the students grew in conceptual knowledge: “they drew the spanish and the french trading with the native americans...they definitely got that”, and their level of questioning progressed also “it’s not so much the why questions anymore, it’s the how; we go straight to those ‘how’ questions.” in these responses, data took the research to a richer level of understanding the dimensions of inquiry learning possible in second-grade. maxime shared “now we can actually combine two activities because their mind is more mature”, while melinda noted positively: “i think they’re becoming a little more pensive and a little more curious and asking these questions”; “it’s so much smoother now because they’ve been into it the first time.” students became more familiar with the learning and questioning process when the teachers involved them with the pyp curriculum for subsequent studies, yet learning was either helped or hindered by their reading level. “i think the major thing i see playing into that (challenges with inquiry) is reading level.... there are 3 levels; basic = need more help; next is on grade level = they know with a little supervision; last level can really take off, work independently, come up with great questions.” by sifting, defining, and connecting the elements, properties, and dimensions of inquiry, we better understand student inquiry in the content areas of history, geography and reading as they were intertwined. student queries give a glimpse into cognitive processes such as when we learn “they had a lot of questions about that (fur trade)”; “they had a lot of questions about the indians and their way of life (houses and food).” “one of the best questions was if the indians used wool why were their clothes colorful? so, when we did research on how they colored journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 clothes; we actually dyed cloth.” this spoke to the importance the teachers placed on student questions and showed that learning activities could be developed as a result of student-generated questions. the evidence also confirmed levstik and barton’s (2005) assessment that when early elementary grade students are allowed opportunities by their teachers to make connections with their own personal lives, they are able to engage with history learning. the evidence for this were the students’ questions on the patterns of clothing, homes, and food use by the osage in their region, relating the ideas of everyday living to a different culture and to a distant time in the past. the fact that the students’ questioning led to the teacher’s instructional plan which included a subsequent hands-on activity to help answer their questions cannot be understated. many teachers are continually unaware of how to implement inquiry teaching and learning (howes, lim, & campos, 2009). the process of student questioning was also initiated through using resources and artifacts from the learning tool kit. as maxime related, “it’s absolutely essential, it’s the props – it’s what we need; that’s you know what the heart of everything – so we had many different afternoons which were of pure observation – of what the artifacts were – so we let them first, you know, observe what they were and ask questions as to why we were showing that...and that triggered a lot of questions”. jose, from spain, offered a glimpse of the teachers’ own learning in the project “for me, i learned an awful lot; i didn’t know the history.”. this supported the social constructivist approach which “emphasizes the interdependence of social and individual processes in the coconstruction of knowledge” with the goal of understanding learning within a social environment (palincsar, 1998, p.345). teachers and students worked together to allow the inquiry process to develop: “it was all because of them...they came up with it and then we went with it”. it seemed teachers and students both were simultaneously engaged in inquiry learning in this project. sampi data the researcher visited each of the three second-grade classrooms twice using the sampi lesson observation instrument. each sampi scale was recorded for the 45 to 60-minute lessons. from the data tables for each sampi observation for each participant, ratings of high and low were culled for reporting. ratings of 1-3 show “needs improvement”, 4-5 demonstrate “making important progress”, and 6-7 represents “well done” (sampi, 2003). a snapshot of coppersmith & song relevant scores is listed here. lesson times were selected by the teacher for observing inquiry learning. the lesson and classroom scale showed that maxime organized the classroom for learning centers on a variety of subjects, and for the planning and organization scale maxime received a score in the “well done” category for classroom resources. one language lesson was not organized to provide substantive teacher-student interaction, though one lesson was, and showed evidence of students asking questions. investigative tasks were evident in one lesson, with students focused, prepared and working. maxime’s lessons received the highest mean score (7) for confidence of the instructor, lesson pacing, worthwhile content, teacher knowledge, connection to other lessons and “students encouraged to participate”. her lowest scores (4, 4.5) were in lesson wrap-up and the use of abstractions. scores in the 6 to 6.5 category (“well done”) were evident in the other categories. maxime’s lessons did not have any scale measures in the “needs improvement” category. george’s room arrangement was in the “making important progress” category and there were adequate classroom resources (6 on the scale), however one lesson was teacher-directed with a call and response pattern used and no investigative tasks evident. the next lesson did allow for some teacher-student interaction but not student-to-student interaction during investigative tasks. george rated high (7) on: confidence of the instructor, lesson pacing, worthwhile content, and teacher knowledge. george’s lowest mean score (2) in the ‘needs improvement’ area was in student interactions, and next, with a 3.5 in teacher and student interactions. these scores can be compared to george’s high score of 6.5 in students collaborate and students and teacher collaborate a different measure than student interactions which reflects more of a focus on conversation around ideas and communicating than on helping and collaborating on a task. so, while students showed respect for each other and the teacher (mean score 6.5), student interactions showed room for improvement. calendaria rated high for room arrangement facilitating student interactions and an organized lesson to provide substantive teacher-student interactions and student to student interactions, though investigative tasks were not evident during these particular lessons. calendaria’s high mean scale scores (7) were on: lesson pacing, content worthwhile, students engaged with ideas, teacher knowledge, connection to other lessons, students encouraged to participate, and teachers and students collaborate. her lowest score was in connection to other journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 subjects and real-world applications, though these scores were in the making important progress range. sampi data showed teachers arranged the learning environment for student-centered learning, leading students through cooperative investigative tasks. evidence also portrayed a need for improving student to student interactions and offering time for extended substantive conversations between students and between the teacher and the student. field observations data analysis of field observations revealed that after participating in pyp professional development at the archives/museum, the second-grade team adapted these ibo pyp concepts for their unit: ‘where we are in place and time” with ‘relationships between, and the interconnectedness of individuals and civilizations, from local and global perspectives”. teachers struggled to develop the pyp unit, but saw the inquiry process as important and believed in student-led learning through questioning. teachers discussed the quantity and conceptual level of student questions, when and how questions were generated, and used the resource kit and museum archives materials to spur inquiry. after museum and archives visits and training in the use of primary sources, teachers designed and provided additional resources, such as natural dyeing materials, reading comprehension books in the study language, and clay for making osage village models. music from the resource kit enabled students to practice language skills, supported by the pyp unit. coppersmith & song image 1. from teacher-designed booklet to support the fur trade curriculum unit. data integration and implications the qualitative data was compared, contrasted, converged, and integrated with the quantitative data for interpretation (creswell & plano clark, 2011, creswell, 2012). sampi supported the interview data to answer the research questions (teddlie & tashakkori, 2009). field observations aided interpretation by situating teachers’ aims in the museum and classroom context; teachers’ goals included understanding pyp requirements and determining ways to embed this project’s goals into that curriculum, answering research question 2. classroom observations with sampi informed of teachers’ progress in implementing student-centered inquiry strategies in instruction, answering research question 1, supporting the semi-structured interviews and field observations data. the results also demonstrated that the participants:  valued student-generated inquiries and planned learning together with the students.  identified the genesis of the inquiry learning process by saying: “as soon as the topic comes up they have questions” “when students can feel something it kinda sparks these questions, comparisons and inquiries.”. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49  explained inquiry on a continuum from the genesis of the idea, to focused questions, to a quantity of questions to student response to questions.  utilized primary sources and objects to spur inquiry, such as osage and french structures (loc, 2010), and replicas of osage and french clothing and fur trade items.  used museum and archives visits and the learning kit to support the inquiry process during the development of the curriculum.  based curricular planning on student ideas and questions generated from the museum visit and subsequent use of primary sources, such as when they did natural dyeing based on student questions after viewing museum and archive images... “about how they dyed their clothes...and they said ‘if sheep are white why are the indians’ clothes different colors’?” “so that’s why we did the dyeing...we used fruits, blueberries, raspberries i think, coffee grounds, sweet potato...”  said students became more familiar with the inquiry questioning process (for subsequent curricular units).  admitted that they learned along with the students: “for me, i learned an awful lot; i didn’t know the history.”  could extend learning to support student interactions to ignite substantive conversation and questioning. teachers’ high sampi scores on ‘providing worthwhile content’,’ making connection to other lessons’, and ‘encouraging students to participate’ may relate to their understanding of inquiry processes learned in the professional development meetings at the archives and museum, the training in using primary sources, and saturation with the historic content. calendaria’s high score on ‘encouraging students to participate’, and ‘teachers and students collaborate’ was evidenced through allowing students to take the lead in the learning process after questioning about clothing dyes and subsequent natural dyeing activities, as well as her design of leveled, illustrated reading booklets about the osage, in spanish, and her provision of french explorer’s caps and shirts copied from authentic replicas, knitted and sewn by a family member. the use of objects and primary sources, provided by a teacher newly trained in the use of primary sources and objects to spur historical questioning, led to second-grade student inquiry and engagement. to review, maxime exclaimed that the learning kit was “absolutely essential” to student learning in the classroom, thus we see the importance of the learning kit, containing fur-trade era coppersmith & song objects, books, and laminated copies of primary sources (maps, images) to the learning process (appendix b). when asked to describe challenges teachers stated: “it was hard for the students...to make a relation about (it) or “it was very surprising for them to know that this happened here in this area.” the range of data allowed us to see the challenges inherent in the process. contributions include an understanding of inquiry in second-grade immersion classrooms, and how the teacher-designed pyp unit has been incorporated into the official curriculum for coming years. additional grades now use primary sources and museum kits in the pyp instructional design process. teachers note: “they’re familiar with the questions, and they form the same questions but now at different levels”. inquiry learning is “the process of asking meaningful questions, finding information, drawing conclusions, and reflecting on possible solutions” (levstik & barton, 2005, p. 19). this research transports us from the current knowledge that inquiry is important to an understanding that museum visits and primary sources can be used to support early grades in developing historical inquiries. in addition, primary sources sanction second-grade students’ use of inquiry skills within a primary years programme of inquiry in language immersion contexts. simultaneously, teachers grew in their own historical literacy (bickford iii, 2017) as they learned about their region and led students in constructivist (palincsar, 1998; çalışkan, 2015) historical inquiries (cowgill & waring, 2017) in the research process (çalışkan, 2015, p. 50). we know that inquiry learning is “the process of asking meaningful questions, finding information, drawing conclusions, and reflecting on possible solutions” (levstik & barton, 2005, p. 19). we saw the importance of student questioning as a basis for the inquiry process, and we saw inquiry as a process on a continuum beginning with student-led questioning. this study illustrated how teachers incorporated socials studies inquiry learning supported by resources. students’ inquiry skills improved, as noted by maxime “they’re familiar with the questions, and they form the same questions but now at different levels” (m165); students became familiar with asking questions and were able apply the same cognitive process to subsequent learning situations but at a more advanced level. “so now when we do it (inquiry) we get much more relevant questions”. while calendaria liked the project, she noted that “it was stretched out too long”, yet maxime exclaimed (that the learning kit) was “absolutely essential” to student learning in the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 classroom. the positive and negative views gave credence to teachers’ ability to answer questions honestly. in describing challenges, teachers noted that some students did not understand the process: “we had students saying ‘why am i doing this’?”, or they had a hard time initially “it was hard for the students...to make a relation about (it). “it was very surprising for them to know that this happened here in this area.” the array of data allowed the honest interpretation in these findings. unexpected outcomes included learning of students’ conceptual development and inquiries over time, different levels of student-led learning, and a variety of levels of student engagement in the ibo pyp setting. practitioners, including teacher educators and k-12 educators, will be able to use these results to inspire inquiry learning supported by primary sources, artifacts, and museum visits within the curriculum beginning in early grades. hartland, (2006) notes there is research on the theoretical basis for inquiry learning but “very little research on the practicality of using such theories and approaches in the classroom” (p. 5). this research answers that demand and adds knowledge to inform practices for improving inquiry learning in settings as diverse as our local school immersion network all the way to ibo schools worldwide. references anderson, r.d. (2007). inquiry as an organizing theme. in s.k. abell & n.g. lederman (eds.), handbook of research on science education. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates, inc. audet, r. h., & jordan, l. k. (2005). integrating inquiry across the curriculum. thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. barton, k. & levstik, l. s. (1996). “back when god was around and everything”: the development of children’s understanding of historical time. american educational research journal, 33(2), 419-454. barton, k., & levstik, l. (2004). teaching history for the common good. mahwah, n.j: lawrence erlbaum associates. barton, k. (2006). research methods in social studies education. greenwich, ct: information age publishing. bickford iii, j. (2017). the curriculum development of experienced teachers who are inexperienced with history-based pedagogy. journal of social studies education research, 8(1), 146-192. çalışkan, h. (2015). an investigation into the organization levels of social studies teachers with regard to constructivist learning environments in terms of several variables. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 49-83. cowgill, d., & waring, s., (2017). historical thinking: an evaluation of student and teacher ability to analyze success. journal of social studies education research, 8(1), 115-145. creswell, j., & plano, v. (2007). designing and conducting mixed methods research. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. creswell, j., (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods approaches (3rd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. creswell, j., & plano clark, v. (2011). designing and conducting mixed methods research. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. creswell, j., (2012). educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). boston, ma: pearson. coppersmith & song edelson, d. c., gordin, d. n., & pea, r. d. (1999). addressing the challenges of inquiry-based learning through technology and curriculum design. the journal of the learning sciences, 8(3), 391-450. fallace, t. d., biscoe, a.d., & perry, j. l. (2007). second graders thinking historically: theory into practice. journal of social studies research, 31(1), 44-53. flick, u. (2006). an introduction to qualitative research. london, england: sage publications. hartland, c. (2006). inquiry-based learning: why? where? how? reflecting education, 2(1), 5-18. howes, e. v., lim, m., & campos, j. (2009). journeys into inquiry-based elementary science: literacy practices, questioning, and empirical study. science education, 93, 189–217. doi: 10.1002/sce.20297 ibo. (2010). international baccalaureate organization. www.ibo.org ivankova, n. v., creswell, j. w., stick, s.l, (2006). using mixed-methods sequential explanatory design: from theory to practice. field methods, 18(1), 3-20. kilinç, e., kilinç, s., kaya, m., başer, e., türküresin, h., & kesten, a. (2016). teachers’ attitudes toward the use of technology in social studies teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 59-76. lawson, a. e. (2010). teaching inquiry science in middle and secondary schools. los angeles, ca: sage. levstik, l.s., & k.c. barton (2008). researching history education. new york, ny: routledge. levstik, l.s., barton, k.c., (2011, 2005). doing history; investigating with children in elementary and middle schools (3rd ed.). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates, inc. mauch, j. & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. marshall, m. (1996). sampling for qualitative research. family practice, 13(6), 522-525. merriam, s. b. (2009). qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. minner, d. d., levy, a. j., & century, j. (2010). inquiry-based science instruction--what is it and does it matter? results from a research synthesis years 1984 to 2002. journal of research in science teaching, 47(4), 474-496. http://www.ibo.org/ journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),24-49 palincsar, a. (1998). social constructivist perspectives on teaching and learning. annual review of psychology, 49, 345-75. patton, m. q. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. pellegrino, a. m., & kilday, j. (2013). hidden in plain sight: preservice teachers' orientations toward inquiry-based learning in history. journal of social studies education research, 4(2), 1-26. pozuelos, f., gonzalez, g. t., canal de leon, p., (2010). inquiry-based teaching: teachers’ conceptions, impediments and support. teaching education, 21(2), 131-42. rudy, d. w. (2006). mid-michigan mathematics partnership evaluation report 2 of 2; summative evidence and findings, central michigan university. retrieved from: http://www.lakehouse.org/images/m3pfinalevaluationreport.pdf sampi lesson observation system: observing lessons in k-12 classrooms using standards based inquiry-focused criteria. (2003). kalamazoo, michigan: mallinson institute for science education, western michigan university. strauss, a. & corbin, j. (1998). basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. thousand oaks: sage publications. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. teddlie, c., & tashakkori, a. (2009). foundations of mixed methods research: integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. los angeles, ca: sage. twigg, v. v. (2010). teachers’ practices, values and beliefs for successful inquiry-based teaching in the international baccalaureate primary years programme. journal of research in international education, 9(1), 40-65. vansledright, b. (2004a). what does it mean to think historically, and how do you teach it? social education, 68(3), 230-235. vansledright, b. (2004b), inquiry. in k.c. barton & l.s. levstik, (2004). teaching history for the common good. mahwah, n.j.: lawrence erlbaum associates. wells, c. g. (1999). dialogic inquiry: towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education. new york, ny: cambridge university press. http://www.lakehouse.org/images/m3pfinalevaluationreport.pdf appendix a. mean sampi observer ratings for the spanish and french immersion classroom lessons observed indicator/name n=number of lessons observed total lessons observed = 6 (2 per teacher) maxime french school mean inquiry level george spanish school mean inquiry level calendaria spanish school mean inquiry level observation obs 1 obs 2 obs 1 obs 2 obs 1 obs 2 implementation instructor confidence 7 7 7 high 7 7 7 high 6 7 6.5 high teacher-student interaction probing 7 4 5.5 mid 1 6 3.5 low 3 7 5 mid classroom management 5 6 5.5 mid 5 7 6 high 6 5 5.5 mid pace 7 7 7 high 7 7 7 high 7 7 7 high student-student interaction 7 6 6.5 high 1 3 2 low 7 6 6.5 high reflection on lesson 7 3 5 mid 7 4 5.5 mid 3 7 5 mid wrap-up of lesson 6 2 4 mid n/a 4 4 mid 3 7 5 mid content importance of content 7 7 7 high 7 7 7 high 7 7 7 high intellectual engagement of students 6 7 6.5 high 6 6 6 high 7 7 7 high portrayal of subject matter 6 6 6 high 4 5 4.5 mid 3 6 4.5 mid instructor competence 7 7 7 high 7 7 7 high 7 7 7 high connections to lessons in unit 7 7 7 high 7 6 6.5 high n/a 7 7 high connections to subjects 7 6 6.5 high 2 6 4 mid 1 7 4 mid application to real-world 5 n/a a5 mid 1 7 4 mid 1 7 4 mid use of abstractions 5 4 4.5 mid 5 7 6 high 6 7 6.5 high culture active participation of students encouraged 7 7 7 high 6 7 6.5 high 7 7 7 high teacher’s respect for student ideas 6 7 6.5 high 5 7 6 high 6 7 6.5 high student’s respect for other students’ ideas 6 4 5 high 4 5 4.5 mid 5 5 5 mid students encouraged to generate ideas 7 6 6.6 high 2 4 3 low 2 7 4.5 mid student-student collaborative relationships 7 5 6 high 4 4 4 mid 5 6 5.5 mid teacher-student collaborative relationship 7 6 6.5 high 5 7 6 high 7 7 7 high inquiry: ratings from sampi observation system. alignment with inquiry-based methods: 1-3 = low or poor alignment, 4-5 = mid or some alignment, 6-7 = high alignment with inquiry-based instruction. also categorized as: needs improvement, making progress, or well done in sampi (2003, p. 4). coppersmith & song appendix b. map digitized for this project. national park service, jef-10543. 1721 by john senex." article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11(4), 204-218 analysis of personnel patterns in the regional government of the east java province, indonesia nurkholis1, soesilo zauhar2, mr. khairul muluk3 & endah setyowati4 abstract the existence of mono-loyalty in the simultaneous system of centralization and decentralization in indonesia is used by the authorities to control the bureaucratic structure. several problems occur in personnel management, however. the existence of mono-loyalty also has implications for regional employment patterns. the changes in staffing patterns are highlighted in the regional government of the east java province through the staff agency bureau (bkd) of the east java province. the study’s aim is to describe the staffing pattern of the regional government of the east java province and evaluate its effectiveness. this study follows a descriptive design with a qualitative approach, and observations, interviews, and documentation were conducted to feed into the data-analysis process. the results revealed a paradigm shift in organizing and conducting government bureaucracy, followed by changes in staffing patterns in local government. the regional government of east java province has adopted an integrated pattern, one that combines elements of centralization and decentralization. the use of this pattern follows the theory of effectiveness, but in its implementation, there is no risk management that guides the continuity of the pattern in achieving the stated organizational goals. keywords: local government, personnel patterns, effectiveness introduction a paradigm shift in organizing and administering government bureaucracy is currently in progress. some researchers emphasize that this has changed the way that the government’s bureaucratic institutions are regulated, from centralization to decentralization, from authoritarian to egalitarian and democratic, from state-based sovereignty to people-based sovereignty, from large organizational entities to lean organizations, from emphasizing independent policy development to directing and controlling it, and from being state-oriented to being more competency-oriented, and as well as paying more attention to the role of the market (aveling et al., 1972; ndiangui, 2020; silalahi & yuwono, 2018; strunc, 2020; woofter, 2019). this shift requires that the necessary resources must be repositioned and reformed, so they align with the demands of the times (turner et al., 2009). 1dr. candudate, brawijaya university, malang, indonesia; email: cholis.zaini@gmail.com 2prof. dr. brawijaya university, malang, indonesia; email: soesilozfia@ub.ac.id 3dr. brawijaya university, malang, indonesia; email: mrkhairulmuluk@ub.ac.id 4dr. brawijaya university, malang, indonesia; email: endah_s_fia@ub.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 204-218 205 decentralization represents a situation where the authority to regulate and manage government affairs is not solely restricted to central government—it also rests with local government both in the form of regional and functional units. the underlying principle is to allow state and local governments to regulate and manage certain affairs within their purview (o’dwyer & ziblatt, 2006; sirajuddin & haruni, 2016). decentralization in indonesia is regulated through law number 23 of 2014 about regional government. authority and functions are therefore divided between the central government regional governments in the form of obligatory affairs. one competence of local government is managing its regional staff, so decentralization has also affected the staffing system in indonesia. these changes in decentralization policy were also followed by changes in the state personnel system through law number 8 of 1974 to law number 43 of 1999 of the republic of indonesia. based on the old decentralization and civil service policies, it seems that the regional civil service system that applies in practice is more akin to an integrated national and local personnel system. the obvious advantage of this approach is the extraordinary ability of government to post employees, even in the most remote locations, to provide services and carry out development (ranis & stewart, 1994; muluk, 2009). however, weaknesses can still be seen in the management of civil servants, such as underand over-staffing and local government experiencing situations where people’s jobs do not match their qualifications, with there being a shortage of suitably qualified employees (ouedraogo, 2003; budiharso & tarman, 2020). employment in indonesia is regulated through law number 43 of 1999 about personnel principles (pp 96–101) of 2000, which concerns the appointment and training of employees, what is more, presidential decree number 159/2000 about the establishment of the bkd (pp number 9) of 2003 guides the appointment and dismissal of civil servants. the decre of home affair minister (kepmendagri) no. 6, 7, 8 of 2000, meanwhile, provides guidance for the investigation and training of civil servants, (pp number 41 of 2007 for regional apparatus organizations). the government’s administration system is divided into two parts, namely civil servants and society. civil servants have legal authority but the community does not (tinker, 2013; sondang, 2007). based on the assigned authority, a relationship exists between state administrative law and employment law, and this is known as openbaar dienstbetrekking (public service relations) to the state (government) (ciborra & navarra, 2005; muchsan, 1982). the openbaar dienstbetrekking’s nurkholis, et al. relationship to employment law is a subordinate one, one between a superior and its subordinates (hajar, 2015; widowati, 2012). the new policy of decentralizing to a regional civil service attempts to correct this issue by giving greater authority to local governments to manage their civil servants within the policy framework of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia. this framework aims to separate the personnel systems of each local authority and encourage the development of regional autonomy. the central government therefore establishes norms, standards, and procedures for the appointment, transfer, and dismissal of staff and determines pensions, salaries, benefits, welfare, rights, and obligations, as well as clarifies the legal position for both regional and central civil servants. regions then have the authority to transfer and dismiss staff and determine pensions, salaries, benefits, and employee welfare standards, as well as conduct education and training under regional regulations based on statutory regulations (vel & bedner, 2015; muluk, 2008). the employment problems in indonesia result from inconsistencies in the centralized and decentralized systems, so power is misused by the authorities to control the bureaucratic structure, namely through mono-loyalty (aveling et al., 1972; o’dwyer & ziblatt, 2006). all officials, including employees at all levels, are obliged to favor of the interests of the authorities. this makes the centralized system of government stronger in an era of decentralization. this phenomenon of mono-loyalty impacts the arrangement of the staffing and the resources of the government apparatus (carlarne, 2008). employment problems can be identified in seven groups: large and unprofessional governmental and bureaucratic institutions, centralized work mechanisms, control of government bureaucracy being still carried out by the government for the government, and the patron–client relationship (kkn) (gaus et al., 2017). government bureaucracy acts as an obstacle to efforts to achieve meritocracy, and there is no sense of accountability, either institutionally or individually. bureaucratic positions are often filled with a disregard for the required competencies, and the arrangement of resources therefore does not meet the needs of the bureaucratic institution (solikhah & budiharso, 2020). in addition, further problems arise, such as the lack of a competitive civil service apparatus in the face of globalization, poor service provision to the community, and unclear visions, missions, and objectives. those problems occur throughout organizations, both at the ministerial level of central government and within regional governments in terms of their management policies (aguilera & cuervo-cazurra, 2009; hartini & tedi, 2008). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 204-218 207 research questions in light of the above background, two research questions were developed to guide the research process, they are: 1) what staffing patterns are developed on the personnel management in the provincial office of east java province? 2) what is the effectiveness of staffing patterns on the personnel management in the provincial office of east java province? literature review local government and regional civil service local government is considered a traditional institution with a modern conception. it manifests human activity in groups and reflects the spirit of freedom. bell and muluk (2003) state that local government, as a concept, can have three meanings: first, it refers to a local authority comprised of officials, such as councilors and mayors, who are appointed based on local elections. second, it refers to governance carried out by local authorities, which relates more to its function. third, it represents the system for an autonomous region (bell, 2003; muluk, 2009). the formation of an autonomous region is based on serving the needs and desires of the people living in that region of a country. local government clearly needs to engage in personnel management. agencies responsible for managing personnel in modern local government can be classified into three broad categories: centralized, decentralized, and integrated, which is a combination of the first two (israr & islam, 2006; muttalib & khan, 2013). the centralized pattern assumes the existence of one or more state bodies for handling regional civil servants, regardless of any other decentralization to regional authorities, while the decentralized approach delegates this authority to the regional government. there may be also arrangements that combine some features of the centralized and decentralized pattern, because local authorities in different countries may not exactly fit with either of these patterns (ciborra & navarra, 2005). personnel management in modern local government, according to turner et al. (2009), can be classified into three broad categories, namely: 1) the unified pattern ceylon was one of the earliest to have a unified pattern. local civil service personnel boards operate based on regional government staffing law. the local government manages recruitment, nurkholis, et al. appointments, promotions, transfers, employment conditions, and other staffing issues, including staff discipline. 2) the decentralized pattern this pattern has been adopted in countries such as the united states, the united kingdom, and to a lesser extent, japan, brazil, venezuela, and other developing countries. in this pattern, the most obvious characteristic is that local councils and mayors, rather than central government, govern regional personnel management. councils determine their personnel and decide its composition, function, and relationship with other agencies. alternatively, a council may appoint a committee charged with handling regional civil service management. the law on regional government itself can determine all of these arrangements (chandra, 2005). 3) integrated pattern sitting between the above two categories, another category combines characteristics from both of them. this pattern assigns central government a higher-level role in governing regional civil service management, such as by directly controlling the wages of local authority personnel (moulder & o’neill, 2009). at least three main approaches can be discussed in the context of personnel, namely the managerial, political, and legal approaches. each of these approaches emphasizes values, organizational structure, individual views, and intellectual orientations that differ from one another (moulder & o’neill, 2009). administrators may play more the role of manager, policymaker, or the implementer of constitutional regulation depending on which approach is emphasized more. silver et al. (2001) state three logical consequences for the personnel legislation approach. first, it relates to existing materials and functions in personnel management, from planning, recruitment, selection and placement, payroll administration, job performance appraisal, education and training, sanctions and discipline to dismissal. second, the legal approach prescribes certain techniques for certain functions that are carried out within an organization, so as a logical consequence, it ignores the value dimension when deciding and implementing personnel policies. third, various weaknesses in the current approach can also have serious consequences in terms of a lack of attention to the cumulative impact of using state civil service administration techniques, not least for the employees themselves. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 204-218 209 theory of effectiveness effectiveness relates to achieving policy goals or targets. it is the relationship between actual results and some desired objectives that must be achieved. operational activities are therefore said to be effective if they achieve the final policy goals and objectives, such as spending funds wisely (mihaiu et al., 2010; mardiasmo, 2002). it relies on people carrying out their tasks in accordance with the intended objectives, and it reflects the level of achievement and is sometimes associated with the notion of efficiency, although there are differences between these two concepts. effectiveness emphasizes the end results, while efficiency focuses on how those results were obtained (bartuševičienė & šakalytė, 2013; sondang, 2007). organizational effectiveness reflects an optimal balance where goals are achieved through the use of human labor. this indicator of effectiveness considers the range of consequences and outcomes for program outputs when achieving program objectives. the more that the resulting output satisfies the specified goals or objectives, the more effective the organizational unit is. tangkilisan (2005) explains some indicators of effectiveness: (1) the achievement of targets, where the extent to which the targets set by the organization can be realized; (2) adaptability, where the success of an organization is judged based on how well it can adapt to changes both from inside and outside the organization; (3) job satisfaction, which is based on the level of comfort and motivation felt by all members of the organization, because this can help improve organizational performance; and (4) responsibility, where the organization carries out its mandate and solves any problems that arise through education. thus, organizational effectiveness is dependent on the individual effectiveness of its members in how they carry out their respective duties in different positions within the organization. methods design this research follows a content analysis design (hsieh & shannon, 2005) with a qualitative approach (patton, 2003). the examination of staffing patterns in the provincial government of east java was based on muttalib and khan’s (2013) theory of staffing patterns and tangkilisan’s (2005) theory of effectiveness. a qualitative approach was chosen because this is considered appropriate for providing a causal assessment of the range of views of the people involved, and it can follow the chronological flow of events for the problems that occur (creswell, 2014). in addition, a nurkholis, et al. qualitative approach is capable of acting as an intermediary for obtaining unexpected findings. for shaping new theoretical frameworks, qualitative approaches can help to go beyond preconceived notions and initial frameworks (silverman, 1998). data data of this study were corpus to which personnel patterns supervision in the provincial office of east java, indonesia were employed. the data consisted of the operational rules, the law, and practices made by the office during the last three years. data were administered in terms of personnel report and staffing management. three years annual reports on the personnel management in the office were selected as the sources of data. in addition, reports on the career development programs each office unit applied were also analyzed. data collection techniques data of this study were mainly annual reports on the personnel management and career development supervision. all data were obtained from the documents so that this study did not use any instruments to collect data. to select data that were categorized as staffing patterns and effectiveness of the patterns, the researchers identified the characteristics of the data into the absence of each category. those that were not present were categorized as in effective and those that were absent were ineffective. descriptions on the patterns and career development were relied upon the judgment of the reports. data analysis techniques as of the corpus analysis, this study applied content analysis techniques to analyze the data relevant to the administration research (patton, 2002; mayring, 2000). following marrying (2000), hsieh & shannon (2005) and cresswell (2014), the steps of analysis were done as follows. the first step, any data that cover numeric such as number of employees and rate percentage of attainment were converted as a narrative text. secondly, the narrative data were identified their themes to determine the units of analysis as represented by the research questions. thirdly, the researcher developed manual of coding the data completed with the example of the unit of analysis. fourthly, the researchers put the coding into all unit analysis. fifthly, the researchers checked the consistency of the coding system of all data and revised the coding that were not matched. sixthly, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 204-218 211 the researcher drew the final data based on the verified coed data (patton, 2002; mayring, 2000; hsieh & shannon, 2005; cresswell, 2014). results and discussion staffing patterns in the provincial government of east java every organization was initially centralized, and la centralization is the guiding principle in the organization. there must therefore be one main source of responsibility and commands. centralization is the best instrument for coordinating activities and avoiding any overlap or fragmentation in administration (ranis & stewart, 1994; vel & bedner, 2015). in line with the findings of prasojo, maksum, and kurniawan (2006), centralization plays a role in decisionmaking. if the power is concentrated in one place, an organization is centralized, with decisions usually being made by the central government. this theory indicates the importance of centralization and decentralization in an organization. the regional civil service agency (bkd) of the east java province is a government agency whose main task is to assist the provincial governor in conducting government affairs in the field of personnel, which is a regional competence. authority was transferred from the central government to the regions through law no. 23/2014 for regional government. there are both mandatory and optional standards that local governments must follow. the regional personnel board of east java province is one of the agencies responsible for managing the civil service. previous analysis revealed that the bkd has data-management problems related to personnel, including large and unprofessional government bureaucratic institutions, centralized work mechanisms, government still exercising control of government bureaucracy, kkn relationship being an obstacle to achieving meritocracy, no sense of accountability at institutional or individual levels, positions being filled structurally rather than being based on the required competencies, and the allocation of resources not being suitable for the needs of bureaucratic institutions. the bkd of east java has the primary task of providing civil service in the region. however, a paradigm shift is currently ongoing for organizing and administering government bureaucracy. the shift is changing methods from a regulation by centralized government bureaucratic institutions to decentralization, from an authoritarian approach to an egalitarian and democratic one, from a state-based sovereignty to a people-based one, from large organizational forms to lean organizations, from emphasizing independent functions to just steering policies, and from being nurkholis, et al. oriented toward state power to being more competency-oriented, as well as paying more attention to the role of the market (thoha, 2016). this change requires that the allocation of resources needs to be changed or reformed to align with the demands of the times. the switch from centralization to decentralization in indonesia has implications for the staffing pattern in local government. the bkd in east java is an agency with the responsibility and authority for managing personnel in the east java province. muthalib and khan’s (2013) theory states that the agencies assigned to handle personnel management in a modern regional government can be classified into three broad categories: centralized, decentralized, and integrated, which is partly decentralized, partly decentralized (muttalib & khan, 2013). the unified pattern used in ceylon is a form of personnel management that is based in law. regional staffing as a whole is run by law and local government staffing commissions by taking into account recruitment, appointment, promotion, transfer, employment conditions, and other staffing issues, such as staff discipline. this is an example of a centralized staffing pattern. the central government sets standards that are followed by all the agencies at the local government level, so local governments actually have limited authority in staffing matters. the decentralized pattern, in contrast, means that local councils and their elected officials, rather than central government, regulate regional personnel management and establish personnel bodies, thus determining their composition, function, and their relationships with other agencies. alternatively, the council may elect a committee charged with handling regional civil service management. the law for regional government itself can also determine all of these arrangements. in such cases, the regions have the authority to regulate their own staffing patterns. the integrated pattern combines the above two approaches. this pattern gives the central government a high-level role in governing regional civil service management and directly setting the wages of local authority personnel. the regulation of laws and the resistance between centralized and decentralized authorities in indonesia have made the bkd of east java province adhere to an integrated pattern for managing staffing. the bkd of east java province has the role of regulating personnel management in its region, and it can directly control recruitment, appointments, promotions, transfers, employment conditions, employee discipline, and employee wages. the role of the central government, meanwhile, is to set minimum staffing standards and determine the need for positions to fill. local governments have the authority to move, raise, and dismiss employees through regulations that are followed in all provinces. thus, it can be concluded journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 204-218 213 that the employment pattern in the province of east java is an integrated pattern. this happens because there is centralization and decentralization in indonesia, such as in following centrally established regulations. the effectiveness of staffing patterns in the province of east java organizational effectiveness represents an optimal balance or approach for achieving goals, capabilities, and the use of human labor. sumaryadi (2005) states that an organization can be said to be effective if it can fully achieve its predetermined goals. effectiveness is generally regarded as the level that operational objectives are achieved. in other words, it is how well the work is done and the extent to which the organization produces the expected output. if a job is done properly as planned, it can be called effective without regard to the use of time, energy, and other resources. the staffing pattern in the bkd of east java province must pay close attention to the level of effectiveness. this pattern, when juxtaposed with the theory of effectiveness indicators described by tangkilisan (2005), can be seen as follows: achievement of targets the achievement of targets is defined as the extent to which targets can be set by the organization and properly realized. this can be summarized as the extent to which organizational outcomes satisfy predetermined goals. the integrated pattern for managing personnel in the bkd of the east java province has been measured in terms of meeting targets. this can be seen in the fulfillment of human resources with the competencies to meet the needs of the bkd. this can be done through careful planning, which is the process of carefully considering and determining what will be done in the future to achieve some stated goals. the employee-planning process involves predicting the number of employees that will be needed in future, predicting the types of personnel that will be required, estimating the number of employees who will be promoted, and estimating the degree of funding needed to meet employee needs. in addition to achieving these targets, the bkd of the east java province conducted an analysis using an integrated electronic asn management application, which made it easier to find out the level of target achievement from the regional staffing pattern in the east java province. nurkholis, et al. adaptability the integrated pattern is a combination of the centralized and decentralized patterns. the bkd of the east java province is the agency that manages regional personnel according to directions from the central government, but it must also adapt well to the systems and patterns that govern it. the approach of the bkd of the east java province is to accommodate challenges from internal and external factors in order to improve the quality of the services it provides. this shows the bkd of the east java province is making efforts to achieve conformity with the existing implemented patterns. job satisfaction changing the staffing pattern to an integrated one has had implications for the region’s ability to develop their employees. the bkd of the east java province has authority over the recruitment, development, promotion, and transfer of staff. this has been achieved to meet the job satisfaction of employees and also act as a benchmark for the performance of employees. performance measurement can be done within the given regulations, and it may be accompanied by rewards and punishments, so the better the performance, the greater that staff are rewarded. however, the greater the severity of any violation committed, the greater the punishment staff receive. hence, the staffing pattern can provide motivation for improving organizational performance. responsibility the implication of the integrated staffing pattern in the bkd of the east java province for the management of personnel must be accompanied by the organization’s ability to operate well. it must be capable of fulfilling its mandate according to the provisions that were made previously and be able to deal with any problems that occur and resolve them properly. this pattern it seems can be run as planned and achieve the goals that were set. our findings imply that government employment rely much on the regulations and rules for the job analysis review manifested in the decentralization model that allows autonomy of provincial application is used. the innovation and creativity of job analysis and career supervision in the autonomy regulation may be emphasized to strengthening the capacity building of the employees through modern and professional improvements. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 204-218 215 conclusion to sum up, the implementation of a decentralized pattern in the bkd of the east java province for managing personnel follows the system developed and adopted by indonesia. this manifests as a system with elements of centralization and decentralization, and this fits in with the integrated pattern. centralization can be seen in the form of authority that is reserved exclusively for the central government, while decentralization can be seen in the form of the regions setting regulations for regional employment, one that accommodates their regional needs. the integrated pattern therefore gives central government the authority to regulate regional civil service management by directly controlling the salaries of local authority personnel. however, the local government has the authority to conduct given affairs and develop regulations to meet its staffing needs. the integrated pattern, when viewed from the effectiveness indicators discussed earlier, shows that this pattern satisfies the effectiveness indicators of tangkilisan (2005). this can be seen in the bkd’s ability to adjust its staffing patterns to suit existing indicators of effectiveness. in its implementation, however, there are no rules related to risk management. this will affect the ability and readiness of the organization to manage unforeseen impacts. there should be an element of risk aversion or an obligation to maintain the continuous provision of its primary services at an acceptable standard. there should also be accountability, so the management of personnel in the bkd of the east java province can operate well, starting from planning, management, and development through to achieving goals. references aguilera, r. v., & cuervo-cazurra, a. (2009). codes of good governance. corporate governance: an international review, 17(3), 376–387. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14678683.2009.00737.x aveling, h., bachtiar, h. w., drewes, g. w. j., seltmann, f., brakel, l. f., voorhoeve, p., coolhaas, w. p., de graaf, h. j., wassing, r. s., fox, j. j., dubbeldam, l. f. b., van de velde, p., schlesier, e., van baal, j., ondei, m., dahm, b., allard, e., & bachtiar, h. w. (1972). bureaucracy and nation formation in indonesia. bijdragen tot de taal-, landen volkenkunde, 128, 430–446. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-3644-8_2 bartuševičienė, i., & šakalytė, e. (2013). organisational assesment: effectiveness vs. efficiency. social transformations in contemporary society, 2013(1), 45–53. nurkholis, et al. bell, g. f. (2003). indonesia: the new regional autonomy laws, two years later. southeast asian affairs 2003, 2003(1), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1355/seaa03h budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academicinstitutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 chandra, s. (2005). autonomy and disintegration in indonesia. edited by damien kingsbury. and harry aveling london and new york: routledgecurzon, 2003. ix, 219 pp. £65.00/$114.00 (cloth). the journal of asian studies, 64(2), 518–520. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021911805001415 ciborra, c., & navarra, d. d. (2005). good governance, development theory, and aid policy: risks and challenges of e-government in jordan. information technology for development, 11(2), 141–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/itdj.20008 creswell, j. w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (v. knight, j. young, & b. bauhaus (eds.); 4th ed.). sage publications, inc. gaus, n., sultan, s., & basri, m. (2017). state bureaucracy in indonesia and its reforms: an overview. international journal of public administration, 40(8), 658–669. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2016.1186179 hajar, b. (2015). bureaucracy and governance in indonesia: study on west sulawesi province. procedia economics and finance, 23(october 2014), 223–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(15)00348-2 hartini, s. s., & tedi, s. (2008). hukum kepegawaian di indonesia. jakarta: sinar grafika. hsieh, h.-f., & shannon, s.e. (2005). three approaches to qualitative content analysis. qualitative health research, 15(9), 1277-1288. israr, s. m., & islam, a. (2006). good governance and sustainability: a case study from pakistan. international journal of health planning and management, 21(4), 313–325. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpm.852 mardiasmo. (2002). . . pengukuran kinerja sektor publik. yogyakarta: bpfe. mayring, p. (2000). qualitative content analysis. forum: qualitative social research, 1(2). retrieved july 28, 2008, from http://217.160.35.246/fqs-texte/2-00/2 00mayring-e.pdf. mihaiu, d. m., opreana, a., & cristescu, m. p. (2010). efficiency, effectiveness and performance of the public sector. romanian journal of economic forecasting, 13(4), 132–147. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 http://217.160.35.246/fqs-texte/2-00/2journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 204-218 217 miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis. in r. holland (ed.), sage publication (2nd ed., vol. 251, issue 2). sage publication ltd. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02759913 moulder, e., & o’neill, r. j. (2009). citizen engagement and local government management. national civic review, 98(2), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/ncr.248 muluk, m. k. (2009). peta konsep desentralisasi & pemerintahan daerah. surabaya: its press. muluk, m. r. (2008). knowledge management: kunci sukses inovasi pemerintahan daerah. malang: bayumedia publishing. muttalib, m. a., & khan, m. a. (2013). theory of local government (teori pemerintahan daerah). jakarta: masyarakat ilmu pemerintahan indonesia (mipi). ndiangui, p. (2020). from brain drain to brain gain: the battle against talent drain. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.5 o’dwyer, c., & ziblatt, d. (2006). does decentralisation make government more efficient and effective? commonwealth and comparative politics, 44(3), 326–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/14662040600997064 ouedraogo, h. m. g. (2003). decentralisation and local governance: experiences from francophone west africa. public administration and development, 23(1), 97–103. https://doi.org/10.1002/pad.263 parker, l. (2004). qualitative research. surviving your thesis, 159–177. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203299975 patton, m.q. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage. piñon carlarne, c. (2008). good climate governance: only a fragmented system of international law away? in law and policy (vol. 30, issue 4). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14679930.2008.00289.x prasojo, e., maksum, i. r., & kurniawan, t. (2006). desentralisasi & pemerintahan daerah: antara model demokrasi lokal & efisiensi struktural. depok: dia fisip ui. ranis, g., & stewart, f. (1994). decentralisation in indonesia. bulletin of indonesian economic studies, 30(3), 41–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074919412331336677 silalahi, r., & yuwono, u. (2018). the sustainability of pancasila in indonesian education system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 58-78. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.5 nurkholis, et al. silver, c., azis, i. j., & schroeder, l. (2001). intergovernmental transfers and decentralisation in indonesia. bulletin of indonesian economic studies, 37(3), 345–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074910152669172 silverman, d. (1998). qualitative research: meanings or practices? information systems journal, 8(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2575.1998.00002.x sirajuddin, i., s., a., & haruni, c. w. (2016). hukum administrasi pemerintahan daerah: sejarah, asas, kewenangan dan pengawasan penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah. malang: setara press. solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177-197. sondang, s. p. (2007). teori pengembangan organisasi. jakarta: bumi aksara. strunc, a. (2020). editorial: are they listening? policymakers and their role in public education. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.ed sumaryadi, i. n. (2005). efektivitas implementasi kebijakan otonomi daerah. jakarta: citra utama. tangkilisan, h. n. (2005). manajemen publik. jakarta: gramedia pustaka. tinker, h. (1963). central authority and regional autonomy in indonesia: a study in local administration 1950–1960. international affairs, 39(1), 139–140. https://doi.org/10.2307/2610585. turner, m., imbaruddin, a., & sutiyono, w. (2009). human resource management: the forgotten dimension of decentralisation in indonesia. bulletin of indonesian economic studies, 45(2), 231–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074910903040336 vel, j. a. c., & bedner, a. w. (2015). decentralisation and village governance in indonesia: the return to the nagari and the 2014 village law. journal of legal pluralism and unofficial law, 47(3), 493–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/07329113.2015.1109379 widowati, r. d. (2012). problematika dalam manajemen kepegawaian daerah. jurnal kebijakan dan manajemen pns. woofter, s. (2019). book review: building equity: policies and practices to empower all learners. american journal of qualitative research, 3(1), 136139. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5815 https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5815 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 282-295 forming a foreign language teacher's professional competencies in a multilingual educational environment anna gizatullina1 & alfiya sibgatullina2 abstract this paper considers forming the professional competencies of students of the faculty of foreign languages of the teacher training university in the multilingual context. the study used the following methods: a conversation with students and teachers, participant observation, a questionnaire (99 respondents), methods of mathematical statistics for the processing of empirical data, study and analysis of current publications on the issue. data were received on students' competence in languages; the prevailing issues in learning a second foreign language at different stages (courses) of training were revealed. the paper analyzes the results of applying the methodology of training a foreign language teacher based on the co-studying languages and the implementation of the multilingual approach to the formation of students' professional competencies in the process of curriculum training and pedagogical practice at school. statistical processing of the obtained data confirmed the positive impact of the applied training methodology on the formation of professional competencies of future foreign language teachers. keywords: multilingual education context, language co-study, integration, authentic text, interactive technologies. introduction recently, a concept of multilingualism has become a defining approach to the study of languages. many researchers are actively engaged in this issue, in particular, (borisov et al., 2017; hufeisen, 2000; hufeisen & marx, 2005; kärchner-ober, 2009; malyh, 2011, 2013; molchanov 2009;). multilingualism is not just a variety of languages that can be achieved by increasing the number of languages offered to a pupil or student. the multilingualism arises with the expansion of the personal language experience from the language used in the family to the language used in society, and further to mastering the languages of other peoples. 1 assoc. prof., kazan (volga region) federal university, elabuga institute, russia, annagiz@rambler.ru 2 assoc. prof., kazan (volga region) federal university, elabuga institute, russia, a.sibgatullina@bk.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 282-295 283 from this point of view, the goal of language education is changing, and accordingly, the role of a foreign language teacher is changing. before, the main objective was to give a student some knowledge and skills; today, the important goals of teaching foreign language (fl) are the following: the formation of a friendly and tolerant attitude to the values of other cultures, creating the basis for the formation of interest in improving the foreign language level, in learning the second/third foreign language, in using the foreign language as means of obtaining information that allows expanding one's knowledge in other subject areas (the order…, 2010). all this allows saying that the goal of training a modern foreign language teacher is the formation of such professional competencies of a teacher that would enable him or her to contribute to the formation and development of a student who has a multilingual communicative competency (gapsalamov et al., 2017a; kilinc et al., 2018), including the experience of teaching in a multilingual education context, as well as the methodical experience of teaching foreign languages in groups where students speak different languages and study several foreign languages. the objectives of this training are the following: training students pursuing a degree in "pedagogical education" in teaching foreign languages in the multilingual education context; formation of universal and professional competencies of a future teacher related to this training; improving the knowledge about studied foreign languages on the basis of such training. thus, one can see a contradiction between the need for the teacher to work in a multilingual educational environment and the inability to prepare students for this in a traditional way based on teaching that does not take into account the influence of languages on each other. hence the aim of the research is to develop a methodology for preparing students of the faculty of foreign languages for teaching foreign languages at school, taking into account and reliance on the multilingual character of the educational environment. achieving the goal of the study involves a consistent solution of a number of problems: 1) study the environment for teaching students in foreign languages; 2) determine whether this environment can be considered a multi-lingual one; 3) to clarify the attitude of students towards learning on a multi-lingual basis; 4) to identify the difficulties experienced by students in the study of a second foreign gizatullina & sibgatullina language in a multilingual educational environment; 5) to propose and substantiate the necessary elements of preparing students for the teaching of foreign languages in a multilingual educational environment. method the methods of study are determined by the objectives set; they include an analysis of pedagogical, psychological and methodological literature, research of various aspects on the issue under study, as well as an analysis of the practical experience of foreign language teachers; questionnaire (99 respondents students 2-5 courses, age 19-25 years, carriers of 8 different native languages), a questionnaire of 3 blocks, a total of 18 questions; observation participant observation during training sessions; conversation clarifying conversation with students participating in a questionnaire; conversations with teachers and heads of departments of the faculty of foreign languages (20 people in total), percentage representation of the data findings analyzing the process of forming the professional competencies of students of the faculty of foreign languages in the multilingual context, the authors came to the conclusion that a special role is dedicated to the theoretical foundations of modeling this process. the authors outlined the leading principles of such training: the principle of systemic perception of languages, the principle of integration of all curriculum subjects, as well as the principle of dominance of integrated tasks during training the future teacher (anisimova and sharafeeva, 2018; belomestnykh and tesleva, 2012; gapsalamov et al., 2017b; ivygina et al., 2018; kurbanova et al., 2018; szydlowski, 2018). the experimental work on the formation of professional competencies of the future foreign language teacher in the multilingual context was started with an analysis of the actual state of the issue under study. the study of such state was carried out between 2015 and 2017 with the help of such methods of scientific and pedagogical research as the questionnaire of students, conversations with teachers and heads of departments, observation and analysis of theoretical (lecture) and practical classes, special courses and classes in the elabuga institute of kazan federal university, as well as in the conduct of pedagogical practices in secondary schools. all this contributed to solving the first four problems of the study. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 282-295 285 the questionnaire was specially developed, addressed to the target group of students of the faculty of foreign languages. the questionnaire included 3 units, in total 18 questions. 99 students of four years of study (2-5) took part in the survey. the questionnaire included the following questions: 1) whether it is possible to consider the training context of these students as a multilingual education context; 2) which linguistic issues the students faced during co-studying several foreign languages; 3) whether the principles of the systemic perception of languages, the integration of educational subjects, as well as the dominance of problematic cultural tasks are taken into account in the process of training the foreign language teacher; 4) which professional competencies of the foreign language teacher acquire special significance for the teacher working in the multilingual education context. the answers to the first two questions of the questionnaire were supposed to give an idea of whether the learning environment could be called the multilingual context. according to the answers, 49 students (out of 99) believe that they speak two languages as native (49.5%), 11 students (11.1%) believe they speak three languages as native. that is, one can talk about natural bilingualism and multilingualism of the majority of students (60.6%), which is related to the conditions of the natural language environment. more specifically, for the majority of students, russian and tatar are native languages; students from other regions and republics also named udmurt, mari and other languages (in total 9 languages). in addition, while studying at the faculty of foreign languages, the students study two foreign languages (english and german), the basics of latin and chinese. a significant majority of students surveyed at the faculty of foreign languages have german as a second language (89%), which allows saying that the learning environment for these students can be called a multilingual one. in the course of the study, the authors suggested that the effectiveness of training the future teachers can be achieved through the introduction of a methodology based on the study of languages. the authors proposed and tested the algorithm of this technique, carried out in the context of trilingual learning the german language based on speaking native and english languages. this was the solution of the fifth task of the study. gizatullina & sibgatullina discussion analyzing the theoretical basis for modeling the formation of professional competencies in students of the teacher training university's faculty of foreign languages in the multilingual context, the authors came to the conclusion that the principle of systemic perception of languages can be called as one of the main principles. in the co-studying of several languages and their interactions, the multilingual personality perceives them as an integrated complete system, sees similarities and differences, and learns to compare certain elements of languages, to use the possibilities of positive transfer and to minimize the complexity of negative interference in languages. our questionnaire confirmed that half (51%) of teachers use the principle of systemic perception of languages when learning the second or third foreign language, while the majority of respondents (67%) noted that the use of the second language contributes to the assimilation of new material for the sfl. as the authors are considering the analyzed process from the perspective of training the foreign language teacher, the next principle is the principle of integrating all curriculum subjects related to learning the foreign language, as well as the formation of the student's multilingual personality. the experience of the udmurt state university is very interesting; in the curricula, one can see such disciplines as "psychology of multilingualism", "psychology of multilingual education", "contrastive country studies", "text as a multicultural environment", "ethnocultural contacts in the history of language", and others. the goal of these subjects is the acquisition of scientific, linguistic knowledge of a multicultural world by students, as well as the creation of a multicultural educational space in the process of learning the foreign languages. the third principle of this process is the principle of dominance of problematic tasks in training the future teacher (magsumov et al., 2018). if ones talk about the cultural tasks, there are different types of similar tasks, but they all contribute to the cultural adaptation of students and should be aimed at creating optimal conditions for the positive personality-building potential of a foreign language as an academic subject. the principle of dominance of problematic cultural tasks proposed by safonova (safonova, 2001) is aimed at creating such a model of cultural studies by means of the fl, on the basis of which students get the following opportunities when solving the gradually becoming more complicated cultural tasks: to collect, systematize, generalize and interpret cultural information; to master the strategies of cultural research and ways of interpreting cultures; to develop a multicultural communicative competency; to form and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 282-295 287 deepen both different and common cultural features in the general planetary sense, the planetary core of the contemporary multidimensional multicultural world; to master the strategies of cultural self-education; to participate in creative work of cultural and communicative-cognitive kind (safonova, 2001). the problem tasks can also be of the language content. grammatical, lexical, phonetic problem tasks not only contribute to the formation of the ability to competently use a variety of linguistic resources, but also, in case of the proper organization of, prepare the future teacher for using the methods of problem training in foreign language lesson at school. the co-study of several languages (native and foreign) presupposes a special methodical educational system, which is a didactic system, reflecting the structural and functional links of its constituent components: tasks, methodological approaches, principles, content, methods and techniques, organizational and methodological conditions that should lead to a positive result. modeling of this system was started with a question to the students "what difficulties did you experience while studying the sfl?". among the typical difficulties in mastering the foreign language, there are phonetic, lexical, grammatical, and also socio-cultural difficulties. it was interesting that when co-studying several languages, most students indicated the following difficulties in learning: ear perception of speech, audio perception seems to students the most difficult (63%); grammatical forms that are irrelevant for the first foreign language (for example, declension of adjectives in german when learning german as the second language after english), 66%. lexical difficulties are called by students as insignificant (38%), while for some students (45%) the lack or insufficiency of socio-cultural knowledge about the country of the foreign language studied seemed to be a barrier to its improvement. the analysis of these results led us to the conclusion that it is the system perception of the second and the next foreign language that will allow a teacher to use the consciously comparative method as the leading one, as it is directed to the accounting of speaking other languages, as well as follows: overcoming language interference; the maximum concentration in teaching the lexical and grammatical material; the parallel learning of all types of speech activity. gizatullina & sibgatullina the issue of interlingual and intralinguistic interference is very significant. it should be noted that the nature of interference, the degree of its manifestation and distribution depend on various factors, in particular, on the type of multilingualism, on the method of its acquisition, on the structure and system of contacting languages. understanding of interference as the interpenetration of the elements of one language into another, which leads to deviations from the norm, determines the strategy of the methodology of teaching the foreign languages. as a rule, the second and subsequent foreign language is studied after a student has mastered the first foreign language at a minimum or a higher level; moreover, ones believe that certain methodological aspects of teaching the foreign language, focused on the study of languages, will train the foreign language teacher more effectively. the first condition for a multilingual environment in training of the foreign language teacher was the inclusion of authentic texts in the learning process of the future teacher. the effectiveness of using authentic texts as a method of teaching the foreign language at the university is a universally recognized fact. the papers by ivanova (2009), shastina et al., (2017), fadeeva (2009) and other scientists were devoted to this issue. an authentic text not only acquaints a student with the culture, features of the mentality and social life in the country of the studied language, but also gives an opportunity to adequately respond to the current issues of society, compare the development trends of other societies with similar trends in his or her society, which contributes to the formation of the intercultural competency of the student. this text illustrates the functioning of the language in the natural social context of native speakers, and as a result, strengthens the motivation for learning the foreign language. first, working with the authentic text during co-studying of several languages provides an opportunity to perform a comparative work on the text (for example, lexical and grammatical exercises); secondly, this text develops the skills of extracting value meanings from the text, their comprehension and transformation into student’s own orientations. the use of interactive pedagogical technologies has two main objectives in teaching foreign languages in the multilingual education context (the second condition): i) intensification of the educational process; ii) obtaining qualitative knowledge and skills necessary for the professional career of the teacher, his or her social self-determination; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 282-295 289 iii) training future teachers to work with different categories of students, including gifted children and children with disabilities. the following technologies of working in a student environment have proved themselves as effective ones: the case-study method, flipped classroom technology, learning through experience or learning through training. the goal of these technologies is to increase the motivation for learning, and intensify the learning process. in training the future foreign language teachers, these technologies are also valuable; and mastering them is the necessary skills for the teacher, prescribed in all federal documents regulating a teacher's activity (on the approval…), (the order…, 2018). the advantages of the case technology are that the search for ways to solve the problem actualizes a certain set of knowledge on the topic, encourages students to actively participate in the educational process; stimulates independent work on obtaining additional information, as well as develops critical thinking, text analysis skills; educates communicative culture. the flipped classroom model as one of the components of modern blended learning technology is used to organize the independent learning activity of students in mastering curriculum or additional educational material. this model of education is characterized by the alternation of full-time and distance (e-learning) components. electronic educational resources (eer) are today an integral part of education. the main principle of the functioning of eer is the separation of educational content on the subject into modules by thematic elements and components of the learning process (korableva et al., 2018; magsumov, 2017; sibgatullina, 2016). the flipped classroom technology allows placing responsibility for students' knowledge on students themselves, thereby giving them an incentive for further creativity, directing the learning process into the practical application of the acquired knowledge. the "learning through training" method was first developed in the early 1980s by a didactic, teacher and instructor, professor of the eichstätt university, dr. jean-pol martin. jean-pol martin gave the following definition to this method: "if the student develops his or her own training material, and then presents it to their group mates and wonders whether the information is perceived and understood by them or not, if he or she finds a suitable exercise for learning the topic, then all of these actions develop a method of "learning through training" (wittwer, 1996). despite the fact that this method is designed for use by a student, this technique is very effective gizatullina & sibgatullina in the training of a teacher, since this is a kind of practice where a student learns to be a teacher (akhmetshin et al, 2017; sibgatullina, 2015). the next condition is the professionally-oriented content of all training modules. the students go on pedagogical practice already in the second year of training. the programs of these practices are diverse and depend on the goals and objectives of the specific period of study. the first practice of a student is psychological and pedagogical, the main goal of which is to consolidate the theoretical knowledge obtained in the study of disciplines, acquire practical skills and abilities to independently solve current professional issues in the field of psychological and pedagogical support of the educational process, in particular, in the multicultural context. the goal of the student's pedagogical practice is to acquire the experience of independent professional-oriented activity as a teacher of the foreign language and to master the advanced technologies of the pedagogical activity. the current federal state education standards (fses) of pedagogical education increase the volume of practices, but more often it is asserted that not only practice, but the entire process of training a teacher at a higher educational institution should have a clear professionally-oriented character, which should manifest itself as follows: modular construction of educational curriculum; the technologies of project training as a variety of contextual learning; practical orientation of training; interdisciplinarity, the integration of the educational content. the essential feature of the module is the unity of the theoretical and practical aspects of the content with an orientation toward the educational and professional activity of a graduate at present and during the future professional activity (solomin, 2015). the variety of forms of project teaching makes it possible to use it as a special learning environment based on the system-activity approach (bochkareva et al., 2017; korableva et al., 2017; osadchy and akhmetshin, 2015), on the students' personal interaction with each other, with the teacher, with students during the practice. the practically-oriented model of the future teacher's training is based on an activity-competence approach in the formation of a student's self-educational activity, represented in the papers of such russian educators as i.a. zimnyaya, v.v. krayevsky, a.v. khutorskoy, t.i. shamova et al. the introduction of new pedagogical fses should extend the terms for practices, while changing their qualitative content. for example, in the document there were such kinds of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 282-295 291 practices as introduction, design and technology practice. in addition, each academic discipline (module) for training the future teacher should be accompanied by a non-intrusive methodological commentary of the teacher, what methods, techniques and technologies can be used by a teacher during the lesson. these conditions will certainly lead to the formation of a competent teacher, who is able to work with different target audiences. the multilingual context of an educational institution is one of the modern foreign language teacher’ activity factors, which should be taken into account in the process of his or her training. conclusion and implications the proposed paper considered the concepts of "multilingualism" and "multilingual education context", which serve as the basis for forming the professional competencies of future foreign language teachers; and they are especially relevant at the present time. during study, it was found out that the learning environment for students, who are future teachers of a foreign language (99 respondents), can be considered as multilingual, since most students speak two or more languages as native, and also study two or three foreign languages. when mastering new languages, the greatest difficulties arise for students in the field of audio perception, as well as grammar and socio-cultural differences. the authors tested the methodology of teacher training, based on the principles of the study of languages, the integration of all curriculum subjects, as well as the principle of the dominance of problem tasks during training. the application of this methodology contributes to the formation of universal and professional competencies of the pedagogical university students. the selected organizational conditions contribute to the effective organization of this process. the technique used by the authors has a positive effect on the formation of the professional qualities of a teacher's personality, and can be used both for teaching second foreign language and for multilingual education. gizatullina & sibgatullina references akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. anisimova, t., & sharafeeva, l. (2018). methodical training of future teachers as a requirement of new standards. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 65-79. doi:10.17499/jsser.15222 bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) borisov, a.m., shastina, e.m., gizatullina, a.v. & sibgatullina, a.a. (2017). concept of multilingual teaching in yelabuga institute of kazan federal university, perspectives of science,1 (88), 119-125. belomestnykh v.n., tesleva e.p. (2012) acoustic, elastic, and anharmonic properties of sm1– xrxs solid solutions with trivalent impurities (r = y, lа, tm). russian physics journal. vol. 55, № 5. p. 488–494. fadeeva, n.v. (2009). textual material as a means for forming socio-cultural competence in teaching french language, foreign languages in school, 6, 2-7. gapsalamov, a. r., ibatullin rinat, r., & kaviev airat, f. (2017a). features of estimating the effectiveness of implementation of labor actions in the system of secondary vocational education. astra salvensis, 5(10), 329-338. gapsalamov, a. r., vasilev, v. l., & ilyin, a. g. (2017b). state planning of the russian economy: past and present. international journal of economic perspectives, 11(1), 474480. kilinc, e., tarman, b., & aydin, h. (2018). examining turkish social studies teachers’ beliefs about barriers to technology integration. techtrends, 62(3), 221-223. doi:10.1007/s11528-018-0280-y hufeisen, b., (2000). drittund tertiärsprachenforschung. in: flensburger papiere zur mehrsprachigkeit und kulturenvielfalt im unterricht, heft 26, 1-33. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 282-295 293 hufeisen, b. & marx, n. (2005). auf dem wege von einer allgemeinen mehrsprachigkeitsdidaktik zu einer spezifischen dafne-didaktik. in: fremdsprachen lehren und lernen, 34, 146-151. ivanova, o.n. (2009). supports necessary for understanding the text in trilingualism, foreign languages in school, 5, 93-97. ivygina, a., pupysheva, e., & mukhametshina, d. (2018). the role of local history texts in implementing the culturological approach to teaching the russian language: the basic general education level. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 160-171. doi:10.17499/jsser.47783 kärchner-ober, r. (2009). the german language is completely different from the english language: besonderheiten des erwerbs von deutsch als tertiärsprache nach englisch und einer nicht-indogermanischen erstsprache. tübingen: stauffenburg. 347 s. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017). building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva, o. n., kalimullina, o. v., & mityakova, v. n. (2018). innovation activity data processing and aggregation based on ontological modelling. paper presented at the 2018 4th international conference on information management, icim 2018, 1-4. doi:10.1109/infoman.2018.8392659 kurbanova e., korableva o., kalimullina o. (2018). enhancing the effectiveness of asset management through development of license management system on the basis of sccm 2012 program by microsoft company. paper presented at the iceis 2018 proceedings of the 20th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 171-178 magsumov, t.a. (2017). family and school in russia at the beginning of the 20th century: attempts to bridge the gap. european journal of contemporary education. 6 (4): 837846. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 magsumov, t.a., artemova, s.f., balanyuk, l.l. (2018). regional problems of public schools in the russian empire in 1869-1878 (using an example of the vyatka province). gizatullina & sibgatullina european journal of contemporary education. 7 (2): 420-427. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2018.2.420 malykh, l.m. (2013). comparison of languages in synchrony: theoretical and applied aspects: monograph / ed. t.i. zelenin. izhevsk: publishing house "udmurt university", 200 p. malykh, l.m. (2011). introduction to multilingual education. principles of language comparison: textbook. allowance / scientific. ed. t.i. zelenin; udm. state. un-t. moscow: flint: science, 112 p. molchanova, l.v. (2009). teaching the second foreign language in the context of the formation of functional multilingualism in a language university: diss. candidate ped. sciences. ryazan: [electronic resource] url: http://www.dissercat.com/content/obuchenievtoromu-inostrannomu-yazyku-v-usloviyakh-formirovaniya-funktsionalnogomnogoyazych on the approval of the professional standard "teacher (pedagogical activity in the field of preschool, primary general, basic general, secondary general education) (educator, teacher)" http://docs.cntd.ru/document/499053710 osadchy, e. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2015). integration of industrial and educational sphere in modernization of economic relations. journal of applied economic sciences, 10(5) safonova, v.v. (2001). culturology in the system of modern language education, foreign languages in school, 3, 17-24. shastina, e.m., gizatullina, a.v., sibgatullina, a.a., malyi, j.m. & trofimova, l.v. (2017). didactisation of authentic text when teaching german as a second foreign language with english as the first in a higher educational institution, revista espacios, vol. 38 (no.40). sibgatullina, a. (2015). contemporary technologies to improve the quality of education when training teachers, international education studies, vol. 8, no. 3, 167-175. sibgatullina, a.a. (2016). features of the use of electronic educational resources in teaching a foreign language, philological sciences. questions of theory and practice. tambov: diploma, 1 (55): in 2 hours part 2, 208-210. szydlowski, a.v. (2018). a printing and publishing type as object of intellectual property in election law of russia and u.s. severo-kavkazskij juridicheskij vestnik, (1), 56-63. solomin, v.p. (2015). a new model of practice-oriented training of teachers, taking into account the requirements of the professional and educational standard / solomin valeriy http://www.dissercat.com/content/obuchenie-vtoromu-inostrannomu-yazyku-v-usloviyakh-formirovaniya-funktsionalnogo-mnogoyazych http://www.dissercat.com/content/obuchenie-vtoromu-inostrannomu-yazyku-v-usloviyakh-formirovaniya-funktsionalnogo-mnogoyazych http://www.dissercat.com/content/obuchenie-vtoromu-inostrannomu-yazyku-v-usloviyakh-formirovaniya-funktsionalnogo-mnogoyazych http://docs.cntd.ru/document/499053710 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 282-295 295 pavlovich, rabosh vasiliy antonovich, gogoberidze alexandra givivna, pedagogical education in russia, 12, 145-151. the order "on the approval of the federal state educational standard of higher education bachelor's degree in the field of training 44.03.05 pedagogical education (with two training profiles)" dated february 22, 2018 no. 125 https: //minobarnauk.rf the order of the ministry of education and science of russia from december 17, 2010 № 1897 "on approval and implementation of the federal state educational standard of basic general education" https: //minobarnauk.rf wittwer, angelika. (1996). handlungsorientierter fremdsprachenunterricht (französisch) mit der methode lernen durch lehren, pädagogik und schulalltag 51. № 3, 317-324. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 349-365 349 linguistic politeness and media education: a lingua-pragmatic study of changing trends in ‘forms of address’ in egyptian media talk shows abdulfattah omar1, mohammed ilyas2 , mohamed ali mohamed kassem3 abstract this study addressed the issue of linguistic politeness and media education in its socio-cultural perspectives through the adoption of a lingua pragmatic approach of the egyptian media, particularly their talk shows which are recognized education platforms in pragmatics. the selected talk shows from the egyptian tv channels aired during the period 2011 to 2013 were used to investigate the changes that were felt in linguistic politeness, particularly in ‘forms of address’ used by presenter(s) of these shows. the study premised that these changes could contribute to media education in the form of enhancing media literacy about lingua-pragmatic aspects of ‘forms of addresses used on various media platforms. the study also followed the proposition that there existed a close relationship between linguistic politeness and pragmatics that often makes media as a means of social education. secondly, a ‘form of address’ constitutes a welldefined media-educational pragmatic subject as revealed in its distinct lexical classes such as titles, personal names, nicknames and pronominal systems. these pragmatic strategies are often culturally bound and systematically applied by speakers within their community. the study cites instances of change in ‘forms of address’ and the linguistic politeness culturally linked with the arabic language. the findings reveal the extent to which socio-cultural and political events influenced the use of lingua-pragmatic terms like forms of address and the level of politeness embedded in them. the study has educational implications as it reveals how social and environmental factors shape people’s opinions and their use of language. the findings of this study would also offer novel learning opportunities for media personnel. keywords: forms of address, media literacy, social education, lingua-pragmatics, media talk shows introduction lingua-pragmatics is a field of linguistics that studies “fixed” language forms having fixed sociopragmatic meanings (malyuga and orlovo, 2017; shammas, 2006). lingua-pragmatics is particularly useful in developing social bonds through culture-specific politeness in interpersonal communication. these “fixed” forms define the speaker’s attitude towards the hearer but also represent such norms of speaker’s language through which the speaker could use the language to address, request, blame, contradict, interrupt or apologize with other members of their community. if the speaker fails to use appropriate forms corresponding to these norms, it would deem to be a pragmatic failure. all such forms are within the scope of lingua-pragmatics. speakers with same cultural background and who speak the same language can easily understand these lingua 1-2 department of english, college of sciences and humanities, prince sattam bin abdulaziz university, saudi arabia 3faculty of education in the new valley, assiut university, egypt *correspondence: abdulfattah omar, department of english, college of sciences and humanities, prince sattam bin abdulaziz university, saudi arabia. e-mail: a.omar@psau.edu.sa journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 349-365 pragmatic forms but non-native speakers face difficulties in understanding the message carried by these forms. hence, lingua-pragmatic forms can be said to be totally language-specific and culturespecific. one of the forms of lingua-pragmatics is expressions of politeness in multiple situations. politeness is defined as showing a respectful behaviour for others. expressions such as “thank you”, “please” and “you are welcome” show politeness and etiquettes of the western culture; in arab culture, the politeness is reflected in giving respect to elders, greeting people, and helping the needy. haugh (2004) identifies four pre-requisites of politeness: “a ‘conflict avoiding behavior’, a 'socially appropriate behavior', 'and consideration for the feelings of others' and 'evaluation of the speaker's behavior by the addressee as polite'.” brown and levinson (1978) have suggested that speakers employ politeness strategies in order to achieve successful communication and maintain social harmony. speakers also use polite forms of language/ indirect linguistic forms in order to save their image and/or face the image of their recipients. media education, in the twentieth century dates back to 1920s when france initiated cinema education in universities (martineau, 1988) as well as promoted education of newspaper journalists. gradually it spread to other countries and to various media disciplines such as press, radio, television, video, advertisement and internet in the recent past. initially curriculum for media education was an issue but a few british media educators decided to integrate media education with linguistics and arts (buckingham, 2003). language became a strong medium to express both aesthetics and skills required in various media disciplines such as film studies, mass communication, documentaries, and media-narratives. universities designed the curricula of such courses with contents based on visual language in a most pragmatic manner. language also helped in resolving the ambiguities caused by good or bad aesthetics or when it was required to judge the artistic value of a media text. nowadays media education and various language genres are blended together to develop a unified pedagogical approach. this study addresses the issue of linguistic politeness in egyptian talk show programs after the egyptian revolution in 2011. these talk shows represent media in this study. the study explores the relationship between politeness on one side and speaker’s authority and changing power relations on the other side. it seeks to generate an empirically grounded analysis of the shifts in politeness paradigms as evident in egyptian arabic talk show programs. these talk show programs reflect socio-cultural differences; they rewrite cultural scripts; alter people’s perceptions, social relationships, and their relationships to the natural world as well (donsbach, 2015, timberg and erler, 2002, woo and dominick, 2001). furthermore, the talk shows selected for this study are rich with interviews which the hosts conducted with people of different positions and social classes. hence, this study also illustrates that talk show programs potentially offer a good opportunity to explore lingua-pragmatics and also understand socio-cultural differences between the speakers and the hearers. this article is organized as follows. part 1 is the present introduction. part 2 introduces the egyptian talk shows sampled for this study. part 3 defines the research problem and research questions. part 4 is a brief survey of past studies. this section is divided into the three variables of this study: linguistic politeness, cross-cultural aspects and forms of address. part 5 outlines the methods and procedures of the study. part 6 is analysis and discussion. part 7 is conclusion. omar et al. egyptian talk shows in arabic as a sample of this study, the researchers used six talk shows in arabic aired on different egyptian tv channels between 2011 and 2013 and found archived on the youtube. these talk shows are bassem yusuf’s al-bernameg (the program), lamees hadidi’s huna al asima (here is the capital), moataz demerdash’s misr algadida (new egypt), yusri fuda’s akher kalam (the final say), tamer amin’s tahia masr (viva egypt) and khairy ramadan’s mumken(it is possible). bassem yusuf’s al-bernameg (the program) yusuf is a famous egyptian satirist and columnist and former cardiac surgeon, who hosted albernameg (the program), a satire talk show program from 2011 to 2014. the show started on on tv in 2011 before yusuf moved to cbc where he had to terminate his contract with the channel and stop the program in 2014. in this show, yusuf was greatly influenced by jon stewart, the host of the american talk show daily show. although the show opens with a long monologue in which yusuf mocks the social and political events of egypt and the way the events are treated by other media organization, the last segment of the program is devoted to a celebrity interview, with guests ranging from actors and musicians to nonfiction authors and political figures. lamees hadidi’shuna al asima (here is the capital) the program started in 2011 after the egyptian revolution. it is aired from saturday to wednesday and is concerned with addressing domestic and regional issues and policies. the program is broadcast on cbc and is one of the most popular programs in egypt. lamees has so far hosted a number of top officials and the president of egypt himself. moataz demerdash’s misr algadida (new egypt) this was an evening talk show that was aired from sunday to wednesday between 2011 and 2014. as its title suggests, the program was concerned with the social, political, and religious developments that were taking place in egypt after the revolution. yusri fuda’s akher kalam (the final say) akher kalam was an evening talk show represented by yusri fuda, one of the most prominent journalists, reporters, and tv hosts in the arab world. the program was aired on on tv from monday to friday from 2011 to 2013. the program gained a great popularity due to the serious interviews that fuda hosted with different people and officials. tamer amin’s tahia masr (viva egypt) the program was aired from saturday to wednesday on rotana, one of the most widespread satellite channels in the arab world. the program started in 2011 immediately after the revolution and ended in 2014 when amin announced that he was moving to ltc. khairy ramadan’s mumken (it is possible). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 349-365 this weekly talk show was aired on wednesdays on cbc. it started in 2011 and is still being aired. it is an interview program that is concerned with human, religious, and artistic dimensions. there are also discussions of social and political developments that took place in egypt and worldwide after the revolution. problem statement and research questions previous studies have dealt with socio-cultural and cross cultural pragmatic norms in relation to linguistic politeness, particularly in the use of forms of address (boubendir, 2012;2015; alqahtani, 2009;; kerkam, 2013; khamam, 2013). in arabic, forms of address and linguistic politeness are generally given high significance and priority by speakers. this was found practiced in tv programs including the talk show programs in egypt prior to the revolution. hosts paid a great attention to the use of address forms with their guests who were government top officials, highly skilled professionals, footballers and businessmen. the element of linguistic politeness particularly in address forms was quite obvious in these talk shows. however, with the outbreak of the egyptian revolution in 2011, a few talk show programs showed a more daring attitude as can be observed particularly in their restructuring the use of address forms. prior to the revolution, tv programs in egypt whether owned by the state or private organization used very polite forms of address with the guests, a few of whom were also government officials. during that period, criticizing official government policies or use of inappropriate forms of address was simply unthinkable. abdullah (2014) comments that the talk show programs have increased a great popularity as mass media genre and come to play a significant role in the public cause with the outbreak of the egyptian revolution in 2011. the author adds that talk show programs are one of the most striking features of the egyptian media because exchanging opinions and venting feelings live on tv are considered novel practices, novel to media education practices followed in egyptian media in current times. now, talk show programs have freed themselves from the taboos and traditional practices of governmental tv channels, thus declaring the freedom of press and arrival of democratization in media education in egypt. this is clearly reflected in the change in the use of the lingua-pragmatic examples of ‘address forms’ as a useful subject in media aesthetics too. in the light of this argument, this study tends to answer the following research questions: 1. what is the relationship between linguistic politeness and the use of address forms in egyptian talk shows programs? 2. what are the new developments in forms of address seen in egyptian arabic after the revolution of 2011? 3. how do forms of address constitute a well-defined pragmatic field of media education as exhibited through various lexical classes? omar et al. literature review linguistic politeness linguistic politeness is a set of conversational strategies that are employed in order to maintain social relationships and avoid interpersonal conflicts. held (2005) finds a specific type of linguistic structure in politeness which “expresses the speaker´s attitude” and is therefore understood by “pragmatic means” rather than by semantic (2005: 134). consistent with yule’s (1996) concept of a linguistic interaction being a social interaction, one can argue that the linguistic politeness also represents the social regulations and practices that shape a speaker’s utterances. hence, if a person uses expressions such as “thank you” or “i appreciate this” quite often within his group, he tends to exhibit a linguistic behavior required to maintain the “equilibrium of interpersonal relationship” in a social group (watts, 2005). the absence or omission of such behavior would be termed as impolite. crystal (2003)also defines politeness as ‘‘a term which characterizes linguistic features mediating norms of social behavior, in relation to such notions as courtesy, rapport, deference, and distance. such features include the use of special discourse markers (e.g. “please”), appropriate tones of voice, and acceptable forms of address e.g. the choice of intimate v. distant pronouns, or of first vs. last names’’(2003:358). the theory of politeness was postulated by brown and levinson (1978) who see politeness as a conscious and free decision of an individual to involve into a “purposeful-rational activity” (kasper, 2009) and create a public self-image or “face” akin to one´s self-esteem (huang, 2007). brown and levinson (1978) observe a mutual vulnerability of face since any individual´s face might be harmed by any other individual and emphasizes upon practising politeness to defend one´s face. in arabic the “face” is frequently associated with matters of politeness (shammas, 2005) as could be seen in expressions of politeness like ‘ حفظوا ماء وجهنا to mean ‘they preserved our face/image’ or a face-saving gesture; تحيياس ‘he blushed’ to show that he was shy (boubendir, 2012; 2015).farhat (2009) further explains how the cultural expression ‘wajih’ meaning ‘face’ in arabic is metaphorically used to mean ‘respect,’ ‘shame,’ ‘honor,’ and ‘dignity.’ culturally therefore ‘face’ has come to be a significant determinant of the arabic code of politeness preventing people from violating socio-cultural rules and maintain personal ethics. brown and levinson(1978) having employed grice’s (1975) and goffman’s (1972) notions of politeness, take a step further and considers that politeness is based on conflict avoidance. this is essentially achieved using face which is “something that is emotionally invested, and can be lost, maintained, or enhanced, and must be constantly attended to in interaction” (brown & levinson, 1978: 66). they also argue that speakers as well as hearers strategically manage their facethreatening acts (ftas) in a conversation. they argue that a fta is a speech act that damages the face or self-image of the speaker or hearer if his wants or desires are not supported or approved of. they suggested a few ftas such as requests, disagreements, criticism, accusations, insults, interruptions and complaints. a request to the hearer, for instance, threatens the hearer´s negative face as he might feel some compulsions to complete the request, or the request might restrict his independence. a request can also pose a threat to the positive face of the speaker if the hearer intends to decline it. similarly, a disagreement is a threat to the positive face of the hearer as it is a disappointment over non-acceptance of his opinions. it may not be possible to avoid such ftas in conversations but such strategies can be developed to minimize them. a disagreement threatens the positive face, because of the fact that it implies a lack of acceptance for the hearer´s opinions. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 349-365 in a conversation, ppositive face is the result of a strategy when the speaker tends to have social approval and acceptance; while the negative face looks for independence and freedom of action. so speakers and hearers must make a balance between both positive and negative face strategies. although politeness theory was extensively developed by brown and levinson (1978), the starting point was grice´s cooperation principle model which requires that in order to be polite participants in a conversation should not lose face. in this model, grice (1975) offers new insights into pragmatics. the theory is based on the realization that communication is a cooperative effort between the speaker and the hearer or recipient. the speaker must choose his words so that the hearer can understand the intent, and the latter must try to figure out what the former meant. grice’s theory thus emphasizes the social and contextual aspects of discourse. many scholars have agreed to grice’s model of linguistic politeness (bousfield, 2015; bousfield and locher, 2008; hickey and stewart, 2005; lakoff, 1989; leech, 2003; watts, 1989). grice’s cooperative principle is based on four categories: quantity, quality, relation, and manner. nevertheless, grice realized that in many situations, speakers are not committed to these principles. a speaker may violate one or more of these maxims for some reason. this means that there is a gap between what is said and what is implicated. grice explained it in terms of conversational implicature. one reason for violating the cooperative principles (cps) is indirectness. in other words, a speaker may violate one or more of the cps to be polite. similarly, goffman’s (1972) notions of politenessis reflected in his interaction ritual: essays on face-to-face behavior. goffman postulates very categorically that face-to-face interaction between two individuals requires communication strategies in which both the speaker and the listener must be concerned about the projection of their face in public. he gives the example of a theatrical or a stage performance where participants who interact socially must avoid embarrassment for self and for others. he calls society heterogeneous which means humans act differently in every context. hence, unlike a theatrical performance or a talk show, as in the context of the current study, individual actors or speakers have to face an audience. according to goffman (1972), while the speaker in a public appearance offers a positive self-concept of himself by being polite, at the same time he hides backstage his private societal roles and identities that he would not like to be a part of the face to face interaction. there seems to be a dichotomy of politeness varying in different roles, situations and purposes. leech (1983), for instance, also argued that politeness can be investigated in terms of the pragmatic theory and grice’s cooperative principle. the basic assumption of leech’s theory is that participants in an interaction tend to maintain an atmosphere of relative harmony by employing politeness maxims which include among others tact, modesty, and generosity. to put it simply, leech explains that a successful interaction requires from speakers to maximize politeness forms and minimize impoliteness forms. modesty and agreement are examples of polite forms while orders or commands are examples of impolite forms. politeness thus is based on the speaker’s using polite forms and avoiding impolite forms. according to leech, politeness is measured by the speaker’s effort to maximize politeness forms and minimizing impoliteness forms. the main implication of leech’s theory for this article is that there is a strong correlation between linguistic politeness and address system on one side and pragmatics on the other side. omar et al. in spite of its popularity, brown and levinson’s politeness theory received a lot of criticism (mills and grainger, 2015). one major issue that has been raised in relation to the theory is its universality. mills and grainger (2015) argue that the universal rules adopted by brown and levinson (1978) are not applicable to all languages and cultures. this is expressed in terms of ethnocentricity. moreover, there are cross-cultural differences that make the theory inappropriate (holmes,1990; holmesand & stubbe, 2003), particularly when address terms show politeness with reference to translation from arabic into english (ethelb, 2015). cross-cultural aspects and politeness the english speaking bilingual arabs have used varying expressions of politeness for different purposes in a conversation. for instance, they would use english words like ‘hello’ or ‘welcome’ as equivalent to the arabic ‘marhaba’, ‘ahala wasahla’ in greetings. the pragmatic norms of language can be seen determined by culture in both bilinguals and arabic monolinguals in egypt. several research studies (al-zumor, 2003;al-rifa‟i, 2004; shammas, 2005;al-kahtani, 2005; alkhatib,2006; nureddeen, 2008; al-fattah,2010) have proved the influence of culture having an influence in shaping the pragmatic norms of users of a second or a foreign language in the arabic context. attention may be drawn to studies such as al-kahtani (2005) who investigated politeness in refusal norms in three different culture groups: americans, arabs and japanese. the study found several semantic differences with respect to politeness. ponniah & samuveli (2017) who identified demographical factors affecting the social etiquettes of bilingual malaysian tamils speaking english and malay language. al-khatib (2006) carried out a study on pragmatics of making invitation and its acceptance in jordanian culture. this study aims to explore the nature of invitation making and acceptance in jordanian society from a pragmatic point of view. the study found several socio-pragmatic constraints in the expression of politeness. nureddeen’s (2008) study focused on the pragmatic norm of ‘apology strategies’ in sudanese arabic and discusses socio-cultural attitudes. all these studies negated the principle of universality of politeness proposed by brown and levinson (1978). their findings show that politeness is a culture specific variable. an expression of request or apology or even a form of address perceived as polite in arabic may not be considered so in english and vice versa. hence speakers of arabic should not be considered rude or impolite if they adopt a native style of politeness that does not match with that of native english speakers. speakers thus can never be accused of violating the socio-cultural rules if their expressions are evaluated from outside their own socio-cultural parameters media education media education and information literacy has recently evolved as a pedagogy for the personal development(fedorov & novikova, 2005; korilova &magsumov, 2017)that builds up social and public opinion of individuals in a society using the education-through-information approach (penzin,2004; baranov, 2002); with the help of media materials and media literary texts (potter, 2001; tyner, 200; silverblatt, 2001);and mass media methods (fedorov and & sharikov, 2005); all constituting a pedagogic theory and building an independent branch of education.the role of language in media education is that it introduces literature, folklore, songs, music, theatre, and other types of art and media literary texts. specifically speaking, a language introduces media personnel with a nation’s culture, creating awareness about it aesthetics and literary background. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 349-365 bazalgette (1997; 2004) finds that media language formulates an individual’s critical thinking, his media literacy and his ability to understand media texts. alshorooqi and rawadieh (2017) have drawn attention of media implications in bahrain’s arabic language textbooks which followed media literacy principles and standards set by unesco. in another study, dudareva and goeva (2017) made use of archetypal semantics and metaphysics to analyze the russian folklore. a study of linguistic politeness particularly in forms of address in egyptian talk shows hence becomes a significant subject of study under media education. pronominal forms of address brown and gilman (1960)investigated the pronominal expressions in three european languages: french, italian, and german. while the first two languages are classified under latin languages, german is classified as an old germanic language. in their study, the authors asked respondents who were mostly bilinguals to determine which pronoun they would use in addressing their recipients. the study found out that their use of pronouns was associated with the context in which they were used. moreover, the use of both formal and informal pronouns was correlated with the social status of respondents and with the degree of solidarity between them. this study was however criticized for its many drawbacks and shortcomings such as the sample was not representative of speakers of the languages under study or the intuition about a particular pragmatic behavior in certain situations was shown to differ widely from actual behavior. these drawbacks have adversely affected the reliability of this study. similarly, bates and benigni(1975)investigated the relationship between linguistic politeness and the use of pronouns in italian. the study is based on examining a varied group of 117 subjects differing in age, sex, and socioeconomic background. the study hypothesized that the use of pronouns was dependent on social class, regional origin, political affiliation, sex and significantly the age as determining factors. the study has a considerable evidence of the use of pronouns when speakers addressed their recipients based on their age. the older recipients got more respect as was reflected in the use of the pronominal system. the authors found the evidence that age also triggered nonreciprocal use of pronouns. in another study, paulston(1976)investigated the relationship between politeness and address forms in the use of pronominal system in swedish. in sweden, the socialist government had introduced a general change to the informal pronoun which people used in all situations. paulston observed, however, that pronoun avoidance was common and that the formal pronoun was still used by many, especially when the speaker wished to indicate distance with the audience. fang and heng (1983), in their investigation of the effect of revolution on the use of form of address in chinese, suggest that address norms have been widely affected by the social and political changes that accompanied the socialist revolution in china. they observed that forms of address particularly pronouns were changed in the revolution and found out a significant relationship between these changes and the social and political changes that took place in general. methods and procedures this study examines and analyzes forms of address in conversations, particularly talk shows aired after the egyptian revolution of 2011. the study adopted a pragmatic perspective within the role and context of egyptian arabic in which the forms of address were seen evolving in the post omar et al. revolution era. the rationale of this study rests in maintaining the belief that there is a close relationship between linguistic politeness and changing social power relations useful for media education. for the purposes of the study, data were abstracted from the interview segments of the six tv talk show programs popular in egypt. it has been taken into consideration that participants represent different categories and different social classes. these excerpts also served as evidence of media literacy and the use of a media discourse peculiar to talk shows. analysis and discussions the study made use of extracts of 40 interviews on yusuf’s talk show (akher kalam) with a view to understand how much language contributed to media literacy. it was observed that the host made a frequent use of the second person singular when addressing his guests. in all of his interviews with the political leaders, top government officials, and religious leaders, yusuf used the second person singular pronouns (which are traditionally considered as an impolite form in arabic). likewise, amin in his talk show (tahia masr) used second person singular pronouns frequently when addressing his guests who were political leaders or government officials. in 10 interviews selected from amin’s show (with political leaders and top government officials), second person singular pronouns were used 46 times while second person plural pronouns were used 110 times. yusuf accepted linguistic politeness strategies in talking to elder people or people who were older than he was. he also considered the age variable in addressing his guests who were with no political or religious background. on the contrary, hadidi, fuda, ramadan, and demerdash(hosts of other talk shows) have never used second person singular in their interviews with political leaders, ministers, and professionals. they use second person plural pronouns in addressing them. in her show (huna al asima), hadidi was seen showing a higher degree of politeness using forms such as حضرتكhadretak, سعدكsadatak, afandemافندم, and fakhamtak (equivalent to your excellency and your honor) which are deep-rooted and have traditionally been an integrated part in the polite system of arabic. however, she used second person plural forms with all her older guests she interviewed and second person singular pronouns and forms with the younger members. this however is not considered an impolite use of language in arabic since the idea is that younger should show respect for older, not vice versa. an interesting observation found in the transcripts of these talk shows that address terms like and fakhamtak, which were very frequent in egyptian ,افندم sadatak, afandemسررعدك ,hadretakحضرتك talk shows before the egyptian revolution in 2011, have now come to be less used in these programs. these four address terms never appeared in the interviews by yusuf, amin, demerdash, and fuda. only حضرررررررتكررررhadretak was an exception, and was used only in four of ramadan’s interviews. it can be suggested that the use of the established address forms that stood for politeness and honor, and which were deep-rooted and traditionally integrated in the politeness tradition of the arabic language, have been influenced by the outbreak of the egyptian revolution. these findings are consistent with ali (2016) who hinted at lesser use of the traditional arabic in social and personal communication particularly mass media marking a paradigm shift from arabic localization to arabic globalization in such situations that affect a language globally. this shift is a further evidence to show how language affects a media person’s aesthetics and cultural ethos. likewise, in arab societies, individuals are generally expected to show respect for others when addressing them by means of forms of address available to each individual speaker. in his interview journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 349-365 with the head of the farmers syndicate in egypt, for instance, ramadan used address forms like ammy (uncle) and haj(a title usually used with uneducated people to show respect). evidenceعمّ suggest that in talk show programs, forms of address such as personal names, mocking names, pronouns, and titles have a great implication on the success/failure of the interaction process. in egyptian arabic these forms of address also constituted a well-defined pragmatic field since their implications are not explicitly revealed in utterances but communicated through such forms of address. the use of such forms of address by arab speakers is also associated with a number of biographical characteristics of interlocutors such as age, sex, educational background, social status, kinship, formality of the context, etc. in talk show programs, such social variables provide the basis of the structure of behavior in face-to-face encounters and influence choice of pronominal forms and other forms of address. these variables are also often associated with the social status and role relations of interlocutors. this finding is consistent with sadeghi (2015) who found cultural context dominant in studying the social, psychological and behavioral aspects of an educational cluster. another interesting characteristic that has always attracted the attention of researchers is the relationship between politeness and pronominal system in arabic, wherein the pronominal system in arabic has a communicative function too (eid, 1983, yassin, 1975, holes, 1994). for instance, in arabic, there are two forms of the 2nd person pronouns, one singular and one plural. the hosts of the sampled tv talk shows made the use of the 2nd person plural pronoun to show a greater degree of politeness to their guests. both the hosts and guests were expected to show respect in their address to each other or when referring to someone else. if the guest was a government official or a person of high social rank like presidents, ministers, political and religious leaders, the host showed high esteem and respect for his guest. the host used forms of address such as ‘your excellency’, ‘mr. president’, ‘mr minister’, and ‘your highness’. on several occasions, hosts were seen using such forms instead of ordinary pronominal system ‘such as ‘you’ or ‘his/her’ while addressing their hearers. the objective is to show a greater degree of politeness to a person’s social status. this finding is not consistent with ilyas (2016) who related this phenomenon with a person’s intelligence level and recommended language quotient methods to determine this intelligence. it was also observed that hosts avoided the use of imperatives. in arabic, imperative forms indicate the relative social relationships between interlocutors (braun, 1988, el-anani, 1971, yassin, 1975). so in a talk show with a guest of a higher rank or social status, hosts usually try to avoid the use of imperatives and if unavoidable they use words such as ممكن‘mumkin’ (equivalent to ‘please’) بعد اذنك ‘badeznak’ (equivalent to ‘if you please’) along with the imperative forms and succeed in retaining the politeness of speech. another prominent feature evident in these talk shows was that the hosts made use of titles when addressing professional hosts which included doctors, professors, engineers, players, teachers, or even drivers. they used titles such as ّدككوت doktoor (dr.), باشمهندس bash muhandes (senior engineer), استاذة -استاذ ustaz (mr.), اسطى ustah (a term for highly skilled people but who are usually not educated), and كابتن kapten (captain), a term used to address footballers, players and athletes. however, titles were used with first names, not family names as in english. it is worth noting that a title like ustah is not accepted by educated craftsmen who consider its use as abusive and offensive (table 1). omar et al. table 1 examples of forms of address used in egyptian talk shows arabic ‘form of address’ english equivalent samahet el-sheikh, fadelatekom his eminence samahatokom al-alem al-jaleel your eminence great scholar fadelet el-sheikh fakhamat alrayiys your excellency mr. president’ bash muhandes, doktoor senior engineer, university professor/dcotor ustah professional ‘forms of address’ less in n use after 2011 revolution ,sadatak سعدتك ,hadretak حضرتك afandem افندم, and fakhamtak your excellency and your honor table 1 exhibits a few examples of ‘forms of address’ found in these talk shows. the selected data also indicate that all the hosts except bassem yusuf tended to use very polite forms of address when interviewing or talking about clergymen and religious leaders. in his interviews, khairy also used titles such as ‘samahet el-sheikh’, fadelatekom’, ‘fadelet el-sheikh’. hadidi also used ‘fadelet el-sheikh’ and ‘samahatokom’. fuda tended to use address titles like ‘al-alem al-jaleel’ (equivalent to the great scholar). aminand demerdash used ‘fadelet el-sheikh’. these are polite forms of address popularly used in egyptian arabic to show respect for clergymen and religious leaders. moreover, it is also a tradition in egyptian arabic to show respect for clergymen (sabry, 2015). table 2 lists a few vowels and consonants used in the transcription of the examples of ‘forms of address.’ this list is however suggestive as the current study is not dealing with issues of linguistic transcription. even in the interview transcripts of these talk shows, there were no issues related to transcription. table 2 examples of vowels and consonants (ipa) used in transcription alphabet romanization arabic character vowels a ع u أ ee ي e إ consonants f ف h ح sh ش k ك kh خ last, but not the least, it was also felt that in spite of the hot debates, whenever any controversial issue was discussed in an interview, the hosts in general used loiter forms of address. this can be journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 349-365 attributed to the idea that with the outbreak of the egyptian revolution in 2011, there was a tendency from many young people, reformers, media leaders, and scholars to adopt more liberal values. the implication is that although the egyptian revolution led to many changes with the use of address forms in talk show programs, the address system in arabic still considered linguistic politeness rules. it was only bassem yusuf who freed himself from the linguistic and social restrictions of using polite forms of address with the government officials, political leaders, and religious leaders he interviewed. the evidence of this study also hints at the evolution of a new type of lingua-pragmatic shift appearing in the form of media literacy about the use of language using a particular media platform. the study was confined to talk shows; however, these implications could be seen in other media platforms including the print and social media. the findings of this study also exemplify a close relationship between linguistic politeness and pragmatics proving that it makes media as a means of social education particularly the ‘form of address’ being accepted as a welldefined media-educational pragmatic subject. this is also a clear indication of the transformation in the use of language by the media personnel. this reflects how a socio-cultural event or a political revolution can influence the public discourse and bring a change in their opinions and beliefs. such a change is reflected through language in their aesthetics, behaviour and articulation of thoughts and emotions. conclusion the evidence of the study reveals that the egyptian revolution of 2011influenced the form of address and other address terms used in talk show programs. this revelation is based on an investigation of the use of lingua-pragmatic terms like forms of address and the level of politeness embedded in them. the research was based on six egyptian talk show programs. it is found out that after the revolution of 2011 there is now an increase in the use of second person singular pronouns which was earlier considered impolite. there is also a less use of polite forms such as and fakhamtak. despite these changes, the personal ,افندم sa?datak, afandemسعدك ,hadretakحضتك address system in talks and conversations in egyptian arabic is still largely committed to linguistic politeness rules of the arabic language. this study reiterates that address forms are socially and culturally bound. it also shows how the environmental factors like the revolution of 2011 influence the lexicon and semantic aspects of a language. the findings are a revelation for the media personnel guiding them to mould their language in order to agree to the changing paradigms in the domain of media literacy. the implications of the study are educational too as the study will open new avenues of language learning, both in field of pragmatics and in media education with socio-cultural perspectives, the findings of this research also support the view that language learning can be influenced by many aspects of human experience. like during the industrial revolution new words had to be invented and old ones modified to semantically cope up with the technological changes. the revolution demanded inclusion of new technical words into the vocabulary just as new products and new machinery were being manufactured. the neologisms had promoted the increase of loan words and coinage of new words. hence the revolutions of 2011 in egypt would not be an exception if it affected the language pragmatically, adding new meaning to words, phrases and statements or omar et al. even coining new ones, as shown in this study. this is also a great contribution to media education programmes that look for new ideas to develop social literacy. findings helped to answer the research questions of the current study. it was found out that unlike other cultures of the west that used first name for addressing their guests, the egyptians used terms that indicate the profession such as captain, dr, prof, in order to show respect as was also seen in the use of the term as ammy, meaning my uncle or haj. moreover, the use of these professional titles was associated with first names, not family names as is the case in most western english speaking countries. the findings also supported the researcher’s proposition that there was a closer relationship between linguistic politeness and forms of address. the egyptian arabic has many different ways to address people, varying according to age, gender, and social class of the person being addressed. it was found out that in egyptian arabic, it was impolite to call people who were older or of a higher social class by their first names, while in other cultures, it was accepted to call people by their first names once introduced. the use of less polite forms was associated with the host’s desire in denouncing his addressee. in the case of yusuf’s albernameg, he tended to mock the political and religious figures in a way that reflects lack of respect. in his show, yusuf revolted against the established politeness codes which were long used in the egyptian media. although the address system in egyptian arabic is still in large committed to linguistic politeness rules, the coming years may witness a great shift in the paradigms of linguistic politeness. viewers and audience of these talk shows may have liked yusuf’s changed strategies in addressing guests which can often be termed as arabic impoliteness strategies or lack of respect but it was a general opinion that political and religious leaders should be addressed appropriately. media education and social literacy programmes should also take cognizance of these changes and interpret their impact on public aesthetics and the linguistic politeness of the egyptian arabic. language has always played a vital role in developing media education and strengthened its mass media literacy; hence such changes cannot be ignored and given due attention in future studies. references abdullah, r. (2014) egypt's media in the midst of revolution, washington, carnegie. al-fattah, m. (2010), apology strategies of yemeni efl university students‟, the modern journal of applied linguistics: 223-249. al-kahtani, s. (2005), refusals realizations in three different cultures: a speech act theoretically-based cross-culturally study, department of language and translation king saud university, riyadh. available from: http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/saad/documents/refusal.pdf al-khatib, m. (2006). the pragmatics of invitation making and acceptance in jordanian society journal of language and linguistics, 5:272-294. al-qahtani, h. a. (2009) female use of politeness strategies in the speech act of offering: a contrastive study between spoken saudi arabic and spoken british english department of english language and literature. riyadh, king saud university. al-rifa‟i, k. (2004. linguistic politeness in arabic and english, unpublished ma dissertation, syria: damascus university journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 349-365 al-zumor, a. (2003). a pragmatic analysis of speech acts as produced by native speakers of arabic, unpublished phd thesis, department of linguistics, aligarh: india, aligarh muslim university. ali, m. a. (2016). artificial intelligence and natural language processing: the arabic corpora in online translation software. international journal of advanced and applied sciences, 3(9): 59-66 alshorooqi, f., and rawadieh, s. m. (2017). media implications in bahrain’s textbooks in light of unesco's media literacy principles journal of social studies education research vol 8, no 3 (2017), 259-281 baranov, o. (2002). media education in school and university(in russian).tver: tver state university, 87. (quoted in fedorov, alexander (2008). media education around the world: brief history, acta didactica napocensia vol 1 : no 2.) bazalgette, c. (1997). an agenda of the second phase of media literacy development media literacy in the information age new brunswick (u.s.a.) and london (u.k.): transaction publishers, pp.69-78. bazalgette, p. (2004). "my life in media: peter bazalgette". the independent (london, uk). 8 november 2004. bates, a. & benigni, l. (1975). “rules of address in italy: a sociological survey”, language in society, 3: 271–288. boubendir, f. z. (2012). linguistic politeness in english and arabic and its implications for translationthe department of english the university of petra boubendir, f. z. (2015). politeness theory. the international encyclopedia of language and social interaction, 4, 1-15. bousfield, d., & locher, m. a. (2008). impoliteness in language: studies on its interplay with power in theory and practice, new york, mouton de gruyter. brown, r. & gilman, a. (1960). the pronouns of power and solidarity in t. a. sebook (ed.) style in language, mit press, pps. 253-276. brown, p., & levinson, s. (1978). politeness: some universals in language usage, cambridge, cambridge university press. buckingham, d. (2003). media education: literacy, learning and contemporary culture. cambridge, uk: polity, 219 p. crystal, d. (2003). a dictionary of linguistics & phonetics malden, mass oxford, blackwell. donsbach, w. (2015). the concise encyclopedia of communication, wiley-blackwell. dudareva, m. and goeva, n. (2017). white willow in russian literature: folklore “roots” of image journal of social studies education research vol 8, no 3 (2017), 291-299. omar et al. ethelb, h. (2015). using address terms in showing politeness with reference to their translation from arabic into english, international journal of comparative literature & translation studies, 3, 27-37. fang, h. & heng, j. h. (1983). social changes and changing address norms in china language in society, 12: 495-507. farhat, s.h. (2009). politeness phenomena in palestinian arabic and australian english: a cross-cultural study of selected contemporary plays, unpublished phd dissertation, australia: australian catholic university. fedorov, a.v., novikova, o.a. (2005). ‘media education in the leading countries of the west’ taganrog: kuchma. pp. 270. fedorov, a.v., sharikov, a.v. (2005). ‘the pioneer of russian media education’ art and education vol. 6: 67-79. fedorov, alexander (2008). media education around the world: brief history, acta didactica napocensia vol 1 : no 2.) goffman, e. (1972) interaction ritual : essays on face-to-face behaviour, london, allen lane. grice, h. p. (1975) logic and conversation. in morgan, p. c. a. j. (ed.) syntax and semantics. new york, academic press. haugh, m. (2004), revisiting the conceptualisation of politeness in english and japanese. multilingua, 23: 85-109. held, g. (2005). politeness in linguistic research in k. ehlich & s. ide (eds.), politeness in language: studies in its history, theory and practice. berlin: mouton de gruyter. hickey, l. & stewart, m. (2005). politeness in europe, clevedon, multilingual matters. holmes, j. (1990). politeness strategies in new zealand women's speech in bell, a. h., j (ed.) new zealand ways of speaking english. avon, multilingual matters ltd. holmes, j. and m. stubbe (2003). power and politeness in the workplace: a sociolinguistic analysis of talk at work, uk: pearson education ltd. ilyas, m. (2016). language quotient (lq): new models of language learning. international journal of advanced and applied sciences, 3(9): 44-50 kasper, g. (2009). politeness. in f. brisard, f. östman & j. verschueren (eds.), pragmatics of interaction. amsterdam, nld: john benjamin publishing company kerkam, z. (2013). cross-cultural politeness: a comparison of arabic and english indirectness. the 1st postgraduate conference on linguistic politeness, university of huddersfield. khamam, r. (2013). politeness between the middle east and the west: a cross-cultural linguistic study of syrian arabic and british english requests. the 1st postgraduate conference on linguistic politeness university of huddersfield korilova, i.v., magsumov, t.a. (2017). emancipation in educational system: formation of women's higher education in russia. european journal of contemporary education (2), 6: 352366. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2017.2.352 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 349-365 lakoff, r. t. (1989). the limits of politeness: therapeutic and courtroom discourse. multilingua. journal of cross-cultural and interlanguage communication, 8, 101-130. leech, g. n. (1983) principles of pragmatics, london; new york, longman malyuga, e. n. & orlova, s. n. (2017). linguistic pragmatics of intercultural professional and business communication. springer. martineau, m. (ed.) (1988). l’enseignement du cinema et de l’audiovisuel. paris: cinemaction, 299 p. (quoted in fedorov, alexander (2008). media education around the world: brief history,acta didactica napocensia vol 1 : no 2.) mills, s. & grainger, k. (2015). directness and indirectness across cultures, palgrave macmillan. nureddeen, f. (2008). cross-cultural pragmatics: apology strategies in sudanese arabic, journal of pragmatics, vol. 40, (2): 279-306. pastor, m. d. g. (2001). pragmatics and the 2000 us elections: issues of politeness and power in political campaign debates: sell monographs. , valencia, lengua inglesa, universitat de valã¨ncia. paulston, c. b. (1976). pronouns of address in swedish: social class semantics and changing system. language in society. 5: 359-386. penzin, s. (2004). film education and modern times(in russian). voronezh: voronezh state university, pp.151-163. (quoted in fedorov, alexander (2008). media education around the world: brief history,acta didactica napocensia vol 1 : no 2.) ponniah k, thamburaj kp, and samuveli sji (2017). language attitude among tamil language teachers. international journal of advanced and applied sciences, 4(6): 142-147 potter, w.j. (2001). media literacy. thousand oaks – london: sage publication, 423 p. sabry, m. (2015). address system in egyptian arabic as reflected in the novels of naguib mahfouz. rowayat, 6, 24-38. sadeghi, sayed hadi (2015). cultural context and e‐ practice: an assessment on usa institutions. international journal of advanced and applied sciences, 2(9): 32-36. shammas, n. (2006). social context, values and cultural identity: a method for assessment of arab and american attitude to politeness‟, international journal of language, society and culture. silverblatt, a. (2001). media literacy. westport, connecticut – london: praeger, 449 p. timberg, b. m. & erler, r. j. (2002). television talk: a history of the tv talk show, texas, university of texas press. tyner, k. (2000). directions and challenges for media education. telemedium. the journal of medialiteracy. vol. 46. n 1, p.4. omar et al. watts, r. j. (1989). relevance and relational work: linguistic politeness as politic behavior. multilingua: journal of cross-cultural and interlanguage communication, 8, 131-166. watts, r. j. (2005). linguistic politeness research: quo vadis? in k. ehlich & s. ide (eds.), politeness in language : studies in its history, theory and practice. berlin: mouton de gruyter. woo, h. & dominick, j. (2001). daytime television talk shows and the cultivation effect among us and international students. journal of broadcasting & electronic media, 45, 598-614. yule, g. (1996). pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 317-331 317 integration as a form of acculturation of foreign student – future teacher in the polyethnic educational environment of university raziya ahtarieva1, elmira ibragimova2, gulnaz sattarova3, gulmira turzhanova4 abstract adaptation of foreign students in the host country, developed during the process of acculturation, is complex and differentiated, since it occurs in the context of a dialogue of representatives of different nationalities, a dialogue of cultures. the main positive result of acculturation for students – non-native speakers is integration. the work is devoted to the study of this phenomenon by the example of yelabuga institute of kazan federal university (kfu) and s.baishev aktobe university (kazakhstan). the written survey conducted by the authors makes it possible to determine the degree of students’ integration of this pedagogical university. the paper also analyzes students’ integrative activity and ways of introducing new content into the system of higher pedagogical education, considering the regional features. keywords: acculturation, foreign students, polyethnic educational environment, globalization, migration, integration. introduction the study of such a complex process as integration, which is one of the forms of acculturation, is becoming increasingly important. in recent years, the life of russian and kazakhstan`s society has seen intensified migration flows, developing integration processes, expanding interstate educational space, leading to an increase in the number of young people who want to obtain higher education abroad. adaptation of foreign students in a host country, developed during the process of acculturation, is complex and differentiated, since it occurs in the context of a dialogue of representatives of different nationalities, a dialogue of cultures. students, who overcome various social, communicative and religious barriers for a harmonious existence in 1 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, raziya-a@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, elmira915@mail.ru 3 assistant lecturer, kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, gulnaz-sattarova@mail.ru 4 senior teacher, kazakh language and literature department, s.baishev aktobe university, kazakhstan, mikaagu75@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 317-331 society, are forced to adapt to a new socio-cultural environment in the process of mastering new types of cognitive and educational activity, and to reexamine stereotypes and ways of their behavior in a foreign country. the main positive result of acculturation for students – non-native speakers is integration, along with self-identification in both native and foreign culture, resulting in formation of a bicultural or multicultural personality (korableva et al., 2017a; magsumov & nizamova, 2015). thus, this problem today is very relevant in the theoretical-methodological and practical plans. the beginning of the most intensive study of this problem was laid in the late 19th century in american cultural anthropology. the process of acculturation was of interest to such researchers of the 20th century as herskovits, mead, redfield, hunter, spier, linton, and malinowski. thus, redfield, linton and herskovits are known as developers of a typical model of acculturation research. the well-known psychologist j. berry also engaged in acculturation and psychological adaptation. his concept of acculturation scheme has become the most preferred model since the early 1990s. among the russian researchers, it is possible to name the following scholars: arutyunyan (2006), boronoyeva (1994), lebedeva (2009), lobas (2002), magsumov (2015) and stefanenko (2009). in modern science, acculturation, which is based on communicative process, refers to the process of changes in the material culture, customs and beliefs derived from direct contact and mutual influence of different socio-cultural systems (gasanov, 1998). integration is considered one of the forms of acculturation. according to markova (ivanova, 2002), integration strategy reflects an individual's desire to maintain basic cultural characteristics, while at the same time he accepts the basic values and patterns of behavior of the new culture and establishes strong links with its bearers. it should be noted that the study of this problem was initiated in england, the united states, canada, australia, that is, in countries belonging to the group of migrant societies, where there was a rapid growth of cultural diversity and it was necessary to carefully develop mechanisms for social adaptation of ethno-cultural groups. the works of the american sociologist irving hoffmann (who believes that social behavior of people creates social rules, social life and that everything that sociology does should be explained in the position of social interaction as a process of social life that determines socio-cultural integration) form the basis of methodology and theory of social adaptation and cultural integration. ahtarieva et al. the question of future teachers' integration becomes the most urgent in the polyethnic republics of tatarstan and kazakhstan, in the conditions of the polyethnic educational environment of the university (aminov, 2014; akhmetshin et al., 2017a; aydarova et al., 2017; bochkareva et al., 2017; gabidullina & khaliullina, 2017; magsumov, 2017; shkilev et al., 2018). developing the willingness in non-native speakers – future teachers of foreign languages in the conditions of the polyethnic educational environment of the university not only to preserve the basic cultural values, but also to accept the values of a new culture requires considering sociocultural characteristics of the republics of tatarstan and kazakstan. accordingly, the process of integration is closely related to the culture of interethnic communication. the main indicators of integration of foreign students in the new educational environment, in our view, are the equality of foreign students and students who are citizens of the state where the university is located; presence of a culture of interethnic communication; positive attitude towards foreign students; to the characteristics of another culture. the analysis of the literature presented in this work allows to state that the corresponding diagnostic criteria, pedagogical mechanisms of the organization of this process are poorly developed; not all teachers are ready to implement it. the aim of the research is to identify the specifics of the process of integration of a foreign student-future teacher in the multi-ethnic educational environment of the university and determine the conditions, factors and strategies of its socio-cultural integration development. method the study used a set of complementary research methods that are adequate to the nature of the phenomenon, the purpose, the subject of the study, and identified objectives: the analysis theoretical method (interdisciplinary, comparative and benchmarking, semantic) of psychological, pedagogical, philosophical and sociological literature on the problem (krysko, 2002; gapsalamov et al., 2017a), inductively deductive method theoretical generalization and systematization of scientific-theoretical and experimental data, modeling; the interview method, empirical method analysis of products of activity, observation: direct and indirect, long-term and short-term; methods of mathematical statistics. questioning as a method of gathering information, as well as using statistical procedures for quantitative data processing in the study, are considered to be one of the effective methods that enable us to obtain more reliable information and achieve our goal. this approach allows us to journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 317-331 determine the existence of various problems in the socio-cultural integration of foreign students in the educational environment of the university, to forecast them and develop a set of measures to address this problem. the basis of the instruments is a questionnaire survey of students to identify opinions on integration in yelabuga institute of kfu and s. baishev aktobe university (6 polling positions). the sample size is 205 people. the average age of respondents was 18-25 years, 3 of them were officially married. the time of stay in russia and kazakhstan for foreign students is from six months to four years. most of them (89%) live in a campus dorm. results in the course of the study, it was found that most foreign students of yelabuga institute of kfu and s. baishev aktobe university have insufficient culture of interethnic communication, which in fact is the basis for the formation of integration process. the results of the study aimed at revealing sufficiency the culture of interethnic communication are reflected in table 1. table 1 the level sufficiency of the culture of interethnic communication lsufficiency levels of interethnic communication culture % 1 persons with a high sufficiency level of interethnic communication culture 11.2 2 persons with a medium sufficiency level of interethnic communication culture 59.3 3 persons with a low sufficiency level of interethnic communication culture 29.5 attitude to the topic under consideration was based on collection of information reflecting the respondents' readiness for interethnic communication, their interest in intercultural dialogue, as well as information providing the idea of problems and obstacles to interethnic dialogue. the first precondition for establishing an interethnic dialogue is the importance for a person of the national roots of those people with whom he/she enters into personal communication (akhmetshin et al., 2017b; anisimova & ibatullin, 2018; baytak et al., 2011; galevskiy et al., 2016; korableva et al., 2018; szydlowski, 2018). the nature of this significance is related to the manner a person builds the ethnic structure of his social circles, how much he/she is inclined to become isolated in the world of his/her national culture, how open he/she is to perception of ahtarieva et al. foreign cultural traditions and foreign cultural skills of everyday life. with this in mind, the authors drafted a questionnaire, to which the students answered. discussion the results of choosing one of four proposed answers to the question "how important is the national identity of a person in personal communication to you?" revealed the following percentage: very important – 11.2%; sometimes important, sometimes not – 50.1%; not important – 27.1%; hard to answer – 11.6%. as can be seen from the respondents' answers, in the general array of interviewed students, those perceiving others through the prism of their nationality, i.e., ethnicity-focused, are not many in principle. according to the data of ethno-sociological studies of the soviet era, the share of such people in representative all-union samples averaged about 7-8%. the portion of people who are ready to communicate with others, regardless of their ethnic roots, is more than doubled. however, one should pay attention to the share of respondents who assess the importance of national identity in building a dialogue in a situational manner (50%). this trend is very typical for the russian and kazakhstan`s society (in contrast to the countries of western europe and america) (osipenkova, 2007; poshtareva, 2009). it is for this reason that russians have always divided those around them not so much by ethnicity as by how much they are "friends" to this particular territory, and how much they are "foes" (regardless of their nationality). "friends" are usually people (almost any nationality and religion), adhering to historically established rules of conduct common for a given territory. and "foes" are those who, for some or other reason, do not fit into these rules, even if they are ethnic russians, but from other regions. thewhen asking the question "representatives of different nationalities study at yelabuga institute of kfu and s. baishev aktobe university. do you feel any dislike for them?" the authors received approximately equal ratio of affirmative and negative answers: yes – 49.4%; no – 51.6%. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 317-331 the proportion of respondents who do and do not take a dislike to the representatives of any nationality are practically equal (differences within the sampling error being ± 5% that are standard for representative surveys). but this does not mean that the students of yelabuga institute and s.baishev aktobe university are half "ethnic xenophobes", as it might seem from the answers. this means that for half of the students there is a division into "friends" (the russian and kazakhstan`s society) and "foes" (unaccustomed ethnic groups that have not yet entered into the russian and kazakhstan`s environment). this is not the division of people according to their nationality, just because the presented distributions are completely unrelated (according to statistical reliability criteria) to the distributions reflecting the importance of national identity for communication. the above conclusion is confirmed by a list of those nationalities which the respondents dislike (question 3). since the poll was open, the respondents simply named certain nationalities (in the amount of 30). all this variety was reduced to 3 categories: 1) peoples representing external migrants to russia (in overwhelming majority these are the peoples of the former central asian republics of the ussr) – 68.2%; 2) internal migrants from the republics of the north caucasus federal district (ncfd) – 27.8%; 3) other peoples – the autochthons of russia – 4.0%. as can be seen from the answers, the overwhelming majority of respondents indicate that external migrants are hostile to them. the second group included visitors from the north caucasian republics of the russian federation. and only a small proportion of respondents (comparable to the sampling error) feel dislike for other indigenous peoples of russia. concerning the first two groups, this is due to their weak integration into the traditions and daily life of the local population (korableva et al., 2017b). this is already recognized at all levels: from public opinion to the president of the russian federation. respondents 'the respondents' answers to the fourth question allowed identifying the degree of their agreement or disagreement with this or that statement. the degree of agreement with the statement "they live a different way of life, speak an incomprehensible language" is as follows: agree – 42.2%; rather agree – 41.1%; rather disagree – 9.5%; ahtarieva et al. do not agree – 7.2%. the majority of respondents say that they feel hostility and irritation towards representatives of specific nationalities due to the fact that these people are "strangers", live a different way of life, speak an incomprehensible language. and this is nothing more than the lack of integration of visitors into the current rules of the everyday live (korableva & kalimullina, 2014; il'yaschenko et al., 2015; sapozhkov et al., 2016). representatives of other nationalities are not perceived as strangers by only 16.7% of respondents in the aggregate. through the survey also revealed the degree of agreement with the following statement: "they behave insultingly towards people of your nationality": agree – 49.9%; rather agree – 37.2%; rather disagree – 10.4%; do not agree – 2.4%. an agreement with the judgment is nothing but an expression of the same displeasure by nonintegration, but expressed in a different emotional form, since often the non-compliance with the rules developed in a given local territory (in this case, in the republic of tatarstan) is viewed by the host population as a challenge and an insult, causing a response. the degree of agreement of yelabuga institute of kfu and s.baishev aktobe university students with the statement "they do not respect customs and traditions of other peoples" is presented as follows: agree – 42.7%; rather agree – 42%; rather disagree – 12.2%; do not agree – 2.8%. another form of the same reaction is shown here: non-observance of the rules of behavior is perceived as disrespect for the host population. with an alien religion" fixes the respondents' attitude to yet another extremely important phenomenon of modern life – the emergence of representatives of extreme branches of islam (we are talking here mainly about islam, since statistically most nationalities, in relation to which the students express dissatisfaction, are muslims). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 317-331 the degree of agreement with the statement "they are people with an alien religion" is as follows: agree – 32.5%; rather agree – 20.7%; rather disagree – 22.6%; do not agree – 24.7%. athis sufficiently high degree of agreement with the judgment should by no means be interpreted as manifestation of confessional intolerance. according to the data of long-term studies of the russian poly-confessional environment (valeeva et al., 2016; korableva and kalimullina, 2016; тesleva and belkova, 2014), historically established customs and habits of life in the conditions of inter-confessional consent are characteristic for russians of different faiths. among the peoples of russia, recognized as "friends", there are many peoples of the muslim faith (for example, tatars and bashkirs) (fedorov, 2015; gapsalamov et al., 2017b). in this respect, there are no (and there have never been any) serious problems of confrontation between religions. it would be extremely incorrect to consider the agreement with the statement in question as evidence of the growing confessional intolerance. here, it is rather a question of dissatisfaction with poor integration of the newcomers into the russian traditional islamic space with its skills of conflict-free coexistence with the christian (orthodox) cultural space. when regulating interethnic relations and building an adequate environment for interethnic communication (since in minds of most russians, confessional preferences are practically inextricably linked with nationality, although this does not reflect reality), the efforts of preachers of traditional/familiar ways for islam should be supported in every possible way. thus, the main conclusion is that the respondents' dissatisfaction is not caused by alien ethnocultural specifics of the newcomers themselves, nor by their different faith, but by their lack of integration into the context of the daily life of the educational institution at which they live. moreover, this non-integration triggers the mechanisms of growth of domestic nationalism, since often incorrect and unsuitable behavior (not corresponding to the local standards of "decency") is perceived as insulting. the fifth question aimed to identify the state and nature of interethnic relations in yelabuga institute and s. baishev aktobe university. the following answers to this question were received: ahtarieva et al. the situation is calm, peaceful – 31.8% the situation is externally calm, but there is some tension – 44.3% the situation is tense; conflicts are possible – 12.3% hard to answer – 11.6% as one can see, the dominant opinion in the assessment of interethnic situation in the university as "externally calm, but with some tension", although the assessment of the situation as tense and/or pre-conflict is also high. this is a direct consequence of the previously described discontent. it should also be considered that a certain "normal" level of anxiety with interethnic relations does not only indicates the impending "threats" to the international consent, but also speaks of a certain sense of responsibility of students for the fact that representatives of different cultural traditions and their ethno-cultural needs are taken into account. the following answers were obtained to the sixth question "would you like to learn more about customs, traditions and history of those peoples studying at yelabuga institute of kfu and s. baishev aktobe university?": yes, i would love to – 77.9%; no, i would rather not – 4.9%; hard to answer – 17.2%. as can be seen from the distribution of answers, students are interested to learn something new, about customs and traditions, about the history of those peoples studying at yelabuga institute and s. baishev aktobe university which is facilitated by great educational work carried out at the university. studying: study and analysis of answers to the questionnaire, comprehension of observation and results of the interview with students made it possible to identify the most effective forms of cultural education in terms of interethnic communication along with its specific content. with the purpose of forming: in order to develop a culture of interethnic communication, along with the process of integration, and instilling in students of universal, civil-patriotic and national feelings of consciousness and behavior in the university, the university authorities hold various extracurricular activities: 1) national holidays (navruz, sabantuy, christmas, day of slavic writing), 2) projects dedicated to memorable dates of historical significance (victory ended the war, and the saved world remembers), anniversaries of outstanding cultural figures, literature, science and folk characters (khlebnikov readings, razil valeyev’s works), 3) open lectures journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 317-331 (open lecture for students on the topic "moral lessons of leo tolstoy's creativity" in the framework of the year of leo tolstoy in 2018), 4) festivals (festival of friendship of peoples), 5) competitions (a contest of readers timed to coincide with the day of the native language, a creative competition kauri kalym), 6) meetings of the literary club the planet of the writer (within the year of leo tolstoy in 2018), meetings (poetic meeting in the framework of the 7th international poetry festival ladomir), which provide students – non-native speakers with an insight of culture and traditions of people of different nationalities and form their ability to observe the universal norms of morality and behavior, mutual readiness to correctly perceive national values, their desire to enrich themselves with the knowledge about these values. the organization and conduct of these events are aimed at eliminating the negative feelings of students in relation to the people of other nationalities. the association of foreign students of yelabuga institute of kfu, the movie club, and the club of international friendship are aimed at fostering respectful attitude towards all nations. the association aims to create favorable conditions for study and residence of foreign students, to provide them with legal assistance and other support, to reveal their creative potential. the main goal of the club of international friendship is to develop and support a sense of tolerance among students, increase students' interest in intercultural and international communication, create favorable conditions for adaptation of foreign students of yelabuga institute of kfu. the club hosts various master classes, discussions, roundtables, brain-rings; various projects, such as: #followme (when the visitors of the club "travel" to different countries), #madeinchina (activities aimed at learning chinese language and culture, etc.). the thematic club "movies from the treasury of soviet cinema", shows uzbek, turkmen, kazakh, kyrgyz, tajik, azerbaijani, ukrainian films in russian with their subsequent analysis. comprehension and absorption by foreign students of a foreign culture do not only broaden their mind, their cultural horizons, but also forces them to look at their native cultures extrinsically and to draw parallels, compare, find something common and distinctive. the integration process is also facilitated by extracurricular activities with entertaining character: the freshmen competition, the friendship festival of peoples, the imperial ball, the student spring. the annual festival of friendship of peoples aims to introduce students to history, folklore, and specifics of everyday life of people of different nationalities, instill tolerant attitude towards representatives of different nationalities, develop national consciousness within the ahtarieva et al. framework of civil and patriotic education. the imperial ball at yelabuga institute, timed to coincide with the academic days of the university, aims to revive traditions, morality and spirituality of russians, educate the patriotic spirit and pride for their country in the minds of the younger generation. visitingparticipation of foreign students in different sports activities and various competitions in national sports also create favorable conditions for the formation of interethnic communication culture. in celebration of the national unity day, the international mini-football tournament takes place with one team comprising the students of different nationalities. students – nonnative speakers try the ancient tajik national struggle gushtingiri and the turkmen national struggle goresh. representatives of other nationalities enjoy visiting these competitions with pleasure. it should be noted that many foreign students win prizes not only in the university’s and city’s contests, but also in regional ones. some students are engaged in the international theater-studio "friendship of peoples". conclusion thus, the special value of involving foreign students in the social and cultural activities of yelabuga institute of kfu and s. baishev aktobe university is that "the process of correlating individual’s norms and values with the norms and values of society is optimized, but an individual develops his/her worldview beliefs; the students' free time is filled with developing, personality-forming content, providing socio-cultural integration, communication, freedom to choose leisure activities, development of motivational and emotional sphere of an individual. individual’s need for self-realization, self-education, creativity, group support, reference, identity is formed, developed and satisfied. individual’s adaptive develop when entering various microenvironments" (mathis,2003). at the same time, these activities facilitate the transfer of samples of different national cultures contributing to the formation of integration, while maintaining traditions of representatives of different nationalities at the university. the culture of interethnic communication, formed through integration, is considered by the authors (being the teachers of yelabuga institute of kfu and s.baishev aktobe university and engaged in future teachers’ pedagogical training) as today’s leading personal and professional characteristic of students, which will become teachers in future. pedagogical activity is a way of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 317-331 "attribution" of the values of native and foreign culture to the trainees and the possibility of "introducing" them into the world of the global culture. the authors of this study believe, that the results suggest that integration through formation of the culture of interethnic communication can be improved if the education and training of future teachers – non-native speakers will be conducted based on cultural, national characteristics and changes taking place in society. effective methods (including students in creative national associations, creating foreign students’ associations, engaging them in various activities) make it possible to provide a solid foundation for formation of the culture of interethnic communication and interaction at a pedagogical university. references akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017a). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. akhmetshin, e. m., vasilev, v. l., puryaev, a. s., sharipov, r. r., & bochkareva, t. n. (2017b). exchange of property rights and control as a condition of the innovation process effectiveness at collaboration between university and enterprise. academy of strategic management journal, 16(specialissue1), 1-9. anisimova, e., & ibatullin, r. (2018). project method in preparation of future preschool teachers. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 228-238. doi:10.17499/jsser.73355 arsaliev, sh. (2015). ethno-pedagogical bases of education of morals in multicultural educational space. moscow: publisher: helios arv. aydarova, s. h., giniyatullina, l. m., sagdieva, r. k., husnutdinov, d. h., mirzagitov, r. h., & gabidullina, f. i. (2017). models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60). aydarova, s. h., giniyatullina, l. m., sagdieva, r. k., husnutdinov, d. h., mirzagitov, r. h., & gabidullina, f. i. (2017). models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) ahtarieva et al. aminov, t.м. (2014). system of professional education in regions of pre-revolutionary russia (through the example of bashkiria). voprosy obrazovaniya. 3: 244-262. arutyunyan, yu v., drobizheva, lm, susokolov, aa. ethnosociology (2006). moscow: aspectpress. bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) boronoyeva a.o. (1994). ethnic psychology. st. petersburg. baytak, a., tarman, b., & ayas, c. (2011). experiencing technology integration in education: children's perceptions. international electronic journal of elementary education, 3(2), 139-151. fedorov, a. (2015). mobilization development and happiness. the russian academic journal, 30(4). doi: 10.15535/336 gabidullina, f. i., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). islam motives in sagit suncheley's works. man in india, 97(10), 311-316. gapsalamov, a. r., ibatullin rinat, r., & kaviev airat, f. (2017a). features of estimating the effectiveness of implementation of labor actions in the system of secondary vocational education. astra salvensis, 5(10), 329-338. gapsalamov, a. r., vasilev, v. l., & ilyin, a. g. (2017b). state planning of the russian economy: past and present. international journal of economic perspectives, 11(1), 474480. gasanov, 3. t. (1998). education of the culture of interethnic communication: methodology, theory, practice. makhachkala. galevskiy, g.v., rudneva, v.v., galevskiy, s.g., il'yashchenko, d.p., kartsev, d.s. (2016). nanosized borides and carbides for electroplating. metal-matrix coatings: specifications, performance evaluation. iop conference series: materials science and engineering, 125 (1), art. no. 012032. ivanova, s. yu. (2002). formation of modern skills of interethnic interaction in the stavropol territory. stavropol: izd-vo ssu. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016) strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84977667174&origin=reflist&recordrank= https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84977667174&origin=reflist&recordrank= journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 317-331 international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a) building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva, o. n., kalimullina, o. v., & mityakova, v. n. (2018). innovation activity data processing and aggregation based on ontological modelling. paper presented at the 2018 4th international conference on information management, icim 2018, 1-4. doi:10.1109/infoman.2018.8392659 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b). research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. kurbanova e., korableva o., kalimullina o. (2018). enhancing the effectiveness of asset management through development of license management system on the basis of sccm 2012 program by microsoft company. paper presented at the iceis 2018 proceedings of the 20th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 171-178 krysko, vg (2002). ethnic psychology. moscow. kuznetsova ev (2001). ethno-pedagogical preparation of students of a teacher training university for work in polyethnic region. dis .... cand. ped. volgograd, russia. lebedeva, n.m. (2009). strategies of intercultural interaction of migrants and the population of russia. moscow. lobas, m.a. (2012). features of psychological adaptation of migrant children to the russianlanguage school. author's abstract for the degree of candidate of psychological sciences. – yaroslavl. magsumov, t.a. (2015). the additional professional training in the late russian empire. bylye gody. (2), 36: 327-337. ahtarieva et al. magsumov, t.a. (2017). family and school in russia at the beginning of the 20th century: attempts to bridge the gap. european journal of contemporary education. 6 (4): 837846. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 magsumov, t.a., nizamova, m.s. (2015). the country council work on extracurricular enlightenment of adults in the volga-ural region. bylye gody. (4), 38: 1001-1010. markova, s.d. (2015 №12). acculturation: to the theory of the matter // modern scientific research and innovations. № 12 [electronic resource]. from http://web.snauka.ru/issues/2015/12/60006 (reference date: 01/11/2018) mathis, v. i. (2003). pedagogy of interethnic communication. barnaul. 2003. osipenkova, n.a. (2007). socio-cultural activity as a factor in the social adaptation of students. the dissertation author's abstract on competition of a scientific degree of the candidate of pedagogical sciences. s. – petersburg, russia. poshtareva, tv (2009). the formation of ethno-cultural competence of students in a polyethnic educational environment: the abstract of the dis .... cand. ped. sciences. vladikavkaz. sapozhkov, s. b., burakova, e. m., & tesleva, e. p. (2016). three-stage character of molten metal drop and a hard substrate contact interaction. paper presented at the iop conference series: materials science and engineering, 142(1)10.1088/1757899x/142/1/012019 stefanenko, tg (2009). ethnopsychology: textbook for high schools. moscow. shatunova o., merzon e., shaimardanova m., shabalin s. (2018). training of future technology teachers: management tools and challenges in current educational process. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education. vol. 14 (6). pp. 2343–2351. shkilev, r. e., samsonova, e. v., kazanchuk, i. d., & isupova, m. m. (2018). rendering imagery in the semantic structure of stable terminological word combinations. rupkatha journal on interdisciplinary studies in humanities, 10(1), 128-133. 10.21659/rupkatha.v10n1.14 szydlowski, a. (2018). a printing and publishing type as object of intellectual property in election law of russia and u.s. severo-kavkazskii iuridicheskii vestnik, 1, 56-63. valeeva r.a., aitov v.f., bulatbayeva a.a. (2016). the levels of english language acquisition on the basis of problem-solving and product-oriented tasks in the multiligual social medium. iejme: mathematics education, vol. 11. № 1. pp. 255-262. https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 http://web.snauka.ru/issues/2015/12/60006 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 124-139 124 sociological portrait of applicants and students of the most popular and perspective specialties of secondary vocational education: a comparative aspect svetlana s. novikova1, galina m. romanova2, arsen r. simonyan3, irina i. ukraintseva4 and natalya yu. khachaturova5 abstract the relevance of the study is caused by the necessity to form a plan for the development of secondary vocational education that provides training of the most popular and promising specialties and working professions in accordance with international standards and advanced technologies on the basis of the leading professional educational organizations. the goal of this article is to identify the main motives and meanings of applicants' choices of popular and prospective specialties of secondary vocational education and working professions during the psychological, pedagogical and sociological research to paint a sociological portrait of students of vocational education and specialties from the top-50 list. the goals of the research are to carry out a comparative analysis of: 1) professional self-determination, 2) value orientations, 3) attitudes toward the teaching and upbringing, 4) life plans of applicants and students. the leading method in investigating this problem is the method of questioning. in our study we surveyed the applicants and students of specialties from the top-50 list. results of the research: in order to study certain aspects of the sociological portrait of students through the method of questioning of students from the top50 specialties we compiled a sociological questionnaire that included four blocks. the questionnaire for students included 28 questions and the questionnaire for applicants included 33 open and closed questions with the use of different scales with the possibility of selecting several of the listed options and the fields for answers. the results of the questioning of applicants and students are presented; the similarities and differences of the key motives, life plans, values of applicants and students who have chosen perspective professions of secondary vocational education are identified and summarized. key words: sociological portrait, professional self-determination, value orientations, life plans, secondary vocational education. 1ass. prof, sochi state university sochi, izsochi@mai.ru 2prof, sochi state university sochi, university@sutr.ru 3ass. prof, sochi state university sochi, oppm@mail.ru 4ass. prof, sochi state university sochi, ukraintseva58@rambler.ru 5ass. prof, sochi state university sochi, xachaturova@list.ru novikova et al. introduction the problems of the national educational system aggravated during the transition to the market economy, the crises in many production sectors, a long period of residual provision of the educational system, could not but affect the quality of mass training of specialists and skilled workers and led to a significant gap between the volume and qualifications of the trained personnel and the requirements of modern material production, to a decrease in the popularity of working professions and perspective specialties of secondary vocational education. to overcome this gap a number of strategic documents of the russian federation aimed at increasing the popularity of working professions and perspective specialties of secondary vocational education (order of the ministry of labor of russia no. 831, 2015) were adopted. in order to achieve a sustainable development of the country, its economy needs personnel, which is capable of solving the applied problems of today, tomorrow and the future (tarman, 2010; 2017). the society requires an advanced development of vocational education in general and the system of training of personnel and the formation of applied qualifications in particular (tarman, & yigit, 2013). this provision makes it necessary for the sphere of education to form, on the basis of an analysis of the current and prospective staffing needs of the economy, a list of popular and promising specialties and working professions. in this regard, educational institutions need to form a plan for the development of secondary vocational education that provides training of the most popular and promising specialties and working professions in accordance with international standards and advanced technologies on the basis of the leading professional educational organizations (tarman, & chigisheva, 2017). the present project "the formation of a sociological portrait of applicants, students and graduates of educational programs of secondary vocational education providing training in the most popular, new and perspective professions and specialties of secondary vocational education", carried out by the team of authors within the framework of the state goal no. 28.4290.2017/hm, is aimed at identifying the main motives and meanings in the selection by applicants of popular and perspectives specialties of secondary vocational education and working professions during the psychological, pedagogical and sociological studies at the federal state educational institution "sochi state university" (sochi) and the federal state educational institution "southern federal university" (rostov-on-don). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 124-139 materials and methods in the domestic literature a number of works are devoted to the compilation of a sociological portrait. for example, the monograph of gohberg, kitova, kuznetsova and shuvalova (2010) is devoted to the analysis of motivations, value orientations and career aspirations as key characteristics of the socio-psychological model of behavior. of particular interest for our study is the work of pershenkov (2011) "sociological portrait of an applicant2011". the article of ivakhnenko and goliusova (2003) is devoted to the sociological portrait of modern students. some aspects of the compilation of sociological portraits are presented in the work of ivanenko (2011). "the non-resident: a sociological portrait", in which the author considers non-homogeneity as a matrix of self-identification that influences life strategies and value orientations of young people (ivanenko, 2011). to substantiate this position, the author uses innovative procedures related to the description of territorial differences in the life of the student youth. based on the monitoring of sociological surveys of medical students the work of dregalo and ulyanovskiy (2007) presents a comparative description of value orientations of students of different generations. gendin, sergeyev, mayer and bordukov (1998) explored the way of life of students of a pedagogical university, analyzing value orientations, their ideological positions, plans for the future. a number of studies are devoted to the examination of individual components in the sociological portrait of a student of secondary vocational education. mazilina (2015) studied the characteristics of the contingent of students studying in the institutions of secondary vocational education as a significant factor in the formation of a system of professional and personal values. the same author examined the didactic conditions for the training of competent specialists of secondary vocational education (mazilina, 2006). some characteristics of graduates of secondary vocational educational institutions and potential specialists, who are in demand on the labor market, were investigated by yakovlev (2000). the peculiar features of value orientations aimed at choosing a specialty from the top-50 list, which are presented in the student's social portrait, are analyzed in the article of mushkina, novikova and ukraintseva (2017a; 2017b). borodina, simonyan, ukraintseva, khachaturova and khovyakova (2017) examined the features of the sociological portrait of a student studying the most popular and promising specialties in secondary vocational education. novikova et al. therefore, a sufficient number of works is devoted to the consideration of certain aspects of the sociological portrait, but in our opinion, a comprehensive study of the sociological portrait of an applicant, a student and a graduate of secondary vocational education has not yet been presented. the general totality of the research was made up of students from six institutions of secondary vocational education: the university college of economics and technology of sochi state university, federal state educational institution of secondary education petrovsky college in st. petersburg, volgograd energy college, professional pedagogical college of yuri gagarin state technical university, altai academy of hospitality, sbpei college of communications №54 named after p.m. vostrukhin, russia, moscow a representative sample in the study was made up of students of the following specialties: "computer systems and complexes", "relay protection and automation of electric power systems", "hotel service", "information systems and programming", "hospitality", "cookery and confectionery" and "technologies of machine building", which correspond to the list of new and perspective professions that are in demand on the labor market. taking part in the study were 317 students, of whom 29,83% were boys and 70,17% were girls; and applicants, of whom 32,05% were boys and 67,95% were girls; the age of respondents ranged from 15 to 20 years. in the system analysis a student, as a subject and an object, was considered by us in four aspects: 1) as a subject performing professional self-determination on the basis of the formed value orientations; 2) as a carrier of social and socio-psychological qualities; 3) as an element of management on the part of the administration and the faculty of the secondary vocational educational institution; 4) as a graduate of a secondary special educational institution and a potential specialist, who is in demand on the labor market. in order to study certain aspects of the sociological portrait of students through the method of questioning students of the top-50 specialties we compiled a sociological questionnaire, which included four main blocks: 1) professional self-determination; 2) value orientations; 3) characteristics of the educational process; 4) life plans. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 124-139 the questionnaire for students included 28 questions and the questionnaire for applicants included 33 open and closed questions with the use of different scales with the possibility of selecting several of the listed options and the fields for answers. to describe the segments we included such variables as "gender", "age", "education", "family composition", "number of children in the family", "social and property status", "sources of income", "emotional background while completing the questionnaire". results and discussion the average respondent is brought up in a full family (62,5%). in the family there are two children (61,54%). it can be described as a family, in which one can easily buy things of durable use, however, it is difficult to purchase really expensive things (32,07%). he currently lives with his parents (69,38%), in his apartment/private house (13,12%), he is fully dependent on his parents (52,53%). at the same time, there is an optimistic mood (44,03%) and a hope for a better future (33,96%) (borodinaet al., 2017). the obtained results are presented in table 1. table 1 aggregate data of the respondents’ answers (in %) characteristics of the sample % gender male 29,83 female 70,17 age 15 years inclusive 1,34 16 years inclusive 14,77 17 years inclusive 38,26 18 years inclusive 34,23 19 years inclusive 10,06 20 years inclusive 1,34 education basic general education 75,86 secondary education 4,02 secondary vocational education 10,12 family composition full family (brought up by mother and father) 62,5 incomplete family (brought up only by mother) 16,67 incomplete family (brought up only by father) 2,38 incomplete family (brought up by one parent + stepfather (stepmother)) 10,12 i live without parents 8,33 number of children in the family the only child in the family 26,28 two children 61,54 novikova et al. a large family (three or more children) 12,18 socio-economic situation i barely make ends meet. the money is not enough even for food 2,52 there is enough money for groceries, but the buying of clothes causes financial difficulties 11,95 the money is sufficient for food and clothes, but the purchasing of durable goods is a problem 17,61 i can easily buy durable goods. however, for me it is difficult to buy really expensive things 32,07 i can afford quite expensive things an apartment, a summer residence and many other things 13,84 difficult to answer 22,01 sources of income i am fully dependent on parents (relatives) 52,53 for the most part i depend on my parents (relatives) and have side jobs 29,75 i work and live mostly on the earned money, but sometimes my parents (relatives) help me. 8,86 i work and live only on the money that i earn myself 4,43 different answer 4,43 emotional background when completing the questionnaire uncertainty about the future 5,03 pessimism 8,81 hope for a better future 33,96 optimism 44,03 different answer 8,17 answering the questions that determine the motives for choosing a profession the applicants as the main reason indicated personal interest in the specialty (46,67%). the students also insist on a fully conscious entering the college, which is conditioned by the opportunity to get a secondary education and a profession (33,44%). having reviewed numerous studies conducted in the recent period we came to the conclusion that the structure of life goals and values, the level of spiritual and moral development is one of the main criteria for painting a sociological portrait. these factors are often referred to as subjective (mushkina, novikova, ukraintseva, 2017c; 2017d). life values of applicants can be presented as follows (see image 1). as the first priority the applicants indicate the happiness of others (well-being, development and improvement of other people, the nation and humanity as a whole) and the opportunity to engage in creative activities. they highly appreciate the beauty of nature and art. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 124-139 image 1. distribution of values by the degree of significance in life. the distribution of values by importance in the life of respondents (average scores): 1 active life (completeness and emotional fullness of life), 2 life wisdom (maturity of judgments and common sense achieved through life experience), 3 health (physical and mental ), 4 interesting job, 5 the beauty of nature and art (the experience of beauty in the nature and the art), 6 love (spiritual and physical intimacy with a loved person), 7 – economic security (lack of material problems), 8 good and faithful friends, 9 social recognition (respect of others, of the team and colleagues) 10 cognition (the possibility of expanding one’s education, outlook, common culture, intellectual development), 11 productive life (the fullest use of one’s capabilities, strengths and skills), 12 development (self-improvement, constant physical and spiritual development), 13 freedom (independence in judgments and deeds), 14 happy family life, 15 happiness of others (wellbeing, development and improvement of other people, the nation, humanity as a whole), 16 creativity (the opportunity to engage in creative activities), 17 confidence (inner harmony, freedom from internal contradictions and doubts), 18 pleasure (pleasant, trouble-free pastime, no responsibilities, entertainment). regarding the life values of students, then their priorities include similar values: creativity and the beauty of nature and art (the experience of beauty in the nature and in the art) as well as the happiness of others. however, unlike the applicants, public recognition is 6 ,6 3 6 ,5 9 4 ,9 0 6 ,3 1 9 ,2 5 6 ,8 0 6 ,8 2 6 ,2 6 8 ,5 8 7 ,6 6 8 ,2 7 7 ,0 8 7 ,1 4 6 ,9 0 9 ,5 9 9 ,5 4 7 ,6 4 7 ,9 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 novikova et al. important for students (respect of others, of the team and colleagues). we will graphically show the results concerning various life values of students of secondary vocational institutions (image 2). image 2. distribution of values by the degree of significance in life a comparative analysis of values is presented in table 2. table 2 comparative analysis of values 1 specific values place in life abstract values place in life student applicant student applicant active life 17 14 life wisdom 11 15 health 18 18 the beauty of nature and art 2 3 interesting job 10 16 love 12 13 economic security 15 12 cognition 9 7 good and faithful friends 16 17 development 7 10 social recognition 4 4 freedom 8 9 productive life 6 5 happiness of others 3 1 happy family life 14 11 creativity 1 2 pleasure 5 6 confidence 13 8 105 103 66 68 comparative analysis of values 2:values of professional self-actualization and personal life professional self-actualization place in life personal life place in life 5 ,2 3 6 ,2 1 4 ,3 3 6 ,2 3 9 ,4 5 6 ,0 9 5 ,5 4 5 ,3 1 8 ,3 9 6 ,3 5 7 ,6 3 6 ,8 1 6 ,7 9 5 ,8 4 9 ,2 8 9 ,7 8 5 ,9 8 7 ,8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 124-139 active life 17 14 love 12 13 interesting job 10 16 good and faithful friends 16 17 social recognition 4 4 freedom 8 9 productive life 6 5 happy family life 14 11 development 7 10 pleasure 5 6 44 49 55 56 it can be concluded that abstract goals are prevalent among applicants and students. with a small difference the values of professional self-actualization prevail over the values of personal life. when choosing a specialty by an applicant it is of fundamental importance for him that the profession should be prestigious, give opportunities for the growth of professional skills, correspond to one’s skills, and make it possible to realize one’s managerial abilities. for the applicants high salary is on the fifth place in importance. the degree of importance of the characteristics of professional activity is shown in image 3. image 3. the importance of characteristics of professional activity. the importance of characteristics of professional activity according to the degree of influence on the choice of profession (average scores): 1 requires communication with different people, 2 – parents like 3 ,2 8 3 ,0 2 3 ,2 2 2 ,1 7 3 ,6 9 2 ,2 5 3 ,4 1 3 ,5 0 3 ,5 9 2 ,8 3 3 ,9 6 3 ,8 0 2 ,7 1 3 ,6 8 3 ,2 5 2 ,5 1 2 ,6 9 2 ,2 3 3 ,1 8 3 ,1 3 2 ,8 0 2 ,5 2 2 ,3 8 1 ,8 0 1 ,6 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 novikova et al. it, 3 high sense of responsibility, 4 requires moving to a new place of residence, 5 – corresponds to my abilities, 6 – makes it possible to confine oneself to the existing equipment, 7 – makes it possible to help people, 8 – contributes to mental and physical development, 9 is highly paid, 10 – makes it possible to work close to home, 11 is prestigious, 12 – makes it possible to develop one’s professional skills, 13 – is the only possible under the circumstances, 14 – makes it possible to realize one’s leadership skills, 15 – is attractive, 16 close to one’s favorite school subject, 17 – makes it possible to immediately obtain good results of work for others, 18 – is chosen by my friends, 19 – makes it possible to use professional skills outside of work, 20 gives great opportunities to show creativity, 21 satisfies with moderate tuition fees, 22 – i was attracted by the name of the specialty, 23 – to get a diploma of education (profession is not important), 24 – to avoid. it should be noted that students’ choice of specialty depends on other factors. the choice was influenced by such statements characterizing the profession as "it is prestigious", "it gives opportunities for the growth of professional skills", "it is highly paid". the respondents' assessment of the importance of statements characterizing the profession according to the degree of influence on their choice is shown in image 4. image 4. importance of characteristics of professional activity 3 ,0 1 2 ,6 5 2 ,8 1 1 ,8 4 3 ,0 1 2 ,0 0 2 ,9 2 2 ,9 8 3 ,3 9 2 ,3 8 3 ,5 2 3 ,5 1 1 ,9 9 3 ,0 1 2 ,9 8 2 ,1 5 2 ,2 4 1 ,6 3 2 ,9 0 2 ,5 7 2 ,2 8 2 ,1 5 2 ,5 5 1 ,6 6 1 ,9 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 124-139 the study made it possible to identify the respondents' attitudes toward obtaining secondary vocational education in general. after entering a secondary specialized educational institution after the 9th grade students associate the secondary vocational education primarily with an acquisition of the working profession (69,43%) and personal formation (19,43%). a similar pattern is observed for the applicants (57,79%) and (12,34%). the objective factors include the level of training. from the point of view of the applicant, high-quality education is a high level of knowledge (54,49%) and a diploma of a prestigious educational institution (20,51%). students also appreciate a high-quality education, which consists in obtaining a high level of knowledge (67.43%). unlike applicants, the most important thing for students is an acquisition of high-demand occupations (20.57%). the opinions about quality education are different among students and applicants. applicants believe that the most important thing is the professionalism of teachers (26,30%) and teaching methods (18,51%). students believe that the methods of teaching (27%) and the quality of curricula (19%) have a decisive influence on the quality of education. we will present the obtained data in tabular form (tables 3, 4). table 3 aggregate data of the applicants’ answers about the factors affecting the quality of education (in %) factors affecting the quality % availability of the necessary literature and free access to it 8,77 the quality of training programs 16,88 teaching methods 18,51 professionalism of teachers 26,30 work practice 14,61 practical experience of teachers 9,74 different answer 5,19 table 4 aggregate data of the students’ answers about the factors affecting the quality of education (in %) factors affecting the quality % availability of the necessary literature and free access to it 6,33 the quality of training programs 19,00 teaching methods 27,00 novikova et al. professionalism of teachers 18,00 work practice 17,00 practical experience of teachers 11,00 different answer 1,67 evaluating the methods, technologies and forms that should be used in training in order to obtain a profession, both the applicants and the students in the first place put practical training, classes in specialized laboratories and workshops, active forms of training sessions (role-playing and business games, trainings), however, for applicants the rating system of progress assessment is twice more important than for students. students prefer multimedia technologies (educational audios, videos, computer simulations, etc.) (see tables 5, 6). table 5 aggregate data of the applicants’ answers about the methods and technologies that should be used in training (in %) factors affecting the quality % rating system for assessing the students' progress 16,46 active forms of conducting training sessions (role-playing and business games, trainings) 29,75 multimedia technologies (educational audios, videos, computer simulation, etc.) 12,03 practically oriented classes, classes in specialized laboratories and workshops 34,81 different answer 6,96 table 6 aggregate data of the students’ answers about the methods and technologies that should be used in training (in %) factors affecting the quality % rating system for assessing the students' progress 8,23 active forms of conducting training sessions (role-playing and business games, trainings) 24,62 multimedia technologies (educational audios, videos, computer simulation, etc.) 17,95 practically oriented classes, classes in specialized laboratories and workshops 44,10 different answer 4,10 answering the question "what should be given more attention when organizing an independent work of students?" students prefer that their independent work is based on the access to the internet (32,77%). for applicants it is almost equally important to have access to the internet (28,95%) and the consultations of teachers (27,63%). both students and applicants journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 124-139 note that the main difficulty in the learning process is a big teaching load (46,63% of applicants) and (39,58% of students). no less interesting are the characteristics of graduates of specialized secondary educational institutions and potential specialists, who are in demand on the labor market. an average applicant is more likely than a student to associate his future work with the specialty (working profession) he receives (68,19% applicant) (60.69% student). choosing between high salary and interesting work during employment both applicants and students choose uninteresting work with high salaries (36,42%) and (41,62%), respectively. applicants believe that secondary vocational education gives students exactly what they need to know for successful employment (45,58%). according to students, secondary vocational education is not enough and for successful employment higher education is necessary (53,85%). the conducted theoretical analysis and empirical research significantly expand the characteristic of the sociological portrait of a student who studies to receive the most popular specialties and professions (top-50) and those applicants entering these specialties. investigating certain aspects of the sociological portrait applicants and students: professional self-determination, value orientations, characteristics of the educational process and life plans, we came to the following conclusions. the majority of applicants and students consider their choice of profession to be conscious, based on the personal interest and the opportunity to get a secondary education and a profession. in the minds of both applicants and students the prestige of their future profession and the of professional growth play an important role. the study showed that value orientations of applicants and students have insignificant differences: for both applicants and students abstract values prevail over specific values and the values of professional self-actualization prevail over the values of personal life. the opinions about the quality of education are different for student and applicants. applicants believe that professionalism of teachers and teaching methods are the most important. students believe that teaching methods and the quality of curricula have a decisive influence on the quality of education. an average applicant and an average student put practice-oriented classes and active forms of training on the first place, however, when describing the factor that influences the quality of the educational process students indicate the use of multimedia technologies while applicants mention the rating system of student evaluation. in organizing novikova et al. independent work both students and applicants say it should be based on the access to the internet. applicants also refer to the consultations of teachers. high levels of labor compensations are more important for students than for applicants for whom it is more important to realize their ability of managerial work. choosing between high salary and interesting work during employment both applicants and students choose uninteresting work with high salaries. applicants believe that secondary vocational education gives them exactly what they need to know for successful employment. according to students, secondary vocational education is not enough and for successful employment higher education is necessary. conclusion the results of the research outlined some promising new areas for further study of this problem. along with the comparative analysis of the sociological portrait of applicants and students of the secondary vocational education the comparative analysis of applicants, students and graduates is important. in our opinion, it would be interesting to conduct an analysis of the age and gender specifics. a logical continuation of the research would be the development of a map of perceptions, expectations and preferences of applicants, students and graduates. the results of the research will be presented in methodological recommendations to institutions of secondary vocational education for conducting career guidance work and organization of students’ admission giving them the most perspective and promising professions. references borodina, n.v., simonyan, a.r., ukraintseva, i.i., khachaturova, n.yu. & khovyakova, a.l. (2017). peculiarities of the sociological portrait of a student studying the most popular and promising specialties of secondary vocational education. bulletin of the adyghe state university. series "pedagogy and psychology", 4, 45-53. dregalo, a.a. & ulyanovskiy, v.i. (2007). medical students: sociological portrait. human ecology, 3, 53-58. gendin, a.m., sergeev, m.i., mayer, r.a. & bordukov, m.i. (1998). a student of a pedagogical university (sociological portrait). krasnoyarsk: krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university named after v.p. astaf'ev. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 124-139 gohberg, l.m., kitova, g.a., kuznetsova, t.e. & shuvalova, o.r. (2010). russian scientists: strokes to the sociological portrait. moscow: national research university "higher school of economics". ivakhnenko, g. & goliusova, j. (2003). modern students: sociological portrait. higher education in russia, 5, 110-114. ivanenko, n.s. (2011). non-native: a sociological portrait. bulletin of the south russian state technical university (novocherkassk polytechnic institute). series: socio-economic sciences, 2, 190-194. mazilina, d.a. (2015). accounting for the peculiarities of the contingent of students in the institutions of the act as a significant factor in the formation of the system of professional and personal values. all-russian scientific-practical conference: education of the values of civil peace and accord: ethno-cultural traditions (187-192). ulyanovsk. mazilina, n.a. (2006). didactic conditions for the training of a competent specialist in the act system. secondary vocational education, 11, 34-35. mushkina, i.a., novikova, s.s. & ukraintseva, i.i. (2017a). social portrait of entrants to the act: features of value orientations aimed at choosing a specialty from the list of top-50. bulletin of the adyghe state university. series "pedagogy and psychology", 3, 59-64. mushkina, i.a., novikova, s.s. & ukraintseva, i.i. (2017b). the basis of professional selfdetermination of students of act. collection of articles of the international scientificpractical conference: methods and mechanisms for implementing the competence approach in psychology and pedagogy (51-53). ufa-omsk. mushkina, i.a., novikova, s.s. & ukraintseva, i.i. (2017c). the study of the value orientations of the applicants of the act in the process of choosing the profession of the top-50. collected articles of the international scientific and practical conference: high technology and intellectual systems in the xxi century (127-130). ufa-perm. mushkina, i.a., novikova, s.s. & ukraintseva, i.i. (2017d). vocational guidance is the basis of professional self-determination of students of act. collected articles of the international scientific and practical conference: information and innovative technologies in pedagogy, psychology and education (49-51). ufa-volgograd. order of the ministry of labor of russia no. 831 "on approval of the list of the 50 most demanded jobs on the labor market, new and promising occupations requiring secondary vocational novikova et al. education". (2015). ministry of labor of russia. retrieved from: http://rosmintrud.ru/docs/mintrud/orders/436. pershenkov, p.p. (2011). sociological portrait of the entrant-2011. xv international scientific and methodological conference, dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the flight of the first cosmonaut yu.a. gagarin (328). penza. tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 tarman, b., & chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. 10.17499/jsser.93128 tarman, b., & yigit, m. f. (2013). turkish economy and vocational education system: regressive or progressive? energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 5(1), 159-170. tarman, b. (2010). global perspectives and challenges on teacher education in turkey, international journal of arts & sciences (ijas), 3(17): 78-96, united states. yakovlev, e.v. (2000). theory and practice of university management quality management. chelyabinsk: chelyabinsk state university http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (4), 304-330 nationalism in the season of revolution: the work of syrian, libyan, and egyptian poets muhammad luthfi zuhdi1 abstract the arab spring was an important chapter in the modern history of the arab world, with the revolution that started in tunisia bringing the wind of change to many other arab countries. syria, libya, and egypt were inevitably hit by this revolutionary wave. however, the revolution did not emerge out of nowhere, and there were some trigger factors. poets are among those actors who play an important role in spreading ideas about change. this article describes in detail the role that syrian, libyan, and egyptian poets played in voicing their nationalism amid the intense political struggle between those in power and those who desired change. this research is a qualitative study applying the sociology of literature approach. in conclusion, this study found that arab nationalism manifested in various forms of poetry, and this had a significant influence on mobilizing the masses. keywords: poetry, arab spring, sociology of literature, arab nationalism introduction literature in the arab world has a long history, one as long as the arab civilization itself. historical records indicate that the arabs began writing inscriptions about 150 years before the hijra, with muhalhil being the earliest known figure to write arabic poetry. he was followed by other arab poets, such as umruul qais, zuhair bin abi sulma and kaʿab bin zuhair, among others. indeed, various poets emerged over time in various periods, starting from the islamic era and moving through the umayyah dynasty and the abbasid dynasty before finally reaching the modern era, which began for arabic literature with napoleon bonaparte’s conquest of egypt in 1798. his arrival brought not only soldiers but also various tools of civilization, such as printing presses. this is why his arrival is considered as the catalyst for the first phase of the modern arab era (alfakhuri, 1986). since the early 19th century, various arab literary figures—such as mahmud al-barudi, ahmad syauqi, ibrahim al-mazzini—and literary critics like thaha husein and al-aqqad have emerged (al-fakhuri, 1986). in the 20th century, najib mahfudz became famous as a novelist and won the nobel prize for literature in 1988. ahmad bakatsir—who was born in indonesia, raised in yemen, and became famous in egypt—arose as a figurehead before dying in 1969. the sociopolitical 1dr. indonesian university, jakarta; email: m.luthfiz009@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 conditions in arab countries also encouraged the emergence of poets with certain tendencies in their poetry. for example, mahmud darwis was a well-known 20th-century palestinian poet and author who voiced struggle in his work. next, syrian-born nizar qabbani was a diplomat before resigning in 1966, and his poetry tends to speak about the freedom of women and society, with him being an existentialist (al-fakhuri, 1986). in 2011, the arab spring (arabic: al-tsawrat al-ʿarabiyyah) flared up in tunisia and spread to other arab countries, most notably egypt, syria, and libya. this inspired the poets of these countries to voice their grand ideas about sociopolitical and cultural issues. their responses to the condition of their countries showed how powerful the nationalism of the arab poets was. nationalism, according to the merriam-webster dictionary, is “loyalty and obedience to a nation.” carlton j. h. hayes, an american historian, gives a similar definition of nationalism: “loyalty and attachment to the interior of the group (namely the nation and homeland) are the basis of nationalism.” this definition emphasizes similarity in cultural backgrounds, and cultural groups are considered the main factor in forming a nation (hayes, 1926:279). this article seeks to analyze some of the poetic works of authors who lived in countries that had become restive due to the arab spring. among these are abeer sulaiman and ali molla musa from syria, miftah al-ammari and khulud al-fallah from libya, and hisham al-jokh from egypt. the arab spring was an important chapter in the modern history of the arab world, because this popular movement, led by the youth, drastically changed the political landscape of the middle east and north africa. it first started in tunisia but quickly spread to other nearby countries, such as libya, egypt, syria, bahrain, and yemen. research questions 1) what kind of themes in the arabic spring poets are identified to promote the nationalism in the season of revolution? 2) how nationalism expressions in the ports of the season of revolution are perceived according to the country of syrian, libyan, and egyptian perspectives? methods this research is content analysis design that follows a qualitative approach and applies the sociology of literature theory. the sociology of literature, as explained by damono (damono in zuhdi 306 wiyatmi, 2013) is the objective scientific study of humans and institutions in society and related social processes. indeed, both sociology and literature are tools for human comprehension, and between them, a common point of view for human facts can be found (solikhah, 2016; tarman & kılınç, 2018). sociology dissects and studies the structure of social institutions, religions, politics, and economic processes. everything is a social structure when visualizing the ways that people organize themselves in society. literature, meanwhile, is a written expression of a society’s dynamics in terms of social, religious, political, and economic aspects. according to faruk (1994), the sociology of literature is a science that explains literature through the lens of the scientific and objective study of humans in society and the related social institutions and processes. literature is a social product, and it even forms part of some social institutions (wolff, 1989). the social structure, family relationships, class clashes, and social factors are therefore reflected in the literature of the time (budiharso, 2016; damono & effendi, 1979; tolba, 2018; wiyatmi, 2013;). data of this study are themes of poets that expresses revolution season in three countries, namely syria, libya and egypt. the themes define nationalism during the revolution season on the countries. four poets from various arab countries are the sources of data. data are analyzed by implementing content analysis techniques that cover (1) converting data in the poets into narrative contents, (2) determining the data into unit of analysis as represented in the research questions, (3) defining the rules of data coding, (4) applying the coding into the whole of the data, (5) checking the consistency and accurateness of the coding, and (6) drawing the conclusion to select final data. results and discussion themes of nationalism in the poets of the revolution season themes of the poets in the revolution season indicate that they influence the conflicts in syria, egypt, and libya, and that they had on the literary expression of poets in these countries, the background to these countries’ conflicts. libya is well known for its abundant natural wealth, and it plays an important role in international energy politics because of its large oil and gas reserves. in addition, its former leader, muammar gaddafi, had often acted as a symbol of resistance against the west, raising libya’s role in the arab world. however, he was also an authoritarian ruler who refused to allow any space for political opposition, and he tended to act harshly against anyone who might try to oppose him. sociologically, libya as a country is supported by tribal and ethnic journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 elements. each tribal leader has authority over his tribe, and such people are usually appointed based on their charisma. every order from a chieftain is considered an obligation that must be carried out, and this explains some of the armed conflicts that involved various tribes and government soldiers (anderson, 2011). during his period, gaddafi was able to suppress any resistance from tribes who did not fall into line with his policies. he had support for his government from loyal tribes, and this enabled him to withstand any attempts at overthrowing him as leader. under gaddafi’s rule, libya enjoyed reasonable economic growth, but for those who opposed, gaddafi’s oppressive policies were reason enough to fight. in the end, the arab spring sounded the beginning of the end for gaddafi’s regime in libya. the revolution in tunisia that succeeded in bringing down ben ali's regime inspired young libyans to achieve a similar outcome, namely to topple an existing authoritarian regime and replace it with a democratic system. however, while the tunisian people were able to overthrow ben ali’s regime without an armed conflict, libya’s story followed a very different route. before gaddafi’s ultimate fall, many pitched battles took place between government troops and the forces of the opposing factions. the situation in libya spiraled out of control due to support from western countries, which directly involved themselves in efforts to overthrow gaddafi by conducting airstrikes. these airstrikes were led by the united states and its nato allies britain and france, thus nullifying the advantage of the libyan government’s superior military power (anderson, 2011). the armed conflict in libya lasted almost a month. nato’s superior air forces soon defeated the libyan air force, making the job of the opposition groups easier because they could focus on fighting soldiers loyal to gaddafi without worrying about airstrikes. in 2016, gaddafi’s fall was embraced enthusiastically by supporters of the revolution. gaddafi, who was a strong symbol of power in libya for thirty years, eventually died at the hands of his people. following gaddafi’s fall, transitional steps were supported by western countries, and opposition groups were helped in identifying post-gaddafi leaders (simpson, 2018). however, gaddafi’s fall did not solve the country’s problems. the winner of the subsequent general election became caught in a civil war. the new government army had not been able to fully control the country because many military factions still bore allegiance to gaddafi, making a civil war unavoidable. libya transformed into a very unstable country due to clashes between the zuhdi 308 government military and opposition military forces, each of which claimed the territory they controlled. this situation grew more complicated because other countries in the world were also divided, with some supporting the new government after the arab spring, while other countries lent their support to general haftar, who was originally a gaddafi loyalist. in syria’s case, meanwhile, the syrian people made similar demands to those made in tunisia. they demanded that the assad regime step down and hold a democratic general election. they hoped that with the introduction of a democratic system, the country’s government would not be dominated by the current regime. it was also hoped that democratic elections following the will of the people would lead syria towards economic improvement. the masses who took to the streets demanding that bashar assad resign included students, labor groups, youths, artists, and opposition parties who had always wanted regime change. assad rejected the protestors’ demand and responded by deploying troops to disperse the crowds and ensure that their efforts would be thwarted. this reaction in turn sparked bloody clashes between the army and demonstrators. the government’s tough stance in deploying troops escalated the actions of the demonstrators, with them now taking to the streets armed with weapons. what had started as a demand for political transition in syria turned into an armed conflict between government troops and opposition militia? this conflict between the two camps in turn destabilized syria. civilians who sought to avoid conflict decided to flee the country as refugees. the subsequent large-scale exodus then became a big problem for the international community (simpson, 2018). in egypt, the demonstrators were inspired by the revolutionary movements in tunisia and other nearby countries, so they sought to overthrow the longstanding regime of hosni mubarak. this long-lasting regime with authoritative tendencies had had little impact on improving people’s lives through a growing economy. for this reason, critical economic problems triggered some youth and social activists to take to the streets in egypt. the demonstrators wanted hosni mubarak to step down and allow the country to hold democratic elections (simpson, 2018). a massive demonstration took place in tahrir square in cairo, and this was followed by similar protests in other major egyptian cities. they voiced a shared aspiration for a drastic change of leadership, hoping that the regime in power could be purged and that egypt could get a new uncorrupt government capable of improving the country’s economy. the movement finally succeeded in overthrowing president hosni mubarok, and following a transitional period after his journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 fall, elections were held to elect members of parliament and a new president. the elections that took place for the first time after the fall of hosni mubarak were indeed capable of appointing emerging new leaders, but the new president, muhammad mursi, did not last long. his term was ended by a coup d’état carried out by the military (mady, 2013). in the cases of egypt, syria, and libya, similarities existed in terms of the triggers that started the revolutionary movements. the people of these countries wanted a change in national leadership because they felt their leaders did not uphold democratic values and focused too much on the powerful people. economic problems were also a contributing factor in the people’s demand for regime change. during a revolution, a social process takes place in society. this study discusses the role of poets’ reflection when their countries face a political transition. the poets of syria, egypt, and libya all possess a distinctive expression in their works related to the arab spring, as explained below. perceptions of the conflicts in syria, egypt and libya the revolutionary events in arab countries inspired the birth of george a. simon’s work poetry and the arab spring. simon provides illustrations for five arab poets who responded to the political situation during the arab spring. simon highlights a correlation between social and political situations with a strong narrative in the poetry of the time (simon, 2015). in addition, mark levine wrote an article entitled “when art is the weapon: culture and resistance confronting violence in the post-uprisings arab world,” which contains an analysis of the artworks that were used in the resistance movement. levine analyzes artworks in the form of poetry, graffiti, music, theater, and other forms of art as tools for social and political transformation (levine, 2015). some previous research about the influence of literature on political constellations in arab countries can be found in works by such as kadalah (2014), who states in his article that the arab spring influenced the emergence of literary works in egypt and syria. in these two countries, the influence of the developing sociocultural conditions on literary work was very visible, and this was further strengthened by the fact that political events often solicit a response through literary channels (kadalah, 2014; khosravi et al., 2016). likewise, michel’s (2013) study states that arabic plays a role in the transmission of people’s resistance to the ruling regimes of the arab world. nazir explains how the word “irhal,” which translates as “to go,” became a slogan in zuhdi 310 countries affected by the arab spring. this shows that arabic, as a common language among arab countries, has similarities in terms of meaning, thereby speeding up the spread of ideas for overthrowing dictatorial regimes in various countries. in his research, nazir did not progress to the stage of analyzing each literary work by arabic writers seeking to spread propaganda through their poetry. in her analysis, torlakova (1970) also identified a connection between politics and metaphorical narratives in the works of arabic writers affected by the arab spring. she added that metaphors acted as effective instruments for spreading the message of resistance during the arab spring revolution. this article discusses the poetry of four contemporary syrian, libyan, and egyptian poets, representing the poetic voice of nationalism in the arabic countries. the other poets are abeer suleiman, miftah al-ammari, khulud al-falah, and al-jokh. the word “nationalism” in this article refers to the deep love of arab nationalism and a particular homeland that is revealed through the “patriotic” experiences. the first syrian poet (hope, 2002; suleman, 2020), described in a poem how the armed conflict raging in syria had taken away all the beauty and love that had existed in people’s lives, such as the beautiful gardens, the attractive beaches, the mountains, and all the plants and animals that had once been full of beauty before the unending civil war. the presence of a frightening stranger is portrayed as a wolf that comes into one’s life, making its victims powerless and restless through its presence. the safest thing that can be done in this situation is to hide in the “cave of poetry.” the poet feels insecure about expressing his ideas in real life, because the law of the jungle prevails there. there are no legal considerations or applicable regulations, and truth or fallacy is determined by the holder of the gun. in this case, however, the poet feels comfortable conveying his ideas in the form of poetry, which he refers to as the cave of poetry. a cave is regarded as a safe place to shelter from various threats, such as the strong midday sun, heavy rain, predatory animals, and even human enemies. the poet hopes that by hiding in the cave of poetry, he will be safe from all such threats. the thoughts of the speaker are conveyed in a few verses below under the title “gua poetry.” يوماً ما سأهديَك بيتي؛ بالموجِ المسدلِ journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 ,على نوافذهِ بنوارس الغنج تطير بين غرفه العشق ترسو في حديقته بزوارق .... .. و الذئاب المخيفة في بيتك الطيب one day i will give you my house. with waves hanging on its windows, seagulls flying between the rooms, and love boats moored in its garden. ......... and the scary wolves in your good house transactions and interests that are commonplace in political and international relations appear to be embedded in the verses. the speaker wants to give a house to the reader as a gift, but on the other hand, he will also receive a house gift from him. يوماً ما سأهديَك بيتي one day i will give you my house. then, on another line, the speaker says that he will be given a house instead. و ستهديني بيتكَ you will give me your house, in the war, all houses—regardless of their beauty—are useless because they cannot protect its occupants from the coming danger, so the speaker chooses to take shelter in the cave of poetry, an imaginary sanctuary for expressing imagination and powerful feelings. the privileges of that place cannot be found in any house, whatever its condition, in absence of the law, with people assaulting and killing each other. the two houses of the writer and the reader are not suitable for habitation anymore, because they cannot ensure safety, so the speaker left them to live in the cave of poetry. in this poem, the speaker hides behind words with no apparent ideology or affiliation to associate them when. the speaker does mention the warring factions in syria, but it does not express any opinions toward certain countries involved in the war, such as russia, iran, or turkey. there is zuhdi 312 not even the slightest opinion of the syrian regime. what is expressed is that in the name of war, whomever is involved in it becomes a destroyer of beauty, peace, and love. و بطيب خاطر سوف نهجر البيتين و سنرجع :لنعيش معاً في كهِف الِشِّعر .ذاك الذي اختبأال فيه and willingly we will abandon these two houses and return to live together in the “cave of poetry,” the one we hid in during the war in another poem entitled “my homeland on facebook,” suleman (2020) imagines that he makes friends with “his country” on facebook. all this time, he has been with a good, fun friend, one filled with laughter and beautiful songs. he likes to visit his interesting posts. ,الوطُن صديقي على الفيس بوك منشوراتهأبدأ صباحي دوماً بقراءة . رائَق الطباع كان قبل أعوام ؛ .. ينشُر على حباله األغاني والزرازير my home is my friend on facebook. i always start my morning by reading his posts, it was his charming character a few years ago. he spreads songs and chants on his strings. at one point, the friend of the speaker becomes “temperamental” and “reckless,” and he likes to curse, but he also cries easily. he likes to make rash decisions that result in him making many mistakes, even fatal ones that cause destruction and the death of many people. not only that, but hope was also buried inside. he says: journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 نزقاً صاَر ؛ يشتم و يبكي كثيراً يكتُب فيرتكب األخطاء؛ رفَع جثثاً مجرورة -مثالُ -أمس ...و اليوم ، نصب مشانق لآلمال then reckless, he curses and cries a lot. he takes decisions and makes many mistakes. yesterday, for instance, he raised dragged corpses. and today, we put up the gallows of hope... the battle that occurred makes the speaker feel fear, fear and worry about his children, so he looks for them. و حين يشارُك روابط المعارك أخاف فأتفقد أطفالي and when he shares the bonds of battle, i'm afraid, so i look for my children... the country, which the speaker loves very much as a true nationalist, was betrayed by his friend, who had transformed into a scary, creepy, and even deadly monster who is destroying the nation and his family. however, the speaker is unable to remove that deadly friend from facebook, but on the other hand, the speaker does not dare to decide to withdraw from life on “facebook.” س بوكالوطن صديقي المزعج على الفي , ال أستطيع حظره واإلبالغ عنه و ال أدري متى يشفق عليِّ ... فيحذفني my home is an annoying friend on facebook. i cannot block or report him. i don’t know when he will have pity on me… …and then delete me. zuhdi 314 the speaker loves his homeland and enjoys his life inside, so he puts trust in him. however, he is helplessly confronted by the reality, alongside the “friend” who destroyed his life and his future. this poetry is also an expression of strife and physical battles, as well as the social and political upheaval that was taking place in syria, but it does not mention the various factions, either implicitly or explicitly. instead, it shows more a sense of closeness to the homeland he loves, even though his homeland later betrays him. in the third poem, “we adjust”, suleman (2020) uses the first-person pronoun with a plural word, implicitly making it an expression of a mass of people. in a major conflict, members of society are, both individually and communally, forced to participate in it to avoid being swept away by war. therefore, the speaker, from the beginning, states that in this very precarious situation, the best way to save yourself is to adjust to the situation. all the features of war—such as the stench, the whir of bullets, and the constant bad news— become daily events that people become used to. they no longer feel uncomfortable around rotting corpses or the whistling bullets from the various factions fighting for their respective versions of the truth. there is no absolute truth of ideology or importance. every time, truth can change depending on developments in a limited, regional, or international environment. سوف نظلُّ على ما يرام طالما نتأقلم؛ ننام على نباح كلب الجيران المرتاب من كل الروائح نفيق على الرصاص و نحسبه مطراً لخران النباح يق على الرصاصنف we will be fine as long as we adjust. we sleep while the neighbor’s dog barks, annoyed by the rotten smell. we wake up to the whistling of bullets, such that we think the rain is hitting the window. we drink coffee with a sharp pain on seeing the news broadcast. in a raging war, many situations make a 180-degree turn. laughing, an expression of joy and happiness that anyone can do normally becomes a very difficult thing to do. shame that should be costly is instead pushed at a cheap price. during situations like this, courage is not accompanied with sufficient tools to maintain safety. for example, it is like a person who blocks an arrow with a plastic chest plate that can be easily penetrated rather than one made from steel. abeer compares the difficult situation with someone who imagines building a beautiful garden in the middle of the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 destroyed city, someone talking about freedom while in prison, and someone talking about generosity without having hands. سعر أعلى, نبيع الحياء بسعر أقلنشتري الضحك ب .. نتلقى السهام السامة بصدور بالستيكية نكتب عن حدائق الغاردينيا بين ركام المدن المدمرة و عن الحرية في السجون و عن العطاء بأيد مبتورة we buy laughter at a high price, and sell shame at a low one. we accept the poison dart with a plastic-made chest plate. we think about building a garden among the ruins of the destroyed city, and about freedom while in prison, and giving with amputated hands. the speaker takes advantage of any bad and scary situation and sees it with positive value instead, by replacing the crow as a bad symbol with the inspiring love from the sparrow. a useful remedy can also be extracted from a poisonous snake. the only thing left in this endless raging war is love. thus, this love provides the optimism to face life and adjust to it. نستلهم من الغربان عشق العصافير و نستخلص من أفاعي الوحشة الدواء ... نحبُّ ... نحبُّ ... نحبُّ !و ال نتهشِّم we take inspiration from the crow, the love birds. we extract medicine from the viper. we love ... love ... love ... we adjust! with his remaining strength gathered to form a figure full of grace and toughness, he keeps moving forward with a sense of optimism toward nothingness, which is an expression of tawakal or submission to allah in its totality to eliminate all forms of egoism. ،ننفض عن مالبسنا الكوابيس في الصباح لنخرج إلى الحياة zuhdi 316 .. بكامل أناقتنا : و مثل آالت متينة الصنع نمشي و نمشي قُدماً .. نحو العدم we shake off our nightmares in the morning, to face life full of grace, like a tough machines, run and we run, onwards towards nothingness... in his poem entitled “fireworks festival,” suleiman (2020) uses plural words to involve many people, and the terrible war in syria, which involves many foreign factions and countries, is portrayed as a clown game with different masks. this clown game uses lively and festive fireworks and gives children a sense of joy, fun, and entertainment. on the opposite side, though, is the reality of a terrible, deadly, and devastating war, one not just involving domestic factions but also large foreign countries with very sophisticated weapons. the speaker faces a very hard and deadly reality, trying to survive and thrive, not just for himself but also for his children. with an abundance of affection, he protects and embraces the children amid the various factions that are destroying each other, accompanied by lulling his children to sleep by saying that the war is just a charade and not real. حفل األلعاب النارية ... حسناً ، سوف تقع الحرب لكنني لن أخاف؛ .. لن أجعل أطفالي يخافون منها كذلك ، سأضمِّهم إليِّ برفق و أخبرهم أنها كذبة .. أو خدعة سينمائة journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 firework festival all right... the war will fall, but i will not be afraid; i will not make my children fear it either... i will hold them gently, and tell them it is a lie or a massive hoax... a sense of optimism and hope of a pleasant life is grown to encourage the future of his children and country, all amidst the uncertainty of their safety from war. و سنقوم بعد القذائف لخرافبدل ا .. حتى ننام ثم سنحلم سويِّة بفجر جديد نفيق فيه ،على شرائط ملونة .. و بوالين كثيرة we will count the shells like counting sheep until we fall asleep... then together we will dream of a new dawn where we wake up on colorful sheets of many colors... after the fireworks festival performed by the clowns ends, the speaker tells that he will be busy collecting funny masks scattered throughout his country, the masks of the strangers they had forgotten about after the massive fireworks feast. the lively firework festival ends with the foreigners leaving without saying farewell. وسوف نجمع كثيرا من األقنعة المضحكة المرمية في شوارع مدينتنا أقنعة نسيها الغرباء لما أقاموا حفل األلعاب النارية الكبير .. .. و مضوا دون إلقاء التحية zuhdi 318 we will collect many funny masks, discarded in the streets of our city, forgotten by strangers when they held their big fireworks party…and then left without saying goodbye. the expression of love for the homeland in this poem is very deep, even though it is not conveyed explicitly. the speaker suggests that his homeland is actually in good condition, and it is only the foreign intruders destroying it. however, that does not make his love for his country any less, even if the massive fireworks party, namely the war, is destroying his country. the next poem is “an old dog barks to offer advice” by miftah al-ammari (2020), a libyan poet. the background to this poem differs from that of the four previous poems. in this poem, the discussion about the war that took place in libya seems more realistic, such as by mentioning soldiers, tribal strife, oil refineries, rockets, and so on. this diction is interesting because the expressions conveyed tend to be more concrete. indeed, poets usually employ figurative language, but this poem uses realistic terms. ...هكذا ……………. النافذة المكسورة في قلبي إلى شرفات طرابلس وهي تختنق بسحب الدخان لنفط الئتي قمرتاف النفط الئهاناالمتصاعدة من خزانات النفط الئتي قمرتصاعدة من خزانات ا so be it. ………. the shattered window in my heart, to the outskirts of tripoli choked by a cloud of smoke rising from the oil tanks that were destroyed by the missile. this poem still also uses indirect terms, however. the speaker, like other poets, does not want to be shackled by rules, even poetic rules (ʿilmu al-ʿarudh). he wants to freely express things. in his belief, any idea or action, regardless of how big or small, must have a cost. he describes the large number of “gallows” that would require the felling of many trees. to build many “prisons,” many “parks” need to be sacrificed. the speaker wants to deliver the message that building a country journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 does not necessarily mean eliminating areas of peace and joy, let alone doing things that will torment people. لهذا أنا عاشق سيء وشاعر مخل بتعاليم جنراالت العروض بإزاحة التخلف عن كاهل المخيلةومتفائل جدا, ليس :فقط ألن الشاعر, ال الجندي من سيغافل الموت المتربص باللغات ليعود أخيرا من ميدان الشهداء بباقة ورد for this, i am a bad lover and a poet who does not care about the rules of poetry and very optimistic, not by eliminating the imagination, just because i am a poet and not a soldier: who ignores the uncertain death of language, to finally return from the battlefield with a bouquet of flowers. هكذا كلما أضفنا مشنقة، نخسر شجرة كلما أقمنا سجنا، تختفي حديقة وهكذا كأي يوم مهمل عجوز ينبح لتقديم نصيحةكلب " " . i see whenever we build a new gallows, we lose a tree. whenever we build a prison, a garden disappears, and so on. like any meaningless day, “an old dog barks to offer advice.” in this poem, the speaker does not speak directly about his homeland. he mentions the existence of a war being fought over the wealth of libya, such as the oil refineries. the bombs and rockets are a daily sight, but he is a person who is optimistic about his future, although it reminds him that amid such devastating and deadly warfare, one must always be vigilant. anyone who ignores the warning will go home in vain, because whatever decision is taken, there will be a price to pay. zuhdi 320 building a gallows means cutting down a tree for the wood, while adding a prison means losing the garden it is built upon. he points out that everything will continue, even while the old dog continues to give warnings. the second poem about libya is by khulud al-falah (2020), and it is entitled “the boring tale.” amid the raging war, you do not know who are friends and foes, because there are so many factions fighting, creating groundless expression. all that is remembered are the scattered fragments of a life story, such as little girls playing with dolls in their spare time, middle-aged mothers gossiping with their peers, and young women making themselves up in front of a mirror and painting their nails. there are also dreams about day-to-day activities, such as talks about skin-tightening mixtures, weight loss, botox injections, and so on. meanwhile, the men head for the battlefield. حكاية مملة الفتيات الصغيرات يمألن الفراغ .......... عن آباء ذهبوا إلى الحرب .وأمهات يصنعن الفرح الفتاة الصغيرة مع الدمية الوحيدة the boring tale little girls fill their spare time, .................... while fathers go to war, and mothers create joy. little girl with the only doll. ستهتمين أكثر بنعومة يديك طالء األظافر شد البشرة خلطات .وصفات الوزن المثالي you will care more about the softness of your hands journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 nail polish, skin-tightening mixtures, and recipes for weight loss. تتأمل وجوه الفنانات على شاشة التلفزيون لمحقونة بالبوتكس والفيلر ا looking at the faces of female artists on tv, injected with botox and fillers. amid the hustle and bustle of the daily routine, the speaker seems to feel lonely. this reflects a life full of the noise of war but devoid of friendship. the speaker tries to entertain himself by eating chocolate to lift his spirits. to him, this can foster a sense of happiness and reassurance. نصيحة إحدى الصديقات بأكل الشوكوالتة ستتبع "ألنها تبعث على السعادة وتحسن المزاج" وقبل أن تذهب للنوم ."تردد أغنيتها المفضلة لصباح" أحس قد أيه وحيدة **** you will follow a friend’s suggestion to eat chocolate: “because it will bring a sense of happiness and create a better mood.” and before going to bed, you repeat your favorite song for shabah: “i feel alone.” the final poet we will discuss is an egyptian. in the arab world, egypt is considered the center of arab civilization, possibly even the global civilization. thus, there is a well-known proverb in arab countries: “egypt ummud dunya” (“egypt is the center of global civilization”). this saying manifests itself in egyptian people, including hisham al-jokh, an egyptian poet who is discussed below. al-jokh voices true arab nationalism. in his poetry, he takes the view that love for the homeland is not limited to egypt but covers all arab countries, from the western tip of morocco to the eastern end of the sultanate of oman. hisyam al-jokh’s poem “visa” strongly expresses arab nationalism. the speaker reveals that since childhood, arabs are exposed to the nationalist song “arabia is my homeland; arabs are my siblings.” zuhdi 322 التأشيرة visa وقد علمت فى صغرى بان عروبتى شرفى i was taught in childhood that my arabism is my honor, وناصيتى وعنوانى my badge and my banner. وكنا فى مدارسنا نردد بعض الحان and in school, we would repeat some songs. نغنى بيننا مثال we sing between us, for example, وكل العرب اخوانى -بالد العرب أوطانى “the arab world is my homeland / and all arabs are my siblings.” arabs are portrayed as a brave and strong people, even when under pressure from many parties. the speaker then continues: وكنا نرسم العربى ممشوقا بهامته we would draw the arab tall and strong, له صدر يصد الريح اذ تعوى with a chest that would block the wind if it howled, مهابا فى عبائته powerful in his mantle. the speaker expresses a strong dream: when he grows up, he wants to explore the arab world from morocco to libya, bahrain to oman. he wants to pick dates in baghdad, walk as far as syria, press olives in palestine, and land in mogadishu. at this time, the only war mentioned is the one to free the al-aqsa mosque from zionism. سأبحر عندما اكبر i will set sail when i grow up. امر بشاطىء البحرين فى ليبيا i'll pass by bahrain’s beach in libya journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 واجنى التمر من بغداد فى سوريا and pick the dates of baghdad in syria. …………… وان حروبنا كانت الجل المسجد االقصى and that our wars were for the al-aqsa mosque وان عدونا صهيون and our enemy is zion. however, in adulthood, this dream has faded. there is no more mention of traveling around the arab world, or even crossing the border, because he did not get a visa. even worse, the arabs who were called siblings are now killing each other. their lives have returned to the jahiliah era, the time before the arrival of islam. the speaker describes the conditions of the civil war between fellow arabs, which resembles the war and hostility between the aus and khazraj tribes before the onset of islam in medina. وحين كبرت and when i grew up, تأشيرة للبحرلم احصل على i did not get a visa to go to sea. لم ابحر i did not set sail. وأوقفنى جواز غير مختوم على الشباك i was stopped with an unstamped passport at the window, لم اعبر so i did not cross the border. the speaker sees that the leaders are responsible for the divisions and wars in arab countries. he sarcastically quips that “have not the arab nations been taught to be united, and not separate, as they learned in the schools built by those arab leaders.” this is because the sense of nationalism among the arab leaders has faded. they share power and natural wealth with other nations, so the arabs have become scattered. zuhdi 324 الستم من نشأنا فى مدارسكم were we not brought up in your schools, تعلمنا مناهجكم learning your principles? ……………… .. تعلمنا على يدكم بان العود محمى بحزمته ضعيف حين ينفردالستم من didn’t you teach us that sticks are strong in a bundle and weak when separated? …………………………………. الستم من تعلمنا على يدكم ان اعتصموا بحبل هللا واتحدوا aren't you the ones who told us, "hold fast to faith in god and unite?" …………………………… .. تقاسمتم عروبتنا ودخلكم بينكم صرنا كما االنعام you've divided our arabism between yourselves and among yourselves, and we have become like animals, the arab country in this context is egypt, which is in the midst of the overall destruction of the arab world due to civil war and the intervention of foreign nations, but the speaker’s sense of nationalism is growing stronger. he says proudly that he is an arab, and his opinion of arab nationalism has not changed at all. the arab world, which is scattered in his eyes, still comprises the countries he mentions: egypt, tunisia, iraq, oman, and so on. he is still proud to be part of an arab world that stretches from green tunis to oman, cultivates dates in baghdad, and has water that flows from the springs of sudan. he is also proud of the arabs’ religious and ethnic diversity, so he does not differentiate between religions and races because they are all considered important components of arab nationalism. he mentions the christians, sunnis, shias, kurds, druze, and alawi as inseparable elements of arab nationalism. انا العربى ال اخجل i am an arab, unashamed. ولدت بتونس الخضراء من اصل عمانى born in green tunisia of omani origins. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 وعمرى زاد عن الف وامى ماتزل تحبل i am more than a thousand years old, and my mother still gets pregnant. انا العربى فى بغداد لى نخل i am an arab, i have palm trees in baghdad وفى السودان شريانى and arteries in sudan. انا مصرى موريتانيا وجيبوتى وعمانى i’m an egyptian of mauritania, djibouti, and oman. ى وشيعى و كردى ودرزى وعلوىمسيحى وسن christian, sunni, shia, kurd, druze, and alawi. amid the speaker’s pride of arab nationalism, there is great anxiety over the disunity of the arab nation. while other countries are united, the arabs choose to distance themselves from each other. he sees the roots of the hostility among the arabs being far removed from the noble teachings of islam. the speaker equates the fragmentation of the arab nation to the period before the arrival of islam in medina. at that time, there was constant hostility and wars between the aus and khadzraj tribes. after islam, the two united, and islam forged a strong state in medina. انا ال احفظ االسماء والحكام اذ ترحل i do not learn the names of the rulers as they leave. تشتتنا على يدكم we have been scattered at your hands. وكل الناس تتكتل as other people are gathering, سئمنا من تشتتنا وكل الناس تتكتل we are sick of being scattered as other people gather. ملئتم فكرنا كذبا ووتزويرا وتأليفا you have filled our thoughts with lies, forgery, and falsehoods. ………………………………. zuhdi 326 هجرنا ديننا عمدا we have deliberately abandoned our religion. فعدنا االوس والخزرج we have returned to being the aws and the khazraj. the speaker attributes the disunity and enmity of the arabs to the arab leaders, while the people are in fine condition. the arabs will unite, and there will be no division of the sudanese state and no occupation of the golan heights, and lebanon will not have to heal its wounds alone. they will be able to press olives in valiant palestine, grow wheat in morocco, harvest pearls in the arabian gulf, and cultivate crops in sudan. ويعلن شعبنا العربى متحدا declaring our arab nation unified. فال السودان منقسم sudan is not divided. وال الجوالن محتل nor is the golan occupied. الجرح منفردا وال لبنان منكسر يدواى nor is lebanon broken, tending to its wounds alone. سيجمع لؤلؤات خلجينا العربى فى السودان يزرعها our arabian gulf's pearls will be gathered and planted in sudan. فينبت حبها فى المغرب العربى قمحا and their seeds will grow as wheat in maghreb. يعصرون الناس زيتا فى فلسطين االبيه the people will press oil in proud palestine. the speaker gives a warning to the leaders who should be held responsible for the split, saying that the arab nation and nationalism will continue to exist, even though it has been hit by constant sedition. the voice of the arabs will continue to echo, “arabs are my homeland; arabs are my siblings.” journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 احذركم i warn you. سنبقى رغم فتنتكم we will remain despite your sedition. ………………………. فرشاتى والوانى my brush and my paints. يرسم العربى ويبقى will keep painting the arab ممشوقا بهامته tall and strong ويبقى صوت الحانى and the sound of my rhymes will remain: بالد العرب اوطانى the arab world is my homeland. وكل العرب اخوانى and all arabs are my siblings. generally, the themes of poetry expressed during revolution season in egyptian, lybian and syria and poet reflect the strong sense of arab nationalism that emerged in a person growing up in a country that is considered the center of the arab civilization. egypt calls itself umm al-ʿarab (the mother of the arab nations). the egyptians feel that the unity of the arab world is their responsibility, so it is not surprising that this proverb reflects egypt’s maternal feelings for the rest of the arab world. conclusion after analyzing the poetry of five poets from various arab countries, in summary it is clear that each country certainly has a unique civilization and characteristics. among arab countries, egypt has a broader view of nationalism than most. this is crystal clear in the egyptian poet’s expression in his poetry when describes nationalism and his defense of a nation that covers the entire arab zuhdi 328 region from westernmost morocco to eastern oman. these arab countries share a unity that cannot be broken, as expressed through the slogan “the arab world is my homeland; arabs are my siblings.” the lybian and syrian poets, meanwhile, express their nationalism by referring to their love of their respective countries. almost none of the poems express any particular ideology, either political or religious. this poem is very explicitly ideological because it clearly expresses support for the establishment of an islamic nationalism. the expressions conveyed in the poetry also share some similarities in the idea that the destroyers of their beloved countries are foreigners who come to the country to fight each other, take their natural resources, or occupy it as a strategic position. what all the poems also have in common is a message is that their leaders are the destroyers, yet these leaders ironically also teach the people of their country about unity, oneness, friendship, and love for the country. almost all the poems express ideas in connotative language. only one expresses itself denotatively, with the rest not mentioning a particular state, person, or ideology. the poem of aljokh does explicitly mention ethnicity and religion—such as christians, sunnis, shias, kurds, druze, and alawites—but not to criticize them, because it instead positions them as important elements making up the whole of arab nationalism. this expression emerged from a poet who was born and raised in egypt, which is considered the center of the arab civilization, hence the proverb “egypt ummud dunya” (egypt is the center of global civilization). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 304-330 references al-fakhuri, h. (1986). al-jāmi’ fī tārīkh al-adab al-‘arabiy aladab al-qadīm. beirut: dār aljīl. anderson, l. (2011). demystifying the arab spring. foreign affairs, 2, 2–7. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/demystifying-the-arab-spring-parsing-thebetween-%2c-anderson/b2d011253da2392e12f0cec80ca194a369470124 budiharso, t. (2016). symbols in javanese mantra aji seduluran: a magnificient moral value. lingua: jurnal bahasa, sastra dan pengajarannya. 13(1), 1-18. soloclcs.org damono, s. d., & effendi, s. (1979). sosiologi sastra: sebuah pengantar ringkas. jakarta: pusat pembinaan dan pengembangan bahasa, departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. hayes, c. j. (1926). essays on nationalism. new york: the macmillan company faruk. (1994). pengantar sosiologi sastra. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. hope, a. d. (2002). the cave and the spring: essays on poetry. in books abroad (vol. 40, issue 4). university of sydney library. https://doi.org/10.2307/40121196 kadalah, m. (2014). the impact of arabic literature on the pre-arab spring time period. international journal of arts & sciences, 07(march 1980), 439–447. www.mdpi.com/journal/religions khosravi, j., aghapouri, h., & hamehmorad, l. (2016). the islamist maktab-quran in iran and its challenges for kurdish nationalism. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 3(1), 59-73. levine, m. (2015). when art is the weapon: culture and resistance confronting violence in the post-uprisings arab world. religions, 6(4), 1277–1313. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel6041277 mady, a. f. (2013). popular discontent, revolution, and democratization in egypt in a globalizing world. indiana journal of global legal studies, 20(1), 313–337. https://doi.org/10.2979/indjglolegstu.20.1.313 michel, h. (2013). "irhal!": the role of language in the arab spring. doctoral dissertation. georgetown university. simpson, c. (2018). assessing the arab spring in libya and syria a compilation of varying statements from key actors. the quarterly journal position, 11(1), 55–68. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26326264?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents zuhdi 330 solikhah, i. (2016). metaphors in javanese mantra of kiyai pradah ritual ceremony. indonesian journal of language teaching and linguistics (ijotl-tl), 1(2), 127-142. www.soloclcs.org. suleman, a. (n.d.). friework festival. retrieved august 16 , 2020, 13.11 wib, from https://www.jadaliyya.com tarman, b., & kılınç, e. (2018). poetry in the social studies textbooks in turkey. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 50-62. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.01.01.4 tolba, n. (2018). from rebellion to riots. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 93-114. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.6 torlakova, l. (1970). metaphors of the arab spring: figurative construals of the uprisings and revolutions. journal of arabic and islamic studies, 14, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.5617/jais.4636 wiyatmi. (2013). sosiologi sastra: teori dan kajian terhadap sastra indonesia. jakarta: kanwa publisher. wolff, j. (1989). the social production of art. new york: new york university press. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.01.01.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.6 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 366-387 366 school supervision practices in the indonesian education system; perspectives and challenges ikhfan haris1; fory a. naway2; wiwy t. pulukadang3; hiroko takeshita4 and inero v. ancho5 abstract the purpose of this study is to provide information on the perspectives, practices and challenges of the school supervision in the indonesian education system. the paper reviewed and analyzed the organizational structure of supervision services in the indonesian educational system, as well as types of supervisions; purpose of supervisions and supervisor roles and responsibilities. furthermore, the paper explores the selection of supervisors and tenure; resourcing and training of school supervisors. a detailed analysis of the role of stakeholders in supervision activities and feedback mechanisms of the result of school supervision is also included in this paper. finally, the paper also discuss and examine major challenges face by school supervisor and opportunities of school supervision in indonesia and the way forward as suggestion/recommendation of this study key words: education, school, supervision, supervisor, system introduction school supervisors are an important part of a devolved accountability system and quality assurance framework of education (saccomanno, 2016; hamzah et.al, 2013; international institute for educational planning, 2007). in indonesia, school supervisors are senior teachers or seniors school principals who are perceived as those who have qualifications for taking up school supervision roles (peraturan pemerintah nomor 74 tahun 2008 and permen pan & rb no. 21 tahun 2010). they report to the local education office of ministry of education and culture (moec) or the ministry of religious affairs (mora) at the provincial, regent or city level. in indonesia, school supervisors are senior teachers or seniors school principals who are perceived as 1 prof., faculty of education, universitas negeri gorontalo, indonesia, ifanharis@ung.ac.id 2 assoc. prof., faculty of education, universitas negeri gorontalo, indonesia, forynawai@ung.ac.id 3 lecturer, faculty of education, universitas negeri gorontalo, indonesia, wiwy_pulukadang@ung.ac.id 4 assoc. prof., faculty of education at ehime university, japan, takeshita.hiroko.we@ehime-u.ac.jp 5 assist. prof., philippine normal university, ancho.inero@gmail.com mailto:ifanharis@ung.ac.id mailto:forynawai@ung.ac.id mailto:wiwy_pulukadang@ung.ac.id mailto:takeshita.hiroko.we@ehime-u.ac.jp mailto:ancho.inero@gmail.com haris et al. those who have qualifications for taking up school supervision roles (government regulation number 74 of 2008 and ministerial regulation of administrative and bureaucratic reform no. 21 of 2010). the position of supervisors in the organizational structure of education is different from teachers (raihan, 2008). the super-ordinates of teachers are school principals; the super-ordinates of primary school principals are the heads of sub-district uptd (“unit pelaksana teknis daerah”, local technical implementer unit) or the head of sub-district education office; the super-ordinates of secondary school principals are the heads of district education office. performance appraisal of teachers is assessed by school principals; primary schools by the head of sub-district uptd; and secondary schools by the head of district education office through the head of primary or secondary education division. at national level, supervisors are in the scope of work of the director of primary and secondary staff empowerment, the general directorate of teachers and education staff, the ministry of national education. at district/city level, kindergarten and primary school supervisors report to the head of district education office through the head of sub-district uptd and subject supervisors at secondary schools directly report to the head of district education office. the decree of the indonesian president no 87 year 1999 defines functional position as the position that reflects roles, responsibilities and rights of a civil servant in an organization unit that requires certain expertise and skills as well as independent in undertaking the position. therefore, recommendations from school supervisors should be independent and should not be combined with other recommendations. in the regulation of the minister of state for administrative reform and bureaucratic reform no 21 year 2010 chapter 1 verse 2: “school supervisors are civil servants who are fully responsible and authorized to undertake academic and managerial supervision at education units. as they are fully responsible for supervision, their supervision results should become references for decision-makings on policies and empowerment. their supervision results should also be considered by local governments when making decisions”. however, the results are not respected; therefore school supervisors are less-respected. their recommendations do not significantly impact on school principal and teacher empowerment, which is different from what happened in the local autonomy era. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 a supervisor coordinator is assigned by district education office to oversee the success and effectiveness of school supervision work (arman et, al, 2016). the coordinator is selected by all school supervisors across all education levels at province/district/city levels. the ministry of religious affairs or other ministerial institutions/non-ministerial institutions as outlined in the decree of the head of province/district/city education office, the province/district religion office, or the head of other district offices, who have roles and responsibilities to coordinate supervision activities in their scope of work. in certain condition, the coordinator can play a double role as the head of mkps (“musyawarah kerja pengawas sekolah”, school supervisor working group). roles and responsibilities of the supervisor coordinator are (1) set roles and responsibilities of school supervisors; coordinate all activities of school supervisors; (2) provide advice in the process of setting credit points of school supervisors to be recommended to the head of province/district/city education office; (3) report school supervision activities of all education levels on an annual basis; and recommend assessment results of performance appraisal of school supervisors to the head of province/district/city education office. to ensure success and effectiveness of the work the coordinator, s/he is assisted by kkps (“kelompok kerja pengawas sekolah”, school supervisor working group) and mkps of all education levels and types (ministry of national education regulation no 143 year 2014). methodology and conceptual framework the review aims to provide critical overview, description and analysis on the perspectives, practices and challenges of the school supervision in the indonesian education system. the conceptual and theoretical framework for the review called for a summary of each aspect of school supervision to include: (1) the institutional set up: how supervision is organized; (2) logistics: how supervision is carried out, including remote or virtual supervision; (3) roles and responsibilities: the tasks and functions of a supervisor vis-à-vis other district/provincial or school level personnel; (4) effectiveness of the school supervision: what has been proven to work, and the strength or weakness of claims to effectiveness?; and (5) conditions for effectiveness: what financial, technological and human resource capacity is required, including managerial and pedagogic experience of supervisors? haris et al. the paper takes the form of a review of literature and other documentation on school supervision. the review sought to source information from journal articles, grey literature, and unpublished academic studies and donor/ngo-cso reports and websites. this literature and practice review looked initially to the indonesia literature to capture a snapshot of current strengths and areas of focus, and found divergent opinion on the implementation of school supervision in indonesian schools. this review has considered a range of national examples of the practices of supervision in indonesia. policies, programs and practices in regards to the supervisory responsibilities of evaluating student assessments; teacher and principal appraisal; and internal (within school) and external school evaluation were analysed to illustrate a holistic national evaluation and assessment framework. the focus of reviewed included: the organizational structure of supervision services; types of supervisions; purpose of supervisions and supervisor roles and responsibilities. furthermore, the paper explores the selection of supervisors and tenure; resourcing and training of school supervisors. drawing from the literature, this review also provides some considerations for indonesia in strengthening school supervision practices. these include ensuring the focus of supervision is the improvement of teaching and learning, and student outcomes; differentiating supervision (in terms of frequency and depth of coverage) for low and high performing schools; promoting the wider use of the results of school supervision; and distributing greater responsibility to school principals and teaching staff for improving learning and teaching. the review’s outputs include: (1) the review of literature and other documentation on school supervision in indonesia; (2) identifying successful supervision activities that would inform improvement and alignment of supervision policy, processes and practices in indonesia; and (3) incorporating findings into reports, policy briefs to guide understanding of what an effective education system does in its approach to organization, processes and functions, and roles and responsibilities in school supervision role and function of supervisors in indonesian context the most important activity in school teaching delivery is interaction between teachers and students in classrooms, which require supervision to ensure that the set objectives are achieved (gablinske, 2014; coe et.al, 2014). school principals and teachers cannot do a double role as supervisors for teaching and learning delivery. even if they can, the results will tend to be journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 subjective. they are different from the inspectorate and bpkb (“badan pengawasan keuangan dan pembangunan”, finance and development supervisory agency) that aim to audit financial flow of local governments/institutions. therefore, even though school supervisors have shared objectives with school principals and teachers, the “three” of education actors: teachers, school principals and supervisors have respective roles and responsibilities; school principals are planners; teachers are actors; and school supervisors are assessors of feasibility of implementation process and achievement of set objectives. in general, the major function of the supervisor is to assist others to become efficient and effective in the performance of the assigned duties. apart from this general function, supervisors also perform the following roles in the school system: (1) instructional leader: instructional leadership is one of the most important roles of supervisor: supervisor leads other teachers in instruction to make them as effective as possible. they also lead teachers in developing and implementing an effective plan of instruction. supervisors have to adapt to meet the needs of the people and the particular environment rather than practice a normative kind of leadership. instructional leaders improve the quality of instruction by furthering professional growth for all teachers. supervisors should be flexible enough to deal with any situation and should maintain a good relationship with their staff; (2) assessing student progress: a supervisor assesses student’s progress toward the established standards by the regulatory agencies, and also facilitates the planning of various types of instruction. supervisors ensure that teachers are utilizing information from a variety of valid and appropriate sources before they begin the planning of lessons or teaching. supervisors determine if teachers are using the numerous evaluation processes available to assist in planning meaningful instruction, and (3) the supervisors ensure that teachers are preparing and maintaining adequate and accurate records of student’s progress. this will include the regular and systematic recording of meaningful data regarding student’s progress on specific concepts and skills related to the standards for each subject for the grade level they are teaching (sutoyo et. al, 2017). the regulation of the minister of administrative and bureaucratic reform no 21 year 2010 on functional position of school supervisors and their credit scores, the main task of school supervisors is to do academic and managerial supervision at an education unit covering the development of supervision program, empowerment implementation, implementation monitoring haris et al. of the eight national standards of education, assessment, assistance, and teacher professional trainings, evaluation of the results of supervision program, and the implementation of supervision tasks in specific areas. the purpose of supervision closely relates with the purpose of education at schools that is to help schools (teachers) undertake their roles to get the set objectives met. the main purpose of supervision is to improve teaching and learning (neagly and evans, 1980; oliva, 1984; unal, 2013; glickman et.al, 1998). the main target of supervision activities is improved teacher professional development. the teachers are related with human resource development, which in the end determines the prosperity and the sustainability of a nation (wiles and bondi, 2004). operational implementation of academic and managerial supervision focuses on things related with the following school condition and context: (1) checking on the availability of teaching-learning materials; (2) advising on the appropriateness of the teaching-learning materials in use; (3) assessing staff levels; (4) advising on the school climate; (5) advising the availability and quality of advising and support services available to the teacher; (6) promoting curriculum change and innovation; (7) attending to the welfare of teachers; (8) attending to institutional problems; (9) data collection to facilitate planning and decision making, and (10) monitoring policy implementation. in order to develop and promote the quality of education, the school supervisors should conduct the duties and the roles professionally, in the following activities: providing feedback on teacher’s performance; identifying needs for staff development; identifying potential for promotion; conducting quality assurance checks as well as ensuring teacher motivation and morale and providing professional support and guidance to the teachers. in addition, school supervisor ensures that the professional environment is supportive of the teaching and learning process. the ultimate objective of supervision is to improve the quality of teaching and learning. this means that school supervisor needs to play the roles of planner; organizer; leader; helper; evaluator, appraiser, motivator, communicator, and decision-maker. supervisor roles and responsibilities supervision is a process of facilitating or assisting the professional growth of a teacher, primarily by giving the teacher feedback about classroom interactions and helping the teacher make use of the feedback in order to make teaching more effective (glatthorn, 1987). therefore, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 supervision broadly refers to the professional guidance and support provided by the supervisors, who are expected to offer the teacher assistance that will enhance and improve teacher motivation and classroom instruction (neagly & evans, 1980; oliva, 1984; hoy & forsyth, 1986; wiles dan bondi, 2004; glickman, 1990) the main role of school or education unit supervisors is to do academic and managerial supervision functions. there are three activities that should be done by school supervisors: (1) accomplish empowerment of school quality development, school principal performance, teacher performance, and school staff performance; (2) conduct evaluation and monitoring of school program implementation and development; and (3) perform assessment of school development program process and result within a collaborative work with school stakeholders; (4) realize assigned education governance supervision at kindergartens, primary schools, junior and senior high schools and slb ("sekolah luar biasa", schools for children with special needs); and (5) improve the quality of teaching and learning process/counseling and student learning achievement/counseling to achieve education objectives the first main role refers to managerial supervision and the second one academic supervision. the former is about empowerment, assessment and support/counseling from program planning, process and result. counseling and support are provided by school principals and school staff in school management or education governance at schools to improve school performance. academic supervision relates with empowering and assisting teachers in quality improvement of teaching and learning process/counseling and student learning quality. the authority given to school supervisors includes: (1) select and determine working method to achieve optimal results in undertaking the roles as required by the ethical codes; (2) determine teacher performance level and the level of other supervised staff and other influential factors; (3) determine or propose empowerment program and do the empowerment. the authority implies the autonomy of school supervisors to identify steps and strategies in determining supervision procedures. however, school supervisors should collaborate with school principals and teachers to undertake their role that is in line with the set school development objectives (hariri et. al, 2012). selection of supervisors and tenure haris et al. different from school principals that are selected, school supervisors are not selected. even though the regulation of the ministry of national education 12/2007 has set criteria or requirement to become school supervisors, which is passing the selection process, the appointment of school supervisors is not by selection process. this impact on the competence quality of school supervisors as they are assigned not selected through standardized recruitment process. even if selected, the recruitment and selection process have not been carried out professionally as they still apply favoritism and consider political situation at local level (cnn, 2016). many publications on school supervision in indonesia suggest that the system of recruiting school supervisors is a key challenge as it is shown to be based less on competencies and qualifications than on favoritism and political considerations at the local level. on the other hand, the appointment of school principals has been done by selection process as required by the regulation of the minister of national education no 28 year 2010 on the appointment of teachers by school principals. of 514 districts/cities in indonesia, only 113 have been committed to do the selection and school principal trainings as required by the regulation of the minister of national education no 28 year 2010. the selection and the trainings of the principal candidates in indonesia are delivered by lppks (“lembaga pengembangan dan pemberdayaan kepala sekolah” the institution of development and empowerment of (school) principals of indonesia), in solo. there have not been any institutions responsible for both activities, so they are carried out as needed by district education office. effectiveness of schools is very much determined by the effectiveness of their leaders. effective school leaders are those who are able to realize vision, mission and objectives of schools they lead. the leaders here refer to school principals and supervisors who are effective as they are competent to get school vision, mission and objectives realized. comprehensive, reliable selection method is required to get effective, competent school principals and supervisors. the selection is necessary to get eligible school supervisors who meet the competences set by the ministry of national education, i.e. 1) personality; 2) supervision and managerial; 3) academic supervision; 4) education evaluation; 5) development research; 6) social (regulation of the indonesian minister of national education no 12 year 2007). currently, there are about 30 district/cities in indonesia that have applied the selection process for school supervisors. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 training of supervisors school supervisors are strategic partners for schools in quality improvement, particularly in assisting teachers to implement what have been learned from trainings on classroom learning. as their role is important, school supervisors should get improved supervision competences in supervision and school principal monitoring (jawas, 2014). school supervisors should be selected from qualified school principals and teachers, who will be prepared to become professional school supervisors as required by the minister of national education regulation no 13 year 2007. theoretically school supervisors should have obtained competences that are above the competences of school principals and teachers as their role is to supervise them. school supervisor training program is aimed at equipping school supervisor candidates with academic and technical, professional competences on supervision to get them familiar with related science/knowledge and technology. more specifically, the training enhances their knowledge, skills and professional attitudes in: (1) education policies and their implementation at schools; (2) education planning and school-based management; (3) education management at schools; (4) education leadership at schools; (5) professional development for school principals and teachers; (6) monitoring and supervision roles at schools; (7) education innovation and technology; and (8) techniques of training, assisting, and counseling. in fact, access to trainings for school supervisors is very limited (principals working group). the school supervisors often conduct the trainings independently through kkps that meets on a weekly basis. guidelines on school supervisor trainings have been released, e.g. training guidelines of school supervisor competence empowerment (ministry of national education, 2010) or empowerment guidelines for madrasah school supervisors and islamic school supervisors (ministry of religion affairs, 2014); yet school supervisor training is still very limited. many surveys revealed that supervisors undertook minimal continued professional development (cpd) training in the three years prior to the study. the minority of supervisors who did claim to have received training, mostly those from moec, received training through mentoring from other supervisors or special training programs. a close analysis of supervisor comments about the training they received after appointment does not indicate that they participated in a specially planned induction program with mentoring and performance management support. resourcing for supervision haris et al. policy resources are potential values of a policy in the implementation. in the context of education supervision, the main resources are school supervisors. in education supervision, school supervisors require resources to support supervision activities. one of the main issues related with supervision resources is education supervision implementation budget. even though regulations on the position of school supervisors are clearly set, the budget for supervision implementation is still a big issue (sofo et. al, 2012). many school supervisors complain the unavailable operational budget so they have to use their personal money. after completing school monitoring, they expect to have their money returned by schools to cover at least the transport money used to go to schools (berita express, 2016). in performing their duties, the school supervisors have rights related with resources include: (1) receive salary as civil servants by government level; (2) receive functional allowance by school supervisor position; (3) obtain operational/regular fund to undertake supervision tasks, e.g. transportation, accommodation, and other supervision related activities; (4) receive professional allowance as school supervisors after getting supervisor certificate; (5) obtain subsidy and incentive to support tasks and professional development of school supervisors; (6) have special allowance as school supervisors working at isolated, conflicted, natural affected disaster areas (decree of the ministry of administrative and bureaucratic reform no 118 year 1996; decree of the minister of national education no 03420/o/1996; decree of the minister of national education no 020/u/1998). the budgets mentioned above are covered by central and local governments and the wellbeing allowances by local governments. the allowances are in line with the capability of e central and local governments. subsidy and incentives for school supervisor professional improvement is provided once a year by the government through the directorate of education staff with the amount adjusted with the capability of the budgeting. the subsidy is given to school supervisors through school supervisor coordinator at district/city level. therefore, the coordinator should develop programs and activities of professional development as needed by school supervisors within their respective areas. roles of stakeholders school supervisors are at the central position in education management at local level. the head of district education office entrusts school supervisors for the empowerment of school journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 principals and teachers. on the other hand, they can also empower teachers through mgmp ("musyawarah guru mata pelajaran”, subject teacher working group and school principals through mkks ("musyawarah kerja kepala sekolah", school principal working group). solid relationships among related stakeholders require partnership. the relationship between school and community requires attention. the better the level of education, well being and progress of a community, the better their appreciation and aspiration towards education institutions are. the most highlighted aspect is certainly education quality, besides management transparency is presented in following figure. figure 1 role, authority and relationship between school supervisor and education stakeholder remarks: mgmp: musyawarah guru mata pelajaran (subject teachers working group) mkks: musyawarah kelompok kepala sekolah (school principal working group) lpmp: lembaga penjaminan mutu pendidikan (quality assurance board in province level) school supervisors that have supervision and enabling functions to schools are required to be able to develop cooperation between schools and other related stakeholders for the sake of school empowerment: (1) encourage schools to do dialogues with school committee and community. school supervisors can play the role to smoothen school quality improvement program within the networks they have, e.g. with the head of district education office, the head of sub-district education office, industry and entrepreneurship parties, local libraries, and partnership mone provincial education office provinsi lpmp district education office. board of education school committe school supervisor teacher principal mgmp * mkks * student haris et al. museums. they not only monitor the relationship between schools and communities in a passive note but also provide assistance to support the relationship; (2) assist schools in curriculum development; (3) assist schools in developing relationships with scientific and professional organizations, e.g. higher education institutions and other international institutions knows as coalition schools. the cooperation is aimed for professional institutions to provide opportunities for students to interact and become the sources of information; (4) help schools develop institutional relationships among school levels within the areas of supervision. this means schools can exchange information on their respective school conditions and policies, i.e. kindergartens exchanging information with primary schools; primary schools with junior high schools; junior high schools with senior high schools. the collaboration is helpful to accommodate the interest of students to continue their study; (5) help schools improve local content teaching and learning. school supervisors not only monitor but also accelerate quality improvement of local content curriculum. therefore collaboration between school supervisors across districts/cities to succeed local content curriculum is required; (6) help schools conduct shared activities, e.g. exhibitions, sports and art week among schools, contests of wits, student exchange, leadership training among osis (”organisasi siswa intra sekolah”, student union) as well as tryout and empowerment of olympic participants. the activities are instruments in developing collaboration with related stakeholders to get them engaged in education quality improvement in their areas; (7) help schools promote successful teachers, students and other academic aspects; (8) help schools find funds for teacher training and research, e .g. classroom action research through collaboration with higher education institutions, empowerment of mgmp and kkg (”kelompok kerja guru”, teacher working group) or information delivery on grant funds; and (9) help schools develop relationships with entrepreneurship actors if schools are to work on school cooperation, teacher well being improvement, and other relevant efforts. of all school empowerment ideas already mentioned, some may go beyond the tasks and responsibilities of school supervisors. this is when the importance of school supervisors having the knowledge of opportunities and rights is required. when done, they will get closer to school principals and teachers and will become school partners. feedback mechanisms to schools and ministry journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 an important aspect related with school supervision is the report of supervision results. considering the uniqueness of specific areas and the importance of collected information by school supervisors from their school visits, there needs to be quality supervision mechanism and reporting. the mechanism and reporting system of supervision include: (1) standardized report format and content of supervision at special areas; (2) time arrangement of supervision reporting (frequency, timeline, monthly/quarterly/semester/annual report, etc.); (3) reporting system (unit/section or staff responsible to collect report, to analyze, to respond or to provide feedback on the reports from school supervisors); (4) data sorting of supervision results by category, e.g. curriculum related data, student development and progress data, facilities and infrastructure data, school principal and teacher professional development data, and school issue data; (5) report sorting of findings and recommendations, e.g. findings to be followed up by interest and urgency levels and (6) follow up from field visit by school supervisors by district education office. proposed mechanism and reporting system is presented in a diagram below: figure 2 report mechanism of school supervisor an important aspect of reporting mechanism of supervision results is the coordinative relationship among sub-district education office/technical implementation unit of district education office. therefore education supervision activities at specific areas should set the mechanism. the diagram shows that supervision findings by school supervisors will be reported to district education office, which has section/unit responsible to process the report data provided report school representative of deo in sub-district district education office (deo) superviso r principa l recommendation & follow up result of supervision haris et al. by the supervisors. after getting the report, analyzed recommendations for follow up will be informed to schools and school supervisors. it is expected that this type of reporting will result in ”reporting quality cycle” that provides feedback for issues happened at schools and solutions or policies developed by district education office to empower the function of school supervisors as bridge-facilitators between district education office and schools. discussion of challenges and opportunities school supervisors have an important role to play in supporting principals and teachers to improve the quality of education delivered in indonesia’s schools, and in strengthening the capacity of principals and teachers to deliver on this goal. there is wide agreement that the system of school supervision in indonesia needs improvement. supervisors are used sporadically and their use varies across regions. however, even in areas that do use supervisors, the supervisory role is shown to focus mainly on administrative rather than quality issues. this review and analysis of practice of school supervision in indonesia has identified that the performance and quality of indonesian school supervisors has been impacted by the following factors: (1) recruitment of school supervisors through seniority or extension of pension age for a bureaucrat means that schools that need the most highly qualified supervisors with specific expertise may not receive this high level support (media indonesia, 2016; acdp, 2016); (2) the tasks of school supervisors are not fully supported with adequate infrastructure, facilities and resources to make the supervision process successful; (3) the position of school supervisors may be viewed as a challenging and an unrewarding career path for innovative educators needed to fulfill this role (ugm, 2016); (4) attention to empowering the career of school supervisors is not viewed as a moec priority and (5) the process of school supervision is seen as a compliance activity by both schools and the supervisor (acdp, 2016; syahban, 2010). initially school supervisors apply inspection approach for supervision activities. classroom and school visits done by school supervisors are viewed as formal, scary activities. they get into classrooms, checking how teachers teach and how curriculum is applied, and verbally assessing student competences. the results of the checking are very meaningful for school supervisors and teachers as they impact on their future career. school principals do inspection on teachers as part of daily internal supervision system. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 unfortunately the assignment of school supervisors has never been supported with sufficient funds and has been the burden to schools. it psychologically impacts on school supervisors being less respected at schools. in addition to this, the government only releases policies that support training and education on supervision activities focusing on school principals and not engaging school supervisors. it makes the function of school supervisors at schools is neglected/not supported. it slows down the response and anticipation of school supervisors towards new education policies and innovations as facilities and support from central and local governments are very limited in providing supporting programs as they are mostly for school principals and teachers. school supervisors should have been aware of new education policies and innovations before they become known by school principals and teachers. the supervision paradigm of school supervisor mentioned above should be changed, not only controlling to look for mistakes made by school principals and teachers but also helping them to find solution. by considering what has been elaborated, there needs to be revitalization of the role of school supervisors to make improvements in every aspect so that education processes at schools are effectively delivered. school supervision should be directed to quality control to improve education quality, requiring eligible competences to do academic and managerial supervision (quality controlling auditing). any supervision model cannot guarantee the perfect solution to supervision issues, particularly those related with the existence of school supervisors as the external parties of education quality control at schools as education units that should reflect education quality that are mostly ignored. school supervisors are even blamed when failures are reflected in the education results. the big question is why this happens. in this context, the revitalization of the role of school supervisors is important to make improvements towards effective education processes at schools. school supervision should be directed to improve education quality by requiring appropriate competences to do academic and managerial supervision (quality controlling auditing). to be considered, the revitalization of school supervision in indonesia is reflected in the following forms: (1) recruitment of school supervisors should be in line with the regulation of the ministry of national education no 12 year 2007 and the government regulation no 19 year 2005. the government should assign clear, competent institutions when recruiting and assessing school supervisors, psychologically and academically, and releasing educational audit certificates for school supervisors that have time limit that should be extended. if the certificates expire and haris et al. school supervisors have not got them extended by participating in the re-assessment, they do not have the right to do school supervision and district education office has the right to decide their existence; (2) re-structuring of supervision areas should be done as there are too many of them. the regulation of the ministry of national education no 12/2007 states that a school supervisor supervises minimum 5 schools to improve their quality, which is quite hard. ideally, one supervisor supervises one school (kindergarten/primary school), one school supervisor for one school (junior high school, senior high school, and one vocational high school) from subject supervisor. therefore work performance of school supervisors can be identified clearly based on the indicators of school quality improvement; (3) central government should prioritize competence improvement of school supervisors particularly on the support for education and training about new education policies and innovations before getting them delivered to school principals and teachers. school supervisors should first get the content to be supervised. this is not what is happening as most school principals and teachers know more and have better understanding than school supervisors, which lessens the authority of school supervisors; (4) local government/district or city education office should formulate common policies on academic and managerial supervision activities to be applied at schools, covering empowerment and implementation monitoring of eight national standards of education in which direct interaction among school principals, teachers and other staff takes place. the direct interaction or face to face activity takes place at schools. yet processing the results of the monitoring of the respective eight standards is not by face to face activity. therefore district education office and school supervisors should develop standardized supervision program that includes: (a) annual supervision program; (b) semester supervision program; (c) managerial supervision plan; and (d) academic supervision plan. having the standardized instrument enables district education office to get accurate data on education quality improvement of the area; (5) school supervisors are given the authority to carry out teacher development training and to assess school principal and teacher performance, which will then be used for their career enhancement. with the authority, school supervisors can accurately assess work performance of school principals and teachers; (6) sufficient allowances and operational funds for school supervisors. by getting higher allowance than teachers, it is expected that professionalism of school supervisors can be enhanced and their image can become prestigious. the allowance should be adjusted with the heavy workload borne by school supervisors. they need to get sufficient operational funds for office supplies, reporting, travel allowance, research, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 and empowerment activities; (7) policies on rewards and strict punishment from local government should be made available. this is to ensure that supervision activities can be applied in improving education quality at schools and (8) further thoughts should be made on the official status of school supervisors – central or local staff, or local staff at province (senior high school supervisors), district (junior high school supervisors), and sub-district (kindergarten/primary school supervisors). the literature review also revealed that the foundations for school supervision in indonesia benchmarked well alongside other countries. however, the rigour of implementing current policy, programs and practices was impeding school and student improvement in the majority of indonesian schools (acdp-034c, 2014, p. vii). this report noted that the government of indonesia is doing most things right, by comparison with international good practice and within the indonesian context. the report also noted that indonesia was not yet reaping the full benefits of being on the right track because of weaknesses in the supervision implementation and enforcement cycle. impediments included: (1) weak supervision; (2) massive and mostly interesting rather than useful data sets; (3) limited and mostly academic rather than evaluative analysis of policy, programs and practices and (4) virtually non-existent feedback. the role of the supervisor is a critical role for moec as it delivers a number of system and school priorities to improve student outcomes. unfortunately the assignment of school supervisors has often been inadequately resourced to carry out this role (acdp, 2016; syahban, 2010). this is in conflict with other countries where the most needy schools are given the most significant professional support to improve outcomes. therefore, this review recommends improvement in the quantity, quality and resourcing of (government) supervisors to provide adequate services to all schools in indonesia. it also suggested organising needs-based school supervision more so than prescheduled visits; capacity building for the school principal; and ensuring consistent implementation and enforcement. the oecd also noted that supervisors should be independent and highly skilled, and recognised educational leaders in their own right. haris et al. references armana, s. b., thalibb & darman m. (2016). the effect of school supervisors competence and school principals competence on work motivation and performance of junior high school teachers in maros regency, indonesia. international journal of environmental & science education 11 (15), pp. 7309-7317 beritaekspres.com. (2016). waduh..! anggaran disdik triliunan, tunjangan pengawas sekolah no.l. url. http://www.beritaekspres.com/2016/02/18/anggaran-disdik-triliunan-tunjanganpengawas-sekolah-tidak-ada/. retrieved: 29 october 2016, coe, r., cesare a., steve higgins & lee elliot major. (2014). what makes great teaching? review of the underpinning research. center of evaluation and monitoring (cem). durham university. the sutton trust. dewi, s. k.. (2015). pengawasan akademik oleh pengawas sekolah dasar se-kabupaten bantul. skripsi. yogyakarta. universitas negeri yogyakarta. gablinske, p. b. (2014). a case study of student and teacher relationships and the effect on student learning. open access dissertations. paper 266. glatthorn, a. (1987). cooperative professional development: peer-centered options for teacher growth. educational leadership, 45(3), 31-35 glickman, c. d. (1990). supervision in transition: a developmental approach. (2nd ed.). boston: allyn & bacon. glickman, carl d, ross-gordon, jovita m. and gordon, stephen p. (1998). supervision and instructional leadership: a developmental approach. 4th edition. boston : allyn and bacon published hamzah, m. i. m., wei, y., ahmad, j., hamid, a. h. a., & mansor, a. n. (2013). supervision practices and teachers' satisfaction in government secondary schools: malaysia and china. international education studies, 6(8), 92. hariri, h., monypenny, r., pridaux, m. (2012). principalship in an indonesian school context: can principal decision-making styles significantly predict teacher job satisfaction? school leadership & management: 32 (5), 453-471. doi: 10.1080/13632434.2012.723617. hoy, w. k., & forsyth, p. b. (1986). effective supervision: theory into practice. 1 edition. michigan. random house inc; ihsanuddin, a. (2015). implementasi supervisi pengawas pai dalam meningkatkan kompetensi pedagogik guru pai sd di kecamatan berbah sleman. tesis. solo. institut agama islam negeri (iain) surakarta. http://www.beritaekspres.com/2016/02/18/anggaran-disdik-triliunan-tunjangan-pengawas-sekolah-tidak-ada/ http://www.beritaekspres.com/2016/02/18/anggaran-disdik-triliunan-tunjangan-pengawas-sekolah-tidak-ada/ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 international institute for educational planning. (2007). supervision: a key component of a quality monitoring system module 1. reforming school supervision for quality improvement. (unesco) paris. ismail, b. (2014). supervisi akademik pengawas sekolah dalam meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran di daerah terdepan, terluar, dan tertinggal (3t) (studi multisitus pada uptd kecamatan elar dan uptd kecamatan borong, kabupaten manggarai timur, (ntt). tesis (pasca sarjana), malang. universitas negeri malang. jawas, u. (2014). instructional leadership in indonesian school reform: local perceptions and practices. master thesis: university of canberra, 1. retrieved from http://www.canberra.edu.au/researchrepository/file/ded16a8c-1fb6-4b12-81d7bf6eb7e5e4d4/1/full_text.pdf karim. (2009) efektivitas pelaksanaan supervisi pengawas sekolah dasar di kecamatan sei bingai kabupaten langkat. masters thesis, unpublished. medan universitas negeri medan (unimed), kementerian agama ri. (2014). pedoman pembinaan pengawas madrasah dan pengawas pendidikan agama islam pada sekolah, jakarta. direktorat jenderal pendidikan agama islam. keputusan menteri pendidikan dan kebudayaan nomor 020/u/1998 tentang petunjuk teknis pelaksanaan jabatan fungsional pengawas sekolah dan angka kreditnya. jakarta, kemendikbud. indonesia. keputusan bersama mendikbud nomor 03420/o/1996 dan kepala badan administrasi kepegawaian negara nomor 38 tahun 1996 tentang petunjuk pelaksanaan jabatan fungsional pengawas. kemendikbud, jakarta, indonesia. keputusan menteri pendayagunaan apatur negara nomor 118 tahun 1996 tentang jabatan fungsional pengawas dan angka kreditnya. menteri pendayagunaan apatur negara kementrian pendidikan nasional. (2010). pedoman pelatihan penguatan kemampuan pengawas sekolah, kompetensi supervisi akademik, direktorat tenaga kependidikan, direktorat jenderal, peningkatan mutu pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan, jakarta. keputusan presiden republik indonesia nomor 87 tahun 1999 tentang rumpun jabatan fungslonal pegawai negeri sipil. sekertaris negara, jakarta, indonesia mae chu chang, et. al. (2013). teacher reform in indonesia: the role of politics and evidence in policy making. world bank publications mayasari, nova. (2013). pembinaan guru oleh pengawas sekolah dasar melalui supervisi akademik (studi deskriptif kualitatif di sekolah dasar negeri 02 kabupaten kepahiang). tesis, bengkulu. universitas negeri bengkulu. http://www.canberra.edu.au/researchrepository/file/ded16a8c-1fb6-4b12-81d7-bf6eb7e5e4d4/1/full_text.pdf http://www.canberra.edu.au/researchrepository/file/ded16a8c-1fb6-4b12-81d7-bf6eb7e5e4d4/1/full_text.pdf haris et al. media indonesia. (2016). rekrutmen pengawas sekolah belum ideal. http://mediaindonesia.com/news/read/60029/rekrutmen-pengawas-sekolah-belumideal/2016-08-05 accessed on 5 december 2016 ministry of national education (mone), (2016). guideline for school supervision in special regions. directorate for basic and secondary education and personnel development, jakarta. directorate general for teacher and education personnel,. ministry of national education (mone). (2013). regulation of ministry of national education on managing of special services of education. ministry of national education, jakarta. neagley, r. l., & evans, n. d. (1980). handbook for effective supervision of instruction. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice-hall. novrita, dewi. (2014). maksimalisasi peran pengawas sekolah menengah atas dalam meningkatkan profesionalisme guru pai. studi kasus pada kementerian agama di kota jayapura, papua. jabal hikmah vol.3 no.1, januari 2014 . sekolah tinggi agama islam negeri (stain) al fatah jayapura papua nurdin. (2012). inovasi supervisi: model-model pengawasan. url: http://pengawassekolahaceh.blogspot.co.id/2012/09/inovasi-supervisi.html. accessed on 12 november 2016. oecd. (2015). reviews of national policies for education in indonesia rising to the challenge: rising to the challenge. oecd, asian development bank. oecd publishing oliva, p. f. (1993). supervision for today's schools (4th ed.). new york: longman pemerintah daerah kabupaten sikka. (2005). peraturan bupati sikka nomor 5 tahun 2005 tentang pedoman pelaksanaan seleksi penerimaan calon pengawas sekolah taman kanakkanak, sekolah dasar/madrasah ibtidayah dan bimbingan dan konseling di lingkungan pemerintah kabupaten sikka. bagian hukum pemeritah daerah kabupaten sikka, maumere. permendiknas nomor 12 tahun 2007 tentang standar pengawas sekolah/madrasah. kemdiknas, jakarta, indonesia permendiknas nomor 28 tahun 2010 tentang penugasan guru sebagai kepala sekolah. kemdiknas, jakarta, indonesia program kemitraan pendidikan dasar nusa tenggara timur/primary education partnership ntt (ntt pep). (2004). laporan penelitian. survei terbataskebijakan dan prosedur seleksi/rekrutmen guru, kepala sekolah & pengawas di kabupaten sikka. penasehat pendukung sistem (system support advisor) ntt pep. kabupaten support unit (ksu) sikka. http://mediaindonesia.com/news/read/60029/rekrutmen-pengawas-sekolah-belum-ideal/2016-08-05 http://mediaindonesia.com/news/read/60029/rekrutmen-pengawas-sekolah-belum-ideal/2016-08-05 http://pengawassekolahaceh.blogspot.co.id/2012/09/inovasi-supervisi.html journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 366-387 purwanto, m. ngalim (2009). administrasi dan supervisi pendidikan. bandung. pt. remaja rosdakarya. raihani. (2008). an indonesian model of successful school leadership. journal of educational administration 46 (4), 481496. retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/09578230810882018 republic of indonesia. (2008). government regulation number 74 of 2008 on teacher. indonesian national regulation, jakarta saccomanno, hilary. (2016). school supervisors: the hidden (yet crucial) link in assuring accountability and quality in education. topik 25. acdp indonesia. sagala, s. (2010). supervisi pendidikan dalam profesi pendidikan. bandung. penerbit alfabeta. sofo, f., fitzgerald r., jawas, u. (2012). instructional leadership in indonesian school reform: overcoming the problems to move forward. school leader-ship & management. vol. 32, 503522. retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej985919 suhardan, h. d. (2006). supervisi bantuan profesional. jakarta. mutiara ilmu. surya, p. (2011). profesionalisasi pengawas pendidikan dalam konteks otonomi daerah. jurnal aspirasi vol. 2. no. 2, desember 2011. pusat pengkajian, pengolahan dan informasi sekretariat jenderal dewan perwakilan rakyat republik indonesia. sutoyo, a. r. i. (2017). needs assessment of senior high school (sma) supervisors of jambi province. iosr journal of research & method in education (iosr-jrme) e-issn: 2320– 7388,p-issn: 2320–737x volume 7, issue 5 ver. ii (sep. – oct. 2017), pp 80-83 doi: 10.9790/7388-0705028083 syahbani. (2010). analisis kinerja pengawas sekolah dasar dalam meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan di kota dumai. dissertation. unpublished. pekanbaru program pascasarjana universitas islam negeri. sultan syarif kasim riau. the education sector analytical and capacity development partnership (acdp). 2016. selection of supervisors tend to be haphazard. url: https://acdpindonesia.wordpress.com/2016/08/04/selection-of-supervisors-tend-to-behaphazard/. accessed on 11 november 2016. ünal, a. (2013). development and validation of supervisory behavior description scale. educational research and reviews vol. 8(2), pp. 69-76, 23 january, 2013 universitas g. m. (2012). kurang diminati, diy minim pengawas sekolah. https://ugm.ac.id/id/berita/3955-kurang.diminati.diy.minim.pengawas.sekolah. retrieved 5 december 2016. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/09578230810882018 http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej985919 https://acdpindonesia.wordpress.com/2016/08/04/selection-of-supervisors-tend-to-be-haphazard/ https://acdpindonesia.wordpress.com/2016/08/04/selection-of-supervisors-tend-to-be-haphazard/ https://ugm.ac.id/id/berita/3955-kurang.diminati.diy.minim.pengawas.sekolah haris et al. wiles, jon & joseph bondi. (2004). supervision: a guide to practice. 6th edition. the university of virginia. pearson publisher yarmansyah. (2007). supervisi pendidikan dalam peningkatan mutu sekolah dasar (studi pelaksanaan supervisi pada sd negeri no.060787 medan). masters thesis, medan. universitas negeri medan (unimed). article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (2), 120 -132 120 stre ngthe ning characte r education in indone s ia: imple me nting value s from mode rate is lam and the pancasila subaidi1 abstract this study aims to describe which islamic wasathiyah (moderate) and pancasila (indonesia’s foundational philosophical theory) values can be implemented, how those values are implemented, and why wasathiyah and pancasila values are implemented at three madrassas to strengthen their students’ characters. this study is qualitative research that applies the descriptive method. data were collected through interviews, documentation, and observation. the data were then analyzed through reduction, presentation, and conclusion. the research reveals that the three madrassas have applied wasathiyah and pancasila values in order to strengthen their students’ characters: first, madrassa amtsilati bangsri promotes a character that is religious, patriotic, socially caring, and tolerant. next, madrassa darul falah builds a character that is religious, patriotic, and helpful. finally, madrassa tahfidz yanbu’ul qur’an encourages a character that is religious, deliberate, cooperative, and tolerant. the implementation of values takes place through various academic and non-academic activities, such as diligently praying five times daily, holding regular activities such as flag-raising and memorial day ceremonies, helping through the inf aq and shadaqah movements, teaching cleanliness and health, promoting moral attitudes and behaviors for living with a good conscience, and conducting religious and ritual activities. implementing wasathiyah and pancasila values has three outcomes: (i) students in the three madrasas gain a balanced understanding of the practice of religion that covers all aspects of life, both worldly and unworldly. (ii) students in the three madrasas learn to recognize and respect differences, both in terms of religious aspects and various other aspects of life. (iii) students become accustomed to dealing with problems through deliberation and reaching a consensus under the principle of placing the common good above all else. keywords: islamic wasathiyah values, pancasila, character education introduction there are certain values that are fundamental to people’s lives and religion as they search for happiness, both in this world and the hereafter. one such universal value among social life is moderation. moderation (or washatiyah in islamic terms) has become an important issue since the emergence of fundamentalism, radicalism, and even terrorism, which are concerns both domestically and internationally (mccluskey & kim, 2012; rose et al., 2019). the word “moderate” has a number of meanings in the english language, but the most relevant of them in 1dr. universitas islam nahdlatululama (unisnu) jepara, indonesia, subaidi@unisnu.ac.id; mailto:subaidi@unisnu.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 120-132 this context is to refer to something that is not characterized by extreme political, religious, or social views. in the vocabulary of arabic, meanwhile, the concept is referred to as al-wasāt (wasatan) or tawassut (middle), al-qistoral-tawāzun (justice), al-i’tidal (harmony), and tasamuh (tolerance). a moderate interpretation of islam goes against the radical violence that has spread since the september 11 al-qaeda attack on the world trade center (rose et al., 2019). the presence of moderate islamic values is characterized by various societal conditions in islamic education, such as where there is intolerance to anything from outside a group (hamidah, 2019). moderate islam could be understood as occupying a middle position between two extreme pole s inherited from al-qur’an values and the prophet’s traditions. such thinking is therefore neither too strict nor overly flexible, so it could be considered a better choice (abidin et al., 2018). in islam, there are also values and teachings that emphasize the importance of maintaining balance rather than taking an extreme position, such as in the understanding and practice of islamic wasathiyah, which teaches middle-way, non-fanatical, reasonable thinking and action (suharto, 2017; djamal, 2017). islamic moderatism also teaches inclusiveness, brotherhood, tolerance, and peace, as well as expressing islam as a blessing of al-amin. through moderation, muslims are viewed as religious wasathan who love peace, dislike violence, and tolerate others (solic hin , 2018). understanding the isathiyah emphasizes the need for achieving balance rather than adopting extreme polarities, both in terms of islamic understanding and practice, because of the movement’s focus on respecting the existence of others (haris, 2015; james, 2019). in the quran,moderatismis generally identified with the term “al-wasathiyyah” to understand and express moderate interpretations in islam with a moderate understanding of the current context (zamimah, 2018). moderation is a core value in islamic teachings and represents part of the solution for addressing a wide range of issues in today’s globalize d world, such as religious radicalism and blind fanaticism (at-ta’shshub al-a’mâ), because these certainly warrant a measured attitude that can be found in concepts like wasathiyyah (zamimah, 2018). many islamic-based schools are more focused on a moderate education to achieve this goal in indonesia. moderatism in islamic educational institutions is cultivated through curriculum-ba s e d learning in a school or madrassa, extracurricular learning, hidden curricula, and local wisdom (solichin, 2018). educational institutions like schools and madrassas can be a very effective medium for instilling the values of a tawasuth character, meaning neither side dominates, and this refers to maintaining balance and harmony, having tolerance, deliberating, and acting fairly. subaidi characters are built based on an internal understanding of the nature and structure of huma n personality. therefore, the human virtue of piety forms part of the spiritual quotient for an idea l human image. such spiritual intelligence should be emphasized, especially in education (hamida h, 2019). pancasila comprises five pillars that act as the basis for the ideology of the indonesian state and people. it was proposed by the nation’s founders for building the character and culture of the nation under the assumption that homogeneous ideologies would create stability and strengthen cohesion in indonesian society. these values can be summarized as belief in god, humanitarianis m, unity, society, and justice. the spirit of pancasila is in line with the vision of a moderate, tolerant, and egalitarian, and rahmatanlil-‘alamin (a mercy to all creations) society without needing to become an islamic state. pancasila values are therefore in harmony with a moderate islamic education (priatmoko, 2018). in connection with strengthening these values in the character of the indonesian people (kosim, 2011). subaidi (2019) classifies the nation’s cultural values as religious and pancasila. religious values reflect the religious nature of the indonesian people, so the lives of people, communitie s , and nations are rooted in religious teachings and beliefs. based on this, character-education values should be based on the values and rules of religion (subaidi, 2019). a school or madrassa, as an educational institution, therefore teaches character to its students, and it can play a very importa nt role in correcting people’s misunderstandings of terms like jihad and radicalism. some researchers have explored moderatism in universal and islamic education. for example, it was explored as a concept by buseri (2015), mccluskey and kim (2012), and sharia et al. (n.d.). in addition, mccluskey and kim (2012), micocci (2007), and sayektiningsih et al. (2017) explore d moderatism in the context of societies with different settings and perspectives. zamimah (2018) , meanwhile, explored islamic moderatism in the context of cohesion through a study of a moderate islamic interpretation of muhammad quraish shihab’s books. the above studies all conclude d that islamic moderation has long been present in islamic traditions, defying the notion that islam teaches intolerance and violence. solichin (2018) investigated moderate islamic education in a local setting by exploring moderate islam as a response to radicalism in indonesia, ultima te ly concluding that educational institutions can potentially act as an antidote to radical islamic teaching by promoting the concepts of al-is (justice), al-tawazun (equilibrium), and altasamuh (tolerance). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 120-132 some researches into wasathiyah values have already been conducted. for example, adiong, et. al (2018) wrote islam in international affairs: politics and paradigms . this study revie ws the need for militant moderatism from economic and political perspectives. burhani (2012), meanwhile , explored the nu islamic movement’s adoption of moderatism in indonesia, focusing on why intellectuals and activists from the same religion, but coming from different locations and contexts , respond to moderate islam differently. in another study, hamidah (2017) explored how character values in a traditional islamic boarding school can be strengthened by explaining social learning and moderate islam. abidin (2018), meanwhile, wrote about a javanese interpretation of moderatism based on understanding syaria and mu’amalah from an interpretation of the alibrizbook. bestari et al. (2019) explored islam and moderatism based upon the marriage law, nonmarital children, and a formulation based upon the principle of justice in indonesia. rosyd (2019) , meanwhile, presented a paper about moderatism among the baha’i muslim community, focusing on moderate practices by the bahai’i members of the nu community in the village of cibolek in the pati regency in central java. moderatism in advocacy groups’ ideology in newspapers was explored by mccluskey and kim (2015). finally, hadi (2018) wrote a paper titled “internalizing wasathiyah islamic values and nationality insights among santri in lasem.” the formation of students’ identity with a religious–nationa list character in ma al-hidayat lasem was found to succeed through the use of social spaces that encompass the entire flow of processes and students’ socio-religious dynamics in the performance of educational institutions. this study explores the implementation of islamic wasathiyah and pancasila values within three madrassas for strengthening their students’ character education. it explores which values are implemented, how they are implemented at the madrassas, and why these values are implemente d within these formal islamic schools. me thods this research has a qualitative descriptive nature and takes a field research approach by researching subjects in the field (cohen, 1999). exploration on how modern islam values was implemented at three secondary islamic schools was conducted based on the direct observations and in-depth thematic analyses were identified in narrative ways. qualitatively, this study approached the themes and practices on the implementation of moderate islam through the logical fitness between students’ practices at schools, the rules of islamic orientation at schools and policy the s chools subaidi implemented. the participating schools were madrassa amtsilatibangsri, jepara; madrassa darul falah, sirahan, cluwak, pati; and mts tahfidz yanbu’ul holy qur’an, kudus. data were collected in the form of the transcripts of in-depth interviews, madrassas documents, and observation notes in order to explore which wasathiyah and pancasila values are implemente d, how they are implemented, and why wasathiyah and pancasila values are employed at these three madrassas to strengthen their students’ characters. the informants are therefore the principa ls , teachers, and students of the madrassas. more specifically, data were collected from the three madrassas’ principals, three vice-principals , the teachers of islamic subjects, and student representatives. data were collected through participant observation, in-depth interviews, and documentation. observations followed the activities of the boarding school that were directly related to learning activities and daily behavior, both in the boarding and off-boarding environment, that played an important role in social interactions, discipline , performance, and so on (moleong, 2001). data analysis took the form of interactive data analysis that was continuously performed through the stages of data reduction, data presentation, and the extraction and verification of conclusions (silverman, 1998; sugiyono, 2013; miles & hubermen, 1994). adapting miles & huberman (1994) data analysis was started from the data collection stages by which observation, intervie w and field notes were done by the researcher. in the data reduction, selection, categorization and classification of practices in the wasyatiyah at three schools were developed. in the reduction process, islamic practices that indicated fitness and disharmony between mode rate islam and pancasila values were sorted and values whose characteristics were relevant to the research questions of this study were used. data display revealed that data representing fitness and disharmony were presented in the quotes and tables. finally, through multiple crosscheck data were verified through multi-site triangulation and theory triangulation to achieve the fina l conclusion of the data analysis (miles & huerman, 1994; sugiyono, 2013). re s ults and dis cus sion below are the results of this research’s investigation into the use of islamic values to strengthen students’ character education at madrassa amtsilati bangsri, madrassa darul falah, and madrassa tahfidz yanbu’ul holy qur’an. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 120-132 imple me ntation of is lamic wasathiyah value s at madras s a amtsilati bangs ri, je para, ce ntral java this study found that madrassa amtsilati bangsri instills wasathiyah values through a number of regular activities, including flag-raising and memorial day ceremonies, help through the infaq and shadaqah movements, and the teaching of cleanliness and health. the moderate character built by the madrassa aims to embody a state of equilibrium in adhering to islamic teaching (uk hrawi) and building patriotism through activities like the flag-rais ing ceremony. this represents a moderate attitude (wasathiyah), because it is a comprehensive and integrated approach that can help solve people’s problems and teach the islamic blessings oflil‘alamin. it is rooted in the notion that any understanding and practice of the islamic religion must have tawazun (balance), meaning that it is a balanced understanding that covers all aspects of life, both worldly and unworldly. in addition, the wasathiyah islamic practices are characteristic of a tahadhdhur civilization, which upholds moral character, identity, and integrity in the spiritua l community of humanity and civilization (amar, 2018; aini, 2018). the students at madrassa amtsilati practice the values of the first principle of the pancasila, namely “ketuhanan yang mahaesa” (belief in the almighty god). this is reflected in how students diligently pursue religious activities, such as praying five times a day. in addition, they also internalize the second value, namelya just and civilized humanity. all the students at madrassa amtsilati are aware of their attitudes and behaviors in accordance with their moral values, and they live together based on building a good conscience. this second value also requires that all students are treated equally in their religious and ritual activities in accordance with their dignity. this parallels the concept of humanity in the teachings of egalitarian islam, where all people are equal before god. madrassa amtsilati develops a character that is religious , disciplined, democratic, and patriotic . as part of their religious behavior, students practice religious teachings, pray five times daily, and perform in congregations. their habits demonstrate an orderly and obedient behavior in accordance with a variety of rules and regulations. in this context, students are happy to organize and perform the ceremonial and worshiping activities that are set by madrassa amtsilati. this religious character reflects faith and piety toward almighty allah. this circumstance is brought about by the compulsory five hours of prayer for the madrassa’s students. subaidi a democratic character is also developed at the madrassa through the essence and meaning of students’ activities at the madrassa. this results in a way of thinking and acting that respects the rights and obligations of others. the purpose is to shape the personalities of the students, so they will become good citizens. the character of indonesian unity is developed through the flag-raising ceremony, and students are encouraged by the madrassa to express thoughts, actions, and visions that place the interests of the nation above the self or the group. similarly, a love of the homeland is also developed through ceremonial and religious activities, and in their way of thinking and behaving, students demonstrate a high degree of loyalty, concern, and appreciation for the physical, social, and cultural environment of the nation. islamic wasathiyah values are implemented in the madrassa as a way of balancing the individua l aspects of the daily essentials in the madrassa environment, as well as paying attention to collective aspects of the community through the practice of berinfaq and shadaqah, so that they may later practice moderate islam within the community. students are not just concerned with persona l interests but also tend to think about social concerns, thus following the logic of buseri (2015) in serving individua l (syak hsiyyah) and social (ijtima’iyyah) interests. in other words, students are trained to practice moderation and adopt the middle ground between individua l and social worship, thus building individual and social morals that are referred to as “wasatan faith.” characters developed through these activities are religious and social in nature. this means students practice infaq and shadaqahreligious teachings, such as by helping their sick friends , especially those who are hospitalized, while also practicing self-help (ta’awun). the strengthening of a socially caring character means that the students have adopted attitudes and actions where they are always willing to help others in the community who are in need. in this context, they are trained to take practice this once a week, and they are given an example by the caregivers of the institution, which distributes financial assistance to the fuqaraanddhuafa in the community around the institution every month. aside from these activities, there is also some community service in the bangsri district of jepara in the form of a “prosperous mosque.” students are not only educated in science—they are also provided with a balanced understanding of knowledge (wasath), specifically with regards to religion and general science, the world of science, and the science of science. the knowledge they consequently gain is therefore not only useful in the classroom but also relevant for practice in the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 120-132 field. the moderate character built by madrassa amtsilati is based on teaching students the value of balance, so they can apply knowledge both inside the classroom and outside the classroom in the community environment. madrassa amtsilati introduces its students to mosques and mushalla as a form of social decency that is balanced by social exclusion, especially with regards to the prosperity of mosques and mushalla for the sake of islamic sanctity. it establishes an attitude of tolerance in the students. tolerance is therefore one of the islamic values expressed in the educational environment of madrassa amtsilati. one of the educational units that is managed by the madrassa indirec tly strengthens and reinforces the tolerant character of its students. madrassa amtsilati is able to teach islamic wasathiyah attitudes through the students’ collective experience of the plurality of indonesian tribes, cultures, and local wisdom that exists in the madrassa’s neighborhood. the hospitality of the madrassa is colored by wasathiyah values, meaning that the large family of the madrassa implements moderate values in everyday life. in other words, aswaja islamic teachings are very tolerant of the pluralism that is practiced at madrassa amtsilati. the world of education should therefore be able to reflect on the question of pluralism by transmitting values that will foster moderate, tolerant, open, and independent attitude s in students. in line with buseri’s (2015) assertion that diversity is a trust that contains purpose, allah asserts that diversity is a testament to the greatness and manifestation of his sovereignty as stated in alquran 30:22 (departemen agama, 2010) such that people are in a process of forming a huma n brotherhood based on mutual recognition defined in alquran 49:13 (departemen agama, 2010). in the context of secularism, muslims occupy the middle ground in their religious devotion, and they should not be at either of the two extreme positions (i.e., too fanatical or liberal). in this context, muslims are urged to develop and exemplify tolerance (tasamuh), which is reflected in a willingness to openly accept differences and have an attitude of mutual respect for other parties (buseri, 2015 carr & incetas, 2018). the results of the interviews show that the students have a tolerant attitude, meaning that the attitude and actions of the madrassa’s students show how they appreciate differences in race, ethnicity, opinions, attitudes, and actions from different people. in addition, this also helps build friendly, communicative characters. in other words, the students’ actions demonstrate that they are happy to talk, interact, and cooperate with others. subaidi imple me ntation of is lamic wasathiyah value s at madras s a darul falah, sirahan, cluwak, pati the implementation of values happens through various activities, such as prayer before and after lessons in the respective classes. this reflects the islamic value of haswasathiyah practice. the madrassa’s teachers deliver a learning process to students that are not just aimed at enhancing their intellectual and cognitive abilities but also training their spiritual intelligence through the practice of prayer. the teachers therefore deliver balance in the pursuit of knowledge by earnestly studying spiritual approaches through both early and late prayer. the development of a school culture at the center of learning activities is achieved through selfdevelopment activities, and these represent a regular and consistent form of activity for students. these include holding school ceremonies, commemorating both islamic and national holida ys , performing body hygiene checks, holding class pickups and congregational prayers, queuing up for classes, scouting, praying before and after class, and saying farewell when separating from teachers and friends (kusmira, 2018). islamic education develops human potential in terms of the human soul or spirit, the mind, taste, imagination, intuition, and the physical self, thus helping students to develop a comprehensive personality, because intelligence without a noble character has no value. islamic education does not allow one or more of the above abilities to grow beyond the others. when the madrassa’s students possess both knowledge and wisdom, they will become rounded human beings who can better spread the islamic teachings of lil‘alamin (buseri, 2015). a religious character is developed, and this entails strengthening the students’ attitudes and actions in the madrassa to reflect faith and devotion to almighty allah. this goal is realized through religious teaching and routine prayer before and after classroom lessons. in this context, the teacher invites the students to pray before beginning diligent study to seek the blessing of god, considering that character education is a process of helping students to build a full personality with qualities in all dimensions of the heart, mind, body, and will. the cultivation of islamic wasatiyyah values also takes place through extracurricular activities that emphasize them. students develop a character based on a love for their homeland, meaning teachers give a moral message to students based on preserving the school culture and honoring the heroic service of fellow indonesians by singing national songs. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 120-132 aside from these activities, the madrassa also strives to educate students to cherish human values , as embodied in the pancasila. this strengthens students’ attitudes toward togetherness , volunteerism, and unity, and they consequently help each other in various activities within the madrassa environment in order to be useful to other students, it is not possible for an individua l to conduct activities alone at the madrassa. instead, they need to become more inclusive, so their peers can accept them. islam teaches the value of ta’awun (help), al-ittihad (association), aluk huwwah (loyal friends), and togetherness in all aspects of life. multicultura l islam emphasizes a willingness to accept other groups regardless of their culture , ethnicity, gender, language, or religion (dimyati, 2017; raza, 2018). this has been implemente d in the madrassa through extracurricular activities in the field of scouting. madrassa aliyah darul falah also emphasizes the value of the third pillar of the pancasila, which conveys that indonesia n unity is prioritized over the interests of various tribes and groups within society. this concept of unity agrees with the teachings of islam, because allah commanded it in the quran surah ali imran verse 103 (departemen agama, 2010). imple me ntation of is lamic wasathiyah value s at madras s a tahfidz yanbu’ul qur’an, kudus the islamic value of sacrifice is practiced at this madrassa, and the principle of god’s strength is a very basic tenant, but this institution is also committed to the rule of government, specifica lly the curriculum set by the ministry of religion. this leads us to the understanding that moderate values (wasathiyah) are practiced very strongly for man attaining balance in life while keeping in line with worldly rules. shiva is directed and guided to build a religious character, and all students at the madrassa recite the values of islamic-based character building, especially islamic wasathiyah values. the strengthening of students’ religious character is emphasized in the madrassa. students practice prayer before learning, and the board of teachers (asatidz) invites the students to also pray after the lesson, thus combining learning with seeking the guidance of almighty allah (ibtighăan mardlătillah). in addition, the values of the first pillar of the pancasila are also rooted in the madrassa, such as in the attitude of the students as they perform the obligatory prayer and recite the quran. the values contained in this first pillar help forma system that is unified, hierarchical, and systematic , and it does not separate because it has meaning as a whole. these essential values, when examine d subaidi and analyzed in depth, show the spirit of the pancasila is in line with the moderate islamic vis ion of tolerance, egalitarianism, and the blessing of lil‘alamin. in addition to establishing islamic values, the madrassa also conducts activities according to the madrassa’s motto: “forming intellectual and intelligent scholars.” in this era of globalization, it is necessary to teach students the resources that will be especially valuable in the field of communication. in this regard, english plays a very important role in both mastering communication technology and interacting directly. as a means for global communication , english must be actively practiced, in both verbal and written forms, by students in the madrassa environment. english is a global language, so it plays a key role in enabling different people s around the world to interact and communicate. in addition, english has become a key skill in various aspects, whether they be business, political, social, or cultural in nature (mckinney, 1983). students develop characters based on deliberation and cooperation. for example, students in the arabic and english language programs cooperate to complete group tasks. in these activitie s , teachers encourage students to exchange ideas and propose various solutions to their problems. it is also clear that the madrassa promotes a character of tolerance and equality in its students. in the arabic and english language programs, teachers form groups of students with different backgrounds and apply the same treatment to all students without discrimination. conclus ion referring to the research results, we can conclude that an islamic wasathiyah education can prevent students becoming radical, because the graduates of the madrassas studied here have a moderate understanding that accepts differences in religion and belief systems and appreciates the value of other people. such islamic values emphasize the need for balance, both in the understanding and practice of islamic teachings. in addition, it is also clear that the spirit of the pancasila agrees with the balanced islamic vision, which is moderate, tolerant, egalitarian, and representative of the blessings of lil‘alamin. these three madrassas have implemented wasathiyah and pancasila values to strengthen their students’ characters. the madrassas implement these in different ways, though: i) madrassa amtsilati bangsri builds a character that is religious , democratic, patriotic, socially caring, and tolerant. ii) madrassa darul falah, meanwhile, builds a character that is religious, patriotic, and helpful. finally, iii) madrassa tahfidz yanbu’ul qur’an promotes a character that is religious, deliberate, cooperative, and tolerant. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 120-132 the promotion of values takes place through various academic and non-academic activities, such as diligent prayer five times a day, regular activities like holding flag-raising and memorial day ceremonies, helping through the infaq and shadaqah movement, teaching cleanliness and health, promoting moral attitudes and behaviors for living with a good conscience, and holding religious and ritual activities. these three madrassas implement both the values of wasathiyah (islamic moderatism) and indonesia’s pancasila to achieve three reasonable objectives: i) students at the three madrasas gain a balanced understanding of religious practice that covers all aspects of life, both worldly and unworldly. ii) students at the three madrasas recognize and respect differences, both in religious aspects and the various other aspects of life. finally, iii) the students become accustomed to dealing with problems through deliberation and reaching a consensus under the principle of prioritiz ing the common good above all else. re fe re nces abidin, a. z., & aziz, t. (2018). javanese interpretation of moderatism: contribution of. justicia islamica, 15(2), 239–262. https://jurna l.hukumonline.com/journa l adiong, nassef manabilang; mauriello, raffaele; abdelkader, deina (2018): islam in international affairs: politics and paradigms . abingdon: routledge. aini, a. q. (2018). islam moderat di pesantren: sistem pendidikan, tantangan, dan prospeknya. eduk asia islamik a, 3(2), 218–233. http://ejournal.iainpeka longan.ac.id/index.php/edukas ia is lamika/artic le/view/1689 amar, m. (2018). students perception on ethnic relations courses : a case study at universiti utara malaysia. jicsa, 7(1), 77–95. https://doi.org/10.24252/jicsa.v7i1.6731 carr, e. r., & incetas, y. (2018). perceptions & experiences of non-muslim minority students on the muslim image. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(2), 43-52. cohen, r. j. (1999). what qualitative research can be. psychology and marketing, 16(4), 351– 367. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1520-6793(199907)16:4<351::a id-mar5>3.0.co;2-s departemen agama, r. i. (2010). al-qur'anul karim: al-qur'an dan terjemahnya. jakarta: pt. sygma ekamedia. dimyati, a. (2017). islam wasatiyah. islamic review: jurnal riset dan kajian keislaman , 6(2), 139–168. djamal, s. m. (2017). pelaksanaan nilai-nilai ajaran islam dalam kehidupan masyarakat di desa garuntungan kecamatan kindang kabupaten bulukumba. jurnal adabiyah, 17(2), 161–179. https://doi.org/10.24252/jad. v17i1i2a5. hamidah, n. (2019). the behavioral concept and practice moderate in islam on the effect of strengthening character values in traditional islamic boarding school : the explanation of social learning theory. proceedings of the first international conference on progressive civil society (iconprocs 2019), 317(iconprocs), 51–55. https://doi.org/10.2991/iconprocs-19.2019.10 haris, m. (2015). islam moderat konteks indonesia dalam perspektif historis. tasamuh: subaidi jurnal studi islam, 7(2), 257–272. https://doi.org/10. 21831/moz.v5i1.4338 james, w. y. (2019). imprint of racism: white adult males’ transformational experience from racial antipathy to racial reconciliation. american journal of qualitative research, 3(1), 93-116. https://doi. org/10.29333/ajqr/5813 kamrani buseri. (2015). islam wasathiyah dalam perspektif pendidikan. islam wasathiyah dalam perspek tif pendidikan, 0–11. https://doi. org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324. 004 kosim, m. (2011). pendidikan karakter berbasis keislaman dan keindonesiaan. attaujih, 3(2), 94–106. https://ejournal. uinib.ac.id/jurna l/index.php/atta ujih/article/view/535/451 kusmira, d. (2018). moderatism of pesantren education in indonesia. jurnal ilmiah pesantren, 4(2), 527–542. http://jurna l.assalaam.or. id/index. php/dfg/artic le/view/37 mccluskey, m., & kim, y. m. (2012). moderatism or polarization? representation of advocacy groups’ ideology in newspapers. journalism and mass communication quarterly, 89(4), 565–584. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699012455385 mckinney, g. w. (1983). the need for militant moderatism. challenge journal, 26(1), 39-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/05775132.1983. 11470827. micocci, a. (2007). the perfidy of moderatism. international review of sociology, 17(1), 187– 201. https://doi.org/10.1080/03906700601129947 miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). sage publications, inc. priatmoko, s. (2018). pengarusutamaan nilai-nila i islam moderat melalui revitalisasi pancasila dalam pendidikan islam. proceedings of annual conference for muslim scholars, series 2, 731–741. http://proceedings. kopertais 4.or. id/index.php/ancoms/artic le/view/175 rose, a., bestari, t., & sulistiyono, a. (2019). islam and moderatism : polemics of marriage law , unmarital children and the formulation based on the principle of justice in indonesia. 63–74. http://iconis. ia insalatiga.ac.id/ sayektinings ih, sumardjoko, b., & muhibin, dan a. (2017). penanaman nilai-nila i karakter dalam pembelajaran di madrasah aliyah muhammadiyah klaten. jurnal manajemen pendidik an, 12(2), 228–238. silverman, d. (1998). qualitative research: meanings or practices? information systems journal, 8(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2575.1998. 00002.x solichin, m. m. (2018). pendidikan islam moderat dalam bingkai kearifan lokal. jurnal mudarrisuna, 8(1), 174–194. https://jurna l.arraniry.ac.id/index.php/mudarrisuna/artic le/view/2950/2704 subaidi. (2019). di ma amsilati bangsri jepara. the journal for aswaja studies (jasna), 1(1), 35–46. https://ejourna l.unisnu.ac.id/j-asna/artic le/view/945/1140 sugiyono. (2013). metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r&d. bandung: cv. alfabeta suharto, t. (2017). indonesianisasi islam: penguatan islam moderat dalam lembaga pendidikan islam di indonesia. al-tahrir: jurnal pemik iran islam, 17(1), 155. https://doi.org/10.21154/a ltahrir. v17i1. 803 yin, r. k. (2013). case study research and applications: design and methods (l. fargotstein (ed.); 6th ed., vol. 53, issue 9). sage publications, inc. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 zamimah, i. (2018). moderatisme islam dalam konteks keindonesiaan. jurnal al-fanar, 1(1), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.33511/a lfanar.v1i1.12 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 241-260 241 assistance for women with disabilities on the victims of sexual abuse in gunungkidul, indonesia sriharini1, ahmad izudin2, fatma amilia3 abstract this article aims to describe protection assistance provided for victims of sexual abuse with disabilities. this article is the result of research gathered by using the qualitative method. this method described data with interpretative and flexibility for the contextual meaning of the data. it can be found of data than for analysis with comprehensive; for that, this research used an interview to stakeholders of object data in the field with snowball technic. key informants in this research were lawyers, psychologists, and social workers—sapda ngo, sigab ngo, and the disabilities communication forum of gunungkidul (forum komunikasi disabilitas gunungkidul—fkdg). for the argument, or we can mention triangulation, i was searching for field data by using the observation and documentation method. based on the data with narrative and description of grows, so that, we can be knowing of assistance women with disabilities of sexual abuse to do which of ways, social advocating and association, psychologist treatment, transforms of networking ‘komunitas disabilitas (community of disabilities)’, and support for the regulatory affirmative action. keywords: women; people with disabilities; sexual abuse introduction in the millennial era, the javanese tradition and custom still put women in the position of patriarchy and stereotypes (langan, 2002, pp. 1–3). this tradition has been put in place for generations, thus have put women into subordinate positions in many aspects of life. in addition to that, gender role in the community is not well understood. thus differences between biologically assigned role and domestic role are not well defined. historically, in a patriarchal society such as javanese society man have dominated society. this context often labeled women negatively as they have received a lower position in society as compared to men. thus, in this context of growing doctrine of inequality between males and females have a direct influence on stereotype. men are usually considered as fit to 1 sunan kalijaga state islamic university (uin) yogyakarta, indonesia, email: sriharini@uin-suka.ac.id 2 sunan kalijaga state islamic university (uin) yogyakarta, indonesia, email: ahmad.izudin@uinsuka.ac.id 3 sunan kalijaga state islamic university (uin) yogyakarta, indonesia, email: fatma.amilia@uin-suka.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 lead, decision makers, stronger and smarter than women and so on (engineer, 2004, p. 137). as a result, women have played a more significant role in the domestic area as maid, labor, even prostitute, and other informal works. this condition has indirectly made women position vulnerable to be abused. violence against women is found in all level of society, both in domestic and public areas. many have speculated that abuse against women is due to man dominant and superior attitude, in the same women are considered as weak, dependent, inferior, etc. thus, abuse, intimidation, and subordination of women cannot be avoided (heise, 1998). in addition, in this patriarchal society, women disadvantage is not only on social lives but also in front of the law on their fight for their rights. this was even more evident for women in poverty, who have minimum access for information, women with disabilities, etc. these women are often put at a disadvantage by law, policy, and regulation. this case is the implication of the inequality for the gender perspective in budgeting, and violence against women is often considered as an ordinary problem (irianto, 2012, pp. 35–40). the defense for women in isolation and differently abled women has a growing discrimination experience. grown of discrimination experience. even more for women with many disadvantages – extreme poverty and women with a disabilityas there have not been many actions to defend their rights. this was because society often projects women disabilities as a curse, idiocy, cripple (‘picek’: red javanese), and so on (ardiyantika, 2016; maftuhin, 2016; syafi’ie & ali, 2014). protection for women with a disability should refer to the law, local, national, and international law. the united nations has been focusing on the protection of disabilities groups. the un convention on people with disability is mentioned in the convention on the rights of persons with disabilities (crpd) in 2007, which was later ratified by the government of indonesia through the act number 19 of 2011, as the basis for protection and empowerment of people with disability. people with disability should be considered as a subject in the development and policy in each aspect just like non-disabled people. further, the idea of inclusivity in indonesia has been more pronounced. in the policy aspects, the inclusive of education, access for public information, have been more powerful because of the support by the law. in each regulation, the interest of people with disabilities is always taken into consideration. in fact, in the rural and the city, many sriharini, izudin, & amilia people are vying for equality in the name of ‘inclusive area’. many regions of indonesia, speak up for inclusive ideas, not only the infrastructure of development aspects but also the support of awareness society to be more sensitive to people with disabilities. from the awareness for people with disabilities movement, creative ideas emerge from all over indonesia, including jogjakarta (maftuhin, 2017). in indonesia, the issue of people with a disability still appears in the existing debate discourses. the term also appears in series of forums organized by the national commission on human rights held in the framework of ratification of the crpd. workshop on “disabled persons” in order to encourage the ratification of the international convention on the rights of persons with disabilities, which was attended by experts (linguistic, socio-cultural, legal, human rights, psychology), representatives of government agencies (ministry of social affairs, ministry of law and human rights, ministry of foreign affairs, etc.), activists, ngos, and the general public, it was agreed that the term “disabled” needs to be changed for various reasons (joko, kinasih, & mas’udah, 2013; ro’fah, 2010; thohari, 2013). the change of term above, generally for people in indonesia, especially in gunung kidul sub-regency of yogyakarta, is still seen as a negative term or derogative stigma. with such negative stigma, we still find cases of violence for disabled women who are raped by a handful of people until the woman becomes pregnant and gives birth to a child. then, as a fact, in this case, is still unclear. this problem is commonly found in several areas in indonesia and yogyakarta, at least in the regency of gunungkidul. the story of the biological father’s uncertainty for the child born from the womb of the disabled mother becomes a chronic problem. this became an issue in a city that supposed to become the prototype of a disability-friendly city. regardless of things mentioned above, the stigma against women with disability is still evident. thus, in this study, we would like to investigate assistances provided for sexually abused women with disability. in the literature review, prior to discussing the term disability, we would like to clarify some of the developmental perceptions and dominant paradigms in defining this term. in the literature review of the last four decades, the term ‘disability’ is often associated with a medical model. this model is the result of social structure discriminatory treatment for people with disability. as disabled people are categorized as a group that has ‘difference in ability’ to do journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 something more productive (bolt, 2005; howe, 2000; hutchison, 1995; llewellyn & hogan, 2010; makoto, 2005; suharto, 2016). the term “differently disabled” or “differentiated capability” terminology implies a social construction that understands disability with disablement (ardiyantika, 2016; syafi’ie & ali, 2014). this condition legitimates activists from various circles in the world, thus causing the defensive movement for the disabled. since the 1960s, literature has shown that the mention of the term disabled is an international issue known as ‘people with disabilities’ that encourage policy-friendly disabilities (ro’fah, 2010). according to ro’fah, the international policy drawn up in a series of declarations refers to the 1971 declaration on the right of mentally retarded people, the 1975, declaration on the right of disabled person, followed with the international year of disabled program from 1981, 1983 to 1990, sundberg declaration 1981, un standard rule on the equalization of opportunities for person with disabilities 1993, salamanca statement 1994 and the final ratification of the convention of the right of persons with disabilities 2007. underpin the defense of the disable is inseparable from the 1948 declaration of human rights and antiracism discrimination 1965 (ro’fah, 2010, pp. 13–14). referring to the declaration of human rights, the friendly international movement of people with a disability gave rise to a new approach to the world of disability. precisely in the 1970s, where important change figures are questioning disability discourse popping up. british social scientists as well as social activists such as tom shakespeare, michael oliver, and c. barnes, loudly sued orthodoxy long ago, that people with disability are a “distorted” or “abnormal” human, and the dominant assumption that disability is purely a medical matter. for example, defects are social problems rooted in the structure of society. for this reason, this paradigm is called the social model. prior to birth as a theory named social model and written in his books mike oliver (1983, 1990, 1996), barnes (1991), and vic finkelstein (1980, 1981) the social idea of the model was first carried by the organization disable uk, upias , in the manifesto of ‘the fundamental principles of disability’ in 1976. in this manifesto is clearly seen the main ideology of social models, that disability is actually caused by social structures, not by physical or mental deficiencies or abnormalities that individuals have (ro’fah, 2010, p. 18). this paradigm shift triggered a new movement of activists to fulfill the rights of the disabled. in the united states, the struggle for the meaning of disability to seize his rights sriharini, izudin, & amilia continued to surge until the adoption of the american disability act (ada) in 1990. in the british, a similar movement sparked a pro-disabled group to change the stereotyped view of the word ‘disabled’ to ‘disabled people’ or ‘people with disabilities’. while in indonesia, the disability movement is relatively new, when the government ratified the 2007 convention of the right of persons with disabilities into law no. 19 of 2011 on indonesia government. the struggle was not over. disability activists continue to struggle for the passing of definite legislation. as a result, law no... of 2016 on the right of persons with disabilities is endorsed and becomes a strong legitimacy of ‘disable’ gets the same rights as ‘non-disable’ (maftuhin, 2016; shakespeare & watson, 2002; wilson & lewiecki-wilson., 2001). with such a long struggle the disability activists are not necessarily accepted by the society. currently, the term ‘disability’ or ‘special needs’ is still a trend among civitas academic. moreover, according to maftuhin, ‘people with disabilities’ in the academic discourses have many who use the word ‘people with disability’ although still struggling to replace the word ‘disabled’. from this theoretical perspective, i can conclude that the development of the world of disabilities has gradually received special attention from all societies. the shifting of the paradigm from the medical model to the social model is tangible evidence of acts that accommodate the ‘people with disabilities’ group. so that, i am using with this perspective to explaining the cases of women with a disability on the violence of sexual abuse. method this study used qualitative methods equipped with literature, in-depth interview, and field observation (alsa, 2007, p. 51; mushkina, novikova, & ukraintseva, 2017; svetlana et al., 2018). the qualitative method has been basic procedural routine involves four stages (berg, 2004, pp. 197–198): identifying the question research gathering information data from field note analyzing and interpreting the information of data sharing the result with the participants or key information whereas strategic samples in this research used the inductive and holistic approach to gathering data (marshall, 1996, pp. 523–524). furthermore, work in this study is going on six months in the regency of gunungkidul area with took of 5 (five) sampling from cases of sexual journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 abuse against women with disabilities. the choice of 5 (five) sample from this area, according to information on the interview process with sources, namely mediator, broker, advocator, and facilitator. according to sources, the location of sexual abuse for women with disabilities to be semin district with 1 (one) case, ponjong district with 2 (two) cases, wonosari district with 1 (one) case, and gedang sari district with 1 (one) case. data collecting through the in-depth interview just as follows: counselor and lawyers team from integrated center of empowerment of women and children in the regency of gunungkidul; lawyers from sigab (sasana integrasi dan advokasi difabel ngos); social workers from the advocacy centre for the disabled, women, and children (sentra advokasi perempuan difabel dan anak—sapda ngos); social workers from the social service of gunungkidul regency; the leaders of the integrated center of empowerment for disabilities ‘mitra sejahtera’ in gunungkidul regency of yogyakarta; the family of sexual abuse victims. in addition to the selection of places of samples, the validity of the research results is also maintained by the use of various types of data sources, which later became information for the analysis in the research results. the use of various data sources, or those in the literature better known as triangulation, is an attempt to ensure the authenticity and reliability of the data. triangulation itself can simply be described as a technique of examining the validity of data by utilizing the use of something else outside the data for checking purposes or as a comparison against existing data (dorfman & baleva, 2014; moleong, 2010, p. 173). for other diggings of information, also looking for secondary data related with the issues of sexual abuse for women with disabilities from another institution, just like from government on special regency of yogyakarta (diy), the capital of government of gunungkidul regency, ngos, social organizations and so on. in addition, data collecting based on the website become one of reference in this study. result and discussion the cases of violence incidents the cases of violence against women in the gunungkidul are still high. these cases are rising of, indirectly, caused by low awareness of people to appreciate women. this condition has sriharini, izudin, & amilia become the specter of people. in the middle of women struggle to have equal position the men, in fact, still leaving many cases problems for women. gunungkidul, a mountainous area with the almost entire rocky region, and the quality of the community are still low on understanding the meaning of gender. due to a narrow understanding of gender, early marriage was rife in this region. the case advocated by rifka annisa in 2013-2014 recorded the violence against women amounting to 580, with 44 rape cases (annisa, 2015). in the process of advocacy by rifka annisa, the program implemented in preventing cases of women violence in 2016 established the community of mothers (komunitas ibu). the community of mothers forum is a cooperation program between gunungkidul governments with rifka annisa, as a practical study of the program is implemented in ngalang district, gedangsari village. like the research conducted by istiqomah, rifka annisa runs a community mother program with a routine meeting process, up to 12 times a year. ngalang village is selected because it has a high prevalence of violence against women. the main factor in violence against women is the rampant cases of early marriage. the main cause of the rampant case of early marriage in ngalang village is because most of the population in this area has a low level of education, with farming as their daily routine, so that the economic quality of the population is categorically poor. in addition, also due to low understanding of adolescent reproductive health. thus, cases of rape and unwanted pregnancies are rife. the case of an unmarried pregnancy caused by rape, if not dealt through the legal domain, is generally dealt through the mediation of a family with marriage as the solution and it is assumed that the man who impregnates the woman is accountable. this is the social construction of the village community. is it generally the same in all areas in gunungkidul? this concept is as generalized by the results of nurul sa’adah andriani’s work, with the title of his work “kebijakan responsif disabilitas: pengarusutamaan manajemen kebijakan di level daerah, nasional dan internasional”. the impact of the generalization of this concept, pregnancy outside of marriage is very vulnerable to cases of domestic violence (andriani, 2016). reflecting on the above case according to andriani, such as when i confirm the case to the victim’s family, it is true that marriage failure is often caused by the economic condition of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 the man who could not be able to meet their daily needs. in a state of unemployment, the lives of both partners can only be facilitated and fulfilled by the female family. this case if the discourse on the discourse of violence against women is categorized as economic violence, where a man cannot fulfill his duties as head of the family. from various sources of information, the causes and main factors of violence against women in gunungkidul can be grouped as; (1) low quality of education, (2) poor understanding of adolescent reproduction, (3) community social construction, (4) gender awareness, (5) early marriage, and (6) poverty. so, what about the reality of cases of violence against women in gunungkidul. table 1 below presented data collected on type of abuse happened over the course of 2013-2017. table 1. the number of sexual abuse for women with people of disabilities in five year ago in the regency of gunungkidul no. type of abuse 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 total 1. psychic 5 10 11 10 2 38 2. mental 12 8 13 17 7 57 3. sexuality 20 21 18 40 18 117 4. neglect 1 2 8 11 total 223 sources: integrated service center for women and children empowerment the regency of gunungkidul, 2017. the amount of violence presented above, the source i obtained from the department of women empowerment, family planning, and child protection gunungkidul regency with the technical institute of integrated service center for women and children empowerment. data on and neglect of women in the last five years show a stable amount. in fact, the number of sexual violence against women surprised me, more than 100 cases. this indicates that women in gunungkidul are very vulnerable to sexual abuse cases. sexual violence is still a problem in the contemporary era. moreover, in the midst of the rapid development of information technology awareness of sexual violence is still much more needed as public knowledge of sexual violence is just physical contact. based on the definition of the “equal employment opportunity commission”, the story of a person’s sexual experience told to others, then the person who is told is not happy and reporting, it is included in the act of sexual harassment (kirnandita, 2015). sriharini, izudin, & amilia the issue of sexual violence, it is always identical that the victims are women. this is indirectly due to the social construction that is still inherent in society. violence for women with disabilities not only occurs due to sexual assault or rape but also sometimes ‘physical contact’ that is inevitable. this condition occurs because the self-acceptance from families and the environment for women with disability is still lacking. awareness of positions for those with disabilities is still underestimated. the defense for this group suffered discrimination and was hampered by the prevailing legal rules. in law no. 7 of 1984 on the elimination of violence against women, still slightly offense women’s groups with disabilities. after a long silence, a paradigm to defend the interest of the victims come from groups of persons with disabilities. law no. 8 of 2016 on persons with disabilities, is the answer to cases of discrimination against these vulnerable groups. chapter 9 paragraphs 1 and two expressly state that the disability group, not only men as well as women, are equal before the law and are recognized as the subject. for this reason, activists, academics and community groups who continue to defend the rights of pwds remain enthusiastic and optimistic about social security and justice for all societies. simultaneously, ngos, government, and organizing of civil society are voicing justice and prosperity for persons with disabilities, especially for women with disabilities. from cases handled by several related stakeholders in gunungkidul, there was a variety of violence against women with disabilities. although relatively small compared to cases of violence against normal women, but persons with disabilities need extra attention from all. why we need more attention? the perpetrators of sexual harassment and rape see that their behavior is legally flawed and weakly presented in front of the court. therefore, issue of disability is increasingly familiar to us. as the result of perpetrators of sexual crimes for women with disabilities, victims feel angry, embarrassed and humiliated. when victims report to the authorities, there are some officers who do not believe, because people with disabilities differ from normal sexual violence cases in general. those who report being discriminated against because, during interrogation, the victim often responded with a laugh and smile. with so many difficulties in collecting cases of sexual violence against women with disabilities, at least every stakeholder who defends this group is able to create new mechanisms to protect them. the strategy of ‘picking up the ball’ from cases handled, whether referrals from ngos, cbos, communities, the government of gunungkidul able to collect and report cases of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 sexual crimes against women with disabilities. at least, from 2016 to 2017, there are 5 cases from each sub-district in gunungkidul handled and completed. let’s look at the data on cases of violence against women with disabilities below. table 2. the cases of violence against for women with people of disabilities in gunungkidul regency 2016-2017 no. incident type of disabilities place of incident type of violence services process of advocacy the count of cases 1. january 2017 mentally retarded (rm), paraplegia hidrosefalus decubitus wonosari raped medical, support of law, counseling not finished 1 2. april 2017 mentally retarded (rm), karangmojo raped support of law, counseling, rehabilitation finished 2 3. february 2016 mentally retarded (rm), paraplegia hydrocephalu s decubitus ponjong raped support of law, counseling, rehabilitation finished 1 4. march 2016 deaf and speaking disability semin raped support of law, counseling, rehabilitation finished 1 source: p2tp2a gunungkidul of regency, october 2017. from the data presented above, let’s look into the background of cases arising from each victim of sexual violence and rape of persons with disabilities. for example, the case occurred in march 2016 in semin sub-district with the victim has deaf and speaking disability. in this case is the perpetrator who lives near the location of the incident-village. starting from an introduction through social media, facebook, with a short introduction ranging from 3 weeks, then they met and date. rape with a threatening tone cannot be avoided by the perpetrators of sexual crimes. in the legal team’s remarks, this incident was done three times, causing the victim to be pregnant and detected pregnancy after seven months’ gestation. social advocacy and assistance advocators for women with disabilities have been victims of sexual abuse must do the action of defending. the steps of advocacy for action are the litigation process by bringing the sriharini, izudin, & amilia case of victims for women with disabilities to become sexual abuse in the court session. in the assembly for all cases of sexual abuse are revealing. the subject of victims is court session until the object of cases as well as legal formal with the support of cases in the punishment of imprisonment of the perpetrator.i five cases recorded in this research for all the victim’s cases have been brought to the court of session. lawyers, psychologists, and empowers are voicing of defending victims in search of an objective fact. facilitators have advocated the cases of sexual abuse for people with disabilities, especially for women who are in needs of law advocacy. therefore, problems of disabilities are new cases for women who need help defending their rights as the victims. the framework is organized according to the case offense that appears in front of the court. the winning strategy at the court was carefully arranged. counselors create a casewinning scheme by dividing work tasks. first, the legal team looks for authentic facts from sexual crimes cases. second, the team of psychologists intervened the victim personally. third, the empowerment team continues to intervene on what potentials can be developed after the judge's decision in the hearing. the mechanism of work is doing two aspects, i.e., the offering of solution strategy through hotline service and waiting report from the society or networking institution, for example, an accusation from sigap, sapda, social workers, and any networking community of disabilities has created by social service in gunungkidul regency. through communication of sectoral institution, the case of the crime of sexual abuse for people with disabilities can be resolved quickly. the process of law advocacy is not an easy task. this is because social construction and stereotype against people with disabilities still occur. the view of the sociological approach becomes three reasons, i.e., cultural, structure, and relational aspect. for culture aspect, the women with disabilities in patriarchy culture have divided the society, therefore paradigm within the people that violence cases are often neglected. in structure aspect, the society view that the men still in dominant, so that people with disabilities are unable to defend themselves. meanwhile, in the aspect of relational context, the people with disabilities still facing subordination and exploitation (sulaeman, 2015, pp. 27–30). without blaming the social structure above, in fact, for the cases of sexual abuse crime for people with disabilities still needs a new role model to solve these problems. further, in fact, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 the research revealed that the problem of crime for people with disabilities still in need of advocacy in the court. the common issue arises confrontative advocacy in the court, where the victim of sexual abuse cannot form fully coherent responses to the questions being asked in the court, and another reason is depression of suffered by them. in turn, lawyers must work extra hard to prove an objective fact in front of a judge. in the process of truth confrontation, commonly, lawyers have only presented the victim family who can think objectively. it is not uncommon that members of the victim’s family give up in front of the judge. this context will impact the verdict cases, so that, the sentence if often less than prescribed by the law and below the objective of the facts. the incident of sexual abuse crime in semin, where the members of the victim’s family during the court confrontation stated that they would like the case to be closed. the incident has exactly hampered by the court process, which impacted verdict in front of the court for the subject. actually, the court process can be three trials, but the members of the victim’s family want the case to be concluded so that there is only one trial session. although, the verdict of the victim should be more than twenty years imprisonment, the verdict imposed on the perpetrator by the judge is only twelve years imprisonment. this experience, of course, disappointed the legal team. their struggle for defending people living with disability is sometimes hampered by the patriarchal culture of a society which considers that victims of sexual violence especially those with disabilities are destined by god. they consider the case that happened to their family is limited to fairness. problems that arise in the advocacy of litigation process does not reduce the tension of defenders of people with disability. this is evident when the intervention that they conduct is beyond the trial process. the next step is referring the victim to a safe house. this reference is made with two options. the first option, the victim is referred to the safe house located in yogyakarta city; rekso dyah utami. the second option returned to the family with mentoring. of the cases that arise, few were referred to rekso dyah utami. the reason is that strict rules make the victim cannot be immediately reconciled, so the alternative is to refer to the family with assistance. at the time of this mentoring process, a new team of psychologists works full time. the task of the escort team, if the verdict is legally dropped by the judge, then the task is completed. further follow-up from the team of psychologists. if handled by a psychologist, this is what is sriharini, izudin, & amilia called non-litigation assistance. in the non-litigation facilitation process, the companion is tasked with ensuring that the victim is perfectly safe and psychologically secure and well received by the community. psychological handling for women as victims of sexual crimes why women with a disability are become victims of sexual crimes? this was because of the psychological forces of perpetrators and sociologists due to the determination of culturally patriarch society (abel, 1996, pp. 72–73). therefore, handling the case of women disability as victims of sexual violence needs a more comprehensive coverage. in the psychological handling, in general, the companion using the standard of procedure (sop) that has been previously set up. handling of cases of sexual crime victims requires a comprehensive psychological approach. a psychological approach can be seen, at least, that there are four references, namely catharsis, debriefing, self-recovery, and development phase. based on this conceptual reference, the facts in the field show that psychologists should have applied these approaches. although it is yet to be optimally implemented due to the limited human resources available. in the process of catharsis, which is done by visiting the victim? psychologists come to the victims to console the sadness they are building in, which in this step including the psychologist speaking to families of the victims. the psychologists that visit women with disabilities who are victims of sexual violence, in the area of the study are the field facilitator of sapda. the ngo actively interacts directly with victims, along with psychologists from p2tp2a. they collaborate carefully and consistently. the first step to do is trauma healing therapy, how victims are invited to talk, entertained, and nurturing all forms of victims fears. as a psychologist, the companion of sigab ngo, tutik, giving stimulants of therapy so that the victims do not get drowned in the pain of what the victims are experiencing. while the psychologist from p2tp2a, arum used to greet, record, examine the victim's family, do an initial assessment to the victim, and make a report on what suffered by women with disability victims of sexual violence. after the initial identification was done, the team of psychologists immediately rushed to continue their work by coordinating and building networks and advocacy to relevant parties; prosecutors, police, local sub-district heads, local village heads, and influential community figures at the scene of the case. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 the next step is to conduct regular meetings with victims and their families, to get support from other volunteers who can provide support. in this process, the team of psychologists, conducting small discussions, makes a work plan of what will be intervened to each of the victims handled. the number of discussions between the team and the victim is about two times to 3 regular meetings. this action is done in the framework of debriefing, the result is a reaction to the case being handled, whether it requires professional personnel or not. in general, from almost all cases handled, it certainly requires professionals. moreover, when the cases are handled until dragged into the realm of law. of course, a team of psychologists needs help directly from an advocate or legal team, having to defend clients or victims at the trial table. after determining who the designated professional team is, the psychologist team immediately acts resilient to the victim in relation to what ability can be developed in the victim to eliminate the trauma, suffering or problems faced by the victim. in this process, of course, the ideal achievement is, the victim becomes optimistic and no longer chained by the problems at hand. the next phase, when successful resilience is to maintain a healthy and constructive psychosocial potential. where the victim is able to resolve the conflicts that are being faced, in addition to being re-accepted by the community-further is the victim can be well received by the community? as told by tutik, when the rape case was completed in ponjong area, the team of psychologists cooperated with ngo sapda, where their team performed the ceremonial to the victims so that the surrounding community would receive it well. confrontation with the local community was done. in addition, there are two times the sapda team provide direct assistance in the form of drugs and clothing for the victim initials 'n'. of course, this action has a positive impact on the victim. moreover, so next, all cases are almost identical when the psychological counseling process is conducted (fgd, november 18, 2017). the building of networking for disability community sexual crimes cases in gunungkidul are high. this can be caused by various factors that drive the actions of the perpetrators to commit crimes. in addition to psychological factors or personality of the perpetrator, also often due to the patriarchal culture of the society that is still quite high. with these two simple reasons, the government is overwhelmed by action to prevent the occurrence of sexual crimes. basically, activities are focused on children and women issues. sriharini, izudin, & amilia however, over time, in an effort to realize a more comprehensive social protection, the community, government, and people with disabilities are not left behind. through ngos associations in yogyakarta, community groups that have a concentration on defending the disabilities—cikal, sapda, rifka annisa, and sigab—continue to make awareness to the community through information that stereotypes and discrimination to persons with disabilities are wrong. awareness-raising forums through ‘mother community’ or ‘ibu’, ‘father community’ or ‘bapak’, and other communities are not quietly talking about the importance of socialization of pwds. in addition, through the official namely social service gunungkidul of regency, also did the same thing, where the association of people with disability in this region is encouraged. the disability communication forum of gunungkidul (forum komunikasi disabilitas gunungkidul—fkdg), is a clear proof of the commitment of the government and the people to resolve the various cases affecting the disabilities immediately. the existence of this institution as a coordination center for the protection and fulfillment of the rights of disability, so that when there is a case can be resolved quickly. institutions formed by regulator of gunungkidul regency and this community, one form of the realization of the presence of the government, resolved various cases affecting groups of persons with disabilities. institutions of persons with disabilities are launched in mid-september 2014. with this declaration, at least each sub-district has each designated coordinator. the team from fkdg, at least being an organization capable of bridging the public interest with the government-catalyst. the existence of this institution becomes one of the effective roles because its existence can directly coordinate with various related stakeholders; both social services, women’s empowerment, child protection and family planning, community and village empowerment, ngos, state affairs, police, district and village government. actions taken can accommodate the issue of pwds. moreover, the activist movement of disability advocates has consistently voiced their aspirations in every government regulation. since the launch and declaration of communication forums of persons with disabilities, there are at least 45 fkdg board members. social advocacy action continues to be an issue that is echoed. through this group, the majority of people with disabilities are for the government to accommodate their interests. for them, the government in carrying out every development journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 program, the disability is not only an object but a subject so that full participation can be realized. involving disability groups in every process of determining regional development programs, the hope, of course, is huge. where casual cases affecting people with disabilities are not neglected, so when there is a case that affects this group can be immediately followed up. communities and networks of disability organizations in gunungkidul become important stakeholders in addressing issues of discrimination-including cases of sexual violence against women with disabilities. encourage for affirmative action in the regulation it is time for the government and relevant stakeholders to change the way in which cases are resolved. as a policymaker, the government has time for the direction of social welfare improvement from curative-rehabilitative to preventive-promotive. where is the settlement of cases with the needs-based mechanisms experienced by the victims with disabilities? why do we need to change the paradigm of dealing with the problems of pwds? let’s look briefly handling the case in this country. during this time the handling of cases of disability is more oriented to problem-solving, not based on need. although not a mistake, the approach of this model often leads policy makers and social development actors more towards a reactive approach. the impact of such models, social service programs is designed to solve existing problems; just tackle the downstream region only. in line with anderson's theory of “iceberg” or “iceberg theory,” this concept sees that problems arise only on the surface, not seeing the underlying problem, necessarily at the root of the problem (anderson, 1984). in some cases we can find, when a social worker behaves like a 'garbage man' who daily goes around the housing complex without responding to the source of the waste. in the same way, the planned and executed programs are only downstream or centralized, without thinking of why the 'garbage' arises every day. in fact, the problem of multidimensional disability, handling requires an integrated approach not only focus on the symptoms of the problem but viewed from the various determinants that influence it. such a social problem-solving perspective, sometimes only prevention and development are now widely practiced in developed and developing countries. sriharini, izudin, & amilia in responding to the handling of the model case above, it is time for the government to change the mindset from stigmatization to human rights. where the planned program is charitable to help poor families. the recipients of social services are provided with money, life support services, benefits, charity, and others. the labeling of this model program is like a doctor healing a client who is suffering from a stubborn ‘cancer’ of four stadium, appeasing clients, many doctors give sedatives. however, after the sedative is lost, the effect will be felt by the client changes 360 degrees, will certainly return to feel pain. looking at the analogy of such a model, it is time for the government to make a change of perspective in planning the program for groups of people with disabilities. where the program should lead to the fulfillment of rights, need-based empowerment, holistic cross-sectoral, and integrated handling. on the basis of a paradigm shift in handling the cases as mentioned above, it is necessary to encourage a friendly study of service and protection issues for pwds. one of these is affirmative action and tries to change the stereotypical mainstream of society by encouraging friendly activities for people with disabilities. conclusion as the results of research conducted in gunungkidul, efforts to protect the community, in fact, is still a crucial phenomenon. the problem of the phenomenon of sexual abuse that affects women with disabilities has not been so massive for handling cases for this group. the declaration of the disability communication forum of gunungkidul (forum komunikasi disabilitas gunungkidul-fkdg) conducted by the local regent, in solving the various cases that emerged has not been effective. government support for this group has now become mainstream in regulation and policy. ultimately, the government continues to reduce cases of neglect and violence for women with disabilities. government as an important stakeholder in the aspect of regulation, resolution of cases of sexual violence for women with disabilities should work harder. this can be done by building synergy between the government and the role of civil society, especially the activists of people with disabilities. as a result, the participation of people who have empathetic and sympathetic feelings about the fate of disability becomes the main capital of solving cases of sexual violence. as is known from the results of this study, the assistant process carried out by the counterpart of the case became the starting point for the settlement suffered by the victim. for example, that has journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 been done, the process of psychological handling, social advocacy, the building of networking for the disability community, and encourage for affirmative action in the regulation. references abel, k. (1996). planning community mental health services for women. london: routledge. alsa, a. (2007). qualitative and quantitave approach with combination of psycologist research (1st ed.). yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. anderson, j. e. (1984). public policy making. new york: rinehart & wiston. andriani, n. s. (2016). disabilities reponsivness of policy. palastren: jurnal studi gender, 9(1), 189–214. annisa, r. (2015). commitment to handle of sexual abuse for women. retrieved december 3, 2017, from http://metrobali.com/2015/01/29/lsm-rifka-annisa-komit-tangani-kasuskekerasan-pada-perempuan ardiyantika, s. (2016). the strategy of advocacy for women with disabilities on sexual abuse in sapda. inklusi: journal of disability studies, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.14421/ijds.030203 barnes, c. (1991). disabled people in britain and discrimination: a case for anti-discriminatory legislation. london: hurst & co. berg, b. l. (2004). qualitative research methods for the social sciences. new york: pearson. https://doi.org/10.2307/1317652 bolt, d. (2005). from blindness to visual impairment: terminological typology and the social model of disability. disability & society, 20(5), 539–552. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09687590500156246 dorfman, l. y., & baleva, m. v. (2014). the relationship between creativity and variability. psychological journal, 35(2), 57–67. engineer, a. a. (2004). women right of islam. yogyakarta: bentang pustaka. finkelstein, v. (1980). attitudes and disabled people: issues for discussion. new york: international exchange of information in rehabilitation. finkelstein, v. (1981). disability and professional attitudes. retrieved from https://disabilitystudies.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/40/library/finkelstein-professionalattitudes.pdf heise, l. (1998). gender-based violence: perspectives from africa, the middle east, and india. sriharini, izudin, & amilia berlin: springer. howe, k. (2000). violence against women with disabilities: an overview of the literatur. retrieved august 1, 2018, from www.org.au/issues/vol/volkaren hutchison, t. (1995). the classification of disability. archives of disease in childhood, 73(2), 91–94. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.73.2.91 irianto, s. (2012). women, vulnerable groups: kajian and mechanism of protection. yogyakarta: pusham uii press. joko, t. h., kinasih, s. e., & mas’udah, s. (2013). access and information for disable women in reproduction and sexuality well-being services. masyarakat, kebudayaan dan politik, 26(2), 65–79. kirnandita, p. (2015). save ibu nuril and issue of criminalization for sexual abuse. retrieved december 3, 2017, from https://tirto.id/saveibunuril-dan-isu-kriminalisasi-korbanpelecehan-seksual-cotr langan, m. (2002). women oppression and social work issues in anti-discriminatory practice. london: taylor & francis e-library. llewellyn, a., & hogan, k. (2010). the use and abuse of models of disability. disability & society. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09687590025829 maftuhin, a. (2016). binding the meaning of discrimination: persons with disabilities, difable, and disabilities. inklusi: journal of disability studies, 3(2), 139–162. https://doi.org/10.14421/ijds.030201 maftuhin, a. (2017). defining inclusive city: origin, theories, and indicators. tataloka, 19(2), 93. https://doi.org/10.14710/tataloka.19.2.93-103 makoto, p. (2005). on the margins: violence against women with disabilities. marshall, m. n. (1996). sampling for qualitative research sample size. family practice, 13(6), 522–525. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/13.6.522 moleong, j. l. (2010). methodolgy of qualitative research. bandung: remaja rosda karya. mushkina, i. a., novikova, s. ., & ukraintseva, i. . (2017). the basis of professional self determination of students of act. in collection of articles of the international scientific practical conference: methods and mechanisms for implementing the competence approach in psychology and pedagogy (pp. 51–53). ufa-omsk. oliver, m. (1983). the politics of disability. london: palgrave macmillan. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 241-260 oliver, m. (1990). the politics of disablement: postscript and references. london: palgrave macmillan. oliver, m. (1996). understanding disability: from theory to practice. london: palgrave macmillan. ro’fah, m. (2010). grateful voices and grateful expectations: parent’s perspective on inclusive education in indonesia. micgill university, montreal. shakespeare, t., & watson, n. (2002). the social model of disability: an outdated ideology? research in social science and disability, 2(1), 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/s14793547(01)80018-x suharto, s. (2016). disability terminology and the emergence of “diffability” in indonesia. disability & society, 31(5), 693–712. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2016.1200014 sulaeman, m. m. (2015). kekerasan terhadap perempuan dalam perspektif sosiologi. in kekerasan seksual terhadap perempuan tinjauan dalam berbagai disiplin ilmu dan kasus kekerasan. bandung: refika aditama. svetlana, s., novikova, galina, m. r., arsen, r. s., irina, i. u., & natalya yu, k. (2018). sociological portrait of applicants and students of the most popular and perspective specialties of secondary vocational education: a comparative aspect. journal of social studies education research, 9(1), 124–139. syafi’ie, p., & ali, m. (2014). portrait women with disabilities echelons of state law. yogyakarta: sigap. thohari, s. (2013). disability in java: contesting conceptions of disability in javanese society after the suharto regime. lap lambert: academic publishing. wilson, j. c., & lewiecki-wilson. (2001). emboided rhetorics: disability in language and culture. retrieved november 2, 2016, from https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/nov/22/language-of-disabilitystereotypes-disabled-people i in this cases, lawyers can reveal five cases of depending on the court. the subjects of sexual abuses have in the jail. they are crouch in the jail around ten years (the cases of semin), twelve years (the cases of ponjong and karangmojo), and fourteen years (the cases of wonosari). www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 187-200 187 male students’ separate education shamil sheymardanov1 abstract the paper deals with application of separate education theory as a factor contributing to the increase in the level of the male students’ training. the topicality of the paper is concluded in the fact that in the modern society the pedagogical concept of separate education is considered to be outdated. alongside with that, some experiments in separate education do not appear to be a common structure in training of children and adolescents. the methods of the research were historical, statistical analysis and predictive methods. the objective of the paper was evaluation of social-pedagogical and structural-technological forms on directive teaching of males. it is shown that separate education by itself is to a large extent an innovation concept in the conditions of its application for over 40 years in a row. each of the suggested training elements appears to be effective, but is not properly reflected in the current educational process. together with that this effectiveness allows concluding that increase in the performance and level of training at separate education reaches by about 25-30% in all the scientific areas. the main challenge is how to integrate this concept into the current not gender-oriented educational process. key words: process of training, separate education, gender approach, pedagogical principles, efficiency of training, level of training, educational process introduction reformation of state policy in the educational sphere is considered an important way of support and development of social and gender equality. that is why both at the national-wide and at the local level of educational management, special emphasis is laid on gender-oriented programs. especially significant role in their successful implementation are deemed to play experimental schools, to organization of which the government attracts such social partners as business-structures, social and religious societies. generally, schools with some peculiarities in various regions seek for their own effective ways and forms of gender-based education. the prerequisites of its active integration into the general education institutions were formed in the second half of the 20th century, when discussion of important problems was on its peak regarding such concepts as ‘coeducation’, ‘schools for both sexes and separate education’, ‘partially separate education’, ‘gender equality’. 1 sen. lect, kazan federal university, pedagogshamil@mail.ru mailto:pedagogshamil@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 187-200 the purpose of the paper is to consider the prerequisites of implementation of gender education in the conditions of education of males from 7th to 11th form in a male students’ group of school boarding house no. 24 of the city of nizhnekamsk (russia) for their level of training. materials and methods the objective of the research was to define the influence of male students’ education from 7th to 11th form in a male students’ group of school boarding house no. 24 of the city of nizhnekamsk (russia) on their level of training. with this purpose we heeded to solve the following problems: to study development of separate education in the system of general education, to analyze the factors influencing the level of the students’ training, and to evaluate the influence of separate education of male students on their level of training. the research is based on the definition of the main factors including separate education influencing the level of students’ training and detection of the educational institutions among the nizhnekamsk schools with equal conditions, influencing the level of training in comparison with school boarding house no. 24 for males. according to these factors defining the conditions for preparation to the unified state exam (use) in mathematics and the russian language of 10-11 form students, summary tables are composed for 2009-2010, 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 academic school years. the information from the summary tables was used for composition of profiles of the schools of nizhnekamsk according to the factors influencing the level of students’ training. obtained data allowed defining the coefficient of correlation between the use results and factors influencing them (using pearson method). the table of the correlation coefficients revealed the most reliable factors used at sorting the schools for definition of the school maximally similar to school boarding house no. 24 for males over the last three years in two disciplines. comparison of state final examination (sfe) and use indicators allowed defining the influence of male students’ education from 7th to 11th form on their level of training, research and creative projects. priority is the use of complex assessment methods. in accordance with the purpose and the tasks of our research, let us consider the way the corresponding issues are highlighted in the pedagogical literature. coeducation, which means joint education of males and females in early 1980s was a progressive direction and provided sheymardanov new opportunities for application of the principles of gender equality in school practice. however, coeducation as a general principle was not successful in the foreign states. as a result of refusal from it the chances of children in the context of their gender became less equal. the number of female schools was limited. male schools existed with pure majors, while female – with philological. as school pedagogics should consider peculiarities of both sexes, this principle was made the basis for the concept of fontana (2017a, 2017b). palmberger (2016) notes that presence of females contributes to psychological climate in the group and to the educational process as well as to better mutual understanding between sexes. in the 1950s coeducation became the dominating model according to which education of males and females implied using the same methods, similar planning etc. in several years, after coeducation became widespread, quality of educational process in schools due to academic achievements of females was significantly improved. the particular concern about gender problems of school education was provoked by the educational reforms implemented in 1960s focused on strengthening individual and differential approach to the primary school students of both sexes. the priority was the problem of gender discrimination in the educational and training process, carrying out gender inspection of textbooks. primary school was exactly the center of integration of ‘gender approach’, because that time it was the only place where children from different categories of population could learn and spend leisure time together for several years (vinogradov et al., 2015). in 1980s under the influence of social organizations the coeducation became a topic for acute discussions: limitation of socialization and unequal chances of both sexes were criticized. besides, some aspects of coeducation were also criticized, particularly status-hierarchical and polar division of the world in female and males activities, existence of gender stereotypes in education and training of both sexes. it was expressed, for example, in the fact that domination of males and excessive attention of females to them was perceived as something due, while modesty and unobtrusiveness of females remains unnoticed (dee & leišytė, 2016). gender inspection of curricula and textbooks also evidenced the preferences of male world over female one, depreciation of interests, successes and experience of females. sex differentiation strengthened this one-sidedness: females were supposed to develop proneness to learning languages, social and natural sciences, while males were supposed to develop technical and pure sciences (cenoz & gorter, 2016). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 187-200 considering objective shifts in the educational and training system of the last decades of the 20th century, richter (1995) notes the necessity of step changes in implementation of gender approach implying principally similar educational and training process for both sexes, clear comprehension of the problem connected with the discriminatory role-based clichés in the learning material and teachers’ behavior. extension of educational opportunities for males considering modern tendencies in senior school will contribute to their future self-realization. the next highly important tasks are increase in social and political activity of males. notably, over the last two decades in gender theory and practice a special attention is paid to the concept of ‘reflexive self-education (pedagogics)’ (dror, 1995). in this case it deals with the genderequitable coeducation aimed at personal development of young males and females, overcoming by youth the stereotypes, at equality of rights and opportunities for both sexes in their future lives and activities. reflexive self-education is a structure of pedagogical process where the principles of gender equality are observed, gender stereotypes in the consciousness of students and teachers are smoothed which contributes to positive changes and reconsideration of many problems from the positions of gender. beginning since 1990s, the attention of the pedagogical society was again drawn to the problems of coeducation, and active participation of young males in the educational process. the adherers of coeducation were perna, milem, gerald, baum, rowan, hutchens (2006). notably, this idea has been supported by kaestle (2016), smith (2016), fontana (2017c, 2017d). analysis of the corresponding scientific and pedagogical literature shows that training together with young males, young females achieve significantly better results in acquisition of humanitarian disciplines, but have lower performance in physics and mathematics. young males are more interested in instrumental types of activities. disadvantages of coeducation lanahan (2017) sees in strengthening of gender stereotypes, some disdain towards gender specifics regarding the interests, inclinations, and behavior of children with different background, which, on one hand, predetermines insufficient determination of strategies and methods of education as well as oppose male and female students, often focusing on pedagogics, which limits personal development of the children of both sexes (fontana, 2017e). according to milne (2012), young males and females will in no way refuse from coeducation. if they have different interests, it is only to the lessons of physical culture and biology. according to greenway & townshend (2001), schools of coeducation are characterized sheymardanov by friendly, equitable relationships between male and female students. it is considered that due to interaction males will acquire positive traits peculiar to females (restraint, sensitivity), and due to their smoothing influence they will learn to respect women, while female students by communicating with males will release from excessive cowardice and will become less lightminded. if females and males are taught and educated separately, it will obstruct creation of family in future. richter (1995) strongly maintained the position of coeducation and training of both sexes, equal attitude and partnership not using term ‘gender’, which had not yet been introduced by that time. despite some advantages of coeducation, teachers oriented at differences in interests and abilities of children of both sexes, constantly bring up the problem of separate education and thus separate training. at that, long discussions of ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ of current coeducational practice are closely connected with the solution of gender problems. in this context it is acutely criticized by scott (2017), who notes that school in no way embodies the accomplishments of coeducation as a pedagogical idea and thus the program of cultivation of partner gender relationships. such school is just a simple statement of a postulate of equal educational chances and opportunities for both sexes. a coeducation school provides formally equal opportunities both for the teachers and for the students (females and males). school still reserves the traits of the 19th century patriarchy, which do not respond to the modern social transformational changes in the education system; the main purpose of school still remains traditional method of knowledge transfer; acquisition by the children of both sexes of experience of practical and social behavior remains out of sight (duffy & gallagher, 2017). in the modern coeducational schools male and female students training together still remain opposite groups, which strengthens status-specific social behavior (chuah et al., 2016). males are dominant, aggressive, convinced in the supremacy of their interests. they do not critically and seriously perceive their insignificant achievements in training and treat the opposite sex with indignity. it is also caused by the fact that formally common curriculum contains many hidden discriminating practices towards young males. adherents of separate education and training provide the following arguments for it: opportunity of successful overcoming of consequences of the age crises provoked by inconsistency in development of males and females; certain convenience in the teacher’s labor organization; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 187-200 higher academic performance in some disciplines; reasonability in application of the method for presentation of the material effective, first of all, for male students, which is an objective factor for more elaborate learning of exact sciences; decrease in aggression and adolescent depression, which ensures quieter behavior of self-assured young males and successful self-realization of young females in future career and family; formation of more positive self-esteem among the students of different ages. tight (2014) in the discussions regarding the problem of separate education draws attention to such positive moments of separate education as lack of competitiveness between male and female students as well as stable focus on learning of social sciences and technics. in scientific literature important issues of separate education are raised and interesting data is provided. jurdak (2016) stated that in homogenous secondary schools up to 54% male students successfully learn naturalistic and technical disciplines. but the number of such students in the schools of coeducation is equal to 46%. thus, the researcher finds opposite tendencies towards educational interests among the male students in the secondary schools and general academic schools with coeducation. this phenomenon is first of all explained by the fact that teachers may form certain gender mindsets too persistently, which decreases the interest to education of many male students. thus, there are significant distinctions regarding the directivity of male and female students towards pure or humanitarian spheres of knowledge at separate education or coeducation. moreover in the schools with coeducation male students look more passive, while female students appear to be more active and studious which leads to opposition of sexes. despite the above stated arguments the opponents of separate education nevertheless consider that it creates unequal conditions for development of both sexes, pointing at the fact, for example, that the volume of curricula in a series of disciplines, particularly, in mathematics, is significantly narrower for female students in comparison with males. limitation of educational institutions of separate education is also seen in the fact that they do not provide the experience of communication with opposite sex; they orient children only on performing traditional social roles, which does not contribute to generation of creative atmosphere in the group. in general such educational practice contradicts to the global tendencies towards coeducation, which should gradually implement the principle of gender equality. as it was rightfully mentioned by german sheymardanov scholar ghosh (2017), the same opportunities in school for both sexes should be combined with the right of individual freedom and personal identity. despite the fact that in the modern environment practical teachers and especially research teachers are rather actively interested in gender problems, introduction of gender approach into the educational and training process in the school faces many difficulties (yigit & tarman, 2016). among them are also those, which are connected with the sphere of the established teacher-student relationships (tarman, 2012). we see the perspective of the further research exactly in the solution of these problems. for achievement of this objective we conducted the research on application of the principles of separate education in modern school. results and discussion in order to conduct the research we needed to define the main factors also including separate education, influencing the level of students’ training, and to detect educational institutions with equal conditions influencing the level of training for comparison with the educational institutions for males. after detection of the school (schools) maximally similar to the educational institution for males considering the factors influencing the students’ level of training, we assessed the influence of separate education of males on the level of their training. at other equal conditions, the difference in the use results in mathematics and the russian language of the educational institution for males and the detected school may be explained by the influence of separate education. certainly, frames of any research do not allow conducting elaborate investigation of all the factors influencing the level of students’ training, that is why we were limited to the following: teacher: education, category, work experience in the discipline, experience of training graduates, duration of lessons; academic capacity of the student: number of hours in compliance with the educational institution curriculum, number of hours out of school component, number of hours intended for special courses and number of hours intended for the courses in the use preparation; form: profile of the form, number of students; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 187-200 participation in knowledge-based events: olympiads, conferences, festivals and competitions; separate education of the students. the format of school boarding house as a factor influencing the level of training is not considered as at school boarding house no. 24 the males study only from 7th to 11th form, and it only provides the house is capable of placing only 7th form students, who go home on thursdays, saturdays and sundays and for the nonresident students the number of whom does not exceed 15% out of the general number of their students. at non-school hours these children are provided with an opportunity to attend additional lessons only in the english language while the research defines the influence of separate education on mathematics and the russian language. so, at further sorting of the schools we based at the two following factors: 1. number of students according to the curriculum and the number of hours of the school component. 2. participation of the schools in the knowledge-based events. it mostly reflects extracurricular activities of the educational institutions. notably, the summary results are published and posted at the web-site. availability and openness of this kind of information may influence the increase in the rating of the schools and lead to the tenders among children. considering the above listed conclusions we turned to this stage of sorting the schools in disciplines and academic years. the next task is determination of the school (schools) maximally close to the school boarding house no. 24 considering all the factors influencing the level of the students’ training. comparison of the schools with the school boarding house no. 24 allowed us defining the closest educational institutions judging by three academic years and two disciplines: the russia language and mathematics in school no. 22 and lyceum no. 35. notably, lyceum no.35 is the best educational institution of nizhnekamsk according to a complex of factors, ratings and the use results. the school boarding house no. 24 is the only educational institution for males in nizhnekamsk. there is no separate education for males in the other schools of our city. for assessment of influence of male students’ separate education on their level of training it is necessary to compare the use results of the school boarding house sheymardanov no.24 with the indicators of the above mentioned schools. therewith, it is necessary to consider only the male students’ results. the difference of the use results with the positive sign (except for the indicator in mathematics over 2009-2010 academic year) allows us to conclude that separate education of males contributes to their level of training. for more complete analysis of influence of this approach on the use results it is necessary to assess the contribution of each school in dynamics. if the initial points of the sfe of male students are transferred into 100 point rating system and these values are taken as the reference point of the compared schools, while the male students’ use points are taken as the evaluation, then it is possible to assess the influence of the male separate education on their training level more elaborately. the results of the research allowed us to make the following conclusions: 1. the male students’ sfe results in mathematics of the school boarding house no. 24 are by 11.5 points lower; however the use results are by 2.3 higher in comparison with the indicators of lyceum no. 35. regarding its own progress the school boarding house improved its results by 11.1 points, while lyceum no. 35 worsened them by 2.6 points. thus, influence of separate education of males on their level of training in mathematics can be assessed positively by 13.8 points. 2. the male students’ sfe results in the russian language of school boarding house no. 24 are by 3.6 points lower, while the use results are 0.3 points higher in comparison with lyceum no.35. regarding its own progress the school boarding house worsened the indicators by 9.1 points, while lyceum no. 35 worsened them by 13 point. thus, influence of separate education of males on their level of training in the russian language can be assessed positively by 3.9 points. 3. influence of male students’ separate education o their level of training in mathematics compared with the influence on the russian language is by 3.5 times higher. if to compare the indicators of the males from lyceum no. 35 with the mixed indicators of the school boarding house, then the following conclusions are possible: 1. if the sfe in mathematics was passed by the males by 1.9 points worse, then the use was passed worse only by 1 point. thus, by 11th form the male students approach the level of the females’. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 187-200 2. if the male students passed the sfe in the russian language by 3.7 points worse, then the use results were worse by only 3 points. thus, by the 11th form the males approach the level of the female students not as significant as in mathematics. therefore, the organization of separate education in general academic schools has its peculiarities and assessment of cause-and-effect relations provokes many problems. it provokes the necessity of consideration of many factors influencing the effectiveness of separate education. in this regard the necessity of further investigation of this problem, especially in the sphere of assessment of the students’ separate education influence on their level of training. we took an attempt to study the tendencies of development of separate education in the global practice and evaluate the effectiveness of this approach. the existing contradictions in the results of multiple researches do not allow making firm conclusions about influence of separate education on the students’ level of training. in this paper we assessed the influence of male students’ separate education on their level of training. in order to conduct such research we defined the main factors, also including separate education influencing the level of the students’ training, and detected the educational institutions with equal conditions influencing the level of training in comparison with the educational institutions for males students (school boarding house no.24 of the city of nizhnekamsk). conclusions according to the results of the research we have made the following conclusions: 1. influence of separate education of males on the level of their training in mathematics may be estimated positively on 12.9 points out of 100 rating system, while in the russian language it is 3.2 points. thus, influence of separate education of male students on the level of their training in mathematics in comparison with the influence on the russian language is 4-fold. 2. when comparing the indicators of the male students of lyceum no.35 with the mixed indicators of the school boarding house we found that by 11th form the male students reach the females’ indicators. moreover, their progress in mathematics is faster. thus, the hypothesis of the research has been approved. education of male students from 7th to 11th form in the male group of the school boarding house really contributes to their level of training. it means that provided any other relatively similar conditions the male students studying from 7th to 11th form separately from females in the conditions of the school boarding sheymardanov house no.24 showed higher indicators of training compared to the males studying together with females. assessment of male students’ influence on their level of training in mathematics and the russian language in dynamics was carried out over two years (the difference between the indicators of the use and the sfe). for proper assessment of the investigated factor over the entire period of education from 7th to 11th form it is necessary to test the level of males’ training for 7th form both at the experimental and at the control groups, as well as to expand the list of the factors. references cenoz, j., & gorter, d. (2016). translanguaging as a pedagogical tool in multilingual education. in j. cenoz, d. gorter, & s. may (eds.), language awareness and multilingualism (pp. 1-14). cham: springer international publishing. chuah, s. c., razak, a. n. a., & abdullah, h. (2016). the effects of gender-separate human capital composition on technology transfer and absorptive capacity. in m. a. abdullah, w. k. yahya, n. ramli, s. r. mohamed, & b. e. ahmad (eds.), regional conference on science, technology and social sciences (rcstss 2014): business and social sciences (pp. 343-352). singapore: springer singapore. dee, j. r., & leišytė, l. (2016). organizational learning in higher education institutions: theories, frameworks, and a potential research agenda. in m. b. paulsen (ed.), higher education: handbook of theory and research (pp. 275-348). cham: springer international publishing. dror, y. (1995). an alternative approach to classifying and measuring residential education and group care and treatment programs: internal totality and community orientation as journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 187-200 separate components. child and youth care forum, 24(3), 195-208. doi:10.1007/bf02128544 duffy, g., & gallagher, t. (2017). shared education in contested spaces: how collaborative networks improve communities and schools. journal of educational change, 18(1), 107134. doi:10.1007/s10833-016-9279-3 fontana, g. (2017a). conclusion: separate to unite education policy and power-sharing in post-conflict societies: lebanon, northern ireland, and macedonia. cham: springer international publishing, pp. 279-283. fontana, g. (2017b). formulating citizenship education education policy and power-sharing in post-conflict societies: lebanon, northern ireland, and macedonia. cham: springer international publishing, pp. 159-191. fontana, g. (2017c). power-sharing and education policy in deeply divided societies education policy and power-sharing in post-conflict societies: lebanon, northern ireland, and macedonia. cham: springer international publishing, pp. 23-59. fontana, g. (2017d). reforming history education education policy and power-sharing in post-conflict societies: lebanon, northern ireland, and macedonia. cham: springer international publishing, pp. 123-157. fontana, g. (2017e). inter-group contact and separation in schools education policy and power-sharing in post-conflict societies: lebanon, northern ireland, and macedonia. cham: springer international publishing, pp. 227-278. ghosh, r. (2017). no schoolmaster: aesthetic education and paedosophy. in aesthetics, politics, pedagogy and tagore: a transcultural philosophy of education (pp. 41-133). london: palgrave macmillan uk. sheymardanov greenway, g. m., & townshend, a. (2001). teaching of the concept of valid analytical measurement: integration of quality assurance (qa), issues or separate qa courses for higher education. in b. neidhart & w. wegscheider (eds.), quality in chemical measurements: training concepts and teaching materials (pp. 163-170). berlin, heidelberg: springer berlin heidelberg. jurdak, m. (2016). stem education as a context for real-world problem solving learning and teaching real world problem solving in school mathematics: a multiple-perspective framework for crossing the boundary. cham: springer international publishing, pp. 151-163. kaestle, c. (2016). federalism and inequality in education: what can history tell us? in i. kirsch & h. braun (eds.), the dynamics of opportunity in america: evidence and perspectives (pp. 35-96). cham: springer international publishing. lanahan, b. (2017). divided education: education in ethnic cylinders post-conflict education for democracy and reform: bosnian education in the post-war era, 1995–2015. london: palgrave macmillan uk, pp. 71-86. milne, c. (2012). beyond argument in science: science education as connected and separate knowing. in b. j. fraser, k. tobin, & c. j. mcrobbie (eds.), second international handbook of science education (pp. 951-967). dordrecht: springer netherlands. palmberger, m. (2016). divided education: divergent historiographies and shared discursive practices. in how generations remember: conflicting histories and shared memories in post-war bosnia and herzegovina (pp. 91-125). london: palgrave macmillan uk. perna, l. w., milem, j., gerald, d., baum, e., rowan, h., & hutchens, n. (2006). the status of equity for black undergraduates in public higher education in the south: still separate journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 187-200 and unequal*. research in higher education, 47(2), 197-228. doi:10.1007/s11162-0058886-2 richter, i. (1995). separate, unequal and diverse? on pluralism and integration in the german education system. prospects, 25(3), 391-406. doi:10.1007/bf02333934 scott, d. (2017). accounts of education systems, teachers and learners education systems and learners: knowledge and knowing. london: palgrave macmillan uk, pp. 21-40. smith, k. (2016). functions of assessment in teacher education. in j. loughran & m. l. hamilton (eds.), international handbook of teacher education, vol. 2, (pp. 405-428). singapore: springer singapore. tarman, b. (2012). effective leadership in culturally diverse schools. energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 4(2), 1103-1114. tight, m. (2014). working in separate silos? what citation patterns reveal about higher education research internationally. higher education, 68(3), 379-395. doi:10.1007/s10734-014-9718-0 vinogradov, v.l., panfilov, a.n., panfilova, v.m., & rakhmanova, a.r (2015). integrated educational environment of the university and the school as a basis for practice oriented teachers training. psychological science and education, 20(5), 142–152. doi:10.17759/pse.201520051. yigit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 28-59 social and political portrait of contemporary russian student youth nadezhda g. osipova1, sergey o. elishev2, gennadi b. pronchev3, danila n. monakhov4 abstract the paper is dedicated to the analysis of the social and political portrait of the contemporary russian young students. the empirical basis of the work is made up by the results of sociological monitoring of the young students' ideas about social and political processes, socialization institutions and youth policy subjects conducted by the authors (in 2013 – 2017) as well as by the results of the "social portrait of a contemporary russian student" research (at the faculty of sociology of lomonosov moscow state university, 2017). the research technique was based on polling, with questionnaire survey selected as the research method. the questionnaire form contained questions aimed at finding out the students' political, ideological and moral values, their attitude toward the current power institutions, mass information media, religious denominations, public organizations and social work. the students also had to answer questions on the condition of the russian state and society, any positive and negative phenomena existing among the young people; they evaluated the security of russia and the effectiveness of the state youth policy. in the end, it has been found out that generally students evaluate the condition of today's russian state and society in a sensible and critical way, realize the causes of crisis phenomena, and are prepared to take active part in social work. according to the results of analysis of the studies conducted, the necessity is noted of actively assisting the young people in fulfillment of their patriotic impulse and the capacity available. key words: young students, social and political portrait, youth policy, social and political processes, patriotism, sociological monitoring. introduction the most important social objective of any transformations initiated by the state is consolidation of the society, its individual social groups on the basis of forming the stable and socially significant value reference points. it is the young people who are one of such groups. the political and moral culture of the young people is known to only grow then when the state does not leave it for complete control of the grassroots "unleashed" political passions but when it creates conditions for the said culture to express itself within an efficient social practice in a correct and precise manner while forming social values and attitudes which are relevant to its needs (pronchev et al., 2016, sushko et al., 2016, tarman & acun, 2010). meanwhile, the range of these social values and attitudes is fairly wide, including the moral, esthe tic, economic, religious, ideological and political ones (draskovic et al., 2017). 1 prof., doctor of sociology, lomonosov moscow state university, soc@socio.msu.ru 2 assoc. prof., candidate of sociology, lomonosov moscow state university, elishev@list.ru 3 assoc. prof., candidate of physics and mathematics, lomonosov moscow state university, pronchev@rambler.ru 4 senior lecturer, candidate of pedagogy, lomonosov moscow state university, monahovdn@yandex.ru mailto:soc@socio.msu.ru osipova et al. forming the value reference points in today's russian youth, especially in the young students, is one of the major and priority directions of fulfillment of both state and social youth policy in the russian federation. so, the document approved by a special resolution of the government of the russian federation "foundations of the state youth policy of the russian federation for the period of up to 2025" (consultantplus, 2015) lays down a system of principles, priority tasks and mechanisms that ensure bringing the state youth policy into life. in particular, this document provides for "creating the conditions for upbringing and development of the young people for them to be aware of and to exercise their constitutional rights and liabilities in a responsible manner, to possess a humanist view of the world, a stable system of moral and civic values, to show the knowledge of their cultural, historical, national heritage and respect for its diversity, as well as to develop the culture of constructive interethnic relations among the young people" (consultantplus, 2015). thus, it implies a full-scale process of spiritual and moral, national and patriotic, civic, labor upbringing and socialization of the russian youth. for the process to succeed, the values of the young people have to be continuously monitored, particularities of their perception of transformation processes taking place in the russian society have to be identified as well as their evaluation of activity of various socialization institutions and youth policy fulfillment subjects. the results obtained during such monitoring will allow not only judging about the efficiency of the activity of various rf institutions and youth policy fulfillment subjects but also adjusting the forms and mechanisms of fulfillment of the said policy. with regard to this, a group of researchers at the faculty of sociology of m.v. lomonosov msu periodically conduct sociological monitoring of the young students' perception of social and political processes, socialization institutions and youth policy subjects in today's russia (osipova et al., 2017). literature review classical sociology treats youth as a large social group having particular social and psychological traits the existence of which is determined both by the age features of the young people and by their social and economic, social and political position, their spiritual world is still under rise, formation. usually, the young people aged 16 – 30 are referred to the youth (in statistics, in sociology) (filippov, 1998, elishev, 2017). a relatively uniform part of youth, both in age and in social characteristics, is composed by students of vocational education institutions and higher education institution students, studies being their main activity which determines all the essential features of their way of life (zubok & chuprov, 2008). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 30 the total of individuals designated by the notion "youth" and particularly the young students have social and mental qualities that promote a continuous active reappraisal by them of any values existing in the society (osipova et al., 2017; tarman, & chigisheva, 2017). in its turn, a complicated and controversial character of the process of the young people entering an independent life generates various forms of youth protest, asocial ones included. so, the research has shown that under the influence of ideological vacuum emerging in the years of economic and political liberalization a certain part of the russian youth accept not only the ideas and principles of progressive political trends of today, e.g. social democratic movement or human rights one, but also the postulates of such deeply reactionary ideologies as neo-nazism and zionism (levashov, 2006). thus, the youth becomes a sure target of various manipulations (elishev, 2015, osipova & chelishchev, 2016). conventionally, the term "social manipulation" is usually used to mean a system of ways of ideological, social and psychological impact for changing the people's thinking and behavior counter to their interests (osipova, 2009, dzyaloshinsky, 2005). with regard to this, a focused forming of value reference points in youth gains a special importance. it is performed by socialization (titma, 1975; elishev, 2015; yigit & tarman, 2016 ) – the process of an individual learning the behavior patterns and mechanisms, social standards and values that are required for the individual to function in this society successfully, that "underlie the formation of socially important personality traits" and "the process of the individual's integration into a social group (society)" (osipov, 201, p. 36). methodological framework the objective of the research conducted was to compile a social and political portrait of the contemporary russian young students. the main tasks of the research were as follows: 1. the analysis of the structure and content, evolution of the young students' social and political evaluation of the condition of today's russian society and state, social institutions involved in the process of value reference points formation, the role of the mass media, positive and negative phenomena in the social environment, and the activity of the state and political figures, traditional religious denominations. 2. the analysis of evolution of the young students' evaluation of social and political processes taking place in russia and associated with the social and political events of 2013 – 2017. the empirical basis of the work is made up by the results of sociological monitoring of the young students' ideas about social and political processes, socialization institutions and youth osipova et al. policy subjects conducted by the authors (in 2013 – 2017) as well as by the results of the "social portrait of a contemporary russian student" research (at the faculty of sociology of msu, 2017). the research technique was based on polling, with questionnaire survey selected as the research method. the questionnaire contained questions aimed at finding out the students' political, ideological and moral values, their attitude to the current institutions of power, mass information media, religious denominations, public organizations and social work. the students also answered to questions about the condition of the russian state and society, any positive and negative phenomena present among the young people, they evaluated the security of russia and the efficiency of the state youth policy. during the 2013-2017 sociological monitoring of the young students' ideas about social and political processes, socialization institutions and youth policy subjects, the sample multitude of 2015 and 2017 included 815 students of 50 faculties of "arts" and 50 faculties of "sciences" of the following higher education institutions each: m.v. lomonosov msu, ranepa, mspu, mstuca, cda of emercom of russia, rudn university, msuc, n.e. bauman mstu, gnesin ram, s.g. stroganov msaia, k.i. skryabin msavmbt, mslu, mslu, financial university under the government of the russian federation, academy of the fss of russia, bhsad, i.m. sechenov first moscow state medical university, ijlw, mgimo, mesi, mephi (nrnu), mai, miit (msure), i.m. gubkin rsuog, k.a. timiryazev rsau (mtaa), mipt, sau, v.ya. kikotya mu of the mia of russia, st tikhon's ou, d.i. mendeleev ustr, rca, g.v. plekhanov rue, k.e. tsiolkovsky mati-rstu, rfta, and nru hse. during the research of 2017, 815 students were surveyed, with 37,% of the questioned ones being male and 62,5% female students, which generally correlates with the 2015 research results. 70,5% of the questioned ones (i.e. over two-thirds of the respondents) were young people aged 18 to 22, 14% — aged 23 to 26, 13% — aged 14 to 18, and 2,6% — aged 27 to 30. 24,3% of the questioned ones had no income in 2016, 19,5% had 2000 to 5000 rubles income, 18% — 5000 to 15000 rubles, 15,1% — 15000 to 30000 rubles, 9,7% — 30000 to 45000 rubles, 8,3% — 0 to 2000 rubles, and 5,2% — over 45000 rubles. 44,3% of the questioned ones evaluate their material well-being level as average, 20,7% — as below average, 14,8% — as above average, 10,1% — as low, 3,6% — as high, and 6,6% had difficulty answering the question posed. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 32 among the respondents surveyed, 15% have their own accommodation (flat(s), summer cottage or houses). 85% do not own any housing. among the students answering the question "what is your attitude to faith and religion?", the majority, 38,1%, consider religion to be an important aspect of life but do not observe religious practices, 23,5% consider religion to be an important aspect of life and observe religious practices. 19,1% said they were atheists but considered religion an important aspect of life of the society while 10,9% said they were atheists and considered religion useless for life of the society. 7,2% of the respondents had difficulty answering the questions and 1,2% of the students answered otherwise. among the total of the surveyed ones, 69,5% identified themselves as orthodox christians, 15,1% — as islam followers, 3% — as those of judaism, 1,8% — of catholicism, 1,6% — of buddhism, and 0,9% — of protestantism. 6,6% had difficulty answering the question posed, with 1,4% answering otherwise. 96,9% of the total of the questioned ones are not members of any party or organization while 3,1% of the respondents mentioned they were members of political parties, movements and organizations. during the "social portrait of a contemporary russian student" research (according to the results of the research conducted at the faculty of sociology of msu) sociological monitoring, 494 students were questioned, of them 370 bachelor degree students (of all years and attendance modes) and 124 master degree students (74,9% and 25,1% of all respondents, respectively). according to the training direction, the "social sciences" students prevailed 97,4% versus 2,6% of "master degree students", as well as the state-funded education ones (88,1% versus 11,9% feepaying students). 18,4% of the respondents were male and 81,6% – female students, which is largely in line with the general gender composition of the student total of the faculty. according to accommodation, there was the following distribution of students: about one third of them (32,8%) live at student hostels, almost one half – with their parents (45,5%) or relatives (3,6%). 8,5% of the students rent housing and almost as many, 8,7%, have their own accommodation. the students' evaluation of the material well-being of the parental family has shown that as for the vast majority of the students (90,3%), the parents either "do not have any material difficulties at all" (46,8% of the answers) or "have material difficulties from time to time" (43,5% of the answers). virtually one respondent in ten (9,4%) mentioned their "parents being in osipova et al. a difficult material situation". with regard to this, it is curious that over two-thirds of the students have a certain monthly income: 2000 to 5000 rubles in 15,8% of the respondents, 5000 to 15000 rubles – in 21,7%, and 15000 to 30000 rubles – in 18,2%. the income of almost 20% of all questioned ones is quite substantial, if compared to the statistically average one for russia. so, 9,5% of the students have 30000 to 45000 rubles per month and exactly as many – over 45000 rubles per month. meanwhile, it is 15% of the students who mention "i am comfortably off and deny myself nothing", and the majority (66,2%) "only have enough money to cover daily expenses". almost one in six students (17,4%) said they "had enough money for the most necessary only", but so few as 1,4% of all respondents considered their material well-being to be "distressed". in computer processing of the data, the authors used the technique having a strict mathematic probability justification, with sample estimation methods applied too. the sampling error amounts to not more than ± 5% at probability p = 0,95 as a whole for the multitude. results and discussion the condition of today's russian society and state the students' answers to the first questions of the questionnaire have shown that on balance the students of moscow evaluate the condition of today's russian society and state in a sensible and critical way and realize the causes of crisis phenomena with which they associate the condition. so, the survey has shown that over half of the students (55,8%) agree with the statement that "the modern russian society is under a systemic crisis" while about a quarter of the respondents (25,8%) deny the fact of crisis existing in today's russian society. meanwhile, 18,2% of the questioned ones said it was difficult for them to answer and so few as 0,2% opted for the "other" variant (see fig. 1). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 34 figure 1. modern russian society and systemic crises source: the authors comparing the obtained results with ones of the similar survey conducted in march-april 2015, it can be stated that there has been no significant change. yet, over the recent two years, the quantity of students thinking that "the modern russian society is under a systemic crisis" has shown a 1,3% decrease. the quantity of students denying the fact of crisis of the modern russian society available also went down by 0,8%. there was a 2,1% decrease in the quantity of students giving other answers while the quantity of the questioned ones who had difficulty answering this question has grown by 3,8%. the answers of students to the question "do you agree with the statement that the modern russian state is under a systemic crisis?" have demonstrated almost the same proportion (see fig. 2). figure 2. modern russian state and systemic crises source: the authors 55,8%25,8% 18,2% 0,2% do you agree with the statement that the modern russian society is under a systemic crisis? agree disagree difficult to answer other 56,2% 25,4% 18,1% 0,2% do you agree with the statement that the modern russian state is under a systemic crisis? agree disagree difficult to answer other osipova et al. the results obtained were also compared to the results of the "value reference points of the modern russian youth, features of the process of their formation and youth policy fulfillment" survey that was conducted among moscow higher education students in november 2013 (elishev & talanova, 2014). this comparison enabled the authors to state the following: 1. just like in 2013 and 2015, the majority of moscow students (68,7%) agreed with the fact of a systemic crisis existing in today's russian society and/or state. meanwhile, the quantity of the respondents agreeing with the statement about the modern russian society and/or state being in a systemic crisis condition changed little throughout these 4 years – 2,7% (from 67,2% in 2013 up to 69,9% in 2015) upwards and 1,2% downwards (from 69,9% in 2015 up to 68,7 in 2017). 2. quite a significant percentage of moscow students (31,3%) disagreed with the fact of a systemic crisis existing in today's russian society and/or state, which is slightly different from the 2015 survey results (30,1%) but is in a sharp contrast to the similar answers obtained in 2013 (10,8%) (see fig. 3). figure 3. systemic crises in the russian society as viewed by the students source: the authors the research has shown that moscow students agreeing that there is a systemic crisis in today's russian state and/or society think seriously about its causes. so, the first place among the said systemic crisis causes is occupied by "the mass media imposing standards of consumer society, american way of life, cult of money and violence" (53,1% of the answers) – even though this is 6,5% less than in 2015 (59,6% of the answers) and 3,5% less than in 2013 (56,6% 68,7% 31,3% is there a crisis? yes no journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 36 of the answers). nevertheless, this cause still remains the leading option among the suggested answers. a slightly smaller quantity of students mentioned "lack of spirituality and departure from cultural traditions" (52,1% of the answers). such cause as "a global crisis of political, social and economic, cultural spheres of life of the world community" ranks third among the students' answers (46,2%), while "crisis phenomena in the economic sphere of public management" – fourth (44,6% of the answers). a bit over a quarter (28%) of students of moscow higher education institutions believe "the destructive actions of "the fifth column" (internal enemies, traitors) within russia" to be the cause of the crisis of today's russian society and/or state. 9,4% of the young people cited other causes and 4,9% found it difficult to answer the question (see table 1). the "global crisis of political, social and economic, cultural spheres of life of the world community" lands second among the causes of the systemic crisis in today's russian state and/or society (47,2%) – in 2015 it ranked third among the students' answers (46,2%), i.e. it is now 1% higher than in 2015. the third place belongs to the "crisis phenomena in the economic sphere of public management" answer option (45,9%), which is 1,3% higher than in 2015 (44,6% of the answers). the fourth place is occupied by the answer "lack of spirituality and departure from cultural traditions" (44,5%), i.e. it is 7,6% less than in 2015 (52,1% of the answers) but 11,2% more than in 2013 (33,3%). notably, this answer ranked second both in 2013 and in 2015. a bit over a quarter (29,4%) of students of moscow higher education institutions believe "the destructive actions of "the fifth column" (internal enemies, traitors) within russia" – that is, essentially, the agents of global liberalism ideology who ulcerate the russian society from within, the antisocial elements (for more detail see (osipova, 2014)) – to be the cause of the crisis of today's russian society and/or state. this is 1,9% higher than in 2015 (28%) and as much as 21,1% higher than in 2013 (8,3%). 3,9% of the young people gave other causes (this is 5,5% less than in 2015 (9,4%) and 2,5% less than in 2013 (6,4%)) and 16,7% (or 11,8% more than in 2015 (4,9%) and 1,7% more than in 2013 (15%)) found it difficult to answer the question (see table 1). osipova et al. table 1 proportion of the students' answers to the question "what do you think are the causes of such a crisis?" answer options % the mass media imposing standards of consumer society, "american way of life", cult of money and violence 53,1 a global crisis of political, social and economic, cultural spheres of life of the world community 47,2 crisis phenomena in the economic sphere of public management 45,9 lack of spirituality and departure from cultural traditions 44,5 the destructive actions of "the fifth column" (internal enemies, traitors) within russia 29,4 other causes 3,9 it is difficult for me to answer 16,7 thus, among the mentioned by the students causes of the systemic crisis of today's russian society and/or state, two causes ("the mass media imposing standards of consumer society, "american way of life", cult of money and violence" and "lack of spirituality and departure from cultural traditions") have slightly given ground – there has been an over 5% reduction in the quantity of those opting for them, as compared to the 2015 survey results. such dynamics may be indicative of certain positive shifts both in the sphere of mass media activity regulation and in the spiritual sphere of the public life activity. other causes of the systemic crisis of today's russian society and/or state singled out by the students have remained almost unchanged as compared to the 2015 survey results. yet, the quantity of students who had difficulty answering this question has also shown some increase. the students' answers to the question "what do you consider to pose the greatest threat for the security of russia?" have demonstrated the following percentage. about a half (48,8%) of the young people named corruption at various levels of the government as the main threat for the security of russia [this is 10,2% less than in 2015 (59%)]. 35,4% said it was stratification of the society into the rich and the poor [13,9% more than in 2015 (21,5%)]. 14,8% believed it was the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 38 "fifth column" acting [4,8% less than in 2015 (19,6%)]. 1% of the students gave their own answer variants [15,6% less than in 2015 (16,6%)] (see fig. 4). figure 4. the greatest threat for the security of russia source: the authors sociological studies conducted at the beginning of the 21st century have shown that the russian society has constantly suffered from a lack of moral reference points, values and behavior patterns rather than social, economic and political ones (levashov, 2004). to a great extent, this was associated with devaluation of functional role of the traditional institutions that had to influence forming of the society's value reference points. social institutions of forming of the value reference points the 2017 research has confirmed it that nowadays the role of various social institutions and mechanisms acting on forming of the modern russian young people's value reference points has increased considerably. with regard to this, the leading position is still occupied by the mass media (72,9%): even though this is 5,1% less than in 2015 (78% of the answers), it is also 11% more than in 2013 (61,9%). the institution of family ranks second in the quantity of answers (63,6%) 11,1% lower than in 2015 (74,7% of the answers) and 8,6% higher than in 2013 (55%). the third place is occupied by the system of education (51,5%) – it is 3,8% less than in 2015 (55,3% of the answers) but 15,4% more than in 2013 (36,1%). according to the students, the role of state authorities and local self-government bodies in forming of the value reference 48,8% 35,4% 14,8% 1,0% what do you consider to pose the greatest threat for the security of russia? corruption at various levels of the government stratification of the society into the rich and the poor actions of the "fifth column" other osipova et al. points in today's russian youth has increased quite markedly (30,3% of the answers) – it ranks fourth among the institutions under consideration, i.e. 13,7% higher than in 2015 (16,6%) and 20,2% higher than in 2013 (11,1%). a clear positive dynamics of evaluation of the activity of this institution is evident (see fig. 5). figure 5. institutions of today`s society influencing the formation of value reference points in the modern russian youth the most efficiently source: the authors public associations and organizations (ranking fifth in 2017 and fourth in 2013 and 2015) have made it to the fifth while traditional religious denominations (orthodox christianity, islam, buddhism and judaism) – to the sixth place in 2017, respectively (ranking fifth both in 2013 and 2015). public associations and organizations have won 27,8%, which is 2,3% less than in 2015 (30,1%) but 6,4% more than in 2013 (21,4%). traditional religious denominations (orthodox christianity, islam, buddhism and judaism) have got 22,4%, which is 1,2% more than in 2015 (21,2%) and 6,2% more than in 2013 (16,2%). just like in 2015, large business organizations and corporations have occupied the same seventh place (they did eighth in 2013). getting 16% of the answers, they had 6,1% more than in 2015 (9,9%) and also 10,6% more than in 2013 (5,4%). the eighth place is held by the army (it ranked eighth in 2015 but seventh in 2013). the attitude to the army as an institution influencing the forming of value reference points in the modern russian youth the most efficiently has only changed slightly, growing by 2,1% from 2015 (7,7%) to 2017 (9,8%). as compared to the results of the 2013 survey, it has improved by 1,9% (from 7,9% in 2013 up to 9,8% in 2017). 9,8 16,0 22,4 27,8 30,3 51,5 63,6 72,9 0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 the army large economic entities, corporations traditional religious denominations (orthodox… public associations and organizations state authorities and local self-government bodies the system of education family mass media what institutions of today's society influence the forming of value reference points in the modern russian youth the most efficiently? journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 40 drawing the line, it can be stated that three basic factors producing the most pronounced influence on forming of the value reference points in the modern russian youth, as seen by students, still are the mass media, the institutions of family and education (despite some of them backwatering to an extent). over the recent four years, the role of the state (both state authorities and local self-government bodies) in this process also increased considerably. large business associations and organizations somewhat improved their situation while the impact of other institutions remained largely unchanged. the role of the mass information media with the phenomenon of "information society" existing in russia, the registered influence of the mass media is not especially surprising (osipov, 2000, osipova & yurchenko, 2010). given the increasing role of the mass media in forming of not only the public opinion but also some deeper elements of people's view of the world, their value reference points, moscow students were asked the question: "what value reference points do you think the federal mass information media are trying to form?". their answers to the question were distributed as follows. according to the students of moscow higher education institutions, the federal mass media are currently forming the following socially approved (positive) value reference points: patriotism (46,9% of the answers 11,8% less than in 2015 (58,7% of the answers)); healthy lifestyle (31,6% of the answers 2% less than in 2015 (33,6% of the answers)); diligence (25,6% of the answers 7,5% less than in 2015 (18,1% of the answers)). as for the disapproved by the society (negative) value reference points formed by the mass media, the students have cited the following the cult of money (40,1% of the answers 7,1% less than in 2015 (47,2% of the answers)); consumerism (37,3% of the answers 10,4% less than in 2015 (47,7 of the answers); adoption of western lifestyles (30,9% of the answers 0,6% less than in 2015 (31,5% of the answers)); egoism (26,2% of the answers 6,9% more than in 2015 (19,3% of the answers), (see fig. 6). comparing the results with those of the 2013 survey, it should be pointed out that for a number of items, the students' evaluation of the activity of the federal mass media has changed osipova et al. towards a positive side. so, the first place among the value reference points formed by the federal mass media is won by patriotism with the students – both in 2015 (58,7%) and in 2017 (46,9%). this is 38,4% (in 2015) and 26,6% (in 2017) more than in 2013 (20,3%). as compared to 2013, the quantity of students mentioning the cult of money and consumerism (as items ranking second and third) has gone down: consumerism – 22,1% less in 2017 and 10,8% less in 2015, versus 58,5% of the answers in 2013; the cult of money 29,4% less in 2017 and 22,3% less in 2015, versus 69,5% of the answers in 2013. just like in 2015, healthy lifestyle occupies the fourth place, which means 8,6% (as of 2017) and 10,6% (in 2015) more than in 2013 (health had 23% of the answers). the fifth place is occupied by adoption of western lifestyles due to massive propaganda, which is 21,1% (in 2017) and 20,5% (in 2015) less as compared to 52% of the answers in 2013. figure 6. value reference points that are formed by the federal mass media source: the authors the sixth place is given by the students to egoism (26,2%), which is 6,9% more than in 2015 (19,3%) and 20,1% less than in 2013 (46,3%). diligence ranks seventh (25,6%), which is 7,5% more than in 2015 (18,1%) and 11,8% more than in 2013 (work had 13,8%). the eighth place is occupied by faith in god (25,1%), which is 7 % more than in 2015 (18,1%) and 15,1 % more than in 2013 (work — 10%). place nine is allocated to family welfare (24,6%), which is 3,8 % more than in 2015 (20,8%) and 7,6 % more than in 2013 (family won 17% of the answers). 1,6 2,3 19,0 19,6 19,8 23,7 24,6 25,1 25,6 26,2 30,9 31,6 37,3 40,1 46,9 0,0 10,0 20,0 30,0 40,0 50,0 difficult to answer agape the propensity to violence family welfare diligence adoption of western lifestyles consumerism patriotism what value reference points are the federal mass media trying to form, in your opinion? journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 42 sexual promiscuity ranks tenth (23,7%), which is 2 % less than in 2015 (25,7% of the answers) and 37,6% less than in 2013 (sex — 61,3% of the answers). the "propensity to violence" (19,8%) occupies the eleventh place, which is 0,5 % less than in 2015 (20,3% of the answers) and 23,7% less than in 2013 (violence amounted to 43,5% of the answers). the twelfth place is held by kindness (19,6%), which is 6,2% more than in 2015 (13,4% of the answers) and 9,1% more than in 2013 (10,5% of the answers). agape (19%) ranks thirteenth, which is 7,4% more than in 2015 (11,6% of the answers) and 2% less as compared to the 2013 answers (then agape had 21% of the answers). 2,3% of the students answered otherwise, which is 2,7% less than in 2015 (5%) and 0,5% more than in 2013 (1,8%). 1,6% of the young people had difficulty answering this question, which is 0,5% less than in 2015 (2,1%) and 0,6% more than in 2013 (1% of the answers). thus, according to the students, the federal mass media form both positive and negative reference points that alternate in relevance between each other. meanwhile, it is the internetbased mass media that have an especially important influence on these processes. during the "social portrait of a contemporary russian student" research (2017), it has also been found out that of all kinds of mass media the vast majority of the sociological faculty students (93,9%) prefer various internet mass media (95,5% of the bachelor degree students of the first years, 93,8% of the bachelor degree students of senior years, and 91,1% of the master degree students). it is only 4% who use the television (2,7% of the bachelor degree students of the first years, 4,8% of the bachelor degree students of senior years, 5,6% of the master degree students). listening to the radio and reading printed periodicals is preferred by only 0,8% of the questioned ones, respectively, with 0,4% of the respondents giving other answers to the questionnaire items. with regard to this, the internet is used for various purposes in the vast majority of cases. anyway, it is used for communication (91,9%) and searching for the required information (90,7%) the most frequently (once a day or more often). the internet is also used for entertainment, studying and work – by 73,3%, 67,4% and 43,1% of the students, respectively. in particular, 18,6% of the questioned ones do not use the internet for the said purposes at all. the internet is used for gaming quite rarely, by so few as 11,5% of the respondents (with 53% of the students not using the internet for this purpose completely). it is mainly the master degree students (69,4%) and the bachelor degree students of senior years (46,6%) who use the internet for work. only 26,3% of the bachelor degree students of the osipova et al. first years use the internet for this purpose. as for using the internet for studies, this is mainly common in the bachelor degree students of the first years (71,4%) and the bachelor degree students of senior years (67,1%). there are somewhat fewer master degree students using the internet for studies (60,5%). positive and negative phenomena in the social environment a special place in this and previous studies was given to the students' evaluation of any socially positive and negative phenomena among the young people. among the socially positive phenomena, the focus on patriotism is evident. in fact, as this survey has shown in its turn, the vast majority of moscow students (84,2%) have a positive attitude to patriotism. however, this is 1,3% less than in 2015 (85,5%), although 5,3% more than in 2013 (78,9%). 5,4% of the respondents expressed their negative attitude to patriotism, which is just 0,1% more than in 2013 (5,3%) and 3,2% less than in 2013 (8,6%). for 10,4% of the respondents (1,2% more than in 2013 (9,2%) and 2,1% less than in 2013 (12,5%)) it was difficult to voice their attitude to patriotism. on balance, the remaining positive perception of this phenomenon is absolutely unsurprising within the context of the 2014-2017 events (reunion of the crimea with the russian federation, aggravation of geopolitical situation, media war and economic sanctions initiated against russia). such dynamics seems especially valuable, because it is very often that national and state, social and political values go to the background in the people's consciousness gradually yielding their place to some narrow pecuniary interests. this happens due to a nosedive of the citizens' trust for the state and its policy – the trust which used to be there in the years of radical liberal reforms, as reduction of the state involvement into political consciousness and devaluation of the patriotism value with the russian population proceeded violently. patriotism as a social and political phenomenon expresses the people's attitude to the country, state, its leaders, to the power and the society as a whole. patriotism is also understood as a social and moral principle characterizing the citizens' attitude to their country. in life, the attitude manifests itself in a complex set of feelings, knowledge, value reference points, attitudes, and actions, usually voiced as love for one's motherland. in its turn, love for the motherland is deemed to be "care for the interests and the historical destiny of one's own country, pride of its achievements and criticism of its disadvantages, compassion with the people's sufferings and social needs, respect for the historical past and traditions of one's motherland; affection for the place of birth, residence – the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 44 so-called love for one's home and hearth; readiness for self-sacrifice, for fighting the motherland's enemies, defense of its interests" (levashov, 2006, p. 28). it is these values that make up the core of patriotism in today's russian society. it is them that the students most likely mean when ticking off the "patriotism" box. meanwhile, the answers characterizing the students' attitude to socially negative phenomena among the young people have not ceased being of a serious concern. this is quite a significant percentage of still positive evaluation given by moscow higher education institution students to such traditionally negative phenomena as: careerism (41,6%), although this is 17% less than in 2015 (58,1% of the answers) as well as 22,6% less than in 2013 (64,2% of the answers); extramarital sex (26,9%), although this is 6,7% and less than in 2015 (33,6% of the answers) and 6,9% less than in 2013 (33,8%); conformism (25,2%), although this is 16,7% less than in 2015 (41,9% of the answers) and 21,4% less than in 2013 (46,6% of the answers). idle lifestyle (19,1%) and consumerism (19,4%) are not particularly rejected by the students either, with a rather high percentage of ones finding it difficult to evaluate these and some other negative phenomena (see fig. 7). evidently, a significant proportion of today's young people do not understand the negative semantic load of such categories as careerism and conformism believing them to be just a way of getting a job promotion and perceiving them positively. figure 7. students` attitude to socially negative phenomena source: the authors 5,0 5,3 6,0 6,5 6,5 7,1 8,4 10,3 12,9 19,1 19,4 20,5 25,2 26,9 41,6 84,2 80,9 84,5 83,2 85,1 78,7 73,3 77,5 70,8 72,0 62,6 61,6 57,1 56,3 48,0 42,6 5,4 10,2 10,8 8,4 14,7 19,6 14,1 15,1 18,3 18,9 22,5 18,5 25,2 10,4 0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 100,0 chauvinism extremism unscrupulousness indifference egoism consumerism conformism careerism positive negative difficult to answer osipova et al. the activity of the state and political figures, traditional religious denominations the research also revealed the students' attitude to the activity of various state and political figures of the russian federation. the answers given by students of moscow higher education institutions to the question "do you approve of the activity of the following state and political figures?" were distributed as follows. among the state and political figures, the rf president (v.v. putin) wins the greatest trust with the young people. he leads with 82,3% of the students, which is 1,1% more than in 2015 (81,2%) and 18,1% more than in 2013 (64,2% of the answers). the percentage of students who disapprove of the rf president's activity and those finding it difficult to answer the question has remained almost unchanged. so, the quantity of students disapproving of the rf president's activity has decreased by 0,5% (from 7,5% in 2015 to 7% in 2017) and made 11,9% less than in 2013 (18,9% of the answers). the quantity of students who had difficulty answering the question has gone down by 0,6% (from 11,3% in 2015 to 10,7% in 2017) and made 6,2% less than in 2013 (16,9%). in other words, the rf president (v.v. putin) being the national leader and the head of the state commands the support of the majority of moscow students, just like of the population of russia, which correlates with the results of numerous sociological surveys of the topic. the minister of the foreign affairs of the rf, s.v. lavrov, has remained the second popular with the students (68,3% of the answers) among the russian state and political figures, having improved his rating by 0,9% as compared to the 2015 data (67,4% of the answers). the third place is steadily occupied by the minister of defense of the rf (s.k. shoigu), with 67,4% of the answers in 2017, which is 2,5% more than in 2015 (64,9%). the fourth place has been won by the chairman of the rf government, d.a. medvedev, outperforming the mayor of moscow. he had 45,3% of the respondents' voices, which is 6,8% more than in 2015 (38,5% of the answers). the mayor of moscow, s.s. sobyanin, ranks fifth – his rating has decreased by 13,3% as compared to 2015 (drifting from 53,3% in 2015 down to 40% in 2017). just as before, the sixth place with 37,5% of the answers belongs to the minister of culture of the rf (v.r. medinsky). he has slightly given ground as compared to 2015 – by 0,8% (from 38,3% in 2015 to 37,5% in 2017). the trust in the new minister of education and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 46 science of the rf (o.yu. vasilieva) demonstrates a steady growth trend (31%), which is 11% more than the previous minister of education and science of the rf (d.v. livanov) had in 2015. the analysis of the answers given to this question as compared to the 2015 survey results allows concluding that against the background of events which took place in 2014-2017 (reunion of the crimea with the russian federation, economic sanctions initiated against russia, aggravation of geopolitical situation, and media war against russia), the trust rating of the rf president (v.v. putin) has grown. it has also been retained by the ministers who took the most active part in solving a wide scope of problems (the minister of the foreign affairs and the minister of defense) related to the said events. all the above clearly confirms the students' approval of v.v. putin's course toward the russian federation gaining the entirety of the state sovereignty. figure 8. students' attitude to the activity of various state and political figures of the russian federation source: the authors the mayor of moscow's (s.s. sobyanin) giving ground may be viewed as a result of the ambitious reconstruction of the city of moscow and biased coverage by some mass media and social networks of the process of adoption of the law on renovation of housing in the city of moscow (see fig. 8). it should be pointed out that a targeted socialization of youth is impossible without the state, religious, social and political institutions participating in the process, which is embodied in the activity of the law enforcement authorities, trade unions, political parties and movements 31,0 37,5 40,0 45,3 67,4 68,3 82,3 41,6 30,8 26,4 30,5 11,1 10,4 7,0 27,4 31,7 33,5 24,2 21,5 21,3 10,7 0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 100,0 minister of education and science of the rf minister of culture of the rf mayor of moscow chairman of the rf government minister of defense of the rf minister of foreign affairs of the rf president of the rf approve disapprove difficult to answer osipova et al. (rutkevich & potapov, 1995). the analysis of the students' answers to the question "do you approve of the activity of the following state, religious, social and political institutions?" has allowed the authors to state the following. among the state, religious, social and political institutions, the greatest trust in the young people is risen by the state. the activity of the state was approved by 69,3% of the students, which is 12,6% more than in 2015 (56,7%). the quantity of the students' answers evaluating the activity of this institution as negative decreased by 0,4% (from 14% in 2015 to 13,6% in 2017), while there was a 12,2% reduction in the quantity of ones who were not sure about their opinion (from 29,3% in 2015 to 17,1% in 2017). the traditional for russia religious denominations (orthodox christianity, islam, buddhism, judaism) and their organizations have faded to the second place from the top one. in 2017, the activity of the institutions is approved by 68,1% of moscow students, which is 8,3% more than in 2015 (59,8%) as well as 10% more than in 2013 (58,1% of the answers). the quantity of the students who disapprove of their activity has gone down by 5,2% (from 20,7% in 2015 to 15,5% in 2017, which in its turn is 3,1% less than in 2013 (18,6%)). there also was a 2,5% reduction in the quantity of those who had difficulty answering the question (from 19,6% in 2015 to 17,1% in 2017, which is in its turn 6,2% less than in 2013 (23,3%)). just like in 2015, the third, the fourth and the fifth places were occupied by the army (ranking third), the law enforcement authorities (fourth) and large economic entities (corporations) ranking fifth, respectively. the quantity of the students (50,2%) sharing an approving attitude toward the army shrank by 5,9% as compared to 2015 (56,1%); anyway, this is 0,3% more than in 2013 (49,3%), as the army institution made it to the fourth. 42,8% of the students approve of the activity of the law enforcement authorities, which is 0,5% more than in 2013 (42,3% of the answers) and 9,7% more than in 2013 – 33,1% of the answers (back in 2013 they ranked ninth). large economic entities got 38,3% of the answers, which is 1,9% less than in 2015 (40,2%) and 5,6% less than in 2013 43,9%. the respondents ranked the political parties and organizations sixth (37,5%, with them going two places up, from place 8 in 2015 (9 in 2013), getting 4% more than in 2015 (33,5%) or 5,6% more than in 2013 (31,9%). the questioned ones put the trade unions to the seventh place (35,6%), which is 4,1% less than in 2015 (39,7% of the answers), although 0,5% more than in 2013 (37%), as the trade unions ranked sixth. courts occupy the eighth place (35,6%), i.e. 0,6% less than in 2015 (36,2% of the answers – place 7), although 6,4% more than in 2013 (29,2% and ranking twelfth). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 48 the ninth place is occupied by the mass media (30,8%), which is 0,4% less than in 2015 (31,2% of the answers then resulted in the ninth place as well) and 3 % less than in 2013 (33,8% of the answers which brought the mass media place 8). just like it used to in 2015, the last place (tenth) belongs to the non-traditional for russia religious associations and organizations (sects) – 10,2% (3,2% more than in 2015). 67,1% of the young people disapprove of their activity in russia, which is 14,7% less than in 2013 (81,8%), against a 11,5% growth of the quantity of students who had difficulty answering (11,2% in 2015 and 22,7% in 2017), (see fig. 9). figure 9. students' answers to the question "do you approve of the activity of the following state, religious, social and political institutions?" source: the authors generally, a positive attitude in quite a large proportion of the students toward the activity of the state and its institutions (the army, law enforcement authorities, courts) can be identified, which is clearly demonstrated the positive dynamics of their evaluation. as naturally, a high extent of approval is also won by the activity of the traditional for russia religious denominations (orthodox christianity, islam, buddhism, judaism) and their organizations, contrary to disapproval toward the religious associations and organizations that are nontraditional for russia (sects). the supportive attitude in the students toward these basic social institutions of the contemporary russian society gives evidence about the students clearly understanding the role and place of these institutions in the life activity of the russian society as well as about their efficient functioning in the recent four years. meanwhile, the attitude toward 10,2 30,8 35,6 35,6 37,5 38,3 42,8 50,2 68,1 69,3 67,1 43,3 28,3 26,3 30,1 26,0 26,1 19,9 15,5 13,6 22,7 26,0 36,1 38,1 32,4 35,6 31,0 29,9 17,1 0,0 20,0 40,0 60,0 80,0 100,0 non-traditional for russia religious associations and… mass media courts trade unions political parties and movements large economic entities (corporations) law enforcement authorities the army traditional for russia religious denominations… the state approve disapprove difficult to answer osipova et al. large economic entities (corporations), trade unions and political parties and organizations, has remained virtually unchanged. potential capacities of the russian youth in spite of the very patriotic and optimistic moods of the young students (that were evidenced by the surveys of 2013, 2015 and 2017), it is crucial to understand how socially active the youth is and whether they want to contribute to the revival of russia. this research has shown that forecasts concerning this may well be positive, even though the quantity of the young people believing that the modern russian youth is able to contribute to the revival of russia decreased by 1,3% in 2017 (70,3%) as compared to the 2015 survey results (71,4%); anyway, this is 26,2% more than the 2013 figure (44,1%). 19,1% of the students think the modern russian youth is unable to do that, i.e. 4,8% more than in 2015 (14,3) but 9,6% less than in 2013 (28,7%) of the respondents think so. those who had difficulty answering the question (9,9%) numbered 0,2% less as compared to the 2015 results (10,1%) and 10% less versus the 2013 results. the quantity of the students marking the "other" option (0,7%) decreased by 3,4% as compared to the 2015 figure (4,1%) and by 3,7% – to the 2013 survey results (see fig. 10). figure 10. contribution of the modern russian youth to the revival of russia source: the authors during the "social portrait of a contemporary russian student" sociological survey (2017), the students of the faculty of sociology of msu were asked the similar question. 68,8% 70,3% 19,1% 9,9% 0,7% do you think the modern russian youth can contribute to the revival of russia? yes no difficult to answer other journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 50 of the students of the faculty of sociology said the modern russian youth is capable to contribute to the revival of russia (with the bachelor degree students of the first years (71,4%) turning out to be quite optimistic on it, and the master degree students (64,5%) proving to be the most skeptical). 15% of the students of the faculty of sociology think the modern russian youth is not capable to do that (the master degree students (16,1%) again showing more skeptical attitude in their evaluation of the young people's role, with the bachelor degree students of senior years (13,7%) being less skeptical). 14,2% of the respondents had difficulty answering the question (these were mostly the bachelor degree students of senior years (16,4%) and to a smaller extent – the bachelor degree students of the first years (11,6%)). 2,0% gave other answers to this question (the highest frequency of those being among the master degree students (3,2%), and the lowest – with the bachelor degree students of senior years (1,4%)) (see fig. 11). in other words, minor distinctions in the evaluation of prospects and opportunities for the young people to contribute to the revival of russia can be determined in answers given by the students of the faculty of sociology of msu and by moscow students in general, according to the results of 2017 surveys. figure 11. msu survey results distribution on the contribution of the modern russian youth to the revival of russia source: the authors within this context, the students' evaluation of the fact of any patriotic moods as well as the extent of various negative phenomena with the young people is of a substantial interest. 68,8% 15,0% 14,2% 2,0% do you think the modern russian youth can contribute to the revival of russia? (according to the results of the survey conducted at the faculty of sociology of msu) yes no difficult to answer other osipova et al. the research has shown that 14% of the students of the faculty of sociology believe patriotism to be fairly widespread in the youth environment, while 46,4% of the questioned ones said it was "widespread, but not much" and 31,2% – "almost not occurring". 8,5% of the respondents found it difficult to answer. according to the students, the following negative phenomena are very widespread among the young people (listed in the descending occurrence order): extramarital sex (82,4% of the answers); consumerism (70,6% of the answers); adoption of western lifestyles (62,6% of the answers); careerism (58,1% of the answers); egoism (55,9% of the answers); idle lifestyle (48,4% of the answers); indifference (38,5% of the answers); conformism (37,9% of the answers); dependency (32,6% of the answers); propensity to corruption, illicit enrichment (27,9% of the answers); unscrupulousness (24,7% of the answers). the following phenomena are less pronounced, as seen by the students: public order disturbance (quite widespread – 14 % of the answers; widespread, but not much 45,1% of the answers); extremism(quite widespread 9,3% of the answers; widespread, but not much 45,1% of the answers); homosexuality(quite widespread – 8,1%; widespread, but not much 34% of the answers); chauvinism (quite widespread – 7,7% of the answers; widespread, but not much – 35,6% of the answers) (see fig. 12). therefore, it is evident that students are clearly aware of various negative phenomena occurring among the young people and demonstrate a sufficiently critical attitude toward them. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 52 figure 12. negative phenomena believed by the students to be very widespread among the young people source: the authors volunteering one of the important directions in fulfillment of the youth policy in the russian federation as well as in the process of civil and patriotic upbringing of today's russian youth is volunteering (good causes). with regard to this, while conducting the "social portrait of a contemporary russian student" (2017) sociological survey, the authors also placed an emphasis on finding out the students' attitude toward volunteering. among the students of the faculty of sociology of m.v. lomonosov msu, 49,8% have had an experience of participation in volunteering (42,9% of the bachelor degree students of the first years, 61% of the bachelor degree students of senior years, 49,2% of the master degree students). 46,2 % of the students said they had no such experience (50% of the bachelor degree students of the first years, 37% of the bachelor degree students of senior years, 50% of the master degree students) (see fig. 13). 24,7% 27,9% 32,6% 37,9% 38,5% 48,4% 55,9% 58,1% 62,6% 70,6% 82,4% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% unscrupulousness dependency indifference egoism adoption of western lifestyles extramarital sex negative phenomena believed by the students to be very widespread among the young people osipova et al. figure 13. distribution of the respondents depending on their volunteering experience source: the authors in particular, with 51,2 % of the questioned ones (52,2% of the bachelor degree students of the first years, 48,6% of the bachelor degree students of senior years, 52,4% of the master degree students) a definitely positive attitude to volunteering has already formed. in 22,7% of the students (21,9% of the bachelor degree students of the first years, 22,6% of the bachelor degree students of senior years, 24,2% of the master degree students), the attitude is rather positive. 20,2% of the respondents feel neutral toward volunteering (20,1% of the bachelor degree students of the first years, 20,5% of the bachelor degree students of senior years, 20,2% of the master degree students). so few as 3,6% of the students have a rather negative attitude toward volunteering (2,7% of the bachelor degree students of the first years, 6,2% of the bachelor degree students of senior years, 2,4% of the master degree students). 2,2% had difficulty answering (3,1% of the bachelor degree students of the first years, 2,1% of the bachelor degree students of senior years, 0,8% of the master degree students) (see fig. 14). 49,8% 46,2% 4,0% distribution of the respondents depending on their volunteering experience has had a volunteering experience no volunteering experience difficult to answer journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 54 figure 14. the students` attitude to volunteering source: the authors there were 34,6% of the students who had had a volunteering experience in assisting to organize various events, conferences and academic competitions. 30,2% of them have an experience of participation in fulfillment of programs in the sphere of culture, art, science and education; 13,6% of participation in charity activities; 12,8% in rendering assistance to the elderly and veterans; 8,9% in implementing the environmental protection programs. 8,1% of the students each, respectively, are experienced in helping the people with health limitations and in fulfillment of programs in the sphere of healthy lifestyle propaganda. 4,9% took part in fulfillment of programs in the sphere of health and anti-alcoholism events, 3,2% in the sphere of protection of childhood and maternity, and 3% participated in other activities. as for the reasons motivating the students to get engaged in various volunteering activities, the leading place belongs to the answer "i wanted to be useful and to help ones in need" 28,7%. the answer "i wanted to gain some useful skills" ranks second, with 20,9%; and "i wanted to get acquainted with new people, to make friends and to work in a team" – third, with 19,7%. the fourth place (16,2% of the answers) is occupied by the answers "i had enough time". the fifth place (11,3% of the answers) was won by "it was an event for all students". the answer "i wanted to solve a certain social problem" ranks sixth (10,5% of the answers) while "i was asked to participate" – seventh (9,2% of the answers). the options "i have been advised to by a friend / an acquaintance / a teacher" (4,9% of the answers), "other reasons" (3,1% of the 51,2% 22,7% 20,2% 3,6% 2,2% the students' attitude to volunteering positive rather positive neutral rather negative difficult to answer osipova et al. answers) and "i have faced a similar problem too" 1,2% of the answers) got essentially fewer answers of the students. career choice the problem of occupational guidance and a conscious career choice has always been relevant (titma, 1975; osipov, 2000). due to this, during the "social portrait of a contemporary russian student" (2017) sociological survey, the priorities playing quite a part in their choice of the future career pointed out by the students were of a special interest. the analysis of the students' answers to the question "could you specify what items below are important exactly for you in your future career?" allows the authors to state the following. when choosing one's future career, the material constituent, the "opportunity to gain high income", is especially important – as recognized by 64,4 % of the students. the "opportunity to fulfill one's potential as much as possible" is quite a significant priority as well (51,8 % of the answers). they are followed by (in the descending order): "the occupation being up to the student's capacities and abilities" (40,7 % of the answers); "a creative nature of the occupation" (37,4 % of the answers); "the opportunity to serve the society" (31,4 %); "a high prestige of the occupation" (20,4%); "the opportunity to get a high office and to have access to the power" (13,4%); "the opportunity to become famous in the field selected" (6,9%); "a romantic nature of the occupation" (4,9%); "other" (2,6%). to a certain extent, the mentioned priorities in choosing a future career resonate with the students' ideas about an ideal job. according to the students, an ideal job would be one that allows having enough time for the family and personal life (this was marked by 77,5 % of the students). 74,7 % of the students pay attention to the importance of the atmosphere among the peer employees and the team spirit: for them, work in a well-coordinated collective which lets one feel belonging to it is desirable. the opportunity to maintain good business and formal relationships with the direct authority (71,3 % of the students) is a circumstance of no less journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 56 importance, and so is the opportunity to feel free and independent in one's actions (71,1 % of the students). being sure of tomorrow and having no fear of losing one's job is also a significant feature of an ideal job (this is essential for 67,4 %) (see fig. 15). figure 15. students' answers to the question "could you specify what items below are important exactly for you in your future career?" source: the authors conclusions and recommendations on balance, summing up the results of the sociological monitoring of the young students' ideas about social and political processes, socialization institutions and youth policy subjects conducted by the authors (in 2013 – 2017), it can be stated that the events which took place in 2014-2017 (reunion of the crimea with the russian federation, aggravation of geopolitical situation, media war and economic sanctions initiated against russia) have consolidated the nation, have boosted the growth of national self-consciousness and a patriotic upturn among the young people, in particular, among the students of moscow higher education institutions. in particular, a positive behavior of evaluation of various phenomena and institutions found during the research gives evidence about a certain political engagement of the russian young students and growth of their national self-consciousness. the dynamics and the positive trends osipova et al. mentioned above could be a result of successful youth outreach conducted by various state, religious and social institutions. anyway, the necessity to actively assist youth in fulfillment of their patriotic impulse and capacity available remains quite urgent. success of the youth policy being brought into life in russia will much depend not only on the relevance of methods and means using which the policy is going to be conducted but also on the course of the entire state aimed at consolidation of the society. in their turn, the results of the study "social portrait of a contemporary russian student" (conducted at the faculty of sociology of msu in 2017) have enabled the authors to build the "social portrait of students of the faculty of sociology of msu", i.e. to get an integrated idea about attitudes and value reference points in different groups of students of this faculty, their performance in various spheres of life activity of the society. generally the students of the faculty of sociology of msu are distinguished by such most significant features as: a positive orientation to work which is viewed not only as a means of "providing for oneself" and "getting independence" but also as a relevant social value. this orientation is evidenced by the facts of part-time employment of the young students (when they are not busy with studies) as well as by a positive attitude toward volunteering – in which about a half of the questioned ones have already participated; a weighed or critical attitude to various negative phenomena that according to the students are rather widespread among youth – consumerism, imitating the western lifestyles, careerism, egoism and idle lifestyle; evidently preferring the web-based mass information media and using the internet mainly for communication and search for any information required; an ambition to make their realistic contribution into the revival of russia. thus, the positive factors, features and trends found in the development of ideas of the young students about social and political processes, socialization institutions and youth policy subjects, as well as the "social portrait of students of the faculty of sociology of msu" compiled by the authors allow making a largely positive forecast concerning the future successful social development, upbringing and socialization of the contemporary russian young students. what is essential is only to support and develop these trends in every possible way, to tackle problems of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 28-59 58 the youth and to assist them in achieving the social maturity condition – which will naturally serve russia. references consultant plus. (2015). fundamentals of the state youth policy of the russian federation for the period until 2025: approved by the order of the government of the russian federation of november 29, 2014 no. 2403-r. official site of the consultant plus company. online document. url: http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=law;n=171835;fld=134;dst=1 000000001,0;rnd=0.34501696714343044 draskovic, m., milica, d., mladen, i., chigisheva, o. (2017). preference of institutional changes in social and economic development. journal of international studies, 10(2), 318-328. dzyaloshinsky, i.m. (2005). manipulative technologies in mass media. bulletin of moscow university. series 10: journalism, 1, 29-55. elishev, s.o. (2017). the youth problem range and approaches to defining the notion "youth" in sociology. bulletin of moscow university. series 18: sociology and politology, 3, 200-223. elishev, s.o. (2015). youth as an object of socialization and manipulations. 2nd edition. moscow: "kanon+", rooi "reabilitatsia". elishev, s.o. & talanova, k.s. (2014). results of social research "value reference points of modern russian youth, features of the process of their formation and implementation of youth policy". social studies of social problems of modern russian society, 1, 64-129. filippov, f.p. (1998). youth. in: russian sociological encyclopedia. moscow: publishing group norma-infra-m, 297. levashov, v.k. (2004). moral and political consolidation of the russian society under neoliberal transformations. social studies, 7, 27-46. levashov v.k. (2006). patriotism in the context of modern socio-political realities. social studies, 8: 67-75. osipov, g.v. (2010). introduction to sociological science. moscow. osipov, g.v. (2000). social mythmaking and social practice. moscow: norma. osipova, n.g. (2014). inequality in the epoch of globalization: essence, institutions, regional specific features and dynamics. bulletin of moscow university. series 18: sociology and politology, 2, 22-46. osipova, n.g. (2009). profession – sociologist. m.: kdu. http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=law;n=171835;fld=134;dst=1000000001,0;rnd=0.34501696714343044 http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=law;n=171835;fld=134;dst=1000000001,0;rnd=0.34501696714343044 osipova et al. osipova, n.g. & chelishchev, v.i. (2016). social mechanisms and techniques for manipulative control of personality. bulletin of moscow university. series 18: sociology and politology, 4, 3–21. osipova, n.g., elishev, s.o., pronchev, g.b. & monakhov, d.n. (2017) social and political processes, socialization institutions and youth policy subjects of modern russia. journal of advanced research in law and economics, 8(2), 545-558. osipova, n.g. & yurchenko, e.i. (2010). mass media in the modern society: theory and methodological analysis of new approaches. bulletin of moscow university. series 18: sociology and politology, 1, 64–85. pronchev, g.b., monakhov, d.n. & kovalchuk, v.k. (2016). the contemporary internet as a means for leveling social inequality in the context of relationships between civil society and the state. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(17), 9959-9967. rutkevich, m.n. & potapov, v.p. (1995). after school: social and career guidance of youth. moscow: all-russian scientific and practical center for career guidance and psychological support of the population. sushko, v.a., pronchev, g.b., shisharina, e.v. & zenkina, o.n. (2016). social and economic indices of formation of the quality of life. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(18), 10839-10849. tarman, b. & acun, i. (2010). social studies education and a new social studies movement, journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 1-16. tarman, b., & chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. 10.17499/jsser.93128 titma, m.kh. (1975). the choice of profession as a social problem. moscow. yigit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 zubok, yu.a. & chuprov, v.i. (2008). sociology of youth. encyclopedic dictionary. moscow: academia. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 104-123 104 education as a foundation of humanity: learning from the pedagogy of pesantren in indonesia syamsul ma’arif1 abstract this study uses historical-critical method. the purpose of this study is to unveil the pedagogy of pesantren, and at the same time refuting public’s assumptions which often have a pejorative view toward pesantren as it is regarded as a static institution and a source of radicalism. in fact, as a traditional institution, pesantren often shows a positive attitude, flexible and accommodative to any changes. the result of the study shows that pesantren has pedagogic concepts that integrate science with art of teaching. there are various methods and strategies of the pesantren pedagogy which are still maintained until today, and they can be a model of educational system in the indonesian archipelago as they have contributed to humanity and built peace. in addition, in responding to contemporary issues, pesantren has participated in building a democratic society, encouraging awareness of gender equality, improving public service quality, and promoting paradigm shift within pesantren, i.e. integrative pesantren. keywords: expatriate sensibility, genre, literary theory, marginalization. introduction this article discusses the pedagogy of pesantren. according to the history of indonesian education, a concern with regard to the institution of pesantrenis a never ending issue as the institution is always developing though it is often connotated with conservative, traditional, and exclussive institution as well as the “nest” of terrorist (ma’arif, 2015, rahardjo, 1974, bull, 2000). however, the existence of pesantren is unique since it always gives answers to the actual and critical problems of human life. as avery old educational system in indonesia, pesantren has values that are always embedded in every development of the era. this is the fact, as the educational system of pesantren teaches every generation not only how to become an obedient person in holding the religion but also how to keep the continuity of history and national ideology for the sustainability of civilization, culture, and humanity. it is evidenced when the pesantren started entering the reformation era, more specifically after the fall of president suharto on may 21, 1998, indonesia 1 universitas islam negeri (uin) walisongo semarang, indonesia, syamsulmaarif1974@yahoo.co.id mailto:syamsulmaarif1974@yahoo.co.id ma’arif as believed by many people would experience a number of changes, such as political stability, economic growth, and cessation of social and ethnic conflicts (platzdasch, 2009). on the one hand, such situation did not confirm the existence of pesantren to participate in expressing the values of democracy, pluralism, and human rights. it means that the pedagogy of pesantren always inculcates a sense of responsibility to the santris (students) to keep a harmony between educational interests and the development of new era, so that they will not be left behind when compared to other nations. from the perspective of educational science, the pedagogy of pesantren is very relevant to be implemented in the national education system by consideraing the fact that education is an agent of tradition that respects values and customs and a science that can engineer humanity and cultural strategy in creating civilized and decent society. in the context of indonesia, this idea meets the momentum since many people who plunge into educational field realize that there are many problems in the educational system of this country. admittedly, indonesian education still faces many problems and has not succeded to lead young generation, as mandated by the act no. 20/2003 on the national education system (uu sisdiknas no. 20/2003). indeed, education system is formulated, applied, but often challenged by an education system developed by foreign countries. in such condition, the hegemony of the concepts of western education is difficult to avoid. it tends to dispel the concepts and teachings of the local although it is believed that pesantren is rich of moral values. this is an indication that education in indonesia has betrayed the mandate or failed to maintain the values which are rooted in the community (pujiriyanto, 2006: 2). education in indonesia still seems to follow the logic of pragmatism, despite the fact that the school and the people of indonesia are diverse and pluralistic, as well as have different problems and local knowledge. the formulation of the indonesian education system is not based on a comprehensive picture of a country and without considering the fact that many schools have different kind of social model, culture, customs, ethnicity, race, language, character, and personality of its people. yet this diversity should be viewed as an endowment that should be preserved, maintained, and developed so that it will inspire in the formation of education system which will be applied in this country to overcome indonesia’s education problems. the fact that indonesia has many problems today has alerted the experts with a wide range of scientific disciplines, including the education experts to find a solution of these national journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 104-123 problems in order to rise from the ground. though there are various theories, models, and strategies, they still need to develop through the field of research. ultimately, though, two sharp poles cause the patterns that both failed. the first pole, there are researchers/ educational practitioners who idolize foreign nations, be it in theory, paradigm, or education system, and they offer to overcome various problems in indonesia. the second pole always withdraws and is isolative to various developments and influences of the world developments. the researchers/ practitioners of education that goes on this category are usually allergy and balked various theories coming from other countries. while they continue to dream and believe all the problems that plagued the nation, especially in the case of children education of this nation because we leave behind the educational theories that have been endowed by our ancestors. in fact, it must be realized that if every party insists on the opinion/ paradigm that is extreme respectively in view of the various imbalances particularly in the theory of educating young generation, surely they all are unable to answer and solve the problems that in fact happen and are experienced by the nation of indonesia. in this context, a glance at education system of the pesantren in reconstruction efforts of the typical education in archipelago is a necessity because pesantren has proved its capability of doing the dialectic between traditionalism and modernism and has contributed to the nkri. especially, if see the pesantren education system from early history of its establishment until now, it can be said that pesantren is always close to the issue of morality, humanity, and social transformation. therefore, the purpose of pesantren education system in general is guiding the students to have a good personality in accordance with islamic teachings that they could become a preacher of islam in the surrounding communities (nor & malim, 2014). in fact, in order to answer the demands of the time, pesantren are restructuring their curricula to engage in global processes. starting in the 1970s, these new curricula became an important part of the pesantren community’s strategy for negotiating the modernity (bull, 1997: 41). not to miss with community organizations/ other religious groups, pesantren also participate actively in campaigning for peace. today, as result of symposium which is held by unicef 16-17 march 2015 in belgium, that 80 % of pesantren signed an agreement to implement views on tolerance in the pesantren curriculum, and 30% pesantren established pengajian (moderate islamic studies) to discuss religious tolerance and had regular meetings with different faith groups (unicef, 2015). thus, learning about islam moderates is not new. it has been shown ma’arif by at least pesantren with systems and patterns of teaching that are full of moderate and multiculturalism values. such conditions can be viewed not only through the process of teaching and learning, but also the materials or curriculum they teach (ni’am, 2015). pesantren as the research conducted by lailial muhtifah has strengthened the enforcement of pesantren as harmonization agent of religious life (muhtifah, 2016) according to the explanation above, the researcher focused on the following issues for the research questions: what is the pedagogy of pesantren, including the model of education in pesantren? the process of making a model of pesantren as an education system in archipelago and how the dynamics of pesantren in responding to contemporary issues are also defined as the research question. by using some research questions, researcher sought to uncover the empirical reality of the theory and practice of pesantren education ever undertaken and developed in the past and still exist today with a specific learning method and proven to provide the development not only in education typical of the archipelago, but also on the national landscape, local and global at the same time. the pedagogy of pesantren pedagogy is derived from the word “paid,” which means son and "agogos" which means to guide and lead. in greek, it is called paedagogie or paedagogiek. the word “pedagogy” or in dutch called "opvoeding" (raising or maturing), according to ki hadjar dewantara, cannot be translated to indonesian for example panggulawentah (java), but it has a closer meaning to momong, among,and ngemong (dewantara, 2004). in the ancient greeks, as described (noeng muhadjir, 2004) pedagogy is a child who round-trip to school escorted by a waitress. the waitress has the task as shuttle as well as caregivers in the household. while the teacher who teaches the child privately at home is called the governor. in indonesia, pedagogy is often understood as teaching. hence, it is defined as the art and science of teaching for children (marimba, 1989). this concept, according to muchtar buchori (1994) is a field of study that has clear boundaries. the boundaries are (1) the interaction of adults with adolescent and (2) put the development of awareness and values as the center and the end of the educational process. therefore, the concept of pedagogy is looking at education as a series of actions to bring the children to be mature, independent and responsible for themselves. as a journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 104-123 science and an art to educate, then pedagogy in the educational process requires some specific prerequisite and it is done by certain people called professional teachers. it is different from the education that is often interpreted from educate which means inserting something. in arabic, ta’lim (teaching), tarbiyah (educate), ta'dib (education) (langgulung, 2003).this education is highly flexible and can be done by anyone who has a certain ability to transmit knowledge and experience to others. so, pedagogy of pesantren is an integration between science and art of teaching. as an education system, according to suyoto pesantren has combined the understanding of teaching and learning at the same time (rahardjo, 1974). pesantren usually involves a specific interaction between a teacher and students, it is often called kiai and santri. in such a relationship, there is a very close relationship between kiai-santri and pesantren is different from any education system because it is done continuously, day and night, and it resembles the true meaning of pedagogy as described above. in pesantren, the duty of kiai is not only as a teacher, but also replace the role of parents whonurture (ngemong) the students. kiai is not merely transmits religious knowledge in his students, more than that he also serve-lead, develop and prepare the students to become perfect human (insan al-kamil). therefore, the role and function of pesantren pedagogy consists of several main objectives, namely; 1) pesantren pedagogy function as transmission of islamic knowledge. it provides religious sciences and all existing knowledge. in pesantren as a traditional islamic pedagogy like a madrasa in pakistan, authoritative acceptance of knowledge is stressed (talbani, 1996) 2) pesantren as the maintenance of islamic tradition, pesantren pedagogy trying to become custodian of the islamic tradition, and 3) schools as a reproduction of scholars, because education in schools nurture prospective scholars (haedari, et al, 2004) historically-cultural, this fact can be seen pedagogy in pesantren has become a sort of trainer center, as a center for the study of islamic sciences, islamic cultural center and internalization of morality to prepare the students into the 'alim (professional in religion) and leaders to plunge in the community. thus, the learning process is applied in pesantren also has built a typical interaction between kiai and students. as a teacher, kiai for his students usually regarded not only have a high knowledge ('alim and faqih). in fact he is also considered to have science lessons or wisdom concerning his views on human nature with all its dimensions. competence of teachers/scholars who have science lessons like this, according to retno sriningsih satmoko (1999) can help them ma’arif in nurturing the growth of students in accordance with the nature, dignity and status, so as to make a students can be human harmonious tune by himself itself and its environment. even more than that, to make students understand their duties as servants of allah and khalifatullah on this earth. tracing the historical roots of the pesantren education system of, pesantren pedagogy models that have been developed by the kiai has played a considerable role in educating and building the mentality of the nation and to realize the integration of this archipelago. this reality, as told by (as’ad, 2006), refers to the early history of the pesantren. the origin of pedagogy of pesantren system originated from the model and the concept of pedagogy applied ampeldenta, a pesantren led by sunan ampel has inspired and realized to resolve problems at the time of majapahit demoralized. application of pedagogy with the pesantren system at majapahit started with a letter of invitation to cempa, in 1401 at the time of twilight majapahit dynasty. at that time, king brawijaya v is concerned at the number of retainer, and the royal family were much deviate from the teachings of manners. so after listening to the advice of his queen, named dewi candrawulan, to bring a teacher that is no other character but namely raden rahmat/ sunan ampel. after the invitation to the cempa, sunan ampel applied a distinctive pedagogy that is not really different from pesantren with teachers who preceded him in singosari and majapahit. caused by his students who do not come from java alone, the teaching language used is malay (lingua franca). the implementation of education model combines integrative with religious instruction and general. in addition to religious teaching, he taught reading and writing as well as other sciences such as public administration, politics, and urban planning. therefore, it can be said sunan ampel is a person who was instrumental in laying the basic concept of the development of the city of surabaya and become one of the originators of the birth of the first islamic kingdom in java (demak bintara). after that, the model of pedagogy is then forwarded by his students, until experienced a conflict/ competition with coloniali education model as described in above. pesantren experiences a dynamic development until now, with still showing as a pedagogy with various unique characteristic. the model of education developed in pesantren in education, goals are the basic elements and components that must be present, together with the studens, educators, and program/curriculum. such as has been described above that journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 104-123 pesantren are places of learning for santri therefore, pesantren has a function as an educational institution that has a moral bastion. the main mission of pesantren is the formation of personality, not just a transfer of knowledge. in contrast to systems outside the pesantren and become a serious problem concerned in our education now, because it is very weak in character formation. keenly felt that in one hand, the education system outside the pesantren has succeeded to transfer knowledge, but have not fully succeeded in the formation of human character and noble character. there are varieties of objectives when kiai establishing islamic institutions called pesantren. in general, the ideal goal of pesantren is personality development for becoming muslim and muhsin (good person). the ultimate objectives of pesantren are to educate students to become human who has personality with religious knowledge and become moslem preachers in the surrounding communities through science and charity (arifin, 1991). likewise making way of the life (daradjat, 2008). pesantren as islamic religious education is very important to absorb the islamic values in the formation of akhlakul karimah. while the pesantren curriculum is a form of plan that is programmed by kiai for coaching aqidah and akhlaq, guidance on aspects of intellectual, psychological, social and spiritual development of the students. like pesantren tebuireng, jombang according to kh. sholahudin wahid that the curriculum development is more emphasized on the achievement of "a pesantren as a leading institution creating leaders with noble characters" and the development of pesantren based on local wisdom (ma’arif, 2015). studies of pesantren do not mention the formal curriculum among pesantren. even martin van bruinessen, states "pesantren curriculum is not standardized. almost every pesantren teaches a combination of different books" (bruinessen, 1995). it is understandable because pesantren is an islamic educational institutions in indonesia that are free and autonomous. in terms of curriculum, pesantren had been given freedom by the state to develop and implement educational curriculum for free and independent. however, when drawing on several studies of pesantren it can be obtained some forms of curriculum among pesantren. according lukens-bull (1997), the general curriculum of pesantren can be divided into four forms, namely religious education, experience and moral education, schools and public education, and the skills and courses. it must be emphasized here that not all pesantren teach the science strictly. such combination of science is only usually determined at the pesantren. several other pesantren assign a combination of different sciences because there is no standardization of pesantren curriculum at the levels of local, regional and national. curriculum standardization in pesantren is perhaps ma’arif neversucceed because the most pesantren do not agree with the standardization of pesantren curriculum. the existence of variations in the curriculum of pesantren is believed to be better. the variation of the curriculum in pesantren will show the characteristics and advantages of each other. in this globalization era, pesantren has a very big challenge. to meet the challenges of globalization, the pesantren need to develop through the arrangement of its curriculum. in fact, pesantren curriculum from time to time has developed very rapidly. from the beginning only know sifr system (class), then subsequently increased with managerial in madrasah. this change is very clearly based on the needs of society for pesantren. ideas such as the islamization of science and technology have given the theological legitimacy of curriculum change in pesantren. there are several studies that confirmed the occurrence of the dynamic of pesantren curriculum now. husen hasan basri has conducted research in ‘pesantren zainul hasan genggong’ and has been experiencing changes in curriculum comprehensively, in addition to learning syatem based on technology. pesantren also responds to the contemporary issues and how to resolve them by providing related materials to the students, such as research results about ‘pesantren salafi bani syafi’i in cilegon’ by mohammad rohman and deden saeful ridwan providing an understanding of sexuality and sex education (rohman & ridwan, 2011). next, various actual themes are often talked about and brought to pesantren lately such as the danger of radicalism, isis, and terrorism as an effort to overcome poverty, gain economic empowerment, and introduce and prevent infectious diseases such as hiv and dangerous aids and the importance of maintaining the other health. while there are many teaching methods in the pesantren and are still used from the beginning of pesantren until today, such as, firstly, sorogan method (individual learning process). this sorogan system, according to asep saiful muhtadi (2004) describes the communication patterns prevailing in pesantren: the monologue, face-to-face communication, personal and more reliant on forms of oral communication. in this case, of course kiai serves as a source of information, the main learning teacher, and once serves as a leader who plays the power absolutely. although the sorogan method tends to be monotonous, indoctrinated, teacher-centered, textbook-oriented, and top-down model. sorogan has the authenticity of the material/ substance of the teachings of islam that is transmitted from one generation to the next with a pattern and approaches that have been tested. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 104-123 secondly, the method of wetonan (collective learning person) or often referred to bandongan. it is a system of teaching that is done as a kiai reads the book and the students bring the same book, when kiai read to the contents of the book, that students give the sign of the structure of words or sentences read by kiai on each of his books respectively (gazalba, 1995). when using this method, kiai usually reads kitab kuning in front of the students fast and lightning. this model is often used also for “ngaji kilatan”, such as in the month of ramadan. in practice, this method emphasizes obedience to kiai. santri listens to kiai fully. third, the method of memorizing and majlis ta’lim. memorizing method is often called tahfidz, i.e. learning system which requires students to memorize books that are taught by kiai, though without understanding (romas, 2003). this method is used to control subjects. the steps in memorizing method begin with the learning of textbooks, give meaning to every text, understand it correctly, and then memorize it. it can not be called pesantren if it does not have a strong tradition of memorization. fantastically, there are some schools that require the graduates of pesantren to memorize a few books such as al-fiyyah consisting of 1000 couplets, aljurmiyyah and al-mrity. there are many schools that require students to memorize the qur'an, although in the short letters/ juz 'amma. this memorizing method is a legacy of the classical tradition used in the middle east and is also widely used in pesantren because this method is quite cheap, needing less costs. besides, this method also motivates students to learn seriously. fourth, is the method of mudzakarah, musyawarah, and bahtsul masail. the mudzakarah method means doing scientific meeting devoted to discuss the issue of religion in general. the application of this method is expected to be able to solve problems by using provided reference books (ismail & mukti, 2000). this method allows the students to make abstractions and capture the basic ideas contained in the kitab kuning and make decisions on issues that occur in the real life. in this method, students will acceelerate to build a strong mentality in giving opinion in good manner and also train students to respect to others. look at the form of this nation that has alerted the experts with a wide range of scientific disciplines that they do not miss the education experts in the disciplines of education to find a way out of this nation in order to rise from the misery. one important aspect considered by experts is education. it is a national asset that is socially strategic and realistic in order to improve human dignity. through education, people can uncover the veil of life as well as to place themselves as subjects in any change and shift, both in the aspect of cultural and structural aspects. ma’arif various theories, models and strategies have been tried and continuously developed by experts in indonesia through the world of research/ education. though, there are still two sharp poles which cause the failure of the patterns that they do. first pole, there is a researcher/ practitioner of education who too idolizes foreign nation, whether it is in theory, paradigm and an education system that always offer to solve various problems in the country. the second pole is always withdrawing and isolative to various developments taking place and influence various world developments. in fact, we must be realized that if each element insists on the opinion/ paradigm that are in the extreme, in view of various imbalances particularly in the theory of educating and educating shoots nation. surely they all equally could not answer and solve the problems that happened and experienced by indonesia. in this context, it requires wisdom to integrate the various theories that developed from both modern and traditional theory. the aims are for advancing our education model, balancing this nation in all aspects of life with other countries, but still maintaining and upholding the culture, customs and creating young people who are always proud of their nation, indonesia. therefore, it would not hurt if we were glanced over and noticed the pesantren education system. an attempt to make pesantren as a paradigm of education is a construction of knowledge that enables us to understand the reality of education as pesantren/ islam understands it (mudzakkir, 2006). at this stage, pesantren paradigm requires a great design of ontology, epistemology and axiology education. at the same time, pesantren try to make education in pesantren with all the systems, values, methods of teaching and its culture as a spirit that can move the education system to lead up superior, moral and civilized individuals by integratingg various potentials in order to make the perfect man (insan kamiil). much more education science of pesantren built by the kiai over the archipelago has been proven to survive until present day and have contributed positively to the development and the integrity of the republic of indonesia. moreover, pesantren has an education system that is often considered by experts as indigenous and as a model of educational institution created by indonesia's own culture and has a very close relationship in the process of formation of cultural identity. moreover, pesantren is said to have contributed to the realization of cultural character and identity of indonesian because education system in pesantren has accommodated socio-cultural journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 104-123 transformation of local people. simultaneously, there is a style of islam that is very important and gives the basic ideological and institutional conducive to pesantren. according to azyumardi azra (2009) and some experts of pesantren, pesantren traditions are considered as "traditional islam/ tradition" in which shari'a and tasawwuf are the important elements in it. there are some advantages contained in pesantren. therefore, abdurrahman wahid (fourth president of indonesia) in the 70s once popularized the pesantren education system as a sub-culture of the indonesian nation. malik fadjar did not deny this fact, because the pesantren in the history of the growth and development has become a sort of local genius (fafjar, 1998). tracing pesantren from behind since the 16th century, it has been showing its existence as an institution that is truly unique, independent and strong in a variety of challenges, ranging issues of colonialism to challenging times. pesantren has special characteristics that are different from other educational systems. there are minimum criteria that can be pinned to the pesantren as a sub-culture, namely: (1) the existence of pesantren as an institution of life that deviate from the general pattern of life in this country. (2) there are numbers supporting the backbone of pesantren life. (3) there is an ongoing process of forming its own value system and symbols in pesantren. (4) the existence of pesantren wisdom thus enables the local community to consider pesantren as an ideal alternative to maintain attitudes that exist in society itself; and (5) the developmental process that influence people on the outside and the formation of new universal values that are acceptable to both sides (wahid, 2001). there are at least five systems of pesantren, so that pesantren was once considered by dr. sutomo in 1935, when pesantren had been a conversation among indonesian intelligence educated in dutch. despite sutomo was criticized by sutan alisjahbana because he was considered "propesantren", sutomo still encouraged the principles of pesantren system used as the basis of national education development at the time. the five pesantren systems are: first, educators can make demands and direct supervision. second, an intimate relationship between students and kiai so it can provide the knowledge of life. third, pesantren were able to create people who can enter all independent jobs vacancy. fourth, the way life of kiai is very simple but full of fun and excitementto enlighten our nation's poverty. fifth, pesantren is an education system that has cheap cost to deploy the nation's intelligence (rahardjo, 1985). ma’arif moreover, even though pesantren originally is the center of values and islamic religious broadcasting, however, in its development, pesantren widen its area that not always accelerates the vertical mobility (teaching of religious materials, such as the qoran-hadith and kitab kuning but it also acceleratehorizontal mobility (social consciousness). at present, pesantren not only no longer dwell focus on the religious-based curriculum and but also focus on the curriculum matters of contemporary society (society-based curriculum) traditional character of pesantren constantly maintained and guarded, in the midst of changes that always happen to be the answer anxiety some people who actually appreciate the theory and education sciences of foreign nations and doubt the existence of pesantren. the pesantren education system really characterizes the values of locality and is relevant with culture and values emerging in society. in other words, pesantren is in accordance with the minds of the natives. couldn’t today's pesantren be charged solely as a purely religious institution, but also (should) be the social institutions that continue to respond critical issues? the model of pesantren as education sciences in the archipelago pesantren must indicate the nature and structure of the ontology of science, epistemology of objects, and the size of the scientific truth as well as show axiology. the usefulness of the expected scientific and developed pesantren, in addition, is to be able to produce new knowledge that is theo-anthropocentric to discover indigenous sciences that have concern for the local wisdom with the hope that theo-antropocentric based local wisdom could always inspire the vision and mission of the pesantren and can be used as insight of pesantren. hopefully, each pesantren with the integral educational paradigms will be able to become an institution that accustom all of academic stakeholder to behave as a global society, without uprooted or losing its identity as a human being with a local character. it means, pesantren has orientation to make a santri as scholar and kiai’s characters become personality of indonesian nation that is closely related to pancasila as the local identity in the midst of global culture. pesantren as kawah condrodimuka (a place to educate and forge), according to pam nilam borrow foucauldian theory to consider pesantren experiences in indonesia. for the students have to give a lot of experience and awareness of the importance of being indonesian who has noble character (nilam, 2009). especially pesantren is not just to accommodate students as much as possible but must sincerely prepare the students become graduation who not only pass and get an journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 104-123 academic degree but rather to become individual who are not only "clever" logically but he also has a sensitivity and awareness to the reality of the people around him. educational practices that need to be applied in pesantren should try to use a careful approach with an orientation to make the institution be better and trustworthy. from the perspective of interest and curriculum, educational practices in pesantren should be designed to prepare the learners to think critically, objectively and positively contribute and have self-esteem to build the nation and the country. besides, in the learning process, pesantren needs to pay attention to the process (by cost) rather than simply the result (the result of teaching and learning). it can be proved from the students who will enter should have prepared an educational environment that apply enculturation totally against them and an educational system that really have to discipline all students and provide the conditioning that can be used as a learning tool, so that factor of imitation, uswah hasanah can be realized. every morning kiai greet friendly, warmly and always smiling to serve all the students’ interests. the students are required to follow the process of education and have to adopt curricula that have been determined as well as working on a variety of additional duties come from their kiai/ustadz. the kiai and teachers, nor merely transmits myriad of theory/knowledge to the students rather they have become a companion and modeling for them. in addition, pesantren must implement the concept of education as a process of humanization and multicultural nuanced, perhaps by accepting the students varied from outside/inside the country. really this condition is able to inspire and cultivate the curiosity of the students and allow them to be confident to formulate what values should be developed, maintained and simultaneously implemented in the environment/outside pesantren. an educational practice not only discusses about the importance of multiculturalism but also has to implement it. such conditions need to be supported by a learning process that has encouraged all community of pesantren especially the religious teacher/kiai and the students to conduct research that contributes to the theoretical as well as practical with the efforts of reinventing local values. thus allowing to restore the practice of pesantren education, which has already started within the community, can confront and stand on the interests of society itself. wwith the awareness of the students to understand the social and cultural capital owned by the community hopefully they can be an important part in the growth and development of their communities (back to basic). steps like these, finding its significance to immediately return the portrait of our education that tend ma’arif westernized and abandon the tradition and local character and has been significantly involved shifting the mindset and culture of indonesia from the religious society into a society that is pragmatic and consumptive. looking at the reality of the emergence of transnational religious attitudes that consciously or unconsciously have flourished in a number of educational institutions especially in pesantren. the phenomenon of radicalism has become a kind of discourse relentless and widely discussed by all parties. because of religious radicalism has raised serious concern for order and structure of indonesian society that is pluralistic and multicultural. the phenomenon of radicalism needs to be countered by all pesantren as anticipatory measures necessary awareness to all students, especially through education that are moderate, inclusive and insightful diversity and resist any move on behalf of any religion which significantly contrasts with our country that has ideology of pancasila. moreover, the religious movement which clearly has caused friction and violence in a number of countries highly appreciates this diversity. with regard to that matter, one of the charismatic kiai of semarang, kh. ubaidillah shodaqoh, the caregiver of bugen al-itqon, semarang said that; “schools of thought, culture, and ethnicity of the santri, students, can also be used as material for discussion by comparing them with the schools, culture, religion, ethnicity, and beliefs of other people” (shodaqoh, july 9th, 2017, interview). thus, at this point, they can find a momentum to get to know and respect the cultural and religious diversity. in this context, it is the time for pesantren to redefine its curriculum that is moderate and responsive to contemporary issues (ihsan, august 15th, 2017, interview). there should be no more curriculum of pesantren supporting or triggering religious radicalism, such as interpreting the word jihad with qital (war) and killing innocent people. moreover, with the emergence of the spirit back to the enforcement of islamic law that continues in the roll by radical groups is caused by the dissatisfaction with the existing system and significantly disrupted intimate relationship in indonesia. slamet effendy analizes that the sensitivity of religious issues for indonesia people are often brought to the social and political conflict to gain more support from followers (yusuf, 2011). religion in indonesia has made religious doctrine as the main drive, primary mobile, and trigger violence. it is proved that social unrest in this country are almost involved in religious sentiment. the phenomenon of violence will continue when there is no solution and there is no action to stop the flow of infiltration of the religious radicalism which incidentally has damaged the thought of young children, including journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 104-123 students at several universities. thus, pesantren along with a number of other educational institutions in indonesia need to make efforts to control leakage of the teachings of the religious radicalization. pesantren which essentially is islamic education in indonesia must teach and introduce the values of moderate religious and humanism. pesantren and contemporary issues functionally, pesantren has played a multifunctional role; pesantren not only as a place of religious study (ngaji) but reviewing the realities and needs of problem solving that was going on outside pesantren. beside pesantren still teach kitab kuning, pesantren as well as an institution of intellectual development, socio-economic and science and technology. pesantren has been used both as a transformative awareness movement and empowering people, advocate inequality or gender discrimination, pluralism, human rights and democracy. in fact, there are some pesantren that have grown rapidly into a higher education institution, as an institution of the development of sport, arts and culture. pesantren community mainly through the touch of cold hands of kiai began to grow awareness of contemporary issues that must be addressed by pesantren. according to saifuddin zuhri (1999) the mainstream pesantrens have proven to contribute to the homeland. with symbiotic paradigm, pesantren is able to reconcile religion and the state without creating conflict. religion and the state are in a relationship of mutually influencing, complementary, and adopting. the kyais even participate in the political map in indonesia. in fact, sometimes kyais act as a vote getter in helping the vote in the election (ernas & siregar, 2010; turmudi, 2004; muhtadi, 2004). pesantren is famous as moral guardian and strong defender of the ideology of pancasila (ma’arif, 2015). in 1984, as recorded in the history, the kyais who struggled through nu recognized the ideology of pancasila as the sole basis (sirri, 2010). determination of pancasila as the basic ideology by the nu kyais replacing the islamic ideology has promoted political islam. this basic ideology has a broader view and is nationalistic (turmudi, 2004). even, in essence, pesantren is born to respond to the situation and conditions of a society that is faced with the collapse of morality through a transformation of values offered (commanding the good and forbidding evil). the pesantren’s mission is to disseminate the islamic teachings, which are universal, throughout the pluralistic indonesian archipelago. ma’arif among them are pesantren have primary responsibility for developing the knowledge and ability of santri to participate in building a better society and democratic. democracy is not something new to the world of pesantren. this can be proved by many things. first, long time in pesantren has been cultivated democracy values, especially when it appears in the pesantren community development programs around the 1970s. the theme at that time did not use the word democracy, but the issues are developed has some similarities. for example community development issues raised by lp3es in the early 1970s, which in essence wants to raise public participation in building and improving the economy. (makruf, 2005). second, lately pesantren has even become part of the mainstream of political change in the country. kiai become political traction very strong because he can communicate directly with the public. it can be seen, for example in research endang turmudi, revealing the significance of kiai in jombang support by a vote obtained a political party. third, today many graduates of the pesantren which are actively involved in political change significantly. rising pesantren leaders like kh. abdurrahman wahid (deceased) became president is a clear proof of the shifting political role kiai in the larger political level. even gus dur, in spite of various shortcomings attached to him, when he get position as president he a lot of fight for democratization. fourth, today many ngos as well as the study group members are graduates from pesantren, very actively promoted democracy and a major supporter of the consolidation of democracy in indonesia. discussions of experts graduated from pesantren were published in the book "the struggle pesantren and democratization" also proved that they are very familiar with democratic values such as pluralism, equality, and so forth. this is because the pesantren with its mission to spread islam rahmatan lil 'alamin, is already qualified with the values of universal humanism. as the times with advocacy activists’ feminism and the emancipation of women, do not miss the kiai also raised the dignity of women, then view next to the womenfolk wear off, the attitude and role of women not on domestic issues and reproductive alone. but women already play a role in all aspects of life. such as their involvement in politics, channeling their interests through nonconventional channels such protests/demonstrations, and in the economic involvement of women experience changes and increased quite dramatically. pesantren has contributed to push and build awareness that women have the same rights and obligations as men. women in addition to managing a household and perform duties as a wife journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 104-123 and take care of their children also allowed to engage in political activities. not even a few voices from the pesantren that read aloud the arguments about the equality of women and men's. many kiai explained the proposition in the qur'an that women become leaders are no harm. of course, in addition to responding to the issues mentioned above, there are many more issues to consider pesantren such as: improving the quality of human resources and public service, particularly in the delivery of future generations that are credible and qualified. and, no less important is the pesantren paradigm shift became an integrative pesantren, combining a variety of disciplines developed in pesantren. conclusion pesantren is concerned particularly with the national education system. it gives identical platform for indonesian cultural identity. in the context of the development of education sciences in indonesia, pesantren takes place in order to accelerate the development of world science and technology as an indisputable fact of modern societies through its traditions and local wisdom. the concept of pesantren has a good focus on maintaining the indonesian nation and not contrary to the belief or ideology that is believed to be the truth by the people of indonesia. according to the analysis above, this paper is still general, because of the limitation of the study that focuses on experts’ literatures related to pesantren for humanity in education. as an analysis on historical research, the researcher finds some ideal concepts of pesantren through its pedagogy, model of learning, traditions, curriculum and method for teaching. pesantren with its influences in pedagogy shows the explanation, such as pesantren pedagogy functioning as transmission of islamic knowledge; pesantren as the maintenance of islamic tradition, and pesantren as a reproduction of scholars. there is a crucial problem that needs immediate response for its solution by pesantren when dealing with the issues of modernity, including the emergence of a number of transnational post-reform ideologies, which seem to be contrary to the character and disposition of pesantren. one of the main things, which cannot be ignored so that pesantren is always adaptive to developments, is to make a paradigm shift. the new paradigm pesantren needs to develop should take a strategic point, that is, in the framework of the establishment of civil society and deliberative society. in addition, pesantren must continue to explore the indigineous values of pesantren that have proved to give positive contributions to the republic of indonesia, such as moderation, ma’arif tasamuh, and recognition to diversity. pesantren should also be committed to the formation of a civilized society that is able to uphold the humanitarian issues, foster tolerance and freedom of speech, give emphasis on dialogue, and have a keen awareness of nationalism and social harmony. likewise, pesantren in responding to contemporary issues always fight for human values and civilization, build harmony and mutual respect for fellow human beings who have different backgrounds. pesantren tries to offer a middle way (tawassuth), voice for justice, human rights, and democracy. for this purpose, pesantren remains a referral institution into the community; pesantren continues to improve itself and transforms into an institution that is qualified and professional. references abdurrahman wahid. (2001). menggerakkan tradisi: esai-esai pesantren. yogyakarta: lkis. arifin, h. (1991). kapita selekta pendidikan islam dan umum. jakarta: bumi aksara. as’ad, m. r. (2006). kearifan sang profesor: bersuku bangsa untuk kenal-mengenal. (m. r. as’ad, ed.). yogyakarta: uny press. azra, a. (2009). pendidikan islam di era globalisasi. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. buchori, m. (1994). pendidikan dalam pembangunan. yogyakarta: tiara wacana. bull, r. l. (1997). a peacefull jihad javanese islamic education and religious identity construction. arizona state university, usa. bull, r. l. (2000). teaching morality: javanese islamic education in a globalizing era. journal of arabic and islamic studies, 3, 26–47. diambil dari https://www.journals.uio.no/index.php/jais/article/view/4554 daradjat, z. (2008). ilmu pendidikan islam. jakarta: bumi aksara. dewantara, k. h. (2004). pendidikan. yogyakarta: majelis luhur persatuan taman siswa. ernas, s. (2010). dampak keterlibatan pesantren dalam politik: studi kasus pesantren di yogyakarta. kontekstualita, 25(2), 195–224. fafjar, m. (1998). visi pembaruan pendidikan islam. jakarta: lembaga pengembangan pendidikan dan penyusunan naskah indonesia. gazalba, s. (1995). pesantren sebagai wadah komunikasi. jakarta: rineka cipta. ihsan, a. h. (2017). interview. august 15th, 2017. semarang. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 104-123 ismail & abdul mukti. (2000). pendidikan islam, demokrasi dan masyarakat madani. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. langgulung, h. (2003). asas-asas pendidikan islam. jakarta: pustaka al-husna baru. m. amin haedari; abdullah; hanif; masykur; anis; adib; mukhtari. (2004). no title. jakarta: ird press. ma’arif, s. (2015). pesantren inklusif berbasis kearifan lokal. yogyakarta: kaukaba dipantara. makruf, j. (2005). pengalaman pondok pabelan: demokrasi kecil di tengah-tengah lingkungan pesantren. bogor. marimba, a. d. (1989). pengantar filsafat pendidikan islam. bandung: al-ma’arif. martin van bruinessen. (1995). kitab kuning, pesantren, dan tarekat: tradisi-tradisi islam di indonesia. bandung: mizan. mohamad rohman & deden saeful ridwan. (2011). pendidikan seks di pesantren salafi bani syafi’i cilegon banten. edukasi: jurnal penelitian pendidikan agama dan keagamaan, 9(1), 305–336. mohd roslan nor & maksum malim. (2014). revisiting islamic education: the case of indonesia. journal for multicultural education, 8(4), 261–276. https://doi.org/10.1108/jme-05-2014-0019 mudzakkir, a. m. & j. (2006). ilmu pendidikan islam. jakarta: kencana. muhtadi, a. s. (2004). komunikasi politik nahdlatul ulama: pergulatan pemikiran politik radikal dan akomodatif. jakarta: lp3es. muhtadi, a. s. (2004). komunikasi politik nahdlatul ulama pergulatan pemikiran politik radikal dan akomodatif. jakarta: lp3es. muhtifah, l. (2016). the reinforcement of pesantren as harmonization agent of religious life in pesantren “ al fatah ,” 5(december), 365–386. ni’am, s. (2015). pesantren: the miniature of moderate islam in indonesia. indonesian journal of islam and muslim societies, 5(1), 111–134. diambil dari http://oaji.net/articles/2015/2511-1445829949.pdf nilam, p. (2009). the “spirit of education” in indonesian pesantren. british journal of sociology of education, 30, 219–232. noeng muhadjir. (2004). ilmu pendidikan dan perubahan sosial (5 ed.). yogyakarta: rake sarasin. ma’arif platzdasch, b. (2009). islamism in indonesia politics in the emergencing democracy. singapore: institute of southest asian studies. pujiriyanto. (2006). membangun jati diri dan rasa percaya diri bangsa melalui pendidikan profetik. yogyakarta: uny press. rahardjo, m. d. (1974). pesantren dan pembaharuan. jakarta: lp3es. rahardjo, m. d. (1985). pergulatan dunia pesantren: membangun dari bawah. jakarta: p3m. romas, c. s. (2003). kekerasan di kerajaan surgawi. yogyakarta: kreasi wacana. satmoko, r. s. (1999). landasan kependidikan. semarang: ikip semarang press. shodaqoh, u. (2017). interview. july 9th, 2017. semarang. sirri, m. (2010). the public expression of traditional islam: the pesantren and civil society in post-suharto indonesia. the muslim world, 100(1). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-1913.2009.01302.x talbani, a. (1996). pedagogy, power, and discourse: transformation of islamic education. comparative education review, 40(1), 66–82. turmudi, e. (2004). perselingkuhan kiai dan kekuasaan. yogyakarta: lkis. unicef. (2015). new paradigms for peacebuilding: sustainable peace through shared societies and social services for children. brussels: unicef. diambil dari http://learningforpeace.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/new-paradigms-forpeacebuilding-symposium-march-2015-–-summary.pdf yusuf, s. e. (2011). review 5 tahun kehidupan umat beragama indonesia: prespektif mu. jakarta. zuhri, s. (1999). pendidikanpesantren di persimpangan jalan. in m. wahid (ed.), pesantren masa depan wacana pemberdayaan dan transformasi pesantren. bandung: pustaka hidayah. . www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 1-10 1 organizationally-рedagogical aspect of preparation of students to professional activity in the process of educational practice gaziza b. shinysherova1, bolat k. yessimov2, jumadil childibayev3, zhaxybay tuleubayev4, gulnar k. ziyayeva5, moldir alpysbaikyzy6 abstract one of the main forms of educational process in teaching students is educational and field practice; it is a relatively independent form of training and education of students. a summer educational and field practice is complicated pedagogical system regarding the structure and functional components, which includes theoretical and practical activities of teachers and students, whose purpose is to extend theoretical knowledge and formation of practical skills of the students. also, it is a mode of study, where different methods of stepping up of students’ cognitive activity are applied. moreover, this is one of the forms of students’ education, including various sides of the educational process, such as moral, aesthetic, environmental and labor education, in course of which the development of students’ interest for teaching activities, the formation of motivational and need sphere, and person’s competency are carried out. a successful implementation of educational and field practice produces a good outcome: obtaining satisfaction from work, self-reliance, self-organization, development of the ability to make and execute a decision, personal responsibility and discipline education. keywords: research activity, organizing the research activity, field practice, education and research practice. introduction the aim of the research was to identify organizational and pedagogical conditions of increase of educational process efficiency during the educational and field practice, its use in student’s training for professional teaching. 1 lecturer, kazakh national pedagogical university named after abay almaty, shinysherova@mail.ru 2 asst. prof, kazakh national pedagogical university named after abay almaty, esimov.bolat@mail.ru 3 prof, kazakh national pedagogical university named after abay almaty, zhumadil_47@mail.ru 4 prof, taraz state pedagogical university taraz, tuleubayev51@mail.ru 5 asst. prof, taraz state university named after m.kh. dulati taraz, gulnarzia-71@mail.ru 6 grad. stud, kazakh national pedagogical university named after abay almaty, moldir_alban@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 1-10 methodology we used the following methods in the study: analysis of pedagogical literature, academic documentation, a questionnaire survey, for which a questionnaire “student of the pedagogical university and training for occupational guidance for prospective work in school” was developed, psychological testing with a differential-diagnostic questionnaire (ddq) by klimov (1983), orientation questionnaire, by smekalova & kuchera (2003). during the practical training, students acquire certain competencies. as for pak, solomin & zelezinsky (2003), the competencies are socio-pedagogical, subject-educational, communicative-linguistic, informational, technological and spiritual-cultural competence. results and discussion the study was carried out in stages. the 1st and 2nd year students from the biology department of the institute of natural science and geography of abai kazakh national pedagogical university (kaznpu) were involved in the experimental part of the work. execution of all work was built on the organizational principles, the process integrity, organically linked with the mental, moral and labour education, including the impact on all aspects of personality. according to the standard instruction on organizing and conducting educational and field practice “the educational and field practice in the educational process is considered as a continuation of the laboratory practices, extends and reinforces the theoretical knowledge gained by students during the previous classes in the institute, teaches them to apply the knowledge in practical work creatively, develops the theoretical and practical foundations for understanding the subsequent lectures, practical laboratory classes and prepares for teaching practice” (a typical program for conducting field practices on zoology in the pedagogical universities, 2011), also during the practical training, the students acquire certain competencies, such as socialpedagogical, subject-educational, communicative-linguistic, informational, technological, and spiritual-cultural competence (pak, solomin & zelezinsky, 2003; tarman, 2012). field practice of the 1st and 2nd year students in zoology was used during the study of the role of the educational and field practice in the professional development of students and future biology teachers in preparation for students’ professional orientation. when studying this subject, wide possibilities of training future biologists have been opened. shinysherova et al. the educational process during a summer educational field practice has two main objectives (in terms of study): extend theoretical knowledge and formation of teaching skills of biological cycle subjects. from the educational point of view these two tasks are also solved: education of the student’s personality and the formation of the students’ education skills. at the organization of educational activities, according to friedman (1987), the structure can be divided into two parts: educational and test evaluation. the learning and cognitive activity includes: formulation and adoption of common learning goals; the nomination and the perception of private purposes. formation of the educational activity motivation, the new information perception, its processing and absorption, mastery of skills also apply to this activity. the test and evaluation activity involves the monitoring of academic work in all forms and at all stages of the educational process, work assessment, accounting and training activities adjustment. when performing the analysis of the educational and labor activity of the students during an educational and field practice we adhered to the same forms of activities division. on this basis, we carried out the analysis and evaluation of some of the forms of organization of an educational and field practice (efp) (golneva, 2004). in the work of kashina (2007), one of the purposes specified practices to prepare students for creative application in the professional activities of scientific and theoretical knowledge and skills received at studying of special disciplines, and the promotion of interest in future professional activity. according to the standard instruction “a typical program for conducting field practices on zoology in the pedagogical universities” (2011), efp is a continuation of the laboratory forms of study. training sessions are conducted by subgroups of students, formed to conduct laboratory classes. hereinafter, this efp form of organization, we will call the “traditional” (control) form of the efp. the main goal of this form of educational practice was extend and consolidation of theoretical knowledge obtained by students during prior training sessions at the institute, learning how to creatively apply the knowledge in practical work, the development of theoretical and practical basis for deep understanding the subsequent lectures, practical and laboratory studies, preparation for conducting the teaching practice. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 1-10 the efp form was developed in the 30ies for a field practice in botany and zoology, and in 1955 with the efp introduction on the basics of agriculture and methods of teaching biology was automatically applied to these items as a single form for all items in the biological cycle (gitlits & lukashuk, 1986). the deepening challenges facing the school and the stress of preparing students for work led to the new forms of organization of socially useful labor by high school student production teams. the task of training the future teachers of biology and agricultural work has found its solution in the educational and field practices on the agrobiological stations of pedagogical institutes in the form of apprenticeship (training and production) teams. this efp form of organization appeared in the 80-ies. the complication of the task for the biology teacher is in the introduction of polytechnical education. the inclusion of elements of labour education and occupational guidance for schoolchildren in the biology learning process has led to changes in the objectives of the training and education of students of the pedagogical higher educational institution and their preparation to work in school. the goals and objectives of the efp, as an integral part of the educational process of the university, have been changed and deepened. an educational and field practice during this period was conducted in the following forms: efp on educational-experimental plot in high school and at the agrobiological station (in traditional form); on the form of a student production team at agrobiological station of the institute; on the form of a student production team of pupils. at this time, one of the most important tasks is the quality improvement in teachers’ preparation to work in a rural school. a tendency of improvement the future teachers’ preparation to conduct workshops and elective courses in agricultural area in school, which form the ability of working with wildlife. another challenge is building skills to guide the work of pupils on the school educational-experimental stations, student labor unions (regulations on the agrobiological station at the pedagogical institute, 1992). in the second phase of our study, we have changed the traditional efp forms of organization, because the form change, the introduction of new attributes increase the interest and bring elements of creativity in students’ work according to the monitoring of a number of leading educators and psychologists (kuzmina, 1961; friedman, 1987 etc.). from 2013 to 2016 the educational and field practices on the first and second course were conducted in the form of student teams. the council of fieldwork, which led the entire academic, educational and industrial work, was elected. in the study, this shinysherova et al. efp organizational form is called “experiment-1”. organization of educational and labour activity of students during educational and field practices in the form of student production teams is a business game, where situations of the future activities of teachers on the organization of student teams and other associations of pupils in the school are being played. in the process of organizing the training production team, the students will practice and pass all the stages of formation of the team from forming the link and council team, the adoption of plans and the contract signing with the administration to the summing up. during the work students do good school work of labour organization of pupils, develop the skills necessary for performing professional duties. future teachers are being educated with creative attitude to work, ability to solve arising problems and find the right solutions in the process of executing tasks; it is a good preparation of future biology teachers. not the last role in the education of students is played by the acquisition of abilities and skills for defining invertebrates and vertebrates. the interest of students to the subject and their activity has been increased. during this period, the issues of moral education of students, conducted cultural-mass work and physical education students are being resolved. thus all components that are part of the work of the teacher organization and guidance of students are covered. the success of all the work mostly depends on setting the proper goal and tasks, a good selection of the coordinating center and the council team. the members of the council should be proactive, responsible and disciplined. the form of students’ work organization should be group, collective, where the individual has his own opinion, different from the collective one, and should submit to the team decision. the successful implementation of the practice has led to good practical results, obtaining satisfaction from the work done. the organization of independent training and production activities of students promotes the development of independence, self-organization, the ability to make and execute a decision, the responsibility and discipline education. the goals extension of the practice, the skills formation of the research work organization, teaching creative attitude to work have taken the practice to a new form – the type of organization of the temporary creative groups of students. the work that began with a study of the influence of the social significance of labor on the formation of employment orientation and increase of its level approached the issue about the formation of research and mobilization function of a future teacher and enhance his creative potential (sarafanova, 1984). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 1-10 one of the features of our research is the creative groups formation based on common interests of students, regardless of academic group. another feature lies in the fact that when defining the goals of the practice we took into account the need to prepare students to the organization of their socially useful labour and practical work on the school educational-experimental plot for growing various plant products, animal care, planting and caring for avenues, parks, flower gardens, school gardening, taking a new look at the tasks of pupils’ labor education and their career guidance. the work of the 2nd year students during the efp period is the most productive: determination of species, distribution and biomass. during this period, it is necessary to solve the problem connected with the education of collectivism, diligence, self-organization, initiative and responsibility, i.e. to form a psychological readiness to work as to basic needs, whether it is teaching labour or any other. creative possibilities, based on hobbies, are one of the components of personality professional orientation, which also includes knowledge and skills. one of the tasks of the practice was to prepare students for the organization of pupils’ sul (socially useful labour), development of their creative abilities. complex training of educational and field practices while the organization of the students in terms of temporary creative groups in our study is denoted as “experiment – 2”. organization of students’ participation during the field practice is carried out in four areas of activity: -educational area (the implementation of practice teaching objectives); -educational and field area includes the obtaining practical results and counting of species along with the implementation of the educational objectives. scientific and research area includes research tasks performance of the department and commercial unit, the result is practical recommendations, developed from the results of the experiment; -research and production area is related to the solution of tasks of research character, combined with practical product and calculation of economic efficiency. the educational practices on this type of organization have been conducted since 2015. temporary creative collectives are small groups that conduct a field experiment. the experimental work in the period of laboratory and practical classes starts with the preparation for the field experiment: determining the issue, topic, purpose and object of the study. all this work shinysherova et al. is carried out by the students independently at different levels. a technological work plan is formed during the study of literature, collection of scientific data concerning the problem. the results of preliminary work are discussed and approved by the faculty supervisor. in the process of study the formation of the gnostic component is being formed: consolidation, expansion and extend of theoretical knowledge. students acquire design skills in formulating hypothesis, defining problems, goals and objectives of the experiment; and constructive skills in the preparation of the technological plan and scheme of the study. communicative and organizational components of the activity are formed while the organizing and conducting interviews, professions defense contests, festivals, exhibitions, scientific conferences following the results of the practice. in the work process pupils’ work organization skills on the educational and experimental plot, carrying out career guidance through training, education and organization of their socially useful work, are formed. the development of personal qualities such as commitment to work, teamwork, business skills, aesthetic and ethical feelings and relationships are formed in students. control and evaluation activities also have become more important. this change is expressed in the development and extension of its form. the traditional form of organization of the field practice included assessment of students in a classification according to the efp results displayed in the students’ field experience diaries, the results of the contests and the harvest festival. all of this relates to the testing of educational readiness (formation of knowledge, abilities and skills) and willingness to undertake the education of schoolchildren by means of extracurricular activities in biology. some students were evaluated on the formation of research skills at the end of the final papers. changing of the practice forms organization, learning and cognitive activity of the students resulted in change of organization forms of control and evaluation activities. the including of the training to vocational guidance of pupils to the efp content necessitated not only mastering the skills in identifying types of animals, as well as familiarity with the geographical features of the study area. the available research, scientific and industrial areas of the students’ activity created the opportunity for developing research skills. all of the above has expanded the scope of monitoring and evaluation functions. in addition to assessing educational readiness in the form of credits and preparation for educational work in the form of competitions, exhibitions, celebrations, the wide participation of students in research work created the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 1-10 opportunity to use such forms of assessment of students as scientific-practical conference on the efp results, production of publications, defense of complex course and graduate works, participation in exhibitions of scientific and technical creativity. all this creates the opportunity for a more complete and qualitative assessment of students’ readiness, the efp in their learning, training and preparation for future professional activity (latysheva & petrova, 2000). in the course of the experimental work was determined the structural model of the efp organization that consists of the following components: -preliminary examination of the students’ psychological readiness to educational and field practice, interests, motivational activities, preferred subject; -introductory and motivational component involves the determination of the subject of the forthcoming work, the formulation of the main goal, tasks and forming teams to perform tasks; -operational and informative component involves the decision of adopted tasks, the implementation of the plan in the period of summer educational and field practice; -monitoring and evaluation component involves the practice results summarizing, students’ activity evaluation. the preliminary stage begins in the process of conducting laboratory and practical classes, the study of students’ interests, identifying the preferred subject of activities, goals and motives of admission and training at the institute, the personality and activity orientation. in the process of this work, the specific character of the students is formed; their psychological readiness to participate in the efp is studied. the ability to compare subjective side of motivation and objective learning goals, identify their divergence, gives to foresee the success of students’ participation in the efp, to correct certain deviations and to smooth over differences. in the period of the introductory-motivational stage, students are taught with the methods of the experiment organization, the formation of microgroups, temporary creative teams consisting of 3-6 people with common personal interests or business relationships. after a joint discussion the subject of future work is determined; topic and objective of the study are formulated. at the same time the direction of the students’ activity, the basic methods, level of independence and performance are determined. shinysherova et al. operational and informative stage is the longest and the most complicated stage of practice. in the decision process adopted by the task and implementation of composed technological plan unexpected problems that require adjusting the plan of activities are appeared. in the course of the practice subjective aspect of motivation becomes clear; its stability is cleared up. perseverance in overcoming emerging problems contributes to the development of important personal qualities, creates the possibility of forming practical abilities and skills. the need to resolve emerging challenges stimulates the need for self-expansion and extends the theoretical training. participation in research promotes the formation of appropriate skills and development of creative abilities. creative orientation of the personality leads to an increase in the orientation level, desire to improve his work. this creates the possibility of development of such qualities as: self-confidence, reliance, ability to adapt quickly to new, unknown situations, to find the right solutions quickly (kalinova & myagkova, 1989). conclusion monitoring and evaluation stage is the last stage of practice. it is associated with the debriefing and practices assessment at all stages. monitoring and evaluation activity is manifested in the organization and holding of contests, exhibitions, festivals and conferences. activity is assessed not just by teachers, but also by students, members of the micro-group, in discussing the work of the micro-groups at conferences and other events the work of microgroup and all students is assessed in general. students often approach to self-assessment and evaluation more critically than teachers, they sometimes given inappropriately high rating. in these cases, the adjustment on the part of teachers and supervisors is necessary. in summing up the practice the practical significance of the results and the further prospective are determined. however, the division of practice into stages is conventional, because it is a continuous and dynamic process. such efp structural modeling is necessary to streamline the efp organization, detection, evaluation, and correction of emerging problems, improve the effectiveness of each stage and the whole practice in general. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 1-10 references a typical program for conducting field practices on zoology in the pedagogical universities. (2011). almaty. friedman, l.m. (1987). pedagogical experience through the eyes of a psychologist. moscow: enlightenment. (in russ.) gitlits, r.v. & lukashuk, n.p. (1986). uirs in field practice as one of the forms of improving the training of a teacher of biology. vilnos. golneva, a.k. (2004). preparation of the future teacher in the process of teaching field practice on the methodology of teaching biology. vilnos. kalinova, g.s. & myagkova, a.n. (1989). methods of teaching biology. moscow: enlightenment. (in russ.) kashina, v.b. (2007). principles of organization of research activity of bachelors of natural and scientific education in field practice in botanic. proceedings of the russian state pedagogical university named after a.i. herzen, 13(36), 192-197. klimov, e.a. (1983). psychological and pedagogical problems of professional consultation. мoscow: knowledge. (in russ.) kuzmina, n.v. (1961). formation of pedagogical abilities: monograph. leningrad: lgu publ. (in russ.) latysheva, g.i. & petrova, s.v. (2000). field practice as a means of developing students' interest in the teacher's profession. krasnoyarsk. (in russ.) pak m.s., solomin v.p., zelezinsky a.l. (2003). professional competence of a chemistry teacher in a context of social changes. in: importance of science education in the light of social and economic changes in the central and east european countries (the materials of the iv ioste symposium for central and east european countries) (137-139). kursk. regulations on the agrobiological station at the pedagogical institute. (1992). ministry of the ussr. sarafanova, a.a. (1984). pedagogical and field practice of students-biologists in school: monograph. minsk: higher school. smekalova, v. & kuchera, m. (2003). an indicative questionnaire. moscow. (in russ.) tarman, b. (2012). effective leadership in culturally diverse schools. energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 4(2), 1103-1114. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (4), 1-27 impact of innovative steam education practices on teacher professional development and 3-6-year-old children’s competence development ona monkeviciene1, birute autukeviciene2, lina kaminskiene3, & justinas monkevicius4 abstract over the last decade, steam has been treated as a model of interdisciplinary integral education that facilitates solving social, ecological and economic problems related to technological development in different countries. steam education is most efficient when it is organised in early childhood education, thus increasing children’s motivation to study and to link steam disciplines with their career, as well as to develop as engaged citizens. the conducted empirical research revealed the following new data on steam at an early age: a) early childhood teachers apply practices of steam education that target the development of children's soft (problem-solving, creativity, ability to learn, communication) skills more frequently and employ practices for nurturance of their hard (mathematical, technological, engineering) skills less frequently ; this imbalance is favourable for the development of a proactive and critically thinking child, who is able to make decisions in a responsible way, but it does not ensure the sustainable development of steam abilities; b) the application of innovative steam education practices has effects on teacher professional development; c) steam practices have a bigger integral impact on the development of 3-6 year-old children’s competences through the teacher professional development rather than directly. key words: early childhood education, steam, practices, teacher professional development, children’s competences. introduction in 1990, stem (science, technology, engineering and math) was underscored as fundamental areas of learning in the 21st century (english, 2016; ata aktürk & demircan, 2017; john et al., 2018). later, this set of fields was supplemented by arts as a basis for creativity development, and stem was modified into steam (kim & park, 2012; land, 2013; sochacka et al., 2016; dejarnette, 2018). in this article, the concept of steam will be used. steam is defined as holistic education, integrating the fields of science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics, 1 prof. dr., vytautas magnus university, ona.monkeviciene@vdu.lt 2 dr., vytautas magnus university, birute.autukeviciene@vdu.lt 3dr., vytautas magnus university, lina.kaminskiene@vdu.lt 4dr., vytautas magnus university, monkevicius.justinas@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 as a model of interdisciplinary creative education (bati et al., 2018; wang et al., 2018; ata akturk et al., 2017). the goals of steam implementation in different countries respond to both global and local challenges. the ambition to support a growth of technological innovations through training more employees with necessary competences is also a global phenomenon. attention to steam education starting with the level of early childhood education contributes to the assurance of sustainable positive attitude of children towards steam disciplines, as well as sustainable, consistent development of their abilities (dejarnette, 2018). different countries face different challenges. for example, researchers state that the usa has fallen behind other developed countries in mathematics and science (dejarnette, 2018) and that south korea should increase school learners’ motivation for choosing to study mathematics and science (park et al., 2016). they also refer to china’s challenge to cope with the lack of high-level talents (wang et al., 2018) and to the timely preparation of australia for the future, when about 75 percent of future jobs will require mathematical, analytical thinking and problem-solving abilities (simoncini & lasen, 2018). it was very soon acknowledged that in order to seek better learning outcomes in steam education, actions are needed at the earliest levels of education, i.e. early childhood education, which provides the highest rates of return on the development of the individual’s motivation and abilities and ensures their further sustainable improvement (bers et al., 2013; dejarnette, 2018). the researchers raise the idea and substantiate the importance of early steam identity development by research (dou et al. 2019; hachey, 2020). the identity is explained as the child’s interest in investigations in steam areas and strongly predicted career choices in steam areas (dou et al., 2019). according to the researchers, early childhood and pre-primary education should be enriched with innovative practices (akman et al., 2017; monkeviciene et al., 2020) and aids in these areas to promote children’s interest and their intentions to link their future with activities in steam areas (sharapan, 2012; torres-crespo et al., 2014; kermani & aldemir, 2015; kazakoff et al., 2013; ata aktürk & demircan, 2017; park et al., 2017; campbell et al., 2018). steam education practices are understood as an environment and aids suitable for steam education, activities and innovative pedagogical methods that stimulate investigations and creative thinking (campbell et al., 2018). monkeviciene et al. 3 researchers, who study teachers’ preparedness to implement steam in early childhood education, emphasize the differences in the level of preparation of pre-school and subject teachers. dejarnette (2018) states that basic and secondary school teachers possess sufficient subjectspecific and pedagogical knowledge necessary for steam activities because they are specifically trained. however, teachers at the early childhood education level do not possess sufficient knowledge and instruction, lacking resolution and self-confidence. they have unreasonable fears and avoid organising steam activities in their pre-school groups, even though they acknowledge the benefit of steam for learning outcomes of children (bers et al., 2013; park et al., 2016; brenneman et al., 2019). the conducted research studies show a considerable advantage of professional development to abilities of early childhood teachers to implement steam education. it has been established that teachers lack knowledge of steam disciplines, understanding of technological and engineering processes and appropriate pedagogical strategies (bers et al., 2013; john et al., 2018). a targeted 2-3-day professional development workshop (e.g. for using robotics) had a statistically significant influence on teachers’ abilities in all the fields. moreover, their professional self-efficacy strengthened and their attitude towards steam became more positive (bers et al., 2013). the studies also evidence that workshops are more efficient when teachers participate in hands-on steam training and if a teacher gets support from an assistant or a mentor (dejarnette, 2018; aldemir & kermani, 2016). brenneman et al. (2019) designed the scimathdll model for the development of a teacher's competence in the steam area, which aims to improve the teacher's preparation for natural science, mathematical and bilingual education. the researchers applied three forms of teacher competence improvement: workshops, reflective coaching cycles and professional learning communities. the model was efficient and contributed to improvement of steam educational practices. the teacher's competence in properly balancing educational content, steam aids and methods of education is also important for the implementation of steam (bers et al., 2013; mengmeng et al., 2019). the teacher’s beliefs and attitudes towards steam implementation serve as the strongest prerequisite for his or her professional self-efficacy in this area (park et al., 2017; bagiatti & evangelou, 2015). on the other hand, all of the above-mentioned studies, which show a positive impact of teachers’ professional development on the implementation of steam, were carried out by conducting training and organising other professional development activities and interventions for groups of teachers of limited scope. meanwhile, today’s educational issues motivate most teachers to apply journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 steam education practices spontaneously and in a planned manner without prior special training. it is likely that in the process of the implementation of steam practices, teacher professional development takes place naturally. thus, after researching the impact of professional development on the implementation of steam, another equally relevant question arises as to whether the daily, natural application of steam practices may promote teacher professional development. some researchers claim that many teachers notice a positive influence of steam implementation on children’s achievements in their school maturity (toran et al., 2020), on acquisition of essential concepts, in knowledge and abilities of steam disciplines (park et al., 2017), and in the enhancement of their interest in mathematics as well as on the development of their convergent thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills (bagiati & evangelou, 2016; park et al., 2016). the methodology of these studies included teacher professional development activities. another study analyses the natural process of the implementation of steam without teachers’ prior preparation for these activities. in their article, brenneman et al. (2019) summarize research which shows that the implementation of steam in natural pre-school education is spontaneous and poor, and therefore has no major impact on the development of children’s math, science, language and other skills. however, there is a lack of evidence on the impact of the application of innovative steam practices in the natural process of education without prior preparation in the development of 3-6 year-old children's general competences, not only on the development of abilities in the fields of steam. research questions this research study focused on finding the answers to the following research questions: 1) how often do pre-school teachers apply various steam education practices (environments, activities and methods of education)? 2) what impact does the application of innovative steam education practices have on teacher professional development? 3) what impact does the application of innovative steam education practices have on development of 3-6 year-old children's competences? monkeviciene et al. 5 literature review steam education is defined as interdisciplinary approach integrating the development of knowledge and skills in science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics (english, 2016; ata aktürk & demircan, 2017; campbell et al., 2018). when referring to primary and secondary education, bati et al. (2018, p. 3) emphasize the use of an engineering design model in steam education: ‘the concept of integrated design in engineering may be an important turning point for steam education.’ english (2016) distinguishes the following steps of the engineering design process: identifying and defining the problem, searching for and evaluating possible solutions, optimizing solutions through experimentation, testing and improvement, which are a way to integrate all steam subjects. meanwhile, a review of research carried out at the early education level allows us to define the process of steam education as a game and a natural interest in the world (ata aktürk & demircan, 2017; aldemir & kermani, 2017; campbell et al., 2018). discussing the models of steam education, murphy et al. (2020) characterise steam in early education as a daily natural process applying child-led ‘playful pedagogies’. researchers state that steam education is not too complex for early age children as it is grounded on children’s natural interest in how the world around them ‘works’ and on their inclination to design things and test how they work (knaus & roberts, 2017; ata aktürk & demircan, 2017; kazakoff et al., 2013). a child’s daily environment is both natural and human-made (objects that ‘see’, ‘hear’, ‘speak’, e.g., toys that repeat the child’s words). according to bers et al. (2013, p. 357), ‘what is unique to our human-made world today is the fusion of electronics with mechanical structures’, and a child is capable to investigate it. by playing in a natural environment and with human-made objects, children naturally explore complex phenomena, acquiring knowledge and abilities in the field of steam (campbell et al., 2018). practical activities with children prove that they easily memorise and start using elementary concepts of steam (moomaw & davis, 2010). the child’s holistic and syncretic understanding of the surrounding world is a favourable prerequisite for implementation of an important principle of steam education, i.e. integration of science, mathematical, engineering and technological education (ata aktürk & demircan, 2017). steam implementation practices (environment, aids, children's activities and ways of education), like the whole process of pre-school education, are integral. pre-school education is not divided into separate subjects, such as science, mathematics, arts, etc. (campbell et al., 2018). in a natural journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 or specially created educational context, which includes the environment and aids, children engage in a variety of activities spontaneously or under the guidance of the teacher, exploring complex phenomena and creating models of these phenomena. in order for teachers to be able to choose appropriate educational aids, create environments, anticipate activities accessible to children and choose effective ways of communicating with children, they need to be able to look at the phenomena naturally explored by children from different perspectives of steam subjects. as observed by putriene (2017), who, in her dissertation analyses the problem of interdisciplinarity education and summarises the experiences of many researchers, each discipline is based on concepts, cognitive instruments and knowledge systems of a separate scientific field, which can be combined in the educational process. those teachers who have a better understanding of the perspectives of integrated disciplines are more successful in constructing situations of a holistic understanding of phenomena in the educational process (putriene, 2017) and are more successful in using explanations and concepts of phenomena accessible to children from the perspective of different fields of disciplines (knaus & roberts, 2017). studies show that teachers lack subject knowledge (dejarnette, 2018), which reduces the effectiveness of steam education, since teachers' communication with children in the context of their natural explorations does not help them to reflect their discoveries from the perspective of different subjects. when conducting research, it is important that teachers look at the application of steam education practices from the perspectives of the fields of science, mathematical, technological, engineering and art education and thus reveal the depth of their understanding (see fig. 1). there are studies that have followed this approach. the research carried out by campbell et al. (2018) on stem practices in pre-school education recorded children's play situations and themes of children's explorations, in which teachers recognised the content of different stem disciplines, such as science, mathematics and technology. the teachers who participated in the research conducted by aldemir and kermani (2016) modeled integrated steam education situations in which the central theme was related to the field of science and was integrated with technology, engineering and mathematics activities and concepts for children to explore the theme of nature. practices that focuses more on science education in the integrated context of steam education (see fig. 1) include environments, aids and activities that encourage children to explore natural objects and phenomena (water, soil, weather, wind, heat, motion, plants, animals, the human body) monkeviciene et al. 7 and systems (the ecosystem, the earth, the solar system); to explore and to create models of these objects, phenomena and systems (a garden of a young gardener, an insect ‘hotel’, a river in the sandbox, models of the planets); to raise questions about the surrounding world, to observe it, to interpret relations and to make observations and conclusions (campbell et al., 2018; aldemir & kermani, 2016; ata aktürk et al., 2017). practices of technological education in the context of steam education include environments, aids and activities which, through the use of engageexplore-reflect (e-e-r) cycle, stimulate explorations of the structure and functions of tools (measuring tools, magnifying glasses, sand sifters, wooden sticks), simple mechanisms (levers, pulleys) and instruments (microscopes, wind vanes, scales) and the development and testing of models of the above-mentioned tools, mechanisms and instruments, as well as explorations of technological processes (cooking, robotics), chemical reactions (dissolution in water, vinegar and baking soda reaction) and the use of modern media and augmented reality objects (hoisington & winokur, 2015; campbell et al., 2018; ata aktürk & demircan, 2017; aldemir & kermani, 2016; knaus & roberts, 2017; bers et al., 2013). practices of engineering education in the context of steam education include environments, aids and activities which, when following the steps of the engineering design process, encourage explorations of the properties of diverse open-ended, structured and semi-structured materials (blocks, lego, robotics kits, natural materials), design of buildings and equipment (bridges, roads, cities, robots, inclined plane), development of design solutions, building and construction as well as explorations of balance, stability, connections and distinctive features of structures (english, 2016; bagiati & evangelou, 2015; campbell et al., 2018; john et al., 2018; ata aktürk et al., 2017; knaus & roberts, 2017; moomaw & davis, 2010). practices of mathematical education in the context of steam education include activities in which children use lego, duplo, constructors, robotics kits, natural objects, calculators and measuring instruments, which help them discover number sense and sequences, recognize scales, regularities, patterns and structures as well as create and measure thereof and thus develop mathematical thinking. these practices also make use of coding and programming toys, which develops computational thinking skills (campbell et al., 2018; aldemir & kermani, 2016; knaus & roberts, 2017; tarman & tarman, 2011). art education includes children's interest in new, unknown and complex objects of artistic expression and design as well as in twoand threedimensional visual modeling (representation of natural objects, photography, design of sculptures, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 tools and structures; creation of 3d models and printing) (ata aktürk & demircan, 2017; tylor, 2016; kazakoff et al., 2013). according to the researchers, the aim of all this is socially responsible steam education, based on the ideas of steam philosophy in the anthropocene epoch (guyotte, 2020) and sustainable development (tylor, 2016; knaus & roberts, 2017). socially responsible steam education, according to tylor (2016, p. 91), can help to cope with dangerous influence of our technological superpowers on the natural systems of the planet, including the climate, oceans and soils, which results in fundamental changes to biological and geological systems. following tylor's insights (2016, p. 89), it can be stated that there are two groups of outcomes (disciplinary knowledge, skills and liquid abilities) that are relevant to steam education. liquid abilities include creativity, communication, problem solving skills, and the ability to learn. some other researchers (laureta, 2018) refer to those 2 groups of abilities in early childhood education as ‘hard’ (pre-academic, cognitive, disciplinary) and ‘soft’ (personality-related, social) abilities. nurturance of children’s liquid/soft abilities contribute to children’s development of active citizenship qualities and to their commitment to creation of more productive, sustainable and just society. children prepare to solve ethical problems related to the global influence of science and technologies on environment and society. in australia, these priorities are considered as early as the level of early childhood education. (tylor, 2016; knaus & roberts, 2017). innovative steam practices that target at development of skills from these two groups in pre-school education institutions have not been extensively analysed so far. therefore, they have been chosen as one of the focuses in the present research. the methods used by teachers to create and moderate steam education situations may be viewed as another component of steam practices (see fig 1). the researchers distinguish between two effective groups of ways of steam education in pre-school age: the first group includes methods of supporting and extending children's interests and initiatives, whereas the second group includes ways of proactive moderation of steam education. methods of supporting and extending children's interests and initiatives involve the establishment of a stimulating and challenging environment; use of open-ended (divergent) and exploratory materials (kermani & aldemir, 2015; hoisington & winokur, 2015); targeted steam-in content-based discussions, debates and considerations built on everyday moments in the ‘here and now’ (sharapan, 2012); proactive moving of a teacher towards play when seeing an opportunity for inquiry questions; extension of monkeviciene et al. 9 children-initiated activities; and activity planning considering children’s own interests (campbell et al., 2018). the group of methods of proactive moderation of steam education includes methods of joint activities, joint participation and thinking together; the use of activities that promote, facilitate and lead children to explore and discover (knaus & roberts, 2017; kermani & aldemir, 2015); stimulation of inquiry-based learning (mcdonald, 2016); guidance by questions (moomaw & davis, 2010); promotion of deep learning; provision of appropriate scaffolding to foster understanding and reasoning (park et al., 2017); the use of stories that engage children into explorations; exploratory conversations; analysis of a significant case (torres-crespo et al., 2014), promotion of computational thinking; and promotion of reflection and self-reflection (knaus & roberts, 2017). a number of studies have been conducted that prove the impact of steam education on children's achievements. toran et al. (2020) conducted an experiment targeted at identifying if steam education has an influence on children’s school maturity. the results revealed significantly higher values of school maturity indicators among the children in the experimental group. carrying out their quasi-experiment, kermani and aldemir (2015) focused on the effect steam activities and projects have on achievements of pre-primary children in mathematics, science and technologies. higher children’s achievements (better expanded concepts and developed abilities) were identified compared to the control group. the results of the research conducted by aldemir and kermani (2016) show that children start to better understand steam phenomena and concepts if support to them well-planned and developmentally appropriate activities are employed. it has been established that use of robotics, when children design and learn to program robots, improve their understanding of concepts of consistency, sequence and mathematics (such as number, size, form), and weaken gender-related stereotypes regarding their future career in steam (kazakoff et al., 2013; park et al., 2017; torres-crespo et al., 2014). according to campbell et al. (2018), the research results also show that time dedicated to steam and the quality of its implementation influence children’s outcomes. the majority of research studies on evaluation of impact of steam on the children’s outcomes were carried out while implementing projects, experiments, i.e. making interventions to a limited number of teachers. moreover, the influence on school readiness and on abilities related to steam disciplines was also evaluated. the present research targets at examining how naturally occurring processes of steam education influence all the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 competences of 3-6-year-old children: cognitive, communication, social, artistic and health protection competences (see fig 1). as discussed in the introduction, the conducted research studies have revealed teacher professional development to be of great benefit to steam implementation in pre-school education: it increases teachers’ motivation to apply steam educational practices, enhances subject competence and facilitates the understanding of technological and engineering processes as well as methods of steam education (bers et al., 2013; john et al., 2018). however, the relationship between the application of innovative steam education practices and teacher professional development has not been investigated in greater detail. the large-scale research on preparedness of early childhood teachers to implement steam education conducted by park et al. (2017) revealed that teachers tended to better evaluate their preparedness for steam education, when they had more practice in early childhood steam education and perceived the importance of this education. the research carried out by john et al. (2018) confirmed that teachers’ attitudes towards steam positively correlate with their steam practices in the group. as the previous research has already identified the relationship between steam education practices applied by teachers and their attitudes and preparedness to implement steam, our research sought to reveal another aspect, i.e. to determine the impact of the frequency of the application of steam education practices on teacher professional development. methods the goal of the research is to reveal the influence of innovative steam education practices applied by early childhood teachers on teacher professional development and 3-6-year-old children’s competence development. research design the quantitative research approach was most favourable for implementation of research goal. the research design was constructed on the basis of the theoretical analysis (fig. 1). in stage 1, the research study sought to determine the frequency of the application of environments and children's activities of science, technological, engineering and mathematical education and of the development of creativity and arts design, problem solving, ability to learn and communication skills as well as the frequency of the application of ways of steam education by calculating mean monkeviciene et al. 11 values of the teachers’ estimates. the aim of the research was also to calculate the mean values of the teachers’ estimates, which reveal the teachers’ opinion about the impact of steam practices on their professional development and on the development of children's competences. in stage 2, the research study sought to determine the impact of steam practices on teacher professional development and on the development of children's competences. for this purpose, the exploratory factor analysis (efa) was carried out, since the research construct presented in fig. 1 is only an implicit but not empirically validated model (fabrigar & wegener, 2011), and the structural equation modeling (sem) was conducted in order to identify correlations among the distinguished latent factors (fodikes, 2017; henseler, 2017). figure 1. construct of components of steam practices and their impact on the development of children's competences and teacher professional development sample seeking to reveal the situation of steam education in the country under natural conditions, a random probability sample was applied. the research was conducted in all the municipalities of lithuania. the sample of the large-scale research included 1232 early childhood teachers, who science education environments and activities technological education environments and activities engineering education environments and activities mathematical education environments and activities activities promoting problemsolving creativity and art design environments and activities activities promoting ability to learn environments and activities promoting communication through the use of ict and other media soft skills steam as a play and natural interest in the world impact on children's competences impact on teacher professional development steam practices in pre-school education hard skills hard skills the skills developed: innovative ways applied to steam education journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 work with 3-6 year old children in state and private early childhood education institutions. table 1 provides data on the age, length of service and education of the teachers who participated in the research. the majority of the respondents were females—only 3 males participated in the research. the sample characteristics correspond to the characteristics of the population of teachers working in pre-school institutions. table 1 distribution of the respondents by age, length of service and education age of teachers cases % length of service cases % education cases % up to 30 years 97 7.87 up to 5 years 186 15.10 secondary 19 1.54 20–40 years 231 18.75 5–10 years 141 11.45 vocational 261 21.19 41–50 years 428 34.74 11–20 years 223 18.1 voc. bachelor's degree 671 54.46 51–60 years 393 31.90 21–30 years 574 46.59 bachelor's degree 146 11.85 over 61 years 83 6.74 over 31 years 108 8.76 master's degree 135 10.96 instrument the research study used a questionnaire developed by the authors of the article on the basis of the theoretical construct. the questionnaire consisted of 12 subscales (each subscale included a question and statements which had to be evaluated by the teachers). the likert’s scale was employed to rank the responses (teachers were requested to mark from 1 to 5 in the scale how frequently they apply the indicated steam practices and how strong their impact is). 4 questions were intended to evaluate what innovative pedagogical practices teachers implement in their educational institutions in the fields of science, mathematical, technological and engineering education (for development of hard, i.e. disciplinary, pre-academic, skills), e.g. ‘how often do you practice the children's exploratory and creative engineering activity (steam) in the group and in the institution?’ each question was followed by 7-8 statements, e.g. ‘together with children, we create projects of real and imaginary buildings, bridges, vehicles, etc., models of natural objects’, ‘together with children, we explore the stability, symmetry and asymmetry, proportions and features of constructions, etc.’, ‘together with children, we explore materials used for building structures and mechanisms: constructors, blocks, natural materials, secondary raw materials, etc.’ the teachers ranked each statement in a 5-point scale from 1 to 5, depending on how often they apply the indicated activities, environments and aids in practice. 4 questions were intended to evaluate what innovative pedagogical practices teachers implement for strengthening of children’s monkeviciene et al. 13 creativity, problem-solving, learning to learn and communication skills (for development of soft, i.e. personal, social, skills). the above-mentioned areas of education ensure socially responsible steam education for. one analogously constructed subscale was designed to evaluate how often teachers use innovative ways of steam education in practice. the ways were listed below the question (13 statements) and each was rated on a 5-point scale. the questionnaire also included two questions which targeted at evaluating the impact of innovative practices of steam education on teacher professional development (9 statements) and on 3-6-year-old children’s (cognitive, communication, social, artistic and health protection) competences (5 statements). the questionnaire also included a subscale on questions related to demographic information. 168 respondents were interviewed in the pilot stage of the research study. the measurement of internal compatibility of the questionnaire showed either good (cronbach alpha from 0.788 to 0.890, 8 subscales) or very good (cronbach alpha from 0.939 to 0.965, 3 subscales) internal compatibility of subscales. data collection tools that are utilized for the study should be stated in this section. each tool should be introduced by describing its features and explaining the reasons for choosing it while providing information regarding reliability and validity issues. data collection techniques in order to collect data, the questionnaire was placed online. we contacted the principal of each of the 721 pre-school institutions in the country by e-mail, providing electronic access to the questionnaire. in the e-mail, we explained the aim of the research, provided a definition of steam practices and comments on how to evaluate the frequency of the application of practices. we asked the principal to forward the e-mail to teachers who work with 3–6-year-old children. in addition, we made a phone call and tried to motivate them to participate in the research. during the telephone conversation, 14% of the institutions requested paper questionnaire forms, so the researcher handed the questionnaires directly to the teachers and then collected them. the questionnaire was completed online and in writing by 1 or more teachers from 584 (81%) institutions. data analysis techniques statistical data processing methods were applied for analysis of quantitative research results. the obtained research data were processed using spss 22 and ms excel programs adapted to windows. the efa was used for identifying latent factors (fabrigar & wegener, 2011). the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 maximum likelihood (ml) method of the common factor model (cfm) was also applied. the oblique rotation (promax) is used, when factors are interrelated and demonstrate correlation (brown, 2009; costello and osborne, 2005; finch, 2006; schreiber et al., 2006). the sem analysis for developing a model of impact paths was employed (fodikes, 2017; henseler, 2017). version 24.0 of the statistical program spss amos was used in the analysis. findings frequency of the application of innovative steam education practices innovative steam education practices applied by early childhood teachers. attempts were made to identify how often teachers apply innovative educational practices (activities, aids, environments) in different fields. the teachers indicated their frequency of steam education practices using a 5-point system: 1never, 2 – rarely, 3 – neither frequently nor rarely, 4 – frequently, 5 – always. fig. 2 presents mean values of all the 1232 teachers in the survey. the research results (fig. 2) show that teachers apply innovative practices of steam education for development of soft (problem-solving, creativity, learning to learn, communication) abilities and hard (science) skills more frequently than for development of hard (mathematical, technological, engineering) abilities. thus, more attention in early childhood education is allocated to development of civically active, socially responsible children, who feel a relation with nature, than to development of pre-academic, mathematical, engineering, technological skills and knowledge. figure 2. mean values of frequency of applying innovative steam education practices in a 5point scale (teachers’ opinion) 3.00 2.67 2.49 2.36 3.28 3.03 2.93 2.81 application of exploratory science activity application of exploratory creative engineering activity application of exploratory mathematical activity application of creative technological activity development of problem-solving skills encouragement of creativity development of ability to learn promotion of communication using various media, ict 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 monkeviciene et al. 15 innovative practices of mathematics, engineering and technologies, such as establishment of robotic laboratories, investigation of mechanical laws (levers, pulleys, slides, etc.), designing of mechanical models, clarification of stability of constructions, symmetry-asymmetry, use of 3d printers, interactive tables and floors, discovering of mathematics through arts and other practices are rarely used. activities of natural sciences such as explorations of water, soil, plants, animals and natural phenomena using a magnifying glass, a microscope, mirrors, bug traps, building “earthworms’ houses”, insect “hotels”, setting up terrariums for growing butterflies and water collectors are implemented more often. some teachers frequently employ such activities. methods applied by early childhood teachers for steam education. methods of education are also attributed to steam education practices, although they formed a separate group in this research. the authors of the article aimed to identify how frequently teachers apply the ways included into the questionnaire that support and extend children’s initiatives and interests and proactive moderation of educational process. the research results are presented in fig. 3. the research data reveal that teachers frequently apply child’s experiential learning; learning through questions, argumentation; ways of listening to child’s voice; search for information or ideas on the internet websites, children’s encyclopedias, etc.; ways of proactive involvement in child's play. this shows that the child-directed trend prevails in steam education: ways of supporting and extending children’s initiatives and interests. figure 3. mean values of frequency of applying ways for steam education by early childhood teachers in a 5-point scale (teachers’ opinion) 4.10 3.97 3.95 3.91 3.58 3.49 3.48 3.38 3.37 3.17 3.16 3.10 2.75 ways of experiential learning learning through questions, argumentation ways of listening to the voice of children ways of searching for information and idea ways of proactive engagement in children’s play case study, method of significant event ways of joint activities and joint participation ways of promoting imagination computational thinking ways of promoting reflection and self-reflection ways of promoting higher order thinking skills exploratory ways and exploratory conversation ways of promoting deep learning 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 teachers use exploratory methods and exploratory conversation (moderate observation of plant growth and recording of changes or testing of a designed mechanical model, suggest using tools for exploration, etc.) moderately often. they apply methods of promoting higher order thinking skills (use “mapping“, model activities, where a child sees actions and results of his/her thinking, etc.), methods of promoting reflection and self-reflection (encourage autobiographic reflection of own past and future, reflection on activity consequences in the context of values, reflection of learning), computational thinking (dividing of complex problems into stages, narrower problems) with the same frequency. teachers rarely use methods that promote deep learning (long collection of information on one object from various sources, its systemisation and reflection). this shows that teachers less frequently use ways of proactive moderation of steam education. this reveals lack of professionalism in this field. influence of innovative practices of steam education on teacher professional development the results of the majority research evidence the influence of teacher professional development on steam education. the authors of the article set a goal to clarify another problem whether application of innovative steam education practices (without specially organised training courses) itself have influence on teacher professional development. the teachers ranked the influence of applying steam education practice in a 5-point-scale: 1 – no influence, 2 – minor influence, 3 – average influence, 4 – big influence, 5 –major influence. the results of the research are presented in fig. 4. following the research data, the teachers notice a considerable influence on their attitude towards steam education: they have become more open to innovations of steam education, feel more responsibility for children’s learning outcomes and have started perceiving steam education as quality education for sustainable development. another important aspect of the influence refers to the increased ability of teachers to adapt education to diverse children ensuring equal learning opportunities because steam aids and technologies enhance possibilities of multimodal and experiential learning, make invisible actions of thinking as well as abstract ideas visible and targeted. the teachers also point to average and major influence on their abilities to organise education: to develop integral curriculum, to establish steam education environment, to work in teams, networks, to use new media and ict in the process of monkeviciene et al. 17 education. thus, implementation of innovative steam education practices has average or considerable influence on various professional areas of teachers. figure 4. mean values of influence of applying practices of steam education on teacher professional development in a 5-point scale (teachers’ opinion) impact of innovative practices of steam education on development of children’s competences the description of the achievements of pre-school age children was prepared in lithuania (iavpa, 2014). the description provides for 5 competences: health, social, communication, cognitive and artistic ones and they embrace 18 areas of achievements. the authors of the article aimed to evaluate the impact of steam education practices on development of all competences of children because the majority of previously conducted research focused on revealing the influence of steam on 3-6 year old children’s achievements only in the fields of steam disciplines (kazakoff et al., 2013; park et al., 2017). the research results are presented in fig. 5. figure 5. mean value of influence of applying practices of steam education on development of children’s competences in a 5-point scale (teachers’ opinion) 3.94 3.92 3.90 3.89 3.85 3.75 3.55 3.29 openness to steam education innovations increased ability to adapt education to diverse children improved responsibility for children’s learning outcomes increased ability to design integral curricular improved attitude towards the quality of children’s education changed ability to create environments for steam education ability to use new media, ict improved more frequently activities in teams, networks 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 4.16 4.13 4.02 3.97 3.91 cognitive competence artistic competence communication competence social competence health competence 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 the obtained research data allow stating that the teachers notice significant influence of applying innovative practices of steam education on development of all the competences of children. the values of impact on development of cognitive and artistic competences are slightly higher, whereas the values of influence on health and social competences are lower. thus, broad and integral impact on all the achievements of children may be assumed. the model of influence of innovative steam education practices on teacher professional development and children’s competence development since the sample of the present research was large, the exploratory factor analysis was used to identify correlations of factors. on the basis of correlations, the efa helps to divide the analysed variables into groups that are linked by latent factors eliminating insignificant variables (fabrigar & wegener, 2011). the conducted efa allowed distinguishing 8 latent factors that include 70 variables: factor 1: innovative methods of education. factor 2: influence of steam education practices on teacher professional development. factor 3: practices of mathematical education and promotion of deep learning. factor 4: practices of promoting problem-solving, creativity and ability to learn. factor 5: practices of engineering-technological education. factor 6: influence of steam education practices on children’s competences. factor 7: development of communication skills that include practices of applying new media and ict tools. factor 8: practices of science-technological education. factorability of steam practices and their impact on teachers' professional development and children's competences was examined by measures of sampling adequacy (kaiser-meyer-olkin test kmo = 0.973, <.0001; cronbach's alpha=.971). the data of total variance explained show that eigenvalues of the above-mentioned 8 factors are above 59.66 % of the cumulative variance. the factors make up several logical groups. five factors include practices that are applied by teachers for development of hard (pre-academic, disciplinary) and soft (personal, social, strategical) abilities of children. the factors “practices of science-technological education (within and outside an institution)” reveal integrity of development of hard abilities. as it can be seen from the available data, practices of technological education at early age do not form a separate factor monkeviciene et al. 19 but are integrated into engineering and science education. moreover, practices of sciencetechnological education in early childhood institutions contain two obvious components: education in an institution and outside it (explorations in the real natural environment, in educational centres for natural explorations, trips to specific places (bakery, artists’ workshops and others), where children are able to observe technological processes). the factor “practices of promoting problemsolving, creativity and ability to learn” discloses integrity of soft abilities development. the factor “practices of mathematical education and promotion of deep learning” shows that innovative practices ensure integral development of hard (mathematical skills in this particular case) and soft (personal skills: deep learning in this particular case) abilities. the factor “development of communication skills including practices of applying new media and ict tools” also evidences development of soft (personal skills: communication) and hard (technological) abilities. the factor “innovative ways of education” can form a separate logical group, which embraces all the ways of education applied by teachers. two factors of influence of steam education practices on teacher professional development and children competence development make up one more logical group. later attempts were made to identify correlations among the distinguished factors and the model of impact paths was designed (fig. 6). to this end, structural equation modelling (sem) analysis was undertaken. the conducted sem allowed identifying the reliability indicators of the model. the value cmin/df (minimum value of discrepancy divided by degrees of freedom) of the model equals 2.455 (the acceptable range: 1≤cmin/df≥3); the value nfi is 0,995 (a model is appropriate if the value is not lower than 0.95), the value of gfi (goodness of fit index) is 0.993 (a model is appropriate if the value is not lower than 0.95); the value of ifi ( incremental fit index) equals 0.997 (a model is appropriate if the value is not lower than 0.95); the value of tli (tuckerlewis index) is equal to 0.994 (a model is appropriate if the value is not lower than 0.95); the value of cfi (comparative fit index) is 0.997 (a model is appropriate if the value is not lower than 0.95); the value of rmsea (root mean square error of approximation) is 0.034 (an acceptable value is not lower than 0.05) (schreiber et al., 2006). the sem established that the devised model embracing 8 latent factors with 70 indicators is complete and fit. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 figure 6. standardised sem model of correlations among latent factors the model shows that application of innovative methods (factor 1) has direct and significant impact on practices of promoting problem-solving, creativity and ability to learn (factor 4) and through the latter factor influences practices of engineering-technological education (factor 5) and those of mathematical education and promotion of deep learning (factor 3). the application of innovative methods (factor 1) has a direct effect on the practices of mathematical education and the promotion of deep learning (factor 3) and through the latter has considerable influence on practices of science-technological education (factor 8) as well as on development of communication skills that include practices of applying new media and ict tools (factor 7). application of innovative ways (factor 1) directly influences development of communication skills (factor 7) and through the latter has impact on practices of science-technological education (factor 8). thus, application of innovative ways of education has direct or indirect impact on steam education practices with integral relationships. only the development of communication skills that include practices of applying new media and ict tools (factor 7) and practices of science-technological education (within an institution and outside it) (factor 8) influence teacher professional development (factor 2). the model also shows that the majority of steam education practices do not have any impact on children’s competence development (factor 6) with exception of practices of science-technological education (within an institution and outside it) (factor 8). this is slightly unexpected as a direct impact of practices of all the fields on children’s competence monkeviciene et al. 21 development was forecasted. the model discloses that the impact of steam education practices on children’s competence enhancement occurs through teacher professional development (factor 2), which is under influence of separate groups of steam education practices. discussion and implications the research study sought to find out how often pre-school teachers apply practices of different fields of steam education. the research results show that early childhood teachers in lithuania traditionally prioritise science education, i.e. one of the five steam fields. practices of science education are applied more often compared to those of mathematical, engineering, technological, art education. the developed model of impact of steam education practices shows that practices of science-technological education, which are joined into one latent factor, where the weights of science education practices are bigger, have a direct influence on professional development of early childhood education and 3-6 year old children’s competence development. other steam practices have no such effects. a more considerable attention to science education compared to other fields of steam has been observed as a global tendency. bers et al. (2013) draw attention to a similar trend stating that the natural world plays the most considerable role in early childhood curriculum, whereas human-made world (technologies, engineering) lacks attention. the overview of conducted research presented by somerville & williams (2015, p. 109) reveals that a global tradition of environmental education can be observed among early childhood teachers, which targets at enhancement of the link between the child and the natural world as well as to adopt values of environment protection because it is thought that children distance themselves from the nature due to rapid technological developments. even a certain conflict among practices of creativity education and practices of using new media and ict practices can be noticed. the present research evidences a negative relationship between the practices of engineeringtechnological education (factor 5), which are based on imagination and creativity, and communication education that involves use of new media and itc tools (factor 7). the research results also show that early childhood teachers do not have a full integral steam education conception as well as conception of modern sustainable development based on ideas of biocentrism. the present research revealed an imbalance between practices of developing hard (mathematical, engineering, technological) and soft (problem-solving, creativity, learning to learn and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 communication) abilities at early childhood age. practices of soft-ability development are more frequent than those targeted at enhancing hard abilities. however, a reverse imbalance is observed at other levels of education (basic and secondary education) (tylor, 2016). more frequently applied practices of developing skills of problem-solving, creativity, learning to learn, communication skills and ways of supporting and extending children’s initiatives and interests contribute to education of an actively learning and proactive citizen in a favourable way. however, rarely employed practices of developing hard (mathematical, engineering, technological) abilities and ways of proactive moderation do not ensure balanced steam education. the model for steam education at an early age, which was designed on the basis of this empirical research, does not distinguish technological education as a separate field, but integrates it into practices of science and engineering education. in this model practices of mathematical and science education make up the foundation for engineering education. practices of mathematical education (factor 3) influence those of engineering-technological education (factor 5) through science-technological education practices (factor 8), whereas the latter have a direct impact on implementation of engineering-technological education practices. the situation surprised us, but our model confirms essential characteristics of the model of relationships of steam disciplines presented by wang et al. (2018). engineering in this model (wang et al., 2018) is approached as a core field, and science and mathematics are the two cornerstones, whereas arts and technologies serve as additional aids searching for solutions to real-world problems. in the model of wang et al. (2018) practices of mathematical and science education build up the foundation for engineering education. thus, general tendencies can be envisaged, although our research was conducted at the level of early childhood education, whereas that of wang et al. (2018) took place in schools. the fact that an integral latent factor, which embraces practices of mathematical education and those promoting deep learning singled out in our model, proves why early mathematical knowledge becomes a predictor of later learning (erbilgin, 2017; kermani & aldemir, 2015). the aim of the research was to determine the impact of steam education practices applied by pre-school teachers on teacher professional development. the presented research allows stating that application of innovative steam education practices has an effect on teacher professional development, especially through the use of new media and ict tools for communication. using internet, social networks, websites (e.g. “etwinning”, “steam” and others), the teachers find new ideas, improve own abilities and educational practices. thus, a two-way direction can be monkeviciene et al. 23 identified: professional development (training) for steam education (bers et al., 2013; john et al., 2018; dejarnette, 2018) and steam education practices for professional development. finally, the research study sought to determine the impact of steam education practices applied by pre-school teachers on the development of children's competences. our research discloses that steam education has an essential influence on the development of children’s competences through teachers’ professional development. only when teachers have sufficient knowledge of steam, they apply relevant methods and tools and adequately link them to the development of steam competences. the research results allow changing the attitude towards teachers’ preparation to implement steam in early childhood. teachers may improve their professional competence not only in the training courses specially designed for this purpose but also independently searching for innovative steam practices and making attempts to implement them. in the process of steam education practices, they improve their competences; extend subject-specific knowledge in steam areas; develop steam pedagogy; design steam curriculum; and evaluate children's achievements. educational institutions should consider the accessibility of new media and ict tools for teachers and the development of communication networks. conclusion the research revealed that the global tradition of environmental education, which mainly focuses on science and education practices and allocates less attention to mathematical, engineering and technological education, is characteristic of early childhood teachers in the steam area. the imbalance between the development of children’s hard and soft skills is typical of steam education in favour of the latter. early childhood education teachers more frequently apply methods of support and extension of children’s initiatives and interests, whereas methods of proactive moderation of steam education are used less frequently. the implementation of steam education encourages self-directed improvement of teacher professional competences. teacher professional development has an essential impact on the development of children's steam education. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 references akman, b., kent kükürtcü, s., tarman, i., & şanlı,z.s. (2017). examining preschool and first grade teachers’ opinions on the effects of school readiness to classroom management. international journal of progressive education (ijpe), 13 (1), 22-41. aldemir, j. & kermani, h. (2017). integrated stem curriculum: improving educational outcomes for head start children. early child development and care, 197(11), 1-13. doi: 10.1080/03004430.2016.1185102 ata aktürk, a. & demircan, o. (2017). a review of studies on stem and steam education in early childhood. journal of kırşehir education faculty, 18(2), 757-776. ata aktürk, a., demircan, h. ö., senyurt, e., & cetin, m. (2017). turkish early childhood education curriculum from the perspective of stem education: a document analysis. journal of turkish science education, 14(4), 16-34. doi: 10.12973/tused.10210a bagiati, a. & evangelou, d. (2015). engineering curriculum in the preschool classroom: the teacher's experience. european early childhood education research journal, 23(1), 112─128. doi: 10.1080/1350293x.2014.991099 bati, k., yetisir, m. i., caliskan, i., gunes, g., & sacan, e. g. (2018). teaching the concept of time: a steam-based program on computational thinking in science education. cogent education, 5, 1-16. doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2018.1507306 bers, m. u., seddighin, s., & sullivan, a. (2013). ready for robotics: bringing together the t and e of stem in early childhood teacher education. journal of technology and teacher education, 21(3), 355-377. brenneman, k., lange, a., & nayfeld, i. (2019). integrating stem into preschool education: designing a professional development model in diverse settings. early childhood education journal, 47, 15–28. doi: 10.1007/s10643-018-0912-z brown, t. a. (2009). choosing the right type of rotation in pca and efa. jalt testing & evaluation sig newsletter, 13(3), 20–25. campbell, c., speldewinde, c., howitt, c., & macdonald, a. (2018). stem practice in the early years. creative education, 9, 11-25. doi: 10.4236/ce.2018.91002 costello, a. b. & osborne, j. w. (2005). best practices in exploratory factor analysis: four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. practical assessment, research & education, 10, 1–9. doi: 10.1.1.110.9154 dejarnette, n. k. (2018). implementing steam in the early childhood classroom. european journal of stem education, 3(3), 1-18. doi: 10.20897/ejsteme/3878 https://doi.org/10.12973/tused.10210a monkeviciene et al. 25 dou, r., hazari, z., dabney, k., sonnert, g., & sadler, p. (2019). early informal stem experiences and stem identity: the importance of talking science. science education, 103, 623–637. doi: 10.1002/sce.21499 english, l. d. (2016). stem education k-12: perspectives on integration. international journal of stem education, 3(1), 1-8. doi: 10.1186/s40594-016-0036-1 erbilgin, e. (2017). a comparison of the mathematical processes embedded in the content standards of turkey and singapore. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.02.01.3 fabrigar, l. r. & wegener, d. t. (2011). exploratory factor analysis: understanding statistics. new york, ny: oxford university press, inc. finch, h. (2006). comparison of the performance of varimax and promax rotations: factor structure recovery for dichotomous items. journal of educational measurement, 43(1), 39– 52. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-3984.2006.00003.x fodikes, e. (2017). pre-service teachers’ intention to use muves as practitioners – a structural equation modeling approach. journal of information technology education: research, 17, 47–68. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144239 guyotte, k. w. (2020). toward a philosophy of steam in the anthropocene. educational philosophy and theory, 52(7), 769-779. doi: 10.1080/00131857.2019.1690989 hachey, a. c. (2020). success for all: fostering early childhood stem identity. journal of research in innovative teaching & learning, 13(1), 135-139. doi: 10.1108/jrit-012020-0001 henseler, j. (2017). bridging desing and behavioral research with variance-based structural equation modeling. journal of advertising, 46(1), 178–192. doi: 1 0.1080/00913367.2017.1281780 hoisington, c. & winokur, j. (2015). seven strategies for supporting the “e” in young children’s stem learning. science and children, 53(1), 44-52. iavpa. (2014). ikimokyklinio amžiaus vaikų pasiekimų aprašas. šmm: šac. john, m., sibuma, b., wunnava, s., & anggoro, f. (2018). an iterative participatory approach to developing an early childhood problem-based stem curriculum. european journal of stem education, 3(3), 07, 1-12. doi: 10.20897/ejsteme/3867 kazakoff, e. r., sullivan, a., & bers, m. u. (2013). the effect of a classroom-based intensive robotics and programming workshop on sequencing ability in early childhood. early childhood education journal, 41(4), 245-255. doi: 10.1007/s10643-012-0554-5 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-016-0036-1 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.2006.00003.x https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144239 https://doi.org/10.20897/ejsteme/3867 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 1-27 kermani, h. & aldemir, j. (2015). preparing children for success: integrating science, maths, and technology in early childhood classroom. early child development and care, 185(9), 1504-1527. doi: 10.1080/03004430.2015.1007371 kim, y. & park, n. (2012). the effect of steam education on elementary school student’s creativity improvement. in computer applications for security, control and system engineering. communications in computer and information science, 339, 115-121. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-35264-5_16 knaus, m. & roberts, p. (2017). stem in early childhood education. a research in practice series title. australia: early childhood australia inc. land, m. h. (2013). full steam ahead: the benefits of integrating the arts into stem. procedia computer science, 20(2013), 547 – 552. laureta, b. (2018). soft skills and early childhood education: strange bedfellows or an ideal match? he kupu, 5(3), 28-34. mcdonald, c. (2016). stem education: a review of the contribution of the disciplines of science. technology, engineering and mathematics, 27(4), 530-569. mengmeng, z., xiantong, y., & xinghua, w. (2019). construction of steam curriculum model and case design in kindergarten. american journal of educational research, 7(7), 485490. doi: 10.12691/education-7-7-8 monkeviciene, o., vildziuniene, j., & valinciene, g. (2020). the impact of teacher-initiated activities on identifying and verbalizing ways of metacognitive monitoring and control in six-year-old children. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 72-92. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.5 moomaw, s. & davis, j. a. (2010). stem comes to preschool. young children, 65(5), 12-18. murphy, s., macdonald, a., danaia, l. (2020). sustaining stem: a framework for effective stem education across the learning continuum. stem education across the learning continuum, 9-28. park, h., byun, s., sim, j., han, h., & baek, y. s. (2016). teachers’ perceptions and practices of steam education in south korea. eurasia journal of mathematics, science & technology education, 12(7), 1739-1753. doi: 10.12973/eurasia.2016.1531a park, m., dmitrov, d. m., patterson, l. g., & park, d. (2017). early childhood teachers’ beliefs about readiness for teaching science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. journal of early childhood research, 15(3), 275 –291. doi: 10.1177/1476718x15614040 https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2015.1007371 https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1531a monkeviciene et al. 27 putriene, n. (2017). empowering factors of interdisciplinary study program design at university. unpublished doctorate dissertation, kaunas university of technology, lithuania. schreiber, j. b., nora, a., stage, f. k., barlow, e. a., king, j., nora, a., & barlow, e. a. (2006). reporting structural equation modelling and confirmatory factor analysis results: a review. the journal of educational research, 99(6), 232–338. doi: 10.3200/joer.99.6.323-338 sharapan, h. (2012). from stem to steam: how early childhood educators can apply fred rogers' approach. young children, 67(1), 36. simoncini, k. & lasen, m. (2018). ideas about stem among australian early childhood professionals: how important is stem in early childhood education? international journal of early childhood, 50, 353–369. doi: 10.1007/s13158-018-0229-5 sochacka, n. w., guyotte, k., & walther, j. (2016). learning together: a collaborative autoethnographic exploration of steam (stem+ the arts) education. journal of engineering education, 105(1), 15-42. doi: 10.1002/jee.20112 somerville, m. & williams, c. (2015). sustainability education in early childhood: an updated review of research in the field. contemporary issues in early childhood, 16(2), 102 –117. tarman, b. & tarman, i. (2011). teachers’ involvement in children’s play and social interaction. elementary education online, 10 (1). 325-337. toran, m., aydın, e., & etgüer, d. (2020). investigating the effects of stem enriched implementations on school readiness and concept acquisition of children. ilkogretim online elementary education online, 19(1), 299-309. doi: 10.17051/ilkonline.2020.656873 torres-crespo, m. n., kraatz, e., & pallansch, l. (2014). from fearing stem to playing with it: the natural integration of stem into the preschool classroom. srate journal, 23(2), 816. tylor, p. c. (2016). why is a steam curriculum perspective crucial to the 21st century? retrieved july 20, 2019 from https://www.file:///c:/users/ona/desktop/hamburgas2019/sustainability/session%20n%20_%20why%20is%20a%20steam%20curriculum %20perspective%20crucial%20to%20the.pdf wang, x., xu, w., & guo, l. (2018). the status quo and ways of steam education promoting china’s future social sustainable development. sustainability, 10(12), 4417. doi: 10.3390/su10124417 file:///c:/c:/users/ona/desktop/hamburgas-2019/sustainability/session%20n%20_%20why%20is%20a%20steam%20curriculum%20perspective%20crucial%20to%20the.pdf file:///c:/c:/users/ona/desktop/hamburgas-2019/sustainability/session%20n%20_%20why%20is%20a%20steam%20curriculum%20perspective%20crucial%20to%20the.pdf file:///c:/c:/users/ona/desktop/hamburgas-2019/sustainability/session%20n%20_%20why%20is%20a%20steam%20curriculum%20perspective%20crucial%20to%20the.pdf https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124417 https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124417 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2), 78-99 the paradoxes of citizenship education: frames and factors influencing dispositions toward discussing political issues in the classroom marta estellés1, jesús romero2 & francisco j. amo3 abstract this article aims to explore two assumptions that have underpinned most research on teachers’ perceptions of citizenship education (ce). these are, firstly, that teachers’ perceptions of ce are relatively coherent, conscious and classifiable into citizenship models and, secondly, that these perceptions are strongly connected to their political ideology and civic engagement. in this article, we present a study conducted at a spanish public university to test these two assumptions. we designed a questionnaire to investigate the possible effect of tacit framing on preservice teachers’ perceptions of ce –by observing whether the use of different wording led them to reason about ce in different, or even contradictory, ways– and the relationship between preservice teachers’ disposition toward discussing current political issues and their political ideology and civic engagement. the findings illustrate the power of framing in shaping ce perceptions and show a non-significant relationship between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their political ideology/civic engagement. although the items used in the questionnaire cannot fully account for the diversity of views of ce, political ideologies and civic engagement experiences, the results provide enough evidence to begin questioning the assumptions that have dominated the research on teachers’ perceptions about ce. these results have important implications for social studies educators and scholars. keywords: citizenship education, teacher education, preservice teachers, civic engagement, political ideology, dispositions toward teaching political issues. introduction as is widely known, citizenship education (ce) has received a considerable boost at an international level during the last few decades. thanks, to a large extent, to the attention given by supranational organizations (unesco, the oecd, the european commission, etc.), many countries have included ce in their national curricula as a discrete subject and/or as a crosscurricular goal (eurydice, 2012, 2017). however, the available research is showing that its implementation is diverse and even contradictory (e.g., bickmore, 2014; evans, 2006; sant, 2013). of course, normative models of ‘citizenship’, like those of ‘democracy’, are plural and evoke 1 lecturer, university of cantabria, marta.estelles@unican.es 2 assoc. prof., university of cantabria, jesus.romero@unican.es 3 senior lecturer, university of cantabria, franciscojose.amo@unican.es mailto:marta.estelles@unican.es mailto:jesus.romero@unican.es mailto:franciscojose.amo@unican.es journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 79 different ideological worldviews. for this reason, there is a perennial discussion about what ce should be, and the comparative analyses of different ce programs have identified diverse political approaches. for example, knight-abowitz and harnish (2006) distinguished up to seven discrepant approaches (civic republican, liberal, feminist, reconstructionist, cultural, queer, and transnational citizenship) and shultz (2007) envisaged three major approaches (neoliberal, radical and transformational). however, even though the educational program’s delivery bias is obviously a conditioning factor, it is not the only factor explaining the uneven scope and meaning of the ce actually practiced in schools. indeed, the implementation of an educational program is never a mere mirror reflection of the designers’ intentions, among other reasons, because there is no implementation without the mediation of teachers. and this mediation, in turn, depends on their interpretations, dispositions and expectations and on other elements of the teaching culture (meier, 2019; romero & luis, 2007). therefore, numerous scholars have focused their attention on the study of teachers’ understandings of ce (e.g., marri et al., 2014; reichert & torney-purta, 2019; sim et al., 2017). two main assumptions underlie most of these studies. the first is that the teachers’ deliberate actions are the conscious and relatively coherent embodiment of their different ways of understanding ce, which can be classified in models such as the one developed by westheimer and kahne (2004). the second is that these perceptions are strongly connected to their political ideology and civic engagement. although the previously mentioned studies have provided us with valuable insights, their starting assumptions can be revised because they have overlooked two important lines of research. first, they have not considered the implications of studies conducted in the fields of cognitive psychology, political science and other social sciences that have questioned the axiom of the rational actor (e.g., haidt, 2012; kahneman, 2012). second, studies on teachers’ perceptions about ce have often disregarded that ce understandings do not only pertain to how teachers become citizens but also educators. in this regard, we should not forget what we already know about the process of becoming a teacher within what tyack and cuban (1995) called the ‘grammar of schooling’; that is, the institutional culture of school (bullough, 1997; cochran-smith & zeichner, 2005; smith crocco & livingston, 2017). the study reported in this article was conducted in the teacher education programs of a spanish public university with the aim of empirically testing the above assumptions. it aims to investigate estellés et al. both the rationality of ce perceptions and the relationship between these perceptions and preservice teachers’ civic experiences. the interest of these inquiries is not merely academic; they have important implications for teacher education practice. if the implementation of ce is certainly influenced by teachers’ civic perceptions and experiences, then the efforts of our social studies education courses should be focused on expanding preservice teachers’ notions of citizenship and providing them with more opportunities for political participation. but if not, or at least not as much as it is presupposed, we should perhaps start thinking of other strategies such as helping future teachers to denaturalize the school conventions that eventually influence their ce practice or helping them to deal with the challenges of teaching ce in ethically and politically divided societies (mcavoy & hess, 2013; zembylas, 2020; zembylas & loukaidis, 2021). literature review: research on teachers’ perceptions about citizenship education despite the obvious discrepancies between models that normativize certain relationships between individuals, society and the political community, there is widespread consensus about the dimensions that should form an education for citizenship (althof & berkowitz, 2006). of course, not everyone interprets these dimensions in the same way or attributes the same relative importance to each of them. however, to provide an example, the generic model promoted by the european commission (eurydice, 2012, 2017) has been accepted as a common reference for many european countries. this model considers that any ce should address four major purposes, described below. the first is to develop the political literacy of students, which includes: (a) learning about social, political and civic institutions, national constitutions, citizens’ rights and duties and human rights; (b) recognizing both the specific heritage and the cultural and linguistic diversity of society; and (c) analyzing the problems and controversies affecting the public arena. this last objective is not a mere addition but is derived directly from the very notion of democracy. as the political scientist robert a. dahl (1999) argued, if the demos recognizes all citizens as politically equal, then all citizens should be treated as if they were equally qualified to participate in the decision-making process. this, in turn, entails the requirement that all people have equal and effective opportunities to understand public problems and the alternative policies that can be followed to face these problems (dahl, 1999, p. 47). the second major purpose of ce, according to eurydice’s definition, is to cultivate critical thinking skills. the third purpose is to develop civic virtues and essential journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 81 values for democratic coexistence. and the fourth, to train students to actively participate in the community and public life at different levels (school, local, national and international). the evidence gathered from the available empirical research suggests that some of the generic purposes of ce are often devalued when implemented in schools. for example, several studies have found that a significant percentage of teachers consider education for citizen participation as something very disconnected from their teaching goals (e.g., garcía & de alba, 2012; reichert & torney-purta, 2019; roberts et al., 2019) and that teachers tend to avoid teaching about political controversies and issues (hess & mcavoy, 2015; ho et al., 2017). this evidence has led many educational scholars to focus on the study of teachers and preservice teachers’ understandings of ce as a possible handicap to developing a more comprehensive interpretation of ce in their classrooms (e.g., marri et al., 2014; martin, 2010). using both qualitative and quantitative methods, these studies have examined teachers’ perceptions of ce, by classifying teachers into citizenship types based on different models (e.g., logan, 2011; sim et al., 2017). the model articulated by westheimer and kahne (2004) that distinguishes between personally responsible, participatory and justice-oriented citizens has been frequently used in the field (see, for example, faden, 2012; marri et al., 2014; o’brien & smith, 2011; patterson et al., 2012). we argue that this way of exploring teachers’ perceptions about ce, although valuable and revealing in many ways, also has limitations. the first limitation can be found in the focus of these studies, which is usually the explicit rationalizations of the teachers. that is, studies tend to focus on the teachers’ declarative thinking and verbalized preferences, assuming that their conscious and self-regulated ideas accurately explain their ce teaching practices. of course, expressed intentions are a constitutive element of ce teaching practice (see evans, 2006). however, this approach overlooks the latest advances in political psychology and political science that have questioned the image of the purely rational actor provided with a cartesian ‘civic mind’ (haidt, 2012; lakoff, 2008; westen, 2008). as these advances have proven, our political opinions, judgments, decisions and behaviors cannot be solely understood in rational and deliberative terms. our representations of the public sphere, the common good and citizenship (and, therefore, education) are not only nourished by reflections, rational arguments and critically evaluated evidence, but also by affects, emotions, memories, intuitive forms of thought (haidt, 2012; kahneman, 2012) and tacit commonplaces (wagner et al., 2012). all these elements are usually estellés et al. articulated in tacit mental frames, which lakoff (2008) defines as the ‘cognitive unconscious’. that is, latent networks of meaning, which are not directly accessible but are expressed through the ‘common sense’ and the many simplifying shortcuts of language (clichés, implicit tropes, intuitive associations, etc.). in particular, all words are defined in relation to these frames of meaning. different words activate different frames of thought (lakoff, 2008) shaping understanding, reasoning and decision making (thibodeau & borodisky, 2011). as several scholars have pointed out, the discourse of ce is full of metaphors: from the description of citizens as plants/seeds (pashby, 2011; estellés & romero, 2019) to the nation as a family (fischman & haas, 2012). the study of these metaphors reveals a lot about how we reason about ce. this approach, however, has rarely been applied to the study of how teachers understand ce. the second limitation is that research on (preservice) teachers’ perceptions of ce has often inferred teachers’ approaches to ce from their views of citizenship (logan, 2011; marri et al., 2014; patterson et al., 2012), democracy (hahn, 2003; price, 2008) or social justice (carr, 2008). this seemingly obvious relationship should not be taken for granted. firstly, because it overlooks other variables such as teachers’ conceptions about schooling and pedagogy (gatti & payne, 2011) or teachers’ educational background (obiagu, 2019). secondly, because there is little research actually exploring this relationship, especially in relation to the teaching of current political issues. the few existing studies, mostly conducted with teachers in the united states, do not offer conclusive results. it seems that the classroom climate and methods of instruction are coherent with the teachers’ political beliefs, yet the relationship between these beliefs and the type of civic knowledge taught is still unclear. hess and mcavoy’s mixed-method study (2015) showed a connection between classroom climate and teachers’ political views in three us states. this result was also obtained by gainous and martens (2016) who analyzed the cived data from us civics teachers. the quantitative research conducted by knowles (2018) found that us teachers’ instructional practices in ce are consistent with their ideological beliefs. that is, conservative teachers on average prefer teacher-text instruction more than liberal teachers and those teachers classified as critical have a better disposition to use instructional strategies such as discussions or debates. rogers and westheimer’s (2017) large study found no relationship between the frequency with which us teachers teach about economic inequality and their political ideology, although the teaching of this issue was positively correlated with their level of civic engagement. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 83 as social studies teacher educators ourselves, we were genuinely interested in testing these two generalized assumptions because they have important implications for teacher education. if we want to move the education of future teachers for ce beyond models of subjectivity based on the cartesian rational citizen (estellés & fischman, 2020; estellés & romero, 2019; fishman & haas, 2012), we need to better understand the nuances of the ‘irrationalities’ of ce. also, understanding the factors related to a favorable disposition toward discussing political issues would better inform our teacher education courses. research questions this study aims to investigate a) the possible effect of tacit framing on preservice teachers’ perceptions of ce by observing whether the use of different wording led them to reason about ce in different, or even contradictory, ways; and b) whether there is a significant correlation between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their political ideology and civic engagement. therefore, this study addresses the following two research questions:  does using different wording about ce lead preservice teachers to hold different opinions about ce?  is there a significant relationship between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their political ideology/civic engagement? methods the study reported in this article is part of a larger research project aimed at exploring preservice teachers’ perceptions of ce funded by the vice-rectorate for research and knowledge transfer of the university of cantabria (no. 11.vu03.64662). this study is a descriptive and correlational research, as it is aimed at both describing the effect of framing on preservice teacher’s perceptions of ce and determining the relationship between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom (dependent variable) and their political ideology and civic engagement (independent variables). this quantitative study was conducted at a public university in spain during the 2017/18 academic year. it is a pilot study that we plan to expand across institutions and widen to include in-service teachers. estellés et al. sample this study gathered data from preservice teachers enrolled in a medium size public university in spain. the preservice teachers that participated were chosen from the early childhood and elementary education teaching programs offered by this university. a simple random sample generated with microsoft excel software was used to select the participants. the target population of the study consisted of 1,335 students (both partand full-time) enrolled in the previously mentioned programs during the 2017/18 academic year. in order to have sufficient statistical power to detect the associations of interest, a sample size of n = 299 was obtained from considering a 95% confidence level, a precision of 5% and a variance of 0.5. after applying a 10% loss rate, the final sample size consisted of 334. in the end, a total of 324 preservice teachers participated in the study. the main characteristics of the sample are described in table 1. 268 participants were females (82.7%) and 56 males (17.3%), with ages between 17.8 and 44.9 years old (m = 21.7, sd = 4.0). participants were evenly distributed among the four years of early childhood education (42.9%) and elementary education (57.1%). table 1 main characteristics of the sample variable age (years) mean, sd 021.7 03.7 gender (n)% category male 056.0 17.3 female 268.0 82.7 degree (n)% category early childhood education 139.0 42.9 elementary education 185.0 57.1 grade level (n)% category first 088.0 27.0 second 094.0 29.0 third 068.0 21.0 forth 074.0 23.0 instrument our data drew from a questionnaire that was collaboratively designed and based on previously conducted studies (arroyo, 2013; estellés & romero, 2019; rogers & westheimer, 2017; journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 85 thibodeau & boroditsky, 2011). the questionnaire was organized into two main sets of questions. the first set of items was designed to assess the coherence of preservice teachers’ perceptions about ce. the second aimed to characterize the participants’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom, self-reported political ideology, and civic engagement. in addition, the questionnaire included variables to characterize participants’ gender, age, teacher education program and grade level. to assess the coherence of preservice teachers’ perceptions about ce, we developed a set of inquiries based on studies conducted in other fields that have used surveys containing a series of similar questions formulated in different ways to explore the impact of framing on the opinions of individuals regarding current affairs (see arroyo, 2013; thibodeau & boroditsky, 2011). our previous research with the teacher educators of the participants in this study (estellés & romero, 2019) helped us generate a clear set of predictions. in this previous study, we found that the discourses of ce, children’s participatory rights and values education generated a powerful and inspiring narrative among the participants that conflicted with a generalized reluctance to include ‘politics’ in schools. while the framing of ce evoked ideas of progress and democracy, there seemed to be a clear opposition between the framing of childhood (joyful, pure and innocent) and the framing of politics (corrupted, stained and conflicting). for the present study, we decided to contrast these apparently conflicting frames. drawing upon our previous research and the literature on teaching political controversies, we identified a set of keywords to induce lexical associations. these keywords were extracted from common arguments used by teachers to avoid addressing current political issues in the classroom. one of these arguments is that children are too innocent and immature to be exposed to complex and controversial political issues (lópez facal, 2011). this protective paternalism rests on a rousseauian conception of what it means to ‘be a child’ promoted by most naturalistic, romantic and psychological pedagogies of the 19th and 20th centuries (ariès, 1962; romero & luis, 2005; wyness, 2006). this view is still very present in schools (ho et al., 2017), even though most current pedagogies have embraced the discourse of the rights of the child that explicitly recognizes the right for children to reflect upon and participate in issues that affect their lives. another common argument against teaching about current political issues points out the need to be impartial and avoid indoctrination (lópez facal, 2011; ross, 2017), a supposed danger that conventional school subjects, still seen by many teachers as ‘natural’ and ‘neutral’ bodies of estellés et al. knowledge, would prevent (romero, 2014). from these arguments, we selected words such as ‘innocence’, ‘manipulation’, ‘neutrality’, ‘children’s rights’ and ‘political discussion’. for the framing of ce, the words ‘democracy’, ‘values’, ‘critical thinking’, ‘dialogue’ and ‘participation’ were chosen, as they are included in most ce definitions (althof & berkowitz, 2006; eurydice, 2012). once keywords were identified, we took the four dimensions of ce described by the eurydice reports (2012) (2017) –political literacy, critical thinking, values and participation– and designed two or three statements per dimension, plus two general questions about the importance of ce. each group of items presented similar statements formulated in different ways to verify the impact of framing in the preservice teachers’ perceptions about ce (see table 2). table 2 statements used in the questionnaire to assess the coherence of preservice teachers’ perceptions about ce dimension of ce frames in conflict statements political literacy children and politics i think that children have the right to reflect on the problems that affect their lives i think that schools cannot isolate children from what happens in social and political life i think political issues should be discussed in schools critical thinking skills critical thinking and children’s immaturity it is important to develop critical thinking so that children can better understand what happens around them children are too young to critically examine the social world. it is better to leave this for more advanced stages of education values values education and neutrality teachers should teach values of respect for diversity and conflict resolution through dialogue teachers should teach in a neutral manner, leaving their beliefs aside and avoiding conflict participation children’s innocence and right to participate children should be given a voice and involved in the decisions that concern them children are too innocent, and their decisions could be easily manipulated, not pursuing what is best for them to evaluate preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom, the following question was asked: ‘do you think current political issues should be discussed at schools?’. similarly, preservice teachers’ self-reported political ideology was assessed by the question: ‘how would you characterize yourself?’ (very liberal, somewhat liberal, moderate, somewhat conservative, or very conservative), as previously employed by rogers and westheimer journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 87 (2017). preservice teachers’ civic engagement was also measured following rogers and westheimer’s (2017) work. civic engagement is a composite variable that considered the frequency with which (never, once or twice, monthly, weekly, or a few times a week/daily) preservice teachers follow political news (civic item 1), talk about politics with family and friends (civic item 2) and participate in organizations that aim to make a difference in their community or broader society (civic item 3). following rogers and westheimer (2017), answers to these questions were coded as: never = 0; once or twice = 1; monthly = 2; weekly = 4; a few times a week/daily = 8. responses were entered into the following formula, which ascribed more weight to civic item 3: (𝐶𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑚 1 + 𝐶𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑚 2 + (2 𝑥 𝐶𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑚 3)) 4 the result was then categorized according to the following ranges: 0–3.5 = low engagement, 4.0– 5.5 = moderate engagement, and 6–8 = high engagement. data collection the questionnaire was distributed in november 2017, after being trialed with a small group of preservice teachers. the questionnaire was distributed to the participants via email. google forms was the platform used for the questionnaire. the time used for the completion of the questionnaire ranged between 10 and 15 minutes. data analysis descriptive statistics were used to describe the preservice teachers’ perceptions about ce, their willingness or reluctance to introduce political issues in the classroom, the categories on the ideological spectrum and the prevalence of low, moderate, and high civic engagement. to address the first research question, the statements related to preservice teachers’ perceptions about ce in the questionnaire were contrasted, using the frames presented in table 2, to assess the coherence of their perceptions. to respond to the second research question, the chi-square test was applied to assess whether there were significant differences between the self-reported political ideology of preservice teachers (independent variable), their civic engagement (independent variable) and their estellés et al. disposition toward including political issues in the classroom (dependent variable). verification of normality of quantitative variables was performed using the shapiro-wilk test. statistical procedures were conducted using the r-3.3.1 software along with the r studio. ethical considerations due to the sensitivity of the objective of the study, ethical issues were carefully contemplated from the beginning. prior to data collection, an information session was given to the selected preservice teachers to explain the objectives of the study, the characteristics of their participation and the guarantees that would protect their confidentiality and anonymity. those who voluntarily agreed to participate signed a consent form. this study has received the ethical approval of the ethics committee of the university of cantabria [project no. 07/2017]. findings research question 1: does using different wording about ce lead preservice teachers to hold different opinions about ce? the results of the study associated with the first research question reveal a clear effect from framing in the preservice teachers’ perceptions of ce, as the use of different wording led them to change their agreement/disagreement in similar statements (see table 3). the responses to the statements related to the ‘political literacy’ dimension provide a good example of this shift. as can be seen in table 3, it is widely accepted that children have the right to reflect on the problems that affect their lives. however, such acceptance becomes gradually diluted as the word ‘political’ gains weight in the development of this idea. as shown in table 3, the support declines from 89.8% to 35.8%, even though any careful consideration of the implications of such right of the child would easily infer that the problems that affect children’s lives are also political. participants’ opinions on the inclusion of political issues in schools is, therefore, highly conditioned by the framing that is utilized. preservice teachers’ perceptions about the ‘critical thinking’ dimension of ce are also susceptible to variations in framing. the majority of the participants think that it is important to develop children’s critical thinking, while more than a half of them recognize that children are ‘too young’ for this and that it would be better to postpone the development of this skill until they are older journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 89 (see table 3). this indicates that around 40% of the participants hold both contradictory views at the same time. contradictions could also be observed in the ‘values’ and ‘participation’ dimensions of ce. as can be seen in table 3, both the ideas of neutrality in education and the teaching of values coexist, despite their contradictory character. these ideas are very widespread in the mentality of the future teachers surveyed. another paradox emerged in the participants’ perceptions about children’s participation: while 72.5% of the participants openly embraced a children’s right to participate in the decisions that concern them, 62% of the participants subscribed a paternalistic view of childhood agreeing that children are too innocent to make their own informed decisions. table 3 results showing the impact of framing in ce perceptions dimension of ce item agree disagree n % n % political literacy i think that children have the right to reflect on the problems that affect their lives 291 89.8 033 10.2 i think that schools cannot isolate children from what happens in social and political life 222 68.5 102 31.5 i think that political issues should be discussed in schools 116 35.8 208 64.2 critical thinking skills it is important to develop critical thinking so that children can better understand what happens around them 271 83.6 053 16.4 children are too young to critically examine the social world. it is better to leave this for more advanced stages 182 56.2 142 43.8 values teachers should teach values of respect for diversity and conflict resolution through dialogue 301 92.9 023 7.1 teachers should teach in a neutral manner, leaving their beliefs aside and avoiding conflict 265 81.8 059 18.2 participation children should be given a voice and involved in the decisions that concern them 235 72.5 089 27.4 children are too innocent, and their decisions could be easily manipulated, not pursuing what is best for them 201 62.0 123 38.0 research question 2: is there a relationship between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their political ideology/civic engagement? estellés et al. in this section, we present the findings in response to the second research question that explores whether there is a significant correlation between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their political ideology and civic engagement. table 4 shows the descriptive results of the participants’ disposition toward addressing political issues in the classroom, self-reported political ideology and civic engagement. regarding participants’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom, 35.8% (95% ci: 30.8-41.2) of the participants were favorable to including these issues in the classroom, with no significant differences between males and females. in relation to the self-reported ideology of the participants, most participants were moderate (42.2%; 95% confidence interval [ci]: 36.9–47.7), with no significant differences between males and females. regarding civic engagement, 259 of the 320 participants showed low engagement (80.9%; 95% ci: 76.3–84.9), 41 subjects a moderate engagement (12.8%; 95% ci: 9.6–16.9), and 20, high engagement (6.3%; 95% ci: 4.1–9.5). no significant differences were found between male and female engagement (p = 0.578). table 4 preservice teachers’ self-reported political ideology, disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and civic engagement variable gender p male female n % n % ideology category very liberal somewhat liberal moderate somewhat conservative very conservative 10.0 11.0 25.0 9.0 0.0 18.2 20.0 45.5 16.4 0.0 39.0 72.0 108.0 32.0 9.0 15.0 27.7 41.5 12.3 3.5 0.449 political issues in class category 17 39 30.4 69.6 99.0 169.0 36.9 63.1 0.435 favorable reluctant civic engagement category low moderate high 43.0 9.0 4.0 76.8 16.1 7.1 216.0 32.0 16.0 81.8 12.1 6.1 0.672 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 91 the relationship between the preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their self-reported political ideology has been analyzed (see table 5), as well as the relationship between the participants’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their civic engagement (see table 6). table 5 relationship between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their political ideology very liberal somewhat liberal moderate somewhat conservative very conservative n % n % n % n % n % favorable 8 28.6 45 43.3 47 35.3 8 19.5 3 33.3 reluctant 20 71.4 59 56.7 86 64.7 33 80.5 6 66.7 as can be seen in table 5, liberal preservice teachers are more willing than conservative preservice teachers to include political discussions in the classroom, yet there is not a statistically significant association (x-squared = 7.943, df = 4, p-value = 0.094). no significant relationship has been found either between participants’ disposition toward addressing political issues in the classroom and civic engagement (x-squared = 5,470, df = 2, p-value = 0.065). table 6 relationship between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and civic engagement low civic engagement moderate civic engagement high civic engagement n % n % n % favorable 88 34.0 15 36.6 12 60.0 reluctant 171 66.0 26 63.4 8 40.0 discussion and implications for teacher education this study has explored whether the use of different wording leads preservice teachers to hold different opinions about ce (research question 1) and whether there is a significant correlation estellés et al. between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their political ideology and civic engagement (research question 2). the findings of this study show how using different words in ce leads preservice teachers to reason in contradictory ways. also, this study has not found any statistically significant correlation between preservice teachers’ disposition toward one of the main dimensions of ce (teaching about political issues) and their political ideology/civic engagement. below, we discuss these results in detail, considering their implications for teacher education. regarding the first research question, the findings of this study illustrate the power of framing in shaping judgments and perceptions related to ce. these results call into question rationally based approaches in the exploration of teachers’ perceptions of ce (e.g., marri et al., 2014; o’brien & smith, 2011; patterson et al., 2012). the contradictions between responses to statements formulated in different ways show the influence of intuitive associations in ce representations. the nature of these automatic ways of thinking about ce deserves more attention from educational scholars, as other studies have previously warned (bougher, 2014; fischman & haas, 2012). the proven effect of framing in preservice teachers’ ce beliefs has relevant implications for teacher education. firstly, this effect casts doubt on the effectiveness of simply introducing future teachers to desirable discourses and principles related to ce. as other scholars have also suggested (adams, 2014; romero, 2014; thornberg, 2008), these ideal principles are often not enough to undermine deep-rooted beliefs about childhood, values education or the school curriculum. secondly, the proven effect of framing also denotes insufficient training of preservice teachers to educate children as citizens. as several studies have previously pointed out, teachers do not receive enough training to teach ce (barr et al., 2015; chin & barber, 2010; obiagu, 2019; rahmadi et al., 2020) and feel underprepared to teach about politically sensitive issues (oulton et al., 2004; zembylas & kambani, 2012). dealing with dialogue and dissent (davies, 2014), community pressures (mcavoy & hess, 2013) and emotional reactions (zembylas & kambani, 2012) becomes a difficult challenge for teachers to undertake. in relation to the second research question, the present study, in contrast to other studies (e.g., knowles, 2018), cannot confirm the existence of a significant correlation between preservice teachers’ political ideology/civic engagement and their disposition toward including political issues in the classroom. although the results obtained do not allow us to make categorical statements given the low number of ‘highly engaged’ preservice teachers, they suggest that we journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 93 cannot delimit the generalized reluctance to include political issues in the classroom –also detected by other studies (e.g., misco & patterson, 2007; oulton, et al., 2004)– to a particular ideology or level of civic engagement. this seemingly generalized attitude appears to be more strongly related to certain views about childhood, the role of teachers or the curriculum that are deeply rooted in the institutional culture of the school. this circumstance should be taken into account by teacher educators. this does not imply, however, that offering opportunities for preservice teachers to engage in political and social issues should not be a goal of social studies education courses. indeed, the low levels of civic engagement found, although similar to those obtained by the spanish youth institute (injuve, 2017), reveal how greatly this approach is needed. in summary, the findings of this study call into question two of the assumptions that have underpinned most studies about (preservice) teachers’ perceptions of ce. first, that these perceptions are classifiable in coherent models of citizenship. second, that these perceptions are strongly connected to (preservice) teachers’ political ideology and civic engagement. the findings illustrate the power of framing in shaping ce perceptions and show a non-significant relationship between preservice teachers’ disposition toward including political issues in the classroom and their political ideology/civic engagement. these results encourage us to more seriously consider other factors that may influence teachers’ perceptions of ce. limitations of the study the findings of this study have some limitations. first and foremost, the statements used in the questionnaire cannot fully account for the diversity of views about ce, political ideologies and civic engagement experiences. we are aware that each of these constructs themselves are complex and multidimensional and would require further study. however, the statements used provide enough evidence to start questioning the assumptions that have dominated the research on teachers’ perceptions about ce and have important implications for social studies educators and scholars. for further studies, it would be interesting to delve into each of the different dimensions of ce, expanding the scope of the questionnaire and complementing it with qualitative data collection techniques. the sample of preservice teachers, although representative of the spanish university where the study was conducted, cannot be generalized to preservice teachers in other contexts. therefore, future research should cover larger populations including preservice teachers from other estellés et al. universities in spain and other countries. yet, this study is a first step toward including greater diversity of contexts in this field, which is currently dominated by research conducted in north america and the uk (geboers et al., 2013; goren & yemini, 2017; sant, 2019). references adams, k. (2014). what is a child? children’s perceptions, the cambridge primary review and implications for education. cambridge journal of education, 44(2), 163-177. doi: 10.1080/0305764x.2013.860082 althof, w., & berkowitz, m. (2006). moral education and character education: their relationship and roles in citizenship education. journal of moral education, 35(4), 495-518. doi: 10.1080/03057240601012204 ariès, p. (1962). centuries of childhood: a social history of family life. jonathan cape. arroyo, l. (2013). frases como puños. el lenguaje y las ideas progresistas. edhasa. barr, d. j., boulay, b., selman, r. l., mccormick, r., lowenstein, e., gamse, b., et al. (2015). a randomized controlled trial of professional development for interdisciplinary civic education: impacts on humanities teachers and their students. teacher college record, 17(4), 1-52. bougher, l. d. (2014). cognitive coherence in politics: unifying metaphor and narrative in civic cognition. in m. hanne, w. d. crano, & j. s. mio (eds.), warring with words: narrative and metaphor in politics (pp. 250-271). psychology press. bullough, r. v., jr. (1997). becoming a teacher: self and the social location of teacher education. in b. j. biddle, t. l. good & i. f. goodson (eds.), international handbook of teachers and teaching, vol. i (pp. 79-134). kluwer academic publishers. carr, p. (2008). educating for democracy: with or without social justice. teacher education quarterly, 35(4), 117-136. chin, k., & barber, c. e. (2010). a multi-dimensional exploration of teachers’ beliefs about civic education in australia, england, and the united states. theory & research in social education, 38, 395-427. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2010.10473432 cochran-smith, m., & zeichner, k. (eds.) (2005). studying teacher education: the report of the aera panel on research and teacher education. lawrence erlbaum. dahl, r. (1999). la democracia. una guía para los ciudadanos. taurus. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764x.2013.860082 https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764x.2013.860082 https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240601012204 https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240601012204 https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2010.10473432 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 95 davies, l. (2014). interrupting extremism by creating educative turbulence. curriculum inquiry, 44(4), 450-468. doi: 10.1111/curi.12061 estellés, m. & fischman, g. e. (2020). who needs global citizenship education? a review of the literature on teacher education. journal of teacher education, 72(2), 1-14. doi: 10.1177/0022487120920254 estellés, m. & romero, j. (2019). tacit assumptions of citizenship education: a case study in spanish initial teacher education. education, citizenship and social justice, 14(2), 131148. doi: 10.1177/1746197918771336 eurydice (2012). citizenship education in europe. european unit of eurydice. eurydice (2017). citizenship education at school in europe – 2017 eurydice report. publications office of the european union. evans, m. (2006). educating for citizenship: what teachers say and what teachers do. canadian journal of education, 29(2), 410-435. faden, l. y. (2012). teachers constituting the politicized subject: canadian and us teachers’ perspectives on the ‘good’ citizen. citizenship teaching & learning, 7(2), 173-189. doi: 10.1386/ctl.7.2.173_1 fischman, g. e., & haas, e. (2012). beyond idealized citizenship education embodied cognition, metaphors, and democracy. review of research in education, 36(1), 169-196. doi: 10.3102/0091732x11420927 gainous, j., & martens, a. m. (2016). civic education: do liberals do it better? journal of political ideologies, 21(3), 261-279. doi: 10.1080/13569317.2016.1205965 garcía pérez, f. f., & de alba, n. (2012). la educación para la participación ciudadana entre dos polos: el simulacro escolar y el compromiso social. in n. de alba, f. f. garcía & a. santisteban (coords.), educar para la participación ciudadana en la enseñanza de las ciencias sociales. vol.1. (pp. 297-306). díada. gatti, l., & payne, k. a. (2011). the civic and political assets of preservice teachers: understanding our millennial students. teacher education and practice, 24(3), 257-278. geboers, e., geijsel, f., admiraal, w., & dam, g. t. (2013). review of the effects of citizenship education. educational research review, 9, 158-173. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2012.02.001 goren, h., & yemini, m. (2017). global citizenship education redefined: a systematic review of empirical studies on global citizenship education. international journal of educational research, 82, 170-183. doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2017.02.004 https://doi.org/10.1111/curi.12061 https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197918771336 https://doi.org/10.1386/ctl.7.2.173_1 https://doi.org/10.1386/ctl.7.2.173_1 https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732x11420927 https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732x11420927 https://doi.org/10.1080/13569317.2016.1205965 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2012.02.001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2017.02.004 estellés et al. hahn, c. l. (2003). democratic values and citizen action: a view from us ninth graders. international journal of educational research, 39(6), 633-642. haidt, j. (2012). the righteous mind: why good people are divided by politics and religion. pantheon. hess, d. e., & mcavoy, p. (2015). the political classroom: evidence and ethics in democratic education. routledge. ho, l.-c., mcavoy, p., hess, d., & gibbs, b. (2017). teaching and learning about controversial issues and topics in the social studies. a review of the research. in m. m. manfra and c. m. bolick (ed.), the wiley handbook of social studies research (pp. 321-335). wileyblackwell. injuve (2017). jóvenes, participación y cultura política. informe de resultados. observatorio de la juventud en españa. kahneman, d. (2012). pensar rápido, pensar despacio. debate. knowles, r. t. (2018). teaching who you are: connecting teachers’ civic education ideology to instructional strategies. theory & research in social education, 46(1), 68-109. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2017.1356776 lakoff, g. (2008). the political mind: why you can’t understand 21st century politics with an 18th century brain. viking. logan, h. h. (2011). perceptions of citizenship in preservice elementary social studies education. journal of peace education and social justice, 5, 150-178. lópez facal, r. (2011). conflictos sociales candentes en el aula. in j. pagès & a. santisteban (ed.), les qüestions socialment vives i l’ensenyament de les ciències socials (pp. 65-76). publicacions de la universitat autònoma de barcelona. marri, a. r., michael-luna, s., cormier, m. s., & keegan, p. (2014). urban pre-service k-6 teachers’ conceptions of citizenship and civic education: weighing the risks and rewards. the urban review, 46(1), 63-85. doi: 10.1007/s11256-013-0248-3 martin, l. a. (2010). a comparative analysis of teacher education students’ views about citizenship education. action in teacher education, 32(2), 56-69. mcavoy, p., & hess, d. (2013). classroom deliberation in an era of political polarization. curriculum inquiry, 43(1), 14-47. doi: 10.1111/curi.12000 meier, l.t. (2019). questioning the problematic nature of school culture in elementary teacher education, journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 34-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2017.1356776 https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2017.1356776 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-013-0248-3 https://doi.org/10.1111/curi.12000 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 97 misco, t., & patterson, n. c. (2007). a study of pre-service teachers' conceptualizations of academic freedom and controversial issues, theory & research in social education, 35(4), 520-550. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2007.10473349 o’brien, j. l., & smith, j. m. (2011). elementary education students’ perceptions of “good” citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 2(1), 21-36. obiagu, a. n. (2019). influence of teacher's characteristics on civic education implementation in nigeria, journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 1-20. oulton, c., day, v., dillon, j., & grace, m. (2004). teachers’ attitudes and practices in the context of citizenship education. oxford review of education, 30(4), 489-507. pashby, k. (2011). cultivating global citizens: planting new seeds or pruning the perennials? looking for the citizen-subject in global citizenship education theory, globalisation, societies and education, 9(3-4), 427-442. doi: 10.1080/14767724.2011.605326 patterson, n., doppen, f., & misco, t. (2012). beyond personally responsible: a study of teacher conceptualizations of citizenship education. education, citizenship and social justice, 7(2), 191-206. price, j. m. c. (2008). educators’ conceptions of democracy. in d. e. lund & p. r. carr (eds.), doing democracy: striving for political literacy and social justice (pp. 121-137). peter lang. rahmadi, i. f., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes: insights for future teacher education programs. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113-133. doi: 10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 reichert, f., & torney-purta, j. (2019). a cross-national comparison of teachers' beliefs about the aims of civic education in 12 countries: a person-centered analysis. teaching and teacher education, 77, 112-125. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2018.09.005 roberts, a., nganga, l., & james, j. (2019). citizenship and civic education in costa rica, myanmar, and the united states. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 97126. rogers, j., & westheimer, j. (2017). teaching about economic inequality in a diverse democracy: politics, ideology, and difference. ps: political science & politics, 50(4), 1049-1055. romero, j. (2014). conocimiento escolar, ciencia, institución y democracia. education policy analysis archives / archivos analíticos de políticas educativas, 22(21), 1-30. doi: 10.14507/epaa.v22n21.2014 romero, j., & luis, a. (2005). la co-participación de la escuela en la producción social de la infancia. notas críticas sobre moratorias, desarrollo personal y crecimiento político. in p. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2007.10473349 https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2011.605326 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.09.005 estellés et al. dávila & l. m. naya (ed.), la infancia en la historia: espacios y representaciones, vol. ii, (pp. 415-426). san sebastián: espacio universitario/erein. romero, j., & luis, a. (2007). ¿sirven las políticas y prácticas de formación del profesorado para mejorar la educación? una respuesta del análisis de la construcción social de la docencia. archivos analíticos de políticas educativas, 15(19), 1-22. ross, w. e. (2017). rethinking social studies: critical pedagogy in pursuit of dangerous citizenship. information age publishing. sant, e. (2013). ¿qué enseño cuando enseño a participar críticamente a mi alumnado? coherencias e incoherencias entre las finalidades y las prácticas de tres docentes. enseñanza de las ciencias sociales, 12, 63-76. sant, e. (2019). democratic education: a theoretical review (2006–2017). review of educational research, 89(5), 655-696. shultz, l. (2007). educating for global citizenship: conflicting agendas and understandings. alberta journal of educational research, 53(3), 248-258. sim, j. b. y., chua, s., & krishnasamy, m. (2017). “riding the citizenship wagon”: citizenship conceptions of social studies teachers in singapore. teaching and teacher education, 63, 92-102. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2016.12.002 smith crocco, m., & livingston, e. (2017). becoming an “expert” social studies teacher. what we know about teacher education and professional development. in m. m. manfra & c. m. bolick (ed.), the wiley handbook of social studies research (pp. 360-384). wileyblackwell. thibodeau, p. h., & boroditsky, l. (2011). metaphors we think with: the role of metaphor in reasoning. plos one, 6(2), 1-11. thornberg, r. (2008). the lack of professional knowledge in values education. teaching and teacher education, 24(7), 1791-1798. tyack, d., & cuban, l. (1995). tinkering toward utopia: a century of public school reform. harvard university press. wagner, w., hayes, n., & flores, f. (eds.) (2011). el discurso de lo cotidiano y el sentido común. la teoría de las representaciones sociales. anthropos. westen, d. (2008). political brain: the role of emotion in deciding the fate of the nation. publicaffairs. westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2), 237-269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.12.002 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 78-99 99 wyness, m. (2006). childhood and society. palgrave. zembylas, m. (2020). affect, biopower, and ‘the fascist inside you’: the (un-)making of microfascism in schools and classrooms, journal of curriculum studies, 1-15. doi: 10.1080/00220272.2020.1810780 zembylas, m., & kambani, f. (2012). the teaching of controversial issues during elementarylevel history instruction: greek-cypriot teachers’ perceptions and emotions. theory & research in social education, 40(2), 107-133. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2012.670591 zembylas, m., & loukaidis, l. (2021). affective practices, difficult histories and peace education: an analysis of teachers’ affective dilemmas in ethnically divided cyprus. teaching and teacher education, 97, 103225. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2020.103225 https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2020.1810780 https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2020.1810780 https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2012.670591 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103225 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (4), 84-113 pre-service teachers’ perceptions of global citizenship education in the social studies curriculum kristina andrews1 & hasan aydin2 abstract schools in the united states are becoming increasingly multiculturally diverse; therefore, identifying a means to implement global citizenship effectively into the social studies curriculum is imperative. this qualitative case study sought to gain insight into the perceptions of pre-service teachers on global citizenship education in social studies. twenty students were selected purposively for this study. data were obtained from multiple sources, including open-ended semi-structured focus group interviews, classroom observations, discussion posts, and essay questions were analyzed. to increase the verisimilitude of the study, the researchers bracketed themselves and used member checking and outside readers. the findings of this study indicated that global citizenship should be incorporated by teachers for students to become culturally sensitive and to gain an awareness of global issues. as global citizens, students should possess the tools and resources to advocate for social justice, unity, and equity. their knowledge of historical and current events, viewed through critical and analytical lenses, would expose the unjust/just and unfavorable/favorable outcomes and activities. hence, this knowledge equips students with the wisdom to form economic, political, social, and environmental decisions to create a better world. key words: global citizenship, pre-service teachers, social justice, social studies, multicultural education introduction global citizenship education is a framework that many educational stakeholders have recognized in the united states. however, it is not extensively implemented into the social studies curriculum due to various complex factors (aydin et al., 2019). global citizenship education has been perceived as a means by which students can acquire a deeper understanding of citizenship, politics, democracy, and the globalization process, and thereby be able to identify how the political, economic, cultural, social, and environmental constructs impact a global society (bruce et al., 2019; lafer, 2014; o’meara et al., 2018). as the world becomes increasingly interconnected, 1 phd candidate, florida gulf coast university, tinahannaha@gmail.com 2prof.dr., florida gulf coast university, haydin@fgcu.edu mailto:tinahannaha@gmail.com mailto:haydin@fgcu.edu journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 85 teaching students to be knowledgeable about different cultures and social views is imperative. dimensions of global citizenship have been a part of global issues that were taught. however, the development of critical analysis of global issues and constructs that would enable students to actively promote change for a better global society (banks, 2017) embracing social justice, diversity, and equality as a unified society has not been widely accepted or implemented (aydin & cinkaya, 2018; de andreotti, 2014). researchers have identified global citizenship as a curricular framework that assists educators in orienting social studies education by identifying concepts for learning global competencies and identifying the nature of citizenship in the context of globalization (myers, 2006; unesco, 2015). myers (2006) argued that incorporating the construct of global citizenship into the curriculum would help students to develop democratic citizenship that is sensitive to local and global issues from moral and ethical perspectives. students would gain the tools to act responsibly toward their own country and humanity (dower, 2002), be universally conscious, maintain their cultural heritage, and contribute productively to the world (banks, 2004; merryfield, 1997; yusoff, 2019). likewise, tarozzi and inguaggiato (2018) and scheunpflug and asbrand (2006) identified social justice as an appropriate framework for educational constructs as it reflected the theoretical framework of freirean pedagogy. freire (1970) stated that “for a more equitable and just society, at the heart of development education objectives, people must be able to reflect on the world critically, challenge assumptions that create oppression and reconstruct understanding based on this collaborative inquiry” (p. 53). although researchers have not developed a universally accepted definition of global citizenship (dunn, 2002; gaudelli & fernekes, 2004; mcintosh, 2005; noddings, 2005). oxfam’s (quoted in davies, 2006) definition of global citizenship is often referenced: a global citizen is someone who is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen; respects and values diversity; has an understanding of how the world works economically, politically, socially, culturally, technologically, and environmentally; is outraged by social injustice; participates in and contributes to the community at a range of levels from local to global; is willing to act to make the world a more sustainable place and; takes responsibility for their actions (p. 4). this definition supports curricular topics that myers (2006) identified, which should be considered when developing a global-oriented citizenship education. however, global south scholars suggest that global citizens seek to challenge broader forms of inequality, demand equity of socio andrews & aydin economic rights, maintain resources as public goods, and advocate for inclusive and responsive governing (mohanty & tandon, 2006; oommen, 1997). similarly, the transformationalist perspective focuses on unity and the common good of humanity, amidst diversity, on a global scale (schultz, 2007). regardless of the variations of how it is defined, human rights and social justice are the foundations for the global citizenship curriculum. a more comprehensive perspective from the critical cosmopolitan theory links the multicultural with the global by developing critically conscious global competencies that prompt students to act for the good of citizens all around the world (byker & marquardt, 2016). therefore, for pre-service teachers to provide students with a transformative educational experience to become global citizens, who advocate for all humanity and the global community, it is essential to provide knowledge, evoke emotion, and promote actions for positive change (unesco, 2018). a global citizenship education agenda would prepare students to participate in a competitive global economy, to act as socially just citizens who understand the ramifications of globalization, to engage in intercultural perspectives, and to understand how to question and analyze universal notions of progress and development critically within a framework of human rights and freedoms and neoliberal policies embedded in western ideals (dicicco, 2016; dill, 2013; marshall, 2011; parker & camecia, 2009). as a result, students would examine and comprehend the interconnectedness of local and political issues and how each aspect affects other parts of the world (kopish, 2017). this current study sought to gain insights into the perceptions of pre-service teachers on global citizenship education. the study used multiple methods to collect data from students enrolled in a secondary social studies method course at a mid-size, public, higher education institution in the southeastern united states. data were gathered to analyze pre-service teachers’ definitions of global citizenship education, their beliefs about the importance of incorporating global citizenship education into the pre-k-12 public school curriculum, and how it should be included and implemented in the curriculum. review of the literature the central purpose of the social studies curriculum is to develop citizenship (barr et al., 1977; engle & ochoa, 1988; houser & kuzmic, 2001; sears, 1994; shaver, 1997; stanley, 1985) and foster civic competence in students (national council for the social studies, 1994). as schools in journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 87 the united states become increasingly multiculturally diverse, more technologically advanced, and students become participants in a global web on social media, a need has grown for students not only to develop citizenship locally but globally. scholars argue that global citizenship is a framework that encompasses the cultural, ethnic, racial, language, and religious diversity that exists in nation-states (banks, 2004; kaya, 2015; kopish, 2016; 2017; rapoport, 2010; 2020). global citizenship encourages individuals to maintain their cultural heritage while simultaneously being united with other diverse cultures under a set of democratic values that are socially just and equitable (banks, 2004; gutmann, 2004). need for global citizenship education in schools globalization has led to increasingly diverse societies that require a broader perspective and concept of citizenship (banks, 2017; davies et al., 2018). historically, as the united states population increased in diversity, the curriculum was designed to encourage students to assimilate into one dominant mainstream culture (banks, 2004; patterson, 1977). however, not all nativeborn americans believed in assimilation and thus, encouraged the propulsion of cultural pluralism in which new cultures would enhance the american culture (banks, 2004). this concept was coined the salad bowl concept (pryor, 1992). advocates for cultural pluralism sought to employ a systems approach in which a u.s. perspective did not dominate (myers, 2006). thereby, they relied on hanvey’s (1976) five global dimensions for organizing the social studies curriculum: perspective consciousness, “state of the planet” awareness, cross-cultural awareness, knowledge of global dynamics, and awareness of human choices. today, media informs individuals of all ages of worldwide economic, social, political and cultural events, creating the need for students to learn about their roles as a citizen within their local communities and a global society (aydin & koc-damgaci, 2017; günel & pehlivan, 2016; kilinc & tarman, 2018; lim, 2007). providing students with global citizenship education has the potential to develop the knowledge, skills, and values to appreciate racial, ethnic, religious, language, and cultural diversity that will motivate them to adapt and live productively in a changing global society (banks, 2004; castles, 2004; günel & pehlivan, 2016; oxfam, 2006; kopish & marques, 2020; rapoport, 2009). in doing so, students would function as global citizens who perceive the world as a whole, who preserve national values while accepting universal values andrews & aydin and who actively promote social justice, equity, and human rights (banks, 2004; gurer, 2019; kilinc et al., 2018; lim, 2007). inhibitors of global citizenship education researchers have argued that the main source of formal citizenship education is through formal schooling (boon-yee sim, 2005; rapoport, 2010). in the united states, global perspectives that have been incorporated into the citizenship education in social studies have favored providing students with the knowledge, skills, and values to be an informed, responsible, and participative citizen of the nation (naval et al., 2002; patrick, 1999; print, 1997; rapoport, 2010; sears, 1994). however, the increasing diversity in u.s schools warrants moving away from a eurocentric perspective to provide opportunities for multiple perspectives (demoiny, 2017). unfortunately, several factors have hindered the implementation of global citizenship into the curriculum, including a lack of resources for teachers, standardized curriculum, teachers feeling unprepared to teach the content of global citizenship, the potential for students to lose their patriotism for their country of citizenship, and according to webber and miller (2016), a disconnect between theory and practice. in rapoport’s (2010) study, teachers said that their attempts to teach global citizenship resulted in teaching the concept through existing schema rather than teaching it within the existing definition and framework in the literature. additionally, the implemented national standardized curricula do not provide opportunities for a teacher to deviate from the standards due to the demands of time for the mandated objectives. hence, the curricula fail to offer a platform for critical thinking and questioning required for analyzing the components of global citizenship education (davies, 2006; lim, 2007; rapoport, 2010). pre-service teachers and global citizenship education social studies teachers play a key role in assisting students to acquire the knowledge, skills, and values of global citizens (davies, 2008) that promotes the internalization and practice of democratic ideas (demoiny, 2017). furthermore, to be influential agents of global citizenship education, teachers need to be acutely conscious of their role as global citizens (byker, 2016; de androetti, 2014) to determine how and to what extent they need to implement global citizenship into their curriculum and instruction (goren & yemini, 2016). hence, in response to the dynamic journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 89 cultural, linguistic and ethnic demographics, pre-service teachers must enter the profession with an understanding, appreciation, and respect for their students (byker, 2016; gibbs, 2020; grewal et al., 2019; o’connor & zeichner, 2011), and possess a competency of global citizenship education and how to effectively disseminate and execute its themes and policies (goren & yemini, 2017a). however, developing these global citizenship competencies requires a curriculum for global citizenship beginning in pre-k and continuing through high school (longview foundation, 2008; national education association, 2010, 2013-2014). researchers have indicated that there have been limited opportunities for pre-service teachers to be exposed to critical literacy in global citizenship education (kim, 2019; tarozzi & mallon, 2019). as a result, they were inhibited from developing a critical lens for implementing a global citizenship education that would effectively address social injustices (sant, 2018). furthermore, pre-service teachers are often cross-culturally inexperienced and globally unaware, which presents challenges for them to meet the needs of their students who are different from them (hauerwas et al., 2017; morales et al., 2020). global citizenship education requires that students reach a crucial level of understanding of global citizenship concepts to equip them with the knowledge and skills to respond effectively to global issues. therefore, teacher education programs must focus on and address the practical aspects, the ideals, and the problems of global citizenship education to prepare future classroom teachers for meeting the needs of their students (byker, 2016). the inherent need to assist students in identifying their roles globally and understanding the interdependence among nations requires educational stakeholders to evolve the social studies curriculum to meet student needs in 21st-century schools. while the need for global citizenship education has been researched and identified, the implementation of global citizenship into preservice teacher coursework and the k-12 curriculum remains minimal. in this context, the purpose of the current study is to investigate perceptions of pre-service teachers on global citizenship education and their perspectives about the importance of incorporating global citizenship education into the pre-k-12 public school curriculum and how it should be incorporated and implemented. the research questions guiding this study are as follows: 1. what are the perceptions of pre-service teachers of the definition of global citizenship? 2. what are the perceptions of pre-service teachers about the importance of implementing global citizenship education into the pre-k-12 curriculum? andrews & aydin 3. how do pre-service teachers perceive that global citizenship education can be incorporated into the current social studies curriculum? method research design this qualitative case study employed multiple data methods (stake, 1995; yin, 2009) to collect data from 20 study participants enrolled in a secondary social studies education course at a university in the southeastern united states. case studies involve the studying of a case within a real-life, contemporary context or setting through multiple detailed sources of information, including observations, interviews, audiovisuals, and documents (creswell, 2018; merriam, 2009; yin, 2009). therefore, a case study was the most effective method for collecting the data on preservice teachers’ perceptions of global citizenship education in the social studies curriculum. incorporating individual interviews, focus groups, classroom observation, and student response documents enabled the researchers to gain more in-depth insights into the voices and perceptions of the participants (yin, 2009). additionally, employing multiple data methods produced a rich narrative description of the evaluation of the data integrated with the researchers’ interpretations of this case to answer the research questions and increased the generalizability of the results of this study (yin, 2009). population and sampling a purposive study group of 20 pre-service teachers enrolled in an undergraduate/graduate-level social studies education course was selected to understand the perceptions of pre-service teachers on global citizenship education in the pre-k-12 social studies curriculum. creswell (2018) believed that a purposeful study group could help highlight different perspectives on a problem. the students were chosen because they are current or future social studies teachers enrolled during the spring 2019 semester at a university in the southeastern united states. the study group consisted of three latinx, one caucasian, and 16 whites, including six master of education students and 14 undergraduate seniors with a social studies education major. the study group of 10 interviewees was comprised of three white females, six white males, and one hispanic male, who ranged in age from 22-47 (m = 31.3). participants were assured that their responses would be strictly confidential, and pseudonyms were used for all participants in this study. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 91 the social studies course was a hybrid class that met ten times face-to-face and six times online. the course content included several themes, one of which was global citizenship and the constructs embedded in it. the global citizenship constructs were formally presented, referenced in various resources, and investigated individually by the students. data collection procedures institutional review board (irb) approval (#2019-23) was acquired before the initial start date of the spring 2019 semester to ensure the ethical treatment of participants. twenty students were invited to participate in the study. all 20 agreed to participate in the discussion posts, essay questions, and classroom observations, and ten agreed to participate in individual or focus group interviews. the researchers submitted the interview questions to two experts in educational research to ensure that the questions were not ambiguous. the open-ended semi-structured focus group interviews lasted 30-75 minutes; one was conducted in the classroom, and three were held in the second author’s office. all the interviews were conducted by the primary researcher, who was not an instructor for the course or at the university. this study utilized several data collection methods. the multiple data sources (see appendix a) provided validity by triangulating the data to provide a clearer picture of the phenomenon under study (maxwell, 2013). data were collected from online discussion posts consisting of open-ended questions on global citizenship education. the discussion posts were posted for responses at a time near the beginning of the semester. as the semester progressed, students acquired information about global citizenship education from multiple sources and multiple perspectives, including videos, ted talks, youtube videos, and peer-reviewed journal articles. to gain a deeper understanding of the dimensions of global citizenship education, students researched the topic and its constructs and developed group powerpoint presentations presented to their colleagues in class. the researchers made observations of class discussions, class activities, and group presentations. additionally, students responded to essay questions on their midterm and final exam and were invited to participate in open-ended semi-structured focus group interviews. the researchers recorded field-notes during classroom observations and interview sessions. the variety of data sources provided a rich assortment of descriptions (creswell & clark, 2017) that enhanced the understanding of pre-service teachers’ perceptions on global citizenship education and belief of the importance of global citizenship education in the social studies curriculum. andrews & aydin the individual and focus group interview questions provided insight into the perceptions of the pre-service teachers on their perspectives about the constructs embedded in and surrounding the framework of global citizenship education. these questions were designed to investigate further the perceptions voiced in the discussion post responses in which the participants had provided their definitions of global citizenship and global citizenship education, as well as to describe what they believed their definition encompassed. the essay questions sought to delve into the constructs of global citizenship education, including the students’ understanding of how it could be incorporated into the curriculum, inhibiting factors for its incorporation and implementation into the social studies curriculum, and what it would look like in the instruction delivery in a classroom. observations of the students during the class time provided the researchers with insights into how the students interacted, their means of communication, and the general structure of the class, which included opportunities for collaborative group work and class discussion. data analysis the open-ended semi-structured focus group interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. the transcriptions were then distributed to the participants for participant confirmation and member checking, and the researchers revised the quotations and patterns based on the feedback and comments of participants. the researchers read separately and thoroughly all the data from the multiple sources, noting words or phrases that seemed relevant to the purpose of the study. they then used coding to identify keywords and emerging themes. next, the researchers compared their personal notes, quotations from the transcripts, and codes from the field notes to look for congruence and correspondence between the data to include them into categorized themes. additionally, they wrote analytical memos based on analyzing all the data and triangulated and crystalized the emerged themes and patterns by relying on multiple data sources. after carefully and repeatedly reading the data and comparing them to the results of the themes, the researchers ran all data with nvivo 12 computer software coding to discover patterns to generate categories. nvivo 12 was used to assist with the coding and retrieval of data. these themes enabled the researchers to develop significant statements and descriptions (yin, 2009). to increase the validity of the study, both researchers conducted a content analysis of all of the data. to establish transferability, the researchers provided sufficient information from journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 93 triangulation with multiple data sources and a thick description (lincoln & guba, 1985) that outlined as many salient and peripheral dimensions that would allow a reader to establish the research context. the researchers established the credibility and confirmability of the collected data, ensuring that they adequately represented the multiple realities (patton, 2002) of all participants. additionally, the researchers analyzed and interpreted the data separately, then compared their results and merged the emerged themes. the researchers also addressed trustworthiness by identifying and describing the biases they possessed concerning the phenomenon being studied (clarke, 2015). in this study, the participants and two experts in the educational research field were allowed to review and critique the themes that emerged from the data (hunt, 2011). findings pre-service teachers shared a fundamental agreement for the need to provide students with an educational awareness that would not only educate them about the constructs embedded in the framework of global citizenship but would assist in developing the skills and motivation to be productive and proactive participants in a global society. four themes emerged from the data. the themes were: 1. students must be culturally aware of becoming global citizens; 2. citizenship education must be incorporated into the social studies curriculum for students to become prepared for participation in a global society; 3. teachers should be responsible for incorporating global citizenship into the social studies curriculum, and; 4. students must be provided with the tools, resources, and critical thinking skills to become active participants at the local, national, and global levels. key themes that emerged from the perceptions of pre-service teachers about global citizenship were: 1. respecting and accepting other people regardless of their different cultures and backgrounds; 2. becoming aware and informed of different cultures from around the globe and having an awareness of the world beyond the context and perception of an individual; andrews & aydin 3. possessing a desire to be informed about past and current world events to learn about interactions in a global society; 4. being active participants who promote positive change for planetary and humanitarian sustainability at the local, national, and global levels; 5. promoting equality, patriotism, compassion, human rights, and unity; and 6. recognizing that people are citizens of the world and have a civic duty to participate and be empathetic and compassionate towards others. the constructs that the participants identified fall into the framework of global citizenship as previous researchers such as banks (2004) and myers (2006), and oxfam (2006) have defined. table 1 coding frequency for rq1: what are the perceptions of pre-service teachers on the definition of global citizenship theme number of participants who referenced theme (n=20) active participation/working together cultural awareness citizens of the world/planet being informed about cultures respect for others equality empathy civic duties human rights 15 15 11 10 7 7 5 5 2 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 95 table 2 coding frequency rq2: what are the perceptions of pre-service teachers about the importance of implementing global citizenship education into the prek-12 curriculum? theme number of participants who referenced theme (n=20) teach citizenship for a culturally diverse world teach respect for others who do not share the same culture/empathy teach cultures, beliefs, and values awareness of global interactions open minds/new perspectives to recognize and appreciate differences shifting demographics 14 13 13 10 10 8 8 global citizenship and cultural awareness according to the voices of the pre-service teachers, much of the conceptual framework of global citizenship is founded on being informed and tolerant of cultures different from their own and knowledgeable about global issues. as one female pre-service teacher noted, as the world shrinks or becomes more connected, it is important that as global citizens, we can recognize and appreciate the differences and actions that we all partake in individually. (discussion board question (dbq)1: p5) a male pre-service teacher mentioned, the need to teach global citizenship is embedded in the shifting demographics in the united states, in which the population of people of color and minorities will surpass that of caucasians in the next few years. (dbq1: p6) an emerged theme from the data was the imperative willingness to expose oneself to the cultures and perspectives of others and respecting each person’s individuality and place in society. one male participant noted, global citizenship education not only teaches students how to be a part of society but also teaches the students how to respect each other and live among other people in the world. (dbq2: p20) andrews & aydin another male participant stated, students who learn to be global citizens will come out of the school system with more open minds, new perspectives, and can work to form their own opinions. (interview: p2) elaborating further, a female pre-service teacher said, fostering [a global citizen] mentality in the classroom is vital to education today because we live in a diverse and global world. (interview: p4) culture awareness entails actively pursuing learning about, interacting with, or immersing in different cultures to gain knowledge and respect for individuals of different cultures around the world. while an individual may encounter cultural practices and traditions that he/she identifies as questionable or unethical, the exposure to different cultures and past and current world events equips a learner with tools to conduct him/herself as a global citizen. these tools, in conjunction with critical thinking skills and knowledge and respect of cultures, provide the means for individuals to pursue social justice and equity actively in a global capacity. the study participants shared several ideas for incorporating the construct of cultural awareness into classroom instruction: encouraging students to communicate via skype or to have pen pals from other countries would assist students in identifying cultural similarities and differences; a “privilege walk” may encourage the breakdown of social barriers illustrating the differences between students in the class based on upbringing, culture, ethnicity, race, and language; a gallery walk research project of another country may promote cultural diversity and intercontinental awareness; and incorporating songs of resistance or struggle from significant world events, such as the holocaust or the irish independence movement, to expose injustices in the historical events. such lessons would expose students to different cultures and teach them about tolerance, solidarity, fairness, and justice. global citizenship education in the classroom the data highlighted the perceived importance of pre-service teachers of incorporating global citizenship education into the pre-k-20 curriculum. as two male interviewees noted, global citizenship is not just important; it is indeed existential. (interview: p16 and p17) participants voiced the necessity of assisting students with becoming informed of global events by incorporating past global interactions and history and current events into the instruction in the social studies classrooms. furthermore, they stressed the need for teaching critical thinking skills journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 97 so that the students can gain an understanding of how these current global events impact them at a local level and how their actions at a local level can impact global issues and society. the perceptions of pre-service teachers indicated the need for socially just classrooms that provided opportunities for students to acquire the tools and skills needed to develop into global citizens. also, a need was identified for incorporating respect, cultural awareness, challenging beliefs/learning about others, acceptance, equality, empathy, and human rights in learning activities and the classroom environment to foster the development of the attributes of global citizenship. as one female participant wrote, students who learn to be global citizens will come out of the school system with more open minds, new perspectives and can work to form their own opinion. (dbq2: p2) unity promoted within the classroom, and the school can further assist students in understanding the constructs of citizenship. learning about local, national, and global issues and how one may impact the other – all parts of the world ultimately working together – along with critical thinking skills would enable students to view themselves as participants of a global society. a male participant wrote, students should not only learn to be respectful citizens of their own country but how to be one on a global level. (dbq2: p13) a female stated, if we cannot work together, how can we tackle these issues which affect us all around the globe? (interview: p4) a common perception of global citizenship is that someone must forsake his/her national heritage. however, the study participants said that patriotism to a person’s country first would strengthen that person’s role and participation in promoting the improvement of all societies. these improvements may pertain to human rights, sustainability, unity, and helping others. global citizenship education a responsibility for teachers pre-service teacher participants overwhelmingly agreed that global citizenship education incorporated into the curriculum should be the responsibility of teachers. as one participant said, i feel it is our duty as teachers to promote the pillars of global citizenship, acceptance, and equality for all individuals, as the purpose of social studies education is to prepare students for citizenship within a culturally diverse global world. (interview: p11) andrews & aydin another male believed, that educators and school administrators alike should be responsible for not only incorporating [global citizenship] into the curriculum but for supporting teachers and students to cover a multitude of national/global issues, along with protecting free speech and the right for students to address issues that may be important to them without the fear of repercussions. (dbq2: p3) additionally, the voices of several other participants alluded to the idea that teachers are aware of the needs of the students in their classrooms and could, therefore, incorporate a global citizenship education that is appropriate for their students. one participant elaborated further stated, if a teacher can fill in the blanks and show the students interesting details that they can connect with the lesson, students will want to know more about different countries of different cultures. (interview: p18) the participants also highlighted the notion that teachers are knowledgeable about the curriculum for their students and would thus be the most competent individuals to identify how to incorporate and teach the constructs of global citizenship. some participants believed that students should play a role in implementing global citizenship into the curriculum because this responsibility would encourage them to be a part of the process of promoting it rather than being coerced to learn about it. a few also believed that states or national governments should be responsible for the curriculum or for standardizing the curriculum so that it is incorporated into the social studies classroom regardless of the classroom teacher’s opinions on whether it should be taught. however, others felt that government intervention should not create a nationalistic curriculum, particularly one that promoted nationalistic propaganda. participants highlighted the need for a teacher to encourage classroom dialogue around controversial topics during which students would be allowed to create their own identity and voice their perspective without retaliation. they recognized that debates could become contentious and suggested that teachers should monitor and facilitate discussions so that they are respectful, factbased, and academically productive. as one participant said, it is the role of the teacher to ask questions that help students identify problems facing their community . . . by enhancing students’ critical thinking skills, teachers allow students to journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 99 become more empathetic to those around them, and more understanding of the lives, minds, and conscious thinking of those in the past, present, and hopefully future. (interview: p15) furthermore, participants agreed that the delivery of the content, dialogues, and debates should be inclusive and respectful of all perspectives and avoid nationalistic tendencies. global citizens participating in promoting change the inherent need for students to become global citizens gives rise to the ultimate goal of providing students with the tools, resources, and critical thinking skills to become active participants at the local, national, and global levels. one male participant wrote, educating our learners regarding global citizenship is critical for so many aspects of our political, economic, military, and humanitarian decisions. (dbq: p1) another male noted, our current world is so globalized and interconnected; it is important for students to respect others in the human community and feel responsible for their actions that could affect others. making students understand they are global citizens will help motivate them to fix their issues or at least be more cautious with their actions. (dbq2: p10) furthermore, participants referred to the civic duty of global citizens to be empathetic and compassionate as they work together to promote changes that would address the needs of all people in all cultures. one female pre-service teacher wrote, the world is in dire need of people who will care about it and protect its environment. we are too focused on being citizens of our nations and protecting them that we have forgotten about our responsibilities as citizens of the planet. (dbq2: p17) the pre-service teachers recognized that to make the world a better place, students must understand the responsibilities a global citizen has to the world and recognize the need for unity amongst individuals around the globe when advocating for a cause. thus, understanding global issues and other cultures encourage learners to promote changes for social justice, equity, unity, and environmental sustainability. the participants believed that to promote active participation as global citizens, teachers must identify and use instructional strategies that encourage students to become actively involved. one male participant suggested, andrews & aydin engaging students in service learning/civic engagement, teaching lessons about justice and equality, promoting empathy and compassion for the plight of others, giving lessons that cover a vast range of ethnic and cultural histories, touching on issues that are currently at the forefront of our country and showcasing multiple views about them, and making students feel comfortable in the learning environment to express their views are all ways to lead students to become global citizens. (dbq1: p3) several participants suggested promoting active participation by conducting a lesson or activity that provided students with a current or historical global (environmental, political, social, or economic) issue and then having the students strategize to formulate possible solutions to these issues. discussion, conclusion, and implications this current study supported the constructs of global citizenship education identified in previous research studies and literature. the pre-service teachers’ definitions of global citizenship agreed with banks (2004), myers (2006), and oxfam (2006). they were noted consistently as the foundation upon which they voiced the importance of global citizenship education in the pre-k12 curriculum and how it should be incorporated in the curriculum and implemented in the classroom. the participants of the current study recognized changing societal demands for transforming from local citizenry to global citizenry as a response to increased diversity in united states’ schools and students requiring tools and resources that would enable them to become productive and proactive citizens in a society with global dimensions. this awareness is repeatedly mentioned in the literature on global citizenship education. myers (2006) stressed the need for students to develop democratic citizenship from moral and ethical perspectives. other researchers have recognized and discussed the implications for students to be universally conscious, to understand the interconnectedness of local and political issues, critique social injustices, and to be culturally aware to contribute productively to the world (banks, 2004; burrows, 2004; lim, 2007; merryfield, 1997; rapoport, 2010). the participants in the current study expressed the need for students to become aware of other cultures to understand and respect the perspectives of those whose values and beliefs are different from their own. oxfam’s (2006) definition is inclusive of respecting and valuing diversity and associates these with individuals being aware of and outraged by social injustices, thereby prompting individuals to take actions for social change. several researchers have recognized the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 101 imperativeness of focusing on human rights and social justice, stating that individuals who can critically analyze events and cultural practices through the lens of an intercultural perspective will be able to proactively promote social change for equality, social justice, and human rights (banks, 2004; beckett & kobayashi, 2020; burrows, 2004; dicicco, 2016; marshall, 2011; myers, 2006; parker & camecia, 2009). global citizenship education incorporated into the social studies curriculum would provide an avenue for teaching students about diversity and cultures from around the world. this, in conjunction with applied critical thinking opportunities provided by teachers, would allow students to gain a cultural awareness and appreciation for cultures different than their own and the tools that are necessary to ensure that their perspectives and actions are conducive to being global citizens. incorporating the dimensions of global citizenship education in the social studies curriculum may present itself as an arduous task. the study’s participants identified a perceived need for assisting students to become global citizens and elaborated on the many constructs that would need to be incorporated into classroom instruction to accomplish this task. these included maintaining a socially just classroom environment, being aware of the cultural and personal needs of each student in the class, teaching unbiased, non-nationalistic current and historical global events, teaching critical-thinking skills, breaking preconceived notions and cultural barriers, incorporating all cultural perspectives, fostering unity, promoting environmental awareness, and encouraging students to become active participants for change. researchers have identified these necessary components and the need for teachers to be globally competent to be effective in teaching global citizenship (boix-mansilla & chua, 2016; ibrahim, 2005). previous studies have indicated that teachers require more training and better backgrounds to acquire the competence to teach global citizenship education (abowitz & harnish, 2006; myers, 2006; rapoport, 2009; wu & ida, 2018). likewise, the pre-service teachers in this current study perceived the need for more teachers to incorporate global citizenship into the curriculum and acquire the knowledge and skills required to teach it. from their experiences, they believed the university provided them with a solid foundation for understanding and implementing global citizenship concepts. however, they felt it was essential to acquire personal experiences that accompanied this knowledge to foster the development of their students into global citizens. technology, media and social media, immigration, economics, and politics are critical components of the drive behind requiring students and individuals to participate as global citizens (banks, andrews & aydin 2004; dogutas, 2020; günel & pehlivan, 2016; kopish, 2017; lim, 2007; rapoport, 2010). the participants frequently either alluded to or directly stated the need for students to perceive society as greater than their local community. the perceived threat to patriotism to the united states was diminished when the participants explained that being a global citizen requires an individual to foster and practice good citizenship at local and national levels as well. they expounded on this concept as they identified the impact that global issues have on an individual and the impact an individual can have on global issues when acting as part of a collective unit. previous researchers who have said that individuals can preserve national values while accepting universal values support this concept (alanay & aydin, 2016; banks, 2004; lim, 2007). furthermore, the preservice teachers referred to the civic duty of global citizens to be empathetic and compassionate as they work in unity to seek social changes for the betterment of all individuals in all cultures. in addition to recognizing the need for global citizenship education to be part of the curriculum, study participants identified many factors that they believed inhibit the incorporation and implementation of global citizenship into the social studies curriculum. therefore, the critical need to incorporate global citizenship into the curriculum requires that educational stakeholders, especially classroom teachers, find the means to address and teach global citizenship education despite the inhibitors. the findings from the study suggest that global citizenship should be incorporated into the social studies curriculum by teachers within a socially just and equitable classroom for students to become global citizens. pre-service teacher participants noted the shifting demographics and increasing diversity in the united states, as well as the interconnectedness of individuals on a global scale, requires students to recognize and appreciate differences in cultures. participants identified global citizenship education as a means not only to teach students how to be a productive member of society but how to respect each other and live peaceably among other people in the world. their knowledge of historical and current events, viewed through a critical and analytical perspective, would expose the intolerable injustices and unfavorable outcomes as well as the just and favorable consequences and activities. thus, this knowledge would equip them with the wisdom to make economic, political, social, and environmental decisions that would create a better world. participants said that, while a nationalistic perspective may hinder global citizenry, patriotism to a person’s country first will strengthen that person’s role and participation in promoting the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 103 improvement of all societies. these improvements may pertain to human rights, sustainability, unity, and helping others. additionally, the findings indicated the importance of educating learners about global citizenship for decisions that they would make about political, economic, military, and humanitarian issues. to make the world a better place, students must understand the responsibilities that a global citizen has to the world and recognize the need for unity among individuals around the globe when advocating for a cause. thus, understanding global issues and other cultures encourage learners to promote changes for social justice, equity, unity, human rights, and environmental sustainability. the current study has implications for educational stakeholders who are associated with, or who are impacted by, the social studies curriculum. previous research, in tandem with the perceptions of the pre-service teachers in the current study, indicates an imminent need to incorporate global citizenship education into the social studies curriculum (banks, 2004; demoiny, 2017; rapoport, 2010). furthermore, the study provides rationales for the “why” that the constructs identified within the framework of global citizenship education should be implemented. coinciding with the need to incorporate global citizenship education into the social studies curriculum and implement the curriculum into the classroom, pre-service teachers must acquire the knowledge and skills to effectively teach global citizenship in their classroom (abowitz & harnish, 2006; lee & leung, 2006; myers, 2006; rapoport, 2009). therefore, this study offers higher education institutional stakeholders’ valuable insights from pre-service teachers about their needs for coursework that would adequately prepare them to teach global citizenship. andrews & aydin references abowitz, k. k. & harnish, j. (2006). contemporary discourses of citizenship, review of educational research, 76(4), 653-690. doi: 10.3102/00346543076004653 aydin, h. (2013). a literature-based approaches on multicultural education, the anthropologist, 16(1-2), 31-44. aydin, h. & koc-damgaci, f. (2017). from empire to republic: citizenship, pluralism, and diversity in turkey. in j. a. banks (ed.), global migration, structural inclusion, and education across nations. (pp. 351-377). washington, dc: aera press. aydin, h. & cinkaya, m. (2018). global citizenship education and diversity (gceds): a measure of students' attitudes related to social studies program in higher education, journal of multicultural education, 12(3), 221-236. doi: 10.1108/jme-05-2017-0030 aydin, h., ogurlu, u., andrews, k., masalimaova, a., dorozhkin, e., & malygin, a. (2019). high school students’ perceptions of global citizenship in central public high schools: implications for teacher educators, review of research and social intervention, 65(1), 187-205. doi: 10.33788/rcis.65.12 alanay, h., & aydin, h. (2016). multicultural education: the challenges and attitudes of undergraduate students in turkey. education and science, 41(184), 169-191. banks, j. a. (2004). teaching for social justice, diversity, and citizenship in a global world, the educational forum, 68(4), 296-305. doi: 10.1080/00131720408984645 banks, j. a. (2017). failed citizenship and transformative civic education, educational researcher, 46(7), 366-377. doi: 10.3102/0013189x17726741 barr, r. d., barth, j. l., & shermis, s. s. (1977). defining the social studies. silver spring, md: national council for the social studies. beckett, g. h. & kobayashi, m. (2020). a meta-study of an ethnographic research in a multicultural and multilingual community: negotiations, resources, and dilemmas, american journal of qualitative research, 4(1), 85-106. doi: 10.29333/ajqr/8267 boix-mansilla, v. & chua, f. (2016). signature pedagogies in global competence education: understanding quality teaching practice. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. boon-yee sim, j. & print, m. (2005). citizenship education and social studies in singapore: a national agenda, international journal of citizenship and teacher education, 1(1), 5873. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 105 bruce, j., north, c., & fitzpatrick, j. (2019). preservice teachers’ views of global citizenship and implications for global citizenship education, globalization, societies & education, 17, 161-176. doi: 10.1080/14767724.2018.1558049 burrows, d. (2004). world citizenship. paper presented at the american council on education regional conference on new directions in international education. beloit, wi. byker, e. j. (2016). developing global citizenship consciousness: case studies of critical cosmopolitan theory, journal of research in curriculum & instruction, 20(3), 264-275. byker, e. j. & marquadt, s. (2016). using critical cosmopolitanism to globally situate multicultural education in teacher preparation courses, journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 30-50. retrieved from http://jsser.org/article/view/5000203661/5000176548 castles, s. (2004). migration, citizenship, and education. in j. a. banks (ed.). diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives (pp. 17-48). san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. clarke, d. (2015). transition of new teachers in a learning community. unpublished doctoral dissertation, concordia university. retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/openview/ 8a2d37d2054e5901004e96e9f87d370b/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y creswell, j. w. (2018). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publishing creswell, j. w. & clark, v. l. p. (2017). designing and conducting mixed methods research. thousand oaks, ca: sage publishing. davies, i., ho, l.-c., kiwan, d., peck, c. l., peterson, a., sant, e., & waghid, y. (eds.). (2018). the palgrave handbook of global citizenship and education. new york, ny: palgrave macmillan. davies, l. (2006). global citizenship: abstraction or framework for action? educational review, 58(1), 5-25. doi: 10.1080/00131910500352523 davies, l. (2008). interruptive democracy in education. in j. zahjda, l. davies, & s. majhanovich (eds.), comparative and global pedagogies: equity, access & democracy in education (pp. 15-31). new york city, ny: springer. de andreotti, v. o. (2014). soft versus critical global citizenship education. new york, ny: palgrave macmillan. demoiny, s. b. (2017). are you ready? elementary pre-service teachers’ perceptions about discussing race in social studies, multicultural education, 24(2), 15-33. retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej1150569 andrews & aydin dicicco, m. c. (2016). global citizenship education within a context of accountability and 21st century skills: the case of olympus high school, education policy analysis archives, 24(57), 1-22. retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej1103341 dill, j. (2013). the longings and limits of global citizenship education: the moral pedagogy of schooling in a cosmopolitan age. new york, ny: routledge. dogutas, a. (2020). effectiveness of school and family on enculturation: perceptions of students, american journal of qualitative research, 4(3), 83-91. doi: 10.29333/ajqr/8559 dower, n. (2002). global citizenship: a critical introduction. new york, ny: routledge. dunn, r. e. (2002). growing good citizens with a world-centered curriculum, educational leadership, 60(2), 10-13. engle, s. h. & ochoa, a. s. (1988). education for democratic citizenship: decision-making in the social studies. new york, ny: teachers’ college press. freire, p. (1970). pedagogy of the oppressed. london: continuum. gaudelli, w. & fernekes, w. (2004). teaching about global human rights for global citizenship, the social studies, 95(1), 16-26. doi: 10.3200/tsss.95.1.16-26 gibbs, b. (2020). critical teaching in classrooms of healing: struggles and testimonios. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 95-111. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.6 goren, h. & yemini, m. (2016). global citizenship education in context: teacher perceptions at an international school and a local israeli school, compare: a journal of comparative & international education, 46(5), 832-853. doi: 10.1080/03057925. 2015.1111752 goren, h. & yemini, m. (2017). the global citizenship education gap: teacher perceptions of the relationship between global citizenship education and students’ socio-economic status, teaching & teacher education, 67, 9-22. doi: 10.1016/j.tate. 2017.05.009 grewal, i., maher, a., watters, h., clemens, d., & webb, k. (2019). rewriting teacher education: food, love, and community. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 44-60. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.3 günel, e. & pehlivan, a. (2016). pre-service social studies teachers’ perception of global citizenship, journal of education & future, 10, 51-69. gurer, c. (2019). refugee perspectives on integration in germany, american journal of qualitative research, 3(2), 52-70. doi: 10.29333/ajqr/6433 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.3 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 107 gutmann, a. (2004). unity and diversity in democratic multicultural education: creative and destructive tensions. in j. a. banks (ed.), diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives (pp. 71-98). san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. hanvey, r. g. (1976). an attainable global perspective. global perspectives in education. retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed116993 hauerwas, l. b., skawinski, s. f., & ryan, l. b. (2017). the longitudinal impact of teaching abroad: an analysis of intercultural development, teaching & teacher education, 67, 202-213. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2017.06.009 houser, n. o. & kuzmic, j. j. (2001). ethical citizenship in a postmodern world: toward a more connected approach to social education for the twenty-first century, theory & research in social education, 29(3), 431-461. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2001.10505950 hunt, b. (2011). publishing qualitative research in counseling journals, journal of counseling & development, 89(3), 296-300. doi:10.1002/j.1556 6678.2011.tb00092.x ibrahim, t. (2005). global citizenship education: mainstreaming the curriculum? cambridge journal of education, 35(2), 177-194. doi: 10.1080/03057640500146823 kaya, y. (2015). the opinions of primary school, turkish language and social science teachers regarding education in the mother tongue (kurdish), journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 2(2), 33-46. kilinc, e. & tarman, b. (2018). global citizenship vs. patriotism: the correlation between preservice teachers’ perception of patriotism and global citizenship. in a. rapoport (ed.), competing frameworks: global and national in citizenship education. charlotte, nc: information age publishing. kilinc, e., tarman, b. & aydin, h. (2018). examining turkish social studies teachers’ beliefs about barriers to technology integration, techtrends (2018) 62: 221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-018-0280-y kim, y. (2019). global citizenship education in south korea: ideologies, inequalities, and teacher voices, globalization, societies & education, 17(2), 117-193. doi: 10.1080/14767724.2019.1642182 kopish, m., & marques, w. (2020). leveraging technology to promote global citizenship in teacher education in the united states and brazil. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 45-69. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.3 kopish, m. a. (2017). global citizenship education and the development of globally competent teacher candidates, journal of international social studies, 7(2), 20-59. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-018-0280-y https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.3 andrews & aydin kopish, m. a. (2016). preparing globally competent teacher candidates through cross-cultural experiential learning. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 75-108. lafer, s. (2014). democratic design for the humanization of education, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 6-12. lee, w. & leung, s. (2006). global citizenship education in hong kong and shanghai secondary schools: ideals, realities and expectations, citizenship teaching and learning, 2(2), 6884. lim, c. p. (2007). global citizenship education, school curriculum and games: learning mathematics, english, and science as a global citizen, computers & education, 52, 10731093. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2007.10.005 lincoln, y. & guba, e. (1985). naturalistic inquiry. thousand oaks, ca: sage publishing. longview foundation. (2008). teacher preparation for the global age: the imperative for change. falls church, va: longview foundation. marshall, h. (2011). instrumentalism, ideals and imaginaries: theorizing the contested space of global citizenship education in schools, globalization, societies and education, 9(3-4), 411-426. doi: 10.1080/14767724.2011.605325 maxwell, j. a. (2013). qualitative research design: an interactive approach: applied social research methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage publishing. mcintosh, p. (2005). gender perspectives on educating for global citizenship. in n. nodding (ed.), educating citizens for global awareness (pp. 1-21). new york, ny: teachers college press. merriam, s. b. (2009). qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. merryfield, m. m. (1997). a framework for teacher education in global perspectives. in m. m, merryfield, e. jarchow, & s. pickert (eds.), preparing teachers to teach global perspectives. thousand oaks, ca: corwin. mohanty, r. & tandon, r. (2006). participatory citizenship: identity, exclusion, inclusion. thousand oaks, ca: sage publishing. morales, d., ruggiano, c., carter, c., pfeifer, k., & green, k. (2020). disrupting to sustain: teacher preparation through innovative teaching and learning practices. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 109 myers, j. (2006). rethinking the social studies curriculum in the context of globalization: education for global citizenship education in the us, theory & research in social education, 34(3), 341-379. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2006.10473313 national council for the social studies. (1994). expectations for excellence: curriculum standards for social studies. national council for the social studies. national education association. (2010). global competence is a 21st century imperative. national education association. national education association. (2013-2014). nea strategic plan and budget: great public schools for every student. national education association. naval, c., print, m., & veldhuis, r. (2002). education for democratic citizenship in the new europe: context and reform, european journal of education, 37(2), 107-128. retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1503793 noddings, n. (2005). global citizenship: promises and problems. in n. noddings (ed.), educating citizens for global awareness (pp. 1-21). new york, ny: teachers college press. o’connor, k. & zeichner, k. (2011). preparing u.s. teachers for critical global education, globalization, societies & education, 9(3-4), 521-536. doi: 10.1080/14767724.2011.605333 o’meara, j., huber, t., & sanmiguel, e. (2018). the role of teacher educators in developing and disseminating global citizenship education strategies in and beyond us learning environments, journal of education for teaching, 44(5), 556-573. doi: 10.1080/02607476.2018.1516347 oommen, t. k. (1997). citizenship and national identity: from colonialism to globalism. thousand oaks, ca: sage publishing. oxfam. (2006). education for global citizenship: a guide for schools. oxfam development education. parker, w. c. & camecia, s. p. (2009). cognitive praxis in today’s “international education” movement: a case study of intents and affinities, theory & research in social education, 37(1), 42-74. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2009.10473387 patton, m. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage publishing. patrick, j. j. (1999). education for constructive engagement of citizens in democratic civil society and government. in c. f. bahmueller & j. j. patrick (eds.), principles and practices of education for democratic citizenship: international perspectives and projects. educational resources information centre adjunct clearinghouse for international civic education. andrews & aydin patterson, o. (1977). ethnic chauvinism: the reactionary impulse. new york, ny: stein and day. print, m. (1997). renaissance in citizenship education, international journal of social education, 11(2), 37-52. pryor, c. b. (1992). integrating immigrants into american schools, children & schools, 14(3), 153-159. doi: 10.1093/cs/14.3.153 rapoport, a. (2020). editorial: technologization of global citizenship education as response to challenges of globalization. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), i-vii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.ed rapoport, a. (2009). a forgotten concept: global citizenship education and state social studies standards, the journal of social studies research, 33(1), 91-112. rapoport, a. (2010). we cannot teach what we don’t know: indiana teachers talk about global citizenship education, education, citizenship and social justice, 5(3), 179-190. doi: 10.1177/1746197910382256 sant, e. (2018). we, the non-global citizens: reflections on the possibilities and challenges of democratic global citizenship education in higher education contexts, citizenship teaching & learning, 13(3), 273-292. doi: 10.1386/ctl.13.3.273_1 scheunpflug, a. & asbrand, b. (2006). global education and education for sustainability, environmental education research, 12(1), 33-46. doi: 10.1080/13504620500526446 schultz, l. (2007). educating for global citizenship: conflicting agendas and understanding, alberta journal of educational research, 53(3), 248-262. sears, a. (1994). social studies as citizenship education in english canada: a review of research, theory & research in social education, 22(1), 6-43. doi: 10.1080/00933104.1994.10505714 shaver, j. p. (1997). the past and future of social studies as citizenship education and of research on social studies, theory and research in social education, 25(2), 210-215. doi: 10.1080/00933104.1997.10505803 stake, r. (1995). the art of case study research. thousand oaks, ca: sage publishing. stanley, w. (1985). recent research in the foundations of social education. in w. b. stanley (ed.), review of research in social studies education: 1976-1983. bulletin 75 (pp. 309-397). silver spring, md: national council for the social studies. tarozzi, m. & inguaggiato, c. (2018). implementing global citizenship education in eu primary schools: the role of government ministries, international journal of development education and global learning, 10(1), 21-38. doi: 10.18546/ijdegl.10.1.03 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.ed journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 111 tarozzi, m. & mallon, b. (2019). educating teachers towards global citizenship: a comparative study in four european countries, london review of education, 17(2), 112125. unesco. (2015). global citizenship education: topics and learning objectives. retrieved january 20, 2019 from https://en.unesco.org/news/global-citizenship-education-topicsand-learning-objectives unesco. (2018). preparing teachers for global citizenship education: a template. retrieved january 20, 2019 from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265452_eng webber, g. & miller, d. (2016). progressive pedagogies and teacher education: a review of the literature, mcgill journal of education, 51(3), 1061-1079. doi: 10.7202/1039628ar wu, b. & ida, a. k. (2018). ethnic diversity, religion, and opinions toward legalizing abortion: the case of asian americans, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 94109. yin, r. k. (2009). case study research: design and methods (4th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publishing. yusoff, n. (2019). cultural heritage, emotion, acculturation, ethnic minority, valence, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 6(3), 53-63. andrews & aydin appendix discussion board questions (presented four weeks into the course, the first week of february)  dbq1: based on your personal experiences and what you have learned during the first four weeks of this course, how would you define global citizenship? what are the contexts/constructs in which global citizenship is embedded?  dbq2: is it important for global citizenship education to be part of the curriculum? who should be responsible for this decision? midterm question (administered the second week of march) one of the main purposes of the social studies curriculum is developing citizenship in students. global citizenship has been incorporated and implemented to a much greater extent in the k-12 curriculum in other countries than in the united states. what do you perceive to be some of the limiting factors that may inhibit or restrict global citizenship from being incorporated and implemented effectively into the curriculum? from your perspective, please explain why and how they are limiting factors. interview/focus group questions (interviews conducted in april: questions were follow-up questions in response to the discussion board questions and midterm questions to provide additional insight from the participants.)  what do you perceive to be the most emerging and important issues in society that should be addressed in the social studies curriculum?  how do you believe the meaning or implications of citizenship has transpired or changed over the course of history in the united states? what has caused this change?  what has been your educational or personal experiences that would pertain to global citizenship or being a global citizen?  what qualities, experiences, or expertise do you believe teachers should have or acquire to be competent in teaching global citizenship?  do you believe most teachers possess the competencies to teach global citizenship? if yes, why? / why not? please explain.  explain the ways in which global citizenship education, if incorporated into the prek-12 social studies curriculum, would strengthen or weaken a student's preparedness for participation in their local, national, and global society. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 84-113 113  do you feel students in pre-k-12 are currently being prepared for participation in a global society?  do you believe it is important for all students in all areas (rural and urban) to become global citizens? why do you feel this way?  is it possible to teach students empathy or “see” issues and events through other cultural perspectives? can you teach a student to respect others? please explain.  do you believe it is within a teachers’ jurisdiction to teach values and morals to students? why or why not?  what do you feel are some pros and cons to including nationalism in the curriculum?  is there anything additional you would like to contribute? final exam question (administered during finals week, the first week of may)  provide an example of an activity or lesson you could use to incorporate global citizenship into your classroom teaching. what components of global citizenship does it address, and how does it address them? www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2),126-151 massive open online courses as the initial stage of development of a digital university elvir akhmetshin1, vladimir vasilev2, angelina zekiy3, & rafina zakieva4 abstract the purpose of this study is to identify the conditions (including pedagogical) for effective development and operation of moocs to meet the interests of all participants in the educational process and national innovation (educational) policy. the present paper is based on the classical methodology of scientific research, including a set of scientific methods such as a logical consideration of historical events, a dialectical way of studying the world around us, considering concepts in the interrelation of their contradictory aspects, identifying the causes and relations between phenomena, abstracting and specifying results, and the method of multiple thematic comparative research. the study uses the method of sociological surveys to collect empirical data. further, it uses methods of statistical and graphic data processing. other methods applied include analysis of relevant modern scientific literature and the synthesis of promising new directions for the development of universities using digital educational technologies. relevant questionnaires were developed to interview students and teachers on the research topic set forth. in general, students have a positive attitude toward digital educational technologies and moocs. the main effects of moocs in the pedagogical process are as follows: the educational material becomes easier to perceive, more visual and diverse, the cognitive activity of students grows, the quality of information transmission and knowledge transfer to students improves, and the controllability of the acquired skills and abilities by students and teachers increases. to improve the effectiveness of moocs, it is necessary to reduce the academic load of teachers, simplify paper workflow, and increase the practical orientation of educational materials. keywords: education, digital technologies, pedagogical methods and conditions, blended learning, innovation in the educational process. introduction current global trends in education suggest that modern education at universities is becoming digital, distance, remote, free, and networked. at the same time, there is a trend toward strengthening the most competitive digital education systems. each university, acting in an open global digital space, strives to attract the best human resources, talented students and teachers, and financial and administrative resources. this trend in education systems methodologically 1dr., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russian federation, el.akhmetshin@mail.ru 2dr., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russian federation 3 dr., sechenov first moscow state medical university, russian federation 4 dr., kazan state power engineering university, russian federation mailto:el.akhmetshin@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 127 corresponds to modern trends in the economy. against the background of equal opportunities for the development of national economies in the global economic space, there is a return to the model of state protectionism, the return of capital to its homeland, the creation of conditions for the growth of the number of jobs, and the introduction of high customs duties on the import of foreign goods. thus, an open digital economy is used exclusively to strengthen the monopoly power of the national economy. at the same time, domestic demand for new production is stimulated by high customs barriers for foreign, mainly chinese, products and a ban on the export of american technologies and their use in general (for example, for the chinese company huawei). these trends in the global economy are reproduced in the education system. the scientific literature introduces the term “neo-colonialism,” which reveals the modern mechanism of the digital development of universities (adam, 2019). with the help of digital technologies, modern universities are spreading their teaching methods and their scientific methodology, mainly western, which leads to the destruction of local, indigenous knowledge systems in other countries. the object of research in the present article is the massive open online course (mooc). with the help of moocs, universities expand their interests to other countries, and gradually moocs become a source of formation of unique intellectual and financial resources of modern universities actively using digital technologies. most of the leading universities have their own strategic plans for digital development and adaptation to digital changes (guest et al., 2021; kalimullina et al., 2021; khalid et al., 2018; sobral, 2021). the development of modern society is characterized by certain dynamics, where the transition from the traditional era to the informational one takes place. this is manifested in the rapid development of virtual communications, which leads to dramatic changes in all spheres of society, affecting the field of education. even businesses in such conditions are forced to actively use digital technologies to maintain their competitiveness (benčič et al., 2020; subedi & subedi, 2020; yemelyanov et al., 2020). this requires better information security of new education systems, which is being addressed simultaneously with the improvement of the digital infrastructure of universities, by the transfer of the educational function to a digital format (evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; gapsalamov, 2020). today, the educational process is structured in such a way that one is forced to constantly improve one’s qualifications. the modern world is changing so quickly that a single profession is no longer enough. new technologies are constantly increasing the proportion of automated jobs. a valuable akhmetshin et al. specialist is one who is able to flexibly change under the influence of external changes and new information (gibbs, 2020; oguilve et al., 2021). the ability to continuously generate new knowledge in the digital economy is becoming important (zmiyak et al., 2019). requirements for human competencies are changing. a competitive person should now have such character traits as mobility, sociability, the ability to use new technologies, and the desire to independently study new information. digital education goes beyond the educational institution. the staff must constantly learn and acquire new competencies while working on their own (danchenok et al., 2019). another trend in the transformation of the education system is the requirement to take into account the capabilities and needs of the student. a personality-oriented approach in the education system will allow taking into account various properties and qualities of a person. it is important that students have the opportunity to develop their natural inclinations and abilities. in particular, such results can be achieved when teaching on educational digital platforms, its vector of obtaining knowledge being adjusted by the listener. education systems are following the path of integrating the possibilities of personification of educational materials and the accumulation of general educational resources, which is reflected in the growth of the number of моосs (mu, 2020). digital technologies are transforming all the traditional functions of the university, primarily its educational function. researchers predict the emergence of new competencies in the work of teachers and a new profession: “digital-engineer-teacher” (andryukhina et al., 2020). the coronavirus pandemic and the massive transition to distance learning technologies has also made the present study relevant to improve the quality of teaching at the university (gerasimova et al., 2018; novikov, 2020). furthermore, electronic educational sites and the моосs hosted by them are becoming the main factor in the digital transformation of the educational function of universities. the relevance of research studying the role and place of moocs in the modern digital educational space is currently considered high. it is necessary to investigate the conditions for the effective development and operation of moocs in the pedagogical activity of a modern teacher at the university. the role of distance education is increasing. moocs are the most common distance education tool. it is necessary to use moocs in the traditional higher education system. it is also necessary to identify the most difficult problems and effective ways to solve them. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 129 research questions in our study, we posed three research questions to guide the research procedure: 1) what are students’ perceptions of moocs as the initial stage of development of a digital university? 2) how do students perceive the effects of moocs on teaching? 3) how do students perceive the effectiveness of moocs? literature review the fundamental and final goal of all massive open online courses is to build a form of knowledge transfer with the educational process that is public and massive. in the literature, the mooc is recognized as a revolutionary innovation in e-learning that changes the educational process for both the student and the teacher (ahmad et al., 2020; dagdilelis, 2018; tadeu et al., 2019). today, there is a wider choice of platforms for various moocs: coursera, itunes u, stepik, eduardo (lectorium). the number of moocs located at these sites, as well as the number of students of these courses, is constantly growing (figure 1). figure 1. growth dynamics of distance education indicators in the world (compiled by the authors based on the analysis of multiple thematic comparative studies) the key features of massive open online courses include: (1) an accessible training format that is free for everyone; (2) the presence of educational video lectures; (3) practical work and test tasks, with the deadlines most often clearly spelled out; (4) the possibility of obtaining a certificate (including a paid one) upon successful completion of training; and (5) the emergence of new forms akhmetshin et al. of communication and knowledge acquisition, such as discussion forums (almatrafi & johri, 2019). the literature describes parameters of massive open online courses that are worth paying attention to (baez zarabanda, 2019; brigas, 2019; ohlin, 2019). first, such a training format presupposes feedback and a system of various methods for assessing students’ knowledge. at the same time, expanding the circle of communication of mooc listeners through social networks increases the positive emotional state of the student (anderson et al., 2020). second, the possibility of forming an educational community for the interaction of students during the period of the online course needs attention. at the same time, special attention should be paid to a professional approach to the development and certification of the mooc (ansah et al., 2020). third, the possibility of increasing interest in learning by introducing gamification elements is potential. this helps the active development of interactive educational technologies both in the humanities and in engineering (barabanova et al., 2019). fourth, it is possible to build an online course program based on a specific discipline in keeping with the number of credits and other results. at the same time, it is advisable to regulate the didactic parameters of the mooc depending on the individual characteristics of the student (baumol & bockshecker, 2017). fifth, flexibility of the online course is present. at the same time, an urgent task is to coordinate the conflicting requirements of the participants in the educational process: students, teachers, and university administration (biedermann et al., 2019; idika, 2020; pogosyan, 2019). sixth, there is formation of student independence, as there is an opportunity to study without direct interaction with the teacher. at the same time, it is noted that a more active use of moocs will increase the indicators of digital development of the universities in accordance with the priorities of the state policy of digitalization of the economy (bogoviz et al., 2018). the mechanism of creating an online course is rather laborious and associated with significant investment (azami & ibrahim, 2019). to optimize costs and increase the satisfaction of all parties when using moocs, the teaching practice uses the pedagogical design model addie (analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation). this model provides an opportunity to consider the main stages of developing a typical mooc (figure 2): journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 131 figure 2. pedagogical design model addie this model combines the most famous theories of pedagogical, psychological, and technical science. based on the literature, a mooc is a process of pedagogical activity using advanced digital technologies to organize and conduct distance learning, taking into account the individual characteristics of students and the dynamics of indicators of their group learning. the following is a brief review of the literature describing the stages of development of a modern моос in a digital university: moocs indicate development of technical specifications. at this stage, the goals and objectives of the online course are formulated; the expected results are developed to be recommended for implementation during the educational process. it is necessary to take into account the specifics of the target audience for the formation of the initial level of training of the students. for example, there are approaches to the development of a mooc depending on the age of potential students (cedillo et al., 2019). moocs can serve in preparing a pedagogical script for an online course. after the learning objectives have been set, it is necessary to determine the scope, content of the course, and its structure. during the work, a detailed course program is prepared. at the stage of the initial check of the material, the recommended time for studying the course is indicated and the electronic educational content is prepared. in this case, multimedia training tools can be actively used (henukh et al., 2019). in addition, moocs help course creation and testing. all materials of the online course are uploaded to the educational platform, tested, and checked for functionality. it is necessary to ensure akhmetshin et al. the improvement of learning outcomes using moocs compared to traditional forms of education (sulistyo et al., 2019). the first stage is associated with the hosting of the massive open online course on the educational platform, its approbation, and testing. in some cases, the online course is uploaded to a cloud platform that provides network access to a large number of internet users. at this stage, a number of researchers advise to expand the traditional functions of moocs and create a common digital educating environment for students and teachers (holanda et al., 2020). second, quality analysis of the online course is easy to control. in the process of distance learning using massive open online courses, it is important at each stage to receive feedback from students, make corrections, and adjust the course for its further modernization, taking into account the shortcomings found. this will identify students who make up groups with low efficiency of distance learning and who need advice and adjustments to the learning path (wolff et al., 2014). all stages of the development of a typical massive open online course are lined up in a logical sequence and assume the feedback among the participants. this is necessary for the continuous improvement of moocs, supplementing with relevant materials, new structural elements, and new forms of student-teacher interaction (zaporozhko & parfyonov, 2017). the key feature in the development of any high-quality massive open online course is building educational content in such a way that all the necessary information for the student is transmitted in an accessible and understandable form. the main task is a clear perception and subsequent practical application of the knowledge gained. for this, the researchers propose to evaluate the effectiveness of mooc operation not only during the studies, but also by the results of the work of young specialists after several months of work in the real sector of the economy (smith-lickess et al., 2019). the technology of pedagogical design is relatively simple, since it contains a certain algorithm already used as a basis for the online course being developed. the technology of pedagogical design can be most simply explained on the example of the use of marketing research in economics: it is important to understand the needs of the client (student) and ensure the transfer of the product (knowledge) in the most convenient, understandable and attractive way. also important is the clarity and usefulness of the material being studied. the time factor in the positive acceptance of moocs as a new technology for training is also of importance (hrabala et al., 2017; prutchenkov & pavlova, 2017; teo & dai, 2019). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 133 despite the fact that the effectiveness of distance learning is often questionable, it is still impossible to argue with the wide range of positive aspects of this form of education. with careful work on the quality of the online course, understanding the strengths and weaknesses will only allow improving educational content, taking into account the wishes of the students themselves (kilinc et al., 2020; williams et al., 2021). the process of improving the education system using moocs is not complete (fadli et al., 2020). the creation and active use of universal educational massive open online courses focused on obtaining fundamental knowledge and practical skills requires very high developer qualification. therefore, one of the tasks of a digital university is to increase the competence of students and teachers in the field of digital technologies. the solution to this problem is not sufficiently described in the existing scientific literature. the purpose of this study is to identify the most effective conditions for mastering digital competencies and pedagogical methods for the effective development of massive open online courses and their active use as an initial stage in the development of a modern digital university. methods research design the present study used a survey design to which a quantitative approach was applied to analyze data. the focus of this study was the use of moocs as the massive online system used in kazan university, russia. a comprehensive consideration of digital technologies in solving pedagogical problems is in the interest of the university in the process of its digital transformation and competition for resources (personnel, financial, technological) in the global educational environment. statistical analysis using spss software was used as the tool of data analysis. this study was conducted at the yelabuga institute of the kazan (volga region) federal university. the study was conducted over three months from september to november 2020. instruments the questionnaire and inventory were developed by the authors of the study. in their work, the authors relied on previous research by scientists on digital education and moocs, presented in the literature review and bibliography in this article. the verification of the results obtained was based on comparison with the results of other studies, which is described in this article. the following survey questionnaires were developed: questionnaire 1: items of the survey questionnaire for the students akhmetshin et al. the students’ attitude to the organization of training using massive open online courses as an initial stage in the development of a digital university: 1. would you like to receive basic or additional education on digital platforms of massive open online courses? 2. how much time a day do you spend on the internet? 3. do you consider learning on digital educational platforms effective? 4. do you know what digital educational resources are? 5. have you gained knowledge through digital educational resources? 6. are you familiar with such programs as google classroom, coursera, or stepik? 7. which is more convenient for you: to acquire knowledge from a textbook or using the internet? 8. have you had experience with acquiring knowledge through multimedia presentations, electronic encyclopedias, or on online training platforms? 9. would you like to have digital educational resources start to be widely used in your educational institution? 10. do you find learning on digital educational platforms interesting? questionnaire 2: items of the survey questionnaire for the teachers teachers’ attitude to the organization of training using massive open online courses as an initial stage in the development of a digital university question formulation answer options 1. your sex: a) male b) female 2. do you teach: a) mathematical and natural science disciplines b) technical disciplines c) economic disciplines d) agricultural disciplines e) general educational humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines f) industrial training g) other 3. are you familiar with the concept of massive open online courses? а) yes b) no 4. do you have experience with using elements of distance learning in pedagogical practice? а) yes b) no 5. how do you feel about the introduction into educational practice of such an element of distance training as massive open online courses? a) it is more interesting to study traditionally, since there is personal communication b) to organize training in a distance format is much more effective c) it is preferable to adhere to a blended training format, with both formats expressed equally d) other 6. what is the effectiveness of training using distance education forms, including online courses? a) low b) medium c) high d) not sure 7. do you think that massive open online courses provide an opportunity to study the discipline to the fullest? а) yes b) no journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 135 8. have you had any experience with developing massive open online courses? а) yes b) no 9. if so, what difficulties arose during the development in the academic methodological aspect and during implementation? a) lack of time b) difficulties in the speed of mastering new competencies c) overload of the documentation component d) difficulties in creating an online course for practice-oriented specialties e) other 10. what forms and means are most preferable for the implementation of distance training today? a) email b) online conferences c) chat, forum d) educational platforms with online courses by discipline e) other 11. do you support the idea of introducing distance training into the educational process of your educational institution, including massive open online courses? a) yes b) no c) not sure source: developed by the authors to compile this questionnaire, interim surveys were carried out with clarification of possible questions in terms of their relevance and practical importance for the current state of the university, taking into account the task of its digital development and respecting the interests of both teachers, students, researchers, administration, and partners of the university and representatives of state and municipal authorities. data collection to collect data, we used the e-mail addresses of students and teachers, presented on the official website of the elabuga institute of the kazan (volga region) federal university. personal data were not violated. the answers to the questions were received with the consent of all respondents. the google forms information service was used to automate the data collection process. the responses received over the internet were then exported from google forms to microsoft excel, where the data were analyzed further. ninety-five percent of all teachers and students answered the questionnaire. such a high percentage of answers received is due to the high motivation and interest of the respondents in solving the issues of digitalization of the university and the use of moocs that proved important for them. the questions for the questionnaire were compiled based on the studied research and scientific articles on digital education and mooc development. students (2,000 people) and teachers (200 people) took part in the survey. gender differences did not affect the quality of the study. the ratio of men and women in the number of respondents is equal. during the survey, no privacy or data confidentiality was violated. the error was not taken into account in the calculations, since the research methodology assumes a normal distribution by the number of respondents. akhmetshin et al. the research methodology is aimed at identifying the positive and negative effects of the introduction of moocs at the university as a whole for the entire community of respondents. therefore, no research has been carried out on the contingent and quality of the respondents. the goal was not to identify differences in the perception of moocs by different contingents and qualities of respondents. in general, the aggregate of respondents is characterized by average indicators: in terms of the quality of preparedness of students, by academic performance, by the psychological qualities of receptivity to digital technologies. all interviewed teachers have higher pedagogical education. data analysis to analyze the data obtained, statistical research methods were used: the calculation of absolute, relative and average values. for a more effective visual perception of the obtained statistical data, graphs were used. the graphs presented both absolute values and the percentage of the respondents’ answers. all statistical calculations and graphs were made using licensed microsoft excel software. findings let us structure the results of our research based on the previously formulated questions: 1) what are students’ perceptions of moocs as an early stage in the development of a digital university? students’ perceptions of moocs in this direction, the following results were obtained:  100% of the respondents would like to receive basic or additional education on digital platforms of massive open-online courses.  57.1% consider training on digital educational platforms as effective; 42.9% found it difficult to answer (were not sure).  before the introduction of the online course, 85.7% knew about the concept of digital educational resources; 14.3% were not aware.  at the same time, 71.4% have an idea of google classroom, coursera, or stepik; 28.6% chose the “no” option.  100% of those who voted are inclined to believe that it is more convenient to acquire knowledge on the internet and with the help of digital educational technologies and moocs (figure 3). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 137 figure 3. the results of the survey of students, in % of the total number of respondents based on the survey data, an online course was developed as part of the practice in the discipline “organizing a team of performers” at the google classroom site. despite the fact that this training was of a mixed nature, all students voluntarily registered and actively completed the assignments provided in the course. analysis of the results of the development and implementation of elements of a massive open online course in the discipline “organizing a team of performers” in the educational process indicates a high motivation of students to study at the sites of massive open online courses. the practice of implementing distance learning has shown that today, in order to enhance the motivation of students and increase control over the educational activities of students, a blended learning option is possible with the active improvement of moocs, finalizing digital educational content, and taking into account the feedback and wishes of students, their individual cognitive preferences, and digital portraits. students’ perception of the effects of moocs we proceed to the analysis of the results according to the second research question: 2) how do students perceive the effects of moocs in teaching as an early stage in the development of a digital university? in this direction, the following results were obtained: all of the students noted that the use of digital technologies and moocs in classrooms increased their motivation to learn and improved the quality of the educational process. the results of a survey of time engagement of students were obtained (figure 4):  14.3% of students spend less than 1 hour on the internet every day, 42.9% of students spend 1 to 3 hours a day on it, and 42.9% of respondents chose the answer “more than 3 hours.” 100 57,2 85,8 71,5 0 42,8 0 0 0 0 14,2 28,5 would you like to acquire basic or additional education on digital platforms with mooc elements? do you consider learning on digital educational platforms effective? do you know what digital educational resources are? are you familiar with such programs as: google classroom, coursera or stepik? yes find it difficult to answer no akhmetshin et al. figure 4. time spent by students on the internet, in % of the total number of respondents the next stage of the research is associated with a survey of the teaching staff, based on which the corresponding conclusions were made. the structure and composition of the interviewed teachers is shown in figure 5. the survey was attended by teachers of economics, general education, and technical disciplines. figure 5. the structure of teachers taking part in the survey, in % of the total number of respondents the most preferred forms and means for implementing distance learning today (a question with a choice of several answers at once) are chats and forums (16.7%), online conferences (33.3%), and educational platforms with online courses on disciplines (100%).  50% had experience developing massive open online courses; the other half of the respondents did not have such experience to date.  71% of students had a chance to acquire knowledge through multimedia presentations, electronic encyclopedias, or online training platforms; 29% of students were inclined toward a negative answer. less than 1 hour 14% 1 to 3 hours 43% more than 3 hours 43% less than 1 hour 1 to 3 hours more than 3 hours 50% 17% 33% teachers of economic disciplines teachers of general education, humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines teachers of technical disciplines journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 139  when asked about their desire for active implementation and having classes using moocs, 73% of respondents answered in the affirmative; 27% of students found it difficult to answer. there were no negative results.  86% of respondents think that learning on the platforms of massive open online courses is interesting and exciting; 14% of students found it difficult to answer the question. there were no negative answers (figure 6). figure 6. results of students’ survey, in % of the total number of respondents thus, both teachers and students note the high importance of using moocs in the pedagogical process at the university. however, the quality of the presented moocs and the effectiveness of their use for solving pedagogical problems in the context of the digital transformation of the university allow us to talk about the existing problems in this field. the task of the present study is to determine ways of solving the identified problems. effectiveness of moocs consider the results for the third research question: 3) how do students perceive the effectiveness of moocs in teaching as an early stage in the development of a digital university? in this direction, the following results were obtained: the topics of the questions relate to distance training and, in particular, concern the development of massive open online courses in an educational institution (figure 7). 86 73 71 0 27 0 14 0 29 do you find learning on digital educational sites interesting? would you like to see the wide use of digital educational technologies in your educational institution? have you ever acquired knowledge through multimedia presentations, electronic encyclopedias, or on online training platforms? yes find it difficult to answer no akhmetshin et al. figure 7. the result of a survey of teachers of the elabuga institute of the kazan (volga region) federal university, in % of the total number of respondents  91.6% are familiar with the concept of massive open online courses; 8.4% are not.  when asked if they had experience using distance training elements in their teaching practice, 66.7% answered yes and 33.3% answered no.  when asked about the introduction into educational practice of such an element of distance training as massive open online courses, all (100%) answered that it is preferable to adhere to blended training with both formats expressed equally (the ratio of traditional and distance learning).  to the question “do you think that massive open online courses provide an opportunity to study the discipline to the fullest?” 100% chose no.  to the final question “do you support the idea of introducing distance learning into educational training, including massive open online courses?” 83.3% answered positively; 16.7% found it difficult to answer. thus, we see that the effectiveness of the implementation of moocs is high. this is confirmed by surveys of both students and teachers. however, there are a number of problems reducing the effectiveness of the implementation and use of moocs. let us dwell on this point in more detail. the difficulties of mastering digital educational technologies were investigated. when asked about the difficulties in developing moocs (where it was possible to choose several answers), one of the main reasons was highlighted: lack of time (25%), overload of the documentation component 83,4 66,7 0 91,7 16,6 0 0 0 0 33,3 100 8,3 do you support the idea of introducing distance learning, including massive open online courses, into the educational process of the elabuga institute of kfu? do you have any experience of using distance training elements in teaching practice? do you think massive open online courses provide an opportunity to study the discipline to the fullest? are you familiar with the concept of massive open online courses? yes find it difficult to answer no journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 141 (25%), and the most popular answer, difficulties in creating online course for practice-oriented specialties (50%). the results are as follows (figure 8): figure 8. difficulties encountered by teachers in the process of developing massive open online courses, in % of the total number of respondents our research results show that at the elabuga institute of the kazan (volga region) federal university, it is possible to study using online courses with a forecast of positive dynamics. due to the high orientation toward the practical component in the implemented specialties, today it is possible to combine traditional and innovative forms of education (zelentsova & tikhonov, 2020). a blended training model will allow building a well-structured process of transferring knowledge to students. the presence of rich experience in teaching and the desire to study and implement new educational trends allow for favorable forecasts for the further development of the studied educational institution on its way to the model of a modern digital university. discussion according to the research results, both teachers and students noted the positive effects of using moocs in the educational process. after the application of digital (remote) technologies in the educational process, there is an increase in the cognitive activity of students and their academic performance increases. despite the many negative effects of excessive use of internet technologies and virtual reality, the educational process using moocs allows one to gain additional knowledge in a more attractive form. the process of introducing moocs at the yelabuga institute of kfu is at an early stage. various difficulties will arise along the way. there is a need for a step-by-step improvement in the implementation of moocs, which includes new digital technologies and disruptive pedagogical methods. 25% 25% 50% lack of time overload of the documentation component difficulties in creating online course for practice-oriented specialties akhmetshin et al. digital technologies are radically changing the economy, education, and life as a whole (korableva et al., 2019; kozlova, 2019; vijayavalsalan, 2018). this study does not reveal the mechanism of the influence of digital technologies on the economy, education, and life. in our study, the assessment of the level of mooc operation at the university has shown a direct relationship between the quality of digital technology application in the economy and the demand for specialists with digital competencies. the experience of introducing distance learning in the educational process shows that the wide use of digital technologies in general depends on the rate of their dissemination in the external environment, on the rate of their mastery by all participants in the educational process, and on the correct perception and use for the good of the case (akhmetzhanova & yuriev, 2018). this study did not consider the characteristics of increasing digital literacy between different participants in the educational process. in our study, the analysis of the teaching staff of the university and the student body has shown the need to increase the overall level of digital competence simultaneously and in a balanced way for all participants in the educational process. how does the use of moocs affect the quality of training sessions and the motivation of students to master the educational material? the researchers are of the opinion that the effectiveness of moocs will increase with their gradual adaptation to the individual characteristics of a student. for this, deep learning technologies using artificial intelligence are applied (katasev, 2019; mustafin, 2015). this study does not consider the prerequisites for the formation of a digital individual educational trajectory. our study shows that to increase the effectiveness of moocs, it is necessary to take into account individual characteristics of a student and indicators of the dynamics of knowledge assimilation in a group of students. in the process of developing moocs, it is necessary to take into account the language characteristics of students to develop educational and methodological support. then the created mooc will gain a competitive advantage over others and will increase the financial security of the university and preserve jobs and the quality of the local education system (idrissi jouicha et al., 2020). this study does not fully disclose the conditions for increasing students’ motivation to learn. in our study, the results obtained indicate the need to increase students’ cognitive interest in moocs. it is only possible on the basis of high-quality didactic and methodological elaboration of educational materials, taking into account cultural and linguistic characteristics of the listeners. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 143 it is necessary to avoid the risks arising in the context of digitalization by ensuring the improvement of the education system toward sustainable and balanced development (ahel & lingenau, 2020). digital technologies are being introduced deeper and wider into the educational space. much research in the literature is associated with the capture of traditional areas of educational activity, not only humanitarian, but also purely technical, by digital technologies (shleymovich et al., 2018). this study does not assess the risks of a sharp transition from traditional to distance learning. our study has shown that students and teachers prefer blended learning. the abrupt abandonment of traditional forms of education and an unprepared transition to distance learning are characterized by high risks. how do teachers feel about the use of moocs in classrooms? the development of moocs gives a new impetus to international cooperation and the internationalization of educational systems (snegurenko et al., 2019). this study does not show the benefits of using moocs at a regional university for solving local problems. in our study, as the respondents note, the main advantage of moocs is the ability to learn from anywhere and constantly update the information and knowledge. the temporary transition to distance education will make it possible to assess how effective this format is for all areas, both humanitarian and technical (ashilova et al., 2019). this study does not consider the peculiarities of the use of moocs in training specialists in the humanities or technical sciences. in our study, the results show that moocs and distance learning in general are more in demand in the humanities and less in technics. this is due to the need for physical experiments and material laboratory work, which students can only do in specialized conditions at the university. on the other hand, in our study, all students of both humanitarian and technical specialties confirmed their positive attitude toward moocs. the fact is that the effectiveness of moocs, as other studies show, depends on the quality of the preparation of educational materials posted on a digital platform (novikova et al., 2017). according to experts, the broader the analysis base for designing digital transformation processes, the more efficiently educational activities will be formed in the new format (ashmarina et al., 2020). this study does not assess the impact of moocs on the digital transformation of the university. in accordance with the analytics and the identified patterns, in our research the formulated recommendations will make it possible to create a mooc complex as an initial stage in the development of a digital university. in our opinion, a digital university is an educational akhmetshin et al. organization that has passed the stage of digital manageability and entered the stage of digital transformation. moocs are a means to transform traditional educational activities into a new format, implemented in the digital environment through digital technologies (kokoreva et al., 2021). what can be done to make the process of using moocs more effective in the context of training future specialists for the digital economy? step-by-step development and effective feedback enable the creation of a well-functioning and structured mooc (alalwan, 2019). this study does not reveal the specifics of feedback making it possible to increase the effectiveness of the use of moocs for solving pedagogical problems at the university. in addition to the conclusions known in the literature, the present study has allowed the authors to formulate their own recommendations. it is necessary to launch moocs in advance as a test option to ensure compliance with the curriculum and didactic and methodological recommendations. moocs should be properly structured and developed according to the theory of practically oriented education. for the successful launch of moocs, it is important to ensure the joint work of a teacher, methodologist, videographer, and other experts competent in this matter. the literature mentions problems in the implementation and use of moocs associated with personnel resistance (stackhouse et al., 2020). they highlight the reasons associated with the general rejection of everything new and the lack of demonstrated effectiveness. the literature also describes the problems associated with the increasing complexity of control of the acquired knowledge by students with the help of moocs. in our study, similar results were obtained. however, this problem can be solved by better preparation of funds of assessment means based on feedback from students (pesoshin et al., 2016). this study does not describe all the problems that arise in the design and implementation of moocs. our research has updated and supplemented the list of problems presented in the literature. the study has revealed such problems of mooc operation as lack of time, paperwork overload, and difficulties in distance learning for technical specialties. to reduce the risks of staff resistance, it is necessary to demonstrate success stories related to using moocs. it is advisable to monitor and discuss the classes held using moocs at the first stages of the introduction of digital technologies at the university. this will help to correct the digital university formation process, to interest participants in the educational process, to remove contradictions in the requirements for the educational process, and make moocs a more effective tool for everyone. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 145 implementations and recommendations the following results were obtained according to the research questions. first, the attitude of students toward moocs is generally positive. second, after the introduction of moocs, the cognitive motivation and academic performance of students increase. third, teachers positively assess the processes of introducing moocs and actively use digital technologies and pedagogical methods. fourth, in order to improve the processes of introducing moocs, it is necessary to create special conditions: to reduce the burden on teachers, eliminate unnecessary paperwork, and improve the practical orientation of moocs. conclusion this research has shown the high relevance of distance learning technologies for the teaching staff and for the student environment. in the context of the covid-19 pandemic, the transition to distance learning was the way out of this situation. along with the transition to distance educational technologies, some problems emerged: lack of time, higher paper documentation workload, difficulties in transferring to a distance learning format for technical specialties, and staff resistance to new technologies and changes. moocs should be considered the first stage of digital transformation of the educational activities of the university as it moves toward the digital university model. the following can be considered as effective conditions for the creation and implementation of moocs at the university: (1) ensuring a balanced growth of digital competencies for both teachers and students of the university; (2) development and improvement of moocs according to the theory of educational design (addie); (3) participation in mooc development by a wide range of specialists (teacher, methodologist, videographer, system administrator); (4) carrying out a program of activities to disseminate success stories related to the use of moocs; and (5) launching and testing pilot moocs and arranging feedback from listeners. these recommendations will improve the quality of the distance learning format and bring russian universities closer to the model of an advanced digital university with a high level of global competitiveness. acknowledgments the reported study was funded by rfbr, project number 19-29-07037. akhmetshin et al. references adam, t. (2019). digital neocolonialism and massive open online courses (moocs): colonial pasts and neoliberal futures. learning, media and technology, 44(3), 365-380. doi:10.1080/17439884.2019.1640740 ahel, o., & lingenau, k. (2020). opportunities and challenges of digitalization to improve access to education for sustainable development in higher education. world sustainability series, 341-356. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-15604-6_21 ahmad, m. a., hussin, a. r. c., dahlan, h. m., & mahmood, j. (2020). challenges of teaching in massive open online course. paper presented at the journal of physics: conference series, 1500(1). doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1500/1/012096 akhmetzhanova, g. v., & yuriev, a. v. (2018). digital technologies in education. baltic humanitarian journal, 7(3(24)), 334-336. alalwan, n. (2019). students used a massive open online courses (moocs) in higher education of arab countries (ac). international journal of recent technology and engineering, 8(3), 3795-3800. doi:10.35940/ijrte.c5441.098319 almatrafi, o., & johri, a. (2019). systematic review of discussion forums in massive open online courses (moocs). ieee transactions on learning technologies, 12(3), 413-428. doi:10.1109/tlt.2018.2859304 anderson, v., gifford, j., & wildman, j. (2020). an evaluation of social learning and learner outcomes in a massive open online course (mooc): a healthcare sector case study. human resource development international, 23(3), 208-237. doi:10.1080/13678868.2020.1721982 andryukhina, l. m., sadovnikova, n. o., utkina, s. n., & mirzaahmedov, a. m. (2020). digitalisation of professional education: prospects and invisible barriers. obrazovanie i nauka, 22(3), 116-147. doi:10.17853/1994-5639-2020-3-116-147 ansah, r. h., ezeh, o. v., teck, t. s., & sorooshian, s. (2020). the disruptive power of massive open online course (mooc). international journal of information and education technology, 10(1), 42-47. doi:10.18178/ijiet.2020.10.1.1337 ashilova, m. s., begalinov, a. s., & begalinova, k. k. (2019). about the impact of digitalization of society on education in kazakhstan. science for education today, 9(6), 40-51. doi:10.15293/2658-6762.1906.03 ashmarina, s. i., kandrashina, e. a., izmailov, a. m., & mirzayev, n. g. (2020). gaps in the system of higher education in russia in terms of digitalization. advances in intelligent systems and computing, 908, 437-443. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11367-4_43 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 147 azami, h. h. r., & ibrahim, r. (2019). development and evaluation of massive open online course (mooc) as a supplementary learning tool: an initial study. international journal of advanced computer science and applications, 10(7), 532-537. doi:10.14569/ijacsa.2019.0100773 baez zarabanda, d. (2019). ict and its purpose in the pedagogical practice. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.6 barabanova, s. v., kaybiyaynen, a. a., & kraysman, n. v. (2019). digitalization of education in the global context. vysshee obrazovanie v rossii, 28(1), 94-103. doi:10.31992/0869-36172019-28-1-94-103 baumol, u., & bockshecker, a. (2017). evolutionary change of higher education driven by digitalization. paper presented at the 2017 16th international conference on information technology based higher education and training, ithet 2017. doi:10.1109/ithet.2017.8067811 benčič, s., kitsay, y. a., karbekova, a. b., & giyazov, a. (2020). specifics of building the digital economy in developed and developing countries. lecture notes in networks and systems, 87, 39-48. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29586-8_5 biedermann, d., kalbfell, l., schneider, j., & drachsler, h. (2019). stakeholder attitudes toward digitalization in higher education institutions. paper presented at the lecture notes in informatics (lni), proceedings series of the gesellschaft fur informatik (gi), 297, 5766. doi:10.18420/delfi2019_332 bogoviz, a. v., gimelshteyn, a. v., shvakov, e. e., maslova, e. v., & kolosova, a. a. (2018). digitalization of the russian education system: opportunities and perspectives. quality access to success, 19(s2), 27-32. brigas, c. (2019). modeling and simulation in an educational context: teaching and learning sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.1 cedillo, p., bermeo, a., beltran, p., rodriguez, p., & serrano, f. (2019). a method for building massive open online courses for elderly people moocep: from the user perceptions. paper presented at the proceedings frontiers in education conference, fie, 2018october. doi:10.1109/fie.2018.8658587 dagdilelis, v. (2018). preparing teachers for the use of digital technologies in their teaching practice. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 109-121. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.7 danchenok, l. a., zaitseva, a. s., & komleva, n. v. (2019). transformation of the model of additional education in the digital economy. open education, 1. retrieved from: akhmetshin et al. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/transformatsiya-modeli-dopolnitelnogo-obrazovaniya-vusloviyah-tsifrovoy-ekonomiki evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 fadli, m., maharani, d. p., & liemanto, a. (2020). a new paradigm of regulation for massive open online courses (moocs) in higher education in indonesia: from disruptive innovation to sustaining innovation. international journal of innovation, creativity and change, (6), 442-457. gapsalamov, a. r., akhmetshin, e. m., sharipov, r. r., vasilev, v. l., & bochkareva, t. n. (2020). approaches to information security in educational processes in the context of digitalization. tem journal, 9(2), 708-715. doi:10.18421/tem92-38 gerasimova, v. g., melamud, m. r., tutaeva, d. r., romanova, y. d., & zhenova, n. a. (2018). the adoption of e-learning technology at the faculty of distance learning of plekhanov russian university of economics. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 172-188. doi:10.17499/jsser.20153 gibbs, b. (2020). critical teaching in classrooms of healing: struggles and testimonies. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 95-111. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.6 guest, c., wainwright, p., herbert, m., & smith, i. m. (2021). driving quality improvement with a massive open online course (mooc). bmj open quality, 10(1). doi:10.1136/bmjoq2019-000781 henukh, a., nikat, r. f., simbolon, m., nuryadin, c., & baso, y. s. (2019). multimedia development based on web connected massive open online courses (cmoocs) on the basic physics material. paper presented at the iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 343(1). doi:10.1088/1755-1315/343/1/012160 holanda, a. c. a., tedesco, p. a., oliveira, e. h. t., & gomes, t. c. s. (2020). moocolab a customized collaboration framework in massive open online courses. lecture notes in computer science (including subseries lecture notes in artificial intelligence and lecture notes in bioinformatics), 12149 lncs, 125-131. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49663-0_16 hrabala, m., opletalováb, m., & tučekc, d. (2017). teaching business process management: improving the process of process modelling course. journal of applied engineering science, 15(2), 113-121. idika, e. (2020). students’ and teachers’ factors hindering effective teaching and learning of economics in secondary schools in the nsukka local government area of enugu state. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.4 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 149 idrissi jouicha, a., berrada, k., bendaoud, r., machwate, s., miraoui, a., & burgos, d. (2020). starting moocs in african university: the experience of cadi ayyad university, process, review, recommendations, and prospects. ieee access, 8, 17477-17488. doi:10.1109/access.2020.2966762 katasev, a. s. (2019). neuro-fuzzy model of fuzzy rules formation for objects state evaluation in conditions of uncertainty. computer research and modeling, 11(3), 477-492. doi:10.20537/2076-7633-2019-11-3-477-492 kalimullina, o., tarman, b., & stepanova, i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher’s role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226-238. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 khalid, j., ram, b. r., soliman, m., ali, a. j., khaleel, m., & islam, m. s. (2018). promising digital university: a pivotal need for higher education transformation. international journal of management in education, 12(3), 264-275. doi:10.1504/ijmie.2018.092868 kilinc, e., tarman, b., & aydin, h. (2018). examining turkish social studies teachers’ beliefs about barriers to technology integration. techtrends, 62, 221-223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-018-0280-y kokoreva, n. v., orlova, m. v., & silina, s. a. (2021). trends in the formation of the digital educational environment of universities. studies in systems, decision and control, 314, 747-755. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-56433-9_79 korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). studying user satisfaction with mooc platform interfaces using the example of coursera and open education platforms. paper presented at the acm international conference proceeding series, 2630. doi:10.1145/3322134.3322139 kozlova, n. sh. (2019). digital technologies in education. bulletin of the maikop state technological university, 1. retrieved from: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/tsifrovyetehnologii-v-obrazovanii mu, s. (2020). the construction of learning support service system of distance open education based on sharing theory. paper presented at the iop conference series: materials science and engineering, 750(1). doi:10.1088/1757-899x/750/1/012032 mustafin, a. (2015). coupling-induced oscillations in two intrinsically quiescent populations. communications in nonlinear science and numerical simulation, 29(1-3), 391-399. doi:10.1016/j.cnsns.2015.05.019 novikov, p. (2020). impact of covid-19 emergency transition to on-line learning on international students’ perceptions of educational process at russian university. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 270-302. akhmetshin et al. novikova, s. v., sosnovsky, s. a., yakhina, r. r., valitova, n. l., & kremleva, e. s. (2017). the specific aspects of designing computer-based tutors for future engineers in numerical methods studying. integration of education, 21(2), 322-343. oguilve, v., wen, w., bowen, e., abourehab, y., bermudez, a., gaxiola, e., & castek, j. (2021). community making: an expansive view of curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 69-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.8 ohlin, c. (2019). information and communication technology in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.4 pesoshin, v. a., kuznetsov, v. m., & shirshova, d. v. (2016). generators of the equiprobable pseudorandom nonmaximal-length sequences based on linear-feedback shift registers. automation and remote control, 77(9), 1622-1632. pogosyan, v. (2019). change and variability of phenomena in complex social systems. wisdom, 13(2), 95-103. doi:10.24234/wisdom.v13i2.276 prutchenkov, a. s., & pavlova, s. a. (2017). technology for assessing supra-professional skills (key competencies) of schoolchildren within the framework of the juniorskills profile shift. school technology, 5, 76-88. shleymovich, m. p., dagaeva, m. v., katasev, a. s., lyasheva, s. a., & medvedev, m. v. (2018). the analysis of images in control systems of unmanned automobiles on the base of energy features model. computer research and modeling, 10(3), 369-376. smith-lickess, s. k., woodhead, t., burhouse, a., & vasilakis, c. (2019). study design and protocol for a comprehensive evaluation of a uk massive open online course (mooc) on quality improvement in healthcare. bmj open, 9(12). doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-031973 snegurenko, a. p., sosnovsky, s. a., novikova, s. v., yakhina, r. r., valitova, n. l., & kremleva, e. sh. (2019). using e-learning tools to enhance students-mathematicians’ competences in the context of international academic mobility programmes. integration of education, 23(1), 8-22. doi: 10.15507/1991-9468.094.023.201901.008-022 sobral, s. r. (2021). massive open online courses: a bibliometric review. international journal of information and education technology, 11(5), 205-211. doi:10.18178/ijiet.2021.11.5.1513 stackhouse, m., falkenberg, l., drake, c., & mahdavimazdeh, h. (2020). why massive open online courses (moocs) have been resisted: a qualitative study and resistance typology. innovations in education and teaching international, 57(4), 450-459. subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.8 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 126-151 151 sulistyo, w. d., nafiáh, u., & idris. (2019). the development of e-pas based on massive open online courses (mooc) on local history materials. international journal of emerging technologies in learning, 14(9), 119-129. doi:10.3991/ijet.v14i09.10143 tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed teo, t., & dai, h. m. (2019). the role of time in the acceptance of moocs among chinese university students. interactive learning environments. doi:10.1080/10494820.2019.1674889 vijayavalsalan, b. (2018). students’ impressions on the effectiveness of online discussion forums. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 86-108. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.6 williams, t., mcintosh, r., & russell, w. (2021). equity in distance education during covid19. research in social sciences and technology, 6(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.1 wolff, a., zdrahal, z., herrmannova, d., kuzilek, j., & hlosta, m. (2014). developing predictive models for early detection of at-risk students on distance learning modules. paper presented at the ceur workshop proceedings, 1137. yemelyanov, v. a., yemelyanova, n. y., shved, e. v., nedelkin, a. a., & fatkulin, a. r. (2020). modeling of the multilayer perceptrons for image recognition of the steel microstructures. paper presented at the proceedings of the 2020 ieee conference of russian young researchers in electrical and electronic engineering, eiconrus 2020, 952-955. yigit, m. f. (2017). value priorities of public and private university students. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1), 1-17. zaporozhko, v. v., & parfyonov, d. i. (2017). development of a structural model of massive open online courses based on modern cloud educational platforms. modern science-intensive technologies, 3, 12-17. retrieved from: http://toptechnologies.ru/ru/article/view?id=36608 zelentsova, l., & tikhonov, a. (2020). a methodology for assessing the innovative potential of a high-tech organization under the economy digitalization impact. quality access to success, 21(174), 7-13. zmiyak, s. s., ugnich, e. a., & krasnokutskiy, p. a. (2019). generation and commercialization of knowledge in the innovational ecosystem of regional university in the conditions of information economy establishment in russia. advances in intelligent systems and computing, 726, 23-31. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90835-9_3 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8(1),146-192 146 the curriculum development of experienced teachers who are inexperienced with history-based pedagogy john h. bickford iii1 abstract contemporary american education initiatives mandate half of all english language arts content is non-fiction. history topics, therefore, will increase within all elementary and english language arts middle level classrooms. the education initiatives have rigorous expectations for students’ close readings of, and written argumentation about, numerous texts representing multiple perspectives about the same historical event, era, or figure. practicing english language arts teachers must adjust pedagogy accordingly. they cannot utilize a single, whole-class novel with comprehension questions as an assessment. with teaching experience but not formal training in history-based pedagogy, they are adaptive experts. this qualitative study explores how english language arts teachers adapt. six upper elementary and middle level (5th-8th) teachers who recently received graduate-level history education training were given grant money to develop and implement history-based curricula. this inquiry examined their curricular selections and how they integrated history literacy and historical thinking within text-based writing, or historical argumentation. it also evaluates the efficacy of their assessments. keywords: history literacy; historical thinking; historical argumentation. introduction education is often subject to change and teachers must adapt accordingly. educators largely rely on understandings developed as preservice candidates, personal beliefs, and in the extended, disconnected professional development offered by school districts (cimbricz, 2002; kenna & russell, 2015; vogler, 2008). this study explores how six english language arts teachers responded to new education mandates that require adjustments in reading and writing with history-based content. the new education mandates are intended to bolster students’ critical thinking. critical thinking manifests through interpretation, evaluation, and creative demonstrations of newly generated understandings (anderson & krathwohl, 2001). even young students can evaluate and create when given age-appropriate scaffolding (barton, 2002; fehn & heckart, 2013; sunal & coleman, 2013; sunal, kelley, & sunal, 2012). critical thinking is 1 assoc. prof. dr. eastern illinois university, jbickford@eiu.edu mailto:jbickford@eiu.edu john h. bickford iii 147 foundational for powerful, purposeful social studies and appears in history literacy, historical thinking, and historical argumentation (national council for the social studies [ncss], 2009, 2013). history literacy is the scrutiny of primary documents for source, perspective, credibility, and context, among other things (gaston, martinez, & martin, 2016; nokes, 2011; wineburg, 2001). reliant on history literacy, historical thinking appears as consideration of historical perspectives, of ethical dimensions of actions, and of tensions that emerge when continuity confronts change (seixas & morton, 2012). requiring history literacy and historical thinking, historical argumentation is text-based articulations of newly constructed historical understandings (monte-sano, 2012; monte-sano, de la paz, & felton, 2014). history literacy is a close analysis, historical thinking is a broader evaluation, and historical argumentation communicates conclusions derived from history literacy and historical thinking. all three are developed and not “uploaded at maturity and synced with their prior knowledge” (bickford, 2013b, p. 61). students’ success at sourcing, contextualizing, or communicating understandings is determined more by experience than age (gaston, martinez, & martin, 2016; vansledright, 2002; wineburg, smith, & breakstone, 2012). effective scaffolding can enable young students to flourish where inexperienced, older students flounder (brophy & alleman, 2002; fallace, biscoe, & perry, 2007; holloway & chiodo, 2009). history instruction, though, has not always been central within elementary schools (lintner, 2006; mcmurrer, 2008; yendol-hoppey & tilford, 2004). history instruction in the middle grades has traditionally been implemented by trained social studies teachers. this changed with new education mandates. american education initiatives compel students’ criticality across curricula (ncss, 2013; national governors association center for best practices & council of chief state school officers [nga & ccsso], 2010; partnership for assessment of readiness for college and careers [parcc], 2012). three significant changes—and their implications for teachers’ selection of content, curricular resources, and assessments—are noteworthy. first, half of all english, language arts, and reading content must be non-fiction, which increases history curricula in elementary and middle grades (mcmurrer, 2008). second, students are to scrutinize multiple texts of the same event, era, or figure to determine authorial bias or perspective (ri6, ri9), which requires english language arts teachers to do more than assign a whole-class novel. third, students must demonstrate newly generated understandings in text-based writing, like persuasive essays (w1) and evidentiary arguments (w2). no curricular resources are provided journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 so teachers must adjust—or develop—curricula. it is important to examine how teachers build curricula, especially english language arts teachers who are inexperienced with history literacy, historical thinking, and historical argumentation. the support systems for classroom methods and assessments are not necessarily equal. numerous methodological guides directed towards various grades can facilitate close reading (e.g. austin & thompson, 2015; loewen, 2010; wineburg, martin, & monte-sano, 2011). scholarship targeting cognition patterns can assist teachers in disciplinary literacy (e.g., bickford, 2013b; nokes, 2011; wineburg, 2001; wineburg et al., 2012). a myriad of journals (e.g., the history teacher, social studies research and practice, journal of social studies education research, and social education) and websites (e.g., historical thinking matters, the historical thinking project, and teaching with primary sources) provide guidance, yet most center on methods and few on assessments.2 this is a concern because assessments play a pivotal role in students’ learning (black & william, 1998; shavelson et al., 2008; wineburg et al., 2012) and, as noted above, the education initiatives significantly change expectations for students’ historical argumentation. the websites and journals largely target content for secondary students, not elementary and middle level.3 it would be meaningful to explore how elementary and middle level english language arts teachers select and implement history-based assessments. they have various options. types of assessments the measures of academic progress (map) is a criterion-referenced english language arts and mathematics assessment that aligns with most state standards and is positively correlated to norm-referenced tests. history teachers do not have similar assessments, yet can employ formative assessments and authentic assessments. formative and authentic assessments have similar intents, different approaches, and important distinctions. both compel students to employ evidence extracted from close readings. they differ in how students use newly constructed understandings, whether it is responding to text-dependent questions, writing to the sources, or narrative writing. the subsequent subsections are an illustrative, not exhaustive, list. 2 beyond the bubble is an anomalous resource that centers on assessments, yet it targets teachers of secondary students. 3 bringing history home and social studies and the young learner are two anomalous resources that target elementary students, but still provide far more methods than assessments. john h. bickford iii 149 formative assessment. robust test items are easy to grade and can potentially evoke criticality, yet are difficult to create (shavelson et al., 2008; stobaugh, tassell, day, & blankenship, 2011). to move beyond the single answer paradigm and accommodate nuance, weighted multiple-choice (wmcs) items offer many correct answers; each answer receives differing levels of points depending on degree of correctness and completeness (vansledright, 2014). wmcs and traditional test items target—yet arguably struggle to evoke—history literacy and historical thinking. ready-made answers make it difficult to achieve history literacy and historical thinking. they do not position students to engage in historical argumentation, or textbased articulations of newly constructed historical understandings. document-based questions (dbqs) and single account interpretative essays (saies) elicit history literacy, historical thinking, and historical argumentation (e.g. monte-sano, 2012; monte-sano et al., 2014; wineburg et al., 2011; wineburg et al., 2012; vansledright, 2014). they do so with primary source material and a clear writing prompt. dbqs are a collection of rich, related primary documents that converge and diverge in curious ways (monte-sano, 2012; monte-sano et al., 2014; wineburg et al., 2011). saies are a close scrutiny of a single document (wineburg et al., 2012; vansledright, 2014). both are guided queries whereby students scrutinize the source (history literacy), juxtapose analyses with prior knowledge (historical thinking), and communicate understandings (historical argumentation). dbqs channel students’ considerations towards the documents’ interconnections; they can overwhelm students who struggle with numerous sources, especially if it is timed (monte-sano, 2012; monte-sano et al., 2014; wineburg et al., 2011). saies, with a single document and numerous questions, are smaller in scope yet similarly robust (wineburg et al., 2012; vansledright, 2014). research suggests students’ success depends more on teachers’ scaffolding and students’ experience than students’ age (wineburg et al., 2011; wineburg et al., 2012). the formative assessments dbqs and saies are examples of historical argumentation and rely on both historical thinking and history literacy. test items, dbqs, and saies appear on advanced placement exams and various state exams; wmcs remain a tantalizing yet unemployed option. students view these formative assessments as a test. the association is not adverse, yet may have negative connotations for young learners who can find such tasks daunting or dull (hinchman, alvermann, boyd, brozo, & journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 vacca, 2003/2004; mccarthey & moje, 2002). authentic assessments can potentially interest, rather than intimidate, students (alvermann, 2002; smith & wilhelm, 2006). authentic assessment. authentic assessments position students to creatively demonstrate newly generated understandings, the highest level of criticality (anderson & krathwohl, 2001; fehn & heckart, 2013). a young learner may view authentic assessments as a project, not a test, because of the novelty, choice, and opportunity for creative expression (bickford, 2010a, 2010b; fehn & heckart, 2013). authentic assessments can take myriad forms, like historical fiction newspapers, movies, political cartoons, and diverse visual constructions like timelines, concept maps, and venn diagrams. creating a historical fiction newspaper position students to engage in diverse writing styles. editorials, current events, letters to the editor, headline news, and germane advertisements or announcements each require different prose and syntax. in doing so, students consider the source, the source’s perspective, context of publication, and audience, which are history literacy elements (bickford & wilton, 2012; gaston, martinez, & martin, 2016; gregg & greene, 2010; schwartz, 2009). movie creation involves elements of historical argumentation much like a historical essay; both very young and struggling secondary students have demonstrated historical understandings through movie-making (fehn & heckart, 2013; fehn & schul, 2014). students can encode messages and meaning through symbolism and text within original political cartoons (opc) in ways comparable to a persuasive essay (bickford, 2012; sallis, rule, & jennings, 2009). professional political cartoons are used for interpretation, yet opcs are both an authentic assessment of the creator’s learning and a teaching tool for classroom interpretative dialogue (bickford, 2010a, 2010b). graphic organizers positively impact students’ cognition as they visually represent complex understandings (bickford, 2011; chang, sung, & chen, 2002; dicecco & gleason, 2002; mutlu, 2009); timelines, concept maps, and venn diagrams each have elements of historical thinking and history literacy. the sequencing inherent in timelines positions students to consider cause and effect and to contextualize abrupt historical changes; concept maps position students to establish historical significance as they diagram interconnections between historical figures, events, and concepts; venn diagrams facilitate juxtaposition and enable students to distinguish historical perspective. elements of history literacy and historical thinking emerge within each of these authentic assessments, yet they all have problematic areas. movie-making and historical fiction john h. bickford iii 151 newspapers lend themselves to group work; it is difficult, but not impossible, for a teacher to disentangle individual students’ contributions during a group project. most schools have the needed technology and internet access for movie-making and opcs, yet access is may be difficult. students may be less excited to make timelines, concept maps, and venn diagrams as they are quite common. these concerns represent some foreseeable, problematic aspects. teachers must weigh many variables when selecting an assessment. previous research has explored the impact of social studies teachers’ attitudes on pedagogy (kilinç et al., 2016; mishra, 2014), particularly how it shapes curricular adjustment for state and national education initiatives (kenna & russell, 2015). this inquiry examines how english language teachers adjust curricula to incorporate history-based topics. the participants can be termed adaptive experts because they are experienced teachers inexperienced with this particular pedagogy (hatano & inagaki, 1986; patel & groen, 1991; wineburg, 1998, 2001). this study centers on teachers’ curriculum construction and the assessments’ effectiveness. these elements will be examined through the frameworks of socio-cultural theory and cognitive constructivism (john-steiner & mann, 1996; mishra, 2014; nokes, 2011; spivey, 1997; vygotsky, 1986; wineburg, 2001). the inquiry will consider barriers to refined historical understanding that are common in young learners, specifically overburdened cognition, a dearth of prior knowledge, and unsophisticated view of history as simply events that happened (nokes, 2011; wineburg, 2001). the subsequent section details the employed methods. methods to see how experienced teachers develop and implement new curricula, i needed funds to support curriculum development and willing research participants. a grant funded the purchase of classroom materials for teachers interested in implementing history-based units. a second grant subsidized a research assistant to expedite the process of primary source location and modification. i intentionally sought practicing upper elementary and middle level teachers because of the changed expectations and dearth of curricular support for these ages. i sought experienced teachers motivated to implement, if not experienced with, history education pedagogy. i targeted practicing teachers who had previously completed my graduate level history education pedagogy course, could articulate interconnections between c3 framework and common core, and wanted to develop or refine a history-based curriculum unit. all journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 communication about research took place more than one semester after students completed the course. participants all potential teachers received a summer invitation via email to receive self-selected curricular materials in exchange for dialogue about development and implementation of a history topic. the study was approved and monitored by the institutional review board. except for two teachers who were colleagues, teachers all worked in different school districts and had no contact with each other. to ensure each teacher received between $500 and $1000 for curricular support, the convenience sample could not exceed six to eight teachers. the grant supplied teachers around one hundred trade books, which represented three whole-class novels, multiple sets of literacy circle novels, or some combination thereof. the state’s disinvestment in public schools and local districts’ tenuous financial situation perhaps enticed participation. no teacher, however, appeared motivated entirely by the tangible monetary incentive. the participants’ backgrounds are detailed in teachers’ position and experience (table one). table 1. teachers’ position and experience name position experience debra 5th grade self-contained 12 years joyce 5th grade self-contained 34 years linda 6th grade reading, writing, and word study 4 years becca 6th grade reading and language arts 8 years terra 7th grade english 6 years elsie 8th grade english 16 years note. all names are pseudonyms. district-based classifications for job titles were used. debra and joyce—colleagues for almost a decade—each taught a single class all subject areas. terra and elsie taught a single subject to multiple classes. in distinct block formats, linda taught two classes three subject john h. bickford iii 153 areas and becca taught three classes two subject areas. only debra and joyce had history or social studies within their job description. when asked their primary curricular responsibility, all participants noted english, reading, or language arts. none of the participants identified as a history or social studies teacher or had a degree, concentration, endorsement, or area of emphasis in history or social studies. their expertise, interest, and experience were in english language arts, not history; they all had extensive experience developing and implementing age-appropriate curricula, but not history curricula. they can be characterized as adaptive experts, as their classroom expertise enables an effective, efficient acclimatization to novel curricula (hatano & inagaki, 1986; patel & groen, 1991; wineburg, 1998, 2001). they were capable, if not experienced, history teachers. teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, or the ability to intertwine discipline-specific techniques with age-appropriate content, perhaps matters more than historical knowledge (barton & levstik, 2003; mcdiarmid, 1994; vansledright, 1996; wineburg et al., 2012). curricular materials i offered an array of potential topics with accompanying curricular materials for teachers to select and consider. the classroom materials consisted of trade books and primary sources. previous research about trade books’ historical representation informed suggestions (bickford, 2013a, 2015; bickford, dilley, & hunt, 2015; bickford & hunt, 2014; bickford & rich, 2014a, 2014b, 2015a, 2015b; bickford, schuette, & rich, 2015; schwebel, 2011; williams, 2009). teachers, though, selected the trade books. i offered a myriad of primary sources to enrich and complicate trade books’ narratives. with assistance from a graduate student , the length, prose, and syntax of text-based primary sources were modified to make decadesor centuries-old primary sources accessible for young learners (wineburg & martin, 2009). teachers received a copy of the original, the abridged version, and a narrative detailing intricacies about each specific primary source and how it related to content included within or omitted from the trade books. appendix a is an illustrative example. upon receipt of books and sources, teachers provided a tentative, projected outline. i encouraged teachers to adjust the outline and offered to locate more or different primary sources. after implementation, i received three items from each teacher: a retrospective outline of the unit’s tasks including targeted elements of history literacy or historical thinking; an assessment from all students that indicates their involvement; and permission to use all correspondence. as journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 such, this research has three data sources: teachers’ curricular outlines, students’ assessments of learning, and all communication, which was almost entirely via email. data analysis i scrutinized teachers’ outlines to determine elements of history literacy (nokes, 2011; wineburg, 2001) and historical thinking (seixas & morton, 2012). attention was paid to the presence of distinct perspectives, and the interconnections between primary and secondary sources. i examined students’ assessments, or historical argumentation, for integration of diverse sources and evidence of historical thinking and history literacy. each assessment was analyzed to determine its efficacy. i employed content analysis—specifically open coding and axial coding—during analysis of all email correspondence and notes derived from verbal conversations (krippendorff, 2013; wineburg, 1998, 2001). i first read all correspondence and noted both patterns and anomalies to the patterns. this initial scrutiny, or open coding, enabled a better understanding what was stated, not stated, and implied. after the initial observation, i synthesized notes into tentative, testable codes. i used axial coding as i reevaluated the presence (or absence) of content to determine the codes’ frequency and credibility. there is potential for error in misreading the correspondence. to ensure accuracy, i posed clarification questions to teachers via email. findings distinct and meaningful patterns emerged when viewing teachers’ curricular outlines, students’ assessments of learning, and all communication. teachers’ motivation to develop or refine curriculum, assessment selections, and the selected assessments’ effectiveness are the focus. as adaptive experts, teachers were aware of their inexperience and motivated to learn; their appreciation changed throughout the course of the study (hatano & inagaki, 1986; patel & groen, 1991; wineburg, 1998, 2001). with varying degrees of success, their selected assessments positioned students to engage in historical argumentation. these are viewed through the optics of socio-cultural theory and cognitive constructivism with specific focus on the barriers of historical argumentation (john-steiner & mann, 1996; nokes, 2011; spivey, 1997; vygotsky, 1986; wineburg, 2001). teachers’ motivation john h. bickford iii 155 teachers’ participation was voluntary and extra work. classroom materials were a tangible reward. why, then, did teachers choose to participate? what did they verbalize as their initial motivation(s)? what did they most value upon completion? their answers are viewed from their position as adaptive experts (hatano & inagaki, 1986; patel & groen, 1991; wineburg, 1998, 2001). according to teachers’ comments, three elements induced initial participation: to align curricula to new education initiatives, receive free trade books, and obtain digital copies of complementary primary sources modified to their grade level. all teachers noted the first two and four mentioned all three. debra’s explanation is a representative example, “with all the changes from common core, i [know i] need to teach more history and from more angles so i need lots of trade books about one topic. plus, your [primary source] material will have unique perspectives” (emphasis added). educational initiatives were fundamental to teachers’ initial motivation. as adaptive experts, teachers recognized the new requirements (“from more angles”; “unique perspectives”), their own inexperience (“i need to teach more…”), and the need for expert support (“your [primary source] material”). the type of support they most valued, though, would change. during and after curricular implementation, however, teachers appreciated the primary sources. they recognized students’ interest in and concentration on the adapted, competing primary sources. terra noted, “those documents really hooked the kids! especially the opposites, like the slave owner’s diary and the escaped slave’s story [oral history]!!! [sic] that was wonderful how many you gave me. i could never find those. i don’t have time to do it.” other teachers, like terra, valued how students responded to the novel, juxtaposed primary sources. as becca noted, the historical documents intrigued students in ways other curricular resources did not. they [primary sources] made my kids look at it like a crime scene and think like detectives. they love good literature, but they don’t interrogate books like they do pds from opposite sides. the sources intrigued me. the arrest record [of rosa parks] says one thing, the diagram [of the bus used in court by the prosecution] and her oral history each say another thing, plus the [montgomery city bus] code was in violation of the supreme court. they had to piece together not just what happened first but why the stories were different. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 becca valued the sources not simply as material or as classroom content, but as catalysts for students’ history literacy and historical thinking. the teachers all appreciated the novelty and evocative nature of the sources and, specifically, how they elicited students’ interest. they also recognized the effort needed to locate and modify the sources. joyce verbalized these sentiments. she also candidly noted something others might have felt but did not share. i love the books but i love the history docs [sic] more because i could have bought the book myself but i couldn’t have done that [locating and modifying] with the docs [sic]. too much time. i wish i could have these for all my non-fiction topics. you showed me a start and there’s a lot i can do, but there’s just so much to do. find the book that will hook most kids, engage the kids with it, and move on to the next topic is kind of how i was taught. i was taught to cover a lot of topics because there are a lot of topics to cover. i know one textbook won’t [suffice]. i know one whole class novel won’t either. i understand where common core is going and i understand why. i know my kids loved the docs [sic] they read! they were so excited and had so many questions. there’s now just a lot of work [to do] for every topic. it’s just so different. joyce’s comments were reflective, candid, and intense. joyce appreciated students’ responses to the primary sources, yet she felt she did not have the time, expertise, and perhaps motivation to independently locate and modify the sources. as an adaptive expert, joyce recognized the effort and time it would take to independently develop such curricula. the intensity of joyce’s sentiment could possibly be explained by her proximity to her impending retirement, her job as a self-contained classroom teacher, which requires daily preparation for various disciplines, a combination of both, or perhaps other undetected variables. other teachers did not express joyce’s unease, yet they all valued students’ responses. content development participating classroom teachers experienced graduate coursework in history education pedagogy. their course centered on the c3 framework and disciplinary literacy connections with common core. while they were not required to incorporate any single element, this research examined teachers’ history-based content development. when funded for classroom materials, what topic(s) did they select? why these topics? how did they select and position content to facilitate students’ historical inquiry? john h. bickford iii 157 all the teachers selected some element of african americans’ experiences during the 19th and 20th centuries. when queried, all teachers used one of two (or both) justifications: it is too complex to be done simplistically and it is too meaningful to be done superficially. debra’s explanation illustrated the former, how african americans’ experiences is too complex to be done simplistically. i’ve tried the civil war in the past with a textbook in social studies and slavery in a historical fiction book in english. interdisciplinary units are usually great but my kids were always always always [sic] bored. the textbook was dry but i expected that. i’ve used lots of [trade] books … i am always disappointed at how they [the trade books] are simple, so straight forward. every [trade] book starts during slavery and ends with freedom, and it’s so simple. the textbook mentions the end of slavery and kind of drops off. … i know it [reconstruction] was bad after [slavery]. there are just so many sides to the story. i have never done it justice because it is so complicated. debra revealed unease at her unfamiliarity with the topic’s intricacies, which negatively impacted students’ grasp of its historical significance. elsie’s comment represented the latter, how african americans’ experiences is too meaningful to be done superficially. she said, “if the holocaust was the worst thing that happened during the 20th century, then slavery was for the 19th. it is just so important.” every teacher characterized the topic as complex, consequential, or both. table 2. teachers’ content selections name topic debra slavery and the civil war joyce slavery and the civil war linda claudette colvin, malcolm x, and other civil rights contributors becca rosa parks and the montgomery bus boycott terra slavery elsie slavery and segregation journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 teachers also had pragmatic reasons. debra and joyce are colleagues that share a grade level; they selected interrelated themes to amass more material. linda, aware of earlier grade teachers’ civil rights units targeting rosa parks and martin luther king, wanted students to appreciate misunderstood or forgotten contributors. becca, weary of simplistic representations of rosa parks, sought to contextualize parks’s arrest within a complex timeline of meaningful yet largely disregarded antecedents and subsequent events. terra hoped to capture the interest from the hollywood movie, twelve years a slave, and channel it within her classroom. elsie— in response to male students’ apathy towards reading and interest in sports—planned a unit on jackie robinson, segregation, and segregation’s origins in slavery. stockpiling curricula, reteaching content in better ways, and harnessing hollywood and sports were pragmatic aspects of teachers’ curricular considerations. i probed teachers’ interest in a single or multiple class novels, literacy circles differentiated by topic, interest, or reading level, or some amalgamation. teachers’ topics, classroom format, the targeted perspective or niche, and books are reported in the subsequent table. table 3. teachers’ selected trade books debra and joyce – 5th grade topic: slavery and civil war format: literacy circles (six total; three for each historical era) trade books’ perspective/niche: slavery lester, j. (2007). day of tears: a novel in dialogue. new york, ny: hyperion. sterling, d. (1987). freedom train. new york, ny: scholastic. wyeth, s. (2002). freedom’s wings: corey’s underground railroad diary, book one, 1857. new york, ny: scholastic. civil war denenberg, b. (1996). when will this cruel war be over? the diary of emma simpson, gordonsville, va, 1864. new york, ny: scholastic. hansen, j. (1992). which way freedom? new york, ny: harpercollins. paulsen, g. (2000). soldier’s heart. new york, ny: random house. linda – 6th grade topic: claudette colvin, malcolm x, and other civil rights contributors format: whole class novels trade books’ perspective/niche: comprehensive history john h. bickford iii 159 levine, e. (1990). if you lived at the time of martin luther king. new york, ny: scholastic. focused history adoff, a. (2000). malcolm x. new york, ny: harper collins publishers. hoose, p. (2009). claudette colvin: twice toward justice. new york, ny: farrar straus giroux. becca – 6th grade topic: rosa parks and the montgomery bus boycott format: mixed (one whole class novel; six trade books for literacy circles) trade books’ perspective/niche: historically representative (whole class novel) giovanni, n. (2005). rosa. new york, ny: henry holt and company.
 differing degrees of historical representation (literacy circles) edwards, p. (2005). the bus ride that changed history: the story of rosa parks. new york, ny: houghton mifflin company.
 kittinger, j. (2010). rosa’s bus: the ride to civil rights. honesdale, pa: calkins creek press. parks, r. & haskins, j. (1997). i am rosa parks. london, england: penguin books.
 pingry, p. (2007). the story of rosa parks. nashville, tn: candycane.
 reynolds, a. (2010). back of the bus. new york, ny: philomel books.
 ringgold, f. (1999). if a bus could talk: the story of rosa parks. new york, ny: aladdin books.
 terra – 7th grade topic: slavery format: mixed (one whole class novel; six trade books for literacy circles) trade books’ perspective/niche: historically representative (whole class novel) fradin, j. & fradin, d. (2014). stolen into slavery: the true story of solomon northup, free black man. new york, ny: scholastic. differing degrees of historical representation (literacy circles) anderson, l. (2008). chains. new york: simon & schuster. berry, j. (1991). ajeemah and his son. new york, ny: harper trophy. denenberg, b. (1996). when will this cruel war be over? the civil war diary of emma simpson. new york, ny: scholastic. o’dell, s. (1989). my name is not angelica. new york, ny: random house. lester, j. (1968/1998). to be a slave. new york, ny. schwartz, v. (2000). send one angel down. ontario, ca: fitzhenry & whiteside. elsie – 8th grade topic: slavery and segregation format: whole class novels journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 trade books’ perspective/niche: slavery lester, j. (2007). day of tears: a novel in dialogue. new york, ny: hyperion. segregation robinson, s. (2002). jackie’s nine: jackie robinson’s values to live by. new york, ny: scholastic. no teacher selected a single whole class novel format. multiple book formats provided space for differentiation and choice, which could potentially increase student engagement. each teacher requested and received no less than 20 primary sources; becca, linda, and terra sought and received close to 100. the selected primary sources converged with and curiously diverged from trade book narratives. the juxtaposition of primary sources and trade books facilitated corroboration, sparked curiosity, elicited questions, and ensured close readings of trade books and re-readings of primary sources. the teachers all targeted various reading standards like determining central idea, drawing inferences, making intertextual connections, and considering the author’s perspective, claims, and logic (nga & ccsso, 2010), which align with history literacy elements. space prevents detailed accounts of these weeks-long units, yet teachers’ historical thinking intentions deserves explanation. debra and joyce collaboratively planned interdisciplinary units for their self-contained classrooms. students engaged in four literacy circles, which enabled differentiation and student choice, for a four week unit on slavery and the civil war. slavery trade books included an historical fiction account in dramatic prose of the largest slave sale in american history (lester, 2007), a biography of harriet tubman, leader of escaped slaves (sterling, 1987), and a fictional diary written by a boy leading his family on the underground railroad (wyeth, 2002). the first was deemed historically representative in all elements, the second was largely representative albeit sans violence, and the third was entirely misrepresentative (bickford & rich, 2014b; williams, 2009). civil war trade books incorporated perspectives of a white union soldier whose excitement for war turns to horror (paulsen, 2000), a white daughter of a slave-owning confederate family (denenberg, 1996), and a family of freed slaves seeking safety in the postbellum south (hansen, 1992). one aptly represents slavery and reconstruction’s terror (hansen, 1992); one historically represents war’s brutality (paulsen, 2000); one historically misrepresents slavery, war, and reconstruction (denenberg, 1996). integrating one new primary john h. bickford iii 161 source for every book chapter, students answered questions about each source’s main point, its historical importance, and how it differed from or was similar to trade book. as students read sources and considered how they corroborated or disputed elements within the trade book, they engaged in various history literacy elements and historical thinking concepts, like establishing historical significance, using primary sources, and taking historical perspectives (nokes, 2011; seixas & morton, 2012; wineburg, 2001). other teachers were similarly intentional. as an introductory activity, becca and terra each selected a historically representative, age-appropriate trade book as a whole class novel (bickford & rich, 2014a, 2014b; williams, 2009). students then scrutinized primary sources for convergences with and divergences from the trade books. four historians’ heuristics appear in becca’s posed questions about each source’s perspective, intent, context, and credibility (nokes, 2011; wineburg, 2001); becca’s students detailed each source’s involvement in the montgomery bus boycott as they sequentially organized events that initiated and maintained the yearlong demonstration. as becca’s students used primary sources to explore the origins of laws and implications of resistance to laws, they considered tensions between continuity and change (seixas & morton, 2012). terra, to ensure students grasped the nuances of diverse perspectives, posed a single question about each source: how is this similar to or different from everything you have learned so far? terra’s students employed primary sources to establish slavery’s historical significance (seixas & morton, 2012). terra and becca each tasked students with close readings of multiple trade books for historicity. students utilized their foundational historical understandings to scrutinize multiple books, consider the variance in historicity between books, and deliberate the ethical dimensions of narratives that omit, minimize, or vaguely reference undesirable elements of history (seixas & morton, 2012). linda and elsie each selected historically representative, age-appropriate trade books centered on interrelated eras or people. targeting historical significance, both teachers intended for students to chart connections and distinctions between seemingly disparate people and eras through primary source analysis and close readings of a secondary source. elsie guided her students to explore the different forms of racism inherent within a fictionalized representation of slavery’s biggest slave auction (lester, 2007) and a non-fiction account of the segregation jackie robinson confronted (robinson, 2002). linda’s students considered the historical significance and popular memory of dr. king, malcolm x, and claudette colvin using an expository text journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 centered on dr. king (levine, 1990) and focused biographies on the other two (adoff, 2000; hoose, 2009). linda and elsie both positioned students to determine the historical significance of people and eras while considering ethical dimensions of how their history contributions were reported (seixas & morton, 2012). all teachers relied strongly on reading standards and history literacy elements, which are inextricably intertwined. they all positioned students to engage in historical thinking by using primary sources to establish historical significance and consider historical perspective. becca situated students to examine tensions between continuity and change. becca and elsie each guided students to analyze the causes and consequences of their eras and events. elsie’s students considered the ethical dimensions of laws and social norms. linda positioned students explore subjective dimensions of history and historical memory. becca’s curricular plan indicated the most historical thinking concepts (seixas & morton, 2012). the assessments, though, largely determine if and how historical thinking is measured. selected assessments and their efficacy as graduate students, the teachers explored various assessments, or forms of historical argumentation. they were not guided towards, or required to use, any single assessment. they were offered examples and potential rubrics. teachers selected an assessment aligned to their intent and students’ age. table 4. teachers’ selected assessments name type assessment debra formative book review joyce formative book review linda authentic venn diagram becca authentic timeline terra authentic historical fiction newspaper elsie formative single account interpretative essay john h. bickford iii 163 the selected assessments were individually scrutinized to gauge their efficacy as measure of historical argumentation. students’ integration and appropriate use of diverse sources were targeted. teachers’ intent, students’ age, and nuances of each assessment were considered. positive and negative characteristics of a specific assessment emerged. book review. joyce and debra shared curricula and devoted about two weeks each to slavery and the civil war. for each era, students read two trade books in literacy circles during language arts class and explored rich, modified, and supplementary primary source material in social studies class. the primary source material provided a more comprehensive view of each era and evoked scrutiny of historically misrepresentative content within the trade books’ narratives. as an assessment for each era, students wrote book reviews in which they compared and contrasted the two books with the historical sources they explored as a class. samuel’s (a pseudonym) book review below exemplifies a typical student’s work from either class. (samuel’s mistakes in prose, syntax, spelling, and grammar may distract the reader but remain unchanged for illustrative purposes.) resently [sic] i read the novel freedom train by: dorothy sterling and the novel freedom wings by sharon dennis wyeth. freedoms wings was a historical fiction text, whereas freedom train was a nonfiction text. the texts are similar to each other in many ways. one way i can explain their similarities is by pointing out how the primary [source] evidence is seen in the text that supports my claim. they are both about slavery and the underground railroad. in the story freedom train, harriet tubman was trying to find her way to the north to be free. so, she found the underground railroad. in the story freedoms wings, the boy named corey and his father roland went north. a little after that, corey and his mom went north to see if they could find roland and to be free. all kinds of primary [source] stuff like want ads and escape stories that was [sic] the same as this. another point of similarity is in the story freedoms wings it say "masseur hart say he gon' sell daddy. gon' sell to one of his cousins. masser hart say he will need a high price for a blacksmith good as daddy. his cousin say he is willing to pay very high for that kind of worker. takes my breath away to hear those things. they don't know i hurd [sic] them. i ran to tell mama, then back quick to the big house. mama say she will go find daddy at his forge. now daddy is nowhere." and in the story freedom train it says "harriet tubman says i am going to run away. i am not going to tell my parents they will be tortured. i will follow the north star.” the author in the text freedoms wings states that roland had run away, which is similar to when the author in freedom train states that harriet tubman ran to the north following the north star. thats [sic] why these are the same. although the two [books] show examples of similarities they also have many differences. the major difference between the two texts is in freedom train harriet went to the north by herself. a clear opposite example of this can be seen in freedoms wings when the text says corey went to the north with his mom and a little after that they got help. my journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 primary [sources] stuff showed want ads [indicating escaped slaves] of both alone and groups of people so both could be right but more ads showed alone people than groups of people so freedom train is probably more right. the second difference i noticed between the texts is in freedom train harriet went by herself and she dressed up as other people so they didn't know she was a runaway slave. this was like when the woman slave [presumably ellen craft] dressed as a man to escape. but freedoms wings didnt [sic] have that but in freedom train had harriet [tubman] went [sic] by herself so it would be easier to hide and that proves my point of another difference. in conclusion i thought that both of the novels were great. and they both told me a lot of what had happened before me and that was [sic] also in the primary [sources] things. i think that whites should not have done that to blacks. and those two novels showed me that. figure 1. samuel’s book review (final draft). the positive components and problematic elements endemic within book reviews emerge in samuel’s work. book reviews enable students’ juxtaposed mapping of the convergences and divergences of diverse texts. in this case, samuel’s work juxtaposed one historical fiction secondary text, one nonfiction secondary text, and multiple primary source documents. he explicitly charted similarities and differences between the two trade books and noted historical elements that the primary sources corroborated. as historical argumentation, students share understandings generated from analysis and synthesis of relevant primary and secondary material (monte-sano et al., 2014; wineburg et al., 2011). the cognitive tasks required to complete a book review cohere with many writing elements of state and national initiatives (w2a-f, w4, w5, w7, w8, w9a-b, w10). to write with such complexity, students must first achieve many or most of reading anchor standards, which align closely with history literacy elements. debra and joyce also intended for this assessment to help students refine and improve their informative and explanatory writing. multiple revisions to enhance students’ writing and peer review are key aspects of state and national initiatives (w2a-f, w5). students’ writing improved through planning, revising, editing, and rewriting. samuel’s final draft (figure one, above) is imperfect, yet is improved when contrasted with his initial draft (figure two, below). resently [sic] i read the novel freedom train by: dorothy sterling and the novel my america freedom wings by: sharon dennis wyeth. freedoms wings was a fiction text, whereas historical fiction freedom train was a non fiction text. the texts are similar to each other in many ways. one way i can explain their similarities is by pointing out the evidence from the text that supports my claim. they are both about slavery and the underground railroad. in the story freedom train, harriet tubman was trying to find her way to the north to be free. so, she found the underground railroad. in the story freedoms wings, the boy john h. bickford iii 165 named corey and his father roland went north. a little after that, corey and his mom went north to see if they could find roland and to be free. another point of similarity is in the story freedoms wings it say "masseur hart say he gon' sell daddy. gon' sell to one of his cousins. masser hart say he will need a high price for a blacksmith good as daddy. his cousin say he is willing to pay very high for that kind of worker. takes my breath away to hear those things. they don't know i hurd [sic] them. i ran to tell mama, then back quick to the big house. mama say she will go find daddy at his forge. now daddy is nowhere." and in the story freedom train it says " harriet tubman says i am going to run away. i am not going to tell my parents they will be tortured. i will fallow the north star. the author in the text, freedoms wings states that roland had run away, which is similar to when the author in freedom train states that harriet tubman ran to the north following the north star. although the two texts show examples of similarities they also have many differences. the major difference between the two texts is in freedom train harriet went to the north by herself. a clear example of this can be seen in freedoms wings when the text says corey went to the north with his mom and a little after that they got help. the second difference i noticed between the texts is in freedom train harriet went by herself and she dressed up as other people so they didn't know she was a runaway slave. the sentence says "masseur hart say he gon' [sic] sell daddy. gon' [sic] sell to one of his cousins. masser [sic] hart say he will need a high price for a blacksmith good as daddy. his cousin say he is willing to pay very high for that kind of worker. takes my breath away to hear those things. they don't know i hurd [sic] the. i ran to tell mama, then back quick to the big house. mama say she will go find daddy at his forge. now daddy is nowhere. from freedoms wings. and the sentence in freedom train it says," harriet tubman went by herself so it would be easier to hide proves my point of difference. in conclusion i thought that both of the novels were great. and they both told me a lot of what had happened before me. i think that whites should not have done that to blacks. and those two novels showed me that. figure 2. samuel’s book review (rough draft). a cursory reading of both drafts clearly indicates samuel’s final product (figure one) had far fewer errors in prose, syntax, spelling, spacing, capitalization, and grammar. samuel referenced primary source material only in the final draft. in it, he also corroborated emergent patterns (“all kinds of primary [source] stuff like want ads and escape stories that was [sic] the same as this”) and settled conflicting narratives (“my primary [sources] stuff showed want ads [indicating escaped slaves] of both alone and groups of people so both could be right but more ads showed alone people than groups of people so freedom train is probably more right”). samuel’s initial draft was bereft of such content. in his final draft, samuel ably integrated content and articulately expressed his historical understandings. given a closer reading, his journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 initial draft appears more summative of the narratives than evaluative of the historicity of the narratives. samuel’s final draft has a stronger focus and a more logical structure than his initial draft. these positive elements manifest within multiple drafts of the same writing assessment. samuel’s book review was not the best written, the most detailed, or the most evocative; it was illustrative of typical students’ writing. like other students, samuel struggled at times in various areas. his writing seemed prescriptive and his understandings appeared simplistic. unlike a multiple-choice question whereby a student’s responds to a direct query, a book review is a production of writing that depends on students’ demonstration of thinking. students can stray from a focused narrative and lose sight of the audience. samuel’s writing indicated little awareness of audience as some sentences were awkward, others were unnecessarily complex, and still others were overly simplistic. a review of all students’ writing indicated a dearth of thesis statements, topic sentences, and transition sentences. the topic sentences were clear in samuel’s book review, yet he had few transition sentences and no clear thesis. these problematic elements appeared in most papers. the critiques are not intended to suggest students did poorly. debra and joyce noted how primary sources elicited students’ close readings of trade books, especially when book’s content appeared misrepresentative or more fiction than history. joyce and debra noted students’ engagement, yet felt students’ writing could improve. they asked pointed questions about ways to do so. specifically, debra was curious about when students should be expected to independently utilize thesis, topic, and transition sentences; joyce asked if students should be expected to write more than an initial and final draft and how often students should be tasked with multi-draft writing. both teachers noted students’ competency at scrutinizing for source and corroboration—two history literacy heuristics manifest within education initiatives—and multiple historical thinking concepts. the comments and questions from debra and joyce demonstrate their position as adaptive experts (hatano & inagaki, 1986; patel & groen, 1991; wineburg, 1998, 2001); they are cognizant of their own skills and shortcomings, experience and inexperience. in the discussion section, i point out ways for teachers to possibly bolster students’ text-based writing while incorporating the aforementioned queries. venn diagram. to teach about dr. martin luther king, linda supplemented a whole class novel, if you lived at the time of martin luther king (levine, 1990), with speeches, photographs, and other primary sources about the civil rights movement. students interpreted john h. bickford iii 167 the sources individually and in small groups, which complemented class discussions about the novel. after approximately two weeks, students read trade books and examined primary sources about malcolm x’s and claudette colvin’s distinct contributions. these two historical figures were selected, out of many deserving options, because the former is frequently misunderstood and the latter is largely unknown. after completing whole class novel about dr. king and malcolm x, students individually juxtaposed king and x in a two-circle venn. after completion of the colvin novel, students individually created a three-circle venn diagram about colvin, king, and x. linda intended to guide students’ reconsideration as they refined understandings of king and x in contrast with colvin; she felt the three-circle venn would enable students’ juxtaposition of three disparate historical figures. emma’s (a pseudonym) twoand three-circle venn diagrams represent a typical student’s work. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 figure 3. emma’s twoand three-circle venn diagrams. a review of all students’ venn diagrams indicated important patterns, each of which appear in figure three. viewed positively, venn diagrams enabled students to visually organize understandings derived from scrutiny of multiple texts. they synthesized complex content into condensed versions. they distinguished areas of convergence and divergence. aware of these positive attributes, linda was curious if and how students’ constructed understandings of malcolm x and dr. king, two legendary leaders, changed after reading about claudette colvin, an oft-overlooked contributor. linda intended for students’ historical argumentation to improve after refinement and reconsiderations, which she sought to gauge through a comparison of the twoand three-circle venn. limited space within each venn unnecessarily constricted students. space constraints allowed only students’ abridged understandings. similarly, it appears students largely filled the lined plots with shallow statements on both venn diagrams. a thorough review of all students’ venn diagrams revealed no evidence of students’ refined understandings. three-circle venn comments were actually more simplistic, fewer in number, and frequently a restatement of twocircle venn comments. john h. bickford iii 169 linda intended for students to integrate primary and secondary historical sources, which she assessed through review of students’ citations. on emma’s two-circle venn, “x, 1964” referenced malcolm x’s (in)famous the ballot or the bullet speech and “adoff, 2000” was the trade book; emma’s three-circle venn had no such citations. emma’s work represented that of her peers, who inconsistently completed this task on the first venn and largely ignored it on the second. when completed, students generally cited the trade book and, at times, a single primary source. while explicitly required, students essentially ignored or superficially cited the origin of their understandings. the aforementioned critiques are not intended to suggest students did not engage deeply with the material. linda noted students’ use of primary sources to consider each figure’s historical significance and place (or lack thereof) within collective memory. when queried on student involvement, linda reported focused individual work, robust small groups, and healthy whole class discussions. this was not apparent, however, on students’ assessments. linda noted her own displeasure with the assessment or, more specifically, with her students’ involvement on the assessment. she felt the assessments concealed more adroit historical understandings, which originated from multiple and diverse primary and secondary sources. as an adaptive experts (hatano & inagaki, 1986; patel & groen, 1991; wineburg, 1998, 2001), linda is quite aware of her students’ abilities and limitations, specifically their experience with reading and writing and inexperience with historical argumentation. a videoor audiotaped classroom observation might have confirmed linda’s claim. venn diagrams, as presented above, are not a quality assessment of historical thinking. in the discussion section, i articulate ways for teachers to maximize effectiveness by employing a slightly nuanced venn, an approach that linda has subsequently adopted. timeline. becca developed a unit on rosa parks, the most famous yet least understood american woman (theoharis, 2008). most americans are aware of parks’s arrest, yet the context her arrest and implications of her arrest are more complex and elusive than are traditionally contained within social studies textbooks, history-based trade books, and america’s collective consciousness (bickford & rich, 2014a; loewen, 1995; wineburg, 2008; wineburg & monte-sano, 2008). becca intended for students to examine diverse representations of and perspectives about the same set of events—rosa parks’s arrest and the montgomery bus boycott—in order to grasp the malleability of history and importance of primary source material. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 students first individually scrutinized multiple trade books using a modified version of a previously developed content analysis tool (bickford & rich, 2014a, p. 21-22; see appendix b). the trade books had disparate degrees of historicity, as some were simplistic and others were rather inaccurate (bickford & rich, 2014a). becca selected multiple narratives to ensure students see incongruence representations (edwards, 2005; kittinger, 2010; parks & haskins, 1997; pingry, 2007; reynolds, 2010; ringgold, 1999). as students reported findings, the class discussed conspicuous differences between, and clear gaps within some, narratives. students, in becca’s words, “were really, really [sic] concerned that they’d been lied to!” with interest piqued, becca guided students’ analyses of rich historical documents. becca noted, “these [primary sources] helped the kids fill the gaps.” students then used the same content analysis tool to scrutinize a historically representative trade book (giovanni, 2005). the children demonstrated newly generated historical understandings through construction of the precursors to, and the impact of, parks’s act of civil disobedience. eleanor’s (a pseudonym) timeline illustrates the positive and problematic elements of timelines as an assessment. figure 4. eleanor’s timeline. an evaluation of all students’ timelines revealed constructive elements and problematic patterns. viewed positively, timelines enabled students to visually arrange important understandings produced from analysis of multiple, diverse primary sources. students linearly sequenced and contextualized key events of, and individuals’ contributions to, the montgomery john h. bickford iii 171 bus boycott. becca also intended for students to refine the traditional storyline—contained within the historically misrepresentative trade books and america’s collective consciousness—of a humble, tired seamstress refusing to give up her seat to a white man. becca positioned students to see history as an exhibition of various storytellers hoping their voices are heard and also as a series of tensions that emerge when agents of change within the civil rights movement confront regulators of continuity from the establishment. with these intents, becca viewed a timeline as the most appropriate form of historical argumentation. based on classroom discussions and observations of students’ on-task behaviors during class, she believed this goal to be largely met. it was not evident, however, within students’ timelines. timelines, as an assessment of historical argumentation, did not reveal such mindsets or complex understandings. this is not intended to imply that the mindsets and understandings were not present during class but only that they were not palpable to a reviewer of the timelines. eleanor, for instance, may view history as a constructed story dependent on her own interpretation of numerous sources and subject to newly discovered primary evidence or secondary articulations. eleanor’s timeline, however, did not indicate this. becca envisioned timelines to be a clear, concise way to measure students’ analyses of various primary sources and synthesis into a meaningful sequence. she intended students to rely on numerous primary accounts from diverse, sometimes competing, perspectives as they situated the chain of events. this was partially accomplished. eleanor’s timeline, for instance, indicated her recognition of pivotal events, yet it did not reveal her grasp of their historical significance. a review of the timeline indicated eleanor aptly sequenced the events but a reviewer cannot distinguish if eleanor could historically contextualize them. eleanor might have been able to expertly historicize the events, but it was not apparent within her timeline. the timeline did not indicate eleanor’s awareness of history’s malleability and foundation within diverse sources. as an assessment, timelines have space constraints similar to those of venn diagrams. becca hoped timelines would elicit students’ creativity and ownership of the material. she anticipated students would creatively add to their timeline through personalized images or sketches to draw viewers’ attention to specific, pivotal points. this goal was largely achieved, yet becca was disappointed that students’ creativity detracted from their work. this occurred when students frequently devoted large spaces to illustrative yet non-essential elements and were unnecessarily concise with the historical content. eleanor’s historical understandings, for journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 instance, were not as apparent as her imaginative renderings. other, less artistic students felt uncomfortably judged, which is common in authentic assessments reliant on artistic ability (bickford, 2010b). the space for creativity distracted some students, intimidated other learners, and prevented most children from thoroughly articulating their historical understandings. becca struggled to assess students’ history literacy and historical thinking using the timeline, yet the critiques should not suggest students did not meaningfully engage with the material. students might have, but it was not apparent from an analysis of their timeline. as they are typically used, timelines are not a quality assessment of students’ historical thinking. in other words, as most commonly implemented, timelines are not an effective means for historical argumentation. i articulate in the discussion section ways to improve their usefulness at evoking students’ historical thinking, which becca intends to utilize. historical fiction newspaper. terra selected stolen into slavery (fradin & fradin, 2014) for a whole class novel in part to capitalize on the hollywood success of seven years a slave; the story of solomon northup—a free african american in the mid-19th century—being kidnapped, sold into slavery, and eventually regaining freedom is commanding and serendipitous. stolen into slavery included the violence, inhumanity, and brutality endemic to slavery, which are often minimized or disregarded in most slavery-based trade books (bickford & rich, 2014b; schwebel, 2011; williams, 2009). terra purposefully selected six slavery-based trade books with historically misrepresentative elements (anderson, 2008; berry, 1991; denenberg, 1996; o’dell, 1989; lester, 1968/1998; schwartz, 2000). in literacy circles, students scrutinized this selected trade book and juxtaposed discrepancies with primary sources and stolen into slavery. terra wanted students to demonstrate their newly constructed historical understandings through diverse writing tasks. with various teacherand peer-review support steps, students created an article for a historical fiction newspaper as if they were mid-19th century journalists commenting on emergent slavery and abolitionist issues. they contributed an evidentiary argument (w.7.1), an informative or explanatory essay (w.7.2), or a narrative story (w.7.3). students’ evidentiary writing (w.7.1) relied on primary sources as students considered conflicting or competing claims within two different trade books. anne (a pseudonym) read two books (denenberg, 1996; fradin & fradin, 2014) where slaves’ food supply and working and john h. bickford iii 173 living conditions diverged dramatically. she distinguished trade books’ discrepancies and used evidence from credible sources to support her claim. 
 figure 5. anne’s evidentiary writing: historical fiction newspaper. students wrote informative or explanatory essays (w.7.2) about specific people, events, or eras referenced in—but not the focal point of—a trade book. each book referenced dozens of people, events, or eras. students could select one, analyze primary sources germane to this person, and organize understandings to demonstrate its historical significance. jane wrote an informative or explanatory essay about two consequential events, the dred scott court case and lincoln’s emancipation proclamation. 
 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 figure 6. jane’s informative/explanatory writing: historical fiction newspaper. students wrote various narrative stories (w.7.3). writers selected specific people—real or imagined—from their trade book and engaged the reader through a variety of narrative techniques. henry’s narrative, isabel the incredible, centers on material from his literacy circle trade book, chains (anderson, 2008), and is represented within figure seven. john h. bickford iii 175 figure 7. henry’s narrative writing: historical fiction newspaper. the illustrative examples each reveal distinct and positive elements. a review of students’ narratives (figure seven), informative or explanatory essays (figure six), and evidentiary arguments (figure five) indicated many positive general features associated with historical fiction newspapers, an assessment of historical thinking. first, students selected their contributions to a historical fiction newspaper; the assignment was flexible enough to let students demonstrate their understandings the best way they knew how. second, individual choice and flexibility hinged on accountability to the group; students appreciated the opportunity to collaborate and largely did so effectively. to distinguish if the former or the latter had a larger impact is indeterminable, yet terra noted students’ motivation and seeming success. third, the cognitive tasks associated with various writing formats were diverse and meaningful. in evidentiary arguments, students critically evaluated ambiguous situations using diverse sources to support a thesis. in informative or explanatory essays, students selected an event, era, or person that was not their book’s focal point to engage in independent inquiry. in narrative writing, students selected a real or imagined character from the book to further develop. finally, the writing tasks aligned to expectations of education initiatives. these are positive aspects of historical fiction newspapers as historical argumentation. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 there were, however, negative aspects to the assessment. first, students’ evidentiary arguments (figure five) and informative or explanatory texts (figure six) alluded to, but did not explicitly cite, primary source material. in this way, the origins of their understandings were vague or implied and not unequivocally text-based. requiring citations, though, would be an easy solution. second, the various types of writing could mask students’ understandings of a particular historical element as not everthing would be included. this, however, is arguably endemic to any writing prompt that allows student choice. third, and perhaps most significant, each writing task is not equally rigorous. evidentiary arguments (figure five) require students identify a discrepancy, analyze primary source material, and persuasively defend a thesis; informative or explanatory texts (figure six) compel students’ inquiry into—and analyses of primary sources associated with—a less-than-thoroughly developed element a trade book. in narrative writing (figure seven), students develop a tangential story extending from the trade book. narrative writing is as not reliant on close readings of primary sources and text-based writing as evidentiary arguments and informative or explanatory texts. discrepancies in rigor appear stark. i addressed ways to refine these problematic in the discussion section. single account interpretative essay. elsie positioned students to consider the interconnections between slavery and segregation. frustratingly, elsie’s previous students struggled to contextualize president abraham lincoln and dr. martin luther king as separated by a century and failed to see slavery’s resultant implications within segregation. in elsie’s words, “students think lincoln freed the slaves and got [sic] shot then king had a dream and got [sic] shot and one [assassination] was right after the other but everything got better quickly.” to intentionally address this, elsie selected one historically representative trade book from each era—day of tears (lester, 2007) and jackie’s nine (robinson, 2002)—for whole class novels and added diverse historical documents to both. elsie spent a few weeks on each era and varied her classroom focus between primary sources and trade books. elsie used single account interpretative essays (saies) as an ongoing evaluation (wineburg et al., 2012; vansledright, 2014), which was unlike other teachers’ end-of-unit assessments. on an almost-daily basis, elsie provided students a single primary source with multiple history literacy prompts to guide students to consider its connections with the trade book. elsie’s saie writing prompts are reported in table five. table 5. john h. bickford iii 177 elsie’s generic single account interpretative essay (saie) 1. what words stick out? 2. is this about slavery or segregation? what can we learn about slavery/segregation from this that is different from what you already know? 3. when was this document made? what other events happened in or around this time period? saie’s structure had many positive components. in the first question, elsie targeted academic vocabulary that either confused students or elicited prior knowledge about the era. the second question guided students to integrate nuances from this specific document into their schemas and, in doing so, consider how certain people and events are enshrined in historical memory while others are not. the third question compelled students to contextualize the historical document. unlike previous assessments, students were prompted to directly answer specific questions. saies did not provide the flexibility or choice that allowed distracted or indirect answers, a critique of other assessments; teachers could therefore determine students’ grasp of particular content. finally, and perhaps most importantly, saies compelled students’ close readings and use of corroboration and contextualization, two history literacy skills (nokes, 2011; wineburg, 2011). saies had some negative elements as elsie implemented them. a careful review of all students’ saies indicated three common patterns: brevity, plagiarism, and reiteration. many students’ answers, if technically correct, were unnecessarily brief; unreasonably succinct saie answers do not convince the teacher that the student engaged in historical thinking or utilized history literacy skills. large numbers of students’ answers matched exactly, which indicated plagiarism. individual students frequently had the same answer repeated numerous times; this reiteration suggests students learned to recycle acceptable answers and did not engage deeply with the material. figure eight illustrates two students’ saies. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 john h. bickford iii 179 figure 8. larry’s and maggie’s single account interpretative essay. larry may have understood—and been able to verbalize—connections to events surrounding the selma march. his answer could not have assured his teacher, though. it was entirely too brief. negative exhibitions, however, should not preclude saie classroom use. maggie’s answer, for instance, is clear and detailed. saies can be refined to more effectively capture students’ historical thinking. discussion teachers appreciated their newly generated curricula. when asked to reflect on what they most appreciated, teachers noted the students’ curiosity at the interconnections between the books and primary sources. these curricular resources appeared as catalysts that sparked and maintained students’ interest. every teacher noted students’ astonishment when primary sources indicated an important historical element that multiple books disregarded. every single teacher appreciated students’ reactions when discovering the intriguing interconnections between books and primary sources. they each, also, noted the time, cost, and expertise needed to develop such curricula. teachers need time to consider the right trade book(s) for their intent, the financial journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 support to build their library, and time to locate and modify sources. as adaptive experts, they each recognized their own inexperience with developing history-based curricula. the expertise can be developed and the time and financial support can be provided, but they are all necessary. this research also explored teachers’ integration of history literacy and historical thinking within curricula and the efficacy of the selected historical argumentation. history literacy appeared from its place within educational initiatives and, most especially, teachers’ background in english language arts. the english language arts reading standards—close readings (ri.1; ri.2), contextualizing (ri.3), reading the silences (ri.4; ri.5), a source’s perspective or bias (ri.6), a source’s use of evidence or logic (ri.8), and corroboration (ri.7; ri.9)—are intentionally aligned with historians’ heuristics. history literacy manifested in all units. students also engaged in historical thinking, which is similar to but distinct from history literacy. to establish historical significance, teachers purposefully positioned trade books to guide students’ exploration. the trade books enabled students to contrast distinct yet related eras, juxtapose diverse perspectives within a single era, and scrutinize historically representative with misrepresentative narratives. such tasks complicated students’ understandings as they considered historical significance. students analyzed primary sources to refine their developing historical understanding or to determine the historicity of palpable patterns within different trade books. primary sources were the catalysts for considering distinct historical perspectives, the tensions that emerged when efforts for radical change collided with reactionary forces trying to maintain continuity. historical documents enabled students to discover the causes and consequences of confrontation. students recognized ethical dilemmas in history and the subjectivity of historical memory. students’ historical thinking originated from the history literacies required during close readings of juxtaposed trade books and ancillary primary sources. students’ historical thinking manifested within their historical argumentation. there was merit within each assessment, yet each assessment had negative components. teachers can refine assessments to mitigate negative elements. students’ book reviews appeared prescriptive and unaware of the audience; they lacked thesis statements, topic sentences, transition sentences, and evidentiary support. students’ final papers originated from revisions guided by teacher-suggestions and peer review. more required revisions could improve the final product, yet apathy or animosity might be result. i encourage more purposeful revisions. john h. bickford iii 181 perhaps students might better grasp topic sentences, for instances, if a section of one class one day were devoted only to topic sentences. another day could focus on developing a clear thesis sentence and referencing it throughout the paper. in this way, students review and receive peer feedback on fewer elements of writing but the feedback, both given and received, is more focused. teachers could consider requiring proper citation, which could yield both immediate and enduring gains. in the short-term, students’ citations cues teachers to note content included and omitted. such recognition would compel students to integrate every primary source, consider its bias or perspective, and corroborate claims to determine a source’s credibility. debra and joyce included numerous sources, yet students explicitly referenced few. in the long term, students’ writing would increase in complexity as they purposefully considered the origin of their understandings. the author of every source has a perspective and all are differently biased. a slave’s oral history should be read and considered differently than a slave owner’s diary. understanding the origin of their understanding enables students to more explicitly and consciously consider perspective. teachers could deliberately position students to integrate history literacy within their writing. linda used twoand three-circle venn diagrams to determine students’ initial and then refined understandings. the venn diagrams, however, unnecessarily constricted students. children did not have the space needed to detail understandings, much less integrate and cite diverse primary and secondary historical sources. venn diagrams could be improved if students were asked first to detail their understandings on paper and then number each understanding. this expansive, numbered list could be cultivated through peer review; proper citations could ensure students integrate all meaningful, previously-covered documents. students, then, could place the proper number—not a short, non-sentence—in the appropriate section of the venn. in this way, the size or structure of the pencil-and-paper venn would not unnecessarily confine students’ articulations. technology could also help. students could perhaps benefit from the adjustability of font sizes or the malleability of space within digital venn. students could digitally footnote their understandings, also. digital venn diagrams and modifications for paperand-pencil venn diagrams can more effectively and efficiently evoke deeper understandings. becca hoped timelines would enable students to revise the oft-told, yet incomplete narrative of rosa parks’s arrest. through timelines, she intended students to integrate and sequence understandings obtained from numerous primary sources and trade books. she hoped journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 students would better grasp both history’s malleability and the incompleteness of any historical retelling. students aptly sequenced, but did not historicize, the era’s events on timelines. as with the venn, the structural constraints of timelines limited students’ contextualization and historical reconstruction of significant events. the timeline’s negative elements can be mitigated. i encourage a multipage, multi-sided timeline. students could fill the front page of the timeline with properly sequenced dates and perhaps creative illustrations or appropriate photographs; students should explain each event’s historical significance on the backside. the expansive backside would provide students space to articulate and cite the historical incidents. becca, then, could evaluate the timeline’s front-side for proper sequencing and its backside for integration and proper historical contextualization of the events represented in diverse sources. terra’s historical fiction newspapers and elsie’s single account interpretative essay (saies) had more constructive and fewer negative elements. students’ historical fiction newspaper writing did not explicitly reference primary source material writing, which concealed students’ understandings of particular content. the various writing options were, as noted above, not similarly rigorous. these negative elements can be reduced. require both citations and detailed end notes. such changes would reduce plagiarism, ensure all sources are appropriately integrated, and compel consideration of perspective or bias. assign students more than one writing sample; this balances expectations and bolsters students’ experience with different types of writing. students’ answers on saies were, at times, unnecessarily brief or perhaps plagiarized. requiring students’ elucidation ensures the reader can gauge an individual student’s historical understandings. appropriate citation better positions students to engage in text-based writing and reduces, but does not eliminate, plagiarism. historical fiction newspapers and saies had fewer negative elements in part because they provided students space for articulation. various practical suggestions can improve assessments’ effectiveness. when refined, the assessments align with the cognitive tasks associated with historical argumentation and appear age appropriate for elementary and middle level students. this is important when considering the underdeveloped nature of assessment of students’ historical thinking and the dearth of options for historical argumentation within the elementary and middle grades. teachers expressed interest in further integrating—and developing more effective assessments of—historical thinking and history literacy. each teacher appreciated feedback about refining their specific assessment, received examples of colleagues’ curricular units, and john h. bickford iii 183 read a draft of this manuscript. debra, joyce, terra, and elsie inquired about further materials. linda has extended her unit to include both social and political history like the supreme court’s desegregation ruling, rosa parks’s arrest, the montgomery bus boycott, and voting initiatives of the early 1960s. becca’s rosa parks and the montgomery bus boycott unit is now the fifth segment in a yearlong human rights curricula that intertwines historical fiction, fiction, and non-fiction primary and secondary sources. conclusion this study explored how experienced teachers responded to mandates for change in a curriculum that is not their area of expertise. the teachers all identified as primarily interested in english, language arts, and reading, yet were compelled to increase non-fiction topics with textbased writing expectations. the inquiry started after teachers were trained in pedagogy but before first implementation. a grant provided curricular resources to ensure teachers were not limited by schools’ financial support. when viewed in its totality, the teachers effectively positioned students to engage in history literacy and historical thinking. complications arose during historical argumentation, which were due largely to problematic elements of the selected assessment. considering these findings, it would be valuable to see how these teachers respond in the future. a longitudinal study could explore demonstrable patterns over time. future researchers might explore teachers from an ethnographic framework to see how preservice and graduate coursework impacts lived experience in the classroom. studies are needed to determine what is an effective, yet cost-efficient amount of money teachers need for curricular development. as with any study, this inquiry had limitations. in numerous ways, the data pool was limited. there were only six teachers. while the teachers were quite different in age and experience, they were all from similar education backgrounds taught in similar schools. a stronger ethnographic focus or quantitative analysis might have yielded different results. findings can be questioned because instruction was not monitored, students’ work was not authenticated, a different context might have produced different results, and a double-blind analysis was not done on curricular materials. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 references alvermann, d. (2002). adolescents and literacies in a digital world. new york, ny: peter lang. anderson, l., & krathwohl, d. (eds.). (2001). a taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. new york: longman.
 austin, h. & thompson, k. (2015). examining the evidence: seven strategies for teaching with primary sources. north mankato, mn: maupin house publishing. barton, k. (2002). “oh, that’s a tricky piece!”: children, mediated action, and the tools of historical time. the elementary school journal, 103(2), 161-185. bickford, j. (2010a). complicating students’ historical thinking through primary source reinvention. social studies research and practice, 5(2), 47-60.
 bickford, j. (2010b). uncomplicated technologies and erstwhile aids: how powerpoint, the internet, and political cartoons can elicit engagement and challenge thinking in new ways. the history teacher, 44(1), 51-66.
 bickford, j. (2011). a comparative analysis of original political cartoon methodology: concept maps and substitution lists. social studies research and practice, 6(3), 65-80. bickford, j. (2012). original political cartoon methodology and adaptations. social studies research and practice, 7(2), 91-101. bickford, j. (2013a). examining historical (mis)representations of christopher columbus within children’s literature. social studies research and practice, 8(2), 1-24. bickford, j. (2013b). initiating historical thinking in elementary schools. social studies research and practice, 8(3), 60-77. bickford, j. (2015). assessing and addressing the historical (mis)representations of the civil rights movement within children’s literature. the history teacher, 48(4), 693-736. bickford, j., dilley, d., & metz, v. (2015). historical writing, speaking, and listening using informational texts in elementary curricula. the councilor: a journal of the social studies, 76(1), 1-16. bickford, j. & hunt, l. (2014) common core, informational texts, and the historical (mis)representations of native americans within trade books. the councilor: a journal of the social studies, 75(2), 1-16. bickford, j., & rich, c. (2014a). trade books’ historical representation of eleanor roosevelt, rosa parks, and helen keller. social studies research and practice, 9(1), 18-65. john h. bickford iii 185 bickford, j., & rich, c. (2014b). examining the representations of slavery within children’s literature. social studies research and practice, 9(1), 66-94. bickford, j. & rich, c. (2015a). scrutinizing and supplementing children’s literature about child labor. social studies research & practice, 10(1), 21-40. bickford, j. & rich, c. (2015b). examining the historical representation of thanksgiving within primary and intermediate children’s literature. journal of children’s literature, 40(2), 521. bickford, j., schuette, l., & rich, c. (2015). examining the historical representation of the holocaust within trade books. journal of international social studies, 5(1), 4-50. bickford, j. & wilton, m. (2012). historicizing christopher columbus for elementary and secondary students. world history connected, 9(2), 1-36. http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/9.2/bickford.html black, p. & william, d. (1998). inside the black box: raising standards through classroom assessment. phi delta kappan, 80(2), 139-144. brophy, j. & alleman, j. (2002). learning and teaching about cultural universals in primary grade social studies. the elementary school journal, 103(2), 99-114. chang, k., sung, y., & chen, i. (2002). the effect of concept mapping to enhance text comprehension and summarization. the journal of experimental education, 71(1), 5-15. cimbricz, s. (2002). state-mandated testing and teachers’ beliefs and practice. educational policy analysis archives, 10(2). retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/281 cook-sather, a. (2002). authorizing students’ perspectives: toward trust, dialogue, and change in education. educational researcher, 31, 3-14.
 dicecco, v. & gleason, m. (2002). using graphic organizers to attain relational knowledge from expository text. journal of learning disabilities, 35(4), 306-315. dweck, c. (1999). self-theories: their role in motivation, personality, and development. philadelphia, pa: psychology press. fallace, t., biscoe, a., & perry, j. (2007). second graders thinking historically: theory into practice. journal of social studies research, 31(1), p 44-53.
 fehn, b. & heckart, k. (2013). producing a documentary in the third grade: reaching all students through movie making. social studies and the young learner, 25(3), 18-22. fehn, b., & schul, j. (2014). selective appropriation and historical documentary making in a journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 special education classroom. social studies research and practice, 9(2), 1-14. gaston, a., martinez, j. & martin, e.p. (2016). embedding literacy strategies in social studies for eighth-grade students. journal of social studies education research, 7(1), 73-95. gregg, h. & greene, j. (2010). rafting on the great new sea of knowledge: historical role playing for engagement, authenticity, and interaction. world history connected, 7(3), http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/7.3/gregg.html hatano, g., & inagaki, k. (1986). two courses of expertise. in h. stevenson, h. azuma, & k. hakuta (eds.), child development in japan (pp. 262-272). new york: w. h. freeman.
 holloway, j. & chiodo, j. (2009). social studies is being taught in the elementary school: a contrarian view. journal of social studies research, 33(2), p235-261. john-steiner, v. & mann, h. (1996). sociocultural approaches to learning and development: a vygotskian framework. educational psychologist, 31(3/4), 191-206. kenna, j. l. & russell, w. b. (2015). secondary social studies teachers’ time commitment when addressing the common core state standards. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 26-48. kilinç, e., kilinç, s., kaya, m., başer, e., er türküresi̇n, h., & kesten, a.
(2016). teachers’ attitudes toward the use of technology in social studies teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1) 59-76 krippendorff, k. (2013). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology, third edition. washington, dc: sage publishing. lintner, t. (2006). social studies (still) on the back burner: perceptions and practices of k-5 social studies instruction. journal of social studies research, 23(2), 147-168. loewen, j. (1995). lies my teacher told me: everything your american history textbook got wrong. new york, ny: simon and schuster. loewen, j. (2010). teaching what really happened: how to avoid the tyranny of textbooks and get students excited about doing history. new york, ny: teachers college press. mcdiarmid, g. (1994). understanding history for teaching: a study of the historical understanding of prospective teachers. in james f. voss and mario carretero’s (eds.) cognitive and instructional processes in history and the social sciences (159-186), hillsdale, n.j.: lawrence 
erlbaum associates. mcmurrer, j. (2008). instructional time in elementary schools: a closer look at changes for john h. bickford iii 187 specific subjects. washington, dc: center on education policy. mishra, r. k. (2014). social constructivism and teaching of social science. journal of social studies education research, 5(2), 1-13. monte-sano, c. (2012). what makes a good history essay? assessing historical aspects of argumentative writing. social education, 76(6), 294-298. monte-sano, c., de la paz, s. & felton, m. (2014). reading, thinking, and writing about history: teaching argument writing to diverse learners in the common core classroom, grades 6-12. new york, ny: teachers college press. mutlu, b. (2009). computer-based concept mapping. social studies research and practice, 4(3), 86-96. national council for the social studies (2009). powerful and purposeful teaching and learning in elementary social studies. social education, 73(5), 252-254. national council for the social studies (2013). college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver spring, md: ncss. national governors association center for best practices & council of chief state school officers (2010). common core state standards for english language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects. washington, dc: authors. nokes, j. (2011). recognizing and addressing the barriers to adolescents’ “reading like historians”. the history teacher, 44(3), 379-404. partnership for assessment of readiness for college and careers. (2012). parcc model content frameworks: english language arts/literacy, grades 3–11, version 2.0. washington, dc: author. patel, v., & groen, g. (1991). the general and specific nature of medical expertise: a critical look. in k. a. ericsson & j. smith (ed.), toward a general theory of expertise: prospects and limits (pp. 93-125). new york: cambridge university press.
 sallis, d., rule, a., & jennings, e. (2009). cartooning your way to student motivation. science scope, 32(9), 22-27. schwartz, s. (2009). comparative classroom approaches to the classical past. world history connected, 6(1), http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/6.1/schwartz.html schwebel, s. (2011). child-sized history: fictions of the past in u.s. classrooms. nashville, tn: journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 vanderbilt university press. seixas, p. & morton, t. (2012). the big six historical thinking concepts. toronto, ontario: nelson college indigenous. shavelson, r., young, d., ayala, c., brandon, p., furtak, e., ruiz-primo, m., tomita, m., & yin, y. (2008). on the impact of curriculum-embedded formative assessment on learning: a collaboration between curriculum and assessment developers. applied measurement in education, 21(4), 295-314. smith, m. & wilhelm, j. (2006). going with the flow: how to engage boys (and girls) in their literacy learning. portsmouth, nh: heinemann publishing.
 spivey, n. n. (1997). the constructivist metaphor: reading, writing, and the making of meaning. san diego, ca: academic press. stobaugh, r., tassell, j., day, m., & blankenship, h. (2011). enhancing the cognitive complexity in social studies assessments. social studies and the young learner, 23(3), 48. sunal, c. & coleman, j. (2013). social studies beginnings: investigating very young children’s prior knowledge of a disaster. social studies research and practice, 8(3), 21-41. sunal, c., kelley, l., & sunal, d. (2012). what does peace mean? kindergarteners share ideas. social studies research and practice, 7(2), 1-14. theoharis, j. (2013). the rebellious life of mrs. rosa parks. boston, ma: beacon press. tierney, r. (1998). literacy assessment reform: shifting beliefs, principled possibilities, and emerging practices. the reading teacher, 51(5), 374-390.
 williams, t. (2009). a closer look: the representation of slavery in the dear america series. social studies and the young learner, 21(3), 26-29. wineburg, s. (1998). reading abraham lincoln: an expert/expert study in the interpretation of historical texts. cognitive science, 22(3), 319-346. wineburg, s. (2001). historical thinking and other unnatural acts: charting the future of teaching the past. philadelphia, pa: temple university press. wineburg, s. (2008). goodbye columbus. smithsonian magazine, 39(2), 98-104. wineburg, s., & martin, d. (2009). tampering with history: adapting primary sources for struggling readers. social education, 73(5), 212-216. wineburg, s., martin, d., & monte-sano, c. (2011). reading like a historian: teaching literacy john h. bickford iii 189 in middle and high school classrooms. new york, ny: teachers college press. wineburg, s. & monte-sano (2008). famous americans: the changing pantheon of american heroes. journal of american history, 93(2), 1186-1202.
 wineburg, s., smith, m., & breakstone, j. (2012). new directions in assessment: using library of congress sources to assess historical understanding. social education, 76(6), 290293. vansledright, b. (1996). closing the gap between school and disciplinary history? historian as high school history teacher. in jere brophy (ed.) advances in research on teaching and learning history (257-289), greenwich, conn.: jai press. vansledright, b. (2002). fifth graders investigating history in the classroom: results from a researcher-practitioner design experiment. the elementary school journal, 103(2), 131160. vansledright, b. (2014). assessing historical thinking and understanding: innovative designs for new standards. new york, ny: routledge. vogler, k. e. (2008). comparing the impact of accountability examinations on mississippi and tennessee social studies teachers’ instructional practices. educational assessment, 13, 132. vygotsky, l (1986). thought and language. cambridge, ma: the mit press. yendol-hoppey, d. & tilford, k. (2004). does anyone care about elementary social studies?: dilemmas of teaching elementary social studies methods within a high stakes testing context. social studies review, 44(1). retrieved from https://www.questia.com/magazine/1p3-777709261/does-anyone-care-about-elementarysocial-studies journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 appendix a – example of pedagogical support provided terra, your main book (stolen into slavery) has sections where the slaves are singing. of the lit circle books [sic], three include it briefly or indirectly (chains; when will this cruel war be over?; my name is not angelica) and three include actual songs and note how slaves used them to surreptitiously pass information on to other slaves. the kids who read these last three (ajeemah and his son; to be a slave; send one angel down) will know that they weren’t just to pass the time or to praise god. it's like i have access to dora's backpack, but check out this wonderful song resource with audio: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery/experience/education/feature.html and, i like this list because it's so comprehensive and the lyrics are so easy to copy/paste, there's no audio: http://www.negrospirituals.com/news-song/ when working with the slave songs, it might be fun to do (a) sentence scramble with one song where you separate the song’s paragraphs into like 6-10 sentences of separate lines on a word doc [sic]. then, number (or letter) them, cut them out individually, put them in a folder or envelop, and have kids reconstruct the paragraph. it’s a wonderful way to make kids read, reread, and re-re-read the paragraph (but it takes a long time to make the envelopes). or, (b) do a "partial scramble" where you take 20 songs, cut them in half, separate into folders (like sentence scramble) and have them match top 1/2 to bottom 1/2. oooooooor [sic], (c) maybe and this is simplest but could be great tell the kids you're giving them all different songs, when in reality you take 10 songs and cut them into 1/3s (so top 1/3, middle 1/3, bottom 1/3), number these [sic], have the kids read them (not knowing it's connected to another student's) and then have them "finish or start the song", basically tell the kids, "ok, kids, i shared with you part of a song, knowing what you know about what's written, try to extend the song with the ending...or begin the song. what came first or what came after?" then, they'll work on writing (this connects great to writing standards and also the reading standards), then open it up and say, "kids, i lied. you have 2 [sic] other people in the room who have your same song. share what you have and find your friend...compare the originals...see how close your guesses were!" i think during the group work you could have a graphic organizer where you're having them list observations & inferences (so they observe the song is about "fly fast, fly fast" and they infer that fly means to run away). as for your closure activity, i'd consider a think/pair/share activity where you ask them, "what did you learn about slavery and slave life from this? and, what were the five important things i wanted you to learn?" (this is great because if a kid says they didn't learn anything, your response is, "ok, that's fine, start listing what you think i [sic] was trying to trick you into learning!" it works. trust me. and, even if you don't have a set list of 5 things, you still got them thinking, pairing, and sharing). it doesn't have to be rock start stuff every day. and, since you were talking about the slave quilts. i started thinking about getting some diaries from [sic] slave owners and underground rr [sic] workers. please see attached 6 [sic] docs (half originals & half are modified). 2 [sic] are from slave owners. 1 [sic] is from an underground railroad worker. rich, rich, rich stuff! let me know if you're interested in using them or if you want more. this could be a great step to do (with a similar think/pair/share activity or a kwl or some type of close reading) between the slave quilts and extensions about slave life. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery/experience/education/feature.html http://www.negrospirituals.com/news-song/ john h. bickford iii 191 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8(1), 146-192 appendix b – becca’s content analysis tool 1. genre: a. historical fiction b. non-fiction 2. did the book mention anything rosa did to help african americans before she was arrested (december 1, 1955)? a. yes b. no 3. did the book mention how segregation started? a. yes (as something white americans started and kept going) b. no (it was something that “just was”) 4. when describing segregation, did the book mention that it had various elements: a. separate schools, separate drinking fountains, or separate restaurants (this is called social segregation) yes or no b. how african americans could not vote in many places (this is called political segregation) yes or no c. how african americans could not go to the best schools to get the best jobs or were not even allowed to have certain jobs (this is called economic segregation) yes or no 5. did the book mention anything that came before rosa was arrested? something like: a. the supreme court’s decision called “brown v. board of education”, yes or no b. emmett till and how he was attacked, yes or no c. claudette colvin and how she was arrested for doing something like rosa did, yes or no d. jo ann robinson and all she did to help, yes or no 6. did the book mention anything that came after rosa was arrested? something like: a. the montgomery bus boycott, yes or no b. how rosa was threatened and forced to move north because she was scared, yes or no c. the civil rights movement got bigger and bigger for the next few years as more people got angry at how african americans were mistreated yes or no note. modified from bickford & rich, 2014a, p. 21-22. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 89-103 89 corporate qualification of the mentor in the dual education system irek falyakhov1 abstract the dual education system is one of the world-recognized models of training qualified staff. due to consolidation of resources of all participants in this process, training of qualified staff meeting requirements of the employers is ensured. in terms of implementation of the dual education system, the task of providing production training of the trainee by a qualified mentor is becoming particularly relevant. the study is based on the use of methods of theoretical analysis, systematization, consolidation of scientific and educational literature on the subject of research and modeling. these methods have been used in different combinations at different stages of the study, depending on the tasks being solved, what, no doubt, has contributed to ensuring reliability of the study performed and validity of the conclusions made by the author. in the course of the study, a differentiated intrafirm qualification has been justified, component-wise characteristics of the levels of the mentor’s psychological-pedagogical competence developed for implementation of mentorship in the dual education system. the presented component-wise characteristic serves as a criterion to determine qualification and level of formation of psychological and pedagogical competence of the mentor of production training and enables building an individual trajectory of its development. the main results of the study have been reported and discussed at scientific and practical conferences of international, all-russian and regional levels. the psychological and pedagogical competence of the mentor (motivational-value-based, process-activity, cognitive and reflexive-analytical components) that can be formed on either level: high, medium and sufficient, is the basis of corporate qualification of mentors (mentor, tutor, coach and facilitator). key words: dual education system, mentor of production training, corporate qualification, psychological and pedagogical competence, components. introduction according to the tasks stipulated in the federal targeted program for development of education in 2016-2020, “creation of an infrastructure that provides conditions for training of the staff for modern economy” that would ensure quality of vocational education required by the labor market is a priority (government decree of 23.05.2015 n 497, 2015). the trend of globalization is of special importance for development of vocational education. individualization, standardization and growth of the economic function of education are the leading global trends, significant for the education. the theory of “human capital” is based on the 1 assist. of depart. of the general engineering training, , elabuga institute of kazan federal university, russian federation, republic of tatarstan, falyakhov90@mail.ru mailto:falyakhov90@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 89-103 study of the latter (korableva & kalimullina, 2014; korableva et al., 2017 b). its main idea is that investing in human education is one of the most profitable investments. this is confirmed by researches in this area. in particular, the role of human capital in the system of new economic relations of innovative production is justified (osadchiy & akhmetshin, 2015; galevskiy et al., 2016; akhmetshin et al., 2017). at the modern stage of development of local vocational education, as one of the mechanisms to ensure a connection between production and education, the system of dual education is realized (the order of the government of the russian federation no.349-p, 2015 dated 03.03.2015). the dual system in its content means parallel learning in the educational organization and production (blinov & yesenina, 2015). with such an organization of the educational process, the task of providing the trainee with production training by a qualified mentor is becoming particularly relevant (aydarova et al., 2017; bochkareva,et al., 2017; magmusov, 2013a). the main task of mentorship within framework of dual education is adaptation of students to production activities, formation of their corporate culture, as well as their further professional, career growth and their assignment in professional activities. the tasks of mentoring include: corporate training of students in accordance with corporate standards and norms adopted in the organization; formation of their corporate culture, as well as conscious positive attitude to work; providing opportunities of career growth to the trainees; formation of their cohesive team; and improving labor performance (korableva & kalimullina, 2016; fedorov, 2014; szydlowski, 2017; korableva et al., 2017a). . literature review analysis of the scientific and pedagogical literature on the subject of the study allows us concluding that they: provide theoretical, methodological and methodic fundamentals of training mentors of the soviet period (batyshev, 1985), (vershlovskiy et al, 1987), (mahmutov, 1981); highlight issues of pedagogical mentoring (senchenko, 1977); develop theoretical and methodological fundamentals to improve qualification of specialists (amirova, 2004), (asadullin, 2000), (kuzmina, 1990), (panasyuk, 2004); falyakhov reveal substantive and technological aspects of formation of pedagogical abilities of specialists lacking pedagogical education (arbuzova, 2006); cover psychological and pedagogical features of education for adults (zmeev, 2003), (kulyutkin, 1985). in foreign studies, fundamentals of mentoring are revealed in the works of bauer (2010), bock (2008), hombourg (2008), nidermair (2009). at the same time, the issue of training mentors for dual education in our country has not been properly studied. the experimental part within framework of our study, taking into account the existing points of view on the functional characteristics of a modern mentor, it is reasonable to distinguish four main functions of the mentor of production training in the dual education system: motivational-value function, which assumes formation of conscious positive motives among trainees to the selected professional activity (mauch &tarman, 2016); educational-pedagogic function, which refers to transfer of professional experience to young trainees, their involvement in corporate values and traditions of the company and formation of their corporate culture (magsumov, 2013b; magsumov, 2016); informational-consultative function, stipulating timely notification of educational organizations of the level of competence of trainees and arranging consultations for both trainees and their teachers; self-educational function, which assumes formation of trainees’ competence in self-improvement and self-development for the purpose of further professional and career development. proceeding from these functions of a modern mentor of production training in the dual education system, we have outlined basic requirements for his/her competencies: the mentor should know: legal and regulatory provisions of the documents of the federal, regional and institutional level of organization of corporate training for the trainees; basic organizational forms, technologies and methods of effective training of the trainees in the dual education system; specific features of development of the programs for implementation of the dual education system, etc. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 89-103 the mentor should be able to: analyze his/her activities, adjust actions with regard to strategic goals of the company and demands of his/her trainees; plan and design his/her activities; analyze professional activity of the new staff; monitor professional growth of the company’s newcomers; search for effective ways of organizing corporate training for the students; develop corporate programs within the framework of the dual education system and correct them in a timely manner. the mentor should have: a modern terminological apparatus in the field of corporate training of the trainees; psychological and pedagogical methods of effective information transfer; methods of professional education and training; technology of development of corporate educational programs; methods of holding corporate events; competences of management of the trainees’ communication process; creative approach to corporate training of the trainees and professional activities; skills of expert thinking. availability of the above knowledge, practice and skills of the mentors of the dual education system shows demand for formation of a special psychological and pedagogical competence of mentors, which stipulates availability of the mentor’s abilities and readiness to implement motivational-value, educational-pedagogic, information-consulting and self-educational functions that support designing and implementation of professional training of the trainees within the dual system of education. the structure of psychological-pedagogical competence of the mentor, in our opinion, includes a combination of the following components: motivational-value, ensuring mentor’s professional and pedagogical behavior, on the basis of the system of his/her interests and motives, orientation at the trainee’s training within framework of corporate culture; cognitive, conditioned by psychological, pedagogical and professional knowledge of the essence of professional training and its technologies; procedural-activity, assuming knowledge, how to organize the trainee’s training within the dual system, taking into account individual characteristics of the trainees, opportunities of individual and group teaching, creating educational communications and an environment for professional development of the trainees; reflexive-analytical, characterized by the ability to an integral view of the results of mentor’s activities, self-education, self-development and self-realization, overcoming difficulties, finding falyakhov and eliminating their causes in the course of corporate training of trainees, and ability to share their knowledge with other mentors. the level of formation of psychological and pedagogical competence directly depends on the experience of implementation of a mentor’s activities (tarman, 2016; yiğit & tarman, 2016). not only those who have a lot of experience in pedagogical work, but also those who have just come out of the trainees’ environment may and should be mentors, because production needs new generators of ideas, which, as we know, should be sought among young people, and they, in the turn, need experience to consolidate the acquired knowledge, identification thereof in terms of transfer of knowledge to new trainees will be more effective, as it would acquire the context of responsibility with gradual formation of one’s own sense of worth (tünkler et al., 2016). promptness and appurtenance of subjects of mentor’s activity (mentor and trainee) to one information flow are important, rather than forms of transfer (they do not always require diversity). and a special attention should be paid to the presence of professionally significant personal qualities (tarman et al., 2015), any experience of pedagogical communication, pedagogical tact, pedagogical goal-setting, pedagogical thinking, which are required for pedagogic side of the mentor’s activity (magsumov, 2015). in this regard, step-by-step self-identification of the mentors’ readiness for implementation of mentor’s activities is being updated. germany, where the dual education system is working, has three levels of qualification of mentors: assistant, trainer (instructor) and master. within framework of our study, a differentiated evaluation of professionalism of a modern mentor that requires special consideration of such concepts as ‘mentor”, “tutor”, “coach” and “facilitator”, which have their own distinctive features, becomes specially relevant. the mentor (from latin mentos intention, purpose, spirit, mon-i-tor the one who instructs) is a manager, teacher, mentor, educator or persistent supervisor (masalimova, 2013). mentoring involves a purposeful transfer of one’s experience to a trainee by a more experienced employee in the format “do as i do”. the tutor (from latin tutorem tutor, guardian) in the sense of “senior, assigned to take care of a younger student in the learning process” (tutors’ association). “tutoring” is aimed to support corporate training of a trainee, discussing experience of transferring the acquired knowledge into real practice. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 89-103 the coach is an experienced employee, able to build a learning process on the basis of partner’s relations, inspire trainees to seek solutions of the problems themselves (being an effective tutor). “coaching” provides disclosure of the potential of the trainee’s personality. the facilitator (from latin facilis – easy, convenient) is an experienced manager, ensuring successful group communication based on creative models of corporate training (international association of facilitators). discussion, conclusion and implications taking into account the above concepts with regard to mentoring, we have identified the following types (levels of readiness) of mentors for implementation of mentor’s activities within framework of the dual education system we are considering, which formed the basis for corporate qualification of the mentors’ training system for the dual education: mentor, tutor, coach and facilitator. let’s describe qualification characteristics for every selected type. qualification “mentor” assumes initial level of formation of psychological-pedagogical competence of the mentor. available professional production experience of the employee, together with some psychological and pedagogical knowledge, practice, skills and methods of solving any production problems, allows transferring production experience according to a standard template based on instructing the trainee, tracking the algorithm of single-task actions and evaluating the result of such activity. the component-wise characteristic of the levels of psychologicalpedagogical competence of the mentor-supervisor for implementation of mentor’s activities is given in table 1. table 1 the component-wise characteristic of the levels of psychological-pedagogical competence of the mentor-supervisor for implementation of mentor’s activities corporate qualification of the mentor level of psychologicalpedagogical competence components of psychological-pedagogical competence falyakhov mentor sufficient motivational-value. periodically takes action to master ways of mentoring. cognitive. he/she knows psychological, pedagogical, methodical and educational bases of the mentor’s activities sufficiently, it is somewhat difficult to establish communication and instruct the trainee in the framework of a one-task professional activity. procedural-activity. he/she is able to establish training and production relationships with the trainee, sometimes has difficulties in selection and use of optimal corporate training technologies. reflexive-analytical. can assess the trainee’s level in performance of his/her tasks. medium motivational-value. understands the need for mentoring activities, on a regular basis mastering the ways of mentoring. cognitive. he knows and is able to implement psychological, pedagogical, methodological and educational foundations of the mentor’s activity, is able to instruct the trainee in the framework of one-task professional activity. procedural-activity. is able to establish training and production relationships with the trainee, can choose to use the best technologies for corporate training. reflexive-analytical. is able to assess performance of tasks by the trainee, identify his/her problems and gaps. high motivational-value. aware of the need for mentor’s activities, seeks to develop new types of mentoring and professional activities. cognitive. knows and applies psychological, pedagogical, methodical and educational fundamentals of the mentor’s activity in practice, is able to compose and instruct the trainee in the framework of one-task professional activity. procedural-activity. is able to establish training-production relations with the trainee; select and use the best technologies for corporate training; identify individual abilities of the trainees. reflexive-analytical. is able to assess performance of tasks by the trainee, identify his/her problems and gaps, and on this basis change the way his/her activities to achieve the result of the trainee. qualification “tutor” stipulates tutor’s theoretical knowledge of production training for the dual education system in the field of content, technologies, methods of training trainees, formation of communication methods in the group of trainees. this level of mentor’s competencies determines his/her ability to provide psychological and pedagogical support of the training of trainees in the dual system of professional education. the component-wise characteristic of the levels of psychological-pedagogical competence of the mentor-tutor for implementation of mentor’s activities is given in table 2. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 89-103 table 2 the component-wise characteristic of the levels of psychological-pedagogical competence of the mentor-tutor for implementation of mentor’s activities. corporate qualification of the mentor level of psychologicalpedagogical competence components of psychological-pedagogical competence tutor sufficient motivational-value. he implicitly understands goals of his/her own mentoring activity, oriented to receive the required psychological and pedagogical knowledge. cognitive. has the required level of knowledge on the content, technologies, methods of corporate training of the trainees, methods of pedagogical activity are based on transfer of other people’s experience. procedural-activity. implementation of mentoring in certain situations causes difficulties when working with a group of trainees, when using group forms of corporate training of the trainees. reflexive-analytical. characterized by tolerable level of formation of abilities for selfanalysis, self-criticism, objective assessment of their mentoring activities. medium motivational-value. he/she is able to determine goals of his/her own mentoring activity and masters new psychological and pedagogical knowledge for that. cognitive. he/she has a sufficient level of knowledge on the content, technologies, methods of corporate training of trainees, methods of pedagogical activity are based on transfer of someone’s else experience with elements of pedagogical creativity. procedural-activity. is able to work with a group of trainees, provides psychological and pedagogical support for training of the trainees reflexive-analytical. is able to ensure self-analysis, self-criticism, objective evaluation of his/her mentoring activity, understanding the need for self-development. high motivational-value. he/she has clearly expressed goals of his/she own mentoring activity and orientation to receive the required psychological and pedagogical knowledge. he/she is motivated by personal achievements and indicators in mentoring. cognitive. has a high level of knowledge on the content, technologies, methods of corporate training of the trainees, is able to design his/her own teaching activities. procedural-activity. is able to work with a group of trainees, provides psychological and pedagogical support for training of the trainees, can establish a favorable microclimate between the mentor and the trainee or a group of trainees. reflexive-analytical. he/she is capable of an objective evaluation of his/her mentoring activity and can build trajectories of his/her own self-development, coordinating them with the corporate goal. qualification “coach” allows the mentor ensuring the following, on the basis of a well-structured system of knowledge, skills and experience in the field of training, education and development of trainees: designing and implementation of the educational process on the basis of individual and group forms of production training; implementation of organizational and methodological conditions for self-development of the trainee and plan a program for his/her individual career development. the component-wise falyakhov characteristic of the levels of psychological-pedagogical competence of the mentor-coach for implementation of mentor’s activities is given in table 3. table 3 the component-wise characteristic of the levels of psychological-pedagogical competence of the mentor-tutor for implementation of mentor’s activities. corporate qualification of the mentor level of psychologicalpedagogical competence components of psychological-pedagogical competence coach sufficient motivational-value. he understands the role of the mentor in the general structure of corporate training, periodically takes actions to increase motivation of the trainees to corporate training. cognitive. he/she knows and is able to use theoretical knowledge on the content, technologies, methods of corporate training of the trainees efficiently. procedural-activity. is capable of implementing individual mentoring activities, creating psychological and pedagogical conditions for training, education and development of the trainees within corporate culture. reflexive-analytical. periodically ensures self-learning in the framework of mentoring activities, is able to make operational changes in his/her own mentoring activity on the basis of analysis of the pedagogical situation. medium motivational-value. he/she shows a value attitude to implementation of mentoring activities, takes actions to increase motivation of the trainees to corporate training. cognitive. knows and is capable of productive and creative application of theoretical knowledge on the content, technologies, methods of corporate training of trainees. procedural-activity. is capable of implementing individual mentoring activities, creating psychological and pedagogical conditions for training, education and development of the trainees within the corporate culture. reflexive-analytical. ensures self-learning in the framework of mentoring activities, if required, is ready to make operational changes in his/her own mentoring activity. high motivational-value. shows a stable value attitude to implementation of mentoring activities, motivated by professional achievements of the trainees. cognitive. he/she is characterized by a sufficient level of ability formation, use of creative approaches in implementation of mentoring activities, as well as generation of knowledge from other areas. procedural-activity. is able to implement individual mentoring activities; create psychological-pedagogical and organizational-methodological conditions for training, education and development of the trainees within the framework of corporate culture; develop individual career development programs for the trainees. reflexive-analytical. systematically self-improves in the framework of mentoring and professional activities, able to unite programs of self-development, development of organization and development of the trainees. qualification “facilitator” stipulates a high level of mentor’s readiness and is characterized by his/her professionalism in the field of applying innovative models of corporate training and education of the trainees, develop individual and group programs for their professional and career growth, search for knowledge, and continuous improvement of psychological, pedagogical and other professional competencies. mentoring activities are ensured on the basis of his/her own journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 89-103 models and techniques, and it allows them focusing the trainees’ attention on the overall objectives of the company and maintaining a positive group dynamics to achieve it in the discussion process, creating conditions for self-development of the trainees, and their conscious mastering of the corporate training program. the component-wise characteristic of the levels of psychologicalpedagogical competence of the mentor-facilitator for implementation of mentor’s activities is given in table 4. table 4 corporate qualification of the mentor level of psychologicalpedagogical competence components of psychological-pedagogical competence facilitator sufficient motivational-value. he/she has a value attitude to mentoring activities, he/she regularly uses various methods and methods of training and education of the trainees. cognitive. has the required level of psychological, pedagogical, organizational and professional knowledge; is able to apply innovative models of corporate training and education of the trainees, forms and methods of their motivation; develops individual and group programs for professional and career development of the trainees. procedural-activity. he/she is able to create conditions for educational and professional creativity of the trainees, form motivation of trainees for training within the framework of corporate tasks. reflexive-analytical. is capable of self-development and self-realization, overcoming difficulties, identifying and eliminating their causes in the process of corporate training of the trainees, an integral assessment and analysis of the results of training of the trainees. medium motivational-value. has a value attitude to mentoring; in his/her work regularly uses various ways and methods of teaching and training of the trainees, is capable of pedagogical creativity. cognitive. has a sufficient level of psychological, pedagogical, organizational and professional knowledge; is able to apply and modify innovative models of corporate training and education of the trainee, forms and methods of their motivation; develop individual and group programs for professional and career development of the trainees. procedural-activity. he/she is able to concentrate attention of the trainees on the general objectives of the company, create conditions for self-development of the trainees, their educational and professional creativity, and motivate trainees to learn in the framework of corporate tasks. reflexive-analytical. characterized by the ability to an integral view of the results of mentor’s activities, to self-development and self-realization, overcoming difficulties, identifying and eliminating their causes in corporate training of the trainees. falyakhov high motivational-value. has a value attitude to mentoring; understands, accepts and realizes the mission of corporate training and education of the trainee future professional of his/her business. cognitive. characterized by deep theoretical knowledge; is capable of applying and developing his/her own innovative models of corporate training and education of the trainees, forms and methods of their motivation; develops individual and group programs for professional and career development of the trainees. procedural-activity. he/she is able to concentrate attention of the trainees on the general objectives of the enterprise, create conditions for self-development of the trainees, their educational and professional creativity, and motivate the trainees to learn in the framework of corporate tasks. mentoring activities are ensured on the basis of his/her own models and techniques. reflexive-analytical. characterized by the ability to an integral view of the results of mentoring, self-development and self-realization, overcoming difficulties, identifying and eliminating their causes in corporate training of the trainees, the ability to share his/her knowledge and experience with other mentors. conclusion the basis of every mentioned corporate qualification of the mentors is psycho-pedagogical competence of the mentor (motivational-value, procedural-activity, cognitive and reflexiveanalytical components) that can be formed and improved in the course of corporate preparation, which can be formed at either level: high, medium or sufficient. the above components of psychological and pedagogical competence of the mentor of production training to implementation of mentoring in the dual education system are quite complex multilevel education and have a certain practical interpretation, determining performance of the mentor’s activity. acknowledgements the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 89-103 references akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. amirova, l.a. (2004). professional-pedagogical mobility: essence, implementation strategies and vectors of development. moscow: rao, 190 pp. arbuzova, l.v. (2006). didactic conditions of psychological and pedagogical training of teachers of professional training with basic non-pedagogical education. vestnik of the chelyabinsk state pedagogic university. chelyabinsk, scientific journal no.5, part 3, pp. 3-12. asadullin, r.m. (2000). integrative-modular technology of formation of the teacher’s logic as a subject of pedagogical activity. ufa. bgpi, pp. 20-24. aydarova s h, giniyatullina l m, sagdieva r k, husnutdinov d h, mirzagitov r h, gabidullina f i (2017) models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) batyshev, a.s. (1985). pedagogical system of mentoring in the workforce. moscow: higher school, pp 272. bauer, h.g. (2010). lern (prozess) begleitung in der ausbildung, w. bertelsmann verlag, bielefeld. being an effective tutor – anoka-ramsey community college. retrieved april 7, 2018, from http://www.anokaramsey.edu bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) blinov, v.i., yesina, e.yu. (2015). mentors in production: engineers of experience. business of russia. retrieved april 02, 2018, from http://businessofrussia.com/mar-2015/item/1093mentors.html bock, m.j. (2008). effizientes personalmanagement in der praxis, weka-media, kissing. decree of the government of the russian federation of 23.05.2015 n 497 (2015). "on the federal targeted program for the development of education for 2016-2020". retrieved march 27, 2018, from http://base.garant.ru/71044750/ fedorov, a. (2014). commitment to asia. the russian academic journal, 28(2). doi:10.15535/267 http://base.garant.ru/71044750/ falyakhov galevskiy, g.v., rudneva, v.v., galevskiy, s.g., il'yashchenko, d.p., kartsev, d.s. (2016) homburg, j. (2008). mitbestimmung und mitwirkung beim arbeitsverhaltnis, bund-verlag, frankfurt a. m. international association of facilitators. retrieved april 05, 2018, from http://www.iafworld.org/ korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2014). the formation of a single legal space as a prerequisite for overcoming systemic risk. asian social science, 10(21): 256-260. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016). strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a). building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b). research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. kuzmina, n.v. (1990). professionalism of the personality of the teacher and the master of industrial training. n.v. kuzmina. m. high school, pp 119. kulyutkin, yu.n. (1985). psychology of adult learning. prosvescheniye, pp 128. magmusov, t.a. (2013a). school and children during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the romanov dynasty. bylye gody. (4) 30: 79-87. magsumov, t.a. (2013b). educational excursions in technical schools of pre-revolutionary russia. bylye gody. (1), 27: 52-60. magsumov, t. (2015). charity societies for helping needy students in the volga region, late 19th early 20th centuries. rossiiskaia istoria. 4: 63-69. magsumov, t.a. (2016). the jigets: a great history of a small people. rusin. (3), 45: 247-253. doi: 10.17223/18572685/45/17 http://www.iaf-world.org/ http://www.iaf-world.org/ https://doi.org/10.17223/18572685/45/17 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 89-103 masalimova, a.r. (2013). corporate training of mentors: monograph. kazan: publishing house "print-service xxi century", 183 p. makhmutov, m.i. (1981). mentoring pedagogy. moscow: sov. russia. mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. nanosized borides and carbides for electroplating. metal-matrix coatings: specifications, performance evaluation. iop conference series: materials science and engineering, 125 (1), art. no. 012032. nidermair, g. (2009). betriebliche ausbilding, weiterbilding und personalentwicklung, trauner, linz. osadchy, e. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2015). integration of industrial and educational sphere in modernization of economic relations. journal of applied economic sciences, 10(5). order of the government of the russian federation of march 3, 2015 no. 349-p (2015). "a set of measures aimed at improving the system of secondary vocational education, for 2015 2020". http://static.government.ru/media/files/cwukcndbv5u.pdf panasyuk, a.yu. (2004). investigation of the ability to professional management of people. acmeology. №3 (11), pp. 67-76. senchenko, i.t. (1977). from the experience of improving the pedagogical skills of mentors. pedagogical foundations of mentoring: proceedings of the theoretical conference. part 1., pp. 200 207. szydlowski, a. (2017). political expert: project of restart of global financial and political system launched [analytical interview to the european news magazine]. retrieved from http://m.baltnews.lt/lithuania/20170308/1016887316.html tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a tünkler, v., tarman, b., & güven, c. (2016). a metaphorical approach regarding the equipment of students with abstract concepts and values included in the citizenship and democracy education curriculum. egitim ve bilim, 41(185), 123-145. falyakhov tutor association. retrieved april 10, 2018, from http://www.thetutor.ru/ vershlovsky, sg, weissburg, aa, khodakov, ai, (1987). organization of teachers training in the workplace. profizdat, 176 p. yiğit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 zmeev, s.i. (2003). andragogy: the fundamentals of the theory and technology of adult learning. m: per se, 206 p. http://www.thetutor.ru/ www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2),100-125 the use the elaboration phase in ict and social studies to educate junior high school students about the covid 19 pandemic k. y.s. putri1, heri fathurahman2, dini safitri3, & lipur sugiyanta4 abstract this study aims to analyse the elaborate phase in ict and social studies to educate junior high school students about covid 19. the independent variables were the elaborate phase in ict and the elaborate phase in social studies. attitude towards covid 19 is the dependent variable. the research uses a quantitative approach with simple linear regression and the paired sample t-test method. with 388 samples of students from 3 public junior high schools, the results indicate a significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict with attitude towards covid 19 is 0.59. a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on attitude towards covid 19 with a correlation test result is 0.57. results show there is a significant influence between the elaborate phase in ict and the elaborate phase in social studies on attitude towards covid 19. result of the hypothesis testing with multiple regression analysis shows an increase in attitude towards covid 19 by 13,509. the ict and social studies variables simultaneously influence students' attitude towards preventing the covid 19 virus in junior high school. the study indicates that ict and social studies can improve students' understanding of broader population problems, such as covid-19. students can also adapt to an online learning process, and they can increase their learning motivation. students demonstrated cognitive and affective attitude in the learning process by undertaking independent learning. in addition, the combination of ict and social studies to elaborate on their understanding affected students' cognitive attitude, namely the desire to take preventive action against covid 19. keywords: ict, social studies, preventing, junior high school. introduction the rapid development of technology and information in various aspects of life, including in education, is an effort to bring the present and the future together by introducing reforms to meet efficiency and effectiveness (yehya, barbar, & rjeily, 2018). social science education is relevant to this effort in that it deals with humans and their environment where human life is a dynamic that never stops and is always active (kilinc et al., 2016). that dynamic creates a link between 1 dr., universitas negeri jakarta, kinkinsubarsa@unj.ac.id 2 dr., universitas negeri jakarta 3 dr., universitas negeri jakarta 4 ph.d., universitas negeri jakarta journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 101 technology and information and social science education (tarman et al., 2019). young (2018) shows that cultural identity can be restored by using ict for social good. on the other hand, cener, acun, and demirhan (2015) claim that using ict tools in social studies learning such as multimedia cds, documentaries, and powerpoint, do not significantly influence the learning process. that is despite social studies teachers having a positive attitude towards ict integration in the learning process (hong, 2016). the lack of availability of ict and students' low levels of competency in applying ict in the learning process creates obstacles to learning (subedi & subedi, 2020). therefore, the application of ict and social studies curriculation elaborations needs to improve (arinze, okonkwo, & iwunor, 2012). amid the world-wide covid-19 pandemic that hit indonesia in 2020, changes occurred in the delivery of teaching and learning activities. teachers and students had no choice but to use ict in the learning process and, in doing so, online learning activities became an option for the ministry of education and culture to help prevent the spread of the covid-19 virus. on march 02, 2020, the president of the republic of indonesia, accompanied by the minister of health, announced the first positive case of covid 19 and declared it a national disaster. sulistyawati et al. (2021) considered that public knowledge about covid 19 was sufficient; however, people still responded negatively to the government's policies in response to the threat of a pandemic. the social change resulting from the policies has had a comprehensive impact on the structure of community life in indonesia, none more so than on the education sector required to adapt rapidly to distance learning methods in the home. yates et al. (2020) highlighted that secondary schools in new zealand were successfully using online learning. it is challenging for teachers to conduct ict curriculum elaborations in online learning due to the lack of adequate facilities. in addition, rasmitadila et al. (2020) indicate that online learning success during the covid 19 home learning period, was determined by technology readiness and adequate support. carrillo and flores (2020) consider online education amid the covid 19 pandemic supports teaching and learning. however, in the online learning environment, access to effective learning media is essential. to be considered effective, learning media needs to be supported by systems that offer fast access to audiovisual material (başal & eryılmaz, 2020; evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; kim et al., 2021). for most educators and students, online learning is a new experience. whilst in an ideal situation adapting to an online platform would take place over a long period of time, the sudden impact of putri et al. the covid-19 pandemic forced educators to adapt overnight so that learning could continue in line with the academic calendar (page et al., 2021). whether teachers and students can successfully adapt to using online media is one of the main factors affecting the success of online learning (leslie et al., 2021; rapoport, 2020; watson, 2020). aduba and mayowa-adebara (2021) point out that without adaptation, the introduction of learning media, and training in using learning media, would be difficult for teachers and students to carry out effectively, efficiently and optimally amid the covid-19 pandemic, despite wide use of the internet generally. social studies education is a compulsory subject in junior high schools in indonesia, and it plays an important role in producing quality students (saye, 2013). social studies' goal is to prepare, foster, and shape students' abilities, values, and basic competencies needed for life in society (karatekin, 2012) and support the achievement of those objectives. therefore, according to mccorkle (2020), social studies lessons provide opportunities for students and teachers to respond to social problems, such as the covid 19 virus, that occur in society. a learning process must be supported by a conducive climate that includes engaging learning methods (thacker, 2017). on the other side, to engaging learning methods for students, the elaborate phase is closely related to communication theory whereby attitudes when receiving messages are discussed (jennings, 2019). by elaborating on their understanding, students are challenged to observe and analyse various possibilities from the information obtained through the exploration phase to respond to social problems (pires, et al., 2020). students hone their cognitive abilities by reasoning to draw conclusions about what they have explored in the learning process (powell et al., 2018) and, as a result, will be motivated to experiment and re-explore (bolkan, 2016). to help students understand and respond to the covid 19 pandemic, a teacher plays a significant role. elaboration activities are developed to assist students to extrapolate their understanding without deviating from the previous focus developed during the exploration phase (kangas, koskinen, & krokfors, 2017). to effectively carry out the elaborate phase in ict and social studies, parental support is necessary to influence students' social and cultural competence. suswandari et al. (2020) claim that the empirical reality at the school level is that teachers do not optimally utilise learning resources or creating in-depth social studies learning processes to empower students. social studies learning activities tend to be teacher-centred, textbook-centered, and use mono media, as revealed by capin and vaughn (2017). teacher-centered learning processes render social studies learning to a culture of memorising facts rather than a creating a journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 103 culture of critical analysis (rienties, nanclares, jindal-snape, & alcott, 2013). social studies is related to the development of human life that includes technology (aldahdouh, nokelainen, & korhonen, 2020), from an economic (fan, 2012), social relations (persich, krishnakumar, & robinson, 2020), cultural (ramirez, 2012), historic (brugar, 2017) and law perspective, and their interactions with the natural environment related to each level of human civilisation (carlinmenter, 2013). information communication technology (ict) has been widely researched as an online learning medium (smith, basham, rice, & carter, 2016; vivolo, 2016; rahmadi, 2020; hunt & oyarzun, 2020). despite cener, acun, and demirhan (2015) claim that ict does not have a significant positive effect on learning, burbules, fan, and repp (2020) mention that ict can enable the use of modern technology in the distance-learning process. therefore, zhang et al. (2015) suggest using e-learning as an effective contemporary learning technology. saxena, baber, and kumar (2020) suggest that an e-learning approach could improve online-based learning during the covid 19 period where students migrated to off-campus learning. project-based learning (kuhfeld et al., 2020) can maximise online learning as well as create a more studentcentred learning environment. students have the opportunity to learn concepts in-depth, thereby improving their learning outcomes (duke, halvorsen, & strachan, 2016). ict can be adapted to create effective learning opportunities that support students at all academic levels (eickelmann & vennemann, 2017). the use of ict in learning is optimised through the design process where effective strategies are developed. an important aspect of this study included the development of ict learning tools for used during the period when learning was impacted by the covid 19 pandemic. students' responses to the covid 19 outbreak, and the impact on their learning, needed to be assessed as conditions changed (mok, xiong, ke, & cheung, 2021). li & curdt-christiansen (2020) describe three aspects of attitude: cognition, affection, and cognition that are further explained by rossiter et al. (2017) as the sum of tendencies and feelings, suspicions and prejudices, detailed understanding, ideas, fears, threats, and beliefs that students hold about a situation. a change in attitude can describe how students respond to particular objects, such as changes in their environment because of the covid 19 pandemic (ali et al., 2020). the use of technology as a pedagogical process is a mechanism for implementing effective learning (turvey & pachler, 2020). the main purpose of education is to develop students' knowledge, skills, and learning competencies. according to wei, saab, and admiraal (2021), the putri et al. introduction of new technology provides a wide variety of activities such as games, searching, cognitive exercises, and the opportunity for creating emotionally significant developmental situations for both students and teachers. therefore, during the covid 19 pandemic, technology has become a pedagogical tool that challenges teachers' creativity (isidro & teichert, 2021; kuanysheva, et al., 2019; tahili et al., 2021). the onset of the covid 19 pandemic also provided opportunities for teachers to carry out new technological innovations to increase student achievement of ict concepts in social studies. during this time, ict also helped facilitate communication between students and teachers (chaturvedi, vishwakarma, & singh, 2021). olugbenga (2019) believes that using ict through computer-assisted instructional strategy can positively impact students' social skills. computerassisted instructional is a learning and teaching system that uses computers as learning media (olugbenga, 2019). ict uses tools to process and transfer data from one device to another (mainangsih, 2015). research question the research focus was explored based on the following questions: 1. is there any significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19? 2. is there a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19? 3. is there any interaction of the elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19? hypothesis based on the theoretical study and research questions above, the following hypotheses can be formulated: h1: there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19. h2: there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 105 h3: there is an interaction between elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19. method research design a quantitative research design was used to determine the change in attitudes that occur in students when conducting learning in ict and social studies at the elaborate phase (dixon, et al., 2005; smith & hasan, 2020). this research was a correlation study because it aimed to find the elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 pandemic. the method used in this research was the causal associative method to obtain a systematic description of the data (stevens & de bruycker, 2020). two types of variables, the independent and dependent variables, were used in the study. aspects of the independent variables were the elaborate phase in ict and the elaborate phase in social studies. at the same time, the dependent variable was an attitude towards covid 19. this research was conducted from november 2019 to september 2020 at 3 public and private junior high schools in padang, west sumatra, indonesia. sample the number of samples in this study was 388 students selected from three junior high schools in padang, west sumatra. the sampling technique used in this research is proportional random sampling. of the total population of 7 classes, 25% of each class was carried out by sortition in three schools (pitard, 2019). table 1. characteristics of the sample smp n 1 bukit tinggi smp n 3 bukit tinggi smp n 5 bukit tinggi gender men 60 (46.9%) 63 (52.1%) 67 (48.2%) women 68 (53.1%) 58 (47.9%) 72 (51.8%) age 13 – 14 89 (69.5%) 79 (65.3%) 76 (54.7%) 15 – 16 39 (30.5%) 42 (34.7%) 63 (45.3%) grade 7th 42 (32.8%) 41 (33.9%) 45 (32.2% 8th 42 (32.8%) 41 (33.9%) 47 (33.9%) 9th 44 (34.4%) 39 (32.2%) 47 (33.9%) putri et al. based on table 1, it shows that we are working with three public junior high schools, namely smp n 1 bukit tinggi (128 students), smp n 2 bukit tinggi (121 students), and smp n 5 bukit tinggi (139 students) in padang, west sumatra, indonesia. research instrument we measure the variables in this study by questionnaire with a likert scale (retief, potgieter, & lutz, 2013). the procedure for developing this questionnaire using a research instrument was by formulating a conceptual and operational definition that comprised the instrument items. for the variables elaborate phase in ict indicators, we used the information to process, information manipulation, and information development with ten items (see table 2.) (fernandes, rodrigues, and ferreira, 2019). variables the elaborate phase in social studies indicators are social science, the search for social science knowledge and behaviour with six items (see table 3.) (knowles, hawkman, and nielsen, 2020). then, variables of attitude towards covid 19 indicators are cognitive, affective, and conative with nine items (see table 4.) (radwan, radwan, and radwan, 2020). the likert scale is 1-4. for variables, elaborate phase in ict and social studies, the categories used are excellent, good, not good, and not very good. as for the variable of attitude, we use categories of always, often, rarely, and never. the instrument grid used in this study is as follows: table 2 questionnare the elaborate phase in ict aspect indicator sub-indicator item questions elaborate phase in ict (x1) information process information manipulation information development availability of ict-based learning media frequency of use of ictbased media benefits of ict-based learning media types of ict learning media ict development 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 107 table 3 questionnaire the elaborate phase in social studies aspect indicator sub-indicator item questions elaborate phase in social studies (x2) social sciences the physical condition of the geographic area with population activities 11,12,13,14,15,16 the search for social science knowledge population problems and their impact on the development social science behaviour the process of seeking knowledge and social science behaviour table 4 questionnaire of attitudes towards covid 19 aspect indicator sub-indicator item questions attitude towards covid 19(y) cognitive knowledge of population problems and their impact on the development knowledge of the decline in the quality of population health due to the covid 19 disaster understanding of the preventive measures for covid 19 knowledge of covid 19 17,18,19, 20,21,22,23,24,25 affective assessment of the learning process since covid 19 an assessment of changes that have occurred in covid 19 conative the tendency to seek information about preventive actions against covid 19 the desire to take preventive action against covid 19 putri et al. based on the validity calculation of the tryout items, it can be seen that for the self-concept variable of the 30 item questions, there are five invalid items, namely numbers 5, 8, 26, 27 and 28. for the elaborate phase in ict variables, 12 items are not valid, namely numbers 5 and 8. the variables attitude in covid 19 of the 12 invalid items, namely numbers 26, 27, and 28. these five items are invalid because rcount <rtabel, and the invalid item will be dropped. these validity test results have been adjusted to the item questions in table 2, table 3, and table 4. the calculation results obtained by the reliability of the elaborate phase in ict questionnaire is 0.346. these results were then consulted with r table at a significance level of 0.05, and a result of 0.148 was obtained, because r12> rtabel or 0.346> 0.148, the question item in the questionnaire was reliable. the reliability of the elaborate phase in social studies questionnaire is also high. this is obtained from the calculation results obtained by the reliability of 0.383, the results are then consulted with rtabel at the 5% significance level, and the result is 0.148 because r12> rtabel or 0.383> 0.148, then the question items in the questionnaire are reliable. data analysis a simple regression test was conducted to determine whether a similarity between the elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19. the mean t-test theory is a theory used in statistics to test whether a certain value (given as a comparison) differs significantly or not from the average of a sample (chaudhuri, 2019). to perform the average difference test with the t-test, the data used were quantitative. paired t-test is a hypothesis testing method in which the data used are not independent (paired). the characteristics most often encountered in paired cases are individuals. the hypothesis in this analysis is as follows: a. hypothesis test i h1: there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict (x1) on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 (y). h0: there is no significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict (x1) on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 (y). b. hypothesis test ii h2: there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies (x2) on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 (y). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 109 h0: there is no significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies (x2) on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 (y). c. hypothesis test iii h3: there is an interaction between elaborate phase in ict (x1) and social studies (x2) on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19 (y). h0: there is no interaction between elaborate phase in ict (x1) and social studies (x2) on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19 (y). the significance value used was = 0.05. furthermore, the results of the fcount hypothesis were compared with ftable with the following conditions: (1) if fcount ≥ ftable, then h0 is rejected, h1 is accepted (2) if fcount <ftable, then h0 is accepted, h1 is rejected findings the research data consisted of independent variables, namely the elaborate phase in ict (x1), the elaborate phase in social studies (x2) and the dependent variable, namely attitude towards covid 19 (y). to describe and test the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in this study, we tested the analysis prerequisites before analysing the data as follows: normality test the normality testing uses statistical tests kolmogorov smirnov. normality test the elaborate phase in ict, elaborate phase in social studies, and attitudes towards covid 19: table 5 normalised gain normality test on ict, social studies and attitude variables no variable factors score 1 elaborate phase in ict kolmogorov-smirnov z value 1,986 probability 0,08 2 elaborate phase in social studies kolmogorov-smirnov z value 1,699 probability 0,14 3 attitudes powards covid 19 kolmogorov-smirnov z value 1,648 probability 0,12 putri et al. table 5 shows that the elaborate phase in ict obtained kolmogorov smirnov score = 1.986 with probability 0.08 (asymp. sig. (2-tailed)). data requirements are called normal if the probability or p> 0.05 in the kolmogorov smirnov test. table 5 indicates that the p value> 0.05 shows that the elaborate phase in ict variable data is normally distributed or meets the requirements normality test. for the elaborate phase in social studies variable results, the value was obtained kolmogorov smirnov = 1.599 with probability 0.12 (asymp. sig. (2-tailed)). the data requirement is called normal if the probability or p> 0.05 on the test kolmogorov smirnov. table 5 shows that the p value> 0.05, then it is known that the elaborate phase in social studies variable data is normally distributed or meet the requirements of the normality test, and the results of the attitudes variable obtained the kolmogorov smirnov value = 1.628 with the probability of 0.10 (asymp. sig. (2tailed)). data requirements are called normal if the probability or p> 0.05 in the kolmogorov smirnov test. table 5 indicates that the p value> 0.05 shows that the variable data attitudes are normally distributed or meet the normality test requirements. its mean variable elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19 follow a normal distribution. linearity test the linearity test aims to determine the relationship between the independent and linear dependent variables. the criteria for linearity testing is that if the calculated f value is smaller than the f table, there is a significant level of 0.05, then the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is linear. the results of the linearity test are presented as follows: table 6 linearity test variable df fcount ftable sig information x1 y 385 0,877 3,86 0,633 linear x2 y 385 0, 678 3,86 0,871 linear the linearity test results for variables x1 and y in table 3 show that the calculated f value is 0.877, and the f table value is 3.86 with a significance value of 0.633. these results indicate that the calculated f value <f table (0.877 <3.86) and the significance value is greater than 0.05 (p> 0.05), which means that the relationship between x1 and y is linear. the linearity test results for the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 111 variables x2 and y in table 6 show that the calculated f value is 0.678 and the f table value is 3.86 with a significance value of 0.871. these results indicate that the calculated f value <f table (0.678 <3.86) and the significance value is greater than 0.05 (p> 0.05), which means that the relationship between x2 and y is linear. the linearity test is used to determine the data distribution whether the data is around the straight line of the equation. if it is around the equation's straight line, the functional relationship between the variables x and y is linear. table 6 shows that the linearity test results show a straight line of the functional relationship equation between the variables so that these results can be used to test the hypothesis of this study. homogeneity test the variance homogeneity test of the elaborate phase in ict (x1) variable, the elaborate phase in social studies (x2) and attitude towards covid 19 (y) were carried out using the f-test, provided that if fcount <ftable, the variance of the group was homogeneous. based on the results of the homogeneity test, the following results were obtained: table 7 test of homogeneity levence statistic df1 df2 sig. elaborate phase in ict 3.990 115 270 .000 elaborate phase in social studies 2.987 115 270 .000 table 7 shows that the elaborate phase's r-value in ict and social studies variables is smaller than the levels used, namely 0.000 <0.05 and 0.000 <0.05. thus, the scores on the elaborate phase in ict and social studies variables spread homogeneously. descriptive statistic results table 9 shows that the constant value = 35.389 and the value b = 0.59. then the simple regression equation y over x1 is: y = 35.389 + 0.59x1. table 11 shows that the constant value = 10.415 and the value b = 0.57. then the simple regression equation y over x1 is: y = 10.415 + 0.57x2. the table above shows that the value of fcount> ftable, or a significance value of 0.000 <0.05. it implies the elaborate phase in ict (x1) and elaborate phase in social studies (x2) with attitude towards covid 19 in junior high school simultaneously. the hypothesis proposed in this study accepts h1 and rejects h0. simultaneous variables from tables 9 and 11 on figure 1: putri et al. tables 9 and 11 show a positive influence from using elaboration in an ict and social science inquiry for preventing covid 19 in students. hypothesis testing ha1: elaborate phase in ict on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 the first hypothesis tested in this study was "there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19." table 8 simple correlation test for the elaborate phase in ict with attitude towards covid 19 elaborate phase in ict attitude towards covid 19 elaborate phase in ict pearson correlation 1 .385(**) sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 388 388 attitude towards covid 19 pearson correlation .385(**) 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 388 388 based on table 8, the value of r is smaller than the level used 0.000 <0.05, so h0 is rejected. the strength of the relationship is 0.385. there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19. this means that the elaborate phase in ict can be more effective on the attitude towards covid 19. r=0.57 sign 0.000 r=0.59 sign 0.000 elaborate phase in social studies elaborate phase in ict attitude towards covid 19 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 113 table 9 regression equations test of x1 y coefficients (a) model unstandardised coefficients standardised coefficients t sig. b std. error beta elaborate phase in ict 35.389 2.691 13.1485 .000 0.59 0.21 .385 1.828 .000 based on table 9 the regression direction coefficient is 0.59, and the regression equation is y = 35.389 + 0.59x1. the criterion used is that the value of r is greater than a certain value, then h0 is accepted. conversely, if the value of r is less than a certain value of a, then h0 is rejected. table 10 correlation of simple regression test on elaborate phase in ict with attitude towards covid 19 anova (b) model sum of squares df mean square f sig. regression 2210.047 1 2210.047 55.972 .000(a) 384 39.782 residual 913.915 385 total 3123.962 a. predictors: (constant) elaborate phase in ict b. dependent variable: attitude towards covid 19 the p-value is smaller than the level used, which is 0.000 <0.05, so h0 is rejected. therefore, the regression equation is 35.389 + 0.59x1; there is a positive influence of the elaborate phase in ict with attitude towards covid 19 with a score of 55.972. ha2: elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 the second hypothesis tested in this study is “there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19." putri et al. table 11 simple correlation test for elaborate phase in social studies with attitude towards covid 19 elaborate phase in social studies attitude towards covid 19 elaborate phase in social studies pearson correlation 1 .255 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 388 388 attitude towards covid 19 pearson correlation .255(**) 1 sig. (2-tailed) .000 n 388 388 based on table 11, the correlation calculation known that the value of r is smaller than the level used 0.000 <0.05, so that h0 is rejected. there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 with a strong relationship of 0.255. this means that the better the elaborate phase in social studies, the more effective covid 19. tabel 12 regression equations test of x2 y coefficients (a) model unstandardised coefficients standardised coefficients t sig. b std. error beta social studies 10.415 2.691 3.870 .000 0.57 0.23 .255 1.828 .000 based on table 12 the regression direction coefficient is 0.59, and the regression equation is y = 10.415 + 0.57x2. the criterion used is that the value of r is greater than a certain value, then h0 is accepted. conversely, if the value of r is less than a certain value of a, then h0 is rejected. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 115 table 13 correlation of simple regression test on elaborate phase in social studies with attitude towards covid 19 anova (b) model sum of squares df mean square f sig. regression 2096.847 1 2096.847 46.891 .000(a) residual 1047.123 384 46.494 total 3143.97 385 a. predictors: (constant) elaborate phase in social studies b. dependent variable: attitude towards covid 19 the p-value is smaller than the level used, which is 0.000 <0.05, so h0 is rejected. therefore, from the regression equation 35.389 + 0.59x1, there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19. ha3: elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19 the third hypothesis tested in this study is that there is an interaction between elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19. the third hypothesis is carried out by multiple regression analysis, which predicts two independent variables affect value on one dependent variable. table 14 multiple regression test elaborate phase in ict (x1) and elaborate phase in social studies (x2) with attitude towards covid 19 coefficients (a) model unstandardised coefficients standardised coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1. (constant) 7.642 8.606 .848 .409 elaborate phase in ict .488 .195 .547 2.637 .021 elaborate phase in social studies .269 .176 .364 1.665 .130 a. dependent variable: attitude towards covid 19 putri et al. referring to table 14, the calculation results of the multiple regression direction coefficients of the elaborate phase in ict (b1) is 0.488, and the coefficient of multiple regression of the elaborate phase in social studies (b2) is 0.269, with a constant (a) 7,642. so the regression equation is y = 7.462 + 0.488x1 + 0.269x2. following are the results of the analysis of the significance of multiple regression: table 15 multiple regression test anova (b) model sum of squares df mean square f sig. regression 2344.194 2 1181.082 13.509 .000(a) residual 820.876 383 38.864 total 3165.07 385 a. predictors: (constant). elaborate phase in ict, elaborate phase in social studies b. dependent variable: attitude towards covid 19 referring to table 15, the value of r was smaller than the level used is 0.05, so that h0 was rejected. there is a significant influence of elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19. from the regression equation y = 7,462 + 0.488x1 + 0.269x2, the multiple regression value y: 13.509 can be explained that there is a positive correlation. if the elaborate phase in ict scores and social studies increases together, the interaction between covid 19 will also increase. thus, it can be explained that if the elaborate phase in ict and elaborate in social studies increases by 13,509, it will be followed by an increase in the interaction of attitude towards covid 19. discussion we conducted an analysis through this study regression test after the right indicators related to the elaborate phase in ict and social studies. the first hypothesis tested in this study is that there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19. to test the evidence for the first hypothesis, we conducted statistical tests using correlation and simple regression and showed a significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 117 on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 is 0.59. this means that the elaborate phase in ict is quite meaningful at attitudes towards covid 19. the research results show a significant influence of ict and social studies learning through the elaboration stage on students' attitudes towards preventing covid 19 in junior high school students. from the second hypothesis in this study, there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 with a correlation test result of 0.57. this means a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 is effective. the third hypothesis is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19. in testing the hypothesis with multiple regression analysis, there was an increase in attitude towards covid 19 by 13,509. this research shows that cener, acun, and demirhan (2015) study are not entirely correct regarding ict does not affect the learning process. this study results indicate that the elaborate phase in ict has a significant influence on attitudes towards covid 19. so that learning theoretically, students are also directed to implement their learning outcomes in everyday life. on the other hand, this study provides an alternative for teachers to improve student attitudes against actions preventing covid 19. however, basal and eryilmaz (2020) explain that online learning effectiveness must be supported by a system that has audiovisual material. but this research offers something new, wherein implementing online learning in the midst of covid 19, an elaborate phase in ict and an elaborate phase in social studies is needed. thus, students are also able to seek information about preventive actions against covid 19. even though not all online education can support learning during the covid 19 pandemic, the elaboration phase is needed, especially for junior high school students. because online learning is something new, teachers need to elaborate the phase in social studies in forming attitudes towards covid 19. this is supported by the second hypothesis results, which states that there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19. online learning amid covid 19 is also questioned by yates et al. (2020) which states that going to school is more comfortable than studying at home. this can be overcome by conducting an elaboration phase in ict and an elaboration phase in social studies. putri et al. the third hypothesis results indicate that students can adapt and become comfortable with ict learning depending on the learning pattern that is carried out. the elaborate phase in ict cannot be carried out alone during the learning process because to do online learning, and students also need information related to the ongoing condition of covid 19. this study compares with kuhfeld (2020) which explains that project-based learning is the right approach to use in the online learning process. however, during the covid-19 transition to online learning, an inquiry approach was not always possible. the teacher's role is developing dramatically so that it is necessary to provide learning material to students and innovate and provide real-life examples for online learning to be successful. therefore this study shows the influence of the elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19. young (2018) explains that using ict for social science can be done through websites, this study highlights obstacles such as an inadequate internet connection that can affect the learning process. collaboration between teachers, students, parents, and the government is essential for successfully studying covid-19 in an online environment. this research highlights that, although ict plays a role in developing and supporting the educational process(lim, yan, & xiong, 2015), and social studies provide content to address social problems, students still need to be educated and motivated by teachers to take preventive action against covid19. however, ict and social sciences play a role in the distance learning process. conclusion in summary, results of the regression and correlation analysis indicate that the first hypothesis of this study has a significant influence of the elaborate phase in ict on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19. the second hypothesis shows that there is a significant influence of the elaborate phase in social studies on junior high school students’ attitude towards covid 19 with the correlation test of 0.57. the third hypothesis results that there is a an interaction between elaborate phase in ict and social studies on junior high school students' attitudes towards covid 19. the evidences show that during covid-19 pandemic, learning spaces for students were limited due to physical distancing rules implemented at schools to stop or slow down the spread of the covid-19 virus. therefore, the need for online learning becomes important in the distance learning process. the effectiveness of teaching and learning can be measured in various ways, one of which is through the selection of appropriate learning resources. educators choose various resources journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 119 according to the content that needs to be conveyed and adjust the material to the needs of the students. social contact and effective communication between educators and students can increase learning motivation in social studies. this study's findings indicate that the integration of the elaborate phase in ict and social science can positively impact attitudes towards preventing covid 19 in students. in a world where alternative education environments are possible, online learning is an option that has allowed the teaching and learning process to continue amid the covid-19 pandemic. however, online learning reveals a dilemma for educators. on the one hand, it helps educational institutions carry out the teaching and learning process while the pandemic impact continues; on the other hand, it creates inequality. it is, therefore, a challenge for future researchers to find ways to reduce problems in the online teaching and learning process. the implication of this research shows that ict cannot succeed without collaboration in dealing with online learning amid the covid-19 pandemic so that students' sensitivity to social forces influence their attitudes and response to covid 19. references aduba, d. e., & mayowa-adebara, o. (2021). online platforms used for teaching and learning during the covid-19 era: the case of lis students in delta state university, abraka. international information & library review, 0(0), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/10572317.2020.1869903 aldahdouh, t. z., nokelainen, p., & korhonen, v. (2020). technology and social media usage in higher education: the influence of individual innovativeness. sage open, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019899441 ali, m., allihyani, m., abdulaziz, a., alansari, s., faqeh, s., kurdi, a., & alhajjaji, a. (2020). what just happened? impact of on-campus activities suspension on pharmacy education during covid-19 lockdown – a students' perspective. saudi pharmaceutical journal, (xxxx). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsps.2020.12.008 arinze, f., okonkwo, e., & iwunor, a. (2012). information and communication technology (ict) application in secondary schools and students" academic performance in social studies. african research review, 6(4), 266–278. https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v6i4.18 başal, a., & eryılmaz, a. (2020). engagement and affection of pre-service teachers in online learning in the context of covid 19: engagement-based instruction with web 2.0 technologies vs direct transmission instruction. journal of education for teaching, 47:1, 131 putri et al. 133, doi: 10.1080/02607476.2020.1841555 bolkan, s. (2016). the importance of instructor clarity and its effect on student learning: facilitating elaboration by reducing cognitive load. communication reports, 29(3), 152– 162. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2015.1067708 brugar, k. a. (2017). teaching social studies / history to elementary school students through a discipline-specific approach. journal of education, 196(2), 101–110. burbules, n. c., fan, g., & repp, p. (2020). five trends of education and technology in a sustainable future. geography and sustainability, 1(2), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geosus.2020.05.001 carlin-menter, s. (2013). exploring the effectiveness of an online writing workspace to support literacy in a social studies classroom. e-learning and digital media, 10(4), 407–419. https://doi.org/10.2304/elea.2013.10.4.407 cener, e., acun, i., & demirhan, g. (2015). bilgi ve i̇letişim teknolojilerinin (bi̇t) sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde öğrenci başarısı ve tutumuna etkisi. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 190–207. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.67856 chaturvedi, k., vishwakarma, d. k., & singh, n. (2021). covid-19 and its impact on education, social life and mental health of students: a survey. children and youth services review, 121(july 2020), 105866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105866 chaudhuri, a. (2019). survey sampling. florida: crc press taylor & francis group. dixon, w. m., agarwal, s., jones, d., young, b., & sutton, a. (2005). synthesising qualitative and quantitative evidence: a review of possible methods. journal of health services research & policy, 10(1), 45–55. duke, n. k., halvorsen, a.-l., & strachan, s. l. (2016). project-based learning not just for stem anymore. phi delta kappan, 98(1), 14–19. eickelmann, b., & vennemann, m. (2017). teachers' attitudes and beliefs regarding ict in teaching and learning in european countries. european educational research journal, 16(6), 733–761. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904117725899 evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 fan, f. (2012). the relationship between the socio-economic status of parents and students' academic. research in education, 87(1), 99–103. hunt, b. d., & oyarzun, b. (2020). online learning perspectives of native american students. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1841555 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 121 journal of educational technology systems, 48(3), 321–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239519867921 isidro, e., & teichert, l. (2021). towards socially just literacy teaching in virtual spaces. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 21-41. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.6 jennings, f. j. (2019). an uninformed electorate: identity-motivated elaboration, partisan cues, and learning. journal of applied communication research, 47(5), 527–547. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2019.1679385 kangas, m., koskinen, a., & krokfors, l. (2017). a qualitative literature review of educational games in the classroom: the teacher's pedagogical activities. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 23(4), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2016.1206523 karatekin, k. (2012). environmental literacy in turkey primary schools social studies textbooks. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 46, 3519–3523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.096 kilinc, e., kilinc, s., kaya, m., başer, e., er türküresin, h., & kesten, a. (2016). teachers’ attitudes toward the use of technology in social studies teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.01.01.3 kim, d., coenraad, m., & park, h. r. (2021). digital storytelling as a tool for reflection in virtual reality projects. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 101-121. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.9 knowles, r. t., hawkman, a. m., & nielsen, s. r. (2020). the social studies teacher-coach: a quantitative analysis comparing coaches and non-coaches across how/what they teach. journal of social studies research, 44(1), 117–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2019.04.001 kuanysheva, bakyt. t., rakhila zh, aubakirova., nelli lu. pigoyaveya., & n. i. f. (2019). draft1jsser-qn-20. journal of social studies education research, 10, 404–433. kuhfeld, m., soland, j., tarasawa, b., johnson, a., ruzek, e., & liu, j. (2020). projecting the potential impact of covid-19 school closures on academic achievement. educational researcher, 49(8), 549–565. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x20965918 leslie, a., watson, v., borunda, r., bosworth, k., & grant, t. (2021). towards abolition: undoing the colonized curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.5 lim, c. p., yan, h., & xiong, x. (2015). development of pre-service teachers' information and communication technology (ict) in education competencies in a mainland chinese university. educational media international, 52(1), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.01.01.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.9 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.5 putri et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2015.1005425 mccorkle, w. d. (2020). problematizing immigration restrictions during covid-19 in the social studies classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.1 mok, k. h., xiong, w., ke, g., & cheung, j. o. w. (2021). impact of covid-19 pandemic on international higher education and student mobility: student perspectives from mainland china and hong kong. international journal of educational research, 105(november 2020), 101718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101718 olugbenga a. ige. (2019). using action learning, concept-mapping, and value clarification to improve students' attainment in ict concepts in social studies: the case of rural learning ecologies. journal of social studies education research, 10, 301–322. page, a., charteris, j., anderson, j., boyle, c., page, a., charteris, j., … boyle, c. (2021). fostering school connectedness online for students with diverse learning needs : inclusive education in australia during the covid-19 pandemic. european journal of special needs education, 0(0), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2021.1872842 persich, m. r., krishnakumar, s., & robinson, m. d. (2020). are you a good friend? assessing social relationship competence using situational judgments. personality and social psychology bulletin, 46(6), 913–926. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219880193 pires, e. m. s. g., daniel-filho, d. a., de nooijer, j., & dolmans, d. h. j. m. (2020). collaborative learning: elements encouraging and hindering deep approach to learning and use of elaboration strategies. medical teacher, 42(11), 1261–1269. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159x.2020.1801996 pitard, f. f. (2019). theory of sampling and sampling practice. retrieved from http://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/245180/245180.pdf%0ahttps://hdl.handl e.net/20.500.12380/245180%0ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2011.03.003%0ahttps:// doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2017.08.001%0ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2014.12 powell, r. b., vezeau, s. l., stern, m. j., moore, d. w. d., & wright, b. a. (2018). does interpretation influence elaboration and environmental behaviors? environmental education research, 24(6), 875–888. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2017.1339302 radwan, e., radwan, a., & radwan, w. (2020). the role of social media in spreading panic among primary and secondary school students during the covid-19 pandemic: an online questionnaire study from the gaza strip, palestine. heliyon, 6(12), e05807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05807 rahmadi, i. f. (2020). whatsapp group for teaching and learning in indonesian higher education what's up? international journal of interactive mobile technologies, 14(13), 150–160. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v14i13.14121 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 123 ramirez, a. d. (2012). latino cultural knowledge in the social studies classroom. journal of hispanic higher education, 11(2), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/1538192711436084 rapoport, a. (2020). editorial: technologization of global citizenship education as response to challenges of globalization. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), i-vii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.ed rasmitadila, aliyyah, r. r., rachmadtullah, r., samsudin, a., syaodih, e., nurtanto, m., & tambunan, a. r. s. (2020). the perceptions of primary school teachers of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic period: a case study in indonesia. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(2), 90–109. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/388 retief, l., potgieter, m., & lutz, m. (2013). the usefulness of the rasch model for the refinement of likert scale questionnaires. african journal of research in mathematics, science and technology education, 17(1–2), 126–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/10288457.2013.828407 rienties, b., nanclares, n. h., jindal-snape, d., & alcott, p. (2013). the role of cultural background and team divisions in developing social learning relations in the classroom. journal of studies in international education, 17(4), 332–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315312463826 rocha fernandes, g. w., rodrigues, a. m., & rosa ferreira, c. a. (2019). using ict in inquirybased science education. retrieved from http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-03017895-6 rossiter, j. a., barnett, l., cartwright, e., patterson, j., shorten, n., & taylor, j. (2017). encouraging student learning of control by embedding freedom into the curriculum: student perspectives and products. ifac-papersonline, 50(1), 12149–12154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2017.08.2155 saxena, c., baber, h., & kumar, p. (2020). examining the moderating effect of perceived benefits of maintaining social distance on e-learning quality during covid-19 pandemic. journal of educational technology systems, 4723952097779. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520977798 saye, j. (2013). authentic pedagogy: its presence in social studies classrooms and relationship to student performance on state-mandated tests. theory and research in social education, 41(1), 89–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2013.756785 smith, j. d., & hasan, m. (2020). quantitative approaches for the evaluation of implementation research studies. psychiatry research, 283(march 2019), 112521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112521 smith, s. j., basham, j., rice, m. f., & carter, r. a. (2016). preparing special educators for the k–12 online learning environment: a survey of teacher educators. journal of special education technology, 31(3), 170–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162643416660834 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.ed putri et al. stevens, f., & de bruycker, i. (2020). influence, affluence and media salience: economic resources and lobbying influence in the european union. european union politics, 21(4), 728–750. https://doi.org/10.1177/1465116520944572 subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid-19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 sulistyawati, s., rokhmayanti, r., aji, b., wijayanti, s. p. m., kurnia widi hastuti, s., sukesi, t. w., & mulasari, s. a. (2021). knowledge, attitudes, practices and information needs during the covid-19 pandemic in indonesia. risk management and healthcare policy, 14, 163–175. https://doi.org/10.2147/rmhp.s288579 suswandari, m., siswandari, sunardi, & gunarhadi. (2020). social skills for primary school students: needs analysis to implement the scientific approach based curriculum. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 153–162. tarman, b., kilinc, e., & aydin, h. (2019). barriers to the effective use of technology integration in social studies education. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 19(4). retrieved from https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriersto-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education tahili, m., tolla, i., ahmad, m., saman, a., & samad, s. (2021). the effect of strategic collaboration approach on the national educational standards achievement and service quality in basic education at local government in indonesia. research in social sciences and technology, 6(1), 53-82. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.4 turvey, k., & pachler, n. (2020). design principles for fostering pedagogical provenance through research in technology supported learning. computers and education, 146, 103736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103736 vivolo, j. (2016). understanding and combating resistance to online learning. science progress, 99(4), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.3184/003685016x14773090197742 watson, e. (2020). #education: the potential impact of social media and hashtag ideology on the classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 40-56. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 yates, a., starkey, l., egerton, b., & flueggen, f. (2020). high school students' experience of online learning during covid-19: the influence of technology and pedagogy. technology, pedagogy and education, 0(0), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939x.2020.1854337 yehya, f. y., barbar, a., & abou rjeily, s. (2018). diagnosing the barriers for integrating educational technology in physics courses in lebanese secondary schools. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 14–39. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.2 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 100-125 125 young, a. g. (2018). using ict for social good: cultural identity restoration through emancipatory pedagogy. information systems journal, 28(2), 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/isj.12142 zhang, x., gao, y., yan, x., de pablos, p. o., sun, y., & cao, x. (2015). from e-learning to social-learning: mapping development of studies on social media-supported knowledge management. computers in human behavior, 51, 803–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.084 thacker, e. s. (2017). "pd is where teachers are learning!" high school social studies teachers׳ formal and informal professional learning. journal of social studies research, 41(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2015.10.001 predicting work satisfaction of teachers based on the teaching supervision behaviors of principal persons: basis for strategies to improve educational supervisor performance in curriculum reform www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (1), 194-215 the effect of a principal’s instructional supervisory practice on teacher satisfaction in the religious ministry schools of semarang, indonesia mustaqim1 abstract in this empirical analysis, teachers' understandings of this activity examined the effect of the instructional supervisory praxis of a teacher's satisfaction. it also examined whether other demographic factors affect teacher’s work comfortable, e.g. school category, gender, lesson to teach, and work duration. this research used a correlational survey design that applied a quantitative approach. instrinsic variables included instructional supervision and teacher satisfaction, which emerged as the first and second variables. this study assigned 374 teachers as respondents and 72 schools, all of which are islamic elementary schools with the school names ranging from islamic elementary school 50, junior islamic school 12, and islamic senior school 10. the research instrument used in this study was a questionnaire on supervision. teachers' total satisfaction and level of job satisfaction were found to be statistically significant correlates of their teaching performance, suggesting that instructional supervisory style is an important determinant of how teachers perform. the determination coefficient shows that principals' supervisory activities lead to 93.7 percent of the total difference in the managerial satisfaction of students. furthermore, the pearson correlation coefficient for this relationship was positive and reasonably high (r = 0.968), and the supervisory activities of principals were statistically important measures of the executive satisfaction of teachers. the anova analysis revealed that only a certain school has a positive influence on work satisfaction, gender, and lesson whereas length of experience has no significant effect. keywords: teachers; happiness at work; key behavior; supervision of instruction introduction it is important to examine teacher satisfaction, since this affects how well teachers work (arnett, laverie, & mclane, 2002; denton, baliram, & cole, 2021; hill & uribe-florez, 2020; hodgson et al., 2017; klassen et al., 2012). satisfied teachers provide their students with higher educational quality and improved learning support, content teachers display greater dedication to work and especially important when teacher turnover is high (abu karsh, 2018; kara, 2020; toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021). teachers are vital to adapting student requirements, cultural, social trends, information, communication, and technology to meet students' needs while also ensuring traditional morality and social morality are preserved (kaur, 2020; lien, et. al., 2021; mania & alam, 2021; minken et al., 1 state islamic university of walisongo, semarang, indonesia, mustaqimsamadi@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 195 2021; sirisuthi & chantarasombat, 2021; skoumios & skoumpourdi, 2021; walters et al., 2018). teacher satisfaction also applies to school systems, which are too often overlooked (solikhah & budiharso, 2020; chapagain, 2021). every nation today wants to profit from education methods that are successful, and this is critical to creating stable education systems. by specifying how school leaders should supervise teaching activities while stressing a collaborative approach toward teachers, it is better to try to achieve better results in nations with high educational standards (agostinelli & mcquillan, 2020; zakariya, bjorkestol & nilsen, 2020). literature shows that the involvement of school leaders has an impact on teachers' motivation. the key causes for teacher turnover and diminished prestige are a dissatisfactory working climate, with wages being a minor cause of discontent (ingersoll & smith, 2004). the image of the profession is eroded when schools do not make sure that buildings are free of hazards or well-equipped for teachers, thus affecting the ability to recruit new teachers (ingersoll, 2001; din, zaman & nawaz, 2010). in this instance, we take a reference from evans (1997), who calls that employee perceives that their job-related needs are met. two kinds in teacher work satisfactory are acknowledged: work acceptance and work comfort. how works and opportunities are to an individual, personal accomplishments and significance within an occupation are to that person (evans, 1997; chapagain, 2021). there is currently little data available to identify the sources of teachers' happiness and feelings of gratitude. despite previous studies that have investigated teacher happiness and gratitude separately and also looked into key management styles and their relationship to teachers' work efficiency and coordinated participation, there are few studies that comprehensively look at teachers' satisfaction (thobega & miller 2003; salinas-vasquez, et. al., 2020). this research examines to what extent educators enjoy their work. the greatest way to have an impact on teachers' performance and student learning is through the use of teacher management techniques (chapagain, 2021; toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021). teachers may be tracked in different contexts, and therefore, we will include a short introduction to how monitoring works (honegger, 2020). the minister of national education (2013) has its responsibility for ensuring all relevant laws and regulations are followed so that services are put to good use and resources are efficiently deployed to help achieve education goals. in turn, with the aid of school managers, boards, and departments, a principal manages the function and priorities of his or her school (ayan & kocacık, 2010). as part of his or her mustaqim professional duties, it is important for a good school principal to ensure that educational expectations are followed (toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021). this may include supervising the methods of teachers for courses taught in the school. therefore, a school principal should visit the classrooms of a teacher at least once a year to find ways to enhance teaching efficiency and be (budiharso & tarman, 2020; toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021). teacher supervision research shows that results can vary with recent supervision. the evidence from empirical studies suggests that while principals believe supervision is important, they are not assigning enough time to it. teacher instructional supervision deficiencies are serious (toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021). yavuz (2010) reached the conclusion that supervisory staff did not have information on how teachers and principals can be effectively monitored and evaluated, basing their findings on a qualitative case study of eight school principals. despite widespread agreement on the consistency and frequency of instructional supervision among school principals, a consensus remains elusive. although, in a couple of cases, it has been found that some teachers consider teaching supervision of principals to be uncommon behavior (yüce, 2010; chapagain, 2021), most accept it as commonplace (karatay, 2011). the only thing that can't be reconciled is that there is the conflicting factor of years of experience, subject matter being taught, and whether or not school standards contribute to a teacher's level of work satisfaction (chapagain, 2021). in all this research analyzes activities of instructional supervisory made by school principals to predict educators work properness. more specifically, this study will (1) review perception of educators on their behavior of principals’ supervisory; (2) evaluate the degree to which educators’ work properness is determined by supervision of their principals; and (3) assess the level of educators’ work properness in references to kind of school, gender, course, length of work. research questions as the guidance of the research procedures, two research questions below are sought to answer: 1) does a principal’s instructional supervisory behavior affect teachers’ job satisfaction of teachers in the ministry of religious affairs in semarang? 2) to what extent do factors such as school type, gender, subject, and service period affect teachers’ satisfaction in the ministry of religious affairs in semarang? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 197 hypotheses 1) ha1: a principal’s instructional supervision affects teachers’ job satisfaction in in the ministry of religious affairs in semarang. 2) ha2: factors such as kind of school, sex, course, and length of job affect educator’s satisfaction in the ministry of religious affairs in semarang. literature review teachers’ work satisfaction work acceptance, which represents degree to which staffs are satisfied their work, has been broadly investigated on working environment (judge et al., 2001), since this eventually affects their productivity and effectiveness (arnett, laverie & mclane, 2002). job satisfaction is also related to career growth in literature (margolis, 2008), organizational dedication (brief & weiss, 2002), and job participation (brief & weiss, 2002; klassen et al., 2012; chapagain, 2021). when employed people become dissatisfied with their jobs, their involvement naturally wanes, resulting in burnout or job abandonment (budiharso & tarman, 2020; toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021). studies on work satisfaction and retention of teachers generally use personal features, e.g. age, sex, professional attributes (e.g. length of work, graduation degree, involvement on vocational programmes), and teachers' motivation (e.g. self-effectiveness, teacher education) (toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021). individual attributes evidence indicates that age of teachers has been associated to work properness, though influence on sex is not detected (sims, 2018). teacher turnover indicates junior educators receive better wages than senior counterparts and female are more established than male (ingersoll, 2001; kukla-acevedo, 2009). the evidences are partly because of the purposes of family rearing; younger female teachers leave schools but they prefer to teaching again (allen, 2005). in teacher's gender and job satisfaction, there is substantial inconsistency even in similar national contexts. a report on the satisfaction of teachers showed no major gender differences, but female enjoyed to work as educators (poppleton & riseborough, 1990). researches that correlate between work properness and sex of educator indicate inconsistencies, showing higher degree of work properness for female or male (klassen & mustaqim chiu, 2010; mertler, 2002; soltero lopez & lopez, 2020). although discrepancy in educators' views of job environment show some of the distinctions observed in these studies, differences in job satisfaction cannot be so easily explained, for instance, women found themselves feeling more stressed by student misbehavior and the stress of their jobs, resulting in a lower level of job satisfaction. professional characteristics with regard to teachers' subject-matter knowledge, their ability to handle subject areas (i.e., teacher subject-matter knowledge) and their teaching experience both impact on teachers' job satisfaction. while there is evidence to suggest that subject matter knowledge and teacher certification have little impact on teacher retention, there is little other research on the subject (allen, 2005). the relation of work properness of educators, activities, and attitudes of school principals has also been identified by researchers. principals directly affect the organizational atmosphere of their schools as educational leaders (bryk et al., 2010). in addition, successful teacher-principal relationships are important to sustain educator properness as well as their attitude (moolenaar, daly & sleegers, 2010; nguni, sleegers & denessen, 2006). teachers and school leaders who are satisfied with their work experience and their relationship with the administration are also likely to be engaged in their jobs (price, 2012). evans (2001), however, came to a different conclusion, saying job contexts ultimately depend on people. within the behavior of teachers and work satisfaction, there is inevitably some kind of relationship, and research is needed to better understand it (addai-mununkum, 2019; polat, 2020; subedi & subedi, 2020). supervisory of educator principles of supervisory for educators are not new, but credentials have shifted recently. approximately a century ago, teacher supervision started in the usa, and its present form has been with us since the mid-20th century. different supervisory models have emerged, mainly based on the clinical supervisory model of goldhammer (1969), which stressed the significance of empathy, cooperation, access, sensitivity on instructor's wants as well as activities of an effective supervisory process. the cyclical nature of the supervisory cycle was stressed by later researchers (gall & acheson, 2010; cogan, 1973; pajak, 1993; zepeda, 2012). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 199 supervisory roles are multidimensional, and their definition and range of responsibilities has always changed in tandem with the ever-changing duties of teachers and educational leaders in the overall education process. supervisory responsibilities range from routine management of curricular and instructional activities to scheduling and managing learning-related educational activities. gall & acheson (2010) note that supervisory goals should include providing positive feedback to students, resolving any problems in their training, helping teachers improve their teaching skills, and assessing the effectiveness of a teacher. the roles and responsibilities of school principals have expanded to include oversight responsibilities. five primary tasks were described during supervision by glickman, gordon & ross-gordon (2009): direct support, community development, intervention review, curriculum development, and professional advancement. empirical research for teacher supervision there were either inconclusive or negative findings from research on the efficacy of teacher supervision. zepeda & kruskamp (2007) found that in their supervisory positions, department chairs were unsure. furthermore, time constraints and insufficient concentration restrict the efficacy of instructional supervision (tarman, 2016; wanzare, 2012). moswela (2010) revealed that because of the hostile and intimidating climate it produces, monitoring was ineffective. the supervisor's conventional “inspection and control” attitude ensures that monitoring does not come into full play (sidhu & fook, 2010). pansiri (2008) stated that principals restrict individual competence to guide educators effectively, while educators have shortages in imagination or innovation. mestry, hendricks & bisschoff (2009) pointed out that the principal did not visit teaching classrooms to observe or track the teachings while teachers did not take such visits into account. thus, it follows that the implementation of teacher supervision varies for various reasons. first, there are distinct opinions and aspirations of teachers and leaders regarding supervision, frequently mixing them with evaluation. they concluded that if they are to ensure successful and efficient teacher supervision, school leaders need to tackle many problems (wanzare, 2012). second, because of the weak interpersonal skills of supervisors and the lack of help given to teachers, teachers found instructional supervision to be insufficient (gall & acheson, 2010). third, although supervision was considered a positive tool, concrete policies aimed at improving educational supervision were required. fourth, while supervision is not directly mustaqim connected to student achievement, an indirect link exists due to supervision helping teachers to engage more in their classrooms and classrooms to trust and cooperate with them (ebmeier & nicklaus, 1999). empirical research for job satisfaction job satisfaction, since it is an important feature of professional life, is a common theme in management and organizational studies. job satisfaction typically correlates with good performance because it affects the commitment, motivation, productivity, attendance and retention of employees (fenwick 2006; titanji & yuoh, 2010). employee satisfaction is linked to organizational commitment, morale and turnover of workers (hsu, 2009) and knowing job satisfaction helps to gain an understanding of the occupational attitudes of teachers, including work performance and enthusiasm (fuming, 2007). studies have proven that teachers are unhappy with their jobs, which means they have a lower success rate when it comes to teaching (shen, et. al., 2012). in other words, many teachers loved getting to work each day and looked forward to being teachers because they wanted to be a part of something they considered worthwhile (mcconaghy, 1993). in other studies, educator work acceptance is lower at situations where their pay rate is low. researchers looked at the relationships between individual attributes, e.g. age, temperament, psychosocial factors, economic variables, and work properness (strydom et al., 2012). methods design the researchers combined a descriptive correlation survey design and a qualitative approach to gather data (fraenkel & wallen, 2009). this design was appropriate for a study that aimed to collect data about a large group of educators and search how supervisory behavior relates to the work satisfaction of educator. when an investigator is looking to investigate how correlated more measures, correlational designs are used (vogt, 2005). fraenkel & wallen (2009) perform correlation research in order to decide how well two or more variables each predict. in the same way, cresswell (2005) identifies correlational design into prediction and explanatory. here, we applied a predictive correlational research. study sample study’s sample (n=374) comprised teachers coming from islamic primary schools (mi or sd), islamic junior schools (mts or smp), and islamic senior school (ma or sma) in journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 201 semarang, central java, indonesia. the teachers for the sample were selected on cluster sampling. the sample was recruited from 50 mi, 12 mts, and 10 ma. a number of 500 questionnaires were distributed, with one sent to each address. as an unintended consequence, the questionnaire's sample size was higher than the desired sample size, thus ensuring enough replies would be received in order to accept useful feedback as the sample size determined. when we examined the returned number of questionnaires, we found 74.8% of them were returned, resulting in a total of 374 responses. table 1. participants’ demographics variable level n % school type (1) mi 153 31.4 (2) mts 126 35.9 (3) ma 95 14.1 gender (1) female 152 40.6 (2) male 222 59.4 subject (1) islamic religion 99 26.5 (2) social sciences (history, geography, social studies, foreign language, religion, etc.) 111 29.7 (3) science and math 85 22.7 (4) al-quran and hadiths 46 12.3 (5) physical education, art, music, etc. 33 8.8 service period (1) 1–2 years 47 12.6 (2) 3–5 years 56 15 (3) 6–10 years 74 19.8 (4) 11–15 years 102 27.8 (5) 16–20 years 31 8.3 (6) 21 and more 64 17.1 total 374 100 instruments and procedures we used two different questionnaires to assess the educator's work-satisfaction and principals' instructional management. the 14-item validated work-satisfaction scale (taşdan, 2008) asked how satisfied the test-taker was with their work life. a five-likert scale responses were used: "never satisfies," "adequately satisfies," "reasonably satisfies," "fairly satisfies," and "extremely satisfies." exploratory factor analysis (efa) found that there were three subdimensions of the scale (see table 2), namely managerial satisfaction (57.196%); adequacy of work-life (61.1%); economic services, self-development, and wellbeing (56.975%). the reliability coefficient for the principal component analysis was so high that no items were eliminated due to the efa. based on the main component analysis, the scale was identified as a three-indicator scale below kmo measure at 0.761-0.844 and above bartlett coefficient at mustaqim 0.000, with values within 0.761-0.844 and 0.000 respectively (table 3). the load index was typically at 0.608 to 0.907. the structure for the job satisfaction scale was therefore considered to be very accurate. furthermore, the reliability coefficient was also high, showing that the employment level could be considered reliable and reliable. the researchers established the pisb (principals’ instructional supervision behavior) scale, which consisted of 23 items derived from an analysis of the literature. the pisb was a five-point likert scale, with options such as "never," "rarely," "occasionally," "frequently," and "very frequently." the main component analysis had an efa for scale which revealed that the scale was oneindicator with a kmo value of 0.967, and the bartlett test value (0.000) was below the critical value (see table 3). the factor loads ranged from 0.678 to 0.791. for the purpose of this study, the scale was deemed unidimensional because it accounted for 56.776% of total variance. due to the scale's scale durability and construct validity, it was determined to have a high degree of internal consistency. techniques to analyze the data we use spss (version 25) to evaluate the data obtained using the job-satisfaction and pisb scales, with the demographic variables being evaluated using percentages and frequencies. table 2. the job satisfaction scale’s validity and reliability dimension number of items kmo explained variance (%) factor loading range reliability coefficient item-total correlations range (1) managerial satisfaction 4 0.763 57.196 0.689– 0.805 0.745 0.468– 0.605 (2) adequateness of work life 6 0.844 61.100 0.608– 0.907 0.856 0.488– 0.802 (3) economic facilities, selfdevelopment, and security 4 0,761 56,975 0.695– 0.786 0.742 0.473– 0.575 table 3. the pisb scale’s validity and reliability dimension number of items kmo explained variance (%) factor loading range reliability coefficient item-total correlations range principals’ instructional supervision behavior (pisb) 23 0.967 56,776 0.678-0.791 0.965 0.648– 0.767 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 203 results classic assumption test this test is useful for determining whether there are deviations in the assumptions before regression, because the regression equation must not deviate from the blue (best linear unbiased estimator) criteria. the classical assumption test comprises the steps below. normality test this test is useful for determining a normal distribution of data. the kolmogorov smirnov test was used, where a ks sig value above 5% indicates normality (ghozali, 2018). multicollinearity test this test helps ensure the existence of the independent variables based on the vif and tolerance values. the data are free from multicollinearity if tolerance is greater than 0.10 and the vif value is less than 10 (ghozali, 2018). heteroscedasticity test this test looks for the presence of heteroscedasticity with the glejser test. data is free from heteroscedasticity if the value of glejser coefficient is larger than 0.05 (ghozali, 2018). the results from these tests are presented in table 4. table 4. classic assumption test assumption model 1 model 2 model 3 model 4 implication normality test ks sig = 0.064 ks sig = 0.076 ks sig = 0.062 ks sig = 0.055 data is normal multicollinearity test tolerance = 1 vif = 1 tolerance = 1 vif = 1 tolerance = 1 vif = 1 tolerance = 1 vif = 1 data is free of multicollinearity heteroscedasticity test sig glejser test = 0.065 sig glejser test = 0.075 sig glejser test = 0.057 sig glejser test = 0.052 data is free from heteroscedasticity based on the various test results, we saw that all the classical assumptions had been met, so we concluded that the regression model fulfilled the blue criteria. predicting job satisfaction for teachers our hypothesis was as follows: ha1: a principal’s instructional supervisory behavior affects teachers’ job satisfaction mustaqim a basic linear regression model is applied to examine work satisfaction of educators, with the dependent variable being work acceptance and independent variable being supervisory behavior of principals. regression analysis is used to see if supervisory behaviors of principals influenced teachers’ work satisfactory, as evaluated through the job-satisfaction scale, as well as how much work acceptance of educators is described by supervisory behaviors of principals. according to the coefficient of determination (adjusted r2), the supervisory behaviors of principals accounted for 93.7% of the overall variation in teachers’ managerial satisfaction. the result of pearson coefficient correlation is positive and high (r = 0.968). the supervisory behaviors of principals is statistically significant, stating teachers’ managerial acceptance (f = 5572.960, sig. f = 0.000) has positive effect on work satisfactory. for the adequacy of work life, the adjusted r2 showed that the supervisory behaviors of principals explained 85.5% of the overall variance. the pearson correlation coefficient was positive and fairly high (r = 0.925), and the supervisory behavior of principals was found to be a statistically important indicator of teachers’ perceived work-life adequacy (f= 2205.174, sig f= 0.000). for work acceptance in terms of economic services, self-development, and security, the adjusted r2 showed that the supervisory behavior of principals explained 83.4% of the total variance. the pearson correlation coefficient is positive and high (r = 0.914), and the supervisory behavior of principals is a statistically significant predictor for teachers’ work acceptance (f = 1877.024, sig f = 0.000). finally, for teachers’ overall work acceptance, the adjusted r2 showed that supervisory behavior of principals explained 90.4% of the total variance, and it predicted teachers’ overall work satisfactory is statistically significant (f = 3502.784, sig f=0.000). these results indicate that teachers’ work satisfactory is related to principals’ teaching supervisory behavior, such that the greater that teachers’ managerial acceptance is, the more satisfied they are at work. table 5. predictors of job satisfaction for teachers model r r2 adjusted r2 se of the estimate f sig f 1 0.968 0.937 0.937 0.454 5572.960 0.000 2 0.925 0.856 0.855 1.034 2205.174 0.000 3 0.914 0.835 0.834 0.696 1877.024 0.000 4 0.951 0.904 0.904 1.903 3502.784 0.000 comparison of job-satisfaction rates according to demographic factors our hypothesis for this was as follows: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 205 ha2: the participants’ demographics—such as school type, gender, subject, and years of experience—affect their job satisfaction. table 6. parametric criteria and anova test parametric criteria school type gender subject service period implication normality test (kolmogorov–smirnov test) sig = 0.092 sig = 0.102 sig = 0.148 sig = 0.091 data is normal homogeneity test (levene’s test) sig =0.251 sig = 0.951 sig =0.660 sig = 0.516 data is homogeneous anova f= 2.770 sig f = 0.000 f= 0.847 sig f=0. 685 f= 1.227 sig f=0.208 f= 1.198 sig f=0.234 as can be seen in table 6, all the kolmogorov–smirnov values are greater than 0.05, indicating that the data follows a normal distribution. in addition, the homogeneity test with levene’s test gave results that were all over 0.05, so it could be concluded that the data was homogeneous. the anova test, meanwhile, showed that only the school type significantly influenced teachers’ job satisfaction, with gender, subject, and years of experience having no significant effect. discussion and conclusion our findings show that supervisory practices of principals and teachers’ work acceptance at schools have positive impacts, thus adding to our body of knowledge about instructional supervision’s effect on the job satisfaction for teachers. more specifically, the research (1) evaluated teachers’ perceptions of their principals’ supervisory behavior; (2) investigated whether their job satisfaction was related to gender, school type, subject, or years of experience; and (3) established to what degree teacher satisfaction is predicted by a principal’s supervisory behavior. the findings indicate that the teachers favorably regarded the instructional supervision activities of their principals, but some statistically significant variations appear on teacher replies in terms of education degree, course, and duration of teaching. similarly, the overall level of work satisfaction substantially differed according to education degree, course being taught, and the years of experience (toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021). these variations warrant further scrutiny, so future research could explore in depth why mi educators receive higher degree of work acceptance and ma teachers accept a lower work mustaqim satisfactory. finally, the findings indicate that the supervisory behavior of principals is a substantial indicator on teachers’ work acceptance, indicating a request of further study into the nature of teaching supervisory. the recent research contributes theories by providing a detailed analysis of the relationship between the instructional supervisory activities of a principal and the job satisfaction of teachers (sirisuthi & chantarasombat, 2021; lien, et. al., 2021; chapagain, 2021). supervisory evaluation of headmaster our findings show that educators judge that headmasters show an acceptable degree of teaching supervisory (karatay, 2011; kaya, 2008; klassen, et. al., 2012). likewise, a south african study found that practices for professional growth contributed moderately to the satisfaction of teachers (mestry, hendricks & bisschoff, 2009). our findings suggest that the expectations of teachers for the instructional supervisory activities of principals did not vary according to the gender of teachers (toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021; klassen, et. al., 2012). given the inconclusive research, this study contributes to the debate by suggesting that moreexperienced teachers have a better perception of their principals’ teaching supervision (zakariya, bjorkestol & nilsen, 2020). this inference, however, may be attributable to a small sample in terms of the types of schools and the teaching subjects. finally, this study found a discrepancy in teachers’ perceptions of teaching supervision depending on the type of school (kaya 2008). our research contributes data on teachers working in one region, comparing how they view the supervisory behaviors of their principals (lien, et. al., 2021; chapagain, 2021). teachers’ job satisfaction an employee's job satisfaction is important for the company's overall success. compared to bowen’s et al. (2007) research, we found a relatively low degree of teacher acceptance work at a much lower level of performance than they would like, so there is a need to increase teacher work satisfactory. in recent times, assessment on teachers’ profession is considered crucial. the retention of effective teachers is heavily reliant on acceptance of their works. to meet the aims of schools, decision makers, headmasters, and stakeholders should share together how to select, hire, and prevent effective teachers so that the aims are achieved appropriate with the work credentials (klassen & smith, 2004). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 207 according to taylor (1911), people are economic beings, and money is a major factor in job satisfaction. it is also known that work satisfaction includes several non-money factors, such as challenges, opportunities for personal growth, and other non-extrinsic benefits. following this, scholars such as abraham maslow, frederick herzberg, and elton mayo have tried to explain the variables that contribute to motivation, satisfaction and productivity. general features to define degree of work satisfactory comprise nature of work, payment, career, self-identity, advantages, and job environment. in broad terms, both intrinsic and extrinsic features in the workplace, affect work acceptance. recently, researches have identified that individual features, such as sex, age, self-identity, competence, work attainment do influence degree of work acceptance (beyene & gituma, 2017). money is, in fact, a major part of job satisfaction, according to taylor (1911). when demographic factors were taken into consideration, our finding show that teacher work acceptance did not vary by gender. gender has no effect on teachers' work satisfactory (canbay, 2007; hsu, 2009; strydom et al., 2012). we agree that any differences between genders are unimportant enough to warrant investigation (toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021; lien, et. al., 2021; chapagain, 2021). the degree of work acceptance in general, directly related to school category where teachers get in touch, i.e. mi, mts and ma. mi teachers reported of being more comfortable with their works than their colleagues in mts and ma schools. partially, mi or sd teacher requirements are much lower. in the end, our study found that teachers with more than a decade of experience had greater job satisfaction than teachers with a decade of experience or less (toropova, myrberg & johansson, 2021). this refutes some prior studies, such as the aforementioned studies conducted on smp teachers in africa (yaman, 2009; yelboğa, 2012), but agrees with other studies on teachers in african secondary schools (george, louw, & badenhorst, 2008; chapagain, 2021). it is unclear whether the practice of principals' instructional supervision influences teachers' job satisfaction; that is, whether it is the practice itself or whether this relates to the setting or culture (gumus & akcaoglu, 2013). however, recent research shows that the instructional supervisory activities of principals and the roles of instructional leadership (gumus & akcaoglu, 2013) are insufficient and intermittent, suggesting a need for reform. however, other research connects critical features of the environment and tasks that teachers perform to mustaqim their feelings of satisfaction at work. specifically, work acceptance is accessed to administrative support, which is related to unity of leadership, and headmaster’s mode of preference (hariri, monypenny & prideaux 2012; sirisuthi & chantarasombat, 2021), administrative factors, and supervisory guidance at schools (chapagain, 2021; thobega and miller, 2003; lien, et. al., 2021). conclusion and implications in summary, teacher satisfaction has been proven to be affected by principal leadership. demographic factors affect the motivation and happiness of teachers at work, including financial rewards, work safety, community links. school-management activities represent a factor that substantially influences the overall satisfaction of teachers, particularly job satisfaction. in light of these results, school authorities should pay further attention to how schooling is monitored. indeed, leaders may benefit from rigorously focusing on the principles of effective instructor leadership, such that supervisors realize the importance of supervision activities for teacher productivity and the overall success of education. this study discovers a strong connection between work acceptance and supervisory practices of principals, thus gaining insights into how teachers feel when being monitored by a principal, the main aspects of the supervisory phase, and how the supervisory style of a principal can be enhanced. however, this study was constrained by convenience sampling, so the generalizability of its findings is limited. future experiments could investigate associations between teacher satisfaction and supervisory policies in other countries, both within specific schools and on a broader national basis. furthermore, contextual mechanisms should be used to help understand the leadership methods of effective and ineffective school principals and add to the literature for teacher retention and classroom monitoring by students. in short, this study revealed that key supervisory interventions could inspire or demotivate teachers. our findings are of beneficial when analyzing factors that increase teachers’ success and innovate stronger schools. they may also inform scholars, educators, governments, and policy makers about teachers’ opinions on supervision of administrators. the relationship between managerial action and teachers’ acceptance has been well established in theory and practice, but this research indicates that teacher work satisfactory is close to supervisory behaviors of principals. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 209 references abu karsh, s. (2018). new technology adoption by business faculty in teaching: analyzing faculty technology adoption patterns. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 2(1), 17-30. addai-mununkum, r. (2019). students’ representation of “other” religions. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 agostinelli, a. & mcquillan, p. (2020). how preservice content teacher background qualities influence their attitude and commitment to supporting multilingual learners. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 98-121. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.12 arnett, d. b., d. a. laverie, and c. mclane. (2002). using job satisfaction and pride as internalmarketing tools. cornell hotel and restaurant administration quarterly, 43, 87–96. ayan, s., and f. kocacık. (2010). the relation between the level of job satisfaction and types of personality in high school teachers. australian journal of teacher education, 35(1), 27–41. beyene, t., & gituma, m. (2017). the influence of employee demographic factors on job satisfaction: a case study of segen construction company, eritrea. african journal of business management, article number: 0d4069e66580, 608-618. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajbm2017.8403
 bowen, g. l., w. b. ware, r. a. rose, and j. d. powers. (2007). assessing the functioning of schools as learning organizations. children & schools, 29, 199–208. brief, a. p., and h. m. weiss. (2002). organisational behaviour: affect in the workplace. annual review of psychology, 53(1), 279–307. bryk, a. s., p. b. sebring, e. allensworth, s. luppescu, and j. q. easton. (2010). organizing schools for improvement: lessons from chicago. chicago: university of chicago press. budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 canbay, s. (2007). the relationship between the locus of control and job satisfaction of the elementary school teachers (unpublished masters’ dissertation). dokuz eylül university graduate school of social sciences. chapagain, ram, bal. (2021). job satisfaction among academicians in nepal: the influence of institutional sector and demographic factors, quantitative economics and management studies (qems), 2(2), 94-104. https://doi.org/10.35877/454ri.qems267 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.12 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 mustaqim cogan, m. l. (1973). clinical supervision. boston, ma: houghton mifflin. cresswell, j. w. (2005). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed.). upper saddle river, nj: pearson education. denton, d. w., baliram, n. s., & cole, l. (2021). understanding why math and science teachers quit: evidence of cognitive errors. international journal of education in mathematics, science, and technology (ijemst), 9(2), 163-180. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.1166 din, s., zaman, k., & nawaz, a. (2010). impacts of demographic variables on job satisfaction of the academicians in universities of nwfp, pakistan. bulletin of education and research, 32(1), 53-68. ebmeier, h., and j. nicklaus. (1999). the impact of peer and principal collaborative supervision on teachers’ trust, commitment, desire for collaboration, and efficacy. journal of curriculum and supervision, 14(4), 351–378. evans, l. (2001). delving deeper into morale, job satisfaction, and motivation among education professionals. educational management and administration, 29(3), 291–306. fenwick, w. e. (2006). encyclopedia of educational leadership and administration. thousandoaks, ca: sage. fraenkel, j. r., and n. e. wallen. (2009). how to design and evaluate research in education (7th ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill. fuming, x., and jiliang, s. (2007). research on job satisfaction of elementary and high school teachers and strategies to increase job satisfaction. chinese education and society, 40(5), 86–96. gall, m. d., and k. a. acheson. (2010). clinical supervision and teacher development: preservice and inservice applications (6th ed). new york: wiley. george, d., and l. s. mallery. (2001). spss for windows step by step. a simple guide and reference 15.0 update (8th ed). boston, ma: allyn & bacon. george, e., d. louw, and g. badenhorst. (2008). job satisfaction among urban secondaryschool teachers in namibia. south african journal of education, 28(2), 135–154. ghozali, i. (2018). aplikasi analisis multivariate dengan program ibm spss 25. edisi 9. semarang: badan penerbit universitas diponegoro glickman, c. d., s. p. gordon, and j. m. ross-gordon. (2009). supervision and instructional leadership: a developmental approach (8th ed.). needham heights, ma: allyn & bacon. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 211 goldhammer, r. (1969). clinical supervision: special methods for the supervision of teachers. new york: holt, rinehart and winston. gumus, s., and m. akcaoglu. (2013). instructional leadership in primary schools: an analysis of teachers’ perceptions and current policy. educational management, administration and leadership, 41(3), 289–302. hariri, h., r. monypenny, and m. prideaux. (2012). principalship in an indonesian school context: can principal decision-making styles significantly predict teacher job satisfaction? school leadership and management, 32 (5), 453–471. hill, j.e. & uribe-florez, l. (2020). understanding secondary school teachers’ tpack and technology implementation in mathematics classrooms. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 3(1), 1-13. hodgson, t.r., cunningham, a., mcgee, d., kinne, l.j., & murphy, t.j. (2017). assessing behavioral engagement in flipped and non-flipped mathematics classrooms: teacher abilities and other potential factors. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 5(4), 248-261. doi:10.18404/ijemst.296538 honegger, m. (2020). what does education mean: cultural values in educational language. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 42-53. doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12. hsu, h. y. (2009). organizational learning culture’s influence on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention among r&d professionals in taiwan during economic downturn (unpublished doctoral dissertation). graduate school of university of minnesota. ingersoll, r. m. (2001). teacher turnover and teacher shortages: an organizational analysis. american educational research journal, 38(3), 499–534. ingersoll, r. m., & smith, t. m. (2004). the wrong solution to the teacher shortage. educational leadership, 60(8), 30–33. judge, t. a., c. j. thoresen, j. e. bono, and g. k. patton. (2001). the job satisfaction-job performance relationship: a qualitative and quantitative review. psychological bulletin, 127(3), 376–407. kara, s. (2020). prospective visual arts teachers’ innovation skills and attitudes towards computer assisted instruction. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(2), 98-107. karatay, ş. (2011). primary school principals’ instructional leadership behaviors, (unpublished masters’ dissertation). selçuk university graduate school of social sciences. mustaqim kaur, d. (2020). post-positivist approach to factors that influence k-12 teachers’ use of ipads and chromebooks. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(1), 26-36. kaya, g. (2008). study of the secondary school teachers’ opinions regarding the relationship between principals’ instructional leadership and their decision making abilities] (unpublished masters’ dissertation). yeditepe university graduate school of social sciences. klassen, r. m., & c h i u , m. m. (2011). the occupational commitment and i n t e n t i o n to quit o f practicing and pre-service teachers: influence of self-efficacy, job stress, and teaching c o n t ex t . contemporary educational psychology, 36(2), 114–129. klassen, r. m., & chiu, m. m. (2010). effects on teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction: teacher gender, years of experience, and job stress. journal of educational psychology, 102(3), 741. klassen, r. s., c. aldhafri, e. masfield, a. purwanto, m. siu wong, and a. woodsmcconney. (2012). teachers’ engagement at work: an international validation study. the journal of experimental education 80(4), 317–337. doi:10.1080/00220973.2012.678409. kukla-acevedo, s. (2009). leavers, movers, and stayers: the role of workplace conditions in teacher mobility decisions. the journal of educational research, 102(6), 443–452. lien, ngoc, thi, nguyen; khuyen, to, thi, nguyen; tho, thi, nguyen, hoa, ngan, nguyen, hanh, thi, nguyen, tho, cam, chu; hai, duy, tuong & bien, van, nguyen. (2021). teacher’s feelings of safereness in school-family-community partnerships: motivations for sustainable development in moral education, international journal of evaluation and research education, 10(1), 97-107. doi: 10.11591/ijere.v10i1.20798 mania, s. & alam, s. (2021). teachers’ perception toward the use of ethnomathematics approach in teaching math. international journal of education in mathematics, science, and technology (ijemst), 9(2), 282-298. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.1551 margolis, j. (2008). what will keep today’s teachers teaching? looking for a hook as a new career cycle emerges. teachers college record, 110(1), 160–194. mcconaghy, t. (1993). a profile of the teaching profession in canada. phi delta kappan, 74(6), 502–503. mertler, c. (2002). job satisfaction and perception of motivation among middle and high school teachers. american secondary education, 31(1), 43–53. mestry, r., i. hendricks, and t. bisschoff. (2009). perceptions of the teachers on the benefits of the teacher development programmes in one province of south africa. south african journal of education 29(4), 475–490. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 213 minken, z., macalalag, a., clarke, a., marco-bujosa, l., & rulli, c. (2021). development of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge during lesson planning of socioscientific issues. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 4(2), 113-165. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijte.50 moolenaar, n. m., a. j. daly, and p. j. c. sleegers. (2010). occupying the principal position: examining relationships between transformational leadership, social network position, and schools’ innovative climate. educational administration quarterly, 46, 623–670. moswela, b. (2010). instructional supervision in botswana secondary schools: an investigation. educational management, administration, & leadership, 38(1), 71–87. doi:10.1177/1741143209351811. nguni, s., p. sleegers, and e. denessen. (2006). transformational and transactional leadership effects on teachers’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior in primary schools: the tanzanian case. school effectiveness and school improvement, 17(2), 145–177. pajak, e. (1993). approaches to clinical supervision: alternatives for improving instruction. norwood, ma: christopher-gordon. pansiri, n. o. (2008). instructional leadership for quality learning: an assessment of the impact of the primary school management development project in botswana. educational management, administration, and leadership, 36(4), 471–494. doi:10.1177/1741143208095789. polat, s. (2020). multidimensional analysis of the teaching process of the critical thinking skills. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 5(2), 134-157. doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 poppleton, p., & riseborough, g. (1990). a profession in transition: educational policy and secondary school teaching in england in the 1980s. comparative education, 26(2–3), 211–226. price, h. e. (2012). principal-teacher interactions: how affective relationships shape principal and teacher attitudes. educational administration quarterly, 48(1), 39–85. salinas-vasquez, l., varela, d. g., martinez, m.e. & jones, d. (2020). a comparative study of the 21st century afterschool center on education in elementary schools in south texas. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 19-37. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.2 shen, j., j. m. leslie, j. k. spybrook, and x. ma. (2012). are principal background and school processes related to teacher job satisfaction? a multilevel study using schools and staffing survey 2003–2004. american educational research journal, 49(2), 200– 230. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.2 mustaqim sidhu, g. k., and c. y. fook. (2010). formative supervision of teaching and learning: issues and concerns for the school head. european journal of scientific research, 39(4), 589–605. sims, s. (2018). essays on the recruitment and retention of teachers (doctoral dissertation). university college london. sirisuthi, c. & chantarasombat, c. (2021). development on the learning module of schoolbased supervision course for master degree students, majoring educational administration in thailand. international journal of higher education, 10(4), 21-32. skoumios, m. & skoumpourdi, c. (2021). the use of outside educational materials in mathematics and science: teachers’ conceptions. international journal of education in mathematics, science, and technology (ijemst), 9(2), 314-331. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.1150 solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020). standardizing bipa as an international program of a language policy. asian esp journal, 16(5.2), 181-205. https://www.elejournals.com/asian-esp-journal/volume-16-issue-5-2-october-2020/ soltero lopez, a., & lopez, p. (2020). expanding our reach: cross-institutional collaborations and teacher preparation in hispanic serving institutions. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 120-135. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.8 strydom, l., n. nortje, r. beukes, k. esterhuyse, and j. van der westhuizen. (2012). job satisfaction amongst teachers at special needs schools. south african journal of education, 32(3), 255–266. subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid-19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/3 tasdan, m., & tiryaki, e. (2008). comparison of the level of job satisfaction between at private and state primary school teachers. egitim ve bilim, 33(147), 54. taylor, f. w. (1911), principals of scientific management. new york: harper & brothers. thobega, m., and g. miller. (2003). relationship of instructional supervision with agriculture teachers’ job satisfaction and their intention to remain in the teaching profession. journal of agriculture education, 44(4), 57–66. titanji, p. f., and n. yuoh. (2010). supervision of instruction in cameroon: are pedagogic inspectors doing their work? international studies in educational administration, 38(2), 21–40. https://www.elejournals.com/asian-esp-journal/volume-16-issue-5-2-october-2020/ https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.8 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/3 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 194-215 215 toropova, anna; myrberg, eva & johansson, stefan. (2021). teacher job satisfaction: the importance of school working conditions and teacher characteristics, educational review, 73:1, 71-97, doi: 10.1080/00131911.2019.1705247 vogt, p. (2005). dictionary of statistic and methodology. london: sage. walters, l.m., green, m.r., goldsby, d., & parker, d. (2018). digital storytelling as a problem-solving strategy in mathematics teacher education: how making a math-eo engages and excites 21st century student. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 2(1), 1-16. wanzare, z. (2012). instructional supervision in public secondary schools in kenya. educational management, administration, and leadership, 40(2), 188–216. doi:10.1177/1741143211427977. yaman, ç. (2009). job satisfaction levels of physical education teacher trainers. international journal of human sciences, 6(1), 683–711. http://www.jhumansciences.com/ojs/index.php/ijhs/ issue/view/17. yavuz, m. (2010). effectiveness of supervisions conducted by primary education supervisors according to school principals’ evaluations. the journal of educational research, 103(6), 371–378. doi:10.1080/00220670903385338. yelboğa, a. (2012). the relationship between organizational justice and job satisfaction: an empirical study. ege akademik bakış, 12(2),171–182. yüce, s. (2010). a research on relationship of instructional leadership behavior of elementary school principals and organizational commitment of teachers. (unpublished masters’ diss.), gazi university graduate school of educational sciences. zakariya, f. yusuf; bjorkestol. k & nilsen, h.k. (2020). teacher job satisfaction across 38 countries and economies: an alignment optimization approach to a cross-cultural mean comparison, international journal of educational research, 101, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101573 zepeda, s. j. (2012). the principal as instructional leader: a practical handbook (3rd ed.). larchmont, ny: eye on education. zepeda, s. j., and w. kruskamp. (2007). high school department chairs’ perspectives about instructional supervision. the high school journal, 90(4), 44–64. https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showcitformats?doi=10.1080/00131911.2019.1705247 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101573 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 62-96 62 divided we test: proficiency rate disparity based on the race, gender, and socioeconomic status of students on the florida us history end-of-course assessment brian furgione1, kelsey evans2, william b. russell iii3, shiva jahani4 abstract this research study was designed to explore the results of the florida u.s. history eoc assessment, and understand the potential demographic disparity amongst social studies standardized testing. to examine if there were trends in disparity, researchers examined countywide data from the florida u.s. history eoc from 2012-2016. by using population data for 11th grade students, researchers were able to examine proficiency rates from 2012-2016 for comparative statistical measures. emerging trends were identified via descriptive statistics and regression analyses which indicated disparity within race, gender, and socioeconomic status. (r2 = .566 (2012-13), r2 = .559 (2013-14), .579 (2014-15) & .495 (2015-16)). upon discussion of the findings, the conclusion and implications address the influence of standardized testing in u.s. history social studies education. keywords: social studies, socioeconomic status, standardized test, race, gender introduction in a democratic society, such as the united sates, understanding it’s history, background, and evolution is vital for the proper functioning of the nation. key elements of citizenship and moral understandings are held within the teachings of history. the high school social studies class is much more than teaching basic concepts and vocabulary. in conjunction with foundational knowledge of historical events, u.s, history classes offer an opportunity to teach higher order thinking skills, understanding societal change over time, and the cause/effect 1 ph. d candidate, university of central florida, brian.furgione@ucf.edu 2 ph.d candidate, university of central florida, kelsey.evans@ucf.edu 3 prof. dr., university of central florida, russell@ucf.edu 4 prof. dr., university of central florida, shiva.jahani@ucf.edu mailto:brian.furgione@ucf.edu mailto:kelsey.evans@ucf.edu mailto:russell@ucf.edu mailto:shiva.jahani@ucf.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 relationship present within the analysis of historical events. these elements allow for deeper intellectual prowess to be created in the average u.s. citizen (stearns, 1998), producing a much more aware and educated citizen. thus, the necessity of integrating u.s. history into high school education is important for preparing future citizens, both global and national. yet, the state of u.s. history education is in crisis. standardized testing has suggested there is a gap in the opportunity to learn the subject of u.s. history. an overview of national student performance at or above the proficient achievement level in eight subjects assessed by the national assessment of educational progress (naep) shows united states history being the lowest amongst all other tested subjects. this is not exclusive to a specific grade level as naep assesses students in fourth, eighth, and twelfth grade. this inadequate knowledge reported via naep data and the department of education exemplifies the state of history in the united states (national center for education statistics, 2011). these findings depict a national trend and show the necessity for further research and reform in history education and assessment within the united states (heafner, 2015). further research into the knowledge gap in history is made possible via the large amount of testing currently required within the united states. student testing has steadily increased over time as legislation has placed a greater emphasis on standardized assessments. legislation like no child left behind and race to the top, have increased state-mandated standardized testing (alcocer, n.d.; fletcher 2009; kenna & russell, 2014 & 2015). the latest legislation, every student succeeds act (essa) was passed in 2015, it appears to have assessment power shifting back to the states, along with general control on educational decision making (burnette ii, 2016). with essa now in effect, standardized testing and national accountability remain at the center of the debate, with many states still struggling to find a balance (editorial projects in education furgione, et al. research center, 2016; russo, 2016). one of the largest states in the u.s. looking to find a balance between accountability and assessing is florida. high-stakes exams are being administered to students in elementary, middle, and high school. the florida standards assessment (fsa) and end of course exams (eocs), florida’s current version of mandated testing, are being administered each year. these tests tend to focus predominately on the three “rs” of reading, writing, and arithmetic (“milestone moment,” 2015); however, in 2010, florida began to require the testing of the social studies subjects. within middle school and high school, there are two social studies end of course (eoc) exams that have been implemented since 2011: the civics eoc and the u.s. history eoc. as required by the state of florida, the civics eoc can be taken in grades 6-8, and the u.s. history exam may be taken in grades 9-12. (for reference, the department of education defines eoc’s as “computer-based, criterion-referenced assessments that measure the florida standards (fs) or the next generation sunshine state standards (ngsss) for specific courses, as outlined in their course descriptions.”) students throughout the state are assessed on their understanding of civics and u.s. history, but does not account for other factors including: school location, demographics, socioeconomic status, attendance, or a host of other factors, as is done with other state based assessments (florida department of education, 2016). as such, the statewide social studies data paints an incomplete picture of what is truly happening in florida’s school system and current testing culture. before the essa is carried out nation-wide, there needs to be further analysis in how states should review and revise their assessment methods. unfortunately, research regarding social studies standardized testing, and more specifically on florida’s eocs, is lacking. our goal is to address this void and discuss the potential impact of the florida u.s. history eoc assessment on various populations of students journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 throughout the state. thus, we propose to study how race, gender, and socioeconomic status of students influence proficiency rates on the florida u.s. history eoc assessment for eleventh grade students from 2012-2016 statewide. literature review throughout our literature search, there were no matches related specifically to the florida u.s. history eoc, but there were similar exams being leveraged by other states and organizations. this includes the norm-referenced advanced placement united states history (apush) exam. the apush exam is a national, for credit, examination designed to be the equivalent of a two-semester introductory college or university u.s. history course (college board, 2017). however, since the exam’s implementation, it has come under scrutiny as a biased measurement (advanced placement history, 2015; bittman et al, 2017; college board, 2017; cross, 2014; flanagin, 2015; fonte, 2015; greer, 2015; kamenetz, 2015; layton, 2015; mathews, 2014; savage, 2003; torres & stirgus, 2005; venkateswaran, 2004; white, 2014). the exam has experienced many revisions since its inception, but its most recent change has many students and teachers upset (greer, 2015; kamenetz, 2015; stern, 2015). in 2014 and 2015, the apush exam went through a large revision that called into question the content of what was being taught for the ap exam. much of the content was deemed controversial and labeled “unpatriotic”, and instead presented a view of the united states that many thought was too negative and too political (kamenetz, 2015). due to “liberal bias” some states began outlawing the teaching of apush in their states (kamenetz, 2015; torres, 2015). with so much controversy surrounding the changes, college board decided to make additional revisions the following year, allowing for more analysis and perspective in history (greer, 2015). the curriculum has continued to go through revisions over the past ten years. in addition to furgione, et al. curriculum controversy, there has been research into the apush test construction and the performance of varied demographics. venkateswaran (2004) conducted research into how both gender and race perform on the apush examination. the examination of race: white, africanamerican, asian, and hispanic, shows there is variance within the performance of each. continually, there were large mean differences between white students, and african-american and hispanic students. however, there was a small difference between asian-american and white students (cole, 1997; venkateswaran, 2004). the term, “achievement gap”, according to the national center for education statistics, “occurs when one group of students (such as, students grouped by race/ethnicity, gender) outperforms another group and the difference in average scores for the two groups is statistically significant (that is, larger than the margin of error)” (naep achievement gaps, 2015). within this gap are key factors that create its existence and widen it every single school year. the department of education has attempted for the past forty years to develop equitable education and guidelines, yet the attempts at reformation continually cycle through after each presidency, where nothing seem to solve the acknowledged problem. early in reform, it began with “effective schools, accelerated schools, and schools within schools and, nationally, the education goals movement. the standards movement that emerged in the 1990s has morphed into the 2001 reauthorization of the elementary and secondary education act, better known as no child left behind, followed by race to the top, and now the common core state standards initiative” (bohrnstedt, 2013). reform has continued, with little measurable impact. utilizing this data to support our research demonstrates that there is disparity at the national level in a norm-referenced exam. the use of standards-based accountability systems has become one of the most popular journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 school reform efforts in the united states today, and collects valuable data for both state and national examination. this data has been helpful in adding more clarity and data in confirming disparity amongst social studies examinations. two states that offer similar exams to the state of florida eocs, include new york and virginia. these examinations have both been called into question over the years, in whether they are biased toward specific demographics of students due to the unequitable performance of certain students (carroll, 2000; center on education policy, 2010; darfler-sweeney, 2016; dee, 2016; reich, 2016). the exams, as with the test in florida, are reliant on the use of multiple-choice (mc) questions to understand and analyze proficiency of state standards (reich, 2016). the regents exam has been a new york mandated test since 1865 (darfler-sweeney, 2016). the construction of the exam and content covered have changed greatly over time, but from our research, the literature returned about the regents exam focused on the content of social studies, specifically the global history and geography regents exam. these exams were designed to measure students' proficiency in world history and geography and their ability to think critically. however, the studies returned in the literature review describe mc questions that were ineffective in measuring student knowledge (darfler-sweeney, 2016; reich, 2016). in fact, pass rates have continued to decline, as reported by darfler-sweeney (2016) in their research from 2001-2007. these proficiency rates, upon further examination, reveal further disparity in scores amongst new york city schools and urban schools throughout the state, and call into question the effects of socioeconomic status and student performance on the regents exam. another state based assessment of student learning with a bit of history are the standards of learning (sol) tests in virginia. these tests were first initiated in 1998, and align with modern education policy (center on education policy, 2010). however, unlike the regents furgione, et al. exam, there was no specific research discussing the implications of demographics on the social studies sols. this is not to say that there are potential problems with the sol testing of social studies content, instead research that is more thorough has been done in other content areas. in fact, the first year the sols were implemented in 1998, 70% of students failed the united states history sol assessment, and the following year, there was a slight decrease with 68% of virginia students failing the united states history sol assessment (carroll, 2000). proficiency rates in u.s. history are much lower than other content areas, but more conclusive data to analyze disparity had not been provided for the u.s. history sol. there has been some investigation into the overall performance of black, white, and hispanic students on the sols across all content areas, and the results show there is a sizeable disparity statewide between races (earl, 2005; lewis, 2015). student achievement gaps amongst race, gender, and socioeconomically disadvantaged and advantaged students, have been observed and formally documented since the national assessment of educational progress (naep) began in the 1970s. disparity has been observed across various subjects, and at federal and state levels of education. examination of the literature has brought light and understanding to the disparity. in seeking to create equitable education, it is necessary to understand how and why disparity is happening. the literature provides a clear understanding of the problem, and the researchers desire to study available data for further insight into inequitable education and potential solutions. methods research design this study utilized a quantitative, non-experimental design based on publicly available student data found on florida’s pk-20 education information portal at https://edstats.fldoe.org. https://edstats.fldoe.org/ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 the purpose of the study was to analyze various descriptive statistics and identify emerging trends within the data relating to disparity on the united states history end-of-course assessment, and correlate it to national trends. the null hypothesis being: there will be no significant predication of student proficiency on the u.s. history eoc based on race, gender, or ses status. population and sample/study group/participants we utilized all available eleventh grade student data generated from the u.s. history eoc assessment from 2012-2016. additionally, we selected the three largest race/ethnic groups in the state: white, hispanic, and black. proficiency rates at the county/district level were also aggregated. table 1 total number of 11th grade students who took the u.s. history eoc, based on race 2012-2016 number of students 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 white 46,584 55,411 58,589 59,148 hispanic 35,626 45,458 45,019 48,503 black 27,034 30,075 29,388 32,628 total students 109,244 130,944 132,996 140,279 data collection all available data from the 2012-13, 2013-14, 2014-15, and 2015-16 administrations of the u.s. history eoc assessment was leveraged for this study. total student population data for each subgroup is available, though individual student results are not publicly available. additionally, county level proficiency rates were calculated. for the purposes of this study, the proficiency levels established by the state were utilized. students who score a level “3” or better on a 1-5 scale were considered proficient in u.s. history by the state’s assessment and accountability measures. all data used in the study is publicly available on florida’s pk-20 furgione, et al. education information portal at https://edstats.fldoe.org. data was exported to microsoft excel, aggregated, and imported into spss version 24 for further analysis. data analysis in deciding how to aggregate the data, we chose to calculate the mean proficiency percentages of various subgroups as the initial basis for our comparison and analysis. additionally, we calculated the countywide proficiency rates of each subgroup within all florida counties and used these scores for the regression analysis as to increase the total number of data points and provide a more holistic image of state-level proficiency. in this paper, we first explore the overall proficiency rates of each subgroup based on all available student data from the florida department of education to provide general trends within the data. second, we present the regression analysis and results for each administration (2012-13, 2013-14, 2014-15, and 2015-16) and explore the findings. findings race reviewing the mean proficiency rates between each racial subgroup during the four-year period of 2012-2016, a clear gap in overall performance appears (see table 2). there was an initial surge in proficiency following the first administration of the test, followed by three relatively consistent passing rates each subsequent year. the average difference, over the fouryear period was: 16.55% percent between white students and hispanic students; 29.78% between white students and black students; and 13.23% between hispanic students and black students. within each subgroup, the average percentage of proficient students has increased from the initial administration of the u.s. history eoc. hispanic students saw the largest increase at 12.10%, followed closely by black and white students at roughly 8.8% each. https://edstats.fldoe.org/ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 table 2 number of 11th grade students and percent of proficient students based on race 2012-2016 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 # of students % of students (level 3 and above) # of students % of students (level 3 and above) # of students % of students (level 3 and above) # of students % of students (level 3 and above) white 46,584 69.7% 55,411 77.5% 58,589 78.2% 59,148 78.5% hispanic 35,626 50.7% 45,458 62.5% 45,019 61.7% 48,503 62.8% black 27,034 40.2% 30,075 47.2% 29,388 48.4% 32,628 49.0% figure 1. graph of the percent of proficient students based on race per year 2012-2016. race and gender widening the analysis of population data, we included student gender. this presented many intriguing findings. on average, both white and hispanic female students were outperformed by their male counterparts. while the mean proficiency of each subgroup increased from the first year of testing, the mean differences each year remained relatively consistent (see table 3). 0,00% 20,00% 40,00% 60,00% 80,00% 100,00% 2012-2013 2013-2014 2014-2015 2015-2016 percent of proficient students (based on race) white hispanic black furgione, et al. in contrast, black students, who also tested much less proficient, saw the smallest divide in scores based on gender. from a population standpoint, female black students have increased their level of proficiency each year, with the last administration displaying a proficiency rate less than 2% of their male counterparts. table 3 number of 11th grade students and percent of proficient students based on race and gender 2012-2016 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 race gender # of students % of students (level 3 and above) # of students % of students (level 3 and above) # of students % of students (level 3 and above) # of students % of students (level 3 and above) white female 22,195 63.1% 26,985 73.3% 28,799 74.6% 28,893 74.6% male 24,389 75.6% 28,426 81.4% 29,790 81.7% 30,255 82.2% hispanic female 17,599 44.4% 22,796 58.0% 22,638 57.7% 24,279 59.3% male 18,027 56.9% 22,662 66.9% 22,381 65.7% 24,224 66.3% black female 13,671 36.9% 15,365 44.6% 14,827 47.0% 16,817 48.1% male 13,363 43.7% 14,710 49.9% 14,561 49.9% 15,811 49.9% figure 2. graph of proficient students based on race and gender per year race, gender, and socioeconomic status finally, when including the three independent variables; race, gender, and socioeconomic 0,0% 10,0% 20,0% 30,0% 40,0% 50,0% 60,0% 70,0% 80,0% 90,0% female male female male female male white hispanic black percent of proficient students (based on race and gender) 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 status, we uncover another noticeable trend. regardless of race and gender, economically disadvantaged students scored significantly lower than their non-economically disadvantaged peers. on average, across each racial demographic and for each gender, the mean percent of proficient students drops by 10%-20% when factoring in a student’s socioeconomic status (see table 4). this gap remains steady, even when factoring in the increase in the percent of proficient students across race, gender, and ses subgroups each year, as seen in the previous breakdown. table 4 percent of proficient students, divided by gender, race, and ses 2012-2016 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 gender race/ethnicity economic status % of students (level 3 and above) % of students (level 3 and above) % of students (level 3 and above) % of students (level 3 and above) female white eco. disadvantaged 54.1% 61.6% 63.8% 63.8% non-eco. disadvantaged 67.6% 77.8% 80.0% 79.8% hispanic eco. disadvantaged 38.7% 50.7% 52.0% 54.0% non-eco. disadvantaged 57.2% 68.3% 70.9% 70.8% black eco. disadvantaged 33.0% 39.1% 43.0% 44.4% non-eco. disadvantaged 48.3% 56.1% 59.1% 59.4% male white eco. disadvantaged 67.9% 72.7% 73.1% 74.8% non-eco. disadvantaged 79.4% 85.1% 85.8% 85.6% hispanic eco. disadvantaged 52.4% 61.2% 60.8% 62.1% non-eco. disadvantaged 67.7% 76.4% 77.4% 75.6% black eco. disadvantaged 40.6% 46.2% 46.7% 46.4% non-eco. disadvantaged 51.9% 58.1% 58.9% 59.6% to further illustrate this, the mean difference over the four-year period in the percent of proficient students was calculated. the difference remained steady when accounting for race, furgione, et al. gender, and socioeconomic status (see table 5). put simply, the mean difference in total percent of proficient students, regardless of ses status remained relatively equivalent, while students who were economically disadvantaged were still proficient at much lower rates. table 5 average difference in the percent of proficient students from 2012-2016 (averaged from four year totals) the mean difference in proficiency between subgroups (4-year average) non-eco. dis eco. dis. female white v hispanic 9.50% 11.99% white v black 20.55% 20.98% hispanic v black 11.05% 8.99% male white v hispanic 9.73% 13.03% white v black 26.87% 27.19% hispanic v black 17.14% 14.16% regression analysis to determine how gender, race, and socioeconomic status influence proficiency on the u.s. history eoc assessment a multiple regression analysis was performed. we utilized mean proficiency rates of each subgroup at the county level to conduct this analysis. preliminary analyses were conducted to test assumptions and the analysis was repeated for each year from 2012-2016. u.s. history test administration during the four-year period from 2012-2016, over 500,000 students (white, black, and hispanic) in the state of florida were administered the u.s. history eoc assessment. using countywide proficiency rates, we sought to understand how each administration of the test was journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 influenced by race, gender, and sociogenic status. as noted in table 6, we can see that mean proficiency rates have remained around 64% based on countywide data, with the lone exception being the initial year of testing. table 6 descriptive statistics: percentage of proficient students (county means) 2012-2016 descriptive statistics: percentage of proficient students (county means) school year mean std. deviation n 2012-2013 .5642838 .16601134 562 2013-2014 .6369031 .16890353 585 2014-2015 .6513123 .16238774 583 2015-2016 .6474492 .17064634 622 2012-2013 administration during 2012-2013 school year, the average proficiency rate of school districts throughout the state was roughly 56 % (m = .5642838, sd = 16601134). upon initial review of the model summary, we find the analyzed variables to be correlated r2 = .520 indicating that about 52% of the variance in proficiency on the u.s. history eoc could be explained by race, gender, and ses status. additionally, the results in table 8 demonstrate that proficiency percentage of a district is correlated with one or more of the predictors we selected (f4,557 = 181.269, p < .001). in accordance with the regression analysis, we reject the null hypothesis. students who are female, economically disadvantaged—hispanic or black—are predicted to be less proficient than their peers on the u.s. history exam based on the 2012-2013 data. more specifically, our analysis shows that gender (beta = -.322, t (15.461) =-11.529, p < .05), ses status (beta = -.401, t (15.461) = -14.30, p < .05), and race—hispanic (beta = -.249, t (15.461) = -8.179, p < .05) and furgione, et al. black (beta = -.560, t (15.461) = -18.338, p < .05)— were significant predictors of performance during the 2012-2013 administration. table 7 model summary for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2012/13. model summaryb model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate change statistics r square change f change df1 df2 sig. f change 1 .752a .566 .562 .10981518 .566 181.269 4 557 .000 a. predictors: (constant), ses=economically disadvantaged, race=hispanic, gender=female, race=black b. dependent variable: percentage of prof students table 8 anova table for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2012/13. anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 8.744 4 2.186 181.269 .000b residual 6.717 557 .012 total 15.461 561 a. dependent variable: percentage of prof students b. predictors: (constant), ses=economically disadvantaged, race=hispanic, gender=female, race=black table 9 equation coefficients for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2012/13. coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardize d coefficients t sig. 95.0% confidence interval for b b std. error beta lower bound upper bound 1 (constant) .777 .010 80.336 .000 .758 .796 gender=female -.107 .009 -.322 -11.529 .000 -.125 -.089 race=hispanic -.093 .011 -.249 -8.179 .000 -.115 -.071 race=black -.203 .011 -.560 -18.338 .000 -.225 -.181 ses=economically disadvantaged -.133 .009 -.401 -14.300 .000 -.152 -.115 a. dependent variable: percentage of prof students 2013-2014 administration during 2013-2014 school year, the average proficiency rate of school districts throughout the state was roughly 64% (m = .6369031, sd = .16890353). upon initial review of the model journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 summary, we find the analyzed variables to be correlated r2 = .559 indicating that about 56% of the variance in proficiency on the u.s. history eoc could be explained by race, gender, and ses status. additionally, the results in table 10 demonstrate that proficiency percentage of a district is correlated with one or more of the predictors we selected (f4,580 = 183.774, p < .001). in accordance with the regression analysis, we reject the null hypothesis. students who are female, economically disadvantaged—hispanic or black—are predicted to be less proficient than their peers on the us history exam based on the 2013-2014 data. more specifically, our analysis shows that gender (beta = -.238, t (16.661) = -8.628, p < .05), ses status (beta = -.408, t (16.661) = -14.774, p < .05), and race—hispanic (beta = -.212, t (16.661) = -6.984, p < .05) and black (beta = -.609, t (16.661) = -20.072, p < .05)—were significant predictors of performance during the 2013-2014 administration. table 10 model summary for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2013/14. model summaryb model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate change statistics r square change f change df1 df2 sig. f change 1 .748a .559 .556 .11255541 .559 183.774 4 580 .000 a. predictors: (constant), ses=economically disadvantaged, gender=female, race=hispanic, race=black b. dependent variable: percentage of prof students table 11 anova table for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2013/14. anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 9.313 4 2.328 183.774 .000b residual 7.348 580 .013 total 16.661 584 a. dependent variable: percentage of prof students b. predictors: (constant), ses=economically disadvantaged, gender=female, race=hispanic, race=black table 12 equation coefficients for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2013/14. furgione, et al. coefficients model unstandardized coefficients standardiz ed coefficien ts t sig. 95.0% confidence interval for b b std. error beta lower bound upper bound 1 (constant) .838 .010 85.746 .000 .819 .857 gender=female -.080 .009 -.238 -8.628 .000 -.099 -.062 race=hispanic -.079 .011 -.212 -6.984 .000 -.101 -.057 race=black -.225 .011 -.609 20.072 .000 -.248 -.203 ses=economicall y disadvantaged -.138 .009 -.408 14.774 .000 -.156 -.119 a. dependent variable: percentage of prof students 2014-2015 administration during 2014-2015 school year, the average proficiency rate of school districts throughout the state was roughly 65% (m = .6513123, sd = .16238774). upon initial review of the model summary, we find the analyzed variables to be correlated r2 = .579 indicating that about 57% of the variance in proficiency on the u.s. history eoc could be explained by race, gender, and ses status. additionally, the results in table 14 demonstrate that proficiency percentage of a district is correlated with one or more of the predictors we selected (f4,578 = 191.383, p < .001). in accordance with the regression analysis, we reject the null hypothesis. students who are female, economically disadvantaged—hispanic or black— are predicted to be less proficient than their peers on the u.s. history exam based on the 2014-2015. more specifically, our analysis shows that gender (beta = -.216, t (15.347) = -7.920, p < .05), ses status (beta = -.434, t (15.347) = -15.811, p < .05), and race—hispanic (beta = -.176, t (15.347) = -5.925, p < .05) and black (beta = -.581, t (15.347) = -19.519, p < .05)—were significant predictors of performance during the 2014-2015 administration. table 13 model summary for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2014/15. model summaryb model r r square adjusted r std. error of change statistics journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 square the estimate r square change f change df1 df2 sig. f change 1 .755a .570 .567 .10687866 .570 191.383 4 578 .000 a. predictors: (constant), ses=economically disadvantaged, gender=female, race=hispanic, race=black b. dependent variable: percentage of prof students table 14 anova table for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2014/15. anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 8.745 4 2.186 191.383 .000b residual 6.603 578 .011 total 15.347 582 a. dependent variable: percentage of prof students b. predictors: (constant), ses=economically disadvantaged, gender=female, race=hispanic, race=black table 15 equation coefficients for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2014/15. coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardize d coefficients t sig. 95.0% confidence interval for b b std. error beta lower bound upper bound 1 (constant) .839 .009 91.090 .000 .820 .857 gender=female -.070 .009 -.216 -7.920 .000 -.088 -.053 race=hispanic -.063 .011 -.176 -5.925 .000 -.084 -.042 race=black -.211 .011 -.581 -19.519 .000 -.233 -.190 ses=economically disadvantaged -.141 .009 -.434 -15.811 .000 -.158 -.123 a. dependent variable: percentage of prof students 2015-2016 administration during 2015-2016 school year, the average proficiency rate of school districts throughout the state was roughly 65% (m = .6474492, sd = .17064634). upon initial review of the model summary, we find the analyzed variables to be correlated r2 = .495 indicating that about 50% of the variance in proficiency on the u.s. history eoc could be explained by race, gender, and ses status. additionally, the results in table 17 demonstrate that proficiency percentage of a district is correlated with one or more of the predictors we selected (f4,617 = 151.404, p < .001). in accordance with the regression analysis, we reject the null hypothesis. students who furgione, et al. are female, economically disadvantaged— hispanic or black—are predicted to be less proficient than their peers on the u.s. history exam based on the 2015-2016. more specifically, our analysis shows that gender (beta = -.153, t (18.084) = -5/357, p < .05), ses status (beta = -.417, t (18.084) = -14.542, p < .05), and race—hispanic (beta = -.165, t (18.084) = -5.328, p < .05) and black (beta = -.565, t (18.084) = -17.896, p < .05)—were significant predictors of performance during the 2015-2016 administration. table 16 model summary for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2015/16. model summaryb model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate change statistics r square change f change df1 df2 sig. f change 1 .704a .495 .492 .12161800 .495 151.404 4 617 .000 a. predictors: (constant), ses=economically disadvantaged, race=hispanic, gender=female, race=black b. dependent variable: percentage of prof students table 17 anova table for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2015/16. anovaa model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 8.958 4 2.239 151.404 .000b residual 9.126 617 .015 total 18.084 621 a. dependent variable: percentage of prof students b. predictors: (constant), ses=economically disadvantaged, race=hispanic, gender=female, race=black table 18 equation coefficients for seventh-grade civics eoc assessment proficiency by county and subgroups 2015/16. coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardize d coefficients t sig. 95.0% confidence interval for b b std. error beta lower bound upper bound 1 (constant) .830 .010 81.004 .000 .809 .850 gender=female -.052 .010 -.153 -5.357 .000 -.071 -.033 race=hispanic -.062 .012 -.165 -5.238 .000 -.085 -.039 race=black -.210 .012 -.565 -17.896 .000 -.233 -.187 ses=economically disadvantaged -.142 .010 -.417 -14.542 .000 -.162 -.123 a. dependent variable: percentage of prof students journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 discussion, conclusion, and implications discussion in reviewing the mean proficiency rates at both the student and county level, our findings indicate there is disparity on the u.s. history eoc assessment. if the regression model is to be accepted, over 50% of variance can be correlated to race, gender, and ses status during each testing cycle. these results support prior research that has been conducted regarding standardized testing bias (alcocer, n.d.; au, 2013; bohrnstedt, 2013; campos-holland, hall, & pol, 2016; naep achievement gaps; 2015; pahl, 2003; reich, 2008; stedman, 2009). that is not to say this test is outwardly bias, simply it exhibits potential bias in the data analysis. our findings also indicate that students who are economically disadvantaged and/or black are significantly more likely to be considered “non-proficient” via state standards by a significant margin. these findings support the research from our literature review regarding the achievement gap between economically disadvantaged and black students as compared to their peers. as predictor variables, both being female and hispanic displayed negative correlations as well, but on a smaller scale. while these findings are concerning, we must note the academic adage that “correlation does not imply causation.” we are not interpreting these results as saying one leads to the other, simply that through our analysis, there appears to be a clear gap in performance based on race, gender, and ses status. implications over the years standardized testing has been criticized and more accountability measures are being implemented to measure student achievement. these measures have also displayed, and at times promoted, the disparity in achievement, measurement, and potential testing bias at furgione, et al. multiple levels (national, state, local). our analysis indicates that the florida u.s. history eoc assessment may be displaying a similar and potentially disturbing trend. the descriptives show there is a clear divide in performance based on race and economic status, as well as gender at various levels. in addition to the gap in performance, it is concerning that the proficiency levels are at the levels which they are. during the 2015-16 administration, the mean proficiency rate for all eleventh-grade students was 66.6%. roughly 1/3 of students tested were not proficient, nearly 50,000 students. this is concerning and leads us to question the cause of this disparity. is it the test itself? the teachers? the students? the home life? are there extenuating circumstances too difficult to measure? further, deeper research needs to be conducted to understand not just the disparity itself but also how to potentially overcome the gap. while this is an analysis of a state level standardized test, we believe the findings represent a much larger potential base. as we noted, naep data has also displayed similar biases and trends. if assessment and accountability are going to be used to measure student success, rate teacher performance, and dictate school funding, scholarship must be advanced to understand the full scope and impact of exams such as the u.s. history eoc and if the test is measuring what it is designed for. the disparity displayed in our analysis should impact more than the students, teachers, and lawmakers in the sunshine state. these findings should cause concern for any state looking to implement an accountability measure that relies on a standardized assessment to measure student success in a subject. limitations there are a great deal of limitations that came about in conducting this research study. first, in using descriptive statistics, we are only reporting on emerging trends and themes, and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 are simply relaying what the data is saying. in addition, we were cautious to use the word “predictor” regarding our independent variables, as we are aware there are many factors that contribute to a student’s proficiency well beyond race, gender, and ses status. in using the overall proficiency percentages of these groups, we understand that we are unable to analyze the data at the school or even the district level. when analyzing the data, we did lose some district level data, as not all schools accurately reported. for these reasons, we decided to paint a picture of the entire state. as such, we are unable to evaluate individual students based on their geography, school, teachers, and a multitude of other factors. this limits our ability to search for outliers and attempt to identify causation. with the limited research on the u.s. history eoc assessment in the state, future research will be needed to expand upon our findings, but we believe this study may be able to open the door. conclusion the necessity of integrating u.s. history into high school education is important for preparing future citizens, but is being hindered by testing. our research suggests, standardized testing is utilized across all subjects as a means of measuring the aptitude of students, and has become the norm in accounting for students’, schools’, and state performance in education. however, the literature returned, and our findings suggest, there is a potential inherent bias in standardized testing, specifically in u.s. history, at both the national and state level. in this research, our goal was to understand what could be contributing to the 18% proficiency rate in u.s. history, and the divisions within, as reported by naep data (heafner, 2015). examining the literature, divisions amongst varied populations of students occurred examine the measurement and impact of the florida u.s. history eoc assessment on various populations of students throughout the state. upon review of population data of 11th grade furgione, et al. students from 2012-2016 on the florida u.s. history eoc, disparity emerged across the subgroups of race, gender, and socio-economic status. the descriptive statistics and regression analysis of the florida u.s. history eoc provides evidence of this underlying trend: females, minority students, and economically disadvantaged students are scoring worse on the exam then their peers, supporting the findings in previous literature. as researchers, understanding and improving education is ultimately the purpose of educational analysis. having reviewed naep data, there is a clear, underlying problem in social studiesspecifically u.s. history. the florida eoc is no exception, and further action must be done to resolve both the macro and local level disparities in testing. currently the future is held in the palms of policy makers and the standardized test they use to rationalize their decisions. it is our responsibility as scholars to promote opportunities in education, especially in u.s. history. it is unfortunate that standardized testing in u.s. history acts as a barrier to equality in education. as a country that promotes democracy and critical thinking, it is necessary to research inequalities and develop a deeper understanding of what they mean. until a solution presents itself, united we stand, divided we test. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 references abrams, l. m., mcmillan, j. h., & wetzel, a. p. (2015). implementing benchmark testing for formative purposes: teacher voices about what works. educational assessment, evaluation, and accountability, 27(4), 347-375 alcocer, p. (n.d.). history of standardized testing in the united states. national education association. retrieved june 27, 2017 from http://www.nea.org/home/66139.htm. anagnostopoulos, d., lingard, b., & sellar, s. (2016). argumentation in educational policy disputes: competing visions of quality and equity. theory into practice, 55(4), 342-351. au, w. (2013). hiding behind high-stakes testing: meritocracy, objectivity and inequality in u.s. education. international education journal: comparative perspectives, 12(2), 7-20. au, w. (2016). high-stakes, standardized testing as a racial project of neoliberal multiculturalism. educational policy and the cultural politics of race, 30(1), 39-62. bellibas, m. s. (2016). who are the most disadvantaged? factors associated with the achievement of students with low socio-economic backgrounds. educational sciences: theory and practice, 16(2), 691-710. binder, l. m., larrabee, g. j., & millis, s. r. (2014). intent to fail: significance testing of forced choice test results. the clinical neuropsychologist, (8), 1366. bittman, b., davies, a., russell, w., & goussakova, e. (2017). advance placement and the achievement gap in the 21st century: a multiple linear regression of marginalized populations in ap enrollment. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2), 36-58. bloxham, s., hughes, c., & adie, l. (2016). what’s the point of moderation? a discussion of the purposes achieved through contemporary moderation practices. assessment & evaluation in higher education, 41(4), 638-653. http://www.nea.org/home/66139.htm furgione, et al. bohrnstedt, g. (2013, october 30). three decades of education reform: are we still "a nation at risk?" american institutes for research. retrieved june 1, 2017 from http://www.air.org/resource/three-decades-education-reform-are-we-still-nation-risk borman, k. m., eitle, t. m., michael, d., eitle, d. j., lee, r., johnson, l., & shircliffe, b. (2004). accountability in a postdesegregation era: the continuing significance of racial segregation in florida's schools. american educational research journal, 41(2), 605631. brunn-bevel, r. j., & byrd, w. (2015). the foundation of racial disparities in the standardized testing era: the impact of school segregation and the assault on public education in virginia. humanity & society, 39(4), 419-448. burnette ii, d. (2016). essa raises k-12 stakes in state-level races. education week, 36(4), 1-17. campos-holland, a., hall, g., & pol, g.. (2016). over-tested: youth and standardized-state testing in a racialized educational context. emerald group publishing limited. carroll, jeffrey. (2000). a case study of united states history teachers in virginia in an era of the standards of learning assessment. virginia tech. (doctoral thesis). retrieved from openaire, ebscohost. cavendish, w., artiles, a. j., & harry, b. (2014). tracking inequality 60 years after "brown": does policy legitimize the racialization of disability?. multiple voices for ethnically diverse exceptional learners, 14(2), 30-40. center on education, p. (2010). va state profile. virginia: standards of learning (sol) endof-course exams. chalhoub-deville, m. (2016). validity theory: reform policies, accountability testing, and http://www.air.org/resource/three-decades-education-reform-are-we-still-nation-risk journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 consequences. language testing, 33(4), 453-472. chen, p.h., chen, t.c., & kim, s.k. (2015). comparison of three difference linking procedures between norm-referenced test and criterion-referenced test. international journal of intelligent technologies and applied statistics, 8(1), 71-76. cross, andy. (2014). why oklahoma lawmakers voted to ban ap u.s. history. new york magazine. retrieved june 3, 2017 from http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2015/02/why-oklahoma-lawmakers-want-to-ban-apus-history.html cole, nancy. (1997). the ets gender study: how females and males perform in educational settings. research report produced by educational testing service. princeton, n.j. college board. (n.d.). u.s. history course overview. ap central. retrieved from http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/courses/teachers_corner/232395.html college board, “announcing ap u.s. history course and exam revisions” (presentation, ap annual conference, july 20, 2012), http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/ap_ush_course_exam_revisions.p pt. darfler-sweeney, p. j. (2011). a cross sectional exploratory study of the new york state global history and geography regents, 2001-2007. (doctoral dissertation). retrieved from dissertation abstracts international section a. dee, t. s., dobbie, w., jacob, b. a., & rockoff, j. (2016). the causes and consequences of test score manipulation: evidence from the new york regents examinations. cambridge, mass.: national bureau of economic research, 2016. http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2015/02/why-oklahoma-lawmakers-want-to-ban-ap-us-history.html http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2015/02/why-oklahoma-lawmakers-want-to-ban-ap-us-history.html http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/courses/teachers_corner/232395.html http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/ap_ush_course_exam_revisions.ppt http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/ap_ush_course_exam_revisions.ppt furgione, et al. earl, a. w. (2005). a critical analysis of the 2004 and 2005 sat scores of college bound students, with implications for the no child left behind (nclb) law and the state of virginia standards of learning ("sols"). eric online submission. einhorn, e. (2006, may 15). testing boundaries: regents exams colonialism questions anger black students. new york daily news retrieved june 14, 2017 from http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/testing-boundaries-regents-examcolonialism-questions-anger-black-students-article-1.583011 fonte, j., & kurtz, s. (2015). ap u.s. history bias still runs deep. hudson review online. retrieved june 14, 2017 from https://www.hudson.org/research/11687-ap-u-s-historybias-still-runs-deep ford, d. y., & helms, j. e. (2012). overview and introduction: testing and assessing african americans: “unbiased” tests are still unfair. journal of negro education, 81(3), 186-189. flanagin, j. (2015). all the ways the new ap us history standards gloss over the country’s racist past. quartz online. retrieved from http://qz.com/469169/all-the-ways-the-newap-us-history-standards-gloss-over-the-countrys-racist-past/ fletcher, d. (2009). standardized testing. time magazine. retrieved from http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1947019,00.htm florida department of education. (2016). end-of-course (eoc) assessments. retrieved from http://www.fldoe.org/accountability/assessments/k-12-student-assessment/end-of-courseeoc-assessments/ grant, s. g. (2006). measuring history: cases of state-level testing across the united states. greenwich, conn.: information age pub., c2006. http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/testing-boundaries-regents-exam-colonialism-questions-anger-black-students-article-1.583011 http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/testing-boundaries-regents-exam-colonialism-questions-anger-black-students-article-1.583011 https://www.hudson.org/research/11687-ap-u-s-history-bias-still-runs-deep https://www.hudson.org/research/11687-ap-u-s-history-bias-still-runs-deep http://qz.com/469169/all-the-ways-the-new-ap-us-history-standards-gloss-over-the-countrys-racist-past/ http://qz.com/469169/all-the-ways-the-new-ap-us-history-standards-gloss-over-the-countrys-racist-past/ http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1947019,00.htm http://www.fldoe.org/accountability/assessments/k-12-student-assessment/end-of-course-eoc-assessments/ http://www.fldoe.org/accountability/assessments/k-12-student-assessment/end-of-course-eoc-assessments/ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 greer, s. (2015). experts: ap u.s. history still doesn’t teach american exceptionalism. the daily caller. retrieved june 14, 2017 from http://dailycaller.com/2015/08/05/experts-apu-s-history-still-doesnt-teach-american-exceptionalism/. grodsky, e., warren, j. r., & felts, e. (2008). testing and social stratification in american education. annual review of sociology, 34385. heafner, t. l., & fitchett, p. g. (2015). an opportunity to learn us history: what naep data suggest regarding the opportunity gap. high school journal, 98(3), 226-249. horn, c. (2006). the technical realities of measuring history. in s. g. grant (ed.), measuring history: cases of state-level testing across the united states (pp. 338). greenwich, ct: information age publishing. house, e. r., & nancy, l. (1990). report on the content definition process in social studies testing. cse technical report 310. los angeles, ca: ucla center for research on evaluation, standards, and student testing. howard, k. e., & anderson, k. a. (2010). stereotype threat in middle school: the effects of prior performance on expectancy and test performance. middle grades research journal, 5(3), 119-137. howard, s. j., woodcock, s., ehrich, j., & bokosmaty, s. (2016). what are standardized literacy and numeracy tests testing? evidence of the domain-general contributions to students’ standardized educational test performance. british journal of educational psychology, 87, 108-122. huang, h. (2015). can students themselves narrow the socioeconomic-status-based achievement gap through their own persistence and learning time? education policy analysis http://dailycaller.com/2015/08/05/experts-ap-u-s-history-still-doesnt-teach-american-exceptionalism/ http://dailycaller.com/2015/08/05/experts-ap-u-s-history-still-doesnt-teach-american-exceptionalism/ furgione, et al. archives, 23(108), 1-37. humphrey, k. (2016). investigating the efficacy of a targeted youth intervention on negative problem orientation. journal of public mental health, 15(4), 209-215. jackson, c., & nystrom, as. (2015). ‘smart students get perfect scores in tests without studying much’: why is an effortless achiever identity attractive, and for whom is it possible? research papers in education, 30(4), 393-410. jerrard, j. (2015). what does “quality” look like for post-2015 education provision in lowincome countries? an exploration of stakeholders’ perspectives of school benefits in village leap schools, rural sindh, pakistan. international journal of educational development, 82-9. jones, j. m. (2006). from racial inequality to social justice: the legacy of brown v. board and lessons from south africa. journal of social issues, 62(4), 885-909. kamenetz, a. (2015) the new, new framework for ap u.s. history. morning edition on npr. retrieved june 1, 2017 from http://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2015/08/05/429361628/thenew-new-framework-for-ap-u-s-history kearns, l. l. (2016). the construction of ‘illiterate’ and ‘literate’ youth: the effects of highstakes standardized literacy testing. race ethnicity and education, 19(1), 121-140. kenna, j.l & russell, w. (2015). how did we get here? common core and the history of standards in social studies education. in t. turner, j. clabough, & w. coles (eds). getting at the core of common core standards with social studies (5-24). charlotte, nc: information age publishing kenna, j. & russell, w. (2014). implications of common core state standards on the social studies. the clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues, and ideas, http://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2015/08/05/429361628/the-new-new-framework-for-ap-u-s-history http://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2015/08/05/429361628/the-new-new-framework-for-ap-u-s-history journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 87(2), 75-82. knoester, m., & au, w. (2017). standardized testing and school segregation: like tinder for fire? race, ethnicity and education, 20(1), 1-14. layton, lyndsey. conservatives convinced college board to rewrite american history, the washington post, july 30, 2015, retrieved june 1, 2017 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/college-board-rewrites-americanhistory/2015/07/30/cadadd4c-36d1-11e5-b673-1df005a0fb28_story.html. lewis, b. l. (2013). an analysis of mathematics achievement disparities between black and white students and socioeconomically disadvantaged and advantaged students across content strands by elementary and middle school level in a diverse virginia school district. (doctoral dissertation). retrieved from proquest llc. magee, r. g., & jones, b. d. (2012). an instrument to assess beliefs about standardized testing: measuring the influence of epistemology on the endorsement of standardized testing. australian journal of educational & developmental psychology, 12, 71-82. maranto, j. h. (2015). the effect of standardized testing on historical literacy and educational reform in the u.s. academic leadership. journal in student research, (3). mathews, j. (2014). ap us history change is not unpatriotic. the washington post. retrieved june 14, 2017 from https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/ap-us-historychange-is-not-unpatriotic-it-makes-the-exam-less-stressful-forstudents/2014/10/12/3b728e1a-4f74-11e4-8c24487e92bc997b_story.html?utm_term=.2703f3bf9957 michel, g. l. (2015). pursuing the dream of educational equality. reviews in american history, http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/college-board-rewrites-american-history/2015/07/30/cadadd4c-36d1-11e5-b673-1df005a0fb28_story.html http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/college-board-rewrites-american-history/2015/07/30/cadadd4c-36d1-11e5-b673-1df005a0fb28_story.html https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/ap-us-history-change-is-not-unpatriotic-it-makes-the-exam-less-stressful-for-students/2014/10/12/3b728e1a-4f74-11e4-8c24-487e92bc997b_story.html?utm_term=.2703f3bf9957 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/ap-us-history-change-is-not-unpatriotic-it-makes-the-exam-less-stressful-for-students/2014/10/12/3b728e1a-4f74-11e4-8c24-487e92bc997b_story.html?utm_term=.2703f3bf9957 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/ap-us-history-change-is-not-unpatriotic-it-makes-the-exam-less-stressful-for-students/2014/10/12/3b728e1a-4f74-11e4-8c24-487e92bc997b_story.html?utm_term=.2703f3bf9957 https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/ap-us-history-change-is-not-unpatriotic-it-makes-the-exam-less-stressful-for-students/2014/10/12/3b728e1a-4f74-11e4-8c24-487e92bc997b_story.html?utm_term=.2703f3bf9957 furgione, et al. 43(1), 176-183. milestone moment in high-stakes testing. (2015). sun sentinel. retrieved june 1, 2017 from: http://www.sun-sentinel.com/opinion/editorials/fl-editorial-high-stakes-testing0208-20150206-story.html monkeviciene, o., amirova, a., & ashirbayeva, n. (2015). modern educational approaches as a factor of development of students’ intellectual abilities. pedagogy studies/pedagogika, 119(3), 45-59. morgan, h. (2016). relying on high-stakes standardized tests to evaluate schools and teachers: a bad idea. the clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues, and ideas, 89(2), 67-72. doi:10.1080/00098655.2016.1156628. mowat, c. l. (1965). a study of bias in british and american history textbooks. british association for american studies, (10). 31. naep dashboards report card. (n.d.). retrieved june 2, 2017 from https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/dashboards/report_card.aspx naep achievement gaps. (2015). retrieved june 2, 2017 from https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/studies/gaps/ national assessment of educational progress in u.s. history. (n.d.). retrieved june 2, 2017 from: https://www.nagb.org/content/nagb/assets/documents/publications/frameworks/history/20 10-history-framework.pdf pahl, r. h. (2003). assessment traps in k-12 social studies. the social studies, 94(5), 212 215. pazey, b. l., schalock, r. l., schaller, j., & burkett, j. (2016). incorporating quality of life http://www.sun-sentinel.com/opinion/editorials/fl-editorial-high-stakes-testing-0208-20150206-story.html http://www.sun-sentinel.com/opinion/editorials/fl-editorial-high-stakes-testing-0208-20150206-story.html https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/dashboards/report_card.aspx https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/studies/gaps/ https://www.nagb.org/content/nagb/assets/documents/publications/frameworks/history/2010-history-framework.pdf https://www.nagb.org/content/nagb/assets/documents/publications/frameworks/history/2010-history-framework.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 concepts into educational reform: creating real opportunities for students with disabilities in the 21st century. journal of disability policy studies, 27(2), 96-105. popham, w. j. (2016). examining current assessment practices, standardized tests purpose is the point. educational leadership, 45-49. rees, j. (2003). a crisis over consensus: standardized testing in american history and student learning. radical pedagogy, 5(2), reich, g. (2008). measuring achievement in history: multiple-choice, high-stakes and unsure outcomes. (doctoral dissertation). retrieved from dissertation abstracts international section a, 68, 3819. roberts, p., & hou, e. (2016). the best education money can buy? disabled university students and the equality act 2010. international journal of discrimination and the law, 16(2-3), 143-160. russo, c. (2016). an overview of every student succeeds act. school business affairs, 82(3), 35-38. salisbury, t. (2015). education and inequality in south africa: returns to schooling in the postapartheid era. international journal of education, 43-52. savage, t. v. (2003). assessment and quality social studies. the social studies, 94(5), 201-206. schul, j. e. (2013). ensuing dog fight: the aha commission on the social studies' testing controversy. journal of educational administration and history, 45(1), 1-27. schutz, d. (2013). toward educational testing reform: inside reading achievement tests. education policy analysis archives, 21(90). scogin, s. c., kruger, c. j., jekkals, r. e., steinfeldt, c. (2017). learning by experience in a furgione, et al. standardized testing culture: investigation of a middle school experiential learning program. journal of experiential education, 40(1), 39-57. segall, a. (2003). teachers’ perceptions of the impact of state-mandated standardized testing: the michigan educational assessment program (meap) as a case study of consequences. theory and research in social education, 31(3), 287-325. smith, b. g., & maskiell, m. (2015). labor and race in the atlantic world. reviews in american history, 43(1), 20-25. socioeconomic status. (n.d.). retrieved april 07, 2017, from http://www.apa.org/topics/socioeconomic-status/ stearns, p. n. (1998). why study history? american historical association. retrieved april 7, 2017 from https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-andarchives/archives/why-study-history-(1998) stedman, l. c. (2009). the naep long-term trend assessment: a review of its transformation, use, and findings. national assessment governing board 1988–2008 report. stern, j. (2015). left and right may not be happy with the new ap standards: here’s why you should be. history news network. columbian college of arts and sciences. retrieved april 14, 2017 from http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/160264 strauss, v. (2015, march 11). five reasons standardized testing isn’t likely to let up. retrieved june 16, 2017, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answersheet/wp/2015/03/11/five-reasons-standardized-testing-isnt-likely-to-letup/?utm_term=.4ac99c9da035 terrell, d. g. (2010). the three-legged race: exploring the relationship between history and http://www.apa.org/topics/socioeconomic-status/ https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/archives/why-study-history-(1998) https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/archives/why-study-history-(1998) http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/160264 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2015/03/11/five-reasons-standardized-testing-isnt-likely-to-let-up/?utm_term=.4ac99c9da035 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2015/03/11/five-reasons-standardized-testing-isnt-likely-to-let-up/?utm_term=.4ac99c9da035 https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2015/03/11/five-reasons-standardized-testing-isnt-likely-to-let-up/?utm_term=.4ac99c9da035 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 62-96 social studies teaching and standardized tests. dissertation abstracts international section a, 71, 72. thompson, h. r., duvall, j., padrez, r., rosekrans, n., & madsen, k. a. (2016). the impact of moderate-vigorous intensity physical education class immediately prior to standardized testing on student test-testing behaviors. mental health and physical activity, 11, 7-12. toldson, i. a. (2012). editor's comment: when standardized tests miss the mark. journal of negro education, 81(3), 181-185. doi:10.7709/jnegroeducation.81.3.0181 torres, k., & stirgus, e. (2015). senate targets ap history courses: state schools urged to scrap program; liberal bias alleged. the atlanta journal-constitution (atlanta, ga). turner, s. l. (2014). creating an assessment-centered classroom: five essential assessment strategies to support middle grades student learning and achievement. middle school journal. venkateswaran, u. (2004). race and gender issues on the ap united states history examination. history teacher, 37(4), 501-512. virginia standards predated the common core initiative. (2014). knowledge quest, 42(3), 1619 volger, k. (2003). where does social studies fit in a high-stakes testing environment? the social studies, 94(5), 207 211. walker, t. a. (2017). recasting the vision for achieving equity. education and urban society, 49(3), 297-313. white, l. (2014). historical organizations react to the ap us history debate. perspectives on history, 52(7), 14 furgione, et al. wiggins, g. (1989). a true test: toward more authentic and equitable assessment. the phi delta kappan, 70(9), 703-713. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 80-88 80 coaching method in teaching history of visual arts to students aigul faizrakhmanova1, tatiana averianova2, valerie aitov3, gulnara kudinova4, inessa lebedeva5 abstract coaching method is used in sports, business, psychology, and economics as a method to increase performance. the great potential of coaching also expands its application in education, namely in teaching history of visual arts. the author identifies the basic stages of coaching: goal setting; reality check; courses of action and will to act. the last stage involves the following activities: developing a class road map, developing a presentation on artists, preparing an artist's portfolio, and completing the student portfolio, a game, and preparing a report, work with official sources like museum websites, studying art reproductions, and analytical work. efficiency of the coaching method is demonstrated by the results of the experiment conducted at the premises of the engineering and technology faculty of elabuga institute of kazan federal university. performance was evaluated by the following criteria: 1) the average number of times an artist is mentioned by one student; 2) the highest and lowest number of artists mentioned by one student; 3) the number of artists mentioned by students at least once; 4) the number of times periods of history of visual arts are mentioned. the results were confirmed at the art-graphic faculty of m. akmullah bashkir state pedagogical university. the results show a rather significant breakaway of the experimental group by every measure, which proves efficiency of applying the coaching method in teaching history of visual arts. as the study revealed, the coaching method has a rather significant potential as a teaching method, namely, for history of visual arts. key words: coaching, coaching method, teaching methods, design education, history of visual arts. introduction the coaching method extensively used as an efficient means to solve a broad range of issues in different areas of human activity such as sports, business, psychology, and economics, has lately begun to be actively applied in education, first in business education, later in linguistics, and now it is gradually entering teaching practice at general education schools and higher education 1 candidate of pedagogical sciences, senior lecturer, kazan federal university, ahaigul@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof. nosov magnitogorsk state technical university, russian federation, ata1981@mail.ru 3 prof., bashkir state pedagogical university (bspu) named after m. akmulla, ufa, bashkortostan valerie.aitov@mail.ru 4prof., head of general linguistics department, bashkir state pedagogical university (bspu) named after m. akmulla, ufa, bashkortostan, gulja_gibatova@mail.ru 5 senior lecturer, naberezhnye chelny state teachers training university, russian federetion, tatarstan repablic, inna.pchelka@yandex.ru mailto:ahaigul@mail.ru mailto:ata1981@mail.ru mailto:valerie.aitov@mail.ru mailto:inna.pchelka@yandex.ru faizrakhmanova et al. institutions (tarman et al., 2015; shramko, 2014, akhmetshin & vasilev, 2016; gabidullina et al., 2017). analysis of the limited experience in using coaching in education shows that technology of its application in teaching is not sufficiently elaborated, nor is its efficiency researched (abduali et al., 2017; aminov et al., 2014). thus, we are faced with the task of developing the technology of using the coaching method in teaching history of visual arts and proving its efficiency. the definition of coaching given by e. parsloe and m. wray treats coaching as "a process furthering implementation of training and development and consequently improvement of the trainee's competence and professional skills (parsloe & ray, 2003). moreover, coaching is understood as the art of facilitating increase of performance, training and development of another person (downey, 2017). as per the mentioned definition, coaching has 4 basic stages: stage 1 − goal setting, stage 2 − reality check, stage 3 − courses of action, stage 4 − will to act. method research design it appears necessary to examine the coaching method in relation to teaching history of visual arts in a higher education institution. at the first stage, students set a goal for themselves, for example, in our case it is to master the basic knowledge of the historical periods of visual arts, each period's representative artists and their best-known works. at the second stage, students assess their own initial level of knowledge of history of visual arts based on questionnaires and self-study. the third stage consists in the students looking for courses of action to reach their goals, in collaboration with the professor coach. at the fourth stage, the planned actions are carried out; this stage involves development of a lesson road map, development of a presentation, preparation of a portfolio, completion of the student's briefcase, play activities, preparation of a report, work with official sources, and analytical work. let us dwell on implementation of the last stage in history of visual arts classes. 1. road maps for seminars. for each seminar (i. e. each topic), the group receives a road map in the form of a task table indicating the concerned period in history of visual arts, names of artists journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 80-88 and some of their best-known works. each student must choose one artist from the list and prepare a presentation emphasizing the artist's works listed in the table. at the same time, the road map is a sort of a cheat sheet because one sheet contains the period of art, the artists, and their key works (korableva & kalimullina, 2016). glancing at the sheet, one can easily remember the historical period and artists working then. every student is recommended to have the road map at hand at all times (erofeeva & chikova, 2016). 2. presentations on artists. the presentation on the artist shall be developed as follows. the title slide must state the name of the artist, the period of art and years of the artist's birth and death. the following 1 or 2 slides shall give interesting facts from the artist's life. next, the artist's main works shall be briefly stated and then more details on the specified works shall be given: the years of creation, materials, storage location, plot, interesting facts and myths about the painting. 3. artist's portfolio containing paintings. during preparation of the presentation on the artist, the artist's portfolio shall be designed simultaneously, wherein the period, artist, years of birth and death, their portrait and their key paintings with main data shall be given. that sheet is printed out by each student in color or black and white. 4. student portfolio. each student puts together their own "portfolio of history of visual arts," which includes the following: 1) seminar road maps; 2) artists' portfolios with their paintings. thus, students gather information on all artists studied in seminars in the form of an album that helps to quickly remember the artist and recall their works from a certain period. 5. games. memory games are a very efficient method in studying artists and their works. different versions of games can be designed on all topics, for example, take out the odd painting that is not the work of the artist who painted the others, or identify the author of a painting fragment and many other games (cicek et al., 2012; magmusov, 2013; shkilev et al., 2018). 6. presentations on an artist. the report is a classical method in teaching, somewhat outdated. nonetheless, we see great potential there. to achieve maximum effect from writing a report, much groundwork is required from the teacher: to prepare a topic that would allow students to take a creative approach and that would make it difficult to find a ready-made solution online. for example, topics of reports on modern artists may include information on solo art shows, interviews with the artist or with their colleagues and contemporaries about the artist (akhmetov et al., 2015, faizrakhmanov & akhmetov, 2016; aydarova et al., 2017). faizrakhmanova et al. 7. work with official sources. it involves working with official museum websites. before starting to work, students are handed out a list of websites of major museums where artists' works are stored, including links. thus, students get an opportunity to work with reliable official data, highquality images of paintings. moreover, they simultaneously take a look at those depositories of world art through cyberspace (korableva et al., 2017). 8. study of art reproductions. indisputably, the best option to study visual arts are original paintings, but, understandably, that is impracticable (with the rare exception of seeing a few touring exhibitions or going to a museum). in view of that, reproductions become one of the main sources for studying visual arts (baytak et al., 2011). electronic presentations are but a supplement to reproductions because they fail to convey the same richness of color, all details that high-quality reproductions can convey. 9. analytical work. another efficient method in teaching history of visual arts is analytical work in the form of filling in tables in notebooks, wherein students shall state the artist, period, key works, features of the artist's activity and the contribution they made to the world visual arts (belomestnykh & tesleva, 2012; szydlowski, 2017; valeeva et al., 2016). study group to verify the efficiency of application of the coaching method, an experiment was conducted at the engineering and technology faculty of elabuga institute of kazan federal university. in the course of several years in the experimental group of 135 students, the coaching method was extensively used in teaching the subject of history of arts and design. the control group of 230 students used conventional methods in studying the discipline history of visual arts. it should be noted that the number of hours allocated to study of the above-mentioned disciplines is the same in both groups — 18 hours of lectures and 18 hours of seminars in each. findings we find the experiment results very interesting, illustrative, and convincing. in the experimental group, the number of artists mentioned by one student is 15.5 on average, whereas in the control group it is 7.8 artists per student. i. e. the value in the experimental group is twice as high, which proves the efficiency of the coaching method in teaching visual arts. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 80-88 the highest and lowest values are interesting as well. in the experimental group, the highest number of artists mentioned by one student is 22 (in twenty-one students' responses, which amounts to 15% of the total number of students in the experimental group); next value was 19–16 (as given by fifty-two students (38.5%). the lowest value, i.e. 9-10 artists, was given by twenty students (15%), which matches the average value in the control group. table 1 survey results parameters experimental group control group average number of artists mentioned by one student 15.5 7.8 highest number of artists mentioned by one student 22–16 (given by 73 students, or 54% of the total number of students) 15 (given by 11 students, or 4.8% of the total number of students) lowest number of artists mentioned by one student 9–10 (given by 20 students, or 15%) 4–5 (given by 7 students, or 31.7%) in the control group, the highest number of artists mentioned by one student is 15 (given by eleven students), next down was 12 given by seventy students. the lowest value is 4 to 5 artists given by seventy-three students (15%), which is 31.7% of the total number of students in the control group. figure 1. survey results 15,5 22 9 7,8 15 4 0 5 10 15 20 25 average number of artists mentioned by one student highest number of artists mentioned by one student lowest number of artists mentioned by one student experimental group control group faizrakhmanova et al. moreover, the following significant parameter is number of artists mentioned by students at least once. thus, 30 artists were mentioned at least once each in the control group. amongst them, i. i. shishkin was mentioned 223 times (by 97% of the total number of students), leonardo da vinci – 197 times (by 85.6%), i. k. aivazovsky – 185 times (80%), van gogh – 171 times (74%). in the experimental group, 63 artists were mentioned at least once (twice as many as in the control group). the number of times leonardo da vinci was mentioned is 135 (100% students), i. i. shishkin – 124 (92% of the total number of students taking part in the experiment), b. urmanche – 115 times (85%), picasso and michelangelo – 90 times each (67%), v. m. vasnetsov and claude monet – 83 times each (61.5%). figure 2. number of artists mentioned in the students' questionnaires at least once under the parameter "number of artists mentioned at least once" the control group yields 26 artists, the experimental group – 43 artists. the number of artists mentioned in the control group students' responses 2–3 times is 27 in the control group, 75 – in the experimental group. table 2 survey results parameters experimental group (130 people) control group (230 people) number of artists mentioned at least once 43 26 number of artists mentioned twice 48 9 number of artists mentioned 3 times 27 18 under the criterion "number of times periods of visual arts were mentioned", the russian visual arts of the 18th–20th cc. are in the lead in both the experimental and the control groups: 30% of 63 30 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 experimental group control group journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 80-88 the total number of mentions in the experimental group and 28% in the control group. in the second place under the same criterion is the period of the 19th–20th cc. of west european visual arts – 25%–26% in each group. then the periods come in this order: the visual arts of tatarstan, the renaissance, western europe of the 17th–18th cc., old russian art. table 3 survey results periods of visual arts mentions, % control group experimental group visual arts of the renaissance 19 16 visual arts of western europe in the 17th–18th cc. 3 4 visual arts of western europe in the 19th–20h cc. 25 26 old russian visual arts 2 2 russian visual arts 28 0 visual arts of tatarstan 23 22 discussion, conclusion and implications the results of the study have proved the efficiency of using the coaching method in teaching history of visual arts. the results were confirmed at the art-graphic faculty of m. akmullah bashkir state pedagogical university. by all parameters of comparison, such as the average number of times an artist is mentioned by one student, the highest and lowest number of artists mentioned by one student, the number of artists mentioned by students at least once, the number of times periods of history of visual arts were mentioned — the experimental group achieved the best results. this enables the results to be used in practical design education. undoubtedly, further work needs to be done to improve the methods of teaching history of visual arts within the framework of psychological techniques for retaining information and such visual methods of teaching as setting up training benches, boards, as well as those employing social networks. however, even the obtained experimental data let us claim that the coaching method, which lies in following certain basic working stages, develops students' learning ability, facilitates breaking through intercultural barriers in a learning environment (akhmetshin et al., 2017), helps to achieve the identified objectives more efficiently within the time frame limited by the educational programme of history of visual arts. faizrakhmanova et al. acknowledgements the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references abduali, b., konuratbayeva, z. m., abikenova, g. t., karipzhanova, g. t., sagdieva, r. k., husnutdinov, d. h., giniyatullina, l. m. (2017). historical and linguistic system of turkic names and some specific features of creating vocabulary. man in india, 97(18), 443-456. akhmetov, l.g., badaev, v.s., komelina, v.a., & kuzmin, v.k. (2015). national arts and crafts in the content of art education of russia, review of european studies, 7(1), 1-4. akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment, man in india, 97(15), 281-288. akhmetshin, e.m., & vasilev, v.l. (2016). control as an instrument of management and institution of economic security, academy of strategic management journal, 15 (specialissue1), 1-7. aminov, t.м. (2014). system of professional education in regions of pre-revolutionary russia (through the example of bashkiria). voprosy obrazovaniya. 3: 244-262. aydarova, s. h., giniyatullina, l. m., sagdieva, r. k., husnutdinov, d. h., mirzagitov, r. h., & gabidullina, f. i. (2017). models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) baytak, a., tarman, b., & ayas, c. (2011). experiencing technology integration in education: children's perceptions. international electronic journal of elementary education, 3(2), 139-151. belomestnykh v.n., tesleva e.p. (2012). acoustic, elastic, and anharmonic properties of sm1–xrxs solid solutions with trivalent impurities (r = y, lа, tm). russian physics journal. vol. 55, № 5. pp. 488–494. cicek, v., ulker, r., & tarman, b. (2012). comparison of character education in us and turkish educational systems: globalizing american education system. energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 4(3), 1311-1322. downey, м. (2017). effective coaching lessons from the coaches' coach. petersburg: good book. (in russ.). erofeeva, n.e., & chikova, i.v. (2016). about the role of interactive technologies in higher school, successes of modern science and education, 1(12), 13-15. (in russ.). faizrakhmanov, i.m., & akhmetov, l.g. (2016). use of a targeted program approach in designing information space of the technology teacher’s professional activity, journal of organizational culture, communications and conflict. 20(specialissue4). 1-6. (in russ.). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 80-88 gabidullina, f., minnullina, r., & nureyeva, a. (2017). the concept of the character in the novels of gayaz ishaki. man in india, 97(10), 177-182. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016) strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017) research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. magmusov, t.a. (2013). school and children during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the romanov dynasty. bylye gody. (4) 30: 79-87. parsloe, e., & ray, m. (2003). coaching in education: practical methods and techniques. petersburg: peter. (in russ.). shkilev, r. e., samsonova, e. v., kazanchuk, i. d., & isupova, m. m. (2018). rendering imagery in the semantic structure of stable terminological word combinations. rupkatha journal on interdisciplinary studies in humanities, 10(1), 128-133. 10.21659/rupkatha.v10n1.14 shramko, l.i. (2014). peculiarities of using the coaching method to grow when teaching foreign languages, symbol of science, 11, 182-185. (in russ.). szydlowski, a. (2017). political expert: project of restart of global financial and political system launched. analytical interview to the european news magazine. retrieved from http://m.baltnews.lt/lithuania/20170308/1016887316.html tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a valeeva r.a., aitov v.f., bulatbayeva a.a. (2016). the levels of english language acquisition on the basis of problem-solving and product-oriented tasks in the multiligual social medium. iejme: mathematics education, vol. 11. № 1. pp. 255-262. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 201-213 201 the existence of customary rights of customary law community and its regulation in the era of special autonomy of papua roberth kurniawan ruslak hammar 1 abstract the protection and recognition of customary rights of customary law community is a constitutional imperative according to the implementation of article 18b of the 1945 constitution. in order to minimize the conflict between government, employers and the community, it is necessary to understand the characteristics of customary rights of each tribe in papua, and legitimize them as local legal products in order to accelerate the development and welfare of the community. this research, conducted in manokwari during 2008-2009, determined the existence of customary rights of the arfak customary law community. the purposive sampling technique was used to identify 52 respondents from arfak indigenous natives. this research adopted normative-empirical methods in order to review and analyze the descriptive data collected from the respondents..the results of the research indicate that: (1) implementation of the protection and recognition of communal land rights in tanah papua has been accommodated in law number 21 year 2001 and it is realized in special district regulation number 23 year 2008 namely: customary law community rights recognized and protected by the state, government, provincial government, district / city, which is implemented through customary rights research on indigenous and tribal peoples committed by the committee, and accommodated in the decision of the regent / mayor. (2) arfak customary law community owns customary right of arfak tribe, sub tribe that is hatam, moile, sougb, meyah., mnu custom right, customary right of kerek level and family, and arrangement and utilization customary right arranged by each mananir according to its level. key words: existence of customary rights, arfak society, special autonomy introduction the pluralistic indonesian society of various tribes and languages is an integral part of the indonesian nation that should be nurtured, respected and given recognition for the sake of survival and existence in the republic of indonesia. article 18 b of the 1945 constitution states that: (1) the state acknowledges and respects special or special regional government units regulated by law (2) the state acknowledges and respects the unity, customary law community and rights traditional as long as it is alive and in accordance with the development of society and the principle of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia, as governed by law. 1 assistant professor, stih bintuni, papua barat, indonesia, roberthhammar@yahoo.com mailto:roberthhammar@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 201-213 cornelis van vollenhoven (1974-1933), the dutch law scholar on traditional legal system of indonesia, the adat had divided customary jurisdictions into 119 regions, however currently the customary law environment in indonesia has more than what was established by vollenhoven. as a result, there now exists several customary law environments developed by customary law communities with their leadership structures possessing a hold over natural resources as well as people’s customary rights. the indonesian constitutionally stipulated in article 28i of the 1945 (3) that cultural identity and the rights of traditional communities should be respected in harmony with the development of the times and civilizations. in order to realize the recognition of the existence of indigenous people with their customary rights, it is necessary to conduct research to reveal the reality of the existence of the customary rights of indigenous people in indonesia. this will help in understanding the application of legal functions as social and or social engineering tools as a means of social control. the arfak customary law community, which is a genealogical-territorial society consisting of hatam, sough, meyah sub-tribes and that spread in manokwari district, south manokwari, arfak mountains, tambrau, bintuni bay regency, has a distinctive cultural identity of papua and has a distinctive traditional right collectively called jiyaser jide dihei or jijoug yeyin mebi. there is not much knowledge about the customary rights of customary community though it is known that these rights contribute to the efforts made to minimize the possibility of horizontal and vertical conflict. as a result, the welfare coveted by the customary law community in papua could really become a reality (abidin, bakar, & haseeb, 2014, 2015; abidin & haseeb, 2015; abidin, haseeb, azam, & islam, 2015; abidin, haseeb, & islam, 2016; abidina, haseeb, & jantan, 2016). additionally, various customary rights conflicts in papua have affected the development acceleration in all sectors including inhibiting investment as stated by the assistant i of the papua district secretary doren wakerwa in biak 11 november 2017 (www.beritasati.com), or customary right conflict in timika, namely the amungme tribe with freeport , the case of wamena airport, as representative bpk of papua (jayapura.bpk.go.id; national kompas.com; https://suarapapua.com); or the conflict between mha papua with provincial and district government (jabat merat adat nusantara https: //parliamentmagazine.co,id); while tribes in papua seek to defend their customary land (www.mongabay.co.id); and conflict of uluriy land of sumuri tribe with genting oil company (www.tifa-news.com); the customary right conflict between the hammar government and the customary law community occurred in manokwari-west papua (hammar, 2016: 220-225). the study of the customary rights arrangement is done by reviewing the legislation with content analysis techniques. while research on the existence of customary rights of customary law community arfak was implemented in manokwari in the period 2008-2009, the study aims to know the existence and regulation of customary rights of customary law community arfak. the sampling of respondents was based on purposive sampling technique and 52 members of arfak customary law community leaders namely menir, moskur, andigpoi from hatam, moile, meuku, sougb tribe were chosen for this study. this research adopted normative-empirical methods in order to review and analyze the descriptive data collected from the respondents. the problems in this research are formulated as follows (1) how is the customary rights arrangement made in papua special autonomy law? (2) how is the customary rights arrangement made in arfak customary law community? literature review understanding customary rights cornelis van vollenhoven was the professor in adat law and guided many great scholars of his time. he formulated the customary rights as the right of a customary law community (tribe, village, village union) to control all the land in its territory. thus, the subject of customary right is a society of customary law, whether single or regional partnership, but not the right of the individual, and also according to roestandi ardiwilaga is also the right of a family.2 cornelis van vollenhoven put forward the notion of beschikkingsrecht as follows: "beschikkingsrecht is the authority of one or other legal partnership to control the untreated or processed land and water within its territory for the benefit of its citizens or foreigners (for the 2 maria s.w. sumardjono. 1982. puspita serangkum, aneka masalah hukumagraria, andi offset, yogyakarta, p. 5 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 201-213 latter usually by a levy), it shall be entitled with the responsibility of the legal partnership over what is happening in the region ".3 with regard to beschikkingsrecht ter haar4 argues that: "the hamlet community (dorpsgemeenschap) and the territorial community (streekgemeenschap) are entitled to the land, have a certain right to the land, and exercise that right, inwardly and inwardly. based on the entry into force of the exit, the community as a ruling entity picks up the proceeds from the land by refusing others to do so, as well as the unity of which it is responsible for the outsiders of the community for delinquents in its territory already done by people who can not be found. based on the entry into force of the right, the society regulates the collection of results by its members, based on collective rights, and for each member to obtain its lawful share, the community also confronts its members, by limiting the demands and individual rights (for the benefit of the community) and by the release of lands directly entailed by the interests of the peoples of the individual enterprises that collect the results for themselves. maria s.w. sumardjono5 argued that the customary right covers all the land in its entirety, which means covering unexploited lands as well as lands that have been cultivated. it is also stated that the name for customary right (beschikkingrecht) in indonesian is rare or absent. however known names are for declaring the enactment of the beschikkingrecht (environment rather than beshikkingrecht, beschikkingskring), 6 for example : patuanan in ambon which means the neighborhood belongs, panyampeto in kalimantan, in the sense of the food producing region, wewengkon in java, prabumian in bali, pawatasan in kalimantan which all mean limited area, totobuan in bolaang mongondow which means land forbidden to others, ulayat in minangkabau which means the territory of the guardian, the administrator, the regional head and so on. 3 m.g. ohorella. 1993. hukum adat mengenai tanah dan air di pulau ambon dan sumbangannya terhadap pembangunan hukum agraria nasional (uupa) dan undang-undang lainnya. hasanuddin university pps dissertation, makassar, p.172 4 ter haar dan b. poespanoto 1983. asas-asas dan susunan hukum adat, 7th edition, pradnya paramita, jakarta, p. 71. 5 maria s.w. sumardjono. 1982. op.cit, p.5. 6 loc. cit. hammar signs of customary rights cornelis van vollenhoven7 gave 6 (six) special marks on the existence of customary right, namely: "1. only the legal community itself and its citizens can freely use the wild land located within its territory. 2. foreigners (outside the legal community) may only use the land by permission, its use without permission is seen as a offense. 3. for the use of the land is sometimes for the community collected recognition, but for people outside the legal community is always levied recognition. 4. indigenous peoples are responsible for certain offenses that occur within its territory, which offense cannot be prosecuted. 5. indigenous peoples cannot relinquish customary rights, transfer them or alienate them permanently. 6. indigenous peoples still have intervention (intensive or less intensive) of the processed lands." the customary right applies both inside and out maria s.w. sumardjono8 argued that the legal community has power over the land within its territory, whether it has been cultivated or not. the right has an inward force to the members of the legal community so that each person receives his share of the proceed obtained under the rights of the customary law community, limits one's rights and takes certain land for the common good. for example, a legal citizen has the right to hunt or collect forest products for his own use and his family. with certain procedures he can obtain the right to open the land which then if done continuously can be his, whose rights are unlimited but also known restrictions of the legal community. if his property is not properly done so that it becomes a shrub (kei: ibut kait) then the rights to the land may be lost and the land may be cultivated by other members of the community. 7 ibid, p.6-7. 8 maria s.w. sumardjono. 1982. op.cit, p.7. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 201-213 if the customary rights apply here, it also contains the consequences that if the fellowship falls away, leaving no heirs and regulation, then the legal community would become his heirs. however, the law also states that, for public interest, certain parts of the land can be reserved in its territory for public residence, tombs, general pengembalaan, roads, office, and reserve forest. 9 muhammad isa, 10 argued that the functions or activities of customary rights to the land appear in the inward function of: "a. members of the legal alliance who have certain rights over the object of customary right, namely: 1) right to land: land clearance rights, right to collect the proceeds, establish a dwelling place, the right to shepherd. 2) right to water: using water, catching fish and others. 3) rights to forests: rights to hunt, rights to harvest forest products and so forth. b. the return of customary right to land in the event that its owner goes uncertain, dies without inheritance or signs of opening the ground has become extinct. c. the guild provides land for the purposes of fellowship; the guild provides land for communal purposes, such as land for cemeteries, occupations and so on. d. assistance to legal partnerships in land transactions in which heads of associations may act as regulators maria s.w. sumardjono, 11 argues that the force of applying out of the customary right means that the legal community is confronted with outsiders where such persons are prohibited from using the land in their territory and the community as a union responsible for crimes committed in its territory if the offender not known. for outsiders, it is permissible to collect the results of the customary rights of a legal community by asking permission, after which to pay recognition and retribution. such rights that can be enjoyed only during one harvest, and the outsiders are also not allowed to buy or even inherit the agricultural lands. 9 maria s.w. sumardjono. loc.cit. 10 muhammad isa. 1985. kecenderungan pengaruh pensertifikatan tanah terhadap pelestarian tanah adat (di minangkabau), view in sayuti thalib (editor), hubungan tanah adat dengan hukum agraria di minangkabau. jakarta, p. 23-24. 11 maria s.w. sumardjono. 1982. op.cit, p. 7. hammar outward function, according to muhammad isa,12 can be seen in the incarnation, among others: (a) prohibit to buy or receive land pledge (especially where customary rights are still strong); (b) to get the right to pick up the land requires permission and to pay "recoqnitie" or retribution; (c) the responsibility of the fellowship of customary reactions, in the case of the occurrence of a delict in the territory of which the culprit is unknown. in the case of this exit function, the head of the fellowship represents the fellowship ". objects and privileges of customary rights customary right applies to the territory include; land, water, forest, plants and animals. against the land which has been endeavored the influence of customary rights is not the same. maria s.w. sumardjono, 13 argued that in various regions there are 3 (three) levels of difference as follows: "1. the customary right becomes strong because if there is no owner or the owner falls to the legal community, the legal community can then pass it on to another member of the legal community, but the new owner is bound by the rules of the legal community in the sense that it cannot transfer the rights to the land and whenever he fails to work the soil can be taken back (kempitan, los, playangan). 2. strong customary rights to the land belong to the core of the population as long as there are sons and owners who constantly work on the land; the legal community cannot allow changes to the core property, should not be inherently deviated from the rule of law society (rice field pekoelen, gogolan, in java). 3. in addition to the land belonging to the nucleus was obtained agricultural land that customary rights have been thinned, the legal community intervention very little, the owner can freely sell the land (sawah yasan in java) ". the waters which are controlled by customary rights are rivers and sea lanes along the coast, or according to customary law of ambon lease called labuhan, and also meti or metiin in the kei islands, whereas forest areas occupied by customary rights are forest products and wildlife in the forest. 12 muhammad isa. op.cit, p. 23-24. 13 maria s.w. sumardjono. 1982. op.cit, p. 8-9. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 201-213 implementation of customary rights, individual rights may be limited to the interests of the legal community. according to maria s.w. sumardjono, 14 herein lies the privilege of customary rights, namely the mutual relationship between customary rights and private rights. customary rights also include individual rights to land, intensive cultivation of land will give rise to a strong right between the tenants and the land and therefore the customary right becomes weak. however, if the land cultivated is left by the concerned and not maintained anymore, customary rights become strong again. although the community fellowship is always intensive, but customary rights can become strong again, for example, when a cultivator behaves very badly, dies or leaves his / her area of residence. the right is returned to the legal community and the legal community can determine to grant the land rights to a new tenant. bushar muhammad15 put forward the scope or object of customary right as follows: (a) mainland; (b) water (waters such as times, lakes, beaches and waters); (c) the plants grow wild (trees, fruits, trees that can be picked up for woodworking and firewood, etc.); (d) wild animals that live freely in the forest. discussion customary right in the perspective of special autonomy the arfak customary law community in its daily life recognizes the unwritten rules or norms that regulate, bind and defend, and have sanctions, and are referred to as customary law. law number 21 of year 2001 states that customary community is indigenous papuans who live in the territory and are bound and subject to certain customs with a high sense of solidarity among its members. 16 this understanding was developed by the papuan people's assembly, as stated in the regional regulation of the province of papua number 23 of year 2008 on the customary right of customary law community and tribal people customary law community on the land that: customary law community is indigenous papuan people who since birth have lived in the region 14 maria s.w. sumardjono. op.cit, p.9. 15 bushar muhammad. 1995.pokok-pokok hukum adat, 10th edition, pradnya paramita, jakarta, p.105. 16 see article 1 point 1 of law number 21 year 2001 on special autonomy for papua province. hammar certain and bound and subjected to certain customary laws with a high sense of solidarity among its members. 17 customary law community of course has property both material and immaterial. material riches include land, on which there are forests, lakes, rivers that give them life. with regard to land, forest and water rights, the customary law community recognizes the customary right. the arfak customary law community defines customary right in the broad sense as a right that is controlled by citizen alliances (tribe, village, faam) which includes the right to exploit the land, forest, water, hunt, take the forest product. based on law number 21 of year 2001 on special autonomy for papua province, article 1 general provision defines customary right as follows: "customary right is a right of communion owned by certain customary law community over a certain area which is environment of its citizens, the right to use the land, forest, and water and its contents in accordance with the laws and regulations." with regard to the protection of the rights of indigenous peoples, article 43 states that the government of papua shall recognize, respect, protect, empower and develop the rights of indigenous peoples. recognition of customary rights is also accommodated in the special region regulation of papua province stated that the customary right of customary law community on land is a right of communion belonging to certain customary law community to a certain area which is the environment of its citizens, including the right to exploit land and all its contents in accordance with the laws and regulations. in accordance with the mandate of law number 21 of year 2001 regarding special autonomy for papua province in article 43 paragraph (1), (2), (3) and (4) that recognition, respect, protection, empowerment and development of customary law community rights and or individual rights of customary law communities on land is a necessity, whether viewed from an international, national and regional perspective. the customary rights of customary law community and/or individual rights of customary law community of land in papua province mandates that there should be a careful research activity with a research methodology that can be accounted for by a research committee established by the regent / mayor by decision of regent / mayor, except in the case 17 special regional regulation number 23 year 2008 on customary rights of customary law community and indigenous peoples' right to land journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 201-213 of a cross-district / city. the research committee should consist of experts, elders, representatives from non-governmental organizations and related technical institutions. in order to meet the objectives of the study, the researcher found evidence in the form of three criteria which are the determinants of the presence or absence of customary rights of indigenous and tribal peoples and / or customary rights of indigenous people on the land. these criteria are as follows (a) the presence of a group of people who still feel bound by their customary law as citizens with a certain legal partnership, which recognizes and applies the terms of the fellowship in their daily life; (b) there are customary rights of indigenous and tribal peoples and / or individual rights of customary law communities to certain lands which become the environment of the citizens of the legal community and where they take their daily necessities, and (c) there is a customary law arrangement concerning the management, control and use of customary rights of indigenous and tribal peoples and / or individual rights of indigenous and tribal peoples to the land applicable and adhered to by the citizens of the legal community. the criteria of an area of customary rights of customary law community and or individual rights of customary law community on certain land means that the customary rights of indigenous and tribal peoples and / or individual rights of indigenous people on the land have clear boundaries and are not contradictory to the boundaries of customary rights of indigenous and tribal peoples and / or individual rights of customary law communities on other adjacent lands. the customary right of arfak customary law community arfak customary law community rights (mha) relates to the control, utilization of land and other natural resources based on tijei or jiyaser jide dihei or jijoug yeyin mebi18 that is customary right over their environment. jiyaser jide dihei or jijoug yeyin mebi refers to the area occupied and owned collectively by the faam that inhabits a kampong (minu). jiyaser jide dihei or jijoug yeyin mebi apply over land area ie land, forest, river, lake and coast. each family has an already divided area, with natural boundaries that are mutually recognized by each neighboring family. although for borders in the forest it is sometimes unclear. boundaries other than between family property, 18 roberth k.r. hammar. 2011. implikasi penataan ruang terhadap hak ulayat masyarakat hukum adat di kabupaten manokwari provinsi papua barat, gajah mada university dissertation, yogyakarta, p. 240. hammar also border area of village and distrik. however, administrative boundaries do not eliminate the collective ownership of people residing in other districts or villages. customary right or in moile called yahagom ideh hanjop or maubgan maba gusi (sougb) is controlled by each family, according to the arrangement of tribal chiefs (menir). the customary right of ndon (arfak mountains) is divided into regions: tumti, bahamti, nuhamti and susti. 19 customary right (jiyaser jide dihei or jijoug yeyin mebi) understood by arfak customary law community is : (1) collective rights possessed by families in faam in tribal communities; (2) arrangement of such rights either to be used or to be distributed to the child is regulated by the eldest child; (3) the rules of inter-family and inter-tribal and inter-tribal faam apply general principles, such as igya ser etc., which is regulated and supervised by menir, moskur, andijpoy from village level, tribe and inter-tribe. so the customary right in arfak customary law community can be described as follows: (1) there is a collective right of the tribe that is arfak (ndon); (2) in a large tribal region is divided into each tribe hatam, sougb, moile, meyah; (3) the territory of each tribe is subdivided into the village area (minu); (4) the village area is divided into faam ownership; (5) faam control is divided into family ownership. 20 scheme: the level of customary right of arfak customary law community reality shows that in fact the customary right that is controlled by each family is shared with the customary law community, whether at the tribal level, faam or family. utilization of customary rights sometimes does not avoid disputes. disputes occur because of differences in attitudes and interests related to the customary rights of natural resource utilization that occurs between citizens within an customary law community, neither with other customary law community or with other parties. the settlement is done in stages in front of tribal chief (manir), vice chief (moskur) and indigenous elders (andijpoi) from the tribal chief until the village. if comparisons are made to the presence of arfak customary law community based on the criteria for determining the existence of customary rights as regulated in (1) regulation of the minister of 19 roberth k.r. hammar. 2016. penataan ruang berbasis kearifan lokal, calpulis, yogyakarta, p. 153. 20 compare with customary land in minangkabau, in suriyaman mustari pide. 2007. dilema hak kolektif eksistensi dan realitas soasianya pasca uupa. pelita pustaka, jakarta, p.102-106. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 201-213 agrarian affairs / head of national land agency number 5 year 1999 concerning the guidance on completion of indigenous peoples rights, (2) customary law, arfak customary law community, then in the social realities of customary right of arfak customary law community meet the criteria set forth in minister of agrarian regulation no. 5 of 1999 as well as customary law science. table 1 comparison of customary rights criteria according to minister of agrarian regulation no. 5 of 1999, customary law and mha arfak. no. minister of agrarian regulation no. 5 of 1999 customary law mha arfak 1. the existence of a particular customary law community still a group of people as citizens of a particular customary law community, which is a customary law community, the existence of arfak tribe consisting of hatam, moile, sougb, meyah. 2. the existence of certain customary rights which become the living environment and place to take the life necessities of the customary law community, still the territory which is the customary right of customary law community, which is realized as the land belongs to its citizens as "lebensraum" the existence of customary rights in ndon to coastal areas controlled by each tribe. 3. the existence of a customary legal order concerning the management, control and use of customary lands that are observed and adhered by indigenous and tribal peoples. the existence of indigenous authorities in fact and recognized by the indigenous peoples concerned, performs daily activities as implementers of customary rights. the presence of menir, moskur and customary law arrangements on the management of customary rights obeyed by mha arfak, for example igya ser hanjob. conclusion in the perspective of special autonomy, customary rights of customary law community are recognized and protected by states, governments, provincial governments, district / municipalities, which are implemented through customary rights studies on customary law community conducted by the committee, and are accommodated in the bupati / mayor's decision. this study concluded with findings that arfak customary law community owns customary rights of ultra-large tribe arfak, sub-tribe of hatam, moile, sougb, meyah., mnu customary rights, keret level and family's customary rights, and the setting and utilization of customary rights arranged by each mananir according to its level. hammar references abidin, i. s. z., bakar, n. a. a., & haseeb, m. (2014). an empirical analysis of exports between malaysia and tpp member countries: evidence from a panel cointegration (fmols) model. modern applied science, 8(6), 238. abidin, i. s. z., bakar, n. a. a., & haseeb, m. (2015). exploring trade relationship between malaysia and the oic member countries: a panel cointegration approach (1995-2012). asian journal of scientific research, 8(1), 107. abidin, i. s. z., & haseeb, m. (2015). investigating exports performance between malaysia and oic member countries from 1997-2012. asian social science, 11(7), 11. abidin, i. s. z., haseeb, m., azam, m., & islam, r. (2015). foreign direct investment, financial development, international trade and energy consumption: panel data evidence from selected asean countries. international journal of energy economics and policy, 5(3). abidin, i. s. z., haseeb, m., & islam, r. (2016). regional integration of the association of southeast asian nations economic community: an analysis of malaysia-association of southeast asian nations exports. international journal of economics and financial issues, 6(2). abidina, i. s. z., haseeb, m., & jantan, m. d. (2016). trans-pacific partnership (tpp) agreement: comparative trade and economic analysis for malaysia. the social sciences, 11(13), 3375-3380. hammar, r.k.r. (2011). implikasi penataan ruang terhadap hak ulayat masyarakat hukum adat di kabupaten manokwari provinsi papua barat, gajah mada university dissertation, yogyakarta. hammar, roberth k,r. (2017). penataan ruang berbasis kearifan lokal, calpulis, yogyakarta. muhammad, b. (1995). pokok-pokok hukum adat. 10th edition, pradnya paramita, jakarta. muhammad isa. (1985). kecenderungan pengaruh pensertifikatan tanah terhadap pelestarian tanah adat (di minangkabau) view in sayuti thalib (editor) hubungan tanah adat dengan hukum agraria di minangkabau. mustari p. s. (2007). dilema hak kolektif eksistensi dan realitas soasianya pasca uupa. pelita pustaka, jakarta. ohorella, m.g. (1993). hukum adat mengenai tanah dan air di pulau ambon dan sumbangannya terhadap pembangunan hukum agraria nasional (uupa) dan undang-undang lainnya. hasanuddin university pps dissertation, makassar. sumardjono, maria, s.w. 1982. puspita serangkum, aneka masalah hukumagraria, andi offset, yogyakarta. sumardjono, maria, s.w. (2008). pengaturan tentang hak ulayat masyarakat adat dalam peraturan perundang-undangan, paper in “national seminar on land policy and spatial planning in west papua”. forkoma, pmkri and west papua provincial government, manokwari, january 14th. ter haar dan b. poespanoto (1983). asas-asas dan susunan hukum adat, 7th edition, pradnya paramita, jakarta. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 97-108 97 the social status of teachers and education in the russian empire of the second half of the xix century razilia saifullova1, irina krapotkina2, nadezhda pospelova3, gelyusya kayumova4 abstract in modern historical science, interest in studying the problems of regional history has increased. in our opinion, the most relevant of them are the study of the creation, development and functioning of different types of educational institutions, the history of socio-economic development of the regions, the study of professional employment of the population, etc. our research interests include studying the professional status of zemstvo (country council) teachers in the russian empire in the second half of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. in this article, within the framework of the professional status of teachers, we will consider their social status, including the material situation (income and level of well-being), working conditions, as well as the opportunities that were provided to teachers by law. key words: education; social status; zemskya schools; zemskyi teacher. introduction in modern historical science, interest in studying the problems of regional history has increased. in the center of our attention is the social status of zemskyi teachers of the russian empire in the second half of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries (on the materials of vyatka province). emphasis was placed on zemskyi teachers, since after the zemstvo reform of 1863-1864 most of the educational institutions of the vyatka province were transferred to the administration of zemstvos. 1 assist. lecturer, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, department of general and national history, russian federation, rasilya91@yandex.ru 2 phd in historical sciences, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, department of general and national history, russian federation, ikrapotkina@mail.ru 3 phd in philological sciences, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, department of english philology, russian federation, nad_posp@mail.ru 4 assoc. prof. of the department of tatar literature, kazan (volga region) federal university, candidate of science, russian federation, gulfar21@mail.ru mailto:rasilya91@yandex.ru mailto:ikrapotkina@mail.ru mailto:nad_posp@mail.ru mailto:gulfar21@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 97-108 this topic is quite important today, as a radical restructuring of the education system is taking place due to the introduction of federal state educational standards of a new generation. the role of the teacher has evolved. now the teacher acts as a moderator of the educational process directing the acquisition of knowledge by students. accordingly, the attitude towards the teacher and his social and professional status is changing (magsumov, 2015). a modern teacher must have high competitiveness, his/her activity is to be successful and effective; it is important to develop ict competence, and knowledge and skills in the field of innovative pedagogy and teaching methods. in accordance with this, the very image of the teacher in modern society is changing. social status is the place of the individual in the hierarchically organized structure of society. in modern society, criteria such as the prestige of the profession, the level of income, the duration and quality of education, the scope of power, and the size of property are especially important (gapsalamov, 2016; shkaratan, 2012). in the second half of the xix early xx centuries, when constructing a social hierarchy, these criteria also took place. in this regard, we have examined their material situation (income and level of well-being), working conditions, as well as the opportunities that were provided to teachers by law within the framework of the social status of teachers in this article in this work, various sources were used, including archival and statistical materials, as well as studies of the last decades devoted to the research of the teachers’ social status in the russian empire of the pre-revolutionary period. the work was based on archival materials presented in the state archives of the kirov region, kirov. the information of the prerevolutionary periodical press, in which there is a description of the life and work of zemstvo teachers, is interesting. among the historical sources, there are also statistical materials that represent numerical data on the development of public education and the status of russian teaching (aydarova et al., 2017; bochkareva et al., 2017; kilinc et al., 2018; magsumov, 2017; magsumov & nizamova, 2015). among the works of the last decades, we have singled out an article by pershina y.v. (pershina, 1999), which described the difficulties of the material situation of the people's teachers, as well as maslova i.v. and kropotkina i.e. (maslova i.v. et al, 2014) who studied the formation of civic identity in pre-revolutionary russian society, which was directly related to the work of russian teachers. individual research is devoted to the study of the social hierarchy and the basics of social inequality. saifullova et al. method in this paper, we turn to the micro analysis of social history. in particular, the ideas of the french historian f. braudel, representative of the french school "annals", were taken into account. he suggested to take into account economic factors in the historical study. in our article, the economic factor plays an important role, since after the abolition of serfdom in russia in 1861 there was an outflow of population to the cities in order to improve the material conditions of existence. in this case, the level of education allowed the population to expand the field of activity, for example, to change the occupation, social status, living conditions, etc. the work was carried out taking into account the principles of scientific objectivism and historicism. the research is of a fundamental nature. the work is based on the problem of determining the place of the teacher's profession in the social hierarchy of russian society. the purpose of the work is to study comprehensively the professional status of teachers in the vyatka province on the basis of an analysis of the education level, the degree of well-being, the level of professional and social significance. to achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks: to determine the categories of teachers who served in the schools of the vyatka province; determine the level of material wellbeing of teachers; to study the working and living conditions of teachers; determine the legal status of teachers. the following methods of scientific cognition are used in the article. the historical-genetic method allowed us to trace the evolution of the legal status of the people's teachers (grahova & gapsalamov, 2014; szydlowski, 2018; valeeva et al., 2016;). in particular, the paper describes the formation of the socio-legal status of the people's teachers, which went along with the reform of the pedagogical education in the russian empire. the use of the historical retrospection method allows us to restore an objective picture of historical reality. this method is especially important when working on a poorly understood problem, as well as using unpublished sources. findings in the vyatka province of the studied period, there were various categories of teachers, determined depending on gender, age, and level of education. statistical data for the 1887-1888 academic year indicated that women represented the main part of the teaching staff. therefore, in urban schools the share of female teachers and assistants was journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 97-108 76.4%, while in rural schools 82.9% (statistical data on a condition of territorial schools of the vyatka district for 1887-88 academic year, 1889). the level of education of teachers in the zemstvo schools was determined as follows: 20% finished the full course, 10% finished the fourth grade, 50% did not complete the course, and 20% of the teachers had home education [statistical data on a condition of territorial schools of the vyatka district for 1887-88 academic year, 1889]. this information indicates that the teachers, basically, did not have the necessary education in order to engage in pedagogical activity (korableva et al, 2018; kurbanova et al., 2018). we attribute this phenomenon to the underdevelopment of teacher education in the country. it was also believed that a person who can read and write and who has completed a course could engage in teaching in schools. it is worth focusing on the following fact. in the affairs of the national schools’ director of the vyatka province, we reviewed the service records of teachers of three time intervals. we took as a basis precisely these time intervals, since they fall at certain stages in the social and political development of the russian empire. therefore, one list falls on 1820, i.e. during the reign of alexander i (1801-1825), the other in 1858, i.е. for the reign of alexander ii (1855-1881). data for 1887-1888 years is presented in the table among the statistical information, which falls on the time of the reign of alexander iii. so, 1820 this is the last five years of the reign of alexander i, which differed from all others by a turn to reaction. we know that this is the time of the most rapid flowering of social and political thought, when the future decembrists discussed in the secret societies the future development of russia. "days of the alexandrovs are a wonderful beginning" resulted in the so-called "nikolaev's reality" with increased total supervision and tougher censorship and struggle with any manifestations of free-thinking (nicholas i, 2015), when instead of the expected granting of civil rights and freedoms to the population, the theory of an official people with three pillars was declared: orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality (smolin, 2015). in this regard, let us turn to the service records of teachers in the vyatka gymnasium for 1820. teachers of the clergy make up 62%, foreigners 25%, of merchants 13%. the information is presented in the figure 1. (track records of vyatka directorate of schools, 1820). saifullova et al. figure 1. "social composition of teachers in the 1820s." (compiled by us) this list shows that most of the teachers were from the clergy. we believe that this was directly related to the reactionary situation in the country. in order to "protect" children from the influence of the freethinking ideas, most of the teaching was reserved for the persons from among the clergy. in addition, it facilitated the activities of the ministry of public education and spiritual affairs to control schools in order to stop the spread of ideas of freethinkers and "maintain the existing order in the country" (klyuchevsky, 2003). consider another period the reign of emperor alexander ii, an outstanding reformer who managed to establish personal patronage over gifted personalities who were able to implement a number of advanced ideas. during the reign of alexander ii the liberator, as he was often called by the contemporaries, major changes were made: the abolition of serfdom in 1861 (klyuchevsky, 2003), the reform in the field of education of 1860-1863, the judicial reform of 1864, the city and province reforms of 1863-1864. (klyuchevsky, 2003), the military reform of 1874 (klyuchevsky, 2003). the greatest interest for us is the reform of public education. parochial schools, gymnasiums and progymnasium schools were opened, where children without class distinctions were granted access. a new university charter was adopted in 1863 universities obtained autonomy (preparation and carrying out university reform of 1863, 2015). the reformist activity of alexander ii indicates that the government gradually began to withdraw from the reaction. in this connection, let us turn to the teachers' track record for 1858 in the figure 2: (the official list of the serving vyatka schools, 1858) 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% clergy foreigners merchant class journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 97-108 figure 2 "social composition of teachers in the 1860s." (compiled by us) the information in this diagram shows that the majority of teachers belonged to the estate (philistines) class, which, in our opinion, is evidence that the government refused to react and did not prevent the entry of teachers from non-spiritual ranks to the post of teachers. let us turn to the next of these periods by the time of the reign of alexander iii. alexander iii after the killing of the people of narodnaya volya on march 1, 1881, his father did not want to continue reforms, and became famous for his counter-reform policies. one of the most famous laws of alexander iii was the circular "on the cook children" of 1887 (stepanishchev, 2008). it prescribes that children from the lower classes do not need to strive for secondary and higher education. in addition, many ideologues of autocracy (pobedonostsev k.p., katkov m.n.) believed that secular teachers should be eliminated from the cause of teaching, because "everything that could educate the people was dangerous and unacceptable" (pershina yu.v., 1999). in the 60-80 years, xix century various political circles and organizations, which had as their basis the ideas of marxism and anarchism, have activated their activities, and individual terror has spread widely. in our opinion, one of the results of the turn to the reaction is observable in the figure 3 (statistical data on a condition of territorial schools of the vyatka district for 1887-88 academic year, 1889): 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% philistines clergy nobility cossack foreigners saifullova et al. figure 3. "social composition of teachers in the 1880s." (compiled by us) as can be seen from the information in this diagram, teachers and assistants from among the clergy in the zemstvo schools of vyatka province had a majority. one of the obvious consequences of this phenomenon was the poor student performance and general ignorance of the population of the province. based on the proposed characteristics of teachers, we turn to the description of their social situation. hence, in our opinion, the problem of “mass escape of teachers from schools” proceeded from (the chronicle about education, 1901), one of the main reasons for which was their financial hardship. thus, the teacher of uspensky parochial specialized school sergey smaragdov submited a petition dated 29.04.1842, adressed to a name of permanent keeper ivan kuvshinsky, of his dismissal from educational institution as a result of low emolument of the present post. (case of dismissal of the teacher of uspensky parish school smaragdov at all from educational department, 1842). in a report of kotelnicheskaya zemstvo hall of 1868 stated: “the tutors of the rural schools draw salary not over 100 rubles. the teacher of parochial specialized school in the town — 114 rubles and 40 kopecks per year, the assistant — 75 rubles, and the religions teacher — 28 rubles 60 kopecks”. (result of the first period of actions of the kotelnichesky district territorial justice expressed in reports to kotelnichesky district territorial meeting and resolutions of meeting on these affairs, 1868). in paper documents there were the petitions of rising the salary (khokhlov, 1871). or of the grant of benefit in a cause of the salary insufficiency (applications of persons on dispatch of certification 0 10 20 30 40 clergy nobility bourgeoisie serfs merchants journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 97-108 for revenues to the teacher's position, about delivery of pension or about release from a compulsory military service, 1885). the vyatka newspapers vividly demonstrated financial hardship of teachers. one of such newspaper was “vyatskaya rech”. thus, in no. 262 of 9th december 1915, the content of the petition of a company of teachers of the malmyzhskaya zemstvo hall were disclosed, in which they had spoken about financial hardship. in “vyatskaya rech” no. 270 of 13th december 1911 it was reported that a patient with severe anemia entered a hospital in the yaransk district, which was developed due to starvation during intensive school hours. it turned out that the patient worked as an assistant teacher in the church school and received a salary of 10 rubles per month (on the province, 1911). according to newspaper articles and teachers' petitions, the money was not enough to survive, taking into account that it was necessary to eat every day, at least occasionally update the wardrobe and to write out the necessary literature for work. in addition, "this mere pittance was delayed for month, i sometimes had to go to the town for two or three times." (on the province, 1911). particularly difficult were the relationships with the volost clerks. (khlebnikov volost government (urzhum district), 1915). the next indicator of social status we outlined the working conditions of vyatka teachers. the most striking example of the daily routine of teachers was their working in rural smoky huts. one of the rural schools of the urzhum uyezd was located in a similar hut. (on the province (the urzhumsky district), 1909). also, the articles contain information that it was impossible to work in such peasant huts without harm to health (the national teacher in pre-revolutionary russia (reminiscence of the teacher pensioner), 1957). the archival documents helped to open features of the legal status of the zemstvo teachers. among the paper documents we found petitions of teachers for exemption from conscription. indeed, according to the charter "on military service" of 1st january 1874 (the charter about a compulsory military service of 1874, 2015), persons, teaching in educational institutions were exempt from active service in peacetime, than the current teachers used (applications of persons on dispatch of certification for revenues to the teacher's position, about delivery of pension or about release from a compulsory military service, 1885). saifullova et al. conclusion thus, after describing the characteristics of the zemstvo teachers of the vyatka province, we examined their social status in three contexts. on the one hand — the financial situation of teachers, on the other — working conditions, on the third — their legal status. the above data allow us to conclude that teachers in the hierarchically organized ladder of russian society of the second half of the xix early xx centuries took a low stand. proof of this can serve as the following factors: low salary, unfavorable working conditions, not the fully provided opportunity to enjoy their civil rights. the latter we attribute to the fact that not all the teachers could apply for transfer from the state of taxation or exemption from active military service as a result of various reasons (ignorance of the teachers themselves, difficulty in transferring applications to the address, etc.), and in connection with the fact that the requests were not always received a positive response. in our opinion, the dissatisfaction of zemstvo teachers with their social position led to the fact that by the end of the xix the beginning of the xx centuries they began to participate in political activities actively, to which the pre-revolutionary situation in the country also contributed. 6. gratitude. acknowledgments the work is carried out according to the russian government's program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references aydarova, s. h., giniyatullina, l. m., sagdieva, r. k., husnutdinov, d. h., mirzagitov, r. h., & gabidullina, f. i. (2017). models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60). bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) gako. fund 205. inventory 2. business 1251. delo ob uvol'nenii uchitelya uspenskoj prihodskoj shkoly smaragdova vovse ne iz uchebnogo otdela. [case of dismissal of the teacher of uspensky parish school smaragdov at all from educational department] (in russian). gako. fund 205. inventory 5. business 31. posluzhnye spiski vyatskoj direkcii uchilishch. [track records uchilishchnykh of officials of vyatka management)]. (in russian). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 97-108 gako. fund 205. inventory 5. business 66. the official list of the serving vyatka schools [the official list of the serving vyatka schools]. (in russian). gako. fund 206. inventory 1. business 152. applications of persons on dispatch of certification for revenues to the teacher's position, about delivery of pension or about release from a compulsory military service. [applications of persons on dispatch of certification for revenues to the teacher's position, about delivery of pension or about release from a compulsory military service]. (in russian). gapsalamov, a. r. (2016). organization of management of ussr industry: branch and territorial models. journal of economics and economic education research, 17(specialissue2), 90-95. grahova, s. i., & gapsalamov, a. r. (2014). the role of merchants in the life of the russian society: oral tradition case study. bylye gody, 33(3), 410-416. hlebnikovskoe volostnoe pravlenie (urzhumskij uezd) [khlebnikov volost government (urzhum district)]. vyatka speech, 1915, 116, 3. (in russian). hronika ob obrazovanii [the chronicle about education]. education, 1901, 1, 52. (in russian.). khokhlov, m. (1871). dokladnaya zapiska uchitelya kotel'nicheskogo prikhodskogo uchilishcha m. khokhlova. [the report of the teacher of kotelnichesky parish school khokhlov m]. – vyatka: printing house of anisimov and blinov. (in russian). klyuchevsky v. o. (2003). russkaya istoriya: polnyy kurs lektsiy. [russian history: full course of lectures]. minsk: kharvest. (in russian). korableva, o. n., kalimullina, o. v., & mityakova, v. n. (2018). innovation activity data processing and aggregation based on ontological modelling. paper presented at the 2018 4th international conference on information management, icim 2018, 1-4. doi:10.1109/infoman.2018.8392659 kilinc, e., tarman, b., & aydin, h. (2018). examining turkish social studies teachers’ beliefs about barriers to technology integration. techtrends, 62(3), 221-223. doi:10.1007/s11528-018-0280-y kurbanova e., korableva o., kalimullina o. (2018). enhancing the effectiveness of asset management through development of license management system on the basis of saifullova et al. sccm 2012 program by microsoft company. paper presented at the iceis 2018 proceedings of the 20th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 171-178 magsumov, t.a. (2015). the additional professional training in the late russian empire. bylye gody. (2), 36: 327-337. magsumov, t.a. (2017). family and school in russia at the beginning of the 20th century: attempts to bridge the gap. european journal of contemporary education. 6 (4): 837-846. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 magsumov, t.a., nizamova, m.s. (2015). the country council work on extracurricular enlightenment of adults in the volga-ural region. bylye gody. (4), 38: 1001-1010. maslova i.v., krapotkina i.e. (2014) sense of nationhood and political identity in the mentality of the inhabitants of the provincial cities of the russian empire in the xix early xx century. bylye gody, 2014, 34 (4), 559-566. narodnyy uchitel' v dorevolyutsionnoy rossii (vospominaniya uchitelya-pensionera [the national teacher in pre-revolutionary russia (reminiscence of the teacher pensioner)]. halturinsky truth, 1957, 69, 2. (in russian). nikolay [nicholas i]. url: http://www .encyclopedia-russia.ru (date of the address: 19.02.2015). (in russian). osmelilis' [dared] . the vyatka speech, 1915, 262, 3. (in russian). pershina yu.v. (1999). polozhenie vyatskogo uchitel'stva v 1900-1914 gg. [the provision of a vyatka teaching in 1900-1914]. collection of scientific articles. kirov: vgpu publishing house. (in russian). po gubernii [on the province]. the vyatka speech, 1911, 270, 3. (in russian). po gubernii (urzhumskiy uezd. [on the province (the urzhumsky district)]. the vyatka speech. 1909, 78, 4. (in russian). rezul'tat pervogo perioda deystviy kotel'nicheskoy uezdnoy zemskoy upravy, vyrazhennoy v dokladakh kotel'nicheskomu uezdnomu zemskomu sobraniyu i postanovleniya sobraniya po etim delam [result of the first period of actions of the kotelnichesky district territorial justice expressed in reports to kotelnichesky district territorial meeting and resolutions of meeting on these affairs]. vyatka: blinov's printing house, 1868. p. 36. (in russian). https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 97-108 shkaratan o. i. (2012). sotsiologiya neravenstva: teoriya i real'nost'. [sotsiologiya of an inequality: theory and reality]. moscow.: prod. house of higher school of economics. (in russian). smolin m. teoriya ofitsial'noy narodnosti [theory of an official nationality]. url: http://www.rusizn.ru (date of the address 19.02. 2015). (in russian). statisticheskie svedeniya o sostoyanii zemskikh uchilishch vyatskogo uezda za 1887-88 uchebnom godu [statistical data on a condition of territorial schools of the vyatka district for 1887-88 academic year]. vyatka: edition of the vyatka district zemstvo, 1889. 185 p. (in russian). stepanishchev a.t.(2008) istoriya rossii [istoriya of russia]. moscow.: vlados. (in russian). szydlowski, a. (2018). a printing and publishing type as object of intellectual property in election law of russia and u.s. severo-kavkazskii iuridicheskii vestnik, 1, 56-63. tomsinov v.a. podgotovka i provedenie universitetskoy reformy 1863 goda. [preparation and carrying out university reform of 1863]. url: http://tomsinov.com/great_reforms. (date of the address: 20.02.2015). (in russ.). ustav o voinskoy povinnosti 1874 goda [the charter about a compulsory military service of 1874]. url: http://imha.ru/1144523930-ustav-o-voinskojj-povinnosti (date of the address: 15.02.2015). (in russian). valeeva r.a., aitov v.f., bulatbayeva a.a. (2016). the levels of english language acquisition on the basis of problem-solving and product-oriented tasks in the multiligual social medium. iejme: mathematics education, vol. 11. № 1. pp. 255-262. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 238-248 238 evaluating text complexity and flesch-kincaid grade level marina i. solnyshkina 1, radif r. zamaletdinov 2, ludmila a. gorodetskaya 3 & azat i. gabitov 4 abstract the article presents the results of an exploratory study of the use of t.e.r.a., an automated tool measuring text complexity and readability based on the assessment of five text complexity parameters: narrativity, syntactic simplicity, word concreteness, referential cohesion and deep cohesion. aimed at finding ways to utilize t.e.r.a. for selecting texts with specific parameters we selected eight academic texts with similar flesch-kincaid grade levels and contrasted their complexity parameters scores to find how specific parameters correlate with each other. in this article we demonstrate the correlations between text narrativity and word concreteness, abstractness of the studied texts and flesch – kincaid grade level. we also confirm that cohesion components do not correlate with flesch –kincaid grade level. the findings indicate that text parameters utilized in t.e.r.a. contribute to better prediction of text characteristics than traditional readability formulas. the correlations between the text complexity parameters values identified are viewed as beneficial for developing a comprehensive approach to selection of academic texts for a specific target audience. keywords: text complexity, t.e.r.a., syntactic simplicity, narrativity, readability, texts analysis. introduction the modern linguistic paradigm comprising achievements of “psycholinguistics, discourse processes, and cognitive science” (danielle et al., 2011) provides both a theoretical foundation, empirical evidence, well-described practices and automated tools to scale texts on multiple levels including characteristics of words, syntax, referential cohesion, and deep cohesion. the scope of applications of such tools is enormous: from teaching practices to cognitive theories of reading and comprehension. one of the tools, t.e.r.a., coh-metrix common core text ease and readability assessor, an automated text processor developed in early 2010s by a group of american scholars of the science of learning and educational 1 prof, kazan federal university kazan, mesoln@yandex.ru 2 prof, kazan federal university kazan, director.ifmk@gmail.com 3 prof, lomonosov moscow state university moscow, lgorodet@gmail.com 4 pst. grad, kazan federal university kazan, gabit.azat@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),238-248 technology (solet) lab, directed by dr. danielle s. mcnamara, has already been successfully applied in two russian case studies conducted by a.s. kiselnikov (solnyshkina, harkova & kiselnikov, 2014). as the research shows, it is by all means under-used in modern russian academic practices in general and in the area of teaching english as a foreign language in particular. addressing the gap, we demonstrate how t.e.r.a. can be applied in academic practices and how a limited number of text parameters in all their varieties, are significant in selecting texts for academic purposes. methods the data for the study were collected from “review” chapters marked a in spotlight 11 approved by the ministry of education of the russian federation and recommended for english language teaching in the 11th grade of russian public schools. all the texts compiled in the corpus are the texts used to test students’ reading skills in the classrooms. their length varies from 323 words in text 3a to 494 words in text 7a with the mean of 395 words. the readability of the texts selected fall into the scope of the target audience, i.e. russian high school graduates, and vary between indices 8 and 9 of flesch-kincaid grade levels (see table 1 below). we measured the complexity parameters of the 8 selected texts with the help of t.e.r.a. and consecutively contrasted two texts with the highest and lowest scores of each complexity parameter to identify the correlation between a particular index and flesch-kincaid grade level. except for the flesch-kincaid grade level, t.e.r.a. available on the public website computes five complexity parameters of texts, i.e. syntactic simplicity, abstractness/concreteness of words, narrativity, referential cohesion, deep cohesion. thus, t.e.r.a. provides detailed information of how logically connected the text is, what functions make the texts more or less grammatically cohesive, what are the dependencies between one part of the text and another for each analyzed text, the program assigns definite values thus indicating the position of a particular text among other texts assessed and stored in the database (t.e.r.a. coh-metrix common core text ease and readability assessor). a user can view texts and their complexity indices in t.e.r.a online library. https://readable.io/content/the-flesch-reading-ease-and-flesch-kincaid-grade-level/ https://readable.io/content/the-flesch-reading-ease-and-flesch-kincaid-grade-level/ https://readable.io/content/the-flesch-reading-ease-and-flesch-kincaid-grade-level/ solnyshkina et al. table 1 complexity parameters of texts 1 a 8 a text narrativity syntactic simplicity abstractness/ concreteness referential cohesion deep cohesion flesh – kincaid grade level 1a 79% 34% 36% 39% 81% 8,20 2a 77% 65% 39% 37% 99% 7,40 3a 92% 54% 70% 40% 74% 6,50 4a 69% 65% 73% 24% 94% 7,30 5а 80% 55% 78% 13% 94% 6,20 6а 75% 51% 14% 20% 94% 9,70 7a 84% 63% 33% 9% 95% 7,50 8а 30% 36% 80% 22% 42% 9,50 according to mcnamara and graesser (2012) narrativity depends on the mean of verbs per phrase, presence of common words and overall story-like structure. to ensure high readability of a text, researchers recommend to use a large number of dynamic verbs in a relatively small variety of time forms, which makes the sentences syntax similar and reduces the number of words in front of the main verb. in texts with a high narrative value, fewer unique nouns and more pronouns create similar combinations of sentences. t.e.r.a. assesses syntactic simplicity of a text is measured based on three measured parameters, i.e. the average number of clauses in sentences throughout the text, the number of words in the sentence, and the number of words in front of the main verb of the main sentence (mcnamara & graesser, 2012). texts with lower number of clauses, fewer words per sentence and fewer words before the main verb will have a higher syntactic simplicity value. the correlation of the parameter with the above mentioned indices was conveniently verified in the research pursued by a group of russian scholars on the materials of unified state exam in english (ege), which is a matriculation exam in the educational system of the russian federation (solnyshkina, harkova & kiselnikov, 2014). abstractness/concreteness of words as it comes from the name, shows the proportion of concrete words to abstract ones in a text (mcnamara & graesser, 2012; waters & russell, 2016). assessing a text abstractness/concreteness t.e.r.a does not provide any instrument to verify abstractness/concreteness of separate words. however, its developers refer potential inquirers to the medical research council (mrc) psycholinguistic database, containing journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),238-248 150,837 words with 26 specific linguistic and psycholinguistic attributes (brysbaert, warriner & kuperman, 2014; mrc psycholinguistic database; erbilgin, 2017; tarman & baytak, 2012). the scores are derived based on human judgments of word properties such as concreteness, familiarity, imageability, meaningfulness, and age of acquisition (mrc psycholinguistic database). the resource acquires a word a rank in the list of ‘less’ or ‘more’ concrete/abstract words. as the tool assesses the word family tokens only and neglects the context of a word, mrc psycholinguistic database, as it is admitted by the developers and researchers ‘is not without limitations” (mcnamara & graesser, 2012). referential cohesion is a measure of the overlap between words in the text, formed with the help of similar words and ideas transmitted by them (mccarthy et al., 2006). when sentences and paragraphs have similar words or ideas, it is easier for the reader to establish logical connections between them. if a text is cohesive its ideas overlap thus providing a reader with explicit threads connecting parts of the text. in adjacent sentences the threads are manifested by co-referencing words, anaphora, similar morphological roots, etc. for example in text 1a we find repetitions of the word child, semantic overlap in the words country – china, child – family, an only child – one child: “i am an only child because, in 1979, the government in my country introduced a one-child-per-family policy to control china's population explosion” (text 1a). deep cohesion reflects the degree of logical connectives between sentences, but in this case it is revealed by measuring different types of words that connect parts of the text (mcnamara & graesser, 2012). there are different types of connectives: temporal, causal, additive, logical. examples of these words are after, before, during, later, additionally, moreover, or. these elements of the text help to link together events, ideas and information of the text, forming the reader's perception. for example: “the good news, however, is that you can deal with stress before it gets out of hand! so, take control and remember your a-bcs.” (text 2a). we also utilized an online tool text inspector to measure lexical diversity of every text studied. lexical diversity is viewed by the authors as “the range of different words used in a text” (mccarthy & jarvis, 2010). text inspector assesses vocd (or hd-d) and mtld. as the texts in the corpus studied are of about the same length, i.e. about 400 words their lexical diversity metrics are viewed as reliable, not sensitive to the length of the texts studied. the lexical diversity tool used by text inspector is “based on the perl modules for measuring solnyshkina et al. mtld and voc-d developed by aris xanthos” (text inspector). “mtld is performed two times, once in left-to-right text order and once in right-to-left text order. each pass yields a weighted average (and variance), and the two averages are in turned averaged to get the value that is finally reported (the two variances are also averaged). this attribute indicates whether the reported average should itself be weighted according to the potentially different number of observations in the two passes (value ‘within_and_between’), or not (value ‘within_only’)” vocd method implies random selection of “35, 36, …, 49, and 50 tokens from the data, then computing the average type-token ratio for each of these lengths, and finding the curve that best fits the type-token ratio curve just produced <…>. the parameter value corresponding to the best-fitting curve is reported as the result of diversity measurement. the whole procedure can be repeated several times and averaged” (text inspector). lexical diversity of text 6a (393 words) computed with text inspector is 134.75 (vocd), 116.61 (mtld) which is viewed as relatively high (text inspector). results to determine the impact of each of the parameters computed by t.e.r.a. on the fleschkincaid grade level and identify correlations between variables of coh-metrix, we measured texts indices of 8 texts from spotlight 11 (2009) and contrasted vocabulary and grammar of the texts with minimum and maximum values of narrativity, syntactic simplicity, word concreteness, referential and deep cohesion. the results of t.e.r.a. processing are presented in table 1. it was decided to exclude text 8 from further analysis based on the assumption that as its narrativity score twice as low as those of the other texts (30% vs 69% 92%) and it may lead to a considerable bias in the research outcomes. text 8a portrays four sights and is mostly descriptive. consider an excerpt from text 8a: otherwise known as the lost city of the incas', machu picchu is an ancient incan city located almost 2,500 metres above sea level in the andes mountains in peru. machu picchu is invisible from below (spotlight 11, text 8a). as it is shown in the example above, the author uses mostly stative verbs (know, be, etc.) in contrast to text 3a with the highest narrativity index in the corpus of the texts studied, i.e. 92%, in which the verbs used are mostly dynamic: arrived, gone, checking, had taken, reported, caught. the sentences are short and easy to understand: burglars recently broke into our house while we were sleeping upstairs! my sister and i heard a noise, so we woke up our dad, who called the police (spotlight 11, text 3a).the genre also reflects on concreteness/abstractness and deep cohesion indices: http://search.cpan.org/~axanthos/lingua-diversity-0.06/lib/lingua/diversity/mtld.pm http://search.cpan.org/~axanthos/lingua-diversity-0.07/lib/lingua/diversity/vocd.pm http://search.cpan.org/~axanthos/lingua-diversity-0.06/lib/lingua/diversity/mtld.pm https://readable.io/content/the-flesch-reading-ease-and-flesch-kincaid-grade-level/ https://readable.io/content/the-flesch-reading-ease-and-flesch-kincaid-grade-level/ journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),238-248 all narrative texts prove to be more concrete and cohesive than the contrasted descriptive text. both deep cohesion (42%) and referential cohesion (22%) indices of text 8a are significantly lower than the corresponding parameters of all other texts (table 1 above). t.e.r.a. also discriminated the texts which were otherwise similar but had different scores on syntactic simplicity. as we see in table 1, syntactic simplicity in texts 1a and text 2a differ significantly with 34% and 65% respectively. the corresponding flesh – kincaid grade levels differ in 1.2., deep cohesion – 17%, while the rest of the parameters are only 2 % 3% different. text 1 a presenting the theme “family” serves a good example of low syntactic simplicity score. it contains simple syntactic structures, 27 sentences of which are in the present simple tense, there are no participial or gerundial constructions either. its lexical diversity is only 91.66 (vocd), 84.80 (mtld). all these make the text less challenging to process by the reader than text 2a which is at the opposite end of the continuum: with 30 infinitives, 10 gerundial constructions, 7 verbs in the present simple tense, five past participles. cf. “in stressful situations, the nervous system causes muscles to tense, breathing to become shallow and adrenaline to be released into your bloodstream as your body gets ready to beat challenges with focus and strength” (spotlight 11, text 2a). the lexical diversity of text 2a is also much higher than in text 1a: 101.26 (vocd), 100.80 (58 ld). thus, we may provisionally conclude that syntactic simplicity does not much correlate with flesh – kincaid grade level. the texts chosen for the contrastive analysis of word concreteness are texts 5a and text 6a with flesh – kincaid grade levels of 6.20 and 9.70, respectively. these two texts have radically different flash-kincaid grade levels (3.5 grade difference), but similar scores of narrativity, syntactic simplicity, deep cohesion. however, the critical difference lies in the concreteness/ abstractness of the words with values of 78% and 14% for texts 5a and text 6a, respectively. low word concreteness value indicates the presence of a large number of abstract words in text 6a. as the theme of text 6a is the study of alien activities, it contains specific vocabulary: civilization, intelligent life, signal, screensaver, etc. the vocabulary of text 5a, which portrays life of homeless people, consist of predominantly concrete nouns: benches, doorways, houses, hostel, room, streets etc. thus, it is obvious that it is mostly concreteness of text 5a that decreases its flesh – kincaid grade level. referential cohesion demonstrates a spike with 40% in text 3a and falls to 9% in text 7a. indices of narrativity and syntactic simplicity fluctuate within a narrow range of 8 9%, solnyshkina et al. while concreteness/abstractness is distinctively diverse with 70% in text 3a and 33 % in text 7a. the statistics also shows little relation between flesh – kincaid grade level and referential cohesion (see table 1 above). as lexical diversity is proved to be in inverse proportion to cohesion (mcnamara & graesser, 2012), we also computed lexical diversity of texts 7a and 3a. text inspector measures lexical diversity of text 7a to be 145.56 (vocd), while that of text 3a to be only 92.48 (vocd). based on the scores we can assume that text 3a contains more words and ideas that overlap across adjacent sentences and the entire text, while text 7a contains fewer explicit threads that connect the text for the reader. cf.: “fortunately, i was able to identify the mugger from a photo at the police station. he was a well-known criminal in the area, so the police knew where to find him. anyway, he confessed to the crime, the police arrested him” (теxt 3a). as we can see the connections between the ideas are made with the help of thematic similarity (the mugger – a criminal – a crime – arrested), repetition (the police), substitution (the mugger – he – him – he – him), derivatives (criminal – crime). referential cohesion for text 7a is low due to the lack of lexical and semantic overlap. cf.: “believe you can climb that mountain, swim that ocean or reach that place, and surely one day you will. there would be no ford cars, star wars, light bulbs or beethoven symphonies if this was not true!” (text 3a). thus, text 7a is more challenging for the reader, especially for a non-native speaker. the counterbalance which levels up flesh – kincaid grade levels of the texts 3a and text 7a is word concreteness which is much higher in text 3a (see the table above). the texts demonstrating distinctively different deep cohesion are texts 2a and text 8a, which judged from the statistics in table 1, are also different in the following characteristics: narrativity, syntactic simplicity, word concreteness and referential cohesion. deep cohesion of text 2a is extremely high, 99% , which means that the text connections are very dense. it contains 17 temporal connectives, 3 causal, 7 intentional, while text 8a incorporates 3 temporal connectives, 2 causal, 0 intentional connectives (gabitov & ilyasova, 2016). at this stage of the research it is difficult to explain all the correlations between the parameters but the fact that deep cohesion has very little correlation with flesh – kincaid grade level is obvious. discussion the analysis has showna wide range of possibilities which t.e.r.a. provides for assessing text complexity parameters and their interrelations. by assessing complexity http://www.thesaurus.com/browse/statistics journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),238-248 parameters it discriminated text 8a from the rest of the texts studied as a text of different genre: as a descriptive text text 8a demonstrated much lower narrativity score than all the other in the continuum.the question of this text appropriateness as the final reading text in the textbook, though being urgent, is beyond the scope of this paper. t.e.r.a. also assesses text syntactic simplicity thus providing a user with an instrument to measure three different syntactic indices: the number of clauses, the number of words in a sentence, the number of words before the main verb. the results of this study confirm that syntactic simplicity measured with t.e.r.a. does not much correlate with flesch kincaid grade level. however the research demonstrated strong correlation between text concreteness computed with t.e.r.a. and flesch kincaid grade level: with all other complexity parameters of two texts being similar, it is word concreteness that shapes the grade level score. as for referential cohesion and deep cohesion scores assessed with t.e.r.a., they go beyond traditional readability formulas, including flesch kincaid grade level, i.e. do not correlate with the latter. two other phenomena discovered are the following: the score of referential cohesion of all narrative texts in the corpus is below 40% with the mean being 26%, while the deep cohesion score is above 74% with the mean of 90%. the complexity parameters measured with t.e.r.a. and the elicited interdependences between the latter and flesch-kincaid grade level provide a good foundation for educators to elaborate an extensive approach to selection of reading texts for academic purposes of different groups of students (readability formulas). several authors have proposed different metric sets to assess similarity and dissimilarity in text complexity, such as adjective per sentence, nouns per sentence, frequency of content words, etc. that can successfully rank academic texts for different age and grade levels (solovyev, ivanov & solnyshkina, 2017). conclusion t.e.r.a. analyses of the text complexity values demonstrated that (1) narrativity of the texts studied tends to be in inverse ratio to deep cohesion and directly proportional to word concreteness. (2) concreteness of the studied texts displays strong correlation with flesch – kincaid grade level and potential to decrease the latter. (3) syntactic simplicity does not demonstrate much interdependence with flesch – kincaid grade level. (4) the cohesion components, i.e. referential cohesion and deep cohesion indices, do not correlate with flesch – solnyshkina et al. kincaid grade level. the identified correlations between the text parameters values computed by t.e.r.a. are viewed by the authors as beneficial for designing an algorithm to select and modify texts so that they correspond to the cognitive and linguistic level of the target readers. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),238-248 references brysbaert, m., warriner, a.b. & kuperman, v. (2014). concreteness ratings for 40 thousand generally known english word lemmas. behavior research methods, 46: 904. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0403-5. danielle, s. mcnamara, d.s., graesser, a.c., cai, z. & kulikowich, j.m. (2011). coh-metrix easability components: aligning text difficulty with theories of text comprehension. aera. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228455723_cohmetrix_easability_components_aligning_text_difficulty_with_theories_of_text_comp rehension. erbilgin, e. (2017). a comparison of the mathematical processes embedded in the content standards of turkey and singapore. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1): 5374. gabitov, a.i. & ilyasova, l.g. (2016). use of automated instruments of text analysis to provide proper difficulty level of english language educational materials. problems of modern pedagogical education: pedagogy and psychology, 53(3): 101-108. mccarthy, p.m. & jarvis, s. (2010). mtld, vocd-d, and hd-d: a validation study of sophisticated approaches to lexical diversity assessment. behavior research methods, 42: 381. https://doi.org/10.3758/brm.42.2.381 mccarthy, ph.m., lightman, e.j., dufty, d.f. & mcnamara, d.s. (2006). using coh-metrix to assess distributions of cohesion and difficulty: an investigation of the structure of highschool textbooks. in: proceedings of the 28th annual conference of the cognitive science society (190-195). mahwah: eribaum. mcnamara, d.s. & graesser, a.c. (2012). coh-metrix: an automated tool for theoretical and applied natural language processing. in: applied natural language processing and content analysis: identification, investigation, and resolution (188-205). hershey, pa: igi global. mrc psycholinguistic database. retrieved from http://websites.psychology.uwa.edu.au/school/mrcdatabase/uwa_mrc.htm. readability formulas. free readability tools to check for reading levels, reading assessment, and reading grade levels. retrieved from http://www.readabilityformulas.com. solnyshkina, m.i., harkova, e.v. & kiselnikov, a.s. (2014). comparative coh-metrix analysis of reading comprehension texts: unified (russian) state exam in english vs cambridge https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228455723_coh-metrix_easability_components_aligning_text_difficulty_with_theories_of_text_comprehension https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228455723_coh-metrix_easability_components_aligning_text_difficulty_with_theories_of_text_comprehension https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228455723_coh-metrix_easability_components_aligning_text_difficulty_with_theories_of_text_comprehension https://doi.org/10.3758/brm.42.2.381 http://websites.psychology.uwa.edu.au/school/mrcdatabase/uwa_mrc.htm http://www.readabilityformulas.com/ solnyshkina et al. first certificate in english. english language teaching, 7(12): 65-76. solovyev, v., ivanov, v. & solnyshkina, m. (2017). assessment of reading difficulty levels in russian academic texts: approaches and metrics. in press. tarman, b. & baytak, a. (2012). “children’s online language learning: a constructionist perspective”, energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 2012, 4(2) 875-882. t.e.r.a. coh-metrix common core text ease and readability assessor. retrieved from http://129.219.222.66:8084/coh-metrix.aspx. text inspector. retrieved from http://textinspector.com/workflow/b3021c1a-706a-11e7-b233ab44afce53d3. waters, s. & russell, w.b. (2016). virtually ready? pre-service teachers’ perceptions of a virtual internship experience. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1): 1-23. http://129.219.222.66:8084/coh-metrix.aspx http://textinspector.com/workflow/b3021c1a-706a-11e7-b233-ab44afce53d3 http://textinspector.com/workflow/b3021c1a-706a-11e7-b233-ab44afce53d3 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 343-367 adolescent bullying prevention program in educational institutions: from comprehensive research to modification valentina panfilova1, aleksey panfilov2, yulia gerasimova3, & yulianna enina4 abstract the article discusses the issues of preventing bullying among adolescents in the educational organization and the design and promotion of comprehensive preventive programs for educational organizations. the relevance of the study lies in the fact that bullying of students by peers and adults, one of the most common problems in the educational environment, which significantly increases the risk of psychological trauma among adolescents, leads to an escalation of aggression and violence in groups of students, a decrease in the quality of education, to emotional and neurotic problems in adolescents both during the period of study and in future adult life. the novelty of the research is seen in the fact that it is proposed to build a bullying prevention program in an educational organization in a certain sequence: “a comprehensive study an invariant software platform -a program modification for the specifics of an educational organization”. such an approach has a number of effects for an educational organization: a database on the sociocommunicative and personal characteristics of students' development, a database on the uniqueness of the socio-psychological climate, increasing the involvement of the teaching staff in the design and implementation of anti-bullying programs. the article describes an experimental work on unfolding the sequence of building an invariant software platform for anti-bullying programs for adolescents. empirical research results are presented. it is proved that the proposed approach to the design, launch and promotion of preventive anti-bullying programs for adolescent students increases the awareness of subjects of the educational process about bullying, reduces the frequency of situations of school bullying, and improves the socio-psychological climate of the educational organization. keywords: bullying, adolescent, bullying prevention, comprehensive research, modification. introduction the issue of preventing situations of violence in the education system is urgent both throughout the world and in russia. according to the united nations, at least 1 billion children in the world are exposed to violence every year, i.e. every second child. in schools, every second child experiences peer violence (annual report of the special representative of the secretary-general 1 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, russian federation, v.panfilova2010@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, russian federation, panfiloval@mail.ru 3 assoc. prof., irkutsk national research technical university, irkutsk, russian federation, avtos5630@mail.ru 4 assistant, sechenov first moscow state medical university, moscow, russian federation, enina.yu.i@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 344 on violence against children, 30 july 2019). in russia, annually, on average up to 30% of young people aged 14 to 18 are exposed to violence in a certain way. about one-fifth of all cases of violence against children, adolescents, and adults occur in the education system. harassment of students by peers and adults, the so-called bullying, is one of the most common problems of educational organizations today, which significantly increases the risk of psychological trauma among adolescents, leads to an escalation of aggression and violence in the team, decreased academic performance, emotional and neurotic problems. at school, bullying is more common among adolescents. firstly, this happens because adolescence is the most difficult, conflicting and contradictory stage of personality development, there is a struggle for leadership, conflicts. secondly, the educational environment is the most important sphere of social interaction for most adolescents (camarero-figuerola et al., 2020; shatunova et al., 2021). in this regard, the issue of preventing bullying in an educational organization becomes especially relevant: attracting the attention of the school community to create conditions that prevent the occurrence of this phenomenon, teaching teachers and parents the skills to recognize a bullying situation against a child, timely help, correct adult behavior tactics, if bullying has already taken place. the urgency of the problem of preventing teenage bullying at school is that universal methods of dealing with this problem have not been created. many pedagogical collectives are not ready psychologically and methodically to diagnose the reasons for bullying among adolescents, cannot identify the personality traits of adolescents involved in bullying, do not know the technologies for developing preventive programs taking into account the specifics of a particular educational organization. as a result, the necessary support and assistance is not provided on time for “victims” and “offenders”. teenagers participating in bullying in an educational organization cannot cope with the bullying situation on their own without the intervention of school teachers, which negatively affects their psychological state and may have negative consequences in future adult life. research questions to guide the research process, the following two research questions are sought to answer: 1) what personality similarities among adolescent school bullying are indicated in the prevention program of education institution in the comprehensive research to modification? panfilova et al. 2) what level of aggression and hostility do students indicate in the prevention program of education institution in the comprehensive research to modification? 3) what anti-bullying programs are implemented in the education institutions in the comprehensive research to modification? theoretical review the phenomenon of bullying in the adolescent environment of an educational organization in the last decade has increasingly become a problem of pedagogical, social, and psychological research. many researchers in their works (furmanov, 2014; grebenkin, 2016; hieneman et al., 2015; kon, 2006; lane, 2011; olweus, 1993; sobkin & markina, 2009; vishnevskaya & butovskaya, 2010) point out that bullying develops and becomes more active in a closed community. any educational institution is a rather closed community with its own socio-pedagogical boundaries. research shows that bullying in its most violent and visible forms are most common in schools. evidence of this is the avalanche-like video recordings of bullying of peers and school teachers appearing on the internet. in many countries of the world and in russia, this phenomenon is acquiring new characteristic features: an increase in the diversity of species (a new type, cyberbullying, has been added to the known types of bullying); scale; regularity. bullying is a concept denoting harassment, violence, discrimination. this is a special type of physical or moral violence of one person and/or group against another person/other people, mainly manifested in children’s groups. the problem of bullying in children’s communities in educational institutions has been known for a long time. the first mentions of this problem were recorded at the beginning of the 20th century and belong to dukes, who published an article on school bullying (mosina & ustenko, 2016). later in the 1970s, the study of the problem of bullying became systemic and associated with the names of the researchers (hieneman et al., 2005; olweus, 1993; olweus et al., 2007; pikas, 2002). in the 1990s, research on bullying problems was undertaken by several scholars (cross, 2017; dix et al., 2013; dix et al., 2012; lane, 2001; ortega et al., 2004;). definition of bullying appears in table 1. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 346 table 1 definitions of bullying despite the existing history of studying the problem of bullying, russian researchers began to actively deal with this problem only at the beginning of the 21st century. bochaver & khlomov. 2013; grebenkin, 2016, glazman, 2009 the meaning of the concept of bullying e.v. zmanovskaya, d. olweus, t. fuld bullying is a type of behavior that harms mental and physical health v.r. petrosyants, d.n. solovyova bullying is a destructive interaction aimed at causing physical or mental harm to health (petrosyants, 2011) d. lane bullying is deliberate harm to others, manifested in a physical way (violent actions, physical harm, involvement in the use of psychoactive substances) or psychological pressure (insult, threats) (lane, 2001) e. miller bullying is a process of deliberately abusing a group of people or one person to a weaker child i.s. kon bullying is intimidation, psychological or physical terror in order to create fear in others and subdue them (kon, 2006) s.v. krivtsova bullying is a manifestation of the aggression of some children against others, when there is an inequality of forces between the aggressor and the victim, the aggression tends to recur (krivtsova, 2011) i.g. malkina-pykh bullying means the actions of the aggressor towards his victim, focused on humiliating the individual through emotional, physical or sexual violence and aggression (malkina-pykh, 2005) o.a. maltseva bullying in the behavior of children and adolescents is the harsh treatment of children and neglect of their interests (maltseva, 2009) based on the above interpretations, it can be argued that bullying is a complex social, psychological, and pedagogical phenomenon that brings physical, psychological, and moral harm to a child in the school social environment (ajaps & obiagu, 2020; camarero-figuerola, 2020; donohue, 2020; volkova et al., 2020). there are three main directions, in which it is necessary to conduct research on bullying in the school social environment: studying the personal and individual properties and qualities of the offender and victim of a certain age and gender; studying the socio-psychological characteristics of the processes of bullying and victimization (how one student makes another student his or her victim) in an educational institution; studying macroand micro-social patterns of development of groups of students of different ages, different student communities, as well as from mixed communities: school teachers – students in an educational institution. panfilova et al. adolescent bullying the analysis of the above scientific research and actual educational practice showed that adolescent students were most susceptible to bullying in an educational institution. in our research, our opinion is that there are objective and situational grounds for bullying adolescents in the school social environment. we consider the characteristics of age development and individual personality traits of adolescents to be the objective grounds for bullying. teens are more likely to be rebellious, deviant, addictive, and bully peers. bullying in adolescence manifests itself as a destructive form of behavior, with the help of which adolescents meet natural needs to fulfill their potential in interpersonal communication with their peers, to create a group structure based on domination in the school adolescent community. therefore, a dominant adolescent (offender) has a desire to take a leading position at the expense of his or her classmates or students who are younger in age. this is when an offender (bully) and a victim appear in an educational institution (breslav, 2016). bullying can also occur if a teenager has certain individual personality traits, among which aggressiveness is most often distinguished. over the past few decades, scientists have noted an increase in the number of adolescents with a high level of aggression and aggressive behavior (ushakova, 2009). thus, the main feature of an adolescent offender (bully) in the school social environment is increased aggressiveness, cruelty, desire for power, domination. they usually have a positive attitude towards all types of aggressive behavior; enjoy manifesting their aggression and manipulating others. bullying in education teenage bullying is impossible in the school social environment without victims. the appearance of bullying victims also has objective and situational reasons. the victims of bullying in an educational institution are most often: introverted, anxious, insecure adolescents who have difficulties in interpersonal interaction with peers; adolescents of both sexes with low self-esteem and lack of expressed educational motivation; adolescents with psychosomatic disorders; adolescents with attention deficit disorder, speech and physical defects, chronic diseases, diseases of the autism spectrum, “too feminine” ones. by school teenage bullying in the current study, we journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 348 mean the actions of a “bully” or a group of “offenders” in school life situations in relation to their “victim” (a peer or younger), focused on humiliating a person through emotional and/or physical violence and aggression. the most often type and manifestation of school teenage bullying in educational institutions is physical and psychological school bullying. violence associated with an effect on the psyche, causing psychological trauma through verbal abuse or threats, which deliberately inflicts emotional insecurity (an offensive name or nickname with which the victim is constantly addressed, name-calling, ridicule, spreading offensive rumors, endless remarks, biased assessments, humiliation in the presence of other children, spitting, direction, showing indecent gestures, use of threats, blackmail, deliberate isolation, distribution of insulting notes, derogatory inscriptions on the blackboard, in public places of school extortion of money, valuables and objects, theft , robbery, hiding the victim's personal belongings. school cyberbullying became to manifest itself very actively insult, humiliation via the internet, social networks, e-mail, telephone or through other electronic devices (sending ambiguous images and photographs, anonymous phone calls, name-calling, spreading rumors are injured, victims of bullying are filmed and posted on the internet). to the situational grounds of bullying, we refer to the features of the influence of the school social environment of a particular educational institution on the attitude towards the phenomenon of bullying. firstly, the positive reinforcement in the school social environment becomes aggressive behaviors of the adolescent bully. as a result, offenders may develop negative personal and behavioral attitudes characteristics: confidence that they will be able to subdue any peers and younger ones at will; desire to be in the spotlight; striving to be a leader in all situations; aggressiveness and weak self-regulation are manifested. secondly, the absence in a specific educational institution of the emotional background can create a negative attitude towards offenders (bullers) and the position of protecting the victim. adolescence is one of the most difficult stages in personal development. during this period of life in the school social environment, students undergo a transformation of psychological structures that have developed in childhood, the foundations of conscious behavior are laid, and a general direction in the formation of moral ideas and social attitudes emerges. during adolescence, dangerous behavior such as bullying becomes active. therefore, the problem of preventing bullying manifestations panfilova et al. among adolescents occurs in the school social environment. the analysis of the experience of using bullying prevention programs (hieneman et al., 2005; lane, 2001; petrosyants, 2011) in the school social environment shows that the use of programs significantly reduces the number of adolescent students (from 30 to 50%) who have been exposed to or have subjected their peers to school bullying. thus, in order to reduce the incidence of bullying, it is necessary to carry out preventive work with real and potential participants. we believe that preventive work to prevent bullying of adolescents in an educational organization will be effective if the teaching staff of an educational organization is able to carry out a comprehensive study to identify the individual psychological characteristics of adolescents in an educational institution as potential participants in bullying. the revealed individual psychological characteristics of adolescents in an educational institution become the basis for constructing an invariant of an anti-bullying program. with the similarity of the individual psychological characteristics of adolescents, the invariant of the program can be used in different classes of the school and even in different educational institutions. specialists of the educational institution like social teachers, psychologists, teachers modify the invariant of the preventive program to the level of an effective program. it is necessary to modify an invariant program for an educational institution on a situational basis. it is a fact that the manifestations of bullying in any educational institution have specific features: they are latent, mediated by the existing system of social, psychological and pedagogical relations, behavioral reinforcements in the educational institution. methods design this study is a survey design (creswell, 2009). survey research is a quantitative research method used for collecting data from a set of panel or respondents (creswell, 2014; rowley, 2014). this study examined how bullying prevention was programmed in an educational program that emphasized modification of institutional policy. as a survey research quantitative analysis was utilized applying descriptive statistic and t-test. this research was carried out in educational institutions, during the implementation of the educational program for one academic year. this study took place in nabereshnye chelny, nishnekamsk, elabuga and mendeleevsk, russia. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 350 sample this study applied census research and recruited 800 students consisting of 399 (498.9%) aged 1314 year old, and 401 (50,01%) aged 14.5-15.5. the students came from 14 city schools in four cities: nabereshnye chelny, nishnekamsk, elabuga and mendeleevsk. the cities were selected as research setting because adolescent bullying was reported to increase at the cities and adolescents have been the major objects of education reform in the cities. distribution of the sample appears in table 2. table 2 sample description school city age 13,5-14,5 clas s age 14,5-15,5 class total subjects number of subjects percentage of subjects number of subjects percentage of subjects number of subjects percentage of subjects 1. nch 25 3,125 6 25 3,125 8 50 6,25 2. nch 50 6,25 6,7 50 6,25 7,8 100 12,5 3. nch 25 3,125 6 25 3,125 7 50 6,25 4. nch 25 3,125 6 24 3,0 8 49 6,125 5. nch 25 3,125 7 25 3,125 8 50 6,25 6. nch 25 3,125 7 25 3,125 8 50 6,25 175 21,875 174 21,75 349 43,625 7. n 25 3,125 6 27 3,375 7 52 6,5 8. n 50 6,25 6,7 50 6,25 7,8 100 12,5 9. n 26 3,25 7 25 3,125 8 51 6,375 10. n 25 3,125 7 25 3,125 8 50 6,25 126 15,75 127 15,875 253 31,625 11. е 24 3,0 6 25 3,125 8 49 6,125 12. е 24 3,0 6 25 3,125 8 49 6,125 48 6,0 50 6,25 98 12,25 13. м 25 3,125 7 25 3,125 7 50 6,25 14. м 25 3,125 7 25 3,125 7 50 6,25 50 6,25 50 6,25 100 12,5 399 401 800 note: nch – nabereshnye chelny; n – nishnekamsk; e – elabuga; m – mendeleevsk research instrument major research instrument of this study is an online survey questionnaire. the questionnaire examined level of aggressiveness and hostility in adolescents. the indicators to be identified through the questionnaire were “offenders” group and the “victim” group. in the groups of “victims” and “offenders”, total indices (index of aggression and index of hostility) were determined, as well as aggressive reactions (physical aggression, indirect aggression, irritation, panfilova et al. negativism, resentment, suspicion, verbal aggression, guilt). the questionnaire was made in a closed-ended question so that no validity and reliability testing were required to see the quality of items. wording and appropriateness of the indicators however were examined by an expert during the process of item development. data collection data of this study were collected using closed ended survey questionnaire given online. the distribution was conducted in one month for one city sharing approximately 200 samples, so that the whole 800 samples was completed in four moths. to prevent from defective responses or not all questionnaires were returned properly, the researchers share 1,000 sheets of questionnaire. responses of the fixed questionnaire were identified their themes based on the frequency and rate percentage. finally, a number of 308 responses from adolescents of 13-14 ages were revealed proper to the sample, and so did 401 responses from the 14-14.5 aged samples. data analysis in our research, we use descriptive data analysis. the data of respondents from the “offenders” group compared with the data of respondents from the “victim” group to identify the degree of similarity and difference in personality traits of real and potential participants in school bullying of adolescence. we compared the mean values in two independent groups "victims" and "offenders", since the data in both groups obey the law of normal distribution, the study uses the student's test. the data on the personality traits of adolescents was compared: the severity of the scales of aggression in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” at the level of significance p≤0.05 and p≤0.01; the severity of destructive attitudes in interpersonal relationships in the groups "victims" and "offenders" at the level of significance p≤0.05 and p≤0.01; the severity of personal and situational anxiety in the groups "victims" and "offenders" at the level of significance p≤0.05 and p≤0.01. it turned out that the obtained mean values did not differ significantly, when comparing the severity of self-esteem in the “victim” and “offender” groups. fisher's test was used at the significance level of p≤0.05 and p≤0.01 to answer the survey whether there are differences in the degree of homogeneity of self-esteem indicators between the groups. at the research, student's test and fisher's test were calculated based on the resources of the excel program. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 352 findings personality similarities among adolescent school bullying this result is the answer to the following question: “are there personality similarities among adolescent school bullying participants?” results for the first diagnostic indicator indicate the frequency of bullying in educational institutions among adolescents. the findings show that 68% of adolescents have never been bullied in an educational institution (gender was not taken into account in the study). the 19% of adolescents were bullied from time to time. thirteen percent of the subjects in the general sample were often bullied. results for the second diagnostic indicator: the frequency of participation of adolescents in bullying in relation to another student in the educational institution. some 75% of adolescents have never been bullied against another student. sometimes (one or several times) 16% of teenagers participated in bullying. often (many times) 9% of adolescents were involved in bullying against another student. the data obtained allowed us to design two experimental groups. the “victim” group adolescents who were bullied at least once in the educational process 32% (256 adolescents) of the total sample. the group of "offenders" adolescents participated in bullying in relation to other students once or more times 25% (216 adolescents) of the total sample. at the next stage of the study, it was found out: what are the personal characteristics in the groups of "victims" and "offenders", what are the similarities and differences in the personal characteristics of adolescents from the groups of "victims" and "offenders". the results of the buss-durkey aggression questionnaire are presented in table 3. table 3 distribution of groups of “victims” and “offenders” by the levels of aggression and hostility indicators of aggression distribution by the level of aggression normal level increased level “victims” “offenders” “victims” “offenders” aggression index 76% 45% 24% 55% hostility index 76% 45% 24% 55% based on the above results, it can be concluded that the level of aggression and hostility in 55% of “offenders” exceeds the normal level, in 45% – the level of aggression is normal. in 76% of “victims” the level of aggression and hostility is within the normal range, in 24%, it is overestimated. the comparative analysis of the scales of aggression in the experimental groups showed as follows (table 4). panfilova et al. table 4 the severity of the scales of aggression in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” scales of aggression “offenders” “victims” t-criteria physical aggression 7.05 5.4 3.2** indirect aggression 4.95 4.72 0.4 irritation 7.4 6.84 0.8 negativism 4.25 3.8 1.3 resentment 5.3 4.28 2.0 suspicion 5.1 4.16 2.5* verbal aggression 8.8 6.72 2.9** guilt 4.25 4.0 0.5 aggression index 23.25 18.96 2.9** hostility index 10.4 8.44 2.8** note: critical values *2.02 with p≤0.05, **2.7 with p≤0.01, ***3.5 with p≤0.001 level of aggression and hostility compared a comparative analysis of the data showed that the level of aggression and hostility in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” significantly differed at a high level of significance (p≤0.01). higher values (mean value of 23.25 points) in terms of aggression are common to adolescents from the “offenders” group (t=2.9, with p<0.01) rather than to adolescents from the “victims” group (mean value of 18.96 points). higher values (mean value of 10.4 points) in terms of hostility are peculiar to adolescents from the “offenders” group (t=2.8, with p<0.01) rather than to adolescents from the “victims” group (mean value of 8.44 points). teenagers from the “offenders” group are more aggressive and hostile than teens from the “victims” group. as a consequence, this group may experience difficulties in relations with the peer community and the community of teachers in the school social environment. the features of aggressive behavior in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” significantly differ at a high level of significance in terms of such indicators as physical aggression (t=3.2 p≤0.01), suspicion (t=2.5 p≤0.05), verbal aggression (t=2.9 p≤0.01). this indicates that “offenders” in the process of bullying more often use physical and verbal forms of influence in relation to “victims”. in addition, in the process of interpersonal interaction, “offenders” are more suspicious than “victims”. the results of determining destructive attitudes in interpersonal relations according to the method of boyko appear in table 4. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 354 table 5 the severity of destructive attitudes in interpersonal relationships in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” destructive attitudes “offenders” “victims” t-criteria veiled cruelty 74.75 57.8 2.3* open cruelty 63.51 39 3.8*** justified negativism 62 49.6 1.7 grumbling 53 25.2 4.2*** negative personal experience with others 55 38.6 2.2* note: critical values *2.02 with p≤0.05, ** 2.7 with p≤0.01, ***3.5 with p≤0.001 the comparative analysis of data on destructive attitudes in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” showed the presence of significant differences in indicators. adolescent “offenders” are characterized by significantly (t=2.3, with p<0.01) higher values (mean value of 74.75 points) in terms of “veiled cruelty” rather than adolescent “victims” (mean value of 57, 8 points). the group of adolescent “offenders” is characterized (t=3.8, with p<0.001) by higher values (mean value of 63.51 points) in terms of “open cruelty” rather than adolescents in the “victims” group (mean value of 39.0 points). according to the “grumbling” indicator, higher values (mean value of 53.0 points) are peculiar (t=4.2, with p<0.001) to adolescents from the “offenders” group rather than to adolescents from the “victim” group. in addition, adolescents from the “offenders” group are characterized by significantly (t=2.2, with p<0.01) higher values (mean value of 55.0 points) by this indicator rather than adolescents from the “victims” group (mean value of 38.6 points). this indicates that adolescents from the “offenders” group show more cruelty in bullying, both in an open and veiled form, than adolescents from the “victims” group. grumbling, i.e. the tendency to make unreasonable generalizations of negative facts in the field of relationships with partners and in observing social reality is more characteristic of adolescents from the “offenders” group. the analysis of indicators of the severity of destructive attitudes in interpersonal relationships in the “victims” and “offenders” groups indicates higher cruelty, both explicit and disguised one, among adolescent “offenders”. the results of the anxiety assessment questionnaire by spielberger and khanin are presented in table 6. panfilova et al. table 6 distribution of the “victims” and “offenders” groups by the level of personal and situational anxiety distribution by level of personal and situational anxiety high level average level low level “victims” “offenders” “victims” “offenders” “victims” “offenders” personal anxiety 36% 15% 36% 55% 28% 30% situational anxiety 36% 15% 48% 60% 16% 25% a comparative analysis of the severity of personal and situational anxiety in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” is carried in table 7. table 7 the severity of personal and situational anxiety in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” anxiety “offenders” “victims” t-criteria personal anxiety 33.9 36.1 2.4* situational anxiety 34.9 38.4 2.6* note: critical values *2.02 with p≤0.05, ** 2.7 with p≤0.01, ***3.5 with p≤0.001 the comparative analysis of the severity of personal and situational anxiety in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” showed significant differences. significantly (t=2.4, with p<0.01) higher values (mean value of 36.1 points) in terms of personal anxiety are characteristic of adolescents from the “victims” group rather than of adolescents from the “offenders” group (mean value of 33.9 points). the adolescents from the “victims” group are characterized by significantly (t=2.6, with p <0.01) higher values (mean value of 38.4 points) in terms of situational anxiety rather than adolescents from the “offenders” group (mean value of 34.9 points). thus, adolescents from the “victims” group are more anxious than adolescents who are “offenders”. moreover, in both groups, situational anxiety is more expressed; it is characterized as a state of subjectively experienced emotions: tension, anxiety, concern, nervousness. this state arises as an emotional reaction to a stressful situation in the school social environment and can be different in intensity and dynamism over time. the results of diagnostics of self-esteem in adolescents from the “victims” group and the group of “offenders” according to the methodology “study of general self-esteem according to the questionnaire by kazantseva”. an underestimated level of self-esteem was revealed in 45% of adolescents from the “victims” group, in 35% – adequate self-esteem, while 20% of children have an overestimated self-esteem. it has been identified that 45% of adolescents from the “offenders” group had an overestimated journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 356 level of self-esteem, 40% –adequate self-esteem and 15% –low self-esteem. it means that adolescents of both groups cannot always objectively assess themselves and their abilities, do not always have adequate ideas about the importance of their personal activities among other people (in a peer group, in mixed child-adult groups), their own qualities and feelings, advantages and disadvantages. comparing the results of self-esteem manifestation degree, one can say that adolescents from the “victims” group are characterized by a significantly (φ*emp=4.78 p≤0.01) lower level of self-esteem (45%) rather than in the case of adolescents from the “offenders” group (15%). adolescents from the “offenders” group are characterized by a significantly (φ*emp=3.84 p≤0.01) increased level of self-esteem (45%) rather than in the case of adolescents from the “victims” group (20%) (table 8). table 8 comparative analysis of self-esteem manifestation degree in the groups of “victims” and “offenders” self-esteem “offenders” “victims” φ*emp increased level 45% 20% 3.84** adequate level 40% 35% 0.72 low level 15% 45% 4.78** note: critical values *1.64 with p≤0.05, ** 2.31 with p≤0.01 the data show that adolescents from the “offenders” group are more self-confident and more ambitious than their peers from the “victims” group. the confidence of adolescents from the “offenders” group is an objective basis for the emergence of confidence that they will be able to subdue all their peers. thus, the assumption that adolescents from the “victims” and “offenders” groups show differences in personal characteristics was confirmed. the basis for the development of an invariant of a preventive program to overcome bullying in adolescent students is the data which obtained on the personality traits of adolescents (self-esteem, anxiety, aggressiveness, features of destructive attitudes towards peers). anti-bullying program compared this section replies the question: “is it possible to design an invariant of an anti-bullying program for an educational organization on the basis of data on the personality traits of adolescents?” the data obtained at the staging stage of the study showed that it was recorded the fact of bullying in educational organizations participating in the study. adolescents from the “victim” group and the panfilova et al. “offender” group have differences in personal characteristics such as self-esteem, anxiety, aggressiveness, destructive attitudes towards the peer community. the next stage is the description of the development and testing of an invariant of a preventive program to overcome bullying among adolescents. the development of this kind of anti-bullying programs for educational institutions is aimed at solving the following tasks: psychological education of subjects of the educational process, their involvement in activities to study the characteristics of their own personality, behavior, the characteristics of their relationships with others for the purpose of selfdisclosure, self-knowledge, and self-actualization in this activity; psychological diagnostics of individual characteristics, problems and prospects of personality development; psychological counseling of subjects of the educational process; teaching basic communication techniques, methods of conflict-free behavior, the ability to analyze behavioral situations and make decisions; teaching the basic techniques of overcoming barriers and fears, developing the ability to deal with difficult situations, analyze the motives of both one's own and others’ (peers, adults) behavior, and overcome depressive states. the invariant of the experimental preventive program was developed by the authors of this article, taking into account the identified psychological characteristics of adolescents in the “offenders” and “victims” groups and without taking into account the specifics of the social environments of educational institutions participating in the study. during the formative stage of the experiment, two preventive programs were developed and carried out. the first program “i can control my behavior” was aimed at reducing the level of aggression, hostility, and cruelty of adolescents from the “offenders” group. the preventive program is aimed at solving the following tasks: 1. decrease in the level of aggression, hostility, and cruelty. 2. development of communication skills. 3. formation of constructive communication skills. 4. development of self-regulation skills. 5. formation of skills of behavior in a conflict situation. 6. motivating adolescents to analyze their own behavior. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 358 7. formation of the skills of adequate anger expression. the second preventive program “confident behavior” was aimed at reducing anxiety, increasing self-esteem, and developing competencies for confident behavior in adolescents from the “victims” group. the preventive program is aimed at solving the following tasks: reducing anxiety, working through fears; decrease in psycho-emotional stress; development of constructive interaction and communication skills; development of the ability to understand a communication partner; development of self-awareness, self-knowledge, self-expression skills; formation of a positive self-attitude, self-confidence, adequate self-esteem. preventive work within these programs was carried out in the following areas: psychological education of adolescents, teaching staff of educational institutions, parents of students) through group and individual conversations, role-playing and psychological games, etc.; psychological counseling (group, individual) on the main problems of the personality of adolescents from the “offenders” and “victims” groups; psychological diagnostics and correction of personality traits (observation, questioning, testing, implementation of special corrective programs, training, etc.); sociological research in an educational institution – the study and analysis of public opinion in groups of students and mixed child-adult groups. participation in the pilot program was voluntary. before the start of the training cycle, individual conversations were held with each teenager. programs in educational institutions during one academic year were implemented by specially trained social teachers and educational psychologists of educational institutions. as a result of implementing prevention programs, it was expected that the number of cases of bullying involving adolescents in an educational institution would decrease, as there would be changes: in the objective basis of bullying: adolescents from the “offenders” group will have less aggression, adolescents from the “victims” group will have less psycho-emotional stress, constructive interaction skills will develop and self-confidence will increase; in the situational basis of bullying: the psychological climate in the educational institution will improve. participants in adolescent bullying cannot solve the problems with the bullying situation on their own without the intervention of school teachers, which negatively affects on their physical and psychological state. in the educational institutions participating in the study, was revealed the effectiveness of invariant the preventive program to overcome bullying among adolescent panfilova et al. students. the control stage of the experimental work solved the following problems: 1) conduct a repeated diagnostic study of personality traits in adolescents from the “victims” and “offenders” groups; 2) analyze, summarize the results of the control study and compare them with the results of the ascertaining stage of the study using the methods of mathematical statistics; 3) determine the frequency of bullying cases involving adolescents in an educational institution. some of the results of the diagnostic examination of the “offenders” and “victims” groups after the end of prevention programs will be analyzed in table 9. table 9 the severity of aggression and hostility in the “offenders” group after the end of the preventive program aggression at the beginning of the program at the end of the program φ*emp normal level 45% 80% 5.25** increased level 55% 20% 5.26** hostility normal level 45% 80% 5.25** increased level 55% 20% 5.26** note: critical values *1.64 with p≤0.05, ** 2.31 with p≤0.01 the level of aggression and hostility at the end of the preventive program among adolescents from the “offenders” group significantly decreased: the number of adolescents with a high level of aggression and hostility decreased by 35%; the number of adolescents increased by 35% with a normal level of aggression and hostility. the data for the “victims” group will be analyzed in table 10. table 10 the severity of personal and situational anxiety in the “victims” group after the end of the preventive program anxiety at the beginning of the program at the end of the program t-criteria personal anxiety 36.1 33.4 2.1* situational anxiety 38.6 34.3 2.3* note: critical values *2.02 with p≤0.05, ** 2.7 with p≤0.01, ***3.5 with p≤0.001 the comparative analysis of the severity of personal and situational anxiety in the adolescent “victims” group at the beginning and at the end of implementing the preventive program showed significant differences both in personal anxiety (t=2.1, with p≤0.05) and in situational anxiety (t=2.3, with p≤0.05). these results indicate that adolescents from the “victims” group have a higher journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 360 personal and situational anxiety. upon completion of the preventive program, the indicators decreased at a reliable level, bullying victims in the educational institution became less anxious. here are the data of the repeated diagnostic examination on the situation of bullying in educational institutions, according to the questionnaire “bullying situation at school” by petrosyants. the survey was carried out four months after the completion of prevention programs; 82% of adolescents (658 adolescents of both sexes) from the original sample took part in the re-survey. the effectiveness of prevention programs was assessed according to the following criteria: a steady decline in the prevalence of bullying during the period of testing and implementation of preventive programs in an educational institution; availability in educational institutions of fixed delayed results of preventive programs. as a result of the implementation of preventive programs, the incidence of bullying among adolescents who participated in the pilot program decreased: the share of “offenders” decreased by 18%, the number of adolescents from the “victims” group who were repeatedly bullied during the year decreased by 12%. in the “victims” group, there was a 13% increase in the number of adolescents who said that their relationships with peers in the educational institution had improved. further questions arise: how to respond to the teaching staff; how to create a psychologically safe school environment; how to stop bullying if it has already started; how to provide the necessary support and assistance to both “victims” and “offenders” in time. this can be done if, on the basis of data on the groups of "victims", "offenders" not only to design and implement invariant antibully preventive programs at school, but also to modify them taking into account the specific characteristics of specific groups of adolescents in a particular educational institution or educational institution as a whole. discussion why is school bullying more common among adolescents? on the one hand, there are objective grounds for the manifestation of bullying an age-related development: rapid physical and psychological changes, puberty occurs, the search for one's “i”. adolescents struggle for leadership in school social settings, leading to conflicts that can escalate into bullying. on the other hand, the developmental level of adolescents makes it possible to identify potential “victims” and panfilova et al. “offenders”, to determine and compare the personal characteristics of “victims” and “offenders” (self-esteem, anxiety, aggressiveness, features of destructive attitudes towards the peer community), focusing on their self-report. the “victim” group 32% of adolescents from the total sample. the group of "offenders" adolescents participated in bullying in relation to other students once or more times 25% of the total sample. thus, up to a third of adolescent students are involved in school bullying. comparative analysis of data on the groups of “victims” and “offenders” showed differences in such personal characteristics as the level of aggressiveness and hostility, destructive attitudes. high rates are typical for the “offenders” group. for example, adolescents in the "offender" group are characterized by higher values (mean 10.4 points) in terms of hostility than adolescents in the "victim" group (mean 8.44 points). teens from the bullying group are more aggressive and hostile than teens from the bullying group. the adolescents from the “offenders” group are characterized by significantly higher values (mean value 74.75 points) in terms of “veiled cruelty” than adolescents from the “victim” group (mean value 57.8 points). the group of adolescents "offenders" are characterized by higher values (mean value 63.51 points) in terms of "open cruelty" than for adolescents in the group of "victims" (mean value 39.0 points). the data and conclusions obtained in the study generally coincide with the opinion of the researchers (breslav, 2016; ushakova, 2009). however, it should be checked whether the indicators for the “victim” and “offender” groups differ by gender? the multiplicity of factors that can cause situations of bullying both in relation to students of different ages and in relation to employees of an educational institution dictates the need to design and promote comprehensive preventive programs for educational institutions. however, the problem remains open: is there a need for a unified bullying prevention program in an educational institution? it is obvious that with the existing and ongoing research on bullying all over the world, the need to identify invariant criteria by which bullying prevention programs will be designed and implemented in educational institutions will certainly arise. despite the abundance of bullying prevention programs, most of them are not universal, and this makes them difficult to use (evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; hieneman et al., 2005; lane, 2001; petrosyants, 2011). this problem can be solved by constructing an invariant platform suitable for journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 362 use in any educational organization with students of a certain age on the basis of existing effective bullying prevention programs. further, the specialists of an educational institution (social workers, psychologists, teachers) complete the software platform to the level of an effective program. completing the construction of an invariant software platform in an educational institution is a necessary process. the fact is that manifestations of bullying in any educational institution have complications and specificities: they are latent, are not always recognized by students due to their age, they are a systematic recurring phenomenon, always mediated by the existing system of social, psychological, and pedagogical relations in the educational institution. the teaching staffs have to be taught how to diagnose the causes of bullying among adolescents, identify the personality traits of adolescents involved in bullying, and develop invariants of preventive programs taking into account the specifics of a particular educational organization. the study showed that the invariant program “i can control my behavior” should be aimed at reducing the aggressiveness, hostility and cruelty of adolescents from the “offenders” group. the second preventive program "confident behavior" should be aimed at reducing anxiety, increasing selfesteem, and forming the competencies of confident behavior among adolescents from the "victim" group. the effectiveness of the invariants of the designed and implemented experimental preventive anti-bullying programs is proved by the decrease in the frequency of bullying (the proportion of “offenders” decreased by 18%, the number of adolescents from the “victim” group decreased by 12%). however, the question arises, will invariant anti-bullying prevention programs provide a long-term reduction in the manifestations of school bullying among adolescents if only the groups of “victims” and “offenders” are included in the programs? another problematic issue of bullying prevention is the focus of most programs on working with the “victims” group, which significantly reduces the effectiveness of the programs. programs of assistance to the initiators of bullying (the “offenders” group), and another large group of bullying participants "observers" reprogramming their personal attitudes and behavior to a more pro-social one, are rarely included as an element in prevention programs. it is necessary to use more actively the promising, so-called “rehabilitation approach”, which will fill this gap in the prevention of bullying. the “rehabilitation approach” has spread only in recent years and is still used in russian education in fragments. in our opinion, the prevention of bullying at school should be aimed at panfilova et al. changing the system of relations in the educational organization as a whole, the formation of acceptable statuses of adolescents in the group, based on the value of respectful relationships. the results of the study are seen as significant in the fact that a successful option for the prevention of school bullying in adolescents has been demonstrated. the novelty of the research lies in two aspects: systemic work in an educational organization in the following sequence: “comprehensive diagnostic examination of adolescents of a particular educational organization development and implementation of an invariant software platform modification of an anti-bullying program for the specifics of an educational organization”; the work of the teaching staff was carried out as actively as possible at the level of school classes and the educational organization as a whole. conclusion bullying is a common problem in educational institutions around the world and in russia in particular. repeated aggressive behavior towards individual students or their groups has a powerful negative effect on all students and teaching staff of an educational institution. in our study, the school adolescent bullying understands like the actions of the “offender” or a group of “offenders” in school life situations in relation to their “victim” (a peer or younger), focused on humiliating a person through emotional and/or physical violence and aggression. it was assumed that educational organizations will be able to successfully cope with manifestations of teenage bullying if they can identify the individual characteristics of real and potential members of the groups of "victims" and "offenders" (self-esteem, anxiety, aggressiveness, features of destructive attitudes towards the peer community). to design and implement invariant anti-bully prophylactic programs and modify them taking into account the characteristics of specific groups of adolescents or educational organizations based of data. the study has proven that in order to increase the effectiveness of preventive anti-bullying programs, it is necessary to hold in an educational institution purposeful and planned activities that differ in frequency, continuity and focus on typical age-related, personal characteristics of students and specific social and psychological-pedagogical characteristics of the educational institution’s environment. the proposed approach to the design, launch, and promotion of prevention antibullying programs for adolescent students showed certain effects: increased awareness of subjects of the educational process about what bullying is; decreased number of situations of school journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 364 bullying. the socio-psychological climate of the educational institution has improved, which is necessary for quality education, upbringing, and development of all students. it is determined that bullying prevention among adolescents should be aimed both at an individual student and at the level of school groups as actively as possible: the class, interest group, educational institution as a whole. a mandatory element of all preventive anti-bullying programs for adolescents should be “rehabilitation”, so the help is not only the “victims” of bullying, but also the initiators of bullying “offenders”, reprogramming their behavior to a more pro-social one. the development of a bullying prevention program can be designed in an educational institution in the following sequence: “integrated research (identification of individual characteristics of real and potential bullying participants of different ages) –invariant software platform (development and launch of an invariant anti-bullying program based on the data of individual characteristics of real and potential participants in bullying) –modification of the program for the specifics of the educational institution (in any educational institution, manifestations of bullying have specific features: they are latent, mediated by the existing system of social, psychological and pedagogical relations, behavioral reinforcements in the educational institution)» such a methodological approach can give a certain advantage, since the counteraction to bullying will be systemic, and schools will bear great responsibility for their actions, since they take into account the specifics of their educational institution. references ajaps, s., & obiagu, a. (2020). increasing civic engagement through civic education: a critical consciousness theory perspective. journal of culture and values in education (jcve), 4(1), p. 64-87 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 bochaver a.a., & khlomov e. d. (2013). bochaver a.a. bullying as an object of research and a cultural phenomenon. psychology: journal of the higher school of economics. vol.10. no. 3. p.149-159. breslav g.e. (2016). psychological correction of child and adolescent aggressiveness: a textbook for specialists and amateurs. spb: rech, 321 p. camarero-figuerola, m., dueñas, j.-m., & renta-davids, a.-i. (2020). the relationship between family involvement and academic variables. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 5(2), 57-71. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.4 panfilova et al. creswell, j. w. (2009). research design qualitative, quantitavie, and mixed methods approaches. eds. vicki knight, sean connelly, sarah k. quesenberry, and marilyn power scott. los angeles: sage publication. creswell, j.w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). london: sage publications. cross, d. (2017). beyond bullying: positive change for all, telethon kids institute, viewed 22 june 2017, –url: https://www.telethonkids. org.au/our-research/brain-andbehaviour/development-andeducation/health-promotion-and-education/beyondbullyingpositive-change-for-all diagnostics of emotional and moral development. (2002). comp. and ed. i.b. dermanov. spb .: rech, 2002 (type. llc ipk biont). 171 p. donohue, d. (2020). culture, cognition, and college: how do cultural values and theories of intelligence predict students’ intrinsic value for learning?. journal of culture and values in education (jcve). https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 dix, k., jarvis, j. & slee, p. (2013). kids matter and young children with disability: evaluation report, flinders research centre for student wellbeing and prevention of violence, shannon research press, adelaide. dix k., slee p., lawson m. & keeves j. (2012). implementation quality of whole-school mental health promotion and students’ academic performance. child and adolescent mental health, 17(1), 45-51. evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research (jcsr), 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 fetiskin n.p., kozlov v.v., & manuilov g.m. (2002). socio-psychological diagnostics of the development of personality and small groups. m.: publishing house of the institute of psychotherapy. 339 p. furmanov, i.a. (2014). aggressiveness and its manifestations in childhood. m.: yurayt, 296 p. glazman o.l. (2009). psychological features of bullying participants. bulletin of the herzen russian state pedagogical university. no. 105. pp. 159-165. grebenkin e.v. (2016). prevention of aggression and violence in school. rostov-on-don: phoenix. 157 p. greben' n.f. (2007). psychological tests for professionals. minsk: modern school, 487 p. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 343-367 366 hieneman, m., dunlap, g. & kincaid, d. (2005). positive behavior support strategies for students with behavioral disorders in general education settings. psychology in the schools, 42(8), 779-94. istratova o.n., & eksacusto t.v. (2010). high school psychologist handbook. ed. 6th. – rostov-on-don: phoenix, 510 p. kon i.s. (2006). what is bullying and how to deal with it. family and school. no. 11. pp. 15-18. krivtsova, s.v. (2011). bullying at school vs rallying of those who are not indifferent. m.: firo. 93 p. lane d.a. (2001). school bullying (bullying). children's and adolescent psychotherapy / ed. d. lane, e. miller. spb: peter, pp. 240-276. malkina-pykh i.g. (2005). psychological assistance in crisis situations: a handbook of a practical psychologist. m.: eksmo, 960 p. maltseva, o. a. (2009). prevention of cruelty and aggressiveness in adolescent environment and ways of overcoming it. tyumen state university. no. 7. p. 51. mosina o.a., & ustenko v.s. (2016). the problem of bullying in the educational environment. scientific-methodical. electronic journal "concept". 29, 144-148. url: http://ekoncept.ru/2016/56567.htm. olweus d. (1993). bullying at school: what we know and what we can do. ny: blackwell, 152 р. olweus d., limber s.p., flerx v.c., mul lin n., riese j., snyder m. (2007). olweus bullying prevention program: schoolwide guide. center city, mn: hazelden. ortega, r., del-rey, r. & mora-merchán, j. (2004). save model: an anti-bullying intervention in spain’, in p smith, d pepler & k rigby (eds). bullying in schools: how successful can interventions be? cambridge university press, cambridge, pp. 167-186.; petrosyants, v.r. (2011). psychological characteristics of high school students, participants in bullying in the educational environment, and their resilience: dis. ... cand. psychol. sciences. spb, 210 p. pikas, a. (2002). new developments of the shared concern method. school psychology international, 23(3), 307-336. rowley, j. (2014). designing and using research questionnaires. management research review. 37(3), 308-330. doi:10.1108/mrr-02-2013-0027 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/mrr-02-2013-0027 panfilova et al. shatunova, o., bozhkova, g., tarman, b. & shastina e. (2021). transforming the reading preferences of today’s youth in the digital age: intercultural dialog, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(3), 62-73. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 sobkin, b.c., & markina o.s. (2009). influence of the experience of “school bullying” on teenagers' understanding of the film “scarecrow”. bulletin of practical psychology of education. no. 1 (18). pp. 48-57. – url: https://psyjournals.ru/vestnik_psyobr/2009/n1/28271.shtml (date of access: 04.04.2020). ushakova e. (2009). bulling a new term for an old phenomenon. director of the school. no. 6. pp.84-87. vishnevskaya v.i., & butovskaya m.l. (2010). the phenomenon of school bullying: aggressors and victims in the russian school. ethnographic review. no. 2, p.55-68. volkova, p. s., orekhova, e. s., saenko, n. r., trofimova, l. v., & barova, a. g. (2020). features of the modern process of differentiation of sense and meaning in communication. media watch, 11(4), 679-689. doi:10.15655/mw/2020/v11i4/204639 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(1), 190-207 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 the impact of ict on pupils’ achievement and attitudes in social studies 1 emin cener 2 , ismail acun 3 & gokhan demirhan 4 abstract the aim of this study is to investigate the impact of teaching social studies with the help of ct on pupils’ achievement in social studies. a history, geography and culture oriented theme was selected from the social studies curriculum for the research, turks on the silk road. a multimedia cd, documentaries, powerpoint and so on were used to teach social studies to 6 th graders. the research design of the study is quasi experimental. three different research tools were used to collect data: an academic achievement test, an attitude measurement scale on social studies education and an attitude measurement scale on ict. when achievement post test scores were treated as dependent variable in blockwise regression analysis the followings are found: pupils’ attitudes towards the subject and ict do not have an effect on their post-test achievement scores. however, their prior knowledge on the subject and the treatment i.e. teaching social studies with ict have a positive effect on their achievement. teaching social studies with ict do not have any statistically significant effect on pupils’ attitudes toward social studies lesson. thus, it is recommended that teachers and policy makers should find ways to formulate effective ict integration applications for social studies. keywords: social studies, ict, achievement, attitudes ict in social studies education there has been a strong emphasis in turkey to integrate information and communication technologies (ict) in schooling by the governments in the last decade (m.e.b., 2011). authorities governing turkish education, and scholars alike are emphasizing the importance of educating pupils with knowledge and skills for independent and meaningful learning. this aim will be achieved better with the integration of ict into teaching and learning process. along with implementing projects to integrate ict into education, the philosophy that lies under school curricula has also shifted towards constructivism (m. e.b., 2006). 1 the data for this paper is derived from the dissertation supervised by ismail acun completed by emin cener for the fulfillment of requirements of social sciences institute of university of usak, turkey. 2 emincener74@hotmail.com 3 assoc. prof. dr., osmangazi university, iacun@ogu.edu.tr 4 res. asst., usak university, gokhandemirhan@yandex.com journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 190-207 191 constructivist approach provides support for the importance of student-centred learning environment which promotes meaningful learning processes (anderson, 2008). because of this emphasis, there is great attention paid generic skills as well as knowledge. social studies curriculum (4 th -7 th grades) are also developed with a constructivist approach. curriculum developers’ vision of constructivist social studies is that pupils will be able to make sense of him/herself and the society at large when engaged in learning environments dealing with real life issues (m.e.b., 2006). social studies curriculum are developed with an interdisciplinary approach in turkey (m.e.b., 2006). that is, the knowledge produced by the scholars of social sciences that are regarded as the basis for social studies such as history, geography, economics, sociology and so on is integrated in the curriculum in a way that in one lesson teaching and learning actives might be involving the knowledge and/or methods of all the social sciences mentioned above (safran, 2004). thus, social studies education in turkey not only covers a wide range of knowledge bases produced by social sciences but also methodological approaches employed by social sciences in terms of skills education (ata, 2012). turkish social studies curriculum states that pupils should be educated to have knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. those knowledge covers a very wide range of information from ancient turkish history to geography, from culture to trade in nine different themes (from 4 th grade to 7 th grades) very much the same ncss’ definition of social studies and learning areas (ncss, 1992 cited by ozturk & dilek, 2005). the curriculum also state that there are some national and global values such as hospitality, honesty, being scientific, aesthetic and so on that have to be taught directly to pupils (doğanay, 2012). furthermore, there are also some generic skills such as critical thinking and creative thinking skills and social studies specific skills such as understanding chronology and change and continuity that have to be taught to pupils (ata, 2012). any given unit from the social studies curriculum covers all of the issues mentioned above. what current turkish social studies curriculum tries to achieve those goals above is to engage pupils with current, rich and meaningful real life issues (ata, 2012). the subject of social studies is about real life for the real world. pupils have experiences in real life. they bring those experiences into learning environments, and learning environments are affected by those experiences. thus, it is important to incorporate real life issues in dealing with social studies pupils. it is also true that pupils’ learning is more lasting when they deal with real life situations (yanpar, 2011).social studies cover a learning area that deals with abstract issues. those abstract issues are difficult for some young pupils emin cener, i̇smail acun & gökhan demi̇rhan 192 with low cognitive development level. what is needed is to create learning environments that utilizes concrete materials and tools. information and communication technologies (ict) have potential in this sense for social studies (gulbahar & guven, 2008; yesiltas & sonmez, 2009). ict has the potential to bring real life issues into classrooms in a way that was not possible before in a traditional classroom setting. the flexible nature of ict and the internet especially provide pupils (and others) with the opportunities for research, interaction, cooperation and collaboration (cole, 2000). utilizing moving and still images, conducting life histories, carrying out social research through ict might make social studies meaningful and enjoyable which is otherwise might be considered a dull subject by some pupils (dawson et al., 2000; acun, 2012). ict has tools for teaching, learning, research, information and interaction for pupils and educators. ict integration into education might also have some ramifications for social studies (beck & eno, 2012; acun, 2012). especially, its ability to bring visual images of real life experiences through movies, documentaries and still images has great potential for younger pupils (voogt, 2008; dede, 2008). ict and pupils’ achievement the hype about ict has also implications about its effect on pupils’ achievement and engagement in learning activities. there is a great deal of research in line with this (liaw et al., 2007; marwan & sweeney, 2010; teyfur, 2010; efe, 2011). the implications of it are promising considering the infusion of ict into every aspect of human life. human experience as we know it has been changing in interaction, entertainment, commerce, health and education due to ict. this change is immense and irreversible. teachers have no or very little power on the infusion of ict in pupils’ lives. the positive impact of ict on pupils’ achievement is what educators would want to happen in a situation that is going to happen anyway. what they need is to adopt themselves and their practice to make the best out of ict. however, it is not very easy for teachers to adopt effective integration strategies into their teaching practice due to several barriers (sang et al., 2011; blackwell, et al., 2013). it is not straightforward process to make pupils achieve better trough ict integration (fairlie & robinson, 2013; acun, 2014). a meta-analytic study about the relationship between ict and pupils’ achievement in comparison with traditional instruction have shown that ict have a positive impact on pupils’ achievement level (liao, 2007). some studies suggest that if barriers to ict integration are identified and properly addressed ict could be useful asset in journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 190-207 193 every level of education (blackwell et al., 2013; archer et al., 2014). there are other numerous studies claiming that ict positively affect pupils’ learning (teyfur, 2010; watson, mong & harris, 2011; pili & aksu, 2013). the essence of these studies suggest that because of icts’ flexible nature, educators (and pupils themselves) can find ways to accommodate pupils’ need for better achievement. despite these theoretically sound advantages of ict, there is a little evidence that it actually makes any difference in pupils’ achievement levels in social studies (maddux & cummings, 2004; lai, 2008). supporting the critical stance of some researchers, there is also a recent quasi-experimental research showing that there is no evidence that ict has an effect on human rights, democracy and citizenship education which falls under social studies research and teaching area (acun, 2014). thus, it was necessary to design a research and formulate research questions to examine the impact of ict on pupils’ achievement in a sample specific social studies course. there is also another issue related to ict in teaching and learning, the attitudes. attitudes appear to be having an impact on peoples’ use of ict and using ict in turn might be having an impact on peoples’ attitudes towards ict itself. ict and attitudes attitudes and dispositions are important factors that might be having an effect on teaching and learning. human behaviors are affected by attitudes and may be vice versa (senemoglu, 2008). what is certain is the key role of attitudes on human motivation and learning. thus, educators have been trying to understand ways in which learning is best nurtured through improved attitudes of learners. although there appears to be a potential for social studies educators to use ict, they do not utilize its potential even to let pupils access to the content of the subject (zhao & bryant, 2006).among many possible variable that might be affecting their use of ict, their perceptions and attitudes might be very important factors in their (lack of) usage. there are some contradicting findings about the relationship between attitudes and ict usage in education. nevertheless, the attitude of a person is a factor in integration of ict in teaching and learning (kzenek & christensen, 2008). positive attitudes towards ict might have an effect on its usage by individuals for educational purposes (liaw et al. 2007; marwan & sweeney, 2010; yucel et al, 2010; efe, 2011). another factor in individual domain is individuals’ belief about its usefulness (ertmer, 2005). teachers and pupils should believe the technology is useful for their purposes. if they believe ict is useful for them, the logical conclusion is that they bear positive attitudes emin cener, i̇smail acun & gökhan demi̇rhan 194 towards ict. one might expect, then, positive attitudes will lead to more intensive use of it in educational settings. intensive use of ict may not automatically bring about the success in pupils’ attainment level in schools. however, some other studies claim that ict can be used to form positive attitudes towards any given lesson. attitudes therefore play another important role in the issue of integrating ict in teaching and learning (kao & tsai, 2009; yılmaz & alıcı, 2011). apart from ict’s potential in knowledge domain in the classroom, it has some features that could be used to address pupils’ affective domain. many of its tools have motivational implications for educators. it also has more potential especially subjects like social studies when dealing with affective domain. a short video of a case about poverty might create the desired effect on pupils’ emotions for example. it appears that ict has an effect on attainment level and attitudes of pupils. thus, it is crucial for educators to understand how to exploit its potential. there is growing interest in turkey in trying to find out ways in which ict can be used best in education. this interest is arising not only because of the natural dissemination of ict in every aspect of life but also governmental initiatives such as fatih project (a multimillion dollar ict infrastructure project for schools in turkey). in line with this trend there is also research interest. however, this research interest is only partially reflected for the relationship between ict and social studies. what is missing is that there is very little casual empirical data to examine the effect of ict on pupils’ achievement and attitudes towards social studies education in turkey. in order to test the expected positive results of integrating ict into social studies teaching a unit that was eligible to use ict tools were chosen by the researchers for the experimental research mentioned in detail in the method section. the unit that was chosen from social studies curriculum for the experimental study was ‘the turks on the silk road’. turks on the silk road unit was chosen for the purpose of the experiment. the unit is the third unit in social studies curricula for 6 th graders in turkey. the unit mainly deals with the historical, geographical and cultural issues concerning the era of migration and resettlement of turkish tribes from central asia to minor asia (turkey) between 4 th century bc and 15 th ad century (m.e.b., 2006). thus, it covers a wide range of historical and cultural transformational issues such as converting to islam from shamanic belief system and adopting to settled life style from nomadic life style. these issues suit best to use documentaries, internet research, the interactive cd and powerpoint during teaching and learning in the classroom. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 190-207 195 thus this paper deals with the following research questions;  does using information and communication technologies have a positive effect on pupils’ achievement level in social studies?  does using information and communication technologies have a positive effect on pupils’ attitudes towards social studies?  does using information and communication technologies have a positive effect on pupils’ attitudes towards ict itself? method research design the study employs a quasi-experimental research design. the subjects of the study were two groups of 6 th grade pupils of a state/public primary school in izmir, turkey. the number of pupils in both experiment and control groups were the same i.e. each group was consisted of 35 pupils. the school did not allow the researchers to assign control and experimental groups randomly. however, both groups of pupils were similar in terms of number of pupils, gender compositions, academic achievement level in the school and their socio-economic status before the experiment. those variables were treated as covariates in the analysis. data gathering tools, data collection and analysis three different research tools were used to collect data: an academic achievement test on ‘turks on the silk road' unit, an attitude measurement scale on social studies education and an attitude measurement scale on ict. in order to understand the possible positive impact of ict usage on pupils’ achievement level, a valid and reliable achievement test was necessary. it was also necessary to understand its effect on pupils’ attitudes towards the subject and ict. thus, ict and social studies attitude measurement scales were developed. the research instruments developed in the following manner; the researchers developed a pool of multiple choice (4 choices for each question) questions for the unit that has to be taught during the experiment period. the pool of questions was crosschecked by three other teachers of social studies. taking into consideration their criticism, some of the questions were omitted (8 in total) and some question added (2 in total) to make sure content validity has been reached. there were 40 questions left for the pilot study. the achievement tests (and attitude scales) were piloted with 120 pupils. after running test for reliability and difficulty for the items, there were 30 questions were left. exactly the same procedures were followed for the attitude measurement tests. the only differences were that the item pool consulted by emin cener, i̇smail acun & gökhan demi̇rhan 196 experts was other social studies researchers rather than teachers, and the number of the items were varying from test to test. after piloting all the research tools reliability of social studies achievement test is .84 cronbach’s alpha. reliability of social studies attitude measurement scale is .89 cronbach’s alpha. reliability of the ict attitude measurement scale is .97 cronbach’s alpha. the data was collected both at the beginning (pre-test) and the end (posttest) of the application from both experiment and control groups through these instruments. data was subjected to mean, one way anova and regression analysis. the treatment because of the knowledge, skills and values that are covered in ‘the turks on the silk road’, there were numerous opportunities for the teacher to integrate ict in the teaching process. the teacher utilized a cd containing factual information about turkish states that were established and demolished during the time period covered by the unit. the cd contains drill and practice applications, digital historical maps and some simple (flash) simulations. the teacher also used documentaries about nomadic life style, cultural artifacts and geographical terrain in central and minor asia. the teacher also used internet resource for pupils to do research and reach resources. having decided on which group (class) will be the experimental group and which one is the control group, the researchers applied data collecting tools as pre-test at the beginning of the treatment. then, the treatment started for the experimental group. the treatment lasted for 5 weeks (this is the time allocated officially for the unit). at the end of the treatment the same data collecting tools were given to pupils as post-tests. findings the differentiations between pre-test and post-test scores of experimental and control groups from the achievement test, ict attitudes and social studies attitudes scales are given below. table 1. the differentiation between pre-test and post test scores of experimental and control groups from the achievement test, ict attitudes scale and social studies attitude scales. group n mean sd s error t p ict atti. pre-test experimental 35 3.4731 .33679 .05693 .772 .443 control 35 3.3832 .60033 .10147 ict atti. post-test experimental 35 3.4370 .45487 .07689 1.996 .050 control 35 3.2193 .45750 .07733 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 190-207 197 soc. stu. atti. pre-test experimental 35 3.4641 .50546 .08544 -2.347 .022 control 35 3.6994 .31021 .05243 soc.stu.atti. post-test experimental 35 2.3407 .28016 .04736 -2.311 .024 control 35 2.4733 .19178 .03242 achievement pre-test experimental 35 18.6857 6.25334 1.05701 2.135 .036 control 35 15.6571 5.59907 .94642 achievement post-test experimental 35 20.4571 5.04884 .85341 3.643 .001 control 35 16.0286 5.14773 .87013 p< .05 there is no statistically significant difference between experimental and control groups on their ict attitudes pre-test scores. this means that both groups of pupils’ attitudes towards ict were similar at the beginning of experiment. however, there is a significant difference between experimental and control groups’ ict attitudes post-test scores in favor of experimental group. it seems that the treatment had a positive effect on pupils’ attitudes towards ict. the table shows that there was statistically significant difference between experimental and control groups’ attitudes towards social studies education in favor of control group at the beginning of experiment. there was still significant difference between those two groups in favor of control group about their attitudes towards social studies according to their post-test scores. post-test scores of both groups were lower than their pre-test scores on social studies attitudes scale. this means the treatment did not improve experimental group’s attitudes towards social studies education. experimental group’s academic achievement pre-test scores were significantly higher than control group’s scores. their post-test scores on academic achievement were also higher than control group’s scores. the difference between post-test scores of both groups on achievement test was much greater than their pre-test score on achievement test. this means, the treatment had a positive effect on pupils’ academic achievement. in order to understand the variables’ effects on observed variance in pupils post-test scores on academic achievement test, blockwise regression analysis was carried out. table 2.blockwise regression model of pupils’ achievement post-test scores model r r square adj. r square std. error change statistics r square change f change df1 df 2 f change p(sig.) 1 .474 .225 .189 4.91094 .225 6.369 3 66 .001 emin cener, i̇smail acun & gökhan demi̇rhan 198 2 .502 .252 .194 4.89669 .028 1.192 2 64 .310 3 .589 .347 .285 4.61193 .095 9.147 1 63 .004 when achievement post-test scores were treated as dependent variable, and achievement, social studies attitude and ict attitude scales pre-test scores entered as first block, social studies attitude and ict attitude scales post-test scores entered as second block, group as in experiment and control group entered as the final group in blockwise regression analysis, 35 per cent of variance in pupils’ post-test scores of academic achievement test in social studies was explained. those variables included in the first block explained 23 per cent of variance in pupils’ academic achievement post-test scores (r = .474, r² = .225, p< .05). the variables included in the second block did not contribute in explaining the variance in pupils’ academic achievement post-test scores (r = .502, r² = .252, p > .05). the variable included in the third block explained 10 per cent of the variance in pupils’ academic achievement post-test scores (r = .589, r² = .347, p< .05). table 3. standardized regression coefficients of pupils’ achievement post-test scores independent variables unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t p b s. error beta constant 13.847 8.531 1.623 .110 1 ict atti. pre-test -1.200 1.220 -.106 -.984 .329 soc. stu. atti. pre-test 2.888 1.436 .229 2.012 .049 achievement pre-test .355 .104 .383 3.430 .001 2 ict atti. post-test .381 1.288 .033 .296 .768 soc.stu.atti. post-test -1.715 2.501 -.077 -.686 .496 3 group -3.775 1.248 -.349 -3.024 .004 regression analysis shows that pupils’ academic achievement levels were not affected by their attitudes towards ict and social studies. their academic achievement is affected by their prior knowledge on the subject matter (achievement pre-test scores) and learning method i.e. learning social studies with the help of ict. their prior knowledge and delivery method journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 190-207 199 affect pupils’ achievement positively. pupils in the experimental group have statistically significant higher post-test achievement scores that those in the control group. the second regression analysis is carried out to understand the variables’ effect on pupils’ attitudes on social studies. table 4. blockwise regression model of pupils’ social studies attitudes post-test scores model r r square adj. r square std. error change statistics r square change f change df1 df2 f chg. p(sig.) 1 .357 .128 .088 .23541 .128 3.215 3 66 .028 2 .404 .163 .098 .23410 .036 1.373 2 64 .261 3 .442 .195 .118 .23144 .032 2.477 1 63 .121 when pupils’ social studies attitudes post-test scores were treated as dependent variable, and achievement, social studies attitude and ict attitude scales pre-test scores entered as first block, ict attitude scales post-test scores and achievement post-test scores entered as second block, group as in experiment and control group entered as the final group in blockwise regression analysis, 20 per cent of variance in pupils’ post-test scores of academic achievement test in social studies was explained. those variables included in the first block explained 13 per cent of variance in pupils’ social studies attitudes post-test scores (r=.357, r²=.128, p<.05).the variables included in the second block did not contribute in explaining the variance in pupils’ social studies attitudes post-test scores (r = .404, r² = .163, p > .05).the variable included in the third block did not contribute in explaining the variance in pupils’ social studies attitudes post-test scores(r=.442, r²= .195, p > .05). table 5. standardized regression coefficients of pupils’ social studies attitude post-test scores independent variables unstandardized coefficients std. coefficients t p b s. error beta constant 1.788 .374 4.774 .000 1 ict atti. pre-test .002 .062 .004 .030 .976 soc. stu. atti. pre-test .141 .072 .247 1.949 .056 emin cener, i̇smail acun & gökhan demi̇rhan 200 achievement pre-test .010 .006 .249 1.894 .063 2 ict atti. post-test -.043 .064 -.082 -.665 .508 achievement post-test -.004 .006 -.096 -.686 .496 3 group .103 .066 .211 1.574 .121 analysis shows that no single variable contributed to explaining the observed variance in pupils’ attitudes towards social studies education. sometimes it may not be possible to explain observed variance in any given behavior by one single variable. regression type analysis is used to analyze the variables in blocks which bear similar characteristics as in the analysis above. although no single variable is important in explaining pupils’ attitudes towards social studies, their pre-test scores of achievement test, social studies attitudes and ict scores altogether have an impact on pupils’ forming attitudes towards social studies. the third regression analysis is carried out to understand the variables’ effect on pupils’ attitudes on ict. table 6. blockwise regression model of pupils’ ict attitudes post-test scores mo del r r square adj. r square standard error change statistics r square change f change df1 df2 f change p(sig.) 1 .383 .146 .108 .44536 .146 3.775 3 66 .015 2 .402 .161 .096 .44834 .015 .563 2 64 .572 3 .407 .166 .086 .45070 .004 .332 1 63 .567 the third regression analysis treated pupils’ attitudes toward ict as dependent variable. no single variable had any significant effect in explaining observed variance in pupils’ attitudes towards ict. the first block variables of ict attitudes, social studies attitudes and achievement pre-test scores explained 15 per cent of observed variance (r=.383, r²=.146, p<.05). second block variables of social studies achievement and attitude post-test score (r= .402, r²= .161, p> .05) and third block variable of group did not have any effect in explaining the observed variance (r = .407, r² = .166, p> .05). nevertheless, the three blocks all together explained 17 per cent of observed variance in pupils’ attitudes towards ict. only the first block variables affected pupils’ attitudes towards ict positively. table 7. standardized regression coefficients of pupils’ ict attitude post-test scores journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 190-207 201 independent variables unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t p b s. error beta constant 3.619 .718 5.038 .000 1 ict atti. pre-test .221 .117 .226 1.891 .063 soc. stu. atti. pre-test -.222 .142 -.204 -1.566 .122 achievement pre-test .012 .011 .155 1.137 .260 2 achievement post-test .004 .012 .042 .296 .768 soc. stu. post-test -.163 .244 -.085 -.665 .508 3 group -.075 .130 -.080 -.576 .567 the analysis shows that the treatment and pupils’ achievement and social studies post-test scores do not have any effect on their attitudes towards ict. nevertheless, the first block variables which are not important on their own have a positive effect on pupils’ attitudes towards ict. one of the interesting points is that pupils’ pre-test attitudes towards social studies are negatively correlated with their pre-treatment attitudes towards ict. although statistically not significant, similar result is observed with their post-test scores of social studies and ict attitudes scales. the effect of pupils’ social studies attitudes post-test scores on their ict attitudes scores is less than their social studies attitudes pre-test scores’ effect on their pre-test ict attitudes scores. this finding means that the pupils whose achievement test scores are higher statistically have slightly higher positive attitudes towards ict as a result of the treatment. discussion and conclusion the study shows that ict integration into the classroom has a slightly positive effect on pupils’ achievement. this finding is supported by the literature too, as explained in theoretical background of this article (see also watson, mong& harris, 2011; pili &aksu, 2013). the positive impact of ict on pupils’ achievement is what educators would want to happen in a situation that is going to happen anyway. what they needed here is that teachers should adopt teaching methods and materials to integrate ict into their teaching practice. the teacher by using an interactive cd which contains historical facts, still and moving images, questions, feedbacks and digital maps, and employing more student centered teaching approach such as group work and inquiry based teaching, appears to make a small contribution to pupils’ achievement level. it is not straightforward process to make pupils emin cener, i̇smail acun & gökhan demi̇rhan 202 achieve better trough ict integration (underwood and dillon, 2011; acun, 2014). therefore, it is suggested hereby that teachers training programs of ict integration has to subject oriented and carried out in a workshop manner over a long period of time. contrary to achievement and many research findings (shieh, 2012; chien et al, 2012) ict did not have any effect on pupils’ attitudes towards social studies in this study. this finding is supported one of recent study (acun, 2013). because there are many research reports both supporting and rejecting the finding that ict does not have any effect on pupils’ attitudes towards the subject in question, it is suggested by this study that further research (especially qualitative studies) should be carried out. however, it did have an effect on pupils’ attitudes towards ict. familiarity and knowledge are important for people to have positive attitudes towards ict (yucel et al., 2010; blackwell, et al., 2013). pupils in this study formed positive attitudes after realizing potential of ict in their learning. positive attitudes towards ict not necessary will have a positive effect on pupils’ attitudes towards the subject or on achievement. it may be worth noting that pupils’ attitudes towards ict might lead to frequent use of ict. nevertheless, the quality of its use matters the most, non-academic use may hinder learning (ravizza, hambrick & fenn, 2014). therefore, it is suggested with this study that teachers’ focus should not be misled by the positive attitudes towards ict but they ought to really focus on achievement and attitudes towards subject matter. findings from regression analysis suggest that the pupils’ attitudes towards the subject i.e. social studies and ict do not have an effect on their post-test achievement scores. however, their prior knowledge on the subject and the treatment i.e. teaching social studies with ict have a positive effect on their achievement. those pupils in the experiment group had higher achievement test scores than the pupils in control group did. this might be the most important finding in this study. the implication of this finding on social studies (and on similar subjects) might be important. what we know now from this particular study is that there is a glimmer of hope that teachers can help their pupils achieve better with the help of ict. as with other innovations in education, the impact ict on pupils’ achievement is not very apparent. nevertheless, there is an opportunity to improve pupils’ learning by adopting new ways and materials with ict. the blockwise regression analysis also suggests that teaching social studies with ict do not have any statistically significant effect on pupils’ attitudes toward social studies lesson. the claim about the effect of ict on pupils’ attitudes was not valid for this study. teachers and other educators might be able to use ict in ways to make pupils’ attitudes better. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 190-207 203 however, a study designed to measure ict’s effect on pupils’ achievement did not yield any fruitful result to better their attitudes towards the subject. therefore, it could be suggested that a study could be designed to measure attitudes of pupils towards ict both qualitative and quantitatively. references acun, i. (2012). bilgisayar destekli ogretim uygulamalari. c. ozturk (ed.).sosyal bilgiler ogretimi (2. ed., pp.344-364). ankara: pegema. acun, i. (2013). attitudes in a web-supported learning environment. education, 5(2), 562569. acun, i. (2014). web-supported effective human rights, democracy and citizenship education? computers & education. 70, 21-28. anderson, r. e. (2008). implication of the information and knowledge society for education. in j. voogt, & g. knezek (eds.), international handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education. (pp. 5-22). new york: springer. archer, k., savage, r., sanghera-sidhu, s., wood, e., gottardo, a. & chen, v. (2014). examining the effectiveness of technology use in classrooms: a tertiary meta-analysis. computers & education. 78, 140-149. ata, b. (2012). sosyal bilgiler ogretim programi. c. ozturk (ed.), sosyal bilgiler ogretimi (2. ed pp. 33-47). ankara: pegema beck, d. & eno, j. (2012). signature pedagogy: a literature review of social studies and technology research. computers in schools, 29, 70-94. blackwell, c. k., lauricella, a. r., wartella, e., robb, m. & schomburg, r. (2013). adoption and use of technology in early education: the interplay of extrinsic barriers and teacher attitudes. computers & education. 69, 310-319. cole, r. (ed.). (2000).issues in web-based pedagogy, london: greenwood press chien, h.-m, kao, c.-c.yeh, i.-j.& lin, k.-y. (2012). examining the relationship between teachers’ attitudes and motivation toward web-based professional development: a structural equation modeling approach. the turkish online journal of educational technology, 11 (2), 120-127. dawson, k., bull, g., & swain, c. (2000). considerations for the diffusion of technological innovations in social studies teaching and learning. theory and research in social education, 28(4), 587-595. emin cener, i̇smail acun & gökhan demi̇rhan 204 dede, c. (2008). theoretical perspectives influencing the use of information technology in teaching and learning. in j. voogt, & g. knezek (eds.), international handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education (pp.43-59). new york: springer. doganay, a. (2012). degerler egitimi. c. ozturk (ed.).sosyal bilgiler ogretimi (2. ed., pp.344364). ankara: pegema. efe, r. (2011). science student teachers and educational technology: experience, intentions, and value. educational technology & society, 14(1), 228–240. ertmer, p. a. (2005). teacher pedagogical beliefs: the final frontier in our quest for technology integration? educational technology research and development. 53(4), 25–39. fairlie, r. w. & robinson, j. (2013). experimental evidence on effects of home computers on academic achievement among school children. nber working paper no. 19060. on-line http://www.nber.org/papers/w19060. last accessed 18.09.2014. gulbahar, y. & guven, i. (2008). a survey on ict usage and the perceptions of social studies teachers in turkey. educational technology & society, 11 (3), 37-51. kao, c.-p. & tsai, c.-c. (2009).teacher’s attitudes toward web-based professional development, with relation to internet self-efficacy and beliefs about web-based learning. computers & education, 53, 66-73. kzenek, g. & christensen, r. (2008). the importance of computer attitudes and competencies in primary and secondary schools. in j. voogt & g. kzenek (eds.). international handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education (pp. 321-328). new york: springer. lai, kwok-wing (2008). ict supporting the learning process: the premise, reality and promise. in j. voogt, & g. knezek (eds.). international handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education. (pp. 215-227). new york: springer. liao, y. c. (2007). effects of computer-assisted instruction on students’ achievement in taiwan: a meta-analysis. computers & education. 48, 216-233. liaw, s. s., huang, h. m., & chen, g. d. (2007). surveying instructor and learner attitudes toward e-learning. computers & education, 49, 1066-1080. maddux, c. & cummings, r. (2004). fad, fashion, and the weak role of theory and research in information technology in education. journal of technology and teacher education, 12, 511–533. marwan, a. & sweeney, t. (2010). teachers’ perceptions of educational technology integration in an indonesian polytechnic. asia pacific journal of education, 30 (4), 463–476. http://www.nber.org/papers/w19060 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 190-207 205 mcloughlin, c. & luca, j. (2000). cognitive engagement and higher order thinking through computer conferencing: we know why but do we know how? teaching and learning forum 2000. htpp://cleo.murdoch.edu.au/confs/tlf/tlf2000/mcloughlin.html. last accessed 16.03. 2004. m.e.b. (2006). ilkogretim sosyal bilgiler dersi 6.sinif ogretim programi ve kilavuzu. ankara m.e.b. (2011). fatih projesi. on-line: http://fatihprojesi.meb.gov.tr/tr/index.php last accessed at 02.01.2014. ozturk, c &dilek, d. (2005). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler ogretim programları. c. ozturk& d. dilek (eds.). hayat bilgisi ve sosyal bilgiler ogretimi. (pp. 3-22). ankara: pegema pilli, o. & aksu, m. (2013). the effects of computer-assisted instruction on the achievement, attitudes and retention of fourth grade mathematics students in north cyprus. computers & education, 62, 62-71. ravizza, s. m., hambrick, d. z. & fenn, k. m. (2014). non-academic internet use in the classroom is negatively related to classroom learning regardless of intellectual ability. computers & education, 78, 109-114. sang, g., valcke, m., van braak., tondeur, j. & zhu, c. (2011). predicting ict integration into classroom teaching in chinese primary schools: exploring the complex interplay of teacher-related variables. journal of computer assisted learning, 27, 160-172. safran, m. (2004). ilkogretim programlarında yeni yaklasimlar sosyal bilgiler (4–5. sinif)” bilim ve aklin aydinliginda egitim dergisi, 5 (54–55), on-line http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/sayi54-55/safran.htm. last accessed 12.01.2008. senemoglu, n. (2008). gelisim, ogrenme ve ogretim: kuramdan uygulamaya. ankara: gazi kitabevi shieh, r. s. (2012). the impact of technology enabled active learning (teal) implementation on student learning and teachers’ teaching in high school context. computers & education, 59. 206-214. teyfur, e. (2010). yapılandırmacı teoriye gore hazırlanmış bilgisayar destekli öğretimin 9. sınıf coğrafya dersinde öğrenci tutumu ve başarısına etkisi. ahi evran üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 11 (3), 85-106 underwood, j. & dillon, g. (2011).chasing dreams and recognizing realities: teachers’ responses to ict. technology, pedagogy and education. 20 (3). 317-330. http://fatihprojesi.meb.gov.tr/tr/index.php http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/sayi54-55/safran.htm emin cener, i̇smail acun & gökhan demi̇rhan 206 voogt, j. (2008). it and the curriculum processes: dilemmas and challenges. in j. voogt, & g. knezek (eds.), international handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education (pp.117-128). new york: springer. watson, w. r., mong, c. j. & harris, c. a. (2011).a case study of the in-class use of a video game for teaching high school history. computers & education, 56, 466-474. yanpar, t. (2012). etkili ve anlamli ogrenme icin kuramsal yaklasimlar ve yapilandirmacilik. c. ozturk (ed.), (2 nd ed.) sosyal bilgiler ogretimi (pp.51-76). ankara: pegema yesiltas, e. & sonmez, o. f. (2009). sosyal bilgiler ogretiminde bilgisayar kullanimi ve bilgisayar tabanli material gelistirme. r. turan, a. m. sunbul & k. ulusoy (eds.). sosyal bilgiler ogretimi (pp.387-413). ankara: pegema yılmaz, n. & alıcı, s. (2011). investigating pre-service early childhood teachers’ attitudes towards the computer based education in science activities. the turkish online journal of educational technology, 10 (3), 161-167. yucel, c., acun, i., tarman, b. & mete, t. (2010). a model to explore teachers’ ict integration stages. the turkish online journal of educational technology, 9(4), 444-456. zhao, y. & bryant, f.l. (2006). can teacher technology integration training alone lead to high levels of technology integration? a qualitative look at teachers’ technology integration after state mandated technology training. electronic journal for the integration of technology in education, 5,53-62. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 190-207 207 bilgi ve i̇letişim teknolojilerinin (bi̇t) sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde öğrenci başarısı ve tutumuna etkisi 5 emin çener, i̇smail acun & gökhan demirhan özet: bu çalışmanın amacı bilgi iletişim teknolojileri kullanımının sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğrenci başarı ve tutumu üzerine etkisini ortaya koymaya çalışmaktır. sosyal bilgiler 6. sınıfta i̇pek yolunda türkler ünitesi işlenirken bir multi-medya cd, belgesel, microsoft office gibi bi̇t araçları kullanılmıştır. bu araştırmanın ön test, son test deney ve kontrol gruplu yarı-deneysel bir araştırmadır. bu araştırmanın veri toplama araçları; bir erişi testi, sosyal bilgiler tutum ölçeği ve teknoloji tutum ölçeğinden oluşmaktadır. uygulama i̇zmir’de bir devlet i̇lköğretim (şimdilerde bir ortaokul olan) okulunda mevcut olan 6. sınıf öğrenci sınıflarında herhangi ikisiyle (deney ve kontrol) gerçekleştirilmiştir. verilerin analizlerine göre bilişim teknolojileri destekli sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde öğrencilerin başarılarında bir artış gözlemlenmiştir. veriler blockwise regresyon analizine tabii tutulmuşlardır. başarı son test puanları bağımlı değişken olarak regresyon analizi gerçekleştirildiğinde; öğrencilerin başarılarına uygulama ve öğrencilerin ön bilgilerinin etkili olduğu fakat tutumlarının etkisi olmadığı görülmektedir. bilişim teknolojilerin destekli sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin sosyal bilgiler dersine ve teknolojiye karşı öğrenci tutumlarını etkilemediği görülmektedir. öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler dersinde öğrenci başarılarını artırmak için teknolojiden yararlanabilecekleri sonucu çıkmaktadır. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler, bi̇t, başarı, tutum 5 bu makalenin verileri i̇smail acun’un danışmanlığında emin çener tarafından tamamlanmış olan ve uşak üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsünce kabul edilen yüksek lisans tezinden elde edilmiştir. civil law agreement and its implication on regulation for prevention of corruption within covid-19 pandemic www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (4),114-148 typical literary works of pesantren on righteousness teaching within cultural transformation fadlil munawwar manshur1 abstract this research explores the learning of islamic arabic literary works (al-adab al-'arabi) typical of pesantren (islamic boarding schools) and the role of kyai in the cultural transformation of the teachings of piety in arabic literature. this study used a phenomenological design and applied qualitative approach for the data analysis. the qualitative studies are focused on three research themes, namely (a) learning arabic literature; (b) cultural transformation in pesantren, and (c) teaching pesantren.a qualitative approach that aims to understand cultural transformation in pesantren, interpret the arabic literature learning typical of the pesantren, interpret the behavior of kyai and santri, and connect meanings based on empirical reality. this research was conducted by involving 20 santris and 7 kyaisat the pesantren of darussalam ciamis and pesantren miftahul huda ii bayasari as participants. data collection was carried out by in-depth interviews, observation, and documentation. the data accuracy was checked by digging and collecting data from phenomena and contexts from the cultural transformation of the teachings of truth in a typical islamic boarding school experienced by the students in accordance with their belief level. researchers describe data in patterned language about what the individual has seen and felt. furthermore, the fundamental integration of the collected data's descriptions into one statement is the essence of the arabic literary learning experience in the scope of cultural transformation.the results showed that the students had the experience of learning arabic literature typical of pesantren, which influenced their behavior. kyai and center made arabic literature as a way of life. interestingly, these characteristics make arabic literary works typical of pesantren capable of fostering a sense of language and literary sensitivity (al-tadzawwuq al-adabi), building character education for santri (students), encouraging the growth oftasamuh (tolerance) and culture. this finding would likely serve as a reference to increase the development of traditional pesantren. the government should support any efforts attempted to preserve islamic culture by examining pesantren-specific arabic literature for the archipelago's islamic community. keywords: cultural transformation, literary, pesantren, righteousness teaching. introduction arabic literature is a medium of islamic studies ; it was significantly used, particularly in islamic countries, to develop islam globally. it definitely served as a reference in developing students' potential andworld civilization embryo. with the arabic literature learning method, the islamic civilization would develop to a quality education (halik, 2016; subich, mingazova, & 1 faculty of cultural sciences, universitas gadjah mada ,yogyakarta, indonesia, fadlilugm666@gmail.com mailto:fadlilugm666@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 rafaelevich, 2018). in its development, exploring muslim religious teachings and attitudes was intriguing; thus, modern arabic literature studies had to be examined since strong local culture and attitudes could likely affect religious life and drag muslim society into the government sociopolitical climate (situmorang & aslam, 2020). however, unfortunately, most muslims residing in outside arab countries possess poor literacy skills in understanding arabic texts (kembaren, noor, & lubis, 2019) despite the fact that in the historical period of arabic literature, great literary works was made by arabic writers during the jahilliyah period as a meaningful learning . first, mu'allaqatwas described as long qasidah or a collection of seven beautiful golden poems partially hung on the walls of the ka'bah. second, mufaddaliyat: a number of diwan (anthology) containing 120 kinds of poetry and quotes from diwan al khamsah (wargadinata & fitriani, 2008). in indonesia, the learning of arabic literature developed rapidly. according to historical records, the learning of arabic literature on the island of java increased tremendously. the learning method used the literal translation model, namely; the learning process by translation with the help of the book of syamil (mahbubah et al., 2020). upon its development, arabic literature was blended with islamic culture in malay and arabic literary works by using regional languages to make it more comprehensible to students (kembaren et al., 2019). this was a form of contribution the development of regional culture and arabic literacy. however, over periods of time, the arabic literature in java has encountered various challenges such as modernization and poor literacy level of arabic literature. however, the transformation brought about to classical arabic literature has an impressive meaning to the santri. as a result, they improve theirbehavior in pesantren, support the socio-cultural role and surrounding community wherein arabic literature is well taught by the kyai (a term in javanese language by which islamic scholars are addressed as they are respected for their religious knowledge) (wekke, 2018). pesantren (islamic boarding school) is an educational institution acting as a forum for providing further studies in religious knowledge, maintaining islamic traditions, and creating generations with good morals, and manners and possessing sound skills and insights about arabic literature (zakaria, 2010) as well as the teaching of literature for students which is designed in the contemporary religious school education curriculum (maydangalieva et al., 2018; silalahi & yuwono, 2018). therefore, the author discussed about the typical learning methods of the sundanese pesantren and the transliteration of the yellow books as arabic literature in the pesantren, which has been manshur 116 accepted by the most local muslims within the community culture. the author limits the discussion to the extent of islamic boarding schools in west java to concentrate on the core of problems. research questions based on the research background described, the researcher identified two research questions --to guide the research process, as follows: 1. what are the typical arabic literature learning method applied at the sundanese pesantren in indonesia? 2. what is the role of arabic literature learning method typically leading to cultural transformation at the sundanese pesantren? purposes of the study based on the problem formulation the researchers put forwardthe typical literary works taught at pesantrenas the teaching of truth in cultural transformation. therefore, this study has two main objectives, as follows: (i) todetermine the arabic literary learning methods taught in sundanese islamic boarding schools in java. (ii) to reveal the role and contribution of the kyai in the conception of arabic literature in indonesia, precisely at the sundanese islamic boarding schools in west java as well as to expose the kyai during the tremendous transformation of sundanese pesantren to arabic books literature review learning arabic literature (al adab al ‘arabi) literature (al adab) is terminologically defined as 'aduba, adaban, ya'budu' which means zaruf wa tahdzibto refer to being polite, virtuous and good at language (ma’luf, 2002). the word al adab is a form of conveying the values and elements of art by cultivating a deep sense of worthy various values, whereas art is a form of expression based on certain principles. the purpose of learning arabic literary texts is to increase students’ knowledge and comprehension (albantani, 2018). albeit it is slightly different from the earlier definition (brogan, 1994) describedal adabas the varied literary arts branches produced by scientists, poets or writers, and writers. the scope of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 arabic literature is divided into three groups as illustrated in the following picture: figure 1. arabic literature learning source: (albantani, 2018) syahatah (n.d.) divided the criteria for learning al adab into three parts, namely: 1) al nushus (texts) which means a place of goods and good literary heritage (in the form of selected verses and prose) including ideas, expressions, and a sense of language; 2) al balaghah is considered as a collection of various principles of beauty enabling students to learn good literature or create beautiful language; 3) al naqd (criticism), namely the determination of the beauty of balaghahaimed to develop a literary measure and explain the strengths and weaknesses of literature. al-zayyat (1996) revealed that learning in the history of arabic literature is divided into five periods. first, it was the jahiliyah period (al 'ashr al jahili) (456 to 610 ad). at the time, arabic literary works were divided into two, namely poetry (syair) and prose (nastr). poetry refers towazan and qafiyah, while prose is words that offer wazanwithout havingqafiyah. there were eight objectives of learning al adab in the jahiliyah period, namely tasybih or gazal (depicted women and their beauty), hammasah or fakhr (pride in something), madah (praises or praised someone), ratsa ' (remembered the virtues of the deceased), hija ' (scorn), i'tidzar (made apologies), washfun (described an event or incident), and hikmah(wisdom related to the meaning of life). meanwhile, the prose was divided into five types, namely: khutbah, wasiat, hikmah, matsal, and qishshah. (wargadinata & fitriani, 2008; allen & richards, 2006). manshur 118 second, it was in the islamic period wherein the umawiyah dynasty (al shadr al islam) (610 to 750 ad). thearabic literature learning in this period was oriented to spread religious beliefs and stipulate a law, to carry out jihad fi sabilillah and al hijaas a form of praise for others, and the use of the word love in literary language. in addition, within this period political poetry (syi'r al siyasi) also began to emerge such as poetry which reflected a polemic of life (syi'r al naqaid), and expressed love (syi'r al gazal). third, it was the period of the abbasid dynasty (al 'ashr al' abbasi) (750 to 1258 ad). in this period, arabic literature learning began to be influenced by literary works from europe (renaissance era). the method used in the literature learning showed the tendency to apply hyperbolic language style and make beautiful remarks with figurative language. the prolific arabic writer during this period was abu uthman 'umar bin bahr al jahiz with his work of al hayawan. fourth, it was the period of the ottoman turks (al ashr al turki) (1258 to 1798). historically, at the time arabic was no longer a medium of communication in politics and government administration. instead, it was merely spoken in regards of religious matters. there were a few changes made in arabic literature learning in this period which covered the ways of expressing things and language use was slightly developed in its theme. fifth, it was the modern period (al ashr al hadith) (1798 to the present). with regard to modern literature, the most interesting lessons were related to allegory and metaphorical expressions. the prominent writers in the modern period were khalil gibran and ahmad syauqi (al-jundi, 1968; al-bagdadi, 2014). furthermore, madzkur (2000) developed methods and techniques of learning arabic literature which was divided into three types, namely: 1) the historical method is a literary learning by studying the periodicity from thejahiliyyah tomodern era; 2) the literary arts method is a learning process concentrated on classical and modern literature in forms of poetry, prose, and papers; 3) thematic literary method is a learning process by selecting specific themes to be studied in depth. furthermore, thu’aimah (n.d.) divided thelearning arabic literature into three levels, namely: 1) basic level (mubtadi'), literary teaching materials in forms of simple examples which aim to introducemufradat and tarkib; 2) intermediate level (mutawassith), literary teaching materials that aim to master many mufradat, nahw, sharf, and the beauty of balaghah (ma'ani bayan); and 3) journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 advanced level (mutaqaddim), teaching materials that aims to study aspects of balaghah (badi') and literary criticism. cultural transformation in pesantren translation and transformation in modern arabic literature are part of arabic literature empowerment, provided indigenous people with a clear understanding of the content of existing arabic literary texts (bardenstein, 2005). it is necessary to use a relevant theory to the formal object, namely the cultural transformation theory. this theory defines "culture" as 'cultivation'; cultural transformation can be translated as a human understanding process. if "planting" means growing and developing, then the meaning of culture can mean developing human minds and hearts through inter alia, art, and literature, or an appreciation of cultural heritage passed on by past generations who live harmoniously together in cultural diversity (ahmed, 2016; bhat, 2019; suryo, 2015). humans always live in a cultural universe, and even they are the creators of culture, including art, language, and literature (adams, 2019; addai-mununkum, 2019). if culture is defined as a general text (kristeva, 1980), then art, language, and literature are part of the general text. the life of art, language, and literature is nothing but to develop harmony in human's minds and souls to create a happy society both physically and spiritually (soyer, 2019). previous studies revealed that pesantren's dynamic development is evidence of its ability to adapt to changing conditions. the pesantren environment is known for its ability to transform. pesantren has a strong differentiation mechanism because of its integrative and unique characteristics as a sub-culture that preserves tradition. the main principle is to maintain the good old traditions and acquire new, better traditions for the common good. there are four characteristics of a typical pesantren cultural transformation, namely: 1) the ability of the pesantren to adapt to its surrounding environment; 2) achievement of broad goals; 3) integrative ability in uniting various unique aspects of the sub-culture of the archipelago, which are by islam; and 4) the ability to preserve a culture of healthy living and the discipline typical of the pesantren (asrohah, 2011). furthermore, according to fauzi (2017) the pesantren could produce a local wisdom value system as a subculture of learning typical of the pesantren that is built by the kyai's understanding of the al-quran and al-hadith. this view refers to the internalization of spiritual and monotheistic values that can inspire all social action, coordinate and control and inspire students and the surrounding manshur 120 community. in the process of cultural transformation in islamic boarding schools, the elements of openness and the human foundation of islamic teachings are inseparable. pesantren are also agents of value transformation that function to build democratic societies, promote awareness of gender equality, improve service quality to society, and encourage an integrated paradigm shift in the pesantren environment (ma’arif, 2018). pesantren teaching pesantren is a religious school or institution that is part of an education system and focuses on religious teaching, especially for learning arabic literature (wekke & hamid, 2013). the traditional islamic concept led by a kyai is a hallmark of islamic boarding school teaching (hicks, 2012). another characteristic is the teaching of sufism, which is knowledge about education and appreciation of the belief or belief in islam inherent in the conscience. the purpose of teaching sufism morals is to provide a view of life and practice good words and deeds in all aspects of life. the teaching of sufism morals teaches on values that can regulate the relationship between humans and god, humans and fellow humans, and humans with the surrounding environment and themselves (kusnadi, sobur, & aziz, 2017). in the education theory put forward by durkheim (1961) it is stated that education is an agent of moral socialization. according to weber (1968), teaching as a system or process of providing instruction to students is planned, implemented, and evaluated systematically to achieve teaching goals. in achieving teaching objectives, there are three theories used based on educational strategies in social science, namely: 1) transfer of knowledge; 2) the process of cultural inheritance; and 3) facing the social environment. in addition to theory, there are also teaching models that are generally used, namely: 1) cooperative teaching methods; 2) teaching using the contextual method (teaching and learning); 3) based teaching on identifying a problem, and 4) the tgt (teams games tournament) method (kusnadi et al., 2017). kyai (leaders in pesantren) not only teach religion but also encourage students to contribute to advancing the world through various skills, academic and non-academic abilities that are acquired during their education. also, the teaching of arabic literature in the city is very closely related to the surrounding environment, including the daily habits of students who are obliged to use arabic to communicate. community culture also has a considerable influence in pesantren, for example, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 in the form of rules in memorizing arabic vocabulary, muhadharah activities (arabic speech), and discussions using arabic (wekke & hamid, 2013). in the teaching process at pesantren, the most important material is that students take the initiative to participate in an effective teaching and learning process (westera, 2012). this is supported by the role of a kyai and teacher. al-issa (2005) 's findings explain that an educator needs to consider the most appropriate method to help students achieve teaching goals. therefore, pesantren's methods, techniques, and teaching activities continue to develop to be more effective for students. furthermore, smith (2014) revealed that kyai is very important as a unique leader in education. methods design in this study, phenomenological design was used to investigate social phenomena, interpreting socio-cultural regarding cultural transformation in the pesantren (moleong, 2013). descriptive qualitative approach was used to analyze the data. by collecting all information obtained from observations, interviews, and documentation.the research focused on understanding and emphasizing the concept of transformation of a typical pesantren literary work on the teachings of truth as patton (2005)mentioned that a qualitative approach aimed to see the world from the views of research subjects who were directly involved and related to the transformation from which the participants shared their common and meaningful experiences. subsequently, what the participants said textually and structurally was analyzed and from which the researcher explored the values implemented by the kyai and students in daily life at the pesantren. in addition, the study used the qualitative paradigm proposed by yin (1994) to summarize the steps. the analyzed theme categories included (1) learning arabic literature (al adab al 'arabi); (2) cultural transformation in pesantren; and (3) pesantren teachings, namely teachings about the truth which are then converted into narrative texts. this research was conducted at pesantren darussalam ciamis and pesantren miftahul huda ii bayasari, west java province, indonesia in january june 2020.the selection was made because the two pesantrens had all the supporting aspects to ensure the success of the research and these schools practiced a typical islamic tradition of pesantren in terms of the teachings of the truth, applying methods through the arabic literature learning that was robustthere. thus, it should reveal manshur 122 the cultural transformation in the teachings of truth in shaping individual character and as a preserver and connector of social-ethical values. participants this study involved 27 participants consisting of 7 kyais and 20 students. the kyaiswere the leaders of the pesantren as well as those who taught arabic literature. while sastriwas a student aged between 17-25 years when the research was conducted and has lived for more than 2 year. the majority of santri come from various regions on the island of java and some of them are children from the community around the pesantren. the criteria for participants in this study were; (a) kyais of the sundanese pesantren, (b) students of the sundanese pesantren, (c) adult participants, (d) the extensive knowledge of kyais in arabic literary works; (e) santri had attended arabic literature learning; and (f) participants voluntarily worked as the subject of this study. this criterion aimed to ensure that the participants actually had the same experience and sufficient views regarding the typical literary works of pesantren and the teachings of truth in cultural transformation. based on the predetermined criteria, participants comprisedof a) 4 kyai pesantren darussalam ciamis and 10 students; b) 3 leaders (kyai) and 10 students as in table 1. table 1. participant description variable characteristica frequency percentage (%) length of stay in pesantren gender male female 13 7 65 35 over 2 years age group 17-25 years old 26-35 years old 51 years old & above 17 3 7 27 63 11 26 100 3 < and > 2 years < 3 years > 3 years participant kyai haji santri 7 20 26 74 data and sources of data the data of this study consisted of primary data and secondary data the primary data sources were the results of interviews with participants and kyais.resources obtained from the participants were considered the most extensive, detailed and closely related to the themes discussed. the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 theme consists of three parts, namely language learning arabic literature, pesantren teaching, and cultural transformation in pesantren. apart from being informed from participants, researchers also used written sources used in the pesantren. the documents consisted of: (1) the book nahwu and sharaf (arabic grammar) explains the scientific treasures of non-shari'a’; (2)the yellow book (al-kutub al-qadimah) which contains the sciences of sharia, particularly related to the science of fiqh. written sources refer to the value of the islamic sciences, namely sufism, tafsir, hadith, faith, and tarikh; (3) learning manuals; learning notes containing teaching materials in forms of scientific principles, such as fiqh proposals and mustalah hadith; (4) the pesantren’s curriculum guideline; the rules and code of conduct for the santri; (5) curriculum and learning guideline in pesantren which covers 8 elements of cultural transformation, namely knowledge systems, law, clothing, behavior, art, language communication, traditions, and value systems. table 2 types of data based on research themes theme data focus primary data secondary data language learning literature arabic typical values and norms of literary works in pesantren the participants' knowledge related to the characteristics of arabic literature learning typical of the sundanese islamic boarding school focuses on the values and norms of typical arabic literary works in islamic schools 1.the book ofnahwu and sharaf (arabic grammar) which explains the scientific treasures of non-shari'a 2. learning manuals; learning notes contained teaching materials informs of scientific principles, such as fiqh proposals and mustalah hadith pesantren teaching attitudes and traditions of truth teaching in pesantren attitudes were reflected following the tradition of truth teaching in pesantren. participants understood and learned the arabic literature well 1.the yellow book (al-kutub al-qadimah) contained the sciences of sharia, especially the science of fiqh. written sources were referred to the value of the islamic sciences, namely sufism, tafsir, hadith, faith, and tarikh. 2. pesantren curriculum guideline ; the rules and code of conduct for the santri cultural transformation in pesantren various kinds of cultural transformation cultural transformation in pesantren consists of a system of knowledge, law, clothing, behavior, art, language communication, participants' interpretations of cultural transformation were focused on internalizing islamic education and islamic boarding school wisdom the curriculum and learning guidelines in pesantren which covered 8 elements of cultural transformation, namely knowledge systems, law, clothing, behavior, art, language communication, traditions, and value systems manshur 124 traditions and value systems. instruments the instruments of this study,which included observation and the interview guides, were developed by the researcher himself. observation guidelines focus on research studies as follows; (1) cultural transformation in pesantren consisting of portraits of learning arabic literature, pesantren wisdom, and implementation of the internalization of islamic values education; (2) performers, participants who carry out arabic literature learning activities, including assessing the experience they feel is shown through the expression of feelings, actions, facial expressions, and body movements; (3) time, each arabic literature learning activity within a period of one six months. meanwhile, through interviews, researchers prepared several questions. to assemble the items into a series of questions used, each theme is represented by at least one instrument item. the question instrument is specifically applied to collect data about the cultural transformation of the teachings of truth in pesantren. namely, referring to the basics of the participants' world view and world picture and their universal values in islamic boarding schools. for this study, the instrument was not tested and analyzed empirically because it required special expertise and took additional time. so what is done is to arrange for the instrument by writing the instrument items and examining the items. regarding the feasibility of the instrument being studied is based on the judgment and consideration of experts in the field of islamic cultural transformation, arabic literature learning, and research methods. expert validation was carried out using the group discussion method. in the discussion, the researcher conveyed ideas and concepts as discussion material to the experts. the researcher verified the results of the discussion and collected them to be used as a valid research instrument. the interview instrument consisted of 9 question items. items focus on three theme categories, namely (i) typical values and norms of arabic literature in pesantren; (ii) attitudes and traditions of truth teaching in pesantren; (iii) various types of cultural transformation in pesantren, see table 3. table 3. instrument questions rq1: what are the arabic literature learning method applied at a typical sundanese pesantren in indonesia? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 arabic literature learning methods 1. what have you comprehended about the learning methods at this pesantren? 2. how was your experience while in the pesantren 3. how did you like the nahwu and sharaf book's teaching particularly related to arabic literary works that you learned while studying at the pesantren? pesantren typical teaching 1. have you mastered the yellow book (al-polar al-qadimah) which contains the sciences of sharia, especially the science of fiqh? 2.did you apply the knowledge you obtained from learning in daily life at the pesantren? 3. did you understand the curriculum and code of conduct at this pesatren well? rq2:what is the role of cultural transformation in sundanese pesantren? cultural transformation in pesantren 1. how didyou portraitthe arabic literary learning in pesantren? 2. what were the values of islamic boarding school wisdom that affected your current activities and outlook in life? 3. what efforts were made to internalize arabic literature learning and islamic values inculcation in pesantren? data collection procedures data collection refers to document analysis, observation, and interviews. in obtaining data, researchers used the instruments to collect data, namely research notebooks, voice recordings, and cameras to capture images of the object the researcher observed. initially, the researcher conducted document analysis. the documents needed were related to the cultural transformation of the teachings of truth, consisting of the nahwu and sharaf books, the yellow book or al-kutub alqodimah, and fiqh well as arabic literature learning guidelines in islamic boarding schools. subsequently, the observations were made by collecting data obtained from taking a closer look at the pesantren's cultural traditions, including observing participants during the learning process of arabic literature. the next stage was to conduct interviews to reveal participants' perceptions and attitudes. they focused on the cultural tradition of reading and writing arabic literature. this procedure was performed to collect primary data on the cultural transformation of the teachings of truth in islamic boarding schools. all interviews and participant observations were conducted independently by the researcher in coordination with the pesantren’s leader. the aspects observed were the participants' activities in reading and writing arabic literature and their experiences and thoughts about cultural traditions in islamic boarding schools. each manshur 126 participant was given an in-depth interview for a maximum duration of 15 minutes. the results of the interview were then documented in a voice recording. the interview guidelines used were based on focused data, each coded as: (1) learning arabic literature (al adab al ‘arabi) (q1); (2) cultural transformation in pesantren (q2); dan (3) pesantren teaching (q3) furthermore, manual coding is carried out according to participant numbers: participant 1 = p1, participant number 2 = p2, and so on. finally, coding consistency was assessed to infer the coded data. data analysis techniques analysis to find themes in the document in this study used content analysis. according to creswell (2014), analyzing data in qualitative research using content analysis is a process of examining all available data obtained from data collected from interviews and observations, interpretation, and reporting of results simultaneously and collectively so that it required continuous reflection, yet it was continuously against the data. the analysis aimed to find observational data in the form of themes or schemes relevant to the research. meanwhile, the interview analysis became a theme that is converted into a unit of analysis relevant to the research question. the collected data 1, 2, and 3 that have been collected are then combined as narrative text. the texts are based on a theme, and each theme has been coded. it was explained that the data analysis technique consisted of six stages as follows; 1) described the researcher's experience of the object of study understudy to identify personal judgments and prejudices so as not to affect the analysis process carried out; 2) developed a list of instruments from the subject, this process is called horizon lining data so that data does not overlap; 3) employed instruments from the horizon lining process and then group them into meaningful units; 4) wrote a description of what participants experienced about the phenomenon; 5) next, described how the experience occurred by reflecting on the setting and circumstances in which the participant experienced the phenomenon; 6) the final stage was to write a combined description between the textural description and structural description stages. at this stage is the essence of the experience and described the pinnacle aspect of phenomenological research. the researcher c identified the relationship between the phenomenon that occurred and the participants' thoughts about predetermined themes. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 result and discussion learning arabic literature at the typical sundanese pesantren in indonesia arabic literature learning was essential in establishing basic knowledge of norms, moral values, deeds, and philosophy in islamic boarding schools. this was the characteristic of the tradition of reading and writing arabic literature typical of the pesantren. the evidence showed that the books in the pesantren, namely the nafwu book, the sharaf book, and the yellow book (al-kutub alqodimah), place the fundamental teachings the teachings of the truth. drawing this evidence, the research revealed that arabic literature in islamic boarding schools provided the basicways of life and islamic values and it wascapable of generating thoughts and values for strengthening individual faith. arabic literature was included in a learning process accepted in an open, communicative atmosphere. it also encouraged activism, the tradition of writing books and developed into the main social language in pesantren. the assessment results obtained from the interviews on learning arabic literatureshowed that participants learned and mastered the values and norms conveyed in the learning methods applied in the pesantren. these results were identified based on the students' learning assessment notes from and the kyai`steaching materials. teaching materials were formed in scientific principles of arabic literature such as fiqh and hadith;they should be derived from the nahwu and sharaf (arabic grammar) books. these books were explained in details about non-sharia scientific treasures such as art, namely writing arabic literary works. as a result, they could articulate their experiences before and after studying the yellow book at the pesantren. participants (santri) in this study admitted performing the similar daily activities during the learning process of arabic literature at the pesantren darussalam ciamis (sundanese pesantren) and pesantren miftahul huda ii bayasari in indonesia. in addition, the participants described the arabic literature learning from the yellow book was divided into different levels. the participant (kyai) explained that the adjustments, particularly regarding the yellow book, were also made according to the age level, memorization skills, and reading comprehension and writing skills using the yellow book in the learning process. the observations revealed that santri and kyais always did the routines with the yellow book since it provided good teachings could possibly be applied as a manual and guideline for life. based on its history, the yellow book (kutub al-qadimah) as a source of islamic studies developed in indonesia has been integral and inseparable from the existence and function of pesantren as one of the centers of education. apart from the yellow book, other famous books containing sharia manshur 128 knowledge were related to sufism, interpretation, creed, and date. whereas, books discussing nonsharia scientific treasures were the books of nahwu and sharaf (arabic grammar) books (ritonga, lahmi, & hakim, 2020). these two entities were inseparable because the yellow book was employed as the permanent subject matter taught at a pesantren as well as a manual or guideline in daily life. furthermore, tasawuflearning related to morals is another subject matter taught at islamic boarding schools that reflects the typical teachings of arabic literature at the pesantren. sufism morals are seen to influence the characteristics and behavior of participants while studying at the pesantren. the majority of santri admit that the sufism morals learning method motivates students to increase their faith in god almighty. students feel more confident because of their arabic language skills and abilities. santri can establish social relationships with their environment. kyai believes that learning morales sufism has contributed greatly to changing the behavior of santri. this is in line with the results of a study of the yellow book owned by the pesantren. the yellow book in question is the yellow book (al-kutub al-khadimah), which contains the science of sharia, which focuses on islamic values, namely sufism, tafsir, hadith, faith, and dates. from this book, participants understand and develop knowledge of the teachings of truth. the moral values that come from learning arabic literature are developed in social interaction and behavior. see data (1)the kyais stated, (1) “the teachings of sufism (tasawuf) character form good and praiseworthy deeds (al akhlaq al karimah). sufism morals contain ethical values, moral hazard, and manners. there are at least three things of exemplary value, namely: exemplary in saying, doing, and acting or in arabic terms is qauun wa fi'lun wa amalun bil arkani. this controls student behaviorsso as not to fall into heinous and evil deeds. these values are the basis of the santri's behavior in social interaction in the pesantren environment.” the above argument shows the important position of learning sufism morals for students. the kyais hope that with this knowledge, the students can become courteous to older people, have tolerance, love peace, and are obedient in worshiping allah. furthermore, it is known that the learning objectives carried out by the kyai are not much different from the objectives of learning arabic literature in general. the point is that learning is intended so that both students can master the basics of arabic-language knowledge. make it easy for journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 students and the public to absorb the information contained in arabic literature. this is part of an effort to build character education for students. for example, the characters at tawassuth(fair and impartial attitude to one extreme), 'i'tidal (perpendicular), at tawazun (balance in the life of the world and the hereafter), and amar makruf nahi munkar (upholding the truth and forbidding the wrong) (ibrahim, prasojo, & sulaiman, 2019; saefudin & al fatihah, 2020). with the transformation between arabic literature and local culture, the community can understand arabic literature, which contains various meanings about a good life to serve as a guide for life to obtain the safety of the world and the hereafter (for example, the methods of mashlahah mursalah, istihsan, and urf) (masduki, 2018). this is part of an effort to build tolerance or tasamuh attitudes through islamic education, especially arabic literature (sari, 2017; nugroho, 2019; saeed, 1999). tasamuh was seen as a way of appreciating different perspectives and respecting others and societal and cultural issues. kyai hasyim in the book al mawa'idz revealed, “o scholars ... your differences of opinion should not be used as a tool for enmity and division. if you see someone who practices an action with the proof of taqlid from an imam of the mazhab, this is not the place for that person to make you an enemy. if you don't agree, remind and show him gently ... o muslims ... unite ... please help in kindness and piety, because happiness will be further away for us as long as we continue to be enemies. even though we are one islam, have one syafi'i sect, live one in java and have one ahlussunnah wal jama'ah (asy’ari, 1998).” this goal was supposedly achieved through the transformation the kyai practiced. . although ahmad dahlan (darwis) refused the existence of tradition as a bid'ah (innovation) and khurafah (superstition) (mukani, 2018),these differences in the views or the transformation of arabic literature contained various meanings of life and islamic religious guidance that emphasized the tasamuh attitude. this finding was supported by the research of subich et al. (2018) which stated that arabic literature most likely brought a great influence on the formation of cultural heritage, encouraged the creation of tolerance and fighting against extremism. it was further explained that religious schools helped introduce new languages in the academic syllabus. this was an effort to optimize the educational process and form a creative personality in developing one's abilities. based on the results of the observations made on the attitudes and traditions of truth teaching in pesantren, it can be seen that the participants (santri) really enjoyed the learning process of arabic literature. they were diligent and disciplined in studying arabic grammar books (nahwu and manshur 130 sharaf) taught by the kyai. participants could respond to the questions when researchers asked about their experiences during learning. see data (2) the participants said: (2) “in learning arabic literature, we will be tested for its abilities by the kyai, namely by memorizing and writing arabic literature. while the typical learning tradition here is mudzakarah (independent learning activities by reciting and keeping the classics). the goal is to determine the next stage of learning to be carried out. we are also taught using the maharah al qira'ah (reading skills) method. we realize that the more we study the yellow book and the nahwu and the sharaf books, the more we understand the importance of islamic values that can benefit life.” furthermore, other participants (santri) added, (3) the experience and knowledge we get while studying at the pesantren is very different from when we were outside. we get a lot, for example, discipline in time, respect for parents, love for cleanliness, and proper worship. we also regularly read and memorize the quran together, which makes us feel like close brothers. the longer we are here, the more we feel the need to improve. the opinion above shows an explanation of participants' experiences (students) during the learning process of arabic literature found in the nahwu and sharaf books. the values and norms characteristic of arabic literary works that are most prominent in this pesantren are sufism morals, which focus on ethical values, moral hazard, and manners. this is the meaning of learning arabic literature as contained in the book.they realize that there are many important lessons they can learn from studying arabic literature. in practice, ethical values, moral hazard, and manners are clearly visible in the pesantren's curriculum guidelines and rules. most of the participants, especially the students, also understand the curriculum and code of ethics in pesantren. they also practice it in daily life, such as the tradition of reciting the koran in the morning (ba'da fajar) and maintaining cleanliness and dressing like a muslim and muslimah. the pesantren also has a tradition of arabic literary arts such as calligraphy (khat), the art of reading the koran (tilawat al quran), arabic speech training, marh direction training. other participants argued, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 (4) when we first studied arabic literature, we experienced a little difficulty because we were not fluent in pronouncing, understanding, and writing the contents and re-translating them. especially in learning with the maharah al qira'ah method. but over time, thanks to the care of the kyai and our discipline in learning, we become more proficient. the kyai often tell uniquely and give examples of life that come from the yellow book, nahwu and sharaf. as far as i understand, the contents describe how human life should be carried out. everything leads to allah's commands and away from allah's prohibitions. regarding the learning method, a participant (kyai) explained the qira'ah learning they gave to the students in-depth. see data (5) to find out what the participants conveyed; (5) the maharah al qira'ah learning essentially emphasizes understanding the content of the reading text. reading skills are carried out through the process of identifying and understanding all types and speeds of reading. read aloud, and students are trained to pronounce correctly, use linguistic structures orally, and understand the meaning and meaning of qira'ah text. to further strengthen the understanding of this qira'ah learning method, there are several criteria mentioned by previous researchers.a good maharah qira'ah must meet 15 (fifteen) criteria, namely: 1) the suitability of the makharijul letter and the students can distinguish it; 2) adjusting to makhraj rules; 3) understand arabic literary texts perfectly and in detail; 4) convey the vowel of the letter 'ain' perfectly; 5) maintaining long and short vowels; 6) avoid changing italics; 7) avoid the occurrence of similar letters; 8) avoid adding letters; 9) avoid deleting letters; 10) maintaining perfect waqf; 11) analyze fundamentally the main ideas of the qira'ah text; 12) differentiate the main ideas and supporters; 13) living arabic literature reading; 14) analyzing and criticizing; and 14) eliminate doubts in reading (hai & harianto, 2017). based on the criteria that must be met, it can be understood that the development of arabic literature learning methods typical of sundanese islamic boarding schools is more specific in terms of reading and writing arabic literature compared to learning arabic literature in historical periods, literary arts, or thematic methods that emphasize the creation of arabic literary works. whereas the qira'ah method is not only creation but also reading with the correct technique. the qira'ah method is more than that, this learning method has various kinds of learning strategies and consists manshur 132 of two types, namely reading aloud orally (qira'ah jahriyyah) and reading silently (qira'ah shamitahah) which are intended for students to be able. understand the meaning of the works of satra and apply it to everyday life so as to create characteristics or moral behavior. according to yusuf & anwar (1995), qira'ah learning emerged due to dissatisfaction with direct methods that did not provide proficiency in reading. researchers argue that it is impossible to teach arabic literature with limited time and includes language skills in listening, speaking, and writing well. this is different from the pesantren in west papua, such as in mayamuk, aimas, kaimana, misol, waisai, and teminabuan. there, the learning method used is a communicative approach by practicing linguistic expressions without special emphasis on grammar mastery. this indicates that differences in learning objectives and the methods used can affect arabic literature learning (wekke, 2018). basically, the purpose of learning and seeking knowledge is the essence of islam. contextually, education in islam aims at producing a good individual. individuals who have an understanding of the rules of islamic behavior and broad knowledge of and commitment to the basic principles of islam, namely tauhid (monotheism) (halstead, 2004). the transformation of arabic literature as a typical islamic boarding school learning method not only produces arabic literature but also real and consistent in social life. the transformation of arabic literature as a typical islamic boarding school learning method not only produces arabic literature but also real and consistent in social life. the influence of the rapid development of modernization has made changes to the curriculum and learning structure carried out by islamic boarding schools in indonesia. this is what is said to be a modernization transmission process that has influenced the learning model in traditional islamic boarding schools. arifin (2013) further explains that in the process of cultural transformation, learning cannot be separated from the role of a kyai. the modernization and rationality of the pesantren have challenged and strengthened the charismatic authority of the kyai. they have contributed to increasing the number of students. the role of pesantren typical arabic literature in the cultural transformation of the sundanese society journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 drawing the evidence at a look, the study reveals thatthe presence of islamic tradition in islamic boarding schools has developed arabic literature and enabled the growth of a literary tradition. along with this, the arabic literary thinking and mobility of individual spirit has developed. the tradition of reading and writing arabic literature, islamic boarding school wisdom values, and the internalization of these teachings are interrelated and influence one another, form the foundations of activism, individual rationality, social piety, and intellectual traditions. without the three of them, cultural transformation in the pesantren shall never occur. although cultural transformation was studied in the contemporary context, the inculcation of islamic values through arabic literature in islamic boarding schools continues to function well, especially in shaping the students' piety character, forming the wisdom values of the pesantren and warding off the negative impact of the penetration of foreign cultures. pesantren wisdom values were clearly reflected from the peaceful and harmonious atmosphere of the pesantren since the at pesantren learning focused on aqidah, sharia, and morals education as contained in the yellow book. kyai acted as a learning mediator for the students while studying at the pesantren. kyai taught about the values of truth contained in arabic literature. the truth value referred to waswritten in the three main books in the pesantren. first, the book kitab nahwu and sharaf (arabic grammar) explained the scientific treasures of non-sharia. second, the yellow book (al-polar al-qadimah) contained the sciences of sharia, especially the science of fiqh. written sources refer to the value of islamic sciences, namely sufism, interpretation, hadith, faith, and dates. these three books are the foundation and philosophy of the transformation that the kyai considered acceptable. the reason is that the book teaches islamic religious values and norms with one of its mediums is through arabic literature learning. based on written sources, two other specific aspects for teachings were found, related to books for learning, namely bandongan and sorongan apart from the kyai’s involvement albeit he was considered a religious figure who mastered islamic teachings. therefore, they became a group of role models and were highly respected by society and students. through this kyai, transforming cultural values was imprinted in the lives of the students and the surrounding community. the cultural transformation in the pesantren began as the presence of the kyais was accepted by the students and the surrounding community. consequently, the values taught by the kyais were well accepted by them. there was a cultural transformation from which they accepted the lessons conveyed by the kyai as a new culture in their daily lives. likewise, the students learned from the manshur 134 kyai to read, and rewrite and master the contents of the yellow book, nahwu and syaraf. both the kyai and the santri acted as translators and communicators for the content of nahwu and syaraf, the yellow books such learning and teaching process were referred to as a cultural transformation in pesantren. the students were involved in a ideologizing process that changed the old culture's mental before studying at the pesantren and gained a new culture during the study in the pesantren. santri studied and understood arabic literary works derived from the yellow book that contained moral values and ways to be applied in their daily behavior. not a few students and kyai wrote arabic literature inspired by the yellow book, nahwu and syaraf. things like that gave birth to intensive cultural transformation activities in the pesantren community, which developed arabic literature in the archipelago, especially in the sundanese pesantren community. with this cultural transformation, the students' perspective on literary works was able to produce universal religious and human values. (astutiningsih & pujiati, 2019). based on the participants' responses, the second finding explains the role of arabic literature specifically for pesantren in the cultural transformation of sundanese people. the kyais stated as in data (6) that, (6) “the main foundation of cultural transformation in arabic literature refers to the book nahwu and sharaf. meanwhile, the rules and code of conduct refer more to the yellow book, which contains islamic values. philosophically, the cultural transformation in pesantren focuses on worldly values and does not eliminate the spiritual values embedded in everyday life. as in the al quran, there is in surat al qashash verse 77 about the advice to balance this world's life and the hereafter. as well as a warning not to do earth damage. we strive to mean developing the minds and hearts of the students through arabic arts, language, and literature. in this pesantren, the most visible cultural transformation is in the pesantren learning guidelines, rules of conduct, dress, art, communication with others (language) and older people, and the unique pesantren tradition, and the arabic literature learning assessment system itself.” based on the above opinion, it shows that cultural transformation in the pesantren focuses on everything expressed, manifested, and carried out by the students based on the books that have been the guidelines during their existence in the pesantren to date. in particular, the cultural transformation of the teaching of truth through language is the students' islamic values . among journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 other things, in the form of sundanese-javanese literary works, both in the original sundanese language and transformational texts in the form of translation. through this language, the students can transform arabic literary works taught to the kyai and produce their own works. this finding is in line with research conducted by kutsiyah (2020) which reveals that the pesantren environment contributes to socio-cultural development, especially through the preservation of regional or local culture. the transformation of arabic literature that is accepted by society is part of internalized social capital and encourages social interaction. as has been explained by previous research. participants (kyai) explain as in data 7 that, (7) "pesantren has its own way of internalizing the education of islamic values. namely implementation through several learning methods. among them are the sorongan and bandungan methods. in javanese the terms are the sorongan method (offering material that students want to learn and be guided individually/specifically) and bandongan (listening together). from this method students absorb knowledge. and this is part of the cultural transformation that we mean. the most obvious is social interaction, which includes routine recitation activities, association with alumni, and togetherness in the style of pesantren, istighozah, haul, termination of employment, and collaboration with other institutions outside the pesantren.” furthermore, the observations made explain that learning arabic literature in pesantren is part of the character development of santri (honest behavior, simplicity, and trust), development of knowledge, and the embodiment of independence. while in the pesantren, students are taught to study arabic literature using the sorongan and bandongan methods. the kyais argue that the philosophy of islamic values as the foundation of cultural transformation that can be accepted by santri is shown from changes in good behavior, the use of more qualified arabic, and participation in various artistic and religious traditions while the students are in the pesantren. pesantren are very strict in enforcing disciplinary rules, including in terms of muslim dress, which must comply with islamic law as per the yellow book's guidelines. the male santri in the pesantren generally wear a black skullcap as a head covering, and female students put on long veils or head covers. meanwhile, a sarong and skullcap is a typical pesantren outfit. another cultural transformation activity is practiced in the barzanji tradition during the celebration of muslim holy festivals such as the prophet's birthday and the isra miraj celebration. on such manshur 136 occasions the students usually performed talent shows and exhibited their mastery of arabic literature learned at the pesantren publicly. based on the learning guidelines in pesantren, the value system was inseparable from the two main elements of the islamic philosophy of behavior, namely religion (revelation) and philosophical teachings (scientific paradigm). this recognition of scientific truth values is shown from learning arabic literature, which contains islamic values. among the arabic-language books with literary patterns is the qasidah burdah book, which is an arabic literary work that has received great acceptance from the pesantren community in west java. this shows that the text of the transformation of literary-style books (qasidah burdah) can be viewed as literary facts and social facts of sundanese society, which in turn proves the existence of arabic literary activities in the pesantren community in west java. qasidah burdah as a work of arabic literature with religious nuances, written in arabic, has become part of the literary repertoire in indonesia, especially in west java. arabic religious writing plays an important role in indonesian culture, including regional culture, especially sundanese culture, in enriching the literary treasures of the archipelago (sumpena, 2014). islamic boarding schools are one type of traditional indonesian islamic education to deepen the knowledge of islam, and practice it as a guide for daily life, or called tafaqquh fiddin, by emphasizing the importance of morals in social life. the uniqueness of the pesantren is seen in its education system which prioritizes religious and moral education. kyai romli's example illustrates the following meanings (muhtadi, 2019), “in the life of the pesantren, the role of the kyai appears to be dominant in the process of reciting arabic books. this means that the kyai plays an important role in transmitting (creating) religious texts, especially arabic literary texts contained in these books. among the books taught by the kyai were religious books with literary patterns, such as barzanjy, al-maulidud-dibâ`îy, and kasidah burdah, even the three books at the pesantren were not only greeted with written traditions but were greeted with oral tradition. the students chanted verses of salawat poetry to the prophet muhammad, especially from the book barzanjy or kasidah burdah every friday night. the response of the pesantren community to religious works, especially books of literary style, especially books of praise to the prophet in the form of poetry, is based on the prophet's hadith which reads "in fact, there is wisdom journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 in poetry" (ad-damanhûry, t.t.:3). this hadith underlines the belief of the pesantren community in reading religious poetry which is believed to bring wisdom.” the interesting thing about the terms and designations of santri is that the word does not come from islamic terminology even though santri are people who study islam. in this case, it can be seen that muchtarom (1988) views the origin of the word santri used in the world of islamic education. the term santri, which was originally used to refer to students following islamic education, is a change in shape to the indian word shãstri, which means one who knows and understands the holy books (hinduism). the word shãstri is derived from the word shãstra which means holy book, or religious or scientific work. in this context, it can be said that santri are people who study islam from people who are knowledgeable about religion. based on the evidence, research reveals that the cultivation of values in pesantren is different from that in public schools. the characteristics of pesantren are learning that is oriented towards the afterlife so that the methods used by the kyai in instilling islamic values as pesantren wisdom are also very distinctive. there are at least three ways that have been done, namely prayer and endeavor to allah, tawakal to allah, and husnu zhan or kind .participants (kyai) revealed the values of pesantren wisdom that occurred in the pesantren, as in data 8 that, (8) “the core values of islam consist of faith values, islamic values, and islamic values. this is the fundamental basis of our pesantren philosophy. these values develop into pesantren wisdom which consists of sincerity in doing pious deeds, being grateful for all the blessings that allah has given, wara 'and zuhud (oriented to the hereafter without forgetting the happiness of the world), ta'awun (help in goodness), and implementing patterns. living simply in a pesantren.” from the explanation given by the participants, it was revealed that what is called the pesantren tradition is the activity of the kyai in conveying islamic teachings to students and the community around the pesantren through pesantren wisdom. as explained by sauri (2017), the basic values of local wisdom consist of three types. first, the value of faith, namely, having faith in allah, requires students to monotheism allah. second, worshiping allah, namely, worship, includes special services (mahdhah worship such as prayer and fasting) and social worship. the meaning of prayer for students' lives includes cleaning the body and spirit, instilling inner calm, cultivating manshur 138 leadership, the concentration of mind, improving morals, training discipline, developing personality, and fostering unity and integrity. third, ihsan (perfection or the best), namely attaining perfection as if seeing allah, so that the person imagines that allah actually sees all his deeds. as a form of local wisdom, internalizing this education in pesantren has distinctive local wisdom. islamic boarding schools also play an important role in producing arabic books with literary patterns called arabic literary works specifically for pesantren. arabic literary works learned from the yellow book are characteristic of islamic boarding schools, which result from the transformation of the kyai and students into books that are studied and used as references for the daily life of the pesantren community. furthermore, the participants (santri) added that, (9) “internalization of values through learning kyai literary works is carried out based on several methods. one of the easiest methods to learn is the uswah hashanah (exemplary) method, namely by following the example of the kyai. in addition, there is a method of habituation, which is to familiarize oneself with performing worship with discipline. and the last is the sorongan and bandungan method. the mechanism is carried out by reciting books organized by the pesantren for santri, centered in mosques or buildings on the pesantren campus. the mechanism of reading books is characterized by reading and interpreting arabic books in a literary style that is directly guided by the kyai and followed by us as students.” the author's observations justified this participant statement. the findings revealed the activities of reading and interpreting books in pesantren whereby arabic books were interpreted in a literary style. it was the kyais whoactually changed previous scholars' views from arabic books to books in regional languages, especially sundanese. as explained by that, pesantren is an important center of indonesia's islamic learning and culture (smith & woodward, 2013). the leadership of the kyai as ulama and umara made the pesantren one of the centers for arabic literature books as a result of cultural transformation in sundanesejava pesantren. this finding is in line with research conducted by islam & aziz (2020), the pesantren tradition has implemented an inclusive culture-based paradigm. furthermore, it was explained that cultural transformation in pesantren was not much influenced by changes in the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 socio-political economy and external culture to become a forum for deepening religious knowledge. pesantren has a fairly strong differentiation mechanism because of its integrative and unique characteristics as one of the sub-cultures to preserve tradition. there are four characteristics of a typical pesantren cultural transformation, namely: 1) the ability of the pesantren to adapt to its surrounding environment; 2) achievement of broad goals; 3) integrative ability in uniting various unique aspects of the sub-culture of the archipelago by islam; and 4) the ability to preserve a culture of healthy living and discipline typical of pesantren (asrohah, 2011). these characteristics have preserved arabic literary works learned at typical pesantren to today’s time. according to fauzi (2017), cultural transformation in pesantren has given birth to a local wisdom value system as a subculture of learning that is built by the kyai's understanding of the koran and al-hadith. one example as stated by sauri (2017) the value of islamic boarding school wisdom in fostering the characteristics of studentsborn from cultural transformation to be charismatic, polite, ethical, disciplined and to be a role model and own sound manners. in the gontor pesantren these characteristics are called 'panca jiwa', namely sincerity, simplicity, independence, ukhuwah islamiyah, and freedom in determining the field of struggle and life. the philosophy should be able to ensure the continuity of the tradition in the pesantren. one of the things that emphasize the value of local wisdom in the cultural transformation of the teachings of truth in islamic boarding schools. where there is no universal truth without local wisdom. based on previous research findings, it was apparent that internalized cultural transformation in pesantren enabled the fostering of spiritual and tauhid values that initiated all social actions, inspired students as well the neighboring community. pesantren are also agents of value transformation that function to build democratic societies, promote awareness of gender equality, improve service quality to society, and encourage an integrated paradigm shift in the pesantren environment (ma’arif, 2018). therefore, it is important to maintain a dynamic islamic boarding school's unique learning tradition and pass down arabic literature for the next generation. based on the previous findings of the eight elements that characterize pesantren's cultural transformation, namely the system of knowledge, law, clothing, behavior, art, language communication, traditions in pesantren, and the value system (munir, 2016). this study has a broader scope of cultural transformation in pesantren that focuses on the teaching of truth. this manshur 140 teaching of truth is obtained from learning arabic literature. the arabic literature learning in question contains islamic values , which consist of several books, pesantren. from the results of a review of some of these books. it was explained that the nahwu and sharaf books focused on arabic grammar which emphasized non-sharia scientific treasures such as art and traditions in islamic boarding schools. while the yellow book (al-kutub al-qadimah) emphasizes more on sharia science such as laws or rules in pesantren, worship, and value systems. the results of interviews, observations, and written traditions identify that the kyais exemplify these eight elements in their daily life and followed by the santri. the santri become more disciplined, understand islamic and values, have a plus point because they understand more deeply about arabic literature and behave in a commendable. the strongest cultural transformation can be seen from how to dress properly according to islamic sharia, the behavior of the students, to develop skills and memorization of arabic literature (knowledge and language systems) which are entirely believed by the kyais to be part of the philosophy of the pesantren. furthermore, this philosophy was based on the koran and hadiths such as learning sufism. moral philosophy or islamic ethics that are instilled by the kyai through cultural transformation. this research successfully revealed that the cultural transformation process in pesantren has created pesantren wisdom in which sincerity, simplicity, independence, ukhuwah islamiyah, and freedom in determining life was instilled to the students and determined the characteristics of the pesantren. the novelty of the research can be seen from the findings, which reveal that the pesantren's wisdom consists of three main parts, namely the tradition of reading and writing arabic literature, the basic values of pesantren wisdom, and the internalization of islamic values education. without these three parts, cultural transformation in islamic boarding schools will not occur because cultural development relies on a communicative atmosphere, social interaction, and thoughts that must interact well. based on the evidence, this study reveals that the three of them are closely related and able to influence the students' character. pesantren as a place for cultural transformation from the teachings of the truth not only function as the center for the development of islamic civilization but can also shape pesantren's wisdom, which is a distinctive advantage of pesantren compared to public schools. the main guidelines for praiseworthy behavior refer to the nahwu, sharaf, and yellow books that the kyai teaches. the implication of this study seeks to describe cultural transformation through islamic boarding school wisdom, which is expected to be a reference in journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 the development and fostering of islamic values, especially through learning arabic literature. whereas from these books, the values and norms regarding the teachings of truth are applied in islamic boarding schools. when the wisdom of the pesantren is understood and accepted by students, students will apply it in their daily behavior, including expertise in arabic literature. students are expected to become educators, community liaisons, and leaders through arabic literary expertise and islamic science, exemplified by the kyai. this is a strong reason that pesantren wisdom has contributed to the development of arabic literary works typical of sundanese-javanese islamic boarding schools and has a strong influence on the character development of a generation of noble morals conclusion there are two findings the researcher described in conclusion. first, this finding was on thelearning arabic literature and teachings in islamic boarding schoolsas they contained islamic values and norms referring to the pesantren's written tradition, namely the nahwu and sharaf books. both books contained arabic grammar describing non-sharia scientific treasures. second,it was the attitudes and traditions related to the teachings of truth in pesantren. the teaching of truth referred to the yellow book (al kutub al-qadimah) containing the sciences of sharia. this book was the teaching materials for the kyais functioning as a guideline for sufism's rules and learning containing moral and ethical values. studying arabic literature (al adab al 'arabi) could lead to the growth of tolerance (tasamuh) and noble behaviors. this can be seen from the interviews results discussed earlier in the findings and discussion. the underlying factor to make the transformation possible because arabic literature learning method typical of pesantren reflected noble moral values and guidelines in the world's life and the hereafter. the second finding showed that the pesantren kept its own uniqueness and integrative nature that ensured the survival of arabic literature learning at the typical pesantren. the pesantren's strong philosophy in maintaining islamic values and the cultural transformation of the teachings of truth in pesantren created various elements of cultural transformation itself due to the students’ acceptance towards the teachings of the kyai. cultural transformation in pesantren can foster spiritual and monotheistic values that could likely inspire all social values. the reinforced values manshur 142 of learning arabic literature at the typicalpesantren by cultural transformation appeared effective in encouraging awareness to preserve religious traditions. this research finally revealed the significance of arabic literature learning based on islamic boarding schools' wisdom values and the internalization of islamic values education in indonesia. in other words,pesantren wisdom was brought about by the transformation of islamic culture through arabic literature. the core values of islamic boarding school wisdom related to the teachings of the truth consisted of five types; 1. to perform righteous deeds sincerel; 2. to feel grateful; 3. wara 'and zuhud; 4. ta'awun; and 5. to lead a simple life, could be found in the nahwu book, the sharaf book, and the yellow book (al-kutub al-qodimah). empirically, this study's scope was limitedto the participants’ experience and observations made by researchers at pesantren darussalam ciamis and pesantren miftahul huda ii bayasari in indonesia. this research can be developed to nurture islamic boarding schools' wisdom and the internalization of islamic values education regarding arabic literary works at the typical pesantren in indonesia. as mentioned earlier, this study focused on three main topics, namely learning arabic literature and islamic boarding school teachings, which are studied through the values, norms, attitudes, and traditions of truth teaching in islamic schools. meanwhile, cultural transformation was referred to the pesantren's wisdom, which was developed based on previous research. the three themes referring to nahwu, sharaf, and yellow books was also a research limitation, where the elements were examined to characterize the culture in islamic boarding schools based on the experiences of students and kyai as well as the written traditions of the sundanese-javanese pesantren. further research can be developed by developing elements of the cultural transformation of the teachings of truth in pesantren and other public schools. the wisdom of indonesian pesantren whose methods are different, undoubtedly, which may result in different methods of internalizing the education and implementation of values. it was implied that the pesantren wisdom brought by the kyai contains the teachings of truth should benefit both students and society. furthermore, the wisdom of this pesantren has become the hallmark and ensured the pesantren survival to this day. whereas, efforts to cultivate islamic boarding school wisdom values and the implementation of internalization of islamic values education through arabic literature are expected to be a reference in implementing values and character building in public schools. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 references adams, b. (2019). the far reaching impact of transformative curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.2 addai-mununkum, r. (2019). students’ representation of “other” religions. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 ahmed, m. (2016). ethnicity, identity and group vitality: a study of burushos of srinagar. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 3(1), 1-10. al-bagdadi, n. (2014). registers of arabic literary history. new literary history, 39(3), 437– 461. retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20533096 . al-issa, a. (2005). the role of english language culture in the omani language education system: an ideological perspective. language, culture and curriculum, 18(3), 258–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908310508668746 al-jundi, a. (1968). adwa’ al-adab al-’arabi al-mu’ashir. kairo: dār al-kutub al-‘arabĩ. al-zayyat, a. h. (1996). tarikh al-adab al-’arabi. beirut: dār al-ma’ārif. albantani, a. m. a. (2018). metode pembelajaran sastra arab. alfaz (arabic literatures for academic zealots), 6(01), 17. https://doi.org/10.32678/alfaz.vol6.iss01.711 allen, r., & richards, d. s. (2006). arabic literature in the post-classical period. cambridge university press. arifin, a. z. (2013). charisma and rationalisation in a modernising pesantren : changing values in traditional islamic education in java, 97. retrieved from http://researchdirect.uws.edu.au/islandora/object/uws%3a17130/ asrohah, h. (2011). the dynamics of pesantren: responses toward modernity and mechanism in organizing transformation. journal of indonesian islam,5(1), 66–90. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.15642/jiis.2011.5.1.66-90 astutiningsih, i., & pujiati, h. (2019). perspektif santri dalam karya sastra: sebuah representasi wacana religius-humanis. jurnal poetika, 7(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.22146/poetika.40902 asy’ari, m. h. (1998). al-qanun al-asasy. jombang: maktabah al-turats al-islamy. bardenstein, c. (2005). translation and transformation in modern arabic literature: the indigenous assertions of muḥammad’uthmān jalāl. vol. (5). otto harrassowitz verlag. bhat, a. (2019). islamic philosophy of education. journal of culture and values in https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.2 manshur 144 education, 2(2), 73-76. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 brogan, t. v. (1994). the new princeton handbook of poetic terms. new jersey: princeton university press. creswell, j. w. (2014). desain penelitian. pendekatan metode qualitataive, quantiative dan mixed. lincoln: sage publications. durkheim, e. (1961). moral education. new york: free press. fauzi, a. (2017). organizational culture of islamic public education management a discurtive. in proceeding international conference on islamic education (icied). vol. (2),130–136. retrieved from http://conferences.uin-malang.ac.id/index.php/icied/article/view/446 gamal abdul nasir zakaria. (2010). pondok pesantren : changes and its future. journal of islamaic and arabic education, 2(2), 45–52. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/gamal_zakaria/publication/265270203_pondok_pesa ntren_changes_and_its_future/links/568b696b08aebccc4e1a48b0/pondok-pesantrenchanges-and-its-future.pdf hai, k. a., & harianto, n. (2017). efektivitas pembelajaran qira’ah pada program studi pendidikan bahasa arab fakultas ilmu budaya universitas jambi. titian, 1(2), 129. halik, a. (2016). paradigm of islamic education in the future: the integration of islamic boarding school and favorite school. information management and business review, 8(4), 24–32. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.22610/imbr.v8i4.1390 halstead, j. m. (2004). an islamic concept of education. comparative education, 40(4), 517– 529. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305006042000284510 hicks, j. (2012). the missing link: explaining the political mobilisation of islam in indonesia. journal of contemporary asia, 42(1), 39–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2012.634640 ibrahim, i., prasojo, z. h., & sulaiman, s. (2019). preventing radicalism: islamic moderation and revitalization in the border. wawasan: jurnal ilmiah agama dan sosial budaya, 4(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.15575/jw.v4i1.4400 islam, m. h., & aziz, a. (2020). transformation of pesantren in maintaining good character. humanistika: jurnal keislaman, 4(1), 35–48. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.36835/humanistika.v6i1.307 kembaren, m. m., noor, n. m., & lubis, m. h. (2019). international journal of cultural and art studies issues on arabic scriptures in malay / indonesia language : a study of its contributions in the development of regional culture , language &. international journal of cultural and art studies, 03(1), 15–21. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.32734/ijcas.v3i1.1661 kristeva, j. (1980). desire language : a semiotic to literature and art. new york: columbia univercity. kusnadi, e., sobur, k., & aziz, a. (2017). in between islamic boarding school: a study of almubarok al-islam within the social changes of seberang kota jambi. addin, 11(1), 101. https://doi.org/10.21043/addin.v11i1.1920 kutsiyah, f. (2020). social capital and its transformations in sidogiri islamic boarding school introduction since its birth , islam has the main characteristics and strength of carrying out theological and social transformation both at the center of its birth in mecca and ou. karsa: journal of social and islamic culture, 28(1), 57–94. https://doi.org/10.19105/karsa.v27i1.1921 ma’arif, s. (2018). education as a foundation of humanity: learning from the pedagogy of pesantren in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 104–123. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.58854 ma’luf, l. (2002). munjid fi al-lughah wa al-a’lam. lebanon: dār al-masyriq. madzkur, a. a. (2000). tadris funun al-lugah al-’arabiyyah. kairo: dār al-fikri al‘arab. mahbubah, l., biahmada, a. m. m., & mauludiyah, l. (2020). learning arabic translation at islamic boarding school in madura. izdihar : journal of arabic language teaching, linguistics, and literature, 2(3), 231. https://doi.org/10.22219/jiz.v2i3.10578 masduki, m. (2018). islam and cultural plurality. toleransi: media ilmiah komunikasi umat beragama, 10(2), 96–105. retrieved from http://ejournal.uinsuska.ac.id/index.php/toleransi/article/view/7079/3957 maydangalieva, z. a., benkovskaya, t. e., yadrovskaya, e. r., & sosnovskaya, i. v. (2018). literary development of school children as an important issue of modern educational curriculum. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 198–214. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.28708 moleong, l. j. (2013). qualitative research methodology revised edition. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya offset publisher. muchtarom, z. (1988). santri dan abangan di jawa. jakarta: inis. muhtadi. (2019). kiai musta‘in romli dan transformasi sosial keagamaan generasi muda tarekat qadiriyah dan naqsyabandiyah universitas darul ‘ulum (tqn undar) jombang. pascasarjana universitas islam negeri sunan ampel. retrieved from http://digilib.uinsby.ac.id/39710/1/muhtadi_f04314024.pdf manshur 146 mukani. (2018). toleransi perspektif kh. m. hasyim asy’ari dan peran pendidikan islam sebagai upaya deradikalisasi di indonesia. al-murabbi: jurnal studi kependidikan dan keislaman, 4(2), 121–142. retrieved from http://ejournal.kopertais4.or.id/mataraman/index.php/murabbi/article/view/3130 munir, m. (2016). the continuity and the culture change of pesantren in south sumatra. ta’dib, 21(1), 87. https://doi.org/10.19109/td.v21i1.741 nugroho, p. (2019). internalization of tolerance values in islamic education. nadwa, 12(2), 197. https://doi.org/10.21580/nw.2018.12.2.2397 patton, m. q. (2005). qualitative research. (b. s. everitt & d. c. howell, eds.), encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science (vol. 3). john wiley & sons, ltd, chichester. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13931 ritonga, m., lahmi, a., & hakim, r. (2020). the existence of yellow books (kitab kuning) as the sources of islamic studies at islamic boarding schools within the industrial revolution dialectics. international journal of psychosocial rehabilitation, 24(8), 3516–3523. saeed, a. (1999). towards religious tolerance through reform in islamic education : the case of the state institu. indonesia and the malay world, 27(79), 177–191. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13639819908729941 saefudin, a., & al fatihah, a. f. (2020). islamic moderation through education characters of aswaja an-nahdliyyah. nazhruna: jurnal pendidikan islam, 3(2), 160–179. https://doi.org/10.31538/nzh.v3i2.594 sari, m. m. e. (2017). the role of learning management of islamic boarding school (pesantren) in improvement of their students religious tolerance in west java indonesia. international journal of innovation and applied studies, vol. (19), 1, 24–32. retrieved from http://www.ijias.issr-journals.org/%0ahttp://www.ijias.issrjournals.org/abstract.php?article=ijias-16-210-03 sauri, s. (2017). nilai kearifan pesantren. bandung: rizqi press. retrieved from http://sofyansauri.lecturer.upi.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2018/07/4-kearifanpesantren.pdf silalahi, r., & yuwono, u. (2018). the sustainability of pancasila in indonesian education system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 58-78. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 situmorang, j., & aslam, m. m. (2020). exploring religious teaching and attitudes of traditional muslim on social politics in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 198–219. smith, b. j., & woodward, m. (eds. ). (2013). gender and power in indonesian islam: leaders, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 114-148 feminists, sufis and pesantren selves. library of congress cataloging in publication data. london and new york: taylor & framcis group, routledge. smith, bianca j. (2014). stealing women, stealing men: co-creating cultures of polygamy in a pesantren community in eastern indonesia. journal of international women’s studies, 15(1), 118–135. soyer, g. (2019). urie bronfenbrenner: the ecology of human development book review. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 77-80. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.6 subich, v. g., mingazova, n. g., & rafaelevich, r. (2018). improvement strategies of teaching the arabic language in the tatarstan schools. modern journal of language teaching methods (mjltm), (may), 1–6. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/raheem_alfoadi/publication/325094749_improvement_strategies_of_teaching_the_arabic_langua ge_in_the_tatarstan_schools/links/5af622834585157136cb8217/improvement-strategiesof-teaching-the-arabic-language-in-the-tatarst sumpena, d. (2014). islam dan budaya lokal: kajian terhadap interelasi islam dan budaya sunda. ilmu dakwah: academic journal for homiletic studies, 6(1), 101. https://doi.org/10.15575/idajhs.v6i1.329 suryo, h. (2015). budaya politik negara maju dan negara berkembang: suatu perbandingan. transformasi, i(27), 1–47. retrieved from https://ejurnal.unisri.ac.id/index.php/transformasi/article/view/912 syahatah, h. (n.d.). ta’lim al-lugah al-’arabiyyah baina al-nazariyah wa al-tathbiq. kairo: dār al-mishriyyah al-lubnāniyyah. thu’aimah, r. a. (n.d.). al-marja’ fĩ ta’lim al-lugah al-’arabiyyah. saudi arabia: jami’ah umm al-qurā. wargadinata, w., & fitriani, l. (2008). sastra arab dan lintas budaya. (unspecified, ed.). malang: uin malang press. retrieved from http://repository.uin-malang.ac.id/1514/ weber, s. m. (1968). economy and society. new york: bedminster press. wekke, i. s. (2018). arabic education and modern learning construction in muslim minority islamic boarding school in indonesia. jurnal al bayan: jurnal jurusan pendidikan bahasa arab, 10(2), 66. https://doi.org/10.24042/albayan.v10i2.3111 wekke, i. s., & hamid, s. (2013). technology on language teaching and learning: a research on indonesian pesantren. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 83, 585–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.111 manshur 148 westera, w. (2012). the eventful genesis of educational media. celstec centre for learning sciences and technologies, 17(3), 345–360. retrieved from http://www.wwestera.nl/publicationspdf/the eventful genesis of educational media.pdf yin, r. . (1994). case study research: design and method, 2nd ed. thousand oaks, ca. 1: sage publication inc. yusuf, t., & anwar, s. (1995). metodologi pengajaran agama dan bahasa arab. jakarta: grafindo. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(1), 172-189 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 the role of media in geography courses from the perspectives of preservice social studies teachers sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının bakış açısından coğrafya derslerinde medyanın rolü cemalettin ayas 1 özet: bu araştırmada, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının coğrafya derslerinde medya kullanımına ilişkin algıları belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. olgubilim deseninde tasarlanan araştırmada nitel araştırma teknikleri kullanılmıştır. çalışma bir devlet üniversitesinde eğitim fakültesi sosyal bilgiler eğitimi anabilim dalı’nda 2013-2014 eğitim-öğretim yılında öğrenim gören 134 öğretmen adayı ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. araştırma verileri yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme tekniği kullanılarak toplanmıştır. toplanan veriler nitel betimsel analiz yoluyla analiz edilmiştir. analiz sonuçlarına göre, sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayları coğrafya ile ilgili bilgileri en çok internet kullanarak edindikleri, fakat internette bulunan coğrafya programlarını etkili kullanmadıkları belirlenmiştir. öğretmen adayları, derslerine giren coğrafya öğretim elemanlarının medya kullanımına yeterince yer vermediklerini düşünmektedirler. öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenliğe atandıkları zaman öğretimsel medyayı derslerde etkili bir şekilde kullanmayı düşündükleri tespit edilmiştir. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adayı, coğrafya dersi, medya kullanımı, öğretmen yetiştirme, nitel betimsel analiz abstract in this article, the authors explore the social studies teacher candidates’ understanding of the role of media in geography courses which they took. qualitative research techniques were used in the study designed using phenomenological pattern. the study was conducted with 134 pre-service social studies teachers at a state university’s faculty of education, department of social studies education in the 2013-2014 academic year. data were collected via semi-structured interview technique. data of the study were analyzed by using qualitative descriptive analysis. according to results from the analysis, social studies teacher candidates have been accessing the geographical knowledge mostly by means of internet, but they didn’t use internet fruitful. teacher candidates thought that their geography lecturers have not been using media in geography courses adequately. after appointment to teacher profession, they will have used instructional media technologies effectively. keywords: social studies pre-service teachers, geography courses, use of media, teacher training, qualitative descriptive analysis 1 asst. prof. dr., sinop university, cayas@sinop.edu.tr cemalettin ayas 173 introduction scientists and policy makers, starting in 1970s and rising in 1980s and 1990s, have repeatedly expressed that the technology would bring great benefits to teaching and learning practices. although these greatly promising words were missed, recent studies show that today’s computer and network technologies increasingly influence the educational environments (becker, 1999, 2000, 2001; gibson and oberg, 2004; ronnkvist, dexter and anderson, 2000; russell, bebell, o’dwyer and o’connor, 2003; gomez, sherin, griesdorn and finn, 2008). one of the important roles of the faculties of education is to make sure that the prospective teacher candidates can use the field-specific technologies effectively in their classrooms and they are qualified enough to transfer this technology effortlessly whenever they need to practice in their daily lives (gomez et al., 2008). geography must be taught in a way that is congruent with the most recent developments in scientific research and technologies. teachers are expected to bring new technologies to their classes. geographic information technologies are considerably suited for active learning processes. daily practices are increasingly oriented and students mostly use it intuitively without realizing that it is related with geography. however, an individual must be aware that use of technology does not mean a better teaching. geography must be adapted to technological environments which have changing teaching methods (lindler-fally, 2009). yazıcı and demirkaya (2010) stated that teaching technologies have an important role in the teaching and learning of geography and they claimed that use of technology increase the quality of geography teaching and it helps better detection of geographic information and process in the mind. they stressed that students can create more powerful cognitive structures, help them practice what they learned in their daily lives and so they would become better problem solvers. geography is one of the most important courses taught at schools and also it is one of the most difficult courses to teach (fairgrieve, 1926). the role of the computers in teaching technologies has increased especially in the last 20 years of the use of personal computers. there is also major share of the continuous decline in the prices of computers. thus, many people could have personal computers (patterson, 2007). television, actually a visual tool; transfers its messages to the audience through images. as at a tool, it uses movement and actions rather than words and sounds. it offers journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 172-189 174 complete images of people and places. it does not expect its audience to dream. in this case, it is a passive tool for teaching environments. therefore, while using the television in classes there must be regulations to activate the students (gultig, 2010). audio-visual teaching tools and their present modern video versions, t.v’s, multimedia devices, slide demonstrators and digital cameras have been an important source and interests for the geography teachers since the first day they were discovered (kent, 2002). in their research that is studied the views of social studies teachers regarding the use of smart board, bulut ve koçoğlu (2012) stated that 73% of teachers think that social studies course is appropriate for use of smart board and as a reason to this they indicated that the smart board can concretize the abstract concepts and topics, it increases the visuality and persistence and demonstrates active learning opportunities. students that have information about computer hardware and software will be able to access the internet and they will be included the magical world of geography. geography teachers must bring their students into compliance with the latest technological advances. for example; in the u.s.a the national geography society has excellent programs and interactive software and they endear geography to the community with entertainment experiences and meaningful learning activities on the computer (o’mahony, 2000) according to the finding of some researches, use of online resources supports the basic concepts and skill concept development of students and it also helps them have self-confidence to improve their geographic knowledge (solem and gersmehl, 2005). computer-based educational media that contributes greatly to the students learning has become an inevitable necessity to use in geography lessons. these technologies can be used in many different ways in geography lessons. for example, powerpoint can be used in the provision of geographic information and photos. educational media can be used in geography lessons continuously or periodically to increase students interest in class or for the aim of emphasizing the points that teacher wants to attract the attention. the teacher using educational media in class must keep away from excessive use of it not to be beyond the purpose of the course and the extremely poor and inadequate use of it (wathore, 2012). geo-media is the visualization of the information received from different media sources. geo-media has a digital content and it works based to location, orientation and position. many geographic media are widely used for route discovery and navigation. geomedia brings the real world to class. constructive and active learning applications such as problem solving, projects-based learning, field work strategies will improve the students’ cemalettin ayas 175 motivation to learn and will help them fight with the difficulties they encounter in the future (zwartjes, 2014). because of individual, educational and financial reasons, developments in teaching field develop slowly. only innovation and profession dedicated teachers tend to use information and communication technologies in geography teaching. different media elements require the use of different teaching methods (jekel, 2006). purpose of the research the purpose of this research is to reveal the perceptions of social studies teacher candidates regarding the use of media in geography lessons. in order to achieve this basic purpose, the following questions are expected to be answered: 1. how to reach the information about geography in the written and visual media. 2. which programs on the internet are known 3. lecturers’ use of media situations in geography lessons. 4. when they are assigned to teaching what are their views regarding to media use in their lessons? method research pattern this research was conducted in accordance with the “pattern of science”, one of the qualitative patterns. in the case studies of science, usually, it is aimed at revealing and interpreting of individual perceptions or point of views to a certain phenomenon (yıldırım & şimşek, 2008). in the study, on behalf of selecting close and easy to access situation and also in order to speed the study easily accessible state sampling was used. participants the participants of the survey consist of 134 teacher candidates studying in 2013-2014 academic year spring term, in the department of social studies education at the faculty of education of a state university. 84 of the participants (%62.7) are male, 50 of them (%50.7) are female. 102 (%76.1) of the participants have personal computer but 32 (%23.9) of them do not have. 66 (%49.3) of the participants have a smart phone but 68 (%50.7) of them do not have smart phones. at the end of the 3 rd class: general physical geography (mandatory), journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 172-189 176 general human and economic geography (mandatory), the physical geography of turkey (mandatory), turkey human and economic geography (mandatory), political geography (mandatory), bio-geography (elective) naturel disasters and prevention (elective), geography of countries (mandatory), geography of middle east (elective), tourism geography (elective). data collection in the research semi-structured interview form was used in order to determine the perceptions of social studies teacher candidates in using media for geography lessons. for the content validity of consultation form used in the research, the consultation form was analyzed by field experts and pre-interview was made with five teacher candidates. data analysis qualitative descriptive analysis technique was applied in analyzing the data. in data analysis, the data was grouped and interpreted in accordance with predetermined theme. the data is transferred by making excerpts without changing the meaning as it is obtained from the interviews (yıldırım & şimşek, 2008). the purpose of this approach is to present the data to the reader in a way as it was obtained from the interviews and observations as arranged and interpreted accordingly. findings in this section of the research it is provided the analysis of the following answers that the social studies teacher candidates are asked in order to determine their perceptions of media use in their geography lessons they have taken in faculty of education they studied. 1. how do you find information about geography in written and visual media? 33 teacher candidates “lesson is enough? 128 teacher candidates “internet”, 64 teacher candidates “television”, 54 teacher candidate “written media”, 16 teacher candidate “research books and scientific magazines” in the library and 5 teacher candidates stated that they reach by way of “travel observations”. k134: today, we were not taught where we can reach to the geographic information resources. we could find it easily on the internet if we were taught to. cemalettin ayas 177 2. which of the geography software programs on the internet do you know? when the answers of geography teacher candidates to the question which of the geography programs on the internet do you know? are analyzed: “google earth: 20 people, google maps: 1 person, tübitak: 3 people, cografyacilar.biz: 1 person, sosyalbilgiler.biz: 2 people, cografyacim.com: 2 people, national geographic turkey: 1 person, geographical information systems: 11 people and meteorology: 1 person. they are 44 in total. other 90 people have no idea about any geography program on the internet. p.81: i have no idea about this. p.82: no, because nobody advised, taught us and also it is because the student is passive one. p.96: we know cbs just as a name; we have not learned the context of it. p.99: i have just heard a geography software named cbs in classroom but i never heard it before and i don’t know the context of cbs program and how it works. p.124: cbs, i know this software name but i have never used it, i wish we had known. 3. please evaluate the lectures’ use of media situations in geography lessons. 30 of teacher candidates think lectures use of media in geography lessons are sufficient, but other 90 do not think it is sufficient. 6 of teacher candidates stated that no matter how it is but the geography lessons cannot be done sufficiently in the classroom it must be supported with field trips. 3 of teacher candidates stated that teachers do not pay importance to the maps and drawings. and one of the candidates stated that geography lessons are taught teacher-centered but it must be student-centered. sufficient p.28: lectures enrich the geography lessons with slide and other videos. p.48: slide use is beneficial. p.55: they use is very well. although there are missing about articulate but still it is good. p.56: since the source of our information is internet, it is used actively. p.66: it is sufficient but it must be developed. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 172-189 178 p.79: slide is highly used both written and visual-image. video is the most fruitful one in my opinion. p.102: our lectures mostly use the written and visual media efficiently. not sufficient p.19: they must use it. they rarely use it or never do. what they use are only slides. it has to be more developed. they may be videos and information showing how the structures of geography topics are. p.22: i think lectures do not use internet on geography lessons. they get the information from the books, they write and then they present it to the students. k25: generally slides are used, and it is not sufficient. since the geography pays importance to the visuality it must be used more. k38: generally, lecturers tell by reading the presentations they prepared by using powerpoint. students do not participate actively in class. p.42: geography teachers do the lesson just with powerpoint slides. they don’t bring the internet or other visual materials to the class. they don’t use visual materials while teaching. p.51: although visual slide use in the class is sufficient i don’t think it is convenient to do the lessons just with slide. p.54: i don’t think they are using it in any way. it is told just with a normal slide. and it is not visual, it is written and we just read and pass. p64: internet is not used much. the topics are told by visual slides. there is not anything else. p.67: academicians convey their thesis and information by way of projection, internet and orally in geography lesson. it is insufficient. although there are many known academic approach, the lessons are still done with monotonous narration method. p.68: even if they try to be active it is insufficient. powerpoint is used much, but they must know that reading from a slide to tell the lesson is not different than reading from the book. p.80: i haven’t seen the use of internet but downloaded pictures only. this happened is this year in media was told from time to time. other visuals were also used if needed but it is insufficient and the uses of visuals haven’t been taught to us. cemalettin ayas 179 p.96: wholly insufficient. permanent learning is not provided. teachers pass it just by reading and talking. a study or material for the class is not used. thus, the information is useless. there is not a sufficient geography teaching. p98: current instructors expect just from the students to find the internet and visual media and bring it to the classroom. p.99: in geography lessons, lectures do not use the internet, visual and written media efficiently. thus, sometimes the lesson can be boring. or they do not use it in right way. i mean they can’t do it efficiently to the students in geography teaching. p.100: they never use it, because they try to teach us the information they took from their own university. they do the same how their own teachers did with them. p101: not exactly. however this is not just because of lectures but also the physical deficiency of the classroom. p.103: internet, visual and written media are never used in geography lessons but just monotonous narration method is. p.104: many lecturers do not use visuals but just book. thus, we pass the class without having enough skills and information of geography. we just learn the information to pass the exam. p.105: usually the textbooks are used in the class. even the presentations are not effective but just with monotonous narration method. internet use in classroom is not supported. geography lesson at university must be used more actual and actual materials must be used more. a trip, observation, internet and written media must be blended with a narration. p107: lecturers prefer monotonous narration and they don’t use internet and visual media sufficiently. but some of the lecturers can do these. p112: use of materials is not much. oral narration is done to teach. this causes for us to forget the topics easily. it is more permanent when the visual materials are used. but the most used way is drawing things on the board. sure it is better than nothing. p.117: i think except a few lecturers there is not anyone using it sufficient level in my university. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 172-189 180 p.118: since the projection is lack in some of the classrooms the lessons are not with visuals and monotonous narration is sufficient. all research, lesson presentation is left to the students since it is called student-centered, so this blocks from reaching the real quality of it. p126: most of the lecturers use monotonous narration method. some of them make students done as they think that it is student-centered. lecturers are insufficient to use internet, visual and written media. p.130: they don’t use it. while teaching, the lecturers just convey the information they know to the students. internet, visual and written media are never used. land excursions must be done p.5: all lecturers use internet and media, but they are insufficient of practicing. if they aim to teach at least the close areas must be taught by visiting. they don’t take responsibility about this. they are insufficient. p.21: the geography education we take now is just given by lessons and presentations. this is convenient to the curriculum but this is not enough. this must be supported by land visits. p.44: lecturers presents slides. they sometimes tell by heart. there is not practice or land excursion. p.57: it is very useful to discuss a topic by using written media in the classroom. it may be better for learning if there is nature excursion. it is better to evaluate about the topic by using internet videos. p.65: it is not supported with enough visual equipments (videos, image) i haven’t included any nature excursion because it was not planned. i see this as a very big deficiency. p.105: usually, the materials used in the classes are books. even the presentations are not effectively but just monotonous narration method. use of internet is not supported in the classroom. geography lessons university must contain more actual topics and visual materials must be used more than this. a narration must be supported with excursion, observation, internet and written media. p.134: some of the lecturers make us watch geographic documentaries. some of them narrate just from the book. i think this is very inefficient. in an effective narration excursions must be forefront. sometimes websites and visuals are not sufficient. maps and drawings must be used cemalettin ayas 181 p.24: usually, the topics are presented with slides. geography lessons must be presented with maps and drawings. p.69: use of maps and drawings is scarcely any. there should be a map in a corner for each lesson. p.122: i realized that most of the lecturers narrate the geography lessons limited with the information on the textbooks. also, i saw that some of the lecturers even don’t bring a map to the classroom. lesson must be done student-centered p.46: it should be student-centered without staying connected to the book. 4. how do you intend to use the media in your classes when you are assigned to teaching? when the ideas of social studies teachers candidates’ ideas about using technology in geography lessons if they are assigned are examined: 82 of them stated that they are going to use the technology effectively, 16 of them said they will use it if they school they are assigned to is available, 24 of them said they will use technology by powerpoint slides they searched and did over internet, 4 said they will just use maps and textbooks and other 3 stated that they don’t have any plan yet. according to the opportunities of the school i will be assigned p.1: i will do my best as a part of the opportunities that the school offers me. i will force the school management to renew and follow the new technological media. i would like my students to learn not by reading but excursion, observation, touching. p.16: i plan making them watch documentaries. moreover, if my school has the chance i will do more actual lessons on smart board. p59: in scape of the exist tools of time i will teach how it needs to be. p.60: i will use technology according to the opportunities of the school. if there is not opportunity i will use internet and visual media as a part of my own opportunity, preparing presentation, videos of related topics, etc. p.103: in direct proportion to the classroom facilities, and developing them on my own efforts i want to use all the possibilities. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 172-189 182 p.117: i am planning to use the internet, visual and written media in my classes as much as i can when i become teacher. unfortunately, as there aren’t the same good facilities in the school around turkey i will be able to use them according to the opportunities that the school offers me. i will use media effectively in my classes p.5: i would like to let my students watch funny and educative films and documentaries telling about countries. i will ask my students to find and bring those things into the classroom. p.6: i will convey the best information to the students by narrating the lessons with presentations; i will enrich them with short films to reinforce. p.10: i certainly will use the internet, visual and written media for the topics i am going to teach to be reinforcement and permanent. p.14: i think to use it a lot. i believe that it will be more permanent. i believe it will be more memorable and permanent for the students. p.27: i certainly will use it. but, not just presentation, of course. i will use any visual technology for my students to understand. p.48: i am thinking to get the best benefit of newspapers, online news and information, television. p.81: yes, i think about it. since the internet, visual and written media concrete the course context, this simplifies the learning. p.91: when i become teacher, i will follow the developing technology and i will use it in a helpful way for my students. p.92: i will ask my students to find and bring the actual topics to the class and stick them on the board. by this way, i will provide them actual interest. i will let them watch videos like documentary related to the topic i teach them. p.96: i’ll use newspaper, magazine, caricature, etc. convenient to the context of topics. i will bring materials to the classroom. i will make them watch documentary, movie etc. i will make them watch 3d visuals on the internet, especially about geography topics. i mean i will do many things to enjoy my lesson. cemalettin ayas 183 p.109: if i become teacher i can teach them more effectively over internet examples, written media and visual element programs. p.125: i can buy a magazine in each month. we can make a bookshelf in the classroom. anybody who wants to have an eye on then can do. for the ones who don’t have this opportunity. i will try to narrate the topics by using visuals. i can prepare a presentation and narrate. i can give arrange excursion. everyone may not attend the excursion but the learning could be easier by this way. p.131: i am thinking to use internet, visual and written media actively when i become teacher. i think they are necessities for teaching effectively and providing active participation of students. p.133: i am thinking to use internet, visual and written media when i become teacher. i will try to use them more in my classes. if we use them our lessons will be more understanding. as the technology is very important today i will use internet much. i will try to take attention of my students with visual elements. i can activate students with computer games in the classes. p.134: i am thinking to show the maps colorfully over internet. i can open maps when necessary. i can show real pictures while teaching landforms. if i tell about the earthquakes i can show them a real earthquake video. by way of presentation, movies, etc. over internet search p.19: finding important and interesting topics about geography and history on the interest, i can take attention of my students with nice, colorful, vivid slides and present the topic. p.21: firstly, i ask students to do internet search, then i show them the presentation, film, documentary or newspaper, magazine that i prepared and finally i arrange excursion related to the topic. p.22: i search over internet about related topics, and i make students watch movies and documentaries. p.33: i will use presentations and information on websites. p.52: to support with actual information, i will narrate the topics with visual slides prepared on the internet and from other sources. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 172-189 184 p.56: when i become teacher i am thinking to use slides as visual media. because slide effective on learning. p.57: i prepare for that days topic on the internet i prepare a slide, i find maps, images and visuals then i present them to students in the classroom. p.64: i can address students to trustworthy websites to prepare before the lessons and to revise after that. to make the context more understanding, interesting people and interviews can be shared with the students in the classroom. textbooks and maps are sufficient p.9: textbooks are sufficient. p.17: i am thinking to narrate my lesson first, than planning to bring maps into the classroom and make my students practice on the maps in each lesson 5-10 minutes. i don’t know p.11: i haven’t thought it yet. if i become teacher i will decide at that time. results, conclusion and discussion the opinions of social studies teacher candidates about the use of media in geography lessons throughout their college education have been analyzed. in the light of the findings, the following results were found. it is seen that teacher candidates prefer internet most in order to reach geography related information among the written and visual media elements. research on the internet is usually limited with the simplest level via the search engines such as google. it is also understood that teacher candidates benefit from television, newspaper, magazine and the books and the periodical magazines in the library besides internet. also, some of the teacher candidates seem they don’t need to use an additional research in geography lessons and they are sufficient with the geography lessons they were presented at university. those findings are supported with sharp’s (2000) claim putting forward that user-centric and open interactive structure of new technologies are idea for the creation of constructivist learning environment. most of social studies teacher candidates seem not to know and use the geography software on the internet. it is understood that a small number of teacher candidates know different geography software but some of them don’t use them actively. many studies’ cemalettin ayas 185 findings show that majority of the geography teachers participating in research state that game and simulations in geography teaching motivate students in a positive direction while learning geographic patterns and processes (schee, 2003). if the social studies teacher candidates are familiar with the computer technologies their lessons will be more fun and more memorable environment. the majority of these issues are because of the lack of smart boards in classrooms, the expensive projection; school management etc. sources provided projection explosion is often delayed. it is seen that most of social studies teacher candidates find the media use of lectures in geography lessons during their university education insufficient. it is understood that some of the candidate teachers find media use sufficient. some of the candidate teachers want geography lessons to be done by way of land excursions, maps and drawings rather than media use. dexter and riedel (2003) put forward that one of the important responsibility of educational institutions is growing up their graduate students with the ability of technology use. this expression is parallel with the result of the research. as it is understood from the expressions of teacher candidates participated in the research, lecturers of geography are insufficient of using technology in their classes. lecturer’s feeling lack of technology use may be among its reasons. after telling that schools have to improve school based technology in accordance with their own needs, pellegrion, goldman, brown, oney, nacu and plants claimed that the responsibility of growing up a teacher means being aware of it and must contain school-based technology use and being used by each teacher candidate freely. most of social studies teacher candidates think that lecturers of geography do not use technology sufficiently in their classes. edelson and reiser (2006) emphasized that the use of visual technology has a great importance on teaching many subject areas in science and they stated that use of visual technology may differ from discipline to discipline. therefore, they claimed that teacher’s skill in visual technology is scaled with the success of congruent use of technology with its own discipline and its subject. it is understood that most of social studies teacher candidates will use the media while teaching geography lessons when they are assigned to teaching, some of theirs use of media will be within the framework of the opportunities that the school offers them, some others will be sufficient with slides and textbooks. this finding is consistent with opinions of yazıcı and demirkaya (2010) about non-currency of technological facilities at the schools they are going to assigned to and therefore it will be difficult for them to use instructional technology in teaching geographycontext topics. today, the use of technological innovations in teaching-learning environment journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 172-189 186 has become inevitable. indeed, even is the lessons are done with traditional methods, students can follow the topics by personal data communication (laptops, smart phones, and play stations) and they can integrate with a certain level of technology (newman and jones, 2008). suggestions successful teachers’ applications must be video recorded for teacher candidates to use media sources and technology effectively and then those videos may be opened for easy access of teacher candidates on hypermedia. thus, social studies teacher candidates will have the chance to pattern themselves after social studies teachers with technology-based lesson methods. zeichner (2006) put forward that it is not possible to make deep applications appropriate for ideal thinking in isolated university classrooms. therefore, in order to open a way for teacher candidates to practice in real world it is necessary for tenure institutions and other institutions teachers work in to increase their common study environment and possibilities. today, when it is thought that most of the teacher candidates have smart phones and they use it effectively it will be inevitable to transfer these technological simplicities to the teaching-learning environment. however, it will increase the quality of teaching if the teacher candidate, certainly, plans everything and learns all these from experienced people who used these technologies in teaching environment beforehand. studies conducted on this subject show that students are willing to integrate mobile technologies with their learning process (knight, 2006; france & wheeler, 2007). some students persist on sticking to teachers’ monotonous narration and habit of student’s note-taking which are from the traditional teaching-learning environment. this may have various reasons. culture of technology use must be developed in order to motivate students to convenient technology use is geography lessons. these studies may be done by field experts in faculty of education at universities. so, it can be provided for students to benefit from effective technology use arrangements are made according to which media source is necessary at what stage of the lessons. in order to build a bridge in technological emptiness between geography lecturers working at faculty of education of universities and social studies teacher candidates, lecturers of geography have to generalize the use of geocemalettin ayas 187 media effectively in the classroom which will support them life-long learning strategies and let them search for real-world problems. references becker, h. j. (1999). internet use by teachers: conditions of professional use and teacherdirected students use. teaching, learning and computing: 1998 national survey, report no: 1. irvine: center for research on information technology and organizations, university of california, irvine. becker, h. j. (2000). findings from the teaching, learning, and computing survey: is larry cuban right? education policy analysis archives, 8(51), 2-32. becker, h. j. (2001). how are teacher using computers in instruction? paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, seattle, wa. bulut, i̇., & koçoğlu, e. (2012). sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin akıllı tahta kullanımına ilişkin görüşleri (diyarbakır i̇li örneği). dicle üniversitesi ziya gökalp eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 19, 242-258. dexter, s., & riedel, e. (2003). why improving preservice teacher educational technology preparation must go beyond the college’s walls. journal of teacher education, 54, 334346. edelson, d. c., & reiser, b. j. (2006). making authentic practices accessible to learners: design challenges and strategies. in r. k. sawyer (ed.), cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 335-354). new york: cambridge university press. fairgrieve, j. (1926). geography in school. london: university of london press. france, d., & wheeler, a., (2007). reflections on using podcasting for student feedback. planet, 8, 9-11. gibson, s., & oberg, d. (2004). visions and realities of internet use in schools: canadian perspectives. british journal of educational technology, 35, 569-585. gomez, l. m., sherin, m. g., griesdorn, j., & finn, l. e. (2008). creating social relationship the role of technology in preservice teacher preparation. journal of teacher education, 59(2), 117-131. gultig, j. (2010). using media in teaching. braamfontein: saide. jekel, t. (2006) . virtuelle flüge, raumliches problemlösen, kritisch-konstruktive didaktikanforderungen an lehren und lernen mit geoinformation. in: jekel t, koller a, strobl, j (eds) lernen mit geoinformationen. herbert witchmann verlag, heidelberg, pp 23-34. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 172-189 188 kent, a. (2002). geography changes and challenges. in m.smith (ed.) teaching geography in secondary schools a reader, 3-20. london: routledgefalmer. knight, j. (2006) investigating geography undergraduates’ attitudes to teaching, learning, and technology. planet, 16, 19 – 21. lindner-fally, m, “digital:earth:at – centre for teaching and learning geography and geoinformatics”, proc. herodot conference, ayvalik, turkey, <http:// www.herodot.net/conferences/ayvalik/papers/geotech12.pdf>, (10 december 2012), (2009). newman, j., & jones, r. (2008). e-learning or a-gimmick? evaluating the use of rich media in geography fieldwork. planet, 20, 47-50. o’mahony, k. (2000). theme-based geography education as an effective method of teaching. in “geographical literacy”. seattle: educare press. patterson, t. c. (2007). google earth as a (not just) geography education tool. journal of geography, 106(4), 145-152. pellegrino, j. w., goldman, s. r., brown, m., oney, b., nacu, d. c., & plants, r. (2006). understanding and influencing the integration of technology into teacher education. in f. k. oser, f. achtenhagen, & u. renold (eds.), competence –oriented teacher training: old research demands and new pathways (pp. 179-196). rotterdam, the netherlands: sense publishers. ronnkvist, a., dexter, s., & anderson, r. (2000). technology support: its depth, breadth, and impact on america’s schools: teaching, learning, and computing 1998 survey, report no: 5. irvine: center for research on information, technology, and organizations at university of california, irvine. russell, m., bebell, d., o’dwyer, l., & o’connor, k. (2003). examining teacher technology use: implications for preservice and in-service teacher preparation. journal of teacher education, 54, 297-310. sharpe, b. (2000). virtual geographies as instructional technologies, evaluation and assessment. in a. hecht and a. pletsch (eds.), international textbook research – virtual geography texs (vgt) (pp. 261-273). braunschweig: georgeckert institut. schee, j. v. d. (2003). new media will accelerate the renewal of geographic education. in rod gerber (eds.), international handbook on geographical education (pp. 205-213). dordrecht, the netherlands: kluwer academic publishers. solem, m., and p. gersmehl. 2005. online global geography modules enhance undergraduate learning. aag newsletter 40(8):11. yazıcı, h., & demirkaya, h. (2010). views of student teachers on information technology integration in geography teaching. scientific research and essays, 5(13), 1746-1753. cemalettin ayas 189 yıldırım, a. ve şimşek, h. (2008). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin. wathore, n. g. (2012). utility of instructional materials in the teaching geography at higher secondary level. international educational e-journal (quaterly), i (iii), 115-122. zeichner, k. (2006). reflections of a university-based teacher educator on the future of collegeand university-based teacher education. journal of teacher education, 57, 326340. zwartjes, l. (2014 ). the need for a learning line for spatial thinking using gis in education. in r. m. gonzales and k. donert (eds.), innovative learning geography in europe: new challenge for the 21st century (pp.39-62). newcastle upon tyne: cambridge scholars publishing. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 226-240 the realization of the hermeneutical approach to the text in practical classes in the literature during the work with students of philological faculty farida gabidullina1, aray zhundibayeva2, venera makarova3, radik galiullin 4, ilzira mubarakshina5 abstract the article is devoted to the problem of implementation of hermeneutical approach to the text. the author who has worked with students of philological faculty for more than 25 years is concerned about the tendency of a pragmatic approach to the text of an artistic work which manifests in the fact that a modern student-reader refers to the work often without entering into a mental dialogue with the author of the text but only watches the development of events. the result of this reading is the lack of own interpretation of the text, inability to determine the role of symbolic details, highlight the author's position. as a way out the author offers practical classes in literature based on the hermeneutical approach to the text. key words: hermeneutics, interpretation, analysis of a text, the author's position, analysis of linguistic means, intertextuality, the maieutic socratic method, the microcontext. introduction nowadays the problem of understanding and interpretation of literary or other text is becoming an increasing problem in the process of teaching literature at school, because there is a generation of children, the development of which was influenced not by family reading, but by media culture. there are yesterday's graduates among first-year students who are not taught meaningful reading, do not have the skills of independent interpretation of texts. modern scientists write: "on the one hand, reading is the strategy of a thinking person's life, and on the other hand, it is a creative process that requires considerable energy to perceive, understand and process any text" (kucharikova, 2012, p. 4). it is exactly the "hermeneutic approach which is used to understand the meaning of the text: approximation of the reader to the author's plan, restoration of the 1 yelabuzhsky institute of kazan (privolzhsky) federal university, tatarstan, farida-vip@mail.ru 2 shakarim state university of semey, (ssus) (state university named after shakarim of semey city) kazakhstan, arayzhkz@gmail.com 3 naberezhnye chelny state teacher’ training university, tatarstan, makarova_vf@mail.ru 4 naberezhnye chelny state teacher’ training university, tatarstan, radik.galiullin@gmail.com 5 naberezhnye chelny state teacher’ training university, tatarstan, gilaevailzira@yandex.ru gabidullina et al. 227 communicative problem of the author of the text, the detection of the ideological content of the work" (mokienko, 2018). thus, the relevance of the work is due to the fact that today there is a need for a qualitative change in the teaching of reading and interpretation of the text, which is a condition for obtaining a full education, the formation of a creative personality who can independently think and defend his point of view (akhmetshin et al.,2017; aminov et al., 2018; aydarova et al, 2017; gapsalamov et al., 2017a; korableva et al., 2017a; szydlowski, 2018). method in this work based on the methods of theoretical analysis of scientific and methodological literature and experimental teaching, we tried to give an example of the implementation of the hermeneutical approach in practical classes in literature in work with students of the pedagogical university and experimentally test the effectiveness of such work. findings the word "hermeneutics" recalls the myths of ancient greece. it is known that one of "servants of gods", the messenger of their will was legendary hermes acting as the intermediary between gods and people. a. f. zakirova writes: "on behalf of this mythological "interpreter" occurred the name of hermeneutics as an art to interpret incomprehensible or even distorted, to explain the meaning of another language or sign" (zakirova, 2001, p. 38). lexicographic sources explain the meaning of the word hermeneutics as "the art and theory of interpretation of texts, the original meaning of which is unclear due to their antiquity or incomplete preservation" (kuznetsov, 2000, p. 200). however, in a broader sense, the word has the meaning of "universal theory of interpretation of signs" (soboleva, 2014, p. 5). french philosopher, one of the leading representatives of philosophical hermeneutics paul ricoeur calls hermeneutics as the theory of the operations of understanding in their relation to the interpretation of texts: "the term hermeneutics means the consistent implementation of interpretation" (ricoeur, 1995, p. 7). thus, it becomes clear that hermeneutics is closely related to the concepts of understanding and interpretation. according to p. riker's teachings, the purpose of understanding is "to make the transition from this expression to what is the main intention of the sign, and to go outside through the expression" (ricoeur, 1995, p. 94). o. p. mockienko writes that "the purpose of understanding is not in the proper interpretation of the text, not in the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 226-240 reconstruction of ideas and opinions of interpreted, but in activating their own thought processes through the formation of a dialogue question-answer system" (mokienko, 2018). according to o. novikova, understanding is such a way of mastering the world which leads to self-knowledge, meaningful living of their own being, life creation (novikov, 2004, p. 11). it seems to us that the hermeneutical approach should have two requirements: understanding the work on the basis of their own feelings, emotions, and not on the basis of criticism, the story of the teacher; the denial of artificial desire for originality, a conscious and deliberate opposition of their own and traditional author's vision of the work (shatunova and sterz, 2018; tarman, 2016; korableva et al., 2018; kurbanova et al., 2018; magsumov, 2017; gapsalamov et al., 2017b; faizrakhmanova et al., 2018). in order to test the effectiveness of the hermeneutical approach in practical classes in literature in work with students of the pedagogical university we organized an experimental work. the base of the research is the first-year students of elabuga institute of kfu in the amount of 20 people. the choice of first-year students is not accidental, because they are more than others ready to accept new methods, methods of work in view of the change of educational institutions from the secondary general education to higher education. the work was carried out in three stages: stating, forming, control. the purpose of the stating experiment was to determine the level of skills of hermeneutical analysis of literary text, skills of understanding and interpretation of works. at these stage students were asked to analyze the drama "cherry orchard". the participants of the experiment did the work independently, during one practical lesson, the text of the work was offered in the public domain. the analysis of students' works allows to draw a number of conclusions about their ability to understand and analyze a classical work. pay attention to these features: 1) the analysis is often replaced by a retelling of the content of the work with a conclusion positioned as the student's own opinion; 2) in the process of analysis the poetics of the text remains almost unaffected, the main attention is paid to thematic analysis; 3) the main content of the analysis are cliché phrases taken from the textbook, critical articles. at the same time, there is also the opposite phenomenon, when the basis of the analysis is the emotions from the read, the student's own experience, which is almost not argued, is not quoted gabidullina et al. 229 from the text. as you can see, both in the first and in the second case there is no support for the text of the work. 4) the common thing for all the works is that as a result of the analysis the students could not give an adequate interpretation of the read drama; the conclusion is superficial. now we consider the work of students in terms of the level of formation of skills to understand and interpret the text. the work of m. nikolaeva selected 5 types of skills on which depends the quality of the conducted analysis of literary text: vision of microcontexts; establishment of the connection between microcontexts and the meaning of the work; vision of the author's position; analysis of the linguistic means of the work, the relevance of quoting the text (nikolaeva, p. 171). analysis of the works of 20 students suggests that most of these skills are formed insufficiently. the results are presented in figure 1. figure 1. criteria of ability to make the hermeneutical analysis of the text if we look at the analysis of students' works in detail, it can be noted that they did not feel the need to identify microcontexts, fluent reading of the work and acquaintance with critical articles and finished works taken from the internet, allowed them to talk only about the content, idea, subject of the work (anisimova and ibatullin, 2018; magmusov, 2013a; korableva and kalimullina, 2016). rare cases of analysis of the poetics of the text have largely focused on identifying 10 5 15 15 20 the ability to see microkontexts the vision of the connection between microcontext and the meaning of the text the vision of the author's position the analysis of the language devices the appropriateness of the quoting criteria of ability to make the hermeneutical analysis of the text journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 226-240 occurrences of the author's using epithets, metaphors and comparisons. it was sentences like "the author skillfully uses epithets: i was born in st. petersburg, cold and idle". however, even noting the use of poetic devices, first-year students are unable to identify their role in the text. the text of the work was mainly used to retell the content of the work and almost was not used to confirm the thoughts of the author of the analysis. thus, the stating stage of experimental work shows that systematic work is needed to form skills of hermeneutical analysis as a mean of understanding the depth of the text (osadchy & akhmetshin, 2015). the training experiment was devoted to the process of interpretation of the literary text on the material of a. p. chekhov's comedy "cherry orchard". the analysis of theoretical and methodical literature allowed us to develop approximate methodical bases of training of the hermeneutical analysis of the text. in practical classes devoted to the analysis of works the main methods were: 1) work with the details; 2) intertextuality; 3) the maieutic socratic method. it should be noted that we used these methods not in isolation, but in combination during the work. more detailed methods and methods of work are presented in table 1. table 1 methods and techniques of the play of a. p. chekhov "the cherry orchard" (hermeneutic analysis of the text) leading method basic techniques results of work work with the details; the maieutic socratic method work in groups. each group works with one detail – the color, sound or smell in the work; as each group performs, a dialogue with the teacher and other groups is organized, the opinion is summarized at the end. in the process of the work students came to the conclusion that white is a symbol of the purity of the past and at the same time symbolizes its color; the sounds of the orchestra, the owl – a symbol of the tragic finale, and the sound of a broken string – a symbol of death. the aroma of cherries is a symbol of purity and coziness of the past, the smell of cigarettes, herring, soap in the present about the inevitability of the time when the noble class should leave the historical scene. intertextuality, the maieutic socratic method dialogue about "feast during the plague" in the work "cherry orchard". as a homework students were given to re-read the tragedy "feast during the plague" by a.s. pushkin and find common details with the studied work. there is a general students learn to perceive a literary work not as something isolated, but as a product of an era, as a continuation of literary traditions; learn to see the similarity, sometimes to see metaphorical between different works and on the basis of this similarity to perceive the read in a new way.. thus, during the comparative study of pushkin and chekhov's works, students were able to see similar behavior of people during the plague era and the last generation of nobles – the desire to forget about the gabidullina et al. 231 discussion of the motive of the feast during the plague in the lesson in the form of dialogue. inevitability of death (the motive of the feast and the motive of the ball) and almost complete inaction. the maieutic socratic method dialogue on the theme "motive of death in a work of art". based on read works, watched movies, students discussed the role of thanatological motifs in the work, came to the conclusion that, the perception of death by the characters sharply differs in chekhov's play. despite the fact that death accompanies the heroes all the time (the death of son of ranevskaya, the servant, firs remains in the boundary condition), there is no tragic sound in the play. leading method basic techniques results of work leading method work with the details; the maieutic socratic method work with the details; the maieutic socratic method work in groups. each group works with one detail – the color, sound or smell in the work; as each group performs, a dialogue with the teacher and other groups is organized, the opinion is summarized at the end. in the process of the work students came to the conclusion that white is a symbol of the purity of the past and at the same time symbolizes its color; the sounds of the orchestra, the owl – a symbol of the tragic finale, and the sound of a broken string – a symbol of death. the aroma of cherries is a symbol of purity and coziness of the past, the smell of cigarettes, herring, soap in the present about the inevitability of the time when the noble class should leave the historical scene. intertextuality, the maieutic socratic method dialogue about "feast during the plague" in the work "cherry orchard". as a homework students were given to re-read the tragedy "feast during the plague" by a.s. pushkin and find common details with the studied work. there is a general discussion of the motive of the feast during the plague in the lesson in the form of dialogue. students learn to perceive a literary work not as something isolated, but as a product of an era, as a continuation of literary traditions; learn to see the similarity, sometimes to see metaphorical between different works and on the basis of this similarity to perceive the read in a new way. thus, during the comparative study of pushkin and chekhov's works, students were able to see similar behavior of people during the plague era and the last generation of nobles – the desire to forget about the inevitability of death (the motive of the feast and the motive of the intertextuality, the maieutic socratic method journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 226-240 ball) and almost complete inaction. the maieutic socratic method dialogue on the theme "motive of death in a work of art". based on read works, watched movies, students discussed the role of thanatological motifs in the work, came to the conclusion that, the perception of death by the characters sharply differs in chekhov's play. despite the fact that death accompanies the heroes all the time (the death of son of ranevskaya, the servant, firs remains in the boundary condition), there is no tragic sound in the play. the maieutic socratic method now we stop at the forming stage. before studying the drama "cherry orchard", the students got acquainted with the concepts of "microcontext", "slow reading", "reading with a pencil". it was suggested that even the slightest detail is not used by the writer accidentally and serves to disclose the author's position. thus, in the process of slow reading the students noted that there is microcontext of death in the comedy "the cherry orchard". indeed, the death of different people is mentioned quite often in the play (the old servants, husband and son of ranevskaya); ranevskaya talks about his own death; trofimov, epikhodov and gayev talk about death in a whole. also for a moment the dead mother of ranevskaya appears in comedy and the old firs stands on the border life-death. next in the lesson a dialogue on the role of microcontext of death in the disclosure of the author's intention, the author's position was built (mauch & tarman, 2016). to do this the students tried to characterize the motive of death in the literature. in particular, they noted that death is almost always a shock in the literary work, it is an event that sometimes changes people's lives in the opposite direction, in connection with the death there is a reassessment of their lives, life values (bochkareva et al., 2018; ibatullin & anisimova, 2017; korableva et al., 2017b). then the students came to the conclusion that the tragedy of death is not felt in the comedy. the death of her son, the emergence of her dead mother – it all does not change anything in the life of ranevskaya. thus, the students came to the conclusion that scientists described as "death has practically lost its gabidullina et al. 233 existential character here, becoming an important component of life, an ontological factor that does not oppose the human world, but is difficult to include it" (razumova, p. 465). in close connection with the death the fate of the cherry orchard was considered, the death of which is also inevitable, as the sounds of an axe already heard even before the leaving of the former owners. students' opinions about how much the death of the garden affects the souls of the main characters were divided. some students thought that the loss of the garden will leave a lasting imprint in the hearts of ranevskaya, gayev, others argued their contrary opinion that ranevskaya is waiting for the death of the garden as a catastrophe, but after all that has happened it turned out that this event did not have any catastrophic consequences for the owners. ranevskaya leaves for paris, anya is going to finish her studies and then to work, varya starts working as a housekeeper for her friends. the method of intertextuality was used when students were asked to compare the pushkin's tragedy "feast during the plague" and "cherry orchard". the similarity between the characters of the works that they could notice quite easily is their static state, inaction. the heroes of a. s. pushkin, with the exception of priest, feast and do nothing else so the situation in the tragedy does not change. but a poet accurately reflected the internal stress of the fight of the heroes with their fate. so chekhov's characters, with the exception of lopakhin, are waiting for in inaction and with the tension of the fateful moment – bidding. during the study of the work students paid attention to off-stage details of sound, color, smell. at the lessons the students came to the conclusion that the sounds-symbols are the most clearly represented in the play (the sound of a broken string, a jewish orchestra, the sound of an ax), color symbols (white) and symbols-aromas (taste and smell of cherries, patchouli, chicken, soap, herring). most of them refer the viewer to the past, to the childhood of the heroes. childhood is the aroma of cherry, white garden because of flowering trees, dead mother who appeared before ranevskaya. the past in this description – awesome, touching, tender. it is exactly look like this because it is described through the perception of ranevskaya. if we proceed from the color perception, the past in the author's description is whiteness. this is practically the only color used by the author in the play "cherry orchard", but it is repeatedly emphasized and included in a range of leitmotif. even the attitude of the heroes to the garden is emphasized with the help of white color. so, in the speech of ranevskaya the beauty of the white garden is emphasized; and also children's room is white. firs always wears a jacket and a white vest; charlotte is in a white dress. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 226-240 working with the microcontext of the sound, the students noted the role of the sound of a broken string in the text. as we know, the sound of a string plays a symbolic role in chekhov's comedy: "suddenly a distant sound is heard, like from the sky, the sound of a broken string, fading, sad" – this sound in the middle of the text is understood by the heroes of the play in different ways (chekhov, 2018). lopakhin considers it as the sound of broken tub in the mine; gaev hears like the scream of a heron and firs regards it as the sound of the owl; ranevskaya feels it like tragic sound. in the process of dialogue, disputes in the classroom students came to the conclusion that the sound of a broken string means both death or withering of white. moreover, the participants of the experiment noted that neither the whiteness of the garden nor the aroma of cherries is mentioned after this sound. the same sound is repeated in the play again – in the final, when the owners left, the doors are locked. it is already the final destruction of the garden confirming with the sounds of the axe, cut down the trees. further on lesson the emphasis on microcontext of aromas (smells) was made. in the play there are a few smells. the most first and associated with white color is the cherries' aroma. it is pleasant, touching and refers to the past. in the present, as the students noted, smells are not quite pleasant for the characters. "your restaurant with music is cheesy, tablecloths smell like soap", says lyubov ranevskaya on her return from the city (chekhov, 2018). gayev notices that yasha smells like chicken, herring. the smells of everyday life are unpleasant to landlords and it underlines their inability to adapt to real life, to reality. the life of ranevskaya in paris is described with using the smell of cigarettes: "my mother lives on the fifth floor, i come to her, she has some french, ladies, old priest with a book and it is smoked, uncomfortable" (chekhov, 2018). then the work-reaction was done to the idea of d. ustyuzhanin that "feast during the plague – is "a kind of poetic reaction to the dead russian reality" (ustyuzhanin, 1974, p. 23). is this quote suitable for chekhov's works? students disagreed. someone thought that it was, as there is no return to those days when the garden smelt with cherry aroma and capitalism together with lopakhin will bring destruction to all beautiful, some were of the opinion that there is still hope, as the souls of heroes has something bright, kind, eternal. in the end, the students came to the conclusion that it is impossible to say that the reality in chekhov's play is also dead, something light remains in the hearts of ranevskaya, anya joyfully looks at the future and varya came to a definite decision. however, can this light, this glimpse lead to a bright future? probably not, bright and tremulous beginning is obscured with ranevskaya's selfishness; anya’s hope to go all the way gabidullina et al. 235 together with peter to create free and great russia will also likely fail, as trofimov did not achieved anything for whole life; firs who cared about the owners as of their own children forgotten and abandoned; and the keys from the manor transferred to epikhodov, which now serves to lopakhin, a man nicknamed "twenty-two misfortunes" and not even understand why he lives and if he needs this life. we believe that the work done should be fruitful, since the forming stage showed, firstly, the interest of students in hermeneutical analysis of the text, the search for new meanings, but we also suggested that the hermeneutical analysis of the literary work should not turn into a kind of "hunt" for microcontexts, when the purpose is no longer the understanding of the author's position and penetration into the poetics of the text, but the creation of the most intricate interpretation having nothing with the work. at the control stage, we re-diagnosed the level of formation of skills of hermeneutical analysis of literary text, skills of understanding and interpretation of works. the play of the modern playwright a.i. slapovsky "my cherry orchard", which is a secondary text, a remake of chekhov's work was chosen for the work. to some extent, this facilitates the work for students, as the intertextuality and appeal to the classical work is traced in the work. on the other hand, this analysis requires a large part of independence, as many of its aspects are not affected by critics. given the amount of work, the analysis of the work was proposed to be done at home. the results are presented in figure 2. 85 70 65 45 65 the ability to see microcontexts the establishing a connection between microcontexts and the meaning of the work the vision of the author's position the analysis of language devices the appropriateness of the quoting of the text the standard of formation of skills of hermeneutical analysis journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 226-240 figure 2. the standard of formation of skills of hermeneutical analysis comparative data of the results of the primary analysis of the literary text and the results after the forming stage of the work are shown in table 2. table 2 main categories and subcategories criterion of formation of skills of hermeneutical analysis before the experiment after the experiment criterion of formation of skills of hermeneutical analysis the ability to see microcontexts 10% 85% the ability to see microcontexts establishing a connection between microcontexts and the meaning of the work 5% 70% establishing a connection between microcontexts and the meaning of the work the vision of the author's position 15% 65% the vision of the author's position analysis of language devices 15% 45% analysis of language devices so, we see that during the forming stage of experimental work the majority of students (85%) learnt to see the microcontexts of the work and abandoned the usual retelling of the plot with an emphasis on the subject as an analysis of the work. if the connection between microcontexts and the meaning of the works in the analyses of students was practically not traced earlier, then the control diagnosis showed that 70% of students learnt how to do it. in particular, it can be noted that the participants in the experiment successfully tried to establish a connection between the names of the characters (ranjeva, minusovki) and the position of the author. of course, in such a short time, a small practical experience of hermeneutical analysis is difficult to teach to see the author's position, but 65% of first-year students mastered this skill. 45% of the written works contain an analysis of the poetic and linguistic devices of the writer. of course, even half of the students did not pay attention to this aspect of the analysis, which should be taken into account during conducting further practical training. we considered it appropriate to cite the text in 65% of the works. the main mistake of students at the same time is that they use quotations to confirm not the thought, but the act of the hero that does not need confirmation by the quote. gabidullina et al. 237 discussion, conclusion and implications in general, we believe that the done work has the right to be called successful, the skills of hermeneutical analysis are acquired by students quite easily, but it requires the proper motivation. in conclusion, i would like to say that acquaintance with hermeneutical analysis of a literary work is necessary, as it brings up a qualified reader who can see the author's position, to understand the depth of the meaning of the text; brings up a love of reading; develops oral and written speech. acknowledgments the work is carried out according to the russian government's program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references aminov, t., magsumov, t., sayakhov, r., yepaneshnikov, v., nasipov, i., & aitov, v. (2018). pedagogical potential of muslim religious sources in overcoming physical and mental and psychological trials. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 266-282. doi:10.17499/jsser.66061 akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. anisimova, e., & ibatullin, r. (2018). project method in preparation of future preschool teachers. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 228-238. doi:10.17499/jsser.73355 aydarova s h, giniyatullina l m, sagdieva r k, husnutdinov d h, mirzagitov r h, gabidullina f i (2017) models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) bochkareva, t., akhmetshin, e., osadchy, e., romanov, p., & konovalova, e. (2018). preparation of the future teacher for work with gifted children. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 251-265. doi:10.17499/jsser.76113 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 226-240 chekhov, a. p. cherry orchard. – url:http://ilibrary.ru/text/472/p.1/index.html; date of access: 24.02. 2018. faizrakhmanova, a., averianova, t., aitov, v., kudinova, g., & lebedeva, i. (2018). coaching method in teaching history of visual arts to students. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 80-88. doi:10.17499/jsser.34255 gapsalamov, a. r., ibatullin rinat, r., & kaviev airat, f. (2017a). features of estimating the effectiveness of implementation of labor actions in the system of secondary vocational education. astra salvensis, 5(10), 329-338. gapsalamov, a. r., vasilev, v. l., & ilyin, a. g. (2017b). state planning of the russian economy: past and present. international journal of economic perspectives, 11(1), 474480. ibatullin, r. r., & anisimova, e. s. (2017). construction of individual educational trajectory of students based on e-learning. paper presented at the application of information and communication technologies, aict 2016 conference proceedings, 10.1109/icaict.2016.7991799 korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016) strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a) building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b) research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. korableva, o. n., kalimullina, o. v., & mityakova, v. n. (2018). innovation activity data processing and aggregation based on ontological modelling. paper presented at the 2018 4th international conference on information management, icim 2018, 1-4. doi:10.1109/infoman.2018.8392659 gabidullina et al. 239 kucharikova, e. d. (2012) interpretation of the text, meaning. the text. work. reader.: abstracts of the international science. practical. conf. on june 3-4, 2012. penza – kazan – rasht:, pp.6-8. kurbanova e., korableva o., kalimullina o. (2018). enhancing the effectiveness of asset management through development of license management system on the basis of sccm 2012 program by microsoft company. paper presented at the iceis 2018 proceedings of the 20th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 171-178 kuznetsov, s. a. (2000) big explanatory dictionary of russian language. spb.:norint, pp. 1536. mokienko, o. p. hermeneutical approach in teaching (on the example of teaching literature). – url:http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/germenevticheskiy-podhod-v-obuchenii-na-primereobucheniya-literature; date of access: 24.02.2018. magsumov, t.a. (2017). family and school in russia at the beginning of the 20th century: attempts to bridge the gap. european journal of contemporary education. 6 (4): 837846. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. nikolaeva, m. v. (2008) improvement of interpretation activity. moscow, pp. 222. novikov, o. a. (2004) the hermeneutical approach to the understanding and creation of humorous texts (in the classes of the russian language at school and university). unpublished doctorate dissertation: yaroslavl, russia, pp. 28. osadchy, e. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2015). integration of industrial and educational sphere in modernization of economic relations. journal of applied economic sciences, 10(5) razumova, n. e. (2001) the work of a. p. chekhov in the aspect of space. tomsk: tomsk state university, 2001. pp. 522. ricoeur, p. (1995) the conflict of interpretations. essays on hermeneutics. moscow.: medium, pp. 416. shatunova, o., & sterz, o. (2018). the structure of the person's technical aptitude and factors of its development. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 239-250. doi:10.17499/jsser.44474 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 226-240 szydlowski, a.v. (2018). a printing and publishing type as object of intellectual property in election law of russia and u.s. severo-kavkazskij juridicheskij vestnik, (1), 56-63. slapovsky a. i. my cherry garden. – url: https://www.litmir.co/br/?b=275184; date of access: 24.02. 2018. soboleva, m. e. (2014) philosophical hermeneutics: the concept and the position. moscow: academic project, pp.151. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. ustyuzhanin d. (1974) little tragedies of a. s. pushkin. мoscow: lit. word, pp. 96. zakirova, a. f. (2001) theoretical and methodological bases and practice of pedagogical hermeneutics. tyumen, 2001, pp. 317. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (3), 220-241 influence of the family on the process of forming a child's personality: types of families: a case of modern youth prose galina bozhkova1, olga shatunova2 & elena shastina3 abstract the article is aimed at studying the types of modern families and identifying their influence on the formation of the younger generation, using the material of prose for children and adolescents. the novelty of the study is in the fact that there is not a single work studying the variety of families in modern literature. the nature of the work was determined by the method of content analysis, which allowed us to obtain reliable data from the literary context by studying its formal-substantive features. тhe authors obtained interesting results. modern books for children were analyzed in terms of age peculiarities and divided into two categories: texts for preschoolers and for young adolescents. in the works for preschoolers, dominant narratives are about child-centered and zoological families; this is explained by age specifics, since the texts are addressed specifically to children ages 3 to 7. the situation changes significantly in literature for teenagers, in which problems become global and insoluble; the proof is the replacement of the child-centered, multigenerational family with a personality-centered, incomplete, asocial one. these changes lead to misunderstandings between generations and to inevitable problems. key words: types of families; children’s and youth literature; parenthood models; the role of family in the younger generation’s upbringing introduction in addition to the educational function, children’s and youth literature has a therapeutic effect on both children and adults; the problems raised became extremely relevant in the digital era, which contributes to the separation of the younger generation not only from reading but from family members. in this regard, family relationships and the influence of the family on the formation of the personality of the child, which are of particular value in the era of globalization and computerization, are especially indicative (curran et al., 2020; johnson & hinton, 2019; karakus, 2018; korableva et al., 2019; lafer & tarman, 2019; yañez et al., 2020). this article is devoted 1 dr.,kazan (volga region) federal university, tatarstan, elabuga, russian federation, bozhkova.galina@mail.ru 2 dr.kazan (volga region) federal university, tatarstan, elabuga, russian federation, olgashat67@mail.ru 3 dr., kazan (volga region) federal university, tatarstan, elabuga, russian federation, shastina@rambler.ru mailto:bozhkova.galina@mail.ru mailto:olgashat67@mail.ru mailto:shastina@rambler.ru journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 221 to the study of family types in modern literature for children and adolescents. despite scientists’ active interest in the influence of the family on the formation of the child’s personality, the issue of family types in literary materials is here considered for the first time. the authors reviewed the works of such writers as anna dewdney, lisa papp, catherine leblanc, narine abgaryan, iva procházková, rose lagercrantz, marina aromshtam, daniel pennac, lygia bojunga, dina sabitova, stanislav vostokov, timothée de fombelle, irina zartayskaya, and beate teresa hanika. this study translates the writers’ views on the problem of the influence of the family, on the formation of the personality of the child. the opinion of the authors of works of art is new and original, and therefore it is impossible to neglect them; this argument allowed us to reinforce the importance of research, which reveals a new look at the problem: modern authors claim that, being carried away by upbringing and the desire to grow a competitive, successful personality, parents forget about exhibiting a warm attitude to their children, instead focusing on the material, selfish good. they lose a full-fledged dialogue, turning family relationships into personality-centered ones. parents exert a harmful influence on the children, destroying their identity with their edification. moreover, modern prose for youths has not been studied. children’s writers are trying not only to attract the readers’ attention with a book but also to help by solving private problems, including family ones (akim et al., 2019; camarero-figuerola et al., 2020; vural, 2019). the right to legitimacy is recognized for children’s literature in modern society. modern children’s literature is modified, adapted to the signs of the new reality, supplemented by new family types, and reflects modern children and adolescent problems of personal and family life (cáceres-reche et al., 2019; saenko et al., 2019). research objectives the purpose of the study is to analyze family types in the works of modern literature for children and adolescents and clarify family influences on the personalities of the younger generation. more specifically, this study aims to answer the following research questions: 1. what types of families dominate the works of modern prose for preschoolers and schoolchildren? 2. how do family behaviors affect the formation of a child’s personality? 3. are there more similarities or differences in the descriptions of the types of families in the works for preschoolers and schoolchildren? bozhkova et al. literature review many scholars reflect on the influence of the family on morality in the modern digital world. for instance, the guyana ministry of education (2018) website hosted an article titled “the family influence on children's morals,” which presented to the reading audience the principles of humane parenting in a modern family, such as justice, personal example, and understanding. according to budzey (2019), there is a belief that it is necessary to develop the spiritual and moral component of the child’s personality not only in school but also in the family, but parental employment is deprived of the main thing: informal communication. the problem of the influence of family education is considered by orlova (2017), who is convinced that conflicts can be avoided by using a democratic style of communication in families. writers creating works for children and adolescents also enter the discussion about the role of the family in the formation of the younger generation. authors such as aromshtam (2010), de fombelle (2017), sabitova (2018), vostokov (2014), bojunga (2014), hanika (2009), and pennac (2004) argue that the personality is influenced by the style of communication in the family and the experience of married life, but they urge that special attention be paid not to the formation of adaptability, flexibility, branding, or non-standard attitudes in the child, but to the psychological health of the younger generation; this is the undeniable novelty of modern works. in this regard, they urge parents to abandon their own ambitions and strive to create child-centered families, live in the interests of children, forgive their mistakes, and accept them for who they are (olalowo, 2020). world authors visualize the problems of interpersonal relationships and use a mirror technique, allowing readers to recognize themselves in the text and begin to change. scientists such as fitzpatrick (1998), orlova (2017), and korchagina (2017) proved that the family has uncompensated vital capabilities to create an adequate, cultural, competitive personality and provide it with social protection. each individual family establishes its own rules, customs, and atmosphere, which completely affect the identification of a child’s personality via the law of intergenerational continuity. fitzpatrick (1998) noted that full interaction between husband and wife primarily contributes to the creation of a harmonious family, and he considers verbal and non-verbal ways of couples reacting to each other. farver et al. (2007) proved that the formation of a sustainable identity in migrants’ children is connected with the strategy and identity of parents; therefore, it is necessary to strive for a solidarity parenthood model focused on nationwide models. umaña-taylor et al. (2006) share this point of view. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 223 zhukova et al.’s (2014) criteria of family typology classifies composition, number of children, characteristics of role distribution and nature of interaction, social homogeneity, value orientations of the family, age of family life, place and type of residence, professional employment of spouses, and the nature of sexual relations that directly affect the upbringing of the younger generations, with the following classifications: as for family composition, they distinguish between single-generation, nuclear, and multi-generation (traditional) families. as for the number of parents, families can be complete or incomplete. as for the number of children, families with one child, families with two or more children, and childless families (when a child is not born in a family during 8-10 years) are distinguished. as for kinship, families can include biological children, adopted children, and guardianship. as for family experience, the following types are distinguished: newlyweds (honeymoon families), young families (from six months to one and a half years before the birth of the first child), families expecting a child, families of middle matrimonial age (from 3 to 10 years), families of senior matrimonial age (from 10 to 20 years), and older married couples. by place of residence, there can be urban, rural, and remote families. by type of residence, families are divided into patrilocal (living in the husband’s house after marriage), matrilocal (living in the wife’s house), neolocal (living separately from relatives), and godwin-marriage (living apart together). in accordance with the characteristics of distribution of roles, there can be traditional families (characterized by the traditional distribution of male and female roles, the supremacy of an authoritarian spouse; such families can be both patriarchal and matriarchal), egalitarian or equal families (implying the primacy of both spouses or its absence, a clear distribution of roles with an uncertain, modifiable structure; these are mainly young couples without children, since the birth of children makes the spouses’ lifestyles well-ordered), and democratic, or partnership, families (determined by equal rights of both spouses, joint seniority, a changing and renewed role structure and responsibilities, taking into account common interests). as for spouses’ professional employment, they distinguish full-employment families, partialemployment families (where one of the spouses works), families of pensioners (where both spouses do not work), and two-career families (where career growth and well-being are more important for both spouses). according to the value orientation, the following can be distinguished: child-centered families (the priority value is attention and care for children), personality-centered families (in which the goal is to create conditions for achieving goals and ensuring the optimal personal growth for each family member), consumer families (orientation toward hoarding and bozhkova et al. general satisfaction of personal needs), psychotherapeutic families (in which the goal is mutual understanding, emotional support, love, and safety), “healthy lifestyle” or wellness families (focusing on health, proper relaxation, sports, cleanliness, and order), and “intellectual” families (in which education, books, art, cognition, creativity are the priority). depending on the type of sexual relationship that goes beyond the generally accepted standards, the following are distinguished: open families, i.e., the boundaries of sexual relations between spouses are free; and homosexual families, i.e., the long cohabitation of same-sex spouses (zhukova et al., 2014). this research regards both zhukova et al.’s (2014) typologies of families and the opinions of the authors of literary works, since in the 21st century there is a need not merely for upbringing but for the dialogue of parents with their children so that the child might quickly adapt to the realities of modern reality, become resilient, and increase their ability to learn; however, they deliberately avoid edification in their works, and this is a peculiar method of working with both parents and children. modern writers offer the right to choose, portraying full-fledged families in works for preschool children and problematic ones in teenage prose. method this study used qualitative and quantitative approaches. the main design involves content analysis and thematic analysis. research design this article is an interdisciplinary study, the main task of which is to analyze the species factors of the family that affect the development of the younger generation. this design method involves the selection of literary texts by world contemporary authors, the main object of the image in which is the theme of the family. thus, the study includes the following stages of work: 1. selection of texts. we selected 14 modern works for children and youths highlighting the influence of the family on the formation of the younger generation. 2. selection of classifications. in this case, we gave preference to the classifications of zhukova et al. (2014). 3. interpretation of modern literary texts. the quantitative method of content analysis made it possible to work with formal content units of the text and translate them into a percentage, reflecting the results in tables and diagrams. a qualitative figurative-thematic analysis made it possible to see the influence of types of families on the formation of the personality journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 225 of the younger generation, as well as to see the similarities and differences in modern prose for preschoolers and adolescents. such qualitative and quantitative approaches made it possible to identify the species characteristics of families and to prove the influence of family types on the formation of the personalities of the younger generation. this research reflects the contemporary social reality that is predicted in literary texts. sources of data the source of the study was the corpus (the substantive-formal units of a literary text: the study of family images and the motives of the behavior of artistic images). the qualitative data included: 14 literary families, including 7 families of preschoolers and 7 families raising teenagers. this data is visualized in table 1. table 1 sources of data № author title literature for preschoolers 1. i. zartayskaya “nobody loves me” 2. c. leblanc “here she is!” 3. a. dewdney “llama llama: time to share” 4. l. papp “madeline finn and the library dog” 5. r. lagercrantz “my happy life” 6. n. abgaryan “manyunya” 7. i. procházková “elias and the granny from the egg” literature for adolescents 1. m. aromshtam “when the angels rest” 2. t. de fombelle “girl from tower 330” 3. d. sabitova “your three names” 4. s. vostokov “frosya korovina” 5. l. bojunga “the yellow bag” 6. b. t. hanika “little red riding hood must cry” 7. d. pennac “dog” data collection procedure the data collection procedure involved the selection of factual material, the study of the theme of the family in contemporary works of authors who received literary awards, the analysis of family types, and revealing their role in shaping the personality of the younger generation. for this, we chose an equal number of families in prose for preschool children and adolescents. when classifying families in texts, we relied on the study by zhukova et al. (2014), which focuses on composition (complete/incomplete), number of children (large, without children, with 1-2 children), emphasis on health and cleanliness in the house, etc. we were more interested in the bozhkova et al. value orientation when working with families (child-centric; in crisis, experiencing divorce, conflicting; problematic, asocial, having bad habits, health problems, etc.); zhukova unites these types of families with the term personality-centric. we found that: 1. in works for preschoolers, children-centered families dominate, and in works for teenagers, families are in crisis, problematic, and incomplete. 2. family behavior is crucial in personality formation; therefore, in children's prose, children are happy and open to friendship and communication, and in teenage prose, heroes are vulnerable, lonely, depressed, and suicidal (table 3). 3. in the analyzed families, there are more differences for preschool children and adolescents. from the point of view of value orientations in children's literature, six families are child-centered, although there is one family in crisis, and all families are young (living together for no more than 5 years). families in adolescent prose, on the other hand, are in crisis and problematic, only one family is child-centered, and all the families are of older marital age (from 10-20 years of cohabitation). the difference is as follows: families in prose are idealized for preschoolers (this is a call for correction), young families are in front of the reader, and families in youth literature are recited by the eyes of adolescents themselves, which makes it possible to see a crisis in relations. data analysis techniques to analyze the data, this study used a summative content analysis (hsieh & shannon, 2005; zhang & barbara, 2016) and applied an inductive analysis (patton, 2002). the summative content analysis examined the quantitative data at the beginning, then went to the qualitative data that involved themes and inferences of the whole data. the analysis process included seven steps, with transforming data into written text as the first step. second, the unit of analysis was set, identifying messages in the units, where each unit was coded (de wever et al., 2006). in the third step, categories were developed and a coding scheme was administered to involve category names, definitions or rules for assigning codes, and examples (weber, 1990). the fourth step was to test the coding scheme by checking the coding on a sample text, checking coding consistency, and revising coding rules in an iterative process until sufficient coding consistency was achieved (weber, 1990). fifth, the entire corpus of the text was coded until sufficient consistency had been achieved. sixth, assessing the coding consistency involved rechecking the coding of the entire data journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 227 set. the seventh step involved drawing conclusions from the coded data by making sense of the themes or categories and their attributes, and making inferences and presenting reconstruction of meaning derived from the data. operationally, this study analyzed the data by preparing scores obtained from impressionistic and in-depth evaluation into the narrative texts (zhang & barbara, 2016). each point in the checklist was identified by score and the overall attributes were narrated in the written text. in addition, results of interviews in the fgd, field notes, and memos that supplemented the results of checklist were drawn in the narrative texts. based on the narrative texts obtained from the transformation of the checklist into narrative text and the results of interviews, field notes and memos, the unit of analysis was identified. the identification represented the items of impressionistic evaluation as well as the in-depth evaluation. respectively, the unit of analysis was coded, and the coding was tested for consistency, until all texts received their own coding. verification of the final coding was confirmed whether the analysis was confirmed to answer the research questions of this study (kulm et al., 1999; sahim, 2020; zhang and barbara, 2016). to answer the research questions, the socio-philosophical and pedagogical literature on the problem of the article were analyzed to ensure that there is not a single study that gives an idea of the types of families in modern prose for youths, especially comparing families in prose for preschool children and schoolchildren and establishing their influence on the formation of the personality of the child, although contemporary authors are included in the discussion and cover similar problems in fiction. answering the first research question, we analyzed the images of families in literary texts for preschool children, and after that we paid attention to the value orientations in families for teenagers. “krippendorf’s content analysis method” (krippendorff, 2009) and quantitative approach made it possible to visualize qualitative data using numerical values, to fix text content elements (in our case, the frequency of occurrence of different types of families), followed by quantification of the data obtained. the data obtained made it possible to answer the second research question to see the dominant types of families in children's and teenage prose and the influence of the species characteristics of the family on the younger generation. we chose the unit for the spread “analysis of spreadley” (weber, 1990) to answer the third research question. the most common thematic analysis of spreadley in socio-literary studies was bozhkova et al. used. we applied its comparative aspect, which made it possible to make qualitative observations: to interpret and compare families in works for different age groups of readers (7-10 years old and 11-16 years old). results and discussion research question 1. what types of families dominate the works of modern prose for preschoolers and schoolchildren? having ascertained what types of families prevail in works for different age groups, we can see the reasons for both the negative and positive influence of parents on the formation of the personalities of the younger generation. to confirm these comparisons, we analyzed the images of families first in works for children 3-7 years old. families in literary works for preschoolers are harmonious, for they are created to fulfill therapeutic functions (shastina, 2019). figure 1. the percentage of different family types in modern literary works for preschoolers and primary schoolchildren the authors analyzed seven families in literary works for preschoolers and primary schoolchildren, of which three (42%) are zoological families; this is explained by the use of allegory by the authors, and the life of animals is much more interesting and understandable to preschoolers. six families are child-centered (86%); it can be assumed that children’s authors refuse to injure young readers and strive to form a morally healthy person. the fact that many families decide to give birth to only one child is evidenced by both statistics and the facts reflected in a literary work, as only two families (28%) have more than one child. the number of multi-generational families (three; 42%) is decreasing, as grandparents either cannot look after their grandchildren or there are no grandparents. the number of single-parent families is growing; there are three of them in the study (42%). the number of crisis-ridden families is disappointingly increasing as well (28%) (see figure 1). the transition from a child-centered to personality-centered family and from a complete to incomplete, crisis-ridden family is most intensively manifested in literary works for adolescents. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 229 having studied works for preschoolers, the works for adolescents were analyzed. the family loses its paramount importance as a social unit, the basis of spiritual, moral principles; this fact is obvious in modern prose for teens. the authors of the article analyzed seven families in the works of teenage prose and drew attention to the large percentage of problematic and crisis-ridden families. the number of singleparent families did not decrease (three; 42%), asocial families appear (two; 28%), and families with one or two children (five; 71%) are still more numerous than multi-child families (two; 28%) (see figure 2). figure 2. the percentage of different family types in modern teenage prose the meaning of this conclusion is that in families with teenagers, the number of personalitycentered, crisis families that are indifferent to the problems of children is growing. the contrast between families in preschool and adolescent prose is obvious and is also related to the fact that in preschool prose, families are young and unburdened by interpersonal and social problems, and in adolescent prose, families have experience and are tired of problems, so they either abuse alcohol, are overworked, or frustrate children. in works for teenagers, parents focus only on their interests, and depressed, lonely teenagers grow up unable to adapt to the conditions of complex reality. we will talk about the qualities that form these or other types of families in children in the conclusion. research question 2. how do family behaviors affect the formation of a child’s personality? we managed not only to see the types of families but to observe how family behavior affects the formation of the child’s personality: in families where parents are attentive to the problems of their children (child-centered), full-fledged life-resistant personalities are formed. bozhkova et al. table 2 personal qualities formed in child-centric families № author title family-formed qualities hero 1. i. zartayskaya “nobody loves me” love for loved ones wolf cub 2. a. dewdney “llama llama: time to share” the ability to be friends, sympathy for people llama llama 3. l. papp “madeline finn and the library dog” ability to achieve goals, resilience madeline finn 4. c. leblanc “here she is!” mindfulness, sacrifice little bear 5. n. abgaryan “manyunya” friendship, philanthropy, devotion, hard work manyunya, nara 6. r. lagercrantz “my happy life” friendship, philanthropy, devotion, hard work dani 7. d. pennac “dog” sacrifice, love for animals, determination dog such families are mainly in works for preschoolers, since the authors idealize reality, fearing to hurt young readers; but, according to children's writers, it is necessary to strive for a similar model of relationships based on mutual understanding, since problem and crisis families in teenage prose bring personality to the formation of the following qualities: table 3 personal qualities formed in crisis and problematic (personality-centered) families № author title family-formed qualities hero 1. i. procházková “elias and the granny from the egg” loneliness, indecision elias 2. m. aromshtam “when the angels rest” loneliness, indecision alina 3. t. de fombelle “girl from tower 330” irritability, suicidal tendency, need for love teenager 4. d. sabitova “your three names” secretiveness, bashfulness, loneliness, distrust margot 5. s. vostokov “frosya korovina” early adulthood, irritability frosya 6. l. bojunga “the yellow bag” loneliness, the need to change gender roles raquel 7. b. t. hanika “little red riding hood must cry” depression, unwillingness to live malvina research question 3. are there more similarities or differences in the descriptions of the types of families in the works for preschoolers and schoolchildren? after becoming acquainted with fiction, we juxtaposed works for preschool children and adolescents in order to comprehend the spectrum of interpersonal relationships and problems. in works for preschoolers, child-centric families dominate (six out of seven); in texts for adolescents, crisis and problem families are widespread (we combined two close species in the classification of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 231 zhukova et al. (2014)). this data difference is due to the fact that the reader looks at the family in works for preschool children through the eyes of a small child, and in youthful prose, through the eyes of a hero experiencing the difficulties of puberty. table 4 comparison of the types of families in works for preschoolers and schoolchildren child-centric families in the literature for preschoolers (young families) № author title relationship basis 1. i. zartayskaya “nobody loves me” endless love 2. c. leblanc “here she is!” trust, love 3. a. dewdney “llama llama: time to share” tolerance, love 4. l. papp “madeline finn and the library dog” tolerance, love 5. r. lagercrantz “my happy life” tolerance, love, understanding 6. n. abgaryan “manyunya” tolerance, love, understanding crisis, problem families in works for preschoolers (young families) 1. i. procházková “elias and the granny from the egg” selfishness, careerism crisis, problem families in works for teenagers (older marriages) 1. m. aromshtam “when the angels rest” selfishness, careerism 2. t. de fombelle “girl from tower 330” selfishness, careerism 3. d. sabitova “your three names” selfishness, careerism 4. s. vostokov “frosya korovina” selfishness, careerism, indifference 5. l. bojunga “the yellow bag” selfishness, careerism, indifference 6. b. t. hanika “little red riding hood must cry” irritability, selfishness, detachment child-centric families in works for teens (older marriages) 1 d. pennac “dog” love, patience the meaning of this conclusion is to make sure that families in works for teenagers and preschoolers are different. this allows us to conclude that young families are stronger, therefore they are child-centric in works for kids; additionally, it is easier to love young children because they are obedient, not having their own ideas about life, and adolescents are already vulnerable, trying to understand themselves and society, and are forced to observe the crisis relations of parents. zhukova et al. (2014) suggest that the crisis of married life is imposed at the beginning of the puberty of children, and it is especially difficult for adolescents: they lack love, understanding, and sometimes they consider themselves to blame for adult quarrels and separations. the authors argue that parents need to give up their own comforts—careers, alcohol, the desire for a personal life, a selfish race for material values—in order to educate a healthy moral person. if adults can overcome personal temptations, the crisis of married life can also be avoided. families in children's prose are examples, and in teenagers' prose are an anti-example. bozhkova et al. a discussion of the influence of families on the personality of the child, as well as a diverse palette of types of families, is present in the texts we have outlined, so we pay special attention to this discussion so that the results of our interpretations are understandable. first we turn to the texts of works for preschoolers. all the books are united by problems any parent can face. for example, in “here she is!” french author catherine leblanc considers the crisis of older children after the birth of younger ones; the author suggests that young parents trust the older children to care for the new baby, and thus, the children become friends and parents have more free time. every second modern family has 2 to 3 children, so the problem raised by leblanc in the book is very relevant. the first children are often spoiled by young parents and grandparents, so it is difficult for them to cope or put up with a new family drama. the book is recommended for family reading, as it describes situations in which both a child and an adult can recognize themselves. leblanc is a child psychologist who subtly conveys children’s experiences and emotions in her books. the family in the book is zoological, complete, nuclear, child-centered, a family with two children, and neolocal. american writer anna dewdney addresses the common problem of childish greed in “llama llama: time to share.” in a family of llamas, a little boy does not want to share his toys with anyone, but when a family of cows comes to visit him, he goes through three stages: at first, he does not share, then he gives away the toys he does not play with, and soon he easily comes to an understanding with the little guests. this family is zoological, complete, child-centered, neolocal, with one child. this story is very useful to be read by parents of children ages 2 to 7. it prepares for growing up, the ability to overcome difficulties, and trusting relationships in the family. russian author irina zartayskaya’s story “nobody loves me” centers a family of wolves, answers the eternal children’s protest “nobody loves me,” and opposes parental punishments. in families with a small child, this phrase can often be heard, and parents often get tired of it; therefore, the author explains that children are never unloved in the family. children do not understand that parents’ prohibitions and punishments come from a place of love. zartayskaya describes a zoological, complete, child-centered family, with one child and multi-generational (traditional). it is worth noting that families with grandparents or great-grandparents are better in educational terms, since in such families they always have time for the child, who feels more protected and needed but is not always independent and responsible. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 233 the role of the family in addressing the issue of children’s reading is considered by american writer lisa papp in “madeline finn and the library dog.” the author addresses canistherapy, a type of animal therapy in which specially trained dogs undergo treatment and rehabilitation with patients. in the book, the “library” dog helps little madeline overcome her fear of failure and achieve the desired learning outcome. patient dogs are best suited for the role of listeners for small patients. it is important to note that the girl’s family is neolocal, incomplete, and child-centered. despite the fact that there is no grandmother, grandfather, or father, the mother does not despair, and her love and attentiveness help to reveal madeline’s depression and constraint, which prevented her from learning to read. a loving mother will remove the psychological barrier by means such as animal therapy; this method not only helped the girl, but made her more confident and made it possible to find a real friend. the family from “my happy life” by swedish author rose lagercrantz seems the opposite. it is worth noting that this literary work is addressed to younger students, and the range of problems is much wider. dani, who lost her mother in early childhood, is experiencing a family crisis calmly thanks to the efforts of her single father. dani’s dad tries to be both parents and supports dani in everything. dani calls this period “happy.” this is probably because she notices the efforts of her father, feels loved, and meets her best friend. dani’s family is incomplete, neolocal, child-centered, and crisis-ridden, as the girl grows up without a mother and none of her relatives are available to help. armenian writer narine abgaryan, in the humorous trilogy “manyunya,” presents the abgaryan and shatz families. the autobiographical novel is filled with vivid memories of the writer’s childhood and the people who played important roles in forming the personality of little narine. the main characters are the girls, nara and her friend manyunya, and a terrific grandmother, gran. manyunya’s grandmother is the very strict yet friendly head of the shatz family, consisting of manyunya, grandmother, and father. the abgaryan family consists of nara’s mother, father, and her three sisters. the family compositions are different, but the author says that their families were united, and they were brought together by love. for nara, gran became her own grandmother, and nara’s mother replaced manyunya’s mother. thus, readers can see a complex phenomenon: two families as one complete, multi-child, child-centered, neolocal, multigenerational family. after all, the main goal of upbringing is the formation of a competitive personality capable of overcoming difficulties and knowing the needs of the modern world. in bozhkova et al. soviet russia, such friendly family unification was common and brought good educational results; in narine’s memoirs, childhood was the happiest time, and the girls achieved a lot in life. the story “elias and the granny from the egg” by czech author iva procházková touches upon an equally important and widespread problem in families with children. seven-year-old elias dreams of his busy parents finding time to play with him. the boy considers the absence of grandparents to be a misfortune because “... they always have time for you” (procházková, 2013). the tale is also interesting because elias’s dream comes true, and a grandmother with wings, mentally similar to a child, hatches from an egg. elias has to take care of his grandmother, as she is still learning and growing. changing roles, elias becomes a little father, but when his grandmother grows up, she becomes elias’s friend. one cannot help but notice the absent grandparents, whose love the child found in a fictional world. this is a crisis-ridden, complete family, which becomes multi-generational in the finale. we can see how families and attitudes change in works for teens. russian writer marina aromshtam, in the story “when the angels rest,” describes a typical situation of suppressing the talents of a child at school. the main character, alina, is in a class headed by a strict teacher with traditional attitudes. alina’s family consists of a mother, grandfather, and grandmother, and although she does not know her father, she really wants him to return. alina’s mother does not care about her daughter’s problems at school; only the grandparents are concerned about this. the grandfather does not like the lifestyle of the girl’s mother, so alina becomes a constant witness to their quarrels. aromshtam also shows alina’s attitude to her mother’s lover. the girl becomes jealous of a potential family member, and she feels rejection and even hatred. she often asks about her father and when he will return to the family; it is obvious that the teenager lacks fatherly love. the girl’s family is incomplete, complex, crisis-ridden, with one child. an incomplete, problematic family is also depicted in the story “girl from tower 330” by french author timothée de fombelle. the mother of a teenager is sure that the ideal upbringing is to dress and feed the child. the narrator admits that his mother is never at home: “she worked tremendously a lot and constantly went on business trips. i saw her once a month. she wanted me to have everything i need. the delivery man rang at the door at ten in the evening. i received a large amount of everything: eight boxes every monday. i managed to eat three eggs, a few jars of paste and some broccoli in a week” (de fombelle, 2017). even in a difficult time, the main character cannot get through to his mother. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 235 russian author dina sabitova’s striking story “your three names” is about the difficult fate of a girl who lost her parents in a fire. at the beginning of the book, sabitova tells margarita’s story before the tragedy. this is a vivid example of a problematic family: “mom and dad are arguing all the time. sometimes they fight. rita and gelya then hide in the entrance hall or on the stove. they sit quietly, because tatka [her father] can hit them – when angry, it’s all the same to him: mom, rita or the cat can run into him in the heat of the moment” (sabitova, 2018). the girl and her mother, father, and sister gelya live in a village. the girls’ parents invite guests very often and drink alcohol. the father often beats his daughters, but rita does not cease to love him and justifies him in the story. thus, the girl took responsibility for household chores. the girls’ parents, although irresponsible and unbearable, do not cease to be parents and take care of them. the children grow up, afraid of their mother but respecting and loving her. the need to love and idealize parents is an indisputable fact. rita is unable to live in well-to-do families after the loss of her parents. her family is complete, problematic, crisis-ridden, neolocal, asocial, rural, with two children. independent children grow up in such families if they do not live to their parents’ example. rita is different from her parents, reading all the books written by their neighbor and decorating her room with her own art. it can be assumed that the parents will not be an example but an anti-example for the young character. another rural family is shown in the humorous novel “frosya korovina” by russian author stanislav vostokov. the main character frosya comes from a family of wealthy peasants and lives in a modern-day village. frosya is an interesting person, identifying herself as a village woman, talking to everyone as an adult, and helping her grandmother in everything. the character appears to the reader as a very serious, courageous, and independent girl who looks like a teenager. frosya’s parents are geologists who are rarely at home. her grandmother pities her and reports that her parents love geology more than their own daughter. but frosya has long accepted this situation and behaves like an adult. this family is complete, distant, neolocal, rural, crisis-ridden, twocareer, one-child, multi-generational. one can see the motives of loneliness and orphanhood with living parents. frosya lives as the mistress of the house with a pet chicken as her only friend, and her elderly grandmother strives to teach frosya to survive. french writer daniel pennac, in the story “dog,” has an original approach to depicting the family, telling the tale from the point of view of a homeless dog. the author raises exciting questions about responsibility for those whom we domesticated. the family with whom dog lives bozhkova et al. is ordinary, urban, and modern. a girl had long dreamed of caring for a dog, but her parents do not want to be responsible for the pet; the measure of their parenting is selfish, equating “well-fed” and “clothed” with “happy.” many parents demonstrate to their children that one can treat any living being poorly if they get bored. but still, the dog’s loyalty and friendship change all the characters. the family described by the author is complete, nuclear, urban, child-centered, and one-child. one-child families often raise selfish children, consumers of life; statistics confirm that in one-child families, children who dream of friends often get pets instead and, unfortunately, cannot become good guardians for pets. a different family is depicted by brazilian writer lygia bojunga in the novel “the yellow bag.” raquel admits that it is difficult to be a child; she wants to grow up soon and be a boy, because she is an unwanted child in the family, born out of place and by mistake. deprived of attention and care, raquel lives in her dreams. she endows an ordinary yellow bag with magical properties and stores her secret diaries in it for safekeeping. an object expressive element—a yellow bag—is an imitation of happy reality, warmth, and friendly communication. she is convinced that if she had been born a boy, an heir, everyone would cherish and love her, so she writes in her diary using a boy’s name and dreams of becoming a boy; she is persecuted by her sisters, who steal her yellow bag. the family is complete, multi-child, problematic, and nuclear. in multi-child families, parents very often assume no responsibility for raising children by transferring it to older children, but the fragile psyche of adolescents cannot perceive such injustice. the family in “little red riding hood must cry” by german author beate teresa hanika is also problematic, crisis-ridden, multi-children, and asocial. the story calls for frankness and attempts to interpret a well-known folk tale based on family problems. in malvina’s family, the parents refuse to address the children’s problems; only a comfortable existence is important for them. the senior family members escape their duties to the children in predictable ways—the mother has migraines, the father is at work all day—and only their hatred for the grandfather brings them together. at the behest of her parents, malvina becomes a victim of her grandfather’s violence; she must visit him daily and bring him cheese and wine, and her complaints are dismissed. unfortunately, this incident is not unique either in life or in the literary work. we analyzed the types of families in previously unexplored works of children's and youth prose, and received the following meanings: the dominant type of family is personality-centered journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 237 (its varieties are crisis, problematic), the model of behavior that forms a huge number of ailments in the younger generation. unlike many researchers, the authors of all works are sure that it is necessary to strive for the formation of a healthy personality, and not a competitive and multitasking one. this can be achieved through a dialogue between parents and children, a return to the methods of upbringing of the past, while adopting some convenient forms of upbringing proposed by modern reality. conclusion the current study examines the impact of the specific characteristics of families on the formation of the child’s personality. the authors made their conclusions by analyzing 14 families in modern children's literature. the authors were able to prove that the opinion of modern authors involved in the discussion should not be neglected. the three research questions were answered according to the classifications of zhukova et al. (2014): 1. in works for preschool children, child-centric families dominate; this contributes to the full formation of children 5-7 years old. puberty problems are aggravated in troubled families, and older children feel lonely, defenseless, and commit irreparable acts. if in children’s prose, wealthy families are faced with temporary minor difficulties, such as the birth of the second child, egoism of spoiled children, or unwillingness of children to learn, attention is concentrated not on the interpersonal relationships of adults but on the problems of life perception in children. the situation changes dramatically in prose for teens: the analyzed texts include instances of loneliness, divorce, scandal, drunkenness, careerism, and incest. 2. the authors have shown that families in works for preschool children form such qualities in children as love for family members, compassion, philanthropy, and hard work; families in works for teenagers develop irritability, loneliness, and suicidality. the reasons are that for young families, the center is the child, and in adult families, the parents are paramount. 3. based on this, in families in literary works for adolescents and children, there are more differences. young families in prose for children manage to keep calm, have fresh feelings for each other, and the main goal of life remains raising toddlers. in adolescent literature about adult families, parents are experiencing a crisis of life and material difficulties, so there is less time for raising children, and adolescents require a special attitude. according to the authors, parents need to be aware of this and strive for dialogue with their children rather than authoritarian behavior. bozhkova et al. limitations and directions for future research this study has limitations because its subject is the family in modern prose for children. future research should therefore look at family influence on the personality of the younger generation in broader terms and consider the influence of families on the growing personality in the literature of previous eras, as well as in prose for adults. compare data from past eras with modern variables, see the causes of regression or progress in relations between children and adults. based on these limitations, the use of quantitative methods is recommended for future research to study a number of variables that may be interconnected. references abgaryan, n. (2007). manyunya. moscow: ast. akim, k., kara-murza, g., saenko, n., suharyanto, a., & kalimullin, d. (2019). superhero movie: breaking the challenges of topics in modern times [película de superhéroes: rompiendo los desafíos de los temas en los tiempos modernos]. opcion, 35 (special issue 22), 1408-1428. aromshtam, m. s. (2010). when the angels rest. moscow: compassgid. bojunga, l. (2014). the yellow bag [a bolsa amarela]. rio de janeiro: agir. budzey, s. v. (2019). spiritual and moral education of children in the general secondary education system. lifelong education: continuing education for sustainable development, 2, 9-15. retrieved from https://www.cyberleninka.ru/article/n/spiritual-and-moral-education-ofchildren-in-the-general-secondary-education-system/viewer.asp cáceres-reche, m.-p., hinojo-lucena, f.-j., ramos navas-parejo, m., & romero-rodríguez, j.m. (2019). the phenomenon of cyberbullying in the children and adolescent’s population: a scientometric analysis. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 115-128. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.8 camarero-figuerola, m., dueñas, j.-m., & renta-davids, a.-i. (2020). the relationship between family involvement and academic variables. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 57-71. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.4 curran, t., hill, a. p., madigan, d. j., & stornæs, a. v. (2020). a test of social learning and parent socialization perspectives on the development of perfectionism. personality and individual differences, 160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109925 de fombelle, t. (2009). celeste, my planet [céleste, ma planète]. paris: gallimard jeunesse. https://www.cyberleninka.ru/article/n/spiritual-and-moral-education-of-children-in-the-general-secondary-education-system/viewer https://www.cyberleninka.ru/article/n/spiritual-and-moral-education-of-children-in-the-general-secondary-education-system/viewer https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.8 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.4 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109925 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 239 dewdney, a. (2012). llama llama: time to share. new york: viking books for young readers. farver, j. m., xu. y., bhadha, b. r., narang, s., & lieber, e. (2007). ethnic identity, acculturation, parenting, and adaptation of adolescents: a comparison of asian indian and european american families. merrill-palmer quarterly, 53(2), 184-215. doi: 10.1353/mpq.2007.0010 fitzpatrick, m. a. (1998). between husbands and wives: communication on marriage. newbury park, ca: sage. hanika, b. t. (2009). little red riding hood must cry [rotkäppchen muss weinen]. frankfurt am main: fischer. gracheva, a. m. (1982). family chronicles of the early twentieth century. russian literature, 1, 64-65. johnson, c. s., & hinton, h. (2019). toward a brilliant diversity. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 56-70. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.5 karakus, m. (2018). the moderating effect of gender on the relationships between age, ethical leadership, and organizational commitment. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 74-84. khakimova, g. a. (1998). family in russian literature (first half of the twentieth century). vol. 4: chatting about books. moscow: grew. kislitsyna, t. g. (2006). ethics and psychology of family life: an anthology for the teacher in 2 hours, part 2: family in russian literature, 2-3. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). usability testing of mooc: identifying user interface problems. paper presented at the iceis 2019 proceedings of the 21st international conference on enterprise information systems, 2, 468-475. korchagina, yu. v. (2017). dysfunctional families: risk factors and working methods. toolkit for the prevention and overcoming of abuse, deviant behavior and alcohol addiction in the family. moscow: mgpi. krippendorff, k., & bock, m. a. (2009). the content analysis reader. thousand oaks, ca: sage. lafer, s., & tarman, b. (2019). editorial 2019: (2)1, special issue. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), i-v. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.ed lagercrantz, r. (2012). my happy life [mitt lyckliga liv]. wellington, new zealand: gecko press. leblanc, c. (2015). here she is! penguin random house. https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1353%2fmpq.2007.0010 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.5 bozhkova et al. ministry of education, guyana. (2018). the family influence on children's morals. retrieved from https://www.education.gov.gy/web/index.php/parenting-tips/item/1702-the-familyinfluence-on-children-s-moralsasp olalowo, i. e. (2020). accounts and thoughts of overage children: a qualitative study on the physical and emotional environment of preschools in ibadan, nigeria. american journal of qualitative research, 4(3), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8390 orlova, a. v. (2017). influence of family education style on a development of personality of school-aged child. international research journal, 8(62), 111-114. https://doi.org/10.23670/irj.2017.62.024 papp, l. (2017). madeline finn and the library dog. atlanta, ga: peachtree publishing company. pennac, d. (2004). dog [cabot-caboche]. somerville, ma: candlewick press. procházková, i. (2013). elias and the granny from the egg [eliáš a babička z vajíčka]. prague: mladáfronta. sabitova, d. (2018). your three names [tri tvoikh imeni]. moscow: pink giraffe. saenko, n., voronkova, o., volk, m., & voroshilova, o. (2019). the social responsibility of a scientist: philosophical aspect of contemporary discussions. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 332-345. shastina, е. m., shatunova, o. v., bozhkova, g. n., bykov, a. v., & trofimova, l. m. (2019). family reading in children literacy skills formation. elementary education online, 18(1), 296-306. https://doi:10.17051/ilkonline.2019527224 umaña-taylor, a. j., bhanot, r., & shin, n. (2006). ethnic identity formation during adolescence. family issues journal, 27(3), 390-414. https://doi:10.1177/0192513x05282960 vostokov, s. (2014). frosya korovina. moscow: clover-media group. vural, h. (2019). the relationship of personality traits with english speaking anxiety. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 55-74. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.5 weber, r. p. (1990). basic content analysis (2nd ed). newbury park, ca: sage publications. yañez, a. m., bennasar-veny, m., leiva, a., & garcía-toro, m. (2020). implications of personality and parental education on healthy lifestyles among adolescents. scientific reports, 10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-64850-3 zartayskaya, i. (2018). nobody loves me [nikto menya ne liubit]. moscow: polyandria. https://www.education.gov.gy/web/index.php/parenting-tips/item/1702-the-family-influence-on-children-s-morals https://www.education.gov.gy/web/index.php/parenting-tips/item/1702-the-family-influence-on-children-s-morals https://doi.org/10.23670/irj.2017.62.024 https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2019.527224 https://doi:10.1177/0192513x05282960 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.5 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 220-241 241 zhukova, m. v., zaporozhets, v. n., & shishkina, k. i. (2014). psychology of the family and family education: lecture notes. chelyabinsk: south ural state pedagogical university. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(2), 31-90 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 opinions of social studies teachers regarding the 4+4+4 educational system sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine i̇lişkin görüşleri filiz zayimoğlu öztürk1 abstract when the changes in the educational system of this country during the recent years are considered, it is observed that the most fundamental change has been the transition to the non-continuous compulsory education system under the title 4+4+4. success of the changes made in the educational systems is closely related to various matters, such as correct understanding and application of the mentioned change by teachers, informing of them about the made change and their participation in decision making processes about the change. in this context, the purpose of this research is to determine the opinions of social studies teachers serving in state schools connected to the ministry of national education regarding 4+4+4 education system. based on this purpose, opinions of social studies teachers about materialization of 4+4+4 education system, and problems encountered during implementation by these teachers and their solution proposals regarding the problems were attempted to be determined by a study group made of 198 social studies teachers. in the research, a likert type measuring tool was used made of 21 articles that were prepared by the researcher as a data collection tool and whose validity and reliability study was made. furthermore, in order to determine the problems of social studies teachers in the implementation of 4+4+4 and their solution proposals, content analysis was made on data gathered by semi structured, open ended questions prepared by the researcher. it was observed that social study teachers featured problems including the intensity of educational programs, infrastructure deficiency, and politicizing of teacher staffing and education. keywords: 4+4+4 education system, social studies teachers introduction innovation, meaning the renovation of science and technology as to provide economic and social benefit, draws attention as one of the most contemporary concepts of the recent years. in order to mention innovations in a country, it is required that innovation covers the entire science and technology components in a country and this innovation is adapted and supported by each 1 asst. prof. dr., ordu university, filizzayimogluozturk@odu.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 32 section of the society (yamaç, 2001). on the other hand, formation of brain power required by innovation in national sense becomes possible by a sufficient and liberal education system based on creativity and self-reliance. development of a contemporary innovation understanding is possible only by education. innovation in education means renewal of an education for the social benefit and an educational reform as to contribute to our national innovation courses. countries which aim to keep up with the times make innovations in their educational systems that could be called reform and include individuals in educational system for a longer time (sezgin, 2001). quality education given longer time improves information level of societies and reflects to prosperity and bliss level of countries as a positive value. renewal of this education mandates change movements in education in company with it as well. change movements experienced in education became important upon the understanding of the growth of economies of countries based on information and in order to expedite their economic developments, countries started to invest more in their educational systems. one of the aims of investing in educational systems is to create a new society by making a change in the artifact of the society. social and economic progress in the society realized by means of innovation and information mandates changes in the opinion and behavior of the personnel employed in educational institutions (taymaz, 2003). teachers, who are the most effective component to realize the change movement in the society (eurydice, 2008), are regarded as the element with the most effect and power in the education quality as well because the teachers adapt to the change based on the qualities that they have and apply the changes in their lives, reflect on the society and make the required arrangements in the educational institutions. in other words, determination of the targets in education, enrichment of class contents, arrangement of the contents according to the student level, utilization of tools and equipment to reach the targets, and materialization of changes such as supporting of education by technology depends on the qualifications of teachers. as indicated by barber and mourshed (2007), “qualification of an educational system is as much as the qualification of teachers”. a change was experienced in the educational system of this country in 2012 which influenced considerably the teachers, the main actors of education. national education commission stated that age groups and individual differences of students are not considered in an eight-year uninterrupted education, and that a new structuring is needed in the education system because of reasons such as the young population is not equipped with information and skills that are filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 33 required by the information society. the two main purposes of this construction are; to improve educational level of the society and to arrange the education system based on the interest, necessity and skills of the individuals (mne, 2012). the law about making changes on some laws by the primary education law, numbered 6287 increasing the mandatory education to 12 years in stages and named by the public as 4+4+4, took effect on april 11, 2012 by publishing in the official gazette with the number 28261 (gür, özoğlu, coşkun and görmez, 2012). eight-year compulsory education, 4+4+4 education system and 12-year graded compulsory education; have been separated from each other as 4-year elementary school, 4-year middle school and 4-year secondary school and rearranged (güven, 2012). in the scope of the 4+4+4 implementation materialized by the decrees reached in 2012 by the ministry of national education, period of the compulsory education (12 years), names and periods of the school levels (elementary school is 4 years, middle school is 4 years and high school is 4 years) and transitions between the levels have been arranged, new elective classes have been formed, school start and school graduation ages of the students have been changed, and various legal arrangements have been made to affect personal rights of the teachers. new educational system has been discussed by the public with its various dimensions and become the topic of scientific studies. whereas there are those who evaluate the 12-year interrupted compulsory system as favorable, correct and beneficial (memişoğlu and i̇smetoğlu, 2013) in terms of supporting developmental characteristics of children (öztürk, 2012), clear the way of vocational education, providing equal opportunities in education (akpınar, dönder, yıldırım, karahan, 2012), physical separation of schools (örs, erdoğan, kipici, 2013), there are those who evaluate the application as limiting with only religious vocational high schools (memişoğlu and i̇smetoğlu, 2013), as an imposition tool (özdem, 2008) and entry of capital to education (kurul, 2008). in addition to these evaluations, universities, civil society organizations, educational unions (eğitim-bir-sen, 2012), associations related with education (erg, 2014) and various organizations-institutions have stated their opinions about the 4+4+4 education system. among the criticisms on the application; the 4+4+4 educational system prevents access to the education right; failure to transmit mandatorily of pre-school education to all age population will form inequality to the detriment of children coming from sub socio economic level in terms of preparation to schooling processes; early elementary school age will harm the system and children unless the preschool education becomes compulsory; 4-year education concept which is the first step of the proposed 4+4+4 system is not based on a scientific ground; after the elementary school second stage, the proposal of the students can be journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 34 educated by opportunities such as distance education and home schooling will put the girls and boys coming from sub socio-economic level out of the schooling process; early professional guidance will be unfavorable; educational quality in secondary school should be improved; proposed new system is not appropriate to the existing teacher training conditions; including the non-formal education within the formal secondary education scope is not appropriate to the approach of basic education and compulsory education; financial resources allocated for education will not be sufficient for these changes (peker ünal, 2015). teachers play a significant role in providing student development (whitsett and riley, 2003). teachers in the continuity of education system are important as individuals who analyze the concepts, matters and skills making up the educational program so that the students can understand them (olson, 1999); evaluate the school as a whole with its surrounding (friel and brigt, 2001); assist in the application of the change in educational institutions with collaboration (swanson, 2000); and who are skillful in the application of educational strategies to improve academic success of students (diranna and loucks, 2001); and who are aware of the needs for active learning principles and methods (hofstein and even, 2001). therefore, receiving the opinions of teachers who are the basic operator of this application which brings radical changes to the education system and has a reform characteristic, about the 4+4+4 education system, is crucial for the sustainability and correct implementation of the system (relaying: demir, doğan and pınar, 2013). it is considered that receiving the opinions of social studies teachers as main factors in the teaching of a pivot class like social studies is crucial. the present study has been constructed for revealing the opinions of social studies teachers about the 12-year interrupted compulsory education. social studies branch teachers who were teaching the 6th, 7th and 8th graders in the former application in the scope of the eight-year compulsory education started to teach the 5th graders as well in the new system. it is known that this application faced the social study teachers with problems such as different age group, different curriculum, etc. (demir, doğan and pınar, 2013). moreover, karadeniz, (2012); memişoğlu and i̇smetoğlu (2013); doğan, uğurlu and demir (2014); cerit, akgün, yıldız and soysal (2014) attempted to determine the opinions of the teachers and administrators about the 4+4+4 education system in their studies. demir, doğan and pınar (2013), on the other hand, constructed their research based on the problems of the branch teachers about the 4+4+4 education system application. generally, qualitative research methods were included in the said studies. in this context, the purpose of the research was to reveal the opinions of social study filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 35 teachers about the 4+4+4 education system by applying quantitative research methods and to determine their own solution proposals about the problems they experience. problem clause the problem clause of the research was determined as “what are the opinions of social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 education system and what are the problems faced by social studies teachers during the 4+4+4 application and their solution proposals?” sub-problems answers were sought for the following questions on the framework of the problem clause of the research: 1. what were the opinions of social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 education system? 2. did the opinions of social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 education system differ significantly in terms of the variables of; a. gender, b. department of graduation, c. professional seniority, d. teaching 5th grade social studies class, e. making branch changes by the 4+4+4 system. 3. what are the problems faced by “social studies teachers in the application of the 4+4+4 application and their solution suggestions?” method research model the research model was determined as a “mixed method”. the mixed method is based on answering research questions by using the qualitative and quantitative methods together (creswell, 2003). in the first stage of the research, quantitative data were collected by a measurement tool prepared by the researcher for determining the opinions of the social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 education system, in other words, the quantitative method was used. furthermore, the qualitative research method was used for determining the problems encountered in the application of the 4+4+4 and for determining the solution proposals of the participants. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 36 population/ samples social studies teachers employed at elementary school connected to the ministry of national education formed the population of the research. however, it was not possible and economic to reach the population of the research and therefore a sample was generated containing 258 social studies teachers serving in state elementary schools connected to the ministry of national education in ordu province (including all counties). easy access status sampling method was preferred for determining social studies teachers. 258 social studies teachers participated in the study however data was able to be gathered by means of the measurement tool from only 198 social studies teachers. demographic data of 198 social studies teachers included in the sampling and providing valid data are shown in table 1. table 1: demographic characteristics of social studies teachers who participated in the research frequency (f) percentage (%) gender men women 136 62 68,7 31,3 department of graduation social studies teaching history teaching geography teaching history department geography department other 105 36 14 18 7 18 53,0 18,2 7,1 9,1 3,5 9,1 professional seniority 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 15+ years 59 44 46 49 29,8 22,2 23,2 24,7 teaching 5th grade social studies class yes no 173 25 87,4 12,6 branch change status with the 4+4+4 system yes no 23 175 11,7 88,3 total 198 100 as it can be figured from table 1, the majority of social studies teachers who participated in the study were men. male teachers made up 68.7% of study participants. when the distribution of the teachers who participated in the study according to their department of graduation, it is observed that the majority of the teachers who work in ordu province (53%) are social studies teaching graduates. when seniority of social studies teachers is studied, on the other hand, it is clear that mostly 1-5 year-teachers served (29.8%). it is observed that 87.4% of the teachers who participated in the research taught social studies class for the 5th graders and when branch change status is studied, it is clear that 88.3% of the participants did not make branch change. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 37 information on the study group the data making up the qualitative part of the research were gathered by the two open end questions included in the annex of the interview forms. in table 2, personal information about 50 people participated in the quantitative part of the research are shown. table 2: personal information of the participants for whom the interview form was applied personal information frequency (f) percentage (%) gender women 20 40 men 30 60 department of graduation social studies teaching 34 68 history teaching 6 12 geography teaching 6 12 history department 2 4 geography department 1 2 other 1 2 professional seniority 1-5 year 15 30 6-10 year 10 20 11-15 year 12 24 15+ year 13 26 teaching 5th grade social studies class yes 44 88 no 6 12 branch change status with the 4+4+4 system yes 46 92 no 4 8 total 50 100 as it is clear in table 2, the majority of the research participants were male, social studies teaching graduate, with 1-5 year-professional seniority, teaching 5th graders and with no branch change. according to this, it is observed that the distribution of the participants included in both qualitative and quantitative part of the study is similar. the attendants of the study group was selected by maximum diversity sampling method which aims to select study units that represent a wide range of variation in voluntarily attended teachers’ views. the attendants were represented almost equally in each sub-group, so that it will reflect the most convenient perspective of the whole group. development and application of data collection tool the “survey of determining opinions of social studies teachers regarding the 4+4+4 educational system”, developed by the researcher for determining the opinions of the social studies about the 4+4+4 educational system, was used in the study. the purpose of the journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 38 measurement tool was “to gather information about a subject by asking questions, and to collect data, which cannot be reached by the systematic observation, with the question-answer process” (baş, 2011: 11). the following stages were followed for the development of the measurement tool. figure 1:the paths followed in the stage of development of “the scale for determining the opinions of social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 educational system” as it is clear in figure 1, literature was reviewed in the stage of data collection tool preparation for the purpose of achieving content validity of the measurement tool, and similar studies that were conducted were examined and a survey form was developed by means of articles prepared by considering the preparation and implementation stages of the 4+4+4 educational system of the social studies teachers. the data gathered by the literature review during the development of this survey form were developed as a total of 28 articles by benefiting from the opinions of 5 assistant professors and 5 social studies education experts serving in different universities. the developed measurement tool was subjected to a preliminary application by 140 social studies teachers and 7 articles were removed from the survey as a result of the analysis. the teachers who participated in the preliminary application were not included in the main application. the final shape of the measurement tool was given based on the expert opinions. for achieving face validity of the measurement tool, on the other hand, the final state of the survey was examined by the experts. “alpha consistency coefficient” was determined for the structural validity and reliability of the measurement tool. cronbach-alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was determined to be .64 therefore the scale situated between .60-.80 was quite reliable. furthermore, kmo value was determined to be .79 and this value means that a 198-person sampling size was sufficient for the study. it was observed in the factor analysis made about the measurement tool that the literature review expert opinion preliminary application factor analysis confidence estimation main application filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 39 measurement tool had a single factor structure. the interview questions, which were the third section of the measurement tool, were formed based on the expert opinion completely. the total variance accounted for the scale is 48.02%. the measurement tool is made of three sections. in the first section; the articles for gathering information about the gender of the teachers in the sampling group; the department of graduation; professional seniority; teaching social studies to the 5th graders; and making branch changes with the 4+4+4 system. these questions were prepared for obtaining general information about the research participants. in the second section of the survey, there are 21 articles for determining the opinions of the social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 educational system. the participants were asked to read the statements in this section and select and mark the choice included across from the statement that is most appropriate to them. these selections were prepared as 5-point likert type as 5-i strongly agree, 4-i quite agree, 3-i agree somewhat, 4-i agree little, 1-i don’t agree. in the last section of the survey, on the other hand, two open ended questions to enable sharing of the problems if there are any to be mentioned by the social studies teachers and their opinions about the solution suggestions for these problems. the data collection tool, developed by the researcher, was applied based on the permit received from ordu province national education directorate during the 2013-2014 academic year for determining the opinions of 258 social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 educational system. the study was conducted based on 198 valid survey forms included in the study because of reasons such as missing and wrong filling of some of the applied measurement tools and wrong filling and failing to return on time. during the collection of the quantitative data, analyses were made based on 171 opinions collected from a 50-person group, which was selected by the maximum diversity method out of 198 social studies teachers included in the sampling. data analyses the data obtained from the quantitative questions in the measurement tool were transferred to the spss program by the researcher. in the research, frequency (f) and percentage (%) values of the teacher opinions based on the first sub problem were estimated. in the data analysis for the second sub problem, t-test and one-way anova was applied in situations where the sampling shows normal distribution. in the conducted analysis, it was observed that the variables of the “gender” and “grade level the teachers teach” show normal distribution, and parametric tests were used in the testing of these variables. in situations where the sampling did journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 40 not show normal distribution, kruskal wallis test was used applied in the testing of more than two variables. it was observed that the variables “professional seniority” and “education status” did not show normal distribution and kruskal wallis test was used in the analysis of these variables. the significance level of the tests made by the spss program was taken as .05. for the third sub problem, content analysis was made for the study of the quantitative data collected by semi-constructed open ended questions. there are two different methods in the analysis of the data in the quantitative researches. these are stated as content analysis and descriptive analysis. the content analysis was defined by smith (1975) as; “summarizing, standardizing, comparing or turning the existing data into a different form”. whereas descriptive analysis is used in the researches having a very clear foundation in conceptual sense, content analysis is used in unspecified themes in conceptual meaning and it is used in the analysis by forming sub themes, if there is any (yıldırım and şimşek, 2006). the data were analyzed by the content analysis method. based on the answers given to the questions, the analysis process was carried out based on the number of the participants who stated a theme appropriate to the analysis instead of all participants taking part in the research due to different reasons such as failure to find a theme and indicating more than one theme. therefore, the numbers reflecting the opinions of the participants given in the analysis processes may differ. as the frequency (f) is estimated in the analysis process, the number of the participant opinion, not the participant number, is considered and in the estimation of the percentage (%), the rate in the total frequency is considered. findings and commentary in this section, the data collected by the data collection tool from the research participants and the findings obtained as a result of these data and their commentary are included. findings about the first sub problem the first sub problem of the research is the question, “what are the opinions of the social studies teachers regarding the 4+4+4 educational system?” 21 statements were prepared for answering this question. state of 198 teachers who were included in the sampling is shown as a frequency and percentage value in table 3. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 41 table 3: opinions of social studies teachers regarding the 4+4+4 educational system survey article i s tr on gl y a gr ee i q ui te a gr ee i a gr ee so m ew ha t i a gr ee v er y l itt le i d on ’t a gr ee 1 it is a favorable-change that 5th grade social studies class will be taught by social studies branch teacher. 124 62,6% 38 19,2% 19 9,6% 4 2,0% 13 6,6% 2 social studies teachers have difficulty to descend to the level of the 5th grade students. 16 8,1% 23 11,6% 39 19,7% 36 18,2% 84 42,6% 3 in-service training or informing studies were carried out for social studies teachers regarding the 4+4+4 education system. 33 16,7% 34 17,2% 52 26,3% 26 13,1% 53 26,8% 4 opinions of social studies teachers were obtained before making a change in the educational system. 10 5,1% 4 2,0% 21 10,6% 25 12,6% 138 69,7% 5 physical infrastructure of social studies classrooms has been arranged in the transition to the ministry of national education discontinuous educational system. 4 2,0% 13 6,6% 28 14,1% 34 17,2% 119 60,1% 6 fulfilling of the needs and necessities of social studies educational programs has been enabled in conjunction with the transition to the 4+4+4 educational system. 9 4,5% 20 10,1% 47 23,7% 46 23,2% 76 38,4% 7 social studies educational programs have been renewed appropriate to the 4+4+4 transition system. 10 5,0% 33 16,7% 56 28,3% 39 19,7% 60 30,3% 8 the required support mechanisms have been formed for the solution of the problems that social studies teachers may encounter. 3 1,5% 19 9,6% 41 20,7% 52 26,3% 83 41,9% 9 information is included in the materials to introduce the 4+4+4 system intended for the application of social studies program. 13 6,6% 49 24,7% 66 33,3% 42 21,2% 28 14,1% 10 the 4+4+4 educational system is a favorable development in terms of the development of the social studies education. 61 30,8% 50 25,3% 45 22,7% 18 9,1% 24 12,1% 11 missing and failing aspects of social studies class have been determined in the preparatory studies of the 4+4+4 system. 10 5,1% 27 13,6% 43 21,7% 45 22,7% 72 36,4% 12 the transition to the 4+4+4 has caused an increase of the load of social studies branch teachers. 34 17,2% 42 21,2% 31 15,7% 23 11,6% 67 33,8% 13 the revision studies for social studies education program to become compatible with the 4+4+4 transition system were not able to be completed on time. 52 26,2% 45 22,7% 53 26,8% 33 16,7% 15 7,6% 14 no vocational training was provided to social studies teachers to teach 5th grade students. 78 39,4% 40 20,2% 25 12,6% 27 13,6% 28 14,1% 15 the problem of teaching social studies classes in the 4th grade level by the class teachers has not been solved by the 4+4+4 transition system either. 75 37,9% 23 11,6% 33 16,7% 24 12,1% 43 21,7% 16 increase of class load of branch teachers has caused the drop of quality of social studies education. 18 9,1% 9 4,5% 24 12,1% 18 9,1% 129 65,2% journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 42 17 it is required that 5th grade teaching by social studies teachers is provided in the scope of their in-service educational activities. 50 25,2% 47 23,7% 37 18,7% 23 11,6% 41 20,7% 18 it is necessary that 4 th grade social studies class is taught by branch teachers as well. 69 34,8% 27 13,6% 20 10,1% 16 8,1% 66 33,3% 19 non-recognition of the 5 th class program by social studies teachers is a serious problem. 33 16,7% 25 12,6% 40 20,2% 25 12,6% 75 37,9% 20 the 4+4+4 system has improved the importance of social studies teachers. 54 27,3% 38 19,2% 49 24,7% 17 8,6% 40 20,2% 21 the 4+4+4 system has not affected social studies classes. 23 11,6% 11 5,6% 38 19,2% 26 13,1% 100 50,5% as it is observed in table 3, regarding the statement that “it is a favorable-change that 5th grade social studies class will be taught by social studies branch teacher”, 62,6% of the teachers provided opinion as “i strongly agree”, 19,2% said “i quite agree”, 9,6% said “i somewhat agree”, 2,0% said “i agree very little”, and 6,6% said “i don’t agree”. regarding the statement, “social studies teachers have difficulty to descend to the level of the 5th grade students”, 8,1% said “i strongly agree”, 11,6% said “i quite agree”, 19,7% said “i somewhat agree”, 18,2% said “i agree very little,” and 42,6% said “i don’t agree”. regarding the statement, “in-service training or informing studies were carried out for social studies teachers regarding the 4+4+4 education system”, 16,7% of the teachers said “i strongly agree”, 17,2% said “i quite agree”, 26,3% said “i somewhat agree”, 13,1% said “i agree very little,” and 26,8% said “i don’t agree”. regarding the statement, “opinions of social studies teachers were obtained before making a change in the educational system”, 5,1% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 2,0% said “i quite agree”, 10,6% said “i somewhat agree”, 12,6% said “i agree very little”, and 69,7% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “physical infrastructure of social studies classrooms has been arranged in the transition to the ministry of national education discontinuous educational system”, 2,0% of the teachers said “i strongly agree”, 6,6% said “i quite agree”, 14,1% said “i somewhat agree”, 17,2% said “i agree very little”, and 60,1% said “i don’t agree”. regarding the statement, “fulfilling of the needs and necessities of social studies educational programs has been enabled in conjunction with the transition to the 4+4+4 educational system”, 4,5% of the teachers said “i strongly agree”, 10,1% said “i quite agree”, 23,7% said “i somewhat agree”, 23,2% said “i agree very little”, and 38,4% said “i don’t agree”. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 43 regarding the statement, “social studies educational programs have been renewed appropriate to the 4+4+4 transition system”, 5,0% of the teachers said “i strongly agree”, 16,7% said “i quite agree”, 28,3% said “i agree somewhat”, 19,7% said “i agree very little”, and 30,3% said “i don’t agree”. regarding the statement, “the required support mechanisms have been formed for the solution of the problems that social studies teachers may encounter”, 1,5% of the teachers said “i strongly agree”, 9,6% said “i quite agree”, 20,7% said “i agree somewhat”, 26,3% said “i agree very little,” and 41,9% said “i don’t agree”. regarding the statement, “information is included in the materials to introduce the 4+4+4 system intended for the application of social studies program,” 6,6% of the teachers said “i strongly agree”, 24,7% said “i quite agree”, 33,3% said “i somewhat agree”, 21,2% said “i agree very little”, and 14,1% said “i don’t agree”. regarding the statement, “the 4+4+4 educational system is a favorable development in terms of the development of the social studies education”, 30,8% of the teachers said “i strongly agree”, 25,3% said “i quite agree”, 22,7% said “i somewhat agree”, 9,1% said “i agree very little”, and 12,1% said “i don’t agree”. regarding the statement, “missing and failing aspects of social studies class have been determined in the preparatory studies of the 4+4+4 system,” 5,1% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 13,6% said “i quite agree,” 21,7% said “i somewhat agree”, 22,7% said “i agree very little”, and 36,4% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “the transition to the 4+4+4 has caused an increase of the load of social studies branch teachers,” 17,2% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 21,2% said “i quite agree,” 15,7% said “i somewhat agree”, 11,6% said “i agree very little”, and 33,8% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “the revision studies for social studies education program to become compatible with the 4+4+4 transition system were not able to be completed on time,” 26,2% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 22,7% said “i quite agree,” 26,8% said “i somewhat agree”, 16,7% said “i agree very little”, and 7,6% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “no vocational training was provided to social studies teachers to teach 5th grade students”, 39,4% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 20,2% said “i quite journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 44 agree,” 12,6% said “i somewhat agree”, 13,6% said “i agree very little”, and 14,1% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “the problem of teaching social studies classes in the 4th grade level by the class teachers has not been solved by the 4+4+4 transition system either,” 37,9% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 11,6% said “i quite agree,” 16,7% said “i somewhat agree”, 12,1% said “i agree very little”, and 21,7% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “increase of class load of branch teachers has caused the drop of quality of social studies education,” 9,1% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 4,5% said “i quite agree,” 12,1% said “i somewhat agree”, 9,1% said “i agree very little”, and 65,2% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “it is required that 5th grade teaching by social studies teachers is provided in the scope of their in-service educational activities,” 25,2% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 23,7% said “i quite agree,” 18,7% said “i somewhat agree”, 11,6% said “i agree very little”, and 20,7% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “it is necessary that 4th grade social studies class is taught by branch teachers as well,” 34,8% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 13,6% said “i quite agree,” 10,1% said “i somewhat agree”, 8,1% said “i agree very little”, and 33,3% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “non-recognition of the 5th class program by social studies teachers is a serious problem,” 16,7% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 12,6% said “i quite agree,” 20,2% said “i somewhat agree”, 12,6% said “i agree very little”, and 37,9% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “the 4+4+4 system has improved the importance of social studies teachers,” 27,3% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 19,2% said “i quite agree,” 24,7% said “i somewhat agree”, 8,6% said “i agree very little”, and 20,2% said “i don’t agree.” regarding the statement, “the 4+4+4 system has not affected social studies classes,” 11,6% of the teachers said “i strongly agree,” 5,6% said “i quite agree,” 19,2% said “i somewhat agree”, 13,1% said “i agree very little”, and 50,5% said “i don’t agree.” filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 45 findings regarding the second sub problem in this section, the analysis of the participants’ opinions in terms of the variables of gender, department of graduation, professional seniority, teaching 5th grade social studies class and making branch change with the 4+4+4 system has been included. a) an evaluation of the participants’ opinions in terms of “gender” valuable t test results expressing the differentiation status of the answers provided by the teachers participating in the research based on gender are shown in table 4. table 4: t-test results of participant opinions based on “gender” variable gender n 𝐗𝐗� ss sd t p female 62 3.02 .49 229 -1.365 .07 male 136 3.13 .47 p ≤ .05 in table 4, it is observed that the averages of the opinions of the female and male teachers are close to one another. accordingly, there was no significance difference found at .05 level in terms of gender variable about the opinions of the social studies teachers participating in the research on the 4+4+4 system (p= .07). however when the arithmetic averages are examined based on the groups, it is observed that the averages of the male teachers (x ̅=3.13) are higher than the averages of female teachers (x ̅=3.02). b) an evaluation of the participants’ opinions in terms of “the department of graduation” kruskal-wallis test results stating the differentiation state of the answers of the teachers participating in the research according to the department of graduation are shown in table 5. table 5:kruskal-wallis test results based on the variable of “the department of graduation department of graduation n 𝐗𝐗� sd x2 p social studies teaching 105 3,01 3 3.13 .90 history teaching 36 3,08 geography teaching 14 3,09 history department 18 3,04 geography department 7 3,10 other 18 3,13 p ≤ .05 when table 5 is examined, it is observed that there is no significant difference at the level of .05 in terms of the variable of the department of graduation on the opinions of social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 system (p= .90). whereas the department of graduation shows a journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 46 difference, this situation can be interpreted that the opinions of social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 educational system show closeness to each other. on the other hand, when arithmetic averages are compared, it is observed that the lowest value exists in social studies teaching graduates, and the highest value exists in the graduates of other departments. c) an evaluation of the participant opinions in terms of ‘professional seniority” variable kruskal-wallis test results, stating the differentiation state of the answers of the teachers participating in the research according to the professional seniority are shown in table 6. table 6:kruskal-wallis test results of the participant opinions in terms of ‘professional seniority’ professional seniority n 𝐗𝐗� sd x2 p 1-5 years 59 3,11 3,48 3,67 .48 6-10 years 44 3,09 11-15 years 46 3,07 15 + years 49 3,02 p ≤.05 when table 6 is studied, there was no significance difference found at the significance level of .05 in terms of their professional seniority between the opinions of social studies teachers about the 4+4+4 system (p= .48). this situation can be interpreted as the opinions of social studies teachers about the new educational system showing closeness to each other although their professional seniority differs. when arithmetic averages are studied, on the other hand, it is remarkable that the highest average is among the 1-5 year-professional seniority and the lowest average is among the teachers who have 15-year and higher professional seniority. d) an evaluation of the participant opinions in terms of the variable “the status of teaching social studies class to 5th graders” the distribution of the answers of the teachers who participated in the research according to the variable ‘the status of teaching social studies class to 5th graders’ is shown in table 7. table 7: t-test results of the opinions of the participants according to the variable ‘the status of teaching social studies class to 5th graders’ gender n 𝐗𝐗� ss sd t p yes 173 3,06 .49 218 -1,143 .07 no 25 3,09 .47 p ≤ .05 in table 7, it is clear that the answers obtained from the teachers who teach and do not teach the 5th grade are very close to one another. accordingly, the opinions of the teachers about the 4+4+4 educational system in terms of teaching social studies class to the 5th grade do not show a difference at .05 level significantly (p= .07). when arithmetic averages are studied on the filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 47 group basis, it is observed that the averages of the teachers who marked ‘yes’ selection (x�=3,06) is lower in comparison to the averages of the teachers who marked ‘no’ selection (x�=3,09). e) an evaluation of the participant opinions in terms of the variable ‘the status of making branch change with the 4+4+4 system’ the distribution of the teachers who participated in the research according to the variable ‘the status of making branch change with the 4+4+4 system’ is shown in table 8. table 8: t-test results of the opinions of the participants according to the variable ‘the status of making branch change with the 4+4+4 system’ gender n 𝐗𝐗� ss sd t p yes 23 3,05 .43 197 -0,789 .27 no 175 3,10 .49 p ≤ .05 in table 8, it is clear that the answers obtained from the teachers who make and do not make branch change are very close to one another. accordingly, the opinions of the teachers about the 4+4+4 educational system in terms of making branch change do not show a difference at .05 level significantly (p= .27). when arithmetic averages are studied on the group basis, it is observed that the averages of the teachers who marked ‘yes’ selection (x�=3,05) is lower in comparison to the averages of the teachers who marked ‘no’ selection (x�=3,10). findings regarding the third sub problem in order to answer the question, “what are the problems that social studies teachers face in the 4+4+4 application and their solution proposals?”, which is the third sub problem of the research, the answers of the participants to the open ended questions included in the survey were studied with the content analysis. a) participant opinions regarding the faced problems as a result of the content analysis, the answers of the interviewed persons to the question, “what are the main problems that the social studies teachers face with in the application of the 4+4+4 system? specify,” are shown as percentage (%) and frequency (f) in table 9. table 9: the main problems that the social study teachers face with in the application of the 4+4+4 system themes f % 5th grade student level problem 59 34,6 insufficient class period 51 29,8 text book and teaching program based problems 30 17,6 school and setting insufficiency/material insufficiency or defect 17 10 lack of in-service education, incompetent teachers 7 4 no problem 7 4 total 171 100 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 48 as it is clear in table 9, the problems encountered by the participants according to the participant opinions have been listed as; “5th class student level problem”, “insufficient class period”, “text book and teaching program based problems”, “school and setting insufficiency/material insufficiency or defect”, ”lack of in-service education, incompetent teachers” and “no problem”. “5th grade student level problem” stands out as the problem that is mostly encountered with 34,6% ratio. some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is the “5th grade student level problem” are as follows: ‘with the 4+4+4 transition system, abstract thinking skill has not developed especially in the 5th graders, therefore they have difficulty forming connection between the concepts.’; ‘social studies teachers have preparation, competence, training, pedagogical infrastructure, etc. to provide high quality education to the 4th and 5th class levels as well. the problem here is that our 5th graders are very different from the other classes of the middle school in every aspect (especially cognitive) and this is demanding for the teachers.’; ‘i had difficulty to adapt to the program of the 5th grades and behavior of the 5th graders at the beginning however as of the 2nd term this problem did not exist partially. we cannot address all senses of the students because of material deficiency.’; ‘because the students are still young and their preparedness levels are low, teachers have some difficulty in classes.’; ‘without any training, assignment of the 5th grade social studies class to branch teachers directly has caused problems in terms of level descending.’; ‘there was difficulty experienced at the beginning for descending to the student level however this adaptation problem was solved in a short time’; ‘because the students are not still aware of the responsibility to pass to the middle school, we have difficulty about classes and rules.’; ‘communication problem is experienced with the kids because of the drop in age level.’; ‘because the 5th graders are not ready yet for branch teachers to teach them and because of their tender age, they care about playing greatly, they expect the attitudes and behaviors they saw in their class teachers about the discipline matter from the branch teachers, and they have very low understanding and interpretation skills, and these are the problems faced with.’; ‘teachers who teach older students for a long time have difficulty in their behavior and approaches towards younger students. however there is not such a problem for those who transferred from class teaching like myself.’; ‘atatürk principles and reforms are above the students’ level in the 5th grade social studies matters.’; ‘it was observed that the concepts remained abstract in the 5th grade and this level is not appropriate to understand these concepts. it was observed that the curriculum was intense and crowded in the 8th grades and problems arose in terms of time.’ some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is the “insufficient class period” are as follows: ‘it is a mistake to decrease the weekly class hour from social studies whereas weekly class number of many classes increases (such as dropping t.r. reforms history from 3 hours to 2 hours, and removing citizenship class.)’; ‘insufficient class hours lead to facing problems in program completion and activity completion.’; ‘not increasing reforms history class hours stands out as the greatest problem in front of us.’; ‘despite of transition to the 4+4+4 educational system, and whereas it is necessary to increase the class periods of social studies and reforms history classes, they decreased or remained the same. especially class periods of turkish and mathematics classes increased, no attempt was made by the mne for increasing class periods which social studies teachers suffered for years.’; ‘increase of social studies class load is not sufficient for catching the class hours of especially the 7th grade social studies and 8th grade t.r. reforms history and kemalism classes.’; ‘additional study is needed for completing subject distributions of the questions to come up in the central joint examination.’; ‘first of all, the gains do not meet the topics that the students need to learn. one gain is given in a 3-hour week. i think that this period is a little long and at least 2 gains can be given within 1 week.’; “because the curriculum is filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 49 intense, the entirety of the gains cannot be completed within the desired period.’; ‘first of all, the topics in this system need to be covered in more detail and student-centered, therefore it takes longer time. time problem is experienced. carrying out activities is assigned for home most of the time.’; ‘no increase occurred in our class period. this situation causes serious problems in completion of the gains.’; ‘although the class load increased and total weekly class period of the students is 35 hours, the class load of the teachers is 30 hours.’; ‘the greatest problem of us, social studies teachers, is the number of weekly class period of the 8th grade t.r. reforms history and kemalism class. 2 hours a week is a very insufficient number. with the 4+4+4 system, the number of class periods of other classes has been increased, though the number of social studies class has remained constant.”; ‘time is allowed for some topics more than necessary and for some, less than necessary.’; ‘among the elective classes provided to the students with the 4+4+4 system, absence of an elective class in the field of social studies diminishes the significance of social studies class. elective classes have increased the class period of other branches mostly. they have diminished the importance of social studies class. some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is the “problems originating from the text books and educational program” are as follows; ‘although the 5th grade is included in the middle school, social studies is not still included in the educational program unfortunately and the textbooks have not been prepared in the middle school format still.’; ‘the subjects in the 5th grade social studies curriculum are disconnected from each other. in fact this is a common problem for the 6th and 7th class curriculum of social studies class, achieving collectivity in the subjects becomes harder.’; ‘adaptability of social studies class to the environment and applied education opportunity has not been developed sufficiently.’; ‘it would be more appropriate if especially student text books and guidance books are prepared by the mne publishing house. the study books must be connected and in contact with the text books.’; ‘it will be more sound if the 5th grade social studies class program is reviewed according to the 5th grade level.’; ‘disaccord of the content of the educational program and class periods and unable to complete the activities.’; ‘some subjects remain abstract. the subject content is excessive. in-class activities do not serve their purpose. it is not possible to learn some subjects by doing and living. the subjects are explained slightly. program content is not understood completely. time is not enough to do the activities.’; ‘social studies class subjects are widespread such as history, geography and general culture from the 5th grade until the 8th grade and this causes problems in the preparation of the classroom for the class.’; ‘some subjects have unnecessary information presentation way under the student level.’; ‘the curriculum is too long, we have to go quickly to complete it.’; ‘first of all, the curriculum is too intense, we cannot complete the gains. the activity levels are not sufficient for settling fundamental concepts of the subjects.’ some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is the “insufficiency of schools and settings/material insufficiency or deficiency” are as follows; ‘lack of class tools and equipment and new materials influences studies unfavorably for doing the activities.’; ‘equal physical infrastructure has not been formed on the basis of all schools and educational opportunity in equal conditions has not been provided.’; ‘fatih project must be materialized as soon as possible.’; ‘lack of sufficient class tools and equipment in the social studies classes.’; ‘it is rather difficult to follow up scientific developments in village schools. social studies materials are deficient in village schools.’; ‘visual quality has improved, application areas has been enlarged however material resource problems diminish the application.’; ‘since the school is mobile, it is difficult for us to form communication with the parents. the students have difficulty finding the class material, and since the economic status of the parents is poor, the children don’t have an appropriate setting to study at home.’; ’due to problems originating from social studies materials deficiency, problems are faced in providing the gains.’ some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is the “in-service educational deficiency, incompetent teachers” are as follows; ‘with the field change, many teachers from other branches were transferred to the social studies journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 50 field and this diminished the class quality significantly.’; ‘since the transition was very sudden, staggering originating from the failure to give required information about the new system and program was experienced intensely. the education level of the 5th graders, infrastructure deficiencies, teachers uninformed about the program, insufficient in-service activities, etc.’; ‘failure to give in-service training to the branch teachers due to the changes made in the system.’; ‘failure to introduce the 5th class curriculum completely.’; ‘sufficient in-service courses have not been arranged for the teachers.’ ;’failure to arrange in-service educational courses.’ some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is “there is no problem” are as follows; ‘i don’t think that there are any problems caused by the 4+4+4 transition system. i find it appropriate very much that the social studies class is taught by the branch teachers starting from the 5th class.’; ‘there are no problems faced.’; ‘i haven’t faced any problems. on the contrary, i think that i am more successful because i laid the foundations of my own students.’ b) the participants’ opinions about the solution proposals the answers of the persons interviewed as a result of the conducted content analysis to the question “what are your solution proposals about the problems that the social studies teachers face with the 4+4+4 educational system? specify,” are given in table 10 as percentage (%) and frequency (f). table 10:solution proposals of the teachers about the problems that they encountered themes f % educational program/textbooks must be renovated 40 23,3 class period number must be increased 40 23,3 school and setting insufficiencies/material deficiency must be fixed 37 21,7 teachers must be included in in-service training 28 16,4 others 25 14,7 i don’t have any suggestions 1 0,6 total 171 100 as it is clear in table 10, based on the participants’ opinions, the solution suggestions for the problems faced by the participants are listed as; “educational program/textbooks must be renovated”, “class period number must be increased”, “school and setting insufficiencies/material deficiency must be fixed”, “teachers must be included in in-service training”, “others”, and “i don’t have any suggestions”. ‘educational program/textbooks must be renovated’ request stands out as the most widely proposed opinion. some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is “the education program/textbooks must be renovated” are as follows; ‘other than the textbooks, stage books containing figures about the subject must be created. figures and photographs more than the ones included in the textbooks. for instance, the booklets containing all historical and natural beauties of turkey for the 5 grade stage, etc.’; ‘it is observed that the ottoman state subjects don’t have an association and integrity. it is more appropriate to filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 51 study the subjects according to the chronological listing as soon as possible.’; ‘it would be better if the number of the subjects is lowered and class hours are increased in terms of the study of the class and in the meaning of the subjects.’; ‘for forming a curriculum based on traveling and observation, necessary curriculum change should be made.’; ‘making the curriculum a little more easier may be a solution. moreover, the books must be prepared by considering regional differences as well.’; ‘i support that the social studies program is restructured and textbook content is completed. the textbooks are insufficient and not good.’; ‘it is observed that ottoman state subjects lack togetherness and integrity. it is more appropriate if the subjects are studied according to the chronological listing as soon as possible.’; ‘if the number of the subjects is lowered and class hours are increased in all of the grades, it would be better both in terms of class study and the meaning of the subject.’; ‘making the curriculum change necessary for forming a curriculum based on traveling and observation.’; ‘making the curriculum a little more easier may be a solution. in addition, the books must be prepared by considering regional differences as well.’; ‘i am for the restructuring of the social studies program and completion of the content of the textbooks. the textbooks are insufficient and not good.’; ‘the curriculum of the social studies class must be reviewed and sequencing must be achieved in the history and geography subjects. our field, which is based on direct programming basis, is experiencing serious problems in this matter.’; ‘the 5th class program must be reviewed again and it must be taught by class teachers again. or it must be rearranged so that the branch teachers can apply.’; ‘kemalism topic is very difficult in especially the 5th grade social studies educational program therefore it must be removed from the program. in addition, the 7th grade social studies educational program must be changed as well.’; ‘some gains in the 5th grade remain abstract well above the student level and they are not appropriate to the cognitive levels of the students. for correcting this situation, these gains must be removed from the program.’; ‘for the social studies class to be taught more fun and effectively, the number of the activities, which is too many, can be decreased.’; ‘the 5th grade program must be reviewed and read by the class teachers again. or it must be rearranged so that it can be applied by the branch teachers.’; ‘the number of units must be decreased. the program must be presented as a whole. teacher opinions must be benefited in program preparation.’; ‘the 5th class gains must be made more abstract according to the student level and must be rearranged. the 8th class gains must be handled again and made more simple.’; ‘the study books must be more functional, the program must be more functional, travel and observation opportunity must be provided in the class process, the listing of the units may be different.’; ‘the textbooks must be rearranged by referring to the opinions of the teachers, and the topics atatürk principles and reforms, regional economic activities, and duties of the institutions must be simplified and if it is necessary they must be removed from the 5th class curriculum.’ some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is “the number of class period must be increased” are as follows; ‘a positive solution way must be materialized for increasing class periods of especially the social studies group classes in a reasonable way. i believe that this situation will improve the quality of the social classes even further.’; ‘it is necessary that class period of the reform history class is increased to at least 3 hours a week and the citizenship and democracy class is increased to 2 hours a week as a compulsory class.’; ‘the subjects in some classes especially in the 7th grade social studies class are very intensive and difficulty is experienced for completing this in a 3-hour class per week. similarly, the 8th grade t.r. reform history and kemalism classes are 2 hours a week and this causes timing problem for students who are to take teog. in a general sense, it can be suggested that weekly class hour of the social studies classes is increased.’ some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is “fixing school and setting insufficiencies/material insufficiency or deficiency” are as follows; ‘making the physical structures in schools (classroom, tools-equipment, etc.) appropriate for the social studies class.’; ‘if the technology, visual and audial fitment where this class is going to be taught in our schools is completed, it will be more efficient.’; ‘classroom system must be started journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 52 by providing technical fitment. technical fitment of the classrooms must be arranged based on branch.’; ‘i think that all classrooms of the entire schools must be fitted with projection equipment for this favorable system to be efficient.’; ‘for the solution of the problems experienced in abstract gains in all class stages, smart board or reflection equipment must be set in each classroom.’; ‘educational material can be made more fun and interesting, different material samples can be given to the teachers for effective learning in classes.’; ‘the existing problems are continuing exactly. there is no extra problem coming with the 4+4+4 system. current infrastructure problems, technological and physical troubles are continuing exactly.’; ‘with the branch class application, the class setting where the materials are ready always can fix this deficiency.’; ‘tools, equipment and materials applied in fatih project scope must be conveyed to village schools as well.’; ‘the ministry should prepare a tool and equipment set to be used by all social studies teachers.’; ‘the subjects are too dispersed, the students lose attention. if films, documentary and introductory programs on the subjects are prepared, it would be more efficient.’ some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is “the teachers should be included in in-service training” are as follows; ‘education can be provided by in-service activities based on class education level and program applicability. i think that deficiencies of the schools and teachers must be completed based on the program and if it is possible, asking the opinions of the teachers can fix the problems to a certain level.’; ‘short films and visuals with topics should be prepared by the experts to be formed by the mne and the teachers should be supported.’; ‘in-service training studies should have been made regarding the matter and the social studies teachers who are to teach the 5th graders for the first time should have been made aware about the matter because we had some difficulty to descend to the level of the students since they were still younger than the level we are accustomed to.’; ‘i believe that the educational in-service training seminars about the profile of the students of this period will be beneficial about the teacher.’; ‘in-service training seminars should be given to the 5th grader social studies teachers. support mechanisms should be formed regarding the problems they face with.’; ‘for the teachers to get to know the subjects of the 5th graders, activity-focused seminars can be arranged. class participation of the children can be achieved with materials. for the convey of the targets and gains to the students, in-service training seminars can be arranged.’; ‘for this system to be better, in the 8th grade t.r. reform history and kemalism class, studies should be carried out to increase the class hour. in the citizenship and democracy education class given to the 4th graders, it must be made sure that social studies teachers teach the classes.’; ‘informative training should be provided to the social studies teacher for the reflection of the 4+4+4 educational system to the social studies class. the opinions of the teachers should be taken for certain as the curriculum is prepared.’; ‘as an in-service course on the subject is arranged for teachers who transfer from class teaching, it would be beneficial if a pedagogic formation is given to the teachers who are to teach the 5th graders and whose field is social studies.’; ‘teaching starting from the 5th class is an important development at the point of laying a foundation. the greatest deficiency is that the persons who make the curriculum introductions are not competent about the subject and cannot draw attention of the teachers. quality of the seminars that are to be given should be improved and must be appropriate for the application.’ some of the answers of people who said that the primary problem is “the other suggestions” are as follows; ‘i don’t find it right that class teachers change field and transfer to english, mathematics and social studies fields. however those who have a master’s or doctorate in that field should be allowed to transfer.’; ’i think that 16 credits that i took at the university would not be sufficient for a field change. i find it right and beneficial that transfers are made by a master’s, doctorate degree or completion of a second university by distant learning.’; ‘5th grade students remain to have a class appearance separated from other secondary school classes. they make the teachers feel that they are in different study settings. the teachers can be successful in every level and the 5th grade; however i think that if sustainability can be achieved in a level, the efficiency would be greater.’; ‘the persons who are really social studies teachers should be assigned in this field. especially additional resources should be allowed for the 8th grades.’; ‘providing classes that could be selected by students in social studies field in the elective classes.’; ‘it is necessary that the families are trained, economic situations are improved and more efficient home settings are formed and the schools must be made more equipped and answering the needs of the students.’; filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 53 ‘each social studies teacher must minimize the class teaching method based on plain telling, and must follow up a method that is student oriented, and based on product and activities.’; ‘social studies class must have a travel budget or allocation (the mne must determine the travel content).’; ‘cancellation of the system and adaptation of a single and real system; appreciation of the education and valuing humans in a real sense. the way of improving educational quality; education, humans and teachers must be valued primarily.’; ‘new classes or subjects can be placed in universities for the 5th grades.’ discussion, conclusion, and suggestions conclusion and discussion in the present research; opinions of social studies teachers were obtained regarding the 4+4+4 educational system and the gathered data were analyzed statistically and the following results were extrapolated. the social studies teachers who participated in the study indicated that their opinions were not received prior to making change in the educational system. güven (2012) states that if an education reform is made in a country, this should be started by making necessity analysis by the concerned parties, and based on the need analysis results, the targets must be determined and preliminary applications about the reform must be made and an application should be made again and when the problems are minimized, implementation on the country level must be started. it has been extrapolated that these stages of the 4+4+4 educational system that has been implemented in turkey were not materialized according to the opinions of 258 social studies teachers. the social studies teacher who took part in the research expressed that the studies conducted by the ministry of national education in the 4+4+4 preparatory and implementation processes are not sufficient; the published and visual materials that are prepared for the purpose of giving information are not sufficient; application was made before the preparation of the physical infrastructure; and the opinions of the teachers must be received. furthermore, the subject titles that were found insufficient by the participants can be expressed as failure of the social studies teaching programs to be renovated according to the system; failure of teaching the 4th grades by the branch teachers; and failure to provide training to the social studies teachers to teach the 5th grades. in addition to the insufficiencies indicated about the system, the favorable opinions of the social studies teachers regarding the system change are as follows; teaching of the 5th grade social studies class by the branch teachers; the 4+4+4 educational system has contributed to the development of the social studies education and has not increased their work load, and they could descend to the levels of the 5th graders easily. as a result of the study journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 54 conducted by memişoğlu and i̇smetoğlu (2013) for determining the opinions of the school administrators regarding the 4+4+4 implementation; the administrators evaluated the 4+4+4 application as favorable, right and beneficial, and they drew attention to some deficiencies and method error. moreover, as a result of the study conducted by doğan, demir and pınar (2014) for evaluating the 4+4+4 discontinuous compulsory education system based on the class teachers’ opinions; the participants defended the 12-year compulsory education, and that they criticized the deficiency of infrastructure in the schools, branch changes by the teachers and insufficiency of in-service education. the said studies support the data of the present study. based on the second sub problem of the research; an analysis of the participants’ opinions in terms of gender, department of graduation, professional seniority, teaching the 5th grade social studies class and making branch change with the 4+4+4 system was included. it was concluded in the analyses that the participants’ opinions have not shown significant difference in terms of all variables. the possible reasons for these results might be the overall stability of the topic and the attendance views. the other research results (doğan, demir and pınar, 2014; memişoğlu and i̇smetoğlu, 2013) contradict the present research’s findings in this direction, so this result might be a topic of a new research. in the content analysis conducted on the interview questions applied on the social studies teachers participating in the study; it was observed that there were problems under the titles such as the 5th grader level problem, insufficiency of class periods, problems stemming from textbooks and the educational program, insufficiency of school and settings/material insufficiency or deficiency, in-service educational deficiency, and insufficiency of the teachers. as a solution suggestion for these problems, the participants stated opinions as; the educational program/textbooks should be renovated, class period number should be increased, school and setting insufficiencies/material insufficiency or deficiency should be fixed, the teachers should be put into in-service training, and as other solution proposals, the personal rights of the social studies teachers must be improved and branch change should be prevented. it has been concluded that the participants find teaching of the 5th grade social studies class by the social studies branch teacher favorable. this finding overlaps with the results of the research conducted by demir, doğan and pınar (2013) for the purpose of evaluating the problems experienced by the branch teachers teaching the 5th grades with the new education system based on the teachers’ opinions; and the result that the teachers regard the branching of filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 55 the teachers in the 5th grade social studies class in a research conducted by çatak (2014) about the social studies teaching realized by the 12-year compulsory education. furthermore, as a result of this study, it was concluded that the 4+4+4 transition system has not solved the problem of teaching of the 4th grade level social studies classes by class teachers, and that it is required that the 4th grade social studies class should be taught by the branch teachers as well. the participants stated that they did not have difficulty to descend to the levels of the 5th graders as a result of the analysis of the quantitative data, on the other hand, they expressed in the findings obtained from the interview form that the 5th graders experienced a level problem regarding their understanding of the concepts. it was concluded that the social studies teachers who participated in the research did not have problems for descending the level of the students however the 5th graders had problems in understanding the abstract concepts. another study conducted by karadeniz and ulusoy (2015); supports the present research with the result that the students who start the middle school 5th grades experienced an adaptation problem and the students experienced chaos due to insufficient readiness in terms of cognitive and affective development. this finding contradicts the study findings of demir, doğan and pınar (2013) conducted on the social studies teachers. demir, doğan and pınar (2013) indicated in their research that the social studies teachers had problems to descend to the levels of the students when they taught the 5th grade classes. they indicated that they did not participate in in-service training or informing studies on the 4+4+4 educational system, and that the social studies teacher did not receive training to teach the 5th grades and that the social studies teachers teaching the 5th grades did not need inservice training. this finding contradicts the results of the research of demir, doğan and pınar (2013). they indicated that the physical infrastructure of the social studies classrooms have not been arranged in the transition to the 12-year compulsory discontinuous educational system. külekçi (2013) has reached the conclusion that the physical infrastructure is insufficient in a study he conducted for evaluating the favorable and unfavorable reflections of the 4+4+4 educational system on the joined classes based on the opinions of the teachers who serve in the joined classes. in the study conducted by karadeniz and ulusoy (2015) to support all of these data, the physical setting of the teachers who participated in the research was evaluated as unfavorable. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 56 the participants expressed that the transition to the 4+4+4 did not increase workload of the social studies teachers and an increase in class load of the branch teachers did not lower the social studies educational quality. this finding contradicts the research findings of külekçi (2013). külekçi (2013) has concluded in his research that the change in the educational system has increased the work load of the teachers. karadeniz (2012) has reached the conclusion in his study that the 4+4+4 educational system caused hesitation in many aspects and the code numbered 6287 did not fulfill the expected needs, and that the system was materialized without making the required studies. the findings of the present study have revealed the deficiencies of the social studies educational program in this context. the social studies teachers who participated in the research expressed that; the social studies educational program did not fulfill the needs and requirements with the new system; the social studies educational program was not renovated; the renewal studies of the social studies educational program were not completed in due time; and failure of the social studies teachers to recognize the 5th grade program as a problem. furthermore, it was concluded that deficient and problematic aspects of the social studies class were not determined in the preparatory studies of the 4+4+4 system; the social studies teachers do not have any support mechanism to solve the problems; the information for the application of the social studies program in the materials that were prepared for introducing the 4+4+4 system was included partially; and the 4+4+4 system influenced the social studies classes, and all of these originated from the system that was materialized without referring to the system necessity analysis and applicator opinion. the findings that were obtained in the research scope show similarities with the problems indicated in the study of gürkan published in 1987 titled “an evaluation of the 6-year of age application in the fundamental education. gürkan (1987) indicated that this decision that was implemented without making any preliminary studies was not a success in implementation because the educational programs, educational materials, teacher training, and support activities were not planned. suggestions in consideration of the data obtained as a result of the research, the following proposals are directed to the planners, researchers and implementers: filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 57 1. it is required that the opinions of the teachers, who are the main applicators, are received in the decisions about the educational system. 2. it is required that the pilot study of the implementation plans that are to be formed with the participation of all education partners, and that the required arrangements are made according to the gathered findings. 3. the research is a mixed study where the social studies teachers were taken as a sampling. in this context, qualitative and quantitative studies can be carried out to reveal how the 12-year discontinuous compulsory educational system is regarded by various branch teachers, educational administrators, education inspectors, parents and students. references akpınar, b., dönder, a., yıldırım, b. and karahan, o. (2012). an assessment of the 4+4+4 education system (model) in the context of opposed program.marmara university atatürk faculty of education, eğitim bilimleri dergisi. 36, 25-39.it was taken on february 15, 2015 from the address url: http://edergi.marmara.edu.tr/maruaebd/article/view/1012001132/1012000962. barber, m. and mourshed, m. (2007). how the world's best-performing school systems come out on top. london: mckinsey and company. cerit, y., akgün, n., yıldız, k., and soysal, m. r. (2014). the problems experienced in the implementation of the new educational system (4+4+4) and solution proposals (bolu province example). eğitim bilimleri araştırmaları dergisi, 4 (özel sayı 1), 59-82. it was taken on february 21, 2015 from the address url: http://ebadjesr.com/images/makale_arsiv/c4_os1makaleler/eyfor.04.pdf. creswell, j. w. (2003). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. çatak, m. (2014).an investigation of social studies education in secondary schools based on teachers’ opinions. unpublished doctorate thesis. afyon kocatepe university, social sciences institute. s. b., doğan, s., and pınar, m. a. (2013). the reflections of the 4+4+4 new educational system: an evaluation of the educational process in the fifth grades based on the opinions of branch teachers. it was taken on february 16, 2015 from the address turkish studies, 8(9), 1081-1098. url: http://e-dergi.marmara.edu.tr/maruaebd/article/view/1012001132/1012000962 http://e-dergi.marmara.edu.tr/maruaebd/article/view/1012001132/1012000962 http://ebad-jesr.com/images/makale_arsiv/c4_os1makaleler/eyfor.04.pdf http://ebad-jesr.com/images/makale_arsiv/c4_os1makaleler/eyfor.04.pdf journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 58 http://turkishstudies.net/makaleler/488479498_070demirsel%c3%a7ukbe%c5%9 fir-vd-2%20(2)-1081-1098.pdf. diranna, k. and loucks h. s. (2001). designing program for teacher leasers: the case of the california science implementation network. developing teacher leaders: professional development in science and mathematics; (eric no. ed 451 031). doğan, s., demir, s. b. and pınar, m. a. (2014).an evaluation of the 4+4+4 discontinuous compulsory education system based on the opinions of class teachers. it was taken on february 20, 2015 from the address i̇lköğretim online, 13 (2), 503-517.url: http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/vol13say2/v13s2m12.pdf. doğan, s., uğurlu c. t., and demir a. (2014). an evaluation of the 4+4+4 educational system’s favorable and unfavorable effects on school sharers. gaziantep university journal of social sciences, 13(1), 115-138. it was taken on february 17, 2015 from the address url: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/260133419_444_eitim_sisteminin_okul_p aydalarna_olumlu_ve_olumsuz_etkilerinin_ynetici_grlerine_gre_ncelenmesi. eğitim-bir-sen (2012). what is the 4+4+4 new educational system, what is it bringing? what should they be? ankara: hermes tanıtım ofset. it was taken on february 21, 2015 from the address url: http://www.egitimbirsen.org.tr/ebs_files/files/yayinlarimiz/121-egitimbirsen.org.tr121.pdf. erg (educational reform initiative) (2014).politics suggestions on the staging process of the basic educational staging. it was taken on february 18, 2015 from the address url: http://erg.sabanciuniv.edu/sites/erg.sabanciuniv.edu/files/444politikanotu.14.03.14. web(1).pdf. eurydice. (2008). responsibility and autonomy levels of the teachers in europe. it was taken on june 21, 2015 from the addressurl: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/094tr.pdf . friel, s. and brigt, g. w. (2001). effective professional development for teacher leaders: lessons learned from k-6 mathematics teacher enhancement program. developing teacher leader:professional development in science and mathematics.(eric no.ed451 031). gür, b. s., özoğlu, m., coşkun, i. and görmez, m. (2012). education in 2012.seta analysis.the foundation of politics, economy and social research, it was taken on http://turkishstudies.net/makaleler/488479498_070demirsel%c3%a7ukbe%c5%9fir-vd-2%20(2)-1081-1098.pdf http://turkishstudies.net/makaleler/488479498_070demirsel%c3%a7ukbe%c5%9fir-vd-2%20(2)-1081-1098.pdf http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/vol13say2/v13s2m12.pdf http://www.researchgate.net/publication/260133419_444_eitim_sisteminin_okul_paydalarna_olumlu_ve_olumsuz_etkilerinin_ynetici_grlerine_gre_ncelenmesi http://www.researchgate.net/publication/260133419_444_eitim_sisteminin_okul_paydalarna_olumlu_ve_olumsuz_etkilerinin_ynetici_grlerine_gre_ncelenmesi http://www.egitimbirsen.org.tr/ebs_files/files/yayinlarimiz/121-egitimbirsen.org.tr-121.pdf http://www.egitimbirsen.org.tr/ebs_files/files/yayinlarimiz/121-egitimbirsen.org.tr-121.pdf http://erg.sabanciuniv.edu/sites/erg.sabanciuniv.edu/files/444politikanotu.14.03.14.web(1).pdf http://erg.sabanciuniv.edu/sites/erg.sabanciuniv.edu/files/444politikanotu.14.03.14.web(1).pdf http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/094tr.pdf http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/094tr.pdf filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 59 february 21, 2015 from the addressurl: http://file.setav.org/files/pdf/20130104114533_seta_analiz_2012egitim.pdf. gürkan, t. (1987). an assessment of the 6-year of age application in fundamental education (an evaluation in ankara province).ankara university educational sciences faculty publications. no: 155 güven, i̇. (2012). is it the 4+4+4 in education and fatih project bill=reform?, it was taken on june 24, 2015 from the address i̇lköğretim online, 11(3), 556-577, url: http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/vol11say3/v11s3m1.pdf. hofstein, a. ve even, r. (2001).developing chemistry and mathematics leader in israel.developing teacher leader: professional development in science and mathematics.(eric no. ed 465595) karadeniz, c.b. (2012). the opinions of teachers regarding the 4+4+4 compulsory education system. eğitim bilim toplum dergisi. 10(40), 34-53.it was taken on february 15, 2015 from the address url: http://www.egitimbilimtoplum.com.tr/index.php/ebt/article/view/488/pdf. karadeniz, o. ve ulusoy, m. (2015). the opinions of social studies teachers about the chaotic situations occurring in the social studies education with the 4+4+4 education system. yükseköğretim ve bilim dergisi. it was taken on february 17, 2015 from the address url: http://higheredu-sci.beun.edu.tr/text.php3?id=1665. kurul, t. n. (2008). transformation of the educational politics in turkey (p. 49–58). examination workshop of education in the republic of turkey under the view of educational sciences, march 1–3, ankara. külekçi, e (2013). an evaluation of opinions of teachers regarding the joined class application in the scope of the 4+4+4 educational system. eğitim ve öğretim araştırmaları dergisi.2 (2). it was taken on february 21, 2015 from the address url: http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/40._ebru_kulekci.pdf. meb (2012). 12-year compulsory education questions and answers. it was taken on february 21, 2015 from the address url: http://www.meb.gov.tr/duyurular/duyurular2012/12yil_soru_cevaplar.pdf?chk=01 402264464c3ac021307baed3a38ab1. memişoğlu, s. p. and i̇smetoğlu, m. (2013). the opinions of school administrators about the 4+4+4 application in compulsory education. eğitim ve öğretim araştırmaları dergisi, 2(2), 14-25. it was taken on february 20, 2015 from the address url: http://file.setav.org/files/pdf/20130104114533_seta_analiz_2012egitim.pdf http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/vol11say3/v11s3m1.pdf http://www.egitimbilimtoplum.com.tr/index.php/ebt/article/view/488/pdf http://higheredu-sci.beun.edu.tr/text.php3?id=1665 http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/40._ebru_kulekci.pdf http://www.meb.gov.tr/duyurular/duyurular2012/12yil_soru_cevaplar.pdf?chk=01402264464c3ac021307baed3a38ab1 http://www.meb.gov.tr/duyurular/duyurular2012/12yil_soru_cevaplar.pdf?chk=01402264464c3ac021307baed3a38ab1 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 60 http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/02._salih_pasa_memisoglu_mehmet_i smetoglu.pdf. olson, m. n. (1999). grounding our vision and ambition in 21st century reality: tools and tangible outcomes which exemplify oxy teacher leader development and achievement. assessment standartsist. oxt teacher leader career portfolio. paper presented at the annual meeting of the california educational research association, california. örs, ç.,erdoğan, h. and kipici, k. (2013). 12-year discontinuous compulsory education system under the view of educational administrators: iğdır example. iğdır üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi. 4, 131-154.it was taken on february 20, 2015 from the address url: http://sosbilder.igdir.edu.tr/makaleler/275728428_08_ors_(131-154).pdf. özdem, g. (2008). an evaluation of the transition of the educational politics implemented in turkey after 1980 in elementary schools (p.243–251). workshop of study of education in the republic of turkey under the view of educational sciences, march1–3 mart, 2008, ankara. öztürk, c. (2012). the 4+4+4 model for a better education, it was taken on february 21, 2015 from the address http://haber.marmara.edu.tr/ozturk-daha-iyi-egitim-icin-444uygulanmali/. peker ünal, d. (2013). the opinions of class teachers regarding the 4+4+4 application. eğitim ve öğretim araştırmaları dergisi. 2(4), it was taken on february 21, 2015 from the address url: http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/36.peker_unal.pdf. sezgin, s. i̇. (2001). turkey-eu relationships.eu’s education and youth politics. ankara: ankara offset. swanson, j. (2000). what differentiates an excellent teacher from a teacher leader? paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, new orleans. taymaz, h. (2003). school administration.7th edition. ankara: pegema publishing. whitsett, g. and riley, j. (2003). defining and applying leadership: perception of teacher leader candidates. presented at the annual meeting of the mid-south educational research association, biloxi. yamaç, k. (2001). what is this innovation? üniversite ve toplum, bilim, eğitim ve düşünce dergisi.1 (3). it was taken on february 21, 2015 from the address url: http://www.universite-toplum.org/text.php3?id=38. http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/02._salih_pasa_memisoglu_mehmet_ismetoglu.pdf http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/02._salih_pasa_memisoglu_mehmet_ismetoglu.pdf http://sosbilder.igdir.edu.tr/makaleler/275728428_08_ors_(131-154).pdf http://haber.marmara.edu.tr/ozturk-daha-iyi-egitim-icin-444-uygulanmali/ http://haber.marmara.edu.tr/ozturk-daha-iyi-egitim-icin-444-uygulanmali/ http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/36.peker_unal.pdf http://www.universite-toplum.org/text.php3?id=38 filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 61 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine i̇lişkin görüşleri opinions of social studies teachers regarding the 4+4+4 educational system filiz zayimoğlu öztürk özet: ülkemizin eğitim sistemine yönelik son yıllardaki değişiklikler dikkate alındığında en köklü değişimin 4+4+4 adıyla kesintili zorunlu eğitim sistemine geçilmesi olduğu görülmektedir. eğitim sistemlerinde yapılan değişikliklerin başarıya ulaşması, öğretmenlerin söz konusu değişimi doğru anlaması ve uygulaması, yapılan değişim hakkında bilgilendirilmesi ve değişimle ilgili karar verme süreçlerine katılımları gibi pek çok konuyla yakından ilgilidir. bu bağlamda bu araştırmanın amacı milli eğitim bakanlığı’na bağlı devlet okullarında görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşlerinin belirlenmesidir. bu amaç doğrultusunda sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin hayata geçirilmesine yönelik görüşleri ile bu öğretmenlerin uygulamada karşılaştıkları sorunlar ve sorunlara ilişkin çözüm önerileri, 198 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeninden oluşan bir çalışma grubu aracılığı ile belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak araştırmacı tarafından hazırlanan, geçerlik ve güvenilirlik çalışması yapılmış 21 maddeden oluşan likert tipi bir ölçme aracı kullanılmıştır. ayrıca sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4’ün uygulamasında karşılaştıkları sorunlar ve çözüm önerilerini belirlemek amacıyla araştırmacı tarafından hazırlanan yarı yapılandırılmış açık uçlu sorular aracılığıyla toplanan verilere içerik analizi yapılmıştır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin eğitim programlarının yoğunluğu, altyapı eksikliği, öğretmen istihdamı, eğitimin politikleştirilmesi gibi sorunları ön plana çıkardıkları görülmüştür. anahtar kelimeler: 4+4+4 eğitim sistemi, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri giriş bilim ve teknolojinin ekonomik ve toplumsal yarar sağlayacak şekilde yenilenmesi anlamına gelen inovasyon, son yılların en güncel kavramlarından biri olarak dikkat çekmektedir. bir ülkede inovasyondan söz edebilmek için, inovasyonun ülkedeki tüm bilim ve teknoloji elemanlarını kapsaması ve bu yenilenmenin toplumun her kesimince benimsenmesi ve desteklenmesi gerekmektedir (yamaç, 2001). ulusal anlamda inovasyonun gerektirdiği beyin gücünü oluşturmak ise ancak yaratıcılık ve özgüvene dayanan, yeterli ve özgürlükçü bir eğitim sistemiyle olanaklı hale gelmektedir. çağdaş bir inovasyon anlayışını geliştirmek ancak eğitim ile mümkündür. eğitimde inovasyon, ulusal inovasyon süreçlerimize katkıda bulunacak şekilde toplumsal yarara yönelik bir eğitim yenilenmesi ve bir eğitim reformu anlamına gelmektedir. çağa uyum sağlamak isteyen ülkeler, eğitim sistemlerinde reform denilebilecek yenilikler yaparak bireyleri daha uzun süre eğitim sistemine dâhil etmektedirler (sezgin, 2001). journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 62 daha uzun süre verilen ve nitelikli eğitim, toplumların enformasyon düzeyini arttırmakta, ülkelerin refah ve mutluluk düzeyine artı değer olarak yansımaktadır. bu eğitim yenilenmesi beraberinde eğitimde değişim hareketlerini de zorunlu kılmaktadır. eğitimde yaşanan değişim hareketleri, ülkelerin ekonomilerinin enformasyona dayalı olarak büyüdüğünün anlaşılması ile önem kazanmış ve ülkeler ekonomik gelişmelerini hızlandırmak için eğitim sistemlerine daha çok yatırım yapmaya başlamışlardır. eğitim sistemlerine yatırım yapılmasının amaçlarından biri toplumun yapısında bir değişiklik meydana getirerek yeni bir toplum yaratmaktır. i̇novasyon ve enformasyon aracılığıyla gerçekleşen toplumdaki sosyal ve ekonomik gelişmeler, eğitim kurumlarında çalışan personelin görüş ve davranışlarındaki değişimleri de zorunlu kılar (taymaz, 2003). toplumdaki değişim hareketini gerçekleştirecek en etkili unsur olan öğretmenler (eurydice, 2008), eğitimin niteliğinde de etkisi ve gücü en fazla olan unsur olarak kabul edilmektedir. çünkü öğretmenler sahip oldukları niteliklere bağlı olarak değişime uyum sağlamakta, değişimi hayatlarında uygulamakta, topluma yansıtmakta ve eğitim kurumlarında gerekli düzenlemeleri yapmaktadırlar. diğer bir deyişle eğitim ve öğretimde hedeflerin belirlenmesi, derslerin içeriklerinin zenginleştirilmesi, içeriklerin öğrenci düzeyine göre düzenlenmesi, hedeflere ulaşmayı sağlayacak araç gereçlerin kullanılması, eğitimin teknoloji ile desteklenmesi gibi değişimlerin hayata geçirilmesi öğretmenlerin niteliklerine bağlıdır. barber ve mourshed (2007) tarafından da belirtildiği gibi “bir eğitim sisteminin niteliği öğretmenlerinin niteliği kadardır”. ülkemiz eğitim sisteminde 2012 yılında eğitimin asıl aktörü olan öğretmenleri de oldukça etkileyen bir değişim yaşanmıştır. milli eğitim komisyonu sekiz yıllık kesintisiz eğitimle öğrencilerin yaş grupları ve bireysel farlılıklarının dikkate alınmadığını, genç nüfusun bilgi toplumunun gerektirdiği bilgi ve becerilere donatılmadığı gibi nedenlerle eğitim sisteminde yeni bir yapılanmaya gereksinim duyulduğunu belirtmiştir. bu yeni yapılanmanın iki başlıca amacı; toplumun eğitim seviyesini yükseltmek ve eğitim sistemini bireylerin ilgi, ihtiyaç ve yetenekleri doğrultusunda düzenlemek olarak belirlenmiştir (meb, 2012). kamuoyu tarafından 4+4+4 olarak adlandırılan, türkiye’de zorunlu eğitimi kademeli bir şekilde 12 yıla çıkartan, 6287 sayılı i̇lköğretim ve eğitim kanunu ile bazı kanunlarda değişiklik yapılmasına dair kanun 11 nisan 2012 tarihinde 28261 sayı ile resmi gazetede yayımlanarak yürürlüğe girmiştir (gür, özoğlu, coşkun ve görmez, 2012). filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 63 sekiz yıllık zorunlu eğitim, 4+4+4 eğitim sistemi ile 12 yıllık kademeli zorunlu eğitim; 4 yıl ilkokul, 4 yıl ortaokul ve 4 yıl ortaöğretim şeklinde birbirinden ayrılarak yeniden düzenlenmiştir (güven, 2012). milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından 2012 yılında alınan kararlarla gerçekleştirilen 4+4+4 uygulaması kapsamında zorunlu öğretimin süresi (12 yıl), okul kademelerinin isimleri ve süreleri değiştirilmiş (ilkokul 4 yıl, ortaokul 4 yıl ve lise 4 yıl), kademeler arası geçişler düzenlenmiş, yeni seçmeli dersler oluşturulmuş, öğrencilerin okula başlama ve okuldan mezun olma yaşları değiştirilmiş, öğretmenlerin özlük haklarını etkileyecek çeşitli yasal düzenlemeler yapılmıştır. yeni eğitim sistemi farklı boyutlarıyla kamuoyunda tartışılmış ve bilimsel çalışmalara konu olmuştur. 12 yıllık kesintili zorunlu eğitim sistemini, çocukların gelişimsel özelliklerini destekleme (öztürk, 2012), mesleki eğitimin önünü açma, eğitimde fırsat eşitliğini sağlama (akpınar, dönder, yıldırım, karahan, 2012) okulların fiziki olarak birbirlerinden ayrılması (örs, erdoğan, kipici, 2013) anlamında olumlu, doğru, yararlı şeklinde değerlendirenler (memişoğlu ve i̇smetoğlu, 2013; ) olduğu gibi uygulamayı sadece imam hatip liseleriyle sınırlandırılmış olmasından (memişoğlu ve i̇smetoğlu, 2013), bir dayatma aracı olmasından (özdem, 2008) ve sermayenin eğitime girmesi (kurul, 2008) olarak değerlendirenler de vardır. bu değerlendirmelerin yanında 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin üniversiteler, sivil toplum örgütleri, eğitim sendikaları (eğitim-bir-sen, 2012), eğitimle ilgili dernekler (erg, 2014;) ve çeşitli kurum-kuruluşlar görüşlerini bildirmişlerdir. 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin eğitim hakkına erişimi engellediği, okulöncesi eğitimin tüm çağ nüfusuna zorunlu olarak iletilememesinin okullaşma süreçlerine hazırlık açısından alt sosyo-ekonomik düzeyden gelen çocuklar aleyhine eşitsizlik oluşturacağı, ilkokula başlama yaşının erkene alınmasının okulöncesi eğitim zorunlu kılınmadıkça sisteme ve çocuklara zarar vereceği, önerilen 4+4+4 sisteminin ilk kademesi olan 4 yıllık eğitim kavramının bir bilimsel temele dayanmadığı, ilköğretim ikinci kademeden sonra öğrencilerin açık öğretim ve evde eğitim gibi olanaklarla da öğretim görebilme önerisinin alt sosyo-ekonomik düzeyden gelen kız ve erkek çocuklarını okullaşma süreci dışına çıkaracağı, mesleki yönlendirmenin erkene alınmasının sakıncalı olduğu, ortaöğretimde de eğitim kalitesinin yükseltilmesi gerektiği, önerilen yeni sistemin mevcut öğretmen yetiştirme koşullarına uygun olmadığı, yaygın eğitimin örgün ortaöğretim kapsamında yer almasının temel eğitim ve zorunlu eğitim yaklaşımına uygun olmadığı, eğitime ayrılan mali kaynakların bu değişikliklere yetmeyeceği uygulamaya yönelik eleştirilerdendir (peker ünal, 2015). öğretmenler, öğrenci gelişimini sağlamada önemli rol oynamaktadırlar (whitsett ve riley, 2003). eğitim sisteminin devamlılığında öğretmenler; öğretim programını oluşturan journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 64 kavramları, konuları ve becerileri öğrencilerin anlayabileceği şekilde analiz eden (olson, 1999); okulu çevresiyle bir bütün olarak değerlendiren (friel ve brigt, 2001); eğitim kurumlarındaki değişimin işbirliği ile uygulanmasına yardımcı olan (swanson, 2000); öğrencilerin akademik başarısının artmasını sağlayacak eğitim stratejilerini uygulamada yetenekli olan (diranna ve loucks, 2001); aktif öğrenme ilke ve yöntemlerine olan ihtiyaçların farkında olan (hofstein ve even, 2001) bireyler olarak önem arz etmektedirler. bu nedenle eğitim sisteminde köklü değişiklik getiren ve bir reform niteliği taşıyan 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin bu uygulamanın temel uygulayıcısı olan öğretmenlerin görüşlerinin alınması sistemin sürdürülebilir ve doğru bir şekilde uygulanabilmesi için önem arz etmektedir (akt: demir, doğan ve pınar, 2013). sosyal bilgiler gibi mihver bir dersin öğretilmesindeki ana unsurlar olarak bu dersin öğretmenlerinin yeni eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşlerinin alınması önemli görülmektedir. bu çalışma, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 12 yıllık kesintili zorunlu eğitimle ilgili görüşlerini ortaya koymak için yapılandırılmıştır. sekiz yıllık zorunlu eğitim kapsamında önceki uygulamada 6., 7. ve 8. sınıfların dersine giren sosyal bilgiler branş öğretmenleri yeni sistemle birlikte 5. sınıfların derslerine de girmeye başlamışlardır. bu uygulamanın sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerini faklı yaş grubu, farklı müfredat vb. sorunlarla karşı karşıya getirdiği bilinmektedir (demir, doğan ve pınar, 2013). ayrıca karadeniz, (2012); memişoğlu ve i̇smetoğlu (2013); doğan, uğurlu ve demir (2014); cerit, akgün, yıldız ve soysal (2014) yaptıkları çalışmalarda öğretmenlerin ve yöneticilerin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemi hakkındaki görüşlerini belirlemeye çalışmışlardır. demir, doğan ve pınar (2013) ise araştırmalarını 4+4+4 eğitim sistemi uygulanmasını branş öğretmenlerinin karşılaştıkları sorunlar doğrultusunda yapılandırmışlardır. söz konusu çalışmalarda genellikle nitel araştırma yöntemlerine yer verilmiştir. bu bağlamda kapsamında araştırmanın amacı nicel araştırma yöntemlerini de işe koşarak 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine yönelik sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin görüşlerini, yaşadıkları sorunları ortaya koymak ve yaşadıkları sorunlarına ilişkin kendi çözüm önerilerini tespit etmektir. problem cümlesi araştırmanın problem cümlesi “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşleri nasıldır ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4’ün uygulamasında karşılaştıkları sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri nelerdir?” olarak belirlenmiştir. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 65 alt problemler araştırmanın problem cümlesi çerçevesinde aşağıdaki sorulara yanıt aranmıştır: 1. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşleri nelerdir? 2. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine yönelik görüşleri; a. cinsiyet, b. mezun olunan bölüm, c. mesleki kıdem, d. 5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme durumu e. 4+4+4 sistemiyle branş değişikliği yapma durumu değişkenleri açısından anlamlı bir farklılık göstermekte midir? 3. “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4’ün uygulamasında karşılaştıkları sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri nelerdir?” yöntem araştırmanın modeli araştırma modeli “karma yöntem” olarak belirlenmiştir. karma yöntem, nitel ve nicel araştırma yöntemlerinin bir arada kullanılması ile araştırma sorularına yanıt vermeye dayanmaktadır (creswell, 2003). araştırmanın ilk aşamasında sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine yönelik görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla araştırmacı tarafından hazırlanan bir ölçme aracı ile nicel veriler toplanmış yani nicel yöntem kullanılmıştır. ayrıca 4+4+4’ün uygulanmasında karşılaşılan sorunlar ve katılımcıların kendi çözüm önerilerinin belirlenmesi amacıyla da nitel araştırma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. evren/ örneklem araştırmanın evrenini milli eğitim bakanlığı’na bağlı ilkokullarda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri oluşturmaktadır. ancak araştırmanın evrenine ulaşmak olanaklı ve ekonomik olmadığı için ordu ilinde (tüm ilçeler dâhil) milli eğitim bakanlığı’na bağlı devlet ilkokullarında görev yapan 258 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenini kapsayan bir örneklem journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 66 oluşturmuştur. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin belirlenmesinde kolay ulaşılabilir durum örneklemesi yöntemi tercih edilmiştir. araştırmaya 258 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni katılmış ancak 198 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeninden ölçme aracı ile veri toplanabilmiştir. örnekleme dâhil olan ve geçerli veri sunan 198 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeninin demografik verileri tablo 1’de verilmiştir. tablo 1: araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin demografik özellikleri frekans (f) yüzde (%) cinsiyet erkek kadın 136 62 68,7 31,3 mezun olunan bölüm sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği tarih öğretmenliği coğrafya öğretmenliği tarih bölümü coğrafya bölümü diğer 105 36 14 18 7 18 53,0 18,2 7,1 9,1 3,5 9,1 mesleki kıdem 1-5 yıl 6-10 yıl 11-15 yıl 15+ yıl 59 44 46 49 29,8 22,2 23,2 24,7 5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme durumu evet hayır 173 25 87,4 12,6 4+4+4 sistemiyle branş değişikliği yapma durumu evet hayır 23 175 11,7 88,3 toplam 198 100 tablo 1’den de anlaşılacağı gibi, araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin büyük çoğunluğu erkektir. erkek öğretmenler araştırma katılımcılarının %68.7’sini oluşturmaktadır. araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin mezun oldukları bölüme göre dağılımlarına bakıldığında ordu ilinde çalışan öğretmenlerin çoğunluğunun (%53) sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği mezunu oldukları görülmektedir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin kıdemlerine bakıldığında ise en çok 1-5 yıl öğretmenin (%29,8) görev yaptığı görülmektedir. araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin %87,4’ünün 5. sınıflarda sosyal bilgiler dersine girdiği ve branş değişikliği yapma durumlarına bakıldığında ise katılımcıların %88,3’ünün branş değişikliği yapmadığı görülmektedir. çalışma grubuna i̇lişkin bilgiler araştırmanın nitel kısmını oluşturan veriler, görüşme formlarının ekinde yer alan iki açık uçlu soru ile elde edilmiştir. tablo 2’de araştırmanın nitel kısmına katılan 50 kişi ile ilgili kişisel bilgiler verilmiştir. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 67 tablo 2: görüşme formunun uygulandığı katılımcıların kişisel bilgileri kişisel bilgiler frekans (f) yüzde (%) cinsiyet kadın 20 40 erkek 30 60 mezun olunan bölüm sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği 34 68 tarih öğretmenliği 6 12 coğrafya öğretmenliği 6 12 tarih bölümü 2 4 coğrafya bölümü 1 2 diğer 1 2 mesleki kıdem 1-5 yıl 15 30 6-10 yıl 10 20 11-15 yıl 12 24 15+ yıl 13 26 5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme durumu evet 44 88 hayır 6 12 4+4+4 sistemiyle branş değişikliği yapma durumu evet 46 92 hayır 4 8 toplam 50 100 tablo 2’de görüldüğü gibi, araştırma katılımcılarının çoğunluğunun erkek, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği mezunu, 1-5 yıl arası mesleki kıdeme sahip, 5. sınıfta derslere giren ve branş değişikliği yapmamış olduğu görülmektedir. buna göre, araştırmanın hem nitel hem de nicel kısmına dâhil olan katılımcı dağılımının benzer olduğu görülmektedir. çalışma grubunun belirlenmesinde maksimum çeşitlilik örnekleme yöntemi kullanılmıştır. veri toplama aracının geliştirilmesi ve uygulanması araştırmada, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine yönelik görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla araştırmacı tarafından geliştirilen “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine yönelik görüşlerini belirleme anketi (ek-1)” kullanılmıştır. ölçme aracının amacı; “soru sorarak bir konu hakkında bilgi edinmek, sistematik gözlemle ulaşılmayacak verileri soru-cevap süreci ile toplamak”tır (baş, 2001: 11). ölçme aracının geliştirilmesinde aşağıdaki aşamalar izlenmiştir. şekil 1: “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine i̇lişkin görüşlerini belirleme ölçeği”nin geliştirilmesi aşamasında i̇zlenen yollar literatür taraması uzman görüşü ön uygulama faktör analizi güvenirlik hesaplama asıl uygulama journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 68 şekil 1’de görüldüğü gibi ölçme aracının kapsam geçerliğinin sağlanması amacıyla veri toplama aracının hazırlanma aşamasında ilgili literatür taranmış, yapılan benzer araştırmalar incelenmiş ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin hazırlık ve uygulama aşamaları dikkate alınarak hazırlanan maddelerle anket formu geliştirilmiştir. bu anket formunun geliştirilmesinde literatür incelemelerinden elde edilen veriler, farklı üniversitelerde görev yapan 5 öğretim üyesinin ve 5 alan uzmanının görüşlerinden yararlanılarak toplamda 28 madde şeklinde geliştirilmiştir. geliştirilen ölçme aracı 140 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni ile ön uygulamaya tabi tutulmuş ve analiz sonucunda 7 madde anketten çıkarılmıştır. ön uygulamaya katılan öğretmenler asıl uygulamaya dâhil edilmemiştir. ölçme aracına uzman görüşleri doğrultusunda son şekli verilmiştir. ölçme aracının görünüş geçerliğinin sağlanması için ise anketin son halinin uzmanlara inceletilmesi yolu seçilmiştir. ölçme aracının yapı geçerliği ve güvenirliği için “alfa tutarlık katsayısı” tespit edilmiştir. ölçeğin cronbach-alfa güvenirlik katsayısı .64 olarak hesaplanmış dolayısıyla .60-.80 arasında yer alan değerde ölçek oldukça güvenilirdir. ayrıca kmo değeri .79 şeklinde hesaplanmış ve bu değer 198 kişilik örneklem büyüklüğünün çalışma için yeterli olduğu anlamına gelmektedir. ölçme aracı ile ilgili yapılan faktör analizinde ölçme aracının tek faktörlü bir yapı gösterdiği görülmüştür. ölçme aracının üçüncü bölümü olan görüşme soruları ise tamamen uzman görüşü ile oluşturulmuştur. ölçme aracı üç bölümden oluşmaktadır. i̇lk bölümde; örneklem grubundaki öğretmenlerin cinsiyet, mezun olunan bölüm, mesleki kıdem, 5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme ve 4+4+4 sistemiyle branş değişikliği yapma durumları hakkında bilgi toplamaya yönelik maddeler yer almaktadır. bu sorular araştırmaya katılanlar hakkında genel bir bilgi elde etmek amacıyla hazırlanmıştır. anketin ikinci bölümünde, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemeye yönelik 21 madde yer almaktadır. katılımcılardan bu bölümdeki ifadeleri okumaları ve ifadelerin karşısında yer alan seçeneklerden kendilerine en uygun olan seçeneği seçerek işaretlemeleri istenmiştir. bu seçenekler; 5-çok katılıyorum, 4oldukça katılıyorum, 3-biraz katılıyorum, 2-çok az katılıyorum, 1-katılmıyorum şeklinde beşli likert tipinde hazırlanmıştır. anketin son bölümünde ise sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin varsa iletmek istedikleri sorunlara ve bu sorunlara ilişkin çözüm önerilerine yönelik görüşlerini paylaşmalarını sağlayacak açık uçlu iki soru sorulmuştur. araştırmacı tarafından geliştirilen veri toplama aracı, ordu i̇l milli eğitim müdürlüğü’nden alınan izin doğrultusunda milli eğitim bakanlığı’na bağlı ordu ili merkez ve ilçelerinde görev filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 69 yapan toplam 258 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenine 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla 2013-2014 eğitim öğretim yılında uygulanmıştır. uygulanan ölçme araçlarının bazılarının eksik ve yanlış doldurulması, zamanında dönüş yapılamaması gibi nedenlerle çalışmaya dâhil edilen geçerli anket formu sayısı olan 198 üzerinden yürütülmüştür. nitel veriler toplanırken örnekleme dahil olan 198 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeninden maksimum çeşitlilik yöntemiyle seçilen 50 kişilik gruptan toplanan 171 görüş üzerinden analizler gerçekleştirilmiştir. verilerin analizi ölçme aracındaki nicel sorulardan elde edilen veriler araştırmacı tarafından spss programına aktarılmıştır. araştırmada birinci alt problem doğrultusunda öğretmen görüşlerinin frekans (f) ve yüzde (%) değerleri hesaplanmıştır. i̇kinci alt probleme yönelik veri analizinde örneklemin normal dağılım gösterdiği durumlarda t-testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (one-way anova) uygulanmıştır. yapılan analizde “cinsiyet ve “öğretmenlerin okuttukları sınıf düzeyi” değişkenlerinin normal dağılım gösterdiği görülmüş ve bu değişkenlerin test edilmesinde parametrik testler kullanılmıştır. örneklemin normal dağılım göstermediği durumlarda ise, ikiden fazla değişkenlerin test edilmesinde kullanılan kruskal wallis testi kullanılmıştır. “mesleki kıdem” ve “öğrenim durumu” değişkenlerinin normal dağılım göstermediği görülmüş ve bu değişkenlerin analizinde kruskal wallis testi kullanılmıştır. spss programı ile yapılan testlerin anlamlılık düzeyi .05 olarak alınmıştır. üçüncü alt probleme yönelik olarak, yarı yapılandırılmış açık uçlu sorularla toplanan nitel verilerin incelenmesinde içerik analizi yapılmıştır. nitel araştırmalarda verilerin analizinde iki farklı yöntem bulunmaktadır. bunlar içerik analizi ve betimsel analiz olarak ifade edilmektedir. i̇çerik analizi smith (1975) tarafından; “mevcut verileri özetleme, standardize etme, karşılaştırma ya da başka biçime dönüştürme araçları” olarak tanımlanmıştır. betimsel analiz, daha çok kuramsal anlamda çok açık bir temele sahip olunan araştırmalarda kullanılırken, içerik analizi kuramsal anlamda belirgin olmayan temalar ve eğer varsa alt temalar oluşturularak analiz edilmesinde kullanılmaktadır (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2006). veriler içerik analizi yöntemi ile analiz edilmiştir. analiz işlemi sorulara verilen yanıtlar doğrultusunda tema bulamama, birden fazla tema bildirme gibi farklı nedenlerle araştırmaya katılan tüm katılımcılar yerine, analize uygun tema bildiren katılımcı sayısına göre yapılmıştır. bu yüzden sorulara göre analiz işlemlerinde verilen katılımcıların görüşlerini yansıtan sayılar farklılaşabilmektedir. analiz journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 70 işleminde frekans (f) hesaplanırken katılımcı sayısı değil katılımcı görüş sayısı, yüzde (%) hesaplanırken ise toplam frekans içerisindeki oranı dikkate alınmıştır. bulgular ve yorumlar bu bölümde araştırmanın katılımcılarından veri toplama aracı ile toplanan veriler ile bu verilerin analizi sonucunda elde edilen bulgular ve yorumları yer almaktadır. birinci alt probleme i̇lişkin bulgular araştırmanın birinci alt problemi olan “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşleri nelerdir?” sorusudur. bu soruya yanıt verebilmek amacıyla 21 ifade hazırlanmıştır. örnekleme alınan 198 öğretmenin ifadelere katılma durumları frekans ve yüzde değer olarak tablo 3’te verilmiştir. tablo 3: sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine yönelik görüşleri anket maddesi ç ok k at ılı yo ru m o ld uk ça k at ılı yo ru m b ir az k at ılı yo ru m ç ok a z k at ılı yo ru m k at ılm ıy or u m 1 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin sosyal bilgiler branş öğretmeni tarafından verilmesi olumlu bir değişikliktir. 124 %62,6 38 %19,2 19 %9,6 4 %2,0 13 %6,6 2 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin seviyesine inmekte zorluk yaşamaktadır. 16 %8,1 23 %11,6 39 %19,7 36 %18,2 84 %42,6 3 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine yönelik 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin hizmet içi eğitim veya bilgilendirme çalışmaları yapılmıştır. 33 %16,7 34 %17,2 52 %26,3 26 %13,1 53 %26,8 4 eğitim sisteminde değişiklik yapılmadan önce sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin görüşleri alınmıştır. 10 %5,1 4 %2,0 21 %10,6 25 %12,6 138 %69,7 5 milli eğitim bakanlığı kesintili eğitim sistemine geçişte sosyal bilgiler dersliklerinin fiziki alt yapısı düzenlenmiştir. 4 %2,0 13 %6,6 28 %14,1 34 %17,2 119 %60,1 6 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine geçişle birlikte sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının ihtiyaçlarının ve gereksinimlerinin karşılanması sağlanmıştır. 9 %4,5 20 %10,1 47 %23,7 46 %23,2 76 %38,4 7 sosyal bilgiler öğretim programları 4+4+4 geçiş sistemine uygun olarak yenilenmiştir. 10 %5,0 33 %16,7 56 %28,3 39 %19,7 60 %30,3 8 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin karşılaşacakları sorunların çözümüne yönelik gerekli destek mekanizmaları oluşturulmuştur. 3 %1,5 19 %9,6 41 %20,7 52 %26,3 83 %41,9 9 4+4+4 sistemini tanıtmak için hazırlanan materyallerde sosyal bilgiler programının uygulanmasına yönelik bilgiler yer almaktadır. 13 %6,6 49 %24,7 66 %33,3 42 %21,2 28 %14,1 10 4+4+4 eğitim sistemi sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin gelişimi açısından olumlu bir gelişmedir. 61 %30,8 50 %25,3 45 %22,7 18 %9,1 24 %12,1 filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 71 11 sosyal bilgiler dersinin eksik ve aksayan yönleri 4+4+4 sisteminin hazırlık çalışmalarında belirlenmiştir. 10 %5,1 27 %13,6 43 %21,7 45 %22,7 72 %36,4 12 4+4+4’e geçiş sosyal bilgiler branş öğretmenlerinin iş yükünün artmasına neden olmuştur. 34 %17,2 42 %21,2 31 %15,7 23 %11,6 67 %33,8 13 sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının 4+4+4 geçiş sistemiyle uyumlu hale gelmesi için gözden geçirme çalışmaları zamanında tamamlanamamıştır. 52 %26,2 45 %22,7 53 %26,8 33 %16,7 15 %7,6 14 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine 5. sınıf öğrencilerine eğitim verebilmeleri için herhangi bir mesleki eğitim verilmemiştir. 78 %39,4 40 %20,2 25 %12,6 27 %13,6 28 %14,1 15 4. sınıf düzeyinde sosyal bilgiler derslerinin sınıf öğretmeni tarafından verilmesi sorunu 4+4+4 geçiş sistemiyle de çözülememiştir. 75 %37,9 23 %11,6 33 %16,7 24 %12,1 43 %21,7 16 branş öğretmenlerinin ders yükünün artması sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin kalitesinin düşmesine sebep olmuştur. 18 %9,1 9 %4,5 24 %12,1 18 %9,1 129 %65,2 17 5. sınıflarda derse giren sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hizmet içi eğitim faaliyetleri kapsamında eğitim verilmesi gerekmektedir. 50 %25,2 47 %23,7 37 %18,7 23 %11,6 41 %20,7 18 4. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin de branş öğretmenleri tarafından verilmesi gereklidir. 69 %34,8 27 %13,6 20 %10,1 16 %8,1 66 %33,3 19 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 5. sınıf programını tanımamaları ciddi bir sorundur. 33 %16,7 25 %12,6 40 %20,2 25 %12,6 75 %37,9 20 4+4+4 sistemi sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin önemini arttırmıştır. 54 %27,3 38 %19,2 49 %24,7 17 %8,6 40 %20,2 21 4+4+4 sistemi sosyal bilgiler derslerini etkilememiştir. 23 %11,6 11 %5,6 38 %19,2 26 %13,1 100 %50,5 tablo 3’te görüldüğü gibi, “5.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin sosyal bilgiler branş öğretmeni tarafından verilmesi olumlu bir değişikliktir.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %62,6’sı “çok katılıyorum”, %19,2’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %9,6’sı “biraz katılıyorum”, %2,0’si “çok az katılıyorum”, %6,6’sı “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin seviyesine inmekte zorluk yaşamaktadır.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %8,1’i “çok katılıyorum”, %11,6’sı “oldukça katılıyorum”, %19,7’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %18,2’si “çok az katılıyorum”, %42,6’sı “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine yönelik 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin hizmet içi eğitim veya bilgilendirme çalışmaları yapılmıştır.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %16,7’si “çok katılıyorum”, %17,2’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %26,3’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %13,1’i “çok az katılıyorum”, %26,8’i “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 72 “eğitim sisteminde değişiklik yapılmadan önce sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin görüşleri alınmıştır.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %5,1’i “çok katılıyorum”, %2,0’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %10,6’sı “biraz katılıyorum”, %12,6’sı “çok az katılıyorum”, %69,7’si “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “milli eğitim bakanlığı kesintili eğitim sistemine geçişte sosyal bilgiler dersliklerinin fiziki alt yapısı düzenlenmiştir.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %2,0’si “çok katılıyorum”, %6,6’sı “oldukça katılıyorum”, %14,1’i “biraz katılıyorum”, %17,2’sı “çok az katılıyorum”, %60,1’i “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “4+4+4 eğitim sistemine geçişle birlikte sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının ihtiyaçlarının ve gereksinimlerinin karşılanması sağlanmıştır.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %4,5’i “çok katılıyorum”, %10,1’i “oldukça katılıyorum”, %23,7’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %23,2’si “çok az katılıyorum”, %38,4’ü “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “sosyal bilgiler öğretim programları 4+4+4 geçiş sistemine uygun olarak yenilenmiştir.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %5,0’i “çok katılıyorum”, %16,7’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %28,3’ü “biraz katılıyorum”, %19,7’si “çok az katılıyorum”, %30,3’ü “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin karşılaşacakları sorunların çözümüne yönelik gerekli destek mekanizmaları oluşturulmuştur.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %1,5’i “çok katılıyorum”, %9,6’sı “oldukça katılıyorum”, %20,7’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %26,3’ü “çok az katılıyorum”, %41,9’u “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “4+4+4 sistemini tanıtmak için hazırlanan materyallerde sosyal bilgiler programının uygulanmasına yönelik bilgiler yer almaktadır.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %6,6’sı “çok katılıyorum”, %24,7’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %33,3’ü “biraz katılıyorum”, %21,2’si “çok az katılıyorum”, %14,1’i “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “4+4+4 eğitim sistemi sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin gelişimi açısından olumlu bir gelişmedir.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %30,8’i “çok katılıyorum”, %25,3’ü “oldukça katılıyorum”, %22,7’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %9,1’i “çok az katılıyorum”, %12,1’i “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 73 “sosyal bilgiler dersinin eksik ve aksayan yönleri 4+4+4 sisteminin hazırlık çalışmalarında belirlenmiştir.“ ifadesine öğretmenlerin %5,1’i “çok katılıyorum”, %13,6’sı “oldukça katılıyorum”, %21,7’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %22,7’si “çok az katılıyorum”, %36,4’ü “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “4+4+4’e geçiş sosyal bilgiler branş öğretmenlerinin iş yükünün artmasına neden olmuştur.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %17,2’si “çok katılıyorum”, %21,2’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %15,7’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %11,6’sı “çok az katılıyorum”, %33,8’i “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının 4+4+4 geçiş sistemiyle uyumlu hale gelmesi için gözden geçirme çalışmaları zamanında tamamlanamamıştır.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %26,2’si “çok katılıyorum”, %22,7’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %26,8’i “biraz katılıyorum”, %16,7’si “çok az katılıyorum”, %7,6’sı “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine 5. sınıf öğrencilerine eğitim verebilmeleri için herhangi bir mesleki eğitim verilmemiştir.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %39,4’ü “çok katılıyorum”, %20,2’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %12,6’sı “biraz katılıyorum”, %13,6’sı “çok az katılıyorum”, %14,1’i “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “4. sınıf düzeyinde sosyal bilgiler derslerinin sınıf öğretmeni tarafından verilmesi sorunu 4+4+4 geçiş sistemiyle de çözülememiştir.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %37,9’u “çok katılıyorum”, %11,6’sı “oldukça katılıyorum”, %16,7’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %12,1’i “çok az katılıyorum”, %21,7’si “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “branş öğretmenlerinin ders yükünün artması sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin kalitesinin düşmesine sebep olmuştur.“ ifadesine öğretmenlerin %9,1‘i “çok katılıyorum”, %4,5’i “oldukça katılıyorum”, %12,1’i “biraz katılıyorum”, %9,1’i “çok az katılıyorum”, %65,2’si “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “5. sınıflarda derse giren sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hizmet içi eğitim faaliyetleri kapsamında eğitim verilmesi gerekmektedir.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %25,2’si “çok katılıyorum”, %23,7’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %18,7’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %11,6’sı “çok az katılıyorum”, %20,7’si “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “4. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin de branş öğretmenleri tarafından verilmesi gereklidir.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %34,8’i “çok katılıyorum”, %13,6’sı “oldukça katılıyorum”, %10,1’i journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 74 “biraz katılıyorum”, %8,1’i “çok az katılıyorum”, %33,3’ü “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 5. sınıf programını tanımamaları ciddi bir sorundur.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %16,7’si “çok katılıyorum”, %12,6’sı “oldukça katılıyorum”, %20,2’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %12,6’sı “çok az katılıyorum”, %37,9’u “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “4+4+4 sistemi sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin önemini arttırmıştır.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %27,3’ü “çok katılıyorum”, %19,2’si “oldukça katılıyorum”, %24,7’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %8,6’sı “çok az katılıyorum”, %20,2’si “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. “4+4+4 sistemi sosyal bilgiler derslerini etkilememiştir.” ifadesine öğretmenlerin %11,6’sı “çok katılıyorum”, %5,6’sı “oldukça katılıyorum”, %19,2’si “biraz katılıyorum”, %13,1’i “çok az katılıyorum”, %50,5’i “katılmıyorum” yönünde görüş bildirmişlerdir. i̇kinci alt probleme i̇lişkin bulgular bu kısımda katılımcı görüşlerinin cinsiyet, mezun olunan bölüm, mesleki kıdem, 5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme ve 4+4+4 sistemiyle branş değişikliği yapma durumları değişkenleri açısından analizine yer verilmiştir. a) katılımcı görüşlerinin “cinsiyet” değişkeni açısından değerlendirilmesi araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin verdikleri cevapların cinsiyete göre farklılaşma durumunu ifade eden t testi sonuçları tablo 4’te verilmiştir. tablo 4: katılımcı görüşlerinin “cinsiyet” değişkenine göre t-testi sonuçları cinsiyet n 𝐗𝐗� ss sd t p kadın 62 3,02 0,49 229 -1,365 .07 erkek 136 3,13 0,47 p ≤ .05 tablo 4’te, kadın ve erkek öğretmenlerin belirtmiş oldukları görüşlerin ortalamalarının birbirine yakın olduğu görülmektedir. buna göre, araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 sistemiyle ilgili görüşlerinde cinsiyet değişkeni açısından .05 düzeyinde anlamlı bir farklılık bulunamamıştır (p=.07). fakat gruplar bazında aritmetik ortalamalar incelendiğinde, filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 75 erkek öğretmenlerin (x ̅=3,13) kadın öğretmenlere göre (x ̅=3,02) ortalamalarının yüksek olduğu görülmektedir. b) katılımcı görüşlerinin “mezun olunan bölüm” değişkeni açısından değerlendirilmesi araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin verdikleri cevapların mezun olunan bölüme göre farklılaşma durumunu ifade eden kruskal-wallis testi sonuçları tablo 5’te verilmiştir. tablo 5: katılımcı görüşlerinin “mezun olunan bölüm” değişkenine göre kruskal-wallis testi sonuçları mezun olunan bölüm n 𝐗𝐗� sd x2 p sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği 105 3,01 3 3,138 .90 tarih öğretmenliği 36 3,08 coğrafya öğretmenliği 14 3,09 tarih bölümü 18 3,04 coğrafya bölümü 7 3,10 diğer 18 3,13 p ≤ .05 tablo 5 incelendiğinde, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 sistemiyle ilgili görüşlerinde mezun oldukları bölüm değişkeni açısından .05 düzeyinde anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmadığı görülmektedir (p= .90). bu durum mezun olunan bölüm farklılık gösterse de, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşlerinin birbirine yakınlık gösterdiği şeklinde yorumlanabilir. aritmetik ortalamalar karşılaştırıldığında ise en düşük değerin sosyal bilgiler öğretmenliği mezunlarında, en yüksek değerin ise diğer bölüm mezunlarında bulunduğu göze çarpmaktadır. c) katılımcı görüşlerinin “mesleki kıdem” değişkeni açısından değerlendirilmesi araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin verdikleri cevapların mesleki kıdeme göre farklılaşma durumunu ifade eden kruskal-wallis testi sonuçları tablo 6’da verilmiştir. tablo 6: katılımcı görüşlerinin “mesleki kıdem” değişkenine göre kruskal-wallis testi sonuçları mesleki kıdem n 𝐗𝐗� sd x2 p 1-5 yıl 59 3,11 3,48 3,679 .48 6-10 yıl 44 3,09 11-15 yıl 46 3,07 15 + yıl 49 3,02 p ≤.05 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 76 tablo 6 incelendiğinde, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 sistemine ilişkin görüşleri arasında mesleki kıdemleri açısından .05 önem düzeyinde anlamlı bir farklılık bulunamamıştır (p=.48). bu durum mesleki kıdemleri farklılık gösterse de sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yeni eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşlerinin birbirine yakınlık gösterdiği şeklinde yorumlanabilir. aritmetik ortalamalar incelendiğinde ise, en yüksek ortalamanın 1-5 yıl mesleki kıdeme, en düşük ortalamanın ise 15 ve daha üzeri yıl mesleki kıdeme sahip öğretmenler arasında olduğu dikkati çekmektedir. d) katılımcı görüşlerinin “5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme durumu” değişkeni açısından değerlendirilmesi araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin verdikleri cevapların 5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme durumu değişkenine göre dağılımı tablo 7’de verilmiştir. tablo 7: katılımcı görüşlerinin “5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme durumu” değişkenine göre t-testi sonuçları cinsiyet n 𝐗𝐗� ss sd t p evet 173 3,06 0,49 218 -1,143 .07 hayır 25 3,09 0,47 p ≤ .05 tablo 7’de, 5. sınıfta derse giren ve girmeyen öğretmenlerden elde edilen cevapların birbirine çok yakın olduğu görülmektedir. buna göre, öğretmenlerin 5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme durumu değişkeni açısından 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşleri .05 düzeyinde anlamlı bir farklılık göstermemektedir (p=.07). gruplar bazında aritmetik ortalamalar incelendiğinde, evet seçeneğini işaretleyen öğretmenlerin ortalamalarının (x ̅=3,06), hayır seçeneğini işaretleyen öğretmenlerin ortalamalarına göre (x ̅=3,09) daha düşük olduğu görülmektedir. e) katılımcı görüşlerinin 4+4+4 sistemiyle branş değişikliği yapma durumu değişkeni açısından değerlendirilmesi araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin verdikleri cevapların 4+4+4 sistemiyle branş değişikliği yapma durumu değişkenine göre dağılımı tablo 8’da verilmiştir. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 77 tablo 8: katılımcı görüşlerinin “branş değişikliği yapma durumu” değişkenine göre t-testi sonuçları cinsiyet n 𝐗𝐗� ss sd t p evet 23 3,05 0,43 197 -0,789 .27 hayır 175 3,10 0,49 p ≤ .05 tablo 8’de, branş değişikliği yapan ve yapmayan öğretmenlerden elde edilen cevapların birbirine çok yakın olduğu görülmektedir. buna göre, öğretmenlerin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşleri branş değişikliği yapma durumu değişkeni açısından .05 düzeyinde anlamlı bir farklılık göstermemektedir (p=.27). gruplar bazında aritmetik ortalamalar incelendiğinde, evet seçeneğini işaretleyen öğretmenlerin ortalamalarının (x ̅=3,05), hayır seçeneğini işaretleyen öğretmenlerin ortalamalarına göre (x ̅=3,10) daha düşük olduğu görülmektedir. üçüncü alt probleme i̇lişkin bulgular araştırmanın üçüncü alt problemi olan “sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4’ün uygulamasında karşılaştıkları sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri nelerdir?” sorusuna yanıt vermek amacıyla katılımcıların ankette yer alan açık uçlu sorulara verdikleri yanıtlar içerik analizi ile incelenmiştir. a) karşılaşılan sorunlara yönelik katılımcı görüşleri yapılan içerik analizi sonucunda görüşme yapılan kişilerin “4+4+4 sisteminin uygulamasında sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin karşılaştığı başlıca sorunlar nelerdir? belirtiniz.” sorusuna verdikleri cevaplar yüzde (%) ve frekans (f) olarak tablo 9’da verilmiştir. tablo 9: 4+4+4 sisteminin uygulamasında sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin karşılaştığı başlıca sorunlar temalar f % 5. sınıf öğrenci seviye sorunu 59 34,6 ders saatinin yetersizliği 51 29,8 ders kitabı ve öğretim programı kaynaklı sorunlar 30 17,6 okul ve ortam yetersizlikleri/materyal yetersizliği veya eksikliği 17 10 hizmetiçi eğitim eksikliği, öğretmenlerin yetersiz olması 7 4 sorun yok 7 4 toplam 171 100 tablo 9’da görüldüğü gibi, katılımcı görüşlerine göre, katılımcıların karşılaştığı sorunlar; “5. sınıf öğrenci seviye sorunu”, “ders saatinin yetersizliği”, “ders kitabı ve öğretim programı journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 78 kaynaklı sorunlar”, “okul ve ortam yetersizlikleri/materyal yetersizliği veya eksikliği”, “hizmetiçi eğitim eksikliği, öğretmenlerin yetersiz olması” ve “sorun yok” şeklinde sıralanmıştır. “5. sınıf öğrenci seviye sorunu” %34,6 oranla en fazla karşılaşılan sorun olarak ön plana çıkmaktadır. bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel sorunun “5.sınıf öğrenci seviye sorunu” olduğunu söyleyenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘4+4+4 geçiş sistemiyle özellikle 5. sınıf öğrencilerinde soyut düşünme becerisi gelişmediğinden kavramlar arası bağlantı kurmakta zorluk çekmektedirler.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri 4. ve 5. sınıf seviyelerine de yüksek düzeyli kalitede eğitim-öğretim verebilecek bir hazırlığa, yeterliliğe, eğitime, pedagojik alt yapıya vb. sahiptir. buradaki sorun 5.sınıf öğrencilerimizin her açıdan (özellikle bilişsel) ortaokulun diğer sınıflarından çok farklı oluşu öğretmeni zorlamaktadır.’, ‘5. sınıfların programına ve 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin davranışlarına ilk başta uyum sağlamakta zorlandım ancak 2. dönem itibariyle bu sorun kısmen kalmadı. malzeme eksikliğinden dolayı öğrencilerin bütün duyularına hitap edemiyoruz.’, ‘öğrencilerin yaşları henüz küçük olduğundan ve hazırbulunuşluk düzeyleri de düşük olduğundan öğretmenler de derslerde biraz güçlük çekmektedir.’, ‘herhangi bir eğitim verilmeden doğrudan 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin branş öğretmenlerince verilmesi, seviyeye inme anlamında problem doğurmuştur.’, ‘başlangıçta öğrencilerin seviyesine inmekte zorluk çekilmişti, ancak bu uyum sorunu kısa sürede giderildi’, ‘öğrenciler hala ortaokula geçişin sorumluluğunun farkında olmadıklarından dersler ve kurallar konusunda sıkıntı yaşamaktayız.’, ‘yaş seviyesinin düşmesiyle çocuklarla iletişim sorunu yaşanmaktadır.’, ‘5. sınıf öğrencilerinin henüz branş öğretmeninin derslerine girmesine hazır olmaması, yaşlarının küçük olması sebebiyle oyuna fazla önem vermeleri, disiplin konusunda sınıf öğretmenlerinden gördükleri tutum ve davranışları branş öğretmenlerinden beklemeleri, anlama ve yorumlama kabiliyetlerinin çok düşük olması karşılaşılan sorunlardır.’, ‘uzun süre büyük öğrencilere ders veren öğretmenler küçük öğrencilere karşı davranışlarında ve yaklaşımlarında problem yaşamaktadırlar. ancak benim gibi sınıf öğretmenliğinden geçenler için böyle bir sorun yoktur.’, ‘5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler konularında atatürk i̇lke ve i̇nkılapları öğrencilerin seviyesinin üzerindedir.’, ‘kavramların genel olarak 5. sınıfta soyut kaldığı ve seviyenin bu kavramları anlamaya uygun olmadığı görülmüştür. 8. sınıflarda müfredatın yoğun ve kalabalık olduğu süre açısından sıkıntıların baş gösterdiği görülmüştür.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel sorunun “ders saatinin yetersizliği” olduğunu söyleyenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘birçok dersin haftalık ders sayısı artarken sosyal bilgilerden haftalık ders saati azaltılması hatadır (t.c. i̇nkılap tarihi 3 saatten 2’ye düşürülmesi, vatandaşlık dersinin kaldırılması gibi.)’, ‘ ders saati yetersizliği, programın yetiştirilmesine ve etkinliklerin tamamlanmasında sorunlar yaşanmasına yol açmaktadır.’, ‘i̇nkılap tarihi dersinin ders saatinin arttırılmaması en büyük problem olarak yıllardır karşımızda durmaktadır.’, ‘4+4+4 eğitim sistemine geçilmesine rağmen sosyal bilgiler ve i̇nkılap tarihi derslerinin ders saati arttırılması gerekirken ya azalmış ya da aynı kalmıştır. özellikle türkçe ve matematik gibi derslerin ders saati artarken yıllardır sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin rahatsızlık çektiği ders saatlerinin arttırılmasında meb tarafından herhangi bir girişimde bulunulmamıştır.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler ders yükünün artması, özellikle 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler ve 8. sınıf t.c. inkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük ders saatinin kazanımların yetiştirilmesi için yeterli olmayışı.’, ‘merkezi ortak sınavda çıkacak soruların konu dağılımları yetişebilmesi için ek çalışma yapılmasına gerek duyulmaktadır.’, ‘öncelikle kazanımlar öğrencilerin öğrenmesi gereken konuları karşılamıyor. bir tane kazanım 3 saatlik bir hafta içerisinde veriliyor. bu sürenin biraz uzun olduğunu 1 hafta da en azından 2 kazanımın verilebileceğini düşünüyorum.’, ‘müfredat ağır olduğu için kazanımların tamamı istenilen süre içerisinde tamamlanamamaktadır.’, ‘öncelikle bu sistemde konular daha ayrıntılı ve öğrenci merkezli işlenmesi gerekiyor, bundan dolayı fazla zaman alıyor. süre sıkıntısı yaşanıyor. etkinliklerin yapılması çoğu zaman eve kalıyor.’, ‘ders saatimizde herhangi bir artış olmamıştır. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 79 bu durum kazanımların yetiştirilmesi konusunda ciddi sorunlar oluşturmaktadır.’, ‘ders yükünün artması ve öğrencilerin haftalık ders saati toplamı 35 saat olmasına rağmen öğretmenlerin ders yükünün 30 saat olması.’, ‘biz sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin en büyük sıkıntısı 8.sınıf t.c. i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük dersinin haftalık ders saati sayısıdır. haftada 2 saat çok yetersiz bir sayıdır. 4+4+4 sistemi ile diğer derslerin ders saati artırılırken sosyal bilgiler dersi sabit kalmıştır.’, bazı konulara gereğinden çok bazılarına gerektiğinden az zaman ayrılmış.’, ‘4+4+4 sistemiyle beraber öğrencilere getirilen seçmeli derslerde sosyal bilgiler alanında seçilecek ders olmaması sosyal bilgiler dersinin önemi düşürmekte. seçmeli dersler daha çok diğer branşların ders saatini artırmıştır. sosyal bilgiler dersinin önemini azaltmıştır.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel sorunun “ders kitabı ve öğretim programı kaynaklı sorunlar” olduğunu söyleyenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘ortaokula 5. sınıflar dâhil edilmesine rağmen sosyal bilgiler öğretim programına maalesef hala dâhil edilememiştir ve ders kitapları da hala ortaokul formatında hazırlanmamıştır.’, ‘5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler müfredatında konular birbirinden kopuk. aslında bu sosyal bilgiler dersinin 6.ve 7. sınıf müfredatları için de ortak bir sorun konularda bütünlük sağlamak zorlaşıyor.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler dersinin çevreyle uyumu, uygulamalı eğitim imkânı yeterince geliştirilememiştir.’, ‘özelikle öğrenci ders kitapları ve kılavuz kitapların meb yayınevi tarafından hazırlanması daha uygun olacaktır. çalışma kitapları ders kitapları ile bağlantılı, irtibatlı olmalıdır.’, ‘5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersi programının 5. sınıf düzeyine göre tekrar gözden geçirilmesi daha sağlıklı olacaktır.’, ‘öğretim programlarının içeriği ile ders saatlerinin uyuşmaması ve etkinliklerin yetiştirilememesi.’, ‘bazı konular soyut kalmaktadır. konu içeriği fazladır. ders içi etkinlikler amacına hizmet etmemektedir. bazı konularda yaparak yaşayarak öğrenmek mümkün olmamaktadır. konular yüzeysel açıklanmıştır. program içeriği tam olarak anlaşılmamaktadır. etkinlikleri yapmak için vakit yetmemektedir.’, ‘5. sınıftan 8. sınıfa kadar olan sosyal bilgiler dersinin konu olarak tarih, coğrafya, genel kültür gibi alanının geniş olması; derse sınıfın hazırlanmasında sıkıntılar oluşturmaktadır.’, ‘bazı konular öğrenci seviyesinin çok altında bazı bilgilerle ilgili gereksiz bilgi sunumu var.’, ‘müfredat çok uzun yetiştirmek için hızlı geçmek zorunda kalıyoruz.’, ‘öncelikle müfredat çok yoğun, kazanımları yetiştiremiyoruz. konuların temel kavramlarının yerleşmesi için etkinlik düzeylerinin yeterli olmaması.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel sorunun “okul ve ortam yetersizlikleri/materyal yetersizliği veya eksikliği” olduğunu söyleyenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘ders araç gereçlerle ilgili yeni materyaller olmaması etkinlikleri yapmada çalışmaları olumsuz etkilemektedir.’, ‘tüm okullar bazında eşit fiziki altyapı kurulamamış, eşit koşullarda eğitim olanağı sağlanamamıştır.’, ‘fatih projesinin bir an önce hayata geçirilmesi gerekir.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler sınıflarında yeterli ders araç ve gereçlerinin bulunmaması.’, ‘köy okullarında bilimsel gelişmelerin takip edilmesi oldukça zor. köy okullarında sosyal bilgiler materyalleri eksik.’, ‘görsellik artmış uygulama alanları daha da genişlemiş ancak maddi kaynak sıkıntıları uygulamayı daraltmaktadır.’, ‘okul taşımalı olduğundan velilerle iletişim kurmamız zor oluyor. ders materyalleri bulmakta öğrenciler zorlanıyor, velilerimizin ekonomik durumu zayıf olduğundan çocukların evde çalışabileceği uygun ortamları yok.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler malzemelerinin eksikliğinden kaynaklanan sorunlardan kazanımların verilmesinde aksaklıklar yaşanmaktadır.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel sorunun “hizmet içi eğitim eksikliği, öğretmenlerin yetersiz olması” olduğunu söyleyenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘alan değişikliğiyle bir çok branş dışı öğretmenlerin de sosyal bilgiler alanına geçirilmesi bu dersin kalitesini önemli ölçüde düşürmüştür.’, ‘geçiş çok ani olduğu için yeni sistem ve program hakkında gerekli bilginin verilmemesinden doğan bocalamalar yoğun yaşandı. 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin öğrenim düzeyi okulların alt yapı eksiklikleri, öğretmenlerin program hakkında bilgisizliği, yetersiz hizmet içi faaliyetler vb.’, ‘sistemde yapılan değişiklikten dolayı branş öğretmenlerine hizmet içi eğitimin verilmemesi.’, ‘5. sınıf müfredatının tam olarak tanıtılmamış olması.’, ‘öğretmene yeterli hizmet içi kurslar düzenlenmemiştir.’, ‘hizmet içi eğitim kursları journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 80 düzenlenmemesi.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel sorunun “sorun yok” olduğunu söyleyenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘4+4+4...geçiş sistemiyle birlikte hiçbir sorun oluştuğunu düşünmüyorum. 5. sınıftan itibaren sosyal bilgiler dersinin branş öğretmenleri tarafından verilmesini çok uygun buluyorum.’, ‘herhangi bir sorunla karşılaşılmamıştır.’, ‘çok fazla sorunla karşılaşmadı. tek karşılaştığım sorun öğrencilerin hala ilkokul alışkanlıklarına devam etmesi oldu. fakat bunu da olumlu bir şekilde kullanarak sorunları aştım.’, ‘bence 4+4+4 geçiş sistemiyle sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin karşılaştığı sorun yoktur.’, ‘herhangi bir sorun ile karşılaşmadım. tam tersi bir durumla kendi öğrencilerimin temelini ben attığım için daha çok başarılı olduğumu düşünüyorum.’ b) çözüm önerilerine yönelik katılımcı görüşleri yapılan içerik analizi sonucunda görüşme yapılan kişilerin “4+4+4 eğitim sistemiyle birlikte sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin karşılaştıkları sorunlara ilişkin çözüm önerileriniz nelerdir? belirtiniz.” sorusuna verdikleri cevaplar yüzde ( % ) ve frekans ( f ) olarak tablo 10’da verilmiştir. tablo 10: öğretmenlerin karşılaştığı sorunlara yönelik çözüm önerileri temalar f % öğretim programı/ders kitapları yenilenmeli 40 23,3 ders saati sayısı arttırılmalı 40 23,3 okul ve ortam yetersizlikleri/materyal yetersizliği giderilmeli 37 21,7 öğretmenler hizmet içi eğitime alınmalı 28 16,4 diğer 25 14,7 önerim yok 1 0,6 toplam 171 100 tablo 10’da görüldüğü gibi, katılımcı görüşlerine göre, katılımcıların karşılaştığı sorunlara yönelik çözüm önerileri arasında; “öğretim programı/ders kitapları yenilenmeli”, “ders saati sayısı arttırılmalı”, “okul ve ortam yetersizlikleri/materyal yetersizliği veya eksikliği giderilmeli”, “öğretmenler hizmetiçi eğitime alınmalı”, “diğer” ve “önerim yok” şeklinde sıralanmıştır. öğretim programı/ders kitapları yenilenmesi talebi en fazla önerilen görüş olarak ön plana çıkmaktadır. bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel çözümü “öğretim programı/ders kitapları yenilenmeli” olarak belirtenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 81 ‘ders kitapları dışında konuyla ilgili resimlerden oluşan kademe kitapları oluşturulmalıdır. ders kitabındakinden fazla sayıda resim, fotoğraf. örneğin, 5. sınıf kademesi için türkiye’nin bütün önemli tarihi ve doğal güzelliklerini içeren kitapçıklar v.s.’, ‘osmanlı devleti konularının birliktelik bütünlüğün olmadığı görülüyor. bir an önce kronolojik sıralamaya göre konuların işlenmesi daha uygundur.’, ‘tüm sınıflarda konular azaltılıp ders saatleri artırılırsa hem dersin işlenişinde hem de konuların anlamında daha iyi olur.’, ‘gezi ve gözleme dayalı müfredat oluşturulması için gerekli müfredat değişikliği yapılması.’, ‘müfredatın biraz daha kolaylaştırılması bir çözüm olabilir. ayrıca bölgesel farklılıklar da dikkate alınarak kitaplar hazırlanmalıdır.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler programının yeniden yapılandırılması ve ders kitaplarının içeriğinin doldurulmasından yanayım. ders kitapları yetersiz ve iyi değil.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler dersinin müfredatı gözden geçirilerek tarih ve coğrafya konularında ardışıklık sağlanmalıdır. doğrusal programlanma tabanına dayanan alanımız bu konuda ciddi sıkıntı yaşamaktadır.’, ‘5. sınıf programı tekrar gözden geçirilerek tekrar sınıf öğretmenleri tarafından okutulması sağlanmalıdır. ya da branş öğretmeninin uygulayabileceği şekilde tekrar düzenlenmelidir.’, ‘özellikle 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında atatürkçülük konusu çok ağır geldiği için programdan çıkarılması gerekir. ayrıca 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı da değiştirilmelidir.’, ‘5. sınıflarda bazı kazanımlar öğrenci seviyesinin çok üstünde soyut kalıyor ve öğrencilerin bilişsel seviyelerine uygun değil. bu durumun düzeltilmesi için bu kazanımların programdan çıkarılması gerekmektedir.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler dersinin daha zevkli ve etkili işlenebilmesi için sayısı çok fazla olan etkinliklerin sayıları azaltılabilir.’, ‘5. sınıf programı tekrar gözden geçirilerek tekrar sınıf öğretmenleri tarafından okutulması sağlanmalıdır. yada branş öğretmeninin uygulayabileceği şekilde tekrar düzenlenmelidir.’, ‘ünite sayıları azaltılmalıdır. program bütünlük içinde sunulmalıdır. program hazırlanırken öğretmen görüşlerinden yararlanılmalıdır.’, 5. sınıf kazanımlarının öğrenci seviyesine uygun olarak daha fazla somutlaştırılarak yeniden düzenlenmesi gerekmektedir.8.sınıf kazanımlarının tekrardan ele alınarak sade bir hale getirilmesi gerekmektedir.’, ‘çalışma kitapları daha işlevsel olmalı, program daha işlevsel olmalı ders sürecinde gezi gözlem yapma fırsatı sunulmalı, ünitelerin sıralaması farklı olabilir.’, ‘ders kitabı öğretmenlerin önerileri alınarak yeniden düzenlenmeli, atatürk ilke ve inkılapları, bölgedeki ekonomik faaliyetler, kurumların görevleri konusu sadeleştirilmeli, gerekirse 5. sınıf müfredatından çıkarılmalıdır.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel çözümü “ders saati sayısı arttırılmalı” olarak belirtenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘özellikle sosyal bilgiler grubu derslerinin makul ölçülerde ders saatlerinin arttırılması yolunda müspet çözüm yolunun gerçekleşmesi gerekmektedir. bu durum sosyal derslerinin kalitesini daha da arttıracağına inanmaktayım.’, ‘i̇nkılap tarihi dersinin ders saatinin arttırılması en az haftada 3 saate çıkarılması ve vatandaşlık ve demokrasi dersinin zorunlu ders olarak haftada 2 saate çıkarılması gerekmektedir.’, ‘bazı sınıflarda özellikle 7.sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde konuların çok yoğun olması ve haftalık 3 saat derste bunun yetiştirilmesinde zorlukların yaşanması. aynı şekilde 8.sınıf t.c i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük derslerinin haftada 2 saat olması teog’a girecek öğrenciler açısından zaman problemi yaşatmaktadır. genel anlamda sosyal bilgiler derslerinin haftalık ders saatinin arttırılması önerilebilir.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel çözümü “okul ve ortam yetersizlikleri/materyal yetersizliği veya eksikliğinin giderilmesi” olarak belirtenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘okullarda fiziki yapının (derslik, araç-gereç vs) sosyal bilgiler dersi için uygun hale getirilmesi.’, ‘okullarımızda bu dersin verileceği teknoloji görsel ve işitsel donanım tamamlanırsa daha verimli olacaktır.’, ‘teknik donanım sağlanarak, derslik sistemine geçilmeli. sınıfların teknik donanımı branşa göre düzenlenmeli.’, ‘olumlu olan bu sistemin verimli olması için tüm okulların bütün sınıflarının projeksiyon cihazıyla donatılması gerektiğini düşünüyorum.’, ‘bütün sınıf kademelerinde soyut kazanımlarda yaşanan sorunların çözümü için ise her sınıfa mutlaka akıllı tahta ya da yansıtım cihazı kurulmalıdır.’, ‘eğitim materyalleri daha eğlenceli ve ilgi çekici hale journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 82 getirilebilir değişik materyal örnekleri öğretmenlere derslerde etkili öğrenme için örnek olarak verilebilir.’, ‘var olan mevcut sorunlar aynen devam etmektedir 4+4+4 sistemiyle gelen ekstra bir sorun yoktur. mevcut alt yapı sorunları teknolojik ve fiziki sıkıntılar aynen devam etmektedir.’, ‘branş sınıfı uygulaması ile materyallerin her an hazır olduğu sınıf ortamı bu eksikliği giderebilir.’, ‘fatih projesi kapsamında uygulanan araç gereç ve materyallerin köy okullarına da ulaştırılması sağlanmalıdır.’, ‘bakanlık tüm sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin kullanabileceği bir araç gereç seti hazırlamalıdır.’, ‘konular çok dağınık öğrencilerin dikkati dağılıyor. konulara yönelik film, belgesel, tanıtıcı programlar, hazırlanırsa daha verimli olur.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel çözümü “öğretmenler hizmetiçi eğitime alınmalı” olarak belirtenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘sınıf öğrenim düzeyine göre hizmet içi faaliyetleri ile programın uygulanabilirliğine yönelik eğitimler verilebilir. okulların ve öğretmenlerin eksiklikleri programa yönelik tamamlanmalı ve mümkünse öğretmenlere de görüşlerinin sorulması, sorunları bir derece giderebileceği görüşündeyim.’, ‘meb tarafından oluşturulacak uzmanlar tarafından konu konu kısa film ve görseller hazırlanarak öğretmenler desteklenmeli.’, ‘konuyla ilgili hizmet içi eğitim çalışmaları yapılmalıydı ve 5.sınıflarda ilk kez derslere girecek olan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri konuyla ilgili bilinçlendirilmeliydi. çünkü öğrenciler hala yaş olarak alıştığımız seviyeden küçük oldukları için onların düzeyine inmekte biraz zorluk yaşadık.’, ‘bu dönemdeki öğrenci profili ile ilgili eğitici hizmet içi eğitim seminerlerinin öğretmen açısından yararlı olacağına inanıyorum.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine 5. sınıflar için hizmet içi eğitim seminerleri verilmeli. karşılaştıkları sorunlara yönelik destek mekanizmaları oluşturulmalı.’, ‘öğretmenler öncelikle 5.sınıf öğrencilerin konuları daha iyi bilmeleri için etkinlik ağırlıklı seminerler düzenlenebilir. çocuklara materyallerle derse katılımı sağlanabilir. hedef ve kazanımların öğrencilere aktarımında öğretmenlere hizmet içi eğitim semineri düzenlenebilir.’, ‘bu sistemin daha iyi olabilmesi için 8.sınıflardaki t.c. i̇nkılap tarihi ve atatürkçülük dersinde, ders saatinin arttırılması için çalışmalar yapılmalıdır. 4.sınıflara verilen vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersinde derslere sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin girmeleri sağlanmalıdır.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin sosyal bilgiler dersine yansıması bakımından bilgilendirici eğitim verilmelidir. müfredatlar hazırlanırken mutlaka öğretmenlerin görüşleri alınmalıdır.’, ‘sınıf öğretmenliğinden geçenlere konuyla ilgili hizmet içi kurs düzenlendiği gibi 5. sınıf derslerine girecek alanı sosyal bilgiler olan öğretmenlere pedagojik formasyon verilmesi yararlı olacaktır.’, ‘5. sınıftan itibaren derse girilmesi temelin atılması noktasında önemli bir gelişmedir. en büyük eksik müfredat tanıtımlarını yapan kişilerin konuya hâkim olmamaları, öğretmenin dikkatini çekememeleridir. verilecek olan seminerlerin kalitesi yükseltilmeli ve uygulamaya yönelik olmalıdır.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel çözümü “diğer öneriler” olarak belirtenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘sınıf öğretmenlerinin alan değiştirerek i̇ngilizce, matematik, sosyal bilgiler alanlarına alan geçişlerini doğru bulmuyorum. ancak yüksek lisans veya o alanda doktora yapanlara geçiş verilmeli.’, ‘alan değişikliğinde yan alan için üniversitede aldığı 16 kredinin yeterli olmayacağını düşünüyorum. yüksek lisans, doktora veya uzaktan eğitimle ikinci bir üniversitenin tamamlanması ile geçişlerin olmasını doğru ve yararlı buluyorum.’, ‘5. sınıf öğrencileri diğer ortaokul sınıflarından ayrışmakta olan bir sınıf görünümünde kalmaktadır. öğretmeni farklı farklı çalışma ortamlarındaymış gibi hissettirmektedir. öğretmen her seviyede ve 5. sınıfta da başarılı olabilir; ancak süreklilik bir seviyede sağlanabilirse verimin daha fazla olabileceği düşüncesindeyim.’, ‘gerçekten sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni olan kişilerin bu alanda atamalarının yapılması gerekmektedir. özellikle 8. sınıflar için ek kaynaklar verilmelidir.’, ‘seçmeli derslerde sosyal bilgiler alanında öğrencilerin seçebileceği dersler getirilmesi.’, ‘ailelerin eğitilmesi, ekonomik durumlarının iyileştirilerek daha elverişli ev ortamlarının oluşması okulların daha donanımlı öğrencinin ihtiyaçlarına cevap veren hale gelmesi gerekiyor.’, düz anlatıma dayalı ders işleme yöntemini her sosyal bilgiler öretmeni en aza indirmeli, öğrenci merkezli, ürüne ve etkinliklere dayalı yöntem izlenmeli.’, ‘sosyal bilgiler dersine ait gezi bütçesi veya ödeneği olmalı (gezi içeriğini meb belirlemeli).’, ‘sistemin iptali ve tek ve gerçek sistemin; eğitime ve insana gerçek anlamda değer verilmesinin olduğunun benimsenmesi. eğitimin kalitesini artırmanın yolu; filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 83 öncelikle eğitime, insana ve öğretmene değer verilmelidir.’, ‘5. sınıflara yönelik üniversitelere yeni dersler veya konular konulabilir.’ bu soruya verilen cevaplardan temel çözümü “öğretim programı/ders kitapları yenilenmeli” olarak belirtenlerin verdikleri cevaplardan bazıları şöyledir: ‘4+4+4...geçiş sistemiyle birlikte hiçbir sorun oluştuğunu düşünmüyorum. 5. sınıftan itibaren sosyal bilgiler dersinin branş öğretmenleri tarafından verilmesini çok uygun buluyorum.’, ‘herhangi bir sorunla karşılaşılmamıştır.’, ‘çok fazla sorunla karşılaşmadı. tek karşılaştığım sorun öğrencilerin hala ilkokul alışkanlıklarına devam etmesi oldu. fakat bunu da olumlu bir şekilde kullanarak sorunları aştım.’, ‘bence 4+4+4 geçiş sistemiyle sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin karşılaştığı sorun yoktur.’, ‘herhangi bir sorun ile karşılaşmadım. tam tersi bir durumla kendi öğrencilerimin temelini ben attığım için daha çok başarılı olduğumu düşünüyorum.’ tartışma, sonuç ve öneriler sonuçlar ve tartışma bu araştırmada; sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşleri alınıp, elde edilen verilerin istatistiksel analizleri yapılarak aşağıdaki sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri, eğitim sisteminde değişiklik yapılmadan önce görüşlerinin alınmadığını belirtmişlerdir. güven (2012) bir ülkede eğitim reformu yapılıyorsa bunun ilgili taraflarla ihtiyaç analizi yapılarak başlatılmasını, ihtiyaç analizi sonuçlarına göre hedeflerin belirlenmesini ve reforma ilişkin ön uygulamaların yapılması gerektiğini belirtmektedir. güven’e (2012) göre ayrıca ön uygulama sonuçlarına göre gerekli düzeltmeler yapılmalı, tekrar uygulama yapılmalı, sorunlar en aza indiğinde ülke düzeyinde uygulamaya geçilmelidir. türkiye’de uygulanmakta olan 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin 258 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin görüşlerine göre bu aşamaların gerçekleşmediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri 4+4+4’ün hazırlık ve uygulama süreçlerinde milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından yapılan çalışmaların yeterli olmadığını, bilgi vermek amacıyla hazırlanan basılı ve görsel materyallerin ve eğitim içeriğinin yetersiz olduğunu, fiziksel alt yapı hazırlanmadan uygulamaya geçildiğini, öğretmenlerin görüşlerinin alınması gerektiğini belirtmişlerdir. ayrıca katılımcıların yetersiz buldukları konu başlıkları; sosyal bilgiler öğretim programlarının sisteme uygun olarak yenilenmemesi, 4. sınıflarda branş öğretmenlerinin derse girmemesi, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine 5. sınıflarda derse girebilmeleri için eğitim verilmemesi şeklinde ifade edilebilir. sisteme ilişkin belirtilen yetersizliklerin yanında sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sistem değişikliğine ilişkin olumlu görüşleri şöyledir; 5. sınıflar sosyal bilgiler dersinin branş öğretmeni tarafından verilmesi, journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 84 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin gelişimine katkı sağladığı, iş yüklerini arttırmadığı, 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin seviyelerine rahatça inebildikleri şeklindedir. memişoğlu ve i̇smetoğlu (2013) tarafından 4+4+4 uygulamasına ilişkin okul yöneticilerinin görüşlerinin belirlenmesi amacıyla yapılan çalışma sonucunda, 4+4+4 uygulamasını olumlu, doğru, yararlı şeklinde değerlendiren yöneticiler, bazı eksiklikler ve yöntem yanlışlığına dikkat çekmişlerdir. ayrıca doğan, demir ve pınar (2014) tarafından 4+4+4 kesintili zorunlu eğitim sisteminin sınıf öğretmenlerinin görüşleri doğrultusunda değerlendirilmesi amacıyla yapılan çalışma sonucunda katılımcılar 12 yıllık zorunlu eğitimi savunurken, okullardaki alt yapı eksikliği, öğretmenlerin branş değişikliğini ve hizmetiçi eğitimin yetersizliğini eleştirdikleri sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. söz konusu çalışmalar bu araştırma verilerini destekler niteliktedir. araştırmanın ikinci alt problemi doğrultusunda katılımcı görüşlerinin cinsiyet, mezun olunan bölüm, mesleki kıdem, 5. sınıfta sosyal bilgiler dersine girme ve 4+4+4 sistemiyle branş değişikliği yapma durumları değişkenleri açısından analizine yer verilmiştir. analizlerde katılımcı görüşlerinin bütün değişkenler açısından anlamlı bir farklılık göstermediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. çalışmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine uygulanan görüşme sorularına yapılan içerik analizinde; 5. sınıf öğrenci seviye sorunu, ders saatinin yetersizliği, ders kitabı ve öğretim programı kaynaklı sorunlar, ders kitabı ve öğretim programı kaynaklı sorunlar, okul ve ortam yetersizlikleri/materyal yetersizliği veya eksikliği, hizmet içi eğitim eksikliği, öğretmenlerin yetersiz olması gibi başlıklarda sorunlar olduğu görülmüştür. katılımcılar bu sorunlara yönelik çözüm önerisi olarak, öğretim programı/ders kitapları yenilenmeli, ders saati sayısı arttırılmalı, okul ve ortam yetersizlikleri/materyal yetersizliği veya eksikliğinin giderilmesi, öğretmenler hizmetiçi eğitime alınmalı, diğer çözüm önerileri olarak sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin özlük hakları iyileştirilmeli ve alan değişikliğinin önüne geçilmeli şeklinde görüş belirtmişlerdir. katılımcıların, 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin sosyal bilgiler branş öğretmeni tarafından verilmesini olumlu buldukları sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. bu bulgu, demir, doğan ve pınar’ın (2013) yeni eğitim sistemiyle birlikte 5. sınıflarda derse giren branş öğretmenlerinin yaşadıkları sorunları öğretmenlerin görüşlerine göre değerlendirmek amacıyla yaptıkları araştırma sonuçlarıyla ve çatak (2014) tarafından 12 yıllık zorunlu eğitim ile gerçekleştirilen sosyal bilgiler öğretimine ilişkin, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin görüş ve değerlendirmelerinin ortaya konulması için yaptığı araştırmada öğretmenlerin 5. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersindeki filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 85 branşlaşmaya olumlu baktıkları sonucuyla örtüşmektedir. ayrıca bu araştırma sonucunda 4. sınıf düzeyinde sosyal bilgiler derslerinin sınıf öğretmeni tarafından verilmesi sorununu 4+4+4 geçiş sisteminin çözmediği, 4. sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinin de branş öğretmenleri tarafından verilmesi gerektiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. katılımcılar, nicel verilerin analiz sonucunda 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin seviyelerine inmekte zorluk yaşamadıklarını belirtirken görüşme formundan elde edilen bulgularda ise 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin kavramları anlamalarına ilişkin seviye sorunu yaşadıklarını ifade etmişlerdir. bu araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin öğrenci seviyesine inmekte sorun yaşamadıkları ancak 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin soyut kavramları anlama düzeylerine ilişkin sorunları olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. karadeniz ve ulusoy (2015) tarafından yapılan çalışma; ortaokula 5. sınıfta başlayan öğrencilerin uyum sorunu yaşaması ve öğrencilerin bilişsel duyuşsal gelişim açısından hazır bulunuşluklarının yeterli olmamasından dolayı kaos yaşadıkları sonucuyla bu araştırmayı destekler niteliktedir. bu bulgu demir, doğan ve pınar’ın (2013) sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri üzerinde yapmış olduğu çalışma bulgularıyla çelişmektedir. demir, doğan ve pınar (2013) araştırmalarında sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 5. sınıf derslerine girdiklerinde öğrencilerin seviyelerine inme konusunda sorunlar yaşadıklarını belirtmiştir. 4+4+4 eğitim sistemine ilişkin hizmetiçi eğitim veya bilgilendirme çalışmalarına katılmadıklarını, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 5. sınıflarda derse girmelerine yönelik eğitim almadıkları ve 5. sınıflarda derse giren sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin hizmetiçi eğitime ihtiyaçlarının olmadığını belirtmişlerdir. bu bulgu demir, doğan ve pınar’ın (2013) yaptıkları araştırma sonuçlarıyla çelişmektedir. 12 yıllık zorunlu kesintili eğitim sistemine geçişte sosyal bilgiler dersliklerinin fiziki alt yapısının düzenlenmediğini belirtmişlerdir. külekçi (2013) 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin birleştirilmiş sınıflara olumlu olumsuz yansımalarını birleştirilmiş sınıflarda görev yapan öğretmenlerin görüşlerine göre değerlendirmek amacıyla yaptığı çalışma sonucunda fiziki alt yapının yetersiz olduğu sonucuna ulaşmıştır. tüm bu verileri destekler nitelikte karadeniz ve ulusoy (2015) tarafından yapılan çalışmada araştırmaya katılan öğretmenler fiziki ortamı olumsuz olarak değerlendirmişlerdir. katılımcılar 4+4+4’e geçişin sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin iş yükünü arttırmadığını ve branş öğretmenlerinin ders yükünün artmasının sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin kalitesini düşürmediği belirtmişlerdir. bu bulgu külekçi’nin (2013) araştırma bulgularıyla çelişmektedir. külekçi journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 86 (2013) yaptığı araştırmada eğitim sistemdeki değişikliğin öğretmenlerin iş yükünü arttırdığı sonucuna ulaşmıştır. karadeniz (2012) yaptığı çalışmada 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin birçok açıdan tereddüt yarattığı ve 6287 numaralı kanunun beklenilen ihtiyacı karşılamadığı, gerekli çalışmalar yapılmadan sistemin hayata geçirildiği sonucuna ulaşmıştır. bu araştırma bulguları da sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının eksikliklerini bu bağlamda ortaya çıkarmıştır. araştırmaya katılan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri; sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının ihtiyaçlarının ve gereksinimlerinin yeni sistemle karşılanmadığını, sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının yenilenmediğini, sosyal bilgiler öğretim programının yenilenme çalışmalarının zamanında tamamlanmadığı, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin 5. sınıf programını tanımamalarını bir sorun olarak görmediklerini ifade etmişlerdir. ayrıca sosyal bilgiler dersinin eksik ve aksayan yönlerinin 4+4+4 sisteminin hazırlık çalışmalarında belirlenmediğini, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin sorunlarını çözmek için herhangi bir destek mekanizmasının olmadığını, 4+4+4 sistemini tanıtmak için hazırlanan materyallerde sosyal bilgiler programının uygulanmasına yönelik bilgilerin kısmen yer aldığını, 4+4+4 sisteminin sosyal bilgiler derslerini etkilediği görüşlerini ifade etmişler ve tüm bunların sistemin ihtiyaç analizi ve uygulayıcı görüşü alınmadan hayata geçirilen bir sistem olmasından kaynaklandığı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. araştırma kapsamında ulaşılan bulgular gürkan tarafından 1987 yılında yayınlanan “temel eğitimde 6 yaş uygulamasının değerlendirilmesi” adlı çalışmasında belirtilen sorunlarla benzerlik göstermektedir. gürkan (1987) bu çalışmasında hiçbir ön hazırlık yapılmadan uygulamaya konulan bu kararın; eğitim programları, eğitim materyalleri, öğretmen eğitimi, destek faaliyetleri planlanmadığı için uygulamada başarısız olduğunu belirtmiştir. öneriler araştırma sonucunda elde edilen veriler ışığında planlamacı, araştırmacı ve uygulayıcılara aşağıdaki önerilerde bulunulmaktadır: 1. eğitim sistemiyle ilgili kararlar da asıl uygulayıcı olan öğretmenlerin görüşlerinin alınması gerekmektedir. 2. tüm eğitim paydaşlarının katılımıyla oluşturulacak uygulama planlarının pilot çalışmasının gerçekleştirilmesi, elde edilen bulgulara göre gerekli düzenlemelerin yapılması gerekmektedir. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 87 3. araştırma sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin örneklem olarak alındığı karma bir araştırmadır. bu kapsamda 12 yıllık kesintili zorunlu eğitim sisteminin farklı branş öğretmenleri, eğitim yöneticileri, maarif müfettişleri, veliler ve öğrenciler tarafından nasıl görüldüğünü ortaya koymak için nicel ve nitel çalışmalar yapılabilir. kaynakça akpınar, b., dönder, a., yıldırım, b. ve karahan, o. (2012). eğitimde 4+4+4 sisteminin (modelinin) karşıt program bağlamında değerlendirilmesi. marmara üniversitesi atatürk eğitim fakültesi eğitim bilimleri dergisi. 36, 25-39. url: http://edergi.marmara.edu.tr/maruaebd/article/view/1012001132/1012000962 adresinden 15 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. barber, m. and mourshed, m. (2007). how the world's best-performing school systems come out on top. london: mckinsey and company. cerit, y., akgün, n., yıldız, k., ve soysal, m. r. (2014). yeni eğitim sisteminin (4+4+4) uygulanmasında yaşanan sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri (bolu il örneği). eğitim bilimleri araştırmaları dergisi, 4 (özel sayı 1), 59-82. url: http://ebadjesr.com/images/makale_arsiv/c4_os1makaleler/eyfor.04.pdf adresinden 21 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. creswell, j. w. (2003). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. çatak, m. (2014). ortaokullarda sosyal bilgiler öğretiminin öğretmen görüşlerine göre incelenmesi. yayımlanmamış doktora tezi. afyon kocatepe üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. demir, s. b., doğan, s., ve pınar, m. a. (2013). 4+4+4 yeni eğitim sisteminin yansımaları: beşinci sınıflardaki eğitim-öğretim sürecinin branş öğretmenlerinin görüşleri doğrultusunda değerlendirilmesi. turkish studies, 8(9), 1081-1098. url: http://turkishstudies.net/makaleler/488479498_070demirsel%c3%a7ukbe%c5%9fi r-vd-2%20(2)-1081-1098.pdf adresinden 16 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. diranna, k. ve loucks h. s. (2001). designing program for teacher leasers: the case of the california science implementation network. developing teacher leaders: professional development in science and mathematics; (eric no. ed 451 031). journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 88 doğan, s., demir, s. b. ve pınar, m. a. (2014). 4+4+4 kesintili zorunlu eğitim sisteminin sınıf öğretmenlerinin görüşleri doğrultusunda değerlendirilmesi. i̇lköğretim online, 13 (2), 503-517. url: http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/vol13say2/v13s2m12.pdf adresinden 20 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. doğan, s., uğurlu c. t., ve demir a. (2014). 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin okul paydaşlarına olumlu ve olumsuz etkilerinin yönetici görüşlerine göre incelenmesi. gaziantep university journal of social sciences, 13(1), 115-138. url: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/260133419_444_eitim_sisteminin_okul_pay dalarna_olumlu_ve_olumsuz_etkilerinin_ynetici_grlerine_gre_ncelenmesi adresinden 17 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. eğitim-bir-sen (2012). 4+4+4 yeni eğitim sistemi, ne getiriyor? neler olmalı? ankara: hermes tanıtım ofset. url: http://www.egitimbirsen.org.tr/ebs_files/files/yayinlarimiz/121egitimbirsen.org.tr-121.pdf adresinden 21 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. erg (eğitim reformu girişimi) (2014). temel eğitimin kademelendirilmesi sürecine ilişkin politika önerileri. url: http://erg.sabanciuniv.edu/sites/erg.sabanciuniv.edu/files/444politikanotu.14.03.14.w eb(1).pdf. adresinden 18 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. eurydice. (2008). avrupa’daki öğretmenlerin sorumluluk ve özerklik düzeyleri. url: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/thematic_reports/094tr.pdf adresinden 21 haziran 2015’te alınmıştır. friel, s. ve brigt, g. w. (2001). effective professional development for teacher leaders: lessons learned from k-6 mathematics teacher enhancement program. developing teacher leader: professional development in science and mathematics. (eric no. ed451 031). gür, b. s., özoğlu, m., coşkun, i. ve görmez, m. (2012). 2012’de eğitim. seta analiz. siyaset, ekonomi ve toplum araştırmaları vakfı, url: http://file.setav.org/files/pdf/20130104114533_seta_analiz_2012egitim.pdf adresinden 21 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. gürkan, t. (1987). temel eğitimde 6 yaş uygulamasının değerlendirilmesi (ankara ilinde bir inceleme). ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi yayınları. no: 155 güven, i̇. (2012). eğitimde 4+4+4 ve fatih projesi yasa tasarısı=reform mu?, i̇lköğretim online, 11(3), 556-577, url: http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/vol11say3/v11s3m1.pdf adresinden 24 haziran 2015’te alınmıştır. filiz zayi̇moğlu öztürk 89 hofstein, a. ve even, r. (2001). developing chemistry and mathematics leader in israel. developing teacher leader: professional development in science and mathematics. (eric no. ed 465595) karadeniz, c. b. (2012). öğretmenlerin 4+4+4 zorunlu eğitim sistemine ilişkin görüşleri. eğitim bilim toplum dergisi. 10(40), 34-53. url: http://www.egitimbilimtoplum.com.tr/index.php/ebt/article/view/488/pdf adresinden 15 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. karadeniz, o. ve ulusoy, m. (2015). 4+4+4 eğitim sistemi ile sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde ortaya çıkan kaotik durumlar hakkında sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin görüşleri. yükseköğretim ve bilim dergisi. url: http://higheredusci.beun.edu.tr/text.php3?id=1665 adresinden 17 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. kurul, t. n. (2008). türkiye’de eğitim politikalarının dönüşümü (s. 49–58). eğitim bilimleri bakış açısıyla türkiye cumhuriyetinde eğitimin çağdaş değerlerle i̇rdelenmesi çalıştayı, 1–3 mart, ankara. külekçi, e (2013). 4+4+4 eğitim sistemi kapsamında birleştirilmiş sınıf uygulamasına ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi. eğitim ve öğretim araştırmaları dergisi. 2 (2). url: http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/40._ebru_kulekci.pdf adresinden 21 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. meb (2012). 12 yıl zorunlu eğitim sorular ve cevaplar. url: http://www.meb.gov.tr/duyurular/duyurular2012/12yil_soru_cevaplar.pdf?chk=014 02264464c3ac021307baed3a38ab1 adresinden 21 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. memişoğlu, s. p. ve i̇smetoğlu, m. (2013). zorunlu eğitimde 4+4+4 uygulamasına ilişkin okul yöneticilerinin görüşleri. eğitim ve öğretim araştırmaları dergisi, 2(2), 14-25. url: http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/02._salih_pasa_memisoglu_mehmet_is metoglu.pdf adresinden 20 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. olson, m. n. (1999). grounding our vision and ambition in 21st century reality: tools and tangible outcomes which exemplify oxy teacher leader development and achievement. assessment standarts ist. oxt teacher leader career portfolio. paper presented at the annual meeting of the california educational research association, california. örs, ç., erdoğan, h. ve kipici, k. (2013). eğitim yöneticileri bakış açısıyla 12 yıllık kesintili zorunlu eğitim sistemi: ığdır örneği. iğdır üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi. 4, 131154. url: http://sosbilder.igdir.edu.tr/makaleler/275728428_08_ors_(131-154).pdf adresinden 20 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(2), 31-90 90 özdem, g. (2008). türkiye’de 1980 sonrası uygulanan eğitim politikalarının ilköğretim okullarında yarattığı dönüşümün değerlendirilmesi (s.243–251). eğitim bilimleri bakış açısıyla türkiye cumhuriyetinde eğitimin çağdaş değerlerle i̇rdelenmesi çalıştayı, 1– 3 mart, 2008, ankara. öztürk, c. (2012). daha iyi eğitim için 4+4+4 modeli, http://haber.marmara.edu.tr/ozturk-dahaiyi-egitim-icin-444-uygulanmali/ adresinden 21 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. peker ünal, d. (2013). sınıf öğretmenlerinin 4+4+4 uygulamasına yönelik görüşleri. eğitim ve öğretim araştırmaları dergisi. 2(4), url: http://www.jret.org/fileupload/ks281142/file/36.peker_unal.pdf adresinden 21 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. sezgin, s. i̇. (2001). türkiye ab ilişkileri. ab’nin eğitim, öğretim ve gençlik politikaları. ankara: ankara ofset. swanson, j. (2000). what differentiates an excellent teacher from a teacher leader? paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, new orleans. taymaz, h. (2003). okul yönetimi. 7. baskı. ankara: pegema yayıncılık. whitsett, g. ve riley, j. (2003). defining and applying leadership: perception of teacher leader candidates. presented at the annual meeting of the mid-south educational research association, biloxi. yamaç, k. (2001). nedir bu i̇novasyon? üniversite ve toplum, bilim, eğitim ve düşünce dergisi. 1 (3). url: http://www.universite-toplum.org/text.php3?id=38 adresinden 21 şubat 2015 tarihinde alınmıştır. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2018:9 (2), 189-209 189 productive resources management: how visiana bhakti cooperative samarinda strives nur fitriyah1 abstract this study examines strategies used by the cooperative to develop productive resources and how internal and external factors are identified to support the strategies. a qualitative case description illuminated factors the cooperative faced. the research was conducted in visiana bhakti cooperative samarinda indonesia, involving 15 participants. an in depth interview, observation and document analysis were used as the sources of data. a hybrid of swot (strengths, weakness, opportunities, threats) analysis, external and internal factor evaluation (efe and ife), was used to analyze the data. the findings show that the productive resources were developed to anticipate environment changes, compete with others, develop human resources, develop capital, cooperate with linkages, and build trust. externally, competitiveness and literacy in technology were deemed the most essential for the sustainable cooperative. internally, the objective of the cooperative and the amount of capital were dominant. keywords: cooperative, productive resources, internal and external factors introduction this study explores strategies to develop productive resources managed by the savings and loans cooperative, visiana bhakti cooperative of television station samarinda indonesia. it describes how the cooperative strives to diversify its business and the strategic plans for handling internal and external factors affecting performance of the cooperative. cooperatives have a significant role in developing the indonesian economy by reducing poverty and unemployment and improving people’s welfare (deville et al., 2007); they contribute about 70% of the national agriculture output (ilo, 2012). cooperatives can potentially increase economic well-being by fostering sustainable development at the community level (yusuf, ijaiya & ijaiya, 2009). 1 dr. , faculty of social and political sciences, mulawarman university, indonesia,fitunsmul@gmail.com mailto:fitunsmul@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 subandi (2015, p. 158) argues the cooperative has three important roles in national development: as a mobilizer of the potential of weak economic classes, as economic institutions that are indispensable for most indonesians, and as an equalizing agency in national economic development. meanwhile, norhatan (2014) and movsisyam (2013) argue the cooperative movement is now the driver of development in regions of indonesia. by 2012, there were approximately 192,443 cooperatives with more than 30 million members in indonesia (ilo, 2012). the cooperatives enjoy support from local and central governments, and a minister of cooperatives oversees development (ministry of cooperatives and sme, 2014) by providing subsidies and soft loans to strengthen their competitive advantages (sulastri & maharjan, 2002; movsisyam, 2013). private banks are also involved in financing cooperatives, and private companies are encouraged to work with cooperatives. in 2000, cooperative organizations received idr 1.8 trillion in government and private loans (sulastri & maharjan, 2002; norhatan, 2014). most cooperatives in indonesia are savings and loans cooperatives (movsisyam, 2013; ica, 1995). however, most cooperatives struggle to obtain credit, to develop additional knowledge and skills, and to improve economic prosperity (norhatan, 2014). the visiana bhakti cooperative has recently begun to diversify its business to include the procurement of office supplies, hygiene kits, and daily drinks for members. it struggles with capital shortages, disputed needs, discouraged management, and limited facilities. based on the above background, the research questions for this study are: 1) what strategies are used by the visiana bhakti cooperative in developing productive resources at tvri samarinda? 2) how are external and internal factors that support and inhibit the visiana bhakti cooperative identified? literature review cooperative etymologically, cooperative means joint effort. “cooperatives are autonomous associations of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise” (ica, 1995; fitriyah norhatan, 2014). a cooperative’s main purpose is to meet members’ needs, though they may achieve economies of scale by selling goods and services to non-members (movsisyam, 2013). according to norhatan (2014), cooperative management involves the annual general assembly, which includes the management, audit team, and committees. the general assembly, the governing body, must be called at least annually. in bangladesh, india, nepal, fiji, thailand, and sri lanka audits are done by the department of auditors or by qualified auditors appointed by the government. auditors may, alternatively, be appointed by the general assembly or the cooperative union, as in korea, japan, the philippines, malaysia, and indonesia. cooperatives emerged as early as the 1820s and flourished in the 1830s along with the industrial revolution (trewin, 2004). the cooperative movement in indonesia began in the late nineteenth century and was initiated by aria wiraatmadja. firstly, cooperative in indonesia was founded by a mayor of puwokerto under dutch colonial rule in 1896 (mohd. azhari, et al., 2017) to create a savings and loans cooperative for the agricultural sector to protect citizens from being trapped by usurers (ahsan & nurmaya, 2016). further movements were established by boedi oetomo (1908) and syarekat islam (1911) (mohd. azhari, et al., 2017). after independence in 1945, cooperatives were explicitly incorporated as the basis of a nation-based economy in article 33, paragraph 1 of the 1945 constitution. the cooperative movement progressed in the twentieth century with housing and trade cooperatives (ica, 2013; galor, 2013). in 2016, there were 212,135 cooperatives in indonesia with a total membership of 37,783,160 (ministry of cooperatives and smes, 2016; dunggio & yasra, 2016). cooperatives in indonesia are characterized by “gotong-royong” (bowen, 1986; norhatan, 2014), which means “mutual assistance”, “mutual cooperation” and “voluntary effort” to achieve collective benefits (norhatan, 2014). cooperative values such as “musyawarah” are foundational in indonesian culture; musyawarah encourages dialogue and compromise to reach fair decisions (bowen, 1986). cooperatives must uphold gotong-royong and musyawarah to encourage solidarity among community members in achieving mutual benefit (norhatan, 2014). today, however, savings and loans cooperatives are facing serious and fundamental problems (galor, 2013) including problems with basic concepts such as the cooperative’s nature and aim journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 and its structure and principles of operation; there are also severe problems with management and the ability to develop and initiate projects to increase revenues (mohd. azhari, et al., 2017). globally, though such cooperatives often fail to satisfy their members’ needs, members and administrators are rarely able to comprehend the problems in question (galor, 2013). cooperatives also face problems with human resources, lack of participation, inadequate mastery of technology, and distrust of the community (mohd. azhari, et al., 2017). the role of cooperatives cooperatives play the largest role in national businesses in indonesian socioeconomic life (hamid, 2005, p. 43; damanik, 1986), and they have a strong impact on the national economy and manpower (mohd. azhari, et al., 2017; norhatan, 2014). by 2015, there were 186,100,917 working people in indonesia, though cooperatives employed only 574,451 people, or 1% (mohd. azhari, et al., 2017). capital, profit earned, and business volume for cooperatives from 2010 to 2015 appea r in table 1. table 1 capital, profit and business volume of cooperative 2010 -2015. no year capital profit earned (trillion idr) business volume 1 2015 242.4 17.3 266.1 2 2014 200.6 14.8 189.8 3 2013 170.3 8.1 125.5 4 2012 102.8 6.6 119.2 5 2011 75.4 6.3 95 6 2010 64.7 5.6 76.8 856.2 42.7 872.4 factors affecting human resources internal and external factors affect human resources (suciati, 2015; kangas, et al. 2016). internal factors refer to the aspects of the cooperative’s organization and external factors are influences from the wider environment, as summarized in table 2. fitriyah table 2 internal and external factors affecting human resources no internal factors external factors 1 mission and objectives of the organization government policy 2 goal achievement strategy culture 3 nature and type of activities development of science and technology 4 type of technology used competition among organizations method approach this qualitative study explores how the visiana bhakti cooperative develops productive resources. the observation-based interviews were employed inductively. based on document analysis, the interviews were specifically developed to interrogate documented information. swot analysis was used to process the data. according to kangas et al., “in a swot analysis, the internal and external factors most important for the future success of a company (or any decision maker) are grouped into four categories: strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats” (2016). this study focuses on the cooperative’s competency to anticipate environment changes, compete with others, develop human resources, develop capital, cooperate with others, and develop trust. participants this study involved 15 participants: 8 current managers and 7 are former managers. these were selected based on their understanding of the cooperative’s problems. thus, purposive sampling was used, as is common in qualitative research; this non-random sampling method is tailored to the purpose of the study. selection criteria identified participants who were experienced in cooperative management, active members of the cooperative, and always present at member meetings. data sources data for this study came from the visiana bhakti cooperative and included an overview of the cooperative’s organizational structure and the duties of the managerial board and supervisors. primary data were collected from the entire community of the cooperative, and relevant official and unofficial documents were analyzed. additionally, results of interviews with participants were journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 recorded. secondary data were obtained from several sources: reference books, journals, annual and monthly reports, and evaluations. data collection and data analysis techniques data on perceptions of the cooperative were collected using observations and interviews. document analysis was undertaken prior to and after interviews. leaders and members of were observed, and archival records and physical artifacts were collected. participants were interviewed, and followup interviews were conducted for seven participants to verify their practices and perceptions of the cooperative’s appropriate role. data were processed as follows. first, interviews were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim using qualitative techniques. the transcriptions were coded, themes were identified, and the results were checked for validity (miles and huberman, 1994). themes and sub-themes were provided in followup member checks. second, the observations and field notes provided the necessary material for data validity measures. third, followup interviews were set in accordance with the results of pervious steps. transcripts, codes, and themes were provided to participants for followup interviews to ensure the authenticity and validity of data (carpenter, 2015, p. 468). the hybrid methods that combine swot and efe/ife adapt a study by kangas et al. (2016, p. 1) and proceed as follows: 1) the swot analysis is carried out and relevant external and internal factors are identified. 2) the relative importance of the swot factors is determined separately within each swot group. criteria of internal and external factors and their comparison principles are applied. 3) the relative importance of the swot groups is determined. 4) the decision alternatives are evaluated with respect to each swot factor according to the comparison rules of the applied efe/ife method. 5) global priorities may now be calculated for the decision alternatives in accordance with the efe/ife aggregation techniques. specifically, the analysis adapts purnomo & zulkiflimansyah (1999, pp. 50-53) as follows: 1) the efe matrix was positioned in a column with opportunity and threat in a matrix. a list of fitriyah important factors from the external environment that showed the opportunity and threat for the cooperative is made. 2) the ife matrix was positioned on the line with strengths and weaknesses. the important factors of the internal environment showing the strengths and weaknesses of the cooperative are identified. 3) the swot/ tows matrix consists 8 stages, and is modeled in table 3: a. create a list of organizational external opportunities b. create a list of external threats to the organization c. create a list of internal strengths of the organization d. create a list of internal weaknesses of the organization e. match internal forces and external opportunities and record results in the so strategy cell f. match internal grievances and external opportunities and record results in a wo strategy cell g. match internal forces and external threats and record results in the st strategy cell h. match internal weaknesses and external threats and record results in the wt strategy cell. table 3 matrix of swot analysis (adapted from salusu, 2003, p. 356). . efe ife opportunities – o administer external opportunities of the organization threats – t strength – s administer internal strengths of the organization strategy so strategy st weakness – w strategy wo strategy wt results this study contributes two findings: strategies used by visiana bhakti cooperative to develop productive resources and results of swot analysis in implementing the strategies. the first findings deal with the ability to anticipate environment changes, compete, develop human resources, expand capital, cooperate, and develop trustworthiness. the second findings describe strategies identified from external and internal factors using swot analysis. ability to anticipate environment changes changes of management in the visiana bhakti occurred due to the members’ and management’s journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 desire for diversification. our study shows that to anticipate environmental changes, the cooperative innovates and increases its services. first, it varies its products (stationery, beverages and food) and services (desk chair rental). second, the cooperative provides services to members’ households by developing partnerships with various local businesses, including the matahari department store and a cleaning service. the cooperative’s work highlights how change is managed through diversification, partnerships, and internal communication. its strategies include: • supporting parties in becoming self-employed. • educating members on the background, purpose, and effect of the cooperative’s changes. • encouraging members to participate decision-making processes. • negotiating with parties opposed to change to reach a compromise (interview, 16 august 2017). ability to compete competition is related to external factors and should be anticipated. it must be fairly maintained using the right strategies and transparency (interview, september 7, 2017). our findings show cooperative management must be professional, transparent, and programmatic to face competition. visiana bhakti develops fair competition with other cooperatives professionally and openly, while the manager carefully develops cash flow and expansion (interview, august 21, august 25, and august 23, 2017). the cooperative’s financial statements facilitate communication of financial data with concerned parties. the manager said: in my opinion, the development of cooperative competition can be done by observing other cooperatives that are operating around and outside the environment. for example, the establishment of ar-rahman cooperative in griya asri tvri housing affect the membership and deposits. some members of the cooperative visiana bhakti register as double membership in visiana and in ar-rahman and moved their deposit to ar-rahman. (interview, august 27, 2017). ability to develop human resources interviews revealed human resources are the main drivers in the cooperative’s management and development efforts: fitriyah to develop human resources, the board actively involves members through continuous and ongoing education and training so that they are more professional and able to keep up with developments. every year, we send 2 people for training on cooperative management at east kalimantan provincial cooperation office. (interview, august 29 and september 7, 2017). education and training provide the following benefits: • improving the organization of annual member meetings. • training in using technology. • foreign language training to improve communication. • financial management workshops on preparing statements and recordkeeping. • training in managerial skills. • comparative studies to broaden knowledge. in training, the cooperative uses the principle of mutual cooperation and is focused on “becoming a strong economic teacher and able to provide prosperity for members and society”: to improve the quality of human resources, cooperative management organizes education and training in collaboration with city and provincial cooperatives department, such as managerial skills training to reduce the needs of accountant services and transaction processing. (interview, august 25 and august 29, 2017). another member of the board says: in my opinion at the moment, the board of the visiana bhakti cooperative has been trying to provide good service to its members. the members are given more opportunity to have training on cooperatives because the board should know more on cooperative. (interviews, august 21 and 25, 2017). ability to develop capital the capital of visiana bhakti cooperative comes from members (staple savings, mandatory deposits, and voluntary deposits) and state banks –bni 46 and mandiri bank. venture capital is increased through mandatory savings. the management said: journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 visiana bhakti cooperative develops business capital through members and the cooperative itself. cooperative management can identify the collective needs of its members and promote member economic enterprises. this means that cooperatives can increase their selling power. (interview, september 7, 2017). this quotation suggests the cooperative manager coordinates and or executes venture capital. table 4 shows the distribution of members’ dividends based on their savings. table 4 distribution of dividents as of december 31, 2016. no total saving of the members in idr f % 1 5.009.232,04 6.244.0039,04 6 4,110 2 3.744.424,03 5.099.232,03 27 18.493 3 2.539.616,02 3.744.424,02 61 41.781 4 1.304.808,01 2.539.616,01 21 14.384 5 70.000,00 1.304.808,00 31 21.232 total 146 100 according to table 4, the average deposit is rp 2,784,886, and the total savings, as of 31 december 2016, is rp 400,508,987. table 5 compares the capital in 2016 to that in 2014 and 2015. table 5 comparison of 2014, 2015 and 20016 capital cases. no member savings 2014 (idr) 2015 (idr) 2016 (idr) 1 deposits 7.600.000,00 7.600.000,00 7.250.000,00 2 mandatory deposits 248.527.131,00 273.152.631,00 275.235.000,00 3 voluntary savings 106.617.535,00 117.198.069,00 118.023.987,00 4 donation n/a 6.935.000,00 n/a total 362.744.666,00 404.885.700,00 400.508.987,00 ability to cooperate visiana bhakti cooperative collaborates with bni 1946 and syariah mandiri bank based on three main principles: balanced division of labor and benefits; principle of transparency; and principle of equality between partners (interview, august 16, 2017). the collaboration benefits the cooperative as each member pays the mandatory savings through the banking system. however, some dislike this system, as noted below: i have a poor experience regarding the payment of mandatory savings. i think the system is not quite good. i am disappointed, so i also register as a member of other cooperative. (interview, august 27, 2017) fitriyah though the collaboration offers the benefit of a long-term transparent financing system, owing to the system’s problems, the cooperative struggles to maintain this collaborative relationship. the ability to build trust trust is important in encouraging cooperative behavior and facilitating innovation. reciprocal trust between members and the management can be realized through maximum service to members and ensuring all members feel a sense of justice. trust is also built through financial transparency and the presence of auditors (interview, august 21, 2017). trust in the visiana bhakti cooperative is built on the basis of honesty, fairness, transparency, accountability, and professionalism. annual member meetings build trust and trust among members increases confidence, thereby reducing suspicion and costly monitoring processes. the management said: building trust in cooperatives must be done through integrated supervision. this requires cost. cooperatives also require venture capital, for that there must be an increase in savings [from] cooperative members. wow the increase of compulsory member saving has been done as much as 2 times. (interview, 7 september 2017). analysis of internal and external factors external factors table 6 shows the results of efe are based on elements of opportunity for and threat to the visiana bhakti cooperative. table 6 external factors of opportunities and threats no opportunity threat 1 law no. 25/1992 on cooperatives no assigned manager in the organizational structure of the visiana bhakti cooperative 2 visiana bhakti cooperative has a board: decree number 878/ bh/ pa9/ kwk.17/ ix/1997 banking with big capital 3 government assistance for cooperative facilities and infrastructure competition of fellow cooperatives in tvri 4 cooperation with internal institutions and banks negative perceptions of cooperatives journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 5 alleviate employees’ burdens during economic crisis the absence of government employee revenue in tvri 6 cooperative development policy 7 public perceptions about cooperative savings and loans 8 diversification of business 9 training for members internal factors the ifes refer to the strengths and weaknesses within the cooperative, as described in table 7. table 7 internal factors: strengths and weaknesses of the cooperative no strengths weaknesses 1 cooperative facilities and infrastructure: warehouses, roads to cooperatives, air conditioners, computers, office furniture membership is reduced when members reach retirement age 2 standard organizational structure cooperative advisors do not participate 3 members’ annual meeting weak internal control 4 organizational coordination is in progress limited education and training 5 considering competition strategy still using services from outside parties 6 fostering relationships with members suboptimal use of assets 7 sufficient human resources 8 adequate finances 9 increasing mandatory deposits in the in-depth analysis, the efe and ife are combined into contingency tables containing swot matrices consisting of so strategies, st strategies, wo strategies and wt strategies, see below. table 8 strengths and weaknesses strategies no internal factors-strengths (s) no external factors-weakness (w) 1 facilities and infrastructure 1 decreasing membership following retirement 2 organizational structure 2 cooperative advisors do not participate 3 members’ annual meeting 3 weak internal control 4 organizational coordination 4 limited training 5 consider the competition strategy 5 using third-party services 6 good relationship with members 6 suboptimal use of assets 7 adequate human resources 8 satisfactory finances 9 mandatory deposits must be increased the swot analysis matrix through the summary of the contingency table appears in tables 9 and 10. fitriyah table 9 so strategies opportunity (o) strategy so strategy wo 1. the law ri no. 25/1992 a. integrating all components: department of cooperatives, banking, partners a. provide opportunities and expand cooperation with relevant institutions to improve the quality of human resources 2. decree no. 878/bh/pag/kwk 17/ix/1997 b. involve supervisors in monitoring credit b. optimize training for members 3. government aid for infrastructure and facilities c. increase member participation through health care services c. improve the business by optimizing available facilities 4. cooperation with internal and external institutions d. continually monitor cooperative’s needs d. evaluate organization’s work teams 5. increase civil servants’ income 6. cooperative development policy 7. perceptions of savings and loans cooperatives 8. diversifying business 9. organize training and workshops table 10 st strategies threats (t) strategy st strategy wt 1. no manager in the organizational structure a. giving rewards for voluntary savings a. proactively coordinate between organizations 2. banking with big capital b. innovation in the provision of credit packages according to members’ needs b. increased promotional activities through tvri station 3. competition with cooperatives in tvri c. establish a business network in the same field as outsiders c. provide flexibility to members after retirement 4. negative perceptions of cooperatives d. address the dependency on venture capital 5. no acceptance of civil servants in tvri notes: so strategy: harness the power and fill the opportunities; wo strategy: overcome weakness and fill opportunities; wt strategy: overcome weaknesses and face threats; st strategy: harness the power and defeat the threat journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 discussion visiana bhakti cooperative’s strategies for developing productive resources are measures of its performance. yustika (2007, p. 182) confirms that it functions as a small to medium sized business, and like other potential cooperatives, it requires government support (yusoff & febrina, 2014; world bank, 2013; francescone, 2015). furthermore, both internal and external factors affect members’ participation (suciati, 2015; friedman, 1992). likewise, yusuf, ijaiya & ijaiya (2009) suggest that internal factors affecting the development of a cooperative include mission and objectives, strategy, nature and types of activities, and technologies used. the external factors affecting development include government policy, development of science and technology, and competition (norhatan 2014). ability to anticipate environmental change the visiana bhakti cooperative anticipates environmental changes through increasing diversification, communication, and participation as well as by establishing relationships with outside parties. our findings support the studies of suciati (2005), movsyisyam (2013), and ahsan & nurmaya (2016); we found that internal and external factors play strategic roles in cooperatives. external factors have more power than internal forces. external forces affect savings and credit for businesses where transactions are characterized by mutual need and trust (mohd. azhari, et. al., 2017). subandi (2015) argues that in the future a cooperative should have the ability to anticipate trends of environmental change, emphasizing that internal strength should take precedence. cooperatives should conduct research on the impact of change (ica, 2012). optimally, management should work professionally, understand business concepts, and provide opportunities for capital owners to work together (mohd. azhari, et. al., 2017). ability to compete competition should be fair, and communication, financial and otherwise, should be transparent and constructive. visiana bhakti uses an accountant to prepare financial statements, thus enabling transparent financial reporting. fitriyah competitiveness of small-scale enterprises in the global market (budiarto, et. al, 2015, p. 6-7; dunggio & yasra, 2016) has grown and supported cooperation between small and large businesses. according to budiarto et al. (2015) and galor (2013), the global economy encourages changes in economic actors’ behavior that increase use of competition to improve bargaining power. ability to develop human resources the highest priority of visiana bhakti cooperative is to develop human resources and workforce management. our findings show that leaders regularly undertake training toward these ends: e.g., financial management workshops, managerial skills. organizations benefit from developing a commitment to action and participation, triggering new thinking regarding human resources, educating participants, and defining opportunities and threats to human resources’ ability to achieve objectives. education and training improve members’ empathy with one another and increase their commitment to the cooperative so members can work together to achieve common goals. areros (2006, pp. 345-347) states that training can help cooperative managers understand operations and encourage meaningful participation. ekaningsih (2013, pp. 202-203) asserts education and training have a significant effect on improving resources by making members and management more skilled and responsible. though training is a short-term investment, development is a long-term investment of human resources (rahman, 2010, p. 20). ability to develop capital building capital would accelerate visiana bhakti cooperative’s development. its capital consists of principal savings, mandatory savings and voluntary savings. mandatory savings have increased by up to 250%, which increases the flow of funds in the long run. additionally, the cooperative receives capital from bni 1946 and syariah mandiri bank. these funds allow the cooperative to increase the numbers of loans and borrowers to increase profits. since capital development is management’s responsibility, they must cooperate with other sources journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 of capital. however, there is no clear separation of responsibilities in the cooperative’s management. sections for accounting, financing, cash receipts, and cash disbursements are not separated, making the internal controls weak. furthermore, the cooperative’s supervisor affirms communication between the board and supervisors is still weak, which negatively effects trust. galor (2013), movsisyam (2013), and friedman (1992) suggest trust is the most important element when seeking credit. to improve trust, the 7cs are used train employees and members: character (regarding past financial transactions), capacity (ability to repay the loan), capital (available funds), collateral (security guarantee), conditions (both general economic and sector specific conditions), competence (able to understand and enter into credit agreements), constraint (any obstacles that prevent repayment) (rahman, 2010; salusu, 2003). ability to cooperate birchall (2004) argues that to effectively steer socioeconomic development, the cooperative must involve community members in organizing, coordinating, and managing development programs. participation will enhance cooperatives’ potential (ighomereho, dauda, & olabisi, 2012). visiana bhakti cooperative collaborates with internal and inter-institutional organizations to increase capital to supplement members’ savings. savings are limited because only mandatory savings can be developed by management. our findings show the cooperative empowers its members by providing loans. it also provides training in entrepreneurship and business management, as well as sustainable collaboration with various parties, including related government institutions. subandi (2015, p. 157) affirms that collaboration either with government or other parties, should involve exchange between experts or management education and training. rahman (2010) suggests seven reasons cooperation with the government should work: 1) parties working with government can form a larger force that mitigates an institution’s limitations. 2) parties working together can achieve more. 3) parties working together can be more empowered and have a fitriyah better bargaining position regarding various strategic issues. 4) parties working together can minimize or prevent conflict. 5) each party feels more justice because transparency means each has equal access to information. 6) each party will select sustainable areas for cooperation. 7) cooperation can reduce regional ego to realize the vision of advancing the region together. the ability to build trust trust and fidelity in the visiana bhakti cooperative are maintained through optimal service to members, professional business management, and integrated supervision. as a saving and loans cooperative, it improves members’ welfare and access to resources. thus, members of the cooperative receive quality services through credit, and they can participate in the cooperative by becoming permanent members in other businesses undertaken by the cooperative. duvianto (2013) confirms our findings. internal controls as part of managerial supervision are still weak due to the absence of strict or clear job descriptions for each member of staff. in addition, there is no serious security concerning the collection of accounts receivable, and the balances of receivables in the financial statements have not been presented reasonably. subandi (2015, p. 159) affirms a cooperative can achieve an optimum level of development if its managers adhere to business protocols. trust encourages cooperative behavior and facilitates the development of new associations and innovations (fukuyama & weber, 1995). where there is a high degree of confidence, people are more willing to take risks (birchall, 2004). trust and trustworthiness (doody, 2013) are factors in choosing connections. conclusion and implications in summary, the evidence shows that visiana bhakti cooperative strives to manage its capital through diversification. internal and external factors are analysed to control and monitor decision making. specifically, strategies to develop productive resources include access to credit, education, and training; access to internal and external agency collaboration; and cooperative development policy. the cooperative emphasized effective strategies, human resources journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 development, collaboration with donors, and innovation. the external factors providing benefit for the management are law no. 25/1992 and decree no. 878/bh/1997. management can procure facilities and infrastructure, while cooperating with internal and external agencies to help employees economically, diversification, and organizing management. the internal factors from which management can benefit include organizational structure, annual member meetings, competition strategy, members’ solidarity, adequate human resources, adequate financial balance, and mandatory savings that always increase. despite limitations in scope, this study has three implications. first, cooperatives need greater specificity regarding roles, responsibilities, and tax advantages. second, special educational programs should be developed specifically for cooperatives. third, members must contribute common equity for the cooperative to remain viable and gain support from donor organizations (norhatan, 2014). suggestions include: to achieve optimal results, local government should give its full support to emerging cooperatives; to facilitate access to resources, partnerships with syariah financial institutions must be clearly stated; to increase profits, design a variety of credit packages; and to empower human resources in financial management and financial statements, improve training. fitriyah references aeros, w. a. (2006). dampak pelatihan terhadap pengetahuan, sikap dan partisipasi anggota koperasi studi pada anggota kud di kecamatan langowan, jurnal bisnis dan manajemen, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 214–224. ahsan, a.& nurmaya, e. (2016). cooperatives in indonesia: recent conditions and challenges. researchgate: september 2016. birchall, j. (2004). cooperatives and the millennium development goals. geneva, switzerland: international labor organization. bowen, j. r. (1986). on the political construction of tradition: gotong royong in indonesia. the journal of asian studies, 45(3), 545–561. https://doi.org/10.2307/2056530 budiarto, r. dkk. (2015). pengembangan umkm antara konseptual dan pengalaman praktis. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. carpenter, d. (2015). school culture and leadership of professional learning communities. international journal of educational management, 29(5), 682–694. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijem-04-2014-0046. damanik, d.e. (1986). pengetahuan perkoperasian. jakarta: penerbit dwi segara. deville, k.c. et al. (2007). farmer cooperative statistics, 2006. in: r.d. united states department of agriculture, editor, washington, d.c. doody, j. (2013). paths to economic success in singapore and indonesia in asia. retrieved january 23, 2018, from http://asiafoundation.org/in asia/2013/07/10/paths-to-economic-success-in-singapore-and-indonesia/ dunggio, m. and yasra, m.n.i. (2016). the influence of cooperative development on economic performance and welfare of society in bali province, iosr. journal of economics and finance, 7(5):28–38. doi:10.9790/5933.0705.32.838. duvianto, a. (2013). audit piutang pada koperasi pegawai negeri tri dharma universitas mulawarman di samarinda, samarinda: skripsi, fe unmul. ekaningsih, a. s. (2013). peran pendidikan dan pelatihan serta kompetensi dalam upaya peningkatan kualitas sumber daya aparatur. jurnal borneo administrator, 9(2), 132– 144. francescone, k. (2015). cooperative miners and the politics of abandonment in bolivia. the extractive industries and society, 2(3), 746–755. friedman, j. (1992). empowerment: the politics of alternative development. cambridge: blackwell. fukuyama, h., guerra, r. & weber, w. l. (1999). efficiency and ownership: evidence from japanese credit cooperatives. journal of economics and business, 51(3), 473–487. galor, z. (2013). saving and credit cooperatives: a new conceptual approach. available on www.coopgalor.com. retrieved on 21 march 2018. hamid, e. s. (2005). ekonomi indonesia dari sentralisasi ke desentralisasi. yogyakarta: uii press. ighomereho, s. o., dauda, r. s., & olabisi, j. (2012). making cooperative for poverty alleviation and economic development in nigeria. in o. o. oluyombo (ed.), cooperative finance in developing economies (pp. 23–39). lagos, nigeria: soma prints limited. international cooperative alliance. (2013). indonesia highlights of consumer co-ops. https://doi.org/10.2307/2056530 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijem-04-2014-0046 http://www.coopgalor.com/ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(2), 189-209 retrieved from international cooperative alliance website: http://ica.coop/en/co-opstories. retrieved on 21 february 2018. international cooperative alliance. (1995). revision to the cooperative principles. ica. international labor organization. (2011). economic and other benefits of entrepreneurs’ cooperative as a specific form of enterprise cluster. geneva: ilo. international labor organization. (2012). reducing poverty and creating jobs through cooperatives in indonesia. retrieved march 3 2018, from http://www.ilo.org/jakarta/info/public/pr/wcms_183301/lang--en/index.htm kangas, j., kajanus, m., leskinen, p., & kurttila, m. (2016). incorporating mcds and voting into swot –basic idea and experiences. serbian journal of management, 11(1), 1–13. doi:10.5937/sjm11-9661 mangkuprawira, s. (2003). manajemen sumber daya manusia strategik. jakarta: ghakia indonesia. miles, m., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. ministry of cooperatives and small medium enterprises. (2014). recapitalization cooperatives by province 2000-2013. jakarta, indonesia: ministry of cooperatives and small medium enterprises. mohd. azhari; syechalad, nur; hasan ishak & abd. majid, m. sabri. (2017). the role of cooperatives i indonesian economy. international journal of humanities and social science invention, 6(10): 43-46. movsisyam, s. (2013). the role of cooperatives in the development of agriculture in armenia, asian countries and eu (worldwide case study). berlin, germany: institute for cultural diplomacy. norhatan, h. (2014). cooperative movement impacts on poverty eradication in indonesia: 2007-2011. archival research. master’s thesis of fort hays state university. available at http://scholars.fhsu.edu/theses/69. retrieved on 10 march 2018. purnomo, s. & zulkieflimansyah. (1999). manajemen strategi. jakarta: lembaga penerbit f.e. universitas indonesia. rahman, a. (2010). pengembangan pegawai melalui perencanaan pelatihan yang efektif. jurnal borneo administrator, 6(2). 150–163. salusu. (2003). pengambilan keputusan strategik: untuk organisasi publik dan organisasi nonprofit. jakarta: gramedia widia sarana indonesia. subandi. (2015). ekonomi koperasi (teori dan praktik). bandung: penerbit alfabeta. suciati. (2005). the strategic role of women's cooperatives in empowering women towards access to productive resources. jurnal penelitian ilmu-ilmu sosial, 6(1), 24–37. sulastri, e., & maharjan, k. l. (2002). role of dairy cooperative services on dairy development in indonesia: a case study of daerah istimewa yogyakarta province. journal of international development and cooperation, 9(1), 17–39. trewin, t. (ed.). (2004). cooperatives: issues and trends in developing countries. perth: report of a workshop. world bank. (2013). indonesia overview. retrieved 24 march 2014, from http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia/overview yusoff, m. b., & febrina, i. (2014). trade openness, real exchange rate, gross domestic investment and growth in indonesia. the journal of applied economic research, 8(1), 1– 13. http://scholars.fhsu.edu/theses/69 fitriyah yusuf, n., ijaiya, g. t., & ijaiya, m. a. (2009). informal financial institutions and poverty reduction in the informal sector of off a town, kwara state: a case study of rotating savings and credit associations (roscas). journal of social sciences, 20(1), 71–81. yustika, a. e. (2007). perekonomian indonesia satu dekade pasca krisis ekonomi, malang: badan penerbit fe unibraw. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (1), 1-23 notions of spiritual capital a matter of extinction for social education? thomas a. lucey1, 2 abstract this paper describes the results of a study that examined college of business and college of education students’ conceptions of the term “spiritual capital.” participants (n = 56) consisted of students at a public midwestern university in the united states. results found that almost half of the participants considered spiritual capital to represent a concept related to spirituality. participants also mentioned values, religion, economics, or broader society in their definitions, though other participants acknowledged their uncertainty regarding the term. results of chi-square tests and fisher’s exact test indicated no significant relationship between participants’ major and any of the coding categories used. key words: critical theory, financial literacy, moral education, spirituality, spiritual capital. introduction nearly 300 years ago, adam smith (1759/1976; 1775/1986) recognized that associations with economic resources presented moral challenges. although smith’s work provided the basis for traditional economic perspectives, scholarship generally fails to appreciate the broader picture of his writings as pertaining to citizenship (herman, 2014; wilson & dixon, 2012). smith described a nuanced view of economics that was misunderstood and unappreciated by his contemporaries (wilson & dixon, 2012). smith recognized that human nature is both self-interested and otherconcerned. he was worried that community capital pursuits were not in the best interests of the entire population (herman, 2014). having a sense of one’s capital or resources may provide a basis for understanding how one perceives his or her social identity. these environments help inform the developmental basis for one’s feelings and behaviors – one’s sense of what’s appropriate or inappropriate (narvaez & bock, 2014; narvaez & gleason, 2013; panksepp & biven, 2012). recent scholarship interprets 1 professor, illinois state university, tlucey@ilstu.edu 2 the author acknowledges, and is grateful for, the contributions of elizabeth s. white, illinois state university. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 understandings of moral practice as an expression of loyalty to a social system of greed or one of care (haiven, 2017; lucey & lin, 2020). within the individual, this negotiation between selfpromotion and self-denial undergirds the sense of his or her spirituality (helminiak, 2015; lucey, 2019b). helminiak’s (2015) belief that spirituality represents a valid concept that concerns the nature of emotions guiding one’s decision-making would indicate that interpreting the state or degree of emotions and nature of his or her worldview (be it religious or secular) may guide understandings of his or her moral decision-making. capital represents a measurable economic term. the business dictionary defines economic capital as the “factors of production that are used to create goods or services, and are not themselves in the process.” (business dictionary.com, 2020). for example, teaching and learning develops human capital for future business activity by broadening the worker knowledge to accomplish an employer’s production and management functions. economics involves five (raw materials, formation, composition, investment, and return on investment) elements of capital that relate to the production of goods and services. yet there are works that describe another form of capital, spiritual, which requires consideration (rima, 2013; zohar & marshall, 2012). spirituality represents an abstract matter that eludes complete comprehension, yet informs the interpretation of material processes (crossan, 2015; tickle & sweeney, 2014). the nature of one’s spirit informs patterns in his or her decisions (lucey, 2018; lucey & lin, 2020). yet spirituality involves different conceptions as guided by conditioning and context (e.g., crossan, 2010; helminiak, 2015; lucey, 2019b; tickle & sweeney, 2014). teaching and learning wrestles with the question of whether to perceive spirituality as a loyalty concept that informs citizenship or a greater sense of community (lucey & lin, 2020; watson, 2003). for example, spirituality may represent an invisible factor that justifies decisions that relate to the acquisition of wealth and/or the care of people. the relationship of spirituality to moral practices concerns the loyalties that guide decision-making. the intersection of spirituality and capital yields a concept that seemingly possesses inherently contradictory features. yet it also presents an interesting concept for social studies educator consideration. it broaches a broad conception of citizenship and its relationship to economics. how one interprets the concept of spirit may guide his or her understanding of spiritual capital. while zohar and marshall (2012) describe spiritual capital as a process for increasing corporate profitability, rima (2013) explains spiritual capital as an altruistic concept. lucey (2019b) lucey 3 reconciles this inwardly/outwardly view by interpreting spirituality as a process of negotiating the intersection of emotions (compassion and control) and worldview (internal and external). spiritual capital could appear to represent a matter for social studies dialogue. the notion of spiritual capital represents a concept that informs the social studies education community about the intersection of three disciplines: economics, citizenship, and philosophy – in this case, the subdiscipline of morality. this paper concerns the concept of spiritual capital, a hybrid concept that blends identity and economic considerations. spiritual capital offers social education a potential construct for understanding citizenship orientations and navigating the intersection of social conventions of greed and objectification with justice-orientations of stewardship and compassion. it represents a manner of interpreting or conceptualizing relationships to financial resources and associated dispositions that guide social behaviors. theoretical framework this paper is grounded in the concept of critical theory (cornbleth, 2017) and its reframing of understandings of citizenship. it interprets westheimer and kahne’s (2004) seminal typology of the “good citizen” – which describes personally responsible, participatory, and justice-oriented citizens as a range of loyalties to a system of wealth distribution that favors to a small group of socially privileged. westheimer and kahne (2004) describe the personally responsible citizen as one who adheres to a system of rules that govern the social system. they present the participatory citizen as reaffirming and reinventing the system by providing new opportunities for personally responsible citizens to engage in societal processes. finally, they characterize the justice-oriented citizen as examining the system and seeking systemic change to alter the underlying structures that undergird social decision-making. a perspective of this paper is that personally responsible and participatory citizens affirm the existing structures of the economic/financial system and that spiritual capital offers a justice-oriented perspective that offers a basis for reorienting economic and financial theory and practice. criticism of the existing economic system and its supporting scholarship employs alternative perspectives that focus upon bases for power (adams, 2019; 2020; shanks, 2019). arthur (2012; 2016) criticized traditional perspectives of economic and financial literacy as lacking sound philosophical foundations and representing justifications of self-promotion and greed. critical views of financial literacy claim that financial education reinforces a capitalist narrative that journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 policymakers impose (pinto, 2014). critical perspectives argue the validity of alternative foundations for economic and financial education to wealth accumulation (blue & grootenboer, 2019; lucey, et al., 2015) in exploring spiritual capital, this paper assumes a critically oriented perspective of economics that offers alternative bases for loyalty than those advocated for in existing structures. whereas economics concerns the efficiency of distributing goods and services, the framework that guides this paper holds that traditional approaches to economics promote the wellness of only a nominal percentage of the population. this critical perspective perceives traditional economic conceptions as representing materially-based perspectives that focus on maximum of profit for a privileged minority. a spiritually-oriented conception may broaden conceptions of economics toward a view that contributes a social good founded on different principles. literature the concept of spiritual capital represents an intersection of two areas, perception of identity and finance/economics. this paper interprets the spiritual capital as representing the perception of one’s relationship to economic materiality. the notion of capital relates to the amount of a resource to accomplish a particular outcome for purpose. for example, human capital represents the amount of human resources necessary to accomplish a task. financial capital is the amount of money that supports the operation of a commercial or domestic economic unit. spirituality may represent an element of production. yet it may also represent a propensity to realize and practice a loyalty to an intangible concept. because spirituality represents a term that involves negotiation of traditional and critical social perspectives (lucey, 2019b), one may wrestle with the interpretation of spiritual capital and how it informs his or her identity. the literature that guides this study relates to three areas: critical economic and financial education, interpretations of spirituality, and moral education. the presentation of literature with regard to these areas occurs in the aforementioned sequence. critical economic and financial education literature that concerns critical economics and personal finance claims that conventional economic/financial theory present mistaken views of social neutrality (e.g., arthur, 2016; pinto & coulson, 2011). as economics and finance represent disciplines that emphasize numeracy, the lucey 5 manner that one interprets patterns of numeric relationships would appear to be consistent with his or her perspectives of social equality and equitability. for example, traditional perspectives hold that regardless of one’s identity, when he or she saves, he or she receives the same rate of interest. with time and regular installments, one has the potential to amass large sums. the ubiquitous nature of these mathematical relationships is nondiscriminatory. everyone has the potential to become wealthy by following the principles of prudent financial management: earning income, saving money, and minimizing debt. the critical perspective asserts that economic structures represent constructs of the privileged that are designed to maintain a system to maximize profit (arthur, 2016). typical of these critical voices are davidson and davidson (1996), who argue that conventional economic theory is rooted in selfishness, rather than social good; along with dobbin (2003) and hedges (2010), who claim that the corporate state serves the needs of the executive elite, rather than the public consumer. more recently, arthur (2016) observed that the justifications for entrepreneurial pursuits lack sound philosophical grounding. he suggested that bias exists in the foundations of financial education theory, which advances self-interests of the privileged, rather than promoting the social good. mass produced economic and financial education curricula serve to reinforce financial practice through the lenses of the privileged and fail to address the origins and lives of all social participants (loomis, 2018; pinto, 2012; pinto & coulson, 2011). rather, they enforce a system of financialization that values people for their contribution to the economic system (haiven, 2017). critical scholarship contends that existing approaches to financial education reinforce an ideology of the socially privileged by inducting youth to a system of numeracy founded upon principles of merit (arthur, 2012). this critical view holds that traditional financial literacy provides for a limited social vision that discourages distinctions between personal finance and economics. these processes indoctrinate children and youth to a system of financialization that feigns objectivity and values individuals for their contribution to the financial system, rather than for their individual and cultural identities (haiven, 2017). yet davies (2015) observes economics and personal finance as being mutually informing. teaching personal finance and economics separately limits the students’ potential to realize a holistic vision of financial decision-making. although wilkinson and picket (2009) document a positive correlational relationship between economic parity and societal wellness, traditional views of economics and financial literacy feed upon the consumer appetites to reinforce a system of objectification, greed, and profit that fails to journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 appreciate alternative world views (blue, 2019; haiven, 2017; pinto & coulson, 2011). lucey et al. (2015) consider the notion that financial literacy may develop a compassionate sense of personal self-worth by resisting a system founded on resource control. in their view, control represents a process for manipulating resources for one’s own purpose, compassion concerns an expression of accepting environments and interpreting his or her relationship to them. by perceiving finances as aspects of one’s environment, rather than objects for control, one’s basis for patterns of social loyalties may change. rather than a loyalty to the privilege-controlled system of financialization, the basis for allegiance changes to another basis. a compassionate critical view of financial literacy would appear to be one that reexamines the system, much as does westheimer and kahne’s (2004) justice-oriented citizen. justice-oriented citizens question the structures that cause social injustices to occur (westheimer, 2015; westheimer & kahne, 2004). critical perspectives of economic and financial literacy challenge the choice-based framework of traditional perspectives that assert the appropriateness of controlling resources for social advantage providing the foundation upon which financial literacy rests. understandings of spirituality the last few decades have witnessed a changed emphasis with regards to interpretations of spirituality. watson’s (2003) analysis of articles in the international journal of children’s spirituality found scholarly interpretations of spirituality drifting toward a stronger identification of the concept with citizenship, and less with religion. cottingham (2003/2013) argued that spirituality represents the effort of an individual to make sense of his or her ultimate death. yet cottingham (2003/2013) also considered spirituality and science to be mutually affirming. they inform each other in that spirituality provides a sense of meaning to the objects. he wrote, “the spiritual life characteristically carries a metaphysical freight; it involves claims which are not within the domain of rational knowledge…. science indeed provides an increasingly full description of the phenomenal world. – perhaps it will even be complete.” (p. 52). accepting cottingham’s (2003/2013) notion that science and spirituality are mutually dependent would seem to indicate that material relationships inform and structure the nature of one’s spiritual identity. this human-focused interpretation of spirituality presumes a mutual dependence of the spirit and body, one cannot exist without the other (crossan, 2015). tickle and sweeney (2014) lucey 7 review church history to describe spirit as an external presence that can intervene in human relationships. in this view spirits exist separately from human form, providing elements of randomness in the relationships between humans. as spirituality relates to education, mclaughlin (2003/2013) described several factors that affect the teaching of spirituality in schools: a mutually-agreed upon understanding of spirituality, the political nature of schools, and absence of trustworthy spiritual guides. although a generally accepted definition of spirituality does not exist, corporate interests that drive education policy emphasize material production and would seem to dismiss spirituality’s presence or contextualize it in a behaviorist fashion (picciano & spring, 2011). watson’s (2003) observation of a scholarly trend towards more humanistic visions of spirituality would indicate that school attention to spirituality necessitates its being conceptualized as associated with citizenship, community, or mindfulness (understandings founded on human-based groundings). one may construe the separation of church and state as representing a mere secular effort of convenience to avoid spiritual conflicts at the essence of human nature. creating distinctly purposed institutions does not absolve a society from the struggle that represents the core of the human spirit. community and mindfulness represent the path taken, as kessler and fink (2008) considered the concept as representing a sense of inwardness, or a person’s ability to develop a sense of inner peace. developing a peaceful sense of self occurs through encounters with safe and nurturing environments that invite and welcome constructive release of these tensions. in their work with elementary school children, kessler and fink (2008) mentioned six essential elements of these safe environments: to feel and know they feel; to tolerate confusion; to express their feelings; to ask questions; to take risks and make mistakes; and to wrestle with impulses. these classrooms’ “play” and “expressive arts” represent tools for development of student community and belonging. spirituality represents a component of human decision to be differentiated from creativity and serves as the basis for education that yields community benefits, including the workplace (capeheart-meningall, 2005; geroy, 2005; helminiak, 2015; miner, 2017). a broad account of accounting for a beginning framework to interpret financial decisions establishes that “an individual represents a composite of various possibilities of material and spiritual manifestations of compassion and control.” (lucey, 2018, p. 6). a profit motivated business focus discourages non-production understandings of spirituality and its nature. the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 materially-focused nature of business, which controls what passes as knowledge, discourages spiritual perspectives that may pose alternative groundings for economic decision-making. lucey and lin (2020) claim that digital technology represents a vehicle that may capture aspects of users’ spirits. they suggest that the undergirding corporate influences on technology that influence student use patterns may potentially influence students’ spiritual development or may increase potential for social exploitation. the deliberate corporate creation of addictive screen devices creates for a system of spiritual control in which technology influences and monitors users’ consumer and civic decisions (kardaras, 2106). a climate in which corporations capture and sell records of user technology activity amounts to a potential selling of users’ souls. lucey and lin’s (2020) reframing of digital citizenship to account for a spiritual element requires further study. in addition to ethical concerns about the potential corporate of screen technology to manipulate social behavior, the potential to capture and interpret the spiritual essence of individuals and communities prompts the questions about (a) whether one can interpret spirituality as a legitimate numeric concept, and (b) if spirit contributes to economic production, and thus constitutes an element of capital. the development of a citizenry that embraces a plurality of social perspectives would appear to necessitate the protection of children’s spiritual wellness from these technological traps. some literature speaks to a back and forth tension to control the dominant narratives that guide society. for example, crossan (2015) presents the biblical pattern of peace and violence as an effort to control the meanings of christian scripture. tickle and sweeney (2014) describe political maneuverings to alter christianity’s nicaean creed and the nature of the holy spirit. herman’s (2014) description of the historical struggle between platonist and aristotelian worldviews to define this world explains importance of compromise for reconciliation. these clashes represent tensions in the efforts to define the nature of the human existence in terms of material or spiritual elements. the outcome of this struggle defines the patterns of loyalty that guide social canon. moral education according to bergman (2002), being moral represents a process of navigating social environments that present a myriad of values. it requires a sense of agility or nimbleness to adjust to different contexts. interpreting the moral capability of a person requires an appreciation for his or her developmental context on patterns of decision-making (bauer & desautels, 2020). as macintyre’s (1984; 1988) seminal works held that different traditions of virtues guide human lucey 9 reasoning, it would seem that accomplishing the navigation described by berman (2002) necessitates both the openness to accept those encountered and the strength to resist temptations that they may present. practice of the virtues, thus, would require a discipline that involves courage, honesty and honor, yet also principles of prudence, justice, and benevolence. (aristotle, 340 bc/1998; marcus, 2016; smith (as cited in macintyre, 1984)). the morality of this discipline would be based on the desire for a community founded on compassion that values each member for himself or herself (lucey et al., 2017). the challenge to attaining moral practice involves the restraint needed to act prudently in a system of patronage that harbors a disregard for lower economic classes (lindqvist, et al., 2017; shor, et al., 2019). this shaping of attitudes and expectations becomes manifest in implicit social contracts by which social participants practice behaviors expected by the privileged. yet the question of whose standards and whose contribution to their development undergirds a critical view concerning the integrity of these contracts (d’ olimpio, 2019). this contract must be by and for a plurality of moral agents and moral education must allow us to be critical of the ideas and beliefs we and others hold, while simultaneously being respectful towards and compassionate of the others who hold diverse perspectives, recognizing that together we form a community of people seeking the truth and a harmonious life (p. 526). a compassionate emphasis in moral education offers potential to ease the tensions that result from the imposition of this contract. narvaez and gleason’s (2013) examination of literature describes the importance of compassionate environments as the basis for moral development. within such environments of nurturing, care, and compassion, children develop a care-founded sense of selfworth that extends to their relationships with others. the forging of these relationships involves a sense of genuineness that values others for themselves, rather than objects for social advantage. narvaez and bock (2014) observe that moral behavior involves both deliberative and intuitive elements as guided by students’ core emotional faculties. their model for integrative ethical education similarly applies steps that provide for a community founded on principles of care. one’s developmental environments shape the emotional impulses that guide his or her decisionmaking. when considering that one’s moral foundation may originate from emotional imprints of his or her early development, a moral sense of citizenship may require a sense of community founded on compassionate principles (lucey et al., 2017). a person who possesses this sense of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 compassion, or openness to others “defines his or her sense of loyalty by recognizing needs and using compassionate reasoning. this compassion recognizes the potential for control and judgment within oneself and in others.” (p. 303). moral behavior involves a compassionate sense of one’s place in the world such that he or she acknowledges his or her presence, yet realizes that he or she does not represent the world’s focus. tickle and sweeney (2014) observed the occurrence of transformation of the basis for individual and social authority every 500 years. they concluded that humanity experiences a shift towards a spiritual basis for living. they point out that history provides many accounts of individual mystics, yet little attention is given to the communities that they draw. the spiritual re-emergence that tickle and sweeney describe counters a basis for authority founded on material control. lucey (2012) has theorized the notion of financial morality such that one exercises his or her consumer practices in a socially responsible manner. while sawaf and gabrielle (2007) argue that commerce represents a vehicle for heightening spiritual awareness, using profitability to justify their argument would indicate that spirituality represents a vehicle to support a conventional view of economic practice. a study that interpreted attitudes towards financial morality found that education and finance majors conveyed different postures toward moral concepts that related to personal finance (lucey & bates, 2014). rima’s (2013) notion of spiritual capital represents an altruistic concept, much like financial morality. given the differences in perceptions of altruistic concepts, education majors may perceive spiritual capital with a more selfless slant than business majors, who may be interested in responding to a measure about capital, which represents a basic business concept. the literature indicates that moral education practice represents a process of compassion that is based on alternative principles than loyalty to a small group of materially privileged. people express different moral perspectives as guided by the emotional conditions of the environments in which they are raised. as spiritual capital may represent an interpretation of one’s sense of identity in relationship to economic/financial practice, it would represent a matter of moral and economic/financial education interest. the social studies education community lacks a consensus interpretation of the nature of spiritual capital. the current study compared business and education majors’ conceptions of “spiritual capital” and examined the degree to which these conceptions related to broader notions of spirituality. the following research questions guided this study: 1. how do university education and business students define the term “spiritual capital”? lucey 11 2. are there differences in participants’ conceptions of spiritual capital based on student major (education vs. business)? 3. are conceptions of spiritual capital associated with the respondents’ sense of their own spiritual capital? method participants participants derived from a mass email invitation to participate in the survey. the invitation occurred three times over a two-month period during the fall semester and was sent to all graduate and undergraduate students in the colleges of education (2,916 as of fall 2016) and business (3,912 as of fall, 2015) from a public university in the midwestern united states. the survey yielded 67 respondents of which 11 decided not to participate. of the 56 participating respondents, 40 (71.40%) were female. approximately two thirds (66.10%) of participating respondents were undergraduate and one third (33.90%) were graduate students. data collection tools participants responded to the following prompt: “how would you define ‘spiritual capital’?” as the first item in the online survey. this prompt was positioned first to reduce the potential for bias by reading the other items. the analysis described within the current paper interprets patterns of responses to the open-response prompt. it also relates patterns of responses to the respondents’ levels of spiritual capital. participants also completed rima’s (2013) 40-item measure that interpreted their levels of spiritual capital. analysis of the items’ validity and the responses to its 40 items is described in lucey (2019a). data analysis coding of participant responses was an iterative and inductive process using methods described by merriam (2009) to identify themes and patterns in participants’ responses. the analysis used a consensual qualitative research (cqr) method, which includes dividing discussion segments into topic areas, analyzing data across cases for emerging themes, and using consensus coding (hill, et al., 1997). first, the author and a colleague read through all participant responses to the prompt, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 “how would you define ‘spiritual capital’?” each then independently developed a list of coding categories and then met to discuss emergent themes. during this meeting, they aggregated their lists into a coding scheme. next, they each independently coded participant definitions of spiritual capital and then met to compare the codes applied to each definition. disagreement was resolved by consensus, and multiple codes were applied where appropriate. the themes are discussed below. findings rq1. how do students define the term “spiritual capital”? spirituality. the most common response (n = 27, 48%) made reference to spirituality through terms such as “spiritual life”, “spiritualism”, and “spiritual practice.” for example, participants defined spiritual capital as “the capacity one has for holding, maintaining, and practicing with spirituality”, “gains in life from spiritual knowledge and participation in spiritual activities”, and “the effect of spirituality on people.” don’t know. the second most common response was uncertainty (n = 15, 27%), as numerous participants were unsure how to define the term spiritual capital. participant responses included “i’m not sure what it is to be honest”, “i have no clue”, “i am not really sure how to define describe the term “spiritual capital” because i have never heard that phrase before.” six additional participants left the item blank which may also indicate uncertainty regarding the term. values & beliefs. multiple participants (n = 14, 25%) mentioned values or beliefs in their definition. participants included terms such as “set of beliefs”, “moral or psychological beliefs”, and “values of an individual or group.” some of those participants also connected those beliefs to action and motivation of behavior in their responses. for example, one participant commented that spiritual capital included “moral values and how to treat each other with kindness and compassion,” while another said it was “the beliefs and faith a person holds and uses to contribute to the workplace or anything that they are doing.” religion. an additional 12 participants (21%) included specific references to “religion”, “religious practices”, and “the impact of religion and beliefs on society.” mclaughlin (2003/2013) points out that spirituality represents a concept that may be religiously tethered or untethered. the portion of students associating spirituality with religion were a minority of the total. lucey 13 individual & societal association. participant responses differed to the degree that they made reference to individual people versus broader society. for example, multiple participants (n = 14, 25%) focused their definition on the personal and individual level of this construct through comments such as “thought of the individual”, “the value associated with having a higher purpose for one’s life”, and “your spiritual self” while others (n = 6, 11%) made clearer reference to society in general such as “the impact of religion and beliefs on society” and “the value that society gains from spirituality.” interestingly, ten additional participants (18%) made reference to both general society and individual people in their definition of spiritual capital. for example, one participant noted that spiritual capital is “the effect of spiritual or religious practices on individuals or groups of people” while another noted that “spiritual capital influences your decisions and establishes how you approach the world”. economic conceptualization. nine participants (16%) mentioned an economic conceptualization when defining spiritual capital meaning they referenced “gains”, “resources” or “worth.” for example, one participant defined spiritual capital as “gains in life from spiritual knowledge and participation in spiritual activities” while another mentioned “your own worth spiritually, how much you benefit society.” emotional conceptualization. finally, two participants (4%) made references to emotions by mentioning “the currency that affects the socioemotional state or train of thought of the individual” and “the sense of connectedness with inner peace or spirituality that impact our inner harmony and interaction with others.” rq2. are there differences in participants’ conceptions of spiritual capital based on student major (education vs. business)? we used chi-square tests, which examine relationships between categorical variables, to determine whether or not there is a relationship between participants’ conceptions of spiritual capital (all of which were dummy coded) and participant major. fisher’s exact test was employed when cells had a frequency less than 5. data were analyzed in spss v. 24. results indicated no significant relationship between participants’ major and any of the coding categories used by participants to define spiritual capital. rq3. are conceptions of spiritual capital associated with the respondents’ sense of their own spiritual capital? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 the analysis examined pearson correlation coefficients to determine associations between the spiritual capital definition coding categories and the 40-item measure of general spirituality. data were analyzed in spss v. 24. results showed a significant (but weak) negative correlation between one’s sense of spiritual capital and the code for religion (r = -.270, p = .045) meaning that participants who showed a greater sense of spiritual capital were significantly less likely to mention religion or religious beliefs in their open-ended response. no other statistically significant correlations were observed. discussion, conclusion and implications the research study found that the highest frequencies of respondents (1) identified spiritual capital as a concept related to spirituality, (2) did not know how to interpret the term, (3) considered it related to personal values, or (4) presented the idea as related to religion. the analysis determined there to be no significant differences between business and education majors’ interpretations of spiritual capital. it also determined that students who expressed a greater sense of spiritual capital did not consider it to be a religious concept. the findings inform the literature in several ways. the following sections discuss (1) students’ difficulties articulating the nature of spiritual concepts, (2) the perception of spirituality as a social concept, and (3) response similarities between students of different colleges. relating to spirituality nearly one half (48%) of respondents defined spiritual capital as a concept related to spirituality. this finding would seem to suggest that the students focused on spiritual element of the concept presented, rather than the economic terminology. the survey prompt simply asked respondents to interpret the concept of spiritual capital and that the prompt occurred at the beginning of the survey. no study-induced influences are believed to have affected these response patterns. the survey and prompt did not present any prior mention of spiritual terminology or economic terminology to bias respondents’ responses. while sullivan (2003/2013) argued that academics contains an element of scientific bias that obscures the metaphysical nature of spirituality, müller (2016), like cottingham (2003/2013), explains that ancient greeks experienced difficulties separating scientific and abstract notions of their lives. an education process that fosters holistic awareness of science and spirituality and lucey 15 presents balanced life perspective provides a manner of reducing resistance to this element. müller (2016) refers to homeric literature in which “the empirical knowledge, proceeded from the phrenes (the organ of aspiration), is digested and processed into universal knowledge, but never alienated from its physical and emotional contents.” (p. 13). she notes that “the phronésis protects us from our ambition and remembers the beauty of our humanity and vulnerability as a key to happiness.” (p. 14). müller’s observation relates to helminiak’s (2015) observation of core brain impulses that shape patterns of decision-making. creating learning environments that use scientific and spiritual knowledge to create for a balanced interpretation of these impulses may yield a broader appreciation for holistic awareness. while respondents emphasized the spiritual component of the term, one should exercise caution before interpreting these patterns as an indication of spiritual-based loyalties. additional studies need to use broader samples in a variety of settings to clarify relationships between spiritual definitions and beliefs. armstrong (2005) points out that as society has become more scientifically sophisticated, it has lost appreciation for the metaphoric meanings posed by myths and their telling. if, as cottingham (2003/2013) interprets, spirituality represents an activity of moral sense-making, perhaps associating it with capital (a form of resource management) may present a tool for measuring one’s sense of finiteness. spirituality may offer a tool for sense-making that empowers negotiation of the finite and the abstract. difficulty explaining more than one-fourth (27%) of respondents did not know how to explain the concept. while this represents a noteworthy percentage, the reasons for this difficulty are unclear. the responses may also indicate an unfamiliarity with spirituality, capital, or their association in the same term. the responses may also relate to an unwillingness to attempt a definition of item. some scholarship has supported vokey’s (2003/2013) call for public education to strengthen students’ appreciation for learning and community engagement (e.g., kessler & fink, 2008), thereby couching spirituality as a concept that informs citizenship. yet recent literature (lucey, 2019b; lucey & lin, 2020) indicates that a citizenship-based approach to spirituality may provide for an unbalanced social vision. including spirituality in the vocabulary of social education invites students to realize a broader view and appreciate the necessity of its awareness. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 social relationships more than one-half of (54%) of respondents considered spiritual capital as representing a concept that related to benefits to individuals and/or society as a whole. rima (2013) claims that spiritual capital contains the same (raw materials, formation, composition, investment, and return on investment) elements as other forms of capital, arguing that their processing may yield socially just conditions. further examination of effective learning processes to synthesize these represents a necessary scholarly pursuit. if materiality gives form to spirituality, this tangible representation of spiritual capital may represent a temporary concept. if life ceases when spirit leaves the physical object, the object represents the casing that formerly hosted the spirit (crossan, 2010; 2015). spiritual containment can no longer occur in this situation. additional studies may employ focus groups or other interview-based methodologies to interpret the benefits interviewees perceive with spiritual capital and the extent to which they may be relate to social and spiritual ideologies. similarities and differences the current study found no significant differences in how education and business majors defined spiritual capital. spirituality largely represented a difficult concept for participants to explain, regardless of respondents’ field of study. lucey’s (2019b) claim that compassion/control represent two intertwined phenomena that inform one’s disposition towards spirituality would seem to support the difficulties that respondents experienced. the respondents’ sharing of difficulties explaining spiritual concepts, may represent a state of ignorance rooted in failure to appreciate the separate components (material and spiritual) necessary for a holistic life vision. limitations this paper describes the results of a survey that realized a very small percentage of responses. the patterns of findings presented represent those of the respondents and are not generalizable to the population as a whole. while one may attribute this low response percentage to a general disinterest in the topic, this apathy may relate to an education focus on materialist principles that fails to present and reinforce spiritual awareness (mclaughlin, 2003/2013; picciano & spring, 2011). the small number of respondents represents a methodological shortcoming. efforts to generate more robust samples in future studies may include, but not be limited to, the following strategies: lucey 17 broadening the sample to a variety of contexts, providing incentives for survey respondents, and using convenience sampling in classrooms and student group settings. conclusion the title of this paper poses the question as to whether spiritual capital represents a concept that has relevance to social education or whether it represents a concept rooted in unscientific thinking. the study found that to provide a definition of spiritual capital, most respondents either largely drew from elements of the term or they experienced difficulties making sense of the concept. as spiritual capital represents part of the social studies null curriculum, it may be appropriate to consider its relevance to social studies as a concept to bridge the areas of economic/financial, citizenship, and moral education. this paper drew from bergman’s (2002) interpretation morality to present social education as a process of teaching children to navigate an environment of different beliefs and values. yet, this navigation requires some degree of moral adaptability for responses to these conditions, while examining standards for one’s own behaviors. nucci’s (2001) contrasting morality with conventional notions of control and possession would suggest moral practice to be rooted in compassion. narvaez and bock’s (2014) discussion of multi-ethic theory and ethical education would indicate that moral education includes deliberate and impulsive processes to cultivate caring senses of mindfulness. pursuing holistic approaches to social studies education that examine the interconnectedness of its disciplines offers potential for providing students with informed perspectives of spiritual capital and offer social applications (lucey, 2019b). yet, the final determination of how the citizenry construes these relationships lies in the adaptability of the spirit that guides their perspectives. evans and russell (2019) argue that mindfulness and social emotional learning offer potential for enhancing citizenship education. yet social studies educators may heed hyland’s (2017) criticism of the ubiquity of mindfulness and its detachment from the cultural origins that shape its meanings. social education classrooms may employ both creative or artistic projects and independent research to examine spiritual capital and its place in the struggle to characterize economic and financial literacy. viewed from a justice-oriented perspective (westheimer & kahne, 2004), spiritual capital offers moral grounding to restructure conceptions of economic and citizenship journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 education. such re-framing may encourage an alternate basis for valuing populations so to better care for those traditionally marginalized. spirituality represents a truly abstract concept upon which life depends. educating students about its connection to economic processes and financial possessions represents an important process for meaning making. the results of this study indicate that social studies educators have much to consider. references adams, e. c. (2019). economics and the civic mission of social studies education: two critiques of neoclassicism. citizenship, social, and economics education, 18(1), 16-32. https://doi.org/10.1177/2047173419841915. adams, e. c. (2020). whose (economic) knowledge is it, anyway? authorship and official knowledge. critical education, 11(12), https://doi.org/10.14288/ce.v11i12.186542. aristotle (340 bc/1998). the nicomachean ethics. oxford university press armstrong, k. (2005). a short history of myth. canongate books. arthur, c. (2012). financial literacy education: neoliberalism, the consumer, and the citizen. sense. arthur, c. (2016). the ethics of entrepreneurship and financial literacy education: a security and freedom for the other (unpublished doctoral dissertation). ontario: york university. bauer, j. j., & desautels, p. (2020). when life gets in the way: generativity and the development of non-idealized virtues in women’s life stories. journal of moral education, 48(1), 126-145. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2018.1539837. bergman, r. (2002). why be moral? a conceptual model from developmental psychology. human development, 45(2), 104-124. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26763665?seq=1 blue, l. e. (2019). financial literacy education: toward reasonable, just, and sustainable practices. in filho, w. l., azul, a. m., brandli, l., özuyar, p. g., & wall, t. (eds.), quality education encyclopedia of the un sustainable development goals. springer, cham. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69902-8_20-1. blue, l. e., & grootenboer, p. (2019). a praxis approach to financial literacy education. journal of curriculum studies, 51(5), 755-770. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2019.1650115 lucey 19 business dictionary. com (2020). http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/capital.html. capeheart-meningall, j. (2005). role of spirituality and spiritual development in student life outside the classroom. in s. l. hoppe & b. w. speck (eds.), spirituality in higher education (pp. 31-36). wiley. cottingham, j. (2003/2013). spirituality, science, and morality. in d. carr & j. haldane (eds.), spirituality, philosophy, and education (pp. 40-54). routledge. cornbleth, c. (2017). critical theory(s). in m. m. manfra & c. m. bolick (eds.), the wiley handbook of social studies research (pp. 191-208). john wiley & sons https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118768747.ch8 crossan, j. d. (2010). the greatest prayer. rediscovering the revolutionary message of the lord's prayer. harpercollins. crossan, j. d. (2015). how to read the bible and still be a christian. struggling with divine violence from genesis through revelation. harpercollins. d’olimpio, l. (2019). moral education within the social contract: whose contact is it anyway? journal of moral education, 48(4), 515-528. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2019.1580565. davidson, g., & davidson, p. (1996). economics for a civilized society (revised). a. e. sharpe, inc. davies, p. (2015). towards a framework for financial literacy in the context of democracy. journal of curriculum studies, 47(2), 300-316. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2014.934717. dobbin, m. (2003). the myth of the good corporate citizen: canada and democracy in the age of globalization (2nd ed.), james lorimer and company ltd. evans, k., & russell, w. (2019). developing mindful citizens: a commentary on social emotional learning, mindfulness, and citizenship. journal of research in innovative teaching and learning, 12(1), 13-15. https://doi.org/10.1108/jrit-02-2019-0037. geroy, g. d. (2005). preparing students for spiritual in the workplace. in s. l. hoppe & b. w. speck (eds.), spirituality in higher education (pp. 67-74). wiley haiven, m. (2017). the uses of financial literacy. financialization, the radical imagination, and the unpayable debts of settler colonialism. cultural politics, 13(3), 348-369. https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/683305. hedges, c. (2010). empire of illusion. the end of literacy and the triumph of spectacle. nation books. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 helminiak, d. a. (2015). brain, consciousness, and god. a lonerganian integration. suny press. herman, a. (2014). the cave and the light. plato versus aristotle and the struggle for the soul of western civilization. random house. hill, c. e., thompson, b. j., & williams, e. n. (1997). a guide to conducting consensual consulting research. the counseling psychologist, 25(4), 517-572. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000097254001. hyland, t. (2017). mcdonalizing spirituality: mindfulness, education, and consumerism. journal of transformative education, 15(4), 334-356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541344617696972. kardaras, n. (2016). glow kids. st. martin’s griffin kessler, r., & fink c. (2008). education for integrity: connection, compassion, and character. in l. p. nucci & d. narvaez (eds.), handbook of moral and character education (pp. 431-458). routledge. lindqvist, a., björkland, f., & bäckström, m. (2017). the perception of the poor: capturing stereotype content with different measures. nordic psychology, 69(4), 231-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/19012276.2016.1270774. loomis, j. a. (2018). rescaling and reframing poverty: financial coaching and the pedagogical spaces of financial inclusion in boston, massachusetts. geoforum. 95, 143-152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2018.06.014. lucey, t. a. (2012). conceptualizing financial morality. in t. a. lucey & j. d. laney (eds.) reframing financial literacy. exploring the value of social currency (pp. 47-64). information age publishing. lucey, t. (2018). a critically compassionate approach to financial literacy: a pursuit of moral spirit. education sciences, 8(4), 152. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8040152. lucey, t. a., (2019a). examining a measure of spiritual capital. perceptions of business and education majors. citizenship, social, and economics education, 18(1), 3-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/2047173418823543. lucey, t. a. (2019b). intersections of financial literacy, citizenship, and spirituality: examining a forbidden frontier of social education. emerald points. lucey, t. a., & bates, a. b. (2014). comparing teacher education and finance majors' agreement with financial morality topics. citizenship, social, and economics education, 13(1), 39-52. https://doi.org/10.2304/csee.2014.13.1.39. lucey 21 lucey, t. a., & lin, m. (2020). ghosts in the machine: understanding digital citizenship as the struggle of students’ souls with classroom technology. international journal of children’s spirituality, 25(2), 91-108. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364436x.2020.1797641. lucey, t. a., agnello, m. f., & laney, j. d. (2015). a critically compassionate approach to financial literacy. sense. lucey, t. a., agnello, m. f., & laney, j. d. (2017). outside in: a critically compassionate approach to education for civic engagement. social studies research and practice, 12(3), 295-309. macintyre, a. (1984). after virtue (second edition). notre dame press. macintyre, a. (1988). whose justice? which rationality? notre dame press. marcus, g. (2016). the spiritual practice of good actions: finding balance through the soul traits of mussar. llewellyn books. mclaughlin, t. h. (2003/2013). education, spirituality, and the common schools. in d. carr & j. haldane (eds.), spirituality, philosophy, and education (pp. 185-199). routledge. merriam, s. b. (2009). qualitative research: a guide to design and interpretation. jossey bass. miner, m. (2017). creativity and spirituality: psychological perspectives. in m. miner & m. dowson (eds.), creativity and spirituality. a multidisciplinary perspective (pp. 3-23). information age publishing. müller, m. a. (2016). freedom and destiny in ancient greek thought. some footnotes for contemporary science research and education. advances in historical studies, 5, 12-18. narvaez, d., & bock, t. (2014). developing ethical expertise and moral personalities. in l. nucci & d. narvaez (eds.), handbook of moral and character education (2nd ed.) (pp. 140-158). routledge navaez, d., & gleason, t. r. (2013). developmental optimization. in d. narvaez, j. panksepp, a. n. schore, &t. r. gleason (eds.), evolution, early experience, and human development. from research to practice and policy (pp. 307-319). oxford university press. nucci, l. (2001). education in the moral domain. cambridge university press. panksepp, j., & biven, l (2012). the archeology of mind. neuroevolutionary origins of human emotions. w. w. norton & company. picciano, a. g., & spring, j. (2011). the great american education-industrial complex: ideology, technology, and profit. routledge. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 1-23 pinto, l. e. (2012). one size does not fit all: conceptual concerns and moral imperatives surrounding gender-inclusive financial literacy education. citizenship, social, and economics education, 11(3), 177-188. https://doi.org/10.2304/csee.2012.11.3.177. pinto, l. e. (2014). when politics trumps evidence: financial literacy education narratives following the global financial crisis. journal of education policy, 28(1), 95-120. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2012.690163. pinto, l. e., & coulson, e. (2011). social justice and the gender politics of financial literacy education. journal of the canadian association for curricular studies, 9(2), 54-85. rima, s. d. (2013). spiritual capital. a moral core for social and economic justice. gower publishing. sawaf, a., & gabrielle, w. (2007). sacred commerce: the rise of the corporate citizen. sacred commerce. shanks, n. (2019). against ‘economic man”: a feminist challenge to prevailing neoclassical norms in k-12 economics education. theory & research in social education, 47(4), 577-603. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2019.1647904. shor, r., cattaneo, l., & alexander, l. (2019) assessing implicit and explicit attitudes about classism, journal of poverty, 23(6), 487-504, doi: 10.1080/10875549.2019.1616035. smith, a. (1759/1976). the theory of moral sentiments. d. d. raphael & a. l. macfee (eds.), clarendon press. smith, a. (1775/1986). the wealth of nations, books i-iii. penguin books. sullivan j. (2003/2013). scholarship and spirituality. in d. carr & j. haldane (eds.), spirituality, philosophy, and education (pp. 127-140). routledge. tickle, p., & sweeney, j.m. (2014). the age of the spirit. how the ghost of an ancient controversy is shaping the church. baker books. vokey, d. (2003/2013). longing to connect: spirituality and public schools. in d. carr & j. haldane (eds.), spirituality, philosophy, and education (pp. 170-184). routledge. watson, j. (2003). preparing spirituality for citizenship. international journal of children's spirituality, 8(1), 9-24. doi: 10.1080/13644360304641. westheimer, j. (2015). what kind of citizen? educating our children for the common good. teachers college press. lucey 23 westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. educational researcher, 41(2), 237-269. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312041002237 wilkinson, r., & pickett, k. (2009). the spirit level. why greater equality makes societies stronger. bloomsbury wilson, d., & dixon, w. (2012). a history of homo economicus: the nature of the moral in economic history. routledge. zohar, d., & marshall, n. (2004). spiritual capital: wealth we can live by. berrett-koehler publishers www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 210-227 the professional competency teachers mediate the influence of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence on school security sri rahayu1 , nurul ulfatin2 , bambang budi wiyono3 , ali imron4 , muh barid nizarudin wajdi5 abstract qualified educational institutions in indonesia are recognized for their effectiveness, efficiency, and productivity. leaders must pioneer, create, and encourage the growth of the quality culture in schools. they should handle the change and create the educational renewal toward the quality such that school achievement can be achieved effectively. school effectiveness is influenced by the external and internal factors. thus, reviewing teacher professional competencies must mediate the effect of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence on school effectiveness. the samples of this research include 333 civil servant teachers (pns) of the state elementary school in malang city indonesia, and the data analysis used in this study is structural equation models. results corroborate that innovation and emotional intelligence affect teacher professional competence and school effectiveness. such competence can mediate the effect of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence on school effectiveness. key words: teacher innovation, emotional intelligence, teacher professional competence, school effectiveness introduction the role of education in life is important. uud 1945 (the 1945 constitution) mandates that every citizen shall have the right to education and instruction. the government shall also endeavor to organize a national education system whose implementation should be governed by law no. 20 of 2003 on the national education system. this law states that education is a conscious and planned effort to create a learning atmosphere and learning process such that the learners actively develop their potential to have the spiritual power of religion, self-control, personality, intelligence, noble character, and skill that they, society, and the state need. 1 universitas negeri malang. east java, indonesia, srisk@unikama.ac.id 2 universitas negeri malang. east java, indonesia, nurul.ulfatin.fip@um.ac.id 3 universitas negeri malang. east java, indonesia, bambudi2007@yahoo.com 4 universitas negeri malang. east java, indonesia, kangalinet@gmail.com 5 corresponding author : stai miftahul ula nganjuk, baridnizar84@gmail.com rahayu et al. on the basis of the human development index (hdi), indonesia is ranked 113th in 2015. the hdi rating for indonesia in 2014 was 110th. in the same year, education expenditures fell to 0.3% from 3.6% to 3.3 (% of pdb). adult literacy skills (age 15+) rose to 1.1% from 92.8% to 93.9%. the number of students dropped out of school dropped from 11% to 18.1%. education gap remains at 20.8% (wikipedia, 2016). therefore, improving the quality of education in the framework of human resource quality improvement is necessary. such improvement is the policy and program that must be implemented optimally. thus, effort must start from the most basic education unit, that is, elementary school. decentralization provides schools the freedom to develop management measures, which are oriented toward the initiatives of a quality culture. in management terminology, qualified educational institutions are those that meet the requirements of effectiveness, efficiency, and productivity. leaders must pioneer, create, and encourage the growth of a quality culture in school by being forward-thinking and capable of handling change in creating educational renewals toward the quality. thus, effective school predicates are achieved.. school effectiveness is influenced by external and internal factors (karpov, 2017; kılınc, 2017; sander & wiggins, 1985; tarman, 2012; 2016; 2017; tarman & dev, 2018). another opinion about the effectiveness of education in a school according to heneveld in taylor & botoch (rahayu, ulfatin, & wiyono, 2017) is influenced by the interaction between external and internal factors. external factors include community, parents, government, and environmental resource support, as well as the characteristics of prospective students. internal factors of schools involve school climate, leadership curriculum, resources, and facilities. therefore, factors such as organizational, environmental, worker, policy, and management characteristics affect the effectiveness of organizations (steers in meyer & allen [1984]). the research on environmental balance toward non-formal education learning by rahmat, suryanto, & rahim (2018) affirmed that positive direct effects of the learning environment exist on the learning outcomes of environmental balance. moreover, environmental factors, technologies, strategies, structures, processes, and climate culture influence or cause organizational effectiveness (clarke & gibsonsweet, 1998). lipham, rankin, and hoeh (1985) illustrated that school effectiveness can be assessed through organizational performance and maintenance. organizational performances include the productivity variables, tuition fees, adoption, innovation programs, and students’ achievement journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 210-227 212 levels. organizational maintenance includes staff and student satisfaction, motivation, and morale. thus, the rate of change in organizational performances and the level of change in organizational maintenance are key indicators that can be used to assess the effectiveness of school. teachers’ innovation contributes to school effectiveness. rogers and shoemaker (1983) elucidated that the innovation is an idea, a technique or practice, or an object that people or groups consciously accept to adopt. innovation plays an important role in schools. apart from being a source of innovation, schools also accept and run innovations for school progress. bafadal (2009) concluded that implementing educational innovation in good elementary schools occurs in the form of the activity cycle that includes the introduction of innovation, creation condition, implementation, assessment, improvement, and institutionalization. this implementation is possible because of the role of the change of agent, especially the agent of internal change. lipham et al. (1985) illustrated that school effectiveness can be assessed through adopting innovation programs. stoll (1992) validated that school effectiveness is influenced by initiation, improvisation, and reform.. emotional intelligence can affect school effectiveness. according to goleman in momeni (2009), emotional intelligence is the ability to motivate yourself and survive frustration. controlling impulse and not exaggerating pleasure, regulating moods, and keeping the stress burden do not cripple the ability to think, empathize, and pray. cooper and sawaf (1998) verified that emotional intelligence is the ability to sense, understand, and effectively apply the power and the sharpness of emotions as a source of energy, information, and influence. stoll (1992) revealed that, to have effective schools, things must be done with three stages of initiation, improvisation, and reform. lezotte and bancroft (1985) concluded that the superior school characteristics are safe school environment, school climate, high expectations, instructional leadership, clear and focused missions, learning lyrical opportunities, and student learning tasks. teachers’ innovation in managing emotional intelligence can contribute to the professional competence of teachers. a bishop in mcqualter (1985) asserted that professional teachers are selfmanaging teachers in performing their daily tasks. glickman (1981) confirmed that professional teachers have high abilities and high working motivation. mcgee and banks (2004) proved that a relationship exists between the implementation level of the initiative and the improvement of the curriculum in the score, including the level of teachers’ stage of concern and implementation. serotkin (2006) contended that the assimilation model is holistic in the learning of information used in this research, which is influenced by several factors, such as the responsibility of learning, rahayu et al. degree of support, and impact on change. teachers’ positive attitude toward this model is good because it provides opportunities for professional development. ololube (2006) corroborated that teachers with high academic qualifications are more effective than low-qualified teachers. high academic qualifications play an important role in improving their performance. the professional training of teachers can also improve their performance. teachers with professional qualifications motivate students to study hard and more intimately than before. they also use various learning methods to improve their learning performance. professionalism uses appropriate evaluation methods rather than untrained teachers. difference in work effectiveness exists between trained and untrained teachers. a significant difference also exists between the effectiveness of trained and untrained teachers in using the methodology competence. no difference is found in professional effectiveness between professional and unprofessional teachers in the competence of material use. green (2008) affirmed that teachers, parents, and students agree on the five characteristics of school effectiveness, which are a supportive environment, positive school climate, high student expectations, and monitoring of success and basic skills. therefore, conducting a study of teacher professional competence (tpc) is necessary to mediate the effect of teacher innovation and their emotional intelligence on school effectiveness. all text must be 1.5 spaced (except for the title), line spacing, justified size-12, times new roman. the specific problem under study, how it relates to previous work, why and how it is different and how it will contribute to the field should be explained in this section. the arguments and discussion should be grounded on relevant evidence from review of literature. the need that the study intends to meet should be stated clearly by providing evidence from previous research in the field. at the end of the introduction, the aims of the study should be explained clearly as questions or hypotheses. sub-headings can be used in this section if needed. literature review effectiveness of school prince george county public schools (chapman & carrier, 1990) are organized and utilized to ensure that all students, regardless of their taste, gender, or socioeconomic status, can learn the essential curriculum materials in school. cheng in xiaofu and qiwen (2007) revealed that school effectiveness shows the ability of schools to perform social function of humanity, political, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 210-227 214 cultural, and educational functions. the economical function of schools is to provide supplies to students to perform their economic activities to live prosperously. the social function of the humanity of schools is as a medium for students to adapt to the life of the community. the political function of schools is as a vehicle to gain knowledge about the rights and the duties of citizens. the cultural function is a medium for the cultural transmission and transformation. education functions as a vehicle for the process of the maturation and formation of student personality. levine and lezotte (1995) identified the six school characteristics with high achievements. these characteristics are collaboration skills, neat environment, broad principal support to teachers and parental involvement, emphasis on active learning and academic success, and respect for cultural and environmental differences. johnson, livingston, schwartz, and slate (2000) identified the seven school effectiveness, such as strong leadership, clean environment, clear curriculum, parental involvement, high expectations, students’ progress monitoring, and professional development of staff. the emotional intelligence the term emotional intelligence was leveled in 1990 by psychologist peter salovey from harvard university and john mayer from university of new hampshire. it describes the emotional qualities that appear to be essential to success. goleman (1995) claimed emotional intelligence is the ability to motivate yourself and survive frustration. controlling impulse and not exaggerating pleasure, regulating moods, and keeping the stress burden do not cripple the ability to think, empathize, and pray. cooper and sawaf (1998) affirmed that emotional intelligence is the ability to sense, understand, and effectively apply the power and the sharpness of emotions as a source of energy, information, and influence. the teacher innovation rogers (1983) affirmed that innovation is an idea, a technique or practice, or an object that people or groups consciously accept to adopt. social change is based on the following three stages in sequence: (1) invention or the process when new ideas are created and developed, (2) diffusion or the process of new ideas communicated to the social system, and (3) consequences of the change occurring in the social system as a result of adopting and rejecting new ideas. the totality of social change is the result of communication. in schools, innovation plays an important role. apart from rahayu et al. being a source of innovation, schools also accept and run innovation for the school progress. therefore, diffusing innovation is necessary. diffusion of innovation has elements that must be understood and is the clarity of innovation. it implies whether adopting innovation, imitation or modification of ideas, practices and concepts can benefit organizations. sharing ideas is possible given the elements of communication through various channels. such ideas are practiced, as well as the time followed by the members. the teacher competence stone (1998) affirmed that teacher competence is a descriptive qualitative nature of meaningful teacher behavior. moqvist (2003) corroborated that “competency has been defined in the light of actual circumstances relating to the individual and work.” regarding training agency, holmes (1992) said that: “a competence is a description of something which a person who works in a given occupational area should be able to do. it is a description of an action behaviour or outcome which a person should be able to demonstrate.” among the three opinions above, we can draw the red thread that competence is basically a picture of what should be done for someone in a job, in the form of activities, behaviors, and the outcomes that should be displayed. someone must have the ability in the form of knowledge, attitude, and skills in accordance with the field work to perform the job. sahertian (1994) asserted that competence is the ability to perform teaching and educating tasks gained through education and training. method this study uses a quantitative approach with explanatory research. this method is used because the purpose of this study is to prove empirically and to explain the effect of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence on school effectiveness mediated by tpc. the technique of collecting data through direct observation at the research location is possible. moreover, the questionnaires are distributed to selected respondents as the research sample. the research respondents are civil servant teachers (pns) of the state elementary school in malang city. the population includes 1,987 teachers. thus, the tables isaac and michael with 5% error rate are obtained by 333 civil servant teachers (pns) in malang city. the sampling uses a probability sampling method with a professional area random sampling technique. each region uses this technique. the data analysis uses the structural equation models (sem). its used too with journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 210-227 216 tulus suryanto to to examine the influence of past audits, auditors' training and auditors' experience on audit quality in companies (yazid & suryanto, 2017). instrument the research instrument is a tool used by researchers in collecting data to measure variables that contain indicators. variables in this study can be explained as follows: table 1. summary of variables variables indicators teacher innovation self task impact emotional intelligence empathy ability to express oneself self-regulation self-awareness social skills professional teacher competence lesson planning implementing learning process assessment/ evaluation school effectiveness the mission clarity positive school climate high expectations monitoring learning opportunity parental involvement source: authors’ own. measurement model testing of the goodness of fit model should be made to ensure that the prepared structural models can explain the direction of the influence appropriately and avoid a biased estimation. the model is used to explain whether the hypothetical model is supported by empirical data. figure 1 and table 1 exhibit the complete sem analysis. rahayu et al. figure 1. the path diagram of the sem analysis result table 2 the result of goodness of fit overall model testing criteria cut-of value model result note khi quadrate small 240.632 less good model p-value  0.05 0.000 cmin/df ≤ 2.00 2.208 marginal gfi  0.90 0.924 good model agfi  0.90 0.894 marginal tli  0.95 0.932 marginal cfi  0.95 0.945 marginal rmsea ≤ 0.08 0.060 good model all criteria show a marginal model. thus, the model can be categorized feasibly to be used such that the interpretation can be done for further discussion caring for innovation emotional intelligence teacher professional competencies school effectiveness x1.3e3 1 x1.2e2 1 x1.1e1 1 x2.5e8 1 1 x2.4e7 1 x2.3e6 1 x2.2e5 1 x2.1e4 1 y1.3e11 1 1 y1.2e10 1 y1.1e9 1 y2.1 e12 1 1 y2.2 e13 1 y2.3 e14 1 y2.4 e15 1 y2.5 e16 1 y2.6 e17 1 u1 u2 11 1 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 210-227 218 analysis sem analysis using amos 18.0 is used to test the hypothesis proposed by the researcher. as a basis for testing the hypothesis, critical ratio (cr) from the output regression weight is used. the hypothesis is accepted if p value < the significance of 5%. table 2 presents the analysis result. table 3 standardized structural estimates of the structural model direct effect estimate c.r. p teacher professional competencies <--caring for innovation 0,315 5,010 0.000* teacher professional competencies <--emotional intelligence 0,146 2,590 0.010* school effectiveness <--caring for innovation 0,468 4,001 0.000* school effectiveness <--emotional intelligence 0,277 3,476 0.000* school effectiveness <--teacher professional competencies 0,247 3,665 0.000* note: * significance at 5% table 3 depicts that the effect of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence on tpc is significant at the 5% level, that is, teacher innovation and emotional intelligence contribute to the improvement of tpc. the test results of teacher innovation, emotional intelligence, and tpc on school effectiveness are significant at the 5% level. thus, all factors contribute to school effectiveness. the test of indirect effects is used from a certain direct test result. the complete test result of the direct effect is presented in the following table. table 4. the result of hypothesis testing indirect effect influence among variables direct influence indirect influence through tpc caring for innovation on tpc 0,315 – emotional intelligence on tpc 0,146 – caring for innovation on school effectiveness 0,468 0,315 × 0,247 = 0,078 emotional intelligence on school effectiveness 0,277 0,146 × 0,247 = 0,036 tpc on school effectiveness 0,247 – rahayu et al. table 4 explains that tpc can mediate the effect of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence on school effectiveness. thus, the innovations made by teachers and their emotional intelligence improve their professional competence, which ultimately affects school effectiveness. findings direct relationship of teachers’ innovation with tpc on the basis of the result of the inferential statistical analysis, a significant direct relationship exists between teacher innovation and tpc. the higher the teachers’ concern for innovation, the higher the tpc. rogers and shoemaker (1983) corroborated that innovation is an idea, a technique or practice, or an object that people or groups consciously accept to adopt. robbins (1996) defined innovation as a new idea applied to initiate or improve products, processes, and services. moreover, freedman (1988) confirmed that innovation is a process of implementing new ideas by turning creative concepts into reality. the process of implementing new ideas, such as broad-based education, life skill, school-based education management, contextual learning, and ktsp, are deliberately created by the superiors to improve the quality of education or its efficiency. these innovations are done and applied to teachers by inviting, encouraging, and imposing what creators perceive as good for teachers’ benefits. if teachers implement the innovation well, then tpc increases. teachers’ concern for educational innovation is emphasized by three indicators, namely, self, task, and impact. indicators have the greatest and strongest contribution to shape teachers’ concern for innovation. this condition indicates that teachers’ concern for innovation is formed by knowing its demands in learning information about time, commitment, effort, and resources in innovation. the results of this study reinforce the previous studies conducted by serotkin (2006), which shows that the holistic model assimilation in the study of information use in research is influenced by several factors, such as the responsibility of learning, the degree of support, and the impact on change. teachers’ positive attitude to this model is good because it provides opportunities for the professional development. relationship between emotional intelligence and tpc on the basis of the result of the inferential statistical analysis, a significant direct relationship of emotional intelligence with tpc can be accepted. the higher the emotional intelligence of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 210-227 220 teachers, the higher the tpc. teachers who can optimize their emotional intelligence well can manage their emotions. they can also keep up with their students, colleagues, or with parents and guardians. thus, the competence that teachers must own can realize and carry out all the demands and duties of each teacher competence well. emotional intelligence improving tpc is explained by five indicators, such as empathy, selfexpression, self-regulation, self-awareness, and social skills. when viewed from the loading factor value of each indicator, the largest and strongest contribution is considered to form the emotional intelligence variable. this condition is called self-regulation, which shows that self-regulation is one of the most effective forms of emotional intelligence. teachers have good emotional intelligence if they can adapt to the environment. doing so makes classrooms feel familiar. working together while performing daily tasks and developing learning programs also becomes possible. these conditions are consistent with the opinion presented by goleman (2001) who explained that emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize the feelings of oneself and of others, as well as the ability to manage emotions well on oneself and in the relationship with others. the study conducted by weninger, hong, and koh (2017) concluded that a positive correlation exists between the nine principles of professional ethics and tpc. teachers and practitioners must promote professional ethics in their educational and teaching settings. teachers should be aware of this important issue because understanding professional ethics can affect teachers’ emotional intelligence and to students’ achievement. teachers’ should pay attention to all the principles of professional ethics and should consider them in their academic. fahanani (2010) affirmed that a significant positive reciprocal relation exists between emotional intelligence and teacher competence. their relationship is positive and significant. direct relationship between teachers’ care innovations with school effectiveness on the basis of the results of the inferential statistical analysis, a significant direct relationship is found between teacher innovation and school effectiveness. therefore, the higher the teachers’ concern for innovation, the higher the school effectiveness. teacher innovation is necessary because teachers themselves are instrumental in the learning process. they should process their ability to create effective and efficient learning media that can ultimately improve school effectiveness. increasing school effectiveness through the role of teacher innovation can be done by three indicators, such as self, task, and impact. the largest rahayu et al. contribution of those indicators in shaping teachers’ concern for the innovation is the task. this condition indicates that teachers’ concern for innovation is formed by knowing its demands in learning and knowing information about time, effort, and resources. a study conducted by hill and serdyukov (2007) claimed that education desperately needs an effective scale innovation that can help produce high-quality learning outcomes required across the system. improving the quality and the innovation in education can possibly affect education itself and benefit the entire community. atmono in maulida and dhania (2012) contended that a significant relationship between teachers’ concern for innovation and school effectiveness at sd negeri banjarmasin. therefore, the more teachers care about innovation, the higher the school effectiveness. direct relationship between emotional intelligence and school effectiveness a significant direct relationship is found between emotional intelligence and school effectiveness. emotional intelligence is the ability to understand emotions. the main source of information is provided to convince oneself and others to step the goal achievements. teachers as educators have an important role to achieve such goals. as professional educators, teachers cannot be separated from the outside influences, which lessen or maximize performance. one of the factors that can affect the performance of teachers is emotional intelligence. it can also be interpreted as a mental ability that helps us control and understand our feelings and others that lead to the ability to manage those feelings. therefore, intelligent people not only have emotions or feelings but also understands their meanings. schools run effectively related to emotional intelligence of teachers, which is due to empathy indicators, self-expression, self-regulation, self-awareness, and social skills. moreover, when viewed from the value factor loading of indicators, which have the largest and strongest contribution to form, emotional intelligence variable is the self-regulation. results of this study reinforce the previous review conducted by moore (2009), which concluded that emotional intelligence and its development should be encouraged by school administrators. these administrators can benefit from the learning of how to handle emotions of others, as well as their own. universities, school boards, and the state department of education should reconsider implementing the construction of emotional intelligence and coaching programs for the potential and current school administrators. school administrators who have high emotional journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 210-227 222 intelligence do not only have a strong relationship with their peers, teachers, parents, and students but may also be effective in leading change and initiating school reform. van rooy and viswesvaran (2004) concluded that emotional intelligence can be considered a valuable predictor of work performance. effective middle schools and principals must understand and manage emotions to implement and lead school reform. fahanani (2010) concluded that a significant positive relationship exists between teachers’ emotional intelligence and school effectiveness direct relationship of tpc with school effectiveness the significant direct relationship between tpc with and school effectiveness is acceptable. therefore, the higher the tpc, the higher the school effectiveness. this result implies that schools can be effective if teachers have a high professional level. thus, schools always establish a positive communication with parents; they always maintain the assurance of parents’ support; they always cooperate with parents and the community; and they always need support from professional teachers who have high professional competence. indicators of the learning and planning implementation of the learning process specify such competence. preparing the lesson plan should always describe the basic competencies. moreover, the clarity of formulating, selecting, and organizing the learning materials; the scope of materials, including its order and its demands; the suitability among the source, the learning material, and the learning media with the ability of learners; the suitability of the selected learning method with the material to be given; and the suitability between the assessment technique and basic competence achievement must be given attention. in addition to the learning process, teachers should carry out the learning process well. in the beginning, they must do the apperception. in implementing the learning, they should always master the learning materials, carry out the learning and delivery of materials coherently and systematically, require to master the class, skillfully use the media and learning resources that have been prepared, and provide positive response to the participants of learners. the learning process finishes by reflecting or creating a summary that involves the learners. the results of the study reinforce the previous study conducted by fahanani (2010), which concludes that a significant positive relationship is found between teacher competence and rahayu et al. school effectiveness. moreover, triono (2008) concluded that human resource competence has a significant effect on school performance. indirect relationship between teachers’ concerns for the innovation with school effectiveness through professional competence on the basis of the results of the inferential statistical analysis, tpc is a mediator of teachers’ concerns for the innovation with school effectiveness. teachers are concerned about the demands of innovation in learning and obtaining additional information about time, commitment, and effort. the resources needed in innovation can improve tpc, such as in planning lessons. implementing the learning process that ultimately affects the improvement of school effectiveness that always maintains a positive communication with parents, guarantees parents’ support, and cooperates with parents and the community. indirect relationship of emotional intelligence with school effectiveness through professional competence tpc is a mediator for the relationship of emotional intelligence with school effectiveness. thus, teachers who have high emotional intelligence, which is reflected in their ability to adjust to the environment so that the class atmosphere becomes familiar, can do daily tasks and can develop learning programs, such as planning lessons that improves tpc and implementing the learning process, which ultimately affects the improvement of school effectiveness. school effectiveness always maintains a positive communication with parents, guarantees parents’ support, and cooperates with parents and the community. discussion, conclusion and implications teacher innovation and emotional intelligence affect tpc and school effectiveness. tpc mediates the effect of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence on school effectiveness. school administrators must pay attention to tpc through supervision starting from class visit, teachers’ class visit, assessment of the way and the work, joint research on school and teacher condition, teachers’ attendance, and daily journal entry checking. these activities can improve tpc and the school culture that can mediate teachers’ influence on innovation and emotional intelligence on school effectiveness. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 210-227 224 references bafadal, i. (2009). proses perubahan di sekolah: studi multisitus pada tiga sekolah dasar yang baik di sumekar. ilmu pendidikan: jurnal kajian teori dan praktik kependidikan, 23(1). banks, j. a., & banks, c. a. m. (2004). handbook of research on multicultural education. chapman, d. w., & carrier, c. a. (1990). improving educational quality: a global perspective. greenwood press. clarke, j., & gibson-sweet, m. (1998). enterprising futures: training and education for small businesses. education+ training, 40(3), 102–108. cooper, r. k., & sawaf, a. (1998). executive eq: emotional intelligence in leadership and organizations. penguin. fahanani, f. g. (2010). hubungan pengetahuan tentang gangguan jiwa dengan dukungan keluarga yang mempunyai anggota keluarga skizofrenia di rsjd surakarta. universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. freedman, g. (1988). the pursuit of innovation: managing the people and processes that turn new ideas into profits. amacom, american management association. glickman, c. d. (1981). developmental supervision: alternative practices for helping teachers improve instruction. eric. goleman, d. p. (1995). emotional intelligence: why it can matter more than iq for character, health and lifelong achievement. new york: bantam books. green, r. g. (2008). tenure and promotion decisions: the relative importance of teaching, scholarship, and service. journal of social work education, 44(2), 117–128. hill, r., & serdyukov, p. (2007). student learning patterns in online classes: growth in popularity, decline in attitude. in e-learn: world conference on e-learning in corporate, government, healthcare, and higher education (pp. 956–962). association for the advancement of computing in education (aace). holmes, l. (1992). taking the lead on professional standards. personnel managementlondon-, 36. johnson, j. p., livingston, m., schwartz, r. a., & slate, j. r. (2000). what makes a good elementary school? a critical examination. the journal of educational research, 93(6), 339– 348. rahayu et al. karpov, a . (2017). education for knowledge society: learning and scientific innovation environment. journal of social studies education research, 8 (3), 201-214. retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/32449/360852 kilinc, e. (2017). review of modernising school governance: corporate planning and expert handling in state education. new york, ny: routledge. 172 pp., isbn9781138787476..research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/327 levine, d. u., & lezotte, l. w. (1995). effective schools research. lezotte, l. w., & bancroft, b. a. (1985). growing use of the effective schools model for school improvement. educational leadership, 42(6), 23–27. lipham, j. m., rankin, r., & hoeh, j. a. (1985). the principalship: concepts, competencies, and cases. addison-wesley longman limited. maulida, s. r., & dhania, d. r. (2012). hubungan antara kepercayaan diri dan dukungan orang tua dengan motivasi berwirausaha pada siswa smk. jurnal psikologi, 11(2), 9. mcqualter, j. w. (1985). becoming a teacher: preservice teacher education using personal construct theory. journal of education for teaching, 11(2), 177–186. meyer, j. p., & allen, n. j. (1984). testing the" side-bet theory" of organizational commitment: some methodological considerations. journal of applied psychology, 69(3), 372. momeni, n. (2009). the relation between managers’ emotional intelligence and the organizational climate they create. public personnel management, 38(2), 35–48. moore, b. (2009). emotional intelligence for school administrators: a priority for school reform? american secondary education, 20–28. moqvist, l. (2003). the competency dimension of leadership: findings from a study of selfimage among top managers in the changing swedish public administration. centre for studies of humans, technology and organisation, linköping university. ololube, n. p. (2006). teachers job satisfaction and motivation for school effectiveness: an assessment. online submission. rahayu, s., ulfatin, n., & wiyono, b. b. (n.d.). the effect of teacher’s concern to innovation and emotional intelligence on the school effectiveness mediated by the professional competency of teachers and school culture. rahmat, a., suryanto, t., & rahim, s. e. (2018). environmental balance management in journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 210-227 226 nonformal education learning. in matec web of conferences (vol. 150, p. 5061). edp sciences. robbins, s. p. (1996). perilaku organisasi: konsep, kontroversi dan aplikasi. diterjemahkan oleh hadyana pujaatmaka, penerbit prenhallindo, jakarta. rogers, e. m., & shoemaker, f. (1983). diffusion of innovation: a cross-cultural approach. new york. sahertian, p. a. (1994). profil pendidik proffesional. penerbit andi offset yogyakarta. sander, b., & wiggins, t. (1985). cultural context of administrative theory: in consideration of a multidimensional paradigm. educational administration quarterly, 21(1), 95–117. serotkin, p. b. (2006). the effectiveness of ten years of values education. international journal of learning, 12(9). stoll, l. (1992). teacher growth in the effective school. teacher development and educational change, 104–122. stone, b. a. (1998). problems, pitfalls, and benefits of portfolios. teacher education quarterly, 105–114. tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), iii. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. tarman, b. (2012). effective leadership in culturally diverse schools. energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 4(2), 1103-1114. triono, d. (2008). hubungan motivasi kerja dengan kinerja guru sekolah menengah atas negeri (sman) di kecamatan jombang. fakultas ilmu pendidikan universitas negeri malang. van rooy, d. l., & viswesvaran, c. (2004). emotional intelligence: a meta-analytic investigation of predictive validity and nomological net. journal of vocational behavior, 65(1), 71–95. weninger, c., hong, h., & koh, e. (2017). the influence of individual and contextual variables on teachers’ understanding and classroom practice of media literacy. wikipedia. (2016). united nations development programs. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 rahayu et al. http://hdr.undp.org/en/data xiaofu, p., & qiwen, q. (2007). an analysis of the relation between secondary school organizational climate and teacher job satisfaction. chinese education & society, 40(5), 65– 77. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 1-27 high school students of color in the u.s. speak about their educational experiences: schooling, culture and pedagogy lydiah nganga1, john kambutu2, reed w. scull3, & keonghee tao han4 abstract this phenomenological study examined the experiences of high school students of color (n = 33) living in a rural, predominately white state in the united states of america (u.s.) drawing data from in-depth interviews and questionnaires, qualitative analysis revealed that participants experienced heightened levels of academic, cultural, and social isolation. data also revealed that learners’ histories, cultural traditions, validation of race/ethnicity and personal stories were missing in classroom instruction particularly in social studies curricula. other findings indicated that caring and empathetic teachers helped to mitigate some of the negative experiences that students experienced, thus creating space for academic success. therefore, this study concludes that teachers’ dispositions such as care and empathy are critical aspects of culturally responsive pedagogy that can meet the needs of diverse learners. finally, this study offers implications for classroom teachers and teacher educators. keywords: students of color, race, missing histories, cultural education, culturally relevant teaching introduction students of color in the united states generally experience diverse educational challenges (banks & banks, 2007; gay, 2018; villegas, strom, & lucas, 2012), but those attending schools in rural settings that are isolated from more culturally diverse communities experience even more extensive challenges (marx & larson, 2012; woldoff, wiggins, & washington, 2011). to better understand the nature of these students’ experiences, we (researchers) designed this study to examine the challenges that high school students of color experienced while living in a predominately-white rural state. the current paper starts with a review of the literature on the experiences of students of color. then we discuss the importance of using culturally responsive 1prof., dr. school of teacher education, univeristy of wyoming , lnganga@uwyo.edu 2 prof., dr. school of teacher education, university of wyoming, john.kambutu@uwyo.edu 3 assoc. prof., dr. school of counseling, leadership, advocacy, and design, univeristy of wyoming, wscull@uwyo.edu 4assoc. prof., dr. school of teacher education, university of wyoming, khan@uwyo.edu mailto:lnganga@uwyo.edu mailto:john.kambutu@uwyo.edu mailto:wscull@uwyo.edu mailto:khan@uwyo.edu journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 2 teaching, followed by methodology, findings, and conclusions. context this study was conducted in a rural state in the rocky mountain region of the united states. in addition to being 90 percent white, the state is isolated from more racially5, culturally, and ethnically diverse metropolises (most communities are 200 miles away from nearest major cities). this primarily white state is one of ten “whitest” states in the united states which include the new england states, west virginia, idaho, montana, kentucky, north dakota, and wyoming (lee, iceland, & sharp, 2012). perhaps because of this isolation, rural communities in this state tend to be among the most conservative and believe strongly in meritocracy and individuality (kambutu & nganga, 2012; han, reed, nganga & kambutu, 2020). as a result, people of color living in the state experience heightened levels of cultural and social isolation (nganga & kambutu, 2009), a level of marginalization that might not be common in urban and metropolitan states with greater populations of people of color (han, et. al., 2020). evident in this reality is the fact that “place” and placesness plays a critical role in shaping lived experiences and identities (nganga & kambutu, 2009; gruenewald, 2003; johnson, 2012). johnson (2012) defined “place” within a geographical context, as a space that is based on people’s feelings. therefore, in this study “place” means a geographical location that affects people’s everyday lives. gruenewald (2008) argued that people are a product of place. and to johnson (2012), place shapes people’s stories and histories because it influences the “who, what, why, when” in people’s lives (p.833). therefore, when people are in a place, they engage in “acts of remembrance” and of “writing and telling” life stories. so, because the students of color investigated in this study lived in isolated and predominantly white rural places in the united states, the researchers wondered about the nature of the stories and experiences they developed. additionally, we (researchers) were curious about the meaning the participants drew from their school experiences in rural settings. although most studies on students of color focus on urban areas (tieken, 2017), this study gives a voice to students of color living in a rural white state by examining their lived experiences from a culturally 5 the study participants used the terms “race” and “ethnicity” interchangeably. however, the researchers were aware that while race is a social construct that divides people artificially into groups based on characteristics such as physical appearance (adams, bell & griffin, 2007), ethnicity denotes a group of people with a common ancestral origin who are likely to have common cultural practices (gollnick & chinn, 2009). nganga, et al. responsive pedagogy (crp) framework. theoretical framework in this study, we employ a culturally responsive pedagogy (crp) framework. a crp approach uses cultural referents that help to bridge and explain mainstream culture, while valuing and recognizing cultures of students who have historically been marginalized (gay, 2018, 2013). according to howard (2010), culturally responsive pedagogy is a professional, political, cultural, ethical and ideological disposition that supersedes mundane teaching acts: it is centered in fundamental beliefs about teaching, learning, students, their families, and their communities, and an unyielding commitment to see student success become less rhetoric and more of a reality (p. 67). a crp approach emphasizes the importance for teachers to develop skills and dispositions that appropriately and accurately respond to the needs of diverse learners (gay, 2018). consequently, in culturally responsive classrooms, the needs and interests of all students are addressed while also ensuring a climate of respect to all cultures. equally evident in crp is the practice of empathy (mcallister and irvine, 2000). empathy is a desirable teacher disposition when working with culturally diverse learners (darlinghammond,2000; 2011; germain, 1998). to that end, mcallister and irvine (2000) stipulated that “empathetic people take on the perspective of another culture and respond to another individual from that person’s perspective” (p. 433). care and empathy often appear in teachers’ caring relationships. thus, in classrooms where a crp approach is used, caring relationships are evident. recognizing the importance of care and empathy, pang (2001, p. 55) concluded that these are “the foundation for building an effective academic and social climate for schooling” crp acknowledges every student’s linguistic heritage, and affirms cultural differences in the classroom (nganga, 2019; gay, 2018; kambutu & nganga, 2012). indeed, smith (1998) argued that failure to infuse cultural heritage in the learning process results in cultural incongruity between learners and classroom practices, causing the affected learners to resent learning. nieto and bode (2012) recommended classroom content that examined issues of race and racism in order to promote a social justice-centered education. in the absence of such an education, students of color are typically silenced and disempowered (soumah & hoover, 2013). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 4 literature review omissions and misinformation: the left-out voices in history and marginalization of students of color according to the national council of social studies (ncss, 2001) social studies should prepare learners who have “the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to assume the 'office of citizen' in our democratic republic” (ncss, 2001, p. 5). these learners should also be able to make reasoned decisions for the good of the public in a culturally diverse nation and interdependent world (ncss, 1993; 2001). however, the type of instruction and materials used may hinder acquisitions of essential citizen skills. for example, loewen (2018) characterized the teaching of history as whitewashed and at times irrelevant to learners of color (au, brown & calderon, 2016; ladsonbillings, 2003). specifically, ladson-billings identified the absence of critical analysis of race and racism in social studies curricula as a potential pedagogical malpractice. by failing to include race and racism as topics of interrogation, then schools deny their students the opportunity to examine the historical and contemporary nature of marginalization based on race, and as result, racism is nurtured rather than eradicated. equally problematic the is dominance of white narratives in social studies textbooks (delgado & stefanic, 2001; sleeter & grant, 2009). although narratives matter (delgado & stefanic, 2001), social studies textbooks are replete with stories about white people’s experiences that largely silence the experiences of marginalized cultures in the u.s. for examples, while textbooks tend to depict the experiences of black people in a sketchy format mainly from a slavery lens, asian americans and hispanic americans appear mainly as figures on the landscape with virtually no history or contemporary ethnic experience, and no sense of the ethnic diversity. meanwhile, native americans are usually portrayed as historical figures (sleeter & grant, 1991). therefore, given that textbooks are socially constructed cultural, political, and economic artifacts, delgado and stefancic (2012, p. 24) recommended critical examination and replacement of “majoritarian interpretations of events with ones that provide a balanced look at history and more accurately aligned “with minorities’ experiences” sleeter and grant (2009). dhand (1988) issues similar conclusions because dominant ideologies in social studies textbooks promote euro-western ideologies that often disregard views of people of color, thus promoting racial and cultural bias. to that end, agarwal-rangnath (2013) invited social studies educators to offer historical narratives that are inclusive of the voices and views of nganga, et al. historically marginalized groups because “by teaching multiple perspectives, we can help our students realize that there is more than one story that can be told about every event that happens (p. 40). meanwhile social studies textbooks have a reputation of trumpeting the achievements of dominant cultures and blaming marginalized groups for their plight (aronson, meyers & winn (2020). this conundrum is especially evident in the example below: native americans were dispossessed of their land `because they did not understand the concept of private land ownership’; asian workers received low wages because they were willing to `work for very little’; blacks could not get good urban jobs because they `were unskilled and uneducated;’ chicano’s face problems because ̀ they are not fluent in english (council on interracial books for children 1980, p. .83). because teachers depend on textbooks to determine what to teach, rogers (1994) called for ongoing critical analysis of textbooks in order to identify and exclude teaching resources that promoted inaccurate and exclusive narratives. additionally, sleeter and grant (2009, p. 81) cautioned against the use of textbooks and other teaching resources that whitewashed the “the history of white racism and oppression.” similarly, ladson-billings (2003) and gay, 2018) recommended using teaching resources that were bias free because any omission and misinformation of people of color in textbooks could easily have negative impact on learners who do not see themselves represented in curriculum (apple, 1996; au, brown& calderón, 2016; wallace & allen, 2008). therefore, it is imperative that social studies educators to continually review teaching and learning resources for both intentional and unintentional bias. the following review suggestions from the washington office of superintendent of public instruction (2021, p. 7-11) ask educators to always ensure that:  biographical, contemporary, or historical materials infuse perspectives and contributions from members of diverse groups substantially, accurately, and respectfully.  instructional materials include literature, examples, or situations that accurately reflect the culture, languages, traditions, beliefs, values, and customs of people from diverse backgrounds.  curriculum recognizes the validity and integrity of knowledge systems based in communities of color, american indian/alaska native and indigenous cultures, and faith systems inclusive of but not limited to christian.  instructional materials respectfully portray different ethnic and cultural traditions, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 6 languages, religions, names and clothing.  diverse ethnicities and nationalities are portrayed accurately.  characters of diverse cultural backgrounds are not represented stereotypically or presented as foreign or exotic.  oversimplified generalizations of social classes and groups are avoided in text and illustrations. students of color in the u.s. have historically experienced many challenges historically, students of color in the u.s. have experienced many educational challenges. for example, while race-based school segregation continues to be a problem (jeremy, 2013; mickelson, 2014) equally problematic is the fact that the american education system is founded on eurocentric values, and therefore, it is not able to address adequately the needs of learners of color (apple, 2004). further, because the american education system has historically made limited efforts to challenge the existing social and structural inequalities, learners of color have been systematically disadvantaged (gollnick & chinn, 2009; jeremy, 2013). to mitigate this educational injustice, (apple, 1996, 2004, 2006; apple & aasen, 2003) supported an inclusive education that meets the needs of all learners. while such an education is beneficial because it is culturally responsive, it is needed because it addresses entrenched societal problems such as race and racism, unfair school funding models, and exclusionary curricula that undermine educational performance (apple, 2004; kozol, 1991). but even though these educational challenges affect all children of color, learners of color living in isolated rural settings face additional challenges related to being a numerical minority in their schools. students of color living in isolated rural settings in the u.s. are likely to experience challenges that are not common in more culturally diverse rural communities. for example, although all learners of color in the u.s. are likely to face academic segregation (marx & larson, 2012), this problem is exacerbated in isolated and predominantly white rural settings because educators are typically white. certainly, white teachers are capable of meeting the educational needs of all students, including children of color. nevertheless, gay (2018) contended that because of cultural incongruity, some white educators are unable to utilize heritage cultures while teaching children of color. consequently, they might not be able to adequately meet the needs of learners of color. equally challenging is the mindset of “colorblindness” that many white teachers hold. although nganga, et al. race matters (delgado-bernal, 2002), educators who embrace a colorblind orientation believe, erroneously, that because they do not see color, race is not an issue in academic settings (markowitz & puchner, 2014). race affects academic performance in many profound ways. for example, because of race, howard (2010), nieto and bode (2012) argued that children of color are subjected to unfavorable educational conditions, structures and contexts. equally problematic is the ideology of colorblindness because educators who hold this view embrace a deficit model, that is, failure to succeed academically is caused by lack of essential academic skills rather than the result of many societal and systemic factors (scheurich & young, 1997), including racism (sleeter & grant, 2009). therefore, a colorblind mindset is unresponsive to learners’ needs (gay, 2018). because teachers play a critical role in the process of teaching and learning, it is perhaps not surprising that students of color have many negative school experiences, resulting in lower performance than their white peers (mickelson, 2014). students of color may also experience stereotypes, stereotype threat, and microaggressions (bratter, rowley, & chukhray, 2016). stereotypes and racial microaggressions while all learners of color experience stereotypes, racial microaggressions, and marginalization, learners of color in rural settings isolated from cultural diversity are likely to experience more of these acts of injustice. several studies have explored stereotypes and stereotype threat as a psychological threat to the performance of students of color. stereotype threat is “the anxiety of confirming group-specific stereotypes of poor intellectual ability” and has well established links to poor performance of racial minority students in college, high school and even earlier grades (bratter, rowley, & chukhray, 2016, p. 340). several studies have shown that latinx american students, reacting to the prospect of being judged according to a stereotype of intellectual inferiority, significantly depress their academic test performance (benner & graham, 2001; edwards & romero, 2008). reflecting on the dangers of stereotypes, johnson-ahorlu (2013) repudiated gross generalization (stereotype) of a people based on shared characteristics. such generalization might be used to justify racism and/or denying people power and privilege based on race (adams, bell, & griffin, 2007). students of color also experience microaggressions, subtle brief statements such as every person can succeed if he/she worked hard enough (wing, 2010), which are especially debilitating. microaggressions discredit the social injustices that historically marginalized peoples experience journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 8 on a daily basis (decuir-gunby, johnson, edwards et.al. 2020; kohli & solorzano, 2012). but acts of empathy and care towards students of color in academic settings can help them overcome some of the negative aspects of stereotype threat, microaggressions and marginalization (noddings, 1984). additionally, teachers can develop and demonstrate understanding of their students’ histories and lived experiences and seek to understand how conditions of social inequity and power relations situate these realities. pang (2001) and muff (2020) described such an approach as caring-centered, based upon the importance of building trusting relations and understanding the sociocultural context of learning. these characteristics are usually available in classrooms where a crp approach is used (gay, 2018). method we conducted this phenomenological qualitative study to explore and understand the experiences of students of color in a state located in the rural mountain west of the u. s. specifically, this study focused on the lived experiences of research participants and sought to examine the complexity and sophistication of those experiences through qualitative methodological approaches (bogdan & biklen, 2007). through the examination of multiple experiences, a synthesis of those lived experiences emerged. by synthesizing lived experiences, our intention was to facilitate the analysis of current educational practices, and inform future studies (creswell, 2013; marshall & rossman, 2006; merriam, 2009). a phenomenological research framework was particularly helpful in examining the nuanced conditions facing students of color and other minoritized populations (kazanjian, 2019). with the phenomenological and qualitative approach as a foundation, we used in-depth structured interviews. the following three research questions guided the study:  what contradictions or tensions seem to exist between students’ home experiences (practices and traditions) and their experiences in the classrooms/school?  what are the perspectives of students of color regarding the nature of learning resources, in terms of inclusion of histories, cultural traditions, race, and ethnicity?  how has race/ethnicity affected learning experiences for students of color? participants to collect data, we (the researchers) interviewed 33 students of color from seven high schools in a rural western state in the u.s. to determine which schools to invite, we considered geographic nganga, et al. location (to represent all regions in the state), and the population of students of color in each school. in the end, students in grades 10 through 12 participated. while 12 of the participants identified themselves as african americans, 10 were latinx, six were asians, three were american indians, and two identified themselves as “other.” in terms of gender, 19 males and 14 females between the ages of 15 and 19 years participated. in addition to using pseudonyms to protect the participants’ identities, consents and assents were obtained from participants and their parents respectively. institutional permission for the research was granted and ethical guidelines for human subjects were followed. criteria for selection of a predominantly white state while studies of students of color in predominately white high schools were lacking, there were several studies that examined the experiences of students of color in predominately white campuses in large urban centers. those studies reported that the experiences of students of color were generally unpleasant (feagin et al, 1996; gregory, 2000; morrisson, 2010; redden, 2002). as result, we wondered how high school students of color in a rural white state might interpret their experiences. while rural white states have historically had majority white students and teachers, the population of students of color in rural settings was increasing (anthony-stevens & langford, 2019). although the population of people of color in rural western states (oregon, washington, idaho, and utah, wyoming etc.) was expanding, rurality in the u.s. is associated with “white and homogeneous, nonurban, and frequently maintains an association with discourse models such as “the real americans”—for example, people of european descent and christian practice (anthony-stevens & langford, 2019, p. 334). this interpretation of rurality excludes people of color and extends a dominant discourse that exist in many regions of the united states. consequently, we selected a rural white state in order to provide a platform for diverse learners to share their lived experiences in rural settings. data sources and analysis consistent with the phenomenological orientation of the study, the researchers collected data using structured in-depth interviews (for sample questions, see appendix a). boyce and neale (2006) favored in-depth interviews because they provide “much more detailed information than what is available through other data collection methods, such as surveys. they also may provide a more relaxed atmosphere in which to collect information” (p. 3). the use of in-depth interviews enabled the participants to share their experiences about schooling in culturally isolated rural journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 10 settings. additionally, the researchers used follow-up questions to gather more information and/or explanation from responses given to the scripted questions. these structured interviews lasted between 60 and 90 minutes. to ensure anonymity and confidentiality, the researchers scheduled interviews at school, during school days, at times and places of each learner’s choosing. the researchers audio-recorded all interviews and employed a transcriptionist. data were analyzed qualitatively, first by coding using words and/or concepts that the participants used commonly in their responses to interview questions, and then, then by studying the coded data, looking for major themes (glesne, 2011). we discuss the results based on our research questions. we used a culturally responsive pedagogy (crp) theoretical framework to help make meaning of the identified themes. in doing so, we were especially cognizant of cole’s (2009) postulate that racism shapes people’s experiences dramatically. therefore, while objectivity was crucial in the analysis of the responses received, we remained vigilant about the possible intersection of race and the participants’ lived experiences in isolated rural settings. indeed, gilbert, (2002) cautioned that the meaning drawn from people’s feedback should not only be based on what was said, but also from the way events in the responses were placed. therefore, during interviews, we remained sensitive to the fact that the american education system viewed children of color from a deficit model. therefore, we approached this study from a cultural strength model (sleeter & grant, 2009). positionality two of the researchers in this current study, one female and the other male, self-identified as black. the third author was a white male who had worked with people of color in school and university settings. the fourth author was a female asian american. additionally, three of the researchers had taught multicultural courses at their institution and had also experienced teaching in american public schools in primarily white states. the researchers’ interpretation of data, therefore, could have been affected by their interaction with multicultural content, their identities, and the population with which they worked. thus, the researchers acknowledge the possibility of their lived experiences inferring with the objectivity of data analysis (crewell, 2013). to enhance the trustworthiness and authenticity of interview results, the researchers studied data independently and then together in order to develop consensus about what was in the data (morrow, 2005; patton, 2002). nganga, et al. findings what contradictions or tensions seem to exist between students’ home experiences (practices and traditions) and their experiences in the classrooms/school? participants reported not feeling welcome in some classes. when asked to discuss their classroom experiences, they described a strong feeling of cultural exclusion, and therefore loneliness, because of not being included in the learning process. while some of the participants resented being ridiculed by white students, many (63%) mentioned that their teachers did not intervene or stop race-based jokes. failure to support students of color in the classroom is contrary to the principles of culturally responsive pedagogy (crp) that promote good student/teacher relationships (ladson-billings & tate, 1995). gay (2010) added that a pedagogy that supports good student/teacher relationships emphasizes “using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them” (p. 31). further, an education that is informed by crp calls for engaging learners whose experiences and cultures are traditionally excluded from mainstream settings. to rodriguez (2005), students are likely to develop a sense of belonging in a welcoming classroom. in a welcoming classroom, there is a strong sense of safety, both physically and emotionally. yet, the participants in this study did not feel safe in their classroom because most teachers did not make the effort to know them and their respective ethnic backgrounds. when asked to identify the instructional strategies that could help alleviate their social and cultural isolation, the participants spoke strongly in favor of respectful classrooms where all students’ cultures and backgrounds were acknowledged. a respectful classroom not only ensures that learning materials are culturally inclusive, but it also creates space for all students to tell their stories (nganga, 2019, kambutu, rios & castaneda, 2009). personal narratives are essential in the process of creating meaning and ownership. these stories allow people to access deep meanings hidden within one’s identity (kambutu, et. al., 2009; nganga, 2019). commenting on the importance of respect in the classroom, morrow (2015) indicated that, “every child has the right to be respected” in order to unlock his/her academic potential (p. 68). all learners also need to feel validated. a latina participant noted that “there are different pictures hanging on the classroom wall, but i don’t ever see any that covers people of color—most of the pictures have white images.” this statement reflects what many students of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 12 color felt about their learning environments. according to zamudio, russell, rios, and bridgeman (2011), the lack of images that are representative of students of color advances the normalcy of whiteness and dominant ideologies represented by images from the dominant culture. the crp framework is critical to an education thus designed and practiced. instead, it favors educational practices that validate all learners. while all students of color reported that their parents were supportive and had high expectations for them, data revealed that teachers generally held lower academic expectations for these students; thus, showing contradictions between students’ home and school experiences. according one participant who identified as african american and female, one teacher told the class that she “believed they can all do well.” yet when this student did well in assignments, her teacher always seemed surprised: just because i answered a question eloquently does not mean that white teachers should be shocked. it seems like every time i answer a question, and they weren’t expecting that form of answer, their faces show shock. teacher expectations also shape the decision a teacher makes when interacting with students. supportive teacher behaviors and expectations increase the success of all students (irvine,1990; jamil, larsen, & hamre, 2018). it is therefore problematic that teachers persist in behaviors that promote inequality and low expectations based on race. our data revealed that some learners of color chose to take a stand against educators’ assumptions about their academic abilities based on race. a latinx student took a strong version of such a position in the following response: “sometimes when teachers see that you are a certain ethnicity, they kind of wonder if you know the answer to their question. this is wrong and racist.” what are students of color perspectives regarding the nature of learning resources in terms of inclusion of histories, cultural traditions, race and ethnicity? overwhelmingly, the participants in this study expressed a preference for curricula that were engaging, inclusive and culturally responsive (73%). to these learners, an inclusive curriculum happens in a caring learning environment that embraces and validates students’ home and cultural backgrounds. a learning environment thus designed is consistent with the ideals of a culturally responsive pedagogy (crp). addressing the issue, marx and larson (2012) affirmed the importance of appreciating learners’ home cultures in order to make learning meaningful. but although cultural appreciation plays a critical role in supporting learning, the participants in this nganga, et al. study reported that having expert and caring teachers was equally essential because caring educators are likely to provide an inclusive and empowering curriculum. commenting on the benefits of expert and caring teachers, for example, an african american male reported that “these teachers use materials that include all people.” to that end, this student reported that he “would also like to see representations of successful african americans in class history textbooks and on the posters that are found on hallways; not just athletes.” what is most evident here is the fact that this student did not only prefer caring educators, but he also asked for the use of diverse instructional materials. while an exclusively monocultural curriculum is alienating, an inclusive curriculum creates a sense of ownership and belonging as is evident in the following feedback from an american indian female: “i am interested in american indian history. so, when we’re talking about it in class, i am more interested in education and stuff.” evident in this response is a reminder that when the curriculum is tied to students’ interests, they are likely to engage academically. conversely, students lose interest when they do not see meaning in a curriculum. the following feedback from two students who identified as latinx provides additional pertinent insights: we all have stories, but in school, we only hear one side, white people’s perspectives. they tell their stories to push other peoples’ stories aside and that is when i feel the need to prove that my people’s stories have value too. (student a) instead of demonizing mexicans who come to the united sates to look for better economic opportunities, for example, a background of why they immigrate to the u.s, might be helpful. in my history class they seem to focus only on the right of the whites to acquire land from others in manifest-destiny. if we are taught about how the people of mexico felt about their land being taken after the mexican-american war and how this has impacted mexicans up to today, maybe they can better understand my culture. (student b) how has race/ethnicity affected students of color learning experiences? when asked how they felt about race and how it affected their schooling experiences, the participants reported that their racial identities were not respected, instructional materials did not reflect them, and they experienced cultural isolation. chambers and mccready (2011) described such experiences as marginalization. reflecting on the issue of whether her ethnicity was respected journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 14 in the classroom, a latinx reported that “i do not feel that my race is respected. some of the teachers ignore me. these teachers seem to judge people based on color/race.” other participants reported similar aspects of marginalization, including being ignored by white teachers and students, and most impactful was the fact that most teachers rarely intervened against racial jokes. racial jokes are forms of microaggression that some of the participants resented vehemently, although they did not use the term “microaggressions” specifically, and these acts manifested themselves in many ways. many participants expressed microaggressions in terms of being disrespected and ignored because of race (brondolo, brady ver halen, et al., 2011). exposure to ongoing microaggression has consequences, and data from this study showed that the participants felt a strong sense of marginalization as a result. an american indian male reported that he felt “lonely in the classroom” adding that “i rarely speak in class because white students make me feel like i'm not important.” meanwhile, an african american male described the effects of microaggression: the vibe i get from white teachers is that race determines a person rather than the environment and experiences of that person. thus, they determine who i am, and my performance based on my race. i would say that it is just stereotyping. i have to be cognizant of the fact that other white people are seeing me in this light…. well, the first time they meet me; a tall african american, they say, you must play basketball; you must be good at sports. they don’t ask me about academics, like what classes are you taking or where are you planning to go to college, and when they do, they ask me whether i am going to college for basketball or sports? i may not be able to change people’s preconceived notions about who i am, but i always try to prove who i really am. .....you cannot categorize me based on just how i look. so, i am sometimes very frustrated when i think that sports is all that people believe i can do. i lead my class academically, and it would be nice if people would ask me about how i am doing in my classes. this student’s response suggests the cumulative psychological impact of repeated microaggressions. worth noting, for example, is the fact that this student is already showing signs of disillusionment with society. consider his statement that “i am sometimes very frustrated when i think that sports are all that people believe i can do.” the lesson gained here is that instead of frequent reliance upon stereotyping, developing a habit of gathering informed information about nganga, et al. other people is beneficial. one participant reported that gathering information is as simple as asking, and that because teachers do not ask, they simply “do not know my family’s background and my home culture.” without a doubt, then, having access to informed and objective information is invaluable because in addition to promoting human understanding, it could support human interactions that are informed and objective, thus reducing incidences of microaggression and marginalization. in this study, the participants expressed a preference for an inclusive education because it acknowledges the existence of multiple perspectives and not just views from the dominant culture. data from this study show that these young students were aware of their racial position (positionality) in the u.s. and its associated injustices. therefore, some volunteered to serve as facilitators of change, notwithstanding the risks involved. given that these students were not necessarily cultural experts, it was an educational injustice to expect them to serve as cultural educators. other participants were reluctant to serve as cultural experts as is evident in the following response from an american indian: my teachers always call on me to share my culture and experiences, but i don’t want to because i do not think sharing my experience can tell all about our culture. teachers should instead just include american indian history in what we study. in the above response, the participant does not consider herself a cultural educator. instead, she supported changing the existing curriculum in order to create room for topics in american indian history and culture. meanwhile, aronson & steele (2005) noted the disadvantages of making students cultural educators, because this practice may create role ambiguities regarding power positioning and authority (see also zamudio, et al., 2011). solorzano, ceja, and yosso (2000) held a similar sentiment and added that asking students to speak for their respective cultures was unjust. regardless of the challenges involved, however, several participants in this study were willing to serve as cultural educators so they could educate the dominant cultural group. in doing so, they hoped to help create positive images of their respective cultural groups. to that end, an american indian male commented that serving as a cultural expert motivated him to “do the best i can so people don’t say native americans are any less than other races. i have to prove myself and my people’s culture.” the “racial expert” paradox is a complex yet subtle cultural dynamic between members of the dominant culture and the marginalized groups. being in positions of power and privilege, members journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 16 of the dominant group are less motivated to learn about other cultures. instead, they expect members of the marginalized groups to educate them, or to speak on behalf of their respective cultures. this practice is paradoxical because although the marginalized groups could potentially benefit from educating members of the dominant group, they resent doing so because they feel that those with most power and privilege are not interested in real change (author, 2009). discussion although an inclusive education could suffice for students of color in general, learners of color studying in isolated white rural contexts will benefit from extra remedies. among such remedies is the use of a pedagogy of care and empathy. such an educational approach is different from regular pedagogy because its focus is on establishing a gracious learning space in the context of equity. a gracious space is a “setting” that invites the stranger (hughes, 2004, p.15). when implemented in the spirit of equanimity, a gracious space focuses on issues of fairness, justice, and kindness while disrupting injustice, oppression and domination (nieto & bode, 2012). thus, a pedagogy of care and empathy has value because it considers lived experiences and “place” in order to meet learners’ needs adequately. to that end, one male participant in this study articulated this reality lucidly when he stated that when empathy is at play, teachers do not necessarily need to “know what it feels like to be picked on, left out or made fun of because of race.” instead, “empathy would encourage them to learn and feel about my experiences and background.” a pedagogy of care and empathy is situational and must be adapted to meet learners’ needs. for example, because the learners of color in this study were likely to be taught exclusively by white teachers, a pedagogy of empathy would advocate strongly for the recruitment and hiring of administrators, educators, and paraeducators of color so learners of color could have role models. in terms of addressing the meaning of the academic, cultural, and social isolation that children of color in isolated rural settings experienced, a pedagogy of care and empathy would ensure an inclusive education is adopted. additionally, it would support the hiring of well-trained multicultural experts, particularly licensed counselors, to help these learners disentangle their thoughts, feelings, and how they made sense of their school experiences. in classrooms based on respect, all cultures are understood and appreciated, creating an inclusionary and culturally responsive education. in such classrooms, leaners teachers use a culturally responsive perspective that involves integrating diverse cultural perspectives and students’ prior knowledge and experiences (gay, 2018). learners’ histories, cultural traditions, nganga, et al. race and ethnicity are validated and represented in the curriculum. however, because the american education system is shaped largely by eurocentric values, the experiences of students of color are generally ignored. embraced instead is an assumption that what is good for the dominant group is equally good for all cultural groups. because students bring a variety of heritage cultures into the classroom, any failure to acknowledge this reality violates the pedagogical principles espoused in crp. this student-centered approach to teaching identifies and nurtures students’ unique cultural strengths, to promote student achievement and a sense of well-being about the student’s cultural place in the world. data suggested that students were aware of the exclusionary nature of school curricula. this exclusion adds to a sense of isolation. to help mitigate this isolation, data showed that the participants preferred inclusion of heritage cultures in the learning process. indeed, the framework of culturally responsive pedagogy (crp) supports the use of heritage cultures in order to enhance learning and argues that an education that does not utilize human differences falls short of providing empowering curricula (delgado-bernal, 2002; gay, 2018). because the participants in this study experienced social and cultural isolation, then, they not only reported experiencing a disempowering education, but also offered suggestions to make education inclusive and culturally responsive. while many factors aid in the process of making education inclusive, the participants in this study recommended the use of caring learning environments. in a caring learning environment, learners are allowed to express themselves freely because voice matters (zamudio et al., 2011). it also encourages the use of multiple perspectives (nganga,2015). shoemaker and eklund (1989), for example, argued that caring classrooms offer integrated and interactive learning that is informed by real life events. when instruction is integrated, students are able to experience learning in a manner that mirrors events in real life. this educational approach also discourages emphasis on memorization of facts and skills, without showing relationships (bruner, 1986). planned carefully, then, instructional integration allows learners to participate fully in the learning process, thus allowing them to develop affirming images of themselves and the educational process. conclusion/recommendations data from this study offer invaluable insights. although data showed that white teachers struggle with implementing crp, they have the capability of educating students of color if they utilize a journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 18 culturally relevant pedagogy that features care and empathy. measures consistent with a pedagogy of care and empathy include, but are not limited to:  getting to know students of color and their families, a good starting place in the process of establishing positive relationships.  focusing on personal reflections, awareness of unconscious bias.  curricula representative of diverse cultures (histories, culture etc.) as well those from the mainstream.  hiring policies that support the recruitment and hiring of a diverse workforce.  providing professional development opportunities in culturally responsive teaching  pedagogy of care and empathy, including active engagement of students, exploring their own cultures and cultures of dominant groups. in a pedagogy of care and empathy, learners are given multiple opportunities to discuss freely the place-based societal matters that influence how they make meaning of lived experiences. in a pedagogy of empathy, learners are never asked to be cultural experts. instead, a curriculum that is culturally responsive is implemented. selecting socials studies curriculum materials generally, social studies teaching and learning resources in the u.s. focus on the experiences of white and middle-class cultures (wallace & allen, 2008). as a result, the histories and experiences of various marginalized groups are largely ignored and/or minimized. therefore, this study calls on educators to always adopt culturally inclusive teaching and learning resources as follows:  supplement existing resources with textbooks authored by writers from historically marginalized identities.  use inclusive teaching and learning resources. generally, textbooks exclude contributions of historically marginalized groups and instead promote the experiences of the dominant group.  select supportive literature that “validates the lived experiences of learners from culturally diverse backgrounds, recognizes social differences, and contributes to the development of empathy in children and respect and understanding between and among cultures (botelho & rudman, 2009, p.265)  monitor classroom practices and instruction. it is critical for educators to establish nganga, et al. welcoming classrooms that are free of stereotype, racism, marginalization and microaggression. in welcoming classrooms, learners’ experiences and interests serve as bridge to instruction. additionally, learners’ histories, cultures and racial/ethnic backgrounds are included in the curriculum and teachers have high expectations for all learners.  provide a challenging curriculum for all students. to sleeter and grant (2009) educators were likely to hold have low expectations for students of color.  provide instructional opportunities for all students to interact in ways that help them to “understand how culture and social structure orient and constrain the actions of diverse groups in history” (wills, 2001, p. 55).  ask questions such as: 1). what examples or experiences do my students have that connect to the concepts i am teaching? 2). what biases do i have and how can i overcome them as an educator? 3). what assumptions do i have about culturally and linguistically diverse leaners and how might they hinder how i teach? 4). am i providing accurate information about various racial, ethnic, ability, gender, social class groups etc., and “making sure that classroom materials do not contain overt stereotypes and “(sleeter & grant, 2009, p. 103)?  use multiple modalities during instruction to reach all learners. see appendix b.  selecting current materials that present the realities of modern cultures as compared to those of the past. in all, to best facilitate the establishment of positive relationships between educators and students of color, it is essential for educators to implement culturally responsive instruction. to be successfully however, it is important for educator to engage in purposeful self-reflection. in particular, they should consider how, if at all, their own unconscious bias could hinder learning (lubbe & botha, 2020). once unshackled from both intentional and unintentional biases, it is probable for them to teach all students well. this is especially true for a majority of teachers in the u.s. who hail from middle class european-american backgrounds. typically, the biggest obstacle that these educators face is disposing of their own cultural biases in order to create space to learn about the cultural backgrounds of students of color. yet, an education that is culturally responsive requires teachers to be sensitive to their students’ cultural needs. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 20 references adams, m., bell, l. a., & griffin, p. (2007). teaching for diversity and social justice (2nd ed.). routledge. agarwal-rangnath, r. (2013). social studies, literacy, and social justice in the common core classroom: a guide for teachers. teachers college press, columbia university. apple, m. w. (1996). cultural politics and education. teachers college press, columbia university. apple, m. w. (2004). ideology and curriculum (3rd ed.). routledge. apple, m.w. (2006). educating the “right” way: markets, standards, god and inequality (2nd ed.). routledge. apple, m.w., & aasen, p. (2003). the state and the politics of knowledge. routledge. atkin, c. (2003). the influence of rural culture on post-sixteen pathways from school. journal for continuing liberal adult education (ad-lib), 24. anthony-stevens, v., & langford, s. (2019). “what do you need a course like that for?” conceptualizing diverse ruralities in rural teacher education. journal of teacher education, 71(3), 332-344. https://doi.org/https://doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1177/0022487119861582 aronson, b., meyers, l., & winn, v. (2020). “lies my teacher [educator] still tells”: using critical race counternarratives to disrupt whiteness in teacher education. the teacher educator, 55(3), 300-322. doi: 10.1080/08878730.2020.1759743 aronson, j., & steele, c. m. (2005). stereotypes and the fragility of human competence, motivation, and self-concept. in c. dweck & e. elliot (eds.), handbook of competence and motivation. guilford. au, w., brown, a. l., & calderón, d. (2016). reclaiming the multicultural roots of us curriculum: communities of color and official knowledge in education. teachers college press, columbia university. banks, j. a., & banks, c.a.m. (2007). multicultural education: issues and perspectives (5th ed.). allyn & bacon. benner, a. a. & graham, s. (2001). latino adolescents’ experiences of discrimination across the first 2 years of high school: correlates and influences on education outcomes. child development, 82 (2), 508-519. bogdan, r., & biklen, s. k. (2007). qualitative research for education: an introduction to theory and methods. pearson allyn & bacon. botelho, m.j., & rudman, m.k. (2009). critical multicultural analysis of children’s literature: mirrors, windows, and doors. routledge. boyce, c. & neale, p. (2006). conducting in-depth interviews: a guide for designing and conducting in-depth interviews for evaluating input. pathfinder international. https://doi.org/https:/doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1177/0022487119861582 https://doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1080/08878730.2020.1759743 nganga, et al. http://www2.pathfinder.org/site/docserver/m_e_tool_series_indepth_interviews.pdf bratter, j., rowley, k., & chukhray, i. (2016). does a self-affirmation intervention reduce stereotype threat in black and hispanic high schools? race and social problems, 8(4), 340-356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-016-9187-4 brondolo, e., brady ver halen, n., libby, d., & pencille, m. (2011). racism as a psychosocial stressor. in r. contrada & a. baum (eds.), the handbook of stress science: biology, psychology, health (pp. 167– 184). new york, ny: springer bruner, j. (1986). actual minds, possible worlds. harvard university press. chambers, v. t. t., & mccready, l. t. (2011). “making space” for ourselves: african american student responses to their marginalization. urban education, 46(6), 1352– 1378. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085911400322 cole, m. (2009). critical race theory and education: a marxist response. palgrave macmillan. council on interracial books for children (1980). guidelines for selecting bias-free textbooks and storybooks. creswell, j. (2013). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. sage publications. darling-hammond, l. (2011). the flat world and education: how america’s commitment to equity will determine our future. new york, ny: teachers college press darling‐hammond, l. (2000). how teacher education matters. journal of teacher education, 51, 166– 173. 10.1177/0022487100051003002 decuir-gunby, j.t., johnson, o.t., edwards, c.w., mccoy, w.n., & white, a.m. (2020). african american professionals in higher education: experiencing and coping with racial microaggressions. race ethnicity and education, 23(4), 492-508. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2019.1579706 delgado-bernal, d. (2002). critical race theory, latino critical theory, and critical raced gendered epistemologies: recognizing students of color as holders and creators of knowledge. qualitative inquiry, 8(1), 105-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/107780040200800107 delgado, r., & stefancic, j. (2001). critical race theory: an introduction. new york university press. dhand, h. (1988). bias in social studies textbooks: new research findings. history and social science teacher, 24(1), 23, 25-27. gay, g. (2018). culturally responsive teaching: theory, research, and practice (3rd ed.). teachers college press, columbia university. gay, g. (2013). teaching to and through cultural diversity. curriculum inquiry, 43(1), 48– 70. https://doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1111/curi.12002 gay, g. (2010). culturally responsive teaching: theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). teachers college press., columbia university. germain, m. h. (1998). worldly teachers: cultural learning and pedagogy. westport, ct: http://www2.pathfinder.org/site/docserver/m_e_tool_series_indepth_interviews.pdf https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-016-9187-4 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0042085911400322 https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2019.1579706 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f107780040200800107 https://doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1111/curi.12002 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 22 bergin & garvey gilbert, k. (2002). taking a narrative approach to grief research: finding meaning in stories. death studies, 26, 223–239. glesne, c. (2011). becoming qualitative researchers: an introduction (4th ed.). pearson. gollnick, d. m., & chinn, p.c. (2009). multicultural education in a pluralistic society (8th ed.). prentice-hall. gruenewald, d. a. (2003). the best of both worlds: a critical pedagogy of place. education researcher, 32(4), 2-12. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x032004003 edwards, l. m., & romero, a. j. (2008). coping with discrimination among mexican descent adolescents. hispanic journal of behavioral sciences, 30, 24-39. feagin, j. r., vera, h., & imani, n. (1996). the agony of education: black students at white colleges and universities. routledge. gregory, s. t. (2000). selected innovations in higher education designed to enhance the racial climate for students of color in predominately white colleges and universities. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, new orleans, la. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 442 441) han, k.t., scull, r. w., nganga, l. & kambutu, j. (2020). voices from the red states: challenging racial positioning in some of the most conservative communities in america, race ethnicity and education, 23:1, 74 93, doi: 10.1080/13613324.2018.1468751 howard, t. c. (2010). why race and culture matters in schools: closing the achievement gap in america’s classrooms. new york, ny: teachers college press irvine, j. (1990). black students and school failure: policies, practices, and prescriptions. greenwood press. jamil, f. m., larsen, r. a., & hamre, b. k. (2018). exploring longitudinal changes in teacher expectancy effects on children's mathematics achievement. journal for research in mathematics education, 49(1), 57-90. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.49.1.0057 johnson, j.t. (2012). place-based learning and knowing: critical pedagogies grounded indigeneity. geojournal, 77, 829-836. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-010-9379-1 johnson-ahorlu, r. n. (2013). our biggest challenge is stereotypes: understanding stereotype threat and the academic experiences of african american undergraduates. journal of negro education, 82(4), 382-392. jeremy, f. (2013). “decomposing school ‘resegregation’: social closure, racial imbalance, and racial isolation.” american sociological review, 78, 828-48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122413496252 kambutu j., & nganga, l. (2012). preparing teachers for diversity education in a “lily" white” community. in omiunota n. ukpokodu and peter ukpokodu (eds.), voices from the margin: perspectives of african-born teacher educators on african and american https://doi.org/10.3102%2f0013189x032004003 https://doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1080/13613324.2018.1468751 https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.49.1.0057 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-010-9379-1 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0003122413496252 nganga, et al. education (pp.345-363). charlotte, north carolina: information age publishing. kambutu, j., rios, f., & castaneda, r. c. (2009). stories deep within: narratives of u.s. teachers of color from diasporic settings. diaspora, indigenous, and minority education, 3 (2), 96-109. kazanjian, c. (2019). toward developing a descriptive multicultural phenomenology. pedagogy, culture & society 27(2), 287-300. kohli, r., & solorzano, d. g. (2012). teachers, please learn our names! racial microagressions and the k-12 classroom. race ethnicity and education, 15(4), 441-462. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2012.674026 kozol, j. (1991). savage inequalities: children in america's schools. harpercollins. ladson-billings, g., & tate, w. f. (1995). toward a critical race theory of education. teachers college record, 97, 47-68. https://www.tcrecord.org/signin.asp?cc=1&r=2 ladson-billings, g. (2003). lies my teacher still tells. in g. ladson-billings (ed.), critical race theory perspectives on the social studies: the profession, policies, and curriculum. iap, 1-11 lee, b., iceland, j., & sharp, g. (2012). racial and ethnic diversity goes local: charting change in american communities over three decades. http://diversity.ucsc.edu/news-events/news/images/us2010.pdf. lubbe, w., & botha, c.s. (2020). the dimensions of reflective practice: a teacher educator’s and educator’s perspective. reflective practice, 21(3), 287-300. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2020.1738369 loewen, j. w. (2018). lies my teacher told me: everything your american history textbook got wrong. news press. markowitz, l., & puchner, l. (2014). racial diversity in the schools: a necessary evil? multicultural perspectives, 16(2), 72-78. https://doi org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1080/15210960.2014.889568 marshall, c., & rossman, g. (2006). designing qualitative research. sage publications. marx, s. & larson, l. (2012). taking off the color-blind glasses: recognizing and supporting latina/o students in a predominantly white school. education administration quarterly, 48(2), 259-303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161x11421923 mcallister, g., & irvine, j. j. (2000). cross cultural competency and multicultural teacher education. review of educational research, 70, 3–24. doi:10.3102/00346543070001003 merriam, s. (2009). qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. jossey-bass. mickelson, r.a. (2014). the problem of color lines in the twenty-first-century sociology of education: researching the theorizing demographic change, segregation, and schooling outcomes. social culture, 2, 157-165. morrow, s. (2005). quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counseling psychology. journal of counseling psychology, 52(2), 250-260. morrisson, g., z. (2010). two separate worlds: students of color at a predominantly white https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2012.674026 https://www.tcrecord.org/signin.asp?cc=1&r=2 http://diversity.ucsc.edu/news-events/news/images/us2010.pdf https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2020.1738369 https://doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1080/15210960.2014.889568 https://doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1080/15210960.2014.889568 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0013161x11421923 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 24 university, journal of black studies, 40, (5), 987-1015. murff, d. (2020). culturally responsive pedagogy: promising practices for african american male students. information age publishing inc. ncss (2001). creating effective citizens. position statement from the national council for the social studies. www.socialstudies.org/positions/effectivecitizens national council for the social studies (ncss) (1994). national council for the social studies, expectations of excellence: curriculum standards for social studies (washington, d.c.: ncss, 1994): 3. nganga, l. (2019). preservice teachers’ perceptions about instructional practices that promote collaboration, critical thinking, creativity and communication (4cs) while teaching for global mindedness and social justice. journal of social studies education research,10 (4), 26-57. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1262 nganga, l. (2015). culturally responsive and anti-biased teaching benefits early childhood pre-service teachers. journal of curriculum and teaching, 4(2). 1-16. 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/jct.v4n2p1 nganga, l. & kambutu, j. (2009). teaching for democracy and social justice in isolated rural settings: challenges and pedagogical opportunities.” in susan greonke & amos hatch (eds.), critical pedagogy and teacher education in the neoliberal era: small openings k-12 pre-service teacher education (pp. 191-204). springer’s transgressive education series. nieto, s., & bode, p. (2012). affirming diversity: the sociopolitical context of multicultural education (6th ed.). pearson / allyn & bacon. noddings, n. (1984). caring, a feminine approach to ethics and moral education. ca: university of california press. pang, v. (2001). multicultural education: a caring-centered, reflective approach (1st ed.). mcgraw-hill. patton, m. (2002) qualitative research and evaluation methods, 3rd edn. thousand oaks, ca: sage. redden, c. e. (2002). social alienation of african american college students: implications for social support systems. paper presented at the national convention of the association for counselor education and supervision, park city, ut. (eric document reproduction service no. ed 470 257) rodriguez, l. (2005). yo, mister! an alternative high school offers lesson on respect. educational leadership, 62(7), 78-80. rogers, l. g. (1994). bias in social studies textbooks. theses digitization project. 959. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/959 scheurich, j. j., & young, m. d. (1997). coloring epistemologies: are our research epistemologies racially biased? educational researcher, 26(4), 4-16. shoemaker, j.e., & eklund, b. j. (1989). integrative education: a curriculum for the twenty-first http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/effectivecitizens https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1262 http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/jct.v4n2p1 https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/959 nganga, et al. century. ossc bulletin, 33(2). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed311602 sleeter, c. e. & grant, c.a (1991) “race, class, gender and disability in current textbooks,” pp. 78-110. in apple m. and christian-smith l. (eds.). the politics of the textbook. routledge. sleeter, c. & grant, c. (2009). making choices for multicultural education: five approaches to race, class and gender (6th ed.). wiley. smith, g. p. (1998). who shall have the moral courage to heal racism in america? multicultural education, 5(3), 4-10. solórzano, d., ceja, m., & yosso, t. (2000). critical race theory, microaggressions, and campus racial climate: the experiences of african american college students. journal of negro education, 69(1/2), 60-73. soumah, a. & hoover, j. h. (2013). a conversation on inequality with students of color. reclaiming children and youth, 22(1), 18-23. tieken, m.c. (2017) the spatialization of racial inequity and education opportunity: rethinking the rural/urban divide, peabody journal of education, 92:3, 385404, doi: 10.1080/0161956x.2017.1324662 villegas, a.m., strom, k., & lucas, t. (2012). closing the racial/ethnic gap between students of color and their teachers: an elusive goal. equity & excellence in education, 45(2), 283301. wallace, s.l & allen, m.d. (2008). survey of african american portrayal in introductory textbooks in american government/politics: a report of the apsa standing committee on the status of blacks in the profession. the profession, 153160. psonline www.apsanet.org, doi: 10.1017/s1049096508080244 washington office of superintendent of public instruction (2021). washington model resource: screening for biased content in instructional materials. washington office of superintendent of public instruction. wing, d. s. (2010). microaggression in everyday life: race, gender, and sexual orientation. wiley & sons. wills, j.s. (2001). missing in interaction: diversity, narrative, and critical multicultural social studies. theory & research in social education, 29:1, 4364, doi: 10.1080/00933104.2001.10505929 woldoff, r. a., wiggins, y. m., & washington, h. m. (2011). black collegians at a rural predominantly white institution: toward a place-based understanding of black students’ adjustment to college. journal of black studies, 42(7), 1047-1079. zamudio, m. m., russell, c., rios, f. a., & bridgeman, j. l. (2011). critical race theory matters: education and ideology. routledge. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed311602 https://doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1080/0161956x.2017.1324662 http://www.apsanet.org/ https://doi-org.libproxy.uwyo.edu/10.1080/00933104.2001.10505929 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 1-27 26 appendix a sample interview questions and follow up questions 1. a. please discuss yourself in the context of race/ethnicity, culture, and other social characteristics that are important to you. b. why are these identities/features important to you? 2. as a student of color, how does your race influence your school experiences? what challenges do you face? what are your successes? 3. what helps you stay focused in school? 4. a. describe your relationship with students and teachers from the majority culture. b. describe your relationship with other students of color. c. how have these relationships affected your schooling? explain. 5. a. how would you describe the type of materials (textbooks, posters, videos, other learning tools, etc.) used in your classrooms? b. do these materials represent your race/ethnicity? why or why not? 6. a. do you have times in the classroom when you felt that teachers respected your race/ethnicity? explain. b. do you have examples of times in the classroom when you felt that your race was not respected? explain 7. are there changes you would like to see in the type of education you experience? explain. nganga, et al. appendix b multiple ways to engage students in diverse classrooms auditory visual tactilekinesthetic affective technology options listening to text read aloud using a dictionary using a braille dictionary working in areas of student interest using a talking dictionary listening to and retelling directions highlighting key points touching words on a word wall working with a partner who can help with definitions downloading and listening to a podcast on an ipod asking and answering questions outlining steps to solving a problem using manipulatives working alone or in cooperative groups using a word processing program engaging in a debate completing a graphic organizer building a model participating in a discussion group or book club using a talking calculator engaging in a discussion designing a poster using response cards participating in a seminar creating spreadsheets giving verbal prompts illustrating or taking pictures using a game format giving feedback creating a video talking through steps drawing finger spelling giving praise using blogging or text messaging from garguiulo/metcalf. teaching in today's inclusive classrooms, 1e. © 2010 wadsworth, a part of cengage learning, inc. reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions. source: ascd: supporting the classroom with materials. http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109011/chapters/supporting-the-classroom-withmaterials-for-instruction.aspx http://www.cengage.com/permissions http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109011/chapters/supporting-the-classroom-with-materials-for-instruction.aspx http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109011/chapters/supporting-the-classroom-with-materials-for-instruction.aspx www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 215-226 215 english textbooks for russian students: problems and specific features marina i. solnyshkina 1, ol'ga d. vishnyakova 2, elzara v. gafiyatova 3 & azat i. gabitov 4 abstract the research identifies the complexity level of eight texts from spotlight 11 used in russian tefl to prepare students for national unified exam in english and assess their reading skills. the results of the analyses conducted with the help of t.e.r.a., an automated text processor, prove that all texts fell within the range of 6 – 9 flesch-kincaid grade levels which correspond to the english language proficiency of the target audience. we also revealed the absence of a clear progression in difficulty across the eight texts in the continuum which may cause unpredictable test results and contribute to demotivation of students. the results also show that the indices of narrativity, syntactic simplicity, word concreteness, referential cohesion and deep cohesion measured with t.e.r.a. do not grow but fluctuate across the continuum of the texts either. aiming at selecting authentic texts with steadily growing complexity of each of the above mentioned parameters, we recommend to incorporate the suggested algorithm of text analysis into tefl practice in russia. t.e.r.a. is viewed by the authors as a tool able to provide educators with a solid foundation to select texts, develop curriculum, design assessment tasks and otherwise address academic needs of a target audience. keywords: text complexity, syntactic simplicity, narrativity, readability, texts analysis introduction the problem of fostering reading comprehension is never going to cease its significance to education as it is a key feature to any academic success. the journey from primary school to college and along one’s career path is a reading journey with reading texts becoming more complex in terms of both concepts and language (erbilgin, 2017; pearson & liben, 2015; mauch & tarman, 2016; tarman, 2016). if textbooks offered to schoolchildren for reading comprehension do not correspond to children’s cognitive and linguistic abilities, it often results in reading tasks losing their attractiveness for children, frustrations and lack of interest in studies (gabitov & ilyasova, 2016). describing the current situation in tefl in the russian federation, solnyshkina and kiselnikov (2015) argue that while selecting texts for educational purposes 1 prof, kazan federal university kazan, mesoln@yandex.ru 2 prof, lomonosov moscow state university moscow, ol-vish@mail.ru 3 asst. prof, kazan federal university kazan, mesoln@yandex.ru 4 pst. grad, kazan federal university kazan, gabit.azat@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),215-226 russian textbooks writers and exam developers measure predominantly ‘text readability’ and use numerical scores obtained with the existing readability formulas, i.e. flesch reading ease, flesch-kincaid grade level, gunning fog score etc. the consequences of this oversimplified approach to the problem are inadequate texts used in english language teaching and testing in the russian federation. one of the modern automated tools designed for texts complexity parameters analysis is t.e.r.a., coh-metrix common core text ease and readability assessor measuring scores of narrativity, syntactic simplicity, word concreteness, referential cohesion, deep cohesion and flesch-kincaid grade level. thus, providing a user with a comprehensive picture of text characteristics, t.e.r.a. simplifies the process of selecting texts for potential readers. methods the existing readability formulas correlating text readability with school grades are based on the two main variables, i.e. mean number of letters/syllables per word and words per sentence (readability formulas. free readability tools to check for reading levels, reading assessment, and reading grade levels). for example, flesch-kincaid grade level (f-k gl) is calculated in a standard way using sentence length (in words) and word length (in letters) as follows: (.39 * sentence length) + (11,8 * word length) 15,59. an increase in one of the two components of the formula results in a higher value of the text readability. though the readability scores are widely used in pedagogical community all over the world (duran et al., 2007), their accuracy as well as ability to correlate with children’s cognitive age have been a persistent concern of many educators since the formulas were first produced (pearson & liben, 2015). the researchers argue that the formulas do not estimate a number of text features, such as lexical variety, complexity of grammatical structures and/or general logic of textual information. all these make them an extremely limited means of assessing text appropriateness for a target audience (duran et al., 2007). another stage of the studies in the area was marked with the extension of the range of text parameters that assess their complexity (solnyshkina & kiselnikov, 2015). in the review article by kiselnikov (2013) the authors conclude that the majority of modern text complexity criteria are primarily derived either based on syntactic or lexical features of texts. as a semantic category, text complexity realizes through grammar and vocabulary in a text. https://readable.io/content/the-flesch-reading-ease-and-flesch-kincaid-grade-level/ https://readable.io/content/the-flesch-reading-ease-and-flesch-kincaid-grade-level/ https://readable.io/content/the-gunning-fog-index/ https://readable.io/content/the-flesch-reading-ease-and-flesch-kincaid-grade-level/ solnyshkina et al. t.e.r.a marked the transition to another stage of the problem development as it also measures text cohesion and coherence. at the moment, tera, available on the public website, calculates flesch-kincaid grade level (f-k gl) and computes five characteristics of texts: syntactic simplicity, abstractness/concreteness of words, narrativity, referential cohesion, deep cohesion. for the study presented we computed the text parameters, such as flesch-kincaid grade levels, narrativity, syntactic simplicity, abstractness/concreteness of words, referential cohesion, deep cohesion of the texts from spotlight 11, with the help of t.e.r.a and predominantly used descriptive, interpretative and contrastive methods to identify to what degree the texts correspond the cognitive and linguistic levels of the russian students. results we selected the data for the study from the students book spotlight 11 recommended by the ministry of education of the russian federations for english language teaching in the 11th grade of public schools. the 11th grade is the final year in russian high schools during which students are predominantly trained for final matriculation examination. to ensure the equivalence of text materials in terms of the purpose of learning, all the texts for the study were selected from chapters a of each module of the textbook. chapters a are designed for testing the students’ skimming and scanning in the classroom. the texts were attributed numbers 1 8 and letter a indicating the corresponding module and chapter. e.g. text 2a stands for the text used in spotlight11 to assess students’ reading skills in module 2, chapter a. the genres of the texts include the following: realistic fiction, science fiction, biographies and magazine articles. all the texts selected are narrative expect for text 8a which is descriptive. the word count varies from 385 in text 3a to 657 in text 8a. the mean number of sentences is 29. the texts were formatted in .txt files and assessed in a single-text format with the help of t.e.r.a. for narrativity, syntactic simplicity, abstractness/concreteness of words, referential cohesion, deep cohesion. on the first stage of the analysis we used flesch-kincaid formula to calculate the corresponding reading grade level of texts 1a 8a, i.e. what reading age children they are appropriate for. the results, as demonstrated on the graph in img.1 below, testify to the absence of a linear progression of f k grade level with texts 3a, 5a suitable for grade 6 and texts 8a, https://readable.io/content/the-flesch-reading-ease-and-flesch-kincaid-grade-level/ journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),215-226 6a being appropriate for grade 9 of usa schools. the easiest is text 5a with f-k gl 6,20 and the most difficult text is text 6a with f-k gl 9,70 (see img. 1 below). image 1. flesh-kincaid grade levels graph for texts 1a 8 a. on the second stage of the research we computed the 8 selected texts with the help of t.e.r.a. aiming at measuring text complexity parameters and each of its characteristics, i.e. of narrativity, syntactic simplicity, abstractness/concreteness of words, referential cohesion and deep cohesion. avoiding restrictive categorizing of narrativity, t.e.r.a developers adapt a comparative view on the notion and define narrativity in relative terms: a text may have higher or lower degree of narrativity in contrast with all the texts in t.e.r.a. library. in general terms narrativity is defined as the quality or condition of presenting a narrative (oxford living dictionaries). accordingly, texts with a low value of narrative parameters contain a high proportion of unique nouns and a variety of temporal forms as is the case in text 8a: “otherwise known as the lost city of the incas', machu picchu is an ancient incan city located almost 2,500 metres above sea level in the andes mountains in peru. machu picchu is invisible from below”. an ideally simple text will be a set of similar type sentences, whereas a complex one will not have one similar combination of pairs of sentences in its entire body. “the identity of sentences in the text will, however, change the deep connectivity of the text” (crossley & mcnamara, 2016). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 solnyshkina et al. all the texts of chapter a, except for text 8a, are narrative and the corresponding parameter scores measured by t.e.r.a. vary from minimum of 69% in text 4 to maximum of 92% in text 3a. text 3a demonstrates a high density of verbs: “i couldn't even remember buying a ticket! anyway, i contacted the people the letter was from, who asked me to send them a 'fee' to process my winnings”. the narrativity of text 8a, as shown in img. 2, is only 30%. thus, t.e.r.a. discriminated the text of another genre by calculating its narrativity. image 2. narrativity graph for texts 1a 8 a. though indices of narrativity of texts 1a 7a do not progress form low to high, they demonstrate a certain degree of consistency and do not fall below 69%. text 8a was excluded from the further analysis based on the assumption that different types of texts demonstrate differences in the frequency of core vocabulary words (lee, 2001), in the way that cohesion relations are expressed (mccarthy, graesser & mcnamara, 2006), in the rate at which rare words are repeated (heibert, 2009), etc. indices of syntactic simplicity, word concreteness, referential cohesion, deep cohesion for texts 1a 7a are presented on the corresponding graphs in img.3 below. the observed fluctuations are as follows: for syntactic simplicity – 31%, word concreteness – 64%, referential cohesion – 31%, with the minimum variation in deep cohesion – 25%. the syntactic simplicity graph demonstrates that the syntax indices of the texts studied are medium narrativity scores in texts 1a 8a 1a 2a 3a 4a 5а 6а 7a 8а journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),215-226 and vary from 34% in text 1a to 65 % in texts 2a and 4a. the lowest indices are those of referential cohesion, with the lowest of 9 % in text 7a and the highest being 40% in text 3a. texts also showed a decrease in referential cohesion from around 40 % in texts 1 a and 2a to 9% in text 7a. but there is a remarkable growth in the numbers observed in word concreteness: 14 % in text 6a and 70% in text 3a. cf.: “the searches are based on the hypothesis that aliens may be intentionally sending communication signals out across the universe, or that signals from their worlds could be escaping into space – just as our own radio, television and military broadcast signals escape into the cosmos” (14 %, text 6a); “burglars recently broke into our house while we were sleeping upstairs! my sister and i heard a noise, so we woke up our dad, who called the police.” (70%, text 3a). deep cohesion of all the texts studied is relatively high and remains between 74% in text 3a and 99% in text 2a. image 3. graphs of complexity parameters for texts 1a 7a. discussion syntactic simplicity is a parameter dependent on three measured variables, i.e. mean of clauses throughout the text, mean of words in the sentence, and mean of words in front of the main verb (mcnamara & graesser, 2012). table 1 below shows the complexity parameters of the texts with minimum (1a) and maximum (2a) scores of syntactic simplicity. as we see their f-k g levels are only 1.3 grade different. the excepts from text 1a and text 2a below are self-explanatory. cf. text 1: i am an only child and i live with my parents and my grandma, or p a ra m e te rs s co re s indices of text parameters measured with t.e.r.a. syntactic simplicity word concreteness referential cohesion deep cohesion solnyshkina et al. 'babushka' as we say here in russia. my grandpa passed away last year so babushka left her house in the country to come and live with us here in the city. text 2a: in a nutshell, "stress" is the way our bodies and minds react to life's changes. in stressful situations, the nervous system causes muscles to tense, breathing to become shallow and adrenaline to be released into your bloodstream as your body gets ready to beat challenges with focus and strength. table 1 indices for two representative texts 1a and 7a text narrativity syntactic simplicity word concreteness referential cohesion deep cohesion flesh -kincaid grade level 1 79% 34% 36% 39% 81% 8,20 2 77% 65% 39% 37% 99% 7,40 abstractness/ concreteness of words as it comes from the name, shows the proportion of concrete words to abstract ones. the developers of t.e.r.a. define concrete words as “words that refer to things you can see, hear, taste, touch, feel, or smell. abstract words cannot easily be seen, heard, touched, felt or smelled” (mcnamara & graesser, 2012). with a high content of specific vocabulary or professional jargon, the text becomes more difficult for the reader to understand. the texts studied contain a number of words the concreteness of which is obvious, i.e. sand, beaches, friends, house, dad (texts 3a, 6a). the abstract words registered in the corpus of the texts spotlight 11 are as follows: dream, obstacles, failure, goal, ambitions (text 7a). but category of abstractness/ concreteness is a non clear-cut phenomenon but a continuum, and there are words in the vocabulary of every language which depending on the context may be viewed either as concrete or abstract: ‘a field of tulips’ vs ‘a field of knowledge’. the potential difficulty in measuring the parameter of abstractness/ concreteness in a separate text lies in the requirement to identify its value for every word in the text, which implies the necessity of a source referring to which a researcher would get the value of each word in a text. t.e.r.a. developers use mrc psycholinguistic database for concreteness ratings, the word lists of which “are incomplete due to the limited size of the word samples” (mcnamara & graesser, 2012). the texts with extreme indices of word concretenessin the continuum are texts 5a and journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),215-226 6a with f-k gl 6.20 and 9.70, respectively (see table 2). the majority of the indices of the texts are distinctively different while f-k g levels are about the same. table 2 indices for two representative texts 5a and 6a text narrativity syntactic simplicity word concreteness referential cohesion deep cohesion flesh -kincaid grade level 5 80% 55% 78% 13% 94% 6,20 6 75% 51% 14% 20% 94% 9,70 referential cohesion is a measure of the overlap between words in the text, formed with the help of similar words and ideas transmitted by them (mccarthy et al., 2006). to maintain a high level of the parameter, it is necessary to provide proposals with one or more types of specified means (rowe, ozuru & mcnamara, 2006). contrasting indices of referential cohesion in texts 1a 7a, we revealed a range of scores with the minimum of 9% in text 7 a and the maximum of 40% in text 3 a. consider a sample from text 3a with a high value of this parameter: getting married and having a family is a top priority for me. my marriage will probably be arranged by my father, which is quite common here. (spotlight 11, text 1a). we can see a number of repetitions of derivatives related to the same root: married – marriage, me – my as well as hyperonym – hyponym relations: a family – my father. the word which refers to the idea of ‘the marriage being arranged by the father of the writer’ thus connecting two parts of the sentence, that the reader interprets as a whole. text 7a demonstrating the lowest value of referential cohesion in the corpus, i.e. 9%, runs as follows: “believe in yourself (subtitle of the text). without a doubt, this is the first step on the road to achieving your dreams! and this means not listening to anyone who tells you, 'you can't.' einstein, beethoven and edison, all knew about this”. it is obvious that the pronoun this in the first sentence of the text refers to the idea expressed in the subtitle of the text, i.e. believe in yourself, to elicit this information is much more cognitively difficult for a non-native student of english than in a sentence with stronger connections between parts of a text and a sentence. solnyshkina et al. table 3 indices for two representative texts 6a and 8a text narrativity syntactic simplicity word concreteness referential cohesion deep cohesion flesh -kincaid grade level 3 92% 54% 70% 40% 74% 6,50 7 84% 63% 33% 9% 95% 7,50 texts 6a and 8a, i.e. the texts with the highest and lowest values of referential cohesion, have a high value of narrativity and deep cohesion but a relatively low value of referential cohesion. referential cohesion scores of 9% certifies to poor logical connections between the ideas in the adjacent sentences of the texts, i.e. coherence. deep cohesion determines how well the events, ideas, and information of the entire text are related at a level that is understandable by a human (readability formulas. free readability tools to check for reading levels, reading assessment, and reading grade levels). as it can be observed from table 4, deep cohesion has very little correlation with f-k gl. table 4 indices two representative texts 2a and 8a text narrativity syntactic simplicity word concreteness referential cohesion deep cohesion flesh -kincaid grade level 2 77% 65% 39% 37% 99% 7,40 8 30% 36% 80% 22% 42% 9,50 thus, the research demonstrated a wide range of syntactic simplicity (over 30%) and word concreteness scores (60%) in the narrative texts studied. narrativity and deep cohesion scores do not fall below 69%, while referential cohesion does not rise above 40%. as we know “automatic event extraction is an important task in knowledge acquisition step” (solovyev & ivanov, 2016). conclusion the comparative study of eight texts used in spotlight 11 to assess students’ reading skills demonstrated that flesch-kincaid grade levels of the texts fluctuate from 6 to 9 presenting a non-linear progression. this fact revealing lack of a comprehensive approach applied by the authors of spotlight11to selecting texts for academic purposes may not only dejournal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),215-226 motivate students but also invalidate the tests in which the texts are used. we advocate sequencing academic texts from easy to difficult since it is more likely to generate positive responses from students and have a positive impact on reading tests results. findings on narrativity, syntactic simplicity, word concreteness, referential and deep cohesion variables of coh-metrix gained by the authors are similar to those of flesch-kincaid grade level – none of the indices demonstrated a progression of easier to harder across the continuum of the eight studied texts. as consistent progression of each complexity parameter in authentic texts selected for academic purposes, though ideal but inaccessible, we suggest using t.e.r.a. as an instrument to help educators to assess text dimensions and provide students with enough training to be ready for separate complexity parameters spikes. acknowledgements the authors would like to thank administration of the program of competitive growth of kazan federal university for their support and assistance with the preparation and publication of the article as well as their appreciation of the benefits to be gained from the research conducted. solnyshkina et al. references crossley, s.a. & mcnamara, d.s. (2016). adaptive educational technologies for literacy instruction. york, ny: routledge. duran, n.d., bellissens, c., taylor, r.s. & mcnamara, d.s. (2007). quantifying text difficulty with automated parameters of cohesion and semantics. in: proceedings of the 29th annual meeting of the cognitive science society (233-238). mahwah, nj: eribaum. erbilgin, e. (2017). a comparison of the mathematical processes embedded in the content standards of turkey and singapore. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1): 5374. gabitov, a.i. & ilyasova, l.g. (2016). use of automated instruments of text analysis to provide proper difficulty level of english language educational materials. problems of modern pedagogical education: pedagogy and psychology, 53(3): 101-108. heibert, e.h. (2009). interpreting lexiles in online contexts and with informational texts. seattle, wa: apex learning. kiselnikov, a.s. (2013). formulas of readability as a text analysis tool. in: language. society. consciousness: collection of articles (247-253). kazan: fatherland. lee, d.y.w. (2001). defining core vocabulary and tracking its distribution across spoken and written genres. journal of english linguistics, 29: 250-278. mauch, j. & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2): 55-66. mcnamara, d.s., & graesser, a.c. (2012). coh-metrix: an automated tool for theoretical and applied natural language processing. in: applied natural language processing and content analysis: identification, investigation, and resolution (188-205). hershey, pa: igi global. mccarthy, p., graesser, a.c. & mcnamara, d.s. (2006). distinguishing genre using coh-metrix indices of cohesion. poster presented at the annual meetings of the society for text and discourse, minneapolis, mn. mccarthy, ph.m., lightman, e.j., dufty, d.f. & mcnamara, d.s. (2006). using coh-metrix to assess distributions of cohesion and difficulty: an investigation of the structure of highschool textbooks. in: proceedings of the 28th annual conference of the cognitive science society (190-195). mahwah: eribaum. narrativity (n.d.). in: oxford living dictionaries. retrieved from journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),215-226 https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/narrativity. pearson, d.p. & liben, d. (2015). the progression of reading comprehension. retrieved from https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/documents/literacyconveningprogressionofcomprehension .pdf. readability formulas. free readability tools to check for reading levels, reading assessment, and reading grade levels. retrieved from http://www.readabilityformulas.com/. rowe, m., ozuru, y. & mcnamara, d.s. (2006). an analysis of a standardized reading ability test: what do questions actually measure? in: proceedings of the seventh international conference of the learning sciences (627-633). mahwah: erlbaum. solnyshkina, m.i. & kiselnikov, a.s. (2015). text complexity: study phases in russian linguistics. tomsk state university journal of philology, 6(38): 86-99. solovyev, v. & ivanov, v. (2016). knowledge-driven event extraction in russian: corpusbased linguisti. computational intelligence and neuroscience, article id 4183760, dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/4183760. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1): 77-97. https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/documents/literacyconveningprogressionofcomprehension.pdf https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/documents/literacyconveningprogressionofcomprehension.pdf http://www.readabilityformulas.com/ civil law agreement and its implication on regulation for prevention of corruption within covid-19 pandemic www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (3), 156-176 civil law agreement and its implication on regulation for prevention of corruption within covid-19 pandemic hamzah1 abstract the purpose of this study is to determine the social impact of the learning process of agreements and regulations in the civil law regarding the procurement of goods and services during the covid19 pandemic, its implications for preventing corruption in indonesia. the research method used is normative using a theory-in-use approach. the results of the study found three crucial points. first, the law of goods and services agreements gives freedom to people who do not have restrictions in the code for that. the contract for the procurement of products and services during the covid-19 pandemic was categorized as a relatively temporary force majeure so that it could renegotiate to rearrange the implementation schedule. second, good faith is the key to success in resolving frustrating agreement problems to save the agreement to provide benefits and benefits to both parties. third, in the end, civil law provides an essential lesson that in transactions based on good faith where there are values of decency, honesty, and fair wisdom is the prevention of corruption in the procurement of goods. good faith is the key to success in resolving frustrating agreement problems to save the agreement to provide benefits and benefits to both parties. and service in difficult times like today. key words: agreement; civil law; learning; prevention of corruption; regulation; social crisis introduction before the covid-19 pandemic broke out in society, the modern world had many economic interactions. however, upon the arrival of covid-19 pandemic all countries were no exception affected. under these circumstances, business people experience holdups and uncertainty in economy due to the restrictions caused by the pandemic worldwide. various activities of goods and service procurement agreements were also affected (tarman, 2020). as the result, the previously made agreements become constrained or entirely canceled. this forceful situation caused a lot of polemics in society, especially since it affected business people whose business was in the procurement of goods and services (grazyna, 2020). 1lecturer at law faculty, lampung university, indonesia. hamzah.1969@fh.unila.ac.id mailto:hamzah.1969@fh.unila.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 157 one condition that is of concern and very influential in the case of terminating contract agreements amid the conditions of the covid-19 pandemic is force majeure (garbe et al., 2020). civil law treaty experts call this a condition to terminate the agreement or cancel the agreement (dainow, 1966). theoretically, the force is divided into two types, namely a relative or an absolute force. force majeure has implications for changes in the agreement through renegotiation to agree on changes to certain clauses of the agreement must be canceled because the object of the agreement has been destroyed (stein, 1991). on the other hand, common law jurists have voiced a doctrine of impossibility which is conceptually different from the absolute doctrine of force majeure. the doctrine of impossibility can likely affect the agreement performance for there is a provision to declare a void on a closed agreement (smyth & gatto, 2018). on the basis of this understanding, it seems that civil law and general law are conceptually two different paths but leading to the same goal (pejovic, 2001; singh & bhardwaj, 2019). all efforts are made to fulfill the agreement under tremendous circumstances such as the covid-19 pandemic. thus, there are two views regarding the agreement for the procurement of goods and services in force majeure or in conditions that are very difficult to implement. an agreement is a contract enforced by law by which the parties provide mutual benefits and benefits. additionally, an agreement is the soul for business activities and ideally made on a contract and ended up with achieving the goal, namely creating benefits and or benefits for both parties (peel &treitel, 2007; macdermott, 2007). in developing countries trade agreements must promote democratization because they undermine the ability of governments to distribute rents to maintain autocratic regimes (manger & pickup, 2016). therefore, the agreement must be made and signed by the two parties to place their respective interests in the scope of benefits and benefits. in modern trade agreements such as today, it has gone beyond reducing tariffs by setting rules, such as market access and regulation on foreign service providers (dhingra, freeman, &mavroeidi, 2018). furthermore, the findings reveal that negotiation services, investment and competition terms in future deals can relatively enhance trade to be more professional, scientific, and technical. good faith is the soul and key to successfully meet the purpose of the agreement (summers, 1968; bridge, 2017). without good faith in an agreement for the procurement of goods and services, it is likely prone to cases of legal violations, especially fraud. for example, monopolistic hamzah practices, breaches to agreements, and unfair competition in running businesses (benlagha & hemrit, 2018; setyawati&audila, 2019). previous studies related to cases of violation of the ghana public procurement act revealed the importance of learning in understanding a treaty law. non-competitive, single procurement without approval from the appropriate review board was the most frequently violated area of the law (atiga & azanlerigu, 2017). good learning in understanding the practice of goods and service procurement agreements is an important asset to achieve the desired results of stakeholders, especially for the wider society (grandia& meehan 2017; olefirenko & galuschenko, 2018). previous studies raised various foresights in the legal problems of goods and services procurement contracts and then linked them with the dimensions of good faith. the use of communication technology, media and information technology, is able to influence a business agreement. in this case, it is essential to grasp the intentions and foresight/security enforced in law to subsequently benefit a business partnership agreement (mariyam, 2020). furthermore, the role of the state in contract law learning contractual agreements enforces social preferences (pargendler, 2018). with good faith applied in endorsing social preferences, society will hold sound attitudes, religiosity, and perceptions as well as behavioral control towards fraud prevention efforts (traikova, manolova, mollers, & buchenrieder, 2017). one illustration is the effort to prevent fraud through society legal education (suryanto, seregig, hartono, & rivai, 2018). this education can generate morally sound behaviors on individuals such as honesty, fairness, openness, care and goodwill (rufai & adelopo, 2018). the reason intended for upgrading morality in government is the prevention of increasingly practiced corruption in indonesia. as such, this refers to all actions aimed to deter, restrain, or prevent varied forms of abuse, of course, usually involving practices against legal standards (svensson, 2005). previous studies have revealed that an organizational culture that prioritizes integrity is accompanied by a strong knowledge of norms and a high level of acceptance of programs and regulations relating to corruption prevention efforts (damm&shishko, 2016; bussamann, niemeczek, &vockdrodt, 2018). even now, modern technology (information, innovation, and intelligence) has developed as a catalyst to fight corruption (maslii, et al, 2018). the data issued by the corruption eradication commission (kpk) in august 2020 showed an asset handover worth idr 11 billion to the ministry of law and human rights (ham). this asset functions as a recovery of state losses resulted from corruptions in indonesia. notably, the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 159 fraud occurs due to the lack of integrity, poor or defective institutional structures and systems prompting fraudulent behaviors (shleifer&vishny, 1993; rose-ackerman &palifka, 2016; grundler&potrafke, 2019). there were 359 corruption cases within the central government level in 2004-2019. the indonesian anti-corruption behavior index (ipak) in 2020 indicates an increase on corruption compared to the 2019 ipak which is 3.84 on a scale between 0 and 5 (central statistics agency, 2020). consequently, corruption and other fraudulent activities are likely to escalate amid the covid-19 pandemic whether applied in public services, agreements or regulatory implications in civil law (terziev, venelin,&georgiev, 2020; ruiz, 2020). such fraudulent practices cover maladministration and abuse for personal gains. to a great extent, corrupt contracts cannot be held liable in court since officials can renege on agreements by accepting bribes or requiring other bribes to provide the same service (boycko, shleifer, &visny, 1996). research questions drawing the aforementioned background, the following three research questions were listed to guide the research process: 1) what clauses does the agreement comprise of to procure goods and services within civil law implementation to prevent corruptions amid the covid-19 pandemic? 2) what are the reasons that make good faith so important in the process of procuring products and services? methods design the research approach used to analyze the data is qualitative. qualitative research engages in inquiry, studying empirical evidence inductively to produce descriptive narratives (patton, 2005). content analysis design is a qualitative research technique used to interpret the meaning of text data content, and that is why the research design follows a naturalistic paradigm (hsieh & shannon, 2005). the content analysis design is able to provide epistemologically strong standards to critically justify and evaluate findings (krippendorff, 2018).the study analyzed written documents from the agreement for the procurement of goods and services and civil law. as explained, that qualitative research analyzes data from documents. the civil law approach hamzah referred to in research is a general provision concerning deregulation on budget absorption as referred to in the government goods/services procurement regulations. the research objective was to determine the social impact of learning process on civil law agreements and regulations related to the procurement of goods and services during covid-19, and its implications associated with efforts to prevent corruption in indonesia. data and sources of data normative legal research uses secondary data as the main data (marzuki, 2006). this study consists of two kinds of secondary data: primary legal materials that are authoritative in: 1) the form of presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 16 of 2018 concerning government procurement of goods/services. procurement of goods and services has the connotation of "goods are all objects, both tangible and intangible, movable or immovable, which can be traded, used, used or utilized by the property user". whereas service is defined as; "consulting services and non-consulting services or services that require work equipment, certain methodologies, and/or skills in governance systems that are widely recognized in the business world to complete a job (lkpp, 2020)";2) circular (se) no.8 of 2020 which regulates the prevention of corruption related to the use of the goods/services procurement (pbj) budget to accelerate the handling of covid-19; 3) government regulation in lieu of law no.1 of 2020 (perppu 01/2020) concerning state financial policy and financial system stability for handling the 2019 corona virus disease (covid-19) pandemic and/or in the context of facing threats endanger the national economy and/or system stability finance; and 4) presidential regulation (perpres) no. 54 of 2020 concerning posture changes in details and the 2020 state budget. this presidential regulation is a follow-up to perppu no. 1 of 2020. secondary legal materials in the form of legal opinions/doctrines/theories/scientific articles and related websites collected from: 1) documents on the operation of the procurement service unit (ulp) and electronic procurement services (lpse). types of procurement include all types of procurement as regulated in the relevant laws and regulations; 2) the annual government reports issued by the corruption eradication commission (kpk); 3) manuals for the procurement of goods and services by the ministry of monetary, public documents of the information management and documentation officer (ppid) of the government procurement / service policy journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 161 institute of the republic of indonesia (lkpp-ri); and 4) other documents regarding the time span during the covid-19 pandemic. data collection techniques in this study, data collection only focuses on documentation analysis. in the data collection process, the theme is related to; 1) procurements; 2) provisions on the amount of money and regulations on the procurement of goods and services for increasingly using domestic products, enhancing the role of micro, small and medium enterprises (msmes) and developing the national and regional economy; and 3) an agreement between ppk and the provider in contract execution data analysis techniques data analysis refers to inductive content analysis with a directed approach. the analysis begins with relevant research findings as initial code guidelines (hsieh & shannon, 2005). the research instrument consisted of four categories with three main variables using codification, namely; civil law, learning from the system in the regulation of goods and services procurement, and corruption prevention. the data analysis technique used to answer rq 1 and rq2 consists of several stages, namely: changing qualitative data in the form of public documents originating from the information and documentation management officer (ppid) of the indonesian government procurement/service policy institute (lkpp-ri) and quantitative information collected also comes from the activities of the procurement service unit (ulp) and electronic procurement services (lpse) into written text; 2) determine the analysis unit based on the written text theme and place a code on each unit of analysis; 3) determine coding guidelines consisting of category names, coding, definitions or rules, and examples; 4) assign coding to all units of analysis by examining code and instances; 5) testing the coding system by checking the coding consistency, and revising the coding rules to obtain a suitable coding consistency; 6) assessing consistency of coding by involving re-checking the coding data from the entire data set, and 7) drawing conclusions and presenting a reconstruction of meaning obtained from the findings that have been presented. hamzah results and discussion the clauses contained in the agreement to procure goods and services within the civil law implementation to prevent corruptions during the covid-19 pandemic (rq1) in its development, the covid-19 pandemic situation has an impact on goods and service procurement activities. such activities most likely lead to corrupt practices by negligent individuals, including in the goods and services procurement regulatory (pbj) contract. public information disclosure refers to the decree of the information management and documentation officer of lkpp no. 3 of 2019 concerning the establishment of the list of public information in the lkpp environment. (data 1) (1) there are precisely 18 work units described in the regulation, namely: inspectorate; pbj education and training center; planning, organization and management bureau; general and finance bureau; legal bureau, information system and civil service; lpse lkpp; directorate of public procurement strategy and policy development; directorate of special procurement strategy and policy development; directorate of business climate development and international cooperation; directorate of procurement monitoring and evaluation planning; directorate of catalog system development; directorate of electronic procurement system development; directorate of professional and institutional development; directorate of professional certification; directorate of professional certification; directorate of advocacy and dispute resolution area 1; directorate of advocacy and dispute resolution region ii; and the directorate of legal problem handling. the 18 work units are considered to be at risk of corruption because there is some information that is indeed excluded by lkpp as stated in the ppid lkpp decree no.4 of 2019. although the reasons for the impact of disclosing information can reveal personal secrets and can interfere with the interests of the right to property. intellectual. however, on the other hand, some of the excluded information is quite important for the public to know because it involves lkpp activities itself. information that is excluded has sufficient reasons to be confidential, but also creates the potential for fraud because it cannot be directly monitored by the public. by providing access to exclusion information for this reason minimizes fraud during an audit or evaluation. unfortunately, this can also lead to differences of opinion and can lead to conflict among stakeholders. one of them is the work unit of the directorate of planning, monitoring, and evaluation of procurement has excluded information, namely procurement planning, monitoring and evaluation application systems (sirup, monev, tepra, monev ng, sumon, amek) as well as a journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 163 stipulation document and/or cancellation of the black list sanctions submitted by the pa/kpa to lkpp. the work unit of the directorate of planning, monitoring and evaluation of procurement implements technology through an application system, unfortunately this is precisely excluded. in fact, the use of technology will actually make it easier for the public to help supervise the activities of the procurement planning, monitoring and evaluation directorate so that fraudulent practices can be avoided. through technology, pbj's public information can be accessed easily. modern technology (information, innovation, and intelligence) can also apply as a catalyst to fight corruption (maslii, et al, 2018). despite the limited access to information provided for public information users, this literally represents the government transparency and accountability towards goods and service procurement activities. djankov, laporta, lopez -desilanes, and shliefer (2008) explained that misdemeanors such as corruption, collusion, and nepotism (kkn) can be diminished with proper transparency and accountability. the legal reference/basis for its stipulation is presidential regulation no. 16 of 2018, lkpp regulation no. 17 of 2018, and presidential regulation no. 16 of 2018.as mentioned in chapter i general provisions article 1 paragraph 20, (data 2) (2) "electronic procurement services are information technology management services to facilitate the implementation of electronic procurement of goods/services." as explained in the structure of presidential regulation no. 16/2018 consists of 15 chapter 94 articles. when examined, the procurement guidelines in handling emergency procurement during the covid-19 pandemic have been regulated in it, and procurement in an emergency is also regulated by presidential regulation no. 16 of 2018 in chapter viii special procurement article 59 paragraph (1) the statement of the regulation is as follows, (data 3) (3) "handling of an emergency is carried out for the safety/protection of the public or indonesian citizens who are in the country and/or abroad, the implementation of which cannot be postponed and must be done immediately." the state of emergency also applies to the covid-19 situation because its implementation cannot be postponed and must be done immediately to maintain stability and the community's economy. in addition, lkpp has issued lkpp circular letter no.3 of 2020 concerning explanation of the implementation of procurement of goods/services in the context of handling corona virus disease 2019 (covid-19). the circular contains the new pbj mechanism in handling hamzah the covid-19 outbreak in indonesia. it was explained that the emergency condition was simple and distinctive, namely by direct appointment, the budget user (pa) ordered the kpk to appoint a provider to carry out work based on the pa's needs for handling covid-19. providers supply the needs of work units provided that there is no conspiracy, considered as harmful to the state, exercised when delivering services such as mark-ups, kickbacks, bribes or promises to provide other following specific services upon the completion of one service. circular no.4 of 2020 concerning procedures for proving qualifications and negotiations on provider selection during the corona virus outbreak (covid-19) explained that there are two important points, namely: (1) for the necessities of providing goods/services promptly, consisting of (a) proofs of qualifications and online negotiation to ensure qualifications and negotiation with no requirements of field visit, (b) verification of qualifications and offline or face to face negotiations to prove qualifications/classifications and negotiations that require field visits by applying a protocol to prevent further coronavirus outbreak (covid-19). (2) for the necessities for goods/services that can be postponed. during the pandemic period, procurement management, especially commitment-making officials, continued to carry out pbj executions related to the handling of covid-19. moreover, ppid, lkpp explains that the major need for procurement of goods and service (pgs) in the context of handling covid-19 has affected the way lkpp implements pbj because the government must face an asymmetric information situation regarding cost or price information for goods and services. in a normal situation, prices are easily predicted. yet, within an emergency condition, the government as the buyer will find it difficult to obtain fair price information or market willingness. to monitor pgs activities during covid-19, access to information and pgs regulations moved intensively so that the procurement could be carried out in an accountable, effective, and transparent manner. in addition, providers who normally provide for work units are monitored by the government financial supervisory agency, which also provides assistance in the implementation of procurement. the implementation of pgs must also go through an audit process if it is proven that it has carried out corruption, collusion, and hypothesis (cch). then the tender/selection failed. also, if there is fraud and it is not in accordance with the contract agreement, it will be subject to sanctions. in presidential regulation no. 16 of 2018 chapter 1 general provisions article 1 paragraph 21, (data 4) journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 165 (4) "the government internal supervisory apparatus, hereinafter abbreviated as apip, is an apparatus that carries out supervision through audits, reviews, monitoring, evaluation, and other supervisory activities on the implementation of government tasks and functions... "meanwhile, in part two tender/selection failed article 51 paragraph 2, explains that "tender/selection fails in terms of:... e. all participants were involved in corruption, collusion, and hypothesis (cch)." then in part three sanctions article 78 paragraphs 1-3. paragraph 1, (data 5) (5) “the actions or actions of election participants that are subject to sanctions in the implementation of the selection of providers are: a) submitting false/untrue documents or information to fulfill the requirements specified in the bidding document; b) there are indications of conspiracy with other participants to fix the bid price; c) indicated that they have conducted cch in the selection of provider; or resign for reasons that are not accepted by the procurement officials/election working groups/procurement agents. paragraph 2, "actions or actions of election winners who have received sppbj that can be subject to sanctions are winners resigning before signing the contract." paragraph 3, “the actions or actions of the provider that are subject to sanctions are deemed as: a) not performing the contract, not completing work, or not carrying out obligations during the maintenance period; c) submitting a non-redeemable warranty; d) making faulty calculations on the volume of work results on the basis of audit result; e) delivering goods/services whose quality is unspecified in the contract based on audit results; or f. exceeding the due date of work completion as described according to the contract." as a result of this civil law, good intentions and rationality emerged to act properly when executed. from these regulations, it is actually a lesson that in the pbj process during the covid19 period it can prevent corruption, collusion, and hypothesis (cch). the covid-19 pandemic condition is also not defined as a force majeure. the public or individuals who suffer losses due to the enactment of government policies or are suspected to have dealt with conspiracy practices can file a lawsuit. this is a form of consistency of the government towards the stipulated regulations. the previous research is in line with these findings. in the covid-19 suits, the injured parties are physically under the governmental custody and directly vulnerable to the conditions that this custody affirmatively imposes.… to be sure, climate change will unfold much more slowly than the destructive pandemic we are facing today. yet government action is no less important in stopping…, which is entirely preventable… for covid-19, the warning signs are more acute and recent. one covid-related misinformation suit that has received national attention is the washington state court complaint by a non-profit organization focused on transparency and ethics against fox news, rupert murdoch, at&t, and comcast, among other defendants. the defendants were allegedly charged of an “act [ed] in the broad stream hamzah of commerce [to] knowingly disseminate false, erroneous, and incomplete information, which was reasonably relied upon by the public and which had the effect of delaying and interfering with the implementation of effective mitigation and countermeasures against the virus (bronin, 2020) the attitudes applied in perceiving the situation can lead the parties, lkpp, k/l/pd, or other goods providers/construction workers/consulting services/services to be constrained in the covid-19 situation. however, this does not hinder the implementation of pbj due to the enactment of regulations used as a reference to enable optimum work and as an effort to prevent corruption, collusion, and hypothesis (cch). previous studies have also explained that corruption prevention can be done by strengthening regulations regarding efforts to prevent corruption (damm&shishko, 2016; bussamann, niemeczek, &vockdrodt, 2018). the reasons that make good faith so important in the process of procuring products and services(rq2) based on primary legal materials and secondary legal materials for research,the findings (rq2) reveal the reasons that make good faith important in the process of procuring products and services, as follows; in presidential regulation no.16 of 2018, it explains the importance of principles and ethics in implementing pbj so that there is no breach of contract that could harm one of the parties who entered into the contract agreement. burton (1980) corroborates this finding. the researcher explained that the prevention of breaches of contracts and common law obligations occurred because of good faith. it can be understood that principles and ethics are part of good faith. quoted from presidential regulation no. 16 of 2018 in the third part of the principles of procurement of goods/services article 6 applies the following principles: (data 1) (1) "a. efficient; b. effective; c. transparent; d. open; e. compete; f. fair; and accountants. furthermore, the fourth part of the ethics of the procurement of goods / services article 7 (1) all parties involved in the procurement of goods/services comply with the following ethics: a. carry out tasks in an orderly manner, accompanied by a sense of responsibility to achieve the goals, smoothness and accuracy of the objectives of the procurement of goods/services; b. work professionally, independently, and maintain the confidentiality of information ....; c. do not influence each other, either directly or indirectly which results in unfair business competition; d. accept and be responsible for all decisions made ....; e. avoid and prevent conflicts of interest of related parties ...; f. avoid and prevent waste and leakage of state finances; g. avoid and prevent abuse of authority and/or collusion; and h. not accepting, not offering, or not promising to give or receive gifts ...." journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 167 in the covid-19 condition, direct cash assistance (blt) is required in the state budget (apbn) and regional income expenditure budget (apbd), the value is very large. based on data from the ministry of foreign affairs of the republic of indonesia (2020), the budgets of several ministries were cut by idr 97.42 trillion. the budget allocation policy is a follow-up to the government regulation in lieu of law no.1 of 2020 concerning state financial policy and financial system stability for handling covid-19 and presidential regulation no.54 of year 2020 concerning posture changes in details and the 2020 state budget. meanwhile, the total budget for handling the covid-19 pandemic reaches idr 405.1 trillion. this large amount of aid for residents experiencing economic downturns is one of the triggers for corruption in implementing pbj in the covid-19 situation. therefore, good faith is needed to prevent corruption in aid funds for people affected by covid-19. good faith is the key to drafting and implementing the contents of the agreement. according to english law, good faith is a basic principle drawn from the principle of pactasuntservanda. good faith is simply defined as honesty. there are two measures, good faith, namely good faith state of mind and good faith performance (o'connor, 1990). actions that are consistent with the contents of the agreement come from goodwill that is in the mind or heart. the question raised as to whether the principle of good faith should be deemed as to play a role during the application of the contract or should it play a role upon the making of contract? (agustina, 2012). in the author's view, good faith should simultaneously exist at the time of making the agreement, implementing the agreement, and in a forceful state to find a solution that safeguards the interests of both parties. based on the doctrine of consideration, which is the interest of both parties to provide mutual benefits and benefits. good faith becomes the basis for applying renegotiations with facts that are mutually recognized as a key issue. “the duty of good faith arises to qualify all performance obligations, and, of course, the courts have responded to particular situations according to the context presented. indeed, some lines of cases have become so driven by context that it is not clear whether they represent the overall doctrine; the good faith obligations of employers towards employees, for example, seem to have a life of their own (rakoff, 2007).” hamzah renegotiations carried out were based on good faith to maintain the essence of the agreement: by providing benefits and shared benefits for both parties through the implementation of achievements. the renegotiations cover issues such as changing the contents of the locked agreement with the covid-19 pandemic, including rescheduling the implementation of obligations. this is said to be a moral value contained in the contract law principles of civil law, as adopted in the civil code (gunanto, 1997). covid-19 represents impossibility on the common law viewpoint, while civil law categorizes it as force majeure. the covid-19 pandemic is a relative force majeure, despite the intense circumstances and timing of its occurrence and holdups in mobility of people, goods, and services. force majeure is a condition beyond the control of the parties. the failure to perform the promised clause in the agreement was caused by completely unpredictable events where he was prevented from taking actions under affliction or tremendous circumstances beyond his expectations (subekti, 1982). good faith from the parties allowing renegotiating the agreement. “on the one hand, good faith has been celebrated as ‘the queen of rules’, and on the other hand it has been said to play the role of “the emperor’s clause(rotolo, sartor, & smith, 2009).” for civil lawyers who are fond of moral values asserting that good faith is the crown jewel of the agreement. the agreement is unable to run to achieve its goals if there is no good faith on the part of both parties. such is the importance of good faith for the agreement so that it is always necessary from the creation to the implementation of the agreement. this means that good faith is still needed when there is a relative force or impossibility to save the agreement, especially since the parties are already at the stage of implementing the agreement, so that, if the agreement is left in a relative force, it will not cause greater losses and will be held in a longer period of time. in the case of imposing risks due to damage to goods upon work performance by merely providing or conducting work without providing materials. if an agreement fails to fulfill the requirements stipulated in article 1320 of the civil code, the agreement is declared as "legally flawed" (article 1321 of the civil code). a legally flawed agreement is both a null and a void. should the agreement, which is declared a null and a void, harm the parties bound by the agreement would consequently make the subject of the agreement be declared as a void. in this regard, the project manager/project director should be declared to have committed an illegal conduct and can journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 169 be prosecuted for committing fraud as referred to in article 378 of the criminal code. the article stated,(data 2) (2) "anyone with the intent to unlawfully benefit himself or others by using a false name or dignity, by deception, or a series of lies to motivate another person to give up something or provide a debt or write off a debt." furthermore, the‘legally flawed’ conduct as it is treason against the government policies is defined and regulated in presidential regulation no.16 of 2018 concerning pbjp. there are several lessons learned from various goods and service procurement agreements attempted to prevent frauds, especially corrupt behavior. referring to the concept of agreement formulation pinpointed by dunne (1999), the learning benefits referred to include three stages. first, drafting of agreement/pre contractual texts. in the early stages, the agreement was based on the obligation to negotiate in good faith to draw up an agreement in accordance with a mutual consent (marsden &siedel, 2017). both parties grasp their respective obligations and rights. without good faith from the outset, the agreement for the procurement of goods and services should only benefit one party and harm the other. this is what underlies fraud prevention efforts concerning the clauses contained in the goods and services procurement agreement for basically, agreement learning in the process seeks to ensure that contract partners comply with society standards of decency, justice and fairness (fagan, 2020). second, performing obligations to fulfill the agreement/contractual provision. if good faith has been applied in the onset of the agreement and both parties have understood the risks and obligations and fair policies, frauds so called 'legal defects' or treasons against the law should never exist (iliquini & hutchison, 2016). third, the contractual forced stage. this stage is a crucial part of the learning process where both parties are obliged to fulfill the contract agreement. however, it needs to be underlined that the learning in question is about the importance of understanding risks in certain conditions beyond the contractual agreements. for example, in the case when each party is incapable of performing his obligations under particularly difficult circumstances due to force majeure such the covid-19 pandemic. in this context, good faith delivers substantial benefits to avoid felony. thus, learning about good faith in the process of goods and service procurement agreements can be understood by both parties as they are not merely exposed to obligations. instead, they collaborate to resolve the problems at hand (mcmeel, 2017). in good faith, the aggrieved parties would not necessarily hamzah file a lawsuit against the other parties or cause irregularities in the procurement of goods and services associated with the covid-19 pandemic due to the failure to fulfill the contract agreement. thus, civil law, serves as a basic guideline for learning business agreements that apparently grows an anti-corruption attitude capable of reducing frauds, especially the implications for preventing maladministration and abuse within the government public service offices. this finding is in line with previous research which revealed that fraud that occurs in economic or governmental activity is due to a lack of integrity and weakness, poor or defective institutional structures and systems leading to gaps for fraudulent behavior (shleifer&vishny, 1993; djankov, laporta, lopez -desilanes, &shliefer, 2008).the social implications of the learning process minimize other fraudulent activities amid affliction resulted from the covid-19 pandemic either in public services, agreements, or regulatory implications in civil law (terziev, venelin, &georgiev, 2020; ruiz, 2020) the corruption eradication commission (kpk) issued circular (se) no.8 of 2020 concerning the use of budget for the procurement of goods/services in the context of accelerating the handling of corona virus disease 2019 (covid-19) related to the prevention of corruption crime. based on the provisions stipulated in article 6 letters a, b, and c of law no. 19 of 2019 concerning the second amendment to law no. 30 of 2002 concerning the corruption eradication commission (kpk) explains regarding the prevention of corruption as follows, (data 3) (3) "1) pbj still pays attention to applicable laws and regulations including specific rules that issued by the government goods and services procurement policy institute (lkpp) regarding the implementation of the procurement of goods and services in the context of handling covid-19 .....; 2) the principle of pbj in emergencies is effective, transparent, and accountable, while still holding on to the concept of the best price (value for money) as stated in article 4 of presidential decree no. 16 of 2018 concerning procurement of goods / services ... ; 3) kpk reminded that in all stages of implementing pbj, always avoid actions that are categorized as criminal acts of corruption, including: a) not conspiring/collusion with goods/service providers ..., b) not getting a lockback from the provider ....., c) does not contain elements of bribery ...., d) does not contain gratification ..., e) does not contain elements of collision interest in procurement ...., f) does not contain elements of fraud and / or mal-administration ......, g) does not have any malicious intent by taking advantage of emergency conditions ...., h ) do not allow the occurrence of a criminal act of corruption ...." based on the contents of circular no. 8 of 2020, the kpk through the se aims to accelerate the handling of covid-19, especially the provision of personal protective equipment (ppe), journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 171 monitoring and coordination to assist the task force for the acceleration of handling covid-19 in indonesia. pujiono, setiawan, and hutabarat (2019) revealed that anti-corruption law enforcement has shown a fairly good performance in eradicating corruption. however, the trigger for corruption in the covid-19 aid fund is a challenge in itself for the performance of corruption eradication. as has been explained, the reason for the importance of good faith in the implementation of the procurement of goods and services is that the instruments are capable of preventing corruption. although not explained in detail, part of the documents, namely the principles and ethics of the procurement of goods/services, describes efforts to avoid acts that are categorized as criminal acts of corruption. in other words, theoretically based on normative legal studies related to government regulations in the procurement of goods / services it should have implications for the effectiveness and efficiency of covid-19 aid funds and the prevention of corruption. but in fact, it is still not effective in preventing corruption. based on data from the special joint unit for supervision of covid-19 funds, the indonesian police headquarters (mabes polri) recorded 102 cases of misappropriation of social assistance by the end of july 2020 (arunanta, 2020). there have been 17 cases of alleged misappropriation of covid-19 pandemic social assistance funds and all of them have not yet entered the investigation stage and are likely to continue to increase if not handled quickly. this is an obstacle to preventing corruption in indonesia. good faith is an important part of efforts to prevent corruption, but the time-consuming process of investigation and handling makes even the principles and ethics in government regulations not effective enough to prevent corruption. conclusion and implications in summary, the findings and discussion conclude two important things: the first finding is about an agreement for the procurement of goods and services in the application of civil law to prevent corruption during the covid-19 pandemic. contract agreements for the procurement of goods/services that can trigger corruption are contract agreements that have a large budget, such as covid-19 assistance funds. civil law articles confirming the criminal act of corruption at the time of covid-19 are contained in the corruption eradication commission (kpk) issuing circular (se) number 8 of 2020 concerning use of budgets for procurement of goods/services in the hamzah context of accelerating handling of corona virus disease 2019 (covid-19) regarding the prevention of corruption crime. the regulations relevant to the research elaborate three things; 1) the new changes and designs made by lkpp are in the context of realizing sustainable development in spite of the covid-19 situation; 2) disclosure of public information as a form of transparency and accountability in efforts to prevent corruption, collusion and nepotism; and 3) imposing strict sanctions for fraudulent actors who breach the contract agreement is comprehensible and noted as the government’s consistency and perseverance with fighting against corruptions. the second finding reveals the reasons for good faith are very important in the contract even though there are unclear statements to justify the reasons. several articles in the agreement identify principles and ethics in the implementation of the procurement of goods and services. both instruments are part of good faith. in other words, the importance of good faith. in other words, good faith is basically part of government regulations in achieving national development goals. the point of why good faith is so important in a contract is to avoid breaches and reduce losses suffered by both parties. this can practically be an effort to prevent corruption in indonesia. references arunanta, l. nurhadi. (2020). bareskim temukan 102 kasus dugaan penyelewengan dana bansos covid-19. retrived date 08/09/2020 from https://news.detik.com/berita/d5109929/bareskrim-temukan-102-kasus-dugaan-penyelewengan-dana-bansos-covid-19 atiga, oswaland.,&azanlerigu, j. azanlerigu. (2017). a longitudinal outlook of violations ofghana's public procurement law, act (663) 2003. international journal of procurement management, 10(1), 38-50. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijpm.2017.080910. benlagha, n., & hemrit, w. (2018). the inter and intra relationship between economics, administrative sciences and social sciences disciplines. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 92-115. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.6 bridge, m. (2017). good faith, the common law, and the cisg. uniform law review, 22(1), 98115. bronin, sara c. (2020). “what the pandemic can teach climate attorneys,” stanford law review online vol. 75, may, 2020. burton, s. j. (1980). breach of contract and the common law duty to perform in good faith. harvard law review, 369-404. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340584 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 173 central statistics agency. (2020). indeks perilaku anti korupsi (ipak) indonesia tahun 2020 meningkat dibandingkan ipak 2019. retrieved data august 28, 2020 from https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2020/06/15/1671/indeks-perilaku-anti-korupsi--ipak-indonesia-tahun-2020-meningkat-dibandingkan-ipak-2019.html dainow, j. (1966). the civil law and the common law: some points of comparison. the american journal of comparative law, 15(3) (1966 1967), pp. 419-435.published by: american society of comparative law. url: http://www.jstor.org/stable/838275 damm, i. a., & shishko, i. v. (2016). corruption prevention in russian education. journal of siberian federal university. humanities & social sciences 9 (9) 2269-2278. retrieved data august 28, 2020 from http://elib.sfu-kras.ru/handle/2311/26341 dhingra, s., freeman, rebecca & mavroeidi, eleonora. (2018). "beyond tariff reductions: what extra boost from trade agreement provisions?," cep discussion papers no. 1532, pp. 1-42. centre for economic performance, lse. retrieved data august 28, 2020 from http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/88683/1/dp1532.pdf djankov, s., la porta, r., lopez-de-silanes, f., & shleifer, a. (2008, april). transparency and accountability. in rhodes inaugural conference: international and global challenges. retrieved data august 28, 2020 from https://risk.edhec.edu/sites/risk/files/edhec_working_paper_transparency_and_accou ntability.pdf fagan, f. (2020).waiving good faith: a natural language processing approach. new york university journal of law and business, forthcoming 16 (3). pp. 633-679. retrieved data august 28, 2020 from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3545330 garbe, a., ogurlu, u., logan, n., & cook, p. (2020). parents’ experiences with remote education during covid-19 school closures. american journal of qualitative research, 4(3), 4565. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8471 gunanto, h. (1997). “keterkaitan aneka aturan kontrak internasional dalam transaksi bisnis,” jurnal hukum bisnis, vol. 2. grandia, j. & meehan, j. (2017). "public procurement as a policy tool: using procurement to reach desired outcomes in society", international journal of public sector management, vol. 30 no. 4, pp. 302-309. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijpsm-03-2017-0066 gründler, k., & potrafke, n. (2019). corruption and economic growth: new empirical evidence. european journal of political economy, 60, 101810.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2019.08.001 grażyna, m. (2020). modern world and economic interactions in the light of the science of economics as well as finances and accounting. finance, accounting and business analysis, 2(1), 17-24.https://doi.org/10.16408/faba.v2i1.30 https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2020/06/15/1671/indeks-perilaku-anti-korupsi--ipak--indonesia-tahun-2020-meningkat-dibandingkan-ipak-2019.html https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2020/06/15/1671/indeks-perilaku-anti-korupsi--ipak--indonesia-tahun-2020-meningkat-dibandingkan-ipak-2019.html http://www.jstor.org/stable/838275 https://ideas.repec.org/p/cep/cepdps/dp1532.html https://ideas.repec.org/p/cep/cepdps/dp1532.html https://ideas.repec.org/s/cep/cepdps.html http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/88683/1/dp1532.pdf https://risk.edhec.edu/sites/risk/files/edhec_working_paper_transparency_and_accountability.pdf https://risk.edhec.edu/sites/risk/files/edhec_working_paper_transparency_and_accountability.pdf https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3545330 https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=jolien%2520grandia https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=joanne%2520meehan https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/0951-3558 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijpsm-03-2017-0066 https://doi.org/10.16408/faba.v2i1.30 hamzah hsieh, h. f., & shannon, s. e. (2005). three approaches to qualitative content analysis. qualitative health research, 15(9), 1277-1288. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f1049732305276687 iliquini-cinelli, l., & hutchison, a. (2016). constitutionalism, good faith and the doctrine of specific performance: rights, duties and equitable discretion. south african law journal, 133(1), 73-101. kementerian luar negeri republik indonesia. (2020). kebijakan pemerintah republik indonesia terkait wabah covid-19. retrived date 08/09/2020 from https://kemlu.go.id/brussels/id/news/6349/kebijakan-pemerintah-republik-indonesiaterkait-wabah-covid-19 krippendorff, k. (2018). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. london: publications ltd. lembaga kebijakan pengadaan barang/jasa pemerintah (lkkp). laporan keuangan lkpp. retrieved data august 28, 2020 from https://ppid.lkpp.go.id/information/public/index macdermott, r. (2007). regional trade agreement and foreign direct investment. the north american journal of economics and finance, 18(1), 107-116. manger, m. s., & pickup, m. a. (2016).the coevolution of trade agreement networks and democracy. journal of conflict resolution, 60(1), 164-191. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0022002714535431 marsden, g. j., &siedel, g. j. (2017). the duty to negotiate in good faith: are batna strategies legal. berkeley business law journal, 14, 127-156. mariyam, s. (2020).application of good intention on partnership agreement of special rental transportation.in international conference on law, economics and health (icleh 2020) (pp. 584-586). atlantis press. marzuki, p. m. (2006). penelitian hukum, edisi pertama cetakan kedua. kencana prenada media group: jakarta. maslii, n., zakharchenko, n., butenko, v., savastieieva, o., butenko, t., & shyriaieva, l. (2018). modern technologies of detection and prevention of corruption in emerging information society. problems and perspectives in management, 16(1), 58. accessed by https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=615651 mcmeel, g. (2017). foucault’s pendulum: text, context and good faith in contract law. current legal problems, 70(1), 365-397. https://doi.org/10.1093/clp/cux005 https://ppid.lkpp.go.id/information/public/index https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=615651 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 156-176 175 olefirenko, a., & galuschenko, a. (2018). major features, benefits, and prerequisites for intelligent enterprise managing system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 68-91. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.5 o’connor, j.f. (1990). good faith in english law, london: dartmouth publishing company ltd. pargendler, m. (2018). the role of the state in contract law: the common-civil law divide. yale j. int'l l., 43, 143. patton, m. q. (2005). qualitative research. encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science. wiley online library. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470013192.bsa514 pujiyono, p., setiawan, f., & hutabarat, d. (2019). a new approach to prevent corruption in indonesia: a case study on tp4 in central java, indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 10(1), 93-115. rakoff, todd d. (2007).” good faith in contract performance: market street associated ltd. partnership v. frey,” harvard law review vol.120. rose-ackerman, s., & palifka, b. j. (2016). corruption and government: causes, consequences, and reform. new york: cambridge university press. rotolo, a., sartor, g., & smith, c. (2009).good faith in contract negotiation and performance. international journal of business process integration and management, 4(3), 154-173. rufai, i., &adelopo, i. (2018). trust deficit and anti-corruption initiatives. journal of business ethics, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-4059-z setyawati, r., &audila, i. s. (2019). facing cross border: the protection for undertakings and social welfare in indonesia. the first international conference on islamic development studies 2019, icids 2019, 10 september 2019, bandar lampung, indonesia. https://eudl.eu/proceedings/icids/2019 subekti. (1982). pokok-pokokhukumperdata, jakarta: pt. intermasa. seregig, i̇. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., &rivai, e. (2018). preventing the acts of criminal corruption through legal community education. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 138-159. pejovic, c. (2001).civil law and common law: two different paths leading to the same goal. victoria u. wellington l. rev. 32: 817. peel, e., & treitel, g. h. (2007). the law of contract (pp. 1-2). london: sweet & maxwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470013192.bsa514 hamzah stein, peter. g. (1991).roman law, common law, and civil law. tulane law review., 66, pp. 165169, accessed by https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/43503121.pdf. summers, r. s. (1968).good faithin general contract law and the sales provisions of the uniform commercial code. virginia law review, 195-267. smyth, c. m., & gatto, m. (2018). contract law: a comparison of civil law and common law jurisdictions. business expert press. singh, s. a. k., &bhardwaj, g. (2019). decoding common law and civil law: origin, goal and legal mechanism. journal of the gujarat research society, 21(5), 44-52. shleifer, a., & vishny, r. w. (1993). corruption. the quarterly journal of economics, 108(3), 599-617.https://doi.org/10.2307/2118402 tarman, b. (2020). editorial: reflecting in the shade of pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed traikova, d., manolova, t. s., möllers, j., &buchenrieder, g. (2017). corruption perceptions and entrepreneurial intentions in a transitional context–the case of rural bulgaria. journal of developmental entrepreneurship, 22(03), 1750018. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/43503121.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 162-176 improving students' critical thinking skills in controlling social problems through the development of the emancipatory learning model for junior high school social studies in manggarai marianus tapung1, enok maryani2, nana supriatna3 abstract efforts to solve and control social problems are the responsibility of social studies teaching and learning in junior high school. one way to support such efforts is by empowering students' critical thinking skills. for effective empowerment of critical thinking skills, emancipatory learning was developed. the goal is to enable students to understand the material thoroughly, have critical thinking attitudes and skills and act critically when dealing with various forms of social problems. after conducting the research & development method at two junior high schools in ruteng city, the effectiveness of this model was analysed. qualitatively and quantitatively, the teachers performed well in carrying out the teaching and learning activities. the teachers saw this model as a good and creative innovation in social studies learning. similarly, students gained a significant increase in terms of knowledge, attitudes and skills related to the teaching materials, both individually and collectively. they experienced meaningful learning, which has helped them connect teaching materials to the social reality around them. this research has an impact on the emergence of a critical attitude in the daily life of the students and an increase in the teachers' motivation to develop learning models to empower critical thinking skills. key words: critical thinking, social problems, emancipatory learning, social studies introduction the increasingly widespread social problems experienced by the local community of ruteng manggarai, such as environmental destruction, poverty, unemployment, promiscuity, drug abuse among young people, corruption among state officials, etc., indirectly call for education take responsibility to control these problems. in this case, educational activities become the front guard, in an effort to raise learners' awareness about the dangers of the social problems if they are not immediately prevented and addressed: this aids in the sustainability of community life and social movement (tarman, 2016). 1 s. fil., m. pd., indonesian university of education, mtmantovanny26@gmail.com 2 prof., dr., ms., indonesian university of education, enok.maryani@yahoo.com 3 prof., dr., m.ed., indonesian university of education, nanasupriatna@upi.edu enok.maryani@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 162-176 one subject that can be exploited to raise learners' awareness about the dangers of social problems is social studies in junior high school level (banks, 1990). this is so because nationally, the substance and structural content of social studies curriculum in junior high school are concerned with the theme of human social relations and how to develop a relationship to aid the nation’s welfare (sulaiman, 2007; fuad, 2017). this theme is then studied specifically in the learning materials of the social studies subject for first semester eight grade students, on the topic of social issues and efforts to control them (bahr, 2010; karabut, 2012). thus, one way to raise students' awareness to prevent and overcome local social problems is to make the most of social studies teaching and learning activity, especially in disscusing the topic of "social problems and efforts to control them." however, to achieve students' maximum competence in the said topic, it is vital to empower critical thinking skills (zevin, 2007; savage, 1996). this becomes highly relevant and urgent when discussing issues of social problems and how to control them (azizmalayer, 2012). critical thinking components such as "scrutinising", "analysing the effects and causes of problems", "making interpretations of influencing factors", "creating solutions", "reflecting on the meanings and values for present and future life" and "thinking to take practical actions" are fundamental activities in exploring social problems and controlling them. in order to effectively integrate these components into learning, the author has developed an emancipatory learning model adapted from juergen habermas' critical thinking (edward, 2017; morrison, 1996). in the practical application of classroom teaching and learning, this developed model integrates the "scrutinising" component into the technical phase. meanwhile, "analysing the impacts and causes of problems", "making interpretations of influencing factors" and "making solutions" become part of the practical-interpretative phase. finally, the activities of "reflecting on the meaning and value for the present and future life" and "thinking for taking practical actions" become part of the emancipatory phase. method the method used in this research is r & d (research and development) (borg & gall, 2003), with a focus on the social studies teaching and learning activities of the first-semester eighth-grade students in ruteng city, manggarai regency, east nusa tenggara province. tapung, maryani, supriatna 164 research design the r & d method began with a preliminary study, followed by modelling, creating learning media, validating the model and learning media, carrying out a limited model testing, and revising the model. in developing this model, researchers compiled it in collaborative action research activities. collaborative action research in the context of r & d is research involving research partners such as model teachers, ips teachers in ruteng city, principals, subject supervisors, ips teaching consultants and education experts. population and sample/ study group/participants the method, ended with conducting extensive model trials in two schools, smp negeri (state junior high school) i ruteng and mts (madrasah tsanawiyah/islamic equivalent of junior high school) amanah ruteng. after the extensive trials, the model was disseminated in the meeting of the social studies subject teacher deliberation forum (indonesian, mgmp). meanwhile, the two junior high schools were selected with the purposive sampling technique, with the following considerations: (1) socio-geographically, the schools were adjacent so as to facilitate the researcher to conduct research activities; (2) the characteristics of social problems found in the communities surrounding the schools were relatively the same so as to facilitate the researcher to explore the problems intensively and easily; and (3) academically, these schools have been accredited and met the national standards. data collection tools the data collection in this research is done qualitatively and quantitatively. qualitative data collection is done through interviews of teachers and students. qualitative data are also taken through observation of student and teacher learning activities in the activities before, during and after the learning process. while the quantitative data is taken through tests on the assessment of student learning outcomes and assessment of teacher performance in the classroom. the taking is done from the preliminary study stage, model validation, classroom learning practice, assessment of learning outcomes and evaluation after learning practice activities. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 162-176 data collection qualitative data and quantitative data are collected using prepared instruments. once the data is collected, the next activity is tabulated to ensure that the data collected is genuine and representative. in the tabulation activity will be classified data from all classes tested. based on these tabulations and classifications, then the data are analysed for the purposes of further studies. data analysis the tabulated and classified data were then analysed. for the qualitative data, the analysis is done through triangulation and joint discussion. while quantitative data analysis is done through inferential statistics, among others through one sample pretest-posttest test, t test and z test. all of these statistical tests are preceded by a prerequisite test. meanwhile, hypothesis testing uses the wilcoxon test for nonparametric statistics. findings a). pre-development and implementation of emancipatory learning model the researcher made some important preparations before developing the emancipatory learning model on the social studies subject of smp/mts. the first thing to prepare was the conceptualhypothetical design of the emancipatory learning model in the form of a model script. the model script is based on the study of the model relevance, referencing some thoughts and literature on emancipatory learning and critical thinking skills. based on the model script, the syntax of the developed emancipatory learning model in the social studies lesson was created. in order for the teaching and learning to run effectively, the researcher prepared syllabi, lesson plans and teaching materials about the topic of social problems and efforts to control them. to measure the effectiveness of the implementation of the learning process, the researcher made an instrument of observation emancipatory learning model of implementation. this instrument serves to see all the activities of teachers and students in teaching and learning, in preliminary activities, core activities and closing activities. the aspects assessed are teamwork, expressing opinions and questions, answering questions and generating ideas for concrete action. meanwhile, to measure the improvement of critical thinking skills of students in groups, the researcher made an instrument of observation of problem-management skills. the instrument stands to assess students' critical thinking skills in groups when thinking critically. the observation tapung, maryani, supriatna 166 sheet consists of six points of assessment: observing problems, analysing problems, providing solutions, interpreting factors that influence the emergence of the problems, reflecting their meaning to life and thinking about concrete actions. meanwhile, to measure the improvement of individual students' critical thinking skills, the researcher constructed the problem-management skills test. this test was given before and after the learning activities. this skills test is based on six questions concerning: a) social problems, b) types of social problems, c) causes of problems, d) impacts, e) solutions offered to solve the problems and f) students' critical attitude when dealing with social problems. the conceptual-hypothetical design of emancipatory learning model, learning materials, learning tools/media, learning implementation observation instruments, group work observation instruments and critical thinking skills appraisal tools was assessed and validated for its feasibility. assessment and validation were carried out by learning experts, supervisors of the social studies subject, school principals and social studies teachers. the results of the assessment and validation show that the design of the emancipatory learning model development concept, learning tools and learning appraisal tools are in "good" category and "eligible" for use in discussing the social problems and their management/controlling efforts in the first eighth grade semester of junior high school. b). the implementation of emancipatory learning model after the emancipatory learning model concept, the learning media, and assessment instruments were validated, they were then implemented in two schools, smpn 1 ruteng with 36 students and mts amanah ruteng with 34 students. each of the implementations involved a model teacher, teacher-observer, principal, subject supervisor and education expert. the implementation at smpn 1 ruteng took place from august 22-24, 2017. in general, the learning process from the first to the third meeting went quite well. however, the model teacher could not control and manage the class well and did not master the stages as provided in the lesson plans. similarly, students were not really active because they were less familiar with the presence of a model teacher, observer and education expert in the classroom. after implementation in smpn 1 ruteng, an evaluation was carried out, emphasising the following things: 1) the teacher needs to make better preparation in terms of mastery of teaching materials, mastery of learning syntax with the development of el model and a good understanding of the critical thinking skills journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 162-176 assessment; and (2) the teacher needs to try to stimulate students' active participation, both in listening to teaching materials and during discussions and presentations. meanwhile, the second implementation was conducted at mts amanah ruteng from september 11-13, 2017. the implementation involved a model teacher, teacher-observer, principal, subject supervisor and education expert. the preparation of the implementation in mts amanah ruteng was well-made. the model teacher showed the better understanding of the syntax of the emancipatory learning model. the model teacher also had a good control of the class and the students were well-directed to follow the learning process. at the time of the discussion, the students were confident to express their opinions critically and intelligently, and their peers responded intelligently as well. in general, the second implementation went well. the students actively participated and were confident to express their opinions, thoughts and ideas. although the assessment of critical thinking skills in the development of emancipatory learning model was difficult to establish, the model teacher had already begun to master the assessment techniques to measure students' skills. using the existing assessment formats, the model teacher undertook some forms of assessment, such as individual pre-test, post-test and group assessment, when students discussed and created campaign activities. c). the effectiveness of emancipatory learning model development and implementation the first and primary data to find the effectiveness of the emancipatory learning model implementation are related to teacher performance and student active participation in the teaching and learning process. in general, the results of the observations of teachers' performance in the two schools show the performance of the teachers is in the "good" category. a comparison of teacher performance observation results in two schools is presented in the following figure 1: tapung, maryani, supriatna 168 as illustrated in the figure below, the average scores of teacher performance increased from the first meeting to the third meeting. this increase illustrates that both teachers gain a better understanding of the emancipatory learning model syntax and its implementation in the classroom. this increase is also confirmed by the result of interviews with the two teachers. they considered the emancipatory learning model very interesting and one that supports the active participation of students and the empowerment of critical thinking skills in managing social problems. according to them, students are trained to see a problem and ask critically about what happened, where and when it happened, who was involved, how and why it happened and what to do to control or overcome the problem. similarly, the result of observation of student activity in smpn 1 ruteng shows that the average participation of students is 86.63%, whereas that of students in mts amanah ruteng is 87.45%. the scores mean that the students from these two schools are very active in teamwork, expressing opinions and questions, answering questions and generating ideas for real action. a comparison of student activity based on observation results from both schools is presented in the following figure 2: figure 1: a comparison of teacher performance observation results in two schools figure 2: a comparison of student activity based on observation results from both schools journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 162-176 during an interview, students from both schools express that they are pleased to attend social studies lessons in which the teaching and learning are connected to social problems that occur around their environment. in their opinion, if social studies teaching and learning are based on social issues around them, it is no longer monotonous and boring; instead, it is fun and empowers their critical thinking skills. meanwhile, to see the improvement of critical thinking skills in social studies teaching and learning with the development of the emancipatory learning model, the researcher utilised qualitative and quantitative measurement (cresswell, 2005). qualitatively, the measurement was done through the observation instrument of critical thinking skills. this instrument was filled out by observers by observing students’ behaviour in terms of "seeing problems", "analysing", "making interpretations", "giving solutions", "making reflections" and "thinking of concrete actions". quantitatively, the measurement of the effectiveness of the emancipatory learning model was based on the results of critical thinking skills tests given at the beginning (pre-test) and the end (post-test) of teaching and learning activities. the qualitative assessment shows that the implementation of the emancipatory learning model in both schools is very effective in improving critical thinking skills in controlling social problems. this is characterised by an increasing number of students involved in expressing opinions, analysing problems, providing solutions and thinking about concrete actions. the quality of the questions asked and the ideas proposed by the students are also getting better. this condition shows that students are motivated to think critically about the developed emancipatory learning model. tapung, maryani, supriatna 170 meanwhile, the quantitative analysis of the effectiveness of the implementation of the emancipatory learning model implementation was done to the results of critical thinking skills tests in controlling social problems. the tests were given at the beginning and end of the teaching and learning activity and the results were analysed quantitatively using inferential statistics. the pre-test and post-test results of the students of both schools are described in the following figure 3: the bar chart below illustrates that the average score of critical thinking skills pre-test of the students of smp negeri 1 ruteng is 56.30. after the teaching and learning activities with the developed emancipatory learning model, there was an increase in the score of critical thinking skills by 28.69 points to 84.99. this increase is included under the "moderate" category with an ngain value of 0.53033. based on this finding, it can be concluded descriptively that the learning of social studies with the developed emancipatory learning model can significantly improve critical thinking skills. meanwhile, the critical thinking skills pre-test of students of mts amanah ruteng resulted in an average score of 57.10. after teaching and learning activities with the developed emancipatory learning model, there was an increase in the score of critical thinking skills by 28.505 points to 85.605. the increase in the critical thinking skills score is in the "moderate" category with an n-gain value of 0.68855. based on this finding, it can be concluded that descriptively, social studies learning with the developed emancipatory learning model can significantly improve critical thinking skills. figure 3: the pre-test and post-test results of the students of both schools journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 162-176 discussion, conclusion and implications based on the processes and procedures undertaken, the development of the emancipatory learning model to improve students' critical thinking skills has met several indicators of a learning process. according to degeng (2004), there are three indicators of a successful learning process, namely: (1) conditions. in applying the emancipatory learning, the researcher conditioned the implementation process by preparing hypotheses and validating the model framework, learning media, and assessment tools. conditioning was also done by preparing model teachers, briefing them about the emancipatory learning model development concepts, implementation processes, learning steps and assessment techniques; (2) method or model of learning. after conditioning, the implementation of the emancipatory learning model was carried out. the effectiveness of the implementation of the model is measured based on the analysis of the observation results of teacher performance, teachers' and students' responses after doing the teaching and learning activity, observation of students' critical thinking skills in solving social problem and results of students' pre-test and post test of critical thinking skills in solving social problem (ennis, 2013). from the results of quantitative and qualitative analyses, it is found that the implementation of the emancipatory learning model is included in the "good" category; and (3) learning outcomes. the implementation of the model that falls into the category of "good" is significantly correlated with achievement of learning outcomes, level of understanding of the materials, and students' active participation. from the results of quantitative and qualitative analyses, it is discovered that the learning outcomes, the level of understanding of the materials and students' active participation increase significantly; teacher performance also experiences a good improvement. likewise, teachers and students respond positively to the development of this model because it connects the learning materials to daily facts. based on the above explanations and interpretation of data, it is concluded that the emancipatory learning model is very imperative and strategic in improving the critical thinking skills of junior high school students. however, in the author's opinion, there is a fundamental point underlying the development of this model, namely the emancipatory learning model is part of the reconstruction of critical education ideas, or more precisely a contextualisation of the idea of critical education. in the context of indonesia, the effort to reconstruct the idea of critical thinkingbased education becomes very actual and relevant because of the need to solve various social tapung, maryani, supriatna 172 problems (leong, 2013; hasan, 1996). the situation of the indonesian nation with a high level of social problems requires a vehicle to manage the problems. according to the author, in the history of human civilisation, educational activities have become a very strategic vehicle to answer human’s urgent needs. therefore, the effort to reconstruct the idea of education on the basis of critical thinking becomes urgent, in addition to studying the literature that contains ideas on education based on critical thinking, as well as conducting empirical-factual studies such as the development of the emancipatory learning model. the conceptual and empirical reconstruction of critical education aims to educate the community of learners (students, teachers, etc.), stakeholders and the general public to be increasingly aware of the importance of critical thinking-based education being integrated into curriculum structure and learning content (tarman, 2016; 1995; freire, 2004). in terms of the psychology of learning age, curriculum and learning materials in indonesia, the junior high school level is an important and relevant period to integrate this critical thinking-based education, especially when it is associated with the many problems that arise as a negative impact of technology developments. the emancipatory learning model asserts that critical thinking is an integral part of education. critical thinking itself is one of the four characteristics (communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity) that learners must have in the 21st century (zevin, 2007). critical thinking is also necessary, as the world community in the 21st century is facing great challenges. according to hunt (1999) and kincheloe (2008), these social problems factually have a systemic effect on faltering and destructing social order. poverty, unemployment, crime, natural disasters, population explosions, natural destruction and the like are social problems that arise as a result of the rapid flow of globalisation. in this case, there is no way to get rid of these problems, unless the nation's stakeholders conduct studies and take practical actions (leong, 2013). to anticipate and address these issues, the government, communities, community agencies, non-governmental organisations, including education actors, need to work in synergy. according to may hung (2017) and mckay (2004), a nation with a strong social order is inseparable from educational efforts in building a critical character in its citizens, carried out as early as in school age. students will grow as rational and critical human beings to discuss various things for the interests of the state's development, including how to control and manage its social problems. habermas (1987) revealed part of the cause of the emergence of various social journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 162-176 problems; the difficulty in getting out of these problems is the irrationality of the citizens. newmann (1990) added that a critical-rational society must be built to overcome the irrationality, with education and critical learning in schools. students' critical knowledge and attitudes are shaped in such a way that they will be at the forefront of transformation (wilson, 1989). therefore, it is necessary to develop an emancipatory learning that gives space for the growth and development of critical thinking. the research and development of the emancipatory learning model have demonstrated an effective and efficient implementation of teaching and learning, and the achievement of desired student learning outcomes. the data show improvement in teacher performance and the general average of student active participation. the emancipatory learning model has supported the growth of active student participation and increased critical thinking skills of students in discussing social issues and efforts of managing them. this improvement is proved by the results of qualitative and quantitative analyses, which show that the average pre-test and pos-test scores of students' critical thinking skills have significantly improved. for teachers, this model is an innovation that supports the growing motivation of teachers in teaching and increases students' active participation in learning. students enthusiastically follow social studies teaching and learning when the materials are associated with social facts occurring around them. in addition, the emancipatory learning model has been effective in improving critical thinking skills and has also contributed to the development of students' social, spatial, interpersonal and linguistic intelligences. moreover, students and teachers gain a new awareness in respecting and loving the social environment and trying to free their school environment from various social problems. the author is of the opinion that the great importance of the improvement of critical thinking skills necessitates the development of learning models aimed to improve the skills. the development of such learning models can be started from elementary school through to university level. with this development, it is expected that the education system and the school environment will create a critical thinking culture. teachers and students will be accustomed to dealing with problems in schools and communities with critical thinking skills. of course, this development needs to be supported by the strengthening of critical literacy education. in the context of formal education, incorporating a literacy education program into classroom planning and praxis is a matter to be taken seriously. with the support of critical literacy education, the learning process tapung, maryani, supriatna 174 that aims to empower students' critical thinking skills can be done more meaningfully and efficiently. the present research and development are still far from perfect, both in terms of methods and procedures of the implementation and analysis of the data. the limited ability of the researcher in conducting this research and development has limited the validity of the results and holistic information. on the other hand, the researcher is aware that the research scope is still limited to the classroom and the school environment. hence, other variables such as the influences of parents and society have not been significantly investigated in this study. meanwhile, these variables are very influential on the effectiveness of the implementation of the emancipatory learning model. the author hopes future researchers will focus on the relationship of these variables so as to produce a more valid, model which can be accounted for scientifically. references azizmalayer, k. et al. (2012). "the impact of guided inquiry methods of teaching on the critical thinking of high school students". journal of education and practice, 3 (10). pp: 4247. http://www.iiste.org/journals/index.php/jep/article/download/2530/2546, pdf. banks, j. a. (1990). teaching strategies for the social studies. new york: longman. bahr, n. (2010) "thinking critically about critical thinking in higher education," international journal for the scholarship of teaching and learning: vol. 4: no. 2, article 9. pp: 7889. available at: https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2010.040209, pdf. borg, w.r and gall, m.d. (2003). educational research: an introduction 4th edition. london: longman inc. cresswell, j. w., (2005). educational research: planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. upper saddle river, nj: merrill prentice hall. degeng, n. (2000).taxonomy of variables, malang: universitas negeri malang. edward j.n., et.al, (2017), “development of the critical thinking toolkit (critt): a measure of student attitudes and beliefs about critical thinking", thinking skills and creativity journal, 23, march 2017. pp: 91-100. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2016.11.007 ennis, r.h. (2013). "the nature of critical thinking: outlines of general critical thinking dispositions and abilities" (online), available: http://www.criticalthinking. net/longdefinition.html. pdf. http://www.iiste.org/journals/index.php/jep/article/download/2530/2546 https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2010.040209 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2016.11.007 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 162-176 fuad, n. m. et. al (2017). “improving junior high schools' critical thinking skills based on test, three different models of learning, biology department, universitas negeri malang, indonesia, international journal of instruction january, vol.10, no.1, 1694609x. pp. 101-116. doi: 10.12973/iji.2017.1017a freire, p. (2004). politics of education: culture, power, and liberation, yogyakarta: pustaka jaya. habermas, j., (1987), the theory of communicative action, volume 2: lifeworld and system: a critique of functionalist reason, beacon press, boston, ma. hunt, m. & metcalf, l. (1999). teaching high school social studies. new york: harper and row. karabulut, .s. (2012). “how to teach critical-thinking in social studies education: an examination of three ncss journals”. eurasian journal of educational research, 49, pp: 197-214., https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1059837.pdf kincheloe, j.l., (2008). knowledge and critical pedagogy: an introduction, 3, springer science and business media b.v. leong, p. a. (2013). "thinking critically: a look at students' critiques of a research article", higher education research & development, volume 32, 2013. pp: 575-589. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2012.708322, pdf. may h. m. & cheng z. h. w. (2017) "exploring the effects of classroom learning environment on critical thinking skills and disposition: a study of hong kong 12th graders in liberal studies, thinking skills and creativity journal, volume 24, june 2017. pp: 152-163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.03.001, pdf. mckay, r. a. & gibson, s. a. (2004). social studies for the 21st century: a review of current literature and research. lewiston, n.y.: edwin mellen press. morrison, k., (1995). "habermas and the school curriculum" unpublished. school of education, university of durham. newmann, f. m. (1990). “higher order critical-thinking in teaching social studies: a rationale for the assessment of classroom thoughtfulness”. journal of curriculum studies, 22(1), pp 41-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027900220103, pdf. savage, t. v. & amstrong, d. g. (1996). effective teaching in elementary social studies (third edition). new jersey: prentice hall. sulaiman, w.s.w., rahman, w.r.a., & dzulkifli, m.a., (2007). "relationship between critical thinking dispositions, perceptions towards teachers, learning approaches and critical thinking skills among high school students". retrieved september 29, 2016, pp :57-63, from digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/.../01front.pdf. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1059837.pdf https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2012.708322 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.03.001 https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027900220103 tapung, maryani, supriatna 176 tarman, b. (2016). “innovation and education (june 28, 2016). research in social sciences and technology, vol. 1(1), pp. 77-97. available at ssrn: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2808483, pdf. wilson, h.e. (1989). “developing skill in critical-thinking through participation in school and community life”. in h.r. anderson (ed.), teaching critical-thinking inthe social studies (thirteenth yearbook). washington, d.c.: national council for the social studies. zevin, j. (2007). social studies for the twenty-first century, methods, and materials for teaching in middle and secondary schools, (third edition). new york: routledge taylor and francis group. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2808483 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3),144-174 using coping strategies of informal sector traders amid covid-19 in indonesia for social studies teaching materials on realizing sdgs nasution1, sarmini2, warsono3, wasino4, fitri amalia shintasiwi5 abstract the objectives of this study are first, to analyze the coping strategies of informal sector traders amid the coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) pandemic; and second, to take the results of this research as social studies teaching materials in realizing sustainable development goals (sdgs). this study uses a qualitative approach with a case study method. the data collection techniques are in-depth interviews, observations, and documents of micro business actors, especially street food and food stalls. the two groups are some of the micro-entrepreneurs affected by social distancing policies. the results of the study show that there are various strategies carried out by food stall businesses and food street vendors, including online trading, storage and conversion into frozen food, and finding strategic locations. online food application features are a mainstay for expanding marketing. meanwhile, moving to a trading location becomes a rational choice when there are additional rules because of the covid-19 transmission prevention policy, such as limiting business time, and not being allowed to accept food orders on the spot. to reduce losses due to the fluctuating purchasing power of customers, they process their food into frozen food and sell it via social network. the ability to adapt to this pandemic situation is material for teaching students, especially junior high schools, about adaptive economic activities. moreover, human efforts in overcoming economic problems, so as not to increase the poverty level as expected in the sdg's are required; this can take the form of efforts to minimize poverty and develop sustainable production and consumption. keywords: coping strategy, informal sector traders, social studies education, teaching materials, sustainable development goals, covid-19. introduction the coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) was first identified in november 2019 in wuhan, hubei-china (davenport et al., 2020; huang et al., 2020). this incident is classified as a nonnatural disaster caused by a disease outbreak. since then, the disease has spread rapidly. furthermore, the possibility of the number of infected people who have not been registered or 1 drs., m.hum., m.ed., ph.d., universitas negeri surabaya, indonesia, nasution@unesa.ac.id 2 prof., dr., m.hum., universitas negeri surabaya, indonesia, sarmini@unesa.ac.id 3 prof., dr., m.hum., universitas negeri surabaya, indonesia, warsono@unesa.ac.id 4 prof., dr., m.hum., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, wasino@mail.unnes.ac.id 5 ma., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, shintasiwi@mail.unnes.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 145 show the symptoms is expected to be much higher (wu et al, 2020). therefore, the world health organization (who) declared this incident a global pandemic (cucinotta & vanelli, 2020; lloydsherlock et al., 2020; sohrabi et al., 2020; watkins, 2020), affecting all sectors of society and all aspects of life, and even those who are not directly affected by the virus (davenport et al., 2020). the increasingly wide spread of covid-19 has driven the government to take a decisive step, namely locking down large parts of society and economic life (ye, et al, 2020; iken, et al., 2020). this decision is a type of disaster response effort undertaken to reduce the risk of the spread (pourezzat, et al., 2010; lai, et al., 2020). the determination of the covid-19 disaster status imposed by the government has led to natural disasters, increased unemployment rate, and increased economic hardship for the community. the covid-19 pandemic has caused many economic difficulties for the community, especially traders in the informal sector; restrictions on community activities resulted in a decrease in people's purchasing power. this compelling situation has led to many polemics in society because it attacked business people engaged in the field of procurement of goods and services currently, the covid-19 outbreak is considered a transnational emergency (man ha, 2020; lele, et al., 2020). after the covid-19 report, several countries implemented entry screening measures for immigrants from china and repatriated their residents who lived in wuhan (phelan, et al., 2020; chinazzi, et al., 2020). various policies have been enforced by affected countries, such as china, thailand, japan, the republic of korea, south korea, and the united states (who, 2020). in addition, when a patient is identified, the government handles it carefully, starting from the use of personal protective equipment to providing special isolation rooms. given the characteristics of the transmission of covid-19, health workers carry out tracing of people who have direct contact with sufferers. in the final stage, a number of governments conducted a regional quarantine, and every person was prohibited from doing activities outside the home. the policy was carried out by the governments of malaysia, singapore, india, as well as italy and other european countries. this policy, namely lockdown, follows that of the chinese government in wuhan city and succeeded in suppressing the transmission of covid-19. in indonesia, covid-19 cases were confirmed to have spread in march 2020. various efforts to suppress the spread of the virus are still being carried out at all levels of the community because during and after the disaster, institutions at the community level also experience the breakdown nasution et al. (prihatin, 2018). one of them is the implementation of large-scale social restrictions (psbb) which have been regulated in law no. 6 the year of 2018 concerning health quarantine and the issuance of the chief of police declaration number: mak/2/iii/2020 concerning compliance with government policies in handling the spread of the covid-19. the policy has hugely impacted both the local and global economies. fear of the unexpected effects of covid-19 has had a significant impact on the world economy, and many economic actors are currently experiencing a recession. this condition is evident from the job losses that have occurred due to layoffs and reduced working hours (adams, 2020). the crisis has threatened the function and performance of economic actors (boin, 2009; williams et al., 2017). the reduction in labor in this industrial sector indirectly affects food stalls and food street vendors because they are consumers. the condition of food stall business actors and food street vendors is becoming increasingly difficult because restrictions on business hours and regulations on how to trade are also problems that can reduce their turnover. at the beginning of the psbb, because of the potential of becoming a place of transmission, they were prohibited from trading. after that, business hours are limited and buyers are not allowed to eat on the spot, especially at food stalls. instead, customers take the food they bought home (take away). consequently, traders in the informal sector need a coping strategy to avoid poverty. significant turbulence has had impacts, includng disrupted structure, routine, and ability (williams et al., 2017). on the one hand, as an informal sector, food stalls and food vendors are actually believed to be one of the sectors in urban areas that are able to provide employment opportunities. on the other hand, with employment and decent income, they have helped reduce the number of poor people. moreover, sustainable development goals (sdgs) is one of the efforts adopted by the indonesian government to achieve the safety of humans and the planet, which is the world's agenda. the knowledge of sdgs among future teachers is very important because there is a significant direct impact of learning certain sdgs in higher education institutions (bekteshi & xhaferi, 2020). thus, it is crucial to consider the sdgs as one of the goals in learning. economic welfare encourages sustainable development at the community level (ajayi et al., 2009; yuliati & hartatik, 2019), namely the elimination of poverty. as per statistics indonesia records, the number of poor people has increased to 27.55 million, an increase of 2.76 million, during the pandemic (fauzia, 2021). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 147 this means that at the local level, the existence of informal sector traders is highly expected in a pandemic situation. this struggle of food traders can be used for the academic community as a meaningful record of human efforts in crisis situations. furthermore, the essence of the struggle is useful for children who are forced to study online during the pandemic; especially, for junior high school students, this event can be used to understand socio-economic and cultural phenomena in a pandemic situation. the covid-19 pandemic is no longer just an epidemiological event; rather, it can be analyzed based on social studies education as a human effort to overcome the destruction of the socio-economic structure that occurred (mccorkle, 2020; suharso, et al., 2020). the teaching materials that underlie these contemporary issues will build meaningful experiences for social studies education learners. research questions the current pandemic has greatly impacted various sectors of life, one of them is the economic and education field. this study revealed that there are efforts and strategies carried out by people affected by the pandemic. among them are strategies carried out by informal sector traders who still exist during the covid-19 pandemic era. the adaptations used by these traders will be used as teaching materials in social studies learning. this research focuses on the adaptation used by informal sector traders as an effort to survive the covid-19 pandemic. the results of this research will be used as social studies teaching materials in schools. the research questions are as follows: 1. what are the coping strategies employed by informal sector traders during the covid-19 pandemic? 2. how can the results of this research be used as social studies teaching materials to realize the sdgs? literature review food and beverage informal sector traders during the covid-19 pandemic studies on covid-19 have revealed that the disease is an airborne disease, transmitted through the air. covid-19, in the form of droplets, moves from those who are infected to other people through the air. therefore, the governments of many countries have taken the decision to nasution et al. quarantine (lockdown) to stop the movement of people, to prevent transfer of the virus to other humans. the problem, however, is that to meet their needs, humans must move. the implementation of lockdown has disrupted the daily life of the community; the pandemic has caused an unprecedented economic shrinkage in major countries and business closures all over the world (tetro, 2020; man ha, 2020). this means that economic activity as a marker of human effort to fulfill their needs cannot be carried out. all business centers in the region experiencing health quarantine are suspended (tetro, 2020; man ha, 2020). the temporary suspension in the business sector inevitably affects the informal economy sector. notably, in the study of economics, especially urban areas, the economic sector is divided into the formal and informal sectors. the formal sector is a business that is registered with the government as a business entity. there are many variants within the formal sector, from industry to trade. meanwhile, although some have been registered with the government, there are economic sectors that have micro and small capital, and are usually only owned by families and use labor from family members. the characteristics of informal sector actors include carrying out business activities that are primarily based on people's independence, utilizing simple technology, mainly coming from family labor without wages, using local resources for business raw materials, mostly serving the needs of the lower middle class, their education level and the quality of the resources are low (kuckertz, et al., 2020). in urban areas, this informal sector moves from small traders to food and beverage traders, both food vendors and food stalls.in urban studies, the presence of the informal sector is the answer to excess urbanization. the urban bias of economic development has resulted in a very high impetus for migration to urban areas (mcgee, 1985). the problem, however, is that the availability of jobs in urban areas is limited and the qualifications of urbanites are often not in accordance with the formal sector. as a result, although it is often done consciously, they choose to go to the informal sector. the informal sector is a balance between the formal sector and the limited availability of employment. the overflow of the workforce that occurs in rural areas because of high population growth rates and the very limited employment opportunities has driven a large-scale migration process from rural to urban areas which aim to gain a better livelihood. this can be seen in the emergence of slum pockets, with odd jobs in the informal sector, low productivity, and subsistence which aims journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 149 only to survive (evers and korff, 2000). the process of informalization occurs due to the nature of subsistence, low productivity, capital accumulation, and weak investment, as well as strong pressure of the formal macro system coming from outside (rachbini, et al., 1994). in a crisis situation, the existence of the informal sector as one of the micro, small, and medium enterprises becomes very important in economic growth. according to mehrotra (2009), during the economic crisis of the 1990s in east asia, workers and children in the informal sector experienced extraordinary vulnerability, especially if their business relied on exports. one reason is that they do not have a social safety net. the government's fiscal policy toward this sector has greatly helped them face the crisis. this policy will in turn help economic growth at the national level. this was also observed by finnegan and singh (2004) in thailand and zambia, highlighting that the role of fiscal policy is less needed in the informal sector based on production for local communities to better cope with the crisis. with this fact, the ministry of finance of the republic of indonesia in its press release is quite worried about the condition of the micro and small industrial sector. its existence is needed because of the ability to absorb labor. the number of msme business actors is 64.2 million or 99.9% of the total number of business actors. the absorption of its workforce is 97% and its contribution to the national economy is 61.1% (nainggolan, 2020). coping strategy or survival strategy for the urban poor when linking the informal sector with the urban poor, two terms are used when facing a crisis situation. the first term is survival strategy. this term was first used by charles darwin in explaining the theory of evolution. survival strategy is an effort or process of creatures in overcoming environmental obstacles. the environment becomes an instrument of natural selection. in theory, the living things that exist today were produced by means of survival. one of them is behavioral and physical modifications carried out by these creatures (darwin, 1859). in the context of industrial society, the term survival is used by karl marx when describing the relation of two classes, namely the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. the class struggle (proletarian) (struggle for class) as an effort or strategy for the survival of the class (marx, 1971). meanwhile, the urban poor are a product of urbanization. they are part of the rural poor who have moved to a new environment. poverty in the place of origin is shaped by structures, namely the order of values and social structures. values and social structures make them physically and nasution et al. socially vulnerable. in a new place, with their objective conditions, they encounter obstacles from the surrounding environment. survival strategy is how they overcome these obstacles and strengthen their social position. thinkers of human geography and environmentalist-structuralists prefer this term when looking at communities trying to deal with the problems of a changing environment. the unit of analysis in assessing survival strategy is the family and does not pay attention to the problem of rationality developed by the family in overcoming the crisis (najman, 2019). the second term is coping strategy. this term is usually used to indicate that humans are consciously dealing with the problems that are the pressures of their lives. when faced with problems that are personal or interpersonal, people take various adaptation actions. if consciously, it is called coping, otherwise if the action is subconscious, it is called a self-defense mechanism. this coping action can be positive or negative, can be reactive or proactive. it depends on the outcome. when done in an orderly manner considering the pressure that will arise from the action, then the coping is proactive. if the results minimize stress, then the coping is positive; if they worsen, it is negative or maladaptive (wechsler, 1995; amendah, et.al, 2014). in this study, covid-19 and government policies to overcome transmission are not considered appropriate as an environment for micro-enterprises, especially street vendors and food stalls. both things are more appropriate as a psychologically perceived stressor. these actors perform cognitive processing to respond and minimize these stressors. what is acheived is the outcome of the cognitive process. therefore, the term coping strategy is much more appropriate to understand the actions of street vendors and food stalls. the use of coping strategies in social studies teaching materials to realize the sdgs when discussing coping strategies for the urban poor, the main source of stress is poverty. as they are poor, they have difficulty in making ends meet. chambers (1985) explains poverty trap as the causes of poverty. however, internal factors, especially education, are the key words to overcome the crisis situation they face. mardiharini (2005) states that family structure, parental education level, demographic conditions and economic status are the basis for families to overcome the crisis they face. however, mardiharini (2005) does not discuss how education helps cognitive processes to overcome the life problems of the urban poor. the solution is given by freire (2008), who offers journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 151 a curriculum and learning that no longer uses the traditional model, namely the banking model. in this model, a teacher becomes the subject of the process, an all-knowing person, and students become passive. in this model, students cannot gain meaningful knowledge; the teacher offers a liberating education (liberation pedagogy). in this educational model, the use of dialogic with attention to and being more sensitive to problems around the environment is key. in this way, students and teachers stay grounded in their world, solve everyday problems, and ultimately provide meaningful processes of cognition and knowledge. this suggestion by freire (2008) is suitable and in line with the learning objectives of social studies. in social studies learning, the observed phenomenon becomes a meaningful experience for the learner. in achieving excellence in social studies learning, the learning process will, as already mentioned, be affected by the current problem faced by the world community, the covid-19 pandemic. this pandemic has caused structural damage to society. the state and society undergo a process of impoverishment. the problem of poverty and efforts to overcome it becomes a study in social studies learning. this study is also inseparable from this in line with the sdgs. knowledge related to the readiness to fulfill sdgs is an important dimension for students to know and understand. this was chosen to prepare students from an early age, enabling them to keep up with changing economic conditions through strategies in running micro-enterprises during disease outbreaks such as the current covid-19 pandemic. there are some negavtive possibilities for events that could happen or have already happened to be learned from. teaching materials were chosen because they can be made in a form that suits the needs of students and the characteristics of the teaching materials presented (prastowo, 2015, pope & timothy, 2012). in achieving excellence in social studies learning, the learning process will be more impactful for civic life if it is meaningful, integrated, value-based, challenging, and active (calkins, et al., 2021; ncss, 1994; tarman et al., 2019). accordingly, the theme considered here concerns the coping strategies of informal sector traders during the pandemic which are used as teaching materials. it is the only tool that can change people's behavior so that they can evaluate their actions and take decisions by taking into account the needs of sustainable development education and enlightenment in all its forms and manifestations (fedulova, et al., 2019). in-class learning seems theoretical and considers social science as a non-contextual subject. although contextuality is a part of social science itself, referring to barr (1978), it can be seen from the extent to which the social science curriculum can nasution et al. be dynamically applied to solve social problems in society (mauch & tarman, 2016; wasino, et al., 2020) . the purpose of teaching materials is to deliver messages, stimulate the thoughts, feelings, and willingness of students, to encourage the creation of a learning process in students. in fact, teaching materials have the function to provide learning information to students (sudjana, 2010). social studies is an appropriate subject that can be used as a medium because in social studies learning materials at the junior high school level, there is an integration of various social and humanities disciplines, as well as basic human activities that are organized and presented for educational purposes (sapriya, 2016). when discussing poverty and efforts to overcome it, social studies lecturers talk about sdgs, which are a series of global goals set in 2015 through resolution 70/i of the un general assembly, targeted to be achieved by 2030. the sdgs include five basic principles of development that cannot be separated for the development of humans and nature for the life in the future, namely people, planet, prosperity, peace, and partnership social studies. one study states that the indonesian government supports the resolution by stipulating presidential decree no.59 / 2017 on sdgs, which is further responded by president joko widodo by initiating a national development strategy called nawacita (purwanti, et al., 2018). this strategy puts forward the agenda of democratization, equitable development, and good governance (seregig, et al., 2018). the resolution positively impacts the human development index (undp, 2016). in the sdgs road map for indonesia toward 2030, it has been stated that there are 17 sustainable development goals, two of which are no poverty and zero hunger (kementrian ppn/bappenas, 2020). it can be indicated that education is recognized as the key to creating a sustainable economy (issc, 2016) because quality education will be able to reduce the unemployment rate in a country (passey & samways, 2016). dewi, et al. (2018) state that the goals of quality education can be achieved if the country—in this case, the government—is able to guarantee the quality of education services itself. this research focuses on the implementation of coping strategies for informal sector traders during the pandemic used as teaching materials in social studies. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 153 research method research design this study uses a qualitative approach with the perspective of the ethnomethodology theory proposed by garfinkel (1984). according to this theory, related to coping strategies, perpetrators perform actions repeatedly in everyday life. this steady pattern is a method and practice that produces order in daily life. this answers how the coping strategy is carried out by the informant for 1 year during the covid-19 pandemic in 2020. the research design used in this perspective is the case study of yin (2018). in accordance with the perspective of ethnomethodology theory, case studies are very appropriate to record naturally the daily conditions of the subjects. through the case study design, researchers can gain a subjective understanding of the covid-19 pandemic situation as psychological stress experienced by the subject, ranging from prohibitions on human movement to restrictions on public spaces. these policies are “real” and have become a psychological pressure for business actors. this understanding is only obtained if the relationship between the researcher and the subject is qualified. the quality of this relationship occurs when the researcher is present and jointly carries out daily activities with the subject. participants the research location is the city of surabaya, the second largest metropolitan city in indonesia. the people of surabaya have multi-ethnic characteristics. in addition to the original inhabitants being coastal javanese, the city of surabaya has become an attraction for immigrants from mataraman (inland) java, madurese, and other ethnicities, such as minangkabau, batak, makasar, and banjarese. according to the pattern noted by huub de jonge (1989), the madurese who migrated to surabaya are bangkalan people with a more straightforward character than other regions. they inhabit the western part of surabaya, starting from the ports of tanjung priok, sidotopo to semampir. meanwhile, others live sporadically outside the area. together with the javanese, they developed micro-enterprises, particularly trading in traditional markets, selling food either by opening stalls or using wheelbarrows. traders of these two ethnicities are the subject of research. nasution et al. as is characteristic of the informal sector, there are no accurate data on the number of these traders in surabaya. therefore, according to the case study design, the researcher explored and studied 15 traders from the two ethnic groups, such as javanese and madurese. from the start, the fifteen traders were willing to be observed and interviewed in their daily lives, from shopping, cooking, preparing to open a shop or pushing a cart, to selling and returning home. demographically, they are married with children and wives who help when selling. the age of the subjects ranged within 26–60 years. their trading time is day and night. the two ethnic groups of food traders/food stalls are the unit of analysis, while the observed daily life is the context (yin, 2018). data collection to understand the strategies used by the subjects, the researchers conducted participant observations. in order to participate in daily life, the research team first conducted interviews, asking questions such as where they came from to the pandemic situation they experienced. empathy for what the subject is experiencing is the key word in building rapport cards (good relationship between researcher and subject) (warren, 2012). after the report card was built, the researcher proposed that the subject's willingness to be observed or in the politeness of the javanese and madurese people as a “form of desire” to learn to live with the subject. the latter is not easy, there are some subjects who refuse, some accept. there are several reasons for refusal, for example, there is no place if the researcher stays overnight or feels disturbed when the researcher works to help the subject (yin, 2016). the second data collection technique is in-depth interviews. in-depth interviews were conducted by asking in more detail questions to the respondents in the research. in the theory of coping strategy, every action taken by the subject has a reason or explanation. the reason for what to do is to consider the factors that become stressors. this can only be obtained through an in-depth interview. documentation includes recording the subject's activities and in-depth interviews. observation cannot rely on the senses, but camera aids can record activities and environments that are missed. the same applies to the use of sound recording equipment. voice recording equipment, whatever its form, is an attempt to save the conversation during an in-depth interview. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 155 the third data collection technique includes documents. the documents of the demographic data contained in, for example, the identity card, are useful for researchers to know the migration process to living permanently in the research location. from these data, researchers can also ask the reasons for moving from their place of origin. data analysis there are several steps in data analysis. first, the researcher made field notes from the results of in-depth interviews, observations, and documentation. second, the researcher undertook coding on all field notes. the first coding is related to the ethnic and cultural background of the subject. the second coding is related to the form of business being undertaken, whether it is a street vendor or a food stall. the third code is the income before and after the pandemic. the fourth code relates to views on pressure during the pandemic and beyond. the third step in the analysis is to observe and focus on the patterns of each subject based on the coding in the field notes. related to the case of this research, the pattern in question is a decision and action to diversify in its business, from product to marketing (atkinson, 2002). the fourth step is to build statements that explain these patterns, ranging from less dominant patterns to dominant patterns (yin, 2018). before compiling into an article, these four steps are also compared with the results of previous studies, theories and other data. this step is triangulation. the discrepancy between the phenomena found with previous research must be explained logically. this explanation is important so that the research results are tested for transferability, meaning that the propositions built in this article can only be applied to studies that are similar or have conformity to the conditions they have. after this process is passed, the researchers developed a proposition that explains the pattern found in this study (yin, 2018). findings and disccussion coping strategies employed by informal sector traders during the covid-19 pandemic decreased income as a stressor for business actors due to government policies to overcome covid-19 before the covid-19 pandemic, the economic conditions in the informal sector still showed positive growth and were relatively sufficient to fulfill daily needs. based on the analysis carried nasution et al. out, the economic conditions in the informal sector before the pandemic in surabaya were identified, namely the informants in this research were able to fulfill their daily needs; the turnover obtained was in accordance with the capital spent, even sometimes it was more than enough; they were not confused about finding customers and strategic locations to market their products; they did not take a long time to market their merchandise; and their activities were not limited by the rules of time in marketing the merchandise. since the covid-19 pandemic hit indonesia, the government began to implement various policies such as issuing a call for social distancing and the work from home policy for employees. additionally, the imposition of territorial restrictions and the construction of a special hospital for handling covid-19 were implemented. therefore, this policy will have an impact on society, both the lower middle class and the elite. the spread of covid-19 unavaoidably caused the economic turnover of the community to drastically decrease in every region including surabaya. after the social distancing or physical distancing policies were applied, the impact was immediately felt by the tourism, transportation, service, trade, financial, and industrial sectors. the impact of the economic downturn was getting wider, such that workers were also threatened with the termination of employment. informal sector actors ranging from small traders, daily workers, to online motorcycle taxi drivers were also at risk of losing their income and jobs. the large-scale social restrictions implemented in several stages by the surabaya municipal government have had a significant impact on informal sector actors such as street vendors and shop owners. the decline in consumption activities in the community has led to a decrease in the sales turnover they earned. this decrease in turnover certainly led to an impact on the decreasing household income which results in the inability of informal sector actors to fulfill their household needs and reach the household costs that must be met. “... i experience a decrease in sales. usually, i can earn up to 500 thousand per day. now, the maximum that i could earn is only 300 thousand, even less than that. " (sundari, 48 years old, seblak seller) schools or academic environments are strategic locations to find consumers of products/goods sold by traders/street vendors. the existence of the activities of students can greatly affect the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 157 income of traders. with the existence of schools, traders also do not need to worry about finding a crowded place to sell their goods to achieve the return of the capital. meanwhile, when all schools in indonesia, including those in surabaya, were closed to prevent the spread of covid-19, traders who used to sell in every school admitted that their sales turnover had decreased drastically and sometimes it was difficult for them to return their initial capital. “…. there are no buyers. it's not like it used to be before the covid pandemic. my customers are mostly students who live in the boarding houses around here. now the campus is closed, so there are only very few buyers. usually, i can earn 1 to 2 million, now only 700 thousand to 1 million ". (sri utami, 60 years old, basic needs seller) every day, the number of buyers is indeed uncertain, and therefore the daily income cannot be predicted. however, the conditions before covid-19 were very different compared with the conditions today. places that were previously crowded with buyers are now deserted. therefore, all traders are confused about finding a new location with lots of buyers to sell their goods. “…. my income decreased. before the coronavirus hit, i could earn 300 thousand. however, now it is even very difficult for me to get 100 thousand. (rosiah, 57 years old, angsle ronde seller) the curfew, which was implemented in several areas in surabaya, also influenced the sales of the sellers’ products. many regions have imposed curfew by closing portals or restricting activities in and out of their areas. this, of course, decreases consumer activities at night and limits the space for the sellers or traders to sell their products at night. the following are the differences in the average turnover of informal sector traders before and after the covid-19 (table 2). table 1 average turnover of informal sector traders before and after the covid-19 no types of business sector turnover before the pandemic during the pandemic 1. street vendor 300.000–500.000 <100.000–300.000 2. shop owner 1.000.000–3.000.000 < 1.000.000 table 1 shows that many informal sector traders, especially street vendors and shop owners, have experienced a decline in their turnover. in general, they have experienced a significant impact on nasution et al. their business due to decreased customer demand and felt that there was limited room for them to sell their goods. online sales as an effort to expand the market after the enforcement of the transitional psbb policy, the traders experienced a decrease of income of 20% because there were still many office workers who brought their own foods to avoid food stalls or restaurants and workers who were working from home. this situation becomes a problem, especially in terms of decreasing turnover and income of traders. the decline in turnover is often the reason for a business to go bankrupt, while some traders begin to think and innovate on how to trade, including by marketing their products online. this method becomes the reason for them to survive because, during the psbb period, direct sales were restricted and even strictly controlled. one of the online marketing methods carried out by affected traders is to use social media (whatsapp), by promoting their goods and asking for their relations such as family, relatives, friends, and even neighbors to help promote the goods. this agrees with grannovetter (1985), regarding the use of the embeddedness concept to emphasize network theory to analyze economic problems. the concept of embedded social action in social networks explains that family, relatives, friends, and even neighbors are traders’ social networks and this is what underlies the traders to take advantage of the social network for promotion as a form of coping in the face of a pandemic situation. granovetter emphasizes that social relations encourage rather than hinder economic performance. … i’ve been selling [food] for more than 2 years. when psbb was implemented, many buyers used drive-thru system and i was also helped by go food and grab online system, the peak time is 10.30–13:00 am ….. (nurrackhmawati, 50 years old, lontong balap seller) before the pandemic, i’ve used the online system by gojek and grab application. during pandemic, the orders were disserted, so i innovated by giving around 15%–20% off. these promos are initiated by gojek and go food, and from ourselves as a seller. i used these two systems to increase sales. additionally, i create food packages which are more affordable (yudi, 46 years old, food stall seller). considering that the scope is not too wide, sales are also made by utilizing delivery services directly to the house and payments made at the time the goods are received (cash on delivery). marketing the business and goods through service provider platforms such as gojek and grab, is journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 159 one of the coping strategies used by traders to carry out their business. by using the application features such as go food and go send, traders can reach distant consumers without having to come to them; it is the same for consumers. cash on delivery sales, during a pandemic, involves sellers, service providers, and buyers in which there is a system that is interrelated and beneficial to one another. traders benefit from selling their goods even without conducting direct selling, buyers benefit from being able to buy products without having to leave the house during the pandemic, while cash on delivery service providers benefit from wages. this situation is in line with the view of polanyi (2018), who based his theory on three principles of behavior, namely reciprocity, redistribution, and householding. reciprocity sees a mutually beneficial relationship between sellers, buyers, and service providers. this business strategy is sufficient to assist the community in meeting their daily needs, especially food needs, without having to leave the house. moving to a new location to approach customers and avoid restrictions on business hours some traders complained that their business turnover had decreased drastically due to the policies implemented by the surabaya municipal government. the large-scale social restrictions policy has resulted in many public sectors such as education, economy, social, and culture, to not fully operate. indirectly, this condition that encouraged people to stay at home and do activities online disrupted the economy. potential places such as campus areas, schools, and offices that are usually busy have turned into deserted places. this impact was felt by traders at these locations. to overcome the lack of buyers, traders choose to move their selling location to a more strategic location. therefore, those who previously stayed only in one location now move around looking for buyers to sell their goods directly or visiting other areas. to some people, this seems to be something irrational. traders who usually stay, now prefer to move around and traders who usually settle in strategic positions now have to sell from door to door or from a place to another place. when this location is quiet due to psbb, i sell the basic needs at home. praise the lord, many people come to my home to buy their daily needs because they are afraid to go out. in addition, i sell food in roadside at sahur time during ramadhan (from 12.00 to 03.30), thank god many people are coming (sumila, 57 years old, food seller). traders who sell their goods at the kiosks were also affected by the lack of buyers, which eventually made them choose to walk out of places that have been rented and occupied for several nasution et al. years due to the policies implemented. choosing to move to a more strategic location at the moment is a choice made by actors in the informal sector. the choice made by traders to leave the place that has been rented for several years is often considered irrational to others. while according to those, who felt the impact of the lack of buyers due to the implementation of the large-scale social restrictions policy, consider moving to a more strategic place a rational choice. if they stay in that location, they will not be able to pay the rental fee. this rational choice is taken as an explanatory model of individual actions that are intended to provide a formal analysis of rational decision making based on the reasons and goals achieved by the actor. according to the explanation of rational choice orientation by james s. coleman (ritzer and douglas, 2011), a person's actions intentionally lead to a certain goal and another goal (and the actions taken) determined by values or preferences; something can be said to have value if it has benefits and advantages to meet the satisfaction of the actor. the choices made by traders are to sell their goods at a location that is easily found by many people but does not trigger a crowd, such as in sports circles and jogging spots, and not staying in one place. coleman says that all social behavior is caused by the behavior of each individual who makes their own decisions. for example, street traders make a decision to trade around and do not stay on the grounds as the solution to the lack of buyers. freeze products and sell them to minimize losses large-scale social restrictions have forced people to limit their movement outside the house. thus, it will be very influential to people who work as street vendors and other small traders. decreased turnover and the goods not in demand made it more difficult for traders to find profits and meet their needs, especially for traders who sell perishable items, such as food that spoils quickly. this condition requires traders to be creative in selling their goods even during the covid-19 pandemic, especially for traders whose basic commodities do not last long and must be sold out within a certain time. i am tahu campur seller. during psbb, the buyers decreased, so i thought how to incur loses. meat will be mushy or even crumble if it is often heated, it tastes bad and not worth to sell, so i separate the meat from its soup and froze it. i bring it to my stall then i heat tahu campur soup if the consumer comes, then put the meat based on the portion (iga chandra setiawan, 44 years old, tahu campur seller). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 161 to deal with this condition, the frozen food business is an attractive solution to offer because this food is durable, practical, and easy to serve. with the frozen food business, buyers can save time for shopping and minimize the expenses greatly. it is because they can immediately shop for frozen foods such as frozen meatballs, nuggets, chicken, sausages, potatoes, dim sum, and others for food stock for several weeks. these foods can be served quickly without further processing, they just need to be fried or steamed. this method is also used to raise the level of buyer's confidence that frozen foods are no less competitive than fast food or processed food. additionally, this food has another advantage, namely, it lasts long without changes in shape and taste. the importance of trust in achieving economic prosperity was signigicantly highlighted by fukuyama (1995), stating that the welfare condition and competitiveness of a society are determined by the level of trust among citizens. this frozen food has managed to reach the level of buyer's trust, especially amid the covid-19 pandemic. it is also influenced by the belief that frozen food can last a long time without any changes in shape and taste. as a consequence, many buyers are interested in buying frozen food. trust is hope that grows in a society that is determined by the existence of honest, well-mannered, and cooperative behavior based on shared norms (fukuyama, 1995). table 2 coping strategy community of traders with different ethnic background criteria javanese traders madura traders objective conditions a. age over 50 years old under 50 years old b. education middle and basic education higher c. demography status native migrant marriage between indigenous people and migrants (lamongan) d. amount of capital micro/small middle e. business age less than 5 years more than 10 years more than 10 years f. form of business street food vendors food stall income before the covid19 pandemic less than 300.000,00 rp. 1.000.000,00– rp. 3.000.000,00 situation before the pandemic using the street food area designated by the municipal goverment initially a home business, growing by opening a shop nasution et al. depends on customer attendance actively distribute brochures; offering products via wa. coping strategy during the pandemic change location on the side of a busy road increasing intensity of brochure distribution change location at home applying price discounts, both application and independent promotions use health protocol, serve drive-thru simplify the product and sell at a low price follow meal delivery applications (gojek and grab) freezing the product into frozen food reduce production costs by lowering quantity quality of coping strategy indigenous people tend to be subsistent more creative, so that the cost flow continues. low risk for bankruptcy mixed residents tend to be creative and defensive women traders are much more tenacious, especially those with single parent status this belief emerges among the community, and therefore it is not uncommon for traders who usually sell food that does not need to be frozen to switch to processing frozen food. one of the findings in the field that represents this condition is the existence of frozen satay sellers where the meat which is usually processed into satay is frozen first. when there is an order, the meat will be burned and processed into satay. this is done as traders in response to low orders and solutions to survive the pandemic. although orders are not as many as before the pandemic, traders can still maintain the quality of the food ingredients used. thus, traders are able to control the amount of capital that will be issued as an effort to fulfill their daily needs. according to table 3, there are differences in the objective conditions of street vendors and food stalls. first, the factors of age, demographic status, and gender determine the coping strategy in dealing with the pandemic. ethnic madurese entrepreneurs below the age of 50 years are much more creative in developing their businesses. javanese ethnic entrepreneurs experienced a similar situation. the problem lies in the demographic status. migrant status and gender also contribute to their persistence in doing business. for them, trading (food) is their only source of livelihood. therefore, a decrease in income affects the fulfillment of the needs of family life. this was deeply journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 163 felt by javanese female traders with single parent status. meanwhile, the native population tends to be more subsistence. second, the role of information technology, especially applications on smartphones, is also an important factor in the coping strategy. applications for food delivery have significantly helped expand the market. buyers are no longer limited to the surrounding area; they also come from other areas. the intensity of the use of applications is even higher during the pandemic. this increase in intensity depends on age and education. from the start, with his educational background and age, this madurese food stall trader is very fluent in using smartphone applications. however, they do not abandon simple technology to promote their products. coping strategy during the pandemic as teaching materials in understanding economic activities in social studies learning the role of social studies (social studies) education during the covid-19 pandemic is very important. the problem of the spread of covid-19 is not just a problem for the government, but also for health institutions. covid-19 is an infectious disease caused by human movement, such as sars and tb. the issue of preventing the spread of covid-19 in reality actually depends on the willingness of citizens to comply with government policies, namely, reducing movement and following health protocols, from wearing masks to washing hands. implementing the use of strict procedures without awareness is very ineffective. as a result, this situation also affects people's lives, including their economic activities. related to social studies learning, economic activity is better understood in normal situations. under normal circumstances, traditional economic activities, as in the case of informal traders, often rely on face-to-face trading activities. activities occur when in one place buyers and sellers meet to bargain for the required product (supply-demand theory). prices will be determined by the number of bids and product availability, as well as distribution costs. with the same principle, economic activity is not only carried out in the smallest economic units, such as families and communities, but also by modern economic institutions, ranging from medium, large to multinational companies or industries. its economic activity does not occur in traditional markets, but from modern markets to international trade. its products no longer come from primary economic activities related to raw materials, but lead to tertiary economic activities in the form of services to quaternary economic activities that generate knowledge, such as the application nasution et al. industry. in the competency standards of social studies education in indonesia, these matters are discussed in the third basic competence in grade 7. figure 1. using coping strategy case for social studies education in junior high school figure 1 illustrates how the use of research results on the coping strategies of food vendors and food stalls in overcoming the covid-19 pandemic situation. the process is holistically traced from the explanation that humans, individually and in communities, must fulfill their basic needs in order to survive. meanwhile, resources to meet these needs are scarce and limited. if they cannot fulfill their basic needs in their place of origin, then the individual decides to migrate (move) to a more promising place. migration and urbanization are not just human physical movements, but human life human life basic needs secondary needs tertiary needs traditional market: production consumer distribution modern & post-modern market: production consumer distribution technology normal situation crisis situation: war, economic crisis, pandemic, etc success: survive & wealthy economic activity: coping strategy as a way to overcome the economic crisis cognitive process, sprit of capitalism and resilience using as teaching materials learning models: (social) research-based learning or problem-based learning coping strategy failure: poor, hunger & unwealthy learning goals: analizing economic activity for human living and wealthy ; understanding sdg’s migrationurbanization formal vs informal resource limitations and scarcity journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 165 changes in the space they inhabit. in a different space (and time), humans make adaptations in the form of social behavior. this change in behavior in turn is very appropriate to be observed through sociological and anthropological approaches. the characteristics of migrants and indigenous people in responding to pandemic crisis situations are well explained through these two approaches, especially related to their persistence and coping strategies. the rest, the economic approach makes coping strategy events as part of economic activity in meeting the needs of human life. the relationship between government policies, sellers, buyers and marketing strategies becomes important in analyzing efforts to overcome the decline in income in crisis situations. in turn, such things can be used as learning materials about economic activity in social studies education in grade 7 of junior high school. there are several materials presented. first, components in economic activity, from producers, consumers, distributors, to markets, products, and prices. second, the sectors in economic activity, namely the formal, informal, and traditional sectors. third, the division or market process, namely traditional (bazaar) and modern. fourth, the space and time of economic activity, not just the market, but the state as well as economic policies (being the welfare state) and normality in the transaction process. sixth, the involvement of cognitive processes, the spirit of capitalism and resilience in crisis situations. seventh, coping strategy, wealthy vs unwealthy, adaptive vs maladaptive. economic policies and their implementation are within the framework of national development. in addition to having been formulated in national policies based on legislation, the concept of the welfare state is well formulated by the united nations in the form of sdgs. table 3 lesson plan for coping strategies in the informal sector during the covid-19 pandemic learning objectives 3.3.3. identifying problems of four production factors during the covid-19 pandemic 4.3.2. presenting the results of problem-solving on how to overcome negative things in the four production factors during the covid-19 pandemic learning model research-based learning or problem-based learning learning section time (minutes) activities 5 teachers present perception and convey the coping strategies in the informal sector during the covid-19 pandemic. part 1 40 most indonesians work as informal sector traders: 1) discuss the reasons why people choose to trade over other jobs, give rational reasons. nasution et al. 2) analyze the types of traders that exist in indonesia, continue the activity by discussing the types of traders that are in great demand. 3) students are divided into several groups to explore the experiences faced by street vendors and small shop owners when selling their goods. 4) study and find out the income of the informal sector traders (street vendors and small shop owners). part 2 30 street vendors and small shop owners in the covid-19 pandemic era: 1) study the condition of informal sector traders during the covid-19 pandemic. 2) investigate the coping strategies employed by informal sector traders during the covid-19 pandemic. 3) divide students into several groups to analyze the coping strategies employed by informal sector traders during the covid-19 pandemic. 4) discuss the results of their investigation on why informal sector traders still can survive during the covid-19 pandemic. 5) develop a formula for steps that should be taken by informal sector traders during the covid-19 pandemic and recommend those steps to other traders both in times of a pandemic such as today and similar disasters in the future. closing 10 summary drawing 5 formative test related to how this teaching material is delivered to students, dewey (1997) taught social science educators that to be a meaningful experience requires doing it yourself (learning by doing). the process of cognition by itself will occur when learners do what they want to know. dewey offers learning based on the learner's experience, and develops into various variants of approaches, ranging from contextual learning to constructive learning. the contextual approach occurs when the learner develops experiences through everyday life to shape basic competencies needed for life in society (salinas-vasquez et al., 2020). in essence, learners play an active role in acquiring knowledge and skills. the model can be in the form of problem-based learning or research-based learning. in the former model, the facilitator (teacher) provides problems, the learner solves the problem (porath & jordan 2009). meanwhile, in the latter model, the facilitator (teacher) invites students to be in the surrounding environment and use research principles to answer problems (reid & ali, 2020; rijst, 2017). research-based learning in social studies education is also known as group investigation if it is done in groups. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 167 table 3 describes the stages of research-based learning. first, the facilitator (teacher) stated that the covid-19 pandemic had an impact on all aspects of human life. second, from the economic aspect, the pandemic has actually shaken the country's economy. macroeconomic data, such as a decrease in the trade balance surplus and inflation, can motivate students to find solutions to the economic problems caused by the covid-19 pandemic. the next stages are to invite students to observe and examine economic problems in the informal sector around them. the findings and conclusions become useful for learners about the ability to survive and coping strategies. meanwhile, by connecting macroeconomic data of a country, such as income per capita and number of poor people, students can understand that what the informal sector actors do contributes to economic development, especially employment and poverty reduction. this is in line with the government's efforts to achieve the sdgs’ target as an indicator of the success of its national development. in addition, students gain experience to conduct simple research. through this learning process, there are several new things that are known to students and researchers on problems of poverty, urbanization and development. first, the informal sector, especially food vendors and food stalls are always considered as a single entity. ignoring variances based on demographic status and ethnicity becomes a problem when explaining differences in coping strategies in crisis situations. regarding ethnic issues, research often considers only one ethnicity in the context of a particular region, such as brunner et al. (2012) and chagomoka et al. (2016). second, the use of demographic status, particularly between immigrants and natives, has really helped to understand the coping strategies of the microenterprise group. this sheds light on previous research on urbanites and coping strategies. this finding is tested when research is carried out with a quantitative approach that has not been carried out in this study. in social studies learning, quantitative (survey) and qualitative approaches are taught to students. with a quantitative approach, through a research-based learning model, a facilitator (teacher) jointly invites students to develop instruments that include these variables in understanding coping strategies. meanwhile, through a qualitative approach, students observe and learn with research subjects by living together. in essence, by understanding coping strategies, learners gain meaningful experiences about the persistence of business actors and later become part of the knowledge and life skills to handle difficult situations. nasution et al. conclusion the findings yeild several conclusions. first, the problem of the covid-19 pandemic is not merely a health problem, but a socio-economic, cultural, and political problem. second, government policies have significantly contributed to the decline in income in various economic sectors. third, one of the affected economic sectors is food vendors and food stalls. the policy of restricting human movement, along with the hours of business, has clearly “distanced” business actors from their consumers. fourth, business actors have the ability and coping strategy. fifth, the capabilities and strategies are influenced by various objective factors of the business actor. sixth, the results of this study can be used as teaching materials in social studies learning, especially about economic activities in abnormal situations. seventh, one of the learning models that can be used is research-based learning. related to the fifth conclusion, there are various coping strategies. however, in principle, they minimize losses and maximize profits. actions to minimize losses start from reducing the amount of production to freezing food so that it can be sold in the following days. meanwhile, profit maximizing actions are carried out by expanding the market or consumers. consumers are no longer limited by the distance between the consumer and the place to sell, but use the application between food and social networks that they have. human enthusiasm and creativity can be conveyed in research-based learning model. this research-based or problem-based learning option is very useful in shaping meaningful experiences, empathy, and social sensitivity. apart from the obstacles faced during the learning process, the study of coping strategies is important for understanding that the problem of poverty due to the crisis is not taken for granted. moreover, these efforts can directly and indirectly help the government in reducing the acceleration of the increase in the number of poor people due to the pandemic. as poverty alleviation is one of the sdgs targets, the learning directly provides students with an understanding of how important community involvement is in achieving it. there are several weaknesses in using research-based learning during a pandemic. first, there is a risk of transmitting covid-19, if students are invited to stay and live with business actors. second, research-based learning can only be done if there is psychological maturity for the learner and the willingness of parents. the most important psychological maturity is the attitude of empathy for journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 169 business actors. this attitude is a form of respect for the actors and will subsequently establish good relations between business actors and learners. in a pandemic situation where physical encounters are avoided, both between the learner and teacher (as a facilitator), as well as between the learner and the subject being studied, the implementation of research-based learning is not possible. another alternative is the use of problem-based learning by presenting research results as study material. the lesson plan designed above has not been followed up in field practice. therefore, further research on the implementation of these results in learning in schools is needed. references adams, g. (2020). stabilizing supports for children and families during the pandemic. urban wire (blog). urban institute. link: https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/stabilizingsupports-children-and-families duringpandemic ajayi, m.a., ijaiya, m. a., ijaiya, g. t., bello, r. a., ijaiya, m. a., & adeyemi, s. l. (2009). international remittances and well-being in sub-saharan africa. journal of economics and international finance, 1(3), 078-084. doi: 10.5897/jeif.9000069 amendah, d. d., buigut, s., mohamed, s. (2014). coping strategies among urban poor: evidence from nairobi, kenya. plos one 9(1): e83428. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083428 atkinson, j. (2002). four steps to analyze data from a case study method. proceedings in association for information systems. access at http://aisel.aisnet.org/acis2002/38 barr, r., barth, j. l., and shermis, s. s. (1978). the nature of the social studies. etc publications. bekteshi, e., & xhaferi, b. (2020). learning about sustainable development goals through english language teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 78-94. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.4 boin, a. (2009). the new world of crises and crisis management: implications for policymaking and research. review of policy research, 26(4), 367 377. doi:10.1111/j.15411338.2009.00389.x brunner, k. m., spitzer, m., and chritanell, a. (2012). experiencing fuel poverty. coping strategies of low-income households in vienna/austria. energy policy, 49. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.11.076 calkins, l., yoder, p. j., wiens, p. (2021). renewed purposes for social studies teacher preparation: an analysis of teacher self-efficacy and initial teacher education. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 54-77. https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/stabilizing-supports-children-and-families%20duringpandemic https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/stabilizing-supports-children-and-families%20duringpandemic nasution et al. chagomoka, t., unger, s., drescher, a. glaser, r., marschner, b., schlesinger, j. (2016). food coping strategies in northern ghana. a socio-spatial analysis along the urban–rural continuum. agriculture and food security,5(4). doi:10.1186/s40066-016-0052-x chambers, r. (2014). rural development: putting the last first. ny: routledge. chinazzi m, davis j. t, ajelli m, gioannini c, litvinova m, merler s, vespignani, a. (2020). the effect of travel restrictions on the spread of the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-ncov) outbreak. science, 368(6489), 395-400. doi : 10.1126/science.aba9757 cucinotta, d., & vanelli, m. (2020). who declares covid-19 a pandemic. acta bio-medica, 91(1), 157–160. https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v91i1.9397 darwin, c. (1859). the origin of species. by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. london: john murray, albermale street. davenport, m., pakarinen, m. p., tam, p., laje, p., & holcomb, g. w. (2020). the covid-19 crisis and its implications for pediatric surgeons, journal of pediatric surgery 55(2020). 785–788. dewey, j. (1997). experience and education. new york: touchtone book. dewi, p. m., rahmatunnisa, m., sumaryana, a., & kristiadi, j. b. (2018). ensuring service quality in education for indonesia’s sustainable education. journal of social studies education research, 9(4). 65-81. evers, h. d., korff, r. (2000). southeast asian urbanism: the meaning and power of social space. https://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/publication/242 fauzia, m. (2021). penduduk miskin indonesia naik jadi 27,55 juta akibat covid-19, tren penurunan kemiskinan terhenti. diakses dari https://money.kompas.com/read/2021/ 02/16/073400926/penduduk-miskin-indonesia-naik-jadi-27-55-juta-akibat-covid-19tren-penurunan. tanggal 16 februari 2021. fedulova, i., ivanova, v., atyukova, o. & nosov, v. (2019). inclusive education as a basis for sustainable development of society. journal of social studies education research, 10(3). 118-135 finnegan, gerry., & singh, andrea. (2004). role of the informal sector in coping with economic crisis in thailand and zambia. geneva: ilo. freire, paulo (2008). pendidikan kaum tertindas. jakarta: lp3es. fukuyama, f (1995) trust: the social virtues and the creation of prosperity. new york : a free press paperbacks book. garfinkel, h. (1984). studies in ethnomethodology. britania raya: wiley. granovetter, m. (1985). economic action and social structure: the problem of embeddedness. american journal of sociology, 91(3) 481-510. huang c, wang y, li x, ren l, zhao j, hu y, cao, b. (2020).clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in wuhan, china. the lancet. 395 (10223), 497-506, https://doi.prg/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30183-5 https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v91i1.9397 https://scholar.google.co.id/scholar?oi=bibs&cluster=4475788527425179912&btni=1&hl=id https://scholar.google.co.id/scholar?oi=bibs&cluster=4475788527425179912&btni=1&hl=id https://money.kompas.com/read/2021/%2002/16/073400926/penduduk-miskin-indonesia-naik-jadi-27-55-juta-akibat-covid-19-tren-penurunan https://money.kompas.com/read/2021/%2002/16/073400926/penduduk-miskin-indonesia-naik-jadi-27-55-juta-akibat-covid-19-tren-penurunan https://money.kompas.com/read/2021/%2002/16/073400926/penduduk-miskin-indonesia-naik-jadi-27-55-juta-akibat-covid-19-tren-penurunan https://doi.prg/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30183-5 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 171 iken, o., abakporo u., ayobami, o., & attoye, t. (2020). covid-19: travel health and the implications for sub -saharan africa, travel medicine and infectious disease https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101645 issc, i. d. s. (2016). unesco (2016) world social science report 2016, challenging inequalities: pathways to a just world. unesco publishing, paris. jonge, huub de. (1989). madura dalam empat jaman. studi antropologi ekonomi. jakarta: gramedia kementrian ppn/bappenas (2020). metadata indikator sdgs indonesia (2ndedition). pilar pembangunan sosial. http://sdgs.bappenas.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/metadatapilar-sosial-edisi-ii.pdf kuckertz, a., brändle, l., gaudig, a., hinderer, s., reyes, c. a. m., prochotta, a., kathrin … berger, e. s. c. (2020). startups in times of crisis – a rapid response to the covid-19 pandemic. journal of business venturing insights, 13, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2020.e00169 lai, c. c., shih, t. p., ko, w. c., tang, h. j., hsueh, p. r. (2020). severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (sars-cov-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (covid-2019) : the epidemic and the challenges. journal of global antimicrobial agents by elsevier, 55(3), lele, u., goswami, s. (2020). agricultural policy reforms: roles of markets and states in china and india. globe food sec, 26(2020). 100371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100371 lloyd-sherlock, p. g., kalache, a., mckee, m., derbyshire, j., geffen, l., casas, f. g.-o., & gutierrez, l. m. (2020). who must prioritise the needs of older people in its response to the covid-19 pandemic. bmj, 2020 (368), https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1164 man ha, k. (2020). emergency response to the outbreak of covid-19: the korean case. microbes and infections, 22(4-5), 159-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2020.04.001 mardiharini, m. (2005). family-coping strategies in maintaining welfare during the economi crisis in indonesia. a case study in rural and urban areas in bogor, west java, indonesia jurnal agro ekonomi, 23 (1). 53-69 marx, karl. (1971). karl marx: economy, class and social revolution. z.a. jordan (eds). new york: charles scribner's sons. mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.01.02.2 mccorkle, w. d. (2020). problematizing immigration restrictions during covid-19 in the social studies classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.1 mcgee, t. (1985). perombakan struktural dan kota di dunia ketiga, suatu teori involusi kota. jakarta: gramedia. mehrotra, s. (2009). the impact of the economic crisis on the informal sector and poverty in east asia. global social policy. 9 doi : 10.1177/1468018109106887 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101645 http://sdgs.bappenas.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/metadata-pilar-sosial-edisi-ii.pdf http://sdgs.bappenas.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/metadata-pilar-sosial-edisi-ii.pdf https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2020.e00169 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100371 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m1164 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2020.04.001 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.01.02.2 nasution et al. nainggolan, e. u. (2020). umkm bangkit, ekonomi indonesia terungkit. artikel djkn. senin. 24 agustus. diakses tanggal 14 januari 2021. najman, m. (2019). survival strategies. anthony orum (eds). te wiley blackwell encyclopedia of urban and regional studies. ca: john wiley & sons. ltd, doi: 10.1002/9781118568446.eurs0334 ncss, (1994). expectation of excellence: curriculum standards for social studies.(washington) passey, d., & samways, b. (2016). information technology: supporting change through teacher education. springer. phelan, a. l., katz, r., gostin, l., o. (2020). the novel coronavirus originating in wuhan, china: challenges for global health governance. jama. polanyi, karl. (2018). economy and society. michele cangiani and claus thomas berger (eds). cambridge: polity press. pope, a., & patterson, t. (2012). two sides of the megalopolis: educating for sustainable citizenship. journal of social studies education research. 3(2), 1-20 porath, marion, & jordan, e. (2009). problem-based learning communities: using the social environment to support creativity. in oon-seng tan (eds.) problem based learning and creativity. singapore: cengage learning. pourezzat, a.a., nejati, m. and mollaee, a. (2010), dataflow model for managing urban disasters: the experience of bam earthquake, international journal of disaster resilience in the built environment, 1(1), 84-102. https://doi.org/10.1108/17595901011026490 prastowo, a. (2015). panduan kreatif membuat bahan ajar inovatif. yogyakarta : diva press prihatin, r., b. (2018). masyarakat sadar bencana : pembelajaran dari karo, banjarnegara, dan jepang. aspirasi: jurnal masalah-masalah sosial pusat penelitian. 9(2). 221-239. https://doi.org/10.22212/aspirasi.v7i1.1084 purwanti, ani, ispriyarso, b., wijaningsih, d. (2018). strategising local regulations on women’s representation in village policymaking as a realisation of sustainable development goals: a study on semarang regency. journal of social studies education research. 9(4). 319-333 rachbini, d. j., hamid, a. (1994). ekonomi informal perkotaan : gejala involusi gelombang kedua. jakarta : pt. pustaka lp3es. reid, n & ali, a. a. (2020). making sense of learning. a research-based approach. evidence to guide policy and practice, with an emphasis on secondary stages. cham: springer. rijst, r. v. d. (2017). the transformative nature of research-based education: a thematic overview of the literature. in ellen bastiaens, jeroen van merriënboer, and jonathan van tilburg. research-based learning: case studies from maastricht (eds). university. cham: springer international publishing ritzer, g & goodman, d. j. (2011). teori sosiologi modern; dari teori sosiologi klasik sampai perkembangan mutakhir teori sosiologi postmodern. yogyakarta: kreasi wacana. https://doi.org/10.1108/17595901011026490 https://doi.org/10.22212/aspirasi.v7i1.1084 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 144-174 173 salinas-vasquez, l., varela, d., martinez, m., & jones, d. (2020). a comparative study of the 21st century afterschool center on education in elementary schools in south texas. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 19-37. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.2 sapriya. (2016). pendidikan social studies konsep dan pembelajaran. bandung: pt. rosdakarya. seregig, i. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., rivai, e. & prasetyawati, e. (2018). preventing the acts of corruption through legal community education. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 138-159 shi, j., wang, r., chen, w., xing, l., & jin, m. (2020). bi-objective design of household e-waste collection with public advertising and competition from informal sectors, waste management, 102, 65-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.018 sohrabi, c., alsafi, z., neill, n. o., khan, m., kerwan, a., al-jabir, a., iosifidis, c., & agha, r. (2020). world health organization declares global emergency: a review of the 2019 novelcoronavirus (covid-19). international journal of surgery, 76, 71–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.02.034 sudjana, n. (2010). dasar-dasar proses belajar. bandung: sinar baru suharso, r., wasino, setyowati, d. l., utomo, c. b. (2020). teaching multiculturalism based on islamic historical relics in northern java. international journal of innovation, creativity and change, 11(10). 445-463 tarman, b., kilinc, e., & aydin, h. (2019). barriers to the effective use of technology integration in social studies education. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 19(4). retrieved from https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/socialstudies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studieseducation tatham, p. & spens, k. (2011), towards a humanitarian logistics knowledge management system, disaster prevention and management, 20(1) ,6-26. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653561111111054 tetro. j., a. (2020). is covid-19 receiving ade from other coronaviruses?, microbes and infection, 22(2020), 72-73, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2020.02.006 undp (2016). human development report 2016. undp. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_development_report.pdf warren, c. a. b. (2012). interviewing as social interaction. gubrium, j. f., holstein, j. a. marvasti, a. b. & mckinney, k. d. the sage handbook of interview research: the complexity of the craft. (2nd ed.). thousand oak, ca: sage publications inc. doi: 10.4135/9781452218403 wasino, suharso, utomo, c. b., shintasiwi, f. a. (2020). cultural ecoliteracy of social science education at junior high school in north java indonesia. journal of social studies education research,11(4), 52-83. watkins, j. (2020). preventing a covid-19 pandemic. bmj, (february), 2020(368), 1-2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj. m810 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.018 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.02.034 https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2020.02.006 https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452218403 https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452218403 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.%20m810 nasution et al. wechsler, b. (1995). coping and coping strategies: a behavioural view. applied animal behaviour science, 43(2), 123-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(95)00557-9 williams, t.a., gruber, d.a., sutcliffe, k. m., shepherd, d.a., & zhao, e.y. (2017). organizational response to adversity: fusing crisis management and resilience research streams. academy of management annals, 11(2) 733-769. doi:10.5465/annals.2015.0134 wu, j. t., leung, k, leung, g. m. (2020). nowcasting and forecasting the potencial domestic and international spread of the 2019–ncov outbreak originating in wuhan, china: a modelling study. the lancet. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30260-9 ye, f., xu, s., rong, z., xu, r., liu, x., deng, p., liu, h., xu, x. (2020). delivery of infection from asymptomatic carriers of covid-19 in a familial cluster. international journal of infectious diseases, 94, 133-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.042. yin, r. k. (2018). studi kasus desain & metode. depok: pt rajagrafindo persada. yin, r. k. (2016). qualitative research from start to finish. new york, london: the guilford press. yuliati, d., & hartatik, e. s. (2019). the empowerment of kudus embroidery creative industries for strengthening the cultural identity of kudus regency, central java, indonesia. pertanika journal of social sciences & humanities, 27(2), 1999-2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(95)00557-9 https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2015.0134 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30260-9 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.042 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2),180-209 literation of land rights law in (tola gumi) protection of indigenous peoples and its impact on community welfare jubair situmorang1, abu sahman2, tulus suryanto3 & zulfandi gani4 abstract the purpose of this research is to examine the role of positive law and customary law in protecting indigenous peoples' rights to land literation and natural resources and their impact on community welfare. the research method used is normative legal studies. customary law is focused on the customary law of the tobaru tribe. the tobaru tribe is one of the well-known tribes in indonesia, which is famous for its land rights law (tola gumi). the study results reveal that the regulations of the central government and the regional government of north maluku have not guaranteed the implementation of legal protection and the welfare of indigenous peoples, especially for the tobaru tribe. this is also evidenced by the fact that the regional government has not implemented the constitutional court decision in the north maluku region. this legal review shows that three of the five pillars of the state, namely protection of human rights, social justice, and antidiscrimination, have not been implemented properly. indigenous people are very dependent on land as their main source of livelihood for farming. weak legal protections, such as the absence of land titles, make them vulnerable to social conflicts and lose their customary land rights. this research implies that it is hoped that the government will provide consistent legal protection for the welfare of indigenous peoples. researchers encourage future studies related to learning about the rights of indigenous peoples in terms of the international legal system. keywords:indigenous peoples, land rights law literation, community welfare introduction the enforcement of customary law and social norms on land ownership and statutory regulations is a problem for indigenous peoples in indonesia. the literature explains that claiming land rights rarely empower indigenous people. communities in conflict with companies or local state actors tend to be excluded from the status of indigenous peoples. often the government rejects claims to their land rights because they are considered to be in direct conflict with forestry interests (van der muur, 2018). as of 2019, the constitutional court (cc35) decision regarding customary forest is no longer state forest has entered its sixth year, and there has been no decision. some local governments, such as those in the sultanate of ternate, are noted to have established land rights 1 dr. institut agama islam negeri (iain) ternate, indonesia, email: jubairsitumorang@iain-ternate.ac.id 2 assoc. prof., institut agama islam negeri (iain) ternate, sahman.2009@yahoo.com 3 prof., universitas islam negeri (uin) raden intan lampung, tulus@radenintan.ac.id 4 alumni institut agama islam negeri (iain) ternate julfandijibran24@gmail.com mailto:jubairsitumorang@iain-ternate.ac.id mailto:sahman.2009@yahoo.com mailto:tulus@radenintan.ac.id mailto:julfandijibran24@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 181 in the ternate city government regulation number 13 of 2009 concerning the protection of the customary rights and culture of the indigenous peoples of the sultanate of ternate. the conditions are different in north maluku; the regional government seems slow in responding to the cc35 decision. in fact, the rights of indigenous peoples, especially the rights to land (tola gumi) in the field are being neglected. land for human life is essential because human life cannot be separated from the land from birth to death. even though it is essential for everyone, people's views on land are not the same. the view of land as part of the natural environment can be immanent (holistic) and transcendent. therefore, considering the vast natural conditions but limited when connected with the increasing population. the literature states that the main problem faced by an agrarian state is how to maintain, allocate, cultivate, manage and divide the land and its products in such a way. it is imperative to maintain inclusive resource management in sustainable economic development (haseeb et al., 2021; hayat & tahir, 2021; kostetska, khumarova, umanska, shmygol, & koval, 2020; ahmed et al., 2020; ahmad, 2019; mangla et al., 2018). so that it can provide the greatest welfare and benefits for the community. this is the main problem that must be resolved for several decades sustainably and sustainably, which is regulated in a legal system (crespi, 1998; wiersema, 2008; craig, 2017; reid, 2021). indonesia, which consists of thousands of islands, both small and large, is inhabited by various ethnic groups with various cultural and customary features. the existence of these tribes is one of the priceless assets of the nation, as well as being the glue of the nation. previous studies have stated that in indigenous communities, there is still the strong implementation of traditions and customary laws that are agreed upon as parts that are inherited from generation to generation (reid, cormack, & paine, 2019). in this case, customary law is also intended to protect natural resources (lanini & yodo, 2021). it is not uncommon in various regions between religions, customs, cultures, and state laws to go hand in hand and support each other (james anaya & puig, 2017). in indonesia, customary law is still in the hands of indigenous peoples. as non-statutory laws, most of them are customary laws with their own character, including in north maluku province. as an expansionary province, it was originally the former four largest islamic empires in eastern indonesia. until now, the sultanate of ternate, tidore, jailolo and bacan still exist. these four sultanates culturally have a powerful influence on the social norms of society (amal, 2002). this situmorang et al. is evidenced by the many traditions, including land ownership rights that are used as agricultural land and plantations by indigenous peoples. basically, people must comply with government policies and regulations. however, indigenous peoples tend to comply more with customary law and social norms because they are considered juster. indigenous peoples cannot calculate their perspective of fair compensation for socioeconomic damages due to industrial development (gassiy & potravny, 2017). as a result, many tribal communities do not have land certificates because they are not legally registered, as stated in law number 24 of 1997 concerning the transfer of rights to land. also, social conflicts often occur between indigenous peoples and companies that end up suing companies that are suspected of taking their land rights. unfortunately, due to weak evidence and the absence of land certificates, the court dismissed the indigenous peoples' claim. in the benefit-sharing paradigm, this also impacts the absence of compensation for losses of indigenous peoples due to industrial development (gassiy & potravny, 2019). it is essential to contribute to the law of land ownership to achieve community welfare and legal protection of customary land. this is equally important, which requires stakeholders to conserve agricultural land and plantations and forest land in the territory of customary law. as has been regulated regarding ownership of natural resources, including land in the law of the republic of indonesia no. 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian principles, article 2 states that the right to control of the state referred to in paragraph 1 of this article gives the authority to regulate and administer the designation, use, supply and maintenance of the said earth, water and space. in fact, it must apply throughout the jurisdiction of the republic of indonesia. weak legal protection and the occurrence of social conflicts can cause suffering and trauma for natives (daigle, 2019). about the context of social science education, this research encourages the development of social behavior and wisdom. it was explained that this social education encourages public awareness in understanding knowledge about diversity, equality, and human dignity as individuals, social beings in social life, fostering critical and wise attitudes based on aesthetic and moral values (krynski, 2019; mason, 2019; mullins, 2019; ross, 2008). this is the novelty of previous studies, which discussed more factually customary land ownership. previous studies on land ownership raised the problem of poverty alleviation and inequality. recent studies reveal the point of view of social education by providing critical insights for rethinking land ownership and recognition by looking at its historical background (cooks & zenovich, 2021; guerra et al., 2020). another study journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 183 is about the legal analysis of grant sultan's existence as proof of land ownership (zaidar, yamin, & bariah, 2020). other research in the educational discourse examines the conceptual problem of the accumulation of customary land by the government as a material basis for land granting laws (stein, 2020). another study conducted byajala (2017), revealed social inequality and gender discrimination in land ownership. this study proposes land reform in terms of equity and productivity. land tenure improves poverty and income inequality (tekgüç, 2018). in addition, understanding the basic concept of customary land ownership as part of social education can provide broader and deeper insights, especially in solving socio-cultural problems wisely. in essence, there is no neighboring community without conflict. moreover, the times are increasingly diminishing human values that can trigger social conflicts (andrews ,2019; aronson et al., 2020; lee & lee, 2020). previous studies have explained that social learning is by understanding social interactions that are responsible for empowering natural resources (schusler, decker, & pfeffer, 2003; soyer, 2019). this is a reference for understanding the importance of legal power and the social impact of protecting indigenous peoples. other literature states that character strengthening through social education is a milestone in strengthening awareness in preserving natural resources and building diversity as a source of progress and local wisdom (sadjim, muhadjir, & sudarsono, 2016; tarman & dev, 2018). based on the background of the problems raised, no previous studies have been found related to legal studies of land ownership of indigenous peoples in indonesia and the possible social impacts on law enforcement. the researcher focuses on the positive law enforcement and customary law of tola gumi, which regulates land ownership of the tobaru indigenous people. the tobaru indigenous people are one of the indonesian ethnic groups that still maintain their traditions and customary laws to survive. this is the novelty of this research, where no previous research has examined the social impact of communities on customary land ownership based on normative legal studies. research questions based on the background of the study above, the research questions studied are: (1) what is the positive legal protection regarding land rights as the right of indigenous peoples in indonesia? situmorang et al. (2) what is the legal protection of land rights (tola gumi) for the welfare of indigenous peoples in indonesia? literature review social welfare social welfare theory describes systematic knowledge that addresses welfare issues and efforts to solve social problems and ways of solving them. the purpose of this social welfare concept is to achieve a prosperous society (midgley, 1997). there are three types of coverage in the context of social welfare issues, namely 1) the micro-level that investigates social interventions at the individual, family, and small group levels; 2) the mezzo level discusses social interventions at the community level; and 3) at the macro level, which discusses social interventions at the wider community level (segal, 2010).more deeply, previous studies reveal the economic analysis of the law with the criteria of social welfare, which economists usually consider as a utility function where social welfare can be realized by applying justice, utility, and the pareto principle (chang, 2000). according tostoesz (1989), social welfare emphasizes the role of group interests in forming social, political, and economic forces in a structural institution to create a socially just, prosperous, and prosperous society together. the basic values and sources of business focused on social welfare are the values that become sources in determining the direction and goals of social welfare efforts. a theory that is in line with social welfare is the theory of the welfare state. this theory emphasizes the state's role in ensuring the welfare of the people(roller, 1995). five pillars of statehood must be realized: democracy, law enforcement, protection of human rights, social justice, and antidiscrimination (holmwood, 2000; schakel, burgoon, & hakhverdian, 2020; tahili et al., 2021). the state must actively strive for prosperity, equality, and act fairly that can be felt by all its people (spicker, 2012).in this case, state institutions and a constellation of social actors and culture contribute to social welfare (pfau-effinger, 2005). the welfare state contains four meanings. first, well-being, which is a condition for the fulfillment of material and non-material needs. the conditions that occur when human life is safe and happy and receive protection from the main risks that threaten life (sinn, 1995). second, social services include social security, health services, education, housing, personal social services (lundberg & mark, 2001; allmendinger & leibfried, 2003). third, social benefits are provided to poor people journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 185 and people with disabilities (burkhauser, 2012; bagenstos, 2003). fourth, planned efforts in the form of providing social services and social benefits carried out by individuals, social institutions, and government agencies that aim to improve the quality of life of the poor (quadagno, 1987; arts & gelissen, 2001; sellers & lidström, 2007; pletnev, 2019;öktem, 2020). indigenous peoples' rights in the scope of social education theoretically, social education encourages public awareness to understand human dignity as individuals, social beings in social life (ross, 2008). in this case, social education can foster a critical and wise attitude based on aesthetic and moral values (asimeng-boahene, 2010; nimas ayu, pramesti, pamadhi, & garbo, 2019). social education also studies diversity and equality related to cultural, economic, and societal phenomena(halsey, lauder, & brown, p., & wells, 1997). this is part of an effort to understand social life and provide broader and deeper insights, especially in solving socio-cultural problems wisely. in addition, studying interventions or social problems in society is intended to solve, identify, and organize potentials capable of realizing the community's welfare (arnesen & lundahl, 2006). customary communities have a system of values, customs, and the political rights of indigenous peoples or, in other terms, customary law communities. the concept of indigenous peoples is a general term for referring to certain communities with certain characteristics. customary law communities are organized groups of people who act as a unit, live in a certain area, have rulers, have their respective customary laws and have their own wealth in the form of tangible or intangible objects, and control natural resources within their reach. they have a complex cultural system in their social order and have a strong relationship with their land and natural resources(arizona & cahyadi, 2013). the 'primitive' and 'pre-modern indigenous peoples' view resource ownership, including land rights, as material and non-material values that have the purpose of being used to meet needs. it is different from the western concept that recognizes the ownership of the value of resources (property) to profit(small & sheehan, 2008).indigenous peoples are candidates for forest resource managers and have an important role in natural ecosystems. to realize this potential, legal recognition, mapping customary land use, and demarcation of customary territories are needed (fox, 2002). indigenous peoples need some degree of control over certain territories and resources. this is part of granting indigenous peoples' rights as the fulfillment of human rights. new situmorang et al. partnerships between indigenous peoples, communities, local and national governments, and international development for forest management(davis & wali, 1994). the literature study states that the empowerment of customary rights is part of the original national identity included in the tribal rubik, where the tribe has become the foundation for affirming the rights of indigenous peoples to land guaranteed by agreements or laws(barcham, 2000).therefore, indigenous peoples must be protected(ferrante & fearnside, 2020). according tohokowhitu (1970), indigenous peoples practice life experiences passed down from generation to generation from the point of view of indigenous existentialism. this is why they have their own characteristics compared to modern society. the rights of indigenous peoples are the collective rights of groups. indigenous peoples have a legitimate claim to their group's right to meet their needs for their survival(clinton, 1990; sieder, 2011; sasakamoose, et al. 2017; ban & frid, 2018). methods design this study uses a qualitative research design to investigate the social phenomena of indigenous peoples related to land rights in the tola gumi tobaru tribe. the tobaru tribe has characteristics that other tribes in indonesia do not have. the tobaru tribe highly upholds the customary law of land rights (tola gumi) which is managed for the welfare of the community through the agriculture and plantation sectors. a qualitative approach using content analysis rests on statutory rules or regulations (formal rules) and informal rules. this research is limited to understanding the law in the context of social science regarding land ownership as the right of indigenous peoples. this research focuses on analyzing the contents of zhang and wildemuth (2009) analytic theory which aims to understand and emphasize the concept of social welfare and protection of indigenous peoples through the tola gumi custom. the analyzed theme categories include (1) protection of indigenous peoples; (2) land rights law in tola gumi. data and sources of data this study uses secondary data sourced from primary legal sources supported by previous documents and literature. in particular, the collected documents focus on the economy and culture of the tobaru tribe, ibu utara district, west halmahera regency, north maluku province. documents in the form of historical records of the tobaru tribe at the provincial government office of north maluku and documentation related to the traditions and customary laws of the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 187 tobaru tribal elders. it is also sourced from primary laws derived from laws and regulations on land ownership law and scientific articles relevant to research to complement secondary data. focusing on two themes, namely land rights and social welfare, the primary legal data source in the formal law category consists of eight government regulations, namely: 1) the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia; 2) law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian regulations; 3) government regulation number 18 of 2021 concerning management rights, land rights, apartment units, and land registration; 4) north maluku provincial government regulation number 2 of 2018 concerning the coastal zone and small islands zoning plan of north maluku province 2018-2038; 5) ecision of the constitutional court of the republic of indonesia no. 35 / puu-x / 2012; 6) presidential decree no. 111/1999 concerning social welfare development for remote indigenous communities; 7) law number 11 of 2009 concerning social welfare; and 8) law of the republic of indonesia number 11 of 2020 concerning job creation. each includes five regulations addressing data sources that examine land rights and four regulations addressing social welfare. there are 2 sources of informal law, namely the 'jou se ngofa ngare' customary law and the swapraja customary law. this secondary resource is intended to obtain information as described in table 1. table 1. research data sources primary legal sources source data information formal law 1. the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia 2. law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian regulations 3. government regulation number 18 of 2021 concerning management rights, land rights, apartment units, and land registration 4. north maluku provincial government regulation number 2 of 2018 concerning the coastal zone and small islands zoning plan of north maluku province 2018-2038 5. decision of the constitutional court of the republic of indonesia no. 35 / puu-x / 2012 6. presidential decree no. 111/1999 concerning social welfare development for remote indigenous communities 7. law number 11 of 2009 concerning social welfare 8. law of the republic of indonesia number 11 of 2020 concerning job creation this is to find out about regulations that provide legal protection to customary community rights, especially the rights to ulayat land informal law 1. the customary law of jou se ngofa ngare 2. swapraja customary law informal laws related to land rights in indonesia. and support the realization of social welfare situmorang et al. instrument the criteria for document reading and document analysis are as follows: (1) formal and informal laws related to legal protection of indigenous peoples' rights, particularly customary land rights (tola gumi); and (2) documents related to the welfare of the indigenous tobaru tribe who implement tola gumi. each theme is represented by at least one instrument item and is specifically used to collect data on the legal protection of the tola gumi practice and its social welfare impacts. this instrument focuses on secondary data so that there are no observations and interviews with indigenous peoples. the eligibility criteria are based on the prevailing laws and regulations in indonesia and the applicable customary law in the tobaru tribe. data collection procedures in the early stages, the researcher compiled a series of research by watching a documentary film about customary land ownership and the practice of tobaru tola gumi. then collect data in the form of text and images recorded in a research notebook to be converted into numerical and narrative data. the next stage is to find and find a suitable theme. the theme chosen was a study of the legal protection of indigenous peoples in tola gumi which was then arranged systematically so that it was easy to analyze using the content analysis method. identification of themes takes place during the data collection process in accordance with the problem formulation. if it is one or less complete, a re-research will be carried out to find additional data sources; this is done to enrich the meaning in order to describe the actual object of study. the procedure used is to classify the data first by paying attention to data that are similar and those that have differences from one another. then look for the relationship between these data, especially the factors that link them. the strategy of finding the law of land rights and social welfare is a legal and nomologicalinductive construction by applying a coding system to all narrative data in order to find correct and correct data. the data collected were then grouped according to the formulation of the problem. rq 1 consists of 5 considering data [data 1, 2,3,4, and 5], and rq 2 consists of 10 considering data [data 6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14, and 15]. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 189 in addition to the data collection above, this study also uses props from the discipline of law, which are interpreted as social symptoms that focus on land rights issues (tola gumi) and social welfare. therefore, in looking for clues to the causal conditions of social problems, it is necessary to bring together several of these disciplines to strengthen the analysis and broaden the view of the tola gumi tradition and its impact on the welfare of the tobaru indigenous people. data analysis techniques after the researcher has collected data relevant to the theme, the researcher then begins a content analysis of the data. the data analysis technique used refers to the data analysis theory of zhang and wildemuth (2009) . in the analysis process, the first step taken is to classify the data that has been collected then convert it into numeric and text into narrative data. next is the theme identification process, which collects data in the unit of analysis by the research question and reduces data that is not by the research theme. third, make coding system rules according to the theme. fourth, data verification by applying a coding system to all narrative data, double-checking the incorrect data and revising it. fifth, providing coding data through triangulation techniques to establish fixed data. these five stages are carried out to determine the validity of the data so that it is truly valid by the research objectives. the fifth is data analysis or interpretation. data interpretation is carried out by sorting the data into patterns, categories, and basic unit descriptions so that themes are found and formulated correctly. sixth, to obtain conclusions from all analyzed data. positive indonesian law concepts regarding land rights as rights of indigenous peoples the first findings reveal the positive legal protection of land rights as the right of indigenous peoples in indonesia. our finding indicate , the positive legal concept in indonesia regarding land rights as the right of indigenous peoples which the researchers reviewed consists of five laws and regulations, namely: 1. the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia the rights of indigenous peoples are recognized in the law of the republic of indonesia as stipulated in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia article 18b paragraph (2). considering data 1. situmorang et al. (1) in this statutory regulation, it is explained that the state respects the community and its customary law and traditional rights. the realization of the recognition of the rights of indigenous peoples has been regulated in this law by referring to the 1945 constitution. this applies as long as the indigenous peoples are still living in the unitary state of the republic of indonesia. this article provides a clear constitutional position for indigenous peoples about the state and a constitutional basis for state administrators on how indigenous peoples should be treated. recognition and respect for the identity and traditional rights of indigenous peoples are constitutional rights of indigenous peoples. the literature states that state administration emphasizes the role of the state in forming social, political, and economic forces to create socially just, prosperous, and prosperous societies together(holmwood, 2000; pfau-effinger, 2005; roller, 1995; schakel et al., 2020; spicker, 2012; stoesz, 1989). despite the times, cultural identities and rights of traditional communities are respected by the times and civilizations.the previous research emphasized the role of the state in factually creating social welfare. in this finding, normative legal studies deepen the context of the state's role in the form of statutory regulations on land ownership that is used as agricultural and plantation land to improve the welfare of indigenous peoples. of course, this must be done with the right strategy and regulatory policies. previous studies have stated that land empowerment efforts require correct regulatory strategies and policies with various factors involved (yusriyadi & aminah, 2019). 2. law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian principles of government regulation from the primary legal analysis that has been carried out, land rights in indonesia are classified based on the type of land rights, individuals or groups of people, the legal entity that can hold them, and the specific period of validity of ownership of the land. the right to fully control land is the state as stated in article 2 paragraph (1) of law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian principles (bap). considering data 2, (2) it is explained that sources originating from the earth, air, and space, including natural resources contained therein, are fully controlled by the state as state property rights and public property rights. this is done as a form of power with the aim of the welfare of all indonesian citizens. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 191 in article 2 paragraph (2) of the bap, the state's right to control gives the authority to, considering data 3. (3) “a. organizing the designation, use, supply, and maintenance of the earth, air, and space; b. determine and maintain legal relationships between people and earth, air and space; c. determine and regulate legal relationships between people and legal actions concerning the earth, air, and space.” in article 4 paragraph (1) of the bap, it is explained that on the basis of the right to control from the state, the types of land rights, which are called land rights, are determined. land rights are given to and owned by people, both individuals, collectively, and legal entities. in article 16 paragraph (1) of the bap, seven land rights are primary in nature. of the seven rights, land rights for indigenous peoples fall into categories, namely property rights, management rights, land opening rights, rights to collect forest products, and other rights that are not included in the above rights stipulated by law. -invited. state-recognized ownership rights are land rights registered with the national land office, meaning that indigenous peoples must register land and have land certificates. even though indigenous peoples are indonesian citizens who have ownership rights and conditions, they must legally register land and have a legal title. 3. government regulation number 18 of 2021 concerning management rights, land rights, apartment units, and land registration customary communities obtain management rights and collect forest products on state land that can be managed for a certain period. previously contained in article 45 paragraph (1) government regulation number 40 of 1996 concerning business use rights, building use rights, and land rights, revoked by government regulation number 18 of 2021 concerning management rights, land rights, apartment units, and land registration chapter iv business use rights, building use rights, and land use rights part one business use rights article 26 (1), (2) and (4), considering data 4. (4) “(1)an application for an extension of the tenure of the right to cultivate can be submitted after the age of the plant, or another business is effective, or no later than before the expiration of the right to cultivate; (2) an application for renewal of the right to cultivate is submitted no later than 2 (two) years after the expiration of the period of the right to cultivate.” 4. the law of the republic of indonesia number 41 of 1999 concerning forestry situmorang et al. this statutory regulation requires indigenous peoples to renew their rights and extend the period of their rights. in terms of provisions and legislation as stated in the law of the republic of indonesia number 41 of 1999 concerning forestry article 67 paragraph (1), considering data 5. (5) “...three typologies of customary communities are referred to as customary law communities, namely communities that meet the following elements: a) the community is still in the form of a community, b) has an institution in the form of a customary ruler, c) there is a clear legal area, d) there are institutions and equipment law, especially the customary judiciary which is still adhered to, e) still collects forest products in the surrounding forest area to fulfill their daily needs.” as an agricultural country, land rights in indonesia can be called basic human needs because ownership is welfare-oriented. the welfare state can be realized by supporting the rights of indigenous peoples, namely: 1) meeting material and non-material needs; 2) providing social security, health services, education, housing, personal social services; 3) provide social benefits to the poor; 4) provide social services and social benefits to improve the quality of life of the poor(allmendinger & leibfried, 2003; arts & gelissen, 2001; bagenstos, 2003; burkhauser, 2012; lundberg & mark, 2001; öktem, 2020; pletnev, 2019; quadagno, 1987; sellers & lidström, 2007; sinn, 1995).for equal distribution of land rights, the state's role is needed because the equal distribution of land ownership aims to create a welfare state. the concept of land rights law (tola gumi) in tobaru indigenous people in indonesia for social welfare the second finding reveals the legal protection of land rights (tola gumi) for the welfare of indigenous peoples in indonesia. the results of data analysis revealed that the legal concept of land rights is aimed at social welfare. researchers refer to four formal laws and two informal laws that apply in indonesia. the four formal laws consist of: 1. the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia the indonesian government seems to be trying to provide a quick response in formulating policies to achieve social welfare, both through land rights and social welfare promotion. as stated in the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia mandates data considering 6. (6) this law stipulates that the indonesian state has the responsibility to protect and promote the welfare of the wider community. the goal of the responsibility imposed on the state is to realize social justice and, of course, for indigenous peoples as the original inhabitants of indonesia. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 193 2. presidential decree no. 111/1999 concerning social welfare development for remote indigenous communities in the decree of the president of the republic of indonesia number 111 of 1999 concerning social welfare development for remote indigenous communities, article 2, considering data 7. (7) “the development of social welfare for remote communities aims to empower remote indigenous communities in all aspects of life and livelihood so that they can live naturally, physically, spiritually, and socially so that they can play an active role in development, which is carried out by paying attention to local customs.” the empowerment of customary rights in the form of fostering social welfare is part of the original identity of the indonesian people. thus the affirmation of the rights of indigenous peoples to land is guaranteed by agreement or law (barcham, 2000). 3. north maluku provincial government regulation number 2 of 2018 concerning the coastal zone and small islands zoning plan of north maluku province 2018-2038 north maluku provincial regulation number 2 of 2018 concerning the zoning plan for coastal areas and small islands of north maluku province 2018-2038 also deals with social welfare. chapter iii objectives, policies, and strategies for the zoning plan for coastal areas and small islands of the province part one objective article 5, considering data 8. (8) “the north maluku province coastal zone and small islands zoning plan aims to achieve harmonious and synergistic management of the coastal areas and small islands of north maluku province in accelerating and developing collaborative economic growth, social welfare, and competitiveness of coastal communities. integrated, orderly, and sustainable.” 4. law number 11 of 2009 concerning social welfare this can also be seen from the emergence of new regulations since 2020. the overall implementation regulations of law number 11 of 2020 concerning work copyright are directed at strengthening management rights, land rights, apartment units, granting rights to land spaces, and spaces. underground, including by accelerating digital technology-based land registration. chapter 1 general provisions article 1, consedering data 9. (9) “job creation is an effort to create work through efforts to facilitate, protect and empower cooperatives and micro, small and medium enterprises, increase the investment ecosystem and ease of making business and government investment and accelerate national strategic projects.......” situmorang et al. unfortunately, not all indigenous and tribal peoples can feel the impact and legal protection of this regulation—especially indigenous peoples in remote areas who do not have adequate internet access and socialization. in positive law in indonesia, it is explained that land rights must be managed to meet the needs of life. in the customary law, the tobaru tribe is called tolagumi. government regulation number 18 of 2021 concerning management rights, land rights, apartment units, and land registration. (10) “the holder of the right to cultivate is obliged to: a. carrying out agricultural, fishery and/or livestock business according to the designation and requirements as stipulated in the decision to grant rights no later than 2 (two) years after the right is granted......” furthermore, the statutory regulation refers to it as 'ulayat land'. this is contained in chapter i general provisions article 1 (13), considering data 11. (11) “ulayat land island is in the territory of the customary law communitywhich according to reality is still there and is not attached by any land rights.” management rights originating from ulayat land are assigned to customary law communities. this is stated in chapter iii management rights part two subject management rights article 5 (2). a ministerial decree stipulates this customary land management right. to obtain management rights, indigenous peoples must also receive support from the local government. unfortunately, until 2021, the ulayat land, which is being fought to be managed optimally by the customary community, there is no government support in the form of regional government regulations and district head decrees relating to indigenous peoples. whereas in fact, in the latest statutory regulations, the minister has the duty to carry out supervision and control over land rights in stages. this is done to ensure that the ulayat land management rights are truly capable of improving the economy of indigenous peoples, not companies that only have reclamation permits or only certain groups. 5. decision of the constitutional court of the republic of indonesia no. 35 / puu-x / 2012 in mid-june 2013, the constitutional court of the republic of indonesia made decision no. 35 / puu-x / 2012, considering data 12. (12) specifically, this decision of the constitutional court explains that forests within indonesia's customs territory are no longer state forests but become forests that become customary land ownership rights for customary communities. the indigenous peoples welcomed the cc35 ruling and started a movement to rehabilitate customary areas that have been damaged by companies holding permits issued by the state. the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 195 literature explains that indigenous peoples view resource ownership, including land rights, as material and non-material values that have the purpose of being used to meet their daily needs (small & sheehan, 2008). indigenous peoples are candidates for forest resource managers and have an important role in natural ecosystems. therefore, legal recognition, mapping customary land use, and demarcation of customary territories are needed (fox, 2002). indigenous peoples need some degree of control over certain territories and resources. this is part of granting indigenous peoples' rights as the fulfillment of human rights. new partnerships between indigenous peoples, communities, local and national governments, and international development for forest management (davis & wali, 1994). it is possible that they really hope that cc35 can improve welfare through land rights because, so far, indigenous peoples have been very dependent on forest resources, especially the indigenous communities around the forest that are classified as poor. in january 2018, the north maluku indigenous peoples alliance (aman) had proposed 18 customary forests to the local government. these proposals include the customary forests of pagu in north halmahera), banemo (central halmahera), and fritu (central halmahera). unfortunately, none of this materialized because there was no support from the regional government or the regent's decree. finally, the submission was challenged. problem the decision of the cc35 regarding customary forests is difficult because there is competition for natural resources, especially forests and mining. another view, the cc35 decision was slow to proceed because it was declaratory or non-executorial (aman, 2013).the literature study explains that the concept of customary land use mapping is often constrained by political power where hierarchical rights overlap one another. more deeply, according to menurut fox (2002), “who does the mapping of customary land is not as important as who controls the map.” the cc35 decision is considered ambiguous. on the one hand, this ruling provides space for indigenous peoples to obtain customary land rights and natural resources from the regional government in the form of an indigenous peoples regional regulation or a regent decree. however, on the other hand, it provides space for the people to hold hostages due to the low level of support from the local government. since the existence of cc35, proposals for candidates for customary forest in north maluku have been proposed by the customary territory registration agency (brwa) in 31 polygons of customary areas covering an area of 1,145,383 hectares(the constitutional court of the republic of indonesia, 2015). situmorang et al. 6. law of the republic of indonesia number 11 of 2020 concerning job creation customary law communities have strong ties to the land, the local government should support land rights for the welfare of the community. implementing regulations of law number 11 of 2020 concerning job creation article 1 number 33, considering data 13. (13) “customary law communities are a group of people who have traditionally lived in certain geographic areas in the unitary state of the republic of indonesia because of their ancestral ties, strong relationships with land, territories, natural resources, have customary government institutions, and customary law structures in their customary territory by the provisions of laws and regulations.” 7. the customary law of jou se ngofa ngare in the philosophy of the customary law of the molukukieraha sultanate, customary law must defend individual interests without harming common interests and on the contrary defend common interests without harming personal interests. this provision is reflected in the fatwa of customary law in the sultanate of molukukieraha, considering data 14. (14) “jou se ngofa ngare (what is in you is in me and vice versa what is in me, is also in you).” this fatwa is considered a "common platform" that is accommodating to diversity.in people's lives, the legal fatwa of jou se ngofa ngare is not only a cultural custom until today, but also as religious and philosophical values which are always used as a basis for thinking and acting(asyhari, 2008).the indigenous peoples are aware of the meaning and meaning of the sentence in jou se ngofa ngare as the basis of customary law. therefore, all the wisdom of thinking and habits of action all depart from the "customary constitution"(amas dinsie & taib, 2008). the customary law of jou se ngofa ngare (what is in you is in me and what is in me is also in you) is implemented in land ownership. land ownership in the indigenous tobaru community through the tola gumi tradition. tola gumi for the tobaru adat community is building a person's legal ownership rights over certain land. according to the tola gumi tradition, a land ownership status is a legal act that is not prohibited at all in community life as long as it does not violate the ownership rights of others. in the language of the tobaru indigenous people, tola gumi means cutting the rope. meanwhile, in terms of marking the land as a sign of ownership and having robust community recognition, that is why the ancestral heritage is still held today. tola gumi comes from the ternate language, which has become the language of the tobaru indigenous people which journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 197 means a guide for someone who will own the land. through tola gumi, the ownership rights of that person cannot be disturbed by anyone. tola gumi is carried out in simple steps, not complicated because it has become the custom of the tobaru indigenous people. there is no customary ritual process; it is enough to go to the forest to choose a location for planting, as long as other people on the land give no signs. however, before implementing the tola gumi tradition, the steps are taken in obtaining land tenure rights first go through the songa stage, namely an attempt to control a plot of land by marking trees on the land that they want, and thus it is already a barrier for those who wish clearing the forest(asyhari, 2008). according to the customary law of the tobaru people, the status of land or gardens that are owned through the tola gumi tradition is permanent and can be inherited by every descendant of the person who practices the tola gumi tradition. the driving factors for the tobaru indigenous people to still implement tola gumi include: tola gumi is open, tola gumi can only be done on land that does not have an owner, and tola gumi is permanent and can be inherited by everyone. therefore, ownership rights obtained through the tola gumi tradition have become a source of law for everyone to obtain ownership rights to land/land designated for farming. the people of the tobaru tribe depend on the land they manage. so that their welfare is very dependent on the land. indigenous peoples practice life experiences that are passed down from generation to generation. this is why they have their own characteristics compared to modern society. the rights of indigenous peoples are the collective rights of groups. indigenous peoples have a legitimate claim to their group's right to meet their needs for their survival (clinton, 1990; sieder, 2011; sasakamoose, et al. 2017; ban & frid, 2018). 8. swapraja customary law although according to the provisions of normative law there are already laws of the republic of indonesia no. 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian regulations, land rights that were in effect previously. for the problem of resistant ownership using the swaprajalaw still applies in the sultanate, considering data 15. (15) “there are five types of land rights, namely: (1) aha kolano, (2) raki kolano, (3) aha soa, (4) aha cucatu, (5) gura gam. meanwhile, the right to obtain land (called eto) is carried out in 4 ways.” situmorang et al. previous studies have explained that tola gumi is still alive in the tobaru indigenous people in the west halmahera region (the territory of the jailolo sultanate, north maluku). this tradition allows a person to have rights to the land found in the tobaru tribe community(alting, 2018). from the results of the analysis that has been carried out based on previous studies and primary legal evidence; it seems that the community has tried hard by making legal efforts, and law enforcement there is tola gumi to realize the welfare of indigenous peoples. unfortunately, various problems related to land ownership for indigenous peoples often arise. the literature mentions injustice and ownership conflicts (manaf, ramli, & saad, 2020; samsudin et al., 2021). other studies have highlighted the importance of the ability of the party, judicial elections, and represent to succeed in the state high court in fighting for ulayat land (reid, 2021). however, this study found different results that the main problem of land ownership of the tobaru tribe is because the local government has not fully supported the land rights of the customary law community, especially the tobaru tribe. this can be seen from the absence of a regional government regulation through a district head decree supporting customary land rights. more in the literature reveals that the community has a big role in advancing the development and protection of resources, river water quality, and forest conditions(alvim et al., 2020).for this reason, it is essential for the efforts of the central and regional governments to support the legal protection of land rights for indigenous peoples. as stated by previous research, the community is given protection by state law (valentina et al., 2018; mackay & mackay, 2020). protection and recognition of the customary rights of indigenous peoples is a constitutional obligation as stipulated in the 1945 constitution (hammar, 2018). more deeply, this research finds that legally, the government also does not question the existence of customary law over customary land ownership as long as it does not conflict with government policy. this is indicated by the existence of statutory regulations regarding customary law. it's just that it must be supported by positive law. whereas in other areas, local regulations have been made. for example, the regional regulation of the city of ternate number 13 of 2009 concerning protection of customary rights and culture of the indigenous peoples of the sultanate of ternate. there is only one regional regulation in the north maluku region regarding the welfare of indigenous peoples, namely the north maluku provincial regulation number 2 of 2018 concerning the coastal zone and small islands zoning plan of north maluku province 2018-2038. however, this regulation still focuses on indigenous journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 199 peoples in coastal areas rather than on land rights. therefore, the authorities, in this case, the ministry of agrarian affairs and spatial planning/national land agency (atr/bpn) and regional governments, need to immediately develop a program for implementing appropriate social welfare development and formulate government regulations and carry out the realization of laws in favor of customary law communities. this is a shared responsibility. if left unchecked, social conflict may occur which will result in the realization of a just and prosperous community welfare. previous research has shown that indigenous peoples experience injustice and land tenure conflicts. the regional laws and regulations on customary land rights emphasize the role of the central and local governments in realizing the welfare of indigenous peoples. a new finding shown in this study is that the role of the central government in regulation has provided legal protection. however, unfortunately, local regulations in several regions in indonesia supporting the welfare of indigenous peoples are still low. this is indicated by the absence of a regional regulation for the tobaru tribe regarding customary land rights (tola gumi). it is important to study the activities of indigenous peoples, especially the tola gumi. these findings provide important knowledge that community welfare can be realized with the support of stakeholders, especially regulations between central and local governments that support one another. conclusion the first section's findings that examine the positive law regarding the protection of customary rights (tola gumi) in the tobaru tribe show that the laws and regulations that have been regulated by the state regarding land ownership fully support the rights to the land of indigenous peoples. the state provides legal protection for indigenous peoples who take care of legal rights over customary land ownership to empower the common welfare. however, at the regional level, the researchers did not find any regional regulations that support this. regional regulations have not fully fulfilled the mandate of the constitutional court decisions regarding customary land rights. the concept of positive legal protection in indonesia regarding land rights as the right of indigenous peoples is contained in the five regulations of the republic of indonesia government, namely the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia; law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic agrarian principles of government regulation number 18 of 2021 concerning management rights, land rights, apartment units, and land registration; north maluku provincial situmorang et al. government regulation number 2 of 2018 concerning the zoning plan for coastal areas and small islands of north maluku province 2018-2038; and the constitutional court (mk35) decision on customary forests. these five regulations support legal protection and provide customary law communities with management rights over customary forests. second, the law of the land rights (tola gumi) for the welfare of indigenous peoples in indonesia is contained in four formal laws consisting of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia; presidential decree no. 111/1999 concerning social welfare development for remote indigenous communities; and law number 11 of 2009 concerning social welfare; law of the republic of indonesia number 11 of 2020 concerning job creation. and two informal laws, namely jou se ngofa ngare customary law and swapraja customary law. the limitation of this study lies in the object of research, namely the tobaru tribe, which is located in west halmahera regency, north maluku province, indonesia. in addition, the research theme is only aimed at regulations related to the legal protection of tola gumi customary land ownership. in indonesia, there are quite a number of other tribes who have the same problem but with different contexts. researchers found that north maluku local government regulations have not guaranteed the implementation of legal protection and the welfare of indigenous peoples as a whole, especially for the tobaru tribe. this is also evidenced by the fact that the constitutional court decision (cc35) has not been realized in the north maluku region until 2021. the implication of this research is that the central government's efforts to encourage local governments to pay more attention to tribal communities who are classified as poor. indigenous peoples really need land rights because they are very dependent on land. the ministry of agrarian affairs and spatial planning/national land agency and the regional government as soon as possible the realization of laws that favor indigenous peoples. future research can be carried out by examining more deeply the rights of indigenous peoples in terms of the international legal system. pedagogical implication the theme of social education regarding the practice of tola gumi has not been widely taught in schools and colleges. in fact, knowledge about the legal protection of customary land rights (tola gumi) is very important to be studied considering that this is a form of human rights and as an effort to improve community welfare. teaching must include curriculum, teaching materials, cooperative-based teaching models where the material being studied is in the form of material written. learning objectives about the protection of the law and the practice of tola gumi is more journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 201 for conceptual mastery. in addition, the field trip learning method is related to the lives of indigenous peoples, so that students are able to learn about indigenous peoples' activities. the role of local government in supporting the welfare of indigenous peoples is still low. although legal efforts and empowerment of customary land areas have been made, they have not yielded the results they should. in this finding, the study of the normative law and customary law of the tobaru tribe deepens the context of the role of the central government in the form of laws and regulations on land ownership that is used as agricultural and plantation land to improve welfare. of course, this must be done with the right strategy and regulatory policies. when examined in the scope of social education, this research encourages public awareness in understanding knowledge of human dignity as social beings who have different customary laws and traditions. in this case, the findings are expected to foster a critical and wise attitude towards the protection of indigenous peoples' laws and the preservation of nature-based on aesthetic and moral values. the findings also support efforts to study diversity and equity associated with cultural, economic, and societal phenomena. this is part of an effort to understand social life and provide broader and deeper insights, especially in solving socio-cultural problems wisely. in addition, studying interventions or social problems in society is aimed at solving, identifying, and organizing potentials capable of realizing the welfare of indigenous peoples throughout indonesia. situmorang et al. references adi, r. (2012). sosiologi hukum: kajian hukum secara sosiologis. jakarta: yayasan pustaka obor indonesia. ahmad, h. (2019). coastal zone management bangladesh coastal zone management status and future trends. j coast zone manag, 22(1), 466. https://doi.org/10.4172/24733350.1000466 ahmed, z., asghar, m. m., malik, m. n., & nawaz, k. (2020). moving towards a sustainable environment: the dynamic linkage between natural resources, human capital, urbanization, economic growth, and ecological footprint in china. resources policy, 67(january),101677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2020.101677 ajala, t. (2017). gender discrimination in land ownership and the alleviation of women’s poverty in nigeria: a call for new equities. international journal of discrimination and the law, 17(1), 51–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/1358229117700028 aliansi masyarakat adat nusantara. (2013). aliansi masyarakat adat nusantara petisi untuk putusan mahkamah konstitusi no . 35. retrieved april 18, 2021, from http://www.aman.or.id/petisi-mk-35-bahasa-indonesia/ allmendinger, j., & leibfried, s. (2003). education and the welfare state: the four worlds of competence production. journal of european social policy, 13(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928703013001047 alting, h. (2018). protection of indigenous peoples rights after the enforcement of village law in indonesia. jl pol’y & globalization, 3240(2008), 3–4. retrieved from https://heinonline.org/hol-cgibin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/jawpglob80&section=26 alvim, r., regina, c., futemma, t., & queiroz, h. (2020). land use policy indigenous territories and governance of forest restoration in the xingu river ( brazil ). land use policy, (may), 104755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104755 amal, m. a. (2002). maluku utara, perjalanan sejarah 1250 1800 jilid. ternate: universitas khairun ternate. amas dinsie, & taib, r. (2008). ternate: sejarah, kebudayaan & pembangunan perdamaian maluku utara. maluku utara: lembaga kebudayaan rakyat moloku kie raha (lekramkr). andrews, k. (2019). book review: human rights and global diversity: basic ethics in action. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 71-74. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 203 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.6 arizona, y., & cahyadi, e. (2013). adat and indigeneity in indonesia: culture and entitlements between heteronomy and self-ascription göttingen studies in cultural. (b. hauserschaublin, ed.) (7th ed.). gottingen: universitasverlag gottingen. arnesen, a. l., & lundahl, l. (2006). still social and democratic? inclusive education policies in the nordic welfare states. scandinavian journal of educational research, 50(3), 285– 300. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313830600743316 aronson, b., banda, r., johnson, a., kelly, m., radina, r., reyes, g., sander, s., & wronowski, m. (2020). the social justice teaching collaborative: a collective turn towards critical teacher education. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 21-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.8 arts, w., & gelissen, j. (2001). welfare states, solidarity and justice principles: does the type really matter? acta sociologica, 44(4), 283–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/000169930104400401 asimeng-boahene, l. (2010). educational wisdom of african oral literature: african proverbs as vehicles for enhancing critical thinking skills in social studies education. international journal of pedagogies and learning, 5, 59–69. asyhari, m. (2008). status tanahtanah kesultanan ternate. mimbar hukum, 20(2), 193–410. bagenstos, s. r. (2003). william & mary law review the americans with disabilities act as welfare reform reform, 44(3). ban, n. c., & frid, a. (2018). indigenous peoples’ rights and marine protected areas. marine policy, 87(august 2017), 180–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.10.020 barcham, m. (2000). (de)constructing the politics of indigeneity. in political theory and the rights of indigenous peoples (pp. 137–276). cambrige, uk: university press. burkhauser, r. v. (2012). the declining work and welfare of people with disabilities: what went wrong and a strategy for change. choice reviews online, 49(06), 49-3358-49–3358. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.49-3358 chang, h. f. (2000). penn law : legal scholarship repository principle a liberal theory of social welfare : faculty scholarship at penn law, 9, 967. retrieved from https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=http://scholarship.law.upenn. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1967&context=faculty_scholarship&httpsredir=1&article= 1967&context=faculty_scholarship clinton, r. n. (1990). (1990). the rights of indigenous peoples as collective group rights. arizona law review, 32(4), 739. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.8 situmorang et al. https://heinonline.org/hol/landingpage?handle=hein.journals/arz32&div=34&id=&page= cooks, l., & zenovich, j. a. (2021). on whose land do i/we learn? rethinking ownership and land acknowledgment leda. communication teacher, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/17404622.2021.1922729 craig, r. k. (2017). learning to think about complex environmental systems in environmental and natural resource law and scholarship: a twenty-year retrospective. fordham environmental law review, 24(1), 87–102. retrieved from https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1700&context=elr crespi, g. s. (1998). ranking the environmental law , natural resources law , and land use planning journals : a survey of expert opinion, 23(1). daigle, m. (2019). the spectacle of reconciliation: on (the) unsettling responsibilities to indigenous peoples in the academy. environment and planning d: society and space, 37(4), 703–721. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775818824342 davis, s. h., & wali, a. (1994). indigenous land tenure and tropical forest management in latin america indigenous land use and spatial conceptions. ambio, 23(8). ferrante, l., & fearnside, p. m. (2020). protect indigenous peoples from covid-19. science, 368(6488), 251. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abc0073 fox, j. (2002). siam mapped and mapping in cambodia: boundaries, sovereignty, and indigenous conceptions of space. society and natural resources, 15(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/089419202317174020 gassiy, v., & potravny, i. (2017). the assessment of the socio-economic damage of the indigenous peoples due to industrial development of russian arctic. czech polar reports, 7(2), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.5817/cpr2017-2-25 gassiy, v., & potravny, i. (2019). the compensation for losses to indigenous peoples due to the arctic industrial development in benefit sharing paradigm. resources, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/resources8020071 guerra, m., lopez, m., & benavides, a. (2020). funds of identity and education: the journey of a latina educator from linguistic erasure to linguistic empowerment. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 100-119. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.15 gurvitch, ge. (1973). sociology of law. new brunswick (usa) and london (uk): transaction publishers. halsey, a. h., lauder, h., & brown, p., & wells, a. s. (1997). education: culture, economy and society. englewood cliffs, n.j.: oxford university press. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.15 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 205 hammar, r. k. r. (2018). the existence of customary rights of customary law community and its regulation in the era of special autonomy of papua. journal of social studies education research, 9(1), 201–213. haseeb, m., kot, s., iqbal hussain, h., & kamarudin, f. (2021). the natural resources curseeconomic growth hypotheses: quantile–on–quantile evidence from top asian economies. journal of cleaner production, 279, 123596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123596 hayat, a., & tahir, m. (2021). natural resources volatility and economic growth: evidence from the resource-rich region. journal of risk and financial management, 14(2), 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14020084 hokowhitu, b. (1970). indigenous existentialism and the body. cultural studies review, 15(2), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.5130/csr.v15i2.2040 holmwood, j. (2000). three pillars of welfare state theory: th marshall, karl polanyi and alva myrdal in defence of the national welfare state. european journal of social theory, 3(1), 23–50. james anaya, s., & puig, s. (2017). mitigating state sovereignty: the duty to consult with indigenous peoples. university of toronto law journal, 67(4), 435–464. https://doi.org/10.3138/utlj.67.1 kostetska, k., khumarova, n., umanska, y., shmygol, n., & koval, v. (2020). institutional qualities of inclusive environmental management in sustainable economic development. management systems in production engineering, 28(1), 15–22. https://doi.org/10.2478/mspe-2020-0003 krippendorff, k. (2018). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. london: ltd. krynski, a. (2019). in a state of fragility: the compromised dignity of communities, indignation, and the incapacitation of public education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.1 lanini, a., & yodo, s. (2021). the effectiveness of customary law to protect natural resources in the national park in central sulawesi, 12(3), 1191–1199. lee, a., & lee, a. (2020). experience with diversity is not enough: a pedagogical framework for teacher candidates that centers critical race consciousness. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 40-59. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.9 lundberg, u., & mark, k. (2001). social rights and social security: the swedish welfare state, 1900-2000. scandinavian journal of history, 26(3), 157–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/034687501750303837 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.9 situmorang et al. mackay, f., & mackay, f. (2020). the ilo convention no . 111 : an alternative means of protecting indigenous peoples ’ rights ? protecting indigenous peoples ’ rights ?, 2987(111). https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2019.1677621 mahkamah konstitusi republik indonesia. (2015). dua tahun usiamu, putusan mk-35 masih jadi macan ompong. retrieved april 18, 2021, from http://www.mongabay.co.id/2015/05/16/dua-tahun-usiamu-putusan-mk-35-masih-jadimacanompong/ manaf, a. a., ramli, z., & saad, s. (2020). factors that cause the dispute of land alienation using the institutional approch, 14(december). https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202012.0456.v1 mangla, s. k., luthra, s., mishra, n., singh, a., rana, n. p.dora, m., & dwivedi, y. (2018). barriers to effective circular supply chain management in a developing country context. production planning & control, 29(6), 551–569. mason, l. (2019). dewey and political communication in the age of mediation. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 94-102. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.6 midgley, j. (1997). social welfare in global context. united kingdom: sage publication inc. mullins, r. (2019). using dewey’s conception of democracy to problematize the notion of disability in public education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.1 nimas ayu, p., pramesti, n. a., pamadhi, h., & garbo, a. (2019). local wisdom values in kawung batik and its relevance to moral education. in 2nd international conference on art and arts education (icaae 2018) local (vol. 327, pp. 178–182). advances in social science, education and humanities research. https://doi.org/10.2991/icaae-18.2019.34 öktem, k. g. (2020). the welfare state as universal social security: a global analysis. social inclusion, 8(1), 103–113. https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v8i1.2509 pfau-effinger, b. (2005). culture and welfare state policies: reflections on a complex interrelation. journal of social policy, 34(1), 3–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0047279404008232 pletnev, a. v. (2019). государство всеобщего благоденствия как тип социальной политики , выражающий интересы большей части населения the welfare state as a type of social policy , expressing interests of the majority of the population, 78–83. quadagno, j. (1987). theories of the welfare state. annual review of sociology, 13(1), 109–128. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.13.080187.000545 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.1 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 207 reid, c. t. (2021). mapping post-brexit environmental law. era forum, 21(4). reid, p., cormack, d., & paine, s. j. (2019). colonial histories, racism and health—the experience of māori and indigenous peoples. public health, 172, 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2019.03.027 roller, e. (1995). the welfare state: the equality dimension. in o. borre & e. scarbrough (eds.), the scope of government. new york: oxford university press. ross, w. (2008). social studies education. knowledge & power in the global economy (edition1st ed.). london (u.k): routledge. retrieved from www.journal.uta45jakarta.ac.id sadjim, u. m., muhadjir, n., & sudarsono, f. (2016). revitalisasi nilai-nilai bhineka tunggal ika dan kearifan lokal berbeasis learning society pasca konflik sosial di ternate. jurnal pembangunan pendidikan: fondasi dan aplikasi, 4(1), 79–91. retrieved from http://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/jppfa samsudin, s., ibrahim, n. a., suratman, r., & adnan, m. z. (2021). land for indigenous people: ownership conflicts and government interventions in kampung bawong, perak, malaysia. in iop conference series: earth and environmental science (p. 012124). iop publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/683/1/012124 sasakamoose, j. l., bellegarde, t., sutherland, w., pete, s., & mckay-mcnabb, k. (2017). miỳo-pimatisiwin developing indigenous cultural responsiveness theory (icrt): improving indigenous health and well-being. international indigenous policy journal, 8(4). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2017.8.4.1 schakel, w., burgoon, b., & hakhverdian, a. (2020). real but unequal representation in welfare state reform. politics and society, 48(1), 131–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032329219897984 schusler, t. m., decker, d. j., & pfeffer, m. j. (2003). social learning for collaborative natural resource management. society and natural resources, 16(4), 309–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920390178874 segal, e. a. (2010). social welfare policy and social programs: a values perspective. belmont, ca: thomson brooks/cole. sellers, j. m., & lidström, a. (2007). decentralization, local government, and the welfare state. governance, 20(4), 609–632. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0491.2007.00374.x sieder, r. (2011). “emancipation” or “regulation”? law,globalization and indigenous peoples’ rights in post-war guatemala. economy and society, 40(2), 239–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/03085147.2011.548952 situmorang et al. sinn, h.-w. (1995). a theory of the welfare state. journal of economics, 97, 495–525. https://doi.org/10.3386 / w4856 small, g., & sheehan, j. (2008). the metaphysics of indigenous ownership: why indigenous ownership is incomparable to western conceptions of property value ?indigenous peoples and real estate valuation. boulder, usa: springer international publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-77938-6 soyer, g. (2019). urie bronfenbrenner: the ecology of human development book review. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 77-80. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.6 spicker, p. (2012). the welfare state: a general theory. the welfare state: a general theory. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446219959 stein, s. (2020). a colonial history of the higher education present: rethinking land-grant institutions through processes of accumulation and relations of conquest. critical studies in education, 61(2), 212–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2017.1409646 stoesz, d. (1989). a theory of social welfare. social work (united states), 34(2), 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/34.2.101 tahili, m., tolla, i., ahmad, m., saman, a., & samad, s. (2021). the effect of strategic collaboration approach on the national educational standards achievement and service quality in basic education at local government in indonesia. research in social sciences and technology, 6(1), 53-82. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.4 tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), i-ii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.ed tekgüç, h. (2018). declining poverty and inequality in turkey: the effect of social assistance and home ownership. south european society and politics, 23(4), 547–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608746.2018.1548120 valentina v. stepanova, meshkova, i. n., sheremetieva, o. a., & maštálka, j. (2018). refugee flows at border crossing points: legal, social and language aspects. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 296–316. van der muur, w. (2018). forest conflicts and the informal nature of realizing indigenous land rights in indonesia. citizenship studies, 22(2), 160–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2018.1445495 wiersema, a. (2008). a train without tracks: rethinking the place of law and goals in https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.ed journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 180-209 209 environmental and natural resources law. environmental law, 38, 1239–1300. yusriyadi, y., & aminah, a. (2019). land conversion and its control strategy. in the first international conference on islamic development studies 2019, icids 2019. bandar lampung: eai. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.10-9-2019.2289442 zaidar, yamin, m., & bariah, c. (2020). legal analysis of the sultan grant existence as evidence of ownership to the land. in 1st international conference on law, governance and islamic society (icolgis 2019) legal (vol. 413, pp. 215–219). advances in social science, education and humanities research. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200306.216 zhang, y., & wildemuth, b. m. (2009). qualitative analysis of content. in applications of methods to questions in information and library science (second edi, p. 319). santa barbara, california: linbraries unlimited. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3),50-75 the presence of deficit thinking among social studies educators natalie keefer1 abstract this case study explores the presence of deficit thinking among social studies educators in the state of florida. included in this research is an analysis of semi-structured interview data that focused on pivotal experiences and participants’ understandings of the connection between social class and academic achievement, mobility, and race and ethnicity. despite divergent pivotal experiences with social class, findings suggest social studies teachers exhibit deficit thinking towards students living in poverty. from a social justice perspective, in order for social studies teachers to develop asset-based knowledge of students living in poverty, they must receive explicit training that challenges deficit thinking and stereotypes that lead to lowered expectations of students living in poverty. keywords: social studies teachers, deficit thinking, poverty, equity pedagogy, social justice introduction social inequity in public schools persists in the united states, despite decades of educational reforms and legislation aimed at closing the achievement gap. in the field of social studies education, race and socio-economic status continue to negatively impact students’ national civics test scores as measured using naep exam scores (bittman & russell, 2016). although the united states is a world leader in educational innovation (tarman, 2016), social problems such as poverty and racism have hindered equitable academic achievement. across disciplines in education, practitioners and scholars have called for structural changes in our society such as providing more equitable access to nutritious foods, housing, and safe neighborhoods (berliner, 2009; gorski, 2008). from an applied and pragmatic standpoint, social studies teachers can practice equity pedagogy (gorski, 2014) and teach from a social justice perspective (grant, 2012). at the core of these frameworks is the belief in high expectations for all students, even when taking into consideration that achievement is different for everyone 1 asst. prof. dr. university of louisiana at lafayette, keeferna@louisiana.edu mailto:keeferna@louisiana.edu keefer 51 (ladson-billings, 2006; nieto & bode, 2012). the purpose of this research was to investigate how social studies teachers develop an understanding of poverty and educational achievement, a key aspect of equity pedagogy and social justice theory, and whether or not social studies teachers express elements of deficit perspectives in their beliefs about students from lower social class backgrounds. in the united states, 84% of all teachers are white (feistritzer, 2011), and predominantly middle-class (hodgkinson, 2002; feistritzer, 2011; mundy & leko, 2015). however, the k-12 student population in the united states is increasingly poor, hispanic, and black (feistritzer, 2011). preservice teachers enrolled in teacher certification programs in colleges of education reflect this trend. generally, millennial preservice teachers come from middle-class, white backgrounds (castro, 2010; zumwalt & craig, 2005). in terms of certification pathways, white preservice teachers are more likely to obtain certification in traditional programs in colleges of education, whereas, black and hispanic teachers are more likely to obtain certification through alternative programs (feistritzer, 2011). regardless of how teacher certification is achieved, white, middle-class preservice teachers need to examine the roots of their assumptions about students who come from non-white, non-middle class backgrounds (nieto & bode, 2012). social studies teachers are uniquely poised to delve into social equity issues. patterns of human social relationships are fundamental to the social studies curriculum. several national council for the social studies themes necessitate the study of social structure and social problems: time, continuity, and change; individuals, groups, and institutions; production, distribution, and consumption; and civic ideals and practices (ncss, 2010). the civics dimension and sociology standards of the c3 framework implore students to critique the relationship between society and government, including democratic principles, human rights, and social problems such as poverty (ncss, 2013). furthermore, dimension four of the c3 framework requires students to communicate conclusions and to take informed action. in a social studies classroom teachers should be prepared to guide students through an authentic analysis of social problems such as poverty and to take informed action as citizens to help people who are living in poverty. teachers must also be able to select strategies and resources to prepare students to be effective citizens outside of the classroom walls (mauch & tarman, 2016). teachers can only be prepared to undertake this task if they are well informed about the dynamics of poverty in united states’ society. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 social studies teachers learn how to teach about poverty, social structure, and social problems in social studies methods courses and during professional development. yet, there is scant research in social studies education on social problems such as poverty (myers, 2008). research by mishra (2014) indicates that teachers’ pedagogy is influenced by their biases and beliefs, and these tend to be deficit laden. however, research on how social studies teachers construct knowledge about poverty is lacking. absent from the social studies education literature is an anthropological understanding of poverty that has been “effective in interrogating the structural inequities of educational policy and practice” that informs teachers’ practices (gonzález, 2010, p. s249). social studies teachers’ interests in teaching civics, history, and social sciences should allow them time to develop a complex understanding of students from diverse backgrounds. yet, we do not know how social studies teachers construct an awareness of how poverty impacts student achievement. the following research explored this topic. the research questions were: 1. how do teachers’ formative experiences shape their understanding of social class and educational achievement? 2. do social studies teachers express deficit perspectives about students from lower social class backgrounds? this research was part of a larger ethnographic study of how social studies teachers’ formative experiences inform relational aspects of pedagogy. deficit perspectives for decades, deficit perspectives have persisted in shaping federal educational policy and national opinion. by definition, deficit perspectives explain academic failure in terms of cultural, linguistic, moral, intellectual, and social pathologies that exist in minority and lower income communities (nieto & bode, 2012; gorski, 2008). teachers communicate deficit perspectives when they define “students by their weaknesses rather than their strengths” (gorski, 2008, p.34). as exemplified by ruby payne’s (2005) a framework for understanding poverty, the persistent belief in a culture of poverty is a prevalent example of deficit perspectives in teacher education. the concept of a culture of poverty first appeared in the anthropological literature with the publication of oscar lewis’ (1961) the children of sanchez. despite the ethnography’s limitations, including lack of generalizability, limited sample size, and the fact that people living in poverty in our country come from diverse social backgrounds, the concept of a culture of keefer 53 poverty has remained popular in public education (greenbaum, 2015; gorski, 2015). perhaps this is because, as gloria ladson-billings (2006) laments, educators have misused the term culture as a panacea to explain everything from “school failure to problems with behavior management and discipline” (p. 104). norma gonzález (2010) clarifies: culture had come to be viewed as a holistic configuration of traits and values that shaped members into viewing the world in a particular way, these assumed rules for behavior were seen by some as the root of the educational failure of minoritized groups. (s251) shortly after the publication of lewis’ book, senator daniel patrick moynihan’s report the negro family: the case for national action, laid the historical foundation for the prevalence of deficit perspectives in educational policy and public opinion (moynihan, 1965). moynihan’s (1965) report found a “tangle of pathologies” in poor, black communities (p.29). deficit perspectives were also heaped upon latin american families. latin american culture, family structure, and male authoritarianism were perceived as causal factors for a lack of family support for educational achievement (gonzález, 2010; samora 1970). based upon this belief in pathological family characteristics in poor and minority communities, the educationally deprived child became the focus of federal education policy as a part of president johnson’s war on poverty. one of the immediate goals of the elementary and secondary education act of 1965 was to meet “the special educational needs of the educationally deprived child” (elementary and secondary education act, 1965, p. 25). the house budget committee’s (2014) report the war on poverty: 50 years later, sponsored by paul ryan r-wisc, echoes moynihan’s contention that poverty and welfare dependency is reproduced by, “single-parent households raising children with neither the desire nor capacity to acquire skills to support themselves as adults” (greenbaum, 2014, p.1). criticism of the moynihan report and the deficit perspectives it perpetuated stem from the report’s overly negative focus on poor, black, single-parent families. the report was criticized for blaming poverty on poor families and for ignoring structural, economic inequities in society that often overpower poor families’ abilities to move out of poverty (greenbaum, 2015; gorski, 2014; valentine, 1968). in her influential ethnography all our kin, carol stack (1974) argued that poverty was caused by a lack of access to scarce economic resources, not journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 cultural pathologies. stack (1974) found that kinship networks within poor black communities provided meaningful support and necessary resources. contrary to stereotypes exacerbated by exaggerations in deficit-laden literature, black male family members were not in abstentia; 69% of fathers assumed parental responsibilities and paternal family members were active in childrearing. recent research by jones and mosher (2013) found no statistical difference when considering time spent with children between white, latino, and black fathers. in some measures black fathers spent more time with their children than white fathers (jones & mosher 2013). asset-based perspectives funds of knowledge. gonzález, amanti, and moll’s funds of knowledge program (2005) introduced an asset-based approach for preservice teachers to research families and students from lower class and minority backgrounds. the theoretical approach of the funds of knowledge program focused on education as a social process and acknowledged that, “students’ learning is bound within larger contextual, historical, political, and ideological frameworks that affect students’ lives” (gonzález, moll, & amanti, 2005, p. ix). many preservice teachers’ have deficit–based beliefs about students living in poverty due to the widespread social persistence of deficit perspectives. therefore, the program’s goal was to shift preservice teachers’ deficit perspectives of working class and poor communities to perspectives of communities with many strengths and resources, or funds of knowledge. during exit interviews, messing (2005) found that preservice teachers exhibited changed attitudes about parents, had improved communication with parents, and felt less judgmental about their students. one participant in the funds of knowledge project reported she “had been unconsciously judging the students in her classroom, and that this judgment was based on a lack of understanding of the family’s day-to-day reality” (messing 2005, p. 190). in the funds of knowledge program, participants were given time to reflect on their experiences after employing ethnographic research methods such as guided walking tours of local communities, questionnaires, interviews, field notes, life history narratives, and participant observation. the preservice teachers reported shifts in perspective after analyzing the data and reflecting on their experiences during the research process (gonzález, moll, & amanti, 2005). keefer 55 preservice teachers reported the experience “challenged them to learn new things about their students and students’ families and therefore about their own roles as teachers and their practices” (messing, 2005, p. 189). equity pedagogy and social justice. social studies teachers can teach from a social justice perspective regardless of their race or ethnicity. a social justice perspective is practiced when teachers have “high expectations for students, recognize the intellectual capacity of often marginalized students, provide curriculum content that is challenging and culturally responsive, and maintain ongoing reflective assessment of what they teach, how they teach, and why” (grant, 2012, p. 915). by definition, social justice pedagogy demands a shift in attitude from deficit perspectives to a perspective of high expectations for all students. gorski and swalwell (2015) argue that the fetishization of culture in education should be reformed with a focus on equity. although culturally relevant pedagogy and culturally responsive teaching has emerged from a concern with equity (gorski & swalwell, 2015; ladsonbillings, 1995), all too often issues related to equity are subordinate to relevant and authentic cultural aspects of students’ lives. gorski and swalwell (2015) contend that equity literacy is warranted in all content areas and should be interdisciplinary. however, the field of social studies, due to the scope of its curriculum, should serve as a natural starting point for the discussion of historical and present-day social issues such as racism, classism, and poverty. social studies teachers should be trained to be aware of student’s funds of knowledge and to use this knowledge as a starting point for relevant and equitable pedagogies. the funds of knowledge approach is an example of equity pedagogy because it implores teachers to recognize skills, ideas, and abilities from the home environment and use them to inform effective methods and strategies to capitalize upon the diversity present in classroom settings (chapa, garcia, & guerra, 2011). since several ncss themes require an awareness of culture and identity, equity pedagogies that embody the basic principles of the funds of knowledge framework are an elegant fit in social studies classrooms. methods this study examined five secondary social studies teacher’s perceptions of students from different social class backgrounds to determine to what extent they expressed sentiments that are consistent with historical beliefs about children living in poverty in our country. the culture of poverty paradigm has been historically pervasive in public education, and with it, deficit-based journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 ideologies. to provide a balanced analysis of data gleaned from participants, the study sought to acknowledge evidence of asset-based ideologies among the data, including evidence of an awareness of student’s funds of knowledge. sample the sample was derived from a large metropolitan area in the state of florida. the area the sample was collected from provided a wealth of diversity in regards to rural, urban, and suburban schools and student social class, race, and ethnicity. as of 2016, the metropolitan area has a population of 1,376,238 residents, with a 27% hispanic population and a 17.7% african american population (u.s. census, 2017). as of 2013, 24% of all children under the age of 18 years were living in poverty. there is an increase in the number of children living in poverty; in 2009, 22% of children under the age of 18 were living in poverty (kids count, 2017). a major benefit of conducting research on teachers in this metropolitan area was the ability of the population to support a maximum variation sample due to the dynamic demographic composition of the urbanized area. furthermore, the demographic make-up of the metropolis and its surrounding areas are reflective of the state of florida as a whole, thus increasing potential generalizability (u.s. census, 2017). participants maximum variation sampling was used to purposefully sample five social studies teachers from the above population along areas of analytical interest. themes that emerge “from great variation are of particular interest and value in capturing core experiences and central, shared dimensions of a phenomenon” (patton, 2002, p.235). for this case study these areas included: gender, ethnicity or race, and school location. a diversified sample of female and male teachers, from suburban and urban school locations, and from different ethnic or racial backgrounds was assembled for this research. all teachers had been in the classroom for fewer than 10 years. the sample included: monica, a latina who taught at a title i urban school; two white females, lucy and regina, who taught in non-title i suburban schools; a black male named peter who taught at an affluent public urban school, and a white male named jim who taught at an urban title i school. data collection and analysis the five social studies teachers were interviewed twice over three months to produce interview transcripts that were used to construct participants’ narratives of experience with social keefer 57 class. following dilley’s (2000) protocol, the researcher developed semi-structured interview questions. the interview began with closed-ended questions to make the participants comfortable and to determine their sense of ease with the topic: where did you grow up? what was your family’s economic status? who lived with you growing up? how often did you spend time with people from different social classes or social groups growing up? then, the interview questions became more open-ended: do you remember the first time you realized some people had more than others; can you tell me that story? during the second interview participants were asked: can you tell me about when you first realized that social class was important? and when has social class been important in your life? participants were active in the validation and construction of their narratives through both the verification of transcripts, and the verification of accuracy of literary elements used in the narratives such as tone, point of view, mood, and voice (coulter & smith, 2009; kramp, 2004). interview transcripts were analyzed using two-column notes and atlas-ti software to create codes. data was then organized by meaningful criteria into groups for comparison purposes in order to identify patterns (lecomte, 2000). after each round of interviews, a panel of three social studies education graduate students verified coding of the interview transcripts to provide feedback on emergent themes, and to provide insight from divergent perspectives from within the field of social studies education. panel member’s divergent perspectives stemmed from their diverse backgrounds in terms of race, age, gender, and areas of academic focus within the social studies. the panel was composed of one latina female, one white female, and one white male. one of the panel members was gay. two of the panel members were over 50 years old and one member was 40 years old. academically, all participants were engaged in human rights scholarship but their interests diverged in the social studies domains of civics, history, or global education. the panel provided a multifaceted examination and scrutiny of the data coding system. with the panels’ social backgrounds and academic subjectivities, a thorough analysis of data provided rich commentary on how social dynamics such as race, gender, and socio-economic status interacted with participants’ experiences. this provided instrument fidelity by allowing the researcher to modify the second interview questions in order to maximize their utility (leech & onwuegbuzie, 2007). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 limitations this case study is limited by its small sample size and by the scope of its geographical location. although multisite design was utilized, insuring the five teachers represented a wide variety of racial backgrounds, teaching sites, and other areas of phenomenological interest (merriam, 1998), generalizability to a widespread population is limited. a larger sample size encompassing a greater geographical area would include a greater corpus of pivotal experiences. however, the findings from this study provide a sturdy snapshot of the perceptions that social studies teachers may have about their students who are living in poverty. findings participants’ pivotal experiences yielded two themes, migration and deficit thinking. first, participants’ pivotal experiences will be introduced to describe their unique and seminal experiences with social class. then, the researcher will discuss the secondary theme of migration and how it represents a commonality in participants’ diverse experiences. finally, the theme of deficit thinking will be discussed to illustrate how participants utilize similar language about people living in poverty, regardless of the divergences in participants’ formative experiences. pivotal experiences the participants’ pivotal experiences served as a starting point for their cognition of equity and social class. pivotal experiences are moments in peoples’ lives that have the capacity to unlock critical consciousness (hallman & burdick, 2011). freire (2000) defined the term critical consciousness as a form of sociopolitical awareness that educates individuals about the nature of historical and social inequity. participants recounted pivotal experiences in response to the question “when did you realize some people had more than others?” the participants regina, peter, and jim grew up middle class; monica and lucy came from working class backgrounds. participants’ pivotal experiences were distinct in terms of the age they realized social class mattered, and the circumstances surrounding their pivotal experiences. despite participants’ vast differences in pivotal experiences, themes emerged from the pivotal experiences that have profound implications for social studies education. the most significant inter-participant theme was the presence of deficit thinking, regardless of whether or not the participants believed they grew up working class or middle class. regina. regina’s pivotal experience occurred when her family moved from metropolitan new york to rural florida at the end of third grade. her middle class family moved from a keefer 59 predominantly white suburb in new york city to a rural county in florida. regina’s family rented a house upon arrival in florida and began exploring the area to find a home to buy. regina noticed trailer parks for the first time while house hunting with her family. for regina, rural poverty provided the backdrop for her pivotal experience. regina went through a period of culture shock adjusting to her new learning environment. it was this traumatizing experience that shaped regina’s conceptualization of social class differences. at first, regina resisted attending the new school in rural florida. it was different from her suburban school in queens and she was intimidated: there were times when i would fake sick because i didn’t want to go to school or i would just cry because i didn’t want to go to school because it was so different...‘here comes this little girl with this extremely new york accent,’ you know, and i get thrown into a class where...students, they were coming from very, like, farm – maybe not all farms – but it was spread out and rural and it was just very different from me. after a few months regina began to make friends at school. regina noticed that many of her classmates lived in trailer parks, while other friends lived in homes or in even more affluent housing developments. regina noticed a geographic division of social difference in her school: social class-wise, there was just a difference…because there were people in these rural areas and they were not really high, middle, or upper class rural areas. you know, i’m not talking like plantation-style homes here; we’re talking, like, trailers. just lower class rural, if that makes sense. although regina attended a diverse school, she noticed students tended to interact with people in their own social class. students living in poverty kept to themselves, as did the middle and upper class students. as regina grew older, the social distance between these groups became wider and was prominent by the time she entered high school. regina’s move to florida and her subsequent adjustment to the environment was the pivotal experience in her life where she began to realize some people had more than others. the abrupt change in socio-cultural landscape from suburban new york to rural florida provided an experience that delineated differences in social class. regina’s period of culture shock was traumatizing for her, yet through overcoming her fear of a diverse new school setting she developed an understanding of social class and rural poverty. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 peter. peter’s pivotal experience involves the significance of opportunity. peter’s father was a middle school teacher and his mother was an administrative assistant. for peter, his middle-class upbringing meant that he “never really needed anything.” although peter attended church with people from different social classes, it wasn’t until high school that he became more aware of differences in people based on their material possessions and access to opportunities. peter’s background provided him with opportunities that led to a successful teaching career, unlike many of his friends from lower class backgrounds. for example, peter’s best friend lived with mother and had less income: my best friend didn’t have as much as me in terms of an income in his family. he just lived with his mom, and even thought he was kinda spoiled, they still didn’t have as much as us, and i thought it was because i had two parents that worked and he only had his mom. um, like the amount of tvs in our home. the fact that we had more than one car, things like that made me realize that not everyone had the same things, the same social status. peter lived with both his parents, his family had more money, and they had more time and resources available to take vacations. peter was exposed to the world outside of his hometown on vacations whereas his best friend was not. when peter enrolled in college away from home it expanded the world around him even more. as peter grew older, opportunities opened up for him due to his family’s social class. peter felt sad that many of his friends did not have the same opportunities. i felt bad for some of my friends because they never really got out of the community. even now as adults they don’t get out of the community. it kinda makes me sad. peter noticed how social class difference created a divergence of opportunities by the time he reached high school. his friends from lower class backgrounds did not have as many vacations as he did, nor did they have the opportunity to attend college. rather, peter’s friends were “left behind” in the town he grew up while he was presented with opportunities to go away to a four-year university. jim. jim’s pivotal experience with social class was latent, when he began his first year teaching at a title i high school. jim is aware his childhood was sheltered. he grew up in an affluent, predominantly white community that did not provide many experiences with social class differences. when jim’s family moved from new york to florida he began to notice some keefer 61 social class differences among his peers. for example, in school several of jim’s classmates were on free and reduced lunch. jim noticed few differences in material wealth, although some students had nicer sneakers, clothes, or backpacks. however, jim’s pivotal experience with social class did not occur until after he graduate from university with a degree in secondary social studies education. the bulk of jim’s learning experiences with social class have stemmed from interactions with the students he teaches. jim explains: growing up upper-middle class there’s lots of things you don’t have to deal with. you don’t think ‘where am i getting my next meal’ and that’s a big thing. if i needed something i can use a credit card and buy it. if i don’t have the money myself i can get it from my parents. right now i’m at a title i school so i’m definitely getting the other experience now as a young adult. most of the students at jim’s school are living in poverty although there are more affluent students in the school’s magnet program. in the quote below, jim makes a clear deficit-based presumption; students who attend school on free or reduced lunch are there for meals but not for an education. we have the low, low, low – like homeless living in shelters – kids coming from very low-income neighborhoods, then we have more middle class neighborhoods, then we have upper class kids from the [magnet] program. so we have the full range...people who are just there for meals – breakfast and lunch – and the kids who are actually there because they want to be in school. jim’s latent pivotal experience underscores the need for social studies teacher education programs to explicitly challenge deficit thinking, to teach about poverty from a social justice perspective, and to provide preservice teachers with exposure to students who are living in poverty. jim felt unprepared to teach at a title i school and expressed difficulty relating to his lower class students. monica. monica moved to the united states from a large urban area in south america before elementary school. her parents immigrated to florida in search of a better life. in the united states her father worked in restaurants and her mother became an administrative assistant. in south america, her family had been considered affluent, but by u.s. standards they were working class. monica’s family was close-knit and supportive. as monica grew up and attended journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 school her parent’s support was fundamental to her academic success, which led to college and a career as a high school social studies teacher. for monica, adjusting to life in the united states after moving from south america provided her with a painful lesson in social inequality. one of these early experiences was in girl scouts. after a day at the amusement park, a mother drove monica and a few other girl scouts home. the mother and other girls came from more affluent backgrounds. monica was the only working class latina in the group. the other girls lived in homes in a more suburban part of town while monica lived in an apartment complex “literally on the other side of the tracks.” when monica was dropped off at her apartment complex, the girls in the back seat snickered “oh my god! you live here?” this was the first time monica realized that her family did not have what other families had. this experience was a rude awakening for monica: [i felt] horrible. i felt literally like a second-class citizen. um, i felt bad, i felt embarrassed...like a stab to my heart or my conscious in a way, you know, and i never realized because i thought i had more because my parents always told me, you know, “we are here for a reason, we had more, you don’t understand what we actually went through.” monica was embarrassed and felt inferior to these girls. her parents had told her they were doing well, especially compared to their life in south america. however, compared to the other girl scouts, monica was a poor south american girl from the wrong side of the tracks. another incident that made monica feel inferior was on the school bus the first day of sixth grade. the bus crossed the train tracks from her neighborhood to a more affluent and white housing development in her community. two white students on the bus decided to pick on her and sneered, “what the hell are you doing here, you spic? you don’t belong here!” monica felt like an outcast, like she didn’t belong. monica was vulnerable as a new student and therefore an easy target for these students’ racial slurs. her feelings of insecurity resurfaced and she once again felt inferior, just like that day in girl scouts. these two experiences in monica’s early life brought feelings of inferiority to the forefront of her conceptions of social class. when the girls in monica’s girl scout group made hurtful comments about where she lived she felt ashamed and inferior. the students on the middle school bus who made racist remarks made these negative emotions resurface. for keefer 63 monica, these experiences built connections between ethnicity, social class, and inequality in our society. these negative experiences made her feel embarrassed and inferior because of her background as a relatively poor south american immigrant. monica attributes her parents’ support to her ability to overcome these hurtful experiences from her childhood. lucy. lucy grew up in a working class family. her father was physically and mentally abusive, and an alcoholic. he had an elementary level education and worked in construction. lucy’s mother graduated high school and cleaned houses for wealthy families in the area. lucy knew her family wasn’t as wealthy as others, but her family’s income was sufficient to provide for their basic needs and small luxuries, such as vacations. however, her father’s volatile behavior meant that she never knew when she would return home from school to discover her mother had been battered. when lucy was eight or nine years old she began to realize some people had more than others. when on break from school, lucy would accompany her mother to cleaning jobs. she remembered visiting homes her mom cleaned and immediately noticed these families were wealthier. the families her mother worked for had larger homes and more material possessions than her family. lucy felt jealous; despite the fact the families were nice to her and sometimes let her swim in their pools. lucy realized at this point that “people lived in different ways based on what their parents did for a living”. lucy knew the children in these families had different choices in their future and that this was related to their income: i remember being jealous of the families my mother worked for. there were teenagers that were a little bit older than me. they had a pool, a caged in pool in their backyards. they had beautiful homes, and i knew they had a different future than i did. as lucy grew older, she fell in love with horses and wanted to be a horse veterinarian. lucy found employment a horse stable. this turned into a modest paying job for the next three years. the young girls who kept their horses at the stable were from upper class families. lucy’s job was to train and take care of the horses other girls owned. many of these upper class girls only took the time to see their horse when they had riding lessons or when they had a show. lucy spent long hours at the stable making sure their horses were healthy and well cared-for. lucy noticed horses were more of a hobby or an after school activity for the upper-class girls. horses journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 were lucy’s passion, but she did not have the financial means to obtain her own horse. feelings of jealously surfaced again during this time in her life. making five dollars an hour taking care of other people’s horses seemed unfair: i worked for a horse trainer for about four years and i’m working for about five dollars an hour slogging, you know, saddles around, wrestling horses and doing all the hard work while a lot of rich kids, had, one young lady had three horses and only saw her horses the two days before the show, during the show and then we wouldn’t see her again for weeks, so there was at the time a lot of jealousy. reflecting back on this experience, lucy understands her life was different than the girls who owned the horses. riding horses was probably one of the many different activities the girl’s parents had them involved in. lucy understood that horses might not have been a passion for these girls. however, horse riding was an activity they were expected to do because of their social class. lucy’s childhood experiences watching her mother clean homes and her job taking care of horses taught her powerful lessons about social class. the more privileged families she interacted with had more money than her family and they also had more opportunities in life. lucy’s feelings of jealousy that stemmed from these experiences were an affective element of her early life that influenced her understanding of social class dynamics. participants’ pivotal experiences shaped their understanding of social class and educational achievement by establishing the early development of a frame of reference. regina, peter, jim, monica, and lucy referred to their pivotal experiences during their interviews and harkened back to these experiences to explain their insights about poverty and social class. the deficit perspectives participants expressed began to take shape during these pivotal experiences and were not challenged at any point during their teacher education to the extent that created a shift in their beliefs. themes despite the fact that participants’ experiences were unique, there were two striking similarities in their narratives that emerged into themes. the primary theme that emerged from participants’ narratives was deficit thinking; migration was a secondary theme of interest. all keefer 65 participants utilized deficit language when speaking about people living in poverty. most of the participants migrated in their youth and their migration was an essential part of their pivotal experiences. these two themes imputed social meaning into participants’ experiences with social class. participant’s pivotal experiences were tinged with negative sentiments. psychological research indicates humans have a tendency towards negativity bias. in other words, humans tend to remember, ruminate, and learn more from negative experiences than positive experiences (vaish et al., 2008; baumeister et al., 2001). regina felt culture shock when she moved from new york state to rural florida. as a young child she remembered not fitting into her new setting and consequently not wanting to attend school. monica was deeply hurt when she was bullied due to her immigrant experience, and lucy was jealous of people who were more affluent than her. peter also felt badly about his friends who were left behind while he had greater opportunities in life due to his social class. jim’s early life was sheltered. his pivotal experience had negative elements, although, he lacked an early awareness of social inequity and thus had fewer experiences and less time to reflect upon social injustices. negative pivotal experiences have the capacity to allow individuals to recognize marginality, develop knowledge of inequity, and empower individuals to work towards greater social justice (caesar, 2014). of the five participants, regina, monica, and peter’s early life experiences had informed them in this manner. however, jim and lucy did not follow this pattern; their pivotal experiences yielded different reactions to social inequity in our society. migration the secondary theme of migration served as a main backdrop for three participants’ pivotal experiences. four of the five participants moved when they were young. regina moved from new york city to florida and discovered rural poverty. peter moved away to a four-year university after graduating from high school. this move made peter aware that he had more opportunities than his friends who were living in poverty. monica moved as a child from south america to the united states. when monica arrived in the united states she became aware that her family was poor by united states standards. jim moved from new york state to florida when he was in middle school. in new york state, jim attended a demographically homogenous journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 suburban school. in florida, the student population in the schools jim attended were much more diverse in terms of race and socio-economic status. only lucy had not migrated either to or from florida at any point in her life. of the four participants who migrated during their youth, these movements contributed to participants’ construction of an understanding of social class. even lucy’s lack of migration integrates well with this theme. just as peter noted, people living in poverty lack opportunities and are less likely to have migrated long distances from their place of birth (winship, 2015; cohn & morin, 2008). so, although lucy did not migrate from her hometown during her youth, her lack of geographical mobility served as a hallmark of her lower social class status and lack of opportunities in her early life. deficit perspectives despite the fact that participants’ pivotal experiences were unique, the major theme gleaned from data was that the presence of participants’ deficit thinking towards students living in poverty was consistent and pervasive. participants also stated factual information about people living in poverty, such as people living in poverty work longer hours and lack access to resources such as food, shelter, and education. yet, participants’ deficit perspectives were embodied in their overt focus on what people living in poverty “lack” and the negative consequences of living in poverty. these findings have real world consequences for the field of social studies education because deficit perspectives about students living in poverty can lead to lowered expectations for student achievement (gardner & toope, 2011; nieto & bode, 2012) or reinforce negative stereotypes about students living in poverty (gorski, 2008). participants’ understanding of students living in poverty was limited to the basic understanding that poor students do not have equitable access to financial and educational resources. participants did not mention students’ strengths, funds of knowledge, or types of local knowledge that exist in lower class communities (gardner & toope, 2011; greenbaum, 2015; gonzález, moll, & amanti, 2005; stack, 1974). the participants focused on perceived deficits of lower class students and they believed these deficits lead to fewer opportunities for educational achievement. in addition to deficit language, narratives were analyzed to determine if participants expressed beliefs consistent with gorski’s (2008) prevalent myths about people keefer 67 living in poverty. specifically, that poor people were lazy, did not care about education, were linguistically deficient, and abused drugs and alcohol. participants’ descriptions of social class and poverty utilized deficit words such as “lack” or they mentioned that people from lower social classes “do not have” resources or opportunities relative to more affluent social classes. as suggested by regina: there’s a high probability that the kids that come from there, they don’t really get what the other students need/get from other socio-economic backgrounds if that makes sense. so i think it’s tough for people to get out of those situations. teachers were especially concerned with lower class students’ lack of access to education and limited time with their parents. regina provided an example of this sentiment: “i think if parents are working a lot due to their socio-economic status and…trying to get by, there’s not going to be as much parent involvement with the child.” peter agreed, “sometimes in lower socio-economic households it seems like maybe some of the families don’t spend as much time with the children”. participants perceived lower class students were more likely to come from single-parent homes and therefore had more obstacles to tackle in life. monica expressed, “most of these kids are coming from single parent homes, they have mothers who work two or three jobs. they don’t have the time to sit down and help these students with homework, or revise their work.” participants acknowledged that lower class parents tend to work long hours and that work interfered with their ability to provide educational support at home. however, participants expressed contradictory sentiments related to myths about people living in poverty, such as laziness or a poor work ethic (gorski, 2008). peter noted, “either they don’t have a job or they have to educate themselves, but then…maybe they just don’t educate themselves or don’t want a job.” lucy blamed the welfare program in our country. she believed our welfare system discouraged people living in poverty to work: in places where everybody gets the same thing…why should i improve myself?...and the united states government has a very big part in that. welfare: how much is enough help? it’s difficult to draw the line. after a year you have to get a job or i’m cutting you off. if that woman has three kids, why should we make her kids pay because of her, whatever you want to call it – laziness, stupidity, or just lack of finding a job. the participants perceived lower class families as being inherently unstable, having more problems, or being prone to domestic and/or substance abuse. lucy generalized her experience journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 growing up in a working class home with a father who abused alcohol and was physically abusive: you gotta feel like they give up after a while. coming home to a parent who is there but not there; who’s physically there but has some other challenges because the lack of money. you just know there’s more alcoholism in lower social class [families]. although participants acknowledged social hindrances to upward social mobility, none of the participants mentioned positive features found in many poor communities, such as close-knit extended families, strong social networks, and productive activities based on local forms of knowledge (gonzález, moll, & amanti, 2005; greenbaum, 2015; stack, 1974). this signified a gap in participants’ education about the realities of poverty. it is true that families living in poverty work longer hours and lack access to scarce and valued resources in our society. however, participants’ perspectives were one-sided; participants lack knowledge about assets that exist in lower income families and communities. a more balanced perspective would mitigate deficits with assets, thus challenging stereotypical thinking about children and families from impoverished backgrounds. a call for social studies equity pedagogy this study demonstrates the need for asset-based pedagogy in programs of social studies teacher education. first, social studies methods courses must challenge deficit thinking among preservice social studies teachers. we can then apply a social justice and equity-focused model within the ncss themes and c3 standards. gorski and swalwell (2015) note that the c3 framework is especially well suited to questions of equity related to poverty. they advise that inquiry based social justice questions should be used in order to teach from an equity literary stance. this would include questions such as: what causes social inequality? what challenges to equity exist in our society? what individual and collective responsibilities do we have to address poverty in our society? inquiry-based pedagogy should also be at the core of a social studies curriculum that effectively prepares preservice teachers to teach social studies in our diverse society and among a student population that has increasingly experienced poverty. further research this study investigated the presence of deficit perspectives among secondary social studies teachers in the state of florida. an examination of classroom practices was beyond the keefer 69 scope of this study. further research could explore how teacher’s perceptions of students’ social class backgrounds are embodied in classroom practices. in this study, teachers discussed how they perceived their students, but it did not include participant observation in their classroom settings. moving forward, data from classroom settings would contribute to this research in terms of describing how teacher’s perceptions are practiced in the classroom. this study did not explicitly address teacher preparation programs, although research indicates that preservice social studies teachers lack a clear understanding of social justice as it related to democratic education (tannebaum, 2015). in fact, only regina mentioned her teacher preparation program during the interviews. another line of research related to this topic could elicit teacher’s experiences in their preparation programs and how that experience shaped their understanding of students from different social class backgrounds. since the findings of this study point to the necessity of a social studies based equity pedagogy, a study on the role teacher preparatory programs have in shaping teachers attitudes and beliefs about students living in poverty is a warranted next step. conclusion although the participants’ pivotal experiences were qualitatively different, most participants migrated at some point in their lives and their migration in some way shaped their understanding of social class in the united states. regardless, all participants in this study exemplified pervasive forms of deficit thinking that are prevalent in education in the united states. as gonzález, moll & amanti (2005) found in their funds of knowledge research, participants in this study, like most teachers, appear to have deeply entrenched deficit perspectives about students living in poverty. teachers often choose the profession for altruistic reasons, such as the desire to engage in moral work and to make a positive difference in students’ lives (osguthorp & sanger, 2013, p. 183; watt & richardson, 2010). however, if social studies teachers exhibit deficit thinking towards lower class students, they are more likely to believe negative stereotypes and have lowered expectations for students. social studies teachers, including the participants in this study, will continue to fail to recognize the funds of knowledge, among other assets that exist in lower class families and communities. however, colleges of education can use preservice teachers and teachers’ pivotal experiences as a springboard for the development of a critical journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 awareness of their students’ lives from a social justice perspective (white, mccormack, & marsh, 2011). social justice pedagogy requires a shift away from deficit thinking about students to a more realistic and more positive way to view students’ realities. therefore, social studies teacher education programs must explicitly train teachers to recognize and value local knowledge, funds of knowledge, and how to challenge deficit thinking that is manifest and latent in pedagogy and curriculum. tempering social studies teachers’ deficit perspectives with asset-based perspectives will enrich the field of social studies education by providing teachers with a more balanced understanding of the complexities of poverty in the united states for the purpose of teaching a more accurate account of social class in north america and facilitating a more socially just approach for teaching students who are living in poverty. keefer 71 references baumeister, r., bratslavsky, e., finkenauer, c. & k vohs. (2001). bad is stronger than good. review of general psychology, (5)4, 323-370. berliner, david c. (2009). poverty and potential: out-of-school factors and school success. boulder and tempe: education and the public interest center & education policy research unit. retrieved july 21, 2015 from http://epicpolicy.org/publication/povertyand-potential bittman, b., russell, w. (2016). a multiple regression of civic education scores. research in social sciences and technology, (1)2, 1-16. caesar, d. (2014). significant life experiences and environmental justice: positionality and the significance of negative social/environmental experiences. environmental education research, (21)2, 205-220. castro, a. (2010). themes in the research on preservice teachers’ views of cultural diversity: implications for researching millennial preservice teachers. educational researcher, (39)3, 198–210. chapa, r., garcia, r., & guerra, c. (2011). capitalizing on english language learners’ funds of knowledge to increase achievement in math and science: an equity pedagogy. journal of border education research, (9) 96-106. cohn, d. & morin, r. (2008). american mobility: who moves? who stays put? where’s home?. pew research center. retrieved on march 5, 2017 from, http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2011/04/american-mobilityreport-updated-12-29-08.pdf coulter, c. & smith, m. (2009). the construction zone: literary elements in narrative research. educational researcher, 38(8), pp. 577–590. dilley, p. (2000). conducting successful interviews: tips for intrepid research. theory into practice, (39)3, 131-137. feistritzer, c. e. (2011). profile of teachers in the us 2011. national center for education information. retrieved on june 1, 2015 from, http://www.edweek.org/media/pot2011final-blog.pdf freire, p. (2000). pedagogy of the oppressed (30th anniversary ed.). new york: continuum. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 gardner, m. and toope, d. (2011). a social justice perspective on strengths-based approaches: exploring educators' perspectives and practices. canadian journal of education / revue canadienne de l'éducation, 34(3), 86-102. grant, c. (2012). cultivating flourishing lives: a robust social justice vision of education. american educational research journal. 49(5), 910–934. gonzález, n. (2010). advocacy anthropology and education
: working through the binaries
. current anthropology, 51(s2), s249-s258. gonzález, n., moll, l., & amanti, c. (2005). funds of knowledge: theorizing practices in households, communities and classrooms. london: lawrence erlbaum associates. gorski, p. (2008) the myth of the culture of poverty. educational leadership, 67(7), 32-36. gorski, p. (2014). imagining an equity pedagogy for students in poverty. in p. gorski & j. landsman (eds.), the poverty and education reader: a call for equity in many voices. sterling, va: stylus. gorski, p & swalwell, k. (2015). equity literacy for all. educational leadership, (72)6, 34-40. greenbaum, s. (2014). debunking the pathology of poverty. aljazeera america.retrieved on march 18, 2016 from http://america.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/3/culture-ofpovertysocialwelfarepaulryanaffluenza.html greenbaum, s. (2015). blaming the poor: the long shadow of the moynihan report on cruel images about poverty. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press. heidi l. hallman, h. & melanie n. burdick, m. (2011). service learning and the preparation of english teachers. english education, (43)4, 341-368. hodgkinson, h. (2002). demographics and teacher education: an overview. journal of teacher education, 53(2), 102-106. jones, j. & mosher, w. (2013). fathers’ involvement with their children: united states, 2006– 2010. national health statistics reports, 71, 1-22. kids count. (2017). children under age 18 in poverty. kids count data center. retrieved on may 29, 2017 from, http://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/5320-children-under-age18-in-poverty?loc=11&loct=5#detailed/5/18601926/false/36,868,867,133,38/any/11836,11837 keefer 73 kramp, m. (2004). exploring life and experience through narrative inquiry. in kathleen de marrais & stephen d. lapan (eds.), foundations for research: methods in education and the social sciences (pp.103-121). mahwah, nj: erlbaum. ladson-billings, g. (1995). toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. american educational research journal, 32(3), 465–491. ladson-billings, g. (2006). it's not the culture of poverty, it's the poverty of culture: the problem with teacher education. anthropology and education quarterly, 37(2), 104-109. lecompte, m. (summer, 2000). analyzing qualitative data. theory into practice, 39(3), 146154. leech, n. l., & onwuegbuzie, a. j. (2007). an array of qualitative analysis tools: a call for data analysis triangulation. school psychology quarterly, 22, 557-584. lewis, 0. (1961). the children of sanchez: autobiography of a mexican family. new york: random house. mauch, j., tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, (1)2, 55-66. merriam, s. (1998). qualitative research and case study applications in education. san francisco: jossey-bass publishers. messing, j. (2005). social reconstructions of schooling: teacher evaluations of what they learned from participation in the funds of knowledge project. in n. gonzalez, l. c. moll & c. amanti (eds), funds of knowledge: theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates. mishra, r. (2014). social constructivism and teaching of social science. journal of social studies education research, (5)2, 1-13. moynihan, d. p. (1965). the negro family: the case for national action. washington, dc: united states department of labor. mundy, c & keko, m. (2015). uncovering and informing preservice teachers’ prior knowledge about poverty. networks: an online journal for teacher research (17)1, 1-10. myers, j. (2008). making sense of a globalizing world: adolescents' explanatory frameworks for poverty. theory and research in social education, 36(2), 95-123. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),50-75 nces (2013). estimates of school statistics, 1969-70 through 2012-13. national education association. retrieved on december 15, 2016 from, https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_211.60.asp national council for the social studies. (2013). the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver spring, md. national council for the social studies. (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies: a framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. atlanta, ga: ncss publications. nieto, s. & bode, p. (2012). affirming diversity: the sociopolitical context of multicultural education, 6th ed. boston, ma: pearson. osguthorpe, s. & sanger, m. (2013), the moral nature of teacher candidate beliefs about the purposes of schooling and their reasons for choosing teaching as a career. peabody journal of education, (88)2, 180-197. patton, m. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.) london: sage publications. payne, r. k. (2005). a framework for understanding povertv. new york: aha! process inc. samora, j. (1970). the education of the spanish-speaking in the southwest: an analysis of the 1960 census materials. in educating the mexican american. henry s. johnson and william j. hernández., eds. pp. 80–99. valley forge, pa: judson. stack, c. (1974). all our kin. new york, ny: harper & row. tannebaum, r. (2015). preservice social studies teachers’ perspectives and understandings of teaching in the twenty-first century classroom: a meta-ethnography. journal of social studies education research, (6)2, 154-176. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, (1)1, 77-97. u.s. census. (2017). quickfacts. retrieved on may 29, 2017 from, www.census.gov/quickfacts u.s. house of representatives committee on the budget. (2014). the war on poverty: 50 years later. retrieved on march 18, 2016 from http://budget.house.gov/waronpoverty/ vaish, a., grossman, t. & a. woodward. (2008). not all emotions are created equal: the negativity bias in social-emotional development. psychological bulletin, 34(3), 383-403. keefer 75 valentine, c. (1968). culture and poverty. chicago: university of chicago press. watt, h. & richardson, p. (2007). motivational factors influencing teaching as a career choice: development and validation of the fit-choice scale, the journal of experimental education, 75(3), 167-202. white, c., mccormack, s., and s. marsh. (2011). our journeys: paths toward social education. journal of social studies education research, 2 (1), 1-20. retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/19096/202621 winship, s. (2015). when moving matters: residential and economic mobility trends in america, 1880-2010. the manhattan institute. retrieved on march 5, 2017 from, https://www.manhattan-institute.org/sites/default/files/r-sw-1115.pdf zumwalt, k., & craig, e. (2005). teacher’s characteristics: research on the demographic profile. in m. cochran-smith & k. zeichner (eds.), studying teacher education: the report of the aera panel on research and teacher education (pp. 111–156). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/19096/202621 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (4), 235-256 issues of social values in the arabic teaching of islamic higher education students in indonesia batmang1 & fahmi gunawan2 abstract albeit the research into arabic slang has been extensively explored, little empirical evidence addresses the use of arabic slang in the educational context. this study therefore examines the use of arabic slang among students in one islamic higher education in southeast sulawesi, indonesia. it applies an interpretative case study design. the results reveal that arabic slang in a learning context is soft, easily acceptable, and memorable. it does not involve harsh words, symbols of resistance, or curses. in practice, slang is delivered in the form of declarative sentences that serve to convey information. in addition, it comprises imperative and interrogative sentences to give orders and ask questions, respectively. it arises out of a combination of habit and creativity problems, thus shortening or oversimplifying arabic sentences. to overcome this issue, campus leaders have developed coaching models, including establishing debating competitions in arabic, holding arabic camps, applying integrative learning, and raising students’ awareness of the importance of official arabic containing particular social values. this research shows that arabic slang can represent an alternative medium for learning arabic among students, both in indonesia and the wider world. keywords: arabic slang, arabic teaching, higher education, social values, students. introduction language reflects both order and disorder. for example, language involves the use of grammatical rules, including morphological and syntactical systems in the official forms of both written and oral language. conversely, language disorder is seen in unofficial forms of a language, a phenomenon commonly known as slang. in general, slang serves not just as a form of communication—it also reflects the existence of groups with similar aims. in groups like students, it acts as an instrument to promote solidarity, and it identifies certain social groups that are often outside the mainstream (kang, 2019; moore et al., 2010; tarman & kılınç, 2018). research into the use of slang is approached from three perspectives. first, slang is closely related to sociocultural conditions, especially among young urban people, who are often considered negatively by other groups (istiqomah et al., 2019; mensah, 2012; mirus,et al., 2012; quicker, 2008). second, slang is considered an undignified and uncouth form of language (nakassis, 2016; 1 dr. institut agama islam negeri kendari, southeast sulawesi, indonesia; batmangiainkdi@gmail.com 2dr. candidate, institut agama islam negeri kendari, southeast sulawesi, indonesia; fgunawanp@gmail.com mailto:batmangiainkdi@gmail.com mailto:fgunawanp@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 namvar, 2014; preece, 2015; budiharso & arbain, 2019). third, it partly symbolizes defiance against the parental system (moore et al., 2010). outside of these three trends, however, the use of slang from in the educational context has not been keenly examined in previous studies. this research focuses on the use of slang within the educational and teaching aspects of higher education, primarily among students in islamic higher education. it complements the research into the use of slang among students which was intensively conducted (budiharso, 2018). this research is based on the argument that language is closely related to its users, depending on the context. the use of slang by students can be understood only by the groups using it, and when used among students, slang is often viewed as an effort to develop a social identity among them. this can be partly attributed to a desire to emphasize their existence. this collective identity serves to mark their social togetherness and distance from others by creating a new vocabulary and incurring grammatical errors. however, the persistent use of slang disrupts the students’ progress in mastering formal arabic, which is the primary language for studying islamic books containing particular social values (solikhah & budiharso, 2020a). there is therefore a need for interventions that will encourage students to speak in correct arabic and instill the importance of communicating in a form that can be understood by other groups. research questions drawing from the background for this study, four research questions are proposed to guide the research process: 1) how does the practical use of arabic slang among islamic higher education students in indonesia? 2) what factors affect the use of slang among students in indonesian islamic higher education? 3) what strategies should higher education institution use to arouse students’ interest in adopting formal arabic? 4) what are the social values of teaching arabic material among students in indonesian islamic higher education? batmang & gunawan 237 literature review the online administration of student evaluation following flores & rosa (2015), language is defined as an arbitrary code system that is closely related to ideology, because its use is in itself a form of ideology. aside from being a means of communication, language can act as a tool to influence, change, and even dominate others (gentner, 2016). the audience receives and internalizes the messages, ideas, and thoughts being conveyed, and it may choose to believe and follow them. language is a prerequisite for interacting, expressing ideas and opinions, and engaging in social relationships. ünal & papafragou (2020) reported that language can convey anything that is perceived, thought, and known by people. in linguistic discourse, language is a meaningful and articulated sound–symbol system that is arbitrary and conventional. it is used as a communication tool by a group of humans to convey feelings. however, it is arbitrary in that there is a non-uniform relationship between language symbols and the intended meaning (solikhah & budiharso, 2020b). language is used by humans to convey thoughts, ideas, concepts, and feelings to other people, both in oral and written forms. this suggests that language is the primary instrument for communicating the mind’s contents. through language, humans accomplish three basic things in life: first, at the mundane level, humans can communicate with each other. second, language acts as the foundation of thinking and the organization of the internal mental picture. third, language allows social interaction and facilitates the formation of social ideals and cultural change. language therefore guides and models our social history (nurfaidah, 2018; solikhah & budiharso, 2019). language skill is an integral feature of life in all social units for understanding, constructing, and expressing words, sentences, and paragraphs to communicate thoughts and ideas. this occurs between multiple people when everyone understands the meaning of the symbols used in language. this communication facilitates interactions, social relationships, and emotional development. language as a means for mass communication, one that plays a critical role in bringing forth improvements through change. this communication tool also provides a means for achieving democratic order (budiharso, 2018; caplan, 2019; carothers & parfitt, 2017). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 the arabic language arabic is a complicated language due to its morphological variations, and it is known for its functional division of different language variations in the community. at the literary level, modern standard arabic is used in various formal endeavors, such as school education. it is also used in informal, spontaneous everyday communications (al-ahdal, 2020). zaidan & callison-burch (2014) categorize arabic into three subgroups: (1) classical arabic as used in the quran, which is more complicated than the modern version; (2) modern arabic, which is considered the official language of arab countries; and (3) everyday arabic, which is the simplest version. zaidan & callison-burch's (2014) research established that arabic has several characteristics that distinguish it from other languages: (1) it is past-oriented, (2) the subject is abstract because it is implicitly included in the verb, (3) the language shows emphasis and certainty, (4) most words go through a strong derivative process, and (5) almost every word contains a series of interesting derivative information. what is more, it is written from right to left, has a complex morphology, and its letters change shape depending on their position in a word (al-huri, 2015). in addition, the same word may have several meanings, thus leading to mismatches in spoken and written vocabulary, so it is challenging to find arabic word stems (shatnawi et al., 2012). there can be many implications of language, such as displaying the role and status of its users. for example, men and women use different arabic dialects, thus reflecting their role and status in society. these differences include oral and written speech habits and linguistic adaptation to women’s environments, and these are influenced by education and age. furthermore, language is an expression of civilization and carries cultural heritage (saigh & schmitt, 2012). ajami (2016) established that arabic has many cultural, past-oriented, abstract-oriented, certainty-oriented, and collectivistic characteristics that affect its users, thus reducing them to social groups, such as family. slang language a person adjusts his or her language style to suit the aim of communication and match it with the relationships with interacting participants. people are therefore involved in changing language to adjust to contextual differences. an example of such a linguistic shift is slang language, which is typically an urban phenomenon (alekseevna et al., 2017). slang, argot, and other in-group language describe a collection of words and expressions that are formed by the social environment batmang & gunawan 239 (gunawan, 2011; vural, 2019). this interpersonal language facilitates the creation of social bonds between users and strengthens social identities. slang, to a considerable degree, is a reflection of certain behavioral patterns and attitudes toward community administration (freire & feinauer, 2020; moody & matthews, 2020; preece, 2010, 2015). several features make slang stand out from other dialects: (1) it is part of a casual, informal language and usually considered a lowly, abusive language style; (2) it changes more rapidly than other dialects; and (3) it uses jargon that signifies membership of, or solidarity with, a certain social group (richards & schmidt, 2014). adolescents and men are strongly associated with the use of slang, while adult women tend to shun it due to its strong connection with masculine toughness (zhou & fan, 2013). slang has three social functions. first, it indicates group membership and shows that a person belongs to a particular subculture. for example, it is widely found among factory workers, sailors, miners, and younger generations, especially teenagers within certain social groups (abdelhadi et al., 2020; alogali, 2018; liu, 2019; moore et al., 2010). second, it is characterized by creatively relating to fun and fashion issues. slang acts as the lubricant for the wheel of socialization by reducing seriousness, even though many of its words seem impolite. third, it involves excluding non-members and labeling them as “others.” slang is based on the need of certain social groups to have an identity, thus implicitly and explicitly declaring its members and non-members (zhou & fan, 2013). social values in arabic teaching material language serves as an instrument for communicating and reproducing sociocultural values, as one of the artifacts for its users. it is closely linked to the context and situation of the user community, aside from being a medium to express ideas in a practical way. saiegh-haddad & spolsky (2014) suggests that not only semantic and grammar considerations are responsible for different interpretations of communication between two different cultures, but also for social situations. widodo, perfecto, van canh & buripakdi (2018) defines value as a culturally situated moral entity that guides individuals in their social environment to think, feel, behave, and act. this implies that anyone who is learning a foreign language, such as arabic, should understand the culture of the speaking communities as well. based on cultural context, the appropriateness of using terms that have a certain function when carrying out a specific communication can vary. the lack of awareness of cultural variations in the learner's mother tongue and the target language can interfere journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 with successful communication, so in the communicative approach, cultural understanding is treated as teaching material. in teaching arabic languages, educators should pay attention to the cultural dimensions of the speakers of the target language. bakalla (1984) suggests that the very prevalent characteristics of arab culture are as follows. (1) a patriarchy system (arabs genuinely respect charismatic and fatherly figures), (2) links to kinship, (3). judicial procedural (4) islamic nuance. in addition, the cultural factors affecting language teaching are cultural objects (artifacts), (2) kinesics, (3) proxemic, (4) eyes contact when communicating, (5) kinesthesics, (6) customs applied in the society, (7) the value system, (8) the religious system, (9) job, (10) art, (11) the use of time, (12) ethics, (13) hospitality, greetings, and courtesy, (14) praise, ( 15) taboo, (16) mutual cooperation, (17) manners, including the use of euphemisms. methods research design this study adopts an interpretative case study design. case study design is used to explore a phenomenon that should be fully understood. a school leader, a group of students, a curriculum, practice, occurrence, process, or a group of people can be a phenomenon (creswell & cresswell, 2017). this research focuses on the use of arabic slang by students in one of islamic higher education, southeast sulawesi, indonesia. arabic slang was chosen for various reasons, namely (1) its use derives from the already established arabic learning; (2) how this form of arabic can disturb students’ understanding of formal arabic; and (3) the increase in the number of its users among students over the past three years. partisipants the main data for this study comprised three aspects. first, student’s utterances while communicating to their colleagues using arabic slang. second, photo records of official arabic activities. third, documents of the rector's decree on strategic planning and operations of the faculty of economics and islamic business during 2015-2019. as an arabic lecturers, the researchers recruit the students as participants because of the phenomenon of the using arabic slang among them. that phenomenon had existed for a long time, since they became students both at gontor modern islamic male boarding school, pudaoha batmang & gunawan 241 south konawe, and gontor modern islamic female boarding school, lamomea, south konawe until they are students today. in addition, the researchers have emotional closeness and easy access to the partisipants. five students (see table 1) were willing to volunterily become participants. these five partisipants are also actively utilizing slang with their peers. apart from students, other participants came from an arabic language lecturer and a university official. the demographic data of participants appears in table 1. table 1 partisipants of this study no initials name gender kind of partisipants semester 1 afri female student 4 2 irma female student 4 3 karim male student 4 4 desa male student 6 5 asa male student 6 6 ammu male arabic lecturer 7 liha female arabic lecturer 8 ad male head of language center it is hoped that the participants in this study would be able to reflect on the use of slang that they often adopt among themselves. data collection procedures and data analysis techniques data for this study were obtained through observation, in-depth interviews, and documentation studies. the observations were conducted between january and march 2019 within the university environment. it focused on students’ use of arabic slang, such as at gatherings during breaks and lunchtime. following observations, interviews were also conducted to five students, one lecturer, and one language center head. the instrument adopted in this study was a semi-structured list of questions used for in-depth interviews. thus, the researchers will collect the information by listening to the use of slang from the participants. the key questions consisted of the practice of using arabic slang and the factors influencing it. in addition, one lecturer and a head of language center were also interviewed by the researchers to gather the information about how the leadership's strategy is to disseminate the use of formal arabic among students and social values contained in formal arabic teaching materials. widodo (2014) suggests interviews to gain information on the reality of phenomena. interview was conducted face-to-face. the interview was audio-recorded so the findings could be transcribed by adding supporting information from the audio recording. the transcription was followed by a journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 description of the interview time. this is accomplished from the beginning to the end of the interview, to compile a neat and organized transcription. thus, the compilation of transcription becomes a full artifact that is evaluated with a predetermined concept. widodo (2014) argues that the analysis of interview data begins by using recorded interviews and recording important things needed, writing data, codifying data, interpreting data and validating data with triangulation methods. furthermore, the results of the in-depth interview transcriptions are processed through a construction process that brings new insights into the case study process. in this study, data were analyzed using the parameters moore et al. (2010) regarding the phenomenon of arabic slang among students and the parameters of bakalla (1984) regarding the social values contained in arabic language teaching. in addition to the in-depth interview technique, the documentary analysis was carried out by analyzing several documents, such as the rector's decree (sk) on the strategic and operational plans of the faculty of economics and islamic business between 2015 and 2019 and photographs depicting arabic language events. this decree contains the faculty development rules for five years. findings the practical use of arabic slang arabic slang has been recently used by students, especially over the last three years (2016–2019). unfortunately, the prevailing grammatical rules of this have stifled the development of students’ communication. instead, they use new rules that they have mutually agreed upon and practiced in a limited circle, even though they are not part of standard arabic. standard arabic, which is also known as formal arabic, is a language that follows the rules of nahwu (grammar) and sharaf (morphology). it is used among official forums, such as arabic lecturers association and the science community. students’ use of slang at the university varies greatly, especially in the use of acronyms, vernacular, and simplifications of arabic. it is classified into declarative, imperative, and negative aspects. improving set response rates these sentences supply a statement of information, so they do not require a response. table 2 shows some of the words used by students in such sentences. batmang & gunawan 243 table 2 declarative slang language no. slang translate formal language َغْيُر َمْفُهومْ do not understand َغَم غَ 1 إحتذر على الكلب be careful قَْلٌب قَْلٌب على كلب 22 ال بأس it is okay الَ َماذَا َماذَا 3 مافى فلوس no money مفلس 4 source: researcher’s data, 2019. at points 1–3, the slang results from translating an indonesian word into arabic. for instance, the phrase “it is okay” translates to la maza maza. the phrase la means “no” in arabic, while maza means “what.” therefore, la maza maza means “it is okay” (see point 3). another example is in expressing “be careful” by saying qalbun qalbun. the word qalbun in arabic refers to the “heart” as a human bodily organ. it is repeated to imply caution, or qalbun-qalbun in the example at point number 2. in reality, “be careful” in formal arabic is represented by the word ihtazir. when they do not understand the lecture material, students often use the term gam gam rather than the formal gair mafhum (see point number 1). similarly, to state that they do not have any money, they use the word muflis as a simplification of the phrase mafi fulus (no money). imperative these sentences employ verb commands, such as uktub, which means to write or you should write. these serve to ask someone to do, or forbid them from doing, something, such as the word badak (after you). this word is a simplification of the formal word ba'daka. we observed that slang in command sentences was rarely used by the students, and they generally used formal arabic vocabulary, such as ijlis to command someone to “sit down.” interrogative these sentences contain questions about information. for example, to ask or confirm something through a phrase like “for what,” the students used lisyai instead of liayyi syaiin. likewise, the question “how much is the price?” frequently saw the word bikamza being used instead of the formal bikam haza. likewise, when they asked, “are you done?” they used kaf khalas, even though in formal arabic language it should be khalasta. table 3 shows the use of sentences that indicate questions. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 table 3 interrogative slang language no. slang translation formal language ِ َشْيئ ?for what ِلَشْيئ 1 اِلَي بكم هذا ?how much is this بَِكْمذَا 2 َخلَْصت ?is it done َكْف َخلَصْ 3 source: researcher’s data, 2019 factors that influence the use of arabic slang based on the interviews conducted in this research, several factors were found to support the use of arabic slang among students. these factors can be classified as follows. habit the use of arabic slang among students can be attributed to a habit that is formed while studying arabic at an islamic boarding school. in addition, most of the arabic students came from the same boarding school. their use of slang in everyday communication leads them to assume that arabic slang is easier than formal language. one alumnus of the gontor islamic boarding school, kendari stated as in data (1): (1) “in my opinion, it is because gontor students have become accustomed to using it boarding school. the habit is carried on beyond boarding school” (afri #1, interview, campus mosque, january 14, 2019). ammu, one of the officials accompanying students to aceh to attend the pionir (scientific week, sports, arts, and research) of state islamic religious universities (ptkin) in indonesia stated in data (2) on april 26–may 1, 2017: (2) “…students who participated in the arabic debate competition in kendari did not advance to the next stage because they used arabic slang subconsciously. the subconscious use of this language is caused by habits that are formed in their social groups. their arguments were good, though, and might have amazed the jury” (ammu #6, interview, campus cafeteria, march 9, 2019). creativity this is another factor contributing to the use of slang among students. they combine local and regional dialects with arabic. moreover, they deviate from language rules because they seem complicated to use in interactions, so they create slang arabic words or sentences by shortening batmang & gunawan 245 words or combining vocabulary meanings to form a new sentence structure. irma, a student at the arabic department, stated as of data (3): (3) “gontor female students are famous for their arabic skills. they often create new words that are unknown to others, such as translating phrases like ‘it is okay’ into the arabic la maza maza. while this is an accurate literal translation, it is not found anywhere in arabic literature. to express this phrase, arabs use the term la ba'sa rather than la maza-maza” (irma #2, interview, campus mosque, january 13, 2019). another of the slang arabic speakers, karim, emphasized in data (4) that: (4) “the use of slang has created new words among students. this enables students to understand arabic, including the use of ‘mi’ particles at the end of a word, such as khalas mi, which means ‘already.’ the word ‘mi’ is only used to add a word and does not change the meaning” (karim #3, interview, campus mosque, february 10, 2019). simplification when students are too lazy to pronounce a full, long arabic sentence, they abbreviate two or more words into one, as illustrated in point 4 in table 1 and point 6 in table 2. for example, the word muflis is a combination of the words mafi and fulus. likewise, the phrase bikam haza is abbreviated to bikamza in a simplification. data (5) describes what desa stated: (5) “they created a new language due to several reasons, such as looking for things that are simpler or easier to say. some look for sensation and upload it to the media, desiring recognition, making others laugh, or just wanting to create something. some want something new (desa #4, interview, campus mosque, march 15, 2019). another student as partisipant #5 stated, “arabic slang does not have a regular form or pattern. it depends on the group members’ agreement” (asa #5, interview, campus, february 24, 2019). the habit factor therefore influenced communication among students from their days in boarding school. in such a community, the patterns and practices formed through years of repeated use remained relatively intact. the creativity and simplicity of certain words indicates a desire to facilitate the use of arabic slang. they combined arabic and indonesian words to form a new vocabulary, and they adopted and incorporated some words from regional and local dialects into their daily communication practices. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 stakeholder/leadership strategies to increase the use of formal arabic among students three types of strategies could be implemented to encourage students to use formal arabic and overcome the emergence of arabic slang. these are (1) training and language camps, (2) the tightening of rules through circular graduation statements, and (3) holding debates in arabic. arabic language camps and training a language camp was run by the technical implementation unit (upt) for language development on october 12–13, 2019. this has been taking place since 2017. ad as partisipant 7, the head of the language upt, reported that it aims to facilitate the use of arabic, especially modern standard arabic, among students. this event is hosted by the mabit (stay overnight) system on campus. students are accompanied for 24 hours and monitored in their use of arabic in their interactions with fellow students and mentors. many activities are carried out as part of the language camp. in addition to the lectures and question-and-answer sessions, as shown in figure 1, arabic films are watched, and language games are played, such as gloves, bonfires, and long ropes. furthermore, lectures are delivered in arabic by speakers without a translator’s help. figure 1: alkhayyam al-arabiy: camp-based arabic language training. source: personal documents, 2019. batmang & gunawan 247 leadership instruction through circular graduation requirements a requirement for students to graduate is the submission of proof of completing a circular on campus. this may include the operational (renop) and strategic (renstra) plans of the faculty of islamic business economics for 2015–2019. in addition, students have to take a test of arabic as a foreign language (toafl) and score above 400 to graduate. this is one of the tools used to measure students’ formal arabic ability, and slang is not a part of it. this is evident in rector’s decree no. 0845.b of 2016 in the strategic and operational plans of the faculty of economics and islamic business of the university for 2015–2019. due to this policy, students take part in arabic language training conducted by the upt language center before taking the toafl exam. students are also required to get a toafl score of at least 400 before taking their final exams, which are also a graduation requirement for students in the arabic language department. this encourages them to study arabic earnestly. students majoring in arabic also need to acquire competencies from their respective departments. currently, they are first required to take the arabic language test conducted by the upt language center. some of them need to take the test several times before getting the required score, while others pass first time. arabic debate an aim of the arabic language study program is to enable arabic students to engage in debates both on and off campus. on campus, a debate competition takes place during the anniversary of the university. this activity is held at the institution level, with the main prize being the rector cup. in addition to debating, the competition also involves sports, art, and research activities. for the off-campus debates, recruited students are sent to participate in the east indonesian ptkin arabic debate contest once a year at uin alauddin makassar. in the study year, the debate competition took place at uin alauddin on september 18–25, 2019. such debates are aimed at encouraging students to use formal arabic and minimize their use of slang. figure 2 shows a parade of pioneering participants from the university. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 figure 2: participants in the iain kendari arabic debate competition source: personal documents, 2019. social values in arabic teaching material language teaching material does not provide the contents of teaching material, but also contains the cultural values of the language used (rahayu, warto, sudardi, & wijaya, 2020; solikhah & budiharso, 2020; van canh, 2018; widodo et al., 2018). because arabic is classified as the language used in the spread of islam, the content of socio-cultural values contains a lot of islamic teachings. the arabic book al-arabiyyah baina yadaika which is used by almost all islamic universities in indonesia has teaching materials that contain universal islamic values, such as (1) the value of social care, (2) the value of empathy and honesty, and (3) the value of maintain peace and security. one of the arabic language lecturers, when being interviewed about any social values contained in arabic teaching materials, reported as in data (6), (6) "social values in arabic teaching materials are summarized in the pillars of islam, such as fasting, zakat, and pilgrimage. fasting teaches us how we should empathize with others. fasting teaches us how to feel hungry as is performed and experienced by the needy and poor in everyday life. likewise, fasting trains us to always be honest. no one knows whether we fast or not, except ourselves. therefore, the value of honesty appears to be attached to this subject matter. the material of zakat teaches the value of social care by sharing with others. likewise, the slaughter of sacrificial animals as one of the aspects which should be carried out in the pilgrimage also shows the value of social care. qurban meat is distributed not only to rich people, but also to poor people. no matters they are muslims, christians, hindus and buddhists. besides, when performing the hajj, where all batmang & gunawan 249 people meet from all over the world, the values of safety and peace are propagated by saying assalamu alaikum to whoever the congregation is found. so, greeting is not just a greeting, but there is value in peace and safety. " (liha# 7, interview, campus, march 15, 2019). discussion drawing the research questions of this study and the findings, this research reveals that arabic slang has its own linguistic features to which social values are obtained from the teaching perspectives. discussion to the findings is addressed to emphasize how linguistic features appear in teaching of slang where the social values appear. the slang used among the students at the university represents a lexicon, but the language is delivered in several variations on sentences, such as in declarative, imperative, and interrogative forms. the slang is always used in sentence form when spoken because it does not exist independently. it can be classified as a very informal, specific, and sub-standard lexicon (namvar, 2014). its formation is manipulative, because it depends on its functions in daily life. the students at the university formed slang in a learning context in an effort to make it easier to learn arabic, despite it being basically incorrect. slang language often arises when students use word-for-word literal translation techniques. for example, to express “be careful” in arabic, they use “qalbunqalbun.” in this case, a native arabic speaker would not understand the intended message. the appearance of slang varies over regions due to the different situational contexts. this slang is common among the students, who have a shared identity, seeing as they come from the same boarding school, gontor, where arabic is the communication language. this suggests that the identity of the school is brought with them wherever and whenever they go. due to this common identity, relationships are maintained, and the use of slang leads to the creation of a new vocabulary arising out of cultural mixing and language simplification. slang functions as a powerful identity-forming tool, even in african cities like abidjan, nairobi, johannesburg, kinshasa-brazzaville, and yaounde (beck, 2010) it also arises in southern kalabar and nigeria, where the agaba youth group’s slang creation is based on similar identity creation and opposition to the existing mainstream languages. this in turn increases solidarity and fosters inter-group integration. such language, however, is often formed from foul words full of insults, curses, and swear words. slang can also be formed by incorporating other dialects into a language, so it becomes journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 incomprehensible to outsiders (mensah, 2012). aside from friendship, the slang arabic vocabulary arises out of a common feeling among its users. the commonality of the alumni school forms a feeling of shared identity, and the students are bound in a form of pesantren alumni with strong emotional ties, thereby establishing an identity that is distinct from other groups. this phenomenon is also common in china. coincidentally, slang arose among the chinese youth not because of a desire for friendship but rather individualism and a desire to challenge the old cultural values, which were seen to be enduring but incompatible. such slang therefore arises in a sociopolitical context, thus allowing young people to rebel and express their disapproval of the older generation and its ancient culture (moore, 2005; moore et al., 2010). the slang language used by the students at the university can be considered dangerous to the preservation of official arabic. specific strategies are therefore needed to overcome this danger, including training and arabic camps, debating competitions, and policies to encourage the correct and effective use of arabic. the arabic camp activities held by the upt language center have certainly had a significant impact, including encouraging the use of formal arabic among the students. learning is carried out contextually, and students are trained to express ideas and thoughts using formal arabic. all these activities are monitored and guided by coaches and instructors for three days and two nights. in addition, debating contests have an impact on students. more specifically, they motivate the students to learn arabic more intensely, which in turns boosts their self-confidence, improves their communication, and makes their arabic become more formal. a pattern of integrative learning has been carried out, as shown by the use of classroom activities, such as istima (listening) and kalam (speaking). these activities are supplemented by others in the arabic study program hmps in the form of debates in arabic. furthermore, language upt and mahad al-jamiah (university boarding school) work together to improve the students’ arabic skills. when the language upt conducts some activities, most of the students involved are bidikmisi (scholarship awardee) living in mahad al-jamiah. the requirement for students to stay at mahad al-jamiah reflects a desire for them to learn language skills during their stay. the leadership’s efforts to arouse an enthusiasm for formal arabic among students could be enhanced by involving them in the ithla network (ittihad thullab li al-lughah al-arabiyyah; indonesian arabic language student network) and awarding scholarships to proficient students of formal arabic. furthermore, the leadership provides financial assistance to students with a better comprehension of arabic, so they can participate as exchange students at university colleague batmang & gunawan 251 yayasana pahang malaysia, sultan idris malaysia university of education, utem malaysia, fatoni university, and iseas singapore. this coaching model provides opportunities for students to continue learning arabic and kindles their enthusiasm to participate in planned programs with overseas partners. in teaching formal foreign languages to the learners, such as arabic, textbooks used are never isolated from the construction of cultural values and undoubtedly different with one another. traditional vietnamese values in vietnam, such as the importance of ancestor worship, reverence for the elderly, tolerance, peace, honor and integrity, can be found in government-mandated english textbooks. these values are in line with educational philosophy of vietnamese inspired by chinese philosophy, confucian philosophy, taoism and buddhism, french catholic philosophy, and soviet marxist philosophy (van canh, 2018). learning materials in the middle east on the call to pray for the prophet muhammad teach not only how to pray to his, but also as a way of reconciling people with conflicts and disputes (wahyuni, 2019). english learning materials in indonesia about how young people can kiss the hands of their parents are still taught. it displays appreciation and an intimate relationship between parent and child. the ritual of kissing the hand often implies demanding parental blessing (h. p. widodo et al., 2018). in israel, english textbooks marginalize the palestinian arab leaners minority, its culture and traditional values, thereby creating learning atmosphere that provides students with a negative learning experience. the textbook voices western oriented jewish-zionist ideology, thus reproducing and perpetuating hegemonic ideology (awayed-bishara, 2015). in england, tolerance and respect, which are part of the fundamental british values, as well as inclusivity and community cohesion, are firmly committed to educational practices for teaching arabic. the study also reveals that in the current political environment, arabic plays a pivotal role in establishing community and linguistic identities (szczepek reed, said, davies, & bengsch, 2020). this study implies that teaching foreign languages among students, not only for arabic, can create a good cross-cultural understanding so that problems of conflict and disputes due to cultural disparities can be properly resolved. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 conclusion in summary, the students use slang during learning rather than in a social, political, or cultural context. this makes it softer, more easily accepted, and memorable. in practice, the slang used by students was found to be declarative sentences providing information, imperative sentences giving commands, and interrogative sentences questioning something. such language has arisen out of habit and creativity by simplifying the arabic language. likewise, the language has a content of socio-cultural values that are different from one another. the social values reflected in the research refer to the pillars of islam as the basic of islamic teachings, such as the value of empathy, honesty, the value of caring for others, and the value of peace and safety. studies of the use of slang are still seen as a foreign phenomenon in a community, because it is considered a deviation from standard grammar. the rigid rules of formal language are compromised, even though learning practices among students should lean toward formal language rather than slang. in response to this, previous studies have regarded slang as an unusual language practice that violates the rules. in contrast, this study perceived the use of slang language among students as a form of creativity in facilitating communication while remaining within the language tradition. the use of slang language is therefore separate from learning, especially in the interpretation of verses. this study has various limitations. for instance, the study location was limited to a single university with many students using slang in their daily communications. if the research were expanded to cover other tertiary institutions, it would likely have a broader impact. additionally, the perspective of this study rests mostly on language as a communication tool. it did not deeply position the use of slang as a form of resistance to the use of more formal language. these two limitations could be addressed by future studies in this area. references abdelhadi, r., hameed, l., khaled, f., & anderson, j. (2020). creative interactions with art works: an engaging approach to arabic language-and-culture learning. innovation in language learning and teaching, 14(3), 273–289. ajami, h. (2016). arabic language, culture, and communication. international journal of linguistics and communication, 4(1), 120–123. batmang & gunawan 253 al-ahdal, a. a. m. h. (2020). code mixing in arabic conversations of college students: a sociolinguistic study of attitudes to switching to english. asian esp journal, 16(1), 6–19. al-huri, i. (2015). arabic language: historic and sociolinguistic characteristics. english literature and language review, 1(4), 28–36. alekseevna izmaylova, g., rafaelevna zamaletdinova, g., & zholshayeva, m. s. (2017). linguistic and social features of slang. international journal of scientific study, 5(6), 75– 78. alogali, a. (2018). world englishes: changing the paradigm of linguistic diversity in global academia. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 54-73. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.4 awayed-bishara, m. (2015). analyzing the cultural content of materials used for teaching english to high school speakers of arabic in israel. discourse and society, 26(5), 517–542. bakalla, m. h. (1984). al-t︠h︡ aqāfah al-ʻarabīyah alislāmīyah min k︠h︡ ilāl al-lug︠h︡ ah wa al-adab. united kingdom: routledge. beck, r. m. (2010). urban languages in africa. africa spectrum, 45(3), 11–41. budiharso, t & arbain. (2019). teaching practice program for teacher development profession. asian efl journal, 16(6.2), 270-291. budiharso, t. (2016). symbols in javanese mantra aji seduluran: a magnificient moral value. lingua: jurnal bahasa, sastra dan pengajarannya. 13(1), 1-18. soloclcs.org caplan, r. (2019). epilepsy, language, and social skills. brain and language, 193, 18–30. carothers, d. & parfitt, c. (2017). disability or language difference: how do we decide? american journal of qualitative research, 1(1), 1-12. creswell, j. w., & cresswell, d. (2017). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. in research design. los angeles: sage publications. flores, n., & rosa, j. (2015). undoing appropriateness: racioling uistic ideologies and language diversity in education. harvard educational review, 85(2), 149–171. freire, j. a., & feinauer, e. (2020). vernacular spanish as a promoter of critical consciousness in dual language bilingual education classrooms. international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 0(0), 1–14. gentner, d. (2016). language as cognitive tool kit: how language supports relational thought. american psychologist, 71(8), 650. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.4 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 gunawan, f. (2011). bahasa alay: refleksi sebuah budaya (slang language: cultural reflection). adabiyyāt: jurnal bahasa dan sastra, x(2), 365–386. istiqomah, l., rohimah, a. n., & pratiwi, a. w. (2019). slang language subtitle strategy in the movie entitled “the social network.” langkawi: journal of the association for arabic and english, 5(2), 152–162. kang, d. m. (2019). wicked use of english slang in relation to identity development in an elementary efl classroom. porta linguarum, 31, 75–95. liu, m. (2019). predicting effects of demographic, linguistic and psychological variables on university international students’ intercultural communication sensitivity, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 6(3), 123-133. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/27 mensah, e. o. (2012). youth language in nigeria: a case study of the ágábá boys. sociolinguistic studies, 6(3), 387. mirus, g., fisher, j., & napoli, d. j. (2012). taboo expressions in american sign language. lingua, 122(9), 1004–1020. moody, s., & matthews, s. (2020). pathways to becoming a culturally responsive teacher: narrative inquiries into a translanguaging read aloud. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 170-188. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.15 moore, r. l. (2005). generation ku: individualism and china’s millenial youth. ethnology, 357– 376. moore, r. l., bindler, e., & pandich, d. (2010). language with attitude: american slang and chinese lǐyǔ. journal of sociolinguistics, 14(4), 524–538. nakassis, c. (2016). doing style: youth and mass mediation in south india. in ぎょうせい. chichago: university of chicago press. namvar, f. (2014). the use of slang amongst undergraduate students of a malaysian public university. journal of advances in linguistics, 3(1), 127–135. nurfaidah, s. (2018). vygotsky’s legacy on teaching and learning writing as social process. langkawi: journal of the association for arabic and english, 4(2), 149–156. preece, s. (2010). multilingual identities in higher education: negotiating the “mother tongue”, “posh” and “slang.” language and education, 24(1), 21–39. preece, s. (2015). “they ain’t using slang”: working class students from linguistic minority communities in higher education. linguistics and education, 31, 260–275. retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2014.10.003 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.15 batmang & gunawan 255 quicker, e. (2008). new tendencies in romanian youth slang as a mirror of social changes. philologica jassyensia. rahayu, n. t., warto, sudardi, b., & wijaya, m. (2020). the dynamics of social values and teaching in the global era: the sekaten tradition of surakarta kingdom. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 213–229. richards, j. c., & schmidt, r. w. (2014). language and communication. in language and communication. united kingdom: routledge. saiegh-haddad, e., & spolsky, b. (2014). acquiring literacy in a diglossic context: problems and prospects. in handbook of arabic literacy (pp. 225–240). dordrecht: springer. saigh, k., & schmitt, n. (2012). difficulties with vocabulary word form: the case of arabic esl learners. system, 40(1), 24–36. shatnawi, m. q., yassein, m. b., & mahafza, r. (2012). a framework for retrieving arabic documents based on queries written in arabic slang language. journal of information science, 38(4), 350–365. solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020a). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177-197. solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020b). standardizing bipa as an international program of a language policy. asian esp journal, 16(5.2), 181-205. https://www.elejournals.com/asian-esp-journal/volume-16-issue-5-2-october-2020/ solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2019). investigating the learning outcomes of an inqf based english language teaching curriculum in indonesia. journal of social sciences education research, 10(4), 153-175. szczepek reed, b., said, f., davies, i., & bengsch, g. (2020). arabic complementary schools in england: language and fundamental british values. language, culture and curriculum, 33(1), 50–65. tarman, b., & kılınç, e. (2018). poetry in the social studies textbooks in turkey. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 50-62. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/4. ünal, e., & papafragou, a. (2020). relations between language and cognition: evidentiality and sources of knowledge. topics in cognitive science, 12(1), 115–135. van canh, l. (2018). a critical analysis of moral values in vietnam-produced efl textbooks for upper secondary schools. in widodo, perfecto, van canh & buripakdi (eds.), situating moral and cultural values in elt materials: the southeast asian context (pp. 111–129). https://www.elejournals.com/asian-esp-journal/volume-16-issue-5-2-october-2020/ journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 235-256 springer. vural, h. (2019). the relationship of personality traits with english speaking anxiety. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 55-74. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.5 wahyuni, u. (2019). makna konotatif syair qasidah salawat nabi pada naskah majelis dzikir dan salawat pondok rumi untuk majelis. aksara: jurnal ilmiah pendidikan bahasa dan sastra indonesia, 3(1), 112–121. widodo, h. p. (2014). methodological considerations in interview data transcription. international journal of innovation in english language teaching and research, 3(1), 101–107. widodo, h. p., perfecto, m. r., van canh, l., & buripakdi, a. (2018). incorporating cultural and moral values into elt materials in the context of southeast asia (sea). in widodo, perfecto, van canh & buripakdi (eds.), situating moral and cultural values in elt materials: the southeast asian context (pp. 1–14). springer. zaidan, o. f., & callison-burch, c. (2014). arabic dialect identification. computational linguistics, 40(1), 171–202. zhou, y., & fan, y. (2013). a sociolinguistic study of american slang. theory and practice in language studies, 3(12), 2209. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.5 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4),140-167 140 children`s rights concept in modern social and humanitarian discourse anna v. chernaya1 abstract the objective of the paper is the discourse analysis of studies on the child’s rights in humanitarian and social sciences. in the paper, the scientific discourse method – conceptual analysis – is employed. about 140 sources on children's rights within the subject field of philosophy, history, law, political and social sciences were used as the methodological material, and so were the regulatory, analytical and methodological data within the time span of 1999-2018. the research interests and priorities in studying the children's rights that are specific for each of the sciences have been outlined, as well as their contribution to the fulfillment of the human essence; enforcement of legal norms; protection of the rights of the child in crisis periods of history; establishment of the mediation institution; and control of social relationships. the system-forming concepts in children's rights research have been identified: the social and cultural context of children's rights; children's rights and children's welfare, health and survival; the rights-based approach to categories of "excluded" and “invisible children"; children's rights as an institution of legal socialization and legal culture; awareness raising and education in the sphere of human/children's rights. the scientific discourse on children's rights in the social and humanitarian knowledge conceptualizes and enriches new research paradigms in this field. keywords: childhood, children, children's rights, child`swell-being discourse analysis, scientific discourse, concepts of children's rights, rights-based concepts introduction since the un adopted the declaration of the rights of the child (1959) and the convention on the rights of the child (1989), rights of the child being singled out and the cultural policy of childhood, the institution of rights of the child getting established due to this have had quite an impact on enhancing the research of the institution of human rights. throughout the second half of the 20th century and in the 21st century, the social and cultural focus of the legal dominant in the research of childhood has enriched science with concepts of childhood that are migrating from the theme periphery to the central sphere of scientific knowledge increasingly actively. the experience of the latest decade confirms that in all efforts made in this area of development, one of the priority tasks has to be satisfaction of the needs and enforcement of children's rights (declaration a world fit for children, 2002). following various 1 dr. sc. (psychology), prof., head of the developmental psychology department, southern federal university, russia,avchernaya@sfedu.ru mailto:avchernaya@sfedu.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 philosophical, historical and legal works on childhood in the social and humanitarian discourse on children's rights, it can be seen that the studies of children and childhood conducted within the rights-based approach serve as a scientific foundation for research paradigms and initiatives for the protection of children's rights and their interests. the consistently growing bulk of information on children's rights represented by numerous regulatory, methodological documents, materials, and studies covering the domain of social and humanitarian sciences for the most part makes it relevant to systemize the rights-based concept of childhood and children's development in humanitarian and social sciences. the paper aims at synthesizing the research interests in studying the children's rights that are essential for philosophy, history, law, social and political sciences. on the other hand, the author is oriented to methodological and analytical objectives: identifying and describing the system-forming concepts of children's rights in social and humanitarian sciences. the congruence of research tasks stems from the idea of making the complete picture of children's rights that focuses the phenomenology of childhood researcher in the mirror of children's rights. the structure of the paper includes a brief overview of studies while singling out scientific interests and priorities of various sciences in exploring childhood and children's rights and specifying the materials and methods of the research. the results and discussion section describes the main rights-based concepts in social and humanitarian sciences. in the annex, the list of references to the studies and materials analyzed by the author is given. literature review in philosophy, the human rights / rights of the child are considered as being of the man / child, form and way of fulfillment of their essence. archard d. (2015) was the first to show the prospects of philosophical discourse of children's rights in the philosophy of childhood, studies of children's rights within the modern concepts and models of childhood over a broad range of questions – the role of state and family in upbringing of children, the individualist and collectivist references, the fundamental distinctions between children's and adults' rights, as well as the problems of rights and liabilities of parents, abuse of children. philosophy deals with the studies of children's rights within the context of their being integrated into the philosophical sociocultural problems of childhood. the existential value of rights is also emphasized in philosophy as a form of manifestation of existential essence of a man chernaya comprehending and fulfilling his rights. the human rights fulfillment levels are associated with the man's value for society, with particularities of the social system within which he fulfills his rights in interaction with others, and with the opportunity to manifest social qualities of man in the society (aminev, 2004). in the works on philosophy, the necessity of covering the social and cultural field in which the problems of children and adolescents and their rights are integrated is emphasized (nogotkova, 2009). meanwhile, the question of "what is better for a child" remains debatable not only for science, this context being different in different cultures. the majority of philosophers studying morality and law also admit that the universal moral principles may be applied in different ways under different specific circumstances (matthews & mullin, 2015). freeman m. and colleagues (2015) view the necessity of practical consensus over the human rights as a solution for the situation in which there is a gap between theory and real actions in implementing them. history studies the stages of establishment of the human rights institution, public human rights movements, civil rights advocacy organizations, human rights institutions for children adapted to the national, cultural and religious specific features. within the domain of history, there is the study of crisis periods that affect rights of the child in a negative way (bhutta et al., 2016). for instance, the works by the russian authors describe the results of the studies within the chronological framework of the second world war and the post-war period making relevant the problems of "troubled" children and adolescents, orphans having lost their parents during the war years, homeless and unsupervised children, disabled children and ones having health limitations (sedova, 2017; budashevsky, 2016; khvan, 2009). the interests of juridical sciences focus on studying the regulatory and legal status of childhood; particularities of fulfillment and protection of individual children's rights set forth by the crc – from ones having the status of life-sustaining (the right for life, health care and medical aid (leading the realization of human rights to health and through health: report of the high-level working group on the health and human rights of women, children and adolescents, 2017), family, implying the right to know one's parents, to be brought up by them, to share quarters with them and to get special care in case of loss of parental custody) to socially important rights (the right for education (monteiro, 2010); the right for access to information (abdul aziz & ibrahim, 2012); the right for protection against economic exploitation journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 (shcheglova et al., 2001). a special category is made up by the rights supporting the autonomy and interests of children as independent subjects (the rights for a name and nationality, voicing one's own opinion (fedorova, 2014); participation (ransom, 2011; costa el-hage, 2007; correia & aguiar, 2017; yigit, 2018), the right for confidentiality of personal information, the right for participation in associations and for creating ones, the right for the choice of religion and confession of faith; rest and leisure). in juvenile justice studies, they cover the questions of international trusteeship for children (martin, 2005), monitoring of respect for children's rights, control over fulfillment of children's rights by specialized services. juvenile justice also explores the role of the children's rights ombudsman institution in identifying and establishing their legal status (shamrin, 2014; likhter, 2016; fedorova, 2017); the questions of delimiting the authorities of the children's rights ombudsman and other specialists – the social inspectors for children's rights, the children's authorized specialist in case of child abuse and/or the parents' non-fulfillment of their liabilities in upbringing, educating and providing for the children. via the notions of various insight extent – from the regulatory mediator in intergovernmental cooperation, the un human rights council (lyapichev, 2012); via the understanding of the state policy as a mediator to transform the civic and public initiatives into key state decisions and programs for fulfillment of human rights in this or that state (bittman & russell, 2016; panova, 2017); and the intrastate interaction up to the children's rights ombudsman as a tool of the international family mediation, child protection and child-inclusive mediation, social and political mediation, the concepts of mediation being elaborated in sciences of law are broadly aimed at alleviating the conflict and assuring the children's legal security (meshkova, 2014). as for political sciences, in exploring the children's rights and liberties, they are oriented to studying the uniform international legal space, the activity of states in the protection of children's rights, the state protection of maternity and childhood within the current globalization and geopolitical processes, the global, natural and man-made disasters, ethnic and racial conflicts. the international political initiatives of the system of enforcement of children's rights and measures for protecting them are launched by the united nations (declaration a world fit for children, 2002) and its specialized structural units that announce scientific research projects in the areas of observing the children's rights and liberties in the world (unesco, unicef) (implementation handbook, 2007), the international system for supporting and safeguarding health, family and childhood (who), and the legal standards in the use of children's labor (ilo). chernaya the focus of attention of political sciences is on the international movement for the protection of human rights, geopolitical and national interests of individual states in the sphere of children's rights (bhakhry, 2006; lum, 2011; soares, 2007; gümüş, 2012). social sciences concentrate their interests in the paradigm of establishing a consensus between the formal legal and the social aspect of children's rights and liberties. with regard to this, they study their contribution to adjusting the social interactions, relieving the social tensions, potential and actual conflicts between various social communities in which children, parents and proxy parents are included. in the social sciences, the idea about human rights affecting the formation of moral and legal values (freedom, justice, and equality) underlying the legal behavior is developed. social sciences also study social behavior models associated with observance of rights that are mostly psychological in a broad sense. in the human rights area, the inherent in man ambivalent attitude towards social standards is manifested in the fact that an individual as a holder of social rights and liberties pursuing first and foremost his own interests has to reckon with the new social reference points of the equal opportunity, social justice, and non-discrimination society and the traditional principles of observing the others' rights. as applied to children, the misalignment of individualist and collectivist behavior patterns is manifested in the early, teen, and young age as an ambivalent attitude to the human rights institution. on the one hand, this involves a marked civic initiative, readiness for participation in affairs of the society and the state, tolerant interaction, recognition and respect of value of a human life, a high legal culture, including the freedom of thought, democracy, and finding one's bearings in constitutional aspects (keskin & yüceer, 2013). on the other hand, it is distinguished by a situation-based attitude to law, anomie in law, legal nihilism, infantilism, fetishism, and degeneration of legal consciousness (boshno, 2016); an interest for unlawful forms of conduct and participation in radical and extremist movements. with regard to this, investigation into causes and conditions of genesis of the negative conduct forms as well as into prevention thereof are important. one of the key ideas in the social sciences research is to provide the conditions for socialization, upbringing and education in the field of human (children`s) rights. this theme is widely discussed in the publications on civic education (lycke & lucey, 2018), educational content and technologies in the field of children's rights (abdulkarim et al., 2018; gümüş, 2012; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 lafer, 2014) that were represented in the sections of the journal of social studies education research. after the brief overview of research interests in social and humanitarian sciences as for the said domain, it is clear the analysis conducted shows that it is considering sources and materials within various branches of science that is the essential point that allows studying children's rights. although the distinctions between their scientific priorities, subject and methods are fairly obvious, they all tend to the problem-based and integrative approach in discussing the dependence of children's rights on the social and cultural factors. as a total, the data provided by the humanities and social sciences give grounds for outlining rights of the child. within the context of the objectives and tasks of this paper, they will be used as a factual basis for analyzing the concepts of children's rights. materials and methods of the research in line with the objective of the paper (to identify and describe the system-forming concepts of children's rights in social and humanitarian sciences), the author used the discourse analysis method. the tasks for which discourse analysis was employed in this paper included: 1: the content analysis of studies presented in sources on the rights of the child that has allowed identifying and conceptualizing the ideas shared by all sources under analysis; 2. the categorical analysis of the most frequently used categories and notions; 3. the phenomenological analysis of essential characteristics of children's rights. 106 sources (alongside with ones given in the review) describing the results of the studies conducted in social and humanitarian sciences within the chronological range from 1999 up to 2018 were used in the analysis as the методический (methodological) material. in the bulk of analyzed sources (which is considered by the author to be the focal point of materials on children's rights that are available to a researcher), the author has identified the types of scientific sources that are representative according to the quantity (being equilibrium in the total sample): monographs, theses, scientific papers, reference books and practice manuals on children's rights. in addition, texts of the international and national legal documents on children's rights were used – crc, optional protocols to crc, the un state of the world's children reports, and other sources and materials. the sources were picked by means of search queries "children", "childhood", "children's rights", "children's welfare" in databases of elsevier at chernaya https://www.elsevier.com; proquest dissertations & theses at https://www.proquest.com; springerlink at https://link.springer.com; crin at http://www.crin.org/; researchgate at https://www.researchgate.net; scival at www.scival.com; the russian state library at https://www.rsl.ru/; cyberleninka scientific e-library at https://cyberleninka.ru; elibrary scientific digital library at https://elibrary.ru/defaultx.asp; and the portal of titles on psychology at psyjournals http://psyjournals.ru. in fig. 1 and 2, the quantity ratio of the said types of sources are shown with distribution thereof according to years. hereinafter, the continuous numbering of the sources being analyzed, their imprints given in annex 1 "methodological framework of the research" (list of sources). figure 1 distribution of sources according to types source: author figure 2 distribution of analyzed sources according to years source: author https://www.elsevier.com/ https://www.proquest.com/ https://link.springer.com/ http://www.crin.org/ https://www.researchgate.net/ http://www.scival.com/ https://www.rsl.ru/ https://cyberleninka.ru/ https://elibrary.ru/defaultx.asp http://psyjournals.ru/ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 the analysis of the sources confirms that the shared social and cultural invariants in the studies of children's rights and the concepts corresponding to them are objectified in the corpus of works on children's rights. in the following section, results and discussion, they are subordinated into five conceptual approaches to children's rights (concepts). it is important to point out that the researcher's initial attitude being oriented not to branches of knowledge studying children's rights illustrates the idea voiced by vernadsky (1997) about the advance of scientific knowledge in the 20th century quickly blurring the line between individual sciences "it is not in sciences but in problems that we specialize more and more, which on the one hand allows us to gain an extremely deep insight into the phenomenon under study and on the other hand – to broaden the coverage of it from all viewpoints". as applied to research in children's rights of the second half of the previous century and especially in the current century, a considerable acceleration can be seen (not merely quick but rapid growth) of the quantity of published works that are included into the scientific discourse by increasingly numerous representatives of different domains of knowledge. the author realizes the limitations introduced that do not allow to cover all sources on children's rights for all years within this paper; anyway, the researcher is granted the opportunity by service bibliographic indices. alongside with this, pursuing the objectives to see the general regularity and to conceptualize the key rights-based research approaches in social and humanitarian sciences, the author subordinated all the approaches available into five key concepts. while showing the subject-related and operational distinctions, the identified and described concepts ensure an integrated consistent scientific view of the problems in the studies of children's rights. the choice of discourse analysis methodology is due to the pragmatic tasks of organizing and systematizing the materials available in our arsenal, and, speaking more broadly – in the arsenal of the researcher, regardless of the area of his/her research interests, numerous works on children's rights, normative, methodical and pedagogical literature. it seems resource-intensive to make a review on children`s rights using the entire array of information from different sciences. at the same time, the author was aimed at the task of using the existing materials on children's rights in a certain, conceptually aligned way. the possibilities that this approach has are to challenge one-sided interpretations. the search for systemic concepts and approaches allowed not only to overcome relativism of narrow interpretations, but also to expand their relevance for chernaya the researchers of children's rights, regardless of the area of their research interests. this form of research is also justified in terms of the possibilities to apply the obtained results in different social and cultural contexts. results and discussion the concepts of social and cultural context of children's rights at present, theories based on the study of social and cultural development contexts include an extensive class of concepts, scientific understanding of which is impossible without the analysis of environmental factors, cultural differences, and, in general, the whole cultural and social area of their functioning. among such concepts related to childhood and child`s development, it is necessary to name the category “children`s rights”, introduced into the scientific use and actively discussed in recent decades. while expanding responsibility of states for observance of children's rights [33], inclusion of children's rights into the sphere of international and national interests has contributed to discovering the new aspects of cultural, political, and social discourse of protection of childhood, drawing the attention of politicians, scientists and specialists responsible for children to a broad range of questions of birth rate, the quality of life of children, condition of their health, as well as ensuring life sustaining and development of social support, education and other institutions [10; 44]. given this, the conceptual objects of understanding and describing childhood were supplemented with new interpretations. already rooted in science, the notions of child as marginalized subject, child as property, child as economically disenfranchised, child as a cultural outsider [23] could now be set in motion. according to v. bibikhin (2005), these notions are expressed in the thesis about the child being a subject who until a certain age does not know that he or she is seen at times, partially and by some people only [58]. it also became possible to expand the category of child as ontological other [24] that presents the most complete description of the nature of the child as a subject of law having a legal status and a regularized position in the adults' society. due to this, the notions about children as independent individuals having rights protected by the society in accordance with their age-related particularities and the uniqueness of childhood [64] and as active participants of social life having the right to voice their opinions on equal terms with adults [69] could be introduced. such extended interpretations journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 of children and the pressing necessity of the 20th century science to reconstruct the adult-child relationships system (breaking out: emergent child-adult reconstruction), with the problems range of children's rights being introduced, contributed to taking the emphasis away from adults' obligations to children and children's obligations to adults and to removing the strict binary opposition "child vs. adult" in social concepts of reconstructing childhood [23]; social construction of childhood [80]; constructing and reconstructing childhood) [21]; justification of childhood [64]. peters m. and johansson v. (2012) believe that after introduction of children's rights, the interests of children and the interests of those traditionally considered as being responsible for the children [36] can no longer be adopted as simply equal ones. meanwhile, within the general logic of the social and cultural phenomenon of extended childhood duration – emerging adulthood [2] – that originated in the second half of the 20th century, two opposing trends directly related to the social and cultural background of children's rights studies have gained momentum. on the one hand, they could now "find acknowledgment that childhood should be regarded as a part of society and culture rather than a precursor to it; and that children should be seen as already social actors not beings in the process of becoming such" (james & prout, 1997) [21]. on the other hand, the larger duration of childhood aggravated the manifestations of infantilism, social immaturity, economic insecurity, trends of excessive autonomy from adults, the need of protecting one's rights by family generation conflicts [43], running away from home, and, – more broadly – teenagers' and young people's social and cultural escapism that are characteristic for children and adolescents of economically developed countries. at the same time, countries with transitive economies and unstable political system, just like the poor and troubled families that keep disregarding children's rights completely and separating them from adults [1], use the young children's labor [29], due to which childhood is reduced and moving into adulthood is accelerated. cross-cultural and anthropological studies accumulating the data on observance of children's rights in various regions of the world [12] are extensively used as service material by the concepts of social and cultural context of children's rights. poverty is still the major cause of non-observance of children's rights: in such conditions the family's life level does not allow them to satisfy the children's needs, due to which the children have no opportunity to get medical and educational services. poverty is quite common in the third world countries, with their economically unstable political situation, ethnic and religious tension, low income level of the chernaya population; hence there are negative effects such as stratification, segregation, and discrimination in fulfilling the total of the rights [22; 41; 46]. however, despite a high level of life, this trend occurs in economically developed countries too [13; 14; 53]. thus, the principal thrust of the concepts of childhood, given their integration into social and cultural context, implies a rightsbased approach as its fundamental basis. the importance of such an approach for social sciences and humanities is due to the interest of researchers and practitioners responsible for studying and accompanying child`s development in highlighting global initiatives and national specifics of children's rights. the studies in this field provide a comprehensive vision of the problems of children's rights in the regions of the world and a better understanding of the dyadic relations “childhood world adult world”. children's rights, children's welfare, health and survival concepts the need to explore new contexts of child`s development in a changing world has led to a significant increase in the efforts to measure and monitor the situations with children, their rights, and describe and analyze the conditions of their development. introduced in the international political and social projects and initiatives in the 1970s as a response to social challenges of reduced quality of children's life and included into a broader social context of the "status / position of children", the "children's welfare" conceptual object gets extensive coverage in the content of annual reports by unicef about the position of children in the world (the state of the world's children, 1980-2017) [94; 99; 102], reports by oecd, doing better for children, 2009 [90] and who world health statistics (2005-2018) [104], as well as the national reports on position of children and families having children, protection of their health [64; 106]. the concept “children's welfare” was included into the research field of interdisciplinary research in response to the social challenges related to the need to monitor the quality of life and children's health. it has gained a wide scientific basis in connection with the ability to describe the totality of measured indicators used for integrated assessment of life, health, growth and children`s development and defining global targets and national action strategies attracting much attention. the attention of politicians, public figures and specialists working with children was drawn to the statistics on social, demographic, environmental factors, the quality of children's life. at the same time, the dyad "rights of the child and children's welfare" was consolidated in science in journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 the corpus of studies in medical, social and humanitarian sciences. several key research principles were established in the children's rights and children's welfare concepts. the principle of interdisciplinary research ensures a view of childhood, family, education, early development of children, healthcare, social services etc. [38] through the lens of rights of the child. the ideology of cultural context demands from a researcher to take a position of "going beyond direct information" (the idea was voiced by j. bruner (1986) in relation to cognition psychology studies) [9]. davidson, moore & rosenberg (2001) believe that using this principle as applied to children's welfare means the welfare and rights of children (the authors mean the united states) cannot be determined by their parents unilaterally but have to be studied in a broad social context. the resources principle relies on the idea about the potential of rights of the child as a condition for describing children's welfare [17] and determining the standards thereof [27]. agency is described by studying the individual subject psychological constituent of children's rights (subjective welfare) in relation to the way children perceive them and the ideas about their own rights, rights of the others, ways of evaluating themselves and their opportunities the children may have. proceeding from this principle and rights of the child to voice his or her opinion and to participate, researchers obtain information from children that is important for evaluating the children's welfare and well-being [26]. e.g. the fulfillment of the right for participation is studied by surveys of children [3; 12]. surveys of children and adolescents, together with ecomap drawings and accompanying narratives (ppwbgproject), are also used as a tool for measuring and evaluating their subjective psychological welfare in the global and cross-cultural outlook [30; 34]. the data available in literature on children's welfare and children`s rights takes a researcher to a new qualitative level of studying life-supporting (objective) factors of welfare and their subjective representation the perception of own well-being. the decisive role in their study is taken by the subjective (psychological) well-being inseparably connected with the experiencing and understanding of their rights by the children themselves. "excluded and invisible children" rights-based concepts social and cultural background of childhood and the corresponding to it notions in science characterized children as individuals having no clear age, with the upper age limit blurred. the adoption of crc formalized in law the upper age limit for the notions of "children" and "child". accordingly, in relation to children's rights, the scientific discourse has got the opportunity to chernaya differentiate and categorize individual groups of children. so, categories of children having equal rights regardless of their sex, age, gender, linguistic, racial, ethnic, national, civic, and social belonging, religious, political and sexual orientation [19] got into the scope of science. at the same time, for example, the categories of "infants" (children) and "minors" (adolescents) [66] are established in the russian law in relation to the children's rights, providing some emphasis for the age-related stigmatization and to a considerable extent – for subordination of adults' rights and children's rights, i.e. human rights vs. child rights. another important achievement is the opportunity to study the least advantaged children through the lens of children's rights. in terms of ideas, this conceptual approach ensures fulfilling one of the key principles of "leaving no one behind", which will strengthen efforts to ensure that all people have equal opportunities and to reach the most vulnerable and marginalized [89]. owing to the content of crc [85], specialized optional protocols thereto concerning the rights of individual categories of children [86-87], analytical reports by unicef on the status of children in the world [91-93; 95-98; 100-103], the following "excluded and invisible children" have been objectified for science and researchers: illness child; children with hiv and aids; mentally or physically disabled children; abducted children used for sale, traffic, prostitution and pornography; children used for of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse; children involvement in armed conflict; children using narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances; children deprived of liberty. a large corpus of works conceptualizes the important classes of problems in protection and defense of children's rights: children being at a difficult life situation, the most vulnerable categories of children, ones being discriminated, ones having not only their rights and liberties limited but also deprived of basic needs; those at risk of violence (physical, sexual, psychological), and various forms of exploitation (labor and sexual slavery, prostitution, forced participation in acts of terrorism). for example, these are the studies dedicated to girls' rights [5], [78]; rights of children with disabilities [40; 79]; violence against children, child abuse in the family [42; 54; 74; 84]; refugee and migrants children [55; 63]; children having no parental custody; children separated from parents [71; 76]; children living in urban slums and having no access to main services [100]; street children [8; 61; 67]; urban children poverty [21]; children with deviant behavior [35; 83]; children during war, preventing and alleviating the suffering of children in armed conflict [31; 75; 90]; children deprived of liberty [32; 60]. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 thus, in the rights-based concepts of "excluded and invisible children", the priorities are shown for involving all categories of children into the scientific discourse, and, therefore, their tangibility and importance for the society in general. such studies are especially acute and demanded due to the objective factors of decline in the development rate indicators, increase in the number of deviations, addictions, depressive disorders in the children’s and youth environment, and the rise of new social risks that adversely affect socialization, social adaptation of children and adolescents, and their personal development. the contribution of the children`s rights-based concepts “excluded and invisible children” represented in numerous works within these categories is comparable to the possibilities of researching the rights and freedoms of socially stigmatized and marginalized children, adolescents and young people, as well as developing strategies to reduce the risk of social exclusion. concepts treating rights of the child as a legal socialization and legal culture institution holding an important status in developmental psychology due to its detailing the opportunities for children to learn the social experience through institutions of family, upbringing, and education, the category of socialization as applied to the children's rights sphere is studied here as legal socialization [25; 56; 59; 84]. the general ideology of the legal socialization and legal culture concepts is associated with analyzing the total of external (objective) factors – the institutions of legal socialization, values and standards of the society – and the internal (subjective) ones – moral reference points and attitudes to observance / nonobservance of law and legal standards, the presence or absence of interest in getting the knowledge about the sphere of the law, and personal experience of interaction with the legal sphere. in particular, while for sociology, it is the system of external factors that matters first and foremost, psychology focuses its interests on the internal (psychological) ones. june l. tapp (1971) who worked out the "cognitive theory of legal development" discusses the behavior of an individual interacting with law and legal standards that are of crucial importance for maintenance of social system [47]. in the concept of c. kourilsky-augeven (2007), legal socialization is considered in connection with shaping the legal images of the world at the early and teen age that make up the deep foundation of the children and adolescents' ideas about law in the adult life. as for the elements of law being the object of social ideas, in the concepts of ideas about rights, they study vertical relationships between individual and law standards and horizontal relationships chernaya between participants of legal relations [28]. mchedlova (2006) considers legal socialization as the way one sees oneself, one's place in the country, the place of one's country in the world and the way one sees the very world [72]. popandopulo (2015) believes that the basis of legal socialization as a process of introducing man to the system of legal standards is made up by public behavior attitudes within the social practices children have and by the prevailing in the society paragons – references of legal and unlawful behavior for individual children [73]. the concepts of traditional socialization institutions (these being family, mass information media, education, the company of peers) that are being developed in psychology and other social sciences are made more precise and specific in relation to children's rights. for instance, the company of peers is also studied both from the viewpoint of particular groups of segregated children and adolescents – victim children, vulnerable children, physically and socially deprived ones, homeless ones [25; 52], socially encapsulated children of migrants, forced migrants, serving their sentences etc. – and from the viewpoint of children's, adolescents' and young people's communities. these include socialized, normal, peer-oriented delinquent ones (as defined by a. bandura), communities tending to asocial behavior forms [39], the most vulnerable to violation of their rights, striving to be heard [15; 16; 50], and ones tending to experiment in their relations with law. in their turn, the concepts studying totalitarian gangs of children and youth, the most aggressive network-based communities describe the opportunities to organize both the research in phenomenology of destructive groups willing to support delinquent behavior of adolescents and their cynicism towards the system of law [37] and the research of special social institutions and tools for prevention of wrongdoings and unlawful conduct, shaping the supporting values and positive attitudes [51]. the legal culture concepts emphasize the importance of understanding legal ideology and legal (judicial) psychology, too. the legal culture concept from the point of disciplinary affiliation, refers primarily to the theory of law and correlates with such legal categories as law, legal consciousness, legal behavior, legal education and legal socialization. according to s. boshno (2016), the legal culture notion contains a system of ideas, positive legal feelings, and human creative activity in the sphere of law [6]. in the legal culture concepts, actual practices of shaping the legal culture and legal behavior competencies (those in protecting one's rights included) are considered. from the point of examining children's rights in a broader perspective, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 it seems acute for psychology and social sciences to study traditional institutions of socialization and peculiarities of socialization through the understanding of own rights, freedoms and duties. the concepts of awareness-raising and education in human / children's rights the un global initiative for education in human rights / rights of the child [18; 105]; and the experience of international projects in this area [7; 11; 20] have subordinated the scientific approaches within the dyad of social vs. individual. on the one hand, the research domain includes questions of integrating education and law [65]; education in human rights being inbuilt into political systems, as well as its dependence on social and cultural factors and contribution into the achievement of peaceful, stable, inclusive societies. the concepts of harmonization of social and legal relationships and protection of children's rights [45] can be viewed individually. on the other hand, it is first of all the individual psychological importance of human-rights education in the separate personal qualities being shaped – personal autonomy sense, tolerance to rights of the others, being interested in equal fulfillment of one's own rights and rights of the others [49] – that is shown through the conceptual objects of "legal awareness" [48], "knowledge about the law" [68], "legal consciousness" [82] in the concepts of education in human rights. as a separate trend within this one, the concepts of legal culture and legal behavior are being developed that rely on preventing and deterring technologies and tools concerning juvenile delinquency [77], maintaining law and order among the young people [57], and mitigating the consequences of abuse situations [4]. the primacy of specially organized education in human rights according to the un declaration "on education and training in human rights" (2011) and documents of the european union are the starting point for building the concepts of school education in the human rights/rights of the child [88]. in the cross-cultural concepts, examples are given of various aspects of the edc/hre curriculum process: the development phase (australia); key competences (colombia); edc/hre in decentralized education systems (finland); and education authorities partnering with external actors (south africa). the concepts of children's rights-based school education emphasize the priorities of content-related, methodological and instrumental principles of introducing the questions of the rights of the child into school curricula and textbooks [90]; of broad public knowledge and awareness about children's rights, in particular, "informing the public about rights of the child”, information and methodological support of the children's rights-based school education. chernaya traditionally, the study of the child`s rights in educational sciences is associated with the formation of legal competence and the culture of students; development of the content and methods of legal education and education of children. psychology focuses on the personal determinants of the child`s rights, recognizing their social standards. the field of human rights is considered in psychology as a social environment, providing each subject of the rights with the opportunity for self-realization, personal autonomy, freedom to interact with others based on the respect and recognition of their rights. the angle at which the rights of the child and their enforcement are considered in the concepts under study relies on analyzing social and legal trends that are getting established in the contemporary society – a greater understanding of the necessity of recognizing the child as the subject of rights and liabilities and organizing education in the sphere of human rights for children [70]. in the concepts of education in children's rights, educational risks are detailed separately: the difficulties in implementing ideas of children's rights at the micro-level, first of all in the family and at school [81]. the adoption of the convention on the rights of the child (1989) changed the paradigm of working with children in connection with the realization of their right to participate in decisionmaking matters relating to their lives. basically, participation of children in such decisions is possible, provided that this right is recognized by adults. a prerequisite for matching these ideas with the reality is human rights education specially organized by adults. conclusion the substance and subject field of research in rights of the child outlined in the five concepts in social sciences and humanities ensures an integral idea about the legal and social status of childhood included into a broad social and cultural context; about the children's welfare, health and survival; legal socialization and legal culture; the rights of excluded and invisible children; awareness raising and education in the human / children's rights. while making contribution to healthcare, education, and social assistance to families and children (alongside with social and humanitarian sciences), finding out the conceptual framework of studies through analyzing the interrelation of the "children's rights" category with other categories employed by social and humanitarian sciences – such as children, childhood, child-adult relationships, children's welfare, – and the key concepts outlined by the author journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 promote the social and political initiatives of ensuring the children's interests in the global outlook. these two areas conceptualization of the conceptual apparatus and identification of key research areas on the child`s rights in the social sciences and humanities are of theoretical interest and importance for the actualization of modern strategies for researching children's rights as well as for analyzing international and national experience in this area, comparative research. practical significance of the study is related to the realized initiatives at the international and national levels in support of civic education that are viewed from the perspective of social sciences and humanities when defining the developing, socializing status of the child`s rights as a condition and means of development. in the methodical and organizational terms, the research results can be used when designing educational programs, technologies and methods of human rights education. acknowledgements the author is grateful to the senior lecturer of the developmental psychology department at southern federal university lyudmila n. grishina for the assistance during the selection process of the materials analyzed in this article. references abdul aziz, n., ibrahim, i. (2012). child's right to free flow information via internet: liability and responsibility of the internet service provider. procedia – social and behavioral sciences, 38, 160-168. abdulkarim a., ratmaningsih n., noor anggraini d. (2018). developing civicpedia as a civic education e-learning media to improve students’ information literacy. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 45-61. aminev, m.m. (2004). human rights as a form of fulfillment of the human essence: a social and philosophical analysis: phd thesis abstract. ufa. archard, d. (2015). children: rights and childhood. london and new york: routledge. bhakhry, s. (2006). children in india and their rights. national human rights commission. faridkot house, copernicus marg, new delhi, india. bhutta, z.a., keenan, w.j., bennett, s. (2016). children of war: urgent action is needed to save a generation. lancet maternal health series, 388, 1275-1276. chernaya bittman, b., & russell, w. (2016). civic education in united states: a multiple regression of civic education scores from the national assessment of educational progress. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/16 boshno, s. (2016). legal consciousness and legal culture. law and contemporary states, 3, 69-72. budashevsky, g.v. (2016). the activity of correctional labor institutions of leningrad and leningrad region in the post-war period: mid-1940s – mid-1950s: phd thesis abstract. saint petersburg. correia, n., aguiar, c. (2017). choosing classrooms: a structured interview on children’s right to participate. international journal of educational research, 82, 54-62. costa el-hage, m. (2007). participation rights in the child protection system: the knowledge, attitudes and experiences of youth participation for youth in care and child protection workers (order no. nr39504). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (304755036). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304755036?accountid=141586 declaration a world fit for children (2002). a/res/s-27/2. retrieved from https://documentsdds-ny.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n02/481/78/pdf/n0248178.pdf?openelement declaration of the rights of the child (1959). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/malaysia/1959-declaration-of-the-rights-of-the-child.pdf fedorova, l.f. (2014). on the problems of fulfillment of the children's right to voice their opinions. eurasian advocacy, 5(12), 78-84. fedorova, o.v. (2017). children's rights ombudsman: constitutional and legal research: phd thesis abstract. omsk. freeman, m. (ed.). (2015). the future of children’s rights. leiden, the netherlands: brill. gümüş, a.-t. (2012). transformation of rights to education. journal of social studies education research, 3(1), 119-134. implementation handbook for the convention on the rights of the child (2007). part 3 of 3. unicef. keskin, s.-c., yüceer, d. (2013). citizenship education in denmark. journal of social studies education research, 4(1), 97-120. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/16 https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n02/481/78/pdf/n0248178.pdf?openelement https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n02/481/78/pdf/n0248178.pdf?openelement journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 khvan, g.s. (2009). the problem of human rights in the activity of the un in the 1990s: phd thesis abstract. moscow. lafer, s. (2014). democratic design for the humanization of education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 6-12. leading the realization of human rights to health and through health: report of the high-level working group on the health and human rights of women, children and adolescents (2017). retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/documents/issues/women/wrgs/health/reporthlwghumanrights-health.pdf likhter, p.l. (2016). the institution of children's rights ombudsman in subjects of the russian federation: phd thesis abstract. penza. lum, t. (2011). human rights in china and u.s. policy. crs report for congress. congressional research service. lyapichev, s.a. (2012). the un and the international cooperation in the field of human rights promotion and protection: phd thesis abstract. moscow. lycke k., lucey th. (2018). the messages we miss: banned books, censored texts, and citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 1-26. martin, j.m. (2005). re-forming the child: human rights as global tutelage (order no. nr08689). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (305424571). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305424571?accountid=141586 matthews, g., mullin, a. (2015). the philosophy of childhood. in: the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/childhood/ meshkova, a.v. (2014). political interaction of the human-rights ombudsman in the russian federation with the federal institutions of the state power: a politological analysis: phd thesis abstract. moscow. monteiro, a. r. (2010). the right of the child to education: what right to what education? procedia – social and behavioral sciences, 9, 1988-1992. nogotkova, m.p. (2009). childhood as the object of philosophical cognition: phd thesis. moscow. panova, e.s. (2017). the state policy of fulfillment of the human rights in the russian federation: the contemporary condition and ways for improvement: phd thesis abstract. moscow. chernaya ransom, m.m. (2011). how do proponents and opponents of ratification of the united nations convention on the rights of the child explain their views regarding children's participatory rights? a multiple case study (order no. 3457186). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (873553758). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/873553758?accountid=141586 sedova, d.v. (2017). the activity of social security bodies in working with orphans and troubled adolescents in 1945-1955: using the materials of the middle volga region: phd thesis abstract. ulyanovsk. shamrin, m.yu. (2014). the administrative and legal status of the children's rights ombudsman: phd thesis abstract. moscow. shcheglova, s.n., vasilyeva, n.v., kochnev, s.v. (2001). the children's rights for protection against economic exploitation: a sociological analysis. moscow: sotsium publishers. soares, e. (2007). law library of congress, brazil, children’s rights: international and national laws and practice. in: children's rights: international laws, argentina, australia, brazil, canada, china, france, germany, greece, iran, israel, japan, lebanon, mexico, nicaragua, russia, and the united kingdom. (pp. 36-51). the law library of congress, global legal research center. vernadsky, v.i. (1997). on science. scientific knowledge. scientific creativity. scientific thought. vol. 1. dubna: "feniks". retrieved from http://elibrary.ru/books/vernadsky/obl.htm yigit, m. (2018). does higher education change value perceptions?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 1-8. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/5 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 annex 1 methodological framework of the research (list of sources) 1. advancing the rights of children deprived of parental care: domestic adoption of children in kenya (2013). thesis submitted in the framework of the master of advanced studies in children’s rights. national council for science and technology of the republic of kenya 2. arnett, j.j. (2015). emerging adulthood: the winding road from the late teens through the twenties. new york, ny, usa: oxford university press. 3. backe-hansen, e. (2013). between participation and protection: involving children in child protection research. in: h. fossheim (ed.), cross-cultural child research: ethical issues (pp. 97-128). the norwegian national research ethics committees. 4. bajaj, m. (2011). human rights education: ideology, location, and approaches. human rights quarterly, 33, 481-508. 5. bastas, h. (2011). girls' rights: an insight into the united nations from 1995-2010 (order no. 3490843). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (917948304). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/917948304?accountid=141586 6. boshno, s. (2016). legal consciousness and legal culture. law and the contemporary states, 3, 69-72. 7. brederode-santos, m.e., fazah, c.r., schneider, a., szelényi, z. (eds.). compasito: manual on human rights education for children (2009). directorate of youth and sport of the council of europe. 8. brom, c. (2003). the human rights of the child: the case of street children in central america (order no. mq88112). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (305234268). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305234268?accountid=141586 9. bruner, j.s. (1986). actual minds. possible worlds harvard university press. 10. chernaya, a.v. (2016). drawing on psychotherapeutic practice: to basics for integrating psychologist in personal development. international journal of psychology, 51, 275. 11. child rights education toolkit: rooting child rights in early childhood education, primary and secondary schools (2014). unicef private fundraising and partnerships division (pfp). geneva. 12. child well-being in rich countries: a comparative overview. innocenti report card 11 (2013). unicef office of research, florence. 13. children's rights: international laws, argentina, australia, brazil, canada, china, france, germany, greece, iran, israel, japan, lebanon, mexico, nicaragua, russia, and the united kingdom (2007). the law library of congress, global legal research center. 14. chzhen, y., de neubourg, c., de milliano, m., plavgo, i. (2016). child poverty in the european union: the multiple overlapping deprivation analysis approach (eu-moda). child indicators research, 9(2), 335-336. 15. correia, n., aguiar, c. (2017). choosing classrooms: a structured interview on children’s right to participate. international journal of educational research, 82, 54-62. 16. costa el-hage, m. (2007). participation rights in the child protection system: the knowledge, attitudes and experiences of youth participation for youth in care and child protection workers (order no. nr39504). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. http://search.proquest.com/docview/305234268?accountid=141586 https://elibrary.ru/contents.asp?id=34259752 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0883035516305651 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0883035516305651 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/08830355 chernaya (304755036). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304755036?accountid=141586 17. elling, y. (2010). bringing in more voices: a comparative analysis of canadian provincial child welfare legislation as it relates to the united nations convention on the rights of the child (order no. mr68623). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (817402231). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/817402231?accountid=141586 18. guidelines on human rights education: for human rights activists (2013). office for democratic institutions and human rights (odihr). 19. handbook on european non-discrimination law 2018 edition (2018). luxembourg: publications office of the european union. 20. human rights education in primary and secondary school systems: a self-assessment guide for governments (2012). united nations. 21. james, a., prout, a. (1997). constructing and reconstructing childhood: contemporary issues in the sociological study of childhood. london – washington, d.c.: falmer press (a member of the taylor & francis group). 22. jiang, m. (2009). a study on urban children poverty phenomenon: the deprivation of child rights and basic needs-the case of tianjin, china (order no. 3377968). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (305157605). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305157605?accountid=141586 23. kennedy, d. (1998). reconstructing childhood. thinking: the journal of philosophy for children, 14(1), 29-37. 24. kennedy, d. (2006). the well of being: childhood, subjectivity, and education. state university of new york. 25. kocai, e. (2014). socialization of homeless children in the society: the problem of school adaptation. pedagogy, 116(4), 183-195. 26. kosher, h., ben-arieh, a. (2017). what children think about their rights and their wellbeing: a cross-national comparison. american journal of orthopsychiatry, 8(3), 256-273. 27. kosher, h., ben-arieh, a., jiang, x., huebner, e.s. (2014). advances in children’s rights and children’s well-being measurement: implications for school psychologists. school psychology quarterly, 29(1), 7-20. 28. kourilsky-augeven c. (2007). socialization, legal. in: d. s. clark (ed.), encyclopedia of law & society: american and global perspectives (pp. 1402-1406). sage publications, inc. 29. lavan, d. (2012). the discourse and practice of child protagonism: complexities of intervention in support of working children's rights in senegal (order no. nr98029). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (1356842605). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1356842605?accountid=141586 30. lee, y. (2009). child rights and child well-being. in: the 3rd oecd world forum on "statistics, knowledge and policy". charting progress, building visions, improving life busan, korea. 31. manuchehr, t.n. (2011). education right of children during war and armed conflicts. procedia – social and behavioral sciences, 15, 302-305. 32. martens, d. (2008). exploring children's rights in custody and access (order no. mr47045). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (304559537). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304559537?accountid=141586 http://search.proquest.com/docview/304755036?accountid=141586 http://search.proquest.com/docview/817402231?accountid=141586 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1877042811002692 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/18770428 http://search.proquest.com/docview/304559537?accountid=141586 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 33. martin, j.m. (2005). re-forming the child: human rights as global tutelage (order no. nr08689). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (305424571). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305424571?accountid=141586 34. nastasi, b.k., borja, a.p. (2016). international handbook of psychological well-being in children and adolescents. bridging the gaps between theory, research, and practice. springer science+business media new york. 35. olszewski, d., burkhart, g., bo, a. (2010). children’s voices: experiences and perceptions of european children on drug and alcohol issues. european monitoring centre for drugs and drug addiction. 36. peters, m., johansson, v. (2012). historizing subjectivity in childhood studies. linguistic and philosophical investigations, 11, 42-61. 37. piquero, a.r., fagan, j., mulvey, e.p., steinberg l., odgers, c. (2005). developmental trajectories of legal socialization among serious adolescent offenders. the journal of criminal law and criminology, 96(1), 267-298. 38. pollard, e.l., davidson, l. (2001). foundations of child well-being. center for child well-being, usa. unesco, action research in family and early childhood. 39. pro and anti social behaviour (2017). retrieved from https://studymoose.com/pro-andanti-social-behaviour-essay 40. promoting the rights of children with disabilities (2007). innocenti digest, 13. the united nations children’s fund (unicef). 41. protecting the world’s children: impact of the convention on the rights of the child in diverse legal systems (2007). unicef. 42. raman, s., kadi, a., seth, r., muhammad, t., maternowska, c., goldhagen, j., thea van zeben-van der aa, bennett, s., bissell, s., subrahmanian, r., waterston, t., d’annunzio, d. (2017). violence against children of the world: burden, consequences and recommendations for action. retrieved from https://www.ispcan.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/01/violence-against-children-of-the-world-final-statementpostedits-sr-1710-1-f29357-n.pdf 43. resolving family conflicts: a guide to international family mediation (2014). geneva, switzerland. 44. richardson, d., ali, n. (2014). an evaluation of international surveys of children oecd social, employment and migration working papers, 146. oecd publishing. retrieved from http://library.bsl.org.au/jspui/bitstream/1/4635/1/richardsond_evaluation-ofinternational-surveys-of-children_oecd2014.pdf 45. sander-lindstrom, m. (2011). education and the rights of the child: the unicef’s position. znanie. ponimanie. umenie, 1, 27-29. 46. south africa’s children – a review of equity and child rights (2011). south african human rights commission/unicef. 47. tapp, j.l. (1971). socialization, the law, and society: reflections. journal of social issues, 27/2, 4-5. 48. tibbitts, f. (2015). curriculum development and review for democratic citizenship and human rights education. unesco/council of europe/office for democratic institutions and human rights of the organization for security and cooperation in europe/the general secretariat of the organization of american states. 49. tibbitts, f. (ed.). (2009). human rights education workshop: training hre trainers. cofounder of hrea. https://studymoose.com/pro-and-anti-social-behaviour-essay https://studymoose.com/pro-and-anti-social-behaviour-essay https://www.ispcan.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/violence-against-children-of-the-world-final-statement-postedits-sr-1710-1-f29357-n.pdf https://www.ispcan.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/violence-against-children-of-the-world-final-statement-postedits-sr-1710-1-f29357-n.pdf https://www.ispcan.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/violence-against-children-of-the-world-final-statement-postedits-sr-1710-1-f29357-n.pdf chernaya 50. todres, j., diaz, a. (2017). adolescents' right to participate: opportunities and challenges for health care professionals. annals of global health, 83(5-6), 697-703. 51. trinkner, r., tyler, t.r. (2016). legal socialization: coercion versus consent in an era of mistrust. annual review of law and social science, 12(1), 417-439. 52. tyler, t.r. (2014). street stops and police legitimacy: teachable moments in young urban men’s legal socialization. journal of empirical legal studies, 11(4), 751-785. 53. unicef office of research. building the future: children and the sustainable development goals in rich countries (2017). innocenti report card 14, unicef office of research – innocenti, florence. 54. united nations children’s fund, a familiar face: violence in the lives of children and adolescents (2017). new york: unicef. 55. wrye, j. (2003). refugee children's rights: the impact of the united nations convention on the rights of the child on canadian and american asylum policy (order no. mq89071). proquest dissertations & theses a&i. (305346266). retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305346266?accountid=141586 56. andrianov, m.s. (2013). psychological mechanisms and periods of the process of legal socialization. psychology and law, 1. retrieved from http://psyjournals.ru/psyandlaw/2013/n1/58284.shtml 57. balko, e.v. (2005). the activity of education authorities of moscow in legal education of students of secondary general education schools in 1993-2003: phd thesis abstract. moscow. 58. bibikhin, v.v. (2005). introduction to philosophy of law. moscow. 59. borisova, s.e. (2016). legal socialization of individual as a phenomenon of legal psychology. psychology and law, 6(4), 5-15. 60. bryuknov, a.a. (2005). rights of minors sentenced to imprisonment and their fulfillment: phd thesis abstract. rostov-on-don. 61. falokhati, b.u., sukhailo, p. (2013). studying the problems of children's homelessness and street children. bulletin of tajik national university, 115(3-4), 245-249. 62. healthcare in russia (2017). moscow: russian federal state statistics service. 63. kiseleva, e.v., osipova, m.n. (2016). human rights-based approach to migration using the example of problems of fulfillment of the right for education for children migrants having no registration in the rf. gaps in the russian legislation. juridical journal, 8, 374-379. 64. kislov, a.g. (2002). justification of childhood as a phenomenon of culture: a philosophical analysis: phd thesis abstract. ekaterinburg. 65. kravchenko, o.b. (2017). interaction of subjects of education and law in the contemporary russian conditions: a social and philosophical analysis: phd thesis abstract. krasnoyarsk. 66. kuznetsova, o.v. (2010). comment to federal law dated july 24, 1998 no. 124-fz "on main guarantees of rights of the child in the rf". saratov: i.p.r. media. 67. lifanova, e.o. (2007). prevention of neglect and homelessness as the basis for shaping the system of protection of childhood in russia: the years of 1985-2005: a historical and social aspect: phd thesis abstract. moscow. 68. litvinova, a.v., mirimanova, m.s. (2015). legal knowledge of adolescents as a factor of psychological security of the educational environment. psychology and law, 5(1), 108118. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/22149996 https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-110615-085141 https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-110615-085141 http://search.proquest.com/docview/305346266?accountid=141586 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 69. maiorova-shcheglova, s.n. (ed.). (2017). childhood of the 21st century in social and humanitarian outlook: new theories, phenomena and notions. moscow. 70. maiorova-shcheglova, s.n. (2016). how to organize sociological support for fulfillment of rights of the child in the russian federation? in: yu.v. asochakov (ed.), materials of the international scientific conference "russian sociological community: history, modern times, place in the world science" (commemoratung the centenary of m.m. kovalevsky russian sociological society) (pp. 823-824). spb.: skifiya-print. 71. matysheva, t.n. (2012). constitutional right for education and guarantees of its fulfillment for children having a special social status in the russian federation: phd thesis abstract. moscow. 72. mchedlova, e.m. (2006). sociology of human rights: a theoretic and methodological analysis: phd thesis abstract. moscow. 73. popandopulo, o.a. (2015). legal socialization of individuals in the contemporary russian society: a social and philosophical analysis: phd thesis abstract. volgograd. 74. protection of children from violence and abuse. interregional topic report (2010). moscow: rae institute of family and upbringing. 75. rakhimov, s.f. (2010). the international legal protection of children during armed conflicts in the activity of international organizations and in practice of international criminal judicial bodies: phd thesis abstract. moscow. 76. rusakova, m.m., odinokova, v.a., zakharova, yu.p. (2015). welfare and observance of orphan children's rights: manual for conducting the survey of children and pilot study report. saint-petersburg: stellit regional public organization of social public welfare projects. 77. ruzakova, o.a., ruzakov, a.b. (2017). problems of legal education and awarenessraising of children in the russian federation. legal concept, 16(1), 10-15. 78. samake, a. (2015). the international legal protection of women's rights in africa: phd thesis abstract. moscow. 79. shinkareva, e.yu. (2007). the right for education of children having health limitations and its fulfillment in the russian federation: a research in history and law: phd thesis abstract. moscow. 80. shcheglova, s.n. (1999). childhood as a social phenomenon. the concept of social construction of childhood: phd thesis. moscow. 81. shcheglova, s.n. (2001). sociology of children's rights in russia: new century, new problems, new prospects. moscow. 82. tselikovskiy, s.b., salnikova, e.s. (2015). legal education in shaping the minors' legal consciousness. universum: psychology and education, 11-12(20). 83. tyustina, g.g. (2016). protection of deviant behavior minors' rights. nizhnevartovsk: publishing house of nizhnevartovsk state university. 84. vorontsova, t.v., savelyeva, a.v. (2013). legal culture as a social phenomenon and the problems of developing it with school students. bulletin of people's friendship university of russia. series: psychology and pedagogy, 1, 113-117. 85. convention on the rights of the child (1989). a/res/44/25. retrieved from https://documents-ddsny.un.org/doc/resolution/gen/nr0/547/84/img/nr054784.pdf?openelement http://www.un.org/docs/asp/ws.asp?m=a/res/44/25 chernaya 86. convention on the rights of the child: optional protocol on the involvement of children in armed conflict (2000). a/res/54/263. retrieved from https://documents-ddsny.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n00/625/67/pdf/n0062567.pdf?openelement 87. convention on the rights of the child: optional protocol on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (2000). a/res/54/263. retrieved from https://documents-ddsny.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n00/625/67/pdf/n0062567.pdf?openelement 88. declaration on human rights education and training (2011). a/res/66/137. retrieved from https://documents-ddsny.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/n11/467/04/pdf/n1146704.pdf?openelement 89. guidelines for the promotion and protection of the rights of the child (2017). leave no child behind. retrieved from https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/eu_guidelines_rights_of_child_0.pdf 90. oecd (2009). doing better for children. retrieved from www.oecd.org/els/social/childwellbeing 91. the state of the world's children 1996 (1995). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc96/ 92. the state of the world's children 1997 (1996). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc97/ 93. the state of the world's children 1998 (1997). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc98/ 94. the state of the world's children 2000 (2000). united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc00/ 95. the state of the world's children 2004: girls, education and development (2003). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc04/ 96. the state of the world's children 2005: childhood under threat (2004). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc05/english/ 97. the state of the world's children 2006: excluded and invisible (2005). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc06/ 98. the state of the world's children 2007: women and children. the double dividend of gender equality (2006). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc07/ 99. the state of the world's children 2010: special edition. celebrating 20 years of the convention on the rights of the child (2009). united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/rightsite/sowc/ 100. the state of the world's children 2012: children in an urban world (2011). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc2012/ 101. the state of the world's children 2013: children with disabilities (2012). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc2013/ 102. the state of the world's children 2014: every child counts, revealing disparities, advancing children’s rights (2013). united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc2014/ 103. the state of the world's children 2016: a fair chance for every child (2015). the united nations children’s fund (unicef). retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/sowc2016/ http://www.un.org/docs/asp/ws.asp?m=a/res/54/263 http://www.un.org/docs/asp/ws.asp?m=a/res/54/263 http://www.un.org/docs/asp/ws.asp?m=a/res/66/137 http://www.oecd.org/els/social/childwellbeing journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 140-167 104. world health statistics 2018: monitoring health for the sdgs, sustainable development goals (2018). geneva: world health organization. retrieved from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272596/9789241565585-eng.pdf?ua=1 105. world program for human rights education. second phase. plan of action (2012). united nations. 106. the state report on the condition of children and families having children in the russian federation (2016). ministry of labor and social security of the russian federation. retrieved from https://rosmintrud.ru/docs/mintrud/protection/474 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 225-247 the impact of the sesan customary practice on the traditional marriage of the lampung pepadun society in instilling sharia social values suhairi1 abstract this study aims to determine the impact of the traditional practice of sesan on the indigenous people of lampung pepadun negara aji baru lampung, which is intended to inculcate social values in sharia or islamic law. a qualitative research design was used to guide the research. the main data sources came from interviews conducted with penyimbang adat (penyimbang custom), religious leaders, and the indigenous people of lampung pepadun bumi aji. the research findings reveal that the traditional practice of sesan is a form of local wisdom of the indigenous people of lampung pepadun, which must be implemented in the marriage contract. social values in sharia provide an understanding of the position of sesan property in marriage seen from the wisdom and benefits it obtains. sesan treasure aims to glorify a wife like a queen in a household who needs various household facilities. this is intended to reduce the fear of getting married because they do not have the facilities for their household needs. sesan property is not allowed if in practice it conflicts with social values in the lampung pepadun custom which places the male party as an object imposed by self-interest, not based on mutual help. the novelty of this study states that the theoretical concepts used have succeeded in finding the understanding gaps that occur in the indigenous people of lampung pepadun. the findings also reveal that the inculcation of social values is through mutual cooperation between relatives or because of the services provided by relatives in customary community marriages. it should be understood that the sesan custom in marriage is intended to be the basic capital in fostering a household. the traditional practice of sesan which raises property issues in indigenous peoples is expected to contribute to the cultivation of islamic law and social values and local wisdom and become a source of knowledge as a form of self-actualization and alternative moral education. keywords: marriage property, traditional marriage, social values, sharia. introduction the inculcation of social values through literacy of local wisdom, historical and the traditional customs of the community is very valuable. this is part of efforts to protect self-identity (habibi, 2018; sulaiman & maksum, 2017), anticipate radicalism (rahmawati et al., 2019), instill moral education (nurzakiyah, 2018) and build social bonds (sumarni, 2018). the literature states that individuals and communities must be given the best possible education to maintain the meaning contained in these dimensions (widiya et al., 2021). looking at literacy about the history of 1 dr., institut agama islam (iain) metro email : suhairi@metrouniv.ac.id mailto:suhairi@metrouniv.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 civilization and sharia values, it can be seen from various relics, islamic symbols, and historical records. likewise with islamic culture, local communities are widely adopted, considering that some islamic travelers and traders stop by and settle in various countries. this makes islam included in socio-economic activities through local wisdom so that it has become a tradition of the world's islamic community starting from marriage, art-culture, and trade. previous studies have researched a lot of local wisdom of indigenous peoples as a form of value dynamics, sharia social values, and social teaching in the global era (rahayu, et al., 2020; rochaeti & pujiyono, 2020; winaja et al., 2019). in indonesia, the lampung indigenous people are one of the tribes that have adopted islamic culture. islamic culture that is clearly visible is the marriage tradition. as a result of acculturation of islamic culture and religion, in the tradition of marriage using islamic symbols and customary law. in its development, acculturation of islamic culture and ancestral traditions in indigenous peoples often leads to different views. the lampung indigenous people know the term sesan (innate property), which is a series that is mandatory in the lampung pepadun traditional marriage. this tradition applies if you ask for a woman who comes from the lampung traditional community. but in fact, not all men are economically capable of fulfilling the obligations of sesan property or sesan customs (juliansyahzen, 2019). in addition, many other tribes from outside lampung currently propose to the natives of lampung who do not understand the sesan property. previous findings show that conflicts often arise because of misunderstandings about sesan's assets and the laws that apply in the community; often, when divorce or talak cases, the men claim that the sesan property are the property of the men, while the women ask for the sesan property to be returned to women (danarta, 2019). so far, studies that discuss lampung's traditional traditions tend to only focus on three aspects. first, a study analyzes the diversity of procedures for implementing marriage and balance in the lampung pepadun custom (isnaeni & hakiki, 2017). second, studies that investigate the positive legal position of the implementation of a series of traditional traditions of lampung pepadun and saibatin (angkupi, 2015; ismail et al., 2019; rohaini et al., 2020). third, the piil pesenggiri conception (ariyani et al., 2015; fakhrurozi & puspita, 2021) and the local wisdom of the lampung indigenous people. recent studies on shariareveal the implementation of sharia maqasid on marriage agreements of indigenous peoples of lampung (lestari, 2020). these three tendencies have not been found in studies that pay special attention to the customary practice of suhairi 227 sesan property belonging to the indigenous people of lampung pepadun as a form of inculcating social values insharia. at the same time, both have an important role in the individual's ability to process information, knowledge and assess the position of sesan property in the social life of the lampung indigenous people. the reason is, if you look at history, the ancestors of the lampung indigenous people have adopted the social values of society and islamic symbols into the traditional traditions of the lampung people. the study of the instilling social values in shariais an integral part of the debate over customary law and islamic law, which is feared to trigger conflict in indigenous peoples (lukito, 1997). this study can encourage various sciences within the scope of social science education and sharia towards the cultivation of social values through the cultural traditions of the indonesian nation. interestingly, the views of instilling social values in shariaare expected to be able to realize selfactualization and offer an understanding of new social values that give birth to solutions in solving traditional problems of indigenous peoples. new social values give birth to solutions, especially in the practice of implementing traditional sesan on the lampung indigenous people. previous research revealed that building a culture of religious literacy is expected to preserve instilling social values in shariaas an alternative to moral education and traditions of the muslim community (muhammad, 2019; nurzakiyah, 2018). the literacy of sharia figures continues to be studied today because of their benefits for the advancement of human civilization, such as the works of imam shafi'i, imam hanafi, imam hambali, imam ghazali, zayd bin thabit, and many more. this study aims to investigate in-depth the study of the impact of the traditional practice of sesan in the marriage of the indigenous people of lampung pepadun for instilling social values in sharia. this study specifically describes the impact of the traditional practice of sesan from the perspective of the lampung indigenous people. research questions this research is based on the assumption that the giving of sesan property can conflict with instilling social values in sharia if it is coercive and crosses the line of fairness, so that it becomes a burden for women's families. in other words, sesan property becomes a materialistic object in the marriage contract. in line with the stated objectives, two research questions can be formulated: 1. how is the literacy of the indigenous people of lampung about the traditional sesan tradition in the marriage of the indigenous people of lampung pepadun? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 2. how are social values in sharia on seeing the position of sesan in the lampung pepadun indigenous community? literature review indigenous marriage property marriage property are assumed to be property controlled by husband and wife when bound in marital bonds (sandvik, 2005). marriage assets according to customary law are defined as all assets controlled by husband and wife as long as they are bound in the marriage bond, both assets originating from individuals, assets originating from an inheritance, grants, individuals, joint income of husband and wife as well as gift items (cammack & feener, 2008). in marital property, there are marriage property rights in the transition period. marital property rights is a term that includes the various rights and obligations granted by law to people who occupy the status of a married couple (waggoner, 1994). customary marriage assets are usually obtained through a prospective husband's dowry which is given in the form of money or household goods. in some indigenous peoples, this innate property is usually also given by relatives or relatives such as aunts or uncles. this is a form of affection, help, and reciprocation from them. the social values that are instilled through the attitude of mutual cooperation at the time of traditional weddings have largely become a hereditary tradition from their ancestors (juliansyahzen, 2019). studies show that it is essential to protect women's property rights in a marriage. because most women, after divorce from customary marriages, do not get justice in the distribution of marital property (moore & himonga, 2015). the literature also reveals that widows have more autonomy in their legal actions. still, they are no more than spouses in legal heirs to marital property, especially if it is a customary law tradition. marriage property has a function as wealth that husband and wife can use to meet their daily needs. previous studies on the marital property can be divided into four categories, namely: 1) inherited assets obtained by husband and wife before marriage in the form of gifts or inheritance; 2) livelihood is obtained from the income of husband and wife jointly during the marriage; 3) income assets obtained from husband and wife individually obtained before and after the marriage is carried out; 4) gifts are obtained from husband and wife together when the marriage is carried out in the form of gifts, grants, and others (van der meide, 1999; brien et al., 2010; djuniarti, 2017). suhairi 229 social values in sharia social values in religion can see and analyze the intersection between religion and life, social, political, and cultural (nurzakiyah, 2018). meanwhile, sharia is a system of rules based on the revelation of allah swt and the prophet's hadith regarding the behavior of the mukallaf (people who can already be burdened with obligations as a muslim), which are recognized and believed to be binding on their adherents (gleave, 2001). shari'a means the law that allah has ordered to his people, both related to aqidah and amaliyah. shariaaims to regulate human relations with each other and humans with their god (melchert, 2001). instilling social values in needs to be taught to the community to live and adapt to the times. in addition to fostering interest in reading, this literacy also trains individuals to understand why instilling social values in needs to be taught to the community to live and adapt to the times values are important. this also trains individuals and communities to criticize sources of knowledge related to religion or the values they get in the form of text, oral, visual, and digital (nurzakiyah, 2018). even in muamalah, shariah values must be implemented properly (syihabudin & gumelar, 2019). the purpose of sharia is maqasid ash sharia (kamali, 1999). there are four sources of sharia. first, the qur'an is the main basis for establishing sharia. the qur'an is the holy book of muslims which contains contents containing commands, prohibitions, suggestions, stories, provisions, wisdom, and so on. the qur'an explains in detail the rules and how humans live life to become human beings with noble character. second, al-hadith is everything that is based on the messenger of allah, both in the form of his words, behavior, and actions. the word hadith has expanded its meaning and is often synonymous with sunnah, which means the words, deeds, and provisions of the prophet muhammad made into sharia provisions. third, ijma 'is the agreement of all mujtahid scholars after the prophet muhammad's time. ijma 'that can be accounted for is what happened at the companions' time, tabiin (after the companions of the prophet muhammad), and tabi'uttabiin (after tabiin). the fourth is qiyas which means explaining something that has no textual evidence in the qur'an and hadith (chapra et al., 2008; dutton, 2013). there are four types of sharia. first, it is obligatory, which is an act in which you will get a reward if you do it, and if you leave it, you will get a sin. second, the sunnah is an act that you will get a reward if you do it, and if you don't do it, you will not get in. third, haram is an act which, if done, earns a sin, and if left, it gets a reward or goodness from allah swt. fourth, makruh is an act journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 which, if left behind, is better than doing it. fifth mubah is an act that can be done or may also be abandoned (al-raysuni, 2006). the purpose of sharia consists of six kinds, namely 1) preserving the offspring, 2) preserving the human mind, 3) preserving the glory, 4) preserving the soul, 5) maintaining the property, and 6) preserving the religion (abdal-haqq, 2002). method design this study uses a qualitative research design. according to patton (2005), qualitative research aims to find out the world from the point of view of research subjects who experience a particular experience or event directly. research focuses on what participants say contextually and structural analysis in which the researcher collects and explores more from participants' experiences. the researcher uses a qualitative approach from patton (2005) with theme categories including (1) social values in the traditional practice of sesan; (2) shariaon the position of sesan custom. the research is located in lampung, pepadun, bumi aji, indonesia. the researcher chose this location because the implementation of the sesan property in a wedding reception is a characteristic of the lampung indigenous people. the time of the study was carried out in 2020, namely january to march 2020. participants this study involved 16 participants consisting of 4 traditional balancers, 2 islamic religious leaders, and 10 indigenous people. the traditional balancer is the eldest male from the oldest descendants highly respected in the pepadun tradition because he is the determinant in the decision-making process. meanwhile, the indigenous people are the lampung pepadun indigenous people who carry out the sesan traditional tradition. the majority of indigenous peoples come from the abung, way kanan, and way seputih (pubian) areas. the criteria for participants in this study are; (a) balancing adat and indigenous muslim communities from lampung pepadun, (b) islamic religious leaders native to the lampung tribe, (c) in the adult age category, (d) balancing adat and islamic religious leaders having extensive knowledge of sesan custom; (e) the indigenous peoples have practiced the sesan property; and (f) participants are willing to be the subject of this study with an anonymized name. this criterion aims to ensure that the participants actually have the same experience and sufficient views on the suhairi 231 sesan customs and instilling social values in sharia. based on predetermined criteria, participants were obtained as shown in table 1. table 1 participant description variable characteristica frequency percentage (%) gender male female 12 4 75% 25% age group 17-25 years old 26-35 years old 36-50 years old 51 years old & above 2 4 3 7 13% 25% 19% 43% participant penyimbang adat (penyimbang custom) religious leaders indigenous peoples 4 2 10 25% 13% 62% data and sources of data research data in the form of primary data and secondary data. primary data sources are the results of field observations and interviews with participants (penyimbang custom, religious leaders, and indigenous peoples). field observations were carried out to obtain data in the form of a description of the implementation of the traditional sesan at a traditional lampung wedding party. the description of the implementation of the traditional sesan focuses on the various property of the sesan and the procedures for its implementation. interviews were conducted with participants focused on the research theme. secondary data sources are data obtained from documents belonging to customary balancers and indigenous peoples related to the implementation of the sesan custom. documents also come from the fatwa of the indonesian ulema council, the holy quran, and hadith on marriage and the position of marital property (mahar). in addition, the documents come from positive laws that apply in indonesia and scientific articles that are relevant to research. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 table 2 types of data based on research themes theme data focus primary data secondary data social values in the traditional practice of sesan implementation of sesan's customs and customary law related to sesan's property participants' knowledge related to the implementation of sesan's customs and sesan's property 1. documents in the form of photos, recordings, and notes related to the implementation of the traditional sesan 2. books and journals sharia on the position of sesan's property the study of shariaon the provision of property, dowry (dowry), in marriage and its position participants' knowledge of sharia in relation to the position of sesan's property 1. al quran and hadith 2. scientific articles instrument the observation guide is determined by referring to aspects consisting of the location of the marriage, the physical environment for the implementation of the traditional sesan in general, the reception room, the property of the sesan, the atmosphere of the implementation, the traditional process of the sesan, and anyone who plays a role in the implementation of the sesan custom. the aim is to obtain information and data regarding the physical and non-physical conditions of the implementation of the traditional sesan. the interview guide aims to determine the extent of participants' knowledge and implementation of sesan customs. the guiding questions focus on the study of religious literacy, inculcation of social values in sharia, socio-culture, and research methods. the document analysis criteria focus on the themes, namely: 1) social values in the traditional practice of sesan, and 2) sharia on sesan property. to determine the focus of the research on the observation and interview guides, it comes from discussions with experts and participants before the researcher prepares the interview/observation guide items. the researcher cross-checked with the expert again after finishing detailing the research focus. the researcher uses the opinion of experts to assess the suitability of the research focus, the right types of questions, and the trials carried out to suit the research objectives. expert validation was carried out using the discussion method. in discussions, researchers convey ideas and concepts as discussion material to experts. for the trial, researchers used anchors by applying suhairi 233 to 16 participants. researchers conduct observations or interviews, record processes, transcript results, analyze themes and confirm with experts so that researchers can achieve real experiences. from this side, the researcher can find out whether the focus of the instrument is correct or not, the question words are meaningful or not. it is expected that participants understand clearly the questions that the researcher has prepared. the interview instrument consisted of 9 question items. the material focuses on two categories of themes, namely (i) social values in the traditional practice of sesan; (ii) islamic legal literacy regarding the position of sesan's property, see table 2. table 3 instrument questions rq1: how is the literacy of the lampung indigenous people about the sesan tradition in the marriage of the lampung indigenous people of pepadun? social values in the traditional practice of sesan 1. implementation of the delivery of sesan in marriage 2. ethics and norms for giving impressions in marriage 3. difficulty and ease of handing over messages in marriage 4. conditions of customary law in lampung indigenous peoples 5. community factors: socio-cultural 6. balancing factor (customary head): responsibility rq2: how are social values in sharia in seeing the position of sesan in the lampung pepadun indigenous community? sharia on sesanproperty 1. sesan's treasure in the view of muslims 2. family responsibilities in marriage 3. the benefits and wisdom that arise from the submission of sesan in marriage data collection procedures the steps of collecting qualitative data consist of: efforts to limit the research by focusing on the research theme, determine the type of data collection and design an effort to record the data that has been collected. primary data to support the main data consists of participant observation and interviews. at the same time, the second supporting data is in the form of document review. the purpose of this data collection procedure is to help the research be more focused. in observation, the researcher went directly to the research location to observe the implementation of the sesan custom in the lampung traditional wedding party. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 the next stage is to conduct interviews with participants. interviews were conducted to reveal the attitudes and knowledge of the participants. they focus on instilling social values in sharia, sesan's treasures, and their views as muslims. this topic is specifically carried out to collect primary data about the traditional sesan tradition and its position in sharia. all participant interviews were conducted independently by the researcher. the interview was conducted in coordination with the adat balancer; after that the time and place of the interview were conducted in nuwo sesat, which is the main place for the meeting of the purwatins or balancers at the time of holding a adat pepung (consultation). the observed aspect was the participants' perceptions and discussed their experiences and thoughts about islamic law related to the traditional sesan tradition. each participant was interviewed in-depth for a maximum of 20 minutes. the results of the interviews were then documented in voice recordings and research notes. the interview guide used was based on the focus data, each coded as follows: (1) social values in the traditional practice of sesan (q1); (2) sharia regarding the position of sesan's property (q2). next, manual coding is carried out according to the participant number: participant 1 = ps1, participant number 2 = ps2, and so on. finally, coding consistency was assessed to infer coded data. researchers used the tools used to collect data in obtaining data, namely research notebooks, sound recordings, and cameras. next, the researcher conducted a document analysis. documents in the form of books, journals, important documents needed by researchers to find data that support the validity of research data. the documents in question are documents related to the implementation of the traditional sesan tradition and the position of property in sharia in the marriage contract. data analyses technique data analysis is systematically sorting data and organizing it into categories according to the theme to produce a working hypothesis that the researcher has determined. the data analysis used by the researcher refers to data analysis from miles and huberman (1994) which consists of data reduction, data presentation, and then draw conclusions. first, data reduction is a process of selecting, centralizing data, simplifying, and transforming rough data that emerges from field observation notes. data reduction is done by sorting out the part of the coded data and separating data that is not related to the focus and research problem to make it easier for researchers to analyze and see which data is really needed and make it easier to make conclusions. second, the suhairi 235 presentation of data in the form of a set of information that has been arranged to provide possible conclusions and taking action. presentation of data in the form of narrative text. all of them are designed to combine structured information so that researchers can find out what happens in the implementation of the traditional sesan. the third is drawing conclusions. in drawing conclusions, researchers try to draw conclusions directly from data obtained from the field in the form of data, writing, and behavior. related to these three conclusions are made by the actual situation of the implementation of the sesan custom at the marriage of the lampung pepadun bumi aji community. discussion literacy of sesan property in the marriage of the indigenous people of lampung pepadun the first findings on the literacy of indigenous peoples regarding the giving of sesan property in the marriages of the indigenous people of lampung pepadun revealed that the giving of sesan property in the marriages of the indigenous people of lampung is a hereditary tradition carried out by the indigenous people of lampung. in practice, the delivery of sesan property is given at the wedding reception. the gift of this property is a form of love and help or because of the services rendered by female and male relatives. sesan property given by relatives can be fixed assets, buildings, land, jewelry, and household furniture. according to participants, considering data 1. (1) the sesan custom is implemented when a woman is about to get married. the tradition in lampung indigenous peoples is that the women's relatives help provide household furniture for provisions in starting married life.” as stated by the participants, sesan's property do not depend on funds from the bachelor (male), but more emphasis is placed on the ability of the girl's parents, and from the start, sesan has also been in the form of objects that the girl and her parents have prepared for example filter cloth, tools kitchen, and other household furniture. if it is from the male side, even though it is difficult, he will still give the inheritance according to the abilities and negotiations from the male side to the female side. if there is no sesan in the marriage, it will be the talk of the community both from the male and female sides. in the lampung pepadun traditional strata, if the customary stages have been passed, the sesan property must exist without calculating the size of the sesan value. recent studies reveal that the practice of indigenous peoples related to the payment of marital property is common because it is part of customary law (scurlock, 2021). even based on historical records, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 the tradition of giving this kind of marriage property has been carried out since the middle ages (klein, 2000). when examined based on the ethics and norms of the submission of sesan in a traditional marriage of lampung pepadun, considering data 2. (2) not only the procession, implementation procedures, rules, and requirements for lampung traditional wedding rituals, especially the implementation of sesan treasures, are quite complicated. starting from the implementation of nindai or the process of assessing the prospective wife, nunang/proposing, nyirok/nyikat, negotiating/menjeu, sesimburan/bathed, betanges/steam bathing, hairdressing/shaving, traditional ceremonies to the marriage ceremony. it was during this marriage contract that sesan's treasure was handed over which was then followed by the ngurukken majeu/ngerukuk ceremony and the talo balak tabuhan.” all processes for the arrangement of events and rituals, up to the lampung traditional wedding procession, must be carried out according to customary law. in addition, the presence of the balancers is also a must in the implementation of the marriage tradition of the lampung people. the balancers are also witnesses in the provision of sesan property to the prospective wife. the literature explains that indigenous peoples highly respect the customary law of marriage both in terms of rights and obligations and the duties and responsibilities of both parties are respected even by extended families (anyogu & ibekwe, 2020). this is why the tradition of sesan treasure has been passed down from generation to generation until the modernization era as it is today. marriage in the indigenous people of lampung pepadun has two procedures, proposal (rasan tuha) by giving jojokh money and larian (sembambangan) leaving tengepik money. jojokh money is determined based on an agreement between the two parties; jojokh money based on an agreement is often considered burdensome for the man based on the request of the woman's family. based on previous research in east lampung, marriages occurred by running away, both parties who wanted to marry used the run as an alternative way to avoid the customary process, which was considered long and burdensome for the men (juliansyahzen, 2019) in the implementation of sesan property, they often experience various challenges. especially if the road leading to the wedding reception is difficult for the bride and groom to cross, on the one hand, this tradition must be carried out, but on the other hand, it is sometimes difficult to carry out properly. as for the difficulty and ease of handing over sesan in marriage, considering data 3. suhairi 237 (3) “at the time of the marriage ceremony, the sesan property is brought by the entourage of the bride-to-be. because there are quite a lot of them, sometimes it is difficult to bring all of sesan's possessions to the wedding reception.” socio-economic changes do not seem to hinder the tradition of handing over sesan's property. until now, despite experiencing difficulties in bringing sesan's property, this has not been carried out according to customary law. the study of literature found that the wedding ceremony adhered to the traditions and customs of indigenous peoples. because marriage is a very sacred thing (jotam et al., 2019). therefore, whatever the challenges do not prevent them from carrying out the tradition as it should. considering the condition of customary law in the lampung indigenous people regarding the implementation of sesan's property, considering data 4. (4) “marriage according to customary law does not only mean a bond between husband and wife but also in obtaining offspring and being economically fulfilled. the principle of customary law marriage in lampung pepadun also requires husband and wife to form a sakinah, mawadah, and warohmah family as recommended in sharia.” adat sesan is local wisdom of the indigenous people of lampung which aims to ease the burden of newlyweds in starting life after marriage. this custom also aims to glorify a wife like a queen in the household who needs to be provided with various household facilities. this is intended to reduce the fear of getting married just because they do not have the facilities for their household needs. according to manugeren et al. (2017), a marriage tradition is a form of local wisdom where there are cultural symbols, objects of ethnic marriage, and the process that should not be violated. local wisdom in the marriage tradition of indigenous peoples also has distinctive character values and in the form of religious characters that are not shared by other ethnic groups (agusman et al., 2018). in the classical shariathat developed earlier, it did not recognize adat as a source of law, muslim jurists, especially the anaf, discussed the status of adat in the pre-classical period. adat is incorporated into sharia in various ways, for example through local wisdom (libson, 1997). from the socio-cultural point of view, considering data 5. (5) “the existence of sesan is a necessity in marriage. a need and requirements/stages that are passed in the process of carrying out the procession of traditional wedding ceremonies and from the perspective of the lampung culture, sesan is a provision and basic capital for both in fostering a household. that's why sesan is one of the vital needs that must still be carried out if the marriage is carried out traditionally.” journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 the source of funds from sesan depends on the amount, the money left by the woman, and the two people and the woman's sister work together to find funds according to their abilities. and from the male side will give one to close relatives and distant relatives and friends from the female family in the form of uleman/invitations. this uleman is an invitation or notification that the girl from a's family will arrive at her wedding, usually in cigarettes for men and soap for girls. the amount of the gift can be seen in what cigarettes we receive. for the woman's uncles, money will usually be followed according to the ability of the men. this is one of the socio-cultural values of the indigenous people of lampung pepadun, which is generally carried out as a form of mutual cooperation among community members. in this case, it will be repaid when relatives and neighbors have daughters in the future. previous findings revealed that the gotong-royong (mutual cooperation)is a tradition in every activity related to the traditional party of indigenous peoples (sibarani, 2017; kesuma & rahman, 2020). in the implementation of the marriage, especially in the handover of sesan's property, the balancer must be present. balancing role (customary head), considering data 6. (6) “the tradition of handing over sesan property requires the presence and approval of the balancers and family members. marriage is considered invalid if it is only religious law and does not involve their presence.” in carrying out the sesan tradition, the balancer is the main character whose decisions are considered. balancing also listens to the opinions of his subordinates. the advice given by the balancer is usually a consideration in the implementation of the marriage as well as in the case of sesanproperty. the literature explains that the role of traditional elders/elders plays a big role in building peace for indigenous peoples (nur gedi, 2020). in the igala proverb, traditional elders are referred to as signs of identity and social recognition, where the symbol of authority is in the hands of traditional elders (sule et al., 2019). therefore, the advice from the balancers becomes a separate calculation for the parties of the extended family who will carry out the traditional wedding party. social values in sharia on the position of sesan in the indigenous people of lampung pepadun the findings reveal that social values in sharia based on the knowledge of the indigenous people of lampung pepadun views sesan's property as permissible if it is by the provisions for benefit and does not contain elements of harm. the point is that the treasure has more wisdom and benefits. suhairi 239 the obligation to fulfill sesan's property should not burden both parties, both women and men. the granting of cesarean assets is prohibited if there is an element of compulsion to fulfill it and the element of benefit is less. this shows that the knowledge of indigenous peoples in understanding the values of sharia is quite good. indigenous people obey customary law and islamic law; only in practice, customary law becomes a binding rule in lampung indigenous peoples. the literature reveals that islamic law advocates marriage but is not intended to fulfill certain conditions that are difficult to fulfill (kohar, 2016). like the giving of dowry, sadaqah, and nihlah in the al qur’an, the term sesan property is better known in the indigenous people of lampung pepadun. the resource person explained that, (7) “in sharia, it is prescribed to pay a dowry only as a form of gift given by a prospective husband to a prospective wife, and as an acknowledgment from a man on the basis of the humanity, honor and honor of women.” this is clarified in the qur'an surah an nisa verse 4 which reads, "give a dowry to the woman you marry as a willing gift." thus, it is clear that the gift of sesan's property must be sincere and the intention of the giver is sincere, not out of compulsion. hadith narrated by muttafaq'alaih, rasulullah saw said, "give (the dowry) even an iron ring." if it refers to the basis of sharia, the dowry becomes an obligation and is determined with the agreement of both parties. the dowry that must be paid at the time of the marriage contract is only as a wasilah (intermediary) for the ghayah (destination), because islamic law strongly recommends that dowry in marriage be facilitated. therefore, islamic law does not stipulate the size of the dowry given. likewise with sesan's property, if you examine what has been explained regarding the dowry before the marriage contract, sesan's property is the same in terms of purpose and purpose. but the law is different, because paying the dowry is mandatory while sesan's property is allowed as long as it meets the terms and conditions that are guided by the teachings of convenience and are not burdensome. in the case of divorce-related to sesan's property, the qur'an and hadith do not provide detailed provisions that the property obtained by husband and wife is entirely the right of the husband or the right of the wife. what is meant is that the husband has his own property and the wife does the same. there is no combination of assets except by shirkah and carried out by a special contract. at the time of divorce, shariaexplains that sesan's property becomes the right of the woman or congenital property of the wife because this property was owned before marriage. the findings of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 krauskopf (1978), suggests that marital property in divorce has provisions for the distribution of assets that refer to the regulations that apply in society and the state. the panel of judges at the religious courts thinks, (8) “sesan property or luggage includes the property of the woman because the property was obtained by the woman before the marriage took place as a gift from the relatives of the woman. therefore, sesan's property is not a joint property, but is inherited from the woman. thus, the property of sesan belongs to the woman” more specifically, in the civil code, it is explained that the assets of a husband and wife are mixed when a marriage bond occurs. so it is clear that sesan's property is a property that is the woman's right even though the divorce occurs. then the regulation of law number 1 of 1974 article 35 paragraph 2 explains that "the innate property of each husband and wife and the assets obtained by each as a gift or inheritance is under the control of each party, not stipulating otherwise." in this case, the wife still holds the sesan property as a legal subject for all her own property. but if you look at the customary law of lampung, if the agreement is not from the court but the husband and wife in the event of a divorce from the point of view of the lampung abung customary culture which adheres to the patrilineal system which prioritizes the son, the marital property tends to be controlled by the man on the basis that it will be given to the child. men as a straight lineage. previous studies have shown that it is essential to protect women's property rights in a marriage.because most women, after divorce from customary marriages, do not get justice in the distribution of marital property (moore & himonga, 2015). sesan's property as a new need after marriage, considering data 9. (9) “sesan property is one of the supporting factors for happiness and peace in a husband-wife relationship. because sesan's property can support married life.” factors supporting happiness in a marriage are not limited to mere material. however, the dowry or dowry known in the traditional lampung tradition as sesan treasure is basically intended to worship (in this case what is meant is marriage as the purpose of worship to build a sakinah, mawaddah, and warahmah family) to be perfect and valid. however, women should reduce their dowry according to the feasibility and existence of women. the existence in question can be seen from the relationship with aspects of society, cultural customs, and the level of maturity of reason. dowry is a feature (symbol) that is known to distinguish between marriage and muhkadanah. mukhadanah is a marriage that is like polyandry (nurhadi, 2018). and by giving a dowry as a suhairi 241 differentiator between a valid marriage and a mukhadanah. giving property to a prospective wife is a form of respect, appreciation, and protection for women. this is a form of the seriousness of men to propose to their prospective wives (ali & tariq, 2019). although previous research has stated that the dowry tradition is defined as a marriage grant (baranyi, 2019), the customary law of the lampung pepadun community still holds the tradition to require the existence of sesan property in traditional marriages. the novelty of this research, as has been explained, is that the sharia in the indigenous people of lampung is quite strong. although in this study, it was also found that there is a tendency to carry out sesan beyond the limits of ability for reasons as a form of prestige and satisfaction on the part of the bride to show affection for her daughter. one example of coercion is to buy sesan property that far exceeds the amount of money given by the man. thus it is clear that sesan treasure is a symbol of responsibility, agreement, and willingness of both parties in the marriage bond. it is possible in practice to comply with sharia. in the end, this finding explains that in the lampung traditional community, traditional traditions are still practiced from generation to generation. the novelty is shown in research in the scope of inculcating sharia social values through the tradition of implementing the sesan custom at lampung community weddings. interestingly, the view of inculcating sharia social values in traditional marriages for muslim communities is able to realize self-actualization and offer an understanding of new social values in sharia which gives birth to a culture of mutual cooperation. in previous studies, this has not been explained in depth. previous research has focused more on the dynamics of change and customary marriage. this study shows the efforts of indigenous peoples in preserving the cultivation of social values in sharia as an alternative to moral education, cultural acculturation, and traditions of indigenous people: conclusion and implications this study aims to determine the literacy of the lampung indigenous people about the traditional sesan tradition in the marriage of the indigenous people of pepadun negara aji baru lampung which is intended to instill social values in the shari'a.the first finding concludes that the impact of the practice of sesan on the inculcation of social values is manifested in the form of cooperation between relatives in fulfilling the obligations of sesan property. this practice has become a mandatory tradition in the traditional wedding ceremony of lampung pepadun, which has a regular value structure, and there is no stipulation on the amount of sesan property that must be journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 met. although some indigenous peoples make excessive requests for jojokh and tengepik money by women's families by including selfishness from the family, it changes the importance of the socio-cultural values of the community in the practice of traditional sesan. this study shows that it is essential to deeply instill social values in the traditional marriage tradition, especially implementing the sesan custom which is a form of local wisdom. the second finding related to social values in sharia on sesan's property in the tradition of the indigenous people of lampung pepadun negara aji baruconcluded that the knowledge of indigenous peoples about the implementation of shariaregarding the position of sesan's property is quite good. indigenous people understand the shari'a that has been set regarding sesan's real assets. the findings show that the literacy of lampung pepadun customary law requires the existence of sesanproperty as a form of obedience to customary traditions but not in number as a form of obedience to sharia. this shows that indigenous peoples understand the values of customary law and sharia values to make such decisions as a form of self-actualization. the theoretical concept used has succeeded in finding the gaps in understanding that occur in the indigenous people of lampung pepadun. the review of islamic law in marriage only requires a dowry which is a woman's right in return for surrender to her husband and sesan property in the form of household appliances in shariashould not be mandatory for the woman but is allowed as long as it fulfills the provisions of shariasuch as the element of the willingness of both parties, a form of responsibility and respect for women. this research has limitations on the perspective of the indigenous people of lampung pepadun who are in the bumi aji state of central lampung, the study conducted only focuses on one area. thus, a broader study is needed to produce a comprehensive understanding by relying on objective indicators in testing the position of sesan property in sharia. as specific research, there are many problems that further researchers can analyze further, for example, the disappearance of marriage procedures or series according to lampung customs using a survey approach that will allow a fairly good measurement. pedagogical implication the theme of instilling social values in shariaregarding customary marriage practices that require a dowry or marriage inheritance in indigenous peoples has not been widely taught in social science education institutions and islamic universities. in fact, knowledge about these practices is suhairi 243 essential to be studied more deeply to support social behavior, local wisdom and build socioreligious values in society. the inculcation of social values and iterations can also be provided through socialization in collaboration with traditional elders and islamic religious leaders. the role of local governments is considered to support the preservation of traditional marriages. although normative legal efforts and the mui fatwa have been carried out, local government regulations must support instilling social values in sharia on traditional marriage traditions. this finding is expected to encourage muslims who are also part of indigenous peoples to better understand the importance of instilling social values in shariaas the basic foundation that can create peace in social life and married life sakinahmawaddah, and waromah. references abdal-haqq, i. (2002). islamic law-an overview of its origin and elements. j. islamic l. & culture, 7, 27. agusman, a., suyitno, i., & pratiwi, y. (2018). local wisdom and value of character in level of aji krama at sasak wedding tradition. isllac : journal of intensive studies on language, literature, art, and culture, 2(1), 45–53. https://doi.org/10.17977/um006v2i12018p045 al-raysuni, a. (2006). imam al-shatibi’ s theory of the higher objectives and intents of islamic law. (d. a. s. al-shaikh-ali & s. khan, eds.). usa: the other press. ali, s., & tariq, m. (2019). an analysis of dowry practices and its religious aspect in rural area of district swat-pakistan. journal of philosophy, culture and religion, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.7176/jpcr/41-01 angkupi, p. (2015). formulasi perkawinan adat lampung dalam bentuk peraturan daerah dan relevansinya terhadap hak asasi manusia. asy-syir’ah: jurnal ilmu syari’ah dan hukum, 49(2), 315–337. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.14421/asy-syir’ah.2015.%25x anyogu, f., & ibekwe, c. s. (2020). a comparative exposition of customary law marriage in nogeria and south africa. international journal of comparative law and legal philosophy (ijocllep), 2(2), 135–138. ariyani, f., yufrizal, h., agustina, e. s., & mustofa, a. (2015). konsepsi piil pesenggiri menurut masyarakat adat lampung waykanan di kabupaten waykanan. bandar lampung: aura publishing. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 baranyi, e. z. (2019). comparison of wedding donations in hungarian law and mahr in islamic law the. díké-a márkus dezső összehasonlító jogtörténeti kutatócsoport folyóirata, 3(1), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.15170/dike.2019.03.01.05 brien, r. c. o., brien, r. c., in, i. b. a. s. i. s., & ry, h. i. (2010). integrating marital property into a spouse’s elective share. the catholic university of america, columbus school of law, 59, 717–715. cammack, a. e., & feener., r. aa. (2008). joint marital property in indonesian customary, islamic. in the law applied: contextualizing the islamic shari’a (p. 92). chapra, m. u., khan, s., & al shaikh-ali, a. (2008). the islamic vision of development in the light of maqasid al-shariah. london-washington: the international institute of islamic though. danarta, k. s. (2019). karakteristik pemasangan hak tanggungan terhadap harta perkawina. jurnal media hukum dan peradilan, 161–174. djuniarti, e. (2017). hukum harta bersama ditinjau dari perspektif undang-undang perkawinan dan kuh perdata. jurnal penelitian hukum de jure, 17(4), 445. https://doi.org/10.30641/dejure.2017.v17.445-461 dutton, y. (2013). the origins of islamic law. the origins of islamic law, (december), 4324. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203036839 fakhrurozi, j., & puspita, d. (2021). konsep piil pesenggiri dalam sastra lisan wawancan lampung saibatin. jurnal pesona, 7(1), 1-13. gleave, r. m. (2001). islamic law: theory and practice. london (u.k): ib tauris. habibi, h. (2018). protecting national identity based on the value of nation local wisdom. international journal of malay-nusantara studies, 1(2), 24–40. retrieved from http://journal.unhas.ac.id/index.php/ijom-ns/article/view/5516 ismail, h., asy’ari, h., & setiawan, a. (2019). hak waris anak laki-laki tertua dalam hukum adat lampung pepadun perspektif gender (studi di tegineneng kabupaten pesawaran). al hurriyah: jurnal hukum islam, 4(1), 56–67. isnaeni, a., & hakiki, k. m. (2017). simbol islam dan adat dalam perkawinan adat lampung pepadun. kalam, 10(1), 193. https://doi.org/10.24042/klm.v10i1.341 jotam kalalo, j. j., betaubun, p., & kalalo, c. n. (2019). implementation of marriage by indigenous law to yei tribe communities. international journal of management, 10(6), 45–53. https://doi.org/10.34218/ijm.10.6.2019.005 suhairi 245 juliansyahzen, m. i. (2019). dialektika hukum islam dan hukum adat pada perkawinan lelarian di lampung timur. al-ahwal: jurnal hukum keluarga islam, 12(1), 1-14. kamali, m. h. (1999). maqasid al-shari’ah: the objectives of islamic law. islamic studies, 38(2), 193–208. https://doi.org/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20837037 kesuma, a. i., & rahman, a. (2020). mappettong bola: a form of mutual help in bugis community, 226(icss), 997–1003. https://doi.org/10.2991/icss-18.2018.208 klein, e. (2000). the widow’s portion: law, custom, and marital property among medieval catalan jews. viator, 31, 147–164. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1484/j.viator.2.300764 kohar, a. (2016). kedudukan dan hikmah mahar dalam perkawinan. hukum dan ekonomi islam, 42–50. krauskopf, j. (1978). marital property at marriage dissolution. missouri law review, 43(2), 1. lestari, d. a. (2020). tinjauan maqoshid al-syari’ah terhadap perjanjian perkawinan masyarakat adat lampung (studi di kecamatan anak tuha kabupaten lampung tengah). al maqashidi, 3(2), 37–49. libson, g. (1997). on the development of custom as a source of law in islamic law: al-rujū’u ilā al-’urfi ahadu al-qawā’idi al-khamsi allatī yatabannā ’ alayhā al-fiqhu. islamic law and society. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568519972599770 lukito, r. (1997). “islamic law and adat encounter: the experience of indonesia”, thesis. montreal: institute of islamic studies, mcgill university. manugeren, m., sibarani, r., nasution, i., & takari, m. (2017). local wisdom in hindu tamil ethnic wedding tradition in medan. international journal of research in humanities & soc. sciences, 5(2012), 38–48. melchert, c. (2001). traditionist-jurisprudents and the framing of islamic law. islamic law and society, 8(3), 383–406. https://doi.org/10.1163/156851901317230639 moore, e., & himonga, c. (2015). protection of women ’s marital property rights upon the dissolution of a customary marriage in south africa: a view from inside and outside the courts. centre for social science research, (350), 1– 26.http://hdl.handle.net/11427/19174 muhammad, i. (2019). tradisi literasi islam dan budaya baca masyarakat aceh. jurnal mudarrisuna: media kajian pendidikan agama islam, 9(1), 249. https://doi.org/10.22373/jm.v9i1.4223 http://hdl.handle.net/11427/19174 https://doi.org/10.22373/jm.v9i1.4223 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 225-247 miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. sage. nur gedi, a. (2020). peacebuilding in somalia: the role of local elders (case of mogadishu). university of rwada. retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/1082 nurhadi. (2018). mahar services ( dowry non material ) according to mazhab imam hanafi and mazhab imam syafi ’i. indonesian journal of islamic law, 1(1), 82–101. nurzakiyah, c. (2018). literasi agama sebagai alternatif pendidikan moral. jurnal penelitian agama, 19(2), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.24090/jpa.v19i2.2018.pp20-29 patton, m. q. (2005). qualitative research. (b. s. everitt & d. c. howell, eds.), encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science (vol. 3). john wiley & sons, ltd, chichester. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13931. rahayu, n., warto, w., sudardi, b., & wijaya, m. (2020). dynamics of social values and teaching in the global era: beyond sekaten tradition in surakarta kingdom. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 11(1), 213-229. rahmawati, r., rusli, m., & yahiji, k. (2019). actualization of local wisdom in anticipating radicalism of religion in gorontalo indonesia. kalam, 12(2), 327–352. https://doi.org/10.24042/klm.v12i2.2676. rochaeti, nur & pujiyono, pujiono. (2020). islamic law on the indigenous court of kerapatan adat nagari institution in minangkabau, west sumatera. the first international conference on islamic development studies 2019, icids 2019, 10 september 2019, bandar lampung, indonesia.https://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.10-9-2019.2289354 rohaini, r., wahyuningdiah, k., & ariani, n. d. (2020). the challenges of legal protection on traditional cultural expressions of lampung. fiat justisia:jurnal ilmu hukum, 14(3), 221. https://doi.org/10.25041/fiatjustisia.v14no3.1853 sandvik, h. (2005). decision-making on marital property in norway, 1500–1800 bookthe. in the marital economy in scandinavia and britain 1400–1900 (p. 16). england: routledge/taylor & francis group. scurlock, j. (2021). “not even her own jewelry”: marital property in the middle assyrian laws. in law and (dis) order in the ancient near east (pp. 242-269). penn state university press. sibarani, r. (2017). batak toba society’s local wisdom of mutual cooperation in toba lake area: a linguistic anthropology study. international journal of human rights in healthcare, 11(1), 40–55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/ijhrh-08-2017-0035 permanent https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13931 https://doi.org/10.24042/klm.v12i2.2676 suhairi 247 sulaiman, & maksum, h. (2017). the developing of nationalism in acehnes local wisdom for those who runs the islamic sharia. researchers world : journal of arts, science and commerce, viii(2(1)), 53–57. https://doi.org/10.18843/rwjasc/v8i2(1)/07 sule, s. e., ojonugwa, s. j., & akanya, j. (2019). igala proverbs as correctional tools in the hands of traditional elders. ogirisi: a new journal of african studies, 15(1), 181–196. sumarni, s. (2018). local wisdom values as social attachment of school and multicultural society (the implementation of multicultural education at muhammadiyah islamic school sendangmulyo, kulon progo, yogyakarta). ijid (international journal on informatics for development), 7(3), 649–655. van der meide, w. (1999). gender equality v. right to culture-debunking the perceived conflicts preventing the reform of the marital property regime of the official version of customary law. s. african lj 116, 116, 100. waggoner, l. w. (1994). marital property rights in transition marital property rights in transition-, 59(1). widiya, a., hartati, l., puspitawati, l., gantino, r., & ilyas, m. (2021). pelatihan kepada masyarakat dalam menjaga makna kearifan lokal, nilai sejarah, dan adat khas tradisional masyarakat melayu peninggalan kerajaan sriwijaya. yumary: jurnal pengabdian kepada masyarakat, 1(4), 193-201. winaja, i., prabawa, i. w. s. w., & pertiwi, p. (2019). acculturation and its effects on the religious and ethnic values of bali’s catur village community. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 10(3), 249-275. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9(2),47-64 47 organizing blended learning for students on the basis of learning roadmaps nadezhda m. andreeva1, ivan p. artyukhov2, elena g. myagkova3, nikolay i. pak4, zhamilya k. akkasynova5 abstract the relevance of the problem of organizing blended learning for students is related to the sharpening contradiction between the high potential of this educational technology and the poor methodological elaboration of its use in actual learning practice. with regard to this, the paper is aimed at providing grounds for the methodological system of blended learning for students with learning roadmaps and bringing it to life. the leading idea of the methodological system consists in creating a special subject information environment that enables each student to design their own roadmaps for mastering certain subjects that fulfill the principles of blended learning. theoretical justification of using the learning roadmaps in teaching the students has been given and blended learning in conditions of subject information environment has been performed in practice. it is shown that the students' blended learning model based on the course learning roadmap promotes the successful acquisition of it subjects. the suggested method of organizing the students' blended learning is of interest for the contemporary theory of learning as well as for teachers implementing the elements of e-learning in their educational process. keywords: blended learning, learning roadmap, self-regulated learning, subject information environment. introduction at present, the quality of educational process at higher education institutions is associated with the transition to innovation methods and means of learning in conditions of e-learning (guri-rosenblit & gros, 2011). the level of the contemporary ict, methodological theory and practice of digital and distance learning can create organization and pedagogical conditions for shaping the learners' readiness to select their individual educational paths of learning, selfeducational activity (beishuizen and steffens, 2011; chigisheva et al., 2017; tarman, baytak & duman, 2015; tarman &chigisheva, 2017; yücel et. al., 2010). however, it is not always the case that e-learning dovetails with realia of the academic process of higher education institutions successfully and efficiently. it is well known that quite 1 assoc. prof.., siberian federal university, and-n-m@mail.ru 2 prof., dr., rector, v.f. voyno-yasenetskiy krasnoyarsk state medical university, rector@krasgmu.ru 3 assoc. prof., v.f. voyno-yasenetskiy krasnoyarsk state medical university, myagkova@krasgmu.ru 4 prof., doctor of pedagogy, v.p. astafyev krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university, nik@kspu.ru 5 dr., abai kazakh national pedagogical university, zhami.90@mail.ru mailto:and-n-m@mail.ru mailto:rector@krasgmu.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 47-64 frequently some educational institutions use e-learning in a completely formal manner, with elearning being interpreted largely as a strict necessity of following some attitudes and timeserving reasons (zakharova et al., 2017). it is so-called blended learning that gains a special part of all kinds of e-learning. blended learning is a combination of traditional classroom learning forms with e-learning methods and with using the distance educational technologies which is of especial importance and prospects for the development of the contemporary education as a whole and for a certain academic process in particular. blended learning allows organizing a flexible academic environment which ensures self-regulated learning – one under which students can determine the parameters of learning independently and in accordance with the requirements of the academic environment: its objective and strategy of learning, timing and results of learning, as well as alter them while mastering a subject (pintrich, 2000). with regard to this, students have to have an opportunity of independently evaluating the scope of performed work on solving a selected task of learning, the skills obtained, and using the evaluation for selecting a new academic task. the contemporary course of computer science at higher education institutions is an integral system of disciplines and is currently becoming extremely important not only as a basic fundamental science but also as a tool for professional training of the future specialists. for students, it has to ensure conditions for gaining skills of information activity, shaping the abilities of modeling their academic and professional sphere using ict (andreeva & pak, 2015). provided that they learn skills of self-assessment and tasks selection, this can considerably increase the volume of knowledge the students can get during self-regulated learning. the knowledge and skills obtained are used by the students as a means for gaining new knowledge and skills. self-regulated learning is intended for improving the level of knowledge of students in the area of knowledge acquisition. students select their strategies of learning up to their preferences and desirable results in learning and their self-assessment (kintu et al., 2017). as for the latter, misjudgment leads to a wrong selection of tasks and building a "roaming" strategy of learning (kostons et al., 2012). with regard to this, the question arises: how can conditions be created for efficiently organizing the students' blended learning when studying the course of computer science at higher education institutions? andreeva et al. recently, roadmaps have been used when designing complicated projects that involve different variants of fulfillment. as applied to the educational process, learning roadmaps can allow essentially democratizing the academic activity of students, "legalizing" their personal preferences in achievement of educational results (andreeva & pak, 2015; pak et al., 2015). unlike the project-fulfillment procedure plans and programs, where all measures are strictly planned out with resources, performers and deadlines, a roadmap is projective (pak, 2008) and it implies variability of achieving the end result based on new ideas, technologies, resources that emerge during fulfillment of the planned measures. the objective of this work is to give grounds for and to design a way of using the learning roadmaps in organizing the students' blended learning within the academic process of the computer science course. literature review regrettably, the traditional methodological systems of teaching computer science to students are already not up to the contemporary requirements of the society and the level of scientific and technical advance in computer systems and information and communication technologies (záhorec et al., 2012). pedagogues have high expectations for tailoring of learning in collective academic process forms based on the principles of student-centered education paradigm. they fairly believe that this can foster shaping and developing in students the critical, creative thinking, team work skills, ict literacy, leadership qualities, inquisitiveness, initiative and other 21st-century skills that help establishing a successful and competitive individual in the today's labor market (crumly, 2014; hannafin & hannafin, 2010; wright, 2011; tarman, 2016; 2017; tarman & dev, 2018). clearly, it is on the basis of one of the kinds of e-learning – the blended learning – that it is more convenient to ensure the conditions for organizing the student-centered approach. the term "blended learning" (blended, hybrid, integrated learning) came into common use among methods of learning after bonk and graham published their "handbook of blended learning" in 2006 (bonk and graham, 2004). the researchers christensen, horn and staker (2013) single out the following compulsory properties of blended learning: journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 47-64 1. student ownership implies it is the students and not teachers who are responsible for educational results, for choosing the ways of achieving them; it enhances the students' readiness to the expected mode of university studies and teaches them to independently set the objectives and tasks; it also improves the level of their motivation and achievements; 2. personalized academic process enables the learners to build their own individual educational paths and study at their own pace; 3. mastery-based learning implies transition to a new material only after the required level of mastery has been confirmed for the studied one; 4. orientation to high achievements in each child is a psychological and pedagogical phenomenon that promotes high commitment and internal motivation; 5. attaching importance to relations building involves equal relations of learners with their teacher, classmates, and representatives of third-party organizations of various ages that participate in the educational process. in the russian education, implementation of self-regulated learning has so far remained at the level of small projects, brief papers reporting the experience of use with emotional replies to any positive results obtained. meanwhile, the analysis of studies (zimmerman & schunk, 2011; beishuizen & steffens, 2011) confirms that the methodological foundations of this educational technology is understudied and the experience of its use in real practice is not vast. nevertheless, there are increasingly frequent attempts of integrating the elements of elearning into the traditional academic process. for example, the case when resources of massive open online courses (mooc) are used in the traditional academic process seems quite appealing, particularly in computer science (andreeva & pak, 2017). mooc have to and may be used in the academic process of higher education institutions owing to the following factors. first of all, they combine the opportunities of distance and online learning provided that there are comprehensive digital learning and teaching support kits in the subjects. the study material is broken down in short sections, delivered in presentations and accompanied by audio and video recordings. learning is based on gaining the knowledge independently in the process of step-by-step acquisition of the material. second, a distinctive feature of mooc is giving a great part to interactive communication of students and teachers via forums in the process of learning. mutual assessment and discussion of works belong to the paramount methods of learning within mooc (andreeva & pak, 2017). andreeva et al. however, here numerous organization and methodological difficulties arise that should be overcome at the expense of creating special subject information environment. in this environment, a mechanism for seamless inclusion of mooc elements into all convenient kinds of the students' independent work has to be provided for. it is the technology of learning roadmaps (andreeva & pak, 2015, pak et al., 2015; nikolaeva & pak, 2017) that can serve as a mechanism of this kind. a roadmap is a tool of planning. it is a diagram mapped along the temporal axis and reflecting the current or target condition of an object, and possible target achievement scenarios. kappel (2001) points out the twofold nature of the roadmap – it forecasts what may happen in the future while at the same time determining the scenario for further actions. the most important particularity of roadmaps is the opportunity to adjust the scenario being performed in line with the objectives that may change depending on circumstances and the situation. thus, roadmaps allow taking advantage of the opportunities that have opened up and serve as a support in decision-making concerning further progress toward the objective (phaal et al., 2004). the starting point for developing a learning roadmap in computer science is students' educational need of the ic-competency. in the academic process on computer science (given the competency-based approach), the ic-competency is simultaneously the result of learning and the tool for achieving it. a higher level of ic-competency is reflected in students' preferences concerning the results of mastering the computer science; they may include them in their roadmaps and edit the roadmaps while learning. students determine the level of their aspirations, fill another stage of the roadmap with academic activities and compare their actions to the teacher's roadmap and the discipline acquisition schedule. they can adjust the content, duration and performance of each stage as they progress along the roadmap within the general requirements for mastering the discipline. in case of deviations from the expected results, students can complete additional correction assignments to replenish any understudied academic material and edit the submitted solutions of assignments. teaching computer science with the use of roadmap technique reduces the risks arising in conditions of e-learning: it eliminates the cases of piecewise material acquisition, makes it possible to identify a student's personal contribution into the solution submitted by the student in journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 47-64 a face-to-face talk, and allows avoiding the excessive "website scrolling" during the independent search for information in open-access resources. methodological framework the effectiveness of training the students for self-education in the educational process depends on the teachers' ability to pedagogically skillfully manage the students' self-education, and, certainly, on the extent of the students' being prepared for this kind of activity and on the appropriate means (ryabov, 2009). in the work (umarkhadzhieva, 2015), teaching methods are considered that shape the students' readiness for self-education. by transferring the pedagogical functions on themselves, people thus master the system of the relevant "meta-cognitive abilities" (mushtavinskaya, 2011, p. 148). in order to create the multitude of conditions for drawing up learning roadmaps, a specially designed subject information environment (sie) has to be created (robert, 2010). for building the methodological system of students' blended learning in computer science, the system of some general didactic principles has to be transformed. the principle of non-linearity of an individual learning path is fulfilled due to the necessity of individualizing the learning and taking into account the personal and oriented pedagogical strategy of learning. it grants the students a right to consciously "breach" the sequential acquisition of topics and sections organized by the teachers. the principle of professionally oriented learning determines having to bring the computer science content in line with profile subject and professionally focused disciplines by creating special integrated academic projects the completion of which requires knowledge and abilities of using the information technologies. the principle of consistency of knowledge and learning in independent work allows integrating the special knowledge, abilities, skills in both online and offline work. it is important and essential because it is targeted at ongoing generalization and systematization of the students' acquired knowledge during their self-educational activity. the fourth one, the principle of accessibility, sufficiency, and non-redundancy of the academic and methodological materials for mastering a discipline is intended to optimize labor consumption and efforts of students when looking for the required information during the independent work. fulfillment of the fifth principle of consistent and objective diagnostics of the training level focuses on finding out the extent of success of the learners' progress along their andreeva et al. individual learning paths, on controlling and self-controlling the competencies being gained by them, and on the corrective and managing academic actions of teachers. finally, the sixth principle of multitude in communication between the subjects of the academic process is associated with situational and accessible student-teacher communication opportunities being necessary in the process of their remote communication and with the communications having to be mastered as a subject of learning. the methodological system of blended learning in computer science has been developed supporting the above didactic principles. the components of the methodological system are: the target one, the content-related one, the procedural component and the assessment and performance one (fig. 1). the target component of the methodological system of blended learning in computer science reflects the educational demands of the society, family, and the state, the requirements of the state educational standards, and the demand for information technologies in all spheres of life. it is the basis for determining the content and kinds of academic activity, the regularity of its pace and means of assessment. figure 1. components of methodological system of blended learning in computer science source: the authors the results of mastering the computer science depend on the level of information and communication competency (icc) formation in students. this is a multi-component assessment, with its structure determined by the direction of training of the students. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 47-64 the assessment and performance component includes the module and rating system of assessing the students' activity in mastering the discipline and the procedure for correlating the score to the icc development level. at each point of time, students can know their currently accumulated scores for all completed assignments, find out their icc formation levels – see what they have mastered and are ready to perform and what sections they should pay closer attention to. the content-related component, alongside with the subject learning, ensures the development of skills of information activity in information environments, the formation of abilities of independently searching for and mastering the new information, and modeling of academic and professional activity using the information and communication technologies (ict). the professional focus of computer science for students of various directions of training is reflected by the topics range of problems and practical assignments, as well as by the standard information processing practices. the procedural component ensures smooth work of students under the blended form of learning. it includes the schedule of the academic process and activity-based elements of the roadmap, it determines the check points of the academic process and the scope of work completed. the procedural component allows fulfilling variants of the roadmap for mastering a discipline. the reference teacher's roadmap determines the pace and effectiveness of the students' work in accordance with the general requirements for acquisition of the discipline. students form their roadmaps for mastering the subject up to their own preferences for the results of learning and the regularity of work pace. results and findings in order to bring to life the methodological system, the subject information environment (sie) for learning computer science has been developed (fig. 2). one of the main elements of the sie is the interactive digital course. it includes: the methodological support of academic classes, the communication component, and the interactive check and measurement complex (andreeva & pak, 2015). andreeva et al. figure 2. element structure of the subject information environment source: the authors the organization part of the academic process is ensured by structural elements of the sie: requirements for the discipline acquisition results, initial test, types of academic classes, modular and competency-based learning technology, schedule of the academic process. for independent work, reproductive, productive and creative assignments are offered at various levels. massive open online courses (mooc) are used as interactive study guides on individual sections of computer science, without any compulsory requirements for checking the results of mastering the courses. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 47-64 students may fulfill their roadmaps both according to the classical learning option and within the e-learning. the use of digital technologies in organization of practical discipline acquisition work enhances the efficiency of the process of learning (koldaev, 2012; semenova, 2012; skuratov, 2009). when commencing to master a subject, students determine the result – the desirable iccompetency formation level after the completion of learning (within the general requirements of the main curriculum on acquisition of the discipline). so the students "fill" their roadmaps being guided by their educational needs and personal preferences. fig. 3 shows the block diagram of building a student's learning roadmap when studying computer science. figure 3. block diagram. designing a student's learning roadmap source: the authors for those preferring to study in line with the teacher's requirements, and as a sample for drawing up one's own roadmap, there is the expert teacher's roadmap provided. among other things, it determines the correction behavior scenario of students for their acquiring the required amount of knowledge and practical skills in order to achieve the target ic-competency formation level (or a mark in the subject: satisfactory, good, excellent). the nodal points of the roadmap are: andreeva et al. action points, check points, and risk points. in action points (a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8) students perform assignments of various complexity levels. the check points are: initial test (it), test works and submitting of ready solutions (tw1, tw2, tw3), and the summative assessment (sa). the scores marked for completed works determine the current ic-competency formation level of students. in risk points (rp), students make decisions about further route of their progress along the roadmap in accordance with the results obtained and their educational needs and preferences. the route of a student's progress along the roadmap can contain cyclical repetitions of any understudied topics. the created sie allows drawing up individual learning roadmaps and controls the process of their fulfillment. the communicative format of the computer science roadmaps is implemented in ms excel (fig. 4). figure 4. the communicative format of the computer science roadmap for students of "biology" direction source: the authors it contains lists of assignments, classroom and distance test works, training sessions, as well as marks for the assignments completed, and the current score for mastering the academic journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 47-64 material. any correction assignments and actions that are recommended for students are highlighted in color. discussion for assessing the efficiency of the above methodological system of blended learning, the pedagogical experiment was conducted within the actual academic process in teaching computer science to students at a number of universities of russia and kazakhstan: siberian federal university (sfu), krasnoyarsk state medical university (krassmu), krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university (kspu) and kazakh national pedagogical university (kaznpu, almaty, kazakhstan). for instance, at siberian federal university, the first-year students enrolled in direction "080100.62 economics", training profile "080100.62.04 world economy" were selected as the control group (cg), the group numbering 23 people. in this group, the classes were held by the lecturer, professor n.i. pak, using v.p. diyachenko's cooperative learning method and the contemporary computer technologies of learning. the remaining students of the same batch, 101 people, were referred to the diagnostic group (dg). the measurable index of the experimental learning technique is the statistics of the group – the frequency table of its students' learning results. the group statistics values "as of the beginning of the experiment" are the frequency array of results of the students' first progress check, "upon completion of the experiment" are the frequency array of their final discipline acquisition results. table 1 gives frequency series of results of learning for both cg and dg – the statistics of cg and dg "as of the beginning" and "upon completion" of the experiment. table 1 statistic performance of control and diagnostic groups assessment intervals cg1 dg1 cg2 dg2 people % people % people % people % low 6 26.09 11 10.89 5 21.74 11 10.89 average 10 43.48 43 42.57 7 30.43 24 23.76 high 7 30.43 47 46.53 11 47.83 66 65.35 total: 23 100.00 101 100.00 23 100.00 101 100.00 andreeva et al. for identifying the effectiveness of action of the experimental learning technique, pearson's chi-squared test (2emp) is used that is calculated according to the formula:   2 2 12 11 2 1 n i i emp i i i a g b g g g a b       , where n is the quantity of score grouping classes (n = 3), with the first group numbering g1, and the second one – g2. vectors a = (a1, a2, …, an) and b = (b1, b2, …, bn) are ones of statistics of the groups, ai is the quantity of results of learning obtained by the students of the first group and falling within interval i (i = 1, 2, …, n), bi is the quantity of results of the second group from this interval. the efficiency of the experimental technique is confirmed by the statistics of positive change in the discipline acquisition results of the diagnostic group (g-test of signs, 95 % confidence level) and the random nature of their occurrence – in the control group (g-test of signs, the level of significance being p  0,05). when checking the hypotheses with pearson's chi-squared test, it has been found that the differences of frequency rows between test results of the diagnostic and of the control group as of the beginning of the experiment are random in nature (at significance level of p  0,05). meanwhile, the distinctions between the diagnostic group's characteristics as of the beginning of the experiment and upon completion of the experiment are statistically valid with credibility level of over 95%. thus, the probability is quite high that the hypothesis about the effectiveness of experimental methodological system is confirmed. let another example be given of fulfillment of learning roadmaps with the students of pedagogical universities (kspu and kaznpu) doing the course "history of computer science". the leading methodological line of the course is the projective and recursive strategy of learning (bazhenova, 2015) "i create a didactic means and i study by means of it" and the students' individual learning roadmaps. the history of computer science is studied by scientific research and exploratory work of students and teachers within the international inter-university cluster. the complex of credit assignments and their values are as follows: attendance of lectures and making digital notes of lectures. for each lecture – 6 points; working at seminars, performance of seminar assignments. for 1 seminar – 4 points; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 47-64 creating one's own website "history of computer science" – 100 points. the requirements for the website are: history of the main content-related lines of the computer science course has to be described; the information content of sections has to be laconic and interesting; pictures, animation, and audio are recommended; the website has to be a means for studying the topic "history of computer science" within the school computer science course; creating a multimedia exhibit for the virtual computer science history museum. for one exhibit –20 points. the requirements are: the topics range of the exhibit cannot repeat the existing ones but it can supplement, expand or make them more profound; creating a set of test assignments for the course: a) drawing up the tests in the testosfera test system – 50 to 100 points; b) drawing up the tests in a digital form – 10 to 50 points; c) the development of an author's means for evaluating the results of learning in the course "history of computer science" – 20 to 100 points; a set of presentations of the course: 20 to 50 points; an analytical report on the assigned topic. for 1 report – 10 to 20 points. in order to get a credit, a student has to score at least 100 points. the 4th-year bachelor's degree students of the physics and mathematics profile of kspu and kaznpu took part in the academic process. the lectures were broadcast online, recorded and uploaded to the university network for offline viewing. the students were allowed to select the form of classes which was convenient for them. roadmaps of the students were different in scope. for example, the majority opted for the teacher's expert variant – visiting the lectures and working at seminar classes, with additional low-value measures planned for the case they should miss a lecture or a seminar. it was only 5% of the students who planned the creation of a website which ensures getting the credit. one month before the term end, 20 students who had developed author's websites and tests on the course got their credits. two weeks ahead of the credit deadline, it was already 90% of students who overcame the required limit of 100 points. according to the students' feedback, the suggested strategy of learning proved to be a fairly effective one. conclusion thus, the experience of applying the learning roadmaps in the academic process with students of different universities has shown the following: andreeva et al. 1. junior students have almost no readiness for self-educational academic activity in conditions of blended learning; 2. senior students are eager to embrace the principles of blended learning, yet they nevertheless prefer the traditional forms and methods of learning; 3. the students gain the experience in designing and fulfilling the learning roadmaps in the discipline, which improves their readiness for self-educational activity and promotes their ability to use the methods and means of e-learning efficiently in the future; 4. the success and effectiveness of blended learning are ensured owing to the tailored sie having the options of designing and using the students' projective learning roadmaps. with the criteria of its quality being student-centered, teacher-centered and personified in nature, the way the information system "academic process" is built and implemented at krassmu has had quite an effect on shaping the professional information culture in the future medical workers; 5. the methodological system of blended learning in computer science for the 1st-year students of sfu developed by the authors ensures the efficient use of the roadmaps technology in the academic process for achieving the planned results of learning; 6. the developed methodological system of blended learning in the computer science history course for senior students at kspu and kaznpu successfully brings to life the principles of student-centered paradigm of education and ensures the effectiveness in professional training of the future teachers. references andreeva, n.m., pak n. i. (2017). integration of mooс into educational process in computer science on the basis of learning roadmaps. in: proceedings of the scientific conference of april 10-14, 2017 "some relevant problems of mathematics and mathematical education. herzen's readings – 2017". st. petersburg: a. i. herzen rspu publishing house, 161-164. andreeva, n.m., pak, n.i. (2015). on the role of roadmaps in e-learning of computer science with students of classical universities. open education, 3, 101-109. bazhenova, i.v. (2015). the technique of projective-recursive teaching programming to students of mathematical training areas. phd thesis. krasnoyarsk. beishuizen, j., steffens, k. (2011). a conceptual framework for research on self-regulated learning. in: carneiro, r., lefrere,p., steffens, k., underwood, j. (eds.). self-regulated journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 47-64 learning in technology-enhanced learning environments. rotterdam: sense publishers, 3– 19. bonk, c. j., graham, c.a. (2004). handbook of blended learning: global perspectives, local designs. san francisco: john wiley & sons, inc. chigisheva, o., soltovets, e., bondarenko, a. (2017). internationalization impact on phd training policy in russia: insights from the comparative document analysis. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), 178-190. christensen, c. m., horn, m.b., staker, h. (2013). is k-12 blended learning disruptive? an introduction to the theory of hybrids. url: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed566878.pdf crumly, c (2014). pedagogies for student-centered learning: online and on-ground. minneapolis: fortress press. guri-rosenblit, s. & gros, b. (2011). e-learning: confusing terminology, research gaps and inherent challenges. international journal of e-learning & distance education, 25(1). url: http://www.ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/729/1206 hannafin, m.j., hannafin, k.m. (2010). cognition and student-centered, web-based learning: issues and implications for research and theory. in: learning and instruction in the digital age. springer, 11-23. kappel, t.a. (2001), perspectives on roadmaps: how organizations talk about the future. the journal of product innovation management, 18, 39-50. kintu, m.j., zhu, c., kagambe e. (2017). blended learning effectiveness: the relationship between student characteristics, design features and outcomes. international journal of educational technology in higher education, 14, 7. koldaev, v. d. (2012). non-linear technology of designing the students' individual educational routes. bulletin of chelyabinsk state pedagogical university, 6, 31-36. kostons, d., van gog, t., paas, f. (2012). training self-assessment and task-selection skills: a cognitive approach to improving self-regulated learning. learning and instruction, 22(2), 121-132. mushtavinskaya, i.v. (2011). the use of reflective technologies in developing the students' ability for self-education as a pedagogical problem. in: proceedings of the international scientific conference "pedagogy: tradition and innovation" (chelyabinsk, october 2011). vol. 1. chelyabinsk: two comsomols publishers, 146-151. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed566878.pdf http://www.ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/729/1206 andreeva et al. nikolaeva, y. s., & pak, n. i. (2017). newest web-technologies for studying and diagnosing individual abilities of learners. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), 130144. doi:10.17499/jsser.61569 pak, n.i. (2008). projective approach to learning as an information process. monograph. krasnoyarsk: kspu editorial and publishing division. pak, n.i., doroshenko, e.g., hegai, l.b. (2015). learning roadmaps as a means of studentcentered learning. education and science, 8, 97-111. phaal, r., farrukh, c.j.p., probert d.r. (2004). technology roadmapping a planning framework for evolution and revolution. technological forecasting & social change, 71, 5–26. pintrich, p.r. (2000). the role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. in: boekaerts, m., pintrich, p.r., zeidner, m. (eds.) handbook of self-regulation. san diego: academic press, 451-502. robert, i.v. (2010). modern information technologies in education: teaching problems; prospects of use. institute of education it development. moscow: russian academy of education. ryabov, g.p. (2009). new information technologies for new teachers]. nizhny novgorod education, 4, 30-35. semenova, i. n. (2012). modeling the system of education principles in conditions of development of information and communication technologies. pedagogical education in russia, 5, 106-110. skuratov, a.k. (2009). the use of ict in higher education of the russian federation. in: the use of ict in higher education in cis and baltic states: the current state of problems and prospects of development. analytical review. st. petersburg: suai, 107-126. tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), i-ii. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 47-64 tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a tarman, b., chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education (editorial). journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. umarkhadzhieva, s. (2015). shaping an ability for self-education in higher school students]. in: proceedings of the ii international scientific conference (kazan, may, 2015) “innovative educational technologies”. kazan: book, 225-227. yücel, c., acun, i., tarman, b., & mete, t. (2010). a model to explore turkish teachers' ict integration stages. turkish online journal of educational technology, 9(4), 1-9. wright, g. b. (2011). student-centered learning in higher education. international journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 23(3), 93–94. zakharova, i.g., lapchik, m.p., pak, n.i., ragulina, m.i., timkin, s.l., udalov, s.r., fedorova g.a., henner e. k. (2017). modern problems of it penetration in education: monograph. omsk: omgpu, 52. záhorec, j., hašková, a., mun, m. (2012). results of a research evaluating quality of computer science education. informatics in education, 11(2), 283-300. zimmerman, b. j., schunk, d. h. (2011). self-regulated learning and performance. in: b.j. zimmerman, b.j., schunk, d.h. (eds.). handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance. new york: routledge. google scholar, 1-12. http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=self-regulated%20learning%20and%20performance&author=bj.%20zimmerman&author=dh.%20schunk&pages=1-12&publication_year=2011 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3)114-127 supported accommodation of young people with psychophysical disorders as a condition for social and pedagogical inclusion tatiana v. furyaeva1, anna n. markevich2, evgeniy furyaev3 abstract the relevance of the study is due to the need to overcome social exclusion of adolescents and young people caused by their health condition and restrictions on life in the context of inclusion trends in the worldwide social policy and practice. in this connection, the article aims to justify and search for hospitalsubstitute format of social and pedagogical support for young people with psychophysical behavior disorders of an autism spectrum disorder (asd) type. the leading approach in the research of this issue is an integrative activity-based approach that allows comprehensive consideration of socio-political, organizational-pedagogical and technological opportunities for active inclusion of families with children and adolescents with asd into joint activities in a social settlement. in the article, results of sociological, and psychological-pedagogical studies of the issue of social inclusion of individuals at risks of their exclusion from society are presented; various types of social integration practices are typologically disclosed; the author’s structural-functional model of a supported living arrangement is substantiated; conditions and possibilities for its implementation by a public organization of parents having children with autism in the regional context as exemplified by a rural settlement are identified and shown. the information presented in the article is of practical value for specialists in social pedagogy and work, as well as for those who are trained for concrete competences of social support of families having children with disabilities. the results of the given socio-pedagogical project may be useful for the development of the social movement of parents. keywords: social support of individuals, autism spectrum behavior disorders, social inclusion, social exclusion, structural-functional model of supported accommodation. introduction social solidarity and cohesion in today's highly heterogeneous society are ensured by the inclusion of all citizens irrespective of their gender, age, social status, health condition and capabilities of the body into social life. to expand opportunities for social participation, a great variety of mechanisms are used; these are not only key social institutions (education, social protection, culture, law, health, business, etc.), but also everyday life practices. the basic condition for ensuring social inclusion is the formed public inclusive consciousness, i.e., the 1 professor, doctor of pedagogy, astafijev krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university, tat.fur130@mail.ru 2 master of education, student, astafijev krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university, autismhelp@mail.ru 3assoc. prof., candidate of biology, krasnoyarsk state agrarian university, tat.fur130@mail.ru furyaeva et al. 115 prevalence of values and norms according to which the human interaction is built and mutual understanding of people is achieved. social inclusion is a process that requires certain efforts both of state and of public organizations. among the latter, a considerable role is played by socially oriented non-profit organizations of parents of children and adolescents with disabilities, particularly with mental disorders of autism spectrum disorder type. it is this group of people that especially needs non-institutional support without being placed in a permanent care (boarding) institution. the latter is traditional for the russian system of social service. in this regard, especially topical are hospital-substitute forms of living arrangements, their testing and scientific justification. abroad, the issue of social inclusion in forms that are understandable to the population regularly becomes the subject of government reports, scientific research and reports of large international organizations. in particular, there are academic peer-reviewed periodicals: journal of social inclusion, social inclusion, zeitschrift fuer inklusion. in a number of countries national strategies of social inclusion are implemented and their implementation is monitored. the political course for social inclusion has been adopted by great britain, canada, australia and the countries of the european union (eu). in the eu, special methodology for the assessment of social protection and social inclusion that is based on peer review has been developed (see: [employment, social affairs and inclusion]). the peer review is a key tool of the so-called “open method of coordination” and of the formation of the inclusive policy, culture, education and a variety of inclusive life practices (borodkin, 2000). literature review foreign and domestic researchers, primarily sociologists studying the issues of the inclusion of people with disabilities are actively turning to the classical studies of the stratification structure of society based on different sociological approaches: economic, political and functionalist. the conception of social exclusion which replaced the conception of poverty in the 90-s offered a new view of the problem of social injustice, restricted access to the resources of society and discrimination of the rights of people with specific needs. in the era of ‘postmodernity indifference’ a new theory holds that one of the factors of the deprived state of a marginalized group is broken social ties, disrupted process of assimilation of social and cultural experience. in this context, the essence of the new social policy is determined; it must be directed not to the journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),114-127 entire society but to its more local communities that are expected to be considerably active, aiming to overcome their social disadvantage and to satisfy both basic and specific (intermediate) needs (karmysheva, 2015). the concept of social inclusion has been actively studied by western sociologists since the 70-s of the 20-th century. at present it is used to denote new forms of social stratification. contemporary researchers in sociology point out that the previous class stratification divided people in vertical layers. today, we are talking about horizontal differentiation between ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’ (abrahamson, 2001). in russian sociology the research of the issues of social exclusion-inclusion has started relatively recently. in particular, the essence of social exclusion and its methodology, as well as certain groups of the excluded people were and are studied by f.m. borodkin (2000), v.n. yarskaya and e.r.yarskaya-smirnova (2015), m.d. napso (2016), j. boardman (2011) etc. the conceptual definition of the concept of social inclusion originates from the idea of t. parsons’ (1993) conception about “the capital of diversity” which in his opinion should be formed in each country. inclusion is part of the strategic tasks of many international organizations, as well as a fundamental category of social policy and public life (soziale inklusion als grundlage sozialer arbeit, 2012). it is seen as a key condition for ensuring well-being, quality of life and expanding the opportunities for the development of all people. here the main thing is not so much the functional necessity of including certain "elements" into the system. of principal importance is the formation of special ethics of care and respect of diversity, which must become the core of social policy (abrahamson, 2001, kononova, 2016, karmysheva, 2015, yarskaya & yarskayasmirnova, 2015). the task of successful social inclusion acquires a particular psychologicalpedagogical relevance in relation to children and adolescents who are actively searching for their own meanings and opportunities for self-realization. russian psychological and pedagogical sciences build the understanding of the essence of individual development of a person with disabilities in the context of the basic methodological provisions of l.s. vygotsky (2003) about social and cultural-historical conditioning of the inner world, general laws of development of all people and huge compensatory abilities of the body, provided there is a targeted socio-pedagogical accompanying and support. modern social, general, and correctional pedagogy clearly articulate the task of developing inclusion culture in the educational and parent community, in organizing special studies, in creating experimental furyaeva et al. 117 models of the inclusion of children and adolescents with special needs into society not only in educational institutions but in everyday socio-cultural life as well. in foreign pedagogy there is a separate conception existing for several decades; the main idea of it is the principle of preservation of identity of every community member as a basis for educational inclusion. this conception has gained popularity and spread as a social-pedagogical conception of diversity, heterogeneity (heimlich, 2004, herz, 2011, hinz, 2013). it focuses on the pedagogical task of forming a cooperative community of children and youth with different needs, on stimulating various processes of living together, teaching and educating (lafer, 2014). analysis of psychological-pedagogical research in the area of inclusive discourse, and of documents relating to people with disabilities over the past few decades, indicates a significant dynamics of the conceptual apparatus associated with education and psychological-pedagogical support of children and adolescents with disabilities. for a long time correction / special pedagogy that is concerned with the problems of the support of children with specific needs in an educational institution has been based on the concept of “deviation”. it determined the hierarchic dependence of four significant concepts: delay, disorder, damage and impaired development and respectively, the character and organization of the support. at the end of the 90-s of the 20-th century a new set of concepts is developed in special pedagogy, social pedagogy, and psychology; besides, thesaurus in the documents of the world health organization is changed. in the 80-s three interrelated concepts were used: defect, aggravation and disorder; and at the end of the 20-th century a new set of concepts is proposed: defect, activity and participation (furyaeva, 2017). education, training, organization of everyday life should be based not on a defect, but on the features of the inner world, on a person’s behavior, and on his/her position within the cultural context and social conditions. this becomes an additional pedagogical conceptual ground for the need in special support, in our case, a supported living arrangement that implies reduction of overprotection by parents, strengthening of independent social and individual behavior of children and adolescents with mental disability. here adequate organizational work is needed, i.e. identification and testing of concrete content and adequate forms of social psychological-pedagogical assistance for and self-assistance of people with different limitations, particularly with behavioral disorders of an autism spectrum (gundelfinger, 2016, leben mit autismus in der schweiz-eine elternbefragung. zwischenbericht fuer die delegiertenversammlung, 2013, mental health and social exclusion: unit report journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),114-127 summary, 2004, autismus-therapie in der praxis: methoden, vorgehnsweisen, falldarstellungen, 2017, riedel & clausen, 2016, hall, 2010, vermeulen, 2016). research methods in the given research of the ways for social inclusion of young people with psychophysical disorders, in particular with behavioral disorders of autism spectrum, a historical method of the analysis of the practical experience of their social support in various countries and in rf regions was applied. as a subject of historical and theoretical analysis, legal and sociopedagogical documents were used. the theoretical method of modeling allowed us to develop appropriate conditions for a socio-pedagogical experiment as a series of projects over five years to create a regional variant of social inclusion of young people with asd as an autonomous rural settlement. the project included several stages associated with the creation of a parent voluntary movement, with organizing joint activities for the construction of buildings on a special territory. at the third stage, the joint activities of children with autism and their parents were filled with content to develop various types of leisure, cultural-creative, sports and recreation activities while actively seeking real financial opportunities. the fourth stage that is continuing today has determined two base lines of organizing the supported living arrangements: permanent and temporary accommodation of families with psychological-pedagogical comprehension of the change in the character of the social and individual behavior of all the participants. monitoring methods consisting of questionnaire survey, interviewing, and included monitoring of social participation and behavior of children and young people with asd, as well as of members of more than 100 families led to the conclusion about a positive influence of the regional format of the supported accommodation, “social homestead” /that the regional format of the supported accommodation, “social homestead” has a positive influence on the way the social inclusion of young people with psycho-physical disorders takes place. results and discussion in russia autism as a separate disease began to be diagnosed only from 1999 in connection with the transition to statistical records according to the international classification of diseases, tenth revision. from the middle of the first decade of the 21-st century a considerable growth of the number of children with a diagnosed autism was identified. at the same time even elements of the care system for people with a disability of this kind were missing. this gave a powerful impetus to the development of active movement of parents of furyaeva et al. 119 asd children, the formation of public organizations which clearly articulated the request for the creation of an aid system for people with asd. as the main proportion of the diagnosed individuals were children of pre-school and primary school age, significant positive changes in the organization of the system of psychological-pedagogical assistance in the rf began to occur in the area of early intervention and pre-school education at present the issue of the supported living arrangement for adults with asd is becoming increasingly topical . until recently, in russia, it was impossible to build a system of the accompanied (supported) accommodation outside neuropsychiatric boarding schools. however, after the ratification by russia in 2012 of the un convention on the rights of persons with disabilities and, accordingly, with the need to implement the proclaimed principles of the attitude to people with disabilities, in particular the principle of social inclusion, in various regions of the russian federation, including the krasnoyarskiy krai (territory), various forms of the supported living arrangements for individuals with specific psychophysical features are actively sought, living arrangement models are developed and tested, and the related infrastructure is created (furyaeva & markevich, 2016). in the framework of this study, the following tasks were set: to analyze the existing foreign and domestic practices of social and psychological-pedagogical support of adolescents and young people with asd, to identify the state and dynamics of the regulatory support of their social inclusion, to develop and partially implement the structural-functional model of the supported living arrangement, as well as to organize psychological-pedagogical support of the process of inclusion of children with asd and their families under the conditions of the created rural settlement, “social homestead”. analysis of existing practices of the supported living arrangements of persons with asd shows that the modern russian state, in comparison to other countries, mainly confines itself to targeted assistance instead of creating the conditions for a full and maximally possible independent life activity and realizing its human potential. a person with mental disorders faces a very complicated problem after his/her parents’ death: to adapt to an independent life in society and to learn to take correct decisions in critical situations. if he/she is unable to do so then it is a question of the deprivation of legal capacity and placing him/her in a neuropsychiatric boarding school (nbs) since there are no institutional services of support of social inclusion. the analysis of legal documents adopted in russia for the past 5-7 years shows a serious reform of the legislative framework in accordance with the principles of the convention, which is taking place largely under the influence of the activities of public journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),114-127 organizations. in particular, one of the most important changes concerns the institution of legal capacity, the introduction of a differentiated system that broadens the alternative, "capable and incapacitated," which is reflected in the federal law no. 302-fz of 30 december 2012 "on amendments to chapters 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the first part of the civil code of the russian federation ". it introduces a new type of the restriction on capacity, in particular, due to a mental disorder. corresponding changes within the framework of the update of the civil code of the russian federation are included in articles 29, 30, 33, 36. the adopted law is designed to align the model of the support and protection of people with mental disorders with article 12 of the convention, which that contains the principles according to which people with disabilities may enjoy their legal capacity, as well as with the principle of proportionality in part 3 of article 55 of the constitution of the rf (minutes of the board under the government of the russian federation on guardianship in the social sphere of 27.05.2015. (item 3) and from 25.06.2015. (item 5), 2015). law № 302-fz introduces the notion of limited legal capacity with a view in order to fix the actual level of legal capacity, taking as a basis the incomplete legal capacity of minors from 14 to 18 years old. in this case a person with specific needs can independently make household and other small transactions, and at legally significant moments, to carry out his/her actions with the consent of the guardian. the main objective of the innovation is to provide support in taking a decision in the amount that is required by the person, taking into account his/her ability to understand the meaning of his/her actions and control them. the law developers regard the limited legal capacity as a fluid variable structure, depending on the improvement or worsening of the condition of a person with partial capacity. the degree of independence in making certain actions is a dynamic value and it has a wide range: from complete independence to a full control on the part of the guardian. when needed, it is possible to additionally explain and simplify the information to a degree that will allow the person to take an independent decision. the law came into force on march 15, 2015. but in order for the law to become fully operational, it is necessary to amend a number of legislative acts that regulate the limitation of legal capacity in a variety of spheres, such as suffrage, professional activity, marriage and the upbringing of children and many others. in addition, it will be required that changes be introduced into the civil procedure code of the russian federation that regulates actions of courts in making furyaeva et al. 121 decisions related to the limitation of legal capacity due to mental disorder. without these alterations a flexible approach to changing the volume of the limited capacity is impossible. in the middle of 2015, on the basis of the protocol decisions of the council under the government of the russian federation on the issues of guardianship in the social sphere, pursuant to article 19 of the convention, the fund for children in difficult situations developed the conception of ensuring the independent living of graduates of boarding schools for mentally retarded children of the system of social population protection (supported accommodation) in the first years of their discharge from the institutions, as well as children with disabilities over 16 and young people of 18+ with mental disorders who are brought up in families (the concept of a pilot project to provide independent living graduates of orphanages for mentally retarded children, social protection of the population (accommodation support) in the first years after their release from institutions, 2016). the basis of the conception are the results of the analysis of domestic and foreign experience of introducing hospital-substitute forms and technologies such as supported accommodation, supported daytime activities and supported employment. these forms and technologies are seen as the basic tool for deinstitutionalization and reforming of the boarding school system in russia. testing of the concept is defined as the implementation of a pilot project in different regions of the rf, including the krasnoyarsk krai (territory). the project involves the creation and testing of conditions for implementing hospital-substitute forms and technologies, as well as the development of the principles and mechanisms for the inclusion of hospital-substitute forms and technologies into the state system of social service in order to broaden the spectrum and improve the quality and variability of social services. to be included into the national project we have carried out a preliminary analysis of available diverse practices of the support and rehabilitation of individuals with mental disorders in different countries and in more than 20 regions of the rf. they implement regional programs on the terms of social partnership of local authorities and socially-oriented non-profit organizations (ngos). all the considered practices use a general common psycho-pedagogical approach to the organization of the lives of people with psychophysical disorders, in which the principles of social activity, individual approach, labor rehabilitation and maximum available independence are combined. at the same time different forms of supported accommodation are used. as a rule, practices of supported accommodation exist either on the initiative of the public (parent organizations or specialists) or on the basis of religious communities and organizations. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),114-127 this situation has formed historically for because traditionally philanthropists and religious organizations engaged themselves in the charity support of disabled people. often, the supported accommodation is provided by enthusiasts without permanent financing. however, today the attitude of the russian state to social inclusion of the disabled people is considerably changing. increasingly, state bodies and institutions are oriented toward creating decent living conditions and including persons with psychophysical disabilities into society in cooperation with public organizations. the outcomes of our analysis of russian and foreign practices of the supported accommodation for individuals with mental disorders are presented in table 1 where alternative forms of the supported accommodation are highlighted and characterized by the kind of support and the form of arrangement. table 1 formats of the alternative supported accommodation for individuals with psychophysical disorders supported accommodation temporary permanent training crisis by the character of support by the arrangement form daily due to illness or related to health issues situational in a city (a flat of one’s own, specialized flats, specialized centers and houses) short-term (periodic) for rest and recovery of psycho-emotional resources regular in a rural environment (separate private houses, specialized houses, homesteads) by courses (single or periodic) to solve urgent household and other personal issues permanent in autonomous settlements note. source: the authors. the approximate optimal number of people for different formats of the supported accommodation must not be more than 15, optimally up to 10. in flats and ordinary houses the number of young people with mental disability reaches the maximum of 5 people. in autonomous settlements the number of tenants depends on the scale of the settlement. at the same time it is not practical to create large-scale settlements with more than 50 residents, the optimal number is 25 people. it should be noted that every form of the living arrangement of adults with psychophysical disorders has the right to exist. it has its own target audience, its priorities and unique features. a complex of different formats represents an integral system that furyaeva et al. 123 gives the right to choose, and meets the needs and specific features of all people with psychophysical disorders without exception. in the framework of our research, based on the results of the conducted analysis, as well on our own experience of the work of krasnoyarsk regional public organization, “society of the support for families having disabled children with autism spectrum disorders “svet nadezhdy (light of hope)” a special settlement was created in a rural area, social homestead ‘dobraya’ (kind). preliminary, a structural-functional model was developed which is an integrated system as a set of regular, functionally related components. the developed and implemented in practice structural-functional model includes the target, content, procedural and control-evaluation components that reveal organization of the process of the supported accommodation, and form and determine the interaction of its elements. each component has its functional significance, contents and relationship with other components, elements and conditions for functioning of the whole model. highlighted are strategic and tactical conditions presented in table 2. table 2 conditions for the implementation of the structural-functional model of the supported accommodation as exemplified by the social homestead,”dobraya (kind)” strategic conditions tactical conditions social and psychological-pedagogical characteristics of a target group  territorial features of the location  diversification of the activities and variability of the supported accommodation forms  openness and richness of the environment the form of living arrangements in accordance with alternative form classification sources of financing (creation, development and current activities) social environment and interaction with local community note. source: the authors. at present the social homestead as an alternative social and psychological-pedagogical form of the supported living arrangement of individuals with asd is at the stage of the development of not only different elements of the infrastructure but of the character of social inclusion of children with special needs and their relatives into joint diverse activities. the social pedagogue, as well as the parents, included into the process of the psychologicaljournal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),114-127 pedagogical support of their children’s life activity pay special attention to the establishment of an atmosphere of trust and acceptance of all the participants living together in the settlement, as well as of guests from the nearest settlement and town. trusting relationship weakens the hypertrophied intrafamily relationships and helps children and adolescents to adapt to a new place of living. based on o.s. gazman (2002) and his disciples’ concept of socio-pedagogical support the social pedagogue in close cooperation with parents studies the specific features of the development of concrete life situations, identifies deficits in the social and everyday behavior of each adolescent, and the degree of his/her independence. on the basis of the results of fixed included observations, conversations, and discussions in the focus group an individual program of socio-pedagogical support is made. its effects show that children and young people with mental disorders regularly express a wish to visit the homestead and perceive it as their second home. in the natural environment it is possible to organize creative and labor activity of children with asd who in urban conditions are prone to inadequate social behavior. they traditionally demonstrate lack of interest both in joint actions and in individual lessons. as the specially arranged observations show, part of hyper-patronized and hyper-dependent adolescents and young people gradually reduce their excessive need for their parent’s constant presence; the level of their independence rises and over professional work skills develop. a significant positive influence on the character of the social inclusion of children and adolescents with special needs is made by a special subprogram called “peredyshka (time-out)” for which training accommodation conditions were created. a major argument in favor of the conclusion about the successful course of social inclusion is a constant considerable annual increase in the number of parents who regard the social homestead as a future place for permanent accommodation of their maturing children. parents express readiness to get involved in the project financing for enlarging the social homestead and building additional infrastructure. conclusion considerable growth of the number of young people with severe psychophysical disorders of the autism spectrum disorder type in russia and abroad stimulated political decisions, scientific (sociological, psychological-pedagogical) research, as well as taking concrete practical actions for organizing social inclusion both on the institutional and public level. the latter is reflected in a noticeable growth of parent initiatives, and creation of non-profit furyaeva et al. 125 public organizations that implement various projects for overcoming social exclusion of young people. prior to developing a special structural-functional model of the supported living arrangement in the concrete conditions of the krasnoyarskiy krai (territory) an in-depth analysis was made of the descriptions of the existing foreign and domestic practices of organizing the supported accommodation for individuals with psychophysical disorders. the outcome is a classification table of kinds and forms of the supported accommodation for people with psychophysical disorders. in the framework of our research together with krasnoyarsk regional public organization, “ society of the support for families with disabled children having autism spectrum disorders, ‘svet nadezdy (light of hope)’ a structural-functional alternative model of the supported living arrangement was developed and partially implemented; it consists of target, content, procedural and control-evaluation components; implementation of this model, as shown by a five-year socio-pedagogical experiment, implies creation of the identified strategic and tactical conditions to ensure successful social inclusion of young people aged 14-19. for further successful development of the given project it is recommended that attention should be paid to the development of the integrated program of the psychological-pedagogical support of the families having a child with asd, to active inclusion of the trained tutors from among students of humanities, as well as to organizational-pedagogical cohesion and strengthening of the parent community. acknowledgements the paper has been prepared with the financial support of the krasnoyarsk krai (territory) fund for the support of scientific and scientific-technological activity, project №15/17, “humanitarian technologies of the work with children and adolescents at risk of social exclusion”. the authors also express their deep gratitude to all the members of krasnoyarsk regional public organization, “ society of the support for families with disabled children having autism spectrum disorders, “svet nadezhdy (light of hope)”, as well as to the regional non-profit organization delivering services in the area of the social support for individuals with autism spectrum disorders and their families, “social homestead (kind)” for providing information on implementing a set of projects, for the opportunity to actively participate in their implementation and organization of a special socio-pedagogical research. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),114-127 references abrahamson, p. (2001). social exclusion and poverty. social sciences and modernity, 2, 158166. autismus-therapie in der praxis: methoden, vorgehnsweisen, falldarstellungen. (2017). rittmann, b. & rickert-bolg, w. (hrsg.). stuttgart: kohlhammer verlag. boardman, j. (2011). social exclusion and mental health – how people with mental health problems are disadvantaged: an overview. mental health and social inclusion, 15(3), 112121. borodkin, f.m. (2000). social exclusions. url: https://www.civisbook.ru/files/file/borodkin_soc_zhur_2000_3.pdf furyaeva, t.v. (2017). social inclusion: theory and practice: monograph. krasnoyarsk: astafijev krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university. furyaeva, t. v. & markevich, a.n.(2016). modeling followed by visiting of the supported accommodation of young people with asd as a condition for a new social inclusive practice. siberian journal of special education, 3(18), 43-49. gazman, o. s. (2002). non-classical education. from authoritarian pedagogy to pedagogy of freedom.moscow: miros. gundelfinger, r. (2016). irgendwie anders? autistisch?! zuerich: universitaet zuerich. hall, s.a. (2010). the social inclusion of young adults with intellectual disabilities: a phenomenology of their experiences. phd thesis. usa: university of nebraska. heimlich, u. (2004). integrative paedagogik. eine einfuhrung. munchen: belz verlag. herz, b. (2011). inklusion und exklusion: rhetorik ueber, mentalitaet und realitaet. sonderpaedagogik in niedersachsen, 1, 10-23. hinz, a. (2013). inklusion – von der unkenntnis zur unkenntlichkeit!? kritische anmerkungen zu einem jahrzehnt diskurs über schulische inklusion in deutschland. zeitschrift für inklusion, 1, 17-27. karmysheva, l.i. (2015). exclusion as a phenomenon of life. url: http:psychology.snauka.ru/2015/03/4491 kononova, l. (2016). "on amendments to certain legislative acts of the russian federation in order to improve guarantees of the exercise of the rights and freedoms of disabled and not fully capable citizens". report of the federation council bill no. 879343-6. https://www.civisbook.ru/files/file/borodkin_soc_zhur_2000_3.pdf furyaeva et al. 127 url:http://www.osoboedetstvo.ru/post/2016/06/zakonoproekt-o-raspredelennoy-opekeprinyat-v-pervom-chtenii/ lafer, s. (2014). democratic design for the humanization of education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 6-12 leben mit autismus in der schweiz-eine elternbefragung. zwischenbericht fuer die delegiertenversammlung (2013). freiburg: internationale hochschule fuer heilpaedagogik. mental health and social exclusion: unit report summary (2004). london: the office of the deputy prime minister. minutes of the board under the government of the russian federation on guardianship in the social sphere of 27.05.2015. (item 3) and from 25.06.2015. (item 5). (2015). url: http://nko.economy.gov.ru/files/newsdocuments/5b3e0c2b-6762-4676-aa4880915e72610d.pdf napso, m.d. (2016). exclusion as a subject of social-philosophical reflection. philosophical thought, 3, 46-55. parsons, t. (1993). the concept of society: the components and their interrelations. thesis: theory and history of economic and social institutions and systems, 2, 94-122. riedel, a. & clausen j. (2016). autismus-spektrum-stoerungen-psychatrie (basisiwissen). koeln: psychiatrie verlag. soziale inklusion als grundlage sozialer arbeit. (2012). balz, h.-j., benz, b. & kuhlmann c. (hrsg.). wiesbaden: springer vs verlag für sozialwissenschaften. the concept of a pilot project to provide independent living graduates of orphanages for mentally retarded children, social protection of the population (accommodation support) in the first years after their release from institutions. fund to support children in difficult life situation (2016). url: http://bddi.ru/data/uploads/2016/dokument/o-proekte.pdf vermeulen, p. (2016). autismus als kontextblindheit. göttingen: based & ruprecht gmbh & co. vygotsky, l.s. (2003). fundamentals of defectology. spb.: doe. yarskaya, v.n. & yarskaya-smirnova, e.r. (2015). the inclusive culture of social services. sociological studies, 12, 133-140. http://www.osoboedetstvo.ru/post/2016/06/zakonoproekt-o-raspredelennoy-opeke-prinyat-v-pervom-chtenii/ http://www.osoboedetstvo.ru/post/2016/06/zakonoproekt-o-raspredelennoy-opeke-prinyat-v-pervom-chtenii/ http://bddi.ru/data/uploads/2016/dokument/o-proekte.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 47-78 forming school and university partnerships to learn and teach with primary sources stewart waters 1, anthony pellegrino2 , matt hensley,3 & joshua kenna4 abstract what makes a successful student teaching experience? the purpose of this 18-month long project was to improve social science educator preparation through embedding skills and practices of teaching with primary sources into teacher preparation coursework associated clinical experiences. this project involved professional development opportunities for school-based mentor teachers and prospective social studies teachers in our teacher preparation program. concurrently, we sought to examine a variety of factors that may impact the relationships between partnering schools and universities, as well as mentors and pre-service teachers. participants in this study were pre-service secondary social studies teachers from a large research-1 university in the southeast united states, as well as their corresponding mentor teachers. grounded in historical thinking, teaching with primary sources, and the c3 framework, the researchers in this study employed a qualitative case study design to answer the research questions. findings suggest that explicit alignment between university coursework and clinical experiences has promising impact, but the relationship between mentor and pre-service teacher remains critical to the implementation of high impact strategies. keywords: teacher preparation, social studies education, clinical experiences, historical thinking, introduction (i) just wanted to shoot you a quick email and let you know that cassidy (all names are pseudonyms) had a great first week! we got her out in front of the students a lot, trained her on (the district’s software applications), had her make her first parent phone calls, and spent a lot of time getting to know the students and planning for future (lessons). she also observed multiple teachers last week and will observe several more this week. i want to get her out in front of different teachers as much as possible before her (university) classes start back up. i think this has been valuable for her and she has already gotten a lot of ideas based on what she has observed. (bradley, mentor teacher, 08/09/2019) 1 assoc. prof., university of tennessee, kswaters@utk.edu 2 assoc. prof., university of tennessee, apellegrino@utk.edu 3 assist. prof., university of south alabama, mhensley@southalabama.edu 4 assoc. prof., university of tennessee, jkenna@utk.edu mailto:kswaters@utk.edu mailto:apellegrino@utk.edu mailto:mhensley@southalabama.edu mailto:jkenna@utk.edu journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 since our meeting, my initial intuition that i could and should trust my mentor teacher has been proven somewhat incorrect…. it has become clear that my mentor teacher is a trouble maker. (sarah, intern reflection, 09/05/2018) the above quotations are from a research project that developed out of the u.s. library of congress “teaching with primary sources” (tps) program involving two cohorts of mentor teachers and teacher candidates before and during their yearlong clinical experience in a secondary social studies educator preparation program. the mentor teacher quoted here was working with their first intern during the 2019-2020 academic year. the intern from the second quotation was early in their internship, working with an experienced mentor and program alumna during the 2018-2019 academic year. our research project evaluated changes made to several program components designed to foster school/university partnerships grounded in teaching with primary sources and historical thinking. as such, these partnerships included collaborative learning and practice experiences between teacher candidates and their mentors, as well as sustained reflection opportunities designed to positively affect the clinical experiences of participants. as part of the project, the aforementioned intern and mentor had recently completed a pre-internship workshop, where they discussed effective models of social studies pedagogies and practiced mentoring, collaboration, and communication skills. this workshop was designed to facilitate better mentor/intern collaboration, improve the internship experience overall, and foster partnerships between the educator preparation program and area schools where interns are placed. in addition to the workshop, the project also included a newly developed pre-internship methods course focused on historical thinking practices, questionnaires given twice per year, and quarterly reflection reflections completed by mentors and candidates during internship. candidates were also required to design and deliver a curricular project in which primary sources were integral. together, these were the functional elements of a program re-visioning where teaching with primary sources and clinical experiences anchored interns’ and mentors’ experiences. we open the paper with these two vastly different experiences from the program not to demonstrate its failure, but to highlight the wide range of experiences participants had in this clinical experience project. we share findings of the 18-month project including how project activities supported intern and mentor collaborations when planning primary source-based lessons, as well as the ways an enhanced professional development partnership emerged from this project. the principal goal waters et al. 49 for this project was to improve social science educator preparation through embedding skills and practices of teaching with primary sources into teacher preparation coursework associated clinical experiences. we hope that our findings inform teacher educators, teacher candidates, mentor teachers, and others interested in this important work as we seek to continually improve social studies educator preparation. research question our research objective was to explore the implementation of this project by studying intern and mentor perceptions of their participation and its impact on their practice. thus, the research question for this study was: 1. in what ways do university and school partnerships grounded in teaching and learning with primary sources and historical thinking influence social studies clinical experiences? in the following sections, we introduce the theoretical frameworks that guided our study, namely historical thinking and cognitive apprenticeship. additionally, we review scholarship related to social studies teacher preparation, curricular frameworks to support social studies teaching and learning, clinical practice, and university and school partnerships. this knowledge allowed us to situate our study to purposefully tease a part the complexities associated with the teaching and learning of historical thinking skills as a result of establishing robust school and university partnerships that leverage the clinical experience as its cornerstone. theoretical frameworks historical thinking as the name implies, historical thinking is a practice that asks students to think like a historian; eschewing the traditional knowledge and memorization-based learning often found in social studies classrooms (bohan & davis, 1998). rather than a static chronicle of names, events, and dates that often permeate students’ history classroom experiences, thinking historically is a different approach to learning about the past; one that includes purposeful reading, analysis, and interpretation of a variety of pertinent primary sources that offer evidence about past events, people, and perspectives (drake & nelson, 2005; vansledright, 2011). thinking historically is a journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 process; a dynamic way of thinking that asks learners to seek truth while taking perspective of others. the raw material of historical thinking are primary sources. using primary sources allows learners a way to get closer to understanding the experiences of other people; to better understand the decisions and actions they made; and to explore the motives and values that led to those decisions (brooks, 2011; endacott, 2014). the work to employ primary sources in the service of historical thinking is both challenging and exciting, as it requires students to interpret and corroborate evidence and make decisions about bias and truth in ways offered in few other school experiences (barton, 2011; wineburg, 2001). the eight elements of whitehouse’s (2015) historical thinking theoretical framework; asking historical questions, establishing historical significance, using sources as evidence, identifying continuity and change, analyzing cause and consequence, exploring historical perspectives, examining ethical dimensions of history, and constructing historical arguments mirror the core dimensions in the ncss’s c3 framework’s inquiry arc and align with the ncss social studies teacher preparation competencies mentioned above. both frameworks task students to engage in highly skillful work, which places the onus on the teacher to be highly-trained and experienced with historical thinking and the associated skills to coach students along their inquiry-based learning journeys. we sought to explicitly draw on historical thinking and c3 framework in our project’s design and activities, but we needed additional support from a framework to support our focus on the relationships we were fostering with the mentor teachers and teacher candidates. cognitive apprenticeship to help us connect the various strands of teaching and learning occurring in these mentoring relationships with teacher candidates, we also drew on cognitive apprenticeship to better articulate the transference of historical thinking within the partnership. cognitive apprenticeship is defined as “learning through guided experience on cognitive and metacognitive, rather than physical, skills and processes” (collins, brown, & newman, 1989, p. 456). this theory emphasizes that for a skill to be learned, tacit processes associated with the skill should be made visible to the learner for observation and practice (collins et. al, 1989; ghefaili, 2003; spector, 2008). for a teacher candidate and mentor relationship, success requires establishing trust, employing effective waters et al. 51 communication skills, and both parties actively collaborating (collins et. al, 1989; ghefaili, 2003; spector, 2008); all of which were explicitly included in this project. uniting historical thinking and cognitive apprenticeship. by including the frameworks of historical thinking and cognitive apprenticeship together, we were better able to understand the collaboration and support between the mentor and candidate as they ultimately worked together to learn and teach historical thinking skills to their students. our conceptualization situated the two frameworks to work in tandem like gears. specifically, when cognitive apprenticeship practices are employed, historical thinking skills can more effectively become part of classroom practice. and as lessons incorporate historical thinking, mentors become facilitators to allow candidates opportunities to further explore and reflect on their practice. therefore, amalgamating the frameworks in this way helped us conceive and build our project objective of preparing social studies teacher candidates within a school/university partnership. we hope that by studying this framework and the participants, we can inform our own and other social studies education programs looking for more purposeful clinical practices for their interns. literature review preparing social studies teachers calkins, yoder, & wiens (2021) report findings that concur with other extant research studies that social studies teachers do not feel prepared to meet the needs of their diverse learners (yoder & van hover, 2018; jimenez-silva et al., 2013; o’brien, 2011). thus, these corroborated finding signals a need for epp programs to evaluate the extent to which they are preparing pre-service social studies teachers to meet the needs of diverse learners (yoder et al., 2016; 2019). in 2017, the national council for the social studies released standards for the preparation of social studies teachers, which presented “five core competencies for social studies teacher education” (ncss, 2017, p. 10). the competencies included: content knowledge, application of content through planning, design and implementation of instruction and assessment, social studies learners and learning, and professional responsibility and informed action (ncss, 2017). each of the competencies is grounded in “explicit and implicit declarations about the purposes of social studies education in a democratic society and the kinds of knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed for teachers to accomplish these purposes” (ncss, 2017, pp. 7-8) these core competencies relate to journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 the 2013 college, career, and civic life (c3) framework, a pedagogical framework which positions social studies disciplines toward a common goal of fostering inquiry and preparing students to take informed action (ncss, 2013). together, these frameworks provide an opportunity to think purposefully about ensuring robust connections between teacher preparation program coursework and authentic teacher practices in clinical experiences (ncss, 2017). in this project, we drew upon both frameworks to design and implement the collaborative opportunities interns and mentor teachers would have to support their development. to help situate the project under study, some additional context for facets of this study is warranted. application of the c3 framework the c3 framework follows a four-dimension inquiry arc designed to engage students in an inductive thinking process scaffolding them as they transition from making initial inquiries to taking informed action (ncss, 2013). the dimensions include “developing questions and planning inquiries; applying disciplinary concepts (i.e. civics, economics, geography, and history) and tools; evaluating sources and using evidence; and communicating conclusions and taking informed action” (ncss, 2013, p.12). one area in social studies that emulates the principles of the c3 framework is the teaching and learning of history using primary sources and historical thinking skills. the process of making inquiries, searching for primary sources that present multiple perspectives, analyzing the sources critically, then synthesizing and constructing narratives from analyses to answer initial inquiries is highly skillful work. historical thinking, like any other skill, takes time to learn and requires the teacher to model and coach students until they become proficient at it and can work independently. practices associated with historical thinking development were central to the educator preparation program in this study. given the complexity of youth engagement in history, social studies teacher candidates must be adequately prepared with the skills, dispositions, and tools necessary to engage and support students in this type learning grounded in critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making (ncss, 2017). for example, king (2016) studied pre-service social studies teachers’ conceptualization of racial literacy in history and posits that, “knowledge influences action, frameworks, and interpretations that teachers will bring into the history classroom. with that, teacher educators will need to be able to help scaffold this new knowledge and help provide a nexus to pedagogical approaches in the classroom (p. 1315).” moreover, these skills and waters et al. 53 pedagogical approaches should be practiced and refined under the guidance and support of both university faculty and school-based mentors to ensure continuity into the intern’s clinical practice (grossman, hammerness & mcdonald, 2009). clinical practice in social studies clinical practice is a fundamental part of a teacher candidate’s preparation (cochran-smith, 2008). these experiences are opportunities for prospective teachers to apply their knowledge, skills, and other competencies in their practice with support from faculty, from their educator preparation program, their school-based mentors, and the school community in which they work (grossman, hammerness & mcdonald, 2009). for candidates in social studies education programs, clinical experiences include short-term practica and typically a student-teaching or internship experience that may last for one semester or an entire school year. each of these experiences should allow future teachers to see effective practices and employ practices aligned with research (cochransmith et al., 2015). a challenge for those invested in clinical experiences is to ensure that candidates in clinical experiences receive complementary support that comes from collaboration between program faculty and school-based mentors (doppen, 2007; heafner et al., 2014). heafner et al. (2014), for example, found inconsistencies and lack of coordination regarding policies and practices between these entities. and data from a program evaluation in our social science education teacher preparation program concurred with extant research such as this; highlighting a lack of sufficient and purposeful clinical experience for interns. much of the data from internal surveys from previous cohorts of teacher candidates revealed frustration with differing expectations and ideas about teaching social studies between program faculty and mentor teachers working with them in schools. additionally, we found discrepancies in perceptions of the ways mentors and interns should collaborate to build historical thinking with the middle and high school students with whom they work. disconnections such as these can result in interns receiving mixed-messages regarding best practices and struggling to meet the expectations from their program and their school placement simultaneously (doppen, 2007; heafner, et. al, 2014). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 university & school partnerships one way to mitigate the disconnections candidates feel between their clinical practice and university coursework is through the development of school/university partnerships where clinical experiences are enjoined as concurrent professional development opportunities for the triad of interns, school-based mentors, and university faculty. as such, yoder & van hover (2018) posit that professional development opportunities should promote relevant and theoretically grounded practices that highlight disciplinary skills, inquiry, and making connections with students’ personal experiences. such an orientation may result in more effective execution of research-based practices developed in coursework into authentic classroom settings. in an attempt to establish such a partnership, we developed and enacted a professional development framework of teacher preparation and clinical-based practice that was built on teaching with primary sources and fostering historical thinking in social studies classrooms. the framework was designed and implemented to purposefully align social science education coursework and clinical experience with school-based mentors around the practice of teaching with primary sources. methods as aforementioned at the beginning of this paper, the principal goal for this project was to improve social science educator preparation through embedding skills and practices of teaching with primary sources into teacher preparation coursework associated clinical experiences. accordingly, we sought to explore the implementation of this project by studying intern and mentor perceptions of their participation and its impact on their practice. case study design we employed a qualitative case study research design to answer our two research questions (king, 2016; stake, 1995). case study has been defined as “the study of the particularity and complexity of a single case and coming to understand its activity within important circumstances” (stake, 1995, p. xi). in one instance, king (2016) used a case study approach to investigate pre-service social studies teachers’ perceptions of black history and leveraging racial literacy practices after participating in summer reading program associated with their teaching methods course. similarly, we used case study research design to conceptualize the pedagogy, professional learning, and collaboration processes among interns and mentors as they navigated expectations and challenges waters et al. 55 of the restructured teacher preparation program. the data collected over the 18-month duration of the project articulating the interns’ and mentors’ perceptions of these program components are the case that we are investigating in this study. context the case study began with an evaluation of the current program for prospective middle and high school social studies teachers offered at our university, where we prepare approximately 15 candidates annually. the evaluation focused on course requirements, clinical practice opportunities, and state licensure expectations. the researchers involved in this study all have experience with this program and teach/have taught courses as well as supervise(d) interns in their yearlong internships. evidence from surveys, course grades, program-related standardized assessments, including an action research project and edtpa, and observation assessments related to clinical practice indicated several areas where our program could improve to better support the development of our interns in the current program structure. one notable finding was that the primary social studies methods course was done during the first semester of a yearlong internship. while this structure has offered some benefits for clinical practice, we found some areas in which our interns are underprepared, including understanding theoretical bases for historical thinking and practical applications thereof. moreover, we learned about mismatches between university and school-based expectations and challenges interns felt in addressing both entities. pre-internship course in order to address these challenges with our interns, we developed several changes to the program structure and used this opportunity to study these changes to discern the extent to which they have worked for our interns and to share our findings with a wider audience of social studies teacher educators. our first, and most substantial change was the addition of a new pre-internship course, completed at the undergraduate level as part of the secondary education minor in the spring semester prior to the internship year in the fall. this new course focused on methods of teaching history and social studies, with explicit attention focused to the incorporating the c3 framework and the use of primary sources to develop historical thinking skills. we also added a formal professional development workshop for all pairs (mentors/interns) entering the internship year. in this case, we are looking at the ways these related program changes have affected intern and mentor journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 experiences, beginning with an added pre-internship methods course. historical thinking along with resources and practices related to teaching with primary sources framed this course. specifically, candidates in this course addressed tenets of historical thinking including multiple perspectives and interpretation of evidence (barton, 2011) to ground lessons and activities. from this course, we examined course activities and artifacts (hatch, 2002), where candidates addressed the importance of primary sources to learning history and lessons and activities using primary sources. to complement learning about theoretical perspectives of historical thinking and application strategies of using primary sources, this new methods course also included a clinical component where candidates engaged in project-based clinical experiences (zenkov et al., 2017). this aspect of the course included candidate creation of a standards-based, content-informed learning experiences integrating primary sources and emphasizing inquiry-based and student-centered instructional practices using primary sources. each project was tailored to the curricular needs and intentions of the mentor teacher and focused on historical thinking using primary sources that the mentor and the interns implemented together during the clinical experience. projects, reviewed for content alignment to course expectations and meeting the needs of mentor teachers, included authentic assessment activities, also co-developed by mentors and candidates, as practice opportunities to assess historical thinking. professional development program the third aspect of the project plan was a professional development program designed to address mentor teachers, who work with candidates in both short-term and full internship clinical experiences, and their potential mentees. this professional development included a summer faceto-face workshop and follow-up activities over the course of a school year that targeted the evidence-based principles and practices from the methods coursework. the professional development was modeled on the hybrid graduate-level history course, teaching hidden history, which challenged students to discover a unique primary source and seek to uncover the “hidden” story behind it through other primary sources. together, the resources, and annotations thereof, became a module designed for secondary history students (schrum et al., 2018). one graduate student in the course, for example, began with images of a historic boundary marker near waters et al. 57 washington dc and found other primary resources to tell the story of the tensions of the slave trade between the district and neighboring virginia. another used an image of a charlie chaplin lookalike contest to explore 20th century celebrity culture. using this model for our project, mentors and interns worked together, focusing on library of congress resources, to co-develop their digital hidden history module to be used during the internship year with secondary social studies students. participants we employed criterion-based sampling (demarrias, 2004) to recruit potential participants at a large state university in the southeast united states. participants in this study were pre-service social studies teachers preparing to begin their year-long clinical internship in the following semester, as well as their corresponding mentor teachers. we extended an invitation to participate in the study to both interns and mentors during the 2018 and 2019 face-to-face summer workshops. there were five intern/mentor pairings from the first cohort and nine intern/mentor pairings from the second cohort who expressed interest in participating in the study. in total we had 14 interns and 11 mentors (some mentors supervised interns in both cohorts). informed consent forms approved by our university’s irb were collected from each participant interested in participating in the research study at the end of the face-to-face summer workshops. data collection data sources included questionnaires regarding mentor and intern perceptions of and experiences with using primary sources, as well as quarterly reflections written by both mentors and interns regarding their experiences and their co-developed primary source-based projects. the reflections were written expressions to following prompts:  describe how you have approached successes and challenges with your intern/mentor.  as a mentor/intern, what has been your strategy to celebrate the successes and work through the challenges?  how receptive/supportive has your intern/mentor been to learning from both successes and challenges? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 as mentioned earlier, data from the program components are the case that we are investigating, which "consists of a detailed investigation...with data collected over a period of time, of phenomena, within their context," with the aim of providing “an analysis of the context and processes which illuminate the theoretical issues being studied" (hartley, 2004, p. 323). data collection spanned over 18 months during the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 academic years. the questionnaires were collected from participants in-person during the summer workshops and the quarterly reflections were collected via email. data analysis following the work of king (2016), our data analysis consisted of three steps: organizing the data, reducing the data into themes and sub themes, and representing the data in tables (creswell, 2002). we leveraged this inductive approach by bringing together various sources to explain the complex phenomena of interns and mentors navigating the restructured teacher preparation program built on teaching and learning with primary sources and fostering historical thinking in social studies classrooms (yin, 2003). our analysis involved open coding to analyze the mentors’ and interns’ reflections and questionnaires (king, 2016). we categorized the codes into coherent themes and subthemes based on similarities as they pertained to the research questions (demoiny, 2017; king, 2016). additionally, we engaged in memo writing (charmaz, 2014), which allowed us to develop descriptions for each theme that were grounded in the participant data and come to a consensus regarding the common themes and subthemes to ensure reliability. findings this 18-month project emerged from an opportunity to re-imagine one social studies teacher preparation program with historical thinking practices and clinical experiences more central to its mission. to that end, we added a clinical-based methods course for candidates in the spring semester prior to their yearlong internship beginning each fall. we also included a mentor/intern professional development workshop focused on historical thinking and teaching with primary sources in the weeks before the internship began. this workshop emphasized skills, practices, and knowledge coming from social studies education research, as well as effective mentoring, collaboration, and communication practices from the framework of cognitive apprenticeship. the waters et al. 59 workshop was followed by questionnaires, quarterly reflections and artifacts from a co-planned, inquiry-based project launched during the internship. as mentioned above, our research objective was to explore the implementation of this project by studying intern and mentor perceptions of their participation and its impact on their practice. the research question was 1. in what ways do university and school partnerships grounded in teaching and learning with primary sources and historical thinking influence social studies clinical experiences? we present our findings from the analysis of the questionnaires and reflections of this project by framing them into the three principal themes: 1) teaching with primary sources and applications of practice; 2) relationship development between intern and mentor, and 3) the relationship between coursework and clinical practice. these three themes emphasized the importance of establishing robust university and school partnerships that leverage the interns’ clinical experience in ways that support the application of theory and practice to ultimately support young learners in history. additionally, we draw upon these themes and sub-themes to support several implications related to school/university partnerships and the social studies teacher preparation clinical experience at the conclusion of this article. theme #1 teaching with primary sources and applications of practices one primary goal of this project was to ensure that program graduates and the mentor teachers with whom they work recognized the importance of using primary sources in their instruction to support student learning. the theme, teaching with primary sources and applications of practice addresses the interns’ and mentors’ willingness, comfortability, and knowledge of appropriately and effectively leveraging primary sources in the classroom. table 1 and table 2 highlight major sub-themes that emerged from the data analysis of mentor/intern questionnaires and reflections related to this project. also, in the tables we provide descriptions and examples for sub-themes to support and conceptualize the connections across the sub-themes and to the teaching with primary sources and applications of practice theme. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 table 1 intern sub-themes for teaching with primary sources sub-themes description example historical thinking skills refers to a number of skills interns wanted their students to learn by using and working with primary source documents. these include sourcing artifacts, critical analysis, inferencing, and evaluating. they hoped that the skills would help them reconstruct the past by highlighting diverse narratives based on the primary sources used to interpret it.  “utilizing this inquiry-based project allowed for my students to develop key content specific skills, specifically analysis. we were able to cover writing, presenting, analyzing, and examine bias in different historical perspectives. from this, i have noticed my students are developing into greater historical thinkers and questioning on the following unit of imperialism. they are keying in to supporting their claims in class discussion and questioning where information is coming from. they were able to gain the content information, just as my students last semester did, but they did the inquiry and constructed the knowledge.” (alexis, intern, reflection, 10/05/2019) broader understanding of primary sources refers to the sharing of broader definitions (better understanding) and interest in using multiple formats of primary source sources in classrooms (maybe as a result of the ssce 454 course). interns were interested in using the multiple forms, which in turn delivered multiple perspectives to better analyze and interpret history. they also express using primary sources as building blocks (raw materials) to contextualize, reshape, and construct new narratives that may not be highlighted in the average history textbook.  “a source that originates from the time period in which an event happened.” (alyssa, intern, questionnaire, 2018)  “material from the time period being studied.” (john, intern, questionnaire, 2018)  “any artifact that was created at the time & place in history during which the event occurred.” (jesse, intern, questionnaire, 2019)  “historians use primary sources to craft something bigger, with more meaning and something that has more use than its raw purpose” (john, intern, questionnaire, 201)  “primary sources often need just as much critique and investigation than another source. even if the source originates from the time/place, that doesn’t mean it’s infallible.” (alyssa, intern, questionnaire, 2018) waters et al. 61 table 2 mentor themes for teaching with primary sources sub-themes description example limited understanding of primary sources refers to the sharing of limited definitions and understanding of what constitutes a primary source. most mentors describe primary sources mainly as documents. perhaps, this is because those are the forms, they are most familiar/comfortable with implementing (e.g. tangible paper copies of documents, images of art and physical objects), with the exception of videos, which they may be able to more easily access online. mentors were asked what is meant by primary sources being the “raw material’ of history, most just saw that as a synonym for the source to be “first-hand” account rather than it referring to being used to build something, such as an explanation of a past event. thus, mentors largely see primary sources as ways to inform rather than ways to build understanding of historical narratives.  “historical document” (carl, mentor, questionnaire, 2019)  “documents created by someone at the time of the event being described.” (belle, mentor, questionnaire, 2019)  “document created during the time period of study.” (dora, mentor, questionnaire, 2019)  “original document” (aaron, mentor, questionnaire, 10/05/2019)  “raw as in first hand.” (rachel, mentor, questionnaire, 2018)  “they are realthe bones. each source has a story and tells a story.” (kim, mentor, questionnaire, 2018) specific forms of primary sources used in social studies refers to the limited forms of primary sources mentors reported using in every or almost every lesson. they most often used primary sources like newspapers, speech excerpts, political cartoons, or photographs. they noted sources like museum artifacts and lengthy sources like full memoirs as less used. additionally, there was some misunderstanding that primary sources were less prone to bias.  “i always enjoy watching and hearing kids analyze political cartoons because not only are they learning, but i am too.” (kim, mentor, questionnaire, 2018)  “photos of abraham along with his family making the journey from the fertile crescent to the edge of the mediterranean sea. analyze emotions, family, status, and any sacrifices.” (raya, mentor, questionnaire, 2018)  “i use a consensus map activity on truman's use of the bomb. i pull sources from the truman, eisenhower, survivor account, army stats. new vs. old immigrant cartoon, the jungle excerpts, dust bowl photos.” (brad, mentor, questionnaire, 2019) journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 we opted to couple teaching with primary sources and applications of practices as one principal theme because, in our analysis, these ideas worked together in service of the two theoretical frameworks (historical thinking and cognitive apprenticeship) that guided the project. critical and historical thinking skills are not inherent skills. rather, educators must help students develop these skills within their students through effective modeling and scaffolding of instructional strategies. interns, as well as their mentors have the ability to effectively teach their students to analyze, interpret, and evaluate primary source evidence only if they have a deep understanding of this specific set of critical literacy skill themselves. we glean from this section how and if interns and mentors put theory (historical thinking) into practice by employing various historical thinking skills that align with the c3 framework. for example, when reflecting on students’ inquiry-based projects, alexis noted, “utilizing this inquiry-based project allowed for my students to develop key content specific skills, specifically analysis. we were able to cover writing, presenting, analyzing, and examine bias in different historical perspectives. from this, i have noticed my students are developing into greater historical thinkers and questioning on the following unit of imperialism. they are keying in to supporting their claims in class discussion and questioning where information is coming from. they were able to gain the content information, just as my students last semester did, but they did the inquiry and constructed the knowledge.” (alexis, intern, reflection, 10/05/2019) alexis’ description of the inquiry-based projects she and her mentor teacher facilitated with their students emulates the tenets of the c3 framework’s inquiry arc. these projects required students to ask questions, develop and apply content-specific skills to investigate their queries, and then reconstruct the past by highlighting diverse narratives based on the primary sources used to interpret it. more importantly, it is clear that the skills necessary for this project were not ephemeral but sustained moving forward. alexis reports that she noticed some students began transferring the learned historical thinking skills applied during the inquiry-based projects in their following unit on imperialism. thus, this affirms the reflexive and recursive nature of learning guided by the c3 framework’s inquiry arc. additionally, we gleaned from this section that if there is an underdeveloped or misunderstanding of the of the importance and nature of teaching with primary sources, then execution and delivery waters et al. 63 of the practice will be ineffective. for example, on the pre-internship/workshop questionnaire, mentors were asked what a primary source was. several referred to primary sources as, “historical documents”; ‘original documents”; “documents created during the time period of study.” another question asked what they thought was meant by primary sources being described as “raw materials.” one mentor stated, “because they provide the most insight into historical events” (dedra, mentor, questionnaire, 2019). lastly, mentors were asked to share an effective primary source and to describe the lesson in which it was used. one mentor stated, “i don’t know the best – but – i’ll pick one. churchill's "iron curtain" speech. play the clip, use the text etc.” (julie, mentor, questionnaire, 2018). from these data, we determined that the mentors’ initial limited understanding of the intricacy and types of primary sources, as well as how they can be used demonstrate that they largely see primary sources as ways to inform rather than ways to build understanding. throughout the duration of this project, mentors and interns were situated to strengthen their own understanding of primary sources, while also given the opportunity to collaborate and support one another as they work to successfully execute and facilitate these highly skillful pedagogical practices related to the historical thinking process. theme #2 developing a collaborative relationship between interns and mentors while understanding the value and nature of historical thinking and using primary sources, and effectively applying them to social studies pedagogical practice is paramount, we found that this complex work is much more robust when the intern and mentor establish and develop a collaborative working relationship. the theme, collaborative relationships addresses the interns’ and mentors’ acknowledging communication, trust, and respect as necessary virtues that should characterize these collaborations to prevent an unbalanced power dynamic between the intern and the mentor. likewise, these relationships are necessary to rethink clinical experiences to emulate rudiments of professional collaboration and learning. table 3 and table 4 present major subthemes that emerged from the data analysis of mentor/intern questionnaires and reflections from this project. as before, we provide descriptions and examples for each sub-theme to support and conceptualize the connections between the sub-themes and the developing collaborative relationships between interns and mentors theme. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 table 3 intern themes for developing collaborative relationships sub-themes description example communication refers to the tools and strategies necessary to effectively communicate needs and concerns during the clinical experience.  “i began the first day by speaking with my mentor about having an open and honest relationship so we could both communicate effectively with each other.” (karly, intern, reflection, 11/21/2019)  “every week, we have a meeting to discuss what is going well in our relationship and what we need to work on. though a point of this meeting is to also focus on what i need to work on in the next week and what my personal teaching goals are, i enjoy the communication and bluntness that we share during these friday talks.” (krista, intern, reflection, 02/13/2020) trust refers to the intern’s expressed feeling of importance to establish and develop a relationship built on trust establish trust with mentor, students, and other colleagues in placement school.  “by being honest with our strengths at the beginning of the year, we have established a well working system in order to facilitate our work.” (krista, intern, reflection, 11/21/2019)  “the biggest strategy that my mentor and i use when we face our successes and challenges is honesty.” (april, intern, reflection, 02/24/2020)  “i am very pleased with establishing this trust at the beginning of the year. i feel that it has allowed me to focus more on working on my teaching practices.” (krista, intern, reflection, 11/21/2019) collaboration refers to the need to carve out time to plan, reflect, talk; taking time to co-teach; breaking through barriers that come with increased expectations.  “the collaboration with the mentor was valuable and to see a big project through from the beginning to end was hard to fathom at first. mentor helped me break it down.” (alexis, intern, reflection, 04/12/2019)  “collaborative research and student choice used in the project were eye-opening. i will trust my students to do this kind of work more.” (alexis, intern, reflection, 04/12/2019) waters et al. 65 table 4 mentor themes for developing collaborative relationships sub-themes description example model of practice and professionalism refers to the mentors’ feeling and expectation that they are models of practice and professionalism.  “i try to set the right example for her. for instance, being to work on time, planning ahead, maintaining high expectations, having strong relationships with fellow teachers, and of course taking a genuine interest in the learning and welfare of our kids.” (brad, mentor, reflection, 11/27/2019)  “i think being able to see me day to day and the energy and commitment i put in has a strong impact on her and lets her know that i am in this for the right reasons. the same goes for her as well. i see the professionalism and dedication she displays. as both of us approach each day that way it creates mutual trust and solidarity.” (brad, mentor, reflection, 11/27/2019) expectations and trust refers to the characteristics of building trust; establishing routines, establishing communication plans; navigating new school year and intern’s needs simultaneously.  “the most successful aspect of our mentor/intern relationship so far has been treating my intern the same as i would treat any other teacher in the building. i try to communicate my trust that she is capable and can do a good job by not micromanaging what she is doing, and by actively involving her in every aspect of teaching, including planning, grading, plcs, student discipline follow up, communicating with parents, parent-teacher conferences, horizontal teaming meetings, and s-team/504/iep meetings.” (reba, mentor, reflection, 11/21/2019) identifying shared rhythm for teaching refers to initially identifying the intern’s comfort level. then, throughout the duration of the clinical experience, gradually easing them more and more into the teaching process.  “i would like to identify some teachers who excel in areas in which my intern has room for improvement so she can get new ideas of how to improve her own practice. my hope is that this would continue to build trust as she sees that i am actively working to provide her more opportunities for continued growth.” (reba, mentor, reflection, 11/21/2019)  “i have vowed to treat my interns differently. it’s a relationship built on mutual respect and safe independence. i will not stand in the way of effective teaching strategies that may not be in my repertoire, but i will not allow the intern to harm their experience or my students’ education.” (sally, mentor, reflection, 11/26/2019) journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 it was evident from our data that the intern/mentor relationship was a key indicator of the overall potency and effectiveness of the skills associated with the historical thinking process and teaching with primary sources. establishing collaborative and productive relationships early on helped situate the mentor to identify a shared rhythm for teaching that assuaged both them and their intern. when intern/mentor relationships are not characterized by communication, trust, expectations, and respect, they may run the risk of not being non-mutually beneficial relationships rather than symbiotic. the interns in this study entered their clinical experience with rich but developing knowledge of teaching with primary sources by leveraging the historical thinking process. on the other hand, the mentors in this study viewed their role in the relationship to be a model of practice and professionalism aligned with a cognitive apprenticeship approach (dennan & burner, 2008). we found that these relationships thrived when the interns had the opportunity to share and practice these valuable and impactful pedagogies, in concert with their mentors’ willingness to learn and incorporate them into their own repertoire of practices. relatedly, once the mentors learned pedagogies to foster historical thinking, they could then model (for their intern) the historical thinking skills, while also taking into account various contextual elements that impact learning, such as school culture, classroom management, need for differentiated instruction, and diverse learners. the theme of developing collaborative relationships directly relates to our theoretical frameworks as it is dependent on both parties to contribute their knowledge (i.e. mentors contributing knowledge and pedagogy from years of experience and interns contributing in-depth knowledge of teaching and learning with primary sources from their pre-internship course experience). in this relationship, both the intern and mentor are benefiting from one another view one another as a valuable asset. a collaborative relationship may lead to a more harmonious facilitation of these highly complex critical literacy skills, thus setting the foundation for students to receive the most robust and consistent social studies instruction possible. if the intern/mentor relationship is not collaborative, the dissonance may disrupt other elements of social studies clinical experience, which was demonstrated with the quotes used to open this paper. theme #3 moving forward with clinical practice in social studies moving forward with clinical practice in social studies speaks to another principal goal of this project, which was to create a sustained professional development partnership program in which waters et al. 67 candidates are placed with effective mentors and mentor teachers find value in their interns’ knowledge and skill set for working with primary sources. moreover, we hoped that mentor teachers would see value in learning to use loc resources and apply tps practices in their own teaching and in support of the teacher candidates they mentor. data surrounding this theme are indicators of how mentors and interns were impacted by this partnership, as well as how they will use the clinical experience to shape their practice of integrating historical thinking skills and teaching and learning with primary sources moving forward. table 5 and table 6 present major sub-themes that emerged from the data analysis of mentor/intern questionnaires and reflections from this project. again, we provide descriptions and examples for each sub-theme to support and conceptualize the connections between the sub-themes and the moving forward with clinical practices theme. table 5 intern sub-themes for forward with clinical practice sub-themes description example need for opportunities to grow and collaborate refers to the interns’ need for less support in discerning the utility of primary sources. they understand how and why they are used and what to do with them. what they need are experiences using primary sources in classroom situation to figure out the pedagogy. moreover, they need mentors that are open and willing to provide these opportunities.  “i have learned that mistakes are proof of learning.” (alexis, intern, reflection, 04/12/2019)  “this internship has allowed me to improve my collaboration skills as well as critical thinking and learning skills. i trust that my mentor has and continues to guide me in the right direction towards having my own successful classroom in the future.” (mila, intern, reflection, 12/19/2019)  “i really enjoy being thrown in and seeing how i react to things and then being told how i can improve upon my actions. my mentor has let me take control of the class from the very first day and after about two weeks completely let me have the class. she will help me any time i ask but also gives me my space to figure out my teaching style.” (bella, intern, reflection, 02/19/2019) “consistency” refers to the interns grappling to align expectations of epp and mentor; feeling  “overall, i think to develop a mentor/intern relationship built on trust rests on openness, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 unsupported; balancing “doing our own thing” with maintaining connection and support from mentor. dependability, and consistency. i think consistency is huge because it is difficult to get along with someone or predict what they may do if they are inconsistent with their moods and teaching styles." (karly, intern, reflection, 11/21/2019)  “some things that have not been extremely successful are that he gives sporadic advice, or we have sporadic sit-downs about my lessons. in the beginning, we would talk about once a week or every other day about my lessons, but now we do not really talk about them unless he has to write up something about my teaching for his mentors matters meetings.” (molly, intern, reflection, 11/25/2019) table 6 mentor sub-themes for moving forward with clinical practice sub-theme description example willingness to learn from interns refers to the recognition by mentors that they could learn from their interns. for example, they could learn how primary sources can/should be used to engender historical thinking, not just as sources of information. additionally, they could learn new practices, strategies, and learn to “bring back the joy of teaching.”  “i learned from my intern to not get bogged down in the minutia of teaching and bring back the joy.” (jody, mentor, reflection, 04/24/2019)  “i never do the same lesson twice anymore.” (carl, mentor, reflection, 04/24/2019)  “this young woman is going to be amazing next year!!! she is one of the strongest, most graceful people i know. she is an intelligent, caring, collaborative partner that my students and i treasure beyond measure. i have become a better teacher and person because of her.” (belle, mentor, reflection, 03/12/2020) letting go of the reigns refers to the transfer of classroom authority; introducing interns to ancillary work that comes with teaching (e.g. committees, parents); allowing them the space to grow and refine their craft.  “i want to protect my intern from taking on too much too soon.” (carl, mentor, reflection, 04/24/2019)  “i try and help my intern fit into the variable roles of being a teacher.” (jody, mentor, reflection, 04/24/2019) waters et al. 69  “in some ways for myself, it’s been difficult to relinquish control of some things. i don’t consider myself a ‘control freak’, but i can sometimes be a ‘quality control freak’ when it comes to some of my own lessons and activities especially in a tested subject like us history. however, through this process, i myself learned a lot by letting megan do more of ‘her thing’. i guess by this i mean that i’ve tried act in more of an advisory capacity (not in every instance, however). i feel as if this helps teacher candidates to do a better job and develop into better educators when they’re not as constrained their mentoring teachers and they can teach to / develop their own strengths.” (jen, mentor, reflection, 11/26/2019)  “she has completely taken over the class she is teaching, with input from me in the form of coplanning, lesson/assessment/material ideas, and post-lesson reflection. however, the plans and delivery of lessons are entirely hers. i have seen her confidence build over the course of the semester as she gains experience in every aspect of teaching.” (sally, mentor, reflection, 11/26/2019) the emerging sub-themes from these data suggest several considerations for moving forward with embedding teaching with primary sources skills and practices into teacher preparation coursework, school-based mentoring, and associated clinical experiences. specifically, we gleaned that interns needed opportunities to grow and develop their skills. while their theoretical knowledge of teaching with primary sources may be robust, they need to practice their craft in contextually diverse and specific classroom environments. in order for this to happen, the mentor must be willing to let go of the reigns, in other words, they must be willing to share classroom authority with the intern so that are given the space they need to grow. while this may be daunting and difficult for some mentors, the data support that the transfer of authority can be more seamless if and when open communication and collaboration happen regularly between the intern and the mentor. for example, when reflecting on their mentoring relationship with their intern, jen noted, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 “in some ways for myself, it’s been difficult to relinquish control of some things. i don’t consider myself a ‘control freak’, but i can sometimes be a ‘quality control freak’ when it comes to some of my own lessons and activitiesespecially in a tested subject like us history. however, through this process, i myself learned a lot by letting megan do more of ‘her thing’. i guess by this i mean that i’ve tried act in more of an advisory capacity (not in every instance, however). i feel as if this helps teacher candidates to do a better job and develop into better educators when they’re not as constrained their mentoring teachers and they can teach to / develop their own strengths.” (jen, mentor, reflection, 11/26/2019) drawing on cognitive apprenticeship, this relationship provides the situatedness, peripheral participation, guided participation, and membership in a community of practice needed for candidates’ success (dennen & burner, 2008). likewise, with historical thinking skills, collaboration and communications skills are not inherent, but must be learned and constantly developed. as a response to the findings in this study, we developed a pre-internship graduate level course focused on applying collaboration skills in social studies. this collaboration course complements the interns’ knowledge of historical thinking and the associated skills by preparing them with the communication tools to effectively engage in dialogues with their mentors and school-based plcs in regard to curriculum and other pedagogical decision-making. lastly, while the data suggest that interns need the space to “do their own thing” in regard to employing historical thinking, they also need the modeling, coaching, scaffolding, reflection, articulation, and exploration that more naturally comes from collaboration and communication with their mentor. for example, when reflecting on their relationship with their mentor, molly noted, “some things that have not been extremely successful are that he gives sporadic advice, or we have sporadic sit-downs about my lessons. in the beginning, we would talk about once a week or every other day about my lessons, but now we do not really talk about them unless he has to write up something about my teaching for his mentors matters meetings” (molly, intern, reflection, 11/25/2019) molly describes her relationship with her mentor as lacking some of the vital characteristics of collaboration and communication, namely; scaffolding, reflection, and articulation. when waters et al. 71 coaching did happen, feedback was sporadic. this can sometimes lead to inconsistencies and difficulty in identifying a clear trajectory for refinement from lesson to lesson. while interns entered their internship with a strong understanding of the historical thinking process and the highly skillful work associated therein, they still yearn for and benefit from consistent actionable feedback from their mentors to develop their craft knowledge and overall pedagogical practice. relatedly, the data also suggest that mentors may be better able to support their teacher candidates, if they are willing to learn from them. for example, when reflecting on her relationship with her intern, belle noted, “this young woman is going to be amazing next year!!! she is one of the strongest, most graceful people i know. she is an intelligent, caring, collaborative partner that my students and i treasure beyond measure. i have become a better teacher and person because of her.” (belle, mentor, reflection, 03/12/2020) belle highlights one of the fundamental purposes of this project, which was to cultivate mutually beneficial relationships between interns and their mentors centered on teaching and learning with primary sources and historical thinking. it is evident from belle’s reflection that she found value in her intern as a collaborative partner. if a mentor is willing to learn and apply tps practices in their own teaching and invest in their relationships with their interns as collaboration opportunities, they can take advantage of these robust skills and practices to refine and reinforce their own teaching. this keeps our project objective of preparing interns and supporting mentor teachers parallel, while also hopefully narrowing the dissonance that has long existed between research theory and teacher’s practice in the field of education. discussion and implications this study sought to explore our efforts to improve one social studies educator preparation program by establishing more explicit connection between program curriculum and clinical experiences through a series of curricular reforms coupled with mentor and candidate professional development. after evaluating the impact of the restructuring, we believe that our study has implications for social science educator preparation programs more broadly. the theoretical frameworks we drew upon helped us re-imagine the program in ways that addressed both areas. grounding a new methods course in historical thinking, for example, allowed candidates to journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 become familiar with a unique approach to learning about the past with the use of primary source material and bring that experience to their clinical practices in purposeful ways. likewise, cognitive apprenticeship provided the structure of clinical practice that enabled us to give form to the school/university partnerships we hoped to foster to give candidates optimal school-based experiences that complemented their coursework. the following paragraphs include our interpretation of the findings with respect to teaching and learning social studies and clinical practices in social studies education. teaching and learning social studies two major considerations related to teaching and learning social studies stemmed from this project’s findings. first, we found that placing emphasis on the preparing students with historical thinking skills and teaching and learning with primary sources empowered candidates in their internships. they entered their clinical experience with a tool kit of disciplinary skills to engage young learners in the teaching and learning of history using primary sources and employing critical thinking skills. secondly, we found that mentors benefit from the embedded professional development of this partnership as well. specifically, they were able to garner a deeper understanding of what primary sources are and how they can be used to foster higher order thinking in their social studies lessons, which in some cases resulted in the development of new materials and activities that integrated more student choice, collaborative historical thinking and historical research opportunities (drake & nelson, 2005). from this, we assert that through purposeful teaching with primary sources, social studies teachers can equip youth with the knowledge base and historical thinking skills necessary to engage in sophisticated study of the past. moreover, the skills learned from engaging in the historical thinking process are transferable and may be employed to other disciplines within the federation of social studies, such as addressing public issues facing society, civic engagement, and overall societal participation (barton & levstik, 2004; ncss, 2013; 2016; 2017). from these data, we found that integrating primary sources and historical thinking practices into social studies teacher preparation coursework, school-based mentoring, and associated clinical experiences set the foundation for interns and mentors to align their social studies curriculum with the ncss c3 framework. the student projects required students to engage in historical thinking by analyzing primary sources. however, as with any new form of professional development or waters et al. 73 curriculum integration, the overall success of this project boils down to the interns’ and mentors’ willingness, comfortability, and knowledge of appropriately and effectively leveraging primary sources in the social studies classroom. as mentioned previously, if teachers do not understand the value and nature of historical thinking and using primary sources, they run the risk of weak application of the ncss c3 framework practices. clinical practice the end goal of preparing teachers who challenge their students to think historically is further complicated by the need for teacher preparation coursework to align with school-based practices that support evidence-based pedagogies related to historical thinking. in regard to clinical practice, we found that by establishing a robust partnership between universities and schools that leverage the clinical experience as professional development opportunity is extremely beneficial. specifically, we find that during the internship, interns need space to practice and refine their freshly attained historical thinking skills with young learners with the support of not only university faculty, but their school-based mentors, also. relatedly, we found that mentors can benefit from this unique partnership because they will not only be gaining an asset to their classroom, but they will also receive professional development to help them grow in their pedagogical practice (dennan & burner, 2008; ghefaili, 2003). through this partnership and framework there is an opportunity to transform the clinical internship into a collaborative experience that is beneficial for the triad of interns, mentor teachers, and university faculty (doppen, 2007). thus, we assert that authentic partnerships hinge upon the ability of the mentor and intern to feel like they are both contributing to the relationship by learning from one another and drawing upon the principles of cognitive apprenticeship (collins, et al., 1989). to that end, we found that collaboration, communication, trust, and consistency were noted by candidates and mentors as key elements present in successful intern/mentor relationships. these elements were found lacking in those unsuccessful relationships. in practice, fostering successful clinical practices may involve carving out more time to co-plan, co-teach, and reflect. doing so may lead to the development of more effective teaching practices that appropriately challenge learners to think historically. restructuring clinical practice and mentor/intern relationships this way situates the mentor to better monitor and assess the candidate’s progress based on expectations that are concurrent with journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 the epp program. such consistency may be one more solution to reduce the dissonance between theory and practice in the secondary social studies clinical practice experience where the candidate feels supported by both their school-based mentor and their university faculty/supervisors. limitations while this study produced several findings and implications for social science educator preparation programs to consider, there were also some limitations of this study that should be highlighted. first, this study relied heavily on the researcher’s analysis of the interns’ and mentor’ questionnaires and quarterly reflections and did not utilize interview data. including interviews from the particiapnts would have allowed the researchers to triangulate the data sources (carter et al., 2014) to develop a more comprehensive understanding of interns’ and mentors’ perceptions of embedding skills and practices of teaching with primary sources into teacher preparation clinical experiences. specifically, by interviewing the interns and mentors directly, we would have had the opportunity to ask more direct questions to perhaps glean some of the relational aspects between the interns and their mentors as they incorporated primary sources into their pedagogical practice. also, while the findings from this study are not meant to be generalizable, we recognize the limitations of our small sample size. perhaps, the findings and data could have been expanded further had the sample size been larger. lastly, further research from other social science epps that are considering redesigning their programs to purposefully align social science education coursework and clinical experience with school-based mentors around the practice of teaching with primary sources would be beneficial. conclusion the findings from this project revealed benefits and challenges of restructuring a social studies education preparation program. ultimate success of this project was determined by whether candidates and mentor developed better connection between teacher preparation coursework and clinical experiences. specifically, these data helped us learn about the preparation of our teacher candidates as they enter into schools for clinical experiences as well as the extent to which our mentors have the ability to support our candidates in teaching with primary sources. while this project yielded an enhanced professional development partnership with our local school systems that focused on embedding c3 framework practices and historical thinking skills, a greater waters et al. 75 understanding of the complexity of the mentor/intern relationship emerged. we found that the mentor/intern relationship was of significant importance as it is a strong indicator as to whether the historical thinking framework practices and strategies would be implemented with fidelity with their social studies students. specifically, social studies teacher educators and scholars interested in fostering school/university partnerships grounded in these highly skillful frameworks and pedagogies should consider placing emphasis on ways they can support their interns and mentors develop collaborative relationships. if mentors and interns do not cultivate and maintain strong relationships that engender the characteristics of collaboration, communication, trust, and consistency, they ultimately run the risk of weak application of the historical thinking process in their pedagogical practice. references bain, r. (2000). into the breach: using research and theory to shape history instruction. in p. n. stearns, p. seixas, & s. wineburg (eds.). knowing, teaching, and learning history. national and international perspectives (pp. 331-352). new york, ny: new york university press. barr, r.d. , barth, j.l. , & shermis, s.s. (1977). defining the social studies [bulletin no. 51]. arlington, va: national council for the social studies. barton, k.c. & levstik, l. (2004). teaching history for the common good. new york, ny: routledge. barton, k.c. (2011). history: from learning narratives to thinking historically. in w.b. russell, (ed.), contemporary social studies: an essential reader (pp.109-139). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. bohan, c., & davis, o. (1998). historical constructions: how social studies student teachers' historical thinking is reflected in their writing of history. theory & research in social education, 26(2), 173-197. brooks, s. (2011). historical empathy as perspective recognition and care in one secondary social studies classroom. theory & research in social education, 39(2), 166-202. calkins, l. t., yoder, p., & wiens, p. (2021). renewed purposes for social studies teacher preparation: an analysis of teacher self-efficacy and initial teacher education. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 54-77. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 carter, n., bryant-lukosius, d., dicenso, a., blythe, j., & neville, a., j. (2014). the use of triangulation in qualitative research. oncology nursing forum, 41, 545–547. doi:10.1188/14.onf.545.547 cochran-smith, m., villegas, a., abrams, l., chavez-moreno, l., mills, t., & stern, r. (2015). critiquing teacher preparation research: an overview of the field, part ii. journal of teacher education, 66(2), 109-121. collins, a.; brown, j.s., and newman, s.e. (1989) cognitive apprenticeship: teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics. in knowing, learning, and instruction: essays in honor of robert glaser, edited by l.b. resnick, pp. 453-494. hillsdale, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. demoiny, s. b. (2017). are you ready? elementary pre-service teachers' perceptions about discussing race in social studies. multicultural education, 24(2), 25-33. dennan, v. p. & burner, k. j. (2008). the cognitive apprenticeship model in educational practice. in j. m. spectro, m. d. merrill, j. van merrienboer, & m. driscoll (eds.). handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 424-437). new york, ny: routledge. drake, f.d. & nelson, l. r. (2005). engagement in teaching history: theory and practices for middle and secondary teachers. new york, ny: prentice hall. doppen, f. (2007). the influence of a teacher preparation program on preservice social studies teachers' beliefs: a case study.(report)(case study). journal of social studies research, journal of social studies research, annual, 2007. endacott, j. (2014). negotiating the process of historical empathy. theory & research in social education, 42(1), 4-34. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2013.826158 ghefaili, a. (2003) cognitive apprenticeship, technology, and the contextualization of learning environments, journal of educational computing, design & online learning, vol. 4, pp.1–27. grossman, p., hammerness, k., & mcdonald, m. (2009). redefining teaching, re‐imagining teacher education. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 15(2), 273-289. hartley, j. (2004). case study research. in c. cassell & g. symon (eds.), essential guide to qualitative methods in organizational research (pp. 323-333). london, uk: sage. heafner, t., mcintyre, e., & spooner, m. (2014). the caep standards and research on educator preparation programs: linking clinical partnerships with program impact. peabody journal of education, 89(4), 516-532. waters et al. 77 jimenez-silva, m., hinde, e., & hernandez, n. j. (2013). how are teachers of social studies addressing the needs of english language learners in their classrooms? in j. passe & p. g. fitchett (eds.), the status of social studies: views from the field (pp. 275-286). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. king, l. j. (2016). teaching black history as a racial literacy project. race ethnicity and education, 19(6), 1303-1318. national council for the social studies (ncss) (2017). national standards for the preparation of social studies teachers. silver spring, md: author. national council for the social studies (ncss). (2016). a vision of powerful teaching and learning in the social studies: building effective citizens. social education, 72: 277–280. national council for the social studies (ncss). 2013. the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards. national council for the social studies. http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/c3-framework-for-socialstudies.pdf o'brien, j. (2011). the system is broken and it's failing these kids: high school social studies teachers' attitudes towards training for ells. the journal of social studies research, 35(1), 22-38. pellegrino, a. & zenkov, k. (2016, february). the connective power of project-based clinical experiences. web log post. retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/connectivepower-project-based-clinical-experiences-anthony-pellegrino ross, e., & netlibrary, inc. (2001). the social studies curriculum: purposes, problems, and possibilities (rev. ed., suny series, theory, research, and practice in social education). albany: state university of new york press. schrum, k., sleeter, n. pellegrino, a., & tyong vy sharpe, c. (2018). teaching hidden history: student outcomes from a distributed hybrid history course. the history teacher 51(4), 124. spector, j. (2008). handbook of research on educational communications and technology (3rd ed.). new york: lawrence erlbaum associates. stearns, p. n. (2000). getting specific about training in historical analysis: a case study in world history. in p. n. stearns, p. seixas, & s. wineburg (eds.). knowing, teaching, and learning history. national and international perspectives (pp. 419-435). new york, ny: new york university press. vansledright, b. (2011). the challenge of rethinking history education: on practices, theories, and policy. new york, ny: routledge. http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/c3-framework-for-social-studies.pdf http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/c3-framework-for-social-studies.pdf journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 47-78 whitehouse, j. (2015). historical thinking: a framework for learning and teaching history. educational practice and theory, 37(2), 51–58. wineburg, s. (2001). historical thinking and other unnatural acts: charting the future of teaching the past. philadelphia, pa: temple university press. yin, r. k. (2003). case study research, design and methods (3rd ed., vol. 5). thousand oaks, ca: sage. yoder, p. j., & van hover, s. (2018). teaching history to ells in standards-based settings: implications for teacher educators. in l. c. de oliveira & k. m. obenchain (eds.), teaching history and social studies to english language learners: preparing pre-service and in-service teachers (pp. 39-65). cham, switzerland: palgrave macmillan. zenkov, k., daoud, n., & pellegrino, a. (2017). power and citizenship through youth-centered project-based clinical practice. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 60(4), 471-474. retrieved july 12, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/26630758 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 60-75 moderating influence of curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment practices on learning outcomes in indonesian secondary education ida umami1 abstract the purpose of this research was to examine the current situation and problems faced by indonesian schools in curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment practices despite government’s several legal initiatives. a questionnaire comprising both open and closed-ended questions was sent to the teachers and public education officers of the indonesian education department. out of a total of 200 questionnaires distributed in three secondary schools of papua and bandung and the headquarters of indonesian education department at jakarta, only 170 respondents retuned the questionnaire. for the purpose of quantitative analysis, percentage, mean and standard deviation were calculated while content analysis method was utilized for qualitative data. the questions dealt with curriculum, pedagogy and assessment and their combined role in the achievement of learning outcomes of secondary education in indonesia. evidence collected from teacher’s questionnaire show that most participants held a good knowledge of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment practices gained through long experience in the education sector. the implications of this study have wide perspectives as its findings would be beneficial for policy making. recommendations of the study focus on the implementation of good practices. key words: learning outcome, implementation, assessment criteria, secondary education introduction there are two types of education in indonesia: formal and non-formal. formal education is classified under three levels: primary, secondary and tertiary education. most secondary schools in indonesia fall under the public sector (negeri) and only a few belong to the private sector (swasta). a few schools are accredited as "national plus schools" qualifying the status of schools with curriculum, pedagogy and assessment practices exceeding requirement set by the ministry of education (kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan or kemdikbud). these schools use english as medium of instruction and follow international curriculum. indonesian education system has faced severe difficulties such as lack of funds, unstable curriculum, corruption, political favoritism, students’ unrest on quality of education and like 1 prof. dr., wakil rektor iii, iain metro lampung, indonesia, alidaumami@yahoo.co.id umami (secretariat, 2014). due to these issues, indonesia ranked 62nd out of 72 developing countries in a survey by the organization for economic cooperation and development program for international student (bps, 2016). according to the survey of political and economic risk consultant (peer), the quality of education in indonesia was ranked 12th out of 12 countries in asia with the position of indonesia under vietnam. data reported on world economic forum sweden (undp,2015), showed indonesia having a low competitiveness, ranking only 37th out of 57 countries surveyed in the world. undp and peer reports indicate that the quality of education in indonesia is still relatively low, it can be seen from many policies (laws and regulation) that need to be improved and in term of implementation that even until now is practiced with less strict supervision. low quality of education in indonesia was also shown in data research and development (2003) that out of 20,918 secondary schools in indonesia there were only eight schools that gained worldwide recognition in the category of the middle years program (map) and from the 8036 higher secondary schools there were only seven schools that gained worldwide recognition in the category of the diploma program (edp). last but not the least, indonesia ranks 69th out of 127 based on the education for all (efa) of unesco which is based upon education development index (edi) (undp, 2015). these survey reports prove that educational facilities in indonesia have not been optimally implemented in supporting the development of the nation (unesco,2017; ncf, 2015; cerdan-infantes, makarova, al-samarrai, and chen (2013)) secondary education in indonesia the indonesian school system (ncf, 2015) is immense and diverse. with over 50 million students and 2.6 million teachers in more than 250,000 schools, it is the third largest education system in the asia region and the fourth largest in the world (behind only china, india and the united states). two ministries are responsible for managing the education system, with 84 percent of schools under the ministry of national education (mone) and the remaining 16 percent under the ministry of religious affairs (mora). private schools play an important role. while only 7 percent of primary schools are private, the shares increase to 56 percent in junior secondary and 67 percent in senior secondary. primary school net enrollment rates are below 60% in poor districts compared to more well-off districts that have universal enrollment. net enrollment rates for secondary education have experienced a steady climb (currently 66% in junior secondary and 45% in senior secondary) but are still low compared to other countries in the region. indonesia is also trailing journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 60-75 62 behind its neighbors in early childhood education and higher education, with gross enrollment rates of 21% and 11.5% respectively (ncf, 2015). table 1 exhibits the student population in each of the levels of education and in age groups. level of education/age population pre-primary: 5-6 years 9,174,791 primary : 7-12 years 27,844,164 secondary: 13-18 years 27,933,138 tertiary: 19-23 years 21,059,620 source: unesco,2017 in 2016, indonesia had introduced 12 years of universal education aiming to provide equal access to education for all adolescents between 16 and 18 years of age. the program replaces the previous nine-year compulsory education launched in 1994 but was not yet fully implemented. despite this, a significant number of children stop their education after completing primary school. one in 10 children who should be in classes at junior secondary level is not enrolled. more positively, the gap in attendance in junior secondary school between rural and urban areas which was 7 per cent five years ago has been reduced to just 3 per cent. more girls than boys attend junior secondary school. drop-out rate has increased further towards senior secondary school; again, almost one in five children who complete the junior level does not continue into the final years of their education (ncf, 2015). table 2 gross and net enrolment in secondary education 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 gross enrolment ratio (%) total 70.56 69.73 74.73 76.54 79.21 80.41 82.49 82.47 85.84 87.84 female 70.77 69.44 74.48 76.79 79.42 81.51 81.21 82.16 86.01 87.01 male 70.35 70.01 74.98 76.3 79.01 79.35 83.71 82.76 85.68 86.68 net enrolment rate (%) total 64.86 64.09 64.86 66.75 73.01 74.14 75.23 75.02 75.52 75.12 female 65.06 63.86 64.37 66.63 73.2 75.26 74.21 74.69 76.03 76.01 male 64.66 64.32 65.33 66.87 72.82 73.06 76.2 75.83 75.54 75.34 source: (unesco, 2017) umami table 2 shows the falling percentage of net enrolment among the males after 2014 but a slightly increase in the females. the variation between gross and net enrolment is also an evidence of the increasing dropout rate in both males and females (unesco, 2017). literature review i. curriculum the curriculum is seen with great significance by teachers in any education system as it often serves as a rule book for teachers (cerdan-infantes et al., 2013; tarman & kuran, 2015). many teachers are still afraid to be creative and innovative in teaching activities and do not move out of the prescribed curricula. a curriculum is still seen as a subject matter to be completed in each academic session. teachers are apprehensive because what is prescribed may not be taught in time (tarman & gürel, 2017). however, teachers in secondary schools of indonesia have always pursued the curriculum targets, in spite of variation in the implementation of learning experience and different situations every year. a recent study (yulianto, ahmadi, & asteria, 2018), even attempted to develop a prototype model of curricular strategies and lesson plans in order to investigate the effectiveness of teaching in indonesian secondary education system. the findings of this study revealed that leaners were more interactive in classroom when the teachers adopted a more innovative curriculum. hence, the learning process in classrooms is still largely limited to the completion of teaching materials without regard to students' understanding of the content of the material being taught. in fact, not all students can understand the content of the lessons and students who do not understand will be seen when answering a given test. in addition, the substance of the curriculum in terms of the density of the material is not significant to the allocation of available time. it is also one of the reasons that the material taught in class seems less meaningful and less relevant for students (westbrook, 2013). in order to improve the quality of education and commensurate with other developing countries, the indonesian government too made changes, and reviewed the implementation of education in the country. the national education standards of indonesia (bsnp) had regulated through government regulation (pp) no. 19 year 2005 and set eight contents of the standards of education, specifically content standard, standard process, graduates competency standards, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 60-75 64 educators standards and education workforce, infrastructure standards, management standards, financial standards and evaluation standards (bps. (2016). simultaneously the government regulation no.19 year 2005 affected the direction of indonesian curriculum development policies to implement its content standard (sk) and graduate competency standard (skl) as established through the regulation of the minister of national education: number 22, 23, 24 year 2006. these three regulations then further elaborated "ktsp" (school based curriculum) which is built and developed by each educational unit or school in indonesia. since 1945, indonesia has reviewed its national curriculum eleven times (bps, 2016). such frequent changes in the national curriculum are not without impact. it affects three groups: teachers, who must readjust their material according to the new curriculum; students, who must familiarize with new subjects, and parents, who must spend money to purchase new books. azra (2006) explained these changes as a result of new paradigms that have emerged in education, shifting the orientation of the educational policy. according to the author, national education in indonesia is more oriented to the learning process rather than results. these changes also introduced decentralized system of education which means that a school-based curriculum known as ktsp shall be applicable all over indonesia. a constant change in curriculum not only affects the learning climate in the classroom, but also the preparedness of the authorities and teachers in making efforts to understand and apply the curriculum in practice. irianto (2012) in their study viewed that the implementation has not been optimally practiced as educational practitioners think ktsp differs with kbk. meanwhile jalal and musthafa (2001) argued that such an assumption was due to a prior attitudes and psychological resistance against the changes. the changes enhanced the operational practice of curriculum which are developed and implemented by each school consisting of their own respective goals, local content perspectives, educational calendar and syllabus. according to them, the implementation of curriculum (ktsp) need not undergo a public test since this curriculum had been tested through kbk in several schools in a pilot project. secondly, very optimistically they estimated that a change in curriculum would provide regional autonomy and decentralization of education. umami ii. pedagogy under ktsp implementation, the school and the teachers have the authority to decide their own pedagogical goals based on their school’s perspective and regional and environmental conditions. in other words, pedagogy relates to choosing and constructing the right lesson material according to the needs, interest and children's development. it also allows teachers to use appropriate teaching media enabling them the right assessment at a later stage. a well designed pedagogy helps engaging students in learning and developing skills. teachers with their pedagogical skills remain facilitators and try to build up student-centered classroom. mcgrath (2007) emphasizes to adopt a holistic approach in designing both curriculum and pedagogical skills. the school and the staff, according to the author, must conduct a goal analysis of students, community and the whole region. hence, it is required that pedagogy principles must be contextualized and embedded (abidin, bakar, & haseeb, 2014, 2015; abidin & haseeb, 2015; abidin, haseeb, azam, & islam, 2015; abidin, haseeb, & islam, 2016; abidina, haseeb, & jantan, 2016). gardiner (2000) on the other hand, stress upon the lack of teaching material and pedagogical ability for several teachers of secondary schools in indonesia. besides, the issue of lack of technology resources and latest gadgets in classrooms has also been a hindrance in the application of universal pedagogical principles. these findings highlight an unequal opportunity of students in small rural schools with a small budget when compared to the big rich school in the city (bps,2016). in another study emphasizes that teachers should be provided opportunities of developing pedagogical skills in order to create student-centered classrooms. they should also understand that different pedagogical techniques affect the students’ learning and they should use only such techniques that suit the students’ level. in this connection, douglas and frazier (2001) asserts that learner-centered instruction includes the techniques that focus on the learners’ needs, styles, and goals. rosser (2015) emphasized upon legal protection in order to bring educational reforms in the country. iii. assessment the national education system in indonesia regulates the assessment and evaluation practices in the field of education. it decides who is going to be evaluated, what will be evaluated, and how journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 60-75 66 the evaluation is done. under the assessment practices, it is not only the students; learning that must be assessed but also the entire education system, the process of implementation of the goals of education, teachers’ preparation, the execution of the learning process and evaluation of education. if we focus only on the students’ assessment, markle and robbins (2013) have stressed upon the assessment of students’ achievement not only in examination but also for the whole of their academic skills, commitment, self-management, and parental support. according to the authors, students may have different skills to achieve the learning purposes and this may vary from student to student. for example, a particular student may master the speaking skills; the others may be good at writing skills. in another study by patel (2003), a holistic approach is recommended in assessment of students’ performance. by holistic approach the author means to design a wellplanned course, properly supported by pedagogical skills of the teachers and assessment is done with the view to helping students to maintain their performance over years. rachmatullah, roshayanti, and ha (2017), in another recent study on assessing the performance of indonesian secondary school students, found that indonesian middle and high school students showed lower performance compared to their peers in other nations. the study raised the issue of students’ literacy in science subjects which was unfortunately found to be very low. the study suggested the solution to strengthen the assessment practices by aligning assessment with teaching and learning activities. according to the report of the study, this will enable higher order thinking among the indonesian students, particularly in the science streams. these findings were found an echo of similar observations made by the indonesian ministry of education and culture, which had issued regulations to adopt remedial measures for low performance of the secondary students, (under number 21 of year 2016) on content standards for primary and secondary education, indonesia. research design methodology this study used a mixed method research approach including both quantitative and qualitative methodology. the research instrument was a questionnaire using likert scales and open-ended questions. the questionnaire comprised three main parts, one on each variable of this study. the questions were designed to collect opinion and understand perception of such individuals who are umami directly and indirectly involved in secondary education in indonesia. the open-ended questions were included to focus on teachers’ problems related to curriculum, pedagogy and assessment. percentage, mean and standard deviation were applied to analyze quantitative data whereas content analysis was conducted for qualitative data. problem statement the national education standards of indonesia (bsnp) has faced many issues in the implementation of school based curriculum (ktsp), its pedagogy and assessment practices. (westbrook, 2013). besides, there are secondary effects of these issues on human resources, secondary schools infrastructure, and implementation of the national education mission of the government of indonesia. ktsp mandates all levels and types of education in indonesia to develop their own curriculum based on their potential areas and number of students. this is supported by minister of national education regulation no. 22 of 2006 on the content standards, as well as minister of national education regulation no. 23 of 2006 on graduates competency standards (skl). however, this policy was never implemented due to many reasons including teachers' lack of readiness and understanding of the issues. since the reforms related to curricular issues were never implemented, therefore, it was also difficult to address to the issues of pedagogy and assessment (westbrook, 2013). it is therefore required to carry out a study to find out the real cause of such issues, to understand the perception of teachers and government officials over issues of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment practices in secondary schools. this study aims to understand the teachers’ preparedness for implementing the new reforms, the reasons for non-serious attitude of the officials of the education departments and what would be the possible solutions to these issues. sampling and population the research population consisted of teachers and government officials in papua and bandung and the headquarters of indonesian education department at jakarta. these teachers taught in secondary schools and officials dealt with the policy making and implementation of regulations related to curriculum, pedagogy and assessment practices. \ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 60-75 68 findings there were three questionnaires, one for each of the three variables of this study – curriculum, pedagogy and assessment. the questionnaires were analyzed using the likert scale and percentage, mean and standard deviation were calculated and displayed in the following three tables (table 3, table 4 and table 5) table 3 respondents’ opinion on curriculum category x̅ s.d. respondents’ opinion 1 the curriculum is based on competencies. 3.40 1.08 moderate 2 the curriculum is developed jointly with all stakeholders 3.32 1.00 moderate 3 curricula allow identification and recognition of excellence 3.27 0.91 moderate 4 it promotes the learner's self-regulatory capabilities and skills 3.19 0.89 moderate 5 study plans and curricula are based on the expertise and development needs that are validated by the working life. 3.31 0.93 moderate 6 the curriculum stresses upon use of modern and latest technology 3.30 0.95 moderate 7 the curriculum is able to integrate ethics and morality with the subject contents 3.44 1.11 moderate 8 the curriculum is designed according to students’ ability 3.36 1.00 moderate 9 the curriculum is linked with real life and integrated to other subjects 3.33 0.89 moderate 10 the curriculum is related to the learning objectives 3.34 0.93 moderate total (aggregate) 66.70% 3.32 0.96 moderate table 3 highlights the respondents’ opinion on the curricula and study plans that were adopted in secondary level educational institutions which was at a moderate level (= 3.32 or 66.70 %). there were in all 10 (ten) items to consider. by putting them in descending order, it revealed that the ability to integrate ethics and morality with the subject contents was on the top (= 3.44), followed by a competencies based curriculum (=3.40); a curriculum designed according to students’ ability (=3.36); a curriculum related to the learning objectives (=3.34); linked with real life and integrated to other subjects (=3.33); a curriculum developed jointly with all stakeholders (=3.32); curricula based on the expertise and development needs of working life (=3.31); a curriculum that stresses upon use of modern and latest technology (=3.30); curricula that recognized excellence (=3.27) and a curriculum which promotes the learner's self-regulatory capabilities and skills (=3.19) umami table 4 respondents’ opinion on pedagogy category x̅ s.d. respondents’ opinion 1 the pedagogy has learner centered approach 3.38 0.98 moderate 2 it relate with learning outcomes 3.32 0.99 moderate 3 it ensures unobstructed learning /lifelong learning 3.31 0.86 moderate 4 all staff and students are aware of the pedagogical principles 3.42 1.04 moderate 5 the pedagogy allows students to participate in educational projects 3.41 1.01 moderate 6 the students have an opportunity for international learning opportunities to promote multiculturalism. 3.40 0.97 moderate 7 pedagogy allows alternative opportunities for completing studies. 3.30 0.89 moderate 8 students have the opportunity of self-learning 3.28 0.98 moderate 9 learning takes place in authentic learning environments 3.27 0.82 moderate 10 learning is based on individual activities and experiences 3.25 0.95 moderate 11 develop students’ creative thinking, analytic thinking and synthesis thinking 3.24 0.98 moderate 12 encourage students to communicate with the teachers about their understanding 3.21 0.89 moderate 13 apply integrated learning and project work 3.20 0.87 moderate total (aggregate) – 66.90% 3.29 0.92 moderate table 4 reveals that the respondents’ opinion on pedagogy was recorded at a moderate level (= 3.29 or 66.90 %). the highest three items included awareness of the pedagogical principles among all staff and students are(=3.42); pedagogy allowing students to participate in educational projects (=3.41) and students getting opportunity for international learning opportunities to promote multiculturalism(=3.40), whereas developing students’ creative thinking, analytic thinking and synthesis thinking (=3.24), encouraging students to communicate with teachers (=3.21) and applying integrated learning and project work (=3.20) were rated as the lowest items respectively. table 5 respondents’ opinion on assessment practices category x̅ s.d. respondents’ opinion 1 assessment of learning is based on learning objectives 3.46 1.05 2 it is qualitative based on rubric prepared by experts 3.45 1.04 3 students’’ self-assessment plays an important role in it. 3.44 1.03 4 coverage of syllabus is ensured in assessment 3.31 0.93 5 assessment practices relate with contents and learning objectives 3.36 0.96 moderate 6 ‘assessment practices are reliable and effective 3.40 1.04 moderate 7 there is a periodical assessment –midterm and end term 3.41 1.03 moderate 8 its total assessment of students’ knowledge, skills, and attitude 3.30 0.92 moderate 9 assessment tools and methods vary for each level 3.27 0.90 moderate 10 assessment benchmarks are considered 3.24 0.89 moderate total (aggregate) -66.16 % 3.31 0.97 moderate journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 60-75 70 table 5 indicates that the respondents’ opinion on assessment practices procedures as a whole was at a moderate level (= 3.31 or 66.16%). the assessment practices based on learning objectives (=3.46) and that was qualitative based on rubric prepared by experts (=3.45) was rated the highest whereas such practices like the assessment tools and methods vary for each level (=3.27) and assessment benchmarks are considered (=3.24) were the least. data analysis the findings of this study are fully supported by the curriculum theories which insist for a distinction between normative and critical roles of curriculum in order to streamline competencybased and learning outcome-focused pattern of secondary education (lindén, annala, & coate, 2017). in particular, the theory of pedagogic communication postulated by the french philosopher and linguist, frandji and vitale (2010) was found to be relevant to the indonesian state of secondary education. according to frandji and vitale (2010), pedagogy is more than rules and regulations since it assists in converting curriculum and classroom teaching into empirical knowledge for the learners. bernstein’s theory considers curriculum as a pedagogic tool helpful in structuring knowledge of learners or what is known as ‘pedagogic discourse.’ based on the research findings, it is found that all three variables of this study: curriculum, pedagogy and assessment point out a moderate level of significance to achieve learning outcomes. the results of the questionnaire as well as the content analysis of the open ended questions hinted at the presence of regulation practices but absence of implementation at all levels, including the officials who are responsible to supervise the education system of the country. each of the three variables is analyzed below to give a picture of the current status in the country based on the findings of this study curriculum the study found out that due to several changes in the curriculum, it has lost its integrity and support from all levels. this was a major reason for the ineffectiveness of the curriculum in raising the performance level of the secondary schools in indonesia. the study found out that although the curriculum aimed at building competencies among students and also catered to the needs of all stakeholders jointly, it lacked the implementation preparedness of the service providers. the study umami also found out that the curriculum had the provision of identifying and recognizing excellence but it failed to promote self-regulatory capabilities among learners. the study plans and other curricular elements like books and appliances also lacked the element of the working life.it was found that they did not meet the job requirements. thought he curriculum stressed upon the use of modern technology and latest classroom gadgets, but there were no funds and initiatives to procure them. this leads to the conclusion that indonesia’s curriculum has failed to promote a meaningful learning in the country. most curriculums are focused too much on complicated things that students may never meet in real life. in order to stabilize education system in indonesia, the government must consider the students’ ability before deciding to use curriculum. it was also noticed that the indonesian authorities insist for harmonization between curriculum and learners’ levels of knowledge. it is also emphasized that learners should gain knowledge in a more structured, need based manner. this finding is consistent with the theoretical implication suggested by lindén, annala and coate (2017) in the light of bernstein’s theory of curriculum and pedagogical discourse. pedagogy the study found out that the pedagogy adopted in the indonesian education system has a learner centered approach and is well connected with the learning outcomes. however, there is no clear indication whether this approach will lead to unobstructed, lifelong learning. it is more important to provide students an environment of self-learning, dedicated teachers who are subject specialists and a pedagogy that would help them to excel in their competencies. for example, the study revealed that there are teachers who specialize in a particular field but teach a different subject. this led to chaotic state since such teachers cannot prepare their teaching material well, in the interest of the learners. while it was found out that there were several changes in the curriculum, it was also necessary for the teachers to change their pedagogical styles and teaching techniques. here too bernstein’s theory of pedagogical discourse is seen pertinent which also implicates teachers to acquire skills and training in order to contribute efficiently to the transfer of knowledge. but it was found out that they were not trained nor did they know beforehand what subjects they would teach in the next academic year. owing to these factors, there were several pedagogical journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 60-75 72 issues felt like failure to develop students’ creative thinking skills, their inability to communicate with teachers and other people and lack of integration of learning with practical activities. assessment evidence collected from this study prove that although assessment of learning was based on learning objectives, but it never happened completely. there was a moderate application of examination rubrics that were prepared by experts. students’’ self-assessment was also not encouraged at many places. the teachers lacked training in testing and assessment practices and hence only a moderate achievement of learning objectives could be achieved. the teachers made periodical assessments which were less reliable and only moderately effective. these findings are consistent with those of rachmatullah et al. (2017), who found a lack of consistency in assessment practices mainly due to outdated and extinct teaching methodology. the study insisted for the development of innovative lesson plans to improve the teachers’ performance and assessment practices. the tools and methods varied at each level and it often led to a mismatch with the learning objectives and learning outcomes. there were attempts made by national education standardization agency (bsp) to standardize the assessment criteria but did not find much support from all levels. the study also found out that the assessment system focused only on a few areas of study and left out those areas of study that had been learned by learners through self-learning methods. plagiarism is something very common in indonesian education both in examination and home assignment. it is important that the teachers adopt more holistic assessment practices. suggestions and recommendations a check must be made on the frequent changes in the curriculum. it affects not only the learning outcomes but also has long term effects on students’’ learning and their social roles and community services. it is also recommended to increase the number of teachers and maintain the studentteacher ratio. for instance, there are schools in jakarta that have a high teacher-student ratio, while schools in papua and bandung face teacher shortages. it is also required that the government should take stern measures over teacher training programs. majors in teaching, both in urban and regional levels, should be made more stringent and match with the curricular and pedagogical umami requirements. such trained teachers should be distributed to different parts of the country and properly incentivized. the government should also revise the education funds and raise financial grants to schools. conclusion the education system in indonesia today is based on the economic system of capitalism, which tends to minimize the role and responsibilities of the state in public affairs, including education funding. hence, it is difficult to achieve teacher quality improvement and student achievement. the issues related to curriculum, pedagogy and assessment too get affected in this scenario. several research studies have brought attention to the need for a change and reform, but the government lacks the initiative of implementation. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 60-75 74 references abidin, i. s. z., bakar, n. a. a., & haseeb, m. (2014). an empirical analysis of exports between malaysia and tpp member countries: evidence from a panel cointegration (fmols) model. modern applied science, 8(6), 238. abidin, i. s. z., bakar, n. a. a., & haseeb, m. (2015). exploring trade relationship between malaysia and the oic member countries: a panel cointegration approach (1995-2012). asian journal of scientific research, 8(1), 107. abidin, i. s. z., & haseeb, m. (2015). investigating exports performance between malaysia and oic member countries from 1997-2012. asian social science, 11(7), 11. abidin, i. s. z., haseeb, m., azam, m., & islam, r. (2015). foreign direct investment, financial development, international trade and energy consumption: panel data evidence from selected asean countries. international journal of energy economics and policy, 5(3). abidin, i. s. z., haseeb, m., & islam, r. (2016). regional integration of the association of southeast asian nations economic community: an analysis of malaysia-association of southeast asian nations exports. international journal of economics and financial issues, 6(2). abidina, i. s. z., haseeb, m., & jantan, m. d. (2016). trans-pacific partnership (tpp) agreement: comparative trade and economic analysis for malaysia. the social sciences, 11(13), 3375-3380. bps (2016). centre statistics of indonesia. jakarta. cerdan-infantes, p., makarova, y., al-samarrai, s., & chen, d. (2013). spending more or spending better: improving education financing in indonesia. policy brief. washington dc: world bank. douglas, d., & frazier, s. (2001). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy .: h. douglas brown. tesol quarterly, 35(2), 341-342. frandji, d., & vitale, p. (2010). knowledge, pedagogy and society: international perspectives on basil bernstein's sociology of education: routledge. gardiner, m. o. (2000). schooling in a decentralised indonesia: new approaches to access and decision making. bulletin of indonesian economic studies, 36(3), 127-134. irianto, s. (2012). otonomi perguruan tinggi: suatu keniscayaan: yayasan pustaka obor indonesia. jalal, f., & musthafa, b. (2001). education reform in the context of regional autonomy: the case of indonesia. ministry of national education and national development planning agency, republic of indonesia, and the world bank. lindén, j., annala, j., & coate, k. (2017). the role of curriculum theory in contemporary higher education research and practice theory and method in higher education research (pp. 137-154): emerald publishing limited. markle, r., & robbins, s. (2013). the successnavigator™ assessment: a holistic approach to predicting academic and retention success. educational testing service. mcgrath, d.-l. (2007). implementing an holistic approach in vocational education and training. australian journal of adult learning, 47(2), 228. umami patel, n. v. (2003). a holistic approach to learning and teaching interaction: factors in the development of critical learners. international journal of educational management, 17(6), 272-284. rachmatullah, a., roshayanti, f., & ha, m. (2017). validating the assessment for measuring indonesian secondary school students performance in ecology. paper presented at the journal of physics: conference series. rosser, a. (2015). law and the realisation of human rights: insights from indonesia’s education sector. asian studies review, 39(2), 194-212. secretariat, a. (2014). asean state of education report 2013. asean secretariat, jakarta, indonesia. tarman, b., & gürel, d. (2017). awareness of social studies teacher candidates on refugees in turkey. journal of social studies research, 41(3), 183-193. 10.1016/j.jssr.2016.11.001 tarman, b., & kuran, b. (2015). examination of the cognitive level of questions in social studies textbooks and the views of teachers based on bloom taxonomy. kuram ve uygulamada egitim bilimleri, 15(1), 213-222. 10.12738/estp.2015.1.2625 westbrook, j. (2013). pedagogy, curriculum, teaching practices and teacher education in developing countries. final report. education rigorous literature review. yulianto, b., ahmadi, a., & asteria, p. (2018). development of short indonesian lesson plan to improve teacher performance. paper presented at the iop conference series: materials science and engineering. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 45-61 45 developing civicpedia as a civic education e-learning media to improve students’ information literacy aim abdulkarim1, neiny ratmaningsih2, diana noor anggraini3 abstract the relevance of the research stems from the need to construct literacy information technology in the 21st century learning. the essential idea of this article was improving students` information literacy through “civicpedia” as a civic education e-learning media (learning material on website, e-dictionary, video, poster, valued story, and interactive quiz). this research aims to describe: 1) the design of civicpedia as a civic education e-learning media to improve students’ information literacy; 2) the intensity of the use of civicpedia in the learning process, and 3) the responses of the civicpedia users. qualitative and quantitative approach with research and development design was used in the study. the data were obtained through observation, documentation, interview, and questionnaire. data collection, data reduction, and data presentation were performed to analyze qualitative data, and quantitative data analysis were shown in percentage. the participants of the research were 447 students from 11 junior high school (smp) and 1 islamic junior high school (mts) in bandung, west java, indonesia. the following was results of studied: 1) the concept of the civicpedia design consists of home page, dictionary page, media page, quiz and contact page; 2) steps in developing teaching materials were designed based on curriculum of 2013, compiled on the basis of the formal education level, and contextually formulated on the current real-life controversial cases, collaborated with authentic assignments, which enhanced the students’ critical thinking, and related to unknown terms with suitable images and videos; 3) the students’ responses regarding the implementation civicpedia in the learning process were positive. the program display was considered good and the interactivity aspect was deemed very good. most students very positively perceived the use of civicpedia in civic education learning to improve information literacy. key words: civicpedia, e-learning media, civic education, information literacy introduction since the last decade, the issue of literacy has drawn noteworthy attention in indonesian education. the level of literacy in indonesia is considered low and it has not been internalized in the people’s daily life. progress in international reading literacy study (pirls) has reported that indonesia ranked 45 of 48 countries in the international results in reading with the score of 428 and the global average score was 500 (iea, 2012). in addition, in reading literacy test of pisa 1 prof., universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung-indonesia, aimabdulkarim@upi.edu 2 senior lecturer, universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung-indonesia, neiny@upi.edu 3 lecturer, universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung-indonesia, diana.anggraini@upi.edu mailto:diana.anggraini@upi.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 45-61 2009 indonesian students were 57 in rank with 396 in score (oecd average score was 493) and the ranking declined in pisa 2012 to 64 with similar score (oecd average score was 496) (oecd, 2013). the low level of literacy in discourse indicates that education has not been able to develop students’ competence and interest in knowledge. educational practice at school thus far has not demonstrated that school as learning organization created lifelong learners. the application of information technology in education was needed for rapidly and broadly acquiring information, promoting personal learning efficacy and work efficiency, enhancing cooperation and communication with others, and cultivating personal habits of active learning and lifelong learning (xu & chen, 2015) in the future, internet use will continue growing higher due to the production of mobile devices which has exceeded 2 billion and is predicted to surpass 2.7 billion (hanchman, 2011). the required skill nowadays is the skill which go along with the advancement of communication technology including computers and mobile devices, which is expected to help decision making actions. researchers have emphasized the importance of information literacy skills in various field, including at home (rieh, 2014) and at school (leckie & fullerton, 1999). the mastery of information literacy in digital era can lead to a more successful life and education. thus, a person who retain information literacy skill will keep on learning to acquire and create new information and knowledge. now, the society needs to nurture and construct literacy, which has shifted to an information technology and electronic devices. in short, someone is recognizing the need for, understanding, finding, evaluating and using information-activities which may be supported in part by fluency with information technology, in part by sound investigative methods, but most importantly, through critical discernment and reasoning (saad & zainab, 2002). the practice of civic education in enhancing students’ literacy skills, however, is merely an indoctrination. it suppresses students’ cognitive state, hinders theircreativity, and reduced the students’ opportunity to gain higher order thinking (daryanto, 2010, p. 2). this also seems to occur due to the teachers’ lack of innovation in using learning media. the students hopes that the teacher can design learning media which is appropriate with their characterstics and objectives of learning. if it is fulfilled, the students might be more motivated and grasp the learning material. multimedia tools offer not only a great deal of advantages in increasing quality in the classroom, but they also provide options to overcome obstacles faced by the teacher. furthermore, learning media is also functions to distribute, deliver, and link the learning sources, which, in the end, can lead to a better abdulkarim et al. communication in learning and changes in behaviors as the objective of learning can be achieved (munadi, 2008, p. 36). therefore, research and development-based study is needed to create interactive learning multiedia. civicpedia is a civic education e-learning media which is devised with the integrated terms search, learning material on website, e-dictionary, video, poster, valued story, and interactive quiz to ease teachers in developing students’ literacy skills. in general, this research was intended to describe how civicpedia as the civic education learning media can increase students’ information literacy level and, specifically, was driven to answer the following research questions: 1. how does the design of civicpedia as a civic education e-learning increase the junior high school students’ information literacy level? 2. how is the intensity of the use of civicpedia in the learning process? 3. how are the responses of the civicpedia users? method research design the research was conducted using a research and development (r&d) design. according to borg and gall (1989, p. 782), research and development design is “a process used to develop and and validate educational product.” this research can also be considered as “research-based development” that its occurence serve as strategy to enhance the quality and productivity of education by manufacturing educational products. it`s can be in the forms of curriculum, learning method, learning media, textbooks, learning models, evaluation systems, and many more. research and development by borg dan gall (1989, hlm. 784) has steps that can be described as follows: 1) research and information colletion; 2) planning; 3) develop preliminary form of product; 4) preliminary field testing; 5) main product revision; 6) main field testing; 7) operational product revision; 8) operational field testing; 9) final product revision, and 10) disemination and implementation. population and sample/ study group/participants the population in this research included junior high school students in bandung, west java, indonesia. based on junior high school data in bandung, total of school population as much 54 junior high school (smp) and 2 islamic junior high school (mts). using cluster sampling, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 45-61 the participants of the research were 477 students from 11 junior high school (smp) and 1 islamic junior high school (mts) in bandung, west java, indonesia. teachers of civic education as facilitator and lecturers who are experts in civic education learning. clustering technique is a technique of selecting other samples by using the principle of probability. the students were divided into 12 schools. table 1. distribution of samples cluster school sampling i smpn 2 bandung 38 smpn 5 bandung 40 smpn 12 bandung 37 ii smpn 9 bandung 42 smpn 15 bandung 39 mtsn 2 bandung 41 iii smpn 10 bandung 43 smpn 26 bandung 42 smpn 40 bandung 39 iv smpn 29 bandung 39 smpn 38 bandung 37 smpn 52 bandung 40 total 477 source: school administration data, 2016 data collection tools questionnaire, interview, observation, and document analysis were used to collect the data to be analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. the collect data of quantitative with questionnaire used for describe the implementation of civicpedia in civic education learning. the test of validity using pearson`s product moment and its reliability was tested with cronbach`alpha. data analysis to analyze qualitative data, the following steps were performed: 1) reducing the data by summarizing field notes and highlighting important events related to the focus of the research; 2) systematically organize certain categories and classification; 3) creating tables and figures to display the data, so that the relations between the data can be observed comprehensively; 4) abdulkarim et al. completing a cross-site analysis by comparing and analyzing the data meticulously; and 5) presenting the findings and drawing conclusions from recursive trends and implications, making recommendations for further improvements (fraenkel and wallen, 1993, p. 399-403). quantitative analysis was done for questionnaire data and they were converted into percentage (creswell, 1994). findings the design of civicpedia learning media in civic education 1. product design stage the design of civicpedia is generated from the obtained learning media on concepts made in flowchart, sketch, and storyboard. the developed learning media was designed based on the following flowchart: figure 1. flowchart of civicpedia as media of civic learning steps for user in using civicpedia areas follows: open the web browser in computer or laptop; go to the following link: http://kamuspkn.upi.edu/ search terms in the search bar or in the dictionary menu. then, the translation page will appear when users look for terms. users can use the search alphabetically by clicking alphabetic sort button; adjust the level of the education, elementary (sd), junior high (smp), senior high (sma), or tertiary education (pt), in the material menu; men u web home dictiona ry conten t media quiz contac t junior high school video poster story grade 8 grade 7 grade 9 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 45-61 find the learning media you would like to use from the media menu such as videos, posters, and stories. the videos are linked to a youtube account to facilitate the students to find other interesting videos related to civic education learning; find the assessment forms based on the previously learned materials in the quiz menu. in the interactive quiz, the users are able to answer to questions and directly get the score. 2. website appearance sketch after making the flowchart of the website, website interface sketch were drawn as needed. the website interface has usually similarity with the civic education e-dictionary, which has page like news but interestingly has been equipped with the terms search menu. similarly with the news sites, the home page has attractive slide show images to make the stories in the sites more appealing to be visited by the users. civicpedia (tagline) figure 2. civicpedia web sketch the sketch made the work of designing the website more uncomplicated and focused. the sketch was not in detail but comprised elements such as layout, font type, columns, navigation bar, and sites colours. when the website was developed, a more detailed work was done. one important thing to bear in mind in developing the website is that it has to be user friendly and not too complicated in term of colours or images. content video poster story slide dictionary : search engine hom diction conte medi quiz conta a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z powered by abdulkarim et al. 3. storyboard after the portal sketch had been completed, a graphic web design of pages were created. storyboard is the merged the tree diagram and the appearance of the website. storyboard was a vital process because it involved other designers in the team. it was used to visually describe the developed e-dictionary-based design of the learning media. since the several designers were involved in this process, a strict deadline was in effect. thus, storyboard helped significantly to explain job desk of each designer in the team. synchronization must be maintained by one web designer to make each page of the website consistent. 4. material development stage the indicators of material mastery on each learning media were developed in this stage. the steps to indicate the comprehension of the users are by: designing learning material based on current curriculum of 2013; compiling materials based on student’s education level; formulating the material contextually which involving controversial real-world cases; collaborating the authentic assignments that fosters students’ critical thinking; and, linking the material with the predicted unknown vocabulary and suitable videos. 5. product creation stage this stage was executed after the planning and designing stages had been completed and was the main action of the research. to create the civicpedia in the final stage, analysis, users’ interface design, coding, testing, and implementation were performed. they are elaborated next. a. analysis the early stage of making this website was to learn user’s interface design using php, javascript, and html, while mysql was used to manage the database. not only having a complete facility to create the product, but this software also offered the ease to create the learning media. b. users’ interface design journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 45-61 users’ interface was adjusted to the users’ education level. because of the users of the civicpedia in the research were the junior high school students, the interface, to avoid users’ boredom, were made as interesting as possible. the designed interface were: 1) web page of the application consisted of home page, output and output web service. while the home page comprised the terms search, the out page showed the meaning of the searched terms and other related words. besides home page, dictionary page also contained terms search system and could be ordered alphabetically. output web service page involved xml format containing id_istilah from the input, istilah_dasar input and all function offered by the websites. output page consisteds of users’ searched terms or other information related to them such as synonyms, antonyms, word buildings, or plural forms. 2) search page contained civic education learning material for junior high school students in xml format. the outcomes were: learning material page entails navigation menu to the learning material page. provided materials in this learning material page were lessons for grade vii, viii, and ix, and several materials adapted from the curriculum of 2013 students’ handbook. in the page the terms were brought together with its definition. first stage was to find learning material in the home page by suitable education level. then, choosing suitable material based on the students’ grade, and before that, the random learning material has been shown to the users. next, there will be concept index in form of link. concept index can be seen in the mind mapping. finally, by systematically formulized and simplified words, the real output page will come out. when there is predicted to be difficult words, a link to its definition will also occur. as an admin of the web sites, new terms are frequently added, so that it will enrich the registers of the terms. 3) in the media search page, there are videos, posters, and stories in xml format. media page contains navigation menu to the media page. the used media in this e-dictionary are videos, posters, and stories to help the students brainstorm of the main lessons, then the media are linked to related concepts of the materials. abdulkarim et al. 4) quiz search page comprised quizzes to evaluate students’ learning progress data in swf format. the navigation menu to quiz pages provided in civicpedia wasinteractive multiple choice questions that can be answered directly by the students and links to the concepts are given in the page. c. coding coding was done to make the buttons work as the navigation in the web, civicpedia could function in accordance with the designed necessity. integrated development environment (ide) programming language is used to make the coding to the objects in the interface operate correctly. in addition, html and and java script was utilized to the learning multimedia was attached in the appendices. d. testing this step was conducted to test whether the code in civicpedia could perform as its function and to find the shortcomings to be fixed. then, error in the web sites were corrected in this stage. the results of this step was exe file, a file that can be run without opening the master program. e. implementation by getting the exe file in the testing stage, civicpedia can be opened in other computers or laptops as long as using windows operating systems, the most common found operating systems at school. the form of intensity using civicpedia in civic education learning learning media the development of civicpedia is part of creating a learning media that can stimulate students’ creativity and motivation. the teacher has provided a new learning experience to the students, regardless of he or she overlook the context of where, when, and to whom the learning media take place. contextual materials enable the students to think critically in solving a problem. the material presentation in civicpedia are organized in systematic way on the basis of 2013 curriculum. e-learning in the civicpedia is delivered through various videos, posters, and stories and this ease both the teacher and the students in the learning process. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 45-61 teaching methods based on the observation data, most of the teachers has not fully understood the importance of the lesson’s opening activity to bridge the students’ to a new experience by asking appropriate questions or relate the lessons to their prior knowledge. in implementing civicpedia, the students can have the opportunity to look at different media in the system. after observing the stimuli in form of video, posters, and stories, the students are expected to be able to explain or to have hints on the materials. in the main activity, the teacher can facilitate the students to reconstruct new experience in implementing civicpedia. the teacherscan directly introduce the students to work on tasks or exercises and examine the given examples. to find the meaning of difficult words, the students can directly look up in the dictionary search menu. then, the teachers provided opportunity for the students to do exercises individually or in groups and were able to directly check the results and give feedbacks to the students. one important thing that had not been conducted was to guide and lead the students gradually to reach the learning objective, which was to reveal new facts, knowledge, and skills. apparently, not all teachers delivered feedback through guided questions, so that the students were not aware of the novelty experience they had in the learning process and could not compare it with their prior knowledge and understanding. the teachers, however, compensated this drawback by providing positive compliments with different intensity to their students who had answered correctly. the frequent compliments might be considered as usual expressions by the students and might be less meaningful to boost students’ motivation. learning process the teachers delivered the learning materials in civicpedia efficiently because they had accessed them before the learning process begun. the modification or materials delivery can be adjusted based on the relevancy of particular or certain topic, but because the time management was often ignored, the completion of tasks and exercises merely depended on the students’ performance. it happened due to the teachers were not aware of the cognitive amount of the given exercise and how long they should have been worked on. all teachers used relevant pictures in civicpedia as teaching aid. the teachers’ initiative were regularly seen from the frequency and variety of support given to the students who needs help. however, not all teachers were able to provide stimuli to increase students’ motivation in order to complete the exercises and tasks. abdulkarim et al. learning interaction based on interviews data, the students were given chance to take part in fulfilling the group works through discussion and drawing conclusion. the students acquired vast opportunity to ask questions and express their opinions. nonetheless, most of the teachers limited the session, and they preferred to explain while the students were in attentive state. generally, the teachers have not been able to create democratic atmosphere to advance students’ questioning and expressing opinions skills. however, based on the data, after the use of civicpedia the teachers were able to inspire the students to participate actively in every activity. the condition of the teaching and learning process were more favorable because the students did not feel anxious when they find unknown difficult words. learning evaluation civicpedia provides a user-friendly evaluation of students’ attitudes, performance, and other evaluation criteria to the teachers. previously, the teachers had not done any formative evaluation in the learning process due to insufficient allotted time, but, by using civicpedia, they were able to do so and directly understood the students’ performance after the learning process. the teachers did not need to check and calculate the students’ answers because civicpedia has done that automatically in a quick and precise fashion. the teachers did not need to make test descriptors because they had been made in civicpedia. civicpedia users’ satisfaction level after the students used the civicpedia, the data related to students’ assessment toward the software were collected through questionnaire. the questionnaire assessed the communication, visual design, and content of the software. the results of descriptive quantitative data analysis to civicpedia users` satisfaction in civic education learning can be seen in table 1. table 2. the responses of civicpedia users’ satisfaction no aspects assessed of civicpedia indicators frequency (%) very good good fair poor very poor 1. communication actuality of the message presented 69.7 29.4 0.9 two-way communication 54.5 31.3 11.0 3.2 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 45-61 effectiveness of media in learning 62.6 32.3 4.5 0.6 share of material between users 73.5 23.9 2.6 interactivity level between users 72.3 22.6 4.5 0.6 2. visual design unique and innovative display 67.7 27.1 3.9 1.3 quality of display design 58.7 27.1 12.3 1.9 effectiveness of function each menu 59.7 29.3 11.0 the effectiveness of navigation aids menu 74.2 21.3 3.9 0.6 consistency between menu views 75.5 21.9 2.6 3. content media suitability with goals 72.9 23.2 3.3 0.6 completeness of learning elements 62.3 33.2 4.5 material truth presented in the media 74.5 15.2 8.4 0.6 1.3 adequacy of material presented in the media 77.8 17.7 4.5 the depth of material presented in the media 79.4 11.6 5.2 3.8 total 1035.3 367.1 83.1 13.2 1.3 overall mean score 69.02 24.48 5.54 0.88 0.08 table 2. above shows that civicpedia users` satisfaction after the use of learning media through civicpedia in civic education learning sits at 69.02 % (very good category), 24.48 % (good category), 5.54 % (fair category), 0.88 % (poor category), and only 0.08 % (very poor category). the dominant users` satisfaction of civicpedia in civic education learning is the depth of material presented in the media, adequacy of material presented in the media, and cconsistency between menu views. which means that civicpedia can serve as a very good learning aid. discussion, conclusion and implications the empirical findings of the implementation of civicpedia in civic education to increase the students’ information literacy shows a positive outcome. there are five points that can be drawn as conclusions in this research. first, the implementation of civicpedia is one of the learning media that supports the teaching and 21st century learning process. the phenomenon of information competency in 21st century learning is indispensable. on the one hand, these are the enhancing factors of being of the information society that are envisaged from the outside; on the other hand, information abdulkarim et al. competency exists in the subject's ideas about information technologies, information resources and the information society (natalia, et al 2018). learning media is various component or learning source in learners’ environment that can stimulate the students to learn information technologies as information society (gagne, 1970; briggs, 1970; schramm, 1995). in other words, civicpedia media was made to be integrated in learning all of its components, including materials, methods, media, resources, and assessment. thus, media as one component of learning should be based on guidance to the students to make them realize the truth, virtues, and beauty through the process of considering the proper value and consistent actions as information society (komalasari & saripudin, 2017). second, practical notions related to the judgments on reasons using this media in learning, according to yamashita (2011) are caused by 1) demonstration; 2) familiarity; 3) clarity; and 4) active learning. it implies that the purpose of learning media use is to help creating democratic, comfortable, and active learning. in line with gerlach (1980: 21), “a medium, broadly conceived, is any person, material, as event that establishes condition which enable the learner to acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes.” the main principle using learning media is to make learning process more effective and efficient. there are several learning media types such as still pictures, audio recording, motion pictures, television, real things, simulation, models, programmed and computer-assisted instruction (gerlach, 1980, p. 247-250). third, the result of the students’ responses from the questionnaire shows that both communication between the teacher and the students aspect in using civicpedia (93.33%) and the design and presentation of the website aspect (92.00%) are considered very good. the average score of the students’ responses is 85.71%. the percentage of communication satisfactory falls to very good. the program design aspect is deemed good and its interactivity aspect is believed to be very good. civicpedia is regarded as an appropriate learning media in civic education learning process. it is supported by the result of the questionnaire that communication aspect received the highest positive responses from the students. communication of study drew upon consist with social learning theories that learning is coconstruction of knowledge (vygotsky, 1978). learning brings students` experiences to share through peer interactions, and it has the potential to foster critical thinking and literacy information culture (dewey, 1938; gokhale, 1995; sharp, 2018). fourth, based on the questionnaire related to students’ assessment on the use of civicpedia in learning process, the software was deemed as very good (90.74%). it suggests that there was decent journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 45-61 communication during the learning process using civicpedia. beneficial learning media is hoped to increase students’ engagement in learning process and eventually improve students’ knowledge. the reasons for this are (a) the learning process is more interesting and can boost students’ motivation, (b) learning material is easily understood and it allows students to achieve the learning objectives, (c) more varied teaching methods avoid students’ boredom, and (d) students interestdriven activities can span contextual boundaries and be self-sustaining given adequate time, freedom, and resources (sudjana, 1990, p.2; barron, 2006, p. 199-201). learning conditions that allow for the creation of contextual learning are among the basic principles of constructivism theory (komalasari, et al, 2018). last, civicpedia was created to assist the teachers delivering learning material and to help the students understanding technical terms in civic subject and increasing their information literacy. in general, the reason of the focus of media literacy education is the students at school is the teachers believe that students at schools still developing their point of view and are open to analysis and evaluation techniques. potter (2008, p. 17) states that adults tends to overestimate their capability in media literacy. in fact, being an adult does not necessarily make a person becomes a media literate. to be information literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information (spitzer et.al, 1998, p. 32). information literacy may contribute to democracy, participation and active citizenship in a democratic society. an information literate individual is more able to gain an informed opinion on matters of the day and to be able to express their opinion in public (livingstone, 2008). so, conclusion of this article that main functions of the electronic dictionary software of civic education are: a) users can easily find one definition related to civic education term; b) users can also find definition alphabetically or numerically; c) users can get feedbacks for related terms, if the searched words are not found in the database; d) users can access new included terms in the database; e) users can find and access popular search in the system; f) users can access contextual materials from the curriculum of 2013 on various level; g) users can access learning media in form of videos, posters, and stories; h) users can send comments and or suggestions to improve the systems in contact menu. steps in developing materials is composed based on: a) curriculum of 2013; b) formal education level (from primary school to tertiary education); c) contextually controversial real-life examples; d) collaboration with authentic materials, which develop abdulkarim et al. students’ critical thinking; and e) the links between the unknown terms and related pictures and video. the responses from students in the implementation of civicpedia in civic education learning show a very good assessment. the design aspect of the website is considered good and the interactivity aspect is deemed very well. so that, the civicpedia is regarded as a suitable media to be implemented in the learning process. references barron, b. (2006). interest and self-sustained learning as catalysts of development: a learning ecologies perspective. human development, 49, 193-224. borg, w. r.& gall, m.d., (1989). educational research: an introduction (5th ed). new york: longman. briggs l. (1979). instruction design (ed). new jersey: teaching publication. creswell, j.w. (1944). research design: qualitative and quantitative approaches. london & new delhi: sage publications. daryanto. (2010). media pembelajaran. bandung: pt. sarana tutorial nurani sejahtera. dewey, j. (1938). experience and education. new york, ny: touchstone. fraenkel, j. r. & wallen, n. e. (1993). how to design and evaluate research in education. singapura: mcgraw-hill inc gagné, r. m. (1985). the conditions of learning and theory of instruction. (4th edition). new york: holt, rinehart, and winston. gagne, r.m, & briggs, l.j. (1979). principles ot instructional design. second. edition, new york. gerlach dan ely (1980). teaching & media: a systematic approach. second edition. englewood cliffs, new jersey: pren gokhale, a, a. (1995). collaborative learning enhances critical thinking. journal of technology education, 7(1). doi:10.21061/jte.v7i1.a.2 hanchman, m. (2011). idc: mobile internet use to pass pcs by 2015. retrieved from /http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0.2817.2392796.00.asp. iea. (2012). timss 2011 international results in mathematics. retrieved from http://timss.bc.edu/timss2011/downloads/t11_ir_m_chapter1.pdf. http://timss.bc.edu/timss2011/downloads/t11_ir_m_chapter1.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 45-61 komalasari, k & saripudin, d. (2017). value-based interactive multimedia development through integrated practice for the formation of students’ character. the turkish online journal of educational technology, volume 16 issue 4, p. 179-186. komalasari, k., abdulkarim, a., saripudin, d. (2018). culture-based studies learning model in developing student multiculturalism. new educational review, volume 51. no. 1, 2018. leckie, g., pettigrew, k., & sylvain, c. (1996). modelling the information-seeking of professionals: a general model derived from research on engineers, healthcare professionals, and lawyers. library quarterly, 66, p. 161-193. livingstone, s., couvering, e.v., thumin, n. (2008). converging traditions of research on media and information literacies: disciplinary, critical, and methodological issues. in j. ciro, m. knobel, c. lankshear & d. leu (eds), handbook of research on new literacies, p 103-132. new york: lawrence erlbaum. munadi, y. (2008). media pembelajaran. ciputat: gaung persada (gp) press. natalia p. t, irina a. l, nadezhda a. s, irina v. k, victor a. k, anatolii e. p. (2018) information competency and creative initiative of personality and their manifestation in activity. journal of social studies education research. volume 9 (1), 168-186 rieh, s. y. (2002). judgment of information quality and cognitive authority in the web. journal of the american society for information science and technology. vol. 53, no. 2, p 145-161. schramm, wilbur. (1995). the process effect of mass communication. university of illinois press urbana. sharp, l.a. (2018). collaborative digital literacy practices among adult learners: levels of confidence and perceptions of importance. international journal of instruction, volume 11 number 1, p. 153-166. spitzer, k.l, eisenberd, m.b., lowe, c.a. (1998). information literacy: essential skill for the information age. new york: clearinghouse on information & technology syracuse university. saad, mohd sharif mohd & zainab, a.n. (2002). information literacy programmes in malaysian public universities: an observation. 68th ifla council and general conference, august 18-24 2002, glasgow, scotland. sudjana, n. & rivai, a. (2007). teknologi pengajaran. bandung: sinar baru algensindo. abdulkarim et al. oecd. (2014). pisa 2012 results in focus. programme for international student assessment, 1–44. http://doi.org/10.1787/9789264208070-en vygotsky, l.s. (1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. xu, anxin & chen, guisong. (2015). a study on the effects of teachers’ information literacy on information technology integrated instruction and teaching effectiveness. eurasia journal of mathematics, science & technology education, 2016, 12(2), 335-346 yamashita. (2011). media pembelajaran. retrieved from http://proskripsi.blogspot.com/2011/02/perancangan-media-pembelajaran.html http://proskripsi.blogspot.com/2011/02/perancangan-media-pembelajaran.html www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 239-250 239 the structure of the person's technical aptitude and factors of its development olga shatunova1 & olga sterz2 abstract the relevance of the study is determined by the increasing role of engineering and technical workers in the socio-economic development of a society. orientation of school leavers to the choice of engineering professions becomes one of the main tasks of secondary education in the 21st century. the article clarifies the concept of "technical aptitude ", determines its compositional structure, and reveals the main factors of its development. the authors proceed from the assumption that the most technically gifted person is characterized by professionally important qualities of an engineer. the results of the research conducted in russia with 19 winners and runners-up of the national schoolchildren's olympiad's regional stage in handicraft, are presented to determine the main psychological and pedagogical factors in the development of the aptitude. it is shown that a high level of motivation to achieve success in the field of technical creativity plays a decisive role in the development of technically gifted children. key words: engineer, engineering activity, technical talent, technical abilities, technical thinking, motivation to achieve success. introduction recent years in pedagogical science the topic of the need to increase the prestige of an engineer among school leavers is very often discussed. indeed, the role of engineering and technical workers in the economy of any country is very significant. however, a fairly large number of schoolchildren in russia still, like twenty years ago, are oriented toward the professions of an economist, a manager and a lawyer (buchneva & trufanova, 2016). if we take into account the fact that the opinion of parents and the public has a significant influence on the professional choice of school leavers, we should admit that explanatory work on the prospects for this or that profession in the labor market is currently being conducted in russian schools still poorly. the shortage of specialists with professional competencies in the technical and technological sphere is reflected not only at the level of economic development of our country (korableva et al., 2017a), but also people's ordinary life. it's no secret that finding a good plumber or fitter today is 1 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute, russian federation, olgashat67@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute, russian federation , olgashterz@mail.ru mailto:olgashat67@mail.ru mailto:olgashterz@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 239-250 a big problem. elimination of ordinary household technical problems causes people considerable difficulties (bochkareva et al, 2013; aminov, 2014; тesleva & belkova, 2014). all this is a consequence of the fact that schoolchildren are not motivated to study natural and technical disciplines, and they are not attached to technical creativity. the school subject "handicraft" has unique opportunities to form a man-creator, human master, and human worker. this is a very capacious practical and professionally oriented educational subject, aimed both at teaching students to labor operations, methods and elementary actions, and on preparing children for the work planning itself (selecting materials, determining the sequence of operations, selecting tools, calculating the cost price and other). the purpose of technological education is the formation of technological culture (baytak et al, 2011; osadchy & akhmetshin, 2015; tarman & kuran, 2015; il'yaschenko et al., 2015). technological culture of a personality is a certain measure of the preparedness of the graduate of the school to the world of professions. such a culture includes the culture of work, graphic culture, design culture, information culture, entrepreneurial culture, the culture of human relations, ecological culture, home culture, consumer culture, project culture. in the classes on handicraft, schoolchildren's creative work is organized (the creation of a product on a creative transformative basis), which determines the substantive essence of technological education as a whole. in order to orient students to the professions that are in demand in the modern world and help them to make the right choice in accordance with their abilities and inclinations to certain activities, teachers should possess not only appropriate methods, but also personal interest in the success of their students (shkilev et al, 2018; korableva & kalimullina, 2016). teachers of handicraft, in comparison with other subject teachers, have great opportunities to influence the professional choice of schoolchildren, since it is in the lessons of handicraft where children try themselves in various activities, thereby revealing certain propensities in themselves. we can speak in this case about the competence of working with gifted children, the formation of which among teachers is considered today to be the most important task in the educational system. therefore, among the priority areas of the work of handicraft teachers should be the identification and development of gifted students. a famous researcher of the phenomenon of the aptitude b.м. teplov wrote that "aptitude is a qualitatively distinctive combination of abilities on which the possibility of achieving more or less success in performing one or another activity depends" (teplov, 1982, p. 136). from this definition shatunova & sterz it follows that aptitude does not guarantee success in any activity, but only gives " the building material" for its achievement. and if you do not develop aptitude from nature, then after a while you can find that the predisposition to a particular activity will become less presented, and further development of abilities will require considerable investment or even become impossible. albert ziegler focuses our attention on the fact that aptitude is, above all, the ability of a person to achieve perfection in any field of art, professional or scientific activity. however, for the development of aptitude, it is necessary to improve oneself and learn effectively. if a gifted child does not develop his abilities, he will not be able to achieve outstanding results (merzon et al., 2013). rena f. subotnik, paula olszewski-kubilius, and frank c. worrell believe that for the successful development of an individual's aptitude and his realization in a society, not only the high level of the development of certain abilities, but also such qualities of the individual as the willingness to take on strategic risks, the ability to cope with environmental risks and challenges, be able to criticize and positively relate to the constructive criticism, be competitive in the labor market, and have a high cognitive motivation and purposefulness (savenkov, 2010). kurt heller, author of the so-called "munich model of the aptitude", considers the aptitude as the individual (cognitive and motivational) personal prerequisites for high achievements in one or more areas (dimitriadis, 2010). albert ziegler offers the model of aptitude actiotope, which consists in including a gifted child in the educating environment, which will contribute to the development of his abilities. at the same time, a gifted child will develop only with active interaction with the developing environment. that is, the child must make active efforts to develop his abilities, and the learning environment must create the conditions for this development. today, only enriched and accelerated educating programs are not enough; it is necessary to develop a system of mentoring and an e-learning program for gifted children (leana-tascilar, 2014). christos dimitriadis believes that for mathematically and technically gifted children, special classes should be organized that will work on an enriched program. the researcher points out that "the work that capable or talented students do in the classroom (regular or special group) should not just be " the same work that they have already mastered, or more difficult work, but work different from the standard work for an average child who must prove his thinking skills" (dimitriadis, 2010). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 239-250 however, as noted by vanille william caldwell, an important component in the organization of the educating environment for a gifted child is the willingness of the teacher to differentiate talented children. in ordinary general education schools, as the authors note in their research, teachers are not ready to use the strategy of differentiated education for gifted children. therefore, it is very important for children with attributes of the aptitude to be included into a specialized educational environment (caldwell, 2012). a.i. savenkov notes that when conducting diagnostics and analyzing the factors of the aptitude's development, one should focus not only on what the individual does, but also on why he does it, what drives him, what makes him act (savenkov, 2010). in psycho-pedagogical science, along with such kinds of the aptitude as graphic, artistic, musical, literary, artistic, leadership, sports and others, they distinguish technical aptitude. typically, when talking about technical talent, it is about the ability to understand, analyze and simulate technical processes, design and analysis of mechanisms (korableva et al., 2017b). children with technical abilities are characterized by technical thinking, high intellectual intellect, interest in technical objects and devices (merzon et al, 2014). what specific abilities and qualities of personality can be attributed to the signs of the technical aptitude? the answer, in our opinion, should be sought in the content of those requirements that are imposed on the professional and personal qualities of the engineer. the concept of "an engineer" first appeared in italy in the middle ages, they called so the gunsmiths and commanders of military vehicles. today, speaking about an engineer, we mean a specialist with a higher technical education, applying scientific knowledge to solve technical problems, managing the process of creating technical systems, designing, organizing production, introducing scientific and technical innovations into it (mauch & tarman, 2016). recently, attention is also focused on the social and humanitarian component of the profession of an engineer. the following main categories of engineers are distinguished: production worker performs the functions of a technologist, production manager, operation engineer; the researcher-developer combines the functions of the inventor, designer and designer, participates in the process of integrating science and production; shatunova & sterz all-round craftsman (or system engineer) is a general engineer, whose tasks are to organize and manage engineering activities and create the main technical systems; the engineer in socio-technical design deals with the socio-cultural and anthropological aspects of engineering and its results. thus, the main purpose of engineering activity is the intellectual, scientific and technical servicing of the sphere of material production, the development of handicraft, the provision of scientific and technical progress, the solution based on the scientific, technical and socio-humanitarian knowledge of technical, technological, engineering contradictions, problems and tasks. from the job profile diagrams of various engineering professions we have chosen the most common and characteristic abilities and personal qualities that must be inherent in the modern engineer. to the most important abilities of the engineer we have attributed the developed spatial thinking and imagination, logical thinking, technical thinking, ability to design and design, mathematical and analytical abilities, high level of memory development, developed finger motor skills, high level of distribution and switching of attention. among the personal qualities of an engineer, first of all, one should distinguish creativity, responsibility, accuracy, attentiveness, perseverance, independence. the structure of the technical aptitude can be revealed through the definition of such abilities as: the ability to evaluate and create functional technical systems starting from elementary ones; ability to operate with spatial, visual images of technical details and devices; development of the logical abilities of the intellect, aimed at processing products of technical creativity to adapt them to the real life situation (khrustaleva, 2013). т.м. crystalyeva's study made it possible to construct the following model of technical aptitude: technical intelligence, technical creativity, activity components of technical aptitude, which include the description of methods of action and methods of solving problems (manual skill, manual dexterity) and specific motivation. sheffield in his turn considered mathematically gifted children who, according to the list of characteristics, were similar to those ones of the technical aptitude. in this regard, we would like to we turn our attention to the mathematical abilities. sheffield highlights the following features of a mathematically gifted child: journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 239-250 1) high level of mathematical thinking (watches mathematics and structure in various situations, organizes and classifies information, has a deep understanding of simple mathematical concepts); 2) a high level of figurative thinking (can generalize the structure of the problem, correlates the quantitative and spatial relations of the subject); 3) mathematical creativity (flexibly processes information, applies original approaches to problem solving); 4) independence and criticality of mathematical thinking (asks "what if ..." when solving a problem, knows how to see and raise a new question, a new problem) (sheffield, 2003). ilana levenberg, cahit shaham, draw our attention to the fact that diversified, enriching and stimulating activities for the development of geometric thinking (spatial perception) should be also organized. for technically gifted children, in order to develop their spatial perception, not only the textbook assignments, but also additional exercises and tasks that promote the development of logical thinking when operating with images of objects should be used. children with signs of technical aptitude should not only know the definitions of geometric figures, but also be able to develop, create problems in geometry (levenberg & shaham, 2014). method in order to clarify the main factors affecting the formation of technical talent of schoolchildren, we conducted our empirical study. as a sample of the study, we took 19 students of 9-11th grades who participated in the final stage of the all-russian olympiad of schoolchildren in handicraft in the 2016/2017 school year. in the process of empirical research, we used the following diagnostic tools: yu.m. orlov's test "motivation to achieve success", i.s. yakimanskaya's test "spatial thinking", a test for torren's creativity, a technique for assessing intellectual lability. findings in the process of investigating spatial thinking, we obtained the following results: 47% of students have a high level of development of spatial thinking, 53% of students are intermediate. therefore, summarizing the results of the sample, we can say that the level of development of spatial thinking among the subjects is above the average one. shatunova & sterz children who are keen on handicraft can easily create spatial images and operate them in the process of solving various practical and theoretical problems, as well as creating new images, their modification and transformation on different visual basis. the subjects are well able to distinguish the spatial dependencies inherent in objects, to understand the geometric features of static objects, that is, what distinguishes one object from another: shape, magnitude, spatial relationship of parts and whole, the length of objects, position on the plane and in space. at the second stage, schoolchildren were tested for intellectual lability. we obtained the following results: 18% of the subjects have a high level of intellectual lability, 54% of those participating in the study have an average level of intellectual lability, and 28% have a low level of intellectual lability. analyzing the results of the study, one can come to the conclusion that the children participating in the final stage of the all-russian olympiad of schoolchildren in handicraft are dominated by the average level of intellectual lability. for students with an average level of intellectual lability, it is not difficult to switch from one activity to another, they spend a small amount of time absorbing new information, or they quickly catch the content of the required task. taking into account the peculiarity of modern reality, when a person has to process a huge amount of information in a short time (and in the sphere of high-tech industrial production there is a rapid increase in the speed of information and technical processes), it should be noted that rapid orientation in space and time is a rather important quality of the personality of the modern , a successful man (merzon, sterz & panfilov, 2013). however, it should be noted that not always quick decision making is qualitative and effective. on the contrary, sometimes it is precisely the careful and unhurried reflection of problems that characterizes a gifted person. in addition, the dynamic characteristics of the course of mental processes, including attention, is influenced by the type of human temperament. perhaps 28% of children who received poor results in terms of intellectual lability are phlegmatic or melancholic temperaments that affect the slowing down of the speed of mental processes, in our case, attention. in this regard, it would be incorrect on our part to suggest that the high level of intellectual lability is directly influenced by the technical talent of the individual, since we would exclude from the number of technically gifted those children who have melancholic and phlegmatic type of temperament. also, when carrying out the correlation analysis, we did not find a statistically reliable relationship between the indices of development of spatial thinking and intellectual lability. however, a statistically moderate journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 239-250 reliable relationship was obtained (r = 0.37 for p≥0.01) between the level of development of spatial thinking and creativity. therefore, it can be settled that the higher the level of creativity, creative imagination is, the easier it is for a person to operate with various spatial images and create new images on a visual basis. creativity makes it possible for a person to look at the same subject from different points of view, to produce various ideas, to represent a variety of solutions to certain situations. in the process of studying the motivation for achieving success, we obtained the following results: in 22% of the diagnosed students there was an increased level of achievement motivation, in 78% of the participants in the study the average level of development of the motivation for achieving success. therefore, for the majority of students who participated in the study, it is typical to show perseverance in achieving the goal, while performing interesting activities for them, they are trying to achieve high results. they have a certain need for creating new products, improving the way they work with different equipment. at the end of the olympiad, we conducted a comparative analysis of the differences in the indices of the development of spatial thinking, intellectual lability and creativity, depending on the achievement by the participants of significant results (winner or runners-up) at the final stage of all-russian olympiad of schoolchildren in handicraft (table 1). as we can see from the indicators of this table, 50% of the students, who were among the winners and runners-up of all-russian olympiad of schoolchildren in handicraft, found a low level of intellectual lability. only 12.5% of schoolchildren among the runners-up have a high level of intellectual lability, and students who have not won prizes, a low level of intellectual lability is not observed, and 25% of them have a high level of development of intellectual lability. the statistical analysis of student's t-criterion showed that there are statistically significant differences between the samples of winners, winners of the olympiad and students who did not take prizes in terms of the level of development of intellectual lability (t = 2.86 for p≥0.01). consequently, this fact once again vividly confirms the earlier assumption that the level of development of intellectual lability is not the main indicator of the development of the technical aptitude of the individual. shatunova & sterz table 1 indicators of the development of spatial thinking, intellectual lability and motivation to achieve success, depending on the achievements of students in the final stage of all-russian schoolchildren's olympiad in handicraft discussion . analyzing the data in table 1, we can conclude that an important role in achieving success in any field, including participation in subject olympiads, is played by motivation. if we look at the sample of winners and runners-up, among the winners, 50% have a high level of development of motivation to achieve success and 25% of schoolchildren from among runners-up have a high level of motivation to achieve success. among the participants who did not win prizes, a high level of motivation for success is lacking, and despite the fact that 75% of them have a high level of spatial thinking (students who are winners do not have a high level of spatial thinking, only the average level of development (100%)), they were not included in the number of winners and runners-up. statistical analysis by student's t-test showed that there are statistically significant differences between the samples of winners and runners-up of the olympiad and students who did not win prizes in terms of the level of development of achievement motivation (t = 2.95 for p≥0.01). conclusion thus, the key role in the development of technical aptitude is played by motivation, desire and interest to be engaged by technical creativity, the need to create new products and in achieving meaningful, better results than other people. the presence and high level of development of such abilities as spatial thinking, technical intelligence and intellectual lability in the absence of motivation are not always a guarantee of the realization of a person's technical aptitude. indicator winners, levels runners-up, levels participants who did not win prizes, levels high medium low high medium low high medium low motivation to achieve success 50% 50% 0% 25% 75% 0% 0% 100% 0% intelligent lability 0% 100% 0% 2,5% 37,5 50% 25% 75 0 % spatial thinking 0 100% 0% 25% 100% 0 % 75% 25% 0% journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 239-250 acknowledgements the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references aminov, t.м. (2014). system of professional education in regions of pre-revolutionary russia (through the example of bashkiria). voprosy obrazovaniya. 3: 244-262. baytak, a., tarman, b., & ayas, c. (2011). experiencing technology integration in education: children's perceptions. international electronic journal of elementary education, 3(2), 139-151. bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) buchneva, r. s., trufanova t.(2016). a demanded and popular professions in the labor market: tendencies and prospects of development. modern tendencies of development of the theory and practice of management in russia and abroad: proceedings of the vi international scientific-practical conference. responsible editor: e. a. kolesnichenko. tambov: tambov state university named after g. r. derzhavin, 2016. pp. 12-22. (in russian) caldwell, daniel william (2012). educating gifted students in the regular classroom: efficacy, attitudes, and differentiation of instruction. electronic theses & dissertations. 822. url: https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1826&context=et d (date accessed: 18.01.2018). dimitriadis, christos (2010). developing mathematical giftedness within primary schools a study of strategies for educating children who are gifted in mathematics // school of sport and education brunel university. 327 p. heller, k. diagnosis and development of gifted children and adolescents // modern concepts of talent and creativity / ed.d. b. bogoyavlenskaya. moscow: young guard, 1997. pp. 243-259. (in russian) il'yaschenko, d.p., chinakhov, d.a., danilov, v.i., schlyakhova, g.v., gotovshchik, yu.m. (2015). physical nature of the processes in forming structures, phase and chemical shatunova & sterz compositions of medium-carbon steel welds. iop conference series: materials science and engineering, 91 (1), art. no. 012006. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016) strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a) building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b) research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. khrustaleva, t. m. psychology of abilities. perm: perm state university of humanities and education, 2013. 180 p. (in russian) leana-tascilar, marilena z. (2014). interview with albert ziegler about gifted education. journal for the education of the young scientist and giftedness, volume 2, issue 2, pp. 98-100 levenberg, i., shaham c. (2014). formulation of word problems in geometry by gifted pupils. journal for the education of the young scientist and giftedness, vol. 2, issue 2, pp. 28-40. mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. merzon, e. e., sterz o. m., panfilov a. n. (2013). the lability and flexibility of thinking as factors of development of technical giftedness of the personality // modern problems of science and education. no. 3. url: http://www.science-education.ru/109-9381 (date accessed: 18.10.2017). merzon, e.e., shterts o.m., shatunova o.v., panfilov a.n. (2014). sex-age dynamics of development of technical giftedness' signs. life science journal. т. 11. № 6. pp. 539-542. (in russian) osadchy, e. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2015). integration of industrial and educational sphere in modernization of economic relations. journal of applied economic sciences, 10(5) savenkov, a. i. psychology of children's talent. moscow: genesis, 2010. 440 p. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 239-250 sheffield, l.j. (2003) extending the challenge in mathematics: developing mathematical promise in k-8 students. thousand oaks, ca: texas association for the gifted and talented; corwin press. 151 p. shkilev, r. e., samsonova, e. v., kazanchuk, i. d., & isupova, m. m. (2018). rendering imagery in the semantic structure of stable terminological word combinations. rupkatha journal on interdisciplinary studies in humanities, 10(1), 128-133. 10.21659/rupkatha.v10n1.14 subotnik, rena f., olszewski-kubilius paula, and frank c. worrell (2011). rethinking giftedness and gifted education: a proposed direction forward based on psychological science. psychological science in the public interest, no 12(1). pp. 3–54 tarman, b., & kuran, b. (2015). examination of the cognitive level of questions in social studies textbooks and the views of teachers based on bloom taxonomy. kuram ve uygulamada egitim bilimleri, 15(1), 213-222. 10.12738/estp.2015.1.2625 тesleva e., belkova t. (2014) acoustic and elastic properties of cu3au alloy between 4.2...300 к. applied mechanics and materials. vol. 682, p. 519-524. teplov, b. m. (1982) the abilities and giftedness, psychology of individual differences. moscow: moscow state university publishing house, 1982. 404 p. (in russian) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 160-171 160 the role of local history texts in implementing the culturological approach to teaching the russian language: the basic general education level alyona ivygina1, evgeniya pupysheva2, dinara mukhametshina3 abstract the prevailing view in the scientific and methodological community has long been that the culturological approach to language studies (called the "leading" approach in linguodidactics at the turn of the 21st century at the ix international congress of the international association of teachers of russian language and literature (mapryal) held in bratislava in 1999) is necessary. the issue of means, ways and possibilities for students to master the values of spiritual and material culture through a language can be solved in various ways, but, in our opinion, one of the most effective ways is to include materials on local history and studies into the school curriculum for the russian language course. such materials are intended, first, for expanding both the students’ universal background knowledge and the knowledge of their country. in this context, one of the most important components aimed at implementing the culturological approach in russian language lessons is a culturological text on local history and studies. acquainting students with texts on local history and studies is aimed at "ensuring the historical continuity of generations, preserving, distributing, and developing national culture, and fostering an attitude of care towards the historic and cultural heritage of the peoples of russia" (makeev, 1995). all of the above has prompted the authors of this article to attempt presenting their view both on the significance of studying a text on local history and studies within the implementation of the culturological competence and including such texts in the system of educating and training students using the means of the russian language course. key words: local history and studies, culturological approach, culturological competence, culturological text, basic general education. introduction at the turn of the 21st century, the problem of studying language and culture within the methodology of teaching russian as a native language has been actively developed by bystrova (bystrova et. al., 2004), voiteleva (2015), deikina & khodiakova, (2003), domansky (2002), levushkina (2015), mishatina (2012), novikova (2007), pakhnova (2000), sayakhova (sayakhova & mullagalieva, 2006), and khodyakova (2012). within the modern foreign 1 phd in philology, assoc. prof., department of russian language and literature, yelabuga institute of kazan federal university, russia, linguistika@mail.ru 2 phd in pedagogical, assoc. prof., department of russian language and literature, yelabuga institute of kazan federal university, tatarstan,, russia, evpupysheva@yandex.ru 3 assistant, department of russian language and literature, yelabuga institute of kazan federal university, tatarstan,, russia, nurievadinara@yandex.ru mailto:linguistika@mail.ru mailto:evpupysheva@yandex.ru mailto:nurievadinara@yandex.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 160-171 methodology of teaching a foreign language, this problem has been developed by byram, morgan, zarate (byram et. al., 1991; 1994; 1994), broger (1992), hyde (1998), kaikkonen (2001), kramsh (1993), king (1990), [15], shanahan (1998), robinson, & nemets (1985) et al. within the declared subject, we decided to tackle the issue of ways and means to use a text on local history and studies during the russian language lessons due to the fact that, as yet, the methodology has no integral system or consistent approach that teachers of the russian language could use as a basis for including local history/studies materials in the teaching process. currently, there is an evident necessity to create new textbooks and study guides based on the linguo-local studies approach taking into account the national and regional component (aydarova et al., 2017; bochkareva et al., 2017; korableva & kalimullina, 2016; osadchy & akhmetshin, 2015). this is important today both due to the methodological necessity and to the state’s policy regarding education (korableva & kalimullina, 2014; korableva et al., 2017b). thus, the federal state educational standard of basic general education lays special emphasis on the necessity to not only "introduce school students to the national culture of their people within studying a school course, but also to ensure the historical continuity of generations, preserve, distribute, and develop the national culture, and foster an attitude of care towards the historic and cultural heritage of the peoples of russia". method in this work, the authors use both universal methods of scientific cognition (analysis, synthesis) and special methods related to the methodology of teaching the russian language: studying and analyzing scientific literature, observation, questionnaire survey, and the diagnostic and forecasting method in teaching the russian language. findings yelabuga is a city with a thousand-year history, which was and still is a subject of study for great many research scientists. among the first researchers of yelabuga history there are nevostruyev, kulyginsky (valeev & kornilov, 2007), shishkin (1871), and kudryavtsev (1898). these famous historiographers who put forth tremendous effort to immortalize the city in the annals of history were born in yelabuga and left their works on their hometown history to future generations. ivygina et al. today, local studies are expanding their boundaries and a new area has appeared that has been actively implemented at the educational institutions of the town and its districts, school students of which have since 1994 studied a new course – yelabuga history and studies. in 2012, a course book "history of yelabuga" for 7th-grade students was published as a result of creative cooperation of the staff of the yelabuga state historical, architectural and art museum and heritage site, school history teachers, local history experts and scientists (rudenko, 2012). in the previous year, within the implementation of the strategy of education development in the republic of tatarstan for 2010-2015, a resource book to the pilot project of the innovative yelabuga history studies program was published that contained lesson plans, additional materials, tests, and crossword puzzles. lecturers and teachers of the yelabuga institute pay special attention to local studies and history within their work with yelabuga institute and school students. in particular, maslova et al. in their article note that "in working with school students, historical museums of the yelabuga institute stake on developing children’s understanding of the cultural diversity of the peoples and their history... in implementing the education and training functions, playing classes for school students in the museum of yelabuga take on even greater importance within the implementation of the innovative project "intelleto" (maslova et. al., 2016). special courses in local literature studies and local history studies are presented at the philology and history faculty. in recent years, various scientific works have been published that describe the richest historical heritage of our town (the authors of the works are gafurov et al. (gafurov et al., 2007); nigamayev (nigamayev, 2007), and kotlova (kotlova, 2013). "extensive charity work for which the stakheevs became renowned in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century" (maslova & krapotkina, 2014) significantly changed the internal and external appearance of yelabuga. the yelabuga institute of kazan federal university honors the contribution of this merchant dynasty’s members to the cultural life of our town and once in two years holds the international stakheev readings, which have become a tradition and which gather not only those who love the works of the poet and writer, or descendants of the stakheev family living both in russia and abroad, but also specialists in local history and studies. thus, local studies in yelabuga are developing with active participation of specialists and people who love their local history. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 160-171 currently, the prevailing view in scientific and methodological literature on problems of teaching a native language is that the culturological approach is necessary for studying a native language (novikova, 2007). in our opinion, the implementation of this approach can be based on the acquaintance with local history, which should become a basis for teaching humanities (magsumov, 2016; korableva et al., 2017a). in this sense, a notion of a local history and studies material as a reflection of a cultural and historical aspect in teaching a language becomes a key one. we believe that materials on local history should be introduced not only in history lessons but also in studying all humanities, including a native language lessons, starting from the primary school (magmusov, 2013, magsumov, 2015). the practical aim of our article is to review the ways of including local history materials in the school program and to propose practical recommendations to implement this. in order to do this, we have developed a set of tasks that will allow both learning and reinforcing the program materials on the subject by students and acquaint them with the local history and culture (tarman, 2016; tarman et al., 2015). the texts that we propose to include in the russian language course program correspond to the age peculiarities of secondary school students, as well as meet the requirements of using a meta-subject approach in education. the texts are intended both for establishing subject knowledge of the russian language and for acquainting school students with history of their region. working with a local history/studies material within a russian language lesson contemplates a multi-aspect activity that includes elements of a linguistic, stylistic, and literary analysis, speech tasks, various types of segmentation, orthography and punctuation issues, preparation for expressive reading of a text, and in some cases – for retelling or for creating writing. during the first stage of selecting materials on local history and studies, all the texts that are somehow related to the history of yelabuga were divided by their functional and stylistic features into: 1) fiction (works by d.i. stakheev, s.t. romanovsky, and n.a. durova); 2) publicistic (newspaper articles "the enthusiast of yelabuga land", "the last century yelabuga. the troitsk cemetery", etc.; and 3) science education (the legend of the devil’s fort (chyortovo gorodische)), the ananyino culture, etc.). the second stage of work included distributing the texts by topical units based on their content. as a result, four topical units were singled out: ivygina et al. 1. biography – reflecting lives of great men (some facts of the biography of i.i. shishkin, a painter, tazi gizzat, a writer, n.a. durova, the hero of the patriotic war of 1812 and a writer, i.v. shishkin, a merchant and patron of arts, s.t. romanovsky, a writer, etc.). 2. monuments – guardians of people’s destiny (the troitsk cemetery, the kamashev house, the shishkin house, the lenin square, and the building of the yelabuga institute). 3. yelabuga, praised throughout the ages (excerpts from works of fiction on the local nature and famous people who glorified our town). 4. legends – reflection of people’s understanding of history (the legends of the devil’s fort (chyortovo gorodische), of the origin of the name "yelabuga", and of the miraculous blinding of pugachev). as an example, here follows a text on local history/studies from the first block and possible tasks to it. portrayer of russian landscape shishkin, ivan ivanovich is a greatest master of the russian national landscape. his name is widely known. i.i. shishkin began his studies at the kazan gymnasium from which he graduated in 1848. for several years, he continued his education at home and studied painting at the same time. in 1852, ivan shishkin left for moscow. there i.v. stakheev, his uncle, was friends with pakhomov who was a member of the council of the moscow school of arts, sculpture and architecture. in august of the same year, the future painter was admitted to the school and studied there until 1856. in 1856, ivan shishkin entered the academy of arts in st. petersburg where he studied for 5 years and received all academic awards and honours. in 1860, ivan shishkin received a gold medal and a right for a trip abroad for two landscape paintings "view of valaam island. kukko" (where he had gone in summers of 1858 and 1859). the 1870s and 1880s were a golden age for the painter’s talent. during this period, he painted works that are now among the treasures of the russian national art: "rye" (1878), "amidst the open valley" (1883), "wood distances" (1884), "the oak grove" (1887), "pine-trees lit up by the sun" (1886), "in the wood of countess mordvinova" (1891) (cherepivskaya, 1992). tasks: journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 160-171 1. read the text. list the paintings mentioned in the text. which other paintings by ivan shishkin do you know? 2. 1) find synonyms to the word ‘painter’; 2) find the proper nouns in the text; 3) copy out the numerals from the text and write them down as words; 4) underline the subject and the predicate in the first two sentences of the second paragraph. 3. make the morphological segmentation of the word ‘живопись’ (oil paintings). 4. prepare for expressive reading. the "free flight of creative imagination" block includes 18 topics of creative tasks for school students developed by the authors. for example, "an ode to my beloved town", "a letter to a famous citizen of yelabuga", "a creative sketch of the shishkin pond in spring", "beloved town melting in blue mist…" (on the yelabuga landscape), "to you, my diary, can i entrust a secret on my home town, on the land of my heart", "granting the light of knowledge for ages" (on the history of the yelabuga institute), etc. besides, the selected texts (extracts from the works of s.t. romanovsky, d.i. stakheev, and n.a. durova) were adapted for dictations in the russian language course. we recommend using several selected texts (based on the newspaper articles on the culture and beliefs of ananyino people, holidays, or merchant dynasties) for written reproductions. test tasks on the local history based on the local history texts are included in the "local history experts" block. thus, the proposed ways of introducing local history/studies material into the school program and the practical recommendations on their implementation allow forming the culturological competence of school students based on the language and culture co-studying principle (mauch & tarman, 2016; yiğit & tarman, 2016). the didactic materials based on the local history/studies texts were reviewed within the discipline "methodology of teaching the russian language" and aroused much interest among students. the results of the questionnaire survey held among attendees of further education courses in the yelabuga institute of the kazan federal university in 2015/2017 (145 persons) showed that 90% of those surveyed were ready to use local history/studies materials and the set of corresponding tasks in teaching russian language, realize the importance of using those in language arts and understand that studying the local culture can help in educating a person who loves their history and respects the traditions of our multiethnic country. ivygina et al. discussion based on studying the declared range of problems in scientific works by leading methodologists, testing the collected corpus and corresponding tasks within the discipline "methodology of teaching the russian language", and questionnaire survey held among attendees of further education courses, the authors identified the mechanisms and ways of practical implementation thereof in secondary schools of our region (akhmetshin,et al, 2017; fedorov, 2014a; il'yaschenko et al., 2015; fedorov, 2014b; szydlowski, 2017). a small fragment of possible inclusion of local history/studies material into a russian language lesson in secondary school clearly demonstrates that such material can exist very well within the program and syllabus for the subject taking into account the national and regional component, as well as promotes the development of a student’s basic competences. the recommendations we propose should without doubt aid a subject teacher in practical implementation of the culturological approach and formation of students’ culturological competence through a local history/studies text. conclusion the prospects of developing this study can include implementing the tested materials within training of bachelors in the russian language and literature, within studying methodological disciplines, developing a special course "a local history/studies text in russian language lessons: theory and practice of implementation", or preparing study guides for teachers and local history/studies specialists. references akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. aydarova s h, giniyatullina l m, sagdieva r k, husnutdinov d h, mirzagitov r h, gabidullina f i (2017). models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) bystrova, e.a. & lvov, s.i. & kapinos, v.i. (2004). teaching russian at school: proc. allowance for students of pedagogical universities. moscow: drofa. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 160-171 byram, m. & esarte-sarries, v. (1991). investigating cultural studies in foreign language teaching. clevedon: multilingual matters ltd. byram, m. & zarate, g. (1994). definitions, objectives and assessment of sociocultural competence. strasbourg: council of europe press. byram, m. & morgan, c. (1994). teaching-and-learning language-and-culture. clevedon, philadelphia, adelaide: multicultural matters ltd. broger, f. ch. (1992). culture, language, text: culture studies within the study of english as a foreign language. oslo: scandinavian university press. bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) cherepivskaya, n. (1992) the writer of russian nature, novaya kama, 13-14, 6-7. deikina, a.d. & khodiakova, l.a. (2003). cultural approach: its implementation in the school and university courses of the russian language. reports and abstracts of the reports of the participants of the all-russian scientific conference dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of academician a.v. tekucheva, russian as a learning subject in the general educational space of native culture (pp. 10-15). moscow: mpgu. domansky, v.a. (2002). literature and culture: cultural approach to the study of literature in school. moscow: flint: science. fedorov, a. (2014a). commitment to asia. the russian academic journal, 28(2). doi:10.15535/267 fedorov, a. (2014b). the umbrella revolution. the russian academic journal, 29(3). doi:10.15535/269 gafurov, i.r. & nurgatina, l.a. & shmonov, n.i. (2007) historical and economic review. (1000 pages about yelabuga, elabuga region in antiquity, volume i). yelabuga: jsc "almedia". hyde, m. (1998). intercultural competence in english language education, modern english teacher,7/2, 7-11. il'yaschenko, d.p., chinakhov, d.a., danilov, v.i., schlyakhova, g.v., gotovschik, y.m. (2015). increasing strength and operational reliability of fixed joints of tubes by mma welding. iop conference series: materials science and engineering, 91 (1), art. no. 012007 ivygina et al. makeev, a.f. (1995). local studies in russian language lessons, russian language at school, 2, 8-10. magsumov, t.a. (2016). the jigets: a great history of a small people. rusin. (3), 45: 247-253. doi: 10.17223/18572685/45/17 magsumov, t. (2015). charity societies for helping needy students in the volga region, late 19th early 20th centuries. rossiiskaia istoria. 4: 63-69. magmusov, t.a. (2013). school and children during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the romanov dynasty. bylye gody. (4) 30: 79-87. osadchy, e. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2015). integration of industrial and educational sphere in modernization of economic relations. journal of applied economic sciences, 10(5) pakhnova, t.m. (2000). text as the basis for creating a developing speech environment in russian language lessons, russian in the school, 4, 4-12. kaikkonen, p. (2001). intercultural learning through foreign language education, experiential learning in foreign language education, 61-105. khodyakova, l.a. (2012). culturological approach in the teaching of the russian language. moscow: izd-vo mgou. king, c.p. (1990). a linguistic and cultural competence can they live happily together, foreign language annals, 23, 65-70. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2014). the formation of a single legal space as a prerequisite for overcoming systemic risk. asian social science, 10(21): 256-260. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016). strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a). building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221-228 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b). research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 160-171 conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. kotlova, l.a. (2013). school education in yelabuga. moscow: flint: science. kramsh, cl. (1993). context and culture in language teaching. oxford: oup. kudryavtsev, v.f. (1898). antiquities, monuments, legends and legends of the kama region. vyatka: provincial printing house. levushkina, o.n. (2015). on culturological, cultural and linguistic and cultural concepts in the methodology of teaching the russian language. retrieved march 05, 2017, from http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/o-kulturologicheskih-kulturovedcheskih-ilingvokulturologicheskih-ponyatiyah-v-metodike-ob mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. maslova, i.v. & krapotkina, i.e. & pospelova, n.v. (2016). multicultural education direction of the modern historical museum, european proceedings of social and behavioural sciences, 12, 120-125. maslova, i.v. & krapotkina, i.e. (2014). nationhood and political identity in peoples mentality from provincial towns of the russian empire, in xix – early хх centuries, bylye gody, 34 (4), 559-565. mishatina, n.l. (2012). polyphony of methodological approaches to teaching the russian language: materials of the international scientific and practical conference, linguoconcept-centric approach as an integral strategy of speech development of schoolchildren (pp. 122-127). moscow: mpgu; yaroslavl: remder. novikova, t.f. (2007) culturological approach to the teaching of the russian language: a model of the regional component. the author's abstract. dis. dr. ped. sciences, moscow. nigamayev, a.z. (2007). early history of yelabuga. historical essay. yelabuga: publishing house of the state pedagogical university. order of the ministry of education and science of russia from december 17, 2010, no. 1897 "on approval and implementation of the federal state educational standard of basic general education". retrieved february 24, 2016, from http: //minobrnauky.rf/%d0%b4%d0%be%d0%ba%d1%83%d0%bc%d0%b5%d0%bd %d1%82%d1%8b/543 ivygina et al. reports of participants of the 9th international congress of teachers of russian language and literature (1999). slovak republic bratislava, hradec králové: gaudeamus. robinson, g. & nemets, l. (1985). cross-cultural understanding: process and approaches for english as a second language and bilingual educators. new york: pergamon. rudenko, g.r. (2012). history of yelabuga. kazan: magarif-vakyt. sayakhova, l.g. & mullagalieva, l.k. (2006). russian language in the dialogue of cultures. moscow: ladamir. shanahan, d. (1998). culture, culture and "culture" in foreign language teaching, foreign language annals, 31/3, 451-457. small and medium-sized cities in russia: past, present and future: proceedings of the vi international stacheyev readings (2013). elabuga: publishing house of yelabuga institute of kfu. sociocultural environment of the russian province in the past and present: sat. scientific articles (2015). elabuga: publishing house of yelabuga institute of kfu. shishkin, i.v. (1871). history of the city of yelabuga. moscow: sinoidal printing house. szydlowski, a. (2017). political expert: project of restart of global financial and political system launched [analytical interview to the european news magazine]. retrieved from http://m.baltnews.lt/lithuania/20170308/1016887316.html tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a the history of yelabuga: a methodical guide to the pilot project of the innovative educational program "history of the native land" for pupils of the 7th form of general education institutions. (2011). kazan: magarif-vakyt. the image of the russian province: historical and contemporary socio-cultural problems: v international stakheevskie readings. (2012). elabuga: publishing house of yelabuga institute of kfu. valeev, n.m. & kornilov, i.v. (2007). local historians of yelabuga. yelabuga: publishing house of the state pedagogical university. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 160-171 voitheleva, t.m. (2015). culturological approach to teaching the russian language as a way of forming value orientations of schoolchildren. retrieved april 20, 2016, from http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/kulturovedcheskiy-podhod-k-obucheniyu-russkomuyazyku-kak-sposob-formirovaniya-tsennostnyh-orientatsiy yiğit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 iv international stakheevskie readings: proceedings of a scientific conference. (2009). volume i. elabuga: publishing house of the state pedagogical university. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(1), 123-171 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 examining the citizenship and democracy education textbook and curriculum in terms of global education küresel eğitim çerçevesinde vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programı elvan günel 1 & ayşegül pehlivan 2 abstract as a result of scientific and technological developments in today’s world, global education has started to take its place in the educational systems throughout the world and become more significant in recent years. since global education has multiple effects on societies, it is also crucial in helping students to become informed, active, and global citizens. this study employs document analysis, a qualitative research method, in order to examine how the themes regarding global education are shaped in the citizenship and democracy education textbook and curriculum designed for the eighth grade students. findings of the study showed that some themes, regarding global education, are embedded into the curriculum only to provide knowledge without any emphasis on necessary skills and values, and other sub-themes completely ignored along with the global dimension of citizenship education. keywords: citizenship and democracy, social studies, global education introduction the advances in science and technology have swiftly changed the world that we live in. increase in use of the social media, rapid developments in transportation, easier access to information, and fast and unrestricted interaction in such fields as education, arts, music, and literature resulting from better commercial relations have brought people living in different parts of the world closer, ultimately caused to what has come to be known as globalization (şahin, 2011; balay, 2004). although globalization is viewed as something massively impacting the world and led people to describe the world as a global village, scholars have yet to come up with a standardized definition, which is why so many different definitions of globalization exist. 1 asst. prof. dr., anadolu university, elvang@anadolu.edu.tr 2 res. asst., anadolu university, aysegulpehlivan@anadolu.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 124 while şahin (2011) defines globalization as “certain economic, political, and cultural values and structures moving beyond national borders and spreading worldwide” (p. 2), çalık and sezgin (2005) describe it as worldwide integration on a political, economic, social, and cultural scale, with the distances between everything from economy to politics, education to business, becoming ever shorter and more insignificant. bayar (2008), on the other hand, defines globalization as a “gradual increase through “interdependence” in the amount of communication and interaction amongst the humans, societies, and states in different parts of the earth” (p. 25). globalization has influenced the politics and cultures, and shaped the current policies of many countries worldwide with an impact primarily on economy, but also on almost all aspects of life. international cooperation, use of foreign resources, and small-scale business agreements with other countries have increased as a consequence of an economically shrinking world, while the neoliberal policies of the world’s economically developed major players have brought about a significant rise in income distributions nationally and internationally, and shifted the balances as a result. this has caused a drift away from the social state (lakes and carter, 2011; yazıcı, 2014). these political and economic policies shifted balances; minority groups within nations have marginalized because of linguistic, religious, ethnic, socio-economic, cultural, and denominational differences, which has in turn led to war, terror, hunger, famine, and migrations, profoundly affecting people’s daily lives. as a result, people may suddenly find themselves a long way from their homes, living completely different lives. the impact of globalization on countries has not only been on an economic and political scale but also on social and cultural scales. more and easier self-expression by the constituent cultures of a society and the other cultures independent of the mainstream one, the individual’s self-definition as a world citizen, privatization of education, and the monopoly of a few countries over the basic requirements for education are some of the changes due to neoliberal politics and globalization. therefore different cultures and cross-cultural interaction within those countries have also been exclusively changed (gümüş and i̇lhan, 2012; lakes and carter, 2011). since culturally sensitive education aims to define and understand differences based on race, language, religion, ethnic group, socio-cultural and socio-economic status, denomination, and sexual orientation, raise awareness of these differences, teach to respect them, and create democratic educational environments, it ought elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 125 to be offered in the classrooms (gay, 2002). tezcan (2002), too, concludes that the literature mostly focuses on the economic aspect of globalization, ignoring its cultural dimension. tezcan (2002) states that the cultural dimension also exhibits intrinsic differences. education is a significant part of the cultural dimension as well as arts, law, ethics, and politics, etc. as the cultures of countries changes due to globalization, their education systems, too, are subject to parallel changes. on the other hand, certain neoliberal policies (e.g. privatization and monopolization of education), implemented by the world’s major players for their economic and political agendas, also have indirect influences on education. these policies pave the way to gradual privatization in education and monopolization of educational revenues and expenses by a few leader economies. faced with a plethora of educational choices in such political environments, families – the smallest structural units of society – are squeezed between the dominant groups in education due to the policies in place (apple, 2006) and, at times, even guided through misinformation towards failing schools with incompetent teachers (lakes and carter, 2011). therefore the individuals in those educational settings affected by globalization both directly and indirectly need an education that could help them keep pace with the changing cultural environment (kirkwood, 2001; merryfield, 1997; ukpokodu, 1999). at this point, desirable aims of education such as respect to differences, awareness of problems, acquisition of values and skills necessary for problemsolving, and multiple perspectives on what happens around the world lead people towards global education, which sees the world as a whole and aims to make individuals parts of it. the global education approach has gained importance as people have become more interested in global issues such as hunger, war, inequality, and social injustice, and is now a basic need for all, as what happens around the world impacts all aspects of human lives (açıkalın, 2010a; alger and harf, 1985; merryfield, 1997). boston (1997) and merryfield (1997) argue that each educational system needs a separate definition of global education according to its own institutional beliefs and practices. in most general terms, distilled from its many definitions, global education is a concept that seeks to introduce students to different cultures, make them respect differences, raise an awareness of global issues, improve their sensitivity and responsibility, critical thinking and empathy skills, provide them with a world view, and move students closer to these aims through educational programmes in a world where people are ever closer to one another due to rapidly evolving interconnectedness and interdependence as a result of globalization (açıkalın, 2010b; alger and harf, 1985; boston, 1997; merryfield, 1997; pike, 2000; journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 126 ukpokodu, 1999). the primary goal of global education is to inform students of the traditions, cultures, and values of people in different parts of the world, and to help students to interact effectively with people around the world. even though some scholars consider global education to be a movement originating in the us so that the us can sustain its competitive position, it is now a worldwide movement affecting all countries of the world (tye and kniep, 1991; ukpokodu, 1999). in addition to offering a definition of global education, scholars who advocate global education have also explained its dimensions (açıkalın, 2010a). hanvey (2004) stresses the need for a global consciousness in order to cope with problems in a world in which countries are more and more interdependent, and puts forward five dimensions of global education considered to be conducive to this consciousness: “perspective consciousness, state-of-theplanet awareness, cross-cultural awareness, knowledge of global dynamics, and awareness of human choices” (p. 2). kirkwood (2001), on the other hand, categorizes hanvey’s (2004) skills under four themes, which have been adopted by many scholars (açıkalın, 2010a; açıkalın, 2010b; alger and harf, 1985; merryfield, 1997; pike, 2000). these themes are 1) multiple perspectives, 2) comprehension and appreciation of cultures 3) knowledge of global issues, and 4) the world as an interrelated system. the multiple perspectives theme involves individuals’ skills to consider events from different angles; the theme of understanding and respecting cultures involves the empathy skills and responsibility values in interacting with different cultures; the theme of knowledge of global issues includes an awareness of, and proposing solutions for, problems such as migration, overpopulation, decrease in natural resources, financial crises, war, natural disasters, hole in the ozone layer, etc. even if these may not exist in one’s own country; and finally, the theme of the world as an interrelated system focuses on individuals seeing themselves as parts of the world, which has now come to be a system of seemingly unrelated but actually closely-knit events and mechanism, especially due to political and economic interests (alger and harf, 1985; hanvey, 2004; kirkwood, 2001; merryfield, 1997; pike, 2000). based on these themes, global education has made its way to the curricula of many different countries including canada, the us, the uk, and turkey. because of new approaches in education and educational reforms that commit to provide individuals with the knowledge, skills, and values to help them to first understand their own culture and then to appreciate, understand, and respect other cultures, citizenship education has become a subject can no longer be ignored by societies. a revision of citizenship education is now inevitable elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 127 due to racial, cultural, religious, and linguistic variety in countries resulting from such events as migration, war, and terror (banks, 1997; banks, 2004; castles, 2004). global education is now offered in many countries; as a result the citizens with the global skills and values emerged as a product, which expands the concept of citizenship even more. while in the past citizenship was just about obeying social order and being responsible to society, it is now about responsibility to the entire world, sensitivity about global issues such as war, peace, migration, terror, and hunger, and consideration of oneself as part of the world as he/she holds onto his/her national identity (kan, 2009). in its global citizenship curriculum, oxfam (2006) highlights the perception of the world as a large place and consideration of oneself as a citizen thereof, awareness and respect of differences, awareness of the world order, opposition to social injustice, membership of local and global associations, efforts to make the world a more just and liveable place, and a sense of responsibility towards the world as typical characteristics of a global citizen. in order to provide individuals with these characteristics, global education themes are offered as part of the social studies curriculum in turkey as single units of a spiral program in 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7 th grades. furthermore, the citizenship and democracy education course is offered in the eighth grade in order to support values and skills that social studies education suggests. the teaching of the global education themes in this subject is of great importance as regards the gaining global consciousness by individuals with a broad view of the world, a sense of responsibility towards society, a consciousness as part of humanity, and sensitivity concerning national and global issues, based on the broader objectives of turkish national education. the citizenship education must therefore be in line with the objectives and standards of global education. the subject is taught around four thematically structured and organized themes focusing on global and cultural connections: every human being is valuable, the culture of democracy, our rights and liberties, and our duties and responsibilities (meb, 2010). generally witnessed in most societies throughout the world due to emerging economic approaches, current national policies, and cultural developments, globalization has impacted almost all aspects of human life and made innovation a necessity. one of the reforms put in place as a result of globalization has been in the field of education. the targeted skills and values for individuals in an ever-changing world order have paved the way to a new approach in education. the adoption of an educational policy around anti-conflict and antijournal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 128 discriminatory themes such as respecting differences, understanding different cultures, and gaining a global consciousness has pushed nations towards global education. the new curriculum designed in 2004-2005 and integrating the global education phenomenon of the last 20 years, turkey, too, has kept pace with these educational developments. the changes in the significance attributed to the individual, and therefore in the desired citizen profile, have made research necessary on the citizenship education offered and its suitability to the objectives. a review of the existing literature suggests that the themes of global education are not fully stressed (the world as an interrelated system and respecting differences), with some themes completely ignored (multiple perspectives), and that teacher education programmes are not in line with the aims of global education (açıkalın, 2010a; alazzi, 2011; balkar and özgan, 2010; kaymakçı, 2012; khaled, 2011; mangram and watson, 2011; mundy and manion, 2008). studies on teacher education and practices have mostly been conducted through eliciting teachers’ and students’ perceptions of and attitudes towards global education and the concepts of global citizenship, revealing the status quo, and comparing it to what is expected (alazzi, 2011; appleyard, 2009; göl, 2013; kaymakçı, 2012; koluman, 2011; mangram and watson, 2011; özkan, 2006). apart from these studies, none has been found on the themes of global education in textbooks and curricula within the scope of raising responsible citizens. the present study aims to investigate the eight grade citizenship and democracy education textbook and the curriculum in terms of global education. significance and goals of the study in response to the globalization movement which has brought along the need for reforms with far-reaching effects in education as in many other fields, nations have adopted new approaches in education, one of which is global education, which seeks to educate individuals so that they are able to keep pace with the world order that has been changing in many social and cultural aspects such as economy, politics, arts, and literature. the fact that people from different racial, linguistic, religious, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds now live altogether in the same country, and that universal technologies make them express more and more interest in the wars, terror, migrations, genocide, and natural disasters suffered by others thousands of miles away, has made global education a necessity. just like many other countries in the world, turkey, too, has taken important steps towards the implementation of global education (açıkalın, 2010a; açıkalın, 2010b; kaymakçı, 2012). elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 129 however, looking at the quality of the education offered in turkey, whether the aims of global education are fully achieved is quite debateable. the curriculum, the teacher, and the textbook are the three crucial components in raising individuals equipped with the values and skills that global education strives towards. as global education is a fairly new concept, research shows a lack of comprehensive knowledge in teachers (göl, 2013; kaymakçı, 2012). as teachers’ classroom practices differ depending on their training, experience, and points of view, the curriculum and the textbook must be well designed so as to serve as a guide for the teachers. the textbook and the curriculum are the teachers’ two indispensable assistants in imparting the objectives of global education to the students. textbooks in particular are the most commonly used course tools in schools. the majority of teachers consider the textbook as the basic resource and continue to treasure it even as digital tools have become abundant thanks to current technologies (kızılçaoğlu, 2003). it is therefore quite important that the textbook and the curriculum be in line with the course objectives. this study aims to examine how the themes in global education are shaped in the citizenship and democracy education textbook and curriculum designed for the eighth grade students in primary education, seeking answers to the following research questions: 1. how is the citizenship and democracy education textbook designed for the eighth grade shaped in terms of its knowledge, skills, and values based on the themes of global education? 2. how is the citizenship and democracy education curriculum designed for the eighth grade shaped in terms of the themes of global education? method this study aims to examine how the themes in global education are shaped in the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education textbook and the curriculum. thus, document analysis was selected as a qualitative research method for data collection. document analysis involves “analysing written materials on the fact or facts under study” (yıldırım and şimşek, 2013) and can be used on its own as well as in triangulation. films, photographs, letters, stories, autobiographies, books, curricula, correspondence, student files, assignments, patient records, statements, and many other visual and written materials are considered to be data in documentary research (bailey, 1994; bogdan and biklen, 2007; creswell, 2012; merriam, 2009). journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 130 the documents used in this study were the textbook selected as the textbook for the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education subject for five years from the 2013-2014 school year by the ministry of education’s education council (decision no 178 of 26.09.2012), and the citizenship and democracy education curriculum published in 2010 and still in use. the upper level knowledge in the curriculum was evaluated based on the framework presented in table 1 around the 32 achievement aims that took into account the 19 values and 17 skills, eight of which were basic skills. merriam (2009) points out that document analysis can be carried out in four stages: getting hold of the documents, checking their authenticity and originality, codificationcategorization, and analysis. in documentary research, data analysis may involve content analysis or descriptive analysis. while content analysis requires an in-depth analysis for new dimensions and themes, descriptive analysis engages with more superficial analysis of the existing themes (creswell, 2012). in this study, descriptive analysis was used in data analysis as the themes in the literature on global education were taken into consideration in the documents studied. the literature was used in drafting the global education themes and their sub-dimensions, which were submitted for expert evaluation and are shown in table 1. in light of the feedback from the field expert, the table was amended, finalized, and checked one last time before the analysis. the verbal and figural expressions and the visuals in the textbook and the curriculum were categorically analysed through line by line coding in the appropriate field amongst the global education themes categorized by using the nvivo 10 program and presented in table 1. the knowledge, skills, and values figuring in table 1 were symbolized *, **, and *** respectively. table 1: global education themes categorized as knowledge, skills, and values as a framework for analysis multiple perspectives comprehension and appreciation of cultures knowledge of global issues the world as an interrelated system knowledge of multiple perspectives* knowledge of personal beliefs and values* knowledge of issues related to population and family planning* knowledge of economical, political and ecological systems * knowledge of prejudice* knowledge of universal beliefs and values* knowledge of issues related to selfdetermination* knowledge of global dynamics* developing multiple skills and perspectives ** understanding the role of personal beliefs and values in various fields* knowledge of issues related to human rights * understanding interconnections between countries * skills and experiences in understanding the knowledge of issues understanding elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 131 seeing one’s own culture from other’s perspectives** origins and developments of cultures* related to emigration, immigration and refugees* interdependencies between countries * the ability to understand and accept different world views ** understanding crosscultural interactions and connections* knowledge of issues related to the global commons* to realize interdependencies within different global systems ** critical thinking skills** the ability to respect differences** knowledge of environmental and natural resource issues* to realize interconnections within different global systems** the ability to eliminate prejudices** understanding the role of one’s own culture in the world system** knowledge of issues related to distribution of wealth, technology and information, resources, access to markets* to realize that the world is a holistic system ** empathy** the ability to understand one’s own culture and heritage** knowledge of the issues related to hunger and food* peace*** tolerance*** the ability to understand multiple identities and loyalties ** peace and the security issues* initiative*** respect*** the ability to communicate across cultures** knowledge of the issues related to prejudice and discrimination* the ability to interact with different cultures ** knowledge of the values and beliefs underlie social/cultural norms and human conflicts* recognition of the complexity of cultural diversity and cultural universals** the ability to recognize conflict and conflicts resolution** the ability to collaborate and work with people from other cultures** creative thinking skills in solving problems** recognition of the effects of one’s own values, culture and worldview in learning about people different from oneself** being sensitive to various forms of discrimination** to live together** empathy** empathy** solidarity*** tolerance *** be fair*** peace *** sharing*** love *** responsibility*** respect*** sensitivity*** equality*** freedom*** sensitivity*** respect*** initiative*** equality*** upon completion of the data analysis, the data in each category was assessed and the themes yielding similar findings were categorized under a single heading. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 132 findings the study has found that the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education textbook and curriculum do not touch upon all elements of discrimination and prejudice (race, language, religion, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, socio-economic structure, socio-cultural structure, disabilities), cross-cultural communication and interaction focus on the individual’s own society at the expense of other cultures and interactions, the standards for the desirable citizen profile turn out to be inadequate in the context of global consciousness, developing multiple skills and perspectives is merely question-based with no activities for the teaching of values and skills, and the knowledge and activity-based practices for global dynamics and world peace are left incomplete. the study findings are categorized under headings in line with the knowledge, skills, and values embedded in the curriculum and the textbook. 1. invisibility of the elements underlying discrimination and prejudice being sensitive to various forms of discrimination and knowledge of the issues related to prejudice and discrimination are amongst the most important goals of global education. gaining a global perspective and interacting with individuals from different cultural backgrounds, regardless of their race, language, religion, beliefs, sexual orientation, gender, socio-economic structure, socio-cultural structure, and disabilities, is first and foremost related to shedding one’s prejudices and discriminatory beliefs. the topics under the heading of discrimination and prejudices in the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education textbook are found to be mostly informative. of the discriminatory issues relating to race, language, religion, beliefs, sexual orientation, gender, socio-economic structure, sociocultural structure, and disabilities encompassed by the themes of global education, only race, gender, and disabilities are touched upon, with absolutely no mention of the other subheadings and the resulting personal and social issues: not taking the same bus with the blacks… a disabled person being denied employment even if they may fulfil all requirements … immigrants being denied access to rented accommodation… women being denied their rights to education… (p. 59) on the other hand, the visuals in the same textbook seek to create sensitivity in the context of empathy and equality values, while famous anti-discrimination quotations (e.g. “just as the arabs can exert no supremacy over non-arabs and non-arabs over arabs, so the red-skinned can exert no supremacy over the dark-skinned and the dark-skinned over the redskinned”) are scattered to establish a link to the value of respect. in addition, the concept of prejudice is presented through definitions and inter-personal dialogues such as: elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 133 prejudice is a set of beliefs, convictions, and generalizations evoking love or animosity, and reflecting a conditioned emotional attitude, towards a certain individual or group without sufficient reason… i couldn’t draw like that even if i tried for years… i can’t play football like you… girls quickly get nervous and avoid questions… (p. 19) and illustrated by statements such as “the negativity of prejudice is emphasized” (p. 5) and “prejudice, exclusion, and contempt are contrary to human rights” (p. 14). considering the definition of prejudice in the textbook, the activities presented are insufficient in contributing to individual internalization of the concept, while the visuals only include a single cartoon on the subject. textbook (p.19) while the examples above and the cartoon mentioned deal with sexism, positive prejudice, and prejudices against undefined situations, those based on race, language, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and socio-economic structure, the consequent problems, and solution proposals are not at all referred to. 2. lack of global-national balance in raising consciousness about environment and culture the study findings also include the omission of the global perspective and consciousness targeted for individuals without them losing sight of their national identity, and the nationalonly scale of the activities actually intended on both global and national scales in the textbook and the curriculum under study. this is witnessed especially in the activities on cross-cultural communication and interaction, raising responsible citizens, and issues relating to environmental and natural resources. the study findings on the global education sub-themes being presented through national examples can be summarized as follows: one of the most important themes of global education is the theme of comprehension and appreciation of cultures which aims to enable the individual to understand people from different racial, linguistic, religious, ethnic, and socio-economic backgrounds, to connect with journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 134 them, and to know that they are in interaction even though they may be in different parts of the world. thus within the theme of understanding and respecting cultures in global education, the individual needs to be taught the values of respecting differences, empathy, interaction and communication skills, and responsibility and sensitivity. within this perspective, the presentation of this theme can be observed through the following statements: it is emphasized that it is natural for them and for the others to have different qualities which must be respected… they accept that each individual has their own characteristics… (p. 11) democratic citizenship education supports respect of different religions, cultures, beliefs, and ways of thinking… (p. 4) attention is drawn to the acceptance of social differences as natural and their protection… (p. 14) the textbook includes further statements highlighting respect of differences: human beings have different qualities that distinguish them from one another. these may originate at birth (e.g. family’s socio-economic situation, colour of the eyes and the skin, etc.) or result from education and life experiences. certain later-acquired involuntary physical aspects (e.g. overweight, disabilities, etc.) may cause personal differences… (p. 18) the impossibility of all people thinking and behaving in the same way must be recognized and respected. it is the differences that make societies multifaceted… (p. 40) the ability to interact and communicate with different cultures possible and raising awareness of cultural richness – the underpinnings of the targeted skill of respecting differences – also appear in the curriculum. for example, standards such as “they grasp that different views, opinions, beliefs, concepts, and cultural values enrich social life” (p. 14), “it is aimed that students realize their rights and cultural richness” (p. 7) and statements in the textbook such as “melodies sung in different languages in mardin” (p. 54), “the habits, customs, and traditions of turkmens, the azeri, and eastern anatolians make a whole in kars”, “the multicultural nature of the region gives it a rich folklore” (p. 53) can be considered examples of attribution to skill of respecting differences. these are all illustrations of cross-cultural communication and interaction within one’s own society. there are, however, no instances of, or activities on, how that society is influenced by different cultures throughout the world. the topic of universal beliefs and values within the global education theme of comprehension and appreciation of cultures is illustrated by “protection of shared values” (p. 6) in the curriculum and by “atatürk was a statesman who adopted universal values such as independence, peace, freedom, people’s happiness, respect of human beings” (p. 32) in the textbook, which, however, has no activities on the acquisition of these values. a study of the universal values in the textbook reveals a categorical conflict in terms of concepts and values. elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 135 for instance, on page 26 of the textbook, the statement “values such as justice, love, freedom, cooperation, and tolerance form the basis of society” classifies these as values, while on page 27, the instruction “match the following concepts and related visuals” classifies the very same words as concepts. “raising responsible citizens”, one of global education’s most important objectives, is emphasized in the curriculum as a topic that needs to be presented on both national and global scales. it is, however, presented in the textbook only on a national scale, with the global aspect completely ignored. in the curriculum, the principle of “raising individuals with a broad world view and a sense of responsibility towards society” (p. 3) amongst the general objectives of turkish national education is found to be in line with the principle of “instilling sensitivity of national and global issues with a consciousness of being part of humanity” (p. 6) amongst the general objectives of eighth grade citizenship and democracy education. further, the objective of raising responsible citizens with global perspectives is clearly underlined in the curriculum through the following statement: with the current advances in communication and transport causing the events in different parts of the world to impact every single nation, the education aims to educate individuals so they are able to adapt the social developments not only in their own country but also throughout the world (p. 4). however, a study of the textbook focuses on citizen profile drawn in the curriculum reveals that respect of human rights, responsibility towards the society and others, democratic citizenship, and a global consciousness – all requirements of citizenship – are not touched upon. in the textbook, the duties and responsibilities of the citizen are defined as awareness of responsibilities, environmental sensitivity, paying tax, respecting human rights as a democratic citizen with a national consciousness, with no illustrations of a global consciousness: i don’t litter the streets… i place recyclable waste into recycling bins… i notify the municipality of stray dogs that may present danger… i don’t waste electricity and water… i don’t damage parks or hurt the animals in them… i make careful use of public property… (p. 128) the following statement in the curriculum “citizenship and democracy education is considered in the context of democratic citizenship” (p. 5) is accepted as a sign that the target of global consciousness is ignored. in the global education literature, another sub-dimension of notable significance is knowledge of environmental and natural resource issues. in the textbook, apart from illustrations such as “conscious use of public property” and “waste of bread” (p. 131), journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 136 environmental issues are touched upon solely on a national level, such as the establishment of tema, with no mention of global examples or suggestions: in 1990, the world environmental organization published a report: every year, 25 billion tonnes of surface soil is lost to the sea due to floods and winds. we were curious about how much was lost in turkey. scholars from many countries were invited to turkey. their research revealed that we lost 1,400,000,000 tonnes of soil every year. this was enough to alarm us and we founded the tema on 11 september 1992. the foundation aims to prevent soil loss due to erosion, for which a number of research projects need to be set up (p. 92). 3. uniformity in providing multiple perspectives the theme of multiple perspectives is considered to be a basic element of a broad world view and has its place in the literature as one of the four themes in global education. the objectives of turkish national education and the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education subject place the raising of constructive, creative, critical, and questioning individuals in the foreground. notwithstanding this objective, it has been found that neither a definition nor an illustration of the concept of multiple perspectives figures in the textbook or the curriculum in the knowledge dimension. thus, the study focused on the questions put in the units for an evaluation of the acquisition of multiple perspectives. some of the questions in the textbook were found to be of an interpretative, practical, and analytical level geared towards developing multiple skills and perspectives: if you were a student of socrates, which words would you use to describe humans’ difference from animals? (p. 12) if zerrin were aware of human dignity and value, how could the story you have just read end? (p. 17) if turkey’s first congress on children’s rights had convened 30 years ago, do you reckon issues like “child-friendly school” or “child-friendly city” would have been on the agenda? (p. 101) other questions in the textbook, however, were found to be closed-ended (with single answers), unconducive to developing multiple skills and perspectives: do you think the teacher might have wanted to stress, with his/her questions, that each human being has an inherent value and that, consequently, all humans are valuable?... are the conflicts between students in your school peacefully resolved?... is tolerance valued in your school? (p. 15) on the other hand, the sub-theme of the ability to understand and accept different world views – one of the global education sub-dimensions in the developing multiple skills and perspectives – is nowhere to be found either in the curriculum or in the textbook. 4. current events being ignored in global values and relations elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 137 any event that occurs in a given part of the world, however localized it may seem, does in fact have an impact on the whole world. issues such as migration, war, economic and political alliances, hunger, famine, and resulting deaths in certain parts of the world are therefore no longer considered to be country-specific. in global education recognizing the interdependence of countries and realizing that the world is a shared system binding all humanity together is one of the top goals. studying the curriculum and the textbook in light of the global dynamics and security issues such as war, peace, terror, migration, and natural disasters which affect all humans, a broad world view and a global consciousness are highlighted through statements like “the education seeks to raise individuals who can adapt to social developments and change not only in our country but also throughout the world”, “to create sensitivity to national and worldwide issues with a consciousness as part of all humanity”. the textbook includes verbal statements such as “education allows people to understand their interdependence with others” (p. 111), and “working towards the happiness of world nations is another way of working towards one’s own happiness and well-being” (p. 116), but this topic is not at all tackled in activity-based work. on the other hand, the value of peace, which figures prominently in the literature, is dealt with more extensively in the textbook than in the curriculum, but it focuses mostly on the children of the world and social peace from a single point of view, ignoring ethnic conflicts, war between countries, and terror, which are of current relevance and which could contribute to the teaching of the value of peace. … democratic attitudes and approaches are helpful in gaining social sensitivity to security issues due to ethnic conflicts, racism, terror, and rising crime rates, global warming, and environmental problems caused by man. democratic consciousness requires the inclusion of all in the search for solutions for social issues. the statement above, quoted from the curriculum, highlights sensitivity to such issues but dwells on democratic consciousness rather than global solutions. as far as global dynamics are concerned, another noteworthy finding is the mere verbal reference in the textbook to the concepts of interdependence and interconnectedness, which are in fact constantly repeated and highlighted in the literature: “education enables people to realize their interdependence with others” (p. 111). this statement refers to interdependence as a benefit of education solely in the sub-dimension of interdependence between people, ignoring the other sub-dimensions of cross-cultural and international interdependence. in conclusion, four significant findings can be attributed to the present study looking at the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education curriculum and textbook based on the global education themes: various forms of prejudice and discrimination are not fully reflected journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 138 in the curriculum or in the textbook; cross-cultural interaction and communication, the desirable citizen profile, and the issues relating to environmental and natural resources are tackled from a national point of view; the multiple perspectives skill is only presented through questions with no activities geared towards real learning; knowledgeand activity-based practice is insufficient in the context of global dynamics and world peace, with little reference to current events, issues, and suggestions. discussion, conclusion, and suggestions global education has become indispensable so that individuals can adapt to the globalized world that we live in, turn into actively conscious citizens aware of global issues such as war, peace, hunger, terror, discrimination, prejudice, social justice, human rights, and security, and adopt a world view composed of national and global perspectives. this necessity has led to arrangements in many countries for the integration of global education within national educational systems. despite these arrangements, both national and international research shows that comprehensive training incorporating all objectives of global education in primary and secondary schools, teacher-training programmes, and curriculum and textbook development is still very much needed, and that more arrangements would be in place (açıkalın, 2010a; aslan, 2009; ceylan, 2014; cırık, 2008; kaymakçı, 2012; özkan, 2006; rapoport, 2009). in their research on global education in canadian primary schools, mundy and manion (2008) conclude that more of global education is needed in primary schools for a broader world view through integration in a national and global sense, and that universities, schools, and governments need to collaborate for the teaching of politically-sensitive global issues that concern the whole of canada, which corroborates that shortcomings in global education exist not only in turkey but also in the rest of the world. the present study on the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education curriculum and textbook concludes that not all sub-themes of global education are addressed in creating a global consciousness without losing national consciousness, and that issues relating to population and family planning, autonomy, socio-cultural norms, and knowledge of the values and beliefs underlie social/cultural norms and human conflicts, as well as themes on the ability to understand multiple identities and loyalties are not at all referred to. knowledge of the issues related to prejudice and discrimination amongst the global education themes include various elements such as race, language, religion, beliefs, sexual elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 139 orientation, gender, socio-economic structure, socio-cultural structure, and disabilities. açıkalın (2010a) concludes that the social studies curriculum fails to fully address issues such as social justice and equality, respect of differences, war and peace, discrimination and prejudice, and injustice and inequality. the present study also concludes that these concepts are superficially touched upon and that their inherent diversity is not fully reflected in the curriculum and the textbook. another noteworthy conclusion of the study is that the curriculum and the textbook mostly focus on the concepts of discrimination and prejudice based on race, gender, and disabilities, failing to address other elements such as sexual orientation, ethnicity, and socio-cultural structure. in his study on how individuals can have global adequacy, kilpatrick (2010) conducted interviews with teachers who expressed the need for global adequacy to include tolerance, an understanding of and interest in other cultures, knowledge of a foreign language, and the skills to know how to behave in an unfamiliar situation. in this context, it can be asserted that understanding, respecting, and interacting with different cultures is of paramount importance in acquiring a global world view. the present study concludes that cross-cultural interaction and communication in the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education curriculum and textbook is limited to the mainstream culture of the individual’s society, with no mention of other cultures or cultural interaction and communication between nations. aslan (2009) also concludes that the turkish educational system fails to address cultural differences and interaction, and that multicultural issues are ignored in the curricula and textbooks. likewise, cırık (2008) states that the existing curricula in turkish primary education are inadequate in the context of multicultural education, and that more emphasis is needed in that regard. another finding of the study is that the desirable citizen profile-orientated standards in the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education curriculum and textbook prove inadequate in providing a global consciousness. rapoport (2009) concludes that, in the current social studies curricula of some us states, the themes of global education and global citizenship are buried under certain subjects “deemed more necessary”, and that teachers ignore topics related to global education with the centrally-administered examinations in mind. he further concludes that teachers need help with methodology, content, and curriculum in the teaching of global citizenship. in a similar vein, ceylan (2014) reports that most teachers think global citizenship must be in pre-school curricula, that they want to teach it to children, but that the curriculum proves inadequate for the teaching of global citizenship journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 140 and with few activities on different cultures and countries. from this point of view, the standards for the global citizen profile should be presented in more detail in the curriculum and the textbook. developing multiple skills and perspectives, one of the general objectives of global education and the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education curriculum and textbook, is only presented through questions, with no activities aimed at the teaching of this skill. in his study entitled “the effects of global education on the turkish social studies curriculum”, açıkalın (2010a) concludes that the theme of multiple perspectives is non-exist and that, apart from the skills of empathy and respecting differences, the other skills and values are not adequately highlighted in the curriculum. the present study has also found that knowledgeand activity-based practice on global dynamics and world peace is insufficient in the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education curriculum and textbook. açıkalın (2010a) also concludes that global issues such as international conflicts, war, terror, human trafficking, global warming, and other environmental problems are not in the curriculum. özkan (2006) points out that the teachers believe that global education is conducive to making individuals to be more sensitive to problems and conflicts around the world, able to propose solutions for those problems, and democratically conscious for international peace, but that they are pessimistic about it reducing terror, war, and economic and political injustices caused by multinationals, contributing to a common culture shared by all humanity, and increasing interdependence and interconnectedness between countries. teachers therefore need to be more knowledgeable and become more conscious in this respect in order to have a more constructive point of view. another finding of our study is that knowledge, skills, and values on global education in the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education curriculum are not aligned with the textbook. the concepts of multiple perspectives, prejudice, world peace, interdependence and interconnectedness are covered as skills and values in the curriculum but only as knowledge in the textbook. both the curriculum and the textbook are found to have shortcomings as far as the skills and values are concerned. consequently, it can be claimed that the curriculum and the textbook are not in harmony in the context of the knowledge, skills, and values of global education. based on the research findings, the following suggestions can be put forward: the eighth grade citizenship and democracy education curriculum should include standards elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 141 orientated towards a global perspective and the textbook needs more visual resources and activities conducive to the internalization of these standards. in addition, more audio-visual materials improving students’ cognitive, sensitive, and psychomotor skills should be used in activities. the textbook and the curriculum ought to be re-designed in a way that it includes global values such as peace, love, and tolerance. existing research is mostly on the status quo. nevertheless, these studies provide a background on the main principles of global citizenship education. further studies on each sub-dimension of global education are expected to contribute even more to the field. as the present study is limited to a document analysis, future research could include more applied studies focusing on the shortcomings of global education practices, social studies curriculum development, and teacher training. this study underlines the need for a more detailed presentation of global education standards in the citizenship and democracy education course, which is important for individuals gaining a global perspective. it is expected to contribute to the field of global education, and be a forerunner of future evaluation of the disciplines of social studies separately in the context of global education. researchers undoubtedly have a major role in the implementation of global education within the educational systems. the present study and its findings are expected to shed light on the shaping of global education within the turkish educational system. references açıkalın, m. (2010a). influence of global education on the turkish social studies curriculum. the social studies. 101 (6), 254-259. doi number: 10.1080/00377991003774887. açıkalın, m. (2010b). new approaches for teaching social studies: multicultural and global education. elementary education online. 9 (3). 1226-1237. retrieved september 25, 2014, from http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/ vol9say3/v9s3m31. alazzi, k. (2011). teachers perceptions and conceptions of global education: a study of jordanian secondary of social studies teachers. the journals of multiculturalism in education, 7 (1), 1-19. alger, c. f. & harf, j. e. (1985). global education: why? for whom? about what?. american association of colleges for teacher education, washington d.c. retrieved august 14, 2014, from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed265107. http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/%20vol9say3/ http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed265107 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 142 apple, m. w. (2006). understanding and interrupting neoliberalism and neoconservatism in education. pedagogies: an international journal. 1 (1), 21-26. doi number: 10.1207/ s15544818 ped0101_4. appleyard, n. (2009). teacher and student perceptions of the goals of global education. (unpublished master thesis), faculty of education. university of ottawa: canada. arslan, h. (2009). educational policy vs. culturally sensitive programs in turkish educational system. international journal of progressive education. 5 (2), 44-57. retrieved august 14, 2014, from http://www.inased.org/v5n2/ijpev5n2.pdf. aşan, e. (2014). 8. sınıf i̇lköğretim vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı [ 8 th grade citizenship and democracy education textbook]. ankara: ekoyay eğitim. bailey, k. (1994). methods of social research. new york: the free press. balay, r. (2004). globalization, information society and education. ankara university, journal of faculty of educational sciences, 37 (2), 61-82. balkar, b. & özgan, h. (2010). teachers’ opinions on the effects of globalization on the education process in primary education. mehmet akif ersoy university, journal of education faculty, 10 (19), 1-22. banks, j. a. (1997). educating citizens in a multicultural society. new york: teachers college press. banks, j. a. (2004). introduction: democratic citizenship education in multicultural societies. j.a. banks (ed.), in diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives. san francisco: jossey-bass, an imprint of wiley. bayar, f. (2008). küreselleşme kavramı ve küreselleşme sürecinde türkiye. uluslararası ekonomik sorunlar dergisi [the concept of globalization and turkey in process of globalization. the international journal of economical issues], 32, 25-34. retrieved september 10, 2014, from http://www.mfa.gov.tr/data/kutuphane/yayinlar /ekonomiksorunlardergisi/sayi32/firatbayar.pdf. bogdan, r. c. & biklen, s. k. (2007). qualitative research in education: an introduction to theory and methods. boston: pearson. boston, j. a. (1997). professional development in global education. m. m. merryfield, e. jarchow, s. pickert (ed.). in preparing teachers to teach global perspectives. california: corwin. castle, s. (2004). migration, citizenship, and education. j. a. banks (ed.), in diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives. san francisco: jossey-bass, an imprint of wiley. http://www.inased.org/v5n2/ijpev5n2.pdf http://www.mfa.gov.tr/data/kutuphane/yayinlar%20/ekonomiksorunlardergisi/sayi32/firatbayar.pdf http://www.mfa.gov.tr/data/kutuphane/yayinlar%20/ekonomiksorunlardergisi/sayi32/firatbayar.pdf elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 143 ceylan, ş. (2014). preschool teachers’ views on world citizenship education.. journal of theoretical educational science, 7 (1), 78-93. retrieved december 12, 2014, from www.keg.aku.edu.tr/ index.php/anasayfa/article/view/337. cırık, i̇. (2008). multicultural education and its reflections. hacettepe university, journal of education, 34, 27-40. creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. retrieved april 13, 2014, from basu.nahad.ir/uploads/creswell.pdf. çalık, t. & sezgin, f. (2005). globalization, information society, and education. kastamonu education journal, 13 (1), 55-66. retrieved august 19, 2014, from www.academia.edu/1334093/. gay, g. (2002). preparing for culturally responsive teaching. the american association of colleges for teacher education 53 (2), 106-116. retrieved april 17, 2014 from https://www.uwec.edu/coehs/upload/pattee-article.pdf . göl, e. (2013). the examination of global citizenship attitude levels of social studies nominee instructors according to different variants. (unpublished master thesis). ahi evran university/ institute of social sciences, kırşehir. retrieved october 17, 2014 from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ ulusaltezmerkezi /tezsorgusonucyeni.jsp. gümüş, n. & i̇lhan, a. (2012). globalization and the effect of it upon geography departments in turkey universities for geography academics. western anatolia journal of educational science. 3 (5), 29-50. retrieved august 24, 2014 from webb.deu.edu.tr/baed/giris/baed/5_2.pdf. hanvey, r. g. (2004). an attainable global perspective. the american forum for global education, 2-47. retrieved august 19, 2014 from http://www.globaled. org/an_att_glob_persp_04_11_29.pdf. kan, ç. (2009). global citizenship in social studies education. pamukkale university journal of education. 26, 25-30. retrieved july 22, 2014 from kutuphane.pamukkale.edu.tr/ dokuman/ d000426.pdf. kaymakçı, s. (2012). global education in the turkish social studies teacher training programme. croation journal of education. 14 (4), 817-854. retrieved october 8, 2014 http://hrcak. srce.hr/94325 . kızılçaoğlu, a. (2003). secondary schools geography textbook’s evaluation criterions. marmara geographical review, 8, 19-33. retrieved october 8, 2014, from http://edergi.marmara.edu.tr/marucog/ article/view/1012000492. http://www.academia.edu/1334093/ https://www.uwec.edu/coehs/upload/pattee-article.pdf https://tez.yok.gov.tr/%20ulusaltezmerkezi%20/tezsorgusonucyeni.jsp. http://e-dergi.marmara.edu.tr/marucog/%20article/ http://e-dergi.marmara.edu.tr/marucog/%20article/ journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 144 kilpatrick, j. e. (2010). global education in massachusetts: a case study of two high schools. (unpublished master thesis), boston university: united state. retrieved december 28, 2014, from gradworks.umi.com/34/11/3411749 .html. kirkwood. t. f. (2001). our global age requires global education: clarifying definitional ambiguities. the social studies. 92 (1), 10-15. doi number: 10.1080/00377 990109603969. koluman. s. (2011). views of teacher about global connections theme in the primary 6 th and 7 th grade the social studies curriculum: balıkesir sample (unpublished master thesis). balıkesir university, institute of social sciences, balıkesir. retrieved august 16, 2014, from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezsorgusonuc yeni.jsp. lakes, r. d. & carter, p. a. (2011). neoliberalism and education: an introduction. educational studies: a journal of the american educational studies association, 47 (2), 107-110. retrieved october 24, 2014, from http://www.tandfonline.com/ loi/heds20. mangram, j. & watson, a. (2011). us and them: social studies teachers’ talk about global education. journal of social studies research, 35 (1), 95-116. meb. (2010). i̇lköğretim vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersi (8. sınıf) öğretim programı [curriculum of citizenship and democracy education course for primary education (8 th grade)]. talim terbiye kurulu başkanlığı, ankara. merriam, s. b. (2009). qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. san francisco: jossey-bass. merryfield, m. m. (1997). a framework for teacher education in global perspectives. m. m. merryfield, e. jarchow, s. pickert (ed.). in preparing teachers to teach global perspectives. california: corwin. mundy, k. & manion, c. (2008). global education in canadian elementary schools: an exploratory study. canadian journal of education 31 (4), 941-974. retrieved august 14, 2014, from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej830510. oxfam (2006). education for global citizenship a guide for schools. [online]: retrieved october 6, 2014, from http://www.oxfam.org.uk/~/media/files/education/global% 20 citizenship/education_for_global_citizenship_a_guide_for_schools.ashx. özkan, t. (2006). evaluation of the opinions of elementary school teachers apropos of global education, (unpublished master thesis). çukurova university, institute of social sciences, adana. retrieved august 17, 2014, from https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ ulusaltez merkezi/ tezsorgusonucyeni.jsp. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezsorgusonuc%20yeni.jsp http://www.oxfam.org.uk/~/media/files/education/global%25 https://tez.yok.gov.tr/%20ulusaltez%20merkezi/%20tezsorgusonucyeni.jsp. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/%20ulusaltez%20merkezi/%20tezsorgusonucyeni.jsp. elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 145 pike, g. (2000). global education and national identity: in pursuit of meaning. theory into practice, 39 (2), 64-73. rapoport, a. (2009). a forgotten concept: global citizenship education and state social studies standards. journal of social studies research, 33 (1), 91-112. retrieved august 14, 2014, http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej838655. şahin, i̇. f. (2011). küreselleşme avrupa birliği ve türkiye [globalization european union and turkey]. ankara: pegem a. şimşek, h. & yıldırım, a. (2013). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri [qualitative research methodology in social sciences]. ankara: seçkin. tezcan, m. (2002). küreselleşmenin eğitim boyutu [educational dimension of globalization]. eurasian journal of educational research. 6. 56-60. tye, k. a. & kniep, w. m. (1991). global education around the world. educational leadership, 48 (7), 47–49. retrieved august 17, 2014, from http://www.ascd.org/ascd/pdf/journals/ ed_lead/ el_199104_tye.pdf. ukpokodu, n. (1999). multiculturalism vs. globalism. social education, 63 (5), 298–300. retrieved august 14, 2014, from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej612181. yazıcı, s. (2014). küreselleşme ve yaşlanan dünya [globalization and ageing world]. n. korkmaz ve s. yazıcı (ed.), in küreselleşme ve yaşlılık. [globalization and elderliness]. ankara: ütopya. http://www.ascd.org/ascd/pdf/journals/ http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej612181 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 146 küresel eğitim çerçevesinde vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programı examining the citizenship and democracy education textbook and curriculum in terms of global education elvan günel & ayşegül pehlivan özet: günümüz dünyasında yaşanan bilimsel ve teknolojik gelişmelerin sonucu olarak ortaya çıkan ve özellikle son yıllarda giderek önemi artan küresel eğitim, tüm dünya ülkelerinin eğitim sistemlerinde yerini almaya başlamıştır. toplumlar üzerinde birçok etkiye sahip olan küresel eğitim, etkin, bilinçli ve küresel vatandaş yetiştirmede de büyük bir öneme sahiptir. nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden doküman incelemesi ile yapılan bu araştırmada, ilköğretim 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programında küresel eğitim temalarının nasıl şekillendirildiğinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. küresel eğitim içerisinde yer alan temaların bazılarına sadece bilgi boyutunda yer verildiği; fakat beceri ve değer boyutunda etkinliklerin bulunmadığı; bazı alt temalara ise hiçbir şekilde yer verilmediği ve vatandaş yetiştirmede küresel boyutun göz ardı edildiği araştırmanın önemli bulguları arasındadır. anahtar kelimeler: vatandaşlık ve demokrasi, sosyal bilgiler, küresel eğitim giriş bilim ve teknolojide yaşanan gelişmeler yaşadığımız dünyayı hızlı bir değişime uğratmıştır. bu değişimle birlikte, sosyal medya kullanımının yaygınlaşması, ulaşımdaki hızlı gelişmeler, bilgiye ulaşımın kolaylaşması ve ticari ilişkilerin de etkisiyle eğitim, sanat, müzik, edebiyat gibi alanlarda daha hızlı ve sınırsız bir şekilde etkileşimde bulunulabilmesi gibi etkenler dünyanın farklı yerlerinde yaşayan insanların birbirine yakınlaşmasını sağlamış ve küreselleşme dediğimiz olguyu ortaya çıkarmıştır (şahin,2011; balay, 2004). küreselleşme; günümüzde bireylerin çoğunlukla dünyayı etkilediğine inandığı ve dünyayı global köy olarak tanımlamasına neden olan bir olgu olmasına rağmen, bilim insanları küreselleşmeyi tanımlarken kalıp bir tanımı henüz yerleştirememişlerdir. bu nedenle küreselleşmenin pek çok farklı tanımı mevcuttur. şahin (2011), küreselleşmeyi “ekonomik, siyasal ve kültürel açıdan bazı değer ve yapıların yerel ve ulusal sınırları aşarak dünya ölçeğinde yayılması” (s. 2) olarak tanımlarken; çalık ve sezgin (2005), ekonomiden siyasete, eğitimden ticarete her alanda mesafelerin elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 147 önemini kaybetmesiyle, siyasal, ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel alanlarda dünyanın bütünleşmesi şeklinde ifade etmektedirler. bayar (2008) ise, küreselleşmeyi “yerkürenin farklı bölgelerinde yaşayan insan, toplum ve devletler arasındaki iletişim ve etkileşim derecesinin “karşılıklı bağımlılık” kavramı çerçevesinde giderek artması” (s. 25) olarak tanımlamaktadır. başta ekonomi olmak üzere hayatın hemen hemen her yönü üzerinde etkili olan küreselleşme olgusu, dünya üzerindeki ülkelerin siyasetlerini ve kültürlerini de etkilemiş; uyguladıkları politikalara yön vermiştir. ekonomik anlamda dünyanın giderek küçülmesi ile uluslararası iş bölümü, ülkelerin dış kaynak kullanımı ve farklı ülkelerle yaptıkları küçük çaplı ticari antlaşmalar artmış ve özellikle dünyada söz sahibi olan ekonomik olarak gelişmiş ülkelerin uyguladıkları neoliberal politikalar, ülkelerin ulusal ve uluslararası gelir dağılımında önemli derecede artışa ve bunun sonucunda da ülkelerarası dengelerin değişmesine sebep olmuştur. bu durum ülkelerin sosyal devlet anlayışından uzaklaşmasına yol açmıştır (lakes & carter, 2011; yazıcı, 2014). ekonomik ve siyasi anlamda uygulanan bu politikaların dengeleri değiştirmesiyle ulusların içinde barındırdıkları farklı grupların özellikle dil, din, etnik yapı, sosyo-ekonomik yapı, kültür ve mezhep gibi nedenlerle marjinal hale dönüşmesi savaş, terör, açlık, kıtlık ve göç gibi olaylara yol açmakta ve insanların günlük hayatlarını yakından ve derinden etkilemektedir. bunun sonucu olarak insanlar kendilerini bir anda yaşadıkları yerin çok uzağında ve bambaşka bir yaşamın içerisinde bulabilmektedirler. küreselleşme, ülkeleri sadece ekonomik ve politik olarak değil; bir toplumda yaşayan ve o toplumu oluşturan kültürler ile toplumda ana akım kültürden bağımsız yaşayan diğer kültürlerin kendini daha fazla ve daha kolay ifade etmesi, bireyin kendini dünya vatandaşı olarak tanımlamaya başlaması, eğitimin özelleştirilmesi ve eğitim için gerekli olan temel ihtiyaçların birkaç ülkenin tekelinde olması gibi gelişmelerle sosyal ve kültürel açılardan da etkilemiş ve ülkelerin içinde barındırdığı farklı kültürler ve kültürler arası etkileşim şekilleri de büyük oranda değişikliğe uğramıştır (gümüş ve i̇lhan, 2012; lakes & carter, 2011). bu yüzden, sınıf içerisinde var olan ırk, dil, din, etnik yapı, sosyo-kültürel yapı, sosyo-ekonomik yapı, mezhep ve cinsel yönelim gibi farklılıkların belirlenerek kişilerarası iletişim ve etkileşimle bu farklılıkların anlaşılmasını, farklılıklara saygı duyulmasını ve demokratik eğitim ortamları yaratılmasını sağlamada büyük öneme sahip olduğundan kültüre duyarlı bir eğitimin verilmesi sınıflarda göz ardı edilmemelidir (gay, 2002). tezcan (2002), da çalışmasında, alanyazında küreselleşme konusunun daha çok ekonomik boyutunun ele alındığını; kültürel boyutunun ise göz ardı edildiğini vurgulamıştır. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 148 tezcan (2002)‘a göre; kültürel boyut da kendi içinde farklılaşmaktadır. örneğin; sanat, hukuk, eğitim, ahlak, siyaset vb. gibi eğitim de kültürel boyutun bir parçasıdır. ülkelerin kültürleri küreselleşme ile değişikliğe uğradıkça eğitimleri de paralel olarak değişmektedir. diğer taraftan dünya devletlerinin ekonomi ve siyasette söz sahibi olmak için uyguladıkları bazı neoliberal uygulamalar (eğitimin özelleştirilmesi ve tekelleştirilmesi vb.) dolaylı yollardan da olsa eğitimi de etkilemektedir. uygulanan politikaların etkisiyle eğitimde yavaş yavaş özelleşmeye gidilmekte ve eğitimde söz konusu olan gelir ve giderler dünyada ekonomik anlamda söz sahibi birkaç ülkenin tekeline girmektedir. toplumun en küçük yapı birimi olan aileler ise, hem uygulanan ekonomik ve siyasal politikalar sayesinde eğitim üzerinde söz sahibi olan baskın grupların arasında kalmakta (apple, 2006) hem de böyle bir siyasi ortamda çocuklarını daha iyi eğitebilmek için birçok seçenekle karşı karşıya kaldığından genellikle çevrelerindeki farklı kişi ve kurumlar tarafından verilen yanlış bilgilendirmelerle başarısız okullar ve beceriksiz öğretmenlere yönlendirilmektedir (lakes & carter, 2011). bu yüzden hem doğrudan hem dolaylı yollarla küreselleşmeden etkilenen eğitim ortamı içerisinde yetişen bireylere değişen kültürel ortama ayak uydurmalarına yardımcı olacak bir eğitimin verilmesi gerekmektedir (kirkwood, 2001; merryfield, 1997; ukpokodu, 1999). bu noktada, eğitimde bireylere kazandırılmak istenen farklılıklara saygı duyma, sorunların farkında olma, sorunlara çözüm üretmede yardımcı değer ve becerileri kazandırma ve dünyada olan olaylara farklı açılardan bakabilmeyi sağlama gibi amaçlar, dünyayı bir bütün olarak ele alan ve bireyleri dünyanın bir parçası yapmayı amaç edinen küresel eğitime insanları yönlendirmektedir. küresel eğitim yaklaşımı, ulusların açlık, savaş, eşitlik, sosyal adalet gibi insanı ilgilendiren küresel sorunlara öncekinden daha fazla ilgi göstermesi ile önem kazanmaya başlamış ve bugün dünyada yaşananlar insan yaşamının her evresine etki ettiğinden küresel eğitim, tüm insanlar için temel bir gereksinim olmuştur (açıkalın, 2010a; alger & harf, 1985; merryfield, 1997). boston (1997) ve merryfield (1997), her eğitim programının kendi kurumsal inanç ve uygulamalarına göre bir küresel eğitim tanımı oluşturması gerektiğini savunmaktadırlar. birçok tanımı olmasına rağmen en genel anlamıyla küresel eğitim; küreselleşme sonucu ülkeler arasında hızla gelişen karşılıklı bağlılık ve bağımlılık sayesinde her gün insanların birbirlerine daha çok yaklaştığı dünyada, öğrencilere farklı kültürleri tanımayı, farklılıklara saygı duymayı, küresel sorunların farkında olmayı öğretip bu sorunlara çözüm önerileri sunabilecek duyarlılık ve sorumluluk değerleri ile eleştirel düşünme ve empati becerilerini geliştirerek onlara bir dünya görüşü kazandırmayı amaçlayan ve eğitim programları elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 149 çerçevesinde bu amaçları öğrencilere sunma düşüncesini içinde barındıran bir eğitim anlayışıdır (açıkalın, 2010b; alger & harf, 1985; boston, 1997; merryfield, 1997; pike,2000; ukpokodu, 1999). küresel eğitimin temel amacı ise, dünyanın farklı yerlerinde yaşayan insanların gelenekleri, kültürleri ve değerleri hakkında öğrencileri bilgilendirmek ve öğrencilerin dünya insanlarıyla sağlıklı etkileşim kurmalarını sağlamaktır. bazı bilim insanları küresel eğitimi dünya ekonomisinde abd’nin rekabetçi pozisyonunu sürdürmenin bir yolu olarak gördüklerinden, abd içinde başlayan bir hareket olarak kabul etseler de küresel eğitim, aslında dünya çapında bir harekettir ve bütün dünya ülkelerini etkilemiştir (tye & kniep, 1991; ukpokodu, 1999). küresel eğitim alanının öncüleri, küresel eğitimin bir tanımını yapmanın yanında ayrıca boyutlarını da açıklamışlardır (açıkalın, 2010a). hanvey (2004), ülkelerin birbirlerine karşı bağımlılığının arttığı dünyada, karşımıza çıkan sorunlarla baş edebilmek için küresel bir bilince ihtiyacımızın olacağını belirtmiş ve bu bilinci kazanmak için küresel eğitimin “bakış açısı bilinci”, “gezegen devletin farkında olma”, “karşı-kültürün farkında olma”, “küresel dinamiklerin bilgisi” ve “insan seçimlerinin farkına varma” (s. 2) olarak beş boyutunu ortaya atmıştır. kirkwood (2001) ise, hanvey (2004)’in ortaya koyduğu becerileri dört tema altında toplamış ve bu temalar çoğu bilim insanı tarafından benimsenmiştir (açıkalın, 2010a; açıkalın, 2010b; alger & harf, 1985; merryfield, 1997; pike, 2000). bu temalar; 1) çoklu bakış açısı, 2) kültürleri anlama ve saygı duyma, 3) küresel sorunların bilinmesi ve 4) dünyanın birbirine bağlı bir sistem olduğunu anlama şeklinde sıralanabilir. çoklu bakış açısı teması; bir olayı değerlendirirken insanların bakış açıları çok çeşitli olabileceğinden yaşanan olaylara bireylerin farklı yönlerden bakabilme becerisini ifade ederken; kültürleri anlama ve saygı duyma teması; farklı kültürlerle etkileşimde bulunurken sahip olunması gereken empati becerisi ve sorumluluk değeri küresel bir bilinç kazanmada önemli olduğundan bireylerin kendi kültüründen farklı kültürleri tanımaya çalışması ve saygı duyması gerektiğini savunmaktadır. küresel sorunların bilinmesi teması; bireyin kendi ülkesinde olmasa da diğer ülkelerde yaşanan göç, nüfus büyümesi, yer altı kaynaklarının azalması, ekonomik bunalımlar, savaş, doğal afetler, ozon tabakasının delinmesi, vb. sorunların farkında olması ve çözüm üretmeye çalışması gerektiğini açıklamaktadır. son olarak, dünyanın birbirine bağlı bir sistem olduğunu anlama teması, özellikle ekonomik ve politik çıkarların etkisiyle dünya, bağımsız gibi görünen ama aslında ilişkili olan olaylar ve mekanizmalarla birbirine bağlı bir sistem olduğundan kişinin kendini dünyanın bir parçası olarak görmesi ve bu bağlantıların journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 150 farkında olması gerektiğini ifade etmektedir (alger & harf, 1985; hanvey, 2004; kirkwood, 2001; merryfield, 1997; pike, 2000). bu temalar ışığında küresel eğitim, dünyada aralarında türkiye’nin de bulunduğu kanada, abd, i̇ngiltere gibi birçok farklı ülkenin öğretim programlarında yer almaya başlamıştır. ortaya çıkan yeni yaklaşımlar ve bu doğrultuda eğitimde yapılan reformlar bireylere önce kendi kültürünü tanımayı, daha sonra da başka kültürleri tanıma, anlama ve saygı duymada yardımcı olmayı sağlayacak bilgi, beceri ve değerleri vermeyi amaç edindiğinden vatandaş yetiştirme konusu da ülkelerin göz ardı etmemesi gereken bir konu olmuştur. yaşanan göç, savaş, terör gibi olaylarla ülkelerde ırksal, kültürel, dinsel ve dilsel alanda bir çeşitliliğin meydana gelmesi öğretim programlarında verilen vatandaşlık eğitiminin de gözden geçirilmesini zorunlu hale getirmiştir (banks, 1997; banks, 2004; castles, 2004). öğretim programları içerisinde farklı ülkelerde verilen küresel eğitimin sonucunda küresel beceri ve değerlere sahip vatandaş, bir ürün olarak ortaya çıkmakta ve vatandaş kavramının tanımı daha da genişlemektedir. önceden vatandaş olmanın gereği toplum düzenine uyma ve topluma karşı sorumlu olma iken, bugün vatandaş, sadece kendi ülkesine karşı değil tüm dünyaya karşı kendini sorumlu hisseden, savaş, barış, göç, terör, açlık gibi küresel olaylara duyarlılık gösteren ve millî bilincini kaybetmeden kendini dünyanın bir parçası olarak görebilen birey şeklinde tanımlanmaktadır (kan, 2009). küresel vatandaşlık öğretim programını hazırlayan oxfam (2006), dünyanın geniş bir mekân olduğunu algılama ve kendini bu mekânın bir vatandaşı olarak görme, farklılıkların farkında olma ve saygı duyma, dünya düzeninden haberdar olma, sosyal adaletsizliğe karşı olma, yerel ve küresel anlamda bir arada bulunan topluluklara üye olma, dünyanın daha adil ve yaşanabilir bir yer olması için çaba harcama ve dünyaya karşı sorumluluk hissetme özelliklerinin küresel bir vatandaşta bulunması gerektiğini vurgulamıştır. bu özelliklere sahip bireyler yetiştirmek amacıyla küresel eğitim temaları, türkiye’de sosyal bilgiler dersi içerisinde 4, 5, 6 ve 7. sınıfta birer ünite olmak üzere sarmal program şeklinde verilmiştir. bunun yanında sosyal bilgiler dersinin birey ve çevresi için oluşturduğu bu temeli, bireye verilen değer ve becerilerle destekleyen bir ders olarak öğrencilere 8. sınıfta vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersi verilmektedir. türk milli eğitimi’nin genel amaçlarına göre, geniş bir dünya görüşüne sahip, topluma karşı sorumlu, insanlığın bir parçası olduğu bilinci ile ülkesini ve dünyayı ilgilendiren konularda duyarlılık gösteren bireyler yetiştirmek amacıyla 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersinde küresel temalara yer elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 151 veren bir eğitim-öğretimin sağlanması bireylere küresel bilinç kazandırmak açısından son derece önemlidir. bu yüzden verilen vatandaşlık eğitiminin de küresel eğitimin amaç ve kazanımlarına uygun olması gerekmektedir. vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersi, etkin vatandaş yetiştirmek için, küresel ve kültürel bağlantılara odaklanan, tematik biçimde yapılandırılmış ve düzenlenmiş; her i̇nsan değerlidir, demokrasi kültürü, hak ve özgürlüklerimiz ile görev ve sorumluluklarımız şeklinde adlandırılmış dört temadan oluşmaktadır (meb, 2010). genel olarak, ekonomide ortaya çıkan yaklaşımlar, ülkelerin uyguladığı politikalar ve kültürel alanda yaşanan gelişmelerle dünya ülkelerini ve toplumları etkileyen küreselleşme olgusu, insan yaşamının hemen hemen her alanında etkisini göstermiş ve ülkeler için yenileşmeyi gerekli kılmıştır. ülkelerin küreselleşmenin etkisiyle uyguladıkları reformlardan biri de eğitim alanında olmuştur. her geçen gün farklılaşan dünya düzeni içerisinde bireylere öğretilmesi gereken beceri ve değerlerle kazandırılmak istenen amaçlar yeni bir eğitim yaklaşımının yolunu açmıştır. farklılıklara saygı duyma, farklı kültürleri anlama, küresel bir bilinç kazanma gibi çatışmaları ve ayrışmaları engelleyici temalar içeren bir eğitim politikasının belirlenmesi ülkeleri küresel eğitime yönlendirmiştir. 2004-2005 yıllarında düzenlenen yeni programla özellikle son 20 yılda büyük önem kazanan küresel eğitimi, öğretim programı içerisine alarak türkiye de eğitim alanında yapılan bu yenileşmeye ayak uydurmuştur. küresel değerlerin önem kazanmasıyla bireye yüklenen anlamın ve dolayısıyla istenen vatandaş profilinin değişmesi, öğretim programlarında verilen vatandaşlık eğitiminin amaca uygunluğunun araştırılmasını gerekli kılmıştır. alan yazın incelendiğinde, yapılan çalışmalar küresel eğitim temalarının ünitelerde tam anlamıyla vurgulanmadığını (dünyanın birbirine bağlı bir sistem olduğunu anlama, farklılıklara saygı duyma) ve bazı temaların (çoklu bakış açısı) göz ardı edildiğini ortaya koymuşken, öğretmen yetiştirme ve uygulamadaki eksikliklere odaklanan araştırmalarda, öğretmen yetiştirme programlarının küresel eğitimin amaçlarını yerini getirecek seviyede verilmediği tespit edilmiştir (açıkalın, 2010a; alazzi, 2011; balkar ve özgan, 2010; kaymakçı, 2012; khaled, 2011; mangram & watson, 2011; mundy & manion, 2008). ayrıca, öğretmen yetiştirme ve uygulama üzerine yapılmış çalışmalar, genellikle küresel eğitim ve küresel vatandaşlık kavramları üzerine öğretmen ve öğrenci görüşü alınarak algı ve tutumu belirleme, mevcut durumu ortaya koyma ve olması gerekenle kıyaslama şeklinde yapılmıştır (alazzi, 2011; appleyard, 2009; göl, 2013; kaymakçı, 2012; koluman, 2011; mangram & watson, 2011; özkan, 2006). bu çalışmalar dışında küresel eğitim temalarının journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 152 vatandaş yetiştirme çerçevesinde ders kitapları ve öğretim programında aranmasına dair bir çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır. bu araştırma, ilköğretim 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programının küresel eğitim temaları açısından incelenmesini amaçlamaktadır. araştırmanın önemi ve amacı birçok alanda olduğu gibi eğitim alanında da büyük etkiye sahip olan ve güçlü reformlar yapılması ihtiyacını beraberinde getiren küreselleşme hareketine cevap olarak ülkeler yeni eğitim yaklaşımları benimsemişlerdir. bunlardan birisi de küresel eğitimdir. küresel eğitim yaklaşımıyla, ekonomi, siyaset, sanat, edebiyat, sosyal ve kültürel birçok alanda değişen dünya düzenine ayak uydurabilecek bireyler yetiştirmek amaçlanmıştır. günümüzde farklı ırk, dil, din, kültür ve etnik yapıya sahip insanların başta eğitim olmak üzere farklı nedenlerle aynı ülkede iç içe yaşıyor olması, teknolojinin günlük hayatta daha fazla yer almasıyla bir yerde yaşayan insanların kendilerinden kilometrelerce uzaktaki insanlardan haberdar olması ve onların yaşadıkları savaş, terör, göç, soykırım ve doğal afet gibi olaylara son zamanlarda daha fazla ilgi duyması küresel eğitimin gerekliliğini ortaya koymuştur. dünyanın pek çok ülkesinde olduğu gibi türkiye’de de küresel eğitimin verilmesine dair önemli adımlar atılmıştır (açıkalın, 2010a; açıkalın, 2010b; kaymakçı, 2012). fakat verilen eğitimin kalitesi ve niteliğine bakıldığında türkiye’de küresel eğitimin amaçlarının tam olarak yerine getirilip getirilmediği bir tartışma konusudur. küresel eğitimin kazandırmak istediği değer ve becerilere sahip bireylerin yetiştirilmesinde öğretim programı, öğretmen ve ders kitabı üç önemli basamağı oluşturmaktadır. küresel eğitim, ülkelerin yeni tanıştığı bir yaklaşım olduğundan bu konuda öğretmenlerin de bilgi eksikliklerinin olduğu yapılan araştırmalarla ortaya konmuştur (göl, 2013; kaymakçı, 2012). ayrıca öğretmenlerin dersi sunuş biçimleri de aldıkları eğitim, tecrübe ve bakış açılarına göre farklılık gösterdiğinden, öğretim programı ve ders kitabının iyi hazırlanmış olması ve öğretmen için bir kılavuz niteliği taşıması gerekmektedir. ders kitabı ve öğretim programı, küresel eğitimin amaç ve kazanımlarını öğrenciye aktarmada öğretmenlerin en temel iki yardımcısıdır. özellikle ders kitapları, okullarda en yaygın kullanılan ders aracıdır. çoğu öğretmen ders sürecinde kitapları temel kaynak olarak kullandığından teknolojinin geliştiği ve ders sürecinde elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 153 dijital araç gereçlerin kullanılmaya başlandığı günümüzde bile önemini korumaya devam etmektedir (kızılçaoğlu, 2003). bu yüzden ders kitabı ve öğretim programının kazandırılmak istenen amaca uygun olması büyük önem taşımaktadır. bu araştırmada, ilköğretim 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programında küresel eğitim temalarının nasıl şekillendirildiğinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. araştırmanın amacı doğrultusunda şu sorulara cevap aranmıştır: 1. 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı bilgi, beceri ve değer boyutuyla küresel eğitim temaları açısından nasıl şekillendirilmiştir? 2. 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi öğretim programı küresel eğitim temaları açısından nasıl şekillendirilmiştir? yöntem bu araştırmada, 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programında küresel eğitim temalarının nasıl şekillendirildiği belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. araştırma 8. sınıf ders kitabı ve öğretim programında verilen küresel eğitim temalarının incelenmesini amaçladığı için veri toplamada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden doküman incelemesi yöntemi kullanılmıştır. doküman incelemesi; “araştırılması hedeflenen olgu veya olgular hakkında bilgi içeren yazılı materyallerin analizini kapsar” (yıldırım ve şimşek, 2013) ve tek başına bir yöntem olmanın yanında başka yöntemlerle birlikte de kullanılabilir. film, fotoğraf, mektuplar, hikâyeler, otobiyografiler, kitaplar, öğretim programları, yazışmalar, öğrenci dosyaları, ödevler, hasta kayıtları, durum raporları, vb. daha birçok görsel ve yazılı materyaller doküman incelemesi için veri niteliği taşır (bailey, 1994; bogdan & biklen, 2007; creswell, 2012; merriam, 2009). araştırmada doküman olarak milli eğitim bakanlığı talim terbiye kurulu’nun 26.09.2012 tarih ve 178 sayılı kurul kararı ile 20132014 eğitim-öğretim yılından itibaren beş yıl süreyle ders kitabı olarak kabul edilen 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve 2010 yılında yayımlanan ve halen yürürlükte olan vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersi öğretim programı kullanılmıştır. öğretim programı içerisinde yer alan üst düzey bilgi, sekizi temel beceri olmak üzere 17 beceri ve 19 değer göz önünde bulundurularak kazandırılmak istenen 32 adet kazanımda tablo 1’de gösterilen çerçeve temel alınarak değerlendirilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 154 merriam (2009), doküman incelemesi yönteminin; dokümanlara ulaşma, dokümanların özgünlüğünü ve orijinalliğini kontrol etme, dokümanları kodlama-kategorize etme ve dokümanların analizini yapma olmak üzere dört aşamada uygulanabileceğini vurgulamıştır. doküman incelemesi yönteminde verilerin analizi yapılırken içerik analizi ve betimsel analiz olmak üzere iki farklı yol izlenebilir. i̇çerik analizi derinlemesine bir analiz yapılarak yeni boyutlar ve temalar ortaya koymayı ifade ederken, betimsel analiz var olan temalar üzerinden gidilerek daha yüzeysel bir analizi gerektirir (creswell, 2012). 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programının incelendiği bu çalışmada, incelenen dokümanlarda küresel eğitimin alan yazınına dayalı olarak belirlenen temalar dikkate alınarak bir analiz yapıldığından verilerin çözümlenmesinde betimsel analiz yöntemi kullanılmıştır. küresel eğitim temaları ve bu temalara ait alt boyutların belirlenmesinde alan yazından yararlanılmış ve tablo 1’de gösterilen küresel eğitim temaları tablosu hazırlanarak uzman görüşüne sunulmuştur. alan uzmanından alınan dönütlere göre tablo üzerinde düzenlemeler yapılmış ve son hali verilerek bir kez daha kontrol edildikten sonra analiz bu tabloya göre yapılmıştır. analiz sırasında ders kitabı ve öğretim programı içerisinde geçen sözel ve şekilsel ifadeler ile görseller nvivo 10 programı içerisinde oluşturulan ve tablo 1’de verilen küresel eğitim temaları içerisinde uygun olan alan içine satır satır kodlanarak kategorik bir analiz yapılmıştır. tablo 1 içerisinde yer verilen bilgi, beceri ve değer boyutları sırasıyla şu sembollerle *, ** , *** ifade edilmiştir. tablo 1: analiz çerçevesi olarak bilgi, beceri ve değer boyutunda kullanılan küresel eğitim temaları çoklu bakış açısı kültürleri anlama ve saygı duyma küresel sorunların bilinmesi dünyanın birbirine bağlı bir sistem olduğunu anlama çoklu bakış açısının ne olduğunu bilme* farklı insanların inanç ve değerlerini bilme* nüfus ve aile planlaması sorunlarını bilme* ekonomik, politik, ekolojik ve teknolojik sistemleri bilme* önyargı kavramını bilme* evrensel inanç ve değerleri bilme* özerklik konusunu bilme* küresel dinamikleri ve işleyişi bilme* çoklu bakış açısı becerisi kazanma** çeşitli alanlarda inanç ve değerlerin rolünü bilme* i̇nsan hakları ve temel özgürlükleri bilme* ülkelerin birbirine karşılıklı olarak bağımlı olduklarını bilme* kendi kültürüne başkalarının gözünden bakabilme** kültürlerin kökeni ve gelişimini bilme* i̇ç-dış göç ve mülteciler konusunu bilme* ülkeler arası karşılıklı bağlılık ilkesini bilme* farklı dünya görüşlerini anlama ve kabul etme** kültürler arası alışverişi ve bağlantıları bilme* ortak alanlar sorunlarını bilme* ülkeler arası karşılıklı bağlılık olduğunu fark etme** eleştirel düşünme** farklılıklara saygı duyma** çevresel ve doğal kaynaklar sorununu bilme* ülkelerin birbirine karşılıklı olarak bağımlı olduğunun farkında olma** önyargıları yok dünya üzerinde kendi pazarlara erişim ve bilgi dünyanın bütüncül bir elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 155 edebilme** rolünü anlama** teknolojilerinin paylaşımına ilişkin konuları bilme* sisteme sahip olduğunu fark etme** empati** kendi kültür ve mirasını anlama** açlık, kıtlık ve barınma sorunlarını bilme* barış*** tolerans*** çoklu kimlik ve bağlantıları anlama** barış ve güvenlik sorununu bilme* girişimcilik*** hoşgörü*** farklı insanlarla iletişim kurabilme** ayrımcılık ve ön yargı sorunlarını bilme* saygı farklı kültürlerle etkileşimde bulunabilme** sosyal ve kültürel normlar ve kişilerarası çatışmalarının altında yatan inanç ve değerleri bilme* kültürel çeşitliliği ve evrensel kültürü anlama** çatışmaları fark etme ve çatışma çözme** farklı insanlarla bir arada çalışabilme ve işbirliği yapma** sorunları çözmede yaratıcı düşünme** başka kültürlerin kendi kültürüne etkisini kabul etme** ayrımcılığa karşı duyarlı olma** birlikte yaşayabilme** empati** empati** dayanışma*** hoşgörü*** adil olma*** barış*** paylaşma*** sevgi*** sorumluluk*** saygı*** duyarlılık*** eşitlik*** özgürlük*** duyarlılık*** saygı*** tolerans *** girişimcilik*** eşitlik*** verilerin analizi tamamlandıktan sonra her kategori içerisinde bulunan veriler değerlendirilerek benzer bulguları veren temalar bir başlık altında toplanmıştır. bulgular yapılan araştırma sonucunda; 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programı içerisinde ayrımcılık ve ön yargı kavramlarının içinde barındırdığı kategori çeşitliliğinin (ırk, dil, din, cinsiyet, cinsel yönelim, etnik yapı, sosyo-ekonomik yapı, sosyokültürel yapı, engel durumu) bütün ögelerine değinilmediği, ders kitabı ve öğretim programında kültürler arası iletişim ve etkileşimin sadece bireyin kendi toplumu üzerinden şekillendirildiği; ancak diğer toplumlar ve ülkeler arası iletişim ve etkileşimin göz ardı edildiği, ders kitabı ve öğretim programında yetiştirilmek istenen vatandaş profiline yönelik kazanımların küresel bilinç oluşturma bağlamında yetersiz olduğu, küresel eğitim ve 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi öğretim programında bireylere kazandırılmak istenen çoklu bakış açısı becerisinin ders kitabında sadece soru üzerine odaklı şekillendirildiği journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 156 bununla birlikte değer ve becerilerin öğretilmesine dayalı etkinliklere yer verilmediği, küresel dinamikler ve dünya barışı konusunda bilgi ve etkinlik temelli uygulamaların eksik bırakıldığı tespit edilmiştir. araştırmanın bulguları, program ve ders kitabında belirtilmiş olan bilgi, beceri ve değerler üzerinden başlıklandırılmıştır. 1. ayrımcılık ve önyargı temelinde yatan ögelerin görünmezliği ayrımcılık ve ön yargıdan kaynaklı ortaya çıkan sorunları bilme ve bu sorunlara karşı duyarlılık kazanma becerisi küresel eğitimin en önemli amaçlarından biri olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. bireylere küresel bir bakış açısının kazandırılması ve küresel vatandaşlar yetiştirme amacı çerçevesinde ırk, dil, din, mezhep, cinsel yönelim, cinsiyet, sosyo-ekonomik yapı, sosyo-kültürel yapı ve engel durumu ayrımı gözetmeksizin farklı kültürlerden gelen bireylerle etkileşimde bulunabilme, öncelikle bireyin kendini ön yargı ve ayrımcılıktan soyutlayabilmesi ile ilişkilidir. 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı içerisinde ayrımcılık ve ön yargı başlığı altında yer verilen konularda, genellikle bilgilendirme yoluna gidildiği tespit edilmiştir. küresel eğitim temaları kapsamında ayrımcılığın konusu içerisinde yer alan ırk, dil, din, mezhep, cinsel yönelim, cinsiyet, sosyo-ekonomik yapı, sosyokültürel yapı ve engel durumu gibi başlıklardan sadece ırk, cinsiyet ve engel durumuna; siyahlarla aynı otobüse binilmemesi... tüm koşulları uygun olduğu hâlde bir kişinin engelli olduğu için işe alınmaması…göçmen olduğu için bir kişiye ev kiralanmaması…kadın olduğu için bir kişinin eğitim hakkından mahrum olması…(s. 59) şeklindeki ifadelerle yer verildiği, diğer ayrımcılık ile ilgili alt başlıklara ve bu başlıklardan kaynaklanan bireysel ve toplumsal sorunlara hiçbir şekilde yer verilmediği göze çarpmaktadır. diğer yandan aynı ders kitabında yer verilen görseller incelendiğinde, ayrımcılık içerisinde empati ve eşitlik değerleri çerçevesinde bir duyarlılığın sağlanmaya çalışıldığı dikkat çekerken, “arap’ın arap olmayana, arap olmayanın da arap üzerine üstünlüğü olmadığı gibi kırmızı tenlinin siyah üzerine, siyahın da kırmızı tenli üzerinde bir üstünlüğü yoktur.” (s. 12) gibi ünlü kişilerin ayrımcılık karşıtı sözlerine yer verilerek bu sözler saygı değeri ile bağdaştırılmıştır. buna ek olarak, ön yargı kavramına ilişkin başlıklar açısından ders kitabı incelendiğinde kavrama, ön yargı, herhangi bir bireye ya da gruba karşı yeterli neden olmaksızın sevgi ve düşmanlık gibi duygular uyandıran ve koşullanmış bir duygusal tutumu yansıtan inanç, kanı, genellemedir… ben yıllarca uğraşsam böyle çizim yapamam… senin gibi futbol oynayamam… kızlar çabuk heyecanlanıyor, sorularda kaçıyor…(s. 19) gibi tanım ve kişiler arası diyaloglar şeklinde yer verilirken, öğretim programının “ön yargının olumsuzluğu vurgulanır” (s. 5), “ön yargı, dışlama, aşağılama gibi davranışların insan hakları elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 157 ile bağdaşmadığı vurgulanır” (s. 14) şeklinde kazanımlarla şekillendirildiği görülmüştür. ön yargının ders kitabında verilen tanımı göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, bu konuda yer verilen etkinliklerin bireyin kavramı içselleştirmesine katkıda bulunamayacağı şekilde olduğu ve verilen görseller açısından da ön yargı kavramının sadece bir karikatürle ilişkilendirildiği göze çarpmaktadır. ders kitabı (s.19) yukarıdaki örnekler ve ilgili karikatür incelendiğinde, ön yargı kavramı ile ilgili cinsiyet odaklı ön yargı, pozitif ön yargı ve tanımlanmamış durumlara karşı ön yargılardan bahsedilirken, ırk, dil, din, etnik yapı, cinsel yönelim ve sosyo-ekonomik düzey konusundaki ön yargılara, bu durumdan kaynaklı sorunlara ve çözüm önerilerine hiçbir şekilde yer verilmediği tespit edilmiştir. 2. bilinç kazandırmada küresel ulusal dengesinin kurulamaması 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programı incelendiğinde küresel eğitimin amaçları doğrultusunda bireye ulusal bilincini kaybettirmeden kazandırılmak istenen küresel bilinç ve bakış açısının bazı konularda göz ardı edildiği ve öğretilmek istenen bilgilerin etkinlikler içerisinde hem küresel hem ulusal boyutta yer alması gerekirken sadece ulusal boyutta ele alındığı araştırmanın bulguları arasındadır. özellikle kültürler arası iletişim ve etkileşim, vatandaş yetiştirme ile çevresel ve doğal kaynaklar sorunu konuları üzerine şekillendirilen etkinliklerde bu durum fazlasıyla göze çarpmaktadır. araştırma bulguları içerisinde küresel boyuttan sıyrılarak ulusal anlamda örnekler üzerine şekillendirilmiş küresel eğitim alt temaları ile ilgili bulgular şu şekilde verilebilir: küresel eğitim içerisinde verilen en önemli temalardan biri olan kültürleri anlama ve saygı duyma teması, küresel bir bilinç kazanmada, bireyin ırk, dil, din. etnik yapı, sosyojournal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 158 ekonomik durum, vb. durumlar açısından karşılaştığı farklı insanları anlamasını, karşılıklı bağ kurmasını ve dünyanın farklı yerlerinde olsalar da etkileşim içerisinde olduklarını bilmelerini sağlamayı amaçlamaktadır. bu yüzden küresel eğitim içerisinde bireye, kültürleri anlama ve saygı duyma teması adı altında farklılıklara saygı duyma, empati, etkileşim ve iletişim becerileri ile sorumluluk ve duyarlılık değerlerinin verilmesi çok önemli görülmektedir. bu açıdan 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi öğretim programı incelendiğinde, kendisinin ve diğer insanların farklı özelliklere sahip olmasının doğal olduğu ve bu farklılıklara saygı duyulması gerektiği vurgulanır… her bireyin kendine has özelliklerinin olduğunu kabul eder… (s. 11) demokratik vatandaşlık eğitimi farklı din, kültür, inanç ve düşünüş şekillerine saygıyı desteklemekte (s. 4) toplumdaki farklılıkların doğal olduğunun kabulüne ve bunun korunmasının önemine dikkat çekilir (s. 14). biçiminde ifadelerle kültürleri anlama ve saygı duyma temasının verilmeye çalışıldığı tespit edilmiştir. ayrıca ders kitabı içerisinde, i̇nsanların birbirinden ayrılan yanları, farklı özellikleri bulunur. bunda, doğuştan gelen farklılıkların (ailenin sosyoekonomik durumu, göz ve ten rengi gibi) yanı sıra eğitimin ve yaşanan deneyimlerin de rolü vardır. bazen sonradan kontrol dışı oluşan fiziksel özellikler (aşırı kilo, bedensel engellilik vb.) kişisel farklılıklara neden olabilir…(s.18). herkesin aynı biçimde düşünmesinin ve davranmasının mümkün olmadığının, farklılıkların topluma çok seslilik getireceğinin kabul edilmesi ve bunlara saygı gösterilmesidir (s. 40). şeklinde ifadelere yer verilerek farklılıklara saygı duyulması becerisi üzerinde durulduğu gözlemlenmiştir. diğer yandan, farklılıklara saygı duyma becerisinin kazandırılma amacının temelinde yatan kültürel iletişim ve etkileşimin sağlanması ve kültürel zenginliğin farkına varılmasına dair öğretim programında “farklı görüş, düşünce, inanç, anlayış ve kültürel değerlerin toplumsal yaşamı zenginleştirdiğini kavrar” (s. 14), “öğrencilerin sahip oldukları hakları ve kültürel zenginliği görmelerini hedefler” (s. 7) kazanımları yer alırken; ders kitabında ise “mardin’de birkaç dilde söylenen ortak müzikler çalınmakta” (s. 54), “kars’ta türkmen boylarının, azerilerin ve doğu anadolu yöresi insanlarının örf, âdet gelenek ve görenekleri bir bütün oluşturur”, “çok kültürlülük sayesinde yörenin zengin bir folkloru bulunmaktadır” (s. 53) gibi birkaç örnekle yer verildiği görülmektedir. fakat verilen bilgilere bakıldığında, ders kitabında bir toplum içerisinde kültürel etkileşim ve iletişimin nasıl olduğunun verildiği; ancak dünyanın farklı bölgelerinde var olan kültürlerin bireyin kendi toplumunu nasıl etkilediğini konu edinen bilgi ve etkinliklere hiçbir şekilde yer verilmediği tespit edilmiştir. küresel eğitimin kültürleri anlama ve saygı duyma teması içerisinde yer verilen bir konu olan evrensel inanç ve değerler konusu ise, öğretim programı içerisinde “paylaşılan elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 159 ortak değerlerin korunması” (s. 6) ifadesi ile yer alırken, ders kitabında “atatürk bağımsızlık, barış, özgürlük, insanlığın mutluluğu, insana saygı gibi evrensel değerleri benimsemiş bir devlet adamıdır” (s. 32) ifadesi ile yer verildiği görülmektedir. fakat ders kitabı içerisinde bu değerlerin kazandırılmasına dair bir etkinliğin yer almadığı belirlenmiştir. diğer yandan, ders kitabında evrensel değerler açısından yapılan incelemede kavram ve değerler konusunda kategorik bir kargaşanın olduğu da göze çarpmaktadır. örneğin; ders kitabının 26. sayfasında “adalet, sevgi, özgürlük, dayanışma, hoşgörü gibi değerler insanlığın ve toplumun temelini oluşturur. “ biçiminde bir ifadeye yer verilerek sözü geçen sözcüklerin değer olduğu ifade edilirken; hemen arkasından gelen 27. sayfada aynı sözcüklere “aşağıda bazı kavramlar ve bu kavramlarla ilgili görseller verilmiştir. hangi görselin hangi kavramla daha çok ilişkili olduğunu belirleyerek kavramları, görsellerin üstündeki kutucuklara yazınız” şeklinde yer verilmiş ve bu sözcüklerin kavram olarak belirtildiği görülmüştür. küresel eğitimin en önemli amaçlarından bir tanesi olan “vatandaş yetiştirme” konusu 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi öğretim programı içerisinde hem ulusal hem de küresel boyutta ele alınması gereken bir konu olarak vurgulanmasına rağmen ders kitabında ulusal boyutta ele alınıp küresel yanı göz ardı edilen bir diğer konu olarak ele alınabilir. öğretim programı içerisinde verilen türk milli eğitiminin genel amaçlarına bakıldığında, “geniş bir dünya görüşüne sahip, topluma karşı sorumlu birey yetiştirme” (s. 3) ilkesi ile 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi genel amaçları içerisinde yer verilen “i̇nsanlığın bir parçası olduğu bilinci ile ülkesini ve dünyayı ilgilendiren konularda duyarlılık göstermeleri” (s. 6) ilkesi küresel eğitimin vatandaş yetiştirme amaçlarıyla paralellik gösterdiği ortaya çıkmaktadır. ayrıca öğretim programında “i̇letişim ve ulaşım olanaklarının son derece geliştiği, dünyanın farklı bölgelerinde gelişen olayların bir ülkede yaşayan insanları yakından etkilediği günümüzde, eğitimin amacı; sadece ülkesindeki değil dünyadaki toplumsal gelişmelere ve değişime uyum sağlayan bireyler yetiştirmek haline gelmiştir.” (s. 4) açıklaması ile de eğitimin asıl amacının küresel bakış açısına sahip bir vatandaş yetiştirmek olduğu açıkça belirtilmiştir. fakat küresel eğitim ve vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi öğretim programında çizilen vatandaş profili bakımından ders kitabı incelendiğinde, vatandaş yetiştirmenin temel odağının insan haklarına saygılı, diğer insanlara ve topluma karşı sorumlu, demokratik vatandaş olma üzerine yoğunlaştığı ve küresel bilince sahip olmanın da vatandaşlığın bir gereği olduğu gerçeğine değinilmediği araştırmanın bulguları arasındadır. ders kitabında vatandaşın görev ve sorumlulukları başlığı altında; sokakta çevreyi kirletmemeye özen gösteririm… geri dönüşümlü çöpleri geri dönüşüm kutularına atarım… çevremizde tehlike oluşturan başıboş köpekleri belediyeye haber veririm… journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 160 elektriği ve suyu tasarruflu kullanmaya çalışırım... parklara ve burada bulunan canlılara zarar vermem... kamuya ait malları dikkatli kullanırım...(s. 128). gibi örneklerle “iyi vatandaş” olma tanımının haklarını ve sorumluluklarını bilen, çevreye duyarlı, vergi veren, insan haklarına saygılı demokratik vatandaş olarak ulusal bilince sahip bir birey olarak tanımlandığı görülmüş ve küresel bir bilinç kazandırılmaya yönelik örneklere yer verilmediği tespit edilmiştir. öğretim programında yer verilen “vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi, demokratik vatandaşlık bağlamında ele alınmıştır” (s. 5) ifadesi de demokratik vatandaş olma özelliği üzerinde durulduğunun ve vatandaşa kazandırılmak istenen küresel bilinç amacının göz ardı edildiğinin bir göstergesi olarak kabul edilebilir. küresel eğitim alan yazını içerisinde hatırı sayılır derecede önemli olan diğer bir alt boyut ise çevresel/doğal kaynaklar sorunu konusudur. ders kitabında “kamu mallarını bilinçli kullanma”, “ekmek israfı” (s.131) gibi kaynak kullanımının yanı sıra, 1990 yılında dünya çevre örgütü ilginç bir rapor yayınladı. her yıl dünyadan sel suları ve rüzgârla 25 milyar ton yüzey toprağı denizlere taşınıyor. biz de merak ettik türkiye’den ne kadar toprak gidiyor diye. çeşitli ülkelerden bilim adamları türkiye’ye davet edildi. uzun araştırmalar sonunda türkiye’den yılda 1 milyar 400 milyon ton bitki toprağını kaybettiğimiz ortaya çıktı. i̇şte bu durum bizi telaşlandırmaya yetti ve 11 eylül 1992 yılında tema kuruldu. vakfın amacı, erozyonla gerçekleşen toprak kaybına engel olmaktır. bunun için de bir dizi projenin hayata geçirilebilmesi gereklidir (s. 92). şeklinde ifade edilen tema’nın kuruluşu gibi çevre odaklı konular da sadece ulusal düzeyde örneklerle sınırlandırılmış, küresel anlamda örneklere ve çözüm önerilerine hiçbir şekilde yer verilmemiştir. 3. çoklu bakış açısının kazandırılmasındaki tek yönlülük çoklu bakış açısı teması, küresel eğitim içerisinde geniş bir dünya görüşüne sahip olmanın temel ögelerinden biri sayılmakta ve küresel eğitimin dört temasından biri olarak alan yazında yer almaktadır. türk milli eğitiminin ve 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersinin amaçları dikkate alındığında; yapıcı, yaratıcı, eleştiren ve sorgulayan bireyler yetiştirme amacı ön plana çıkarılmıştır. buna karşın, çoklu bakış açısı kavramının bilgi boyutunda ders kitabı ve öğretim programında bir tanım ya da anlatıma yer verilmediği bulgusuna erişilmiştir. bu durumda çoklu bakış açısını kazanma açısından ders kitabında yer alan üniteler içerisinde sorulan sorular üzerinden bir araştırma yapma yoluna gidilmiş ve bu doğrultuda bir değerlendirme yapılmıştır. ders kitabında sorulan, sokrates’in öğrencisi olsaydınız insanın hayvandan farkını hangi sözlerle anlatırdınız? (s. 12) zerrin, insanın değerinin ve onurunun farkında olsaydı okuduğunuz öykü nasıl olabilirdi? (s. 17) elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 161 sizce türkiye i. çocuk hakları kongresi bundan otuz yıl önce toplansaydı “çocuk dostu okul” ya da “çocuk dostu şehir” gibi konular görüşülür müydü? (s. 101). gibi bazı soruların öğrencilerin çoklu bakış açısı kazanma becerisini geliştirmeye yönelik yorum, uygulama ve analiz düzeyinde sorular olduğu görülmüştür. fakat ders kitabında bulunan bazı etkinlik soruları incelendiğinde ise, öğretmen, sorduğu soru ile her insanın özünde bir değer taşıdığını, bu anlamda tüm insanların değerli olduğunu vurgulamak istemiş olabilir mi?…okulunuzda öğrenciler arası çatışmalar barışçıl yollarla çözümlenebiliyor mu? ve okulunuzda hoşgörü ilkesi önemsenmekte midir? (s. 15) gibi öğrencinin çoklu bakış açısı becerisini geliştirmeye katkıda bulunmayacak nitelikte kapalı uçlu (tek cevaplı) sorulara yer verildiği de dikkat çekmektedir. diğer yandan, öğrencilere çoklu bakış açısı kazandırmada küresel eğitimin alt boyutlarından biri olan farklı dünya görüşlerini anlama alt temasına da öğretim programı ve ders kitabı içerisinde hiçbir şekilde yer verilmediği ortaya çıkmıştır. 4. küresel değerler ve ilişkilerde güncel olayların göz ardı edilişi dünya üzerinde herhangi bir yerde meydana gelen bir olay her ne kadar yerel bir durum gibi görünse de aslında bütün dünyayı etkisi altına alır. dünyanın farklı yerlerinde ülkeler arası gerçekleşen göçler, savaşlar, kurulan ekonomik ve politik dostluklar, bir yerde yaşanan açlık, kıtlık ve ölümler bugün tek bir ülkenin sorunu olarak görülmemektedir. küresel eğitim içerisinde, ülkelerin karşılıklı bağlılık ve bağımlılığının bilinmesi ve dünyanın tüm insanlığı birbirine bağlayan ortak bir sistem olduğunun farkına varılması en önemli amaçlardan bir tanesidir. küresel dinamikler ve tüm insanlığı etkileyen savaş, barış, terör, göç, doğal afet gibi güvenlik sorunları açısından öğretim programı ve ders kitabı incelendiğinde, öğretim programında “eğitimin amacı sadece ülkesindeki değil dünyadaki toplumsal gelişmelere ve değişime uyum sağlayan bireyler yetiştirmek” ve ”i̇nsanlığın bir parçası olduğu bilinci ile ülkesini ve dünyayı ilgilendiren konularda duyarlılık göstermeleri amaçlanmaktadır” ifadeleri ile bireylerin geniş bir dünya görüşü ve küresel bir bilince sahip olması gerektiği vurgulanmıştır. ders kitabı ele alındığında ise, “eğitim, insanların başkalarıyla karşılıklı bağımlılık ilişkisi içinde olduklarını öğrenmelerini sağlar”(s.111), “dünya uluslarının mutluluğuna çalışmak, başka bir yoldan kendi esenlik ve mutluluğuna çalışmak demektir” (s. 116) gibi sözel ifadelere yer verilmiş; fakat etkinlik temelli çalışmalarda bu konuya hiçbir şekilde değinilmediği belirlenmiştir. diğer yandan, alanyazında geniş yer kaplayan bir değer olan barış değerine, öğretim programına oranla ders kitabında daha fazla yer verildiği; fakat ders kitabında yer alan barış değerinin de genellikle dünya çocukları ve toplumsal barış journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 162 üzerine yoğunlaşarak tek bir bakış açısı ile ele alındığı; etnik çatışmalar, ülkeler arası savaşlar ya da terör gibi günümüzde gündemi meşgul eden ve barış değerinin verilmesine katkı sağlayabilecek önemli olaylar açısından ise eksik bırakıldığı göze çarpmaktadır. öğretim programı içerisinde, …etnik çatışmalar, ırkçılık, terör ve suç oranlarındaki artışa bağlı olarak ortaya çıkan güvenlik sorunlarının çözümünde, küresel ısınma ve insan eliyle meydana gelen çevre sorunlarına karşı toplumsal duyarlılığın kazanılmasında, demokratik tutum ve yaklaşımlar yardımcı olmaktadır. çünkü demokrasi bilinci, toplumsal sorunlara çözüm arayışında herkesi sürece dâhil etmeyi gerektirmektedir… şeklinde bir ifade ile bu tür durumlara ve çözüm yollarına dair duyarlılık kazandırılması gerektiği vurgulanmış; fakat yine çözüm yolu olarak demokrasi bilincinin kazandırılması üzerinde durulmuş ve küresel anlamda bir çözüm yolu sunulmamıştır. yine küresel dinamikler açısından ders kitabında dikkat çeken bir diğer bulgu ise, küresel eğitim alanyazını içerisinde sürekli yinelenen ve önemi vurgulanan karşılıklı bağımlılık ve karşılıklı bağlılık kavramlarının öğretim programı içerisinde sadece kelime olarak geçtiği, ders kitabı içerisinde de “eğitim, insanların başkalarıyla karşılıklı bağımlılık ilişkisi içinde olduklarını öğrenmelerini sağlar” (s.111) şeklinde verildiğidir. ancak, örnekten de anlaşılacağı gibi ders kitabında karşılıklı bağımlılık kavramına, küresel anlamda kültürler arası, ülkeler arası ve insanlar arası bağımlılık alt boyutlarından sadece insanlar arası bağımlılık alt boyutuyla yer verildiği ve eğitimin bir yararı olarak ele alınmıştır. sonuç olarak, ilköğretim 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programı küresel eğitim temaları açısından incelenen bu araştırmanın sonucunda dört önemli bulguya ulaşılmıştır. bu bulguları; ayrımcılık ve ön yargı kavramlarının içinde barındırdığı çeşitliliğin ders kitabı ve öğretim programında tam olarak yansıtılamadığı, ders kitabı ve öğretim programının kültürler arası etkileşim ve iletişim, yetiştirilmek istenen vatandaş profili ile çevresel ve doğal kaynaklar konularında sadece ulusal bir şekillendirilmeye gidildiği; ancak küresel anlamda bu konuların öğretiminin eksik bırakıldığı, çoklu bakış açısı becerisinin ders kitabında sadece sorular üzerinden verilmeye çalışıldığı; ancak bu konuda gerçek bir öğrenme sağlayacak etkinliklere yer verilmediği, küresel dinamikler ve dünya barışı konusunda bilgi ve etkinlik temelli uygulamaların eksik bırakıldığı ve güncel olaylar, sorunlar ve çözüm önerilerine değinilmediği şeklinde sıralayabiliriz. tartışma, sonuç ve öneriler elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 163 bireylerin içinde yaşadığımız küresel dünyaya uyum sağlaması, savaş, barış, açlık, terör, ayrımcılık, önyargı, sosyal adalet, insan hakları, güvenlik sorunu vb. gibi küresel konularda farkındalığa sahip aktif ve bilinçli vatandaşlara dönüşmesi, bununla birlikte ulusal ve küresel bakışı içinde barındıran bir dünya görüşünü benimseyebilmesi için küresel eğitimin verilmesinin gerekliliği göz ardı edilemeyecek bir hâl almıştır. bu gereklilikten dolayı pek çok ülkede küresel eğitimin, eğitim sistemi içerisinde nasıl yer alması gerektiğine dair düzenlemeler yapılmıştır. fakat bu düzenlemelere rağmen yurtiçi ve yurtdışında küresel eğitim alanında yapılan çalışmalara bakıldığında, gerek ilkokul ve ortaokul programlarında, gerek öğretmen yetiştirmede gerekse ders kitabı ve öğretim programlarında küresel eğitimin bütün amaçlarını kapsayacak şekilde bir eğitimin verilmediği ve bu konuda yeni düzenlemelerin yapılması gerektiği anlaşılmaktadır (açıkalın, 2010a; aslan, 2009; ceylan, 2014; cırık, 2008; kaymakçı, 2012; özkan, 2006; rapoport, 2009). mundy & manion (2008)’un kanada’daki ilköğretim okullarında verilen küresel eğitime ilişkin yaptıkları çalışmalarında da, ilkokullarda ulusal ve küresel anlamda bütünlük oluşturarak daha geniş bir dünya görüşü sağlayabilmek için okullarda küresel eğitime daha fazla yer verilmesi ve özellikle eğitim sisteminde kanada’nın tümünü ilgilendiren politik açıdan hassas küresel konuların verilmesine ilişkin üniversiteler, okullar ve hükümetlerin işbirliği yapması gerektiğinin belirtilmesi sadece türkiye’de değil dünyada da küresel eğitimin verilmesine dair eksikliklerin olduğunu destekler niteliktedir. 8.sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programının küresel eğitim temaları açısından incelenmesi amacıyla yapılan bu araştırmada ise küresel eğitim temalarının içerisinde barındırdığı bütün alt temaların ders kitabı ve öğretim programında ulusal bilinci kaybetmeden bunun yanında küresel bilinç oluşturmada etkili olacak nitelikte verilmediği ve nüfus ve aile planlaması ile ilgili sorunlar, özerklik sorunu, sosyalkültürel normlar ve kişilerarası çatışmalarının altında yatan inanç ve değerler konusu ile çoklu kimlik temalarının ise hem öğretim programı hem de ders kitabı içerisinde hiçbir şekilde yer almadığı görülmüştür. küresel eğitim temaları içerisinde yer alan ayrımcılık ve ön yargı kavramları ırk, dil, din, mezhep, cinsel yönelim, cinsiyet, sosyo-ekonomik yapı, sosyo-kültürel yapı ve engel durumu vb. gibi çok çeşitli unsurları içerisinde barındırmaktadır. açıkalın (2010a) yaptığı çalışmada, sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında sosyal adalet ve eşitlik, farklılıklara saygı, savaş ve barış, ayrımcılık ve ön yargı, adaletsizlik ve eşitsizlik sorunlarını çözme gibi konularda yetersiz kalındığını belirtmiştir, 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programının incelendiği bu araştırmada da, bu kavramlara yüzeysel olarak journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 164 değinildiği ve kavramların içinde barındırdığı çeşitliliğin ders kitabı ve öğretim programına tam olarak yansıtılmadığı tespit edilmiştir. ayrıca, ayrımcılık ve ön yargı kavramları ile ilgili etkinliklerin genellikle ırk, cinsiyet, engel durumunda ayrımcılık ve ön yargı üzerine odaklanıldığı; cinsel yönelim, etnik yapı, sosyo-kültürel yapı vb. gibi diğer unsurların ders kitabı ve öğretim programında yer almadığı da araştırmanın öne çıkan bulgularından biri olmuştur. kilpatrick (2010), bireylerin nasıl küresel yeterliliğe sahip olabileceklerini anlamaya yönelik yaptığı çalışmasında, öğretmenlerle görüşmeler yapmış ve öğretmenler tolerans, karşı kültürü anlama ve diğer kültürlere ilgi duymanın yanında yabancı bir dil bilme ve farklı bir durumla karşılaştıklarında nasıl davranabileceklerini bilme becerilerinin küresel yeterlilik kapsamına alınması gerektiğini söylemişlerdir. bu açıdan bakıldığında farklı kültürleri anlama ve onlara saygı duyma, farklı kültürlerle etkileşim halinde olmanın küresel bir dünya görüşü kazanmada oldukça önemli olduğu söylenebilir. yapılan bu araştırmada 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programında kültürler arası etkileşim ve iletişimin sadece bireyin içinde bulunduğu topluma ait ana akım kültüre odaklanarak şekillendirildiği; ancak diğer kültürler ve kültürel boyutta ülkeler arası iletişim ve etkileşimden bahsedilmediği görülmüştür. aslan (2009) da yaptığı çalışmasında türk eğitim sisteminin kültürel farklılıklara ve etkileşimlere değinilmediğini ve öğretim programları ile ders kitaplarında çok kültürlülüğün göz ardı edildiğini savunmaktadır. aynı şekilde cırık (2008), türkiye’deki mevcut ilköğretim programlarında çok kültürlü eğitime yeterince yer verilmediği; programların hazırlanmasında bu durumun göz önünde bulundurulması ve çok kültürlü eğitime daha fazla ağırlık verilmesi gerektiğini belirtmektedir. 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programında yetiştirilmek istenen vatandaş profiline yönelik kazanımların küresel bilinç oluşturma bağlamında yetersiz olduğu araştırmanın bir diğer sonucudur. rapoport (2009), yaptığı çalışmada amerika’nın bazı eyaletlerinde uygulanan sosyal bilgiler programlarında küresel eğitim ve küresel vatandaşlık temalarının “daha gerekli görülen” bazı konuların altında gömülü olarak yer aldığını ve bu nedenle de öğretmenlerin merkezi sınavları düşünerek küresel eğitimle ilgili konuları göz ardı ettiğini ortaya koymuştur. ayrıca, öğretmenlerin küresel vatandaşlık öğretiminde yöntem, içerik ve program konularında yardıma ihtiyaçları olduğunu da tespit etmiştir. aynı şekilde ceylan (2014) da araştırmasında, öğretmenlerin çoğunun okul öncesi eğitim programının dünya vatandaşlığını içermesi gerektiğini belirttiklerini, çocuklara dünya vatandaşlığını öğretmek istediklerini; ancak programın dünya elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 165 vatandaşlığını öğretmede yetersiz olduğunu söylediklerini belirtmiş ve program içerisinde farklı kültür ve ülkeler hakkında bilgiler veren etkinliklere yer verilmesi gerektiğinin önemini vurgulamıştır. bu açıdan bakıldığında hem öğretmen yetiştirmede hem de ilk ve ortaöğretim programlarında küresel vatandaş profili oluşturmada gerekli kazanımların öğretim programı ve ders kitabında daha ayrıntılı verilmesinin bir gereklilik olduğu ortaya çıkmaktadır. küresel eğitim ve 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi öğretim programında bireylere kazandırılmak istenen genel amaçlardan birisi olan çoklu bakış açısı kazanma becerisinin ders kitabında sadece sorular üzerine odaklı şekillendirildiği; bu becerinin öğretilmesini amaçlayan etkinliklere ise yer verilmediği tespit edilmiştir. açıkalın (2010a),”küresel eğitimin türk sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı üzerindeki etkisi” isimli çalışmasında küresel eğitimin en önemli temalarından birisi olan çoklu bakış açısına yer verilmediğini belirtmiş; ayrıca temelde empati ve farklılıklara saygı duyma becerisi hariç diğer beceri ve değerlerin öğretim programında yeterince vurgulanmadığını tespit etmiştir. 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programını inceleyen bu araştırmada küresel dinamikler ve dünya barışı konusunda bilgi ve etkinlik temelli uygulamaların eksik bırakıldığı tespit edilmiştir. açıkalın (2010a) da çalışmasında uluslararası çatışmalar, savaşlar, terör, insan kaçakçılığı, küresel ısınma ve diğer çevresel konuları içine alan küresel sorunların, öğretim programında yer almadığını söylemiş ve bu konuların da derslerde öğretilmesi gerektiğini vurgulamıştır. bununla birlikte, özkan (2006) araştırmasında, görüşme yaptığı öğretmenlerin, küresel eğitimin dünya sorunlarına duyarlı ve bu sorunlara çözüm üretebilecek, uluslararası barışın sağlanmasında demokrasiyi benimsemiş bireyler yetişmesine katkı sağlayacağına inanırlarken terör, savaş ve çok uluslu şirketlerden kaynaklı, ortaya çıkan ekonomik ve politik adaletsizliklerin azalmasına ve tüm insanlığa ait ortak bir kültürün oluşumuna katkı sağlayacağına ve ülkeler arası bağımlılık ve bağlılığı olumlu anlamda geliştireceğine dair karamsar olduklarını ortaya koymuştur. bu yüzden öğretmenlerin de bu konuda bilinçlendirilerek daha yapıcı bir bakış açısına sahip olmalarını sağlamak gerekmektedir. genel anlamda araştırma sonuçlarına bakıldığında üzerinde durulabilecek diğer bir konu ise, 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi öğretim programında küresel eğitimin amaçlarının verilmesine ilişkin bilgi, beceri ve değerlerin ders kitabında aynı doğrultuda verilmediğidir. öğretim programında beceri ve değerlerin öğretilmesi doğrultusunda kullanılan çoklu bakış açısı, önyargı, dünya barışı, karşılıklı bağlılık ve bağımlılık gibi journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 166 kavramlar ders kitabında yalnızca bilgi boyutunda verilmiş; beceri ve değer boyutları düşünüldüğünde hem öğretim programında hem de ders programında eksiklerin olduğu görülmektedir. buna dayanarak, küresel eğitimin bilgi, beceri ve değer boyutunda bireye kazandırmak istediği amaçlar açısından ders kitabı ve öğretim programının birbirine uygunluk göstermediği söylenebilir. araştırmanın sonuçları doğrultusunda şu şekilde öneriler getirilebilir; 8. sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi öğretim programında bireylere küresel bakış açısı kazandırmaya yönelik amaç ve kazanımlara yer verilmesi ve ders kitabında da bu amaç ve kazanımların içselleştirilmesine katkı sağlayacak nitelikte daha fazla görsel kaynak ve etkinliklere yer verilmesi gerekmektedir. bunun yanında, öğrencilerin bilişsel, duyuşsal ve psikomotor becerilerini daha üst seviyelere taşıyabilecek görsel ve işitsel materyallere etkinliklerde daha çok yer verilmelidir. barış, sevgi, tolerans, hoşgörü vb. gibi küresel değerler temel alınarak ders kitabı ve öğretim programı yeniden düzenlenmelidir. ayrıca yapılan çalışmalara bakıldığında genellikle mevcut durumu belirten araştırmaların olduğu göze çarpmaktadır. bu tür araştırmaların olması genel çerçevede küresel eğitim hakkında bilgi sahibi olunmasına destek sağlamıştır. bunun yanında küresel eğitimin her bir alt boyutunu daha geniş bir kapsamda değerlendirilecek çalışmaların yapılması, küresel eğitim alanına katkıda bulunacaktır. ayrıca, bu araştırma dokümanlarla sınırlı, mevcut durumu belirlemeye yönelik bir çalışma olduğundan küresel eğitim ve sosyal bilgiler alanında ilköğretim programları ve öğretmen yetiştirmede var olan eksiklikleri gidermeye ve sorunları çözmeye yönelik uygulamaya dönük araştırmaların yapılması, gelecekteki araştırmalar için öneri niteliğinde düşünülebilir. küresel eğitim alanına katkıda bulunacağı düşünülen bu araştırmada, türk eğitim sistemi içerisinde yetiştirilen bireylerin küresel bakış açısına sahip olmasında önemli bir ders olan vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersinde küresel eğitim kazanımlarına daha ayrıntılı şekilde yer verilmesi gerektiğinin önemi vurgulanmak istenmiş ve küresel bağlantılar öğrenme alanı ile birleştirilerek küresel eğitimi konu alanı içerisine alan sosyal bilgiler dersinde yer alan disiplinlerin ayrı ayrı küresel eğitim açısından değerlendirilmesine öncülük edeceği düşünülmektedir. kuşkusuz ki, küresel eğitim alanının eğitim sistemleri içerisine yerleşmesinde araştırmacılara büyük rol düşmektedir. bu çalışma ve sonuçlar doğrultusunda verilen öneriler türk eğitim sistemi içerisinde de küresel eğitimin şekillendirilmesine yardımcı olacaktır. elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 167 kaynakça açıkalın, m. (2010a). influence of global education on the turkish social studies curriculum. the social studies. 101 (6), 254-259. doi number:10.1080/00377991003774887 açıkalın, m. (2010b). sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde yeni yaklaşımlar: çokkültürlü ve küresel eğitim. i̇lköğretim online. 9 (3). 1226-1237. [online]: http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/ vol9say3/v9s3m31 .pdf adresinden 25.09.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. alazzi, k. (2011). teachers perceptions and conceptions of global education: a study of jordanian secondary of social studies teachers. the journals of multiculturalism in education, 7 (1), 1-19. alger, c. f. & harf, j. e. (1985). global education: why? for whom? about what?. american association of colleges for teacher education, washington d.c. [online]: http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed265107 adresinden 14.08.2014 tarihinde erişilmiştir. apple, m. w. (2006). understanding and interrupting neoliberalism and neoconservatism in education. pedagogies: an international journal. 1 (1), 21-26. doi number: 10.1207/ s15544818 ped0101_4 appleyard, n. (2009). teacher and student perceptions of the goals of global education. (unpublished master thesis), faculty of education. university of ottawa: canada arslan, h. (2009). educational policy vs. culturally sensitive programs in turkish educational system. international journal of progressive education. 5 (2), 44-57. [online]: http://www.inased.org/v5n2/ijpev5n2.pdf adresinden 14.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. aşan, e. (2014). 8. sınıf i̇lköğretim vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı. ankara: ekoyay eğitim. bailey, k. (1994). methods of social research. new york: the free press. balay, r. (2004). küreselleşme, bilgi toplumu ve eğitim. ankara üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri fakültesi dergisi, 37 (2) 61-82. balkar, b. ve özgan, h. (2010). küreselleşmenin i̇lköğretim kademesindeki eğitim sürecine etkilerine i̇lişkin öğretmen görüşleri. mehmet akif ersoy üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 10 (19), 1-22. banks, j. a. (1997). educating citizens in a multicultural society. new york: teachers college press. http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/%20vol9say3/ http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/%20vol9say3/ http://www.inased.org/v5n2/ijpev5n2.pdf journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 168 banks, j. a. (2004). introduction: democratic citizenship education in multicultural societies. j.a. banks (ed.), in diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives. san francisco: jossey-bass, an imprint of wiley. bayar, f. (2008). küreselleşme kavramı ve küreselleşme sürecinde türkiye. uluslararası ekonomik sorunlar dergisi, 32, 25-34. [online]: http://www.mfa.gov.tr/data/ kutuphane/yayinlar/ekonomiksorunlardergisi/sayi32/firatbayar.pdf adresinden 10.09.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. bogdan, r. c. & biklen, s. k. (2007). qualitative research in education: an introduction to theory and methods. boston: pearson. boston, j. a. (1997). professional development in global education. m. m. merryfield, e. jarchow, s. pickert (ed.). in preparing teachers to teach global perspectives. california: corwin castle, s. (2004). migration, citizenship, and education. j. a. banks (ed.), in diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives. san francisco: jossey-bass, an imprint of wiley. ceylan, ş. (2014). okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin dünya vatandaşlığı eğitimi i̇le i̇lgili görüşleri. kuramsal eğitimbilim dergisi, 7 (1), 78-93. [online]: www.keg.aku.edu.tr/ index.php/anasayfa/article/view/337 adresinden 21.12.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. cırık, i̇. (2008). çokkültürlü eğitim ve yansımaları. hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi (h. u. journal of education), 34, 27-40. creswell, j. w. (2012). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. [online]: basu.nahad.ir/uploads/creswell.pdf adresinden 13.04.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. çalık, t. ve sezgin, f. (2005). küreselleşme, bilgi toplumu ve eğitim. kastamonu eğitim dergisi, 13 (1), 55-66. [online]: www.academia.edu/1334093/ küreselleşme_bilgi_ toplumu_ve_eğitim adresinden 19.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. gay, g. (2002). preparing for culturally responsive teaching. the american association of colleges for teacher education 53 (2), 106-116. [online]: https://www.uwec.edu/ coehs/upload/pattee-article.pdf adresinden 17.04.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. göl, e. (2013) sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının küresel vatandaşlık tutum düzeylerinin farklı değişkenler açısından i̇ncelenmesi. (yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). ahi evran üniversitesi/sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, kırşehir. [online]: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ ulusaltezmerkezi/tezsorgusonucyeni.jsp adresinden 17.10.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. http://www.mfa.gov.tr/data/%20kutuphane/yayinlar/ekonomiksorunlardergisi/sayi32/firatbayar.pdf http://www.mfa.gov.tr/data/%20kutuphane/yayinlar/ekonomiksorunlardergisi/sayi32/firatbayar.pdf https://tez.yok.gov.tr/%20ulusaltezmerkezi/tezsorgusonucyeni.jsp%20adresinden%2017.10.2014 https://tez.yok.gov.tr/%20ulusaltezmerkezi/tezsorgusonucyeni.jsp%20adresinden%2017.10.2014 elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 169 gümüş, n. ve i̇lhan, a. (2012). küreselleşme ve öğretim elemanlarına göre türkiye üniversitelerindeki coğrafya bölümlerine etkisi. western anatolia journal of educational science. 3 (5), 29-50. [online]: webb.deu.edu.tr/baed/giris/baed/5_2.pdf adresinden 24.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. hanvey, r. g. (2004). an attainable global perspective. the american forum for global education, 2-47. [online]: http://www.globaled.org/an_att_glob_persp_04_11_29.pdf adresinden 19.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. kan, ç. (2009). sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde küresel vatandaşlık. pamukkale üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi. 26, 25-30. [online]: kutuphane.pamukkale.edu.tr/ dokuman/ d000426.pdf adresinden 22.07.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. kaymakçı, s. (2012). global education in the turkish social studies teacher training programme. croation journal of education. 14 (4),817-854. [online]: http://hrcak. srce.hr/94325 adresinden 08.10.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. kızılçaoğlu, a. (2003). ortaöğretim coğrafya ders kitapları değerlendirme ölçütleri. marmara coğrafya dergisi, 8, 19-33. [online]: http://edergi.marmara.edu.tr/marucog/ article/view/1012000492 adresinden 08.10.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. kilpatrick, j. e. (2010). global education in massachusetts: a case study of two high schools. (unpublished master thesis), boston university: united state. [online]: gradworks.umi.com/34/11/3411749 .html adresinden 28.12.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. kirkwood. t. f. (2001). our global age requires global education: clarifying definitional ambiguities. the social studies. 92 (1), 10-15. doi number: 10.1080/00377 990109603969 koluman. s. (2011). i̇lköğretim 6. ve 7. sınıf sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında yer alan küresel bağlantılar öğrenme alanına yönelik öğretmen görüşleri: balıkesir i̇l örneği. (yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). balıkesir üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, balıkesir. [online]: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezsorgusonuc yeni.jsp adresinden 16.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. http://e-dergi.marmara.edu.tr/marucog/%20article/ http://e-dergi.marmara.edu.tr/marucog/%20article/ https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezsorgusonuc%20yeni.jsp%20adresinden%2016.08.2014 https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezsorgusonuc%20yeni.jsp%20adresinden%2016.08.2014 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 123-171 170 lakes, r. d. & carter, p. a. (2011). neoliberalism and education: an introduction. educational studies: a journal of the american educational studies association, 47 (2), 107-110. [online]: http://www.tandfonline.com/ loi/heds20 adresinden 24. 10. 2013 tarihinde indirilmiştir. mangram, j. & watson, a. (2011). us and them: social studies teachers’ talk about global education. journal of social studies research 35 (1), 95-116. meb. (2010). i̇lköğretim vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi dersi (8. sınıf) öğretim programı. talim terbiye kurulu başkanlığı, ankara. merriam, s. b. (2009). qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. sanfrancisco: jossey-bass. merryfield, m. m. (1997). a framework for teacher education in global perspectives. m. m. merryfield, e. jarchow, s. pickert (ed.). in preparing teachers to teach global perspectives. california: corwin. mundy, k. & manion, c. (2008). global education in canadian elementary schools: an exploratory study. canadian journal of education 31 (4), 941-974. [online]: http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej830510 adresinden 14.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. oxfam (2006). education for global citizenship a guide for schools. [online]: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/~/media/files/education/global%20citizenship/education_f or_global_citizenship_a_guide_for_schools.ashx adresinden 06.10.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. özkan, t. (2006). i̇lköğretim öğretmenlerinin küresel eğitime yönelik görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi. (yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). çukurova üniversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, adana. [online]: https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/ tezsorgusonucyeni.jsp adresinden 17.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. pike, g. (2000). global education and national identity: in pursuit of meaning. theory into practice, 39 (2), 64-73. rapoport, a. (2009). a forgotten concept: global citizenship education and state social studies standards. journal of social studies research, 33 (1), 91-112. [online]: http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej838655 adresinden 14.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. şahin, i̇. f. (2011). küreselleşme avrupa birliği ve türkiye. ankara: pegem a şimşek, h. ve yıldırım, a. (2013). sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: seçkin. tezcan, m. (2002). küreselleşmenin eğitim boyutu. eğitim araştırmaları dergisi. 6. 56-60. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/~/media/files/education/global%20citizenship/education_for_global_citizenship_a_guide_for_schools.ashx%20adresinden%2006.10.2014 http://www.oxfam.org.uk/~/media/files/education/global%20citizenship/education_for_global_citizenship_a_guide_for_schools.ashx%20adresinden%2006.10.2014 elvan günel & ayşegül pehli̇van 171 tye, k. a. & kniep, w. m. (1991). global education around the world. educational leadership, 48 (7), 47–49. [online]: http://www.ascd.org/ascd/pdf/journals/ ed_lead/ el_199104_tye.pdf adresinden 17.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. ukpokodu, n. (1999). multiculturalism vs. globalism. social education, 63 (5), 298–300. [online]: http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej612181 adresinden 14.08.2014 tarihinde indirilmiştir. yazıcı, s. (2014). küreselleşme ve yaşlanan dünya. n. korkmaz ve s. yazıcı (ed.), küreselleşme ve yaşlılık içinde. ankara: ütopya. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej612181 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (3), 65-108 an integrated teaching tolerance in learning history of indonesian national movement at higher education cahyo budi utomo1, wasino2 abstract this study aims to develop students' knowledge of tolerance through learning the history of the indonesian national movement in multicultural classes. the research questions are: (1) what kinds of tolerance knowledge are perceived as tolerance or intolerance deeds by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? (2) how are tolerance behaviors performed as tolerance or intolerance deeds by the undergraduate history students? and (3) what factors are perceived to contribute tolerance or intolerance deed by the undergraduate history students? this research was conducted using an ethnographic design with grounded theory. the research involved 25 students of the history education undergraduate program at universitas negeri semarang as participants. data were collected through in-depth interviews and observation. the correctness of the data was checked using triangulation and member check techniques. the results of the study are: (1) tolerance is defined as knowledge that is rooted in the history of the indonesian national movement, and the basis for the establishment of the independence of indonesia, however, intolerance is a historical idea, emerging as the egoism of certain groups in the form of sentiment and violence; (2) an attitude of tolerance is not only respecting diversity but also caring for and maintaining it to become knowledge that must belong to every individual. intolerance is an attitude that leads to disintegration and conflict, its activities are coercive and followed by violence; and (3) factors that contribute to the development of tolerance are pancasila ideology, multiculturalism, and historical knowledge. hence, this study concludes that tolerance is seen as an idea that views humans from any ethnic, cultural, and religious background as having equality seen from the perspective of nationality and humanity. key words: learning history, knowledge of tolerance, multicultural classes. introduction intolerance in indonesia over the past 10 years has become a frequent theme in television and social media (lindsey & pausacker, 2016; menchik, 2014). the action covers matters of religion, ethnicity, to culture (puspandari & meijknecht, 2015). recently there has been an intolerant act carried out by a betawi woman against chinese women in jakarta (gerintya, n.d.). the action was carried out in public spaces which should be inclusive and friendly to all groups. another case was 1 dr., drs., m.pd., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, cahyo.bu@mail.unnes.ac.id 2 prof., dr., m.hum., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, wasino@mail.unnes.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 66 in padang, west sumatra, there has been a ban on christmas worship in the area because the majority of the community is muslim. the pioneers of this prohibition were fundamentalist islamic groups who intended to replace pancasila state ideology into a political islamic caliphate or ideology (subaidi, 2020). the act of intolerance had been carried out openly by groups in the name of religion and "indigenous ethnicities", namely javanese, sundanese, betawi, minang, etc. while ethnic chinese and arabs or religious communities outside islam are considered as foreign groups that are outside the social structure of indonesian society (jayusman et al., 2020; puspandari & meijknecht, 2015; wasino, 2013). this, of course, has denied historical provisions in which the group that received intolerant treatment historically played a role in the efforts to liberate indonesia from the hands of the colonialist (adam, 2008; kurniawan et al., 2019). the case also indicates that currently indonesians, in general, are being exposed to a negative virus that is starting to poison their mindset and social behavior so that many intolerant cases occur in public places. the virus is very dangerous to the integrity of the nation-state which has been independent and has stood on indonesian nationalism since 1945 (nichterlein, 1974; sutimin, 2019). weakening sense of nationalism is considered as one of the factors that make intolerance very easy to spread and affect indonesians. as a product of the education curriculum, this, of course, can be overcome in various ways, one of which is by strengthening the learning of history at school (barr et al., 1978). in connection with the explanation above, the learning history of the indonesian national movement (1908-1945 period) has not been touched on many essential matters discussing the practice of tolerance in the form of cooperation in realizing an independent indonesia from dutch colonialism (1601-1942) and japan (1942-1945). this collaboration is interesting because it involves differences in ethnicity, culture, and religion in realizing the main goal, namely independence. because it is rarely taught in great depth, students' understanding of tolerance becomes difficult to develop. the media coverage factor that raises sensitive issues makes sentiment based on religious, ethnic, and cultural differences strengthen again. students’ understanding of tolerance cannot develop because history learning still discusses material that is theoretical and not directly connected to today's life. the history curriculum is considered not based on the actual conditions of indonesian society, which is currently experiencing intolerance problems. referring to kocchar's (2008) opinion, that the history curriculum must be prepared based on the actual conditions of society, the materials need to be adapted to the needs of the community, as part of social science, and history must be loaded with social knowledge and equip utomo & wasino students with the proficiency of analyzing the social conditions of society. the problem of intolerance is one of the things that becomes the current public discussion, learning history should have a role in the process of awareness and formation of society about tolerance, so students can be agents in spreading knowledge of tolerance to their peers. this can minimize the occurrence of intolerant actions in society and reduce the number of violence based on ethnic, cultural, and religious differences. historical learning can overcome social problems for students in indonesia because the history of indonesia, especially in the preparation of the pancasila text (the national ideology compiled in 1945 during the national movement). in the process of formulating the basis of the nation's ideology, people of various ethnicities and religions worked together to contribute to formulating appropriate ideas as the basis of indonesian independence. as a country that has diversity and was formed since before the independence (before august 17th, 1945), indonesia has enormous potential to teach the value of tolerance to students. this will be even more actual when teaching is carried out in classes that are attended by students from various ethnic, cultural, and religious backgrounds. unfortunately, history learning still does not talk much about diversity. this is an important problem to be solved and discussed by academics and practitioners of historical education. the effort to make history learning more contextual in solving problems of intolerance in society is a big homework for scientists today. based on the explanation above, history must be understood as a subject that can strengthen national integration through the internalization of knowledge of tolerance carried out by teachers to students (barr et al., 1977). barr (1978) believes that history is an important subject to overcome national problems that are indicated through cases in society. racism, intolerance, and radicalism are examples of cases that can be prevented by history through classroom activities (adler, 2008; levstik, 2008). this subject is very relevant for the current condition of indonesians who are experiencing intolerance problems. preliminary analysis shows that the current history curriculum has not been able to present the historical material of the national movement critically and deeply to students, especially in the history of the formulation of the pancasila ideology carried out by all elements of society from various ethnicities, cultures, and religions. it potentially leads to the fact that the efforts to build students’ understanding of tolerance integrated with nationalism and acceptance of differences run very slowly (dilworth, 2004). it is a gap for intolerant groups who desire indonesia to become fragmented as well as living without tolerance and social awareness journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 68 against their fellow citizens. opportunities to develop these subjects into more progressive subjects are still open. the application of contextual material and the habituation of cooperative learning models is one of the keys to successful history learning that can teach tolerance to students (king et al., 2015; loh & ang, 2020; suh & traiger, 1999; vansledright & limón, 2006) so that the intolerant ideas do not easily affect students. they will be able to think openly and objectively to take a stand for the provisions of indonesian nationalism as their guiding interaction values. humanistic approaches can be used to develop students' knowledge about tolerance, especially those that underlie dynamic attitudes in interacting in societies that have a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and religions (farmer, 1984). maslow believes that the humanistic approach is the basis for developing students' knowledge of social harmony (maslow & rogers, 1979; maslow, 1991). a humanistic approach in teaching history is needed to form students' mental attitudes (borodina et al, 2019), especially in responding to the practice of intolerance in society. intolerance has been proven to trigger the emergence of insecurity and mutual bias among citizens (bakalar, 2018; firmansyah, 2019; muharam, 2016; sofjan, 2016). maslow (1979) believes that there is a hierarchy of human needs such as being able to survive as well as to maintain their life and their sense of security which are considered the lowest level in the hierarchy but the most important requirements of all. the humanistic approach becomes a reference in organizing and provoking students to become actors in creating a situation of peace in the community (turan, 2020). this is very contextual with the purpose of history learning (wasino et al., 2019), providing citizens with a basic understanding the importance of tolerance between community groups such as ethnic, religious and culture (barr et al., 1978; chen et al., 2014; levstik, 2008). an effort to create a safe community is very relevant to the strengthening of nationalism. students learn to uphold the values of nationalism and accept differences to strengthen unity so that intolerance can be stopped and people can live in peace (armstrong, 1995; ivygina et al, 2019). exploration of the historical material of the indonesian national movement (1908-1945) is important as it contains the elements of social cooperation between ethnicities, religions, and cultures in realizing the goal of an independent indonesia. collaboration in historical narratives can serve as counter information that has led to the process of dividing people's views. students can be educated to be more critical and alert to the acts of intolerance by providing historical knowledge based on the narrative of tolerance. utomo & wasino rose (2002) has carried out a lengthy investigation of the teaching of tolerance after the spread of cases caused by the ideology of terrorism. the ideology of terrorism has divided the situation into various parts of the world, there is no harmony and an attitude of mutual care for one another. this research proves that efforts to build religious harmony can be done from social studies classes. terrorism as a crime against humanity has threatened community harmony. terrorism raises sentiments among citizens of the nation. to deal with these problems and reduce the spread of terrorism, teaching tolerance with a constructive approach can be used to build new knowledge that is more rational. the important knowledge to be taught is tolerance and respect for differences (rose, 2002). godwin (2001) researched the teaching of tolerance in public and private schools. the two schools have different approaches to building knowledge of tolerance. private schools tend to be more difficult to foster tolerance because the dialectic situation in the classroom is very difficult to build. the limited numbers and homogeneity of students become obstacles in building the knowledge of tolerance in private schools. whereas in public schools, tolerance knowledge is more easily developed through dialectics and critical studies. one of the factors supporting the development of tolerance knowledge is the heterogeneity of students in terms of religion, ethnicity, and culture (godwin et al., 2001). hollingswort et al (2003) in their study revealed that teaching tolerance can be used to teach students empathy and responsibility towards their social environment. in ethnically, culturally, and religiously diverse environments, social responsibility is an important value for fostering the normality of citizen relations, while empathy is a basic idea in fostering social solidarity. historical knowledge is one of the important things that must be taught. the narrative of tolerance derived from historical texts becomes the dominant factor in developing harmony among students (hollingsworth et al., 2003). related to the explanation above, it can be concluded that tolerance can be more easily developed through constructive approaches in learning and an open and heterogeneous environment, in addition to historical knowledge being one of the dominant factors to facilitate teachers developing such knowledge. conversely, in a closed environment such as in private schools and homogeneous student conditions, tolerance knowledge is difficult to develop. interaction between students and the discussion patterns that they develop about tolerance and understanding of humanism, if conducted by heterogeneous students, will be more easily accepted because they directly face the situation they are discussing, so that the knowledge of respecting ethnicity, religion, and other cultures will become more actual. the weakness of previous research is that researchers have not journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 70 specifically discussed multicultural classroom conditions, especially in history learning in cultivating tolerance knowledge. in other words, studies on the development of knowledge of tolerance in multicultural classes especially in the history class are still rarely found although several of those have recommended that historical knowledge with a tolerance narrative content be a dominant factor for developing knowledge of student tolerance the explanation above underlies the conduct of this study as a synthesis of previous research. this study tries to reveal the conditions of learning the history of the indonesian national movement on the sub-material of the formulation of the pancasila ideology as the basis for the establishment of an independent indonesia in multicultural classes in developing tolerance knowledge. based on student activities in the class, it analyzes how students' tolerance knowledge can develop ways of thinking, ways of expressing their opinions, ways of responding to opinions, and attitudes of respecting differences that become determinants to see the extent to which tolerance knowledge can be developed through history classes. an important contribution of this research is that as the first in indonesia, the study of the development of student tolerance knowledge based on learning the history of the indonesian national movement is can be disseminated as a reference from history educators to refer to how to develop tolerance knowledge to create more harmonious social conditions. research question the acceptance of differences is a major element of tolerance, tolerance can initially develop when students have understood the meaning of differences, both ethnicity, culture, and religion. as initial knowledge, acceptance of differences is an element that can reject intolerant actions in society. therefore, three research questions are developed as the guide of the research. they are: 1) what kinds of tolerance knowledge are perceived as tolerance or intolerance deeds by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? 2) how are tolerance behaviors performed as tolerance or intolerance deeds by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? 3) what factors are perceived to contribute tolerance or intolerance deed by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? utomo & wasino literature review tolerance is an attitude of respecting all forms of difference in terms of race, ethnicity, culture, religion, and ideology. tolerance becomes one of the knowledge that can be used to foster harmony among citizens who have diverse backgrounds. the idea of tolerance according to banks (2006) can be a glue for diverse citizens because tolerance there is an attitude of acceptance of differences and making differences as social capital to carry out social, economic, political, and cultural development. from the idea of tolerance, the community can carry out positive cooperation in various fields, so that tolerance will erase all forms of prejudice, hatred, and mutual awareness of those diverse communities. this view is based on the opinion that differences that are not managed properly will be the background of the conflict, the earliest differences management can be done by fostering tolerance. the tolerance of every citizen will automatically distance the community from conflict. conflict amid diverse societies occurs because egocentrism is strengthened without being followed by rational knowledge and attitude tolerance. therefore, changing to an idea that is always attached to the multicultural community discourse, especially the compilation of conflict figures or sentiments related to disintegration began to strengthen. i will, then, make the conversation about improvement sharper. tolerance is the knowledge that is more easily grown in diverse conditions of community members, because, in this condition, everyone from various backgrounds can interact and support one another. knowledge of tolerance is always closely related to this condition because, through direct observation, an individual will have positive self-efficacy. while in a homogeneous society, it will be more difficult to develop, homogeneity will dampen the discourse about support, because people more often talk about group identity without additional knowledge, how to determine to be one of the assistances that can be rejected by the intended destination (syarif, 2020; wasino, 2013). based on the concept before, in context of education then came the idea that it would be easier to develop in a multicultural school or classroom environment, from there then the process of understanding and development knowledge would be more contextual and relevant to fostering individuals who knew about their roles and responsibility in society. learning tolerance is born because tolerance is not obtained naturally, it needs to be learned and taught (ferrar, 1976). each individual has the perception of what is captured by his senses, because journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 72 it is a guiding learning process to recognize differences comprehensively and how to deal with them in daily life (avery et al., 1997). this learning directs the emotions and attitudes of students when facing intolerant situations and how to control themselves when dealing with conflicts (berggren & nilsson, 2015). knowledge about tolerance includes looking at differences and similarities, the consequences when behaving in facing conflict, the advantages and obstacles intolerance. this learning will bring individuals into the skills of dialogue and communication (harrington-lueker, 1993), understanding the perspectives and beliefs of others without undermining self-confidence (martell & stevens, 2017; suhadi, 2020), able to apply models to resolve conflicts democratically and constructively (demircioglu, 2008; kotluk & kocakaya, 2018). the method that is considered appropriate in this learning is by presenting a historical narrative filled with tolerance, such as in the history of the indonesian national movement in the formulation of the pancasila ideology which underlies the establishment of an independent indonesia in 1945,creative education that allows individuals to experience conflict and deal with it, adequate knowledge and guided actions, meaning that when facing conflict there is someone who can understand and jointly plan a way out (avery, 2002). referring to maslow's (1979) framework, the main approach in teaching tolerance is humanistic. this approach enables the dialectics of harmony, the emergence of knowledge in dealing with conflicts and resolving them, and fostering a sense of solidarity among citizens (hansen, 2011; kilinc et al., 2018; maslow & rogers, 1979; tarman et al., 2019). referring to van dijk (2001), the use of language and authority in arguing can demonstrate the ability of students to deal with conflicts and resolve them. the narrative spoken by students is the basic knowledge they learn from the material in class. dialogue and communication make the narrative develop and form new knowledge that is more contextual. tolerance learning by paying attention to language use and student argumentation authority provides opportunities for the formation of more progressive knowledge about tolerance. this is intended to respond to the phenomenon of intolerance in society that is currently rife (duranti & goodwin, 1992; girdap, 2020; pennycook, 2004; suharso et al., 2020). the framework of tolerance that is formed in society refers to the basic idea of unity that began since the society was independent. nationalism is one of the ideas forming knowledge of tolerance in a nation, not least in indonesia. anderson sees nationalism as an imagined community idea. according to him, nationalism is a shaded political community that is imagined as limited unity and supreme power. the purpose of shading is that utomo & wasino members of a country or nation only know and can imagine their community (country), but not all of them know each other (anderson, 1983). it is imagined because every member of a nation, even the smallest nation, does not know all members of that nation (gellner & breuilly, 1983). nation envisioned as the ultimate power because it is a mature stage of human history when freedom is something rare and valuable (jaffrelot, 2005). nation envisioned as a community because it is understood as a horizontal friendship between individuals of various ethnicities, religions, and cultures. to foster a society that is peaceful and can work together positively, it is important to develop the idea of tolerance in learning. based on the discussion above, in a multicultural country, what drives unity and tolerance is nationalism. nationalism itself according to anderson (1983) can be formed by several things namely language, culture, and education. the role of language in the formation of tolerance and nationalism is that of speech identity, a nation to be seen as different from other nations must have its own speech identity. language in the context of the nation becomes a mirror of ideology, culture, and acceptance of differences. language can be understood to what extent a person is tolerant of others (van dijk, 2001). the diverse culture of indonesian people becomes social capital in the formation of nationalism. intolerance develops because it utilizes gaps between existing cultures, although in its development intolerance attacks cultural practices that are considered to deviate from religious provisions (koentjaraningrat, 1974). education is the most important element in the formation and strengthening of nationalism. through education, people are introduced to the concepts of nation, citizens, multiculturalism, tolerance, and law that form a sense of solidarity (bush, 2006). history is one of the most important subjects in teaching the aspects mentioned earlier. barr (1978) believes that history can restore, foster, and develop nationalistic knowledge of citizenship that is applicable, not just theoretical. through applied nationalism knowledge, students are equipped with an understanding to face social problems that lead to national integration; one of the most obvious is intolerance (menchik, 2014; smith, 1996; snounu, 2019). maslow's framework of a humanistic approach can strengthen historical learning that is oriented towards strengthening student tolerance knowledge (buss, 1979). previous research has focused more on the meaning of tolerance and the concepts that support the development of tolerance knowledge. while those directly discussing the development of tolerance knowledge in multicultural classes are still very rarely found. from there, this theme is very important to be discussed in the context of developing student attitudes in dealing with the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 74 phenomenon of intolerance and more respect for differences. the next weakness of previous research is the understanding of tolerance that always stops at the theoretical level, whereas in educational praxis there are still not many who conducted deeper studies. therefore, this research has advantages in the aspect of the factual analysis of educational praxis which is oriented to the development of student tolerance knowledge based on the history of the indonesian national movement on the sub-material of the formulation of the pancasila ideology as the basis for the formation of an independent indonesia in multicultural classes. this is progress as well as a differentiator from previous studies, especially in the indonesian context. this research is relevant to current conditions, where people are facing the turmoil of intolerance in various fields of life such as religion, culture, and ethnicity. it will become an added value of a similar field in terms of actuality and novelty of research concepts. the development of tolerance knowledge in multicultural classes has become a very important text and contributed ideas for the implementation of education in indonesia. particularly, this research will strengthen the aspects of historical learning in terms of its functions and uses for the social life of society. method research design this research was conducted using an ethnographic design with grounded theory (gt) initiated by strauss & corbin (1990) where a qualitative approach was used for data analysis. strauss & corbin (1990) argued that the qualitative method is the approach used to gather the information that can explain certain objects deeply and thoroughly. one of the reasons why the gt method was applied in this study was to formulate a theory of tolerance in the multicultural class which was based on a conceptual idea in the form of a process of learning the history of the indonesian national movement in the formulation of the pancasila ideology underlying the establishment of an independent indonesia. another objective of the gt method in this research was to trigger the attention of scholars to study the development of tolerance knowledge based on historical narratives with tolerance, such as the formulation of the pancasila ideology which involved various elements; culture, religion, and ethnicity in indonesia. this positive collaboration became a unit of analysis that would be described to see the extent to which students were able to understand the text presented and to confirm the information received with the phenomenon of intolerance that was currently developing. utomo & wasino the gt method (strauss & corbin, 1990) used pivots at 5 stages, namely: (i) the stages of problem formulation, the basis for the formulation of the research problem carried out was oriented towards identifying the object under study, namely the development of tolerance knowledge in multicultural classes in learning the history of the indonesian national movement in the history submission of the formulation of the pancasila ideology and the problems oriented to the process and actions of students in participating in the entire learning that had been screened by the teacher in collaboration with researchers; (ii) the stages of using theoretical studies, the gt method did not aim to test the truth of a theory and was not affected by literature studies, nor did it rely on various variables originating from theory, because it hampered the development of new theoretical formulations. researchers in research using the gt method did not yet know the object to be researched, including the types of data and various variables that were likely to be found. the researcher went into the field with a blank head, providing the researcher with general knowledge about tolerance and historical learning, social contexts such as the phenomenon of intolerance provide a basis for researchers to create interesting discussions in class. the literature review in this study is not a reference for testing the correctness of the theory of tolerance learning, but rather for developing a theory of tolerance which has been an opposing discourse for the phenomenon of intolerance; (iii) data collection and sampling stages. the gt method used the researcher himself as the data collection instrument. at this stage, the activity of defining research questions and defining a priori constructs was carried out. rationally, there were efforts to focus on problems and limit irrelevant variations and sharpen external validity. all student activities in multicultural classes in learning the history of the indonesian national movement in the formulation of the pancasila ideology were data that can be analyzed. the accuracy of the researchers in combining the data obtained had a big influence on the analysis process in the report; (iv) the research data analysis stage, data analysis in the gt method was carried out in the form of coding, which was the process of decomposing data, drafting and rearranging them in a new way. the research carried out results in various findings arranged into 9 transcriptions. to simplify the analysis process, the results of data transcription were coded as follows: college student data 1 = csd1; college student data 2 = csd2; csd3; etc. the code in this study was the final result of selective coding, namely selecting core categorizations and linking other categories to core categories, the core category in this study was the process of the principles of student acceptance of knowledge of tolerance and the process of developing students' knowledge of tolerance which was based on journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 76 understanding history and the confirmation process on the actual phenomenon that was currently being faced, namely intolerance; and (v) the conclusion and report writing stage, the stage of concluding the gt method was not based on generalizations but rather on the specifications of the theme raised. gt research in this study had made specifications for: the conditions that cause the development of students' knowledge of tolerance in learning the history of the national movement in the formulation of pancasila as an ideology in multicultural classes, actions or interactions that were a response to these conditions, and the consequences arose from that action or interaction. participants this research involved a history class with 25 students as the participants. they were the fifth semester of the history education undergraduate program at universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, coming from various ethnic and religious adherents. sundanese, javanese, betawi, papuan, and minang were the participants’ ethnic identities while islam, christianity, and hinduism were their religious identities. these ethnics and religious groups are dominant in indonesian society. therefore, the chosen class can be considered a multicultural class because it has diverse students’ cultural backgrounds. the participants were between 18 and 21 years old as the research commenced. in the study of humanistic psychology, this age is the time for the formation of knowledge of tolerance and strengthening the character of citizens (maslow & rogers, 1979). this way, the selected group of participants was contextual with the aim of research in developing tolerance knowledge through learning history. table 1 shows the characteristics of the participants. table 1 characteristics of student participants no characteristics information frequency 1 gender male 12 female 13 2 age 18 years old 4 19 years old 10 20 years old 8 21 years old 3 3 ethnic sundanese 5 javanese 5 betawi 5 papuan 5 minang 5 4 religion islam 9 christian 8 hinduism 8 5 involvement in community interfaith dialogue club study 8 ambassador of ethnic and religious harmony 8 pro-tolerance students community 9 utomo & wasino research instruments this study used the researcher himself as the key instrument. other instruments applicable were observation and interview. the researcher was the main instrument whose function collected as much data as possible according to the needs of the analysis and answer research questions (bogdan & biklen, 2006). as an instrument, it means that the researcher collected the data directly without going through intermediaries. the researcher observed, searched for, asked questions, heard, asked, and took information according to the items in the interview guidelines that had been developed. thus, the position of the researcher as an instrument could create a product in the form of a research data transcription using an interview guide. the researcher developed items that were relevant to the variables and indicators that helped researchers find the required information. these items were developed in a series of questions used as an interview guide. the interview guides were validated by expert judgment and anchor techniques (bogdan & biklen, 2006). from the three confirmed research questions, 26 items are becoming a reference for collecting the data. these items were developed by the researcher with the focus on the knowledge of tolerance and intolerance as well as certain factors considered having contributions to tolerant and intolerant deeds. if looked closely, these themes and interviews are related to tolerance, intolerance, and the thoughts shaping both through learning the history of the indonesian national movement on the topic of pancasila ideology formulation. expert judgment was as an expert to correct the scope, focus, and area of proper topics in the guide. anchor means the author used for a real data collection piloted to 3-5 participants after the guide has been devised. see table 2. table 2 interview guidelines no interview guidelines rq1: what kinds of tolerance knowledge are perceived as tolerance or intolerance deeds by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? 1 what is tolerance? 2 what is intolerance? 3 why an attitude is considered tolerance or intolerance? 4 what experiences have you had about tolerance or intolerance? 5 what causes you to be tolerant? 6 to whom is tolerance aimed? 7 are there any benefits to understanding tolerance? 8 how does knowledge of tolerance relate to historical knowledge of the indonesian national movement? rq2: how are tolerance behavior performed as tolerance or intolerance deeds by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? 1 how are tolerance and intolerance from the perspective of the history of the indonesian national movement? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 78 2 how do you identify an attitude of tolerance or intolerance? 3 what is cultural tolerance in your opinion? and what about cultural intolerance? 4 what is religious tolerance in your opinion? and what about intolerance in the religious field? 5 what is ethnic tolerance in your opinion? and what about intolerance in ethnic relations? 6 what is the pancasila ideology? load tolerance? implications in social life? 7 how did the figures play a role in tolerance in indonesian history? 8 how is the knowledge of tolerance in the social context and its actualization? rq3: what factors are perceived to contribute tolerance or intolerance deed by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? 1 how do you understand the issues of tolerance and intolerance? 2 what do you think about tolerance as the basis for the formation of an independent indonesia? do you agree or not? 3 what is more important? tolerance or intolerance in an ethnically, culturally, and religiously diverse country? 4 what is the basis that made you accept the knowledge of tolerance? 5 what is the basis for rejecting the knowledge of intolerance? 6 how do you understand the instructions given by the lecturer in learning the history of the indonesian national movement? 7 how do you understand about nationalism and multiculturalism in indonesia? 8 how do you regard historical knowledge based on nationalism as an important idea in establishing the idea of tolerance? 9 how do you regard diversity as an important idea in establishing the idea of tolerance? 10 how do you consider ideology as an important idea in establishing the idea of tolerance? data and source of data the data of the study consisted of two types, namely primary and secondary data, determined according to the research priority. the primary data included activities and recordings obtained from the observations and interviews. the primary data were obtained through participants and learning activities on the history of the national movement in the formulation of the pancasila ideology. transcripts of observations and interviews in the form of text were data that were analyzed in terms of content and compliance with the research objectives. the data was obtained from students and student activities as a whole in the process of learning history in multicultural classes. the students’ activities used as the data were related to the students' obedience in following orders, observing the texts and searching for the required information, doing the activity of solving certain problems, combining their findings with their group colleagues’, expressing their ideas, presenting their work, accepting critiques and feedbacks, and formulating the conclusion of the overall study process of the history of the indonesian national movement in the learning sub material of the formulation of pancasila ideology. the secondary data were the documents. the secondary data of this study were sourced from reading materials that support the process of research analysis such as documents of student learning outcomes and student work during the history of the national movement in the formulation utomo & wasino of the pancasila ideology. the secondary data was collected to complete information not found in primary data. this secondary data were also the source of confirmation of information, for example, students who were active in class, whether they completed assignments properly according to the instructions given by the teacher during learning. these data were collected through document analysis. these were the documents of the students’ individual and group works. both documents elaborated on the students’ precision, critical, and systematic thinking in formulating knowledge. for this reason, these data tend to support the findings obtained from the primary data. both primary and secondary data became complementary and strengthened each other as they provide suitable information to promote the theory of tolerance based on the learning activities of the history of the indonesian national movement in the learning material on the formulation of pancasila ideology. data collection techniques in collecting the data, the researcher referred to an interview and observation guidance. before proceeding to do the class arrangement, the researcher did document observation so that the results of the learning process observation could confirm the documents' data. document analysis was the earliest data collection process. the themes arising from the documents were tolerance, intolerance, the thoughts shaping both. those themes arose from a systemic observation. then, observation, the researcher collected the data by taking a closer look at students in the class during the learning process. the researcher intended to confirm the findings in the document analysis and to see the agreement or denial of the students to the documents. he had checked the students’ and the teachers’ opinions during the observation and the result was the confirmation on the previous data which strengthened the position of the data according to the themes. during the observation, the researcher explained that the history learning conducted had the theme of the indonesia national movement for the pancasila ideology formulation. it was meant to develop tolerance, prepare the students to cope with intolerance phenomena, and develop their acceptance to differences under the nationalism scheme. the learning was designed cooperatively to find out further how they interacted, worked together, stated their opinions, and became their groups’ representatives. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 80 in the observation, not all data were specified and based on the preliminarily determined themes. some data were still too broad. to strengthen the position of the data, confirmation was needed making the use of interview techniques. the interviews were successful to reveal individual perceptions and attitudes. they were focused on the themes of tolerance, intolerance, and the thoughts that shape both. in this process, the acceptance to differences, tolerance forms, the reasons they accept or deny tolerance, the relationship between the history of pancasila ideology formulation and tolerance process, and the students’ attitude towards tolerance and intolerance were found. the researcher directly managed the class of the history of the indonesian national movement in the history sub-material of the formulation of the pancasila ideology to carry out research scenarios that aimed to develop students’ tolerance knowledge in multicultural classes. a text that contained the latest intolerance issues and the historical narrative of the indonesian national movement with the historical sub-material of the formulation of the pancasila ideology as the basis for the formation of an independent indonesia containing the text of tolerance was submitted as a discussion item for students. the learning was designed to be contextual and lead to planned goals. intolerance was the main issue discussed and questions about nationalism and acceptance of differences were raised by lecturers to trigger dialectics in the classroom. dialectic is the best tool for developing individual and group knowledge (gadamer, 1976). hegel believes that dialectics starts the formation of general knowledge which starts from discourse in small groups (rosen, 1984). intolerance is a quite sensitive issue discussed in public because it involves matters of religion, ethnicity, and culture. classrooms become the best arena to discuss the issue because it is supported by academic equipment (bourdieu et al., 2019). learning was designed using the humanistic approach of maslow and rogers (1979) framework. to foster student tolerance knowledge, researcher was implemented systematically based on the following learning plans. see table 3. table 3 lesson plan of teaching multiculturalism learning objectives : 1. growing tolerance knowledge 2. guiding students to be able to face the problem of intolerance and initiate a solution. 3. growing nationalism and acceptance of differences approach : humanistic strategy : cooperative learning learning section time (minutes) activities 1 5 the lecturer conveys the learning objectives utomo & wasino 2 15 the lecturer instructs the steps of learning 3 20 • the lecturer divides students into 6 groups • the lecturer gives texts that contain the phenomenon of intolerance in society and the history of the formulation of the pancasila ideology • the lecturer instructs students to identify the background of acts of intolerance and its impact on social harmony in society and the roots of thinking about tolerance based on the history of the indonesian national movement in the history submission of the formulation of the pancasila ideology. 4 35 • the lecturer instructs students to collaborate with knowledge sourced from books and the internet • students present their answers • responding between groups 5 15 appreciation and conclusion drawing the learning plan was designed to accommodate the importance of developing contextual knowledge of student tolerance and was expected to develop within a humanistic framework. the nationalism aspect was reflected in the ideology underlying the formation of students about tolerance. research on tolerance ended after students had successfully made an appreciation of differences and attempted to find similarities from each of the differences that existed (banks, 2006; barry, 2002; osler, 2009). intolerance in the community became an issue that was discussed to trigger criticism among multicultural students. banks (2008) believes that in a multicultural reality, people are required to be critical of the discourse on ethnicity, religion, and culture. these three things are believed to be unifying, on the other hand, it is also believed to be a source of conflict. researchers had considered that the unifying dimension would be used as a reference in the formation of tolerance knowledge, while conflict would be an aspect of dialogue. therefore, the output of this activity is proofed that tolerance learning can provide students an understanding of the meaning of unity within the framework of nationalism. the research data was collected through in-depth interview techniques and participant observation (bogdan & biklen, 2006). in-depth interviews were conducted individually for participants to see tolerance knowledge in the early conditions, during learning, and post-learning. interviews were conducted in coordination with a lecturer of history of the indonesian national movement, after that the time and place of the interview were planned jointly with the agreement between the researcher and the lecturer. each participant was interviewed for a maximum of 10 minutes. the interview was conducted at the end of the implementation of learning the history of the indonesian national movement. the entire interview was carried out independently by the researcher. all interview results were documented in voice recordings. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 82 participant observation was done collectively while learning takes place. the observed aspect was the students' activities in analyzing and speaking about what they had done, presentations and discussions were the main focus of data collection with this technique. the tool used to record the results of observations was a research notebook. besides, researchers used cameras to capture images of the object being observed. trustworthiness of data the reliability of the data was validated using triangulation techniques and member checks. the triangulation used in this study was a method triangulation between in-depth interviews and observations (strauss & corbin, 1990). to see the extent to which students can provide honest and correct information at the time of the interview, it is confirmed that the truth is through observation. so that between the two data collection techniques were used to check each other. member checks were used to check the correctness of information between the member of the researcher. for example, to ensure that the information submitted by csd2 contained the truth, it was crosschecked on csd1, and vice versa, and applied to other participants. to strengthen the position of the findings, the researcher also conducted consultations with each participant regarding the final data obtained, so that important information in this study could be confirmed. data analysis this study adopted the data analysis model proposed by strauss and corbin (1990), namely the analysis of gt. this analysis has found repeated themes by checking the data thoroughly, coding the arising themes with the keywords and phrases, grouping those coded into hierarchical concepts, categorizing the concepts through their relationship. systematically, gt analysis first conducted through the memo and note-taking in order to apprehend the thinking process, which is from observation data during the learning process and interviews. the most actual process of thinking could be seen from how the students conveyed their opinions. the researcher, then, made the coding. initially, it was an open coding which is the identified intended concept in the qualitative data. the concepts were, then, coded by identifying their attributes and synchronizing to the themes (tolerance, intolerance, and the thoughts which shape both). the next step was the axial coding, it was the process to rebuild the data and identify the relationship between concepts through inductive logic. the collected data were connected to utomo & wasino the themes by looking at the data synchronization. after that, selective coding was conducted which was the integrating and perfecting of the concepts into the theories as well as choosing the core concepts for analysis. this step was successful to gather the related concepts with the theory of tolerance which would be promoted. from the gathered concepts, then, the researcher collected the theoretical sample to analyze. he conducted a constant comparison by checking the core data and their variants. after that, the data were classified according to the purpose of the research which was to develop the theory of tolerance. from this point, he could take the theoretical sample, the forms of theory explaining the identified relationship, the students’ thoughts on the determined themes which constructed and promoted the theory of tolerance. findings rq1: what kinds of tolerance knowledge are perceived as tolerance or intolerance deeds by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? the researcher examined the students' initial knowledge regarding intolerance and the history of the indonesian national movement in the formulation of the pancasila ideology. this analysis is important to see the extent to which students understand the growing phenomenon of intolerance and the historical roots of tolerance in indonesia. interviews show that students have prior knowledge of the phenomenon of intolerance and historical knowledge that contains tolerance in the history of the indonesian national movement, as in confirmation, they can articulate several major events related to these two aspects. the students mentioned the events which constituted an act of intolerance, namely: (1) ahok as a christian and ethnic chinese received rejection when running for governor of dki jakarta in 2017; (2) a hindu teenager from arab ethnicity was bullied because he was considered different from his friends, the incident became crowded because the teenager was depressed, this happened in 2018; (3) ethnic betawi women persecuted chinese women because of hatred towards ethnic chinese, this incident occurred in 2018; (4) in padang, west sumatra, the celebration of christmas 2019 was opposed by the majority of muslims. furthermore, the students mentioned the events that occurred in the formulation of the pancasila ideology which contained the historical roots of the knowledge of tolerance in indonesia, namely: journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 84 (1) on march 1, 1945 the japanese government formed an investigative body for the preparation of indonesian independence; (2) to prepare for indonesian independence, bpupki on may 29 to june 1, 1945 held the first session to discuss the basis of the independent indonesian state; (3) mr. muhammad yamin on may 29, 1945 gave a verbal suggestion of 5 principles, namely: nationalism, humanity, divinity, people's welfare, and people's welfare; (4) prof. supomo in his speech on may 31, 1945 also proposed five principles, namely: unity, kinship, consensus and democracy, deliberation, and social justice; (5) ir. soekarno on june 1, 1945 proposed five basic ideas for an independent indonesia, namely: indonesian nationality, internationalism or nationalism, consensus or democracy, social welfare, and divinity; (6) the five principles proposed by ir. soekarno on june 1, 1945 was designated as the basis for an independent indonesian state. the five foundations are known as pancasila; (7) on june 1, 1945 pancasila was thought by ir. sukarno perfected: divinity by implementing islamic sharia for adherents, just and civilized humanity, indonesian unity, democracy led by wisdom in representative consultations, and social justice for all indonesian people; (8) august 17, 1945 indonesia proclamation of independence, there was a debate about the first point in pancasila which was considered to be overly superior to islamic identity, even though the indonesian people were not only muslims, but consisted of several religions such as christianity, hinduism, buddhism, confucianism, and catholicism. also consists of various ethnicities and cultures; (9) on august 18, 1945 in the name of nationalism and tolerance, the first point was changed to god almighty, this was to respect religion, culture, and ethnicity in indonesia, on the same day pancasila was designated as the nation's ideology and became a symbol of harmony among indonesian society from various background. tolerance is a knowledge that has been rooted in indonesian history, this is understood by students in studying the history of the indonesian national movement.csd2 argues: “indonesia stands as a nation based on reasons of diversity, which is one of the main ideas conveyed by ir. sukarno, in a speech about pancasila, so that diversity must be maintained. “this opinion is based on a strong historical background, and students can provide arguments about historical tolerance.csd4 argues: "tolerance is an idea to strengthen diversity, pancasila is a symbol of tolerance in diversity, and so we should maintain and develop the values in pancasila." the discourse of tolerance in students' understanding still refers to existing knowledge in pancasila. this opinion was reinforced by csd3 that: utomo & wasino “i agree with the opinions of csd2 and csd4 so that to act tolerantly we must respect the opinions of others, respect other ethnicities, respect other cultures outside our identity, in pancasila the second point contains unity, meaning that differences are not an obstacle for us to maintain the unity of indonesia.” the opinion above shows an explanation of tolerant action as a result of the tolerance knowledge implementation that students get in learning the history of the indonesian national movement. csd5 reinforces csd3's opinion that: “not only the third point in pancasila, but the first point reflects the value of religious tolerance. initially, this diverse indonesia would apply islamic law, but at the discretion of all the founding circles of the nation, it was ultimately thwarted, and the islamic narrative was changed to divinity without mentioning any religion, this thought must be implemented into social life, namely by respecting adherents of other religions. , including appreciating their worship.” the argument above shows the position of students in responding to religious differences, that in a country that has a diversity of "mutual respect" attitudes must be put forward.csd1 argues that: “everyone must respect each other, in terms of religion, culture, ethnicity, and even differences of opinion, because by respecting life will be peaceful and avoid conflict.” students already have an attitude to stay away from conflict, this was confirmed by csd1: “in conflict, it will harm all parties, so it is better to avoid, by avoiding disputes, human life will be peaceful, the cases of intolerance that have been described earlier, are examples of triggers for wider conflicts. we must learn that a conflict that originated from intolerance is an attitude of disrespect for the history of the indonesian national movement.” intolerance for students is an attitude that does not reflect respect for the heroes who fought for indonesian independence. csd5 argues: “intolerance will lead to conflict, even physical violence, like the experience of this nation, so there should never be intolerance that occurs in indonesia on the grounds of differences in religion, ethnicity, and culture because these differences are the basis for the establishment of the indonesian nation, which is almost the same as the motto of its founding. americans, namely unity in diversity, while we know bhinneka tunggal ika which means it is similar to the american motto.” journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 86 students' understanding of tolerance tends to be philosophical, but students also understand tolerance in praxis. csd6 argues: “i have an experience, some of my family members are christian, while my nuclear family is muslim, but in every religious holiday, we respect each other by giving congratulations, as well as my chinese brothers, in the celebration of the cultural day, we join in to enliven it by sending parcels as well as saying congratulations, this is done when we celebrate religious holidays or important days in javanese culture. this is a form of tolerance in praxis, in a smaller realm, respecting differences of opinion with others is also part of tolerance.” the explanation above shows the tolerance attitude of students in praxis, in seeing the phenomenon of tolerance, students can associate with the experiences they have had. csd4 successfully identifies actions that include intolerance: “disturbing the worship of other religions, insulting traditions, and other ethnic cultures, denouncing the language or dialect of certain cultural groups, acting racist and discriminatory, and failing to respect differences of opinion. intolerance tends to coerce, usually followed by restraint, while in the tolerance we recognize love, so that there is an element of freedom in it, which enables us to express what we want while all of it is done positively.” the attitude of tolerance about historical knowledge of the national movement in the formulation of pancasila ideology, students explain that: “the predecessors of our nation did not only come from certain ethnic groups, or certain religious groups, or certain cultural groups, but from various ethnic, religious, and cultural groups that were committed to indonesia's independence from colonialism, the concrete idea of that struggle can be seen in pancasila, the purpose of creating this ideology is to bind the indonesian nation so that it is not divided by intolerant behavior. so, as a good citizen, each individual must take care of diversity and tolerance in indonesia, by studying the history of the formulation of the pancasila ideology which is full of nuances of tolerance in it.” tolerance is fundamentally defined as an attitude of "respecting differences" while intolerance is an attitude of "rejecting differences". tolerance tends to prioritize human love, whereas in intolerance there is an element of coercion through violent means to follow the majority mainstream in the realm of religion, culture, and ethnicity. tolerance is understood by students historically and contextually with the present, as well as intolerance. but in the context of intolerance, students see some bad effects that will arise, by understanding this, students are more utomo & wasino in favor of tolerant ideas because, in a peaceful atmosphere, students think there is freedom of expression which is strongly opposed by supporters of the idea of intolerance. rq2: how are tolerance behavior performed as tolerance or intolerance deeds by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? development of student tolerance knowledge in learning the history of the indonesian national movement in the formulation of the pancasila ideology is a process of understanding the historical roots of the idea of tolerance in the formation of an independent indonesia. the understanding that has become the philosophy of the indonesian nation called bhinneka tunggal ika (in english: unity in diversity) is still contained in the preamble to the constitution (uud) of the indonesian state. students follow instructions to identify historical roots based on facts in the formulation of the pancasila ideology. this analysis is important and more specifically reveals the historical roots of knowledge of tolerance in the formation of an independent indonesia as the basis for developing student tolerance knowledge through learning the history of the indonesian national movement. the results of the interviews showed that students identified carefully, they mentioned the following: (1) the fact that pancasila was formulated in an atmosphere of a national movement by people with different ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds so that the agreement to accept differences became an important moment for the indonesian nation; (2) the problem of differences and disputes due to religious, cultural and ethnic reasons was de facto resolved when pancasila was passed as the way of life of an independent indonesian nation; (3) the proclamation of 17 august 1945 is a statement of the indonesian nation to be free from oppression and the determination to declare complete unity as a nation-state; and (4) on august 18, 1945, the indonesian state officially endorsed the rationale for tolerance and harmony among citizens of various ethnicities, cultures, and religions within the framework of the pancasila ideology. the historical facts mentioned have indicated that students' understanding of the historical roots of the formation of the idea of tolerance is strong enough. those who claim to be part of the indonesian nation cannot deny these facts. furthermore, the intolerance that is currently rife according to student understanding is caused by several things, such as (1) failure to understand the history of the indonesian national movement; (2) failure to understand the contents of the pancasila ideology; (3) failure to understand the difference as social capital; and (4) excessive group egoism, usually due to the impulse of power politics. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 88 students reject the nation of intolerance based on ethnicity, culture, and religion because this idea is considered to result in damage and violence. csd3 argues: “from intolerance, we learn that humans need peace so that harmony must be campaigned for. “the word so that in the sentence shows that the effect of teaching tolerance with the formulation of the pancasila ideology is quite concrete. students have identified the cause and effect of the intolerance cases studied. maintaining the unity of indonesia is the priority of the history learning process that emphasizes the formation of good citizens. cases of intolerance that occur with a variety of motives aside from leaving problems that have not yet ended, also become the biggest homework for the education world. therefore, students as the next generation who are expected to be able to maintain the noble values left by their predecessors are also required to be tolerant of those who are different. nationalism must become a priority in social life so that people live in harmony and away from conflict. students are given direction to be objective in dealing with conflict situations and are encouraged to be involved in resolving conflicts. after all, students carry a big mission for the development of indonesia rather than just drifting in a conflict in the form of intolerance. this text proposes ir. sukarno as an exemplary example in state life. he is a national hero and proclaimer of indonesian independence who has formulated the way of life of indonesian above multiculturalism and nationalism. what is presented briefly about the figure of ir. sukarno was a childhood life, his services in the national movement, and his big ideas about indonesia's development, including efforts to build unity in diversity. this learning resource closes with advice from ir. sukarno and the teacher to transmit affective values to students, and they were guided to be able to deal with intolerant situations and participate as agents of tolerance in society. tolerance is seen as an idea that is needed by a multicultural nation, although the anatomy of this idea is not yet understood in detail by students. the provocation process carried out by the teacher provides an overview of the phenomenon of intolerance and its impact on societycsd3 argued: “diverse societies must live in harmony and mutual respect for each other so that they avoid conflict, on television i see an effort to oppress through violence against ethnic majority towards ethnic minorities, i am concerned about that. the divisions that will arise due to intolerance will have a long impact, especially for the development of a peaceful indonesian social life. the third point of pancasila contains "unity" which means that every citizen needs to maintain good relations with one another.” utomo & wasino the explanation of the third point in pancasila according to the above opinion is evidence that students have realized that in the discourse of intolerance, pancasila needs to be voiced, the content in pancasila is the basis for the formation of a deeper knowledge of tolerance. the opinion is the result of student construction on tolerance that comes from the digital literacy process from the internet, mass media, and textbooks, writing that contains intolerance turned out to be able to provide a good introduction for the formation of student tolerance knowledge. csd4 argued: “tolerance for a multicultural country is very important. this idea is a supporter of community peace. i sympathize with humanitarian groups. therefore, i often read writings on tolerance and pluralism, otherwise, i stay away from intolerance and hereditary traits such as hatred and violence, which for me is very detrimental to others.” the word 'otherwise' in the above opinion reflects a very critical process of understanding the developing phenomenon of intolerance. both opinions above are supported by csd2: “the community needs to be accustomed to read and discuss tolerance as a discourse to make it a social construction in daily life. literacy about tolerance is an indicator of the weak spirit of unity among the people, so there are many cases of intolerance in various places. in addition, a very minimal understanding of history makes hatred and violence easy to influence some groups struggling to uphold religious, ethnic, and cultural egoism.” not all students have a good initial understanding of tolerance knowledge, this becomes vary in the discussion process. great curiosity is an important factor in forming a concrete understanding of tolerance. csd6 argues: “i have not understood tolerance in detail, but i reject violence and oppression in any name. as citizens, we have equal rights and none must be promoted based on religion or race.” although have not understood tolerance, this early knowledge is the basis for deepening the idea of tolerance. the stages of discussion encourage students to understand the concepts that they have not learned before. csd8 argues: “i tend to hate behavior that cannot appreciate and respect differences. humans were not created to be uniform, but this difference became wealth that we must guard and care for as hard as we could. the founders of this nation can do it, so why are we now in trouble, or are we who have never learned from history?” the statement above is quite provocative and contains critical interpretations, students make their understanding of the formulation history of pancasila ideology as a basis for arguing. this journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 90 understanding is enough to underlie the knowledge of tolerance to be developed. what it has been conveyed becomes the lecturer's assets to develop student tolerance knowledge that integrates nationalism and acceptance of differences. behind the basic knowledge that has been conveyed, students' curiosity about tolerance in more detail feels very great. their enthusiasm after the teacher gave a provocative introduction showed the potential for the formation of tolerance knowledge that would occur in the history class. this curiosity is very valuable because it is a prerequisite for the process of knowledge growth that will be carried out in learning. based on the opinions explain, it shows that students' acceptance of tolerance is quite positive. students assess that the aspect of tolerance divides into three: tolerance between ethnic, religious, and cultural. these three units which in some cases cause conflict. csd2 believes: "cases of intolerance occur because humans cannot accept cultural, religious, or ethnic differences. it is also rarely taught in school materials, that differences must exist and are absolute. therefore, in line with this view, tolerance becomes very important, tolerance must be accepted as knowledge to reduce hatred towards religious, ethnic, and cultural differences. pledge as a nation is strong enough to be evidence in instilling an understanding of tolerance and rejecting all kinds of intolerant actions." strengthening the opinion above csd 4 explains that: "i agree with csd2's opinion, the difference is a decree and no one can change it, so all humans must respect differences from religion, ethnicity, and culture. these three things if not transmitted within the framework of tolerance will become a problem and lead to conflict. therefore, to prevent it all, accepting the idea of tolerance and developing it as an obligation for every citizen." the lecturer gave an example that the founders of this nation, one of them was ir. sukarno (19451966), he is an indonesian leader who is well known to the world with his big ideas about the pancasila ideology which is anti-colonialism and imperialism has provided a solid basis for accommodating all the diversity that exists in indonesia. the diversity includes aspects of culture, ethnicity, and religion. the lecturer also instructs students to look at the text given in terms of thinking. the thought process will affect the readiness of students to face the real situation in the community. classic photographs that show the plurality of society in the 20th century are displayed to provide an overview while triggering student curiosity. utomo & wasino through the existing text, each group is instructed to live and imagine the situation that takes them as if they experienced the intolerance incident that happened. the photo shown is a reflection of students to be able to confirm every incident of intolerance in the community is wrong. the lecturer also provides introductory questions so that in the identification process, students can be more organized and search for information more thoroughly. the facts conveyed are a source of students' knowledge about tolerance and their identification tools for intolerant cases that they might experience in the community and this learning provides experience for students to be able to deal with the situation. csd1 argues: “violence against minority groups is our problem now. those who perpetrate this violence should be given a leveling up to the ideology of pancasila. they certainly did not understand the history of indonesian since the era of the indonesian national movement which was full of positive cooperation from ethnic, cultural, and religious groups against dutch colonialism. most of them are exposed to fundamental islamic ideologies and nativism which have been rejected by several large countries. they are very ideological, shouting, and voicing their hatred openly. they are rejecting the idea of democracy, but they always say that their actions are part of the freedom of expression, even though it is one of the elements of democracy contained in pancasila ideology. it is shown that their movements are very inconsistent.” the opinion above shows the clear alignment of an undergraduate student towards the anxiety experienced by many people. his alignment was from the state ideology that must be adopted by indonesian citizens. this ideological statement was very real and delivered precisely after students read the text of intolerance that was presented and noticed to the stimulus in the form of photos with the theme of pluralism in the past. csd7 supported that statement: “deviant ideology must indeed be banned. moreover, its teachings are violence and hatred. they use their ego to destroy the social order that has been built for a long time. they never take into account the multiculturalism of indonesian as valuable wealth. they were only concerned with their political ambitions to control indonesia by way of bloodshed. this intolerant spirit needs to be stopped. the ideology of pancasila must become the main discourse in daily life, to accustom people to think tolerant of the different. cases in jakarta, bali, surabaya, and bandung should not occur in other areas.” the multiculturalism discourse conveyed is very compatible with the spirit of tolerance that is trying to grow. pancasila ideology is the main benchmark of behavior in individuals. the above opinion represents an encouraging spirit of tolerance. provocation efforts, so that students take sides with the idea of tolerance, are going pretty well. csd6 argues: journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 92 “intolerance in the name of ethnicity endangers the future of indonesian unity. this interethnic sentiment can have an impact on inter-ethnic warfare. an overflowing hatred will be followed by retaliation in violence. as in the case of papua, those in eastern indonesia also have a large community and they are part of indonesian who fights for independence. multiculturalism must be ensured to be taught systemically in the education curriculum. the community needs to handle social interaction. do not let them easily sentiment towards ethnicity and other religions. that attitude can be controlled through education”. the spirit of maintaining this multiculturalism needs to be appreciated. tolerance starts from the spirit of caring for diversity and respecting it as wealth. these tendencies to stand with diversity that will make individuals tolerate those who are different. this tolerance in the national context is the bond that connects the differences. csd5 argues: “tolerance in ethnicity, religion, and culture must be carried out as a social process that will maintain the existence of the indonesian nation as a friendly and loving nation. intolerant cases that occur are because the perpetrators forget the love in life, so they dare to practice violence. this love has formed the identity of indonesian until this day. this identity must be maintained by every citizen, lest we lose the identity that has been formed so far.” nationalism should be loved. it has become an agreement that formed the identity of indonesian. this is reflected through the arguments above. students as part of the academic community are directly responsible for peace in society. they are an intellectual group that has a big role in changing the nation. discursive practice, multiculturalism, and historical knowledge construct students' knowledge about tolerance. these three aspects become the main foundation that convinces students to maintain a tolerant attitude as an effort to maintain peace in the community. in addition to some of the principles above, students' understanding of ethnic tolerance on a historical basis, and multiculturalism is explained in a concrete manner. a more specific explanation explained by csd3 about the meaning of tolerance in ethnicity, namely: "tolerance as an idea that must be accepted offers peace between ethnic groups. the conflict that occurred in sampit in 2001 between madurese and dayak tribes in borneo caused by ethnic egoism which resulted in conflict and many victims. the competition occurred between two ethnic groups that were unhealthy, full of hatred and violence. it also happened in 1998, three years earlier when the chinese ethnic got violent behavior and discrimination which was very detrimental to them. the history of the formulation of pancasila includes cooperation between ethnic groups, javanese, sundanese, madurese, dayak, batak, papuan, etc. has contributed thoughts in the preparation of the ideology of pancasila as the basis for an independent indonesian state.” utomo & wasino students' understanding of cultural-based tolerance is also quite interesting. the analysis shows evidence that students have insight into the culture in the discourse of tolerance. an explanation of cultural tolerance is explained by csd6: "pancasila is the crystallization of indonesian culture which is very diverse, through this ideology, society is united in the frame of nationalism. the second point in this ideology contains adjusted and civilized humanity, which means that people must be able to act fairly, not be arrogant, not selfish in carrying out culture, more importantly respect for other cultures. that difference becomes social capital in development.” the explanation of the second point of pancasila is an important reflection as well as proves that students have a concrete understanding of cultural tolerance based on historical knowledge of the indonesian national movement. tolerance between ethnicities and cultures explained by the opinions above becomes a form of declaration of students who are full of awareness about the future of indonesian harmony. this is in line with student acceptance of religious tolerance, csd7 believes: "after the first point of pancasila was changed to the one and only godhead, at that time the muslims had supported the plurality of religions, the existence of various religions in indonesia became the basis for the formation of harmony in indonesia, this was also a social capital in the development of social life.” the ability of students to correlate knowledge of tolerance with the situation in indonesia in the future as well as to strengthen the evidence that the history of the formulation of the pancasila ideology provides students with an actual understanding to develop their knowledge of tolerance. csd9, csd5, and csd2 agree on the opinion of csd7, csd6, and csd3 that learning the history of the national movement can strengthen students' understanding of ethnic, cultural, and religious tolerance because in this historical narrative there is a meaning and philosophy of peaceful and hopeful community life. the purpose of a state becomes increasingly clear to understand, this is a fundamental criticism of the growing phenomenon of intolerance, it is a learning process, csd1 argues: "those who do not understand history will become blind, tolerance requires a broad and clear view of history, the present, and future.” students' understanding of tolerance cannot be separated from ir. sukarno and his role in the history of the indonesian national movement. this figure in the view of students is called: (1) the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 94 proclaimer; (2) unifying the nation; (3) intellectual; (4) politicians; and (5) pluralist. the idea of this figure to accommodate all the interests of the indonesian people from various backgrounds placed ir. sukarno was the equivalent of mahatma gandhi who was anti-oppression and violence. these two figures lived in the same phase, namely colonialism in the 20th century. csd3 argued: "we should study the thoughts of ir. sukarno, one of which is pancasila, which is now a progressive ideology for the indonesian nation, the results of his thoughts are the basis for our unity in the indonesian nation.” the influence of ir. sukarno was evident in the student explanation. his character is very inspiring for the students to follow his footsteps. his role in the process of forming indonesian nationalism is very large, this underlies the formation of tolerance in society today. csd4 argues: "indonesian nationalism is a counterweight to tolerance, both of these are found in pancasila, namely sukarno's very monumental thoughts." this opinion is full of ideas obtained in the process of learning the history of the national movement from the results obtained, students not only understand tolerance from a conceptual perspective but in praxis and adapted to the actuality of current social life. csd2 argues: "tolerance is born from understanding the history of the national movement and reflecting on the present life, the result is concrete actions such as preventing hostility, rejecting hatred and discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, and culture." the resulting word becomes a transition point indicating that students' knowledge of tolerance has developed. this has received support from csd4 that: "i agree with csd2, concrete action to prevent division needs to be done, every individual must be aware of the history and can side with humanity. the two mutually supportive arguments above have complemented the analysis of the process of developing student tolerance knowledge in multicultural classes in learning the history of the indonesian national movement in the formulation of the pancasila ideology. the development of students' knowledge of tolerance develops through a process of initial understanding and discursive practice. this highlights the importance of using historical-based tolerance texts and the phenomenon of intolerance to strengthen the narrative in learning so that students can understand the knowledge of tolerance in a more actual manner. utomo & wasino rq3: what factors are perceived to contribute tolerance or intolerance deeds by undergraduate history students at universitas negeri semarang? the role of ir. sukarno in the struggle to realize an independent indonesia was massive, he became the first president of indonesia, had been in dutch and japanese prisons, and he wrote quite a lot of works, the monumental one was the book of indonesia sues and under the flag of revolution (dbr). students explain these events by highlighting the role of ir. sukarno in his efforts to build tolerance in indonesian society through the ideology he sparked. csd1 argues “an independent indonesia is based on pancasila, which is full of ideas of tolerance, while society currently does not recognize ir. sukarno and did not try to understand the history of his struggle, one of which was pancasila, which was not well understood, so that intolerance was widespread.” students understand the thoughts of ir. sukarno and the history of his struggle for an independent indonesia are quite important to study, especially in the formation of knowledge of tolerance, this can be proven when students associate the phenomenon of intolerance with the symptoms of a society that does not recognize the history of the formulation of the pancasila ideology. csd2 critically argues: "this intolerance occurs because someone does not understand the formulation of the pancasila ideology, this results in ahistorical behavior of the community, as a result, they do not remember the togetherness of various ethnicities and religions struggling in the indonesian national movement." the word results in the explanation show that students are able to look for causal patterns in understanding the phenomenon of intolerance and the history of the formulation of the pancasila ideology. this opinion was reinforced by csd3: "csd2's opinion is very much in accordance with current conditions, for a multicultural nation, historical knowledge which contains tolerance is very important, the ideology of pancasila is a symbol of nationalism and the pro-social attitude of the indonesian nation." understanding csd3 and csd2 are related to the formation of students' knowledge of tolerance based on historical knowledge. csd5 argues: "tolerance is important knowledge, the spirit of indonesian unity and harmony which is embodied in pancasila." this opinion reflects that knowledge of tolerance is essential for the existence of the indonesian nation, all efforts to create the nation's disintegration result in endless hostility and conflict. students follow every instruction given by the lecturer, including conducting studies from various sources regarding the phenomenon of intolerance, the history of the formulation of the pancasila journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 96 ideology, and the tolerant behavior of the nation's founders. csd6 argues: "understanding intolerance from various sources makes our knowledge comprehensive, this idea should be challenged and never followed as a general view because it threatens the unity of the nation." this opinion shows that students have a concrete understanding of the rejection of intolerance by following the instructor's instructions in learning. although autonomously, students make the learning process to make important decisions about attitudes towards intolerance as well as against the idea. tolerance in ethnicity, culture, and religion begins with the process of accepting differences. this attitude is the root of a peaceful multicultural society formation. intolerance negates the idea of acceptance of differences because genealogically they reject differences and demand uniformity. in addition, they also force opinions and unilaterally claim a truth. outside their group are enemies that must be eliminated. it is the spirit of differences acceptance that needs to be strengthened to build a harmonious society. the rejection of differences occurs because generally, intolerance has taken control of the public mind. therefore, learning history teaches acceptance of differences as the strength of students to be able to play an active role as agents of tolerance in society. csd1 argues: “the difference is something that cannot be denied, so there is no other way but to accept it. rejecting difference means we oppose a supreme decree made by god. the case in the text shows a group that opposes god's decree, they are in the name of religion but they forget that the difference they are mocking is the creation of their lord. conflicts in the name of religion, ethnicity, and culture place differences as objects that must be removed. this is not good for the future of tolerance and democracy in indonesia.” this understanding based on historical reasons, support for the opinion of csd1 comes from csd3 that: "the founders of this nation in formulating pancasila could place tolerance as a basic idea, in 1945 the progress of thinking was so fast, in the present era it has experienced a setback, this is very ironic." this opinion becomes a reflection for all students who have anxiety about the phenomenon of intolerance. for students, things that must consider preventing intolerance are: (1) not being reactive to discourse, (2) rejecting the issue of racism; (3) confirm the news; and (4) independent in taking a stand. utomo & wasino the understanding of nationalism is based on the reflection on the work of ir. sukarno in indonesian history, this proclaimer and the national hero has had a broad and large influence to this day. csd6 believes: “the founders of the nation have laid a very strong foundation for indonesian. ir. sukarno is a true hero, his big idea of nationalism and humanism has been inherited until this time through cultural and religious practices, this has become the spirit to fight intolerance and accommodate all differences in society.” csd8 agrees with csd3 and csd6: “this difference in indonesia is a wealth that must be protected by all citizens. ir. soekarno had a big idea about indonesia, an example of peace and harmony in society. he unites the community through thought, not violence or hatred as is done by intolerant groups.” some cases in the text do explain intolerance in the name of religion, although it is a quite sensitive theme, it is a fact that must be addressed. the opinion above, of course, is not discrediting any religion. the above opinion is self-criticism of the wrong way of religion. in a multicultural society, religious principles must be harmonized with a spirit of tolerance, so that the case of intolerance in the name of religion is far from the lives of citizens. csd9 argues: “differences sometimes limit the space for movement and community interaction. the spirit of uniformity of the differences arises because of desires that are not based on science, especially nationalism. they (intolerant groups) do not recognize the concepts of multiculturalism, nationalism, humanism, so they do things that are instinctively contrary to these ideas. from this class, ideas are transmitted as a knowledge that becomes a guide in later social life. i believe that efforts to realize indonesia without intolerance are still wide open”. the opinion above explains the optimism of students that comes from an understanding of history, the results of reflection, and criticism of intolerance to make students' knowledge more mature about tolerance. csd3 argues: “the rejection of differences occurs because of a person's ignorance of what he is doing. this is quite fatal, especially the mastery of concepts that are not mature, and the wrong spirit of religion. finally, it causes intolerance in the community.” previous opinions represent optimism in realizing a tolerant society. students through the given text begin to understand, that tolerance is very valuable for the lives of citizens. acceptance of differences is constructed by the discursive knowledge of multiculturalism, nationalism, and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 98 humanism while the rejection of differences occurs due to lack of knowledge, limited mastery of concepts, and wrong religious enthusiasm. therefore, history is represented as a subject that supports the process of forming tolerance knowledge that is integrated with nationalism and acceptance of differences. the hidden purpose of this learning is to encourage students to reject all ideas that support intolerance. intolerance has created prolonged sentiments that disrupt the lives of citizens. intolerance has also hampered the course of social interaction between groups. the rejection of intolerance and the formulation of strategies to deal with it became a big agenda achieved through learning the history of the indonesian national movement in the sub-material formulation of the pancasila ideology as the basis for the formation of an independent indonesian state with the text of intolerance as a source of learning. csd2 argues: “intolerance has now become a virus that must be resisted by all parties. intolerant groups forget the state's ideology in acting, and therefore they must be confronted with a campaign about tolerance. i reject the idea of intolerance because it triggers prolonged sentiment among religious, ethnic, and cultural groups. history has proven that this intolerance is a source of destruction. our ancestors are a nation that is tolerant and capable of upholding human values”. historical information becomes the dominant factor that forms knowledge tolerance in society. the text of intolerance that is presented by making history as its introduction has succeeded in strengthening the perspective of students to deal with intolerance. the above argument also supports the idea of humanism which underlies a peaceful life. csd7 supports the previous opinion: “intolerance is a destructive idea that will destroy multicultural national unity. good citizens are those who want to be directly involved in solving social problems in the community, we as an educated group must participate in becoming agents in campaigning tolerance in society. intolerance is not the best way to create a better life, it must be rejected and humanist ideas must campaign for every member of society”. students firmly take a stand against intolerance because they have succeeded in identifying bad things due to intolerance csd4 strengthen the opinions of csd2 and csd7: “yes, i agree with the opinion that intolerance is a virus and a destructive idea that must be resolved. democracy must not provide a place for them to destroy the multiculturalism of society and to harm the sense of nationalism that has been fostered so far.” utomo & wasino the text given has created students' critical thinking framework towards intolerance that occurs in the community. students assess intolerance as a negative idea that is not appropriate for citizens. this intolerance causes negative things that will harm indonesian if not immediately resolved. this is in line with the opinion of csd8: “intolerance in any form must be opposed. i strongly protest against intolerant efforts such as the prohibition of worship, racism, and group discrimination because it is not in line with the ideology of pancasila. we must maintain this commitment to maintaining national integration.” dominant factors that determine students' rejection of intolerant ideas are the ideology of pancasila, historical reasons, and multiculturalism. they not only think in a pluralistic way but also ideologically, the text given constructs solid knowledge about tolerance and the spirit of rejecting intolerant ideas. students believe that nationalism is a very important idea for the public to understand. the understanding of nationalism is based on the history of the formulation of the pancasila ideology which is filled with an atmosphere of tolerance students have decided that the ideology of pancasila (five principles: belief in god, humanity, nationalism, democracy, and justice) is one of the factors as well as a guideline for developing knowledge of tolerance. csd5 believes: "in the ideology of pancasila, there are elements of nationalism and humanity, with that the problem of intolerance should no longer exist. instead, understanding must be the basis for developing a spirit of tolerance, pancasila is an ideology as well as an agreement of an indonesian independence nation in 1945, and pancasila is the highest symbol of tolerance the nation of indonesia to this day." historical knowledge is one of the factors that can develop the knowledge tolerance of students. csd2 believes: "in this class, we understand that history is very important to develop knowledge of tolerance since the traditional era of indonesian society has been multicultural, from the history of traditional to modern eras we can take lessons that tolerance must be mainstreamed as a discourse of social life every day, many cases of intolerance caused by a lack of understanding of history, and our society are accustomed to forgetting history, so now to reduce cases of intolerance we must pay attention to history as a necessity." journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 100 the next factor that forms the knowledge of student tolerance is the awareness of the importance of multiculturalism for the development of social harmonization. csd1 believes: "multiculturalism is a guiding idea that makes us more tolerant of differences. all kinds of differences must be addressed honestly and wisely, in this class, for example, we understand that diversity is real and multiculturalism cannot be denied, can anyone reject ethnic differences in this class? no one. therefore, we must respect everything. it can be a tool to reduce intolerance which is currently starting higher in cases. multiculturalism must align with pancasila and historical knowledge as a determinant of the formation of our tolerance knowledge." knowledge of tolerance is developed by students autonomously in the process of learning history in multicultural classes. these diverse classroom conditions provide clearer visualizations of the material taught. historical knowledge, the ideology of pancasila, and multiculturalism become supporting variables that strengthen the position of nationalism and acceptance of differences as dominant factors that are useful for the formation of a knowledge base and further development of tolerance knowledge as well as a rejection of intolerance. the appearance of students, who are very confident in linking between reality, historical conditions, and the problems faced, shows that students are autonomously able to make the process of learning tolerance as a medium in building social harmony. the students' performances are also strongly influenced by their backgrounds, their activity outside the classroom, especially in the community they are interested in. this students' performance shows that tolerance knowledge is more easily developed through learning in multicultural classes, in an autonomous way and relies on student-centered principles and humanist approaches. discussion tolerance as knowledge can be discussed through learning the history of the indonesian national movement in the formulation of pancasila ideology. starting the lesson by submitting a text on the history of the formulation of pancasila ideology as well as providing an overview of the recent phenomenon of intolerance can trigger students' mindsets about historical discourse and its actuality. students analyze that tolerance is an attitude of respecting differences, accepting differences, and caring for differences (jaffrelot, 2005; ferrar, 1976). aside from the one mentioned before, intolerance is seen as a negative idea that creates violence and conflict. an utomo & wasino intolerant attitude does not really reflect the personality of the indonesian nation when viewed from pancasila ideology (anderson, 1983). on the other hand, tolerance is an idea that gives rise to human love, so it is important to develop it. the attitude of respect referred to tolerance targets aspects of culture, religion, and ethnicity, this supports the opinion of godwin (2001) that these three things are the most essential parts in the formation of tolerance knowledge. these three things are very contextual with the conditions of the diversity of indonesian society (hansen, 2011; farmer, 1984; firmansyah, 2019). this study supports avery's (2002) opinion that intolerance occurs because of weak historical knowledge and understanding of different ideologies and tends to be reactive so that in the phenomenon of intolerance there is always violence and coercion, which is very contrary to the spirit of human love. tolerance is the knowledge that can be developed through strengthening historical knowledge. this, at the same time, complements the opinion of hollingswort et al. (2003) that knowledge of tolerance in the explanation of other subject matter can be integrated, more specifically supported by findings in the material of the national movement history, knowledge of tolerance is easier to teach. students' understanding of contextual tolerance and intolerance is caused by a deep historical understanding that has a critical element. in addition, this study criticizes the opinion of martell and stevens (2017) that tolerance is not only an attitude and knowledge about respecting differences but in this idea, there is an attitude of caring for and maintaining differences in the framework of unity in accordance with the pancasila ideology which is the basis for the establishment of indonesian independence. this study also criticizes menchik (2014) that intolerance in indonesia does not only occur in the realm of religion but culture and ethnicity. bullying certain ethnic groups is proof that the existence of an ethnic group in indonesia is still under threat. complementing rose (2002)’s opinion that intolerance in the field of religion is only one aspect, intolerance can arise in other aspects of life. intolerance clearly shows disregard for history and a lack of humanity. the construction of tolerance knowledge in students emphasizes the aspects of human affection and peace in the society which will deliverthe freedom of expression in a democratic framework. strengthening the opinion of berggren and nilsson (2015) that intolerance does not only rob peace, but also freedom from each individual, so that in an effort to eliminate intolerance from the social realm, tolerance must be promoted, especially in the realm of culture, ethnicity and religion. an open attitude towards other cultures, religions, and ethnicities that can be accustomed through classroom learning forms the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 102 basis for the formation of tolerance knowledge, which is oriented towards respect for the rights of individuals and groups. finally, tolerance is promoted as an idea to foster a free life and still be rooted in respecting, caring for, and maintaining differences as the basis for creating a nation's independence. tolerance can be developed by several factors, namely pancasila ideology, multiculturalism, and historical knowledge. the three of them support the process of promoting the idea of tolerance for the realization of an ideal society, namely a society that has individual freedom and can be responsible for decisions that have an impact on social life (banks, 2006). this at the same time complements avery's (2002) opinion that tolerance can develop because of the reasons for national solidarity in diversity, or in the findings of this study is associated with multiculturalism and nationalism. knowledge of history and the ideology of pancasila is a specialty that can promote the idea of tolerance so that it can be developed by students in learning the history of the indonesian national movement. the deeper understanding of history that is controlled and the critical response to the developing issue of intolerance, it delivers the idea of tolerance which can be practically applied in everyday life. in the end, the research was successful to develop the theory of tolerance according to the presented, theory of tolerance is interpreted as the idea of maintaining a diverse social life with cooperation between citizens who view every citizen of an ethnic, religious, or cultural group in an equal way and a justice manner, without discrimination, racism, or exclusion of minority groups. conclusion this study revealed that tolerance can be promoted as new knowledge by looking at the types of knowledge that are considered tolerance or intolerance, behavior that is carried out as tolerance or intolerance, and factors that contribute to tolerance or intolerance in history education undergraduate students at the universitas negeri semarang. knowledge of tolerance is considered as a way of respecting, caring for, and maintaining diversity as the basis for the establishment of a nation. in the discourse of tolerance, there is an attitude of human affection. the social life of students outside the classroom in contact with differences in ethnicity, religion, and culture further strengthens knowledge of tolerance. intolerance is considered as the knowledge that has an impact utomo & wasino on conflict and disintegration. intolerance is always supported by coercion and violence. meanwhile, tolerance is tied to the attitude of freedom and independence. thus, students accept tolerance more than intolerance as basic knowledge that can be implemented into social life practices. tolerance as new knowledge is developed based on three main factors, namely the ideology of pancasila, multiculturalism, and historical knowledge. the three of them support and complement each other. tolerance as knowledge is an important part of a social life that is free and full of cooperation among citizens without involving prejudice and discrimination. this research implies that tolerance is important to be promoted as knowledge in the education of history education undergraduate at universities, as an effort to create citizens who are able to think rationally while acting to prevent intolerant behavior in social life. references adam, a. w. (2008). the history of violence and the state in indonesia. centre for research on inequality, human security, and ethnicity. adler, s. (2008). the education of social studies teachers. handbook of research in social studies education, 329–351. https://books.google.co.id/books anderson, b. (1983). imagined communities (vol. 1991). london: verso. armstrong, j. (1995). towards a theory of nationalism: consensus and dissensus. notions of nationalism, 34–43. https://books.google.co.id/books avery, p. g. (2002). teaching tolerance: what research tells us. (research and practice). social education, 66(5), 270–276. gale academic onefile, accessed 2 aug. 2020. avery, p. g., sullivan, j. l., & wood, s. l. (1997). teaching for the tolerance of diverse beliefs. theory into practice, 36(1), 32–38. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00405849709543742 bakalar, b. (2018). book review: justice on both sides: transforming education through restorative justice. american journal of qualitative research, 2(2), 145-149. banks, j. a. (1997). educating citizens in a multicultural society. multicultural education series. new york: eric. banks, j. a. (2006). race, culture, and education: the selected works of james a. banks. london: routledge. banks, j. a. (2008). an introduction to multicultural education. new york: pearson. barr, r. d., barth, j. l., & shermis, s. s. (1977). defining the social studies. washington, dc: national council for the social studies. barr, r., barth, j. l., & shermis, s. s. (1978). the nature of the social studies. palm springs, calif: etc. https://books.google.co.id/books https://books.google.co.id/books https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00405849709543742 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 104 barry, b. (2002). culture and equality: an egalitarian critique of multiculturalism. massachusetts: harvard university press. berggren, n., & nilsson, t. (2015). globalization and the transmission of social values: the case of tolerance. journal of comparative economics, 43(2), 371–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2015.02.005 bogdan, r. c., & biklen, s. k. (2006). qualitative research in (validation) and qualitative (inquiry) studies. it is a method-appropriate education: an introduction to theory and methods. new york: pearson. https://www.pearson.com/ bohart, a. c., & greening, t. (2001). humanistic psychology and positive psychology. california: addison-wellesley publishing company. borodina, t., sibgatullina, a., & gizatullina, a. (2019). developing creative thinking in future teachers as a topical issue of higher education. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 226-245.https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/919 bourdieu, p., coleman, j. s., & coleman, z. w. (2019). social theory for a changing society. london: routledge. bush, t. (2006). theories of educational management. international journal of educational leadership preparation, 1(2), n2. http://www.ncpeapublications.org buss, a. r. (1979). humanistic psychology as liberal ideology: the socio-historical roots of maslow’s theory of self-actualization. journal of humanistic psychology, 19(3), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f002216787901900309 chen, h., de, p., hu, y. j., & hwang, b.-h. (2014). wisdom of crowds: the value of stock opinions transmitted through social media. the review of financial studies, 27(5), 1367– 1403. https://doi.org/10.1093/rfs/hhu001 creswell, j. w., & poth, c. n. (2016). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. california: sage publications. demircioglu, i. h. (2008). using historical stories to teach tolerance: the experiences of turkish eighth-grade students. the social studies, 99(3), 105–110. https://doi.org/10.3200/tsss.99.3.105-110 dilworth, p. p. (2004). multicultural citizenship education: case studies from social studies classrooms. theory & research in social education, 32(2), 153–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2004.10473251 duranti, a., & goodwin, c. (1992). rethinking context: language as an interactive phenomenon. cambridge: cambridge university press. https://books.google.co.id/ fairclough, n. (2013). critical discourse analysis: the critical study of language. london: routledge. farmer, r. (1984). humanistic education and self-actualization theory. education, 105(2). https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ ferrar, j. w. (1976). the dimensions of tolerance. pacific sociological review, 19(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.2307%2f1388742 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2015.02.005 https://www.pearson.com/ https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/919 http://www.ncpeapublications.org/ https://doi.org/10.1177%2f002216787901900309 https://doi.org/10.1093/rfs/hhu001 https://doi.org/10.3200/tsss.99.3.105-110 https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2004.10473251 https://books.google.co.id/ https://web.a.ebscohost.com/ https://doi.org/10.2307%2f1388742 utomo & wasino firmansyah, l. m. (2019). diskursus intoleransi dalam pilgub jakarta tahun 2017 di media indonesia (studi wacana kritis pada kompas. com, republika. co. id, dan tempo. co) [phd thesis]. universitas airlangga. gadamer, h.-g. (1976). hegel’s dialectic: five hermeneutical studies. yale: yale university press. gellner, e., & breuilly, j. (1983). nations and nationalism (vol. 1). new york: cornell university press. gerintya, s. (n.d.). benarkah intoleransi antar-umat beragama meningkat? tirto.id. retrieved december 31, 2019, from https://tirto.id/benarkah-intoleransi-antar-umat-beragamameningkat-cepz girdap, h. (2020). human rights, conflicts, and dislocation: the case of turkey in a global spectrum . american journal of qualitative research, 4(1), 6984. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8266 godwin, k., ausbrooks, c., & martinez, v. (2001). teaching tolerance in public and private schools. phi delta kappan, 82(7), 542–546. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f003172170108200713 gokhale, a. a. (2012). collaborative learning and critical thinking. encyclopedia of the sciences of learning, 634–636. https://www.usd.ac.id/seminar/ hansen, o. h. b. (2011). teaching tolerance in public education: organizing the exposure to religious and life-stance diversity. religion & education, 38(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/15507394.2011.579549 harrington-lueker, d. (1993). teaching tolerance. executive educator, 15(5), 14–19. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej462433 harvey, l. (2015). beyond member-checking: a dialogic approach to the research interview. international journal of research & method in education, 38(1), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727x.2014.914487 hollingsworth, l. a., didelot, m. j., & smith, j. o. (2003). reach beyond tolerance: a framework for teaching children empathy and responsibility. the journal of humanistic counseling, education and development, 42(2), 139–151. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164490x.2003.tb00002.x ivygina, a., pupysheva, e., & mukhametshina, d. (2019). formation of sociocultural competence among foreign students. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 288314.https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/917 jaffrelot, c. (2005). for a theory of nationalism. in revisiting nationalism (pp. 10–61). new york: springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-137-10326-0_2 jayusman, wasino, & suyahmo. (2020). chinese in lasem: the struggle for identity and living space. iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 485, 012056. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/485/1/012056 https://tirto.id/benarkah-intoleransi-antar-umat-beragama-meningkat-cepz https://tirto.id/benarkah-intoleransi-antar-umat-beragama-meningkat-cepz https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8266 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f003172170108200713 https://www.usd.ac.id/seminar/ https://doi.org/10.1080/15507394.2011.579549 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej462433 https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727x.2014.914487 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-490x.2003.tb00002.x https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-490x.2003.tb00002.x https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/917 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-137-10326-0_2 https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/485/1/012056 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 106 kilinc, e., tarman, b. & aydin, h. examining turkish social studies teachers’ beliefs about barriers totechnology integration. techtrends 62, 221–223 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-018-0280-y king, s. s. m. b., newmann, f. m., & carmichael, d. l. (2015). authentic intellectual work: common standards for teaching social studies. in social studies today (pp. 63–74). london: routledge. https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ncss/se/ koentjaraningrat, k. (1974). culture, mentality and development. jakarta: pt. gramedia. kotluk, n., & kocakaya, s. (2018). culturally relevant/responsive education: what do teachers think in turkey. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(2), 98-117. kurniawan, g. f., warto, w., & sutimin, l. a. (2019). dominasi orang-orang besar dalam sejarah indonesia: kritik politik historiografi dan politik ingatan. jurnal sejarah citra lekha, 4(1), 36-52.https://doi.org/10.14710/jscl.v4i1.21576 levstik, l. s. (2008). what happens in social studies classrooms. handbook of research in social studies education, 50–62. https://books.google.co.id/ lindsey, t., & pausacker, h. (2016). religion, law, and intolerance in indonesia. london: routledge. loh, r. c.-y., & ang, c.-s. (2020). unravelling cooperative learning in higher education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 22-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.2 martell, c. c., & stevens, k. m. (2017). equity-and tolerance-oriented teachers: approaches to teaching race in the social studies classroom. theory & research in social education, 45(4), 489–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2017.1320602 maslow, a. h. (1991). critique of self-actualization theory. the journal of humanistic education and development, 29(3), 103–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-4683.1991.tb00010.x maslow, a. h., & rogers, c. (1979). humanistic psychology. journal of humanistic psychology, 19(3), 13–26. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ menchik, j. (2014). productive intolerance: godly nationalism in indonesia. comparative studies in society and history, 56(3), 591–621. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43908301 muharam, m. m. (2016). konservatisme dan intoleransi agama pada era reformasi di indonesia. @ trisula, 4(01), 7–7. https://www.ejournal.undar.ac.id/ nichterlein, s. (1974). historicism and historiography in indonesia. history and theory, 13(3), 253–272. doi: 10.2307/2504779 ollerenshaw, j. a., & creswell, j. w. (2002). narrative research: a comparison of two restorying data analysis approaches. qualitative inquiry, 8(3), 329–347. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f10778004008003008 osler, a. (2009). patriotism, multiculturalism, and belonging: political discourse and the teaching of history. educational review, 61(1), 85–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131910802684813 https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ncss/se/ https://doi.org/10.14710/jscl.v4i1.21576 https://books.google.co.id/ https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.2 https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2017.1320602 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-4683.1991.tb00010.x https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ https://www.jstor.org/stable/43908301 https://www.ejournal.undar.ac.id/ https://doi.org/10.1177%2f10778004008003008 https://doi.org/10.1080/00131910802684813 utomo & wasino pennycook, a. (2004). performativity and language studies. critical inquiry in language studies: an international journal, 1(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15427595cils0101_1 puspandari, n., & meijknecht, m. d. a. (2015). the increasing intolerance towards religious minorities in indonesia: have the existing laws been protecting or marginalising them? unpublished master’s thesis. netherlands: tilburg law school, tilburg university. available online also at http://arno. uvt. nl/show. cgi. rose, m. (2002). teaching tolerance after terrorism. the education digest, 67(6), 4. https://search.proquest.com/openview/15d31041c5216a548155ac5de7b25dd5/ rosen, m. (1984). hegel’s dialectic and its criticism. cambridge: cambridge university press. smith, a. d. (1996). history and modernity: reflection on the theory of nationalism. poznan studies in the philosophy of the sciences and the humanities, 48, 129–146. https://books.google.co.id/ snounu, y. (2019). disability and higher education in palestine. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 61-78. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.4 sofjan, d. (2016). religious diversity and politico-religious intolerance in indonesia and malaysia. the review of faith & international affairs, 14(4), 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2016.1248532 strauss, a. & corbin, j. m. (1990). grounded theory research: procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria. qualitative sociology, 13(1), 3-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00988593 subaidi, s. (2020). strengthening character education in indonesia: implementing values from moderate islam and the pancasila. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 120-132.https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2263 suh, b. k., & traiger, j. (1999). teaching values through elementary social studies and literature curricula. education, 119(4), 723–723. gale academic onefile, accessed 3 aug. 2020. suharso, r., wasino, w., setyowati, d., & utomo, c. (2020). cultural acculturation values in the minaret of kudus to foster harmony through social studies education. proceedings of the proceedings of the 5th international conference on science, education and technology, iset 2019, 29th june 2019, semarang, central java, indonesia. http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.29-6-2019.2290440 sutimin, l. a. (2019). development of students’ knowledge of history: acceptance and rejection of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation narratives. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 290–307. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/725 syarif, s. (2020). building plurality and unity for various religions in the digital era: establishing islamic values for indonesian students. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 111-119.https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2295 tarman, b., kilinc, e., & aydin, h. (2019). barriers to the effective use of technology integration in social studies education. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 19(4). retrieved from https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriersto-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education https://doi.org/10.1207/s15427595cils0101_1 http://arno/ https://search.proquest.com/openview/15d31041c5216a548155ac5de7b25dd5/ https://books.google.co.id/ https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.4 https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2016.1248532 https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00988593 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2263 http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.29-6-2019.2290440 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/725 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2295 https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 65-108 108 turan, e. z. (2020). human rights education in religious culture and ethics courses. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 61– 83.https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1257 van dijk, t. a. (2001). 18 critical discourse analysis. the handbook of discourse analysis, 349– 371. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9780470753460 vansledright, b., & limón, m. (2006). learning and teaching social studies: a review of cognitive research in history and geography. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates publishers wasino, hartatik, e. s., & nawiyanto. (2019). from royal family-based ownership to state business management: mangkunegara’s sugar industry in java from the middle of the 19th to early 20th century. management & organizational history, 14(2), 167–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449359.2019.1614462 wasino, w. (2013). indonesia: from pluralism to multiculturalism. paramita: historical studies journal, 23(2), 148-155. https://doi.org/10.15294/paramita.v23i2.2665 wodak, r., & meyer, m. (2015). methods of critical discourse studies. new york: sage. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1257 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9780470753460 https://doi.org/10.1080/17449359.2019.1614462 https://doi.org/10.15294/paramita.v23i2.2665 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 1-27 american authors, september 11th, and civil war representations in historical fiction john h. bickford1 abstract scholars have hypothesized that historical fiction books are more a product of the author, author’s nuanced world view, and the time period in which they were written than of the events and period depicted. this content analysis research examined how american historical fiction authors represented the civil war and how the events of september 11th, 2001 impacted this representation. the data pool included books targeting intermediate elementary and middle level students and had four categories: civil war-based books published prior to 1989, civil war-based books published between 1990 and september 11th 2001, civil war-based books published between 2002 and 2015, and a baseline of books targeting any war published at any time. shifts in message, violence, perceptions of the enemy, and intended audience appeared. after september 11th, 2001, american historical fiction authors targeted younger audiences, wrote more pro-war messages, included less violence, and dehumanized or anonymized the enemy more frequently. findings lend credence to previous scholarship that hypothesized historical fiction readers should consider the source and context of publication to better understand underlying messages. key words: historical fiction, civil war, social studies education, historical representation, september 11th 2001 introduction “a thing may happen and be a total lie; another thing may not happen and be truer than the truth.” tim o’brien, the things they carried authors of historical fiction intended for children and young adults have a difficult task. they meld historical eras with imagined elements to engage a capricious audience with short attention spans and little prior knowledge. this is no simple feat. readers, both young and old, grant considerable deference to authors of fiction (power, 2003; schwebel, 2011, 2014; williams, 2009). scholars from diverse fields—like social studies education, english education, and children’s literature—concur that the figurative fingerprints of historical fiction authors are more conspicuous and the intended, underlying messages are particularly dependent to the publication date (e.g., bousalis, 2016; ghiso, campano, & hall, 2012; rycik & rosler, 2009; 1 associate professor of social studies/history education; eastern illinois university; jbickford@eiu.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 power, 2003; schneider, 2016; schwebel, 2011, 2014; williams, 2009). sara schwebel (2011, 2014), in particular, suggested the manifest violence, elements of patriotism, motivation to fight, and living conditions during a fictionalized account of war might be told differently during, say, the relatively anti-jingoistic period of the 1970s when compared with a tale on the same topic published in the relatively patriotic period of the 1950s. while no one would suggest that teachers and students are unaware of or disengaged from the narrative, readers can better understand a historical fiction novel if they consider context surrounding the publication date and author’s background. this cognitive step is akin to a historian reading a presidential speech as she invokes historiographical details on that particular president and the specific circumstances surrounding the speech (wineburg, 2001, 2007). this is complicated and unusual for young students who typically read to comprehend and struggle to scrutinize the subtext (bickford, 2013; wineburg, 2001, 2007); furthermore, trade books’ historical representation is uneven, at best (schwebel, 2011, 2014; williams, 2009). demonstrable patterns of historical misrepresentations emerge in non-fiction trade books when researchers utilize quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods content analysis (e.g., bickford & schuette, 2016; bickford & silva, 2016; eaton, 2006; sakowicz, 2016), yet many historical fiction researchers rely on close readings and case studies (e.g., bigelow, 1998a, 1998b; collins & graham, 2001; power, 2003; schwebel, 2011, 2014; williams, 2009). while investigating how historical fiction trade books represented race, native americans, and war, schwebel’s (2011, 2014) work contained comparably small data pools and conflated wars separated by centuries. to inquire into the veracity of the hypothesis about publication date, data pools must be robust and the historical topics must be distinct. it would not likely be fruitful to review five american authors’ historical fiction about the vietnam war published in the late 1970s because the sample is too small and the publishing period is perhaps too close to the event. previous research also explored trends over time; paula connolly (2013) examined the shifting representations of slavery-based books by 18th through 21st century and gary schmidt (2013) explored how early to mid-20th century children’s literature explicitly invoked democratic principles and implicitly encoded contemporary social themes, to offer two examples. to enable distinction, this inquiry investigated how a singular event in american history—september 11th, 2001—impacted american authors’ representation of the civil war in historical fiction. content, genre, and intended grade levels of the reader must be carefully selected. this bickford 3 investigation examined only books intended for intermediate elementary (3rd-5th grade) and middle level readers (6th-8th grade) because they are impressionable, yet independent readers. five interrelated elements contribute to the value of this research. first, education initiatives shift the emphasis of history, social studies, english, and language arts. beginning in elementary school, a balance between fiction and non-fiction replaces the preponderance of fiction in english and language arts (nga & ccsso, 2010). historical fiction is the point of convergence between history and fiction so its importance will not diminish. to supplement english and language arts changes, history and social studies students read diverse texts at every grade level (ncss, 2013; nga & ccsso, 2010). this is a significant change for elementary teachers, where past emphases are largely in reading and math, and for middle level history and social studies teachers, where a single textbook has been common (mcmurrer, 2008; o’connor, heafner, & groce, 2007). these changes could possibly increase teachers’ use of historical fiction which, as the introductory quote implies, is perhaps an inexact pathway to historical truth. recognizing how current education policy might shape practicing teachers’ curricula selection does not imply that either impacts authors’ underlying message within historical fiction. no evidence was found to indicate that the aforementioned education initiatives shaped children and young adult authors’ creations. this inquiry, to be clear, centers on if and how a singular event in american history influenced american authors’ historical fiction narratives. second, education initiatives require dramatic changes, yet provide no curricular guides for teachers (sapers, 2015). intermediate elementary and middle level educators cannot likely turn to academia for guidance because research appears to focus more on secondary social studies (bickford, 2017). scholarship on history-based intermediate elementary and middle level curricula has not kept pace (bickford, 2017). third, the civil war is a convenient topic for these particular curricula and grade ranges. history and social studies classes are frequently organized into epochs or threats of war (loewen, 1995; matusevich, 2006; mcmurrer, 2008). the civil war, in particular, was the deadliest, has the most local monuments, and is the most reenacted (loewen, 1999). elementary and middle level schools often have elaborate interdisciplinary units that observe of veterans day and memorial day (andrews, 2013; wallace, 2007). therefore, an interdisciplinary unit on the civil war where intermediate elementary and middle level students read historical fiction in journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 english and scrutinize historical documents in history is quite possible. while it is unlikely that any teacher would use only historical fiction to teach about the civil war, it is quite likely that historical fiction would be used. fourth, war-themed children’s literature is a veritable industry, yet teachers and researchers likely view it differently. pre-inquiry searches on popular literature websites—like amazon, scholastic, booksource, and barnes and noble—and academic websites—such as, worldcat and consortium of academic and research libraries in illinois—indicated more books on the search theme of war than any other search theme save fiction. with a seemingly inexhaustible selection, teachers likely remain unaware of each book’s historical representation because, as pre-investigation inquiries revealed, publishers only reported trade books’ reading level, content coverage, and presence of graphic content. a curious teacher cannot trust online summaries or reviews, which—a cursory review indicated and anecdotal experience suggests— appeared written by non-experts (likely teachers or parents) or those with a vested interest in the sale of the book (like authors and editors). during research preparation, no book reviews from established scholars appeared on the popular literature websites. teachers are more likely to rely on the popular literature websites because they are not always aware of and have access to the scholarly reviews on the academic websites or within academic journals. teachers, thus, are likely unaware of each book’s historical representation when making selections. finally, there does not appear to be empirical research about the civil war’s historical representation within fiction, how it changes over time, and how a singular event in american history affected american authors’ novelized accounts. while history textbooks have been empirically examined from a myriad of angles (e.g. chick, 2006; clark, allard, & mahoney, 2004; fitzgerald, 2009; lindquist, 2009; loewen, 1995; matusevich, 2006; roberts, 2015), there is less scholarship on trade books within the field of social studies education. many researchers have closely examined trade books and reported patterns of historical misrepresentation but there are concerns when research is not empirical. schwebel (2011, 2014) selected trade books from specific state-based lists, which included less than 10 states and less than 15 trade books. generalizable findings cannot be derived from such small, non-random samples, especially when one considers the vastness of her three foci—american race relations, native americans, and war—and that each focus had multiple subtopics. in examining one historical era, williams (2009) selected books from a single publisher, did not address the politics surrounding bickford 5 publication within specific companies that some have described as ubiquitous and powerful (loewen, 1995; matusevich, 2006), and made conclusions that were subsequently refuted (bickford & rich, 2014). such research is illustrative, yet findings are questionable. empirical research has been done on trade books’ gender representation and characters’ voice (e.g., chick & corle, 2012; chick, slekar, & charles, 2010; desai, 2014; tschida, ryan, & ticknor, 2014), within non-fiction trade books about particular people and eras (e.g., bickford & schuette, 2016; bickford & silva, 2016; bousalis, 2016; sakowicz, 2016), and within theme-based trade books over distinct periods of time (e.g., connolly, 2013; eaton, 2006; schmidt, 2013). there appears, however, to be no research centering on how one consequential event impacted american authors’ civil war-based historical fiction. the ubiquity of war within diverse curricula for various grade levels contributes to the need for research about how american historical fiction authors novelize the civil war. education initiatives magnify this need. authors of children’s and young adult literature are not expected to match historians’ detail; fiction writers can and should take authorial liberties. it is important, though, to study how underlying messages within novelized war stories change over time and are shaped by an unrelated event. this research is especially meaningful for educators who teach young students with faint historical schemas and for researchers interested in the patterns within the text and subtext of common curricular resources. method content analysis research methods enabled consideration about how publication date impacted american authors’ underlying messages about war (krippendorff, 2013; maxwell, 2010; pillow 2003; zhang & wildemuth, 2009). all titles of both in-print and out-of-print civil war-centered young adult historical fiction trade books were located using the search term “civil war” on popular literature websites—specifically, amazon, scholastic, booksource, and barnes and noble—and academic websites devoted to literature, specifically worldcat and consortium of academic and research libraries in illinois. to consider how american authors fictionalized the civil war, only books by american-born authors were considered. individual books’ reading levels were triangulated using advantage/tasa open standard and, where available, lexile, grade level expectations, and developmental reading assessment. seeking a data pool of only historical fiction targeting intermediate elementary (3rd-5th) and middle level (6th-8th) readers, all other genres and grade ranges were jettisoned. the data pool (n = 121) was journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 established of in-print and out-of-print young adult historical fiction centering on the civil war published by american authors and targeting intermediate elementary and middle level students. to explore how historical fiction novels published in distinct periods of time represented the civil war differently, the data pool was organized into three periods: books published prior to 1989, books published after 1990 but before september 11, 2001, and books published after 2002. the former was to serve as a baseline of civil war-only books; the latter two are juxtaposed to see if and how the civil war was represented differently before and after september 11, 2001. a control group of comparable books fictionalizing any american war was included using the same aforementioned popular and academic websites. the study, thus, had four sets of ten randomly-selected books published by american authors: a control group of books fictionalizing any american war published at any time, a baseline group of books fictionalizing the civil war published prior to 1989, a group of books published in dozen years before september 11th, 2001, and a group of books published in dozen years after 2002. bibliographical information is reported within data pool references; topical information—such as the depicted war and publication date—is reported within background information about books’ (appendix a). open coding and axial coding were incorporated to generate empirical findings (krippendorff, 2013). i first read each book and recorded observations about the main character, motivation to fight, patriotism, race, social class, violence, conditions of war, and the enemy. i considered authors’ intended message(s), whether denoted or connoted, during this initial open coding. a second reviewer—a graduate research assistant with elementary classroom teaching experience—engaged in similar, independent open coding reading. discussion ensued, disputes were reexamined and settled, and notes about emergent patterns from both initial readings were synthesized, which then became tentative codes for axial coding. each book was reread to determine the presence (or absence) of the tentative codes and their frequency. no inconsistencies or disagreements appeared after the axial coding. an adult writer could explicitly include historical details that a young reader bereft prior knowledge might not fully grasp; an adult writer might subtly encode a message that a young reader failed to decode. therefore, attention was paid to how content was included and if it would be clear to the reader. distinctions were made between clearly and frequently included details and underlying message(s) with those that were mentioned once in passing, implied bickford 7 through connotation, or included only in the afterword, a section that a child might not read. in this way, i distinguished content using designated positions on likert scale—explicitly detailed, included but minimized, implicit or vague, and omitted—which mirrored previous research (bickford & schuette, 2016; bickford, schuette, & rich, 2015; sakowicz, 2016). this pattern of reflection, revision, reexamination, and recognition of nuance is necessary in content analysis research (krippendorff, 2013). the final content analysis tool is included within appendix b. this inquiry followed best practice research methods (krippendorff, 2013; maxwell, 2010; zhang & wildemuth, 2009). the steps correspond with similar, multidisciplinary trade book research (bickford & schuette, 2016; bickford, schuette, & rich, 2015; bousalis, 2016; chick & corle, 2012; chick, slekar, & charles, 2010; connolly, 2013; eaton, 2006; sakowicz, 2016; schmidt, 2013) and social studies eduction textbook research (chick, 2006; clark, allard, & mahoney, 2004; fitzgerald, 2009; lindquist, 2009; loewen, 1995; matusevich, 2006). while close readings are incorporated (schwebel, 2011; williams, 2009), findings are quantified. findings this inquiry does not imply or suggest that readers are unmindful of underlying messages, key symbolism, and rhetorical devices within the narratives. it is an exploration into how the context of publication shapes the narrative. this was not an investigation of historical facts within literature; children’s and young adult historical fiction authors cannot—and are not expected to—provide historians’ detail. this was an examination of how american authors’ underlying messages of war change over time within historical fiction, a common curricular resource for intermediate elementary and middle level teachers. attention was paid to contextualizing factors related to american authors’ lived experiences and date of publication. the subsequent subsections are organized around meaningful findings, only some of which confirm the hypothesis. overall message and intended audience the two most conspicuous changes were the overall message about war and the intended audience. the former was determined by multiple close readings and content analysis questions four, five, six, and seven (appendix b). scholars of literature have long hypothesized that historical fiction is best understood if one considers the author’s background and context, specifically the time and place in which the trade book was published (bousalis, 2016; ghiso, campano, & hall, 2012; rycik & rosler, 2009; power, 2003; schneider, 2016; schwebel, 2011, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 2014; williams, 2009). the subsequent table (table 1) reports the overall message of american authors’ civil war-based historical fiction organized by time period in comparison with baseline data derived from comparable literature. american authors’ historical fiction are not principally anti-war in message. data indicate a balanced mix of implicit and explicit jingoist and bellicist meanings. stated differently, american authors appeared to construct narratives that espoused war-skeptic, non-conformist messages in similar proportion to unbridled, unquestioning patriotic lessons; a closer reading of the data, though, indicates important distinctions. in the century prior to 1990, american authors’ fictionalized war narratives were predominately (70%) jingoist. september 11th, however, appeared impactful. historical fiction with anti-war messages were the slight majority (60%) in the decade or so prior to september 11th. gary paulsen’s (1998) soldier’s heart represents this pattern; paulsen’s character charley’s eager, unbridled patriotism encountered the ferocity of war and was forever changed by it. most novelized war stories (80%) carried pro-war messages after september 11th, 2001. anne ylvisaker’s (2014) the curse of the buttons—in which a young boy enthusiastically and constructively contributes to the cause showing anyone can be a hero if they want to be badly enough—typifies this pattern. data are organized by a control group (cg; n = 10), all civil war historical fiction within the sample (total; n = 30), and the three periods of publication that make up the total (1880-1989, n = 10; 1990-2001, n = 10; 2002-2016, n = 10). bickford 9 table 1 message and intended audience cg total 1880-1989 1990-2001 2002-2016 number (percent) number (percent) number (percent) number (percent) number (percent) overall message about war explicitly antiwar 3 (30%) 2 (7%) 0 (0%) 2 (20%) 0 (0%) implicitly antiwar 2 (20%) 9 (30%) 3 (30%) 4 (40%) 2 (20%) explicitly prowar 2 (20%) 6 (20%) 2 (20%) 1 (10%) 3 (30%) implicitly prowar 3 (30%) 13 (43%) 5 (50%) 3 (30%) 5 (50%) intended audience intermediate (3rd-5th) 3 (30%) 17 (57%) 3 (30%) 5 (50%) 9 (90%) middle level (6th-8th) 7 (70%) 13 (43%) 7 (70%) 5 (50%) 1 (10%) note. cg denotes control group, which included any war with any publication date, and encompasses 10 books; total signifies all civil war books combined, and contains the 30 books within the three eras (1880-1989, 19902001, 2002-2016); 1880-1989 indicates civil war books published between 1880 and 1989; 1990-2001 designates civil war books published between 1990 and before september 11, 2001; 2002-2016 denotes civil war books published after 2002 until 2016. findings appear more curious when one considers the change in intended audience. a trade book’s intended audience should be considered for analysis much like a historical letter’s recipient. as noted in the methods section, various objective data were triangulated to determine the likely intended age of the reader of the randomly-selected trade books. historical fiction authors constructed narratives intended for younger readers more frequently after september 11th; this pattern was more conspicuous than any other examined element. findings originated from the second content analysis question. civil war-based historical fiction published after 2002 targeted intermediate elementary students (90%) far more than middle level students (10%); it was balanced in the decade before. this sample of the pool—civil war books published after 2002 and intended for intermediate elementary students—was noticeably larger than both the baseline (30%), which were books fictionalizing the civil war published at any time, and the control group (30%), which were books centered on any war published at any time. taken further, most civil war books published before 1989 (70%) were intended for middle journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 level readers and, after 2002, the vast majority (90%) were intended for intermediate level readers. data-based patterns about message and intended audience were intentionally positioned together to illustrate the subtle impact of september 11th on american authors of historical fiction: novelized civil war accounts were more pro-war and targeted younger students far more frequently after september 11th than before. while not implying that messages within historical fiction narratives are dependent to context of publication or that an authorial conspiracy is afoot, data indicate historical fiction narratives are shaped to some extent by context of publication. other demonstrable patterns emerged, yet none provided credence to the hypothesis. perceptions of the enemy and violence considering the apparent and emergent pro-war messages within historical fiction trade books published after september 11th, 2001 by american authors, it stands to reason that other related patterns would surface. the main characters’ perceptions about the enemy and the brutality of war, which are inextricably intertwined with war, were explored. both emerged within the fictionalized war narratives. if killing the enemy in war is compulsory, dehumanizing the enemy contributes to the psychological detachment needed to kill. in other words, viewing adversaries as evil or inhuman assists in deadly tasks (browning, 1998, 2004; goldhagen, 1997, 2009; power, 2002). one complication, though, is if the enemy is a former (and, potentially, future) countryman. a second is if this enemy is fictive, not literal, character created more than a century after the event by an author who knows the war’s outcome. content analysis questions five and seven shaped this element. there was a discernible decrease in fictionalized main characters who viewed civil war enemies as normal people in books published after september 11th, 2001 in comparison to books published in the decade and the century prior. nearly three-quarters of civil war books published the century before 1990 (70%) and the decade prior to september 11th (70%) viewed the enemy as analogous and akin to himself; after september 11th, less than half did (40%). before september 11th, 2001, novelized civil war stories largely recognized the enemy’s humanity and, at times, viewed him with compassion. mary pope osborne’s (2000) civil war on sunday is a representative example; “when someone is hurt, you give them a helping hand, no matter who they are...i have seen courage and kindness on both sides of this war” (p.47-48). a former southern slave named abraham meets, assists, and eventually bickford 11 befriends a wounded confederate soldier named lamar in sara harrel banks’s (1999) abraham’s battle: a novel of gettysburg. in both the decade and century preceding september 11th, less than a third of the books viewed the civil war enemy as inherently different or malevolent (30%) and none viewed the civil war enemy as inhuman. gary paulsen’s (1998) soldier’s heart is an example of the former (“he wanted to kill them. he wanted to catch them and run his bayonet through them and kill them. all of them. stick and jab and shoot them and murder them and kill them all, each and every rebel.”, p. 50). after the terrorist attack in 2001, almost two-thirds of the trade books viewed the civil war combatant as either evil and dissimilar (50%) or inhuman (10%). for example, rosemary wells’s (2009) lincoln and his boys articulates how former countrymen—and their sympathizers—were given no consideration (“the copperheads are border staters. they’ve got rebel hearts. they hate real hard, and they wanted to kill pa because he will stand against slave states.”, p. 46). when compared to control group data, however, the emergent pattern in postseptember 11th books does not appear as stark (50%; 40%). this pattern regarding main characters’ perceptions of the enemy was not as robust as previous findings about overall message and intended audience; however, it appeared to be subtly related to september 11th, 2001. when combined with previous findings, fictionalized civil war stories became more bellicist and more disparaging of the enemy as the intended audience became younger. the subsequent table organized data through control group (cg; n = 10), all civil war historical fiction within the sample (total; n = 30), and the three periods of publication that make up the total (1880-1989, n = 10; 1990-2001, n = 10; 2002-2016, n = 10). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 table 2 representation of the enemy cg total 1880-1989 1990-2001 2002-2016 number (percent) number (percent) number (percent) number (percent) number (percent) perceptions of the enemy evil and different from main character 4 (40%) 11 (37%) 3 (30%) 3 (30%) 5 (50%) evil and different from main character 5 (50%) 18 (60%) 7 (70%) 7 (70%) 4 (40%) evil and different from main character 1 (10%) 1 (3%) 0 0 1 (10%) perceptions of the ferocity of war exciting and invigorating 0 8 (27%) 2 (20%) 0 6 (60%) difficult, yet manageable 4 (40%) 13 (43%) 3 (30%) 8 (80%) 2 (20%) incongruous with civilization 5 (50%) 4 (13%) 2 (20%) 1 (10%) 1 (10%) omission of all violence 1 (10%) 5 (17%) 3 (30%) 1 (10%) 1 (10%) note. cg denotes control group, which included any war with any publication date, and encompasses 10 books; total signifies all civil war books combined, and contains the 30 books within the three eras (1880-1989, 19902001, 2002-2016); 1880-1989 indicates civil war books published between 1880 and 1989; 1990-2001 designates civil war books published between 1990 and before september 11, 2001; 2002-2016 denotes civil war books published after 2002 until 2016. a soldier’s success depends on killing the enemy, it also relies on surviving the brutalities of war. successfully traversing the tenuous, merciless battleground is any soldier’s goal. violence is unavoidable. the above table (table 2) reports how the main characters experienced and viewed violence, which were obtained using data collected from content analysis questions four, six, and seven. the vast majority of trade books, whether about the civil war or any war, did not omit violence. control group data obtained from trade books about any war indicate similar portions viewed the violence of war as either incompatible with civilized society (50%) or as arduous but surmountable (40%). notably binary, the former aligns with pacifist sentiment and the latter is associated with tolerance of war or support for a bickford 13 righteous war. while only one trade book in the control group data sample omitted violence, no books celebrated or glorified it. notably, a majority of trade books (60%) published after 2002 presented war as an exciting, invigorating adventure. tom mcgowen’s (2008) jesse bowman: a union boy’s war story, published after september 11th, 2001, largely portrayed exhilaration for a noble cause (“jesse and the other members of the 19th regiments were proud of themselves and felt their regiment was something special”, p. 31) with little, if any, violence (“one of the regiment’s supply wagons carried bloody wounded men, and another wagon contained a number of bloody dead men”, p. 32). similarly, candice ransom (2004) willie mclean and the civil war surrender hid the violence behind tertiary details (“then willie remembered the lean faces of lee’s men, the lame horses. he remembered the deserted who wanted to go home.”, p. 33) with scant features that detailed more sounds than scenes (“boom! kaboom! willie jumped off the porch. cannons! war is here!”, p. 5). this was distinctively different than the decade prior to september 11th, 2001, where most books (80%) characterized the violence as ubiquitous. representative examples include james and christopher collier’s (1992) with every drop of blood (“the bodies in the fields and orchards were so think you couldn’t hardly put your foot down without tromping on one.”, p. 10) and g. clifton wisler’s (1991) red cap (“mags thrust his bayonet into the old rebel and flung him away like so much chaff at threshing time. he grinned to me as he fired off a shot and dropped a second confederate,” p. 47). these are but two points in a conspicuous pattern. books published before september 11th, 2001 compelled the reader to recognize the violence and death in far different ways than those published after. discussion, conclusion and implications teachers, like most parents purchasing books for their children, recognize that historical fiction writers take authorial liberties. messages encoded within the narratives are possibly shaped by date and country of origin. data-based findings indicate american authors wrote historical fiction novels about the civil war differently after september 11th, 2001 than before. there are many elements to consider and numerous interpretations to explore, which have implications for researchers and teachers. importance for researchers the trade books were more pro-war after september 11th, 2001; many were even considered bellicist during this period. american authors of historical fiction constructed prowar narratives more frequently after the events of september 11th, 2001 than before. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 conspiracy, or an intentionally collective action, is not as logical an explanation as the idea that intended, underlying messages are shaped by publication date, which many scholars contend (e.g., bousalis, 2016; ghiso, campano, & hall, 2012; rycik & rosler, 2009; power, 2003; schneider, 2016; schwebel, 2011, 2014; williams, 2009). american authors were impacted by events and subsequently wrote narratives celebrating sacrifice, valor, and patriotic love of country. this seems a logical inference when one juxtaposes the post-september 11th america with the previous decade. the 1990s can be (simplistically) characterized as a period of relative international calm for america; the cold war had ended after the soviet union collapsed, desert storm was a short, anodyne war with comparably few deaths, and america enjoyed a burgeoning economy with relatively few international tensions. historical fiction novelists’ understandings of the civil war had not changed after september 11th, but americans had. the fictionalized narratives vilified the enemies more frequently after september 11th; combatants were viewed as adversaries, not former and future countrymen. in the historical fiction narratives published after september 11th, 2001, soldiers were also more excited to go to war and experienced less violence during war. one logical explanation is that american authors responded to the events on and after september 11th with conspicuous patriotism and wrote fictionalized accounts that minimized the perils of war. another explanation would connect the notable decrease in violence to the apparent decrease in age of intended audience. it stands to reason that authors would include less violence when writing fictionalized war narratives for younger audiences. american authors did, in fact, target younger audiences in books published after september 11th, 2001. if historical fiction should be read like a diary entry (schwebel, 2011, 2014), the reader should consider what is known about the writer, when it was written, and how context shaped content. this line of thinking suggests that american authors—influenced by the events of september 11th, 2001—wanted younger students to read about the civil war, an incomparably unsettling period in american history. data indicate civil war historical fiction drifted from middle level grades to the intermediate level grades, from young adult literature to children’s literature. coupled with the previous finding, american authors’ historical fiction was both more pro-war and intended for younger readers after september 11th than at any other time. some might suggest american authors sought to instill patriotic conformity in young readers, but the intent of the authors cannot be determined from the methodology employed in this study. bickford 15 another interpretation is american authors of fictionalized history gradually targeted younger audiences during a period of time that included september 11th, 2011. this interpretation does not contribute to the veracity of the hypothesis posited by numerous theorists (e.g., bousalis, 2016; ghiso, campano, & hall, 2012; rycik & rosler, 2009; power, 2003; schneider, 2016; schwebel, 2011, 2014; williams, 2009). it, however, is supported by data. less than one-third of civil war trade books published prior to 1989 targeted intermediate elementary students (30%), half the books published after 1990 but before 2001 targeted intermediate elementary students (50%), and the vast majority of books (90%) published after 2002 targeted intermediate elementary students. this suggests an emerging position for historical fiction for intermediate elementary readers. it seems more logical that this pattern targeting younger audiences is in response to students’ reading interests (mcmurrer, 2008), particularly young males (brozo, 2002; cavazos-kottke, 2005), than shifting education policy (graham, 2013). this is not to imply that american authors of children’s and young adult historical fiction are immune to changes in educational initiatives, but it appears less likely. these patterns suggest readers should consider the date and context in which historical fiction is published because authors’ figurative fingerprints appear prominent upon inspection. this is not to suggest the hypothesis applies to every element; many trade books did not show marked differences before and after that fateful day in september of 2001. for instance, average soldiers’ social class consciousness, motivation to fight, and the conditions in which they fought did not appear to be impacted at all; no conspicuous changes were noted (appendix c). similarly, military leaders’ class consciousness, motivation, and experienced conditions showed no discernable change (appendix c). disaggregated data before and after september 11th were juxtaposed with baseline data derived from comparable literature. data were then comparatively analyzed with civil war-based trade books published in the century preceding 1989. findings suggest september 11th shaped american authors’ overall message, intended audience, perceptions of the enemy, and violence within civil war novels. schwebel’s (2011, 2014) findings relied on close readings of a dozen or so trade books about native americans, war, and race relations, specifically slavery and the civil rights movement. more empirical research can determine when, where, and to what extent the narratives shifted. as these samples considered historical fiction intended for intermediate and middle level readers, future research should explore historical fiction intended for secondary students. such inquiries could consider journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 how the authors’ and publishers’ geographic location may have shaped the narratives, specifically juxtaposing southern authors and publishers with northern authors and publishers. researchers might want to consider if and how patterns emerge in other historical topics and how they are impacted by key contextual events. this can and should be done for common curricular areas in social studies, history, english, language arts, and reading. guidance for teachers intermediate elementary and middle level teachers can use findings and resultant implications to evoke students’ interest in the curricular materials. the following suggestions align with—and extend in novel ways—social studies education pedagogy, specifically history literacy (austin & thompson, 2015; bickford, 2013; loewen, 2010; wineburg, martin, & monte-sano, 2011). imagine a civil war unit in which the history or social studies teacher had all students independently reading a different book. students would select from narratives they found particularly interesting or, to ensure differentiation, the teacher could assign each student a book that fits an appropriate level of challenge. a typical class will consume more than two dozen different historical fiction titles for homework. think of all the nuanced angles that could emerge during a weekly whole-class discussion because of the distinctly different messages within the trade books. historical fiction may not be the principal curricular resource for history and social studies teachers, but fiction can shine a light on history, as the introductory quote alludes. the teacher will likely have students scrutinize various primary sources to complement the historical fiction trade book or the social studies textbook during the week. envision, however, the emergent discussion when the teacher poses questions about the areas of convergence and divergence between individual students’ historical fiction and the collectively reviewed primary sources and textbook. the queries can be general: which historical sources appeared in your trade book? or, what was unique in your historical fiction—an event, a person, a concept—that was dissimilar to what we talked about in class? the questions can be specific: how did your book historically contextualize abraham lincoln’s election? or, did your book historicize, minimize, or skim the soldiers’ living conditions? these discussions will likely be productive because of the distinctly different underlying messages within the historical fiction narratives. bickford 17 these above questions are not typical for history and social studies teachers because, generally, students do not read much historical fiction in history and social studies; it is more common in english and language arts (bennett & sanders, 2016; mcmurrer, 2008). in the case suggested above, each student has a different book of historical fiction. when discussing previously analyzed historical documents, some quiet, reserved, shy, or slower students might defer to bold, confident, or popular students. typically, during whole class discussion, students may play a guess-what-the-teacher-is-thinking game. these same students, though, may be more open to discussing their historical fiction book because no one else has read it. they do not have to compete with the quickest wit or loudest mouth. they symbolically own their trade book. they alone grasp the understandings that originated within that specific narrative in ways unlike the community-owned historical sources. these distinct historical fiction books also share the same era and will most certainly converge in opportune ways that benefit the discussion. the source’s perspective, bias, and context will be at the forefront of the literature discussions just as the historical source discussions will likely center on the tensions between radical change and reactionary response, rights of states and federal government, and the meaning of freedom, patriotism, and loyalty, to name but a few. visualize the students’ wonder when posed questions from content analysis tool (appendix b), organize answers based on publication date, and are asked to consider emergent patterns. in doing so, students will be positioned to view history as a narrative constructed from sources by a storyteller at a particular period in time. historical fiction should not replace the evocative primary sources necessary for history literacy and historical thinking. historical fiction, however, can act as a fine curricular supplement, especially when the context of its publication impacts the narrative as much as the singular perspective of the main character. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 references andrews, g. (2013). research to guide practice in middle grades education. westerville, oh: association for middle level education. austin, h. & thompson, k. (2015). examining the evidence: seven strategies for teaching with primary sources. north mankato, mn: maupin house publishing. bickford, j. (2013). initiating historical thinking in elementary schools. social studies research and practice, 8(3), 60-77. bickford, j. (2017). the curriculum development of experienced teachers who are inexperienced with history-based pedagogy. journal of social studies education research, 8(1), 146192. bickford, j. & rich, c. (2014). examining the representations of slavery within children’s literature. social studies research and practice, 9(1), 66-94. bickford, j. & schuette, l. (2016). trade books’ historical representation of the black freedom movement, slavery through civil rights. journal of children’s literature, 41(1), 20-43. bickford, j., schuette, l., & rich, c. (2015). examining the historical representation of the holocaust within trade books. journal of international social studies, 5(1), 4-50. bickford, j. & silva, k. (2016). trade books’ historical representation of anne sullivan macy, the miracle worker. social studies research & practice, 11(1), 56-72. bigelow, b. (1998a). once upon a genocide: columbus in children’s literature. in b. bigelow & b. peterson (eds.), rethinking columbus: the next 500 years (pp. 47-55). milwaukee, wi: rethinking schools. bigelow, b. (1998b). good intentions are not enough: recent children’s books on the columbus taino encounter. in b. bigelow & b. peterson (eds.), rethinking columbus: the next 500 years (pp. 62-68). milwaukee, wi: rethinking schools. bousalis, r. b. (2016). portrayals of immigrants in trade books: 1880-1930s and 1980-2010s. social studies research and practice, 11(2), 17-32. browning, c. (1998). ordinary men: reserve police battalion 101 and the final solution in poland. new york, ny: harper perennial. browning, c. (2004). the origins of the final solution: the evolution of nazi jewish policy, september 1939–march 1942. new york, ny: harper perennial. brozo, w. (2002). to be a boy, to be a reader: engaging teen and preteen boys in active bickford 19 literacy. newark, de: international reading association. cavazos-kottke, s. (2005). tuned out but turned on: boys’ (dis)engaged reading in and out of school. journal of adolescent and adult literacy, 49(3), 180-184. chick, k. (2006). gender balance in k-12 american history textbooks. social studies research and practice, 1(3), 284-290. chick, k., & corle, s. (2012). a gender analysis of ncss notable trade books for the intermediate grades. social studies research & practice, 7(2), 1-14. clark, r., allard, j., & mahoney, t. (2004). how much of the sky? women in american high school history textbooks from the 1960s, 1980s and 1990s. social education, 68(1), 5762. collins, f. & graham, j. (eds.) (2001). historical fiction for children: capturing the past. london, uk: david fulton publishers.
 connolly, p. (2013). slavery in american children’s literature, 1790-2010. iowa city, ia: the university of iowa press. desai, c. (2014). the columbus myth: power and ideology
in picture books about christopher columbus. children’s literature in education, 45(1), 179–196. doi 10.1007/s10583014-9216-0 eaton, g. (2006). well-dressed role models: the portrayal of women in biographies for children. lanham, md: the scarecrow press, inc. fitzgerald, j. (2009). textbooks and primary source analysis. social studies research and practice, 4(3), 37-43. ghiso, m., campano, g., & hall, t. (2012). braided histories and experiences in literature for children and adolescents. journal of children’s literature, 38(2), 14-22. goldhagen, d. (1997). hitler’s willing executioners: ordinary germans and the holocaust. new york, ny: vintage books. goldhagen, d. (2009). worse than war: genocide, eliminationism, and the ongoing assault on humanity. new york, ny: public affairs. krippendorff, k. (2013). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology, third edition. washington, dc: sage publishing. lindquist, d. (2009). the coverage of the holocaust in high school history textbooks. social journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 education, 73(6), 298–304. loewen, j. (1995). lies my teacher told me: everything your american history textbook got wrong. new york: simon and schuster. loewen, j. (1999). lies across america: what our historical sites got wrong. new york, ny: new press. loewen, j. (2010). teaching what really happened: how to avoid the tyranny of textbooks and get students excited about doing history. new york, ny: teachers college press. matusevich, m. (2006). strange bedfellows: censorship and history textbooks. social studies research and practice, 1(3), 359-373. maxwell, j. (2010). using numbers in qualitative research. qualitative inquiry, 16(6), 475-482. mcmurrer, j. (2008). instructional time in elementary schools: a closer look at changes for specific subjects. washington, dc: center on education policy. national council for the social studies. (2013). college, career and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k–12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver spring, md: author. national governors association center for best practices & council of chief state school officers. (2010). common core state standards for english language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects. washington, dc: authors. o’connor, k.a., heafner, t., & groce, e. (2007). advocating for social studies: documenting the decline and doing something about it. social education, 71(5), 255–260.
 pillow, w. (2003). confession, catharsis, or cure? rethinking the uses of reflexivity as methodological power in qualitative research. international journal of qualitative studies in education, 16(2), 175-196. power, s. (2002). “a problem from hell”: america and the age of genocide. new york, ny: a new republic book. power, c.l. (2003). challenging the pluralism of our past: presentism and the selective tradition in historical fiction written for young people. research in the teaching of english, 37(4), 425–466. roberts, s. (2015). a review of social studies textbook content analyses since 2002. social studies research and practice, 9(3), 51-65. rycik, m. & rosler, b. (2009). the return of historical fiction. the reading teacher, 63(2), 163 bickford 21 166. sakowicz, s. k. (2016). researching the historical representation of andrew jackson in trade books. social studies research and practice, 11(2), 33-50. schmidt, g. (2013). making americans: children’s literature from 1930-1960. iowa city, ia: the university of iowa press. schneider, s. (2016). representation of the holocaust: alternative views. social studies research and practice, 11(2), 71-79. schwebel, s.l. (2011). child-sized history: fictions of the past in u.s. classrooms. nashville, tn: vanderbilt university press. schwebel, s.l. (2014). historical fiction, the common core, and disciplinary habits of mind. social education, 78(1), 20–24. wallace, j. (2007). effects of interdisciplinary teaching team configuration upon the social bonding of middle school students. research on middle level education online, 30(5), 1-18. williams, t.l. (2009). a closer look: the representation of slavery in the dear america series. social studies and the young learner, 21(3), 26–29. wineburg, s. (2001). historical thinking and other unnatural acts: charting the future of teaching the past. philadelphia, pa: temple university press. wineburg, s. (2007). unnatural and essential: the nature of historical thinking. teaching history, 129, 6-11. wineburg, s., martin, d., & monte-sano, c. (2011). reading like a historian: teaching literacy in middle and high school classrooms. new york, ny: teachers college press. zhang, y. & wildemuth, b. (2009). qualitative analysis of content. in b. wildemuth (ed.) applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science (pp.308-319). westport, ct: libraries unlimited. web-based references amazon. retrieved may 3, 2018 from http://www.amazon.com barnes&noble. retrieved may 3, 2018 from http://www.barnesandnoble.com bennett, s. m., & sanders, j. s. (2016). research summary: teaching historical literacy in the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 middle grades. retrieved may 3, 2018 from http://www.amle.org/publications/researchsummary/tabid/622 /artmid/2112/articleid/767/teaching-historical-literacy-in-the-middle-grades.aspx booksource. retrieved may 3, 2018 from http://www.booksource.com/ consortium of academic and research libraries in illinois. retrieved from https://www.carli.illinois.edu/ graham, e. (2013 april 25). ‘a nation at risk’ turns 30: where did it take us? neatoday. retrieved may 3, 2018 from http://neatoday.org/2013/04/25/a-nation-at-risk-turns-30where-did-it-take-us-2/ sapers, j. (2015 february 26). common core’s unintended consequences? more teachers write their own curricula. the hechinger report: covering innovation and inequality in education. retrieved may 3, 2018 from http://hechingerreport.org/common-coresunintended-consequence/ scholastic. retrieved may 3, 2018 from http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/ worldcat. retrieved may 3, 2018 from https://www.worldcat.org data pool references civil war historical fiction published 1880-1989 beatty, p. (1984). turn homeward, hannalee. new york, ny: beech tree publishing. beatty, p. (1987). charley skedaddle. new york, ny: troll associates. crane, s. (1895). the red badge of courage. new york, ny: simon & schuster paperbacks. gauch, p.l. (1975). thunder at gettysburg. new york, ny: bantam double day. hunt, i (1964). across five aprils. new york, ny: the berkley publishing group. keith, h. (1957). rifles for watie. new york, ny: harper collins. reeder, c. (1989) shades of gray. new york, ny: first aladdin paperbacks. o’dell, s. (1976) the 290. new york, ny: houghton mifflin company. shaara, m. (1974). the killer angels. new york, ny: ballantine books. steele, w.o. (1958). the perilous road. san diego, ca: harcourt, inc. civil war historical fiction published 1990-september 11th, 2001 banks, s. h. (1999). abraham’s battle: a novel of gettysburg. new york, ny: scholastic. collier, j.l. & collier, c. (1992). with every drop of blood. new york, ny: bantam doubleday. donahue, j. (1995). an island far from home. minneapolis, mn: carolrhoda books. bickford 23 fleischman, p. (1993). bull run. new york, ny: harpercollins. hesse, h. (1999). a light in the storm. new york, ny: scholastic. osborne, m.p. (2000). civil war on sunday. new york, ny: random house. paulsen, g. (1998). soldier’s heart. new york, ny: random house. polacco, p. (1994). pink and say. new york, ny: philomel books. wisler, g.c. (1991). red cap. new york, ny: puffin books. wisler, g.c. (1995) mr. lincoln’s drummer. new york, ny: puffin books. civil war historical fiction published 2002-present fletcher, s. (2007). dadblamed union army cow. cambridge ma: candlewick press. housel, d.j. (2010). civil war hero of marye’s heights. huntington beach, ca: teacher created materials. mcgowen, t. (2008). jesse bowman: a union boy’s war story. new york, ny: enslow. miller, b. (2014). the girls of gettysburg. new york, ny: holiday house. myers, l. (2011). escape by night. new york, ny: henry holt and company. ransom, c. (2004). willie mclean and the civil war surrender. north minneapolis, mn: first avenue editions. rinaldi, a. (2002). numbering all the bones. new york, ny: jump at the sun/hyperion books for children. tarshis, l. (2013). i survived the battle of gettysburg, 1863. new york, ny: scholastic. wells, r. (2009). lincoln and his boys. somerville, ma: candlewick press. ylvisaker, a. (2014). the curse of the buttons. somerville, ma: candlewick press. control group: historical fiction depicting any war published any year avi (1984). the fighting ground. new york, ny: harpercollins. brady, e.w. (1976). toliver’s secret. new york, ny: yearling, random house. collier, j.l. & collier, c. (1974). my brother sam is dead. new york, ny: scholastic. collier, j.l. & collier, c. (1983). war comes to willy freeman. new york, ny: yearling. fast, h. (1961). april morning. new york, ny: bantam books london, c.a. (2013). divided we fall. new york, ny: scholastic. myers, w.d. (1988). fallen angels. new york, ny: scholastic. roop, p. & roop, c. (1986). buttons for general washington. minneapolis, mn: lerner publishing. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 silko, l. m. (1977). ceremony. new york, ny: penguin books trumbo, d. (1939). johnny got his gun. new york, ny: bantam books. bickford 25 appendix a – background information about books depicted war baseline civil war number percentage number percentage american revolution 6 60% 0 0 civil war 1 10% 0 0 world war one 1 10% 30 100% world war two 1 10% 0 0 korean war 0 0% 0 0 vietnam war 1 10% 0 0 other 0 0% 0 0 publication date baseline civil war number percentage number percentage 2002-2015 1 10% 10 33% 1990-2001 0 0 10 33% 1980-1989 4 40% 3 10% 1970-1979 3 30% 3 10% 1960-1969 1 10% 1 3% 1950-1959 0 0 2 7% 1940-1949 1 10% 0 0 1930-1939 0 0 0 0 1920-1929 0 0 0 0 1880-1899 0 0 1 3% journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 1-27 appendix b – content analysis tool 1. author’s name, publication date, title, company. 2. for (about) what age/grade was this book intended? 3. who were the main characters? describe the main characters’ demography including name, age, gender, geographic location, occupation, and any other identifying features or significant elements. 4. how did the author portray: a. average american soldiers i. their social class and class consciousness, 1. explicitly detailed 2. included but minimized 3. implicit or vague 4. omitted ii. their motivations or willingness to participate, 1. explicitly detailed 2. included but minimized 3. implicit or vague 4. omitted iii. conditions of their involvement? 1. explicitly detailed 2. included but minimized 3. implicit or vague 4. omitted b. leaders of american soldiers, i. their social class and class consciousness, 1. explicitly detailed 2. included but minimized 3. implicit or vague 4. omitted ii. their motivations or willingness to lead soldiers, 1. explicitly detailed 2. included but minimized 3. implicit or vague 4. omitted iii. conditions under which they led? 1. explicitly detailed 2. included but minimized 3. implicit or vague 4. omitted 5. how did the author represent enemies of american soldiers? give examples. a. evil people who sought war b. regular people forced to fight or motivated to defend their homeland c. anonymous figures without families or lives beyond war d. did not represent enemies of american soldiers 6. how did the author portray the violence and mayhem inherent in war? give examples. a. realistic action and graphic details (i.e. gruesome deaths and gory details) bickford 27 b. realistic action but not graphic details (i.e. deaths but few, if any, details) c. unrealistic action d. did not portray violence and mayhem of war 7. what was the author’s overall message about this american war? give examples. a. was it implicitly encoded or explicitly expressed? where does this message lie on a continuum: i. explicitly anti-war, pacifist, anti-jingoist, or skeptic/questioning nonconformer ii. implicitly or vaguely anti-war iii. indeterminable iv. implicitly or vaguely pro-war v. explicitly pro-war, jingoist, unbridled or unquestioning patriot b. was the cause worthy? i. support for a righteous cause ii. indistinct or uncertainty about what is right iii. omitted c. was the nation and the nation’s leadership worthy of support? i. bellicist, jingoist, and/or unbridled patriotic loyalty to america’s leaders ii. pacifist, anti-jingoist, and/or a skeptical, questioning non-conformer? iii. indistinct or vague iv. omitted 8. were any primary sources incorporated? if so, what specifically? if so, were they located in the foreword, narrative, and/or afterword? a. yes b. no 9. were any parts of the book problematic, implausible, or historically inaccurate? www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 168-186 168 information competency and creative initiative of personality and their manifestation in activity natalia p. tabachuk1, irina a. ledovskikh2, nadezhda a. shulika3, irina v. karpova4, victor a. kazinets5, anatolii e. polichka6 abstract the relevance of the research is due to the global trends of development of the information society that are associated with the rapid advancement of civilization (it penetration, increased computer availability, variability) and innovation processes in the sphere of education (competency-based approach, humanization and humanitarization). these development trends of the information society influence both the development of personality as a subject of activity and of its relevant features, such as information competency and creative initiative. with regard to this, the paper is aimed at revealing the essential meanings of the phenomena "information competency" and "creative initiative of personality" via the dialectics of their development, self-development and mutual influence. the leading method for studying this problem is modeling that allows considering in an integrated manner the existing and the other as factors detailing the mutual influence of the information competency and creative initiative of personality within the structure of its individuality, as well as detailing the dialectics of development of the information competency and creative initiative of personality through the manifestation of subjective reality in the structure of individuality. in the paper, the essence of the human information competency and its role in the development of the information society is identified and approaches to understanding the personality's creative initiative and its manifestations in the activity. the paper also details the mechanisms of transformation and integration of the processes of development of information competency and creative activity of personality as of a subject of activity. the authors refer to them the following: competence, reflexivity, "inner dialectics", subjectness, "intersubjectivity", ability of dialogue, and manifestation of individuality. the materials of the paper are of practical value for master degree students, postgraduate students, teachers of higher educational institutions and other educational establishments pursuing the research in this sphere who set themselves the objectives of building the forecast models of dynamics of the development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative. keywords: information competency, creative initiative of personality, dialectics, individuality, self-development. introduction currently, one's individual life path as self-establishment evokes in one the manifestation and reinforcement of relevant personality features. these features are the personality's information 1 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, pacific national university, tabachuk@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof., candidate of physics and mathematics, pacific national university, ledovskih_irina@mail.ru 3assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, far eastern state transport university, pacific national university, shulika2006@yandex.ru 4 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, pacific national university, karpova_imfit@mail.ru 5 assoc. prof., candidate of physics and mathematics, pacific national university, matan@khspu.ru 6 prof., doctor of pedagogy, pacific national university, aepol@mail.ru mailto:tabachuk@yandex.ru mailto:shulika2006@yandex.ru tabachuk et al. competency and creative initiative that influence one's mapping out the path of both one's movement through the life and the development. the interest in the development of human information competency and a personality demonstrating the creative initiative is associated with the following global trends:  rapid development of the civilization (it penetration, increased computer availability, variability, innovation processes in the sphere of education (competency-based approach), humanization, humanitarization);  multiplicity of choice;  an increasing complexity of life;  the focus on developing a subject of the activity who is busy with exploring the social change situations within the contemporary information society and not on preparing an "opportunist";  targeting a personality with its individual features, ensuring the opportunities for selfunfolding;  significance of the products of creativity both for an individual and for the expectations and norms of the society. within these trends, the phenomena of "information competency" and "creative initiative of personality" can be rethought; the existing and the other can be determined as factors detailing the mutual influence of the personality's information competency and creative initiative in the framework of its individuality; and the dialectics of the development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative can be worded through the manifestation of the subjective reality. literature review in detailing the essence of human information competency, several facets are singled out: understanding the phenomenon of the "human information competency", the process of the development of human information competency and its particularities, and self-development of one's information competency level within the structure of individuality. these aspects are discussed by many scholars who adopted various approaches to this problem range: anthropological (tabachuk, 2009), phenomenological (tabachuk, 2015), activity-based (golubin, 2006, golovko, 2007, kosorukova, 2015, koleva, 2013, arabadzhi, 2012), systemic (kosorukova, 2015, kolyeva, 2013, arabadzhi, 2012), competency-based journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 168-186 approach (burmakina et al., 2006, vitt, 2005, vorovshchikov, 2006, tabachuk, 2009, polichka & isakova, 2012, golubin, 2006, golovko, 2007, kosorukova, 2015, koleva, 2013, arabadzhi, 2012, mcclelland, 1973, boyatzis & sala, 2004, boyatzis, 2008, white, 1959). the problem of the personality's creative initiative manifesting itself in the activity is not new and quite a few scholars (ponomarev, 1976, druzhinin, 1999, brushlinskiy, 1991, zhuravlev, 2014, dorfman & baleva, 2014) associate the following questions with it:  why do some people demonstrate the adaptive initiative while other people demonstrate the creative one?  how can the creative initiative be developed and turned into creative achievements?  what are the conditions for self-development of the personality's creative initiative? in self-development of the information competency and creative initiative of personality, the integration processes can be manifested that trigger the mechanisms of comprehending oneself as a subject of one's own efforts and self-transformation. considering the dialectics as the development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative in the activity renders important a class of human personal growth tasks. it also evokes understanding the fact that these phenomena being inherent in personality get established in a uniform way and it launches their self-development. as no final answer to this and some other questions has been found, the research of this direction is relevant. methodological framework the subject of the research are the personality's information competency and creative initiative and their manifestation in activity. the objective of the research consists in detailing the essential meanings of the "information competency" and "creative initiative of personality" phenomena through the dialectics of their development, self-development and mutual influence. according to the subject and the objective of the research, the following tasks had to be solved: 1. identifying the essence of human information competency and its role in the development of the information society. 2. analyzing the approaches to the understanding of the creative initiative of personality and its manifestation in activity. tabachuk et al. 3. detailing the transformation and integration mechanisms for the development processes of the personality's information competency and creative initiative as the subject of activity. 4. finding out the existing and the other as factors that reflect the mutual influence of the personality's information competency and creative initiative in the structure of its individuality. 5. detailing the dialectics of development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative through the manifestation of subjective reality in the structure of individuality. in order to attain the objectives of the research and solve the tasks set, a set of mutually complementary research methods were used: the analysis of philosophic, psychological and pedagogical literature, extrapolation and modeling. the methods employed were appropriate to the set tasks, which has enabled the authors to record some results while analyzing the research subject. results and discussion the essence of human information competency and its role in the development of the information society in the contemporary understanding, the phenomenon of human information competency exists as the objective and subjective reality. on the one hand, these are the enhancing factors of being of the information society that are envisaged from the outside; on the other hand, information competency exists in the subject's ideas about information technologies, information resources and the information society. for instance, in their studies some scholars treat the notion of information competency as a complicated individual psychological formation based on integration of theoretical knowledge, practical abilities in the area of innovation technologies and a certain set of personal features. meanwhile, others believe it to be the new literacy which contains the abilities to speedily and independently process the information, to make completely new decisions in unexpected situations using the technological means (pechenyuk, 2008). this idea is supported in several works devoted to the study of various types of literacy (chigisheva et al., 2017, harshman, 2017). in the previous studies conducted by the authors, the phenomenon of human information competency is viewed as a key metasubject competency consisting of the cognitive, motivational, and activity-based components that are provided with details by man via "understanding", generating his own meanings, and enriching the subject experience. the essential characteristics of human information competency are the cognitive, motivational and activity-based components. the cognitive component (purposes) includes the diversity of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 168-186 knowledge in students about their own capacities of understanding the meaning and essence of information, of information processes, fundamentals of computer science, the place and part of information technologies in the academic and professional activity. the motivational component (meanings) characterizes the students' attitude to development of the information competency, their having a need of its self-development, as well as their motivation for a high-quality efficient work with information. the activity-based component (actions) of the information competency in students of a humanitarian higher educational institution allows viewing the students' subject experience being involved into the educational process – that in working with information, its various sources and in mastering the information technologies (tabachuk, 2009). the process of the development of human information competency is inseparable from the integral process of personality development and it occurs as a staged introduction of an individual into the world of information relationships and information culture. as pointed out by shulika (2016), the process of the development of information culture is not distilled to acquiring knowledge and abilities in computer science, information technologies and other courses only, but it also consists in the process of the required information qualities being formed in a subject and it depends on the subject's extent of realizing their own information needs. the authors view the development of human information competency in two aspects: within the internal patterned construction (the personality's absorbing the values existing in the culture, the methods of working with information in the process of interaction with the man's subjective reality) and within the transition to self-improvement of the information competency, i.e. at the point when one has achieved a certain personal level and demonstrates a capacity for developing oneself and for improving one's information competency (tabachuk, 2009). both aspects of the development of human information competency are united by the man getting new opportunities, features and abilities (cener et al., 2015). for this research, it is crucial that at each point of being one discovers new qualities and abilities in oneself, in the object around one while relying on one's subject experience. the transition of potential human abilities and qualities into actual being is relevant at various stages of human development. the contemporary world contains quite a large variety of information streams, which enhances the requirements for the development level of such human abilities as information competency and creative initiative of personality. these capacities not only enable one to tabachuk et al. contribute to the development of culture and of the society as a whole, but they can also act as an important resource for life activity. approaches to understanding of the personality's creative initiative and its manifestations in activity at different times, the question about the essence of creativity and manifestations of the personality's creative initiative has won the limelight of the philosophers' and psychologists' attention. the diversity of approaches to understanding the essence of the personality's creative initiative can be expressed through an entire set of ideas and theories. in particular, a.l. zhuravlev (2014) while describing the main aspects of scientific works of brushlinskiy emphasizes the role of human personal features that determine one's establishment as that of a subject. he also pointed out that an important place among them belongs to independence, productivity, availability of certain meanings of life and values, creativity, and initiative. the philosopher smirnov understands initiative as a philosophic category to be a universal property, an attribute of matter that is expressed in its ability of self-movement, ability to change other objects and develop certain internal conditions (smirnov, 1985). he singles out two meanings of the term "initiative": a side, a constituent of any process of interaction or action; and a process. initiative acts both in the shape of internal processes and in the shape of external manifestations. kholodnaya (2015) argues that the notion of subject stresses the individual and unique nature of prerequisites and manifestations of the intellectual initiative. following sedova (1999), the authors will mean by the creative initiative a unit of functioning of a creative personality; a feature of a life activity subject that enables the subject to adapt under new social and cultural conditions in the most successful manner and that promotes the subject's reasonable self-identification based on analyzing actual opportunities and individual manifestations. in studies of razumnikova and yashanina (2015), it is noted that the wide scope of knowledge, speed of mental processes and an ability of focused control and maintaining attention are all components of intellect and are incorporated in the functional system of creativity. the authors of this work believe exactly these features to be ones to influence manifestation of the personality's creative initiative in activity. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 168-186 the notion "creative mental field" introduced by dorfman (2014) is associated with the creative initiative of personality. dorfman's (2016) empirical notion of the creative mental field as the common root of divergence and variability is applicable to the subject of activity. the scholar singles out some indices of divergent thinking, such as fluency, flexibility, and originality, and mentions that they lead to discovering the general capacities of the creative mental field. these indices characterize not only the creative personality but also one who shows oneself as a subject of activity and as capable to find one's way in the information society. the mental constituent of the intellect and creativity is also being studied by kholodnaya (2015). while suggesting a new approach in studying the nature of the intellect within the framework of analyzing the particularities of organization of a personality's individual mental (intellectual) experience, kholodnaya (2015) focuses her attention on the fact that the word "creative" is used to call a person who alongside with the ability to make discoveries in this or that subject area has a unique manner of expression at the level of the product created and a unique creative pattern at the level of modes of activity. she singles out such aspects of abilities as verbal understanding, verbal intellect index (with which the authors associate the process of development of the activity subject's information competency), and verbal fluency as creativity index, as that of creative initiative. these aspects of abilities complement each other. speaking about the process of development of the information competency and of the personality's creative initiative, verbal understanding makes up the basis for "individual mental (intellectual) experience" of interaction within the information society. when describing the resource-based approach to individual intellectual activity, kholodnaya (2015) stresses that evolution of individuality is largely based on the development of cognitive abilities that play a key part in the establishment of the subject's mental world. proceeding from these theoretical provisions (dorfman, 2014; kholodnaya, 2015; yigit & tarman, 2016), it can be argued that the development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative within the framework of individuality influences the establishment of the "creative mental field", "individual mental experience", and the "subject's mental world" in general. for this research, the mental constituent is an integrating factor of mutual influence as for the personality's information competency and creative initiative in the structure of individuality and it is associated with self-development of personality. tabachuk et al. self-development of the personality's creative initiative is related to the experience of reflection. kulikova (2005) notes that the personality's experience of reflection is a constituent of its subject experience that is accumulated during the repeated operations of correlating the knowledge about oneself and one's opportunities, expected self-transformations and possible changes both in the reality around one and in oneself to the requirements of activity. as for selfdevelopment of the personality's information competency and creative initiative, the reflexive experience acts toward it as the subjective reality. according to shadrikov and kurghinyan (2015), while performing reflexion toward a certain activity, a subject shows an ability to consciously reproduce the experience gained, to master it and to turn it into a generalized action method for certain situations. in the subject's act of reflection, the subject's abilities are manifested – such as information competency and creative initiative. many scholars consider the reflexive constituent as a process of self-regulation of life activity to be the basic element of the subject's self-development (popov et al., 2016). according to brushlinskiy (1996), for man as a subject, conscience matters especially much because it is during reflection that man forms and develops his objectives (that can only be conscious), i.e. the objectives of activity, communication, contemplation and other kinds of initiative. "man objectively acts (and therefore is studied) within the system of infinitely versatile and controversial qualities; the most important of them is being a subject, i.e. the creator of one's history, the architect of one's life path: initiating and performing the originally practical activity, communication, behavior, cognition, contemplation and other kinds of specifically human initiative – creative, moral, and free" (brushlinskiy, 1996, p. 76). zinchenko (1994) statement about "mastering the new actions and activity is enrichment of the subject, development of not only the operation and technical, cognitive abilities but also of personality, its essential forces" (zinchenko, 1994, p. 17) is especially significant for this research. the author points out that "man is the subject of activity if it is not only man who masters the activity but also it is the activity that masters him" (zinchenko, 1994, p. 18). action is an essential condition for formation of meanings and their deepening", it is associated with "rendering the meanings significant" and "rendering the purposes meaningful"; "the beginning of reflection is encompassed in action". journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 168-186 the manifestation of personality's creative initiative in activity generates the transition from "forms creation to meanings creation", develops its subject experience of cognition, selfeducation, and ensures the acquisition of culture and values of mankind. kulikova (2015) argues that value attitude of man in his integral system of attitudes plays the part of a determining factor for his life activity and comprises the following meanings:  perception of this or that phenomenon of reality from the standpoint of a system of personality values, that is, revealing and acknowledging the extent of its moral and spiritual significance for both man and the society;  inclusion of this phenomenon as a value into the personality's system of values and turning it into an internal value reference point;  elaboration of a behavior strategy in which the focus on the development and reinforcement of a new value (of self-development) will emerge as one of the personality's value reference points;  development of the man's value autonomy. within this context, it can be noted that the development of human value autonomy determining the core of one's motivational choice, focus, place of spiritual and moral reference points in one's life influences the development of the information competency and manifestation of the personality's creative initiative. the value attitude of a personality toward selfdevelopment of its information competency and creative initiative is associated with comprehending the significance of this process for one's own efficient performance in the information society. following ozhiganova (2015), the authors believe that the internal motivation leads to manifestation of creative initiative in the activity, which is due to spontaneity (internal causes), aspiration for self-expression, self-cognition and the propensity to profoundly study the world (discover the new), to the emotional factor as a trigger mechanism for the creative process, by the inherent value of a creative act that is associated with positively colored emotional conditions, unselfishness. the factors of manifestation of the highest creative abilities and of the creative initiative described by ozhiganova (2015) confirm that their becoming relevant is associated with activation of resource conditions of man. the manifestation of the highest creative abilities is related to the mental resource of the development, the latter leading to self tabachuk et al. cognition, self-expression, self-actualization and self-development of personality (ozhiganova, 2015). following kulikova (2005), the authors will mean by self-development of personality a natural process – a mechanism of man's own participation in his establishment that is in congruity with nature and man. this is the process that unfolds, enhances, gains new meanings for man while being enriched by the appropriate skills of working on oneself and being reinforced by a belief in the result of one's efforts. popov, ustin and ibraghimova (2006) determine self-development as self-creation, self-transformation, self-construction that is performed during the man's interaction as a subject with himself, a conscious aspiration for and a process of changing oneself, including the appearance, inner world (the mental), social and production relationships. according to the authors, in this context self-development acts as the main pivot of personality – one on which the distinct nature of the personality's information competency and self-assertion of the personality's creative initiative in activity center. considering the studies by vygotskiy (2003), it should be pointed out that when wording the general genetic law of cultural development he noted "in the personality's cultural development, each function appears on stage twice, in two aspects: first, socially, and next – psychologically; first it appears between people, as an inter-mental category, and then – within the personality, as an intra-mental category" (vygotskiy, 2003, p. 44). extending the statement, it can be argued that the personality's information competency and creative initiative as products of objective reality that exist and are discussed in the society are transformed into the subjective reality as one that creates the man's inner world. the mechanisms of transformation and integration of the processes of development of the information competency and the creative initiative of personality as the subject of activity in the previous studies conducted by the authors, the mechanisms of transformation and integration of processes of the development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative were identified. they are as follows: 1. competence being "an ability to make efficient and at the extreme innovation decisions concerning a certain subject area based on the subject knowledge organized in a special way" (kholodnaya, 2015, p. 26). with regard to this, following the ideas of kholodnaya (2015), it can journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 168-186 be stated that "the originality of an individual mental experience" is the manifestation of the competency-based and creative constituents of the subject of activity as principles being integrated. she emphasizes that "creativity is an effect of competence". the creative process is due to the presence of "knowledge transformers", which is achieved in reflection. 2. reflexivity being an ability to learn the creative principle in oneself while interacting with the information reality. according to shadrikov and kurghinyan (2015), reflexivity is a feature of personality determining reflection as a process. meanwhile, reflection while being the manifestation of reflexivity in activity has an individual measure of expression against the individual structural components of the activity. 3. "inner dialectics" (hegel, 1992) being the internal beginning of self-movement, a prerequisite for activation of personal self-development of the information competency and the creative initiative. 4. subjectness. while studying the problem of proportion of the notions of subject and personality, serghienko (2013) singles out the functions of subjectness that are inherent in both subject and personality. he refers to them the cognitive, regulative and communicative functions mentioning that for subject these functions open up through understanding, control of behavior and subjectness / objectness of interaction while for personality they are disclosed via meanings formation, value reference points, experiencing, and selectivity of interaction. he emphasizes that only provided that there are meanings the understanding is possible; that it is only while experiencing that the opportunity of meanings generation and behavior change, its control emerge; and it is only a certain focus of personality that leads to selectivity of the communicative interactions. 5. intersubjectivity being the significance of subject experience of learning the information reality of one person for another. abulkhanova-slavskaya (1991) maintains that the "basis of initiative formation in professional achievements is the comparison of oneself to others" (abulkhanova-slavskaya, 1991, p. 61). 6. an ability of dialogue, of building the "dialogical relationships" (m.m. bakhtin) being the generation of a variety of meanings evoking the concealed new formations and translating the social purposes into personal meanings. according to buber (1995), "man who is studying the world is man with man" (buber, 1996, p. 87). this leads the authors on to comprehending that it is only while interacting with another subject, the information society that the understanding "of tabachuk et al. human information competency" can become more profound with personality as well as the creative initiative can be manifested. 7. manifestation of individuality being a distinct, original mode of existence of a certain personality as a subject of independent activity. yakovleva (1997) argues that "human individuality is inimitable and unique, hence it is the fulfillment of individuality that actually is a creative act" (yakovleva, 1997, p. 65). individuality manifests itself in the interests, judgments, views. the notion of personality is associated with that of individuality, characterizing one in the unity of one's natural and social qualities. social relationships being interpreted through the internal particularities are manifested in each certain case differently; each personality is unique and in this sense – individual (the subjective reflection of the objective world). man acts as individuality when man is taken in his original being. it should be pointed out that the transition from the outside inwards (that of the objective world to the subjective reality) transforms the very process, changes its structure and functions, and influences the process of self-development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative. dialectics of development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative as seen through the manifestation of subjective reality in individuality two diagrams given below in fig. 1 and fig. 2 are drawn up by the authors. the diagrams determine the existing and the other as factors detailing the mutual influence of the personality's information competency and creative initiative within the structure of its individuality; and the dialectics of the development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative through the manifestation of subjective reality in the structure of individuality, respectively. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 168-186  man's modes of being; they are manifested as a result of activity; generated in meanings creation;  evoke the processes of man's comprehending the outer and inner worlds;  influence the development of man's ability to identify his attitude to the information reality;  in mental activity mirroring the reality, they serve as mechanisms for satisfying the needs of information interaction and creativity through the process of cognition;  the development of human value autonomy which determines the core of one's motivational choice and focus plays a part in formation of these essences in man; inherent in man information competency creative initiative man performs activity being the product of the objective reality (a reality existing beyond our influence) the creator of a subjective reality (a reality existing in man's conscience) while changing the outer world around himself (objectivity) while changing his own inner world (subjectivity)  the nature,  relationships: m – m, m – the environment, m – the space (for interacting in order to pass the experience over to other generations, to identify the in-depth meanings of existence).  self-conscience: self-feeling, self-cognition, self-attitude, self-control,  reflection,  the human mental nature in general,  needs,  cultural level.  conclusions: by changing the outer world (nature, relationships) man changes as well; when interacting with the outer world, there comes comprehension, understanding and acceptance of one's own level of development of information competency, and the personality's creative initiative is manifested into the outside.  man realizes his independence and isolation in the development of information competency and manifestations of creative initiative only through his relationships with others.  the information competency and creative initiative are inherent in man; they are manifested in the activity into the outside; being inseparably associated, they detail his subjective reality and individuality and influence the enrichment of the individual mental experience. figure 1. the existing and the other as factors detailing the mutual influence of the personality's information competency and creative initiative in the structure of its individuality tabachuk et al. the activity is associated with entering the relationships:  in the process of "understanding", generation of one's own meanings, reflection, mutual penetration of value fields, transformation of the cognitive content into the emotional one in the ability to analyze, reflect, in self-development in the activity  in needs,  in behavior motives,  in objectives personality crises controversies (drives of the development) between new needs of information and irrelevant ways for satisfaction thereof (search, representation, storage of the information, use of information technologies); between the values of man, of the information society and the aspiration level of a creative personality the level of mental the process of increase of the individual's power over the environment search for meaning of one's subjective existence creative initiative harmony of man's mental and behavioral particularities in he manifestation of creative features information competency as an objective and subjective reality in the information society  enrichment of the subject experience of development and self-development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative;  the activity subject's standpoint determines to a greater extent the development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative;  freedom of choice and meanings creation act as the internal regulators of subjective reality;  a success situation (satisfaction of needs in activity) depends on the personality's acquiring its own subject experience of self-development of the information competency and the creative initiative;  independent actions develop as an activity which is relevant for man and which is built upon the personality's self-identification;  "subjective well-being" (yaremchuk, 2013) as a mechanism helping adjust the level of development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative. individuality figure 2. the dialectics of the development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative via the manifestation of subjective reality in the structure of individuality are manifested in the ability to reflect and realize the world of information opportunities  in interests,  in judgments,  in views man journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 168-186 conclusion for wording the conclusions on the theoretical research conducted, the theoretical provisions suggested by abulkhanova (2014) will be taken into consideration. in detailing the principle of subject methodologically, abulkhanova (2014) pays attention to the ontological approach to the activity subject and singles out such categories as life path, life capacities, life strategy. life path is a way for the personality's self-fulfillment and objectification, reproduction of itself in forms of life, its continual mode of self-realization and self-fulfillment. life capacities of personality characterize its new quality acquired by it during its life that is involved into social reality. life strategy is the personality's way of life that fulfills in it what is important for it – its human essence. with regard to this, in the development of the information competency and the creative initiative, the personality is reproduced in the forms of life, self-fulfilling. the personality's life path is associated with the manifestation of life capacities which are the information competency and the creative initiative. acting as a subject of activity, man elaborates his strategy of developing the information competency, the creative initiative and "the mode of life of his individuality". the essential meanings of the "information competency" and "creative initiative of personality" phenomena are associated by the authors with the mental constituent as a field, resource and individual experience of life activity of the subject. similarly, they relate it to meanings creation that develops the personality's subject experience of cognition and selfeducation and ensures acquisition of culture and values of mankind. the said meanings are also associated with a reflexive constituent that enriches the subject experience of development and self-development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative; and with the subjective well-being as an integral evaluation of the personality's life being up to its main meanings-related reference points. information competency is a key metasubject competency consisting of the cognitive, motivational, and activity-based components that are provided with details by man via "understanding", generating his own meanings, and enriching the subject experience. following sedova, by creative initiative, the authors mean a unit of functioning of a creative personality, a feature of a life activity subject enabling the subject to adapt under new social and cultural conditions in the most successful manner and promoting the subject's reasonable selfidentification based on analyzing actual opportunities and individual manifestations. tabachuk et al. the personality's information competency and creative initiative are mutually developing structures of personality, and they can transform and improve themselves in the process of their development. information competency and creative initiative of personality act as cumulative structures of personality that are grown up by it independently (tabachuk, 2015). the mechanisms for transforming and integrating the processes of development of the personality's information competency and creative initiative are competence, reflexivity, "inner dialectics", subjectness, "intersubjectivity", ability of dialogue and manifestation of individuality. finally, some words should be said about the directions of further research which the authors believe to be promising. they are ones relying on the theory of the creative mental field (dorfman, 2016), resource-based approach to the intellect and creativity (kholodnaya, 2015), the methodological principle of subject (abulkhanova, 2014), the study of subjective well-being as a component of valuesand meanings-related sphere of the personality (yaremchuk, 2013; tarman, 2017). among them, there can be named the comprehending of the role of virtual collective subject in the creative educational process, and the creative mental field in the structure of individuality, the latter manifesting itself in the development of the personality's information competency. there are also creative initiatives of the subject of information society to be explored within the ontological approach, "creativity as an effect of competence" – within the resource-based approach, the information competency of personality to be studied as a subject of activity, and subjective well-being – as a condition for self-development of human information competency. studies in the said directions have to be continued. references abulkhanova, k.a. (2014). methodological principle of the subject: the study of the personality's life path. psychological journal, 35(2), 5–18. abulkhanova-slavskaya, k.a. (1991). strategy of life. moscow: mysl publishers. arabadzhi, a.a. (2012). formation of the information competency in senior school students in conditions of profile training. phd thesis abstract. chelyabinsk. boyatzis, r.e. & sala, f. (2004). assessing emotional intelligence competencies. online publication. url: http://www.eiconsortium.org/pdf/assessing_emotional_intelligence_competencies boyatzis, r.l. (2008). competencies in the 21st century. journal of management development, 27(1), 5–12. http://www.eiconsortium.org/pdf/assessing_emotional_intelligence_competencies journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 168-186 brushlinskiy, a.v. (1991). the problem of the subject in psychological science. psychological journal, 12(6), 3–11. brushlinskiy, a.v. (1996). subject: thinking, learning, imagination. moscow: "institute of practical psychology" publishers; voronezh: npo "modyek". buber, m. (1995). two ways of faith. moscow: respublika. burmakina v., khoroshilov a. & fedanov a. (2006). assessment of information and communication competency of schoolchildren. elearning world, 1, 62–70. caner, e., acun, i. & demirhan, g. (2015). the impact of ict on pupils’ achievement and attitudes in social studies. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 190-207. chigisheva, o., soltovets, e. & bondarenko, a. (2017). functional foreign language literacy for global research career development: analysis of standardized open-ended interview responses. xlinguae, 4, 138-153. dorfman, l.ya. (2016). creative mental field, divergence and variability. psychological journal, 37(1), 26–34. dorfman, l.ya. & baleva, m.v. (2014). the relationship between creativity and variability. psychological journal, 35(2), 57–67. druzhinin, v.n. (1999). psychology of general abilities. saint-petersburg: piter kom. golovko, t.g. (2007). development of information competency in teachers in the process of further training. phd thesis abstract. rostov-on-don. golubin, d.v. (2006). formation of information competency in teachers in the system of further training. phd thesis abstract. kaliningrad. hegel, g.w.f. (1992). phenomenology of the spirit. saint-petersburg: nauka. harshman, j. (2017). developing globally minded, critical media literacy skills. journal of social studies education research, 8(1), 69-92. koleva, n.s. (2013). development of information competency of adolescents in the social and cultural space of further education. phd thesis abstract. chelyabinsk. kosorukova, e.a. (2015). formation of information competency in students by means of context-project technology. phd thesis abstract. kaluga. kulikova, l.n. (2005). self-development of personality: psychological and pedagogical bases: a study guide. khabarovsk: khabarovsk state pedagogical university publishers. tabachuk et al. ozhiganova, g.v. (2015). higher creative abilities as a resource of life activity. in: modern studies of intellect and creativity. zhuravlev, a.l., ushakov, d.v., kholodnaya, m.a. (eds.). moscow: "ras institute of psychology" publishers, 241–250. pechenyuk, a.m. (2008). the role of information and communication technologies in the development of key competencies of a future teacher. in: information and communication technologies in education: a collection of scientific papers. khabarovsk: feshu publishers, 83–87. polichka, a.e. & isakova, a.p. (2012). approaches to designing the content of organization of independent work of learners under the formation of special professional competencies. pedagogical education and science, (6), 74–77. ponomarev, ya.a. (1976). psychology of creativity and pedagogy. moscow: pedagogika. popov, l.m., ustin, p.n. & ibraghimova, e.n. (2015). self-development as a phenomenon of creativity. in: modern studies of intellect and creativity. m.: "ras institute of psychology" publishers, 301–318. popov, l.m., ibraghimova, e.n. & ustin, p.n. (2016). ya. a. ponomarev's concept of psychology of creativity and its use for studying the self-development. psychological journal, 37(1), 35–47. razumnikova, o.m. & yashanina a.a. (2015). divergent and convergent thinking as components of creativity: the role of memory and selective processes. in: modern studies of intellect and creativity. m.: "ras institute of psychology" publishers, 93–106. sedova, l.n. (1999). establishment of a creative personality under the developing environment conditions: a concept and implementation mechanism: a monograph. balashov: bspi publishers. serghienko, e.a. (2013). the problem of correlation between notions of subject and personality. psychological journal, 34(2), 5–16. smirnov, s.d. (1985). the psychology of image: the problem of activity level of mental reflection. moscow: moscow university publishing house. tabachuk, n.p. (2015). information competency and creative activity as mutually developing personality structures. bulletin of tomsk state pedagogical university, 12 (165), 93–99. tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 168-186 vitt, a.m. (2005). development of information competency in students of higher technical education institutions. phd thesis abstract. moscow. vorovshchikov, s.g. (2006). educational and cognitive competency of senior school students: management aspect: a monograph. moscow: apk i ppro. vygotskiy, l.s. (2003). psychology of human development. moscow: smysl publishers: eksmo publishers. yaremchuk, s.v. (2013). subjective well-being as a component of the value-semantic sphere of the personality. psychological journal, 34(5), 85–95. yigit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 zhuravlev, a.l. (2014). a.v. brushlinsky: scholar, organizer, person. psychological journal, 35(2), 141–144. zinchenko, v.p. (1994). the developing man: essays of russian psychology. 2nd ed. moscow: trivola. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 370-397 370 strategy and implementation of character education in senior high schools and vocational high schools zurqoni,1 heri retnawati,2 janu arlinwibowo,3 ezi apino4 abstract recently character education has been holding an important role for improving the human resources quality. this study aims to describe the strategy, the implementation and the results of character education in senior and vocational high schools in four provinces within the java island, indonesia. the study was a phenomenology-type qualitative research. the data collection utilized a questionnaire and in-depth interviews. the participants in the study were 108 senior and vocational high school teachers from four provinces in indonesia namely yogyakarta special region, central java, west java and banten, indonesia. the data analysis was conducted by implementing the creswell’s steps. the results of the study showed that the strategy that the schools might implement in character education would be providing the character building facilities and designing good programs of character development. the schools implemented character education by providing role models, intervention, consistent habituation, and reinforcement. the results of the implementation yielded good results for the students’ character development. the obstacles that the schools had within character education were the students’ heterogeneity, the society’s paradigm which considered that the focus of the schools should be the cognitive development and limited facilities. key words: strategy, character education, implementation, obstacles. introduction education plays an important role in shaping the well-qualified human resources in order to be competitive in the era. in indonesia, the objective of education, as stated in the law number 20 year 2003, is to develop the students’ potentials in order to be pious toward and faithful in lord the almighty, be healthy, be knowledgeable, be capable, be creative, be independent and be democratic and responsible human beings and citizens. referring to this objective of national education, the students should have not only good hard skills but also good soft skills. thereby, 1 assoc. prof., islamic state institute of samarinda indonesia, zurqoni@iain-samarinda.ac.id 2 assoc. prof., universitas negeri yogyakarta indonesia, heri_retnawati@uny.ac.id 3 lecturer, muhammadiyah health sciences school of kudus central java indonesia 4 alumnae, universitas negeri yogyakarta indonesia journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 the development of both hard skills and soft skills should be integrated into the educational processes. the educational process starts from the learning activities that have been conducted formally, informally and non-formally. in order to ensure the accommodation of developing the hard skills and the soft skills within the learning process in each educational unit, the educational objective should be formulated through the following three aspects namely the cognitive aspects, the affective aspects and the psychomotor aspects. this is to create a balance between the students’ intellectual capacity and their attitude/characters. the students who have good intellectual but who have not been equipped with good attitude/characters do not have any assurance that they will be successful in dealing with the era. even the learning process that only focuses on the cognitive aspect tends to create apathic students and such students will be unable to interact with their social environment. thereby, the development of attitude/character aspect is heavily demanded within the learning process. the importance of good characters for the students is to provide them with necessary skills in order to overcome multiple challenges and issues within their social environment. by having good characters, they are expected to be able to implement and to improve the moral values and the ability as well as to manifest these moral values in their daily life (nurhasanah & nida, 2016), to be able to make good decisions responsibly (ryan & bohlin, 1999) and to be good citizens (çubukçu, 2012; mcelmel, 2002). even by having the good characters, the students will be inclined to improve their learning achievements (nurhasanah & nida, 2016). such a situation describes that good characters will not only contribute to developing the socio-emotional aspects but also to influencing the students’ cognitive aspects. good characters take the form of good behaviors and they should be displayed in daily life. such a form of good characters will certainly be initiated by the knowledge toward the good characters. thereby, good characters should have three inseparable components, namely the aspects of moral knowing, the aspects of moral feeling and the aspects of moral action (lickona, 1991). the aspects of moral knowing are related to establishing moral awareness, knowing moral values, taking other people’s perspective into account, embedding moral reasoning and considering the moral in zurqoni, et al. decision making process. then, the aspects of moral feeling are related to understanding and performing conscience, gaining self-esteem by performing good values, having empathy toward other people, loving the good, performing self-control, being open toward self-limitations and striving forward to humanity. next, the aspects of moral action are related to the skills in turning the moral sense and assessment into better and competent actions, in taking the most appropriate decisions, in maintaining the emotion, in enduring within pressures and in habituating oneself toward performing good attitude in any situation. these aspects will be the foundation of developing good characters and in order to manifest these good characters there should be strategies that might be implemented within the educational domain. currently, the development of character values in education is known as character education. character education is defined as a planned and systematic approach in terms of self-respect, responsibility, honesty etc. for being a good citizen (çubukçu, 2012), as the deliberate attempt to influence the behavior of students through customizing repeatedly (abu, mokhtar, hassan, & suhan, 2015), as a school-based process for promoting the personal development among the youths by means of virtue and moral values development (pattarro, 2016) and as a special curriculum that should be developed in order to teach the students about the quality and the characteristics of good characters (almerico, 2014). the objective of character education is to grow the students’ capacity in understanding the moral values and in using this capacity to take “good and best” actions as well as to understand the real objectives of their life (battistich, 2005). furthermore, character education also plays a role in improving the quality of educational implementation results in schools which leads to the achievement of students’ character and nobility establishment in overall, integrated and balanced manner according to the governing standard competencies (nurhasanah & nida, 2016). character education also has a positive relationship to the academic and affective success and to the establishment of positive social perception (diggs & akos, 2016; thompson, 2002). recalling the importance of the role the character education plays, we should not put aside character education anymore; instead, it should be one the main axes within educational processes. the action that might be taken in order to develop character education is integrating it into the governing curriculum within the schools (abu, mokhtar, hassan, & suhan., 2014; almerico, 2014; çubukçu, 2012; kose, 2015; lee, 2009; pattarro, 2016; stiff-williams, 2010; thompson, 2002; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 wardono, waluya, kartono, sukestiyarno & mariani, 2015). many countries all over the world have been providing special attention toward character education within their educational system such as the united states of america, taiwan (lee, 2009), sweden and turkey (demirel, 2009). principally, these countries are aware that education is a matter of preparing not only the human resources who have good intellectual capacity but also the ones who have good characters. in indonesia, such a special attention have been provided through the implementation of curriculum 2013. curriculum 2013 focuses not only on the students’ cognitive development but also on the students’ attitude improvement, both the spiritual one and the social one, and on the students’ skills development. this aspect is reflected in the content standard that is implemented in curriculum 2013 (mendikbud ri, 2013). the depth of the content standard emphasizes more on the conversion of the attitude into a good behavior, on the higher order thinking skills (hots) and on the necessary skills in overcoming the global challenges. in curriculum 2013, there are 18 character components that are identified and these characters come from the religion, the culture and the national education objective. these characters are: honesty, tolerance, discipline, hardworking, creativity, independence, democratic, curiousity, spirit of nationality, rewarding achievement, friendliness/communicativeness, love of peace, fondness of reading, environmental care, social care, responsibility, and religiousity (kemendiknas ri, 2011). these character values are exercised through the teaching and learning processes in the classroom and through the other activities that occur within the school environment, both academic and non-academic ones (extracurricular activities). through the integration of character education into the curriculum, students should not be separated from their social environment (wardono et al., 2015). in other words, although character education takes place in school (çubukçu, 2012; mcelmeel, 2012), the students’ social environment still plays an important role in the character development. this statement shows that character education belongs not only to parents’ responsibility but also to society’s responsibility since the society, as part of the students’ social environment, also participates in their character development. the implication from the integration of character education into the curriculum is that there should be a strategy for implementing character education in the teaching and learning process within the zurqoni, et al. schools. several experts propose that there are multiple strategies that might be implemented in character education within the schools. several strategies that might be implemented in developing the character values and that have been the core the character education are the role model, intervention, consistent habituation, and reinforcement (zuchdi, prasetyo, & masruri, 2011). several activities that might trigger the development of good characters among the students are developing discipline and self-confidence as well as raising awareness and manners, engaging students in extracurricular activities and scouting activities, increasing students’ self-development by organizing various competitions through student council activities and coaching talent interests through extracurricular activities (nurhasanah & nida, 2016). these strategies or methods might be referred by the teachers in exercising character education in teaching and learning processes within the schools. the integration of character education into the teaching and learning process within the schools is initiated by the good role model that teachers provide. thornberg & oguz (2013) state that the main method in character education is the good role model that teachers provide within their interaction with the students. the intervention within character education is conducted through the use of learning models that have the content of character values such as problem-based learning (arofah, 2015; jailani & retnawati, 2016; jailani, sugiman, & apino, 2017; wardani, 2014) and cooperative learning (matchett, 2009; zakaria, chin & daud, 2010). in addition, in order to improve the moral and character values, multiple teaching techniques such as role playing, drama, simulation, educational games, debate, discussion, project, group-work, educational visitation, interview and brainstorming might be implemented (chowdhury, 2016). consistent habituation might be conducted through the implementation school regulation consistently, and reinforcement might be conducted through the celebration of religious and national days, social service and synergy establishment with the society and the parents. in practice, the implementation of character education sometimes encounters several obstacles. lee (2009) identifies at least four main problems within the process of character education namely: (1) there have been few teachers who have the professional capacity in the domain of morale and character education; (2) several parents object to taking part into the process of character education; (3) the students have many academic pressures and, as a result, they focus only on the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 achievement of cognitive learning achievement; and (4) there are difficulties in maintaining character education continuously. in addition, almerico (2014) states that one of the educator’s challenges in conducting character education is related to the provision of necessary curriculum materials and the manner of teaching character education. these problems should be solved immediately in order that character education might be optimally implemented. based on the description above, it can be understood that character education should play an important role within the teaching and learning process. in indonesia, the implementation of character education in curriculum 2013 cannot run optimally. such a situation shows that there should be a review in relation to finding the appropriate strategy in order to improve the students’ characters and to identify the impact of the strategy implementation. purpose of study the study is to describe the strategy, the implementation, and the results of character education as well as the obstacles of its implementation in senior and vocational high schools in four provinces of java island, indonesia. method research design the study was phenomenology research that applied a mixed between quantitative and qualitative approaches. the quantitative approach is used to estimate the mean score of teachers’ assessment tendency toward character education. the strategy and obstacles in character education is analyzed by means qualitative approach. participants the participants in the study were 108 teachers with the following details: 61 senior high school teachers and 47 vocational high school teachers from all subjects. these teachers served as the representatives of all schools in four provinces in indonesia with the following details: 18 teachers from yogyakarta, 57 from central java, 24 from west java, and 9 from banten. these teachers taught in the schools that had implemented the 2013 curriculum. zurqoni, et al. data collection the data were gathered using a questionnaire and in-depth interviews. through the questionnaire, the teachers were asked to answer the questions regarding the strategy and the obstacle in implementing character education. they were also asked to assess the students’ characters before and after implementing curriculum 2013. the in-depth interview was conducted toward 25 teachers who had been selected so that the discussion would be focused on the strategy in implementing character education in relation to the role modelling, intervention, consistent habituation, and reinforcement as the strategy of implementing character education. data analysis the data analysis was conducted both quantitatively and qualitatively. the quantitative data analysis was conducted by calculating the mean score of teachers’ assessment tendency toward character education which resulted in the 18 character components containing and having been exercised in curriculum 2013. the mean score before and after implementing curriculum 2013 implementation was presented in a graph which was interpreted. the data analysis regarding the strategy and the obstacle in implementing character education was conducted by implementing the creswell (2013) steps namely: (1) organizing the data; (2) reading and composing memo; (3) describing, classifying and interpreting the data into the code and the theme; (4) interpreting the data; and (5) displaying and visualizing the data. the overall data were then interpreted in order to gain an understanding of the teachers’ strategy and obstacle in conducting character education. findings curriculum 2013 as the governing curriculum nowadays mandated that the educational process should pay attention to the balance in the students’ development within all domains, namely the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. the development of affective domain became one of the foci in developing good characters namely honesty, tolerance, discipline, hardworking, creativity, independence, democracy, curiosity, spirit of nationality, love of nation, rewarding achievement, friendliness/communicativeness, love of peace, fondness of reading, environmental care, social care, responsibility and religiosity. the efforts to develop the affective domain in general is known as character education. the education that emphasizes characters has a crucial role in equipping the students so that they might have good personality and might display their journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 maximum potentials in order to survive and to provide benefits to the communal life. the age of senior and vocational high school is a period of transition from juvenile to adulthood; as a result, character development in this age becomes very important. the following explanation would be a description on the implementation of character education from the strategy, implementation, results, and obstacles within the implementation. the strategies of implementing character education schools should have a strategy in implementing good character education so that the educational process would be directed and be implemented well. the consequence of implementing character education is that schools should prepare multiple supporting facilities and multiple programs that might direct character education toward the pattern of all school members’ routines or activities so that th e pattern might be a catalyst in the character development. the strategy that should be implemented by the schools in preparing character education would be divided into two main aspects namely the facility preparation and school program preparation. the facility preparation religion becomes one of the aspects that are mandated by the curriculum to be developed. however, religion is considered as an aspect that might underlie the development of other characters. thereby, the preliminary strategy that the schools should apply in the implementation of character education would be preparing the worshipping facilities. the availability of good worshipping facilities might provide wide flexibility toward the schools in implementing character education program or in civilizing the spiritual activities. creativity, independence, curiosity and fond of reading might be developed through an improvement toward the students’ insight. therefore, the facility for literacy programs, both for the printed literacy and the electronic literacy, should be provided by the schools. the strategy that should be implemented by the schools is to establish a school library or a small library (usually called a reading corner) in each classroom complete with the internet facilities. actually, a library is a compulsory facility in each school but in the practice a library has not played an optimum function. paying attention to the fact, the schools should pursue a certain strategy in order to revitalize their library so that the students would be interested in visiting it. the library appeal zurqoni, et al. might be improved by providing more various books or by installing extra facilities that would make the students feel more convenient. a canteen has been a place that students mostly visit; as a result, this place becomes a strategic location for developing good characters. schools should prepare a good canteen within the management of cleanliness in order to develop character of being disciplined and environmentally caring. several schools design a canteen that is committed to minimizing the use of plastic bag and paper and to being disciplined in throwing the garbage and to the garbage bin. the canteen caretakers are briefed by the schools in order to take part in developing the character of loving the environment among the students. some schools also have a strategy in developing honesty through the provision of canteen of honesty. recently schools have realized that the care toward the environment might provide a positive impact to the development of the students’ characters. there have been many schools that have multiple strategies to provide good cleaning facilities in order to develop their students’ characters. it is common to see various garbage cans or dust bins for different types of garbage, the greenhouse, the park, and the small plants in multiple vases around the schools. the provision of these facilities might develop the environmental care and, altogether with the implementation of other programs, might develop the character of being tolerant, being disciplined, hardworking, being independent and being responsible. the school programs the strategy of implementing character education does not stop in the facility provision, instead the strategy should be expanded to the program in order that the facility might be beneficial optimally in developing the students’ characters. the main strategy that schools prepare in implementing character education is holding a socialization program regarding character education to all school members. the socialization program should be held not only for all school members but also for all school employees, including the cleaning service staff, the security officer and the canteen staff. the objective was that all members would have common perception and point of view so that they would be committed to pursuing the synergy in the implementation of character education. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 all school members should be provided with direction in order that they would be able to be a good role model in accordance with their own portion. the principal might play his or her role on the school management, the teachers might play their role on the teaching and learning process, the employees might play their role through the administrative process, the security officers might play their role through discipline and security enforcement, the canteen staff might play their role through their commitment in providing clean canteen and the cleaning service staff might play their role through the cleanliness management; all school community members have their own role to play within the social interaction around the implementation of character education. thereby, all school community members would understand their own role in defining the successful implementation of character education. the direction that should not be forgotten is the direction toward the students’ parents. the synergy between the school and the students’ parents is the utmost prerequisite for the successful implementation of character education. this direction would minimize the conflict between the school’s policy and the parents’ perspective. the case occurring nowadays is result from the lack of synergy between the school and the parents; as a result, the school and the parents are blaming each other and this dispute causes the students’ characters under-developed. the synergy between the school and the parents is important because outside the school, the parents have a fundamental role to play in developing the students’ characters. there should be harmony and communication between the school and the parents within their efforts to develop the students’ characters. the socialization should also reach the students. the function of socialization for the students is to make them be aware of the objectives and the benefits of character education as their equipment in pursuing their life in the society and in the employment. therefore, the students would have awareness and motivation that all of the conditioning that has been done through the process of implementing character education is a structured stage in developing multiple characters; these characters later on would be functional for the students in dealing with their external world. the socialization strategy for the students is expected to have positive synergy so that the process of implementing character education runs well and minimizes the obstacles. zurqoni, et al. teachers have a big role to play within the implementation of character education because they should be able to implement the integrated learning process. therefore, in general the schools design an in-house training (iht) program as a strategy to strengthen the teachers’ competencies since they are in the front line of character development. through this strategy, it is expected that the teachers can manage the classroom well and design a learning process that might be the stimulant of developing the students’ characters. another strategy that might support the implementation of character education is designing other supporting programs in order to maximize the situation and the facility within the schools. these programs might be designed in accordance with the condition of the school environment, for example: a school located near a river might implement a special program that displays the attention toward the river cleanliness; a school that is located near an orphanage might design a special program; a school that is problems with green area might design a reforestation program; the society who lives in the seashore might design a program for optimizing the marine resources and alike. multiple strategies for implementing such a program in general would narrow to the establishment of multiple religious elements and attitudes. the implementation of character education the process of implementing character education is a follow-up action of the strategy that has been selected by the schools. the implementation might be categorized into four core programs namely role model, intervention, habituation, and reinforcement. each core program has its own role in developing the students’ characters. a role model is to provide an example of good behaviors toward the students. an intervention places a learning process or a situation in order that the students’ characters would develop well. habituation is to habituate good attitudes among the students, and reinforcement is to inculcate strong character values in the students. in general, the facts found in the field show that the implementation process has encompassed the four core programs of character development. the difference from one school to another lies in the details of implementation that have been adjusted to multiple aspects like social environment or cultural environment. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 the role model the most fundamental implementation of role model in the process of character education is placing the principal, the teachers and all employees as an agent of role modeling. thereby, paying attention to the good behaviors will be an utmost requirement for the principal, the teachers and all employees. schools have a system of role modeling hierarchy within each agent. the principal will be the center of role modeling; as a result, he or she has the duty of providing ideal attitudes in front of all school community members. below the principal, there are the teachers and the school employees who have the duty of providing ideal attitudes in front of the students. furthermore, there is a hierarchy of students’ role modeling in accordance with the class; the students from the higher class will be mandated to provide the ideal attitudes in front of those from the lower class. such hierarchy will trigger the sense of being embarrassed to themselves if they do in-disciplinary action toward the superordinate or the senior. however, in general all school community members have the function of serving as the role model for their own environment so that the action of paying attention to their attitudes will also be conducted outside the schools. the role modeling activities are displayed in the discipline from the beginning to the end of the school period. the teachers and the employees provide an example of discipline in accordance with the allotted time period. in general, the principal routinely goes to the school at the earliest time and goes home at the latest time compared to the teachers and the employees. the researcher found many cases in which the principal attended the school around 06:15 and they were ready to welcome the students in front of the school gate until the beginning of the school period, namely 07:00. the discipline also entails the beginning and the end of the learning process and the use of school uniform according to the school requirements. the social attitudes of the principal, the teachers and the employees are a matter that has been emphasized in the aspect of role modeling. most of the schools in the study have implemented the 5s movement (senyum or smile, sapa or greet, salam or shake hand, sopan or being polite and santun or being courteous). the principal, the teachers and the employees are in the front line of implementing this movement in order that the students will follow their leaders. the friendliness, the mutual respect and the development of sense of belonging among all school community members have been the objective of implementing the 5s movement. this movement take place zurqoni, et al. at the beginning of the school period where the principal and the appointed teachers welcome the students and the employees by implementing this 5s movement. the movement then continues to the daily activities both inside and outside the classroom and outside the school. in addition to implementing the 5s movement, several schools have also implemented another movement called “please, sorry and thank you”. the principal, the teachers and the employees were also in the front line of implementing this movement. “please, sorry and thank you” movement becomes the usually spoken words within the social interaction; as a result, the sense of mutual respect and affection would develop among the school members. with these movements, automatically the culture of uttering good remarks will be maintained so that the students will be embarrassed if they do not utter good remarks. the attitude that has been taught through the role model is empathy. such attitude might be developed through role modeling activities. schools have a program of empathy embodiment through the attention that principals, teachers and employees displayed toward the students and their colleagues. there are also specific programs or budgets that have been directed toward facilitating any school community members who have been ill or suffer from certain incidents. naturally, human beings will respond to kindness with kindness especially when they suffer from certain incidents. naturally as well, human beings will have satisfaction when they are able to help their fellows. thereby, the empathy that is displayed will be easily widespread and deep-rooted. every school has its own program in supporting empathy, for example sabtu sodaqoh (charity saturday), jumat infaq (donation friday) scholarship from teachers to students, social contribution to illness and pass-away and alike. one of the fundamental core programs in good attitude establishment is spirituality. role model should play an important role in its development. principals, teachers, and employees are demanded to be a figure who obey the rules of their religion so that they might be a good role model in front of their students. in general, schools performed a communal prayer (sholat jamaah) for the moslem teachers and employees to stimulate students to do the same thing. the researcher found several cases that schools held a communal prayer where the principal, the teachers or the employees became the lecturer (khotib) or the leader (imam). the principal, the teachers and the employees of other religions were also demanded to frequently hold interaction, to be spiritual and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 to conduct the rules of their religion. by doing so, the students will actually see the figure who become their role model. the intervention schools conduct intervention toward multiple activities so that the process of character education will be well implemented in accordance with the plan. the multiple activities that have been directed by schools are teaching and learning process, organizational activities, and discipline. in order to support the process of character education, schools situated the teaching and learning process integrated with multiple characters that have been identified in curriculum 2013 namely honesty, tolerance, discipline, hardworking, creativity, independence, democratic, curiosity, spirit of nationality, love of nation, rewarding achievement, friendliness/communicativeness, love of peace, fondness of reading, environmental care, social care, responsibility, and religiosity. teachers should be able to design and to implement such integrated learning as having been exercised in in house training programs. another intervention is conducted in order to control students’ organizational activities. schools carefully select programs of the organization in order that the implemented activities might participate in supporting the implementation of character education. however, intervention does not mean that the school will limit students in their creative process; in this case, the schools should be careful in situating themselves so that the students’ creativity will still be sharpened and the organization will run in accordance with character education. curriculum conducts an intervention in the extracurricular activities by holding boy-scout for the x grade students. the boy-scout activities are functioned as the ones that exercise the students’ character establishment. in addition to oblige the boy-scout activities, the schools in general also oblige the samapta extracurricular activities, such as marching and country defense, in order to develop discipline, nationalism, patriotism, and peace loving attitude. within the implementation, the schools often have cooperation with related institutions such as the national army of indonesia and the police department of indonesia. zurqoni, et al. the efforts to implement character education are also pursued through the intervention in the students’ discipline. the fact showed that there should be an emphasis that accompanies the role model in developing discipline. in schools, the researcher frequently found inspections of several aspects such as uniform, haircut, cigarette, sharp weapons and other objects that do not support teaching and learning process. the schools also conduct inspection of smartphone content in order that smartphones would not contain the uneducated pictures and videos. such inspection might also be made as a means of identifying the students’ activities so that those students who have been identified in committing uneducated activities might be directed immediately. the habituation many examples that have been exercised and developed through the conditioning activities should be supported by the habituation program. spiritual activities in general become the front line in the habituation process. the teaching and learning process in the form of habituation is initiated by praying, greeting, recide the holy qur’an before starting the teaching and learning process, performing sholat jamaah and praying again before the class ended. in addition to those habituation efforts, many schools have various programs in terms of spiritual-based habituation programs such as jumat sodaqoh (carity friday), sabtu mengaji (prayer saturday), dhuha in round, asmaul husna morning, and friday prayer. the habituation by means of religion is expected to exercise the religious attitude that becomes the catalyst for the habituation of other good attitudes. the individuals who are accustomed to the religious attitude in general will take good actions in their activities. the adiwiyata program is one of the character habituation programs that schools commonly apply. nowadays many schools are aware that they are comfortable, clean, and conducive places for learning. as a result, many schools actively implement their adiwiyata programs. the students are taught about the importance of cleanliness through the responsibility of maintaining the classroom and environment cleanliness, minimizing the paper and plastic consumption, and managing the parks around the classroom. such habituation programs develop the attitude of loving and being responsible for the environment, and at the same time, make students aware that there is a strong relationship between the health maintenance and the environment cleanliness. these programs are implemented in various ways, including cleaning movement, greening movement and garbage journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 management. recently many schools have established a system of garbage bank and have maintained cooperation with garbage collectors. the garbage sorted from each classroom will sold and the money is saved in the school account. in addition, many schools have also established a movement of benefitting the garbage for handicraft, accessories and planting media. in general, schools hold inter-classroom competition for multiple adiwiyata programs and the winner of this competition is awarded with certain reward. then, in order to habituate honesty, schools run the canteen of honesty. generally, it is managed by the students’ organization or the vice principals for student affair. students are provided with the freedom to purchase the product in this canteen independently and they should take their own change independently as well. in such a canteen system, there is a huge gap for the students to be dishonest since this canteen habituates honesty without any warning. therefore, honesty will be dominantly influenced by the intrinsic motivation. the strategy for providing control, in general, will be calculating the expected profit and the actual profit. after the calculation, there will be a margin that reflects the honesty of the canteen customers. literacy movement is some sort of habituation that schools actively pursue. in order to develop the students’ reading interest, schools customize them to read by providing specific time. most schools applied this movement by allotting 15 minutes reading time prior to the beginning of the first lesson. there are also some schools that implement the similar strategy with different approaches, such as reading saturday and taking a break in the library. the researcher found a peculiar case in which a school provided one hour period only for the literacy subject. this school taught multiple ethics toward books, reading trick, and motivation to read. the effort to develop nationalism is made by habituating the students to sing both the regional and the national anthems. the time allocated for singing these songs is varied, depending on the policy of each school. there are some schools that begin the first lesson and end the last lesson by singing the national anthem and there are some other schools that combine the national anthem and the regional songs in opening and in closing the lesson. in relation to the nationalism development by means of songs, there are some schools that play the national anthem at the beginning or the end zurqoni, et al. of the school period and there are some other schools that play the national anthem during the break time. the reinforcement the last classification within the implementation process is the reinforcement of students’ characters. reinforcement is a stage of maintaining characters that had have developed well within the students through the role model, intervention and habituation. reinforcement is conducted by means of both routine program and special program. the routine reinforcement is conducted once a week through the flag rising ceremony whose objective is to memorize the service of the national heroes and to develop multiple attitudes in both the system of the ceremony is conducted and the mandate that the ceremony instructor delivers. in general, schools hold the celebration of certain events related to national days or religious days. they strive to maximize these moments by holding events such as discussions and competitions between the teachers and the students. in cooperation with their students’ internal organization, they hold these events including kartini day competition, religious discussion, and idul adha celebration in schools. the characters inculcated in the students are strengthened by providing an experience of sharing and displaying empathy. the provision of a room among the students to take participation in the society might strengthen the characters developed within the school environment. schools hold social contribution programs regularly, which involve the students in many places depending on the location of the schools. students and teachers are conditioned to establishing cooperation in providing aids, goods and services. another case that the researcher frequently found is the planting tree activities. several schools have conducted the social contribution program by planting trees within the society. another effort that schools have made in order to encourage the students’ discipline is displaying posters or billboard that contain rules, regulations and motivational words. in fact, the researcher often found that some schools display posters explaining the path of character development. thereby, the students will understand that the process that they have experienced up-to-date is a journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 process of character building and they might spread such a process to the surrounding environment. the researcher also found a peculiar case: one school published a book of rules and information regarding the school development process and it is distributed to the students so that their parents might learn about the rules and the information as well. as a result, there is a common understanding among the school, the students and especially the parents of their commitment to obeying the rules and supporting the implementation of the school programs. the implementation of character education should be supported by a strong synergy between schools and parents/foster parents. the students spent most of their time outside the school and in this period the parents/foster parents have a great power to exert the educational process. as a consequence, there should be a good cohesiveness between the school and the parents/foster parents within the implementation of character education. in order to maintain the communication with the parents, in general, the classroom teachers and the guidance and counseling teachers are placed in the front line. in the schools that have implemented the system of semester credit unit, the function of a classroom teacher is replaced by that of an academic advisor who has been together with his or her learning group for three years. according to the information provided by the schools, such a system gives very huge benefit in relation to the communication between schools and parents. for the sake of achieving the objectives of character education, schools should not stand independently. in general, schools establish a good cooperation with the police departments especially the sector police department, the indonesian national army especially, the military district command and the regional governments, especially the sub-regency and the village in order to achieve synergy in controlling the students’ activities outside the school periods. the schools are aware that students’ activities outside the school period are difficult to control and, therefore, the synergy with these parties might anticipate the worst situations immediately. the results of implementing the character education the implementation of character education within curriculum 2013 provides positive results toward the characters of the senior and vocational high schools from the four provinces in java island, indonesia. from the data gathered through the questionnaire, there are differences between zurqoni, et al. the students’ characters in curriculum 2013 and those in the previous curriculum. based on the opinions provided by the respondents, who were the principals and the teachers, character education in curriculum 2013 might develop 18 characters demanded by the curriculum namely honesty, tolerance, discipline, hardworking, creativity, independence, democracy, curiousity, spirit of nationality-displaying, patriotism, achievement-appreciating, friendliness/ communicativeness, peace-loving, fondness of reading, environmental care, social care, responsibility and religiosity. the data on the comparison of the students’ characters before and after the implementation of curriculum 2013 are shown in figure 1. figure 1. the comparison on the students’ characters before and after the implementation of curriculum 2013 based on the data in figure 1, it is apparent that the difference is significant in the comparison of each character. this fact shows that in general schools are successful in implementing the character education of curriculum 2013. the most significant difference lies in the aspect of creativity and curiosity. the development of both characters is caused by the fact that the curriculum demanded the scientific approach within the teaching and learning process. the scientific approach demands the student-centered learning process so that the students become more active in terms of cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects. such a teaching and learning process demands the students to 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5 honesty tolerance discipline hardworking creativity independence democratic curiosity spirit of nationality love of the nation rewarding achievement frendliness love of peace fondness of reading environmental care social care responsibility religiousity after before journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 frequently have discussions in investigating and solving problems, and in executing projects so that their creativity and curiosity become sharpened. in addition to the significant difference in the two characters, the teaching and learning process by means of scientific approach also provides positive results to the development of independent and hardworking character. the student-centered learning demands the students to have active discussions and to share their opinions. this process makes the students accustomed to having discussions in order to achieve common opinions. such a situation made the students’ attitude of being democratic to develop well. as a matter of reinforcement in dealing with the needs for the democratic attitude within the society, many schools design the election of the students’ internal organization chief like the national election. these schools design the election of the students’ internal organization chief very similar to the national election; there are oration, campaign, and voting. another character that prominently increased is fondness of reading. the literacy movement within schools becomes the reason behind the increasing students’ reading interest. before the implementation of curriculum 2013, many teachers complained of the low students’ reading interest. reading is a skill; therefore, a student who has not been trained and accustomed to reading would sense that reading is a difficult activity. the cases that the researcher often found are the low interest, focus, and endurance in reading. the students easily get bored and sleepy when they read. the literacy movement provides some sort of habituation toward the students so that they have the skills followed by their hobby. such habituation causes the students to sense that reading is very easy and fun. many adiwiyata strategies are sufficient to encourage the students to be sensitive and caring toward the environment. similarly, the encouragement of social care developes the students’ social empathy and care. the variation within the programs implemented by the schools, such as clean friday, healthy saturday, donation friday and alike, cause the character of being caring to develop well among the students. several teachers admitted that the students would feel embarrassed if their surrounding became dirty, that the classroom cleanliness became the students’ pride and that the students displayed empathy toward their peers who suffered from a financial problem. in one school, the researcher found a case in which a student could not afford to pay the zurqoni, et al. study tour expense because his parents had low financial condition and, in order to support this student, all of his classmates were willing to collect some money in order that the student might afford the study tour expense and, therefore, could join the study tour. the obstacles of implementing character education in general, the implementation of curriculum 2013 provides positive impacts on the development of the students’ characters. the facts that the researcher found in the field showed that the 18 characters mandated by the curriculum are developed well among the students. however, this result might be maximally developed since the researcher still found many obstacles within the implementation process. the problem that has generally been encountered within the implementation process is the heterogeneous school conditions; it is very possible that character education is conducive in one school but it suffered from the facility-related problems in another school. then, other schools still have difficulties in providing sufficient prayer facilities. these schools complained that they had too small prayer rooms, so that the praying process, especially in performing the sholat jamaah, should be conducted in shifts. such a situation caused very limited time for sholat that should be conducted during the break, as a result, several students had difficulties in managing their break time. the information technology (it) facilities in the schools are varied. the schools located in the center of the city and having good financial capacity generally have good it facilities. however, totally different situation is found among the schools located outside the center of the city. the it facilities within these schools are relatively poor and the internet is not optimized because it is not supported by good connection. in addition, the students of these schools relatively have simple life and, therefore, the researcher found that many of them did not have any laptops. therefore, these schools should be creative in designing the programs of character education by minimizing the information technology intervention. there are also other obstacles within the implementation of character education in terms of teachers. many teachers still complain of difficulties in determining the appropriate teaching and learning methods and strategies. these teachers perceived that they should be provided with many training or tutorial programs in order to improve their creativity in designing the teaching and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 learning process. in addition to the teaching and learning process-related problems, the aspects of assessment become another problem that these teachers complain of. the design of assessment instrument is one of the matters that the teachers often complain of. they perceive that they cannot master the design of character education instrument and, as a consequence, they are still doubtful about the results of their assessment. they also have difficulties in determining the appropriate assessment technique. they often complain of the difficulties in selecting the appropriate assessment technique so that they can assess many students under a valid manner. another obstacle that the researcher found in terms of students is the students’ heterogeneity. the students are heterogeneous based on their environmental and familial background. they have experienced their life for more than 15 years and, therefore, each them has peculiar attitudes. within the implementation of character education, this factor becomes a huge obstacle because managing hundreds of students with their respective fundamental characters is relatively difficult. if the character development is conducted in a forced manner, then characters would have only been applied within the schools. the last obstacle is the society’s paradigm that still consider schooling as an activity of improving the students’ cognition. it is still commonly found that the high daily test scores have earned higher price than the honesty in taking the daily test. one of the parties which still clings to such a paradigm is the parents. therefore, the schools should be able to provide the right paradigm that schooling is a process of being a better person in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. such an understanding might underlie the positive synergy between the schools and the parents in implementing character education. discussions in indonesia, character education is formulated in curriculum 2013; as a result, the implementation of curriculum 2013 automatically brings about the implementation of character education within the educational process. the results of the implementation of character education shows that there is an improvement in the 18 characters containing in curriculum 2013. such character improvement is caused by the fact that curriculum 2013 demands the scientific approach and other approaches such as problem-based learning within the learning process. the scientific and the zurqoni, et al. problem-based learning (pbl) approach demand the application of student-centered learning process so that the students become more active in terms of cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects; as a result, such an approach provided positive impacts on the improvement of students’ characters. this situation is in with the opinion of arofah (2015), wardani (2014) and jailani & retnawati (2016) and apino & retnawati (2017) which suggest that the implementation of pbl method within the learning process might exercise the students’ characters. in addition, the presence of student-centered learning activities makes the students have active discussions and mutual opinion sharing activities. the student-centered learning process is one of the pillars in the cooperative learning process. in other words, the cooperative learning process contributing positively contribution toward the development of students’ characters. this finding is definitely in accordance with the opinion of matchett (2009) and zakaria, chin & daud (2010). although character education in indonesia can contribute positively to the improvement of students’ characters, the researcher still found several obstacles within its implementation. the main problem found in the implementation of the character education is related to the teacher’s capacity, the parent’s and the society’s paradigm, and the facilities. in accordance with the opinion of lee (2009) and almerico (2014), the obstacle within the implementation of character education is related to the teacher’s capacity, which is caused by the teacher’s difficulties in integrating character education into the teaching and learning process within the classroom. then, the obstacle within the implementation of character education related to the parent’s and the society’s paradigm is the misconception that the learning process within the school is focused solely on the intellectual development. such a paradigm certainly causes the parents to be unwilling to take active participation in character education, whereas one of the factors that determines the successful implementation of character education is the synergy between the schools and the parents. this finding is in accordance with the opinion of lee (2009) which suggests that within the development of character education there are parents who are still unwilling to take part in the process of character education. in addition, still in accordance with the opinion of lee (2009), such a paradigm also causes the students to have huge academic pressures because they are demanded to solely focus on the achievement of cognitive learning results. on the other hand, in relation to the facilities, the main problem is that the educational facilities are not sufficient and well-distributed. this situation certainly leads to the difficulty in maintaining the process of character education journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 continuously (lee, 2009). this situation is also in accordance with the opinion of almerico (2004) which suggests that one of the obstacles in implementing character education is the provision of learning facilities such as the provision of necessary curriculum materials. various efforts can be made to overcome obstacles in the implementation of education in general, and character education in particular. improving teachers’ quality is the key word to solve the problem. this effort can be undertaken by implementing the various training required by the teacher to support the implementation of the applied curriculum (retnawati, munadi, arlinwibowo, wulandari, 2017; retnawati, arlinwibowo, wulandari, pradani, 2018; retnawati, djidu, apino, kartianom, anazifa, 2018), including training on the implementation of character education. the socialization of character education programs also need to be done to parents and society. as well as in the implementation of teaching and learning in every subject in the school that requires a certain learning trajectory (retnawati, 2017), the values in character education to be trained and strengthened need to be ordered in a particular path or values learning trajectory. of course, the evaluation of socialization efforts of character education programs, values learning trajectory that needs to be followed, and impact of character education are required further researches. conclusions and implications based on the findings, the strategies that the senior and vocational high schools might implement within the implementation of character education include: (1) preparing many supporting facilities; and (2) designing character development programs that encompass all elements, namely the teachers, employees, students and, even parents/foster parents. the objectives of implementing these strategies are to understand and to implement the intention of character education within the daily life and to have positive synergy among all elements. the schools implement character education by providing role model, intervention, habituation and reinforcement. the process of such implementation has been the results of the synergy among all school community members, society, and parents. the efforts that the schools pursue in implementing character education of curriculum 2013 provide positive impacts on the development of students’ characters. in general, the obstacles that the schools have within the implementation of character education are related to the students’ heterogeneity and the society’s paradigm which suggests that the focus of schooling zurqoni, et al. has only been in the cognitive development; on the other hand, other schools have the obstacles that are related to the provision of learning facilities. one of the main factors that support the successful implementation of character education in senior and vocational high schools in indonesia is the availability of sufficient learning facilities. however, the facts show that not all senior and vocational high schools in indonesia have such sufficient learning facilities. therefore, the indonesian government as the party that is responsible for providing the learning facilities is expected to pay more attention to the availability and the equal distribution of educational facilities. furthermore, schools should have more synergy with the society and students’ parents in implementing character education. character education has been a common responsibility and, therefore, the responsibility in implementing character education should not be assigned solely the schools. in relation to the future research, regarding the differences among students’ characteristics in each school level, there should be another study that can investigate the strategy and the implementation of character education in elementary schools. acknowledgement acknowledgement of the researcher conveyed to dr. ahmad nirwan (alumnae of educational management department, graduate school universitas negeri yogyakarta), dr. junus simangunsong, m.t. (alumnae educational research and evaluation graduate school, universitas negeri yogyakarta) from the directorate of vocational high school education of the ministry of education and culture of republic indonesia who had provided support to collect data for researchers and conduct interviews to teachers as research participants from 4 provinces in indonesia. thank you also to dr. lantip diat prasojo who motivated and challenged us to publish the best article and to help others and zaenal arifin, m.pd. who had helped conduct further indepth interviews to teachers in the province of west java, indonesia. references abu, l., mokhtar, m., hassan, z., & suhan, s. z. d. (2015). how to develop character of madrassa students in indonesia. journal of education and learning, 9(1), 79 – 86. almerico, g. m. (2014). building character through literacy with children’s literature. research in higher education journal, 26, 1 – 13. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 apino, e., & retnawati, h. (2017). developing instructional design to improve mathematical higher order thinking skills of students. journal of physics: conference series, 812, 1-7. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/812/1/012100 arofah l. (2015). implementing character education through problem based learning in sociology subjects for the development of social capital. vidya karya jurnal kependidikan, 30(1), 1 – 12. battistich, v. (2005). character education, prevention and youth development [electronic version]. retrieved october 15, 2016 from http://www.character.org/atf/cf{77b36ac350574795-8a8f-9b2fcb86f3eb}battistich_paper.pdf.web. chowdhury, m. (2016). emphasizing morals, values, ethics, and character education in science education and science teaching. the malaysian online journal of educational science, 4(2), 1–16. creswell, j. w. (2013). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage publication, inc. çubukçu, z. (2012). the effect of hidden curriculum on character education process of primary school students. educational sciences: theory & practice, 12(2) [supplementary special issue], 1526–1534. demirel, m. (2009). a review of elementary education curricula in turkey: values and values education. world applied sciences journal, 7(5), 670–678. diggs, c. r., & akos, p. (2016). the promise of character education in middle school: a metaanalysis, middle grades review, 2(2), 1–19. jailani, j. & retnawati, h. (2016). keefektifan pemanfaatan perangkat pembelajaran berbasis masalah untuk meningkatkan hots dan karakter siswa. jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran, 23(2), 111-123. [jailani, j. & retnawati, h. (2016). the effectivity of problem teaching set in problem based learning to improve students’ higher order thinking skills and character. jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran, 23(2), 111-123.] jailani, j., sugiman, s., & apino, e. (2017). implementing the problem-based learning in order to improve the students’ hots and characters. jurnal riset pendidikan matematika, 4(2), 247259. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.21831/jrpm.v4i2.17674 kemendiknas ri. (2011). pengembangan pendidikan budaya dan karakter bangsa. jakarta: badan penelitian dan pengembangan pusat kurikulum dan perbukuan kemendiknas. [kemendiknas ri. (2011). the development of nation cultural and character education. zurqoni, et al. jakarta: badan penelitian dan pengembangan pusat kurikulum dan perbukuan kemendiknas.] kose, t. c. (2015). character education of adolescents: a case study of a research center. education and science, 40(179), 295 – 306. lee (angela), chi-ming. (2009). the planning, implementation and evaluation of a characterbased school culture project in taiwan, journal of moral education, 38(2), 165-184. lickona, t. (1991). educating for character how our school can teach respect and responsibility. new york. bantam books. matchett, n. j. (2009). cooperative learning, critical thinking, and character, public integrity, 12(1), 25–38. mendikbud ri. (2013). peraturan menteri pendidikan dan kebudayaan nomor 64 tahun 2013 tentang standar isi. [minister of education and culture of republic indonesia. (2013). the regulation of minister education and culture number 64 year 2013 about the content standard]. (idn) mcelmel, s. l. (2002). character education: a book guide of teachers, librarians, and parents. greenwood village, co: teacher ideas press. nurhasanah, n. & nida, q. (2016). character building of students by guidance and counseling teachers through guidance and counseling services. jurnal ilmiah peuradeun, 4(1), 65 – 76. doi: 10.13140/rg.2.1.3085.4160 pattarro, c. (2016). character education: themes and researches. an academic literature review. italian journal of sociology of education, 8(1), 6-30. doi: 10.14658/pupj-ijse-2016-1-2 republik indonesia. (2003). undang-undang nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang sistem pendidikan nasional. [republic indonesia. (2003). law number 20 year 2003 about the national education system.]. (idn). retnawati, h. (2017). learning trajectory of item response theory course using multiple software. olympiads in informatics, 11, 123-142. doi:10.15388/ioi.2017.10 retnawati, h., arlinwibowo, j., wulandari, n.f., pradani, r.g. (2018). teachers' difficulties and strategies in physics teaching and learning that applying mathematics. journal of baltic science educations, 17(1), 120-135. retnawati, h., djidu, h., apino, e., kartianom, k., anazifa, r.d., (2018). teachers’ knowledge about higher-order thinking skills and its learning strategy. problems of education in the 21st century, 75(2), 215-230. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 370-397 retnawati, h., munadi, s., arlinwibowo, j., wulandari, n. f., & sulistyaningsih, e. (2017). teachers’ difficulties in implementing thematic teaching and learning in elementary schools. the new educational review, 49(3), 201–212. doi:10.15804/tner.2017.48.2.16 ryan, k. & bohlin, k.e. (1999). building character in schools: practical ways to bring moral instruction to life. san fransisco, ca: jossey-bass inc. stiff-williams, h. r. (2010). widening the lens to teach character education along side standards curriculum, the clearing house. journal of educational strategies, issues and ideas, 83(4): 115 – 120. thompson, w. g. (2002). the effects of character education on student behavior. electronic theses and dissertations. paper 706. retrieved from http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/706. thornberg, r. & oğuz, u. (2013). teachers' views on values education: a qualitative study in sweden and turkey. international journal of educational research, 59(1), 49 – 56. wardono, w., waluya, b., kartono, k., sukestiyarno, s., & mariani, s. (2015). the realistic scientific humanist learning with character education to improve mathematics literacy based on pisa. international journal of education and research, 3(1), 349 – 362. wardani, n. s. (2014). development of student character through project based learning for social studies subject. jurnal ilmiah pendidikan, sejarah dan sosial budaya, 16(2), 103 – 115. zakaria, e., chin, l. c., & daud, m. y. (2010). the effects of cooperative learning on students’ mathematics achievement and attitude towards mathematics. journal of social science, 6(2), 272 – 275. zuchdi, d., prasetyo, z. k., & masruri, m. s. (2011). model pendidikan karakter terintegrasi dalam pembelajaran dan pengembangan kultur sekolah. yogyakarta: uny press. [zuchdi, d., prasetyo, z. k., & masruri, m. s. (2011). the integration of character education model in teaching and learning and school culture development. yogyakarta: uny press.] http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/706 almost done www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (3), 198-219 exploring religious teaching and attitudes of traditional muslim on social politics in indonesia jubair situmorang1, mohd. mizan aslam2 abstract today indonesia encounters a significant downturn in its political life amid the society participation, among other things, by traditional muslim society. consequently, attentions are drawn to the religious teaching the traditional muslims obtain to adapt to social or political life in indonesia. this study aims to describe the impact of religious teaching on traditional muslims’ ethical behaviors and to analyze their behavior shifts towards the socio-political situations in indonesia. a literature review was employed as the data collection technique by way of observations, in-depth interviews and documentaries. semi-structured interviews were selected using purposive sampling techniques. the population and participants involved came from the ternate sultanate, north maluku province, indonesia. the research methodology used the historical, sociological, theological and phenomenological approaches to analyze problems related to traditional muslim political life and the role of religious teachings in it. the result demonstrated that the traditional muslims, who appeared to be rigid, doctrinal, and intolerant towards newly developed ideas, were influenced by literal perceptions. furthermore, strong local cultures and attitudes performed in religious rituals for maintaining traditions over generations have also created the various attitudes of traditional muslims towards the politics in indonesia. the interviews revealed that the existence of 'pangaji' (a term for religious leaders who teach religious teaching in the sultanate of ternate) in 'bobato' could shape improved individual characteristics. based on the diversity paradigm approach, 'pangaji' ,despite their rarity in modern muslim societies, has resulted in a shift in political behaviors wherein democratic values, justice, solidarity among society groups, a sense of responsibility, and respect for human rights are promoted. this finding hopefully strengthens the political structure in indonesia, as the existence of religious teaching should initiate spiritual expansion, which seeks to help the muslim society understand the true meaning and function of religious and socio-political life. key words: religious teaching, individual behavior, traditional muslim politics, social politics introduction indonesia is a democratic state which so far has undergone three phases of leadership successions, namely: the old order, the new law, and the reform era (putra, 2003). empirically, the three consecutive periods in leadership are part of a continuous process of democracy and the 1associate professor in, institute agama islam negeri (iain) ternate, jubair.iainternate@gmail.com, (corresponding author)* 2 prof. in, naif arab university for sucurity sciences (nauss) kingdom of saudi arabia & universiti malaysia perlis (unimap ) malaysia , m.mizan@unimap.edu.my mailto:jubair.iainternate@gmail.com mailto:m.mizan@unimap.edu.my journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 indonesian people have politically lived in a great democratic life amid public participation, mainly contributed by muslim society. as part of the most significant muslim culture worldwide either in groups or organizations, muslims' involvement is said to be an onset in accomplishing general and regional electoral victories as political activities of the muslim society are integral parts of the legislative history in indonesia. religions are likely to trigger a political crisis wherein under particular circumstances, may worsen due to misinterpretations toward religious roles. at times, such situations emerge as a bureaucracy competition among numerous official players and non-governmental proxy (mandaville & hamid, 2018). therefore, religiosity needs to be strengthened within the state administration. furthermore, the role of muslim society is integral whereby caliphate (khalifah) and sharia shall create a significant fundamental potential in sound political developments: establishing the life of a peace-loving nation, striving for mutual justice, and welfare. islam remains independent from any khalifah political institutions; thus, it is identical to the state development (cesari, 2018). nationalism is considered as an organized loyalty and originates from the state on behalf of the political community in the established country (calhoun, 1998). faith practiced in political activities requires that a muslim is at least farsighted and pays attention to political and racial issues. islam provides a separate scope for organizing political and national affairs by which social welfare developed and authorities as the operators are expected to do so (al-banna, 2005; ridwan, 2017). this study advocates that islam should provide guidance to society related to national issues and create a more democratic, empowered, and smarter organization. through islamic politics, muslims are expected to detach any political behaviors wherein political values are taken for granted and free from threats of radicalism, communism, and secularism beliefs. on the other hand, muslim societies claim it is essential that sharia principles be applied in political life to ensure proper political practices by islamic sharia. furthermore, there have been numerous issues, comprising of monolithic viewpoints, arguments and interpretation issues towards how islam and politics be effectively placed, continuously emerging as a cutting edge on indonesian politics (effendy, 2001; rais, 2001; khaldun, 2011; aziz, 2011; suntana, 2011). moreover, islamic political profile is a part of the struggle against the interpretations of islamic perception and mastery of formal and informal political institutions justifying the precise situmorang & aslam 200 definition of islamic politics (eickelman & anderson, 2003; azra, 2004). psychologically the core issue of religion can relatively determine political attitudes and behaviors of dogmatic authorities or absolute truth, directed authorities, completed management and authority embodiment or integrated understanding and the use of absolute truth in formulating regulations which strengthen religious structures (smith, 1985; eickelman & anderson, 2003; azra, 2004).in its development, politics related to the islamic economic system turns out to be distinctive since it allows extended connections beyond political interests; it brings influence on companies (syaputra & hendrawaty, 2020) and food security (sutjipto & affifatusholihah, 2019). research questions derived from the background of study, three research questions were developed to guide the research process. they are: 1. what kinds of religious teaching and attitude are present to share social politics in indonesia? 2. how do people perform religious teaching and attitude to perceive the social politics in indonesia? 3. what reasons do people use to perform teaching and attitude to the social politics in indonesia? literature review religious teaching in essence, religious teachings are carried out to avoid and prevent all forms of deviation from individual personalities. religious teachings study various aspects and dimensions of human life related to beliefs (theologically), doctrines, rituals, customs, rites, and the role of individuals as caliphs. the process of religious teaching is the whole process of distinguishing and analyzing the fundamentals of religious intersections carried out by individuals or a social group who consciously and intentionally learn in their hearts in favor of the society, state, as well as owned capacities, attitudes, talents and knowledge (moore, 2007). by learning more about each other in religious traditions and beliefs, people can begin to minimize discrimination due to misinformation or lack of information obtained (jafralie & zaver, 2019). conceptually, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 providing religious education is carried out for human rights such as the individuals’ freedom in choosing religion and obligation to tolerate others' religious beliefs (amor, 2001). studies on religious teaching are invaluable efforts in numerous dimensions of life (jackson, 2015). the efficacy of spiritual-religious teaching in society leads to a more enhanced quality of life due to several factors, among other things, secular society wherein individualism process provides few opportunities to individuals or societies to obtain more organized religious teaching (moazedi, et. al, 2019). based on sociocultural perspectives, religious teaching has likely encouraged learners to expand their religious identities through their participation in religious practices. by all accounts, religious teaching has made contributions to social and political life (itulua-abumere, 2013). moreover, several steps need to be administered to instill religious teaching values so that individuals or social groups benefit from it. those steps are 1) developing skills of listening to others and endorsing enthusiasm for learning from others; 2) getting prepared to respect diversity for mutual virtues; 3) having the ability to realize that faith is incomprehensible considering the growing rumors today; 4) getting to know and acknowledge self-prejudice; 5) enhancing perspectives towards people’s ideas and ways of thinking including the openness within religious teachings; 6) willing to learn from mistakes and accept new ideas; 7) being naturally involved in arguments and respect others whose viewpoints on ethical, moral and spiritual issues differ from those of others; 8) expanding thought patterns and curiosity as well as acknowledging that allah is the limits to all knowledge; 9) developing rational competence (itulua-abumere, 2013). enhancement of education quality can likely create a sustainable education (dewi, rahmatunnisa, sumaryana & kristiadi, 2018). religious education needs to be improved. because contextual religious education is that spiritual teachings must pay attention to the ethnic, religious, and sociocultural needs of the community. subsequently, bilingual education is required as well to quickly gain information and avoid misunderstandings due to the divergent society cultural background of each religion and ethnicity (maximova, belyaev, & laukartgorbacheva, 2017). political behavior politics is the interaction between government and society in the sense or process of creating and implementing regulations restricted to various things such as who is related to what he publishes, situmorang & aslam 202 what he gets, when, and what methods are applied to achieve common goals. goals can be unlimited because of the essential attitude of humans who have various desires. it is obvious that the interactions developed in political behavior are never far from political and ideological beliefs about how the implementation of politics should be practiced (kelly, 2016; lasswell, 2018). furthermore, political behaviors based on gender become an issue today and lead to a gap in political life in many widespread areas worldwide (harell, 2017). political behavior is an effort made by an individual or a group of people to claim their rights and obligations as a political person who aims to create a better future for the wider community (lasswell & kaplan, 2013). political behaviors are efforts produced by individuals or social groups to claim their rights and obligations as political beings seeking to build a better future for the widespread society (lasswell, 2018). political behaviors are efforts produced by individuals or social groups to claim their rights and obligations as political beings intended to build a better future for society at large (lasswell & kaplan, 2013). various ways can be done to prevent political and socially destructive behavior attempting to change the social and political behavior of individuals, including through the levels of education (preparation-organization), analysis (information-prognostic) and mediation (information-pedagogic); and introducing the 'people in social and political life' system at the stage of collecting, processing and analyzing sentiment data in selected interest areas, interest groups, and subcultures (nikiporets-takigawa & lobazova, 2018). typology of muslim political thought the typology of muslim political thought is a thought movement that emphasizes various contextualization of islamic doctrine through various attempts to reconcile islam with political life in order to overcome various political inequalities and injustices (feldman, 2010). the development of muslim political thought is something natural, meaning that in society, certainly will have a variety of thoughts, culture, language, and religion. it appears complex to avoid a plurality of political thought leading to bleak mindsets in the dynamics of thinking between politics and religion (liddle, 1997). the consequence to be faced is the emergence of various tensions and even social, political, and economic conflicts in the community. whereas, the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 typology of islamic political thought can in fact encourage its society to participate in debates on modernization politics (madjid, 2001). religion as a moral teaching functions to oversee and direct politics to endorse humanity's values. in this context, islam pays attention to spiritual and moral aspects and seeks to become an ideology of emancipation and liberation. indeed, islam hardly recognizes class and prohibits all forms of discrimination and oppression (syari’ati & muhammad, 1992; esposito, 1995). there are two models of islamic political thought. first, groups who understand that the modern political system is contrary to islamic political thought. thus, to deal with western political concepts, islam shall assess, teach, and rule the country's political life. the political concept adopted is to believe that humans are merely mandate takers in political life; therefore, they highly prioritize god's law or expect god's intervention in state affairs. second, is an accommodative view of the modern political system (effendy, 1998). in islam there are no standard patterns of politics adopted by muslims during the islamic civilization era. the term state (al-daulah) is not found in the koran. islam only places a set of ethical values that serving as basic guidelines in the level of behavior (suluk) of humans in meeting their needs (mu'ammalah) (feldman, 2010). there are three typologies of islamic political thought, namely: 1) a formalistic tendency to maintain forms of islamic political conception; 2) substantives which emphasize the importance of substantial meaning and rejects formalistic forms of thought, in the context of state administration, the doctrine that islam is religion and state (al-islam huwa al-din wa addaulah); and 3) fundamentalism which tends to lift the back of islam into contemporary political reality. this group emphasizes the transformative character which requires a revolutionary and evolutionary transformation of society (syamsuddin, 2000). methods design this study adapts research conducted by omar & albakri (2016) which uses qualitative research methods to determine the application of thinking maps in encouraging critical thinking during the teaching process in learning patterns. this study uses a content analysis design that aims to explore the religious teachings and attitudes of traditional muslims towards social politics in situmorang & aslam 204 indonesia. the three components investigated in this study are religious teachings, attitudes, and behavior of the muslim community, social and political society. this study examines the results of semi-structured interviews from three dimensions (religious teaching, political behavior, and typology of muslim political thought), documents and photos of personal documentation about the behavior of the muslim community, and historical records of the sultanate of ternate to see what themes emerge (zhang et al., 2016) that focuses on unique issues describing the various meanings of specific phenomena or texts as concepts relevant to research (hsieh & shannon, 2005). it inductively compresses the raw data into categories or themes through the researchers’ careful examination and constant comparison (patton, 2002). the focus of qualitative content analysis is language as communication defined in the content or contextual meaning of the text sourced from research data sources (tesch, 1999). text data includes verbal, print, or electronic forms expressed from narrative responses to interviews, field observations, and relevant articles (kondracki, wellman, & amundson, 2002). following hsieh & shannon (2005), the researcher applied a directed content analysis approach. focused content analysis begins by collecting material relevant to research that is objective, systematic in content, and in general subsequently broadens the analysis to include the meaning of religious teaching, political behavior, and typology of muslim political thought. participants researchers collected data from 18 participants consisting of the sultan of ternate (jogugu 1 person, bobato 4 people, two traditional leaders, and 4 people from bala kusu) and community leaders (3 religious figures, 2 community leaders, and 2 youth leaders). table 1. partisipants demographic profile variable characteristica frequency percentage (%) gender male female 18 100 age group 20-30 years old 31-40 years old 41-50 years old 51 years old & above 2 4 10 2 11 22 56 11 customary honorary title in the sultanate of ternate jogogu bobato custom figures bala kusu religious leaders public figure youth leaders 1 4 2 4 3 2 2 6 22 11 22 17 11 11 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 data and sources of data two sources of data were employed in the study: 1) the primary data originated from field observations within the region of ternate sultanate by surveying the muslims’ life in social politics and conducting semi-structured interviews.; and 2) the secondary data originated from previous studies and documents, either private or the government, from which reports on religious teachings at ‘pangaji’ and social politics activities of muslim society and the ternate sultanate were presented. on the basis of primary data, initial data was obtained through field observations by surveying the activities of muslim society in ternate city. additionally, interviews with the ternate sultanate, society, religion and youth prominent leaders were conducted to gather their responses toward religious teaching and attitudes toward social politics in indonesia. while the secondary data was acquired through documents of religious teaching activities and illustrations over social politics activities practiced in the ternate city. instruments the main data were obtained from observations, interviews and documents. whereas instruments applied in this study served as guidelines of observations and interviews to gather data as listed in the following checklists: table 2 the checklist for observation and interview guidelines themes observation guideline interview guidelines documentation guidelines religious teaching religious teaching practiced in ternate city what kinds of religious teachings and attitudes are present to share social politics in indonesia, particularly shared in ternate city? documented activities of ‘pangaji’ and early studies corresponding to religious teaching political behavior the ternate muslim society behaviors on social politics. how should attitudes and religious teachings and be delivered to correspond to social politics in indonesia? private as well as the government’s documents regarding the reports on social politics activities in ternate city and previous studies on political behavior typology of muslim political thought varied religious teachings and muslims’ social attitudes toward social politics in ternate city. what reasons are applied to hold teachings and attitudes toward social politics in indonesia? private and government’s documents as well as previous studies corresponding to typology of muslim political thoughts situmorang & aslam 206 table 2 described the themes, the guidelines of conducting observation, interview and documentation seeking to observe and record information on the developments of religious teaching and attitudes toward social politics held by the muslim societies, a topic on complex religious teachings and attitudes toward social politics in indonesia as well as the room for dialectical interaction to help the society interaction with the interviewers were provided. prior to the interviews, one of the ternate sultanate leaders, a prominent bobatu, was requested to provide assistance. here is the interview sessions table; table 3 interview sessions section duration (minutes) activities 1 15 the author brought up a perception toward religious teaching and social politics in indonesia. 1 15 minutes/participant interviews were held with participants originated from the prominent figures of ternate sultanate (jogogu, bobatu, custom figures, and balakusu) 2 15 minutes/participants interviews were held with participants originated from the society members (religious and youth leaders as well as public figures) 2 10 the author recorded comments expressed by the participants again and drew the conclusion. 2 5 evaluation table 3 described the interview sessions including participants involved who were the prominent figures of ternate sultanate and society members comprising of religious and youth leaders as well as public figures and each participant spent 15 minutes for the interview. prior to the interview, the participants were gathered in one of the 'pangaji' by 'bobato’. s listed in the interview guideline that during the interview, the researcher recorded and reported the whole session from which each comment made by the participants. data collection procedures data collection is obtained from semi-structured interviews, observations, and documentary media information, and standard documents issued by the government. the researchers were involved in the interview with the sultanate of ternate and traditional muslim community leaders.using a purposive sampling technique. in this way, the data was obtained from the results of interviews with participants. the semi-structured interview was the first instrument applied to obtain the preliminary data. the interviews focused on the discussed themes: (1) religious teaching, (2) political behavior, and (3) typology of muslim political thought. the interview listed several questions journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 related to religious teaching and attitudes toward social politics to gain the participants’ responses. the data was used for mapping the participants’ preliminary responses. data analysis techniques to analyze data for the content analysis design, 7 steps should apply using an inductive approach. the steps are; 1) all data are transformed into narrative data (transcripts from interview, observation identification, themes from the documents); 2) coding each data in a narrative form; 3) categorizing the coding based on themes; 4) applying coding attached with sample data; 5) applying the coding system to all data; 6) checking the consistency of each coding and sample data for the entire analysis; and 7) drawing the conclusion of each coding data to verify the correct theme, correct message, and correct description. table 4 overview data based on coding dimension kode compact facts interpretation religious teaching rt1 the term religious teaching in the region of the sultanate of ternate is 'pangaji' or 'torang mangaji' (pn1 & pn2) / other data sources religious teaching tends to be very important for people's political life (pn3, pn4, pn6, pn12, pn13, p14, pn15, pn16, pn17, pn18) 'pangaji' is part of the process of enhancing the morals, souls, and behavior of individuals in worshiping god by maintaining good relationships among 'hablumminannas' (pn3, pn7) religious teachings can provide a deeper understanding. about how to harmonize real social and political life by creating peace and prosperity in society (pn1, pn2, pn3, & pn7) the influence of religious teaching in the sultanate of ternate was very strong because of the tendency of traditional muslim communities to uphold their ancestral culture. the importance of religious teaching for the community because it is able to create social justice and build morality political behavior pb2 'pangaji' gave birth to good leaders in the organization and helped me understand how to judge people in politics (pn8) the importance of tolerance and respect for the rights of others. political life is not about the interests of a group. but it belongs to the whole community (pn9, pn15, & pn16) / other data sources the relationship between the community and a sense of sociopolitical solidarity based on strong religious teachings will lead to a better life and free from conflict. typology of muslim political thought tmp3 modern muslim societies like changes that are beneficial to their lives and tend not to question one's social status in political life (pn3 & pn4) traditional muslim communities whose religious teachings do not understand that political life and religious life are separate (pn1, pn2, pn3, pn4, pn17, & pn18) modern muslim societies are more able to accept changes in sociopolitical life, whereas traditional ones tend not to accept change and by making people vulnerable to radicalism and terrorism. situmorang & aslam 208 table 4 showed that the guidelines of observations and interviews used were based on literature reviews, and each of it was coded as: (1) religious teaching (rt1), (2) political behavior (pb2), (3) typology of muslim political thought (tmp3). next, the manual coding was made according to the participants’ numbers: participants 1 = np1, participants’ numbers 2 =. finally, the coding consistency was assessed to draw conclusions from the coded data. result and discussion the findings listed below highlight the three points corresponding to religious teaching and attitudes toward social politics implemented in indonesia. first; religious teaching should convey high tolerance among society members and shape the characteristics of a reliable leader within social politics in indonesia. second religious teaching practices in ternate take social politics as some efforts to enhance the social welfare. third; religious teachings were performed out of essential purposes to conceive noble characteristics in leaders involved in social politics in indonesia. through ‘pangaji’ the societies learn numerous dimensions of the life and afterlife. the graduate ‘pangaji’ are recognized, honored and trusted as the excellent future leaders to be. religious teaching and attitude are present to share social politics in indonesia an analysis was conducted on the participants’ knowledge of religious teaching and attitudes toward social politics in indonesia, particularly practiced in ternate city. the analysis provides significant findings to interpret the development of participant’s religious teaching and social politics attitudes. the interview revealed that most participants have grasped knowledge of religious teaching and code of ethics concerning social politics practiced within the society. in short, the interviews confirmed the participants’ ability to answer the point questions regarding the first result. the first result demonstrated that the political life in ternate city is apparently deeprooted in islamic values. the term for traditional religious teaching in the sultanate of ternate is ‘pangaji’ or ‘torang mangaji,' which means a place of islamic religious teaching taught by an expert in managing matters of worship (sharia) or known as ‘bobatu.' in the socio-political life, the influence of the ternate sultanate is powerful due to the tendency of traditional muslim societies to endorse the culture of their ancestors. consequently, there have been frequent differences in viewpoints about how politics should run. religious teaching is essential for sociojournal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 political life for it encourages the society to be more tolerant towards differences in thoughts between groups in muslim society so that do not easily get emotional nor violate human rights.” furthermore, the interviews have indicated that religious teaching is a process of studying patterns of islamic relations and socio-political life. respondents understand that religion is not merely a doctrine of faith resulting in arguments over the differences in thoughts among its believers. yet, it serves as the basis of an improved view of life. lacking of religious teaching should lead to misinterpretations towards the meaning of differences in political thought that definitely triggers conflicts in society. articulation matters within practical education, historically, have raised issues due to the divergent foundation used to interpret islam holism as a view to learning patterns of islamic relation and social reality within legal and formal patterns. at the same time, others perceive islam holism within substantial perspectives (effendy, 1998). however, at the same time, perception towards this phenomenon is overly inadequate and a need to initiate and encourage a bolder, freer, vigorous perception of islam raises. religion is not merely a sociological phenomenon to its believers as it is more closely connected to meaning as the foundation to view life in reality (arkoun, 2001). there is a dialectical relation between the way revelations entrusted by religion and definitions; the ones which are objectively associated with its real context from which its believers are required to understand. this study illustrates that different thoughts and behaviors influence individuals and traditional muslim groups in terms of politics: one of them is the typology of religious thoughts of islamic society in indonesia. in fact, such reasoning owned by the diverse traditional muslim has lasted for quite a long time and encountered unrest and ups and downs due to dynamic diversity within the traditional muslim society (abdullah, 1996). the emergence of such diverse patterns of reasoning and movement is definitely a refutation towards the dynamics of internal muslim society themselves. religion is not merely a sociological phenomenon possibly categorized on one side. to its believers a religion is more closely connected to revelations as the foundation to accept ongoing reality and seek resolutions for problems they encounter in life the proclamation of values such as peace and universal harmony becomes an intrinsic part of islam globally (dunne, et.al, 2020). the style of thought and movement that developed in the islamic world is inseparable from several indicators. first, pre-modernist revivalism or early revivalism which arises as a reaction to the morality decadence of islamic society and the situmorang & aslam 210 freezing of thought because it is trapped by traditional patterns that are no longer appropriate to current developments or conditions. the second is classical modernism seeking to explain that islam shall experience its glory provided that it is interpreted correctly in accordance with modern civilization. this cannot be separated from the historical facts of the spread of colonialism. in this phase, the birth of the statement that western dance developed because it took the values of teachings revealed in the koran, while muslims moved backward because it abandoned the values of their own teachings. furthermore, the third is post-modernist or neo-revivalist which epistemologically seeks to carry out religious purification trying to cleanse islam either from cultural or western influences seen as a harm to islamic originality and authenticity as well as clean islam from religious practices considered as bid'ah and khurafat. an affirmation is necessarily made that islam is total and it contains universal insights, values and instructions in various dimensions of life. at this phase, excessive apologetic attitudes arise, leading to internal conflicts of traditional muslims. in fact, to avoid divisions and strengthen unity in various life practices to realize people’s welfare, especially islamic politics, muslim behavior should be guided by the true islamic principles of the qur'an and as sunnah. fourth, neo-modernism is trying to synthesize modernist progression with classical tradition and ijtihad. based on these four stages, it is clear that in the beginning, the dominance and characterization of cleric figure, and islamic thinkers still triggered the development of traditional muslim thought in indonesia(barton, 1999; bahasoan, 1994). the typology of islamic thought in indonesia is divided into several groups: fundamentalist, theological-normative, exclusive, rational, transformative, actual, contextual, esoteric, traditionalist, modernist, cultural, and pluralist-inclusive (nata, 2016). moreover, traditional muslims are sociologically identical to islam as they are blended with local culture as well as elite groups of traditional culture who lack interests in islamic changes, ways of thinking as well as up to date practices. religious teachings and attitudes held to perceive the social politics in indonesia upon completing the analysis on participants’ knowledge of the first dimension, the second result was acquired. it illustrated the attitudes and perspectives on reacting to social politics trends in indonesia, specifically related to ternate. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 the second result; ‘pangaji’ made a good leader in organizations and helped me understand how to judge people in politics. the people not easily provoked and realized the importance of tolerance and respect the rights of others. political life is not about a group’s interests. rather, it belongs to the entire society." the existing social values and traditions should be determined to strengthen the political and religious structures. the relationship between society and a strong sense of socio-political solidarity will lead to a better life that is free from conflicts. this study revealed that the participants perceived politics as efforts made to build social welfare and hence, religious teachings functioned as a way to accomplish the mission. further, they took into account that holism could shape the attitudes and behaviors of individuals as well as excellent future leaders. altogether believed that religious teachings were aqidah, akhlak and sharia exercised within the state governance in respect of the social politics life. the formation of political attitudes and sociological behavior is influenced by dogmatic autonomy or absolute truth, directed authority or completeness of regulation, the authority embodiment or the integration of understanding and use of absolute truth in formulating regulations that strengthen religious structures (smith, 1985). political behavior is also determined by the community's shared identity. factors forming a shared identity include primordial, sacred, personal, and cavities identity (surbakti, 1982).for instance, on the dimensions of kinship, ethnicity, linguistic, regional, and customs that applies in indigenous communities. expressions of individual political behavior are generally based on these matters. ethnic loyalty also has significance and a pivotal role in shaping the attitudes, perspectives, and orientation of individuals or community groups. the loyalty devoted to supporting political parties or political figures cannot be separated from ethnic loyalty (suryadinata, 2003). it is the determination to the values of existing traditions and social situations that have strengthened the political loyalties of traditional muslims in political life in indonesia. there is also a sacred factor based on the same beliefs among muslim societies. as religious and holy beings, humans are created in a sacred realm. experience and appreciation of the divine (ultimate reality) affect and shape the variety of styles and ways of life of individuals in the community (sastrapratedja, 1982). despite the emergence of relatively homogeneous ethnic communities and secular states as well as western cultural influences, sacred values will not disappear (andrian, 1992) as they are built with a strong sense of social solidarity. situmorang & aslam 212 empirically, these can be seen in religious practices that likely lead to syncretism over generations. the embraced religion can influence the perspective and assessment of various aspects of life. once a religion is considered important by individuals, simultaneously they will understand all aspects of life from the perspective of their faith . in addition to strong sociocultural values, the society hold dualism in their political culture patterns. the dualism broadly includes 1) harmony and dynamism; 2) discretion and limitations; 3) external values in the community not taken as a generalist’s. reasons the people use to have religious teachings and attitudes to the social politics in indonesia the field observation demonstrated that the muslim society were likely to accept religious teaching to lead to improvements on their attitudes and behaviors concerning the political and social life in ternate city. ternate. in addition, ‘pangaji’ families belong to a prestigious class in the ternate society for their noble characteristics, derived from extensive islamic religious teaching, as the basis of creating great leaders. thus, the government documents show that the ‘pangaji’ have been appointed as most of the ternate leaders. the third result; “there are clear differences between modern muslim societies and traditional muslim societies. modern muslim societies like changes that benefit their lives and tend not to question one's social status in political life. the expression of “who i am” can advance in the realm of politics as long as they comply with the ethics and norms prevailing in the society. meanwhile, traditional muslim communities are the values of their traditions and culture. they perceive the importance of islamic values to gain rewards in today’s life and in the hereafter. "nonetheless, traditional muslim societies whose religious teaching are improper actually understand this in a narrow scope. to them, political life and religious life are different things. a religion is sacred and it cannot be confused with the political interests of a group of people. as a result, they less likely accept changes and thus make them prone to radicalism and terrorism.” 'pangaji' should be used as a role model for education based on traditional wisdom in ternate. in fact, so far 'pangaji' has proven to be able to produce figures and leaders whose religion, character, and thoughts are moderate according to islam perspectives. moreover, the society acknowledges their tradition, among other things, by admitting the notability of ‘pangaji’ journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 within the social and political life of ternate society albeit the recognition starts to fade away as modernism arises. the study reveals that, unlike during their heyday, ‘pangaji’ are hardly known today. modern muslim society, particularly most newcomers, barely learns about the ternate sultanate history or the .existence of ‘pangaji’. political activities can influence decision making and power. involvement in political activities makes political connections support the company's debt financing. lq-45 indonesian index companies that are politically connected and which are not clearly visible in corporate leverage but do not show a significant impact on tax and profitability (syaputra & hendrawaty, 2020). it is an essential concern where a lack of representation in politics can encourage discrimination and radicalism. a study revealed that a more traditional islam influenced by native religion amid structural and institutional vulnerability could create a space for the development of radicalism. this vulnerability is triggered by several things, namely: 1) a relatively developed economy and infrastructure that allows freedom of movement and many targets, weak governance in the security sector; 2) criminal justice system and rule of law that hinders effective actions against terrorist groups; and 3) unstable geographical proximity. four main factors function to increase the country's vulnerability to radicalism and terrorism, namely: structural and institutional elements, complaints, foreign and military policy, and jihadist ideology (patterson, 2015). evidence shows that islam's religiosity is essential in challenging the political elite through collective action. the politically moderate spells of muslim societies appear to be more likely involved in a joint political process without violence. in contrast, political radicals seem less likely to do so (achilov & tennessee, 2016). the finding pushed political ideology into a central role in moderating the complicated relations between islam and collective political activism. therefore the orientation of traditional muslim behavior old as islamic values built in politics is needed to create a sense of justice and realize the welfare of society. finally, traditional muslims who have undergone several phases of political life are encouraged to improve their behavior and mindset in accepting bureaucratic conditions (jackson, 2015; jackson & everington, 2017), to grow trust towards the government (o’dea, 2018) and seek enlightenment as a fundamental concept suggested by religiosity education itself; namely, by acknowledging democratic values, justice, sense of responsibility and human rights (osipova, elishev, pronchev, & monakhov, 2018). the findings in the research show that individuals or situmorang & aslam 214 social groups in general will likely adapt and possess such abilities to logically and critically evaluate the state condition and pragmatically realize the ongoing political phenomenon once encouraged by sound political, ideological and moral values as well. conclusion and implications the results and discussion have revealed three main points. the first result, islamic teaching presents various attitudes of a caliph (honest, trustworthy and responsible) in social politics. this helps individuals to be more tolerant and promotes peace and prosperity. ‘pangaji’ has an impact on the behavior of muslims in carrying out their socio-political life, especially those who live in ternate city, north maluku province. participants are aware of the importance of ‘pangaji’ which is the hallmark of a real muslim community (caliph). the second result; the attitude and teaching of islam view that social politics should be in accordance with islamic values (aqidah, morals, and sharia) in efforts to strengthen political and religious structures to create life free from conflicts. the third result is the way how the muslim community perceive the importance of religious teachings as it can be used as a role model for education in attitudes and behavior in the typology of muslim society based on traditional wisdom. religious teaching can produce figures and leaders whose faith in religion is indestructible and who hold islamic characteristics and moderate thoughts as well as encourage the growth of a democratic and peace-loving character. theoretically, this research shows an influence on the theories of religious and political teachings. with practical terms, this imitation shows that muslim societies can be influenced by their political attitudes and behavior because of this finding. in the long run this research shall encourage stakeholders to continue to practice the teachings of traditional religions in accordance with the true islamic principles in order to create peace and prosperity for the society since traditional religious teachings are rich with leadership values such as; justice, honesty, responsibility, and tolerance towards religious communities. references abdullah, t. (1996). islam dan masyarakat. jakarta: lp3es. achilov, d., & tennessee, e. (2016). revisiting political islam : explaining the nexus between political islam and contentious politics in the arab world ∗, 97(2). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12232 al-banna, h. (2005). risalah pergerakan ikhwanul muslimin. solo: era intermedia. amor, a. (2001). the role of religious education in the pursuit of tolerance and non discrimination. in in study prepared under the guidance of prof. abdelfattah amor, special rapporteur on freedom of religion of belief, for the international consultative conference on school education in relation with freedom of religion and belief, tolerance and nondiscr (pp. 23–25). madrid. retrieved from http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/7/b/cfedubasicdoc.htm andrian, c. f. (1992). political life and social change, terj. lukman hakim, kehidupan politik dan perubahan sosial. yogyakarta: tiara wacana. arkoun, m. (2001). rethingking islam today, terj. ruslani, islam kontemporer menuju dialog antar agama, cet. ke-1. yogyakarta: pustaka. aziz, a. (2011). chiefdom madinah, salah faham negara islam. jakarta: pustaka alvabet. azra, a. (2004). political islam in post-soeharto indonesia. in v. hooker & a. saikal (eds.), islamic perspective on the new millenium (pp. 133–149). singapore: institute of southeast asian studies. bahasoan, a. (1994). gerakan pembaharuan islam: interpretasi dan kritik,. majalah prisma, 109–111. barton, g. (1999). the emergence of neo-modernisme: a progressive, liberal movement of islamic thought in indonesia (a textual study examining the writings of nurcholish madjid terj. nanang tahqiq. in gagasan islam liberal di indonesia; pemikiran neomodernisme nurcholish madjid. jakarta: paramadina. calhoun, c. (1998). nationalism: conceptsconcepts social thought. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. cesari, j. (2018). what is political islam ? boulder, usa: lynne rienner. retrieved from https://www.rienner.com/uploads/5a09dea431342.pdf dewi, m. p., rahmatunnisa, m., sumaryana, a., & kristiadi, j. b. (2018). ensuring service quality in education for indonesia’s sustainable education. journal of social studies education research, 9(4), 65–81. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.26856 dunne, m., durrani, n., fincham, k., crossouard, b., & dunne, m. (2020). pluralising islam : doing muslim identities differently pluralising islam : doing muslim identities di ff erently. social identities, 0(0), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2020.1765763 effendy, b. (1998). islam dan negara transformasi pemikiran dan praktik politik islam situmorang & aslam 216 indonesia. jakarta: paramadina. effendy, b. (2001). masyarakat agama dan pluralisme keagamaan. yogyakarta: galang press. eickelman, d. f., & anderson, j. w. (2003). new media in the muslim world: the emerging public sphere. india: indiana university press. esposito, j. l. (1995). the oxford encyclopedia of the modern islamic world. oxford univ press: england. feldman, n. (2010). islamic constitutionalism in context: a typology and a warning. u. st. thomas l.j., 7(3), 436–451. retrieved from http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn3:hul.instrepos:12956320%0athis harell, a. (2017). intersectionality and gendered political behaviour in a multicultural canada. canadian journal of political science, 50(2), 495–514. https://doi.org/10.1017/s000842391700021x hsieh, h. f., & shannon, s. e. (2005). three approaches to qualitative content analysis. qualitative health research, 15(9), 1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687 itulua-abumere, f. (2013). the significance of religious education in local primary schools (specific reference to christianity). iosr journal of humanities and social science, 6(6), 69–94. https://doi.org/10.9790/0837-0666994 jackson, r. (2015). a c grayling is wrong. religious education and philosophy are complementary, not alternatives”. retrieved from https://news.tes.co.uk/b/opinion/2015/03/02/ac-grayling-is-wrong-re ligious jackson, r., & everington, j. (2017). teaching inclusive religious education impartially: an english perspective. british journal of religious education, 39(1), 7–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2016.1165184 jafralie, s. n., & zaver, a. (2019). teaching religious education: the ethics and religious culture program as case study. fire: forum for international research in education, 5(1), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.32865/fire201951136 kelly, m. p. (2016). (2016). beyond behaviour change: key issues, interdisciplinary approaches and future directions. in f. spotswood (ed.), the politics of behaviour change (pp. 11–26). bristol: policy press, the university of chicago press. khaldun, i. (2011). muqaddimah, terj. ahmadie thaha, muqaddimah ibn khaldun. (a. thaha, ed.). jakarta: pustaka firdaus. kondracki, n. l., wellman, n. s., & amundson, d. r. (2002). content analysis: review of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 methods and their applications in nutrition education. journal of nutrition education and behavior, 34(4), 224–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1499-4046(06)60097-3 lasswell, h. d. (2018). politics: who gets what, when, how. new brunswick (u.s.a) and london (u.k): pickle partners publishing. lasswell, h. d., & kaplan, a. (2013). power and society: a framework for political inquiry. new brunswick (u.s.a) and london (u.k): transaction publishers. liddle, r. w. (1997). islam, politik dan modernisasi. jakarta: pustaka sinar harapan. madjid, n. (2001). cita-cita politik islam era reformasi. yogyakarta: galang press. mandaville, p., & hamid, s. (2018). islam as statecraft : how governments use religion in foreign policy shadi hamid islam as statecraft: how governments use religion in foreign policy, (november). maximova, o., belyaev, v., & laukart-gorbacheva, o. (2017). transformation of the system of bilingual education in the republic of tatarstan: crossover ethnolinguistic controversies. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), 15–38. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.360862 moazedi, k., porzoor, p., pirani, z., adl, h., & ahmadi, h. (2019). the effectiveness of islamic teaching based religious-spiritual psychotherapy on quality of life, in infertile women. journal of health, 9(5), 589–598. https://doi.org/10.29252/j.health.9.5.589 moore, d. l. (2007). overcoming religious illiteracy: a cultural studies approach to the study of religion in secondary education. new york, n.y: palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230607002 nata, a. (2016). peta keragaman pemikiran islam di indonesia. jakarta: divisi buku perguruan tinggi, rajagrafindo persada. retrieved from pageshttp://books.google.co.id/books?id=radyaaaamaaj&dq=intitle:pemikiran+ekon omi+islam&h l=&source=gbs_ap nikiporets-takigawa, g., & lobazova, o. (2018). big data analysis of young citizens’ social and political behaviour and resocialization technics. digital transformation and global society., 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02846-6 o’dea, j. (2018). trust and political behaviour. australasian parliamentary review, 33(2), 118. omar, a., & safinas mohd. ariff albakri, i. (2016). thinking maps to promote critical thinking through the teaching of literature in the esl context. ijeltal (indonesian journal of english language teaching and applied linguistics), 1(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.21093/ijeltal.v1i1.6 situmorang & aslam 218 osipova, n. g., elishev, s. o., pronchev, g. b., & monakhov, d. n. (2018). social and political portrait of contemporary russian student youth. journal of social studies education research, 9(1), 28–59. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.12152 patterson, b. w. r. (2015). islamic radicalization in kenya. joint forces quarterly, (september 2013), 16–23. patton, m. q. (2002). two decades of developments in qualitative inquiry: a personal, experiential perspective. qualitative social work, 1(3), 261–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325002001003636 putra, f. (2003). partai politik dan kebijakan publik: analisis terhadap kongruensi janji politik partai dengan realisasi produk kebijakan publik di indonesia 1999-2003. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. rais, m. d. (2001). al-nazhariyâtu as-siyâsatul islâmiyah, terj. abdul hayyie al-kattani, teori politik islam. jakarta: gema insani press. ridwan. (2017). hubungan islam dan politik di indonesia perspektif pemikiran hasan al-banna. jurnal hukum: samudra keadilan, 12(2), 223–236. sastrapratedja (ed). (1982). sastrapratedja (ed.), manusia multi dimensional: sebuah renungan filsafat (jakarta: gramedia, 1982), h. 38; jakarta: gramedia. smith, d. e. (1985). donald eugene smith, religion and political development an analytic study , terj. machnun husein, agama dan modernisasi politik , suatu kajian analitis (jakarta: rajawali press, 1985), h. 224. in agama dan modernisasi politik , suatu kajian analitis (jakarta: jakarta: rajawali press. suntana, i. (2011). pemikiran ketatanegaraan dalam islam. bandung: pustaka setia. surbakti, r. (1982). memahami ilmu politik. jakarta: gramedia widiaswara indonesia. suryadinata, l. (2003). penduduk indonesia, etnis dan agama dalam era perubahan politik. jakarta: lp3es. sutjipto, h., & affifatusholihah, l. (2019). agrarian politic and food security in the islamic economic system. in the first international conference on islamic development studies 2019, icids 2019, 10 september 2019, bandar lampung, indonesia (pp. 1–8). https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.10-9-2019.2289350 syamsuddin, m. d. (2000). etika agama dalam membangun masyarakat madani. jakarta: pt.logos wacana ilmu. syaputra, k., & hendrawaty, e. (2020). political connections and characteristics of the lq-45 index companies in indonesia. companies in indonesia. finance, accounting and business journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 198-219 analysis (faba), 2(2). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.16408/faba.v2i2 syari’ati, a., & muhammad, a. (1992). humanisme antara islam dan mazhab barat. bandung: pustaka hidayah. tesch, r. (1999). computer programs that assist in the analysis of qualitative data: an overview. qualitative health research, 1(3), 309–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863870092005 zhang, j., chen, y., ashfaq, s., bell, k., calvitti, a., farber, n. j., … agha, z. (2016). strategizing ehr use to achieve patient-centered care in exam rooms: a qualitative study on primary care providers. journal of the american medical informatics association, 23(1), 137–143. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocv142 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 132-144 132 the involvement of informal sector workers in society learning activities at kampung inggris pare kediri wiwin yulianingsih1, supriyono2, ach. rasyad3, & umi dayati4 abstract the purpose of this research is to describe and analyze the involvement process of informal sector workers as learning society in kampung inggris pare kediri. informal sector workers play an enormous role in learning society activities, both in course institutions and in community activities, especially informal sector workers with course participants. this study used a qualitative approach, with case study research type. data collection methods by interview method, participant observation and documentation. the subjects of the study were nine food vendors, five motorcycle drivers/transportation service and two camp managers. data validity checking is using credibility, transferability and confirmability. the results of informal sector workers' involvement in learning society activities are influenced by 1). high motivation of various activities, work and income enhancement. 2). the desire to maintain social status through the involvement of the habituation process, applying english conversation and mutual education. 3). make the best-selling merchandise, utilizing the use of local transportation and camp customers are increasing. 4). building social intelligence so as to have a positive impact and economic improvement for informal sector workers. key words: involvement, learning society, informal sector, kampung inggris introduction english is the international language, the change with the presence of asean economic community which has been running for 3 years does not make the balance of foreign workers for sure. the changes in information technology which can’t be avoided, emphasize that everyone must continue to apply those changes and need to be implemented continuously. it is included nowadays about the issue of industrial revolution 4.0 which focuses on cyber system, internet of things and biotechnology. the transformation in the world of education is needed by all, and also experienced throughout the world is self, no to mention indonesia as well. the ability to masker english language should be continuously improved by the community, including students, 1 dr., universitas negeri malang and universitas negeri surabaya, wiwinyulianingsih@unesa.ac.id 2 dr., universitas negeri malang, pakprium@gmail.com 3 dr., universitas negeri malang, rasyadplsum@yahoo.co.id 4 dr., universitas negeri malang, umidayati16@gmail.com mailto:wiwinyulianingsih@unesa.ac.id mailto:pakprium@gmail.com mailto:rasyadplsum@yahoo.co.id mailto:umidayati16@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 132-144 employees, practitioners and all communities who come into direct contact with working sectors, education and service. the need for english proficiency can be fulfilled by formal, nonformal and informal education process. the process of education is a conscious and planned effort to create an atmosphere and process of learning, so that learners can actively developing their own potential, to possess the intelligence and skills needed of themselves and society (undangundang sisdiknas no 20/2003). education is therefore seen as a sustainable process with the goal of improving the quality of life, from children to adults. including the ability of english which is always improved, ranging from students, students, workers, practitioners and educators who are getting more and more improved. the continuity of english language learning at kampung inggris pare kediri including a process of habituation for the learners of the course participants who come from various institutions at kampung inggris by applying english in the surrounding environment, as well as the community around, especially the informal sector workers , ranging from the owners of stalls, siomay-batagor sellers, ojek drivers and motorcycle taxi drivers. the active involvement of informal sector workers is only improved at kampung inggris of pelem village, pare district, kediri district. the involvement of community’s learning or learning society that took place at kampung inggris was part of the process of social participation. according to husen (yahui su 2010) asserted that a learning society calls for useful education to enable people to adjust to rapidly industrial and cultural changes. it is said that learning society is a useful education for every individual to adapt to rapid industrial and cultural changes. learning society as "a society which takes learning as the main concern" which means a society that takes learning as their main concern for every sectors in life, in the mean of assisting themselves during achieving their own goals. it is further explained that "learning in the learning society is encapsulated by two requirements: our awareness of learning and our intention to learn". the involvement of informal sector workers in learning society activities at kampung inggris has become a unique and interesting social phenomenon. the success of informal sector workers is demonstrated by trading activities and fluent in english communication. that kind of social behavior has a social impact for the community with its own uniqueness. one of the stall owners located in front of mahesa street, which is also have strategic location, is very fluent in english. in daily activities, they serving buyers using english interaction and communication to apply good english. the ongoing involvement of informal sector workers in yulianingsih et al. learning society activities, especially stalls owners, siomay and batagor sellers and other selles can be seen on how the process and sustainability that occurred at kampung inggris pare kediri. why informal sector workers are actively involved in the learning society process, so interesting, and it is important to be researched and also unique because it only happens at kampung inggris kediri which is the only place in indonesia. based on the phenomenon, this research is very important and interesting as it becomes the only research ever conducted in indonesia. the title: the involvement of informal sector workers over society learning activities at kampung inggris kediri. method research on the involvement of informal sector workers in learning societies in kampung inggris kediri is using qualitative research with case study research. sources of data in this study include the infomal sector workers such as stall owners, food vendors in front of the course institutions, course participants involved in communication with informal sector workers. respondents in this research were 9 food vendors, 5 drivers of transportation services and 2 camp managers. this study was conducted for 8 months, strarting from may 2017 to december 2017. the process of collecting data is done by open observation techniques, in-depth interviews and documentation. the data analysis process is done by interactive data analysis model which includes data reduction, data verification, and conclusion. checking the validity of data with the credibility of data which includes source triangulation and triangulation techniques. findings and discussion it is a very common sight of community involvement in all sectors, especially in the called kampung inggris in pare kediri. the results of the field findings show that strong community involvement in the presence of english village, community participation or spontanity in accordance with the statement proposed by keith davis (huraerah, 2008: 95), "participation is defined as the mental and emotional involvement of persons in the group goals and situations that encourage them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them”. there are four important points in the research. they are: journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 132-144 1. self-motivation as has been described from the research findings that the informants are so spontaneous and interactive with the surrounding communities and learners who come from various regions. from the findings of research indicates that civil society shows the process of mass learning, it is in another term called participative learning society, that society is involved because of extrinsic motivation. from the boundaries of participation or involvement, it is known that the meaning of participation is not merely part-taking or participating but more than that in the sense that there are three main ideas, namely mental and emotional involvement, motivation to contribute, and acceptance of responsibility. furthermore, a communal/populist economist, mubyarto (1997) suggests the basic understanding of participation is the act of taking part in certain activities, whereas the definition of community participation is the involvement of the community in a development process where the community involved from the stage of preparation of programs, planning and development, policy, and decision making. from these sources can be concluded that participation is the involvement of individuals or groups in an effort to achieve certain goals. in the educational process, the reason for an individual participating is based on various motivations in order to achieve goals in various levels. sukamto (1983) gives meaning to participation as "participatory" activity. yulianingsih et al. the involvement of informal sector workers such as food vendors in implementing the learning society activities is participative. from the findings of the research, the informants explain one of the participation that is socio-economic that requires the community to always be a learner. turinda (2009) revealed that there are five characteristics of the stages of participation, namely: figure 1. the stages of participation participation becomes a reality that takes place in the learning society process. the action taken by the community shows the seriousness in taking the benefits that exist at kampung inggris pare kediri. meanwhile, according to sutrisno in nasution (2009: 26) provide an explanation of participation that is the support of the community over the plan/development projects that have been designed and the goals is determined by the planners. it can be described as below: participation stage in decision making participation stage in planning activities participation stage in the implementation of activities participation stage in monitoring and evaluation of activities participation stage in the utilization of activity results journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 132-144 figure 2. level of participation the participation of citizens grows because of the existence of extrinsic motivation in the form of persuasion, influence, encouragement from outside even though the one concerned still has full limitations to participate. the involvement of informal sector workers such as food vendors in implementing learning society activities is induced, in which participation in that communities are involved because of extrinsic motivation. according to siagian (1995: 142) reveals that the motivation has three main components: 1) the need arise from a person when the person feel there is a lack of something in them. according to homeostatic sense, the need arises or is created when perceived an imbalance between what is possessed, both in the physical and psychological sense. 2) attempts to overcome imbalances usually lead to encouragement. it is a goal-oriented focus fulfillment effort that is consciously there is interaction in the process of mutual learning to optimize results and object of concern. requires equal work towards mutual results and involves structures, functions and responsibilities a process that is not only produces a decision, but also thinks of the consequences from the results of benefits, obstacles, and implications consensus occurs because of a collective decision and comes from a sense of responsibility to produce something. the existence of interaction to understand each other and in a position of mutual negotiation, which is also being tolerance with all members of the group. stakeholders have the opportunity to give suggestions which is to be used as they expected. the lowest level where there is almost no participation and tends to take the form of indoctrination. self management partnership risk taking decision making consensus building consultation manipulation yulianingsih et al. performed by a person who can be sourced from within and from outside of the person. 3) achieving the goal, means returning the balance in a person, both physiological and psychological. achieving the goal will reduce or even eliminating a certain incentive to do something. 2. maintain employment/income in general, the people of kampung inggris kediri receive benefit from the existence of kampung inggris program. from the findings of the research, it is known that most of the civiliance are entrepreneurs working as service providers. community involvement can not be separated from the principle of lifelong learning, which then known from the conclusions of research findings that show the process of learning society. the involvement and openness of the informants is very logical about the communication process that simply indicates they do not want to lose their jobs because they can not follow the language development process, because the course participants come from various regions and are very happy when they get the same response from the merchants. in the view of soetomo (2013: 7) community involvement in the development process not because of mobilization, but as a form of participation based on determination and awareness. in short, in the development process, society is not merely needed as an object, but rather as the subject and actors of change. meanwhile, according to verhangen (1979) in turindra (2009), engagement is a special form of interaction and communication related to the division of authority, responsibility, and benefits. participation as the part-taking or involvement of an individual (individual or community) in a particular activity is actively addressed by the person indeed. from some of these opinions, it is concluded that a person or a group both physically, mentally, thoughtfully, and various interactions indirectly become added value, either financially or even nonfinancially. so the workers in the informal sector will continue to survive. being a learner's is almost owned by informants, in other terms community participation in learning society activities is seen when business actors peddle themselves in every process. this was revealed by some informants who stated that the effort with the ability to communicate fluently with english. informal sector workers attending the course to this day are still following the learning process and increasing their experience at bec institutions. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 132-144 3. merchandise shares and utilizing local transportation figure 3. connected learning society and sector informal people in kampung inggris pare utilize the opportunities of the famous english village, such as the existence of food vendors, travel services, angkot services, open grocery stores, open food stalls, selling electric voucher, receive laundry services, selling typical merchandise of kampung inggris and providing camp for the participants of the course. by applying english proficiency to the traders/sellers/vendors, then their stores/services will be in demand and transportation services are also growing very rapidly along with the owner of the camp whose shares mutual increase of customer or the number of occupants. 4. the build social intelligence this is in line with the opinion of sastrodipoero (2006: 122) which states that the process of complying the learning process is to acquire and improve skills outside the system of human resource development, which applies in a relatively short time with methods and prioritize practice rather than theory. from the expert's opinion is consistent with that experienced by informal sector workers on the english learning process is more emphasized on the direct practice in learning society activities. laundry learning society camp managers course institutio n ojek driver food stalls society yulianingsih et al. figure 4. learning society in line with widasta's opinion (2017: 13) stating that the process of learning is to acquire knowledge and skills in order to improve attitudes and behavior of individuals in work and daily life. thus the achievement of learning has an impact with increasing quality for every individual that has an impact on increasing social status in the society. the findings of patterns that can be described are as follows in figure 3. in line with sudjana (2000) explain that the learning needs is every desire or purpose felt and expressed by a person, society or organization to gain knowledge, skills, values, and a particular attitude through learning activities. sources of information about learning needs are learners or potential learners, community and organization. the importance of learning needs is based on the assumption that learners will learn effectively when all components of the learning program can help learners to fulfil their learning needs. the following is the learning need cycle, as follows: learning society citizen power tokenism non participation • citizen control • delegated control • partnership • placation • consultation • information • get resources • networking sharing knowledge and experience quality improvement increased social status 1 2 3 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 132-144 figure 5. need learning cycle 1 the learning process at kampung inggris focuses on the adult learning pattern, the point of view for adult education is emphasized that adults have a very strong self-concept. in line with what has been disclosed by merriam, sharan, b. & brockett, ralph, g., 2007 in the publication of the scientific journal of social and behavioral science by (monica turturean, 2015: 1215-1220) that adult education is "the practice in which adults engage in systematic learning and ongoing activities to acquire new forms of knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values” adult education is closely linked to lifelong learning experiences and adults have accumulated figure 6. learning experience informal to formal life experiences that help them understand different theories, situations, and conditions in their respective lives. cropley (1980) in monica turturean (2015: 1215-1220). revealed that adults places a different learning experience in the course of learning, from informal to formal. cropley fluent (fasih) learning to know learning to do learning to be learning to live together learning goals and objectives oriented informal sector workers course participant at kampung inggris yulianingsih et al. tries to explain that the adult is influenced by institutionalized education or not, thus concluding as follows: source: cropley (1980) in (monica turturean, 2015: 1215-1220). from the process of learning society at kampung inggris pare kediri can be drawn the conclusion that the process of learning society applies in every sector and run well and can be proven by scientific way. in the view of merchants at kampung inggris pare kediri shows that by applying english proficiency skills, their profits will significantly increases as they will be in demand, and that will continue to be the sole support of the family economical source, such as food vendors, batagor and siomay sellers, ice cincau sellers , pukis sellers and so forth. furthermore, the next step is to participate in the process of habituation on the leaning society activities with the ability owned by the merchants, they feel to participate in the process of habituation for the participants of the course is a must. by applying the pattern of communicating habituation, then the leaning society activity conducted by informal sector workers will have a very unique character that is liked by learners from various regions, informal sector workers ought to actively communicating with each other for their products to be sold well, then this needs to be habituated in developing regular communications. because by establishing communication between humans, on other terms are developing social intelligence. so as to give a positive impact and also the impact of economic improvement. there is awareness and continuing self-actualization efforts of informal sector workers continue to trigger or familiarize themselves in having ability in certain fields, especially english proficiency. by improving that ability, the number of the customer will indirectly increase, as the income will also increase. none of the informants said “no” to not learn. the result is that what emerges from the informants gives a unique representation of mindset and concludes that learning is like a someone who breathes, when the breath stops, life comes to an end, therefore lifelong learning seems to be a principle in every joint of their lives. conclusion and implications involvement of informal sector workers in learning society activities in kampung inggris is a community activity which mutually educating one another. the involvement of informal sector workers in implementing learning society through participation-based activity which is built through 1) participation stage in decision making, 2) participation stage in implementation of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 132-144 activity, 3) participation stage in sharing knowledge, 4) participation stage in utilization of activity result, 5) self-management stage. the results of informal sector workers' involvement in learning society activities are influenced by 1). high motivation of various activities, work and income enhancement. 2). the desire to maintain social status through the involvement of the habituation process, applying english conversation and mutual education. 3). make the best-selling merchandise, utilizing the use of local transportation and camp customers are increasing. 4). building social intelligence so as to have a positive impact and economic improvement for informal sector workers. acknowledgement the author would like to say thank you to the rector of universitas negeri surabaya who has given permission and support to study at the post-graduate program in universitas negeri malang. thank you to dissertation promotors and ristekdikti government who have given opportunity through pdd program (doctoral dissertation research) by drpm in the year 2018. references elias, j. l., & merriam, s. b. (2000). philosphical foundation of adult education (3rd ed.). florida: krieger pub. huraerah, a. (2008). pengorganisasian dan pengembangan masyarakat: model dan strategi pembangunan berbasis masyarakat. bandung: humaniora irene, s. (2011). desentralisasi dan partisipasi masyarakat dalam pendidikan. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. moreno-romero, a., & carrasco-gallego, r. (2012). lifelong learning for women in the network society. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 46, 2487-2495. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.509 mubyarto. (1997). pengantar ekonomi pertanian. lp3es: jakarta sastrodipoero, k. (2006). strategi manajemen bisnis perbankan. bandung : kappa-sigma sastropoetro, s. (1988). patisipasi, komunikasi, persuasi, dan disiplin dalam pembangunan nasional. bandung: alumni. siagian, p. s., (2004). manajemen sumber daya manusia. jakarta: bumi aksara. soekamto, s. (1983). beberapa teori sosiologi tentang struktur masyarakat. jakarta: rajawali. sudjana, (2001). pendidikan nonformal, wawasan, sejarah, perkembangan, falsafah, teori pendukung, asaz. bandung: falah production. turindra, a. (2009). pengertian partisipasi. retrieved may 27, 2016, from http://turindraatp.blogspot.com/2009/06/pengertian-partisipasi.html yulianingsih et al. turturean, m. (2015). rethinking the role of adults for building the lifelong learning society. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 180 (november 2014), 1215–1220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.249 undang-undang nomor 20 tahun 2013 tentang sistem pendidikan nasional. 2006. bandung :fokus media. widasta septian, a (2017). pelatihan industri rumah tangga dalam meningkatkan kewirausahaan keluarga. bandung: universitas pendidikan indonesia https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.249 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (3), 109-133 109 factors affecting z generation on selecting majors in the university: an indonesian case farida aryani1 & nur fadhilah umar2 abstract this research aims to identify the factors influencing students in deciding their university majors, particularly in indonesia. this study uses a quantitative correlational design aimed to determine the relationship between internal and external factors influencing students in deciding their university major. the study involved 200 senior high school students, categorized as generation z in the last grade (50% boys and 50% girls), from two districts in south sulawesi province, indonesia—maros and makassar—chosen through a purposive sampling method. the career selection instrument was adapted from career choice questionnaire (ccq), and students’ major selections were identified using the major selection survey. findings show that internal factors influencing gen z in selecting their university majors include families, academic achievements, and culture, while the influential external factor is the quality of education. another finding showed that gen z are more influenced by internal rather than external factors in deciding their university majors. keywords: generation z, selecting majors, career choice, senior high school students introduction higher education is a critical phase of career exploration and identity building (shin et al., 2018); therefore, it plays a vital role in determining students’ future careers. each university offers various majors or study programs such as mathematics, biology, social sciences, engineering, and language. mistakes in selecting a major at university level can negatively impact students’ future careers (aryani et al., 2016). the ability and option to choose a major is essential to be introduced to students when they are in senior high school. the selection of a major in university is part of a career choice, and this is an important topic that has been studied by many researchers previously, in the contexts of before and after graduation from universities (akyol & boyacı, 2020; bal & arikan, 2020; budiharso & tarman, 2020; green et al., 2019; lee & lee, 2020), or before entering a university (adekeye et al., 2017; afful, 2019; bikse et al., 2018; suryadi et al., 2020). 1 assoc. prof., universitas negeri makassar, farida.aryani@unm.ac.id 2junior lecturer., universitas negeri makassar, nurfadhilahumar@unm.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 making a career choice before entering a university means that students are required to select a right major there, once they graduate from senior high school, while making it before graduating from a university means that students need to choose a profession or job for their lives after graduating from university. some problems were found related to the selection of majors in university. aryani et al. (2016) found that many senior high school students experience difficulties in choosing a major or department in university. the lack of information and guidance from teachers and parents are the primary factors behind this condition. therefore, career guidance from educators can be very beneficial for students. there are many students who end in majors not right for them, causing them to feel uncomfortable and stressed during university learning (çetinkaya, 2019; james, 2018; romano et al., 2019). another study investigating the negative impact of mistakenly choosing a major was conducted by marti’ah et al. (2018), proving that many students encounter discomfort with the majors they choose, resulting in drop outs from university (miftahurrohmah & wulandari, 2019). to assist students in selecting a major in university, it is essential to identify some influential factors in the selection process. some earlier studies have suggested that personal interests and academic achievements influence students’ career choices (aguado et al., 2015; kazi & akhlaq, 2017; mtemeri, 2017). interest can be defined as the tendency directing students to choosing a major, since they are happy and interested in their choice; for instance, when the students are interested in math, they choose the math department at university. besides interest, this study also proves that academic achievement is also a consideration when a student is deciding a major. for example, if they have an achievement in the physics olympics, they choose the physics department. other factors that can influence students in deciding their university major are financial support, gender, and job opportunities (aguado et al., 2015; johnson & mortimer, 2002; mutekwe et al., 2011). many students choose a major considering whether it can truly prepare them for a good job and train them in social skills. furthermore, students also consider the estimated cost of the major. for example, the medical science program is quite expensive compared to other programs. students from the lower economic families choose a program according to the family’s financial abilities. this condition is assumed to influence students being more selective in choosing a study program at university. besides job opportunities and financial reasons, the study also aryani & umar proves that gender also becomes a consideration. for example, male students tend to avoid choosing culinary art because it is generally assumed to be feminine, while female students avoid selecting machine engineering or other subjects identical to physics. interpersonal factors such as family and peers also play an essential role (kumara et al., 2019; pascual, 2014). a survey conducted by the university of california davis, the united states in 2004, on 3187 students showed that 60% of students stated that their family was involved in their education (park, 2004). in this case, they also consider their children when choosing a major in university. moreover, many students choose a university major based on their friends’ suggestions, and even some of them follow their friends to choosing the same major. this condition is referred to as a conformity attitude (istiqomah et al., 2018). studies above show that the factors influencing students to choose a major are varied, because they also depend on the development of knowledge and technology. these two aspects are very influential on students’ attitudes. zemke et al. (2000) explained that attitudes change with the generations, such as the veteran generation (1925-1946), baby boomers generation (1946– 1960), generation x (1960–1980), generation y (1980–1995), generation z (1995–2010), and the alfa generation (2010+). when correlated with this theory, it can be assumed that various factors influence each generation in selecting a major in the university. this research examined the factors affecting gen z in deciding their university major. this generation is identical to the internet generation because they are surrounded by highly developed digital instruments, and they are always online using various devices (bencsik et al., 2016). the findings of the current research might be different from the earlier ones because it investigates gen z as the research object, while previous studies have focused on gen x or y. some earlier studies investigating the factors influencing students’ university majors section did not divide them into internal and external groups. according to lent et al. (2000), a student’s major section is influenced by two kinds of factors: internal and external. therefore, in this study, we investigated them separately to identify the dominant one influencing students’ decisions. another difference in this study is the instruments that were used. earlier studies focused on comparing between variables of parents, peers, finances, academic achievement, gender equality, quality of education, interest and the career selected by the student. other variables investigated in developing the research instrument were culture and job opportunity, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 based on studies conducted by maree (2020), ray et al. (2019), ulas and yildirim (2019), which show that both variables also potentially influence students in selecting their university major. research questions based on the background, it can be concluded that there are two main factors influencing students in selecting their university majors, including internal and external factors. therefore, the questions of this study are formulated as below: 1. how much does each internal factor differently influence students in deciding their university major? 2. how much does each external factor differently influence students in deciding their university major? 3. how do internal and external factors differ in influencing students deciding their university major? research hypotheses based on the research questions and literature review, we hypothesize the following: 1. each internal factor differently influences students in selecting their university major. 2. each external factor differently influences students in deciding their university major. 3. internal factors are more influential than external factors on students in deciding their university majors. literature review choosing a major in the university each year, students compete to apply to a university of interest. however, many students face difficulties when selecting a major. guidance and counseling teachers of senior high schools are responsible for guiding students in selecting a major, according to their interests and academic achievements. students who are good at science usually choose a science major, the ones interested in social sciences or economics choose social science subjects, and others who enjoy studying languages decide to apply for a language subject. however, many students are confused about deciding on a major. it normally happens since the major they choose becomes the first gate to their future career. the selection of the university major begins when students are in senior high school via choosing one of the three programs generally offered by the school, which are science, aryani & umar social science, and language. the program they choose at this level projects a more specific major for their university. majors or study programs are divisions of faculty that are responsible for managing and developing a subject. in general, a university consists of some faculties, and each faculty consists of some majors or departments. ideally, students select their university majors based on their interests, talents, and skills (intani & surjaningrum, 2012). porter and umbach (2006) mentioned that the selection of a major in university is a necessary decision-making process. generally, students face difficulties in university because they only follow their friends in choosing similar majors, having no understanding of the major they choose, and not knowing their interests or skills (intani & surjaningrum, 2012; silalahi & yuwono, 2018). the selection of a major is a step that must be passed by each generation, including gen z, before deciding their career. career choice is one of the significant challenges faced by gen z. according to bandura (1999), an individual’s environment, talents, skills, and academic achievements potentially influence the career they choose. when a gen z student chooses an incorrect major in terms of their personality, it can bring them failure and disappointment. therefore, the selection of a major correlates with the selection of a career. selecting a wrong major can direct a person to a wrong career in the future. furthermore, kazi and akhlaq (2017) mentioned some factors influencing students in selecting a major, including interest, academic achievement, gender, peers, financial reasons, family, and quality of education. in selecting a major, there are some problems faced by gen z students in various aspects, including psychological, academic, and social relationships. the psychological problem is, for example, the discomfort in joining lectures because of choosing a major not based on one’s interest. the academic problem can be low learning achievement, possibly leading to dropping out (nelissa et al., 2018), and problems regarding social relationships can be, for instance, the students withdraw from their social life (under confident) because of being uncomfortable with lectures (intani & surjaningrum, 2012). theories of generation and differences of each generation’s attitude generation is defined as “a set of historical events and related phenomena that creates a distinct generational gap” (parry & urwin, 2011). it is the differences in individual characteristics making each generation unique in many aspects, including their attitudes and behaviors (kupperschmidt, 2000; salleh et al., 2017). theories about generational differences were journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 popularized by strauss and howe (2000), who differentiated the generation into five groups: baby boomers (1946–1960), generation x (1960–1980), generation y (1980–1995), generation z (1995–2010), and alfa generation (2010+). the baby boomers believe that there is a chance to make a change, but it generally needs idealism. they are highly optimistic and hard workers, need personal appreciation, believe that they can change and develop themselves (strauss & howe, 2000). generation x tend to be independent and seldom ask others for help (borges et al., 2010). they have a good awareness of diversity, think globally, can balance work and life, are informal, rely on themselves, prefer a more practical approach to working, and enjoy working with new technologies. the activities of the generation y or the millennials include utilization of instant communication technologies like email, sms, instant messaging, and social media like facebook and twitter. generation y has a more open communication pattern as compared to its predecessors. these generations are categorized as fanatic social media users, and their lives are highly influenced by the development of technology (lyons, 2004; salleh et al., 2017). gen z has some similar characteristics to gen y, but gen z are multitaskers; they can surf social media while listening to music and doing their job on the laptop. most of their activities are connected to the internet. since they were young, they have been familiar with sophisticated technologies and gadgets that do not directly influence their personality. generation z and their behavior generation z is classified as being born between 1995 and 2015 (schroer, 2008; wiedmer, 2015). generally, they are referred to as the igeneration or internet generation (kirchmayer & fratricová, 2020). they are usually connected via the internet, exploring cyberspace, and running their activities using the existing sophisticated technologies, all of which they have been exposed to since they were young. generation z, further called the digital generation, grows and develops under the dependency of digital technology. thus, the introduction of technology and cyberspace is highly influential on the development of their lives and personalities, including when they decide their university major. information and technology are parts of their life because they can surf the internet, which has become a global culture, thereby influencing the values and the goals of their lives, separating them from previous generations. additionally, in education, gen z are less interested in classroom learning, are more critical, enjoy exploring new ideas on the internet, and are more independent, yet more individualistic with less social skills (renfro, 2012). therefore, aryani & umar gen z prefer to find out information from the internet rather than other resources when selecting a major for university. santosa (2015) mentioned some indicators for gen z or the igeneration kids. 1) they have big ambitions to be successful and are positive and optimistic about reaching their dreams. 2) they like to solve issues in more practical ways and do not like to spend much time and indulge in the long process of observing and solving problems. 3) they like freedom and have good selfconfidence. freedom, in this case, refers to the chance to demonstrate their ideas, creation, and expression. 4) they like details, are critical and comprehensively observe a problem or phenomenon. they enjoy anything that requires them to explore. 5) they need recognition in the form of rewards for what they perform or possess. 6) this generation is very proficient in using various information technologies. they prefer to communicate through cyberspace, like social media, rather than spend time talking face to face with someone. career selection research of gen z in university in general, career selection is divided into two phases which are before entering university and before graduating from university. in the first stage, students are required to select the right major in the university, after graduating from senior high school, while in the second stage, they must choose a profession or job for their future. many students plan to continue to university by are unsure about what major to choose. research shows that 87% of students in indonesia mistakenly choose their university major (masriah et al., 2019). selecting a major is a critical period faced by gen z about to enter university. the process of selecting a major consists of two main steps, determining their career goals and deciding their academic major (iglesias et al., 2012). certain aspects of selecting university majors have been studied by several authors (holland, 1996; krumboltz et al., 1976; super, 1990). however, factors affecting an individual’s deciding on specific majors at university are sometimes variously related to socio-demographic, cultural, and environmental elements. in developed countries, problems related to the students’ decision-making in terms of their career choices are figured out in the school via educational counselors and family. however, in indonesia, as a developing country, the problem stays unsolved because of limited knowledge related to career choice, especially the causative factors behind selecting a major. moreover, lent et al. (2000) noted that a student’s major selecting is influenced by internal and external factors. the major selection becomes a complicated and daunting task because the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 decision is influenced by various factors that are categorized into extrinsic and intrinsic groups, or a combination of both (ahmed et al., 2017; janiec et al., 2019; montgomery et al., 2019; wati et al., 2019). these factors can be either inhibitors or supporters for a student’s choice of career in the future. as per the consideration, career becomes a result of the interplay between individuals within organizational and social structures. it yields well to be analyzed from diverse perspectives, ranging from occupational psychology to organizational sociology (özbilgin et al., 2005). some studies have pointed out some internal factors influencing students’ major selection for the future, such as personal interest, talent, academic achievement (aguado et al., 2015; johnson & mortimer, 2002; van overschelde & piatt, 2020). interests, talents, and personality are individual variables that correlate with factors that might influence students in selecting majors (adams, 2014). a study conducted by alexander et al. (2011) on south african students found that personal interest is the main factor that influences students in selecting a major; these interests also play a pivotal role in developing their goals. external factors influencing a student include the relationship between parents and children. the studies of peel et al. (2018) and tinsley (1997) proved anne roe’s theory regarding major selection, that there is a relationship between parent/child interactions and the way a child chooses a major. the interaction between parents and children produce a basic personality orientation, that in turn, influences the development of the work personality and the ultimate vocational behavior of the individual (tinsley, 1997). as per the consideration, it can be concluded that the anne roe theory believes that factors affecting individuals in choosing a major are based on the external components, such as the interaction between parents and children. although parents influence career choice, gender and cultural beliefs also contribute to the major a student selects, as the patriarchal culture believes that women and men hold different kinds of jobs. this view causes the differential occupational distribution among women and men, mainly when they try to explain the average wage gap between different genders (correll, 2001). cultural beliefs about gender and task competence bias also play a role in the selection of a career. as the competence of a specific skill is thought to be necessary for a particular career, the belief that a specific gender is excellent in some particular task but weak in other tasks leads students to limit themselves while choosing a particular profession (correll, 2001). in a developing country such as indonesia, students have low confidence in determining their own goals and tend to follow their parent’s discipline in choosing a major at university and aryani & umar pursue a career according to their parents’ professions. according to humayon et al. (2018), the selection of a career is also influenced by the parents’ ability to provide funding for their children’s education. the parents, as single financers, have significant power in the selection of major and future careers for their children. however, this is contrary to a study by peel et al. (2018), which states that the student’s career decision coordinate significantly with their necessities, such as personal interest and talent as well as academic achievement. based on the explanation above, this research aimed to identify the factors influencing generation z in selecting their university majors, particularly in indonesia method population and sample the population consisted of high school students from two districts in south sulawesi, indonesia. researchers and team advertised the study via posters and online advertisements, targeting schools in south sulawesi. initially, 300 participants were contacted by the researchers, but only 200 students (50% boys 50% girls) returned the complete consent form and the parent’s consent form, and only they were asked to complete a set of questionnaires. instruments this study employed the career choice questionnaire (ccq) by kazi and akhlaq (2017), and the major selection survey developed by researchers in this study. the following description explains each measure in this study. 1. career choice questionnaire (ccq) this study adapted the ccq by kazi and akhlaq (2017), including the translate-back translate, readability test, validity, and reliability test. the confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) test (n = 200) suggested that the questionnaire has eight distinct dimensions (i.e., family influence, peers influence, gender, academic reasons, media influence, financial reasons, interest, the influence of others) with rmsea = .07, cmin/df = 3, and gfi = .96. each dimension showed acceptable reliability coefficients ranging from .70 to .82. for this study, the questionnaire was reconstructed to produce two major dimensions: internal career choice and external career choice. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 a. internal career choice questionnaire (iccq) the iccq was constructed using four dimensions of kazi and akhlaq’s (2017) ccq, including family influence, interest, academic reasons, and gender. the dimensions were chosen by two trained raters (cohen’s kappa = .91) by selecting only the ones that internally influenced students’ career choices. in addition, students’ culture which involved their values was also included. construct validity test using the cfa confirmed that the iccq contains five dimensions (rmsea = .06, cmin/df = .2, and gfi= .95), with the cronbach’s alpha coefficients between .70 to .80 for each dimension. b. external career choice questionnaire (eccq) the eccq followed the same procedure as the iccq construction. the two trained raters also yielded almost perfect agreement (cohen’s kappa = .92). the initial cfa included peer influence, financial reasons, influence of others, and media influence from the original ccq. in addition, the questionnaire also included quality of education and job opportunity, as these two dimensions were considered essential for external career influence. however, the results showed a poor-fit model (rmsea = .12, cmin/df = 6). to achieve a well-constructed questionnaire, the influence of others and media influence were excluded from the construct. the final cfa results showed a good-fit (rmsea = .06, cmin/df = 3, gfi = .96), with the cronbach’s alpha ranging from.74 to .85 for each dimension. table 1. dimensions of career choice questionnaire no dimensions number of items item 1 interest 6 28–33 2 academic achievement 4 42–45 3 gender 8 1–8 4 peers 6 22–27 5 financial reason 4 34–37 6 family 7 9–15 7 quality of education 6 16–21 8 job opportunities 4 38–41 9 culture 5 46–50 total of items 50 2. major selection survey. students’ major selections were identified using the major selection survey. this survey allowed students to identify their current major based on three distinct areas (i.e., natural sciences, social sciences, and arts). this survey only has one item: “what major would you aryani & umar chose for your next study?”. students’ responses were categorized into three different categories (e.g., natural sciences) by two trained counsellors. the two counsellors showed almost perfect agreement (cohen’s kappa = .92). data collection the questionnaires were completed at school, during class hours. most students completed the questionnaire in less than 30 minutes. students could leave the classroom if they refused to continue the study and could stop anytime without explanation. there were 200 students willing to participate in this study by returning the completed consent form and the parent’s consent form. table 2 shows the demography data of the participants. table 2 demography of the research participants frequency percentage parent’s profession farmers and laborers 23 11.5 entrepreneur 79 39.5 government employers 60 30.0 non-government employers 38 19.0 age 15–16 5 2.5 17–18 189 94.5 > 18 6 3 districts makassar 100 50 maros 100 50 tribe makassar 87 43 bugis 100 50 others (toraja, mandar, java) 13 7 gender females 100 50 males 100 50 parent’s monthly income < idr 2.000.000 31 15.5 idr.2.000.000—idr. 5.000.000 96 48.0 > idr. 5.000.000 73 36.5 data analysis this study consists of three hypotheses which were tested using a multivariate analysis of variance (manova) spss 26 version. the dependent variable in this study was the categorical data (natural sciences, social sciences, and arts). therefore, the influence of independent variable on the dependent variable can be described using manova. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 findings differences of each internal factor influencing students in selecting a major in university table 3 differences of internal factors in the selection of university major major selection m sd m square wilk’s lambda family influence natural sciences 17.93 2.74 156.425*** 0.755*** social sciences 16.06 2.47 arts 19.13 3.61 interest natural sciences 19.54 2.11 13.057 social sciences 18.89 2.71 arts 18.55 2.43 academic reasons natural sciences 11.98 1.59 20.761*** social sciences 11.82 1.54 arts 10.75 1.71 culture natural sciences 10.65 2.21 18.197* social sciences 9.90 2.16 arts 10.88 1.96 gender natural sciences 17.23 2.24 13.331 social sciences 16.43 3.56 arts 17.03 2,46 n = 200 nnatural science = 57; nsocial science = 103; narts = 40 note. ***p<0.001; **p<0.01; *p<0.05 (multivariate analysis) based on table 3, we can see the wilk’s lambda significance value (p < 0.001); thus, there was a significant difference among the three respondent groups related to the selection of majors. moreover, the gen z students tended to choose social sciences (nsocial sciences = 103), and a few of them chose arts (narts = 40). based on the manova of internal factors, there were three internal factors influencing students in selecting their university major including families (p < 0.001), academic achievement (p < 0.001), and culture (p < 0.05). however, gender was not significantly influential in the selection of majors in university. family factors significantly influenced students in deciding their university majors, especially the ones who chose arts (m = 19; sd 3.61) and was less influential on students who chose social sciences (m = 16.06; sd= 2.47). academic achievement was significantly influential on students who chose natural sciences (m = 11.98; sd 1.59) but was less influential on students who chose arts (m = 10.75; sd 1.71). the cultural factor significantly influenced students who chose arts (m = 10.88; sd 1.96) but was less influential on students who chose social sciences (m = 9.90; sd 2.16). aryani & umar table 4 post hoc test with lsd major selection (i) major selection (j) mean difference (i-j) sig. family influence natural sciences social sciences 1.87 0.00 arts -1.20 0.40 social sciences natural sciences -1.87 0.00 arts -3.07 0.00 arts natural sciences 1.20 0.40 social sciences 3.07 0.00 academic achievement natural sciences social sciences 0.17 0.526 arts 1.23 0.000 social sciences natural sciences -1.07 0.526 arts -1.23 0.000 arts natural sciences -1.23 0.000 social sciences -1.07 0.000 culture natural sciences social sciences 0.75 0.035 arts -0.23 0.608 social sciences natural sciences -0.75 0.035 arts -0.97 0.015 arts natural sciences 0.23 0.608 social sciences 0.97 0.015 based on table 3, there were some factors that had significant influences, therefore we conducted a post-hoc test with lsd to identify the most significant factors influencing the selection of a major, as presented in table 2. based on table 4, students who chose arts were significantly influenced by their families (md = 3.07) and culture (md = 0.97), while students who chose natural sciences were significantly influenced by families (md = 1.87). based on tables 3 and 4, it can be concluded the research hypothesis was accepted, meaning that each internal factor, except gender and interest, significantly and differently influence students in selecting their university major (natural sciences, social sciences, and arts). differences of external factors’ influences on students’ university major selections table 5 differences of internal factors in the selection of university major major selection m sd m square wilk’s lambda quality of education natural sciences 17.16 17.16 5.847** 0.912*** social sciences 16.53 16.53 arts 15.80 15.80 peers natural sciences 14.04 14.04 .071 social sciences 14.14 14.14 arts 14.15 14.15 financial reasons natural sciences 9.49 9.49 2.637 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 social sciences 8.97 8.97 arts 8.63 8.63 job opportunity natural sciences 12.07 12.07 1.769 social sciences 12.32 12.32 arts 11.83 11.83 n = 200 nnatural science = 57; nsocial science = 103; narts = 40 notes. ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05 (multivariate analysis) based on table 5, we can see the wilk’s lambda significance value (p < 0.001); thus, there was a significant difference of factors leading the three respondents group to their majors selection. based on the multivariate analysis of external factors, there was only one of them influential on the selection of majors—quality of education (p < 0.01; m square = 5.847). apart from this, there were three factors not significantly influencing the selection, which were peers (p > 0.05), financial reasons (p > 0.05), and job opportunity (p > 0.05). the quality of education significantly influenced students in selecting their university major, especially the ones who chose natural sciences (m = 17.16; sd 3.61) but was less influential on students who selected arts (m = 15.80; sd = 2.47). table 6 post-hoc test with lsd on external factors major selection (i) major selection (j) mean difference (i-j) sig. quality of education natural sciences social sciences 0.62 0.052 arts 1.36 0.001 social sciences natural sciences -0.62 0.052 arts 0.73 0.043 arts natural sciences -1.36 0.001 social sciences -0.73 0.043 based on the results of the lsd test, as presented in table 6, among some external factors identified as influential on students’ university major selections, the quality of education was the most significant for students who chose natural sciences and arts (md = 1.46). based on tables 5 and 6, it can be concluded that the research hypothesis is accepted, meaning that each external factor significantly and differently influences students in selecting their university majors (natural sciences, social sciences, and arts). aryani & umar comparison between internal and external factors table 7 student’s major selection based on internal and external factors major selection m sd m square wilk’s lambda internal natural sciences 77.33 4.449 376.515*** 0.860*** social sciences 73.10 6.560 arts 76.33 5.677 external natural sciences 52.75 3.572 65.934* social sciences 51.96 4.921 arts 50.40 2.228 n = 200 nnatural sciences = 57; nsocial sciences = 103; narts = 40. notes. ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05 (multivariate analysis) based on the multivariate analysis on internal and external factors, it was found that the internal factors (p < 001) and the external factors (p < 05) were both significantly influential on the selection of university majors. internal factors were significantly influential, especially on students who selected natural sciences (m = 77.33; sd 4.449) but were less influential on students who chose social sciences (m = 73.10; sd = 6.560). external factors were significantly influential, especially on students who selected natural sciences (m = 52.75; sd 3.572) but were less influential on students who chose arts (m = 50.40; sd 2.228). table 8 post-hoc test on external factors major selection (i) major selection (j) mean difference (i-j) sig. internal natural sciences social sciences 4.24 0.000 arts 1.01 0.405 social sciences natural sciences -4.24* 0.000 arts -3.23* 0.003 arts natural sciences -1.01 0.405 social sciences 3.23* 0.003 external natural sciences social sciences 0.79 0.247 arts 2.35* 0.006 social sciences natural sciences -0.79 0.247 arts 1.56* 0.044 arts natural sciences -2.35* 0.006 social sciences -1.56* 0.044 *mean difference is significant if (p < 0.05) based on the results of the lsd test, as presented in table 8, internal factors were more influential than external factors on students in deciding their university majors. students who chose natural sciences tended to be influenced by internal factors, while students choosing arts were journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 mostly motivated by external factors. based on tables 7 and 8, it can be concluded that the research hypothesis is accepted, meaning that internal factors were more influential than external factors on students in deciding their university majors. discussion, conclusion and implications the selection of a university major is an important aspect of students’ career development. selecting a major according to interest and talent positively contributes to someone’s success during university study and after graduating. in indonesia, many students sit for the university entrance exam, but several of them face difficulties in deciding a major based on their interests. the selection of a university major is not only influenced by interest aspects but also by many other factors, such as family, gender, financial reasons, quality of education, academic achievement, peers, culture, and job opportunity. factors influencing students in selecting their university majors are divided into internal and external (lent et al., 2000). internal factors include families, interest, culture, academic achievement, and gender, while external factors refer to the quality of education, peers, job opportunity, and financial constraints. this study aimed to investigate how internal and external factors influence the selection of a major, and how those factors are differently influential. internal factors influencing students in selecting university majors there were three internal factors influencing students, including families, academic achievement, and culture; however, gender did not any influence selection. families were influential because the majority of values and beliefs of life are introduced by them. therefore, it is one of the main considerations when gen z decide their university major. anne roe’s contagion about the theory of needs and career choice postulates that interaction between parents and child affect their career choices (adekeye et al., 2017). a relevant study from bikse et al. (2018) found that only 5% uk youths agree that career guidance from parents is helpful on selecting a major, and only 1.6% of latvian respondents stated that career guidance, particularly from professionals, is useful for selecting a major. some earlier studies have also confirmed that parents affect students’ career choices (camarero-figuerola et al., 2020; fouad et al., 2016; kazi & akhlaq, 2017). academic achievement was very influential on students when selecting a university major, especially the ones who chose natural science programs. however, it was less influential on aryani & umar students who decided to study arts. it is because, in the indonesian context, children with high academic scores are usually suggested to register for natural science programs by their parents and guidance and counselling teachers. another internal factor influencing the selection of a university major was culture. gen z is highly influenced by their cultural identity (parker, 2019), the environment, and the financial status of their parents (griffin & hu, 2019). students living in the coastal area tend to work as seamen, fishers, at shipping related jobs, and sea product entrepreneurs. however, culture was more influential on students who selected arts and less influential on those who chose social sciences. in fact, culture was one of the important factors considered by gen z when selecting their university major. this variable refers to values introduced and integrated by families, environments, and societies. an interesting finding was that gender did not influence students in selecting their university major. it is because gen z students do not really consider the “masculinity” or “femininity” of a major, due to better gender awareness. nowadays, there have been many successful role models in various sectors, unlike in the past, when the profession of a chef was dominated by women. presently, there are more and more men becoming successful in this sector. therefore, it can be concluded that gen z’s awareness about gender equality is better than gen y. additionally, gen z believes that there is no difference between male and female students in selecting a major for higher education (watson-canning, 2020; yazici & yazici, 2010), implying the absence of differences in major selections between two different genders. external factors influencing students in selecting university majors there are four external factors influencing students in selecting a university major—quality of education, peers, financial reasons, and job opportunity. based on the findings describing how external factors influence students in selecting their university major, only the quality of education was significantly influential, especially for the ones choosing natural sciences. it is because these students tended to have high academic scores, so that they could enter a high-quality major with competitive admission selection. quality of education also had a significant influence on the students’ career selection. quality of education here refers to the prestige of a university major. studies conducted by phillips et al. (2019), yazici and yazici (2010) showed that it becomes an important aspect in major selection because it is positively correlated with the students’ future prosperity, the amount of salary they will earn at work, and whether societies favor the major. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 on the other hand, some factors identified as not influential on the selection of a major included peers, financial backing, and job opportunity. based on an earlier finding, peers do not influence students in deciding a university major because gen z tend to be more explorative (renfro, 2012), so that they can decide the university major to apply on their own. in terms of job opportunity, the related study from kazi and akhlaq (2017) pointed out that other factors influencing career choice, such as are future job opportunities and job outcomes, have a weak relationships with students in selecting a major. it is because gen z do not consider job opportunities in choosing a career. instead, they choose a career that they like, does not bind them, and provides freedom (bencsik et al., 2016). comparison between internal and external factors gen z were more influenced by internal rather than external factors in deciding their university major. this is because gen z tend to choose careers more independently, and highly rely on the internet. therefore, in choosing a major, they tend to explore the data by themselves, without seeking assistance from their friends or others. it is supported by the availability of various career information accessible online. also, they feel free to explore interesting majors when applying to a university (trice & greer, 2016). consequently, this independent exploration influences how gen z see their future, including the major they take up in university. another finding was that students who chose natural sciences tended to be influenced by internal factors, while students choosing arts were generally influenced by external factors. holmegaard et al. (2014) explained that it is because students who choose natural sciences believe that they can solve a problem through constructing definitions, choosing methods, withdrawing conclusions, and formulating new ideas by themselves, without influence from others. thus, students who select the natural sciences enjoy solving problems internally, as compared to students who choosing arts, who prefer to solve a problem via exploration through discussions and collaborations with other people to figure out novel perspectives that can be continuously developed (xing-ping & chu-jun, 2007). all in all, gen z who select arts tend to solve problems externally. implications based on the findings, this study has some implications on the roles of counselling teachers in guiding students in selecting their career. teachers should consider some internal factors related aryani & umar to gen z, such as academic achievement, and external factors, such as the quality of education, in assisting students to selecting a university major tailored to those who plan to study natural sciences. furthermore, counseling teachers should be concerned about internal factors, such as families and culture, in guiding students with an interest in the arts to selecting a university major tailored to them. conclusion at the end of this study, it can be concluded that factors influencing gen z in selecting a university major consist of external and internal factors. internal factors include families, academic achievement, and culture, while external factors refer to the quality of education. although both groups of factors are influential on students in deciding their university majors, internal factors dominate. family influence and culture are very influential on students who decided to study arts, while students selecting natural sciences are generally influenced by their prior academic achievements. the difference emerges due to the different ways that gen z apply themselves to solving a problem. in this case, gen z who select the arts prefer to solve problems externally, while those who choose natural sciences generally solve problems internally. acknowledgement this study was funded by the ministry of research and technology/national research and innovation agency (ristek-brin) of the republic of indonesia through a research grant. references adams, g. (2014). the factors that influence career choice. (november), 1–160. retrieved from http://etd.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/handle/11394/4671 adekeye, o., adeusi, s., ahmadu, f., & okojide, a. (2017). determinants of career maturity among senior high school students in nigeria. iceri2017 proceedings, 1(november), 7597–7604. https://doi.org/10.21125/iceri.2017.2026 afful, o. (2019). determinants of career choice among students in public senior high schools in the asikuma-odobenbrakwa district. university of cape coast. aguado, c. l., laguador, j. m., & deligero, j. c. l. (2015). factors affecting the choice of school and students’ level of interest towards the maritime program. asian social science, 11(21), 231–239. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v11n21p231 ahmed, k. a., sharif, n., & ahmad, n. (2017). factors influencing students’ career choices: journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 empirical evidence from business students. journal of southeast asian research, 2017, 1– 15. akyol, e. y., & boyacı, m. (2020). cognitive flexibility and positivity as predictors of career future in university students. turkish psychological counseling and guidance journal, 10(57). alexander, p. m., holmner, m., lotriet, h. h., matthee, m. c., pieterse, h. v, naidoo, s., twinomurinzi, h., & jordaan, d. (2011). factors affecting career choice: comparison between students from computer and other disciplines. journal of science education and technology, 20(3), 300–315. aryani, f., sinring, a., & rais, m. (2016). application of career assessment model to assist students in choosing department in senior high school. international journal of sciences basic and applied research, 30(5), 403–415. ball, a.e., & arikan, s. (2020). the impact of a career development and planning course on university students’ career adaptability levels. global media journal: turkish edition, 10(20). 10(20), 414-434. retrieved from https://globalmediajournaltr.yeditepe.edu.tr/sonsayi-current-issue. bandura, a. (1999). social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. asian journal of social psychology, 2(1), 21–41. bencsik, a., juhász, t., & horváth-csikós, g. (2016). y and z generations at workplaces. journal of competitiveness, 6(3), 90–106. https://doi.org/10.7441/joc.2016.03.06 bikse, v., lūsēna-ezera, i., libkovska, u., & rivža, b. (2018). comparative analysis of career choices by students in latvia and the uk. 4th international conference on higher education advances (head’18), 1349–1357. borges, n. j., manuel, r. s., elam, c. l., & jones, b. j. (2010). differences in motives between millennial and generation x medical students. medical education, 44(6), 570–576. budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 camarero-figuerola, m., dueñas, j.-m., & renta-davids, a.-i. (2020). the relationship between family involvement and academic variables. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 57–71. çetinkaya, t. (2019). the analysis of academic motivation and career stress relationships of the students in department of physical education and sport. international education studies, 12(4), 24–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 aryani & umar correll, s. j. (2001). gender and the career choice process: the role of biased self-assessments. american journal of sociology, 10(6), 1691–1730. https://doi.org/10.1086/321299 fouad, n. a., kim, s., ghosh, a., chang, w., & figueiredo, c. (2016). family influence on career decision making: validation in india and the united states. journal of career assessment, 24(1), 197–212. green, z. a., noor, u., & hashemi, m. n. (2019). furthering proactivity and career adaptability among university students: test of intervention. journal of career assessment, 1069072719870739. griffin, b., & hu, w. (2019). parental career expectations: effect on medical students’ career attitudes over time. medical education, 53(6), 584–592. holland, j. l. (1996). exploring careers with a typology: what we have learned and some new directions. american psychologist, 51(4), 397. holmegaard, h. t., madsen, l. m., & ulriksen, l. (2014). to choose or not to choose science: constructions of desirable identities among young people considering a stem higher education programme. international journal of science education, 36(2), 186–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2012.749362 humayon, a. a., raza, s., aamir khan, r., & ul ain ansari, n. (2018). effect of family influence, personal interest and economic considerations on career choice amongst undergraduate students in higher educational institutions of vehari, pakistan. international journal of organizational leadership, 7(2), 129– 142. https://doi.org/10.33844/ijol.2018.60333 iglesias martínez, m. j., martínez ruiz, m. á., & tortosa martínez, j. (2012). factors influencing the choice of a university degree: the case of recreation, parks and tourism administration studies. intani, f. s., & surjaningrum, e. r. (2012). coping strategy pada mahasiswa salah jurusan. jurnal insan media psikologi, 12(2). istiqomah, i., hariani, l. s., & afian, a. (2018). pengaruh konformitas teman sebaya, motivasi dan minat karir terhadap pemilihan program studi akuntansi di perguruan tinggi. jurnal riset pendidikan ekonomi, 3(2). james, g. (2018). a narrative inquiry perspective into coping mechanisms of international postgraduate students’ transition experiences. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 41-56. janiec, m., toś, m., bratek, a., rybak, e., drzyzga, k., & kucia, k. (2019). family and demographic factors related to alexithymia in polish students. archives of psychiatry and psychotherapy, 1, 22–27. https://doi.org/10.33844/ijol.2018.60333 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 johnson, m. k., & mortimer, j. t. (2002). career choice and development from a sociological perspective. career choice and development, 4, 37–81. kazi, a. s., & akhlaq, a. (2017). factors affecting students’ career choice. journal of research and reflections in education, 2, 187–196. http://www.ue.edu.pk/jrre kirchmayer, z., & fratricová, j. (2020). what motivates generation z at work? insights into motivation drivers of business students in slovakia. proceedings of the innovation management and education excellence through vision, 6019–6030. krumboltz, j. d., mitchell, a. m., & jones, g. b. (1976). a social learning theory of career selection. the counseling psychologist, 6(1), 71–81. kumara, a. r., bhakti, c. p., astuti, b., ghiffari, m. a. n., & ammattulloh, f. i. (2019). development of android application based on holland’s theory of individual student planning. international conference on social science and character educations (icossce 2018) and international conference on social studies, moral, and character education (icsmc 2018). kupperschmidt, b. r. (2000). multigeneration employees: strategies for effective management. the health care manager, 19(1), 65–76. lee, a. r., & lee, h. k. (2020). the effects of acculturative stress, career stress, and social support on depression in korean international students in china. journal of korean academy of community health nursing, 31(1), 96–106. lent, r. w., brown, s. d., & hackett, g. (2000). contextual supports and barriers to career choice: a social cognitive analysis. journal of counseling psychology, 47(1), 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.1.36 lyons, a. c. (2004). a profile of financially at‐risk college students. journal of consumer affairs, 38(1), 56–80. maree, j. g. (2020). connecting conscious knowledge with subconscious advice through career construction counselling to resolve career choice indecision. south african journal of education, 40(supplement 1), s1–s13. marti’ah, s., theodora, b. d., & haryanto, h. (2018). pengaruh lingkungan keluarga terhadap pilihan karir siswa. sap (susunan artikel pendidikan), 2(3), 237–242. https://doi.org/10.30998/sap.v2i3.2448 masriah, z. (2019). persepsi mahasiswa terhadap jurusan di perguruan tinggi dan konsep diri dengan kesesuaian minat memilih jurusan. uin raden intan lampung. miftahurrohmah, b., & wulandari, c. (2019). analisis prediksi mahasiswa mengundurkan diri dari universitas xyz dengan metode support vector machine. network engineering aryani & umar research operation, 4(3). montgomery, s., gregg, d. h., somers, c. l., pernice-duca, f., hoffman, a., & beeghly, m. (2019). intrapersonal variables associated with academic adjustment in united states college students. current psychology, 38(1), 40–49. mtemeri, j. (2017). factors influencing the choice of career pathways among high school students in midlands province, zimbabwe. unpublished doctoral dissertation). university of south africa, pretoria, south africa. mutekwe, e., modiba, m., & maphosa, c. (2011). factors affecting female students’ career choices and aspirations: a zimbabwean example. journal of social sciences, 29(2), 133– 141. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2011.11892963 nelissa, z., astuti, s., & martunis, m. (2018). identifikasi faktor yang mempengaruhi siswa dalam proses pemilihan jurusan pendidikan lanjutan (studi pada siswa kelas xi sma negeri 5 banda aceh). jppi (jurnal penelitian pendidikan indonesia), 4(1), 78–83. özbilgin, m., küskü, f., & erdoğmuş, n. (2005). explaining influences on career ‘choice’: the case of mba students in comparative perspective. the international journal of human resource management, 16(11), 2000–2028. park, b. (2004). parental involvement in the college education process. university of california davis sari report no. 324 (https://www. sariweb. ucdavis. edu/downloads/324. parentalinvolvement. pdf) parker, j. (2019). second language learning and cultural identity. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 33–42. parry, e., & urwin, p. (2011). generational differences in work values: a review of theory and evidence. international journal of management reviews, 13(1), 79–96. pascual, n. t. (2014). factors affecting high school students’ career preference: a basis for career planning program. international journal of sciences: basic and applied research (ijsbar), 16(1), 1–14. peel, j. k., schlachta, c. m., & alkhamesi, n. a. (2018). a systematic review of the factors affecting choice of surgery as a career. canadian journal of surgery, 61(1), 58. phillips, j. p., wilbanks, d. m., rodriguez‐salinas, d. f., & doberneck, d. m. (2019). specialty income and career decision making: a qualitative study of medical student perceptions. medical education, 53(6), 593–604. porter, s. r., & umbach, p. d. (2006). college major choice: an analysis of person–environment fit. research in higher education, 47(4), 429–449. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 109-133 ray, a., bala, p. k., & dasgupta, s. a. (2019). role of authenticity and perceived benefits of online courses on technology based career choice in india: a modified technology adoption model based on career theory. international journal of information management, 47, 140– 151. renfro, a. (2012). meet generation z. getting smart. romano, l., buonomo, i., callea, a., & fiorilli, c. (2019). alexithymia in young people’s academic career: the mediating role of anxiety and resilience. the journal of genetic psychology, 180(4–5), 157–169. salleh, m. s. m., mahbob, n. n., & baharudin, n. s. (2017). overview of" generation z “behavioural characteristic and its effect towards hostel facility. international journal of real estate studies, 11(2), 59–67. santosa, e. t. (2015). raising children in digital era. elex media komputindo. schroer, w. j. (2008). generations x, y, z and the others. the portal, 40, 9. shin, s., rachmatullah, a., roshayanti, f., ha, m., & lee, j. k. (2018). career motivation of secondary students in stem: a cross-cultural study between korea and indonesia. international journal for educational and vocational guidance. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-017-9355-0 silalahi, r., & yuwono, u. (2018). the sustainability of pancasila in indonesian education system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 58-78. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 strauss, w., & howe, n. (2000). millennials rising: the next great generation. vintage books new york. super, d. e. (1990). a life-span, life-approach to career development. career choice and development: applying contemporary approach to practice (2nd ed., pp. 197–261). san francisco: jossey-bass. suryadi, b., sawitri, d. r., & hayat, b. (2020). the influence of adolescent-parent career congruence and counselor roles in vocational guidance on students’ career orientations. tinsley, h. e. a. (1997). re-examining roe’s theory of personality development and career choice. journal of vocational behavior, 2(51), 280–282. trice, a. d., & greer, h. w. (2016). theories of career development in childhood and early adolescence. in career exploration and development in childhood (pp. 25–37). routledge. ulas, o., & yildirim, i. (2019). influence of locus of control, perceived career barriers, negative affect, and hopelessness on career decision-making self-efficacy among turkish university aryani & umar students. international journal for educational and vocational guidance, 19(1), 85–109. van overschelde, j., & piatt, a. (2020). u.s. every student succeeds act: negative impacts on teaching out-of-field. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.1 wati, c. w., rizza, m., & sugandi, m. (2019). the determinant factors in the selection of specialization on building engineering program expertise for new students at vocational high school in malang on readiness work in construction services industry. 2nd international conference on vocational education and training (icovet 2018). watson-canning, a. (2020). gendering social studies: teachers’ intended and enacted curriculum and student diffraction. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 55–75. wiedmer, t. (2015). generations do differ: best practices in leading traditionalists, boomers, and generations x, y, and z. delta kappa gamma bulletin, 82(1), 51. xing-ping, z. o. u., & chu-jun, a. i. (2007). the characteristics of art major students’ personalities in higher education [j]. journal of hunan mass media vocational technical college, 6. yazici, s., & yazici, a. (2010). students’ choice of college major and their perceived fairness of the procedure: evidence from turkey. educational research and evaluation, 16(4), 371–382. zemke, r., raines, c., & filipczak, b. (2000). generations at work: managing the clash of veterans, boomers, xers, and nexters in your workplace. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.1 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 47-63 potential of voter turnout among young people in the case of application of e-voting, postal voting, and three-day voting ekaterina marmilova1, liudmila kashirskaya2, malvina karabasheva3 & ekaterina kudryashova4 abstract this study is aimed at discovering possible reasons for young people’s refusal to participate in elections in russia and studying the attitudes of young people toward increasing voter turnout via electronic voting, postal voting, and three-day voting. the authors conducted a sociological survey of young people aged 18 to 29, mostly from the astrakhan region of the russian federation, relying on a non-institutional approach and rational choice. the research results showed that e-voting is more convenient for citizens with health problems, busy people, and those who do not have free time. voting by mail can ensure that voting is accessible to all. the most important requirement for elections in the event of multi-day voting is legitimacy and recognition of the results by all political forces and society. thus, voter turnout among young people might be increased via e-voting, postal voting, and three-day voting. keywords: voter turnout, absenteeism, e-voting, mail voting, three-day voting. introduction at present, in most democratic states of the world, the electoral activity of young people is a fundamental factor in the effectiveness of state power, for it demonstrates the functioning of civil society and institutions to the proper extent. in russia, on the other hand, the tendencies of apoliticality among young people are increasing, manifested in the shift of the value system toward family and material well-being. this may negatively affect the future of the state since this stratum of the population must make important political decisions in the future. logunova (2017) believes that it is precisely the low level of trust in the authorities and the political absenteeism of modern russian youth that contributes to the spread of the opinion about the lack 1 assoc. prof., project manager of the rfbr, russian association of political science, moscow, russian federation, katyamme@mail.ru; 2 doctor of the economic sciences, professor, financial university under the government of the russian federation, moscow, russian federation, kashirskaya76@mail.ru; 3 senior lecturer, financial university under the government of the russian federation, moscow, russian federation, karabasheva.malvina@mail.ru; 4 candidate of political sciences, assoc. prof., astrakhan state university, astrakhan, russian federation, eafanasova@mail.ru mailto:katyamme@mail.ru mailto:kashirskaya76@mail.ru mailto:karabasheva.malvina@mail.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=eafanasova@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 47-63 48 of legitimacy of the entire political system. in this regard, state structures should pay special attention to increasing electoral activity among this age group, which in the future can also have a positive effect on the development of civil society. according to the results of a joint statistical study with the levada center, “russian generation z: attitudes and values,” almost 60% of young people are not interested in the political life of the state, and their trust in national government institutions is at the lowest level (stiftung, 2020). usually, options are proposed for solving the problem of youth non-participation in elections such as improving the legal culture of voters and taking preventive measures for the future electorate. according to makhora (2018), at the present stage, public authorities are striving to pursue a youth policy aimed at the legal education of young people and an increase in their electoral activity. educational institutions offer classes on electoral law and often involve local politicians, teachers, and students to organize educational events (mityunova, 2020). thus, there exists in the russian federation a problem of absenteeism from participation in elections among young people. electronic voting, mail voting, and three-day voting were applied in the amendment to the electoral legislation of the russian federation in 2020, and we believe that voter turnout among young people can be increased if e-voting, postal voting, and three-day voting are used on an ongoing basis. research questions the following questions guide the research procedures in this study: 1) how do young potential voters perceive the application of e-voting, mail voting, and three-day voting in russia in terms of participation, preparation, method, feeling, and attitude? 2) which percentage of young people in the russian federation, on the example of the astrakhan region, will take part in elections if the state uses e-voting, three-day voting, or postal voting? 3) what is the connection between the non-participation of young people in elections in the russian federation and the absence of the use of e-voting, three-day voting, or mail voting? theoretical framework previous studies show that there is a problem of absenteeism, a decline in interest in participating in elections among young people in the russian federation. ritter (2020) argues that effective social studies education should include an understanding of ourselves within communities of shared fate collectively building strategies of civility, that citizenship education should be marmilova et al. grounded in communities of fate rather than a sense of shared identity as a member of a particular country. houdyshell and ziegler (2020) consider that higher education needs individuals working with students to have the skills to handle a variety of issues related to success and well-being. jeffries and mccorkle (2020) researched low youth voter turnout nationally by examining a study of teacher candidates at a south carolina public university; the study is useful for understanding the civic engagement of two important demographics: youth voters and future educators. political absenteeism is “a conscious decision not to participate in elections due to the lack of utilitarian motives and reasons for voting” (savenkov & sotnikov, 2020). brager, volkova, and litvinov (2020) revealed the following signs of absenteeism as a deliberate boycott: “voters’ isolation from voting; conscientiousness of the actions of potential voters; the presence of prerequisites that push voters to refuse to take part in elections.” mass electoral absenteeism hinders the formation of civil society, legitimate, effective government, and administration, which are indispensable institutions of democratic political systems (kachalov, 2020). today, many scientists note the existence of the problem of political absenteeism in the russian federation. citizens refuse to take part in elections at various levels (bersh & yakimova, 2020). nebredovskaya (2013) notes that “from election to election, the russian federation is faced with such a negative social phenomenon as the low turnout of persons entitled to vote”; insufficient attention is often paid to the problem of population activity during elections, although the level of voter turnout has a noticeable effect on the outcome of the vote (lukonina, 2007). milaeva and shikova (2014) cite the features of the current stage of development of the electoral process in the russian federation from the perspective of voter behavior. bezverbnaya (2016) gives the main approaches to assessing the behavior of voters, presenting the results of a sociological study conducted by questioning the population on the issues of electoral activity in the irkutsk region. frolov (2017) presents the results of an index study of civic engagement in the yaroslavl region. zulyar and grigoriev (2016) study protest voting as a factor in the election of the governor of the irkutsk region. the decline in youth interest in elections is due to apathy regarding the political conduct of affairs by the government of the russian federation (akhmadullina et al., 2020). smulkina (2020) notes the results of a study of the rational and unconscious aspects of the role expectations of the voter among russian citizens. the specifics of political absenteeism in various political systems raises the question of the causes of absenteeism, whether it is a consequence of political indifference or an expression of passive protest (chertova, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 47-63 50 a fairly large part of the scientific works of russian scientists is devoted to political absenteeism among young people (panova et al., 2020; saenko et al., 2020). topical issues related to the formation of the legal culture of young voters analyze factors associated with specific interests and values that affect electoral activity (kalimullina et al., 2021; lavrentieva & kovaleva, 2020; shatunova et al., 2021). kochemasova (2018) presents the results of a survey of 700 people, including 100 senior schoolchildren, and reveals the tendency of the level of absenteeism depending on the gender of the respondent, substantiating the necessity and possibility of preventing absenteeism among the future electorate. makhmudov (2018) looks at the key mechanisms for the development of absenteeism among russian youth and, on the basis of this analysis, proposes effective forms of developing youth activity. dareev (2020) studies the political absenteeism of student youth in the republic of buryatia. vorobiev, konstantinova, and eremenko (2020) conduct research to determine political orientations and identify factors and motives that affect the political behavior of young people in krasnoyarsk. rastimeshina and ogorodov (2020) cite the results of a sociological study on the degree of awareness of russian youth about the adoption of the amendments to the constitution of the russian federation and the degree of approval of these amendments. basinov (2020) examines comparative psychograms of the groups of respondents formed on the basis of the reasons they expressed for not taking part in the elections. our purpose is to study the electoral activity of young people, as well as the possibilities of increasing turnout among young people via electronic voting, postal voting, and three-day voting. we rely on a non-institutional approach, and a variant of this approach is rational choice. methods design this study applies a descriptive design and a quantitative approach to analyze data (creswell, 2014) using a social survey. specifically, this study refers to an online survey on e-voting conducted in russia. our aims were to see possible reasons for young people declining to participate in elections and studying the attitudes of young people in russia toward the introduction of e-voting, postal voting, and voting during a period of three days. in 2020, the russian federation introduced the possibility of using electronic voting, voting by mail, and multiday voting; despite this, citizens have the right to independently choose their method of voting. marmilova et al. our study took place in five areas of russia: astrakhan and its region, moscow and its region, karachay-cherkess republic, and crimea gomel. sample the sample of the study were 85 people involved in voting in the three-day general election in russia. the respondents consisted of 59 women (69.4%) and 26 men (30.6%) aged between 1829 years, mostly from the astrakhan region of the russian federation. the sample was recruited using systematic sampling techniques, applying to every five young people from 18 to 29 years old. table 1 presents the characteristics of the sample. table 1. sample characteristics characteristics sample f n=85 % gender women 59 69.4 men 26 30.6 age 18-20 27 31.8 21-24 30 35.3 25-29 28 32.9 urban or rural urban 77 90.6 rural 8 9.4 place of residence astrakhan and astrakhan region 71 83.5 moscow and moscow region 10 11.7 karachay-cherkess republic 3 3.62 crimea gomel 1 1.18 level of education higher vocational education 50 58.8 secondary vocational education 9 10.6 basic general and primary education 26 30.6 research instrument this study uses an open-ended questionnaire as the research instrument. we argue that this kind of instrument is a flexible method for collecting data. the items are structured according to a prewritten script of six items, as follows: 1. how often do you take part in elections? (the following questions are for those who answer “sometimes,” “rarely,” and “never”) 2. what needs to be done to make you go to the elections? 3. which of the following voting methods do you consider the most convenient: e-voting, threeday voting, or postal voting? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 47-63 52 4. how do you feel about three-day voting? 5. how do you feel about the introduction of postal voting? 6. what is your attitude to the introduction of e-voting in russia? we used open questions in a free text format, which allowed us to obtain new qualitative data. open polls were specific enough that we received consistent responses from our respondents. the items of the questionnaire were developed by the researchers by applying two procedures. first, to identify proper topics and statements, the researchers consulted to the general election committee. second, to check the validity and reliability of the instrument, the researchers conducted a pilot study assigning 20 young people from a specific age range and geographical location. the results of the pilot study indicated that some wording should be rephrased to adjust for age, education, and experience of the participants. in addition, the researchers also learned how to identify themes and frequency of respondent answers so that data analysis was properly conducted. data collection data was collected online from 100 respondents in five regions of russia: astrakhan and its region, moscow and its region, karachay-cherkess republic, and crimea gomel. the data collection was completed in three weeks. procedures to collect data are as follows: first, prior to data collection, the researchers distributed 100 six-item open-ended online questionnaires to anticipate a sample of 85 respondents. some responses were defective and did not provide complete data appropriate to our analysis. in this regard, 92 replies to the six-item open-ended questionnaire were available; the researchers selected 85 replies. this technique confirmed that the selected 85 respondents returned their answers properly. second, the researchers distributed the six-item open-ended questionnaire in one day to 100 respondents residing in five regions of russia. the 100 replies were returned fully in three weeks: the first week 36 replies, the second week 45 replies, and 19 in the third week. as soon as the replies were accepted, the researchers identified their answers, categorized them according to the themes, and classified the themes into the proper research questions. third, after the 100 replies were accepted, the researchers sorted the answers and selected the fixed 85 replies. the replies that were not used especially were the respondents residing in one region, marmilova et al. as the replies were appropriate but the respondents’ ages were not as expected. the responses were identified based on the properness of items 1 to 6 to display in tables 1-6. data analysis we used descriptive statistics to analyze data using spss package version 29. the data were particularly analyzed in the forms of frequency, rate percentage, and table. steps to analyze data were as follows: first, narrative data or text data were identified by their themes and unit of analysis. responses of six items were classified and changed into frequency and rate percentage. this data was classified according to the same themes and each data was identified as numeric data. the results relevant to the research questions were displayed in tables. second, categories of data were confirmed to attributes of the respondents, namely: region, gender, age, and education in tables relevant to items 1 to 6 of our open-ended questionnaire. each item of the questionnaire served one table containing respondent’s answers on the first item. we crosschecked each item and the proper answers of the respondents and displayed them in tables. third, after the displays confirmed the attributes of the respondents and answers, the researchers calculated the frequency and rate percentage of each table. each table and answers was matched to the research question to see whether the data answered the research question appropriately. results and discussion participants in elections to the question “how often do you take part in elections?” our findings show that 15.3% of respondents answered that they rarely participate in elections, 24.7% responded that sometimes they take part in elections, 25.9% said that they always take part in elections, and 34.1 % of respondents answered that they do not participate in elections. in addition, 83.5% of all respondents take part in elections “always,” “sometimes,” and “rarely.” to the question “indicate the reasons why you do not take part in elections, if your answer to the previous question was ‘always,’ ‘sometimes,’ or ‘rarely,’” the answers are presented in table 2. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 47-63 54 table 2. main reasons why young voters participate in elections reasons and examples of responses % of similar answers “i care about the future of my country”; “i’m trying to change something” 3.5% “i’m interested in this”; “i’m interested in how they are conducted”; “there is a desire” 5.9% “i hope that my vote is important”; “participation in elections is like informing the state about your opinion so that it in turn will take it into account”; “perhaps it is my vote that can be decisive”; “i hope that the voice of citizens will someday be heard as a part of the most important resource of the state”; “…of the people, who, according to the law, have the right to vote, which reminds the authorities of what we agree with, or vice versa”; “every citizen should use his or her right to vote at elections of any level” 8.2% “i express my point of view”; “i think that every citizen should show his active civil position”; “i want to express my point of view”; “i have an active civil position” 9.4% “i feel civic responsibility”; “this is my duty”; “it is necessary”; “i have to” 10.6% the main reasons why young people take part in elections are the following: 1) there is an interest and desire to participate in elections; 2) participation in elections is considered a duty or obligation; 3) participation in elections in order to express their point of view; 4) participation in elections in order to take into account voters’ opinions; 5) participation to change the future of the country. not participating in elections we identify that 74.1% of all respondents take part in elections “sometimes,” “rarely,” and “never.” to the question “why do you not take part in elections (if your answer to the previous question was ‘i don’t take part,’ ‘sometimes,’ ‘rarely’),” the answers are presented in table 3. table 3 main reasons why young voters do not participate in elections reasons and examples of responses % of similar answers “it is not interesting”; “i am not interested in politics” 11.8% “i don’t participate because i don’t believe in elections honesty”; “i don’t trust the results”; “lack of faith in the candidates”; “i don’t participate because of possible falsifications of the electoral process”; “i consider the elections a formal procedure” 9.4% “there is not always enough time”; “ busy at work”; “sometimes there is no time” 8.2% “it does not change anything”; “there is no particular sense”; “i consider elections a formal procedure”; “my vote does not decide”; “i see no point in this, since the same person wins”; “almost there is no real political opposition, and the small one that exists is not allowed to the elections” 7% “i am in another place”; “sometimes there is no physical opportunity”; “being busy at work” 4.7% “i do not participate, as i am a foreign citizen” 2.35% they take part in separate elections, depending on the status of the election campaign (“i participate only in elections at the federal level”; “i am not interested in some types of elections”) 1.17% marmilova et al. based on the data of table 3, it follows that the main reasons why young people do not participate in the elections are: 1) there is no interest and desire to participate in elections; 2) there is not enough time; 3) they do not see competition in the elections and any changes after the elections ; 4) they are in another place on the day of the elections; 5) they do not trust the institution of elections and are not sure about the reliability of the electoral system; 6) they do not participate as they are citizens of foreign states. for the respondents who take part in elections “sometimes,” “rarely,” and “never,” we asked an additional question: “what needs to be done to make you go to the elections?” let us single out the most frequent answers to this question: 1) “i will take part if e-voting is used” and “in order to take part in the elections, voting must be made independent of the voter’s location and at a convenient time for him”; 2) “the honesty and openness of the electoral process must be ensured, elections should be as transparent and legitimate as possible, to increase the competitiveness of elections so that one can choose from a larger number of candidates and political parties”; 3) “observation of the polling station should be toughened: it is necessary to invite independent experts to observe the vote counting process”; 4) “for people who do not go to elections, it is necessary to create mechanisms to motivate them to express their civic position, for example, to more actively invite citizens to participate in elections, you can create a system of incentive measures or create a project that demonstrates the importance of the voice of each person”; 5) “the main thing that is important to do is to ensure control over the implementation of the election program, fulfillment of election promises by candidates or political parties, and the disposition of people towards themselves by their work.” then we found the answer to our second research question: which percentage of young people in the russian federation, on the example of the astrakhan region, will take part in elections if the state uses e-voting, three-day voting, or postal voting? introduction to three-day voting to the question “which of the following voting methods do you consider the most convenient: evoting, three-day voting, or postal voting?” the following answers were received: e-voting was chosen by 52.9% of respondents, traditional voting at a polling station by 42.4%, and 4.7% preferred to participate in the elections by postal voting. table 4 presents the answers to the question: “how do you feel about three-day voting?” journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 47-63 56 table 4 results of the answer to the question about the introduction of three-day voting examples of responses % of similar answers adversely, negative, bad, not okay 38.8% positive, good, regular, not bad, quite good, approve 35.3% neutral, i have no specific opinion 15.3% refrained from answering 8.2% there is no point in voting like this 1.2% as something real 1.2% reasons why the respondents do not approve of three-day voting include: 1) they believe that the introduction of three-day voting may increase the possibility of election fraud (5.9% of the total number of responses); 2) they believe that this may not be legitimate, they do not see the reasons why it is needed (2.4% of the total number of responses); 3) they believe that it is better to vote on one day (1.2% of the total number of responses). feelings toward postal voting table 5 presents the answers to the question: “how do you feel about the introduction of postal voting?” table 5 presents the answers to the question: “how do you feel about the introduction of postal voting?” examples of responses % of similar answers adversely, negative 35.3% neutral, i have no specific opinion, i have no idea about it, i do not care 27% excellent, positive, good, regular 20% refrained from answering 8.2% satisfactory, average 5.9% pointless, irrelevant 2.4% ambiguous 1.2% we indicate that 9.4% of respondents said that postal voting is not convenient for them, 2.4% of respondents indicated that this measure can increase fraud, and 1.2% of respondents said that 1) it will be more convenient for the elderly; 2) the election process will take a long time; 3) postal voting will be convenient for people with disabilities and for people who are not at the place of registration at the time of the elections, but it is still better to hold elections in person. marmilova et al. attitudes toward elections table 6 presents the answers to the question: “what is your attitude to the introduction of remote electronic voting in russia?” table 6 presents the answers to the question: “what is your attitude to the introduction of e-voting in russia?” examples of responses % of similar answers positive, good, normal, i approve 48% adversely, negative 23.5% neutral, no difference 14% this is something new for me, this is interesting 3.5% refrained from answering 7% ambiguous, positive on the one hand, negative on the other 3.5% the respondents consider electronic voting as a new voting tool that has not yet been used in the country, they believe that it is convenient, and, in order to take part in the elections, it will not take much time, it inspires confidence in the electoral institution, for voters this way of voting can be simpler. according to the respondents, e-voting can increase voter turnout: it is better to use evoting so that people can express their position than non-participation of voters in elections at all. the respondents named the disadvantages in the case of using electronic voting: there is no guarantee of confidentiality of voting, i may lose personal data, the electronic voting system can be hacked, and before introducing it, it is necessary to check its security well, there are fears that the electronic system will be used in their interests with a possible correction of the election results, in the case of using electronic voting, it is impossible to identify the voter. thus, we can confirm that with the introduction of electronic voting, the number of young voters will increase among those who do not take part in the elections on a permanent basis. the use of e-voting, three-day voting, or mail-order voting can stimulate the participation of young people in elections in the russian federation, according to the example of the astrakhan region. we can present the answer to our third research question: what is the connection between the nonparticipation of young people in elections in the russian federation and the absence of the use of e-voting, three-day voting, or mail voting? data show that 8.2% of the respondents answered that they do not have enough time to take part in the elections, or they are busy at work; 4.7% of respondents answered that they are in a different place on election day, or they have no physical opportunity to vote. some of the respondents who answered that they take part in elections “sometimes” and “rarely” to the question about what needs to be done to make them participate in journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 47-63 58 the elections, answered that they are ready to take part in the elections if electronic voting is introduced. finally, the main result of our research shows that 48% of all respondents reacted positively to the introduction of electronic voting, 35.3% to the introduction of three-day voting, and 20% to the introduction of voting by mail. we are considering a link between the use of evoting, three-day voting, or mail voting and youth voter turnout. thus, in the russian federation, work on the creation of new voting methods continues, and changes to the electoral legislation, including the expansion of the possibility of expressing the will of voters using e-voting, voting by mail, and three-day voting, will contribute to the development of the institution of elections. multi-day voting format voting by post in russia was carried out in 2011 at the elections of the legislative assemblies of st. petersburg and the murmansk region. in st. petersburg, 1,564 voters voted, and 489 voted in the murmansk region (interfax, 2020). until 2020, voting by post in the russian federation was optional. the head of the central election commission of the russian federation considers the voting method to be outdated due to the presence of the “mobile voter” mechanism in russia, which provides an opportunity regardless of the place of registration of the voter. however, the head of the cec admits the possibility of voting by mail for certain regions of russia (kommersant, 2020). consider the results of the wciom poll (wciom, 2020), which was held among residents of the regions in which elections were held in september, 2020 (see table 7). table 7 results of the poll “multi-day voting format: for and against in russian federation” examples of responses % of similar answers are positive about the opportunity to vote within three days 61% consider it convenient, since you can come to the polling station at a suitable time for the voter 49% note the sanitary safety of the election procedure in connection with covid-19 37% believe that more people will be able to take part in the elections 24% no queues, fuss and crowds 7% spoke out against voting within three days 22% among those polled by wciom, 24% confirmed that the introduction of voting in different elections for three consecutive days allows more voters to take part in the elections. the above results address the following discussion. e-voting, three-day voting, and mail voting were applied in the amendment to the electoral legislation of the russian federation in 2020. the marmilova et al. use of e-voting, three-day voting, and mail voting in elections can solve the problem of absenteeism among young people. the highest level of support for voting via the internet is recorded in the 18-34 age group, which participates in traditional voting less than others and more often adheres to the strategy of situational participation (center for political conjecture, 2020). the results of our research complements other research on this topic and shows that respondents react positively to the introduction of electronic voting, three-day voting, and mail voting. on the first research question, we can say that previous studies do not indicate the percentage of respondents among young people who participate in elections on an irregular basis. the answer to the second research question shows that voter turnout among young people can increase in the case of using electronic voting, three-day voting, and voting by mail. the answer to the third question allows us to conclude that there is a connection between the use of electronic voting, three-day voting, and postal voting that makes it possible to increase the voter turnout in the russian federation (as, for example, in the astrakhan region). in our opinion, electronic voting has the prospect of becoming an equivalent method for expressing the will of voters, along with traditional voting at polling stations, because 48% of all respondents prefer to vote by electronic voting, and 20% of young voters are ready to take part in elections using mail voting. voting by mail can further draw voters’ attention to electoral participation. we found that among young people, 35.3% would like to participate in three-day voting. indeed, there is a tendency for voters to vote comfortably within three days. e-voting, three-day voting, and postal voting are suitable for voters in such cases as they may not always have 1) the opportunity to vote in the place where their polling station is located, 2) free time to vote, or 3) they may not be at their place of residence on election day. the study was conducted mostly in the territory of the astrakhan region in the russian federation. in order to further add value to the study, it can be carried out in the territory of other constituent entities of the russian federation. it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the use of electronic voting, three-day voting, and postal voting is not enough to increase voter turnout among young people. young people also point out that there must be other mechanisms to motivate them to express their civic position, for example, creating a project that demonstrates the importance of the vote of each voter. thus, in our opinion, e-voting, three-day voting, and mail voting have the prospect of becoming equivalent methods for expressing the will of voters. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 47-63 60 conclusion in summary, we have researched the reasons and factors affecting the low electoral activity of young people. it is necessary to consider the main ways to increase it, as a result of which it is possible to increase the degree of interest of young people in the political life of the russian federation. at the same time, it is important to implement mechanisms aimed at mobilizing young people as an important electoral group, most often passively related to taking part in voting or elections. we came to the conclusion that in the russian federation, the use of e-voting, voting by mail, and three-day voting are of great interest to the younger generation. young voters who do not participate in elections consider e-voting to be most convenient. three-day voting and mail voting is not so popular among young people, but it also empowers the voter to choose the most convenient day and time to vote. acknowledgments the study was funded by rfbr and eisr, project number 20-011-31247. references akhmadullina, i. a., verba, i. m., & akhmadullina, a. a. (2020). political absenteeism of youth in elections. world science: problems and innovations. collection of articles of the xlvii international scientific and practical conference, penza, pp. 217-220. https://repository.kpfu.ru/?p_id=241393 basimov, m. m. (2020). the psychological nature of the reasons for the non-participation of young people in elections. scholarly notes, 19, 1(154), 5-16. https://www.elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=42900299 bersh, t. a., & yakimova, e. m. (2020). the right not to participate in elections (absenteeism) through the prism of the free formation of the political behavior of a citizen. suffrage, 1, 22-26. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/pravo-na-neuchastie-v-vyborah-absenteizmcherez-prizmu-svobodnogo-formirovaniya-politicheskogo-povedeniyagrazhdanina/viewer bezverbnaya, m. yu. (2016). how to increase voter turnout: voters’ point of view. prologue: journal of law, 1. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/kak-povysit-yavku-na-vyborahustami-izbirateley/viewer brager, d. k., volkova, d. a., & litvinov, i. i. (2020). absenteeism as an urgent problem of the implementation by citizens of the russian federation of the constitutional right to participate in elections. modern scientist, 5, 241-246. http://su-journal.ru/archives/10377 marmilova et al. center for political conjecture. (2020, may 29). electronic voting: new technologies are changing electoral habits. gazeta-bam. http://gazetabam.ru/news/media/2020/5/29/elektronnoe-golosovanie-novyie-tehnologii-menyayutelektoralnyie-privyichki/ chertova, l. n. (2020). the right to absenteeism. russian constitutionalism: history, present and future (to the 100th anniversary of the first russian constitution (1918) and the 25th anniversary of the adoption of the constitution of the russian federation (1993)). materials of the iii all-russian scientific and practical conference with international participation, dedicated to the day of the lawyer. association of russian lawyers, kurgan regional branch, kurgan state university (kurgan), 124-130. creswell, j. w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. dareev, v. d. (2020). political absenteeism of student youth (on the materials of the republic of buryatia). student bulletin, 20-7(118), 28-30. frolov, a. a. (2017). civic engagement index: research results in yaroslavl region. power, 9, 120-126. https://www.jour.fnisc.ru/index.php/vlast/article/view/5400 houdyshell, m., & ziegler, n. (2020). graduate students share their experiences of building helping skills: a case study. journal of curriculum studies research. forthcoming articles. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.4. interfax. (2020, may 13). human rights defenders worried about the decrease in control during the “postal” voting in elections. interfax. https://www.interfax.ru/russia/708486 jeffries, h., & mccorkle, w. (2020). teacher candidate voter turnout: implications for k-12 and higher education. research in educational policy and management, 2, 52-77. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.4 kachalov, a. v. (2020). electoral absenteeism in modern russia. humanities, socio-economic and social sciences, 6, 34-37. kalimullina, o., tarman, b. & stepanova, i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher's role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226-238. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 kochemasova, m. a. (2018). to the problem of reducing absenteeism in the russian federation. culture, personality, society in the modern world: methodology, experience of empirical research. xxi international conference in memory of professor l. n. kogan, urfu (yekaterinburg), 2100-2117. https://elar.urfu.ru/handle/10995/59073 kommersant. (2020). pamfilova: voting by mail in the united states opens up “vast spaces” for falsifications. https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4564982 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 47-63 62 lavrentieva, l. s., & kovaleva, yu. r. (2020). the current state of the legal culture of young voters. law and law, 6, 29-32. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sovremennoe-sostoyaniepravovoy-kultury-molodyh-izbirateley/viewer logunova, v. p. (2017). increasing the political participation of youth as a factor in reducing the level of absenteeism through public policy. management issues, 5(48), 17-22. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/povyshenie-politicheskogo-uchastiya-molodezhi-kakfaktor-snizheniya-urovnya-absenteizma-posredstvom-gosudarstvennoy-politiki/viewer lukonina, e. s. (2007). sociological analysis of the dynamics of voter activity. phd thesis, lobachevsky state university of nizhniy novgorod, 4. https://www.dissercat.com/content/sotsiologicheskii-analiz-dinamiki-aktivnostiizbiratelei/read makhmudov, a. s. (2020). the attitude of russian youth towards elections: the reasons for political absenteeism. ethnosociology and international culture, 4(142), 70-77. makhora, e. v. (2018). state youth policy in the field of electoral education. scientific papers of the moscow university for the humanities, 1, 84-88. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/gosudarstvennaya-molodezhnaya-politika-v-oblastielektoralnogo-prosvescheniya/viewer milaeva, o. v., & shikova, o. v. (2014). electoral absenteeism as a strategy of voters’ behavior (based on the results of an internet survey of the population of the penza region). science. society, state, 4(8). https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/elektoralnyy-absentizm-kakstrategiya-povedeniya-izbirateley-po-rezultatam-internet-oprosa-naseleniya-penzenskoyoblasti/viewer mityunova, i. g. (2020). factors of increasing the electoral activity of russian youth. beneficium, 1(34), 65-70. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/faktory-povysheniyaelektoralnoy-aktivnosti-rossiyskoy-molodezhi/viewer nebredovskaya, v. v. (2013). legal awareness and legal culture of young professionals in scandinavian countries. social sciences and humanities. scientific notes, 27, 236-243. http://www.rshu.ru/university/notes/archive/issue27/uz27-236-243.pdf panova, e. p., filimonova, n. y., bocharnikova, n. v., & davydova, m. l. (2020). project activities in the process of teaching foreign students. [actividades de proyectos en el proceso de enseñanza de estudiantes extranjeros] utopia y praxis latinoamericana, 25(extra10), 151-162. doi:10.5281/zenodo.4155342 rastimehina, t. v., & ogorodov, d. a. (2020). amendments to the constitution of the russian federation through the eyes of russian youth: according to a sociological study. economic, social and humanitarian research, 2(26), 175-182. marmilova et al. ritter, m. j. (2020). civility and shared fate: social studies education as teaching for belonging. journal of curriculum studies research, 1, 1-15. saenko, n., voronkova, o., zatsarinnaya, e., & mikhailova, m. (2020). philosophical and cultural foundations of the concept of “nihitogenesis”. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 88-103. savenkov, r. v., & sotnikov, a. i. (2020). electoral absenteeism: protest, support, or indifference of citizens (on the example of voronezh). caspian region: politics, economics, culture, 2(63), 36-42. shatunova, o., bozhkova, g., tarman, b. & shastina e. (2021). transforming the reading preferences of today’s youth in the digital age: intercultural dialog, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(3), 62-73. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 smulkina, n. v. (2020). russians’ perceptions of the role of the voter in the electoral process: the experience of using projective techniques in political research. russian political science, 1(14), 110-119. https://tinyurl.com/yjwajund stiftung, f. e. (2020). russian generation z: attitudes and values. fes-russia. https://www.fesrussia.org/pokolenie-z/ vorobiev, a. p., konstantinova, m. v., & eremenko, m. s. (2020). political orientations and political behavior of the youth of krasnoyarsk. questions of political science, 6(58), 1859-1866. https://www.elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=43064732 wciom. (2020, october 1). multi-day voting: for and against. https://wciom.ru/analyticalreviews/analiticheskii-obzor/mnogodnevnoegolosovanie-za-i-protiv. zulyar, r. yu., & grigoriev, d. a. (2016). political absenteeism of youth: protest voting as a factor of overcoming (on the example of the elections of the governor of irkutsk region in 2015). bulletin of the irkutsk state university, 18, 56-67. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 332-350 332 ict and disabilities. construction of a diagnostic instrument in spain. josé batanero1, pedro tadeu2 and julio cabero3 abstract this work presents the process of validation of a questionnaire that aims to determine the level of training and knowledge of teachers in the spanish primary education, with respect to the application of the information technology and communication (ict) for people with disabilities. the structure of the instrument includes 6 dimensions: general, visual, hearing, motor, cognitive, and accessibility. the procedure considered the content validation, validation of construct through factor analysis and determination of reliability through cronbach alpha. the "expert judgement" technique, was used for the validation of content by applying a process of selection of experts at our educational research, the so-called expert coefficient or "k coefficient". the developed process made it possible to give scientific validity to the intended instrument. key words: ict, disability, questionnaire, expert-coefficient, teacher-training competency. introduction the interaction between ict and students with disability, or in other words, the ways in which ict can contribute to the development of environments for learning that takes into account the diversity of students, represents a priority research in an educational framework. educators should promote other forms of teaching and learning, and the commitment to educational innovation and oriented equity is always a matter of concern within educational community. approach to the problem so offering a fair and equitable education in which those who have more difficulties to learn may find the necessary means and support to achieve it, is a priority objective in the education systems of inclusive orientation. commitment to inclusive education needs the impetus of an educational system to open their schools to all students and to ensure, each one of them, an education capable of attending to the differences. 1 ph.d. prof., university of seville, batanero@us.es 2 ph.d. prof., udi-polytechnic of guarda, ptadeu@ipg.pt 3 ph.d. prof., university of seville, cabero@us.es mailto:batanero@us.es mailto:ptadeu@ipg.pt mailto:cabero@us.es journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 332-350 such a reality would not be possible without taking into account the educational support provided by the ict to the inclusive process since they constitute the support that will allow constructing tasks that will meet the interests of persons. one of the problems facing teachers for the incorporation of ict into educational practice is in many cases the lack of both technological and instrumental, as methodological and strategic training. regarding training, this is even less, such as been shown by different investigations, regarding the use of ict for people with disabilities. along with this, the research wanted to determine the level of training and knowledge that teachers of primary education had with respect to the application of ict for people with disabilities, and if such training had been determined by variables such as gender, location of the school, type of centre, etc. also would be important to know if the training and knowledge were different depending on the type of disability. like this, it became necessary to build a valid and reliable diagnostic instrument. justification of the study currently studies that highlight the importance of the integration of technology for the improvement of the learning of "all" the students are abundant (ghaleb, 2014; khetarpal, 2015; alper and goggin, 2017), but are rarer those who made special emphasis on students with special educational needs disability (wallace and georgina, 2014; istenic and bagon, 2014). the potential that ict has to contribute to a better quality of life in students with functional diversity is being proofed by different studies that have been made in recent years: patton and roschelle (2008) respecting students with mental disabilities; bouck, doughty, flanagan, szwed and bassette (2010) regarding writing improvements; shih et al. (2011), hearing problems. although rare, there have been carrying out studies which highlight the lack of teacher training to teach successful ict, in the framework of special education (liu, 2011; yusof, gnanamalar, low, and aziz, 2014; altinay and altinay, 2015; vladimirovna and sergeevna, 2015). in the spanish context, studies regarding teachers training for the management of ict, show that they have high attitudes towards them, but feel insecure for their incorporation into the process of teaching and learning, and not so much from a technological point of view, but rather from a didactic and methodological perspective (prendes & gutierrez, 2013). this explains the low batanero, tadeu & cabero variability of technological materials that teachers used with students in their professional activity (ferrandis, grau & fortes, 2010). in the case of this training for the use of ict applied to people with special educational needs, the first thing to point out is the few number of research’s, as we can see in articles that address the issue of the training of teachers and the skills need to be used with people with special educational needs (rosario & vazquez, 2012; terigi, 2013; rangel & penalosa, 2013; ortiz, almazán, penaherrera & cachon, 2014). on the other hand, looking to this small number of investigations, they pointed out the lack of training and knowledge that teachers have with respect to different types of technologies that can be used with these people, the possibilities offered, and the functions that can be used (roig, ferrandez, rodríguez-cano & crespo, 2012; tello & cascales, 2015). this gap on the use of ict has negative repercussions, avoiding at the same time that these people benefit from the possibilities offered by these technologies as tools for inclusion in the classrooms. is necessary to take into account such knowledge, since lately there are quite advanced studies regarding ict showing that there exist significant instruments letting the inclusion of persons with different types of special needs: cognitive, sensory or motor, and that can help overcome the limitations arising from the same (homer, weaver & calvo, 2017). in particular may promote the autonomy of students, being able to adapt to the needs and demands of each student in a personalized way; offering immediate feedback; facilitate synchronous and asynchronous communication of these students with other classmates and teachers; save time for the acquisition of skills and abilities; facilitate the diagnosis of the student; support a model of communication and multi-sensory training; promote an individualized training, since students can progress at their own pace, which is of extreme importance for these subjects; promote the development of the autonomy and independence of persons; avoid marginalization and the digital detachment; facilitate the social inclusion of the student with specific difficulties; provide moments of leisure; save time for the acquisition of skills and abilities; students can execute and repeat the exercises with minimal effort in order to acquire skills, attitudes and abilities; they encourage these people to approach the cultural and scientific world; and also being excellent simulators (toledo, 2013). a good teacher training requires a study to learn about the reality of which we start, and this necessarily requires the creation of valid and reliable instruments that allow diagnosis. in the spanish context have been developed some, referred to the knowledge and digital competence that teachers and students had with respect to ict (bullón et. al., 2008), the diagnostics of digital journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 332-350 competence of teachers and learners (marin & reche, 2011;) ortiz, almanzan, penaherrera & cachon, 2014; morales, trujillo & raso, 2015 & rangel, 2015), but none relating to ict and disability. these instruments have not been developed for the diagnosis of the knowledge that teachers may have for the incorporation and use of ict, to be used with people with different types of disabilities. for this reason, this study, which was funded by the spanish ministry of economy and competitiveness was developed. method we have established five stages for the design and construction of the instrument. this instrument will help to diagnosis the knowledge that teachers of primary education had regarding the potential and the application of the ict for persons with disabilities: • review of the literature; • the first production version of the instrument; • application of the instrument to the technique of "expert judgement" for analysis; • draft of final version instrument; • test pilot to get the reliability index. review of the literature focused basically on various types of documents that have the following characteristics: • theoretical studies on ict and disabilities; • research on the use of ict for people with disabilities; • websites of institutions dedicated to persons with disabilities; • reviewing documents located in http://www.scoop.it/, and research on the domain of digital competencies. some of the documents have been presented previously to the theoretical foundation of the work. after the review of the literature, the next step was the development of the first version of the questionnaire by the members of the research team diagnóstico y formación del profesorado para la incorporación de las tic en alumnado con diversidad funcional (difoticyd) (edu2016 75232-p), direct translation, diagnosis and training of teachers for the incorporation of ict with students with disabilities, belonging to the universities of sevilla, jaén, granada, cordoba, alicante, leon and extremadura. the first version of the instrument was formed by 66 items, batanero, tadeu & cabero which had the following distribution by dimensions: 11 for general, 16 for visual, 8 for hearing, 13 for motor, 8 to cognitive and 10 for accessibility. it was constructed a scale likert type, usual for this type of research format. for the analysis of the validity of the content of the instrument it was applied the "expert judgement" technique, whose relevance depends clearly on the process followed by the selection of the same, which apply different criteria generally related to the expert with the theme linking to analyze (brill, bishop and walker, 2006;) garcia-abreu and fernándezgarcía, 2008). our study followed a double process for selection, first people who met some or several of the following criteria were selected: • have professional experience in special education, in the use of ict for people with disabilities; • are teaching ict applied to education or special education; • are from different universities, or working in an institution related to special education. this led us to form an initial group composed of 52 expert assessors who were willing to participate in this process of construction of the instrument, an important aspect is that the process would have two turns. then the coefficient expert, also known as "k coefficient", was obtained (oñate, 2001, garcia-abreu and fernandez-garcia, 2008; blasco et al., 2010; cabero and llorente, 2013). this procedure of selection is being used in different articles zayas (2011), cabero and barroso (2013), llorente (2013) and mengual-andres, roig-vila and blasco (2016) in which it was very significant. the coefficient is obtained from the opinion of the expert on their level of knowledge about the research problem, as well as sources that allow analyzing the criterion established. the coefficient is obtained by applying the formula: k = ½ (kc + ka) (cabero and barroso, 2013, 29). where kc is equal to the rate of knowledge or information that has the expert about the topic or problem, where is use a scale of 0 to 10 (whereas 0 not having absolutely no knowledge and 10 have full knowledge). ka is the coefficient of argument or justification of the criteria of experts, obtained from estimations that perform the expert in different fields that we present in table 1. table 1 evaluations for obtaining the ka value high medium under theoretical analyses carried out by you .3 .2 .1 experience gained from your practical activity .5 .4 .2 work study on the topic of spanish authors .05 .05 .05 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 332-350 work study on the topic of foreign authors .05 .05 .05 own knowledge about the problem abroad .05 .05 .05 his intuition about the topic addressed .05 .05 .05 the above formula allows to obtain a score between 0 and 1 and is adopted as a criterion for those people who do not obtain a score greater than 0.8 they are not considered in the research experts. from the initial 52 judges, only were selected 36; i.e. 16 were eliminated. it was administered to 36 judges the initial questionnaire, in order that each one of them could indicate us their "pertinence", "relevance" and "clarity" regarding the itens; to obtain from this the index of "reason for content validity" of lawshe modified by tristan (2008). table 2 presents the results achieved for each item. table 2 reason for validity of content for each item cvr dimension item pertinence relevance clarity average g e n e r a l 1 .906 .938 .906 .917 2 .938 .906 .813 .885 3 .938 1,000 .938 .958 4 .844 .813 .906 .854 5 1,000 .906 .906 .938 6 .875 .938 .875 .896 7 1,000 .906 .906 .938 8 1,000 .969 .906 .958 9 .875 .875 .844 .865 10 .969 .969 .906 .948 11 .906 .906 .813 .875 v is u a l 12 .938 .875 .969 .927 13 .938 .938 .906 .927 14 .906 .938 .906 .917 15 .906 .938 .906 .917 16 .938 .906 .875 .906 17 .875 .813 .750 .813 18 .938 .938 .969 .948 19 .938 .875 .938 .917 20 .875 .906 .906 .896 21 .875 .781 .781 .813 batanero, tadeu & cabero 22 .875 .844 .906 .875 23 .875 .844 .813 .844 24 .938 .906 .844 .896 25 .906 .906 .844 .885 26 .875 .844 .844 .854 27 .906 .875 .844 .875 h e a r in g 28 .844 .875 .938 .885 29 .781 .688 .844 .771 30 .906 .938 .938 .927 31 .938 .938 .938 .938 32 .906 .906 .938 .917 33 .875 .938 .844 .885 34 .938 .906 .875 .906 35 .906 .906 .906 .906 m o to r 36 .938 .906 .969 .938 37 .906 .844 .906 .885 38 .875 .906 .938 .906 39 .906 .813 .844 .854 40 .906 .844 .781 .844 41 .813 .781 .781 .792 42 .906 .875 .906 .896 43 .969 .875 .781 .875 44 .906 .875 .938 .906 45 .844 .813 .875 .844 46 .906 .844 .813 .854 47 .906 .813 .813 .844 48 .906 .906 .844 .885 c o g n it iv e 49 .844 .813 .844 .833 50 .813 .781 .813 .802 51 .875 .875 .875 .875 52 .906 .875 .781 .854 53 .938 .844 .781 .854 54 .906 .781 .844 .844 55 .875 .813 .844 .844 56 .906 .875 .813 .865 a c c e ss ib il it y 57 .844 .813 .813 .823 58 .844 .813 .750 .802 59 .844 .750 .813 .802 60 .813 .688 .750 .750 61 .625 .563 .750 .646 62 .719 .656 .750 .708 63 .781 .719 .813 .771 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 332-350 64 .938 .750 .844 .844 65 .688 .656 .531 .625 66 .813 .719 .813 .781 cvr .886 .852 .854 .864 the result of each dimension is presented in table 3. table 3 reason for validity of content for each dimension dimension pertinence relevance clarity average general .932 .920 .884 .912 visual .906 .883 .875 .888 hearing .887 .887 .902 .892 motor .899 .853 .861 .871 cognitive .883 .832 .824 .846 accessibility .791 .713 .763 .755 different criteria were adopted for the construction of a new version of the questionnaire: • following the proposal of tristan (2008), deleting those items that do not have a cvi (content validity index) average of 0.65 or higher; • following the recommendation of the experts, unifying questions so the questionnaire could be not so much extensive; • reduce the questionnaire regarding the factors visual and motor, because the number of items was not proportional with the others; • and make some changes regarding the formulation or the terminological precision in some items. this led us to build a new instrument, in this case consisting of 53 items that were organized by size according to the following distribution: 10 (general), 12 (visuals), 9 (hearing), 7 (motor), 7 (cognitive), and 8 (accessibility). this version was then passed to experts in a second round, so they valued from 0 to 10, its pertinence, relevance and clarity; and at the same time, they appreciate it on a global basis. values are presented in table 4 with the means and standard deviations. table 4 averages and standard deviations overall assessment batanero, tadeu & cabero dimension mean standard deviation pertinence 9.63 .63 relevance 9.44 .93 clarity 9.67 .48 overall assessment 9.97 .19 as we can see this version obtained a fairly high score by experts. what led us to carry out a pilot study to obtain the index of reliability, which was obtained by the alpha of cronbach coefficient as suggested by o'dwyer and bernauer (2014). the instrument, likert-type and 6 response options (vp = very positive/very relevant; p = positive/relevant; r+ = regular positive/regularly relevant; r= regular negative/moderately inappropriate; n = negative/inopportune; vn = very negative/very inconvenient) was administered to 291 teachers of different spanish autonomous community and who mainly taught at public schools in primary education. the instrument applied via the internet, was built with google docs, and it can be seen at the following web address: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1faipqlsfux6m1cu6nf-69eiims28ljcsom38yqe2omsjy4mxagjvna/viewform in table 5 we present the mean and standard deviation of the 6 dimensions that were part of the instrument. table 5 averages and standard deviations of different dimensions dimension mean standard deviation general 3.54 1.32 visually 2.73 1.59 hearing 2.91 1.66 motor 2.97 1.70 cognitive 3.20 1.67 accessibility 2.63 1.57 table 6 presents the means and standard deviations reached in each of the items. table 6 averages and standard deviations of each different items item m sd. 1 i have general knowledge about the possibilities that ict offered to persons with disabilities. (g) 3.92 1.35 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 332-350 2 i’m aware of the difficulties that generate different types of disability for the use of ict. (g) 3.76 1.46 3 i would know how to select, specific ict based on physical, sensory and cognitive characteristics of different people. (g) 3.47 1.43 4 i know different resources and documents which are specifically dedicated to the analysis of the possibilities of ict for people with different types of disabilities. (g) 3.33 1.47 5 i know the application of ict educational experiences for people with different types of disabilities. (g) 3.49 1.45 6 i know mobile apps, which can be used with people with special educational needs.(g) 3.33 1.67 7 i know the main limitations that can influence the use of ict by students with disabilities. (g) 3.57 1.45 8 i consider myself competent to find educational materials online for people with special educational needs. (g) 3.95 1.48 9 i’m, in general, ready to help students with certain disabilities in the use of the technical support and use of ict. (g) 3.70 1.58 10 i know to design activities with educational software generalized for the pupils with special educational needs. (g) 2.93 1.64 11 i’m able to explain the possibilities offered by a machine to write in braille system. (v) 2.89 1.78 12 i know the possibilities offered to students with visual disabilities by the kurzweil reading machines. (v) 2.54 1.72 13 i know the possibilities offered by the telelupas for students with visual disabilities. (v) 3.00 1.68 14 i recognize different computer programs specifically designed for people with visual disabilities. 2.82 1.70 15 i know what are magnifying screens programs to facilitate access to students with visual impairments to the computer. (v) 2.71 1.70 16 i know different readers software's screen, such as the jaws, tiflowin,... (v) 2.61 1.76 17 i know how to make teaching materials by using a word processor, eliminating aspects that make it difficult to use for people with visual impairment. (v) 2.82 1.70 18 i'm able to enumerate different tiflotecnologicos materials which allow access to persons with visual disabilities regarding calculation. (v) 2.52 1.73 19 i know specific browsers for visually impaired people. (v) 2.43 1.63 20 i know different websites where educational resources for people with visual disabilities can be located. (v) 2.70 1.66 21 i'm able to apply teaching strategies and adapting the curriculum supported by ict to facilitate inclusion of students with visual impairments. (v) 2.84 1.70 22 i know the possibilities that ict provide to students with visual limitations. (v) 2.93 1.71 23 i’m able to use sign language. (h) 2.53 1.80 24 i’m able to express messages according to the language of signs. (h) 2.55 1.83 25 i'm able to identify different computing resources for the empowerment of the voice and speech. (h) 2.86 1.79 26 i know different educational software that stimulates language and the acquisition and development of oral and written language skills. (h) 3.03 1.72 27 i'm able to identify different websites where educational resources for people with hearing impairment can be located. (h) 3.18 1.73 28 i'm able to apply instructional strategies supported by ict to facilitate inclusion of students with hearing impairment. (h) 3.07 1.77 29 i'm able to apply instructional strategies supported by ict to facilitate inclusion of students with hearing impairment. (h) 3.02 1.75 30 i know the possibilities that ict provide students with hearing impairment. (h) 3.07 1.74 31 i know different speech re-education programs. (h) 2.83 1.85 batanero, tadeu & cabero 32 i know different types of keyboards for people with different types of limitations in mobility. (m) 2.88 1.80 33 i know the uses of circuit breakers, switches and pointers. (m) 2.97 1.87 34 i know computer programs that control the computer with the voice. (m) 2.92 1.80 35 i know the augmentative bases of alternative software systems to facilitate communication for persons with motor disabilities. (m) 2.81 1.81 36 i find websites containing educational resources for people with motor disabilities. (m) 3.14 1.76 37 i'm able to apply instructional strategies supported by ict to facilitate inclusion of students with motor limitations. (m) 3.02 1.70 38 i know the possibilities that ict provide students with motor disabilities. (m) 3.07 1.78 39 i can quote some educational programs used for the rehabilitation of cognitive skills. (c) 3.10 1.82 40 i’m able to quote different websites where we can find educational resources for people with cognitive disabilities. (c) 3.31 1.84 41 i know how to use specific software to make materials adapted to a concept keyboard. (c) 2.67 1.80 42 i'm able to apply instructional strategies supported by ict to facilitate inclusion of students with cognitive disabilities. (c) 3.22 1.75 43 i’m capable of adapting the curriculum supported by ict for individuals with cognitive disabilities. (c) 3.34 1.84 44 i'm able to describe the main limitations that may contain materials multimedia to be used with people with cognitive disabilities. (c) 3.17 1.76 45 i can find websites containing educational resources for people with cognitive disabilities. (c) 3.43 1.71 46 i know the possibilities that ict provide for students with cognitive disabilities. (c) 3.34 1.76 47 i know the possibilities offered by operating systems and browsers to modify certain aspects of programs (i.e. speed, font size, type of pointer...) making the program more accessible for people with different types of disabilities. (a) 3.47 1.80 48 i know what the test of accessibility for websites is. (a) 2.90 1.82 49 i know the general guidelines of w3c/wai which is used to make websites accessible. (a) 2.40 1.70 50 i'm able to create web pages with high parameters of accessibility. (a) 2.27 1.61 51 i'm able to adjust a computer to the educational needs of any disabled person. (a) 2.48 1.69 52 i know different institutions that are related to the study and investigation of the accessibility of websites. (a) 2.58 1.77 53 i am able to point out different accessibility test. (a) 2.34 1.68 after the statistical analyzes we obtain the cronbach alpha, in general, and for each of the dimensions like is stated in the following table 7. table 7 general scale and its different dimensions cronbach alpha dimension cronbach alpha total scale .993 general .967 visual .986 hearing .983 motor .982 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 332-350 cognitive .979 accessibility .967 the values reached, in accordance with the proposal of matthew (2004) and o'dwyer and bernauer (2014), can be considered very high and therefore they would indicate high levels of reliability of the produced instrument, both globally and in the various dimensions. in order to analyze if the removal of an item would increase the reliability of the instrument, we make the total item correlation, reached the values that are shown in table 8. table 8 total item correlation. average scale if the element is deleted scale variance if the element is deleted total correlation with corrected elements cronbach's alpha if the element is deleted 1 155.32 5887.265 .719 .993 2 155.48 5876.947 .709 .993 3 155.77 5851.703 .84 .993 4 155.91 5850.315 .822 .993 5 155.75 5864.153 .774 .993 6 155.91 5820.671 .839 .993 7 155.67 5846.272 .852 .993 8 155.29 5881.483 .679 .993 9 155.54 5846.821 .780 .993 10 156.31 5832.257 .807 .993 11 156.35 5805.804 .845 .993 12 156.70 5806.874 .871 .993 13 156.24 5821.395 .832 .993 14 156.42 5807.993 .876 .993 15 156.53 5797.692 .913 .993 16 156.63 5799.936 .874 .993 17 156.42 5801.909 .919 .993 18 156.72 5808.976 .856 .993 19 156.81 5819.338 .865 .993 20 156.54 5823.699 .832 .993 21 156.40 5803.453 .892 .993 22 156.31 5797.282 .914 .993 23 156.71 5803.754 .841 .993 24 156.69 5794.815 .857 .993 25 156.38 5795.023 .88 .993 26 156.21 5806.932 .869 .993 batanero, tadeu & cabero 27 156.06 5799.195 .894 .993 28 156.17 5792.648 .899 .993 29 156.22 5791.761 .910 .993 30 156.17 5795.012 .906 .993 31 156.41 5778,911 .908 .993 32 156.36 5788.853 .898 .993 33 156.27 5780.142 .893 .993 34 156.32 5779.725 .928 .993 35 156.43 5789.932 .888 .993 36 156.10 5793.543 .898 .993 37 156.22 5802.485 .894 .993 38 156.17 5787.693 .909 .993 39 156,14 5793.433 .869 .993 40 155,93 5792.827 .861 .993 41 156.57 5799.946 .856 .993 42 156.02 5812.578 .830 .993 43 155.90 5797.724 .844 .993 44 156.07 5799.057 .877 .993 45 155.81 5822.641 .813 .993 46 155.90 5806.923 .849 .993 47 155.77 5807.466 .827 .993 48 156.34 5805.321 .825 .993 49 156.84 5827.094 .802 .993 50 156.97 5846.205 .768 .993 51 156.76 5809.793 .872 .993 52 156.66 5795.578 .887 .993 53 156.90 5821.097 .834 .993 the analysis of table 8, shows that if we don’t remove any item it would increase the reliability of the instrument, therefore, we took the decision not to remove any of them. our next step, and with the aim of analyzing the dimensionality of the instrument, was to conduct an exploratory factor analysis, using the extraction method of analysis of main components and a varimax rotation with kaiser normalization (merino pardo, 2002). after its conclusion, we obtain the values set out in table 9. table 9 varimax rotation 1 2 3 4 5 1 .752 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 332-350 2 .808 3 .660 4 .688 5 .703 6 .624 7 .717 8 .803 9 .776 10 .499 11 .714 12 .731 13 .725 14 .716 15 .694 16 .777 17 .690 18 .756 19 .724 20 .728 21 .620 22 .665 23 .645 24 .655 25 .689 26 .654 27 .607 28 .557 29 .508 30 .582 31 .628 32 .554 33 .579 34 .494 35 .581 36 .572 37 .467 38 .514 39 .619 40 .671 41 .616 42 .753 43 .769 44 .691 batanero, tadeu & cabero 45 .776 46 .727 47 .479 48 .580 49 .799 50 .752 51 .668 52 .598 53 .709 data analysis indicates that the different items tend to gather in the dimensions/factors that had been foreseen: general, visual, hearing, cognitive, accessibility and motor. only two items "41 i know how to use specific software to make materials for a concept keyboard." and "47 i know the possibilities offered by operating systems and browsers to modify certain aspects of programs (i.e. speed, font size, type of pointer,...) making the program more accessible for people with different types of disabilities.” have been established outside the dimension provided by us and by the experts who helped the construction of the instrument. the first of this is enclosed in the dimension of "accessibility" as retrieved by the varimax analysis, and the second, in the “visual”, in this case from a conceptual point of view. conclusions there are several conclusions resulting from our work: 1) efficiency and validity of the procedure followed for the design and construction of diagnostic instrument; allowing an valid and reliable instrument; such efficiency is also related to the construction of diagnosis instruments in digital skills applied to various problems (cabero, fernandez-batanero & cordoba 2016;) gutierrezcastillo, cabero & estrada, 2017); 2) the study conducted provides a tool for the diagnosis of knowledge that pre-school and primary teachers possess in relation to the use of ict with persons with disabilities, such instrument is new regarding the scientific literature, primarily by the lack of interest this issue has aroused (cabero, fernandez-batanero, & barroso, 2016) 3) the constructed instrument allows not only to inquire about knowledge of ict in general regarding its use in an diversity environment but also related to specific disabilities (visual, hearing, cognitive and motor), and with respect to accessibility, which makes it more attractive for their use; and 4) think journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 332-350 that the instrument can be used in the latin american context, where this problem is beginning to awaken interest with some language adaptations. thanks this work has been developed with funding from the research edu2016-75232-p, belonging to the state plan project for the promotion of scientific research and technical excellence 20132016 (mineco). references alper, m. y goggin, g. (2017). digital technology and rights in the lives of children with disabilities. new media y society (online). from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1461444816686323 altinay a. y altinay, z. (2015). examination on ict integration into special education schools for developing countries. tojet: the turkish online journal of educational technology, vol. 14, núm. 3, pp. 70-72. blasco, j. e. et al. (2010). validación mediante el método delphi de un cuestionario para conocer las experiencias e interés hacia las actividades acuáticas con especial atención al windsurf. ágora para la educación física y el deporte, vol.12, núm. 1, pp. 75-94. bouck, ce, doughty, tt, flanagan, sm, szwed, k., y bassette, l. (2010). es la más poderosa pluma? utilizando pentop computadoras para mejorar los estudiantes secundarios. diario de tecnología de la educación especial, núm. 25, pp. 33-47. brill, j. m.; bishop, m. j. y walker, a. e. (2006). the competencies and characteristics required of an effective project manager: a web-based delphi study. education technology research and development, vol. 54, núm. 2, pp. 115-140. bullón, p, cabero, j, llorente, m.c., machuca, g, gallego, o, y pérez garcía, r. (2008). alfabetización digital de los estudiantes de la facultad de odontología de la universidad de sevilla. sevilla: grupo de investigación didáctica. cabero, j., fernández batanero, j. m. y barroso, j. (2016). los alumnos del grado de magisterio: tic y discapacidad. redie. revista electrónica de investigación educativa, vol. 18, núm. 3, pp. 106120. avaiable from http://redie.uabc.mx/redie/article/view/965 cabero, j. y barroso, j. (2013). la utilización del juicio de experto para la evaluación de tic: el coeficiente de competencia experta. bordón, vol. 65, núm. 2, pp. 25-38. batanero, tadeu & cabero cabero, j. y llorente, m.c. (2013). la aplicación del juicio de experto como técnica de evaluación de las tecnologías de la información y comunicación (tic). eduweb. revista de tecnología de información y comunicación en educación, vol. 7, núm. 2, pp. 11-23. cabero, j., fernández-batanero, j.m. y córdoba, m. (2016). conocimiento de las tic aplicadas a las personas con discapacidades. construcción de un instrumento de diagnóstico. magis, revista internacional de investigación en educación, vol. 8, núm. 17, pp.157-176. ferrandis martínez, mª vicenta; grau rubio, claudia y fortes del valle, mª del carmen (2010). curso on line de formación del profesorado de la eso sobre atención a la diversidad. revista de educación inclusiva, vol. 2, núm. 3, pp. 51-70. from http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/2026. garcía-abreu, l. y fernández-garcía, s. (2008). procedimiento de aplicación del trabajo creativo en grupo del trabajo creativo en grupo de expertos. energética, vol. xxix, núm. 2, pp. 46-50. ghaleb, a. (2014). assistive technology in special education and the universal design for learning. tojet: the turkish online journal of educational technology, vol. 13, núm. 2, pp. 18-23. gutierrez-castillo, j.j., cabero-almenara, j. y estrada-vidal, i. (2017). diseño y validación de un instrumento de evaluación de la competencia digital del estudiante universitario. espacios, vol. 38, núm. 10. from http://www.revistaespacios.com/a17v38n10/17381018.html. homero, g., tejedor, f. j. y calvo, m. i. (2017). meta-análisis sobre el efecto del software educativo en alumnos con necesidades educativas especiales. revista de investigación educativa, vol. 35, núm. 1, pp. 35-52. istenic, a. y bagon, s. (2014). ict-supported learning for inclusion of people with special needs: review of seven educational technology journals, 1970-2011, british journal of educational technology, vol. 45, núm. 2, pp. 202-230. khetarpal, a. (2015). information and communication technology (ict) and disability. review of market integration, vol. 6, núm. 1, pp. 96-103. liu, s. h. (2011). un modelo multivariado de factores que influyen uso de tecnología por futuros profesores durante la práctica enseñanza. tecnología para la educación y sociedad, vol. 15, núm. 4, pp. 137-149. llorente, m. (2013). assessing personal learning environments (ples). an expert evaluation. journal of new approaches in educational research, vol. 2, núm. 1, pp. 39–44. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 332-350 marín, v. y reche, e. (2012). universidad 2.0: actitudes y aptitudes ante las tic del alumnado de nuevo ingreso de la escuela universitaria de magisterio de la uco. pixel-bit, revista de medios y educación, núm. 40, pp. 197-211. mateo, j. (2004). la investigación ex post-facto. en rafael bisquerra-alzina (coord.). metodología de la investigación educativa. madrid: la muralla, (pp. 195-230). mengual, s., roig, r. y blasco, j. (2016). delphi study for the design and validation of a questionnaire about digital competences in higher education. international journal of educational technology in higher education, vol. 13, núm. 12, from http://educationaltechnologyjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41239-016-0009-y. morales, m, trujillo, j. m. y raso, f. (2015). percepciones acerca de la integración de las tic en el proceso de enseñanza-apreendizaje de la universidad. píxel-bit. revista de medios y educación, vol. 46, pp. 103-117. o’dwyer, l. y bernauer, j. (2014). quantitative research for the qualitative researcher. thousand oaks, california: sage. oñate, m. (2001). utilización del método delphy en la pronosticación: una experiencia inicial. aplicación del método delphy. from http://www.rieoei.org/deloslectores/804bravo. ortíz, a. m., almanzán, l., peñaherrera, m. y cachón, j. (2014). formación en tic de futuros maestros desde el análisis de la práctica en la universidad de jaén. pixel-bit. revista de medios y educación, vol. 44, pp. 127-142. pardo-merino, a. (2002). spss11: guía para el análisis de datos. madrid: mcgraw-hill. patton, cm, y roschelle, j. (2008, 7 de mayo). ¿por qué el mejor plan de estudios de matemáticas no será un libro de texto. educación semana, pp., 24-32. prendes, m.p. y gutiérrez, i. (2013). competencias tecnológicas del profesorado en las universidades españolas. revista de educación, vol. 361, pp. 196-222. from http://www.revistaeducacion.mec.es/re342/ re342_17.pdf rangel, a. (2015). competencias docentes digitales: propuesta de un perfil. pixel-bit, revista de medios y educación, vol. 46, pp. 235-248. from http://www.redalyc.org/articulo. oa?id=36832959015 rangel, p. y peñalosa, e. (2013). alfabetización digital en docentes de educación superior: construcción y prueba empírica de un instrumento de evaluación. pixel-bit. revista de medios y educación, vol. 43, pp. 9-23. batanero, tadeu & cabero roig, r.; ferrández, s.; rodríguez-cano, c. y crespo, m. (2012). el uso de las tic en el aula de educación especial: percepción de los maestros, en juan navarro, maría teresa fernández, francisco javier soto y francisco tortosa (coords.). respuestas flexibles en contextos educativos diversos. murcia: consejería de educación, formación y empleo. from http://diversidad. murciaeduca.es/publicaciones/dea2012/docs/ rroig.pdf rosario, h. y vásquez, l. (2012). formación del docente universitario en el uso de tic. caso de las universidades públicas y privadas. (u. de carabobo y u. metropolitana). pixel-bit. revista de medios y educación, núm. 41, pp. 163-171. tello, i y cascales, a. (2015). las tic y las necesidades específicas de apoyo educativo: análisis de las competencias tic en los docentes. ried, vol. 18, núm. 2, pp. 355-383. toledo, p. (2013). las tecnologías de la información, la comunicación y la inclusión educativa, en nuevos escenarios digitales. las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación aplicadas a la formación y desarrollo curricular. madrid: pirámide, pp.411-427. tristán, a. (2008). modificación al modelo de lawshe para el dictamen cuantitativo de la validez de contenido de un instrumento objetivo. avances en medición, núm. 6, pp. 37-48. vladimirovna, s. y sergeevna, o. (2015). features of the information and communication technology application by the subjects of special education. international education studies, vol. 8, núm. 6, available in http://10.5539/ies.v8n6p162. wallace, t. y georgina, d. (2014). preparing special education teachers to use educational technology to enhance student learning. 11th international conference on cognition and exploratory learning in digital age. yusof, a. m., gnanamalar, e., daniel, s., low, w. y aziz, k. (2014). teachers’ perception of mobile edutainment for special needs learners: the malaysian case. international journal of inclusive education, vol. 18, núm. 2. pp. 234-256. zayas, p. (2011). el proceso del análisis y la descripción con las especificaciones para confeccionar la matriz de las competencias y construir el perfil del cargo o de ocupación. ejemplo de dependiente gastronómico en la rama turística. turydes. revista de investigación y desarrollo local, vol. 4, núm. 9. from http://www.eumed.net/rev/turydes/09/pmza.htm (8/06/2012). www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 185-197 185 exploration of marine tourism in north sumatra: an analysis of promoting tourism anang sutono 1, rizki briandana 2, caturida meiwanto doktoralina3 , endi rekarti 4 nindyta aisyah dwityas5 abstract tourism is important because it can revive economically a community around tourist attractions. north sumatra province, which includes medan, shows great potential for the development of marine tourism. however, it is not run optimally. moreover, poor quality infrastructure and human resources are also a threat to marine tourism in indonesia. this study’s methodology involved a qualitative method and used focus group discussions (fgds) to obtain data from 25 informant travel agent in north sumatra province. this study’s results found that marketing strategies need consistent support from government and travel agents. the rapid development of communication and information technology has become one of the most important elements in the development of marketing strategies. keywords: marine tourism, marketing strategy, north sumatra marine tourism introduction indonesia is the world’s largest archipelagic country with 17,504 islands and a total coastline length of ± 81,000 km. indonesia has the potential to develop in ways beneficial to its people. one such way is through marine tourism (briandana, doktoralina, & sukmajati, 2018). marine tourists enjoy the unique beauty of natural tourist attractions in coastal and marine areas as well as other supporting recreational activities (benur & bramwell, 2015). the benefits of marine tourism must be passed on to the surrounding community (orams, 1999). as such, marine tourism must be managed in a professional, synergistic manner. it must be developed through investments in hospitality, transportation, communication, and information. this will ensure effective corporate governance and the growth of an entrepreneurship climate (briandana et al., 2018; rekarti & doktoralina, 2017; suryanto & grima, 2018). although marketing opportunities have been opened 1 sekolah tinggi pariwisata bandung, jawa barat indonesia, anang@stp-bandung.ac.id 2 universitas mercu buana, jakarta, indonesia, rizki.briandana@mercubuana.ac.id 3 universitas mercu buana, jakarta, indonesia, caturida_meiwanto_drm@mercubuana.ac.id 4 universitas mercu buana, jakarta, indonesia, endirekarti@mercubuana.ac.id 5 universitas mercu buana, jakarta, indonesia, nindyta.aisyah@mercubuana.ac.id mailto:anang@stp-bandung.ac.id mailto:rizki.briandana@mercubuana.ac.id mailto:caturida_meiwanto_drm@mercubuana.ac.id mailto:endirekarti@mercubuana.ac.id mailto:nindyta.aisyah@mercubuana.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 185-197 up for other sectors, because of low levels of human resources, these opportunities have not been optimally utilized. tourism promotion is an essential part of the general economy. it is also important for local communities because tourism can revive these communities around tourist attractions (buhalis & amaranggana, 2015). to achieve tourism development goals, tourism must be promoted so that these tourist attractions can become better known and so attract potential tourists. however, in the case of indonesia, tourism promotion is not yet synergistic (dunning, 2015). this fact is considered to be one of the weaknesses of indonesian marine tourism. the main objective of tourism marketing is that it can provide a livelihood for people who live nearby the tourist attractions (huang, backman, backman, & chang, 2016; olefirenko & galuschenko, 2018). in addition to achieving tourism development goals, promotions must pay attention to the potential of tourist attractions to persuade potential tourists to visit. this requires synergy between all relevant elements (the central government, the regional government, and society in general). such an approach does not just involve infrastructure; it also includes the provision of security and comfort to the technical order (towner, 2016). north sumatra is a province on the indonesian island of sumatra, located between the malacca strait and the indian ocean. north sumatra—in particular, medan—has considerable marine tourism potential but has not been run optimally (marpaung, 2016). it has beautiful beaches and diverse underwater treasures. north sumatra has substantial tourism potential. as such, it has become one of the most visited destinations in indonesia. however, in spite of the advantages afforded to it by marine tourism, north sumatra has encountered problems regarding tourist visitations. data from the ministry of tourism showed an average decline of 2% for overseas tourists to north sumatra over five years. moreover, this data showed that nautical visits nationally are 1.65% or 0.7% less frequent than the average amount of national tourist visits (ministry of tourism, republic of indonesia, 2016). with this background in mind, this study’s research question is: what kind of marketing strategy will increase domestic tourist visits to north sumatra? the objective of this study is to analyse marketing strategies for marine tourism in north sumatra. sutono, et al. conceptual framework of the study 1. marine tourism marine tourism is still developing in indonesia. marine tourism is based around the attractiveness to potential tourists of marine and marine dominated environments. the attraction of marine tourism derives from the unique natural beauty of coastal areas and their supporting recreational activities. the diverse biota of indonesian marine ecosystems are one such tourist attraction (kurniawan, adrianto, bengen, & prasetyo, 2016); another is the length of its beaches, where the waves have come to have a special charm for surfers. on this basis, towner (2016) argued that marine tourism leaves a meaningful impression and is not merely entertainment. rather, it allows tourists to participate directly in the development of environmental conservation. the purpose of developing environmental conservation is to generate a deep understanding of the workings of coastal ecosystems, leading to awareness of how to behave to preserve coastal areas in the present and into the future (kurniawan et al., 2016). figure 1: rank of indonesia in the world tourism source: http://reports.weforum.org (2017) http://reports.weforum.org/ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 185-197 according to figure 1, indonesia is ranked 42nd in the world in tourism. when looked at in detail, it becomes clear that indonesia has great tourist potential that has yet to be maximised. however, there are several obstacles that must be overcome in the future. most regions in indonesia are surrounded by bodies of water that play important roles with regards to basic human needs. along the 81,000 km coastline of indonesia, coastal areas that are directly in contact with the sea have sufficient potential resources (walpole & goodwin, 2000). in the development of a region, especially with regards to regional income, various important conditions must be met. for the development of regional revenue in coastal areas, one of these conditions involves the development of the tourism sector. nowadays, many local and non-local tourists are interested in nature tourism (mikulić, krešić, & kožić, 2015). one type of nature tourism that currently produces many local and foreign tourists is marine tourism. one understanding of marine tourism is that it is a kind of nature tourism related to water based resources. marine tourism can also be understood as a travel based activity that includes enjoyment of natural sea environments (laitamaki et al., 2016). the identification of tourism components was carried out through a descriptive analysis of several theories (gössling, ring, dwyer, andersson, & hall, 2016). in its analysis of the development of marine tourism, this study used a specific theory of marine tourism components, namely the theory of potential components in tourism (liu & chou, 2016). in essence, theories of tourism components state that tourism consists of a variety of potential resources contained in a particular area that can be developed into tourist attractions (mowforth & munt, 2015,weaver, 2006). therefore, in the context of managing marine tourism areas, the basic principles that must be developed are (1) the principle of co-ownership, (2) the principle of co-operation, and (3) the principle of co-responsibility (valentine, 1993). these three principles are implemented in an integrated manner, so that coastal sustainability is achieved by actively encouraging the participation of coastal communities (mkono & tribe, 2017). therefore, for the community to be able to participate, it is necessary to empower economic, social, and educational forces. to improve the welfare of coastal communities, government action is needed to (mkono & tribe, 2017). sutono, et al. marine tourism area development is a form of tourism area management that seeks to provide beneficial outcomes, especially regarding efforts to protect and preserve marine environments and to make use of their potential resources and services (marpaung, 2016). on the other hand, the local community can directly benefit from tourism through the expansion of employment and business opportunities, which in turn increase the income of the community and of the government. infrastructure development can encourage growth between regions through a priority system for the development of marine tourism areas based on the type, potential, and nature of each specific region (walpole & goodwin, 2000). 2. tourism market development strategy the development of the tourism sector is aimed at improving quality of life and wellbeing and can provide benefits for meeting community needs (liu & chou, 2016). development of the tourism sector is also expected to contribute to the administration of the government, especially in terms of financing the implementation of government duties and functions (mtapuri & giampiccoli, 2016). in the modern era, tourism involves information and communication technology (ict). ict offers information about places of interest and efficient methods for organising and ordering trips (avdimiotis & christou, 2008; giaoutzi, 2017). this also poses a dilemma for countries pursuing tourism in the global market, where the globalisation process is complex, changeable, and not evenly distributed (torres & momsen, 2004). according to weeks et al. (2014), tourism development success is determined by five factors: (1) the need for multi-stakeholders and related institutions, (2) the integration of science skills with local knowledge and community based management, (3) the building up of local capacity, (4) the implementation of multiuse zoning to balance competing goals, and (5) participation in learning and governance networks. tourism demands are closely related to users or consumers (i.e., tourists). tourists are considered to be markets because tourists are targets or targets to be addressed by tourism offers. as such, the market demands made by tourists are highly influential on tourism development. marketing strategy is a promotional activity that emphasises the provision of information regarding tourism activities at a tourist destination (mowforth & munt, 2015). promotions can be conducted through media such as crisis centres (press conferences, press releases, and website services), media centres (personal services, informal sector correspondence, tv coverage), and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 185-197 information services (print promotions, audio–visual promotions) promotions (ayeh, leung, au, law, & others, 2012; schegg & stangl, 2017; zeng & gerritsen, 2014). product development strategies can be developed according to two principles: namely, the development of tourism based on population economies, and an emphasis on the locality and authenticity of tourism products (buhalis & amaranggana, 2015). population economy based tourism must be able to improve the welfare of the community, especially that of the underprivileged, so that they can enjoy the improved living standards. according to marpaung (2016), tourism development aims to provide benefits to both tourists and local residents. through the economic benefits obtained from tourist destinations, tourism can improve standards of living for local residents. recreational and infrastructure facilities benefit both tourists and local residents. however, the most important element in tourism development is the provision of tourist destinations. this is realised by maintaining local culture, history, and levels of economic development, which preserve the uniqueness of local tourist attractions, thereby making them a source of tourist income (buhalis & amaranggana, 2015). there are also values that bring about tourism development. in accordance with these guidelines, tourism development can increase profits while minimising existing problems. method this study’s research design used a qualitative approach with a case study method. the research focus was the role of travel agencies. case studies are used to investigate a past event or problem by collecting various kinds of information. this information is then analysed to identify individual problems and to propose solutions (creswell & miller, 1997). this study’s primary data came from fgds with 25 travel agents in north sumatra. this study used two data collection techniques: fgds and observations. there were a total of 86 travel agents in north sumatra; however, 25 travel agents were chosen because they were registered with the association of the indonesian tours and travel agencies (asita). the purpose of using fgds was to explore specific problems related to marine tourism promotion strategies. this technique was used to prevent the researcher from misunderstanding the problems being studied (merriam & tisdell, 2015). observations were used to observe the interactions of travel agents while they were promoting marine tourism on social media. thus, in examining the sutono, et al. factors that influenced the promotion of marine tourism marketing strategies (as shown in figure 2), the researchers obtained data from the participants (the travel agent, association of travel, employee government of nort sumatra) in order to grow the characteristics of indonesian marine tourism products and market. figure 2. the conceptual framework of the study based on this conceptual framework, it can be seen that market development requires that a swot analysis be conducted and its results confirmed with tourism stakeholders (nunkoo & ramkissoon, 2016). the results of the swot analysis need to be confirmed with those stakeholders who are closest to consumers: namely, travel agents. by bringing together the results of the swot analysis and the fgds, this study will provide the principle factors needed in successful marketing strategies to attract tourists to visit tourist attractions. findings and discussion 1. characteristics of indonesian marine tourism products the results of data collection through fgds with travel agents in north sumatra showed several underlying factors involved in the selection of marketing strategies regarding indonesian marine tourism products and markets. tourism potential market development interview travel agents swot analysis market strategy journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 185-197 products refer to various things that can be sold. a product can be either material or abstract. services are an abstract product. in the context of the tourist industry, products come in the form of tourist attractions or goods and services used during travel activities. according to buhalis & amaranggana (2015), marine tourist attractions can be analysed as products. this study’s swot analysis showed that north sumatra marine tourism conditions are seen as products involving strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. the three main strengths of the indonesian marine tourism market were: natural resources, culture, and cuisine. the weaknesses were the following: poor facilities and infrastructure, no standard price, and a lack of promotion of marine tourism. this study identified opportunities in the following areas: social media, communication, purchasing power, the tropical climate, and the number of travel agents. in general, avenues for positive development lie in technological development, the amount of the market share with various characteristics of tourist, as well as support from the operating sector— especially travel agents—in the effort to promote marine tourism. each of these potential avenues of development can be reduced to the formulation of an integrated marketing communication strategy for marine tourism in indonesia (marpaung, 2016). meanwhile, marpaung's (2016) state the view of market strategy was considered to offer the most appropriate alternative strategy. this was because marine tourism in north sumatra comes in the form of coastlines, islands, and oceans, all of which satisfy the requirements to be considered “competitive products”. by and large, these weaknesses (like poor infrastructure, the convenience of the traveller, etc.) can be handled in the short term. if it can be repaired, then north sumatra province's marine products are already acceptable, the level of quality and maximum reach through the appropriate handling of existing weaknesses. 2. characteristics of the indonesian marine tourism market this study found that the factors that most influence the current north sumatra marine tourism market both positively and negatively are related to (1) supporting physical factors (infrastructure and superstructure); (2) the development of ict; (3) the existence of the tourism operations sector, especially travel agents; and (4) market segment size. these four points are the key success factors in marketing tourist attractions. sutono, et al. indonesian marine tourism has a promising market share, especially for domestic tourists. this is indicated by the number of visits—over six million—that occurred from 2010 to july 2016 (ministry of tourism, republic of indonesia, 2016). however, archipelago tourism visits experienced a significant decline over the same period, from 7.63% to 0.16%. this demonstrates the need for market share to be maximised through market penetration strategies. the resources owned by the government and the various stakeholders involved in the tourism industry need to be directed to regain existing market share. this is possible because, as the data of this study shows, the marine tourism market share in indonesia has enormous potential. specifically, market penetration strategies for north sumatra marine tourism can be implemented by establishing two main objectives (like figure 3), namely (1) increasing awareness and (2) increasing visits. these two objectives will then be achieved by applying pricing strategies for services and products in conjunction with advertising and promotion. figure 3. market strategy for north sumatra marine tourism intensive marketing communication through social media showing the strengths of north sumatra province marine tourism the regional government must support the promotion of marine tourism in north sumatra market strategy standard prices for services and products reward for travel agent categorising travel agents in certain market segments increase awareness increase visits journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 185-197 in tourism related decisions, it is important to have an awareness of products and their advantages; this is especially the case for potential tourists. efforts to increase awareness can be achieved only by using various promotional and advertising tools. to increase tourism visits to north sumatra, the advertisements and promotions that have been carried out so far need to be increased. it is expected that north sumatra marine tourism will be the principle choice for potential tourists. increased advertising and promotion can be through various media, whether conventional media, social media, or through community based channels. shifting the use of public media can be used as a guide to determine the selection of the most effective and efficient media to reach domestic tourists throughout north sumatra. according to jaafar and rasoolimanesh (2015), the rapid development, spread, and ease of access of ict and the internet provides every marketer and agency/organization with opportunities to deliver their promotional messages. according to dwityas and briandana (2017), social media has become an important part of the daily life of most people, being used primarily as a source of information. for this reason, proper planning is needed. to do this, there must be a focus on placing north sumatra marine tourism promotions on various social media platforms. although social media provides many opportunities for the implementation of tourism advertising and promotion strategies, the role of conventional media cannot be ignored (harrigan, evers, miles, & daly, 2017). in addition to utilising various forms of conventional media and new media, the role of the operating sector—which has direct knowledge of conditions on the ground—also needs to be considered. this can be accomplished, for example, through a travel agency acting as a liaison between tourist service providers and tourists. furthermore, a price and service strategy needs to be implemented in collaboration with the government to formulate rules regarding standard prices for services and products appropriate for all tourists, both foreign and domestic. in doing this, the hope is to increase tourist visits to the various north sumatra marine tourism destinations. moreover, a further goal behind standardised pricing for services and products is that this would help prevent tour operators from selling their products at the highest possible prices. therefore, through the laying down of clear rules, it is expected that price competition between travel agents will be minimised. sutono, et al. conclusion and implications the aim of this study was to improve the marine tourism industry in north sumatra. on the basis of its findings, this study makes the following recommendations. first, certain stakeholders must take notice of the importance of travel agents, who must be responsible for the dissemination of information and for actively encouraging marine tourism activities to prospective domestic tourists. second, in order to bring more tourists to marine tourism destinations, there should be a provision of tour packages tailored to the class based needs of domestic tourists. third, policies for standardised prices for the indonesian marine tourism industry must be devised. lastly, it is necessary to increase the intensity of marine tourism promotional activities on the part of the tourism ministry and travel agents. acknowledgements we would like to show our gratitude to the research centre at universitas mercu buana, to the sekolah tinggi pariwisata bandung, jawa barat indonesia, to the ministry of the tourism republic of indonesia, to the ministry of research technology and higher education, and to the independent reviewers who conducted a feasibility study of our research work. references journal article avdimiotis, s., & christou, e. (2008). g.i.s applications in tourism planning &quot; a tool for sustainable development involving local communities. yugoslav journal of operation research, 18(2), 261–272. http://doi.org/10.2298/yujor0802261j briandana, r., doktoralina, c. m., & sukmajati, d. (2018). promotion analysis of marine tourism in indonesia: a case study. european research studies journal, 21(1), 602–613. dunning, k. h. (2015). ecosystem services and community based coral reef management institutions in post blast-fishing indonesia. ecosystem services, 16, 319–332. dwityas, n. a., & briandana, r. (2017). social media in travel decision making process. international journal of humanities and social science, 7(7), 291–292. gössling, s., ring, a., dwyer, l., andersson, a.-c., & hall, c. m. (2016). optimizing or maximizing growth? a challenge for sustainable tourism. journal of sustainable tourism, 24(4), 527–548. harrigan, p., evers, u., miles, m., & daly, t. (2017). customer engagement with tourism social media brands. tourism management, 59, 597–609. huang, y. c., backman, k. f., backman, s. j., & chang, l. l. (2016). exploring the implications of virtual reality technology in tourism marketing: an integrated research framework. international journal of tourism research, 18(2), 116–128. jaafar, m., & rasoolimanesh, s. m. (2015). tourism growth and entrepreneurship: empirical http://doi.org/10.2298/yujor0802261j journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 185-197 analysis of development of rural highlands. tourism management perspectives, 14, 17–24. kurniawan, f., adrianto, l., bengen, d. g., & prasetyo, l. b. (2016). vulnerability assessment of small islands to tourism: the case of the marine tourism park of the gili matra islands, indonesia. global ecology and conservation, 6, 308–326. laitamaki, j., hechavarría, l. t., tada, m., liu, s., setyady, n., vatcharasoontorn, n., & zheng, f. (2016). sustainable tourism development frameworks and best practices: implications for the cuban tourism industry. managing global transitions, 14(1), 7. liu, c.-h. s., & chou, s.-f. (2016). tourism strategy development and facilitation of integrative processes among brand equity, marketing and motivation. tourism management, 54, 298– 308. marpaung, b. o. y. (2016). communication strategy planning of fisherman kampung medan belawan as a tourist destination. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 234, 344–352. mikulić, j., krešić, d., & kožić, i. (2015). critical factors of the maritime yachting tourism experience: an impact-asymmetry analysis of principal components. journal of travel & tourism marketing, 32(sup1), s30–s41. mkono, m., & tribe, j. (2017). beyond reviewing: uncovering the multiple roles of tourism social media users. journal of travel research, 56(3), 287–298. mtapuri, o., & giampiccoli, a. (2016). towards a comprehensive model of community-based tourism development. south african geographical journal, 98(1), 154–168. olefirenko, a., & galuschenko, a. (2018). major features, benefits, and prerequisites for intelligent enterprise managing system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 68-91. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/368 rekarti, e., & doktoralina, c. m. (2017). improving business performance: a proposed model for smes. european research studies journal, 20(3), 613–623. suryanto, t., & grima, s. (2018). the corporate decision in indonesia: a result of corporate governance requirements, earning management and audit reports (pp. 183–206). http://doi.org/10.1108/s1569-375920180000099009 torres, r., & momsen, j. h. (2004). challenges and potential for linking tourism and agriculture to achieve pro-poor tourism objectives. progress in development studies, 4(4), 294–318. towner, n. (2016). how to manage the perfect wave: surfing tourism management in the mentawai islands, indonesia. ocean & coastal management, 119, 217–226. valentine, p. s. (1993). ecotourism and nature conservation: a definition with some recent developments in micronesia. tourism management, 14(2), 107–115. walpole, m. j., & goodwin, h. j. (2000). local economic impacts of dragon tourism in indonesia. annals of tourism research, 27(3), 559–576. weeks, r., aliño, p. m., atkinson, s., beldia, p., binson, a., campos, w. l., … white, a. t. (2014). developing marine protected area networks in the coral triangle: good practices for expanding the coral triangle marine protected area system. coastal management, 42(2), 183–205. http://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2014.877768 zeng, b., & gerritsen, r. (2014). what do we know about social media in tourism? a review. tourism management perspectives, 10, 27–36. book ayeh, j. k., leung, d., au, n., law, r., & others. (2012). perceptions and strategies of hospitality and tourism practitioners on social media: an exploratory study. na. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/368 http://doi.org/10.1108/s1569-375920180000099009 http://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2014.877768 sutono, et al. benur, a. m., & bramwell, b. (2015). tourism product development and product diversification in destinations. tourism management, 50, 213–224. buhalis, d., & amaranggana, a. (2015). smart tourism destinations enhancing tourism experience through personalisation of services. in information and communication technologies in tourism 2015 (pp. 377–389). springer. creswell, j. w., & miller, g. a. (1997). research methodologies and the doctoral process. new directions for higher education, 1997(99), 33–46 giaoutzi, m. (2017). tourism and regional development: new pathways (1st editio). london: routledge. merriam, s. b., & tisdell, e. j. (2015). qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. john wiley & sons. mowforth, m., & munt, i. (2015). tourism and sustainability: development, globalisation and new tourism in the third world. routledge. orams, m. (1999). marine tourism: development, impacts and management. psychology press. weaver, d. b. (2006). sustainable tourism: theory and practice. routledge. books with multiple editors and chapters sources from web sites ministry of tourism republic of indonesia. (2016). number of visits by foreign tourists by entrance and nationality in january 2016. world economic forum (2017). indonesia: travel & tourism competitiveness index 2017 edition. retrieved october 12, 2018, from http://reports.weforum.org/travel-and-tourismcompetitiveness-report-2017/country-profiles/#economy=idn conference proceeding schegg, r., & stangl, b. (2017). information and communication technologies in tourism 2017. in proceedings of the international conference in rome, italy. springer. http://reports.weforum.org/travel-and-tourism-competitiveness-report-2017/country-profiles/#economy=idn http://reports.weforum.org/travel-and-tourism-competitiveness-report-2017/country-profiles/#economy=idn www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3),149-167 major factors affecting students’ perception towards faculty evaluation of teaching (set) smitha dev 1 & nudrat qayyum 2 , abstract gathering students’ feedback and evaluation during the end of every semester is believed to be valuable for instructors’ growth and development. the present study is aimed to find out the validity of students’ responses and various factors involved in their rating towards faculty. a total of 150 students from 1st to 4th year of abu dhabi university participated in this study. both male and female students from all the disciplines contributed in the study. the study also focused on covariates like gender, age, specializations, and students’ gpas to have any relation with their rating towards professors. pearson’s correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were employed to understand the various factors impacting students’ perception of their instructors. the results revealed that gender, age, students’ gpas, and instructors’ nationalities had positive effects on students’ evaluation of their instructors. keywords: student evaluation, perception, teaching practices, multidimensional, grade inflation introduction the procedure of students’ evaluation of teaching (set) at the end of semester is a norm in all of the american universities and others that share american curricula and teaching practices. in fact, it is the most frequently used method of evaluating teaching the world over (newton, 1988; seldin, 1989; stratton, 1990; badri et al., 2006). this process, with its merits and demerits, has long been a matter of criticism by many scholars and educationists; nonetheless, it also has the potential to yield useful information on the improvement in any deficient area of teaching that might be. the way that people show their value priorities might change from society to society (tarman, 2012; 2016) hence the students in middle east also have a different perception about set. a number of studies have emphasized on the need to collect information on teaching quality through students. “good teaching and good learning are linked through students’ experiences of what we do. it follows that we cannot teach better unless we are able to see what we are doing from their point of view” (ramsden, 2003, quoted in ali & ajmi, p. 82). 1 ass. professor of psychology, university college, abu dhabi university, uae, smitha.dev@adu.ac.ae 2 instructor of english & freelance researcher, nqayyumhumayun@gmail.com mailto:smitha.dev@adu.ac.ae mailto:nqayyumhumayun@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),149-167 there is no question on the objective of such a survey as being inherently honorable and constructive for the overall growth of both the faculty and the institution, but like any other tool of assessment, it is susceptible to an element of error or bias. a study done by a group of faculty members of uaeu concludes that it is not fair to draw comparisons between faculty evaluations while ignoring external factors such as students' gpas and expected grades, level of the course and its timings, class size and students’ gender (badri, abdulla, kamali, & dodeen, 2006). many more factors including the age of the faculty member, gender, nationality, appearance, rapport, leniency, course challenge, etc., may also creep in and deflect the true findings. this might be more obvious in diverse and multicultural environments of international universities. another study on the approach of international students in evaluating their faculty in an australian university also claims to have received inaccurate and unreliable data through set, a claim that is supported by empirical evidence (lama, arias, mendoza, & manahan, 2015). as mentioned before, the practice of set is chiefly driven by american system of education; however, most of the times, this procedure is not adapted to the indigenous dynamics of the university using it, especially in terms of culture. for instance, many universities in uae use it as a routine procedure, but very few are mindful of local differences requiring appropriate modifications. majority of the students in uae are of arabian descent, who are not brought up to judge their teachers, and they might find themselves in a rare position when asked to evaluate them (sulieman, 2007). hence, the need of the time is to adapt the set procedure to draw its real benefit instead of using it as it is, and while doing so, it is also important to understand that this tool had initially been devised for american students studying in american universities in america. since a number of researchers confirm that “teaching is multidimensional and complex, and therefore, it is difficult to construct a one-fits-all definition of effective teaching” (al-hinai, p. 30) see also adam, 1997; brown, 1996; marsh & dunkin, 1992; north, 1999; patrick & smart, 1998), set tool, the way as we find it, needs to be shaped to suit local subtleties and sensitivity. it is, therefore, pertinent to investigate all the factors involved in set ratings and the validity of students’ responses in international institutions in the uae in order to utilize set tool in the most effective way. in this region, till date, the professors of very few universities, including american university of sharjah, uae university, and higher colleges of technology, have done studies on this topic on their respective university’s student populations, but the present study is the first of dev & qayyum 151 its kind on the student population of abu dhabi university. this study aims to understand the biasing factors in the evaluation of teachers and teaching by the students and in the important decision making by the administrators. such decisions might be for “improving teaching quality, as well as determining the promotion, contract renewal, and salary increases of teachers pedagogical development and administrative purposes, quality monitoring and control, and making decisions on promotions and tenure” (rantanen, 2013, p. 224, quoted in ali & ajmi, 2013). current education system is not doing enough to prepare future educators for the demands of non-eurocentric global education (kopish, 2016). thus, the results of this study are expected to benefit the administrators, teachers, and quality control personnel to improvise teaching and teacher evaluation system in a way that brings maximum benefit to higher education (ali & ajmi, 2013). literature review student evaluation of teaching (set) has become an important instrument in assessing teachers and teaching in the modern world of education, and apparently there is no dearth of research studies that have been done on this topic. some of the earliest works, which are dated as far back as 1923 were done by psychologist max freyd. from then onwards till date, academics have continuously been investigating this process and its implications. the research in this area has led to different findings, showing very obvious disagreements among researchers on different aspects of this evaluation instrument and leading to an interesting remark by reckers (1995): “. . . nearly 75 per cent of academics judge student course evaluations as unreliable and imprecise metrics of performance, yet nearly 100 per cent of schools use them, frequently exclusively” (p.33). more or less, all the literature on set revolves around three major elements affecting the ratings: factors associated with course, factors associated with teacher, and factors associated with students (pounder, 2007). on the basis of cognitive dissonance theory, it is argued that poorly performing students give poor ratings to their instructors to protect their self-esteem (heine & maddox, n.a.). moreover, an almost regular pattern of students’ liking towards various disciplines and associated ratings has also been observed. according to cashin, students usually give highest ratings to arts journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),149-167 and humanities courses, whereas social and health sciences are at a medium level, with english language, literature, computing, it, business, engineering, and physics clustering at the medium to bottom levels (1990). consequently, the students’ passion for the subject of their choice is also reflected in set scores for that course and its teacher (marsh and dunkin, 1992). elective subjects usually get better ratings since students’ liking for the subject constitutes a biasing factor in evaluation. among course-related factors, grades and their expectations have a direct influence on set ratings. many researchers have agreed on a direct link between the expectation of a high grade with high rating, and the expectation of a low grade with low rating (d’apollonia and abrami, 1997; hudson, 1989; johnson and christian, 1990; mason et al., 1995; nelson and lynch, 1984; perkins et al., 1990; wilson, 1998; tata, 1999). owing to the fact that “grades” is a significant variable on set scores, they have been undoubtedly manipulated by some faculty for their personal benefit. studies show that faculty have been employing clever grading tactics in terms of easing the assessment procedure by avoiding challenging and contentious teaching material, relaxing grading standards, reducing the amount of teaching and learning material, or spoon-feeding examination content, all eventually leading to grade inflation (bauer, 1996; crumbley, 1995; handlin, 1996; krautmann and sander, 1999; ryan et al., 1980; sacks, 1996; schneider, 2013; simpson and siguaw, 2000). in brief, university teachers can bargain set ratings with grades (hocutt (1987-1988), since they firmly believe that leniency in grades is directly proportional to high set scores (martin, 1998; powell, 1977; stumpf and freedman, 1979; winsor, 1977; worthington and wong, 1979; yunker and marlin, 1984). other than the grades themselves, the expectations of grades have also been reported to have a relationship with set scores, leading the faculty to proactively vouch for good set scores through grades. there is a: . . . kind of mutual back patting taking place where the teacher gives a high grade to the student (this grade not necessarily reflecting any real student attainment) and, in return, the student rewards the teacher with a high teacher rating (pounder, 2007). according to simpson and siguaw, some university teachers go to the extent of serving snacks on the day of evaluation, praising the class on its performance, or having a “fun activity” before the evaluation (2000). dev & qayyum 153 teacher’s personality is another important factor that impacts set scores. teaching is a combination of subject knowledge and teaching skills that help in transferring that subject knowledge to the students; however, such skills should not be confused with the personality traits of teachers that have nothing to do with teaching. teachers, like other human beings, may have certain characteristics, which despite not having anything to do with their teaching skills, may sway students’ liking or disliking for that teacher and act as bias while evaluating them. feldman (1986), williams and ceci (1997), and cardy and dobbins also suggest the existence of such a relationship between the teacher’s personality and set scores. as a matter of fact, a study done by clayson proves that 50 to 80 percent of total variance in set scores is attributed to the factors related to personality traits of the teachers (1999). many missed to understand the value of education before they rate their teachers, the goal of ‘values education’ is the individuals’ being sensitive to the events occurring around them and in the world, creating social awareness, honesty and taking responsibility, caring about others, sharing something with others and learning to live together in society (veugelers ve kat, 2003; acun, demir & göz, 2010). in the light of such findings, some researchers observe student evaluations as useless numbers that only create competitions among the personalities of faculty members instead of signifying teaching effectiveness (haskell, 1997; neath, 1996; spooren, mortelmans, & denekens, 2007, p. 668; sproule, 2002). furthermore, some academics have commented that such practice of getting students’ feedback “. . . could be a threat to academic freedom” (haskell, 1997). gender is another notable factor involved in set scores. matthew reisz reported in the higher education that research from france offered evidence that “students appear to rate teachers according to gender stereotypes,” with male students giving higher scores to male lecturers. the above report was based on the conclusion of a paper by anne boring, a postdoctoral researcher at l’institut d’études politiques de paris. her database consisted of 22,665 evaluations by 4,423 firstyear undergraduates of 372 different teachers in a single french university. matthew mentioned in his report that dr. boring’s analysis suggested that “male students give much higher scores to male teachers in terms of overall satisfaction as well as in all dimensions of teaching.” one clear sign of this was that “male students are 30 per cent more likely to rate male teachers’ overall satisfaction scores as excellent than when evaluating female teachers” (boring, 2015). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),149-167 research has been done on set in uae also. one of the prominent ones in this region is conducted in american university of sharjah. the study shows that set ratings are biased without any grain of doubt as “. . . the student’s expected grade, teacher’s gender, teacher’s age, teacher’s nationality, teacher’s personality, and the students’ views of what constitutes “knowledge” are the variables that influence the scores. other major factors that have strong influence on these scores include origin, gender, language of instruction in high school, and academic status of the students. compared with the students who had been taught in english or asian languages, those who had been taught in arabic in schools were more biased on factors such as the teacher’s age, gender, nationality, and personality. this finding might owe its existence to arab culture in which friendship is correlated with social duties (al-issa & sulieman, 2007). one more important study was done in uae university. the study concluded that it would be unfair to compare faculty evaluations without considering the influence of important factors such as “student self-reported gpa and expected grade, course level and timing, class size, and student gender” (badri, abdulla, kamali, & dodeen, h., p. 51). their conclusion is in conjunction with the findings of other researchers (cashin, 1990; emery et al., 2003; liaw and goh, 2003), who argue that using these evaluations for annual faculty appraisals and other important decisions without taking into consideration the above-mentioned variables is a debatable issue. therefore, “more effort should be directed toward ensuring a more careful interpretation of student ratings in promotion and contract decision processes” (badri, abdulla, kamali, & dodeen, 2006). similarly, the age of the teacher (smith and kinney, 1992) and the race of the teacher (smith, 2007) also have adverse effect on students’ ratings. value priorities of teachers and students would be another reason and have an impact on student rating. (kılınç and others, 2016) the above documentation is substantial enough for any educationist to reconsider the administering, interpretation, and adaptation of set tool in other parts of the world than america, and in this study, uae and the arab world specifically. as other authors (becker and watts, 1999; boex, 2000; koh and tan, 1997; mckeachie, 1997; tata, 1999) indicated, because of the possible existence of biasing factors in set, there is a need to supplement it with other measures of gauging teaching effectiveness, and readjust its weight on the overall evaluation of teaching and the teacher. objectives ● to understand student’s perception towards set based on age, gender, education, etc. dev & qayyum 155 ● to understand various factors affecting student’s favorable and unfavorable perception towards set. conceptual framework and hypothesis ● students have a positive perception towards set. ● there is a significant difference in the perception of students based on demographic variables such as age, gender, education, nationality, class capacity, and difference in courses. ● non-instructional factors affect students’ perception of set process. figure 1 conceptual framework factors pertaining to the students  level of challenge of the course  elective/compulsory  relaxed assessments/challengin g assessments  inflated grades/strict grading   maturity  gpa/expected grade  cognitive dissonance theory (poorly performing students give poor ratings & vice versa)  gender  race  perception of knowledge  level of seriousness factors pertaining to the course factors pertaining to the teacher  personal traits  age  gender  race  leniency impact on set impact on faculty annual appraisal & career journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),149-167 methods a quantitative design was used to determine the significant relationship on students’ perception and other demographic factors. the researchers conducted the study in 3 different colleges in the university. the survey questions were designed with respect to the objective of the study. the questionnaire was also approved by irb committee before data collection. though the sample was selected randomly, the students’ willingness to participate in the study was also considered in order to get more accurate results. since the sample was selected through accessibility, the instrument was administered individually. few students completed the survey and emailed to the researchers. sample the students that were enrolled in various courses in the university participated in the survey. a total number of 150 students from different colleges like university college, college of business administration, and college of engineering participated. all participants were given equal preference. the questionnaire was distributed among the students after class hours. the instructions were read out, and then the students were requested to look into the given questionnaire. the students were also asked to verify whether they answered all items; the confidentiality of the response was also assured. the demographic data of the sample is shown in the following table. table 1: percentage distribution of the sample according to gender, age, year of study, major, and gpa. count percent count percent gender year of study male 56 37.3 2nd year 24 16 female 94 62.7 1st year 96 64 others 30 20 age gpa 17-18 56 37.3 4 10 6.7 19-20 40 26.7 3 73 48.7 above 20 54 36 2 63 42 1 4 2.7 major cas 11 7.3 coba 58 38.7 cecs 57 38 others 24 16 dev & qayyum 157 out of 150 students, more than half (62%) were female students, and only 37.3% were male. majority of the participants (73.3%) were above 20. 38.7% of the participants were from coba, 38% were from cecs, and rest of them were from cas and others. it was noticed that majority (64%) of the students were first years and the others were from 2nd year to final year. finally, most (90%) of the students’ gpa fall in between 2-3, whereas only 6.7% have a gpa of 4. tool a 5-point scale used in this study was a modified version of student perception tool used in american university of sharjah. the tool was adapted and modified as per our requirement. it consists of 21 items and was used to collect data from the students to understand their perception of set. it has both positive items (10) and negative items (11). each item of the scale is related to understand the student’s perception towards set. maximum score of this scale is 105, and minimum score is 21. negative items were given negative scoring. validity validity of the scale was established by correlating the scores of the scale with the scale of student perception scale used in aus, and validity coefficients were found to be +0.84 and +0.79, respectively. this indicates that the scale is reliable and valid in measuring the perception of students. again, the constructed tool was sent to an expert to check whether the contents of the items, individually and as a whole, are relevant to the test. in fact, content validity is the degree in which the test measures are intended in the content area. content validity was established on the basis of the expert opinions and comments, including those from the irs director from abu dhabi university. reliability the test retest reliability was established by re administrating the test and computing reliability coefficient for total test. the reliability coefficient is reported to be +0.92 on a sample of 50 students with the time interval of 2 weeks. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),149-167 data analysis and findings statistical methods like mean, sd, and chi-squire tests were used to understand the students’ perception and also to analyze the association between dependent and independent variables. student’s perception towards set table 2: percentage distribution of the sample according to perception towards set perception towards set count percent unfavorable 70 46.7 favorable 80 53.3 mean ± sd 84.1 ± 10.3 the overall attitude of the students can be seen in the above table, 46.7% of the students’ perception was unfavorable, whereas 53.3% of the students have a favorable perception towards set. association of students’ perception towards set with selected background variables table 3: comparison of gender, age, year of study, major, and gpa based on perception towards set. gender unfavorable favorable  p count percent count percent male 26 46.4 30 53.6 0 0.964 female 44 46.8 50 53.2 age unfavorable favorable  p count percent count percent 17 – 18 27 48.2 29 51.8 0.38 0.827 19 – 20 17 42.5 23 57.5 20 above 26 48.1 28 51.9 year of study unfavorable favorable  p count percent count percent 2nd year 13 54.2 11 45.8 1.68 1st year 41 42.7 55 57.3 0.431 others 16 53.3 14 46.7 major unfavorable favorable  p count percent count percent cas 6 54.5 5 45.5 1.86 dev & qayyum 159 coba 30 51.7 28 48.3 0.602 cecs 25 43.9 32 56.1 others 9 37.5 15 62.5 gpa unfavorable favorable  p count percent count percent 4 2 20 8 80 5.35 3 31 42.5 42 57.5 0.069 <3 37 55.2 30 44.8 it has been observed in table 3 that the level of perception of students does not significantly vary (p > 0.05) based on the variables such as gender, age, year of study, major, or gpa. when we look at the percentage of perception, 53.6% of the male students have favorable perception, whereas 46.4% have unfavorable perception. the percentage of male and female students with their level of perception is almost the same. while observing the variable age, the percentage of perception of students aged 19 and 20 years is higher than the perception of students who are more than 20 years old. similarly, it has been observed that first-year students are more favorable in their perception when compared with their seniors. 56.1% of the students are from cecs, and these students have a favorable perception towards set than students from other colleges. finally, the percentage of favorable perception of the students with higher gpa (4) is better than students with lower gpa (3 and <3). table 4: percentage of students’ perception towards each variable s. no. statement 1-sd 2d 3-ns 4-a 5-sa % % % % % 1 by evaluating my professor, i am actually helping them improve their teaching effectiveness 34.67 34.00 24.00 6.00 1.33 2 professors change their teaching methods as a result of student evaluations 15.33 38.67 30.00 12.67 3.33 3 the course evaluation form is adequate enough to evaluate my professors 14.67 41.33 30.00 9.33 4.67 4 adu students should take faculty evaluations seriously 44.67 35.33 15.33 3.33 1.33 journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),149-167 5 i fill out all the questions including recommendations and suggestions 25.33 38.00 27.33 7.33 2.00 6 i read and understand each statement before i rate it 46.00 32.00 19.33 2.00 0.67 7 my rating of my professors is affected by my expected grade in the course 9.33 18.67 26.67 20.67 24.67 8 i am comfortable taking courses with male professors 39.33 37.33 13.33 6.67 3.33 9 i am comfortable taking courses with female professors 35.33 38.00 18.67 5.33 2.67 10 i prefer taking courses with young and enthusiastic professors 22.00 22.00 44.00 9.33 2.67 11 i prefer taking courses with older and experienced professors 18.67 32.67 34.00 8.00 6.67 12 i am more comfortable with arabic-speaking professors 20.00 24.67 28.67 11.33 15.33 13 i am more comfortable with non-arabic-speaking professors 18.00 32.67 30.67 12.00 6.67 14 when evaluating my professors, i usually pay more attention to their personality (i.e., friendless, leniency, looks, dress, etc.) 17.33 37.33 24.00 13.33 8.00 15 if i have a good relationship with my professor, i will rank him/her high on teaching effectiveness 12.67 32.00 23.33 21.33 10.67 16 if i ask my professor a question that is related to the subject being taught and my professor responds by saying “i am not really sure, but i will check on that and get back to you,” i will still not consider him or her knowledgeable 10.67 15.33 25.33 27.33 21.33 17 if i have a spoiled relationship with my professor, i will rank him or her low on teaching effectiveness 8.00 12.67 32.67 24.00 22.67 18 my responses are always honest while evaluating my professors 41.33 40.00 14.67 2.00 2.00 19 i always understand the seriousness of the set evaluation process 27.33 46.67 17.33 8.00 0.67 20 the class timings of our lecturer affect my evaluation ratings 8.00 20.67 30.67 18.67 22.00 21 the class capacity (more or less number of students in the class) affects my evaluation rating on professors 10.67 17.33 33.33 19.33 19.33 22 the qualification of my professor affects my evaluation rating on my professor 12.67 28.00 32.67 17.33 9.33 23 i enjoy graduate courses more than the uc courses 36.67 23.33 33.33 6.00 0.67 24 adu should continue having students evaluate their professors 52.67 28.00 13.33 5.33 0.67 since we could not observe any statistically significant association between the variables, we did a simple percentage analysis to understand more about students’ perception. it was observed that dev & qayyum 161 67% of the students strongly disagree that by evaluating the professor, they are helping them to improve their teaching, whereas only 7.33% of the students have a positive perception, they believe that by evaluating their professor, they are helping them to improve their teaching effectiveness it was also noted that the students do not take the task of filling out the questionnaire seriously. that is evident in the statements 4, 5, 6, 18, and 19 of the above table, which, to be more specific, mean that they complete the evaluation form without even reading, understanding, and filling it out completely. the above also shows that they are not honest in their responses. discussion and conclusion in general, the findings of the present study show that adu students have a positive perception towards set evaluation and the stated hypothesis is accepted. however, the research could not observe any statistically significant difference between students’ perception towards set and other demographic variables such as age, gender, year of study, major, and gpa. the findings show that, overall, students do not take set process seriously. they do not believe that the teaching process will improve or the teachers will change their teaching through their evaluations. they admit to not filling out the form completely and not considering it adequate. their response to statement 6 in table 4 shows that they do not even take the trouble to read and understand each question in the set sheet before responding to it. a spoiled relationship with the teacher also influences their evaluation of that teacher. the most serious finding that needs significant amount of attention from educationists is the students’ frank acceptance of their dishonesty in the evaluation process: 41.33% strongly disagree and 40.00% disagree with the statement that they are honest in evaluating their professors. additionally, their seriousness towards this process of evaluation of their teachers is checked twice, both directly and indirectly, and the responses through both the questions confirm that their approach towards this procedure is the least bit serious. however, gender, age, or race do not show any significance in their evaluation of teachers. the above results are in alliance with several other research papers. they visibly prove that set scores are not reliable, and there is a strong need of supplementing this evaluation system with other measures and assessments to get a more dependable picture of a teacher and his or her teaching. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),149-167 suggestions for improvement in the evaluation system it is impossible to create a fool proof system of a teacher and teaching evaluation; however, in order to ensure better evaluation, any such system should be continuously refined so that a picture closest to the real class room dynamics can be derived. the results of this research lead to a few recommendations. to begin with, faculty members must have a strong hand in the development of such an assessment tool. each college has to take responsibility of developing its own evaluation method and evaluation criterion basing upon the class environment and the emotional maturity of the student population. almost all the universities incorporate a three-pronged plan for assessing the competence of their faculty: student evaluation, peer evaluation, and self-evaluation. although this plan appears to be a clever strategy, which it also is, it is not perfect and is liable to bias. that bias can be neutralized to some extent if the weights of all the components of that evaluation plan are reduced. secondly, both very high and very low evaluation scores should be investigated. further, students should be educated on the nature and consequences of set results and should also be given short practice prior to administering the original process to train them for the real task. also, in second language learning environments, the form should include translation of the questionnaire. another way of gathering important and somewhat real information about teaching standard of a teacher is through spot checks. these checks could be done through visiting classes briefly, reviewing supplementary course materials, reviewing question papers, and talking to students. the question papers picked for spot checks should be any assessment components other than the final exam paper, for which teachers usually take extra care to avoid issues. this revision in set procedure and incorporation of additional strategies for evaluating the real level of a teacher’s teaching are nothing less than crucial, not only because the above mentioned unethical teaching practices to generate high scores in set promote dishonest teachers getting high scores and honest teachers getting low scores, but also because through an incorrect reflection of a teacher’s performance, a truly worthy teacher can miss acknowledgement and suffer grave consequences on his or her career. dev & qayyum 163 references acun, i̇, demir, m. & göz, l. (2010). öğretmen adaylarının vatandaşlık yeterlilikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerileri arasındaki ilişki, journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 107-123. al-hinai, n. s. (2011). effective college teaching and student ratings of teachers: what students think, what faculty believe, and what actual ratings show: implications for policy and practice teaching quality assurance and control in higher education in oman. unpublished doctoral dissertation, durham university, uk. ali, h. i., & ajmi, a. a. (2013). exploring non-instructional factors in student evaluations. higher education studies, 3(5), 1-13. al-issa, a., & sulieman, h. (2007). student evaluations of teaching: perceptions and biasing factors. quality assurance in education, 15(3), 302-317. arreola, r. a. (2007). developing a comprehensive faculty evaluation system: a guide to designing, building, and operating large-scale faculty evaluation systems. san francisco, ca: anker publishing. badri, m. a., abdulla, m., kamali, m. a., & dodeen, h. (2006). identifying potential biasing variables in student evaluation of teaching in a newly accredited business program in the uae. emerald insight: international journal of educational management, 20 (1), 43-59. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540610639585 bauer, h.h. (1996). “the new generations: students who don’t study.” paper presented at the technological society at risk symposium, orlando, fl (10 september 1996) becker, william e. and michael watts. (1999). "how departments of economics evaluate teaching." american economic review, 89(2), 344-49. boring, a. (2015, august 14). female lecturers ‘suffer from gender biases’ in student ratings. retrieved from the world university rankings. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/female-lecturers-suffer-gender-biasesstudent-ratings cardy, r.l. and dobbins, g.h. (1986). “affect and appraisal accuracy: liking as an integral dimension in evaluating performance.” journal of applied psychology, 71(4), 672-8. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540610639585 https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/female-lecturers-suffer-gender-biases-student-ratings https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/female-lecturers-suffer-gender-biases-student-ratings journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),149-167 cashin, w. e. (1990). students do rate different academic fields differently. in m. theall, & j. franklin (eds.), student ratings of instruction: issues for improving practice: new directions for teaching and learning, 43, 1990, 113-121. l. f. jameson boex. (2000). attributes of effective economics instructors: an analysis of student evaluations. the journal of economic education, 31(3), 211-227. doi:10.2307/1183092 clayson, d.e. (1999), “students’ evaluation of teaching effectiveness: some implications of stability.” journal of marketing education, 21(3), 68-75. crumbley, d.l. (1995), “the dysfunctional atmosphere of higher education: games professors play.” accounting perspectives, 1(1), 27-33. d’apollonia, s. and abrami, p.c. (1997), “navigating student ratings of instruction.” american psychologist, 52 (11), 1198-208. emery, c. r., et al. (2003). return to academic standards: a critique of student evaluations of teaching effectiveness. quality assurance in education, 11(1), 37-46. feldman, k.a. (1986). “the perceived instructional effectiveness of college teachers as related to their personality and attitudinal characteristics: a review and synthesis.” research in higher education, 24(2), 139-213. handlin, o. (1996). “a career at harvard.” american scholar, 65 (5), 47-58. haskell, r. e. (1997). academic freedom, tenure, and student evaluation of faculty: galloping polls in the 21st century. education policy analysis archives, 5(6), 1-32. heine, p. and maddox, s. (2009). student perceptions of the faculty evaluation process: an exploratory study of gender and class differences. research in higher education journal, 3(1), 1-10. kilinç, e., kilinç, s., kaya, m., başer, e., türküresin, h., & kesten, a. (2016). teachers’ attitudes toward the use of technology in social studies teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 59-76. hocutt, m.o. (1987-1988), “de-grading student evaluations: what’s wrong with student polls of teaching”, academic questions, winter, 55-64. masood a. badri mohamed abdulla mohammed a. kamali hamzeh dodeen, (2006) “instructional collaboration: creating the learning environment.” in fradd, s.and wismantel, p. (eds), meeting the needs of culturally and linguistically different dev & qayyum 165 students: (review from a handbook for educators, by hudson) international journal of educational management, 20(1), 43 – 59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09513540610639585 johnson, r.l. and christian, v.k. (1990). perceptual and motor skills, 70, 479-82. koh, c.h. and tan, t.m. (1997). “empirical investigation of the factors affecting set results.” international journal of educational management, 11(4), 170-8. kopish, m. a. (2016). preparing globally competent teacher candidates through cross-cultural experiential learning. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 75-108 krautmann, a. c., & sander, w. (1999). grades and student evaluations of teachers. economics of education review, 18(1), 59-63. lama, t., arias, p., mendoza, k., & manahan, j. (2015). student evaluation of teaching surveys: do students provide accurate and reliable information? e-journal of social & behavioral research in business. 6(1), 38. marsh, h. and dunkin, m. (1992), students’ evaluations of university teaching: handbook on theory and research, 8 (pp. 143-234). agathon press, new york, ny. martin, j.r. (1998). “evaluating faculty based on student opinions: problems, implications and recommendations from deming’s theory of management perspective.” issues in accounting education, 13(4), 1079-94. mason, p., steagall, j. and fabritius, m. (1995). “student evaluation of faculty: a new procedure for aggregate measures of performance.” economics of education review, 14(4), 403-16. mckeachie, w.j. (1997). “student ratings: the validity of use.” american psychologist, 52 (11), 1218-1225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.52.11.1218 neath, i. (1996). how to improve your teaching evaluations without improving your teaching. psychological reports, 78, 1363-1372. doi:10.2466/pr0.1996.78.3c.1363 nelson, j.p. and lynch, k.a. (1984). “grade inflation, real income, simultaneity, and teaching evaluations.” journal of economic education, 15(1), 21-39. newton, j. (1988). “using student evaluation of teaching in administrative control: the validity problem.” journal of accounting education, 6(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/07485751(88)90033-4 perkins, d., gueri, d. and schleh, j. (1990). “effects of grading standards information, assigned journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3),149-167 grade, and grade discrepancies on student evaluations.” psychological reports, 66(2), 3542. james s. pounder, (2007) "is student evaluation of teaching worthwhile?: an analytical framework for answering the question." quality assurance in education, 15(2), 178-191, https://doi.org/10.1108/09684880710748938 powell, r.w. (1977). “grades, learning, and student evaluation of instruction.” research in higher education, 7(3), 193-205. reckers, p.m.j. (1995). “know thy customer”, in baril, c.p. (ed.), change in accounting education: a research blueprint, federation of schools of accountancy, st louis, mo. ryan, j.i., anderson, j.a. and birchler, a.b. (1980)..” research in higher education, 12 (4), 31733. schneider, g. (2013). student evaluations, grade inflation and pluralistic teaching: moving from customer satisfaction to student learning and critical thinking. forum for social economics journal, 42(1), 122-135. sacks, p. (1996), generation x goes to college. eric digest. retrieved from eric database. ed399906 open court, chicago, il. seldin, p. (1989). american association for higher education bulletin, 41(7) 3-7. simpson, p.m. and siguaw, j.a. (2000). journal of marketing education, 22(3), 199 213. smith, b. p. (2007). student ratings of teaching effectiveness: an analysis of end-of-course faculty evaluations. college student journal, the university of georgia, 41(4), 788+. spooren, p., mortelmans, d., & denekens, j. (2007). student evaluation of teaching quality in higher education: development of an instrument based on 10 likert-scales. assessment & evaluation in higher education journal, 32(6), 667-679. sproule, r. (2002). the underdetermination of instructor performance by data from student evaluation of teaching. journal of economics of education review, 21(3), 287-294. stratton, w.o. (1990), “a model for the assessment of student evaluations of teaching, and the professional development of faculty”, the accounting educators’ journal, 17(2), 77-101. stumpf, s. a., & freedman, r. d. (1979). expected grade covariation with student ratings of instruction: individual versus class effects. journal of educational psychology, 71(3), 293-302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.71.3.293 dev & qayyum 167 tata, j. (1999). “grade distributions, grading procedures, and students’ evaluations of instructors: a justice perspective.” the journal of psychology,133 (3), 263-71. tarman, b., & acun, i. (2010). social studies education and a new social studies movement. journal of social studies education research, 1(1), 1-16. wilson, r. (1998). “new research casts doubt on value of student evaluations of professors.” the chronicle of higher education, 44(19), a12-a14. winsor, j.l. (1977). a's, b's, but not c's?: a comment” contemporary education, 48(2) 82-4. worthington, a.g. and wong, p.t.p. (1979). evaluations of an instructor.” journal of educational psychology, 71(6), 764-775. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.71.6.764 yunker, j.a. and marlin, j.w. (1984), “performance evaluation of college and university faculty: an economic perspective”, educational administration quarterly, 15(2), 9-37. zhao, j., & gallant, d. (2012). student evaluation of instruction in higher education: exploring issues of validity and reliability. assessment & evaluation in higher education, 37(2), 227-235. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 1-26 1 the messages we miss: banned books, censored texts, and citizenship kara lycke1 & thomas lucey2 abstract the purpose of this qualitative research study was to describe preservice teachers’ views on the use of banned or censored texts and taboo topics in the classroom. the study sought to discern how elementary and secondary teacher candidates enrolled in methods courses at a midwestern university thought about issues of censorship, citizenship, and curricular materials they may or may not decide to use. the study found that, when introduced to banned and censored texts related to citizenship, teacher candidates conceptually appreciated the notion of exploring controversial citizenship issues with students key words: banned books, citizenship, censorship, controversy introduction an education climate of reductionist curriculum in the u.s., fueled by a rigid conception of the common core state standards presents a formidable challenge for the preparations of teachers. teacher preparation represents opportunities to induct and orient teacher candidates into their professional practice. the current environment emphasizes practices for literacy development through exposure to various texts and cultivation of reading and communication skills. in addition, higher education represents a setting for the cultivation of social and intellectual engagement and creativity. it challenges students to question the social norms, especially when those norms may involve matters of unjust conditions. thus, limitations of k-12 curricula may pose opportunities for teacher educators to (1) acknowledge, value, and apply principles of a critical democratic society in their practice, (2) demonstrate the knowledge and awareness to locate relevant resources for utilization in their classroom, and (3) experience the confidence and efficacy to implement such learning in their teaching. we conjecture that in order to accomplish such processes, teacher educators can create 1 english teacher, richwoods high school, lyckekl@gmail.com 2 professor, illinois state university, tlucey@ilstu.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 an environment in pedagogy courses that facilitate at least three conditions: (1) teacher candidates’ development of deep content knowledge, especially with regard to complex notions of citizenship and its democratic applications, (2) an openness to texts and messages that may seem contrary to those that are purveyed as common sense, (3) a practice-based application of critical pedagogy that is oriented toward disrupting the status quo and supporting transformative democracy. this paper describes the results of a project in which teacher candidates at a large midwestern public university reflected upon democracy and citizenship in relationship to their practice. the candidates selected, located, and researched banned and censored texts, and used them as centerpieces in the creation of developmentally appropriate lessons. they reflected interactively with peers across sections of pedagogy courses and compared their views at the end of the experience with those at the beginning. we sequence this paper by providing a brief review of the literature that informed this study followed by a description of the design and analysis of the project. the findings section presents the patterns of texts selected by study participants and describes four cases to illustrate outcomes of the learning experience. citizenship, controversy, and censorship in education the preparation of critically thinking democratic citizens necessitates exposure to and discussion of topics about which disagreements exist. while disagreement represents a common social experience, controversy occurs when such disagreements involve topics or situations that prompt emotionally charged responses or challenge conventional thinking about a topic. to prevent, discourage, or limit such patterns of discourse, authority figures may limit content or patterns of communication. given the professional reality that teaching represents a social and political act, teachers and educators represent models and authority figures for their students, and thus possess serious obligations to consider the influences of their social positions on the extent to which their students approach to teaching about citizenship as a state of responsibility, leadership, or social change. by avoiding difficult conversations or assuming neutral stances, educators model for students the acceptability of avoiding exploration of social topics, the discussion of which may realize positive social outcomes. prince’s (2008) claim that “neutrality as a pedagogical strategy is not wrong; it simply is not a universal principle” (p. 118-119) informs about the acceptability of a variety of teaching postures with regard to social topics that involve differences of opinion. lycke & lucey citizenship education one of the core missions of schools relates to the preservation of cultural values, which include the development of citizens for participation in democracy (parker, 2015). optimally, this environment would include (1) responsible citizens who adhere to and apply the social structures and rules, (2) participatory citizens who take initiative to structure processes within the system, and (3) justice-oriented citizens who continually reexamine the system for structural weaknesses and act on behalf of those marginalized by the system (westheimer & kahne, 2004). yet teacher education environments tend to prompt students’ development of personally responsible and participatory citizenship ideals, limiting opportunities to examine the structural inadequacies that prompt social injustices, and, therefore, do not often develop these dispositions in teachers for application in practice (carr, 2008; lucey, 2012; westheimer, 2015) oftentimes, education for citizenship predicates itself upon stock stories of universality in which all citizens experience the same conditions and opportunities for social participation (bell, 2010; tupper, 2008). tupper (2008) clarifies these stories as telling, “we live in a democracy; that universal citizenship exists; that as citizens of a democracy, we enjoy the same rights and freedoms; and significantly, that we are equal.” (p. 73). huse (2008) argues that this social disillusionment relates, in part, to student egocentrism, ignorance, and apathy toward social and global events, along with failure of educators to encourage student social participation and engagement. the application of a universal approach to citizenship education disenfranchises those members of society who may not experience success in a manner defined by the dominant culture. universal approaches to citizenship education may reinforce feelings of learned helplessness among societal members who do not possess the citizenship qualities prescribed. tupper, cappello, and sevigny (2010) observe the disparities in availability to textual resources among students in different economic contexts, despite the sameness of citizenship curricula. education settings may perceive discussion of the counter-narratives as controversial because they disrupt narrow or universal conceptions of citizenship explain existent social structures. scholars who study citizenship for democracy differentiate “thick” or transformative conceptions of democracy from “thin” notions that maintain existing structures and systems (lund & carr, 2008). proponents of thick conceptions note the importance of developing awareness in teachers of the transformative power of justice-oriented citizenship. yet studies (e.g., carr, 2008; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 lucey, 2012) indicate that pre-service teachers may lack the deep citizenship notions necessary for affecting learning processes that can be transformative to their teaching practice. culturally responsive teaching (gay, 2000) represents a facet of citizenship education that illustrates these thick and thin notions. banks’s (2006) four approaches to culturally responsive teaching (contributions, additive, transformation, and social action) can be interpreted alongside westheimer and kahne’s (2004) three types of citizens within the framework of thick and thin notions of citizenship. table 1 below represents a comparison between banks’s and westheimer and kahne’s ideas about citizen types and multicultural teaching practices. this analysis indicates that banks’s understandings of “contributions” and “additive” approaches represent “thin” notions of citizenship, similar to westheinmer and kahne’s description of ”responsible” and “participatory” citizens. these thin types of citizenship foster citizens who maintain the social status quo. in the contributions approach to culturally responsive teaching (banks, 2006), educators insert into their lessons selective accounts of persons from underrepresented groups who fit within the dominant social narrative. we view this approach as consistent with westheimer and kahne’s (2004) personally responsible citizen, who pursues the opportunities to participate in citizenship opportunities provided by the social leaders. the contributions approach represents a subtle portrayal of the personally responsible citizen in that education processes uphold individuals from underrepresented groups who act responsibly within the framework of cultural values practices with a society. for example, the oft-employed example from civil rights movement concerns teaching emphasis on martin luther king, and neglect of malcolm x. the additive approach provides more of a culturally responsive element than the contributions approach and aligns with the participatory citizen. in the additive approach, teaching continues to retain the dominant social narrative, yet allows for supplemental exposure to underrepresented cultures and their contexts or histories. for example, coverage of the civil rights era may include a unit that examines the patterns of segregation and lifestyles in the south from the 1920s to offer background on the movement. this approach aligns with the participatory citizenship in that it provides a framework for discussion about underrepresented cultures without disturbing the existing social narrative. rather, it provides a background or context to support the example citizens upheld through the contributions approach. the participatory citizen represents a citizenship leader within the existing social system. the additive approach represents a form of lycke & lucey leadership for discussing culturally responsive topics without challenging the dominant social narrative. “justice-oriented” (westheimer & kahne, 2004) citizens act in “transformational” ways that involve “social action” (banks, 2006). classrooms structured accordingly, support the development of young citizens who recognize thick notions of democracy and have access to the necessary tools to pursue social change. in the transformational and social action approaches, classrooms engage in inquiry to examine multiple perspectives of social content, discuss social problems, and work to bring about social change in view of alternative ideas developed. these approaches challenge the dominant social narrative in that they may question or interrogate the assumptions for social decisions and structures. pursued separately or in tandem, the approaches align with justice-oriented citizenship by examining and changing the social narrative and recasting structures that frame society. table 1 comparing notions of citizenship and democracy, citizen types, and multicultural education notions of citizenship for democracy westheimer & kahne (2004) banks (2006) thin personally responsible contributions thin participatory additive thick justice-oriented transformation & social action preparing culturally responsive teachers represents an essential element of cultivating educators who foster thick conceptions of citizenship among their learners. castro’s (2010) analysis of research that concerns culturally responsive teaching found that teacher candidates express receptivity to a general balance of learning conditions for all learners; however, they remain resistant to teaching practices that validate the unjust cultural realities affected by dominant culture that they inherit and perpetuate. for example, candidates may be quick to affirm the appropriateness of subject content instructional strategies that allow all students equal opportunity to explore content materials; however, they resist providing students with content affirming a historical perspective different from their own and which portrays them in an unflattering manner. much as an individual caught in some form of misconduct may balk at accepting ownership for his or her actions when presented with content or social narratives that present journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 alternative views of oppressive, teachers and teacher candidates resist such accounts, claiming ignorance or providing other less controversial explanations that fit the dominant narrative. in other words, teachers and teacher candidates tend to evade responsibility for the patterns of social dominance exercised by their culture. garrett and segall (2013) consider teacher candidates’ claims of ignorance and their resistance to culturally responsive learning strategies as efforts to avoid and redirect uncomfortable or controversial conversation. topics related to social marginalization of underrepresented groups may be controversial to white, female, middle class teacher candidates when they are inconsistent with the social understandings that have shaped the candidates’ sense of identity. teaching controversial issues when teaching about controversial issues with their candidates, teacher educators may anticipate that their students may resist discussions about these issues because of inconsistent viewpoints with life experiences or perspectives. hess (2008) observes that teachers’ most frequent rationale for including discussions of controversial issues in classroom activities relates to understandings of a democratic society and the reason for education. however, teachers tend to reflect their own vision of democracy and purposes of schooling when raising such issues with their students and do not agree as to what represents a controversial issue (hess, 2008). alternatively, when students have an opportunity to explore their own ideas alongside others’ perspectives on democracy and citizenship; they may encounter “live, public, and contested issues where significant disagreement exists.” (misco & patterson, 2007, p. 525). when their “ideas, opinions, information, theories, or conclusions are incompatible” (johnson & johnson, 2008, p. 217) with their peers or with ideas presented by other resources, they may avoid perpetuating a citizenry who are “easily exploited by political machinery and demagoguery” (misco & patterson, 2007, p. 528). while educators may disagree about what constitutes a controversial issue, theorists have attempted to use the nature or reason for the controversy as a basis for understanding why people view these issues as contentious. theorists classify controversial issues as having epistemic (when opposing views lack rational basis) and behavioral (significantly tested within a given society) criteria (c.f.: hand, 2008; warnick & smith, 2014). understanding why people may view an issue as controversial may provide a basis for resolving related differences of opinion. while literature lycke & lucey has not explicitly determined the basis for controversy among teachers, research on teachers and pre-service teachers’ interpretations of these topics may provide some indicator of their nature. studies indicate that the definition of controversial topics relates to the nature of the group researched. for example, oulton, day, dillon, and grace (2004) found that teachers who were participants in three focus groups most frequently identified issues related to sex education and drug issues as being controversial. misco and patterson’s (2007) survey of preservice teachers at two institutions found respondents comfortable addressing controversial issues that related to political conflict and racial conflict. the respondents expressed least comfort talking about sexual orientation, sexual harassment, and religious conflict. rambosk’s (2011) analysis of survey responses from 203 florida pre-service teachers found that respondents ranked as most controversial (in descending sequence of frequency), gay/lesbian rights, abortion, drug legalization pornography, and creationism. in terms of those issues that should not be presented in social studies methods courses, respondents identified mostly the same topics; however, they ranked them in a different sequence: abortion, gay/lesbian rights, creationism, pornography, genocide/ethnic cleansing. teachers may possess different attitudes towards controversial issues as guided by their experiences or familiarities with the topics. kelly (1986) identified four teacher positions towards controversial issues: (1) exclusive neutrality (teacher does not introduce topics considered to be controversial by the larger community and pursues a neutral classroom), (2) exclusive partiality (claims existence of a correct position on controversial issues and limits positions to argument), (3) neutral impartiality (classroom discussions without teacher point of view), and (4) committed impartiality (involved with process and express beliefs). hess (2008) observed that teachers may include controversial topics in their courses when topics of controversy align with their own views. while hess (2008) noted that teachers disagree as to what they interpret as controversial and fear administrator consequences for classroom coverage, they agree about their importance to social studies teaching. byford, lennon, and russell (2009) confirmed that “teachers understood the importance of controversial issues in the social studies but were worried about limitations, their teaching effectiveness, student behavior, and consequences from the community and district” (p. 169). teaching about controversial issues represents an important aspect of teaching and learning; however, teachers lack of universal agreement as to what controversial issues are acceptable and fear harmful professional consequences for addressing unpopular topics. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 the preparation of teachers for a democratic citizenry necessitates processes that both affirm the democratic successes with existing social environments and encouraging dialogue and action regarding conditions that provide for inequitable living conditions. the development and revision of these processes requires interpretations of how students respond to these conditions through the lenses of who they are. censorship in education controversy represents a power struggle that threatens what can pass as the norm for discourse. for example, a high school education curriculum shift to require a course about african american history represents a controversy because it informs students about historical perspectives that may alter the explanation or perspectives of us history taught through the conventional eurocentric lens. censorship represents a process of the dominant culture and its members to control the availability of dissemination of information about counter narratives from marginalized social groups. for example, pinto (2013) described how governments shape the content of financial education curricula to serve the political economic agenda. with regard to teacher education, censorship of standards to prevent or discourage attention to the diverse social foundations maintains an economic-based preparation philosophy that benefits members of the dominant culture. aronson and anderson (2013) describe the challenges with teacher accreditation processes in which governing bodies tend to discard, rather than define, controversial topics, such as social justice, that obstruct efforts towards creating efficient preparation of teachers. this preparation environment fosters a teacher work force that lacks the willingness or ability to challenge efforts and curricular content that disempowers members of targeted cultural groups, and it threatens the discourse basis that critiques existent power structures. preparation of teachers for professional practice that resist censorship efforts requires deliberate processes of recognizing issues of inequity and censorship, analyzing available professional responses, and equipping candidates for critical conversations. meyer and bradley (2013) indicate that preservice teachers may be taught to anticipate challenges associated with the teaching of controversial texts and respond to concerned parents and administrators. teacher education is a context for preparing educators to advocate for equitable practices and laboratory pedagogy (sleeter, 2013). lycke & lucey nevertheless, in practice, teachers appear to lack the willingness to publically challenge the social power structures that guide and censor educational practice. phillips and larson’s (2012) research indicates that a “code of silence” pervades the teaching profession with regard to materials subject to censor. their analyses of teacher responses to public controversies and to a controversial text indicate that any challenges would occur in a private manner to avoid detection and punishment. apple and christian-smith (1991) present ways in which the textbook goes unchallenged, avoiding controversial texts and topics for the sake of a safe, though oversimplified and whitewashed curriculum. texts such as howard zinn’s (2003) a people’s history of the united states are neglected in contexts where administrators and teachers sensor inquiry into representations of history that present a heroes and holidays approach to education (banks, 2006) within education settings, teachers may attribute censorship to a lack of a variety of resources, but not their own ignorance or bias. kallio (2015) reported that finnish teachers censored their music instruction through cultural, curricular, and religious arguments. these decisions occurred because teaching conditions interfered with the teachers’ social and professional beliefs. for example, teachers viewed students as holding uniform views about christian ideals, ignoring the different perspectives and practices among members within christianity and of different faiths. at a social level, those in positions of power tend to resist responsibility or blame for conditions that put them in such positions. dyson (2013) provided examples of legal cases that illustrate efforts to suppress the free speech of african americans. while the legal challenges that provide the bases for these cases related to principles of free speech, the defense’s arguments rationalized practices founded on principles of social stability. these legal challenges threatened to expose the censorship of dialogue about racially based discrimination. education settings exacerbate these conditions by observing disparate racial achievement patterns, but failing to work cooperatively to bring about academic parity (pollock, 2001). the remainder of this paper describes a research study that concerned preservice teachers, their experience with coursework that involved banned and censored texts, and their senses of professional identity. carr (2008) and lucey (2012) document the thin citizenship notions held by teacher candidates and student teachers. by creating safe classroom settings that invite students to examine controversial citizenship, we encourage their acceptance of responsibility to consider such issues in their own classrooms. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 method overview of the project this qualitative study facilitated teacher candidates’ creation of and reflections on lesson plans as they chose materials and topics in the context of learning about censorship of texts and ideas. the candidates were enrolled in instructional methods courses at a large public midwestern university, and were studying issues related to banned and censored texts and taboo topics. data sources included students’ shared and individual reflections, lesson plans, their final projects, and instructor notes on class discussions. in this paper, we interpret the patterns of controversies evident through the texts selected by teacher candidates and the ways in which they discussed taboo topics. we provide accounts of several participants and interpret their perspectives on controversial issues at the beginning and end of the semester. participants and context research participants were enrolled in either a secondary methods course (n=13) or one of two sections of an elementary social studies methods course (n=48) taught during the first semester of candidates’ senior year. the students enrolled in the secondary methods course and in one section of the elementary social studies methods course were participants in a professional development school (pds) program, a year-long internship completed during their senior year. in the fall semester, candidates in the secondary program complete their coursework and conduct a minimum of 100 clinical hours, and during the spring semester, they student teach at the same site and with the same mentor teacher with whom they conducted their clinical semester. elementary candidates complete their university coursework at a site assigned by the partner district. they conduct their clinical hours at two separate locations, changing sites midway through the fall semester. they encounter their student teaching during the spring semester. the study occurred in the fall semester during the candidates’ clinical semester. consent forms were distributed to students enrolled in the courses by an independent party who provided an envelope for completed forms. instructors were not present in the classrooms when students made their decisions and put their signed or unsigned forms in the envelopes. for one section, students were contacted at the end of the semester after the instructor posted course grades. procedure, data collection and analysis reflections. over the semester, teacher candidates wrote five guided reflections about banned and censored books and taboo topics. the researchers/instructors prompted candidates to lycke & lucey write their first and last reflections and submit them to the instructor. they shared the middle three reflections online with small groups comprised of four to five peers with members from across the three methods courses. within their groups, students read the reflections and responded to the ideas and questions raised. the shared reflections and responses were posted to a shared dropbox folder. the instructors provided the following prompts to guide each of the five reflections: 1. (individual) introductory reflection: describe who you are. what do you think it means to teach your specific content (elementary education students were prompted to discuss social studies)? what motivated you to become a teacher? how has your background prepared you for teaching your specific content (elementary education students were prompted to discuss social studies)? what role does democracy play in your conceptions of teaching? what are your conceptions of democracy in elementary or middle school? what are your views of citizenship and applications of freedom of speech in elementary school? 2. (groups) ideas about censorship: describe you views on censorship. what social topics should elementary classrooms discuss? who has the right to control content in school classrooms and libraries? how does this control relate to freedom of speech? who makes the standards for your content area? who has the right to decide what the standards are? what role do you have in standards development? 3. (groups) ideas about research and outcomes: describe the results of your research into the banned or censored materials and taboo topics. how does the content of the banned or censored material relate to your conceptions of citizenship? what social groups may appreciate values expressed in your researched text? what social groups may be threatened by disseminating the content of your censored text? what can you deduce about censorship and social values from your classmates’ presentations about banned or censored material? 4. (groups) ideas about instruction: describe how the lesson that you developed based on the censored texts and taboo topics is similar to or different from lessons based on other materials that might be used for teaching in your content area? what decisions did you make as you developed your lesson and chose materials and questions to use in your lesson? how has your research into banned and censored books and development of related lessons informed your ideas about teaching citizenship and freedom of speech? journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 to what extent should a teacher be socially/politically active in teaching socially controversial issues? 5. (individual) concluding reflection: review your introductory reflection: describe how your research into democracy, citizenship, censorship, and freedom of speech has affected your views about teaching social studies. to what extent has your understanding of social studies changed during this course? how have your experiences examining democracy, citizenship and freedom of speech informed about your professional responsibilities as a classroom teacher? the syllabi provided holistic instructions for responding to reflections, but did not ask students to respond in any particular way, except to refer specifically and substantively to what other group members discussed in their reflections. students posted their reflections and responses electronically to a shared dropbox folder. lesson plans. the secondary students wrote one lesson plan for the course that highlighted applications of content literacy. students were required to include a variety of literacy strategies and texts that supported content learning. among the literacy strategies were explicit vocabulary instruction; multimodal literacy strategies for digital texts; strategies for before, during and after engaging with texts; and opportunities for students to consume (read, listen to, view) as well as to create texts (write, speak about, and design images). the elementary students completed two lesson plans for the course. the first was a citizenship and text lesson that required research of banned or censored texts and development of lesson plans that taught about the citizenship concepts presented in the selected texts. the other, a critical history lesson, necessitated their research of alternative accounts of commonly taught historical events and development of lessons to teach these alternative perspectives using the discipline-based art education (dbae) instructional model. final projects. at the conclusion of the course, teacher candidates completed a culminating project. the secondary students wrote a report called insights into texts for which they conducted a feature and content analysis of two texts they might use in teaching. as part of their analysis, they discussed ways in which banned or censored texts and/or taboo topics were considered controversial and by whom. the elementary students created and presented posters that represented their research on their selected banned or censored book. lycke & lucey data analysis. the data analysis centered on the notion that each course provided an internal logic, sense of order, structure, and meaning, as did each small group. though both instructors provided the same prompts for reflection and assigned a summative representation of their ideas to conclude the project, the researchers/instructors acknowledge the differential influence of qualities such as our own understandings of and expectations for the assignments, our teaching styles, and students’ immediate and long-term goals as students and as teachers. we used two methodological approaches for constructing the study and for conducting data analysis, a modification of ritchie and spencer’s framework analysis approach (1994) and a narrative analysis on the “small stories” (bamburg, 2004; watson, 2007) that emerged from the students’ reflections. the framework approach (ritchie & spencer, 1994) allowed us to set the objectives of the research in advance, which were shaped by the requirements of the courses and the teacher education program. the research began with the purposes established by our project goals while it focused on the primary information sources generated by the participants. each researcher analyzed the reflections of their respective students for emerging themes. initial themes across sections related to views of censorship, social topics in the classroom, control/freedom of speech, standards, and connections to content. the objectives of this project concerned the facilitation of students’ examination of banned and censored texts as vehicles for teaching about citizenship. we viewed the content and method of these two courses as lending themselves to the objectives of this project. specifically, relevant course objectives required students to “demonstrate their knowledge, understanding, and use of major concepts and modes of inquiry from social studies in their preparation of developmentally appropriate instructional plans for teaching social studies,” and to “demonstrate competencies in creating multicultural perspectives and democratic classroom practices necessary for developing effective citizenry.” a small story analysis allowed us to describe the “everyday, ephemeral narratives arising from talk-in-interaction” (watson, 2007, abstract) among the teacher candidates. we acknowledge the reflection topics and the intentional grouping by the instructors guided the talk-in-interaction of the students. nevertheless, the small stories that emerged provided a window into the participants co-constructed social worlds and their understandings about banned and censored texts and taboo topics. we organized our analytic findings into cases in order to represent the ways in which students thought about controversial texts and topics and how they could be included in lesson design and implementation. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 findings in this section, we depict the nature of the controversies explored by teacher candidates. we also offer profiles of candidates who experienced the project, describing four case studies within the frameworks provided in the above discussion of the literature. presentation of controversial texts explored through teacher candidates in tables 2 and 3, we list the texts explored by teacher candidates as part of the learning experience, organized by reading level. either the students mentioned the texts in their reflections or included them in a lesson plan. they were discussed in the context of two broad categories, (1) the content or subject of the text, or (2) the classroom application. for example, texts like the adventures of huckleberry finn and and tango makes three deal with social issues such as racism, classism, and same-sex parents. texts like a calculator or facebook were considered for the controversy they cause as pedagogical tools. use of a calculator in a classroom might seem controversial or taboo because of a belief among some educators that it is a crutch and allows students to learn math concepts and problem-solving without a solid grasp of math facts and other fundamentals. facebook is a text that is blocked in many schools due to the concern of the distraction of social media and the controversial topics of discussion on some pages. students discussed appropriate and beneficial uses of both kinds of texts and the reasons why some educators, administrators, and community members might deem them as taboo. lycke & lucey table 2 print texts by school level early elementary upper elementary middle level secondary level print texts the adventures of huckleberry finn x x alice in april x and tango makes three x the awakening x black like me x the boy who looked like lincoln x bridge to tabitha x x captain underpants x the catcher in the rye x x the chocolate war x x crank x x dancing naked x discovering mathematics x x the giver x x the grapes of wrath x x the great gatsby x how to eat fried worms x harry potter series x x the hunger games x x james and the giant peach x the jungle x king and king x x the kite runner x a light in the attic x x lord of the flies x x the lorax x x x maus: a survivor’s tale x x of mice and men x x on the origin of species x the rabbits’ wedding x the scarlet letter x the outsiders x x roll of thunder, hear my cry x x “tattoos and piercings: issues of body modification and the workplace” (journal article) x journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 to kill a mockingbird x x twilight x x where the wild things are x x table 3 non-print texts, organized by school level early elementary upper elementary middle level secondary level non-print texts3 the calculator x x x x “children in the fields,” 60 minutes x x facebook x x flatland (film) x x an inconvenient truth x x “parents caught spanking children on audiotape real time,” abc news (video) x x strange fruit (song) x x twitter x x teacher candidate cases we describe four case studies. all names are pseudonyms. each presentation begins with a description of the candidates’ emphasis in their teacher education studies and continues with a 3 the secondary methods class was exploring alternative definitions of text, specifically draper & siebert’s (2010) notion that texts are representational resources or objects imbued with meaning to achieve a particular purpose. lycke & lucey summary of the major ideas regarding censorship, citizenship, and the role of the teacher in dealing with taboo topics expressed through reflections and lesson planning. we follow each presentation with an interpretation of the case in terms of citizenship theories and postures towards controversial issues described above. case 1, alicia alicia, an elementary candidate from a suburban setting, entered the course targeting a social studies endorsement. her view of a democratic classroom involved a teacher listening to the students’ voices. she held a personally responsible view of citizenship that lent itself to altruistic sentiments. she attempted to strike a balance in her views of censorship, advocating for freedom of expression, yet recommending professional discretion. citizenship and freedom of speech go hand-in-hand because in order for a school to have good citizenship, students need to feel free to speak about how they feel about issues taking place inside and outside of their school. children should have the freedom to speak freely within schools while maintaining a high level of respect for teachers and administrators. (august, 22) censorship guidelines were viewed as being a state-level responsibility. she did not consider full freedom of speech as an education right, yet advocated students’ and teachers’ right to speak out about particular subjects. the book she chose for her lesson, how to eat fried worms, has been censored because of references to gambling. she recognized the presence of censorship and her responsibility to infuse banned works into her teaching. i believe that many parents and teachers would support this book because it encourages young children, specifically boys, to read. parents and teachers may also like the idea that the book presents values such as working hard and never giving up. (october 5) she viewed the process of reflection, investigating, and discussing as instrumental in broadening her views about citizenship teaching and considered talking about social issues in the classroom as acceptable. she held that teachers should not express their own views; however, they should support students’ efforts. alicia viewed her conceptions of social studies as positively changed from those at the beginning of the course and recognized the importance of teaching critical thinking and justice-orientations. after taking this course, i feel that i can honestly say that my views on the subject of social studies have completely changed for the better. i now view social studies as a subject that journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 can be taught with excitement and engagement among the students in the classroom…i now realize the importance of developing students' critical thinking so that they are able to question the world that surrounds them. (december, 11) alicia transitioned to a thicker view of citizenship through the course. originally expressing the views of a personally responsible citizen, towards the end of the course she recognized the importance of justice-oriented thinking and processes. her views of covering controversial issues in classrooms transitioned from one of guiding discussions, involving limitations to argument, to one of encouraging students through neutral impartiality. case 2, stephanie an elementary candidate, stephanie, introduced herself as a bilingual childhood immigrant and advocated social studies learning for the development of global awareness and sensitivity. though motivated to be a teacher--she came from a family of educators--she had not given much thought to democracy in education. however, she thought it important for students to learn about democracy and their surrounding environments. she considered students too immature to experience completely free speech in school. pi believe it is important for students, especially in middle school, to learn about democracy and slowly become a bit familiarized with what goes on around them so that they can have good background knowledge when it comes to learning more in depth…it is important to listen to all students and hear what they have to say, however, i do not believe that they are maturely developed enough to understand the consequences of their language and how it may affect other students. because of this, i think that if students knew they were able to have full freedom on what they could say in school, they would abuse this right by harming others feelings or using it negatively. (august, 24) stephanie researched and tango makes three and its banning because of its presentation of homosexuality. she considered the book as a good introduction of the topic because of the compassion that the text conveyed. the project taught her about the variety of topics that may offend people; however, it also prompted her realization that censorship efforts should not affect teacher views of students’ ability to responsibly deal with social issues. she expressed a positive outlook on society and its tendencies towards multicultural acceptance. she viewed censorship as a convoluted issue that would not be readily resolved. she questioned the overprotection of lycke & lucey american youth from existing international ills, yet recognized the relevance of developmental appropriateness. it honestly never came to my mind that teachers or even textbooks for that matter would have information in them which is not true. it makes sense that the authors want to make america look like the best country in the world, but there are enough things that america has done to prove it. i think that students would benefit knowing the truth about misdoings that have happened in our past and i was really surprised to learn that they have been censored from them. (december 11). she considered homosexuality an important topic to be addressed in schools; however, was uncertain where appropriateness ended and inappropriateness began. she viewed state directives as having precedence over controversial or censored topics. her lesson related to family and relationships and she recognized the importance of freedom of speech; however, she stated that teachers have curricular limitations, as they cannot overrule parents. she learned the censorship challenges related to social studies teaching and the importance of facing consequences for challenging the community. she considered the importance of developing social networks to empower teachers’ academic freedom. stephanie maintained her views on citizenship through the course. originally expressing the views of a participatory citizen, she held a view of social networking within the system. her views of addressing controversial issues in classrooms remained one of exclusive neutrality, with the meeting of curricular standards holding precedence over controversial issues. case study 3: nora an english education major, nora desired to teach diverse students in an urban setting. she positioned herself well for this opportunity by studying abroad and participating in her university’s urban education summer internship program. she believed that gaining empathy and respect is an “outcome” of studying a range of texts and types of literature and a “requirement” for complex understandings of challenging texts. she chose to investigate maus: a survivor’s tale: my father bleeds history, a graphic novel, and of mice and men. she argued that maus should only be read in school by high school juniors and seniors because the combination of words and images portraying pain and death during the holocaust require a level of “empathy that can only come with maturity, academic guidance, and reflection.” studying historical events and associated issues of identity and ethnicity “ensures that a student’s understanding of such an event is not journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 trivialized.” she came to believe that while students should choose what they read and teachers should expose students to an “array of texts,” sometimes “small amounts of censorship” can be reasonably practiced. schools are accountable for the materials they introduce, so “precautionary steps” should be taken to avoid mistrust and misunderstanding. she stated that teachers must work closely with administrators and students’ families to form good relationships and effectively “poke at the boundaries of censorship” since “communities around the world, within different states, and even on the same block are probably going to have different opinions about censoring material.” she believed it is worthwhile for students to “question censorship motivations,” for example, when books such as of mice and men move from popular to canonical status. she realized that censorship is much more complex than she believed and was eager to teach about controversial texts so students could research and argue their positions. nora held a perspective of neutral impartiality, encouraging students’ views of controversial texts. her valuing of collaboration among education stakeholders indicated that she held the view of a participatory citizenship, solving social problems within existing structures. case study 4: cody a business education major, cody went into teaching because his college business courses bored him “to death.” he earned excellent grades in those courses with little effort, and he cared even less about the knowledge he was “banking.” he believed teaching must be “interesting, thought-provoking, and important.” students need opportunities to ask “why?” in order to understand course content. teaching about controversial issues creates “a sticky situation” that he says schools do not want to address; he believes pacifying people on both sides of an issue is impossible. he believes democratic schools desire to “acclimate” students “to the world,” so it is necessary to “teach them both sides” of issues and let the students decide what to believe. it is a “disservice” to students if we prevent them from grappling with real world controversies, “such as outsourcing,” before they enter the workforce. cody chose a 60 minutes video, “children in the fields” as a text for potential use in his future classroom. the video presents the complexities of child labor by following a family as they work in cotton fields in lubbock, texas. it explores the family’s financial need to send their children to labor in the fields, as well as some associated dangers and disadvantages presented by this decision. cody liked the way the video expresses “both sides” of the issue and as a teacher would allow his students to evaluate the information, comparing their opinions before and after watching it. while cody often discussed controversial lycke & lucey issues as binaries, he raised the question of how students’ beliefs about a controversial issue such as child labor, might be influenced by their views on a related issue like illegal immigration, but hoped they could separate the issues and analyze them separately. cody expressed an exclusive position on controversial issues, considering them difficult topics of instruction that involved two positions. his approach to citizenship resembled an additive approach to multicultural education in which he would provide supplemental content for students’ consideration. discussion and implications teacher candidates viewed education of citizens for democracy through lenses crafted by developmental socialization. the case studies presented above illustrate teacher candidates who possess responsible or participatory perspectives of citizenship and largely conceptualize a curricular approach that reaffirms the views of the dominant culture, while implementing discussions of controversial texts and ideas in a manner that avoids disruption of stakeholder relationships. for example, alicia’s initial efforts to balance freedom of speech with respect for authority serve to permit expression within an established system. westheimer (2015) observes that justice-oriented citizenship involves practices that challenge the established social structure. it creates for power structures that disrupt established ideologies. stephanie’s excusing her resistance to controversial topics on students’ developmental maturity serves as a protectionist attempt to resist social challenges. james (2008) describes how elementary candidates readily resist teaching social studies content that they perceive as harmful to children’s development. thus, while coverage of controversial issues may have conceptual allure for teacher candidates, concerns about harming children or inciting social controversies discourse their implementation. for example, how does a teacher address the threat of employment security covering an issue that may cause community unrest? none of the students conveyed justice-oriented teaching ideas in their reflections. elementary candidates viewed the value of texts as affirming traditional views of hard work and compassion for others. secondary candidates valued texts for the complex perspectives related to the presented issues. controversial texts thus seemed to present opportunities for candidates to emphasize traditional citizenship values and explore complex thinking. yet, they did not explore systematic notions of social change. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 our findings confirm the conditions described by hess (2008), who writes “…contradiction exists in the literature. although many teachers and students report social studies classes as being rich with controversial issues discussion, when researches observe social studies classes, they rarely find discussion of any sort and little attention to controversial issues.” (p. 127). efforts to manage harmonious classroom communities indicate a resistance to content that may prompt a sense of togetherness. the emphasis illustrates an environment that strives for uniformity with standards while limiting perspectives to those that do not threaten the social order. the use of controversial texts serves to present the acceptability of different ideas within the context of the dominant culture. banned or censored texts may be present in the classroom; however, their employment may not serve to disrupt standard patterns of discourse. these preservice teachers may value controversy; yet, limit its presence within a system of democratic order. they affirm byford et al.’s (2009) observation that teachers perceive of limited application of these such topics in their teaching. these observations are consistent with garrett and segall’s (2013) resistance strategies of rationalizing threats to the dominant culture by through the dominant ideology. we perceive an effect much like that in kallio’s (2015) work in which the preservice teachers limit their own use of banned and censored texts to fit the professional obligations of their practice. banned and censored texts represent offer opportunities to challenge the values of society conveyed through the formal curriculum. social studies textbooks convey a message of historical and present unity and loyalty, rather than diversity and discussion. loewen (2007) provides the following observation. it is hard for teachers to teach open-endedly. they are afraid not to be in control of the answer, afraid of losing their authority over the class. … they end up adopting the same omniscient tone as their textbooks. as a result, teachers present a boring, overly ordered way of thinking, much less interesting than the way people really think. (p. 328). conclusion when introduced to banned and censored texts related to citizenship, teacher candidates conceptually appreciated the notion of exploring controversial citizenship issues with students. the significance of this paper lies in its description of a project that purposefully assigned preservice teachers’ investigation and discussion of banned and censored texts. this work lycke & lucey informs the community about the attitudes of preservice teachers towards the use of controversial texts in the preparation of teacher candidates. we encourage studies that interpret the efforts and strategies of candidates to implement selected texts in their teaching. such research may consider the administrative and community conditions under which they occur. teacher education provides experiences and opportunities to use banned and censored texts to develop candidates’ critical thinking about democratic society and apply it in their professional practice. the cultivation of safe environments that invite candidate discussion about controversial social topics models represents a viable option for fostering engaging conversation. references apple, m. & christian-smith, l. k. (eds.) (1991). the politics of the textbook. new york, ny: routledge. aronson, b. & anderson, a. (2013). critical teacher education and the politics of teacher accreditation: are we practicing what we preach? journal for critical education policy studies, 11(3), 244-262. bamburg, m. (2004). talk, small stories, and adolescent identities. human development, 47(6), 366-369. banks, j. a. (2006). cultural diversity and education. foundations, curriculum, and teaching. boston, ma: pearson bell, l. a. (2010). storytelling for social justice. connecting narrative and the arts in antiracist teaching. new york, ny: routledge. byford, j., lennon, s. & russell, w. b. (2009). teaching of controversial issues in the social studies. clearing house, 82(4), 165-170. carr, p. c. (2008). educators and education for democracy: moving beyond “thin” democracy. interamerican journal of education for democracy, 1(2), 147-165. castro, a. j. (2010). themes in research on preservice teachers’ views of cultural diversity: implications for researching millennial preservice teachers. educational researcher, 39(3), 198-210. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 dyson, m. r. (2013). silencing race & the first amendment: the suppression of student expression & curricular coverage of racial identity & ethnic solidarity in k-12 education. umkc law review, 81(3), 569-593. garrett, h. j. & segall, a. (2013). (re)consideration of ignorance and resistance in teacher education. journal of teacher education, 64(4), 294-304. gay, g. (2000). culturally responsive teaching. new york, ny: teachers college press. hand, m. (2008). what should we teach as controversial? a defense of the epistemic criterion. educational theory, 58(2), 213-228. hess, d. (2008). controversial issues and democratic discourse. in l. s. levstik & c. a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 124-136). new york, ny: routledge. huse, h. (2008). don’t tell me what i don’t know: fostering democratic literacy. in d. lund & p. carr (eds.), doing democracy. striving for political literacy and social justice (pp. 337350). new york, ny: peter lang. james, j. (2008). teachers as protectors: making sense of preservice teachers' resistance to interpretation in elementary history teaching. theory & research in social education, 36(3), 172-205. johnson, d. w. & johnson, r. t. (2008). social interdependence, moral character, and moral education. in l. nucci & d. narvaez (eds.), handbook of moral and character education (pp. 204-229). new york, ny: routledge. kallio, a. a. (2015). drawing a line in the water: constructing the school censorship frame in popular music education. international journal of music education, 33(2), 195-209. kelly, t. e. (1986). discussing controversial issues: four perspectives on the teacher’s role. theory & research in social education, 14(2), 113-138. loewen, j. w. (2007). lies my teacher told me. everything your american history textbook got wrong. new york, ny: touchstone. lucey, t. a. (2012). preservice teachers’ conceptions of democratic essence: interpretations of democratic principles and their connections to social justice, economic class, and religion/spirituality in the united states. in p. r. carr and d. zyngier (eds.), can educators make a difference: experimenting with and experiencing democracy in education. (pp. 135-158). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. lycke & lucey lund, d. e. & carr, p. r. (2008). introduction: scanning democracy. in d. lund & p. carr (eds.), doing democracy. striving for political literacy and social justice. (pp. 1-29). new york, ny: peter lang. meyer, n. & bradley, d. (2013). collaboratively teaching intellectual freedom to educational students. education libraries, 36(1), 24-27. misco, t. & patterson, n. c. (2007). a study of pre-service teachers’ conceptualizations of academic freedom and controversial issues. theory & research in social education, 35(4), 520-550. oulton, c., day, v., dillon, j. & grace, m. (2004). controversial issues. teachers’ attitudes and practices in the context of citizenship education. oxford review of education, 30(4), 489-507. parker, w. c. (2015). social studies today: research and practice. new york, ny: routledge. phillips, d. k. & larson, m. l. (2012). preservice teachers respond to and tango makes three: deconstructing disciplinary power and the heteronormative in teacher education. gender and education, 24(2), 159-175. pinto, l. (2013). when politics trumps evidence. financial literacy education narratives following the global financial crisis. journal of education policy, 28(1), 95-120. pollock, m. (2001). how the question we ask most about race in education is the very question we most suppress. educational researcher, 30(9), 2-12. prince, g. s., jr. (2008). teach them to challenge authority. educating for healthy societies. new york, ny: continuum books rambosk, p. (2011). florida pre-service teachers and their attitudes towards the use of controversial issues (unpublished doctoral dissertation). tallahassee, fl: florida state university. ritchie j. & spencer l. (1994) qualitative data analysis for applied policy research. in bryman a., burgess r.g. (eds), analysing qualitative data. (pp. 173 – 194). abington, oxon: routledge sleeter, c. (2013). power, teaching, and teacher education: confronting injustice with critical research and action. new york, ny: peter lang. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 1-26 tupper, j. (2008). interrogating citizenship and democracy in education: the implications for disrupting universal values. in d. lund & p. carr (eds.), doing democracy. striving for political literacy and social justice. (pp. 71-84). new york, ny: peter lang. tupper, j. a., cappello, m. p. & sevigny, p. r. (2010). locating citizenship: curriculum, social class and the ‘good’ citizen. theory & research in social education, 38(3), 336-365. warnick, b. r. & smith, s. (2014). the controversy over controversies. a plea for flexibility for “soft-directive” teaching. educational theory, 64(5), 227-244. watson, c. (2007). small stories, positioning analysis, and the doing of professional identities in learning to teach. narrative inquiry, 17(2), 371-389. westheimer, j. (2015). what kind of citizen? educating our children for the common good. new york, ny: teachers college press. westheimer, j. & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2), 237-269. zinn, h. (2003). a people’s history of the united states 1492-present. new york, ny: harper perennial. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (4), 257-274 life review therapy for improving the psychological wellbeing of elderly retired women in indonesia diah karmiyati 1, nixie devina rahmadiani2 & nida hasanati3 abstract retirement is considered an event that requires individual readjustment, so it can affect the psychological wellbeing of the elderly, especially for women. better self-esteem can encourage individuals to respect themselves more, however, leading in turn to improvements in the dimension of psychological wellbeing. the aim of this study is to establish how self-esteem influences psychological wellbeing in elderly retired women. this study follows a randomized pretest and posttest, control group design. the research subjects were therefore divided into experimental and control groups, each comprising six people. the experimental group all received life review therapy, whereas the control group did not. all the subjects were elderly retired women with lowto-moderate levels of self-esteem and psychological wellbeing. the study used the rosenberg selfesteem scale and the ryff psychological wellbeing scale. data analysis involved a non-parametric wilcoxon analysis and the mann–whitney test. the results revealed that life review therapy improved self-esteem in the experimental group, and there were significant differences between the experimental group and the control group, with the experimental group showing a significant increase in its posttest scores. the results also showed an increase in psychological wellbeing along with self-esteem. it was therefore concluded that life review therapy can improve the psychological wellbeing of elderly retired women in indonesia. keywords: life review therapy, self-esteem, psychological wellbeing, elderly retired women. introduction old age is the final developmental phase in the lifespan of a human being. like during other stages of development, the elderly will experience changes in biological and motor function, vision and thinking, motives and affective life, social relationships, and community integration (monks et al., 2006). the later years are seen as a source of considerable problems for human life, but in reality, many of these can be understood to some extent (tandon, 2017). according to erikson (alwisol, 2009), if the elderly can develop optimally, then in their old age, they will have a strong ego identity and be able to achieve self-integrity, such that there is a feeling of being united and in touch with feelings according to the situation. various kinds of changes are experienced by the elderly, both physically and psychologically, and some aspects will certainly impact their 1 dr. universitas muhammadiyah malang, indonesia; email: diah@umm.ac.id 2 ma. universitas muhammadiyah malang, indonesia; email: nixie.nixie@yahoo.co.id 3 dr. universitas muhammadiyah malang, indonesia; email: nida@umm.ac.id mailto:diah@umm.ac.id mailto:nixie.nixie@yahoo.co.id mailto:nida@umm.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 257-274 psychological wellbeing to some extent. retirement can also cause issues in terms of experiencing a loss of physiological, psychological, and social involvement (chiang et al., 2010). most individuals assume that retirement from work is an event that leads to the next stage of adulthood, and this can affect physical and psychological wellbeing. however, the experience of retirement can differ for elderly men and women because they have different histories, work opportunities, and life experiences. research shows that women are more negative about retirement than men are, so this can lead to a greater risk of depression and loneliness for women (kim & moen, 2002). this is also supported by the research of hanayanthi (2003), which showed that attitudes toward retirement are more negative among women than men, because when women work, they tend to feel more capable and on an equal footing with men. this makes women more sensitive to the changes that occur when retiring from work. over her life, an elderly woman will have carried out various types of activities and played several roles. elderly women have various occupational backgrounds, ranging from someone who has worked full time for most of her working-age life before retiring for at least 5 years to someone who has been a homemaker, which can be regarded as someone working in the home all her life but never taking up a salaried position (adelmann et al., 1993; kato, 2018). the basic difference between a retiree and a homemaker is that a retiree receives a pension from her previous work, while a homemaker relies on income from her partner’s work. homemakers do not experience huge work-related changes, so they do not experience significant work gaps (silver, 2010). this is in line with research that showed that work status significantly influences the life satisfaction of elderly women. elderly women who have been lifelong housewives have a greater level of life satisfaction and psychological wellbeing than elderly woman who have retired from work (riddick, 1985). it therefore follows that elderly women who were previously active in the labor market will tend to have more psychological vulnerabilities than homemakers or other women who did not have regular jobs. retirement from work is considered an important transition for individuals in old age, because it impacts how they spend their time and earn income, as well as whom they interact with (palmore, fillenbaum & george, 1984). in addition, the retirement process can also affect individual selfesteem. research conducted by bleidorn and schwaba (2018) showed that individuals who worked start experiencing a decline in self-esteem five years before retirement, but they tend to stabilize five years after retirement. research conducted by reitzes and mutran (2004), meanwhile, karmiyati, et al. 259 revealed that individuals experience a decline in self-esteem after six or seven years, but they tend to stabilize afterwards because they have gone through the adjustment process. toward the end of the 20th century, the focus of attention in mental health was to treat or prevent complaints and enhance the positive aspects of mental health. to improve the quality of life for individuals in the elderly population, it is necessary to provide opportunities for the elderly to fulfill themselves (i.e., self-fulfillment) through education, learning, and an active life, in addition to focusing purely on the problems that are naturally felt by the elderly (singh & kiran, 2013). elderly people who are more oriented toward positive aspects—such as the potential for learning, wisdom, life satisfaction, and happiness—are more inclined toward positive integration and a more competent and successful aging process (portero & oliva, 2007). a healthy mental condition in turn improves their wellbeing (weiss et al., 2016). psychological wellbeing can in turn be a protective factor for health, such as by reducing the risk of severe physical illness and extending the life expectations of the elderly (steptoe, et al., 2015). it also improves social and cognitive functions and reduces the risk of an early death (beam, 2016). when the elderly have a high level of psychological wellbeing in aspects of environmental mastery and self-acceptance, it has been reported that they tend to have lower levels of hdl and triglycerides when compared to their peers with a lesser psychological wellbeing (radler et al., 2018). the psychological wellbeing model focuses on development throughout the human lifespan. this relates to changes over age in the six dimensions of psychological wellbeing, because psychosocial tasks and environmental challenges change as a person ages. studies conducted on young, middleaged, and elderly people have shown that personal growth and purpose in life decreases with age, while environmental mastery and autonomy increase, and self-acceptance and positive relationships with others tend to be stable throughout adulthood (homan, 2016). beam (2016) explains that psychological wellbeing has a reciprocal relationship with social functions, cognitive functions, and health aspects. factors that cause psychological wellbeing in the elderly include material conditions, family and social relationships, social roles and activities, and other factors related to changes with age (steptoe et al., 2015). research conducted by almira, hanum, and menaldi (2019) showed that negative relationships between parents and children impact the psychological wellbeing of the elderly in indonesia. such relationships may manifest in a lack of sympathy, failure to receive help from children, and experiences of rejection, and these journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 257-274 can degrade the psychological wellbeing of the elderly. in addition, elderly people who participate in various social activities and roles reported having better psychological wellbeing than those who are relatively inactive (lee et al., 2016). another factor in achieving psychological wellbeing is self-esteem. many studies have shown that personal and contextual factors strongly affect the achievement of psychological wellbeing in the elderly (hassan et al., 2018). hermida, tartaglini, feldberg, and stefani (2017) found that individuals with low levels of psychophysiological disorder due to retirement tend to have better levels of psychological wellbeing. in addition, there is a relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction, so this can reduce physical and psychological impairment. russell, nyame-mensah, wit, and handy (2019) showed that a relationship exists between selfesteem and psychological wellbeing, and this is moderated by involvement in voluntary activities. dewijayanti and wahyudi (2018), meanwhile, found that self-esteem has a significant positive correlation with psychological wellbeing in thalassemia patients. psychological wellbeing can arise through self-esteem, because it affects a person’s self-assessment of his or her value. some interventions can be made to improve psychological wellbeing in the elderly, such as gratitude interventions, which have been used to improve psychological wellbeing in individuals with a variety of different backgrounds (bilbao et al., 2008; ramírez et al., 2014; renshaw & rock, 2018). research into gratitude interventions and psychological wellbeing has also been conducted in various areas. the research of kuren and macaskill (2015) showed that a gratitude intervention based on applying the concept of “three good things in life” enables significant progress to be made in improving psychological wellbeing. this happens because gratitude is associated with increasing positive individual emotions and decreasing the negative ones, leading the individual to a state of greater wellbeing (armenta et al., 2017). another intervention for improving psychological wellbeing is life review therapy, and this has been applied to improve psychological wellbeing for a variety of different subjects. several studies have shown its positive results in reducing depressive symptoms and improving quality of life for the elderly (damirchi et al, 2017; korte et al., 2012; sharif et al., 2017; moghadam, 2018). however, other studies have shown life review therapy to have insignificant effects on improving psychological wellbeing (preschl et al., 2012). this shows that there are still gaps in establishing the effectiveness of life review therapy at improving psychological wellbeing. karmiyati, et al. 261 life review therapy is a non-pharmacological therapy that focuses on human life experiences throughout the lifespan. the process of looking back at the life that has been experienced involves an evaluation of that individual’s life. on the one hand, it can help overcome previous conflicts and negative individual experiences. on the other hand, the process can also provide positive meaning for the subject’s life (korte et al., 2012). research conducted by chiang et al. (2010) showed that life review therapy can positively affect the self-esteem of elderly 78-year-old men. elderly people can review their life experiences and then evaluate and analyze them to enable a deeper self-concept through the process of life review (sharif et al., 2018). life review therefore involves a process of nostalgia, and it has three main functions in terms of protecting individual identity, increasing mastery over one’s life, and strengthening relational ties (sedikides et al., 2008). in the life review process, there is a reframing process, so individuals can modify memories that are not self-acceptable and come to accept events that were previously perceived as negative (haight & burnside, 1993). based on the above description, it is important to study the use of life review therapy to improve psychological wellbeing, because the results of previous studies have practical gaps in proving its effectiveness. such research is also rarely pursued in indonesia, especially when looking at positive individual aspects like psychological wellbeing. the uniqueness of this study comes in applying life review therapy for elderly retired women. indeed, the purpose of this study is to determine the effect of life review therapy in improving self-esteem and consequently psychological wellbeing for elderly retired women. this research will likely benefit the study’s participants by enabling them to look back on their life experiences in way that will increase selfesteem and improve psychological wellbeing. the study’s results should also contribute to the body of knowledge in the field of clinical psychology, specifically for areas focusing on the psychological wellbeing of the elderly, and it may guide future researchers in developing further interventions to improve psychological wellbeing. research questions drawing the above background, the research questions to be sought include: 1) how much does the life-review therapy improve self-esteem of the elderly retired women in indonesia? 2) how much does the life therapy improve psychological well-being of the elderly retired women in indonesia? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 257-274 methods design this study uses a randomized pretest–posttest, control group design. this design involves measuring and comparing the pretest score and posttest score when a group is given treatment or not given treatment (seniati, yulianto & setiadi, 2009). the research design is illustrated in table 1. table 1 research design (ke) o1 → x → o2 (kk) o1 → → o2 information: ke: experiment group; kk: control group; o1: pretest self-esteem and psychological wellbeing before intervention; x: life review therapy; o2: posttest selfesteem and psychological wellbeing after the intervention. participants the research subjects comprised 12 elderly people who were divided equally over two groups, namely the experimental group and the control group. nonprobability sampling was used by determining purposive sampling, which is a sampling technique based on certain criteria (sugiyono, 2011). in determining the division of subjects over the two group, random assignment was used in the form of entering subjects randomly into each group, so it can be assumed that there is a degree of homogeneity between the groups (seniati et al., 2009). the criteria for participants were that they should be elderly women aged 56 years or older, show low-to-moderate psychological welfare scores, be no less than five years before retirement and no more than five years after retirement, not be following any other psychological intervention, be able to communicate, not be experiencing dementia or any tendency to depression or other severe psychological disorder, and be willing to follow life review therapy by signing an informed consent from the therapist. instruments the variables in this study were self-esteem and psychological wellbeing. the operational definition of self-esteem relates to the individual’s self-assessment of his or her own value, while the operational definition of psychological wellbeing relates to a person’s ability to behave karmiyati, et al. 263 independently (i.e., autonomy), have good social relationships (i.e., positive relations with others), master the environment (i.e., environmental mastery), grow personally (i.e., personal growth), have a purpose in life (i.e., life purpose), and be able to accept her current state (i.e., selfacceptance). the rosenberg self-esteem scale (rses) was used to measure self-esteem with a reliability of 0.696. the rses has a total of eight items and features five answer choices (5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree). this is an example item statement: “i am able to do something like what other people can do.” the ryff psychological well being scale was used to collect data about psychological wellbeing. this scale features 38 items and uses a six-point likert scale (1 represents strongly disagree, while 6 represents strongly agree). scores on this scale are grouped into three levels, with scores below 76 falling into the low category, scores in the 77–153 range falling into the medium category, and scores above 154 falling in the high category. this scale is based on six dimensions of psychological wellbeing, namely autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations, life purpose, and self-acceptance). the reliability of the ryff psychological wellbeing scale is 0.927. this is an example item statement: “i feel in vain when i achieve a goal in life.” the following research procedures were conducted by the researchers: 1). test the scale of measurement and the module. the data were then analyzed to learn the coefficient of validity and reliability of the scale. 2). select a subject by looking for low-to-moderate self-esteem and psychological wellbeing scores. the researcher assigned qualifying subjects randomly to the experimental and control groups. 3). subjects were asked to complete an informed consent sheet. 4). the intervention process was carried out individually for the six subjects in the experimental group. in the control group, self-esteem and psychological wellbeing scores were evaluated about four weeks after pretest. 5). after administering life review therapy, measurement is carried out again using the self-esteem and psychological wellbeing scales to determine any post-intervention changes. a further follow-up was also performed a month later for the experimental group. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 257-274 data analysis techniques manipulation checks were calculated using the wilcoxon test for the experimental group by looking at the pretest and posttest scores for self-esteem. data analysis was performed by looking at differences between the pretest and posttest scores, which is called the gain score. the mann– whitney test is a procedure for nonparametric statistical tests to determine whether differences exist between two independent populations, whereas the wilcoxon test is performed to test for differences in two paired populations (suyanto & gio, 2017). results self-esteem the first research question to seek the answer is the self-esteem. the results in table 2 show that there are differences in the average pretest and posttest scores for the self-esteem and psychological wellbeing of the elderly retired women. table 2 descriptive data the variable being manipulated is that of self-esteem. manipulation checks were calculated using the wilcoxon test to establish whether there were differences in the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental group. the results of the wilcoxon test for the experimental group are given in table 3. table 3 manipulation check results variable mean z sig. pretest posttest self-esteem 25.50 32.83 -2.201 0.028 self-esteem has a significance value of 0.028 (p<0.05). it was therefore concluded that there was a significant overall difference in self-esteem before and after intervention. this shows that life review therapy did successfully increase self-esteem scores in the experimental group. indeed, variable group pretest posttest mean standard deviation mean standard deviation self-esteem experiment 25.50 2.07 32.83 4.26 control 26.67 2.50 28.67 1.97 psychological wellbeing experiment 130.17 10.89 150.00 14.60 control 130.33 8.07 134.17 6.44 karmiyati, et al. 265 the goal of this therapy is to increase self-esteem in retired elderly women so that it will also improve their psychological wellbeing. psychological wellbeing nonparametric analysis was applied here, namely in the form of the mann–whitney test. this test serves to identify differences between the control and experimental groups, while the wilcoxon test is used to determine whether there is a difference between the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental and control groups. the differences in scores for psychological wellbeing in each group are shown in table 4: table 4 differences in psychological wellbeing group pretest posttest sig. information mean sd mean sd experiment 130.17 10.89 150.00 14.60 .028 pretest< posttest control 130.33 8.07 134.17 4.92 0.075 pretest< posttest the experimental group had an average pretest score for psychological wellbeing of 130.17, while at posttest, it increased to 150.0. the significance was 0.028 (p <0.05), so there was a significant difference in the average psychological wellbeing scores before and after treatment. the control group had an average pretest psychological wellbeing score of 130.33 and a posttest score of 134.17. the significance was 0.075 (p> 0.05), so the differences between pretest and posttest scores were not significant in the control group. the mann–whitney test was used to evaluate the differences in scores (i.e., the gain score) between the experimental group and the control group, and the results appear in table 5. table 5 z score between the experiment and control groups group n mean rank z sig. experiment 6 9.08 -2.486 0.013 control 6 3.92 the results showed a significance value of 0.013 (p<0.05), demonstrating that the difference in the level of psychological wellbeing between the two groups is significant, with the group that received life review therapy having higher psychological wellbeing scores than the group who did not. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 257-274 overall, life review therapy seems to increase self-esteem and consequently psychological wellbeing, because when the self-esteem of retired elderly women increases, psychological wellbeing also tends to increase. the influence of variables x and y was then tested using the kendall tau-b test, with the posttest score for self-esteem and the posttest score for psychological wellbeing, both for the experimental group, being used as variables. table 6 effect of self-esteem on psychological wellbeing variable n correlation sig. self-esteem and psychological wellbeing 6 0.894 0.016 from table 6, the correlation coefficient is 0.894, meaning that x and y have a strong relationship. the value of the regression coefficient is positive, meaning that the relationship between the two variables follows the same direction, so if the variable x increases, the variable y also increases. the significance value is 0.016 (p <0.05), meaning that the relationship between the x and y variables is significant. it can therefore be concluded that self-esteem significantly influences the psychological wellbeing of elderly retired women. follow-up was conducted a month after the intervention for the six subjects in the experimental group, and the scores from this were compared to the posttest scores. the mean score for psychological welfare in the experimental group is shown in table 7. table 7 mean posttest and follow-up scores for the experiment group variable n mean sd psychological wellbeing posttest 6 150.00 14.60 follow-up 154.00 10.62 table 7 shows no loss of the posttest increase, implying that gains in psychological wellbeing from the intervention tend to be sustainable. we can therefore concluded that the subjects were able to maintain higher levels of psychological wellbeing after receiving life review therapy. discussion the results of our experiment show that life review therapy can increase self-esteem, as evidenced by gains in the self-esteem score in the experimental group between pretest and posttest. these gains were significantly better than those seen in the control group. the influence of self-esteem karmiyati, et al. 267 on psychological wellbeing was also found to be strong and unidirectional. based on the results of the data analysis, it can be concluded that life review therapy can improve the self-esteem of retired elderly women, which in turn improves their psychological wellbeing. the intervention stage for the six subjects in the experimental group began by reviewing past events according to the stages of development, namely childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, old adulthood, the elderly, and now. when reviewing and recalling past events that had taken place, the subjects shared experiences that were both pleasant and unpleasant for them. through life review therapy, individuals are likely to focus on both positive and negative events, so they can coherently balance their experiences (preschl et al., 2012). a person’s self-esteem develops from childhood to adulthood according to various experiences. it can be sourced internally and externally. internal sources, for example, include a sense of achieving something in life, while external sources generally come in the form of affirmations from other people or other positive events (guindon, 2010). when an individual has an unpleasant experience, it will affect that person’s self-image, so that it will in turn affect his or her self-esteem. the intervention process increases the elderly’s self-esteem through the reframing process. when a person shows a sense of rejection, he or she is less able to accept events in life and tends to convey the less-pleasant experiences from life. the therapist’s role is then to reframe the event so the subject can see a positive side to it and become more receptive to it. in this study, the subjects showed changes in the reappraisal process when entering intervention sessions that focused on early adulthood and old adulthood. this related to unpleasant events in adulthood while beginning to feel the effects of a more complex life. in the reframing process, the subjects came to see events from the other perspective, thus changing the way the situation was viewed. guindon (2010) revealed that self-esteem has a component that is related to evaluative elements, namely the extent to which individuals assess whether an experienced event has positive or negative attributes. a life review can fulfill individual existential functions and turn them into rich sources of emotions and positive experiences, which in turn can be traced so people are better able to deal with threats to their individual existence (pyszczynski et al., 2010). a study of moral, terrero, galan, and rodriguez (2015) showed that a reminiscence intervention or life review resulted in a significant increase in the rosenberg self-esteem scale (rses) score in the experimental group when compared to the control group. their research studied 34 elderly people who were asked to review life events over eight sessions. through therapy based on a journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 257-274 review of individual events, the participants’ ability to understand increased, and this helped increase self-esteem, reduce levels of depression and helplessness, and improve self-integration or ego integrity (chiang et al., 2010). in the concept of psychological wellbeing, one dimension that plays an important role is individual self-acceptance. in other words, individuals are better able to accept themselves when they can respect their current condition. this is related to self-esteem, which is a general feeling of selfacceptance, kindness, and respect for oneself (herero & extremera, 2010). therefore, if individuals are able to accept themselves, they are more open rather than defensive and better able to improve their psychological wellbeing (paradise & kernis, 2002). theories regarding psychological wellbeing emphasize the use of individuals’ potential to accept themselves and continue meaningful social relationships (dogan et al., 2013). the higher cognitive, affective, and evaluative elements of self-esteem can therefore support the achievement of individual psychological wellbeing and happiness (guindon, 2010). the purpose of a life review is to achieve integrity, while the therapist’s role is to accept, respect, show empathy, and reframe a single event. the process tends to be structured over a lifespan development approach, so it can lead individuals to achieve integrity and improve their wellbeing, wisdom, self-esteem, and life satisfaction (haight & burnside, 1993). an increase in self-esteem and psychological wellbeing of the experimental subjects of this study was accompanied by similarities in how they started participating in activities, both in the environment around their homes and elsewhere. this contributed to the process of finding positive things, thus influencing the evaluation process. retirees with high or low levels of psychological wellbeing are significantly differently influenced by their self-esteem, how much remorse they feel, their life purpose, perceived social support, leisure activities, attitudes related to aging, and household decision-making (neeta sharma et al., 2015). one month after intervention, the researchers followed up on the members of the experimental group to determine if the intervention’s effects persisted. the mean score obtained revealed that the subjects were able to maintain the same level of psychological wellbeing some weeks after the intervention. the increase occurs because life review therapy comprises a nostalgic process that helps protect an individual’s identity, increases mastery over one’s life, and strengthens relational bonds, thus helping the individual to achieve psychological wellbeing (sedikides et al., 2008). in addition, with the support of others, involvement in social activities also plays a role in ensuring karmiyati, et al. 269 the psychological wellbeing of individuals. as stated by steptoe et al. (2015), several factors can improve the psychological wellbeing of the elderly, such as social roles and activities and family and social relationships. there were some limitations in delivering interventions in that some subjects had time constraints, so several sessions were conducted with a time interval of approximately a week before proceeding to the next session. conclusion and suggestions the results demonstrate that life review therapy can increase the self-esteem of retired elderly women. along with the increase in self-esteem, these women also experienced an improvement in their psychological wellbeing. one recommendation for further research is to apply this intervention among elderly subjects with different characteristics, such as those with a chronic illness or those who have lost their partners and live alone. suggestions could be given to such research subjects, as well as the elderly in general, as to how to apply the reframing process or shift to a more positive attitude when dealing with unpleasant past incidents that can affect emotions. health service centers (puskesmas) or private companies could apply this intervention as part of a program for improving psychological wellbeing for retired elderly women. references alwisol. (2009). psikologi kepribadian edisi revisi. malang: umm press. adelmann, p. k., antonucci, t. c., & jackson, j. s. (1993). retired or homemaker. journal of women & aging, 5(2), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1300/j074v05n02 afonso, r. m., loureiro, m. j., & pereira, h. (2011). reminiscence, psychological wellbeing, and ego integrity in portuguese elderly people. educational gerontology, 37, 1063–1080. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601277.2010.500585 allemand, m., steiner, m., & hill, p. l. (2013). effects of a forgiveness intervention for older adults. journal of counseling psychology, 60(2), 279–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031839.supp almira, l., hanum, l., & menaldi, a. (2019). relationship with children and the psychological wellbeing of the elderly in indonesia. sage open medicine, 7, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050312119836026 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 257-274 armenta, c. n., fritz, m. m., & lyubomirsky, s. (2017). functions of positive emotions: gratitude as a motivator of self-improvement and positive change. emotion review, 9(3), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073916669596 beam, c. (2016). antecedents and consequences of psychological wellbeing in old age. the gerontologist, 56(suppl_3), 668. bilbao, m. á., bobowik, m., paez, d., & campos, m. (2008). the impact of a gratitude ritual in subjective well being : an experiment. in xxix international congress of psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.11.003.8. bleidorn, w., & schwaba, t. (2018). retirement is associated with change in self-esteem. in psychology and aging. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315628097-3 chiang, k. j., chu, h., chang, h. j., chung, m. h., chen, c. h., chiou, h. y., & chou, k. r. (2010). the effects of reminiscence therapy on psychological wellbeing, depression, and loneliness among the institutionalized aged. international journal of geriatric psychiatry, 25(4), 380–388. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2350 chin, a. m. h. (2007). clinical effects of reminiscence therapy in older adults: a meta-analysis of controlled trials. hong kong journal of occupational therapy, 17(1), 10–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1569-1861(07)70003-7 chung, j. m., robins, r. w., trzesniewski, k. h., noftle, e. e., roberts, b. w., & widaman, k. f. (2014). continuity and change in self-esteem during emerging adulthood. journal personality social psychology, 106(3), 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2014.371 damirchi, e. s., sadri damirchi, e., ghomi, m., esmaeli, f., & valoii, g. (2017). effectiveness of life review group therapy on psychological wellbeing and the life expectancy of elderly women. iranian journal of ageing, 12(3), 312–325. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.21859/sija.12.3.312 dewijayanti, r. a., & wahyudi, h. (2018). hubungan antara self-esteem dengan psychological wellbeing pada pasien thalassemia beta mayor usia dewasa awal di rs x bandung. prosiding psikologi, 4(2), 1030–1037. dogan, t., totan, t., & sapmaz, f. (2013). the role of self-esteem, psychological wellbeing, emotional self-efficacy, and affect balance on happiness: a path model. european scientific journal, 9(20), 31–42. fatma, s. h. (2019). pengaruh motivasi memaafkan terhadap penurunan tingkat depresi pada wanita melalui forgiveness therapy (tesis tidak diterbitkan). universitas muhammadiyah malang, malang, indonesia. karmiyati, et al. 271 garcia, d., al nima, a., & kjell, o. n. e. (2014). the affective profiles, psychological wellbeing, and harmony: environmental mastery and self-acceptance predict the sense of a harmonious life. peerj, 2(e259). https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.259 gingerich, b. s. (2009). the handbook of structured life review. home health care management & practice, 21(4), 303–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/1084822308326042 guindon, m. h. (2010). self-esteem across the lifespan issues and intervention. in taylor & francis group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203884324 haber, d. (2006). life review: implementation, theory, research, and therapy. international journal of aging & human development, 63(2), 153–171. https://doi.org/10.2190/da9g-rhk5-n9jp-t6cc haight, b. k., & burnside, i. (1993). reminiscence and life review: explaining the differences. archives of psychiatric nursing, 7(2), 91–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/s08839417(09)90007-3 hanayanthi, n.n.t. (2003). perbedaan tingkat harga diri antara pria dengan wanita dalam masa pensiun pada pensiunan bank indonesia (skripsi tidak diterbitkan). universitas sanata dharma, yogyakarta, indonesia hariyadi, s., & putri, r. a. (2012). harga diri pensiunan pegawai negeri sipil di kabupaten kendal. intuisi, 4(2), 94–97. hassan, s. m. u., hamid, t. a., haron, s. a., & ibrahim, r. (2018). a systematic review on psychosocial determinants of elderly subjective wellbeing. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 9(6), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.2478/mjss-2018-0166 herero, v. g., & extremera, n. (2010). daily life activities as mediators of the relationship between personality variables and subjective wellbeing among older adults. personality and individual differences, 49, 124–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.019 hermida, p. d., tartaglini, m. f., feldberg, c., & stefani, d. (2017). retirement, psychophysiological disorders and psychological wellbeing in a sample of argentinian older adults. ciencias psicologicas, 11(2), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.22235/cp.v11i2.1498 homan, k. j. (2016). self-compassion and psychological wellbeing in older adults. journal of adult development, 23(2), 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-016-9227-8 jena, n., das, s., & deo, h. k. (2018). quality of life , psychological wellbeing and depression among elderly: a co relational study. global journal of intellectual & developmental disabilities, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.19080/gjidd.2018.04.555635 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 257-274 kato, k. (2018). cultural understandings of mental health: the role of language and ethnic identity. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 58-83. killen, a., & macaskill, a. (2015). using a gratitude intervention to enhance wellbeing in older adults. journal of happiness studies, 16(4), 947–964. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902014-9542-3 kim, j. e., & moen, p. (2002). retirement transitions , gender, and psychological wellbeing: a life-course, ecological model. 57(3), 212–222. korte, j., bohlmeijer, e. t., cappeliez, p., smit, f., & westerhof, g. j. (2012). life review therapy for older adults with moderate depressive symptomatology: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial. psychological medicine, 42(6), 1163–1173. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291711002042 latorre, j. m., serrano, j. p., ricarte, j., bonete, b., ros, l., & sitges, e. (2015). life review based on remembering specific positive events in active aging. journal of aging and health, 27(1), 140–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264314541699 lee, s., koffer, r. e., sprague, b. n., charles, s. t., ram, n., & almeida, d. m. (2016). activity diversity and its associations with psychological wellbeing across adulthood. journals of gerontology psychological sciences and social sciences, 00(00), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw118 monks, f.j., knoers, a.m.p., haditono, s.r. (2006). psikologi perkembangan: pengantar dalam berbagai bagiannya. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. moral, j. c. m., terrero, f. b. f., galan, a. s., & rodriguez, t. m. (2015). effect of integrative reminiscence therapy on depression, wellbeing, integrity , self-esteem , and life satisfaction in older adults. the journal of positive psychology, 10(3), 240–247. neeta sharma k, karunanidhi s, & chitra t. (2015). determinants of psychological wellbeing among retirees. international research journal of social sciences, 4(3), 19–26. palmore, e. b., fillenbaum, g. g., & george, l. k. (1984). consequences of retirement. journals of gerontology, 39(1), 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/39.1.109 paradise, a. w., & kernis, m. h. (2002). self-esteem and psychological wellbeing: implications of fragile self-esteem. journal of social and clinical psychology, 21(4), 345–361. portero, c. f., & oliva, a. (2007). social support, psychological wellbeing, and health among the elderly. educational gerontology, 33(12), 1053–1068. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601270701700458 preschl, b., maercker, a., wagner, b., forstmeier, s., baos, r. m., alcaniz, m., … botella, c. (2012). life-review therapy with computer supplements for depression in the elderly: a karmiyati, et al. 273 randomized controlled trial. aging and mental health, 16(8), 964–974. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2012.702726 pyszczynski, t., greenberg, j., koole, s., & solomon, s. (2010). experimental existential psychology. handbook of social psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001020 radler, b. t., rigotti, a., & ryff, c. d. (2018). persistently high psychological wellbeing predicts better hdl cholesterol and triglyceride levels: findings from the midlife in the u.s. (midus) longitudinal study. lipids in health and disease, 17(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12944-017-0646-8 ramírez, e., ortega, a. r., chamorro, a., & colmenero, j. m. (2014). a program of positive intervention in the elderly: memories, gratitude and forgiveness. aging and mental health, 18(4), 463–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2013.856858 ratchford, r. g. s. (1993). the effect of life review reminiscence activities on depression and self-esteem in older adults. the american journal of occupational therapy, 47(5), 413– 420. reitzes, d. c., & mutran, e. j. (2004). the transition to retirement: stages and factors that influence retirement adjustment. international journal of aging and human development, 59(1), 63–84. https://doi.org/10.2190/nypp-rffp-5rfk-8eb8 renshaw, t. l., & rock, d. k. (2018). effects of a brief grateful thinking intervention on college students’ mental health. mental health and prevention, 9(july 2017), 19–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2017.11.003 riddick, c. c. (1985). life satisfaction for older female homemakers, retirees, and workers. research on aging, 7(3), 383–393. russell, a. r., nyame-mensah, a., wit, a. de, & handy, f. (2019). volunteering and wellbeing among ageing adults : a longitudinal analysis. international society for third-sector research, 30, 115–128. ryff, c. d. (1995). psychological weil-being in adult life. current directions in psychological science, 4(4), 99–104. ryff, c. d. (2013). psychological wellbeing revisited: advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. psychotherapy and psychosomatics, 83(1), 10–28. https://doi.org/10.1159/000353263 sedikides, c., wildschut, t., arndt, j., & routledge, c. (2008). nostalgia: past, present, and future. current directions in psychological science, 17(5), 304–307. seniati, l., yulianto, a., & setiadi, b. n. (2009). psikologi eksperimen. jakarta: pt indeks. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 257-274 sharif, f., jahanbin, i., amirsadat, a., & moghadam, m. h. (2018). effectiveness of life review therapy on quality of life in the late life at day care centers of shiraz, iran: a randomized controlled trial. international journal of community based nursing and midwifery, 6(2), 136–145. silver, m. p. (2010). women’s retirement and self-assessed wellbeing: an analysis of three measures of wellbeing among recent and long-term retirees relative to homemakers. women and health, 50(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630241003601111 singh, b., & kiran, u. v. (2013). psychological well being during old age. advance research journal of social science, 4(2), 170–174. retrieved from http://www.researchjournal.co.in/upload/assignments/4_170-174.pdf steptoe, a., deaton, a., & stone, a. a. (2015). psychological wellbeing, health and ageing. lancetlancet, 385(9968), 640–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)614890.psychological sugiyono. (2011). metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r&d. bandung: alfabeta. suyanto & gio, p.u. (2017). statistika nonparametrik dengan spss, minitab, dan r. medan: usu press. tandon, m. (2017). a study on psychological wellbeing among elderly. international journal of home science, 3(1), 387–389. vázquez, c., hervás, g., rahona, j. j., & gómez, d. (2009). psychological wellbeing and health. contributions of positive psychology. annuary of clinical and health psychology, 5(2009), 15–27. weiss, l. a., westerhof, g. j., & bohlmeijer, e. t. (2016). can we increase psychological wellbeing? the effects of interventions on psychological wellbeing: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. plos one, 11(6), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158092 wicher, m. (2017). positive psychology: a pathway to principal wellbeing and resilience. education today, 1, 24–26. wu, y., & zhang, c. (2011). the impact of isolation and loneliness on elderly wellbeing. university of applied sciences. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 106-123 106 expatriate experience and the fictional world of diaspora mohammed ilyas1 abstract expatriate writing, diaspora writing or immigrant writing is yet to be established as an independent genre of study. it came into origin as a result of “marginalization” or “hyphenated” existence of such immigrants and expatriates that narrated their traumatic experiences of multiple racial discrimination, ethnicity, nostalgia, alienation and like in their writings. in post-colonial literatures, “the expatriate sensibility” is already accepted as a legitimate literary term like “europeanization.” this study analyses the feasibility of formulating a literary critical theory, exclusively to study and interpret writings showing expatriate sensibility and having the potential of growing into a distinct genre of studies. although expatriation presents descriptions of multiculturalism and marginalized territory in spatial terms, it does not belong to any geographical, political and social boundaries. hence, expatriate studies can be seen as a specific literary discourse or given the distinction of a literary genre much like a work that is called a feminist or a marxist due to its specific literary theory. keywords: expatriate sensibility, genre, literary theory, marginalization. introduction expatriate writings has always been considered as a part of diaspora studies and not an independent genre of study, like other forms of studies such as black studies, african american studies, or ethnic studies. the need to identify it as a distinct form of writing is felt because of the “marginalization” or “hyphenated” existence of those immigrants and expatriates who have narrated their traumatic experiences of multiple racial discrimination, ethnicity, nostalgia, alienation and like in their writings. there is a need to theorize expatriate writings and allow it to have its own critical or literary theory like other writings have their respective critical theories namely feminist, marxist, psychoanalytic or freudian, archetypal or mythological and like that have governed their respective literary works. this need is also much felt when, in post-colonial literatures, “the expatriate sensibility” has already been accepted as a legitimate literary term, 1 department of english, college of science and humanities, prince sattam bin abdulaziz university, saudi arabia email: m.ebrahim@psau.edu.sa ilyas widely used in critical studies on expatriation ideology and multiculturalism and their theoretical perspectives. this research paper prepares a ground to demystify the concept of expatriation, as understood in expatriate writings, mainly expatriate fiction, and which is often associated or misunderstood with diaspora. this paper is an attempt to initiate a literary discourse and a process to formulate an exclusively distinct literary theory for all types of expatriate writings and any literary creation falling under expatriate sensibility, and to devise such generic principles that would differentiate these writings from diaspora. both the terms, expatriation and diaspora, therefore have detailed explanations in this study in the context of a few popular expatriate writings of salman rushdie, bharati mukherjee, v.s. naipaul and michael ondaatje and theoretical writings of gaston bachelard, michel foucault, edward said and homi k. bhabha. the study, first and foremost, in order to theorize the expatriate sensibility, proposes to legitimately consider all such developments of the last few decades reflected in themes and settings of expatriate writings across the globe, irrespective of any geographical, territorial, linguistic or cultural barriers. for instance, it will include the issue of hybridization, particularly in asian-american perspective, white population in south africa, or the chinese immigrants in parts of usa or any such similar immigrant situation locating each within its historical and mythical framework in order to seek their recognition under expatriate sensibility and not left to be generalized under diaspora. this will require looking into the complex issues and challenges in a particular context of hybridization that each expatriate writer has faced and articulated in his or her writings. this step will play a vital role in the theorization process of this new expatriate sensibility and to establish this type of writing as a distinct genre. the expatriate writings do not belong to any geographical, political and social boundaries but it is necessary to confine them to a specific literary discourse as is the case of feminist or marxist studies where each type has a critical literary theory but it is so far lacking in the case of expatriate studies. a major argument elaborated in this study is that there are a number of expatriates, largely from the asian origin, who have been associated with several homelands owing to their colonial status and who have changed places from the indian subcontinent and the far east to different parts of the world rightly to be termed as hybrid immigrants. in the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 106-123 process of this dislocation and relocation, they adapted themselves to new cultures and alienated themselves from their own, hence letting the new situations impose labels of multiculturalism on their identities. this grew rapidly in post-colonial literatures, hence “the expatriate sensibility” or a kind of hybrid consciousness of being the other began to be accepted as a legitimate literary term. however, writings produced by these hybrid immigrants so far have not been given any literary recognition in the form of a critical literary discourse or an independent genre. there are quite a few unresolved questions that have obstructed this process of theorization of expatriation as a literary genre. for instance, in most expatriate writings, the writer’s concept of the “expatriate” does not quite explain the consequences of certain historical movements or geographical and ethnic realities like colonialism in asia, far east, britain and africa or the presence of white population in south africa or the chinese population in parts of the usa or even settler colonies such as the “pied-noir” society in algeria, morocco or tunisia which migrated from all parts of mediterranean or white (european) australians who have ancestral origins in parts of europe and caucasus. questions are asked whether all these immigrants now historically and geographically confined to a territory be classified as an “expatriate” community or a diaspora community, leading to another question to understand whether “expatriation” or “diaspora” is a process or a consequence. the two terms diaspora and expatriation have been used so synonymously that such semantic complexities are inevitable. other terms adding to this semantic confusion are hybridity, assimilation, acculturation or deculturation, and marginalization. it is important to define their semantic jurisdictions and understand their true meaning and application in order to conceptualize “expatriation writings” in its true sense. method problem statement a major challenge to establish expatriation as a literary theory or expatriate writings as a separate literary genre comes from diaspora, an equally strong and popular ideology, a term often used to describe immigrant writings. however, the two terms, ‘diaspora’ and ‘expatriation’ do not mean the same; they differ in meaning and scope and cannot be used interchangeably. diaspora, for example, refers to mass migration of people across continents, ilyas often involuntarily, to describe the colonial ambitions of nations like britain, the slavery trade of the african nations, jewish expulsion from their native lands and their moving out globally and then concentrating themselves to europe and america and subsequently their immigration from those countries to the land colonized by uk which is called palestine, forcing the displacement of the native palestinians from their homeland, an element commonly found in most expatriate writings describing the movement of native population away from their original homelands (ember et al, 2004). the term ‘diaspora’ is also often associated with such forced ethnic migration as a result of formation of nations specifically in central, south-eastern and eastern europe leading to forced relocations of populations abandoning their traditional ethnic native lands including multi-ethnic clusters of population developing into large diaspora of other nations in kazakhstan (ospanov & aliyev, 2015). however, vertovec (1999) associates the term “diaspora” with such sections of population which are ‘deterritorialized’ or have ‘transnational’ identities; which originate from a land other than their current place of residence; which have spread themselves across the globe for social, economic, and political reasons. hence, writings that are termed as diasporic deal mainly with such issues that are more sociopolitical rather than literary. the term ‘expatriation,’ on the other hand, came into existence much later, referring to such individuals or communities who settle down in a country different from the one they were born in; for diverse reasons like a sense of dissatisfaction, an uneasy detachment, a conflict or a protest with the conditions in the home country. expatriation is also often called an exile or denaturalization or renunciation of allegiance by and of one’s country. an expatriate is, therefore, a person who resides in a country, temporarily or on a permanent basis, other than that of his or her citizenship. among individuals, for instance, are henry james who adopted england his home, ernest hemingway who chose paris; salman rushdie who is living in exile; besides, there are innumerable writers like michael ondaatje, zulfikar ghose, bharti mukherjee and v. s. naipaul, a trinidad-born writer having parents of indian origin, who left their ancestral homeland to settle in countries like america, england and canada. examples of expatriate communities are japanese expatriates in jamaica comprising mostly corporate employees. expatriation can thus be defined as a situation in which an individual or community finds itself into two emotionally and psychologically different states, that are geographically and culturally apart. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 106-123 this research paper, however, did not attempt to find similarities and dissimilarities or the relationship between expatriation and diaspora, unlike a few studies that have accepted the two terms as equivalent and unrelated only experientially, calling expatriation as a process and diaspora as one of its consequences. the argument actually taken up by the current author in this study is that the two terms “diaspora” and “expatriate” should be differentiated not so much by the manner of departure/arrival (voluntary vs. involuntary) but by the (im)probability or (im)possibility of return. literature review diaspora or expatriation the diasporic writings portray a diaspora, especially in the postcolonial era, which is often constituted by such immigrant writers that ultimately do not return to their native homeland but instead create a new sort of life in a new homeland. expatriates, on the other hand, tend to eventually return, as they still carry socio-cultural traces of their old life, reflected in their language and reflections. if such a distinction is to be accepted, it would be problematic to classify writers such as v.s. naipaul and salman rushdie who apparently have permanently relocated from their native countries and accepted british citizenship, adding another dimension of citizenship to this discourse. before proceeding further, it is important to decide whether such immigrants are citizens of a foreign country and also expatriates at the same time. this question leads to the argument that voluntary migration may be attributed to the “expatriate” ideology and involuntary migration would characterize the “diaspora.” this argument though creates a binary situation but will prove a first step towards resolving the problem of differentiating between diaspora and expatriation. the two terms may also be distinguished by historical experience and literary production. for instance, the afro-britain or black british literature includes literary texts such as samuel selvon’s the lonely londoners, benjamin zephaniah’s too black, too strong, zadine smith’s white teeth, caryl phillip’s the european tribe, andrea levy’s small island, and several others. all these texts are by caribbean immigrants or their descendants in england and narrate consequences of the 1948 “windrush” migration wave that brought boat-loads of workers from the west indies to work in britain after the second world war. historically, many of these ilyas workers saw themselves as expatriates at that time and intended to return home but most never could. instead, they created a west indian diaspora in britain that is still fully evident today in brixton, soho, and several other parts of london/england. these were expatriates in the sense that their migration was voluntary, but the literature that they produced was unquestionably diasporic as it constituted the historical experience. this dichotomy too needs to be looked into prior to adopting a literary theory for expatriate writings. irrespective of such a dichotomy between the two terms, this study will for the time continue to accept ‘expatriation’ as it is being popularized in literary circles by writers who are themselves expatriates and immigrants, dissatisfied and felt uprooted for one reason or the other. their writings, fiction and nonfiction, therefore represent a struggle for individual identity, and the expatriate writer as an individual caught in ‘a continuum of regression and progression, dislocation and then, relocation.’ they write about the quest for identity, a crisis caused due to frequent ‘uprooting’ and ‘re-rooting’. their writings describe “multiculturalism” and “marginalized territory” in spatial terms, highlighting individuals and communities that are displaced and dislocated; while the native homeland becoming a metaphor in their writings. an apathetic way of life is thus characteristic of expatriate writings that depict individuals disconnected from their roots forcing them to make a difficult choice between two nations, accepting a kind of forced-exile, and often indulging in the “insider and outsider” rhetoric. a common link in all these writings is a strong description of images like alienation, multiple identities, “hybrid vision”, “exoticization”, “institutionalized racism,” or a culture shock and a continuous process for adaptation which protagonists are subjected to in their foreign environments. another development in the expatriation ideology relates to “deterritorialization” (safran 1991; simpson, 1995; cohen, 1997) which has become one of the central forces of most immigrants and was suddenly seen as a transnational phenomenon involving specific nations. for this reason, rushdie (1991) and naipaul (1994) claim themselves as “world citizens,” a euphoric way of describing their state of “global exile” or “deterritorialization.” hence, through their writings they added the state of “global exile” as a new dimension of expatriation. however, doubts must be raised on its being associated with expatriation because there are also refugees or such immigrants who have been exiled or “deterritorialized” from their homeland for varying journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 106-123 reasons, sectarian, personalized, contextual, political and geographical. since, an individual in exile is not only geographically dislocated but also displaced in a socio-cultural sense, a question may be raised whether to redefine and rediscover expatriation; whether to look beyond its conventional meaning and broaden the meaning and understanding of marginalization attributed to expatriate ideology. hence, based on these definitions, the motive of migration should become the differentiating factor: if it is a forced migration and involuntary, compelling people to leave their homeland, sometimes through physical force or due to compelling economic circumstances, it should be understood as diaspora; on the other hand, if it is voluntary and willing, for a well-defined objective, it should be termed as expatriation. while both terms imply removal from one's native country, diaspora gives more the sense of being driven out, and expatriate lends itself more to a self-motivated migration. but as some migration theorists would point out, such a distinction can sometimes be critical because emigrants forced out by warfare may be termed as involuntary; migration compelled by hunger or disease too, may not be voluntary. the voluntary and involuntary binary may complicate the process of theorizing expatriate ideology but this is a factor that cannot be ignored. the expatriate as hybrid immigrant in addition to understand the dichotomy between diaspora and expatriation, there are also terms like hybridity, assimilation, acculturation or deculturation, and marginalization that take their new meanings from the context as well as the writer’s description of the context, ideally to suit the expatriate ideology. in order to theorize expatriation and establish it as a separate genre, it is essential to contextualize each of these terms, in writings and events, and provide ample evidence in order to determine their contribution to making expatriation a distinct genre and paving the path to postulate its own literary theory. hybridity, for instance, is initially a term in biology but now is used to talk about developments in culture. it refers to a kind of state used to describe people and communities growing in more than one space, country or land, so vividly seen in multi-generational immigrant families (tarman & gürel, 2017). a hybrid 'immigrant' thus is an individual who gropes across two geographical lands -on one hand he craves for acceptance and ownership from the country of ilyas his settlement and simultaneously he also yearns for his homeland that he left far behind. salman rushdie calls it 'imaginary homeland;' makrand paranjape considers it an immigrant “clinging to the old identity and a resistance to making a transition” (paranjpe, 2004, 61). these are the images that are reflected from characters of the expatriate fiction and tales. the irony lies in the very fact that a hybrid immigrant, in spite of his permanent settlement in a foreign land, is still generalized as a member of the diaspora community and no effort is made to define the motive of his immigration. the reason seems to be very simple. the first generation of such immigrants had felt always a sense of alienation or rootlessness, a strange fear for survival, a sense of insecurity. they were nostalgic for the past and were not able to forget sociocultural practices, habits and traditions of the homeland. when their second generation arrived, the children born of these immigrants, they experienced less cultural displacement or social differences. however they too found themselves in a hybrid situation, between their country of birth and the country of their origin. such immigrants of second or third generation struggle for their identity as they find cultural assimilation too very difficult in their country of adoption. that’s why the asian immigrants in the usa are struggling to give a shape to their ethnic identity trying to carve it out from the memories of their past and trying to assimilate it with their current experience of the land of america. theirs is a hybrid identity because they wish to be called as asian americans and not members belonging to any diaspora. a major concern of these individuals is finding themselves to be a part of hybridity in a multiethnic culture and yet not belonging to any single culture. assimilation is yet another term used for the act of making non-native individuals accept and adopt a country's native culture -motivating them to adopt the habits related to food, dress and language of the natives. acculturation or deculturation often refers to accepting or adapting to a new culture in a foreign land while painfully leaving behind the original culture that one was born in. marginalization refers to that psychological crisis that an individual undergoes as a result of social discrimination in a foreign land and sees himself separated from the group or mainstream. however, there are issues related the cross-cultural management that has much attracted academic research (heikkinen & pakkala, 2015). data analysis journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 106-123 themes and images having defined the terms, the next stage of theorization is to collect and identify themes and images that could collectively form a corpus and could be associated with the term ‘expatriation’ enabling this research to identify and design a few characteristics of expatriate writings which have undergone several changes in meaning owing to multiplicity in its semantic usage and also having a lot of similarities with the ideology of historical diaspora or the concept of an immigrant or a refugee. in order to theorize expatriate writings and establish them as an independent genre, it is required to focus on the discourse that surmounts fiction and nonfiction, travel writings, and biographies wherein the reader could find such themes and images that would contribute to building up the form and content of a new literary genre. this shall also be discernible very clearly in plot, characters and description of events in these writings. safran (1991) lists a few characteristics of immigrants which inadvertently match with the themes of expatriate writings: 1) personal or an ancestor’s dispersion from a homeland to another country or place; 2) original homeland becoming a myth, part of a collective memory and reflected as a vision on occasions like festivals; 3) treasuring this collective past with the feeling of nostalgia; 4) a feeling of alienation and antagonism for the host society; 5) a feeling that their sojourn in a foreign land as temporary and their native, ancestral homeland as their true home, hoping that their descendants would return some day. similarly, cohen (1997) provides his characteristics of immigrants: 1) traumatic dispersal from original homeland for reasons of trade, work, etc; 2) frequent attempts and development to return to the homeland; 3) idealizing the ancestral home and a continuous attempt for its maintenance and restoration; 4) constrained relationship with the host society due to the lack of acceptability; 5) a collective memory and myth about the homeland with a strong ethnic group consciousness. however, cohen (1997) also mentions a paradigm shift in the meaning and understanding of diasporic studies over the time. cohen sees diaspora first as a metaphor to represent different ilyas groups of diasporic community comprising expatriates, political refugees, alien residents, expellees, and all such immigrants of ethnic and racial minorities. but later, in the post-colonial world, cohen admits diaspora turning into a kind of deterritorialization highlighting nationalities of individual and group expatriates, rather than an ideology. individualized and personalized versions of expatriation from the post-colonial countries spread in the form of writings and nostalgic tales of expatriates finding themselves in a traumatic dilemma expressing typical cravings for the homeland. the term ‘expatriation’ has also been seen exhibiting all such features that several writers and critics prefer to use as their themes interchangeably. these themes include ‘homelessness’ ‘alienation’ (temporary) ‘rootlessness’ and love for the mother country, and ethnic or group consciousness. rushdie (1991) calls his native place as an 'imaginary homeland'. jain (2007) rightly calls the expatriate ‘both an ambassador and refugee.’ her studies on expatriate writings are rooted in her vision that she developed through her readings of both fiction and non-fiction and by carrying out extensive research symposia and workshops on the theme. a major theme of the expatriate writings is the quest for identity caused due to frequent uprooting and re-rooting. the individual protagonist is shown disconnected from his roots, being forced to make a difficult choice between his nationality and a forced-exile and succumbing to a kind of “insider and outsider syndrome.” an anxious sense of “dislocation” and “homelessness” is also another theme of expatriate writings in which the protagonist not only resists assimilation with the new land and culture but also cannot realign himself with his native culture, his own homeland, whenever he finds an opportunity to return to it. he thus not only fails to be an “adaptable immigrant” on the foreign soil but also fails to re-root himself back into his homeland whenever an opportunity arrives, although feeling nostalgic and refusing to abandon his ethnic identity. the burden of the nostalgic past and a sense of guilt are thus aligned together in expatriation. it was only such individual expatriates who formulated the concept “asian american aesthetics” or african–american or black americans which are exemplary of a revolt against being “unselved” by the eurocentric point of view and which led to the development of the expatriate consciousness and their own aesthetics. expatriate writings of last two decades display several journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 106-123 images of trans-migrants or expatriates as protagonists in both fiction and nonfiction portraying these features and themes. the reasons assigned for such a massive migration, dislocation and relocation are financial, political or historical where people migrate for higher education and better employment prospects. in earlier writings, colonization was also one of the reasons. ranjeet kirpal singh in naipaul’s the mimic men, for instance, is one such displaced and disillusioned colonial individual who represents the colonialism that took away his personal identity, sense of belonging to a place, to a nation or to a culture. bharati mukherjee’s two novels jasmine and wife are examples of gender and race discrimination in a diasporic situation. jasmine chooses to identify herself as jane ripple mayer, an american adventurer, asserting this new identity very strongly in an alien world. on the contrary, dimple, the protagonist of wife, is disappointed by her own weaknesses to acclimatize herself with the changed conditions and expectations and eventually rejects her identity of a committed indian house wife and kills her husband. paranjape (2004) rightly sums up her situation as ‘clinging’ to old identity but showing a ‘resistance’ to transformation. both these novels have an autobiographical strain since mukherjee (1977) fought continuously throughout her career against personal humiliation and pain that an individual expatriate from third world countries undergoes in the american culture. she herself struggled hard to gain the status of a mainstream american writer. her works are a reflection and criticism of the dominant american attitudes echoing the colonial mindset. stephen gill, in his novel immigrant (1982), highlights the hybridity of an expatriate, who is groping between two statespast and present, geographical and cultural. raghu, the protagonist, finds himself marginalized, fails to get an acceptance from his host country; develops a yearning to return to ‘homeland' and finally succumbs to a geographical and cultural alienation. discussion issues and challenges expatriate writing encompasses within itself multiple perspectives of culture, spatial metaphors, memory and concept of the self. these writings narrate experiences of those several expatriates in various countries mostly from the asian or far east peninsula who are linked by a common heritage, history and racial descent. this has led to many issues and challenges in recognizing ilyas the expatriate sensibility becoming a literary discourse and carrying the potential of culminating into a genre. one of the challenges before any kind of theorization is to find out how the critical discourse would treat multiple acts of expatriation and whether it would be possible to draw a line of distinction between authentic projections and the “exoticised” or stereotyped ones. for instance, writers like salman rushdie and michael ondaatje have written about subjects “unrelated to their bicultural/transcultural experience.” how do they answer the question of authenticity? or, is this to be viewed as a deliberate creative evasion of the delimiting hold of hyphenated label which they so categorically popularize in their writings? or is it a conscious effort to dissociate oneself with the inbuilt marginalization and rootlessness? expatriation actually focuses on the native land that has been left behind and the expatriate lives on the ex-status of his past. however an expatriate is expected to accept his foreign identity for whatever reasons, including power dynamics and abiding by the new laws. but the real issue is whether he must sacrifice his individuality and native identity in the name of ethnicity and multiculturalism. when bharati mukherjee struggles to be called a mainstream american writer and not a hyphenated individual, she is raising this issue of a kind of schizophrenia that had left her consciousness to struggle between two distinct identities. in her novels and interviews on numerous occasions, she talks so vehemently about the cause of the homeless and uprooted individuals. she is expressing the grievance of the expatriate writer for not having been recognized as a mainstream writer while the social identity as “the other” or “sojourner” is imposed upon her, thus marginalizing her socially and culturally. almost in all her expatriate writings, the protagonist is viewed as an “ugly alien” failing to mold herself into an “adaptable immigrant.” she is thus hinting at the question whether one should see one’s evolution into a sort of “hyphenated” individual displaced not only historically or geographically but emotionally and psychologically, failing to establish a link between one’s authentic self and the collective self -– a schizophrenia surmounting one’s mind and body. bharati mukherjee thus hints at another issue of expatriates being misunderstood and continued to be rejected as the outsider and not being accepted into the mainstream. what should be seen as a sacrifice to achieve a new sensibility, is described as a rejection of native land or original journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 106-123 homeland. the question arises whether it would be possible to decipher the real individual self in such a state of multiple identity, particularly when the expatriate chooses to return to his native place, in order to reordain his natural self or to shed off the overwhelming guilt, but when it happens why there are no pleasures of rejuvenation nor happiness of reconciliation, as has been depicted in most of the expatriate writings. moreover, in a foreign land, when diverse multi-cultural and multi-lingual ethnic groups socialize and empathize with one another, it results in a kind of acceptance of the host country’s culture and diminishes the trauma of being homeless or feeling uprooted from one’s home soil. the issue raised here is to analyze whether it is a willing acceptance or an unwilling compromise or just giving priority temporarily to the expatriates’ larger socio-economic interests over personal freedom. the issue here is to find out whether or not expatriates are succumbing to a kind of “ethnic absolutism,” a term often used to represent the hyphenated integration of ethnic identity with the national identity. in the usa, for instance, even the naturalized ethnic expatriates are officially categorized with hyphenated designation such as african-american, asian-american, jewish-american or indian-american. a question emerges: should this hyphenated integration of ethnic identity with national identity be viewed as “empowerment” or “marginalization”? or a further denomination of the individual self? or “ethnic absolutism” seen in actual practice? it is quite characteristic of expatriation that it cannot transcend racial discriminations nor can it bring harmony between multiple ethnic identities. then, a question arises whether the native land can function as a framework to regulate the transplanted identities within the expatriate sensibility. if yes, it will be much easier to draw prototypes and contextualize it within the genre theory. however, if “expatriation” were to be accepted as a genre under a distinct critical theory, it must be independent of any virtual or actual diaspora. if that situation arises, a question is raised whether to classify it as a temporary or a permanent situation; that is, whether the correlation of an “expatriate” also being a “citizen” of his native land would be understood in the same manner that one could experience being a “citizen” of one’s homeland and also “in diaspora” simultaneously; the latter though being rare and only in exceptional circumstances of dislocation due to war or a global crisis. ilyas there are also a few minor issues that must be addressed to prior to conceptualizing the expatriation theory. first, it is often felt that the indian diaspora in the west is compared with that of the expatriate indians in the asian, african, and pacific regions. a question is therefore raised whether there would be any difference between the expatriate experiences of the asians compared with that of the white europeans in countries like britain, america, and canada. second, there are several narratives that deal with the second generation immigrants and the generations succeeding it, who were born and brought up in the diasporic context. these immigrants try to find out whether there are any differences between their concept of the native land or the homeland and that of the first/immigrant generation in relation to their cultural heritage, particularly when all two or three generations have a common homeland. thirdly, it is necessary to find out why there exist issues of cross-cultural conflicts and ethical dilemmas about the homeland especially related to generations, gender and sexuality shown as much distorted and complicated in most expatriate writings when they could have been handled in productive ways. last, but not the least in relation to the dialectical analysis of diaspora-expatriation dichotomy, elliott p. skinner (1982) argues whether diasporas can be understood only by the manner of departure/arrival or by memory linkages or power dynamics of the colonial type. if that is so, then there should be no historical “english diaspora” in the united states nor any historical “african diaspora” unless these communities like to remain tied to their historical as well as geographical circumstances. would then it not be fair to use the term “expatriation” instead? conclusion and implications theoretical perspectives in order to find answers to these issues and challenges, which are mainly raised due to the rapidly transforming ideology of expatriation, there is a need to reinvent the concept of diaspora or to demystify the meaning of expatriation and attempt an understanding of a distinct expatriate sensibility as having the potential of developing into a genre of studies. there is a need to explore the possibility of legitimizing every new development. there is also a need to study multiculturalism and marginalized territory in spatial terms on which expatriate writings are based and reflected in various theoretical writings of paul bauchelard, foucault, edward said, edward soja and homi bhabha. moreover, there are several expatriate writers whose works journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 106-123 must be analyzed in order to construct a “theory” of expatriate writings. these writers include bharati mukherjee, salman rushdie, michael ondaatje, v s naipaul, rohinton mistry, amitav ghosh, meena alexander, zulfikar ghosh, edward said, vikram seth, sunetra gupta, jhumpa lahiri, and several other young expatriate writers from south asian peninsula and the far/middle eastern and north african countries. their works of fiction as well as nonfiction are often included in the corpus of expatriate writings and must be analyzed under genre studies. a study of their narrative and linguistic strategies of psychological and cultural dimensions of an expatriate writer shall also be a prime necessity in the theorization of this genre. it will be required to rationalize the expatriate writers’ experimentation with language, narrative strategies and handling of the themes and to find out whether such experiments have given rise to a unique style of writing peculiar to an expatriate work of fiction or nonfiction. if accomplished, this will strengthen the efforts of theorizing of the new expatriate sensibility and establish this type of writing as a distinct genre. however, it is alarming to note that even these theories and writings have serious exceptions and objections. for instance, the theory of hybridity, particularly the way that bhabha presents, raises more questions than answers. bhabha argues that all hybrids and expatriates, belonging to different time periods and parts of the world can never be the same, and it is often difficult in reality to discount the significance of historical roots and temporal contexts. similarly, an issue that can be raised is whether calling michael ondaatje, bharati mukherjee, salman rushdie, and v.s. naipaul as “expatriate writers” would be enough to categorize them in that role and whether they would receive lesser literary recognition if they were categorized as “diasporic writers.” a step forward as a next step, there are several critical studies on the expatriation ideology, acculturation and their theoretical perspectives that must be explored. an attempt must be made to legitimize every new development while attempting to theorize expatriation as a literary genre. (vinoda and shailaja, 2002; saha, 1991; said, 1991; skinner, 1982; kumar, 2004; jayaram, 2004; pal and chakrabarti, 2004; tyson, 2006; ghosh, 2002; jain, 2007). moreover, there are volumes of fiction and nonfiction produced every year to fall under the category of expatriate writings but all these works look at their subjects in isolation or have a limited target audience, often confined to a specific geographical region. it is important to accumulate all such works that are similar ilyas to expatriate writings in form and content, and have actually been written as political accounts or socio economic tales that can further help to establish the ideology of expatriation more strongly. it is also necessary to construct an ideological framework for all such kinds of writings in order to rationalize the expatriate writers’ experimentation with language, narrative strategies and handling of the themes. to sum up, expatriate writings cannot be confined to any geographical or cultural boundaries; still spatial metaphors emerge as and when the immigrant writer talks about his homeland, his birthplace, and his roots. the homeland or the native place as well as the margin between the two countries or the two cultures act as a spatial metaphor. the 'expatriate writings' often exhibit this clash of two cultures amounting to a kind of racial or ethnic discrimination, almost synonymous to “ethnic absolutism.” in expatriate writings, it shall be termed as a “sense of loss or alienation” caused by “displacement” or “dislocation” which creates a position of ‘live in between’ or ‘living on the border’ as discussed by bhabha (1990) in his the location of culture. this leads to understanding that the expatriate faces a kind of “bicultural pull” dragging him to a kind of new culture, negotiating with cultural constructs around him and gradually accepting a new hybridity. therein lies the optimism of this research triggering the spark of conducting more research in this direction and contribute to making efforts to establish expatriation as a distinct literary genre supported by an authentic literary theory. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 106-123 references bhabha, h. k. (1990). nation and narration. london: routledge. ___________ (1994). the location of culture. london: routledge. bill, a., gareth, g. and tiffin, h. (1998). key concepts in post-colonial studies. london: routledge. cohen, r. (1997). global diasporas: an introduction. ucl press. dharwadker,v. (1981). formation of indian-english literature, literary cultures in history: reconstructions from south asia, ed. sheldon viney kirpal, the third world novel of expatriation. new delhi: sterling. ember, m. (2004). ember, carol r. ember and skoggard, ian, (eds) (2004). encyclopedia of diasporas: immigrant and refugee cultures around the world. volume i: overviews and topics; volume ii: diaspora communities, ny. ghosh. a. (2002). the diaspora in indian culture, the imam and the indian: prose pieces, new delhi: ravi dayal publishers and permanent black. gill, stephen (1982). immigrant, ontario: vesta. heikkinen, a. & pakkala, j. (2015). the significance of workers proficiency in industries international journal of advanced and applied science, 2(7), 1-8. jain, j. (2007). ed. writers of the indian diaspora. jaipur: rawat publications. jayaram, n. (2004) ed. introduction: the study of indian diaspora, the indian diaspora: dynamics of migration. new delhi: sage publications. kumar, a. (2004) ed. away: the indian writer as an expatriate, new york: routledge. mukherjee, bharati and ranu vanikar (1986) ed. the literary review: writers of the indian commonwealth (summer 1986): 29.4. mukherjee, b. (1977). days and nights in calcutta. new york: doubleday. naipaul, v s (2004) house of mr. biswas, pollack, new delhi: oxford university press. ospanov, a. & aliyev, i. (2015). developing ideas in northern kazakhstan international journal of advanced and applied science, 2(4), 26-29. pal, a. and chakrabarti , t. (2004) eds. theorizing and criticizing indian diaspora. new delhi: creative. paranjape, m. (2004). valedictory address: interrogating diasporic creativity: the patan initative, theorizing and critiquing indian diaspora. new delhi: creative books. rushdie s. (1983). the indian writer in england, the eye of the beholder: indian writing in english, ed. m. butcher (london: common wealth institute, 1983). rushdie, s. (1991). imaginary homelands, imaginary homelands: essays and criticism 1981 1991, london: granta books. ilyas safran, w. (1991). diasporas in modern societies: myths of homeland and return. diaspora. vol spring1991: pp 83-99. saha, a. s. (1991). exile literature and the diasporic indian writer, calcutta university, west bengal, india. said, e. w., (1999). reflections of an exile. biblio: a review of books, volume iv, number 11 & 12. ed. arvind n. das. new delhi: brinda datta, nov-dec. simpson, john (ed.)(1999). the oxford book of exile. oxford: oxford univ. press. skinner, e. p. (1982) the dialectic between diasporas and homelands, reprinted from global dimensions of the african diaspora, joseph e. harris, ed., howard university press, 1982, 17-45. tarman, b., & gürel, d. (2017). awareness of social studies teacher candidates on refugees in turkey. journal of social studies research, 41(3), 183-193. 10.1016/j.jssr.2016.11.001 tyson, l. (2006). postcolonial criticism, critical theory today: a user friendly guide. new york: routledge. vertovec, s. (1999) three meanings of diaspora, new york: routledge. vinod, t. and shailaja ,p. (2002) ed. .the expatriate: indian writing in english .vol. 1, 2, 3.new delhi: prestige books. white, l. (1975) v. s. naipaul: a critical introduction. london: macmillan. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 351-369 351 cross-cultural mediation with refugees in emergency settings: ict use by language service providers anastasia a. atabekova1, rimma g. gorbatenko2, tatyana v. shoustikova3, carmen valerogarcés4 abstract the paper explores the current state of affairs in the language service providers’ attitude and practice regarding the digital tools potential for language and culture mediation with refugees. the issue is considered from the angle of interpreters’ awareness of and competency in using up-to-date electronic tools to support refugees’ language rights in emergency settings in general and at the border crossing points and temporary settlements, in particular. the current importance of the research rests on the global migration tendencies that map a lot of challenges for cross cultural communication with forced migrants and refugees. the paper aims to explore the language service providers’ competence and their aptitude to use digital tools for interpreting in diverse settings, including those related to migration contexts, oral human interaction and language mediation at the border crossing points, in particular. the study integrates desk and field research, includes the analysis of relevant literature and professional sources and further moves to a pilot survey. it involves interpreters with working experience in emergency situations against global migration background. the empirical analysis aims to explore specific preferences and benefits that various tools provide for an interpreter. 111 interpreters from 7 countries were engaged in the survey. the survey strived to identify interpreters’ professional background regarding the skills interpreters’ awareness of digital tools for interpreting process support and interpreters’ attitude to the use of the relevant tools in their professional activities in the settings related to mediation activities for refugees at the stage of their crossing the host country border. the research findings reveal that neither industry nor academia fully responds to the society needs in terms of interpreters’ awareness of and competency in using up-to-date electronic tools to foster the quality of their professional activities in the socially significant areas, related to emergency contexts in general, and to communication with refugees at the border crossing areas, in particular. the research results lead to the list of recommendations to both academia and language service providers to enhance the timeliness, scope, adequacy and quality of their activities with a view to fostering the cross cultural communication efficiency in emergency settings. keywords: cross cultural communication, social communication in emergency, ict-facilitated communication, language and culture mediation with refugees introduction the third millennium promotes the development of smart professional communities within specific domains. centuries-long tradition viewed interpretation from one language into another 1 prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, atabekova_aa@pfur.ru 2 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, gorbatenko_rg@pfur.ru 3 prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, shoustikova_tv@pfur.ru 4 prof., dr., university of alcala de henares, carmen.valero@uah.es mailto:atabekova_aa@pfur.ru mailto:gorbatenko_rg@pfur.ru mailto:shoustikova_tv@pfur.ru mailto:carmen.valero@uah.es journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 351-369 as a purely human activity with no digital devices use except for interpreter's booth equipment. nonetheless, the digital society sets up new realities that pave way to digital technologies engagement in the process of interpreting from one language into another. it goes without saying that ipads, tablets, laptops form part of standard equipment supporting and facilitating the interpreter’s work as cross-cultural mediator in the course of interpreting. interpreting industry widely uses digital resources in preparation for in-booth activities. there are a lot of up-to date relevant glossaries, dictionaries, and sources that can provide necessary information for interpreter’s awareness of specifics in terms of particular professional settings. moreover, both academic researchers in their scholarly papers and professional interpreters in their blogs mention such tools as lookup, interpreter’s wizard etc., that are widely used for glossaries management and the respective data use right in the booth. furthermore, there are examples of promising practices regarding ict and interpreting industries cooperation. scholars confirm the importance of consecutive machine interpreting tools that might be useful in particular domains including healthcare (kelly, 2009), business (wahlster, 1993), academic and educational (byker & marquardt, 2016), other social and technological settings (rashid, 2012). the above list of bright examples does not intend to support the forecast on human interpreters being eventually replaced with digital tools. it is only human interpreters and translators that can ensure quality of language service that is supposed to save human lives and protect human rights. nonetheless, smart society might help interpreters with enhanced technology in case of stressful professional contexts, that interpreters and researchers mention. for instance, interpreting for long-hours and on divers topics with no information provided from the client prior to the interpreting service provision, interpreting in disasters, emergencies, rescue operations, conflict zones etc. can be taken into account as well (bulut & kurultay, 2001; chan et al., 2010) meanwhile, the authors’ informal communication with academia and interpreting community representatives makes it possible to state that recent developments in digital support of interpreting are sometimes not in the focus of the academic curriculum or the latter provides just a general introduction to existing tools without focus on their consistent use in line with particular tasks and settings. moreover, the authors’ engagement in the professional interpreters’ community reveals that atabekova et al. not every interpreter is fully aware of the options that technology and electronics provide for oral cross language mediation. the above situation has led to the research hypothesis that neither academia no industry fully respond to the society needs in terms of interpreters’ awareness of and competency in using up-to-date electronic tools to enhance their professional activities within humanitarian contexts and emergency situation. the research statement argues that the use of ict tools in interpreting should be viewed from the angle of providing interpreting efficiency to satisfy societal needs for language and culture mediation in humanitarian contexts, including the angle of refugees’ language rights support at host country border points. the research goal was to explore the current state of affairs in the language service provision industry and academia regarding the use of digital tools for interpreting in diverse settings, including those related to migration contexts (unscheduled human move, as an example), oral human interaction and language mediation at the border crossing points, in particular. the above goal was reached through a number of tasks. first, relevant literature and professional sources were analyzed to map current trends in the area under study. next, the survey was conducted with two objectives: first, to analyze interpreters’ awareness of digital tools for interpreting process support and, second, to know interpreters’ attitude to the use of the relevant tools in their professional activities in the settings related to mediation activities for refugees at the stage of their crossing the host country border. finally, recommendations were drafted regarding the interpreters’ professional development in terms of ict use. research framework in terms of concepts and theory the research theoretical background is interdisciplinary in nature and includes concepts from various areas of human knowledge. the paper explores the mediation for refugees whose status is define in the uno convention on refugees (refugee convention 1951) though bears in mind the fact of unscheduled human migration. the article headline refers to the concept of emergency societies that suffer from natural disasters and social unrest, unscheduled human move across borders (federici, 2016). regarding the above contexts of human interaction, the present paper uses the wording emergency/ emergency settings/ humanitarian contexts in line with recent terminology (anson et. al., 2017). these situations, among other things, lead to journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 351-369 multilingual repertoires, unpredictable scenarios of interaction among representatives of different language and cultures. the process aims to bridge the diverse communities through the process of cross-cultural mediation that is implemented across continents, in various dimensions, including politics administrative, legal, social, educational, and other settings (hlavac et.al., 2018, keating marshall, bokhorst‐heng 2018). the present research assumes that mediation uses divers tools, including sound, visual, verbal techniques; interpretation and translation are considered as inherent components of intercultural mediation (liddicoat 2016). bearing in mind the digital nature of the modern world the authors of the paper agree that the agenda of human interaction in emergencies may include issues related to computer-aided online (and mobile) applications that “can connect those in need, aid workers, interpreters (cdac, 2014). the present research also takes into account the area of research and practice that develops under the umbrella of “computer-assisted interpreting” (cai) within translation and interpreting studies. scholars use the cai term to discuss tools that are specifically designed to support interpreting activities. the respective studies cover three major areas: research, education and professional practice (russo, et.al 2018). currently scholars distinguish a number of types for cai, including software for terminology extraction and glossary building, soft for note-taking in the course of interpreting, cai tools for training, and other applications (corpas pastor, 2017). researchers state that there is little attention from the language industry, business, universities to the interpreting software capacity and prospects and underline that a lot of theoretical tasks and empirical studies lie ahead (fantinuoli, 2018). however, it seems possible to follow those scholars who use the wording of ict tools for interpreting (winteringham, 2010) as this concept choice provides a broader vision of the phenomenon under study and covers the above mentioned subdivisions. bering in mind the above the concept, interpreters are technology users, and they should be part of empirical and theoretical analysis regarding process, contexts, products, quality issues concerning the ict use in the interpreting activities. this framework of concepts and theory responds to the research statement, goals and tasks. literature review the review of relevant literature reveals that neither academia nor industry produces a unanimous opinion on the technology for interpreters’ support (costa et al., 2014, rütten, 2015). scholars point out rather difficult relationship between interpreters and ict tools (drechsel, 2013/2015). research by d. berber (2006) revealed a rather serious opposition to the use of ict atabekova et al. technologies by interpreters through conference interpreting. according to recent studies on interpreters’ use of technology during an interpretation, 48.12% of the interpreters answered “yes”, whilst 36.84% answered “no”, with bilingual dictionaries and glossaries mentioned as first hand aid (corpas pastor & may fern, 2016, p. 34). regarding the research field, even monographs that pretend to cover ict for both translation and interpretation focus mostly on cat tools for translators and leave little space to descriptions of tools that currently exist at interpreters’ disposal (see, for instance corpas pastor & duran munoz, 2018). the above situation does not look very surprising. scholars explain that challenges to ict developments for interpreters’ rest on the ambiguity and vagueness of oral communication, its spontaneous nature that provides limited opportunities in terms of predictability of language forms choice. nonetheless, there is a number of research papers regarding software for the interpreters to enhance their professional activities’ quality (beagley, 2016; mas-jones, 2016; silva, 2015). serious attention has been drawn to terminology and document management issues for interpreters’ activities (bilgen, 2009; rodrıguez & schnell, 2009; will, 2007; duflou, 2015). scholars have conducted pilot studies regarding digital pen (orlando, 2015) and tablet (goldsmith 2017) use for consecutive interpreting. special emphasis is laid on ict and language localization through interpreters’ work. thus, n. kelly (2009) describes particular tools for remote interpreters who work with divers national variants. as technological background for technology-supported interpreting rests on the automatic speech recognition (asr) there is a trend to consider tools that operate as virtual language assistants. one of the examples is siri apps that can support language translation (lucas, 2017). moreover, scholars look at the prospective of artificial intelligence integration into the interpreting practice (yu & deng, 2015). although most researchers agree that artificial intelligence development have has not yet reached the level of full scale interpreting capacity, the respective tools provide exciting training resources in terms of databases for training and distance learning (remote) activities (lim, 2014). the literature review confirms that both the academia and industry focus on the interpreters’ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 351-369 competence and practice regarding ict use for professional activities (wang, 2016). there is a considerable number of papers regarding the ict tools for interpreters’ training. scholars agree on the ict impact on interpreting environment (sandrelli 2015). the relevant papers focus on various devices (gadgets), tools for corpora driven interpreters’ training and electronic resources (speech repositories, video collections) for interpreters’ selfand classroom learning (fantinuoli, 2017a). to sum up, in terms of academic publications there is vision for digital potential for interpreters’ work support. however, there is no consistent and compatible evidence regarding interpreters’ opinions on ict use through their professional pre-booth, in-booth activities, or during consecutive interpreting. therefore, despite the present research conceptual vision of interpreters as potential subject for empirical and theoretical analysis regarding ict use in the interpreting activities, interpreters’ voices are still on the sidelines. moreover, the issue of ict use in emergencies (o’brien, 2016) with regard to specifics of ict-assisted interpreting in the mentioned context has not become subject to research either. the literature review confirmed the relevance of the research statement, goal and tasks. methodology the research rested on the qualitative approach to the methodology design as the present study aimed to explore interpreters’ opinions and professional practices. qualitative paradigm has been chosen as it allows researchers to go beyond numbers, explore human behavior in specific contexts, focus on planning and policies (gaber & gaber, 2017). methods the methodology combined desk and field studies. the literature review strived to identify current state of affairs and promising practices regarding the use of gadgets and digital software to enhance interpreter’s activities to mediate communication among refugees and host country authorities and communities. the empirical analysis aimed to explore interpreters’ opinions and experience regarding benefits that various ict tools provide for their professional activities. the open-ended questionnaire was designed for interpreters’ on-line survey. the survey was conducted during october 2017-march 2018. the open-ended type was selected as it can provide richer and more individual responses. scholars agree that it is useful in case the researcher is not sure what the responses might be, and atabekova et al. it encourages more detailed feedback (lupia, 2018). the survey list included the following questions.  what ict tools do you use in your interpreting practice? (please, write down concrete the soft)  what are the reasons for choice? ( please, provide free style comments)  did your university course focus on ict tools for interpreting? (yes/no, provide free style comments , if any)  what ict tools for interpreting were you told about and used during your university studies? (yes/no, provide free style comments , if any)  what is your opinion on your degree program regarding the awareness of and competence in the use of ict for interpreting? (please, provide free style comments)  how did you use ict tools in the course of your r mediation activities for refugees and host country authorities at the border crossing points, temporary shelter camps, etc.? (please, provide free style comments) the typeform tool was used as the soft allows researchers to design surveys through conversational data collection methods thus, creating quasi real-life interviewing process, and offers a simple user friendly interface cluster, factor, discriminant types of analysis were implemented to identify statistically significant variables. the spss was used for data processing. respondents profile professional interpreters engaged in the survey. the respondents’ team was built up through on-line announcement and invitation to take part in the empirical research. the respondents’ pool combined professionals who hold university degree and professional certification in interpreting. the invitation particularly underlined that pilot study required those who had experience in working with refugees just making their first steps on the territory of the host country. the variables included age, gender, country origin, length of professional activities, the mode of employment (inhouse or freelancer), experience in various interpreting settings (business, academic, public service, emergency). the selection procedure aimed to balance the mentioned variables. totally 111 respondents participated in the experiment. they represented 7 countries, including austria, afghanistan, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 351-369 greece, italy, russia, spain, turkey. the respondents asked to treat their personal data regarding the name and surname, the university they graduated from, the employer’s details as strictly confidential. the proportion of participants to the survey also accounted for the balanced distribution of the above mentioned variables. research results and discussion the research moved forward with mapping the respondents’ awareness of up-to-date tools to support their professional activities. the interpreters have provided their personal lists of software they use for enhancing their professional activities quality. the respective clusters were identified and are shown in table 1. table 1 clusters characterizing respondents’ views on choosing digital tools for interpreting clusters percentage of respondents who mentioned the tool lookup interpreter’s wizard interpretbank intragloss interplex ue apalon apps google speech translator microsoft translator speech real-time voice translation (translate your world) 79% 71% 63% 56% 54% 43% 41% 41% 32% the links to the above tools are mentioned in the reference list. the factors that influenced the respondents’ opinions covered the interpreters’ opinion on the level of service quality provision for multiple settings ranging from pre-interpreting activities to consecutive and simultaneous interpreting. the factor was mentioned by 100% of respondents (0, 989). another factor covered the tools dependence on the platform. the factor was mentioned by 87% of respondents (0, 876). to comment on the interpreters’ opinions, it is useful to explain a number of points. lookup provides services for commercial use, it allows for management of multilingual glossary management tool for windows. it can be used with visual support during simultaneous interpreting. interpreter’s wizard is a free ipad application that helps to manage and visualize bilingual atabekova et al. glossaries in a booth. the above mentioned tools are up-to date and differ in terms of platform dependence. this factor explains a slight dominance of lookup over interpreter’s wizard due to interpreter’s wizard free ipad application. further discussion provides comments on interpretbank, intragloss, and interplex ue use. the three tools focus on terminology management functions. nonetheless, they differ in terms of service scale provision. thus, interpreterbank has some preferences in interpreters’ views due to three modes it provides: the creation and management of multilingual glossaries (termmode), the analysis of the mentioned glossaries (memorymode), and the opportunity to use the above data during interpreting in a booth (conferencemode). intragloss provides particular grounds for interpreters’ pre-booth activities regarding the performance and comparison of documents and terminology. scholars specify that it is extremely useful to draft and manage glossaries for particular events. interplex allows users to group all terms relating to a particular subject or field into multilingual glossaries that can be searched in an instant. the last four tools (apalon apps,google speech translator, microsoft translator speech, real-time voice translation) provide real-time voice translation (speech –to-speech, and speech-to text) into dozens of languages, depending on a concrete tool. the discriminant analysis identified the respondents’ length of professional activities, (λ= 0,243, χ2 = 4,65, p <0,01), their mode of employment as statistically significant – only in-house interpreters with 5+ yearlong working experience strongly and consistently differentiated the above tools (λ = 0,341, χ2 = 3,65, p <0,02). moreover, 98% of the respondents with experience of working in emergency settings mentioned oral speech recognition tool as compared with only 5% of the interpreters without working experience in such a domain. in this contexts particular emphasis was laid on speech recognition software. as the table shows, the respondents mentioned apalon apps, google speech translator, microsoft translator speech, real-time voice translation (translate your world) tools. regarding the respondents’ reference to these tools, the discriminant analysis identified the respondents’ experience of working in interpreting in emergency settings without any preinterpreting paper support as the statistically significant variable (λ= 0,241, χ2 = 4,68, p <0,02). the above data bring to light evidence related to the automatic speech recognition (asr) incorporation in the interpreting practice regarding humanitarian and emergency settings. earlier journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 351-369 studies underlined the timeliness of asr inclusion in the agenda of language specialists’ training (yu, deng, 2015) and computer-assisted interpreting software (fantinuoli, 2017b). further, the research focused on respondents’ reasons for choosing tools for interpreting. the survey resulted in the list of clusters that are specified in table 2. table 2 clusters characterizing respondents’ reasons for choosing tools for interpreting clusters percentage of respondents who mentioned the item the opportunity to use the tool for multiple/single tasks 100% the opportunity to use the tool for the required working language pair the level of complexity to use the tool 100% 73% the price of the tool 43% the above data confirms that interpreters value the tool efficiency with regard to the level of service quality in various contexts, the opportunity to use the tool for one or for many purposes and the opportunity to use the tool for the required working language pair. the factor was mentioned by 100% of the respondents (0, 989). with regard to table 2 data it is important to take into account the fact that interpreters can be differently ranked in terms of their digital competence. the easier the tool is, the more it is preferred for professional use. this factor was mentioned by 78% of the respondents (0,776). another factor covered the cost of using the listed tools. the factor was specified by 43% of those interviewed (0, 428). the discriminant analysis identified as statistically significant the respondents’ length of professional activities, (λ= 0,547, χ2 = 4,65, p <0,03) and the mode of employment – only inhouse interpreters mentioned the item ((λ = 0,413, χ2 = 3,65, p <0,03). the present findings lay grounds for the argument on the timeliness of moving from the general corpus-based terminological preparation for interpreting (xu, 2018) to specific multilingual corpora for interpreting in humanitarian contexts and emergencies. furthermore, the above data correlates with scholars’ assumptions regarding the importance of multifunctional nature of digital tools for interpreters (prandi, 2017), the idea of digital platform that that could integrate diverse functions and operations supporting interpreters’ work in atabekova et al. various settings (fantinuoli, 2017b). the present survey results confirm the timeliness of this criterion regarding the design and selection of digital tools for cross-cultural mediation in the contexts under study. the next step of the present research was taken to identify the respondents’ views on their degree programs efficiency regarding the incorporation of digital tools for interpreters’ support in the academic curriculum. the findings of the mentioned research stage look rather disappointing (see table 3). the majority of the respondents failed to recall positive input of the university programs they graduated from regarding the respective program relevance. only 21% of the respondents acknowledged their degree program relevance regarding students’ awareness of software and tools that the modern interpreter can integrate into his/her professional activities. and only 17% of the interpreters confirmed their degree program relevance in terms of students’ awareness of settings/tasks for which the tool can be used (see table 3 data). table 3 clusters characterizing respondents’ views on their degree programs support regarding the use of digital tools for interpreting settings clusters percentage of respondents who mentioned the item the degree program relevance regarding students’ awareness of software and tools that the modern interpreter can integrate into his/her professional activities the degree program relevance regarding students’ awareness of settings/tasks for which the ict tools can be used 21% 17% the factor analysis of the above clusters revealed that the above data confirm interpreting industry’s assumptions that graduate interpreters lack both knowledge and skills regarding efficient tools for interpreters’ activities support. moreover, the survey results let the authors argue for stronger requirements to interpreter’s degree program curriculum. the factor was mentioned by 100% of the respondents (0,979). the survey results made it possible to state that interpreters’ classroom activities within the academia environments should be linked to real-life practice. the factor was mentioned by 100% of the respondents (0, 989). the discriminant analysis did not identify any variables as statistically significant. this means journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 351-369 that currently most university degree programs fail to respond to the interpreting industry realities in terms of raising students’ awareness and expertise in the area of digital tools application in interpreters’ professional practice. similar thoughts were mentioned earlier by j. pan (2016), who argued for “situated simultaneous interpreting”. the present research findings confirm the importance of this approach regarding ict use in cross-cultural mediation with refugees in emergency and humanitarian contexts. furthermore, the present survey results support scholars’ statements on the importance of designing specific digital platforms for interpreters’ training and profession al development. earlier pilot tools (see, for instance so-called “3d virtual world for interpreter training” in braun et al., 2013) should be taken into account and enriched through integration of empirical data the final stage of pilot experiment focused on interpreters’ use of digital tools and gadgets during their mediation activities in emergency settings including the situations when they had to mediate among refugees and host country authorities at the border crossing points, temporary shelter camps, etc. the survey results made it possible to identify clusters regarding the ways interpreters use the tools under study for language and culture mediation in the above settings (see table 4). table 4 clusters characterizing respondents’ views regarding the ways interpreters use the tools under study for language and culture mediation in the discussed settings clusters percentage of respondents who mentioned the item terminology management and bilingual glossaries translation of required documents 97% 91% oral cross language communication 42% the above data confirms that interpreters consider the relevance of digital tools used primarily in terms of their professional support at the pre-interpreting stage. the factor was mentioned by 97% of the respondents (0, 961). it is interesting to mention that discriminant analysis revealed as statistically significant the following variables: the length of professional experience (λ= 0,263, χ2 = 3,61, p <0,01), interpreters with less atabekova et al. than 5+ years of working experience made a part of all three clusters, while professionals with over 5+ years of working experience formed mostly the first and the second clusters; the mode of employment (λ = 0,321, χ2 = 2,78, p <0,02), freelancers made a part of all three clusters, while in-house mediators confirmed the ict use within the first two clusters; type of professional certification (λ= 0,351, χ2 = 2,61, p <0,001), interpreters with professional certification without university degree were present in all three clusters, while interpreters with university degree confirmed the ict use mostly within the first two clusters. the research findings enhance previous data concerning interpreters’ views on technology (corpas pastor, may fern, 2016) with latest updates on meaningful variables that explain interpreters’ attitudes to computer-assisted interpreting. among these variables, the type of interpreting settings plays a significant role. this goes in line with the recent statement on the arguments for settings-oriented approach to studies of computer-assisted interpreting (fantinuoli, 2018) that laid general theoretical grounds hereto. the present research findings have shown promise for further discussion on ict use specifics regarding cross-cultural mediation in humanitarian and emergency settings. besides, the research shows that interpreters who have experience in working with refugees in humanitarian or emergency contexts related to unscheduled human move to other countries due to natural or human-made crisis integrate various tools to enhance their communication productivity. this point enhances earlier data on language technologies use in disaster aid (rogl, 2017). to sum up, the interpreters’ survey confirmed the background interpreting community principle according to which technology should matter to interpreters only to the extent it helps interpreters to add value to their clients (downie, 2016), support the interpreter in the face of emerging challenges. winding up the description of the results and their discussion, the findings confirmed the research hypothesis. neither academia nor the interpreting industry considers interpreters’ awareness of and competency in using up-to-date ict tools from the angle of societal needs. the above communities do not consistently integrate ict tools in the institutional discussion on interpreters’ professional capacity in the course of interpreting in socially significant areas, related to humanitarian and emergency contexts in general, and to communication with refugees at the border crossing areas and temporary shelters, in particular. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 351-369 the pilot survey findings helped to specify current state of affairs in the language service provision industry and academia regarding the use of ict for interpreting in diverse settings, including migration contexts, oral human interaction and language mediation at the border crossing points and temporary shelters, in particular. the research on technology-assisted interpreting makes it possible for the authors to specify the following points: there are ict tools that language service providers use to communicate with refugees in emergency contexts there is urgent need for language service providers’ awareness of ict tools for language and culture mediation in emergency settings in general, and for communication with refugees at the border crossing points, in particular it is timely to consider specific language service providers’ skills to use ict tools that are vital for human efficiency in social communication in emergency settings there is lack of academia’ s focus on ict tools for interpreting it is timely to revise academia’s vision at technology use for interpreting as oral mediation in emergency contexts recommendations should be drafted regarding specific content for language service providers’ training to enhance their professional capacity at the border crossing points (as example of emergency contexts). conclusions and limitations the research results made it possible to make some recommendations to the education policy makers, university faculty who deal with academia-based interpreter /mediator training, to the language service provision industry, and interpreters’ community, as well. the university faculty and management should bear in mind the latest developments in digital tools that can be of use and support for interpreters’ work. the research results confirmed the relevance of the analyzed tools inclusion in the academic curriculum for interpreters-to-be. consequently, course directors should renew the educational aids not only regarding the date of their publication but also taking into account the technological advance in the area under study. constant consultation with the industry representatives (or even their involvement in the training process) should become a standard practice for academic training. moreover, the research findings allow for specifics of the curriculum particular requirements atabekova et al. regarding interpreters’ training. thus, we would like to offer the development of a course on the latest developments in the software for interpreters. the course should go beyond generalized narrations on the new digital tools. the above course is expected to provide a specific list of software that can support interpreting process and train students in using the relevant tools. such a vision requires higher and up-to-date level of the trainers’ professional competence. the research findings confirmed the importance of the curriculum that should integrate technology-enhanced training, research, and the industry requirements. specific emphasis should be laid on integrating high-efficiency and multi-functional digital solutions for interpreters into the list of educational aids. the relevant tools are expected to be easily tailored for various event settings. particular attention should be drawn to those tools that can provide for the interpretation being delivered straight to mobile devices. the research outcomes have theoretical relevance and practical value. the theoretical importance results from the research contribution to the methodological instruments for further studies of social communication in emergency settings of multicultural community members’ interaction. the research data provides broader understanding of the concept of social communication in emergency settings with regard to emerging communication practices and contexts, including ict –facilitated interaction with refugees at border crossing points. the practical importance stems from the fact that research materials can be used by national agencies that deal with refugees for designing guides to use digital tools for professional activities regarding refugees’ arrival and settlement management, possible use of the data obtained for the development of training courses for language service providers, etc. the present research mapped preliminary trends and general tendencies regarding the ict use for communication with refugees in emergency settings. further research is required in terms of different target audiences involved, software used in different geographical regions and communication settings, for interpreting within different particular language pairs. acknowledgements the authors express their deep gratitude to the interpreters who agreed to take part in the empirical studies and the survey as interpreting for refugees is a really sensitive issue bearing in mind the strict regulation of interpreter’s professional code of ethics in terms of personal data nondisclosure. the publication was prepared as part of rudn university program 5-100, research project journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 351-369 № 090511-2-000. references anson, s., watson, h., wadhwa, k., metz, k. (2017). analysing social media data for disaster preparedness: understanding the opportunities and barriers faced by humanitarian actors. international journal of disaster risk reduction, 21, 131-139. apalon apps. https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/speak-translate-translator/id804641004?mt=8 beagley, j. (2016). tools for translators & interpreters. url: http://jonathanbeagley.com/2016/03/31/tools-for-translators-and-interpreters/ berber, d. (2006). ict in conference interpreting. in: conference proceedings of contrapor 2006, 1st portuguese translation conference “a tradução especializada: um motor de desenvolvimento” (cdrom), caparica (lisbon), portugal, 161-169. bilgen, b. (2009). investigating terminology management for conference interpreters. ma dissertation, canada, university of otawa. braun, s., slater, c., gittins, r., ritsos, p.d., roberts, j. c. (2013). interpreting in virtual reality: designing and developing a 3d virtual world to prepare interpreters and their clients for professional practice. in: kiraly d., hansen-schirra s., maksymski k. (eds.). new prospects and perspectives for educating language mediators, tuebingen: gunter narr. bulut, a., kurultay, t. (2001). community interpreting in the process of disaster management. the translator, 7(2), 249-263. byker, e.j., marquardt, s.k. (2016). using critical cosmopolitanism to globally situate: multicultural education in teacher preparation courses. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 30-50. cdac (2014).communicating with disaster affcted communities network. mission statement. available at: http://www.cdacnetwork.org/ . chan, y.f., alagappan, k., rella j., bentley s., soto-greene m., martin, m. (2010). interpreter services in emergency medicine. the journal of emergency medicine, 38(2), 133-139. corpas pastor, g., may fern, l. (2016). a survey of interpreters’ needs and their practices related to language technology. technical report. spain: malaga, universidad de malaga. corpas pastor, g. (2017). vip: voice-text integrated system for interpreters. translating and the computer 39. switzerland: geneva, editions tradulex,7-10. http://jonathanbeagley.com/2016/03/31/tools-for-translators-and-interpreters/ http://jonathanbeagley.com/2016/03/31/tools-for-translators-and-interpreters/ atabekova et al. corpas pastor, g., durán muñoz, i. (2018).assessing terminology management system for interpreters, 57-84, in. trends in e-tools and resources for translators and interpreters, the nertherlands, leiden, brill, 266 p. costa, h., corpas pastor, g.c., durán muñoz, i. (2014). technology-assisted interpreting. multilingual 143, 25(3), 27–32. downie, j. (2016). being a successful interpreter. uk: routledge. drechsel, a. (2013/2015). interpreters versus technology: reflections on a difficult relationship: parts 1 and 2” (international association of conference interpreters). url: https://aiic.net/page/6640/interpreters-versus-technology-reflections-on-a-diffi/lang/1 duflou, v. (2015). be(com)ing a conference interpreter-an ethnography of eu interpreters as a professional community. eu bridge project. url: https://www.eu-bridge.eu/ federici, f. m. (2016). introduction: a state of emergency for crisis communication. mediating emergencies and conflicts. uk, palgrave macmillan, 1-29. fantinuoli, c. (2017a). computer-assisted preparation in conference interpreting. translation & interpreting, 9(2), 24-37. fantinuoli, c. (2017b). speech recognition in the interpreter workstation. url: http://www.staff.uni-mainz.de/fantinuo/download/ fantinuoli, c. (2018). computer-assisted interpreting: challenges and future perspectives. trends in e-tools and resources for translators and interpreters, the nertherlands, leiden, brill, 266 p, pp 153-174. gaber, j., gaber, s. (2017). qualitative analysis for planning & policy: beyond the numbers. usa-uk: new yorkoxon: routledge. goldsmith, j. (2017). a comparative user evaluation of tablets and tools for consecutive interpreters, translating and the computer 39. switzerland: geneva, editions tradulex, 40-50 google speech translator. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.ticktalk.translatevoice&hl=en hlavac, j., gentile, f., orlando, m., zucchi, e., pappas, a. (2018). translation as a sub-set of public and social policy and a consequence of multiculturalism: the provision of translation and interpreting services in australia. international journal of the sociology of language, 251, 55-88. https://aiic.net/page/6640/interpreters-versus-technology-reflections-on-a-diffi/lang/1 https://www.eu-bridge.eu/ http://www.staff.uni-mainz.de/fantinuo/download/ https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.ticktalk.translatevoice&hl=en journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 351-369 keating marshall k, bokhorst‐heng, w.d. (2018).”i wouldn't want to impose!” intercultural mediation in french immersion. foreign language annals;51, 290–312. kelly, n. (2009). moving toward machine interpretation. url: http://www.tcworld.info/emagazine/translation-and-localization/article/moving-towardmachineinterpretation/ liddicoat, a.j. (2016).translation as intercultural mediation: stting the scene, perspectives, 24:3, 347-353. lim, l. (2014). the role of machine to interpreting: tutors or tools? in: man vs. machine? the future of translators, interpreters and terminologists. bdü fachverlag, 232-238. lucas, m. (2017). siri gets language translation and a more human voice. techcrunch. aol. lupia, a. (2018). the palgrave handbook of survey research. the netherlands, springer. mas-jones, e. (2016) developments in interpreting technologies. multiligual, january/february, 26-29. microsoft translator speech. https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/translator/speech.aspx o’brien, s. (2016). training translators for crisis communication: translators without borders as an example. mediating emergencies and conflicts, palgrave macmillan, pp. 85-111 orlando, m. (2015). digital pen technology and interpreting training, practice and research: status and trends. interpreter education in the digital age: innovation, access and change, usa: washington dc, gallaudet university press, 125-152. pan, j. (2016). linking classroom exercises to real-life practice: a case of situated simultaneous interpreting learning. the interpreter and translator trainer, 10(1), 107-132. prandi, b. (2017). designing a multimethod study on the use of cai tools during simultaneous interpreting. translating and the computer 39. switzerland: geneva, editions tradulex,76113. rashid, r. (2016). speech recognition breakthrough for the spoken, translated word. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a2vlpahefge real-time voice translation (translate your world). www.translateyourworld.com/ refugee convention (1951). http://www.unhcr.org/1951-refugee-convention.html rodrıguez, n., schnell, b. (2009). a look at terminology adapted to the requirements of interpretation, language update, 6(1), 21–27. http://www.tcworld.info/emagazine/translation-and-localization/article/moving-toward-machineinterpretation/ http://www.tcworld.info/emagazine/translation-and-localization/article/moving-toward-machineinterpretation/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a2vlpahefge atabekova et al. rogl, r. (2017). language-related disaster relief in haiti. volunteer translator networks and language technologies in disaster aid, pp231-258 in: r., antonini, l. cirillo, l.rossato, i.torresi (eds). non-professional interpreting and translation: state of the art and future. the netherlands: john benjamins. russo, m., bendazzoli, c., defrancq, b. (eds.) (2018). making way in corpus-based interpreting studies. switzerland ag, springer nature. rütten, a. (2015). perspectives: digital dementia and conference interpreters, multilingual, september, 24-36. sandrelli, a. (2015). becoming an interpreter: the role of computer technology. monti. monografías de traducción e interpretación 2, 111-138. silva, c. (2015). tools and toys for ‘terps: a quick stroll through the app store’, the voice of interpreters and translators. the ata, sept/oct 2015, vol. xliv. url: https://www.academia.edu/16236971/technology_in_interpretation_apps_for_interpreters typeform. www.typeform.com wahlster, w. (1993). verbmobil. translation of face-to-face dialogs. in: herzog, o., christaller, t., schütt, d. (eds) grundlagen und anwendungen der künstlichen intelligenz. berlin: springer. 393-402. wang, p. (2016). interpreter competence and practice. multilingual, january/february. url: https://multilingual.com/all-articles/?art_id=2310 will, m. (2007). terminology work for simultaneous interpreters in lsp conferences: model and method. in: proc. of the marie curie euroconferences mutra: lsp translation scenario, eu-high-level scientific conference series. vienna, austria. winteringham, s.t. (2010). the usefulness of icts in interpreting practice. the interpreters’ newsletter, 15, 87–99. xu, r. (2018). corpus-based terminological preparation for simultaneous interpreting. interpreting, 20:1, 29-58. yu, d., deng, l. (2015). automatic speech recognition: a deep learning approach. springer, london. https://www.academia.edu/16236971/technology_in_interpretation_apps_for_interpreters https://multilingual.com/all-articles/?art_id=2310 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 270-293 coping stress as a form of islamic education counseling for students who work during the covid-19 pandemic abdurrahman1*, saiful akhyar lubis2,, sahrul tanjung3, siti hawa lubis4 abstract the research aims to investigate the stress symptoms of students studying while working while online learning affected by covid-19 is ongoing and coping strategies as a form of islamic education counseling. the research approach uses descriptive qualitative data collection techniques through semi-structured interviews, observations, and documentaries. the results showed that the symptoms of stress experienced were in the form of irregular sleep, blood pressure, stomach acid, irregular eating patterns, feeling depression. the main source of stress is due to tasks that collide between college assignments and work assignments. less than optimal in doing college assignments due to responsibilities at work. the findings also show that after students received islamic counseling, participants experienced lower levels of stress than before. islamic education counseling in the form of services containing spiritual guidance sourced from the qur'an and hadith as a form of stress coping strategy (emotional focused), seeks to relieve individual emotions caused by stressors (sources of stress) or regulate emotional responses to stress. without trying to change a situation that is a direct source of stress. the expected implication is that stress coping strategies through islamic counseling can relieve stress symptoms in students so that they are expected to be maximal in learning to achieve a better future. keywords: coping stress, islamic counseling, students, covid-19 introduction a big phenomenon has occurred in 2020, namely the covid-19 pandemic. several countries have taken the decision to carry out large-scale regional restrictions in order to reduce exposure to the covid virus, especially in indonesia itself and the indonesian government has made a policy to break the chain of spread of the covid-19 virus where all people follow health protocols such as keeping distance, washing hands, wearing masks, and hand sanitizer (pradana et al., 2020). areas with high levels of covid-19 are ordered to carry out restrictions in their territory, in addition to 1lecture of universitas islam negeri sumatera utara, medan indonesia. abdurrahmanuinsu@gmail.com . * corresponding author 2 lecture of universitas islam negeri sumatera utara, medan indonesia. 3 expert staff regent of pemerintah kabupaten tapanuli selatan, indonesia. 4 lecture of universitas medan area, medan indonesia. mailto:abdurrahmanuinsu@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 271 offices, factories, schools, colleges, and shopping centers to be temporarily closed (palindangan, 2020). due to this virus, people's activities have been disrupted so they have to stay at home to break the chain of spreading the covid-19 pandemic (siahaan, 2020). initially, the economic world was the most affected by the spread of covid-19, but now the world of education is also feeling the impact. with this situation, many affected countries have decided to cancel face-to-face learning activities, including in indonesia, and replace them with distance or online learning (hasanah et al., 2020; tarman, 2020). the challenges of learning and implementing online lectures have received many complaints from students ranging from stress, the body becomes sick, and boredom due to the pressure of daily tasks (jaradat & ajlouni, 2021; sobirin, 2020; subedi & subedi, 2020). in addition, it is difficult to understand the material delivered by lecturers or during presentations, as well as the number of assignments given, and the cost of quotas for internet which is quite high (asmuni, 2020). however, what happens the most is when students live in areas that have unstable internet networks or are difficult to access the internet (muhajir, 2020). these things eventually cause stress among students. stress is an individual's adaptive response to a situation which is a stimulus that is received as a challenge or threat to its existence. this condition will make a person experience panic, worry, fatigue, anxiety and even depression, at the same time stress is also a situation where a demand exceeds the individual's capacity to respond and has the potential to have negative physical psychological consequences (abouammoh et al., 2020). from a previous study, it was formulated that many students experienced moderate stress due to the effects of online lectures (harahap et al, 2020). changes in online lectures that have an impact on psychology have made students not fully able to adapt their learning patterns to the demands of online lectures. the impact obtained is also the effect of the learning outcomes (fitriasari et al., 2020). the way to reduce or avoid the impact of stress is by coping with stress. in this case, many students ask for counseling services to lecturers of islamic counseling guidance to help overcome or provide guidance on their emotional development and mental health which is often unstable. moreover, islamic counseling is more directed to the context of al-irsyad al-nafs which is defined as psychological guidance, a term that is quite clear in its content and can even be used more widely (mubarok, 2000). it can be understood that islamic counseling is a mental-spiritual assistance where it is hoped that through abdurrahman et al. the strength of faith and devotion to god a person is able to overcome the problems they are facing (khan, 2021). stress coping strategies can involve behavioral strategies, as well as psychological strategies for individuals, therefore a good stress coping strategy will have a positive impact on oneself and can minimize stress that occurs (hanifah et al., 2020). each student certainly has a strategy in dealing with online lectures, it's just a matter of how to direct and commit to running it so that the goal of minimizing stress will be successful. for students who study while working, a good stress coping strategy is needed, because in addition to the demands of college assignments, there are also responsibilities that are borne in their work. it is stated in a research result that 51.2% of students use stress coping strategies well, which indicates that a good stress coping strategy will direct their abilities and efforts to overcome the problems they face. this shows that it is very important to deal with stress that students must have during online lectures during the pandemic. when viewed from the psychological/ mental aspect, it will cause stress and reduce productivity and discipline. of course, to reduce stress/mental disorders, students need to be handled through islamic counseling or spiritual counseling (lubis, 2011; jafari, 2016). this is expected to reduce the stress level of students during online lectures during the pandemic. based on previous research studies, little research has been found on the impact of coping with stress through the perceptions of students who are studying while working and there are still few research studies on stress coping strategies using qualitative methods. furthermore, this study will discuss how the perspective of islamic counseling in an effort to cope with stress for online college students during the pandemic will be discussed. research questions from the background of the problem that has been put forward by the researcher, the formulation of the research problem is raised by focusing on two themes, namely stress coping and islamic counseling. the following is the formulation of the research problem: 1. what are the causes of stress symptoms based on the perceptions of students working during the covid-19 pandemic? 2. how would cope with stress as a form of islamic education counseling for students working during the covid-19 pandemic? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 273 literature review coping stress coping stress is where an individual tries to reduce the existing pressure. this defense concept generates positive emotions in coping (folkman & moskowitz, 1984). the purpose of coping with stress is also to minimize pressure and overcome the problems that occur (maryam, 2017). there are two forms of coping with stress, namely, first, problem focused, which is done by regulating or changing things that cause distress, and secondly, emotion focused, which is done by regulating emotional reactions that arise when problems come (lyon, 2011). these forms of stress coping can be used by students as a strategy in dealing with or reducing the stress effects of online lectures (brougham et al., 2009; fornés-vives at al., 2016). the concept of psychosocial stress is reviewed in relation to empirical findings of the effects of various aspects of human life. therefore, stress coping efforts are needed in stressful situations (scheier et al., 1986). cognitive emotions are related to stress (iswinarti et al., 2020). unfulfilled expectations and psychological stress increase stress (folkman & dickinson, 2010). in his consideration, for all types of stimuli, individual response differences are very important. these elements are involved in individual differences including personal characteristics, vulnerabilities, and important factors as well as the individual's cognitive assessment of the event and efforts to overcome it (rutter, 1981). in previous research, there are several stress coping strategies that can be used, namely, there are those that focus on solving problems, including planful problem solving, confrontative and seeking social support for instrumental reason and those that focus on controlling emotional responses, including distance; escape/avoidance. positive reappraisal, self-control, acceptance of responsibility, and seeking social support for emotional reasons (jonathan & herdiana, 2020). islamic counseling for the education of the ummah islamic counseling is believed to be a mental health service and education for muslims in carrying out activities in the world (lubis, 2011). there is no specific definition of the islamic approach related to the notion of counseling in the islamic world, it can only be understood that islamic counseling is an activity of providing guidance, teaching, and guidance to students who can develop the potential of mind, psyche, faith and individual beliefs (hanin hamjah & mat akhir, 2014). as well as being able to overcome problems in the family, school, and community properly abdurrahman et al. and correctly independently based on the al-quran and al-hadith (firdaus, 2021). in another sense, islamic counseling is a process of providing assistance to individuals to be aware of their existence as god's creatures who should live in harmony with god's provisions and instructions, so that they can achieve happiness in the world and in the hereafter (musnamar, 1992). islam and counseling are models of practice in muslim communal life. the principles applied in the practice of islamic counseling in the education of the people consist of fourteen kinds (zakaria & mat akhir, 2017). the first is the principle of fitrah, namely various innate potential abilities and tendencies as muslims. therefore, assistance to clients is aimed at understanding and knowing more deeply about their nature as humans so that they are able to achieve happiness in the world and the hereafter. so that his behavior and actions can be in line with his nature. second, the principle of 'lillahi ta'ala' which is solely because of allah swt. the consequence of this principle is to carry out coaching with full sincerity, without any strings attached while those who receive guidance must sincerely accept the guidance. third, the principle of lifelong guidance because humans will always encounter various difficulties and problems in their lives. fourth, the principle of physical-spiritual unity, namely not seeing it as purely biological or spiritual, but as a single entity. fifth, the principle of spiritual balance as the ability to think, feel and understand the will of lust and reason. sixth, the principle of individual progress who has the right to personal independence as a consequence of his rights and his spiritual potential fundamental abilities. seventh, the principle of human association, namely the recognition of individual rights within the limits of their social responsibilities. eighth, the principle of the human caliphate as a creature of god who must serve him (sudan, 2017). the principle of harmony and justice where islam requires harmony, harmony, balance, harmony in all dimensions of life. humans must be fair to personal rights, other people, and the universe. tenth, the principle of building akhlaqul karimah as a noble character. islamic counseling helps clients in maintaining and developing good and right human traits. eleventh, the principle of compassion, where islamic counseling is required to be based on the values of compassion for fellow human beings so that the counseling carried out can be successful. twelfth, the principle of mutual respect and respect in accordance with his position as the caliph of allah. thirteenth, the principle of deliberation means that between the counselor and the client there is dialogue or good communication, not because of pressure or coercion from others. the last is the principle of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 275 expertise where counselors have professional expertise in their fields both in the methods and techniques used (othman & mohamad, 2019). the technique used is outward and inward which is carried out by a bahli in islamic counseling guidance or known as islamic counseling teacher or counselor. as one component of islamic education in schools, especially in islamic madrasahs and universities, islamic counseling is intended as an effort to develop the personality and potentials such as individual talents, interests, and abilities (nasir, 2020; sumari & baharudin, 2016). the level of personality and individual abilities is a picture of the quality of the individual. personality concerns behavioral problems or mental attitudes. ability includes academic problems and skills. because of this, it is important to conduct counseling for students as a form of service that not only strives for a healthy mental and happy life, but also towards sakinah's life. the impact is that the mind feels calm and peaceful because the individual feels close to his lord. method research design the research used descriptive qualitative. this study focuses on investigating the role of coping with stress as a form of islamic education counseling for students at universities in indonesia who work during the covid-19 pandemic. the emphasis of the theme consists of two kinds, namely: 1) coping with stress; 2) islamic counseling. a qualitative approach was carried out to collect all the data that had been obtained either through observation, interviews, and documentation. while the analysis focused on what was conveyed by the participants in this study and data from observations and literature studies. the steps of data analysis with a qualitative approach as proposed bymiles, huberman, & saldaña (1994)guide this research. participants the participants in this study were 34 people consisting of 30 islamic college students, north sumatra and 4 counselors (islamic counseling supervisors). participants were selected using the purposive sampling method, namely selecting objects that meet the criteria and to ensure that the participants really have experiences and views that are in accordance with the research theme. the criteria for students are muslim students who study while working part-time, have attended islamic counseling education programs for prospective undergraduates and experience higher stress levels abdurrahman et al. than students who do not work part-time. while the criteria for counselors are islamic counseling supervisors who have provided guidance in undergraduate counseling programs for muslim student clients who work part-time. from these criteria, participants are obtained with details, as shown in table 1. table 1 participant description variable characteristica frequency percentage (%) gender male female 21 13 61,76 38,23 age group 26-35 years old 36-50 years old 51 years old & above 16 15 3 47.05 44,11 8,82 participant konselor mahasiswa 4 30 11,76 88,2 data and sources of data the study used two data sources. the main data was obtained through primary sources using the participant interview method. secondary data are in the form of documents obtained from journals and scientific books that are relevant to the theme. table 2 types of data based on research themes theme data focus primary data secondary data stress symptoms symptoms and causes of stress interview about the symptoms of stress experienced by participants (students) and their causes (counselors) 1. documents in the form of counselor notes related to the client's symptoms and causes of stress 2. scientific books and journals coping stress problem-focused coping, coping mechanisms, and stress coping strategies interview by listening to experience (students) and knowledge of participants (counselors) 1. documents in the form of counselor notes related to stress coping mechanisms and stress coping strategies 2. scientific books and journals islamic counseling the basic concept of islamic counseling interview by listening to the experience of islamic counseling from participants (students) and knowledge of participants (counselors) on the basic concepts of islamic counseling 1. documents in the form of counselor notes related to the basics and principles of islamic counseling 2. scientific books and journals journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 277 instruments the researcher developed his own instrument based on the literature study obtained. the type of instrument used in this research is a written interview guide which contains a list of questions that contain the research theme and the flow of the conversation as a guide for controlling. the researcher interview guide is an online interview consisting of three themes and 9 aspects, arranged as a grid of instruments, following each of the aspects studied: a) the theme of stress symptoms with its aspects being the causes and symptoms of stress experienced by students; b) the theme of coping with stress with four aspects, namely physical symptoms, psychological symptoms, problem-focused coping, and emotional-focused coping; and c) the theme of islamic counseling is emphasized on three aspects, human attitudes as god's creatures, attitudes that are in accordance with religious rules, and efforts that allow them to be used optimally. the instrument grid is used as a guide in making question items based on aspects and problem formulations so that it is possible to obtain the required information. in the instrument for participants, the recording process is carried out using a notebook and recorded online with the help of the good meet application. in order to make valid field notes, each question item posed must be understood by the participants. the results of this instrument were used to assess the responses of the participants. the feasibility of the instrument has gone through an assessment process from experts in the field of islamic counseling. the researcher distributed instrument validation sheets which were compiled and contained a checklist of conformity with the agreed and disagreed criteria for each indicator and question item from three research themes (stress coping, stress symptoms, and islamic counseling). in addition, a corrective note column is also provided which aims to provide suggestions and input for the improvement of the developed instrument. then the validation sheet was given to the experts consisting of 3 counselors to review the suitability of the question items with the research objectives. as for the results of expert reviews, researchers used 8 aspects of the 9 suggested aspects, consisting of; a) aspects for stress symptoms are the causes and symptoms of stress experienced by students; b) aspects for coping with stress, namely physical symptoms, psychological symptoms, and problem-focused coping; and c) aspects for islamic counseling, namely the attitude of humans as creatures of god, attitudes that are in accordance with religious rules, and efforts that allow them to be used optimally. after going through an expert validation abdurrahman et al. assessment, the instrument that has been reviewed is then used as an interview guide.the participant interview instrument is as shown in table 3. table 3 instrument questions rq1: what are the causes of stress symptoms based on the perceptions of students who work during the covid-19 pandemic? stress symptoms 1. what are the symptoms of stress experienced during the covid-19 pandemic? 2. what are the causes of stress symptoms experienced? rq2: how would cope with stress as a form of islamic education counseling for students working during the covid-19 pandemic? coping stress 1. what are the problem-focused coping that you feel? 2. what are the efforts to overcome the source of stress? 3. what are your coping strategies for stress symptoms? islamic counseling 1. why is islamic counseling needed? 2. what is your experience with coping with stress as a form of islamic counseling? 3. how was your experience after attending islamic counseling? data collection procedures data collection refers to observations, interviews, and documents. a. observation first, data collection was carried out by online observation by observing participants live using the google meet application. researchers do not participate in activities carried out by participants, where researchers only place themselves as spectators to make observations so that the accuracy of the data can be guaranteed. the collection of observational data focused on three things, namely: 1) observations related to stress and stress coping strategies used by participants in dealing with college and work stress; 2) islamic counseling conducted by counselors to their clients (students who work part-time); and 3) actors, namely participants or students who conduct islamic counseling. b. interviews second, data collection through interviews. through the online interview process using the whatsapp application, the type of interview used is a semi-structured interview. this study uses thematic data analysis techniques. thematic analysis is defined as a method for identifying, analyzing patterns from various information that has been collected from the results of interviews obtained from participants. the researcher interview guide is an online interview consisting of 8 question items to be able to represent each theme consisting of: 2 question items for the stress symptoms theme which emphasizes the causes and symptoms of stress experienced by students; 3 question items for the theme of stress coping emphasized on four aspects, namely physical journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 279 symptoms, psychological symptoms, problem-focused coping, and emotional-focused coping; and 3 question items for islamic counseling emphasized on three aspects, namely a) humans as creatures of god, b) attitudes that encourage the development of a life that runs according to religious rules, c) efforts that allow it to develop and be used optimally. in order to obtain good recordings, online interviews are recorded using an online recording application and ensure that the network is stable at the time of recording. this is done to facilitate researchers in making field notes. the researcher made an agreement with the participants and sent a google meet link to each participant. interviews were conducted by each participant by taking 10-15 minutes. participants described their learning experiences after participating in an islamic counseling program aimed at undergraduate candidates. c. document third, researchers collected data through documents collected through counselor notebooks and scientific journals related to the three themes above, namely stress symptoms, stress coping, and islamic counseling. the overall data that has been collected and also the consistency of the coding is assessed to conclude the coded data and obtain valid results. the researcher also asked for some notes from the participants about their activities during lectures and work as additional data needed by the researcher. data analysis techniques the data analysis technique refers to the theory from miles, huberman, & saldaña (1994) consists of three streams of activities that occur simultaneously, namely reducing research data, presenting good data, and drawing conclusions/verification.miles, huberman, & saldaña (1994), which consists of eight three steps of data analysis.the researcher describes this step as follows. first, the preparation stage to reduce data by compiling a research design, selecting research locations used as data sources, taking care of the necessary permits for the smooth running of research activities. then the researchers conducted exploration and looked at the initial conditions in the field to determine the right participants. next, prepare the necessary research instruments. second, the presentation of field data where researchers have to prepare coding according to the themes and aspects that have been determined. in data presentation activities, researchers must understand field conditions and play an active role during data collection, especially during online interviews with participants. the coding is done manually according to the serial number of the participants, abdurrahman et al. namely participant 1 (student) = pm1, participant number 2 = pm2, and so on. meanwhile, participants (counselors) with serial numbers are participant 1 = pk1, participant 2 = pk2, and so on. third, data processing in the form of data analysis that researchers have collected and draw conclusions and verify data.the results of data analysis to answer research questions are carried out by utilizing data sources, methods, observations, and theories arranged in three criteria, namely 1) comparing observation data and interview results that have been collected by researchers; 2) compare what participants say about the research situation with various opinions and views, and 3) comparing the results of interviews with related literature studies. the presentation of the data combines all the information that is arranged and narrated by the descriptive-analytical method. next is the activity of drawing conclusions and verification which at first were not clear, increasing in more detail after the data presentation was completed. findings and discussion causes of stress symptoms based on perceptions of students working during the covid-19 pandemic the results of the first study investigated the causes of stress symptoms based on students' perceptions of working during the covid-19 pandemic. of the two aspects of stress symptoms investigated, the findings show that the stress exhibited by participants in this study includes the causes of stress symptoms, sources of stress, and responses to stress. as explained in previous research that each individual's stress symptoms are certainly different depending on personal characteristics, vulnerabilities, and factors that affect individuals such as social environment, work, and family (rutter, 1981). in this study, the trigger factors that emphasize the causes and symptoms of stress are the demands of work and campus assignments, the resulting stress symptoms are likely to have psychological consequences that have similarities between participants. recent studies state that stress occurs because of a demand that exceeds the individual's ability to respond and has the potential to cause negative psychological consequences (abouammoh et al., 2020). if examined more deeply than previous research, it can be understood that the demands of work and campus assignments have caused negative psychological consequences to students which ended in the emergence of stress symptoms. a. stress symptoms journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 281 symptoms of stress experienced by students who study while working, researchers use interview techniques to obtain more in-depth information and are adapted from general categories of stress symptoms according to robbins & judge (2003). based on table 4, it is known that the participants experience several similarities. namely, they often delay work and sleep often irregularly. the majority of participants showed symptoms of stress. table 4 symptoms of student stress indicator pm1-8 pm9-18 pm19-24 pm25-30 physical symptoms head often dizzy stomach acid rises low blood pressure, growing acne psychological symptoms often procrastinate, pessimistic or resigned emotional, and procrastinating work, depressed depressed confusion behavioral symptoms irregular sleep or staying up late irregular sleep and irregular eating increased cigarette consumption, late in collecting assignments irregular sleep or staying up late source: data processed from interviews with participants, 2020 the condition of stress experienced by students is a worrying condition. the covid-19 pandemic has changed the structure of people's living conditions, including students. at this time the student's family life is also influential. so far they have received shipments every month, but after the pandemic the shipments were reduced or even non-existent, so returning home became an option. these participants decided not to return to their village and stay in medan city, because according to them, there were no jobs in the village that could generate money quickly. at this time, lectures were also conducted online which required a large quota, while there was no reduction in tuition fees either. adaptation to the covid-19 pandemic conditions in students who decide to work part-time is one of the sources of stress described in these stressful conditions. it can be understood that the higher the demands of life, the higher the level of stress experienced, as well as this student, changes in the structure of life due to the pandemic, have changed the way of adaptation which takes a while (cantrell, meyer, & mosack, 2017; murphy et al., 2009). b. source of student stress sources of stress can generally be divided into three, namely conflict, quarrels, and life changes (jonathan & herdiana, 2020). based on these indicators, the researcher focuses on indicators abdurrahman et al. regarding life changes. the change in life in question is a student who on the one hand, also has work or other responsibilities besides attending lectures. the source of stress that made it difficult for the four informants to carry out lectures while working was the change in the structure of online lectures, where lecturers gave more independent assignments than lectures directly, then work also demanded to be prepared immediately, this pressure made students one of the main sources of stress. . in addition, the condition of the spread of covid-19 which is getting higher, so that the government implements a lockdown also makes stress even higher, thinking about the condition of oneself and also the family in the village, whether anyone is affected or not. this can be seen from the results of participant interviews, considering data 1 and data 2. (1) ‘’often dizzy because the tasks have piled up and added weekly tasks. likewise, assignments from superiors are also often at the office, as a result, campus assignment deadlines are postponed, forgotten, or even not done.'' (2) in the morning, i have to clean the mosque at dawn, i have to wake up early, sometimes i get tired, so i'll do my campus work later, it's been left for a long time, it's close to the collection, so sometimes i don't get caught.’’ based on the results of data analysis, it was found that the source of student stress came from within and from outside. this condition is a normal condition experienced by all people at the beginning of the pandemic. gunawan et al.'s research show that students are one of the individuals affected by covid-19, namely stress due to changing learning demands(asni, khotimah, & fajri, 2021; gunawan & bintari, 2021). this is because all individuals are still adapting to the situation, plus information about covid-19 is excessive and the truth is also uncertain(cuello-garcia, perez-gaxiola, & amelsvoort, 2020; zhao, cheng, yu, & xu, 2020). but students as of late teens have stress management that can manage it. moreover, all students have a religious education background, so that daily worship such as praying and reading the koran that they do can calm the heart and can slowly reduce the stress experienced. c. response to stress based on the participant's statement, it is known that each participant does not have too diverse responses in dealing with stress. there are several individual responses to stress, namely anxiety, anger and aggression, apathy and depression, and cognitive impairment, but in this study, the researchers only used two indicators, namely anxiety, anger, and aggression(jonathan & herdiana, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 283 anxiety felt by a small number of participants was only anxious when the task was not optimal and did not match what was given. while the majority of participants feel anxious about bad grades and bad perceptions of lecturers, this causes mental stress, considering data 3. (3) ‘'because i'm in a rush to do it, so sometimes things go wrong. because they often don't do assignments and often submit assignments late when near the exam schedule. finally afraid of low grades, maybe even the lecturers think it's not good because they often get together late.’’ furthermore, the response of anger and aggression showed by 7 participants who became psychologically unstable was often being emotional or angry when the obligations between college assignments and responsibilities at work had to be done simultaneously, and sometimes they were brought into the house like beating a sister for no apparent reason. . while there are also participants who do not show an angry or aggressive response, they choose to surrender and live it, considering data 4. (4) i choose to surrender to be done slowly while praying for maximum results. although sometimes he likes to be dizzy and stressed when there are two different jobs, he likes to be angry, not clear, and sometimes he is not pleasant to those closest to him such as brothers and friends i realized it after it happened. however, at certain times, especially in difficult circumstances, they draw closer to god.” coping stress as a form of islamic education counseling for students working during the covid-19 pandemic the second finding examines the problem of coping with stress as a form of islamic education counseling for students working during the covid-19 pandemic. based on the three aspects that have been investigated (psychological symptoms, problem-focused coping, and emotional-focused coping), the findings reveal that participants' behavior is more directed at using one of the strategies proposed by folkman, namely emotional focused coping to deal with stress because the four informants do not experience stress. severe stress and only relieves the emotions evoked by the stressor (source of stress) or regulates the emotional response to stress. in this case, previous research explains the emotional-focused coping strategy that without trying to change the situation that is a direct source of stress, stress coping is done by identifying the emotional response of individuals experiencing stress symptoms (wahab, sujadi, & setioningsih, 2017). to use this stress coping strategy, it is necessary to involve behavioral strategies and psychological strategies because a good stress coping strategy will have a positive impact on oneself and can minimize the abdurrahman et al. stress that occurs (hanifah et al., 2020).of course, based on the three aspects of islamic counseling investigated, to reduce stress/mental disorders, students need to be handled through islamic counseling or spiritual counseling. research conducted by lubis (2011) and jafari (2016) explains that islamic counseling can reduce student stress levels during online lectures during the pandemic. participants were seen using emotionally focused coping strategies in dealing with their stress, by doing their hobby of dancing on the tiktok application, traveling around the city, watching korean dramas. participants also do their hobbies, namely spending time outside or traveling, telling stories with friends, and making a list of what they want to do so that their time is more organized. participants also overcome their stress by looking for college assignment materials on the sidelines of busy selling when there are no customers, considering data 5. (5) “refreshing for a while by taking a walk or looking for entertainment so that you don't get bored and reduce stress a little. sometimes it's done when you're bored with campus activities and work. to anticipate being able to do college assignments at work, it is time to take breaks and finish them at home.’’ participants also used escape/avoidance coping strategies. escape avoidance is avoiding the problems faced even involving yourself in negative things (maryam, 2017). this was done by participants in reducing their stress by increasing cigarette consumption. the positive thing to do is to read books and perform sunnah prayers. the interesting thing, in this case, is that there are several positive and negative actions taken by students. to support the success of islamic education activities, knowledge of counseling guidance is needed by the teaching staff who are given the responsibility. the main factor influencing the implementation of islamic counseling programs is communication. the communication process sometimes does not run smoothly for students, both from outside and from within(abdurrahman, 2020). the obstacles encountered are the weakness of individual reasoning abilities, negative will and feelings (emotions of the soul), an unsupportive social environment, and inadequate infrastructure (lubis, 2011). this obstacle can suppress the learning ability and mental health of students (sumari & baharudin, 2016). one of the positive student stress coping actions is to do sunnah prayers, remembrance, and istighfar as a form of islamic counseling services carried out by counseling lecturers for students. this is an effort to reduce stress by remembering god's, which is done to strengthen spirituality in religion as his creatures. remembering and carrying out god's commands both obligatory and journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 285 sunnah things, will make you calmer and relieved as stated above. participants agreed to state, considering data 6. (6) after receiving islamic counseling, we feel the symptoms of stress are reduced. our quality of life is getting better because we feel much healthier and pay attention to cleanliness in our worship. in the past, we felt pressured when we faced a lot of college assignments and workloads. the previous condition was sometimes dizzy and pessimistic. however, doing worship and receiving guidance from islamic counseling supervisors such as having to do sunnah prayers, dhikr, and istighfar, and think and behave positively, helps us remain optimistic and calm in the face of these various pressures. this motivates us to complete the task to the best of our ability.” based on the participants' statements, it seems that islamic counseling has a good influence on the quality of life (qol) and mentality of students. the literature study states that international muslim students have a higher level of spirituality/religiosity than domestic muslim students. for international students, religious coping was positively associated with qol and less stress. meanwhile, negative religion is associated with high qol and stress levels. this is also related to the ethnicity of the participants (gardner, krägeloh, & henning, 2014). islamic counseling services provided by lecturers of islamic counseling guidance to students through explanations about the wisdom of prayer and prayer psychotherapists. prayer psychotherapy gives some advice to sad, anxious, and afraid people or experiencing mental disorders through the prayer method. prayer can give birth to humility and express desire and submission to allah swt. participant (counselor) explains, considering data 7. (7) “stress coping strategy based on islamic values is prayer has seven healing principles as contained in the sign of the names of the surahs in the qur'an as as-syifa '. first, the principle of repentance is an effort to stop and replace negative behavior according to syara' and urf. syara' and 'urf is knowledge of the values and norms agreed upon by certain communities in the form of certain activities. second, the principle of gentleness and subtlety of mind which is the basis of ethics to carry out the healing process. third, the principle of self-awareness, namely the process of introspecting behavior physically and mentally which is categorized as dzalim behavior to be replaced with fair behavior. the trick is to use selfcompetence more proportionally by the shari'ah. fourth, the principle of honey to cure the characteristics that exist in honey bees to be used as an important lesson as a basis for human behavior. fifth, spiritual recreation (al-isyara ') through the experience of communicating transcendentally with god's creation which has legal provisions. sixth, the causal diagnostic principle that the healing process is an effort to eliminate various diseases, both physical and spiritual. seventh, the principle of tawakal, namely healing as a process of undergoing the immaterial law of causality created by god.” abdurrahman et al. from this explanation, it is explained that the content presented contains the wisdom of prayer as a form of coping with stress in dealing with various problems in everyday life, including in dealing with the learning process while working during the covid 19 pandemic era. participants (counselors) explained more deeply that the students were told argumentation on how prayer can control emotions, for people who pray allah is guaranteed to get peace and allah guarantees prayer can be reassuring, considering data 8. (8) “prayer services as a form of remembrance (to remember allah) include remembrance of bil qalbi, remembrance of bil orali and remembrance of bil zawarih. it is hoped that students who perform prayers automatically in their deepest hearts have a belief that allah is the only place to complain and ask, and only because of him everything happens. in addition, through remembrance bil orali, a muslim will be maintained verbally or his words to always say good things or avoid despicable statements. furthermore, in the form of remembrance of bil zawarih that remembering allah swt is not only done in the form of dwelling the name of allah in the heart and guarding speech against things that are not good, but remembrance or remembrance of allah must also be carried out in the form of daily actions or behavior. day.” thus, the motivation to carry out worship as given in islamic counseling guidance aims to reassure the heart. students are expected to be able to control the stress symptoms they experience and implement stress coping strategies that provide positive values for their lives, especially students who are also working. recent literature reveals that positive religious values can overcome mental health in times of covid 19 (thomas & barbato, 2020; jeevanba, 2021). such a statement as the previous literature explains that as for other things that individuals do in relation to islamic counseling services, namely tawba (repentance) and istighfar (begging for forgiveness) as a form of self-purification (tazkiyah an nafs) which is able to nourish the individual's mentality (uyun et al., 2019). the findings have revealed in depth the stress symptoms of students working during the covid 19 pandemic. in addition, the stress coping style through islamic education counseling conducted by the supervisor (counselor) was able to have a good impact and motivate students to behave positively and reduce stress levels. what they experienced. the goal is for students to complete their assignments as well as possible. the literature states that coping styles and social support are able to moderate the relationship between stress and individual distress (nelson et al., 2001; labrague et al., 2018; ye et al., 2020). student health and academic achievement are linked to these two factors (mccarthy et al., 2018; gustems-carnicer et al., 2019). although it is undeniable, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 287 that the impact will be different for each student, there are also possible negative impacts. it depends on how students are able to implement the results of the guidance properly and correctly. dharamsi & maynard (2011) state that islamic counseling as a form of ummah education is not an approach but a paradigm that develops based on spiritual teachings based on the provisions in the qur'an and hadith. previous research has shown that more successful college students tend to be healthier with less stress, more social support, and more positive and less negative coping styles (nelson et al., 2001). based on the previous study, this finding shows a novelty in which the stress symptoms of students working during the covid-19 pandemic can be reduced after receiving islamic counseling guidance. however, with a record of their behavior should be monitored and given continuous guidance. this study offers the possibility of academic success and a better quality of life for students who experience symptoms of stress due to the pressure of work and academic tasks during the covid-19 pandemic by using islamic counseling methods. conclusion and implications in summary, this research answers two research questions on the causes of stress symptoms based on students' perceptions of working during the covid-19 pandemic and coping with stress in dealing with stress as a form of islamic education counseling for students working during the covid-19 pandemic. the first finding shows the dynamics of student life who are forced to study while working because the structure of life has changed due to the covid-19 pandemic. this condition caused high stress for students at the beginning of the pandemic. it can be seen that their stress has led to psychosomatic with a duration of 1-3 months. the second finding shows that they slowly realize that the quality and quantity of their worship routines, such as the koran, obligatory and sunnah prayers, and remembrance, become one of the stress coping strategies to deal with this situation. this explains that religion and god are the real power bases that affect human life. so the researchers concluded that spiritual-coping stress is a suitable strategy and was successfully implemented by students affected by covid-19 with the demands of studying while working. this study has weaknesses due to the limitations of the researcher. the participants used were only conducted on a limited number of islamic college students, north sumatera. so the results obtained may make a difference if it is carried out at different types of educational institutions or organizations. in this case, the researcher suggests for further research to expand the research area related to coping with stress so that it can compare the results of previous studies. in addition, the abdurrahman et al. development of themes also needs to be done to find out other factors that can affect the stress symptoms of students affected by covid 19. pedagogical implication symptoms of student stress at work increased during the covid-19 pandemic due to the large number of college assignments and work pressure. coping stress as a form of islamic education counseling for students working during the covid-19 pandemic empirically reduces the symptoms of stress. as a component of islamic education, especially for islamic universities, islamic counseling is intended to develop personality and potentials such as individual talents, interests, and abilities. to support the success of islamic education activities, knowledge of counseling guidance is needed for students. islamic counseling practice can be given maximally through the communication process. things that need to be minimized are the weak reasoning abilities of students, the negative will and feelings (emotions of the soul) of students, and the influence of the unsupportive work environment. the role of universities in improving the ability of counselors or supervisors is expected to overcome these obstacles to be able to minimize the pressure on the learning abilities and mental health of students. references abdurrahman. (2020). the function of islamic counseling in education. jurnal handayani, 11(1), 42–48. abouammoh, n., irfan, f., & alfaris, e. (2020). stress coping strategies among medical students and trainees in saudi arabia: a qualitative study. bmc medical education, 20(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-02039-y asmuni, a. (2020). problematika pembelajaran daring di masa pandemi covid-19 dan solusi pemecahannya. jurnal paedagogy, 7(4), 281. https://doi.org/10.33394/jp.v7i4.2941 asni, a., khotimah, a. n., & fajri, n. (2021). level of student stress management uhamka guidance counseling study program in pandemic covid-19. proceedings of the 1st annual international conference on natural and social science education (icnsse 2020), 547(icnsse 2020), 352–357. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210430.053 brougham, r. r., zail, c. m., mendoza, c. m., & miller, j. r. (2009). stress, sex differences, and coping strategies among college students. current psychology, 28(2), 85–97. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 289 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-009-9047-0 cantrell, m. l., meyer, s. l., & mosack, v. (2017). effects of simulation on nursing student stress: an integrative review. journal of nursing education, 56(3), 139–144. https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20170222-04 cuello-garcia, c., perez-gaxiola, g., & amelsvoort, l. van. (2020). social media can have an impact on how we manage and investigate the covid-19 pandemic. journal of clinical epidemiology, 127(january), 198–201. dharamsi, b., & maynard, a. (2011). islamic-based interventions. englewood cliffs, n.j.: routledge/taylor & francis group. firdaus, m. r. (2021). design thinking of islamic counseling service inspiration of prophet’s hadith. jurnal penelitian ilmu ushuluddin, 1(1), 7–14. https://doi.org/10.15575/jpiu.v1.i.11054 fitriasari, a., septianingrum, y., budury, s., & khamida, k. (2020). stress pembelajaran online berhubungan dengan strategi koping mahasiswa selama pandemi covid-19. jurnal keperawatan, 12(4), 985–992. folkman, s., & dickinson, e. (2010). stress , coping , and hope, 908, 901–908. folkman, s., & moskowitz, j. t. (1984). stress, appraisal, and coping. encyclopedia of health and behavior. new york: spriger. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412952576.n198 fornés-vives, j., garcia-banda, g., frias-navarro, d., & rosales-viladrich, g. (2016). coping, stress, and personality in spanish nursing students: a longitudinal study. nurse education today, 36(september), 318–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2015.08.011 gardner, t. m., krägeloh, c. u., & henning, m. a. (2014). religious coping, stress, and quality of life of muslim university students in new zealand. mental health, religion and culture, 17(4), 327–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2013.804044 gunawan, a., & bintari, d. r. (2021). kesejahteraan psikologis, stres, dan regulasi emosi pada mahasiswa baru selama pandemi covid 19. jurnal penelitian dan pengukuran psikologi, 10(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/http://doi.org/10.21009/jppp gustems-carnicer, j., calderón, c., & calderón-garrido, d. (2019). stress, coping strategies and academic achievement in teacher education students. european journal of teacher education, 42(3), 375–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2019.1576629 hanifah, n., lutfia, h., ramadhia, u., & purna, r. s. (2020). strategi coping stress saat kuliah daring pada mahasiswa psikologi angkatan 2019 universitas andalas. jurnal psikologi tabularasa, 15(1), 29–43. abdurrahman et al. hanin hamjah, s., & mat akhir, n. s. (2014). islamic approach in counseling. journal of religion and health, 53(1), 279–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-013-9703-4 harahap, a. c. p., harahap, d. p., & harahap, s. r. (2020). analisis tingkat stres akademik pada mahasiswa selama pembelajaran jarak jauh dimasa covid-19. biblio couns : jurnal kajian konseling dan pendidikan, 3(1), 10–14. https://doi.org/10.30596/bibliocouns.v3i1.4804 hasanah, a., sri lestari, a., rahman, a. y., & danil, y. i. (2020). analisis aktivitas belajar daring mahasiswa pada pandemi covid-19. karya tulis ilmiah (kti) masa work from home (wfh) covid-19 uin sunan gunung djati bandung tahun 2020, 4–8. retrieved from http://digilib.uinsgd.ac.id/id/eprint/30565 iswinarti, jadmiko, g. t., & hasanati, n. (2020). cognitive emotion regulation: its relationship to parenting stress. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 204–222. jafari, s. (2016). religion and spirituality within counselling/clinical psychology training programmes: a systematic review. british journal of guidance and counselling, 44(3), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2016.1153038 jaradat, s., & ajlouni, a. (2021). undergraduates’ perspectives and challenges of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic: a case from the university of jordan. journal of social studies education research, 12(1), 149–173. jeevanba, s. b. (2021). perceived discrimination, social connectedness, religious coping, and perceived climate on traumatic stress for muslim international students. doctoral dissertation, university of wisconsin-eau claire. retrieved from https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/83808/jeevanba_umkc_0134 d_11674.pdf?sequence=1 jonathan, a. c., & herdiana, i. (2020). coping stress pascacerai: kajian kualitatif pada ibu tunggal. insan jurnal psikologi dan kesehatan mental, 5(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.20473/jpkm.v5i12020.71-87 khan, a. a. (2021). development of islamic counseling protocol for pakistani muslim adults to manage their mental health problems, (march), 13–21. labrague, l. j., mcenroe-petitte, d. m., de los santos, j. a. a., & edet, o. b. (2018). examining stress perceptions and coping strategies among saudi nursing students: a systematic review. nurse education today, 65(march), 192–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2018.03.012 lubis, s. a. (2011). islamic counseling: the services of mental health and education for people. religious education, 106(5), 494–503. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344087.2011.613347 lyon, b. (2011). stress, coping, and health: a conceptual review. handbook of stress, coping journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 291 and health: implications for nursing research, theory and practice. retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=tmvxbfl0lhwc&oi=fnd&pg=pa2&dq=st ress,+coping,+and+health&ots=ve0apfg4bs&sig=nxlh7pviqb5871x4bpjezlwdsu%5cnhttp://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=tmv xbfl0lhwc&oi=fnd&pg=pa2&dq=stress,+coping,+and+health&ots=v maryam, s. (2017). strategi coping. jurnal konseling andi matappa, 1(2), 101. mccarthy, b., trace, a., o’donovan, m., brady-nevin, c., murphy, m., o’shea, m., & o’regan, p. (2018). nursing and midwifery students’ stress and coping during their undergraduate education programmes: an integrative review. nurse education today (vol. 61). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2017.11.029 miles, m. b., huberman, a. m., & saldaña, j. (1994). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook. (3, ed.), arizona state university. new dehli: sage. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315701134-11 miles, m., huberman, m., & saldaña, j. (2013). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook: an expanded sourcebook, 408. retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/43491723/miles___huberman_data_a nalysis.pdf?awsaccesskeyid=akiaiwowyygz2y53ul3a&expires=1554078814&si gnature=c9k75fdt6sjvo4egpjsp2ftcib8%3d&response-content-disposition=inline%3b filename%3dmiles_huberman_da mubarok, a. (2000). al-irsyad an-nafsy: konseling agama teori dan kasus. jakarta: bina rena pariwara. muhajir. (2020). pembelajaran daring di era covid-19: kesenjangan digital, sistem kompetisi, dan model pendidikan yang manusiawi. mimikri, 6(2), 220–234. murphy, r. j., gray, s. a., sterling, g., reeves, k., & ducette, j. (2009). a comparative study of professional student stress. journal of dental education, 73(3), 328–337. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.0022-0337.2009.73.3.tb04705.x musnamar, t. (1992). dasar-dasar konseptual bimbingan dan konseling islam. adv. mater. (vol. 4). yogyakarta: uii press. nasir, m. (2020). curriculum development and accreditation standards in the traditional islamic schools in indonesia. journal of curriculum studies research. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 nelson, n. g., dell’oliver, c., koch, c., & buckler, r. (2001). stress, coping, and success among graduate students in clinical psychology. psychological reports, 88(3 part 1), 759–767. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2001.88.3.759 othman, n., & mohamad, k. ‘azmi. (2019). applying the main concepts of islamic psychology https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 abdurrahman et al. to islamic counseling. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 9(5). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v9-i5/5878 palindangan, l. k. (2020). tanggapan kritis terhadap jumlah covid-19 di indonesia. tarfomedia, 1(2), 47–53. retrieved from http://jurnal.stikstarakanita.ac.id/index.php/forum/article/download/439/262 pradana, a. a., casman, & nur’aini. (2020). pengaruh kebijakan social distancing pada wabah covid-19 terhadap kelompok rentan di indonesia. jurnal kebijakan kesehatan indonesia : jkki, 9(2), 61–67. retrieved from https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/jkki/article/view/55575 robbins, s. p. (1994). essentials of organizational behavior (vol. 7). englewood cliffs, n.j.: prentice hall international. rutter, m. (1981). stress, coping and development: some issues and some questions. journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 22(4), 323–356. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14697610.1981.tb00560.x scheier, m. f., weintraub, j. k., & carver, c. s. (1986). coping with stress: divergent strategies of optimists and pessimists. journal of personality and social psychology, 51(6), 1257– 1264. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1257 siahaan, m. (2020). dampak pandemi covid-19 terhadap dunia pendidikan. jurnal kajian ilmiah, 1(1), 73–80. https://doi.org/10.31599/jki.v1i1.265 sobirin, m. (2020). identifikasi keluhan kesehatan mahasiswa selama perkuliahan daring pada masa pandemic covid19. performa: media ilmiah teknik industri, 19(1), 49–54. https://doi.org/10.20961/performa.19.1.42583 subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid-19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 sudan, s. a. (2017). principles of islamic counseling and psychotherapy. asian journal of management sciences & education, 6(3), 129–138. retrieved from http://irep.iium.edu.my/62402/ sumari, m., & baharudin, d. f. (2016). counseling students’ experiences in an islamic-based counseling course. international journal for the advancement of counselling, 38(3), 194– 203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-016-9267-6 tarman, b. (2020). editorial: reflecting in the shade of pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed thomas, j., & barbato, m. (2020). positive religious coping and mental health among christians https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 270-293 293 and muslims in response to the covid-19 pandemic. religions, 11(10), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11100498 uyun, q., kurniawan, i. n., & jaufalaily, n. (2019). repentance and seeking forgiveness: the effects of spiritual therapy based on islamic tenets to improve mental health. mental health, religion and culture, 22(2), 185–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2018.1514593 wahab, m., sujadi, e., & setioningsih, l. (2017). strategi coping korban bullying. jurnal tarbawi, 13(02), 21–32. ye, z., yang, x., zeng, c., wang, y., shen, z., li, x., & lin, d. (2020). resilience, social support, and coping as mediators between covid-19-related stressful experiences and acute stress disorder among college students in china. applied psychology: health and well-being, 12(4), 1074–1094. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12211 zakaria, n. & mat akhir, n.s. (2017). theories and modules applied in islamic counseling practices in malaysia. journal of religion and health, 56(2), 507–520. zhao, y., cheng, s., yu, x., & xu, h. (2020). chinese public’s attention to the covid-19 epidemic on social media: observational descriptive study. journal of medical internet research, 22(5), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.2196/18825 . www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 296-316 296 refugee flows at border crossing points: legal, social and language aspects valentina v. stepanova1, irina n. meshkova2, olga a. sheremetieva3, jiří maštálka4 abstract migration as a social phenomenon has always been a part of the world, but it has never reached such scope as in the recent years. violent conflicts, instability, poverty and natural disasters force people to move in search of protection and better life. in 2017, about one million first instance decisions were issued in eu, most of which were asylum protection for syrians, afghans and iraqis fleeing the war zones and hostilities. in eastern europe, the hotbed of tension is associated with ukraine where the government is using military forces against split-away donbass. flows of refugees rushed to eu countries and russia, which brought about numerous challenges and demanded huge political, organizational, humanitarian, financial and other strengths. the purpose of this research is to investigate limited aspects of refugee crises in western and eastern europe on the example of france, the uk and russia. different reasons, character and forms of these mass movements of people are directly related to international legal protection rules. however, common legal basis has found national specific realization in terms of legal and language challenges in addressing the refugee crisis at crossing points and temporary settlement zones. qualitative analysis of the research combines theoretical and empirical activities of three european countries in refugee settings and is supported by comparative and contrasting methods of analysis. experiences studied in the article contribute to international practice of dealing with refugee flows in legal and language contexts. keywords: migrant, refugee, refugee status, legal aspects in refugee setting, language aspects in refugee setting, hosting countries. introduction migration as a social phenomenon has always been an important international issue. though different, the calls for mass migration of people realize in a flow from south to north in search of a better life. among most common reasons for migration are natural disasters, poverty, instability, civil wars and military actions. however, the world has never seen such massive movements of people as in the recent years. they can only be compared to the migration process during the post-war time (world war ii). according to the un high commission for refugees (unhcr), over 65 million people were 1 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, stepanova_vv@pfur.ru 2 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, meshkova_in@pfur.ru 3 senior lecturer, peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, sheremetyeva_oa@pfur.ru 4 member of european parliament, czech republic deputy, jiri.mastalka@europarl.europa.eu mailto:stepanova_vv@pfur.ru mailto:meshkova_in@pfur.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose/?mailto=mailto%3asheremetyeva_oa@pfur.ru mailto:jiri.mastalka@europarl.europa.eu journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 forcibly displaced from their homes by conflict and persecution at the end of 2015, including 21 million refugees outside their countries of origin (migration crisis. house of commons. seventh report of session 2016-17, 2016). although the developing countries hosted around 86% of refugees by the end of 2014 there is no country in europe that has not been involved in dealing with this huge problem. turkey, greece, italy, and cyprus were the first to face forced migration flows from the middle east and africa. the further routes involved bulgaria, spain, hungary, macedonia, serbia, austria, germany, france, uk, sweden, and many other countries. the top three countries of citizenship of asylum applicants in the eu in 2015 were syria, afghanistan and iraq, who together comprised more than half of all applications (migration crisis. house of commons. seventh report of session 2016-17, 2016). migration as a global factor is in the focus of multi-faceted studies investigating political, economic, legal, social, cultural, labour and other factors. however, legislation is the core of refugee flow management, and language stands as an instrument for migrating populations to become aware of the transit/hosting communities rules. the above confirms the relevance of the research topic. the research framework requires integrated studies from the angle of both international and local national requirements and practices regarding the themes under consideration. bearing in mind the above mentioned issues, the research has a two-fold goal: to study legal and language aspects of refugee influxes with regard to countries affected by european continent from 2015 to present, and to further define promising practices and prospective steps policies regarding increasing move of people from south to north. the above goal requires the implementation of the following tasks. first, it is necessary to comment on the terms of refugee and migrant that both public and academic discourse often use as synonyms. second, legal settings of refugee management should become subject to analysis across different countries. third, language policies with regard to the refugees’ status are to be considered. the research methodology stands on the qualitative background and uses comparative analysis and observation to implement the set goal and tasks. the research follows the principle of moving from international to national settings regarding themes of analysis. the research materials include legislation, statistics, administrative provisions that regulate refugees’ move, arrivals and stay in hosting countries, and some academic studies data, as well. stepanova et al. the research has limited capacity in terms of a number of nations to be subject to analysis. therefore there should be a limited number of countries for the present study. the research considers france, the uk and russia as target countries due to a number of reasons. on the one hand, these countries have a long-standing experience in receiving citizens of other nations for permanent residence. on the other hand, the chosen countries differ in terms of their status on the european continent. france has always been a major eu policies conductor. the uk has always pursued its own independent stand even before the brexit move. russia is recognized as a serious player within the european continent though not being the official eu member. definitions there is no formal definition of the term migrant. very often, the terms refugee and migrant are used interchangeably in mass media, academic and public discussions, although there is a certain legal difference between them. the un defines migrant as “someone who changes his or her country of usual residence, irrespective of the reason for migration or legal status” (un. refugees and migrants. definition, 2018). basically, a distinction is made between short-term, transitory nature of legal status, covering three to twelve months, and long-term or permanent stay in a hosting country. a refugee is defined in the 1951 convention, regional refugee instruments and unhcr’s statute as someone who owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his/her nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself/herself of the protection of that country (migration crisis. house of commons. seventh report of session 2016-17, 2016). in other words, refugees are people seeking international protection in fear to be at risk in their home country; they are asylum-seekers subject to assistance from states, unhcr, and relevant organizations. very often, the term migrant is used as umbrella for both migrants and refugees. public and academic discussions as well as mass media and global statistics on international migration widely use the term embracing many asylum-seeking and refugee cases. however, this can lead to confusion and involve serious consequences as the term migrants diverts attention from the specific legal protection sought by refugees and asylum seekers. migration usually implies a voluntary process when people are seeking better economic opportunities. forced migration is journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 another confusing term; it may cover different kinds of movements both inside the country and across international borders. people can be displaced as a result of natural calamities, famine, local conflicts, environmental disasters and/or ambitious development projects. all categories of displaced people are protected under international law; however, refugees are characterized by specific needs and rights subject to a particular legal framework. because some of their rights may be seriously violated (ilyas, 2018). legal aspects in refugee setting the basic document setting out the rights and forms of protection of refugees is the geneva convention adopted in 1951 and ratified by 145 states. the provisions of geneva convention remain the main international norm for assessing measures for protecting and treating refugees. its most important provision is the principle of non-refoulement forbidding the forced returns of refugees to the countries of their habitual residence (article 33 of the convention relating to the status of refugees). in accordance with this principle, refugees must not be expelled from the receiving country if their life or freedom is under threat. states carry the primary responsibility for their protection as the reasons for refugee influxes are directly related to international legal protection rules. in addition to the established right to non-discrimination, the council of europe bodies have a number of procedural measures to protect asylum seekers, to ensure fair trials, as well as objective and individual approach to cases. the purpose of such remedies is to prevent violation of the right to non-refoulement and ensure the expedited legal procedures in protecting human rights. for example, the european convention on human rights (echr) guidelines provide for the right to information regarding ongoing asylum proceedings (principle 4.1) (handbook on european law relating to asylum, borders and immigration. european union agency for fundamental rights, 2015), along with the access to legal aid, assistance of an interpreter and the right to be interviewed by qualified personnel (principles 4, 8 and 9). under the echr, in order to protect asylum-seekers from arbitrary expulsion and ensure proper consideration of their applications, the refugees must be provided with sufficient information regarding the asylum procedures and their rights in a language they understand; they must have access to a reliable communication system with the competent authorities. if stepanova et al. necessary, such persons should be provided with interpreters in the course of interviews, which must be conducted by trained personnel and with legal assistance available. the echr recognizes that certain measures to restrict the freedom of foreigners or the freedom to move may be necessary, for example, reception centers or entry points to the country, including waiting zones or international zones at airports. in most european countries, refugees are kept in camps or temporary settlement zones and their movement is restricted. it is common practice until the decision on their status is reached. in certain cases, refugees can be detained, which is taken as a measure of last resort. whatever the intensity, duration, nature or set of imposed restrictions, refugee detainees have the right to be immediately informed, in a language they understand, about the nature and causes of the detention, as well as the process of reviewing or challenging the decision on detention. if detention is found to be lawful by a competent court and meets the principles of accessibility, clarity of wording and predictability, states must ensure that refugees have effective access to such information, including the language and level of education that they understand. if necessary, state authorities must provide legal aid to those who are deprived of their liberty. the legal status of refugee detained due to immigration control differs from the status of convicted prisoners or persons in remand centers, therefore refugees have the right to appropriate medical treatment, which is inextricably linked to the right to life (article 17 of the echr). some other rights enshrined by the eu for refugees are connected with education (article 2 of protocol no. 1 of the echr), employment, housing and social protection (handbook on european law relating to asylum, borders and immigration. european union agency for fundamental rights, 2015). france, the uk and russia as refugee destinations mass flows of refugees to europe encountered a coordinated response. various eu institutions (agencies) rendered their assistance to the member states in order to implement common european asylum system (ceas), guaranteeing a fundamental right to international protection. the member states, particularly affected, received experts, financing, and training. to reduce the refugee flow to eu the commission signed an action plan with turkey. in spite of urgent and unconventional decisions taken by eu and national journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 authorities, migration was out of control. the spread of refugees, however, was not even from country to country. the refugee flows to russia reached their peak in 2014 after the outbreak of the ukrainian conflict. according to the report of the un refugee agency (unhcr) 99% of total asylum claims in russia have been filed by ukrainians and 90% of them have been granted the asylum status due to the lenient national policy concerning this category of refugees (un says ukraine was made russia top asylum destination, 2015). france as a refugee hosting country in 2015 the number of asylum seekers in germany reached a million, while in france there were only around 80,000 applications for asylum. it is only 20% more than in the previous years. in 2016 european leaders adopted quotas to receive migrants and francois hollande, the former french president, committed himself to 25,000 people. however, migrants do not aspire to france. the latest events in the refugee camp in calais confirm that they wish to leave france at any cost, even at the cost of their lives. there are numerous reasons making that country less attractive for asylum than its neighbors. among such reasons are: heavy bureaucracy, greater number of denials, more expensive living, problems with finding a job and accommodation, and the language that very few can speak. france is not a novice in the issues of migration; it has traditionally been a country with an open border policy. the right of asylum is recognized by the constitution. french asylum law incorporates international and european law and is codified (code of entry and residence of foreigners and the right of asylum). under french law, there are two kinds of asylum protection: refugee protection and subsidiary protection. the refugee status can be given to a person based on the geneva convention, on constitutional grounds and by the mandate of the united nations high commission for refugees (unhcr) (asylum seekers in france, 2015). in other words, asylum is granted to those who can be the victim of persecution or harm in their country of origin. the subsidiary protection can be given to the person who does not fall into the previous category of refugees but who requires protection because they are exposed to death penalty, torture or are under a severe threat resulting from an internal or international situation of armed conflict (european pro bono alliance. what is the right of asylum in france?, 2013). stepanova et al. once in france, refugees must address a local prefecture for registration. after checking information on the particular asylum seeker, the prefecture provides the applicant with an application form and information on his or her rights and obligations, application process, language and legal assistance they have a right to and organization to apply for help. then the refugee can send his/her application to ofpra (french office for the protection of refugees and stateless persons) to determine that they are subject to refugee status or subsidiary protection. ofpra decision can be appealed in the national court for asylum law. though clearly defined, the procedure of gaining asylum in france is not an easy task because the state machinery is “too heavy, too slow and too expensive” (how the french bureaucracy can make you mentally & emontionally stronger, 2017). this description was given by the ex-french president francois hollande. numerous migrants’ complaints as well as statements of service workers and organizations protecting refugee rights reveal that in france the procedure for obtaining asylum is much longer than in the neighboring states. on average, it lasts two years, during which a refugee is not allowed to work, and must live on allowance in a special center or camp for refugees. in 2016, after massive criticism by his eu partners the french prime-minister manual valls promised to reform the migration system and shorten the period of granting asylum to nine months. it is worth mentioning that in the uk such decisions are made within six months. at the same time, the number of refusals to asylum in france is much higher than in other european countries. for example, in 2014, britain satisfied 39% applications for asylum while france only 22% (bitoulas, 2015). refusal to grant asylum is the main reason for illegal staying in the country. many of those who were denied, did not leave the country, others did not submit petitions at all. france is rated fourth lagging behind germany, sweden and denmark in popularity among refugees. the above-mentioned reasons are complicated with red tape, delays in making decisions concerning the status and ban to work and housing before they get protection. according to mass media only one third of refugees are lucky to join specialized centers, the rest settle in abandoned houses or live in the slums similar to calais jungle. such camps accumulate thousands of migrants causing big problems to local population and authorities because of poor sanitary and accommodation, huge masses of people in one place and as a result, numerous cases journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 of disturbances. in 2017, human rights watch in its report “like living in hell” documented human rights abuse by the police against children and adult people living in calais camp. if we continue comparing france with other european countries accepting refugees it is worth mentioning that they experience great difficulties in job hunting. the unemployment rate in france is much higher than in germany and uk, reaching 10.4 percent against 4.6 and 5.3 percent respectively (eurostat statistics of 2015, 2016). furthermore, british laws are much milder in case of illegal employment and the paper work is limited. those refugees who have been granted subsidiary protection acquire the right to live and work in france. they can also bring their family into the country. those who got refugee status can apply to naturalization straight away. they enjoy similar rights as french citizens in terms of social benefits but are limited in certain special aid programmes for the time when their application for asylum is being processed. if a refugee stays in in one of the refugee centers they get a monthly allowance of about 91 euros per person or up to 718 euros for the family of six persons. if a refugee lives elsewhere because the government accommodation is not available, they have 340 euros per person (makarova & safronov, 2016). apart of that, they have the right to medical aid and standard insurance plan and their children are entitled to education. along with the rights, refugees take on certain responsibilities. they have to study certain civic training programmes and learn the french language. the language barrier is another reason reducing attractiveness of france as a destination. most of refugees can speak basic english, those who do not can learn to speak and understand simple phrases within three weeks. with french, the situation is much more complicated. according to ofpra experts, it takes months to acquire basic knowledge and skills in french. uk as a refugee hosting country though the geneva convention establishes general description of asylum-seekers rights, it does not guarantee them the right to a refugee status even in case they meet the requirements. that is the privilege of the states. each of them has discretion to outline their own conditions for granting asylum. however, states have to refrain from endangering refugees’ lives especially from sending them back to the country of their origin. thus, the task to interpret the conventions is entrusted to domestic law-makers and courts (refugee status under international law, 2015). the uk has developed rules to protect refugees seeking asylum but it is well balanced with the rules protecting the public from those who may misuse the asylum system. refugees can stepanova et al. apply for asylum right at the border. a fast-tract procedure, applied by the authorities, is an effective measure to cut down the huge number of cases. rejected are those who arrive from countries, which are not recognized by the uk as dangerous. this system has been developed as a result of the syrian crisis and suggests accepting only those fleeing the areas of armed conflicts and terrorist attacks i.e. selected refugees from that region (refugee law and policy: united kingdom, 2016). the most numerous asylum applicants are syrians, eritreans, sudanese, iranians and iraqis. the candidates denied the refugee status might still be granted the right to stay in the country for humanitarian reasons if there is a risk to their lives or serious harm in their country of origin. those granted the refugee status get the permission to stay in the uk for a period of five years. this leave suggests accommodation, free access to healthcare, schooling (home office. reforming support for failed asylum seekers and other illegal migrants: response to consultation, 2015), and assistance in integrating including language tuition. successful candidates can work and apply for welfare benefits (house of commons library briefing paper. constituency casework: asylum, immigration and nationality, 2015). this status can finally lead to uk citizenship in case there are no evident violations on the part of the applicant or in the light of new circumstances. if an applicant does not fall into the first two categories, there are still chances of his/her temporal permission to remain in the uk. the cases involve the human rights obligations of the country when an applicant has strong family links within the uk. however, such decision is subject to conditions (house of commons library briefing paper. constituency casework: asylum, immigration and nationality, 2015). the need for protection may be reviewed at the end of the temporary period. with situation improved in the refugees’ country of origin, the uk may seek to return them back rather than offer settlement. this does not wholly meet the requirements of the un convention on the status of refugees, but is in line with the domestic policy, protecting national interests and security. russia as a refugee hosting country being the leader in accepting massive number of refugees in 2014 because of the military conflict in ukraine, russia hosted hundreds of thousands refugees at the border crossing points. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 flows of people sought refuge on the russian territory fleeing military hostilities, lost housing, insecurity and fear to be persecuted. the legal status of refugees in russia is determined by the nation’s constitution, a set of laws and federal regulations and international obligations. federal law “on refugees” was adopted in 1993 (the current version came into force in 2001) in accordance with the 1953 un convention on the status of refugees and the un protocol relating to the status of refugees approved by the resolution of the un general assembly in 1966 and enforced in 1967. russia joined both the convention and the protocol in 1992. according to those laws a refugee is qualified as a person who is not a russian citizen and due to well-grounded fear of being subjected to discriminatory persecution, is outside the country of their citizenship (for stateless persons outside the country of his/her former habitual residence) and cannot (or do not want) to enjoy the protection of that country due to these concerns. petitions for refuge and asylum status are essentially examined by the federal executive body for the migration service or its territorial bodies. those granted the status are entitled to the same social and medical benefits as russian nationals. the grounds for refusing to satisfy an asylum claim may be the following: a person does not have grounds for qualifying him/her as a refugee; a person committed a criminal offence on the territory of the russian federation; a person came from a foreign country in whose territory he could have been recognized as a refugee. those qualified as refugees (for a period of up to three years) receive an appropriate id, necessary information and a referral to the temporary accommodation center. there they are provided with food and utility services, access to vocational training, and a one-time cash benefit for every family member. a refugee is assisted to travel to the place of his/her stay. they gain medical aid and necessary medication after compulsory medical examination and obtain a relative medical certificate. a person loses refugee status if he/she acquires russian citizenship (or permission to permanently reside in the russian federation); if circumstances that served as grounds for qualifying him/her as a refugee are no longer relevant and he/she can return home; if he/she is deprived of such status by the decision of the federal executive body for the migration service or its territorial body. stepanova et al. for refugees coming from the territory of self-proclaimed donetsk people’s republic and luhansk people’s republic russia seems to be an attractive destination in seeking protection for many reasons. first of all, those republics have a common border with the russian federation, thus short distance to travel is of prime importance in case of military actions. second, most of those who reside in the republics identify themselves as russians; for them the russian language, russian culture, common historical roots and traditions are part of their life styles. they are scared of being persecuted for their political views by ukrainian government in case the territories are returned into ukrainian reign. many have relatives in russia, or used to live in russia before the 90’s when the two countries were constituent republics of the soviet union. ukrainians who were affected by the military conflict can undergo the simplified procedures of gaining a refugee status. according to un, over one million ukrainians had sought asylum or other forms of legal protection in russia since the outbreak of the conflict in south-eastern ukraine in april 2014 by mid-2017 (the un refugee agency. russian federation, 2017). more than 1.5 million ukrainians were qualified as labour migrants in 2015, according the federal migration service (fms). their contribution to ukrainian economy is estimated at two billion usd or 11% of the gross domestic product (gdp) of the country (fund of strategic culture, 2018). language aspects of refugee determination procedures interpreting at interviews and in healthcare reaching the country of their destination in search of protection and assistance does not mean the end of challenges refugees face. massive movements of people arouse a great number of problems of different character including communication in a foreign language. immigration interviews, official statements, forms and papers of different kinds, medical examination and health emergencies do not make the whole list of endeavor the refugees have to put to be heard and assisted. the government support in ensuring interpreting and information in the language understandable for the refugee declared in the laws sometimes fails. professional services of interpreting in france are provided through the system of ‘competitive tendering’ (marchées publics); they cover both the ofpra and the crr/cnda journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 (the national asylum court, formerly the refugee appeals commission, a french court of the administrative order) (gibb & good, 2014). in the uk, asylum requests are administered by the uk visa and immigration (ukba – uk border agency before 2013) operating within the home office. this agency hires the professional interpreters who assist at screening and interviews with the refugees (claim asylum in the uk, 2018). an interpreter is provided for the personal interview at the request made in the application form. the role of the interpreter at the stage of refugee status determination is crucial. it is not just communication between the authorities and refuge seekers that has to be ensured, it is the quality of interpreting that often makes the difference. working strictly within the code of professional conduct their task is to convey, “what is uttered, without adding, omitting or changing anything” (code of professional conduct, 2016). actually, they are expected to render what the applicant says literally or word-for-word to avoid any misunderstanding (gibb & good, 2014). however, the refugees have reported that sometimes interpreting is too simplified or not in line with their answers. the atmosphere at the interview prevented them from opening up and giving the right picture of what they had to go through. there were cases when the interpreters made personal remarks or got involved in conversation with the protection officer. the attempts of protection officers to act as interpreters themselves did not contribute to successful communication (forum réfugiés – cosi, 2017). another situation when a refugee needs an interpreter is the healthcare sphere. before they resettle, they have to undergo medical examination, a thorough migration health assessment (refugee action. why an nhs interpreter can make the difference between life and death, 2018). they also might need an interpreter in case of health emergency (labour, toothache, heart problems, etc.). that is where non-profit organizations and groups of volunteers join in. in france, a number of charitable organizations such as cimade (association d’accompagnement des personnes étrangères), gisti (groupe d’information et de soutien aux immigrés), amnesty, emmaüs international and associations of citizens such as roya citoyenne, p’tits déj à flandre, le mouvement de briançon are involved in collecting information and offering practical assistence to refugees on site. across the english channel the aid to refugees is rendered by well established charities like refugee action, refugee council with branches in scotland and wales, refugee https://www.gisti.org/spip.php?page=sommaire https://www.emmaus-international.org/fr/ stepanova et al. community organizations (rcos) and numerous groups of volunteers contributing to refugee integration. interpreters engaged in healthcare setting have to demonstrate their awareness in this sphere. also essential is knowledge of source and target cultures; their manner of interpreting, body language, posture and other things can either create the right atmosphere or result in failure. moreover, interpreters most often work under stress due to specific situation the psychologically traumatized people find themselves in. most refugees fled war, rape, torture, were robbed by people smugglers or criminals, experienced sexual abuse, exploitation or even police brutality during their long journey (dearden, 2016). thus, their stories demand similar feelings to be rendered into the foreign language. deficiency of professional interpreters in practice leads to delays in proceedings, problems with communication in a medical context and other situations where professionals are substituted by family members, friends or volunteers who can speak some foreign language (atabekova et al., 2018). obviously, the standard of such communication do not meet the established requirements. the most common reasons of failure are insufficient funding, poor administration and deficiency of professional interpreters (refugee action. why an nhs interpreter can make the difference between life and death, 2018). to finish this section of the research we have to state that russia did not face any serious language challenges at border crossing and temporary settlement zones with ukrainian refugees for reasons stated in section 2.3. however, there are certain language problems when dealing with refugees from other countries. for example, the needs of migration services in the southern federal district are focused on uzbek, tajik, armenian, azerbaijani, kyrgyz, english, arabic, vietnamese, chinese, georgian, french and turkish (vinnikov, 2017). most applications are filed from citizens of ex-soviet republics. due to domestic policies, the russian language is no longer obligatory at national schools so very few graduates can speak it at basic level. the burden rests on federal migration service (fms) who attracts interpreters originally representing those cultures. those are not qualified professionals but people who have a good command of the relevant language enough for the purposes of interpreting (vinnikov, 2017). this does not contradict russian laws (article 59 of the criminal procedural code of the http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/calais-jungle-refugee-children-being-raped-in-camp-aid-workers-claim-a6912711.html journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 russian federation), establishing rules for administrative proceedings, however creates certain problems of administrative, financial and/or language character. leaving alone the first two, let us focus on language challenges. to qualify an applicant for refugee status the fms requires a number of personal documents (passport, birth certificate, marriage and divorce certificates, change of name certificate, etc.). they can be translated into russian either in the country of origin or in russia on arrival. in case the national documents are arranged in cyrillic (though in the foreign language), personal information will be similar in terms of transcribing proper names, but if the papers are issued in latin characters or in national languages there might be variants of their transcribing into russian. papers translated in different places, at different times (thus, with different approaches to transliteration) may bring to absolute confusion, strengthened by altering toponyms, indicating the place of birth or issue of document (kadikova & tuischenko, 2010). as a result, a person called gasimov born in alma-ata becomes kasimov or even qasimov born in almati/almaty. having personal papers with different spelling in the name causes great difficulties and delays in the proceeding, which raises concern of all the stakeholders. training and testing those applying for naturalisation in france, uk and russia are required to have basic language skills confirmed by testing. in europe, this sphere is regulated by common european framework of reference and prescribes obligatory language lessons to raise the skills to level a1 (50 to 200 hours). this level allows communicating in everyday life. however, to obtain a residence permit an applicant must attain level a2 in french (the rule comes into force in 2018). for this end, he/she can take another 100-hour course (living in france, 2016). language training is offered in specialized schools, sociolinguistic bureaus or in public institutions financed by the state and responsible for creating an additional linguistic proposal adapted to individual needs and located throughout the territory of france, including in the border cities (living in france, 2016). a sufficiently high level of the french language is a prerequisite for training in secondary and higher education and professional careers. a special french project of the thot language awarding school was designed specially to support refugees and asylum seekers (this school in paris teaches migrants who have never earned a high-school degree, 2017). both volunteers and professional teachers work in this association. the main task is to prepare students for the delf programme, that is, to confirm the stepanova et al. ability to enter into a professional environment in accordance with the level of language achieved. four-month training, designed for 160 hours of classes, is recognized by the state. the course is addressed to refugees or asylum seekers who do not have a diploma equivalent to a bachelor's degree in france (a certificate of secondary education in france). registration fee at thot school is only seven euros, due to voluntary donations and free teachers’ work. this experience is highly estimated as classes are filled up very quickly and students’ motivation contributes to their further successful integration into social and economic life of france. similar language requirements for settling in the country are set in the uk, as they are regulated by the common european framework of reference for languages. applicants are supposed to prove their knowledge of english by having a recognized english test qualification from an approved test center. the needed qualification is english for speakers of other languages (esol). exams are ranging from a1 to c2 level and involve ielts life skills tests (a1 – b1), integrated skills in english tests (b1 – c1), graded examinations in spoken english (a1 – b1), and ielts for ukvi (b1 – c2). a certificate is valid for two years and is a stimulus to further improve language skills (prove your knowledge of english for citizenship and setting, 2018). language courses for refugees and asylum seekers are supported by the state, charitable organisations and volunteer groups, free of charge and life oriented. they teach to communicate to perform everyday living tasks, such as greetings in different social contexts, using public transport, calling an ambulance, etc. at the basic level and communicating with medical professionals, social workers, etc. at the levels of increased language skills. in russia, the law on compulsory examination in the russian language for economic migrants came into force at the end of 2012. from 1 january, 2015 all those wishing to get a work permit are required to undergo a comprehensive test in the russian language, the basics of law and russian history, and acquire a certificate. in many cases, assistance (primarily legal, informational, psychological and linguistic) to refugees is provided by various non-governmental organizations. one of the examples is the tolerance programme that has been designed in st. petersburg ten years ago. the aim of this programme is to help refugees, asylum seekers and migrants to overcome a number of barriers through harmonization of intercultural and interethnic communication. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 the federal migration service of russia (fms) and the russian orthodox church (roc) are carrying out the joint project called “education: language and cultural adaptation of migrants”, which offers courses on russian history, civilization (with respect to regional peculiarities), and legal basics of the russian federation (moscow patriarchate, 2018). for this end, reference materials in various languages and a textbook “fundamentals of the russian language and culture” have been developed (russian orthodox church, 2018). many churches across russia opened up groups for learning the russian language and culture. the grint education centre of the peoples’ friendship university of russia (moscow) has worked out an educational pack called “in the good hour!” it provides for a free express preparation for testing in three modules mentioned above. the most important area of work with refugees in all the countries under study is creating favourable conditions for integration into a new environment. the present research enhances the previous data of legal requirements implementation regarding the migration populations that aim to stay in the uk, france or russia. moreover the collected data enriches the already shaped (colic‐peisker, 2005) empirical compendium on the tools that specific countries put in practice to preserve refugee and migrant communities identities and foster their social inclusion in the hosting country. the present findings enhances the understanding of skillbased approach to refugee and migrants’ integration (lodigiani, sarli, 2017). the paper highlights concrete tools that countries under study use to provide the coming populations with the employment and education opportunities. the results of the analysis go in line with studies on the similar topics in earlier periods (skutnabb‐kangas, phillipson, 1998), though reveal the increasing role of language in human rights provision at times of crisis. the statement primarily refers to the crucial role of interpreters whose presents at the border crossing areas becomes of vital importance. this was mentioned in the social media though has not become subject of comprehensive research. however, the findings make it possible to raise the question on the need to revisiting the scope an trens in ntranslator and interpreter’s training with regard to the settings under study. scholars have already mentioned this aspect (atabekova et al 2018).nonetheless, the present research findings shed light on particular countries experience to be considered as a kind of promising practices. stepanova et al. furthermore the present research data enhance the concept of linguistic diversity support (piller, 2016) by providing concrete examples of the tools to reach the respective goals through language training of migrants in the hosting countries. conclusion the research findings confirmed that in terms of legislation the mass movements of people driven from their places as a result of military conflicts, hostilities and/or persecution are subject to protection under the international laws. the latest developments in the field of unplanned migration have required the european union to update its legislation on asylum and the recent refugee crisis contributed to further development of the common european asylum system (ceas). this stand goes in line with international legislation in force and does not contradict national legislations though requires their upgrading. the current developments seem to be a must as the 2015-2018 refugee crisis shows that the difference between voluntary and forced migration, migrants and refugees can be crucial in defining the status of people crossing the border as it is connected to their needs and requirements resulting in the right to stay in the hosting country for short/long term or indefinitely. the need for clear formal definition between these terms is obvious as it would remove uncertainty about the future of individuals, big numbers of people, international and national projects and societies at large. the ceas is a composition of a number of directives and regulations that the state members are to follow. the refugee status and subsidiary protection status are defined by eu laws, however, humanitarian reasons are subject to national legislations which brings about diversity in practical approaches. the country-focused analysis confirms that administrative and organizational activities in managing huge numbers of refugees crossing the international bodies are also a matter of cooperation between local and regional bodies, non-governmental organization, professional organisations and volunteer groups. the above stakeholders are also engaged in facilitating the language aspects in the refugee context. currently language aspects primarily cover interpreting and translation services provision to refugees upon their arrival in the hosting country, first, and language training for adaptation and integration. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 professional services of interpreting screenings and interviews during the refugee determination procedures are provided by certified interpreters both in france and in the uk, which does not exclude certain criticism (quality of interpreting, lack of interest to a refugee and wrong atmosphere at the interview). in russia, the federal migration service (fms) often attracts nonprofessional interpreters originally representing the relevant cultures. besides, the agency encounters the problems with translated documents of the applicants, where proper names may be written in different transcription, which hinders identification and cause delays in decisions. interpreting in medical setting is carried out by professional associations with substantial assistance of charity organisations and volunteers. the criticism concerns fail in administration, finance and deficiency of professional interpreters. specific context, stress, cross-cultural environment often leading to misunderstanding outline the main difficulties in those activities. scholars indicate the necessity to codify the involvement of interpreters in the healthcare systems to ensure their access (undertaking and tackling the migration challenge, 2016). educational programmes in all the countries under study are set up by the states and engage a wide range of charity organisations and volunteer groups. testing and certification of language skills are compulsory for those wishing to settle in the hosting country. in russia, such test comprises the russian language, the basics of law and russian history. preparation for tests are most often free of charge whereas the test itself is not. the purpose is to contribute to integration of the refugees and asylum seekers into the new environment. however further studies should focus on language issues within a broader context, considering language as a cultural driver to tolerance among different migrating populations. summing up, we can state that practices concerning managing big masses of refugees at cross points and temporary settlement zones in terms of legal and language matters in such countries as france, the uk and russia have much in common. this can be attributed to the universal principles for protecting and treating refugees and assistance of international organisations including the united nations high commission for refugees (unhcr). those experiences can significantly contribute to further the national and international laws, to strengthen international networks and collaboration, and to work out better administrative and financial schemes in tackling the challenges. acknowledgements the authors thank the peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university for stepanova et al. financial and administrative support. the publication was prepared with the support of the rudn university program 5-100 as part of the research under grant № 090511-2-000. references asylum seekers in france. (2015). url: https://ofpra.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/atoms/files/guide-da-france_anglais.pdf atabekova, a., gorbatenko, r., shoustikova, t., valero garces, c. (2018). academia´s thoughts and graduates’ opinions of education at university degree for translators and interpreters: is there a need for revisiting both concept and practice? xlinguae, 1, 269-283. bitoulas, a. (2015). population and social conditions. url: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/4168041/6742650/ks-qa-15-003-enn.pdf/b7786ec9-1ad6-4720-8a1d-430fcfc55018 claim asylum in the uk. (2018). url: https://www.gov.uk/claim-asylum/screening code of professional conduct. (2016). url: http://www.nrpsi.org.uk/for-clients-ofinterpreters/code-of-professional-conduct.html colic‐peisker, v. (2005). at least you're the right colour: identity and social inclusion of bosnian refugees in australia. journal of ethnic and migration studies, 31(4),pp. 615‐638. dearden, l. (2016). calais crisis: first ever quantitative survey in the jungle reveals thousands of refugees still trying to reach the uk. url: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/calais-crisis-first-ever-quantitativesurvey-in-the-jungle-reveals-thousands-of-refugees-still-a7041541.html european pro bono alliance. what is the right of asylum in france? (2013). url: http://www.europeanprobonoalliance.org/index.php/all-news/134-by-vigo-cabinet-davocats-for-the-european-pro-bono-alliance eurostat statistics of 2015. (2016). url: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/images/8/8a/unemployment_rate_2005-2016_%28%25%29_new.png forum réfugiés – cosi. (2017). url: http://www.asylumineurope.org/reports/country/france/asylumprocedure/procedures/regular-procedure#footnote26_x06mz8m fund of strategic culture (2018). https://www.fondsk.ru/news/2015/06/19/ukraina-zhivet-nadengi-trudovyh-migrantov-33913.html http://www.nrpsi.org.uk/for-clients-of-interpreters/code-of-professional-conduct.html http://www.nrpsi.org.uk/for-clients-of-interpreters/code-of-professional-conduct.html journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 296-316 gibb, r., good, a. (2014). interpretation, translation and intercultural communication in refugee status determination procedures in the uk and france. language and intercultural communication, 14(3), 385-399. handbook on european law relating to asylum, borders and immigration. european union agency for fundamental rights. (2015). url: https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/handbook_asylum_eng.pdf home office. reforming support for failed asylum seekers and other illegal migrants: response to consultation. (2015). url: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_d ata/file/473284/response_to_consultation.pdf house of commons library briefing paper. constituency casework: asylum, immigration and nationality. (2015). url: https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/researchbriefing/summary/sn03186#fullreport how the french bureaucracy can make you mentally & emontionally stronger? (2017). url: https://www.expats-paris.com/fusac/how-the-french-bureaucracy-can-make-you-mentallyemotionally-stronger ilyas, m. (2018). expatriate experience and the fictional world of diaspora. journal of social studies education research, 9(1), 106-123. kadikova, a., tuischenko, m. (2010). the problem of language incompetence in the context of migration processes. url: http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2010/0431/analit05.php lodigiani, r., & sarli, a. (2017). migrants’ competence recognition systems: controversial links between social inclusion aims and unexpected discrimination effects. european journal for research on the education and learning of adults, 8(1), 127-144. living in france. (2016). url: http://www.ofii.fr/img/pdf/livret%20venir%20vivre%20en%20france/livret_venirvivre-en-france_sept2016_euk.pdf makarova, a., safronov, yu. (2016). why refugees do not aspire to france. url: http://ru.rfi.fr/frantsiya/20160124-pochemu-bezhentsy-ne-speshat-vo-frantsiyu migration crisis. house of commons. seventh report of session 2016-17. (2016). url: https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmhaff/24/24.pdf. moscow patriarchate. (2018). stepanova et al. http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/2919905.html piller, i.(2016) linguistic diversity and social justice. uk: oxfrd,oxford university press. prove your knowledge of english for citizenship and setting. (2018). url: https://www.gov.uk/english-language/approved-english-language-qualifications refugee action. why an nhs interpreter can make the difference between life and death. (2018). url: https://www.refugee-action.org.uk/nhs-interpreter-can-make-difference-lifedeath/ refugee law and policy: united kingdom. (2016). url: https://www.loc.gov/law/help/refugeelaw/unitedkingdom.php refugee status under international law. (2015). url: https://epthinktank.eu/2015/10/27/refugee-status-under-international-law/ russian orthodox church. (2018). url: http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/3079945.html skutnabb‐kangas, t., phillipson, r. (1998). language in human rights. the international communication gazette, 60(1), pp.27‐46. the un refugee agency. russian federation. (2017). http://reporting.unhcr.org/node/2551 this school in paris teaches migrants who have never earned a high-school degree. (2017). url: http://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/2229/this-school-in-paris-teaches-migrantswho-have-never-earned-a-high-school-degree undertaking and tackling the migration challenge. (2016). url: https://ec.europa.eu/research/socialsciences/pdf/other_pubs/migration_conference_report_2016.pdf un. refugees and migrants. definition. (2018). url: https://refugeesmigrants.un.org/definitions un says ukraine was made russia top asylum destination. (2015). url: https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-ukraine-asylum-requests-unhcr/27079360.html vinnikov, a.v. (2017). difficulties of the official translation: no one needs reliability. url: http://otkrmir.ru/uslugi-perevoda/sudebnyy-perevod/statii-po-sudebnomuperevodu/trudnosti-oficialnogo-perevoda/ article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11(3), 177-197 exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages imroatus solikhah1 & teguh budiharso2 abstract this study explores implementations for teaching bahasa indonesia (bi) and the process for including culture when teaching bi to speakers of other languages (bipa). in this research, content analysis was applied, and a qualitative approach was used to analyze the data, which were obtained from the bipa websites of 11 universities and one bipa website hosted by indonesia’s ministry of education and culture. this study also recruited 36 people as participants. analysis of the data through content analysis comprised six steps: i) transforming the data into narrative text, ii) determining units of analysis in line with the research questions, iii) developing rules for the datacoding system, iv) applying the coding to all units of analysis, v) testing the consistency of each coding, and vi) drawing conclusions about the verified data. the results show how the implementations of bipa in practice conform to curriculum planning, and they identify objectives, determine teaching materials, provide a learning experience, and evaluate the results. in these four aspects, the results are appropriate, but undesirable properties were identified in terms of the length of the study, an absence of vocabulary items, and learning outcomes for bipa for specific academic purposes. for cultural aspects, indonesian culture was found to be included in various topics and learning experiences, but soft diplomacy was not effectively taught through the language-teaching content and methodology. keywords: bipa, culture, language properties, language policy. introduction bahasa indonesia (bi) is currently spoken by a growing global population thanks to the success of the indonesian government’s language policy. as the language of the fourth most populous nation in the world (read, 2002), bi has become a popular language to learn. indeed, the success of the bipa (bahasa indonesia untuk penutur asing, which translates as bahasa indonesia for speakers of other languages) program is such that it is now taught in 29 countries through 420 bipa centers (suparsa et al., 2017), with the number of students learning bipa reaching 55,023 in 2020. the spread of bi learning outside indonesia has been made possible because bi is considered a standardized version of malay. japan became the second country to teach bi/malay 1dr. state institute of islamic studies (iain) of surakarta, indonesia, iim_dr@yahoo.com 2prof. dr. state institute of islamic studies (iain) of surakarta, indonesia, teguhprof@gmail.com mailto:iim_dr@yahoo.com mailto:teguhprof@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 178 in 1925 (alwi, 1995; read, 2002). by the 1950s, bi was being formally taught around the world, such as in germany, italy, france, and china. in addition, various american universities have taught bi since 1952, while australia and uk universities began in 1955 and 1967, respectively (read, 2002). in america, bi has received academic attention in the form of a project to establish indonesian as part of the southeast asian program, which was initiated by professor john echols, in 1952 (read, 2002). more recently, bi has been taught in reputable american universities, such as cornell university, yale university, arizona state university, california university at berkeley, hawaii university, and michigan university, as well as other institutions in northern illinois, ohio, oregon, wisconsin, and los angeles (read, 2002; soemarmo, 1988). of the 800 universities in japan, 75 (9.4%) of them teach bi (suparsa et al., 2017). in australia, bi has become the fourth most popular language course, being taken up by 1,402 students (yabanova & özerbas, 2020). from the perspective of language policy, indonesia, which has an estimated population of nearly 270 million people as of 2020, is a nation of polyglots (read, 2002), because in addition to the national language, there are 700 regional languages. indonesia’s language policy represents the most spectacular linguistic phenomenon of our age (alisjahbana, 2019), and it has been described as a “great success” (bukhari, 1996) and a “miraculous success” (woolard, 2000). bipa was introduced as a means of internationalizing bi by the indonesian ministry of education and culture’s center for strategy development and language diplomacy (ppsdk). initially, bipa served to offer non-indonesian’s a way of simply learning bi. recently, however, there has been interest in deeper academic study from learners in the asian-pacific region, europe, and latin america. by 2019, the global spread of bipa had reached 48 countries with 179 learning centers (maryani, 2011). by 2020, this increased to 420 centers in 29 countries. in indonesia itself, there are 45 bipa centers that are run by the ppsdk in collaboration with universities and training centers (yabanova & özerbas, 2020). the bipa program presents a great opportunity to develop a skill that can be beneficial in business, scientific, and other professional aspects. the main objective of serving bipa programs, however, is to facilitate collaboration and mutual understanding between indonesian culture and other cultures. more recently, the goal of bipa has been defined as a form of soft diplomacy for establishing and maintaining good relations, with indonesia being positioned as a good global citizen (ningrum et al., 2017). to achieve this goal, bipa teachers need to play a role as language https://news.detik.com/abc-australia/d-5066150 solikhah & budiharso ambassadors, and through this, they can apply this soft diplomacy. the natural beauty and diversity of indonesian culture attracts the attention of non-indonesians, which often come to the country for the purpose of tourism, business, study, and research. what is more, academically speaking, overseas bipa programs offer opportunities for organizing bipa education to teachers outside indonesia. this in turn creates opportunities for further study through undergraduate, master’s, and post-graduate programs at internationally renowned indonesian universities (maryani, 2011; sujana, 2012). in the diverse global environment, culture is a critical element in teaching and learning foreign languages. schenker (2012) admits that achieving a mastery of a language does not automatically imply that people with diverse cultural backgrounds will interact effectively. teaching bi as a foreign language should therefore prepare an intercultural speaker. as hamied and musthafa (2019) suggest, “bipa-going global” is now a reality. the program was designed to give participants the necessary skills (i.e., language, political awareness, cultural sensitivity) needed to engage with indonesia in a constructive and beneficial manner. however, the bipa program is by no means perfect, and the teaching materials and teaching methodology (hamied & musthafa, 2019) require considerable attention. a review of the literature indicates two broad areas that are characteristic of bipa. sujana (2012) emphasizes that bipa has potential, but the challenges and opportunities still prevail. this study, however, focuses on reviewing foreign language studies, and no empirical suggestions are provided to improve bipa’s implementation. other studies, such as those of pratiwi (2019) and suyitno (2007), convey a similar message in that they emphasize the teaching materials and teaching methods but do not identify a strong foundation for bipa implementations to take into account. the study of hamied and musthafa (2019) provides a substantial overview of the practices of bipa. it basically gives the foundation for how bipa has been positioned as a language policy. consequently, bipa needs specific operational planning. the authors suggest that bipa teachers should have adequate academic qualifications and bipa-teaching experience, and they recommend systematic bipa expertise, professional teacher training, and developmental research for bipa with funding support from the ppsdk. two studies by foreign experts (paauw, 2009; read, 2002) into bi teaching have provided a strong foundation for the implementation of the bipa program. more specifically, read (2002) analyzed journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 180 the tifl curriculum and innovations in bi teaching and found that tifl teaching materials are mostly accepted as comprehensive instructional materials in indonesian universities, with communicative competence theory acting as a strong foundation for teaching methodology. the study of paauw (2009), which is titled one land, one nation, one language: an analysis of indonesia’s national language policy, investigated how language policy for bi has developed, with the results of this being cited as the foundation for language policy by some indonesian scholars. the framework for how language policy and language planning has been historically applied to position bi as the national language is attributed to language policy strategies. finally, a study by kuo and lai (2019) looked at the role of culture and language, emphasizing that language teaching is made available to develop intercultural speakers. drawing upon the results of the above studies, an interplay may be identified to improve bipa in practice. a bipa implementation needs a strong foundation in tifl approaches, yet studies by indonesian scholars into teaching methodologies for bipa remain limited. most studies by indonesian scholars review the theories but fall short of making empirical efforts to improve bipa practices. as a result of language policy, bipa has been strongly identified by paauw (2009), and its strong reliance on tifl has been established by read (2002). these two studies have allowed indonesian scholars to develop more elaborate bipa programs. there are, however, problems in bipa practices relating to student barriers, motivations, and reasons for learning bi, all of which need to be elaborated on within a global perspective. the learners’ needs, as non-native speakers, are well met by a high-quality program, and teachers who are experienced in l2 teaching play a role in this. more specifically, such programs equip learners to communicate effectively through both written and spoken bi and give a good understanding of indonesian culture. this study endeavors to review bipa programs and establish whether these programs meet the needs of students. research questions drawing from the background for this study, two research questions are proposed to guide the research process: 1) are bipa practices coherently applied to teach bi as a foreign language? 2) how does the inclusion of culture empower students to become culture-informed indonesian speakers? solikhah & budiharso review of literature the language policy language policy and language planning are used in two synonymous terms. kaplan and baldauf (1997) describe language policy as a set of principles, laws , rules and practices aimed at achieving the desired linguistic change in society. while bianco et al. (2010:152) defines language policy as "a common activity that affects linguistic issues with local circumstances and political considerations." governments often regard language policy as a matter of decision-making (spradley, 1980). 'regulation' is clearly based on regulatory requirements and their present status (p. 8). spolsky (2004) suggests that there are three components of language policy: (1) linguistic practices such as patterns of language variation; (2) linguistic attitudes or social beliefs influencing linguistic and linguistic opinions; and (3) specific attempts to reform practices. language policy is designed to address language needs, evaluate language tools, examine the language feature, and develop strategies to improve effective programming (corson, 1998). the implementation of a language policy, in turn, drives language preparation. in addition, language planning or language engineering, according to cooper and cooper (1989), guides writers and speakers in developing a normative orthography, grammar, and dictionary. language planning is an element of language policy, but garvin (1974) asserts that there are two basic ingredients to language planning: language choice and language development. according to weinstein and thayer (1990), the purpose of language planning includes maintaining the status quo but also reforming and transforming a language. language policy in indonesia predates the country’s independence in 1945. bi was initially a variety of the malay language. by 1928, bi had become established as the national language thanks to a historic event, namely the first congress of indonesian youth in 1928. this congress initiated formal language planning activities to develop bi as a distinct language for the indonesian people (paauw, 2009). bi was recognized as the official language for the nation (alisjahbana, 2019) following indonesia 's independence on 17 august 1945 and expressly officialized under article 36 of the constitution of 1945 (simanjuntak, 2009). four historic times have passed: constitutional democracy 1950–59, the sukarno democratic rules 1959–66, the new order in 1966–98, and the reform era from 1998 to present day. the republic of indonesia has been a historic age. political changes were thus reflected during those years, but language policies and bi 's status as the national language were https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/language_policy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/language_policy journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 182 unchanged (kaplan & baldauf 1997). in the recent era, the indonesian government has stipulated government regulation number 20 year 2003, article 50 on the legal status of bi. at schools, bi and english are used as instruction languages in order to prepare graduates of international quality. the decision to use bi as the national language of indonesia was a policy decision. woolard (2000) states that the process of engineering bi into a language with domestic and international status indicates how language policy is developed. officially, bi is promoted as the language of the nation, the instruction medium in schools, and the official language in national, governmental, and social affairs, as well as a means for developing culture, science, and technology. bipa bipa serves as a bi-teaching program for speakers of other languages. in the context of teaching, bipa falls under the area of teaching methodology and is equivalent to teaching indonesian as a foreign language (tifl). as a part of the language policy of the ninth national language congress, bipa was made available to the global community through the “bipa going global” program (hamied & musthafa, 2019). the ppsdk prepares bipa programs to assist learners in achieving communicative competence with bi for various goals and contexts. to this end, seven programs are served: 1) the darmasiswa ri program, 2) the developing country partnership program (knb), 3) the in-country program, 4) the critical language scholarship (cls) program, 5) the aminef program, 6) the indonesian flagship language initiative (ifli) program, 7) the indonesian overseas program (iop), and 8) the study abroad program (ningrum et al., 2017). these programs are embedded into a one year course, with each lasting four months. the level and individual teaching targets (ningrum et al., 2017) since its introduction in 2015 are shown in table 1. table 1 number of teachers and bipa centers in foreign countries year number of teachers bipa centers number of countries number of learners 2015 14 11 8 1.883 2016 74 47 17 9.885 2017 200 79 22 21.940 2018 226 87 22 18.171 2019 78 77 21 3.144 592 301 90 55.023 source: researchers’ analysis solikhah & budiharso from the perspective of students, motivations for learning bi include (1) to speak bi, (2) to come to indonesia, (3) to understand indonesian books and newspapers, (4) to study the culture of indonesia, (5) to work in indonesia, (6) to send letters written in bi, (7) to attend courses in bi, (8) communicate with indonesian friends or families, (9) to work in research in indonesia, and (10) to master academic writing in bi (read, 2002). in addition, the program is offered at six levels. classroom teaching is scheduled twice a week for two hours each. in one year, the programs are held three times during january to april, may to august, and september to december. this means that the six programs can be completed in two years (see table 2). table 2 levels of a bipa program level course length and general objective basic 1 50 hours—in this stage , learners are able to understand and use descriptive terms, present themselves, perform daily routines and fulfill needs in a simple way.. basic 2 50 hours— at that level , students are able to clearly express their emotions, identify their environment and share their everyday needs and routines. basic 3 50 hours— when this stage is completed, participants will be able to briefly and coherently articulate their thoughts, goals, priorities and ambitions with explanations in their everyday lives and jobs. basic 4 50 hours—upon completing this level, participants are expected to be able to report their observations of events and express their ideas about topics in their field, both abstract and concrete, fairly fluently and without obstacles that may diminish their interlocutor’s understanding. academic 1 60 hours— if this degree has been reached, participants can naturally and fluently almost without barriers, even in specialized academic fields, be able to understand and articulate complex texts and perspective views in many subject fields. academic 2 60 hours after this stage has been completed, the participants shall be able to understand, fluently and spontaneously in a manner suitable for social and professional needs, long and complex texts containing implied meanings, and also articulate ideas in simple, organized, systematic and comprehensive language, not in a complex academic field, e.g. in a scientific work sense. source: bipa upi in future, the focus will be directed at boosting the number of bipa programs, increasing the number of students on existing bipa programs, expanding the degree program, extending the reach into foreign countries, and improving the quality of bipa learning services and facilities. in practice, bipa teaching has revealed some problems: (a) teaching bi to foreign speakers differs from teaching english to foreign speakers in many ways; (b) a bipa program is unique in terms of its teaching methodology, teaching materials, assessment systems, and administrative support systems; (c) being a native speaker of bi is not in itself sufficient for teaching bipa, and (d) bipa programming and instructors’ professional development never ends. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 184 the role of culture in l2 teaching greece (2002 ) describes culture as a set of learned beliefs, convictions and social norms within a population group. in the meantime, culture is characterized by kuo and lai (2019) as consisting of ethnic background, nationality, gender, disability, age, sex, and religion. culture in nature influences the beliefs, traditions, language and actions of individuals. cultural awareness is necessary to achieve linguistic competence, as language can influence a society 's culture. straub (1999) stresses that the growth of grammatical competence, communicative competence and language proficiencies in the learning of a foreign language (l2) is followed by a shift in one's or another culture attitude. on the other hand, thanasoulas (2001) notes that cultural skills demonstrate strong awareness in other countries of traditions, practices , values and meaning systems and that this is an important part of l2 education. teachers are aware that teaching l2 should include the teaching of culture. in short, teaching l2 equips learners with the means to improve their cognitive skills within a foreign culture (straub, 1999). in principle, l2 teachers initiate ideas to introduce cultural content in a curriculum. in particular, teachers should be made aware that cultural content in the classroom is influenced by differences in l1 and target cultures. in practice, language teaching focuses on improving four skills in listening , speaking , reading and writing, but teachers should also recognize cultural competence as a fifth skill. the way a target culture works should also mean language teaching, so that culture is still present in the teaching process. culture is more difficult to define than grammar or vocabulary (kovacs, 2017), but it should still be represented in textbooks, teaching materials, modules, and classroom teaching (solikhah, 2020). byram (1989) highlights the value of cultural learning though linguistic proficiency as the overall aim of communicative competence. during classroom teaching, culture may manifest in things like silence, frequency of turn taking, politeness (odlin, 1989), and communications such as persuasion, deception, punishment, and control that bridge the cultural divides in language teaching (byram, 1989; fairclough, 1989; valdes, 1986). byram (1994) maintains that the wider context of language is society and culture, so communicative competence should be the goal of language proficiency. in the eyes of teachers and students, knowledge and mastery of grammatical systems should be complemented with an understanding of culture-specific meanings, thus demonstrating communicative, or rather cultural, competence. solikhah & budiharso methods design this study applied a content analysis (ca) design with a qualitative approach (solikhah, 2020). ca involves examining documents, text, or speech to see what themes emerge (zhang & wildemuth, 2016), such as focusing on unique themes that describe the meanings of particular texts or concepts (hsieh & shannon, 2005). ca extracts categories or themes inductively through the researcher’s careful examination (patton, 2002). the focus of qualitative ca is placed on language as communication specific to the content or contextual meaning of the text (tesch, 2013). textual data—including in verbal, printed, or electronic form—is gathered by narrative responses, open-ended survey questions, interviews, focus groups, observations, and printed media such as articles, books, and manuals (kondracki et al., 2002). this study applied summative ca, and the process began by determining the content and ended by including latent meanings and themes. this approach analyzed quantitative data in the early stages and elaborated on the contents to identify its qualitative message in an inductive manner (hsieh & shannon, 2005). this study looked at 11 universities: (1) um malang, (2) umm malang, (3) unesa surabaya, (4) unair surabaya, (5) ugm yogjakarta, (6) uny yogyakarta, (7) undip semarang, (8) upi bandung, (9) itb bogor, (10) itb bandung, and (11) ui jakarta. data and their sources the main data for this study comprised curricula, teaching programs, and activities for bipa implementations, and these were obtained from the web presences of bipa centers in the various universities throughout indonesia, as well as from the website of the ppsdk. data were found through websites, whatsapp, instagram, and facebook. there were 13 universities running bipa program, and the researchers used these as sources of data. the kinds of data that are useful for this study include aspects of the bipa programs, namely (1) the purpose of the bipa program, (2) the level of the program, (3) teaching methods, (4) classroom activities, (5) the curriculum, (6) course books, (7) teachers, (8) the testing of learners’ proficiency, (9) the learners’ characteristics and backgrounds, and (10) teaching attainments and obstacles. all data were available in written texts. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 186 participants the participants for this study were bipa students, bipa teachers, and other bipa staff from 11 universities operating bipa programs in indonesia. these participants were distributed as follows: 17 students, 11 teachers, and 8 staff, for a total of 36 participants. these were recruited online using email, whatsapp, and facebook. some 50 participants were initially invited, but only 36 were available. the participants were recruited based on purposive sampling (lawrence, 2011). table 3 describes the distribution of the participants. table 3 participants of this study no kind of participants number % remarks 1 students 17 47 11 universities responded 2 teacher 11 30.6 8 universities responded 3 staff 8 22.2 6 universities responded 36 research instrument this study employed a survey checklist to collect data. this checklist had 10 items that were to be answered with short responses. these items were developed based on the analysis of the website contents and the results of subsequent discussions with bipa staff and teachers. the items on the checklist included (1) the purpose of bipa, (2) the number of students, (3) the country of origin for students, (4) the level of bipa, (5) textbooks, (6) classroom activities, (7) teaching methods, (8) evaluation, (9) teachers, (10) problems with the teaching–learning process, (11) the perception of teaching materials, and (12) the perception of the teaching–learning process. prior to distribution, the checklist was evaluated by one expert in bipa teaching and two bipa teachers. data-collection procedure data for this study were collected through two processes: downloading information from websites and soliciting answers to the survey checklist. the authors downloaded information from the bipa webpages of 15 universities and the ppsdk website. in reality, only 11 university websites and the ppsdk website provided comprehensive detailed content that was appropriate for use in this study, so the researcher adopted these for the final data. to elaborate the contents of the websites, the researcher distributed the survey checklist to 50 participants through email, whatsapp, and facebook. of these 50 participants, only 36 provided responses, which were then used as data for solikhah & budiharso this study. based on these responses through email, whatsapp, and facebook, the researcher established that the 17 students came from america, australia, japan, turkey, vietnam, cambodia, south korea, and south africa, while the 11 teachers worked at eight universities, and the six staff worked in bipa centers. data-analysis techniques the data for this study were inductively analyzed (patton, 2002) by applying summative ca (hsieh & shannon, 2005; zhang & wildemuth, 2016). initially, the researcher analyzed quantitative data before moving onto to the qualitative data that focused on themes and inferences for the entire data. the analysis process comprised six steps: (1) transforming any data into written text; (2) identifying units of analysis in line with the research questions; (3) defining rules for the coding system; (4) coding all units of analysis; (5) testing the consistency of each coding and theme, so that fixed data were obtained. if a coding was not consistent, revisions to the messages or themes were made before (6) drawing conclusions to determine the final data. operationally, the analyses were performed as follows. data obtained from the websites and the responses to the survey checklist were narrated. units of analysis were classified into categories and defined in the checklist and themes for students’ responses. each unit of analysis was coded, tested, and verified. thematic analysis was used to answer the research questions, including for the teaching purposes of bipa, its attributes, and problems when conducting bipa teaching. results and discussion rq 1: do bipa practices embody a coherent application of teaching bi as a foreign language? for rq1, description data are provided in two sets of evidence, namely the analysis of websites and the responses to the survey checklist. the answers to rq1 were described in terms of (1) teaching objectives and (2) learning experiences and teaching methodology. objectives the objective of a bipa program, according to the teachers and staff, is to provide teaching activities for learning bi as a foreign language. this objective is defined in the syllabus and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 188 expressed in leaflets and brochures. each bipa center at the universities indicated a similar model for determining the objective, although there were slight differences in the activities of programs. drawing from the syllabi, the level and objectives of bipa programs were identified. the programs included four basic levels and two for academic purposes. the basic levels teach students bi language skills, including speaking, listening, reading, grammar, and the distinctive and diverse cultures of indonesia. academic levels, meanwhile, prepare students to use bi within academic settings (table 4). table 4 summary of bipa programs level objectives contents duration basic 1 to master oral expression for informal daily interaction 4 skills: grammar, daily conversation, and culture 4 months basic 2 to master oral expression for formal uses 4 skills: grammar, formal discourse, and culture 4 months intermediate to master various topics of oral expression for various functions 4 skills: grammar and various discourse uses, and culture 4 months advanced to master critical topics for oral and written discourse 4 skills: grammar and critical discourse, and culture 4 months igap* 1 to master bi for initial academic purposes speaking, reading and writing, discourse, and culture 4 months isap* 2 to master bi for complex academic purposes complex discourse in speaking, reading and writing, and culture 4 months *igap = indonesian for general academic purposes *isap = indonesian for specific academic purposes as table 4 suggests, the vocabulary contents are unavailable, and the indonesian words in general are not defined in the syllabus. in addition, the learning outcomes that students should achieve at each level are also undefined. the motivations for learning bi, from the perspective of students, were adopted from the survey of read (2002), and the results of our survey are as follows: 1) being willing, in oral or written bi, to communicate (72%); 2) reading books , journals and social media in indonesia (69 percent); 3) studying indonesian culture (68%); 4) bi letters and postings to social media (52%); solikhah & budiharso 5) visiting indonesia (46%); 6) meet the requirements of the course (45%); 7) communicate with friends or families of indonesia (42%); 8) conducting research in indonesia (40%); (9) being able to work in the university (38%); 10) meet the indonesian work requirement (30%). learning experiences and teaching methodology learning experiences, as indicated in the teaching methodology, are adopted by the bipa program of umm. in general, all the 11 bipa centers apply a communicative approach as the basic teaching method, and they also apply five other methods: preaching methods, project-based methods, taskbased methods, skill-based methods, and content-based methods. teaching materials are set in terms of learning activities, and students practice tasks or skills that are assigned by the teachers (table 5). the results of implementing bipa comprise the objectives and the learning experiences or methodology. a discussion of each of these is provided below. the objectives were identified from the syllabus contents and derived from the responses of the participants. similarities appear in that the objective of bipa is to provide communicative competence in bi. teaching materials were prepared to equip students with language skills and knowledge of grammar, but no specific vocabulary was given. in addition, culture was proportionally included in the teaching materials through texts and field trips for learning. of the learning objectives mentioned by the students, there is a strong indication that students’ wish to merely learn to speak bi for their own private goals. table 5. learning experiences and teaching methodology activities to achieve learning experience teaching methodology 1. demonstration-, it-, and pragmatic-based classroom learning preaching and discussion 2. field trips for academic tourism to better recognize and assimilate indonesian culture task-based approach 3. field trips for business tours to acknowledge the various business products of home industries in the community project-based approach 4. visits to recreational and historical sites for cultural tourism task-based approach 5. practicing dance, gamelan, batik, culinary pursuits, and local mask art. task-based approach 6. engaging in various extracurricular activities, such as silat, photography, activities in nature, slametan, weddings, and mosques as an independent activity project-based approach 7. practicing bahasa indonesian in society to build self-confidence and achieve comprehensive communication, such as in markets skilled-based approach journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 190 8. field immersion in a farming or home industry skilled-based approach 9. field trip to cultural heritage sites, such as temples and mosques project-based approach 10. project-based approach for general and specific academic needs, such as attending a seminar, talk show, interview, or radio broadcast content-based approach data sources: bipa program umm the above findings confirm the study of suyitno (2017) in that the teaching materials of bipa programs need improvement. hamied and musthafa (2019) also warn about bipa curricula and qualified instructional design. evidently, this study finds that the goal of bipa programs is not as academic as it is for eap (english for academic purposes) teaching (solikhah, 2020), in the sense that bipa is considered a form of tifl (read, 2002). although bipa programs have been served in 29 countries through 420 centers, as well as 45 centers in indonesia itself (ningrum et al., 2017), the objectives do not seem to accommodate students’ wishes. we observe that it will take two years to finish all six programs, assuming that each level takes four months. what is more, the students’ needs are more focused on learning bi for general communication. there is evidence that this affects the quality of curricula and the content of modules. in addition, the missing vocabulary list in the teaching content indicates imperfect curricula. the disagreement between the goals defined by bipa curricula and students’ needs indicate that management should perform a needs analysis before implementing a curriculum. hamied and musthafa, (2019) state that codifying bipa expertise is required, and academic studies to improve the quality of bipa programs in all aspects are strongly recommended. this implies that bipa syllabi need to be improved and renewed on a massive scale. within indonesia, bipa should be oriented towards helping students to achieve an academic literacy of bi that meets academic needs. parallel to this, programs may seek to attract foreign students to come study in indonesian universities. based on the choice of teaching methodology for a bipa program, this study found that communicative competence had been properly applied, thus confirming the research of read (2002). in australia, bipa has been taught since 1952 from the perspective of a tifl approach. recently, tifl has included the communicative approach and its curriculum has been updated to a competence-based curriculum (cbc). the success of bipa programs outside indonesia shows that the language policy for bi has been largely successful (paauw, 2009; read, 2002). however, although the concept of communicative competence has been used, the cornerstone of communicative competence includes linguistic and sociolinguistic aspects, discourse, and strategies, but these are not well developed. this implies that bipa-teaching programs should solikhah & budiharso include communicative competence as a wider concern. together with renewed curricula, standard teaching materials, teaching methods, and the learning outcomes of the students must be developed further. rq2: how is culture promoted to students during the bipa-teaching process? answers to rq2 relate to the inclusion of culture within the teaching materials and classroom teaching. the primary teaching materials for bipa programs include modules, handouts, and worksheets. modules are used as basic guidelines for language skills and grammar. passages to read, taskbased activities, and exercises for speaking, reading, and writing are provided. in addition, grammatical topics that support speaking, reading, and writing skills are also defined. vocabulary items are taught along with the reading of passages. the content of the teaching materials vary from one bipa center to another, but in general, all bipa centers teach language skills, grammar, and cultural elements in the learning experience. specific emphasis is placed on activities like field trips with social and cultural themes, such as visiting temples and historical sites, browsing cultural art, and attending traditional festivals (table 6). table 6 cultural content in teaching materials description of the teaching material yes n=36 no n=36 1. field work serves natural cultural content. 100% 2. field work is appropriate for the level and cultural understanding. 100% 3. the inclusion of cultural content is proportionally developed in each aspect of the material’s content. 95% 5% 4. modules provide techniques for self-learning. 90% 10% 5. materials promote the four language skills proportionally. 81% 19% 6. handouts help students to understand the materials clearly. 78% 28% 7. speaking and writing for communication are emphasized with sufficient cultural background. 72% 28% 8. the scope of grammar supports the level of the class. 65% 35% 9. modules are well developed and graded in a good sequence. 65% 35% 10. vocabulary items are suitably available. 10% 90% table 6 illustrates the quality of modules, where five items deal with the general quality of the module’s contents and five deal with the inclusion of culture in the teaching materials. the percentage grades were ordered by the researchers. the inclusion of culture in teaching materials is indicated as follows: 1 (100%), 2 (100%), 3 (95%), 4 (90%) and 7 (72%). this implies that cultural content is generally perceived as being in good order by the respondents. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 192 with regard to the inclusion of culture in classroom teaching, the respondents expressed that culture has been clearly identified. table 7 shows the students’ perceptions about the involvement of culture in bipa teaching. the data in table 7 demonstrates the inclusion of culture in classroom teaching. all six items reveal that culture is readily available, which is a surprisingly excellent result. indeed, all of these have remarkable scores ranging from 95% to 100%. the inclusion of culture in bipa programs has been identified from the content of teaching materials and the teaching process. the results demonstrate that bi really is going global with its tifl approach, and it is only natural that cultural aspects should receive attention in curricula and practices (alogali, 2018; dinh, 2019; parker, 2019; vural, 2019). in teaching materials and learning experiences, the contents feature various activities that attach culture to the linguistic aspect (carothers & parfitt, 2017; liu, 2019). this finding is in line with those of other studies (greey, 2002; kovács, 2017; kuo & lai, 2019; kustati & al-azmi, 2018; thanasoulas, 2001). students cannot truly master l2 until they are proficient in a cultural context. culture in l2 can be generalized to ethnically, geographically, genetically, physically, mentally, culturally, physically and religiously (greek, 2002; kuo & lai, 2019). therefore, the inclusion of culture within the system of teaching and classroom instruction should be discussed (kovács, 2017; halpern, 2018; lafer & tarman, 2019). indeed, international students should understand indonesian culture and teachers should share knowledge of indonesian culture (stevick 1982). table 7. perceptions of the inclusion of culture in classroom teaching description of classroom teaching yes n=36 no n=36 1. classroom equally appreciates all students, who may have different ethnicities, race, countries of origin, and religions. 100% 2. classroom equally values the roles of students regardless of gender 100% 3. classroom provides proportional opportunities for any student to participate without considering gender, race, ethnicity, or religion. 90% 10% 4. classroom respects students’ ethnicities, economic statuses, and religious backgrounds equally. 95% 5% 5. classroom appreciates students’ backgrounds from different countries equally. 100% 6. teachers are aware that the difference between indonesian culture and students’ native cultures may influence their learning of bi. 90% 10% all this implies that an understanding of indonesian culture needs to be a core element in bipa programs, so specific training for bipa teachers may be needed. as bipa plays a chief function as a soft diplomacy tool, strategies should be made available by the ppsdk. in the teaching solikhah & budiharso process, strategies to promote indonesian culture should also be emphasized. however, bipa requires a renewal in curricula, teaching materials, and teaching methodology. overall, this research has bridged some of the gaps left by previous studies. firstly, tifl, while it only applies in certain bipa centers, can now be improved with an update to l2 teaching. second, an instructional design that emphasizes teaching materials, learning experiences, and learning outcomes should be updated. third, the cultural aspects of bipa should be comprehensively embedded in the teaching materials, learning experiences, and learning outcomes. this study reveals novel findings in that bipa programs should proportionally cover linguistic proficiency and a vocabulary that includes both general indonesian words and academic words. indeed, an effort to improve bipa for academic purposes should be a priority. conclusion this study aimed to examine the implementation of bipa programs and establish how culture was integrated into bipa teaching and the related language policy. the results indicate that the implementation of bipa programs shows good levels of attainment, as indicated in the goals and teaching methodology. as a language policy, bipa has enjoyed great success, with it now being taught in 29 countries through 420 centers. however, drawbacks in implementations were found, including missing vocabulary items and an absence of communicative components, such as linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence, indicating the need for renewed curricula. more specifically, the inclusion of culture in the teaching process has been accommodated in the teaching materials, classroom activities, and learning outcomes. however, bipa teachers’ understanding of cross-cultural matters is not uniform. despite the limitations of this study, some suggestions are proposed, because bipa programs warrant improvement. each local bipa center can attend to problems in its teaching contents, teaching methods, and the inclusion of culture in its programs. it is therefore recommended that each bipa renew its curriculum. accordingly, the ppsdk, as the central office coordinating bipa centers, should host a national meeting to develop a new curriculum. this research is by no means perfect, however, and there are limitations because in-depth interviews and direct observations of classrooms were not included. future research may pursue a pilot project with a modified research design that includes such interviews and observations. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 194 references alisjahbana, s. t. (2019). language planning for modernization: the case of indonesian and malaysian (vol. 14). walter de gruyter gmbh & co kg. alogali, a. (2018). world englishes: changing the paradigm of linguistic diversity in global academia. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 54-73. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.4 alwi, h. (1995). bipa: hari ini dan esok [teaching indonesian to speakers of other languages, present and future]. paper presented to the international congress on the teaching of indonesian as a foreign language]. fakultas sastra, universitas indonesia. bianco, j. lo, hornberger, n. h., & mckay, s. l. (2010). language policy and planning. sociolinguistics and language education, 18, 143. bukhari, d. (1996). bahasa indonesia: the struggle for a national language. university of. byram, m. (1989). cultural studies in foreign language education (vol. 46). multilingual matters. byram, m. (1994). teaching-and-learning language-and-culture (vol. 100). multilingual matters. carothers, d. & parfitt, c. (2017). disability or language difference: how do we decide? american journal of qualitative research, 1(1), 1-12. cooper, r. l., & cooper, r. l. c. (1989). language planning and social change. cambridge university press. corson, d. (1998). language policy in schools: a resource for teachers and administrators. routledge. dinh, h. (2019). towards a knowledge-rich curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 54-70. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.5 fairclough, n. (1989). language and power. language in social life series. london: longman. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429468896-1 garvin, p. l. (1974). some comments on language planning. advances in language planning, 69–78. greey, m. (2002). honouring diversity: a cross-cultural approach to infant development for babies with special needs. centennial infant and child centre. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.5 solikhah & budiharso halpern, c. (2018). multicultural for who? a review of a comprehensive multicultural textbook. journal of culture and values in education, 1(2), 58-62. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.01.02.4 hamied, f. a., & musthafa, b. (2019). policies on language education in indonesia. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 9(2), 308–315. hsieh, h.-f., & shannon, s. e. (2005). three approaches to qualitative content analysis. qualitative health research, 15(9), 1277–1288. kaplan, r. b., & baldauf, r. b. (1997). language planning from practice to theory (vol. 108). multilingual matters. kondracki, n. l., wellman, n. s., & amundson, d. r. (2002). content analysis: review of methods and their applications in nutrition education. journal of nutrition education and behavior, 34(4), 224–230. kovács, g. (2017). culture in language teaching: a course design for teacher trainees. acta universitatis sapientiae, philologica, 9(3), 73–86. kuo, m.-m., & lai, c.-c. (2019). linguistics across cultures: the impact of culture on second language learning. online submission, 1(1). kustati, m., & al-azmi, h. (2018). pre-service teachers’ attitude on elt research. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.1 lafer, s., & tarman, b. (2019). editorial 2019: (2)1, special issue. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), i-v. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.ed liu, m. (2019). predicting effects of demographic, linguistic and psychological variables on university international students’ intercultural communication sensitivity, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 6(3), 123-133. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/27 maryani, y. (2011). lokakarya program prasertifikasi guru bipa: metodologi pengajaran bipa. diselenggarakan oleh kantor bahasa prov. ntb bekerjasama dengan apbipa bali, senggigi beach hotel, 13–15. ningrum, r. k., waluyo, h. j., & winarni, r. (2017). bipa (bahasa indonesia penutur asing) sebagai upaya internasionalisasi universitas di indonesia. in proceedings education and language international conference (vol. 1). odlin, t. (1989). language transfer (vol. 27). cambridge university press cambridge. parker, j. (2019). second language learning and cultural identity. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 33-42. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.01.02.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.ed https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.3 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(3), 177-197 196 paauw, s. (2009). one land, one nation, one language: an analysis of indonesia’s national language policy. university of rochester working papers in the language sciences, 5(1), 2–16. patton, m. q. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods. thousand oaks. cal.: sage publications. pratiwi, d. f. (2019). kesulitan yang dihadapi oleh para pemelajar dalam memperlajari bahasa indonesia di universitas nottingham, inggris. [problems faced by the learners learning indonesian in the university of nottingham, england]. jakarta. read, j. e. (2002). innovation in indonesian language teaching: an evaluation of the tifl tertiary curriculum materials. schenker, t. (2012). the effects of a virtual exchange on language skills and intercultural competence. michigan state university. german studies. simanjuntak, r. r. (2009). bahasa indonesia: policy, implementation, and planning. lingua cultura, 3(1), 11–19. soemarmo, m. (1988). keadaan dan perkembangan pengajaran bahasa dan sastra indonesia di amerika serikat [the status quo and developments in the teaching of indonesian language and culture in the united states]. in conference paper, vth indonesian language congress, jakarta (vol. 28). solikhah, i. (2020). evaluating eap textbooks for indonesian university students using impressionistic and in-depth assessment. ijeltal (indonesian journal of english language teaching and applied linguistics), 4(2), 395–411. spolsky, b. (2004). language policy. cambridge university press. spradley, j., & observation, p. p. (1980). holt. rinehart & winston, new york. stevick, e. w. (1982). teaching and learning languages (vol. 32). cambridge university press cambridge. straub, h. (1999). designing a cross-cultural course. in forum (vol. 37, p. n3). eric. sujana, i. m. (2012). program bahasa indonesia untuk penutur asing (bipa): peluang, tantangan dan solusi. in makalah disampaikan pada “seminar internasional “menimang bahasa membangun bangsa” fkip universitas mataram, lombok, ntb (pp. 5–6). suparsa, i. n., mantra, i. b. n., & widiastuti, i. a. m. s. (2017). developing learning methods of indonesian as a foreign language. international journal of social sciences and humanities, 1(2), 51–57. solikhah & budiharso suyitno, i. (2007). pengembangan bahan ajar bahasa indonesia untuk penutur asing (bipa) berdasarkan hasil analisis kebutuhan belajar. wacana, 9(1), 62–78. tesch, r. (2013). qualitative research : analysis types and software tools. retrieved from http://www.123library.org/book_details/?id=113487 thanasoulas, d. (2001). the importance of teaching culture in the foreign language classroom. radical pedagogy, 3(3), 1–25. valdes, j. m. (1986). culture in literature. culture bound, 137–147. vural, h. (2019). the relationship of personality traits with english speaking anxiety. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 55-74. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.5 weinstein, b., & thayer, l. (1990). language policy and political development. greenwood publishing group. woolard, k. a. (2000). j. joseph errington, shifting languages: interaction and identity in javanese indonesian.(studies in the social and cultural foundations of language, 19.) cambridge & new york: cambridge university press, 1998. pp. xii, 216. language in society, 29(3), 456–460. yabanova, u., & özerbas, d. h. (2020). international student selection process in turkey: characteristics, challenges and opportunities. international journal of progressive education, 16(2), 137–156. zhang, y., & wildemuth, b. (2016). qualitative analysis of content. applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.5 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018: 9(4), 231-246 231 interpreting for forced migrants in health care: interpreters’ training through patients` perceptions in russia larisa lutskovskaya1, ekaterina v. zvereva2, elena p. kalashnikova3 abstract the paper provides preliminary study in the field of provision of interpreting services in various health care settings including medical institutions and border-cross points for people with limited official language proficiency in russia through the prism of linguacultural mediation. special emphasis is laid on possible barriers in interpreter-mediated communication in health care domain. the research aims to explore target audiences’ perceptions regarding the extent to which the interpreters’ instruction curriculum meets professional challenges that interpreters might face while working for migrants and refugees in healthcare settings. the research methodology applies qualitative and quantitative methods as well as cluster and factor analysis. the research also features an empirical experiment involving interviews with foreign patients of a russian hospital, forced migrants living in russia under status of temporary asylum, and graduate students doing their master degree program “interpreter and translator for public services and institutions” in russia. the research findings obtained through surveys of target audiences suggest that linguistic and interpreting competences alone are not sufficient enough to ensure effective interpreter assisted communication in health care setting. besides knowledge of field related terminology, a health care interpreter has to act as lingua cultural mediator, bridging the cultural gaps between the communicants both in medical institutions and border-crossing points. the present article has both theoretical and practical value as its findings can be used in determining the content and structure of master degree courses on interpreting and translation in health care settings. keywords: public service interpreting, health care setting, linguistic and cultural mediation, forced migration introduction the processes of mass migration have reached global scale during the last decade and affected the majority of the developed countries. irrespective of the nature of migration, be it labor, academic or forced migration caused by armed conflicts, the process impacts all levels of host society including health care domain. next, migrants’ accessibility to health care services is a complicated as well as sensitive issue as it concerns not only to administrative formalities required by legal regulation of health care services provision in the host country, but also language and cultural barriers that foreigners often 1 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, vasilenko_lyu@pfur.ru 2 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, zvereva_ev@pfur.ru 3 senior lecturer, peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, ekalashnikowa@mail.ru mailto:vasilenko_lyu@pfur.ru mailto:zvereva_ev@pfur.ru mailto:ekalashnikowa@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 231-246 face. the situation becomes even more complicated in case of forced migration as the respective category of individuals can hardly foresee all the needs during their move. moreover, the existing data confirms that forced migrants can hardly understand the host country language in particular domain, including legal and healthcare settings. this leads to the world-wide accepted statement of the interpreters’ engagement importance for communication between migrants and the staff of hosting country authorities and agencies that migrants deal with. both language service providers and academia across the world argue for particular modules in the interpreters’ training courses depending on the interpreting contexts. there is a considerable bulk of academic publications and empirical data that specify challenges and constrains regarding interpreting in health care settings. however, neither the angel of forced migration, nor healthcare interpreting practices in some particular countries have become subject to research so far. for instance, russian data concerning above mentioned research trends are still to be explored. moreover, no research has focused so far on graduate students – novice interpreters’ opinions related to the degree of balance between university course contents and real needs for professional skills to interpret in healthcare domain for forced migrants. the above confirms the present research relevance as well as stipulates the current importance of the topic under study. the research hypothesis states that the multilingual communication in healthcare settings integrate different target audiences; the above audiences differ in their perceptions regarding challenges that emerge in the mentioned settings; the above diverse perceptions should be taken into account while dealing with the relevant staff training and professional development. the research goal is to explore target audiences` perceptions regarding the extent to which the interpreters’ instruction curriculum meets professional challenges that interpreters might face while working for migrants and refugees in healthcare settings. this goal required a number of tasks to be fulfilled: to explore the research literature with a view to providing sufficient theoretical background regarding interpreting for refugees in healthcare settings; to analyze the situation in russia in terms of legal and administrative issues related to language support for migrant and refugees with limited or no official language proficiency; lutskovskaya et al. to conduct survey of the target audiences with a view to identifying health care interpreter’s working contexts and competences that are relevant in different settings within the language service provision for migrants and refugees; to develop recommendations for curriculum development for university-based interpreter training to meet language and culture mediation tasks within healthcare settings. research literature review the migration processes and the range of related problems and issues is one of the most studied social phenomena that attracted the attention and interest of researchers in various branches of science (atabekova et al., 2017). the access for healthcare services for in the countries affected by migration crises is one of the most complicated and sensitive issues (o’donnell et al., 2013). thus, according to p. estebáñez (2002), the issues related to access to medical care are the most acute for migrants. as many scholars point out, one of the main reasons that significantly hampers migrants’ access to health services is the lack or insufficiency of the host country official language competences on the part of arriving migrants (moreno, 2004). moreover, researchers note that the inter-language barrier can significantly affect the quality of the medical service provided (abril, 2006; abril & martin, 2011; flores, 2005, 2006; kato, 2018; karliner et al., 2007;). some authors do not consider language difficulties to be the main ones and concentrate their research on the cultural component: beliefs, myths, taboos, religion, significant cultural differences of immigrants (angelelli, 2004; fernandez, 2004). in this respect there is an opinion that intercultural mediation and interpreting functions should be performed by the medical personnel themselves, and it is desirable that they should take appropriate linguistic training (antonín & tomás, 2004; limia et al., 2005). a significant number of research papers are devoted to the figure of an intercultural mediator, which is regarded as a key element for ensuring effective communication between the user of medical services and the medical institution (guerrero, 2012; valverde, 2013). however, the interpreter as mediator is treated somewhat ambiguously in the research literature. even before migration processes became massive and, possibly, irreversible, castiglioni (1997) expressed an opinion that linguacultural mediation involves working in a specific setting, and is oriented at preventing possible conflict situations between communicants. there is a point of view shared by some scholars that an intercultural mediator is not to make any decisions, decision making is the prerogative of the two parties to the conflict: the health service providers and the services journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 231-246 users, the key condition is the impartial mediation (bermúdez, 2002). scholars also draw attention to psychological problems and cultural shock that migrants may experience arriving to their new host country as well as to the necessity of interpreters’ psychological training and teaching them relevant strategies to work with immigrants. in the view of the above carmen valero garcés (2014) underlines that the mediator is a much more complicated role than that of just an interpreter. research literature also discusses the issue of involving unqualified interpreters or so-called ad hoc interpreters into the medical communication. the interpreting is done by patients’ relatives, acquaintances or volunteers, who not only may lack adequate language and interpreting techniques training, but may also run the potential risk of providing incorrect interpreting (cambridge, 1999). it is also noted that the emotional state of proximity to the patient (proxy interpreters) also affects the correctness of interpreting. issues of interpreters’ professional roles in health care domain are discussed by many scholars (such scholars as martín a., abril martí (2002), m.a. mateo alcalá (2004), cebrián (2004) and others). the research literature also discusses factors that influence the availability of health care services. among such factors the following are identified: language barriers, difficulties in organizing medical care for migrants, social deprivation and traumatic experiences of migrants, inadequate knowledge of the health care services' provision system, cultural differences, different understanding of the disease and treatment, the negative attitude on the part of medical professionals and other patients, lack of access to a medical record (medical history) (cuadra, 2012). all the above specifies the current understanding of the academia that should adequately respond to the emerging challenges to the interpreters’ profession due to increase in migration flow across the world (atabekova et al., 2018). administrative and legal provisions review problems associated with access to healthcare services for refugees and labor migrants (the latter group accounts for the largest proportion of migration influx in russia) are twofold: first of all migrants are often ignorant about frequently changing legislation on healthcare services provision, what services are rendered free of charge, what documents are necessary to have to get medical services and the procedure of obtaining them; lutskovskaya et al. secondly, immigrants face language and cultural barriers while applying for medical assistance. the procedure for providing healthcare to foreign citizens residing or staying in the territory of the russian federation is established by the constitution of the russian federation, international treaties, federal laws: no. 323-fz "on the fundamentals of healthcare for citizens in the russian federation" (2011), no. 326-fz "on compulsory medical insurance in the russian federation" (2010), no. 115-fz "on the legal status of foreign citizens in the russian federation" (2002), decrees of the government no. 186 "on establishing the rules of rendering medical care to foreign citizens in the russian federation" (2013), no. 167 "on the order of providing material, medical and housing guarantees for foreign citizens and stateless persons in the period of their stay in the russian federation" (2003) and others. in the event of a threat to life, medical care (including emergency care) is provided free of charge, including situations when an immigrant does not have any documents confirming the legality of his/her stay in the territory of the russian federation. emergency medical care in the form of an ambulance, including specialized emergency care in state and municipal health institutions is provided free of charge. other types of emergency medical care, as well as planned forms of medical care are rendered to foreign citizens for a fee. foreign citizens can access medical care under voluntary insurance agreements and (or) chip (compulsory healthcare insurance policy), that is, on the basis of a medical care policy that can be obtained under the general rules established for russian citizens. another major problem associated with migrants’ access to healthcare services is related to language and cultural barriers. according to the statistical data obtained as result of “russian monitoring of economic and health wellbeing of the population” (https://www.hse.ru/rlms/) conducted by higher school of economics only 40% of immigrants apply to healthcare institutions for medical help in case of illness, 48% of immigrants engage in self-treatment, 12% of immigrants do nothing at all. the monitoring results also indicate slight gender differences in the responses: the number of women who would apply to healthcare institution in case of illness is by 10% higher than that of men. migrants with poor russian language command find it difficult to communicate with medical personnel, besides they indicate that they find this communication awkward due to significant cultural differences. left as it is such situation has a potential for bringing about very detrimental consequences. instead of applying to healthcare journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 231-246 institutions immigrants frequently sick the help of so called “acquaintance doctors” whose medal qualification is doubtful. considering the above, authors believe that ensuring access for refugees and migrants to health care services through eliminating language barriers and mitigating cultural obstacles by way of interpreter-mediated communication is vital for preventing marginalization of vulnerable groups of population and thus precluding possible destabilization of social situation. methodology participants profile the interpreters’ community experience, legal and administrative provisions on the issue under stud, literature review made it possible to map the present research target audiences that for the present research. first, persons who live in russian under status of temporary asylum were taken into account. second, foreign patients of a russian outpatient clinics and graduate students of ma on translation and interpreting for public services were also included in the research participants pool to get additional information on perceptions of those engaged in cross language interpretation in healthcare settings. research methods the research was implemented within integrated anthropological paradigm. it viewed interpreting in healthcare settings as language and culture mediation to meet vital personal human needs of the patient and professional needs of the doctors, united cognitive, social and cultural approaches to interethnic communication study, accumulated constructivism approach to university instruction. the research combined qualitative and quantitative methods, theoretical and empirical studies, and included statistical analysis, as well. cluster and factor types of analysis were implemented to process statistics obtained through the pilot empirical studies research stages the theoretical analysis focused on the review of academic literature that laid grounds for conceptual framework to understand current trends and needs regarding university curriculum and instruction contents to train future interpreters. moreover, the researchers also looked through administrative and legal provisions, official mass media sources that focused on the topics under study. lutskovskaya et al. the empirical part included the survey of forced migrants who have settled in russia, russian interpreters who had experience of working with forced migrants in healthcare settings, interviews with foreign citizens – patients of a russian hospital, and graduate students doing master degree program “interpreter and translator for public services and institutions”. totally 15 graduate studentsnovice interpreters, 40 foreign patients, 31 forced migrants with temporary asylum status participated in the surveys. the questionnaire for the surveys included items to differentiate the working contexts and the respective professional skills that interpreters need in the above contexts. pilot experiment results and discussion the conducted research was aimed at experimental verification of the above mentioned hypothesis that communication in health care setting goes far beyond purely linguistic issues involving social and psychological dimensions and requires target audiences’ perceptions to be taken into account. with the view of obtaining reliable data the authors conducted a survey of three target groups of respondents which included the following: forced migrants who live in moscow after getting the temporary asylum status in russia; ma students doing their pre-thesis interpreting internship in russian health care institutions; foreign patients who are provided healthcare services in russian health care institutions; the research was conducted in several stages. the first stage included interviews with persons who have obtained the refugee status in russia with the view of identifying their linguistic needs at cross border points regarding health care issues. the second stage involved the survey of ma students in terms of their perception on effectiveness of their academic and practical training to meet the real challenges of health care interpreting. the third stage focused on foreign patients’ perception of interpreter mediated doctor-patient communication. the first stage of the experiment involved persons with temporary asylum status presently residing in moscow. the respondents who agreed to participate in the experiment were mostly from syria, afghanistan, they represented the following language communities: pashto, dari, uzbek, various regional dialects of arabic. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 231-246 all the respondents asked for confidentiality and non-disclosure of their personal data. in the course of the third stage of the experiment the following clusters of challenges were revealed regarding the respondents’ experiences of language –related issues at the stage of crossing borders and arriving at the territory of russia: table 1 clusters of challenges that persons with temporary asylum status presently residing in moscow mentioned challenges respondents, % 1) lack of interpreters at cross-border points 78% 2) limited variety of working language pairs 70% 3) social aspects of communication 56% source: authors the factor analysis discloses the following factors that stand behind the above clusters regarding the lack of interpreters at cross-border points 89% of respondents mention little number of refugees attempting to get into russia as forced immigrants. the second factor mentioned by respondent, and that actually follows from the thirst one, is insignificant attention to refugees’ linguistic needs on the part of border officials (61% of respondents). due to insignificant number of refugees it appears unreasonable to employ permanent staff of interpreters. some of the respondents agreed to be interviewed on condition of absolute confidentiality, 5% of them mention illegal crossing the russian border which constitutes the third factor standing behind the cluster no 1. the factors supporting the second cluster of challenges comprise the following: the diversity of dialects, some of which even have no written form (mentioned by 75% of respondents). no massive influx of refugees, which is the case for many european countries. as has been mentioned before limited number of asylum seekers representing a vast diversity of rare languages and regional dialects render it economically costly to employ extensive staff of interpreters at cross-border points. the item was mentioned by 46% of respondents. the third item mentioned by respondents in regard to the cluster no2 is associated with lack of lsp skills on the part of available interpreters (57%). it must also be mentioned that according to respondents’ impression only a small number of interpreters appear to be certified interpreters with university or institute degree, who mostly work with major european lutskovskaya et al. languages; the bulk of ad-hoc interpreting is done by border officials themselves. social cluster is comprised of the below: lack of adequate communication tactics on the part of the available interpreters. interpreters appear to have no relevant skills to adjust their communicative tactics to target audience when dealing with women, children, adults in condition of considerable stress. to implement the second stage of the experiment the authors developed a questionnaire for research participants (ma students at the first stage) and offered them to submit their answers two times: before and after their internship activities in a russian outpatient clinic. students were strongly encouraged to give their comments (all the tables presented in the paper were compiled by the authors on the basis of experimental data). table 2 questionnaire given to students before the experiment question positive response negative response do you believe that knowledge of medical terminology is sufficient to provide effective interpreting in medical setting? 13 2 is it necessary to include the following subjects into interpreting training curriculum? course on psychology of communication course on cross-cultural communication within targeted language community course on medical anthropology the health care system of russia (the procedure for providing health care services) 8 5 0 6 7 10 15 9 source: authors as can be seen from the table most students believed the knowledge of medical terminology was sufficient for performing effective interpreting. more than that, 12 students out of 15 indicated in their comments that they believed knowledge of medical terminology to be the key factor of effective interpreting. more than the half of the respondents indicated that psychology is an important element of interpreter’s training generally. concerning cross-cultural studies with special focus on targeted language community only 5 students indicated this course as important for interpreter’s professional practice, the majority of respondents believed that this subject is useful in terms of expanding general erudition. medical anthropology, a subject area close to ethno medicine, caused confusion in the students involved in the experiment; they acknowledged ignorance about such subject area. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 231-246 table 3 questionnaire after the experiment (source: authors’ experimental data) question positive response negative response do you believe that knowledge of medical terminology is sufficient to provide effective interpreting in medical setting? 2 13 is it necessary to include the following subjects into interpreting training curriculum? course on psychology of communication with different target audiences course on cross-cultural communication within targeted language community course on medical anthropology the health care system of russia (the procedure for providing health care services) 12 11 9 13 3 4 6 2 source: authors having had a hands-on experience of interpreting in medical institutions within the framework of pre-thesis internship students submitted the responses that drastically differed from the initial ones. students found themselves exposed to various psychological difficulties that frequently occur in healthcare setting: to provide effective interpreting it occasionally required to calm the patient down, give him/her advice, create a comfortable atmosphere, relieve the stress of communication in an unfamiliar environment, smooth out conflict situations with medical personnel occurring due to patients’ unjustified expectations. students acknowledged that they found themselves going far beyond the traditional boundaries of interpreter’s role trying to promote doctor-patient effective communication. in the course of interpreting internship students realized that patients tend to develop greater confidence in the interpreter rather than in the doctor, as interpreter is the one who speaks his/her native language. students involved into experiment also had to deal with a large number of issues regarding the access to medical services in russia, for example, how to get a medical policy, what services were covered by insurance and what were chargeable etc. to ensure patient’s better understanding of the procedures students occasionally had to find parallels with healthcare services provision in patient’s country of origin. all these factors influenced the change in students’ perception of the relevancy of certain courses. at the third stage of the experiment a series of interviews were conducted with foreign patients. the authors asked them to answer a simple set of questions related to their experience of interpreter mediated communication in healthcare setting. the targeted group of respondents included foreign students and migrant workers. the total number of respondents was 40. lutskovskaya et al. respondents were expected to provide yes/no answers, but were encouraged to give any comments they saw fit. table 4 (source: authors’ experimental data) issue of the survey positive response negative response do you believe that interpreter’s knowledge of medical terminology is the most important factor for effective interpreting? 23 17 do you believe that interpreter should assist doctor-patient communication through cultural mediation as well? 31 9 are you satisfied with your experience of interpreter mediated communication? 28 12 would you prefer to communicate with medical professionals directly, without interpreter’s services? 30 10 source: authors table 4 shows the research data obtained from patients’ survey. it is not surprising that slightly more than the half of the respondents believe that interpreter’s knowledge of terminology is most important for effective interpreting. somewhat more surprising results were obtained for the second question: the majority of respondents indicated in their comments that interpreter’s lingua-cultural competences were the key factor that ensured comfortable atmosphere of doctor-patient communication. answering the third question 12 respondents out of 40 said that they had a frustrating experience of interpreter assisted communication. among the reasons that caused frustration they identify the following: low level of interpreter’s cultural competence: they felt that the interpreter didn’t fully grasp the culturally specific meaning of what was said, respondents came to such conclusion on the basis of doctor’s reaction and obvious hesitation on interpreter’s part; another cited reason was emotional discomfort caused by the presence of the third party (this reason was cited by 4 respondents and all of them were men); one respondent noted that interpreter was pushing her figure too much forward, thus hampering the communication rather than facilitating it. despite the cited reasons the majority of the respondents expressed their preference to be provided with interpreter’s services, however 10 respondents said that no matter how well interpreter was doing his/her job, they would still prefer to communicate with a doctor directly without third parties’ presence. as can be seen from the survey data the diverse target audiences reveal common challenges related to provision of interpreting services in health care context both in medical institutions and at border-crossing points as well issues of interpreters’ adequate professional training. the research results convincingly demonstrate that health care interpreters’ role goes beyond journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 231-246 traditional conduit model and is increasingly perceived as that of linguacultural mediator. having processed the survey results authors drafted an approximate and, of course, an open list of competences that the interpreter-mediator is expected to have, it should be noted that linguistic skills are only part of this list. knowledge of medical terminology; knowledge of cultural background of the participants of communication; mastery of interpreting techniques; knowledge of the legislative and regulatory framework for provision of health care services to immigrants; mastery of communication skills; the ability to resolve conflict situations, negotiation skills; the ability to integrate and work in a team in different contexts; empathy, interest in the patient’s problems; respectful attitude to manifestations of cultural diversity; impartiality. the mentioned competences cannot be trained only through traditional approaches to interpreters’ professional training. task-based approach, involving case studies, video-based tasks seem to be more relevant. conclusion the research findings obtained through surveys of interpreters, university graduate students and foreign patients revealed the need to update the university curriculum. it should go beyond terminology and basic cross cultural communication issues, and include the subjects on psychology of communication, medical anthropology, on health care system of russia (the procedure for providing health care services). the above courses should overcome traditions of academic teaching and move to task-based and problem-solving interactive training, including role plays, use and analysis of video extracts of interpreting in real health care settings. moreover, future interpreters should be consistently trained as language and culture mediators who understand the importance of their extra language tasks related to information mining and its adequate provision to representatives of different cultural, social, religious lutskovskaya et al. communities, with different educational and professional backgrounds. the above facts require specific modules related to interlanguage communication strategies and tactics when applied in healthcare settings for addressees who bear different status in a particular communicative situation. the present research article has both theoretical and practical value. its findings enhance the vision of the tasks for university education to meet societal needs, provide theoretical background for curriculum development to help interpreters be ready to act as mediators in specific domains. the research confirms the earlier statement regarding the need for revisiting the academic framework for interpreter training. the research results can be used for further analysis of the topics under study and academic activities related to methodology development to study interpreting activities for migrants and refugees in specific domains. the obtained data can be applied for degree and cpd courses design and implementation as it provides information on the professional needs for content and structure of courses on interpreting in health care settings. the research results provided information on specific needs for interpreters who work for refugees at the border crossing points and temporary settlements. the research findings refresh the understanding of the requirements that the interpreting industry should take into account when setting standards and identifying components that specify the essence of interpreters’ qualification. acknowledgements the authors thank peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university for financial and administrative support. the publication was prepared with support of the rudn university program 5-100 as part of the research under grant № 090511-2-000. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 231-246 references abril, m.i., martin, a. (2011). la barrera de la comunicación como obstáculo en el acceso a la salud de los inmigrantes. in: j. garcía castaño, n. kressova (eds.), actas del i congreso internacional sobre migraciones en andalucía (pp. 1521-1534). granada: instituto de migraciones. abril, m.i. (2006). la interpretación en los servicios públicos: caracterización como género, contextualización y modelos de formación. hacia unas bases para el diseño curricular. granada: universidad de granada. angelelli, c.v. (2004). medical interpreting and cross-cultural communication. cambridge university press. antonín, m., tomás, j. (2004). la escala de actitud ante la inmigración para enfermería: validación preliminar. enfermería científica. granada es, 262-263, 77-82. atabekova, a., stepanova, v., udina, n., gorbatenko, o., shoustikova, t. (2017). interpreting in the context of refugee migration: emerging professional challenges and needs. xlinguae, 10(4), 184-195. atabekova, a., gorbatenko, r., shoustikova, t., valero garces, c. (2018). academia´s thoughts and graduates’ opinions of education at university degree for translators and interpreters: is there a need for revisiting both concept and practice? xlinguae, 11(1), 269-283. bermúdez, k. (2002). mediacion intercultural. una propuesta para la formacion. madrid: editorial popular. cambridge, j. (1999). information loss in bilingual medical interviews through an untrained interpreter. the translator, 5(2), 201-219. castiglioni, m. (1997). la mediazione linguistico-culturale. principi, strategie, experienze. milano: franco angeli. cebrián sevilla, c. (2004). estudiantes de medicina e interpretación social: trabajo de campo. in: m.i. abril, a. martin (eds.), revista puentes. hacia nuevas investigaciones en la mediación intercultural. monográfico dedicado a la traducción e interpretación social, nº 4 (pp. 17-28). granada: atrio. cuadra, c.b. (2012). right of access to health care for undocumented migrants in eu: a comparative study of national policies. the european journal of public health, 22(2), 267-271. lutskovskaya et al. decree of the government of the russian federation no. 167 of march 24, 2003 "on the order of providing material, medical and housing guarantees for foreign citizens and stateless persons in the period of their stay in the russian federation" (2003). retrieved from http://base.garant.ru/12130328 decree of the government of the russian federation no. 186 of march 6, 2013 "on establishing the rules of rendering medical care to foreign citizens in the russian federation" (2013). retrieved from http://base.garant.ru/70329696 estebáñez, p. (2002). salud y grupos excluidos: la inmigración. in: estebáñez p. (ed.), exclusión social y salud. balance y perspectivas (pp. 99-115). barcelona: icaria-antrazyt. federal law no. 323-fz of 21.11.2011 (as amended on 03.07.2016) "on the fundamentals of protecting the health of citizens in the russian federation" (2011). retrieved from http://edu.rosminzdrav.ru/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/zakoni/fz_21_11_2011_323 red_ot_03_07_16.pdf federal law of 25.07.2002 n 115-fz (as amended on 31.12.2014) "on the legal status of foreign citizens in the russian federation" (2002). retrieved from http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_law_37868 federal law on compulsory health insurance in the russian federation of 29.11.2010 n 326 fz (2010). retrieved from http://fzrf.su/zakon/obyazatelnoe-medicinskoe-strahovanieoms-326-fz federal state statistics service (2018). retrieved from http://www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/rosstat/en/main/ fernandez, a. (2017/2018). antropología aplicada: salud y desarollo comunitariio. retrieved from: http://antropologiaaplicada.usal.es/data/_uploaded/documentos/guia.pdf flores, g. (2005). the impact of medical interpreter services on the quality of health care: a systematic review. medical care research and review: mcrr, 62(3), 255-299. flores, g. (2006). language barriers to health care in the united states. the lew england journal of medicine, 355(3), 229-231. guerrero, a. (2012). migration and health perspectives on the immigrant population. retrieved from https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/166446/migracion_y_salud_2016.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 231-246 kato, k. (2018). cultural understandings of mental health: the role of language and ethnic identity. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 58-83. karliner, l.s., jacobs, e.a., chen, a.h., mutha, s. (2007). do professional interpreters improve clinical care for patients with limited english proficiency? a systematic review of the literature. health services research, 42(2), 727-754. limia, s., aguado, m.g., salvadores, p. (2005). crecimiento de la poblacion inmigrante y su relacion con la oferta formativa en enfermería. enfermería científica. granada es, 276277, 43-51. martin, a., abril, m.i. (2002). los límites difusos del papel del intérprete social. in: c. valero garcés, g. mancho bares (eds.), traducción e interpretación en los 64 servicios públicos: luevas necesidades para nuevas realidades (pp. 55-60). alcalá de henares: universidad de alcalá. mateo alcalá, m.á. (2004). la interpretación social: hacia el reconocimiento de la profesión. jornades de foment de la investigación. alicante: universitat jaume i. retrieved from http://www.uji.es/bin/publ/edicions/jfi10/trad/10.pdf moreno preciado, m. (2004). la asistencia al paciente inmigrante: un reto para los gestores sanitarios. gestión hospitalaria, 15(3), 85-92. o’donnell, c., burns, n., dowrick, c., lionis, c., macfarlane, a. (2013). health-care access for migrants in europe. the lancet, 382(9890), 393. valero garcés, c. (2014). communicating across cultures. a coursebook on interpreting and translating in public services and institutions. lanham/plymouth: university press of america. valverde, m. (2013). barreras comunicativas en la atención sanitaria a la población inmigrante. retrieved from https://e-revistas.uc3m.es/index.php/recs/article www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2), 330-376 making peace with the past: peace education in post-conflict aceh societies through the application of cognitive behavioral therapy mufti riyani1, wasino2, suyahmo3, nugroho trisnu brata4, fitri amalia shintasiwi5 abstract this paper has two objectives, namely, to map the problems of history learning to promote peace in post-conflict societies and offer applicable solutions. the research questions are 1) how do schools in post-conflict areas experience pedagogical conflict, especially when confronting “difficult history” events that arise in classroom discussions? 2) how does the impacts caused? and 3) what solutions can be offered? this research paper is a qualitative research design with a phenomenological approach. the primary informants in this post-conflict generational research are teachers and students in east aceh. involved 55 participants from schools scattered in locations with predefined characteristics. the gender ratio was 69.6% females and 30.4% males. the youngest volunteer was 12 and the oldest was 52 of age. the main techniques used in the data collection was observation, which aims to observe the learning process in the classroom and various other potentials outside the classroom that contribute to conflict. interviews were carried out to deepen the results of observations as data comparisons. the documentation study was conducted to analyze curriculum documents and the used teaching materials. the results of the research show that schools in post-conflict areas, especially in the research setting of “difficult history” learning, experience pedagogical conflict by placing teachers, students, and schools in a latent conflict structure. the behavior of teachers and students in a learning atmosphere is the culmination of contradictions in the knowledge and epistemology that students have before they enter the classroom. the most visible impact is the emergence of cognitive biases and unconscious history due to the tug of war between the psychological and social modalities of the post-conflict generation. cognitive behavioral therapy application is in accordance with the peace education postulate started by deconstructing the image of the enemy and ended with conflict management skills. keywords: cognitive behavioral therapy, difficult knowledge, peace education, postconflict societies, social studies education introduction peace education is defined as a collection of educational, planning, pedagogical, and practical policies that can provide students with competencies to acquire skills and values for generating comprehensive peace (bajaj, 2008). schools in aceh's post-conflict areas play a role in supporting peacebuilding efforts (gill & niens, 2014a). this task is feasible with or without a specially 1doctoral candidate, universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, m.riyani@students.unnes.ac.id 2prof.dr.,m.hum., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, wasino@mail.unnes.ac.id 3 prof.,dr., m.si., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, suyahmo@mail.unnes.ac.id 4dr., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, trisnu_ntb2015@mail.unnes.ac.id 5 m.a., universitas negeri semarang, indonesia, shintasiwi@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:m.riyani@students.unnes.ac.id mailto:wasino@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:suyahmo@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:trisnu_ntb2015@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:shintasiwi@mail.unnes.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 331 designed educational curriculum (dorji, 2021; khurshid, 2018; maebuta, 2019). some communities seek at pedagogical dialogue and humanist application (gill & niens, 2014b), and inculcation of moral values (sariyatun et al., 2019), or in other terms, the internalization of faith and moral (suadi et al., 2018). these efforts are essentially the attempts to transmit or transform various values into social energy in peacebuilding. this ideal task is supported by experts like johnson & johnson (2020), who agreed that one of the duties of teachers in post-conflict areas is to deliver knowledge, skills, and awareness of the presence of peace. cui et al., (2018) strengthens it by identifying teachers as the primary agents of social change. however, this task is not as easy as said. it is especially felt by the history or social studies teachers at junior and senior high school levels. teaching or learning from and or about social and historical trauma is considered a major challenge, which is then termed in the key concept of "difficult knowledge". the idea of 'difficult knowledge' has been formulated by deborah p. britzman(britzman, 1998;2000; 2013; britzman & pitt, 2004). more specific discussions in the education of history have been studied by farley (2009) and matthews (2010). in peace education practice, it is rarely considered that school residents have been shaped by conflicts with personal and collective legacies from the painful past (weldon, 2010). in fact, even though the conflict has ended, the people inside are still brought up with complaints of enmity, fear, anxiety, and inevitable side effects. this occurs because empirically, every individual in postconflict society remains to live in the shadow of a collective memory of past trauma (good et al., 2006; grayman et al., 2009; hinan, 2010; bar-tal et al., 2014; briggs, 2016). thus, the burden of history and social psychological conditions are a thick wall that needs to be dealt with. research carried out by zembylas (2014) shows a conclusion that curriculum adjustment functioning to erase historical memories in post-conflict societies that haves a positive impact on peacebuilding efforts. one form of curriculum adjustment in post-conflict areas is the development of national identity (shah, 2012;wasino, 2013). it is similar to the arguments gathered in this preliminary study of this research. senior tertiary education level teachers in the aceh timur (east aceh) region agreed that talking about conflict is a way to let wounds stay and not heal. in their views, today's life only needs to be filled with new pages and the task of overseeing the implementation of the helsinki accord. riyani et al. however, this argument is in contrast with the opinion of younger teachers who see the situation differently: this is based on two main explanations: 1) the post-conflict acehnese generation needs theirs memories as a more prominent psychological and pedagogical need; and 2) there are opportunities in the national curriculum to develop local history and thus open up learning spaces for historical material that is difficult or sensitive. furthermore, in implementing peace education, the teachers encountered obstacles in the form of framed students’ opinion and difficulties in penetrating the narrative and subjective perceptions they have as the result of post-conflict social psychology. these obstacles are also known as pedagogic conflicts. based on the conditions above, psychosocial intervention is needed in history education classes to deal with “difficult knowledge” (recollection of emotional challenging historical events) so that the goals of peace education can be achieved. psychosocial interventions in education in postconflict societies have been carried out by ager et al., 2011; brounéus, 2010; jordans et al., 2010; kohrt et al., 2010;;tol et al.,;2013) but has not yet constructed it in an integrated manner in the form of peace education. peace education can be carried out by conducting behavioral interventions in the community, especially adolescents who are victims of conflict, as proven by betancourt et al., (2012), berger et al., (2012) and, pearlman (2013). to formulate a more precise solution, this research is preceded by an effort to understand the main phenomenon. first, conflict in the 'difficult history' teaching classroom will be analyzed using galtung's conflict triangle (galtung, 1973; miall, 2000) as a grand theory. then it is supported by lewin's field theory to explain the work of environmental determinants outside of the school environment that contributes to pedagogic conflicts in the classroom. lewin views that each individual is in a specific psychological force field (duch, 2017). the lewin's field theory argues that behavior is derived from the totality of coexistence and interdependence on the forces that befall a person or group and create a living space where behavior occurs (burnes & cooke, 2013). lastly, as a form of practical contribution that distinguishes this research from similar research, we propose a psychosocial intervention in the form of cognitive behavioral therapy. this is an applied theory derived from lewin's theory, which is also known in the educational psychology theory as a cognitivism theory cluster. cognitive behavioral therapy (cbt) is developed by aaron beck to change behavior by changing thinking systems. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 333 research questions the research questions that will be answered are: 1) how do schools in post-conflict areas experience pedagogical conflict, especially when confronting “difficult history” themes that arise in the classroom? 2) how do the impacts the post conflict affect confronting “difficult history” themes in the classroom? 3) how do cbt be a solution to the impact the post conflict affect confronting “difficult history” themes in the classroom? concept and theoretical framework peace education is a term developed from the definition of peacebuilding. as mentioned earlier, it is defined an educational, planning, pedagogical, and practical policies tool that can provide students with skills and values for creating comprehensive peace (bajaj, 2008). the theory of peace education is developed by many experts. one of them is danesh (2006), with an integrative peace education theory based on the concept of peace and psychological, social, political, ethical, and spiritual conditions. he argues that all human circumstances, including peace, are shaped by our view of reality, human nature, the purpose of life, and in human relationships. harris (2004) states that peace education has five main postulates, namely (1) it explains the roots of violence; (2) it teaches alternatives to violence; (3) it adjusts to cover different forms of violence; (4) peace is a process that varies according to context; and (5) conflict is omnipresent. furthermore, it is explained that peace education covers five general areas, namely human rights, environmental, global, conflict resolution, and peace educations. these five areas are developed from peace education rooted in the religious traditions of, love, compassion, charity and, tolerance to modern theory based on reducing the threat of interpersonal and environmental violence. previously, several peace education approaches have been developed by, danesh (2006), sukendar (2011), eslami-somea & movassagh (2014), maebuta (2019), and sariyatun et al., (2019). however, this research does not make the psychosocial aspects an essential element in dealing with the research subjects. research on peace education in aceh has been carried out by suadi et al., (2018) using the perspective of religion which according the researchers, it is only possible to be one aspect of the defense mechanism without understanding more about the psychological situation of the research subject. this research also follows up on the research conducted by riyani et al. blumberg et al., (2017). they suggested that peace education is needed to break away from structured authoritarianism in the form of the collective memory of conflict, which can function as a system that perpetuates conflict. davies (2005) also suggests that peace education should focus more on psychological therapy in post-conflict societies. the implementation of peace education in learning will face various situations. one of them is the emergence of “difficult knowledge” that is connected to a post-conflict psychosocial impact. difficult knowledge is formulated by garrett (2011) as a theoretical construction that shows a situation when a person faces representations of social and historical trauma, especially in learning situations. it is a situation where emotional and pedagogical complications arise. garrett pointed out that the existence of unconsciousness experienced by people due to uncertainty of knowledge, traumatic learning methods. or where personal history gives more influences to current perceptions it can be said to be as a form of protection against psychological discomfort and pain. difficult history is also mapped by gross & terra (2018) as events that contain the national historical center data that contradicts local history or accepted values. it is also connected to current problems. it involves the violence of the majority group or state, and creates a disequilibrium that requires adjustments towards personal and collective understanding of history. rose (2016) defines difficult knowledge as history that is too difficult to bear. it determines how history is formed based on risk and reasons. responding to this situation, she assumes that historians should be responsible for responding with ethical representations of difficult history. difficult knowledge, as mentioned by britzman (2000) and britzman & pitt (2004), is a pedagogical process in dealing with content that includes war, genocide, large-scale death, forced destruction, starvation, confinement, enforced disappearances, and dislocation. through a study of museums, segall (2014) mentions the difficulties attached to contents that are often faced with personal and collective investment, identity, and history that work to encourage or even limit the tendency of students to learn. this way of learning establishes the knowing and not knowing and the remembering and not remembering mechanisms. the same conclusion is mentioned by trofanenko (2011) through his study on museum pedagogy to observe intergenerational interactions in specific conversations related to the learning of difficult historical events. however, apart from being connected with difficult history, difficult knowledge is also related to other emotional experiences, such as racist ideas and other bad experiences (shim, 2014;purnomo et al., journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 335 2019). therefore, difficult knowledge can be concluded as knowledge related to human emotional experience, whether consciously or not, both individually and collectively. pedagogic conflicts in the classroom that occur in the form of the purpose of the situation and the background of teachers, students, and the themes of difficult history can be explained through the conflict triangle theory (galtung, 1973). galtung states that conflict can be seen as a triangle, with contradictions (c), attitude (a), and behavior (b) at their peaks (see figure 1). contradiction refers to the basis of the conflict situation as well as the incompatibility of goals. attitudes, in this case, can be positive or negative. however, in violent conflict, parties tend to develop negative stereotypes. this is driven by various negative emotions. the attitude itself consists of emotive, cognitive, and conative attitudes. while, behavior manifests in various activities in interaction, including gestures (ramsbotham et al., 2011) figure 1. galtung’s conflict triangle (miall, 2000, p. 21) to analyze the impact of pedagogic conflicts in the classroom related to difficult history teaching, the lewin's fieldtheory will provide an overview of how individuals psychologically respond to various pressures originating from their environment. in this context, the kurt lewin's field theory (duch, 2017) can be used as a theory to explain the relationship between individual cognitive mental processes and the psychological environment leading to certain behaviors, including learning activities. lewin's field theory argues that behavior is derived from the totality of coexistence and interdependence on the forces that befall a person or group and create a living space where behavior occurs(burnes & cooke, 2013). lewin argues that each individual is in a psychological force field. the psychological force field in which the individual reacts is known as "life space". his famous equation is b=ƒ(p, e), expressing b (behavior) is the function (ƒ) of p (person) and e (environment) (duch, 2016). therefore, this research is expected to add references regarding the use of the field theory in social sciences and learning, which is still limited. several previous noted research has applied this contradiction attitude behaviour riyani et al. theory in learning themes by, harahap & surya(2017), hanim(2018), and bhayangkara et al (2020). on other themes, one of which can be illustrated through research suharso et al., (2017). however, it is rare to use a theory to understand the problems in classes of post-conflict areas. lewin's theory functions as a middle theory which is in line with its use in conflict resolution research with the psychodynamic theory, gaming theory, human relationstheory, and so forth (ajala, 2009). in accordance with the research objectives, namely the formation of a learning approach in peace education based on the social-psychological condition of the post-conflict aceh community, this research requires a theory that could be an intervention to the problems faced by the research subjects. furthermore, according to the research focus, the recovery of psychosocial conditions in the post-conflict generation requires psychotherapy treatment to be applied integrally in forming the peace education model. thus, researchers chose cognitive behavioral therapy as the axiology side of this research. cognitive behavioral therapy (cbt) a general term for cognitive therapy is a psychosocial intervention in the form of psychotherapy. the purpose of this therapy is to train the thinking or the cognitive function and how to act. the focus is to change cognitive distortions that are disruptive, behavior, and emotional regulation. this therapy is considered suitable in the formation of a peace education model because it uses a combination of cognitive and learning paradigms. in addition, the available techniques allow teachers or social workers to apply the cbt methods in various situations. its use in education is also demonstrated by the important role of psychoeducation throughout the series of cbt. this method also allows various modes of technology, including smartphone applications, video and audio recording, internet videos and images, and even virtual reality (volungis, 2018) close to the learning setting. the cbt and the lewin's theory haves the same assumption that a person's mindset and beliefs can influence the person`s behavior. thus, cognitive modification or changes in cognition can produce changes in behavior (nevid, 2007), including personality development (aini, 2019). the cbt has also been successfully applied to rectify the emotional situation of children victims of conflict (mirza & sulistiyaningsih, 2013) and social anxiety (asrori, 2015). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 337 figure 2. the relationship of concept and theory source: processed by the researchers method research design this research used a qualitative naturalistic research design. bogdan & biklen (1997) suggest five characteristics of qualitative research as 1). it utilizes natural settings as direct data sources with the researchers as the main instruments, 2). it is descriptive, 3). it pays attention to the process rather than the result or product, 4). it tends to be inductive, 5). meaning is an important concern in it. nasution (1992) adds these characteristics by prioritizing direct data (firsthand), triangulation, contextual details, and an emic perspective that is value bond. therefore, the approach chosen according to the research question is the phenomenological approach, while the type of research was a case study. the qualitative naturalistic design was used according to the research question in this paper. the use of qualitative research will allow the authors to identify the subject as well as feel what the subject experiences in everyday life. it is possible because the authors are involved in the context, the situation, and the setting of the natural phenomenon studied. the research was carried out in aceh timur (east aceh) district. this was based on several considerations, especially the intensity of past conflicts, which were relatively high and experienced a shift in security disturbances in the post-conflict era (siregar, 2012). the phenomenological framework is focused on exploring the experience and meaning of learning in schools in aceh post-conflict with the characteristics of the research area that will be described in detail. the phenomenological approach relates to the understanding of everyday life in classroom learning regarding 'difficult knowledge' and the intersubjective world of the participants, both in terms of students, teachers, difficult knowledge and pedagogical conflict impact of pedagogic conflict peace education cognitive behavioral therapy aaron beck galtung conflict triangle lewin's medan theory riyani et al. and schools. the phenomenological approach seeks to explain the meaning of the phenomena. creswell (2007) mentions that the phenomenological approach delays the judgments on natural attitudes until a certain basis is found. this approach is carried out in a natural situation, so there is no limit in interpreting the phenomena studied. this approach was chosen based on the fact that research is latent data. it means that the facts and data appearing on the surface related to classroom learning including the daily behavior patterns of students and teachers in learning interactions of 'difficult knowledge' is only a phenomenon of what is hidden behind the actor' studied. the phenomenological approach becomes a way of looking at the subject, process, way of analysis, and conclusion drawing. in order to achieve that goal, this research also uses a combination of phenomenological theoretical and empirical studies. figure 2. research locus figure. 3 research’s locus source : czaika & kis-katos (2009) meanwhile, the nature of case study research is in line with the characteristics of naturalistic research designs which are emic and inductive. it means that the phenomena that occurred at the research locus are not necessarily the same as the conflicts that happened in other regions in aceh in the past. moreover, the meaning obtained cannot be generalized. since it is a case study research, the research locus is narrowed down based on specific characteristics. the characteristics were built on the theory of concentric circles, which were also developed in various researches such as cultural research (widayatsari, 2002), history (noerwidi, 2013; p. suharso et al., 2017), politics, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 339 and studies in conflict areas (brata, 2014; 2018; murjani, 2015; tamang & shrestha, 2021). the concentric circles in this research were drawn from conflict centers and affected areas with moderate and low conflict intensity. the characteristics are illustrated as follows: figure 4. locus characteristics source: processed by the researchers the conflict center in this research was chosen to be located in the keudeugeurobak area, banda alam district, aceh timur (east aceh), and the immediate surrounding areas. the second conflict area was the idi cut area with its darkarakundo event, also known as the idi cut tragedy. this area was in the darul aman district. the final location in the research was idi rayeuk. several incidents occurred, the 14-hour coup by gam, the aceh timur event, and many armed contacts between gam and the government. nonetheless, the situation is relatively safer because one of the headquarters of the indonesian national armed forces (tni) was in the center of idi city. the research was carried out for one year, starting from september 2019. participants researchers successfully managed to collect 55 participants from teachers and students with a gender ratio of 69.6% females and 30.4% males. the youngest volunteer was 12 and the oldest was 52 of age. individuals who were chosen as informants in this research were teachers and students who were selected purposively. it means that the informants are people who live or work in schools in areas with unique characteristics. the participants were teachers and students who studied in three areas according to the past conflict intensity category and post-conflict impacts as described above. the schools are in keudeu geurobak (banda alam), idi cut (darul aman), and idi rayeuk regions. in the first region, the riyani et al. students and teachers have monocultural characteristics, homogeneous ethnic, social, and economic backgrounds. in addition, they are ethnic aceh and muslim. they have parents who work as farmers and traders. geographically, they live in inland area. in this region, there are two high schools and six junior high schools/equivalent. meanwhile, in the outer regions, the characteristic is more open, starting from having a more heterogeneous ethnic background and more varied socio-economic background. although the area is small, the idi rayeuk region has a buddhist community and a monastery as their place of worship. the people work as traders, fishermen, government workers, private entrepreneurs, and laborers. there are three junior high schools, one vocational high school, and seven junior high schools/equivalent. meanwhile, in darul aman district, there are five junior high schools/equivalent, one senior high school, and one vocational high school. the participants were selected randomly and based on their willingness to provide further data such as participant curriculum vitae. it is in accordance with husserl's opinion that phenomenological research uses a purposive sampling technique where everyone who has experience about the phenomenon being studied has the right to become a participant. however, on the other hand, ethical considerations where participation is voluntary and permission to record interviews are needed as well as the confidentiality of participant identity must be maintained (carpenter, 2011). the researchers carried out observations in several classes at junior and senior high schools by tracking the distribution of the history education study program alumni of one of the campuses in the aceh timur (east aceh) region who work in the research location. the initial subject is the opening path to the following participants.teachers and students play the role as the main informants. the head of the education office is the key informant while community leaders, education practitioners, and the general community serve as supporting informants. data and data sources in essence, according to denzin & lincoln (2008), the focus of phenomenological research is in the form of a textural description, namely what is experienced by the research subjects about a phenomenon. in this research, the phenomenon in question is difficult knowledge learning in the post-conflict aceh region, especially in aceh timur (east aceh). the second focus is the structural description, namely how the subjects run into and interpret their experiences. in this case, those are in the form of opinions, judgments, feelings, hopes, and other subjective responses from participants regarding their experiences. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 341 the data used in this research were in the form of human documents or informant testimony, events or behavior of research subjects, and contemporary or archival recorded data as well as relevant previous research. the main data used were in the form of behavior in the interaction of difficult history learning or difficult knowledge and things that might be the contributing factors. teacher and student interactions, social attitudes, and other events were recorded and stored as field notes. it is also based on galtung's theory(1973). the data will include various contradictions in learning, behavior, and attitude that form the conflict phenomena in the classroom. the contradictions can be in the form of the parties involved, their relationship, and differences in objectives, or an inherent conflict of interest. while the attitude in it can be in the form of perceptions, misperceptions, or stereotypes of the conflicting parties. these data are obtained by recording the emotional status or emotive attitudes of students and teachers in the present and their relevance to the memory of the conflict period as well as their cognitive and conative attitudes. the sources of these data are the students and teachers who serve as the main actors in learning. while behavior is in the form of cooperation, gesture, friendship, or hostility both in the school environment and outside the school. the next data can be in the form of the environment of students and teachers. the data contain environmental pressures originating from history, norms, values, structures, or social dynamics around teachers and students perceived by students or teachers. the process serves as the field of attraction between psychological situations and the environment that generates broader behavior inside and outside the classroom as explained by lewin's theory (duch, 2017). therefore, participants ‘curriculum vitae is vital to explain the phenomenon, making the meaning behind it can be known. secondary data regarding the points above were obtained from various archives, curriculum documents, relevant previous research, and information derived from supporting informants such as school principals, community leaders, and education practitioners at the research locus. data collection technique observation the main technique used in this research was observation. the objective of the observation is to target the textural description. this technique is used to directly observe learning events and situations outside the classroom affecting it. learning activities between students and teachers in riyani et al. the classroom related to 'difficult knowledge' were observed directly. researchers also feel what happened in the classroom and the community as a form of participatory observation. likewise, interactions between students and students, teachers, and peers outside the classroom were observed in several schools randomly by checking the learning schedule according to difficult historical themes. activities outside the classroom were observed as phenomena that support the situation in the classroom. the observation was also carried out in the community as the social and cultural environment of students and teachers. the observation was conducted by observing how social and cultural constructions are formed both within the family, group, or community institutions. researchers recorded the results in the form of video and field notes. in-depth interviews in-depth interviews were carried out with the participants, teachers, and junior high and high school students voluntarily at the research locus. interview questions were designed to be semiopen to make them more flexible and follow the circumstances, needs, interests, and concerns of the informants. interviews were conducted to explore phenomena that appeared in difficult knowledge learning. the focus of the interview was aimed at revealing the structural description, namely how the subjects run into and interpret their experiences. interviews were carried out to understand the social and psychological environments felt by the research subjects and the dialogue that occurred between them. certain individuals were interviewed to obtain data or information regarding themselves, such as their principles, knowledge, curriculum vitae, views, perceptions, judgments, feelings, expectations, social pressures, norms, culture, history, and other subjective responses derived from other participants regarding their experiences. in-depth interviews enable participants to uncover hidden transcripts because they have emotional bonds with the main subjects in this research. there is no time limit for each session of the interview. however, on average, each participant needed 15 minutes to 1 or 2 hours for one session. interviews were conducted repeatedly on several participants who served as key informants for triangulation and member check purposes. the results of the interviews were recorded using a tape recorder. in addition, field notes were used to create key concepts or new findings. furthermore, the results were transcribed in writing, coded based on the themes and concepts used, tabulated and re-cross-checked by participants, and peerreviewed. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 343 field notes field notes are written records of what was heard, seen, felt, smelled, touched, or anything that was captured by the five senses in the field related to the phenomena and structures that make up the phenomenon of pedagogical conflict related to learning complex. this record is also known as data reflection. field notes consist of descriptive and reflective notes that help researchers to find answers. field notes are developed from notes in the form of scribbles containing keywords, phrases, concepts, main contents of conversations or observations, pictures, sociograms, sketches, diagrams, and so on. archive and documentation study the documents used were student and teacher handbooks for social studies subject for junior high school/equivalent and history subject for general, islamic, and vocational senior high schools. the 2013 curriculum document containing core competencies and basic competencies, student case book, teacher, and student notes, as well as other documents including curriculum vitae of participants, and family photos of participants were used in this research for documentation study. archives were used to understand more about conflict situations that may form collective memories or social and cultural constructions in participants and become comparison data to test the validity of the data. the archives were obtained through an observation carried out at the library and archive office of the aceh timur (east aceh) region with the main material in the form of local news from the 2000s until the peace building period. trustworthiness of data in qualitative research, data validity and reliability are known as credibility, auditability, and fittingness (guba & lincoln, 1982; morse et al., 2002; wood & haber, 2017). qualitative research measures how clear the description of the phenomena being studied is by using the triangulation strategy. this research utilizes several types of existing triangulation, such as 1). source triangulation, an attempt to compare or recheck the degree of trustworthiness of information obtained through different sources. in this research, the testimony of one informant was compared with other testimonies or the behavior observed in the observation. 2). theorytriangulation: an attempt to test the validity of the data through the theory used in the theoretical framework. 3). concept and structure triangulation; an attempt to check the data according to the concepts in prepositions of galtung's conflict theory, kurt lewin's field theory, and aaron beck's cbt. riyani et al. researchers use various data sources to strengthen evidence including logical data. observational data get a degree of trust through the testimony of informants. informants must acknowledge the experiences experienced by researchers as their own. deviant cases or phenomena are used to refine the theory or hypothesis until all cases matches. moreover, subject reviews or member checks as the dialogue with participants are carried out to obtain participants' views on the data credibility, interpretations, and findings. the treatment towards the data began with the process of transcribing the results of the interview verbatim. interview transcripts were identified and checked to measure its accuracy by crosschecking the data derived from other sources such as observations and information from other participants. the interview process was conducted more than once to complete and validate the data. validity and reliability were also carried out by reading the transcript repeatedly to be able to integrate with the data, followed by extracting specific statements, formulating the meaning of specific statements, themes and clusters of themes, and the descriptions of phenomena, as well as validating complete descriptions by giving descriptions to the participants. according to guba & lincoln (1981), fittingness measures how well the hypothesis or proposition works based on the context generated. in this case, the researcher ensures the overall representativeness of the data by determining the specificity of the informants and their responses. this is conducted by ensuring the completeness and accuracy of documents, both from observations, interviews, and other data sources. furthermore, the steps that need to be done are tabulating the data and conducting a skeptical peer review starting from checking the instrument until the data are considered reliable. audibility is the ability ofother investigators to follow decisions or audit trails, including all decisions made by researchers in each data analysis (guba & lincoln, 1981). this is carried out by examining the recordings on the recording device used, field notes, the characteristics of the informants, and the social, physical, and interpersonal context in which the data are collected by researchers and others. data validity is carried out through bracketing which helps researchers understand the phenomena as they are. it takes place throughout the research process. it is done by isolating assumptions, beliefs, and knowledge regarding the phenomena. moreover, examining the phenomena including the process of exploration, analysis, and description of the phenomena is needed to obtain a comprehensive picture of the phenomena. the step that needs to be conducted is intuiting, namely journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 345 identifying the essence and basic elements and the pattern of essence relationships that form the essence of the structure of the phenomena. furthermore, the process of analyzing data derived from participants will be transformed into a structure and concept. the last step is to describe the phenomena that are being studied. data analysis technique researchers apply the epoch characteristic or bracketing, namely delaying or reducing the judgment to raise knowledge above every possible doubt. phenomenological data reduction is the step of sorting out experiences to obtain the phenomena naturally. this process also involves transcendental awareness, which means to see or observe what the researcher experiences in consciousness, perry (2013) calls it transcendental consciousness. according to colaizzi (1978), the analytical procedure is used to operationalize phenomenology. thus, the analysis in this research starts by reading the transcript repeatedly in order to integrate with the data, extracting specific statements, formulating the meaning of specific statements, formulating themes and clusters of themes, formulating specific statements. description of the phenomena and validating the complete description by giving a description to the participants. in detail, the analytical procedure mentioned by colaizzi, stevick, and keen (creswell, 2007) is divided into six steps. the first step is to fully describe the phenomena experienced by the subjects by transcribing the results of the interview beforehand. the second step is called the horizontalization step of the transcript. at this step, epoch or bracketing applies. the third step is the cluster of meaning step. it means toclassify the data according to themes and concepts or units of meaning, then to conduct a textural description and a structural description. the fifth step is to describe the essence to construct the meaning and essence of the experience of the participants or research subjects. the sixth step is to report the results of the research. a literature study is used to determine the relationship and position of research results towards existing research result. findings and discussion 1. in-class difficult history themes and pedagogical conflict in one field observation, researchers found interesting discussions between teachers and students in grade ix. the theme discussed is the fourth main material in the 2013 curriculum for grade ix at the junior high school level. if traced based on the 2018 revised edition of the 2013 curriculum teachers' handbook, the material is included in the fifth and sixth meetings. the learning objective riyani et al. is that students can identify and explain political, economic, social, and cultural developments in indonesia during the era of independence, the parliamentary democracy, the guided democracy, the new order, the and reformation (setiawan et al., 2018). the discussion was developed with a focus on the sub-material of security disturbance of the parliamentary democracy era. a narrative written in the student book states that “the darul islam rebellion / indonesian islamic army in aceh was led by daud beureueh, a former governor of aceh. the rebellion was a result of being downgraded from a special region to a mere residency area in the province of north sumatra....”(setiawan et al., 2016). the narrative considering this event a "rebellion" or security disturbance which often triggers emotional sensitivity involvement in the discussion of historical event in the classroom. the teacher and several students have a collective memory regarding those events in question. additionally, through the discussion of this incident, the discussion can draw to the gloomy time in aceh when it plunged into a period of conflict and violence. it can lead to more profound social conflict because it is often linked to a background of religious demands (nur & susanto, 2020). a similar condition also occurred in grade xii starting from semester i, especially for basic competencies 3.1 and 4.1, which discusses the topic of national disintegration. according to the history class teacher's handbook, grade xii was programmed to participate in the 2nd to the 4th student meetings. it debates the conflicts and upheavals in the to ideology, the conflicts of interest, and the governance system (abdurakhman et al., 2015). the di / tii incident was again unbalanced by a similar narrative. however, the conflict between aceh and the central government was not included in the student book review (setiawan et al., 2018). this situation often caused young teachers who are critical and have a clear memory of the conflict period to dilemmatic. the dilemmatic situation in question is choosing to transmit knowledge and values understood based on their collective memory. however, this attempt is considered to potentially hinder the growth of the peacebuilding process. another one is transforming values and attitudes from a students' perspective of the situations. in facing this situation, some mishmash occurred due to the following circumstances: a. teachers who tend to have an open attitude and mind will accommodate various students’ knowledge and emotions in the classroom. they will discuss them and release new knowledge to provide alternative cognitive options. additionally, teachers may also play a role in creating journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 347 a neutral thinking system. this is to develop the students' decisions and assessments so past conflicts that are balanced and direct to the students' thinking processes of more meaningful goals in the future. b. teachers with a closed attitude and thoughts of the conflict, tend to control the class with knowledge based on personal experience and collective experience. the knowledge of students and teachers stops at their respective cognitive processes. moreover, there are no demands in the curriculum related to the events. the pedagogical conflict that occurs in the classroom between the teachers and students has shaped attitudes and behavior in post-conflict community relations more broadly. however, the class reflects the big field situation. in the galtung's triangle theory, there are three types of attitudes, namely 1). emotive attitude (feeling), 2). cognitive (belief), and 3). conative (will). emotive attitudes are more varied and dominated by a set of negative emotions as a residue of past violent conflicts. the emotional status of students and teachers can be observed as follows: a. dimension of emotive attitudes; emotive attitudes can be positive or negative. however, the emotional status of students and teachers at the research locus shows the following: happiness sad disappointed anxious afraid other disturbed not disturbed figure 5. emotional and cognitive status of students and teachers at the research locus source: processed by the researchers teachers and students in the research locus stated that they felt the dominance of an emotional status. it contains fear, anxiety, sadness, and disappointment. these emotions are closely related to the knowledge base and memories of the past conflict period. those who bear the most of these emotions are teachers aged 25-35 years and students aged 16-18 years, while 70.5% are of the female gender. more than half of respondents mentioned that they were disturbed by their memories. their memories can be touch on events such as family loss, arson, violence, alienation by friends, false accusations, family members who suffer memory loss as result of the conflict. riyani et al. various other memories debilitation shows loss of experienced harmful emotions. those kinds of community memories are part of the nuclear family, neighborhood, school environment, and by information or reading material from books, social media, and printed media. however, they rarely obtained this information or recollection from their relatives. uniquely, although relatives and friends are rarely considered a source of information, these distant memories will instead be transmitted or retold in this research environment. emotive attitudes can be positive. however, in the end, in post-conflict acehnese society that is influenced by historical violence that spread to ethnic sentiments, leaves its mark in the form of developed stereotyping that demean other parties. the impact seen in everyday activities and breeds a lack of social skills to connect with other individuals. this occurs in intergroup and intragroup processes with different regional backgrounds and ethnicity even though they actually live-in close proximity. b. cognitive attitude (belief) cognitive attitude in the form of beliefs often appears in a biased form. cognitive bias occurs because individuals make mistakes when their thinking is rushed to make decisions based on what they have without considering other data or facts. this belief comes from various sources that include knowledge of past conflicts, violence, suffering family members and relatives, being exiled, and so on. the environment as a source of belief and choice to continue with the awareness the is illustrated below: sources of knowledge leading to conative attitudes core family relatives neighborhood school environment close friends literature others these channels pass down knowledge that forms conative attitudes to the next generation core family relatives neighborhood friends close friends family friends school enviroment god figure6. sources of knowledge and transmission channels of teachers and students sources: processed by the researchers journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 349 c. dimensions of a conative attitude. it is in the form of a tendency to will or behave in relation to the object of attitude. in this case, an individual in a certain situation, especially when dealing with a stimulus, will respond based on their feelings (emotion) and beliefs (cognitive) to a stimulus. in this situation, if students or teachers are in opposite emotional and cognitive attitudes, pedagogical conflict cannot be avoided. on the other hand, the absence of a special curriculum for peace education makes schools unable to make changes in attitudes. the only hope is the character education program that is set (haryanti et al., 2016) set to be the national agenda but does not pay attention to special needs such as those of schools in post-conflict areas in aceh. therefore, pedagogical conflict does not only occur between students and teachers regarding their knowledge and emotions but also the learning objectives in the subject area, in this case, history education or social studies. based on the findings above, it can be understood that the pedagogical conflict that occurs is a collection of peaks of differences in interests or contradiction, attitudes, and behaviors of teachers, students, including schools as the curriculum bearers. the form of pedagogical conflict that arises is in the form of a knowledge conflict. this is often seen as a formation of social practice so that it raises special knowledge about violence, the conflict itself, and how the conflict is handled. thus, pedagogical conflict is also related to epistemological conflict, namely how knowledge can be acquired (fisher, 2000). the emergence of this emotive and cognitive attitude is a signal that the potential for conflict is at a latent level. in the subconscious of the holder and can be a hidden dimension (hasanzadeh & chaeechi, 2014). as a result, it does not only exist in the classroom but can expand if the pedagogical conflict in the classroom experiences sharper conflict dynamics. one thing that should be paid attention to is when one party is controlled or oppressed (ramsbotham et al., 2011). however, this conflict rarely extends beyond the classroom or outside the school. if any, it is a latent conflict. this happens if the students or teachers invite the other party to be in the same level of attitude and emotion. potential latent conflict needs to be addressed. for such conditions, it requires efforts to foster empathy in conflict resolution as mentioned (hasanzadeh & chaeechi, 2014) and activate approaches at the interpersonal level as a missing level in the galtung's theory (drago, 2015).the classroom condition in difficult history learning and the dynamics must be viewed as 'common vulnerability' (keet et al., 2009). this approach is in accordance with the demand for in-classroom learning, which ideally can build interpersonal learning (mainhard et al., 2018). the special relationship between students and teachers places the riyani et al. importance of a teacher's role in managing students' emotions. the main role of the teacher is how to explore empathy in history learning. this will be discussed in the next section. 2. impact of pedagogical conflict in classroom pedagogic conflicts in the classroom related to the theme of difficult history have an impact on the emergence of the subconscious history of everyone. the subconscious history often covers an autobiography that contains memories, judgments, past relationships, social expectations, culture, and other things that are sometimes biased. it has a further impact on the social dynamics of postconflict society more broadly. teachers in post-conflict areas can choose local historical materials and subjects to cover up incidents of conflict. however, children affected by conflicts have inherited the emotional life faced by their father, sibling, or loved ones. a teacher of dayahterpadu, boarding school discovered one student of grade xii who was often sad and unable to focus on his learning. losing loved ones, even longing for a male figure in the village had become a false hope for him even after the conflict has passed. "he lost his uncle whom he loved so much, in a shooting incident that occurred in front of his eyes." an event that happened when he was very young. one child victim in the conflict who is now a part of aceh aneuksyuhada network gave testimony about his past trauma. “even two of my dearest friends, a bird, and a monkey, were taken from the house by soldiers. this happened after my father never came back home again”. the aceh conflict spread to grassroots level involved the community itself and has caused frictions that have not completely disappeared. it affects the person's behavior to connect with others. students' attitudes and social skills are shown in research findings. it shows they do not have many friendships or contact with other students who come from different backgrounds. the graph below shows that 84.8% of the informants stated that they do not have friends from different backgrounds and experienced obstacles in building those networks: have no friends’ different backgrounds have different friends background figure 7. percentage of student and teacher interpersonal bonds with other individuals or groups sources: processed by the researchers journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 351 based on the data above, it can be dedicated that pedagogical conflict that occur in the classroom that are related to sensitive difficult historical issues has stimulated an upsurge of unconscious history. unconscious history owned by an individual is a belief influenced by their family and environment. the family begins to take on position by developing a doctrine which choices are right or wrong. this doctrine stems from the assumptions backed up with limited evidence. in children and adolescents, the conscious mind has not functioned optimally. children operate using the unconscious mind, so that information coming from the outside (parents and the surrounding environment) will be absorbed by the unconscious mind. basically, what is inherited is a longterm emotional sentiment of an enemy that is understood by each individual, family, or group. this condition will be strengthened by the existence of a new event related to conflict which is often shown with a framing by mass media or social media. it formulates a belief through justification towards an event or experience. basically, events are neutral, it is thought that gives meaning to an event. the meaning can be a positive or negative emotion. in this situation, emotional regulation is formed, in which an individual will control their emotions either consciously or not influenced by the expressions in accordance with the surrounding environment. personal historic recorded memory does not fully include a moment of consciousness. there is an unconscious mind inside it is such a thing termed as a 'ghost'. frie (2012) examines freeman (2012) notion of unconscious narratives to discuss unconscious culture and history in human experience. the human experience in the form of unconsciousness is not only personal property but is also owned collectively (hauke, 2006). historical studies of the unconscious are not only influenced by jung and freud's understanding of the unconscious. stewart (2003) uses the heidegger and binswanger formulations. he states that unconscious history also contains an apperception of temporality. it exemplifies the dream of treasure as an unconscious product of historical consciousness, a significant phenomenon in greece. treasure is a divine display to the future to discover the past that will enrich the present. it is the combination of the motivation of historicization and temporalization. in older literature, whyte (1974) in his writing regarding the unconscious in history, focuses on the change as the core of the birth of history. he states that change is not free from ideas, insights, intuitions, or vague cues, and various forms of mental processes that are sometimes transferred unconsciously. it is derived especially from parents to children even through communication riyani et al. without words such as facial expressions, small behavioral traits, transfer of social attitudes, morals, or steps towards a new intellectual order (utomo & wasino, 2020). in the interpretation of dreams, freud shows the relationship between history and psychoanalysis. this relationship includes not only the human soul but also human civilization. in the process, he states that access to historical materials is blocked by a mechanism known as sensors (frieden, 2012). the production of history in society undergoes a process called repression, which is a psychic process of choosing what is preferred or considered troublesome in historical material. the term ‘unconscious’ is simply described as a thing that refers to a part of the mind (or a process operating in the mind) that is permanently or temporarily inaccessible to consciousness. tallis (2002) in hidden minds: a history of the unconscious, mentions that there are 2 contrasting ideas related to the unconscious mind. firstly, it is when the unconscious mind has the ability to analyze information, make judgments, and decide on sanctions. the second idea is associated with an automatic process that does not experience a neurological equivalent. he also emphasizes freud's explanation stating that all the processes determining who we are and what we do occur below the threshold of consciousness. tallis opposes freud as the founder of the basic idea of the unconscious, but it cannot be denied that this idea is central to the freudian theory which is best understood as historical anthropology. thus, unconscious history includes both the resource aspect in historical writing and the historical product of human experience which can reappear when confronting difficult knowledge. it is an emotional experience in the classroom which is often not realized (shim, 2014). the deletion of the conflict in aceh's history can emphasize thoughts and become supporting data stating that the mistakes of the government and the existence of other ethnicities representing the central government are absolute. the closure of historical facts is accepted as a denial of negative emotions and sharpens cognitive bias. the existence of cognitive bias and naive realism is a sociopsychological barrier to achieving peace (nasie et al., 2014). this is because each party complies with a narrative of the group. awareness of the existence of bias can lead to opportunities to open to the narratives of other parties who are seen as enemies and tackle the obstacles in peacebuilding efforts. cognitive bias occurs when emotions are not passed on in the thought process. the mind will try to test the truth of meaning and look for supporting data on the meaning that was previously decided. when the mind manages to find supporting data, the meaning is accepted as truth. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 353 therefore, another perspective is needed in the writing of contemporary history confronting the unconscious history of post-conflict societies. history teachers in post-conflict schools can take on the role of historians or work with historians. their presence can be the bridge to connect the subjective and intersubjective in the unconscious history full of emotions, destroying logical and systematic intellectual work (roper, 2014) but at the same time fulfilling the psychological needs of history by placing positive and negative emotions in balance. this is important in the period of reconciliation and peacebuilding (halperin, 2014). the importance of history for today's psychological needs is mentioned by loughran (2012) he feels indebted to historians for telling the past in a very unique way, where personal and political relationships in writing history can change the present and future conditions. the history of emotions has become one of the focuses of historians' studies in recent years (holmes, 2017), especially oral historians. oral historians find witnesses by remembering not only the past events but also the meanings and feelings which are also important parts of those events (thomson, 2019). writing about violent conflict is both a text and a practice that can be described as 'vulnerability'. the vulnerable observer must always correct the intellectual and emotional relationship between the observer and the observed. it is also important to make this theme of vulnerability, not just a decoration. however, it should be noted how historians can control their own unconsciousness, past traces of unconscious emotions left between artifacts, testimonies, and psychological needs that are needed in the present (parent, 2010). thus, meaning and feeling circling the conflicts in aceh in the past need spaces in historical narrative. however, the utilization of the unconscious history of post-conflict societies requires appropriate methods to filter out possible cognitive biases. past trauma caused by the aceh conflict, psychologically, lead to the appearance of prolonged nightmares (grayman et al., 2009), various kinds of symptoms of stress, and depression or traumatic stress disorder (good et al., 2006; grayman et al., 2009; grayman, 2012; hatta, 2016). this situation has an impact on cases of violence in aceh post-conflict (delvecchio, 2010) and the socio-economic situation which exacerbates the situation. these things show how the legacy of the suffering and emotional life that the elders experienced has become the collective memory of the post-conflict generation. the same finding was shown by hall, r. in his dissertation entitled the emotional lives and legacies of fathers and sons in england, 1945-1974 (hall, 2019). this is considered a dangerous memory (mcclelland, 2019). riyani et al. furthermore, the social process among students with different domicile and ethnic backgrounds is often influenced by feelings of suspicion and anxiety that are passed down by their relatives. political conflicts that occur vertically have an impact on social life horizontally (schulze, 2006; czaika & kis-katos, 2009). ethnic sentiment is one of the worst impacts during the post-conflict period (ansori, 2012) and social anxiety is one of the general characteristics experienced by postconflict acehnese society (ravenhill, 1993; barter, 2014; asnawi et al., 2015; melvin, 2017). past memories influence how the construction of interactions with others, relationships with various properties, identities, and ownership are (peristianis, 2020). these situations are in line with thomson's (2019) opinion which states that life stories can shape historical experiences and emotional cultures or vice versa how emotional meanings and feelings are shaped by historical circumstances and negotiated in social life. moreover, he also explained how post-conflict history in the form of dream memories, disappointments in post-war life, the effects of post-traumatic stress, regret, and other feelings are in the unconscious. post-conflict societies are in the midst of reminiscing about the high hope of a new life and the suffering caused by loss and separation (mccort, 2017; wale, 2020). they feel the sensation of new sights, sounds, and smells as well as a new life that is close to them but also pretty foreign at the same time. this emotion then affects the way of thinking, acting, and producing knowledge. material reality and subjective experiences from traumatic knowledge formulate the cognitive status of society (zembylas, 2014) in this case, the explanation of lewin's theory regarding the field theory can be applied to explain how the determinants of the environment or the arena in which the individual is located will greatly influence individual behavior as a tug of war between psychological situations and social pressures (burnes & cooke, 2013;duch, 2017; endrejat et al., 2017). the proposition of lewin's theory is usually simplified by the equation of b=ƒ (p.e), where b (behavior) or individual/group behavior is the overall interaction (ƒ) generated by the mental structure of an individual/group (p) with its environment (e). in the case of difficult pedagogical conflict teaching, the conflict that arises in the classroom is behaviors (b) accumulated from all individual psychological potentials (p) which are influenced by individual modalities such as property, identity, ownership, and other resources. the individual psychological potential forms emotive, cognitive, and conative attitudes with various considerations from outside the psychological environment, namely various pressures coming from the group or society where one journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 355 lives. social pressures and cultural expectations held by each student are influenced by ethnic origins and positions that shape themselves or their families in times of conflict. psychologically, the tug of war between those two shapes long-term sentiments and emotions about the enemy. this is in accordance with lewin's assumption which states that psychological facts are more dominant than sociological facts. lewin's field theory is a theory developed from a cognitive perspective. it is based on the view that we cannot understand a person's behavior without learning their mental processes. humans do not respond to their environment automatically. their behaviors depend on how they think and perceive their environment. thus, to obtain reliable information, one's mental process is the main thing that can explain one's social behavior (hasan mustafa, 2011). for this reason, kurt lewin's field theory utilizes a psychological approach rather than a sociological approach. the most intimate result of this emotional process is the formation of autobiography by students. this autobiography is also shaped by past cultural narratives (various labels of popular, collective, social or public memory). individual emotions are also influenced by cultural relationships and expectations. the emotional process approach in the formation of unconscious history is illustrated in the following scheme: figure 8. emotional process approach in the formation of unconscious history: source: processed by the researchers riyani et al. the main impact of the emergence of unconscious history is the presence of cognitive bias which indirectly affects the social skills of post-conflict societies. cognitive bias, as illustrated in the chart above, is influenced by emotional blockages that are not well regulated. the assessment and rules are generated in the cognition process or when the child's brain is encouraged and then hidden in the unconscious memory through repeated reinforcement before a person becomes an adult and analyzing it with a more mature conscious brain (kamble, 2021). the danger occurs if when they reach adulthood, they are not facilitated to use their consciousness. thus, unconscious history in post-conflict societies is formed through a process determined by memory, myth (asnawi et al., 2015), sense of place (epstein & peck, 2017;roper, 2014), ownership, and identity in past and present (staub, 2003) and reactive emotions both personal and group. in the case of aceh, myths related to the belief that conflict cycles repeat themselves, giving rise to anxiety and alertness. the sense of place, which is related to the arenas and constellations of past conflicts, can be found quite clear. past and present social identities are often inseparable. the explanation of a similar phenomenon has been conveyed by gill & niens (2014b). they state that even though the violent conflict ended, some people in this society continued to be brought in with grievances, hostility, fear, and the brutal effects of group stereotypes. this occurs due to the fact that people remain in the shadow of collective memories of traumas from their pasts full of violence which amplify community divisions. unconscious thoughts shape perceptions and attitudes. although they cannot be seen, they control the overall social behavior of post-conflict acehnese society. the unconscious history in this case can be called mental reflect action where the brain makes quick reference, instant decisions from reasoning whenever a stimulus appears. the unconscious history that was formed after the conflict in aceh did not place the enemy objectively, but there was polarization based on the mental reflexes possessed by each individual. psychological tug-of-war with various pressures originating from environmental determinants creates a magnetic field that can cause a person situated in a negative thinking pattern. this is a situation where a person feels depression with negative thought patterns in 3 domains: self, world, and future. however, covering the 'difficult history' event is not a practical choice. classroom xii teacher expressed: “the history of conflict still needs to be discussed in the classroom. if it is not carried out, it will be fatal. our children will be clueless about free aceh movement. nevertheless, children need to get a neutral point of view in understanding the conflicts that have taken” place”. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 357 therefore, history and the teaching of the aceh history are expected to be a space for releasing emotions as well as a space for therapy. this is in accordance with the function of history as a means of preventing death and loss (roper, 2014). as michel de certeau has mentioned, where the history of the conflict is clearly written it can be represented through the metaphor of "the grave is a place where the dead are respected". this is an effort to respect the dead with representation and, put the past into discourse. at the same time, place them according to their time, as well as free the society from the burden of death. history has a social-psychological function. this includes preserving, recording, or cataloging objects from the past. "in fact, the basic premise of history operates to transform unclear and unforgettable experiences into coherent symbolic forms, serving the basic psychological needs of meaning, place, and time” (roper, 2014:180). this function is relevant to the moral and social functions that history has borne in the curriculum (kitson et al., 2011). 3. alternative solutions to deal with pedagogical conflict on difficult history themes pedagogic conflicts that occur in difficult history learning can be handled through a learning approach that functions as psychoeducational therapy. past historical wounds and traumas borne by the post-conflict generation will be healed. in addition, they also will gain new values by improving their biased cognitive processes. this can be carried out by applying cognitive behavioral therapy (cbt). however, other things still need to be prepared before starting the learning that applies cbt. history, as a psychological need in the form of interest, mentally generates the past in the form of memories, stories, information, and another knowledge from the past. thus, themes of difficult history are impossible to avoid. this is corroborated by the statements of the informants where 85.1% of the subjects found stated their interests. knowledge of past conflicts is important to remember and know the next generation knowledge of past conflicts is not necessary to remember and know the next generation figure 9. the interest of the research subjects towards memory and knowledge from the past source: processed from the research results riyani et al. the objective of this research is to propose alternative solutions based on the problems above. before formulating the solutions, the researchers need to consider various things by paying attention to the list of the main problems proposed by the teachers who are the main informants in this research. based on the results of the interviews with teachers need to be re-tabulated and rediscussed to sharpen the conclusions through focus group discussion. the following list is a priority that needs to be developed in formulating alternative solutions. table 1. fgd-based pedagogical conflict impact management focus mapping aspect input from the teacher input: difficult history themes teacher and student readiness as well as additional supplements that are seriously developed are needed. process; learning atmosphere accommodating and becoming a medium for psychological therapy (psycho-educational) while at the same time overcoming cognitive biases that have the potential to hinder peace efforts. output new knowledge, values, attitudes, and skills are acquired by writing or reviewing old knowledge, values, and attitudes source: processed from the research results based on the findings above, the focus can be directed to the input aspect of the management and learning process. in shaping teacher and student readiness, the researchers proposed alternative solutions which include the agenda of increasing the number of emotional histories writing projects. in this case, the psychological needs towards history are expected to be fulfilled by research subjects by involving the empathy of external parties. therefore, the readiness to face the themes of difficult history can be realized. fulfilling the psychological need for history is not only undertaken by opening the history of the conflict period directly as the reality of the human need for its historicity. the exchange of emotions between researchers and their subjects in the historical production of post-conflict societies is necessary (mahoney, 2018). to achieve this goal, freud's psychoanalytic approach can be used by historians. the initial effort can be started by collecting the unconscious mind which is defined as a collection of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of consciousness. the history of emotions is the relationship of historians with the past by utilizing and locating unconscious resonances from personal sources such as letters, wills, and other artifacts from the subject of the writings. freud points out several things such as instinct, thoughts about the trauma, and danger. the method of free association can be used by historians in gathering oral testimonies in the production of emotional histories of post-conflict societies. the success of psychoanalytic journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 359 methods in history can follow steps that are also used in social science research as summarized by stamenova & hinshelwood (2019) with various methods of observation, interviews, and analysis methods that can be carried out. the history of the emotions of post-conflict societies can explore intimate experiences that do not only talk about sadness but also love and affection (loughran, 2021). to bury the wound properly and overcome the unconscious history can be achieved by paying attention to several aspects: first, critical empathy. according to kohut (2020), empathy and historical understanding of the human past is often in contrast to strong evidence and strict logic. empathy has qualities that are difficult to reconcile with scientific disciplines that are rationalistic, empirical, and objective. however, field (2017) found the limitation that empathy for historians is to involve oneself by imagining past scenes through the perspective of the person speaking. empathy, in history, remains limited by critical analysis, self-reflexivity, and the condition of being aware of intersubjectivity changes in history production. critical empathy is used to precisely understand the dissonance of how subjects perceive themselves with the views of the researcher. empathy is a way of gaining knowledge by involving imagination, insight, sensitivity, emotional intelligence, and even emotional resonance. it does not mean that it contradicts the logic and reason needed in generating history. empathy is needed to understand the human motivation for past events and how people in the past experienced themselves or the world they lived in. barbara taylor says, “our interpretation of past subjectivity refers to our imaginative, conscious or unconscious identification with the people we study. empathic experience is not an option, but without empathy, history writing is “impossible” (roper, 2014, p. 171). the use of empathy in history studies has its foundation based on the disciplines of philosophy, psychology, sociology, and psychoanalysis. history writing skills can be taught to teachers and gradually taught to students through a scientific approach applied in the national curriculum (mudiono, 2017). gradually, there will be an exchange of emotions in the history production process of post-conflict societies. this does not rule out the emergence of history writings containing experiences of love amid difficulties during the conflict. second, bridging personal memories, communal warnings, and public narratives. memory as knowledge of the past that is manifested and carried out in interactions between individuals and groups or self and society need to be balanced (briggs, 2016). this needs to be carried out because popular memory is a tense interaction between the psychological processes and the social discourse that often occurs after mass violence. in this context, the micro perspective often has to lose to the riyani et al. macro perspective. while there are different and separate memory constructions (both are aceh based with different constructions, or in other areas different ethnicities that also experienced conflict situations). cognitive bias and conscious naive realism can help the deconstruction process of conflict narratives generated in unconscious history. this can be carried out by opening the narrative from another perspective of post-conflict societies. all parties can recognize that each one has its own wounds such as being in an uncomfortable position, crushed by circumstances or, having no choice. third, reinterpretation. it means shifting history, from violent conflict to today’s history. history, however, is a contemporary interpretation of the past. past events need to be reinterpreted by the post-conflict generation. students and teachers need to understand history as an event, a story, and a science. historical awareness by understanding how historians work can help reduce cognitive bias through scientific works by changing from unconscious history to consciousness (neuman, 2015). fourth, increasing the number of oral history projects to deliver emotions and understand mental illness in society (holmes, 2017). it is also important to build an emotional exchange between historians and participants in the research (mahoney, 2018). however, it is necessary to be aware of the intersubjectivity in the form of transference and countertransference that occurs between the historian and the subject of the study (holmes, 2017). fifth, handling the blind spots of national history in the local curriculum. this can be done by bringing up oral history products in post-conflict societies in the discourse of the national history. this possibility was demonstrated by (loughran, 2018) who stated that the history of 'autobiography' as a first-person context can be used to identify knowledge for marginalized people. thus, burying wounds properly can be achieved by writing the history of post-conflict societies through emotional and empathetic approaches. it can contribute to the efforts in understanding the psychosocial conditions in order to build peace as mentioned by delvecchio (2010), grayman, (2012), (m.-j. d. good et al., 2007), de zeeuw (2001), somasundaram & sivayokan (2013) and kaplan & nussio (2018).the results of history of post-conflict society can be a eco literation learning resource to shape students understanding concerning representation, relation, and identity (wasino et al., 2020). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 361 in terms of the learning process, it is necessary to develop a form of psychotherapy using a psychoeducational approach integrated into the learning model. the focus served is an emotional release that formulates emotion regulation and handles cognitive biases. apart from providing space on emotional history through an oral history projects as a therapy in post-conflict societies. cognitive bias can be handled through psychosocial therapy, which is integral to the learning process in the classroom. cbt is a psychosocial intervention in the form of psychotherapy. it aims to train thinking or the cognitive function and how to act. the focus is on changing cognitive distortions that both irritate and change behavior as well as the emotional regulation. the existing techniques allow teachers or social workers to apply cbt methods in a variety of situations. its use in education is also demonstrated by the important role of psychoeducation throughout the cbt series. this method also allows various modes of technology including smartphone applications, video and audio recording, internet video, and images, or even virtual reality (volungis, 2018) that are close to the learning setting. cbt works by reducing the symptoms and pressures associated with psychopathological disorders that can be done through the teaching of new information-processing skills and coping mechanisms. cbt is a combination of the brainology approach and the positive psychology approach. brainology is brain-based learning whereas positive psychology is concerned with exploring positive emotions. the emotions in question are happiness, kindness, love, optimism, humor, and so forth. positive psychology does not intend to replace or eliminate suffering, weakness, or disturbance but rather to provide insights to or enrich and scientifically understand human experience (volungis, 2018). in this context, the social environment outside the individual is an area that is difficult to change. individuals can reinterpret events or social environments that are outside of themselves and affect their thinking patterns. cbt shows the reciprocal condition of how thoughts, emotions, and behavior interact with the environment (volungis, 2018). cbt is initially adopted from the development and criticism of freud's theory as applied to models of psychological counseling and therapy. this therapy works on the principle that psychological problems are caused by wrong learning and can be solved by teaching people to change or modify their behavior to achieve positive results. cbt was developed in the 1960s by aaron beck to add a cognitive component that allows a person to have a more balanced and optimistic vision. this method is continuously being developed and evaluated by the beck institute which is based in pennsylvania (wilding, 2012;volungis, 2018). riyani et al. by focusing on modifying negative thoughts automatically and utilizing problem-solving skills, beck (1950-1960) develops a conceptualization of negative thinking patterns where one is depressed by negative thought patterns in 3 domains: self, world, and future (volungis, 2018). this therapy is developed by the work of experimental behaviorists such as pavlov (classical conditioning) and skinner (operant conditioning) (1950-1970) and watson's stimulus-response association (1970). their theories contribute to behavioral interventions such as desensitization, reciprocal inhibition, and relaxation training. meichenbaum's (1977) concept of internal dialogue and self-instructional training as well as ellis & harper’s (1975) concept of rational and irrational thinking also play an important role in the development of cbt. bandura's (1976) social cognitive theory with the term reciprocal determinism explains how behavior affects and is influenced by thoughts, emotions, and the social environment. the content of bandura's theory is used to place social skills that recognize the importance of learning by observing other people (volungis, 2018). thus, the main strategy is to change irrational thoughts and beliefs with healthier and more positive rational thoughts and beliefs. then, they are faced directly with uncomfortable situations and finally proved with social skills (asrori, 2015). cbt works by reversing cognition. it can be achieved through field observation and verification. direct interaction between inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic groups will improve perceptions and bring common sense. opening narratives and perceptions and exchanging the unconscious history of each party can help the validity process of pseudo position. in the context of historical awareness, the subject will be able to distinguish between history and memory. understanding how historians work is important to distinguish history and historical gossip so that negative attitudes and perceptions can be eliminated (asnawi et al., 2020). cognitive differences that are transformed into beliefs require important decisions whether to be opened or frozen. based on that condition, cbt can be useful for providing alternative rival hypotheses. while difficult history involving emotions can be managed through emotion regulation. this approach may be applied in the class as psychoeducation (fresco et al., 2013). this approach is applied by encouraging both positive and negative sides of the emotional process in order to achieve conflict resolution. the support to meet a compromising state can be achieved by reducing hatred and fear while encouraging anger effectively to promote long-term risk-taking. emotion regulation thus works as a reassessment system (mcrae, 2016) including historical facts and narratives which are processed as emotional information and knowledge. through cbt, the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 363 response to historical facts as an empirical phenomenon will be processed through the cognitive stage and continued at the response stage. the response stage aims to feel, assess, and reconsider various object phenomena including historical objects in the history of post-conflict societies. cbt theory rests on the process of the stimulus-cognitive-response (scr) sequence. if analyzed logically, these stages are illustrated in the form of the following activities: table 2. scr cycles and outputs on cognitive behavioral therapy stimulus it is a situation where an individual captures objects outside of himself, namely empirical or sensory phenomena carried out through rational or thoughtful sense which is then comprehended and understood. as a result, the content of the substance in the form of quality values contained in the object phenomenon can be understood. cognitive it is related to how humans think, feel, and act. the external stimulus causes humans to have the potential to absorb rational and irrational thoughts. response in the form of feeling, it includes emotions or conscience that work to feel, judge, consider object phenomena. in the form of action, it can be both positive and negative both in phenomenon and noumenon (physical and mental) in the form of behavior: 1. if physical behavior is positive (+) and mental behavior is positive (+),then the behavior that appears will also be positive. it shows the most ideal condition or consistently positive so that it can be called objective and honest. 2. if physical behavior is positive (+) but mental behavior is negative(-), then, the behavior resulted will be negative. this is due to the incompatibility of behavior with mental attitudes so that behavior that appears can be called dishonest (hypocritical or cowardly) actions. 3. if physical behavior is negative (-)but mental behavior is positive (+), then the resulting behavior will be positive.this is possible if dishonest or inconsistent physical behavior can still be defeated by a positive mental attitude. 4. if physical behavior is negative (-) and mental behavior is also negative(-),then the resulting behavior is also negative. even though the behavior shown does not contain good quality values, it is an honest behavior source: processed by the researchers the effectiveness of cbt has been validated by research subjects but has not been specifically tested in the research locus. nevertheless, the evidence of other research relating to social anxiety and emotional therapy has a positive impact on students (komang et al., 2018). cbt has the same assumptions as lewin's theory where a person's mindset and beliefs can influence behavior (nevid, 2007) including developing personality (aini, 2019). cbt has also been successfully applied to improve emotional situations in children affected by conflict (mirza & sulistiyaningsih, 2013) and riyani et al. social anxiety (asrori, 2015). therefore, through social studies learning at the junior high school level or history learning at the high school level, the cbt approach can be used to correct cognitive bias. cbt has the same impact as self-control as a medium for the formation of self-adjustment and positive morality (hidayah, 2021). this targets especially the unconscious history, which has the potential to hinder long-term peace while fulfilling the function of history as a psychological need. its advantage in learning social studies or history in high school has the potential to strengthen the school's mission of integrity as formulated by wasino et al., (2019) and in research carried out by karyono et al., (2019). positive values can be developed into new forms of knowledge, such as knowledge of tolerance and intolerance that provide an impact on conflict and disintegration utomo & wasino (2020) and strengthen peace education. the historical aspect is the basic for the dissemination of peace ideas in society (suharso et al., 2020). conclusion post-conflict acehnese society has experienced psychosocial problems that have an impact on the next generation. various phenomena experienced by the community in the form of anxiety, fear, mutual suspicion, perceptions of long-term enemies, fear, and various emotions that hinder peacebuilding are also reflected in the classroom. therefore, this condition requires systematic handling in the form of peace education. in-class situations reflecting the psychosocial conditions of post-conflict acehnese society often appear in social studies learning at junior high school and history learning at senior high school level. those situations arise especially when studying the themes of difficult history. the narrative “pemberontak” (rebel) in the darul islam or indonesian islamic army incident opens the discussion of past conflicts to the bitterness of life during the implementation of the military operations area. in this situation, teachers, students, and schools are in a pedagogical conflict where various interests to maintain collective memory, personal perceptions, and moral demands to transmit the values of peace clash with each other. in three concentric areas with high, medium, and low conflict intensity categories, no significant differences were found. based on galtung's theory, this phenomenon becomes a sign of potential latent conflict. phenomenally, it contains negative values for peacebuilding efforts because the main impact that arises is in the form of the lack of social skills of school residents. this phenomenon can be understood through lewin's medan theory where the peaks of contradictions, attitudes, and behaviors that arise are influenced by the individual cognitive biases of students and teachers as a result of their interaction with the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 365 post-conflict community environment. however, the quality of this negative value can be turned into a positive value by changing or reconstructing the emotive, cognitive, and conative attitudes through learning that applies cbt steps. the implementation of cbt can cover five postulates of peace education. the first postulate refers to students in peace classes that they are expected to learn about the 'other' to deconstruct the enemy's image. the second postulate presents a different strategy to deal with the conflict in the first postulate. the third postulate explains the dynamic nature of peace education when shifting its emphasis according to the problem that occurred. the fourth postulate embeds the theory and practice of peace education in certain cultural norms. the fifth postulate states that peace education cannot eliminate conflict but can provide valuable skills for managing conflict. post-conflict societies in peacebuilding efforts experience a transitional period in which they need healing and adjustment. the results can be used to correct cognitive bias in post-conflict societies. we recommend the application of cbt in the realm of practice with an expansion to various subjects in schools in post-conflict areas by involving policymakers more seriously. references abdurakhman, pradono, a., sunarti, l., & zuhdi, s. (2015). buku guru sejarah indonesia sma/ma/smk/mak kelas xii. in kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan indonesia (3rd ed.). ager, a., akesson, b., stark, l., flouri, e., okot, b., mccollister, f., & boothby, n. (2011). the impact of the school based psychosocial structured activities (pssa) program on conflict affected children in northern uganda. journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 52(11), 1124–1133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02407.x aini, d. k. (2019). penerapan cognitive behaviour therapy dalam mengembangkan kepribadian remaja di panti asuhan. jurnal ilmu dakwah, 39(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.21580/jid.v39.1.4432 ajala. (2009). the relevance of psycho-social theories in peace education and conflict resolutionat the workplace. http://ir.library.ui.edu.ng/bitstream/123456789/2928/1/%2814%29ui_art_ajala_relevance_2 009.pdf asnawi, a., riyani, r., akob, b., & hanafiah, h. (2020). historical gossip as social engineering to build historical awareness. icasi. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.20-6 riyani et al. 2020.2300711 asnawi, akob, b., & riyani, m. (2015). social dysmenorrhea: impact forecast in the social process (case study in acehnese community, indonesia). proceeding the 1st almuslim international conference on science, technology, and society, 39–44. asrori, a. (2015). terapi kognitif perilaku untuk mengatasi gangguan kecemasan sosial. jurnal ilmiah psikologi terapan (jipt), 03(vol 3, no 1 (2015)), 89–107. http://ejournal.umm.ac.id/index.php/jipt/article/view/2128 bajaj, m. (ed.). (2008). encyclopedia of peace education. iap. bar-tal, d., oren, n., & nets-zehngut, r. (2014). sociopsychological analysis of conflictsupporting narratives: a general framework. journal of peace research, 51(5), 662–675. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343314533984 barter, s. j. (2014). empirical foundations, aceh. in civilian strategy in civil war: insights from indonesia, thailand, and the philippines. (pp. 33–58). springer. berger, r., gelkopf, m., & heineberg, y. (2012). a teacher-delivered intervention for adolescents exposed to ongoing and intense traumatic war-related stress: a quasirandomized controlled study. journal of adolescent health. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1054139x12000742 betancourt, t. s., newnham, e. a., brennan, r. t., helen verdeli, borisova, i., neugebauer, r., bass, j., & bolton, p. (2012). moderators of treatment effectiveness for war-affected youth with depression in northern uganda. journal of adolescent health, 51(6), 544–550. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s1054139x12000730 bhayangkara, a. n., ahmadi, w. h., firdaus, d. b., prestiadi, d., & sumarsono, r. b. (2020). the role of instructional leadership through kurt lewin model in improving the teacher capability. 487(ecpe), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.201112.054 blumberg, h. h., zeligman, r., appel, l., & tibon-czopp, s. (2017). personality dimensions and attitudes towards peace and war. journal of aggression, conflict and peace research, 9(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1108/jacpr-05-2016-0231 bogdan, r. c., & biklen, s. k. (1997). quality research for education: an introduction to theory and methods (3rd ed.). allyn and bacon. brata, n. t. (2014). oil & community welfare: a case study on people oil mining in indonesia. komunitas: international journal of indonesian society and culture, 6(2), 271–279. https://doi.org/10.15294/komunitas.v6i2.3306 brata, n. t. (2018). social conflict and military roles in public oil mining in bojonegoro. mimbar : jurnal sosial dan pembangunan, 34(1), 195–203. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 367 https://doi.org/10.29313/mimbar.v34i1.3330 briggs, m. a. (2016). dis/composing the first world war in britain trauma and commemoration in the testimony of harry patch, 1998-2008. history and memory, 28(1), 71–109. https://doi.org/10.2979/histmemo.28.1.71 britzman, d. p. (1998). lost subjects, contested objects: toward a psychoanalytic inquiry of learning. suny press. britzman, d. p. (2000). if the story cannot end: deferred action, ambivalence, and difficult knowledge. in & c. e. r. i. simon, s. rosenberg (ed.), between hope and despair: the pedagogical encounter of historical remembrance (pp. 27–57). md: rowman & littlefield. britzman, d. p. (2013). between psychoanalysis and pedagogy: scenes of rapprochement and alienation. curriculum inquiry, 43(1), 95–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/curi.12007 britzman, d. p., & pitt, a. (2004). pedagogy and clinical knowledge: some psychoanalytic observations on losing and refinding significance. jac, 2(2004), 353–374. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/20866629 brounéus, k. (2010). the trauma of truth telling: effects of witnessing in the rwandan gacaca courts on psychological health. journal of conflict resolution, 54(3), 408–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002709360322 burnes, b., & cooke, b. (2013). kurt lewin’s field theory: a review and re-evaluation. international journal of management reviews, 15(4), 408–425. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2012.00348.x carpenter, d. r. (2011). phenomenology as method. in qualitative research in nursing: advancing the humanistic imperative (pp. 43–64). lippincott williams & wilkins. colaizzi, p. f. (1978). psychological research as the phenomenologist views it. in r. v. & m. king (ed.), existential phenomenological alternative for psychology. (pp. 48–71). oxford university press. creswell, j. w. (2007). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. in sage publications. sage publications. cui, k., han, z., & wang, d. (2018). resilience of an earthquake-stricken rural community in southwest china: correlation with disaster risk reduction efforts. international journal of environmental research and public health, 15(3), 407. https://www.mdpi.com/16604601/15/3/407 czaika, m., & kis-katos, k. (2009). civil conflict and displacement : village-level determinants of forced migration in aceh *. 46(3), 399–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343309102659 riyani et al. danesh, h. b. (2006). towards an integrative theory of peace education. journal of peace education, 3(1), 55–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400200500532151 davies, l. (2005). evaluating the linkbetween conflict and education. journal of peacebuilding and development, 2(2), 42–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/15423166.2005.469016216322 de zeeuw, j. (2001). building peace in war-torn societies : from concept to strategy. international relations, august, 1–40. delvecchio, m.-j. et al. (2010). complex engagements: responding to violence in postconflict aceh.pdf. contemporary states of emergency: the politics of military and humanitarian interventions, june 2005. denzin, n. k., & lincoln, y. s. (2008). collecting and interpreting qualitative material (y. s. lincoln (ed.)). sage publications. dorji, t. (2021). content analysis of entrepreneurship education in primary and secondary school textbooks. research in educational policy and management, 3(1), 42-59. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.3 drago, a. (2015). improving galtuns’s a-b-c to a scientific theory of all kinds of conflicts. ars brevis: anuario de la càtedra ramon llull blanquerna, 14(21), 56–91. duch, w. (2017). kurt lewin, psychological constructs and sources of brain cognitive activity. arxiv preprint arxiv:1711.01767. endrejat, p. c., baumgarten, f., & kauffeld, s. (2017). when theory meets practice: combining lewin’s ideas about change with motivational interviewing to increase energy-saving behaviours within organizations. journal of change management, 17(2), 101–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/14697017.2017.1299372 epstein, t., & peck, c. l. (2017). teaching and learning difficult histories in international contexts a critical sociocultural approach. in teaching and learning difficult histories in international contexts: a critical sociocultural approach. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315203591 eslami-somea, r., & movassagh, h. (2014). peace education in iran: challenges and prospects. journal of peacebuilding and development, 9(2), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/15423166.2014.948781 farley, l. (2009). radical hope: or, the problem of uncertainty in history education. curriculum inquiry, 39(4), 537–554. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-873x.2009.00456.x field, s. (2017). critical empathy through oral histories after apartheid. continuum, 31(5), 660– 670. https://doi.org/10.1080/10304312.2017.1357342 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 369 fisher, r. m. (2000). toward a “conflict pedagogy: a critical discourse analysis of conflict” in conflict management education. the university of british columbia. freeman, m. p. (2012). the narrative unconscious. contemporary psychoanalysis, 48(3), 344– 366. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107530.2012.10746508 fresco, d. m., mennin, d. s., heimberg, r. g., & ritter, m. (2013). emotion regulation therapy for generalized anxiety disorder. cognitive and behavioral practice, 20(3), 282– 300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2013.02.001 frie, r. (2012). on culture, history, and memory: encountering the “narrative unconscious.” contemporary psychoanalysis, 48(3), 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107530.2012.10746507 frieden, k. (2012). freud’s dream of interpretation. suny press. suny press. galtung, j. (1973). theories of conflict: definitions, dimensions, negations, formations. in foreign affairs. university of hawai’i. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/b98gf-4t9v53266/2/772c9cd7385823b58e114452dd2621fb garrett, h. j. (2011). the routing and re-routing of difficult knowledge: social studies teachers encounter when the levees broke. theory and research in social education, 39(3), 320– 347. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2011.10473458 gill, s., & niens, u. (2014a). education as humanisation: a theoretical review on the role of dialogic pedagogy in peacebuilding education. compare: a journal of comparative and international education, 44(1), 10–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2013.859879 gill, s., & niens, u. (2014b). education as humanisation: dialogic pedagogy in post-conflict peacebuilding. compare: a journal of comparative and international education, 44(1), 1– 9. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2013.864522 good, b. j., good, m.-j. d., grayman, j., & lakoma, m. (2006). psychososial needs assesment of communities affected by the conflict in the districts of pidie, bireuen and aceh utara. https://reseacrhspace.auckland.ac.nz/docs/uoa-docs/rights.htm good, m.-j. d., good, b. j., grayman, j. h., & lakoma. (2007). a psychososial, needs assesment of communities in 14 conflict-affected districts in aceh. reasearchspace auckland university. grayman, j. h. (2012). humanitarian encounters in post-conflict aceh, indonesia. grayman, j. h., good, m. j. d., & good, b. j. (2009). conflict nightmares and trauma in aceh. culture, medicine and psychiatry, 33(2), 290–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-0099132-8 riyani et al. gross, m. h., & terra, l. (2018). what makes difficult history difficult? phi delta kappan, 99(8), 51–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721718775680 guba, e. g., & lincoln, y. s. (1981). effective evaluation: improving the usefulness of evaluation results through responsive and naturalistic approaches. jossey-bass. guba, e. g., & lincoln, y. s. (1982). effective evaluation. jossey-bass publisher. hall, r. g. (2019). the emotional lives and legacies of fathers and sons in britain , 19451974 the emotional lives and legacies of fathers and sons in britain , 1945-1974. university of cambridge. halperin, e. (2014). emotion, emotion regulation, and conflict resolution. emotion review, 6(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913491844 hanim., et all. (2018). learning from picture and picture action research: enhancement of counting ability on division of numbers for primary school students. journal of physics: conference series, 1114(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1114/1/012044 harahap, k. a., & surya, e. (2017). international journal of sciences : application of cooperative learning model with type of two stay two stray to improve results of mathematics teaching. internastional journal of sciences: basic and applied research (ijsbar), 33(2), 156–165. harris, i. m. (2004). peace education theory. journal of peace education, 1(1), 5–20. haryanti, t., widodo, j., & masrukhi. (2016). the model of integrated character education curriculum management at lptk. the journal of educational development, 4(2), 156– 155. hasan mustafa. (2011). perilaku manusia dalam perspektif psikologi sosial. jurnal administrasi bisnis, 7(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1159/000074314 hasanzadeh, m., & chaeechi, r. a. (2014). empathy and peace in the qur ’ anic context based on johan galtung ’ s abctriangle. proceedings of first internatinal holy quran congress, 75-87, may, 0–16. hatta, k. (2016). tingkat keseriusan trauma pada kalangan remaja. 2nd international social development conference, august, 566–567. hauke, c. (2006). the unconscious. the handbook of jungian psychology: theory, practice and applications. (r. k. papadopoulus (ed.)). psychology press. hidayah, r. (2021). students’ self -adjustment, self-control, and morality. journal of social studies education research, 12(1), 174–193. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 371 hinan, t. (2010). to remember, or to forget? collective memory and reconciliation in guatemala and rwanda. the university of western ontario journal of anthropology, 18(1). https://ojs.lib.uwo.ca/index.php/uwoja/article/download/8898/7092 holmes, k. (2017). does it matter if she cried? recording emotion and the australian generations oral history project. oral history review, 44(1), 56–76. https://doi.org/10.1093/ohr/ohw109 johnson, d. w., & johnson, r. . (2020). teaching students to be peacemakers: results of twelve years of research. cooperative learning center at the university of minnesota. jordans, m. j., komproe, i. h., tol, w. a., brandon a. kohrt, luitel, n. p., macy, r. d., & jong, j. t. de. (2010). evaluation of a classroom‐based psychosocial intervention in conflict‐affected nepal: a cluster randomized controlled trial. journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 51(7), 818-826. https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02209.x kamble, p. (2021). what is subconscious mind? how does it impact our behaviour? ssrn electronic journal, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3806525 kaplan, o., & nussio, e. (2018). explaining recidivism of ex-combatants in colombia. journal of conflict resolution, 62(1), 64–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002716644326 karyono, suyahmo, & utomo, c. b. (2019). implementation of character education for creating integrity schools a case study at public junior high school 2 pekalongan in 2015. journal of educational social studeis, 8(59), 111–119. keet, a., zinn, d., & kimberley, p. (2009). mutual vulnerability: a key principle in a humanising pedagogy 1 in post-conflict societies. perspectives in education, 27(2), 109– 119. khurshid, r. (2018). peace education : perspective of gcet ’ s principals in azad jammu and kashmir. iv(i), 1–10. kohrt, b. a., jordans, m. j., tol, w. a., em perera, karki, r., koirala, s., & upadhaya, n. (2010). social ecology of child soldiers: child, family, and community determinants of mental health, psychosocial well-being, and reintegration in nepal. transcultural psychiatry, 47(5), 727-753. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1363461510381290 kohut, t. a. (2020). empathy and the historical understanding of the human past. routledge. komang, n., gandari, m., ngurah, i. g., & sentana, a. (2018). the effect of emotional freedom techniques therapy towards learning concentration level of students ( pengaruh terapi emotional freedom techniques terhadap tingkat konsentrasi belajar pada siswa ). 1(2), 66–73. riyani et al. loughran, t. (2012). shell shock, trauma, and the first world war: the making of a diagnosis and its histories. journal of the history of medicine and allied …. https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article-abstract/67/1/94/763864 loughran, t. (2018). blind spots and moments of estrangement: subjectivity, class and education in british ‘autobiographical histories.’ studies in qualitative methodology, 16, 245–259. https://doi.org/10.1108/s1042-319220180000016016 loughran, t. (2021). 8 distance, intimacy and identification. in j. damusi, d. tout-smith, & b. zino (eds.), museums, history and the intimate experience of the great war: love and sorrow. routledge. maebuta, j. (2019). peace education and peace-building in the solomon islands : disconnected layers. 8(4), 93–104. mahoney, k. (2018). ‘it’s not history. it’s my life’: researcher emotions and the production of critical histories of the women’s movement. studies in qualitative methodology, 16, 65–80. https://doi.org/10.1108/s1042-319220180000016005 mainhard, t., oudman, s., hornstra, l., bosker, r. j., & goetz, t. (2018). student emotions in class: the relative importance of teachers and their interpersonal relations with students. learning and instruction, 53, 109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.07.011 matthews, s. (2010). hitler’s car as curriculum text: reading adolescents reading history. journal of the canadian association for curriculum studies, 7(2), 49–85. mcclelland, g. (2019). dangerous memory in nagasaki. in dangerous memory in nagasaki (issue september). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429266003 mccort, j. (2017). the thing happened: hope and healing at hope north uganda. in n. thompson, g. r. cox, & r. g. stevenson (eds.), handbook of traumatic loss: a guide to theory and practice (p. 321). routledge. mcrae, k. (2016). cognitive emotion regulation: a review of theory and scientific findings. current opinion in behavioral sciences, 10, 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.06.004 melvin, j. (2017). mechanics of mass murder: a case for understanding the indonesian killings as genocide. journal of genocide research, 19(4), 487–511. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2017.1393942 mirza, r., & sulistiyaningsih, w. (2013). cognitive behavioral therapy untuk meningkatkan regulasi emosi pada anak korban konflik aceh. psikologia: jurnal pemikiran dan penelitian psikologi, 8(2), 59–72. https://doi.org/10.32734/psikologia.v8i2.6581 morse, j. m., barrett, m., mayan, m., olson, k., & spiers, j. (2002). verification strategies for journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 373 establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. international journal of qualitative methods, 1(2), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690200100202 mudiono, a. (2017). scientific approaching in development policy of elementary school curriculum. advances in social science, education and humanities research (icet), 128, 79–85. https://doi.org/10.2991/icet-17.2017.12 murjani, m. (2015). sistem jaminan produk halal dan thayib di indonesia: tinjauan yuridis dan politis. fenomena, 7(2), 207. https://doi.org/10.21093/fj.v7i2.298 nasie, m., bar-tal, d., pliskin, r., nahhas, e., & halperin, e. (2014). overcoming the barrier of narrative adherence in conflicts through awareness of the psychological bias of naïve realism. personality and social psychology bulletin, 40(11), 1543–1556. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214551153 nasution, s. (1992). metode penelitian kualitatif naturalistik. tarsito. neuman, e. (2015). the origins and history of consciousness. routledge. nevid, j. s. (2007). psikologi abnormal. jurnal kesehatan jiwa, 1(1), 9–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1976.tb01885.x noerwidi, s. (2013). analisis cakupan situs-situs permukiman neolitik di banyuwangi selatan. berkala arkeologi, 33(1), 13–32. https://doi.org/10.30883/jba.v33i1.2 nur, i., & susanto. (2020). social conflict in indonesia: safeguarding a nation as a new approach for resolving national disintegration. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 151–173. parent, g. (2010). reconciliation and justice after genocide: a theoretical exploration. genocide studies and prevention, 5(3), 277–292. https://doi.org/10.3138/gsp.5.3.277 pearlman, l. a. (2013). restoring self in community: collective approaches to psychological trauma after genocide. journal of social issues, 69(1), 111–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12006 peristianis, c. (2020). legacies of displacement : the memories and meanings of home among an extended greek cypriot family. university of essex. perry, d. j. (2013). transcendental method for research with human subjects: a transformative phenomenology for the human sciences. field methods, 25(3), 262–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822x12467105 purnomo, a., wasino, m., suyahmo, m., & marhaeni, t. (2019). teaching multi-interpretation material on social studies on homogeneous students. 313(icorsia 2018), 51–53. https://doi.org/10.2991/icorsia-18.2019.13 riyani et al. ramsbotham, o., woodhouse, t., & miall, h. (2011). contemporary conflict resolution (third). polity. ravenhill, j. (1993). nationalism and ethnic conflict in indoensia. in japanese studies (vol. 13, issue 2). https://doi.org/10.1080/10371399308521867 roper, m. (2014). the unconscious work of history. cultural and social history, 11(2), 169– 193. https://doi.org/10.2752/147800414x13893661072717 rose, j. (2016). interpreting difficult history at museums and historic sites (vol.7). rowman & littlefield. sariyatun, joebagio, h., & akhyar, m. (2019). peace education as the development of social skill in social science learning. 29(2). schulze, k. e. (2006). insurgency and counter-insurgency: a strategy and the aceh conflict, october 1976-may 2004. verandah of violence: the background to the aceh problem, 225–271. segall, a. (2014). making difficult history public: the pedagogy of remembering and forgetting in two washington dc museums. review of education, pedagogy, and cultural studies, 36(1), 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2014.866818 setiawan, i., kuning, r., suciati, & a.mushlih. (2018). buku guru ilmu pengetahuan sosial kelas ix smp/mts (2nd ed.). pusat kurikulum dan perbukuan. setiawan, i., pusparatri, r. k. d., suciati, & ach.mushlih. (2016). ilmu pengetahuan sosial 3 untuk smp/mts kelas ix (2nd ed.). pusat kurikulum dan perbukuan, balitbang, kemendikbud. shah, r. (2012). goodbye conflict, hello development? curriculum reform in timor-leste. international journal of educational development, 32(1), 31–38. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0738059311000678 shim, j. m. (2014). the story of an antiracist project as difficult knowledge: misalignment between conscious intent and unconscious desire. journal of the american association for the advancement of curriculum studies, 10, 1–20. siregar, s. n. (2012). pergeseran masalah keamanan di aceh. jurnal penelitian politik lipi, 9(2), 51–62. somasundaram, d., & sivayokan, s. (2013). rebuilding community resilience in a post-war context: developing insight and recommendations a qualitative study in northern sri lanka. international journal of mental health systems, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/17524458-7-3 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 330-376 375 stamenova, k., & hinshelwood, r. d. (2019). introduction: applying psychoanalytic ideas to social science. in methods of research into the unconscious (issue november 2018). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429449758-1 staub, e. (2003). preventing violence and generating humane values: healing and reconciliation in rwanda. revue internationale de la croix-rouge/international review of the red cross, 85(852), 791. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1560775500179933 stewart, c. (2003). dreams of treasure: temporality, historicization and the unconscious. anthropological theory, 3(4), 481–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.20448295.1919.tb00228.x suadi, saifuddin, & fadli. (2018). incorporating peace education into aqidah akhlak subject in east aceh. 1, 467–472. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78756-793-1-00013 suharso, p., wasino, prajanti, s. d. w., & wahyono, s. b. (2017). middle class priyayi : dillema in the crossroad of cultural changes (case study of lifestyle changes midle class of priyayi in yogyakarta). international journal of applied business and economic research, 15(7), 81–91. suharso, r., wasino, setyowati, d. l., & utomo, c. b. (2020). teaching multiculturalism based on islamic historical relics in northern java. international journal of innovation, creativity and change, 11(10), 445–463. sukendar, s. (2011). pendidikan damai (peace education) bagi anak-anak korban konflik. walisongo: jurnal penelitian sosial keagamaan, 19(2), 271. https://doi.org/10.21580/ws.2011.19.2.158 tallis, f. (2002). hidden minds: a history of the unconscious. arcade publishing. tamang, m., & shrestha, m. (2021). let me fly abroad: student migrations in the context of nepal. research in educational policy and management, 3(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.1 thomson, a. (2019). indexing and interpreting emotion : joy and shame in oral history. oral history australia journal, 41, 1–11. tol, w. a., song, s., & jordans, m. j. d. (2013). annual research review: resilience and mental health in children and adolescents living in areas of armed conflict–a systematic review of findings in low‐and middleincome countries. journal of child psychology and psychiatry and allied disciplines, 54(4), 445–460. https://doi.org/doi:10.1111/jcpp.12053 trofanenko, b. m. (2011). on difficult history displayed: the pedagogical challenges of interminable learning. museum management and curatorship, 26(5), 481–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/09647775.2011.621733 riyani et al. utomo, c. b., & wasino. (2020). an integrated teaching tolerance in learning history of indonesian national movement at higher education. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 65–108. volungis, a. m. (2018). cognitive-behavioral therapy: theory into practice. rowman & littlefield. wale, k. (2020). intergenerational nostalgic haunting and critical hope: memories of loss and longing in bonteheuwel. in post-conflict hauntings (pp. 203–227). palgrave macmillan,cham. wasino. (2013). indonesia : from pluralism to multiculturalism. paramita, 23(2), 148–155. wasino, suharso, r., utomo, c. b., & shintasiwi, f. a. (2020). cultural ecoliteracy of social science education at junior high school in north java indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 11(4), 52–83. wasino, w., kurniawan, e., & shintasiwi, f. a. (2019). religious radicalism prevention model through multicultural dialog in pancasila and civic education lectures religious radicalism prevention model through multicultural dialog in pancasila and civic education lectures. icssis. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.24-10-2019.2290571 weldon, g. (2010). post‐conflict teacher development: facing the past in south africa. journal of moral education, 39(3), 353–364. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057240.2010.497615 whyte, l. l. (1974). the unconscious in history. contemporary psychoanalysis, 10(3), 379– 386. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107530.1974.10745344 widayatsari, s. (2002). tata ruang rumah bangsawan yogyakarta. dimensi (jurnal teknik arsitektur), 30(2), 122–132. http://puslit2.petra.ac.id/ejournal/index.php/ars/article/view/15773 wilding, c. (2012). cognitive behavioural therapy: cbt self-help techniques to improve your life. hachette. wood, g. l., & haber, j. (2017). reability and validity. in nursing and midwifery research: methods and appraisal for evidence-based practice -searching and reviewing the research literature. elsivier health sciences. zembylas, m. (2014). theorizing “ difficult knowledge ” in the aftermath of the “ affective turn ”: implications for curriculum and pedagogy in handling traumatic representations. curriculum inquiry, 44(3), 390–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/curi.12051 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 124-137 124 the implementation of paikem (active, innovative, creative, effective, and exiting learning) and conventional learning method to improve student learning results priyono1 abstract the research aims to find the differences in students’ learning results by implementing both paikem (active, innovative, creative, effective, and exiting learning) and conventional learning methods for students with high and low motivation. this research used experimental design on two groups, a group of high motivation students and a group of low motivation students. each group was divided into control group and experiment group. the results showed that there was a link between both paikem and conventional learning method with the learning results of students with high motivation and low motivation, as different results were showed on each student group. keywords: paikem, conventional learning, learning motivation, learning outcomes. introduction paikem is an abbreviation of meaning an active, innovative, creative, effective, and exciting learning. active means that in a learning process a teacher ought to create an atmosphere where students feel free to actively ask and tell their ideas. active instructional strategies include a range of activities sharing common elements such as involving students in doing things and thinking on what they are doing (bonwell & eison, 1991). previous research found that during lectures, student concentration began to decline after 10-15 minutes (e.g., stuart & rutherford, 1978 and bligh, 2000, p. 44-56). furthermore, wilson and korn (2007) supported the findings as well, after reviewing the articles (by conducting a survey using methodological and interpretive questions in the cited studies). their critique, however, was not able to question the consistent findings of recent research as compared to 50-minutes conventional lecture; interactive lecture gave better leaning outcomes. 1 dr., faculty of economics lecturer, universitas bina darma palembang, indonesia.priyono@binadarma.ac.id mailto:priyono@binadarma.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 124-137 since the beginning of the 21st century, there have been some macro-level trends challenging conventional models on higher education (doyle, buckley, & carroll, 2013). one of the most notable trends was the emergence of a new generation of groups (elam, stratton, & gibson, 2007; howe & strauss, 2000; howe & strauss, 2003) called “millennium" or "generation y" who are widely viewed as the first "digital native" for information technology. another change coinciding with this new cohort is the “mystification”, a concept referring to student enrollment that is a rapid increase on the level required to reclaim academics and other high-status professions (cornuel, 2007), and inevitably it leads to larger and more diverse classes, even with various background and abilities of students resulting in the change in the university's financing model (altbach, reisberg, & rumbley, 2009). high-level institutions have adapted to changes in the financial environment by developing new revenue streams, including providing postgraduate graduate coursework and executive education and recruiting students from different regions or foreign countries, strengthening the negative effects of spawning. conventional schools were considered ineffective and boring by most students. to diverge this issue, utilizing educative toys and games as learning media is the best proposal in encouraging students to learn the lesson materials in enjoyment. games generate strong motivational power that is capable to engage people even without any reward and only enjoyment offered (kapp, 2012a). thus, to adopt this kind of effect in learning activities, it requires certain technical infrastructure and proper pedagogical integration (tarman, 2017; tarman & dev, 2018). compared to use complex games that require a large number of design and development efforts, the "gamification" approach implies the use of game thinking and game design elements to increase learners’ involvement and motivation. teachers should create an active learning environment to enhance students' competences, by giving options and opportunities to learn independently and planning learning activities that enable them to develop their mastery (baytak, tarman & ayas, 2011). as stated by ferreira, cardosob & abrantesc (2011), intrinsic motivation proves to be a very important factor that can lead to higher perceived learning in the course. in other words, motivation is energy or strength that drives us to do an activity. for example, when one wants something or to do things, one is motivated by it and tends to do it regardless anything else so long as it can be acquired or achieved. motivation ought to be monitored by the teacher, and the teacher seeks to mobilize the students’ ability and potential. motivation is capable to boost the effort and energy used in activities related to needs and goals (csikszentmihalyi & nakamura, priyono 1989). it accelerates the time consumed by students in doing their task and it becomes a significant factor influencing their learning (larson, 2000). chimombo (2005) mentioned the importance of education, especially in developing countries. it increases due to the pressure in order to catch up the developed countries, for example, global competitiveness (hawkins 2002). considerably, it is reflected in educational settings, such as education quality and the possibilities in experiencing education, especially in rural areas where the location is far from educational facilities. chimombo (2005) argued that country-specific circumstances should be improved on mandatory and free education to encourage general access to education as mentioned as well in the article 26 of 1948 of the united nations universal human rights declaration of compulsory rights and free education (un human rights, 1948). another concern with this situation is related to students’ involvement and motivation. reports mentioned the decrease of student attendance in the classroom (massingham & herrington, 2006) as well as coupled with difficulties in encouraging interaction and discussion (race, 2010). additionally, more destructive problems such as plagiarism and fraud increase (flint, clegg, & macdonald, 2006). in response, educators develop innovative teaching practices to catch students' attention, especially the “millennium”. considering this, “gamification” is an approach and a topic of interest that can be employed for this problem. gamification uses “game-based mechanics, aesthetics and game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems” (kapp, 2012, p. 10). in general, gamification is a term applied to a series of motivational triggers, such as rewards and competitions, traditionally associated with games. implementing “gamification” in education remains a trend (dicheva, dichev, agre, & angelova, 2015); it is very possibly used in improving student engagement and rapid learning. in some studies, there were students who disliked non-lecture approaches because those approaches were contradictory to passive learning in which they are accustomed to. other students prefer a new approach as it has clear-cut instructions on how to actively participate in learning activity in less conventional way. an article entitled “helping students to learn in studentcentered environments: a guide to facilitate learning in higher education” (doyle, 2008) offers many useful suggestions and ideas, such as big class preventing the application of active learning strategies because big class limits the use of certain active learning strategies (e.g. it is difficult to engage all students in classroom discussions in groups greater than 40), but it is not a definite problem, because by dividing large classes into small groups enables teachers to create productive journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 124-137 classroom discussion activities heppner 2007) and it was agreed by stanley & porter (2002) who offer similar idea as well. however, the actual condition emerging in state elementary schools 2 and 3 cakul dongko of the academic year 2009/2010 was lack of mutual understanding in lesson plans, and this made teachers of both schools have to carry out their teaching independently. furthermore, the ministry of national education stated that paikem provides more benefits for pupils, such as: 1) making students learn more effectively/thoroughly; 2) developing children to become more critical and creative; 3) providing varied learning environments and experiences; 4) improving emotional/social maturity; 5) generating students with high productivity; 6) being able to deal with changes and participate in the process. the main components of paikem are described as follow: figure 1, the main components of paikem the research aims to find the differences in students’ learning results by implementing both paikem and conventional learning methods for students with high and low motivation. priyono method research design this research applied an experimental design by giving a different treatment to two homogenous sample groups. one group was taught with paikem and another group with n a conventional learning method. the groups were divided based on students’ motivation in which one group was students with high motivation and another one was students with low motivation. each group was divided into two small groups as control group and experiment group. population and sample the population is students in sdn 2 & 3 cakul dongko academic year 2009/2010, while the sample is a fifth grader data collection method the data on this research were collected through: 1) questionnaire 2) test data analysis technique data were analyzed using two-way analysis of variance, preceded by a preliminary analysis of normality and homogeneity. findings the results were showed in form of findings after conducting research activities in state elementary school 2 & 3 in cakul dongko of the academic year 2009/2010. table 1 paikem normality test results one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test paikem n 20 normal parameters a.b mean 81.8500 std. deviation 7.99523 most extreme absolute .203 differences positive .118 negative -.203 kolmogorov-smirnov z .909 asymp. sig. (2-tailded) .381 note: journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 124-137 a. test distribution is normal calculated from data. in table 1, k-s for data paikem was 0.909 with the probability of 0.381 and  was above 0.05, meaning that h0 was accepted or the learning results were normally distributed. table 2 normality test result of conventional learning model one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test conventional n 28 normal parameters a.b mean 75.0714 std. deviation 7.82176 most extreme absolute .236 differences positive .121 negative -.236 kolmogorov-smirnov z 1.247 asymp. sig. (2-tailded) .089 note: a. test distribution is normal b. calculated from data. in table 2, k-s for conventional method was 1.247 with the probability of 0.089 and  was above 0.05, meaning that h0 was accepted or the learning results were normally distributed. table 3 homogeneity calculations dependent variable : mathematics learning outcomes f df1 df2 sig. 1.248 3 44 .307 h0 on tests showed by the error variance of the dependent variable is equal across groups. design: intercept + a_factor +b_factor + a_factor*b_factor table 3 shows that the probability was 0.307, meaning that the probability > 0.05, and it proved that the data were homogeneous. table 4 descriptive results of mathematics learning descriptive statistics dependent variable: mathematics learning outcomes a_factor b_factor mean std. deviation n paikem learning model high motivation 86.4615 5.04340 13 low motivation 73.2857 4.46148 7 total 81.8500 7.99523 20 conventional learning model high motivation 79.2727 5.25530 11 low motivation 72.3529 8.12359 17 total 75.0714 7.82176 28 priyono total high motivation 83.1667 6.21825 24 low motivation 72.6250 7.16157 24 total 77.8958 8.50842 48 table 4 shows the differences in the average of mathematics learning results in both paikem and conventional classes on the students with high motivation and low motivation. table 5 descriptive mean factor a (learning model) 1. a_factor dependent variable: mathematics learning outcomes a_factor mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound paikem learning model 79.874 1.481 76.889 82.859 conventional learning model 75.813 1.223 73.349 78.277 table 5 shows that mathematics learning results in paikem class were higher than those in conventional class. table 6 the average of paikem and conventional differential test independent samples test levene’s test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2-tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper mathematics learning outcomes equal variances assumed .038 .845 2.933 46 .005 6.77857 2.31109 2.12659 11.43055 equal variances not assumed 2.922 40.529 .006 6.77857 2.31974 2.09211 11.46503 in the table 6, the significance was below 0.05 ( < 0.05) meaning that there were differences in mathematics learning results of v graders at state elementary school 2 & 3 cakul dongko district of the academic year 2009/2010. table 7 descriptive mean b_factor 1. b_factor journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 124-137 dependent variable : mathematics learning outcomes b_factor mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound high motivation 82.867 1.294 80.259 85.476 low motivation 72.819 1.419 69.960 75.679 table 7 shows that mathematics learning results of students with high motivation were higher than those with low motivation. table 8 test different average of students with high motivation and low motivation in paikem method independent sample test levene’s test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper mathematics learning outcomes equal variances assumed .102 .753 5.786 18 .000 13.17582 2.27708 8.39186 17.95979 equal variances not assumed 6.014 13.825 .000 13.17582 2.19092 8.47118 17.88047 table 8 shows that the significance value was below 0.05 (<0.05) meaning that there were differences on mathematics learning results between v graders at state elementary school 2 & 3 cakul dongko district of the academic year 2009/2010 for students with high and low motivation by implementing paikem method. table 9 differences in test means of students with high and low motivation in conventional learning method. independent sample test levene’s test for equality of variances t-test for equality of means f sig. t df sig. (2tailed) mean difference std. error difference 95% confidence interval of the difference lower upper mathematics learning outcomes equal variances assumed 4.883 .036 2.498 26 .019 6.91979 2.76971 1.22657 12.61300 equal variances not assumed 2.737 25.993 .011 6.91979 2.52837 1.72257 12.11700 priyono table 9 shows that the significance value was below 0.05 (< 0.05), meaning that there were differences in mathematics learning results between the highly anf lowly motivated fifth-graders at state elementary school 2 & 3 cakul dongko district in the academic year 2009/2010 following the implementation of conventional learning method. table 10 descriptive averages a_factors and b_factors a_factor * b_factor dependent variable: mathematics learning outcomes a_factor b_factor mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound paikem high motivation 86.462 1.752 82.930 89.993 low motivation 73.286 2.388 68.473 78.099 conventional high motivation 79.273 1.905 75.433 83.112 low motivation 72.353 1.533 69.264 75.441 based on table 10, implementing paikem method for students with high motivation resulted in higher learning results than implementing conventional learning method for the same group of students. however, implementing conventional learning for students with high motivation gave better learning results than implementing paikem learning for students with low motivation. therefore, student motivation has an important role in determining learning results. table 11 two-way anova results test of between-subjects effects dependent variable: mathematics learning result source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 1645.756a 3 548.585 13.740 .000 intercept 262380.858 1 262380.858 6571.756 .000 a_factor 178.506 1 178.506 4.471 .040 b_factor 1092.881 1 1092.881 27.373 .000 a_factor*b_factor 105.918 1 105.918 2.653 .111 error 1756.724 44 39.926 total 294655.000 48 corrected total 3402.479 47 discussion, conclusion and implications  the effect of implementing paikem and conventional learning models on student learning results. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 124-137 based on the calculations and test results conducted for each class, mathematics learning results of the fifth graders at state elementary schools 2 & 3 cakul dongko district of the academic year 2009/2010 at the beginning of the implementation were the same. after the implementation of paikem method, significant differences in the learning results were indicated by the increase in mathematics learning results. in contrast, students treated with conventional learning model had less significant learning results (either before or after implementing the learning method). it means that conventional learning method allowed only few of materials to be absorbed, unlike in paikem method where most students were able to absorb the materials due to direct involvement of students and problems as those were given at the time of learning the lesson, doing the tasks, as well as understanding the lesson. besides, students were happily engaged with the learning activities, so they easily mastered the materials. there was a significant difference between paikem classes and conventional classes indicated by the average value in a factor and the higher value of the t-value compared to ttable, where the significance value between the two lessons was below 0.05. in addition, the fa value of the 2-way analysis of variance (f-arithmetic for paikem and conventional learning model) was higher than the f-table, meaning there was a significant difference in mathematics learning results between the classes of the fifth-graders who implemented paikem and conventional learning methods at state elementary schools 2 & 3 cakul dongko district of the academic year 2009/2010. therefore, the results indicated that the first hypothesis was accepted, meaning that there was a difference in the mathematics learning results of the fifth graders at state elementary schools 2 & 3 cakul dongko district of the academic year 2009/2010 who were given paikem and those who were given conventional learning models.  differences in learning results of students with high and low motivation levels the students’ motivation in learning process is very likely different; some have high motivation while others have low motivation. the difference level of motivation influences the mathematics learning results of those students. moreover, it was indicated by the descriptive of b_ factor and the average value of the test of differences in the learning results of both groups (students with high motivation and low motivation) after given paikem and conventional learning methods, showed by the value of t-arithmetic > t-table. priyono in addition, obtained fb-value in the two-way analysis of variance (f-arithmetic for both students with high motivation and low motivation) was higher than f-table, meaning that there were differences in mathematics learning results between students with high motivation and low motivation in grade 5 at state elementary schools 2 & 3 cakul dongko district of the academic year 2009/2010. therefore, the second hypothesis was accepted, meaning that there was differences in the mathematics learning results of the fifth-graders at state elementary schools 2 & 3 cakul dongko district of the academic year 2009/2010 who were given paikem method and those who were given conventional learning method.  interaction of learning model and level of student motivation the calculation using two-way analyses of variance needed the understanding of the interaction between a_factor (paikem and conventional learning model) and b_factor (students with high motivation and low motivation). based on the calculation, the result showed no significant interaction. it was indicated by the value of f-arithmetic < ftable (2.653 < 4.05) and the significance level was more than 0.05 (5%), meaning that there was no interaction between learning methods and student motivation. the result indicated that there was no interaction between paikem method, conventional learning method, as well as learning motivation and mathematics learning results of the fifth-graders at state elementary schools 2 & 3 cakul dongko district of the academic year 2009/2010. implementing paikem method for students with high motivation gave higher mathematics learning results than for students with low motivation, while implementing conventional learning method for students with high motivation gave higher mathematics learning results than for students with low motivation. furthermore, using appropriate learning methods (paikem) and having high motivation were certainly able to improve students’ learning results. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 124-137 references altbach, p., reisberg, l., & rumbley, l. (2009). trends in global higher education: tracking an academic revolution. paris, france: united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization. from : http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001832/183219e.pdf baytak, a., tarman, b., & ayas, c. (2011). experiencing technology integration in education: children's perceptions. international electronic journal of elementary education, 3(2), 139-151. bligh, d. a. (2000). what’s the use of lectures? san francisco: jossey-bass. from :http://commons.trincoll.edu/ctl/files/2013/08/week-3-whats-the-use-of-lectures.pdf bonwell, c., & eison, j. (1991). active learning: creating excitement in the classroom (asheeric higher education report no. 1). washington, dc: george washington university. abstract online at http://www.ed.gov/databases/eric_digests/ed340272.html chimombo, j.p.g. (2005): issues in basic education in developing countries: an exploration of policy options for improved delivery. cice hiroshima university, journal of international cooperation in education, vol. 8 (1), pp. 129-152. from : http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/8-1-11.pdf cornuel, e. (2007). challenges facing business schools in the future. journal of management development, 26(1), 87–92. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/02621710710720130 csikszentmihalyi, m., & nakamura, j. (1989). the dynamics of intrinsic motivation: a study of adolescents, flow and the foundations of positive psychology pp 175-197. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8_12 dicheva, d., dichev c., agre g., & angelova g. (2015). gamification in education: a systematic mapping study. educational technology & society, 18(3), 75–88. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej1070047 doyle, e., buckley, p., & carroll, c. (2013). innovative business school teaching: engaging the millennial generation. new york, ny: routledge. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.11120/bmhe.2013.00002 elam, c., stratton, t., & gibson, d. d. (2007). welcoming a new generation to college: the millennial students. journal of college admission, 195, 20-25. from : http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej783953.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001832/183219e.pdf http://commons.trincoll.edu/ctl/files/2013/08/week-3-whats-the-use-of-lectures.pdf http://www.ed.gov/databases/eric_digests/ed340272.html http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/8-1-11.pdf http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/02621710710720130 https://rd.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8_12 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej1070047 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.11120/bmhe.2013.00002 http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej783953.pdf priyono ferreira, m., cardosob, a. p., &abrantesc, j. l. (2011). motivation and relationship of the student with the school as factors involved in the perceived learning. international conference on education and educationalpsychology (iceepsy 2011), procedia social and behavioral sciences 29 (2011) (pp. 1707 – 1714). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.416 flint, a., clegg, s., & macdonald, r. (2006). exploring staff perceptions of student plagiarism. journal of further and higher education, 30(2), 145–156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03098770600617562 hawkins, r. (2002). ten lessons for ict and education in the developing world. in: kirkman, g. et al. (eds): the global information technology report 2001-2002: readiness for the networked world, oxford university press, oxford 2002, 38-43 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=8499384324717721846&hl=en&as_sdt=2005& sciodt=0,5 heppner, f. h. (2007). teaching the large college class: a guidebook for instructors with multitudes. san francisco: jossey-bass. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bmb.20185/full howe, n., & strauss, w. (2000). millennia’s rising: the next great generation /by neil howe and bill strauss ; cartoons by r.j. matson. new york: vintage books. http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-millennials-rising/chapanal001.html#gsc.tab=0 howe, n., strauss, w., & life course associates. (2007). millennia’s go to college: strategies for a new generation on campus: recruiting and admissions, campus life, and the classroom. great falls, va: life course associates. http://www.worldcat.org/title/millennials-go-to-college-strategies-for-a-new-generationon-campus-recruiting-and-admissions-campus-life-and-the-classroom/oclc/123907203 kapp, k. m. (2012). the gamification of learning and instruction: game-based methods and strategies for training and education. san francisco, ca: john wiley & sons. http://as.wiley.com/wileycda/wileytitle/productcd-111867443x.html karen wilson & james h. korn (2007) attention during lectures: beyond ten minutes, teaching of psychology, 34:2, 85-89, doi: 10.1080/00986280701291291 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.416 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03098770600617562 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=8499384324717721846&hl=en&as_sdt=2005&sciodt=0,5 https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=8499384324717721846&hl=en&as_sdt=2005&sciodt=0,5 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bmb.20185/full http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-millennials-rising/chapanal001.html#gsc.tab=0 http://www.worldcat.org/title/millennials-go-to-college-strategies-for-a-new-generation-on-campus-recruiting-and-admissions-campus-life-and-the-classroom/oclc/123907203 http://www.worldcat.org/title/millennials-go-to-college-strategies-for-a-new-generation-on-campus-recruiting-and-admissions-campus-life-and-the-classroom/oclc/123907203 http://as.wiley.com/wileycda/wileytitle/productcd-111867443x.html https://doi.org/10.1080/00986280701291291 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 124-137 larson, r. (2000). toward a psychology of positive youth development. american psychologist, vol. 55, no.1, (pp. 170-183). http://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=48136 lee, j., & hammer, j. (2011). gamification in education: what, how, why bother? academic exchange quarterly, 15(2), 146. from : http://www.gameprof.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/aeq-lee-hammer-2011.pdf massingham, p. and herrington, t., does attendance matter? an examination of student attitudes, participation, performance and attendance, journal of university teaching & learning practice, 3(2), 2006. available at: http://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol3/iss2/3 mckeachie, w. j., (1986). national center for research to improve postsecondary teaching and learning, & program on instructional processes and educational outcomes. teaching and learning in the college classroom: a review of the research literature. ann arbor, mich: university of michigan. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed314999 race, p. (2010). making learning happen: a guide for post-compulsory education. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications from : https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/node/60703/download-pdf stanley, c. a., & in porter, m. e. (2002). engaging large classes: strategies and techniques for college faculty. bolton, mass: anker pub. co. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed469658 stuart, j. & rutherford, r. j. (1978). medical student concentration during lectures. the lancet, 514-516. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(78)92233-x tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), i-ii. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 http://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=48136 http://www.gameprof.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/aeq-lee-hammer-2011.pdf http://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol3/iss2/3 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed314999 https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/node/60703/download-pdf https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed469658 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(78)92233-x http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 306-316 306 motivated and unmotivated violations from the norm in children's books in organizing extracurricular reading aigul sabitova1, daniya salimova 2, elmira ibragimova 3 abstract the paper presents the results of the research in the framework of the current trends in linguistics – text linguistics and stylistics. now that the concept of the language norm is blurred to some extent due to the strong phenomena in language and speech dynamics, the language of texts for children should be treated with special attention and care, because love and interest to the language are formed through the reading of children's stories and poems. observance of norms, clearness and transparency of texts for children does not mean absence of elements of language game in them. the language game is inherent in the speech of children themselves, as exactly in childhood the native speakers begin (sometimes intentionally and sometimes mistakenly) to experiment, create new words and forms. therefore, primarily in children's works the language game is both a means of attracting attention and inviting a small reader to the mysterious and complex world of the great word. in the course of oral and written speech, it is possible to notice cases of deviation from the norm. they appear in pronunciation, in the production of stressed syllables in the word, in the use of certain grammatical forms in discourse. these violations can have a different character. if, on the one hand, they can be quite unpretentious evidence of illiteracy and underdeveloped speech culture, on the other hand, they can be purposely planned, emphasizing and revealing a certain idea. in this scenario they are designed for understanding the meaning and constitute a special literary device. so there appears a specific game with an easy-to-understand implied sense. key words: language game, analysis, idiostyle, norm of language, grammar violation introduction the relevance of our study is motivated by several factors: first, the ambiguity of interpretations of the norm of the language, and second, so-called “fluctuations”, “movements” are normal today, when saying and writing “as everyone likes” becomes a common phenomenon. in modern linguistics, the term of the language norm closely correlates with visualization of literate correct speech (as stipulated by the stable and unified rules of use), which is one of the most important indicators of the level of general human culture (valeeva et al., 2016). the volumetric layer comprises grammatical norms that determine the rules for using morphological forms of different 1 phd, senior lecturer, kazan federal university, aigul.ibragimova@mail.ru 2 prof. kazan federal university, daniya.salimova@mail.ru 3 phd, senior lecturer, kazan federal university, elmira915@mail.ru mailto:aigul.ibragimova@mail.ru mailto:daniya.salimova@mail.ru mailto:elmira915@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 306-316 parts of speech and syntactic structures. despite certain blurring of the boundary between normative and non-normative phenomena, the term of a norm of the russian language still exists. however, we should remember about existence of options of the norm that may be used in the language as equal, or as belonging to a strictly standardized literary language or relating to colloquial, professional, slangy speech. it should also be noted that in good time the situation with normative and non-normative options may change. subsequently, an option that was nonnormative may become the only possible one. and with a deliberate deviation from the norm one can come across the term of a language game, which implies pluralism (multiple meanings). this term was introduced by the austrian philosopher and logician ludwig wittgenstein. linguist v.p. rudnev, relying on the writings of wittgenstein, noted: “the term “language game” is designed to emphasize that speaking any language is a part of one’s activity, or a form of life” (rudnev, 2003). every year this term becomes even more relevant: new works on the issues of deviation from linguistic norms appear. they comprise the monograph by konovalova yu.o. “language game in modern russian colloquial speech” (2008), article “language game” by rudnev v.p. from his own book “the encyclopedic dictionary of xx century culture: key concepts and texts” (2003), work by sannikov v.z. “the russian language in the mirror of a language game” (2002). method in the framework of our research, the term “norm” has to be clarified and disclosed. the wellknown russian methodologist elena ivanovna litnevskaya gives the following definition of the language norm in her textbook: “a norm is the image of the result of a certain speech-thinking action that has developed in the linguistic, group or individual consciousness. most of the norms of speech are subconscious: their psychological mechanism is analogy and acting as per the template. the native speaker of the language assimilates the texts and, as they accumulate, he/she isolates a standard, that is, a model, a sample (litnevskaya & bagryantseva, 2006). it is difficult to disagree with such a definition and revealing the main features of the definition. for the moment, modern linguistics counts three types of the language norms: lexical (in other words, norms of usage), orthoepic (i.e. pronunciation norms) and grammatical norms. sabitova et al. the elements of the language game, examples with violation of grammatical norms from the works of yuriy koval, anatoliy aleksin, victor dragunskiy, lewis carroll and alan milne were used as the material of the study. in total, we have analyzed 300 examples, disqualified and analyzed according to various criteria. we have used methods of functional-grammatical analysis, continuous sampling, stylistic interpretation, and partly quantitative method. we have discovered grammatical violations of the language norm by method of continuous selection in the following works of children’s authors: anatoliy aleksin “mad evdokia”, yuriy koval “captain klukvin (cranberry) and other stories”, viktor dragunskiy “deniska’s stories”, alan milne “winnie the pooh and all all all” and lewis carroll “alice in wonderland”. grammar norms, are divided into two equal categories: morphological and syntactic. morphological norms are in charge of choosing the right word form from a number of variational forms of words of different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives and verbs). syntactic norms determine the correct use of syntactic structures: word combinations and sentences. this classification of norms includes the rules for matching adjectives and nouns with certain forms of nouns (reserved seat ticket, new shoe), rules of verbs control (pay for something, confidence in something), rules for the use of participial and adverbial phrases. it should be noted that syntactic norms also express systematization of the sentences construction in accordance with specific features peculiarities of the word order in the russian language and rules of constructing complex sentences. stylistic norms of the russian language, which determine specific features of using any units that have stylistic coloring of bookishness or conversationality in speech refer to a special group. such a peculiar stylistic “charm” of individual linguistic elements should correspond to the stylistic coloring of the entire text, otherwise it leads to stylistic disagreement, stylistically unjustifiable comedy, and inaccurate perception of the text as a result. data analysis here are a few examples of grammatical violations of the linguistic norm in these literary texts: 1) yu. koval “captain klukvin (cranberry) and other stories”: “the clumsy play on the guitar was accompanied by a wry-nosed singing” (language game), «i fed him seeds from my hands” (= from hands, using an incorrect preposition), “in thundered tuzik on his ears” journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 306-316 (= hit, lexical vernacular), “the sergeant took out a notebook, something circled in it with a pencil” (= scribbled, neologism) (koval, 2016). 2) a. aleksin “mad evdokia”: “meeting, we told “hi” each other, without any names, because we did not know them” (= how do you do, conversational style, reduction), “nadya was behind me with her weak heart” (lexical inaccuracy, separation of a part from the whole), “race of hobbies” (by analogy with “race of generations”, language game) (alexin, 1976). 3) l. carroll “alice in wonderland”: “in fact it’s a bad chapter, rather than not a chapter” (language game), “by conscience, there is nothing to be afraid of” (by analogy with “frankly speaking” language game) (carroll, 1995). findings we have found language games in all groups of analyzed texts of various writers: in the works of v. dragunskiy, yu. koval, a. aleksin, l. carroll and a. milne. it is worth noting that they are of different types, but every author chooses some favorite ones, meeting his own idiostyle. for example, onomatopoeic language games prevail in the stories of yu. koval; rhymed ones in the stories of a. aleksin; practically all types of language games are available in the stories of v. dragunskiy; a. miln and l. carroll use the language game to create occasional expressions by analogy with the stable ones and in the supragraphic the font variation of the text. the practical use of language games is a certain intentional author’s deviation from the linguistic norm, which has a characteristic function in the textsemantic, didactic, imaginative, etc. note that the language game does not serve as a means of violating from any established language norms, but, on the contrary, contributes to their consolidation. it is implemented according to already existing language models. the language game is initially embedded in the human mind, along with the language practice and skills. sabitova et al. discussion the next stage of our activity was to identify a new classification for analysis of the language games in literary texts with regard to their functional characteristics: 1. a function of discrediting a phenomenon being described, which uses the destructive power of laughter. 2. teaching function that may be compared to playing a ball: “having attacked a certain word, i play it like a ball”. 3. linguistic function, when the language game creates new words with a new semantic meaning. 4. entertaining function, that goes down to the fact that the language game entertains both the author and his/her interlocutors (readers). this function is inherent in almost all types of the language games. 5. masking function, when the language game allows you “hiding” the message, but at the same time expressing the shades of its meaning, which are prohibited for some reasons. all the above language methods and functions, both individual and in combinations, may be found in situations of the language games in the stories of children’s authors v.yu. dragunskiy, a. aleksin, yu. koval, and also in the works of such masters of the word as a. milne and l. carroll. teaching and entertainment functions are expressed in the language game in the story by v. dragunskiy “enchanted letter”. this work is based on a verbal game with one (single) word – “cones”, which three involuntary “participants” (alenka, mishka and denis) cannot pronounce according to the phonetic norm. the method of onomatopoeia is used in the game, and its purpose is to create a comic situation that causes good laughter: “...then alenka took up a branch and said: “look, and there are sones on the christmas tree”. the other two are mocking the girl and having fun on her: “sones! you are five years old, girl, and you say sones!”. the girl is justified by the fact that she had a missing tooth, but in response she hears: “look what we have! she has a tooth fell out! i have three of them, but two of them stagger. and i still say the right thing. just listen: “hones!”. the main character sums up: “no sones. no hones, simple and short: fones. that’s it” (dragunsky, 2015). thus, sones, hones, fones are the components of a phonetic language game. at the same time, the correct form of the word fones is known to both participants in the game and readers (listeners). but due to missing milk teeth, the children are not able to pronounce it. good humor and a certain journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 306-316 pedagogical task (to ridicule arrogance and confidence) are seen clearly in this story and this goal is achieved with the help of a phonetic language game. we may cite a lot of examples of onomatopoeia in the texts, especially they are used in stories about animals and birds (combined with the reception of personification): the animals and birds “speak” and “understand”, and express it with the help of sounds characteristic for every of them, which are “translated” by the writer into human language. to this end, onomatopoeia is used in the language game in the short story by yu. koval “belozubka”: “pi-pi-pi”, belozubka shouted (koval, 2016). in story by v. dragunskiy “white horse”, the function of the language game is masking, since it is designed to hide the true meaning of the message. the duty officer at the border post cannot provide any personal information, according to the regulations. therefore, he reports about the situation on the border, where “everything is quiet”, only a white horse that has strayed from the herd emerges from somewhere in the stream, rather than a white horse that has appeared on the border. in the subtext of this message – the concern is not only about the situation, but also about the life of the animal, however, one cannot speak of it straight. the language game hides this meaning and at the same time allows you making a message of what is happening with the horse. the duty officer sees how the horse crosses the border, finds itself on a foreign territory, watches a dramatic picture of it being attacked by the wolves and behavior of the border guards who saved the animal. according to the military regulations, one cannot invade a foreign territory, however, the duty officer and his boss have no right to speak about the true meaning of what is happening; in this case, the language game masks, on the one hand, the true meaning of the utterance, on the other hand it helps to express its true meaning: to save the horse. in terms of its composition it is a story in the story: a story of the animal’s rescue and humanity of the border guards is hidden inside the message of the duty officer. the language game in the story by a. aleksin “mad evdokia” is similar in the type and form, repeated throughout the story and based primarily on the rhyming of words. the game expresses the irony of the main character towards others to the teacher, classmates, what allows her putting her own personality in the center of attention, demonstrating her abilities and eccentricity. as a result of the language game, the characteristics of the characters olenka herself and the people she is mocking at are achieved. the game performs a kind of entertaining function, since olya is mocking others smartly. but its main function is masking. with the help of the game, the girl hides sabitova et al. her feelings of hostility and superiority: “we have never been carried on a loaded dump truck ... i’ve come my path from a driver to a manager ... who am i talking about, ask me? and i will answer: about lucy... borya has grown on the mountain... well, and merci, dear lucy.” (alexin, 1976). in the work of the famous fantasy writer l. carroll “alice in wonderland”, the reader most often encounters a function of discrediting. one may find many examples-confirmations of the entertainment function in the fabric of the work. all this is used to disclose the original humor and mastery of lewis carroll are revealed. one of the researchers of his work, martin gardner, in his study “carrol’s mathematical recreations, games, puzzles, and word plays” writes: “mischmasch is a game based on the word game... carroll took the name of the game mischmasch by analogy with the name of one of the small magazines. according to carroll’s idea of a mishmash this is a word game for two players or a game of words” (gardner, 1996). one cannot disagree with mr. gardner’s statement, since the language game is an integral part of carroll’s “alice in wonderland”. consider an example that is more understandable to the native speaker of the russian language, since a direct translation into english, flushes the boundaries of the semantic content of the expression: “mad as a march hare”. in this comparison, there is a reception of a language game (“march hare” by analogy with “march cat”, the explanation for this expression is the following: in russia it is considered that cats behave especially anxiously, emotionally and insanely in spring). let’s give another, brighter example: “you need to know who antipodes are and what parallels and meridians are, you need to know when that happened and what is a tissue of the story you need to know what is not used to produce mustard and how to play crocket correctly; who the jury are and how they differ from the outrunners; and what is the gender of time, and whether the worms smoke hookah, and whether frogs, crucian carps and judges wear wigs, and whether it is possible to eat one marmelade and... and so on and so forth!” (carroll, 1995). here we observe a method of emphasizing a text with font, what is characteristic for the world literature (starting from the 19th century), what is used to emphasize the entertainment function of the verbal game. it is worth noting that there are various translations of “alice in wonderland”. in our opinion, translations of boris zakhoder and nina demurova are the most successful translations into russian. these authors do not seek to russify the names of the characters and “deprive” the text journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 306-316 of the word game. what is absolutely not true for the translation of leonid yakhnin, who adds his quirks and jokes, for example, in the translation version, or radically changes the names of the characters: humpty dumpty has been replaced by zheltok-beltok. conclusion in the modern world, the study of the language, culture and literature of another people requires a multifunctional approach to learning. in order not to lose the artistic value of the text, it is important to be able to recognize the linguocultural codes of another country and learn other languages. the polyglot professor salimova d.a. is solidary with our opinion: “in any case, we can confidently assert that in the bilingual and multilingual community of the twenty-first century, and specifically in connection with the intensifying momentum of the opening of borders and mobilization of culture and ethnicity, it is possible for an already advanced student to achieve fluent bilingualism even with domination of the native language (in english) in a relatively short time: 100-120 hours of one-on-one elements”(salimova & johnson, 2014). let’s turn to another and as much popular author alan milne. in his famous story about winnie the pooh, you can also observe predominance of entertainment function. font separation of the words in the text and language game help detecting the dominating function: “dad, what about a fairy tale? asked christopher robin. what about a fairy tale? asked dad. could you tell a fairy tale to winnie-the-pooh? he really wants! i could, said dad. and what kind does he want and about whom? interesting, and about him, of course. he after all we have such a bear cub! i see, said dad. so, please, daddy, tell me! i’ll try, dad said. and he tried”(milne, 2016). it is worth noting that in the work of alan milne, there are many other ways of expressing linguistic evaluation (lexical repetitions, inaccuracies and occasionalisms). the article “the language of winnie the pooh”, posted on the website of the oxford english dictionary, states that alan milne made out some of the names of the characters for the language warm-up of the readers, and these sabitova et al. names soon changed from their own to the nominal ones: “although he is not one of the main characters, eeyore’s gloominess is notorious in the stories. a typical exchange between eeyore and pooh when pooh says “good morning” to eeyore, and eeyore responds, “good morning, pooh bear... if it is a good morning... which i doubt.”(oxforddictionaries, 2012). according to the oxford dictionary, references and allusions to the temperament of ushastik (which is also eeyore in the russian translation) have become so popular that his name has been used to describe people, who tend to be pessimistic. based on the results, we can summarize our study. the language game is used by children’s authors in their works of art very actively in a variety of functions first of all, as a certain author’s sign, marker, element of idiostyle of the author. thus, humorous stories by v. dragunskiy are full of comic dialogues based on the language game, and this is a distinctive feature of his author’s style. other writers use the language game in the text as an artistic device, when needed, for example, for sound imitation yu. koval would, or for characterization of the main charactera. aleksin would, l. carroll and a. milne would apply the language game in order to bring the reader to the teaching function through its entertaining function. in general, the authors use this method to emphasize a particular fact, to mark it, so that the reader could remember it better. as an alternative, we can suggest an opinion that writers who use different elements of the language game become children to a certain extent: when talking about children, the authors subconsciously return to their childhood and begin to think and speak “in children’s language”. not in vain, children always used to invent their own language (for example, the addition of ka element to every syllable), so that adults do not understand them, that is, language creativity, ability to linguistics is one of the characteristics of the child’s speaking portrait. in teaching and educational work, the teacher in our difficult times of key challenges, “the 21st century has brought globalization of people's lives and education”(koudrjavtseva et. al., 2015), should not forget the simple truths, children’s games, habits, and only with the help of this knowledge, one may awake the small reader’s love for the language and word. acknowledgements we are grateful to nizambieva ildaniya ildusovna master student of elabuga institute of kfu for methodical help. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 306-316 references alexin, a.g. (1976). the mad evdokia. retrieved june, 15, 2017 from http://lib.ru/proza/aleksin/ewdokia.txt. carroll, l. (1995). alice in wonderland. london. dragunsky, v.yu. (2015). deniskin's stories. moscow: ast. gardner, m. (1996). lewis carrol׳s mathematical recreathions, games, puzzles, and word plays. new york: springer – verlag. koudrjavtseva, e.l., salimova, d.a., snigireva, l.a. (2015). russian as native, non-native, one of natives and foreign languages: questions of terminology and measurement of levels of proficiency, asian social science, (pp.124-132). canada: canadian center of science and education. koval, yu.i. (2016). captain klyukvin and other stories. moscow: dragonfly. litnevskaya, e.i., bagryantseva, v.a. (2006). methodology of teaching russian in secondary school: textbook for students of higher educational institutions. moscow: academic project. milne, a. (2016). winnie-the-pooh. united kingdom: egmont books. oxforddictionaries.com. (2012). retrieved june, 18, 2017 from //http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2012/11/winnie-the-pooh. rudnev, v.p. (2003). language game. encyclopaedic dictionary of xx century culture: key concepts and texts, 597-599. salimova, d. & johnson, h. (2014). difficulties in the teaching of russian as a foreign language: the perspectives of an ethnically tatar specialist in russian philology and an american http://lib.ru/proza/aleksin/ewdokia.txt sabitova et al. student, life science journal (pp. 219-223). usa: acta zhengzhou university overseas edition. valeeva r.a., aitov v.f., bulatbayeva a.a. (2016). the levels of english language acquisition on the basis of problem-solving and product-oriented tasks in the multilingual social medium. iejme: mathematics education, 11(1). pp. 255-262. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2018:9 (4), 364-381 364 ideology and rhetoric: framing metrotv news in the lapindo mudflow tragedy umar fauzan1 abstract this study examines the ideology and rhetorical patterns of metrotv news when reporting on the lapindo mudflow tragedy that started in sidoarjo, indonesia in 2012. the ideology used to represent facts and opinions on the tragedy were evaluated using critical discourse analysis (cda). the source of the data comprised 12 recordings of broadcasted news and included words, phrases, sentences, and discourses expressing the mudflow tragedy and its effects on people in the surrounding area. the findings indicate that the rhetorical patterns of metro tv news included the title, orientation, sequence of events, and closing. ideology was inserted in any kind of discourse units, imposing power and hegemony as tools of cda effecting social changes. keywords: ideology, rhetorical pattern, critical discourse analysis, metrotv, lapindo introduction this paper depicts the ideology in the news texts of the indonesian news channel metrotv, which reported on the lapindo mudflow tragedy of 2012. the paper begins with two starting points in the context of critical discourse analysis (cda). first, it is essential to define the ideology of a news report in the context of cda, because news always conveys messages that reflect power. second, the structure of news as written and oral texts has different characteristics to normal texts with academic intentions. ideologies have been the focus of media studies as a means of representing unequal relations in society. the media do not passively describe news events but rather actively reconstruct them based on their own ideological affiliations (oktar, 2001, p.320). a news story is therefore not fully understood if the reader is unaware of the implicit ideology of elite groups that is embedded in the report (van dijk, 1988). the ideological structure of texts, especially news headlines, involves power relations that are intended to be legitimized. political ideologies and power in discourse imply that every word can potentially carry an implicit connotation and a hidden power (ramanathan & bee hoon, 2015, p.62). specifically, for news headlines, the 1 dr. state islamic institute of samarinda; email: umarfauzan123@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 364-381 framing of participants and processes may be ideologically significant (fairclough, 1989, p.122), and it may be aimed at justifying certain points of view. however, ideological headlines do not provide readers with a full account of the reality, and they may be a biased and tendentious view of the situation. according to ranciere (1974), ideologies do not necessarily represent true manifestations of reality—on the contrary, they give social subjects a mystified and blurred representation of the society in order to control them in a system of class exploitation. it is now generally accepted that ideology is not necessarily a true representation of reality but rather one that is aligned and tendentious. in the information age, no one doubts the prominent role of the mass media, which have become a daily necessity, especially television. behind the primary function of delivering entertainment and information, television also poses a series of problems. this mainly relates to television shows that are often not educational or informative. many television programs feature violence, pornography, or mysticism, and a program that is presented as entertaining or informative could contain elements of a particular ideology. when such television programs bring a certain ideology, it potentially leads viewers to follow the direction in which the ideology is oriented. while a television program may be entertaining, it may also have an impact, either positive or negative, on the audience. there are two tv stations in indonesia that focus on the delivery of news: metrotv and tvone. metrotv initially had a somewhat different concept to other television stations, because in addition to being on air 24 hours a day, it focused purely on news. in the process, metro also incorporates an element of entertainment. starting in may 2010, metro updated it slogan from "be smart be informed" to "knowledge to elevate." metro entered the ranks of the six most reliable media in the indo-pacific edelman trust barometer survey of 2011. the success of selling political ideology and shaping public opinion through tragedy, as in the case of the sidoarjo mudflow, is largely determined by the development of a discourse that is built by each television station. the results of this study gives an overview of the ideology contained in the text of news broadcasts by metrotv and uncover the opinion-forming strategies used. the text is not something value-free that describes reality as it is. from the view of cda, textual content is not only determined by the personal preferences of its manufacturer but also influenced by the social structure surrounding the producer. language is not neutral, and it carries fauzan a certain ideological message that comes from the creator of the text. it should therefore be assumed that there is always a hidden message in every news broadcast by metro tv, as well as tv stations in general, and this "surrogate message" comes from the owner of the television station. tv station owners, who could be politicians or business people, can potentially use the media to disseminate messages to television audiences that seek to lead public opinion in a certain direction. politicians often use mass media to shape public opinion and influence people (fairclough, mulderrig, and wodak, 2011). television touches a vast range of people from different social statuses, ethnicities, cultures, and locations, so it is an effective way to influence the masses. through discourse constructed by the mass media, television is able to direct the life of the nation through the news programs aired. proof of this lies in how metro presented topics on the sidoarjo mudflow tragedy. through its wording, the maker of the text can lead public opinion to follow its understanding, and this includes the phrase "lapindo mud." this study is guided by the following research questions. 1) what is the structure of the news text about the lapindo mudflow tragedy from metrotv? 2) what ideology is present in the news texts about the lapindo mudflow tragedy from metrotv? literature review ideology in news texts ideology is a representation of aspects in the world that contribute to establishing, maintaining, and changing social relations of power, domination, and exploitation. every kind of text has an ideological effect that projects a perspective about the world (fairclough, 2003, p.9). cda assumes that language plays an active role in bringing about change in society, and it dissects the ideology of what is contained in the language. although the primary domain of cda is ideology (renkema, 2004; blomaert, 2005; wooffitt, 2005; wodak, 2007), cda also examines critical concepts, power, history, and ideology itself (wodak, 2007). cda tries to prove that language actively influences the social order of society. the use of language in mass media often contains an ideology that is disguised and unperceived by many readers and viewers. media discourse often carries a powerful hidden ideology (fairclough, 1989). problems and social issues became the focus of attention for the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 364-381 media, especially television. politicians also use mass media to shape opinion and influence the public (fairclough, mulderrig, & wodak, 2011). revealing the ideology projected by the mass media is an example of the proper application of cda as a social practice. discourse in the cda is a social practice (fairclough, mulderrig & wodak, 2011) that has implications for the connection between events of discourse and elements of the situation, institutions, and social structure that ultimately forms a discourse, so cda could act as a bridge connecting the micro-linguistic structure and the macro-community structures (van dijk, 2001). linguistic structures are used to systematize and transform reality, so dimensions of history, social structure, and ideology are the main source of knowledge and the hypotheses within the framework of critical linguistics (fowler, 1986). hegemony and power in cda research hegemony and power are the focus of interest for cda researchers. pasha (2011) examines islam as a social institution and looks at the egyptian newspaper al-ahram. the study examines how islam is portrayed in this newspaper in 2000 and 2005, relating to the discussion of the muslim brotherhood and the news-making process, the role of ideology, the history of islam, and the type of relationship between islam and the regime. news is linguistically analyzed using an idealized framework reader (ir) for transitivity, sourcing, lexical choice, and presuppositions. pasha concludes that the egyptian regime has practiced a strategy of constantly and systematically excluding the muslim brotherhood. this exclusion is achieved through the use of hard power (detention, prison, and military courts) and soft power (negative representation in the media). the ideological framework square of van dijk (1998) is appropriate for describing the relationship between the egyptian regime and islam: "we are good and they are bad." in short, negative representation occurs because of government fears that islam will become a political threat, and they desire to maintain the support of the west and continue the discourse. mujianto (2011) analyzes the power struggle in the textual media of the jawa post newspaper for the mesuji case through grammatical analysis, discourse practice, and socio-cultural practices. mujianto concludes that (1) there is a power struggle by the parties involved in spreading the mesuji case, including the jawa post, the police, the people living in mesuji and surrounding areas, and the fact-finding team. (2) in the power struggle between the four parties, the jawa post has the power to bring all parties against the mesuji case, while that police acts as a legal institution fauzan that was most responsible for order and security issues and does not want to be influenced by any other party. (3) there is a form of power in the citizens’ struggle in demanding action against murder and their fight for land tenure. meanwhile, the fact-finding team has power in the form of a development mission from the government to resolve the mesuji case. (4) the strategic power of each party is different and varies. jawa post has a pattern of nominalizations displaying the state and objects, while the fact-finding team with its patterned action works with a complete structure (subject + verb + object). text and discourse text and discourse is often equated despite having substantially different meanings. a text is a written expression that comprises more than one sentence. crystal (2008) defines text as a series of language words that was recorded for the purpose of analysis and description. text can be a shaped mass of material, either written or oral, such as a conversation, a monologue, a ritual, and so on. richards & schmidt (2002) mention the text as a written or verbal expression. it has four characteristics: (1) a few sentences that together create a structure/unit, such as a letter, report, or essay, although a single word could also be called a text (e.g.,“hazard” on a sign indicates danger); (2) a structure and character for the particular discourse; (3) a purpose, such as for communication; and (4) an ability to be fully understood when linked to the context. brown and yule (1983) state that a text is a verbal record of a communicative act. widdowson (2004, cited by mills, 1997) explains how text and discourse are more or less synonymous but notes that in some usages, a text may be written, while a discourse is spoken, so a text would be non-interactive whereas a discourse is interactive. a text may also be short or long, whereas a discourse implies a certain duration. widdowson (2004) clarifies that discourse is used differently by linguists, although it refers to the same language unit and is separable from sentences. both terms refer to the same concept, namely that discourse or text is a linguistic unit higher than a sentence. discourse analysis is included in the study of language and its use. according to darma (2009), discourse analysis is a science that studies the use of language in real communication. studies of discourse are concerned with the study of language and the ownership representation of the non-linguistic factors that determine whether a message can be received or not in communicative activities. widdowson (2004), citing stubbs (1983), describes discourse analysis journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 364-381 as the study of language organization above the sentence level, or at least above the clause level, for larger linguistic units, such as a conversation or a written text. according to de beaugrande & dressler (1986), text can be understood when the seven standards of textuality exist, namely (i) cohesion, (ii) coherence, (iii) intentionality, (iv) acceptability, (v) informativeness, (vi) situationality, and (vii) intertextuality. critical discourse analysis discourse analysis perceives a language as just an internal mechanism of linguistics and looks beyond the language element critically. the way critical perspectives appear about society and the context is called cda. cda views language as a social practice (fairclough, 1989; fairclough & wodak, 1997), and it considers the context. the context comprises all the situations and other things that are beyond the text but affect the use of language, such as the audience, the situation in which the text is produced, and its intended function. fairclough (1989) states that text analysis is only part of discourse analysis, because discourse has three elements: text, interaction, and social context. the social context is a very important part of cda, which can acts as a link between the text and the social context. discourse does not stand alone but forms a part of social life. according to fairclough (1989), discourse is a social practice that contains elements of interplay between discourse and social interaction. in social life, there is always a party that has strength and power that they seek to maintain. fairclough (2003) describes how the approach to critical discourse analysis is based upon the assumption that language is an irreducible element of social life and interconnected with other elements of social life, so social analysis and research always needs to take account of language. van dijk (1985) promotes cda as the study of relations between discourse, power, dominance, social inequality, and the position of the discourse analyst in such social relationships. in addition, van dijk (2001) defines cda as a type of analytical research that primarily studies the way that the abuse of social power, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, or resisted through text and discourse in a social and political context. inequality and social injustice in society provide interesting discussion material for cda, such as the social inequality in power and politics (de graaf, 2005). in everyday contexts, cda is used for power-grabbing, new science, regulation and normalization, and hegemony (the influence of one nation over another nation). cda is also used fauzan to describe something and to translate, analyze, and criticize society through text or speech. cda is concerned with the study and analysis of text and words to indicate the source of the discursion (e.g., strength, power, inequality, injustice, and prejudice). cda is associated, maintained, developed, and transformed for each social, economic, political, and specific historical context. the purpose of cda is to investigate the relationship between the use of language and social practices (jørgensen & phillips, 2002), specifically to reveal how social inequality and politics are manifested and reproduced through discourse (wooffitt, 2005), and it is used to investigate how discourse is reconstructed and purged of elements that are not desired while adding others, as well as how it is organized and replaced by others (blackledge, 2005). cda tries to find information as it is from news in newspapers, government publications, research reports, and so on, all of which can possibly project a particular ideology (anthonissen, 2003). cda is used not only to detect manipulation and discrimination but also to see and understand social issues (renkema, 2004), so cda can strengthen powerless minority groups. van dijk (2001) states that the several objectives of cda include 1) a focus on social problems and issues and political issues; 2) a multi-disciplinary applicability; 3) an overview of the structure of the discourse and an explanation of the properties of social interaction and social structure; and 4) amore specific focus on how discourse structures play a role, confirm, legitimize, reproduce, or block power relations and domination in society. fairclough & wodak (1997) summarize the basic principles of cda as follows: (1) a targeting of social problems; (2) a realization that power is a form of discourse; (3) a shaping of social and cultural discourse; (4) an examination of ideology; (5) an acceptance that discourse is historical; (6) a mediating relationship between text and society;(7) an interpretative and explanatory discourse analysis; and (8) a recognition that discourse is a form of social action. ideology, the abuse of power, and social inequality, especially in public forums like the media, can be investigated through the use of language that carries ideology. ideology can take the form of formal or informal text, metaphors, processes and participants, nominalization, declarative sentences, imperative and interrogative sentences, active and passive voices, and positive/negative modality, and we need to investigate the scheme being built by the text (fairclough, 1989). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 364-381 methods research design this study is a qualitative one using the cda model of fairclough. it aims to determine the ideology and discourse structure in metrotv’s news by disclosing the structure of meaning so that the shape distribution and the production of a disguised ideology in the discourse can be recognized. qualitative research does not engage in the building of theories and concepts as the mainstream in the early stages. research in this culture starts with the existing data in a field. the theoretical framework and notion are not intended to be tested and used as a limitation but rather as a reference for researchers to track. the theoretical and conceptual framework of this research was constantly developed during the study process. marczyk et al. (2005) describes how qualitative research does not explain its findings through a formula or statistical analysis—research is rather conducted through interviews and observations, explaining its findings in the form of a narrative description. data and its sources the source of data for this research is metrotv’s news footage, which was obtained through youtube and live recordings. the data included vocabulary, sentences, and textual structures containing ideology of the text "in sidoarjo mud overflow." the data came from metrotv news programs, including metro morning, afternoon metro, metro today, editorial media indonesia, top 9 news, and highlights metro. data were collected from these shows from january 2010 to january 2013. the researchers also visited the site of the mudflow in porong, sidoarjo—as well as nirvana kahuripan, which is the relocation site for victims—to gather field data. research procedures the steps for data collection and analysis were as follows: a. text analysis: data were collected through recordings of the news programs about "lapindo mud" that were aired on metro tv. these included metropagi, metro hariini, and metrosiang, and their development discourse in each block was identified. b. analysis of production and consumption of the text: the researchers used interview techniques to get in-depth data on the production and consumption of the text. interviews with educated viewers of metrotv were conducted to explore the depth of information and views of the subjects on various aspects that may help research purposes. fauzan c. the researchers used documents and literature to obtain data about the context surrounding the creation of a news program being broadcast by metrotv. data were analyzed qualitatively by describing the structure of the text, and this made possible an interpretation of the content of the text. the researchers analyzed the texts linguistically to see the level of text description and interpretation. at the description level, the researchers probed the themes raised by metrotv that contained ideology about the mudflow. interpretation was achieved through the practice of discourse analysis, which focused on the relationship between text and discourse practice to see the text as a production process. further interpretation was performed by combining the text with signifying text by using all sources of interpretation to generate an interpretation. findings rhetorical patterns of metrotv news an analysis of the news structure of metrotv starts with identification of titles of the news aired, as shown in table 1. table 1. title of news on lapindo mudflow aired by metrotv no news title program broadcast 1 five year lapindo suffering of residents of porong metro today 29 may 2011 2 barter in countermeasures of lapindo mud tragedy metro today 9 april 2012 3 lapindo mud swallows rp 8.6 trillion from the state budget metro today 29 may 2012 4 dozens of activists commemorate 6 years of lapindo mud tragedy headline news 30 may 2012 5 desperate to jakarta, lapindo mudflow victims intimidated headline news 16 june 2012 the headlines of metrotv imply that the more a person (group) watched a news program on metro tv about the tragic mudflow that occurred in porong, sidoarjo, the more they will believe the tragedy was caused by pt lapindo. the repeated use of the phrase "lumpur lapindo" will impress on television viewers that pt lapindo is the cause. a shift from lapindo to other aspects of the mudflow, though, will lead to viewers assuming that the tragedy is a natural disaster and nothing to do with pt lapindo. thus, there is a shift of meaning through a shift in news topics. furthermore, the structure of the news text was analyzed in three stages: description, interpretation, and explanation. the structure of the text in this research is the rhetorical structure contained in the text of metrotv news that evidently consisted of four discourse units: the title, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 364-381 orientation, sequence of events, and closing. news text consists of four units of discourse: the title, orientation, sequence of events, and closing. text construction built by the four discourse units has a different function and forms one kind of text. the first discourse unit is a title, and this acts to show a significant event that has occurred. this determines whether or not an event is newsworthy. news text should present information that is interesting, important, and relevant, and it could become a phenomenon at a time of controversy in the community. the more controversy there is, the more suitable the news is to publish. this part is achieved by indicating the title as the headline. the second discourse unit is the orientation, which introduces a core part of the events being reported. orientation can also be a section for introducing a resource that is a source of information advocates. metro also uses the second unit of this discourse to insert an additional message. the third discourse unit is the sequence of events, and this is the most important part of a news text because it explains in full detail the major events that have occurred, and for the text writer, it is a very important section to report. this section comprises participants in the event, when the event happens, and the primary scene of the event. supporting information sources— such as interviews, statements from informants, and visual images—that support the conveyance of information about the events are served here. not all metro news texts are supported by other sources of information like interviews or quotes from experts in the field. several metro news texts comprise just the participants, the time, and the primary scene. the sequence of events, as an element of ideology, appears to be a negative identification of the events that occurred. the fourth discourse unit is the closing, which functions to end the information being broadcast. the closing news texts of metrotv comprise interview recordings or statements representing responses, comments, conclusions, or assessments about the events that occurred or statements from are relevant person. in summary, the structure of metro news text has elements that must appear and choices in the orientation or in the sequence of events. the element that must be present in the core orientation is to introduce the general events in the news. the orientation for the news talk format must present an event to locate the introduced resource. the element that must appear in the sequence of events is the exposure of participants, time, and the primary scene. supporting informational sources (interviews or quotes from experts) are optional in metro news. fauzan ideology of the texts the structure of metro's news text not only provides information but also effectively brings ideology. the main ideology deduced from the message is that the tragedy of the lapindo mudflow was caused by the negligence of a company, but the government prefers to protect the company because of the political influence of the company's owner. the sub-ideological themes included: (1) the cause of the tragedy is lapindo. (2) the fate of mudflow victims is unclear. (3) the compensation is too late. (4) residents are suffering. (5) rallies have been held for the suffering citizens. (6) the government is weak. (7) the mudflow is draining the state budget. (8) lapindo should be held responsible, not the government.(9) the mudflow is damaging the region; polluting the land, water, and air; affecting health; and bringing adverse economic, social and cultural conditions. the metrotv news text empirically describes the negative aspects of the mudflow in sidoarjo. in addition to the news texts providing information (events) relating to the mudflow tragedy, they are academically composed as argumentative and an analytic exposition supports that academic description. see figure 1. compensation for lapindo mudflow victims drain the state budget viewers, lapindo hot mudflow at the end of may 2006 apparently continues to drain the state budget. at least the rp 5 trillion budget has been disbursed to compensate the victims. currently, the total new mud victims comprise12.455 inhabitants, and 1,111 people who occupy four villages should be compensated. they are residents of ketapang village, tanggulangin sub-district, besuki village, jabon sub-district and villagers from mindi and pamotan of porong sub-district. the chairman of the special committee of the house of representatives for lumpur sidoarjo, emir firdaus, confirmed that the affected areas stipulated in the regulation and reimbursement will become the responsibility of the government. through the revised state budget for 2012, the government has allotted rp 500 billion for compensation. outside of these funds, the government will have to spend rp 50 billion to guarantee the citizens living in four villages. the issue on regulation states that citizens outside the affected map have already been budgeted for in the state budget. for the year 2012, the revised budget is already allotted for four-five rt. sequence of events orientation thesis argument conclusion reorientation journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 364-381 figure 1. structure of analytic exposition of metrotv's news text theme of metrotv's news texts metro raised the main theme of the mudflow that occurred in porong, sidoarjo, along with several sub-themes: the identity of the mudflow, the cause of the mudflow, the impact of the mudflow, the reaction of citizens, and those responsible for sludge handling and reimbursement, among others. 1) identity of the mudflow the research findings indicate that metro raised the sub-theme of the identity of the mudflow in some broadcasts. sub-identity themes included that the hot mudflow in porong sidoarjo is not a natural disaster but rather one caused by human error. for example: (1) about 500 victims of the lapindo mudflow from 10 villages in three districts in sidoarjo rallied to commemorate five years of the lapindo mudflow. [1b-1] it was found that it also identified the victims of the mudflow as "victims of lapindo." see excerpts (2), (3), and (4) for examples of this. (2) the demonstration was by the residents of five villages that are members of the victim sues lapindo. [1h-3] (3) payment of compensation to the victims of lapindo by installment system makes victims of lapindo have trouble buying a new home. [1l-1] (4) one of the victims of lapindo, which until now was unable to buy a house, is purwanto, a resident from the village of renokenongo, porong, sidoarjo. [1l-3] 2) causes of the mudflow metrotv's news text implies that the mudflow tragedy is not a natural disaster but rather one brought about by human activity. the cause of the mudflow from the standpoint of metro, as stated in the texts' message, is as follows: (5) black box found when an event mentions mudflow is not caused by a disaster as stated by the supreme court, and evidence shows it is a human error. [1a-2] (6) disaster caused by oil and gas drilling company lapindo brantas, which is now named minarak lapindo jaya, have drained the state budget by more than 6 trillion. [1g-6] 3) impact of the mudflow fauzan metrotv's news texts that display the sub-theme of the impacts of the mudflow in sidoarjo portray the misery of citizens, adverse impacts on the environment, and poor social conditions, as stated in the following excerpts: (7) the air around the blast of lapindo leads to acute respiratory infections and respiratory infection. [1c-1] (8) in their eid al-adha prayers, residents were tearful, given the villages they resided in were drowned by lapindo mud. [1d-7] (9) disaster caused by oil and gas drilling company lapindo brantas, which is now renamed minarak lapindo jaya, have drained the state budget by more than rp 6 trillion. [1g-6] 4) reaction of the residents the findings related to the reaction of citizens, as captured in metro news text, are described in these examples: (10) around 500 lapindo mudflow victims from 10 villages in three districts in sidoarjo rallied to commemorate five years of the lapindo mudflow. [1b-1] (11) lapindo mudflow victims from the village of ketapang, district of sidoarjo, regency tanggulangin hold eid al-adha prayers in the mud near the embankment. [1d-1] (12) around 150 residents of five villages in sidoarjo, east java, on sunday rallied to reject the gas drilling by lapindo brantas incorporated. [1h-1] (13) they demanded lapindo sidoarjo pull out of the earth. [1h-2] 5) responsible party for the mudflow the findings relating to the responsible party for the mudflow tragedy are presented in excerpts (17) to (19). (14) in fact, before the rules are issued, presidential decree no. 13 of 2006 stipulated budget for lapindo mud disaster comes from lapindo brantas incorporation. [1g-8] (15) the cause prima argument applies that as lapindo drilled then the company must take responsibility. [1g-29] (16) in fact, the funds are taxpayers' money that must not be used for the benefit of private sector. [1i-2] 6) compensation the issue of compensation is of considerable interest to metro because it becomes very problematic. a number of citizens should be compensated appropriately, and the amount to be paid is huge. issues where citizens appear upset or angry due to delays in journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 364-381 compensation payment are focused on in the news. metro prefers to use the term "compensation" to show that mudflow victims have been harmed by the tragedy, which buried villages, fields, homes, and schools in sidoarjo. see the example: (17) people who follow the eid prayer are mostly a lapindo mudflow victims who are still waiting for compensation payments for their land. [1d-2] (18) in the 2012 revised state budget, the government has allocated rp 500 billion to compensate victims. [1f-4] (19) a map of the affected people that will be compensated by state budget money is included, foolish people and profitable lapindo. [1h-8] (20) payment of compensation to the victims of lapindo with installment system makes victims of lapindo have trouble buying a new home. [1l-1] discussion this cda research focuses on the discourse of news texts broadcast by metrotv news, which is labeled as the lapindo mudflow tragedy. this way, cda is used not only to detect manipulation and discrimination, but also to see and understand the social issues (renkema, 2004). cda asserts that the news of a media outlet contains certain ideological discourse, so the text of the news broadcasts of metrotv is bound to contain a certain ideology. cda can be used to dissect this ideology, as the primary domain in cda is ideology (renkema, 2004; blomaert, 2005; wooffitt, 2005; wodak, 2007). the ideology contained in the text of metro tv news is revealed through the use of text structure. from the text structure, some facts were discovered. in the title, metro commonly featured the disappointment of citizens, the adverse events, and the bad handling of the mudflow. metro's word choices provoke or stir the emotions of viewers, such as the use of the word "leave" or "drain" in parts of the headlines. in the orientation, metro presented core events and labeled the mudflow as human error. in the sequences of events, the news texts of metro not only recount the mudflow's frequency but also the negative impacts, such as adverse economic, social, and cultural conditions. they also provide an evaluation of the responsibility of pt lapindo that is far from satisfactory. metrotv news text structures are formed by micro-text reconstruction and micro-text exposition, especially an analytic exposition that aims to convince viewers about the bad effects of the mudflow. from the use of text structure, this finding differs from the opinion of gerot & wignell (1994), who state that the social function of news text is to provide information to readers, listeners, fauzan or viewers about a valuable or important incident. metrotv's news text is not generally shaped to serve a social function and provide important information for the public, but it is trying to convince the public about the facts and negative effects of the mudflow tragedy. metrotv's news text also contains analytical exposition text that serves a social function by convincing the reader or listener about something that should be done or not done. the ideology found in the text structure is in line with the opinion of fairclough (1989), who states that ideology is contained in the text structure. metrotv's news text contains information on a specific event but also a hidden message from the texts' writers. the common theme discussed by metro is the mudflow in sidoarjo, while the sub-themes include the identity of the disaster, its causes, the impact of the mudflow, the reaction of citizens, the handling of the mudflow, and compensation. this study supports the findings of de graaf (2005), who states that different ideologies in two different television stations will polarize them into opposing positions: our group and their group. this finding is also consistent with zaher’s (2009) and pasha’s (2011) studies, which asserted that if two media or newspapers are different, they often support two distinct groups. both media develop an ideology that is espoused, and they develop a positive image of their own group, while other groups carry a negative image in their version of the news. above all, cda is critically involved in analyzing the ideological exploitation of language that results in social inequalities (wodak, 2001, p. 2). language is ideological, and it serves to legitimize the power of the ruling classes. it is a system of representations that masks our true relations to one another in society by constructing imaginary relations among people in asocial formation (althuser, 1971). van dijk (1998, p. 138) believes that ideologies typically serve to legitimize power and social inequality. they are assumed to conceal, hide, or otherwise mystify the true reality. they obscure the objective, material condition of existence and the interests of social formation. he also maintains, however, that in addition to the more negative functions of ideology, we should note that ideologies can positively serve to empower dominated groups, create solidarity, organize a struggle, and sustain opposition. conclusion this study attempts to analyze the rhetorical patterns and ideology of metrotv's news through the lens of cda. the major finding of this study showed how the textual structure of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 364-381 metrotv's news constitutes the development of logical argument. the rhetorical patterns in the text includes the title, orientation, sequence of events that serve arguments, and closing. an academic structure into the news text of metrotv also appeared in terms of analytical expository. in addition, the ideologies of metrotv were identified in each element of the rhetorical pattern of the news texts. ideologies, as ways of representing unequal relations in society, do appear in the news text of metrotv. besides showing logical information and arguments about the lapindo mudflow as a human-made disaster, the ideologies in metrotv's news explicitly denote political ideologies and legitimize the power behind the tragedy. politically, the mudflow tragedy shows “the man behind the gun” as being the owner of the lapindo company, who belongs to the political elite and has considerable power to avoid any pressure being placed on his company. basically, if the tragedy resulted from human errors in the company, it would imply that the company should take responsibility for reimbursing the victims. in fact, the government accepted the mudflow as a natural disaster, so it allotted funds to compensate the victims. all this indicates that cda, as a tool for social intervention, applies to the mudflow tragedy of sidoarjo. references abdullah, sathi faiz & hosseni, kobra. (2012). discursive enactment of power in iranian high school efl classroom. gema online journal of language studies, 12(2), 375-392. abdi, reza & basarati, ali. (2016). a critical analysis of the representation of yemen crisis in ideology-loaded newspaper headlines. gema online journal of language studies, 16(3), 37-53. al-jayrudy, lubna. (2011). ideological representations in english and arabic news reports: a thematic structure analysis. unpublished ph.d’s dissertation. heriot-watt university al-sharoufi, hussain. (2011). “critical discourse analysis of political editorials in some arabic newspapers” proceedings of pan-pacific association of applied linguistics. anthonissen, christine. (2003). interaction between visual and verbal communication: changing patterns in the printed media. in weiss, g. and wodak, r. (ed.) critical discourse analysis. theory and interdisciplinarity. new york: palgrave macmillan blackledge, adrian. (2005). discourse and power in a multilingual world. amsterdam: john benjamins publishing company. blommaert, jan. (2005). discourse. a critical introduction. uk: cambridge university press. brown, g. dan yule, g. (1983). discourse analysis. cambridge: cambridge university press crystal, david. (1991). a dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. third edition. oxford: basil blackwell ltd. fauzan darma, yoce, a. (2009). analisis wacana kritis. bandung: yrama widya de beaugrande, r.a. dan dressler, w.u. (1986). introduction to text linguistics. third edition. harlow-essex: longman group limited. de graaf, j. j. (2005). al-jazeera english: the opinion and the other opinion. a comparison between ideologies in cnn international and al-jazeera english concerning the withdrawal of the jewish settlers from the gaza strip in august 2005. thesis. university of utrecht. fairclough, norman. (1989). language and power. new york: addison wesley longman. fairclough, norman. (1993). ‘critical discourse analysis and the marketization of public discourse: the universities’, discourse and society, 4(2), 133–68. fairclough, norman. (1995). critical discourse analysis. new york: addison wesley longman. fairclough, norman. (2003). analysing discourse. london: routledge fairclough, n., mulderrig, j. dan wodak, r. (2011). critical discourse analysis. dalam van dijk (ed.). discourse studies. a multidisciplinary introduction. london: sage, p. 357-378 fowler, roger. (1986). linguistic criticism. oxford: oxford university press jørgensen, marianne dan phillips, louise. (2002). discourse analysis as theory and method. london: sage publication. kandil, magdi. (2009). the israeli-palestinian conflict in american, arab, and british media: corpus-based critical discourse analysis. dissertation of doctoral program of georgia state university matheson, donald. (2005). media discourses. analysing media text. uk: open university press mills, sara. (1997). discourse. london and new york: routledge mujianto. (2011). pertarungan kekuasaan dalam teks media. studi analisis wacana kritis: kasus mesuji dalam koran jawa pos. dimuat di jurnal linguistik terapan, 1(2), 19-23. pasha, talaat. (2011). islamists in the headlines: critical discourse analysis of the representation of the muslim brotherhood in egyptian newspapers. dissertation of doctoral program of university of utah. renkema. (2004). introduction to discourse studies. usa: john benjamins stubbs, m. (1996). text and corpus analysis. oxford: blackwell van dijk, t a. all articles (1977-2012) in htttp://www.discourses.org, accessed 2011-2012. van dijk, t a. (1988). news analysis. case studies of international and national news in the press. new jersey: lawrence erlbaum associates. van dijk, t. a. (2001). discourse, ideology and context. in folia linguistica, 30(1),11-40. van leeuwen, t. (2008). discourse and practice. new tools for critical discourse analysis. new york. oxford university press wang, junling. (2010).“a critical discourse analysis of barack obama‟s speeches”. journal of language teaching and research, 1(3), 254-261. widdowson, h g. (2004). text, context, pretext. australia: blackwell publishing http://www.discourses.org/oldarticles/discourse,%20ideology%20and%20context.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 364-381 wodak, r. (2007). pragmatics and critical discourse analysis. in pragmatics and cognition, 15(1):203-225. wodak, r. dan meyer, m. (2001). methods of critical discourse analysis. london: sage. wooffitt, robin. (2005). conversation analysis and discourse analysis.a comparative and critical introduction. london: sage publications zaher, aziza. (2009). a critical discourse analysis of news reports on the israeli/palestinian conflict in selected arab and western newspapers. dissertation of doctoral program of nottingham trent university zhao chen-xi dan yang feng-jun. (2009). “the critical discourse analysis of a report on barack obama”. sino-us english teaching. 6(10),49-55. www.tvonenews.tv accessed on 15 december 2013 www.metrotvnews.com accessed on 15 december 2013 http://www.tvonenews.tv/ http://www.metrotvnews.com/ www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 do resilient schools exist? chances for quality education for children from dysfunctional families vladislav vinogradov 1, olga shatunova 2 & shamil sheymardanov 3 abstract the purpose of this work is to develop models of resilient schools, both positive and negative. this study is based on the methodological principles of interdisciplinarity and consistency. the process of identifying models of resilient schools took place in two stages: 1) searching databases for examples confirming the existence of “successful” schools in difficult socio-economic conditions, and 2) analysis of interviews and survey results of teachers, students, and parents. results show that the proposed classification of models of resilient schools was clarified. the remaining uncertainty regarding the issue of the existence of resilient schools is resolved through the inclusion into the sphere of pedagogical analysis of non-social objects such as actors of educational interaction. it is shown that adverse social conditions (from the standpoint of the school and universal values) in reality seem to be the most likely life futurity for children from dysfunctional families. changing this futurity to a more positive one requires a specific education in a resilient school, which differs from other schools in its educational strategy. the paper defines the school strategies determining qualitatively different models of resilient educational organizations. five such models are proposed, based on the principles of resonant interaction oriented to supporting positive and blocking negative educational fluctuations of schoolchildren, compensatory interactions, calling for the creation in the school of specific conditions neutralizing the effects of the adverse environment, development of personal resilience of pupils as a meta-competency, and integration of all previous models into a single educational system. the integrative model can be considered as the highest level of school resilience, achieved by the gradual development of the previous models. key words: education, dysfunctional family, individual resilience, school resilience. introduction families in which conflicts, destructive behavior by one or both parents, and neglect of children are the norms of their existence are most often classified as dysfunctional (masteller & stoop, 1991). often this kind of behavior is inherited; parents learned it from their parents and, most likely, will pass it on to their children, thus forming a kind of vicious circle that is difficult for a 1 assoc. prof., yelabuga institute, kazan federal university, email: vinogradov.ksu@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof., yelabuga institute, kazan federal university, email: olgashat67@mail.ru 3 assoc. prof., institute of pedagogy and psychology, kazan federal university, email: pedagogshamil@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 child to break. however, if the child manages to do this and, despite a difficult situation, achieves serious successes, they are called resilient. the concept of resilience, being fairly new to the humanities, is now more often used to characterize the individual characteristics of a person. in a child, resilience can be developed by increasing their resistance to the negative influence of the environment. however, this requires special, goal-oriented efforts by teachers and psychologists. otherwise, individual resilience remains an important but single manifestation of a child’s ability to succeed despite everything. do children from dysfunctional families who are not individually resilient have chances to get a quality education and improve their life prospects? there is every reason for a positive answer to the question. first of all, the experience of the development of individual resilience is important, proving that this is not an innate but a formed quality of a person. on the other hand, cases are known of the existence of educational organizations functioning in difficult social conditions and nevertheless achieving high educational results. such schools are also called resilient. thus, one assumes that if a resilient school, characterized by the ability to create special conditions that ensure high-quality education for children from dysfunctional families (including those with a low level of individual resilience), appears in a microdistrict with a large share of dysfunctional families, the problem will be solved. the problem is that studies in the field of school resilience have not been able to capture common strategies characteristic of educational organizations that show effectiveness in difficult conditions. this means the possibility of the existence of various models of school resilience. their identification and general characterization is the goal of the present study. research questions achieving this goal determines the need to answer the following research questions: 1. what is the difference between a resilient school and a regular school, in order to provide chances for quality education for children from dysfunctional families? 2. what particular models of resilient schools provide chances for quality education for children from dysfunctional families? vinogradov et al. 54 literature review the humanities have borrowed the concept of resilience from physics, where it means the ability of an object to restore its state after the cessation of external influence, its stability and elasticity. having no initial evaluative meaning in relation to a person, resilience acquired an unambiguous positive meaning as a “quality that allows some people to be knocked down by life and come back stronger than ever. rather than letting failure overcome them and drain their resolve, they find a way to rise from the ashes” (https://positivepsychology.com/what-is-resilience/). the stability characterizing the opposite ability of a certain category of people to continue an asocial lifestyle despite all the attempts of the environment to help them is virtually not considered. without trying to change the established understanding of psychological (social, academic, etc.) resilience, it is nevertheless necessary to have in mind this phenomenon as having a similar nature, but differing by the opposite directionality (saenko et al., 2019; movchan et al., 2021). individual resilience in russian education, as a precursor of the problem of individual resilience, one can consider the work on preventing and overcoming school failure. the term “school unsuccessfulness” was more often used in the meaning of “school failure” and, in the opinion of russian researchers, meant the phenomenon of pupils systematically lagging behind their peers in mastering the school curriculum, leading to negative consequences in behavior: persistent unwillingness to learn, violations of school discipline, skipping classes or refusing to attend school (isaev et al., 2019). the reasons for this behavior are often sought in the psychophysiological and psychological characteristics of low-performing students and in the insufficient pedagogical competence of teachers and parents. in the european psychological-pedagogical tradition, the main reason for school unsuccessfulness is seen in socio-economic factors. for example, the correlation between the academic success of students, the socio-economic characteristics of families, and social well-being is considered obvious (bourdieu, 1986; pronk et al., 2020). the development of studying the causes of school unsuccessfulness, taking into account the socio-economic characteristics of families in assessing the educational achievements of pupils, allowed for identifying the phenomenon of academic resilience, understood as the ability of students to demonstrate high results despite external limiting circumstances (isaev et al., 2019; medvedeva and mitina, 2021). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 in a general sense, individual resilience is a person’s resistance to change, manifested in critical circumstances (luthar et al., 2006; rutter, 1990; werner, 1990), a synonym for a high level of self-regulation, manifested regardless of life circumstances. scientific research on individual resilience began in the second half of the 20th century. studies show that resilience is not an innate characteristic (luthar et al., 2000) but an acquired quality associated with the individual characteristics of a person, providing them with flexibility and stability in situations of risk, stress, and crisis, contributing to the rapid normalization of the state, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, ensuring further effective development (grotberg, 2003; masten et al., 1990). in contrast to the medical model of resilience, which puts emphasis on the factors causing the problem, educational researchers focused on factors including mechanisms of “strength,” “defense,” and “sense of security.” a new research model aimed at studying the conditions for success was later called the resilience model (masten & powell, 2003). the psychiatrist norman garmezy (1918-2009) is considered the founder of the theory of resilience; he led a group of researchers to study adolescents growing up in difficult life circumstances who nevertheless managing to cope with them, achieve developmental success, and successfully integrate into society (masten & obradovic, 2006). emmy werner first used the term “resilience” in social science literature (luthar et al., 2000). resilience of the pupil studies in the field of children’s resilience have revealed the key protective psychosocial factors that promote stability (cove, 2005; masten & obradovic, 2006; polat, 2020), which fall into three groups: 1. personal qualities of children and adolescents (good intellectual abilities, non-confrontational temperament, good social skills, problem-solving strategies, self-confidence, positive self-esteem, interests (hobbies), spirituality); 2. characteristics of families (relations within the family, the level of education of parents, the financial situation of the family); 3. characteristics of the environment (connections outside the family, interaction with associations and organizations, access to education at various levels (from preschool to university), the attractiveness of lifelong education, opportunities for quality leisure time, intergenerational cooperation, and other environmental influences). vinogradov et al. 56 the work of michael rutter (1990) played a significant role in the research of pupil resilience, identifying four key mechanisms of protecting a child from negative influences by means of minimizing damage from adverse conditions, increasing self-esteem and self-efficacy, developing and strengthening competencies for successful problem solving, and events promoting the full development of personality. all these mechanisms ultimately determine various models of school resilience, which will be discussed below. here it is important to note that studies of pupil resilience naturally led to the question of its purposeful formation in the context of school education. thus, for example, muravyova and oleinikova (2017), citing the typology of key competencies adopted in the european union, note that in recent times, endurance and resilience, vision, selfregulation, and empathy, which are, in fact, meta-competencies, have often been added to these competencies: “among the additional meta-competencies indicated above, the central place is occupied by resilience, understood as the ability to ‘take the blow’ in the case of failures.” in their opinion, it is the school that plays a key role in the future success of children from dysfunctional families, if it actively forms resilience and if the teachers there serve as positive behavior models. resilience of the teacher some researchers in the field of teacher resilience state that it can only manifest itself in times of hardship (doney, 2013). on the other hand, most analysts note that teaching requires “daily stability” (gu & day, 2013; gu & li, 2013) to deal with uncertainty as well as various intellectual and emotional problems. daily stability involves more than just overcoming difficulties but rather the ability to cope with current problems while continuing to grow and prosper professionally. empirical studies have revealed the professional, motivational, social, and emotional aspects of teacher resilience (mansfield et al., 2012; van kessel, 2020). personal resources that enhance teacher resilience include intrinsic motivation (kitching et al., 2009) and self-efficacy (howard & johnson, 2004; le cornu, 2009), the presence of a personal moral goal (day, 2014), feelings of vocation (hong, 2012), optimism (tait, 2008), and social and emotional competency (ee & chang, 2010). resources of the environment can be used to support the stability of teachers; thus, in the literature, the key resource is relationships within and outside the organization. for example, relationships between teachers and school leaders (peters & pearce, 2012), with trusted colleagues (o’sullivan, 2006), with all school communities (ebersöhn, 2012), journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 with supporters outside the school or on the internet (papatraianou & le cornu, 2014), and between teachers and their pupils (morgan et al., 2010) reinforce teacher resilience. it is also indicated in the literature that teachers can use different strategies of personal and environmental resources such as problem solving (johnson et al., 2014), seeking help (sharplin et al., 2011), and setting goals and strategies for balancing work and personal life (le cornu, 2013). continuous professional training also has a number of positive results (patterson et al., 2004), as well as other activities connected with reflection (leroux & théorêt, 2014). using good communication skills is also an important strategy (schelvis et al., 2014), as well as the ability to regulate emotions (morgan, 2011). resilience of schools while the concept of resilience as a person’s ability to overcome life difficulties with dignity has been firmly established in modern research, it is used with reserve in relation to educational organizations. an exception is a series of papers devoted to schools capable of achieving high educational results while working in difficult social conditions (lupton, 2004; pinskaya et al., 2011, 2018; timberlake, 2020). in all cases described, the performance criteria are common to all schools, regardless of the social context of their activities. this is a comparison of the proportion of pupils enrolled in high school and trained in middle school (balganova, 2021; borman et al., 2003; pinskaya et al., 2018), high positions in the ranking according to testing results (first of all, in mathematics), and results of participation in olympiads and competitions (pinskaya et al., 2011). among the factors ensuring the high performance of resilient schools are a high level of teacher qualifications (derbyshire & pinskaya, 2016; panova et al., 2020), close interaction between the school and the parents of pupils, the use of effective teaching methods (liu et al., 2019), positive school climate, and high expectations regarding the achievements of schoolchildren on the part of the school, parents, and the pupils themselves (pinskaya et al., 2018), a high level of education of parents, family income (pinskaya et al., 2012), the motivation of leaders, teachers, and students (kuznetsov et al., 2018), and the exchange of experience with colleagues during face-to-face meetings (bysik et al., 2018), among others. vinogradov et al. 58 at the same time, all these factors are not directly related to school resilience but are encyclopedic conditions for the effectiveness of the educational process in general, regardless of the context in which this process takes place, and these conditions are formulated in almost all publications on general issues related to the organization of educational activity (ushakov, 2017). it is no coincidence that some scholars of school resilience have to admit that “causal relationships between the educational results of the school and individual managerial strategies cannot be established” (derbyshire & pinskaya, 2016). a logical question arises: is it enough for a school working in difficult social conditions to have high rating indicators to be called resilient? considering that these rating indicators can be provided by administrative and not pedagogical factors, the answer to this question is not definitively positive. indeed, a number of studies show that the so-called resilient schools are trying to attract the most promising pupils to senior classes, and the pupils with academic problems are recommended to continue their education in the secondary vocational education system. as a result, the authors of the studies note that they cannot “judge to what extent the high achievements of students from dysfunctional families are due to the influence of the school, and to what extent they can be determined by their individual characteristics” (pinskaya et al., 2018). so, do resilient schools exist? method research design this study used a descriptive research design and qualitative approach. the descriptive design refers to content analysis as suggested by zhang and wildemuth (2009) and qualitative analysis from creswell (2014). the aims are to describe phenomena of school resilience in russia. data were analyzed using thematic analysis based on content analysis by zhang and wildemuth (2009). data and sources the most actively used resources of this study are positivepsychology.com, theedadvocate.org, thoughtco.com, psyjournals.ru, britannica.com, educationcorner.com, iq.hse.ru, medium.com, mel.fm, oecd-ilibrary.org, and education.com (see table 1). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 table 1 table data and data sources # source data 1 positivepsychology.com a definition of resilience; most common ways of resilience development 2 theedadvocate.org main elements needed to build motivation and resilience in students 3 thoughtco.com techniques for personal resilience development 4 psyjournals.ru features of resilience in students and families 5 britannica.com a definition of resilience and its types 6 educationcorner.com social-emotional learning 7 iq.hse.ru the phenomenon of resilient schools in the context of moscow 8 medium.com the family context of schoolchildren’s resilience 9 mel.fm ways of increasing the psychological stability and resilience of students 10 oecd-ilibrary.org the resilience of students with an immigrant background; resilience-building in practice; academic resilience 11 education.com lesson plans; tools for resilience; nurturing children’s resilience the criteria for inclusion/exclusion of the proposed information in the research base in conceptual terms were its internal and external consistency (the logical consistency of information in the article itself and its consistency with other similar articles). in addition, the following were taken into account: 1) the correctness of the presentation of information; 2) completeness of coverage of the issue or its part; 3) the need for information to decide on an issue important to the study; and 4) the validity of information (links to confirming sources, the credibility of the source of information, laconicism and provability of information). data collection data of this study includes text-based information from the authors collected based on the themes and unit analysis identified in the documents. the authors used two stages of data collection. this made it possible to, first, reasonably answer the question of the existence or lack of resilient schools as a pedagogical phenomenon, and, second, to determine the necessary grounds for building possible models of school resilience based on incomplete quantitative research data. at the first stage, through the prism of the indicated theories, the authors carried out the analysis of statistical information on various aspects of resilience provided by scopus, web of science, and other databases for the period of 1979-2019, as well as the articles registered there. the objects of analysis were examples confirming the existence of “successful” schools in difficult socio vinogradov et al. 60 economic conditions. educational organizations called “a school that functions well in a context of adversity” (masten et al., 2008) and “schools performing beyond expectations” (hargreaves & harris, 2011) were studied. at the second stage, the authors determined the list and main characteristics of models of resilient schools. a comparative analysis and structuring and modeling of the characteristics of resilient schools described in the scientific literature were carried out, and the hypothesis put forward in the study about the existence of negative school resilience as the ability of an educational organization to show persistently negative educational outcomes, despite the effects of the environment, was substantiated. in addition to analyzing special literature, both stages involved a content analysis of information presented on the internet, for which keywords and phrases were used such as «educational effectiveness research», «school effectiveness research», «schools performing beyond expectations», «resilience of the individuals», and «resilience of the schools». data analysis this study applied content analysis to analyze data referring to stages proposed by zhang and wildemuth (2009) and procedures of qualitative data analysis by creswell (2014). the authors adapted five stages of data analysis from those experts. first, data in terms of numbers and texts were converted into narrative data; in this way, the authors collected all data and identified both statistical data and narrative text for the data base. based on the data base, the authors categorized the data into themes. second, the authors selected units of analysis and themes from the data base relevant to the research questions. third, the authors developed a system of data coding to identify each unit of analysis. fourth, the authors applied the coding system to have the number of each data provided with the unit of analysis to all available data in the data base; in the case of incorrect numbering, the coding and unit analysis were corrected. sixth, the authors verified all coding data and determined the final data for the evidence of this study. results and discussion difference between a resilient school and a regular school a high-ranking position of a school operating in difficult social conditions is only one of the markers of its resilience and, moreover, the most superficial one. if resilient schools really exist, they should have some specific differences from educational organizations that simply journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 successfully use the achievements of general pedagogy. however, before attempting to search for these differences, it is necessary to make a small methodological digression, and before attempting to conduct a qualitative analysis of research information in order to search for these differences, it is necessary to determine its methodology, which acts as a kind of information filter and the basis for systematizing the available data. subjects and objects of education justification of school resilience as an educational phenomenon of the 21st century cannot be carried out effectively on the basis of the methodology of classical pedagogy. the problems are primarily caused by the gradual disappearance from the pedagogical interaction of the pupil as an object, changing under the influence of the teacher as a subject. the initially humanistic and not always recognized idea of a “pupil as an independent subject of education” is turning today into the reality of total self-education that threatens the very existence of educational organizations. if the student is the subject of education, then who (or what) is the object? taking into account that the result (matter) of education in the modern world is competence, which, by definition, has an activity-related nature, its object is the world around a person in all its diversity. also, an element of the pedagogical process is the learner’s interaction with some side of the universe, causing a change in the interacting parties and manifesting itself in the form of added competence. thus, an unprecedented transformation of education takes place, causing the necessity to re-establish connections and reassemble pedagogical reality, like bruno latour’s “reassembly of the social.” obviously, pedagogical reality, growing beyond the limits of the social in its classical sense, includes not only a person but also all other objects, including those previously designated by the concepts of “environment,” “context,” etc. a conspicuous example is the covid-19 virus, which very quickly and more effectively than all teachers and education leaders combined taught how to wash hands, observe hygiene, maintain physical activity in any conditions, and, importantly, how to make maximum use of digital technologies for educational purposes. to begin with, let us eliminate the artificial and destructive separation of school and the contexts in which it operates, as in family and school, school and manufacturing, school and law, school and the coronavirus, etc. the conjunction “and” initially implies opposition, while education requires integration, interpenetration, and mutual responsibility (from the word “response”). vinogradov et al. 62 indeed, if an element of the pedagogical process is the interaction of the student with various aspects of the universe, then, for example, by ignoring the rules of hygiene and prevention in relation to covid-19, one can get an answer from the virus that corrects one’s behavior. the same applies to other elements of interaction. a distinctive feature of education from life itself is the possibility and necessity of managing this interaction, replacing part of the real conditions of interaction with quasi-conditions and increased requirements for the awareness of interaction processes and their results. complexity of social conditions returning to the problem of resilience, let us once again clarify what the “complex social conditions” of the functioning of the educational organization are and what their negative impact on the effectiveness of education is. however, this will be done not from the standpoint of their opposition to school but taking into account their integration into the educational process. in various kinds of research, one can find indications of the following aspects of the life activity of schoolchildren, with a high probability of having a negative impact on their education: 1. deprivation of the family, causing a whole range of interaction risks, including aggression as an acceptable style of behavior, the priority of life support issues in relation to education, the assertion of the asociality of behavior as a norm, a simplified language of communication, etc. 2. economic infringement, which often determines the inferiority of prospects and growth opportunities, due to the inherited low social status of the family, miserable (or perceived as such) existence in adverse conditions. 3. sociocultural sameness of the environment (low availability of sociocultural objects), which confirms the orientation toward the use of often primitive forms of leisure and escape from reality into the narcotic world of illusions, etc. in addition, further problems can be created for the school by students who, for objective reasons, find themselves in a risk zone (children from migrant families, children left without parental care, etc.), the presence of potentially dangerous objects in the structure of the microdistrict (neuropsychiatric boarding school, industrial or construction objects, objects of the department of corrections), etc. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 in other words, the difficulties are caused either by the peculiarities of the student body or the risks of the environment. neither requires proof, forcing one to once again state the banal truth that “for schools with a low level of social well-being, the probability of demonstrating low results is much higher than for socially trouble-free schools” (pinskaya et al., 2018, p. 35). that is, in a situation where schools are not fundamentally different from each other, their effectiveness depends on the conditions in which they find themselves by the will of fate. the interaction risks briefly outlined above are conditions for the effective survival of children in the environment “with a low level of social well-being.” accordingly, these conditions themselves, which serve as actors of pedagogical interaction, ensure the formation of students’ competencies that are adequate to the interaction situation. as a result, children become well-adapted to aggressive behavior, prefer casual part-time work to studying, are scornful of social norms, cheerfully spend time “behind the garages,” completely inherit the social image of their ancestors, and do not correspond to the noble ideas about the ideal school graduate. what is the problem? does it lay in the adaptability of schoolchildren to existing conditions? certainly not! the problem is in limiting the freedom of choice of life path for today’s schoolchildren, in imposing on them the existing way of life as the only possible way. the outlined critical situation can be changed either by introducing fundamentally new actors into the educational process, expanding the capabilities of schoolchildren, or by developing their individuality and the most pronounced abilities to the full extent. this is what should be taken into account when establishing strategies of resilient educational organizations. thus, the existence of resilient schools, as well as the need for further analysis of the reasons for their effectiveness, is confirmed by multiple studies of resilience. the main distinguishing feature of resilient schools is their ability to provide their graduates with a multiplicity and independence of choices for future life paths. from the standpoint of the proposed methodology, resilience is manifested in one of two directions that determine a school educational strategy, or in their combination: 1. active and thoughtful introduction into the educational process of a complex of actors that correct the emerging competencies of schoolchildren. 2. maximum use of personality-oriented education technologies in the educational process, contributing to a development of the most pronounced abilities of schoolchildren and acting in the future as a kind of crystallization center for graduates’ life strategies. vinogradov et al. 64 the findings suggest several models of resilient schools, which differ in special educational strategies that ensure a high level of academic achievement of students from disadvantaged families and distinguish them from simply effective schools operating in standard conditions (galkiene & puskoriene, 2020; more & rodgers, 2020). models of resilient schools model one: “continuity” this is based on postulating the value of social continuity. the implementation of the model presupposes a conscious and competently realized aspiration of the school to ensure the reproduction of the human resource based on the gradual sustainable development of positive human qualities accumulated by the family over many generations. in the context of the problem under consideration, it concerns primarily working professions, respect for working dynasties and the laboring man. the school, in this case, does not ensure the academic success of pupils, although it does not exclude it. for example, one of the surveyed schools with traditionally low rating indicators over the past few decades has had among its graduates a hero of russia who saved many civilians at the cost of his life, an academician, a rector of one of the largest universities in the country, a professor, a director of the institute, and a number of successful merchants, although for the most part school graduates have mastered working professions, having inherited them from their parents. many highly rated educational organizations cannot boast of such results (palmer & witanapatirana, 2020). what distinguishes schools of this type from others functioning in similar conditions? the school works based on the principle of resonant interaction, trying to discern and support the most diverse talents of its educatees. let us clarify again: it does not form these talents but supports them, flexibly reacting to the dynamics of schoolchildren. it does not struggle with the “negative context” but tries to make friends with it, realizing that any quality of the pupil is capable, depending on the situation, of manifesting itself as both negative and positive. this position of the school gives it the opportunity to largely neutralize the negative manifestations of pupils, using a positive moralpsychological climate and a careful attitude toward each other. the school understands and accepts its low academic rating because, as lucius seneca stated, “where you cannot do anything, you should not want anything.” at the same time, low ratings of such schools are more likely a problem of the ratings rather than the schools themselves. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 model two: “against all odds” this is based on the principle of compensatory interaction. unlike the above type of schools, in this case there is active opposition of the school to the negative influences on students of a whole complex of basic interactions (actors). for example, “teaching children with a dysfunctional family status, the school assumes the functions of family supervision and care, solving protective and educational tasks” (pinskaya et al., 2011, p. 168). in some cases, this prevents the school from focusing on educational goals: “oftentimes the school considers such a strategy as its special mission and, when discussing the quality of education, refers to it as an excuse for low educational achievements” (p. 168). on the other hand, the latter is not absolutely necessary and is not a feature of resilient schools of this type. compensating for the adverse influence of the family environment on preparing pupils for classes, the conditions for this are created in the school. teachers find an opportunity to work with children additionally, extended-day groups or something similar to such groups are opened, but in a different form (bysik et al., 2018). the sociocultural component of education is also changing due to the targeted involvement of regional cultural objects in the educational process, the integration of the school with the system of additional education of children. in other words, the school seeks to replace elements of interaction that have a destructive effect on students, creating special conditions for this and causing the emergence of new actors of pedagogical interaction. aggression is opposed by benevolence, momentary priorities by the prospects of growth and faith in the ability of pupils, and economic constraints by the ability to live in dignity in any conditions. as a result, the very structure of interaction changes and, naturally, its final result does as well. model three: “become stronger” regardless of the context in which the school operates, it is distinguished by the goal-oriented formation of resilience among students as a meta-competency, which involves: • the ability to “ward off” negative factors, to “bounce” from them; • the ability to control emotions; • understanding of one’s own strengths and advantages; • reliance on emotional involvement; • inventiveness; vinogradov et al. 66 • a sense of one’s own potential/ personal agency; • the ability to interact with others; • the ability to solve problems (muravyova & oleinikova, 2017, p. 17) for schools operating in difficult social conditions, the emphasis on “resilience as the ability to adequately meet and overcome adverse circumstances and challenges, while becoming stronger” (p. 17) is especially important. no school is able to completely replace the whole variety of educational influences or completely eliminate destructive ones, nor should it, for to adequately come out of adverse situations can contribute to the formation of students’ ability. given that educational organizations work in accordance with existing standards, it should be noted that the integration of resilience into the target set, which describes educational results achieved by the school, does not contradict the standards but systematizes their implementation. the above “skills” of resilience include a whole complex of personal and meta-subject educational results. thus, developing pupils’ resilience, the school automatically forms many other important qualities in them due to the synergetic effect of resilience. model four: “together into the future” this is hybrid in content and refers to the educational organizations that use in their activities the elements of all the models outlined above. essentially, it characterizes the highest level of development of a resilient school, while all previous models in this case can be considered as sublevels. indeed, it is logical to start the school’s movement from a state of low resilience to the highest possible one by creating in the educational organization a system of a flexible response to the achievements and anomalies of pupils, gradually moving to creating a system of compensating for educational deficits and, further, to integrating individual (personal) resilience into the target set of education results as a core element (korableva et al., 2020). the indicated logic of the development of school resilience has one limitation: it cannot be used in relation to schools with persistently low educational results, while assuming the necessity of some “zero” state of the educational organization. the latter requires the identification of another model of school resilience. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 model five: “convinced poorness” this characterizes schools working in difficult social conditions, showing consistently low educational results and accepting this state as inevitable. to a large extent, the school has every reason for this, except morally and ethically. the school traditionally occupies the lowest ranking positions in the municipal education system, which leads to a predominantly depressive state of its administration, staffing on the basis of “negative selection,” the prevalence of negative motivation for teachers and, further, for pupils who, in turn, do not have high academic ambitions. such a school is also resilient in the original physical understanding of resilience. any efforts to manage education there have a temporary, waning effect, after which the school returns to its original state. moreover, these efforts are also traditional, including replacement of leadership, requirements to provide a program for overcoming the crisis, strengthening methodological control, etc. while these measures can yield a positive effect for the average school, they do not lead to the expected result in the negatively resilient school. the moral and psychological grounds for overcoming the negative resilience of the educational organization in the system of traditional school management are generally ineffective and come down to the translation of common truths about professional duty, responsibility, and patriotism, which in the conditions of negative resilience is perceived more as humiliation than a guideline for action. nevertheless, it is with the moral and psychological climate that the hopes for the school’s coming out from an impasse are associated. all other problems are solvable. this is indicated by the experience of multiple studies of schools working in difficult social conditions but, nevertheless, achieving high educational results. conclusion to answer the question about the existence of resilient schools means to identify their essential differences from other non-resilient educational organizations. however, it is incorrect to focus solely on their ability to achieve high rating positions while working in difficult social conditions. this is an indirect indicator of resilience, which can be falsified and is therefore insufficient. anything that has a rating value and can be falsified will be falsified, driving the school into an even deeper crisis. at the same time, researchers’ attempts to identify more serious distinctive features of resilient schools, based on the peculiarities of managerial strategies, were unsuccessful. the authors have closed this gap by changing the emphasis from the ranking positions of a school vinogradov et al. 68 to the ability to provide its graduates with worthy choices of life paths. obviously, students’ high academic achievements expand the range of opportunities for graduates, but this is not an exceptional condition for their effective self-fulfillment. expanding the scope of analysis, the authors introduced the inclusion in the pedagogical process of the interaction of pupils with various aspects of the universe (in particular, non-social ones) as its equal participants. the authors identified five main models of resilient schools. consideration of education in this light allowed for interpreting the expected educational result as a change/development of students in the process of interaction with a variety of actors. accordingly, the quality of this result will depend on either the variety of interaction or its depth. both ways determine the increase in the volume of acquired educational information in its broad sense (the attributive concept of information). among them are three basic models of positive resilience (“continuity,” “against all odds,” “become stronger”), one model of negative resilience (“convinced poorness”) and a hybrid model (“together into the future”) that combines the attributes of all three models of positive resilience and represents a possible final result of the development of school resilience. the proposed models allow for taking a fresh look at the results of studies in the field of individual and collegial (school) resilience, the results of studies of school effectiveness in general, and also use these results in designing the development of educational organizations in the direction of increasing their resistance to negative fluctuations in the context of their professional activity. acknowledgments this paper has been supported by the kazan federal university strategic academic leadership program. references borman, g. d., hewes, g. m., overman, l. t., & brown, s. (2003). comprehensive school reform and achievement: a meta-analysis. review of educational research, 73(2), 125-230. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543073002125 bourdieu, p. (1986). the forms of capital. in handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241-258). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 http://www.socialcapitalgateway.org/sites/socialcapitalgateway.org/files/data/paper/2016/ 10/18/rbasicsbourdieu1986-theformsofcapital.pdf balganova, e. (2021). digitalization trends and risks professional education. russian journal of education and psychology, 12(3), 19-31. https://doi.org/10.12731/2658-4034-2021-12-319-31 bysik, n. v., kosaretsky, s. g., & pinskaya, m. a. (2018). designing a model for the professional development of school teachers operating in adverse social conditions working with students at the risk of educational failure: an empirical basis and key components. psychological science and education, 23(5), 87-101. doi: 10.17759 / pse.2018230509 cove, e., eiseman, m., & popkin, s. j. (2005). resilient children: literature review and evidence from the hope vi panel study. final report. the urban institute metropolitan housing and communities policy center street, nw, washington, dc. http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/411255_resilient_children.pdf creswell, j. w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage davydov, v. v. (1996). theory of developing learning. moscow: intor publ. day, c. (2014). resilient principals in challenging schools: the courage and costs of conviction. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 20(5), 638-654. derbyshire, n. s., & pinskaya, m. a. (2016). management strategies of directors of effective schools. educational issues, 3(1), 110-129. dewey, j. (1938/2007). experience and education. simon & schuster. doney, p. a. (2013). fostering resilience: a necessary skill for teacher retention. journal of science teacher education, 24(4), 645-664. doi:10.1007/s10972-012-9324-x ebersöhn, l. (2012). adding ‘flock’ to ‘fight and flight’: a honeycomb of resilience where supply of relationships meets demand for support. journal of psychology in africa, 27(1), 29-42. ee, j., & chang, a. (2010). how resilient are our graduate trainee teachers in singapore? the asiapacific education researcher, 19(2), 321-331. fantilli, r. d., & mcdougall, d. e. (2009). a study of novice teachers: challenges and supports in the first years. teaching & teacher education, 25(6), 814-825. doi:0.1016/j.tate.2009.02.021 fuller, r. b. (1979). buckminster fuller on education. university of massachusetts press. https://doi.org/10.12731/2658-4034-2021-12-3-19-31 https://doi.org/10.12731/2658-4034-2021-12-3-19-31 vinogradov et al. 70 fuller, r. b., & applewhite, e. j. (1975). synergetics: explorations in the geometry of thinking. macmillan publishing co., inc. galkiene, a., & puskoriene, g. (2020). development of adaptation tools for pupils on the autism spectrum in microsystems. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.1 gu, q., & day, c. (2013). challenges to teacher resilience: conditions count. british educational research journal, 39(1), 22-44. doi:10.1080/01411926.2011.623152 gu, q., & li, q. (2013). sustaining resilience in times of change: stories from chinese teachers. asia-pacific journal of teacher education, 41(3), 288-303. doi:10.1080/1359866x.2013.809056 haken, h. (1982). synergetik. springer-verlag. hargreaves a., & harris a. (2011) performance beyond expectations. nottingham: national college for school leadership. http://www.ai.sri.com/~quam/public/papers/ilc2005/20050529-lispperformance.pdf%5cnhttp://dera.ioe.ac.uk/10022/1/download?id=151888&filename=per formance-beyond-expectations-full-report.pdf hong, j. y. (2012). why do some beginning teachers leave the school, and others stay? understanding teacher resilience through psychological lenses. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 18(4), 417-440. doi:10.1080/13540602.2012.696044 howard, s., & johnson, b. (2004). resilient teachers: resisting stress and burnout. social psychology of education, 7(4), 399-420. isaev, e. i., kosaretsky, s. g., & mikhailova, a. m. (2019). western european experience of prevention and overcoming school failure among children living in families with low socioeconomic status. journal of modern foreign psychology, 8(1), 7-16. doi: 10.17759/jmfp.2019080101 johnson, b., down, b., le cornu, r., peters, j., sullivan, a., pearce, j., & hunter, j. (2014). promoting early career teacher resilience: a framework for understanding and acting. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 20(5), 530-546. doi:10.1080/13540602.2014.937957 kitching, k., morgan, m., & o’leary, m. (2009). it’s the little things: exploring the importance of commonplace events for early-career teachers’ motivation. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 15(1), 43-58. doi:10.1080/13540600802661311 korableva, o. n., gorelov, n., & kalimullina, o. (2020). contemporary issues of intellectual capital: bibliographic analysis doi:10.1007/978-3-030-48021-9_51 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 kuznetsov v. m., solovyova t. v., & troshkov s. n. (2018). modeling of motivational management of innovative activities of teachers in the formation of a resilient school. pedagogical image, 12(1), 5-17. doi: 10.32343 / 2409-5052-2018-12-4-5-17 latour, в. (2004). politics of nature: how to bring the sciences into democracy. harvard university press. latour, в. (2005). reassembling the social – an introduction to actor-network-theory. oxford university press. le cornu, r. (2009). building resilience in pre-service teachers. teaching and teacher education, 25(5), 717-723. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2008.11.016 le cornu, r. (2013). building early career teacher resilience: the role of relationships. australian journal of teacher education, 38(4), 1-16. doi:10.14221/ajte.2013v38n4.4 leroux, m., & théorêt, m. (2014). intriguing empirical relations between teachers’ resilience and reflection on practice. reflective practice: international and multidisciplinary perspectives, 15(3), 289-303. doi:10.1080/14623943.2014.900009 liu, m., zha, s., & he, w. (2019). digital transformation challenges: a case study regarding the mooc development and operations at higher education institutions in china. techtrends, 63(5), 621-630. doi:10.1007/s11528-019-00409-y lupton, r. (2004). schools in disadvantaged areas: recognising context and raising quality. lse sticerd research paper no case076. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1158967 luthar, s. s., cicchetti, d., & becker, b. (2000). the construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. child development, 71(3), 543-562. luthar, s. s., sawyer, j., & brown, p. (2006). conceptual issues in studies of resilience: past, present, and future research. annals of the new york academy of science, 1094, 105-115. mansfield, c. f., beltman, s., price, a., & mcconney, a. (2012). “don’t sweat the small stuff”: understanding teacher resilience at the chalkface. teaching and teacher education, 28, 357-367. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.11.001 masteller, j., & stoop, d. (1991). “the blame game”. forgiving our parents, forgiving ourselves: healing adult children of dysfunctional families. masten, a. s., best, k. m., & garmezy, n. (1990). resilience and development: contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. development and psychopathology, 2(4), 425-444. vinogradov et al. 72 masten a. s., herbers j. e., cutuli j. j., & lafavor t. l. (2008). promoting competence and resilience in the school context. professional school counseling, 12(2), 76-84. doi:10.5330/psc.n.2010-12.76 masten, a. s., & obradovic, j. (2006). competence and resilience in development. annals of the new york academy of sciences, 1094, 13-27. masten, a. s., & powell, j. l. (2003). a resilience framework for research, policy, and practice. in s. s. luthar (ed.), resilience and vulnerability: adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 1– 25). cambridge university press. medvedeva, g., & mitina, g. (2021). professional development of higher education institutions pedagogical workers in the context of the federal project «new opportunities for everyone». russian journal of education and psychology, 12(3), 32-47. https://doi.org/10.12731/2658-4034-2021-12-3-32-47 morales, d., ruggiano, c., carter, c., pfeifer, k., & green, k. (2020). disrupting to sustain: teacher preparation through innovative teaching and learning practices. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 more, c., & rodgers, w. (2020). promoting change within special education teacher preparation program: a collision of needs. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 104-119. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.7 morgan, m. (2011). resilience and recurring adverse events: testing an assets-based model of beginning teachers’ experiences. the irish journal of psychology, 32(3-4), 92-104. doi:10.1080/03033910.2011.613189 morgan, m., ludlow, l., kitching, k., o’leary, m., & clarke, a. (2010). what makes teachers tick? sustaining events in new teachers’ lives. british educational research journal, 36(2), 191-208. doi:10.1080/01411920902780972 movchan, i. b., shaygallyamova, z. i., yakovleva, a. a., & movchan, a. b. (2021). increasing resolution of seismic hazard mapping on the example of the north of middle russian highland. applied sciences (switzerland), 11(11) doi:10.3390/app11115298 muravyova, a. a., & oleinikova, o. n. (2017). underestimated competence or pedagogical aspects of the formation of resilience. kazan pedagogical journal, 2, 16-21. o’sullivan, m. (2006). professional lives of irish physical education teachers: stories of resilience, respect and resignation. physical education and sport pedagogy, 11(3), 265-284. doi:10.1080/17408980600986314 panova, e. p., filimonova, n. y., bocharnikova, n. v., & davydova, m. l. (2020). project activities in the process of teaching foreign students. [actividades de proyectos en el https://doi.org/10.12731/2658-4034-2021-12-3-32-47 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.7 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 52-74 proceso de enseñanza de estudiantes extranjeros] utopia y praxis latinoamericana, 25(extra10), 151-162. doi:10.5281/zenodo.4155342 palmer, d., & witanapatirana, k. (2020). exposing bias through a deficit thinking lens using content-analysis of macro level policies. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 23-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.02.2 papatraianou, l. h., & le cornu, r. (2014). problematising the role of personal and professional relationships in early career teacher resilience. australian journal of teacher education, 39(1), 100-116. doi:10.14221/ajte.2014v39n1.7 patterson, j. h., collins, l., & abbott, g. (2004). a study of teacher resilience in urban schools. journal of instructional psychology, 31(1), 3-11. retrieved from http://www.projectinnovation.biz/jip_2006.html peters, j., & pearce, j. (2012). relationships and early career teacher resilience: a role for school principals. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 18(2), 249-262. doi:10.1080/13540602.2012.632266 pinskaya, m. a., havenson, t. e., kosaretsky, s. g., zvyagintsev, r. s., mikhailova, a. m., & chirkina, t. a. (2018). above the barriers: exploring resilient schools. education issues, 2, 198-227. pinskaya, m. a., kosaretsky, s. g., & frumin, i. d. (2011). schools that work effectively in complex social contexts. educational issues. educational studies, 4, 148–177. doi: 10.17323 / 1814-9545-2011-4-148-177 pinskaya, m. a., kosaretsky, s. g., & krutiy, n. s. (2012). accounting for contextual information in assessing the quality of school work. public education, 5, 31-35. polat, s. (2020). multidimensional analysis of the teaching process of the critical thinking skills. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 5(2), 134-157. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 pronk, s., mulder, e. a., van den berg, g., stams, g. j. j. m., popma, a., & kuiper, c. (2020). differences between adolescents who do and do not successfully complete their program within a non-residential alternative education facility. children and youth services review, 109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104735 rutter, m. (1990). psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. in risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology. saenko, n., voronkova, o., volk, m., & voroshilova, o. (2019). the social responsibility of a scientist: philosophical aspect of contemporary discussions. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 332-345. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.02.2 vinogradov et al. 74 saenko, n., voronkova, o., zatsarinnaya, e., & mikhailova, m. (2020). philosophical and cultural foundations of the concept of “nihitogenesis”. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 11(1), 88-103. schelvis, r. m. c., zwetsloot, g. i. j. m., bos, e. h., & wiezer, n. m. (2014). exploring teacher and school resilience as a new perspective to solve persistent problems in the educational sector. teachers and teaching, 20(5), 622-637. doi:10.1080/13540602.2014.937962 seville, e., brunsdon, d., dantas, a., le masurier, j., wilkinson s., & vargo j. (2006). building organizational resilience: a summary of key research findings. resilient organisations research report 2006/04. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/649 sharplin, e., o’neill, m., & chapman, a. (2011). coping strategies for adaptation to new teacher appointments: intervention for retention. teaching and teacher education, 27, 136-146. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.07.010 tait, m. (2008). resilience as a contributor to novice teacher success, commitment, and retention. teacher education quarterly, 35(4), 57-76. timberlake, m. (2020). recognizing ableism in educational initiatives: reading between the lines. research in educational policy and management (repam), 2(1), 84-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.5 ushakov, k. m. (2017). how to make school better, or social capital as a priority. van kessel, c. (2020). teaching the climate crisis: existential considerations. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 129-145. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.8 werner, e. e. (1990). protective factors and individual resilience. in s. j. meisels & j. p. shonkoff (eds.), handbook of early childhood intervention (pp. 97–116). cambridge university press. zhang, y. and b. m. wildermuth. (2009). qualitative analysis of content. in applications of social research methods to qualitative studies in information and library, ed. b. wildermuth, 1– 12. http://www.ils.unc.edu/~yanz/content_analysis.pdf http://hdl.handle.net/10092/649 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.8 study of the skill of teachers in engaging in the inclusive education in ___________ in-service training system www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (1), 124-148 establishing the governmental policy to promote engagement within the inclusive education system in indonesia warman1 abstract this research was aimed to examine teacher perception on inclusive education (ie) and its impact on ie design management. to analyze the data, this study used descriptive design and quantitative strategy. this study, involving 38 participants from elementary school, junior school and senior school, took place in samarinda, indonesia. data of this study were collected using questionnaire to measure teacher' pedagogical competence and the effect of pedagogical competence on the ie management. results show that the competence of teachers in pedagogical skills reaches an average of 71. out of 38, ie teacher competence is divided into fair competence 22 (57.9%), good 8 (21.1%) and very good 8. (21.1%). there are 8 themes found in the design of ie teachers. our evidence shows that teacher competence specifies themes on children with special needs (cwsn), cwsn categories, cwsn features, cwsn recognition, modified cwsn curriculum, individual development plan, cwsn coping method, and cwsn instruction assessment. the results of hypothesis testing indicate that pedagogical competence has a significant impact on holistic teaching competence in general, and pedagogical competence has a significant impact on ie management. in a policy level, management of ie varies from general education to cwsn, so teachers require trainings to adapt the influences. implementing ie is also an alternative way for teachers who have already have teaching experience to gain a new understanding of the growth in education and training technologies. keywords: teacher expertise, inclusive education, in-service training. introduction recently, inclusive education (henceforth, ie) is becoming critical so that the particular management needs to be more significantly prepared. in almost every country, ie has emerged as one of the most powerful education issues. with the publication of the salamanca declaration, a large number of developing nations started reformulating their plans to engage specific challenge students into normal schools in 1994. the country's future citizens are all school-going children, no matter their socioeconomic status (unesco, 2009a; 2009b; un, 1993). all school-going children, be they deprived or not, are entitled to education because they are the country's future people. ie is an education that offers students with special disabilities, but is theoretically empowered with outstanding skills and/or abilities, so that children with 1 dr., mulawarman university, samarinda, indonesia,: cahaya.warman@gmail.com mailto:cahaya.warman@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 specific challenges can be integrated into an educational setting with students without special needs (charema, 2010; education ministry, 2009; gearheart, 1976; indonesia disability convention team, 2017; juniar, 2020; nkomo, dube, & marucchi, 2020; peters-burton & johnson, 2018; salim, 2016; sunardi, 2011; un, 1993). ie studies indicate that teachers work more closely and spend more time practicing in inclusive settings, learning new approaches from each other, developing their skills more, showing a greater commitment to using more creative approaches to meet the needs of students (akturk, 2020; alzahrani & flynn-wilson, 2021; daher & anabousy, 2020; doloksaribu & triwiyono, 2021; juniar, 2020; landicho, 2020; namyssova et al., 2019; ozturk, demir, & akkan, 2021; singh, 2016; ulusoy & argun, 2019; unesco, 2009c; un, 1993; utomo, 2021; walters et al., 2018). despite the potential of ie, implementation has faced barriers to the quality of the teaching competence of teachers. a fair amount of attention has been given to the concept of "inclusion" in the modern educational system, and today, it is accepted by most people that it leads to optimal outcomes for the majority of students and protects their rights. in developing countries, more than 90% of children with disabilities (cwds) are unable to enter schools (tahir & khan, 2010; balta, arslan & duru, 2015) and only 50% of those enrolled will be in high school. unesco (2009a) estimates that 67,000,000 primary school children are out of school, one-third of whom reside in south asia and sub-saharan africa, and one-third are cwds (unesco, 2009b). in indonesia, the establishment of ie has been shown to be significantly aimed at solving the problem created by the small number of special education schools. only 1% of the children with special needs have been able to receive proper education (without making any progress toward cwsn), which is why the country needs to accelerate progress on cwsn in the educational system (ministry of education and culture, 2016; indonesia disability convention team, 2017; salim, 2015). ie was initially launched in indonesia by 2003, and there were 2,100 inclusive schools were open by 2016 (ministry of education and culture, 2016). due to general lack capacity among ie teachers, most ie schools have not been well served by the quality of their educational services. these education teachers have been specifically recruited for teaching general education students and cwsn in ie schools (yusuf, et. al., 2014; honegger, 2020; negassa & engdasew, 2017; juniar, et, al, 2020; yusuf, et. al. 2014; salim, 2015). indonesia's public schools have sought to implement the 2013 curriculum following its adoption, including traditional schools providing cwsn with educational access, rendering warman 126 them comprehensive schools. teachers must also be informed of the 2013 curriculum and how to adapt it to cwsnn (kuntarto, 2014; aronson, et. al., 2020; ediyanto, et. al, 2017). the need for a 2013 curriculum familiarization plan and a strategy to amend the standard curriculum to fit cwsnn is a complicated concern for ie (budiharso & tarman, 2020; mckenzie, 2009; ministry of education and culture, 2016). some ie school teachers need to improve their skills for special education needs (juniar, 2020; bekele & ago 2020). with the advancement of science and technology, theories, teaching, and information can be modified. one way that teachers can learn about the latest trends in educational methods and technology is to engage in ie. many research studies reveal that the quality and student attainment of a school depends significantly by educators (balta, 2015; borko, 2004; ediyanto, et. al, 2017; fendler, 2003; juniar, et, al, 2020; waychunas, 2020). in many other nations, such as malaysia and indonesia (manisah, 2006), northern ireland (lambe, 2007), serbia (kalyva, 2007), dubai (gaad & khan, 2007), russia (gaad & khan, 2007), a similar problem has also arisen (shchipanova, 2016; zvoleyko, 2013). some are often not fully implemented, which prevents schools from not adopting ie as effectively as they should be (yusuf, et. al., 2014), including (1) institutional aspects; (2) curricula and education; (3) students; (4) personnel; (5) utilities and facilities; (6) community participation; and (7) financing (widodo, et. al, 2019; juniar, et, al, 2020). teachers at ie need pedagogical competence to serve their education programs. the foundation of the excellence of teachers in their performance and formative ethics is pedagogical competence. surprisingly, studies on the teacher competence of indonesian teachers differ. susanto, rozali & agustina (2019) estimate that pedagogical skill at 46.7 percent contributed 94.50 percent to the learning results and success of elementary school teachers. in addition, 51% (2.92 teachers) were not eligible for pedagogical and technical skills (ministry of education of the republic of indonesia, 2012). yusuf, et. al., (2014) indicate pedagogical ability of jakarta primary school teachers to conduct learning and quality output is 30.4%. as far as the curriculum is concerned, special-needs children have been allowed to have a seat at the table. these are the students who face obstacles when trying to learn in the classroom. because there are many more minority pupils in general education classrooms, teachers experience the importance of accepting each student as unique (unesco, 2009a). programs that involve all students are helpful and ensure that students are included in all activities. all ie students learn a lot by attending the ie curriculum. academic achievements of children depend on the development of relationships between children and peers. this includes the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 features such as friendship, ability to socialize, skills, and good classroom environment. this is one of the weaknesses of leadership of ie (inclusive education in action, 2020; juniar, et. al., 2020). review of literature inclusive education ie or inclusion is education that includes everyone, serving people of all abilities and bringing everyone together to learn in mainstream educational settings, from secondary school through post-secondary institutions. ie as a matter of policy, certainly means that all children are in the same classes, in the same schools allowing students of all backgrounds to learn and grow together, benefiting all (https://www.allfie.org.uk. 2021). in addition, the principle of inclusion is reinforced by the standard principles of the united nations has issued a declaration proclaiming equal participation and equality for all. ie eliminates barriers within and around the learning environment to help match various needs of all learners, enrolling the child in the child's age-appropriate class, along with individualized attention (unicef, 2007). all societies benefit from inclusive systems (mgomezulu, 2017). the concept of inclusiveness was made official in the salamanca declaration of 1994, and that topic was looked at the world education forum in 1998 (dakar, senegal 2000). it says that states must ensure education systems are accessible to people with disabilities, with the highest priority. students who are not categorized as having a learning disability get together with students who have special needs to form a collective that goes by the acronym isns (for non-special needs students sharing time with students with specific challenges). though the students are not in ie, they can still get extra help because of their low achievement levels. inclusive classrooms can give students with special needs with heightened empathy for people of disabilities (friend & cooks, 2009; balta, 2015). there needs to be a system that adapts to people with disabilities. inclusive education will make it possible for disabled learners to get an equal education. there are students and pupils who may require accommodations or support with the curriculum. it ensures that all learners are given access to the main stream of education. all learners are valued and receive the support they need to pursue their ambitions. a disabled learner's education will benefit the general student population, as well as others who are not disabled (burman 2000; https://www.allfie.org.uk. 2021; regulation of the ministry of national education, 2009). warman 128 the united nations convention on the rights of the child has stated in its article 2 that it strictly forbids discrimination and encourages nations to follow these words: all children (regardless of race, religion, or abilities) are eligible for participation in the convention; they can think or say anything they want, or belong to any family structure they want. no matter where a child lives, no matter what language they speak, no matter whether they are boys or girls, no matter what their family's background is, no matter whether they have a disability, and no matter how much money they have, it makes no difference. no child should be treated unfairly due to his or her sex, ethnic, or any other personal characteristic (mgomezulu, 2017; un, 1993). it is thanks to international conventions and human rights mechanisms that education for people with disabilities is protected and afforded to everyone (byrne & lundy, 2011). generally, international steps have been laid down as a right to education in general, such as the universal declaration of human rights, article 26(1) (udhr, 1948), articl e 28 and 29 (crc, 1990), the international convention on economic, social and cultural rights, article 13 and article 14 (icescr, 1976) and unesco convention against discrimination i. (zvoleyko, kalashnikova & klimenko, 2013). an expansion in the accessibility of regular schools for disabiled was also enacted in the unga world programme of action on persons with disabilities (fina, 2017) in 1982, which was later reinforced by the un standard rules on the equalization of opportunities for persons with disabilities (un standard rules, 1993) and the salamanca declaration and mechanism for action on special needs education the salamanca statement offers an opportunity to turn the education model for disabled pupils into model justice to change the school model for society and government (hernandez-torrano et.al., 2020) (hernandeztorrano et.al., 2020). sadly, both the salamanca declaration and the united nations standard rules are not legally binding instruments (byrne & lundy, 2011; mast ropieri, 2005; scruggs, 2007; byrne & lundy, 2011; mastropieri, 2005; scruggs, 2007). the ie provides a new approach to education for the kids with disabilities and learning disabilities within the same roof. the curriculum helps students from all backgrounds work together and succeed. promoting inclusive and tolerant societies is most effectively done by giving every primary school child a change to learn at school. children out of school in 2010 totaled 70 million, compared to 110 million in the mid-1990s. close to 80% of india's population lives in rural areas without any specialized educational facilities. according to conservative estimates, over seven million indian children are missing school because of such issues as poverty, gender, disability, and caste (singh, 2016; mgomezulu, 2017). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 to meet diverse learning needs, ie was built to set variety of surroundings to students with disabilities (arthaud, 2007). iedc was established in 1974 to provide disabled children with equal opportunities in general schools and to encourage their long-term retention. as governments are making it easier for disabled people to catch up with the rest of the population, they are also helping people of all abilities to approach life with greater courage and trust. it has been since 2009 that everyone who is six to fourteen has been guaranteed the right to free and compulsory education (singh, 2016; regulation of the ministry of national education, 2009). chapter v of persons with disability act, 1995, must be followed. under the pwd act, every child with a disability receives free education until the age of 18. to make sure everyone has an equal opportunity to learn, inclusivity is an effort. everybody receives the same treatment, regardless of their strengths and weaknesses, ensuring ie is gradually a key aim of education (baker, 1995; bunch & valeo, 2004; juniar, et. al, 2020). using internet explorer improves the education system's ability to serve all learners. to meet their basic needs, all people were declared able to benefit from educational opportunities at the jometin world conference (1990) in thailand. inclusion is a school philosophy that gives all students academic and social success (singh, 2016; un, 1993; unesco, 2009c). a wide range of non-academic activities can be added to this list, including recreational, social, creative, sports, music, and childcare programs (unesco, 2009b). pedagogical competence for pedagogical competence, one must possess knowledge of various subject matters and the ability to teach various subject matters within and across subject areas (ball, thames & phelps 2008; sunardi, et. al., 2011). this represents teacher understanding with regard to how subject matter, instructional approaches, and student characteristics all work together (shulman, 1986). shulman (1986) discovered the most useful approaches to communicate concepts, methods for comparing objects, visual aids, analogies, examples, descriptions, and presentations, and methods for communicating ideas so that others can understand. the learner's conceptions and preconceptions regarding study of different topics are understood by the pedagogical knowledge (pulsifer, 2017; rahmadi et al, 2020). in essence, teacher knowledge is distinct from pedagogical subject area to know how students grasp a particular area of study (magnusson, krajcik & borko, 1999). a teacher should have an extensive knowledge of subject topics, issues, and problems as well as the needs and abilities of their learners. the distinguishing characteristic of pedagogical material knowledge is the fact warman 130 that it results from the transfer of information from other contexts as stated in the republic of indonesia's national education system law no. 20, 2003, pedagogical competence comprises learners' characteristics, learning theories, curriculum development, instructional practices, the possibilities of developing learners, and feedback and assessment (widodo, et. al, 2020). the best quality that a university teacher should have is "experience." however, there have been debates in recent years about the need to develop the pedagogical thinking and abilities of university teachers as well. as a result, many nations have recently implemented university teacher training as a widespread practice (postareff et. al., 2007). teaching effectiveness appears to be able to be improved in university professors. this study's previous research is more descriptive than evaluative, and as such, educational development units should design their courses based on previous research (gibbs & coffey, 2004; pulsifer, 2017). students gained improved teaching methods, teaching skills, and learning approaches after teachers received pedagogical skills training (gibbs & coffey, 2004; shulman, 1986; pulsifer, 2017). a number of nations, such as norway, the united kingdom, and sri lanka have set standards for teacher training at the university level. most finnish universities organize introductory teaching seminars for new teachers in order to help new teachers establish pedagogical thought and skills (unicef, 2012). teaching deals with knowledge development, skills growth and values structures and effective means of learning as a way of guiding learners. this happens if the instructor is able to choose, plan, organize and apply the different methods and techniques of teaching (gibbs & coffey, 2004). in order to better understand the different teaching approaches and strategies, teachers must read, study, and discover about these problems. everything they gain and everything they learn from each other is essential (clark & star, 1996). to put it another way, in terms of teaching methodology, the content of professional learning includes both pedagogical and academic content. teachers must quickly adapt to stay relevant in their field. excellence is critical because changing demands put more pressure on teachers, such as dealing with large class difficulties and learners with different qualities (gibbs & coffey, 2004; pulsifer, 2017; shulman, 1986). methods design using experimental design and quantitative approach, this study analyzed the data (cresswell, 2014). the study's main objectives were to evaluate teachers' abilities to implement inclusive education strategies. to define perceptions of instructors regarding ie and anova tests, the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 statistical analyses were conducted to determine the general tendencies of the teacher's views on these tests. this study took place in samarinda, indonesia. participants this study’s sample appeared in table 1 comprised 38 teachers at inclusive schools in samarinda, east kalimantan province, indonesia, and these were selected through purposive random. of these 27 (71%) were female and 11 (29%) were male, while 24 (63.2%) were sd teachers, 10 (26.3%) were smp teachers, and four (10.5%) were sma teachers. the participating teachers were required to have (a) five years of teaching experience, (b) interest in teaching cswn at public school, (c) a letter of assignment/appointment from the provincial education office (dinas pendidikan provinsi) as a special needs teacher/mentor, and (d) a willingness to engage in a series of activities. table 1. respondents of this study no school f % 1 sma male 2 5.3 female 2 5.3 2 smp male 6 15.8 female 4 10.5 3 sd male 10 26.3 female 14 36.8 38 100 instruments the main instrument of this study was a closed questionnaire designed in a likert scale option, and a list of themes in the ie implementation. the questionnaire examined about the pedagogical competency of teachers and the need for comprehensive teacher-specific education. the closed questionnaire used a four-point likert scale, where for favorable comments, one represents a poor degree of mastery and four represents a high degree of mastery, while for unfavorable comments, this worked the other way around, so one point represents strong mastery and four points represents a lack of mastery. this measurement was conducted to allow teachers to self-evaluate their mastery of pedagogic skills. the pedagogical competence of the teachers was assessed using the permendikbud no. 16/2007 metrics for academic degree and teacher competence requisites, which are detailed in table 2. warman 132 table 2. indicators of mastery of pedagogic skill pedagogic competence indicator total item mastery of learning ideas and concepts 3 creation of a program for topics learned 4 organization of school instruction 3 use of information and communication technology for learning purposes 2 facilitation to exploit different potential possibilities 2 efficient, empathic, and courteous contact with students 1 organized assessment and review of learning processes and outcomes 4 use of learning outcomes test 2 reflective behavior to enhance learning experiences 2 before distributing the questionnaire, instrument field trials were conducted. we were able to find 23 accurate items but we discovered two incorrect ones which have validity test values. of 0.279 and 0.387. the 23 valid items were therefore deemed suitable for use. additionally, a list of training themes for teacher training in ie was supplied. teachers marked their answers with a cross to indicate their opinions. table 3. offered educational themes inclusive education training theme answer (mark with an x) hi (4) i (3) u (2) hu (1) description of special needs children 20 14 3 1 disability triggers 27 11 0 0 classes of children with particular needs 26 11 1 0 classification of cwsn conditions 29 8 1 0 intellectual disability category 28 8 2 0 classification of attention deficit hyperactive disorder 23 12 3 0 cwsn features 31 4 3 0 obstacles to cwsn education 29 8 1 0 cwsn recognition 31 7 0 0 identifying device creation 27 10 1 0 implementation of systematic assessment 29 9 0 0 implementation of casual assessment 31 3 4 0 improving learning goals 27 10 1 0 improving learning materials 28 10 0 0 improving the learning process 31 6 1 0 custom learning software 28 10 0 0 cwsn education plan 26 11 1 0 cwsn skills assessment 31 6 1 0 regulations of the minister of national education, number 70, 2009 27 10 1 0 additional instructor roles in inclusive school 25 11 2 0 organizing an inclusive class 27 8 3 0 note: hi = highly important; i = important; u = unimportant; hu = highly unimportant journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 data collection at one site, samarinda, the research data was collected for schools offering ie. in general, by distributing the questionnaire and checklist to 38 participants, data was obtained. the likert scale questionnaire was distributed and responses were administered from the 38 respondents. the answers were scored referring to scale responses. researchers discovered that the likert scale results had a frequency, percentage rate, and mean score. furthermore, the list of issues relating to the introduction of the if was also administered in order to see its key patterns in terms of frequency and rate percentage. techniques of data analysis the recent research was to examine how teachers increase their pedagogical capabilities to support the use of ie. all the information collected through the questionnaire was arranged and categorized using tables in order to achieve the goal. the study used various procedures and measurement techniques to identify procedures and their effects, as well as their frequencies and percentages. it needs an in-depth view of data presented in figures, doing the hard work of understanding the concepts and points being made by the participants, and summarizing their responses. the knowledge was evaluated using descriptive and parametric statistics to clarify the self-assessment of the abilities of participants in ie. to define the data, percentages, means, and tabulations were used. basically, spss release 25 was used to process the data in order to operate the statistical process. descriptive and inferential statistics were both used in this study. to see the key patterns of frequencies, rate percentages, tables and graphs, descriptive statistics were used. in addition, to see the impact of pedagogical competence on the application of ie, hypothesis testing using the anova test was used. results results of this study are classified into two sections, teacher competence on ie and the hypothesis testing. the first part is elaborated into the display on rate percentage and diagram where descriptive statistics are based upon. the hypothesis testing is described into classical assumption analysis, namely homogeneity test and normality test. teachers’ level of competence for ie a summary of the gathered data for teachers’ skills at sd, smp, and sma is shown in table 4. warman 134 table 4. the quality ranking of teacher education skills in inclusive schools subject attainment rate on pedagogical competence participating in ie criteria frequency 1 77 3 very good 2 76 2 good 3 76 2 good 4 79 3 very good 5 74 1 fair 6 84 3 very good 7 76 0 fair 8 71 1 fair 9 78 1 fair 10 76 1 fair 11 77 0 fair 12 77 2 good 13 77 1 fair 14 81 2 good 15 81 3 very good 16 77 0 fair 17 77 1 fair 18 79 1 fair 19 81 2 good 20 74 0 fair 21 79 3 very good 22 74 0 fair 23 73 0 fair 24 78 3 very good 25 75 0 fair 26 80 2 good 27 78 1 fair 28 79 2 good 29 78 1 fair 30 76 1 fair 31 78 0 fair 32 78 2 good 33 77 0 fair 34 79 0 fair 35 81 3 very good 36 78 1 fair 37 77 1 fair 38 77 3 very good results teachers’ competence are summarized as in table 5 stating that of 38, teachers’ competence in ie is distributed into fair competence 22 (57.9%), good 8 (21.1%) and very good 8 (21.1%). table 5. summary of teacher competence in ie no level of competence f % 1 fair 22 57.8 2 good 8 21.1 3 very good 8 21.1 38 100 descriptive statistical analysis a very good pedagogical competence means that teachers know the students’ characteristics, they can develop a curriculum and creating a good atmosphere in the classroom, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 they have feedback from students, and also they give an evaluation at the end of learning material. based on the results, a descriptive statistical analysis was then performed using spss 25, resulting in the values given in table 6. table 6. descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean std. deviation pedagogy 38 71 84 77.45 2.490 valid n (listwise) 38 the descriptive statistics showed that for the 38 teachers, their mean pedagogical competence was 77.45, the lowest 71, and the highest 84. the researchers found, based on questionnaire sheet, that most answers have done by the students is in the agree category. in other words, the students said that teachers have very good pedagogic competence. table 7. teaches’ requirements for an inclusive curriculum training needs f % highly essential 28 74% important 8 21% unimportant 1 3% highly unimportant 1 3% total 38 100% table 7 indicates participants’ requirements for ie preparation can be split over a few groups, with 73.7% saying it was essential, 21.1% saying it was important, 2.6% saying it was unimportant, and 2.6% saying it was highly unimportant. this is illustrated further in figure 1. fig. 1. teachers’ perceived importance of inclusive education preparation this research established a need for inclusive educational programs to be discussed in further detail. this was formulated as: 28 (73.7%) 8 (21.1%) 1 (2.6%) 1 (2.6%) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 highly important important unimportant highly unimportant f r e q u e n c y training needs teacher competence warman 136 1) concepts related to special needs for children (cwsn) 2) categories of cwsn 3) features of cwsn 4) recognition of cwsn 5) changed cwsn curriculum 6) single plan of progress 7) strategy for coping with cwsn 8) an analysis of cwsn training in addition to the ie topics, table 8 suggests teacher’s commitment to apply the policy of the minister of national education, no. 70 of 2009 and awareness of complete inclusion. table 8 participating in inclusive education training classification total percentage doesn’t participate 10 73.7% once participate 12 21.1% twice participate 8 2.6% three time participate 8 2.6% total 38 100% table 7 describes preparation for teachers to participating in inclusive education training can be split over a few groups, with 73.7% saying it was doesn’t participate, 21.1% saying it was once participate, 2.6% saying it was twice participate, and 2.6% saying it was three time participate. see figure 2. figure 2.participating in inclusive education training 10 (26.3%) 12 (36.6%) 8 (21.1%) 8 (21.1%) 0 5 10 15 don't participate one time participate twice participate three times participate f r e q u e n c y classification participating in inclusive education training journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 table 9 criteria frequency classification total percentage fair 22 57.9% good 8 21.1% very good 8 21.1% total 38 100% data in table 8 depict teachers’ requirements for criteria frequency can be split over a few groups, with 57.9% saying it was fair, 21.1% saying it was good, and 21.1% saying it was very good. this is illustrated further in figure 3. figure 3.criteria frequency normality of data test to see if teacher pedagogical skills were significantly influenced by their involvement in inclusive education training, a one-way anova test was performed. however, checks for normality and homogeneity were required before we could apply this parametric test. the outcome of the data normality check using the kolmogorov-smirnov test appears in table 10. table 10. data normality test using the kolmogorov-smirnov test pedagogy n 38 normal parametersa,b mean 77.45 std. deviation 2.490 most extreme differences absolute 0.139 positive 0.123 negative 0.139 test statistic 0.139 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 0.061c 22 (57.9%) 8 (21.1%) 8 (21.1%) 0 5 10 15 20 25 fair good very good f r e q u e n c y classification criteria frequency warman 138 based on table 10, the test gave a value of 0.139 with p = 0.061 (> 0.05). the data could therefore be assumed to follow a normal distribution. homogeneity test the next step was to apply a homogeneity test, the results of which appears in table 11. table 11. test for homogeneity of variances levene statistic f1 f2 sig. pedagogy based on mean 0.135 3 34 0.938 based on median 0.133 3 34 0.940 based on median and with adjusted df 0.133 3 28.354 0.939 based on trimmed mean 0.149 3 34 0.930 this indicates that the value was 0.133 to 0.135, with p = 0.938 to 0.940 based on the results in table 9. all p-values are greater than 0.05, so the results can be assumed to have been derived from a homogeneous sample. hypothesis testing to test the hypothesis, researchers used the f test. table 10 represents a comparative study of the data for the pedagogical skills of the ie teachers. the results of the tests appear in table 12. table 12. the one-direction anova test for teachers’ pedagogic knowledge pedagogy sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 72.478 3 24.159 5.235 .004 within groups 156.917 34 4.615 total 229.395 37 results of the one-direction anova test (table 9), the f-value was 5.235 with a p-value of 0.004 indicate that there is a substantial gap in teacher’s pedagogical abilities in terms of their holistic teaching performance and in ie. table 13. multiple comparisons (mean deviation to point 0.05) dependent variable: pedagogy (i) frequency (j) frequency mean difference (i-j) std. error sig. 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound tukey hsd 0 1 -.583 .920 .920 3.07 1.90 2 -2.500 1.019 .086 5.25 .25 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 3 -3.500* 1.019 .008 6.25 -.75 1 0 .583 .920 .920 1.90 3.07 2 -1.917 .981 .225 .56 .73 3 -2.917* .981 .026 5.56 -.27 2 0 2.500 1.019 .086 -.25 5.25 1 1.917 .981 .225 .73 4.56 3 -1.000 1.074 .789 3.90 1.90 3 0 3.500* 1.019 .008 .75 6.25 1 2.917* .981 .026 .27 5.56 2 1.000 1.074 .789 -1.90 3.90 lsd 0 1 -.583 .920 .530 -2.45 1.29 2 -2.500* 1.019 .019 -4.57 -.43 3 -3.500* 1.019 .002 -5.57 -1.43 1 0 .583 .920 .530 -1.29 2.45 2 -1.917 .981 .059 -3.91 .08 3 -2.917* .981 .005 -4.91 -.92 2 0 2.500* 1.019 .019 .43 4.57 1 1.917 .981 .059 -.08 3.91 3 -1.000 1.074 .358 -3.18 1.18 3 0 3.500* 1.019 .002 1.43 5.57 1 2.917* .981 .005 .92 4.91 2 1.000 1.074 .358 -1.18 3.18 *. the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. outcomes in terms of extent of involvement in ie preparation were statistically significant gaps in the teachers’ pedagogic skill. having established a need for preparation for inclusive teaching, we then needed to assess the teachers’ potential requirements for an ie. discussion this study reveals that pedagogical competence of teachers are crucial in designing ie, providing figures that 57% of the teachers have fair competence level. our evidences show that teacher competence in ie pertains to define cwsn, categories of cwsn, features of cwsn, recognition of cwsn, modified curriculum for cwsn, individual development plan, coping method for cwsn, and assessment of cwsn instruction. results of the hypothesis testing confirm that teacher competence in holistic teaching affects significantly on ie implementation. the findings above promote a discussion that teacher competence is crucial to increase and understand concepts of ie. teachers who enrolled in training for inclusive education had greater pedagogical competencies than those who did not participate. in addition, teachers with more teaching experience should have stronger pedagogical abilities according to our understanding of the theory, and this should apply to abilities for teaching cwsn. this finding is compatible with kurt lewin’s (1961) theory of area analysis. lewin argues that action is the product of two sets of powers that continuously act upon each other, whether in social circumstances or an isolated one. transition forces generate energy to drive a shift to a warman 140 predetermined target, creating resistance to combat the oncoming force. if the driving force is high and the resisting force is low, the target is achieved; otherwise, the effort fails (susanto, rozali & agustina, 2019; ministry of education of the republic of indonesia, 2012; yusuf, et. al., 2014; negassa & engdasew, 2017). the consequence of this behavioral-improvement hypothesis is that teachers who engage in ie will improve their intellectual awareness and abilities and develop an optimistic outlook toward the equitable education of cwsn (salim, 2016; gibbs & coffey, 2004). therefore, all teachers who are tasked with educating cwsn in inclusive schools should be adequately trained for this job prior to taking on their teaching responsibilities as well as during service, so that they will be prepared to work alongside cwsn students (zvoleyko, kalashnikova & klimenko, 2013; negassa & engdasew, 2017; juniar, et, al, 2020; yusuf, et. al. 2014). mckenzie (2009) noted that existing educators in the united states, where the tradition of integration stretches back more than three decades, explicitly required qualified special educators to approach them and develop sufficient teamwork and teaching expertise to improve their teaching of disabled children in ie. collaborative materials in ie are a popular method for providing such instruction (widodo, et. al., 2019; juniar, et. al, 2020). the findings of this study agree with arthaud’s (2007) analysis on relationship between regular and ie, and friend & cooks’ (2009) study on pedagogical competency for cwsn teaching within inclusive schools through collaboration between special educators and non-special teachers (negassa & engdasew, 2017; juniar, et, al, 2020; yusuf, et. al. 2014). balta (2015) found the influence of training on instructor attainment in courses. burman (2000), meanwhile, studied the nature of teachers’ professional development, and in line with juniar, et. al. (2020) work on the impact of this on student performance gains, found that a metaanalysis could give valuable statistical data to instructional leaders. friends & cooks (2009) stated that ie teachers should cooperate with normal schoolteachers, such that (a) cooperation is focused on common interests, (b) collaborative relationships focus on joint responsibilities, (c) mutualized resources, (d) coordinated reciprocal transparency of cwsn. the findings of our analysis are also in line with those of mastropieri’ (2005) and scruggs’ (2007) research. overall, it can be concluded that teachers can develop their pedagogical skills for ie. further study results show that mainstream teachers are more favorable to kids with visual and hearing impairments, as well as those with mild to moderate physical disabilities, and children with deafness, cerebral palsy, and the majority of speech disorders don't have a positive journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 outlook towards students with hearing disabilities, cerebral palsy, and epilepsy (severe disabilities). pulsifer (2017) discovered that acceptance into the school for disabilities pupils in physical, visual, and hearing impairments is more likely. a typical example of this group would be that staffs are more likely to accept disabled or impaired pupils compared to mental retarded children. instructors believe they can deal with children with mild, fair and severe challenges are hard to handle in the regular classroom. less favourable attitude toward the pupils is due to restricted capacity of instructors, and assistive technologies that are out of reach (juniar, et. al,. 2020; widodo, 2019; shchipanova, et. al., 2016). ie increases the likelihood of cwds being incorporated socially through their engagement, socialization and friendly interactions with peers, despite teachers' perception that cwds are being mocked and hooted by people without disabilities. there are higher chances for cwds to socially integrate in inclusive classrooms (baker, 1995; bunch & valeo, 2004; iriyanto, 2019). teachers provide additional time for cwds, but they still cannot match their single requirements because they lack of instructional capacity and school-provided resources. rose (2001) has also found that teachers must receive training to help cwds better address their individual needs. it is up to instructors making cwd mainstream and effective implementation of the ie program relies entire instructor competence and wish to match students educational needs. conclusion to sum up, our findings reveal that (1) there are substantial gaps in teachers’ pedagogical abilities according to their involvement with in-service training programs for ie, with teachers with a greater level of preparation showing better pedagogical skills. in addition, (2) the expectations of teachers for ie show that 61% of teachers believe it is extremely relevant, 37% believe it is relevant, and 3% find it unimportant. finally, (3) the subjects for in-service training materials deemed most important by teachers include (a) defining types of disabilities children, (b) features framework for teacher-training plans. however, this study has its drawbacks in that small participants are engaged in this research affecting limited figures of pedagogical competence and management of teachers to describe ie. the general results of this study could be made broader by assigning number of the participants and metrics of the pedagogical skill can be expanded in the field of e-learning scopes. furthermore, future research is proposed to combine an in-depth case study where it is possible to design exploration on different sites and school categories. warman 142 references akturk, a. o. (2020). prediction of problematic internet usage of university students by their attachment styles. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 8(4), 318-329. alzahrani, s. s., & flynn-wilson, l. (2021). cultural influences on early intervention services. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 3(1), 1-9. aronson, b., banda, r., johnson, a., kelly, m. radina, r., reyes, g., sander, s., & wronowski, m. (2020). the social justice teaching collaborative: a critical turn towards critical teacher education. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 21-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.8 arthaud, t. j., arram, r. j., breck, s. e., doelling, j. e., & bushrow, k. m. (2007). developing collaboration skills in pre-service teachers: a partnership between general and special education. teacher education and special education, 30(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840640703000101 baker, e. t. (1995). the effects of inclusion on learning. educational leadership, 52(4), 33-35 balta, n., arslan, m., &duru, h. (2015). the effect of in-service training courses on teacher achievement: a meta-analysis study. journal of education and training studies, 3(5), 254-263. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v3i5.1037 ball, d. l., thames, m. h. & phelps, g. (2008). content knowledge for teaching: what makes it special? journal of teacher education, 59 (5). pp. 389-407. bekele w. b. & ago f. y. (2020). good governance practices and challenges in local government of ethiopia: the case of bonga town administration. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 97-128. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.6 borko, h. (2004). professional development and teacher learning: mapping the terrain. educational researcher, 33(8), 3-15. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x033008003 budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 budhayanti, cis. (2012). gambaran kompetensi guru kelas sd di jakarta dan tangerang. jurnal perkota, 4(1), 1-27. bunch, g., & valeo, a. (2004). student attitudes toward peers with disabilities in inclusive and special education schools. disability & society, 19(1), 61-76. burman, b. f., desimone, l., porter, a. c., & garet, m. s. (2000). designing professional development that works. educational leadership, 57(8), 28-33. retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ascd/pdf/journals/ ed_lead/el200005_birman.pdf https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.8 https://doi.org/10.1177/088840640703000101 https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v3i5.1037 https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x033008003 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 byrne, b., & lundy, l. (2011). protections for students with disabilities in international law? in russo, c.j. (ed.), the legal rights of students with disabilities: international perspectives (pp.11-29). rowman & littlefield publishers. clark, l. h., & star, i. s. (1996). secondary and middle school teaching methods. glewood cliffs: prentice hall. charema, j. (2010). inclusive education in developing countries in the sub saharan africa: from theory to practice. international journal of special education, 25(1), 87-93. creswell, john w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. new jersey: sage publication ltd. daher, w., & anabousy, a. (2020). flexibility processes of pre-service teachers in problem solving with technology. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(3), 247-255. doloksaribu, f. e., & triwiyono, t. (2021). the reconstruction model of science learning based phet-problem solving. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 3(1), 37-47. ediyanto; atika, nandya, iva; kawai, norimune; & prabowo, edy. (2017). inclusive education in indonesia from the perspective of widyaiswara in centre for development and empowerment of teachers and education personnel of kindergartens and special education, indonesian journal of disability studies (ijds), 4(02): 104-116. fendler, l. (2003). teacher reflection in a hall of mirrors: historical influences and political reverberations. educational researcher, 32(3), 16-25. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x032003016 fina, v.d. (2017). article 24 [education]‟. in fina, v.d., cera, r., & palmisano, g. (eds.), the united nations conventions on the rights of persons with disabilities: a commentary (pp.439-470). springer. friend, m., & cook, l. (2009). interactions: collaboration skills for school professionals (5th ed.). boston: pearson education, inc. gaad & khan. (2007). primary mainstream teachers’ attitude towards inclusion of students with special educational needs in the private sector: a perspective from dubai. international journal of special education, 22(2), 95-114. retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej814493.pdf gearheart, w. (1976). the handicapped child in the regular classroom. saint louis: the cv. mosby co. gunarhadi. (2016). the effect of cluster-based instruction on mathematic achievement in inclusive schools. international journal of special education, 31(1), 78-87. retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1099973.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1099973.pdf warman 144 gibbs, g., & coffey, m. (2004). the impact of training of university teachers on their teaching skills, their approach to teaching and the approach to learning of their students active learning in higher education, 5, 87–100. hernández-torrano, d., somerton, m., & helmer, j. (2020). mapping research on inclusive education since salamanca statement: a bibliometric review of the literature over 25 years. international journal of inclusive education. honegger, m. (2020). what does education mean: cultural values in educational language. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 42-53. doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12. https://www.allfie.org.uk. (2021). what is inclusive education?. the alliance for inclusive education, 335 brixton road sw 7aa. available on https://www.allfie.org.uk/definitions/what-is-inclusive-education/ retrieved on 2 january, 2021. inclusive education in action. (2020). education for children with disabilities: a local authority framework for inclusion. http://www.inclusive-education-inaction.org/iea/index.php?menuid=25&reporeid=277. retrieved on december 2020. indonesia disability convention team. (2017). indonesia shadow report: implementation of the united nations convention on the rights of persons with disabilities to the united nations committee on the rights of persons with disabilities. tbinternet.ohchr.org/treaties/crpd/.../idn/int_crpd_ico_idn_27065_e.doc juniar, wenda, mutiah; kadarudin; aswin, muhamad, andi; annisa, nur, arini; wahyuni, suci, andi; kurniawati, andi & yunus, ahsan. (2020). journal of critical review, 7(19), 910-920. kalyva, e., gojkovic, d., & tsakiris, v. (2007). serbian teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. international journal of special education, 22(1), 30-37. kuntarto, e. d. (2014). kajian implementasi kurikulum 2103 pada pembelajaran calistung di sekolah dasar. jambi: program studi pendidikan guru sekolah dasar. landicho, c.j.b. (2020). research attitudes, motivations, and challenges of stem education researchers. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 3(1), 49-61. lambe, j. (2007). northern ireland student teachers’ changing attitudes towards inclusive education during initial teacher training. international journal of special education, 22(1), 56-76. retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej814470.pdf lewin, k. (1961). resolving social conflicts: quasi-stationary social equilibria and the problem of permanent change in the planning of change (pp. 235-238). magnusson, s., krajcik, j. & borko, h. (1999) nature, sources and development of pedagogical content knowledge for science teaching. in j. gess-newsome & n. g. lederman (eds). examining pedagogical content knowledge: the construct and its https://www.allfie.org.uk/definitions/what-is-inclusive-education/ file:///c:/users/tarman/downloads/.%20http:/www.inclusive-education-in-action.org/iea/index.php%3fmenuid=25&reporeid=277 file:///c:/users/tarman/downloads/.%20http:/www.inclusive-education-in-action.org/iea/index.php%3fmenuid=25&reporeid=277 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 implications for science education. dordrecht. the netherlands: kluwer academic. pp. 95-132. manisah, m. r., & jelas, z. m. (2006). an empirical study on teachers’ perceptions towards inclusiveeducation in malaysia. international journal of special education, 21(3). mastropieri, m. a., scruggs, t. e., graetz, j., norland, j., gardizi, w., & mcduffe, k. (2005). case studies in co-teaching in the content areas: successes, failures, and challenges. intervention at school and clinic, 40, 260-270. https://doi.org/10.1177/10534512050400050201 mckenzie, r. g. (2009). a national survey of pre-service preparation for collaboration. teacher education and special education, 32, 379-393. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406409346241 ministry of education and culture, center for educational data and statistics and culture. (2016). indonesia educational statistics in brief 2015/2016. retrieved july 21, 2017, from http://publikasi.data.kemdikbud.go.id/uploaddir/isi_aa46e7fa-90a346d9-bde6-ca6111248e94_.pdf mgomezulu, y. victor. (2017). a review of the national strategy on inclusive education (2017-2021) in malawi. african journal of special and inclusive education, 2(1), 22-30. namyssova, g., tussupbekova, g., helmer, j., malone, k., afzal, m., & jonbekova. d. (2019). challenges and benefits of blended learning in higher education. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 2(1), 22-31. negassa, t., & engdasew, z. (2017). the impacts and challenges of pedagogical skills improvement program at adama science and technology university. international journal of instruction, 10(4), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2017.1042a. nkomo, n., dube, a., & marucchi, d. (2020). rural young children with disabilities: education, challenges, and opportunities. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 2(2), 134-145. ozturk, m., demir, u., & akkan, y. (2021). investigation of proportional reasoning problem solving processes of seventh grade students: a mixed method research. international journal on social and education sciences (ijonses), 3(1), 48-67. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonses.66 peters-burton, e.e. & johnson, t. (2018). cross-case analysis of engineering education experiences in inclusive stem-focused high schools in the united states. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 6(4), 320-342. doi: 10.18404/ijemst.440335 postareff, l., sari lindblom-yla¨ nne, & anne n. (2007). the effect of pedagogical training on teaching in higher education. journal of science direct: teaching and teacher education, 23, 557–571. http://publikasi.data.kemdikbud.go.id/uploaddir/isi_aa46e7fa-90a3-46d9-bde6-ca6111248e94_.pdf http://publikasi.data.kemdikbud.go.id/uploaddir/isi_aa46e7fa-90a3-46d9-bde6-ca6111248e94_.pdf https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2017.1042a warman 146 pulsifer. l. (2017). the disadvantages of special schools for students with disabilities. ehow uk.http://www.ehow.co.uk/list_5984846_disadvantages-special-schoolsstudents-disabilities.html rahmadi, i., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113-133. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 regulation of the ministry of national education. (2009). inclusive education for children with disabilities and intelligent children/special talents. rose, r. (2001). primary school teacher perceptions of the conditions required to include pupils with special educational needs. educational review, 53(2), 147-156. salim, a. (2015). the mastery of pedagogic competency among the teachers of special school in surakarta area. proceeding (pp. 235-241). international seminar on society empowerment. mercubuana university. salim, a. (2016). effectiveness of modified curriculum and instruction to improve learning achievement in social science among children with potential intellectual limitation in inclusive elementary schools. proceeding: international conference on special education in southeast asia region (pp. 189-193). kualalumpur: national university of malaysia. scruggs, t. e., mastropieri, m. a., & mcduffie, k. a. (2007). co-teaching in inclusive classrooms: a metasynthesis of qualitative research. exceptional children, 73, 392-416. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290707300401 shchipanova, d. y., tserkovnikova, n. g., uskova, b. a., puzyrev, v. v., markova, a. s., & fomin, e. p. (2016). hardiness of adolescents with special educational needs: research results. international journal of environmental & science education, 11(17), 9829-9838. shulman, l. s. (1986). those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. educational researcher, 15(2), pp. 4-14. singh, d. j. (2016). inclusive education in india: concept, need and challenges. scholarly research journal for humanity science & english language, 3(3), 3222. solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177-197. sunardi, m., gunarhadi, p., & yeager, j. l. (2011). the implementation of inclusive education for students with special needs in indonesia. excellence in higher education, 2, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.5195/ehe.2011.27 susanto, ratnawati; rozali, asmi, yuli & agustina, noni. (2019). development of pedagogical competency model for elementary school teachers: pedagogical knowledge, reflective ability, emotional http://www.ehow.co.uk/list_5984846_disadvantages-special-schools-students-disabilities.html http://www.ehow.co.uk/list_5984846_disadvantages-special-schools-students-disabilities.html https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 https://doi.org/10.5195/ehe.2011.27 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 124-148 intelligence and instructional communication patterns. universal journal of educational research, 7(10), 2124-2032. doi: 10.13189/ujer.2019071010. tahir, r., & khan, n. (2010). analytical study of school and teacher education curricula for students with special educational needs in pakistan. journal of special education, 11(6), 85-91. the salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education. (1994). the universal declaration of human rights. (1948). ulusoy, f. & argun, z. (2019). secondary school students’ representations for solving geometric word problems in different clinical interviews. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 7(1), 73-92. doi:10.18404/ijemst.328341 utomo, d. p. (2021). an analysis of the statistical literacy of middle school students in solving timss problems. international journal of education in mathematics, science, and technology (ijemst), 9(2), 181-197. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.1552 un standard rules on the equalization of opportunities for person with disabilities. (1993). unesco. (2009a). towards inclusive education for children with disabilities: a guideline retrieved from http://www.uis.unesco. org/library/documents/disabchild09-en.pdf, retrieved on 3 september 2020. unesco. (2009b). indonesia: national report on the provision of inclusive quality primary and junior secondary education for children with disabilities. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inclusive_education/reports/jakarta _09/indonesia_i nclusion_09.pdf. retrieved on 3 september 2020. unesco. (2009c).policy guidelines on inclusion in education. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0017/001778/177849e.pdf. retrieved on 3 september 2020. unicef. (2012). the right of children with disabilities to education: a rights-based approach to inclusive education. position paper. http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/unicef_right_children_disabilities_en_web.pdf> accessed on 3 august 2017. retrieved on 3 september 2020. waychunas, w. (2020). where teachers thrive: a book review. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 129-132. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 walters, l.m., green, m.r., goldsby, d., & parker, d. (2018). digital storytelling as a problem-solving strategy in mathematics teacher education: how making a math-eo engages and excites 21st century student. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 2(1), 1-16. http://www.uis.unesco/ http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inclusive_education/reports/jakarta_09/indonesia_inclusion_09.pdf http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inclusive_education/reports/jakarta_09/indonesia_inclusion_09.pdf http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inclusive_education/reports/jakarta_09/indonesia_inclusion_09.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0017/001778/177849e.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0017/001778/177849e.pdf http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/unicef_right_children_disabilities_en_web.pdf https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 warman 148 widodo, andi, pratono, agus; hufad, achmad & sunardi. (2019). teachers perception on management of inclusive education in elementary school. journal of icsar, 3(2), 2325. yusuf, munawir; sunardi; rchman, sunardi & haryono. (2014). the development of inclusive education management model to improve principals and teachers performance in elementary schools. the journal of educational development, 2(2), 152-162. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/jed zvoleyko, e. v., kalashnikova, s. a., & klimenko, t. k. (2013). socialization of students with disabilities in an inclusive educational environment. international journal of environmental & science education, 11(14), 6469-6481. retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1115873.pdf http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/ https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1115873.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9(2), 172-188 172 the adoption of e-learning technology at the faculty of distance learning of plekhanov russian university of economics vera g. gerasimova 1, marina r. melamud 2, dinara r. tutaeva3, yuliya d. romanova4, nataliya a. zhenova 5 abstract the authors review application of information technologies and systems at the faculty of distance learning of plekhanov russian university of economics. general aspects of organizing training in e-learning environment, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of such approach are also examined. the authors study and analyze a number of surveys of students about the effectiveness of the distance learning. they were conducted in the format of questionnaire seeking feedback on the effectiveness of various approaches in distance learning. this article helps better understand the value of e-learning and other innovative forms of delivering educational materials to students in the context of higher education and confirms the overall positive attitude of students and faculty members towards the use of online and elearning modules/methods. the research clearly shows the trend and ongoing transition from traditional forms of learning to learning based on information technologies and systems. keywords: digital curriculum, educational technology, distance learning, e-learning, traditional training. introduction russia, with its ongoing active transformation of economic relations and continuing reforms in many fields, is fast evolving as an information society where information is becoming an important driver in economic, social, political, and cultural development. modern information and communication technologies vastly contribute to this trend. this trend leads to the need for individuals of any age in increased mobility, level of education and adaptability to ever-changing circumstances (mauch & tarman, 2016). success is achieved mostly due to the personal competitive advantage. one who is capable of locating, obtaining, and integrating the necessary information within the shortest time, as well as of using the knowledge efficiently, is becoming the most successful and competitive individual. the idea of "education through life" leads to a necessity of finding the modern, mobile methods of knowledge transfer and learning technologies. and this, in turn, provides access to a large volume of educational information, shapes the visual presentation of the material being studied and 1 assoc. prof., candidate of technical sciences, plekhanov russian university of economics, verag@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof., candidate of pedagogy, plekhanov russian university of economics, melamud.mr@rea.ru 3 candidate of economics, plekhanov russian university of economics, tutaeva.dr@rea.ru 4 assoc. prof., candidate of economics, plekhanov russian university of economics, ulirom@yandex.ru 5 senior lecturer, plekhanov russian university of economics, jenova@yandex.ru mailto:verag@yandex.ru mailto:jenova@yandex.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 172-188 the support to active teaching methods, and introduces modular design that allows for replicating of individual components of information technology tools. the internet and information and communication technologies have transformed traditional teaching and learning techniques into new methods known as electronic learning, or e-learning (huynh and le thi, 2014). the focus of this paper is to provide a current overview of distance learning in plekhanov russian university of economics in russia. the possibility to exchange the necessary amount of information among users located at considerable distance from each other, communicate with each other in an online mode, post information on various sites of the global network, making it available for everyone, all of this became possible with the development of information technology. organizations are turning to e-learning to save training time and travel costs associated with traditional face-to-face training. however, the savings do not justify themselves when e-learning is not effective in delivering knowledge and developing skills needed to the desired results. can e-learning help achieve adequate level of knowledge required for a knowledge-based economy of this century? part of the answer will depend on the quality of instructions embedded in the e-learning product that you design or select today. literature review implementation of digital curriculum in higher education focuses on improving the quality and expansion and modernization of teaching methods (al-awidi & aldhafeeri, 2017, tarman, 2016; 2017; tarman & chigisheva, 2017). currently, there is an ongoing transition from traditional forms of learning to learning based on information technologies and systems. organization of the learning process in e-learning environment is an important and evolving component of academic work at the faculty of distance learning. according to d.r. garrison (2011), e-learning refers to the electronically mediated asynchronous and synchronous communication for purpose of constructing and confirming knowledge. intensive e-learning is used widely to support a variety of learning goals: for professional or specialized (sectorial) training 74% for continuing training (compliance training) 68% and training on general software (desktop application – desktop application system) 66% (industry report, 2014). some of the training areas, to a lesser extent relying on online learning, include sales, customer service, and development of managerial and leadership skills. development of interpersonal, “soft” skills is as a common element of such training areas, and is perceived to benefit most from a full-time classroom environment. gerasimova et al. high and steadily growing annual investments in training over the last four years amounted to usd 50-60 billion spent on training the employees in corporate and government organizations in the united states (industry report, 2014), and these figures do not include the most costly elements of training: salaries, time and the cost of lost opportunities of the students. researchers report that the use of e-learning as a supplement to traditional fully face-to-face (f2f) classroom-based learning has increased dramatically in recent years (costley et al., 2017, lee and lee, 2015, bonk et al., 2002, graham et al., 2013). distance learning offered a different approach to improve and raise the level of education, devoid of the above disadvantages and with a number of additional features. distance learning is based on purposeful and controlled by the teacher intensive independent work of the student, who can be trained at a comfortable place, under the individual schedule, having a set of specialized learning tools and opportunity to contact and communicate with the teacher during the learning process (morgan, 2002, traphagan, 2005, gladilina et al., 2016, bruskin, 2016). the main advantages of distance learning approach for students are:  flexibility of a learning schedule (at any time and at any available study place);  possibility to learn individually per their own abilities;  objective and independent method of assessment of knowledge;  the possibility to consult with the instructor during the training (online consultation);  relatively low incurred costs. for teachers and practitioners, this form of education provides additional opportunities for the delivery of material to students, in fact, is becomes possible to provide training to the greater amount of students with the same work load for the trainer. distance learning, with its obvious advantages, quickly gained huge popularity in the field of education. this form of learning enables large companies to quickly improve the level of training for their staff, at a relatively low cost, with high efficiency, and with minimal interruption of the business process. the number of students practicing distance learning has been steadily increasing over the years (allen & seaman, 2013, kim & santiago, 2005, lim, 2014, nikolaeva & pak, 2017). the degree of involvement in the internet-based education, the number of courses in the online mode, their themes, different ways of implementation and the overall focus in general, has led to the emergence of the more capacious concept of "e-learning". remote knowledge sharing and collaboration, the use of new multimedia technologies and the internet to enhance and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 172-188 improve the quality of education by increasing access to resources and services, all of this is elearning. stimulating and informative training process, which uses interactive electronic means of information delivery, such as cds, the corporate networks, and the internet, all of this is elearning. in addition to its original tasks, distance learning through the e-learning can assist in increasing the quality, level, and effectiveness of traditional method and way of learning, as well as be a great addition to the face to face training. the main advantages of e-learning (kovaltchuk et al., 2016; eady & lockyer, 2013) are:  virtually unlimited freedom of access through the internet; a student has the opportunity to access electronic resources of the course from any location where there is an access to the global information network.  competent, high-quality education with the participation of a entire team of competent, highly qualified professionals creating the courses, e-learning becomes modern and high quality training.  low pricing – without requiring extra cost to a student for the purchase of educational materials, the learning process involves only exchange of information over the internet.  possibility of modular division of the content of the electronic course small blocks of information make learning more flexible and make it easier to find the necessary materials.  flexible training schedule completely adapting the entire learning process to fit his or her capabilities and needs, the learner chooses the sequence and duration of the learning time.  facilitation of on the job training the learner can easier receive necessary training without separation from work process. training materials are also available for learners at home and even while they are commuting.  both students and instructors have an instant access to the latest updates in curriculum, which supports constant development of their skills and knowledge in accordance with the newest modern informational technologies and educational standards.  ability to define assessment criteria knowledge acquired in the learning process is evaluated against clear and tested criteria. gerasimova et al. the students themselves appreciate and highly value the above listed benefits. company skillsoft has surveyed students from several major foreign universities that use e-learning as a supplement to traditional education. flexibility, time savings, simplicity and easy access of past educational material were marked by students as the clear advantages of e-learning (pappas, 2015). russian researchers also evaluated these advantages of e-learning (nedelkin et al., 2016). digital technology allows students and teachers to interact with the curriculum through the use of a wide range of digital tools (purcell et al., 2013). h.m. al-awidi and f.m. aldhafeeri (2017) noted that “these tools provide students and instructors with access to primary source learning materials, utilizing new methods to collect and record data, communicate, and share learning experiences with teachers; moreover, students can publish and present their knowledge” (alawidi & aldhafeeri, 2017, p. 107). other electronic resources can support the digital curriculum, such as twitter, blogs, wikis, and youtube, and other applications can be used to engage, instruct, and assess students’ learning results. students and educators are expected to be connected to these resources all the time during the learning process and to personalize their learning experience through the use of technology (moeller & reitzes, 2011). however, with the clear and obvious advantages of e-learning, we should consider a number of remaining issues and possible drawbacks:  the necessity to maintain high quality of electronic courses: who and how is assessing it?  need for self-discipline and additional motivation.  the legal issues associated with intellectual property protection.  information security, technology issues.  financial implications: cost of development and updating of electronic courses (chihmin ma & cheng, 2013; wu et al., 2010; yang & liu, 2007).  no face-to-face interaction with the trainer (live connection with a more experienced practitioner) and peers, lack of networking, lack of peer contact and social interaction (tran, 2016). some students may feel isolated (žuvi-butorac et al., 2011).  possible lack of control: there is always the risk that learners will go through the material without paying enough attention.  hr-related issues of providing and organizing training of trainers and curriculum designers who are willing and able to continually update and develop courses (konak et al., 2017). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 172-188 therefore, although e-learning increases flexibility of access, eliminates geographical barriers, and improves convenience and effectiveness for individualized and collaborative learning, certain shortcomings exist. methodological framework the objective of the research is to improve understanding of e-learning implementation for the russian higher education institutions. the aims of the research are:  to examine the general aspects of organizing training in e-learning environment;  to consider the advantages and disadvantages of such approach;  to study and analyze a number of surveys of students and teachers about the effectiveness of the distance learning;  to give diagrams showing different aspects of the perception of e – learning by students and by teachers;  to find out the innovations of organizing training in e-learning environment that make them attractive for the russian higher education institutions. the research was conducted at the faculty of distance learning of plekhanov russian university of economics (fdl). fdl constantly monitors performance indicators of the application and effectiveness of e-learning. for this purpose, in particular, was conducted the survey of students and instructors on the effectiveness of e-learning. this study examines factors that determine the attitude of learners toward an e-learning approach, using data collected by questionnaire from a sample of 400 students and 540 professors and faculty members involved in an e-learning environment at the fdl. a theoretical model is derived from previous studies and is analyzed and developed using structural equation modeling techniques. based on the theoretical findings, a hierarchy of practical objectives and associated actions are suggested for improving the learner’s satisfaction with the e-learning technics. these practical suggestions are expected to be of interest to education professionals and e-learning developers. the suggested actions relate directly or indirectly to: (a) increasing the amount of interactions among students and faculty; (b) increasing the individual’s perception of the e-learning and an easy to use tool; (c) improving the learner’s skills; (d) ensuring that the e-learning provides flexible access to instructional/assessment media; and gerasimova et al. (e) ensuring the relevance of the information and its presentation in the e-learning. in order to improve understanding of e-learning implementation at fdl, this study investigates the primary factors influencing students’ and teachers’ attitude toward e-learning using a revised version of technology acceptance model (tam). the technology acceptance model (tam), proposed by f.d. davis (1985), is one of the most influential models of user acceptance of information systems. the davis technology adoption model operates on two main concepts: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use (davis et al., 1989). k.n.n. tran also used tam in his research and wrote in 2016 “because the aim of this research is to examine the learner’s attitude in the context of e-learning, three variables in the tam were selected for the theoretical model: perceived usefulness; perceived ease of use; and attitude” (tran, 2016, p. 254). because our research goal is to study how students and teachers perceive the application of e-learning, we use the technology acceptance model by f.d. davis (1985) too. perceived usefulness is an indicator reflecting the degree of confidence of the users that the technology will increase their productivity. perceived ease of use is an indicator showing the degree of confidence of the users that the use of this technology will be associated with the application of the least possible effort. attitude indicates positive or negative aspects of the users' perception. tam postulates that the attitude toward using a system is determined by perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, while perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are influenced by external variables. based on tam, several previous studies in e-learning adoption and acceptance found that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use have a significant direct effect on attitude towards using an e-learning system (cheng, 2011, hsieh et al., 2014, park, 2009, saadé et al., 2007, sánchez & hueros, 2010, tselios et al., 2011). in elearning context, n.k. tselios, s. daskalakis and m. papandopoulou (2011) and l.-y. hsieh, y.j. lu and y.-h. lee (2014) showed that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use play important roles in affecting student attitude. these researchers also found support for the effect of perceived ease of use on the perceived usefulness of an e-learning system. j.-h. wu, t.-l. hsia, y.-w. liao and r. tennyson (2008) and q.l. huynh and t.l. le thi (2014) showed that perceived value and perceived ease of use had positive effects on a student’s attitude toward elearning where perceived value had a similar meaning to perceived usefulness. the findings indicated that students’ perceived usefulness and ease of use positively affected their acceptance journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 172-188 of e-learning for study. the link between students’ perceived ease of use and acceptance of elearning was also mediated by their perception on the usefulness. profile of the respondents-students according to the answers to the questions of the first section of the questionnaire, we discovered that: 53% of the respondents were females; 6% of the respondents earlier have had experience with e-learning. the average age of respondents was 23 years. half of respondents belong to the 18-22 years old age group and 41 percent belong to 23-27 years old age group. profile of the respondents-instructors from the answers to the questions in the first section of the questionnaire, we found that: 72 % of the respondents were females; 69 % earlier have had e-learning experience. half of respondents belong to 30-45 years old age group, and 41% – to 45-55 years old age group. the average age of respondents was 45 years. all respondents held a bachelor degree, and some of them held a master degree. after all we considered that the under test persons included individuals who were mature, well educated, and had real experience to be able to provide valid and reliable responses to the questionnaire. some question samples from the second questionnaire section how do you like working with a computer tutorial? • really like it • rather like than not like • like average • rather not like • utterly not likes • i don't know, i can't say does using a computer tutorial reduce the time you spend studying a subject? • quite true; • true; • rather yes than no • difficult to answer; • rather no than yes; • wrong • utterly wrong gerasimova et al. how do you assess the role of the computer tutorial at the classes? • helps to better understand the learning material • helps to remember the learning material better • increases interest in the subject under study • not plays no role • serves as a means of entertainment • distracts attention • prevents to perceive educational material, does not allow to concentrate would you like to see classes using a computer tutorial more often? • quite true; • true; • rather yes than no • difficult to answer; • rather no than yes; • wrong • utterly wrong what attracts you more in a computer tutorial? • consistent and logical presentation of the material • exciting presentation of the material • colorful design of educational material • the ability of self-control • various forms of information presentation • nothing attracts results and discussion the authors processed the results of the survey of students and found that 92% of students believing that the use of e-learning reduces their time spent on the study of the subject. vast majority (97%) of students support and welcome the e-learning approach (fig. 1) and more than 40 % “really like it”. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 172-188 figure 1. the results of questioning of students on the effectiveness of e-learning source: the authors 94% of interviewed students believe that e-learning is appropriate and helps to better learn the material (fig. 2). only 6% of interviewed students (3 % of respondents indicated that they were "unaffected" and 3 % considered that they were" obstructing") were dissatisfied with the use of e-learning. figure 2. the results of questioning students on the role of e-learning source: the authors when answering the question of what attracts students in e-learning, we obtained the following answers (fig. 3). so, the ability of self-control is named by students as the most significant advantage of e-learning. gerasimova et al. figure 3. what attracts students in e-learning? source: the authors will the desired educational and economic impact be achieved with improved teacher’s ability to use information and telecommunication technologies of electronic education for providing training to a larger number of students, geographically dispersed? in traditional learning environment, the instructor can instantly receive necessary feedback from the learners and immediately respond to it as necessary, adjusting the training material as he/ she sees necessary for the facilitation of its absorption. to address the lack of immediate feedback in elearning and prepare high-quality electronic courses, the content designer should rely on the specific experience of expert f2f trainers, but such trainers do not always have the necessary time, capacity, or required computer skills. surveys conducted at the faculty of distance learning showed that 99,9% of teachers consider that the use of e-learning influenced teaching methodology and saved their time (fig. 4). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 172-188 figure 4. a survey of teachers. the distribution of answers to the question on the role of elearning source: the authors 56% of teachers agree with the statement that the systematic use of e-learning in the educational process helps to better understanding, and the 33% agree with the statement that exercising the e-learning approach can increase the interest. the following diagram shows what attracts teachers to e-learning (fig. 5). figure 5. what attracts teachers in e-learning? source: the authors so, parallel with presentation control and the possibility of independent work of students are named by teachers as the most significant advantage of e-learning. conclusion the e-learning is playing an increasingly important role in modern academic education and corporate training, and this it is not a temporary trend. to make it the most effective and gerasimova et al. engaging, it is crucial to maintain and monitor the quality of the online training programs, for example, through establishing inter-university centre for quality assessment of e-learning courses and resources. it is also necessary to take into account the complexity of e-learningrelated issues, from improving it literacy of trainers and designers to creating complex digital curriculum of universities. the ambitious goal of reaching full implementation of digital curriculum will not become a reality without collaboration between different players such as academia, instructional designers and learning practitioners, as well as itand platform providers. trainers and course designers must possess not only the technical and pedagogical skills to use technology but also the willingness to integrate technology in their teaching practices (gura & percy, 2005). their full support, commitment, time, and experience are critical components for success. trainers’ professional development programs should be designed to equip them with technical skills and pedagogical knowledge to successfully present and implement the digital curriculum. the authors recommend conducting further research on the topic, possibly focusing on comparison between e-learning and blended learning approaches. for example, it is recommended to conduct separate surveys of students and professors on effectiveness of elearning vs blended learning approach, overall satisfaction on each method, applicability of the knowledge received, extent to which knowledge “sticks” to the learner when delivered through the e-learning channel, as well as to study the specific “ideal” characteristics for the it platforms and hardware on which e-learning is best perceived. the current research demonstrates that elearning is most effective in developing technical skills and delivering the learning curriculum, while the “soft” skills development is still considered to be best achieved in the f2f environment. it is recommended to deepen the research and conduct more surveys to find out more on how the innovative approaches could enhance the development of interpersonal and managerial – “soft” skills acknowledgements we thank oxana minchenko, a learning specialist at the world bank group, for comments that greatly improved our article, for her professional advice on the subject matter. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 172-188 references al-awidi, h.m., aldhafeeri, f.m. (2017). teachers’ readiness to implement digital curriculum in kuwaiti schools. journal of information technology education: research, 16, 105-126. allen, i.e., seaman, j. (2013). changing course: ten years of tracking online education in the united states. new-buryport, ma: sloan consortium. bonk, c.j., olson, t.m., wisher, r.a., orvis, k.l. (2002). learning from focus groups: an examination of blended learning. international journal of e-learning & distance education, 17(3), 97-118. bruskin, s. (2016). methods and tools of advanced business analytics for corporate information analytical systems in the digital transformation era. ceur workshop proceedings, 1761, 449-454. cheng, y.-m. (2011). antecedents and consequences of e-learning acceptance. information systems journal, 21(3), 269–299. chih-min ma, c.-m. c., & cheng, b.-w. (2013). integrating technology acceptance model and task-technology fit into blended e-learning system. journal of applied sciences, 13, 736742. costley, j., hughes, c., lange, c. (2017). the effects of instructional design on student engagement with video lectures at cyber universities. journal of information technology education: research, volume 16, 189-207. davis, f. d. (1985). a technology acceptance model for empirically testing new end-user information systems: theory and results. phd thesis. massachusetts: massachusetts institute of technology. davis, f.d., bagozzi, r.p., & warshaw, p.r. (1989). user acceptance of computer technology: a comparison of two theoretical models. management science, 35(8), 982–1003. eady, m. j., lockyer, l. (2013). tools for learning: technology and teaching strategies. in: learning to teach in the primary school. url: http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1413&context=asdpapers hsieh, l.-y., lu, y.-j., lee, y.-h. (2014). using the technology acceptance model to explore the behavioral intentions toward blended learning. in: liberona, d., uden, l. (eds.). learning technology for education in cloud. mooc and big data. springer, 195–203. http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1413&context=asdpapers gerasimova et al. huynh, q. l., & le thi, t. l. (2014). the mediating role of the perceived usefulness in the acceptance of e-learning. international journal of humanities and social science invention, 3(2), 37-42. industry report (2014).url: https://www.ibisworld.com/industry-trends/ garrison, d. r. (2011). e-learning in the 21st century: a framework for research and practice.taylor & francis. gladilina, i.p., polovova, t.a., sergeeva, s.a., antipova, j.o., umanetc, d.o. (2016). professional competences of specialists in purchasing as a factor of purchasing activity quality. journal of internet banking and commerce, 21, 007. graham, c.r., woodfield, w., & harrison, j.b. (2013). a framework for institutional adoption and implemen-tation of blended learning in higher education. the internet and higher education, 18, 4-14. gura, m., percy, b. (2005). recapturing technology for education: keeping tomorrow in today’s classrooms, lanham, maryland: scarecrow education. kim, c., santiago, r. (2005). construction of e-learning environments in korea. educational technology research and development, 53(4), 108-115. konak, a., kulturel-konak, s., nasereddin, m., bartolacci, m. r. (2017). impact of collaborative work on technology acceptance: a case study from virtual computing. journal of information technology edu-cation: research, 16, 015-029. kovaltchuk, a., dedusenko, e., blinova, e., miloradov, k. (2016). concept and procedures of crisis management in russian hotel enterprises. journal of environmental management and tourism, 7(3), 473-480. lee, h., lee, s. (2015). analysis of various influences and factors on academic persistence of cyber university students. international journal of service, science and technology, 8(10), 211-222. lim, s. (2014). white paper on ict in education korea. korea education and research information service. url: https//english.keris.or.kr/whitepaper/whitepaper_eng_2014.pdf moeller, b., reitzes, t. (2011). integrating technology with student-centered learning. quincy, ma: education development center, inc. nellie mae education foundation. morgan, k.r. (2002). blended learning: a strategic action plan for a new campus. seminole, fl: university of central florida. https://www.ibisworld.com/industry-trends/ journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 172-188 nedelkin, a.a., titov, v.a., tikhomirova, e.i., romanova, y.d. (2016). the processing's automation of digital documents for hypertext scientific library. arpn journal of engineering and applied sciences, 11(7/1), 4681-4684. nikolaeva, y.s., pak, n.i. (2017). newest web-technologies for studying and diagnosing individual abilities of learners. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), 130144. pappas, ch. (2015). advantages and possible limitations of online learning. url: https://elearningindustry.com/advantages-and-possible-limitations-of-online-learning park, s.y. (2009). an analysis of the technology acceptance model in understanding university students’ behavioral intention to use e-learning. educational technology & society, 12(3), 150–162. purcell, k., buchanan, j., friedrich, l. (2013). the impact of digital tools on student writing and how writing is taught in schools. url: http://www.pewinternet.org/files/oldmedia/files/reports/2013/pip_nwp%20writing%20and%20tech.pdf saadé, r., nebebe, f., tan, w. (2007). viability of the “ technology acceptance model” in multimedia learning environments: a comparative study. interdisciplinary journal of elearning and learning objects, 3, 175–184. sánchez, r.a., hueros, a.d. (2010). motivational factors that influence the acceptance of moodle using tam. computers in human behavior, 26(6), 1632–1640. tarman, b., chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education (editorial). journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. tran, k.n.n. (2016). the adoption of blended e-learning technology in vietnam using a revision of the technology. acceptance model. journal of information technology education: research, 15, 253-282. https://elearningindustry.com/advantages-and-possible-limitations-of-online-learning http://www.pewinternet.org/files/old-media/files/reports/2013/pip_nwp%20writing%20and%20tech.pdf http://www.pewinternet.org/files/old-media/files/reports/2013/pip_nwp%20writing%20and%20tech.pdf gerasimova et al. traphagan, t. (2005). class lecture webcasting, fall 2004 and spring 2005: a case study. texas: university of texas-austin working paper. tselios, n.k., daskalakis, s., papadopoulou, m. (2011). assessing the acceptance of a blended learning uni-versity course. educational technology & society, 14(2), 224–235. wu, j.-h., hsia, t.-l., liao, y.-w., tennyson, r. (2008). what determinates student learning satisfaction in a blended e-learning system environment? pacis 2008 proceedings, 149. wu, j.-h., tennyson, r. d., hsia, t.-l. (2010). a study of student satisfaction in a blended elearning system environment. computers & education, 55(1), 155–164. yang, z., liu, q. (2007). research and development of web-based virtual online classroom. computers & education, 48(2), 171–184. žuvi-butorac, m., roncevi, n., nemcanin, d., nebi, z. (2011). blended e-learning in higher education: research on students’ perspective. issue in informing science and information technology, 8, 409–429. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (2), 174-185 174 communication in indonesian social media: avoiding hate speeches, intolerance and hoax ahmad sultra rustan1 abstract this research explores the consequences of online conformity in terms of how people respond to fake news. the study aims to see whether the readers of the misinformation are more inclined (a) to have a negative or positive opinion of fake news; (b) to support or oppose the fake news story by targeting the story itself or its author; and (c) spread a fake news story through social media. this study was conducted within a four-month period. the study employed an experimental research design, applying an inter-subject experimental design for three treatment groups. one group was exposed to a fake social media news post that was supported by positive comments from other users. the second group was shown the same fake social media news post, but this time, the comments with it exposed it as fake news. the third group was again shown the same post, but this time with comments that critically attacked both the fake news and its poster for promoting it. a total of 60 respondents were systematically sampled from 180 population, determined based on raosoft (p=00.5), and a response distribution of 50%. attitudes to the fake news story were assessed using three elements on a five-point likert scale. the gathered data were analyzed using spss version 25.0. results show that there was a greater tendency to intend to spread a fake news item when it is accompanied with comments that support the news article compared with comments that are critical of the content and optionally its author. moreover, the research suggests that warnings from organizations about inaccurate news may not change people’s attitudes or reduce their willingness to spread a piece of fake news as powerfully as reading the critical comments of other consumers. keywords: social media, hoax, intolerance, communication, introduction information and communication technology (ict) has been an exponentially growing field in recent years, especially as it helps people to store, share, and receive information easily. social media is one ict tool that has shaped out current modes of conversation and engagement, including the relaying of news stories (waszak et al., 2018). the impacts of social media impact are unavoidable, especially as nobody can prevent us from spreading the information we want to share, regardless of whether it is true or not. this has profound effects for human society, and we 1dr. state islamic institute (iain) of parepare, indonesia; email: ahmadsultrarustan@iainpare.ac.id mailto:email:%20ahmadsultrarustan@iainpare.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 174-185 should remember that our society cannot be isolated from modern life, particularly social media. people find it easy to communicate news through social networking platforms because of their large populations of users, and many frequently share and monitor news items through it. unfortunately, the social networking boom represents a doubled-edged sword. on the one hand, anybody can use social media to read information, communicate with friends and relatives, engage with a company, or post interesting information of their own (aldwairi & alwahedi, 2018; watson, 2020). despite the many positive opportunities offered by social media, however, recent events have revealed an undeniably dark side toit (baccarella et al., 2018). while informatics and social media can combine to foster confidence and openness (papadapoulos et al., 2016; white, 2020), the sad reality is that many actors use social media to disseminate hysteria (hardalov, koychev & nakov, 2016). fake news can be easily spread through social media, so in order to reduce its effect on the real world, a comprehensive evaluation is desperately needed. in many ways, news is being conveyed to people through social media, but it is regrettable that many of these headlines will create confusion in an otherwise functional society. hoax news is used to manipulate culture or policy development through the use of multiple bots to exploit a common sentiment among people (jang, 2018; khairuddin, et al., 2019). lazer et al. (2018) define digital disinformation as false data that is intentionally distributed for the purposes of misleading people. in fact, this definition overlaps with the one offered by allcott and gentzkow (2017) as “news articles that are purposive,” and this has been examined from a range of angles and become a subject of public discussion. the exponentially rapid rise of social media has seen the amount of bogus news increase considerably in recent years. fake news can be irritating, frustrating, and disturbing, and it is everywhere. the influence it can have on both individuals and culture is also profound (reyes et al., 2018). these days, some 143 million indonesians have some sort of internet connection (puspitasari & ishii, 2016). most industries have also started using social networking to promote their business practices in a new form of advertising (chang, shen & liu, 2016), and social media is a crucial resource for disseminating marketing messages. a typical indonesian now uses social media for 203 minutes each day. of the 360 million people in southeast asia, 130 million (or 36%) of them are daily facebook users. youtube (43%) is the most commonly used social media platform, followed by facebook (41%), whatsapp (40%), instagram (38%), and twitter (27%) rustan (carley et al., 2016; fatanti & suyadnya, 2015; ibrahim, 2012). about 130 million social networking users in indonesia use twitter, representing roughly 6% of the platform’s global users. indonesia also has the largest number of facebook users in southeast asia and the fourth largest worldwide, behind brazil, the u.s., and india. indonesians still regularly use facebook through corporate networks and virtual networks. some 27% of the online shops in indonesia sold something based on facebook details, while31% of people purchased something based on facebook advice. as for demographics, facebook is more popular with mature adults in indonesia. data in 2016 revealed that 94.2 percent of indonesians aged 30–35 regularly used facebook, compared to 80.9 percent of indonesians aged 16–19, so older indonesians are more likely to use this social networking platform. we face immense challenges in human life, and the problems are not limited to one thing. there are many aspects to this, and globalization is one of them. globalization has emerged from a culture that is alien to indonesia, and it is a uniform global means and a facilitator of a cycle of liberalization. at the root of globalization is how it spreads globally without hindrance from borders, bringing new elements of thinking, culture, knowledge, and technology. globalization can also be seen as a process that has spread knowledge and innovation all around the world in our daily lives. this phenomenon has been strengthened by the increasingly advanced shipping industry, as well as the data and networking technologies and practices that have reached the global market. the major changes being made in the world of technology and connectivity due to globalization are significant because of the simplicity of trading and communicating between nations. it can be viewed as a system in which the boundaries of a nation are growing weaker. consequently, with this increasingly sophisticated technology, we can be close to someone who may be geographically far removed from us. that has all been enabled by the advent of the internet, which we have benefitted from for a long time, and the more recent development of social media. much like with facebook, the instagram community in indonesia is the fourth largest in the world, with more than 56 million users in april 2019. unlike facebook, though, instagram is more popular with younger users. more than 73% of indonesians aged 16–25 use instagram, compared with only 55.8% of those aged 30–35.instagram is therefore a very active social network in indonesia, as is the case with other social media platforms. a study by ipsos revealed that up to 81% of instagram customers use the platform to learn more about the products they journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 174-185 like. in addition, 76%of them reported having purchased a brand item based on something they saw on instagram. instagram is also a critical marketing platform for small companies according to the same report. what is more, up to 52% of indonesian small business owners prefer to refer clients to their official instagram accounts rather than their websites, and up to 82% of indonesian small and medium-sized companies often communicate directly with consumers through instagram messages. in indonesia, the growing number of internet users cannot be separated from infrastructure development, and it is easy to obtain a smartphone or other handheld device. another reason is that now that there are more makers of such devices, the prices are lower. there is also an increasing interest in exploring the use of icts to increase transparency, enhance the provision of services, and increase the public’s engagement in decision-making processes. this focuses on the mechanisms and processes through which ict can support interactions among people, governments, and public entities, and it has been sparked by a demand from citizens for reform in the political milieu. this is an area of research called eparticipation, and the use of ict by elected officials is now growing in importance due to the potential of creative ict-based solutions for enhancing the partnership between lawmakers and the public. social media is a descriptive term for a platform that helps disseminate user-generated content, thus encouraging cooperation, conversation, and social interaction. this internet-based technology enables the exchange of information and contacts to add value for the users. politicians are also using the power of social networking to serve their specific political agendas. social media can facilitate policy making, promote citizens’ engagement, improve information sharing, and strengthen transparency and accountability. although social networking programs are a positive development for policymakers, others focus primarily on mainstream media because of the limited web visibility that they serve. politicians who prefer not to use social media for political purposes may do this because it presents more barriers to achieving their goals than constructive possibilities. the social media market in indonesia has immense potential for the success of every company, although it can be difficult to set up a company in indonesia. the goal of this research is to further study disinformation and fake news. it does, however, take a step back from previous work because it does not seek to examine the consequences of exposing bogus facts as false news. instead, it studies the results of a more common frequent phenomenon where users are simply told by other users that something is conveying inaccurate rustan news. more specifically, this research examines how people react when are exposed to fake news that other users either support or reject as misinformation and how they can recognize this through analysis. due to the fact that many discussion threads include false news, there is little interest in correcting misinformation in detail and more interest in making simple statements that either support or assail the story and its author, and alack of research in many aspects of these simple statements is evident. purpose of the study this study investigated communication through social media in indonesia, specifically with the aim of avoiding hate speech, intolerance, and hoaxes. more specifically, it investigates whether the readers of the misinformation are more inclined (a) to have a negative or positive opinion of fake news; (b) to support or oppose the fake news story by targeting the story itself or its author; and (c) spread a fake news story through social media. this study aims to shed some light on how other consumers can have an effect in terms of preventing fake news from circulating online. hypotheses h1: when exposing people to a fake news story where users dispute the material through comments, they are less likely to accept the fake news than if it would have been accompanied by supportive user comments. h2: when a fake news article has been exposed through critical user feedback about the content, users tend to write positive remarks themselves more than when the fake news is supported by users’ comments. h3a: once a false news story has been revealed by user comments accusing it of inaccuracy, people are less likely to share the content than when it has user comments that endorse the material. h3b: upon revealing the fake news story to a user community and accusing the poster of disseminating false facts, people are less likely to share the fake news story through user comments or leave user comments clearly labeling the news as fraudulent. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 174-185 methods research design the study employed an experimental research design. for this purpose, the researcher applied an inter-subject experimental design for three treatment groups. one group of participants was exposed to a fake social media news post that was supported by positive comments from other users. the second group was shown the same fake social media news post, but this time, the comments with it exposed it as fake news. finally, the third group was again shown the same post, but this time with comments that critically attacked both the fake news and its poster for promoting it. research participants, sampling procedure, and ethical considerations a total of 60 respondents were systematically sampled from a total population of 180 students at an indonesian university. the sampling size was determined based on the use of free online software from raosoft (see http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html) with a margin of error of 5%, a confidence level of 95%, and a response distribution of 50%. this study was also guided by the following research ethics considerations. first, data privacy and informed consent forms were approved by the university ethics committee, and these were signed by the participants of the study. second, an orientation on the purposes of the study was given to the participants by the researcher prior to administering the instruments. thirdly, the anonymity of the respondents and the institution was strictly observed by never mentioning their names. research instruments attitudes to the fake news story were assessed using three elements on a five-point likert scale, with 1 indicating absolute disagreement and5 indicating absolute agreement with statements like “my impression of the facebook post was fine” and “my impression of the facebook post was one of fun" (colliander& marder, 2018).the average responses to the three elements were used to populate a table. stimulus development the research applied a role playing model in which participants were exposed to one of three behavioral posts inserted in the survey device, with them imagining that it had been posted on http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html rustan facebook by a distant acquaintance. in order to maximize the relevance of the results, the researcher decided to use actual instances of fake news. to this end, an internet search was conducted to find known items of fake news. finally, a facebook post from a group was identified. three criteria were set for choosing a fake news post: a) the post needed to identify an incident or topic that was significant and understandable to a typical indonesian at the time of analysis; (b) it must be inaccurate; and (c) an ordinary person may reasonably identify it as false. a screenshot of the article was taken as the basis of this study’s fake news story. three separate sets of feedback for it were then generated. images were distorted and descriptions were modified to replace real personalities with fictional, unidentifiable facsimiles. first, instrument tests were carried out with three sets of four observations each, with the participants being involved through facebook. when asked if the posts looked like actual facebook posts, they all agreed. likewise, all participants found the numerous commentaries to be representative of actual comments online. furthermore, all of them considered the comments intended for group 1 as endorsing the article, while they perceived the comments for groups 2 and 3 as being critical of the post. when asked which set of comments was the most critical of the poster (from groups 2 and 3), both respondents suggested that group 3’s comments were the most critical. the stimuli were therefore deemed suitable for use in the research. procedure and data analysis this study was conducted within a four-month period. the data gathering lasted for one month. however, before the formal data gathering began, the university authority’s approval and permission to undertake the study was sought in the first week. every iteration of the scenario was accompanied by questionnaire items to quantify the hypothesis variables. the participants were randomly assigned to different situations (n=60). every iteration of the scenario was accompanied by questionnaire items to calculate the hypothesis variables. the research’s ethical considerations were strictly followed by the researcher at all times. after gathering the students’ responses, they were coded and subjected to data cleaning and statistical analyses over a onemonth period. the gathered data were analyzed using spss version 25.0. finally, the results analysis, interpretation, and the writing of a report were performed over the course of a month. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 174-185 results and discussion an external regression test was applied before examining the dependent variables. the respondents were asked “were the facebook comments positive or critical of the post?” the responses to this query were then calculated on a binary (i.e., supportive/critical) scale. only those who answered the question correctly (n=60) had their responses checked when the theories were eventually evaluated. according to h1, after reading one of the two sets of comments that were critical of the content, the sensitivity to detecting fake news should be stronger, so a one-way anova with a scheffe post-hoc check was used. the findings revealed that the thresholds for the postal attitudes in groups two and three were dramatically lower than in group one. h1 was therefore empirically supported. when evaluating h3a and h3b, the same approach was used for the group that was subjected to comments indicating the news story as false (i.e., group 2). there was a lower expectation of spreading the fake news story when compared to the group that was shown comments endorsing the fake story (i.e., group 1), and this expectation was lower still for group 3. the results showed that the thresholds for both categories were significantly lower than was the case for group one. h3a was therefore endorsed empirically. however, group three’s response did not differ substantially from that of group two, soh3b was only partly accepted. the mediums, standard deviations, and p values for the anova analyses are shown in table 1. table 1. mean for attitudes towards post and intention to share variables group 1 mean group 2 mean group 3 mean attitude towards post 2.18 1.65 * 1.83** intention to share post 2.00 1.58* 1.63** *= significantly lower than group 1 at p=-.001 **= significantly lower than group 1 at p= .005 if h2 holds true, it should be less likely that respondents will react after reading negative feedback for the false news article than if they had read remarks endorsing the story. a cross tabulation was applied using a chi-square test. the results showed a significant difference (p<.001) between the predicted proportions of interviewed individuals. rustan the results of this study indicate that the comments and actions of other people on social media actually do influence users’ responses to fake online news and their willingness to propagate it. people who were subjected to the critical responses of other users toward the false news took a dimmer view of the fake news than those users subjected to comments that supported the false news, so they were therefore less likely to share the fake news themselves. these findings demonstrate the role that everyday user scan play in halting the spread of false news and other misinformation and minimizing its effects on society. the study gave technically mixed results, however, specifically because h3b was only partly supported. it was especially important to challenge the self-concept by showing how a person can be fooled by other online users spreading fake news. the respondents in this study were not affected when they saw other users denouncing the story as false. this might be because in previous studies, the value of preserving the self-concept in an online environment has been overestimated, although this appears unlikely given the large body of research suggesting its significance. the most likely case is that a clear argument denouncing a story is often viewed by users as an overt reprimand, and orthodoxy and the perceived challenges to the self-concept work in tandem to explain the discrepancies between the three trial groups. however, it could be claimed that the findings of the study were not responsible for either supporting or challenging the self-concept. alternatively, some may claim that such response trends are merely due to the effect of “waking up.” studies have also shown that people spend relatively little time digesting online content (bishop et al., 2017; prochazka et al, 2018), meaning that they are not wasting large amounts of cognitive effort processing web content. certain users, at least, may not believe that a fake news article is bogus, and this only changes when they see feedback from other users. this is analogous to the incongruous effect of advertising on certain marketing posts (belanche et al., 2017). if so, certain triggers that point out to an individual that a news story is false may have a similar effect to the comments shown to groups two and three of this study. these could take the form of warnings from social media companies, indicating that users may have cause to be suspicious of the content. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 174-185 conclusion this work is intended to add to the growing literature on debunking misinformation and fake news, as stated in the introduction. past researchers have extensively explored how counterarguments can mitigate them is perceptions created by false news. furthermore, this work takes a step back and refrains from investigating the misperceptions of people who are exposed to fake news. it instead explores the behavioral intentions of people to comment on and spread false news based on responses from other users about the misinformation. more specifically, this work explores the influence that it has on persons subjected to fake news that other users condemn and indicate as misinformation, such as through the comment feature. the results of this study show that other users’ comments about fake news have a substantial influence over the attitudes of the subsequent readers of misinformation and their desire to comment on and share the fake news. the findings suggest that the behavior of online users may be more influential than disclaimers and other forms of warnings to combat fake news through social media companies. suggestions for future research this study includes some shortcomings that should be addressed by other researchers. from the beginning, no distinction was drawn between frequent facebook users and more casual facebook users. for example, it is possible that frequent users may be more adapt at identifying fake news articles, so they may be less influenced by other users’ comments than less-frequent users. investigating how these two groups of facebook users are influenced by other users’ behavior when responding to false news is therefore a suggestion for future research. another limitation of this study concerns a person’s exposure to the fake news used in the experiment and how personal factors may affect their responses was not taken into consideration. for instance, a bogus news item may seem more viable to a conservative than a liberal, or vice versa, and the responses of these two people may vary accordingly. in addition, prospective scholars are urged to examine how mixed statements affect reactions to false news. a set of comments about fake news usually comprises a combination of supportive and critical feedback. this research did not take into account the consequences of such mixed opinions. future research could examine how various proportions of positive and negative rustan remarks influence the reaction to these comments. in this way, we will all gain a better understanding of how people react to the fake news that is currently affecting society. references aldwairi, m., & alwahedi, a. (2018). detecting fake news in social media networks. procedia computer science, 141, 215-222. allcott, h., & gentzkow, m. (2017). social media and fake news in the 2016 election. journal of economic perspectives, 31(2), 211-36. atodiresei, c. s., tănăselea, a., & iftene, a. (2018). identifying fake news and fake users on twitter. procedia computer science, 126, 451-461. baccarella, c. v., wagner, t. f., kietzmann, j. h., & mccarthy, i. p. (2018). social media? it's serious! understanding the dark side of social media. european management journal, 36(4), 431-438. balmas, m. (2014). when fake news becomes real: combined exposure to multiple news sources and political attitudes of inefficacy, alienation, and cynicism. communication research, 41(3), 430-454. belanche, d., flavián, c., & pérez-rueda, a. (2017). understanding interactive online advertising: congruence and product involvement in highly and lowly arousing, skippable video ads. journal of interactive marketing, 37, 75-88. bishop, m. m., brocato, e. d., & vijayalakshmi, a. (2017). the role of medium content and ad format congruity in influencing advertising outcomes. journal of marketing communications, 23(4), 371-384. bondielli, a., & marcelloni, f. (2019). a survey on fake news and rumour detection techniques. information sciences, 497, 38-55. carley, k. m., malik, m., landwehr, p. m., pfeffer, j., & kowalchuck, m. (2016). crowd sourcing disaster management: the complex nature of twitter usage in padang indonesia. safety science, 90, 48-61. chang, s. e., shen, w. c., & liu, a. y. (2016). why mobile users trust smartphone social networking services? a pls-sem approach. journal of business research, 69(11), 4890-4895. fatanti, m. n., & suyadnya, i. w. (2015). beyond user gaze: how instagram creates tourism destination brand?. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 211, 1089-1095. georgakopoulou, a. (2015). sharing as rescripting: place manipulations on youtube between narrative and social media affordances. discourse, context & media, 9, 64-72. hardalov, m., koychev, i., & nakov, p. (2016, september). in search of credible news. in international conference on artificial intelligence: methodology, systems, and applications (pp. 172-180). springer, cham. ibrahim, n. (2012). the model of crowdfunding to support small and micro businesses in indonesia through a web-based platform. procedia economics and finance, 4, 390-397. jang, s. m., & kim, j. k. (2018). third person effects of fake news: fake news regulation and media literacy interventions. computers in human behavior, 80, 295-302. khairuddin, a. z., abd razak, a., idrus, f., & ismail, n. a. h. (2019). challenges of offering peace education among educational leaders: a case study of malaysian public primary journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(2), 174-185 school. american journal of qualitative research, 3(1), 5771. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5811 lazer, d. m., baum, m. a., benkler, y., berinsky, a. j., greenhill, k. m., menczer, f. & schudson, m. (2018). the science of fake news. science, 359(6380), 1094-1096. oeldorf-hirsch, a., & sundar, s. s. (2015). posting, commenting, and tagging: effects of sharing news stories on facebook. computers in human behavior, 44, 240-249. papadopoulos, s., bontcheva, k., jaho, e., lupu, m., & castillo, c. (2016). overview of the special issue on trust and veracity of information in social media. acm transactions on information systems (tois), 34(3), 1-5. pennycook, g., & rand, d. g. (2019). lazy, not biased: susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. cognition, 188, 39-50. prochazka, f., weber, p., & schweiger, w. (2018). effects of civility and reasoning in user comments on perceived journalistic quality. journalism studies, 19(1), 62-78. puspitasari, l., & ishii, k. (2016). digital divides and mobile internet in indonesia: impact of smartphones. telematics and informatics, 33(2), 472-483. reyes-menendez, a., saura, j. r., palos-sanchez, p. r., & alvarez-garcia, j. (2018). understanding user behavioral intention to adopt a search engine that promotes sustainable water management. symmetry, 10(11), 584. stieglitz, s., mirbabaie, m., ross, b., & neuberger, c. (2018). social media analytics– challenges in topic discovery, data collection, and data preparation. international journal of information management, 39, 156-168. vishwakarma, d. k., varshney, d., & yadav, a. (2019). detection and veracity analysis of fake news via scrapping and authenticating the web search. cognitive systems research, 58, 217-229. warner-søderholm, g., bertsch, a., sawe, e., lee, d., wolfe, t., meyer, j., & fatilua, u. n. (2018). who trusts social media?. computers in human behavior, 81, 303-315. waszak, p. m., kasprzycka-waszak, w., & kubanek, a. (2018). the spread of medical fake news in social media–the pilot quantitative study. health policy and technology, 7(2), 115-118. watson, e. (2020). #education: the potential impact of social media and hashtag ideology on the classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 40-56. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 white, c. (2020). wielding social media in the cyber-arena: globalism, nationalism, and civic education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5811 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 pedagogical potential of muslim religious sources in overcoming physical and mental and psychological trials www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 266-282 266 pedagogical potential of muslim religious sources in overcoming physical and mental and psychological trials tahir aminov1, timur magsumov2, ruslan sayakhov3, vladimir yepaneshnikov4, ilshat nasipov5, valerie aitov6 abstract the article describes the educational opportunities of muslim religious sources in overcoming difficult life situations by a person. an individual cannot claim to be completely aware of the causes of any problems, but he or she ought to learn how to develop an adequate attitude to the very fact of their occurrence. trials should be taken as instructive lessons and not be forgotten. besides, the moral should be drawn both from our own and others' experiences, showing gratitude for the existing goodness. an important factor of moral support to people facing trial in the form of physical abnormalities in health is to maintain a good climate in society and the inadmissibility of ridicule. it is very significant, both for the people who need special care, and for society as a whole to involve actively in society’s productive life with all its components. one of the key points is that society has the right to count on support and care, as long as it supports and protects the most infirm of its members. the sources also contain practical advice the person caught in a difficult situation and experiencing personal crisis phenomena. key words: pedagogical ideas and experience, muslim sources, trial, overcoming trials, trial as goodness. introduction the majority of people agree with the idea that life is filled with a string of constantly surmounting obstacles trials. it is curious, that some experts, who study this phenomenon, call a person "an overcoming creature" (andreeva and vsevolodova, 1999). the named phenomenon illustrates the law of dialectics about the contradictions as the driving force of development 1 dr. in education, professor, bashkir state pedagogical university, russia, tahir-aminov@yandex.ru 2ph.d. in history, associate professor, naberezhnye chelny state pedagogical university, russia, nabonid1@yandex.ru ph.d. in history, senior researcher, international network center for fundamental and applied research, united states, nabonid1@yandex.ru 3 graduate student, bashkir state pedagogical university, russia, tahir-aminov@yandex.ru 4 kazan federal university, kazan, russian federation, epaneshnikov@yandex.ru 5 doctor of philology, associate professor, m.akmulla bashkir state pedagogical university , ufa, bashkortostan, nasipov2004@rambler.ru 6 doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor, bashkir state pedagogical university (bspu) named after m. akmulla,, ufa, bashkortostan, valerie.aitov@mail.ru https://www.scopus.com/affil/profile.uri?afid=60070941 mailto:nasipov2004@rambler.ru mailto:valerie.aitov@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 266-282 (baytak et al., 2011; bochkareva et al., 2017). according to which only overcoming contradictions between things in existence and what is necessary is a moving condition, and, hence, the developing one. at the level of individual perceptions and experiences, overcoming trials can bring a man pleasure and joy, as well as cause physical, moral and psychological distress (smilianski and sparks, 1994). the above-mentioned gives rise to a wide variety of questions. how to treat and assess the experienced circumstances? what is the basis of human existence? and what is secondary: satisfaction and joy with "patches" of trials and tribulations or sorrow and anguish with a few "flashes" of joy and recumbence? is there a single standard for all the people, deviation from which would serve as a cause for concern? (kubler-ross, 1974). what defines it, if such a "rule" exists: the human mind associated with the bodies of our perception and cognition, or something transcendent, accepted by some and rejected by the others? these are the issues that concern not only philosophers, but also representatives of all the sciences of human knowledge, including teachers (mukhametzyanova a.kh., 2015: 250). it is obvious that worldview guidelines and ethical norms evolve a social order for pedagogical science (aminov & aminova, 2002; cherkasov & smigel, 2016; gabidullina & khaliullina, 2017; aydarova et al., 2017). what kind of today’s children would we like to see in the future? what is the base of their inner "core"? what motives will keep their moral and psychological stability? how to raise the necessary qualities, therefore? method one of the richest materials to find the answers to the questions that have been raised are muslim religious sources: the koran, the hadiths, the works of islamic thinkers of different periods, historical evidence for them. despite the ambiguity of the positions on religion in general, and the muslim religious sources in particular, the materials of this kind have recently become the subject of increasing attention for researchers of different disciplines (khuziakhmetov et al., 2016). there is no doubt that remaining insufficiently open to the public, they keep a large arsenal of universal wisdom (tarman & yigit, 2013). do these sources happen to contain direct answers, or at least, guidelines on the issue of our research? it should be noted that forming up the work with this kind of sources, it is necessary to take into account a number of specific methodological rules (fedorov, 2014). firstly, it is necessary to aminov et al. consider the degree of reliability in the entire source array of religious information. the muslims formed very clear criteria on the subject for determining the acceptable or questionable information, and the names of the hadith collections were long distributed over scale reliability. secondly, an important condition for the research is accounting history sources. it is known that the koran itself, which is the main religious source of muslims, was not received at the same time, and had been developing over about two decades. and the layer, which is represented by the hadiths formed even longer. in addition, it is necessary to take into account that any of the authors’ works, as well as historical records, are the elements of subjectiveness. therefore, only the works of well-known and reputable scientists should arouse interest whose views passed the test of time and practice. findings the analysis of the educational potential is not only in overcoming, but also in prevention of physical and mental trials, enclosed in muslim religious sources does not contradict; moreover, it corresponds to provisions accumulated by pedagogical, philosophical and psychological sciences (alekseev, 2017: 225). teaching potential of overcoming in sources is an integral system, in which one can select the target-oriented, motivational, informative, organizational and operational, controlling, corrective, evaluative and reflective components. on the one hand, the above-mentioned allows developing in the reader a certain philosophical attitude to the emerging difficult situations. on the other – it fosters the creation of a pedagogical model, prevention and overcoming various challenges that children may experience. in psychological and pedagogical sense, studying the phenomenon of overcoming is closely connected with such concepts as "the problem of will", "the formation of will", "crisis and critical situations," "a difficult life situation", "the overcoming of difficult life situations" (ivantsov et al., 2015; aminov, 2014a; abduali et al., 2017). anyway, they are all associated with the changes in the outside environment or the internal state of a person and are manifested in crises, conflicts, stress, shocks (rush et al., 1995). these manifestations represent three parts in human consciousness the cognitive, affective and motivational (šmigel et al., 2017). the cognitive side can be realized in the form of uncertainty, errors, failures, deadlocks, problems, tasks, issues. the general state of these situations can be uncertainty. the affective side of contradictions can be represented in the form of feelings, worries, concerns, fears, anxieties. the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 266-282 external and internal feature of these states is anxiety. the motivational part of contradictions is represented in the form of aspirations, appeals, desires, and dreams. a common symptom here is aspirations (andreev & vsevolodova, 1999). it should be noted that the experts mark dual nature of the crisis. on the one hand, the negative component is manifested in the feeling of hopelessness, helplessness, on the other the positive side, it gives an opportunity to change, to switch to the next level of development, to find a new source of power (bakanova, 2008; khramova & azamatov, 2012). thus, any crisis can be perceived as a turning point in the development of personality. most curious arguments on the topic of knowledge, understanding, perception and relationship to the events are reproduced in the works of the great thinker of the middle ages, abu hamid alghazali. in one of his works he discourses upon the following: "... man, of course, is also characterized by the property of knowledge, but the knowledge of man is different from the knowledge of the creator by three features: first. however numerous and broad our knowledge is, it is limited by the capabilities of the human mind. and it is not by far infinite! second. clarity and precision of our knowledge does not reach the limit of heights... third. knowledge of the creator is not drawn from existing things, but on the contrary: things derive their existence / their being / from him. man’s knowledge about things is built on their original existence ... " (ghazali, 2006). thus, the author draws our attention not only on the quantitative and qualitative limitation of our knowledge, but also on its recurrence in reference to occurrence in existence: originally objects of knowledge were revealed, and only then man himself with his opportunity to perceive these objects and study them. following the logic of the thinker, we can ask ourselves the question: how objective and adequate our assessment of what is happening? can we assume that all is not desired by us certainly is negative in nature? the koran, which is the main religious source, clearly points at the limitation of human knowledge: "... he (allah) knows what was before them (the people), and what will be after them, and they do not comprehend anything of his knowledge except for what he will desire..." (krachkovskiy, 2014; sura "al-baqara", ayat 255). by reference to the limitation of knowledge, man cannot claim a completely objective assessment of phenomena occurring with him and around him, and, therefore, cannot judge aminov et al. definitively: should he feel happy or sad (grant, 2002). at first glance, even simple response to direct physical stimuli like cold, heat, pain, is sometimes taken by different people in a different way. in the light of the discourse about the limitation of human knowledge, it is curious to note what factors religious sources put to use to determine its expansion. in one of these sources we encounter the following: "one who worked in accordance with the acquired knowledge, allah gives knowledge that was hitherto unknown to him" (muslim, 2009). thus, the expansion of human knowledge is defined by the usefulness and using this knowledge in practice. it is also interesting to note that the ambition to constantly expand knowledge and desire to know everything, inherent in healthy human nature, the koran actually puts in doubt. is it necessary for man to possess an absolute completeness of knowledge? could it be the prerogative of only narrowly focused specialists? in one of the ayats we read: "... do not ask about things that will sadden you, if they open to you..." (krachkovskiy, 2014: sura "al-maida", ayat 101). it is no mere chance that the thesis on the absence of absolute knowledge in philosophy prevails. one of the features of a person is that, along with an irresistible craving for knowledge, there is sometimes an inexplicable property to be impulsive and follow unfounded assumptions. in the koran on this subject we read the following: "and most of them pursue only assumptions. indeed, the assumption is in no way eliminates the truth ..." (krachkovskiy, 2014: sura "yunus", ayat 36). in this regard, it is very important to remind a person, faced with a difficult life problem about the necessity to return to common sense and a sober assessment of the situation. we are often faced with the fact that man, refusing to understand and accept his unsatisfying circumstances, asks: "why am i the one to endure so much suffering and misery! wherever is the higher justice! is the creator unable to rescue us from all these hardships!". such questions, obviously, are of the same age as mankind itself. on this occasion, the afore-named abu hamid al-ghazali says: "... you may say," what does it mean that allah is merciful and that he is the most merciful of the ones showing mercy? it is surely known that a really merciful person who, being able to give a helping hand, certainly helps everyone in distress, exclusion or anguish. the creator can release from any misery, remove any need and sorrow, clear out of any disease and protect from any adversity. our mortal, cruel world is abundant with its diseases, and he can remove them. but why does he leave his servants under the weight of trials and tribulations?". journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 266-282 here is the answer to your question... the merciful certainly wishes goodness to an object of mercy. there is no such evil in the world in which there would not be some goodness. it turns out that with the removal of some evil, goodness within this evil disappears, causing thereby a greater evil... “(ghazali, 2007). the wisdom of the great thinker’s point of view is quite clear: no matter what happens to an individual and society, no matter what hardships they have to endure they have to assume the existence of sense, the availability of goodness in everything (kobasa and puccetti, 1983). confidence in the presence of goodness and its very expectation allows one to find emotional support and get out of the crisis. the latter is quite clearly mentioned in the koran: "indeed, easiness comes with cumbrance – truly, easiness comes with cumbrance!" (krachkovskiy, 2014: sura "al-sharh" ayats 5, 6). it is necessary here to pay attention to the inviolability of the stated thesis, emphasized by all the means of language, which are not so colorfully as in the original version, but, nevertheless, reproduced in the translation, "indeed", "truly", repetition "easiness comes with cumbrance". the analysed sources also pay attention to man’s amazing feature to forget very quickly what seemed to be the biggest problem yesterday, for the favorable solution of which he was ready to sacrifice a lot: "and when evil touches man, he cries out to us on his side, or sitting or standing; when we remove the evil that befell him, he passes by as if he never invocated us against the evil that touched him ... " (krachkovskiy, 2014: sura" yunus ", ayat 12). there is the following curious fragment about the trials in muslim religious sources. "once adam was shown all his offspring, which would appear after it. among them he found the lepers and the blind, and many other people in anguish. surprised, he asked the almighty: "oh my lord, why have you done so with my offspring?". and the almighty said: "for you to know how to be grateful to my mercy" (kathir, 2012). thus, in the existence of physical or mental hardship the greatest moral is concluded. firstly, a person begins to pay attention to goodness only after he or she faces with its absence or limitation. secondly, for having goodness we ought to enclose gratitude. it is necessary here to add a very important, in our view, component, which can be attributed to the concept of gratitude: having realized that we possess and use some goodness, we have to protect it. returning to the question of the place and role of trials, it is necessary to mark the presence of the following significant ayats of the koran: "we will surely make you suffer from fear, hunger, aminov et al. and loss of wealth, people and fruit. do gladden the patient ones..." (kuliev, 2012: sura "albaqara" ayat 155). "any misfortune that occurs on the ground and to you was recorded in the scripture before we had done it. indeed, it is easy for allah. we told you this not to make you feel upset about what you missed and not to make you feel happy about what he gave you. allah does not like arrogant boasters" (kuliev, 2012: sura "al-hadid" ayats 22, 23). these excerpts reflect the nature of our existence clearly and eloquently. they reveal that the presence of trials is inevitable and natural (kobasa & puccetti 1983). they point to the necessity of the perceived and wise patience in the face of regulated. and since what is happening around us and with us does not go beyond the regulated and inevitable, commits it to avoid manifestations of excessive grief and jubilation (saida, 2015). it is a very insightful and useful fact that regulations to show endurance promote the formation of a special motivation: hardships which we experience nobly purify from human sinfulness and raise man to new levels of spiritual perfection. however, no matter how hard trials that befall on man may seem, everyone is given to carry what he or she is able to (qualitatively and quantitatively). the trial is prepared for each person; the one that will best show the nature of the particular individual (or society): "there is nothing allah imposes on soul but an opportunity. for it – what it got, and against it – what it got for itself... ". and: "... we lay on the soul only accomplishable for it... "(krachkovskiy, 2014: sura "al-araf ", ayat 42). thus, nobody can even think about the fact that an excessive burden befell him or her, or the biggest trials fell to a person: individual abilities and needs sufficiently attach to each of us concerned with the need to go through the purifying redemption or show our true nature. one of the most striking aspects of the educational presence of physical, moral and psychological trials is the proclamation in the sources that the criterion of "good bad" and, therefore, "good evil" is not a personal human experience. on this subject the koran says: "... and perhaps you hate a thing and it is good for you, and perhaps you love a thing and it is evil for you, verily, allah knows but you do not!" (kuliev, 2012; sura "al-baqarah" ayat 216). or: "... maybe there is something you hate, but allah gave this great blessing" (krachkovskiy 2014; sura "al-nisa", ayat 19). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 266-282 the founder of the enlightened optimism g.w. leibniz had similar reflections. he stated that evil only highlights and shades good. after all, "...evil is not evil in itself ... yet the nature is able to make something better from the evil done, so that all the same the result is good, much better than if everything were different; otherwise, the nature would not have allowed it" (leibniz, 1982). we assume that both the resources under consideration and leibniz are far from fatalism, in our opinion, they are more realistic. not by chance, one of the great muslim thinkers of india, ahmad al-faruqi al-sirhindi in his "letters" wrote: "do know that all the pain and misery, which are clearly perceived by us as bitter trials are inherently sweet feeding the spiritual component of human. this is because the soul and body are extreme opposites, and something that causes pain to one component, inevitably brings delight for the other". and: "... delight and pain in this world below are of two types: physical and spiritual. everything that gives delight to a physical component is detrimental to the spiritual (human) one, equally, all that is perceived painful by physicality, strengthens the spiritual component... and if one looks closely, a person will find out that without pain, shock and illness this mortal world would not worth a barley seed. indeed, it is shock and misery that truly allow to dispel the darkness of this world, when sometimes the bitterness of trials is similar to bitterness of a useful drug in treating a disease..." (sirhindi, letter 159 and 64). therefore, even the greatest pain associated with death and the loss of a loved one, the highest wisdom prescribes to endure, showing dignity and firmness: "... woe of loss for the deceased, though being very heavy sometimes, yet it requires human manifestations of contentment that comes from the truth... truly, we are not made for an everlasting presence in this world below: we are here only for work. and if so, then we must persist in it. and when the person passes away in relation to who we hope for charity – there is nothing to fear..." (sirhindi letter 104). being surprised that human nature almost always pays attention to the only physical sensations, ahmad al-faruqi notes: "verily, when a person perceives any physical infirmity or some part of his body is broken by illness, he makes all his strength for the release of weakness and escaping disease. when heart disease seizes a person entirely, which is represented as affection to something, apart from the truth ... – he even neither thinks about how to get rid of this condition nor aspires to cure it. aminov et al. and if someone does not know that such affection is a disease, he or she is a very trivial person. if someone knows about it, but does not attach any importance to this, he or she is simply a fool. to realize that it is a disease, one must have the intellect directed to eternity, because the mind of everyday life, occupied by only the knowledge of external categories, does not go on an analysis of the deep essence of what is happening..." (sirhindi, letter 219). another important idea, which draws attention to muslim sources are different abnormalities in physical and mental health. such deviations are one of the most difficult types of both physical and moral and psychological trials, not only for a person, but also for society (lasarus and folkman, 1984). it is remarkable that the references of these cases in the koran do not presuppose such direct physical meanings, but refer to moral or spiritual lameness. for instance, deafness and blindness, in particular, is used in the sense of closeness to the obvious truths. "the visual signs from your lord already came to you. who saw, he went for the benefit of himself and who was blind, he hurt himself..." (kuliev, 2012; sura "al-an'am", ayat 104). or: "have not they traveled around the world, with their hearts, by means of which they could understand, and their ears, by means of which they could listen? indeed, it is not the eyes that grow blind but hearts in the breasts" (kuliev, 2012; sura "al-hajj", ayat 46). moreover, people in the koran are not divided according to their physical symptoms. saying to humanity such words as "o man!", "o people! ", "o believers!", the creator teaches understanding of our belonging to one human family, where the criterion of superiority of one over the other is only the degree of spiritual perfection. in the proclamation of such a position, on the one hand – the support of the people themselves, overcome by illness, and on the other – the upbringing of physically healthy part of society: the physical side is only a part of an individual, and is not the crucial one. in one of the hadiths on the subject we came across the following: "verily, the creator does not look at your appearance or wealth. he casts eyes upon your heart and your deeds" (kathir 2012). the common phenomenon, especially among young people, is an incorrect and even rude attitude towards people who are in critical condition of permanent overcoming of life's difficulties with physical health disabilities. taunts are particularly painful and even blasphemous, as they relate to people with disabilities (nagy and nix, 1989). one must remember that the physical wounds are tolerated easier and forgotten faster than the wounds of the word, affecting someone's honor and dignity (qualifications systems, 2006). a significant journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 266-282 factor in this regard is a call to maintain a healthy climate in society, avoiding mockery and ridicule. in one of the ayats it is being cited: "... let some people not mock the others, they might be better than them!... do not disgrace yourselves and call names..." (krachkovskii 2014; sura "al-hujurat", ayat 11). quite often muslim sources lift the veil of the laws of existence, which simple human logic is not able to comprehend. they teach, in particular, that the degree of divine support and human destiny (rizk), manifested in the material prosperity, the birth of children, the opportunities to acquire knowledge, to enjoy the physical and mental health is directly dependent on how we support our sick and washy people. in the hadiths the following is being said about it: "is there any other way except through your weak people, that (divine) support and livelihood are granted to you?". in another hadith the following is being said on this occasion: "verily, the creator supports this society by means of the most infirm people in it: through their invocations, prayers and sincerity". and also: "show mercy to those on earth, and then you will be shown the mercy of the one who is in heaven" (bukhari). these morals form a special relationship not only to people with disabilities, but also to the fact of the presence of abnormalities in the health of the people. such trials both the physical and the moral and psychological plan are miraculously linked to the overall well-being ("divine support", "livelihood", "a manifestation of mercy") for society. it is natural in this case to educate a caring, highly ethical attitude towards the weak and helpless people (greening, 1992). here are a few educational and instructive examples of ethics of building relationships with the representatives of the so-called group of people with disabilities (magsumov, 2014, 2016). for example in the hadiths it is said that: "one time a woman came up to muhammad and said,"i suffer from epilepsy, and sometimes when i am overtaken by an attack, i fall and become bare. appeal to the creator on behalf of me!" then the prophet said: "if you are unable to tolerate your illness, the reward for you will be a paradise, but if you wish, i will pray the almighty about your healing." the woman said: "i’d better endure," but then added: "pray to god that i (at least) will not get bare while healing." and he prayed for her request" (the search for use). today the practice of inclusive education is being actively developed and implemented in russia and the world (shesterkina, 2015). but this practice has been known to mankind since ancient times. facts testify that among muslims people with disabilities were on purpose actively involved in public life already about one and a half thousand years ago (aminov, 2014b). this aminov et al. enabled to achieve a double effect. on the one hand, these conditions helped the sick cope with a difficult life situation, being involved in the performing of some social functions (akhmetshin, et al.,2017). on the other hand, performing some socially important functions, by their example, they showed an instructive lesson to those who did not notice the possession of a priceless gift: just being intact. thus, muhammad one of his modest contemporaries named abdullah ibn umm maktoum, put in charge of muezzin who carried his mission with honor and responsibility to proclaim the call to prayer. moreover, despite his blindness, the prophet repeatedly left him to act as a governor of medin during the prophet’s absence. or choosing the most appropriate representative of his community to the role of an ambassador to the inhabitants of yemen, the prophet stopped on the individual mu'az ibn jabal despite his lameness. in an accompanying letter, about this man, he writes: "i am sending to you the most dignified person of my surroundings". the famous teacher abd allah ibn abbas has been engaged in pedagogical activities for many years, despite his blindness. teaching a huge number of students the tricks of interpretations of scripture, he says: "let my eyes do not emit light it is shining now with words. i am given bright mind as a reward and the ability to strike speeches ..." (islamic view on people with special needs, source from web site). it is curious that the whole galaxy of famous scholars in the islamic world became history by reference to their physical features. to what extent is the practice of such manifestations wise when physical features are linked to the outstanding achievements of a person, against which any illness loses all meaning. how serious is the support for those who is also examined by such illnesses! these examples form their sense of self-confidence and the ability to serve the society on an equal basis with others. it is also important to note that the sources we study also contain practical advice to man caught in a difficult life situation and experiencing the individual crises in this state, which are often expressed in outburst of emotions. in one of the hadiths the following recommendations are found to curb, in particular, attack and anger. "if the anger invaded any of you, sit down. if after that the anger did not pass away, then lie down". or, "truly, the anger comes from satan. satan was created from fire, which is extinguished by water. so when the anger invaded any of you, let him perform an ablution" (search for use). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 266-282 discussion, conclusion and implications the sources indicate that a person cannot qualify for the integrity and objectivity of his or her knowledge, comprehension of simple cause-and-effect relationships of all the circumstances happening to him or her. in these circumstances, an individual must learn to develop an adequate attitude towards the fact of the presence of the hardships and troubles when they would be perceived as an inevitable part of being called upon to play the role of a trial and purification. complex circumstances perceived by a person as something unsatisfying, inevitably embody some kind of good. moreover, the types of benefits may not be apparent, except by passing the "painful circumstances." in other words, "there would be no happiness in disguise." trials must certainly be seen as an instructive lesson which must not be forgotten. and the moral must be drawn both from their own and others' experiences, showing gratitude for the goodness available and preserving it. in this case, a person should be sure that trials fallen on him do not exceed his abilities and are intended to show his nature, which may be unknown even to the person. religious sources teach that the real value of a person is not associated with physical perfection, it is evident in his moral character and spiritual component. an important factor in the moral support of people facing trial in the form of physical abnormalities in health is to maintain a good climate in society and the inadmissibility of ridicule. it is very significant both for the people who need special care, and for society as a whole is active involving in full life of society with all its components. on of the key points is that society has the right to count on the support and care, as long as it supports and protects the most infirm of its members. muslim religious sources contain practical advice to man caught in a difficult situation and experiencing the individual crises in this state, which are often expressed in an outburst of emotion. it is necessary to note that recommended in religious sources measures to overcoming emotional outburst coincide with the recommendations of modern educators and psychologists, one of the first components of which are also relaxing procedures. these procedures are connected, in particular, with alternating physical loads and relaxation, changes in body position and the use of water treatments. an educational potential of sources in general and possible ways of overcoming physical and moral and psychological trials, in particular, are manifested quite aminov et al. visibly, widely and comprehensively. reflections on the set in the problem lead to the conclusion that the ideas drawn in the muslim religious sources do not conflict but correspond with the statements accumulated by both pedagogical and psychological sciences. in addition, the positions concerning the theory of knowledge and the foundations of ethics, the sources of human knowledge, the adequacy of human perception and the criteria of evaluation of events, the boundaries of knowledge and the factors that could expand them, questions of good and evil, harm and benefit, norms and deviations, are very interesting. there is no doubt that the experts’ knowing on such issues with the point of view of the discussed sources, will make a positive contribution to the development of both basic and special studies. references abu hamid muhammad bnu bnu muhammad al’-ghazali. (2006). the beginning of a righteous path. ufa: bgpu. abu hamid muhammad ibn muhammad al’-ghazali at-tusi. (2007). the highest of aspirations in the disclosure of meanings of the beautiful names of allah. ufa: bgpu. akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. ahmad al-faruqi al-sirhindi (2015). maktubat. kair. abduali, b., konuratbayeva, z. m., abikenova, g. t., karipzhanova, g. t., sagdieva, r. k., husnutdinov, d. h., giniyatullina, l. m. (2017). historical and linguistic system of turkic names and some specific features of creating vocabulary. man in india, 97(18), 443-456. alekseev, d.v. (2017). otkrytoe plyuralisticheskoe obshchestvo kak al'ternativa mul'tikul'turalizmu [open pluralistic society as alternative to multiculturalism]. sovremennye issledovaniya sotsialnykh problem [russian journal of humanities], 9 (3): 225-243. doi: 10.12731/2077-1770-2017-3-225-243 aminov, t.м. (2014a). system of professional education in regions of pre-revolutionary russia (through the example of bashkiria). voprosy obrazovaniya, 3: 244-262. https://doi.org/10.12731/2077-1770-2017-3-225-243 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 266-282 aminov, t.m. (2014b). the structure and logic of the pedagogical process as the basis of the conception of historical and actual pedagogical research. life science journal, 11 (11): 544-547. aminov, t.m. & aminova, l.y. (2002). muslim teacher education in pre-revolutionary russia. pedagogika, 1: 89-94. andreeva, v.v. & vsevolodova, y.v. (1999). the phenomenon of endurance in the psychological preparation of an athlete. teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul’tury, 10: 31-33. aydarova, s. h., giniyatullina, l. m., sagdieva, r. k., husnutdinov, d. h., mirzagitov, r. h., & gabidullina, f. i. (2017). models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) bakanova, a.a. (2008). attitude to death and overcoming crisis situations: kollektivnaya monografiya. st. petersburg: izd-vo rgpu im. a.i. gertsena [in russian]. baytak, a., tarman, b., & ayas, c. (2011). experiencing technology integration in education: children's perceptions. international electronic journal of elementary education, 3(2), 139-151. bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) cherkasov, a.a. & smigel, m. (2016). public education in the russian empire during the last third of the xix century: parish schools. european journal of contemporary education, (4), 18: 418-429. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2016.18.418 fedorov, a. (2014). commitment to asia. the russian academic journal, 28(2). doi:10.15535/267 gabidullina, f. i., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). islam motives in sagit suncheley's works. man in india, 97(10), 311-316. grant, r. (2002). contemporary strategy analysis: concepts, techniques, applications. 4th ed. blackwell publishers. greening, t. (1992). existential challenges and responses. the humanistic psychologist, 1: 111115. ibn kathir. (2012). stories about the prophets. moscow: umma. ivantsov, v.g., cherkasov, a.a., tarakanov, v.v., molchanova, v.s. & natolochnaya, o.v. (2015). russian and foreign authors of the late 18th 19th centuries on the north-west https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2016.18.418 aminov et al. and central caucasus (the historiographical and historical aspects): part 1. bylye gody. (1), 35: 70-80. islamic view on people with special needs [source from web site]. retrieved march 10, 2018, from: http://www.saaid.net/arabic/289.htm, free [in arabic]. khramova, k.v. & azamatov, d.m. (2012). samosoznanie i vera: vliyanie traditsionnykh i netraditsionnykh konfessii na lichnost' sovremennoi molodezhi (na primere respubliki bashkortostan) [consciousness and faith: the influence of traditional and nontraditional denominations on personality of modern youth (for example, the republic of bashkortostan)]. sovremennye issledovaniya sotsialnykh problem [russian journal of education and psychology], 3: 23 [in russian]. khuziakhmetov a.n., aminov t.m. & yesnazarova u.a. (2016). madrasahs as vocational educational institutions in the regions of pre-revolutionary russia. international journal of environmental & science education, 11 (3): 195-205. krachkovskii, i. (2014). the translation of the quran with the arrangement of the surahs in the order of their revelation from on high. moscow: mera [in russian]. kubler-ross, e. (1974). questions and answers about dying and death. new york: macmillan. kuliyev, e. (2012). quran. translation of the meanings and commentaries. moscow: eksmo [in russian]. kobasa, s.c. & puccetti, m.c. (1983). personality and social resources in stress resistence. j. of personality and social psychology, 4(45). lasarus, r.s. & folkman, s. (1984). stress, appraisal and coping. new york: springer publishing company. leibniz, g.v. (1982). on the issue of predestination. works in 4 v. v. 1. moscow. magsumov, t.a. (2014). main approaches to the study of historical and educational process. bylye gody, (4), 34: 720-726. magsumov, t.a. (2016). the jigets: a great history of a small people. rusin, (3), 45: 247-253. doi: 10.17223/18572685/45/17 magsumov, t.a. & kornilova, i.v. (2015). book in the sociocultural history of the east of the russian empire. bylye gody, (1), 35: 211-214. mukhametzyanova, a.kh. (2015). obraz uchitelya-nastavnika v klassicheskoi vostochnoi i tyurko-tatarskoi sufiiskoi poezii [the image of the teacher-mentor in classical eastern https://doi.org/10.17223/18572685/45/17 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 266-282 and turkic-tatar sufi poetry]. v mire nauchnykh otkrytii [siberian journal of life sciences and agriculture], 11 (71): 249-254 [in russian]. nagy, st. & nix, ch.l. (1989). relations between preventive health behavior and hardiness. psychological reports, 1 (65): 339-345. qualifications systems (2006). bridges to lifelong learning. oecd, 2006. rush, m.c., schoael, w.a. & barnard, s.m. (1995). psychological resiliency in the public sector: "hardiness" and pressure for change. journal of vocational behavior, 46 (1): 1739. sahih muslim. muslim ibn al-hajjaj [electronic resource]. retrieved march 10, 2018, from: http: //library.islamweb.net/hadith/hadithservices.php? type = 1 & cid = 2079 & sid = 4396 [in arabic]. sahih al’-bukhari [electronic resource]. retrieved march 10, 2018, from: http://library.islamweb.net/newlibrary/display_book.php?flag=1&bk_no=79&id=10404 [in arabic]. search for use [electronic resource]. retrieved march 10, 2018, from: http://www.saaid.net/arabic/289.htm, free [in arabic]. saida z.t. (2015). teoreticheskie i ideinye istochniki filosofii ibn siny po probleme razuma i very [theoretical and ideological sources of philosophy of ibn cynna on a problem of reason and belief]. sovremennye issledovaniya sotsialnykh problem [russian journal of education and psychology], 1 (45): 322-328 [in russian]. doi: 10.12731/2218-74052015-1-5 shesterkina, n.v. (2015). sushchnost' religioznykh verovanii kak chast' dukhovnoi kul'tury [essence of religious beliefs as part of spiritual culture]. sovremennye issledovaniya sotsialnykh problem [russian journal of humanities], 4 (24): 219-243 [in russian]. šmigel, m., cherkasov, a. & kmet, m. (2017). life and traditions of caucasian circassians: historical-comparative probe of travelogues of european travellers from the beginning of the 16thcentury to the half of the 19thcentury. muzeologia a kulturne dedicstvo, 5 (2): 2950. smilianski, m.d. & sparks, s. (1994). a new way of working with youth in high risk environments. children today, 3: 12-17. https://doi.org/10.12731/2218-7405-2015-1-5 https://doi.org/10.12731/2218-7405-2015-1-5 aminov et al. tarman, b., & yigit, m. f. (2013). turkish economy and vocational education system: regressive or progressive? energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 5(1), 159-170. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2), 26-53 immigrant mothers with preschool children in northern cyprus and their attitudes towards their children1 şermin kuset2 & çağla gür3 abstract this study examined the attitudes of immigrant mothers with preschool children in northern cyprus towards their children from the points of view of mothers and teachers. the results were categorized under three main themes, which were “communication,” “discipline,” and “adaptation.” the study employed the case study method, which is one of the qualitative research methods. it was conducted with 35 immigrant mothers with preschool children and seven classroom teachers working in the preschool attended by the children. the researcher assumed the role of an observer in addition to collecting data. the mothers included in the study had lived in northern cyprus for eight years or less and were not citizens of the turkish republic of northern cyprus. the data, obtained through face-to-face interviews and observations, were analyzed using the descriptive analysis technique. the study concludes that immigrant mothers with preschoolers living in northern cyprus need support in terms of how to communicate effectively with and discipline their children and how to adapt to society. also, our findings indicate that mothers are open to improvement when they receive support. on the other hand, it was observed that the support they received was only from their school. therefore, the experience and qualifications of school administrators and teachers affect the support that parents receive, and if the administrators and teachers are not well equipped or interested, immigrant parents needing support may fail to improve themselves and to develop effective parenting skills. keywords: immigrant mothers, preschool, education, children, cyprus. introduction the island of cyprus is constantly affected by the phenomenon of immigration and is described in many sources as an island of immigration (bağışkan, 2005; keser, 2006). the presence of the immigrant workforce is evident in northern cyprus (göynüklü, 2012). when the immigrant population living on this island is analyzed, it is seen that there are immigrants from turkey, pakistan, turkmenistan, philippines, china, vietnam, azerbaijan, kyrgyzstan, bangladesh, 1 this study was extracted from the first author's master's thesis. 2 phd student, near east university, serminkuset@gmail.com; orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7629-631x 3assoc.prof.dr., cyprus international university, cgur@ciu.edu.tr; orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0045-5158 mailto:serminkuset@gmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7629-631x mailto:cgur@ciu.edu.tr https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0045-5158 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 kazakhstan, and african countries (göynüklü, 2012). considering the immigrant population in northern cyprus, it can be said that most of the immigrants are from turkey. the reason for this is thought to be the short distance between turkey and northern cyprus as well as the use of the same language (turkish) in both countries (cağlayan, 2006). considering the professions of the immigrants, it is seen that most of them are employed in sectors such as construction, industry, agriculture, service, home services, and cleaning services as shop assistants, gardeners, cleaning staff, waiters, tailors, drivers, etc. (göynüklü, 2012). immigrants, regardless of their country of origin, face challenges related to cultural differences and adaptation to a new country. they carry with them the values, rules, structures, and parenting styles of their own culture. hence, intercultural interaction between immigrants’ culture and the culture of the receiving country may take place. studies related to cultural adaptation indicate that immigrants adapt many values and behaviors of their own culture to the receiving culture (peterson et al., 2003; lordoglu & etiler, 2014). each culture has a unique structure. social structure, social rules, and social values shape individuals' parenting styles. for this reason, parenting can vary across cultures. in the new culture, certain values, behaviors, and processes, as well as parenting styles, may need to be reshaped. needs, implications of cross-cultural situations, and expectations can shape parenting styles. parenting styles can be discussed under three headings: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive (sorkhabi, 2005). in the authoritative parenting style, there are rigid, inflexible rules for the child, who is expected to be obedient, and parents are demanding but not responsive to their children. in the authoritarian parenting style, there are rules and boundaries but also behavioral autonomy for the child, and parents are demanding and responsive. in the permissive parenting style, there are hardly any boundaries and rules for the child, and parents are not demanding but responsive (sorkhabi, 2005). cross-cultural interaction not only shapes parenting styles but also affects parents' problem-solving methods. the parent-child relationship is an aspect that helps to see cross-cultural differences and adaptation. not only do parenting practices vary across cultures but also the opinion about the best parenting style can also differ from culture to culture (zevulun et al., 2019). in addition to culture, education level, environment, and socio-economic status can also have an impact on parenting practices (gür et al., 2018). furthermore, parenting styles and parents' behaviors can also be affected by the poor conditions under which parents live. kuset & gür 28 it is known that children are affected the most by immigration and have difficulties adapting to a new environment. in the receiving country, children encounter a new education system, a new social life, and a different language and culture. they are greatly affected by the socio-cultural differences brought about by immigration and, therefore, experience serious adaptation problems (lordoğlu & etiler, 2014; şişman & balun, 2020). young children usually fail to express these challenges, and with the advancing age, their feelings and emotions about these challenges can become a part of their identities. for this reason, the behaviors and impressions of mothers and teachers with whom children spend the most time are important. considering that these children will become adults of the future and based on the importance of the healthy upbringing of children, it should be accepted that providing the necessary support for children and their parents is a must. the support to be provided to immigrant families should not bring to mind financial support alone. it can be said that there is a need to improve the support provided to immigrant parents. and this is only possible through studies that reveal their needs, especially studies to be conducted with effective communication with immigrants. studies to be conducted with immigrant children and their parents are expected to guide experts as well as policymakers and practitioners in this field on the measures to be taken and the strategies to be developed. literature review the preschool period covering the ages of 0-6 is the process in which the foundation of learning is built. the most important people in the life of the child in this period are teachers and parents (lindberg & oğuz, 2016). the preschool period is a critical period for personality development; therefore, for children to grow up as self-confident and healthy individuals, special attention should be paid to education in this period (can & serençelik, 2017; gür, 2018). for children to grow into healthy adults and develop positive attitudes towards learning, they must receive support from their environment (ministry of national education, 2013). this is an even greater need for immigrant children. immigrant children attending preschools experience problems related to the language and culture of the new country and adaptation to the new culture (gür et al., 2018). on the other hand, the priority of immigrant parents is to work and to meet their food and shelter needs (gür et al., 2018; journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 campbell, 2008). when teachers summon immigrant parents to the school to discuss children's problems or academic achievement and to get their support, immigrant parents often remain indifferent to the school and their children's education (gür et al., 2018; campbell, 2008). immigrant children are not only deprived of necessary educational materials but also do not receive sufficient attention due to the location of their housing and crowded families (gür et al., 2018; gür, 2017) parents’ attitudes towards their children affect their future behaviors in society. in other words, children’s future expectations, self-efficacy, education, career, success, status, communication skills, and parental skills in the future are affected by the way they are treated by their parents. therefore, it can be stated that the awareness of parents on this issue should be increased; in other words, parent training is necessary. parent training is defined as a program aimed at developing healthy relationships between parents and their children and guiding parents in child development and education (gürsoy & yıldız bıçakçı, 2007). parent training enables parents to improve their relationships with their children and aims to reduce child neglect and abuse as well as preventing the development of undesirable behaviors in children. besides, it contributes to supporting children in all areas of development (child welfare information gateway, 2013). it is, therefore, of great importance that parent training is carried out in line with parents’ needs. for immigrant populations, parents’ age at arrival, education level, income, and cultural background play an important role in their parenting behaviors. being uneducated and having a lower socioeconomic status means more and greater challenges to face in the adaptation period (gür, 2017). parents’ age is another factor with great influence. parents who migrate when they are adults and never attend school in the receiving country become confused about what to expect of their own children in the new cultural context (glick et al., 2012). cultural background is another factor that shapes parenting attitudes. while some parenting values are universally shared (basic emotional needs of young children, caring, keeping the child safe, learning the language of the receiving country, etc.), some are different (bornstein, 1995). for example, while some cultures give importance to academic success and self-reliance, others may attach greater importance to close relationships with siblings and relatives (glick et al., 2012). challenges affect thoughts and behaviors, and life experiences prepare the ground for different perspectives in life (çift & canan, 2016). immigrant parents face not only challenges related to kuset & gür 30 their own acculturation but also play a special role for their children; their interaction with society shapes their attitudes towards their children immensely. difficulties they face, their needs, and the support they receive from the environment dictate their way of parenting. so, parenting styles may vary among immigrant parents. although immigrants in different countries have similar problems, needs, etc. (sirkeci & yüceşahin, 2020), there may still be differences. therefore, it is important to carry out nationwide research, especially on immigrant children, who will shape the future and become the adults of the future. especially parents’ attitudes towards children affect their future behaviors. the literature review demonstrated that there are very few studies examining immigrant parents and children living in northern cyprus and that no study has been conducted to investigate immigrant parents' attitudes towards their children from the points of view of both parents and teachers. context of the study considering that migration is now a reality in our age, that the first years of a child’s life set the stage for his/her future growth, and that parents' attitudes towards their children affect the next generation, studies to be carried out for immigrant parents with preschool children are highly important. in this context, obtaining information about the way parents communicate with their children, about the discipline strategies they use to manage their children's behaviors, about the challenges they face in adaptation, and about their expectations are important for both developing more effective policies for them and raising immigrant children as healthy and competent individuals. the present study aimed to reveal immigrant mothers’ attitudes towards their children, the difficulties they face, and their expectations, through face-to-face interviews. besides, to obtain in-depth information regarding these issues, interviews were conducted with the teachers of the children, who knew the mothers very well. the fact that the first researcher is a teacher in the kindergarten where the research was conducted and was able to support the statements of the mothers and teachers through observations is a strengthening factor for the research findings. the research was carried out only with mothers to obtain information more easily for reasons that interviewing mothers and summoning them to the school are easier, teachers usually communicate with mothers and fathers are less involved in their children's education. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 method research design the present study employed the phenomenology method, which is one of the qualitative research methods. phenomenology is a powerful research strategy for exploring challenging problems and behaviors (mcmillan, 2000; neubauer, 2019). the data were obtained through face-to-face interviews with the participants. also, the researcher’s observations were used to support the obtained data. face-to-face interviews, conducted with mothers and teachers, were recorded on a voice recorder with permission from the participants. to support the obtained data, observations were made during in-class and out-of-class events held throughout the year with the participation of parents. both interviews and observation are powerful data collection techniques that are frequently used together in qualitative research designs. through open-ended questions, researchers listen to participants as they describe their thoughts and behaviors and try to get the answers with participants’ own words. through observations, researchers obtain knowledge about participants’ natural behaviors (bachman & schutt, 2020). the method preferred in this research was interviews and observation. for a kindergarten teacher who is the first researcher, interviewing and observations can be easily applied and rich data can be obtained. participants the present study was conducted with 35 immigrant mothers with children attending gönyeli fazıl plümer kindergarten affiliated to the ministry of national education and culture of northern cyprus and seven classroom teachers working in the same school. in addition to collecting data, the researcher assumed the role of an observer. the participating mothers had lived in northern cyprus for eight years or less and were not citizens of the turkish republic of northern cyprus. participation in the study was voluntary. the study employed the convenience sampling method, one of the purposive sampling methods. convenience sampling is defined as a method where research data are collected from a conveniently available pool of respondents (singleton & straits, 2005). information-rich cases may not be affected by the sample size; however, the information obtained from the sample should be suitable for the purposes of the research. information-rich cases are the cases where the kuset & gür 32 researcher can obtain as much information as possible for the research. here, there is diversity and depth of information (baltacı, 2018). convenience sampling is based on available, easilyaccessible items. it is one of the most frequently used strategies in qualitative research (baltacı, 2018). it can be difficult to conduct face-to-face interviews with parents and get detailed answers from them. this is because mothers may not want to give detailed answers to a stranger they meet for the first time. it is thought that the same situation may also apply to teachers. besides, in the interviews conducted with people whom the interviewer meets for the first time, time-related problems may arise. also, conducting interviews at a place familiar to and at a time suitable for mothers was thought to be important to reach in-depth and rich information. in this context, it was preferred to interview the mothers and teachers at the school where the researcher taught. demographic characteristics of the mothers, teachers, and the observer are given below: the following sub-headings should be used in this section. table 1 demographic characteristics of teachers code age education y.of experience t1 45 master's degree 24 t2 51 bachelor's degree 30 t3 54 bachelor's degree 29 t4 38 bachelor's degree 16 t5 30 bachelor's degree 10 t6 48 master's degree 28 t7 32 master's degree 12 as can be inferred from table 1, of the seven teachers participating in the study, three have a master's degree and four have a bachelor's degree. besides, all seven of them have teaching experience of 10-30 years and are in the 30-51 age range. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 table 2 demographic characteristics of mothers code age education occupation m1 47 primary school worker m2 34 primary school household labor m3 24 primary school household labor m4 29 primary school household labor m5 40 high school household labor m6 29 secondary school cleaner m7 37 bachelor's degree radiology technician m8 37 primary school household labor m9 34 high school shelf organizer m10 26 primary school household labor m11 26 primary school household labor m12 33 primary school household labor m13 35 primary school household labor m14 38 high school household labor m15 38 primary school household labor m16 37 primary school household labor m17 30 secondary school household labor m18 27 secondary school household labor m19 29 primary school household labor m20 27 secondary school household labor m21 30 secondary school cashier m22 25 high school pastry chef m23 37 high school household labor m24 27 secondary school household labor m25 29 high school household labor m26 29 high school household labor m27 22 secondary school household labor m28 27 secondary school household labor m29 35 primary school household labor m30 40 secondary school household labor m31 30 high school household labor m32 31 primary school household labor m33 39 primary school household labor m34 44 bachelor's degree household labor m35 38 primary school household labor as can be inferred from table 2, the participating immigrant mothers are in the 22-47 age range. sixteen of the mothers are primary school graduates, nine secondary school graduates, eight high school graduates, and two university graduates. twenty-nine are involved in household labor, and six are employed in the private sector. four are kurdish, 16 arab, 11 turkish, one english, one yuruk, one bosnian, and one turkmen. kuset & gür 34 information about the observer the observer, a teacher working in the school where the research was conducted, obtained data through observations and face-to-face interviews. the school where the study was conducted: gönyeli fazıl plümer kindergarten is located in the gönyeli district of nicosia. it is a public kindergarten. the school continues its educational activities with its 186 students, one principal, one deputy principal, nine classrooms, five subjectmatter teachers, one special education teacher, two assistant classroom sisters, one secretary, and three auxiliary staff members. in the kindergarten, education is provided in nine classrooms: "4year-olds" in two classrooms and "5-year-olds" in seven classrooms. the school is a single-story building, and there is a children's playground in its inner courtyard. validity and reliability in the study, firstly, a question pool was created to develop questions to be asked to mothers and teachers. then, five experts were consulted about the questions. after making necessary changes in the questions according to the feedback received from the experts, interview forms were developed for the pilot study, and the questions included here were asked to two mothers and two teachers. after the pilot study, the research process started. in the study, interviews were conducted with both parents and teachers, and the data obtained from the interviews were tried to be supported through observations. the first researcher (who is a teacher at the kindergarten) also observed the mothers at some events such as picnics, meetings, conferences, etc. the researchers analyzed the same qualitative data independently and compared their findings. participating mothers and teachers were asked to confirm their statements. thus, the possibility of misunderstanding was eliminated. creswell (2016) suggests confirming results with participants. similarly, including direct excerpts from interviews is seen as another factor that increases the validity of the research (yıldırım & şimşek, 2018). therefore, direct excerpts from the interviews were included in this study. the fact that interviews were conducted with teachers working with immigrant groups for years increases the transferability of the results to other similar groups. reliability is defined as the extent to which similar results can be obtained in the case that the research is repeated. in this study, interviews were conducted with both mothers and teachers, and the researcher also observed the parents; thus, the study data were supported by the data obtained from different sources. the fact that the researcher is a teacher at the school where the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 study was conducted means that the researcher knew the study group well. the researcher recorded the interviews on a voice recorder, made observations through short videos and photographs, transcribed these records, and took notes during the observations and interviews. the fact that the researcher took detailed notes, recorded the data, and took notes is seen as factors that increase the reliability of the study (creswell, 2016). similarly, using the data triangulation method, coding performed by independent coders, and achieving consensus among coders are among the reliability strategies used in qualitative research (creswell, 2016). data collection prior to the research, permission was obtained from the ministry of education and culture of northern cyprus, and approval was obtained from the ethics committee of the relevant university. since the study was a master's thesis, ethical approval was obtained from the graduate education and research institute. during the interviews, the participating mothers and teachers were asked open-ended questions about the quality of communication between mothers and their children (how they spend time together, whether they spend individual time together, the attitude of the mother when the child is telling her something important), about mothers' discipline strategies, and about the adaptation of the mothers to the environment (the difficulties they face and their expectations). the interviews took 30-40 minutes. the researcher's observations were written in an observation report by taking into account the in-class and out-of-class events held throughout the year with the participation of parents. to comply with the ethical principles, codes were used instead of the participants' names. the interviewed mothers were given codes such as m1, m2, m3, etc., and their names were not specified. similarly, the teachers were given codes such as t1, t2, t3, etc. data analysis the data were analyzed using the descriptive analysis technique. in the descriptive analysis technique, the data are evaluated according to the pre-determined themes, and the obtained results are interpreted (yıldırım & şimşek, 2018). for this research, the data was collected through interviews. observations were used to support the data obtained through interviews. themes were organized considering the questions used in the research process. richer data was obtained by evaluating the observations in this method. kuset & gür 36 findings and discussion this section includes the findings obtained from the analysis of the interview data. results were categorized under three main themes: “communication,” “discipline,” and “adaptation.” each theme is explained below, and excerpts from the interviews, as well as observations, are given. each theme was analyzed for the mothers' statements, the teachers' statements, and observations, respectively. table 3 themes and sub-themes developed during the data analysis themes sub-themes communication individual time active listening time spent at home discipline actions for inappropriate behavior actions for appropriate behavior actions for the rules at home adaptation difficulties expectations communication sub-themes of the “communication” theme were “individual time,” “active listening,” and “time spent at home.” individual time when the mothers' responses to the question, "how do you spend time with your child?" were analyzed, the codes that emerged under the "individual time" sub-theme were "home-based activities" and "not spending individual time." some excerpts from the mothers' responses to this question are as follows: "we always do the same things; we do not do anything other than that. we always sit together and watch tv. we cook together; she helps me with the housework; we make cakes, pastries, etc. " (home-based activities m10). "we don't have much time. sometimes, my husband takes the little one out, and i stay with him at home; then, we switch the children. we play or watch tv at home. by play, i mean, he sometimes journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 plays with his toys, sometimes does a puzzle, sometimes hides and wants me to find him. we sometimes watch the cartoon shows he likes, and sometimes the tv shows that i like." (homebased activities m28). "i can't spend (individual) time with her because we have other children, too. mostly, they spend time together, i can't spare individual time for her. i don't do anything, sometimes they look at books with her older sister. they play together. i'm not doing anything about it, but i care for her” (not spending individual time-m3). from the mothers' responses, it can be inferred that they either do home-based activities with their children or they do not spend any individual time together. in addition, mothers engage in activities such as cooking, playing, and watching tv to spend time with their children. also, some of the children try to involve their mothers in an activity or game they have designed (e.g., hide and seek). mothers who said that they cannot spend time with their children stated that they meet the care needs of their children such as food and cleaning and that they only observe while their older kids support younger ones and do with them activities such as playing games and reading books. it can be said that although mothers do not make special arrangements to spend time with their children, they do the household chores together with their children and thus try to improve their communication with them. similarly, those who stated that they were unable to spend time with their children due to having babies or working said that they asked for the support of their older children and thus improved communication and interaction among children. in this context, although children cannot spend any individual time with their mothers, which is quite common in western culture, they spend this time with their siblings and somehow meet their emotional needs such as being valued and interacting and communicating with others. in short, it is seen that the mothers have found appropriate solutions for spending individual time with their children. active listening when the mothers' responses to the question, "how do you listen to your child when he/she is telling you something?" were analyzed, the codes that emerged under the sub-theme were "listening to communicate with the child" and "evaluating the child's desire to be listened as a negative situation." kuset & gür 38 some excerpts from the mothers' responses that fall under the code, "listening to communicate with the child" are as follows: "i listen to whatever he has to say. i sit and look into his eyes." (m14) " i listen; if it's good, i say it's good; if it's bad, i say it's bad. i try to help him." (m2) on the other hand, some excerpts from the mothers' responses that fall under the code, "evaluating the child's desire to be listened as a negative situation" are as follows: "i try to listen to my son by saying 'okay,' 'don't do that again.' first, i listen to him; then, if i need to react, i react" (m12). "i try to find out if she is lying by looking into her eyes." (m5) "i listen to whatever she has to say. if she misbehaves, i talk to her; if she continues, i punish her.” (m27) it was observed that the mothers who responded negatively to this question evaluated their children's desire to communicate with them not as something ordinary but as a negative situation. in addition, the observer observed that whenever the children asked their mothers to listen to them, they expressed a problem. in this context, taking into account the observations, the following can be stated: in some families, children are aware that their mothers listen to them on many issues. however, the opposite is also observed. especially in crowded families, in families with small babies, or in families with working mothers, the child goes to his/her mother only when there is a problem/something important. time spent at home the mothers' responses to the question, "how do you spend time with your child at home?" revealed that using technological devices as a means of spending time was quite common. some excerpts from the mothers' responses to this question are as follows: "i help him with his homework. i check his homework and correct it if there is a mistake. he (sometimes) does painting. he plays games on the phone until he gets bored but after a while, i take the phone from him." (m16) journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 "we go out to the garden, i take him to the park. he plays games on the phone, watches tv, sometimes. but he usually prefers playing in the park." (m19) "she usually plays with her siblings, not with me. since i have a baby, i can't spare much time for her. she always plays on the phone or watches tv, sometimes i get mad at her." (m6) "we are at home all day long, we cook, etc. she likes to spend time with technological devices. since she has eye problems now, she is allowed (to play games on the telephone) for only one hour a day." (m10) "he usually has a good time, usually on both the phone and the tv. he has a phone, with no sim card, watches youtube on it. he connects to the internet on tv. when i say, 'turn it off,' he sometimes doesn't." (m31) here, it can be stated that technology is used by children in an uncontrolled way in immigrant families, as in many families today. however, it is also seen that children do activities such as spending time in the garden, doing homework, painting, and cooking. from the mothers' responses, it can be inferred that they mostly exhibit permissive attitudes towards their children. the teachers' responses about the quality of the communication of immigrant parents with their children showed that mother-child interaction was insufficient in terms of time spent together, effective communication, and home-based activities. some excerpts from the teachers' responses are as follows: "in families with many children, problems arise with children. they let their children use technology without setting limits. children stay in front of the tv or spend time on the phone for long hours. or, they spend long hours on the street." (t3) "usually, children spend time at home or outside alone or with their siblings. i don't think they spend much time with their parents. they use mobile phones too much for gaming or spending time." (t5) "children spend too much time with phones, televisions, and tablets. at school, they act or speak like the cartoon characters they see on the television and tablets. televisions, tablets, and phones babysit children. parents use technological devices to 'pacify' their children." (t7) kuset & gür 40 the teachers' responses emphasize that parents do not spend quality time with their children and that they let their children use technology in an uncontrolled way. here, it can be stated that teachers think negatively of mothers' communication with children. in this example, it is seen that since teachers evaluated the parenting styles of immigrant mothers within the framework of their own cultural norms, they could not perceive the solutions produced by the mothers correctly and that they interpreted the differences negatively. however, technology addiction and not spending quality time with children are today a common problem all over the world, especially in families with lower educational backgrounds (gür, 2017). nevertheless, it seems that the teachers evaluated this as a problem specific to immigrant families. at a school seminar on the use of technology at home, the observer observed that mothers let their children use technological devices so that they could "spend some quiet time" and that some mothers did not have any problems with their children using technological devices. the observer also observed that while some mothers tried to improve themselves and communicate more effectively with their children by attending school seminars or parent-teacher conferences, some other mothers did not communicate with the school or some attended only a limited number of events, saying that they have to work to make money or that they had younger children to care for. and at these limited number of events which they attended, they remained passive; that is, they did not ask any questions at the seminars, they wanted to leave parent-teacher conferences before they were over, or remained silent in interactive group meetings. the observer got the impression that the mothers who asked questions at seminars, conferences, etc. needed support on how to build effective communication with their children. for example, one of the mothers asked, "what's the harm in my daughter's spending good time with her elder sister instead of me? after all, she plays with her. why is it so important that she spends individual time with me?" while another mother stated at a parent-teacher conference that using technology makes children smarter and prevents children from misbehaving at home, noting that children cannot spend time otherwise, and waited for the teachers' approval. observations that fall under the theme of communication also support the mothers' and teachers' statements. nowadays, the uncontrolled use of technology among children is common. as parents' education level decreases, the rate of uncontrolled use of technology increases. therefore, awareness should be raised in parents so that they can educate their children. according to tuik's (turkish statistical institute) 2015 data, the internet is most commonly used at home (87.1%) journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 (tuik, 2015). according to the results of the study conducted by cakir (2013), many families think that the computer environment is harmful to their children; so, they set some limits and rules. however, the number of families raising awareness in their children regarding the harms of the internet is not very high. raising awareness in children on the subject, teaching them how to use technology correctly, and enabling them to find and adopt new hobbies are important (gür, 2017). this is because the uncontrolled use of technology among children may lead to certain risks such as technology addiction (livingstone, 2003). therefore, it can be said that strong parental support for children is important for preventing and eliminating these risks (ayas & horzum, 2013). the mothers who participated in this study generally had low education and income levels. parents from lower socio-economic backgrounds may have problems in building effective communication with their children (gür, 2017). in this context, it can be stated that mothers need to receive educational support in terms of effective communication skills. on the other hand, teachers also need educational support regarding intercultural differences and the reflection of social problems on immigrant families. hence, training programs, seminars, conferences, etc. to be held by the relevant ministries for teachers can help them make more objective assessments regarding immigrant families and thus, to be of more help to them. discipline the sub-themes of the discipline theme emerged as "actions for inappropriate behaviors," "actions for appropriate behaviors," and "actions for the rules at home." actions for inappropriate behaviors when the mothers' responses to the question, "how do you deal with your child's inappropriate behaviors?" were analyzed, the codes of "punishment" and "consulting the teacher" emerged. some excerpts from the mothers' responses are as follows: "first, i warn him; if he doesn't behave himself, i say 'i will punish you;’ finally, i yell at him. sometimes, i say, 'i'll tell on you to your teacher'" (punishment-m20). "i get angry, i don't want to hit her, but when she continues, i give her a smack on the butt." (punishmentm32) kuset & gür 42 "i say 'don't do that.' if he continues, i punish him by taking away his toys or the mobile phone." (punishment-m12) "i try to talk to him; i consult the teacher and treat him according to the teacher's advice. i do not consider myself very adequate in this regard, so i prefer to consult the teacher"(m-33). it can be stated that the participating mothers preferred to punish their children or consult the teacher in the face of inappropriate behaviors of their children. actions for appropriate behaviors when the mothers' responses to the question, "how do you reward your child's appropriate behaviors?" were analyzed, the codes of "material rewards," "verbal rewards," and "showing interest" emerged. some excerpts from the mothers' responses are as follows: "i ask her if she wants anything from me, then i buy it. if she has made me very happy, i reward her by buying a toy, biscuits, etc." (material rewards-m23) "i say, 'well done, you are so smart.' i try to say nice things." (verbal rewards-m34). "we show interest in her because she likes attracting attention." (showing interest-m11) it can be stated that the participating mothers rewarded their children or showed interest in them when their children behaved appropriately. actions for the rules at home when the mothers' responses to the question, "how do you get your child to follow the rules at home?" were analyzed, the codes of "punishment," "bribing," and "doing nothing" emerged. some excerpts from the mothers' responses are as follows: "i try to get him to follow the rule. when he isn't listening to me, i send him to his room. first i warn him, then i punish him." (punishment-m2) "sometimes i bribe her. you see, we bribe her to do what we tell her to do. otherwise, i can't get her to do what i tell her to do. either i buy something she likes, or i give her the phone or one of her favorite foods." (bribing-m25). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 "he doesn't follow the rules at home, even though i warn him. i'm fed up now; so, i let him do whatever he wants to doi don't do anything." (doing nothing-m35) from the mothers' responses, it can be inferred that they do not use an effective discipline strategy. the teachers, on the other hand, gave the following answers regarding the mothers' discipline strategies: "i think that mothers are overprotective and having problems with setting limits (for their children). some of the mothers do everything their children want." (t2) "the mother thinks that she is disciplining her child by telling on them to their father. they can be either (over)protective or very indifferent to their children. they have problems finding the balance." (t6) "mothers cannot pay sufficient attention to their children. they either do whatever their children want or let them do everything they want." (t7) the teachers' statements seem to be consistent with the mothers' responses. therefore, it can be stated that mothers need support on how to discipline their children. the observer also obtained similar findings in his/her observations of the mothers. during a picnic held on mother's day, the observer found the opportunity to closely monitor a mother's attitudes towards her child and saw that the mother, overly concerned with what/how her child ate, the child's sweating, and falling while playing, was overprotective of her child. the observer also observed during the same picnic that two mothers threatened their children with telling on them to their fathers and that some mothers remained indifferent to their children's inappropriate behaviors. another mother told her child that if he/she behaved him/herself at the picnic, she would buy a bar of chocolate when they went back home. it can be stated that the observer's observations were consistent with the statements of both the mothers and the teachers. baş (2015) found that the information source of most parents about how to raise their children was their parents. lower education levels among immigrant parents usually lead to disadvantages in terms of effective parenting styles (tarricone, 2009). mothers from lower socioeconomic levels may not have the necessary qualifications to guide their children effectively (unicef, 2017). in a study, olcay (2006) concluded that immigrant children were disadvantaged in terms of environmental stimuli offered by the family and suggested implementing programs focusing on kuset & gür 44 the home environment and parenting behaviors. the lower education and socioeconomic levels are, the more likely parents are to have inadequate and incorrect information about “raising the child well” (unicef, 2017), which indicates their need to receive training and guidance in this issue. when the participants' responses regarding the discipline strategies mothers use, as well as the observer's observations, are considered, it can be stated that the mothers do not exhibit strictly authoritative attitudes towards their children. the participants' responses mostly indicated authoritarian or permissive attitudes. also, mothers generally exhibited overprotective attitudes. overprotective attitudes towards children are quite common among parents in northern cyprus, and such attitudes usually increase as the education level decreases. permissive and authoritarian attitudes are observed more than authoritative attitudes among the local people of northern cyprus (çarıklı, 2017). so, there is a cross-cultural interaction here: immigrant parents adopt these attitudes in their own families. most parents aim to raise their children to be competent adults. however, the concept of competence may differ among cultures because cultural values, rules, customs, and life practices are effective in this concept (bernstein, 2016). immigrants are influenced not only by their own culture but also by the receiving culture. therefore, while raising their children, the behaviors that they consider to be natural and correct are shaped by crosscultural interaction, which, in turn, is reflected in their attitudes towards their children (bernstein, 2016). in addition, it can be thought that immigrant mothers usually interact with local people who are in the same lower socio-economic group as immigrants themselves. adaptation the sub-themes of "difficulties" and "expectations" emerged under the theme of "adaptation." difficulties the mothers' responses regarding the difficulties they face led to the emergence of three codes: "loneliness," "cultural adaptation problems," and "hesitations about how to treat the child." some excerpts from the mothers' responses regarding the difficulties they face are as follows: "i'm alone; i can't leave my child anywhere when i have something urgent to do. i have no one but my children. my parents aren't here. my child is asking about her grandparents; i have difficulty answering it." "since we are alone here, we cannot leave the children anywhere when we have to go somewhere. and, i feel ignorant about how to raise my child." (loneliness-m6) journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 "when i first arrived in this country, i was shy because i was a stranger. but now i got used to it. i used to have difficulty when my children were not with me. we had debts, i couldn't bring my children. i had a lot of difficulties here, i didn't have a home, didn't have any properties. but now, thank god, everything is fine. thank god i could bring my children here when i paid my debts. sometimes, i have difficulty adapting to the people here. after all, cultures are different." (cultural adaptation problem-m27) "sometimes, i have difficulty with how to treat my child. there is a big age gap between me and my child. i wish that i were an educated person, that i could have gone to school. (sometimes) i cannot answer my child's questions. for example, he asks some english words. he knows several english words. but i don't. one day, when i couldn't answer a question he asked me and he said, 'mom, you are so ignorant.' my own child said this to me! to be honest, i felt so sad at that moment. i wish i could help with his lessons, i could answer his questions." (hesitations about how to treat the child-m35). some excerpts from the teachers' responses regarding the difficulties faced by the mothers are as follows: "they may be having difficulties adapting to the culture here. some difficulties may arise due to the differences in language, economic levels, education, attitudes towards children. mothers who do not speak turkish have difficulty communicating with the school. some mothers are indifferent to their children. sometimes we meet children who aren't cared for, who are on a poor diet, who wear dirty clothes. for some parents, their children are not a priority as they come here only to save money." (t1) "setting limits, rules, not being able to get the child to listen. parents have difficulties regarding their children's eating habits, sleeping habits, or setting tv or tablet limits. they have a lack of information about how to treat their children. of course, there are so many parents who do not behave like that but that is what i see in general." (t2) it can be stated that the teachers' statements were consistent with those of the mothers because the teachers also underlined cultural adaptation problems, communication difficulties, and the lack of information about how to treat the child. however, these problems can also be seen in other mothers, especially from lower socio-economic and educational backgrounds. kuset & gür 46 during a mid-semester evaluation meeting held for parents, the observer observed that one mother told another mother that she thought the culture in cyprus was very "liberal," that traditions and customs were different from the country where she came from, and that she sometimes had difficulties adapting to the culture. some mothers stated that they had no one to care for their children, so they could not attend school events or activities held for parents and that they were alone in cyprus and asked for support from the school. besides, the observer observed that some mothers had difficulties disciplining their children, that they consulted the teachers, the principal, or the deputy principal about how to treat their children and asked for seminars to be held on this subject. it can be stated that both the mothers' and the teachers' statements, as well as the observations, support each other. it can be said that although the mothers have problems with disciplining their children and they have cultural adaptation problems and hesitations, they try to learn from the school, and they are open to improvement, which means they are trying to do their best. expectations from the interviewed mothers' responses regarding their expectations for their children, two codes emerged: "educational expectations" and "social expectations." some excerpts related to these codes are as follows: "i want my child to receive a good education. it is important to me that she is raised well. if my child has problems at school, i would expect them to be resolved. i'm sending my child to school because i'm expecting her to be better off than i am." (educational expectations-m11), "i want my child to have friends. it is important that he gets along well with his friends because my child usually withdraws into him. i want him to make friends. my child is introverted, i would like his teacher to change this." (social expectations-m20). from these excerpts, it can be inferred that the interviewed mothers expect that their children receive a good education and are cared for at school, that their children's problems at school (if any) are resolved, that their children could make friends at school and that teachers support their children in this regard. briefly, the most important of the mothers' expectations appear to be their expectation of support from the school and teachers. so, now that these are the mothers' journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 expectations, the question, "what are the teachers' expectations from the mothers?" naturally comes to mind. some excerpts from the teachers' responses to this question are as follows: "i expect mothers to socially and culturally adapt to this country and to be in close contact with the school and teachers. it is also important to have educational toys and books appropriate for the child's age at home. (i believe) children should spend quality time with their parents. attaching importance to cooperation between school and parents, working in a coordinated manner, and willingness to solve problems are also among my expectations. just asking questions is not the solution; i think that mothers should continue to make efforts on the subject they need guidance and should regularly exchange ideas (with teachers)." (t4) "i expect them to spend a lot of time with their children and show their children love and care. i expect them to spend quality time with their children." (t5) "i expect them to adapt to the culture of this place and to eliminate the dilemmas their children experience. rather than judging the culture here and trying to change it or just communicating with the people of their own culture, i want them to adapt to the culture (of this country) and to raise their children as individuals who can live in harmony with this culture. besides, i expect them to be sensitive, not to remain indifferent, to their children's educational, emotional, and social needs." (t6) it can be stated that teachers expect mothers to pay close attention to their children, to spend quality time with them, to cooperate with the school, and to adapt to the culture of the country. the observer, on the other hand, observed during parent-teacher conferences that mothers frequently emphasized their children's educational and social needs and asked for support and guidance from teachers. however, even though such problems were voiced, cooperation with teachers was usually not sustained, and efforts to resolve these problems remained inconclusive. in addition to all these, it was observed throughout the academic year that most of the mothers participated in educational activities organized by the school and tried to improve themselves in line with the guidance of teachers, but their efforts could not go beyond taking advice from the school or teachers as they had no other source to receive support from. hence, it can be thought that mothers ask for short-term practical solutions. in this context, rather than face-to-face meetings alone, practical solutions such as informative letters, messages, informative booklets kuset & gür 48 about solving common problems, interaction through whatsapp groups, and online interviews can be used together with face-to-face meetings. thus, mothers can express their efforts to improve themselves and the results they obtain more effectively in face-to-face interviews, and information on the subjects they need support can be provided in a more practical way, as stated above. in this context, it can be said that the support to be provided by the school is needed by these families. based on previous observations and considering that parents need the support to be provided by the school, it can be thought that effective training programs on parental attitudes and behaviors to be offered by schools will contribute to parents in this regard. aydın et al. (2017) stated that factors such as poverty, language problems, inadequate social support, cultural differences, and loneliness negatively affect immigrant mothers and children and underlined the importance of social events where immigrant mothers can socialize. ereş (2015) emphasized the importance of the efforts to be made by school administrators and teachers to support the education of immigrant children. yavuz and mızrak (2016) stated that immigrant children experience educational difficulties and that teachers should receive in-service training to provide a higher quality educational environment for them. in a study investigating the views of teachers, bozan (2014) concluded that teachers' dedicated and devoted efforts are a must in schools with high numbers of immigrants. polat uluocak (2009) emphasized the need for coordinated work among education, health, and social service institutions to ensure immigrant children's adaptation to school. schools are key institutions in the process of immigrants' adaptation to life in a new society (bourgonje, 2010). immigrant families may have varying approaches to issues such as discipline, communication, and parenting attitudes. educational and social support opportunities to be offered to parents are important both for parents' adaptation to the new society and for the healthy upbringing of immigrant children (kowalczyk, 2010; şenses, 2020). also, we must emphasize both the fact that children's behaviors are shaped from a young age and the need to attach importance to the preschool period. therefore, to raise children well, mothers must improve themselves and have awareness of the needs of their children. what is expected from education is not only to provide children with knowledge and skills but also to raise individuals who can sustain the development of society, adapt to the rapidly changing world, and make the desired changes in their environment. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 conclusion and recommendations the present study concludes that immigrant mothers with preschoolers living in northern cyprus need support in terms of how to communicate effectively with and discipline their children and how to adapt to society. our findings indicate that mothers are open to improvement when they receive support and they try to find practical solutions for their problems. on the other hand, it was observed that the support they received was only from their school. therefore, school administrators and teachers’ experience and competencies affect the support that parents receive, and if they are not well equipped or if they remain indifferent, the immigrant parents who need support may fail to improve themselves and to develop effective parenting skills. however, to raise children well, parents must receive educational support, which should not be the responsibility of only schools. in this context, it can be stated that in-service training to be received by teachers and school administrators on immigrant parents and children, as well as seminars and social group work to be offered by various ministries (ministry of national education, ministry of health, etc.), will provide significant benefits. besides, training, courses, or services to be offered by nongovernmental organizations for immigrant mothers to improve themselves in subjects such as how to communicate effectively with their children, how to discipline them, and how to adapt to life in a new society, will provide important advantages. the data obtained in this study are limited to 35 immigrant mothers and seven teachers. nevertheless, based on the data obtained in this study, scales can be developed and more extensive research can be planned. this study can be considered a step for further island-wide research to be conducted with more immigrant mothers. references ayas, t., & horzum, m. b. (2013). internet addiction and internet parental style of primary school students. türk psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik dergisi, 4(39), 46-57. https://doi:10.17066/pdrd.30435 retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/tpdrd/issue/21459/229769 aydın, d., şahin n. & akay, b.(2017). effects of immigration on children’s health. i̇zmir dr. behçet uz çocuk hast. dergisi, 7(1): 8-14. https://doi:10.5222/buchd.2017.008 bachman,r.d. & schutt,r.k. (2020). foundations of research in criminology and criminal justice. usa: sage publications,inc. https://doi:10.17066/pdrd.30435 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/tpdrd/issue/21459/229769 https://doi:10.5222/buchd.2017.008 kuset & gür 50 bağışkan, t.(2005). ottoman turkish artifacts in cyprus (kıbrıs’ta osmanlıtürk eserleri). lefkoşa: kuzey kıbrıs müze dostları derneği yayınları. baltacı, (2018). a conceptual review of sampling methods and sample size problems in qualitative research. journal of bitlis eren university,7(1): 231-274. retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/bitlissos/issue/38061/399955 bernstein, r. (2016). parenting around the world: child-rearing practices in different cultures. uk: touro university of health and human services. bornstein,m.h. (1995). form and function: implications for studies of culture and human development. culture & psychology,1(1):123-137. doi:10.1177/1354067x9511009 bourgonje, p. (2010). education for refugee and asylum-seeking children in oecd countries: case studies from australia, spain, sweden, and the united kingdom. brussels: education international bozan, i̇. (2014). internal migration movements and the effects of migration on education in turkey: a case study (unpublished master thesis). akdeniz university: antalya. campbell,e.k. (2008). moderating poverty: the role of remittances from migration in botswana. africa development, 33(2): 91-115. https:/doi:10.4314/ad.v33i2.57286. retrieved from https://www.ajol.info//index.php/ad/article/view/57286 can, e. & serençelik, g. (2017). the investigation of pre-school education teachers’ participation in school management. dicle university journal of ziya gokalp faculty of education,30, 525-542. https://doi.org/10.14582/duzgef.791 child welfare information gateway. (2013). what is child abuse and neglect? recognizing the signs and symptoms. washington, dc: u.s. department of health and human services, children’s bureau. çakırlı, n. (2017). analysis of child-rearing attitudes and child's self-reliance level that they are between ages 5-6 (unpublished master thesis). eastern mediterranean university: famagusta/trnc. coşkun, y. & baş, a. (2015). comparing the ideas of parents of children in preschool about raising a child. journal of social sciences, 12 (2),195210. retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ksusbd/issue/10293/126264 creswell, j. w. (2016). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods and approaches (araştırma deseni: nitel, nicel ve karma yöntem ve yaklaşımları) (2nd ed.)., ankara: eğiten kitap çağlayan, s.(2006) . migration theories, relationship of migration and emigrant. muğla https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/bitlissos/issue/38061/399955 https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ad/article/view/57286 https://doi.org/10.14582/duzgef.791 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ksusbd/issue/10293/126264 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 university journal of social sciences institute (17),68-91. retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/musbed/issue/23522/250638 çakır, m. (2013). media and modernism (medya ve modernlik).i̇stanbul: parşömen. çift,p. & canan,s. (2016). secrets of the brain (beynin sırları). i̇stanbul: yelken. ereş, f. (2015). problematic of migrant education and diversity management for immigrant education in turkey.yönetimi. çankırı karatekin university social journal, 6(2), 17-30. retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/jiss/issue/25891/272819 göynüklü, c.(2012). human rights of migrant workers in northern cyprus (kuzey kıbrıs’ta göçmen i̇şçilerin i̇nsan hakları). kuzey kıbrıs: kıbrıslı türk i̇nsan hakları vakfı yayınları no: 6. gür,ç., dağaşan, d., bingöl, b. & bayramoğlu, g. (2018). a qualitative study on immigrant mothers and their (0-6 years old) children living in old city-nicosia, trnc.journal of history culture and art research, 7(1):628-646. http://dx.doi.org/10.7596/taksad.v7i1.1432 gür,ç.(2017). gifted children: educational and social-emotional perspectives (eğitimsel ve sosyal-duygusal bakış açılarıyla üstün yetenekli çocuklar). ankara: anı yayıncılık. gür,ç.(2018). erken çocukluk dönemi ve gelişim (in erken çocukluk döneminde gelişim pp1-26, ed.ç.gür). ankara: pegem akademi. glick, j. e., hanish, l. d., yabiku, s. t., & bradley, r. h. (2012). migration timing and parenting practices: contributions to social development in preschoolers with foreign born and native-born mothers. child development, 83(5), 1527–1542. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01789.x gürsoy, f. & yıldız bıçakçı, m. (2007). determining the educational needs of parents of preschoolers (çocuğu okul öncesi eğitim kurumuna devam eden anne babaların eğitim gereksinimlerinin belirlenmesi). symposium on the future of preschool education in the european union process ( avrupa birliği sürecinde okul öncesi eğitimin geleceği sempozyumu). proceeding book,1, 296-310. keser, u.(2006). kıbrıs’ta göç hareketleri ve 1974 sonrasında yaşananlar. çttad, v/12,(bahar):103–128. retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/cttad/issue/25235/266782 kowalczyk, j. (2010). the immigration problem and european education reforms. european education, 42:4, 5-24, https://doi.org/10.2753/eue1056-4934420401 lordoğlu, k., etiler, n. (2014). a limited study on children working at the seasonal https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/musbed/issue/23522/250638 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/jiss/issue/25891/272819 http://dx.doi.org/10.7596/taksad.v7i1.1432 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01789.x https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/cttad/issue/25235/266782 https://doi.org/10.2753/eue1056-4934420401 kuset & gür 52 agricultural work in the western black sea region.çalışma ve toplum, 2, 115-134. retrieved from: https://www.calismatoplum.org/content/pdf/calisma-toplum-1532f262407a.pdf lindberg, e. n. a. & oğuz, k. (2016). family involvement at elementary school: a validity and reliabilitiy study. journal of human sciences, 13(3), 4135-4151. retrieved from https://www.j-humansciences.com/ojs/index.php/ijhs/article/view/3711 livingstone, s. (2003). the changing nature of audiences: from the mass audience to the interactive media user. in a. valdivia (ed.), the blackwell companion to media research(pp. 337-359). oxford: blackwell. mcmillan, j. h. (2000). educational research: fundamentals for the consumer. new york: longman. millî eğitim bakanlığı (meb).(2013). preschool education program (okul öncesi eğitim programı). ankara:temel eğitim genel müdürlüğü. neubauer, b.e., witkop, c.t. & varpio, l. how phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others. perspect med educ 8, 90–97 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-019-0509-2 olcay,s.(2006). parenting practices and preschooler’s cognitive skills in turkish immigrant and german families (unpublished master thesis). koç university: i̇stanbul peterson, g. w., steinmetz, s. k., & wilson, s. m. (2003). introduction: parenting styles in diverse perspectives. marriage & family review, 35(3/4), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1300/j002v35n03_01 polat uluocak,g. (2009). school adjustment of migrant and non-migrant children. dokuz eylül university buca education faculty journal, 26:35-44. retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/deubefd/issue/25438/268405 singleton jr., r. a. & straits b. c., (2005). approaches to social sciences, new york, oxford university press. sirkeci;i̇.& yüceşahin,m.m. (2020). analysing the spread of kovi̇d-19 using human mobility data. göç dergisi, 7 (1), 9–34. https://doi.org/10.33182/gd.v7i1.679 sorkhabi, n. (2005). applicability of baumrind's parent typology to collective cultures: analysis of cultural explanations of parent socialization effects. international journal of behavioral development, 29(6), 552-563. doi:10.1080/016502505001472640 şenses,n. (2020). pro-migrant civil society organisations:changing politics and activities. alternative politics, 12(1),50-78. retrieved from: http://alternatifpolitika.com/eng/site/vol/12/no/1/3-senses-gocmen-odakli-siviltoplum.pdf https://www.calismatoplum.org/content/pdf/calisma-toplum-1532-f262407a.pdf https://www.calismatoplum.org/content/pdf/calisma-toplum-1532-f262407a.pdf https://www.j-humansciences.com/ojs/index.php/ijhs/article/view/3711 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/deubefd/issue/25438/268405 http://alternatifpolitika.com/eng/site/vol/12/no/1/3-senses-gocmen-odakli-sivil-toplum.pdf http://alternatifpolitika.com/eng/site/vol/12/no/1/3-senses-gocmen-odakli-sivil-toplum.pdf journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 26-53 şı̇şman, y & balun, b . (2020). transit migration and turkey. anadolu üniversitesi i̇ktisadi ve i̇dari bilimler fakültesi dergisi , 21 (2) , 61-79 . retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/anadoluibfd/issue/54967/742798 tarricone, i., atti, a.r., salvatori, f. (2009). psychotic symptoms and general health in a socially disadvantaged. international journal of social psychiatry 55(3),203-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764008093445 tüi̇k.(2015). türkiye’de cep telefonu sahipliği oranları, accessed on 07.07.2019:http://www.tuik.gov.tr/veribilgi.do;jsessionid=pgv7vq1svxry93tnvlf g9l5p4bfpwvy2ljny8qcy20d21vlmvl4j!1229636747?alt_id=1062 unicef türkiye (2017). toplumsal koşullar ve aile ortamı. http://www.unicef.org.tr/sayfa.aspx?id=17 accessed on 25.02.2019 yavuz, ö. & mızrak, s. (2016). education of school-age children in emergencies: the case of syrian refugees in turkey. göç dergisi. 3(2), 175-199. https://doi.org/10.33182/gd.v3i2.578 yıldırım, a. & şimşek, h. (2018). qualitative research methods in social sciences (sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri). i̇stanbul: seçkin yayıncılık. zevulun d.; post, w.j.; zijlstra, a.e.; kalverboer, m.e.and knorth, e.j. (2019).the best interests of the child from different cultural perspectives: factors influencing judgements of the quality of child-rearing environment and construct validity of the best interests of the child-questionnaire (bic-q) in kosovo and albania. child indicators research, 12(1):331-351. https://doi:10.1007/s12187-018-9543-6 http://www.unicef.org.tr/sayfa.aspx?id=17 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (4), 149-174 political knowledge and political behavior among highly educated muslims in indonesia ija suntana1 & betty tresnawaty2 abstract the purpose of this paper is to describe the influence of political knowledge on the political behavior of highly educated muslim society in addressing political issues. this research used cohort-based quantitative method through data collection, interviews, and documentation. to collect information from respondents, this research used questionnaire to reveal their political knowledge levels and behaviors. interviews towards respondents were also conducted to directly confirm the information in the questionnaire. this paper presents information that highly educated muslims cannot always be invited to dialogue-based solely on political knowledge in understanding and responding to political issues but must be invited to understand through thinking channels outside of knowledge. there is another dimension that shapes the political attitudes of highly educated muslims in indonesia, in this case, the religious doctrine which is more dominant than knowledge. thus, knowledge is not the main factor in controlling people's actions and attitudes, but only a small part of the accumulation of factors. key words: political knowledge; political attitudes; religious doctrine; highly educated muslim; political behavior introduction highly educated people seem to have high interest in public affairs and have a maturity level of attitude in response to various situations and realities. their educational exposure is a substantial factor in shaping their social insights and attitudes (ančić et al., 2019). political knowledge learned by students in a university is thought to influence their attitudes and insights on everything related to the political dimension and the reality associated with it. however, on the other hand, some researchers conclude that studying political sciences help shape students’ negative perceptions on everything related to politics (oleg & negrove, 2019). the debate about the relationship between human knowledge and behavior continues (agerberg, 2019; graham, 2020; henderson, 2014; nashir et al., 2019; sanbonmatsu, 2003). the theory of “planned behavior” shows that behavior is influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and control 1 assoc. prof., uin sunan gunung djati bandung, ijasuntana@uinsgd.ac.id 2 assist. prof., uin sunan gunung djati bandung, betty.tresnawaty@uinsgd.ac.id mailto:ijasuntana@uinsgd.ac.id mailto:ijasuntana@uinsgd.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 150 of perceived behavior, not by knowledge. according to this theory, there are indications that context-specific local factors have a greater influence on behavioral preference than the knowledge learned (payne, 2016). the theory of “epigenetic rules” mentions that human behavior is formed programmatically by a genetic factor, not by knowledge. these genetic factors affect the human choice to perform or abandon certain actions (caputo, 1998; dupras et al., 2019; squier, 2017; yigit, 2018). it is in line with the socio-psychological theory that the social process forms a particular person's character, behavior, and even level of wealth (zhao et al., 2019). some components of one individual are formed slowly but surely by the social process (beharie et al., 2017; dassonneville et al., 2012). three social components form the self of human: affective components, cognitive components, and conative components. affective is an emotional component; cognitive is an intellectual component, and is a conative component of habit. the relation between knowledge and behavior, especially in political sciences, is the concern of many researchers (jerit & barabas, 2017; pérez, 2015). it is assumed that political education will help prepare the students for their future roles as citizens in the community. political education aims to reverse the wave of declining political participation rates among young age groups, and at the same time nurtures the development of democratic attitudes and behaviors. dassonneville et al. (2012) study the relation of civic knowledge with the political attitude and behavior among students in belgium. the conclusion of the study suggests that generally, the civic education have a positive effect on the political attitude and behavior among adolescents and young adults in belgium. dassonneville distinguishes between formal civic education, open-classroom climate, and active learning strategies, and their relationship to participation. formal civic education (in the form of class instruction) and active learning strategies have a positive relationship with political attitudes and behavior. meanwhile, an open class climate, on the other hand, is significantly related to political belief (persson, 2013). persson examines the correlation between the number of voters involved in political activity and the level of education. in most western countries, the level of education does not cause an increase in the number of voters at the aggregate level. based on a review of the relative (non-formal) education model, it was found that education is only a proxy for social status and has no direct causal effect. meanwhile, relative education has a greater effect on the number of voters than absolute (formal) education (esaiasson & persson, 2014). suntana & tresnawaty a study by esaiasson et al. (2014) reveals that there is a positive relationship between political knowledge and students' actions, especially among students in political sciences (longo et al., 2006). this research denies the planned behavioral theory claiming that knowledge does not correlate with behavior. besides, the study concludes that political science students’ political behavior tends to change compared to students of law and communication. the relation of political knowledge and political attitudes is the focus a research by longo et al. (2006). from extensive interviews longo discovers that students argue that they can only gain the best political competence by practicing democracy. longo's research recommends the expansion of the understanding of non-electoral politics to attract young people to be more politically involved. a study by dominguez et al. (2017) focuses on the relation of students’ majoring in political sciences and their interests in political competition. the research was based on the hypothesis that students who major in political sciences have more interest in political competition than others and are more willing to engage in political action than those in other majors. through the study of 1,083 students in two universities, loyola marymount and san diego university, casey et al. find that senior students of political sciences have a higher interest than new students and higher willingness to join organized groups. previous studies indicate that, in general, political knowledge has a positive relationship with the involvement of those who study political issues and activities. students who study politics are seemed to be more interested in political affairs than those in other fields. this assumption is confirmed otherwise in this article that political knowledge has no positive relationship with political behavior and attitudes. there are other factors beyond the political knowledge that affect the political behavior other than having knowledge of it. many researchers assume that there is a close connection between political knowledge and people’s behavior (braun et al., 2020; hagelin, 2019; lamprianou & antonis, 2019; mnguni et al., 2016; nezlek & catherine, 2019). the relation of knowledge and behavior, especially in political discipline, is of concern to many researchers. dassonneville (2012), investigated the relation between citizenship knowledge and political attitudes and behavior of students in belgium. the conclusion of the study shows that in general, the citizenship education effort has a positive effect on the political attitudes and behavior of adolescents and young adults in belgium. dassonneville (2012) distinguishes between formal civil education, an open-classroom climate, and active learning strategies, and their relationship to participation. formal citizenship education journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 152 (in the form of classroom instruction) and active learning strategies have a positive relationship with political attitudes and behavior. meanwhile, an open classroom climate, on the other hand, is significantly related to political trust. mancosu (2009) examined the correlation between the number of voters involved in political activity and the level of education. in most western countries, the level of education does not cause an increase in the number of voters at the aggregate level. based on a review of the relative education model, it explains that education is only a proxy for social status and has no direct causal effect. meanwhile, education has a relatively more significant effect on the number of voters than absolute education (koçak, 2020; lau et al., 2018; su-hie & ahmad, 2018). another study concludes that there is a positive relationship between political knowledge and the actions of students who study it, especially for political science students. this research directly contradicts the theory of planned behavior, which assumes that knowledge does not correlate with behavior. also, the study concludes that students who study political science are more affected in their political behavior than law and communication students (dominiguez et al., 2017). dominguez et al. examines the connection of political sciences majors to the interests of political competition among the students. the research is based on the hypothesis that students majoring in political sciences have superior interest in political competition than others and stronger willingness to engage in political action than other groups who have not yet studied the field. through a study of 1,083 scholars at two different universities (layola marymount university and san diego), dominguez et al. find that more senior political science students have higher interests than new student groups and are more willing to join organized groups (porter, 2020). from some previous studies, it is concluded that general political knowledge has a positive relation with the political involvement. the students majoring in political sciences conclude that they were more interested in political matters than those who are from the same field. the indonesian public islamic universities in indonesia is a chain university with some distinguishes among them. it is estimated that there are visible differences between students who study political sciences, law, and communication in relation to their attitudes and interests towards politics. a research need to pinpoint these claimed differences to portray the actual data in regards of the civil implications of political knowledge among students of diverse disciplinary backgrounds. suntana & tresnawaty this paper contributes to shorten the current research gap about political behaviors in the society in which knowledge is often considered as the dominant determinant of the attitudes and behaviors of the highly educated. however, even when muslim students study political knowledge and master it, knowledge still cannot determine their political attitudes and behaviors. other factors determine the attitudes and behaviors among highly educated muslims, such as religious doctrines. this paper confirms the validity of the planned behavior theory which states that it is not knowledge but subject norms which influence an individual’s behaviors. this paper also identifies the struggle muslim students face in evaluating political issues objectively because of their belief bias, such as in responding towards democracy issues (bhat, 2019; silalahi & yuwono, 2018). muslim students neither understand democracy objectively nor use the parameter of political knowledge in evaluating democracy. instead, they use religious doctrines. this paper aids politicians and researchers in understanding the reason why political identities among muslim society are strengthening, namely because knowledge is not more dominant than religious doctrines. research questions based on the background study, four research questions were developed to guide the research process, they are: 1) how is participation in political science perceived by the lecturer to see the role of educated muslim in political involvement? 2) how are political issues and religious doctrine perceived to view the role of educated muslim in political involvement? 3) how is the role of political science for life perceived to see the educated muslim in political involvement? 4) how is sensitivity to political development perceived to see the role of educated muslim in political involvement? methods design this study used a descriptive design to which quantitative approach is applied to analyze the data. the purpose of this study is to see level of perception on political knowledge and behavior of educated muslims in politic involvement. as a survey design, this study performs the perceptions in terms of the rate percentage to show the tendency of the respondents in the political evidences. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 154 this study took place in uin bandung, uin jakarta, and uin yogyakarta, for six months, from february to july 2020 (during one active lecture interval in the indonesian education calendar). sample the sample population of this research were 1440 students from political scien ces, law, and communication sciences departments at islamic state universities in bandung, jakarta, and yogyakarta in the academic year of 2018/2019. the random sampling technique determined the research sample. the random sampling technique is a method of collecting samples randomly without considering the levels within the population (sugiyono, 2017). the respondents have similar characteristics that they are all students educated and trained at state islamic universities. the political science curriculum at all state islamic universities in indonesia have similar content because they are all managed by the same ministry, namely the ministry of religion affairs (mora). therefore, this research determined the sample by calculating the number of population and then determining the samples randomly from the population (baidi, 2019). the calculation used isaac and michael’s table and the result based on the population of 1440 students, with the error rate below 1%, determined 450 students as the number of samples. table 1 distribution of sample members variable category frequency percentage gender male 230 51,1 female 225 49,9 sum : 450 100 university uin bandung 169 37,5 uin jakarta 138 30,8 uin yogyakarta 143 31,7 sum: 450 100 department political science 175 38,2 law science 112 24,6 communication science 163 36,2 sum : 450 100 regarding the gender variable, the frequency for males was 230 with a percentage of 51.1%, while the frequency for females was 225 with a percentage of 49.9%. regarding university variables, the frequency of uin bandung 169 with a percentage of 37,5%, the frequency of uin jakarta 138 with a percentage of 30,8%, and the frequency of uin yogyakarta 143 with a percentage 31,7%. regarding department variables, the frequency of political science is 175 with a percentage of suntana & tresnawaty 38.2%, the frequency of law science is 112 with a percentage of 24.6%, and the frequency of communication science is 163 with a percentage of 36.2%. instrument the instrument of this study is a survey questionnaire, which is a written questionnaire in the form of a question or statement that gives respondents the freedom to provide answers and opinions according to their wishes. there are three forms of research questionnaire, namely an open, closed, and semi-open questionnaire. for each questionnaire, five-question items were made multiple. the questionnaire mentioned the profile of the respondents and instructions for filling in. the technique of measuring data through this questionnaire uses a likert scale (appear in table 2). the likert scale is used to measure the attitudes, opinions, and perceptions of a person or group of people about a social phenomenon (sugiyono, 2017). table 2 score table statements score positive (+) negative (-) always 5 1 often 4 2 sometimes 3 3 almost never 2 4 never 1 5 data collection techniques to collect the research questionnaire, the researcher did this through the respondents' whatsapp groups, which had been previously formed and used to send out research questionnaires. this data collection was carried out for fifteen days. six days for collection at uin jakarta, six days for collection at uin yogyakarta, while at uin bandung it is held for five days. at uin jakarta and yogyakarta, researchers appointed volunteers from the lecturers of the two universities to distribute and collect questionnaires again. meanwhile, at uin bandung, researchers directly coordinated sending and returning questionnaires. all respondents sent back the questionnaire that was sent, even though not all respondents filled in the answers in the questionnaire, namely two respondents from uin yogyakarta who did not fill in the answers. data analysis techniques this research used descriptive statistics to describe the basic features of the data in a study. furthermore, the questionnaire received by the researcher was sorted based on university data, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 156 study program, and gender. in particular, the answer data collected from the questionnaire was tabulated for percentage based on each question for description and conclusion. in tabulating, linear statistical analysis was not used but used descriptive statistical techniques. descriptive statistics allow a researcher to quantify and describe the basic characteristics of a data set. as such, descriptive statistics serve as a starting point for data analysis, allowing researchers to organize, simplify, and summarize data. a crosstab or two-way tabulation is used in this research. it shows the proportions of units with distinct values for each of two variables, or cell proportions that represented the characteristic of respondents in muslim students’ political knowledge, muslim students’ political attitudes and behaviors. results and discussion participation in political science lectures participation on politic by lecturers appear in table 3. the table suggests that participation of the lecturer in political science is 100%, law scinces 63%, and communication sciences 72%. table 3 lecture participation number category frequency percentage 1 political sciences 175 100 2 law sciences 70 63 3 communication sciences 117 72 sum : 362 80,4 in majority, respondents in this study attend political science lectures, both students of political science, law, and communication science students. significant data was found among respondents from uin jakarta: the lecture participation of communication students was higher than that of the law students. the results of the poll showed that 72% of communication students attended political sciences lectures, while the respondents surveyed from among law students were below that of the communication sciences students, which was 63%. the result shows that the law students consider politic al science as inconsistent with reality, namely political irregularities. some respondents of law students see some ironies in political science, so it affects their involvement in attending political science lectures. the same trend occurs among uin bandung’s law sciences students, only 24% of respondents who attended political science lectures. it differs significantly from communication students who all take political science lecture. this is similar as the participation of the law students in uin suntana & tresnawaty yogyakarta, whose rate is even lower than that from uin bandung. this result shows a very low level of interest in political science among law science students. meanwhile, communication students have a higher percentage than those from law students, because they view politics from the viewpoint of communication, so political activities are considered as communication engagements (gemeda & lee, 2020; papakyriakopoulos, et al., 2020; vandyke & lee, 2020). students of communication studies view that political communication is the highest appeal of any kinds of public communication. the majority of respondents from the communication science students do not find any ironies in political science, because they do not see it in terms of normative necessity but rather in terms of the communication process in social reality (danilov, 2020; davis, 2020; liu, et al., 2020; mutmainnah & afiyanti, 2019). the involvement of communication students in political lectures is not directly proportional to the mastery of political material. the mastery of communication students in the political science is lower than that of law students. it is estimated the subjects of legal science have bigger common area with political science that those of communication. respondents from the communication sciences only master 5 political science subjects out of the 10 subjects in question, whereas law students master an average of 8 subjects from the 10 subjects in question. it is different from what is collected from among students of political science at uin bandung and uin jakarta. all respondents state that they are involved in political science lectures because political science is an inherent identity in their status and position as students of political science study programs. in terms of mastering the subject of political knowledge, the students of political sciences in average are able to show satisfactory responses to the 10 subjects of political science being asked. see fig.1. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 158 source: the data from survey results as processed by the author there is equitable mastery in terms of mastery of the subject of political science, namely in the subject of democracy. on average, the respondents know the theories related to democracy and related figures. meanwhile, the subject of political science which the respondents show lower mastery is related to the themes of international relations. this finding portrays respondents who lack knowledge of international issues, such as diplomatic theories, political asylum, and several other international relations themes. political issues and religious doctrine several political issues are asked to respondents in three top-tier public islamic universities in indonesia. the issues raised in this study are those concerning the election of public leaders, democracy, the relationship between religion and the state, and legislature. from many issues raised and asked, the issue of the relationship between religion and the state turns out to be the most appealing to respondents. meanwhile, the issue of electing leaders ranks the most desirable political issues and followed by the issues of democracy and legislature, respectively. the respondents’ preference to the issue of the relation between religion and state because is understandable as they are within the education system related to religion. their inherent identity influences attitudes, perspectives, and interests in developing political issues. out of the 30 respondents 24 (42%) show interest in the issue of religion and state relation, both in theory and 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% mastered less mastered not mastered figure 1. political subject mastery political science communication law science suntana & tresnawaty in practice. meanwhile, the issue of democracy is not very attractive to the respondents as only 16% of them declare this (9 out of 30). meanwhile, legislative issues, both as concepts and practices, are of the least interest, with only 6 (10%) people expressing their attraction. the majority of respondents’ high inclination to the relation between religion and the state is a symptom that religious issues are still susceptible among students and also in society in general. not just in developing countries, modern countries that have more advanced religious matters are still a sensitive issues and are of a major concern (kwok, et al., 2020; masuda & yudistira., 2020; singh, 2020). although the role of religion is drastically declining in modern society, especially certain countries in west europa, the issue of its relationship with the state remained a concern of the general people. in sweden, for example, even though religion has lost a remarkable function in the society, the religion-state issues remains the concern of the people (shukri & hossain, 2017). as for turkey, religious and state discourses has not similarly decline from that of the classical turkish era (noble, 2016). the respondents, on the other hand, show no particular concern and do not highly rate democracy issues. they have more preference to elections. this issue is a signal of some cultural and intellectual barriers among respondents specifically and uin students in regards of understanding democracy. it indicates that democracy as a whole still faces obstacles among students. the results of discussions in the focus group discussion with the respondents reveal their ambiguities in accepting democracy acceptance, especially the so-called liberal democracy. the majority of respondents refuse to accept the latter term. see fig.2. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 160 source: the data were processed by authors based on survey results probed with follow-up questions, the majority of the respondents state that it is in contrary to their religious teachings; other respondents answer that they oppose to indonesia’s state ideology (the pancasila). the religious background for the refusal is very high, as much as half of the number of respondents engaged. this data shows that there are still obstacles to the harmonization of religion and democracy within the society, so the assumption that religion and democracy can coexist only in certain aspects, but not in every aspect of social life, as predicted by several researchers (addai-mununkum, 2019; hassell et al., 2019; lăzăroiu, 2018; ogland & bartkowski, 2014). in general, religion and democracy have some barriers to coexist because there are values that cannot be compromised. religion teaches that humans are limited beings, while democracy highlights that humans are free beings. of course, there is a clash of principles, as understood by the majority of the respondents in this study. the acceptance rate liberal democracy differs among the students. respondents from political science show higher acceptance than those from communication and law. in the other hand, the data shows also that the respondents from law sciences students have lesser acceptance than the communication sciences students do. based on the data as presented above, it is argued that political sciences students are more easily to develop liberal thinking than their counterpart from law department. meanwhile, the potential 54% 30% 16% figure 2. attitudes towards liberal democracy reject receive doubt suntana & tresnawaty of developing liberal thinking has even lesser room for communication studies students. however, this data cannot portray whether liberal thoughts will conform to socially liberal attitudes because it is not certain that people who have liberal thinking have corresponding liberal attitudes and actions (ilc, 2017). the percentage of rejection of liberal democracy spreads evenly among students of three different majors from three different universities. the number is pretty much similar at around 30%. this percentage is a snapshot of the typology of students’ refusal against liberal democracy at the state islamic universities. the role of political science for life some research results report that in general, people view politics positively because they view it as a noble knowledge. politics is inherently valuable, because it contains teachings about good governance and management of power, but extrinsically politics can be worthless. several political factors and phenomena cause negative perceptions of politics. people take some poor sociopolitical instances as negative precedence of their view on politics, not based on the inherent nature of politics (ceresola, 2016). based on the results of a poll distributed to students of political science, legal studies, and communication studies at three state islamic universities (bandung, jakarta, and yogyakarta), it shows that negative views on politics reached 10%. also, those who are unclear stance or are doubtful of politics reach 27%. meanwhile, 63% of respondents perceive politics positively. respondents consider that politics is essential, as much as other social supra-structures. the highest percentage of positive views is from political science students, while the lowest is from law science students. law students have more negative perception on politics due to the phenomenon of irregularities in political activities. law students are less critical of political irregularities, while political students are more tolerant of the phenomena. likewise, students of communication studies are more tolerant of political deviations than law students are. negative attitudes towards politics cause social effects towards politics. however, some respondents associate their negative views with religious doctrines taught by authoritative scholars who state that politics is the source of evil. meanwhile, a minority of respondents correlated their views with their lack of understanding of the nature of politics. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 162 negative perceptions of politics that are based on religion have a relation with muhammad abduh's view which states that all political content is bad (el-thalaqani, 2020). negative views also come from the reality of political irregularities, and it is caused by the people’s lack of knowledge of politicians' irregularities, either in the form of corruption or other irregularities. the findings show that the respondents, with various reasons, pessimistically look the behavior of politicians. law students are more pessimistic than politics and communication students. see fig.3. source: the data were processed by authors based on survey results based on the data in the picture above, it appears that in general, respondents show a pessimistic attitude towards political irregularities. they consider that the general politicians are corrupt, hence their negative views on politics and on other matters related to politics. the findings show that the majority of respondents' views on the role of politics in life are connected to the socio-political facts. objectively they view that politics has utility for the human beings. however, upon witnessing massive political irregularities on media or by their own eyes, their objectivity changes through time. sensitivity to political development political students have a high level of sensitivity compared to law and communication students. even so, the percentage of those who are less sensitive to political developments is quite significant, reaching 31% of the total respondents surveyed. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 law students politic students communication students f i g u r e 3 . a t t i t u d e to w a r d s p o l i t i c a l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s pessimist optimist mediocre suntana & tresnawaty as for the respondents from the legal sciences, 55% rarely followed the political events, 43% always followed, and as many as 2% had never followed. this data shows that respondents from the law sciences do not know factual political events too well, so it influences their literacy on political issues. predictably, on the contrary, sensitivity to political development is stronger among communication science respondents compared to law science students, even though the percentage difference is only 3% adrift. as many as 48% of respondents from the communication sciences always follow the political developments while 52% of them say only rarely. in regards of the most frequently followed political development material, students respond in a variety of ways. the majority of respondents answer with political parties, followed with government cabinet change, freedom of the press in political coverage, and dynamics in the legislature. in regards of political parties, respondents' highest interest is regarding the events of the general meeting, congress, and national meeting. respondents believe that in those moments, political dynamics take place, despite the fact that those events are widely covered by the media. the lowest sensitivity is on international political issues. respondents' answers, in general, have never followed developments in international politics, except those regarding palestine. they rarely observe the development and dynamics of contemporary international institutions. some international political instances that attract the respondents’ to the attention, although in a very small number, are about trade wars between the united states and china. however, in terms of substance, the respondents do not understand what is really happening: tariff wars and import/export embargo of certain commodities to and from two countries at war (silver, 2018). the respondent number who worry about the trade disputes between america and china is smaller those who are not worried and are not sure that it would bring major effects on the domestic economy. meanwhile, the majority of respondents are unaware of the impact of the trade war, one of which is the instability of regional trade and the imbalance of international trade in the east asia region (park & stangarone, 2019). respondents who state they are not worried about the effects of the war, which reached 33% pick their stand arguing that the war is far from where they live, that is in other countries. meanwhile, the opposing group state that they hear from the media about the consequences that would arise from the war. another group respond that they never know about the trade war between the two big countries, hence they do not know the implications of such conflict. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 164 the proportion of the responses is distributed evenly among law, communication, and political science students at three universities. there are no significant data differences between respondents and tend to be similar. this data indicates that international political literacy is very low among respondents. hence, it is crucial for special handling in that field, both in the lecture process and in the process of preparing the political science curriculum. a. interest in practical politics there was a significant difference in the respondents' interest in practical politics. some 33% of respondents from communication science students answered that they are interested in becoming politicians, 56% say they are not, and 11% said they do not know. meanwhile, respondents from the legal sciences are less interested in becoming politicians than respondents from the communication sciences. the respondents from the legal sciences students who respond with interest is only 13%, while those who answer with no interest is 87%. the responses from the political science students are as much as 74% with interest, 12% with no interest, and 14% with not knowing. when accumulated from the total respondents from the three universities, the respondents, political sciences students had a greater percentage than the other respondents. this percentage is related to their contact with more intensive political exposures than other respondents, thus forming their responses. the students respond to a question on political jobs that they would like to take, including party officials, legislators, political volunteers, observers, government officials, ngo activities, political journalists, and political lecturers. two professions, namely legislative members and government officials, get the most choice. the political profession that is the least desirable by respondents is political volunteer, ngo activist and political teacher. politics lecturers are more in demand by respondents from political science students, while it is of the lowest interest among the law science students. the reason law students are not really attracted to become political teachers is because of their negative perceptions of politics, as stated above. meanwhile, the respondents of communication science are more in becoming politic teachers because it is part of communication activities. according to students of communication science, teaching knowledge is a process of suntana & tresnawaty communication between communicators and communicants in delivering messages (soukup, 2014). the distribution of specialization tendencies in the practical political profession tends to be flat in the three state islamic universities. even though there is a percentage difference, it is not significant. even so, the data shows that there is a rather striking difference in the interests of law students in yogyakarta. the law students in yogyakarta have a higher interest in becoming members of the legislature compared to law students in bandung. however, some respondents answer of more interest in becoming soldiers and entrepreneurs. the choice of the legal profession overrides the practical political jobs, as stated above. meanwhile, respondent number from the communication sciences who have interest in practical politics are quite high because they do not have specific professional targets. communication graduates have more various fields of job (yeger, 2015). as a knowledge system inherent in various occupations, communication students do not attribute themselves to specific areas. they can implement their communication skills and theories in any activity, as long as it entails the process of sending messages (lacayo, 2013). the results of this research also portrayed the views of communication science students who do not put too much emphasis on specific types and forms of work that they desire. b. the intensity of political discussion political discussion is not a very attractive activity among the whole groups of respondents. the percentage of those who occasionally engage themselves in discussion circles with their colleagues is not overwhelming, reaching only 35%. meanwhile, 40% answer to rarely have discussions about politics, and 25% never. being asked about the four topics of political discussion, the majority respond that the religious and state relation topic is the most appealing, and followed by the country's future, democracy, and gender issues. the future of the country is among those discussed by a number of respondents because it concerns their future. meanwhile, gender issues are the least attractive of a discussion for the respondents. the respondents find that issues on gender are unattractive because for them, the issues are no longer crucial in indonesia. both sexes may access public activities, so it is considered as irrelevant to discuss. several respondents from women answer that they are not interested in addressing journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 166 gender issues, because of their religious teachings that they consider is more important than gender issues. see figure 4. source: the data taken from the survey as processed by the author one of the questionnaire topics is about state female leadership. respondents' answers vary between that it is legitimate, illegitimate and not knowing. in general, the respondents agree (choosing “legitimate”) with women's leadership provided that they are more qualified than their counterparts. the reasons for the respondents varied in accepting and rejecting women as state leaders. some respondents state that a woman is a legitimate leader of a country as an act of emergency when there is no sufficient man with comparable quality. some respondents pick that it is “legitimate” because they believe in the freedom principle of democracy, in which all have equal access to public positions without gender restrictions. women's political leadership in islamic constitutions is a legal theme with polarized standings. and in the last few decades, the movement to expand women's political rights, according to gilia (2018), has become a symptom in many regions, especially countries that have culturally placed women in second-class positions in their social lives (abbott et al., 2016). culturally, women face barriers in many cultural systems to assume men's social roles (cassese & holman, 2016). in european countries, too, there are still cultural barriers that shape social barriers for women to take a dominant role in the political system (tsyrendorzhiev & bagaeva, 2016). the emergence of a gender revolution in the 1960s, together with the sexual revolution campaigned by feminists, is not strong enough to eradicate the cultural barriers of women's social roles, especially in a country 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 interested not interested not know figure 4. gender issues among women respondents suntana & tresnawaty dominated by religious doctrine (harahap, 2016). even so, indonesia made a breakthrough by providing affirmative measure for women through the law number 10 of 2008. the law mandates that women are entitled with political opportunities by forcing political parties to allocate a minimum number of female candidates for the national and local elections. some respondents support the granting of political privileges to women, and others do not. the respondents' who disagree say that the political process is a competitive activity, without any gender restriction. based on the data processing and analysis, this study has distinctive aspects compared to the previous studies in the same field. researchers argue that knowledge is closely related to the political attitude and behavior of the society. most of the scholars believe that the respondents’ political knowledge determine the development of their attitude and behavior in such a way that it also shapes their viewpoint on political issues. earlier researchers always see the correlation of one particular knowledge gained by a learner and his/her action. it turns out that given certain circumstances, there are predetermining factors that shape their actions other than knowledge, even though they formally achieve or actively seek that particular knowledge. hence, this research differs in that conclusion. this study finds that political knowledge gained by the muslims students through formal education does not give significant impacts to their political behavior. most of them are disinterested in political discussion, and even when they are involved in such discourses, they tend to respond to political issues within the frame of their pre-knowledge, i.e. religious doctrines. the research urges some reconsiderations of the political learning in the muslim society. there are two changes that political sciences administrators should address: first, there should be some measures to review if there are ineffective learning process within the study program, and two, there should be a review on the learning content within the curriculum. the learning process and content should give impact to the learning subjects’ behavior. if it doesn’t occur, then some other determinants shape their political choices and it is safely concluded that the education has failed in changing pre-existing negative knowledge. in terms of the learning content, it is consequentially suggested there should be an integration of political and islamic science for the muslim learners. muslims tend to view political instances within two-fold dimensions: doctrine and knowledge. they need to be able to discriminate the religious aspects of politics and otherwise. therefore, the integrated religious learning in this journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 168 particular muslims society is a must to train the learners how to separate religious prejudice from scientific measures. conclusion this research conducted a study on the influence of political knowledge toward the political attitudes and behaviors of muslim students in three islamic state universities in indonesia. the result shows that (1) in general, muslim students have studied and mastered political knowledge, (2) their attitudes on political issues are not based on their knowledge, but on a subjective norm, namely religious doctrines, (3) their political knowledge does not influence them to practice politics, (4) their political knowledge does not influence their sensitivity toward political issues and developments. muslim students view the role of political knowledge as positive for their life, but their political knowledge does not motivate them to discuss political themes. in conclusion, the proposed research hypothesis is accepted, in which there is no correlation between the respondents’ political knowledge and their political attitudes and behaviors. references abbott, d. m., harris, j. e., & mollen, d. (2016). the impact of religious commitment on women's sexual self-esteem. sexuality & culture, 20(4), 1063-1082. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12119-016-9374-x addai-mununkum, r. (2019). students’ representation of “other” religions. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 agerberg, m. (2019). curse of knowledge? education, corruption, and politics. political behavior, 41, 369–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9455-7 ančić, b., baketa, n., & kovačić, m. (2019). exploration of class and political behavior in croatia. international journal of sociology, 49(4), 264– 81. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207659.2019.1634826 baidi. (2019). the role of parents’ interests and attitudes in motivating them to homeschool their children. journal of social studies education research, 10(1), 156-177. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/522 beharie, n., jessell, l., osuji, h., & mckay, m.m. (2017). the association between shelter rules and psychosocial outcomes among homeless youth residing in family shelters. families in society, 98(2), 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.2017.98.16 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12119-016-9374-x https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9455-7 https://doi.org/10.1080/00207659.2019.1634826 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/522 https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.2017.98.16 suntana & tresnawaty bhat, a. (2019). islamic philosophy of education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 73-76. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 braun, d., gross, m., & rittberger, b. (2020). political behavior in the eu multi-level system. politics & governance, 8(1), 1–5. http://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v8i1.2706 caputo, r. k. (1998). economic well-being of a youth cohort. families in society, 79(1), 83-92. retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/230157868?accountid=38628 cassese, e. c., & holman, m.r. (2016). religious beliefs, gender consciousness, and women's political participation. sex roles, 75(9-10), 514-527. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-0160635-9 ceresola, r. (2016). political corruption and political engagement: a multilevel analysis investigating the effect of political corruption prosecutions on voting and government trust in the united states (order no. 10163430). available from sociology database. (1830773693).https://search.proquest.com/openview/1784e29c461a0471d3f1021a494a0e1 e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y chandra, t., ng, m., chandra, s., & priyono. (2018). the effect of service quality on student satisfaction and student loyalty: an empirical study. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 109-131. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/282 danilov, i. v. (2020). social interaction in knowledge acquisition: advanced curriculum. critical review of studies relevant to social behavior of infants. online submission. dassonnevile, r. (2012). the relation between civic education and political attitudes and behavior: a two-year panel study among belgian late adolescents. applied developmental science, 16(3),140-150. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2012.695265 dassonneville, r., quintelier, e., hooghe, m., & claes, e. (2012) the relation between civic education and political attitudes and behavior: a two-year panel study among belgian late adolescents. applied developmental science, 16 (3), 140-150. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2012.695265 davis, e. (2020). social media: a good alternative, for alternative service of process. case western reserve journal of international law, 52(1/2), 573–597. dominguez, c. b. k., smith, k.w., & williams, j. m. (2017). the effects of majoring in political science on political efficacy. journal of political science education, 13(1), 62-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2016.1182439 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/pag.v8i1.2706 https://search.proquest.com/docview/230157868?accountid=38628 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0635-9 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0635-9 https://search.proquest.com/openview/1784e29c461a0471d3f1021a494a0e1e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y https://search.proquest.com/openview/1784e29c461a0471d3f1021a494a0e1e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/282 https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2012.695265 https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2012.695265 https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2016.1182439 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 170 dupras, c., saulnier, k. m., & joly, y. (2019). epigenetics, ethics, law, and society: a multidisciplinary review of descriptive, instrumental, dialectical, and reflexive analyses. social studies of science, 49(5), 785–810. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312719866007 el-thalaqani, j. (2020). audzu min al-syaithan wa al-siyasah, https://alnoor.se./article.aspd?id=47967 esaiasson, p. & persson, m. (2014). does studying political science affect civic attitudes?: a panel comparison of students of politics, law, and mass communication. journal of political science education, 10(4), 375-385. https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2014.948118 gemeda, h. k., & lee, j. (2020). leadership styles, work engagement and outcomes among information and communications technology professionals: a cross-national study. heliyon, 6(4). https://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03699 gilia, c. (2018). evolution of women’s political rights. comparative study: spain-romania. sphere of politics / sfera politicii, 26(3-4), 57–69. http://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=poh&an=141427611&site=e ds-live. graham, m.h. (2020). self-awareness of political knowledge. political behavior, 42, 305–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9499-8 hagelin, s. (2019). education and political efficacy among youth in kosovo : a field study on university students’ perceptions of the effect of higher education on political efficacy and political behavior. january. https://www.divaportal.org/smash/get/diva2:1319462/fulltext01.pdf harahap, s. (2016). the image of indonesia in the world: an interreligious perspective. iup journal of international relations, 10(2), 30–44. http://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=poh&an=115909810&site=e ds-live. hassell, h.j.g., & wyler, e.e. (2019). negative descriptive social norms and political action: people aren’t acting, so you should. political behavior, 41 (1), 231–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9450-z henderson, m. (2014) issue publics, campaigns, and political knowledge. political behavior, 36, 631–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-013-9243-3 https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312719866007 https://alnoor.se./article.aspd?id=47967 https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2014.948118 https://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03699 http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=poh&an=141427611&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=poh&an=141427611&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=poh&an=141427611&site=eds-live https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9499-8 https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1319462/fulltext01.pdf https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1319462/fulltext01.pdf http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=poh&an=115909810&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=poh&an=115909810&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=poh&an=115909810&site=eds-live https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9450-z https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-013-9243-3 suntana & tresnawaty ilc, b. v. (2017). racism and the crises of political representation in the american republic from its constitution to the trump phenomenon. teorija in praksa, 54(1), 17-37,187. https://search.proquest.com/docview/1902029424?accountid=38628 jerit, j. & barabas, j. (2017). revisiting the gender gap in political knowledge. political behavior, 39, 817–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-016-9380-6 koçak, d. (2020). the relationship between political behavior perception and prosocial motivation-mediating role of organizational trust. business & management studies: an international journal (bmij) 8(1),329. kwok, d. w. p., meschi, p.-x., & bertrand, o. (2020). in ceos we trust: when religion matters in cross-border acquisitions. the case of a multifaith country. international business review, 29(4). https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2020.101705 lacayo, v. (2013). communicating complexity: a complexity science approach to communication for social change (order no. 3671428). available from biological science collection. (1647184772). lacayo, v. (2013). communicating complexity: a complexity science approach to communication for social change. (electronic thesis or dissertation). retrieved from https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ lamprianou, i., & antonis a. e. (2019). emotion, sophistication, and political behavior: evidence from a laboratory experiment. political psychology 40 (4), 859– 76. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12536 lau, r.r., kleinberg, m. s., & ditonto, t.m. (2018). measuring voter decision strategies in political behavior and public opinion research. public opinion quarterly, 82(s1), 911– 936, https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfy004 lăzăroiu, g. (2018). participation environments, collective identities, and online political behavior: the role of media technologies for social protest campaigns. geopolitics, history & international relations, 10 (2), 58–63. https://doi.org/10.22381/ghir10220187 liu, w., xu, w. (wayne), & tsai, j.-y. (jenny). (2020). developing a multi-level organizationpublic dialogic communication framework to assess social media-mediated disaster communication and engagement outcomes. public relations review, 46(4). https://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.pubrev.2020.101949 https://search.proquest.com/docview/1902029424?accountid=38628 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-016-9380-6 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2020.101705 https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12536 https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfy004 https://doi.org/10.22381/ghir10220187 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.pubrev.2020.101949 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.pubrev.2020.101949 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 172 longo, n.v., drury, c., & battistoni., r.m. (2006). catalyzing political engagement: lessons for civic educators from the voices of students. journal of political science education, 2(3), 313-329. https://doi.org.10.1080/15512160600840483 mancosu, m. (2019). interpersonal communication, voting behavior, and influence in election campaigns: a directional approach. qual quant, 53, 2917–2932. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-019-00906-5 masuda, k. & yudistira, m.h. (2020). does education secularize the islamic population? the effect of years of schooling on religiosity, voting, and pluralism in indonesia. world development, 130 (june). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.104915 mnguni, l., abrie. m., & ebersohn, l. (2016). the relationship between scientific knowledge and behaviour: an hiv/aids case. journal of biological education, 50(2), 147-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2015.1007888 mutmainnah, m. & afiyanti, y. (2019). the experiences of spirituality during pregnancy and child birth in indonesian muslim women. enfermeria clinica, 29(supplement 2), 495–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfcli.2019.04.074 nashir, h., jinan, m., & setiaji, b. (2019). muhammadiyah: the political behavior of modernist muslim elite in indonesia. humanities & social sciences reviews, 7(4), 837-844. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.74111 nezlek, j.b., & catherine a.f. (2019). where the rubber meets the road: relationships between vegetarianism and socio-political attitudes and voting behavior. ecology of food & nutrition, 58(6), 548. http://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edb&an=139884447&site=ed s-live. noble, m. d. (2016). illuminating democracy: trends, predictors, and outcomes of liberal democracy 1972-2013 (order no. 10245531). available from sociology database. (1855945179). retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1855945179?accountid=38628 ogland, c. p., & bartkowski, j. p. (2014). biblical literalism and sexual morality in comparative perspective: testing the transposability of a conservative religious schema. sociology of religion, 75(1), 3-i. https://doi.org/10.1093/socrel/srt056 oleg, l.v., & negrove, e.o. (2019). models of political behavior of youth middle class of modern agglomerations: on the example of the main regions of the north west and south siberia. rudn: journal of political science, 21(2), 157174. https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-1438-2019-21-2-157-174 https://doi.org/10.1080/15512160600840483 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-019-00906-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.104915 https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2015.1007888 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfcli.2019.04.074 https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.74111 http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edb&an=139884447&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edb&an=139884447&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edb&an=139884447&site=eds-live https://search.proquest.com/docview/1855945179?accountid=38628 https://doi.org/10.1093/socrel/srt056 https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-1438-2019-21-2-157-174 suntana & tresnawaty papakyriakopoulos, o., serrano, j. c. m., & hegelich, s. (2020). political communication on social media: a tale of hyperactive users and bias in recommender systems. online social networks and media, 15. https://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.osnem.2019.100058 park, j., & stangarone, t. (2019). trump's america first policy in global and historical perspectives: implications for us–east asian trade. asian perspective, 43(1), 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1353/apr.2019.0000 payne, j. g. (2016). grammars of kinship: biological motherhood and assisted reproduction in the age of epigenetics. signs: journal of women in culture & society, 41(3), 483–506. available at: http://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&an=113549077&site=ed s-live (accessed: 6 june 2020). pérez, e.o. (2015). mind the gap: why large group deficits in political knowledge emerge— and what to do about them. political behavior, 37, 933–954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-014-9298-9 persson, m. (2013). is the effect of education on voter turnout absolute or relative? a multilevel analysis of 37 countries. journal of elections, public opinion and parties, 23(2), 111133. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2012.747530 porter, j. (2020). un proceso muy vagabundo: the use of visual research methods to explore intergenerational political behavior. professional geographer, 72(1), 54–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2019.1633365 sanbonmatsu, k. (2003). gender-related political knowledge and the descriptive representation of women. political behavior, 25, 367–388. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:pobe.0000004063.83917.2d shukri, s. f. m., & hossain, i. (2017). political discourse and islam: role of rhetoric in turkey. the journal of social, political, and economic studies, 42(2), 157-179. retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1922871897?accountid=38628 silalahi, r., & yuwono, u. (2018). the sustainability of pancasila in indonesian education system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 58-78. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 silver, a. (2018). us-china trade war rattles labs. nature, 558(7711), 494-495. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05521-2 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.osnem.2019.100058 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.osnem.2019.100058 https://doi.org/10.1353/apr.2019.0000 http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&an=113549077&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&an=113549077&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&an=113549077&site=eds-live https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-014-9298-9 https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2012.747530 https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2019.1633365 https://doi.org/10.1023/b:pobe.0000004063.83917.2d https://search.proquest.com/docview/1922871897?accountid=38628 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05521-2 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 149-174 174 singh, h. d. (2020). numbering others: religious demography, identity, and fertility management experiences in contemporary india. social science & medicine, 254. https://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112534 soukup, p. a., s.j. (2014). political communication. communication research trends, 33(2), 343. retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1550514483?accountid=38628 squier, s.m. (2017). epigenetic landscapes: drawings as metaphor, duke university press books, durham. sugiyono. (2017). metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r&d. alfabeta, cv: bandung. ting, s., & ahmad, s.s.w. (2018). influence of media on university students’ efficacy in participating in political conversations. global business & management research, 10 (2), 198–206. http://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ent&an=133000722&site=ed s-live. tsyrendorzhieva, d., & bagaeva, k. (2016). state-religious relations in modern russian society. les ulis: edp sciences. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20162801103 vandyke, m. s., & lee, n. m. (2020). science public relations: the parallel, interwoven, and contrasting trajectories of public relations and science communication theory and practice. public relations review, 46(4). https://eresources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.pubrev.2020.101953 yeger, h. (2015). the evolution of human communication. journal of cell communication and signaling, 9(3), 289-290. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12079-015-0286-6 yigit, i. h. (2018). mass religious ritual and intergroup tolerance: the muslim pilgrims’ paradox. [book review]. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(2), 196-200. zhao, j., li, q., wang, l., lin, l., & zhang, w. (2019). latent profile analysis of left-behind adolescents’ psychosocial adaptation in rural china. journal of youth & adolescence, 48(6), 1146–1160. https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2116/10.1007/s10964019-00989-1 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112534 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112534 https://search.proquest.com/docview/1550514483?accountid=38628 http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ent&an=133000722&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ent&an=133000722&site=eds-live http://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2077/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ent&an=133000722&site=eds-live http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20162801103 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.pubrev.2020.101953 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2108/10.1016/j.pubrev.2020.101953 https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12079-015-0286-6 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2116/10.1007/s10964-019-00989-1 https://e-resources.perpusnas.go.id:2116/10.1007/s10964-019-00989-1 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 215-225 curriculum and instructional challenges in clinical legal education of indonesian law schools: breaking the legacy hamzah1 abstract clinical legal education (cle) has recently been accepted as the pedagogic model in most indonesian universities since the asia foundation collaboration authorized eight universities to pursue this program. the objective of this study was to identify curriculum and instructional challenges in clinical legal education of indonesian law schools, as well as how new models can be implemented. the case method was applied, and observation and in-depth interviews were utilized to collect information. document analysis was employed to clarify interviews and observational data. the implications of this study are significant for legal academicians, law framers and law students. this study indicated that cle is a meaningful implementation, and that the faculty and students desire legal education that is free from the influence of political elites and bureaucratic practices. it is also suggested to remove labels given to governments in indonesia during the dutch colonial regime such as the old order or new order. another suggestion is that law schools in indonesia should teach graduates the skills that are useful in the long-term. future studies can be carried out to introduce new study programs in various fields of cle in all universities across indonesia. keywords: indonesian legal education, curriculum, law and education, reforms introduction the curriculum in indonesian law schools can be divided into two categories: first, indonesian national laws; second, the legal system composed of civil, criminal, constitutional, administrative, and international law (nurjaya, 2011). in addition, the indonesian legal system continues to be under the influence of the erstwhile colonial dutch government that taught law subjects, only to prepare legal literates or bureaucrats to perform dutch administrative functions and operations (nurjaya, 2011). their main objective was also to prepare judges to work as landraad, or legal officers, in the offices of the dutch colonial government. such legal bureaucrats, or rechtsambtenaren, were taught a legal curriculum that was designed to provide them with a complete knowledge of legal principles and how to enact legislation to favour the dutch government (wignjosoebroto, 2002). in america between 1960 and 1970, the core philosophy of clinical legal education (cle) was that teaching students as they performed their professional roles was an essential component of professional education (milstein, 2001). 1 faculty of law, lampung university, agizaddien@gmail.com mailto:agizaddien@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 215-225 however, over time, these legal graduates acquired an awareness that modified their objectives. they developed the courage to overthrow dutch colonial law to attain independence for indonesia. the law in indonesia has always been influenced by three legal systems: european (western) law under the dutch imperial rule, islamic law that was adopted historically in indonesia and the customary law, referred to as hukum adat, in the indonesian communities (hoadley, 2009; purwanto, 2017). it is important that law subjects should teach in one direction, especially that which leads to the development of a national law for indonesia (abdullah, 1994). it is also important to attempt to strengthen the legal education curriculum and develop its scope. the content must be designed such that it is able to provide a strong foundation in basic academic legal knowledge to law students of undergraduate and postgraduate programs. these new developments should be formulated to improve professional development, job creation and provide access to higher-employment opportunities (cramton, 1982). its implementation must also be applicable to all stakeholders -students, lecturers and anyone who aims for progress and change in indonesia (pipkin, 1979; shulman, 2005). the field of clinic legal education (cle) was found to be an area in which multi-disciplinary development could take place (arifin, 2017). literature review historical review after independence in 1945, indonesia established its first higher legal education system in yogyakarta and jakarta, the balai perguruan tinggi gadjah mada (the gadjah mada higher education), based on the hooger onderwijs ordonantie 1946, with the objective to review the status of national litigious education, and how it could assist in bolstering indonesian leadership in governance and support a newly-established indonesian state (rahardjo & tabah, 2004). during this period, the legal curriculum was designed to bring the legal education to the mainstream. even after independence, the law students were studying only the theory, and the prevailing laws and regulations. they were, however, expected to be sensitive to the operation of the law in the indonesian community. the government of indonesia formed a legal sciences consortium (kih) to promote legal education and law studies (rahardjo & tabah, 2004). the kih has taken the initiative to review and evaluate the legal curricula of the universities in indonesia. hamzah 217 higher legal education has never been neglected in government circles, as there have been attempts to align the law graduates with the national development of indonesia in the last few decades. however, these attempts have remained confined to bureaucratic practices and were never put into practice in universities. for instance, in 1972, the ministry of education and culture formed a core legal education curriculum committee (kurikulum inti pendidikan hukum) by decree no. 0198/1972, to replace the curriculum of the colonial times (silalahi, suhadi, & anitasari, 2017). the committee recommended introducing the semester system in place of the yearly system. it emphasized that the content and teaching methodology be more indigenous, targeting indonesian needs and social nuances. these recommendations were criticized and there was much resistance. eventually, the universities decided to disregard these recommendations (nurjaya, 2011). in 1993, there was another attempt to amend the legal curriculum to satisfy employers and law professionals who felt that there was a dearth of law graduates in the country that were fluent in legal theories and technology. their main concern was that the graduates were not fit for practice, nor could they be trusted for modern legal pursuits (kusumaatmadja & agoes, 2003). hence, the law curriculum was amended to ensure that legal graduates developed practical, legal skills, in addition to learning legal theory and knowledge. fortunately, this step was accepted by academia as well as the professionals of the industry (rahardjo & tabah, 2004). curriculum reforms in indonesia in 1983, the semester system was replaced with the unit-based credit semester system (sistem satuan kredit semester) to comply with the stipulations of the director general of higher education decision letter no. 30/1983 (juwana, 2006). this was an attempt to distinguish legal education from other educational programs. it was also recommended that the curriculum of a few courses be redesigned to provide law graduates with practical knowledge and opportunities to gain skills and competencies. subsequently, in 1993, another effort was made to reform the curriculum by the minister of education and culture decree no. 017/d/0/1993, which was later revised by the minister of education and culture decision letter no. 0325/u/1994 (juwana, 2006). this decree raised concerns regarding the similarities between academic and professional legal education curricula, and suggested a single, unified curriculum to achieve both objectives. however, the 1993 curriculum could not effect significant reforms, as various universities were not willing to accept a single unified curriculum (juliartha, atmadja, & purnawati, 2014). in 2000, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 215-225 another decree was issued by the minister of national education through decision letter no. 232/u/2000, concerning higher education curriculum development and evaluation of student academic achievement. the new orders suggested that the higher education curriculum be transformed into a core curriculum, composed of a few interdisciplinary subjects, aiming to develop legal skills and expertise, namely: personality development (mata kuliah pengembangan kepribadian) and development of scientific expertise and skills (mata kuliah pengembangan keilmuan dan keterampilan). this core curriculum, however, could not be implemented, as it was deemed to be drafted by bureaucrats of the department of national education, who were not law academicians. more recently, in 2017, the first international conference on clinical legal education was held at the faculty of law, universitas negeri semarang, indonesia (tangwun, 2017). the event proved successful and was an effective academic platform for legal professionals, including lawyers, judges, faculty, researchers and students. the conference discussed both academic and professional issues related to professionals of the law, especially in the context of clinical legal education and law clinic practice. several issues were raised during the conference. in the opening remarks, tangwun (2017) stressed upon the need for more research and diversification of clinical legal education by faculties and universities. he also raised a concern regarding how non-litigation clinics had disturbed the principal objectives of legal education. according to him, the law faculty should act as clinicians and assist the law graduates to develop practical skills through rigorous training and simulation exercises within these clinics. he suggested three steps: first, for the faculty to plan an educational experience with the students; second, an assessment and evaluation of students’ skills; and finally, a reflection step in which students reflect upon their new experiences and on the feedback of the evaluation. cle: the pedagogical approach the term cle can be defined as “… a process of learning with the intention of providing law students with practical knowledge, skills, values in order to realize legal services and social justice, implemented on the basis [that] teaching methods are interactive and reflective…” (arifin, 2017; lestari, maskun, & ekwandari, 2015). in indonesia, the legal professionals have formed organizations such as the clinical legal education association of indonesia (aphki) and the clinical legal association of indonesia (clai). in 2011, a symposium on cle was held in hamzah 219 yogyakarta, supported by fifty litigious aw institutions. the symposium aimed to create a novel cle model at the university level (lestari et al., 2015; suhadi, 2017). the creation of a cle model faces multiple challenges. first and foremost, there is the absence of a unified curriculum to teach all the subjects under the cle model. second, the cle must encompass a comprehensive curricular approach to include the teaching of legal theories, professional practices and accountabilities of law graduates, expecting students to prioritize issues of social justice and commitment to ethics, despite political pressures (suhadi, 2017). third, the cle should promise to make legal assistance available to communities and marginalized groups outside the legal jurisdiction, with the help of legal academics (stuckey, 2007). one of the participants of the international conference on clinical legal education, ayus (2017), strongly recommended to adopt a pedagogical approach in developing cle. in the context of malaysian law schools, the author shared successful experiments that enhanced student knowledge and skills. he suggested that, similar to the law schools in malaysia, a "limited autonomy" could be permitted of the law faculty to innovate their teaching and learning methods and make them compatible with the curriculum. however, he also discussed the constraints of this proposal, as such steps require strong student cognitive skills in order to be able to expect an improvement. the reason, he mentioned, was the dearth of legal skills and among the students and lack of a pedagogical approach among the law teachers. similarly, arifin (2017) regards the cle as a progressive pedagogy which is an interactive, hands-on classroom approach to promote learning. the author added that the cle utilized simulations of real-life cases and clinical experiences of experienced law clinicians and legal practitioners. competency-based curriculum (kbk) hikmahanto juwana, the dean and professor of the faculty of law at the university of indonesia, recommended a competency-based curriculum (cbc) for all law programmers in the country. he lamented on the absence of a policy to introduce a cbc into the indonesian legal education system. according to him, a cbc should be centered upon the standard competencies of the legal profession. by incorporating these competencies in the curriculum, the law faculties only account for the requirements of a legal profession that the students will enter. he insisted that a cbc should be incorporated with the existing curriculum rather than to design a novel curriculum. suhadi (2017), in another study, asserted the relevance of clinical legal education and found it essential to journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 215-225 the training and development of human resources in the country. one of the competencies that could be developed through cle, according to the author, is reflective thinking that arises when students gain experience in the clinics and develop the sensitivity and intuition to be applied to real dilemmas of their clients. method the theoretical framework of this study was formed on the basis of the historical evolution approach, which the indonesian government adopted in 1972, when a new legal education curriculum (kurikulum inti pendidikan hukum) was established for all core law subjects by the minister of education and culture according to decree no. 0198/1972. the framework also encompassed the curriculum amendment of 1993, which ensured that law graduates in indonesia must know not only theory, but should also possess legal skills to accommodate the demands of the job market. these regulatory initiatives shall be utilized in line with the prior studies and attempts by indonesian law schools to introduce cle. it is based, also, on case clinical legal education in america (milstein, 2001), andragogical basis of clinical legal education (bloch, 1982), the growing disjunction between legal education and the legal profession (edwards, 1992), theory and practice in legal education: an essay on clinical education (spiegel, 1986) and signature pedagogies in the professions (shulman, 2005). the study was conducted in law schools that were influenced by three different practices of law. where there adapted and reformulated to the new formula that applied to the curriculum. results and discussion the findings of this study began with investigation of the 1993 amendments of the legal curriculum. it was found that the step was considered progressive (rahardjo & tabah, 2004) and welcomed by both academia and the industry professionals. it was seen in this light because it arrived after an absence of reforms and was also a reaction to the stagnation that had crept into the indonesian legal education. in addition, it was a response to the insensitivity of the national government, and their previous initiatives. as a result, the national law commission (khn) was forced to provide special status to legal education in the country (effendy, 2005; rahayu, ulfatin, wiyono, imron, & wajdi, 2018). the amendments of the 1993 curriculum succeeded in developing awareness of the core objectives of the system of legal education in the country. the academia realized that legal education must also provide opportunities to develop legal skills and hamzah 221 competencies among the law graduates, in addition to a theoretical foundation. a spirit of positivism was identified in the bureaucrats as well, as they felt in them the need to implement the amendments (samekto, 2017). it was specified to all universities that the law curriculum should have three categories: (a) subjects that were indispensible to any legal system such as civil law, criminal law, constitutional law, administrative law and international law; (b) subjects that related to the indonesian socio-cultural ethos such as the adat law; (c) subjects that required legal skills to halt corruption, oppose crimes, protect the environment and maintain social justice. since this study focused only on the cle as a novel model for the legal curriculum, the objective was to identify the factors that would lead to successful establishment of cle as a teaching model. cle was first introduced in indonesia by the asia foundation collaboration with eight universities. however, it received initial resistance from faculty and legal professionals, who commented that there was no difference between the cle model and the existing faculty of law (fh) subjects. the researcher then investigated and found that a few subjects had the potential to incorporate the teaching of legal skills and that they fitted in the framework of cle. these subjects would render the law graduates practice-ready as soon as they completed their studies, and they were they study of criminal procedural law, civil procedural law, islamic procedural law, procedural law of constitutional court, administrative procedural law and legislative drafting (lestari et al., 2015; wajdi et al., 2018; wignjosoebroto, 2014). the cle was then compared to the fh approach of teaching these courses. the findings revealed that the fh approach assisted graduates in the acquisition of legal knowledge, theories and principles, but could not provide them with adequate opportunities for field training or legal internships which would permit their learning of practical legal skills and competencies. consequently, graduates were unable to offer legal analysis in their practice as lawyers, attorneys and judges. they were not confident to practice in the affairs of the government offices, corporate and private firms, civil society organizations (csos) and in the matters of social justice. the course contents of the cle curriculum were then reviewed. in contrast, it was revealed that a few of these modules serve "unmet legal needs", and attempt to replace the legacy of the colonial era. the cle model also has the provision of providing legal aid to people of limited means and those who do not have access to legal services. the students can gain experience in aspects of legal practice, including client-handling, performing case-related research and the art of reflecting the public interest litigations. the new model promises to resolve the issues of unemployment and social journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 215-225 security. in addition, the cle model also replaces the traditional methods of teacher-centered learning with student and learner-centered seminars and group work. there are student presentations, problem-based scenarios and skills-based learning. the assessments also include coursework and case studies regarding relevant legal issues and client based problems, simulated and real client cases, exercises regarding advocacy, and interviewing and negotiation skills. in short, the cle curriculum is a highly innovative and timely initiative that meets the demands of the indonesian legal education system. for example, the faculty of law at the university of hasanuddin (fh unhas) introduced clinical subjects in their curriculum. in addition to reviewing the entire curriculum, it also implemented clinics such as civil law, criminal law, anti-corruption law and environmental law clinics. these are aligned with the university curriculum. the law graduates are expected to practice their theoretical concepts in these clinics and develop the requisite skills. the graduates are also trained in how to manage these clinics in collaboration with social partners, such as csos and legal institutions including the district courts and provincial prosecutor offices (lestari et al., 2015). the indonesian legal resource center (ilrc) is a civil, non-governmental organization which promotes human rights and social justice in indonesia (lestari et al., 2015). the ilrc has collaborated with institutions, communities and universities to develop networks that provide legal aid for marginalized communities and promote clinical legal education. in the past, indonesia has encountered severe instances of corruption, non-availability of human rights protection at legislative levels and inadequate law enforcement. all these constraints can be solved by modifications in legal education and the robust practice of law in the indonesian society. the ilrc urges that the universities, especially law departments, provide graduates that can control bureaucracy, governmental institutions, courts and higher-education organizations. these law graduates would hold prominent and legitimate positions in the government framework and work towards the renewal of legal education as one of their priorities. the ilrc has begun several campaigns in the fields of social justice, halting the commercialization of universities, providing legal aid to marginalized communities and reforming legal education. lastly, the "student exchange program" and "clinical legal education exchange program" between universitas indonesia and universiti malaya was discovered. these exchange programs are organized by the universitas indonesia legal clinic and community outreach program (cop) in cooperation with the asian law student association (alsa) of the universiti malaya. through hamzah 223 these programs, students attend legal counseling activities and learn to apply legal education to social justice and human rights causes. this experience is vital for the success of indonesian law students and should be encouraged and supported through any means possible. conclusion the study found that faculties and students desire legal education that is free from the influence of political elites and bureaucratic practices. secondly, the abolishment of dutch labels on the indonesian government during the colonial regimes (old or new orders) is suggested. this terminology exists as a legacy and inflicts a burden on legal education. another suggestion of this study is that law institutions of indonesia should implement educational policies that would provide long-term benefits for the law graduates, as they must be comparable to graduates from law schools across the world. hence, it is important for the government to reform the curriculum and introduce the cle model to law institutions. references abdullah, a. g. (1994). pengantar kompilasi hukum islam dalam tata hukum indonesia. gema insani. arifin, r. (2017). clinical legal education for human rights issues: how students can implement their basic knowledge of human rights in reality. in international conference on clinical legal education (vol. 1, pp. 325–336). ayus, a. m. n. (2017). curriculum design: difficulties and realities in introducing innovative teaching and learning experience. in international conference on clinical legal education (vol. 1, pp. 77–96). bloch, f. s. (1982). andragogical basis of clinical legal education, the. vand. l. rev., 35, 321. cramton, r. c. (1982). the current state of the law curriculum. journal of legal education, 32(3), 321–335. edwards, h. t. (1992). the growing disjunction between legal education and the legal profession. michigan law review, 91(1), 34–78. effendy, m. (2005). kejaksaan ri: posisi dan fungsinya dari perspektif hukum. gramedia pustaka utama. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 215-225 hoadley, m. c. (2009). islam dalam tradisi hukum jawa & hukum kolonial. graha ilmu. juliartha, i. w. e., atmadja, n. b., & purnawati, d. m. o. (2014). taman makam pahlawan kreta kirttya mandala, di kelurahan bitera, gianyar, bali (kajian sistem nilai dan potensinya sebagai sumber belajar sejarah di sma berdasarkan kurikulum 2013. widya winayata: jurnal pendidikan sejarah, 2(1). juwana, h. (2006). human rights in indonesia. indonesian j. int’l l., 4, 27. kusumaatmadja, m., & agoes, e. r. (2003). pengantar hukum internasional. pusat studi wawasan nusantara, hukum dan pembangunan bekerjasama dengan penerbut pt alumni. lestari, m., maskun, m., & ekwandari, y. s. (2015). pengaruh model discovery learning terhadap hasil belajar siswa pada mata pelajaran sejarah. pesagi (jurnal pendidikan dan penelitian sejarah), 3(4). milstein, e. s. (2001). clinical legal education in the united states: in-house clinics, externships, and simulations. j. legal educ., 51, 375. nurjaya, i. n. (2011). pembangunan hukum negara dalam masyarakat multikultural: perspektif hukum progresif. progressive law journal (jurnal hukum progresif), 3(2), 16. pipkin, r. m. (1979). law school instruction in professional responsibility: a curricular paradox. law & social inquiry, 4(2), 247–275. purwanto, m. r. (2017). hukum islam dan hukum adat masa kolonial: sejarah pergolakan antara hukum islam dan hukum adat masa kolonial belanda. rahardjo, s., & tabah, a. (2004). di manakah pendidikan hukum. dalam harian umum kompas april. rahayu, s., ulfatin, n., wiyono, b. b., imron, a., & wajdi, m. b. n. (2018). the professional competency teachers mediate the influence of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence on school security. journal of social studies education research, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.54523 samekto, f. x. a. (2017). effect of positivism in clinical legal education. pandecta: research law journal, 12(2), 203–207. shulman, l. s. (2005). signature pedagogies in the professions. daedalus, 134(3), 52–59. silalahi, a. o. p., suhadi, s., & anitasari, r. f. (2017). analisis hukum terkait konsultasi publik dalam pengadaan tanah untuk pembangunan infrastruktur jalan bagi kepentingan umum. hamzah 225 pandecta: research law journal, 12(1), 88–97. spiegel, m. (1986). theory and practice in legal education: an essay on clinical education. ucla l. rev., 34, 577. stuckey, r. t. (2007). best practices for legal education: a vision and a road map. clinical legal education association. suhadi, s. (2017). the relevance of clinical legal education for law school on preparing legal human resources in indonesia. in international conference on clinical legal education (vol. 1, pp. 317–324). tangwun, r. (2017). opening remarks: clinical legal education in indonesia objectives and advantages. in international conference on clinical legal education (vol. 1, pp. i–iv). wajdi, m. b. n., wajdi, m. b. n., halim, p., badruddin, s., . h., abdullah, h. a., … simarmata, j. (2018). advancement of e-book through automation system in department of islamic education (stai) miftahul ula nganjuk. international journal of engineering & technology, 7(3.6), 438–441. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i3.6.17489 wignjosoebroto, s. (2002). hukum paradigma, metode dan masalah. jakarta: elsam dan huma. wignjosoebroto, s. (2014). dari hukum kolonial ke hukum nasional: dinamika sosial-politik dalam perkembangan hukum di indonesia. huma. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 214-227 214 responsive legal approach to law of human trafficking in indonesia farhana1 abstract formation and legal changes influenced by the social and political dynamics. law understood as the rules are rigid and too much emphasis on the legal aspects of the legal system or emphasize aspects of the legitimacy of the rules themselves, without associated with social problems. a responsive legal approach is an approach the legal establishment who consider that the law as a facilitator of various responses to social needs and aspirations so that the function of the law is not just to achieve procedural fairness, but to serve as a facilitator of the response to the needs and aspirations of the community. therefore, whether the act no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of trafficking in persons is responsive. objective discussion of this problem is to explain and analyze the law no.21 of 2007 with responsive legal approach. the method used is the normative method with primary law material and secondary law. law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of trafficking in persons not purely responsive, because not yet meet all the characteristics of the type of responsive law. procedural justice has been achieved but justice has not been achieved and necessary substance formulation objective of sentencing objective and authoritative for the trade laws that are adaptive. key words: responsive, law, human trafficking introduction the development and changes to the law relating to social dynamics with all the real interests were behind the law. the unavoidable law is always evolving, its development cannot be ensured evolve in a certain direction, but ultimately bring change after the fight with a variety of interests are behind the law itself. laws relating to society, society has changed, the law must also be changed. law is the creation of the community, but at the same time, he also created the community, so that the law in accordance with the development of society. this is in accordance with the opinion that "a good law should be in accordance with the law in public life (the living law). so the law must reflect the values in the society (rasyidi, 1985). "cicero states that where there are people there are no laws or ubi societas ibi ius. (rasjidi, 2004). cicero opinion is still in accordance with the circumstances of today's society. each community life actually has a 1 assistant professor, faculty of law, islamic university of jakarta, frh961@gmail.com farhana 215 mechanism for creating legal norms derived from the relationship and interaction between the communities of fellow citizens. so the law is a social phenomenon to the values and behaviors that live and thrive in human beings due to human relationships in the communities where people live. often the law is only understood as the rules are rigid and too much emphasis on the aspects of the legal system without looking at the link between the legal sciences with social problems. law is identical to the order as a mirror arrangement of the ruler, on the other hand, there is also an understanding of the laws that emphasize aspects of the legitimacy of the rules themselves. in fact, should the law not be closed to the social factors that influence the development of society. law is not only the rules, but there are also other logics (logic and rules). that imposing jurisprudence is not enough, but law enforcement should be enriched with other sciences such as social science, psychology, religious studies. this is in line in the journal of law pro justitia, that the law in indonesia is still focused on the principle of legal certainty, (suhardin, 2007) and the law of the progressive one component of law enforcement with integrity as an instrument of social change, in other words "good law enforcement agencies are not born but made" (zulfadli, abdullah, & nur, 2017) this is a challenge for all parties involved in the process of law enforcement, in order to free themselves from the confines of pure rigid legal and analytical. no emphasis on the rule of law but justice to be achieved in law enforcement. the role of law is strongly influenced by political forces. growing political configuration between the democratic and authoritarian character of the product while following the law between responsive and conservative. often the legal and law enforcement functions do not work in harmony. as the law is often weakens when confronted with politics, even though the law is supreme. legal development progressed quite well at this time, when viewed from the codification and unification in the legal field. but in the implementation and enforcement function tends to weaken. non-synchronization between the growth of the function of law and legal structures for political interference or influence on the function of law enforcement efforts. according to sri soemantri martosuwignyo these circumstances "like a railroad train, if the railroad is like a legal and political train as it will be seen that the train had been running outside the rails."(mahfud, 2011) this occurs because of the meddling of political power. idealized view (das sollen) that politics should be subject to the law, but in view of the empirical (das sein) journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 214-227 that the law is determined by the underlying political configuration. each product law is a product of political decisions so that the law can be seen as a crystallization of the political thought of interacting. if the laws are made by political interference with the consequences according to abdul hakim garuda nusantara, regulatory and legal products are considered not to realize political stability and economic growth. (mahfud, 2011) since the reform emerging demands to the government to make laws. one of the law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking. countries that have the power to establish laws that determine what the policy enforcement of a law. in setting policy or law-making is often influenced by various factors, internal factors are derived and the domestic and external factors are derived and abroad. internal factors derived from the desire of individuals who hold the power to make laws, the desire of political parties, ngos, even the desires of the community. internal factors establishment of law no. 21 of 2007 on combating anti-trafficking not because indonesia to uphold human rights which every person as a creature of god almighty has rights in accordance with their dignity. in the constitution of 1945, one of the objectives the establishment of the state of indonesia is to protect the entire indonesian nation and the entire homeland of indonesia, promote the general welfare, and article 28 i uudnkri 1945 states that the protection, promotion, enforcement and fulfillment of human rights is the responsibility of the state, especially the government. so the state is responsible for performing the acts legally, politically, economically and socially to prevent, remove and eradicate and punish perpetrators of the crime of trafficking in persons. external factors derived from the desire of the international financial institutions or donors, even obligations under international agreements. countries indonesia has ratified several conventions relating to trafficking in persons, namely 1) the convention on the elimination of discrimination against women or the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (cedaw) by law no 7 of 1984 on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women. cedaw obliges states parties to establish regulations on the prohibition of trafficking and exploitation of women for prostitution. 2) ilo convention no. 182 concerning the prohibition and immediate action for the elimination of the worst forms of child labor by the constitution of the republic of indonesia no. 1 in 2000, 3) the crc by presidential decree 36 in 1990. 4) the united nations convention transnational organized crimes along with the protocol that protocol to prevent, suppress farhana 217 and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children, and the protocol against the smuggling of migrants by land, sea and air, signed in december 2000 in palermo italy. united nations convention transnational organized crimes has been ratified by the law of the republic of indonesia number 5 of 2009 on the ratification of the united nations convention against transnational organized crime (united nations convention against transnational organized crime), 5) protocol against the smuggling of migrants by land, sea and air, supplementing the united nations convention against transnational organized crime ratified by the law of the republic of indonesia number 15 of 2009 on ratification of the protocol against the smuggling of migrants by land, sea and air, supplementing the united nations convention against transnational organized crime (protocol against the smuggling of migrants by land, sea, and air, supplementing the united nations convention against transnational organized crime). the substance is arranged on the prohibition of human trafficking. enacted law no. 21 of 2007 on eradication of human trafficking for the internal and external factors. law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking, was formed on the premise and the most influential political expediency. the enacted law on democratic legal political conditions mentioned by mahfud md as a democratic political configuration. according to mahfud md that political configuration on the configuration divided into the democratic and authoritarian configuration. results of a political product is legal, legal product is a product of the political democratic political configuration will bear legal product or autonomous character responsive while authoritarian politics (non-democratic) will give birth to a legal product that characterized conservative or orthodox or oppressive. therefore formulated the problem whether law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking responsive laws that character ? the purpose of the discussion of this issue is to explain and analyze the law no.21 of 2007 with a responsive legal approach. the method used is a method of normative or doctrinal method based on legal materials. legal materials used primary legal materials, namely law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking and the laws and regulations that relate to the problems examined, secondary law, namely literature-literature relating to the scope of the discussion. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 214-227 characteristics of law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking the development of society makes the public system becomes increasingly complex and increasingly widespread job descriptions of life. therefore, the law made must follow the development of society. if the law is made not to follow the development of the society then the law says it is lagging behind, the law required to be more sensitive and responsive to all the problems that occur in the community. law cannot be separated in the life of society and the law regulates everything that exists in society. in accordance with the opinion of philippe nonet and philip selznick that: (selznick & nonet, 1978) "our understanding of social change is incomplete if we do not seek out the modes of adaptation that create new and potentially viable historical alternatives, for examples, the movement from status to contract, from gemeinschaft to gesellschaft.” the law is the creation of the community, but at the same time, he also created the community, so that the law in accordance with the development of society. this is in accordance with the opinion that "a good law should be in accordance with the law who live in the community (the living law). so the law must reflect the values in the society "(sanjoy and chaman, 2017) often the law is only understood as the rules are rigid and too much emphasis on the aspects of the legal system without looking at the link between the legal sciences with social problems. law is identical to the order as a mirror arrangement of the ruler, on the other hand, there is also an understanding of the laws that emphasize aspects of the legitimacy of the rules themselves. the law should not close themselves to the social factors that influence the development of society. law is not only the rules, but there are also other logics (logic and rules). that imposing jurisprudence is not enough, but law enforcement should be enriched with social sciences. this is a challenge for all parties involved in the process of law enforcement, in order to free themselves from the confines of pure rigid legal and analytical. the law was a "political product so that the content of each product code of law to be determined by the strength or the political configuration of the baby." (barner et. al, 2014). the legal product, in this case, the law is a political product. the certain legislation is a product of a particular political background by certain political configuration. political configuration divided into two "democratic and authoritarian, the character of the legislation is divided into law character responsive or autonomous and laws that conservative or orthodox." (mahfud, 2011) farhana 219 as for the configuration of democratic politics is "the configuration opens opportunities for involvement of the potential of the people to the maximum to actively participate in determining the state policy, while the configuration of authoritarian politics is the configuration that places the government in a dominant position with the nature interventionist in determining and implementing state policy so that the potential and aspirations of the people are not aggregated and articulate professionally,(mahfud, 2011) while law responsive is “a legal product that reflects the fulfillment of the demands of individuals and social groups so as better able to reflect the sense of justice in society and the conservative law is a legal product that reflects the vision the dominant political powerholders." (mahfud, 2011) every political and legal product configuration has its own characteristic-self, then the democratic political configuration is as (mahfud, 2011) 1. "opening up opportunities for potential people to participate optimally to participate actively determine government policy. 2. the role of government into committees that carry out the will of the people 3. will of the people is formulated in a democratic 4. the function of board of representatives and political parties proportionately and more decisive policy-making state 5. press can perform its function freely” as for the characteristics of the political configuration authoritarian as (mahfud, 2011) 1. "the government's position dominant by nature interventionist in determining and implementing state policy so that the potential and aspirations of the people are not aggregated and articulated proportionately 2. board of representatives and the political parties do not work were and more a justification tool (rubber stamps) over the will of the people. 3. the press does not have freedom because under government control." characteristic legislation that is responsive has the following (mahfud, 2011) 1. "reflecting the aspirations of the people and community groups 2. in the process of lawmaking which is responsive openly invite participation and aspirations of the people. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 214-227 3. the judiciary and the law was given function as a means of implementing 4. formulas in law in sufficient detail,” while the characteristics of the legislation that is conservative is as (mahfud, 2011) 1. the contents of the legislation reflects the political views of the holder of the dominant power 2. the legislation is made by not inviting the participation and aspirations of the people, like there then it is formalistic 3. functions are positivist law instrumentalists or as a tool for implementing the ideology and program of the government. 4. the contents of legislation is only the main point 5. can be interpreted by the government in accordance with the views and will of its own with various implementing regulations." to more clearly seen in the chart below: chart 1 characteristics of law (mahfud, 2011) karakteristik uu configuration of political democratic political parties and parliaments play an active role determining state policy executive neutral as executor freedom of the press authoritarian political parties and parliaments are weak and its functions only as a seal (rubberstamp executive interventionist freedom of the press is restricted character laws responsif people participate in making laws aspirational contents on the people's demands close interpretative consevative laws made in the executive branch fill positivist law instrumentalitis open interpretative farhana 221 developments political configuration affects product development law (statute). act as a political product marred by political configuration gives birth so that these laws have character. empirically every law is a product of political decisions so that legislation is seen as a crystallization of the political thought of interacting with politicians. law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking issued in the reform era (mahfud, 2011) began democratic political life. political life in the reform era upholds the spirit of freedom, openness, and democracy both at the level of executive, the legislature and the public in general. therefore, in the manufacture of law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking, society and community groups are included. community represented by the organization stages, the solidarity of women, the network is the national legislation program women, sayap ibu foundation, center for indonesian migrant workers and community groups such as the indonesian child welfare foundation, the national commission on children, migrant workers union, lbh apik, migrant workers defense consortium. therefore, in the process of law-making community has been involved so characteristic of the characteristic responsive to follow the role and aspirations of the people are met, then the law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking has a first characteristic that is responsive to the people’s and participatory preparation and both are based on the aspirations of the people. the third characteristic is the formulation of responsive law legislation usually sufficient detail so as not open to be interpreted is not fulfilled in law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking, as is still likely to be interpreted. there are several things that are likely to be interpreted in terms of punishment. as criminal weighting dropped threefold or third. not specified one-third or threefold of criminal minimum or maximum of a criminal or after the judge ruled. in addition, no provision of judges should not be decided under the criminal offense in the minimum, because there are two models in the criminal punishment is absolute model of (fixed sentence) or a mandatory minimum punishment and are relative (model unfixed sentence) (arief, 2012) if absolute then dropping below the minimum contravene the law, but if are relative then dropping below the minimum does not conflict with the law. law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking including the type of law responsive human trafficking, slavery and exploitation of the weak are as ancient as civilization itself. since ancient times, affluent people have kept and traded in slaves for physical pleasure, manual labor, and profit. over four hundred years ago, africans were seized from their journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 214-227 homelands and carried over the atlantic to be exported to different parts of the world for labor. the same slaves who were used for labor were often exploited to fulfill the sexual desires of their owners and masters. the bloodiest war in the history of the united states was fought in large part to end the ugly practice of exploiting other human beings for profit, personal gain and pleasure (walter, 2011). human trafficking is the second largest fast growing criminal industry in the world today. the illegal trade of humans is often misunderstood and misrepresented as purely an international issue, often overlooking that human trafficking happens throughout the united states. human trafficking is a multifaceted issue that includes fraud, force, coercion, and exploitation for sexual purposes as well as for purposes of forced labor. human trafficking is not an issue exclusively about children; however, children are most vulnerable to these forms of exploitation and will be the focus of this paper. additionally, while human trafficking includes both labor and sexual exploitation, the focus of this paper on sexual exploitation is not to devalue focus on slave labor but time and length constraints force a specific focus on one issue. (moser, 2012) the united nations, under the palermo protocol, adopted the following global definition for human trafficking: trafficking in persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, or deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal or organ (barner, et.al, 2014). legal approach responsiveness of philippe nonet and philip selznick that divides the characteristics of the law or laws are divided into three types of law is "the law as a waiter power repressive (repressive law), legal as a separate institution that is able to tame the repressive and protect the integrity of himself (autonomous law) and the law as a facilitator of the various responses to the needs and aspirations of social (legal responsive).” (selznick & nonet, 1978) according to philippe nonet and philip selznick that" repressive laws, law autonomic and legal responsive not only types of different laws but also the stages of evolution in the legal relationship with the social order and political order. (selznick & nonet, 1978) "all three of farhana 223 these stages is referred to as a developmental model law. the legal developments can be seen from the socio-political development milestone in the history of a state which is a nuance to the emergence and the enactment of a rule in society. the characteristics of the legislation that has the type of law responsiveness are as follows:(selznick & nonet, 1978) 1. competence 2. substantive justice 3. subordinate of principle and policy 4. purposive: enlargement of cognitive competence 5. expanded, but accountable to purpose 6. positive search for a alternatives, e.g incentives, self -sustaining system of obligation 7. civil morality: morality of cooperation 8. legal and politics aspirations integrated: blending of powers 9. disobedience assessed in light of substantive harms: perceived as raising issues of legitimacy 10. access enlarged by integration of legal and social advocacy nonet and selznick seeks to clarify the various attachments systematically growing in society (law society) that 1) law as the servant of repressive power; 2) law as differentiated institution capable of taming repression and protecting its own integrity, and 3) law as facilitator of response to social needs and aspirations. the responsive law as a facilitator of various responses to social needs and aspirations so that the function of the law is not just to achieve procedural fairness, but to serve as a facilitator of the response to the needs and aspirations of the community. a good law should be competent and fair, the law should be able to meet the public desire and commitment for the achievement of substantive justice. substantive justice granted in accordance with the rules of substantive law, regardless of procedural errors that do not affect the substantive rights of the plaintiff. (black, garner, & mcdaniel, 1999) substantive justice is justice not provided for in the rules of law, but rather to look at the substance of the case although it is not regulated by law. justice contains universal principles, namely the principle of equality (in-discrimination), not favoritism (anti-nepotism), impartiality (fairness), and the principle of objectivity (not subjective). this did not happen in the cases of human trafficking. a responsive law seeking journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 214-227 implied values contained in the legislation and the policies issued. those values encourage the formation of new regulations. responsive nature can be interpreted as serving the needs and interests of socially experienced and discovered not by officials but by the people. the values implicitly contained in the trading laws are to protect human dignity or human rights that pushed for law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking. the responsiveness implies a commitment to the law within the meaning contained community perspective, that the law responsive to the public good. so the purpose of the law or the purpose of making the legislation is to order and legitimacy also considers competence. so the trade laws are procedural legitimacy has been reached but not yet to the substance, the views of the article 25 of law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking which allow maximum criminal fine and a minimum fine was replaced by imprisonment for a maximum of one year. in the criminal justice system has not focused on the need for community involvement and victims of human trafficking. legal responsive, results-oriented, the objectives to be achieved outside the law. in responsive law, legal order is negotiated and not be won through subordination. in this model of responsive law, they expressed disapproval of the doctrine which regarded them as the default interpretation and inflexible. good flow analytical and nonet and selznick through legal types of response against autonomy law that is final and cannot be sued. a responsive legal theory is a theory of law that contains a critical view. this theory holds that the law is a way of achieving the goal, however in the process of law making trafficking was not discussed and formulated the objective of sentencing in criminal acts of trafficking and is not discussed reasons defined types of criminal and duration of punishment imposed on the crime of human trafficking, so that responsive characteristic that is a goal-oriented incomplete in the trade laws. discretion can be widely used in law is responsive, but still, fit for purpose. objectives can control discretionary and thus can reduce the risk of institutional release. when an institution really has a goal will there be between integrity and transparency guidelines, rules and discretion. thus the law responsive to assume that the purpose can be made sufficiently objective and authoritative enough to control adaptive regulatory actions. therefore, it required the formulation of the objective of sentencing objective and authoritative for the trade laws that are adaptive. in the human trafficking laws, contain civil morality and morality cooperation. this is illustrated in the human trafficking laws chapter vii on international cooperation and public farhana 225 participation. the community shall participate and help the prevention and handling victims of the crime of human trafficking (article 60). forms of community participation by providing information, report a crime of human trafficking and communities have the right to obtain legal protection. the government must open access to the widest possible public participation, both nationally and internationally in accordance with the provisions of the legislation, the applicable international habits and conducted responsibly in accordance with laws and regulations. products responsive legal character seen from the manufacturing process is participatory intention to invite as much participation of all elements of society, both in terms of individuals, or groups of people and also should be aspirational that comes from the desire or the will of the people. that means they are not a legal product whim of rulers to legitimize his power. judging from the process of making laws trafficking more likely on the legal character as responses responsive to the aspirations of the social needs of the community law develops in the need to combat the crime of human trafficking. draft law crime of trafficking initiative of the house of representatives and backed by the government resulting in the alignment of power. ruler which can remove or make the rules as a means to power but may not be in accordance with the wishes legislator. the ruler will increase its credibility if the rule is legitimized if the rule is accepted and followed by the community. the community did not protest against the trafficking rules even supports the law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking. law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking created in addition to its aim to protect the public interest but also to the state as an authority in protecting the public from crime is the duty and obligation of the state which is listed in the national goals in the indonesian constitution. the enactment of law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of trafficking in persons was formed to meet the needs of society in protecting the people who have the appropriate rights to human dignity and encourages the community to have a legal awareness on dignity, dignity and their human rights. conclusion the law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of human trafficking issued in the reform, era began democratic political life so that it meets the legal responsive characteristic features that journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 214-227 are responsive law that is created through community participation so that it meets the aspirations of the people. a characteristic feature of the law that is to be limitative responsive (close interpretative) has not been met because the law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of trafficking in persons is still likely to be interpreted. so the law of the republic of indonesia no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of trafficking in persons has not fully responsive. law no. 21 of 2007 on the eradication of trafficking in persons not fully meet all the characteristics of the type of law that is responsive, because the law of trafficking in procedural justice has been achieved but justice the substance has not been achieved and the necessary formulation of the objective of sentencing objective and authoritative for legislation adaptive human trafficking. references ajagun, samuel olushola. (2012). implications of human trafficking for human rights: the case of nigeria. global kournal of human social science art & humanities vol 12 issues 11 . arief, b. n. (2012). kebijakan formulasi: ketentuan pidana dalam peraturan perundangundangan. semarang: pustaka magister press. barner, john r. , david okech and meghan a. camp. (2014). socio-economic inequality, human trafficking, and the global slave trade. societies 2014, 4, 148–160 black, h. c., garner, b. a., & mcdaniel, b. r. (1999). black's law dictionary (vol. 196): west group st. paul, mn. forster, bruce a. (2013). human trafficking: a transnational organized criminal activity. american international journal of contemporary research vol. 3 no. 1: 1 12 jackman, jessica. (2012). male human trafficking as an unrecognised problem. the bsis journal of international studies, vol 9. mahfud, md. (2011). membangun politik hukum, menegakkan konstitusi. 2nd edition. jakarta. farhana 227 moser, karen. (2012). prevention, prosecution, and protection: a look at the united states’ trafficking victims protection act. international journal of business and social science vol. 3 no. 6 : 222 235. rahman, majeed a. (2011). human trafficking in the era of globalization: the case of trafficking in the global market economy. transcience journal vol 2, no 1 : 54 71 rasjidi, h. l. (2004). dasar-dasar filasafat dan teori hukum. pt. citra aditya bakti press. rasyidi, l. (1985). dasar-dasar filsafat hukum. alumni. renshaw, catherine. (2016). human t rafficking in southeast a sia: u ncovering the dynamics of state commitment and compliance. michigan journal of international law volume 37 issue 4 : 610 659 roy, sanjoy and chandan chaman. (2017) human rights and trafficking in women and children in india. journal of historical archaeology & anthropological sciencesvol 1 issue 5. selznick, p., & nonet, p. (1978). law and society in transition: toward responsive law. law and society in transition: toward responsive law. suhardin, y. (2007). peranan hukum dalam mewujudkan kesejahteraan masyarakat. jurnal hukum pro justitia, 25(3). walters, jim and patricia h. davis. (2011). human trafficking , sex tourism, and child exploitation on the southern border. journal of applied research on children: informing p olicy for children at risk. volume 2 issue 1 human trafficking : article 6 zulfadli, m., abdullah, k., & nur, f. (2017). penegakan hukum yang responsif dan berkeadilan sebagai instrumen perubahan sosial untuk membentuk karakter bangsa. paper presented at the prosiding seminar nasional himpunan sarjana ilmu-ilmu sosial. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2), 54-77 renewed purposes for social studies teacher preparation: an analysis of teacher selfefficacy and initial teacher education leona calkins1, paul j. yoder2 & peter wiens3 abstract using data from talis 2018, this study analyzed the relationship of u.s. social studies teachers’ initial teacher education (ite) and their self-efficacy, with an emphasis on the newly added construct of multicultural teacher self-efficacy. results indicated that content and pedagogy training is present in the vast majority of ite programs that u.s. social studies teachers have attended; however, over one quarter of participants reported no training in teaching in a multilingual or multicultural setting during their ite. social studies teachers were more self-efficacious about instruction and classroom management than they were about student engagement and teaching in multicultural classrooms. all components of self-efficacy were significantly correlated with each other; however, student engagement, instruction, and classroom management are more highly correlated than self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms. regression analyses revealed an association between ite and self-efficacy; all four components of self-efficacy were significantly associated with the predictor variables. recommendations for practice and future research are discussed. keywords: multicultural, regression, social studies education, self-efficacy, talis introduction crocco and livingston (2017) call for “more focused and programmatic research on social studies teacher education” akin to research common in science and math with the goal of shaping policy and better preparing social studies teachers (p. 361). with the notable exception of the survey of the status of social studies (passe & fitchett; 2013; hong & hamot, 2020), the majority of research in social studies teacher education falls within the realm of small scale studies, often conducted in methods courses, with limited generalizability (adler; 2008; barton & avery; 2016). one issue that attributes to the limited availability of broad-scale research is the continued dispute over the meaning of social studies—with conflicting views of the purposes of social studies 1 doctoral student. university of nevada, las vegas, calkil1@unlv.nevada.edu 2assist. prof. dr. eastern mennonite university, paul.yoder@emu.edu 3assist. prof. dr. university of nevada, las vegas, peter.wiens@unlv.edu mailto:calkil1@unlv.nevada.edu mailto:paul.yoder@emu.edu mailto:peter.wiens@unlv.edu journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 55 perpetuating disagreement over what skills social studies teachers need (adler, 2008; powell, 2018). in addition, requirements in social studies teacher education programs vary greatly throughout the united states (bittman et al., 2017). for instance, of 173 public colleges and universities that offer an undergraduate social studies teacher education program leading to state certification, 22.5% do not require any credits in a social studies methods course; 46.8% require three credit hours; the most credit hours required by a program is 25 (bittman et al., 2017). because of this, there has been a call for teacher education programs to situate their research into a broader context with emphasis placed on practices that lead to student achievement (adler, 2008; crocco & livingston, 2017; fitchett & heafner, 2017; passe & fitchett, 2013; sleeter, 2014). one of the key teacher-level factors that contributes to student achievement is teacher self-efficacy (tschannen-moran & hoy, 2001). in addition to facilitating student achievement, teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy attempt different instructional strategies (holzberger et al., 2013), are more organized in both their classroom and instruction resulting in more effective lessons (fast et al., 2010), and positively affect their students’ self-esteem, motivation, self-direction and attitudes about school (taimalu & oim, 2005). in regard to social studies teacher self-efficacy, a great deal of the available research primarily focuses on small scale studies usually conducted within a given course. for instance, fitchett, starker, and salyers (2012) reported increased self-efficacy of preservice social studies teachers in their abilities to teach multicultural content after completing a methods course following a culturally responsive model. voet & de weaver (2017) reported similar findings during an inquiry-based learning (ibl) training that preservice history teachers attended during their student teaching; preservice teachers felt more efficacious to use ibl with their students after attending the training. in response to the need for empirical research that bridges the preservice and in-service phases of social studies teachers’ careers, this study uses responses of social studies teachers from the teaching and learning international survey (talis) 2018 to analyze relationships between social studies teachers’ preparation and their self-efficacy. talis is a large-scale ongoing survey, beginning in 2008, given to teachers and administrators in lower secondary schools (ainley & carstens, 2018). using the talis 2018 framework to situate the study, initial teacher education (ite) includes, most notably, indicators “in subject content areas and pedagogy, as well as practical experience in schools, along with indicators of professional development and its impact calkins et al. on teachers” (ainley & carstens, 2018, p. 41). in addition, talis 2018 addresses four areas of teacher self-efficacy: classroom management, student engagement, instruction, and multicultural classrooms. based on the importance of teacher self-efficacy and the affordances of the talis data set, this study seeks to answer the following research question: to what extent, if any, do various elements of u.s. social studies teachers’ initial teacher education (ite) relate to their selfefficacy of classroom management, instruction, student engagement, and multicultural classrooms? theoretical framework self-efficacy is a central concept to bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory and is viewed as the foundation for human agency. self-efficacy is the belief that one can produce desired effects through one’s own actions, thus having the power to create change (bandura, 2006; bandura, 1999). people with high self-efficacy not only remain resilient when faced with hardship, but also set high goals for themselves, devote more effort, and have a strong commitment to their goals (bandura, 2012). on the other hand, those with low self-efficacy tend to give up and often limit their options because they doubt success (bandura, 1999). in addition, those with high self-efficacy attribute failures to correctable situations (e.g., lack of effort, inappropriate strategies), whereas those with low self-efficacy attribute failures to lack of ability, which can be demoralizing (bandura, 1999). self-efficacy is shaped by four sources of information: vicarious experiences, verbal and social influences, physiological and emotional states, and mastery experiences (bandura, 1977). vicarious experiences pertain to those capabilities that do not have an absolute measure of adequacy and therefore need to be appraised based on how others perform (bandura, 1977). teachers can experience this through colleague observation. if a teacher considers using a new strategy, they can observe a fellow teacher who uses the strategy frequently; once the teacher has attempted the new strategy then they can judge their effectiveness compared to that of their colleague. verbal and social influences come in the form of encouragement by others of importance in a person’s life (bandura, 1977). this can come in the form of observations and then feedback teachers receive from administrators or other teachers. positive feedback can lead to a heightened sense of self-efficacy, whereas negative feedback can lower self-efficacy; however, unrealistic praise can lead to harsher failures and then diminishment of self-efficacy (bandura, 1997). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 57 physiological and emotional states pertain to people’s somatic states especially emotional responses to situations (bandura, 1997). people tend to judge their capabilities based upon their physical reactions; emotions like fear, stress, or even excitement can alter a teacher’s performance or their perceptions of their capabilities, though these perceptions may be a misinterpretation (dassa & nichols, 2019). lastly, “enactive mastery experiences are the most influential source of efficacy information because they provide the most authentic evidence” of possible mastery (bandura, 1997, p. 80). successes foster efficacy and failures hinder it; however, some failure is necessary in order to build resilience and understanding that successes take effort. once people believe success is possible through their deliberate actions then they can face adversity with resilience and continue to exert greater effort after setbacks. as teachers find success in the classroom, their competency and self-efficacy grows. studies pertaining to teacher self-efficacy support this concept as veteran teachers tend to have higher self-efficacy than novice teachers (bullock et al., 2015; goddard et al., 2000; tschannen-moran & hoy, 2007). these sources of information appear as separate entities, though any influence can operate through one or more of these sources (bandura, 1997). the concept of self-efficacy has found its way into numerous fields including that of education. like all social realities, teaching is strewn with difficulties, “full of impediments, adversities, setbacks, frustrations, and inequities” thus teachers with high self-efficacy will be better equipped to face these challenges and continue to exert effort even when not finding success initially (bandura, 1994, para. 33). literature review social studies teacher education the national council for the social studies (ncss) has published standards which outline the knowledge, dispositions, and skills necessary for preservice social studies teachers to learn in order to best prepare their own students for civic life. the national standards for the preparation of social studies teachers (cuenca et al., 2018) assist in the review and accreditation of social studies teacher education programs. the standards employ the inquiry arc described in the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework (ncss, 2013) as “both a guide for and endpoint of social studies teacher education” (cuenca, 2017, pp. 371). in doing so, ncss developed five core competencies for social studies teacher education programs: content knowledge, application of calkins et al. content through planning, design and implementation of instruction and assessment, social studies learners and learning, and professional responsibility and informed action (cuenca, 2017; cuenca et al., 2018). although the standards are most essential for u.s. teacher education programs seeking national recognition from ncss and the council for the accreditation of educator preparation (caep), these standards provide a guide for all social studies teacher education programs (cuenca, 2017; cuenca et al., 2018). however, a gap in literature exists regarding how and to what extent these standards are implemented in social studies teacher education programs (cuenca, 2017). the majority of the research on social studies teacher education falls within the realm of small scale studies, often done in methods courses, providing limited generalizability and lacking a comprehensive view of the state of social studies teacher education programs (adler, 2008; barton & avery, 2016). for instance, studies conducted by brooks and jares (2016) and crocco and marino (2017) were both conducted in preservice social studied education method courses and both studies included fewer than 30 participants. other small scale studies have focused on how current programs have worked to improve their social studies teacher education programs. journell and tolbert (2016) described the collaboration between the departments of teacher education and history at the university of north carolina at greensboro, to develop four distinct history courses solely for preservice social studies teachers aimed at improving their pedagogical content knowledge. weiss and pellegrino (2016) shared the theme of collaboration as a way to improve teacher education; their study reported on the collaboration between a social studies teacher educator and a special education teacher educator in an attempt to better prepare their preservice teachers to meet the needs of a diverse population. small scale, qualitative studies prove extremely beneficial to research in the social studies; however, large-scale studies can better influence policy and also provide a complementary perspective to that of small-scale studies (fitchett & heafner, 2017). because of this crocco and livingston (2017, p. 361) call for “more focused and programmatic research on social studies teacher education” akin to research common in science and math with the goal of shaping policy and better preparing social studies teachers. a recent study by bittman et al. (2017) sought to gain a better understanding of the requirements in social studies teacher education programs that lead to state licensure throughout the united states. using the u.s. department of education’s database, the study identified all publicly financed colleges and universities that offered teacher licensure in social studies education at either journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 59 the undergraduate or graduate level (n=419). the requirements for both undergraduate and graduate programs in social studies teacher education programs vary greatly throughout the united states highlighting the myriad conditions schools must take into consideration with developing their teacher education programs (bittman et al., 2017). for instance, of 173 public colleges and universities that offer an undergraduate social studies teacher education program leading to state certification, 22.5% do not require any credits in a social studies methods course and 46.8% require three credit hours. the most credit hours required by a program is 25 (bittman et al., 2017). at the graduate level, of the 89 public colleges and universities offering a degree leading to state licensure in social studies, 52 schools required no additional classes in the social studies; 22 schools required six or more additional credits hours in social studies content. in addition, internship credit hours varied greatly at the graduate level, ranging from 0 to 27 credit hours with most schools requiring between 3 and 12 (bittman et al., 2017). because of this, there has been a call for teacher education programs to situate their research into a broader context with emphasis placed on practices that lead to student achievement (adler, 2008; crocco & livingston, 2017; cuenca, 2017; passe & fitchett, 2013; sleeter, 2014). teacher self-efficacy research on teacher self-efficacy reveals that those with high self-efficacy remain resilient in times of difficulty and are motivated to find better solutions when faced with possible failure. teachers with low self-efficacy, on the other hand, tend to give up or settle for mediocre results when faced with difficulties (bandura, 1999; bandura, 2012; dicke et al., 2014; hong, 2012; keogh et al., 2012; yost, 2006). thus, teacher self-efficacy has important implications for education since it “represents the teacher's belief in his/her own ability to organize and execute necessary actions required to successfully carry out a specific educational task in a particular context” (oliveira fernandez et al., 2016, p.793-794). teacher self-efficacy is one of the teacher-level factors that contributes to student achievement (tschannen-moran & hoy, 2001). in addition to facilitating student achievement, teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy attempt different instructional strategies (holzberger et al., 2013), are more organized in both their classroom and instruction resulting in more effective lessons (fast et al., 2010), and positively affect their students’ self-esteem, motivation, self-direction and attitudes about school (taimalu & oim, 2005). when students perceive a classroom environment as caring calkins et al. and mastery-oriented, students have higher levels of self-efficacy, which encourages them toward higher performance (fast et al., 2010). teaching experience can be an important contributing factor to a teacher’s sense of efficacy. in their study of novice and experienced teachers tschannen-moran and hoy (2007) found that experienced teachers had a higher sense of self-efficacy than novice teachers. novice teachers struggle with self-efficacy due to the fact that they have not had the opportunity to face challenging situations in order to grow their self-efficacy (bullock et al., 2015). self-efficacy can change over time and can be increased with experience (goddard et al., 2000). however, there are reported instances in which teacher effectiveness has decreased later in teachers’ careers; causes for this included both additional workloads and paperwork along with increased stress from their personal life (day & gu, 2007). for example, in a study of veteran teachers, day and gu (2007) found that six out of 44 participants experienced decreased motivation and effectiveness after teaching between 16-23 years; this number increased to 24 out of 52 among those participants who taught for 24-30 years. teacher self-efficacy is viewed as a multidimensional construct. tschannen-moran and hoy (2001) proposed a three factor framework of teacher self-efficacy: self-efficacy for classroom management, self-efficacy for instructional strategies, and self-efficacy for student engagement. teacher self-efficacy for classroom management relates to a teachers’ beliefs in their ability to control disruptive behavior, create routines to keep activities running smoothly, and make clear expectations for student behavior. teacher self-efficacy for instructional strategies relates to teachers’ beliefs in their ability to gauge student comprehension of material just taught, adjust lessons to meet individual needs of students, and use a variety of assessment strategies. teacher self-efficacy for student engagement refers to teachers’ beliefs in their ability to motivate students, help students believe they can do well in school, and foster student creativity (tschannen-moran & hoy, 2001). self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms more recently, self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms has emerged as a fourth dimension of teacher self-efficacy. student populations around the world continue to diversify. as of 2014, white students have accounted for less than 50 percent of all students enrolled in u.s. public schools and that number is projected to continue to decline until 2028 (kena et al., 2014). selfefficacy in multicultural classrooms hinges on the concept of culturally relevant teaching, which journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 61 is “using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them” (gay, 2010, p. 31). in order to assess teachers’ sense of multicultural self-efficacy, siwatu (2007) developed the culturally responsive teacher self-efficacy scale (crtse). using the crtse, preservice teachers reported high levels of self-efficacy in helping their students feel like a valued member of the classroom and establishing trusted student-teacher relationships; however, preservice teachers reported lower self-efficacy in their ability to communicate with english language learners (ells; siwatu, 2007). considering growing diversity within schools higher selfefficacy in working with linguistically diverse populations could lead to greater achievement for the country’s growing population of ells (ladson-billings, 2006). considering the positive correlations between high teacher self-efficacy and student achievement, greater self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms can positively impact student learning of historically underserved students. for instance, fitchett, starker, and salyers (2012) reported increased self-efficacy of preservice social studies teachers in their abilities to teach multicultural content after completing a methods course following a culturally responsive epistemology. the implications of this study suggest that when incorporating culturally relevant teaching strategies into a social studies methods course teachers can become more aware of culturally relevant pedagogy, feel more efficacious working with culturally diverse students, and, therefore, find ways to engage their students in diverse content. because of the important implications of culturally relevant teaching, and the diversified student population throughout the world including the united states, talis 2018 (ainley & carstens, 2018) added self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms to their recent teacher questionnaire. social studies teacher self-efficacy in regard to social studies teacher self-efficacy, the literature is quite sparse with the available research primarily focuses on preservice teachers in methods courses. of the three studies analyzed, all were conducted with preservice social studies teachers and each focused on different dimensions of self-efficacy. for instance, yilmaz (2009) analyzed the self-efficacy perceptions of teaching history among preservice social studies teachers during their senior year. overall, preservice teachers had a generally high sense of self-efficacy in regards to teaching history (yilmaz, 2009). dundar (2015) examined the relationship between elementary preservice teachers learning approaches in a social studies method course and their self-efficacy; findings revealed calkins et al. that a deep learning approach to the social studies methods course had a positive correlation to both personal teaching efficacy beliefs and teaching outcome expectancy. lastly, voet and de wever (2017) conducted a study analyzing the self-efficacy of using inquiry-based learning (ibl) in history after preservice teachers attended a workshop. voet and de wever (2017) reported that preservice teachers felt more efficacious to use ibl with their students after attending the training. although studies of preservice teachers provide insights into self-efficacy among social studies educators, research raises the possibility of overconfidence, as opposed to self-efficacy, in some preservice teachers. according to dassa and nichols (2019), a disconnect exists between preservice teachers’ perceptions of their abilities and how their university supervisors and mentor teachers view their abilities. preservice teachers may have overconfidence, especially if having a positive student teaching experience, that can cause them to feel as if they have high teaching abilities and may even cause them to assume they will face little difficulty in the future. with this in mind, it is imperative to also analyze in-service social studies teacher self-efficacy; this study aims to help close this literature gap. social studies instruction in multicultural and multilingual classrooms given the talis focus on students from immigrant families (ainley & carstens, 2018), the final literature review section focuses on the importance of culturally and linguistically responsive social studies teaching in multicultural and multilingual classrooms. in the context of talis it is important to recognize that multicultural education coincides with multilingual education given the international context of the survey and the assumption that multicultural education is primarily needed to serve immigrant students in many otherwise homogenous societies. furthermore, considering multicultural education is extremely broad we sought to anchor our analysis in our own teaching and research perspectives. in summarizing key understandings from recent research, yoder and jaffee (2019) highlighted the importance of learning about students’ experiences and perspectives, explicitly connecting social studies instruction to student experiences, clearly articulating classroom procedures and social studies skills, and scaffolding social studies instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse student populations. based on empirical research among culturally and linguistically diverse student populations in a variety of settings, jaffee (jaffee, 2016a, 2016b, 2018; ramirez & jaffee, 2016) has similarly placed an emphasis on examining the cultural contexts from which content knowledge is derived and actively engaging the cultural assets of students from all backgrounds. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 63 research clearly shows that the majority of social studies teachers need the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to be successful in multicultural classrooms. for example, half of the respondents in the landmark survey on the status of social studies reported teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students (jimenez-silva et al., 2013). yet social studies teachers consistently report that they feel unprepared to meet the needs of this group of students (yoder & van hover, 2018; jimenez-silva et al., 2013; o'brien, 2011) and lack the appropriate materials to effectively scaffold instruction (cho & reich, 2008; hilburn, 2014; jimenez-silva et al., 2013). at the same time, analysis of the language found in history textbooks and other academic sources reveals that dense noun phrases, abstract ideas, and passive verbs present challenges to culturally and linguistically diverse students (miller, 2018; salinas et al., 2017; zhang, 2017). in short, even as notions of culturally and linguistically responsive social studies instruction have begun to take hold in recent years, the continued need for research on teacher preparation and practice remains (yoder et al., 2016). emerging studies among students and social studies teachers alike continue to highlight the challenges and affordances of social studies curriculum in the context of current events (yoder et al., 2016; díaz & deroo, 2020; dozono, 2020; yoder, 2020). the present study seeks to add to this body of knowledge through introducing notions of self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms in ways that enrich and update the existing literature since self-efficacy has shown, time and again, that it is an important teacher-level factor impacting student achievement. method this study reports on the statistical analysis (hinkle et al., 2003; lomax, 2007) of a large scale survey (stapleton, 2010) of teacher responses to questions regarding their ite and instructional methods. further explanation of the methods will follow in this section. data source and sampling talis 2018 is administered by national educational agencies in partnership with the organisation for economic cooperation and development (oecd) and includes responses from 48 countries and economies. the 2018 version of the talis comprises 11 different themes regarding features and practices related to the professional and pedagogical aspects of teaching in the various participating countries (ainley & carstens, 2018). teachers are provided questions related to intial training, their current work environment, professional development experiences, self-efficacy, and calkins et al. instructional practices. influenced by the growing diversity of schools worldwide, the theme of equity and diversity was added to talis 2018. as such, questions pertaining to teachers’ selfefficacy in multicultural classrooms were introduced for the first time in the talis 2018 questionnaire (ainley & carstens, 2018). talis data are publicly available and were downloaded from the talis website (https://www.oecd.org/education/talis/). talis was developed by the oecd (2019) and the targeted populations of talis 2018 were lower secondary teachers (grades 7-9). talis defines a teacher “as a person whose professional activity involves the transmission of knowledge, attitudes and skills to students enrolled in an education programme” (ainley & carstens, 2018, p.73). in the united states talis is administered by the national center for education statistics and the full sample of 2,560 teachers who participated in the survey (schwabe & karla, 2019) are a representative sample of all us teachers. participants the present study focused only on teachers who indicated that they teach social studies in the united states, which includes a total of 240 teachers, or approximately 10% of the entire number of u.s. participants surveyed for talis. talis is designed to construct a representative sample of teachers in each country it surveys; however, this study focused only on social studies teachers and therefore cannot claim representation. the data does include a range of social studies teachers from across the country. social studies teachers in this study had an average of just over 14 years of total teaching experience (m = 14.12, sd = 8.64) and 9.5 years of teaching experience at their current school (m = 9.55, sd = 7.73). talis provides limited information about the participants, so it is only possible to know that 48.1% self-identified as male and 51.9% identified as female. instrument teacher self-efficacy the talis 2018 teacher questionnaire included 13 questions related to self-efficacy in teaching abilities in general in which teachers responded to the question “in your teaching, to what extent can you do the following?” talis bases its self-efficacy measure on the well-established measure created by tschannen-moran and hoy (2001) that conceptualizes self-efficacy as comprised as a three-construct measure with four questions each including instructional practices (α = .814), student engagement (α = .808), and classroom management (α = .868). in addition to assessing journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 65 these constructs, all of which appeared in the previous talis teacher questionnaires, talis 2018 added the construct of teaching in diverse classrooms (ainley & carstens, 2018) which is composed of five questions (α = .861) to address the growing cultural diversity of many countries. the question asked teachers, “in teaching a culturally diverse class, to what extent can you do the following?” responses to self-efficacy questions were on a four-point likert scale including “not at all”, “to some extent”, “quite a bit”, and “a lot”. analysis in the present study focuses on self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms because it is a new construct in the talis 2018 questionnaire. initial teacher education (ite) talis asks teachers to indicate what elements were present in their ite by asking them to respond to a dichotomous scale and mark either yes or no for each element. items include content and pedagogy elements as well as teaching diverse learners, classroom management, and information and computer technology (ict). table 1 includes responses to these ten elements. data analysis we began our analysis by examining the presence of different elements in ite of social studies teachers. this was done by calculating descriptive statistics for each of the 10 elements. we next calculated the descriptive statistics of the self-efficacy components. after examining the descriptive statistics we then calculated four separate regression analyses. in each of the regressions, we used one of the four components of self-efficacy (engagement, instruction, management, and multicultural) as the dependent variable. in addition to the ten elements of ite, we selected years of teaching experience, gender, and variables indicative of teaching in multicultural classroom contexts (i.e., teaching ells, students from socio-economically disadvantaged homes, refugees) as predictor variables due to their conceptual relevance (ainley & carstens, 2018; fitchett et al., siwatu, 2007). all analysis was conducted using spss version 24. findings as shown in table 1, results indicated that multiple elements of content and pedagogy training are present in the vast majority of ite programs that u.s. social studies teachers have attended. between 90.4% and 95.4% of participants indicated training in these four areas prior to teaching. most participants indicated training in teaching in a mixed ability setting (81.2%), monitoring students’ development and learning (82.1%), teaching cross-curricular skills (84.2%), and student calkins et al. behavior and classroom management (84.6%), though these rates are lower than that of content and general pedagogy. the least frequent elements were use of ict (68.8%) and teaching in a multilingual or multicultural setting (73.3%). over a quarter of participants reported receiving no preservice training in teaching in a multicultural setting. table 1 percentage of participants reporting presence of elements in ite elements in formal education… yes no no answer content of some or all subject(s) i teach 92.9 5.9 1.3 pedagogy of some or all subject(s) i teach 90.8 7.9 1.3 general pedagogy 95.4 3.3 1.3 classroom practice in some or all subject(s) i teach 90.4 8.3 1.3 teaching in a mixed ability setting 81.2 17.5 1.3 teaching in a multicultural or multilingual setting 73.3 25.4 1.3 teaching cross-curricular skills 84.2 14.6 1.3 use of ict for teaching 68.8 30.0 1.3 student behaviour and classroom management 84.6 14.2 1.3 monitoring students’ development and learning 82.1 16.7 1.3 in table 2, the means, standard deviations, and correlations of the four components of self-efficacy are displayed. social studies teachers were more self-efficacious about instruction (m = 12.78, sd= 2.18) and classroom management (m = 12.73, sd= 2.31) than they were about student engagement (m = 11.94, sd= 2.27) and teaching in multicultural classrooms (m = 11.45, sd= 2.32). self-efficacy of teaching in multicultural classrooms has both the lowest mean and the highest standard deviation. all components of self-efficacy were significantly correlated with each other; however, student engagement, instruction, and classroom management are more highly correlated than self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms. table 2 self-efficacy means and correlations mean(sd) engagement instruction management multicultural student engagement 11.94 (2.27) 1 instruction 12.78 (2.18) .502*** 1 classroom management 12.73 (2.31) .480*** .478*** 1 multicultural classrooms 11.45 (2.32) .326*** .297*** .256*** 1 *** p < .001 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 table 3 regression analysis: training and self-efficacy classroom management instruction student engagement multicultural classrooms predictors stnd. ß std. error stnd. ß std. error stnd. ß std. error stnd. ß std. error teaching experience .326*** .016 .210*** .016 .223*** .016 -.116+ .018 gender (female) .114+ .282 .058 .271 -.031 .286 .119+ .310 ells .143* .135 .160* .130 .121+ .137 .116 .148 refugees .085 .333 .108 .320 .081 .338 .140* .352 low-ses -.033 .126 -.152* .121 -.120+ .127 -.007 .145 content of some or all subject(s) i teach -.013 .627 -.158* .602 -.179** .635 -.082 .680 pedagogy of some or all subject(s) i teach -.052 .662 -.030 .636 -.099 .671 -.115 .696 general pedagogy .015 .958 .033 .921 .063 .972 .257** .997 classroom practice in some or all subject(s) i teach .002 .594 -.030 .571 -.069 .603 .047 .656 teaching in a mixed ability setting .102 .451 -.008 .433 .099 .457 .177* .499 teaching in a multicultural or multilingual setting .009 .367 -.030 .353 .032 .372 -.042 .411 teaching cross-curricular skills .057 .461 .258*** .443 .135+ .467 .163* .514 use of ict (information and communication technology) for teaching .130+ .349 .072 .335 .074 .353 .020 .405 student behaviour and classroom management .087 .507 .023 .488 .081 .514 .077 .581 monitoring students development and learning .032 .486 .029 .467 .086 .493 -.201* .581 final r .490*** .448*** .430*** .440*** final adjusted r2 .188 .146 .129 .193 standard error 2.089 2.008 2.118 2.148 +=p<.10 *=p<.05 **=p<.01 ***=p<.001 calkins et al. regression analyses revealed an association between ite and self-efficacy. as illustrated in table 3, all four components of self-efficacy were significantly associated with the predictor variables. however, no clear patterns emerged as to which elements might be the most important to selfefficacy. teaching cross-curricular skills did appear to be associated with self-efficacy in three components. interestingly, the inclusion of content of some or all subjects was negatively associated with self-efficacy. self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms was the most impacted by ite. in this area, general pedagogy, teaching in a mixed ability classroom, and teaching cross-curricular skills were all positively associated. in addition, teachers who have experience with refugee students have a higher sense of self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms. however, identifying as female and ite training in monitoring students’ development and learning were negatively associated with selfefficacy in this area. furthermore, teaching experience was negatively associated with self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms, though positively associated with classroom management, instruction, and student engagement. implications this study analyzed the relationship between various elements of u.s. social studies teachers’ initial teacher education (ite) and their self-efficacy of classroom management, instruction, student engagement, and multicultural classrooms. the data presented in this study indicate that coursework in content area subjects as part of ite had a significant negative relationship to teacher self-efficacy suggesting that content courses, alone, are not enough to make a social studies teacher feel prepared to teach. on the other hand, general pedagogy and teaching cross curricular skills had the greatest relationships to teacher self-efficacy. given that social studies education programs emphasize content knowledge, with the average program requiring 45 credit hours and the vast majority requiring 30 to 60 credits (bittman et al., 2017), the data in this study suggests that programs should consider incorporating more elements of general pedagogy and teaching crosscurricular skills. further research of social studies ite should be conducted to determine to what extent general pedagogy and teaching cross-curricular skills are included and, in cases where they are not, how best to ensure social studies preservice teachers receive preparation and opportunities for implementation of best practices. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 69 with the limited research on social studies teachers’ self-efficacy and that available focusing on preservice teachers, the current study acts as a catalyst beginning the much needed dialogue of self-efficacy among social studies teachers. considering the importance of teacher self-efficacy is well-established within literature—facilitation of student achievement (tschannen-moran & hoy, 2001), teacher resiliency (i.e., dicke et al., 2014; hong, 2012), use of varying instructional strategies (holzberger et al., 2013), among others—the analysis of this construct among social studies teachers can help guide professional development and social studies teacher education programs. as a starting point for the conversation regarding social studies teachers’ self-efficacy, the results of the present study show that all four dimensions of teacher self-efficacy are important and significant in relation to social studies education. the results suggest that increased levels of self-efficacy in each domain can help foster greater student success in social studies classrooms (fast et al., 2010; tschannen-moran & hoy, 2001). data analysis revealed that teachers reported the lowest levels of self-efficacy in multicultural and multilingual classrooms, which corroborates the findings of previous studies indicating that social studies teachers do not feel prepared to meet the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse student populations (yoder & van hover, 2018; jimenez-silva et al., 2013; o’brien, 2011). additionally, though teaching experience had a positive relationship to all other areas of selfefficacy, teachers with more experience reported lower self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms. this indicates that self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms decreased with teaching experience, contradicting the findings of bullock et al. (2015), goddard et al. (2000), and tschannen-moran and hoy (2007); however, the results align with the findings of day and gu (2007) that teachers’ sense of self-efficacy follows a curvilinear pattern. considering the growing diversity in k-12 public schools, and the finding that over a quarter of participants reported no exposure to multicultural settings in their ite, social studies teacher education programs must evaluate the extent to which they are preparing future teachers to meet the needs of all students in these diverse classrooms (yoder et al., 2016; 2019). in addition, school leaders and policymakers must prioritize professional development that promotes culturally and linguistically responsive social studies instruction among veteran in-service teachers. for example, pre-service and in-service social studies teachers alike will benefit from support in highlighting disciplinary skills and inquiry (yoder & van hover, 2018; ncss, 2013) and making connections with students’ personal experiences (yoder & jaffee, 2019; gay, 2010). research has shown that calkins et al. by making this link explicit students can develop a better understanding of the content (yoder & jaffee, 2019; jaffee, 2016a, 2016b, 2018; ramirez & jaffee, 2016). additional research should be conducted determining to what extent this occurs in social studies teacher education programs and steps that all programs can take to increase the self-efficacy of preservice social studies teachers in multicultural and multilingual classrooms (fitchett et al., 2012; siwatu; 2007). in addition, the results of the present study reinforce the need for additional quantitative research in the field of social studies (crocco & livingston, 2017; hong & hamot, 2020), including empirical studies on the self-efficacy of social studies teachers in relationship to instructional practices and student achievement (dassa & nichols, 2019; tschannen-moran & hoy, 2001; voet & de wever, 2017). limitations this study had several limitations. first, the talis data set provides self-reported teacher data, which precludes the direct evaluation of teacher performance or student learning outcomes (ainley & carstens, 2018). second, the talis 2018 questionnaire placed teacher self-efficacy in multicultural classrooms within the theme of equity and diversity, which was separate from the theme of teacher self-efficacy. this study, however, combined the questions related to self-efficacy of multicultural classrooms with those of the three-construct framework created by tschannenmoran and hoy (2001). third, teachers were asked to think back and remember their ite and elements within their programs. depending on the length of time it had been since a teacher had finished their ite, this question could have caused possible respondent fatigue raising the possibility of measurement error. further research analyzing requirements of social studies education programs that builds upon the work of bittman et al. (2017) should be conducted to help clarify the elements of ite programs mandate. conclusion by using responses from talis 2018, this study employs secondary analysis in order to “provide macro‐level, scalable analyses that can have implications for policymaking, while also informing teaching and teacher education at the micro‐level” (fitchett & heafner, 2017, p. 70). because teacher self-efficacy can affect student achievement (tschannen-moran & hoy, 2001), analyzing areas of social studies teachers’ ite which have the greatest relationship to teacher self-efficacy can provide insight into program and course design for preservice social studies teachers. in addition, the data analysis maps onto results from previous surveys of social studies teachers, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 71 which have similarly found that professional development is needed in order to increase teacher confidence in meeting the needs of ells and other groups of students (jimenez-silva, 2013; o’brien, 2011). references adler, s. (2008). the education of social studies teachers. in l. s. levstik & c. a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 329– 351). routledge. ainley, j. & carstens, r. (2018). teaching and learning international survey (talis) 2018 conceptual framework: oecd education working papers, no. 187. paris, france: oecd. https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/799337c2-en bandura, a. (1977). self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. psychological review, 84(2), 191-215. bandura, a. (1986). social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory (prentice-hall series in social learning theory). prentice-hall. bandura, a. (1994). self-efficacy. in v. s. ramachaudran (ed.), encyclopedia of human behavior (vol. 4, pp. 71-81). academic press. (reprinted in h. friedman [ed.], encyclopedia of mental health. san diego: academic press, 1998). https://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/bandura/banency.html bandura, a. (1997). self-efficacy: the exercise of control. new york, ny: freeman and company. bandura, a. (1999), social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective. asian journal of social psychology, 2, 21-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-839x.00024 bandura, a. (2006). toward a psychology of human agency. perspectives on psychological science, 1(2), 164–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00011.x bandura, a. (2012). on the functional properties of perceived self-efficacy revisited. journal of management, 38(1), 9-44. barton, k. c., & avery, p. g. (2016). research on social studies education: diverse students, settings, and methods. in d. h. gitomer & c. a. bell (eds.), handbook of research on teaching (5th ed., pp. 985-1038). washington, dc: american educational research association. bittman, b., russell iii, w. b., kenna, j., beckles, l., & zandt, v. c. (2017). the state of social studies teacher preparation: an analysis of program requirements in the united states. journal of social studies education research, 8(3), 1–23. https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/799337c2-en https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-839x.00024 calkins et al. brooks s., & jares d. j. (2016). preparing elementary pre-service teachers to promote big ideas within social studies. in a. crowe & a. cuenca (eds.), rethinking social studies teacher education in the twenty-first century. springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-229393_5 bullock, a., coplan, r.j., & bosacki, s. (2015). exploring links between early childhood educators’ psychological characteristics and classroom management self-efficacy beliefs. canadian journal of behavioral science, 47(2), 175-183. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0038547 cho, s., & reich, g. a. (2008). new immigrants, new challenges: high school social studies teachers and english language learner instruction. social studies, 99(6), 235-242. doi:10.3200/tsss.99.6.235-242 crocco, m. s. & livingston, e. (2017). becoming an “expert” social studies teacher: what we know about teacher education and professional development. in mandra, m., & bolick, c. (eds.). the wiley handbook of social studies research (pp. 360-384). malden, ma: wiley blackwell. crocco, m. s., & marino, m. p. (2017). promoting inquiry-oriented teacher preparation in social studies through the use of local history. journal of social studies research, 41(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2015.11.001 cuenca, a. (2017). preparing teachers for a new generation of social studies learners: introducing the national standards for the preparation of social studies teachers. social education, 81(6), 370. cuenca, a., castro, a., benton, b., hosteler, a., heafber, t., thacker, e. (2018). national standards for the preparation of social studies teachers. national council for the social studies. https://www.socialstudies.org/standards/national-standardspreparation-social-studies-teachers dassa, l., & nichols, b. (2019). self-efficacy or overconfidence? comparing preservice teacher self-perceptions of their content knowledge and teaching abilities to the perceptions of their supervisors. the new educator, 15(2), 156–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/1547688x.2019.1578447 day, c., & gu, q. (2007). variations in the conditions for teachers' professional learning and development: sustaining commitment and effectiveness over a career. oxford review of education: learning in and across the professions, 33(4), 423-443. díaz, e., & deroo, m. r. (2020). latinxs in contention: a systemic functional linguistic analysis of 11th-grade u.s. history textbooks. theory & research in social education, 1-28. doi:10.1080/00933104.2020.1731637 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 73 dicke, t., parker, p. d., marsh, h. w., kundera, m., schmeck, a., & leutner, d. (2014). self efficacy in classroom management, classroom disturbances, and emotional exhaustion: a moderated mediation analysis of teacher candidates. journal of education psychology, 106(2), 569. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035504. dozono, t. (2020). the passive voice of white supremacy: tracing epistemic and discursive violence in world history curriculum. review of education, pedagogy, and cultural studies, 42(1), 1-26. doi:10.1080/10714413.2020.1721261 dundar, s. (2015). are prospective elementary school teachers' social studies teaching efficacy beliefs related to their learning approaches in a social studies teaching methods course? the australian journal of teacher education, 40(7), 70–85. fast, l. a., lewis, j. l., bryant, m. j., bocian, k. a., cardullo, r. a., rettig, m., & hammond, k.a. (2010). does math self-efficacy mediate the effect of the perceived classroom environment on standardized math test performance? journal of educational psychology, 102(3), 729-740. doi: 10.1037/a0018863. fitchett, p. g., & heafner, t. l. (2017). quantitative research and large-scale secondary analysis in social studies. in m. m. manfra & c. m. bolick (eds.), the wiley handbook of social studies research (pp. 68-94). malden, ma: wiley blackwell. fitchett, p. g., starker, t. v., & salyers, b. (2012). examining culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy in a preservice social studies education course. urban education, 47(3), 585–611. doi: 10.1177/0042085912436568 gay, g. (2010). culturally responsive teaching: theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). new york: teachers college press. goddard, r. d., hoy, w. k., & hoy, a. w. (2000) collective teacher efficacy: its meaning, measure, and impact on student achievement. american educational research journal, 37(2), 479-507. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312037002479. hilburn, j. (2014). challenges facing immigrant students beyond the linguistic domain in a new gateway state. urban review, 46, 654-680. doi:10.1007/s11256-014-0273-x hinkle, d.e., wiersma, w., & jurs, s.g. (2003). applied statistics for the behavioral sciences. houghton mifflin company. holzberger, d., philipp, a., & kunter, m. (2013). how teachers’ self-efficacy is related to instructional quality: a longitudinal analysis. journal of educational psychology, 105(3), 774-786. hong, h., & hamot, g. e. (2020). differential effects of state testing policies and school calkins et al. characteristics on social studies educators’ gate-keeping autonomy: a multilevel model. theory & research in social education, 48(1), 74-100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2019.1655508 hong, j. y. (2012). why do some beginning teachers leave the school, and others stay? understanding teacher resilience through psychological lenses. teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 18(4), 417-440. jaffee, a. t. (2016a). community, voice, and inquiry: teaching global history for english language learners. the social studies, 107, 1-13. doi:10.1080/00377996.2016.1140626 jaffee, a. t. (2016b). social studies pedagogy for latino/a newcomer youth: toward a theory of culturally and linguistically relevant citizenship education. theory & research in social education, 44(2), 147-183. doi:10.1080/00933104.2016.1171184 jaffee, a. t. (2018). developing culturally and linguistically relevant historical thinking skills: lessons from u.s. history teachers for newcomer english language learners. in l. c. de oliveira & k. m. obenchain (eds.), teaching history and social studies to english language learners: preparing pre-service and in-service teachers (pp. 7-37). cham, switzerland: palgrave macmillan. jimenez-silva, m., hinde, e., & hernandez, n. j. (2013). how are teachers of social studies addressing the needs of english language learners in their classrooms? in j. passe & p. g. fitchett (eds.), the status of social studies: views from the field (pp. 275-286). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. journell w., & tolbert l.c. (2016) working together, not sharing the burden: a collaborative approach to developing pedagogical content knowledge with secondary social studies pre-service teachers. in: crowe a., cuenca a. (eds) rethinking social studies teacher education in the twenty-first century. springer, cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-22939-3_7 kena, g., aud, s., johnson, f., wang, x., zhang, j., rathbun, a., & kristapovich, p. (2014). the condition of education 2014. u.s. department of education, national center for education statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2014/2014083.pdf keogh, j., garvis, s., pendergast, d., & diamond, p. (2012). self-determination: using agency, efficacy and resilience (aer) to counter novice teachers' experiences of intensification. australian journal of teacher education, 37(8), 21. ladson-billings, g. (2006). from the achievement gap to the education debt: understanding achievement in u.s. schools. educational researcher, 35(7), 3-12. lomax, r.g. (2007). an introduction to statistical concepts, 2nd ed. psychology press. miller, j. m. (2018). u.s. history state assessments, discourse demands, and english learners' https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2019.1655508 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22939-3_7 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22939-3_7 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 75 achievement: evidence for the importance of reading and writing instruction in u.s. history for english learners. the journal of social studies research, 42(4), 375-392. doi:10.1016/j.jssr.2017.12.001 national council for the social studies. (2013). the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. ncss. https://www.socialstudies.org/standards/c3 o'brien, j. (2011). the system is broken and it's failing these kids: high school social studies teachers' attitudes towards training for ells. the journal of social studies research, 35(1), 22-38. oliveira fernandez, a.p., ramos, m.f.h., silva, s.s.c., nina, k.c.f., & pontes, f.a.r. (2016). overview of research on teacher self-efficacy in social cognitive perspective. anales de psicología (murcia, spain), 32(3), 793–802. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.32.3.220171 passe, j., & fitchett, p. g. (eds.). (2013). the status of social studies: views from the field. information age. powell, d. (2018). brother, can you paradigm? toward a theory of pedagogical content knowledge in social studies. journal of teacher education, 69(3), 252-262. ramirez, p., & jaffee, a. t. (2016). culturally responsive active citizenship education for newcomer students: a cross-state case study of two teachers in arizona and new york. international journal of multicultural education, 18(1), 45-67. salinas, c., rodríguez, n. n., & blevins, b. (2017). emergent bilinguals in the social studies. in m. m. manfra & c. m. bolick (eds.), the wiley handbook of social studies research (pp. 440-460). wiley blackwell. siwatu, k.o. (2007). preservice teachers’ culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy and outcome expectancy beliefs. teaching and teacher educatio, 23(7), 1086-1101. http://doi.org/10.1015/j.tate.2006.07.011 siwatu, k. o. (2011). preservice teachers’ sense of preparedness and self-efficacy to teach in america’s urban and suburban schools: does context matter? teaching and teacher education, 27(2), 357-365. sleeter, c. (2014). toward teacher education research that informs policy. educational researcher, 43(3), 146-153. schwabe, m. & karla, a. (2019). united states-county note-talis 2018 results. paris: oecd publishing. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.32.3.220171 calkins et al. stapleton, l.m. (2010). survey sampling, administration, and analysis. in g. r. hancock, r. o. mueller, & l. m. stapleton. the reviewer’s guide to quantitative methods in the social sciences (pp. 397-411). routledge. taimalu, m. & oim, o. (2005). estonian teachers’ beliefs on teacher efficacy and influencing factors. trames, 9(2), 177–191. tschannen-moran, m. & hoy, a. (2001). teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct. teaching and teacher education, 17, 783-805. tschannen-moran, m, & hoy. (2007). the differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. teaching and teacher education, 23(6), 944–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.05.003 voet, m., & de wever, b. (2017). preparing pre-service history teachers for organizing inquiry-based learning: the effects of an introductory training program. teaching and teacher education, 63(c), 206-217. weiss m.p., pellegrino a. (2016) collaboration in social studies teacher education: crossing the (disciplinary) line. in: crowe a., cuenca a. (eds) rethinking social studies teacher education in the twenty-first century. springer, cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22939-3_10 yilmaz, a. (2009). self-efficacy perceptions of prospective social studies teachers in relation to history teaching. education (chula vista), 129(3), 506. yoder, p. j. (2020). “he wants to get rid of all the muslims”: mexican american and muslim students’ use of history regarding candidate trump. theory & research in social education, 48(3), 346-374. doi:10.1080/00933104.2020.1773364 yoder, p. j., & jaffee, a. t. (2019). multiple perspectives: engaging diverse voices in the social studies classroom. in l. c. de oliveira, k. obenchain, r. kenney, & a. oliveira (eds.), teaching the content areas to english language learners in secondary schools (pp. 327340). springer. yoder, p. j., kibler, a., & van hover, s. (2016). instruction for english language learners in the social studies classroom: a meta-synthesis. social studies research and practice, 11(1), 20-39. yoder, p. j., & van hover, s. (2018). teaching history to ells in standards-based settings: implications for teacher educators. in l. c. de oliveira & k. m. obenchain (eds.), teaching history and social studies to english language learners: preparing pre-service and in-service teachers (pp. 39-65). cham, switzerland: palgrave macmillan. yost, d. s. (2006). reflection and self-efficacy: enhancing the retention of qualified teachers from a teacher education perspective. teacher education quarterly, 33(4), 59-76. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 54-77 77 zhang, y. (2017). supporting english language learners in social studies: language-focused strategies. the social studies, 108(5), 204-209. doi:10.1080/00377996.2017.1354808 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 22-46 after the social movements in 2019: examining the association between online civic participation of hong kong’s young people and their real-life civic participation eric king-man chong 1, shun-shing pao2, lawrence ka-ki ho3 and hoi-yu ng4 abstract this paper investigates the relationship between online civic participation and their real-life civic participation among hong kong young people. online participation and social media were found to be conducive for possibilities of civic engagement among young people. hong kong saw several big social movements in recent years, and the wide participation of young people has caught worldwide attention. there are speculations that online civic participation has led to their real-life participation. attempting to explore this question, this study utilized a validated questionnaire to investigate the relationship between online and offline civic participation among 1,057 hong kong young people in 2020, when the mass participation in the anti-extradition bill was just over. the result found that internet political activism and online critical perspective have a possible statistically significant effect on young people’s interest in politics, interest for social and civic participation, off-line citizenship self-efficacy, and active participation for social change. generally speaking, this study confirmed online civic participation has an effect on offline civic participation, though young people tend to engage themselves online rather real-life participation. our findings also support the correlation between youth’s offline and online civic participation. other emergent social and education questions such as digital citizenship education can be followed suit. keywords: online civic participation, real-life civic participation, digital citizenship education, hong kong young people introduction the increasing use of online social media among youths enhances their citizenship engagement, knowledge, and participation (davies, et al., 2014), but there have been questions of whether using online social media can enhance computer literacy and their participation (appel, 2012), not to mention that domains of time spent, activity, investment and addiction of social media are correlated with depression, anxiety and psychological distress (keles, et al., 2020). in particular, prior researches investigated different results of differences and similarities between online and 1 dr., education university of hong kong, kingman@eduhk.hk 2 dr., education university of hong kong, sspao@eduhk.hk 3 dr., education university of hong kong, lawrenceho@eduhk.hk 4 dr., education university of hong kong, ng.hoiyu@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 offline civic participation among young people and citizens with different research hypotheses and research settings (e.g. chen, et al., 2016; cho, 2020; gibson & cantijoch, 2013; hirzalla & van zoonen, 2011; jugert et al., 2013; machackova & šerek, 2017; oser, et al., 2013; šerek & machackova, 2014; vissers & stolle, 2014). while there has been a question of disengagement of young people (fahmy, 2003; farthing, 2010; stoker, 2011), online participation and social media were also found to be conducive for possibilities of education and civic engagement among students (burbidge, 2014), for example, online game networks provide new ideas on how to arrange online education in way that the young adults could find motivating and meaningful (kuukka, et al., 2019). towards anyone interested in youth studies, within a time of internet political activism (choi, et al., 2017), studying more about the relationship between online and offline (or real-life) participation of young people is necessary. if we can confirm a relationship between online and offline civic participation through a questionnaire study here, then other emergent social and education questions and possible policies can be followed suit. in hong kong special administrative region of china (hereafter referred to as “hong kong sar”), social media made great impact on some big political events, for example, the occupy and umbrella movement (lee, et al., 2015) in 2014, which was a 79-day social movement demanding for universal suffrage of the top political leader chief executive of hong kong sar in protesting against the constitutional framework set by chinese national people’s congress, and the large scale anti-extradition bill movement in summer of 2019. lee (et al., 2015) found that the acquisition of political news through social media was positively related to supporting the occupy and umbrella movement in 2014, while adversely with satisfaction and trust of the chinese government, the hong kong sar government and the police force. but a tough attitude has been evident in the hong kong sar government’s attitudes towards hong kong’s young protestors in 2014 occupy and umbrella movement who were labelled as “separatists” (iyengar, 2016). in summer of 2019, the anti-extradition bill protest rocked the societal, economic and political situations in hong kong, and the unrest chaos lasted for over 6 months. a research study conducted by chinese university of hong kong (cuhk) revealed that almost 75% of the protesters who have taken to the streets in hong kong sar have had some higher education and nearly 60% are younger than 30 years old (south china morning post, 2019). also, the reuters (2020) reported a survey conducted by the hong kong public opinion research institute. it found that 87% of those aged 18 to 29 say they support the protests that began as early as in march 2019 against a now chong et al. 24 scrapped extradition bill. these findings suggest that a high proportion of the protesters are young people and the age group of 18-29 seems to be engaged in this huge social movement actively. this high level of participation by young people have triggered the authors of this study to investigate how young people’s online behaviors influence their civic participation in real life in the aftermath of a huge social movement, though the protests have been basically declined after the introduction of a new national security law in june 2020. this new security law criminalizes any act of secession, subversion, terrorism, and collusion with foreign and external forces. china said this new security law will make hong kong returns to stability. but then what about the attitudes of online and offline civic participation of hong kong sar young people? the civic participation by hong kong sar young people has caught attention. cheng (2017) argued that the stagnated economic growth affecting both western economies and east asia also take the tolls in hong kong sar, and the common adverse impact associated with it are keenly felt by hong kong’s younger generations in terms of declines in real incomes, lack of upward social mobility opportunities, and difficulties in acquiring one’s own accommodation etc. hong kong university students also think that they do not belong to young middle class, and young people frequently change jobs (cheng, 2017). lo and loo (2018) argued that hong kong youths embrace post-materialistic values such as supporting the value of mass participation in government decision-making processes, civil liberties, openness and transparency in their workplace and community, environmental protection and sustainable development, etc. but their method is about studying some localists, who are usually more active and vocal in their civic participation for protecting local identity and cultures, thus agreeing with offline participation positively predicted civic identity (machackova & šerek, 2017). lam-knott (2019) found that contemporary youth activists describe hong kong civil society as “uncaring” and lacking in moral commitment towards realising democratic reforms that will facilitate the development of a just society. the emergence of the localism groups after the occupy and umbrella movement in 2014, indeed, has been a significant development in the pro-democracy movement (cheng, 2017). hong kong young people’s frustration with their socio-economic conditions and governance have prompted them to advocate for youthful defiance by participation in various social movements. their political identification and participation patterns mean that the deep polarization in the society has been entrenched (cheng, 2017). hong kong sar teenagers also spend much time on the internet and social media. 97% of the respondents reported that their major purpose of using internet was to journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 communicate or interact with others (hong kong census and statistics department, 2017). therefore, schools have to take the main responsibility to teach young people about participation in both real world and on the internet in citizenship education. this research will supplement current youth literature about online and offline participation in the domain of attitude by using validated sub-scales of internet political activism and critical perspective constructed by choi (et al., 2017) for investigating how online civic participation of a targeted cross sectional of adolescence and young people (aged 15-29) influence their real-life civic participation in hong kong sar of china. while chiu and lee (2018) found that there appear to be circumstances that give rise to diversified learning experiences and so senior secondary school education has little bearing on youth political participation, this study shall attempt to investigate the relationship between on-line and off-line participation. hence, this study not only aims at giving insights into the connections between on-line and real-life civic participation of hong kong sar adolescence and young people (aged 15 29) by performing principal component analysis (pca) and multivariate regression, but then making a claim for implementing digital citizenship education in schools that cater for the emergent needs of helping students to exercise their rights and duties between online and real-life participation in this increasingly digitalized world. the research findings on the factors identified shall also inform future youth policy making on recognizing the links between online and offline participation on factors such as internet political participation, online critical perspective, interest in politics, membership for social and civic participation, offline citizenship self-efficacy, and participation for social change. research questions the main research question are: first, whether hong kong’s young people tend to engage in online civic participation rather than real-life civic participation? second, whether their online civic participation are co-related to their real-life civic participation? hypothesis we have two hypotheses in this study. specifically speaking, the first hypothesis assumes young people tend to engage in online civic participation and online critical expression rather than offline civic participation. next, the second hypothesis assumes that their online civic participation are chong et al. 26 correlated to their real-life civic participation. for example, quintelier and vissers (2008) found that forwarding political e-mails was positively correlated with offline political participation. literature review definition of online and offline civic participation about the central concepts in this study, civic engagement (or participation) is defined by the united nations international children’s emergency fund (unicef) as “individual or collective actions in which people participate to improve the well-being of communities or society in general” (unicef, 2020). traditionally, civic engagement portrays some actions including voting, attending community meetings or functions, contacting public officials, attending protests, signing petitions, or writing articles about one’s community (cho, 2020). on the other hand, digital civic engagement (or online civic participation) by young people refers to “civic engagement activities specifically done by young people and involving digital media of some kind” (cho, 2020, 7), such as signing petitions about social issues online and post thoughts related to social issues online. generally, online engagement is more accessible and need fewer resources than offline engagement (jugert et al., 2013). for instance, joining a protest on the street needs more time and effort than signing a petition online. this paper shall use these definitions to inform the conceptual design of this study. the effect of online participation on civic participation about the association between online and offline participation, quintelier and vissers (2008) found that forwarding political e-mails was positively correlated with offline political participation on a sample of 16-year-old in belgium. ekström and östman (2013) found that online political interaction increased both online and offline participation through conducting panel survey among swedish youths. kahne (et al., 2013) collected data from us high school students, and reported that politically driven online participation was associated with greater political action and expression and campaign participation. chadwick (2006) stated that those active in online civic activities are also active in offline civic activities and vice versa. raynes-goldie and walker (2008) discovered that civic online participation is the catalyst of offline civic participation (raynesgoldie & walker 2008). machackova and šerek (2017) found that online participation caused journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 raised challenging attitudes towards authorities. a recent research report conducted by unicef claimed that young people who participated in online participatory politics tend to engage in offline political participation, like voting (cho, 2020). hence, jansen (2011) argued that studentcentered pedagogy which includes practicing social and cultural competencies while engaging in the use of participatory online tools and digital resources should be offered to students so as to engage them in civic life effectively (jansen, 2011, 38). in hong kong’s socio-political context, university students think that they do not belong to young middle class and they want social mobility (cheng, 2017). however, adorjan and yau (2015) found that hong kong young people use social media to mobilize resistance and demonstration against a proposal of national education curriculum in schools and claims-making in cyberspace impacts the social problems process. social media, forums on the internet, and social application have greatly increased the ways of civic engagement. centre for youth studies (2017) examined the relationship between online and offline political engagement among youths (15–29-year-old). centre for youth studies (2017) observed obvious mean difference between posting or sharing political or public affairs information or comment online (m=1.06, out of 0 to 3) and taking part in an offline march or demonstration (m=0.36, out of 0 to 3). it concluded that hong kong young people were more active in online political participation than offline political participation, and that may due to only a few youths transformed their online political expression into offline social action. chen (et al., 2016) found that sharing political information online predicted offline civic and political participation in hong kong. literature review found limited related literatures for hong kong context. therefore, this study fills the gap by investigating the relationship between online and offline civic participation among adolescence and young people (aged 15-29). more importantly, the process of data collection of this study was from july to october 2020, which was after the notable anti-extradition movement started from mid-2019. therefore, this work is an update of literature after the recent anti-extradition movement. methods research design this study adopts cross-sectional research strategy to collect data in one single time, with representatives taken from a varied population to get a picture of the whole. some plausible generalizations can be projected to the target population. snowball sampling (goodman, 1961) in chong et al. 28 quantitative research was utilized in this study because it is effective at reaching the target group by utilizing relationships and connections. pilot testing of questionnaires were done among twenty randomly sampled hong kong youths and young people (aged 15-29) and these samples were not used again for the formal study. kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy was 0.94, which is above the commonly recommended value of 0.6. a specific group of samples (i.e., locally born hong kong adolescence and youth aged 15-29) is required for this study about hong kong’s young people, so snowball sampling is a cost-effective and convenient sampling methods for us to approach the target groups of adolescence and youth by online questionnaire, instead of using random sampling which would cost much efforts to locate the specific groups of samples. the project team members asked their professional connections, private networks, colleagues, previous and current students to fill in an online questionnaire, thus forming a wide coverage of target age groups (aged 15-29). the online questionnaire can be filled in either by computer or any digital devices. after filling in the online questionnaire, the respondents were asked to assist researchers in identifying other potential subjects and recruit additional research participants. sample finally, 1,222 valid online responses were received and recorded after an extensive and purposive sampling efforts by the personal invitations of authors from july to october 2020, which was after the die down of anti-extradition bill movement in 2019. since this study focuses on hong kong adolescence and young people, among those 165 (14%) responses indicate over 30-year-old or/and non-local were excluded from further analysis. therefore, by subtracting 165 from 1,222 responses, 1,057 local young people in the age groups of 15-19 years old, 20-24 years old, and 2529 years old were selected and further analyzed (see table 1). among them, 280 of them (27%) were 15–19-year-old, 453 of them (43%) were 20–24-year-old, 324 of them (31%) were 25–29year-old. 670 (63%) respondents were students, 163 (15%) respondents were professional, 85 (8%) were executive-level worker, 40 (4%) were paraprofessional, 28 (3%) were customer service and salespersons, 23 (2%) were teacher. gender was roughly equal (55% female vs 45% male, contrasted with 838 males per 1,000 females in 2019 census) and representing the overall hong kong population. given that the sheer majority of those under 18-year-old would be studying in hong kong secondary schools, and those who are eligible for post-secondary education (about 18 to 22 years old) can be amounted to about one-fifth of hong kong population, thus this obtained journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 sample with 63% (n=670) come from students can, hopefully, characterize majority of adolescence and young people in hong kong sar of china. table 1 questionnaire respondents in this study age group relative percentage in overall hong kong population (last whole territory census in 2015) original calculation of expected number of respondents for sampling (out of 1,000 using relative percentage) successfully obtained number by purposive sampling in this research study 15 – 19 years old 5% 275 280 20 – 24 years old 6.2% 340 453 25 – 29 years old 7% 385 324 total 18.2% 1,000 1,057 (students: 670 (63%); professional: 163 (15%); executive-level worker: 85 (8%); paraprofessional: 40 (4%); customer service and salespersons: 28 (3%); teachers: 23 (2%)) data collection tools the online questionnaire instrument collected data on the participants’ digital citizenship and their civic engagement in real life. it was developed on the validated sub-scales of internet political activism and critical perspective constructed by choi (et al., 2017) in their digital citizenship scale, and those of citizenship self-efficacy, interest in politics, civic participation in community, and social and civic participation scales developed by cheung (et al., 2018) in their civic participation scale of a chinese version of iccs questionnaire which was originally developed by the international civic and citizenship study 2009 (iccs 2009) (schulz et al., 2010). the questionnaire comprised of 37 questions that were designed to provide research participants a chance to describe their online civic participation (part ii, 16 questions) and real-life civic engagement (part iii, 21 questions). responses were on a five-point likert scale, ranging from 1 = “never”, 2 = “seldom”, 3 = “sometimes”, 4 = “often”, 5 = “always” for q1-q9 and q17-q26, and 1 = “strongly disagree”, 2 = “disagree”, 3 = “neutral”, 4 = “agree”, 5 = “strongly agree” for q10-q16 and q27-q37. the instrument required participants to reveal their perceptions of their online civic engagement as digital citizens and their civic participation in reality. a principal component analysis (pca) was conducted on the 37 items with oblique rotation (promax). kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy was 0.94. bartlett’s test of chong et al. 30 sphericity, x²(666)=20484.613, p<0.001, indicated that correlations between items were sufficiently large for pca. date collection the process of data collection of this study was from july to october 2020. research ethics approval has been obtained from the education university of hong kong (ref. no. 2020-20210198). the project team members asked their professional connections, private networks, colleagues, previous and current students who are within the youth and young people (15 to 29 years old) to fill in an online questionnaire. in general, completing each questionnaire by the respondent took approximately 20 minutes. the participants were fully informed about the aims, objectives, and procedures of this research. the research team processed the personal information of participants and kept it confidential in accordance with the relevant provisions of the "personal data (privacy) ordinance" in hong kong sar. there were written information to tell the participants that they can withdraw from this research at any time. they can also request a copy of the research instrument when they have any doubt. data analysis the data were analyzed using ibm spss statistics 26. pca was conducted and six components were retained. after that, multivariate regressions were conducted to analyze the correlation of the six components. finally, hypotheses were supported or rejected based on the inferential statistical analysis. findings respondents were asked about their online and offline civic participation and/or behaviors. an initial analysis of using pca was conducted to get eigenvalues for each component in the data. six components had eigenvalues over kaiser’s criterion of 1 and in combination explained 61% of the variance. therefore, six components were retained for further analysis. factor 1 represents internet political activism, with 8 items and excellent reliability (α=0.9). factor 2 represents online critical perspective, with 6 items and high reliability (α=0.86), factor 3 represents interest in politics, with 6 items and high reliability (α=0.84). factor 4 represents social and civic participation, with 6 items and excellent reliability (α=0.91). factor 5 represents offline citizenship self-efficacy, with 5 items and high reliability (α=0.8). factor 6 represents participation for social journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 change, with 6 items and high reliability (α=0.82). the factors’ items and loadings are listed (see table 2). the correlations between factors ranged from 0.192 to 0.635 (see table 3). an unexpected output was found in pca. we expected factor 6 (active participation for social change) includes items related to offline civic participation. however, two items related to online civic participation were unexpectedly categorized into factor 6, including: i contact government officials about an issue that is important to me via online methods; and i work or volunteer for a political party or candidate via online methods. it might be reasonable to include the two items in factor 6 because these two items describe a relatively more direct action for social change (i.e. either contacting government officials or joining a political party) than other items related to online civic participation in factor 1 and factor 2. as mixing of items related to online and offline civic participation in factor 6, it was named as active participation for social change. table 2 mean, standard deviation and loadings of six factors m sd loadings α factor 1: internet political activism 0.9 p1 post thoughts related to social issues online 3.26 1.22 0.88 p2 express opinion online to challenge the status quo with regard to social issues 2.91 1.27 0.84 p3 sign petitions about social issues online 3.59 1.30 0.71 p4 belong to online groups that are involved in social issues 2.69 1.35 0.69 p5 organize petitions about social issues online 2.36 1.28 0.69 p6 work with others online to solve local issues 3.03 1.12 0.64 p7 use the internet in order to participate in social movement 3.25 1.17 0.58 p8 attend political meetings or public forums on local issues via online internet 2.87 1.18 0.65 factor 2: online critical perspective 0.86 p9 i think online participation is an effective way to engage with political or social issues 3.42 0.95 0.84 p10 i think online participation is an effective way to make a change 3.32 1.00 0.75 p11 i think online participation promotes offline engagement 3.71 0.96 0.7 p12 i am more socially engaged when i am online than offline 3.39 1.07 0.59 p13 i think i am given to rethink my beliefs regarding a particular issue when i use internet 3.82 0.88 0.58 p14 i think the internet reflects the biases and dominate present in offline power structures 3.06 1.07 0.50 factor 3: interest in politics 0.84 p15 i am interested in social issues of the country 3.42 1.11 0.94 p16 i am interested in political issues of the country 3.38 1.12 0.94 p17 i am interested in international politics 3.50 1.05 0.8 p18 i am interested in local political issues 3.80 1.00 0.56 p19 i am interested in local social issues 3.98 0.92 0.50 p20 i am interested in political issues in my community 3.61 1.03 0.45 chong et al. 32 factor 4: membership and interest for social and civic participation 0.91 p21 i have joined/ hope to join a voluntary organization to work for the community 2.96 1.20 0.89 p22 i have joined/ hope to join an environmental organization 2.60 1.18 0.82 p23 i have joined/ hope to join an organization which rises funding for the society 2.56 1.15 0.77 p24 i have joined/ hope to join in a group of young people campaigning for an issue 2.95 1.22 0.65 p25 i use volunteer time to help people in the local community 2.92 1.12 0.54 p26 i am interested in environment issues 3.68 0.98 0.51 factor 5: offline citizenship self-efficacy 0.8 p27 i discuss a newspaper article about social issues with others 3.44 1.10 0.89 p28 i argue my point of view about a controversial social issue 3.66 1.00 0.88 p29 i talk to others about my views on a social issue 3.70 0.90 0.79 p30 i speak in front of others about a social issue 3.51 1.04 0.78 p31 i follow a tv program which debate controversial issues 2.98 1.25 0.39 factor 6: active participation for social change 0.82 p32 i call to radio programs to give my view on a social issue 1.42 0.85 0.84 p33 i contribute to a discussion forum about social issues. 1.87 1.12 0.72 p34 i join an organization for a social cause 1.81 1.12 0.7 p35 i organize a group of people in order to achieve changes in the society 1.76 1.05 0.62 p36 i contact government officials about an issue that is important to me via online methods 1.66 0.96 0.58 p37 i work or volunteer for a political party or candidate via online methods 1.47 0.87 0.44 table 3 correlation among the factors component 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 .635 3 .436 .281 4 .515 .598 .192 5 .469 .376 .197 .321 6 .323 .300 .335 .325 .220 extraction method: principal component analysis. rotation method: promax with kaiser normalization. civic participation limited to online in answering the first hypothesis, further analysis on table 2 above, however, reveals that relatively low means are observed in six items of factor 6 (active participation for social change) (ranging from 1.42 to 1.87). comparatively, the items of factor 1 (internet political activism) and factor 2 (online critical perspective) have relatively high means, ranging from 2.36 to 3.82. as explained, responses are on a five likert-type scale, ranging from 1=“never”/“strongly disagree” journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 to 5=“always”/“strongly agree”. statistically, for items in factor 6, respondents tend to choose “never” or “seldom”, while for items in factor 1 and factor 2, respondents tend to select “sometimes” or “often”. it seems that hong kong young people do not tend to actively participate for social change (factor 6) in real-life now, for example, making a call to radio or something similar to give their views on a social issue, work or volunteer for a political party or candidate, and contact government officials about an issue that is important. rather, they tend to express their political and critical perspective online only (factor 1 and 2). the obvious difference in mean scores may indicate that only a small proportion of young people transformed their discontent or online critical expression into offline civic participation (centre for youth studies, 2017). it may also reflect that hong kong’s young people have low self-efficacy (bandura, 1982) and feel powerless on participation for social change, which bears some similarities as those studies which find that young people profess a commitment to the political process, though they consider that there are relatively few opportunities available for them to intervene effectively in formal political life (henn & foard, 2013). young people may feel that their knowledge and ability cannot influence the system and could not recognize the government as representative of their opinions (hu, 2016), which is also the definition of low political efficacy. this could be an alarm for any policy makers. in fact, hong kong’s young people started radical protest in the huge anti-extradition movement since mid-2019, but it seems to be subdued since early 2020 after the pandemic outbreak. facing the iron-fist approach by the government, hong kong’s young people may feel that their active civic engagement cannot influence the system and so they started to calm down or rethink or even give up. or maybe, it is just because online engagement is more convenient and accessible than offline engagement (jugert et al., 2013), and so young people try to express their thought through online methods. the finding is consistent with another hong kong study from cuhk (centre for youth studies, 2017) which claimed that youth participated in political activities more actively online than offline. similar to the limitation of cuhk research, further qualitative research is needed to explore the reason pertaining to why youth are active in online civic engagement but not active in offline civic participation after the anti-extradition movement in 2019, however. such sense of self-efficacy and powerlessness could be a concern for policymakers in hong kong, since the future development of hong kong sar under “one country, two systems” of china relies upon the positive online and offline participation of hong kong young people. chong et al. 34 as participants tend to engage in online civic participation and online critical expression, rather than offline civic participation, the first null hypothesis is rejected. positive correlations between online and offline civic participation in answering second hypothesis, table 3 above reports the correlation among the components. as expected, factor 1 (internet political activism) and factor 2 (online critical perspective) are relatively strongly correlated with one another, since both of them are related to online civic participation and discussion. furthermore, this study finds that all components are positively correlated with each other, ranging from 0.197 to 0.591. therefore, an important finding is a moderate positive correlation could be found between online and offline civic participation. this result is consistent with some previous studies which found the correlation between youth’s offline and online civic participation (e.g., chadwick, 2006; calenda & mosca, 2007; hirzalla & van zoonen, 2011; cho, 2020). thus, we confirm our second hypothesis. next, a multivariate regression in general linear model is conducted with two covariates and one dependent variable (see table 4) for further analyses. the covariates are factor 1 (internet political activism) and factor 2 (online critical perspective). the dependent variable is factor 3 (interest in politics). table 4 shows the tests of between-subjects effects to see the results of two separate univariate anovas. it shows that factor 1 has a statistical significant effect on factor 3, with f(1, 970) =133.162 ; p<0.001; partial η2 =0.121. on the other hand, an insignificant interaction is observed between factor 2 and factor 3, with f(1, 970) = 0.034; p>0.5). table 4 tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: factor 3 source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 184.658a 2 92.329 113.089 .000 .184 intercept .000 1 .000 .000 1.000 .000 factor 1 108.087 1 108.087 133.162 .000 .121 factor 2 .027 1 .027 .0034 .904 .000 error 787.342 970 .812 total 972.000 973 corrected total 972.000 972 a. r squared = .190 (adjusted r squared = .188) journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 table 5 shows a multivariate regression in general linear model with two covariates and one dependent variable. the covariates are factor 1 (internet political activism) and factor 2 (online critical perspective). the dependent variable is factor 4 (social and civic participation). table 5 reveals that factor 1 has a significant effect on factor 4, with f(1, 970) =48.244; p<0.001; partial η2 =0.047. also, factor 2 has a significant effect on factor 4, with f(1, 970) =196.38 ; p<0.001; partial η2 =0.168. table 5 tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: factor 4 source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 377.672a 2 188.836 308.198 .000 .389 intercept .000 1 .000 .000 1.000 .000 factor 1 29.560 1 29.560 48.244 .000 .047 factor 2 120.324 1 120.324 196.380 .000 .168 error 594.328 970 .613 total 972.000 973 corrected total 972.000 972 a. r squared = .389 (adjusted r squared = .387) a multivariate regression in general linear model with two covariates and one dependent variable, as can be seen in table 6. the covariates are factor 1(internet political activism) and factor 2(online critical perspective). the dependent variable is factor 5 (offline citizenship selfefficacy). table 6 finds that factor 1 has a significant effect on factor 5, with f(1, 970) =112.001 ; p<0.001; partial η2 =0.104. also, factor 2 has a significant effect on factor 5, with f(1, 970) =13.000 ; p<0.001; partial η2 =0.013. table 6 tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: factor 5 source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 223.931a 2 111.966 145.183 .000 .230 intercept .000 1 .000 .000 1.000 .000 factor 1 86.375 1 86.375 112.001 .000 .104 factor 2 10.026 1 10.026 13.000 .000 .013 chong et al. 36 error 748.069 970 .771 total 972.000 973 corrected total 972.000 972 a. r squared = .230 (adjusted r squared = .229) lastly, table 7 shows another multivariate regression in general linear model with two covariates and one dependent variable. the covariates are factor 1(internet political activism) and factor 2 (online critical perspective). the dependent variable is factor 6 (participation for social change). table 7 indicates that factor 1 has a significant effect on factor 6, with f(1, 970) =32.569 ; p<0.001; partial η2 =0.032. on the other hand, factor 2 also has a significant effect on factor 5, with f(1, 970) =16.519 ; p<0.001; partial η2 =0.017. table 7 tests of between-subjects effects dependent variable: factor 6 source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 116.022a 2 58.011 65.738 .000 .119 intercept .000 1 .000 .000 1.000 .000 factor 1 28.741 1 28.741 32.569 .000 .032 factor 2 14.578 1 14.578 16.519 .000 .017 error 855.978 970 .882 total 972.000 973 corrected total 972.000 972 a. r squared = .119 (adjusted r squared = .118) in summary, multivariate regression found that factor 1 (internet political activism) has significant effect on factor 3 (interest in politics), factor 4 (social and civic participation), factor 5 (offline citizenship self-efficacy), and factor 6 (participation for social change). factor 2 (online critical perspective) has significant effect on factor 4, factor 5, and factor 6, but insignificant effect on factor 3. these results indicate that online civic participation exhibits a strong positive relationship with offline civic engagement. although we are unable to confirm a causal relationship through this cross-sectional study, the findings are overall consistent with the literature which shows a possibility of causality, such as raynes-goldie and walker (2008) found that online civic engagement is the facilitator of offline civic engagement, and the research conducted by unicef which claim that young people who participated in online participatory politics tend to engage in offline political participation (cho, 2020). a model on the relationships of all factors in this study journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 has been created according to the statistical results (see figure 1). therefore, a strong support is observed for the second alternative hypothesis, and the second null hypothesis is rejected. another interesting observation is that, after using cross-tab and correlations, male respondents tend to show more interest in political (q27, q28) and social issues (q26), and discussing about society problems online (q2, q6) than the female respondents. male respondents tend to reply “always” on all these items. this finding may tell something about gender difference but we are not making any generalizing about gender here. structural model predicting relationship between online and offline civic participation the findings in this study shall supplement online participation predicted increased challenging attitudes towards social authorities (machackova & šerek, 2017). this finding may also suggest that hong kong’s young people can be different from those youth generations who were often characterized as apathetic or even as anti-political, with neither aptitude nor inclination for participating in any form of real-life collective social endeavor (fahmy, 2003; russell, 2004; stoker, 2006, 2011; hay, 2007; farthing, 2010). figure 1 structural model predicting relationship between online and offline civic participation (*p<0.05, **p<0.01) factor 3: interest in politics factor 1: internet political activism factor 5: offline citizenship self-efficacy factor 6: active participation for social change factor 4: membership and interest for social and civic participation factor 2: online critical perspective online civic participation offline civic participation .121* * .000 .047* * ** .17** ** .64** .10** * .013* * ** .017* * ** .032* * ** chong et al. 38 discussion: digital citizenship education for young people overall speaking, this study found that online civic participation has a possible substantial effect on offline civic participation among hong kong’s young people, and thus we are supplementing on the finding of distinct submodes of e-participation, comparable to those occurring offline, can be identified when conceptualizing and measuring participation in the age of the internet (gibson & cantijoch, 2013). hong kong students are found to relate online critical perspective such as rethinking their beliefs regarding a particular issue when they use internet (factor 2) and offline political activism such as talking or arguing about their points of views on a controversial social issue (factor 5). yet, it should be noted that when it comes to participation for social change, hong kong young people’s showed lower intention, as we can observed in all items of factor 6. our finding also agree that social media enhance among youths their citizenship engagement, knowledge, and participation (davies et al., 2014), and confirming online environment may be fostering a new social-media-based type of expressive political behaviour (gibson & cantijoch, 2013). yet, it should bear in mind that wineburg (et al., 2016) found more than 80% of youths from middle schools failed to judge the credibility of the news they read. based on these findings, youths may be more vulnerable to fake news. while this study points out a plausible positive relationship between online and offline civic participation, the findings (e.g. factor 1 (internet political activism) has significant effect on factor 3 (interest in politics), factor 4 (social and civic participation), factor 5 (offline citizenship selfefficacy), and factor 6 (participation for social change) suggest an urgent need for the hong kong sar government to make much effort on promoting digital citizenship (kim & choi, 2018) so as to develop young people’s critical thinking and media literacy to judge the information and fake news online, and learn about the norms of appropriate and responsible behaviors with regard to technology use (douglas, 2014; ribble, 2015), especially since hong kong young people participate in various social movements, and thus developing their political identification and participation patterns (cheng, 2017). of course, a resultant effect of introducing a new national security law in 2020 has made this city returned to a quiet place after the persistent social protests against introducing the controversial bill in 2019. therefore, how to engage hong kong youths in a positive manner of making social change requires hong kong sar government’s careful considerations. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 although the hong kong sar government has produced a series of public advertisement to alert youngsters to “check facts to keep fake news in check” through radio, tv, and leaflets, etc., but in education, the government should also lead the curriculum reform. “a student-centered pedagogy which includes practicing social and cultural competencies while engaging in the use of participatory online tools and digital resources” should be offered to students so as to engage them in civic and political life and participate effectively (jansen, 2011, 38). digital citizenship education could be one of the future important directions for hong kong schools by teaching online rights, responsibilities, and participation in this increasingly globalized and digitalized world. in a report of council of european, it also suggested that recent events related to the radicalization of young people on social media, the rise of fake news and hate speech, as well as the crisis of “post-truth” politics have reinforced the need to take decisive steps towards the development of digital citizenship education (frau-meigs et al., 2017). the council of europe also operated a project digital citizenship education project – to support eu members in developing dce policies and curriculum so as to educate children and let them acquire the competences for learning and active participation in digital society (digital citizenship education project, 2018). law (et al., 2018) argue for re-examination of the concept of citizenship in a world facing pervasive impacts of technology and they argue in terms of the conceptualization of digital citizenship in education, what constitutes a digital citizenship curriculum, and the challenges in its implementation. similarly, in hong kong, radicalization of young people on social media, the rise of fake news and hate speech based on politics had been observed frequently during the antiextradition movement in late 2019. many youngsters also face bullying and incitements online, where teachers and parents may not be able to notice and monitor easily. digital citizenship education programs thus “seek to impart values and concepts that enable children and youth to critically evaluate the information they are given by the people wishing to radicalize them” (unesco, 2016, 14). this media literacy knowledge is particularly crucial for students to learn in this internet era because there is too many fake news throughout the internet, and young people may not be able to recognize all of them. limitations the significance for adolescence and youth studies is that we collected a significant number of responses from hong kong youths and young people (aged 15-29), and the timing of the study chong et al. 40 was just after the wreaking havoc of 2019 anti-extradition movement in hong kong. this paper thus sheds light on understanding how would youth respond to issues, problems, and policies throughout the world. during the high tide of 2019 anti-extradition bill movement, what hong kong youths did bear a resemblance to what quintelier and vissers (2008) found that forwarding political e-mails was positively correlated with offline political participation. our study also confirmed hong kong adolescence and youth view that online engagement is more accessible and need fewer resources than offline engagement (jugert et al., 2013). therefore, this study can possibly offer an update on online and offline youth participation among new generations in the world nowadays. youth policy and education development on how to help students discern information, online fake news and fabricated stories, understand more about different forms of legal online activism, exercise proper application of critical perspectives, and to develop a healthy linkage between online and offline participation should be considered. however, the limitation of this study is lack of qualitative research as supplementary evidence for exploring why online and offline civic engagement are intertwined from the narratives of youth and young people. the next step shall be contacting the respondents of this study and conducting in-depth interviews with them to explore more subtle descriptions and explanations on the relationships between their online and offline civic engagement. gender may also be explored on their differences towards online and offline participation on nature and type by conducting interviews, if any. how does online participation affect claims-making in the real life, and how does claims-making in the real-life affect larger online participation patterns? however, further research may possibly face delays in arranging any face-to-face interview because of the persistent adverse impacts of the pandemic in 2021. conclusion this study utilized pca to categorize 37 items into 6 factors. it found that internet political activism and online critical perspective among hong kong sar young people have a statistically significant effect on their interest in politics, interest for social and civic participation, offline citizenship self-efficacy, and active participation for social change. generally speaking, this study confirmed online civic participation has an effect on offline civic participation, therefore supporting the correlation between youth’s offline and online civic participation. moreover, hong kong youth are more actively engaging in online civic participation than participating in real-life for social change substantially, and the time of this investigation was in the middle of 2020, which journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 was after the large scale 2019 protests. they adopt digital civic engagement (or online civic participation) by engaging themselves in digital media of some kind. but the finding also highlights that hong kong youth and young people have low self-efficacy and feeling of powerless on participation for social change after the social movements in 2019. our data reveals that this generation’s engagement with real-life politics is complex and nuanced. the results are overall consistent with international literature in the western (e.g., cho, 2020; centre for youth studies, 2017; kahne et al., 2013; henn & foard, 2014) and so it adds on the literature of online and offline civic participation from an east asian society of hong kong context. the result is particularly illustrative because we found that politically driven online participation was associated with greater political action, expression and campaign participation in real-life, but they could be hampered in real-life of making social changes because of with plausible reasons of low selfefficacy and feeling of powerless. we recommend digital citizenship education to be designed and implemented in schools so that the online and social media can also be conducive for possibilities of education and civic engagement among students. funding acknowledgement this project (number: 04525) was supported by department of social sciences of the education university of hong kong. references adorjan, m. & ho l.y. (2015). resinicization and digital citizenship in hong kong: youth, cyberspace, and claims-making, qualitative sociology review, 11(2), 160-178. appel, m. (2012). are heavy users of computer games and social media more computer literate?, computers & education, 59(4), 1339-1349. bandura, a. (1982). self-efficacy mechanism in human agency, american psychologist, 37(2), 122. burbidge, j. j. (2014). understanding student use of social media: education and the possibilities for civic engagement. doctoral dissertation, the ohio state university, usa. ohiolink electronic theses and dissertations center. calenda, d., & mosca, l. (2007). the political use of the internet: some insights from two surveys of italian students, information, community & society, 10(1), 29-47. centre for youth studies (2017). research report: youth political participation and social media use in hong kong. cuhk. retrieved march 30, 2021, from chong et al. 42 http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/hkiaps/cys/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/research report_youth-political-participation-and-social-media-use-in-hong-kong.pdf. chen, h. t., chan, m., & lee, f. l. (2016). social media use and democratic engagement: a comparative study of hong kong, taiwan, and china, chinese journal of communication, 9(4), 348-366. cheng, j.y.s. (2017). introduction: the hong kong special administrative region: 1997-2017, contemporary chinese political economy and strategic relations: an international journal, 3(2), 549-574. cheung, c. h. w., chong, e. k. m., kennedy, k. j., & chow, p. c. f. (2018). the attitudes of mainland chinese secondary students towards democracy and equality: being a young citizen in twenty-first-century china, citizenship teaching & learning, 13(2), 209-225. chadwick, a. (2006). internet politics: states, citizens, and new communication technologies. oxford: oxford university press. cho, a. (2020). digital civic engagement by young people. united nations children's fund (unicef). retrieved 30 march 2021, from https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/digital-civic-engagement-by-young people-2020_4.pdf. choi, m., glassman, m., & cristol, d. (2017). what it means to be a citizen in the internet age: development of a reliable and valid digital citizenship scale, computers & education, 107, 100-112. chiu, s.w.k. & lee, t.t.l. (2018). conduit for engagement? school curriculum and youth political participation in hong kong, young, 26(2), 161-178. doi: 10.1177/1103308817711533 davies, i., sant, e., loader, b., vromen, a., & xenos, m. (2014). perceptions of students and teachers in england about how social media are used (and how they could be used) in schools and elsewhere. in b. loader, a. vromen & m. xenos (eds.), the networked young citizen: social media, political participation and civic engagement (pp. 131-157). london: routledge. digital citizenship education project. (2018) retrieved 30 march 2021, from https://www.coe.int/en/web/digital-citizenship-education/digital-citizenship-education project. douglas, t. (2014). citizenship digital and otherwise: the responsibility lies with our students and ourselves, entrsekt, 1(2), 28–32. https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/digital-civic-engagement-by-young-%09people-2020_4.pdf https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/digital-civic-engagement-by-young-%09people-2020_4.pdf https://doi.org/10.1177%2f1103308817711533 https://www.coe.int/en/web/digital-citizenship-education/digital-citizenship-education-%09project https://www.coe.int/en/web/digital-citizenship-education/digital-citizenship-education-%09project journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 ekström, m., & östman, j. (2015). information, interaction, and creative production: the effects of three forms of internet use on youth democratic engagement, communication research, 42(6), 796-818. fahmy, e. (2003). a disconnected generation: encouraging young people’s political participation, youth and policy, 81, 1–20. farthing, r. (2010). the politics of youthful antipolitics: representing the “issue” of youth participation in politics, journal of youth studies, 13(2), 181–195. doi:10.1080/13676260903233696. frau-meigs, d., o’neill, b., soriani, a., & tomé, v. (2017). digital citizenship education: volume 1: overview and new perspectives. strasbourg: council of europe. gibson, r., & cantijoch, m. (2013). conceptualizing and measuring participation in the age of the internet: is online political engagement really different to offline?, the journal of politics, 75(3), 701-716. goodman, l. a. (1961). snowball sampling. the annals of mathematical statistics, 148-170. hay, c. (2007). why we hate politics. cambridge: polity press. henn, m. & foard, n. (2014). social differentiation in young people's political participation: the impact of social and educational factors on youth political engagement in britain, journal of youth studies, 17(3), 360-380. doi: 10.1080/13676261.2013.830704 hirzalla, f., & zoonen, l. v. (2011). beyond the online/offline divide: how youth’s online and offline civic activities converge, social science computer review, 29(4), 481-498. hong kong census and statistics department (2017) usage of information technology and the internet by hong kong residents, 2000 to 2016. hong kong: census and statistics department. retrieved 25 march 2021, from https://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/b71711fb2017xxxxb0100.pdf. hu, r. (2016). the impact of chinese political efficacy and political participation on their trust in the police, the journal of chinese sociology, 3(1), 3. iyengar. r. (2016, august, 22). arrest us' say defiant hong kong independence activists in challenge to government. time. retrieved march 25, 2021, from http://time.com/4460888/hong-kong-china-independence-separatist-national-party/. jansen, b. a. (2011). civic education and the learning behaviors of youth in the online environment: a call for reform, journal of social studies education research, 2(2), 21 42. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2013.830704 https://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/b71711fb2017xxxxb0100.pdf http://time.com/4460888/hong-kong-china-independence-separatist-national-party/ chong et al. 44 jugert, p., eckstein, k., noack, p., kuhn, a., & benbow, a. (2013). offline and online civic engagement among adolescents and young adults from three ethnic groups. journal of youth and adolescence, 42, 123-135. doi: 10.1007/s10964-012-9805-4 kahne, j., lee, n.j., & feezell, j.t. (2013). the civic and political significance of online participatory cultures among youth transitioning to adulthood, journal of information technology & politics, 10:1, 1-20. doi: 10.1080/19331681.2012.701109 keles, b., mccrae, n. & grealish, a. (2020). a systematic review: the influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. international journal of adolescence and youth, 25(1), 79-93. doi: 10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851 kim, m.j. and choi, d.y. (2018). development of youth digital citizenship scale and implication for educational setting, journal of educational technology & society, 21(1), 155-171. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26273877?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents kuukka, j., uusiautti, s. & määttä, k. (2019). online console game club as a resource a case study of the perceived meaning of club membership, international journal of adolescence and youth, 24:4, 447-457. doi: 10.1080/02673843.2019.1566079 lam-knott, s. (2019). responding to hong kong’s political crisis: moralist activism amongst youth, inter-asia cultural studies, 20(3), 377-396. retrieved march 30, 2021, from: doi: 10.1080/14649373.2019.1649016 law, n., chow, s., & fu, k. (2018). digital citizenship and social media: a curriculum perspective. in j. voogt, g. knezek, r. christensen, & k. w. lai (eds.), second handbook of information technology in primary and secondary education (pp. 53-68). cham: springer. lee, p. s., so, c. y., & leung, l. (2015). social media and umbrella movement: insurgent public sphere in formation, chinese journal of communication, 8(4), 356-375. lo, s. s. h. & loo, j. h. (2018). an anatomy of the post-materialistic values of hong kong youth: opposition to china’s rising “sharp power”. in s. tucker and d. trotman (eds.), youth: global challenges and issues of the 21st century (pp.95-126). new york: nova science. machackova, h., & šerek, j. (2017). does ‘clicking’ matter? the role of online participation in adolescents’ civic development, cyberpsychology: journal of psychosocial research on cyberspace, 11(4), article 5. doi: 10.5817/cp2017-4-5 oser, j., hooghe, m., & marien, s. (2013). is online participation distinct from offline participation? a latent class analysis of participation types and their stratification, political research quarterly, 66, 91-101. retrieved march 29, 2021, from: doi: 10.1177/1065912912436695 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9805-4 https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2012.701109 https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851 https://www.jstor.org/stable/26273877?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1566079 https://doi.org/10.1080/14649373.2019.1649016 https://doi.org/10.5817/cp2017-4-5 https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912912436695 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 22-46 quintelier, e., & vissers, s. (2008). the effect of internet use on political participation: an analysis of survey results for 16-year olds in belgium, social science computer review, 26, 411-427. raynes-goldie, k., & walker, l. (2008). our space: online civic engagement tools for youth (pp. 161-188). in w. l., bennett (et al., eds.), macarthur foundation digital media and learning initiative, cambridge, ma: the mit press. reuters (2020, january 1). factbox: one city, two views: hong kong residents split by age, education on support for protests. retrieved march 25, 2021, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-protests-poll-factbox/factbox-one-city two-views-hong-kong-residents-split-by-age-education-on-support-for-protests iduskbn1yz0w0. ribble, m. (2015). digital citizenship in schools (3rd ed.). portland, or: international society for technology in education. russell, a. (2004). the truth about youth? media portrayals of young people and politics in britain, journal of public affairs, 4(4), 347–354. doi:10.1002/pa.197. schulz, w., ainley, j., fraillon, j., kerr, d., and losito, b. (2010). iccs 2009 international report: civic knowledge, attitudes, and engagement among lower-secondary school students in 38 countries. amsterdam: international association for the evaluation of educational achievement. šerek, j., & machackova, h. (2014). online only: which czech young adults prefer online civic participation?. cyberpsychology: journal of psychosocial research on cyberspace, 8(3), article 6. south china morning post (2019, august 12). young, educated and middle class: first field study of hong kong protesters reveals demographic trends. retrieved march 25, 2021, from https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3022345/young-educated and-middle-class-first-field-study-hong-kong. stoker, g. (2011). anti-politics in britain. in r. heffernan, p. cowley, and c. hay (eds.), developments in british politics nine (pp.152–173). basingstoke: palgrave macmillan. unicef (2020) engaged and heard: guidelines on adolescent participation and civic engagement. unicef. retrieved march 25, 2021, from https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/adap-guidelines-for-adolescent participation-and-civic-engagement.pdf unesco (2016). a policy review: building digital citizenship in asia-pacific through safe, effective and responsible use of ict. retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentviewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000 246813&file=/in/rest/annotationsvc/downloadwatermarkedattachment/attach_import_ https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-protests-poll-factbox/factbox-one-city-%09two-views-hong-kong-residents-split-by-age-education-on-support-for-protests-%09iduskbn1yz0w0 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-protests-poll-factbox/factbox-one-city-%09two-views-hong-kong-residents-split-by-age-education-on-support-for-protests-%09iduskbn1yz0w0 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hongkong-protests-poll-factbox/factbox-one-city-%09two-views-hong-kong-residents-split-by-age-education-on-support-for-protests-%09iduskbn1yz0w0 https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3022345/young-educated-%09and-middle-class-first-field-study-hong-kong https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3022345/young-educated-%09and-middle-class-first-field-study-hong-kong https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/adap-guidelines-for-adolescent-%09participation-and-civic-engagement.pdf https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/adap-guidelines-for-adolescent-%09participation-and-civic-engagement.pdf https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentviewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000246813&file=/in/rest/annotationsvc/downloadwatermarkedattachment/attach_import_df56a49e-3362-45eb-9239-afcae609e03d%3f_%3d246813eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000246813/pdf/246813eng.pdf#15_dec_building%20digital%20citizenship.indd%3a.12081%3a513 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentviewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000246813&file=/in/rest/annotationsvc/downloadwatermarkedattachment/attach_import_df56a49e-3362-45eb-9239-afcae609e03d%3f_%3d246813eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000246813/pdf/246813eng.pdf#15_dec_building%20digital%20citizenship.indd%3a.12081%3a513 chong et al. 46 df56a49e-3362-45eb-9239afcae609e03d%3f_%3d246813eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf000 0246813/pdf/246813eng.pdf#15_dec_building%20digital%20citizenship.indd%3a.12 081%3a513 vissers, s., & stolle, d. (2014). the internet and new modes of political participation: online versus offline participation, information, communication & society, 17, 937-955. doi:10.1080/1369118x.2013.867356 wineburg, s., mcgrew, s., breakstone, j., & ortega, t. (2016). evaluating information: the cornerstone of civic online reasoning. stanford digital repository. retrieved march 25, 2021, from https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:fv751yt5934/sheg%20evaluating%20information %20online.pdf. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentviewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000246813&file=/in/rest/annotationsvc/downloadwatermarkedattachment/attach_import_df56a49e-3362-45eb-9239-afcae609e03d%3f_%3d246813eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000246813/pdf/246813eng.pdf#15_dec_building%20digital%20citizenship.indd%3a.12081%3a513 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentviewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000246813&file=/in/rest/annotationsvc/downloadwatermarkedattachment/attach_import_df56a49e-3362-45eb-9239-afcae609e03d%3f_%3d246813eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000246813/pdf/246813eng.pdf#15_dec_building%20digital%20citizenship.indd%3a.12081%3a513 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentviewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000246813&file=/in/rest/annotationsvc/downloadwatermarkedattachment/attach_import_df56a49e-3362-45eb-9239-afcae609e03d%3f_%3d246813eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000246813/pdf/246813eng.pdf#15_dec_building%20digital%20citizenship.indd%3a.12081%3a513 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentviewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000246813&file=/in/rest/annotationsvc/downloadwatermarkedattachment/attach_import_df56a49e-3362-45eb-9239-afcae609e03d%3f_%3d246813eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000246813/pdf/246813eng.pdf#15_dec_building%20digital%20citizenship.indd%3a.12081%3a513 https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2013.867356 https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:fv751yt5934/sheg%20evaluating%20information%09%20online.pdf https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:fv751yt5934/sheg%20evaluating%20information%09%20online.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9(2), 317-328 317 identifying the demand for shaping the social skills of healthy behavior in russian students olga nikitina1 abstract proceeding from the materials of published works on the topics range of the research and supplementing them with her own studies, the author singles out the healthy lifestyle discourse prevailing in the russian student environment which is made up by the existing life experience of students, their communicative practices and represents a conscious or unconscious imbalance of practices in their daily life toward health risk factors. it has been found out that in spite of their realizing the risk factors that may affect their health in the future, russian students are not eager to become champions of healthy behavior by default. sociological research has found a need in the students of assistance and support for their informal efforts of implementing healthy behavior into their daily lifestyle. moreover, in this social and demographic group the demand has been revealed for an "external organizer" of healthy lifestyle, which speaks about the social skills of "healthy behavior" being not formed at an earlier age. the research conducted places to the foreground the urge of massively involving students into the development and fulfillment of social projects associated with healthy lifestyle directly in their home university environment. keywords: healthy lifestyle, healthy behavior, student youth, life values, sociology of youth, health, russia, young people, soft skills. introduction a need of health is universal in nature, because health belongs to the principal and irreplaceable social values, and its deficiency or lack cannot be completely compensated by any other values or goods. public health is made up by health of each citizen within a given society. meanwhile, the condition of health of a certain individual depends on numerous objective factors, with their influence varying. for instance, human health depends on genetic factors for 15-20%, on the condition of the environment – for 20-25%, on the health care system – for 1015% and it depends on conditions and lifestyle of the individual for 50-55% (model of health according to c. varkevisser) (varkevisser, 1995). therefore, it is far not all factors that can be influenced by the health care system. so, bearing in mind the considerable close connection of human health, conditions and lifestyle, a number of researchers (mirowsky & ross, 2015) believe that alongside with individuals themselves who are responsible for their own health, a 1 prof., doctor of economics, saint petersburg state university of economics, maol@rambler.ru mailto:maol@rambler.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 317-328 national system of education is essential which has to be prepared to motivate the individuals to develop life values of leading a "healthy lifestyle". the author shares this opinion too. it is known that serious transcendent processes may occur in the society in the case when health of a certain individual within the society gets devaluated or gains market value. explaining the idea, it can be mentioned that the contemporary generation of the young russians has grown virtually in conditions of commercialization of health and its being transferred into the plane of market relations. such a situation is extremely dangerous for social development. an unhealthy society sees crime, drugs and alcohol abuse flourish, culture and education stagnate and degrade, self-awareness become dull, with a kind of inferiority and disadvantage complex developing with the nation. it has been proven that disorders in the young population's health generate pessimism and desperation and have a destructive impact on the development of their social assets (coleman, 1988, coleman, 1994, furstenberg and hughes, 1995, morrow, 1999). on the contrary, in the world outlook and mentality of the nation's healthy young generation enthusiasm and optimism prevail, and so do the belief of their own significance and favorable prospects (holland, 2009). at present, the russian youth as a social and demographic, social and cultural group experiences considerable risks associated both with growing uncertainty and loss of previous socialization paths that prevailed in their parents' life and with its having to overcome new difficulties caused by excessive beer drinking, drugs abuse, suicidality spreading, instilment of permissive morals and other anti-social trends e.g. negativism, aggressiveness, homosexuality and other kinds of social loose conduct. in the present-day russia, a strong shift of the value-based range of life ambitions is observed in the student youth. for the young generation, first of all, it is the so-called market occupations that have become prestigious – ones that are associated with the ability to make very good money. secondly, the traditional standards and rules of behavior are being destroyed, and there arises a necessity to break free from social pressure. it shapes a new lifestyle consisting of new challenges for the youth – "prohibitions are prohibited", "demand the impossible", "paradise instantly and effortlessly" etc. (nikitina, 2017b, p. 400-402). within this context, a healthy lifestyle seems a marker or a testimony of the young people's losing social skills of healthy behavior in the russian society. nikitina treated as a way of shaping the ideological interests of a strong and healthy nation in the previous, soviet era, the healthy lifestyle of student youth has lost its importance by nowadays. this is why, first of all, the contemporary russian society has a demand for shaping socalled social skills (soft skills) of "healthy behavior", with its components being realization of the problem of keeping one's health, awareness, motivation for improving the quality of health, shaping the required abilities and skills of keeping health up and focus on active longevity. the author supposes the emphasis on shaping the social skills (soft skills) of "healthy behavior" is an important and objective criterion which determines the leadership potential of development of the contemporary young people just as well as such skills as "team work ability", "aspiration for success" and the like. literature review the driving motives for forming a healthy lifestyle and having to develop the principles of healthy lifestyle in society are studied in the works both of well-known scientists of the past historical periods (durkheim, 1893, mannheim, 1946, weber, 1947) and of the modern researchers (telama, et al., 2005, griffiths, 2010). a characteristic trend of these studies is the transition from an idealized type of human healthy lifestyle to shaping a healthy lifestyle within a certain social and cultural paradigm. according to mannheim (1946), a healthy lifestyle is a derivative from the condition of education and culture in the society. in the changing world, it is the youth being included into the public life as a social development group that is important, and its lifestyle is an indicator of skills of healthy behavior and social maturity formed in the youth. in the recent years, the quantity of studies dedicated to healthy lifestyle among the young people has increased considerably. the majority of the works are aimed at finding some estimate tools for the current physical activity levels in youth and the integrative educational technologies for massively engaging the youth in physical culture and recreational activities (smith, et al., 2004, cocca, et al., 2014); at developing the creative initiatives that promote shaping a healthy lifestyle (bungay & vella-burrows, 2013); at criticizing the small role of preventive medicine in shaping the culture of healthy lifestyle with the young audience (merrill, et al., 2002). the works deal with the lack of effective policy and public standards on development of a healthy lifestyle among the young people (fullagar, 2002, rolando, et al., 2014); with an underestimated journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 317-328 influence of "culture moderators" and various "collectivistic cultures" on the mental and physical health as forms of social support for people (shavitt, et al., 2016). the rich empirical material collected in the works of scientists (beccaria & guidoni, 2002; bugge, 2010) allows saying that in value-based reference points of today's young generation "health" and "lifestyle" are separated. health is treated as a personal resource, while in the youth's hierarchy of life values, lifestyle is perceived through behavioral patterns in youth subcultures where the models of averaged social behavior are formed in which moral and social reference points have virtually lost the meaning of "healthy behavior". becoming members of certain groups and communities, the young people have to act within the logic of adaptation and adjusting to the life circumstances in order to live in a conflict-free social atmosphere with all members of the group (tarman, 2016; 2017; tarman & chigisheva, 2017; tarman & dev, 2018) certain important evidence for this can be found in the work of sian supski and jo lindsay (2016) on studying the "endowed for heavy drinking youth cultures" groups in australian universities. the authors point out that individual australian students of the group under research opt for abstaining from consuming alcohol as an individual lifestyle and they show a certain power in their decision of not drinking. however, they do not translate this to their peers and do not present themselves as a part of an alternative subculture; they merely explain they want to "be fit" or they are "focused on studies" or they participate in a religious group. thus, the students "choose their abstinent selves both in an existential sense and as an act of everyday self-identity", i.e. they are prepared to individualize their healthy lifestyle but they are not ready to act as a coherent group of social reproduction of the values oriented to a healthy lifestyle and to forge changes in the groups of "heavy drinking youth", which highlights the lack of social skills (soft skills) of "healthy behavior". the components of the latter are not only realization of one's personal problem of keeping one's health, but also a motivation for actively reproducing health in social groups and collectives one participates in. when analyzing the studies associated with evaluation and use of online consumption of information about health and healthy lifestyle in the internet, their authors mentioned that the respondents in the studies frequently pointed out the inaccuracy of the information obtained in the internet, the lack of trust in online information and in consulting doctors (anderson, 2004, gonzalez-gaballero, et al., 2014). the researchers tend to consider the process as "an unruly and unregulated space of mis-information and lay web users as potential victims of ‘cyberquackery’" nikitina (lewis, 2006), too, which makes the individualist ideas for the youth on choosing a lifestyle only more complicated, and all the more so does not promote shaping the social skills (soft skills) of "healthy behavior". the empirical studies of "healthy behavior" have revealed an interrelation between one's social skills and economic welfare throughout one's entire life cycle (chiteji, 2010). the research by chiteji ngina (2010) describes the influence of unhealthy behavior factors (e.g. alcohol, physical inactivity and others) on one's future health reserve, on the time spent for restoring the health in "sick leave" days, on the future pay etc. the author argues quite convincingly that the young people initially oriented to a "healthy behavior" have higher chances at the modern labor market as they show social skills (soft skills) manifesting themselves in their extent of readiness for self-development and self-efficiency in the future – which is considered by employers to be important determinants of their future success. materials and methods value-based attitudes of the russian students are currently associated mainly with achieving a high material welfare and life success, as a result of which such important values as health and healthy lifestyle are squeezed out. the harmful habits being widespread among the russian young students (smoking of cigarettes, hookah, vaping fashion, consumption of beer and strong drinks, physical inactivity, excessive consumption of sweet drinks, energy drinks etc.), the young people's not knowing the methods of personal health improvement, self-control, psychological self-adjustment and support of their health lead to underestimating the "healthy behavior" as a determinant of their future success. at the stage of research task setting, the author determined the scope of the research – the 3rdand 4th-year students of saint-petersburg state university of economics aged 20-22. the sample included 189 students, of them 69 being men and 120 women (n=189). in this work, it was the most important to learn the opinion of exactly this target group of respondents. the research was conducted from february 20, 2017 until june 30, 2017. the main method of the research was survey in the questionnaire survey option. after the survey, in-depth interviews with probing questions were performed in order to understand why the respondents give such answers or what they think of a certain problem. the information obtained in the in-depth interviews was registered by the interviewer using recording equipment and then input into the pc literally. moreover, in the study, quick rounds of questions were used journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 317-328 in order to obtain answers to one and the same question (or to several similar ones) from the target groups of students instantly. the developed methodological toolkit included the elements of scaling (likert and guttman scales), the free associations technique, expert assessment; content analysis and prototype analysis were used too. the task of multi-level integrated analysis of ideas was solved by means of staged research and analyzing the data with the help of both quantitative and qualitative techniques. the following methods were used as the research ones: analysis of the published sociological studies on the similar topics range, discussion of the research results, consideration of them when interpreting own sociological studies; the development of theoretical hypotheses for initial sociological studies, the development of structured questionnaire survey forms for written and oral surveys; poll in the form of questionnaire survey; data processing and analysis; comparative and typological analysis; case studies based on the author's information archive of materials on the topics range in question. all this has ensured the maximum immersion into the problems range of the research. results and discussion at the first stage of the research, the task was set to identify the strongest items in the hierarchy of life values in the students of the university of economics (n=189). this research has found out that the "summit" of the life values pyramid in the students is formed by the following values that are the most important in their opinion – "relationships with peers and new friends" – 89% of the respondents. they explained it by the fact that having connections would help them fulfill their life plans, find a prestigious job and succeed in career. next, the respondents singled out "work" and "financial independence" as important values (78% and 75%, respectively), and "career growth" as a significant value (70%). in spite of these categories steadily prevailing among the important and significant values, in the interviews, many questioned students pointed out that looking for a job and ensuring their financial independence, although satisfying their demands in the above categories, took away a considerable, if not greater, part of time and efforts in their daily life. moreover, almost half of the respondents mentioned being under constant stress due to the difficulty of finding a job or being dissatisfied with their career growth or pay, and that it was exactly the reason why they felt constantly stressed and depressed, had a negative attitude towards people around them; in it, they saw the reason of aggravation of their health, too (45,2%). nikitina the objective of the following section of the questionnaire form was to identify the risk factors that in the opinion of the students may affect their health. the questionnaire forms developed for this section covered a broad range of questions directly or indirectly touching on the most relevant risk factors that furthered aggravation of health in the students. first it was asked if the respondents considered themselves to be healthy. 81% of the respondents think they are practically healthy, 11% healthy, and 8% of the surveyed ones were "not sure to answer". after that, the students were asked to answer some questions associated with practicing sports and physical training. the students answered they tried to practise sports independently or at sports sections and clubs (67% of the respondents replied in the positive). the question what was the main motivation factor was answered by the respondents as "physical beauty", "sex appeal", "a wish to upload a picture on instagram" – i.e. it is physical attractiveness rather than care of one's health that prevails as motivation for doing some sports. the next pool of questions for studying the risk factors has found out that the respondents rank "bad habits" as the first among the risk factors (79%), "disruption of dietary pattern" as the second (67%) and "disruption of work and rest schedule" – as the third (59%). the survey conducted confirms the results of the author's previous studies (nikitina, 2017a), as well as of the similar sociological studies done by the russian researchers at other higher education institutions of russia that demonstrate that bad habits are on the top three health risk factors in the student youth (varlamova & sedova, 2010; samarin & mekhrishvili, 2017). the task of the following section of the questionnaire form consisted in finding out the answers to the question on what was the obstacle for leading a healthy lifestyle. among the traditional and expected by the author answers, 27,2% the students opted for the "lack of free time" reply, 21,4% and 20,9% — "lack of means" and "lack of the relevant knowledge", respectively. 16,5% of the respondents said they were "not sure to answer". in the "other" option, the respondents could supply their variants of answer and write it down manually. the most popular opinion in this item were "laziness", "no company", "advertisement in the internet and social networks", "healthy lifestyle is not interesting", "the practices formed in the family", "i try not to think about consequences much", "alcohol and smoking are good communicative factors so it is difficult to refuse them". journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 317-328 next, the questionnaire form included some questions the author needed for understanding the way how the internet communities influenced the formation of bad habits in the students. such question setting was caused by the fact that during the previous round of questions some students openly said there was a fashion for bad habits in the internet communities. moreover, there is indirect advertisement of bad habits and "unhealthy goods" in the internet and in some social groups click under advertising is widespread when a student can get partner fees for a click, an action, a show etc. it is clear that such aggressive promotion methods only aggravate their high involvement into the internet environment. it should be pointed out that in the social networks open and restricted youth groups of various thrusts are being actively created. the author has conducted a quick search for such "popular trends" of bad habits in youth as hookah smoking and vaping. for example, in the vkontakte social network, the search of hookah fans has returned over 67 thousand groups (as of 12.05.2017). in the profile of the groups, there are pictures of young men and girls competing for the best pictures and "likes" to get free hookah tobacco and so on. the rough search for vaping fan groups around vkontakte has returned 5193 groups (as of 12.05.2017) that are formed according to their geographical location: saint-petersburg vape, moscow vape, omsk vape etc. they imply interactive exchange of opinions, pictures, and promotion partnership with payment for displays etc. it should be stressed that all groups of this kind are composed of the young people mainly. the question "are you a member of such groups?" in this questionnaire form was answered by 65% of the students in the positive, with 17% marking they browsed the content in open groups and "liked" it, 15% answering "no". the remaining ones gave no reply. the next stage of the research consisted of quick rounds of questions for the students (the students were subdivided into 9 groups (n=19) and 1 group (n=18)). the first unit of the quick poll has found out that the most frequent signs of aggravation of health in the students are tiredness, fatigability, and nerve strain. meanwhile, 27 % of the surveyed students are not prepared to give up bad habits in spite of some risk factors available. 20% of the questioned ones increase the time of rest for restoring their powers if there are any symptoms of accumulated fatigue and start practicing sports on a regular basis. over 50% of the students answered they realized there was a problem but "did not know where to start". the interviewer's question as for why they did not go to a doctor was responded by the students to the effect that they "did not feel ill", "had no time", "did not like going to doctors". in the second unit nikitina of the quick poll, the students were asked to name three most important motivational factors which they believed would lead them to a healthy lifestyle. the students mentioned they first of all "needed an example from the circle of the closest friends"; secondly, they "expect support from the friends". thirdly, "for healthy behavior, an external organizer is required" who would stimulate them towards a "healthy behavior", create opportunities for learning personal health improvement, psychological self-adjustment and support of one's health. the analysis of quick polling of the students has shown that among the students within the intra-university environment, the communication on healthy lifestyle topics is very poor; the author believes this due to the fact that at a young age health is no special trouble yet. meanwhile, all the revealed factors bring to light the importance of "mutual support" in "healthy behavior" initiatives, the necessity of building such communication channels for organizing the assistance to the students before they start their informal efforts to implement healthy lifestyle into their daily lifestyle. moreover, the need of an "external organizer" of healthy lifestyle that was found in the students speaks about a lack of social skills of "healthy behavior" in this social and demographic group. conclusion therefore, during the staged research a quite clear picture of opinions of the students of saint-petersburg state university of economics on healthy lifestyle has been obtained that is made up from the existing experience. meanwhile, healthy lifestyle itself is not a negative attribute, but nevertheless, in the analysis of the students' opinions, it is the discourse for conscious or unconscious imbalance of daily life towards the health risk factors that prevails. such an attitude towards health is extremely dangerous as leveling out health as a universal human value at a young age puts up questions of what negative change this trend may lead to in the future. the author has found out that in spite of their realizing the risk factors that may affect their health in the future, the students are not prepared to become champions of healthy behavior by default. hence the most important task for educational organizations in russia is to build communication channels for organizing assistance and support for the students in their informal efforts of implementing healthy behavior into their daily lifestyle. moreover, the need of an "external organizer" of healthy lifestyle that was found in the students speaks about a lack of social skills of "healthy behavior" in this social and demographic group. the research conducted journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 317-328 places to the foreground the urge of massively involving students into the development and fulfillment of social projects associated with healthy lifestyle directly in their home university environment. acknowledgements the author expresses her gratitude to v. potanin foundation for financial support of the research. references anderson, j.g. (2004). consumers of e-health: patterns of use and barriers. social science computer review, 22(2), 242–248. beccaria, f., guidoni, o.v. (2002). young people in a wet culture: functions and patterns of drinking. contemporary drug problems, 29(2), 305-334. bugge, a.b. (2010). young people's school food styles. naughty or nice? young, 18(2), 223243. bungay, h., vella-burrows, t. (2013). the effects of participating in creative activities on the health and well-being of children and young people: a rapid review of the literature. perspectives in public health, 133(1): 44-52. chiteji, n. (2010). time preference, noncognitive skills and well being across the life course: do noncognitive skills encourage healthy behavior? american economic review, 100(2), 200-204. cocca, a., liukkonen, j., mayorga-vega, d., viciana-ramírez, j. (2014). health-related physical activity levels in spanish youth and young adults. perceptual and motor skills, 118(1), 247-260. coleman, j.s. (1988). social capital in the creation of human capital. american journal of sociology, 94 (supplement), 95-120. coleman, j.s. (1994). social capital, human capital, and investment in youth. in: petersen, a.c., mortimer, j.t. youth unemployment and society, cambridge: cup, 34-50. durkheim, e. (1893). the division of labor in society. in: jones, r.a. (1986). emile durkheim: an introduction to four major works. beverly hills, ca: sage publications, inc., 24-59. fullagar, s. (2002). governing the healthy body: discourses of leisure and lifestyle within australian health policy. health, 6(1), 69-84. nikitina furstenberg, f.f.jr., hughes, m.e. (1995). social capital and successful development among at-risk youth. journal of marriage and family, 57(3), 580-592. gonzalez-caballero, j-l., almenara-barrios, j., lagares-franco, c., peralta-sáez, j.-l., chauvin, p., amaddeo, p. (2014). spanish students' use of the internet for mental health information and support seeking. health informatics journal, 22(2), 333-354. griffiths, s.m. (2010). leading a healthy lifestyle: the challenges for china. asia pacific journal of public health, 22(3), 110s-116s. holland, j. (2009). young people and social capital. uses and abuses? young, 17(4): 331-350. lewis, t. (2006). seeking health information on the internet: lifestyle choice or bad attack of cyberchondria? media, culture & society, 28(4), 521-539. mannheim, k. (1946). diagnosis of our time. new york: oxford university press. merrill, r.m., friedrichs, m., larsen, l.d. (2002). perceptions of healthy behaviors versus health practices. health promotion practice, 3(4), 497-500. mirowsky, j., ross, c.e. (2015). education, health, and the default american lifestyle. journal of health and social behavior, 56(3), 297-306. morrow, v. (1999). conceptualizing social capital in relation to the well-being of children and young people: a critical review. the sociological review, 47(4), 744-765. nikitina, o. (2017a). “social distance” in demographic segments aged 17-22 and 65 and over: sociology of the problem a case study of a big city in russia. man in india, 97(16), 41-54. nikitina, o.a. (2017b). stereotyping of students' opinions about a healthy lifestyle. journal of scientific papers "health and education in the 21st century", 19(10), 400-402. rolando, s., törrönen, j., beccaria, f. (2014). boundaries between adult and youth drinking as expressed by young people in italy and finland. young, 22(3), 227-252. samarin, a.v. mekhrishvili, l.l. (2017). health in the system of life values in student youth: results of sociological research. international journal of research, 01(55), part 3, 151-154. shavitt, sh., cho,y.i., johnson, t.p., duo jiang, holbrook, a., stavrakantonaki, m. (2016). culture moderates the relation between perceived stress, social support, and mental and physical health. journal of cross-cultural psychology, 47(7), 956-980. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 317-328 smith, a., green, k., roberts, k. (2004). sports participation and the 'obesity/health crisis' reflections on the case of young people in england. international review for the sociology of sport, 39(4), 457-464. supski, s., lindsay, j. 'there's something wrong with you'. how young people choose abstinence in a heavy drinking culture. young, 25(4), 323-338. tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), i-ii. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 tarman, b , chigisheva, o . (2017). editorial for special issue: transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education. journal of social studies education research, 8 (2), i-iv. retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/32450/360860 tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. telama, r., nupponen, h., piéron, m. (2005). physical activity among young people in the context of lifestyle. european physical education review, 11(2), 115-137. varkevisser, c.m. (1995). women's health in changing world. continuous challenge. tropical and geographical medicine, 47(5), 186-192. varlamova, s.n., sedova, n.n. (2010). healthy way of life a step forward, two backward. sociological research, 4, 75-88. weber, m. (1947). the theory of social and economic organization. ny: oxford university press. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 http://dergipark.gov.tr/jsser/issue/32450/360860 334 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9(4), 334-351 consumers spiritual rights in the islamic banking dispute out of court settlement in indonesia ro'fah setyowati1, indah purbasari2, encik muhammad fauzan3 abstract from the perspective of consumer protection, consumer of islamic financial institution has spiritual rights, in which their religious rights are guaranteed in the form of sharia principles. the problem is that the provisions in indonesia, financial services authority regulation number 1/pojk.07/ 2014 concerning alternative disputes settlement institutions do not contain clauses related to these spiritual rights. using a doctrinal approach, especially philosophical, juridical, and practical, this study aims to analyse the financial services authority regulation using the perspective of consumer protection, specifically spiritual rights. the results of the study found the disharmony of law in the alternative disputes settlement. if the problem does not receive adequate attention, it means that it does not encourage the legal certainty that is needed for indonesia islamic economic law development. keywords: consumers protection, spiritual right, islamic banking dispute, settlement out of court. introduction spiritual aspects are inherent in everyone. from a consumer protection perspective, every consumer has a spiritual right that needs legal protection for every business transaction carried out. therefore, if a business dispute occurs, then in the dispute resolution process, it is important to pay attention to the fulfilment of the consumer's spiritual rights, as intended. in a paper about islamic banking (setyowati, 2012a), stated that for the past five decades, the islamic financial system has grown and developed universally. various countries in all continents have responded well to the implementation of the islamic economic system, such as in asia, europe, australia, america, and africa. recognition of the advantages of the islamic economic system by the community, marked by the establishment of sharia-based business institutions that are growing, both in variety and in number. related to this 1 lecturer, faculty of law, diponegoro university of semarang, rofah@live.undip.ac.id 2 lecturer, faculty of law, trunojoyo university of madura, indah.purbasari@trunojoyo.ac.id 3 lecturer, faculty of law, trunojoyo university of madura, encik.fauzan@trunojoyo.ac.id mailto:rofah@live.undip.ac.id mailto:indah.purbasari@trunojoyo.ac.id mailto:encik.fauzan@trunojoyo.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 334-351 phenomenon, (margono,2011) stated that the business activities development would likely lead to disputes between parties involved, either disputes between companies or the ones between companies and their consumers. basyarnas is an institution which offers business dispute settlement outside the court, which is established to handle disputes that may arise, related to islamic business institutions. its main objective is to resolve disputes against islamic business institutions, in accordance with sharia principles. this is crucial as islamic business institutions are philosophically based on the spirit of running islam in a kaffaah way, and the islamic business operation is also based on sharia principles. derived from such principles, therefore, in case of any disputable issues, the islamic law should be recommended in its settlement. however, during basyarnas’s establishment, there were no competent law enforcement institutions to carry out these functions in indonesian legal system, both through the court and outside the court. in the consumer protection perspective, the application of sharia principles to islamic business institutions is a consumer's spiritual right. the spiritual nature itself has been explained in the principles of consumer protection in law no. 8 of 1999 concerning consumer protection. in addition, compliance with sharia principles in all islamic business institutions activities has also been regulated in various laws related to their respective fields, such as banking, insurance, capital markets, and the others. the business field referred to shows that in practice, islamic financial institutions are widely operated type of islamic business institution in indonesia. this was also reinforced by the study (sufriadi, 2007) which showed the scope of dispute settlements at basyarnas currently revolves around islamic financial institutions disputes. being the highest muslim population nation in the world, indonesia, consequently, also has a growing islamic banking. this can be seen from the 2017 indonesian sharia financial progress report issued by the indonesian financial services authority. islamic showed that banking assets which remained steady in as much as idr 435.02 trillion in the end of 2017 gained an increase of idr. 69.36 trillion from the previous year. the increase in the assets of sharia banking industry was mainly contributed by an increase in the value of assets of the sharia business unit which was almost the same as the increase in the assets of islamic commercial banks value. from its developments, islamic finance can be seen as one of the most potential industries and it is expected to support the indonesian welfare, as what was stated in the preamble of law no. 21 of 2008 concerning sharia banking. setyowati et al. this study is originated from the financial services authority regulation number 1/ pojk.07/ 2014 concerning alternative dispute settlement institutions. the regulations organize the establishment of an off-court dispute resolution institution for each financial business sector. based on the regulations, each financial institution must be a member of one of the alternative dispute settlement institutions. the financial services authority regulation is also accompanied by financial services authority circular letter which contains a list of alternative dispute resolution institutions. meanwhile, in alternative dispute settlement institutions regulations, there are no written clauses relating to spiritual aspects. however, there are only six institutions in the list recognized by the financial services authority, excluding the basyarnas. consequently, in terms of legal issues, there is less attention paid to the spiritual rights protection in matters of resolving disputes. moreover, these legal issues also indirectly affect the position of basyarnas, as the alternative dispute settlement institution particularly established for the sake of protecting customers’ spiritual rights. method the research was conducted by the using the legal research methodology (yaqin, 2007). this research focused on doctrinal study in term of philosophical, juridical and practical approach (hutchinson, 2006). this approach is used because it is needed for discussion of new theories and concepts to show the gap between theory, concept, and practice with practical and fundamental reasons. this approach is used because it is needed for discussion of new theories and concepts to show the gap between theory, concept, and practice with practical and fundamental reasons. therefore, this study aims to explore the relationship between spiritual rights and the settlement of islamic financial disputes, as well as the position of islamic arbitration in resolving islamic financial disputes, and to evaluate the regulations of financial services authorities on adr with a spiritual rights perspective. as a doctrinal research, the research was basically conducted by library study. however, it is not a pure library study. field research supported to obtain qualitative data. the key informants were the officer of indonesian financial services authority and the director of alternative dispute settlement body for banking of indonesia. the interviews were conducted during october 2017 and 19 april 2018. this study uses a deductive analysis pattern. the concepts, theories and norms that underlie this research consist of financial service authority regulations on adr, the philosophy of spiritual rights and the character of dispute resolution in islamic banking. underlying norms are the basic norm for finding gaps between norms, theories and practices in alternative dispute journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 334-351 resolution after the issuance of the said regulation. therefore, analysis can make prescriptive conclusions and recommendations. spiritual rights relations with islamic financial dispute settlement it is crucial to describe specific spiritual rights and basyarnas’s position in resolving islamic economic disputes in order to obtain a better in-depth understanding of the relationship between the two. it is an important preliminary stage to move on to the next discussion. the analysis in this description emphasizes on philosophical and historical approaches. the "spiritual rights" concept is based on the fact that "spirituality" is an aspect that is always present in human beings. spirituality is one of the human characteristics; it distinguishes human beings from other beings. a higher degree of spirituality is owned by the indonesian people whose country is claimed to be a religious one. the country also puts a higher concern on religious matters. notably, it is understood why there is a close relationship between spirituality and religiosity. the linear statement (miller & thoresen, 2003) explained that there is a strong relationship between spirituality, religiosity, and health. a study (nadesan, 1999) linked the spiritual and economic aspects, especially the company. it can be inferred that in the context of a company as a business institution, a spiritual aspect exists in human beings. this spirituality is closely related to religiosity. in the context of this study, the term “spiritual rights” is basically intended to enhance the parties’ awareness, both customers as users of islamic financial services and islamic financial institutions. it needs to be socialized continuously as in reality there are fewer people who become aware of the needs of spiritual rights (setyowati 2012b). for islamic financial institutions, attention to "spiritual rights" is a manifestation of corporate identity which has been stated in legal documents, in the form of the company's articles of association. "spiritual rights" has a specific concept which is different from any common consumer rights. in the context of consumer protection, “spiritual rights” is a new term. however, “spiritual rights” is basically the crystallization of the concept of “rights” of consumers as stated in article 4 the consumer protections laws. furthermore, "spiritual" is a term used in the elucidation of article 3 of the consumer protections laws mainly on the principle of balance. the incorporation of the two terms into one entity is based on the understanding that the consumer protection principles are at the basis of the formation of rights in consumer protection. setyowati et al. in other words, the values carried in the principles should be represented in other clauses, especially those related to "rights". the “spiritual” issue is not only strictly related to the business field and the interests of consumers. in the context of statehood, as stipulated in the indonesian constitution, the spiritual aspect has been regulated from the beginning in chapter xi, article 29. in addition, rights related to freedom of religion: to manifest the teaching, practice and worship of religion is also strengthened through article 28e, which states that every person is free to manifest a religion in practice and worship. article 28i, paragraph (i) in specific, states that practicing religion is a part of human rights; it is meant to sustain under any circumstances. paragraph (4) affirmed that the protection, promotion, enforcement of human rights is the state’s responsibility, especially the government. from the aforementioned constitution, it can be said that the rights related to the fulfilment of sharia principles in all stages and fields related to islamic financial institutions are the rights to practice islam. hence, " religious rights" are similar to spiritual rights, or spiritual rights are a reflection of religious rights vice versa. the explanation above is a way to accommodate religious law in national law. it same with the view of mahfud m.d. (2011), states that in the indonesian constitution it is explained that indonesia is not a country based on religion, but a country based on pancasila. the pancasila-based state is a "religious state" or a country run in the spirit of religion or godliness. that is, religious law is justified and protected by the state in its application in indonesia. in a study conducted by lewis (2007), it was stated that the right to realize religious beliefs made it easier for people to do general good. and conversely, the general good will provide an opportunity for people to carry out their religious beliefs. furthermore, according to lewis, this also allows the right holder to use his choice to do what he sincerely believes to be his duty determined by god or divinely. examples of spiritual rights in the field of marriage are contained in article 2 paragraph (i) of law no. 1 of 1974 concerning marriage, which states the legality of a marriage, if done according to the law of each religion. another example in child protection in article 43 of law no. 35 of 2014 child protection, stated in paragraph (1) that the state, government, regional government, community, family, parents, guardians, and social institutions guarantee the protection of children in embracing their religion, and paragraph (2) that the protection of children in embracing their religion as intended in paragraph (1) includes coaching and practicing the teachings of religion for children. in addition, for muslims, the halal guarantee journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 334-351 of a product is an example of “spiritual rights”. however, the term “halal” is usually interpreted in the context of food that is allowed to be consumed. in the context of this study, in relation to islamic financial institutions, especially in terms of dispute resolution, it is clearly stipulated in article 55 paragraph (3) that the settlement of disputes conducted outside the religious courts must be in accordance with sharia principles. spiritual rights can also be analysed using agency theory. this is because the unit of analysis in agency theory is a contract that underlies the relationship between the principal and agent (jensen and mackling, 1976). therefore, this theory focuses on determining the most efficient contract that underlies the relationship between principal and agent. in addition, the application of agency theory to work contracts is a way of understanding the role and position between agents and principals philosophically. the ideal employment contract is a work contract capable of optimizing the utility of each party with the aim of achieving optimal pareto (anggraeni, 2011). related to the agency theory linked to the context of islamic banking, agency problems can be endured by companies that operationalize conventional concepts or based on sharia (suryanto, 2015). the difference is, in conventional companies only either materially or purely oriented approaches are used, whereas, sharia-based companies, use a broader approach. in practice, contracts that are prone to agency issues are modaraba. this is because the meeting point of agent theory with sharia principles lies in the issue of trust. moreover, the spiritual rights basically demonstrate a company trust, in this case the bank, which has declared itself as an islamic bank. by observing the above description, it is understood that the spiritual right in the context of this study is a reflection of religious rights, or in other words the right to practice religious laws. the legal basis and the existence of spiritual rights in indonesia are very strong, both in the sense of the constitution and legislation, which are spread out in various fields. as for the spiritual rights related to the settlement of disputes on sharia financial institutions, it has a clear footing through the islamic banking laws, in which the islamic financial dispute settlement must be in accordance with islamic principles. sharia arbitration’s as financial dispute settlement a practical approach is used in this discussion, by seeing sharia arbitration institutions used in resolving islamic financial disputes. this is related to the rapid islamic finance industry setyowati et al. which has an impact on the increasing potential for conflict; it is likely to be avoided. hence, giving attention to this matter is essential in order to restore and maintain the credibility of islamic banking and finance (abozaid, 2016). this is reinforced by a study conducted (helfand 2011) on multiculturalism making the argument that islamic arbitration plays an important role in protecting the value of diversity by allowing certain religious communities to resolve disputes according to their own religious values and obligations. according to (farhana, 2018) basically, law is created by society, and at the same time, society is formed by law. the statement means that the law is in accordance with the society development. in the context of resolving islamic banking disputes, islamic banking law is made by the community, because it is needed. but other than that, the law seeks to create a society that complies with sharia principles. related to the development of islamic banking law, wisdom & oseni (2016) hold that malaysia and indonesia represent the best practices of the islamic banking business, including in matters concerning dispute resolution. basyarnas is a dispute settlement institution outside the court, which prioritizes arbitration mechanisms. this can be seen from institution name. at first, it was established under the name of bamui (indonesian muamalat arbitration board), and later changed its name to basyarnas in 2014. the change of name by perpetuating the word “arbitration”, highlights the priority focus. while “arbitration” is the consensus agreed upon in a business contract and at the same time becomes part of all topics agreed upon by the parties (manan, 2007). from this name, it can be inferred that basyarnas is the sole institution providing special services for dispute settlement with the mechanism of sharia-based arbitration. the spirit of establishing basyarnas in indonesia is in line with the establishment of islamic arbitration in the united states (revkin, 2015), revkin further stated that basically, the establishment of the adr institution was in accordance with a universal tendency, the occurrence of privatization in resolving disputes. related to dispute resolution, from an islamic perspective and islamic law, prioritizes the peace mechanism. the spirit of compromise or peace is emphasized in commercial transactions (wisdom & oseni, 2016). in indonesia, basyarnas has strong legal basis, both from a positive legal review written in the laws and regulations, as well as those that are not written yet contained in the qur'an, sunnah, and ijma 'ulama. the main legislation that is the legal basis is law no. 30 of 1999 concerning arbitration and alternative dispute resolution. while the main sources of islamic journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 334-351 law have literally regulated the problem, considering the settlement of any disputes that occur in the community, it is something that must receive attention to be resolved immediately. historically, basyarnas was established by the indonesian ulama council, 21 october 1993. bamui was established in the form of a foundation legal entity, and confirmed by a notary deed of yudo paripurno, sh. no. 175 dated october 21, 1993. subsequently, based on the results of a meeting between the indonesian ulama council leadership council and bamui management on august 26, 2003, and observing the letter of the indonesian muamalat arbitration board management no.82 / bamui / 07 / x / 2003, dated october 7, 2003, the indonesian ulama council decree numberkep-09 / mulxi1 / 2003, dated 24 december 2003, stipulates that: a. the name of the bamui to be changed to basyarnas; b. the form of the indonesian muamalat arbitration board legal entity to be changed from the foundation to an entity under the indonesian ulama council, and it serves as indonesian ulama council organic device; and c. basyarnas is an autonomous and independent institution to carry out its duties and functions. in the context of law enforcement, basyarnas is an alternative dispute resolution institution. the word 'alternative' is intended as an institution outside the court. in various literature, such institutions are often referred to as alternative dispute resolution (adr). the emergence of adr is basically due to the many weaknesses encountered in resolving disputes through the judiciary. the history study, “adr”, emerged and developed only in the early 1970s (barrett & barrett, 2004). however, there are also studies that state that adr was reported to have begun as early as ancient greek times. the occurrence of privatization in resolving disputes has directly diminished the burden of the court, which has been short of manpower in handling disputes. with the existence of the adr institution, there is a significant transfer of workload (revkin, 2015). there are several advantages of adr, yet a weakness of the justice mechanism (khairandy et al, 1999): 1) the proceeding in the trial of the civil case settlement takes a long time; 2) the length of time to settle a dispute can also be caused by the length of the stage of the dispute resolution, namely the process of proceeding in the first rank court, which allows setyowati et al. to file a lawsuit to the appellate court, so that the business submits an appeal and reconsideration to the highest court, namely the supreme court. 3) the length and length of the dispute resolution process through the court certainly has consequences related to the legal high cost; 4) court proceedings are conducted openly, yet confidentiality is prioritized in commercial activities; 5) court judges do not master the legal substance of the dispute in question (considered less professional); 6) there is a poor assessment of the world of justice. some of these advantages can be seen below: table 1 adr mechanism advantages advantages explanation win-win situation adr seeks to increase the likelihood of achieving a win situation for all parties involved. cheaper cost in order to reach a faster resolution by cutting costs. privacy to maintain the confidentiality of both parties, because the adr is always carried out in a closed manner. more innovative techniques dispute resolution and deliberation are not limited to the basis of legislation, but also consider the issue of motives and trade ethics. maintaining the relationship between the parties the communication room, the parties to the dispute are always open. access to higher experts opportunities for experts who are proficient and recognized. better decision quality in handling cases, the quality of the decision is more guaranteed, because the suitability between expertise and the case handled increases. the parties are free in their activities at the time of settlement of the dispute, the parties may resume their respective activities without being disturbed by the process of examining the case. faster the dispute inspection procedure can be determined by the parties involved with the help of a third party. neutral there is a guarantee that third parties who will decide or mediate disputes are those who are free and do not take sides. source: the authors based on the explanation above, it is natural that basyarnas at the beginning of its establishment received a positive response from the community, although in real terms institutional performance, there were still shortcomings (setyowati, et. al., 2011). furthermore, aulawi (2004) stated that in the settlement with the adr, there are constructive values namely: journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 334-351 a. both parties are fully aware of the need for a respectable and responsible dispute resolution. b. they voluntarily surrender the settlement of the dispute to a person or institution that is agreed to be trusted. c. voluntarily they will settle the arbitrator's decision as a consequence of their agreement to appoint the arbitrator. d. the agreement contains promises that must be agreed upon. e. they respect the rights of their opponents. f. they avoid being self-justified and ignore the truth that may be present in others g. they have legal awareness and at the same time, state consciousness or society in order that vigilantism is avoided h. implementation of the tahkim (deliberation and peace) djauhari a. executive board of central basyarnas (personal communication, october 9, 2017) said that public interest in using basyarnas as an islamic financial dispute settlement institution can be seen from basyarnas’s performance in resolving 19 cases by the end of 2013 (barlinti 2013). while musytari, d.n. executive board of basyarnas in yogyakarta, (personal communication, april 29, 2018) said that from 2003-2018, completed 13 cases. out of the resolved 19 cases, there were five decisions that were determined before the existence national sharia council (dsn) fatwa’s, namely: 1. decision number 01/year 1997/bamui/put/ka. jak 2. decision number 02/year 1998/bamui/put/ka. jak 3. decision number 03/year 1998/bamui/put/ka. jak 4. decision number 04/year 1999/bamui/put/ka. jak 5. decision number 05/year 1999/bamui/put/ka. jak the following eight outlined decisions are the ones reached after the national sharia council fatwa’s first implementation in 2000 as the description will be linked to the national sharia council fatwa’s. 1. decision number 06/year 2000/bamui/put/ka. jak 2. decision number 07/year 2001/bamui/put/ka. jak 3. decision number 08/year 2001/bamui/put ka. jak 4. decision number 09/year 2002/bamui/put/ka. jak setyowati et al. 5. decision number 10/year 2002/bamui/put/ka. jak 6. decision number 11/year 2001/bamui/put/ka. jak 7. decision number 12/year 2002/bamui/put/ka. jak 8. decision number 13/year 2007/basyarnas/put/ka. jak from the description above, it can be inferred that in practice sharia arbitration institutions have long been used to resolve islamic financial disputes in indonesia. this reality is derived from the idea that islamic law prioritizes peace efforts in resolving disputes. furthermore, basyarnas is an adr institution with many conceptual advantages. consumers spiritual rights of regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions the need for muslims to lead good life under islamic principles requires the government attentions. the implementation of the two laws in finance, namely religious law with national law is likely to occur in a country. thus, if it is associated to the context of this study, the focus of consumer spiritual rights is on the application of islamic law principles in the national law. in this case, the national law in question is the regulation of the financial services authority. in this discussion, the juridical approach is preferred because the main study object is in the form of regulations. the discussion above has described the position of basyarnas in resolving islamic economic disputes. as an adr institution, basyarnas has long been practiced. however, the ojk made new regulations regarding the adr institution. financial services authority regulations number 1/ pojk.07/ 2014 concerning alternative dispute settlement institutions is a policy in an effort to protect the interests of consumers and society (billah, 2018). thus, this is related to pojk number 1 / pojk.07 / 2013 concerning consumer protection in the financial services sector. both regulations are part of the authority of the financial services authority as an institution that holds the regulation and supervision of the financial services industry, i.e. islamic financial institutions. in the context of the study of sharia economic dispute settlement related to basyarnas, the problem related to regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions is mainly due to the lack of concern for spiritual rights in the settlement of disputes. this can be seen from the results of the analysis of the element of sharia compliance for regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions (setyowati, 2018). first, there is no content that is directly journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 334-351 related to sharia compliance in regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions. in fact, the term "sharia" is only found in one article in the description of "islamic banking". the definition in other financial services industries is not mentioned at all by the sharia financial institution, although in practice there is already a real one. it can be interpreted that the regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions do not recognize the existence of islamic financial institutions as a whole. as a result, there is no recognition toward the specific mechanisms needed in resolving disputes. secondly, in regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions there is also no regulation on settlement standardization or certification for arbitrators or parties who take part in resolving the dispute over islamic finance cases. this has led to the potential misleading decisions which are not in accordance with sharia principles previously intended to protect spiritual rights. thirdly, regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions do not contain arrangements for making decisions, using material law as a reference in accordance with sharia principles. fourthly, regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions also do not regulate the registration and implementation of alternative disputes settlement institutions decisions. it means that according to arbitration and alternative disputes settlement laws, the registration and execution of the decision of alternative disputes settlement institutions in all arbitral awards that are not carried out voluntarily are given to the district court. such problem causes legal uncertainty, while at the same time dismissing protection for the spiritual rights owned by the involved parties. another problem is the reduction of the basyarnas’s role as an institution for the settlement of sharia economic disputes. this fact is based on several provisions of the regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions, namely: a) every financial services institution is required to become a member of the relevant alternative disputes settlement institutions, including the obligation to pay contributions for the alternative disputes settlement institutions operation concerned; b) alternative disputes settlement institutions can only be established by the islamic financial institution and supported by the islamic financial institution associations; c) alternative disputes settlement institutions that can carry out its functions is only alternative disputes settlement institutions that has been included in the list approved by the financial services authority. meanwhile, in the financial services authority circular regarding to the alternative disputes settlement institutions list that is recognized, there are only six alternative disputes settlement institutions that are related to different financial industry fields. thus, it can be said that with the existence of regulations setyowati et al. of alternative disputes settlement institutions, basyarnas has lost its main consumers in resolving disputes for islamic financial institutions in indonesia. some obstacles for basyarnas according to regulations of alternative disputes settlement institutions can be listed as follows: 1) terms of being alternative disputes settlement institutions to be included in the alternative disputes settlement institutions list in the financial services sector, there are assessment stages that become a reference for eligibility, before being announced as registered alternative disputes settlement institutions. the assessment includes: a. preliminary analysis carried out with the following stages: 1) request for documents and/ or information to the alternative disputes settlement institutions; 2) verification to the alternative disputes settlement institutions (if needed); 3) processing documents and or information on the alternative disputes settlement institutions; 4) results formulations of the analysis of alternative disputes settlement institutions documents and/ or information; 5) testing the fulfilment of the alternative disputes settlement institutions requirements. testing of fulfilment of alternative disputes settlement institutions requirements is carried out by the alternative disputes settlement institutions testing team consisting of seven people from internal and external financial services authority, based on weighting and rating scale as stipulated in the financial services authority circular concerning guidelines for assessment of alternative disputes settlement institutions in the financial services sector. b. determination alternative disputes settlement institutions assessment results are classified into two (education and consumer protection department of ojk, 2015), namely: 1) fulfil the requirements when obtaining a value of at least 75 and there is no zero value in the alternative disputes settlement institutions requirements component; or 2) has not fulfilled the requirements when obtaining a score of less than 75 or there is a zero value in the alternative dispute settlement institutions requirements component. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 334-351 associated with the concept of a good alternative dispute settlement, (education and consumer protection department of ojk, 2015) at least adr institutions must fulfil the following principles: 1. it must be time-efficient and cost effective; 2. must be accessible to the parties, for example the place is not too far away; 3. must protect the rights of the parties to the dispute; 4. must be able to produce fair and honest decisions; 5. the body or person who resolves the dispute must be trusted in the eyes of the community and in the eyes of the parties in dispute; 6. the decision must be final and binding; 7. the decision must be easily executable; and 8. the decision must be in accordance with the feeling of authenticity of the community in which the alternative dispute is resolved. from the previous description, especially if related to point 3 above, it is stated that a good adr institution must protect the rights of the parties to the dispute. one of the rights related to the settlement of disputes is a spiritual right, which is not found at all in the financial services authority regulations. thus, it is clear that alternative disputes settlement institutions based on financial services authority regulations does not classify as an appropriate adr institution. this has not been widely realized, considering that there is no study that specifically looks at alternative disputes settlement institutions from spiritual rights protection perspective. on the other hand, looking back at various sharia compliance views which were associated with trust and strong user decisions in dealing with islamic banking, this problem can trigger the decline of the islamic financial industry in indonesia, as what capra stated (chapra, et. al, 2002) that failure in applying sharia principles will make customers moving to conventional banks by 85%. the requirements written in forms of provision state that the alternative disputes settlement institutions can only be established by the islamic financial institution and supported by the association of islamic financial institution and alternative disputes settlement institutions; such institutions must be acknowledged, listed and approved by the financial services authority. as a result, basyarnas becomes a loss of function. basyarnas was established long before the financial services authority regulations was created, so it was not included in the alternative disputes settlement institutions list. this was compounded by the setyowati et al. existence of provisions regarding to the obligation of the islamic financial institution to become a member of alternative disputes settlement institutions. thus, the policy directs alternative disputes settlement institutions to no longer use basyarnas services in settling disputes, since there is no institutional or administrative relationship between basyarnas and islamic financial services institutions. there is an obligation to become an associated member with monthly payments, so that directly becomes the main driving force of alternative disputes settlement institutions in all industries. as a result, basyarnas no longer holds a significant role, as it does not have an adequate regular funding source economically. from the description above, it is inferred that the financial services authority's regulation of adr institutions had not yet received sufficient attention about the spiritual rights of consumers. in addition, based on these regulations, basyarnas could not function in resolving islamic financial disputes in indonesia. conclusion and suggestion from the descriptions above, consumers spiritual rights in the islamic banking dispute out of court settlement in indonesia can be concluded as follows: spiritual rights are one of the main rights related to the settlement of disputes in islamic financial institutions. the spiritual rights form referred to is the fulfilment of sharia principles in the process of solving sharia economic disputes. conformity with sharia principles is indicated by four things, namely: 1) the existence of arrangements that are clearly related to spiritual rights; 2) there is an obligation to use material law in accordance with the principle or not contradictory to sharia; 3) settlement of disputes is carried out by personnel who have the competence as arbitrators who control muamalat; 4. adr decisions are carried out by religious judicial institutions. alternative disputes settlement institutions based on the financial services authority regulations cannot classify as an alternative form of dispute resolution, because they are incapable of fulfilling the customer's spiritual rights. thus, it can be said that after the issuance of financial services authority regulations above, basyarnas has failed to function as the institution to reinforce the islamic economic law. this condition is worsened by a negative assessment of basyarnas, since there is no visible institutional or administrative relationship between basyarnas and islamic financial services institutions or the public. this condition is exacerbated by the absence of government support, related to funding for operational needs. as journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 334-351 a result, the role of basyarnas becomes increasingly insignificant, as there is the absence of adequate regular funds source for basyarnas. based on these conclusions, it is important for financial services authority to review the process of regulation issuance, especially in the form of financial services authority regulations, to ensure that provisions are balanced in accommodating material and spiritual aspects. financial services authority also should pay more attention to various institutions related to the contents of the policy in forming and implementing its policies. it must be able to prevent itself from unintentionally putting other institutions in jeopardy, including those in the adr cases. setyowati et al. references barlinti, y.s., (2010). kedudukan fatwa dewan syariah nasional dalam sistem hukum nasional di indonesia. jakarta: balitbang dan diklat kemenag ri, (1). barrett, j.t., & barrett, j.p., (2004). a history of alternative dispute resolution – the story of political, cultural, and social movement., san francisco: jossey bass inc. billah, a.a. (2018). peran lembaga alternatif penyelesaian sengketa dalam sektor jasa keuangan guna mendukung pembangunan ekonomi nasional, jurnal rechtsvinding, 7(1). 67-78. chapra, m.u., et. al. (2002). corporate governance in islamic financial institutions, occasional paper no. 6, jeddah: islamic research and training institute/ islamic development bank. anggraeni, d. m., (2011). agency theory dalam perspektif islam, jurnal hukum islam, 9(2), desember, 1-13. education and consumer protection department of ojk (2015). laps sebagai salah satu alternatif penyelesaian pengaduan konsumen, presented in finalisasi internal dispute resolution (idr), bandung. jensen, m. c., and meckling, w. h., (1976). theory of the firm: managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure, journal of financial economics 3, 82-137. khairandy, r., et. al. (1999). pengantar hukum dagang indonesia. yogyakarta: uii law faculty law study center with gama media. manan, a., (2007). penyelesaian pertikaian ekonomi syariah: sebuah kuasa baru peradilan agama, kertas kerja diskusi panel dalam rangka dies natalis universitas yarsi ke 40. margono, s. (2011), alternative dispute resolution (adr) dan arbitrase, bogor: ghalia indonesia. miller, w.r., and thoresen c.e., (2003). spirituality, religion, and health: an emerging research field. american psychologist, [e-journal] 58(1), 24–35. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.58.1.24. nadesan, m. (1999). the discourses of corporate spiritualism and evangelical capitalism, management communication quarterly, 13(1), 3-42. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 334-351 setyowati, r., et. al. (2011). sharia arbitration’ in indonesia: right choice for consumer dispute in islamic banking, 2nd international conference on business and economic research, conference master resources, malaysia. setyowati, r., (2012a). hak spiritual nasabah perbankan syariah dalam perspektif undangundang perlindungan konsumen di indonesia, prosiding seminar penegakan hukum perbankan syariah dan call for paper perkembangan hukum islam dan permasalahan penegakannya di indonesia, diponegoro university. setyowati, r., (2012b). perkembangan perbankan islam di berbagai benua. paper of the series of lectures in the faculty of law, toyo university, japan, 18-24 january. setyowati, r., (2018). shariah compliance on the dispute settlement of islamic banking in indonesia: new dynamics and legal issues, paper keynote speaker, international conference on governance and wealth management, issues on shariah compliance, bangi. indonesian financial services authority (ojk). (2017). perkembangan keuangan syariah indonesia 2017. indonesian financial services authority (ojk) sufriadi, (2007). memberdayakan peran badan arbitrase syariah nasional (basyarnas) dalam penyelesaian sengketa ekonomi syariah di luar pengadilan, jurnal ekonomi islam la riba, 1(2). 249-264 suryanto, t, (2015), implementation of fair value accounting on agency problem contract mudharaba in islamic finance, international journal of economic perspectives, 9(4), 94102. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 209-230 examining the effects of ecoliteracy on knowledge, attitudes, and behavior through adiwiyata environmental education for indonesian students nurhasan syah1, hendra hidayat2, verlanda yuca3, zadrian ardi4, & elrisfa magistarina5 abstract the school is an educational institution that develops students’ potential by improving the character of the educational process throughout the learning environment, including the environmentally conscious character. however, student behaviors have not reflected their concern for the environment. one of the indonesian ministry of environment’s efforts to increase students’ environmental awareness involves the environmental excellence program, consisting of the adiwiyata program. this study aims to analyze the impact of the environmental excellence program on students’ ecoliteracy in schools with adiwiyata and non-adiwiyata programs. the respondents were students from an adiwiyata-based school (mtsn i pesisir selatan) and a nonadiwiyata school (smp negeri 3 painan) with a total of 40 students from each school, and the instrument used was the nurhasan syah ecoliteracy inventory (nsei). research data were analyzed using a descriptive approach and regression correlational tests. meanwhile, the component in the adiwiyata program is the creation of a school based on environmental culture, which produces a generation that is ecoliterate in knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. the result showed that there is a relationship between knowledge and attitudes toward student behavior both inside and outside the school as well as significant differences between adiwiyata-based schools and nonadiwiyata-based schools in terms of students’ knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. therefore, the adiwiyata program has an effect on increasing the ecoliteracy in students. keywords: adiwiyata, effectiveness, ecoliteracy, environment introduction this article examines the effect of ecoliteracy on student achievement. ecoliteracy refers to environmental education, which is now demanding high attention in the indonesian curriculum for secondary school students. conde & sánchez (2010) assert that environmental education is an essential step in changing society and the paradigm of global society toward sustainable development. the values contained in sustainable development are integrated directly into the learning aspect, which means that humans will be more responsible for sustainability in the future 1 dr., universitas negeri padang, indonesia nurhasan@ft.unp.ac.id 2 dr., universitas negeri padang, indonesia hendra.hidayat@ft.unp.ac.id 3 m.pd., universitas negeri padang, indonesia verlandayuca@fip.unp.ac.id 4 dr., universitas negeri padang, indonesia zadrian@fip.unp.ac.id 5 m.sc., universitas negeri padang, indonesia e.magistarina@fip.unp.ac.id mailto:nurhasan@ft.unp.ac.id mailto:hendra.hidayat@ft.unp.ac.id mailto:verlandayuca@fip.unp.ac.id mailto:zadrian@fip.unp.ac.id mailto:e.magistarina@fip.unp.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 (donohue, 2020; morales et al., 2020). integrating the principle of sustainability in school curriculums increases students’ ecoliteracy (bevins & wilkinson, 2009). it produces students with good environmental knowledge, improving students’ attitudes and behavior in environmental protection and management efforts in schools (desfandi & maryani, 2017; kavaz et al., 2021; legault & pelletier, 2000; spínola, 2015). research shows that when environmental education alone is not effective enough in increasing awareness among students, it is necessary to include its materials in the curriculum to increase students’ ecoliteracy (daudi, 2008; orr, 1992; puk & behm, 2003). ecoliteracy is defined as an understanding of the principles of organizing the ecosystem and the application of these principles to create sustainable human communities and societies (capra, 2007; capra et al., 2013; mcbride et al., 2013). it seeks to introduce and renew people’s understanding of the importance of global ecological awareness to create a balance between people’s needs and the earth’s ability to sustain them. ecological intelligence is our ability to adapt to the ecological angle (goleman, bennett, & barlow, 2012; nurbaeti, supriatna, & zulfikar et al., 2017), and it is based on three domains of knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of living in harmony with the natural environment. in simple terms, ecoliteracy means knowing the conditions and interrelationships of life sciences. this is the fundamental understanding of the relationship between humans and nature (martin, 2008). this new paradigm challenges modernization through its empirical approach. ecoliteracy is essential for every individual to improve the ecology of public awareness (desfandi & maryani, 2017). monaghan and curthoys (2008) emphasize that ecoliteracy measures a person’s ecological knowledge and ability and willingness to apply this knowledge to a sustainable lifestyle. it leads to an individual’s understanding of ecological concepts and their place in an ecosystem (balgopal & wallace, 2009). ecoliteracy focuses on increasing our understanding of the earth’s natural and human systems (barnes, 2013). although it is defined in various ways by experts, ecoliteracy has the goal of building an intelligent community necessary for sustainable development. to increase ecoliteracy is of fundamental importance (barnes, 2013). ecologically literate people have a basic understanding of human ecology and sustainability (orr, 1992; palmberg et al., 2017; wolff et al., 2017; zulfikar et al., 2020). ecological intelligence is essential because sustainable development through integrated education becomes interdisciplinary at all school levels. therefore, education is needed to improve the community’s ability to syah et al. 211 overcome various environmental development problems. environmental attitudes include behavioral goals, impacts, and beliefs of a person originating in environmental subjects or activities, and it is being used to predict behavior in the environment (boutelier, 2019; casaló & escario, 2018; cherdymova et al., 2018). this way, environmental education is perceived as an effort to increase knowledge, skills, attitudes, and actions of caring individuals, communities, organizations, and various parties toward environmental problems (lee & kim, 2017; sari et al., 2019; wasino & arsal, 2020; wasino et al., 2020). actions that combine learning with the process of educating students to partner with nature can give birth to a generation that is ecoliterate in terms of knowledge, attitudes, or environmentally friendly behavior (geng et al., 2019; law et al., 2019; rauschert & byram, 2018). therefore, this has a positive impact on the school environment, families, and the surrounding community, and the idea was implemented through the movement for the environmental care and culture in schools. this study applies ecoliteracy to the environment via the adiwiyata school program, which aims to establish responsible behavior in school to preserve environmental functions and improve the quality. the word adiwiyata means a good and ideal place where all knowledge and various norms and ethics that are the basis of humanity work toward creating the welfare of our lives and the ideals of sustainable development (fatimawati, 2018; mahendrartha et al., 2020; saputro & widodo, 2018).the adiwiyata program, which has been developed since 2006, aims to promote and form schools that care and are environmentally cultured. the schools should participate in efforts to preserve the environment and sustainable development through various policies and real programs for the benefit of present and future generations (fadlillah et al., 2018; fernández et al., 2019; meilinda, et al., 2017; warju & soenarto, 2017). environmental education is an essential component of environmental protection and management efforts, especially in instilling community behaviors to integrate decision-making (elmagrhi et al., 2019; varela-candamio et al., 2018). in 2006, the ministry of environment of indonesia launched the adiwiyata program as a follow-up to the mou between the indonesian minister of environment and the indonesian national minister of education. the aim is to create a caring and sophisticated school environment through adiwiyata training schools. ecoliteration for students must be implemented and developed properly and structured for schools that already use the adiwiyata program and those that do not define adiwiyata in the inclusion of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 their curriculum as their ecoliteration target. ecoliteration seeks to introduce and renew students’ understanding of the importance of global ecology so that it can meet the needs of students’ lives later. currently, an evaluation of adiwiyata programs in several schools is available in order to see its progress, impacts, and benefits, indicating that students become concerned or literate about the environment and enlightened about the importance of maintaining and preserving the environment. if students have realized the importance of the environment for their lives and the lives of all living things, they are ecoliterate. as a result, students and teachers will perform positive attitudes toward their environments in terms of lifestyle, behavior, and ethics. this study focuses on observing the knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of students both inside and outside of adiwiyata-based and non-adiwiyata-based schools. specifically, this study aims to describe and analyze the effect of ecoliteracy (environmental knowledge and environmental attitude) on student behavior both inside (internal school behavior) and outside (external school behavior), as well as the differences between adiwiyata-based and non-adiwiyata-based schools. research questions the following two research questions guided the research process: 1) what is the description of students’ knowledge, attitudes, and behavior in adiwiyata-based and non-adiwiyata-based schools? 2) do students of the adiwiyata program perform better in ecoliteracy in terms of knowledge, attitude, and behavior than students of non-adiwiyata programs? method research design this study used an ex post facto design (christensen, 2004) and quantitative approach to analyze data (weardon & chilko, 2004). an ex post facto design is considered quasi-experimental because the subjects are not randomly assigned, they are grouped based on a particular characteristic or trait. an ex post facto research design is a method in which groups with qualities that already exist are compared on some dependent variable. although differing groups are analyzed and compared in regards to independent and dependent variables, it is not a true experiment because it lacks random assignment (weardon & chilko, 2004). the independent variable is ecoliteracy and the dependent variables are knowledge, attitude, and behavior in ecoliteration of the adiwiyata syah et al. 213 program. research was conducted in mts negeri and smp negeri pesisir regency, west sumatra, indonesia. population and sample the number of the whole sample is 160, selected from two schools, mts n 1 pesisir(80 students) and smp n 3 pesisir (80 students). mts pesisir represents an adiwiyata school and smpn 3 represents a non-adiwiyata school. the sample was selected using cluster random sampling by considering the representation of the data at each grade class of students, which is 7th grade, 8th grade, and 9th grade. general characteristics of the sample appears in table 1. table 1. demographic distribution of the sample characteristics adiwiyata school (mtsn i pesisir regency) n=80 non-adiwiyata school (smp negeri 3 painan) n=80 gender men 17 (42.5%) 23 (57.5%) women 23 (57.5%) 17 (42.5%) grade 7th grade 13 (32.5%) 14 (35%) 8th grade 12 (37.5%) 14 (35%) 9th grade 15 (30%) 12 (30%) total 80 80 table 1 shows that the distribution of demographic data in both schools tends to be equal, both in gender and class grade. this serves to maintain the generalization process when formulating conclusions. in addition, data collection from the sample went through a research ethics approval process, where students were asked to be willing to fill in data and were also equipped with permission from the family and school. data collection tools the instrument used in this study was the nurhasan syah ecoliteracy inventory (nsei) questionnaire, which was designed and formed based on the theory and the type of inventory used by a likert scale model. the scales include knowledge (not at all aware–extremely aware), journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 attitude (strongly disagree–strongly agree), and behavior (never–always). the questionnaire consists of 40 items. the development and testing of the construct validity of this instrument were developed based on a grid built following the existing theoretical basis. the questionnaire was validated using an expert judgment approach and then distributed to respondents with a questionnaire sheet. the number of items on the nsei consists of 40 statements which, when tested, produces a cronbach alpha reliability coefficient value of 0.953. furthermore, the indicators for this variable are: knowledge (understanding of the environment, natural resource management, environmental damage, health, and ethics), attitude (maintaining cleanliness in the school environment and outside of school, managing water and energy, protecting the environmental life), and behavior (disposing and sorting waste, saving water and energy, and caring for the surrounding environment). data collection data were collected by distributing the 40-item nsei questionnaire. as there are three clusters in each group, the researchers received help from two members of the research team: rater 1 helped to share the questionnaire with grade 8, rater 2 helped to share the questionnaire with grade 9, and the researcher himself acted as rater 3 to share the questionnaire with grade 7.to ensure that the data collection was proper, the researchers worked in two weeks; the first week, the researchers and team collected data from the adiwiyata school, and in the second week from the nonadiwiyata school. after data collection was finished, the researchers and team administered the students’ responses on the questionnaire. respectively, the researcher scored students’ responses from grade 7 of the adiwiyata school and non-adiwiyata school; the first rater scored responses of grade 8 of the adiwiyata and non-adiwiyata schools, and rater 2 the responses of grade 9. after each grade had been scored, all responses and scores were crosschecked by three raters. further, three raters prepared the tables for further analysis using spss software. data analysis the data were analyzed using software release 29 of the spss program. first, descriptive statistics to see the demographic features were analyzed using rate percentage. in addition, to see the normality and homogeneity, the researcher used inferential statistics. finally, to test the hypothesis syah et al. 215 regarding the differences between adiwiyata programs and non-adiwiyata programs on students’ knowledge, attitudes, and behavior in the school environment, the researcher used t-test. findings description of students’ ecoliteration between adiwiyata-based and non-adiwiyata-based schools to analyze the condition of each student’s ecoliteration achievement in the sample schools, descriptive details were carried out. the condition of ecoliteration is analyzed based on knowledge, attitude, and behavior aspects. the results of the data collection in the sample show that the average level of students’ knowledge of the environment is high in adiwiyata-based schools. meanwhile, this condition is generally different in schools that are not based on adiwiyata. this data description is shown in table 2. table 2. recapitulation of student ecoliteration achievements criteria very high high middle low very low knowledge adiwiyata school 20 (50%) 16 (40%) 4 (10%) non-adiwiyata school 8 (20%) 18 (45%) 14 (35%) attitude adiwiyata school 29 (72.5%) 11 (27.5%) non-adiwiyata school 9 (22.5%) 20 (50%) 11 (27.5%) behavior adiwiyata school 8 (20%) 13 (32.5%) 14 (35%) 4 (10%) 1 (2.5%) non-adiwiyata school 4 (10%) 10 (25%) 17 (42.5%) 9 (22.5%) based on table 2 above, it is seen that students’ knowledge of the environment at adiwiyata-based schools is on average in the very high category, namely 50%, although on average, non-adiwiyatabased schools are in the high category, namely 45%. table 2 also shows that, on average, students’ attitudes toward the environment in adiwiyatabased schools are in the very high category, namely 72.5%, although on average, non-adiwiyatabased schools are in the high category, namely 50%.data exposure shows that, in general, schools that implement environmental programs in the form of adiwiyatahave higher ecoliteration values journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 in the attitude aspect. this attitude pattern is well developed as a direct impact of expanding students’ environmental insight and competence. the behaviors of students in both adiwiyata-based and non-adiwiyata-based schools are in the moderate category, which are 35% and 42.5%, respectively. as a form of expansion of knowledge and attitude, students show behavior related to ecoliteration. the implementation of the adiwiyata program also has an impact on the condition of student behavior, but in a more diverse proportion. in table 2, it can be seen that the schools with the adiwiyata program showed higher data variability, with the highest distribution at the moderate level. meanwhile, non-adiwiyata schools show a data set that leads to low-moderate. the difference between students’ knowledge and attitudes toward student behavior of adiwiyata schools based on the data obtained, there is a positive and significant relationship between the ability of ecoliteracy, namely environmental knowledge (correlation coefficient 0.438, significance 0.002, and determination coefficient 0.1918), and attitude (correlation coefficient 0.411, significance 0.004, and determination coefficient 0.1689), as well as isb (internal school behavior). the result means that there is an influence of environmental knowledge with 19.18% and attitude with 16.89% in adiwiyata-based schools that are individually influenced by isb. a closer examination shows a positive and significant effect between environmental knowledge and attitude with isb as well as a multiple correlation coefficient (r) 0.509, significance (α) 0.004, and coefficient of determination r square 0.2590. this means that there is an effect of environmental knowledge and environmental attitude together on isb of 25.90% in adiwiyatabased schools. the description of hypothesis testing 1 is shown in the following figure: figure 1. hypothesis testing 1 ek-adi ea-adi isb-adi 0.509 (0.004) 0.411 (0.004) 0.397 (0.06) 0.438 (0.002) syah et al. 217 notes: ek-adi: environmental knowledge adiwiyata ea-adi: environmental attitude adiwiyata isb-adi: internal school behavior adiwiyata based on the discovered data, there is a positive and significant relationship between the ability of ecoliteracy, namely environmental knowledge (correlation coefficient 0.423, significance 0.003, and coefficient of determination 0.1789), and attitude (correlation coefficient 0.415, significance 0.004, and coefficient of determination 0.1722), and esb (external school behavior). this result shows that there is an influence of environmental knowledge and attitude by 17.22% as well as 17.89%, respectively, individually toward esb in adiwiyata-based schools. a closer examination shows a positive and significant effect between environmental knowledge and attitude with esb with a multiple correlation coefficient (r) of 0.502, significance (α) 0.005, and coefficient of determination r square 0.2520. this means that in adiwiyata-based schools, there is an effect of environmental knowledge and attitude together on esb of 25.20%. the description of hypothesis testing2 is shown in the following figure: figure 2. hypothesis testing 2 notes: ek-adi: environmental knowledge adiwiyata ea-adi: environmental attitude adiwiyata esb-adi:external school behavior adiwiyata ek-adi ea-adi esb-adi 0.423 (0.003) 0.502 (0.005) 0.415 (0.004) 0.397 (0.06) journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 relationship between students’ knowledge and attitudes toward student behavior in nonadiwiyata schools based on the data, it was found that there was no positive and significant relationship between the ability of ecoliteracy, namely environmental knowledge (correlation coefficient 0.306 and significance 0.127), and attitude (correlation coefficient -0.186 and significance 0.125) with isb, which means that there is no influence of environmental knowledge and attitude individually on isb in non-adiwiyata-based schools. figure 3. hypothesis testing 3 notes: ek-non adi: environmental knowledge non-adiwiyata ea-non adi: environmental attitude non-adiwiyata isb-non adi:internal school behavior non-adiwiyata further testing together showed no positive and significant effect between environmental knowledge and attitude with isb with a multiple correlation coefficient (r) of 0.376, significance (α) 0.060. this means that environmental knowledge and attitude do not affect isb in nonadiwiyata-based schools. the description of hypothesis testing 3 is shown in figure 3. based on the discovered data, there is a positive and significant relationship between the ability of ecoliteracy, namely environmental knowledge (correlation coefficient 0.244 and significance 0.020), with esb, which means that there is an influence of environmental knowledge on esb in non-adiwiyata-based schools. furthermore, there is no significant relationship between the ability of ecoliteracy such as environmental attitude (correlation coefficient -0.088 and significance 0.295) with esb, which means that there is no effect of environmental attitude on esb in nonadiwiyata-based schools. ek-non adi ea-non adi isb-non adi 0.306 (0.127) 0.376 (0.060) -0.186 (0.125) 0.101 (0.267) syah et al. 219 figure 4. hypothesis testing 4 notes: ek-non adi: environmental knowledge non-adiwiyata ea-non adi: environmental attitude non-adiwiyata esb-non adi:external school behavior non-adiwiyata further testing together shows that there is a very low influence between environmental knowledge and attitude with esb with a multiple correlation coefficient (r) of 0.263, significance (α) 0.011, and coefficient of determination r square 0.0691. this means that there is an effect of environmental knowledge and attitude on esb of 6.91% in non-adiwiyata-based schools with very low criteria and which is neglected. the description of hypothesis testing 4 is shown in figure 4, and the exposure of hypothesis testing is described in the table 3. table 3. recapitulation of hypothesis testing results adiwiyata-based non-adiwiyata-based int. behavior ext. behavior int. behavior ext. behavior ecoliteration ek rxy 0.438 0.423 0.306 0.244 sig. 0.002 0.003 0.127 0.02 determ. 0.1918 0.1789 ea rxy 0.411 0.415 -0.186 -0.088 sig. 0.004 0.004 0.125 0.295 determ. 0.1689 0.1722 ek and ea in line r 0.509 0.502 0.376 0.263 sig. 0.004 0.005 0.06 0.011 determ. 0.259 0.252 0.0691 significant significant not significant not significant notes: ek: environmental knowledge ea: environmental attitude ek-non adi ea-non adi esb-non adi 0.244 (0.020) 0.263 (0.011) -0.088 (0.295) 0.101 (0.267) journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 discussion according to the results of the previous section, there is an influence between students’ knowledge and attitudes toward behavior both inside and outside of the adiwiyata-based school environment, and this is shown in the influence of each variable separately or together. different conditions are seen in schools that are not based on adiwiyata where students do not show good behavior toward the environment. the madrasah tsanawiyah negeri i pesisir selatan has implemented a school program that is environmentally cultured. furthermore, the implementation is supported by the achievements obtained by the school from the adiwiyataprogram and various other awards related to environmental schools such as clean, green, and healthy schools. many programs and activities have been developed related to plant conservation, ranging from green houses, family medicinal plants, and mini forests. therefore, planting and maintaining has become routine for students at mtsn i pesisir selatan, so this activity becomes a habit and needs to be performed outside the school environment. the habit of good behavior in maintaining and protecting the environment, which is performed continuously, affects a person’s character and attitude at any location. likewise, mtsn i pesisir selatan, as an environmentally cultured school that has implemented environmental protection and management programs, dramatically influences the formation of student behavior outside the school environment. the implementation of four adiwiyata components by schools are the criteria for the success of the adiwiyata program, namely environmentally friendly policies, implementation of environmental-based curriculum, participation-based activities, and environmentally friendly supporting infrastructure (desfandi & maryani, 2017; hollstein & smith, 2020; nurwidodo, amin, ibrohim, & sueb, 2020; irlansari & hardati, 2019). this is manifested in several interrelated roles that work together in schools, namely school leaders, educators, parents, the local school community, and students in particular. the commitment of the school leaders is also very influential on the formation of character and the environmentally friendly culture of the schools, because this condition is created through the provision of values, perceptions, habits, educational policies, and the behavior of the people in it, and is directly integrated with the environmental nature (biasutti & frate, 2017; desfandi & maryani, 2017; setiawati et al., 2020; varela-candamio et al., 2018). when students have the ability and understand the importance of protecting the environment and all its contents, it is said syah et al. 221 that these students have good ecoliteracy (adela et al., 2018; capra, 2007; capra et al., 2013; harmawati & ds, 2020; stone, 2017). ecoliteracy is not only to increase the knowledge of environmental issues but also has an understanding of the importance of global ecological awareness to create a balance between people’s needs and the earth’s ability to sustain them (kim et al., 2017; stone, 2017). the implementation of participation-based environmental activities, supported by environmentally friendly facilities and infrastructure, plays an essential role in creating environmentally friendly and cultured schools (alnajdawi, 2019). environmental attitude, behavior, and ethical values will take root and become a habit for students wherever they are, in the school environment, family, and community (hilmi et al., 2021; sigit et al., 2021). to achieve the purpose of law number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system, which is to shape the character and develop the potential of students to create to a knowledgeable, moral, creative, independent, and responsible generation, knowledge is a fundamental domain in shaping one’s behavior and actions (graveland, 2020). the result of several studies shows that behavior based on knowledge is the strongest. knowledge is a result of curiosity through sensory processes, especially in the eyes and ears of particular objects (de sousa et al., 2017; mouton-odum & golomb, 2021; pangalo, sapiun, ischak, goi, & hartati, 2020). furthermore, it is also the most crucial domain in shaping behavior (behrens et al., 2018; rhee & choi, 2017). a person’s knowledge is influenced by several factors, including education level, occupation, age, and environmental and socio-cultural factors (menardo, balboni, & cubelli, 2017; sovacool et al., 2018; zhang et al., 2020). knowledge is understanding obtained formally and informally through one’s experiences and learning outcomes, including fear (šūmane et al., 2018; toruntju, 2020; yurkofsky et al., 2019). the deeper the knowledge obtained, the wiser the student will be in perceiving something and making decisions. behavior-based knowledge is extended or continuous compared to behavior based on compulsion (freeman et al., 2018; melin et al., 2020; pan et al., 2017). the level of knowledge is determined based on formal and informal education, life experience, and information obtained from the mass media. knowledge is more of an objective recognition of particular objects or things (clark & watson, 2019; simeonova, 2018). in addition, it also comes from certain experiences that someone has obtained from formal and informal learning outcomes (toruntju, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 behavior is a person’s responses, actions, and reactions to stimuli that are studied and observed (donsu, 2019; kunde et al., 2018; van dessel et al., 2019). however, one factor that influences human behavior or society is knowledge (akram et al., 2020; donsu, 2019; yanti et al., 2020). therefore, a student’s behavior inside and outside the school is better and more focused when the student knows the educator or school. based on observations, students’ knowledge of environmental care still needs to be improved to maintain good and healthy environmental conditions that support the learning process. some students still consider that healthy environmental conditions do not build healthy thinking patterns. therefore, education is needed to improve students’ perceptions that are still inaccurate (aldemir, celik, & kaplan, 2018; tomlinson, 2017). also, professional education is needed to increase knowledge, change negative attitudes, and improve learning outcomes and appropriate behavior (aldemir et al., 2018; olum et al., 2020; tomlinson, 2017). according to the attitude-behavioral knowledge model theory, knowledge is an essential factor that influences behavior change, and individuals acquire knowledge and skills through the learning process (liu et al., 2016; saiednejad et al., 2018). thus, public knowledge still needs to be straightened out and negative community behavior corrected through educational activities. in the community, village health forums or the like play a role in implementing these activities. in the ecoliteracy aspect of knowledge, the results showed that the level of students’ ecoliteracy was in the medium category (abdulkarim et al., 2018). this is because not all study programs have learning related to the environment. therefore, environmental education is needed to increase ecoliteracy and essential aspects of environmental education (barnes, 2013; darmawan & dagamac, 2021). the results show that integrating the principle of sustainability in the curriculum increases the level of students’ ecoliteracy (bevins & wilkinson, 2009; martínez-rodríguez et al., 2018). meanwhile, the implementation of education related to the environment is essential to increase students’ ecoliteracy from knowledge. based on the results, it is determined that students’ knowledge and discipline attitudes influence student behavior. however, students are still under the supervision of teachers, so behavior outside the school environment without supervision becomes less optimal, especially without parental and community support (hu & wu, 2020; ömür, 2020; syah & edinov, 2019). syah et al. 223 conclusion in summary, this research shows a specific impact of implementing environmental awareness programs in the adiwiyata program on students’ ecoliteration condition. with the sustainable implementation of the adiwiyata program, students at the sample locations can implement environment-based activities, both in terms of knowledge, attitude, and behavior. in addition, adiwiyata’s success manifests the comprehensive application of an environment-based curriculum to the learning process. this application impacts students who care about the environment and realize the importance of preserving it. the research findings also show that the implementation of the adiwiyata program also has a significant impact on aspects of ecoliteration (knowledge, attitude, and behavior). in other words, this program is one of the school’s efforts under the supervision of an authorized environmental agency to increase students’ environmental awareness. this study emphasizes that novelty has been achieved in theoretical novelty, methodological novelty, and novelty in findings. the findings of this study show theoretical novelty in that ecoliteracy on knowledge, attitude, and behavior is indicated in this study as a new finding. the use of ecolitercy theories is new in this research. the methodological novelty is indicated by the use of the nsie questionnaire, devised by the researcher. the novelty of the findings is presented in terms of the relation and difference on ecoliteracy in terms of knowledge, attitude, and behavior on sustainable ecosystems. this study acknowledges the limitation of the small sample size. future research is suggested to apply a larger sample using an ex post facto design, or implementing a case study design using a qualitative approach whereby research samples can be increased in hundreds and quantitative and qualitative analyses can be implemented. references abdulkarim, a., ratmaningsih, n., & anggraini, d. n. (2018). developing civicpedia as a civic education e-learning media to improve students’ information literacy. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 45–61. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/287 adela, d., sukarno, s., & indriayu, m. (2018). integration of environmental education at the adiwiyata program recipient school in growing ecoliteracy of students. in international conference on teacher training and education 2018 (ictte 2018) (pp. 67–71). atlantis press. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 akram, t., lei, s., haider, m. j., & hussain, s. t. (2020). the impact of organizational justice on employee innovative work behavior: mediating role of knowledge sharing. journal of innovation & knowledge, 5(2), 117–129. aldemir, t., celik, b., & kaplan, g. (2018). a qualitative investigation of student perceptions of game elements in a gamified course. computers in human behavior, 78, 235–254. alnajdawi, a. (2019). exploring jordanian children’s perceptions of the characteristics of an ideal school and learning environment. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 201– 225. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1644 annan-diab, f., & molinari, c. (2017). interdisciplinarity: practical approach to advancing education for sustainability and for the sustainable development goals. the international journal of management education, 15(2), 73–83. balgopal, m. m., & wallace, a. m. (2009). decisions and dilemmas: using writing to learn activities to increase ecological literacy. the journal of environmental education, 40(3), 13– 26. barnes, j. (2013). awareness to action: the journey toward a deeper ecological literacy. the journal of sustainability education. 5(5), 1–5. behrens, t. e. j., muller, t. h., whittington, j. c. r., mark, s., baram, a. b., stachenfeld, k. l., & kurth-nelson, z. (2018). what is a cognitive map? organizing knowledge for flexible behavior. neuron, 100(2), 490–509. bevins, s., & wilkinson, n. (2009). sustainability across the curriculum. journal of education for sustainable development, 3(2), 221–225. biasutti, m., & frate, s. (2017). a validity and reliability study of the attitudes toward sustainable development scale. environmental education research, 23(2), 214–230. boutelier, s. (2019). limiting learning environments through domestication. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 45-55. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.4 capra, f. (2007). sustainable living, ecological literacy, and the breath of life. canadian journal of environmental education (cjee), 12(1), 9–18. capra, j. a., erwin, g. d., mckinsey, g., rubenstein, j. l. r., & pollard, k. s. (2013). many human accelerated regions are developmental enhancers. philosophical transactions of the royal society b: biological sciences, 368(1632), 20130025. casaló, l. v, & escario, j.-j. (2018). heterogeneity in the association between environmental attitudes and pro-environmental behavior: a multilevel regression approach. journal of cleaner production, 175, 155–163. cherdymova, e. i., ukolova, l. i., gribkova, o. v, kabkova, e. p., tararina, l. i., kurbanov, r. a., … kudrinskaya, i. v. (2018). projective techniques for student environmental attitudes https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.4 syah et al. 225 study. ekoloji, 27(106), 541–546. christensen, b. l. (2004). experimental methodology. allyn and bacon inc. clark, l. a., & watson, d. (2019). constructing validity: new developments in creating objective measuring instruments. psychological assessment, 31(12), 1412. conde, m. del c., & sánchez, j. s. (2010). the school curriculum and environmental education: a school environmental audit experience. international journal of environmental and science education, 5(4), 477–494. darmawan, m. d., & dagamac, n. h. (2021). situation of environmental education in senior high school programs in indonesia: perspectives from the teachers of palembang. interdisciplinary journal of environmental and science education, 17(3), e2241. daudi, s. s. (2008). environmental literacy: a system of best-fit for promoting environmental awareness in low literate communities. applied environmental education and communication, 7(3), 76–82. de sousa, l., richter, b., & nel, c. (2017). the effect of multimedia use on the teaching and learning of social sciences at tertiary level: a case study. yesterday and today, (17), 1–22. desfandi, m., & maryani, e. (2017). building ecoliteracy through adiwiyata program (study at adiwiyata school in banda aceh). the indonesian journal of geography, 49(1), 51. donohue, d. (2020). culture, cognition, and college: how do cultural values and theories of intelligence predict students’ intrinsic value for learning?. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 elmagrhi, m. h., ntim, c. g., elamer, a. a., & zhang, q. (2019). a study of environmental policies and regulations, governance structures, and environmental performance: the role of female directors. business strategy and the environment, 28(1), 206–220. fadlillah, u., ngabekti, s., & lisdiana, l. (2018). the adiwiyata school’s role in the development of character caring for the environment (a case study at the junior high school 6 tuban). journal of innovative science education, 7(1), 53–61. fatimawati, i. (2018). study of clean and healthy life behavior of elementary school students at schools applying adiwiyata program at state elementary school in prigen pasuruan. unej e-proceeding, 104–110. fernández, a., camargo, c., & do nascimento, m. s. (2019). technologies and environmental education: a beneficial relationship. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 1330. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.2 freeman, j., benito, k., herren, j., kemp, j., sung, j., georgiadis, c., … garcia, a. (2018). evidence base update of psychosocial treatments for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: evaluating, improving, and transporting what works. journal of clinical child & https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.2 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 adolescent psychology, 47(5), 669–698. geng, s., law, k. m. y., & niu, b. (2019). investigating self-directed learning and technology readiness in blending learning environment. international journal of educational technology in higher education, 16(1), 1–22. goleman, d., bennett, l., & barlow, z. (2012). ecoliterate: how educators are cultivating emotional, social, and ecological intelligence. john wiley & sons. graveland, l. i. t. (2020). a policy aim analysis of environmental awareness campaigns for urban greening in utrecht:the potential contribution of ecoliteracy. gunansyah, g., & zuhdi, u. (2021). sustainable development education practices in elementary schools. journal of education and learning (edulearn), 15(2), 178-187. harmawati, h., & ds, y. n. (2020). effectiveness of activities 3r (reuse, reduce, recycle) in improving the ecoliteracy of students in elementary school. in international conference on elementary education (vol. 2, pp. 1149–1156). hilmi, m. i., lutfiansyach, d. y., hufad, a., kamil, m., & wahyudin, u. (2021). eco-literacy. in first transnational webinar on adult and continuing education (traced 2020) (pp. 118–121). atlantis press. hollstein, m. s., & smith, g. a. (2020). civic environmentalism: integrating social studies and environmental education through curricular models. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 223–250. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1606 hu, b., & wu, w. (2020). parental support in education and social integration of migrant children in urban public schools in china. cities, 106, 102870. irlansari, a., & hardati, p. (2019). pelaksanaan program adiwiyata berdasarkan komponen berbasis lingkungan. edu geography, 7(3), 212–221. kavaz, t.., kizgut-eryilmaz, b.., polat, b.., amca-toklu, d.., & erbay, f. (2021). investigation of preschool children’s perceptions to protect the environment through drawings. theory and practice in child development, 1(1), 41–55. https://doi.org/10.46303/tpicd.2021.4 kim, g., vaswani, r. t., kang, w., nam, m., & lee, d. (2017). enhancing ecoliteracy through traditional ecological knowledge in proverbs. sustainability, 9(7), 1182. kunde, w., weller, l., & pfister, r. (2018). sociomotor action control. psychonomic bulletin & review, 25(3), 917–931. law, k. m. y., geng, s., & li, t. (2019). student enrollment, motivation and learning performance in a blended learning environment: the mediating effects of social, teaching, and cognitive presence. computers & education, 136, 1–12. lee, s.-k., & kim, n. (2017). environmental education in schools of korea: context, development syah et al. 227 and challenges. japanese journal of environmental education, 26(4), 4_7-14. legault, l., & pelletier, l. g. (2000). impact of an environmental education program on students’ and parents’ attitudes, motivation, and behaviours. canadian journal of behavioural science/revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 32(4), 243. liu, l., liu, y.-p., wang, j., an, l.-w., & jiao, j.-m. (2016). use of a knowledge-attitudebehaviour education programme for chinese adults undergoing maintenance haemodialysis: randomized controlled trial. journal of international medical research, 44(3), 557–568. mahendrartha, a., tobari, t., & tabula, r. v. (2020). adiwiyata-based school management in indonesia. journal of social work and science education, 1(1), 1–7. martin, p. (2008). teacher qualification guidelines, ecological literacy and outdoor education. journal of outdoor and environmental education, 12(2), 32–38. martínez-rodríguez, f. m., de los ángeles vilches norat, m., & fernández-herrería, a. (2018). challenging the neoliberal view of education: the center for ecoliteracy as a transformative educational practice. globalizations, 15(3), 422–436. mcbride, b. b., brewer, c. a., berkowitz, a. r., & borrie, w. t. (2013). environmental literacy, ecological literacy, ecoliteracy: what do we mean and how did we get here? ecosphere, 4(5), 1–20. meilinda, h., prayitno, b. a., & karyanto, p. (2017). student’s environmental literacy profile of adiwiyata green school in surakarta, indonesia. journal of education and learning, 11(3), 299–306. melin, k., skarphedinsson, g., thomsen, p. h., weidle, b., torp, n. c., valderhaug, r., … jensen, s. (2020). treatment gains are sustainable in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: three-year follow-up from the nordlots. journal of the american academy of child & adolescent psychiatry, 59(2), 244–253. menardo, e., balboni, g., & cubelli, r. (2017). environmental factors and teenagers’ personalities: the role of personal and familial socio-cultural level. behavioural brain research, 325, 181–187. monaghan, k., & curthoys, l. (2008). addressing barriers to ecological literacy. pathways: the ontario journal of outdoor education, 20(3), 12–16. morales, d., ruggiano, c., carter, c., pfeifer, k., & green, k. (2020). disrupting to sustain: teacher preparation through innovative teaching and learning practices. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 mouton-odum, s., & golomb, r. g. (2021). helping your child with sensory regulation: skills to manage the emotional and behavioral components of your child’s sensory processing challenges. new harbinger publications. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 nurbaeti, i., supriatna, n., & zulfikar, h. a. (2020, march). improvement of student ecoliteracy through contextual teaching and learning based on outdoor study in elementary social studies learning. in international conference on elementary education (vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 986-997). nurwidodo, n., amin, m., ibrohim, i., & sueb, s. (2020). the role of eco-school program (adiwiyata) towards environmental literacy of high school students. european journal of educational research, 9(3), 1089-1103. olum, r., chekwech, g., wekha, g., nassozi, d. r., & bongomin, f. (2020). coronavirus disease-2019: knowledge, attitude, and practices of health care workers at makerere university teaching hospitals, uganda. frontiers in public health, 8, 181. ömür, ç. (2020). relationships between students’ socioeconomic status, parental support, students’ hindering, teachers’ hindering and students’ literacy scores: pisa 2018. world journal of education, 10(4), 45–59. orr, d. w. (1992). ecological literacy: education and the transition to a postmodern world. suny press. owens, t. l. (2017). higher education in the sustainable development goals framework. european journal of education, 52(4), 414–420. palmberg, i., hofman-bergholm, m., jeronen, e., & yli-panula, e. (2017). systems thinking for understanding sustainability? nordic student teachers’ views on the relationship between species identification, biodiversity and sustainable development. education sciences, 7(3), 72. pan, s., wang, x., wei, y., zhang, x., gal, c., ren, g., … xia, l. (2017). cluster analysis for occupant-behavior based electricity load patterns in buildings: a case study in shanghai residences. in building simulation(vol. 10, pp. 889–898). springer. pangalo, p., sapiun, z., ischak, w. i., goi, m., & hartati, h. (2020). knowledge, attitude, and implementation of cold chain management in boalemo district, gorontalo, indonesia. journal of health policy and management, 5(2), 139–145. puk, t., & behm, d. (2003). the diluted curriculum: the role of government in developing ecologicalliteracy as the first imperative in ontario secondary schools. canadian journal of environmental education (cjee), 8(1), 217–234. rauschert, p., & byram, m. (2018). service learning and intercultural citizenship in foreignlanguage education. cambridge journal of education, 48(3), 353–369. rhee, y. w., & choi, j. n. (2017). knowledge management behavior and individual creativity: goal orientations as antecedents and in‐group social status as moderating contingency. journal of organizational behavior, 38(6), 813–832. saiednejad, z., mirbagher ajorpaz, n., & aghajani, m. (2018). application of empowerment program on self-efficacy of patients under hemodialysis: a clinical randomized controlled syah et al. 229 trial. critical care nursing, 11(3), 1–9. saputro, h. b., & widodo, h. (2018). making students carefully catering environment through adiwiyata program. in proceedings of the 3rd annual international seminar on transformative education and educational leadership (aisteel 2018), medan, indonesia. https://doi. org/10.2991/aisteel-18.2018 sari, e., koul, r., rochanah, s., arum, w., & muda, i. (2019). how could management of school environment improve organizational citizenship behaviors for the environment?(case study at schools for specifics purposes). journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 46– 73. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/601 setiawati, e., usmaedi, a. t. n., nuryati, a. t. m., sirjon, y., aprilyati, s., ruiyat, a. f., … hartuti, y. n. s. (2020). develop green behaviour through ecoliteracy for early children. systematic reviews in pharmacy, 11(11), 1551–1558. sigit, d. v., prastiwi, l., ristanto, r. h., & rifan, m. (2021). adiwiyata school in indonesia: a correlation between eco-literacy, environmental awareness, and academic ability with environmental problem-solving skill. journal of physics: conference series, 1796, 12068. simeonova, b. (2018). transactive memory systems and web 2.0 in knowledge sharing: a conceptual model based on activity theory and critical realism. information systems journal, 28(4), 592–611. sovacool, b. k., kester, j., noel, l., & de rubens, g. z. (2018). the demographics of decarbonizing transport: the influence of gender, education, occupation, age, and household size on electric mobility preferences in the nordic region. global environmental change, 52, 86–100. spínola, h. (2015). environmental literacy comparison between students taught in eco-schools and ordinary schools in the madeira island region of portugal. science education international, 26, 392–413. stone, m. k. (2017). ecoliteracy and schooling for sustainability. in earthed (pp. 35–47). springer. šūmane, s., kunda, i., knickel, k., strauss, a., tisenkopfs, t., des ios rios, i., … ashkenazy, a. (2018). local and farmers’ knowledge matters! how integrating informal and formal knowledge enhances sustainable and resilient agriculture. journal of rural studies, 59, 232– 241. syah, n., & edinov, s. (2019). the contributions of discipline and environmental knowledge on clean behavior of students in public elementary school 19 kampung baru pariaman, west sumatra. iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 314,12060. tomlinson, m. (2017). student perceptions of themselves as “consumers” of higher education. british journal of sociology of education, 38(4), 450–467. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 209-230 van dessel, p., hughes, s., & de houwer, j. (2019). how do actions influence attitudes? an inferential account of the impact of action performance on stimulus evaluation. personality and social psychology review, 23(3), 267–284. varela-candamio, l., novo-corti, i., & garcía-álvarez, m. t. (2018). the importance of environmental education in the determinants of green behavior: a meta-analysis approach. journal of cleaner production, 170, 1565–1578. warju, s. p. h., & soenarto, m. d. h. (2017). evaluating the implementation of green school (adiwiyata) program: evidence from indonesia. international journal of environmental and science education, 12(6), 1483-1501. wasino, n., & arsal, s. t. (2020). education of environmental awareness based on larung-sesaji ritual in coastal community of bluru village, sidoarjo sub-district, sidoarjo district. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200620.039 wasino, w., suharso, s., utomo, c., & shintasiwi, f. (2020). cultural ecoliteracy of social science education at junior high school in north java indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 11(4), 52–83. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1444 weardon, s., & chilko, d. (2004).statistics for research. john wiley & sons inc. wolff, l.-a., sjöblom, p., hofman-bergholm, m., & palmberg, i. (2017). high performance education fails in sustainability? a reflection on finnish primary teacher education. education sciences, 7(1), 32. yanti, b., mulyadi, e., wahiduddin, w., novika, r. g. h., arina, y. m. d., martani, n. s., & nawan, n. (2020). community knowledge, attitudes, and behavior towards social distancing policy as prevention transmission of covid-19 in indonesia. jurnal administrasi kesehatan indonesia, 8, 4–14. yurkofsky, m. m., blum-smith, s., & brennan, k. (2019). expanding outcomes: exploring varied conceptions of teacher learning in an online professional development experience. teaching and teacher education, 82, 1–13. zhang, m., zhou, m., tang, f., wang, y., nie, h., zhang, l., & you, g. (2020). knowledge, attitude, and practice regarding covid-19 among healthcare workers in henan, china. journal of hospital infection, 105(2), 183–187. zulfikar, h. a., supriatna, n., & nurbaeti, i. (2020). theoretical aspects of ecological intelligence development of students in elementary schools. in international conference on elementary education (vol. 2, pp. 803–813). https://dx.doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200620.039 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 261-281 intercultural education in the system of training future teachers marina achaeva 1, anetta daurova 2, nadezda pospelova 3, viacheslav borysov4 abstract modern society is characterized by multidirectional, complex interacting processes of unification, diversification, globalization and multiculturalism. these processes cause significant changes in the education system. one of them is multicultural education. the relevance of research on various aspects of multicultural education in modern russia has led to the emergence of multidimensional works. the multicultural orientation is reflected in the federal educational standards of general education, in the standards of vocational education for bachelors and masters of pedagogical and psychological specialties. the objective of this work is to identify and theoretically substantiate the pedagogical conditions for the effectiveness of the formation of cultural pluralism of young professionals working at schools of a new type. the solution of the stated goal and verification of the proposed assumptions were provided by a set of complementary methods: retrospective, systemic, interviewing, included observation, conversation, testing, questioning, modeling, statistical method etc. the source of empirical data for this study was the questionnaire of students, teachers of new type schools during the international school teachers festival in tatarstan, russian federation, teachers and students of the north caucasus state humanitariantechnological academy, karachayvo-cherkess state university after u.d. aliyev. as a result of the survey, the questionnaires were analyzed and problems encountered by young teachers were diagnosed. the authors of the article offer a number of recommendations for a more effective cross-cultural education for future bachelors, young english language specialists. special emphasis should be laid on the role of the pedagogical university in modern society, in the formation of competencies of future teachers and young specialists in the polyethnic region. polycultural education promotes harmonization of relations between representatives of different civilizations and cultures. the main directions of multicultural education are bilingual education, multicultural education, accompanied by measures against ethnocentrism. the presence of a multicultural environment allows stimulating the interest of learners in new knowledge and at the same time it offers different points of view on the world around us. key words: intercultural education; schools of a new type; cultural pluralism; units of small poetic genre; formation of competencies. 1 associate professor, of kazan federal university. elabuga institute, marinachaeva@mail.ru 2 associate professor, federal state budget educational institution of higher professional education "north caucasian state humanitarian and technological academy”, andaur@mail.ru 3 associate professor, of kazan federal university. elabuga institute, nad_posp@mail.ru 4 full professor, doctor of pedagogic sciences, professor of the department of social work, khortytsia national educational rehabilitation academy, zaponzhzhia, ukraine, borysow13@gmail.com mailto:marinachaeva@mail.ru mailto:andaur@mail.ru mailto:nad_posp@mail.ru mailto:borysow13@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281 introduction the pedagogical science of many countries defines the main goal and guiding principle of training for all subjects as "intercultural learning". it comes from the thought of that multiculturalism in europe is an enduring condition because we live now and will live in the future in the single educational informational space. awareness of this idea introduces significant changes in the activity of educational and higher educational institutions, stipulating intercultural re-orientation of educational subjects. learning a foreign language is a means of solving intercultural problems and questions. the learners are always eager to get acquainted with the culture that finds expression in this language (betti, 2011, banks, 2015, gadamer, 1989; hasan; georgeta, 2013). the urgency of increasing the effectiveness of multicultural education was reflected in federal normative and legal acts: the national doctrine of education in the russian federation until 2025 (the national doctrine, 2000), the concept of the national educational policy of the russian federation (the concept of the national educational policy of the russian federation, 2006), the concept of spiritual and moral development and education of the personality of a russian citizen (akhmetshin et al, 2017a; daniluk, kondakov, tishkov, 2009), the draft concept of multicultural education in russia (the draft concept, 2010), etc. the multicultural orientation is reflected in the federal educational standards of general education, in the standards of vocational education for bachelors and masters of pedagogical and psychological specialties. the new requirements set forth in the federal state educational standards presuppose not only the formation of educational and professional students’ qualities, but also the formation of personal qualities and abilities: patriotism, love of the motherland, respect for their people, their spiritual values and traditions, and at the same time respect and acceptance of other сultures, the ability to achieve mutual understanding, constructive dialogue and the ability to live in a multicultural world (federal educational standards,2012). pioneers of the ideas of multicultural education, of course, are schools of a new type. in recent years, in order to optimize the educational process, such schools began to appear more often. for example, alabuga international school ("three bears") is the first general educational institution of international level in the republic of tatarstan. the training is conducted under the british national curriculum. currently, alabuga international school is actively working on the transition to the international baccalaureate education program (shastina et al., 2018). the main achaeva et al. 263 goal of alabuga international school is the development and education of inquisitive, erudite and caring young people who will contribute to the creation of a better and more peaceful future through intercultural understanding and respect in the ever-changing modern world. there are such schools in kazan. the purpose of this work is to identify and theoretically and practically substantiate the pedagogical conditions for the effectiveness of formation of cultural pluralism in young professionals working at schools. in our opinion nursery rhymes, limericks, clerihews, i.e. the units of small poetic genre, are an effective way of formation of socially-cultural competences, a bright lingvocultural material in the process of intercultural education, a way of formation of cultural pluralism at such schools. small forms in the literature differ in form: a novella, an ode, an essay, a sketch, an etude; content: a parable, farce an epistle, an epigram, a sonnet, a stanza, a madrigal. small poetic forms of different peoples include: haiku, gazelle, rubai, a limerick; as well as folklore genres: a fairy tale, a song; small genres of folklore: a riddle, a proverb, a tongue-twister, chastushka (kravchuk, 2013). the purpose of this work is to identify and theoretically and practically substantiate the pedagogical conditions for the effective formation of cultural pluralism in young professionals working at schools and at schools of a new type. method research design the ideas of humanism and the humanization of education are supported by representatives of various branches of knowledge philosophers, culturologists, linguists, teachers and methodologists, who talk about the need to familiarize learners with the universal values of their readiness for a dialogue of cultures the theoreticallymethodological basis of this study were the works of bettleheim, (1976); brunvand, (1998); gapsalamov, (2016); klyuev, (2000); korotkikh, (2008); leiderman, (2010); maslova, (2001); pavlova, (2005); safonova, (2007, 2014); solovova, (2006); tomakhin, (1984); vereshchagin, (1990). in our opinion nursery rhymes, limericks, clerihews, i.e. the units of small poetic genre, are an effective way of formation of socially-cultural competences, a bright lingvocultural material in the process of intercultural education (akhmetshin et al, 2017b; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281 gabidullina et al., 2018; grahova & gapsalamov, 2014), a way of formation of cultural pluralism at such schools. small forms in the literature differ in form: a novella, an ode, an essay, a sketch, an etude; content: a parable, farce an epistle, an epigram, a sonnet, a stanza, a madrigal. small poetic forms of different peoples include: haiku, gazelle, rubai, a limerick; as well as folklore genres: a fairy tale, a song; small genres of folklore: a riddle, a proverb, a tongue-twister, chastushka (kravchuk, 2013). population and sample/study group/ participants a) the source of empirical data for this study was the questionnaire (survey) of teachers, young teachers of usual schools, of a new type schools during the vii, viii international school teachers festival in 2016, 2017 in elabuga, tatarstan, as well as teachers of the alabuga international school ("three bears"). 1000 respondents took part. b) during the psycholinguistic experiment (however, this survey could be called a technique in sociolinguistic research), in which more than two thousand teachers and students of the russian federation took part. respondents were students of the elabuga institute of kazan federal university (kfu), students of the north caucasus state humanitariantechnological academy, karachayvo -cherkess state university after u.d. aliyev, high school students from kazan, yelabuga, naberezhnye chelny, karachaevsk (2014-2018). data collection tools the solution of the stated goal and verification of the proposed assumptions were provided by a set of complementary methods: retrospective, systemic, interviewing, included observation, conversation, testing, questioning, modeling, psycholinguistic experiment (however, this survey could be called a technique in sociolinguistic research (magsumov, 2017; korableva et al., 2017, kurbanova et al., 2018; szydlowski, 2018; anisimova & sharafeeva, 2018; kilinc et al., 2018), analysis of scientific and methodological literature on the subject, method of continuous sampling, text search, method of semantization, descriptive method, method of contextual analysis, statistical method. one of the innovative elements to work with nursery rhymes, limericks, clerihews, is its semantization, a descriptive analysis. according to e. azimov, a. shchukin, semantization of vocabulary is the process of identifying lexical items. in the process of semantization of achaeva et al. 265 vocabulary the student needs to be reported the following information about the word (phrase) that allow you to use the word as a communication tool (azimov, shchukin, 2009). m. achaeva, n. pospelova, n. subbotina consider that semantization is the process of revealing the meaning of a word. the choice of the method of semantization in each individual case is determined by the nature of the word, the stage of instruction, and the level of training (pospelova et al., 2017). the relevance of the usage of semantization in modern russia has led to the emergence of multifaceted works of a generalizing nature, for example, thesaurus approach to the study of culturally-marked vocabulary (pospelova et al., 2016; 2017). data collection as a result of the questionnaire (1000 respondents), the questionnaires were analyzed and problems encountered by young teachers were diagnosed. such problems include: lack of work experience at schools of a new type, ignorance the structure and functioning of such schools in general, the problem (non-linguistic) of the relationship with parents-foreigners; poor knowledge of foreign children's literature, the lack of an effective methodology for the formation of intercultural competencies of students, the search for a bright authentic material in the process of intercultural education (korableva et al., 2018). the authors of the article, as already mentioned earlier, propose to work with units of a small poetic genre in the process of intercultural education, which in their opinion is an effective way of forming intercultural competences. in connection with this, a psycholinguistic experiment was conducted with students and teachers. the purpose of which was to reveal the knowledge of the forms of the small poetic genre and the desire and possibilities of the participants in the experiment to work with them. the results of the psycholinguistic experiment indicated that most of the respondents are not familiar with the clerihew. working with limericks is seen as an opportunity to memorize personalities, toponyms, increase the vocabulary, as phonetic exercises. data analysis consider the results obtained in the process of interviewing teachers during the vii, viii international school teachers festival in 2016, 2017 in elabuga. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281  organization of cooperation between students of different nationalities (in the "three bears" school children from england, turkey, bulgaria, germany, etc. study). difficulties in teaching a child who knows neither russian, nor english, nor the tatar language. 45% of the respondents;  lack of multicultural communication skills during the conduct of extra-curricular international events. difficulties in organizing events related to the traditions of englishspeaking countries days of st. andrew, david, patrick, etc. 30% of respondents;  relatively weak understanding of the functioning of schools of a new type, including international ones. 20% of the respondents;  methods of teaching a foreign language in a multilevel multicultural class in an elementary school. 70% of the respondents. in particular, the methodology of teaching mathematics, literature, speaking, writing in english. team teaching there is no practice of joint teaching (joint lesson 2 teachers + 2 classes). knowledge gaps in children's foreign literature. 60% of the respondents.  not a clear understanding of the international system of assessing knowledge (38%). for example, young specialists of this school are not sure about the parameters for determining the level of reading;  difficulties in communicating with parents of children (20%). many parents are foreign specialists of the free economic zone and the kama industrial hub, i.е. carriers of a different culture;  insufficient awareness of the education system abroad. 15% of respondents;  lack of sufficient experience in the implementation of inter-subject relations, meta-subject knowledge in the process of organizing the lesson, etc. the interesting results were received during the psycholinguistic experiment. as a questionnaire, the following questions were suggested (table 1): achaeva et al. 267 table 1 the questionnaire questions answers 1. do you know the forms of a small poetic genre? a) yes b) no c) not exactly 2. do you use these forms in the process of intercultural education? a) yes b) no c) very rarely 3. do you think that studying forms of a small poetic genre is an effective material for the formation of a sociocultural competence? a) yes b) no c) i do not know 4. do you know what a limerick is? a) yes b) no c) not exactly 5. are limercks, in your opinion, the source of linguistic and cultural knowledge? a) yes b) no c) i do not know 6. do you know what clerihew is? a) yes b) no c) not exactly 7. are clerihew, in your opinion, the source of linguistic and cultural knowledge? a) yes b) no c) i do not know 8. do you know what a nursery rhyme is? a) yes b) no c) not exactly 9. is it a source of lingvocultural information? a) yes b) no c) i do not know 10. do you think it is possible to use limericks, nursery rhymes, clerihew in the process of intercultural education in the long term? a) yes b) no c) i do not know one cannot but rejoice the position of teachers in relation to the use of forms of a small poetic genre in the process of learning english. of all schoolchildren, students, young professionals, teachers, 82% believe that such use is possible, they emphasize the authenticity of these forms. 42% of 82% indicate a lack of time in the lesson. 18% are not familiar with such forms of the small poetic genre. however, only 12% of teachers are familiar with clerihews. 28% have no idea about limerick. at the same time, out of 82% 52% believe that these forms of a small poetic journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281 genre can be used only for phonetic exercises and an increase in the stock of words. moreover, names are well remembered: anthroponyms, toponyms. 32% of respondents believe that limericks, clerihews and nursery rhymes are the source of explication of linguistic and cultural material, but they do not know how to work with such material. pleases in this number of nonoptimistic moments lack of a sense of protest to the introduction of this material, moreover, an interest in using in the presence of special methodological literature. findings it is necessary to work out recommendations for a more effective cross-cultural education for future bachelors, young english language specialists: advanced training courses, media courses, training and retraining courses for educators, practical-oriented seminars on gaming technologies, mentoring assistance etc. as a result of the analysis of empirical material, it is revealed that one of the ways of forming intercultural competencies requires the method of work with a bright authentic material. in this case we are talking about working with limericks, clerihews and nursery rhymes. these small units of poetic genre are means of explication of linguocultural, crosscultural material. presented below as an example of limericks, clerihews are equipped with pretextual, post-textual exercises; culturally-labeled vocabulary is semanticized. discussion special emphasis should be laid on the role of the pedagogical university in modern society, in the formation of competencies of future teachers and young specialists in the polyethnic region. polycultural education promotes harmonization of relations between representatives of different civilizations and cultures. the main directions of multicultural education are bilingual education, multicultural education, accompanied by measures against ethnocentrism. the presence of a multicultural environment allows stimulating the interest of learners in new knowledge and at the same time it offers different points of view on the world around us. we would like to offer the following recommendations:  modeling of the multicultural educational process in the pedagogical systems of preschool and general education in schools of a new type; achaeva et al. 269  media course, where educational and methodological materials are presented in the following areas: "culture of different countries: customs and traditions"; "culture and traditions of english-speaking countries"; "elabuga is a multicultural town"; "the republic of tatarstan is a polyethnic region"; "culture of the peoples of russia"; "ethnic holidays of different countries"; "the best museums / galleries of russia and the world"; "museums of your native town";  advanced training courses on the basis of elabuga branch of kfu (2017-2018). the program of courses is “modern approaches to teaching english at school”; the organization of an online seminar "intercultural communication for teachers" within the framework of an advanced training course;  training and retraining courses for educators in august 2017 during the international festival of teachers in yelabuga institute of kfu on the program “training and professional support of young teachers in the context of the implementation of new federal education standards”;  mentoring assistance, including training in the development of multicultural communication skills in the course of children's international events through museum, theatrical and tourist-local lore activities;  practical-oriented seminars on gaming technologies, on foresight methods and their effective use in the educational process; modeling of such events, for example, as excursions to “the city of professions”, “earth day”, preparation of a cultural school diary (from the experience of the international school kid space in kazan), implementation of “a week without walls” (from the experience of the international school "three bears"), staging fairy tales of the peoples of the world;  realization of the study of the experience of developed multicultural countries having traditions in multicultural education. next, consider the following units of the small poetic genre: limericks, nursery rhymes, clerihews and methods of working with them in the process of intercultural education of students. limerick is "a special group of works of verse absurdity of small forms: it is a separate literary genre (or what is called a solid form of poetry in poetics), because of its relative sovereignty and considered as a special rubric" (klyuev, 2000). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281 limerick n a type of short funny poem with five lines, the first two rhyming with the last, and the third with the fourth. they are very popular in britain and are sometimes quite rude (oxford guide, 2000). limerick as one of the varieties of the small poetic genre of english literature is fraught with attractiveness for both literary scholars and researchers of the linguistics of the text. great contribution to the study of this genre have made british and american linguists, literary scholars and folklorists 60s-70s of xx century, whose opinions and points of view, however, are often very contradictory, but are similar in the fact that such a small poetic form as a limerick deserves close attention and careful study (artemova, 2004). recently, the limerick is also of interest to domestic specialists. of particular interest are the ph.d. pavlova, who considered the intercultural movement of the limerick genre as a textual realization of the "comic" meaning. traditionally, interest causes ambiguity in understanding the origin of the name "limerick", as well as its "attractive anatomy"(pavlova, 2005). the classic definition of limerick is given in the encyclopedia of the world travel: "limerick is a popular form of a short humorous poem built on the playing up of nonsense, originated in the uk" (ermakova, 2017). despite the fact that in the future the focus of the research will be on the characteristic features of the limerick structure, we consider it important to dwell on the specifics of the content side of this variety of the small poetic genre of english literature. the famous soviet and russian literary critic n.l. leiderman calls "the content of" pure "limerick boring, and rhyme artificially sophisticated" (liederman, 2010). from his point of view, one can not but agree, because for a long time the limerick remained exclusively a form of folk art and was passed from mouth to mouth, being especially in demand in drinking establishments, hence the peculiarities of its content. limerick is one of the forms of english folklore poetry that reflects the features of thinking, the national character and the linguistic identity of english-speaking peoples, and also displays a holistic picture of their culture and way of life. limerick plays a unique role in the development of the poetry of english humor. the issue of the appearance of limericks does not have an unambiguous answer. however, it is known that they originated in england. limericks became popular in the beginning of the xix century, they were short rhymes, consisting of 5 lines. due to their small size, it was easy to remember and declare before the public. initially, limericks were considered a form of folklore, achaeva et al. 271 to the moment when edward lear did not publish his collection of absurd «a book of nonsense» in 1845, and then «more nonsense» in 1872. e. lear never called his poems limerick s. this name appeared after his death, he attributed them to the genre of absurdity and nonsense (graziosi, 2012). a characteristic feature of limerick, recognized by connoisseurs and researchers of this poetic form, is its structure. limericks is very easy to learn, because they have their own characteristics and even the requirements for writing them. e. lear often began the first line with the phrase "there was a ...", and in the fifth last line repeated some words from the first. rhythm or beat plays an important role, since originally limericrs were sung on irish feasts. rhyme 1,2 and 5-th and 3 and 4-th line, this forms a picture of rhyme aabba. there was an old man of dumbree, a who taught little owls to drink tea; a for he said, 'to eat mice b is not proper or nice, 'b that amiable man of dumbree. a the first two lines are closely related: they are the same in duration, similar in accent melodic structure, separated by a short pause. the third and fourth lines, also closely related, form the second couplet. the tempo of these lines is somewhat accelerated, and the descending melody is less calm. the last line, which contains the basic thought or absurdity of the limerick, although the longest, is pronounced at a fast pace and sounds deliberately dim. this reproduction enhances the humorous effect. limericks in this respect are similar to an anecdote, where the essence lies in the last phrase, which the narrator often seeks to pronounce prose with is weakly (klyuyev, 2000) the true limerick includes all the structural components of the plot, which are inherent in almost every literary work: exposure, plot development, climax and denouement. as a rule, it is in the final line that an unexpected, unusual and sometimes reckless turn of events is traced. the best limericks abound with exaggeration, onomatopoeia, idioms, alliteration, internal rhymes and other means of expression (baring-gould,1969). limericks not only acquainted with the magnificent verse samples of typically english "absurd" humor, but also are an excellent material for the formation of socio-cultural competence. the method of semantization and the descriptive method allows to analyze and conduct a linguistically-cultural interpretation of the text of the limerick. the results of this work can be presented to students as important linguistically cultural explanations that help one to understand the hidden implication and meaning of the verse. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281 among the total number of limericks, groups have been identified that include the names of towns, geographical locations in england, scotland, wales and northern ireland. so the first group includes the following limericks and explanations to them. there was a young lady of ryde, whose shoe-strings were seldom untied. she purchased some clogs, and some small spotted dogs, and frequently walked about ryde. notes and commentary ryde is the city on the north-eastern coast of the isle of wight, in the county of hampshire, england. the city is located in the english channel, which separates britain from france, at the site of a former village called la rye, which the french destroyed in the early 14th century. in 1800, it was still a small fishing village, but thanks to a ferry connection to the mainland, it quickly grew to an attractive resort town of ryde. it can be assumed that in the case that ryde was visited by quite a lot of people, trade was developed in the city, therefore, the heroine of limerick had the opportunity to easily purchase anything, including sabot shoes, which in the period from the 16th to the 18th century was popular in france among fashionable women of high society during rainy and slushy weather. in the uk, clogs appeared only in the 19th century and were common among rural residents. in addition, this young girl from limerick, having bought a couple of dalmatians, now has to walk often around the town of ryde, as this breed of dogs needs frequent walking. in our opinion, limericks, nursery rhymes, clerihews, which are “linguoculturems” (vorobjov, 1997), recreating the historical and cultural context, can serve as a successful material for intercultural education of future teachers. the word ‘clerihew’ came from the name of the author of this type of quatrain. edmund clerihew bentley (1875-1956) an english journalist who invented a form of comic verse with four lines, now called a clerihew after his middle name. clerihews are usually about well-known people [oxford guide]. clerihew includes four lines, the rhyming of which forms the following figure: aabb. in the poem there is no fixed meter, the rhythm often resembles a prosaic one, and there are no clear rules regarding the number of syllables and words in the lines (accordingly, there is no restriction achaeva et al. 273 on the length of the line). nevertheless, despite this deceptively arbitrary nature, the сlerihew has a very rigid structure [lear, 3]. the first line should always contain the name of the hero; this line either consists entirely of it, or ends with it. the second line rhymes with the first and contains a humorous characterization of the hero or event associated with the hero. the third and fourth lines create a comic effect. the heroes of the clerihew are famous people, and it is important to remember that these quatrains are by no means a satire and do not ridicule personal traits. according to the very precise remark of i. shama, the clerihews are very similar to the "semantic matryoshka" beautiful and rustic in appearance, but concealing a lot of secrets inside ("biographies in a capsule") (shama, 2010). consideration of a poetic work as a text makes it possible to look at the structural and semantic formation within the framework of a work separately from the whole, taking into account its semantic integrity. in turn, the text of the clerichew is, on the one hand, a formally decomposable unity of phrases in the structural plan, on the other a closed speech system in the semiotic sense. the units of the text of the clerichew act as stylistic units of speech, united by the plot perspective as a way of stylized disclosure of the author's thought on the surface level (sharapkina, 208-209). some nursery rhymes as, for example, ‘hush-a-bye, baby’ are popular lullabies for children. baby rhymes are often associated with games. for example, parents recite to their children ‘this little pig went to market’ and pull them by the toes, counting them to amuse; ‘each pig is a toe’; ‘humpty-dumpty’ is a riddle. humpty-dumpty is an oval-shaped figure who breaks after falling off a wall and cannot be mended-the answer to the riddle is ‘egg’. many nursery rhymes contain in their memory (the cumulative function of the language) customs, traditions related to life in the village, with pets. thus, the poem ‘baa, baa black sheep’ dates back to 1275, it describes the events in england associated with the tax on wool. to verify the linguistic and cultural material, we used such solid lexicographic reference books as eric donald hirsh ‘cultural literacy: what every american should know’; longman dictionary of language and culture, oxford guide to american and british culture etc. (hirsh, 1988; longman dictionary, 1994,2000; oxford guide, 2000) . journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281 here are some recommendations of the practical implementation of the nursery rhymes, clerihews in the training of the future teachers which are accompanied with illustrations and necessary notes. read the following clerihew. try to read it with as much humour as possible. john stuart mill by a mighty effort of will overcame his natural bonhomie and wrote “principles of political economy”. notes and commentary john stuart mill (1806-1873) an english philosopher whose ideals had a great influence on modern thought. his best-known works include “on liberty” (1859), in which he argued that people should be free to do what they want if this does not harm others. next, we show the exercises for working with these clerihews. the analysis of the text is supposed to be in the relationship between language and culture. the exercises form the reader, able to relate the language units of the text to its content, extract historically-cultural facts embodied in the word from the text. table 2 represents the exercise 1. table 2 1. match each word in column one, with a word or expression with the same or similar, meaning in column two 1. match each word in column one, with a word or expression with the same or similar, meaning in column two. 1) good-natured friendliness a) effort 2) a serious attempt, a try b) bonhomie 3) a scholar, thinker c) philosopher 4) the freedom to go where you want, do what you want, etc. d) economy 5) the operation of a country’s money supply, trade and industry e) liberty key: 1-b; 2-a; 3-c; 4-e; 5-d 2. answer the following questions: a) what is the clerihew about? b) where does each verse take place? c) underline the words in the poem which you consider to be rhythmical achaeva et al. 275 d) can you add anything else to what has been mentioned in the clerihew? (use the commentary) 3. discuss in the pairs: a) name other british philosophers b) speak about any russian philosophers look through the texts “george the first”. “george the third”: a) name the british kings and queens you know; b) try to read it with as much feeling as possible; c) say what every george of the royal dynasty is famous for. george the first was always reckoned vile but viler george the second; and what mortal ever heard any good for george the third? (walter landor) george the third ought never to have occurred one can only wonder at so grotesque a blunder (walter landor) notes and commentary george i, king of great britain and ireland (1714-1727). he was the first of the hanoverian* kings and came to britain from germany on the death of queen ann. he was not popular in britain, mainly because he did not learn to speak english. but parliament supported him because he was a protestant. george ii, king of great britain and ireland (1727-1760) was not very interested in the government of britain. he was, however, interested in the army and fought against the french. the reign of george iii. lasted from 1760 until his death in. he was probably the least popular of all the hanoverian georges.george iii certainly seems to have attracted his share of abuse, not least in respect of the american war of independence. he suffered from mental illness for some periods of his life. his son (george iv) was made prince regent. let’s draw attention to the following exercises. they form the reader, able to relate the language units of the text to its content, extract historically-cultural facts embodied in the word from the text. table 3 1. match each word in column one with a word or expression, with the same, or similar, meaning in column two journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281 1) strange or unnatural in a way that is funny or frightening a) blunder 2) a silly mistake b) grotesque 3) a body of persons appointed or elected as a law-makers of a country c) regent 4) a person who governs in place of a king or ruling queen who is ill, absent, or still a child d) vile 5) a very bad or unpleasant e) parliament 6) a member of any christian church which separated from the roman catholic church in the xvith century f) protestant key: 1-b, 2-a, 3-e, 4-c, 5-d, 6-f. 2. answer the following questions: a) what are these poems about? b) what is your reaction to the third poem? c) what is your attitude to the fourth clerihew? d) what is the noun from occur? e) what objectives go with (a) blunder? f) what is the infinitive of reckoned? 3. arrange the questions according to the logical order of the texts. answer these questions. 1) whose reign was the longest of any king of great britain? 2) what period is known as georgian? 3) who was the last british king to lead his men personally into a battle? 4) what kind of king was george i? why did parliament support him? 5) what george became popular with the british people? 6) who was the last british emperor? 7) what king is remembered for having been insane? 8) who was the first head of the commonwealth of nations? 4. learn the poems “george i”, “george iii” by heart. 5. using your background information and different sources speak about any russian popular (unpopular) tsar (tsarina). conclusion the main purpose of this article was to disclose the ways of forming and developing sociocultural competences on the basis of small units of the poetic genre at school. it was achaeva et al. 277 initially necessary to study the concepts and linguistic and cultural characteristics of limericks and clerichew as units of a small poetic genre. limericks are an authentic form of english poetry, as well as clerihew, have a rigid structure that can be easily recognized. they combine the features of thinking, the national character and the linguistic identity of english-speaking peoples, and also reflect a holistic picture of their culture and way of life. the text of the limericks and clerihew is saturated with culturally-labeled units, the decoding of which makes it possible to form the sociocultural competence of the students. the results of this work can be presented to the students as important linguistic and cultural explanations that make it possible to understand the hidden subtext and sense of the verse, as well as pay attention to the peculiarities of the geographical situation, traditions, historical facts, political foundations of the country of the studied language, thereby developing the sociocultural competence. similar comments can be given both in english and in russian, developed by the teacher independently or jointly with the students. the results of the research can be recommended for use by young specialists, english teachers at secondary schools, schools of a new type. the developed methodological recommendations make it possible to make the process of forming sociocultural competence more effective. references akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017a). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. akhmetshin, e. m., vasilev, v. l., puryaev, a. s., sharipov, r. r., & bochkareva, t. n. (2017b). exchange of property rights and control as a condition of the innovation process effectiveness at collaboration between university and enterprise. academy of strategic management journal, 16(specialissue1), 1-9. anisimova, t., & sharafeeva, l. (2018). methodical training of future teachers as a requirement of new standards. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 65-79. doi:10.17499/jsser.15222 artemova, o.e. (2004) linguistic and cultural specifics of the texts of the precedent genre "limerick": on the material of the english language: dissertation, ufa. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281 azimov, e.g & shchukin, a.n. (2009) new vocabulary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages). m.: ikar. banks, james. (1998). multiculturalism’s five dimensions. retrieved january 5, 2015, from http :// www.learner.org/workshops/socialstudies/pdf/session3/3.multiculturalism.pdf baring-gould, & william s. (1969) the lure of the limerick. an unhibited history. london: hartdavis. betti, emilio (2011) hermeneutics as a general methodology of the sciences of the spirit, m. bettleheim, b. (1976) the uses of enchantment. new york: knopf. brunvand, j.h. (1998) the study of american folklore. ny. daniluk, a.ya., kondakov, a.m., & tishkov, v.a. (2009) the concept of spiritual and moral development and education of the personality of a russian citizen. retrieved april 20, 2017, from http:// mineducscience rf documents /938 the draft concept of multicultural education in russia (2016). retrieved march 20, 2018, from http:// pnu.edu.ru/media/filer_public/1b/a5/1ba5a122-7f0f-4008-a73d... ermakova, i. (2017) limerik encyclopedia krugosvet [electronic resource]. retrieved april, 4, 2017 from http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/kultura_i_obrazovanie/literatura/limerik federal state educational standard of basic general education (5-9 classes) (2012) retrieved april, 20, 2017, from http:// mineducscience rf /documents /938 gabidullina, f., akhatova, z., karimova, i., glukhova, o., & zakirov, r. (2018). ethical discussions in the national literature as a form of moral education of the students. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 295-305. doi:10.17499/jsser.91257 gapsalamov, a. r. (2016). organization of management of ussr industry: branch and territorial models. journal of economics and economic education research, 17(specialissue2), 9095. grahova, s. i., & gapsalamov, a. r. (2014). the role of merchants in the life of the russian society: oral tradition case study. bylye gody, 33(3), 410-416. graziosi, m. (2012) there was an old derry down derry. edward lear's nonsense poetry and art. retrieved april 20, 2017 from: http://www.nonsenselit.org/lear/, 14 hirsch, e. and joseph, j. (1988). the dictionary of cultural literacy: what every american needs to know. boston: houghton mifflin company. http://www.learner.org/workshops/socialstudies/pdf/session3/3.multiculturalism.pdf http://минобрнауки.рф/%d0%b4%d0%be%d0%ba%d1%83%d0%bc%d0%b5%d0%bd%d1%82%d1%8b/938 http://минобрнауки.рф/%d0%b4%d0%be%d0%ba%d1%83%d0%bc%d0%b5%d0%bd%d1%82%d1%8b/938 http://www.nonsenselit.org/lear/ achaeva et al. 279 hasan, a. & georgeta, r. (2013). multicultural education: from theory to practice. cambridge: cambridge scholar publishing. korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017). research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. korableva, o. n., kalimullina, o. v., & mityakova, v. n. (2018). innovation activity data processing and aggregation based on ontological modelling. paper presented at the 2018 4th international conference on information management, icim 2018, 1-4. doi:10.1109/infoman.2018.8392659 kilinc, e., tarman, b., & aydin, h. (2018). examining turkish social studies teachers’ beliefs about barriers to technology integration. techtrends, 62(3), 221-223. doi:10.1007/s11528-018-0280-y kurbanova e., korableva o., kalimullina o. (2018). enhancing the effectiveness of asset management through development of license management system on the basis of sccm 2012 program by microsoft company. paper presented at the iceis 2018 proceedings of the 20th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 171-178 kravchuk, o. (2013) literature of small forms. minimalism, gulkevichi: microlit. retrieved april 20, 2017, from http://microlit.intentia.su/literatura_malykh_form_minimalism__olga_kravchuk.html klyuev, e.v. (2000) theory of the literature of the absurd: monograph. moscow: urao. korotkikh, yu. yu. (2008). intercultural competence of senior pupils as a result of the study of native and foreign-speaking cultures, bulletin of novgorod university, 48, 25-28. leiderman, n.l. (2010). theory of the genre: scientific publication. institute of philological research and educational strategies. ekaterinburg: the urals state pedagogical university. lear, edward. (1846). nonsense books. retrieved april 4, 2017, from: http://www.bencourtney.com/ebooks/lear/index1.html longman dictionary of english language & culture (1994). london: longman publishers. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 261-281 longman dictionary of english language & culture (2000). london: longman publishers. magsumov, t.a. (2017). family and school in russia at the beginning of the 20th century: attempts to bridge the gap. european journal of contemporary education. 6 (4): 837846. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 maslova, v.a. (2001) lingvoculturologia: textbook for students of higher schools. moscow: academy. the national doctrine of education in the russian federation until 2025 (2000). retrieved march 20, 2018, from https://rg.ru/2000/10/11/doktrina-dok.html oxford guide to british and american culture: for learners of english (2000). oxford: oxford university press. pavlova, n.v. (2005) intercultural movement of the limerick genre as a textual realization of the sense of comic. dissertation, tver, russia. pospelova, n.v., subbotina, n.s., pospelov, s.a., & achaeva, m.s. (2017). training of future bachelors of pedagogical education: a thesaurus approach, quid-investigation, 1 (special issue), 761-766. pospelova, n.v., subbotina, n.s., pospelov, s.a., & achaeva, m.s. (2017) semantization of realia as a method of improving the professional competence of teachers, quidinvestigacion ciencia y tecnologia, 1, 703-707. pospelova, n.v., subbotina, n.s., pospelov, s.a., & achaeva, m.s. (2017) language education: new moves, quid-investigacion ciencia y tecnologia, 28, 1801 -1805. pospelova, n.v., subbotina, n.s., pospelov, s.a., & achaeva, m.s. (2016). toponymic picture of scotland, journal of organizational culture communication and conflict, 20, special issue, 121-127. safonova, v.v. (2014). co-study of languages and cultures in the mirror of the world tendencies in the development of modern language education, language and culture, 4 (25), 123138. safonova, v. v. (2007). programs of educational institutions. english. school with in-depth study of foreign languages. (training program). moscow: astrel. solovova, e.n. (2006) methodology for teaching foreign languages: a basic course of lectures: a manual for students of pedagogical universities and teachers. moscow: education. https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 https://rg.ru/2000/10/11/doktrina-dok.html achaeva et al. 281 shama, i. (2010) the clerichew fascination and translation empathy. scientific vestnik kherson state university. 10. sharapkina, gp, & neronskaya, t.n. (2009). origin of the world limerick, foreign languages at school. methodical mosaic. 1, 208-209. shastina, e., shatunova, o., borodina, t., borisov, a., & maliy, y. (2018). the role of reading in the development of giftedness in the context of globalization and national identity. journal of social studies education research, 9(1), 158-167. doi:10.17499/jsser.97204 szydlowski, a.v. (2018). a printing and publishing type as object of intellectual property in election law of russia and u.s. severo-kavkazskij juridicheskij vestnik, (1), 56-63. the concept of the national educational policy of the russian federation (2006) (federal state educational standard of basic general education (5-9 classes). retrieved april 4, 2017, from http:// ministry of education science rf/ document/ 938 tomakhin, g.d. (1984). theoretical foundations of linguistics (on the material of lexical americanisms of the english language), dissertation, moscow, russia. vereshchagin, e.m. & kostomarov, e.g. (1990). language and culture: linguistic studies in teaching russian as a foreign language: methodological guidance. moscow, russia: russian language. vorobjov, v.v. (1997). linguoculturology (theory and methods): monograph. moscow: publishing house of the peoples friendship university of russia. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(1), 26-48 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 secondary social studies teachers’ time commitment when addressing the common core state standards joshua l kenna 1 & william benedict russell iii 2 abstract in 2010 the common core state standards (ccss) were officially released in america for mathematics and english language arts and soon adopted by 45 of the 50 states. however, within the english langue arts domain there were standards intended for secondary social studies teachers under the title, common core state standards for english language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects. moreover, the ccss have been advertised as being able to transform the way teachers teach. that is, social studies teachers are expected to alter their instructional practices as a direct result of the implementation of the ccss. therefore, this study examined, using a self-reporting survey, whether the instructional practices of secondary social studies teachers in one southeastern state had been “transformed” by the ccss. keywords: standards, social studies, testing, common core, teaching introduction in 2009 the common core state standards (ccss) initiative was launched and funded in the united states by the national governors association (nga), a bipartisan organization of the america’s 50 state governors, and the council of chief state school officers (ccsso), a nonpartisan, nonprofit organization of america’s state education officials, and from various business leaders including the gates foundation and the charles stewart mott foundation among others (anderson, 2010) in order to develop new college and career readiness standards in mathematics and english language arts (download the standards at http://www.corestandards.org). approximately a year later the ccss were officially released and soon adopted by 45 of the 50 states 1 (kenna & russell, 2014); however, within the english language arts domain there were standards intended for secondary social studies teachers under the title, common core state standards for english language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects (hereafter simply referred to as ccss). 1 assistant prof., texas tech university, joshua.kenna@ttu.edu 2 associate professor, the university of central florida, russell@ucf.edu joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 27 the framers of the ccss believe that students need to develop disciplinary literacy skills, such as those used in social studies, because the types of texts adults interact within college and a career are primarily informational in nature (shanahan & shanahan, 2008; national governors association center for best practices & council of chief state school officers [nga & ccsso], 2010). nonetheless, the creation of the ccss indicates, at least from the perspective of the nga and ccsso, that the majority of students are not receiving the necessary disciplinary literacy instruction from content teachers, including those in the social studies (kenna & russell, 2015; lee & spratley, 2014). moreover, the ccss have been advertised as being able to transform the way teachers teach (florida department of education, 2012; shanahan, 2013). thus, social studies teachers are expected to alter their instructional practices as a direct result of the ccss (kenna & russell, 2014). studies have suggested that there are a host of variables that influence one’s instructional practices such as: the subject and grade level being taught, one’s personal beliefs, high-stakes assessments associated with a course, one’s training/education, parental involvement, or administrator supervision (cimbricz, 2002; konzal, 1997; vogler, 2005). yet, this study is utilizing a theoretical framework that focuses on standards-based education reform and instructional practices. as a result of educational standards, teachers’ instructional practices are believed to be influenced in three distinct ways: (a) content selection, (b) time allotment, and (c) pedagogical methods of instruction (heafner, lipscomb, & fitchett; 2014). however, since the ccss do not include any content-based standards for social studies or any other subject matter, this study focused on examining the influence that the ccss have on social studies teachers’ pedagogical methods of instruction and time allotment. specifically, the purpose of this study was to examine the amount of time secondary social studies teachers devoted to meeting the ccss. furthermore, this study sought to discover if there were any differences between secondary social studies teachers’ based on the following independent variables: (a) whether they graduated from a teacher preparation program or not, (b) whether they received formal training on how to implement the ccss or not, and (c) their years of teaching experience. when framing this study in the literature it is important to point out the various pedagogical methods of instruction that have been identified, and to determine what pedagogical methods of instruction the ccss value. second, it is vital to review previous research that has been done on secondary social studies teachers and the pedagogical methods of instruction that journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 28 they have been using in recent years, including the time allotment devoted to them. third, it is essential to examine what influence standards and assessments have had on secondary social studies teachers’ pedagogical methods of instruction and how social studies teachers have conformed to such reforms. literature review pedagogical methods of instruction there are a plethora of pedagogical methods of instruction in which teachers can utilize; however, they are often categorized in one of two ways, teacher-centered or student/learnercentered, and each category has its advantages and disadvantages. in a teacher-centered pedagogy the “teacher assumes primary responsibility for the communication of knowledge to students” (mascolo, 2009, p. 4). as such, the teacher is the active agent necessary for learning to occur and thus students become passive learners. common pedagogical methods of instruction that are categorized as teacher-centered include: demonstration, direct instruction, lecture, and lecture-discussions. on the other hand, a student/learner-centered pedagogy is based upon the idea that the student is the active agent and the teacher functions as a facilitator assisting students who construct their own learning (ahn & class, 2011; mascolo, 2009). common pedagogical methods of instruction that are categorized as student/learner-centered include: case studies, cooperative learning, discussion, inquiry, role-play, simulations, and problem-based to name a few (russell, et al, 2014; turner, et al, 2013). educational standards, including the ccss, do not explicitly state what pedagogical method of instruction teachers should utilize. that is, educational standards do not inform teachers if they should use a lecture or an inquiry-based lesson in order to address a specific standard. however, there are certain kinds of methods that are favored based on the verbs being utilized in the standard. for example, if a standard utilizes a verb that requires students to demonstration lower-order thinking skills (e.g. identify, list, name) then a teacher-centered method of instruction, such as a lecture, may be deemed an appropriate method of instruction, because students should be able to learn the necessary skill or information in such a manner. in contrast, if a standard utilizes a verb that requires students to utilize higher-order thinking skills (e.g. analyze, synthesize, evaluate) then a student/learner-centered method, such as an inquirybased lesson, would be favored because students would be the active agent utilizing those skills. joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 29 this is not to suggest that a student/learner-centered method of instruction would not suffice to meet lower-order thinking skills. when examining the ccss it is clear to see, based on the large number of higher-order thinking verbs, that student/learner-centered methods of instruction are favored over teachercentered methods of instruction. additionally, the ccss supports the use of a framework of inquiry-based learning, as opposed to a reliance on direct instruction, as it promotes and fosters independent learners (nga & ccsso, 2010). in fact, for secondary social studies teachers, the ccss focuses on the skill acquisition and cognitive process associated with disciplinary literacy. shanahan and shanahan (2008) contend that improving the disciplinary literacy of secondary students is at the heart of the ccss, and conley (2011) states that: the ideal result of [the ccss] implementation will be to move classroom teaching away from a focus on worksheets, drill-and-memorize activities, and elaborate test-coaching programs, and toward an engaging, challenging curriculum that supports content acquisition through a range of instructional modes and techniques, including many that develop student cognitive strategies (p. 18). furthermore, florida’s department of education (2012) stated in a newsletter to parents that the “[common core state standards] will impact the way children are taught, how they learn, and how they will be assessed” (p. 1). educational officials in florida suggested that children will be taught with a greater amount of cooperative learning, an increase in the amount of reading and writing they do, a more defined focus on the integration of technology, and an emphasis to have the standards overlap and intertwine between subject areas; including social studies (florida department of education, 2012). florida officials contextualized the environment in which social studies educators are teaching by adopting the ccss, providing professional development for teachers, and implementing a new state assessment that aligns with the ccss 2 (yi, 2013; solochek, 2014). however, secondary social studies educators are still expected to teach their content and prepare their students for an end-of-course exam 3 (florida department of education, 2015). secondary social studies teachers’ pedagogical methods of instruction although, the ccss may favor student/learner-centered methods of instruction social studies instruction, has long been dominated by teacher-centered methods of instruction and journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 30 “…continues to be driven by an overriding emphasis on information coverage…resulting in a fragmented approach to teaching that privileges the acquisition of facts over in-depth study” (caron, 2005, p. 51). the dominance is undoubtedly attributed to the large amount of content secondary social studies teachers feel they must teach versus the amount of time they are provided to teach that information. thus, many teachers have succumbed to relying on the teacher-centered methods of instruction as a means of dealing with the depth versus breadth debate (parker et al., 2011; saye & social studies inquiry research collaborative [ssirc], 2013; vogler 2002; 2005; vogler & virtue, 2007). additionally, many social studies educators rely heavily on textbooks, which promote fact-driven instruction but often neglect skill acquisition (caron, 2005; levstick, 2008; misco & patterson, 2009; russell & waters, 2010). in fact, beck and eno (2012) state that “textbook readings, lectures, and the memorization of textbooks” (p. 70-71) are the primary pedagogical activities in the social studies profession. they go on to state that there is a “significant gap” (p. 73) between the methods of instruction that social studies teachers use and the methods of instruction emphasized by research, which has primarily focused on student/leaner-centered methods of instruction (barton & levstik, 2003; saye & brush, 2006). furthermore, beck and eno (2012) assert that “…student-centered learning, particularly in the form of inquiry, leads to a much deeper, authentic understanding of social studies issues [and content]” (p. 84). in 2010, russell sought to determine if social studies teachers had or were in the process of transforming their teaching practices in order to help their students compete in a 21 st century global marketplace. after surveying the “frequency with which teachers used various instructional methods and practices when teaching social studies content” (p. 67), he concluded that the dominate forms of instruction being utilized in the 21 st century, by secondary social studies educators, were still the teacher-centered methods of teaching (i.e. lecture, homework from textbooks, and seatwork). in fact, 90% of the social studies teachers russell surveyed “[illustrate] a solid favoritism for teaching using the lecture method” more than half the time (p. 68). furthermore, russell states that the results “are troubling” (p. 68) and “continue to demonstrate that teachers are more inclined to encourage passive learning than engaged, active learning” (p. 70). according to leming, ellington, and schug’s (2006) national study, social studies teachers rated student/learner-centered methods of instruction as their preferred method of joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 31 instruction but the survey also indicated that “…whole class teacher presentation/discussion…” (p. 324) was the most dominate instructional form used. while other scholars have concluded that inquiry-based instruction in social studies classrooms is a rarity (nystrand, gamoran, & carbonara, 1998; van hover & yeager; 2003; vansledright, 1996). although social studies teachers’ prefer student/learner-centered methods of instruction, such as inquiry-based lessons, the reality is teacher-centered methods of instruction dominate the social studies classroom often because teachers feel a need to “cover” all the material with which their students will be assessed. influence of standards and assessment on instructional practices therefore, “the impact of high-stakes tests…on teachers' instructional practices is a very relevant concern…” (vogler, 2005, p. 19). there is a certain degree of clarity about the existence of a clear relationship between the standards-based educational reform movement; with the unified curriculum, rigorous standards, and high-stakes assessments; and the instructional practices of teachers, regardless of the content (barksdale-ladd & thomas, 2000; vogler, 2008; 2005). high-stakes testing has actually encumbered the efforts to reform teachers’ instructional practices. as secondary social studies teachers are just as reliant today, if not more so, on utilizing teacher-centered instructional practices than in years prior to high-stakes testing (fischer, boi, & pribesh, 2011), because high-stakes assessments “tend to focus on [the standards] that are easiest to test” (chudowsky & pelligrino, 2003, p. 78), which is namely low level, factual information (horn, 2006). high-stakes assessments then have fueled teachers, including those in social studies, to help students pass a required examination, despite their personal beliefs regarding what constitutes student success (stern, 2005; vogler, 2005; vogler & virtue, 2007; segall, 2003; 2006; yeager & van hover, 2006). in vogler’s 2005 study, 96% of the respondents stated that their instructional practices were influenced by their "interest in helping…students attain test scores that will allow them to graduate high school" (p. 23). while, 94% stated that their instructional practices were also influenced by their "interest in helping [their] school improve high school graduation examination scores” (p.23). social studies teachers’ instructional practices then are unlikely to be altered without evidence that such teaching will positively impact student performance on high-stakes assessments (saye & ssirc, 2013). to phrase it another way, social studies teachers will more likely alter their instructional practices to address journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 32 rigorous standards, such as the ccss, if the high-stakes assessments students take align to those standards. methodology a survey research design was implemented and the selection procedure for this study was designed to parallel the methods outlined by creswell (2005). the national center for educational statistics (nces), which maintains a large database of publicly-funded schools from across america, was utilized to randomly select 134 publicly-funded schools (67 middle schools and 67 high schools) from florida, using a numbering chart that corresponded to an alphabetical list retrieved from the nces website. each school’s website was accessed in order to obtain the email addresses of the social studies instructors. in total, 737 secondary social studies teachers’ emails were obtained. in order to acquire the highest return rate possible the tailored design method (dillman, smyth, & christian, 2009) was utilized, and 75 social studies instructors completed the questionnaire (~10% return rate). instrument the questionnaire consisted of 30 line items, which utilized a five-scale continuous interval that were designed to correspond to the 20 common core state standards for english language arts and literacy in history/social studies. where one indicates “very little of the time/never” and five indicates “almost all of the time/always”. the focus of the questionnaire was not set on asking what amount of time they spend on specific instructional methods (e.g. lecturing, group work, note taking, etc…). rather, the goal was to uncover the amount of time they spend trying to meet the ccss. for example, the first question reads, “when i teach social studies, i have students read and comprehend complex texts” (see appendix a for the complete survey). there are several instructional methods a teacher can utilize to accomplish such a task but rather then guess the amount of time for each instructional strategy that was devoted to reading complex texts the questionnaire gets straight to the point. therefore, when a teacher answers the question, “about half the time” it indicates that they believe that they are attempting to meet the standard about half the time, regardless of what strategy or strategies they end up utilizing on a regular basis. a pilot study was utilized to test the instrument’s reliability and validity, which reported a crohnbach alpha of .943. the total mean score was calculated to determine if there were any statistically significant differences based on the independent variables. a high total mean score joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 33 indicates that secondary social studies teachers believe that the instructional practices they utilize meet the demands set forth by the ccss. furthermore, the questionnaire collected demographics and descriptive statistics, which were completed anonymously. data analysis a t-test was utilized to test the null hypotheses associated with the first two research questions as only two groups’ (i.e. graduates vs. non-graduates and trainees vs. non-trainees) mean scores were being compared. an anova was utilized to test the null hypotheses associated with the last research as three groups’ mean scores were being compared. statistical significance was set at .05. limitations despite the efforts to reduce the limitations of this study, it is evident that a larger or smaller sample size could have produced different results. a greater return rate could have also altered the results. additionally, the questionnaire relied on self-reported data; although, the participants completed the questionnaire anonymously; providing them no reason to misrepresent the data concerning their instructional practices, some participants’ responses may not provide an accurate depiction of the frequency in which they utilize certain instructional methods or the correct implementation of certain instructional methods. additionally, some participants may have consulted resources but again the anonymity of the questionnaire should have suggested that sources were not necessary. moreover, some participants may teach multiple subjects including non-social studies courses, which may have affected their responses. finally, a significant limitation to the study could be the teachers’ lack of knowledge concerning the common core state standards for english language arts and literacy in history/social studies. although, the ccss had been out for three years at the time the participants received the questionnaire, many teachers had not received adequate training and therefore may of lacked the necessary knowledge to complete the survey as accurately as possible. results descriptive statistics the results of the questionnaire revealed that secondary social studies teachers believe their pedagogical methods of instruction meet the ccss a little more than “half the time”, based on the total mean score (m = 3.4). a line-by-line analysis revealed that there were nine standards journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 34 secondary social studies teachers reported meeting “less than half the time” (see table 1). while, there were six standards they reported meeting “more than half the time” (see table 2). table 1. instructional practices used less than half the time analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of a text relate to each other. m=2.9 analyze how specific word choices shape meaning or tone in a text. m=2.9 integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse formats and media. m=2.9 analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics. m=2.9 utilize valid reasoning and relevant evidence when writing to support or deny claims found in a text. m=2.5 write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events. m=2.7 use technology to produce and publish writing. m=2.9 conduct short research projects. m=2.8 conduct more sustained research projects. m=2.3 note: 1 = very little of the time/never, 2 = less than half the time, 3 = half the time, 4 = more than half the time, and 5 = most of the time/always table 2. instructional practices used more than half the time read and comprehend complex texts. m=4.0 make logical inferences from a text m=4.1 determine central ideas or themes of a text m=4.1 summarize the key supporting details and ideas of a text m=4.2 interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text. m=4.1 read closely to determine what the text says. m=4.1 note: 1 = very little of the time/never, 2 = less than half the time, 3 = half the time, 4 = more than half the time, and 5 = most of the time/always joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 35 additionally, approximately 10% of the participants reported that they were “not familiar” with the ccss, while about 90% said they were either “somewhat or very familiar” with the ccss. moreover, roughly 41% of the participants reported that they had received no professional development with regards to implementing the ccss. lastly, approximately 30% of the participants were able to correctly identify the proper number of anchor standards (i.e. 20) within the common core state standards for english language arts and literacy in history/social studies. a crosstab analysis, between the participants’ familiarity with the ccss and their estimation of how many standards there are, revealed that about 35% of those who were “very familiar” with the ccss knew the correct number of standards, while roughly 30% and 14% of those who were “somewhat familiar” and “not familiar” with the ccss knew the correct number of standards respectively. in addition, 65% of those who were “very familiar” attended two or more professional development sessions as compared to 20% for those who were “not familiar” and 32% for those who were “somewhat familiar”. a correlation efficient was used to examine the relationship between secondary social studies teachers’ self-reported familiarity with the ccss and the number of professional development sessions they attended. a moderate positive correlation was calculated between the two groups (r = 0.47, p < .01), which indicates that secondary social studies teachers who attend more classes about the ccss would report a strong familiarly with the ccss. inferential statistics a t-test revealed that there was no statistically significant differences based on whether secondary social studies teachers graduated from a teacher preparation or not (t = -0.41, df = 73, p > .05). although, teachers who graduated from a teacher preparation program had a slightly higher total mean (m = 3.5) compared to those who did not graduate (m = 3.4). additionally, a ttest revealed that there was no statistically significant differences based on whether secondary social studies teachers received any formal training on the ccss or not (t = -1.23, df = 73, p > .05). yet, those who did receive training had a slightly higher total mean (m = 3.6) than those who did not receive training (m = 3.3). finally, an anova showed that again there was no statistically significant difference based on secondary social studies teachers’ years of teaching experience (f = 0.01, df = 2, p > .05). furthermore, the total means of the three groups (i.e. 0-4 years, 5-9 years, and 10+ years) were the same at 3.4. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 36 the list of independent variables was expanded to include the two variables, (a) the number of professional development sessions attended and (b) self-reported familiarity with the ccss; as a moderate relationship was found between the two. an anova revealed that there was no statistically significance difference based the number of professional development sessions attended (f = 0.92, df = 4, p > .05) yet, an anova discovered that there was a statistically significance difference based on secondary social studies teachers’ familiarity with the ccss (f = 3.96, df = 2, p < .05). a post hoc analysis showed that secondary social studies teachers who reported being “very familiar” with the ccss (m = 3.8, sd = .95) believe they use pedagogical methods of instruction that met the ccss significantly more than teachers who reported being “not familiar with the ccss” (m = 2.9, sd = .63). while teachers who were “somewhat familiar” with the ccss had a total mean of 3.4. discussion the findings provide several valuable insights. first, they suggest that the majority of secondary social studies teachers feel as if they are utilizing pedagogical methods of instruction to meet the ccss, at least half of the time. second, the findings indicate that perhaps secondary social studies teachers were utilizing the pedagogical methods of instructions that meet the ccss prior to the implementation of the actual ccss; which leads one to question whether secondary social studies teachers feel ccss are even necessary. finally, the findings point to the fact that either more or better training has to be made available to teachers in order to increase the frequency with which they utilize pedagogical methods of instruction to meet the ccss in secondary social studies classrooms. meeting the ccss it’s interesting that the participants feel they are meeting the ccss (at least half the time) when about 70% of the participants did not correctly identify the number of anchor standards they must reference. additionally, roughly 41% of the participants reported that they had not received any training about the ccss. one can infer then that the majority of the participants have not or are not interacting with the ccss. moreover, there was no significant difference found between those who attended four or more training sessions versus those who did not attended a training session. at first, one might point to the lack of effectiveness of professional developments offered by school districts but perhaps the fault lies with teachers and their desire not to know, especially when coupled with their already busy schedules. furthermore, the joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 37 findings lead one to question whether secondary social studies teachers believe there is a correlation between the teaching of their content and the implementation of the ccss, even after attending professional development sessions. prior training despite the new focus on literacy standards in the ccss the idea of having content teachers teach literacy skills is not new. in fact, districts from across america have invested vast amounts of resources (i.e. time and money) into the improvement of content area literacy instruction (valli & stout, 2004). in addition, teacher preparation programs have long required pre-service teachers to take content area reading courses (moje, 1996; o’brien & stewart, 1990; simonson, 1995). perhaps, then teachers, as a result of prior trainings, feel they are already utilizing the pedagogical methods of instructions preferred by the ccss. although this is not in the scope of the study, the results may indicate at least to some degree, that the effort to implement content area literacy is paying off. the findings may also suggest that the investment to incorporate content area literacy has not fully accrued, as the pedagogical methods of secondary social studies teachers are not meeting the ccss enough (i.e. social studies are only meeting the ccss a little more than half the time). finally, the fact that the majority of secondary social studies teachers are already utilizing pedagogical methods of instruction that meet the ccss, a little more than half the time, with little to no training on how to implement the ccss leads one to question whether secondary social studies teachers even believe ccss are necessary. does the adoption and implementation of the ccss; at least to some degree, belittle the teaching profession? many educators feel that good teachers have already been meeting the ccss but now they have to cut through more bureaucratic red tape to prove it. thus, perhaps the unfamiliarity with the ccss is a silent resistance to change. professional development once more, 65% of the secondary social studies teachers who reported that they were “very familiar” with the ccss could not correctly identify the number of anchor standards required of them to reference; and this may be a sign of several points. first, this may point to the fact that there are not enough professional development sessions, about the ccss, being offered to secondary social studies teachers, and quite possibly to teachers in general. second, this may indicate that the professional development sessions that are provided are not effective; journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 38 this is even more apparent given the fact that no significant difference was discovered between those who received no training and those who received much training. finally, this could speak to secondary social studies teachers’ interest and support of the ccss. as they perhaps do not value the ccss reform and thus they do not care enough to either attend voluntary professional development sessions or, if forced to attend a session, do not put in the amount of focus and attention necessary to properly learn about the ccss. therefore, school districts may not only benefit from offering more professional development sessions to teachers but they may benefit to emphasize the value of the ccss in the teachers’ day-to-day duties. of course, addressing such an issue is easier said than done, as the instructors in charge of the professional development sessions may also have begrudgingly assimilated the ccss. moreover, there is no doubt that there is a contingence of teachers who believe that the ccss, and perhaps all previous standards-based educational reform movements, devalue their decision making ability as teachers and professionals; thus making it difficult for school districts to properly train them. finally, it should come as a no shock that those who feel familiar with the standards tend to utilize pedagogical methods of instruction that meet the ccss more frequently than those who are not familiar. nonetheless, how can there be a positive correlation between ones’ self-reported familiarity with the ccss and the number of training sessions they attend but no correlation between the number of training sessions one attends and the frequency in which they feel their pedagogical methods of instruction meets the ccss? this signifies that in order to feel “very familiar” with the ccss one must not only attend several professional development sessions but they must also have some confounding variable or variables, at which this questionnaire did not uncover. perhaps secondary social studies teachers who are “very familiar” with the ccss hold a high value towards the ccss and this may also speak to their willingness to attend so many professional development sessions. conclusion the literature suggests that there are several factors that influence teachers’ instructional practices (cimbricz, 2002; konzal, 1997; vogler, 2005). when it concerns standards-based educational reform movements, like the ccss, the influence is primarily focused on three areas (a) content selection, (b) time allotment, and (c) pedagogical methods of instruction (heafner, lipscomb, & fitchett; 2014). yet, the ccss has been billed as being able to transform the way joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 39 teachers teach. for secondary social studies teachers and all teachers for that matter, the ccss offer up no new content standards and thus this study focused on answering the question, how much time does a secondary social studies teachers devote their pedagogical methods of instruction to meeting the ccss? participants were asked to quantify the time they spend engaging students with the instruction favored by the ccss such as, “when i teach social studies, i have students assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text”. furthermore, the total mean scores were analyzed to determine if there were any differences based on three independent variables: (a) whether participants graduated from a teacher preparation program or not, (b) whether participants received any training about the ccss or not, and (c) participants years of teaching experience. the analysis of the data found no significant difference in the total mean scores based on the independent variables. participants believed their pedagogical methods of instruction met the ccss with equal frequency; yet, the study found that the majority of the participants could not correctly identify the number of anchor standards they must reference (i.e. 20). upon further exploration of the data there was a significant difference in the total mean score found based on participants reported familiarity with the ccss. specifically, participants who felt “very familiar” with the ccss believed that the pedagogical methods they utilized meet the ccss more often than participants who were “not familiar”. the findings of this research study warranted several discussion points; namely, as it concerned ‘what’ teachers were doing with regards to what they believed about their pedagogical methods of instruction. specifically, the data revealed that secondary social studies teachers felt as if they were utilizing the pedagogical methods of instruction preferred by the ccss a little more than half the time (m = 3.4). the results come as no surprise though, as any professional would believe they are competent in their field. however, once explored deeper, the data exposed a particularly troubling issue, which was that a high percentage of secondary social studies teachers were unfamiliar with the ccss. additionally, the data did not seem to align with previous studies, which suggested that secondary social studies teachers’ instructional practices were dominated by teacher-centered methods of instruction (leming et al, 2006; russell, 2010). the discrepancy between how a teacher wants to teach and how a teacher actually teaches is not simply an american problem but one that stretches across boundaries. additionally, high-stakes tests are not an essential ingredient, though; it may be a quickening agent. teachers have an journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 40 ideology that pits the long-term success of students in the center of their decision-making; yet, those decisions are often overridden due to more pragmatic and pressing issues (i.e. passing the class, passing the test, etc…), and this is a fundamental issue all educators. notes 1. the authors understand that minnesota only adopted the ela standards; while an additional twelve states have introduced legislation to repeal the standards, including oklahoma and indiana, which have officially opted out (markell & perdue, 2014; turner, 2014). 2. at the time the survey was sent to teachers florida was part of the parcc consortium but has since opted out and adopted a new state assessment titled florida standards assessment (yi, 2013; solochek, 2014). florida also made some revision to the ccss and renamed them florida standards (mcgrory, 2014). 3. in florida, the only end-of-course exams social studies teachers are responsible for include 11 th grade american history and 7 th grade civics (florida department of education, 2015). joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 41 appendix a q: when i teach social studies, i utilize pedagogical methods of instruction that require students to… 1. read and comprehend complex texts. m=4.0 2. make logical inferences from a text m=4.1 3. cite specific textual evidence when writing to support conclusions drawn from a text. m=3.2 4. determine central ideas or themes of a text m=4.1 5. summarize the key supporting details and ideas of a text m=4.2 6. analyze how and why individuals, events, or ideas develop and interact over the course of a text. m=3.9 7. interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text. m=4.1 8. analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of a text relate to each other. m=2.9 9. analyze how specific word choices shape meaning or tone in a text. m=2.9 10. assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text. m=3.1 11. integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse formats and media. m=2.9 12. delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text. m=3.4 13. analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics. m=2.9 14. read closely to determine what the text says. m=4.1 15. utilize valid reasoning and relevant evidence when writing to support or deny claims found in a text. m=2.5 16. write informative or explanatory texts. m=3.5 17. w write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events. m=2.7 18. produce clear and coherent writing in which are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. m=3.6 19. develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning. m=3.5 20. use technology to produce and publish writing. m=2.9 21. use technology to interact and collaborate with others. m=3.5 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 42 22. conduct short research projects. m=2.8 23. conduct more sustained research projects. m=2.3 24. gather relevant information from print sources. m=3.5 25. gather relevant information from digital sources. m=3.4 26. assess the credibility and accuracy of their sources. m=3.2 27. integrate information while avoiding plagiarism. m=3.6 28. draw evidence from literary texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. m=3.3 29. write routinely over shorter periods of time. m=3.7 30. write routinely over extended periods time. m=3.0 total mean score m=3.4 joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 43 references ahn, r. & class, m. (2011). student-centered pedagogy: co-construction of knowledge through student-generated midterm exams. international journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 23(2), 269-281. anderson, n. (2010, march 10). common set of school standards to be proposed; achievement is chief goal governors, state chiefs develop blueprint. the washington post. retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2010/03/10/ar2010031000024.html?hpid%3dtopnews&sub=ar barksdale-ladd, m. a., & thomas, k. f. (2000). what's at stake in high-stakes testing: teachers and parents speak out. journal of teacher education, 57(3), 384-397. barton, k., & levstik, l. (2003). why don’t more history teachers engage students in interpretation? social education, 67, 358–361. beck, d. & eno, j. (2012). signature pedagogy: a literature review of social studies and technology research. computers in the schools, 29:70–94 caron, e. j. (2005). what leads to the fall of a great empire? using central questions to design issues-based history units. social studies, 96(2), 51. chudowsky, n., & pellegrino, j. w. (2003). large-scale assessments that support learning: what will it take? theory into practice, 42, 75–83. cimbricz, s. (2002). state-mandated testing and teachers’ beliefs and practice educational policy analysis archives, 10(2). retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/281 conley, d. (2011). building on the common core. educational leadership, (68)6, 16-20. creswell, j. (2005) educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. upper saddle river, nj: pearson education, inc. dillman, d. a., smyth, j. d., & christian, l. m. (2009). internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: the tailored-design method. hoboken, nj: wiley & sons. education week. 2006. quality counts, january 5. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/10/ar2010031000024.html?hpid%3dtopnews&sub=ar http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/10/ar2010031000024.html?hpid%3dtopnews&sub=ar journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 44 fischer, c., boi, l., & pribesh, s. (2011). an investigation of higher-order thinking skills in smaller learning community social studies classrooms. american secondary education, 39(2), 5–26. florida department of education. (2012, september). common core and the classroom: what can i expect for my child in the classroom? just for parents, (1)3, 1-3. retrieved from http://www.fldoe.org/newsletter/justforparents/2012/jfp_september_newsletter.pdf florida department of education. (2015). end-of-course (eoc) assessments. retrieved from http://www.fldoe.org/accountability/assessments/k-12-student-assessment/end-of-courseeoc-assessments/ heafner, t. l., lipscomb, g. b., & fitchett, p. g. (2014). instructional practices of elementary social studies teachers in north and south carolina. journal of social studies research, 38(1), 15-31. horn, c. (2006). the technical realities of measuring history. in s. g. grant (ed.), measuring history: cases of state-level testing across the united states (pp.105-132). greenwich, ct: information age. kenna, j. l. & russell, w. (2014). implications of common core state standards on the social studies. the clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues, and ideas, 87(2), 75-82. kenna, j. l. & russell, w. (2015). how did we get here? common core and the history of standards in social studies education. in t. turner, j. clabough, & w. coles (eds). getting at the core of common core standards with social studies (5-24). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. konzal, j.l. (1997, march). attitudes: how parental attitudes may influence classroom instructional practices. paper session presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, chicago, il. lee, c. d. & spratley, a. (2010). reading in the disciplines: the challenges of adolescent literacy. new york, ny: carnegie corporation of new york. leming, j. s., ellington, l., & schug, m. (2006). the state of social studies: a national random survey of elementary and middle school social studies teachers. social education, 70(5), 322-327). joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 45 levstik, l.s. (2008). what happens in social studies classrooms? research on k-12 social studies practice. in l. s. levstik & c. a. tyson (eds.) handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 50-62). new york: routledge. markell, j. & perdue, s. (2014, february 10). common core isn’t a government conspiracy. bloomburg business. retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-0210/common-core-isn-t-a-government-conspiracy mascolo, m. f. (2009). beyond student-centered and teacher-centered pedagogy: teaching and learning as guided participation. pedagogy and the human sciences, 1(1), 3-27. mcgrory, k. (2014, january 19). renaming ‘common core’ standards does little to end florida’s education debate. tampa bay times. retrieved from http://www.tampabay.com/news/education/k12/renaming-common-core-standards-doeslittle-to-end-floridas-education-debate/2161811. misco, t. & patterson, n. (2009). an old fad of great promise: reverse chronology history teaching in social studies classes. journal of social studies research, (33)1, 71-90. moje, e. b. (1996) “i teach students, not subjects”: teacher–student relationships as contexts for secondary literacy. reading research quarterly, 31, 172–195. national commission on excellence in education (ncee). 1983. a nation at risk: the imperative for educational reform. retrieved from http://datacenter.spps.org/uploads/sotw_a_nation_at_risk_1983.pdf nga & ccsso. (2010). common core state standards (english language arts). washington d.c. retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/articles/9-nga-and-common core state standardso-comment-on-common core state standardsi-governance-suggestions nystrand, m., gamoran, a., & carbonara, w. (1998). towards an ecology of learning: the case of classroom discourse and its effects on writing in high school english and social studies. albany, ny: national research center on english learning and achievement. o’brien, d. g., & stewart, r. a. (1990). preservice teachers’ perspectives on why every teacher is not a teacher of reading: a qualitative analysis. journal of reading behavior, 22, 101– 129. parker, w., mosborg, s., bransford, j., vye, n., wilkerson, j., & abbot, r. (2011). rethinking advanced high school coursework: tackling the depth/breadth tension in the ap us government and politics course. journal of curriculum studies, 43(4), 533-559. http://www.tampabay.com/news/education/k12/renaming-common-core-standards-does-little-to-end-floridas-education-debate/2161811 http://www.tampabay.com/news/education/k12/renaming-common-core-standards-does-little-to-end-floridas-education-debate/2161811 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 46 russell, w. (2009). social studies, the lost curriculum: a research study of elementary teachers and the forces impacting the time spent on social studies. curriculum and teaching, 24(2), 75-86. russell, w. (2010). teaching social studies in the 21st century: a research study of secondary social studies teacher’s instructional methods and practices. action in teacher education, 32(1), 65-72. russell, w. & waters, s. (2010). instructional methods for teaching social studies: a survey of what middle school students’ like and dislike about social studies instruction. the journal for the liberal arts and sciences, 14(2), 7-14. russell, w., waters, s., turner, t. (2014). essentials of middle and secondary social studies. new york, ny: routledge. saye, j. w. & brush, t. (2006). comparing teachers’ strategies for supporting student inquiry in a problem-based multimedia-enhanced learning environment. theory & research in social education, 34(2), 183–212. saye, j. w. & ssirc. (2013). authentic pedagogy: its presence in social studies classrooms and relationship to student performance on state-mandated tests. theory and research in social education, 41(1), 89-132. segall, a. (2003). teachers' perceptions of the impact of state-mandated standardized testing: the michigan educational assessment program (meap) as a case study of consequences. theory and research in social education, 31(3), 287-325. segall, a. (2006). teaching in the age of accountability: measuring history or measuring up to it? in s. g. grant (ed.), measuring history: cases of state-level testing across the united states (pp.105-132). greenwich, ct: information age. shanahan, t. (2013). letting the text take center stage: how the common core state standards will transform english language arts instruction. american educator, 4-11. retrieved from http://www.aft.org/pdfs/americaneducator/fall2013/shanahan.pdf shanahan, t., & shanahan, c. (2008). teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: rethinking content-area literacy. harvard educational review, 78, 40-59. simonson, s. d. (1995). a historical review of content area reading instruction. reading psychology, 16, 99–147. joshua l. kenna & william benedict russell iii 47 solochek, j. s. (2014, june 30). florida unveils new but unfinished test to replace the fcat. tampa bay times. retrieved from http://www.tampabay.com/news/education/testing/florida-unveils-a-new-test-to-replacethe-fcat/2186630. stern, b. s. (2005). debunking the myth: the social studies and rigor. international journal of social education, 20(1), 52-60. sullivan, p., yeager, m., chudowsky, n., kober, n., o’brien, e., & gayler, k. (2005). state high school exit exams: states try harder, but gaps persist. new york: center on educational policy. turner, c. (2014, december 30). common core repeal, the day after. npr ed. retrieved from http://www.npr.org/blogs/ed/2014/12/30/371654882/common-core-repeal-the-day-after turner, t., russell, w., & waters, s. (2013). essentials of elementary social studies. new york, ny: routledge. valli, l. & stout, m. (2004). continuing professional development for social studies teachers. in s. adler (ed.), critical issues in social studies teacher education (pp.165-188). greenwich, ct: information age. van hover, s., & yeager, e. a. (2003). making students better people? a case study of a beginning history teacher. international social studies forum, 3, 219–232. vansledright, b. (1996). closing the gap between school and disciplinary history: historian as high school teacher. in j. brophy (ed.), advances in research on teaching (vol. 6, pp. 257–289). greeenwich, ct: jai. vogler, k. e. (2002). the impact of high-stakes, state-mandated student performance assessment on teachers’ instructional practices. education, 123(1), 39–55. vogler, k. e. (2005). impact of a high school graduation examination on social studies teachers' instructional practices. journal of social studies research, 29(2), 19-33. vogler, k. e. (2008). comparing the impact of accountability examinations on mississippi and tennessee social studies teachers’ instructional practices. educational assessment, 13, 132. vogler, k. e., & virtue, d. (2007). “just the facts, ma'am”: teaching social studies in the era of standards and high-stakes testing. the social studies, 98(2), 54-58. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 26-48 48 walker, t. (2012) in standardized testing era, civic education getting left behind. nea today. retrieved from http://neatoday.org/2012/10/17/in-standardized-testing-era-civic education-getting-left-behind/ yeager, e. w. & van hover, s. (2006). virginia vs. florida: two beginning history teachers’ perceptions of the influence of high-stakes tests on their instructional decision-making. social studies research and practice, 1(3), 340-358. yi, k. (2013, september 23). gov. scott wants state to withdraw from parcc. sun sentinel. retrieved from http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2013-09-23/news/sfl-gov-scottannounces-decision-to-withdraw-from-parcc-20130923_1_education-summit-corestandards-education-system. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 274-294 managing school based on character building in the context of religious school culture (case in indonesia) arita marini 1 , desy safitri 2 & iskandar muda 3 abstract this study aimed to present a model for religious character building in religious school culture. this model can improve student religious character by providing worship facilities, religious ceremonies and religious symbols. the sample group consisted of 450 students representing grades 4-6 from 5 elementary schools in jakarta, indonesia. the data were analysed using the structural equation model (sem). based on the statistical analyzed, the most important finding of the study was that character education in religious school culture, through the provision of worship facilities, religious ceremonies and religious symbols, had predictive effects on student religious character described by obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religions, the practice of religious tolerance towards others and living in harmony with other religions. model of improving student religious character should be broadly researched not only with religious character building but also with other factors. this study can address the spiritual needs of students through the model of research results. keywords: character education, religious school culture, student religious character, religious ceremonies, religious symbols. introduction character building in indonesia needs to be handled seriously due to globalization era influences. this condition demands that indonesia adapt selectively without losing its national identity with its pancasila ideology. curriculum 2013 for elementary schools in indonesia from the ministry of education and culture minister no. 57 in 2014 has characteristics related to the developmental equity of spiritual, social, affective, cognitive and psychomotor aspects of education. the first core competency of curriculum 2013 for elementary schools as a spiritual foundation is a spiritual attitude, which is described as obedience to religious teaching, responsibility as god’s creatures and faithful and noble. however, the management of many elementary schools generally focuses on the cognitive aspect of education. measurement of educational success is not only seen in 1 dr., faculty of education, universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia. aritamarini@unj.ac.id 2 dr., faculty of education, universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia. desysafitri@unj.ac.id 3 dr., faculty of economics and business, universitas sumatera utara, indonesia. corresponding author : iskandar1@usu.ac.id mailto:aritamarini@unj.ac.id mailto:desysafitri@unj.ac.id mailto:desysafitri@unj.ac.id marini et al. cognitive aspects but also in attitudinal aspects. basic education in indonesia has to serve as the foundation for student personality formation concerning student character. primary school age is a critical age to shape personal character. failure of moral cultivation in elementary school students will cause problems in the future. character education can be conducted through culture, rules, regulations, events and ceremonies to provide supportive examples of good habits for students (izfanna and hisyam, 2012). character education can be integrated into courses, such as classroom discipline (lickona, 2012). positive student characters can be developed through the educational process as part of the regular evaluation system by observation (hokanson and karlson, 2013). character education has a positive effect on student character (ahmed, 2016; izfanna and hisyam, 2012; hokanson and karlson, 2013; kim, 2015; gusnardi et al., 2016) and character education could be a high priority focus in teacher preparation during the accreditation process (jones, ryan & bohlin, 2012). however, most studies have examined general aspects of character building programmers. this study focused on character education in religious culture and its impacts on student religious character. national recapitulation during the 2017/2018 academic year according to basic education data from the ministry of education and culture on 6 may 2018 showed that 148,856 elementary schools, 1,480,710 teachers, 25,395,436 students, 117,314 educational staff and 1,114,408 learning groups were present in indonesia. furthermore, there were 1,537 state and 914 private elementary schools, 10,747 male and 27,903 female teachers, 420,539 male and 392,327 female students, 2,130 male and 1,536 female educational staff and 29,116 learning groups in the dki jakarta province. additionally, there were 176 state and 197 private elementary schools in the north jakarta region, 352 state and 179 private elementary schools in the south jakarta region, 445 state and 197 private elementary schools in the east jakarta region, 360 state and 241 private elementary schools in the west jakarta region and 190 state and 100 private elementary schools in the central jakarta region. the quality of elementary schools in indonesia is determined by national accreditation. according to national ministry of education regulation no. 11 (2009), the accreditation level of elementary schools consists of eight standards (content, process, graduate competency, educator and educational staff, infrastructure, management, financing and evaluation standards). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 the national ministry of education regulation no. 11 (2009) defined some criteria for those standards. content standards are targeted to the curriculum, syllabus, competency standards, basic competencies, indicators, study load and time allocation. process standards use criteria regarding the lesson plan, learning process, thematic approach and supervision of the learning process. educator and educational staff standards use criteria regarding minimum teacher academic qualifications, teacher adherence to the material taught, teacher pedagogical competencies, teacher personality competencies, teacher communication skills, teacher health statuses, minimum principal academic qualifications, principal teaching experiences, principal personality competencies, principal managerial skills, principal entrepreneurship skills, principal teamwork skills, principal supervision skills, minimum administration staff academic qualifications, hiring the right person for the administrative staff, minimum librarian academic qualifications and availability of specific services. the management standards are related to the school vision, mission, goals, planning, standard operating procedures, organizational structure, job descriptions, activities, curriculum development, educator and educational staff management, infrastructure management, educational financing management, a conducive learning situation, community involvement, supervision programmers, self-evaluation, performance evaluation, accreditation preparation, principal task requirements and management information systems. the financing system criteria are related to the budget, work plan, cost of educator and educational staff development, working capital, incentive payments, procurement, photocopies, re-registration, cross programmer, financial decision-making, efficient financial management, financial management standard operating procedures, accounting and accountability reports (yahya et al., 2017; sari et al., 2018). the evaluation standards are related to evaluation criteria, techniques, guidance, instruments, learning difficulty diagnosis, availability of feedback, follow-up, student learning achievement reports, moral evaluation as a part of the final score, student personality evaluations, final score determinations, educational reports, student learning achievement reports, student graduation determination, graduation criteria and new student acceptance requirements. student character has been evaluated using graduate competency and evaluation standards. in the graduate competency standards, character evaluation is related to the students’ obedience to social regulation, nationalism, cleanliness and healthy habits, obedience to the teachings of religion, respects for others and teamwork. character evaluation in the evaluation standards related to moral evaluations as a part of the final score and student personality evaluations. however, evaluation of marini et al. school quality leading to the accreditation level is not optimal, because visitations to elementary schools are limited to approximately two days. the accreditation of the kelapa gading timur 03 state elementary school in the north jakarta region is excellent, with 26 teachers, 293 male and 318 female students, 21 learning groups, curriculum 2013 and wide area network access. the tebet timur 15 state elementary school in the south jakarta region has not been accredited and has 14 teachers, 130 male and 122 female students, 8 learning groups, curriculum 2013 and wide area network access. the muhammadiyah 24 private elementary school in the north jakarta region has not been accredited and has 10 teachers, 120 male and 98 female students, 6 learning groups, curriculum 2013 and no wide area network access. the pinangsia 06 state elementary school in the west jakarta region has not been accredited and has 8 teachers, 113 male and 99 female students, 6 learning groups, the school level curriculum (ktsp curriculum) and wide area network access. the karisma islamic elementary school in central jakarta has not been accredited and has 8 teachers, 113 male and 99 female students, 6 learning groups, the ktsp curriculum and wide area network access. the problem of this research is to find out whether the variables of character education in religious school culture, through provision of worship facilities, religious ceremonies, and religious symbols, have predictive effects on student religious character described by obedience in carrying out the teachings of one's religions, the practice of religious tolerance towards others, and living in harmony with other religions? literature review gordon allport's trait theory of personality allport et al., (1967) state that value can be interpreted as a thought (idea) or concept about what is considered important for someone in his life. in addition, the truth of a value also does not require empirical evidence, but is more related to appreciation and what is desired or not desired, liked or not liked by someone. values are important for learning organizational behavior because values lay the foundation for understanding attitudes and motivation and influence our perception. individuals enter an organization with previously conceived ideas about what is "supposed" and "not supposed". of course these ideas are not value-free. religious culture which is part of organizational culture strongly emphasizes the role of value. even value is the foundation in realizing religious culture. without a solid value, a religious culture https://psychologenie.com/understanding-gordon-allports-trait-theory-of-personality journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 will not be formed. the value used for the basis of realizing religious culture is religious value. but before entering the discussion of religious values the author will discuss in general the types of values to lead to a more specific discussion of religious values. character education a thematic approach was used for character education at schools through storytelling, discussion, group work and other aspects of school activities (revell, 2002). character values from storytelling were discussed in class. character education was not part of the curriculum but was included in some types of specific activities. fahmy, bachtiar, rahim and malik (2015) noted that the implementation of character education in religious values occurred through attitudes and behaviors regarding the tendency to be obedient to the teachings of one’s religion, tolerant of others and live harmoniously with other religions. marini (2017) defined the character values in religious school culture in relation to facilities and opportunities for worship, praying together, religious mottos and songs displayed at the school, religious activities, such as slaughtering qurban on idul adha day, the drive of infaq culture to give money to destitute people, wearing moslem uniforms every friday and the inclusion of religious boarding schools to improve religious faith, morals and worship. another study by izfanna & hisyam (2012) stated that the method used to implement character education at darunnajah islamic boarding school (a religious institution) was dependent on knowledge, conditional methods and practices. educating character in terms of knowledge was applied through the formal subjects of akhlaq content, islamic theology, qur’an, hadith, fiqh, mahfuzhat, muthala’ah and ushuluddin. jones, ryan and bohlin (2012) found that character education did not receive a high priority in the teacher education curriculum. their study stated that character education was part of the mission in most private institutions but not in public institutions. however, meidl & meidl (2013) reported that character education was included in the curricula and was part of the school mission statements manifested in school culture in a catholic school, a quaker school and a public school. cubukcu (2012) noted that hidden curricula through social and cultural activities improved the character education process, specifically the quality of interpersonal communication between students, including respect, equality, helpfulness, trust and honesty. marini et al. furkan (2014) stated that character building in school culture was manifested in caring, cleanliness, beauty and tidiness, religious service obedience, conformity to the rules, mutual respect, politeness, family-like relationships, honesty and responsibility, togetherness, tidy document filing and educational infrastructure and stakeholders’ participation and involvement. oktarina, widiyanto and soekardi (2015) noted that character education was applied in the classroom, school culture and extracurricular activities, such as the pramuka (scout). the character was taught during the learning process as part of the lessons. character values were integrated into school culture through activities such as lining up before entering the classroom, greeting and kissing the hand of the teacher and older people, behaving and dressing modestly. values integrated in the pramuka (scout) include mutual cooperation, mutual respect, discipline, helpfulness, honesty, responsibility, confidence, tolerance, perseverance, peacefulness, unity and religiousness. theoretical framework this study hypothesizes that character building in religious school culture is the predictive variable for student religious character. availability of worship facilities, religious ceremonies and religious symbols will predict the effectiveness of character building in religious school culture (marini, 2017). the quality of student religious character will be predicted by obedience in performing the teachings of one’s religion, practicing religious tolerance towards others and living in harmony with friends of other religions (fahmy, bachtiar, rahim and malik, 2015). figure 1 shows the theoretical framework of this study : figure 1. theoretical framework of the study journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 methods this type of research is carried out using descriptive methods and comparative causal methods. research using descriptive methods is research that aims to describe the nature of something that is taking place at the time of research and examine the causes of certain symptoms (achmad et al., 2017) furthermore, the research using causal comparative method is a systematic empirical search research design, where the independent variables are treated in a controlled manner by the researcher to see the impact on the dependent variable directly (syahyunan et al., 2017). the research instrument in the form of questionnaires was arranged based on the research indicators for each variable so that there were four questionnaires. a questionnaire survey was conducted to collect data regarding character building in religious school culture as the exogenous variable and student religious character as the endogenous variable in this study. a total of 450 students at 5 different elementary schools in north, south, central, west and east jakarta in dki jakarta province responded to the survey. the sampling method with purposive sampling method. to validate items for each study variable, the researcher conducted content analysis of the literature for character building in religious school culture based on marini (2017), which consisted of three aspects [“worship facilities”, “religious ceremonies” and “religious symbols”] and student religious character based on fahmy, bachtiar, rahim and malik (2015), which had three dimensions [“carrying out the teachings of one’s religion”, “practicing religious tolerance towards others” and “living in harmony with other religions”]. these ideas were converted into statements in the questionnaire. the questions regarding character building in religious school culture consisted of three dimensions: worship facilities, religious ceremonies and religious symbols. the worship facility dimension consists of three indicators. the religious ceremony dimension consists of three indicators (halal bihalal on idul fitri celebration day, slaughtering qurban on idul adha celebration day and breaking the fasting together in ramadhan month at school). the religious symbol dimension consists of three indicators. the questions regarding student religious character consisted of the following three dimensions: obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion, practicing religious tolerance of others and living in harmony with other religions. the obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion dimension consists of four indicators (fasting during ramadhan, praying five times daily, congregational praying and infaq activities). the practicing religion tolerance of others dimension marini et al. consists of four indicators (having, assisting and speaking graciously with friends of other religions and lending money to needy friends of other religions. the living in harmony with other religions dimension consists of four indicators (studying together with, having respect for, arguing with and lending stationery to friends of other religions). the reason for using the amos application in this study is because this study consists of several variables and indicators. indicators form several constructs that cannot be measured directly. the sem amos was applied to examine the set of relationships between character building in religious school culture as the exogenous variable and student religious character as the endogenous variable. sem is a statistical tool used to solve multilevel models simultaneously which cannot be solved by linear regression equations (tarmizi et al., 2016). sem is a statistical technique for testing and estimating causal relationships using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions. by using the amos application, these complicated statistical techniques can be solved more easily and quickly. the amos application allows to determine, estimate, assess and create a model or diagram to show the hypothesis of an inter-variable relationship. sem is widely used in research in social sciences and exact sciences, such as in economics, psychology, education, health, agriculture, computers, industry and others. sem is a statistical modeling technique that is very common and is now increasingly popular widely used in various sciences. unlike statistical methods such as parametric, non-parametric or multivariate, sem involves a lot of very complex mathematical calculations. currently, there are several statistical application programs that are used to complete sem. in complex conditions can be used path analysis, to analyze the pattern of relationships between variables in order to determine the direct or indirect effects of a set of exogenous on the endogenous. in path analysis, if the variables that occur in the form of latent, the data analysis is more appropriate is structural equation modeling or sem. sem is a multivariate analysis technique which is a combination of factor analysis and path analysis. factor analysis is used to test the validity and reliability of an instrument, while path analysis is used to examine the relationship between variables. in sem analysis techniques, the program can use the amos program can display path diagrams in the form of: 1) complete model, 2) measurement model and 3) model structural. in addition, the coefficients in the path diagram can be: 1) hypothetical diagrams, 2) estimation results based on raw data, 3) path coefficients, 4) t-values, 5) modification indices and 6) expected changes. whereas if the amos program can display 1) complete path diagram with 2) coefficient in the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 form of estimation results based on unstandardized estimate and 3) standardize estimate coefficient. in the measurement model procedure there are three stages that must be done through confirmatory factor analysis (yahya et al., 2018), namely: overall model fit analysis, factor loading analysis (factor load) and reliability analysis. overall analysis of the fit model (goodness-of-fit index) this stage is carried out to test the suitability of the model by evaluating the goodness of fit index. analysis using sem requires several suitability indexes to measure the correctness of the data and models to be submitted. the goodness-of-fit of a model can be assessed based on several fit sizes as follows: chi-square and probability this chi-square value shows the deviation between the sample covariance matrix and the model covariance matrix. this chi-square is a measure of the poor fit of a model. the model can be said to be fit if the chi-square value is small or close to 0 (dilham et al., 2018). a significant chi-square value of less than 0.05 indicates that the empirical data obtained has a difference with the theory that has been built based on structural equation modeling. goodness of fit indices (gfi) gfi is a measure of the accuracy of the model in generating observed matrix covariance. this gfi value must range from 0 to 1. models that have a negative gfi value means that the model is very bad. the gfi value is greater than 0.9 indicating the fit of a good model. adjusted goodness of fit index (agfi) as with gfi, agfi has been adjusted to the effect of freedom degrees on a model. a fit model is a model that has an agfi value greater than 0.9. pgri also has been adjusted to the degree of freedom and complexity of the model. the model can be considered good, if it has a pgfi value far greater than 0.6. root mean square error of approximation (rmsea) rmsea is used to measure the deviation of parameter values in a model with its population covariance matrix. rmsea ranges from 0.08 to 0.1 indicating the model has sufficient fit, while the rmsea value that is more than 0.1 indicates a very bad fit model. the minimum sample discrepancy function (cmin) cmin divided by degree of freedom will generally be reported by researchers as an indicator to measure the level of fit of a model. in this case, cmin/df is a chi-square () statistic divided by marini et al. df so that it is called relative. the relative values less than 2.0 or less than 3.0 indicate the indicator of acceptable fit between model and data. comparative fit index (cfi) the size of this index is in the range of 0 to 1, we’re getting closer to 1 indicates the highest level of fit. the recommended value is 0.95. the advantage of this index is that the size is not affected by the sample size because it is very good to measure the level of acceptance of a model. this second stage is carried out to analyze whether an indicator can be used to confirm that the indicator can jointly explain other indicators a latent variable. in other words, factor loading analysis is used to see the ability of indicators proposed in building latent variables. amos is denoted as a standardized regression weight. data input was performed using excel by entering the scores of each item based on the responses of the 450 participants with “strongly agree”, “agree”, “neutral”, “disagree” and “strongly disagree” (scored 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively, for positive questions and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively, for negative questions). the model feasibility test is carried out by measuring the goodness of an economic model or the characteristics that can be expected from an econometric model. the characteristics measured are as follows: 1. the accuracy of estimates of parameters. is the parameter estimator an accurate (unbiased) and significant hypothesis which is marked by the fulfillment of the required assumptions of the analysis and the probability of a model statistical error (p-value) which is smaller than the significance level of α = 0.05. 2. forecasting ability. does the research model have the predictive ability on variable behavior (response) which is characterized by a high determinant coefficient or more than 50%. testing the hypothesis in this study using multivariate analysis with sem using the amos program. hypothesis testing is carried out by regression significance test based on f test at α = 0.05 in each coefficient of equations both partially and simultaneously. hypothesis testing compares the probability value (p) with a significant level of α (0.05). the rules for testing hypotheses are as follows: if the probability value (p) <α (0.05) the hypothesis is accepted if the probability value (p)> α (0.05) the hypothesis is rejected journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 result and discussion result the goodness-of-fit statistical analysis results are shown in table 1. these results showed that the root means square error of approximation (rmsea) as an indicator of the informative fit of the model was 0.060. table 1 also showed that the goodness-of-fit index (gfi) was 0.910 and the adjusted gfi (agfi) was 0.886. table 1 model fit summary rmr, gfi model rmr gfi agfi pgfi default model 0.071 0.910 0.886 0.717 saturated model 0.000 1.000 independent model 0.203 0.570 0.527 0.518 rmsea model rmsea lo 90 hi 90 pclose default model 0.060 0.053 0.066 0.007 independent model 0.144 0.139 0.150 0.000 sources : amos result (2018). a measurement model test of the observed variables is shown in table ii. table ii showed that the correlation coefficients between worship facilities, religious ceremonies and religious symbols and character building in religious school culture were 0.711, 0.971 and 0.736, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 level according to the t statistics. the observed variables availability of musholla, a wudhu site and prayer equipment at elementary schools had correlation coefficients with worship facilities of 0.671, 0.727 and 0.753, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 level based on the t statistics. the observed variables halal bihalal on idul fitri celebration day, slaughtering qurban on idul adha day and religious gathering to break the fasting in ramadhan month had coefficients of 0.448, 0.389 and 0.617, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 level based on the t statistics. the availability of religious mottos, listening to the religious songs weekly and wearing moslem uniforms had coefficients of 0.421, 0.278 and 0.399, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 level according to the t statistics. marini et al. table 2 shows that obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion, practicing religious tolerance of others and living in harmony with other religions was correlated with student religious character with coefficients of 0.355, 0.915 and 1.056, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 level based on the t statistics. fasting during ramadhan, praying five times daily, congregational praying and infaq activities had a relationship with obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion with significant correlation coefficients of 0.445, 0.699, 0.527 and 0.679, respectively, at the 0.05 significance level. having friends of other religions, assisting friends of other religions, speaking graciously with friends of other religions and lending money to needy friends of other religions had correlations with the practice of religious tolerance of others with significant coefficients of 0.699, 0.771, 0.128 and 0.545, respectively, at the 0.05 significance level. living in harmony with other religions was positively associated with studying together and having respect for, arguing with and lending stationery to friends of other religions, with significant coefficients of 0.515, 0.711, 0.286 and 0.673, respectively, at the 0.05 significance level. the structural model test in table ii shows a direct effect of character education in religious school culture on student religious character with a coefficient of 0.478, which is significant at the 0.05 levels. the structural model is shown in table 2. table 2 measurement model test regression weights: (group number 1 default model) estimate s.e. c.r. p label src <--ceirsc 0.089 0.023 3.908 *** wf <--ceirsc 1.000 rc <--ceirsc 0.717 0.110 6.518 *** rs <--ceirsc 0.848 0.180 4.712 *** ocottr <--src 1.000 prto <--src 8.354 1.764 4.737 *** lhor <--src 7.810 1.752 4.458 *** cer3 <--wf 1.000 cer2 <--wf 0.578 0.047 12.243 *** cer1 <--wf 0.922 0.079 11.733 *** cer6 <--rc 1.000 cer5 <--rc 1.284 0.216 5.951 *** cer4 <--rc 1.090 0.165 6.599 *** journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 estimate s.e. c.r. p label cer9 <--rs 1.000 cer8 <--rs 0.688 0.204 3.378 *** cer7 <--rs 0.863 0.208 4.159 *** ce1 <--ocottr 1.000 ce2 <--ocottr 3.073 0.420 7.320 *** ce3 <--ocottr 2.125 0.318 6.682 *** ce4 <--ocottr 2.332 0.320 7.297 *** ce5 <--prto 1.000 ce6 <--prto 1.014 0.079 12.895 *** ce7 <--prto 0.172 0.070 2.444 0.015 ce8 <--prto 0.856 0.087 9.862 *** ce9 <--lhor 1.000 ce10 <--lhor 1.068 0.110 9.720 *** ce11 <--lhor 0.646 0.126 5.135 *** ce12 <--lhor 1.152 0.122 9.462 *** sources : amos result (2018). table 2 (continuous) standardized regression weights estimate src <--ceirsc 0.478 wf <--ceirsc 0.711 rc <--ceirsc 0.971 rs <--ceirsc 0.736 ocottr <--src 0.355 prto <--src 0.915 lhor <--src 1.056 cer3 <--wf 0.753 cer2 <--wf 0.727 cer1 <--wf 0.671 cer6 <--rc 0.617 cer5 <--rc 0.389 cer4 <--rc 0.448 cer9 <--rs 0.399 cer8 <--rs 0.278 cer7 <--rs 0.421 marini et al. estimate ce1 <--ocottr 0.445 ce2 <--ocottr 0.699 ce3 <--ocottr 0.527 ce4 <--ocottr 0.679 ce5 <--prto 0.669 ce6 <--prto 0.771 ce7 <--prto 0.128 ce8 <--prto 0.545 ce9 <--lhor 0.515 ce10 <--lhor 0.711 ce11 <--lhor 0.286 ce12 <--lhor 0.673 sources : amos result (2018). notes: ceirsc = character education in religious school culture src = student religious character wf = worship facilities rc = religious ceremony rs = religious symbol ocottr = obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion prto = practicing religious tolerance towards others lhor = living in harmony with other religions cer3 = availability of a wudhu site cer2 = availability of prayer equipment cer1 = availability of musholla cer6 = religious gathering to break the fasting in ramadhan month cer5 = slaughtering qurban on idul adha celebration day cer4 = halal bihalal on idul fitri celebration day cer9 = wearing moslem uniforms cer8 = listening to religious songs weekly cer7 = availability of religious mottos ce1 = fasting during ramadhan journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 ce2 = praying five times daily ce3 = congregational praying ce4 = infaq activities ce5 = having friends of other religions ce6 = assisting friends of other religions ce7 = speaking graciously with friends of other religions ce8 = lending money to needy friends of other religions ce9 = studying together with friends of other religions ce10 = having respect for friends of other religions ce11 = arguing with friends of other religions ce11 = lending stationery to friends of other religions figure 2. the structural model discussions table 1 shows that the rmsea value reached 0.060, which was less than 0.08 and indicated that the model was already fit. table 1 showed that the gfi was 0.910, which was a value more than 0 and less than 1 and indicated that the model was fit. the agfi was 0.886, which was a value greater than 0.8 and showed that the hypothesized model was a good fit for the data. table 2 found that worship facilities, religious ceremonies and religious symbols were positively associated with character building in religious school culture as exogenous variables with correlation coefficients of 0.711, 0.971 and 0.736, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 level according to the t statistics. religious ceremonies were most strongly correlated with character building in religious marini et al. school culture, whereas worship facilities have the weakest positive association with character building. this finding is similar to that of the study of marini (2017), which claimed that worship facilities, availability of religious ceremonies and religious symbols promoted character-building values in religious school culture. the availability of musholla, a wudhu site and prayer equipment in elementary schools had a positive relationship with worship facilities with correlation coefficients of 0.671, 0.727 and 0.753, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 levels based on the t statistics. the observed variables halal bihalal on idul fitri celebration day, slaughtering qurban on idul adha day and religious gathering to break the fasting in ramadhan month were positively correlated with religious ceremonies with coefficients of 0.448, 0.389 and 0.617, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 level based on the t statistics. the availability of religious mottos, listening to the religious songs weekly and wearing moslem uniforms were positively associated with religious symbols with coefficients of 0.421, 0.278 and 0.399, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 level according to the t statistics. in line with the study of izfanna & hisyam (2012), character values were integrated by worship practicing or islam practical duties and understanding akhlaq about what is right and wrong and how to be a good moslem. table 2 showed that obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion, practicing religious tolerance towards others and living in harmony with other religions was positively correlated with student religious character with coefficients of 0.355, 0.915 and 1.056, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 level based on the t statistics. living in harmony with other religions had the strongest positive correlation with student religious character. similarly, fahmy, bachtiar, rahim and malik (2015) stated that attitudes and behaviors of the students obedient to do the teachings of their religions, student tolerance of others and living in harmony with other religions described the religious character of students. fasting during ramadhan, praying five times daily, congregational praying and infaq activities had positive relationships with obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion with significant correlation coefficients of 0.445, 0.699, 0.527 and 0.679, respectively, at the 0.05 significance level. praying five times daily had the strongest positive correlation with obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion. having friends of other religions, assisting friends of other religions, speaking graciously with friends of other religions and lending money to needy friends of other religions had positive correlations with practicing religious tolerance towards journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 others with significant coefficients of 0.699, 0.771, 0.128 and 0.545, respectively, at the 0.05 significance level. assisting friends of other religions had the strongest positive correlation with practicing religious tolerance towards others. living in harmony with other religions was positively associated with studying together, having respect for, arguing with and lending stationery to friends of other religions with coefficients of 0.515, 0.711, 0.286 and 0.673, respectively, which were significant at the 0.05 significance level. having respect for friends of other religions had the strongest positive correlation with living in harmony with other religions. this finding is similar to the finding of the study of izfanna & hisyam (2012) and gusnardi et al., (2016) that concluded that character manifestation is achieved through the establishment of ibadah or the practical duties of islam. a direct effect of character education in religious school culture on student religious character was found with a coefficient 0.478 and significance at the 0.05 level. this result was in line with the findings of the study of izfanna & hisyam (2012), which stated that the implementation of character education could develop the students’ characters. conclusion an empirical model for the development of student religious character in elementary schools is proposed by this research. character education in the context of religious school culture can encourage student religious character. the availability of worship facilities, religious ceremonies and religious symbols supports character building in the context of religious school culture. the worship facilities can be supported by the availability of musholla, a wudhu site and prayer equipment at elementary schools. halal bihalal on idul fitri celebration day, slaughtering qurban on idul adha day and a religious gathering to break the fasting in ramadhan month are indicators of religious ceremonies. the availability of religious mottos, listening to religious songs weekly and wearing moslem uniforms support religious symbols. this research finding is similar to the finding of the study of izfanna & hisyam (2012) and gusnardi et al., (2016). obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion, the practice of religious tolerance towards others and living in harmony with other religions determine student religious character. fasting during ramadhan, praying five times daily, congregational praying and infaq activities describe obedience in carrying out the teachings of one’s religion. having friends of other religions, assisting friends of other religions, speaking graciously with friends of other religions and lending money to needy friends of other religions indicate the practice of religious tolerance marini et al. towards others. studying together with, having respect for, arguing with and lending stationery to friends of other religions promote the effectiveness of living in harmony with other religions. acknowledgements this research that has funded this research through the ministry of research and technology republic of indonesia and hopes to contribute practical and contributions to science. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 references achmad, n; & muda,i. (2017). economic activities of karo older adults in lingga village, tanah karo regency, north sumatera, indonesia. international journal of economic research, 14(16), 365-379. retrieved from: http://serialsjournals.com/articles.php?volumesno_id=1384&journals_id=41&volumes_id =1068. ahmed, m. (2016). ethnicity, identity and group vitality: a study of burushos of srinagar. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 3(1), 1-10. allport, g.w., & ross, j.m. (1967). personal religious orientation and prejudice. journal of personality and social psychology, 5(4), 432. retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bfa1/e5d350b1307ca9796f86495af668e9758e4f.pdf cubukcu, z. (2012). the effect of hidden curriculum on character education process of primary school students, education sciences: theory & practice, 12(2), 1526-1534, retrieved from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej987859.pdf. dilham, a, sofiyah, f.r., & muda, i. (2018). the internet marketing effect on the customer loyalty level with brand awareness as intervening variables. international journal of civil engineering and technology. 9(9). 681-695. retrieved from http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?jtype=ijciet&vtype=9&itype=9. fahmy, r., bachtiar, n., rahim, r. & malik, m. (2015). measuring student perceptions to personal characters building in education: an indonesian case in implementing new curriculum in high school, procedia – social and behavioral sciences. 211(1). 851-858, retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s187704281505452x. furkan, n. (2014). the implementation of character education through the school culture in sma negeri 1 dompu and sma negeri kilo dompu regency. journal of literature, languages and linguistics, 3(1),14-44. retrieved from: http://www.iiste.org/journals/index.php/jlll/article/view/10057/15748. gusnardi, riadi, r.m. & muda, i. (2016). competency mapping and analysis of students competency based on economics subject national examination and its alternative solutions in state high schools at pekanbaru. international journal of economic research, 3(5), 2133-2148. retrieved from http://www.serialsjournals.com/serialjournalmanager/pdf/1502168465.pdf. http://serialsjournals.com/articles.php?volumesno_id=1384&journals_id=41&volumes_id=1068 http://serialsjournals.com/articles.php?volumesno_id=1384&journals_id=41&volumes_id=1068 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bfa1/e5d350b1307ca9796f86495af668e9758e4f.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej987859.pdf http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?jtype=ijciet&vtype=9&itype=9 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s187704281505452x http://www.iiste.org/journals/index.php/jlll/article/view/10057/15748. http://www.serialsjournals.com/serialjournalmanager/pdf/1502168465.pdf. marini et al. izfanna, d. & hisyam, m. a. (2012). a comprehensive approach in developing akhlaq, multicultural education & technology journal, 6(2), 77-86. retrieved from : https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/17504971211236254. jones, e. n., ryan, k, & bohlin, k. (2012). character education & teacher education: how are prospective teachers being prepared to foster good character in students?, action in teacher education, 20(4), 11-28. retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/01626620.1999.10462931. marini, a. (2017). integration of character values in school culture at elementary schools in jakarta, indonesia, journal of arts & humanities, 6(5),21-32. retrieved from: https://www.theartsjournal.org/index.php/site/article/view/1171. meidl, c. & meidl, t. (2013). character education in three schools: catholic, quaker and public, education 3-13 international journal of primary, elementary and early years education, 41(2), 178-187. retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2011.566885. ministry of education & culture. (2018). basic data of fundamental and middle education, directorate general fundamental and middle education, retrieved from: http://dapo.dikdasmen.kemdikbud.go.id. ministry of national education. (2009). criteria and accreditation level of elementary school. regulation of national education minister, no. 11 in 2009, retrieved from: http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/09pmdik011.pdf. ministry of national education. (2014). curriculum 2013 of elementary schools/madrasah ibtidaiyah. regulation of education and culture minister, no. 57 in 2014, retrieved from: http://simpuh.kemenag.go.id/regulasi/permendikbud_57_14.pdf. oktarina, n., widiyanto & soekardi (2015). character education evaluation model based on school culture for elementary school, iosr journal of research & method in education, 5(5), 11-14 retrieved from: http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jrme/papers/vol5%20issue-5/version-1/c05511114.pdf. revell, l. (2002). children’s responses to character education, educational studies. 20(4). 421431, retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/0305569022000042426. sari, m; a.f. lubis; a.maksum; p.lumbanraja & muda, i. (2018). the influence of organization’s culture and internal control to corporate governance and its impact on https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/17504971211236254 https://doi.org/10.1080/01626620.1999.10462931. https://www.theartsjournal.org/index.php/site/article/view/1171 https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2011.566885 http://dapo.dikdasmen.kemdikbud.go.id/ http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/09pmdik011.pdf http://simpuh.kemenag.go.id/regulasi/permendikbud_57_14.pdf. http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jrme/papers/vol-5%20issue-5/version-1/c05511114.pdf http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jrme/papers/vol-5%20issue-5/version-1/c05511114.pdf https://doi.org/10.1080/0305569022000042426 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 274-294 state-owned enterprises corporate performance in indonesia, journal of applied economic sciences, 4(58), 562–575. retrieved from: http://cesmaa.org/docs/jaes%20summer%20volume%20xiii%20%20issue%203%20 %2857%29%202018.pdf. syahyunan, muda, i, siregar, h.s, sadalia,i. & chandra, g. (2017). the effect of learner index and income diversification on the general bank stability in indonesia. banks and bank systems, 12(4),171-184. retrieved from: https://businessperspectives.org/component/zoo/the-effect-of-lerner-index-and-incomediversification-on-the-general-bank-stability-in-indonesia. tarmizi, h.b.,daulay,m & muda,i. (2016). the influence of population growth, economic growth and construction cost index on the local revenue of tax on acquisition of land and building after the implementation of law no. 28 of 2009. international journal of economic research, 13(5), 2285-2295. retrieved from http://www.serialsjournals.com/serialjournalmanager/pdf/1502169196.pdf. yahya,i, torong, z.b. & muda,i. (2017). influence behavior in legislature budget development of regions in the province of aceh and north sumatra. international journal of economic research, 14(8), 147-159. retrieved from http://serialsjournals.com/articles.php?volumesno_id=1276&journals_id=41&volumes_id =1068. http://cesmaa.org/docs/jaes%20summer%20volume%20xiii%20%20issue%203%20%2857%29%202018.pdf http://cesmaa.org/docs/jaes%20summer%20volume%20xiii%20%20issue%203%20%2857%29%202018.pdf https://businessperspectives.org/component/zoo/the-effect-of-lerner-index-and-income-diversification-on-the-general-bank-stability-in-indonesia. https://businessperspectives.org/component/zoo/the-effect-of-lerner-index-and-income-diversification-on-the-general-bank-stability-in-indonesia. http://www.serialsjournals.com/serialjournalmanager/pdf/1502169196.pdf http://serialsjournals.com/articles.php?volumesno_id=1276&journals_id=41&volumes_id=1068 http://serialsjournals.com/articles.php?volumesno_id=1276&journals_id=41&volumes_id=1068 28 perceptions of students and teachers about the forms and student self-assessment activities in the classroom during the formative assessment zamira gashi shatri 1 & naser zabeli 2 abstract self-assessment is a process by which a learner collects information about him, and reflects on his / her learning. self-assessment of students includes reflective activities in which students are encouraged to consider the strengths and weaknesses of their work. students can improve their self-regulation skills through self-assessment. the purpose of this study is to reflect pupils' perceptions about their selfassessment in learning in kosovo pupils, taking in consideration that pupils' self-esteem is new and has not been applied until now. in the study, will be involved 725 students from 12 to 18 years old, four hundred pupils from lower secondary school and three hundred and twenty-five upper secondary school students. the research is conducted directly with the students using the quantitative research method, questioning the participants through the questionnaire. participant’s response analysis clearly shows that self-assessment helped to develop awareness and metacognitive behavior among students. most respondents in questionnaires have found useful self-assessment as a learning tool. the results show that both students' and teachers' perceptions consider that pupils' self-assessment in the classroom is present, but not even at a very satisfying level. to students, the result is significant at p < .05 (p< 0.00001) and to teachers the result is not significant (p = .969701). keywords: student self-assessment, student and teacher perceptions, self-assessment activities, selfassessment strategies, pre-university education. introduction student assessment as a continuous and present process in the school system is very important for students, the family community, the school and the society in general. formative assessment provides teachers and educators the means to close the gap between where the student is currently 1 assist. of pedagogy at faculty of education, university of gjakova “fehmi agani”. phd candidate at faculty of education, university of prishtina“hasan prishtina”, prishtina, kosovo. zamira.gashi@uni-gjk.org 2 corresponding author: assoc. prof., department of pedagogy at faculty of education, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, prishtina, kosovo. naser.zabeli@uni-pr.edu www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2 ) , 28 46 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 28-46 in their learning and the desired goal. where student self-assessment typically goes wrong is when that student doesn’t understand what is expected of them. the importance of setting classroom and student expectations, and for students to capitalize on self-assessment, its crucial (goodrich, 2012). through self-evaluation, students have the opportunity to evaluate themselves about specific learning goals and to evaluate their achievements. our personal and professional achievements push our concept of ourselves, especially when we see it reflected in the estimates of others. selfassessment allows monitoring and tracking the progress of its own study (basnet, et.,al 2011). it also creates opportunities to judge the quality of the personal side, based on clear evidence and criteria, and to improve future performance (rolheiser & ross, 2000). student self-assessment is a process by which a learner collects information about himself and reflects on his or her own learning, is the student's own assessment of personal progress in knowledge, skills, processes, or attitudes (black & william, 1998). this assessment is accomplished by comparing their results with the other students, or by choosing different assessment techniques. formative evaluation to be productive, students should be trained in self-assessment so that they can understand the main goals of their learning and thereby understand what they need to do to achieve good results in the lessons and in everyday life (ibid., p. 143). through self-assessment, students have the opportunity to assess, in terms of specific learning goals, their achievement. self-assessment is also called “empowering assessment” because it helps to be heard the voice of the weaker party (lausselet, 2004). a four-stage model for teaching student self-evaluation according rolheiser & ross (2013), are: stage 1involve the students in deciding which criteria they are being evaluated on. stage 2ensure that students know the different levels of the evaluation criteria and that they know how to produce work at the highest criterion level. stage 3help students focus their self-evaluations by giving feedback; provide examples of what their feedback could have looked like, being sure to praise the efforts they made. stage 4help the students create plans of action to improve their performance. self-assessment helps the student recognize the next steps in his / her learning and become more independent and motivated. as the learner develops self-confidence he / she can feel more https://www.nwea.org/blog/2012/the-importance-of-setting-classroom-and-student-expectations/ https://www.nwea.org/blog/2012/the-importance-of-setting-classroom-and-student-expectations/ https://www.nwea.org/blog/2012/the-importance-of-setting-classroom-and-student-expectations/ gashi shatri & zabeli confident. in this way, self-assessment contributes to a positive classroom climate where mistakes made are considered central to the learning process (ncca, p.14). include questions that deal with student understanding about the topic and with the identification of areas that need more information or more practice. students are often able to articulate their learning needs to us. we just need to ask the right questions. self-assessments is one way of asking students about their learning and the information can then be used to help plan future instruction (reiger, ed. 2012). brown & harris (2014) in the article “the future of self-assessment in classroom practice: reframing selfassessment as a core competency” , describe that asking students to estimate how well they think they will do compared to their last known performance provides a concrete and personal reference point. must intended learning outcomes (e.g., models, computer-assisted prompts, teacher evaluations). it seems more useful to have students focus on comparing their work to that of established standards or against their previous performance rather than on how others are doing. nonetheless, techniques that allow greater autonomy in self-assessment (e.g., self-correction or self-rating of one’s own work) should be introduced once students have demonstrated that they can assess their work realistically. classroom strategies to support self-assessment according to black and william (1998), classroom strategies to support self-assessment are: setting objectives, responding skills, reflection, feedback from colleagues, partners and portfolios. setting goals is essential because students can evaluate their progress more clearly when they have goals to measure their performance. additionally, learners' motivation for learning increases when they themselves have determined the goals of learning. one way to begin the process of presenting students’ self-esteem is to create student teacher contracts. contracts are written as an agreement between students and teachers, which usually include determining the number and type of tasks required for specific classes. for example, a student may agree to work with the 10th class plan, completing a certain number of tasks at a quality level as described by the teacher. the contract can serve as a good way to help them begin to consider setting goals for themselves as students. one of the ways in which learners embrace the characteristics of quality work is appreciating the work of their peers. the teacher should clearly explain their expectations before they start assigning tasks. one way to ensure that students understand this kind of assessment, is when the teacher provides a sample or verbally. as a group, students determine what needs to be journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 28-46 assessed and the criteria for successful completion of the assignment. then the teacher gives the students a final assignment. students can benefit from the use of rubrics or checklists to guide their assessments. rubrics are an effective tool for self-esteem. they should be written in a clear, friendly language with the students (tustin, 2017). by using rubrics or checklists, students ask questions to their friends, discuss them, support their ideas, and then compare them with their own ideas. for peer assessment to work effectively, the learning environment in the classroom needs to be supportive. students who have a constructive impression should feel comfortable and believe in each other. teachers who use group work and peer assessment can help students develop their confidence by forming them in small groups at the beginning of the semester and to work in the same groups throughout the year. self-assessment encourages students to become independent students and can increase their motivation (tedick & klee, 1998). keeping a portfolio encourages the child to self-esteem by helping him clarify the objectives and set new learning objectives. the portfolio helps the student in the self-assessment process through practical approach to formative assessment that provides support through digital technology, students will be able to record their assessments and compare them to others, they will be able to see what the current level of their work and what to do to improve. it will be a true record of all achievements (aaia north east region, n.d.). dylan william in his book “embedded formative assessment”, highlighted five core strategies that should be part of any successful formative assessment practice in the classroom. two of those core strategies involve student self-regulation and self-assessment. those strategies that dylan provides: (1) clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning intentions and criteria for success; (2) engineering effective classroom discussions, activities, and learning tasks that elicit evidence of learning; (3) providing feedback that moves learning forward; (4) activating learners as instructional resources for one another; (5) activating learners as owners of their learning (dyer, 2015). students can improve their self-assessment skills through self-assessment (i.e., set targets, evaluate progress as opposed to target criteria and improve the quality of their learning outcomes). thus, in accordance with self-regulation theory, self-assessment contributes to greater metacognitive skills associated with greater achievement (zimmerman, 2008). gashi shatri & zabeli reflective activities of students black & dylan (2018) propose a model whereby the design of educational activities and associated assessments is influenced by the theories of pedagogy, instruction and learning, and by the subject discipline, together with the wider context of education. teachers need to create structures in their classrooms that offer students the opportunity to engage in meaningful self-assessments. some of the ideas that encourage students to self-esteem are: encouraging student reflective activities there are several ways to engage students in selfreflection activities that can help them acquire skills that will benefit them for a lifetime. these include writing prompts and student-led conferences. using writing prompts the simplest way to get students involved in reflective activities is to engage them in writing prompts. when you engage students in conferences and reflective activities, design prompts in such a way as to elicit specific types of information from them. for example, design prompts to help them articulate information they already know or struggles they are having with current content in class. journals for example, you can use the prompts you have designed as part of your classroom instruction. students can respond by writing in journals. these journals can become a conversation between you and your students, where you write back and forth to each other. other times, you may have students use their written reflections in conversations with you about their learning, student led-conferences can be a powerful means of engaging students in self-reflection, especially for those who have a history of struggling academically or behaviorally. in a student led conference, students take a lead role in preparing and conducting the session. post-conference activities successful conferences can help students set future goals with the support of their parents and teachers. after the meeting, it may be helpful to provide parents with a template for writing positive letters to their children. students can also write a reflection that addresses the positives and negatives of the conference (tustin, 2017). whatever type of self-assessment you use to engage students in, be sure to modify and adjust it to the student you are working with. for example: younger students, or students with disabilities, older students, or students with higher abilities. so as you put student self-assessment into action in your journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 28-46 classroom, be sure to design it for the individual kids and show them how to use it as a tool to help them learn. to become skilled assessors of their work, pupils should have: a clear objective the opportunity to help create a definition of quality work feedback the opportunity to correct or self-adjust their work before returning it. self-assessment of students also includes reflective activities in which students are encouraged to consider the strengths and weaknesses of their work, make plans for improvement, or integrate assignment with previous learning (bruce, 2001). online self-testing creating an online test, apart from expose actual questions lost in self assessment, students see goals they have not mastered. then, they can design a plan to help them reach the goals they are facing to (tustin, 2017). boud (1995) argues that the way in which self-assessment is implemented is critical to its acceptance by students. according to him, the implementation process needs to include: • a clear rationale: what are the purposes of this particular activity? • explicit procedures—students need to know what is expected of them. • reassurance of a safe environment in which they can be honest about their own performance without the fear that they will expose information which can be used against them. • confidence that other students will do likewise, and that cheating or collusion will be detected and discouraged (boud, 2005, p.182). tools of self-assessment: graphic organizers graphic organizers are tools that enable students to self-assess. they are designed to encourage students to structure their work to help them explore their knowledge and understanding, reducing the complexity of learning in a summarized diagram. they are useful in developing selfesteem skills for students of all ages and all skills and help to illuminate the true nature of learning and their learning gaps. the teacher may encourage the student to think about his / her work by gashi shatri & zabeli using questions, tools or guiding. these include, for example, rubrics, (kwl) what do i know? what do i want to know? what have i learnt?, traffic lights, thumbs up/ thumbs down, talk partners, post it’s, plus, minus and interesting diagram (pmi), venn diagram, ladder, triangles, webs. the teacher can incorporate learning objectives and success criteria into classroom discussions. the student can learn to evaluate his / her work (aaia north east region, n.d.). pupils will see self-evaluation as valuable if they can use it to improve something that is intangible to them, such as their performance in a test or quiz. for example, students must conduct a selfassessment before a test or quiz. you can design their own self-assessment in many ways. for example, you can compile a series of open questions about the test content. then, students can use a column to pass and evaluate how well they understand the content that will be in the test. one of the most popular graphic organizers is the kwl grid, first developed by donna oggle. kwl grids can be used at the beginning of a ‘topic’ to enable pupils to direct their own learning. prior to research pupils ‘brainstorm’ what they already know, what they want to learn and later record what they have learnt. an extra column can be added in which pupils record how they would find the information. our research is led by three research questions, which are: 1. is there a significant difference between lower secondary school pupils and upper secondary school students of how they believe in their abilities? 2. is there a significant difference between students in two levels about student self-assessment activities? is there a significant difference between students in two levels about which are the easiest and fairest way of self-assessment of students in the classroom? method sample to carry out and implement the research, we sampled students of these schools and their opinions about the subject. included are both genders, age groups 12-18 years. the research included two different samples: students of lower secondary school (the pupils’ age was 12-14 years) and upper secondary school students (the students’ age was 15-18 years). the lower secondary school sample consisted of 400 students from four kosovo’s lower secondary schools, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 28-46 i.e., students of the 6th – 9th class (are included 16 classes, where each class had 25 students. the upper secondary school sample comprised 325 students from four kosovo’s upper secondary schools, i.e., students of 10th -12th class (are included 13 classes, where each class had also from 25 students. students were from eight different classes. in total, 725 pupils / students were included in the study (29 classrooms). instruments in the research, we constructed a questionnaire that describes self-assessment of students in pre-university education. the questionnaire include questions such as: how often do your selfassessment in the classroom? options: 1always, 2often, 3rarely and 4never (the same question addressed to students and teachers), activities that help students more about self-assessment with options: 1make competitions with classmates, 2i submit to a self-assessment test, 3i rely on my personal portfolio, 4evaluation of the teacher by numeric grade (addressed to students), the easiest and fairest way of self-assessment of pupils in the classroom with options: 1group work, 2pair work, 3individual work and 4assessment of the teacher (addressed to students and teachers). pupils and students evaluated each statement on a four-level scale. the questionnaire in schools was carried out during regular school hours. the data from the questionnaires was processed by methods of descriptive and inferential statistics. in the research, the system of self-assessment of students was limited to questions related their abilities and do students compare their knowledge with classmates. the results show that there is a statistically significant relationship between lower secondary school pupils and upper secondary school students about the implementation of self-assessment of students in classroom (p< 0.00001) and x2=40.6697. thus, the result is significant at p < .05 (table 1). table 1 is there a significant difference between lower secondary school pupils and upper secondary school students of how they believe in their abilities? students teachers categories lower secondary school (n=400) upper secondary school (n=325) total (n=725) lower secondary school (n=40) upper secondary school (n=40) total (n=80) gashi shatri & zabeli always 181 222 403 55.59 % 18 19 37 45.25% 68.31% 45% 47.50% 46.25% often 200 98 298 41.10% 15 13 28 50% 30.15% 37.5%, 32.50% 35% rarely 18 4 22 3.03% 6 7 13 4.50% 1.23% 15% 17.50% 16.25% never 1 1 2 0.27% 1 1 2 0.25% 0.31% 2.50% 2.50% 2.50% regarding the question of how often pupils and teachers make self-assessment of classroom students, 55.59 % of students in both levels have responded that they have ‘always’ of confidence; 41.10% of them ‘often’; 3.03% of them ‘rarely’ and 0.27% ‘never’. when comparing the selfassessment level, it can be concluded that the self-assessment of students and pupils show statistically significant differences in referring to aspects of self-assessment of students in class. self-assessment in upper secondary school is evaluated considerably higher in the first item. at both levels a high share of answers “always” (pupils 45.25 %, students 68.31%) and “often” (pupils 50%, students 30.15%),”rarely” (pupils 4.5 %, students 1.23%) is apparent; (0.25% pupils, students 0.31%), estimate they have never self-assessment their abilities. while, from the teachers' answers it turns out that there is not a statistically significant relationship between lower secondary school teachers and upper secondary school teachers about the implementation of self-assessment of students in classroom (p=.969701) and x2=0.2468. as to the question of how much confidence the students have in their work, 46.25% of students in both levels have responded that they have ‘always’ of confidence; 35% of them ‘often’; 16.25% of them ‘rarely’ and 2.5% ‘never’. when comparing the self-assessment level, it can be concluded that the self-assessment of students and pupils according teacher’s responds, show that: there is not statistically significant differences in referring to aspects of self-assessment of students in class. self-assessment in upper secondary school is evaluated considerably higher in the first item. at both levels, a high share of answers “always” (45% of teachers in primary school, 47.5% of teachers in secondary school) and “often” (primary school 37.5%, secondary school 32.5%),”rarely” (pupils 15 %, students 17.5%) is apparent; and 2.5% of teachers in both levels estimate they have never practices in classroom self-assessment of students. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 28-46 there is a statistically significant relationship between lower secondary school and upper secondary school students about student self-assessment activities in classroom (p=.003795) and x2=13.4293 (table 2). table 2 is there a significant difference between students in two levels about student self-assessment activities? students categories lower secondary school (n=400) upper secondary school (n=325) total (n=725) make competitions with classmates 114 28.5% 82 25.23% 196 27.03% i submit to a self-assessment test 89 22.25% 68 20.92% 157 21.65% i rely on my personal portfolio 115 28.75% 71 21.85% 186 25.65% evaluation of the teacher by numeric grade 82 20.5% 104 32% 186 25.65% as to the question of activities that help students more about self-assessment students' responses are: 27.03% of students in both levels have responded that they “make competitions with classmates”; the options “i rely on my personal portfolio” and “evaluation of the teacher by numeric grade” both of them 25.65%; 21.65% of them say ”i submit to a self-assessment test”; when comparing the self-assessment level, it can be concluded that the self-assessment of students and pupils according teacher’s responds, show that: there is a statistically significant differences in referring to aspects of self-assessment of students in class. self-assessment in upper secondary school is evaluated considerably higher in the first item. at both levels, a high share of answers “make competitions with classmates” 28.5% pupils, 25.23% students); ”i rely on my personal portfolio” (28.75% pupils, students 21.85%) is apparent; and “i submit to a self-assessment test” gashi shatri & zabeli (22.25% pupils, 20.92% students and “evaluation of the teacher by numeric grade” (20.5% pupils and 32% students) (table 3). table 3 is there a significant difference between students in two levels about which are the easiest and fairest way of self-assessment of students in the classroom? students teachers categories lower secondary school (n=400) upper secondary school (n=325) total (n=725) lower secondary school (n=40) upper secondary school (n=40) total (n=80) group work 150 37.5% 83 25.54% 233 32.14% 10 25% 7 17.5% 17 21.2% pair work 36 9% 33 10.15% 69 9.52% 5 12.5% 7 17.5% 12 15% individual work 141 35.25% 161 49.54% 302 41.65% 14 35% 14 35% 28 35% assessment of the teacher 73 18.25% 48 14.77% 121 16.69% 11 27.5% 12 30% 23 28.7% there is a statistically significant relationship between pupils of lower secondary school and students of upper secondary schools about which is the easiest way and the right self-esteem of students in the classroom. x 2 = 18.3238. p = .000377. so the result is significant at p <.05. “group work” (pupils 37.5%, students 25.54%); “pair work” (pupils 9%, students 10.15%); “individual work” (pupils 35.25 %, students 49.54 %); “assessment of the teacher” (pupils 18.25%, students 14.77 %). meanwhile, there is no statistically significant relationship between lower secondary school teachers and upper secondary school teachers about self-assessment of students in the classroom (p = .823926) and x2 = 0.9062. the highest teacher response was “individual work” 35%; “assessment of the teacher” 28.75%; “group work” 21.25% and at least “pair work” 15% (table 4). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 28-46 table 4 general data converted to the chi-square test, based on the answers of the students and teachers students teachers x2 p-value x2 p-value how often do self-assessment of students in the classroom? 40.6697 0.00001 0.2468 .969701 activities that help students more about self-assessment 13.4293 .003 the easiest and fairest way of selfassessment of students in the classroom 18.3238 .0003 0.9062 .823926 x2-chi-square test; p>0.05 (not significant); p<0.05 (significant); p<0.01 (highly significant); p<0.001 (very highly significant). discussion teachers using formative assessment approaches and techniques are better prepared to meet diverse students’ needs – through differentiation and adaptation of teaching to raise levels of student achievement and to achieve a greater equity of student outcomes (oecd & ceri). research has suggested that specific formative assessment practices have a direct impact on student learning and achievement. in formative assessment, students are active participants with their teachers, sharing the learning goals and understanding how their learning is progressing, what steps they should take and how to take them. the general finding is that across a range of different school subjects, in different countries, and for learners of different ages, the use of formative assessment appears to be associated with considerable improvements in the rate of learning. estimating how big these gains might be is difficult but it seems reasonable to conclude that use of formative assessment can increase the rate of student learning by some 50 to 100% (wynne, 2013). research shows that gashi shatri & zabeli students can’t learn well when they are worried. it is important for the teacher to consider students' feelings when giving feedback so that they have a positive result from feedback. research also shows that positive self-confidence and good motivation are key to student success. it is important to provide positive feedback and to point out the mistakes (storie, 2013, p. 25). self-assessment helps to create a learning community within the classroom. when students are involved in criteria and goal setting, self-evaluation becomes a logical step in the learning process. students become metacognitive and are more aware of their personal strengths and weaknesses. "when students are required to think about their own learning, articulate what they understand, and what they still need to learn, achievement improves" (black & william, 1998). self-assessment can help clarify mutual expectations, our needs, understanding and mutual respect in how we approach the problems. most importantly, clearly articulate the rationale for using self-assessment. this may make planning the assessment more meaningful (orsmond, 2014). self-assessment represents a process that every teacher can emphasize. when students set goals that aid their improved understanding, and then identify criteria, self-evaluate their progress toward learning, reflect on their learning, and generate strategies for more learning, they will show improved performance with meaningful motivation (mcmillan & hearn, n.d.). it is important to move beyond identifying a theory-practice gap in instructional strategies to trying to measure the gap by asking teachers to report on their perceived implementation in the classroom (ford, 2018). according dweck (1999) and william & thompson (2008) the changes to constructivism and humanistic approaches have raised learning strategies for discussion. the change affected the ways in which learning strategies are conceptualized, the methods used to evaluate their acquisition and use, and procedures used to teach them (virkkula & pirkko 2017). boud (1989) states that weaker and less mature students tend to overrate themselves and the weaker they are, in terms of teacher ratings, the greater the degree of overrating. not being aware of, or choosing not to subscribe to, the standards set by teachers, they err on the side of optimism (boud & falchikov, 1989). studies show that even a false sense of optimism often increases the chances of success. brown and hudson (1998) argued that self-assessment is a kind of "personal assessment of answers" and defines it as a kind of assessment that "requires students to evaluate their language" (baleghizadeh & hajizadeh, 2014). according to andrade (2007), not enough is known about what students actually do, think and feel when they are asked to self-assess, to enable researchers to construct a useful theory of self-assessment or to determine the most effective journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 28-46 approaches to self-assessment in the classroom (andrade & du, 2007). also, brookhart (2003) notes, ‘student perceptions are inextricably tied to the classroom assessment experience and ultimately the meaning and use of the information it affords’, more evidence of how students perceive of and use self-assessment is needed (brookhart, 2003). dylan william in his book embedded formative assessment states that an analysis of student reflection sheets showed that when teachers included their pupils in monitoring their progress, pupils were more autonomous and were able to accurately predict their performance of the test. those in the study enjoyed participation in self-esteem and liked to see their progress (dyer, 2015). the use of self-assessment within learning policy appraisal relies on the self-regulation of learning theories that identify learners' abilities to set goals and assess progress against criteria as a basis for improving learning outcomes from meta-knowledge (zimmerman, 2008). according to zimmerman (2001) self-regulation refers to self-directed and self-generating meta cognitive, motivational and behavioral processes through which individuals transform personal skills in controlling results in different contexts (brown & harris, 2014). thus, in accordance with selfregulation theory, self-assessment contributes to greater meta-cognitive abilities associated with greater achievements. about the students' self-assessment practices, brown and harris (2013) found different practices, which grouped them into three main categories (e.g. self-assessment of performance, selfassessment, and trial-based judgments). these three categories contain a variety of procedures (brown & harris, 2013). for example, (a) using a model response as a reference, (b) integrating responses to standardized test articles (brown & harris, 2014). by contrast, the recent pedagogical texts inspection shows that a relatively narrow range of self-assessment techniques is suggested (e.g., columns, rating scales, including traffic lights, reflections in portfolios, or task series). the advantage of self-assessment of the situation as a competence is that it usually have development levels (i.e., starting from the novelty to the expert) and can therefore be used as the basis for a curriculum (ibid, p.25). andrade (2001) suggest that simply handing out and explaining a rubric may increase students’ knowledge of the criteria for an assignment and help students produce work of higher quality—or it may not. actively involving students in using andrade and valtcheva gashi shatri & zabeli learning, achievement, and self-assessment a rubric to self-assess their work, however, has been associated with noticeable improvements in students’ work (andrade & valtcheva, 2009). during the adolescent period, the concept of oneself is formed by feedback, responses they receive from their parents, who help them to increase self-esteem. in adolescents, self-assessment increases when they have the love, support, and approval of their parents, teachers or society. their behavior is modelled and adapted by the teenager by influencing their relationship (black & william, 1998). teachers should initially encourage students to carry out a systematic selfassessment of pedagogical activity. bluma (2012) emphasizes that teachers should show confidence in their pupils and assign active roles to them (latkovska & rutka, 2015). self-assessment involves metacognition the process of being aware and reflecting on personal learning. self-assessment skills include effective questions, reflection, problem solving, comparative analysis, and the ability to share thoughts in different ways. self-regulation according zimmerman (2001) refers to self-directive and self-generated meta cognitive, motivational, and behavioral processes through which individuals transform personal abilities into control of outcomes in a variety of contexts (butler & winne, 1995). there is evidence that students can improve their self-regulation skills through self-assessment (i.e., set targets, evaluate progress relative to target criteria, and improve the quality of their learning outcomes) (andrade & wang, 2008; andrade & mycek, 2010; brookhart, et al., 2004). self-assessment can be used by children of all skill levels and in all areas of learning. in age-appropriate ways, it can be used throughout the elementary school and across all subjects. by seeing self-assessment examples throughout the curriculum, the learner can use self-assessment skills in drafting, reviewing, editing and publishing a part of his / her writing (ncca, n.d.). according to bruce (2001) self-assessment of pupils also includes reflective activities in which students are encouraged to consider the strengths and weaknesses of their work make plans for improvement or integrate assignment with previous learning. students who are able to really evaluate themselves develop a better picture of them and will be less vulnerable to feeling insecure. they can better interpret teachers' feedback, whether they are praise or poor evaluations. students should learn step by step how to evaluate their competences and skills, how to give and how to accept trust from others and discuss it (gollob & weidinger, 2010). brown & harris (2014) highlighted some key points for student self-assessment: (a) student self-assessment generally has a positive impact on academic performance, although it is not a robust journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 28-46 assessment method in terms of validity and reliability; (b) student self-assessment is an important aspect of and contributor to greater self-regulation of learning; (c) student self-assessment needs a curricular framework to ensure it is an effective treated as a self-regulating competence. conclusion in this study, self-assessment was found to be effective in stimulating pupils' learning through self-awareness. the present overview has gone some way towards providing answers to our questions about student self-assessment. participant’s response analysis clearly shows that selfassessment helped to develop awareness and metacognitive behavior among students. most respondents in questionnaires have found useful self-assessment as a learning tool. the results of this pedagogical research show that the system of self-evaluation of students in pre-university education is present and applied to a not so significant extent in kosovo’s schools. the results show that both students' and teachers' perceptions consider that pupils' self-assessment in the classroom is present, but not even at a very satisfying level. activities that help students more self-assessment are when they compete with classmates and friends, and when based on their achievement dossier, with a lower percentage of students who are subject to a self-assessment test or even when evaluated by numeric grade teachers motivated for further impetus and learning outcomes. in contrast to lower secondary schools, in upper secondary schools there is a difference: students at this level say that for the assessment it helps them more when they are evaluated by the subject teacher, when they compete in classroom, because of the competition they are encouraged to learn more and to achieve good results. some learn how to view their own personal achievement portfolios and lessons, while others also practice self-assessment. the easiest and fairest way of self-assessment of classroom pupils, according to teachers and students, the highest percentage resulted to be individual work, then group work, teacher evaluation and the lowest percentage of pair work. gashi shatri & zabeli references aaia north east region. (n.d.). pupil self-assessment. retrieved from http://www.aarohilife.org/sites/default/files/uk guide to self assessment.pdf andrade, h., & du, y. (2007). scholars archive student responses to criteria referenced self assessment student responses to criteriareferenced self-assessment. assessment & evaluation in higher education, 32(2), 159–181. retrieved from http://scholarsarchive.library.albany.edu/eaps_fac_scholar andrade, h., & valtcheva, a. (2009). promoting learning and achievement through selfassessment, 48, 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405840802577544 baleghizadeh, s., & hajizadeh, t. (2014). self-and teacher-assessment in an efl writing class autoevaluación y evaluación docente en una clase de escritura de inglés como lengua extranjera. gist education and learning research journal, 8, 99–117. retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1102670.pdf basnet, b., basson, m., devine, j., hobohm, c., & cochrane, s. (2011). is self-assessment effective in enhancing student learning? in is self-assessment effective in enhancing student learning? fremantle: proceedings of the 2011 aaee conference. retrieved from https://eprints.usq.edu.au/20675/1/basnet_basson_devine_hobohm_cochrane_pv.pdf black, & william. (1998). student self-assessment the literacy and numeracy secretariat. in chappuis & stiggins. rolheiser & ross white & frederiksen. retrieved from http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/studentselfassessment.pdf boud, d. (2005). enhancing learning through self-assessment david boud google books. london: routledgefalmer. retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=_fwoaqaaqbaj&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ viewapi#v=onepage&q&f=false boud, d., & falchikov, n. (1989). quantitative studies of student self-assessment in higher education: a critical analysis of findings. higher education, 18(5), 529–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00138746 brookhart, s. m. (2003). developing measurement theory for classroom assessment purposes and u s e s. educational measurement: issues and practice, 22(4), 5–12. retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f863/ec8d2080556f048de49e550f7502b6362f8b.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 28-46 brown, g. t. l., & harris, l. r. (2013). frontline learning research an official journal of earli. frontline learning research (vol. 2). european association for research on learning and instruction. retrieved from https://journals.sfu.ca/flr/index.php/journal/article/view/24/81 brown, g. t. l., & harris, l. r. (2014). the future of self-assessment in classroom practice: reframing selfassessment as a core competency. frontline learning research, 3, 22–30. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v2i1.24 bruce, l. (2001). student self-assessment (5 no. 1). classroom leadership. retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/classroom_leadership/sept2001/student_selfassessment.aspx butler, d. l., & winne, p. h. (1995). feedback and self-regulated learning: a theoretical synthesis. review of educational research, 65(3), 245–281. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543065003245 dyer, k. (2015). the importance of student self assessment. retrieved 30 january 2018, from https://www.nwea.org/blog/2015/the-importance-of-student-self-assessment/ ford, c. (2018). effective practice instructional strategies: design of an instrument to assess teachers’ perception of implementation. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2017.12.004 gollob, r., krapf, p., & weidinger, w. (2010). educating for democracy – background materials on democratic citizenship and human rights education for teachers. retrieved 18 february 2018, from http://www.mpn.gov.rs/wpcontent/uploads/2015/09/edc_hre_volume_i_educationg_for_democracy.pdf latkovska,evija & rutka, l. (2015). selected papers of the association for teacher education in europe spring ... google books. in daniela linda&rutka lucija (ed.), self-assessment of student teacher’s pedagogical activity: school mentors; standpoint (pp. 133–148). cambridge scholars publishing. https://doi.org/journals.ru.lv/index.php/sie/article/download/752/866 lausselet, r. (2004). doracaku i vetevleresimit. i.m.pact aplikimi i metodologjise per iniciativat e edukimit per demokraci qytetare te paktit te stabilitetit., 4. retrieved from http://s4.e-monsite.com/2011/03/21/9162121doracaku-i-vetevleresimit-pdf.pdf mcmillan, j. h., & hearn, j. (n.d.). student self-assessment: the key to stronger student gashi shatri & zabeli motivation and higher achievement what is student self-assessment? retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej815370.pdf ncca. (n.d.). primary overview assessment guidelines for schools. retrieved from https://www.ncca.ie/media/1351/assessment-guidelines.pdf orsmond, p. (2014). teaching bioscience enhancing learning series self-and peer-assessment guidance on practice in the biosciences academy centre for bioscience. retrieved from https://www.ucl.ac.uk/teaching-learning/sites/teachinglearning/files/self_and_peer_assessment.pdf tedick, d., & klee, c. . (1998). alternative assessment in the language classroom., 42. retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?q=tedick%2c+diane+%26+klee%2c+carol.(1998).+alternative+asses sment+in+the+language+classroom+in+modules+for+the+professional+preparation+of+tea ching+assistants+in+foreign+languages.+grace+stovall+burkart%2ced%3b+washington %2c+dc%3a+ce tustin, r. (2017). how to help students conduct self-assessments | study.com. retrieved 6 february 2018, from https://study.com/blog/how-to-help-students-conduct-selfassessments.html virkkula, esa & pirkko nissilä, s. (2017). towards professionalism in music: self-assessed learning strategies of conservatory music students. ceps journal, 7(3), 115. retrieved from https://ojs.cepsj.si/index.php/cepsj/article/view/290/175 zimmerman, b. j. (2008). investigating self-regulation and motivation: historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. american educational research journal, 45(1), 166–183. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207312909 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (2),377-409 the policy of local government to implement peace education at secondary school post armed conflict in aceh indonesia suadi zainal1, saifuddin yunus2, fadli jalil3, aizat khairi4 abstract this study aims to describe the policies adopted by the aceh government in implementing peace education in the secondary schools. it used the qualitative descriptive method with a case study design, whereby 17 participants consists of officials of education bureau and teachers of civic and religious education were involved in the study. the data was collected by in-depth interview and documentary study. the data was analyzed using creswell’s spiral data analysis. the study found that, firstly, the aceh government focused more on implementing islamic-based education in accordance with the national standards, and had not considered the normative and sociological chances to make a policy that regulated the implemention of peace education in the schools. secondly, the aceh peace agreement used the concept of human rights in regulating the education in aceh, and therefore, the law on governing aceh did explicitly regulate aceh educational reform for peacebuilding. this had resulted in unanimous understanding and implementation of peace education at the secondary schools. thus, there is a need for educational system reform in respect to peace-related education curriculum in the region. finally, this study suggested for future research that focused on the regional government’s authority in reforming and restructuring regional educational system that incorporated peace education as long-term peacebuilding vis-à-vis the central government. keywords: implementation, peace education, school, policy, aceh government introduction aceh armed conflict ended in 2005 through the negotiation mediated by the international nongovernment organization and crisis management initiative (shea, 2016). according to mcleod (2014), all aspects of human rights need to be interdependently met to gain and sustain an aceh peaceful society. human rights are undoubtedly closely related to peace and education, which is fundamental to its achievement (andrews, 2019; turan, 2020). the collapse of education systems leads to the unsustainability of peaceful, prosperous, and productive societies (de giusti, 2020). 1dr. suadi zainal, m.si., universitas malikussaleh, aceh utara, indonesia, suadi@unimal.ac.id 2dr. saifuddin yunus, ma., universitas malikussaleh, aceh utara, indonesia, saifuddinyunus@unimal.ac.id 3 fadli jalil, s.p., m.si., universitas malikussaleh, aceh utara, indonesia, fadli@unimal.ac.id 4dr. aizat khairi, universiti kuala lumpur, malaysia, aizat@unikl.edu.my journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 education promotes social emotions needed to underpin the peace process, such as sympathy for the suffering of others, compassion for victims, forgiveness for offenders, tolerance for different identities and cultures of others, optimism for the future, and bravery to encourage trust (brewer, 2010; gibbs, 2020). it addresses inequalities, overcoming prejudices, and fosters new values in institutions. education in schools is viewed as an agent in developing and transforming cultural values among students from violent to peaceful, thereby eliminating the potential of violent conflict (darolia, 2020; grewal et al., 2019; ritiauw, 2017; wandix-white, 2020). peace education mainly eliminates direct, structural, and cultural types of violence(cremin & guilherme, 2016). according to davies (2016), mendenhall & chopra (2016), and tinker (2016), peace education is a soft essential tool used to bring positive peace in post-conflict areas. therefore, there is a compelling need for conflict and conflict-related contexts (tschirgi, 2011). hence, through peace education, every human is equipped to understand conflict and peacebuilding to eliminate violence (maleki & komishani, 2014). peace education functions to increase students’ constructive conflict resolution, reduce aggressive behaviors, and enable students to have problem-solving skills (ay, keskin, & akilli, 2019; turk, 2018). with peace education hopefully a peaceful society could be established. with respects to aceh, a region that had resolved its vertical conflict through the memorandum of understanding (mou) in 2005, it had faced another horizontal conflict among the former gam elites, foot-soldiers, and community groups (ansori, 2012; barron, rahman, & nugroho, 2013; quayle, 2018). making aceh fallen into conflict society. therefore, aceh needs the implementation of a peace education policy by the government to achieve a non-conflict society. numerous ngos such as unicef have initiated a peaceful education program by supporting a group of academics and activists grounded in the core of islamic and the acehnese social-cultural values. the curriculum was based on six fundamental principles: introspection and sincerity, rights and responsibilities, conflict and violence, democracy and justice, diversity of creations, and peace paths (thalal, 2010). in 2001 ninety-six high schools3 had implemented the peace education curriculum with unicef’s initiatives with full support of the local government and the muslim religious leaders (ulama) (ashton, 2002). principals and teachers strongly commended the implementation of peace 3 the term high school was used interchangeably with the secondary school zainal et al. 379 education curriculum outcomes, which have transformed students' views and attitudes. in the following year, the program was extended to 247 schools, targeting more than 75,000 students. the teaching manual then was incorporated into the aqidah-akhlaq (islamic faith and morals) curriculum, published in 2006. this program accommodated more islamic principles to strengthen the high school students' islamic faith and morals (husin, 2009). however, wenger (2014) argued that, peace education should also cover the history of aceh and the newly resolved conflict. it is also essential to reexamine the acehnese traditional wisdom's symbols and mottoes, especially those related to peace issues such as reciprocity, care, tolerance, and justice. this reexamination tends to make these symbols and advice more meaningful and beneficial to transform the conflict (maleki & komishani, 2014). although the aceh peace agreement has taken place for more than a decade, its education system is similar to other provinces in indonesia. in addition, the government is mandated to focus on succeeding in a national standard curriculum. the indonesian government does not consider the importance of peace education in post-conflict provinces, such as maluku and aceh (wahyudin, 2018). according to zainal (2016), some school principals and teachers stated that teaching peace education in a particular strategy makes it difficult for students to understand. this indicates difficulty in the formal implementation of peace education in schools situated in post-conflict regions. therefore, to achieve this, a government policy is needed as a strong foundation and a step in the right direction that supports educational development over time (palmer & witanapatirana, 2020; strunc, 2020; tonich, 2021; walter et al., 2021). this policy also tends to affect peace education initiatives (zembylas et al., 2016) and legitimize its realization (bal-tar & rosen, 2009). several studies demonstrated the essential role of peace education in peacebuilding to achieve a peaceful society after intractable conflict (johnson & johnson, 2006; harris & morrison, 2012; bar-tal & rosen; 2014; lauritzen, 2016; tinker, 2016; cremin & bevington, 2017; harber, 2018; hymel & darwich, 2018; cromwell, 2019; bar-tal et al. 2020; abdi, 2020). they argue peace education can promote generations to a culture of peace, coexistence, and reconciliation that emerge from the long-term peacebuilding process. according to smith et al. (2011), peace education is needed to support transformation processes related to changes in security, political institutions, economic regeneration, and social development within post-conflict societies. therefore, it needs to be operated in three types. the first is a humanitarian response, which journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 prioritizes children's protection and responses to the negative impacts of conflict on their education. the second is conflict-sensitive education that 'does no damage' and ensures that education does not reinforce inequalities. the third is education and peacebuilding, which tends to reform and contribute to political, economic, and social transformations in a post-conflict society. from 1989 to 2005, only 11 of 37 peace agreements defined education as a critical aspect to be addressed and used as a tool for peacebuilding (tinker, 2016). similarly, the 2005 aceh peace agreement, whereby education has been denied as an important part of peacebuilding. therefore, it is important for this research to analyze the policies of the aceh government in implementing peace education at the secondary schools. research questions as it has been discussed above, this study aims to address the following research questions: 1. how does the aceh government’s policy respond to the implementation of peace education at the secondary schools post-armed conflict in aceh? 2. how does the implication of aceh government's policy on the implementing peace education at the secondary school? literature review definition of peace education experts defined peace education differently overtimes. tinker (2016) found some similar names for peace education, such as anti-nuclearism education, international understanding, citizenship, global education, environmental responsibility, communication skills, conflict resolution, critical pedagogy, life skills, democracy, gender coexistence and equality, human rights awareness, peacebuilding, and diversity tolerance. in addition, some peacebuilders involved the spiritual dimension of inner harmony, and this has increasingly recognized that a broader and more holistic approach to peace education is urgently needed (clarke-habibi, 2005). international actors use the latest concept of peace education as a peacebuilding tool for future generations to learn the right strategies needed to handle conflict without violence and to ultimately maintain a culture of peace (ajaps & obiagu, 2020; rahmadi, et al., 2020; tinker, 2016). harris and morrison (2012) defined peace education as philosophy and a process involving listening, reflection, problem-solving, cooperation, and conflict resolution skills. according to assegaf (2016), peace education is a process that empowers the community to ensure they can overcome conflicts or problems creatively without violence. ni’mah (2019) reported that peace zainal et al. 381 education is directed towards developing human personality, respecting their rights, fundamental freedoms, mutual understanding, tolerance, and friendship with all nations, races, and inter-groups, leading to peace. furthermore, asamonye et al. (2014); (ofoegbu & alonge, 2020) stated that peace education is a process of acquiring values, knowledge, and skills needed to develop attitudes and behavior for one to live in harmony with oneself, others, and the natural environment. besides, asamonye et al. (2014) defined it as a deliberate attempt to educate children and adults in conflict dynamics and promote peacemaking skills in homes, schools, and communities. it is used to create, maintain and manage positive attitudes towards peace among various levels and segments of society. this is similar to ikechukwu (2014), which identified peace education as a process of promoting the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values needed to bring about behavioral changes that would enable children, youth, and adults to prevent and resolve issues related to conflict and violence and create a conducive environment. furthermore, smith and ellison (2015) defined peace education through three educational functions in peacebuilding, as follows: 1. education as a peace dividend: education restoration services lead to public confidence in the capabilities of the state; hence, people tend to benefit from peace. however, it makes a positive contribution to peacebuilding, assuming it benefits all elements of society somewhat. even educational provisions insensitive to local contexts are seen as coercion by the government capable of undermining trust in the state with negative impacts. 2. education governance and reform: good governance across educational sectors creates excellent conditions for managing conflict constructively and addressing horizontal inequalities between groups. therefore, it is necessary to balance power and function between the central government and the decentralized regions. 3. education as an entry point for conflict transformation and peacebuilding: social services education provides an entry point for addressing the underlying causes of conflict. education programs have been examined as providing protection, overcoming inequality and redistribution, social cohesion, and transitional reconciliation and justice. these definitions promoted peacemakers and activists to emphasize the importance of peace education. therefore, presently, peace education is seen by policymakers as one of the precursors in ensuring the stability and health of a country, especially when it involves multicultural journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 communities with various aspects of their background and educational level (lafer & tarman, 2019; price, 2019; tannous & oueijan, 2011). the contents of peace education brock (2011) stated that the post-conflict context provides an opportunity for educational agents to adopt a fundamentally new approach to peacebuilding. one way of directing education by adopting the literature on post-conflict reconstruction (akulluezati et al., 2011). therefore, (harber, 2018; higgins & novelli, 2020; novelli et al., 2014) stated that education is an essential means of supporting the transformation of society after an armed conflict. in addition, a divided society works towards peace; hence, it is widely recognized that education plays an essential role in fermenting community divisions or helping socio-political change, thereby leading to the reconstruction of community relations (gill & niens, 2014). bajaj (2016) stated that a critical aspect of educational transformation is introducing new subjects into the curriculum to create more peaceful individuals and societies. the peace education curriculum must cover seven core competencies, namely (1) critical thinking and analysis, (2) empathy and solidarity, (3) individual and collective bodies, (4) participatory and democratic engagement, (5) innovative education and communication strategies, (6) conflict resolution skills, and (7) continuous reflective exercise. meanwhile, cunningham (2014) reported that peace education requires subject matter for developing self-awareness and self-control. this is useful in building sympathy for others, sensitivity, and developing cooperation skills. in the conflict or postconflict era, peace education needs to be directed to change the mindset of groups, mutual understanding, and responsibility for the suffering of others. furthermore, bajaj and hantzopoulos (2016) reported that peace education is not limited to subject curricula; instead, it requires a broader transformation of content, pedagogy, structure, educational practices, relationships between educators and students, and educational outcomes measurement systems. its curriculum is necessary and insufficient because it also needs to determine the best strategies to manage schools according to the way teachers and students behave. furthermore, content and teaching methods throughout the curriculum need to reflect competence, peaceful behavior, democratic, inclusive, and participatory values. some challenges of peace education conflict is one of the main challenges in implementing peace education. according to novelli et al. (2014), most warring parties do not always accept peace education in conflict-affected areas. zainal et al. 383 however, this education type is termed unnecessary in situations whereby the governments blame the conflict on other groups. therefore, the principles of peace education are incompatible with the dominant ethos and structure of the school (higgins & novelli, 2020). harber & sakade (2009) stated that an authoritarian environment, driven by an assessment system in most schools, is not the right place for peace education to develop and prosper. therefore, sometimes formal schools are not seen as the best means of developing peace education because there is a mismatch in the values and practices necessary for peacebuilding. this is in line with the physical punishment widely used due to the occurrence of educational practice (harber, 2014). many students reject peace education because teacher-centered and dominant pedagogy is prevalent in schools (zembylas et al., 2016). several teachers do not receive peace education training; hence they are unskilled and indisposed to teach controversial issues needed in the classroom (harber & mncube, 2012). furthermore, it is difficult to assess the impact and outcomes of this subject, which is generally about skills, values, and behaviors than knowledge (harber & sakade, 2009). according to jäger (2015), peace education is faced with the challenges of making education programs and systems sensitive to conflict. it is in the context of conflict-sensitive education, which is defined as a process with three core elements, namely (1) understanding the context in which education takes place, (2) analyzing the two-way interaction between the context and educational programs and policies (development, planning, and delivery), and (3) acting to minimize and maximize negative and positive impacts of education policies, respectively. the role of peace education education in post-conflict situations assists in changing the structures and strengthening the positive role by promoting expansion, equality, and different content of education to address the underlying causes of conflicts. this process needs long-term education programs and a more complex approach to transform the education system (novelli & cardozo, 2008).according to novelli & smith (2011), education is essential for peacebuilding. unesco's education for all global monitoring report stated that "intra-state armed conflict is often associated with grievance and perceived injustices linked to identity, faith, ethnicity, and region. education makes a difference in all these areas, thereby tipping the balance in favor of peace or conflict." unesco has affirmed that education contributes to peace because "no country hopes to live in peace and prosperity unless it builds mutual trust among its citizens. this starts from the classroom, and journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 schools need to be seen as places to spread the most important skills, such as tolerance, mutual respect, and the ability to live peacefully with others" (lerch & buckner, 2018; smith, 2010). in addition, king (2011) stated that schools contribute to peacebuilding and conflict prevention by restoring normality and helping to hope for a brighter future. therefore, teachers play an essential role in transforming the structure of society, especially in post-conflict contexts (lopes cardozo & hoeks, 2015; shepler, 2011).furthermore, bevington et al. (2020); (emkic, 2018) stated that the education sector is a crucial component in peacebuilding efforts and the initial recovery of a country experiencing conflict. therefore, it is imperative to continue to provide education during emergencies as part of an early recovery strategy. therefore, on this basis, education is defined as a sector used as part of a strategy to strengthen peace. a trend has emerged towards better integration in several post-conflict countries for poverty reduction and its peacebuilding strategy. according to smith ellison (2014), there are five rationalizations of the role of education for peacebuilding, namely (1) it provides training skills other than violence, (2) protects children, (3) helps rebuild normality, (4) helps make up the missing foundations, and (5) contributes to social transformation. method research design this research used a case study design to address the research problem with a qualitative approach. creswell and creswell (2017) noted that qualitative research is an approach used to explore and understand the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. the case study design was considered proper to examine the research problem, because, it helps the researchers to investigate phenomenon in depth. it describes the phenomenon from the participants' point of view and analyzes the documents without researchers’ intervention. in addition, the researchers can follow the chronological flow of events concerning the research problems (creswell & poth, 2016). in completing this study, its data had been partly benefited from a research project funded by the ministry of research, technology, and higher education of indonesia in 2018 and 2019. participants the research participant in a case study could be a program, an event, an activity, a person, or a group of people. in this study, the participants were officials from the government educational zainal et al. 385 bureau and the secondary schools who had the authority to carry out the peace education. they were selected by purposive sampling that to be interviewed in their offices in east aceh and aceh province, indonesia. the primary data were obtained from 17 participants, consisting of the head of the aceh education bureau curriculum sub-division, head of east aceh district education bureau, five secondary school principals, ten religious teachers and civic education teachers respectively. the principals and teachers of respective senior high school, vocational high school, and religious high school, madrasah aliyah. the researchers first contacted the authorized person of education bureau to meet the participants at schools easily. the former also used social networks to meet the latter for interviews. the characteristics and demography of the participants are shown in table 1. table 1. the characteristics and demography of the participants no position frequency location 1 head of the aceh education bureau curriculum sub-division 1 aceh province – banda aceh 2 head of east aceh district education office 1 east aceh 3 school principal 2 senior high school 2 vocational high school 1 religious high school (madrasah aliyah) 4 religion education teacher 5 senior high school (sma darul aman and sma rantau selamat), vocational high school ( smk i peureulak and smk taman fajar), and religious high school (madrasah aliyah i) east aceh 5 civic education teacher 5 senior high school (sma darul aman and sma rantau selamat), vocational high school ( smk i peureulak and smk taman fajar), and religious high school (madrasah aliyah i) east aceh data collection tools in qualitative research, the researcher is the human instrument (wa-mbaleka, 2019). it means the researcher plays the main role in data collection. the study used an unstructured interview (indepth interview) guide, in which researchers were attentive to what the interviewees said and journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 responded with follow-up questions and probes. thus, the researchers designed the interview guide and involved directly in the field to collect data from the participants—the interview guide used as the supporting instrument for data collection. the interview guide is an essential instrument for the researchers to ensure that all critical issues were included in the conversation. a few examples of guide questions are given below: 1. we are from malikussaleh university lhokseumawe, my name is…and this is my friend, his name is….may we know your name and position? 2. does aceh have a special education model after the peace agreement? 3. is it important to implement peace education in the secondary schools in aceh? 4. to support peacebuilding, what is the appropriate aceh education system? 5. what has been done to implement peace education at the secondary schools in aceh? 6. what do you think about the peace education program implemented by non-government organizations in aceh? 7. why was the program not adopted as peace education in aceh schools? 8. how do schools in east aceh implement peace education to support peacebuilding? 9. does your school carry out peace education? besides the interview guide, the researchers also equipped themselves with field note instruments to write and record the conversation, such as a pen, notebook, and smart recorder. pen and notebook were used to write in short what the interviewees’ responses related to research questions. meanwhile, a smart recorder was a smart phone recorder used to record whole conversations during the interview. data collection the data were collected through face-to-face unstructured interviews with the consent of participants. it consisted of open-ended questions related to the research topic. as the conversation run naturally, the researchers recorded all responses, while at the same time wrote down the main points deemed essential and relevant to the research. this way made easier for the researchers to transcribe data upon the completion of the interview. in addition, this study also used a document analysis technique to attain secondary data that addressed the research problems. the data were searched via the google and google scholar, such as document reports, research reports, and journal articles. the primary documents of this study included the memorandum of understanding between the government of the republic of zainal et al. 387 indonesia and the free aceh movement, aceh government regulation (qanun aceh) on education after the peace agreement, research reports on aceh education reform, and research article on peace education in aceh post-conflict. these data were mainly used to look at peace education chances and the aceh government’s policies on the implementation of peace education in formal schools. data analysis this study adopted the data analysis technique developed by creswell (2013). the latter argued that, the data analysis process commonly used in qualitative research were firstly, preparing and organizing the data (i.e., text data as in transcripts, or image data as in photographs). secondly, the data were reduced into themes by coding and condensing the codes, and finally representing the data in figures, tables, or a discussion. however, creswell has modified a spiral of qualitative data analysis of three previous well-known qualitative researchers (madison, 2005; huberman and miles, 1994; wolcott, 1994), into the four steps spiral analysis model, see figure 1. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 step 1: organizing the data or data management. the researcher organized the data into computer files. besides, the researcher converted the files to appropriate text units (words and sentences) in word document transcripts. step 2: reading and memoing. the researcher read the transcripts in entirety several times to get a sense of the information and ideas from the participants before dividing them into parts, and then wrote notes or memos in the margins of transcripts. step 3: describing, classifying, and interpreting data. the researcher described the data into detailed descriptions by segmenting sentences into categories and then coded those categories based on themes. in addition, the researcher interpreted the themes in light of views of researchers and literature to have a general description. step 4: representing and visualizing the data. the researchers represented the data found in the text and tabular (the description of the themes) into the narrative passages to make propositions and discussion. findings the aceh government’s policy response to the implementation of peace education the success of the implementation of peace education in formal schools requires political support in the form government policies that reflect the potential opportunities contained in the aceh peace agreement, the loga, and peace education programs of the civil society organizations. these aspects were categorized into two policies that considered the normative and sociological chances. in the normative context, the chance for the implementation of peace education is not only reflected in the aceh peace agreement through the fulfillment of human rights for the people of aceh, but also in the loga that postulates that, the aceh education must adapt the local community's characteristics, potential, and needs. the loga expressively provides a hope for comprehensive education reform in aceh, as one of an autonomous region with special privileges. peace education is considered to be urgent for aceh to build a peaceful society after such a protracted conflict. according to the participant of the aceh education bureau the head of the curriculum unitthat, the aceh government has tried to develop the curriculum that reflects the uniqueness of aceh, including the peace education, but only the acehnese language has been realized. it is because of the ministerial decree that, that all schools have to implement the education unit level curriculum (ktsp) and the 2013 curriculum throughout indonesia. he further said that: zainal et al. 389 "actually, since 2014, the aceh government has started the process of designing the local wise curriculum, but it was stopped/delayed in 2015, because of the financial wise. only in 2017, the curriculum was reorganized and completed it in october 2018, for it was targeted to be disseminated in november of the same year. it was planned to be implemented in several schools as a pilot project in 2019. this curriculum is called the aceh curriculum, which encompasses islamic education, peace education, and acehnese local wisdom.” similarly, zainal (2016), by quoting the head of aceh education bureau’s statement argued that, peace education had been discussed and debated among stakeholders of aceh education, but there was no decision and a clear implementation mechanism. even some teachers believed that religious education and moral beliefs (aqidah-akhlak) have covered the peace education, or else, it can be taught in a local wise subject, such as acehnese cultural history. accordingly, the government of aceh has tried to design a new aceh education curriculum as mandated by the peace agreement and the loga. the governor of aceh strongly committed to implement peace education at all levels of formal schools throughout aceh. it is reflected in his saying that "the aceh government wished to incorporate aceh history and peace agreement into the education curriculum, from elementary to senior high school” (zainal et al., 2020). however, the curriculum reflects more on implementing islamic education in aceh rather than peace education specifically. the government's policy regarding aceh education which is articulated in aceh regulations (qanun aceh) reflects that education reform in aceh is more about strengthening islamic education. as a result, the main education stakeholders in the district, such as education officials and teachers in schools, do not understand peace and its relationship with education. some teachers interviewed do not understand peace education, and some teachers even understand peace in term of a peace agreement. for instance, a teacher at a secondary school asked the researcher, "what is peace education? i have only heard about it now." moreover, another east aceh education office participant stated that "aceh is now peaceful, so peace education is less relevant to be implemented in schools. in east aceh, there have never been brawls between students. the regulatory policies of the aceh government in responding to normative chances for the implementation of peace education were summarized in table 2. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 table 2. normative chances and aceh government’s policies the chances the policies mou helsinki loga qanun aceh (aceh regulations) practices point 1.4.2, the legislature of aceh redrafts the legal code for the community based on the universal principles of human rights on civil and political rights and economic and social and cultural rights. 1. article 16/2/c, the aceh government is obliged to provide quality education and add local content according to islamic law. 2. article 215, the education system in the aceh is united with the national standard, which is adapted to the local community's characteristics, potential, and needs. 3. article 216/ (1) and (2), every acehnese has the right to quality and islamic education in line with science and technology developments. education is carried out based on the principles of democracy and justice by upholding human rights, islamic values, culture, and national diversity. 1. qanun, aceh number 5/2008, the education system implemented in aceh is based on the national standard that is modified by integrating islamic values. 2. qanun aceh number 11/2014, the education in aceh is based on islam and conducted in line with the national standard. 3. qanun aceh number 9/2015 amends and affirms the implementation of the aceh islamic curriculum. 4. qanun aceh number 6/2015 on badan reintegrasi aceh (bra aceh reintegration office), education is one of the sectors handled by bra, which works on the peace issue. 1. the aceh government had programs similar to peace education carried out by the culture and tourism department. in 2012, it held a workshop to build teachers, communities, and youth's capacity on peace education and culture in all districts and cities in aceh. 2. aceh mid-term development plans (2012-2017) stated that islamic education covers all aspects of human life, including physical, mental, faiths, morals, emotional, aesthetic, and social aspects. 3. in 2018, the aceh government launched an islamic curriculum in aceh following the national curriculum with additional compulsory subjects related to islamic education, which includes the qur'an and hadith, faith and morals, islamic law, the history of islam, and arabic language. 4. at the end of 2019, the aceh reintegration agency (bra), in collaboration with the aceh education office, initiated the aceh peace education syllabus writing. this syllabus covers the history of the aceh conflict, resolution, conception of peace, reintegration, post-conflict reconciliation, and the importance of negotiation and diplomacy. the government planned to implement the syllabus through local content lessons in 2020. table 2 shows that aceh peace agreement (mou helsinki) gives a chance for peace education through human rights concepts. the loga confirms it by adding a framework with islamic values, acehnese culture, needs, and indonesian diversity. however, the government responded it by qanun that only confirms the conduction of islamic values in line with the national educational zainal et al. 391 system. meanwhile, peace education was explicitly carried out by aceh reintegration office, authorized to reintegrate various programs and activities to strengthen peace (article 14 (h) qanun aceh number 6/2015). based on the facts, this study argues that the government is not seriously in implementing peace education; instead it prefer to the launching of the aceh islamic curriculum, which does not encompass peace education and the local history. it is arguably that being an autonomous region, aceh has been given a chance to construct islamic identity in the education system’s new context. teachers are required to integrate faiths, morals, and sharia into every subject (junaidi, 2020; nazir, 2017). despite of thalal (2010) argument that peace education needs to be urgently implemented to guarantee the sustainability of peace, they denied the peace education. peace education targets all segments of the community, namely the ex-combatants, government officers, the military, and the civilians. teachers and students belong to a civilian group at school and employ multicultural education to address ethnicity and ethnic diversities in aceh. furthermore, in a sociological context, the policies of the aceh government in responding to implement peace education are also explained through sociological chances based on the supports of civil society in implementing peace education. through the curriculum unit of the education bureau, the aceh government admitted that many organizations had taken a role in post-conflict peace education in aceh. the participant stated that: "we really appreciate the programs of civil society organizations in assisting the task of the aceh government in building and restoring post-conflict aceh. however, they proposed their respective concepts and programs to be adopted by the government into the school curriculum. for example, an organization working in human rights proposed human rights education, environmental organizations said that environmental education needs to be adopted in the curriculum, and organizations engaged in peace education said that peace education is crucial to be implemented in schools. there were even organizations that suggested anti-drug education should be adopted into the aceh education curriculum. so if all these concepts must be included in curriculum, it is very burdensome for students. we think that islamic education already represents all the concepts of education." base on above description, the aceh government is actually very supportive to peace education programs, including environmental education, human rights, and anti-drugs, which can strengthen journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 peace education. however, due to students' burden, islamic education is considered adequate for peace education. a similar thing has also been emphasized in introductory books or peace education modules compiled by civil society organizations, such as unicef and peace generation. the aceh government appreciated the peace education program of non-governmental organizations. it was shown in the foreword of the peace education books or modules that guide the organization in carrying out the program. this is as described in table 3 table 3. sociological chance and aceh government’s policies the chances the policies supports of civil society and education institutions recognition and hopes 1. during (2001) and after (2006) the conflict, unicef supported developing a pilot peace education course for secondary school students based on local cultural and islamic values. 2. since 2007, peace generation has cooperated with international and national nongovernment organizations to train teachers and youths to teach peace in schools and communities. 3. in 2010, nine universities in aceh collaborated to develop a conflict resolution education curriculum. 4. in 2015, universities throughout aceh agreed to form a network for peace. 1. after carefully examining this peace education curriculum, the head of the regional office of the national education department of aceh fully supported its implementation as a pilot project for secondary school during the 2001/2002 academic year. they hoped that peace education targeting public high schools in the province contributes to realizing a lasting solution to the conflict hampering aceh. 2. aceh governor stated a foreword in publishing a book of 12 values of peace and stated that these values need to be taught to students with the possibility of reaching to all groups. therefore, the expected parties need to support the implementation of the peace education program. table 3 shows a strong will from civil society to implement peace education in formal schools. their concepts and programs are suitable and recognized by the government throughout the region. sociologically, civil society plays an essential role in supporting and enabling aceh government to implement peace education in secondary school. however, the government only appreciated their activities by rhetoric statements, and consequently, after their programs ended in 2019, the government failed to follow it up, as explained in the previous section. several teachers who were trained about peace education admit that the concept of peace education taught and practiced by ngos is important and relevant to be implemented in schools throughout zainal et al. 393 aceh. the latter further explain that the material is in accordance with islamic values and acehnese culture. a religious teacher whom unicef trained in 2008 said that after receiving training in peace education in 2008, the modules given to him were taught in religious subjects. according to him, the materials of the peace education module have represented religious subject matter, especially faith and morals. therefore, he argues that the peace education module is fundamental for every teacher who teaches religious subjects, especially for aqidah-akhlak (faiths and morals) subject. in this case, the participants mentioned: "the education module distributed by unicef was complete specifically for akidah-akhlak material, and it was in accordance with the cultural values of the acehnese.” the curriculum for peace education of unicef in 2002 consisted of the following six chapters. 1. introspection and sincerity, with the scope including“i look at myself," "i manage anger," i" am sorry and sincere," "me and my attitude,” and “your mouth is your tiger.” 2. rights and obligations, with the scope including“me and education," "us and extortion,” and “the state is our responsibility.” 3. the plurality of creation, with the scope including“me and nature," "we live in diversity,” and “we are different and the same.” 4. conflict and violence, with the scope, we are enemies to conflict, social inequality, and drugs. 5. democracy and justice, with the scope we negotiate, social peace, and democracy, with respect to the law and economic justice. 6. the scope related the way to a peaceful family by craving solutions to problems in love and peace. the module was revised in 2006 with a manual entitled "aqidah akhlaq” curriculum in the context of peace education, covered eleven chapters as follows: 1. the qur'an is a mirror of my life, with subchapters, such as "i love the quran," "the qur'an is our guidelines," "the qur'an and the humanitarian approach," "the qur'an of the universe,” and “me and nature.” 2. the prophet is my idol, with the following subchapters, “my prophet is a selected man," "we are progressors of the prophet's message," "my nature is zuhud," "we keep the mandate,” and “i am sorry and sincere.” journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 3. science and charity, with subchapters, including“why the tsunami," "the impact of the tsunami and our solidarity," "is there compassion among us," "let us respect others," and "we are doomed.” 4. practice and the day of justice, with subchapters including“our deeds positive or negative," "let's reach the reward," "death very close," "doomsday comes,” and “heaven yes, no hell.” 5. negativity adverse the nation, with subchapters, such as“slander threatens our peace," "my people were destroyed because of corruption," "collusion and nepotism," "i reject hedonistic and materialistic,” and “is our mutual help wrong?” 6. life skills, with subchapters, including“we are educated teenagers," "let’s be a wise person," "we are the visionary generation," "let's be a teen leader,” and “i have self-esteem.” 7. rights and obligations, with subchapters, including“our rights and duties," "we live in diversity,” and “we are different but the same.” 8. what's with the media, with subchapters including“educating our media?" "my favorite broadcast on television," and “watching violence is saddening.” 9. the problems of contemporary youth, with subchapters including“free sex, no way," "pornography drops our pride," "drug is my enemy,” and “depression is not my best friend.” 10. introspection and self-concept, with subchapters including "i look up," "do not be afraid and anxious," "manage anger, strengthen yourself in grief, and attitude.” 11. conflict and peace, with subchapters including“me and conflict," "your mouth is your tribe," "we manage conflict," "we are democratic," "we love peace,” and “religion is peace.” in addition to that, peace generation curriculum covers twelve aspects; self acceptance (i am proud to be me), prejudice (no suspicion, no prejudice), racism (different cultures, still friends), religious tolerance (different beliefs do not have to result in enemies), sexism (both males and females are human), wealth and poverty (wealthy not proud, poor not insecure), gangs and cliques (if you are a gentleman you do not need to be in a gang), diversity (the beauty of diversity), understanding conflict (conflict makes you more mature), violence (use your brains, not your brawn), asking for forgiveness (not to proud to admit wrong), and forgiving others (not stingy in giving forgiveness) (rusyana, 2012a, 2012b). however, these programs were evaluated. it was concluded that they possess numerous similarities, which are not sustainable due to a lack of government funding and failure to integrate it into a holistic curriculum reform process (unicef, 2014). aceh government prioritized the zainal et al. 395 implementation of the national curriculum in 2013 and improved the quality of education. therefore, peace education is "a discourse" among stakeholders and a priority of the aceh education development." according to education stakeholders’ peace education is better integrated into the subjects of social sciences, such as the natural sciences. therefore, it does not add subjects in the curriculum structure that burdening students. furthermore, the aceh government paid more attention to making an aceh islamic curriculum, which is implemented in line with the national curriculum, as shown in table 2. in sum, the description above indicates that the aceh government's policy in implementing peace education seems ambiguous. on the one hand, it wants peace education to be carried out in schools specifically and supports peace education programs carried out by non-governmental organizations. while on the other, the local regulations do not explain peace education. these regulations explain more about aceh islamic education and the implementation of the national curriculum. the implications of aceh government's policy on implementing peace education at secondary schools the ambiguous policy of the aceh government regarding the implementation of peace education in schools has implicated differences in understanding peace education among education stakeholders in the district, and resulting in different implementations of peace education at secondary schools. a public senior high school teacher stated, "it is important to teach peace education as a special subject separately, by adding subjects to the national curriculum. if the material of the peace education module is inserted into other subjects, it can only be absorbed 2030 percent." meanwhile, teachers at vocational high schools stated that "religious education and citizenship education already include peace education in them. in addition, peace education can also be carried out through extracurricular activities such as scouting and islamic arts and spiritual activities (such as joint yasin recitation, speech, and islamic studies)." the findings are detailed in table 4. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 table 4. the implications of aceh government’s policies on implementing peace education at secondary school no. the implications of the aceh government’s policies on peace education implementation 1 some secondary schools teachers stated that peace education had been included not only in the religious and civic education, but also becoming part of extracurricular activities, including scouts, artistic, and islamic grouped activities, such as reading al-quran (surah yasin) together, public speaking, and other islamic activities. they, therefore, believed that peace education as a subject that should not be taught in a particular way. what is more, aceh is peaceful region. 2 some secondary schools taught their students using the unicef peace education curriculum. teachers stated that religious subjects and civic education generally contained peace education. hence, specific learning of peace education is strongly needed. such as unicef peace education module is crucial for every teacher that teaches religious subjects, especially for faith and morals subjects.  table 4 shows different understanding with the implementation of peace education. some schools perceived that peace education has to be conducted in a particular subject beside religious and civic education. while, they are schools that considered peace education is no longer needed, because it has been represented by religious and civic education. discussion, conclusion and implications based on the above findings, the aceh government's policies are not in consistent with its perception of the important of peace education and its appreciation of the peace education programs implemented by civil society organizations. as it is reflected in the qanun of aceh regarding implementing education in aceh after the armed conflict has not reflected a clear path for implementing peace education in aceh. the qanun further stipulates that education in aceh is implemented following national education standards and islamic values. despite the fact that, aceh post-conflict reality indicates the needs for peace education to build and maintain peace, so positive peace in aceh can be realized. davies (2016) argues that peace education enables to displace oppressive regimes and challenge the normalization of violence. it is similar to buckland (2006); education has the potential to play a significant role both directly and indirectly in building peace. it restores countries to a positive development path and recovers the damage caused by civil war. thus, peace education is an essential prerequisite for sustainable peace. in addition, the study also shows that the terminology human rights represented the education element in a peace agreement cannot be the milestone for peace education to be implemented. zainal et al. 397 similarly, the loga does not regulate specifically peace education to be implemented in the schools. the government has interpreted education as limited to each citizen's basic social needs that must be met, but it fails to see the double sided implication of education, as the root cause of conflict and source of power to transform conflict sustainably. consequently, the relevant peace education frameworks to acehnese culture and subjective values initiated by ngos had limited transformation effects on building positive peace in aceh. the findings are in line with lauritzen (2013) that peace education is not initially grounded in national policy, and perceptions of irrelevance are two reasons for lack of motivation and an unwillingness to implement peace education in schools. the findings are also in accordance with harber (2019), who stated that most empirical evidence of peace education implementation is negative in the light of political contexts, which are not supportive. some peace education projects show the possibility of activities carried out with little or no evidence of systemic transformation. furthermore, this study argues that human rights concepts cannot be the proper foundation for post-conflict education reform to implement peace education. it needs to be initially grounded, clearly and explicitly stated in a peace agreement, and then restated in the law following the agreement as a mandate that requires the provincial government to make policies that encourage the implementation of peace education in schools. dupuy (2008) and poppema (2009) argued that the educational policies of former conflict states should be transformed depending on the agreements, such as the history and the causes of the war, as well as on the conflicting interests of the actors involved. such this path was used in resolving a violent conflict in colombia. morales (2021) stated the colombian government and the guerrilla group fuerzas armadas revolucionarias de colombia (farc) – the revolutionary armed forces of colombia reached a peace agreement, and education was set to be essential to promote peaceful relationships among young people and foster their active engagement in society. accordingly, the colombian government created a peace and citizenship education course. it was called a peace lecture, and the course had a positive impact on the communities. nevertheless, this study does not question why the education aspect was not clearly regulated in the aceh peace agreement. according to dupuy (2008), there are three reasons an agreement has not included education as an essential aspect for long-term peacebuilding. firstly, education is frequently viewed as a developmental rather than a humanitarian issue that needs to be addressed outside the peacemaking process. secondly, individuals and parties involved in peacemaking journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 processes are more concerned with the immediate cessation of direct violence and satisfying the demands of warring parties for a piece of the political pie than outlining long-term educational and sociopolitical reforms and responses. finally, the conflict is classified as an identity, secessionist, revolutionary, or factional. moreover, educational specialists are not present during a peacemaking process, with education playing an essential role in the conflict outbreak. consequently, the aceh government's policies regarding peace education have implications on different models of peace education implementation at secondary schools. in east aceh, for instance, secondary schools have implemented peace education in their perspectives. some schools include peace education in religious and civic education. they view that peace education also has been conducted through extracurricular activities. in such a case, the goal of peace education cannot be achieved optimally; bring about behavior changes that enable children, youth, and adults to prevent conflict and violence, both overt and structural, and resolve conflict peacefully. what is more, to create a conducive and peaceful environment at an intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, national, or international level (das & das, 2014; eliasa et al., 2019). thus, it is challenging for the acehnese to have positive peace, social, economic, political, and environment/ecology relationships (navarro-castro & nario-galace, 2010) and a spiritual dimension in their personality (lederach, 2015). it is undeniable that civic and religious education contain peaceful values, such as tolerance, empathy, democracy, justice and equality, fraternal, integrity, humanity, unity, solidarity, and ecology (baidhawy, 2014; darolia, 2020; saputri, 2018; sumardjoko & musyiam, 2018; white, 2020; wulandari, 2018). somehow, peace education is related to material that includes peaceful values and attitudes, behaviors, and skills to peacefully respond and solve problems to meet the interests and needs. all these are integrated into the process, learning methods, and the school environment as well as the socio-cultural context of the community. the process of teaching these values is more effectively carried out by learning the local culture and wisdom (ritiauw, 2017; sumardjoko & musyiam, 2018). this is in line with hamid et al. (2020), which model of citizenship education learning in schools to achieve the literacy skills of citizenship culture and the ethos of peace in students on strengthening local culture, which is a strategic choice. therefore, learning peace education represented by civic and religious education is less precise. it needs to be combined with other lessons or taught separately, especially regarding conflicts and their resolution models. formal education is the vital space for learning to accept diversity in society zainal et al. 399 and develop inclusive competence and skills among children, which are crucial to maintaining social solidarity, cohesion, and social peace (fontana, 2016). based on the above discussion, this study argues that, although the human right is an important part of the peace agreement, it does not empower the aceh government to reform the education system that make a path for peace education to be implemented optimally. the central government restricted the aceh government from converting its education system into a medium for long-term conflict transformation. it is similar to fontana (2016), who stated that the decentralization and power-sharing model adopted after the conflict does not promote region actors to design and deliver educational services that contribute to long-term conflict management. however, fontana did not link his argument to the peace agreement. thus, this study highlights that a peace agreement needs to arrange peace education concepts to encourage decentralized governments to make policies in formal peace education implementation. then it should be followed by a central government regulation that explicitly describes the reform of the education system in the formerly provinces of civil conflict. in the light of the discussions above, this study emphasizes that less obvious educational setting in the peace agreement (e.g., human rights concept for education reform) has implications for education reform policies that do not support the implementation of peace education in a particular way in schools although a former conflict province is granted special autonomy, such as aceh. as a result, education stakeholders in schools implement peace education following their perspective in strengthening the national curriculum and ignoring the primary function of education in conflictaffected society to transform the conflict into a positive peace. this study, however, has some limitations in explaining local government policies in implementing peace education. firstly, with respect to participant, the governor of aceh, as the holder of regional authority, was not selected to be one of the interviewees, regarding the authority of aceh government in reforming national education in relation to aceh. therefore, future research needs to be carried out to examine why the indonesian government does not consider peace education an essential element to build a peaceful society in post-conflict provinces. further studies need to consider why aceh government failed to follow up the ngos' peace education concepts, including islamic values and acehnese culture. the study suggests that, the indonesian government should give a chance for the aceh government to make a policy that supports peace education that would be implemented at schools journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 in aceh. in so doing, firstly, teachers need to be trained regularly for their capacity building and competent in transforming conflict, mitigating violence, and addressing adversaries among students and the community. finally, the curriculum must compose of knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills of peace education to enhance students' understanding of their roles as peacebuilders in society. references abdi, m. t. (2020). the role of peace-education as a coexistence, reconciliation and peacebuilding device in ethiopia. electronic research journal of social sciences and humanities, 2, 61-74. andrews, k. (2019). book review: human rights and global diversity: basic ethics in action. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 71-74. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.6 ansori, m. (2012). from insurgency to bureaucracy: free aceh movement, aceh party and the new face of conflict. stability: international journal of security and development, 1(1). doi: http://doi.org/10.5334/sta.ah ajaps, s., & obiagu, a. (2020). increasing civic engagement through civic education: a critical consciousness theory perspective. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 akulluezati, b., ssempala, c., & ssenkusu, p. (2011). teachers’ perceptions of the effects of young people’s war experiences on teaching and learning in northern uganda. in paulson, julia (ed.), education, conflict and development. (pp. 185-207). the united kingdom: symposium books ltd. asamonye, c., osuagwu, l., & kalu, r. (2014). peace education and economic development of african states: the nigerian situation. world educators forum. ashton, c. (2002). evaluation report: program pendidikan damai [peace education program]. jakarta: unicef—jakarta and programa pendidikan damai—aceh. assegaf, a. r. (2016). pendidikan tanpa kekerasan: tipologi kondisi, kasus dan konsep [nonviolence education: typology of conditions, cases and concepts]. yogyakarta: tiara wacana. ay, s. ç., keskin, h. k., & akilli, m. (2019). examining the effects of negotiation and peer mediation on students' conflict resolution and problem-solving skills. international journal of instruction, 12(3), 717-730. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12343a https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.6 zainal et al. 401 baidhawy, z. (2014). pendidikan agama islam untuk mempromosikan perdamaian dalam masyarakat plural [islamic religious education to promote peace in a plural society]. analisis: jurnal studi keislaman, 14(2), 289-309. https://doi.org/10.24042/ajsk.v14i2.690 bajaj, m. (2016). in the gaze of gandhi: peace education in contemporary india. in bajaj, m., & hantzopoulos, m. (eds.), peace education: international perspectives. (pp. 107-122). new york: bloomsbury publishing. bar-tal, d., & rosen, y. (2009). peace education in societies involved in intractable conflicts: direct and indirect models. review of educational research, 79(2), 557-575. https://doi.org/10.3102%2f0034654308330969. bar-tal, d., & rosen, y. (2014). conditions for the development of peace education in societies involved in intractable conflict. in berliner, david, c. and kupermintz h. (eds.), fostering change in institutions, environments, and people: a festschrift in honor of gavriel salomon, (pp. 231-250). new york: routledge. bar-tal, d., vered, s., & fuxman, s. (2020). between open minded critical thinking and closed minded allegiance: educational tensions in societies involved in intractable conflict. advances in political psychology, (1-26). https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12687 barron, p., rahman, e. a., & nugroho, k. (2013). the contested corners of asia: subnational conflict and international development assistance: the case of aceh, indonesia: united kongdom: theasia foudation. bevington, t., kurian, n., & cremin, h. (2020). peace education and citizenship education: shared critiques. in the palgrave handbook of citizenship and education, 155-168. brewer, j. d. (2010). peace processes: a sociological approach: polity. retrieved december, 25, 2020, from https://www.qub.ac.uk/research/gri/mitchellinstitute/filestore/filetoupload,756763,en. pdf brock, c. (2011). education, refugees and asylum seekers. united kingdom: bloomsbury publishing. buckland, p. (2006). post-conflict education: time for a reality check. forced migration review, 26, (7-8). retrieved may 21, 2020, from https://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/fmrdownloads/en/education/buckland.pdf cabedo-mas, a. (2015). challenges and perspectives of peace education in schools: the role of music. australian journal of music education (1), 75-85. retrieved february, 24, 2021, from http://repositori.uji.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10234/159039/69274.pdf?sequence=1 clarke-habibi, s. (2005). transforming worldviews: the case of education for peace in bosnia and herzegovina. journal of transformative education, 3(1), 33-56. retrieved may 28, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 2021, from https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/52098062/2005_clarke-habibi__transforming_worldviews.pdf. cremin, h., & guilherme, a. (2016). violence in schools: perspectives (and hope) from galtung and buber. educational philosophy and theory, 48(11), 1123-1137. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2015.1102038 cremin, h., & bevington, t. (2017). positive peace in schools: tackling conflict and creating a culture of peace in the classroom. taylor & francis. creswell, j. w. (2013). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. sage publications. creswell, j. w., & poth, c. n. (2016). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. sage publications. creswell, j. w., & creswell, j. d. (2017). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. sage publications. cromwell, a. (2019). how peace education motivates youth peacebuilding: examples from pakistan. international journal of educational development, 66, 62-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2019.02.006 cunningham, j. (2014). conflict transformation through school: a curriculum for sustainable peace. institute of education press. darolia, l. (2020). "he’s on fire for justice!”: using critical conversations to explore sociopolitical topics in elementary classrooms. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 das, s., & das, k. k. (2014). imparting peace education through coscholastic activities at the school level. european scientific journal, (25-37). retrieved april 13, 2020, from https://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/view/4851. davies, l. (2016). the politics of peace education in post-conflict countries. unpublished manuscript. retrieved august 16, 2020, from https://soc.kuleuven.be/crpd/files/workingpapers/working-paper-davies.pdf de giusti, a. (2020). policy brief: education during covid-19 and beyond. revista iberoamericana de tecnología en educación y educación en tecnología(26), e12-e12. https://doi.org/10.24215/18509959.26.e12 demir, s. (2011). an overview of peace education in turkey: definitions, difficulties, and suggestions--a qualitative analysis. educational sciences: theory and practice, 11(4), 1739-1745. retrieved march 23, 2021, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej962672.pdf https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 zainal et al. 403 dupuy, k. e. (2008). education in peace agreements, 1989–2005. conflict resolution quarterly, 26(2), 149-166. https://doi.org/10.1002/crq.228 eliasa, e. i., kartadinata, s., ilfiandra, i., & nurihsan, j. (2019). pedagogy of peacefulness as an effort of peaceful education at school. indonesian journal of educational counseling, 3(2), 85-96. https://doi.org/10.30653/001.201932.99 emkic, e. (2018). conflict transformation, sustainable education and peace education. in reconciliation and education in bosnia and herzegovina (pp. 19-36). springer. retrieved february 22, 2021, from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-73034-9_2 fitriah, a. (2017). decentralization, identity construction, and conflict: education under aceh's special autonomy. unpublished dissertation, massey university palmerston north, new zealand. fontana, g. (2016). educational decentralisation in post-conflict societies: approaches and constraints. third world thematics: a twq journal, 1(6), 857-878. https://doi.org/10.1080/23802014.2016.1338921 fountain, s. (1999). peace education in unicef: unicef, programme division. retrieved april 27, 2020, from https://inee.org/system/files/resources/unicef_peace_education_1999_en_0.pdf gibbs, b. (2020). critical teaching in classrooms of healing: struggles and testimonios. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 95-111. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.6 gill, s., & niens, u. (2014). education as humanisation: dialogic pedagogy in post-conflict peacebuilding. in: taylor & francis. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2013.864522. grewal, i., maher, a., watters, h., clemens, d., & webb, k. (2019). rewriting teacher education: food, love, and community. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 44-60. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.3 hamid, s. i., istianti, t., & abdillah, f. (2020). the indonesian proverb of peace: educational semiotics analysis for cultural citizenship literacy. proceedings international conference on education and regional development iv, re-thinking of the current education and disruptive curriculum in the era 5.0 (pp. 689-697). bandung: program studi pengembangan kurikulum sps-upi. harber, c. (2014). education and international development: theory, practice and issues. united kingdom: symposium books ltd. harber, c. (2018). building back better? peace education in post-conflict africa. asian journal of peacebuilding, 6. https://doi.org/10.18588/201805.00a045. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.3 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 harber, c. (2019). evidence on curriculum—peace education in asia (and the middle east). in schooling for peaceful development in post-conflict societies (pp. 135-165): springer. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17689-1_7 harber, c., & mncube, v. (2012). democracy, education and development: theory and reality. other education: the journal of educational alternatives, 1(1), 104-120. harber, c., & sakade, n. (2009). schooling for violence and peace: how does peace education differ from ‘normal’schooling? journal of peace education, 6(2), 171-187. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400200903086599 harris, i. m., & morrison, m. l. (2012). peace education. north carolina: mcfarland & company. higgins, s., & novelli, m. (2020). rethinking peace education: a cultural political economy approach. comparative education review, 64(1), 1-20. retrieved january 29, 2021, from https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/706759. husin, a. (2009). educating for islamic pluralism: lessons from indonesia. islam and civilisational renewal icr journal, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.52282/icr.v1i1.16 hymel, s., & darwich, l. (2018). building peace through education. journal of peace education, 15(3), 345-357. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400201.2018.1535475. ikechukwu, n. (2014). planning and managing peace education in nigeria. lead paper presented at the annual conference of association of educational planning and administration, (naeap), abuja. jäger, u. (2015). peace education and conflict transformation. berghof foundation operations gmbh. johnson, d. w., & johnson, r. t. (2006). peace education for consensual peace: the essential role of conflict resolution. journal of peace education, 3(2), 147-174. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400200600874792. junaidi, m. (2020). landasan inovasi pendidikan kurikulum islami di aceh (landasan yuridis, historis, dan keilmuan) [the foundation for innovation of islamic curriculum education in aceh (juridical, historical, and scientific foundations)]. at-tarbawi, 12. doi:https://doi.org/10.32505/tarbawi.v12i1.2064 khairuddin, a. z., abd razak, a., idrus, f., & ismail, n. a. h. (2019). challenges of offering peace education among educational leaders: a case study of malaysian public primary school. american journal of qualitative research, 3(1), 57-71. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5811. zainal et al. 405 king, e. (2011). the multiple relationships between education and conflict: reflections of rwandan teachers and students. in educating children in conflict zones: a tribute to jackie kirk (pp. 137-151). teachers college press. lafer, s., & tarman, b. (2019). editorial 2019: (2)1, special issue. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), i-v. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.ed lamanauskas, v. (2015). peace pedagogy or/and education for peace: some actualities. problems of education in the 21st century, 63. retrieved june 27, 2020, from https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37482209/4-6.lamanauskas_vol.63.pdf? lauritzen, s. (2013). building a culture of peace: peace education in kenyan primary schools university of york. lauritzen, s. m. (2016). building peace through education in a post-conflict environment: a case study exploring perceptions of best practices. international journal of educational development, 51, 77-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.09.001 lederach, j. (2015). little book of conflict transformation: clear articulation of the guiding principles by a pioneer in the field: simon and schuster. lerch, j. c., & buckner, e. (2018). from education for peace to education in conflict: changes in unesco discourse, 1945–2015. globalisation, societies and education, 16(1), 27-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2017.1387769 lopes cardozo, m. t., & hoeks, c. c. (2015). losing ground: a critical analysis of teachers’ agency for peacebuilding education in sri lanka. journal of peace education, 12(1), 5673. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400201.2014.940516 madison, d. s. (2011). critical ethnography: method, ethics, and performance. sage publications. maleki, h., & komishani, f. f. (2014). explain the scope and components of peace-oriented curriculum in order to provide a conceptual model of peace education in schools. international journal of economy, management and social sciences, 3(10), 600-603. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/messages/downloadsexceeded.html mcleod, j. (2014). a peaceful pedagogy: teaching human rights across the curriculum. procediasocial and behavioral sciences, 152, 1225-1232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.303. mendenhall, m., & chopra, n. (2016). educating for peace in kenya: insights and lessons learned from peace education initiatives across the country. in bajaj, m., & hantzopoulos, m. (eds.), peace education: international perspectives. (pp. 89-106122). new york: bloomsbury publishing journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. sage. miller, m. a. (2012). self-governance as a framework for conflict resolution in aceh. autonomy and armed separatism in south and southeast asia, 36-58. morales, e. (2021). peace education and colombia’s efforts against violence: a literature review of cátedra de la paz. revista latinoamericana de estudios educativos, 51(2), 1342. https://doi.org/10.48102/rlee.2021.51.2.384 navarro-castro, l., & nario-galace, j. (2010). peace education: a pathway to the culture of peace: center for peace education, miriam college. nazir, m. (2017). pendidikan berbasis syariat islam [education based on islamic shari'a]. in: zahir publishing. retrieved july 10, 2020, from https://repository.arraniry.ac.id/id/eprint/5493/ ni’mah, e. h. (2019). pengembangan perangkat pembelajaran akidah akhlak berbasis peace education di mts manbaul huda tunjungrejo [development of peace education-based faith and moral learning tools at mts manbaul huda tunjungrejo] (doctoral dissertation, uin walisongo). retreived september 23, 2020, from http://eprints.walisongo.ac.id/12149/1/tesis_1703018025_evi_hidayatin_ni%27 mah.pdf novelli, m., & cardozo, m. t. l. (2008). conflict, education and the global south: new critical directions. international journal of educational development, 28(4), 473-488.doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2008.01.004 novelli, m., higgins, s., ugur, m., & valiente, o. (2014). the political economy of education systems in conflict-affected contexts: a rigorous literature review. retrieved october 27, 2020, from https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/101648/1/101648.pdf novelli, m., & smith, a. (2011). the role of education in peacebuilding: a synthesis report of findings from lebanon, nepal and sierra leone. retrieved october 27, 2020 https://pure.ulster.ac.uk/en/publications/the-role-of-education-in-peacebuilding-asynthesis-report-of-find. ofoegbu, f., & alonge, h. (2020). peace education innovation and head teachers’ administrative effectiveness in public basic schools in edo state. journal of teaching and teacher education, 8(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.12785/jtte/080102 palmer, d., & witanapatirana, k. (2020). exposing bias through a deficit thinking lens using content-analysis of macro level policies. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 23-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.02.2 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.02.2 zainal et al. 407 poppema, m. (2009). guatemala, the peace accords and education: a post‐conflict struggle for equal opportunities, cultural recognition and participation in education. globalisation, societies and education, 7(4), 383-408. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14767720903412218 price, r. (2019). lessons learned from education programmes' contribution to peace and stability. retrieved december 28, 2020, from https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/14482/577_educatio n_programming_and_peacebuilding.pdf?sequence=1 quayle, l. (2018). subnational conflict mitigation: networks, innovations, and the uncertain place of asean. in international security in the asia-pacific (pp. 331-356): springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60762-7_14 rahmadi, i., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113-133. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 ritiauw, s. p. (2017). the development of design model of conflict resolution education based on cultural values of pela. jurnal cakrawala pendidikan, 36(3). https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v36i3.14353 rusyana, a. y. (2012a). building peace generation: how the islamic values of peace to be educated in indonesia. edukasi: jurnal penelitian pendidikan agama dan keagamaan, 10(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.32729/edukasi.v10i2.156 rusyana, a. y. (2012b). raising up 100.000 young peacemakers: disseminating the islamic values of peace among muslim youth. annual international conference on islamic studies. retreved january 25, 2021, from http://digilib.uinsby.ac.id/7558/ saputri, t. (2018). the values of peace education in textbook of islamic education for senior high school. retrieved january 25, 2021, from http://repository.iainpurwokerto.ac.id/4619/ shea, n. (2016). nongovernment organizations as mediators: making peace in aceh, indonesia. global change, peace & security, 28(2), 177-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/14781158.2016.1162778 shepler, s. (2011). helping our children will help in the reconstruction of our country: repatriated refugee teachers in post-conflict sierra leone and liberia. educating children in conflict zones: research policy and practice for systematic change, 199-217. smith, a. (2010). the influence of education on conflict and peace building, background paper prepared for the education for all global monitoring report 2011 the hidden crisis: armed conflict and education, paris: unesco. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 377-409 smith, a., & ellison, c. (2015). the integration of education and peacebuilding: a review of the literature (research consortium on education and peacebuilding/university of ulster research output). retrieved from education and development, university of amsterdam website: https://educationanddevelopment. files. wordpress. com/2014/11/integration-ofeducation-and-peacebuilding. pdf. smith, a., mccandless, e., paulson, j., & wheaton, w. (2011). the role of education in peacebuilding: literature review. new york: unicef. smith ellison, c. (2014). the role of education in peacebuilding: an analysis of five change theories in sierra leone. compare: a journal of comparative and international education, 44(2), 186-207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2012.734138 strunc, a. (2020). editorial: are they listening? policymakers and their role in public education. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.ed sumardjoko, b., & musyiam, m. (2018). model of civic education learning based on the local wisdom for revitalizing values of pancasila. jurnal cakrawala pendidikan, 37(2). doi: https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v37i2.18037 tannous, j. m., & oueijan, h. n. (2011). a national peace education program in lebanon: exploring the possibilities from the leaders' perspectives. saint louis university. thalal, m. (2010). promoting peace education through multicultural education in aceh: lessons learned from the us context. paper presented at the proceedings of international seminar on sustaining peace in aceh through the integration of local values. retrieved may 16, 2020, from https://repository.ar-raniry.ac.id/id/eprint/10388/ tinker, v. (2016). peace education as a post-conflict peace building tool. all azimuth, 5(1), 2742. doi: https://doi.org/10.20991/allazimuth.167339 tonich, t. (2021). the role of principals’ leadership abilities in improving school performance through the school culture. journal of social studies education research, 12(1), 47-75. retrieved may 12, 2021, from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3078 tschirgi, n. (2011). conflict, education and peacebuilding: converging perspectives. conflict and education, 1(1), 1-5. turan, e. (2020). human rights education in religious culture and ethics courses. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 61-83. retrieved may 12, 2021, from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1257 turk, f. (2018). evaluation of the effects of conflict resolution, peace education and peer mediation: a meta-analysis study. international education studies, 11(1), 25-43. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v11n1p25 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.ed zainal et al. 409 unicef. (2014). peacebuilding, education, and advocacy: east asia and pacific desk review and situation analysis. in: unicef east asia and pacific regional office, thailand. wa-mbaleka, s. (2019, october). the researcher as an instrument. in world conference on qualitative research (pp. 33-41). springer, cham. wahyudin, d. (2018). peace education curriculum in the context of education sustainable development (esd). journal of sustainable development education and research, 2(1), 21-32. doi: https://doi.org/10.17509/jsder.v2i1.12354 walter, e. m., beach, a. l., henderson, c., williams, c. t., & ceballos-madrigal, i. (2021). understanding conditions for teaching innovation in postsecondary education: development and validation of the survey of climate for instructional improvement (scii). international journal of technology in education, 4(2), 166-199. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijte.46 wandix-white, d. (2020). care, control, and color: a conversation about disparities in school disciplinary practices. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 81-97. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.11 wenger, g. (2014). policies, perceptions and practices: teaching the recent conflict in secondary school history classes in post conflict, banda aceh indonesia. unpublished master’s thesis. university of amsterdam, amsterdam. white, c. (2020). wielding social media in the cyber-arena: globalism, nationalism, and civic education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 wolcott, h. f. (1994). transforming qualitative data: description, analysis, and interpretation. sage. wulandari, d. (2018). rekulturisasi nilai-nilai perdamaian melalui pembelajaran pkn transformatif [reculturation of peace values through transformative civics learning]. jurnal ppkn, 6(1), 1189. retrieved september 28, 2020, from http://ppkn.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/11/jurnal-ppkn-vol.-6-no.-1-januari-2018.pdf zainal, s. (2016). post-conflict peace education to build sustainable positive peace in aceh. proceedings of aics-social sciences, 6, 399-404. zainal, s., yunus, s., & jalil, f. a. (2020). direct integration of peace education and its effects on students' understanding of peace. journal of talent development and excellence, 12(1), 2112-2120. zembylas, m., charalambous, c., & charalambous, p. (2016). peace education in a conflictaffected society. cambridge university press. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2017:8 (3), 259-281 media implications in bahrain’s textbooks in light of unesco's media literacy principles fawaz alshorooqi1 & saleh moh'd rawadieh2 abstract this study aims to identify the media implications of textbooks in the kingdom of bahrain in light of the principles of media literacy emanating from the united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco). the study is based on the textbooks of arabic language and education for citizenship for the sixth primary, third intermediate and third secondary schools in the kingdom of bahrain for the academic year 2015/2016. the two researchers chose the descriptive and analytical approach to identify the media implications included in the selected textbooks. while conducting their study, the two researchers analyzed the implications of these textbooks based on the principles of media literacy stemming from unesco and its three fields, namely: knowledge and understanding of the media implications, assessment of media implications, and creation and use of media implications. the study revealed that these textbooks contained 168 media implications, with many of them concentrated in the field of knowledge and understanding of media implications. assessment of media implications, and its creation and use came second and third, respectively. in fact, the study particularly revealed that the implications relating to the knowledge of the role of the media in democratic societies and the content of assessing the development of media implications are the most prevalent in the various analyzed school textbooks. this significant finding is highly important from a curricular perspective. it shows that curriculum development in the kingdom of bahrain is highly connected to and influenced by a set of interdependent historical and political factors. keywords: media literacy, media implications, unesco introduction and theoretical framework school curricula are not only an essential element in the educational process, but also constitute the mainstay of any society that is looking forward to development, progress and prosperity, given the fact they provide a clear the perception of what we want the community to reach, and what we want its members to be in the future. therefore, paying attention to them and giving them priority in any national project are a strong evidence of the state’s serious endeavors to make the required qualitative leaps at all levels. 1 ph.d candidate, the university of jordan, fshurooqi@gmail.com 2 prof. dr. the university of jordan, s.rawadieh@ju.edu.jo mailto:fshurooqi@gmail.com mailto:s.rawadieh@ju.edu.jo journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 undoubtedly, the selection of experiences included in the curriculum, and organizing them and arranging them in a scientific, specialized and thoughtful way contributes significantly to the overall growth of the students, and interacts with other the elements of the curriculum, forming an effective curriculum through which the writers aim to reach the pre-set goals. if one of the main goals of education is to prepare responsible citizens who participate effectively in building community, a great responsibility rests on the curriculum in achieving this preparation for the learners by enhancing their higher thinking skills, especially those of analysis, criticism and creativity, so that the learners / citizens could contribute to analyzing their reality, criticizing it, restructuring it and to building their future. in order to be relevant, the curriculum must prepare the learner to deal with the different mass media, not only as a recipient or user, but also as an analyst of their implicit messages, who is capable of knowing and critiquing their goals, as well as producing conscious and influential media implications (baker, 2013). the learner receives a large number of messages and implications through various media outlets on a daily basis, which contributes significantly to shaping their habits, trends, values and attitudes. unless the learner is able to analyze and critique these messages and implications and then produce them, with this steady increase in the media, the effects of the media will be very dangerous to them as a learner and citizen (diop, 2011: p. 260). therefore, the educational systems in developed countries have been concerned with the media literacy and its inclusion in the curricula, either by adopting it as an independent curriculum or as a framework for a set of basic curricula. this global interest in media literacy finds its echoes in the kingdom of bahrain, in particular in the educational setting. through a systematic investigation of this issue in school curricula, it is hoped that this research study will add to our knowledge of media literacy in bahrain and in the whole world. it is true that the media situation is somehow clear in western countries. however, better understanding media literacy in the world requires exploring all parts of the world. it is also hoped that by examining the status of media literacy in the curricular scene in bahrain, local and international researchers, curriculum developers, textbook designers, as well as educational policy-makers will gain a deeper and more rigorous understanding of this issue in bahrain and the whole world. alshorooqi & rawadieh 261 theoretical framework: 1defining media literacy: the media literacy is defined as a process of teaching and learning for the individual through dealing with various media means and tools, making them able to make conscious choice and make objective critical judgment of what is presented to them in the media programs, and thus develop their ability to use the media positively and understand their roles in the modern social and civilizational context (fakhro, 2010: p. 221). according to the unesco (2010: p. 18), media literacy represents the essential competencies that equip the citizens with abilities to effectively engage with the media and develop critical thinking and lifelong learning skills to socialize and become active citizens. the usa-based institute of media literacy defined it as the general framework that provides the recipient with the ability to access all forms of media implications, analyze, evaluate and create them despite their variety –from print to video to internet (arab bureau of education, 2013: p. 25). in fact, interest in media literacy in europe goes back to 1920, and particularly france, where the cinema was included in the educational process. in 1933, the british government established the british film institute and sponsored several conferences in this area, as well as film applications in education. in 1972, the media literacy was incorporated into the curriculum of the french ministry of education. four years later, information and communication technology became an official part of the national curriculum of secondary schools in the france. schools were then asked to allocate 10% of the time to reach this goal (arab bureau of education, 2013: p. 49). the credit for laying the foundation bases for media literacy and its rules to the works of len masterman in england in 1989, and barry duncan in canada in the same year. masterman laid down the initial rules for this culture, while duncan and his fellow canadians defined the key concepts of media literacy. based on these concepts, the americans built their model of key concepts in media literacy in 1993, and many countries adopted the key concepts of canada and america in this culture (jolls & wilson, 2014). many international organizations have called for providing immediate support in various countries of the world for media literacy. the media literacy was developed in the international context through the unesco’s 1982 international symposium on media education at grunwald, federal republic of germany, which called for the need to initiate and support journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 comprehensive media education programs from pre-school to university level, and in adult education (arab bureau of education, 2013: p. 54). later, those efforts continued in the 1990 international conference in toulouse, france, in 1990, in which “media literacy” was defined as the ability to "read" and process information in order to participate fully in society (huwail and abduljaleel, 2011: p. 618), in the 1999 vienna conference, where the participants stressed that learners should learn how to analyze, critically reflect upon and create media texts, identify the sources of media texts, their political, social, commercial and/or cultural interests, and their contexts, and select appropriate media for communicating their own messages (fakhro, 2011: p. 223), and in the unesco’s “youth media education seminar” in seville, spain, in 2002, in which the importance of identifying the sources of media texts, their political, social, commercial and/or cultural interests, and their contexts, and the need to analyze and interpret media implications critically (huwail & abdul jalil, 2011) were also stressed. in 2007, during a meeting held in paris, the participants called for the need to integrate media education in the initial training of teachers, and develop comprehensive media education programs at all education levels (arab bureau of education, 2013). in 2009, the european charter for media literacy, which emphasized the importance of effective use of mass media in the individuals’ exercise of their rights in democracy and civic responsibility (fakhro, 2010). what can be noticed is that all these conferences focused on the need for media literacy to be an important element for achieving citizenship in the current information society (tanriverdi &apak, 2010). it was considered as a prerequisite to achieve this society. accordingly, various initiatives were adopted to implement such trends and turn them into in a reality. and as in most cases, any project or policy that targets society starts with education as an important instrument to achieve the desired goals. 2goals of media literacy: during the 1950s and 1960s, the aim of education in the media side was to protect children, society and social values from transgressions of corrupt media implications, and the focus was limited to the distinction between good media and corrupt media. in the 1970s and early 1980s, the focus shifted to how the media worked, the beneficiaries from it, how to produce media implications, and how to express reality. critical thinking, therefore, became the target of media literacy (huwail and abdul jalil, 2011). alshorooqi & rawadieh 263 in the 1990s, it was realized that media followers were also producers of media implications, that they were constantly trying to understand the media implications they received daily, and that there was a constant interaction between the media implications, the context in which they were presented, the background of the viewers, as well as their previous experiences and values. thus, the educational goal moved to enabling followers to process the media implications, and even to produce them in a manner that would suit their interests, their personalities and the communities from which they hail (huwail and abdul jalil, 2011). since the beginning of the twenty-first century, media literacy has become significant to providing learners with the skills they need, not only to ask media questions, but also to be critical, communicative, and implications-savvy producers (baker, 2013). media does not only affects culture but represents a culture of its own. therefore, the media literacy contributes to developing the student's skills, and to educating them in the field of media materials, to be able to interpret the messages to which they are exposed, and not be affected by their impact. the aim of disseminating the media literacy in public education institutions is not to increase the student's knowledge of the implications they are exposed to, but what is required is to know how to draw appropriate analytical questions for the material that he or she is watching, listening to or listening to. this is what is known as “critical autonomy”, or the individual's ability to think for themselves (arab bureau of education, 2013: p. 19). 3media literacy and school curricula: media literacy is a citizen's right in most countries of the world to guarantee or preserve the concept of freedom of expression and the right to access information. it is also necessary to build a stable society, and is concerned with enabling young people to overcome the negative effects of the media by providing them with the ability to study the media implications critically and to know the role of awareness-raising media and practice it. this will only be achieved through the creation of curricula that are implemented by trained and qualified in the media field so as to be able to provide students with the required behaviors and skills according to a set of goals that are derived from the values, customs and traditions of society, while ensuring communication with the surrounding world (arab bureau of education, 2013: p. 10). there are two options for teaching the media literacy in schools: the first is to teach it as an independent school subject to added to the general curriculum, while the second option is to integrate it in school subjects, and ask the teachers to cover it and give it sufficient attention (lafer, 2014; tarman & ayas, 2011; tarman, 2011; tarman & kuran, 2015; tyner, 2010). journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 many countries include media literacy in their curricula implicitly within different school subjects, such as the national language, foreign languages, national education, religious and moral education, and do not allocate a special curriculum for them. this applies to canada, which developed the necessary documents for media education in the curriculum, and to h finland, which teaches students the media literacy within the framework of the interdisciplinary concept, focusing on teaching communication skills, analyzing media texts and the ability to communicate using the media (fakhro, 2010:). the same applies to the united states, britain, hong kong and many other countries. on the other hand, media literacy is treated in independent school subjects in other countries such as hungary, turkey and some finnish schools (huwail and abdul jalil, 2011; tarman & acun, 2010). 4unesco’s media literacy principles: unesco seeks to disseminate media literacy to enhance the individual’s capacity to enjoy their fundamental rights, in particular as set out in article 19 of the universal declaration of human rights, which states that “everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.” the unesco media literacy is manifested in three areas (unesco, 2010: p. 18): knowledge and understanding of media implications: it includes providing learners with the necessary knowledge of the role of the media in a democratic society, and the concept of free media, as well as the contribution of the mass media to achieving freedom, media ethics, and the rights and duties of individuals towards the media. it also includes the ability to recognize the media implications source, and how to create and design it so that it suits the target audience, as well as the understanding of its social and cultural context, how to convey the message through this implications, and the source of the implications, and the benefits that accrue from it. assessment of media implications: it include enabling learners to evaluate media implications building, the extent of its relevance to the target audience, its suitability to the intended message, its appropriateness to goal set sought by the source and its relevance to the social and cultural context. creating and using media implications: it includes endowing the learners with the necessary skills to deal with the media to express themselves and achieve democratic participation, build alshorooqi & rawadieh 265 personal media implications, impart messages through media implications, create media implications that is appropriate for the target audience and the social and cultural context. 5education and the media in bahrain: in the kingdom of bahrain, 138,000 students are enrolled in 215 schools (ministry of education, 2016: p. 12). the educational ladder in bahrain consists of nine years of basic education, including the primary and intermediate stages. the primary level is the first stage of the regular educational system in bahrain. the age groups are from 6 to 12 years, and the study lasts for 6 years. the 3-year intermediate stage includes the age group between 13 and to 15 years. secondary education is complementary to basic education and lasts for 3 years (ministry of education, 2015: p. 17). currently, there are 7 newspapers in bahrain, 5 of which are in arabic, including “akhbar alkhaleej”, “al-wasat”, “al-watan” and “al-bilad”. and two in english, including “gulf daily news” and “bahrain tribune”. bahrain satellite channel is the official state channel. bahrain does not have a private satellite channel or non-governmental television. bahrain radio is the only official state radio, and there are no private radio stations (ministry of information affairs, 2016: p. 25). the ministry of education in the kingdom of bahrain has paid a great deal of attention to media literacy in its curricula. it has especially focused helping students at all stages to learn how to use media and produce it. however, there are almost no previous research studies which have attempted to vigorously investigate the implications of media literacy in students’ textbooks. such an understanding is essential in order to improve educational outcomes in general, and in particular to ensure that all students become media-literate. 6the historical and political context on citizenship education in bahrain as explained in the project document of the “citizenship and human rights-enhancing school project” (2016: p 2), the ministry of education in bahrain has linked media literacy to citizenship and human rights education. thus, while attempting to instill citizenship and human rights values and principles in the students’ spirits, it has simultaneously worked on media literacy. the emphasis was laid on three major aspects; developing current curricula, school activities, and appropriate training for teachers. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 the first transitional phase in developing citizenship and human rights education started through introducing a new curriculum, pertaining to education for citizenship, back in 2004, in line with the political development noticed in bahrain then. the development was achieved as a result of the reform project, that allowed bahrain to fully engage in this new experience of democracy. the new curriculum has been extended to all educational levels, putting into account the characteristic of each age group. in fact, this curriculum stressed the value of citizenship, the belonging, basis of the democratic system, the requirements for co-existence, building solidarity on human, national and regional basis, and respecting laws. the second transitional phase of the project started during the school year 2006-2007, by introducing “life skills” and “community service” practical curricula in secondary education, which were designed to further educate bahraini youth on the principles and practices of citizenship. both curricula, enhance the values of participation within the community, coexistence, learning for self-determination and introducing those values and concepts into the other curricula, mainly those of subjects like languages, social studies and family life education. the school years of 2010-2011, witnessed the beginning of the third phase of its transition, that consisted in devoting a separate, comprehensive curriculum for human rights, tolerance and co-existence, to strengthen those values and build positive attitudes towards democracy, participation, respecting the right to be different, and rejecting any kind of discrimination. the fourth phase began with a comprehensive national framework of future policies for curricula, titled as, “general guiding framework for the kingdom of bahrain’s national curriculum”; paving the ground for designing a series of revamped curricula which have been developed thoroughly, following most recent international trends. previous studies: many studies have been conducted on the media in the educational system, including the study of ibrahim (2016) which aims at defining the role of educational media in the kingdom of bahrain and the tasks it undertakes to develop the students’ educational capacities and skills and to discover the effectiveness of educational media in bahrain in developing the personal and life skills of secondary school students. alshorooqi & rawadieh 267 the study sample consisted of 500 students, in addition to 33 school media supervisors in secondary schools. the researcher used two questionnaires. the first aimed to measure the degree of students’ interest in the educational media, their contribution to the educational media, and the degree of influence of the educational media on their personal skills. the second was meant to measure the degree of the follow up of the educational media, the degree of interest of the school in the educational media, and the extent of the students' participation in educational media activities. the study showed that there were statistically significant differences in the role of educational media in the ministry of education in the kingdom of bahrain in the development of personal skills among secondary school students due to gender, region and specialization. the study of said (2015) aimed to identify the reality of the contribution of the first grade secondary teachers to the media literacy from the point of view of female students in the city of makkah. the researcher used the descriptive approach and conducted a questionnaire to a sample of 2311 students in the makkah city. the results showed that the female students tended to use the internet not for scientific purposes, and that the contribution of teachers to the media literacy in relation to the internet was weak, from the point of view of female students. the study of ibrahim (2015) aimed to identify the effectiveness of implementing a media literacy program through the use of video games in developing critical and analytical skills, as well as the relationship between gender and the rate of students’ acquisition of the skills of media literacy. the sample included 40 students from abu zahra private school in egypt. the researcher used indicators to measure critical thinking and two questionnaires to analyze implications. the study found that there were significant differences between the scores of students on the scale of critical thinking skills and analysis through the practice of video games before the implementation of the media literacy program according to gender, and that there were no significant differences between the average of students’ grades on the scale of critical thinking skills and analysis through the practice of video games after the application of the media literacy according to gender. suleiman's study (2014) aimed to develop the social studies curriculum in light of the dimensions of the media literacy to foster critical thinking skills and cultural awareness. the researcher used the descriptive approach in analyzing the curriculum and its implications to journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 identify the reality its reality in the light of the dimensions of the media its and its elements, build a list of dimensions for the media literacy, as well as the proposed visualization and experimental units, the researcher also used the experimental method to test the sample and conduct the experiment. the researcher reached a number of results, the most important of which being the effectiveness and impact of the developed curriculum in increasing cultural awareness and developing critical thinking among students. boske's study (boske, 2011) aimed to examine how 11th-graders in latino american high schools understood the impact of media messages in animated films. the researcher chose a case study methodology to examine the understanding of those students and their teacher of implications of the “happy feet” animated film. the data were obtained from five sources: two focus groups’ 90-minute meeting, 22 participants’ reports on the details of the meeting, video recording of semi-structured interviews, a questionnaire and the posts of two participants in the research. the researcher concluded that the critical media literacy encouraged students, teachers and principals to deepen awareness and understanding of contemporary media styles and their role in raising children, especially in marginalized communities. he also found out that the development of critical insight into the implications of the wrong culture was important in order not to be overlooked and ignored. he pointed out that educators and principals should reconsider how to choose media materials in schools. the purpose of the study of tanriverdi & apak (2010) was to evaluate the implications of media literacy in turkey by analyzing the primary school curricula based on the elements of media literacy education comparatively in turkey, ireland and finland. those countries were chosen for being pioneering media literacy education and for the structural differences in their curricula. while turkey allocates a separate course for media literacy education, ireland sets it as a general for the main subjects and finland teaches it in an interdisciplinary manner. after analyzing a variety of curricular documents in the three countries, in addition to reports, books and journals published by governmental and non-governmental organizations working on media literacy education, the researcher have recommended that media literacy education “should be a skill-based teaching rather than a stand-alone subject in primary school curricula.” so, it appears that most of the previous studies have dealt with the media literacy, but have sought to know the implications of media literacy in textbooks in light of the principles of the media literacy of unesco. also, the study of suleiman (2014), although it was based on the alshorooqi & rawadieh 269 dimensions of the media literacy, it did not seek to know the media implications of the textbooks in the light of these dimensions, but sought to develop the curriculum of social studies according to these dimensions. moreover, the study of tanriverdi & apak (2010), though it sought to identify the implications of media literacy in the curricula of turkey, ireland and turkey, it did not seek to know these implications in the textbooks themselves, but tried to identify them in the documents of the curricula, books and newspapers. if the study of ibrahim (2016) revolved around the media in the schools of bahrain, it did not address the media literacy, but dealt with educational media only, which makes the current study unique in its subject, which focuses on the knowledge of the implications of the media in the textbooks in the kingdom of bahrain in light of the principles unesco media literacy. research problem and question: mass media used to be limited in number and could be controlled, through choosing what would suit the students, and preventing what would not. today, and in light of the multiplicity of mass media and their sources, the process of controlling this large media stream has become very difficult. therefore, it is necessary for the student to learn how to distinguish between the implications of the information they receive, understand their purposes, know their social and cultural context, and be able to produce influential media implication. the kingdom of bahrain was aware of the importance of the media in the educational system, so the ministry of education established a functional group for educational media. however, the focused remained on the use of the media as a tool for presenting and illustrating approaches (eg, using television to show biology films, using educational websites to solve math exercises, etc.). in other words, helping the students to understand, analyze, critique and produce media implication, which is called "media literacy", has not enjoyed the required attention. there is a media committee in each school, including a number of students who carry out radio programs and the school press. however, there has been no study in the kingdom of bahrain which has attempted to systematically and comprehensively examine whether students, members of media committees or others have the ability to understand, analyze, evaluate or produce media implications effectively and efficiently. in fact, the present research study will divulge a number of facts about media literacy in bahrain. such facts will serve a variety of partners from various fields, in bahrain and abroad. in particular, the current study seeks to identify the media implications that are drawn from the he unesco principles of media journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 literacy and which are included in the bahraini school textbooks. answering this question would be very useful. it would add to our understanding of media literacy in the kingdom of bahrain and especially the extent of alignment with the unesco policies. importance of the study: the ministry of education in the kingdom of bahrain is making great efforts to educate students about media skills and embrace talented students in the media field, but there is no curriculum to teach the media, whether to study its use or to analyze its implication, critique and evaluate it or to produce media implication. also, there have been no studies on the extent to which the media literacy is included in the textbooks in the kingdom of bahrain, hence the great importance of this study. the two researchers believe that the expected results from this study will benefit the ministry of education in the kingdom of bahrain in terms of developing its curricula in accordance with the principles of media literacy and developing training programmes to provide teachers with the skills of teaching the media literacy in schools based on the results of this study. the study’s limitations and determinants the results of this study are limited to the sample textbooks. these include arabic language and education for citizenship books for the sixth primary, third intermediate and third secondary grades in the kingdom of bahrain for the 2015-2016 academic year. thus, comprehensively understanding how media literacy is taught in bahrain might require investigating the other subjects. however, this does not mean anyways that the present study lacks in vigor or validity. it rather represents a serious attempt to understand the status of media literacy un bahrain and consequently develop it in accordance with international norms. another limitation which could be considered is that the present study has only focused on analyzing students’ textbooks. one could argue that surveying teachers, students, parents, curriculum specialists, or policy-makers in bahrain could add to the present research study. terms and procedural definitions: implication (n): something that is expressed through some medium, as speech, writing, or any of various arts. alshorooqi & rawadieh 271 media implication is defined as the implication of the curriculum, which relates to the media in terms of understanding, use, analysis, criticism and production. this has been determined through the analysis tool developed by the researcher for this purpose. textbook: it is the educational content that is prescribed by the educational authorities, and developed in a form that is adhered to by the student and teacher. it represents the official document of knowledge (arab centre for educational research, 2016). procedurally, textbooks are as the arabic language and education for citizenship books for the sixth primary, third intermediate and third secondary school students in the kingdom of bahrain for the academic year 2016-2016. media literacy principles: they are the principles enable the learner to understand the way the media works and how it conveys its messages, as well as to critically deal with the media messages they receive (baker, 2013). they are the principles developed by unesco to teach media literacy at schools. unesco: united nations organization for education, science and culture methodology and procedures research approach: the study follows the analytical descriptive approach, as it is most suitable for the subject of the current study, through identifying the media contents contained in a sample of textbooks in the kingdom of bahrain in the light of the principles of the media literacy of unesco, , the study will analyze the degree of their alignment with the unesco framework for media literacy. zikmund (2013: p. 2) describes “descriptive analysis (as) the transformation of raw data into a form that will make them easy to understand and interpret; rearranging, ordering, and manipulating data to generate descriptive information.” as a matter of fact, the current study analyzes the target textbooks in detail. it excludes all the implications that are not linked the unesco media literacy principles. it purposefully focuses on those implications that are drawn from the unesco’s framework in order to investigate the extent of alignment between bahraini textbooks and the unesco guidelines. it should also be noted that the present study is not either quantitative nor qualitative. it makes use of both quantitative nor qualitative methodologies in order to understand the examined issue. thus, opting for an analytical descriptive approach would add to the quality of the findings and assist in coming up with precise results. knupfer and mclellan (1996: p. 1196) argue that “descriptive research journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the same study.” study community: the study community includes all arabic language and education for citizenship for all educational stages in the kingdom of bahrain for the academic year 20152016. sample of the study: the sample of the study includes the arabic language and education for citizenship books for the sixth primary, third intermediate and secondary schools in the kingdom of bahrain for the academic year 2015-2016. the textbooks of these grades have been chosen because they represent the end of the three school stages (primary, intermediate and secondary). thus, analyzing the textbooks would help in constructing a comprehensive understanding of the competencies which students have acquired by the end of each stage. such an understanding would permit the present study to come up with practical recommendations that could help in sustaining media literacy in the kingdom of bahrain. study instruments: in order to conduct the study, the two researchers used the content analysis form of the arabic language and education for citizenship textbooks for the sixth primary, third intermediate and third secondary in the kingdom of bahrain, based on the principles of the media literacy adopted by unesco, according to their sub elements. the researchers constructed a form that is divided into three areas or sections. these three areas were aligned with the unesco principles, and they included (1) knowledge and understanding of media information, (2) assessment of media information, and (3) creation and use of media information. the researchers verified the validity of the content analysis form by presenting it to 10 arbitrator professors specialized in the fields of education and media to express their views on the comprehensiveness of the form, the relevance of its statements to the subject of the study and the extent of the connection of each statement with the appropriate media literacy field, the linguistic accuracy of the statement and the degree of their clarity, as well as to propose ideas and views as they deem appropriate, and to add, delete or modify any statements. after retrieving the content analysis form from the arbitrators and reviewing their opinions and observations, the researchers made the appropriate modifications. the adjustments included rewriting some statements, deleting some of them and merging others. thus, the instrument contained 27 statements in its final form. these were distributed in accordance with the three alshorooqi & rawadieh 273 areas of unesco principles. thirteen statements focused on knowledge and understanding of media implications; seven statements focused on the assessment of media implications; and 7 statements focused on the creation and use of media implications. the two researchers verified the stability of the analysis through analyzing the implication list of the social subjects for the fifth grade in the hashemite kingdom of jordan using the content analysis form. two weeks later, they re-applied the instrument again, and then calculated the stability coefficient after the two analyses using the cobeer equation for the stability of the analysis, and the agreement between the two analyses was 94%. study procedures: the study commenced by determining the problem of the study, its questions, and scope. in the theoretical section, the study examined a various of issues relating to media literacy. however, it focused on the unesco media literacy principles in order to incorporate them into the content analysis instrument as areas for analysis. in the practical section of the study, a content analysis instrument was designed. it was piloted onto a book from outside the study sample to ensure its consistency. after that, the sample books were analyzed through the final content analysis instrument. as for data, they were collected by analyzing the target books while monitoring recurrences, as well as drawing results, and interpreting them. statistical processing: to answer the study question on the extent to which textbooks in the kingdom of bahrain include the principles of unesco's media literacy, the two researchers used recurrences and percentages. . by reference to the 27 statements in the research instrument, the textbooks were carefully analyzed to determine whether they contain any elements relating to unesco's media literacy principles. the findings were grouped in accordance with their recurrence, from high to low, in relation to each statement and to each area or section in the content analysis instrument. overall results the results of the study show that the analyzed textbooks contained 168 media implications, and that these implications are in general aligned with the unesco principles of media literacy. however, there are significant variations in terms of content area, school subject, and educational stage. first, the results reveal that the media knowledge and comprehension implications were the most frequent in the different school textbooks, especially in the primary journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 school textbooks. second, the results indicated that the implications of the media assessment implications were more concentrated in the intermediate textbooks. third, the study indicated that the use of media implications was concentrated in secondary school textbooks. fourth, the collected data revealed that the three areas of media literacy implications were more incorporated in the citizenship education textbooks than in the arabic language textbooks. such findings are extremely significant because they reveal a wealth of facts. first, it is evident that the bahraini experts who developed the target texts were aware of some international curricular trends, especially those adopted by the unesco. additionally, it is clear that some serious attempts were made to include media literacy in different school subjects, a fact which raises the status of media literacy in bahrain to that of a key competency. nonetheless, it was also evident that there was no balance in the distribution of implications across the different educational stages and among the different school subjects. detailed results: the "knowledge of the role of the media in a democratic society” and “assessing media implication building” ranked first, with a total of 23 recurrences, and a percentage of 13.69% each. the researchers think that the first implication ranked first due to the restoration of the democratic life in the kingdom of bahrain in 2002, the consequent holding of the municipal and parliamentary elections and allowing the establishment of more newspapers, in addition to the ministry of education's response to the directives of his majesty king hamad bin isa al khalifa to teach the education for citizenship in all schools, which started in 2009. the king’s directives made those in charge of compiling the curriculum to include the role of the media in the democratic society in the textbooks, in response to the requirements of this phase. on the other hand, the fact that the implication of the "assessment of media implication building" also came first may be due to the increase in the number of newspapers in the kingdom of bahrain during the 2002-2006 period, during which the number of newspapers doubled and the citizens’ amount of received media implication increased. in addition, this may be due to the widespread use of the internet and the emergence of social media, forcing the curriculum developers to include everything that would help the students to evaluate the construction of the implication received by the media in the textbooks. “understanding how to build the media implication" came second, with a total of 14 recurrences, and a percentage of 8.33%. the researchers think that this implication’s ranking second is natural because it is related to the first-ranking implication -"assessment of the media alshorooqi & rawadieh 275 implication building". in other words, the assessment of implication building necessarily necessitates understanding how it is built. “understanding the benefits of the media source from the implication” came third with 11 recurrences and a percentage of 6.54%. the spread of newspapers in the kingdom of bahrain starting from 2002, the reinstatement of parliamentary life and the campaigning for the candidates required the curriculum developers to enable the students to understand the objectives sought by the writers of different political programmes and the benefits of the candidates from their electoral campaigns, so that they would be citizens who understand the goals and objectives of the writings, as well as electoral and media campaigns they are exposed to. the “knowledge of the contribution of the media to achieving freedoms”, the “dealing with the media for self-expression” and the “creating personal media implication” ranked fourth, with a total of 9 recurrences and a percentage of 5.35% for each. as for the implication of "understanding the source of the media implication" came fifth with 8 recurrences and a percentage of 4.76%, while the "knowledge of media ethics" and the " “assessment of the source of media implication " were sixth with 7 recurrences and a percentage of 4.16% each. the implications of the “knowledge of the concept of free press”, "understanding how to build the right media implication for the target audience” and “assessing the appropriateness of the media implication to the cultural context” were seventh with 6 recurrences and a percentage of 3.57% for each. besides that, the implications of "knowledge of the rights of individuals relating to the media" and the "knowledge of the duties of individuals relating to the media" and "understanding how to convey the message through the media implication" ranked eighth with 5 recurrences and a percentage of 2.97% for each. the "dealing with the media to achieve democratic participation" implication came ninth with 4 recurrences and a percentage of 2.38%, while the implication “conveying messages through the media implication" was tenth with 2 recurrences and a percentage of 1.19%. as for the the "assessment of the relevance of the media implication to the intended media message", the "assessment of the relevance of the media implication to the benefit sought by the source" and the "creation of the appropriate media implication to the social context" implications came 11th with one recurrence and a percentage of 0.59% for each. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 finally, four implications ranked 12th and last with no recurrence as they did not feature in the textbooks which were selected as the sample for this study. the implications are as follows: understanding the social context of media implication. understanding the cultural context of the media implication. creating the appropriate media implication for the target audience. creating the appropriate media implication for the social context. the researchers believe that this is a clear shortcoming in the books of the kingdom of bahrain since the understanding of the social and cultural context significantly helps to understand and assess the implication. in addition, bahrain is characterized by its cultural pluralism, and thus the creation of the media implication or its understanding will be complete if the cultural group to which it is directed, or the cultural context of that implication. moreover, the bahraini society has gone through great social changes since the beginning of the 20th century until the present day, due to the beginning of formal education in 1919, the discovery of oil in 1932 and the consequent economic boom and demographic change because of the recruitment of labor force and the independence of bahrain in 1971, which paved the way for establishing government institutions and civil society institutions. in brief, the understanding or creation of the media implication becomes more accurate if it is through the social context in which it was mentioned. additionally, the creation of any media implication will lose its importance unless it is appropriate for the target audience, so, enabling the students to create the appropriate media implication to the target audience would make their implication more effective and able achieve its objectives. the recurrence and percentages of media implication areas in the arabic language and education for citizenship textbooks for the sixth primary, third intermediate and third secondary schools in the kingdom of bahrain were calculated. the results also show that the field of “knowledge and understanding of the media implications” ranks first in the sixth grade textbooks with 41 recurrences and a percentage of 69.50% of the total media implication of these books. the field of “assessment of media implications” is second with 11 recurrences and a percentage of 18.64%, while the “creation and use of media implications” is third with 7 recurrences and a percentage of 11.86%. alshorooqi & rawadieh 277 in the third intermediate books, “assessment of media implications” is ranked first with a total of 38 recurrences, a percentage of 65.32%, while the “knowledge and understanding of media implications” is second place with 12 recurrences and a percentage of 20.69%. the “creation and use of media implications” is third with 8 recurrences and a percentage of 13.79%. as for the third secondary books, the area of “knowledge and understanding of the media implications” was first 30 recurrences and a percentage of 58.82%. on the other hand, “assessment of media implications” came second with a total of 11 recurrences a percentage of 21.56%, and the “creation and use of media implications” third with total 10 recurrences and a percentage of 19.60%. the researchers think that the focus on the cognitive aspect is of great importance, especially in the primary stage, where the results of the study showed that most books that that contained knowledge-related media implication were those of the sixth primary. meanwhile, the assessment-related media implication of the evaluation area was concentrated in third intermediate textbooks. in this regard, the researchers believe that it is logical that the stage of cognitive ability in the media implication in the primary stage is followed by the assessment stage in the intermediate stage. the creation and use of media implication was mostly concentrated in the third secondary books, which is, the researchers think, is a logical sequence. in other words, after the stages of knowledge and assessment in the primary and intermediate levels comes the stage of production and use in the secondary textbooks. the results reveal that the sixth primary’s education for citizenship book ranks first among books containing the media implication, with 49 recurrences and a percentage of 29.16%. the arabic language textbook for the third secondary comes second with a total of 38 recurrences and a percentage of 22.61%. the education for citizenship for the third intermediate is in the third place with a total of 31 and by 18.45%. the arabic language book for the third intermediate is ranked fourth with 27 recurrences and a percentage of 16.07%. the education for citizenship for the third secondary comes fifth with 13 recurrences and a percentage of 7.73%. the arabic language book for the sixth primary is in the sixth place with 10 recurrences and a percentage of 5.95%. it is clear from the results that the education for citizenship in the sixth primary, third intermediate and third secondary outperformed the arabic language books for the same grades in terms of the media implications they contain. in fact, the media implication recurred in the education for citizenship books 93 times, or 55.36%), while there were 75 recurrences of journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 media implication in the arabic language books, with a percentage of 44.64%. the researchers believe that this is a natural indicator because of the connection of the media literacy and its principles, areas and elements in the implications of the education for citizenship books that with topics related to democracy, freedom, elections, more than their link with the arabic language. discussion the first most important finding the present research study has shed light on is that textbooks in the kingdom of bahrain are overall aligned with the unesco media literacy principles. in fact, the political developments which the country has witnessed since 2002 have spurred the ministry of education to upgrade its curricula by including some essential twenty first century skills, in particular media literacy. additionally, the subsequent media openness contributed to the doubling of the number of local newspapers and a remarkable rise in the freedom of the press. thus, teaching media literacy in bahrain should not solely viewed as a mere educational trend or policy. it should rather be examined with a broader context which was mainly characterized by a growing official interest in democratic and civil practices. it is also crucial to notice that bahrain has always kept excellent relationships with unesco. it was a member of its executive council during the period 2003-2006. it was actively involved in planning and implementing a number of educational programs in the world. nevertheless, the current research study reveals that more vigorous work is required to systematically develop media literacy in the bahraini curriculum. it is important to design and develop balanced textbooks that are highly aligned with the official national intended curricula and with international norms, especially those adopted by prestigious organizations such as the unesco. conclusion and recommendations the current research study investigated the inclusion of media implications in textbooks in the kingdom of bahrain. it basically targeted those implications that are drawn from the principles of media literacy emanating from unesco. to answer the question of the study, the implications and units of the arabic language and education for citizenship books were analyzed for the sixth primary, third intermediate and third secondary schools in the kingdom of bahrain in order to identify the recurrence of the ideas of the media implication. using the analysis instrument, recurrences and their percentages were precisely determined and quantified. alshorooqi & rawadieh 279 and as already explained in the results and discussion sections, there are a number of actions that should be taken in order to develop media literacy education in bahrain. above all, curriculum developers in the kingdom of bahrain should take into account the principles of unesco's media culture while including media implication in textbooks. besides, it is essential to include lessons that enable the students to understand the cultural and social contexts of media implications in the bahraini textbooks. last but not least, it is important to include lessons that enable the students to produce the appropriate media implication for these contexts and the target audience in the textbooks in the kingdom of bahrain. journal of social studies education research 2017: 8 (3), 259-281 references arab bureau of education for the gulf states (2013). media literacy programmes in curriculum and its applications in public education (e 1). riyadh. arab centre for educational research for the gulf states (2016). glossary of educational and psychological terms, (e 1). kuwait. baker, f. (2013). media literacy in school years from kindergarten to grade 12, (e1). riyadh: arab bureau of education for the gulf states. boske, c. (2011). building an understanding of the role of media literacy for latino/ a high school student. the high school journal, 94(4). 167-186. diop, h. (2011). activating the media education in the basic education stage from the perspective of the students of the faculty of education at the university of al-furat. majallat al-ulum at-tarbawiya. journal of educational sciences, 11(1), 260-279. fakhro, a. (2010). media literacy and its requirements in the public education stage in arab countries “majallat afaq jadida”. new horizons in adult education, 10 (1), 207-245. huwail, e., & abdul jalil, r. (2011). a proposal for the role of the school in media education in light of the experiences of some countries. al-majallah al-tarbawiya educational journal, 29 (9), 605-663. ibrahim, m. (2015). effectiveness of implementing a media education programme through the use of video games in developing the skills of criticism and analysis among adolescents. majallat dirasat al-toufoula journal of childhood studies, 69 (18), 8994. ibrahim, r. (2016). the role of educational media in the development of personal skills: secondary school students in the kingdom of bahrain as a model. unpublished master thesis. university of bahrain. jolls, t. & wilson, c. (2014). the core concepts: fundamental to media literacy yesterday, today and tomorrow. journal of media literacy education, 6(3). 68-78. knupfer, n. n., & mclellan, h. (1996). 4.1 descriptive research methodologies. kingdom of bahrain, ministry of education. (2016). a year of achievements. kingdom of bahrain, ministry of education. (2016). enhancing citizenship and human rights in puplic schools. kingdom of bahrain, ministry of information affairs. (2016). huna al-bahrain magazine. kingdom of bahrain, ministry of education. (2015). report on bahrain’s national education for all. lafer, s. (2014). democratic design for the humanization of education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 6-12. said, h. (2015). the contribution of the teachers of the first secondary to media education from the point of view of students in the city of mecca. al-qirae wa el maarifa magazine journal of reading and knowledge, 180(1), 1-21. alshorooqi & rawadieh 281 suleiman, y. (2014). developing the curriculum of social studies in light of the dimensions of the media literacy to develop cultural awareness and some critical thinking skills among intermediate stage students. majalat al-jamia al-tarbawiya li dirasat alijtimaiya journal of the educational association of social studies, 60(1), 174-196. tanriverdi, b. &apak, o. (2010). analysis of primary school curriculum of turkey, finland and ireland in term of media literacy education. educational science: theory & practice, 10(2). 1187-1213. tarman, b. & acun, i. (2010). social studies education and a new social studies movement, journal of social studies education research. 1(1), 1-16. tarman, b. (2011). development of social studies curriculum in turkey and john dewey’s effect on the modernization of turkish education, international journal of progressive education, (ijpe),7(1). 45-61. tarman, b., ayas, c. (2011). comparing issues surrounding turkish and japanese textbooks, international journal of historical learning teaching and research, 10(1), 67-76. tarman, b. & kuran, b. (2015). examination of the cognitive level of questions in social studies textbooks and the views of teachers based on bloom taxonomy, educational sciences: theory & practice,15(1) • 213-222. doi 10.12738/estp.2015.1.2625 tyner, k. (2010). media literacy: new agendas in communication. new york: routledge. unesco. (2010). media and information literacy: policy and strategy guidelines. zikmund, w. g., babin, b. j., carr, j. c., & griffin, m. (2013). business research methods. cengage learning. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (2),210-232 images of fathers by younger generation in modern fiction: socio-psychological analysis galina bozhkova1, nadezhda shabalina2, & elmira ibragimova3 abstract the study of the role of a father in the life of the younger generation is becoming relevant in the world community. this topic is discussed by psychologists, educators, philosophers, and sociologists, and contemporary authors invisibly join this discussion. the purpose of the article is to explore what influence fathers have on the formation of children-heroes and to analyze the sociopsychological types of paternal images in the pages of modern prose. this study used a content analysis design and qualitative approach to analyze data. in addition, quantitative analysis was also used to visualize qualitative data using numerical values and fix elements of text content (frequency of different types of fathers). seven literary works were used as data sources. results show images of fathers who, due to their work, neglect raising their children, or hero-fathers who are edifying, demanding, and suppress individuality, but there are also fathers who are loving, caring, and who have a beneficial effect on children. in addition, socio-psychological analysis reveals three types of “literary images”: the not-at-home father, father-judge, and father-friend. the authors show that modern writers of prose for adolescents are reflecting on the influence of paternity on children, and they confirm the opinion of researchers that the social environment changes the types of fathers both in life and in literature. the type of the not-at-home father has become widespread. this sociopsychological type of a father forms such traits in the child as irritability, vulnerability, excessive emotionality, and shame for the father. keywords: paternity, modern children’s and adolescent prose, artistic images, the influence of fathers, types of paternal images. introduction in the 21st century, the role of the family in the life of the younger generation has increased as never before. however, with the growth of technological progress, more and more children are losing two-parent families. many children stay in shelters and orphanages, or are brought up in families where either a mother or a father becomes the head of the family and the only adult. most often, fathers leave families, resting the responsibility for raising a child on mothers. the reason is the failure of men to be good fathers, fear of responsibility, and polygamy (akulina, 2015). 1assoc. prof., yelabuga institute, kazan federal university, email: bozhkova.galina@mail.ru 2assoc. prof., yelabuga institute, kazan federal university, email: nadezhada_85@mail.ru 3assoc. prof., yelabuga institute, kazan federal university, email: elmira915@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 211 that is why the topic of paternity is important. the influence of fathers on the formation of the younger generation has been of particular interest for a long time, but the activity of researchers is evident at the end of the 20th century and in the first decade of the 21st century (camarero-figuerola et al., 2020; chung, 2020). this article aims to bridge a gap in studying the influence of fathers on the development of their children by taking into account literary material. scientists, psychologists, and philosophers such as rousseau (1896), cohn (1984), freud (2014), barkan (2009), bocharov (borisenko, 2010), borisenko (2010), hollins and hetherington (shaw, 2012), brett and mckean (brett, 2015), raeburn (2015), lukovkina (2018), abramova (2018), and hardach (2019) argue that fathers are no less important in shaping the personality of the younger generation than mothers, and they provide practical advice on keeping families together and raising morally healthy children. the issues of paternity and raising children have worried psychologists since the days of rousseau (1896), who outlined his views on education in the pedagogical novel emile, or on education. sigmund freud also reflected on the father’s role in children’s development in his work. nash (1965) drew attention to the insufficient study of the role of the father both in the culture and in the psychological literature, on the basis of which he tried to eliminate such a gap. atkins (1984) examined how a child, during infancy and toddlerhood, acquires a psychic representation of its father. randal and wade (1986) stated that the absence of the father negatively affects children, since the father always acts as a protector, despite the fact that the war era is far in the past. johnson (1996) reviewed numerous socio-psychological studies that complement the image of the father and demonstrate reflections on the role of the father in the development of children. diversity issues, specifically ethnicity, which are often excluded in typical reviews of father absence, are integrated throughout the review. later, similar studies focused mainly on studying the relationship between a mother and a child (bowlby et al., 2003). until the 1970s, little was known about the role of fathers in the development of their children. interest in the problem grew in the first decade of the 21st century, but isolated studies are observed that do not give a complete picture of the problem. thus, hollins and hetherington (shaw, 2012) pay attention to the influence of biological factors that have an impact on the social role of the father, which leads to a crisis of fatherhood. their most important function of the father was seen as economic support for the mother, which would be an “emotional anchor for the child” (hardach, 2019). bozhkova et al. to our knowledge, there is no single study of the role of men in the process of raising children and adolescents, since it is easier to accept the practical advice of psychologists and teachers than to analyze one’s own model of behavior by observing the world of books. modern scientists see in this the main injustice and omission, because the influence of the father on the formation of the younger generation is vital and, according to raeburn (2015), even affects the formation of the brain. raeburn bases his research on studying the brains of children raised with fathers. ultimately, raeburn asks the title question, “are fathers important in raising children?” and his answer is “yes.” many writers invisibly joined this discussion, since the role of “literary pedagogy” is indisputable (brownell & rashid, 2020; shastina, 2020). however, few researchers pay attention to the literary image of fathers; therefore, the degree of knowledge of the topic under study is low: there is not a single study on fathers’ influence on children’s fate in modern children’s prose. for example, muchemwa and muponde (2007) studied the image of the father in zimbabwean political and socio-psychological literature without highlighting the influence of fathers on the formation of children. the literary coverage of this problem can offer an important and useful example, especially since contemporary writers pay special attention to the formation of the younger generation in the pages of their works. the scientific novelty of this study lies in the fact that this work is the first to analyze and classify the images of fathers in children’s and adolescent prose of the 21st century, as well as to reveal the frequency of the appearance of a certain type of father in russian and foreign children’s literature and the influence of the father on the formation of the younger generation. to the authors’ surprise, no studies were found based on literary material that examined the influence of fathers’ images on the formation of children-heroes. for the objectivity of research results, the authors decided to use the works of various genres by both domestic and foreign writers. the practical significance of the results lies in the fact that the classification of father types borrowed and tested by the authors can be used in the educational and scientific-cognitive process, as well as in other studies concerning the problems of paternity. furthermore, the presented statistics on the frequency of images of fathers in children’s literature can serve as a basis for psychological or literary studies. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 213 research questions this study aims to answer the following research questions: 1. what father images are perceived by children in modern children’s and adolescent prose? 2. what socio-psychological types of fathers are represented in the literature of the 21st century? literature review in the last decade, due to various socio-political, economic, scientific, and clinical reasons, there has been a significant interest in journalism in studying the relationship between fathers and children; however, there are not many similar articles in the scientific community. there is an insufficient amount of empirical data, but they offer interesting interpretations of the above stated questions of the research. moreover, there are no articles based on literary material. the emphasis in the study of the stated problem is shifted to the destruction of families (bozhkova, 2020; susilo, 2020), since due to the current trend of divorces, most children stay with either their father or their mother (in the overwhelming majority of cases), which inevitably leads to the impoverishment of the upbringing process, the growth of social problems, and problems of youth personal development. according to statistics issued by cohn (1984), six out of 10 marriages end in divorce. most often, the final choice of a child or a court is made not in the father’s favor. mckean (2015) argues that children do not live in poverty with their fathers, they do better in school, are less likely to go to prison, abuse drugs and alcohol less often, are less obese, and have wider vocabularies. coles (2015) reflects that the number of children residing in single-father families in the united states quadrupled as a proportion of children’s living arrangements during the past few decades of the 20th century. in general, research on single-father families evolved from qualitative studies focused on the well-being of single fathers to quantitative studies focusing on child outcomes and within-group variation among single fathers. rakhmanova (2008) notes that the role of fatherhood is decreasing due to the change of gender roles and the dominant role of men in the family changing. women also have the right to be leaders, but they do not deny that the harmonious relationship between a boy and his dad allows for the shaping of character, feelings, professional self-determination, the formation of a worldview, as well as a style of behavior. the experience of these relationships can be both positive and negative. bozhkova et al. shaw (2012) also assumes that biological and social factors affecting fathers are directly related. this relation is expressed in the genetic memory of the male body: a man is born with a certain set of unconditioned reflexes that help him recognize paternity, and there are all the possibilities for him to master conditioned reflexes (accordingly, conditioned reflexes are social factors, unconditioned reflexes are biological factors). scientists state that a biological predisposition to fatherhood, expressed to a greater or lesser extent, can suffer from the stress associated with the divorce process, so fathers begin to have a negative impact on the younger generation, and this is due to the contrast of behaviors: from overprotectiveness to indifference. there are directly opposite opinions regarding this issue. for example, bocharov (“psychological aspects of anxiety” (borisenko, 2010)) and cohn (“paternity as a component of male identity,” 1984) assume that if biological factors determine the psychophysiological readiness for paternity, then social factors regulate the implementation of this readiness. the specific style of paternity depends on many sociocultural characteristics and conditions; therefore, it varies significantly. cohn (1984) assumes that for the successful functioning of the father’s role, its complete assimilation is necessary, which builds paternity into the stream of individual consciousness; in this case, the harmonious influence of fathers on children is possible. however, their research is based on the study of the impact of fathers on daughters. a woman may choose a future husband who resembles her father. in the image of a father, girls see an ideal man, a certain model, with which they will compare potential partners in the future. scientists agree that children, by nature, strongly believe their father, the words he says. therefore, if the father abandoned the family, it hurts their unshakable confidence in a bright future. many researchers are interested in the socio-psychological type of fatherhood, in connection with which a large number of classifications emerge. today there are a large number of them, for example, the classification of barkan (2009), which distinguishes the following types of fathers: “daddymommy,” “mommy-daddy,” “karabas-barabas,” “jumping dragonfly,” “tough nut,” “laid-back guy,” and “neither fish nor flesh” (akulina, 2015). borisenko (2010) distinguishes the following classification of types of fathers, depending on the accepted social roles in the family: father-breadwinner, father-educator, and father-protector. for the reliability and completeness of the study, several classifications that are opposite in content will be used. one of them is the psychological classification of fathers by abramova (2018), who journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 215 identified five types of fathers: father-friend, father-judge, father-breadwinner, fatherpsychotherapist, and the not-at-home father. another classification, which will be partially adhered to in this study, is a gemological classification by lukovkina (2018). the researcher claims that the difference between stones is similar to the difference in people’s temperaments. talismans responsible for the physical condition of a person correspond to the characteristics of temperament and organism, which is the main criterion for selection. agate is a stone most suitable for leaders, choleric people. lapis lazuli is a stone of phlegmatic people. despite the outward calmness, they have a strong core and character as hard as a diamond. they are good family men, they are stable and reliable, and always keep their promises. such men do not punish their children but certainly educate them. tourmaline is a stone of sanguine people. fathers whose stone is tourmaline love their children very much, are constantly in contact with them, and charge them with positive emotions. moonstone is a stone of melancholic people. melancholic people are the most vulnerable personality type, influenced by external forces. melancholic people seem to be saturated with all the cruel realities of life, and they concentrate negativity in themselves, accumulating and generating it. people of this type are distinguished by internal vulnerability and increased sensitivity. on the other hand, melancholic fathers are positive family men who are able to create strong family relationships, happy to read bedtime stories to their young children. to the authors’ surprise, over the past five years, there is little research on the influence of fathers on the formation of children. since the vast literature on paternal influences has been thoroughly studied, in this article the focus will be on the literary material. in the study, the authors will adhere to the positions of the psychologists hollins and hetherington, who assure that the absence of fathers forces children to take on their role and blame them for the loss, while their love makes the child’s personality resilient, strong, and stress-resistant. the authors also agree with the position of bocharov (borisenko, 2010), reflecting on the social decline in the father’s role. for the convenience of analysis, the classifications by lukovkina (2018) and abramova (2018) will be applied to the analysis of literary characters. method research design this research is a content analysis design and uses a qualitative approach for the data analysis (krippendorff, 2018). as content analysis, this study analyzed documents on literature and used bozhkova et al. themes regarding paternity for the data analysis. the purposes of this study are to explore what influence fathers have on the formation of children’s images and analyze the socio-psychological characteristics of paternal images in the pages of modern children’s prose. with the help of content analysis, the content of literary texts was analyzed, taking into account the theme of fatherhood and the selection of images of fathers, as well as consideration of the role of fathers in the formation of the younger generation, after which a quantitative assessment of the selected images of dads was carried out to highlight the frequency of occurrence of certain types of fathers in the works of prose for adolescents. such qualitative and quantitative approaches made it possible to identify the specific features of paternal images and prove their influence on the formation of the personality of the younger generation. this study reflects the contemporary social reality predicted in literary texts. sources of data the source of the study was the corpus: modern children’s prose, the study of the images of fathers, the qualities of their personality, which are capable of influencing the growing children. qualitative data were analyzed, namely, seven images of fathers (table 1). table 1. sources of data # author name of literary work main character (name) father children’s prose 1 sush “dad by my side” daughter father without name and indication of profession 2 markus mayaluoma “dad, let’s go pick mushrooms” son and daughter father without name and indication of profession 3 iva procházková “granny with wings” son elias father is a programmer who creates computer games adolescent prose 4 tatyana menshchikova “my father lit the stars” son snail (nickname) technical school teacher 5 sara pennypacker “pax” son peter military father 6 elena ozhich “my dad is a boy” son lecturer, phd in philology 7 anna nikolskaya “papateka” son vitya polovinkin stay-at-home dad journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 217 data collection procedure to collect data, this study includes five general stages of work as follows: (1) analysis of domestic and foreign publications on the problem of fathers’ influence on the formation of children. this aspect made it possible to see that there are no studies on a similar topic based on the material of children’s and adolescent literature; (2) selection of texts. the authors have selected works of modern children’s and adolescent prose, highlighting the influence of fathers on the formation of the younger generation; (3) selection of classifications of paternal images. a corpus of texts was formed. the total sample size was seven modern works; (4) interpretation of works of modern literary texts. the quantitative method of content analysis made it possible to work with formal content units of the text and translate them into a percentage, reflecting the results in tables and diagrams. a qualitative figurative-thematic analysis made it possible to see the influence of types of fathers on the formation of the personality of the younger generation; and (5) the methods of generalization and systematization made it possible to draw conclusions, the semantic part of which is the confirmation of the unity of beliefs of writers, teachers, sociologists, and psychologists. specifically, data collection included the selection of factual material, the study of the images of fathers and their children in the works of modern writers who have received literary awards. for this purpose, the authors have selected works, the main images of which are fathers; after analyzing the characters, the types of fathers were established. the classification relied on the research by lukovkina (2018) and abramova (2018), who were focused on social and biological criteria for fathers’ functions; therefore, the following types were identified: father-judge, father-friend, notat-home father, father-psychotherapist, and father-breadwinner. themes of analysis were classified into: 1. influence of fathers on the younger generation cannot be denied. in families where fathers love and take care of children, spiritually and morally healthy individuals grow up. this is reflected in table 2. 2. indeed, the not-at-home father prevails, but a little less than father-friends. this means that fathers understand the importance of their participation in the formation of harmonious children. this is reflected in diagram 1. bozhkova et al. data analysis to answer the research questions, the socio-philosophical and pedagogical literature on the problem of the article was analyzed, and the authors made sure that there was not a single study that would give an idea of fathers’ influence on the formation of children, as well as their types in modern children’s and adolescent prose, although modern authors are also engaged in the discussion and cover similar problems in fiction. at the same time, for the analysis of contemporary works of fiction, the authors used the basic operation of content-analytical research, coding. in a literary text, as an array of qualitative data, codes-images were recognized; the images of fathers in the works were the unit of analysis, which allowed to make the description more concise in accordance with the task facing the researcher, and the set of recognized images will differ depending on the contexts of interpreting the work. to answer the first research question, the authors analyzed fathers’ influence on the formation of the personality of the younger generation, using the method of krippendorff (2018) content analysis: 1. defining objects of research: based on the authors’ research question, a range of texts were chosen, i.e., a sample was made, since the content has a large volume, because the subject of research was literary texts of the 21st century; 2. units and categories of analysis are defined: the images of fathers in the works of fiction of modern children’s literature were subjected to detailed analysis; 3. a set of coding rules has been developed: the modern literary era, as well as the typology of images of father-heroes, has become the dominant criteria for the inclusion of these works in the authors’ research interest; 4. father images were encoded using the abramova classification (2018); 5. interpreting the obtained results, based on the objectives and theoretical context of the research. thus, answering the first research question, the second step in the content analysis process is implemented. in answering the second research question and defining the frequency of types of fathers in modern children’s prose, the authors also used the method of krippendorff (2018) on content analysis; a quantitative analysis was made to visualize data using numerical values, fixing elements of text content (e.g., frequency of different types of fathers) by using a table or a chart. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 219 results and discussion research question 1. what father images are perceived by children in modern children’s and adolescent prose? for convenience and clarity, the results are introduced in table 2. table 2. the influence of fathers on the formation of the younger generation (based on the material of modern children’s and adolescent prose) # author name of literary work main character (name) father’s character traits father’s image creation techniques father’s influence on the formation of the child character children’s prose 1 sush “dad by my side” daughter caring, empathetic, loving, strong gesture portrait, description portrait, color writing cheerful, joyful, loving, active, stressresistant daughter. 2 markus mayaluoma “dad, let’s go pick mushrooms” son and daughter sensitive, loving, caring speech portrait children know how to sympathize, love their parents, and selflessly help others. 3 iva procházková “granny with wings” son elias prudent, selfish, irritable emotional portrait sensitive, holds a grudge against his parents, hates computer games that his father creates, does not understand adults, envies classmates from happy families, is lonely. adolescent prose 4 tatyana menshchikova “my father lit the stars” son snail (nickname) technical school teacher; instructive, fair, cruel speech and gesture portrait lonely, irritable, stress-prone. 5 sara pennypacker “pax” son peter shut-in personality, aggressive, silent, tired impression portrait, smell resentment toward the father, isolation, loneliness, an attempt to escape from reality. 6 elena ozhich “my dad is a boy” son teacher; infantile, romantic, indifferent to his son grotesque, hyperbole, portrait irritability, vulnerability, bozhkova et al. emotionality, shame for the father. 7 anna nikolskaya “papateka” son vitya polovinkin untidy, grumpy, detached from life grotesque, gesture portrait irritability, shame for the father, anger. table 2 is made to confirm the opinion of psychologists hollins and hetherington, described in shaw (2012), who argued that it was impossible to bring up a child with a fully developed personality without paternal involvement. indeed, in families where fathers love and take care of their children—in “dad by my side” by sush and “dad, let’s go pick mushrooms” by mayaluoma—children are loved and protected, they know how to give love, and they grow up as stress-resistant reflective personalities. this is confirmed by the writers of modern children’s and adolescent prose (krylova et al., 2020). in “granny with wings” by procházková, “my father lit the stars” by menshchikova, “pax” by pennypacker, “my dad is a boy” by ozhich, and “papateka” by nikolskaya, children are irritable, lonely, angry, and standoffish due to their fathers’ detachment, selfishness, indifference, and busyness, and in the future this can prevent them from becoming good fathers to their sons, since the writers pay attention to the interpersonal relations between fathers and sons in six out of the seven works under study. thus, in the story “dad is near,” a caring, loving father is presented, who, thanks to these qualities, brings up a cheerful, active, and kind daughter. in “dad, let’s go pick mushrooms,” the father is very sympathetic, childishly vulnerable, and anxious, so the children reciprocate and grow up able to feel and sympathize. in “grandmother with wings,” the father is constantly busy developing computer games and has no time for his son. the father is irritable and selfish, and such an upbringing forms an envious child suffering from loneliness, vulnerable and offended both by the father and by the people. in “my father lit the stars,” the father is grumpy, edifying, and uncommunicative, and these qualities form irritability and apathy in his son. the father in “pax” experiences the death of his wife and withdraws into himself, turning into an irritable, aggressive person, bringing up a sense of guilt, isolation, and resentment in his son. in “my dad is a boy,” the hero is indifferent and infantile, so his son is ashamed of him and does not want to grow up like that. in “papateka,” the father brings his son to irritation and resentfulness with his pedantry and slowness. the father’s example is very important for boys and girls; the child adopts a model of behavior and learns to model and project relationships with the outside world. the psychologist ruth journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 221 feldman of israel’s bar-ilan university has found that, like mothers, fathers experience a hormonal boost when caring for their children, which helps bring them closer together. when fathers are the primary caregivers, their brains adapt to the task. research question 2. what socio-psychological types of fathers are represented in the literature of the 21st century? the answer to this question is shown in diagram 1. diagram 1 the results of the analysis of types of paternal images in children’s and adolescent prose as diagram 1 suggests, in modern children’s and adolescent prose, seven (100%) works have been analyzed. of these, in three (42%) works (“granny with wings,” “pax,” “my dad is a boy”) the not-at-home father type dominates (abramova, 2018); in two (28%) texts (“my father lit the stars,” “papateka”), a father-judge dominates; in two (28%) works (“dad by my side,” “dad, let’s go pick mushrooms”), a father-friend is the dominant type. this reflects reality, in which there are two extremes: either fathers pay great attention to the upbringing of their children or, on the contrary, they are indifferent, making a kind of escape to work. social psychologist abramova (2018) distinguishes several types of paternal images: father-friend, father-judge, not-at-home father, father-breadwinner, and father-psychotherapist. only three of these types will be considered in detail, since they are frequent in the analyzed texts. it is always interesting to be with a father-friend, he knows a lot and knows how to do things, is fair, active, 42% 28% 28% types of fathers (based on modern children's and adolescent prose) not-at-home father father-judge father-friend bozhkova et al. enduring, and never offends anyone; these behavioral guidelines demonstrate a choleric person. the father-judge always demands order in everything; he is slow, judicious, always checks the fulfillment of his orders, and does not forgive carelessness and improper performance of duties. as a rule, such fathers are pedantically accurate; these are the components of a phlegmatic person. the not-at-home father does not interfere with anything, has a high working capacity, originality, knows how to make money, only rests at home, and if he is burdened with duties, he gets irritated and seeks to leave home; the type of temperament is sanguine (abramova, 2018). regretfully, it has to be stated that father-judges and the not-at-home father are outside the psychic reality which they themselves have created (are creating); that is, they do not seem to live in a family, but are located in it, since they do not take responsibility for the content of relationships with family members, relying on their natural, spontaneous implementation and manifestation. the authors prove this when analyzing the types of fathers. guided by the opinion of bocharov (borisenko, 2010), the authors show that in literature, as in life, biological factors determine the psychophysiological readiness for paternity, while social factors regulate the implementation of this readiness. the specific style of paternity depends on many socio-cultural characteristics. society does not impose certain requirements on the economic, social, age, and professional status of a man and, accordingly, a father; therefore, the number of not-at-home types increases (abramova, 2018) and the number of father-friends is significantly reduced. this fact is to be proved in the further interpretation of the works and in the discussion on this issue. writers also entered the discussion regarding the influence of fathers on the formation of children. they analyze interpersonal relations in much more detail than psychologists and sociologists, which is why the authors interpreted the literary works, noted in table 2. the number of works written directly for children (boshkova, 2018) is increasing, but the most important innovation is the works in which the father becomes the main and only character. similar works, if we take into account the opinion of lucey (2021), can be considered “spiritual capital.” thus, “dad by my side” (sush, 2018) can be a striking example. this is a work of the modern picture book genre. it contains colorful illustrations, which are a full-fledged part of this story, and the minimum amount of accompanying text from the perspective of a girl—this technique of first-person narration helps the reader feel in detail the described image of the father: “he always finds time for me, even if he is very busy”; “he comforts me when i am sad”; “there is always a place for me next to him”; journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 223 “when dad is by my side, nothing is impossible.” there is no storyline in this work; the text is a set of separate phrases, complemented by pictures, an integral element, but this does not interfere with the process of drawing up a portrait of the main character, a caring, sensitive, loving man, a “father-friend” who is the whole universe, model, and support for his child. color also helps to reveal the father’s image. all the paintings are in soft pastel colors, and the father is depicted as slightly dark-skinned with pink cheeks. pastel colors help to reveal the father’s character: warm, cozy, typical of sanguine people and tourmaline corresponding to this type of personality. exaggeration in the depiction of the father’s image—he is almost three times larger than the girl, constantly smiling—helps to reveal the character’s attitude toward her dad: she considers him an almighty kind protector. the pronoun “we,” which is most often used in the book, says that the father and the daughter do everything together, like real friends. the verbs denoting the father’s actions are used only with a positive connotation and the meaning of dynamic actions: “consoles,” “tells,” “sings,” “protects,” “finds,” “knows”—this confirms that the father plays a prominent role in bringing up his daughter. the influence of the father on the formation of the child is reflected in table 2. in “dad, let’s go pick mushrooms” by markus mayaluoma (2008), there is also an image of a father-friend. the children wait for him to come home every evening. as soon as the father’s car enters the yard, the children with “joyful squeals” begin to shout: “... daddy has come!” it is obvious from the children’s behavior that the father is a beloved member of the family. sometimes it seems that the father is too harsh with his children, but this is just a put-on behavior as he cannot deny them anything. the children are glad that their dad succumbed to their urging, so they begin “...crazy packing up” for mushroom picking. it can be seen that the kids are worried about their father, packing things not only for themselves but for him as well—they take an atlas on the definition of mushrooms, so that “dad does not pick inedible mushrooms by mistake.” the man is very sensitive; when neighbors speak unflatteringly about his car, calling it “a sack of potatoes,” the father gets offended. he is quick-tempered: upon finding that the children had carefully painted over all the mushrooms with felt-tip pens so that it became impossible to identify which mushrooms were poisonous, he “roared so that all the trees swayed.” however, when the children run into the bear, the father, without thinking about himself, takes care of the children’s safety. the man’s positive qualities are also indicated by those definitions he uses to encourage his children: “beloved,” “red-cheeked”—in all epithets, one can feel the father’s love and tenderness bozhkova et al. toward the children. the head of the family, like an agate stone, gives his children warmth and irrepressible vital energy. the man takes care of his little children wholeheartedly, although sometimes he is angry with them. the influence of the father on the formation of the child is reflected in table 2. at the end of the 20th century, an interesting type of father appeared in children’s literature: the not-at-home father. this is the type of father most often found in the literature of the 21st century. the progressive frequency in the use of this type in children’s literature is due to the characteristics of the new century. in the 21st century, material wealth is valued most, not strong family ties; therefore, from the point of view of researchers such as fedorov and suslov (2021), juvenile delinquency is increasing, which is directly related to child-parent relationships. teenagers do not forgive the indifference of their parents. the head of the family in iva procházková’s (2013) story “granny with wings” can be classified as a not-at-home father type. elias’s dad develops computer games, but these are the man’s only interests. elias notes with bitterness that his father does not know “how to make a real kite” and knows “nothing about princesses.” many children are jealous of elias because his father is a computer genius who knows everything about games; however, elias does not think so, because this work steals his father’s attention from him. the boy gets very upset when his dad forgets his promises, and he worries, gets offended, hates games, and does not understand adults. one day, the mother promises elias that the father will come to play with him on the playground, but the man does not come, since he “spent the whole evening at the computer.” by means of confession, the reader understands how much the boy is offended by his father for inattention. elias calls his father unbearable, poorly educated, the definition of an “obnoxious parent,” which confirms the chilly relationship between father and son. even the father’s emotional portrait is perceived by the son negatively: “he is about to cry,” “he shouted in his plaintive voice.” the father answers “briefly and clearly” because he has no common topics for conversation with the child. even during “serious conversations,” elias’s father “drums nervously with his fingers on the table” since “at this time he is already on his way to work.” the influence of the father on the formation of the child is reflected in table 2. the children’s book industry develops very fast. currently, many psychological books are published to help parents and their teenage children find peace and understand each other (anand & hsu, 2020; shatunova et al., 2021). however, the difficulties of this period are not only journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 225 presented in scientific-educational literature; many children’s literary works reveal the difficulties of a teenager’s communication with parents. fathers often do not understand their children and find the reason for puberty rebellion in a bad temper. adults think that the behavior of a teenager is a desire to annoy the parents and to do everything to spite them. the story “my father lit the stars” by tatyana menshchikova (2019) describes the life and inner experiences of the main character, a boy nicknamed “snail.” the first-person narrative technique helps to better understand the feelings of the main character. the teenager got the nickname “snail” because he is constantly late, although he leaves home “an hour earlier” before a certain time. the boy tries to get rid of this habit of being late everywhere, but he is very bad at it because no one believes in his capabilities. he lived most of his life with his mother and confesses that the time he spent with her was “the happiest.” after 12 years, snail learns that he has a father. it is worth noting that the father appeared in snail’s life at the beginning of the adolescent period. the man belongs to the melancholic personality type; he is a private person who does not show emotions. like a moonstone, he emits a cold and faded light that cannot warm snail. the man remains cold and indifferent to his son, constantly comparing him with other children. any conversation between snail and his father becomes another reason for “giving an instructive lecture,” therefore, at the beginning of the story, the man acts as a “father-judge”: he criticizes snail for everything he does, starting from everyday things like “cooking pasta in a wrong way” and ending with life values and manners. despite all this, the boy tries to get closer to his father, but he hears nothing but “eternal bunching that he didn’t turn off the light in the room, or didn’t make the bed.” the boy speaks of his father dryly, describing his appearance with typical phrases without detail: “in his early fifties,” “about two meters tall.” the man does not believe in the abilities and uniqueness of his son; he does not see a personality in him. all this has a bad effect on the child, and the boy starts thinking that the father is right. that is why, when at school snail is asked to write an essay about his father, the boy gets a psychosomatic effect: “someone turned on the freezer in the stomach.” the child understands that he does not know anything about his father, especially his positive personality traits. the turning point comes when snail learns what a wonderful technical school teacher his father was. the boy realizes that all the street lights are “lit by dad’s students, he’s all that.” father and son began a long journey toward rapprochement. the influence of the father on the formation of the child is reflected in table 2. bozhkova et al. in the children’s literature of the 20th and 21st centuries, there is a motive of war. many of these literary works do not name a specific historical battle but introduce only a generalized image of war. one such novel is “pax” by sara pennypacker (2016). the key figures in this story are the father and son, who interact directly or indirectly throughout the story. the story starts with the scene when the father forces his son peter to take his tame fox pax into the forest. at the beginning of the story, an evaluative portrait of the father is introduced: “his gentle voice did not fit with the strong smell of lies.” already the man’s bad temper is obvious. the man’s gesture portrait during the scene complements the first impression of the character: “pushed the car door,” “walking wide, headed for the gravel,” “unclenched his hand”—all this characterizes the father as a strong and emotionless person. peter’s dad acts as a not-at-home father. the man never has time for his child, he is always at work, “almost never at home.” since the father is constantly absent from the child’s life, he simply does not know his son or his hobbies, and he does not understand peter’s affection for pax. the boy feels the latent threat posed by his father, so over time, “he learned to be quiet. he didn’t get underfoot.” peter’s father became private and aggressive after his wife died. the boy recalls the time when his mother died, confessing that his father reacted rather strangely to this tragedy: at first, he was silent, and then, “his father’s face seemed to ossify, the same expression of threat was always frozen on it.” the man, trying to forget the death of his wife, plunged into his own affairs, not noticing his son and absolutely not understanding him; this is primarily reflected in the moment when the father forces his son to get rid of his fox friend. peter’s grandfather tells him that when his father was 10 years old, he had a “faithful dog” and never went anywhere without it. the grandfather shared his son’s affection and did not forbid him to play with the dog. the father, who understood the value of human life and family ties only in the war, whose shoulders were “shaking with sobs,” could finally give his son “loving and protective embraces,” which the boy “dreamed of for so many years,” while the son, unfortunately, will no longer be able to forgive his father’s lies and accept his later repentance. peter allows himself to be hugged but quickly pulls away because he realizes that his father was lying, knowingly endangering pax’s life. it turns out that his father is not “a man lost in family relationships” but “a man who is sick with war.” in the story, the father is shown as melancholic. such people take personal losses very hard; they cannot rehabilitate for a long time. by his character, the father does not give his son warmth or tenderness, he lives only his own life, and the life of his son goes unnoticed. the influence of the father on the formation of the child is reflected in table 2. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 227 another example of a not-at-home father is the dad from “my dad is a boy” by elena ozhich. the narration is first-person. from the first lines of the story, it becomes clear that the boy lacks his father’s love and attention. “everyone is busy at home.” dad is always busy and talks to the boy only when he wants his son to do something so that he “does not hang out in the yard.” when the city government prohibits children from playing in the yard alone, the father takes his son for a walk “like a dog,” but then the father gets tired of it and replaces the walk time with the work he loves. since the father rarely communicates with his son, he does not understand the fact that the boy has already grown up. therefore, when the man joins his son and his friends, he starts annoying them. the image of the father in this story is not static due to the technique of artistic exaggeration: an adult man turns into a child again, and only after that does he find common ground with his son. certainly, this transformation hides an allegory technique: to understand a child, an adult needs to become a child himself. the father invited the children to show the games he played in childhood, and when playing he turned into a dad-boy. then a real boy and a dad-boy have to exist on equal terms. the son even sometimes has to take care of his “younger” father. as in distant childhood, the boy and his father start spending time together again, they play, eat, talk. the boy is incredibly happy that his father finally paid attention to him and became an “active father.” the influence of the father on the formation of the child is reflected in table 2. a separate classification of the types of fathers is introduced in the story “papateka” by anna nikolskaya (2015). the narration is from the perspective of the main character, a boy named vitya. this literary technique makes it possible to feel the character’s emotions as much as possible, to understand his feelings. in the first lines, the boy confesses that he wants his dad to disappear “and preferably go missing.” even the look of his father is unpleasant to vitya; this is understood by the boy’s description of his father’s appearance: “he scratches his belly under his pajamas,” “bald,” “long, like a member of the ostrich family”—this comparison shows the boy’s attitude toward his father, an unpleasant and cowardly person. vitya blames his father for all his troubles, believing that if he “flies away with the alien,” they “will take the good life with mum.” the father preaches morality and likes to “punish justly,” acting as a father-judge. the father is forced to play two roles in the family, both mom and dad, and he performs each of them not very well; the meals he cooks are “virtually inedible,” and he is very rarely interested in his son’s life. vitya’s mother went to work, and her participation in the family’s life is only through a video conversation. the offended and angry boy, who wandered the street for a long time, is given a unique opportunity in a magic bozhkova et al. house called papateka to choose the dad of his dreams. the exchange terms are simple: the boy “hires” the new ideal dad and hands over his own dad to the glass crypt “for storage.” the boy gives in to temptation and chooses a new parent. first, the child chooses a father by external qualities, then by internal ones. the child changes his fathers over and over again until he realizes that they are all “the same” and his own dad is an ideal father, combining all the best human qualities in optimal proportions. it is noteworthy that none of the dads suited the boy, and more than anything he wanted to get his father back. at the end of the story, the characters finally build a harmonious relationship. the aforementioned authors create psychological portraits of fathers and talk about the relationships of fathers and children, paying special attention to the influence of fathers on the formation of their personalities. the modern writers’ views on fatherhood are not reviewed by researchers, thus their advice is neglected. this article is partly intended to fill this gap. the authors are convinced that in fiction, the problem of the influence of fathers on the formation of the younger generation is solved much more actively than in the social, psychological literature of the last decade. the writers express their position clearly, and it is close to hardach (2019), who is convinced that children with emotionally involved fathers show better mental development. in addition, having interpreted the works, the authors cannot but agree with the opinions expressed by bocharov (borisenko, 2010), who stated that in literature, as in life, biological factors determine the psychophysiological readiness for paternity, while social factors regulate the implementation of this readiness; rakhmanova (2008), who claims that paternal influence contributes to the formation of character, professional self-determination, and the formation of a worldview, as well as a style of behavior; and abramova (2018), whose classification of the types of fathers seems to the authors to be true and very convenient. with this article, the gap begins to be bridged, associated with the lack of literary coverage of the above-stated problem, and it is believed that there should be more such studies, since the authors have discovered a large array of works of fiction covering the topic of the influence of fathers on the development of children. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 229 conclusions in summary, this study indicates that psychologists, educators, sociologists, and writers agree to receive the role of paternity and the misunderstanding of fathers and children. in general, harmonious relationships between fathers and children contribute to the formation of a harmonious, viable, and responsive personality that can feel and sympathize. the father’s behavior model is especially important for the son; therefore, in six of the seven studied literary works the sons are the main characters. specifically, in the analyzed children’s and adolescent literature of the 21st century, there are three types of fathers: the not-at-home father, father-judge, and fatherfriend. this is primarily due to the psychological characteristics of world perception by children and adolescents. all emotions are too strong. adolescents are most sensitive to injustice. fathers who are almost never at home because of work cannot reach common ground with their children, while the fathers who participate in the lives of their children cannot find the right approach to upbringing. therefore, there are father-judges who criticize their children’s every move. such men do not understand that it is very difficult for teenagers to survive the period of adolescence, the time of self-determination and restructuring of life guidelines. reading the outlined works of fiction by fathers together with their children will help to solve the problems of interpersonal relations and even help to look at oneself from the outside. this study has limitations since its subject is to highlight the specific functions of electronic literature, in particular, a digital book. therefore, future research shall be based on studying the features of hyper literature. in this study, the concept of a “hypertext book” was mentioned and it needs to be thoroughly studied. research is also needed to distinguish between a digital book and a game. references abramova, g. s. (2018). practical psychology. moscow: prometheus. akulina, m. (2015). child-parent relations. moscow: lap lambert academic publishing. anand, d., & hsu, l. (2020). think outside the book: transformative justice using children’s literature in educational settings. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 122-143. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.13 atkins, r. n. (1984). transitive vitalization and its impact on father-representation. contemporary psychoanalysis, 20(4), 663-676. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107530.1984.10745762 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.13 https://doi.org/10.1080/00107530.1984.10745762 bozhkova et al. barkan, a. i. (2009). ordinary family wars, or how we create problems for our children. moscow: ast. borisenko, yu. v. (2010). the problem of fatherhood in modern society. moscow: ast. borodkin, f. m. (2004). social indicators what are they? the world of russia, 4, 62-104. retrieved from: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sotsialnye-indikatory-chto-etotakoe/viewer boshkova, g., shastina, e., & shatunova, o. (2018). the role of grandparents in the child’s personality formation (on the material of children’s literature). journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 283-294. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/263 bowlby, j. (2003). affection. moscow: gardariki. bozhkova, g., shatunova, о., & shastina, е. (2020). influence of the family on the process of forming a child’s personality: types of families: a case of modern youth prose. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 11(3), 220-241. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2243/467 brownell, c., & rashid, a. (2020). building bridges ınstead of walls: engaging young children in critical literacy read alouds. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 76-94. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.5 camarero-figuerola, m., dueñas, j.-m., & renta-davids, a.-i. (2020). the relationship between family involvement and academic variables. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 57-71. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.4 chung, m. (2020). “i call them my little chinese kids”: parents’ identities and language ideologies in a mandarin-english dual language immersion school. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 179-195. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.19 cohn, i. c. (1984). in search of myself. personality and its identity. moscow: politizdat. coles, r. l. (2015). single-father families: a review of the literature. journal of family theory & review, 7(2), 144-146. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jftr.12069 fedorov, a. f., & suslov, yu. e. (2021). parent-child relations of convicted juveniles held in educational colonies. an overview of educational research, 3(1), 117-122. http://opijournal.ru/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/opi_tom_3_-1.pdf freud, s. (2014). psychology of child sexuality. moscow: union. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sotsialnye-indikatory-chto-eto-takoe/viewer https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sotsialnye-indikatory-chto-eto-takoe/viewer https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/263 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2243/467 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.19 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jftr.12069 http://opi-journal.ru/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/opi_tom_3_-1.pdf http://opi-journal.ru/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/opi_tom_3_-1.pdf journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 210-232 231 hardach, s. (2019). the secret of being a good father. retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190606-how-to-be-a-good-father-to-a-newbornson-or-daughter johnson, d. j. (1996). father presence matters: a review of the literature. eric number: ed454976. retrieved from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed454976.pdf krippendorff, k. (2018). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. krylova, l. a., zhundibayeva, a. k., kadyrov, z. t., talaspaóeva, z. s., fatkiyeva, g. t., & sabiyeva, y. v. (2020). portrait image in pushkin’s prose of the thirties in the 19th century. media watch, 11(4), 630-647. doi:10.15655/mw/2020/v11i4/204630 lucey, т. (2021). notions of spiritual capital – a matter of extinction for social education? journal of social studies education research (jsser), 12(1), 283-294. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2543 lukovkina, a. (2018). talismans and amulets. moscow: liters. mackay, b., & mackay, k. (2015). the importance of fathers (according to science). retrieved from: https://www.artofmanliness.com/articles/the-importance-of-fathers-according-toscience/ mayaluoma, m. (2008). dad, let’s go pick mushrooms. moscow: scooter. menshchikova, t. (2019). my father lit the stars. moscow: compass guide. muchemwa, k. z., & muponde, r. (2007). manning the nation: father figures in zimbabwean literature and society. harare, zimbabwe: weaver press. nash, j. (1965). the father in contemporary culture and current psychological literature. child development, 36(1), 261-297. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1126797?seq=1 nikolskaya, a. (2015). papateka. moscow: rosman-press. ozhich, e. (2019). my dad is a boy. moscow: scooter. pennypacker, s. (2016). pax. new york: deckle edge. procházková, i. (2013). eliáš a babička z vajíčka vydavatel. praha: mladáfronta. raeburn, p. (2015). do fathers matter?: what science is telling us about the parent we’ve overlooked. farrar, straus and giroux, usa. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190606-how-to-be-a-good-father-to-a-newborn-son-or-daughter https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190606-how-to-be-a-good-father-to-a-newborn-son-or-daughter https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed454976.pdf https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2543 https://www.artofmanliness.com/articles/the-importance-of-fathers-according-to-science/ https://www.artofmanliness.com/articles/the-importance-of-fathers-according-to-science/ https://www.jstor.org/stable/1126797 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1126797?seq=1 bozhkova et al. rakhmanova, v. k. (2008). the first experience of fatherhood and attitude to one’s father. psychological science and education, 4, 48-56. retrieved from: https://www.studmed.ru/view/rahmanova-vk-pervyy-opyt-otcovstva-i-otnoshenie-ksvoemu-otcu_56d1edeebe6.html randal, d. d., & wade, c. m. (1986). the role image of the american father: an examination of a media myth. journal of comparative family studies, 17(3), 371-388. doi: 10.3138/jcfs.17.3.371 rousseau, j. j. (1896). emile, or on education. moscow. shastina, e., jentgens, s., shatunova, o., borisov, a., & bozhkova, g. (2020). role of literary pedagogy in modern education of preschool and primary school children. space and culture, india, 8(1), 234-243. retrieved from: https://spaceandculture.in/index.php/spaceandculture/article/view/795 shatunova, o., bozhkova, g., tarman, b., & shastina, e. (2021). transforming the reading preferences of today’s youth in the digital age: intercultural dialog. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(3), 62-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 shaw, b. (2012). gender psychology. moscow: scooter. sush. (2018). dad by my side. st. petersburg: polyandria. susilo, s. (2020). the role of families in cultivating children’s personality values: an analysis of social psychology education. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 11(4), 275-303. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2858 https://www.studmed.ru/view/rahmanova-vk-pervyy-opyt-otcovstva-i-otnoshenie-k-svoemu-otcu_56d1edeebe6.html https://www.studmed.ru/view/rahmanova-vk-pervyy-opyt-otcovstva-i-otnoshenie-k-svoemu-otcu_56d1edeebe6.html https://spaceandculture.in/index.php/spaceandculture/article/view/795 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2858 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 1-21 dialogue method in high school anti-corruption education maria montessori1 monica tiara2, ambiyar3, & syaiful islami4 abstract anti-corruption education is one of the preventative measures carried out in an attempt to eradicate corruption. this study aims to build anti-corruption character within high school students by using dialogue method in learning civic education. in order to achieve the aim, students’ understandings of corruption and its consequences, development of their critical thinking skills and anti-corruption attitude as well as commitment are needed. under a qualitative approach, the participants were recruited from two public high schools including civic education teachers and students. data were obtained through classroom observation using the observation sheet, interview sessions and documentation studies. while data obtained through classroom observation method were analyzed descriptively, the responses to the interview and document studies were analyzed qualitatively. the results show that students have an adequate understanding on corruption and its consequences as during the interview sessions they showed a high cognitive level. additionally, students’ critical thinking skills are categorized as high. the research findings conclude that students’ anti-corruption attitude could be enacted. keywords: dialogue method, anti-corruption education, value learning, critical thinking, student’s character. introduction corruption needs to be eradicated as it goes against humans’ moral values. according to transparency international, the corruption perception index of indonesia in 2020 was 37/100, ranking it at 102 out of the 180 countries in the world. furthermore, the transparency international anti-corruption institution’s annual report entitled “2020 corruption perceptions index” revealed that during the covid-19 pandemic faced by the global world, corruption is still committed and becomes a threat. for instance, there was a corruption case on the procurement of medical equipment for overcoming covid-19 committed by the hanoi-vietnam head of disease control and prevention center and on the covid-19 social incentives for the poor people committed by the ministry of social affairs republic of indonesia (cnbc, 2020). all of these show that corruption 1 dr. civic education, universitas negeri padang, mariamontessori@fis.unp.ac.id 2 master of civic education, universitas negeri padang, monicatiara@unp.ac.id 3 prof. dr. technical and vocational education, universitas negeri padang, ambiyar@ft.uno.ac.id 4 master of technical and vocational education, universitas negeri padang, syaiful_islami@ft.unp.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 2 is an extremely serious and complex issue that needs to be resolved, both through prosecution and prevention (hauser, 2019; najih & wiryani, 2020). one method to eradicate corruption is through education (amukowa, 2013; kamil, et all., 2018; transparency international, 2020). anti-corruption education is believed to establish an understanding on the importance of avoiding corrupt behavior in life and to strengthen the anticorruption attitude and character (basabose, 2019; kadir, 2018). topics on anti-corruption education, mainly in higher education, have been previously studied. for instance, kravchuk (2017) investigated the main directions of anti-corruption education for the students majoring in engineering. the research aimed to build anti-corruption characters for these university students who later will become professionals in the future. likewise, zamaletdinov (2016) conducted a research on developing practical recommendations for increasing the effectiveness of anti-corruption policies at universities. with the same findings, hauser (2018) revealed that the anti-corruption training was able to provide the participants with a tendency to reject corruption. hasanah et al. (2020) found that not all universities in indonesia have implemented anti-corruption education. anti-corruption education has also been integrated with school activities. komalasari and saripudin (2015) argued that anti-corruption education can be integrated in various activities in schools, such as ‘honesty canteen’ that helps create an anti-corruption atmosphere in schools as schools are institutions responsible for changing the cultural values of society, including the culture of corruption (musofiana, 2017). one model of anti-corruption was designed by samad (2019) in an islamic religion-based school curriculum. a number of studies on the anti-corruption education policies in various levels of education have been carried out (e.g., assegaf, 2015; hauser, 2019). studies on anti-corruption education in schools can be done by using various approaches. one of them is by integrating anti-corruption into civic education subject (purnama & sundawa, 2017). however, there have not been many studies on the methods or strategies used in anti-corruption education in schools. kristiono et al. (2019) implemented anti-corruption education by using lectures, group discussions and presentation. meanwhile, hauser and berenbeim (2020) proposed that the socrates method and problem solving can be used in anti-corruption education. montessori et al. different from those above-mentioned studies, this current research focuses on the use of dialogue method in discussing anti-corruption education. this method is in an attempt to allow students to acquire a learning experience that becomes the foundation for developing anti-corruption attitude and behavior through the interactive nature of dialogues. thus, this research aims to fill in the gaps in the research area of anti-corruption education practice by using dialogue method in high schools. in addition, this research has several purposes: 1) disclose students’ understanding on corruption and its consequences, 2) explore students’ critical thinking skill in learning anti-corruption, and 3) describe students’ attitude towards anti-corruption. the object of this study is anti-corruption education in high schools, particularly at civic education subject by using dialogue method involving teacher and students in interactive dialogues in analyzing popular corruption cases in indonesia (grace & maigue, 2020). the need to use dialogue method in learning anti-corruption is based on the assumption that effective learning could educate a nation to become people possessing anti-corruption attitude and character, require students’ involvements both physically and emotionally, with the attitudes reflecting anti-corruption (montessori, 2021). dialogues on various corrupt actions encourage students to think critically over the danger of corruptions and the need of anti-corruption personality for indonesia as a nation. active learning experience that allows students to express opinions and arguments would motivate students to explore and understand the danger of corruption, and such knowledge can last for a long period of time (biwer et al., 2020). research questions this research attempts to answer the research questions as follows: 1) what are the levels of students' understanding of corruption and its implications, 2) what are the levels of students' critical thinking skills in civic education subject about anticorruption using the dialogue method, and 3) what are the attitudes shown by students related to anti-corruption in learning using the dialogue method. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 4 literature review anti-corruption education anti-corruption education refers to the education that aims to provide students with adequate knowledge on the complexity of corruption and with the means to prevent it and to cultivate anticorruption values. in the long term, it aims to develop anti-corruption culture within students and allow them to participate actively in the efforts to prevent corruption (boehm & nell, 2007). the preceding statements express two things: 1) anti-corruption education refers to the need for students to have complete knowledge about corruption and 2) anti-corruption education is related to the growth of anti-corruption culture. the indonesian ministry of education and culture stated that anti-corruption education puts emphasis on anti-corruption character building within individuals; and therefore, it aims to form anti-corruption disposition on students and to form the spirit and competence as agents of change for a society free from the threat of corruption. in relation to the statement above, komisi pemberantasan korupsi (kpk) or indonesian corruption eradication commission claimed that anti-corruption education is a preventative method to prevent corruptions and foster anticorruption culture through the implementation of nine anti-corruption values namely, honesty, care, discipline, independence, responsibility, hard work, simplicity, courage and fairness in everyday life. to sum up, anti-corruption education is an education that aims to develop anticorruption character within students which would ultimately lead to the creation of anti-corruption culture within the society. a study conducted by komalasari and saripudin (2015) showed that anti-corruption education in indonesia is integrated into civic education and can be done through various approaches and school activities, such as, contextual approach, values learning, use of modules and the establishment of honesty canteen. as a school subject, hauser and berenbeim (2020) asserted that dialogue and problem-solving methods are often used in anti-corruption education as they are able to stimulate students to think critically on the issues discussed. the implementation of anticorruption education at schools by using case methods results in students with more motivation to learn and thus creating a more effective learning (huang et al, 2020). the same opinion is expressed by komalasari and saripudin (2018) who argued that the use of living values educationbased civic education textbook significantly impacts the development of junior high school montessori et al. students’ character. this contrasts with the findings obtained by fajar and muriman (2018) arguing that it is better to teach the attitude and knowledge of high school students towards anti-corruption through civic education than by using corruption eradication commission modules. these findings uphold the idea that anti-corruption education can be executed at schools by using various methods that could affect the development of anti-corruption character in students. dialogue method dialogue method is a learning approach where both teachers and students are involved in interactive conversations; thus, learning becomes a combined effort where knowledge and understanding are constructed simultaneously. mercer et al. (2019) stated that this statement comprises two meanings: 1) students and teachers are actively involved in a class conversation and 2) knowledge and understanding is constructed together by both teachers and students. conversely, burbules (1999) emphasized that dialogues are deliberate interactive conversation carried out to achieve learning objectives as not all dialogues are considered an educational activity; accordingly, the topic of the conversation needs to be problems that contain ethical issues (alvarez, 2014; honegger, 2020; wilcox, 2020). this means that the conversation between teachers and students need to be planned to achieve certain learning objectives by discussing issues containing moral values. furthermore, alexander (2017; 2018) stated that the dialogues in learning need to follow a framework that encompasses four main components, namely justifications, principles, repertoires and indicators. repertoires are the heart of the operation, they are guided and refreshed by the principles and indicators; whereas, the justifications provide their springboard. based on the preceding opinions, the use of dialogue method in learning, including moral values learning such as anti-corruption education, could boost students’ progress. a number of ways have been invented to teach moral values to students. one of them is by directly teaching the intended character through concepts relevant to the objectives (berkowitz, 2011). additionally, alvarez (2014) expressed that the use of dialogue method may improve the interactions between students and teachers both in class and in school; accordingly, learning may happen collaboratively within a respectful environment. based on each student’s contribution, a valuable learning and discussion condition can be achieved. ultimately, this may improve relationship within class members and train their ability to think. this finding demonstrate that the use of dialogue method may not only improve students’ ability to think but also to strengthen their journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 6 moral values. moreover, knezik et al. (2010) presented that the use of socrates dialogue method could increase students’ personal sensitivity while also stimulate their conceptual understanding. knezik’s statement strengthened the idea that dialogue method is beneficial in training and developing students’ ability to think and in creating a better personality. this is emphasized by mercer et al. (2019) that stated dialogues and collective thinking is proven to have a direct implication on pedagogy and learning practices in class. critical thinking fundamentally, critical thinking is a deliberation performed by individuals that results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation and inference, as well as elaboration on proof, concept, methodology, criteria or consideration done in determining a choice (carvalho et al., 2017; pitt et al., 2014). on the other hand, popil (2011) emphasized that critical thinking as thinking rationally and reflectively that focuses on a decision of what to do or what to believe in. this activity consists of hypothesis formulation using alternatives in perceiving problems, questioning possible solutions and planning to analyze something (dam & volman, 2004; darolia, 2020). based on these opinions, it can be inferred that critical thinking is an activity that has certain criteria and standard (polat, 2020). in line with the preceding opinions, richard (2012) defined critical thinking as a way to think with certain goal where a person systematically and continuously uses certain intellectual criteria and standard in their reasoning. therefore, a critical thinker possesses several characteristics including purpose-oriented, open minded, flexible, willing to change, innovative, creative, analytical, communicative, assertive, steadfast, caring, energetic, risk-taking, knowledgeable, source based, observant, intuitive, and not imprisoned by their thoughts (ajaps & obiagu, 2020; ignatavicius, 2001). on the contrary, wilberding (2019) emphasized on the elements that should be present in critical thinking activities at school; they are deductive and inductive arguments, valid rationality including the awareness of consumption, consequences and implications. all these statements show on the need of certain criteria and rules that need to be included in a critical thinking activity. critical thinking skill is one of the many competencies of a good citizen. therefore, it needs to be taught and implemented in schools (dam & volman, 2004). in relations to moral values education, frijters, dam and rijlaarsdam (2008) found that teaching students critical thinking skills has a positive effect in the context of developing the ability to reason and to achieve the quality of the montessori et al. desired value orientations. this means critical thinking in learning has an advantage as it can influence both the development of students’ reasoning and also their orientation towards moral values. similarly, geboers et al. (2013) found that dialogues and discussions held in a democratic environment is effective in developing citizenship competence within high school students. rombout et al. (2021) implemented and assessed designs developed to promote value-loaded critical thinking in whole-class dialogues. the five design principles address, apply and reason critically about moral values, create inter-contextuality, and promote metacognitive reflection. they found that teachers consider the design principles relevant, consistent and mostly practical and that they use a wider range of teaching strategies for each design principle after participating in this study. the results of the study indicate that learning using critical thinking may not only impact students’ cognitive and rationality development positively, but also improve their orientation towards existing moral values. methods research design this research adopted a case study design as it intended to see the phenomena that occur in real time in a group of students in classroom learning (yin, 2018). the qualitative approach was implemented as the research interpreted what is seen, heard, and understood by researchers in an actual environment (creswell, 2012). therefore, this study seeks to reveal some of the implementation of learning using the dialogue method to find out students' understanding on corruption and its consequences, their critical thinking skills demonstrated during the dialogues, and their attitudes towards corruptions. research participants the participants in this study were four civic education teachers and 62 students from two public high schools as shown in table 1. table. 1 research participants no. school teacher student male female male female 1 school 1 1 1 11 19 2 school 2 2 14 18 total 1 3 25 37 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 8 location was determined based on the reputation of the school; one of which has a good reputation and located in the center of the city, while the other is slightly under-performing and located at the outskirts of the city. this selection was undertaken to represent students from each school that may have principal differences on their social backgrounds and cognitive ability. student participants were determined purposely based on the teachers’ considerations, that is students majoring in social science class consisting of 30 and 32 students respectively. research instruments the instruments used in this research were (a) an observation sheet that contains six thinking competencies based on taxonomy anderson and krathwohl (2001) and stanny (2016). the indicators are remember (c1), understand (c2), apply (c3), analyze (c4), evaluate (c5) and create (c6). the observation sheet was used to record the observed students' understanding about corruption and its consequences. observers put a check mark in the column that corresponds to the student's appearance in the dialogue. (b) the observation sheet is in the form of a rating scale to record students' critical thinking skills which contains six indicators with four levels of score range: 1 (less), 2 (enough), (3) good and (4) very good. (c) a transcript containing a spontaneous response that shows the attitude and commitment of students to anti-corruption attitudes. to get teacher and student responses about the dialogue method, interview guidelines were used. data collections the researcher worked together with the teachers to carry out the research. the researcher taught the students; meanwhile, the teachers observed the teaching and learning process. the steps of teaching and learning process are described in table 2 below: table 2 the teaching learning processes using dialogue cognitive skills and cognition affective initial assignment information analysis image observation interactive dialogues between teachers and students and between students students’ response morality of corruption issues discussion commitment pledge analogy corruption cases projecting images on the cases analyzed answering and commenting questions on cases that are • divergent • challenging • lower and higher order of thinking students’ responses discussing the morality of corruptors and their relations with existing moral values writing commitment to oppose corruption through writing slogans for each student montessori et al. the dialogue in learning begins with indonesia's position on corruption; why corruption cases occur in indonesia?, what are the major cases?, what is the actual corruption case of gt?, what is the mode?, why can gt be easily involved in corruption?, what are the state losses due to gt's actions both financially and morality?, why corruption must be eradicated?, how is the effort to eradicate corruption?, and what should be done? each question was discussed interactively between teachers and students and between students. during the dialogue process, teacher a, who acted as an observer, recorded students' answers. meanwhile, teacher b observed the students' critical thinking skills. this procedure was implemented in both classes from the two different schools. data on student attitudes regarding corruption were obtained through transcripts of conversations and interviews during the teaching and learning process, as well as through slogans created by students about their commitment to corruption. to triangulate the data obtained through classroom observations, interviews were also conducted with the teachers after the teaching and learning process using the dialogue method completed. data analysis data on students' understanding about corruption and its consequences collected during the learning process were analyzed descriptively using the following formula: xct = σxi σxm x 100 xct = critical thinking score, xi = total score obtained, and xm = maximum score. school 1 in class xi with 30 student participants, a maximum score of 120 was obtained; meanwhile, school 2 in class xi with 32 student participants obtained a maximum score of 128. furthermore, the critical thinking scores obtained for each indicator were grouped using the modified category reference as proposed by riduan (2013). the score more than 90 is categorized very high; 80-90 is high; 70-79 is moderate; 60-69 is low; and below 60 is very low. observation results on students' attitude and commitment while conversing, results from interviews with the teachers and students' slogans were analyzed qualitatively by referring to the steps proposed by creswell (2019). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 10 results students’ understanding on corruption and its consequences based on the observations during the teaching and learning process using interactive dialogue method between teachers and students and between fellow students, students’ understanding on corruption and its consequences can be described in table 3 below. table 3 analysis of students’ responses on their understanding no question level classification of question student response school 1 school 2 f % f % 1 lower level l1 c1 29 97 30 93 2 c2 27 90 27 85 3 c3 21 70 20 60.5 3 higher level l2 c4 19 65 19 60 4 c5 16 53 16 50 5 c6 10 33 10 31 table 3 displays students’ understanding about corruption obtained through their responses to the questions given by the teacher. questions on c1 level are related to their ability to remember; and most students from both schools responded by saying that they know the various corruption cases that have happened. questions on c2 level are regarding their ability to understand; and more than 85% of students understand that corruption is an act that is detrimental to the nation. questions on c3 level are about their ability to apply and c4 refer to their ability to analyze, for example more than 60% of the students can answer questions on sectors that are vulnerable to corruptions. however, questions on c5 level regarding ability to evaluate, only half of the students were able to accurately express their opinions. meanwhile, c6 level on the ability to propose solutions to overcome corruptions, even less students were able to comprehend it. the data from table 3 show that the students from school 1, the school with better reputation and student input, have a higher average competence compared to the students from school 2, the school located farther away from the center of the city. however, students from both schools show adequate understanding in dialogues as they are able to analyze, assess and express solutions based on the statements that they proposed although not all students could do the same. students' understandings about corruption and its consequences indicate that the students already have an early understanding about corruptions through information that they obtained from both printed and electronic media. however, understandings of how corruptors enrich themselves, how montessori et al. corruption relates to various parties, factors that lead to corruptions, as well as the morality involved within the corruption were obtained through the dialogues between students and teachers during the teaching and learning processes. students’ critical thinking skills in dialogues dialogues allow students to think critically. while dialogues occur, several indicators can be observed as presented in table 4 below. table 4. students’ critical thinking skill no. observed critical thinking skill aspects score average category school 1 school 2 1. identifying and interpreting information (problems) 90 83.6 high 2. problems analysis to find possible solutions 84.2 80 high 3. elaboration of answers are correct, clear, specific and supported by strong, correct and clear arguments 85 80.5 high 4. good line of thought with interrelated and integrated concepts 91.6 84.4 high 5. language used is good and correct 86.6 80.5 high 6. all aspects are displayed, proofs are presented in a nice and balanced way 86.6 80 high the average students’ critical thinking skills score 87.3 81.5 high table 4 shows students’ critical thinking skills through their responses, students demonstrate their skills best when following the line of thought led by the teachers through questions given that will then be discussed together. conversely, the lowest score occurs when finding solutions to prevent the emergence of new corruption cases. students from both schools still show varying critical thinking skills. however, generally, their critical thinking skills are categorized as high. the critical thinking skills demonstrated by the students are not detached from the various questions prepared by the teacher, from the lowest to the highest levels. while dialogues were in process, the teachers occasionally repeated and altered the questions by using simple words that were easier for the students to understand. the data from table 4 above show that the dialogues encouraged students to speak, whether to respond to questions or to complete the data on cases through the internet. in the interview, the teachers stated that their teaching on corruptions was limited to the materials provided in the text book, and that they had not explored further about corruptions’ connection with various aspects of people’s lives. additionally, the teachers also stated that they had never used dialogue method as a way to teach moral values. hence, the teachers’ experience with dialogue method was not yet optimal. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 12 students’ attitude and commitment towards anti-corruption while dialogues were in progress, students’ spontaneous statements regarding corruptions were also observed and recorded, and the various slogans they had created to show anti-corruption attitude and commitment. a summary of the various statements from both schools can be seen in table 5 below. table 5 statement of students’ attitude on corruption cases case analysis statement of students’ attitude 1. gt’s profile as someone with expertise in taxation “i know that gt is a corruptor but i did not know what he did” "a smart person is not always honest, and he uses his intelligence for bad things" “an honesty test is needed for employees who work with money” 2. gt’s lifestyle as informed by media “wow his lifestyle imitates a celebrity in a way it doesn't” “turns out corruptors have an excessive and awful lifestyle” "maybe gt used to be poor so he wanted revenge in his life" 3. gt’s amount of wealth “of course, the treasure is a lot because it was stolen from the state" “gt is a human being who is selfish and self-centered when there are still many poor indonesians” “why are the houses so many and luxurious when only one is inhabited? 4. corruption mode done "he's sly and very evil" "it turns out that he does not work alone but joins entrepreneurs who take advantage of his expertise" "i didn't know that corruptors could get so much money in such an easy way" 5. state losses due to his actions “i can't imagine that so much state money was lost” “how many poor people can be helped with the money that gt corrupts” “i was angry when i found out the amount of money corrupted by gt, even more so if i know about all corruption cases”. 6. moral values that his violated “gt does not value honesty and hard work in his life” “why are there so many people like gt in our country? “i feel ashamed to know indonesia's rank as the most corrupt country” 7. justified punishment for gt "make him poor again like before he made the corruption" "he should just get capital punishment, just like in china". 8. writing slogans to indicate anticorruption action there are students who wrote slogans as follows: go to hell corruptor, indonesia is not the place for the corruptor to live, make corruptors poor, still corrupt in this day and age?, and other slogans. table 5 describes the attitudes shown by students during and after anti-corruption teaching and learning process using dialogue method. it was done by analyzing a well-known major corruption case committed by a tax officer that was broadcasted in both printed and electronic media. after discussing the case in an open and democratic dialogue and analyzing the various aspects of the case as presented in table 5 above, students spontaneously expressed their opinions on their hatred of corruption, that the perpetrators need to be sentenced to death and that they are ashamed to know indonesia is one of the most corrupt countries in the world. attitudes demonstrated by the students are in line with the anti-corruption values proposed by corruption eradication commission: honesty, care, discipline, independence, responsibility, hard work, simplicity, montessori et al. courage and fairness in everyday lives. these are the values that are instilled in students through anti-corruption education in school. discussion the findings above lead to the following discussions. firstly, the results of this study show that teaching students about anti-corruption using dialogue method helps increase the level of their understanding about corruption and its consequences. although not every student was able to show a high-level thinking skill, such as evaluating and creating methods to avoid corruption, more than half of them were able to express their arguments and opinions clearly during dialogues with fellow students and their teachers. this is aligned with the opinion of mercer et al. (2019) saying that dialogues allow students to better construct knowledge and understanding. moreover, students find anti-corruption learning through contextual case analysis in society to be interesting and allows them to be involved both physically and mentally and also provides them a meaningful learning experience (huang et al., 2021, geboers et al., 2013). teaching using dialogue method is not the same with speaking with students (burbules, 1999), but it is a well-structured and systematic activity carried out by following the appropriate procedure to reach certain objectives (manalo, 2020, wilberding, 2019). therefore, teachers’ professionalism is required when carrying out dialogue method learning. teachers should always improve their professionalism and expertise and also update their knowledge on contemporary and contextual issues through professional institutions and organizations or independently. obiagu (2019) emphasizes that the characteristics possessed by teachers, such as their knowledge of the subject, their educational background and also their mastery of technology affect the implementation of civic education learning. considering that indonesian corruption cases are still huge issues, it is important that the integration of anti-corruption education into civic education in high school is proportionally increased with other subjects and school activities including extracurricular (baharuddin & samad, 2019; komalasari & saripudin, 2015; rahmadi et al., 2020). secondly, dialogue method is also able to train and improve student’s critical thinking skills in discussing corruptions. analyzing corruption cases from various perspectives allow students to perceive corruption as a complex and dangerous problems for many people and should therefore be eradicated. this is in line the ideas of knezik et al. (2010) stating that critical thinking skills journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 14 can be trained as they are able to stimulate students’ conceptual understanding on various problems. anti-corruption attitude obtained by anti-corruption education is shown clearly by the students through their slogans and opinions that they expressed directly. students find dialogue method, that is rarely used by teachers at school, to be strange and exciting as they are encouraged to be involved in the issues and to think critically about corruption and its complexity. previously, the information about corruption that they were able to obtain were limited to corruption facts, now they are able to increase their ability to think and understand deeply through dialogues structured by the teachers (alvarez, 2014). the use of images to evoke students’ opinions are able to make students focus on the problems, encourage them to think deeply that corrupt behavior is an extraordinary crime and elicit anti-corruption attitude from them (dam & volman, 2004, frijters et al., 2008). thirdly, it is difficult to replace teachers with technology, especially in moral values education, such as anti-corruption education. intensive interactions between students and teachers are needed in moral values education so that social bonds that can influence students to accept and live with the values can be established. good relations between students and teachers would ultimately affect students’ ability to think and absorb moral values practiced in the classroom (alvarez, 2004). teachers are leaders and models in the classroom, applying human values in learning will help students not only become good students but also decent human beings (berges puyo, 2020). furthermore, the development of anti-corruption character requires the students to instill beliefs about the dangers of corruptions. students can develop anti-corruption attitudes if they believe that corruption is dangerous (fishbean & ijzek, 1975). this process of instilling beliefs needs a deep understanding of the topic and humanistic approach. therefore, teacher plays an important role in the success of formal moral values education. students need to be taught and trained to think critically (dam & volman, 2004). instilling beliefs needs a deep understanding of the topic, and students can acquire this through thinking critically about a case or phenomenon. thus, equipping students with critical thinking skills would not only develop their knowledge but also the moral values ingrained in them (rombout, et al., 2021). compared to other studies, it can be found that the study conducted by dam and volman (2004) on critical thinking as a teaching strategy emphasized on the need of teaching critical thinking skills at school as it is needed for people to participate in a modern and democratic society. this montessori et al. skill allows people to contribute properly and critically to the society. similarly, geboers et al. (2013) stated that the learning environment using dialogues and discussions in high school turns out to be effective in developing citizenship competencies. these two findings suggest the need for critical thinking skills for citizens in the current democratic era. furthermore, sarmini et al. (2017) assessed the need to develop materials for anti-corruption education for young students. this study focused on elementary school students, while huang et al. (2021) found that the use of case study method in teaching anti-corruption to students influence their motivation to study and increase the effectiveness of the learning process. all the research above are in line with this research that focuses on the use of dialogue method in forming anti-corruption character for civic education students. this research shows that learning which aims to instill values in students, such as anti-corruption values, is more effective if students are intensively involved in a dialogue, where they can receive and find information, express opinions and arguments and explore an actual case in a democratic and conducive atmosphere. therefore, the value education process is not indoctrinating and normative but critical and argumentative. thus, it can be concluded that a well-structured dialogue method will be useful in value education the implication of this research is required in continuous improvement of teachers’ professionalism to achieve the objectives of anti-corruption learning. a professional teacher would be able to use various correct methods and approaches to achieve their objectives. this is stated by willemse et al. (2015). he said that anti-corruption education improve teachers’ professionalism and implement policies in civic education require time, space to practice it and the exchange of ideas between colleagues. sedova et al. (2016) found that the development of teacher professionalism that is focused on the implementation of dialogue teaching has created changes in the environment and teacher activity in class, increase students’ ability to speak logically and also change the way students and teachers interact. ohlin (2019) findings revealed that developing teacher professionalism with the help of ict caused teachers to improve the quality of learning more meaningfully and usefully, not only for teachers but also for students. therefore, musyawarah guru mata pelajaran (mgmp or subject teacher forum), as an organization that aims to develop civic education teachers’ professionalism, must play an active role in increasing teachers’ professionalism so that interesting and exciting learning process can be accomplished. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 16 conclusion corruption is a serious threat for indonesia as a nation and society and anti-corruption education is one preventive method to eradicate corruption. anti-corruption education through civic education subject in schools needs to be carried out more meaningfully and using methods that are not indoctrinated and normative, but must be critical and argumentative. for this reason, dialogue method that is carried out in a structured manner in discussing corruption cases is able to foster student's understanding, critical thinking skills and attitude of hating corruption which in the end is expected to form an anti-corruption character. through the dialogue method, weaknesses in learning values that have been carried out by teachers can be overcome so that students not only know anti-corruption values but also appreciate why anti-corruption values need to be applied in the daily life of every citizen. this research reveals two things: (1) a teaching and learning process that involves students both physically and mentally when discussing a topic, produces an active and exciting learning environment as well as stimulates students’ ability to think; (2) anti-corruption character and attitude can be instilled if students have a deep knowledge and belief about corruption. therefore, dialogue method is able to guide students’ thoughts and beliefs in learning moral values. this research is limited to two schools, two classes and constrained meeting hours respective to each school. therefore, the findings may not yet be able to describe the strengths and weaknesses of dialogue method in learning moral values comprehensively. further studies may need to uncover the various learning aspects with dialogues method, such as student motivation in learning, the effect of the dialogue method on learning outcomes, or students' communication skills in dialogue in classroom. references ajaps, s., & obiagu, a. (2020). increasing civic engagement through civic education: a critical consciousness theory perspective. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 alexander, r. (2017). towards dialogic teaching: rethinking classroom talk (5th ed.) york: dialogos https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 montessori et al. alexander, robin (2018): developing dialogic teaching: genesis, process, trial, research papers in education, 1-38. doi: 10.1080/02671522.2018.1481140 álvarez, c. á. (2014). dialogue in the classroom: the ideal method for values education in multicultural contexts. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 132(june), 336–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.319 amukowa, w. (2013). the challenges of anti-corruption initiatives: reflections on strategies of the defunct kenya’s anti-corruption commission. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 4(2), 481–504. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n2p481 anderson, l. w., & krathwohl, d. r. (2001). a taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (complete edition). longman. assegaf, a.r. (2015). "policy analysis and educational strategy for anti corruption in indonesia and singapore," international journal of asian social science, asian economic and social society, 5(11), 611-625 baharuddin, b & samad, i. s. (2019). developing students’ character through integrated anticorruption education. edumaspul: jurnal pendidikan, 3(2), 112–121. https://doi.org/10.33487/edumaspul.v3i2.146 basabose, jean de dieu. (2019) anti-corruption education as an alternative approach to corruption. anti-corruption education and peacebuilding, 157-194. doi: 10.1007/978-3030-03365-1_7 berges puyo, j. (2020). a value and character educational model: repercussions for students, teachers, and families. journal of culture and values in education, 4(1), 100-115. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 berkowitz, mw. (2011). what works in values education, international journal of educational research, 153-158, doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2011.07.003 biwer, f., egbrink, m. g. a. oud., aalten, p., & de bruin, a. b. h. (2020). fostering effective learning strategies in higher education – a mixed-methods study. journal of applied research in memory and cognition, 9(2), 186–203. boehm, f. and nell, m. (2007). anti-corruption training and education. https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/2762-anti-corruption-training-and-education.pdf burbules, n. c. (1999). dialogue in teaching: theory and practice. teachers college press. creswell, j. w. (2018). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed method aproaches. sage publications inc. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n2p481 https://ideas.repec.org/a/asi/ijoass/2015p611-625.html https://ideas.repec.org/a/asi/ijoass/2015p611-625.html https://ideas.repec.org/s/asi/ijoass.html https://doi.org/10.33487/edumaspul.v3i2.146 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-03365-1_7 https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-03365-1_7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03365-1_7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03365-1_7 https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kui9vamaaaaj&hl=id&oi=sra https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0883035511000553 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2011.07.003 https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/2762-anti-corruption-training-and-education.pdf journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 18 cnbc indonesia. (2020). bansos covid-19 dikorupsi, kpk tetapkan mensos tersangka. https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/2020 dam, geert ten., volman, monique. (2004) critical thinking as a citizenship competence: teaching strategies, learning and instruction, 14(4), 359–379 darolia, l. (2020). "he’s on fire for justice!”: using critical conversations to explore sociopolitical topics in elementary classrooms. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 fajar, a. & muriman, c. (2018). prevention of corruption through anti-corruption education, proceedings of the annual civic education conference atlantis-press, 650-653 doi.org/10.2991/acec-18.2018.145 frijters, stan, dam geert ten, rijlaarsdam, geert. (2008). effects of dialogic learning on valueloaded critical thinking. learning and instruction, 18 (1), 66-82 geboers, ellen. et.al. (2013). review of the effects of citizenship education. educational research review, (9), 158-173. grace, m., & maigue, a. s. (2020). the socratic method as an approach in teaching social studies: a literature review. 8(12), 770–775. honegger, m. (2020). what does “education” mean: cultural values in educational language. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 42-53. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12 hasanah, sitti uswatun., muchtar, suwarna al., sundawa, dadang. (2020). college policies in implementing anti-corruption education. annual civic education conference, atlantispress, 307-312. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200320.060 hauser, c. (2018). reflecting on the role of universities in the fight against corruption. emerald insight. 13. http: www.emeraldinsight.com/2531-0488.htm hauser, c. (2019). fighting against corruption: does anti-corruption training make any diference? journal of business ethics, 159:281–299, doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3808-3 hauser, c. & berenbeim, re. (2020). anti-corruption education in responsible management learning and education (ed.) moosmayaer, dick c, et.al. sage publication ltd. huang, c.h. hsiao, l.h.c., ko, s.l. (2021). effect of applying case method to anti-corruption education on learning motivation and learning effectiveness. revista de cercetare si interventie sociala, 73, 276-287, doi: 10.33788/rcis.73.17 ignatavicius, d. (2001). critical thinking skills for at-the-bedside success. nursing management 32 (1), 37–39. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/25906037.pdf https://dx.doi.org/10.2991/acec-18.2018.145 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s1747938x12000176#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/1747938x https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/1747938x https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/1747938x/9/supp/c https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12 https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=nim6qy0aaaaj&hl=id&oi=sra https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125937435.pdf https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125937435.pdf https://dx.doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200320.060 http://www.emeraldinsight.com/2531-0488.htm https://books.google.com/books?hl=id&lr=&id=31jgdwaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pa206&dq=anticorruption+education&ots=cqwhhi7gr1&sig=-cygtqo9hz3cankokhh8hwht6ny montessori et al. kadir, y. (2018). anti corruption attitude of students as a corruption measure of criminal measures. substantive justice international journal of law, 1(2), 114. https://doi.org/10.33096/substantivejustice.v1i2.19 kamil dairabi, et.al (2018). fighting corruption through education in indonesia and hongkong: comparisons of policies, strategies, and practices. al-shajarah journal of islamic thought and civilization of the international islamic university malaysia (iium), 155-190 kravchuk o. (2017). anti-corruption education at technical university. advanced education. (8), 78-83. doi: 10.20535/2410-8286.10505; o. blinova, komalasari, k., & saripudin, d. (2015). integration of anti-corruption education in school's activities. american journal of applied sciences. 12 (6) 445-451. doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2015.445.451 komalasari, k. & saripudin, d. (2018). the influence of living values education-based civic education textbook on students' character formation. international journal of instruction, 11(1), 395-410. kristiono, natal, et.al. (2020). the implementation of anti-corruption education in texmaco vocational high school pemalang. atlantiss press. advances in social science, education and humanities research, (418), 203-208. manalo, emmanuel (ed.). (2020). deeper learning, dialogic learning, and critical thinking, research-based strategies for the classroom. routledge montessori, m. (2021). anti-corruption as value learning in senior high school. jurnal pendidikan indonesia (jpi) 10 (2) 314-324. mercer, n., hennessy, s., warwick, p. (2019). dialogue, thinking together and digital technology in the classroom: some educational implications of a continuing line of inquiry, international journal of educational research, (97), 187-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2017.08.007 musofiana, i. (2017). anti-corruption education at an early age as a strategic move to prevent corruption in indonesia, the 2nd proceeding “indonesia clean of corruption, unnisula press najih, m. & wiryani, f. (2020). learning the social impact of corruption: a study of legal policy and corruption prevention in indonesia and malaysia. journal of social studies education research. 11(4), 175-189. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2877 ohlin , c. (2019). information and communication technology in a global world: teachers’ perceptions of continuing professional development, research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 41-57 https://doi.org/10.33096/substantivejustice.v1i2.19 https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=eldfo2oaaaaj&hl=id&oi=sra https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=r2kdheoaaaaj&hl=id&oi=sra https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.932.2008&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.932.2008&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2015.445.451 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0883035517303877#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0883035517303877#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/08830355 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/08830355/97/supp/c https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2017.08.007 https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jycryk4aaaaj&hl=id&oi=sra http://jurnal.unissula.ac.id/index.php/the2ndproceeding/article/view/1098 http://jurnal.unissula.ac.id/index.php/the2ndproceeding/article/view/1098 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2877 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 1-21 20 obiagu, a. (2019). influence of teacher’s characteristics on civic education implementation in nigeria. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.1 polat, s. (2020). multidimensional analysis of the teaching process of the critical thinking skills. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 134-157. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 popil, i. (2011). promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. nurse educ today, 31 (2) 204-207. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002 purnama, s. & sundawa, d. (2017). the development of anti-corruption education model to support students integrity character in schools through civic education. – indonesia. university of education. https://papers.iafor.org/submission35745 rahmadi, i., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113-133. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 riduan. (2013). dasar-dasar statistik [statistical basics]. alfa beta. rombout, f; schuitema, j.a; volman m.l.l. (2021). teachers’ implementation and evaluation of design principles for value-loaded critical thinking. international journal of educational research, (106). sarmini., swanda, i. m. & nadiroh, u. (2017). the importance of anti corruption education teaching materials for the young generation, the 2nd international joint conference on science and technology (ijcst): journal of physics: conf. series 953, doi :10.1088/17426596/953/1/012167 stanny, c. j. (2016). reevaluating bloom’s taxonomy: what measurable verbs can and cannot say about student learning. education sciences, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci6040037 transparency international. (2020). corruption perceptions index. www.transparency.org/cpi victoria pitt, david powis, tracy levett-jones, sharyn hunter (2015). the influence of critical thinking skills on performance and progression in a pre-registration nursing program. nurse education today, 35,125-131 wilberding, erick. (2019). socratic methods in the classroom. encouraging critical thinking and problem solving through dialogue. routledge. wilcox, s. (2020). policy storms at the central office: conflicting narratives of racial equity and segregation at school committee meetings. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 40-56. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002 https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=p6z86maaaaaj&hl=id&oi=sra http://papers.iafor.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/aceid2017/aceid2017_35745.pdf http://papers.iafor.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/aceid2017/aceid2017_35745.pdf https://papers.iafor.org/submission35745 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s088303552100001x#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s088303552100001x#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/08830355 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/08830355 http://www.transparency.org/cpi https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.3 montessori et al. willemse, t. m., ten dam, g., geijsel, f., van wessum, l., & volman, m. (2015). fostering teachers' professional development for citizenship education. teaching and teacher education, 49, 118-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.03.008 yin, robert. k. (2018). case study research and applications: design and methods. sage publications, inc. zamaletdinov, radif r., et.al. (2016). practical recommendations on the improvement of the effectiveness of anti-corruption policy in universities, international review of management and marketing, 6(2), 390-396 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.03.008 microsoft word 11-surana (1)d www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (2),260-279 teacher self-and collective efficacy in teaching javanese: a study of indonesian urban and suburban teachers surana1 abstract this study aimed to reveal indonesian urban and suburban teachers’ selfand collective efficacy in teaching javanese, to look at the difference between them, and to know the possible influential factor in predicting their selfand collective efficacy. this quantitative research used crosssectional survey with 200 teachers who taught javanese in urban and suburban high school level in east java province, indonesia, as the research respondents. data were collected using javanese teacher’s efficacy scale with six-point likert’s scaling method (α = .97). the obtained data were analyzed using descriptive statistics analysis, manova, and hierarchical multiple regression. results showed that indonesian teacher selfand collective efficacy in teaching javanese were in a high category, of 72.74% and 72.19% respectively. moreover, there was a significant with large difference between urban and suburban tse and cte. in this case, urban teachers perceived higher tse and cte than suburban teachers. another finding showed that teaching motivation was the most significant predictive source that affected the formation of high tse (β = .241) and cte (β = .247). keywords: teacher self-efficacy, teacher collective efficacy, urban, suburban, javanese teaching introduction among other factors, teacher’s quality becomes a prominent aspect in establishing a wellaccredited educational institution. this is due to the fact that the aspect also participates in determining school’s performance, students’ achievement, and social trustworthiness. in 2009, teaching and learning international survey (talis) indicated that teacher’s function is more than to transfer knowledge, rather, it engages multilayers of cultural backgrounds, develops suitable students’ learning needs, promotes informative and technological awareness, considers proper learning strategy, and deals with parent involvement (organization for economic cooperation and development, 2009). in america, teachers are obligatory to promote leadership skills besides transferring knowledge and enabling students to master required competences. moreover, they cannot resist pockets of professional development as mandates issued in the recent american education policy (jaquith, mindich, wei & darling-hammond, 2010; lucey, 2021). 1dr. universitas negeri surabaya, indonesia; email: surana@unesa.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 that is, the presence of teachers has been considered crucial and meaningful since it deals with diverse scopes that include both their professional and institutional developments. in coping with european context, toom & husu (2016) describe varied finnish teachers’ roles as well as their tasks in dealing with administrative and pedagogical decision-making processes, developing individual and institutional professionalism, and managing institutions by highrespected collaborative works among stakeholders in charge, i.e. the principal, administration officers and other teachers. to contrast with american and finnish teachers’ roles, indonesian teachers are asked to deal with some predominant mandates. first, it deals with numbers of professional developments, i.e. the presence of teachers’ qualification test, demands of conferences or workshops and publications (indonesia ministerial regulation number 35 year 2010), and teachers’ certification. another mandates put indonesian teachers in interlinked works dealing with school administration, colleague, and personal responsibility related to any matters of pedagogical problems (zulfikar, 2009; ma'arif, 2018). thus, by seeing the diverse lenses of teacher’s roles in different settings, it can be concluded that teachers indeed play a salient figure in succeeding school’s goals (agostinelli & mcquillan, 2020; gairola, 2019; idowu et al., 2020; lee & lee, 2020; moody, 2020; shrestha, 2019; waychunas, 2020). at the heart of the issue of teacher’s presence, it is also important to consider kinds of threat possibly faced that may hamper teachers in performing their roles. a school location could become a special challenge for teachers, yet the government education office in approaching with budgeting allocation, rapid distribution, monitoring, and other infrastructure supports (liaw, 2017). henceforth, it is indeed important to see teachers’ challenge by disseminating their school locations; urban schools or those in metropolitan areas (oecd, 2013), and suburban ones or those in suburbs (tefera, frankenberg, siegel-hawley & chirichigno, 2011), where the criteria of metropolitan areas refer to indonesian law number 26 year 2007 about spatial planning. as unequivocal differences, teachers of urban schools may get easier access to fulfil their roles, involving the vast accessibility of information and technology (it), learning aids, and community development (liaw, 2017; goddard & goddard, 2001; oecd, 2013; tahili et al., 2021). conversely, those in suburban ones may face difficulties in multifarious problems, such as transportation, it access, authentic materials, appropriate learning sources and many more (liaw, 2017). thus, working in either urban or suburban schools could be another outside factor interfering how well teachers perform (solikhah & budiharso, 2019). surana 262 to provide with practical evidences related to the unequivocal distinction between urban and suburban schools in indonesia, there were only 5.5% from 268,734 total schools which were categorized as urban schools (indonesia ministry of education and culture, 2016; indonesia ministry of education and culture, 2017; indonesia ministry of home affairs, 2015). on the contrary, 94.5% of them, or about 253,873 schools, were categorized in suburban (indonesia ministry of education and culture, 2016; indonesia ministry of education and culture, 2017; indonesia ministry of home affairs, 2015). the data basically shows that the numbers of suburban teachers are distinctly higher than those in urban ones. consequently, there are still numbers of indonesian teachers who deal with multifarious problems mentioned by liaw (2017). that is, it is important to see the spread of schools and numbers of teachers in both urban and suburban settings to get distinctive teachers’ roles as well as their challenges in order for them to perform better. regarding hard and diverse roles and challenges, yet in coping with effort to overcome them, teachers need to possess good efficacy, of which further is known as teacher self-efficacy (tse). at glance, bandura (1977) explains that perceived self-efficacy means one’s belief in carrying particular tasks out to achieve the best outcome, by that, tse can be meant as teacher’s beliefs in executing courses of action to enable their students to get the best achievement (gibson & dembo, 1984; tschannen-moran & hoy, 2001). tse is much to do with teacher’s self-ability rather than the teacher’s actual level of competence (bandura, 2006; tschannen-moran, hoy & hoy, 1998; skaalvik & skaalvik, 2010). it is “an important distinction, because people regularly overestimate or underestimate their actual abilities, and these estimations may have consequences for the courses of action they choose to pursue” (tschannen-moran, hoy & hoy, 1998:211). moreover, its domains diverse across various activity settings, levels of demands within the activity settings, and environmental settings to enable performances (bandura, 1977). that is, good tse contributes an important point in dealing with teachers’ roles and challenges, involving on determining the results of their performance. in addition, another type of teacher efficacy that also takes part in influencing teacher roles and challenges is so-called collective teacher efficacy (cte). this type has occurred since more than a decade due to the wider growth of tse up to engaging a faculty scope dealing with other stakeholders at school and self-belonging to the institution (goddard & goddard, 2001; klassen, 2010; kurz & knight, 2004; parker, 1994; skaalvik & skaalvik, 2007; tschannen-moran & barr, 2004; versland & erickson, 2017; voelkel & chrispeels, 2017). donohoo (2017) defines cte as journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 both perceptions and judgments addressed to a group of teachers or educational instructors based on their capabilities to enhance student performance. since many studies have verified that cte is interlinked with student achievement (goddard, hoy & hoy, 2000; tschannen-moran & barr, 2004), it seems also being interfered by variations of teacher self-efficacy (tse) which contributes to the successful negotiation in a conjoint share to carry on courses of action (bandura, 1997 in tschannen-moran, hoy & hoy, 1998; zonoubi, rasekh, &tavakoli, 2017; skaalvik & skaalvik, 2007; kurz & knight, 2004; goddard, hoy & hoy, 2000; goddard & goddard, 2001; goddard, hoy & hoy, 2004). henceforth, good cte also yields better results in accomplishing teacher roles and challenges. assuming both tse and cte are prominent at the issue of teachers performing their roles and facing challenges (kurz & knight, 2004; pratama et al, 2018), there must be factors affecting the success level of tse and cte. to cope with that, there are two models generated from bandura (1977) namely tse cyclical model (tschannen-moran, hoy & hoy, 1998) and cte cyclical model (goddard, hoy & hoy, 2000) that mostly reveals the sources of information of both types of efficacy. the two models basically exhibit similar four factors namely mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and emotional state (bandura, 1977; bandura, 1986; tschannen-moran, hoy & hoy, 1998). the difference of the two models lays on the referent used in the instruments; self-referent mode for tse and group-referent for cte (goddard, hoy & hoy, 2004). a self-referent mode is usually known as “i-referent” model that makes personal efficacy inside out (goddard, hoy & hoy, 2004). meanwhile, “we-referent” model is used in cte to reveal how an individual gives an attempt to organizational works for the sake of a conjoint share (tschannen-moran, hoy & hoy, 1998; goddard, hoy & hoy, 2004). thus, the two models indeed very helpful in determining the level of tse and cte. unfortunately, in coping with javanese language teaching in indonesia, there are still lacks of information in accordance with indonesian teacher selfand collective efficacy in teaching javanese. such information is vital since javanese teachers should not only cope with javanese instruction planning, but they are also demanded to deal with school administration, many extracurricular responsibilities, and even foreign language mastery. the unavailable information raise difficulty for those in charge of providing professional developments (e.g. seminar, training, and workshop) as they do not know how efficacious indonesian javanese teachers deal with their responsibilities (solikhah & budiharso, 2019). thus, providing the profiles of indonesian tse and surana 264 cte in javanese teaching is essential to enhance their personal and institutional developments. even there are some previous studies investigating on tse and cte (hallinger, hosseingholizadeh & kouhsari, 2017; voelker & chrispeels, 2017), but mostly they could not provide information of tse and cte in javanese teaching in urban and suburban settings. for instance, basikin (2006) investigated tse in indonesian esl context, of which it is different research scope. moreover, sugiana & former (2015) and lailiyah & cahyono (2017) deal with tse only in an early childhood education field and in using technology which are extraneous to javanese teaching context. the information given by some current scholars regarding tse and cte in javanese teaching, specifically in indonesia urban and suburban schools, are still limited (ma’arif, 2021). therefore, this study aims to reveal indonesian urban and suburban teachers’ self and collective efficacy in teaching javanese. methods the present study was in a form of cross-sectional survey research that aims to measure a wide range of varieties of unobservable data such as selfand collective efficacy (battacherjee, 2012). there were 200 teachers who voluntarily participated as the research respondents representing both urban and suburban schools in east java province. the respondents were selected without considering their teaching experience, school status, and also the grade they taught since those aspects were extraneous to the present study focus. however, the information regarding their ages, teaching experience, genders, school’s accreditation status, and school types (e.g. public or private schools) were important in portraying the demographic data. (table 1). data were collected using javanese teacher’s efficacy scale (jtes) in which its content and face validities along with the reliability test had been carried out during the primary research (α = .97). to get the data, the questionnaire was administered through online (n = 167) and offline (n = 33) forms. jtes has 7 items consisting of 30 items revealing five sub-skills of efficacy namely efficacy to accomplish teaching responsibilities, efficacy to do student advisory, efficacy to use javanese for classroom communication, efficacy to create javanese milieu, and efficacy to accomplish institutional tasks and 7 items revealing seven possible factors influencing the shape of tse and cte in javanese teaching namely mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, emotional state, personality characteristics, perceived it competency, and teaching motivation. the questionnaire was in a form of closed-ended format with six-point likert’s journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 summative scaling method from strongly disagree to strongly agree without anchors to reduce scaling confusion. there was no neutral option because participants might have a tendency to choose being neutral when they were unwilling to finish the questionnaire. the obtained data were then analyzed using spss software under the process of descriptive statistics, manova, and hierarchical multiple regression. table 1 demographic data of the respondents information school location categories percentage (%) gender urban male teachers female teachers 39% 61% suburban male teachers female teachers 38.9% 61.1% education degree urban undergraduate master 87.6% 12.4% suburban undergraduate master 97.9% 2.1% university status urban public university private university 89.5% 10.5% suburban public university private university 85.3% 14.7% teaching experience urban less than 5 years 5 to 10 years 10 to 20 years more than 20 years 41.9% 20% 19.1% 19% suburban less than 5 years 5 to 10 years 10 to 20 years more than 20 years 34.7% 30.6% 17.9% 16.8% school accreditation urban a b others 88.6% 6.6% 4.8% suburban a b c others 70.5% 19% 1% 9.5% school status urban public school private school 55.2% 44.8% suburban public school private school 55.8% 44.2% surana 266 results and discussion classic assumption results in this research, there are 2 types of data processing used, namely manova and hierarchical multiple regression, so that the researcher grouped 2 types of classical assumptions. in the classical manova assumption test, the normality test uses the mahalanobis distance test and the homogeneity test uses the box's m test. in the classical hierarchical multiple regression assumption test, the normality test uses the kolmogorov-smirnov test, the multicollinearity test uses the vif test, and the heteroscedasticity test uses the glejser test. see table 2. table 2 classic assumption results classic assumption type value label manova normality test mahalanobis distance test 9.676 fulfilled homogeneity test box's m test all sig > 0.05 fulfilled hierarchical multiple regression normality test kolmogorov-smirnov all sig. > 0.05 fulfilled multicollinearity test vif all < 10 fulfilled heteroscedastisity test glejser test all sig > 0.05 fulfilled preliminary assumption was first conducted to check for multivariate normality and homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, and equality of variance. this study conducted multivariate normality test using mahalanobis distance. this study suggested that the data were normal and no multivariate outliers because the mahalanobis distance value (9.676) was smaller than the critical value applied for two dependent variables (13.82). based on the homogeneity test, it is known that the results of the box's m test show that if all significance values are above 0.05, it can be said that the data is homogeneous. the results of the classical assumption test for hierarchical multiple regression note that all the kolmogorov-smirnov significance values are above 0.05 or the normality test is fulfilled, the multicollinearity test shows that all vif values for each independent variable are below 10 so it can be said that there is no multicollinearity or multicollinearity test. fulfilled, and the heteroscedasticity test using the glejser test, it is known that all significant results of the absolute regression residuals have no value below 0.05, so it can be said that the heteroscedasticity test is fulfilled. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 descriptive statistic test results the profiles of indonesian teacher selfand collective efficacy in teaching javanese before portraying the profiles, the obtained mean scores were needed to be transferred into swanson’s leveling method to look at the exact efficacy level. both tse and cte are measured based on five indicators as follows: 1). efficacy to accomplish teaching responsibilities 2). efficacy to do student advisory 3). efficacy to use javanese for classroom communication 4). efficacy to create javanese milieu 5). efficacy to accomplish institutional task each mean score of tse, cte, and every sub-skill was divided by the maximum tse, cte, and sub-skill scores and the results were multiplied with 100% to get swanson’s percentages that consisted of three different categories namely very low ( < 25%), low (25%-50%), high (50% 75%), and very high ( > 75%). diagram 1 and diagram 2 show the results of the profiles of tse and cte, including each sub-skill followed of urban teacher and sub-urban teachers. diagram 1. tse of urban teacher (n=100) diagram 2 indicates tse of suburban teachers. data show that indonesian teacher selfand collective efficacy were in a high category based on swanson’s leveling method. there were several differences in the efficacy sub-skills portrayed by tse and cte. for instance, efficacy to do student advisory showed high level in tse (74.89%)and depicted very high level in cte (76.21%), of which the difference was only 2%. this means that teachers were more confident to conduct student advisory when they committed to work with their colleagues at surana 268 the faculty level. another interesting finding was that efficacy to accomplish institutional task was in a very high level for tse (76.89%), whereas, was in a high level for cte (66.97%) with the difference of 10%. diagram 2. tse of suburban teacher (n=100) furthermore, the teachers conveyed good self-beliefs especially in accomplishing teaching responsibilities, performing student advisory, using javanese for classroom communication, creating javanese milieu, and accomplishing institutional task. their belief was indeed very high in accomplishing their teaching responsibilities regardless coping with personal or collective matters. diagram 3. cte of urban teacher (n=100) in diagram 3, we look at the cte of urban teachers. it displays that the cte is achieved as the following: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 1). efficacy to accomplish teaching responsibilities (88.26%) 2). efficacy to do student advisory (87.83%) 3). efficacy to use javanese for classroom communication (73.69%) 4). efficacy to create javanese milieu (73.16%) 5). efficacy to accomplish institutional task (72.80%). compared to sub-urban teachers, cte of urban teachers is better. as indicated in diagram 4, the following is the display of cte of the sub-urban teachers. 1). efficacy to accomplish teaching responsibilities (77.27%) 2). efficacy to do student advisory (78.60%) 3). efficacy to use javanese for classroom communication (67.61%) 4). efficacy to create javanese milieu (65.07%) 5). efficacy to accomplish institutional task (66.36%). diagram 4. cte of sub-urban teacher (n=100) results of comparison of skills and sub-skills as well as competence indicators appear in table 3 below. table 3 sub-skills in teaching javanese no sub-skills urban sub-urban average average 1 sub-skill 1: accomplishing teaching responsibilities 95% 90% 2 sub-skill 2: conducting student advisory 88% 80% 3 sub-skill 3: using javanese for classroom communication 92% 88% 4 sub-skill 4: creating javanese milieu 90% 90% 5 sub-skill 5: accomplishing institutional task 95% 90% total 460 438 mean 92% 87.6% surana 270 as table 3 suggests, of five sub-skills javanese teachers required, urban teachers surpass than suburban teachers. the average achievement of urban teachers is 92% and the sub-urban teachers are 87.6%. the elaboration of sub-skill competence is indicated in table 4. the indicators present 10 competences each of which represents the skills in caring javanese during teaching and in social interaction with students. data on table 4 shows that the average competence of urban teachers is 90.2% that is very high, and the sub-urban teacher achieve 87.8% (high). this means that urban teachers are better than sub-urban teachers both on accomplishment of 5 skills competence and in its 10 indicators of teaching performance. table 4 competence to accomplish teaching javanese of urban and sub-urban teachers no indicators of sub-skills urban sub-urban average average 1 personal characteristics 92% 90% 2 perceived it competency 90% 88% 3 teaching motivation 95% 90% 4 awareness to use media 88% 80% 5 perceived it competency 85% 80% 6 awareness to serve personal guidance 90% 90% 7 mastery experience 90%% 92% 8 vicarious experience 90% 90% 9 verbal persuasion 95% 90% 10 emotional state 87% 88% total 902 878 mean 90.2% 87.8% hypothesis testing the difference between indonesian urban and suburban teacher self-and collective efficacy in teaching javanese henceforth, this study could proceed to conduct manova analysis. the analysis results showed that there was a significant difference between urban and suburban teachers on the administered dependent variables named tse and cte, f (1, 197) = 77.275, p = .000; pillai’s trace = .000; ηp2 = .440. since the partial eta squared showed .440, there was a large difference (pallant, 2010:210). meaning that, the urban teachers showed higher confident in accomplishing teaching responsibilities than the suburban teachers. when the results for the dependent variables were considered separately, both tse, f (1, 198) = 147.874, p = .000, ηp2 = .428, and cte, f (1, 198) journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 = 148.745, p =.000, ηp2= .429, contributed to reach statistical difference, using benferonni adjusted α value of .025. further inspection of the mean scores indicated that urban teachers perceived higher tse (m = 75.048, sd = 9.163) than suburban teachers (m = 54.88, sd = 14.01). moreover, urban teachers also perceived higher cte (m = 74.98, sd = 9.07) than suburban teachers (m= 53.91, sd = 14.918). in regard to swanson’s level, urban teacher selfand collective efficacy was in the highest quartile, or known as a very high efficacy level, with percentage values of 83.38% and 83.30% respectively. however, the suburban teachers were in the third quartile known as a high efficacy level with percentage values of 60.97% for tse and 59.89% for cte. the statistical data of the mean scores also proved that urban teachers showed higher tse and cte in teaching javanese. in other words, they had better selfand collective belief regarding to accomplishing their responsibilities. the predictive sources of information in affecting indonesian teacher selfand collective efficacy in teaching javanese in accordance with table 5, teaching motivation became the most predictive source of information in affecting the teacher self-efficacy (β = .241). it also became the most predictive source of information for tse eventhough the four bandura’s (1997) sources of information had been included as a control. similar phenomena occurred in the administered five tse sub-skills in which teaching motivation became the most predictive source (βsub-skill 1 = .205, βsub-skill 2 = .204, βsub-skill 3 = .256, βsub-skill 4 = .225, βsub-skill 5 = .236). moreover, the source showed significance for sub-skill 3 and 5 (p < .005). another important result was the fact that mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional state only conveyed small contributions of 1.7% to the formation of indonesian javanese teacher self-efficacy. meaning, eventhough the inspection was conducted for each tse sub-skill, the four bandura’s source of information still did not show significant changes to predict the formation of tse. at last, table 5 implies that teaching motivation became the most predictive source of information, then respectively followed by perceived it competency, emotional state, personal characteristics, vicarious experience, mastery experience, and verbal persuasion. surana 272 table 5 results of hierarchical multiple regression for tse dependent variables model r2 change statistics β δr2 f change accomplishing teaching responsibilities (sub-skill 1) 1 personal characteristics perceived it competency teaching motivation 2 personal characteristics perceived it competency teaching motivation mastery experience vicarious experience verbal persuasion emotional state .172 .193 .172 .021 13.571* 1.235 .166 .096 .225 .190 .101 .205 .065 -.085 .023 -.132 conducting student advisory (sub-skill 2) 1 personal characteristics perceived it competency teaching motivation 2 personal characteristics perceived it competency teaching motivation mastery experience vicarious experience verbal persuasion emotional state .147 .160 .147 .013 11.247* .750 .071 .135 .236 .074 .123 .204 .071 -.054 .057 -.098 using javanese for classroom communication (sub-skill 3) 1 personal characteristics perceived it competency teaching motivation 2 personal characteristics perceived it competency teaching motivation mastery experience vicarious experience verbal persuasion emotional state .180 .201 .180 .021 14.331* 1.255 .037 .171 .273 .068 .183 .256* .087 -.113 .005 -.117 creating javanese milieu (sub-skill 4) 1 personal characteristics perceived it competency teaching motivation 2 personal characteristics .125 .135 .125 .011 9.308 .584 .015 .141 .240 .037 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 dependent variables model r2 change statistics β δr2 f change perceived it competency teaching motivation mastery experience vicarious experience .152 .225 .074 -.110 in coping with the first question related to the profiles of javanese teacher selfand collective efficacy, the findings suggest that javanese teachers in indonesia have already perceived high tse and cte. meaning that, they are confidently able to accomplish their teaching responsibilities. skaalvik & skaalvik (2017) confirm that teachers with high level of self-belief will see the responsibilities as challenges, not as fear arousals. by interconnecting the assertion with the findings here, indonesian javanese teachers are supposed to get every single job done because they see the tasks as challenges, not as threats. kurz & knight (2004) convey that teachers with high tse and cte might perceive a positive mindset and motivation in regard to achieving a better accomplishment or performance (kurz & knight, 2004). efficacy and motivation cannot be separated due to the tight bond between them (dybowski, sehner & harendza, 2017; jungert, 2009); the higher one’s motivation, the higher the efficacy. accordingly, if teachers with high tse and cte are put in a particular circumstance of a working suppression, they could feel motivated and confident to complete the works regardless the task types assigned. therefore, high tse and cte always benefit indonesian javanese teachers in dealing with javanese teaching responsibility. furthermore, the findings of the present study show that there is a significant with large difference between urban and suburban teacher selfand collective efficacy. the difference of teacher efficacy level can be caused by the condition of the school areas. for instance, urban schools are located in the city center with all accessible supporting facilities such as private courses, extracurricular communities, and vice versa (goddard & goddard, 2001; oecd, 2013). moreover, the teachers who teach urban students tend to have a high demand given by parents to provide better learning experience (acdp, 2014). consequently, the teachers are obligatory to provide more innovative learning process and more conducive learning atmosphere compared to those of suburban (kaikai & barker, 2016). in addition, the societies surrounding the school might have certain influence how the school determines regulation for the whole members, including but not limited to their teachers. in other words, there is a social influence affecting the formation of surana 274 teacher efficacy (yulia, 2013). therefore, those factors might be considered influential in determining the level of teacher efficacy, i.e. tse and cte. at last, there are seven sources of information used in the present study; mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, emotional state, personality characteristics, perceived it competence, teaching motivation (gibson & dembo, 1984; bandura, 2006; bandura, 1997; johnson, 2017; oh, 2011; lailiyah & cahyono, 2017). among others, teaching motivation becomes the most predictive source in affecting indonesian teacher selfand collective efficacy in javanese teaching. the findings suggest that teacher’s teaching motivation most influences the level of teacher efficacy; the higher their teaching motivation, the higher the efficacy. dybowski et al (2017) convey that motivation and efficacy are both interconnected yet influential between one another. higher teaching motivation triggers teacher’s confidence and belief in executing all responsibilities so that the teacher could attain better teaching performance. conclusion this study concludes that indonesian teacher selfand collective efficacy in teaching javanese are considered high to slightly very high. there is a significantly large different between tse and cte perceived by urban and suburban teachers. besides, their high efficacy level is conceived as they perceive high teaching motivation as one of their main responsibilities. such findings could be the fact that javanese teachers are still motivated to teach and promote javanese even if their students are comprised into the hype of mastering international language. moreover, even if burden of mastering foreign language is also addressed to javanese teachers for the sake of professional development, these teachers seemed to face that as challenges, not as threats. this present study has portrayed that javanese teachers still fight for preserving the local languages as well as conducting their professional duties. thus, this study suggest that the results of this study might become a concern for those in charge in creating teacher training program to develop appropriate development program for javanese teachers. moreover, this study invites further research to look for the efficacy level of teachers who teach native languages in different regions. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 references agostinelli, a., & mcquillan, p. (2020). how preservice content teacher background qualities influence their attitude and commitment to supporting multilingual learners. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 98-121. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.12 analytical and capacity development partnership (acdp). (2014). study on teacher absenteeism in indonesia. jakarta: education sector acdp. bandura, a. & adams, n. e. (1977). analysis of self-efficacy theory of behavioral change. cognitive therapy and research, 1(4), 287-310. bandura, a. (1971). social learning theory. new york: general learning press. bandura, a. (1977). self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. psychological review, 84(2), 191-215. bandura, a. (1986a). social foundation of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice-hall. bandura, a. (1986b). the explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. journal of social and clinical psychology, 4(3), 359-373. bandura, a. (1993). perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. educational psychologist, 28(2), 117-148. bandura, a. (1994). self-efficacy. in v. s. ramachaudran, encyclopedia of human behavior (vol. 4, pp. 71-81). new york: academic press. bandura, a. (1997). self-efficacy: the exercise of control. new york: wh freeman and company. bandura, a. (2006). guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. in f. pajares& t. urdan (eds.), self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 307-337). greenwich, ct: information age publishing. bandura, a., adams, n. e., hardy, a. b., & howells, g. n. (1980). test of the generality of selfefficacy theory. cognitive therapy and research, 4(1), 39-66. basikin. (2006). teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and the development of esl autonomous teachers in indonesia. presented paper in the teflin conference, satyawacana university, salatiga. battacherjee, a. (2012). social science research: principles, methods, and practices, 2nd edition. open access textbooks. book 3. surana 276 donohoo, j. (2017). collective teacher efficacy research: implications for professional learning. journal of professional capital and community, 2(2). gairola, r. (2019). attitudes of secondary teacher trainees towards entrepreneurial education. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 44-54. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.4 gibson, s. & dembo, m. h. (1984). teacher efficacy: a construct validation. journal of educational psychology, 76(4), 569-582. goddard, r. d. (1998). the effects of collective teacher efficacy on student achievement in urban public elementary schools (doctoral dissertation, the ohio state university). goddard, r. d., & goddard, y. l. (2001). a multilevel analysis of the relationship between teacher and collective efficacy in urban schools. teaching and teacher education, 17, 807-818. goddard, r. d., hoy, w. k., & hoy, a. w. (2000). collective teacher efficacy: its meaning, measure, and impact on student achievement. american educational research journal, 37(2), 479-507. goddard, r. d., hoy, w. k., & hoy, w. (2004). collective efficacy beliefs: theoretical developments, empirical evidence, and future directions. educational researcher, 33(3), 3-13. hallinger, p., hosseingholizadeh, r., hashemi, n., &kouhsari, m. (2017). do beliefs make a difference? exploring how principal self-efficacy and instructional leadership impact teacher efficacy and commitment in iran. educational management administration & leadership (emal), 1-20. idowu, s., ifedayo, t., & idowu, e. (2020). assessing the career conflict options of senior secondary school students of ado-odo ota local government, ogun state, nigeria. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 55-77. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.3 indonesia ministry of education and culture. (2016). indonesia educational strategies in brief 2015/2016. jakarta: moec. jaquith, a., mindich, d., wei, r. c., & darling-hammond, l. (2010). teacher professional learning in the united states: case studies of state policies and strategies. dallas: learning forward and stanford university. kaikai, m. & baker, e. (2016). engineering for sustainable energy education within suburban, urban and developing secondary schools. research, 10(1), 88-100. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 kamil, d., mukminin, a., &kassim, n. l. a. (2013). from education policy to class practices: indonesian secondary efl teachers’ self-efficacy in developing school-based efl syllabi. excellence in higher education, 4, 86-107. karadag, e. (2017). the effect of social adjustment on student achievement. in e. karadag (ed.), the factors effecting student achievement (pp. 259-269). switzerland: springer international publishing ag. klassen, r. m. (2010). teacher stress: the mediating role of collective efficacy beliefs. the journal of educational research, 103(5), 342-350. kurz, t. b. & knight, s. l. (2004). an exploration of the relationship among teacher efficacy, collective teacher efficacy, and goal consensus. learning environments research, 7, 111-128. lailiyah, m. &cahyono, b. y. (2017). indonesian efl teachers’ self-efficacy towards technology integration (seti) and their use of technology in efl teaching. studies in english language teaching, 5(2), 344-357. lestari, l. a. (1999). english classroom culture reformation: how can it be done? teflin journal, 10(1), 75-87. liaw, e. (2017). teacher efficacy of english teachers in urban and suburban schools. teacher development, 1-15. lee, a., & lee, a. (2020). experience with diversity is not enough: a pedagogical framework for teacher candidates that centers critical race consciousness. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 40-59. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.9 lucey, a. t. (2021). notions of spiritual capital-a matter of extinction for social education, journal of social studies education research (jsser), 12(1), 1-23. ma’arif, s. (2018). education as a foundation of humanity: learning from the pedagogy of pesantren in indonesia. journal of social studies education research (jsser). https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.58854 moody, r. (2020). contextualizing "practice”: helping pre-service teachers unpack the ideological and sociopolitical dimensions of required practices for licensure. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 60-80. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.10 organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd). (2013). definition of functional urban areas (fua) for the oecd metropolitan database. paris: oecd publishing surana 278 organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd). (2009). creating effective teaching and learning environments: first results from talis. france: oecd publishing. organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd). (2015). education in indonesia: rising to the challenge. paris: oecd publishing pajares, f. (1997). current directions in self-efficacy research. in m. maehr& p. r. pintrich (eds.), advances in motivation and achievement (vol. 10, pp. 1-49). greenwich, ct: jai press. parker, l. e. (1994). working together: perceived selfand collective-efficacy at the workplace. journal of applied social psychology, 24(1), 43-59. pratama, r. d., lestari, l. a., & anam, s. (2018). reinforcing indonesian efl teacher selfefficacy: accomplishing the responsibilities and avoiding absenteeism. journal of english language and literature, 10(1), 956-965. shrestha, m. (2019). influences of gender and locale on teachers’ job satisfaction. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.2 skaalvik, e. m., &skaalvik, s. (2007). dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations with strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout. journal of educational psychology, 99(3), 611-625. skaalvik, e. m., &skaalvik, s. (2009). does school context matter? relations with teacher burnout and job satisfaction. teaching and teacher education, 25(3), 518-524. skaalvik, e. m., &skaalvik, s. (2010). teacher self-efficacy and teacher burnout: a study of relations. teaching and teacher education, 26, 1059-1069. skaalvik, e. m., &skaalvik, s. (2017). teacher stress and teacher self-efficacy: relations and consequences. in t. m. mcintyre, s. mcintyre, & d. francis (eds.), educator stress: aligning perspectives on health, safety and well-being. springer, cham. solikhah, i & budiharso, t. (2019). investigating the learning outcomes of an inqf-based english language teaching curriculum in indonesia, journal of social studies education research (jsser), 10(4), 153-175. sugiana & formen, a. (2015). teachers’ personal and general efficacy in character education in reference to their age, education level, and teaching experience. indonesian journal of early childhood education studies (ijeces), 4(1), 51-56. swanson, p. b. (2014). the power of belief: spanish teachers’ sense of efficacy and student performance on the national spanish examinations. hispania, 97(1), 5-20. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 260-279 tahili, m., tolla, i., ahmad, m., saman, a., & samad, s. (2021). the effect of strategic collaboration approach on the national educational standards achievement and service quality in basic education at local government in indonesia. research in social sciences and technology, 6(1), 53-82. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.4 tefera, a., frankenberg, e., siegel-hawley, g., &chirichigno, g. (2011). integrating suburban schools: how to benefit from growing diversity and avoid segregation. ucla civil rights project. toom, a., &husu, j. (2016). finnish teachers as 'makers of the many'. in h. niemi, a. toom, & a. kallioniemi, miracle of education: the principles and practices of teaching and learning in finnish schools(second revised edition) (pp. 41-55). rotterdam: sense publisher. tschannen-moran, m. & barr, m. (2004). fostering student learning: the relationship of collective teacher efficacy and student achievement. leadership and policy in schools, 3(3), 189-209. tschannen-moran, m. & hoy, a. w. (2001). teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct. teaching and teacher education, 17, 783-805. tschannen-moran, m., hoy, a. w., & hoy, w. k. (1998). teacher efficacy: its meaning and measure. review of educational research, 68(2), 202-248. versland, t. m., & erickson, j. l. (2017). leading by example: a case study of the influence of principal self-efficacy on collective efficacy. cogent education, 1-17. voelkel jr, r. h., &chrispeels, j. h. (2017). understanding the link between professional learning communities and teacher collective efficacy. school effectiveness and school improvement, 1-22. waychunas, w. (2020). where teachers thrive: a book review. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 129-132. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 yulia, y. (2013). teaching challenges in indonesia: motivating students and teachers’ classroom language. indonesian journal of applied linguistics, 3(1), 1-16. zonoubi, r., rasekh, a. e., &tavakoli, m. (2017). efl teacher self-efficacy development in professional learning communities. system, 66, 1-12. zulfikar, t. (2009). the making of indonesian education: an overview on empowering indonesian teachers. journal of indonesian social sciences and humanities, 13-39. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (3), 248-269 an among-based mentoring model for vocational schools in yogyakarta and its social impact istiningsih1 abstract this study aims to investigate how the use of an among-based mentoring model can improve competencies in vocational education at an agricultural vocational school in yogyakarta and the social impact that this has. qualitative research methods were applied in this study, with data being collected through questionnaires, field observations, and a literature study. the results indicate that using an among-based mentoring model for agricultural education at the yogyakarta agricultural vocational school falls into the “good” or “acceptable” category. the social impact of the extension helped improve the intimate relationships between students and the instructor. students gained the ability and courage to convey various topics, and open communication encouraged stronger social behavior. when stronger social relationships are built, the extension workers could identify the expectations of farmers and provide education about developing rice seeds and improving the quality of organic rice production. the novelty of this research lies in the use of the among-based mentoring model, which was developed based on the local philosophical wisdom of the people of yogyakarta province. the hope is that this will help solve the problems in delivering agricultural extension in indonesia. the expected implication is that government and educational institutions will work together to encourage the development of organic farming systems and agricultural startup businesses and consequently improve the welfare of the broader community. keywords: vocational education, mentoring, social impact introduction the downturn in the agricultural sector and the failure of young agricultural entrepreneurs may be due to inadequate agricultural education and extension facilities. to address this, countries in the world are currently focusing on education systems and agricultural consulting services to provide support for learning and advice for making operational and strategic decisions through various modalities (adamsone-fiskovica et al., 2021; klerkx, 2020;). looking at the history of agricultural education activities in the nineteenth century, pilot agriculture started developing but has failed to effect change (burton, 2020). in addition, many agricultural education graduates do not work or engage in agriculture, especially for building an agricultural startup business, instead choosing to 1dr. state islamic university (uin) sunan kalijaga yogyakarta, indonesia, email: istiningsih@uin-suka.ac.id mailto:istiningsih@uin-suka.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 249 pursue a career outside the agriculture sector. this means agriculture is beginning to be abandoned by the younger generation (esters & bowen, 2005; garton & robinson, 2006; igo & perry, 2019; mirakzadeh & ghiasy, 2011), yet it should be a pillar of strength for the country. agricultural extension is a non-formal educational process to teach farmers better methods, and this can lead to substantial benefits. unfortunately, the agricultural extension policy implemented by the indonesian government is considered to not have had a substantial effect, as illustrated by the unstable performance of the agricultural sector over recent decades (rusliyadi, et. al., 2018). agricultural extension has been neglected, so it has not helped farmers to become more productive and independent. this is needed not just to develop farming and fulfill mere needs—it will also help meet the needs of society and develop the nation. the introduction of agricultural extension should not just supply new knowledge and skills to farmers to develop their potential—it should also provide opportunities for farmers to develop themselves through the capital of independence. in its development, the philosophy, understanding, scope of the space, approaches, and methods for agricultural extension have not been properly understood by organizers and other actors involved in agricultural development in general (hermans et al., 2020). this can of course lead to irregularities, inefficiencies, and ineffectiveness when planning an implementation of agricultural extension, and this in turn reduces the chances of achieving the goals and objectives of it. efforts are therefore needed to improve the various aspects of agricultural extension, so it can increase productivity and incomes in the agricultural sector (danso-abbeam et al., 2018). agricultural extension in indonesia has taken place since the early days of dutch colonialism and continued through the japanese occupation and early independence to the current day. experience shows that agricultural extension in indonesia through the bimas (mass guidance) program led to the nation achieving rice self-sufficiency in 1984. although it was usually carried out through close coordination between relevant agencies, it still took a modified top-down approach (aristya & taryono, 2019). in this way, the implementation of agricultural extension during the bimas period became very integrated (vintarno et al., 2019). while this intervention became popular in the fields of vocational education and out-of-school training, not many scientific studies have tried to provide a scientific basis for the effectiveness of its use. the literature mentions that mentoring programs focus on the teachers of agricultural education (toombs & ramsey, 2020). in indonesia, meanwhile, the community-empowerment programs in the agricultural sector take a mentoring approach aimed primarily at relatively small rural farmers istiningsih and smallholders (akay et al., 2021). almost every program launched by the ministry of agriculture has employed a mentoring approach, but they have never been truly successful at improving the welfare of farmers (anwarudin & dayat, 2019; haryono et al., 2021; rusliyadi et al., 2018). this is especially true of the organic agriculture sector, because the world market for organic agricultural products has reached 20% of all production. indeed, some 75.5 million hectares of land is suitable for organic farming in indonesia, but only about 25.7 million hectares is cultivated organically. in addition, consumers of organic products often have to buy products imported from abroad due to low productivity in their own country (mayrowani, 2016; david & ardiansyah, 2017; purwantini & sunarsih, 2020). in asia, the market for organic agricultural products is dominated by the far-eastern countries, such as china, japan, and korea (paull, 2011). recent studies suggest that there is currently a large number of findings from ineffective and misleading experiments. agricultural education models that may be successful in some contexts have been rejected based on low effectiveness scores, while others that are indicated as being effective may be unproductive in unfavorable circumstances (thomas, 2021). this study considers a model that focuses on agricultural education through among-based mentoring and its effectiveness at improving agricultural competencies, specifically for rice seed development and the quality of organic rice production, at smk agriculture yogyakarta, as well as the related social impact. originated from javanese, among means individual supervision, assistance and teaching guides that puts more emphases on cultural supervision. the mentoring model in this study was developed based on every aspect in the implementation of counseling, namely learning methods, objects, problems, places, evaluations, and so on. the subject for the implementation of mentoring, and the object of this research, is organic rice farming, so two things are explained in this study, namely organic farming systems and organic rice cultivation. some rationale for choosing the topic of organic rice farming is described here: first, organic agriculture, as part of environmentally friendly agriculture, needs to be urgently promoted to correct the increasing negative impacts on the environment that occur as a result of intensive farming and agricultural chemicals. second, there is an increasing number of consumers wanting clean and healthy food products, and the spread of the “green” consumer movement has provided the impetus for growth in the organic farming movement. the among-based mentoring model was developed in order to address the problems of existing extension strategies. many agricultural extension methods have been proposed, but extension methods that are oriented journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 251 toward empowering students at vocational high schools and their social impacts have not been considered in many studies. existing extension methods are generally limited to farmers as the producers and have not considered students in educational institutions who may actually play a role in improving the agricultural sector in future. research question based on the problem described above, the main research questions of this study are defined as follows: 1) what agricultural competencies of the students of smk pertanian yogyakarta can be improved through the application of among-based model? 2) what social impacts are revealed through among-based model improve the social impacts of the students of smk pertanian yogyakarta in the agriculture? literature review agricultural education model: among-based mentoring a model is a pattern used to describe a process clearly, and it comprises a structure, components, content for those components, steps to apply, and specifications (button & walsh, 2018). mentoring, meanwhile, takes place by connecting farmers with extension workers. meanwhile, the term “among-based” refers to an educational process based on ki hadjar dewantara’s educational thought, known as panggulowenthah, and in this case, it seeks to educate farmers to be thoughtful and independent, so they can find knowledge on their own and apply it to fulfill their physical and spiritual needs (haryati, 2019). according to noventari (2020), the among-based system has two principles, namely respecting the natural nature of children and basing independence on kinship in the social environment. the among system of independent education physically and mentally educates students by positioning them as both objects and subjects. students are given broad freedom, because they are responsible in the teaching and learning process for becoming people who can think and act decently (patimo & lucero, 2021). agricultural education through mentoring basically teaches life skills, and it tries to engage the community in developing potential, so they can achieve a better quality of life (dailey et al., 2001). mentoring programs are highlighted as institutional interventions that can complement government efforts within a framework without requiring complicated legal processes and istiningsih contracts. assistance is provided to facilitate the decision-making processes of various activities related to agriculture, thus helping to build the capacity to increase incomes, become large-scale businesses, and plan and implement activities (olubode-awosola & van schalkwyk, 2006). the determinants of success are classified into nine factors: goals, problems, place, personnel, placement, programs, processes that occur, practicality, and post-event engagement. each factor has a principle of success that guides its application (adamsone-fiskovica et al., 2021). the success of mentoring is determined by the existing status of the student and the qualifications of the instructor. the status of students may differ in terms of their experience in farming practices, work ethics, speed of adoption, ability to interact with their social environment, and courage to make decisions. the qualifications of the instructor, meanwhile, include his or her ability to communicate and facilitate the coaching, attitudes, and sociocultural characteristics. factors that need to be considered in among-based mentoring include the interaction between the facilitator and the instructor, and it must focus on the problems of the students (ariani & apsari, 2020). agricultural extension as an educational process in general, the aim of agricultural extension is to enable farmers to use the knowledge, skills, and information they have acquired to improve their quality of life. the term extension refers to a process of disseminating information related to modern, scientific farming methods in order to achieve increased agricultural productivity, which in turn raises farmers’ incomes and improves family/community welfare (anderson & gershon, 2007). the literature shows that various considerations encourage policy makers to invest in agricultural extension. one is a form of public responsibility combined with the possible efficiency gains that derive from a locally decentralized delivery system. there are nine extension principles and consequences in this paradigm, namely (1) information services for everything related to farming, (2) locality, (3) an agribusiness orientation, (4) interaction between farmers, (5) a focus on the interests of farmers, (6) a humanistic-egalitarian approach, (7) a professional implementation, (8) accountability, and (9) a satisfactory outcome (anderson & feder, 2004). extension is a form of adult education, so (a) the educational methods are more lateral in nature to complement farmers’ various experiences, as opposed to conventional education that is more vertical or teacher/ceremonial; (b) its success is not determined by the amount of material delivered but rather by the level of dialogue created between educators and learners; and (c) the main targets are adults, both in the biological and psychological sense (rogers, 1993). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 253 the literature also mentions that agricultural extension is field-oriented in that it focuses on transferring information and technology, often by both formal and non-formal education providers. it is also stated that reforming agricultural extension can be done through structural, financial, and managerial decentralization strategies, as well as through market-oriented government policies (rivera, 1998). looking at figure 1, it can be seen that agricultural extension is actually a process of behavioral change through education, one that is motivated by (a) knowledge and understanding of methods that can be beneficial for the farmer, his or her family, and wider society; (b) a desire to make the change without coercion from any party; and (c) the ability to provide the resources (inputs) needed for that change to occur. an agricultural extension is therefore often interpreted as a form of education for people engaged in farming, so they can be aware of, and willing and able to independently carry out, changes that can increase their production and subsequently their incomes, as well as improving the welfare of their families and communities (rivera, 1998; anderson & feder, 2004). regarding extension as an educational process, van den ban (1998) explains that the purpose of agricultural extension is to educate farmers with the agricultural knowledge and skills needed to sustain life and achieve prosperity. monitoring evaluation information facility & communication figure 1. agricultural extension model structure istiningsih methods research design this research follows a qualitative research design (creswell, 2014). the study focused on competencies of developing competencies on agriculture supervision and their acceptance to accept the model of supervision among secondary school students. the development model is that of a theoretical model, where the framework of thought is based on relevant theories and supported by empirical data. agricultural extension is the subject for this research, specifically for organic rice farming. data of this study were analyzed using qualitative approach adapted from miles, huberman & saldana (2014), that follow three-stage of analysis, namely data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing/verification (sugiyono, 2009). participants some 35 people participated in this study, including 30 students (20 males and 10 females aged 16–18 years) and five instructors (four males and one female). the criterion for the student participants was that they were enrolled on smk yogyakarta class xi and xii, while the instructors needed to be extension workers with more than two years of experience teaching organic rice production. instrument this study developed a research instrument in the form of two checklist questionnaires, namely 1) a questionnaire for extension workers and 2) a closed questionnaire for participants, which in this case functioned as an interview guide. observations were quantified using a rating scale, such that the raw data were obtained in the form of numbers and then interpreted in a narrative manner. the available responses were happy or not happy, agree or disagree, and ever or never. the rating scale was flexible, so it was not limited to measuring attitudes alone but also the respondents’ perceptions of phenomena like social life, institutions, knowledge, abilities, and activity processes. it is important that an instrument with a rating scale must be able to interpret each number assigned to the various answers on each instrument item. the possible answers for the instrument were 4, 3, 2, and 1, where 4 means very good, 3 means good, 2 means not good, and number 1 means not good at all. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 255 table 1. research instrument grid sub-theme variable indicator item number quality of students farming experience farming experience and problem-solving skills 1,2,3,4 work ethic sincerity, determination, and enthusiasm for work 5,6,7 adoption speed adopting speed 8a,b,c interaction familiarity, togetherness, and openness 9,10,11,12 courage in making decisions courage to take action 13,14,15,16 extension quality communication ability to develop solutions, choose methods, explain the material, and use assistive devices 17,18,19,20 facility ability to develop solutions and act as a bridge 21,22,23,24 attitude readiness to solve problems, take pride in the profession, appreciate the task, and tackle problems quickly 25,26,27,28 social characteristics sociability, adaptability, and immersion in social values 29,30,31 competence retention of material; ability to train; the ability to convince the material; and the ability to dynamic students 32,33,34,35 commitment provide time to serve and help 37,38,39 student empowerment independence independence from other parties and direction 40, 41 knowledge understanding of technology and the ability to explain to others and demonstrate the value of technology 42,43,44,45 attitude ability to accept and apply technology 46,47,48 validity and reliability tests were carried out for the questionnaire but not for the checklists. the questionnaire comprised 48 questions. the test results yielded kmo and barlet numbers of 0.755 and 857.068 with a probability of 0.000, indicating that all the questions were suitable for further analysis. instrument reliability was measured using the cronbach’s alpha, with the minimum alpha required being 0.70. based on measuring the reliability of the data for the items, the instrument had an alpha coefficient above 0.70, so all the items were considered valid and reliable. data-collection technique data collection was achieved through questionnaires, field observations, and a literature study. participants were fully guided by data collectors in how to fill out the questionnaire. for the extension workers, questionnaires were used to collect data about their abilities, which were then used for model validation analysis. the questionnaires for students were used to collect data about their abilities and level of empowerment, which were also used for model validation analysis and istiningsih model effectiveness analysis. the literature study focused on three themes, namely an agricultural education model with among-based mentoring, agricultural extension, and social dynamics. the among-based mentoring structure that was developed comprises three components, namely (1) the extension workers, (2) the vocational school students, and (3) agriculture. time series analysis was conducted to measure changes in participant behavior when conducting organic rice farming practices. after being given instruction in the form of among-based mentoring, participants were observed for 8-10 times. to analyze the instructors’ response to the developed model, data were collected randomly from the five extension workers who participated in the experiment. the activities carried out by the extension workers while mentoring included (a) communicating information about the object of the extension. the material was still general, and the recipients of the information were also general farmers. the extension workers also carried out (b) monitoring activities, (c) facilitation, and (d) evaluation. monitoring observed the behavior of the students, while facilitation helped support problem-solving. evaluation was carried out by extension workers to observe the ability of students to solve problems. all information and communication was related to organic rice farming. the third component was the students as the target of counseling. in the among-based mentoring, not all farmers received facilitation, and it was focused on those farmers who faced problems. students interacted directly with the object of counseling. the evaluation used for the mentoring was a process evaluation that was carried out in conjunction with the extension process, something that is called an authentic evaluation. researchers used recording devices and notes to make it easier to collect the necessary information. data-analysis technique two data analysis processes were used in this study asserting a descriptive statistics to find the mean score and qualitative analysis adapting miles, huberman & saldana (2014) and moleong (2013) and creswell (2014). data to answer the first research questions that sought to answer the central tendency was analyzed using mean score. data to answer the second research question were analyzed using a qualitative approach referring to miles, huberman & saldana (2014) and moleong (2013). the data-analysis technique used was based on the theory of moleong (2013), which comprises three stages. first, the data were reduced by simplifying and selecting relevant data to obtain information about the agricultural education model with among-based mentoring to journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 257 improve agricultural extension competencies, namely developing rice seeds and improving the quality of organic rice production, at the yogyakarta agricultural vocational school, as well as the related social impact. this process made it easier to draw conclusions. second, the data were presented by systematically compiling them in the form of narrative texts, data tables, and images. by presenting the data like this, it was organized into a relationship pattern that was easier to understand. the third stage involved drawing conclusions and verifying them according to the purpose of the analysis. the data that had been reduced and presented was also verified so that it could be regarded as precise and objective. results agriculture competencies the findings about the model of agricultural education with among-based mentoring for improving agricultural extension competencies, namely developing rice seeds and improving the quality of organic rice production, at the yogyakarta agricultural vocational school are divided over five categories. first is the ability to make fertilizer and fertilize crops. the existing ability of students to make such fertilizer was initially observed at scores of 2, 3, and 4 in the moderate category. this saw a drastic increase in the fourth observation, after about four weeks. in the fourth week, the activities carried out by the students resulted in fertilizer that had been processed and the making of more fertilizer for the next stage, so the activity of making organic fertilizer was repeated. when the observation was made, the students had begun to become more skilled in making fertilizer. by the seventh and eighth observations, however, there was a slight decrease in the ability of the students, possibly due to other activities like pest control taking precedence. however, this decrease was only 0.10, so it barely diminished the increase of 1.54 that had been achieved. at the ninth observation, the ability of the students had increased to 3.7, putting it in the relatively high category. in addition, technology had made the production of organic fertilizers easier by adding probiotic microbes. in general, the ability to conduct organic fertilization was not different from conventional agricultural fertilization, so the average score increase was 2.90. second was the ability to make organic pesticides and control pests that can affect organic rice plants. a drastic increase was seen at the eighth observation, when the rice was around 60–80 days old. at this point, organic rice can be vulnerable to pests and diseases, so the students needed to istiningsih make pesticides. there appeared to be an increase in the ability of the students to make pesticides, from the initial score of 2.0 in the medium category to a final score of 3.8. there are differences for controlling plant-damaging organisms in organic and conventional farming systems in terms of the methods used. while conventional farming controls pests curatively using chemical substances, it is carried out preventively in organic farming by using liquid fertilizers and organic pesticides. third was the ability for seeding. the initial score was 0.9 in the low category, but the final score at the eighth observation was 3.8 in the high category. the most drastic increase occurred at the sixth observation, when it rose from 2.0 to 3.8. in other words, the students acquired a very good capability for seeding. the fourth category concerned independence, attitude, and creativity. student independence was the only aspect that only saw a very small increase, and it remained relatively constant. for example, recommendations for the use of urea fertilizer, chemical pesticides, and high-quality were still being given. the attitude of students toward organic rice farming increased from an initial score of 1.43 to a final score at the eighth observation of 3.65. the most drastic increase was seen in the sixth week when students began to gain confidence in this “new” system of organic farming. the students’ creativity also increased by 1.32 to a score of 3.05. creativity manifested when the students made their organic fertilizers. there was an effort to make fertilizer from em4 material by using kitchen shrimp paste and rotten soybean tempeh. indeed, several students did not exactly follow the directions of the instructor when making fertilizer. the habit of students in going to kiosks that provide production materials, such as urea fertilizer and npk, was now starting to bring leaf waste to agricultural land. the point that supported the change in the attitudes and creativity of students was the fertility of organic rice without pests. at the same time, the extension workers began to invite students to analyze their farming businesses, even though it was just at the stage of analyzing the cost of procurement. it was found that the cost was lower for the organic system than the conventional system. there was therefore a degree of pride in the students making materials themselves, which in turn motivated them to become producers of organic fertilizers, rice, and pesticides. the fifth category concerned the overall ability to pursue organic rice farming as a business, and this tended to increase. if mentoring were to continue without influence from policies that do not support organic systems, it is likely that the students’ abilities would continue to increase. in turn, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 259 they may also one day become farmers empowered with their own abilities without needing to be guided. based on the five components that were observed, the category is relatively high, and the magnitude of this increase means that the extension workers applying the among-based mentoring model helped improve the agricultural extension competencies of students, namely to develop rice seeds and improve the quality of organic rice production. a clarification of the processes and dynamics that took place is presented in table 2 below. table 2. the among-based agricultural mentoring process and dynamics stage process dynamics results information introduction individual approach interaction of students’ thoughts with extension workers establish an intimate relationship between students and extension workers identify farmers’ expectations by doing motivation individual approach: discussion, opinion sharing students have the courage to express their hopes, especially for organic rice farming there is motivation in students information on the objective of organic rice mentoring individual approach through interactive dialogue increased interaction: the students are emboldened to express problems and opinions. students tell other students about the instructor’s visit and everything that happened in between. the emergence of a desire to learn about organic rice farming identify farmer problems group approach through participatory discussion interaction between students begins to emerge there is a desire in students because the problem has been revealed. there are feelings and thoughts that the extension is not for the benefit of the instructor but for the benefit of the students. farmers are helped to solve their own problems develop a practical activity plan group approach student interaction increases. there seems to be a more open relationship between students and their instructors. students’ sense of responsibility begins to emerge. internalization of material that has been practiced. identification of other problems and technology diffusion. group, individual, discussion and interactive dialogue the instructor’s relationship with students is increasingly open, such that students dare to express their opinions satisfaction and a desire to try other practices independently. monitoring and evaluation has been carried out. istiningsih social impacts data for the students’ acceptance of extension services is divided over three aspects, namely 1) interpersonal relationships, 2) assistance for solving problems, and 3) building togetherness. first, the attitudes of students toward mentoring services and building interpersonal relationships were as follows: some 85.6% of students were satisfied, 14.4% were neutral, and none were dissatisfied. second, regarding their feelings about the services provided by the extension workers when solving problems, 65.7% were satisfied, 35.3% were neutral, and again none were dissatisfied. third, for their feelings about the service’s role in building togetherness, 62% were satisfied, 30% were neutral, and 8% were dissatisfied. based on the above findings, it seems that in general, students do not face any great difficulties in adopting organic farming techniques. most abilities needed to carry out organic rice farming increased, with the independence aspect being the only exception. in this case, changing the mentality of students in terms of their independence and creativity is actually more difficult than increasing their cultivation skills. in theory, the success of students in the agribusiness sector may depend more on their mental development rather than their cultivation skills. discussion agriculture competencies the findings suggest that the model of agricultural education with among-based mentoring at the vocational school of agriculture in yogyakarta can be rated as “good” or “acceptable” based on the perceptions of participants. some 65% of participants said it was easier to develop rice seeds and increase organic rice production after being given assistance and mentoring. however, 34% of participants said it was still difficult. evaluating the extension, 80% of the extension workers said it was easier to implement the among-based mentoring model compared to the conventional model. previous studies have come to the opposite conclusion by stating that there are currently a large number of findings from experiments that experience continuous failure in educational investigations. indeed, models that may be successful in some circumstances may be rejected based on low effectiveness scores in other circumstances, while others that are recommended may prove to be unproductive due to unfavorable circumstances (thomas, 2021). this study found that journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 261 the agricultural education model achieves a fairly high increase in scores and brings more benefit than conventional methods. of the four criteria being observed, only the independence aspect remained relatively unchanged. when examined more deeply, it can be seen how this factor is influenced by the environment and school policies that do not encourage the independence of students, such as advocating the use of urea fertilizer and chemical pesticides, as well as providing high-quality seeds. if this is not suitably addressed by the school and the government, students will still be inclined toward conventional farming systems. a culture of thinking and acting instantly needs to be instilled in students. social impacts the social impact resulting from visits to educational institutions is a key step in appealing to students. this visit can improve the relationship between students and their extension workers. students then begin to gain the ability and courage to convey various concerns, and this open communication encourages stronger social behavior. with the strengthening of these social relationships, the extension workers can identify the expectations of students and make it easier for them to communicate knowledge about rice seed development and organic rice production. the literature explains that the among-based mentoring system in agricultural education has two principles, namely respecting the nature of students and having a sense of togetherness in the social environment (noventari, 2020). the latter principle is the main reason for the emergence of social relationships in these activities. students are not individuals who surrender to poverty and suffering, like in the javanese term “nrimo ing pandum.” they are people with the courage to continuously face challenges and develop their potential to become creative, self-reliant people. they can then improve their productivity and contribute to improving the welfare of their families and communities in future. thus, it is hoped that such students will not only become creative young farmers—they will also become successful entrepreneurs of organic farming agribusinesses. previous studies have shown that agricultural education can provide knowledge about how to protect agribusinesses from dangers, such as production risks (e.g., production inputs, technology, climate, and pests), marketing risks (e.g., post-harvest processing, sales, and market prices), financial risks (e.g., istiningsih availability of credit and interest), and risks related to human resources and health (ayu, iskandarini, & fatoni, 2021). the among-based mentoring model was developed in six stages for improving agricultural competencies, specifically the development of rice seeds and organic rice production at the yogyakarta agricultural vocational school. first, the purpose of mentoring is to strengthen and empower students, so they can make a business from developing rice seeds and high-quality organic rice production and creatively deal with the challenges they face. the indicator of success for this is the increase in knowledge and skills and better attitudes toward technology. the study of the literature found that efforts to improve farming and farming methods help achieve increased productivity and incomes and improve family/community welfare (anderson & gershon, 2007). in addition, students gain independence for managing farming in the future. second, the basic principle of mentoring is egalitarianism in that the relationship between students and extension workers is a partnership. in this case, each factor has a principle from providing guidance for its application (adamsone-fiskovica et al., 2021). the main principle in the amongbased mentoring model is making the best use of the client's resources by respecting his or her nature. the implementation of the among-based mentoring pays close attention to the diversity in students’ characters. third, facilitation is a key factor in the success of the extension. as has been explained in previous studies, a factor that needs to be considered in among-based mentoring is the interaction between the facilitator and the instructor, and mentoring must focus on the students’ problems (ariani & apsari, 2020). in this case, the extension worker must understand his duties, act as a true companion, and have the right qualifications. the approach of among-based mentoring includes a combination of (a) an individual approach and (b) a group approach. the individual approach is used in order to (1) establish closer personal relationships; (2) understand the character of each student, so explanations can be adapted accordingly; (3) identify the socioeconomic backgrounds of the students; and (4) build up the confidence of students. the individual approach takes the form of direct contact between the instructor and the students with the aim of (5) motivating the students to engage in new techniques and (6) giving more in-depth explanations. in addition to the individual approach, education through among-based mentoring also applies a group approach. this was chosen because (1) it can foster a sense of unity and oneness among the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 263 students; (2) it helps develop objectivity toward existing ideas; (3) it can identify community leaders who can then be invited to work together; (4) students can exchange beneficial ideas, opinions, and experiences; and (5) there is more efficient use of tools, financing, and time. in practice, education with among-based mentoring begins with the individual approach to establish closer relationships, identify individual characters and socioeconomic conditions, and build trust. third, at the second and later meetings, a group approach is employed. groups are formed by students receiving mentoring not just from the instructors. this is intended to build the psychological dynamics between them and develop a sense of cohesiveness. groups formed by extension workers will experience different results as they are naturally occurring groups initiated by the community itself. however, groups born from community initiatives tend to be more secure. fourth, education with the among-based mentoring system is implemented based on the local philosophical wisdom that is typical of yogyakarta, which has a family spirit and a nature of independence. this helps achieve progress quickly. indeed, independence is a precondition for developing the inner and outer strength of students, so they can build strong personalities and think and act independently. according to this system, every civil servant in the educational process carries out “tutwuri handayani, ing madya mangun karsa, ing ngarso sung tuladha” (haryati, 2019). the among-based system of education positions students as both objects and subjects. they are given broad freedom and responsibility in the teaching and learning process. for example, the mentor gives independence to the student, thus liberating that student’s personality. with an attitude of civil service, students learn to activate and mobilize themselves, either working alone or in collaboration with peers. tutwuri handayani as an educational paradigm serves to raise the spirit of independence (noventari, 2020), and it fosters personal ideals that are firm and tough. education through among-based mentoring in this study raised the philosophy of semar, a figure from javanese mythology. according to soetarno (1989), semar symbolizes a human characterization who thinks and has broad views (the javanese call it temuwo). in his leadership, semar does not like things that contradict the truth and have an angry nature. semar is patient, loving, and never sad. he is always humble about his upbringing, but when he associates with the gods, he is equal. semar always leads to peace and prosperity. semar also always controls his younger siblings, and if one makes a mistake or deviates from his duties, semar immediately corrects him (siswanto, 2019). istiningsih the principles of honing, loving, and nurturing that were developed by ki hadjar dewantara will undoubtedly be useful in dealing with the global challenges and the fluctuating simplification of the educational praxis (practice and reflection). the three pillars become a liberating and pedagogical policy reference for developing students who learn to know, learn to do, and learn to live together. the three pillars in javanese are known as “understanding, feeling, and doing.” the basic needs of the students (i.e., farmers) for growth and development are divided into three, namely nurturing, loving, and fostering. nurturing meets the need for mental stimulation to develop psychosocially in areas like intelligence, creativity, faith, personality, ethics, productivity, and so on. loving meets the need for affection. a close, intimate, and harmonious relationship is an absolute necessity for ensuring harmonious growth and development, both physically and mentally. fostering is about talking responsibly (haryati, 2019). thus, it is clear that the developed among-based mentoring model for an agricultural extension approach helps address some of the problems in indonesia. fifth, the among-based mentoring model increases the adaptability of students as a rural community. this means that students are able to form rural communities of people who may potentially become independent farmers and commit to the world of agriculture. they will also maintain social conditions and a sense of togetherness with other farmers. sixth, the evaluation of this extension process is very different to that for conventional extension interventions. evaluation is performed separately from the learning process and requires dedicated time. among-based mentoring avoids many of the things mentioned above. this is so that the students being mentored always feel comfortable, and a conducive situation is always maintained. evaluation is generally regarded to be psychologically worrying for the party being evaluated, but this is avoided with the among-based mentoring model. the implementation of agricultural extensions several years ago, now, and in the future is briefly described in table 3. table 3. development of the extension in indonesia component state of extension counseling with the accompaniment a few years approach will be developed then current assistance focus on farmers/students program extension worker-centered now extension materials are real problems/cases faced by teachers journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 265 material material completely planned from not fully focused on farmers/students based on students' conditions (characteristics, abilities, and facilities owned by students) counseling agency suggested counseling materials from students increasing independence, creativity, knowledge, attitudes and skills method/technique based on what the instructor has mastered based on the material being taught flexible, adjusting to the situation indicator increased knowledge and skills knowledge, skills, attitudes of learners the instructor as a companion results directly from the students' efforts success learners in the field/agricultural land very attentive to the background, character, and state of the farmer counseling closed class students go to extension workers at extension offices each object can be used as a learning medium the instructor comes to the students, and there is still coercion lack of attention to the background, character, and circumstances of students interactive the place does not pay attention to the background, character, and condition of students personal, print, electronic fulfillment of satisfaction service system no media (face to face) two-way communication process based on table 3, it can be understood that the among-based mentoring model developed for agricultural extension is able to overcome the existing problems in the field of agricultural extension. this method should therefore increase the empowerment of students. this study has several limitations, however: (1) empirical data to validate the model design is still limited, because the mentoring given to students in vocational high schools is conducted by several ngos (non-governmental organizations), while the government department responsible for developing farmers as human resources has not provided assistance so far. the data used as the basis for developing the mentoring model is therefore very limited. furthermore, trials of the model in the field remain very limited in terms of the number of students and geography. in addition, the limited number of students is also a result of the limited number of instructors that helped to carry out the experiment. although the trial was limited to a vocational high school, it is assumed that the developed model could be effectively applied to a wider audience in addition to the agricultural sector. conclusion this study has investigated an agricultural education model using among-based mentoring in order to improve agricultural competencies, specifically the development of rice seeds and high-quality istiningsih organic rice production, at an agricultural vocational school in yogyakarta, as well as the related social impact. the study’s results indicate that the model can be classed as “good” or “acceptable.” it was found that the agricultural education model with among-based mentoring has a social impact in terms of building an intimate relationship between the students and the instructors. when stronger social relationships are formed, it is easier for extension instructors to communicate knowledge about rice seed development and high-quality organic rice production. the agricultural extension methods used previously have not succeeded in significantly empowering farmers. only a few aspects have been improved for farmers, generally limited to technical improvements in cultivation skills, and the comprehensive capabilities of farmers have never been optimally developed. with the among-based mentoring model, though, the student’s overall ability to practice organic rice farming is expected to increase, thus empowering them to start agribusinesses. thus, the future the organic farming sector can be bolstered through agricultural education, and this in turn may contribute to economic development at the national level. references adamsone-fiskovica, a., grivins, m., burton, r. j. f., elzen, b., flanigan, s., frick, r., & hardy, c. (2021). disentangling critical success factors and principles of on-farm agricultural demonstration events. journal of agricultural education and extension, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224x.2020.1844768 akay, r., kaawoan, j. e., & pangemanan, f. n. (2021). jurnal governance. disiplin pegawai dalam meningkatkan kualitas pelayanan publik di kantor kecamatan tikala, 1(1), 1–8. anderson, j., & gershon, f. (2007). handbook of agricultural economics. in handbook of agricultural economics: volume 3 (vol. 3, pp. 2343–2378). retrieved from http://www.eagriculture.biz/download/sustainable agriculture/handbook of agricultural economics vol.3.pdf anderson, j. r., & feder, g. (2004). agricultural extension: good intentions and hard realities. world bank research observer, 19(1), 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkh013 anwarudin, o., & dayat, d. (2019). the effect of farmer participation in agricultural extension on agribusiness sustainability in bogor, indonesia. international journal of multicultural and multireligious understanding, 6(3), 1061. https://doi.org/10.18415/ijmmu.v6i3.1028 ariani, k. t., & apsari, s. r. (2020). aplikasi model pendampingan berbasis among dalam journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 267 penyuluhan pertanian padi" srt’’di mutihan prambanan. jurnal ilmu-ilmu pertanian, 8, 166–176. retrieved from http://jurnal.polbangtanyoma.ac.id/index.php/jiip/article/view/411 aristya, v. e., & taryono. (2019). pemuliaan tanaman partisipatif untuk meningkatkan peran varietas padi unggul dalam mendukung swasembada pangan nasional. agrinova: journal of agriculture innovation, 2(1), 26–35. retrieved from http://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/agrinova/ ayu, s. f., iskandarini, & fatoni, r. b. m. i. (2021). factors affecting risk perceptions of young entrepreneurs in agricultural startup business. iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 782(2), 022055. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/782/2/022055 burton, r. j. f. (2020). the failure of early demonstration agriculture on nineteenth century model/pattern farms: lessons for contemporary demonstration. journal of agricultural education and extension, 26(2), 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224x.2019.1674168 button, t., & walsh, s. (2018). philosophy and model theory. united kingdom: oxford university press. creswell, j.w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). london: sage publications. dailey, a. l., conroy, c. a., & shelley-tolbert, c. a. (2001). using agricultural education as the context to teach life skills. journal of agricultural education, 42(1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2001.01011 danso-abbeam, g., ehiakpor, d. s., & aidoo, r. (2018). agricultural extension and its effects on farm productivity and income: insight from northern ghana. agriculture and food security, 7(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0225-x david, w., & ardiansyah. (2017). organic agriculture in indonesia: challenges and opportunities. organic agriculture, 7(3), 329–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13165-0160160-8 esters, l. t., & bowen, b. e. (2005). factors influencing career choices of urban agricultural education students. journal of agricultural education, 46(2), 26–35. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2005.02024 garton, b. l., & robinson, j. s. (2006). tracking agricultural education graduates’ career choice, job satisfaction, and employability skills. in proceedings of the american association for agricultural education conference (pp. 552–563). alanya, turkey: american association for agricultural education conference. haryati, s. (2019). pemikiran pendidikan ki hadjar dewantara: studi tentang sistem among dalam proses pendidikan. ponorogo: uwais inspirasi indonesia. haryono, i., padapi, a., & wulandary, a. (2021). bpp utilization by farmers to support istiningsih indonesia as barns the world. agricultural social economic journal, 21(02), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.agrise.2021.021.2.5 hermans, t. d. g., whitfield, s., dougill, a. j., & thierfelder, c. (2020). bridging the disciplinary gap in conservation agriculture research, in malawi. a review. agronomy for sustainable development, 40(3), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-0608-9 igo, e., & perry, d. (2019). examining the reasons agricultural education teaching graduates choose to enter, leave, or stay in the teaching profession. journal of agricultural education, 60(2), 109–125. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2019.02109 klerkx, l. (2020). advisory services and transformation, plurality and disruption of agriculture and food systems: towards a new research agenda for agricultural education and extension studies. journal of agricultural education and extension, 26(2), 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224x.2020.1738046 mayrowani, h. (2016). pengembangan pertanian organik di indonesia. forum penelitian agro ekonomi, 30(2), 91. https://doi.org/10.21082/fae.v30n2.2012.91-108 miles, mattew b.; huberman, michael, a & saldana, jhonny. (2014). qualitative data analysis a methods sourcebook. 3rd ed. eds. helen salmon, kaitlin perry, kalie koscielak, and laura barrent. los angeles: sage publication. mirakzadeh, a. a., & ghiasy, f. g. (2011). effective factors on the employment status of agricultural graduates in iran. african journal of agricultural research, 6(2), 432–439. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajar10.878 moleong, l. j. (2013). qualitative research methodology revised edition. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya offset publisher. noventari, w. (2020). konsepsi merdeka belajar dalam sistem among menurut pandangan ki hajar dewantara. pkn progresif, 15, 83–91. olubode-awosola, o. o., & van schalkwyk, h. d. (2006). mentorship alliance between south african farmers: implications for sustainable agriculture sector reform. south african journal of economic and management sciences, 9(4), 553–566. patimo, d.m. & lucero, m. b. a. (2021). predictors of success in advance higher education: a case in northwest samar state university, philippines. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 6 (1), 40-52. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.3 paull, j. (2011). the making of an agricultural classic: farmers of forty centuries or permanent agriculture in china, korea and japan, 1911-2011. agricultural sciences, 02(03), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2011.23024 purwantini, t. b., & sunarsih, n. (2020). pertanian organik: konsep, kinerja, prospek, dan journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 248-269 269 kendala. forum penelitian agro ekonomi, 37(2), 127. https://doi.org/10.21082/fae.v37n2.2019.127-142 rivera, w. m. (1998). agricultural extension as adult education: institutional evolution and forces for change. international journal of lifelong education, 17(4), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/0260137980170405 rogers, a. (1993). adult education and agricultural extension: some comparisons. international journal of lifelong education, 12(3), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/0260137930120302 rusliyadi, m., bin hj mohd jamil, a., othman, m., maseleno, a., & tri kumalasari, r. (2018). agricultural extension policy, agricultural growth and poverty reduction in indonesia. international journal of engineering & technology, 7(4), 5539–5550. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i4.13337 siswanto, n. (2019). filosofi kepemimpinan semar. panggung, 29(3). https://doi.org/10.26742/panggung.v29i3.1011 soetarno, a. (1989). ensiklopedia wayang solo. solo: dahara proze. sugiyono. (2009). metode penelitian dan bisnis. bandung: alfabeta. thomas, g. (2021). experiment’s persistent failure in education inquiry, and why it keeps failing. british educational research journal, 47(3), 501–519. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3660 toombs, j. m., & ramsey, j. w. (2020). potential mentoring impacts on oklahoma inductionyear school-based agricultural education teachers: a modified delphi study. journal of research in technical careers, 4(2), 39. https://doi.org/10.9741/2578-2118.1086 van den ban, a. w. (1998). supporting farmers, decision making processes by agricultural extension. journal of extension systems, 14, 55–67. vintarno, j., sugandi, y. s., & adiwisastra, j. (2019). perkembangan penyuluhan pertanian dalam mendukung pertumbuhan pertanian di indonesia. responsive, 1(3), 90. https://doi.org/10.24198/responsive.v1i3.20744 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2018:9 (4), 382-402 382 the characters’ background in the african-american english dialect of the adventures of huckleberry finn: should the translation retain it? ida kusuma dewi1, m.r. nababan2, riyadi santosa3 & djatmika4 abstract this study looks at how african-american (aa) dialects in mark twain’s the adventures of huckleberry finn novel should be translated into the indonesian language. for the data, sayings by aa characters featuring the african-american english (aae) phonological dialect were selected. an emphasis was placed on how twain makes use of dialects as a tool for characterization, but what translation technique should be applied for indonesian? the results reveal that nearly all the sentences spoken by the aa characters contain aae phonological features. the extensive number of phonological dialect features makes it very clear to readers how the aa characters speak distinctively. these phonological features also serve to highlight the character’s ethnic, social, and geographical backgrounds. this dialect is absent in the indonesian translation, however, because translators replace aae utterances with the standard indonesian language, its colloquial form, or simply delete them, so the experiences of the target readers differs from what was intended by the author. readers of a translated version therefore cannot appreciate the nuances that twain used in the original novel through the use of dialects as a characterization tool. keywords: dialect, african-american english, characters, translation technique. introduction this study aims to convey mark twain's use of african american english (aae) in his novel the adventures of huckleberry finn and compare it t o the use of colloquial indonesian translations. emphasis is placed on determining which features represent aae and how translators use features of colloquial indonesian to convey the speech of the african-american (aa) characters. regarding spoken language in literature, this study focuses on specific differences found in areas of conversational analysis and the notion of sequential organization, which exhibits itself in spoken language and everyday conversations (paakkinen, 2013:7). while the dialogue contained in fictional works is not an accurate representation of real speech (kalliokoski 1998; nevalainen 2003:4‒5), the message it carries and the way of translating it is the focus of this study. paakkinen (2013:7) asserts that “core” linguistics and the domain of sociolinguistics are always present when talking about atypical use of language through its 1 doctorate candidate, sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: ida.k.d@staff.uns.ac.id 2 prof. dr., sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email:amantaradja@yahoo.com 3 prof. dr., sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia, email: riyadisantosa@staff.uns.ac.id 4 prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:ida.k.d@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:riyadisantosa@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 382-402 features. mufwene (2001:294) defines a feature as “any phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, or pragmatic characteristic that distinguishes one language variety from another.” according to bland-steward (2005:6), standard american english (sae) is frequently referenced when evaluating language use to identify differences from the norm, thus determining when there is a true language deviation or just a language difference caused by cultural linguistic factors, such as those who speak aae. speakers who do not use sae are contrasted with a different, often conflicting, language system that does not reflect the true abilities of the dialect’s user. lahey (1988) proposes that a language disorder exists from total absence of speech to a minor variance in syntax. therefore, meaningful language is only produced in limited content (or in other words, a smaller vocabulary); restricted verbal formulations; the omission of articles; unconventional use of prepositions, tense and plural markers; or a scarcity of modifiers. in the novel, twain uses dialect to demonstrate the geographical and social background of the characters, as well as their personalities and characteristics (hatim and mason, 1990; berthele, 2000; petrocchi, 2011; federici, 2011; ilhem, 2012). the use of dialects by novelists represents a way, a means or a tool, to direct their social criticism of class and ethnic issues (berthele, 2000; ilhem, 2012), as well as to promote equality (lyman and figgins, 2005). for a translator, translating dialects presents more of a problem than it does for a novelist. in other words, it is easier for a novelist to describe characterizations than it is for a translator to replicate the effect in the target language. what is more, the translator may find it challenging to fully understand the source text (st) when reading it (harvey et al., 1995). when trying to covey the same message, a translator may then struggle to replicate the features of a dialect’s use in the target language (tl). the quest to replicate dialect use accurately is deemed one of the most difficult challenges to literary translation (bethele, 2000). keeping this background in mind, we became motivated to explore the features of aa and their possible equivalents in indonesian more deeply. twain’s novel shines due to its heavy use of various dialects (twain, 2014). since its release in 1885, this novel has frequently sold out in both its original language and its subsequent translations. reportedly, in 2010, around 200,000 copies per year were being sold (bilyeu, 2010; powers, 2010). it has been translated into more than 60 different languages (bilyeu, 2010) and printed in around 700 versions (powers, 2010). dewi et al. several studies have looked into the translation of dialects in fictional works, including novels (e.g., yi-ping wu and yu-jing chang (2008) and morillas (2011)). yi-ping wu and yu-jing chang (2008) examine dialect use in alice walker’s the color purple and its translation into mandarin. they conclude that translators tend to reduce the unique dialect use in standard mandarin and skip atypical grammars that show dialect characteristics in the original novel. morillas (2011) studies dialect use in a spanish-translated version of erri de luca’s italian novel montedidio. morillas (2011) also finds elimination of the original message in the translation. berthele (2000), meanwhile, analyzes the dialect translation in the adventures of huckleberry finn by concentrating on the character jim in one chapter of the novel for 13 german translations. studies into the translation of aae dialects in novels into indonesian have been conducted by zuchridin suryawinata (in nababan, 2003) to assess the readability of the whole novel and dwi margo yuwono for the translation of informal negations (yuwono, 2008). suryawinata (in nababan, 2003) analyzes readability but does not cover the role of the aae dialect in the novel, with more emphasis placed on the translation techniques used by the translator for the aae dialect. in addition, while yuwono (2008) examines the translation of informal negations, the role of the aae dialect is excluded. this study examines the translation of the adventure of huckleberry finn into indonesian, emphasizing the features of dialect use in the novel. different from that of berthele (2000), this study focuses on linguistic features and its typical use in colloquial indonesian, with a focus on phonological features. ultimately, the features of phonological dialects in written literary works are more easily identified than other dialect features like syntactic and lexical features, thus giving tools for characterization in written literary works. literature review dialect translation for literary work a dialect, or dialectal variation, is varied speech dependent on the user (halliday and hasan, 1985). it is “a neutral label to refer to any variety of language which is shared by a group of speakers” (wolfram, 1991:2). wolfram (1991) argues that the factors influencing different dialects range from geography to social class and age. dialects can be individually identified based on its distinctive grammatical, phonological and lexical features (chambers and trudgill, 2004). novelists employ dialects to illustrate the “background” of characters, thus helping them to convey more information about a novel’s characters (hatim and mason, 1990; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 382-402 berthele, 2000; federici, 2011; petrocchi, 2011; ilhem 2012). it functions as a “tool” to convey social class and ethnic differences (berthele, 2000; ilhem, 2012), as well as the notion of democracy (lyman and figgins, 2005). newmark (1988) gives three functions of dialect use in literature: (1) to show the existence of a non-standard language, (2) to place emphasis on social class differences, and (3) to display the features of the story’s culture. in short, dialects are useful for defining specific purposes and help an author to convey certain messages. a translator needs to take several steps when translating dialect. harvey et al. (1999) suggest starting by investigating the connection of the dialect features in the st. next, he or she should observe the significance of the dialectical features and identify the information they convey. in literary dialect translation, considering the original author’s intended purpose for the dialect use is very crucial (szymanska, 2017). if the dialect use is found to be incidental, it can be safely translated into the target language with all dialectal features being ignored. it is the information being conveyed that is the priority (harvey et al., 1999). ignoring dialectal features, however, is not suitable when those dialectal characteristics play a significant role in the st, because they cannot be regarded as incidental (harvey et al., 1999). the translator should therefore attempt to “recognize the peculiarities from which dialectal affiliation can be inferred in a st” (harvey, et al., 1999:117). the better a translator is acquainted with the dialect used in the source text, the easier it will be for him or her to understand its meaning (harvey et al., 1999). hatim and mason (1990) propose two main strategies for translating dialect into a target language: (1) translating it into a corresponding dialect of the target language and (2) translating it into the standard target language. wu and chang (2008) suggest that if a translator opts to “neutralize” the dialect use by converting it into standard language, he or she should provide notes explaining the dialect’s use by the original author. the notes will serve to educate readers about the unique characteristics of the dialect use in the source language text, so they will still appreciate the original author’s efforts in using dialect variation (wu & chang, 2008). berezowski (1997) offers ten diverse techniques for translating dialect: (1) neutralization, (2) lexicalization (3) partial translation, (4) transliteration, (5) speech defect, (6) relativazion, (7) pidginization, (8) artificial variety, (9) colloquialization, and (10) rusticalization. dewi et al. the african-american english dialect aae is a variant of american english that is used among some aa communities (mufwene, 2001). it has been given names like negro dialect, black english, vernacular black english, afro-american english, ebonics, african-american vernacular english, and african-american language (green, 2002; wolfram and estes, 2011; lanehart and malik, 2015) as a result of changing social conditions in the united states (lanehart and malik, 2015). the aae dialect has been identified as a minority dialect in the usa. in contrast to sae (edwards et al., 2014) language variations associated with non-aae speakers (pullum, 1999; green, 2002), it is incorrectly assumed that aae speakers lack linguistic competence or intelligence. in fact, aae has unique syntactic, phonological, morphological and lexical characteristics that distinguish it from other english dialects (wardhaugh, 1998; green, 2002). the syntactic characteristics of aae seem to have an illogical structure for sae speakers. however, aae has its own systematic and consistent syntactic features that differ from those of sae (wardhaugh, 1998; green, 2002; wolfram, 2004). wolfram (2004) explains these special aae syntactic features in a more detailed and diverse way. according to wolfram (2004:117), among various special features of aae, the verb phrase is regarded as the most significant feature distinguishing aae from other english dialects. in this section, for aae phonological aspects, we focus on pronunciation rather than on intonation. the phonological features look at distinct consonant and vowel pronunciations, where the latter are less varied. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), 382-402 table 1 phonological features of african-american english no phonological feature examples 1. metathesis of final /s/ + stop cluster. aks for se asks 2. realization of [iŋ] as [in] in present participle and other alteration of final unstressed [in] for [iŋ] walkin for se wakling 3. deletion or vocalization of [r] after a vowel fo for se for 4. deletion or vocalization of [l] after a vowel coo for se cold 5. reduction of word-final consonant cluster pos for se post 6. deletion of word-final single consonant ca for se cat 7. realization of voiced consonant as devoiced consonant bat for se bad 8. realization of [ɵ] and [ð] as [t]/[d] or [f]/[v] or assimilated den for se then ; baf for se bath 9. /s/ before /n/ is pronounced /d/ wadn’t for se wasn’t 10. /j/ glide as consonant is pronounced as vowel compooter for se computer 11. deletion of unstressed initial and medial syllables fraid for se afraid 12. [j] after velar stops [k] and [g] before vowels followed by [r] k’yar for se care 13. substation of [skr] for [str] skreet for se street 14. merger of // and // before nasals pen for se pin and pin for se pen 15. monophthongal pronunciation of diphthongs all is for se oil 16. realization of /er/ as /ᴧr/ whar for se where 17. realization of /ɑ/ as /ɒ/ aunt is pronounced as [ɒnt] rather than [ɑnt] 18. realization of /ᴐ/ as /e/ because es pronounced as [bikez] rather than [bikᴐ:z] 19. realization of /i/ as [ʊ] sister is pronounced as [sustǝr] rather than [sistǝr] 20. realization of /ɛ/ before /r/ as /a/ learn is pronounced as [la:rn] rather than [lɛ: rn] 21. realization of /ᴂ/ as /ɑ:/ master is pronounced as [mɑ:stǝr] or [mɑ:rs] rather than [mᴂstǝr] 22. realization of /i/ before /r/ and /l/ as [e] real is pronounced as [re:l] rather than [ri:l] summarized from rickford (1999: 4-5); minnick (2004: 55-56); thomas (2007:451-465) and thomas & bailey (2015: 404-416). 1 methods the data sources for this study are mark twain’s novel the adventures of huckleberry finn and an indonesian translation, also entitled the adventures of huckleberry finn, which was translated by peusy sharmaya and published by pt. elex media komputindo in 2012. from the original english version, only dialog containing aae dialect phonological features spoken by aa characters were selected as data. these data were examined to establish how twain uses dialect as a characterization tool, particularly phonological features. the translation data were then analyzed to find out how the translator converted these utterances to indonesian, with a comparison with the source text. results and discussion there are five aa characters in the adventures of huckleberry finn: jim, jack, nad, lize, and an unnamed female. they are all slaves with different white owners. they speak a varying number of utterances, depending on the size of their roles, as illustrated in figure 1. figure 1 clearly shows that jim speaks significantly more than the other aa characters, which is reasonable considering that jim is second only to huckleberry finn, his white friend, in the novel. interestingly, the figure also reveals that the female characters, liz and the unnamed woman, share the same number of utterances, considerably fewer than their male counterparts. a preliminary analysis of the st reveals that aae phonological features are present in 392 of the 431 sentences (90%) spoken by the aa characters. phonological features also occur very frequently sometimes, about five times within one sentence. the sheer number of the sentences with aae phonological features proves that the dialect’s use in the novel cannot be considered incidental. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), …. the aae phonological features in the novel can be identified with non-standard spellings reflecting the pronunciation of words. a more detailed analysis of the aae phonological features in the novel reveals 15 variations of non-standard pronunciations, indicating the aae dialect, and this is shown in figure 2. 1 130 178 14 42 52 23 540 144 20 83 56 52 4 16 1. methatesis of final /s/ + stop cluster. 2. realization of [iŋ] as [in] in present participle and other alteration of final unstressed [in] for [iŋ] 3. deletion or vocalization of [r] after vowel 4. deletion or vocalization of [l] after vowel 5. reduction of word-final consonant clusters 6. deletion of wor-final single consonant 7. devoicing of word-final voiced stops 8. realization of [ɵ] and [ð] as [t]/[d] or [f]/[v] or assimilated 9. deletion of unstressed initial and medial syllablestekanan 10. [j] after velar stops [k] and [g] before vowels followed by [r] diikuti /r/ 11. merger of /e/ dan /i/ before nasals 12. monophthongal pronunciation of diphthongs 13. realization of /ɛr/ as [ᴧr] 14. realization of /ɑ:/as /ɒ/ 15. realization of /ᴐ/ as /e/ figure 2: phonological features of african american english dialect in the adventures of hucleberry finn figure 2 shows how the 15 different forms of pronunciation occur very frequently, totaling 1,849 times over 384 sentences. these indicate the number of words with non-standard spellings in the sentences uttered by the aa characters. on average, five phonological features dewi et al. are present in each sentence. the following examples demonstrate the frequency of non-standard language in twain’s (2014) phenomenal novel. example 1: i couldn’ manage to k’leck dat money no way; en balum he couldn’. (twain, 2005:58) i couldn’t manage to collect that money, no way; and balum, he couldn’t (i couldn’t manage to collect that money at all, and ballum couldn’t either) the above extract is a sentence spoken by jim, the novel’s second prominent character, as he talks to huckleberry finn. as can be seen, in this one short sentence, there are five words out of 13 with non-standard spellings. non-standard spellings in the form of misspellings, the use of apostrophes, and omitted letters reflecting the non-standard pronunciations of words can be clearly seen in this sentence (i.e., couldn’ for couldn’t, k’leck for collect, dat for that, and en for and). it is noteworthy that the non-standard spellings found in the aa characters’ utterances appear to contrast with the narrative and the vast majority of dialog spoken by the white characters in the novel, which are written using standard spellings. the misspellings, the apostrophes, and omitted letters clearly show the distinction. consequently, the africanamerican characters’ distinct manner of speaking stands out as “unique” for readers of the original novel. in american literature, non-standard spelling is usually employed to portray a character “… whose presence is marked as ‘other’.” (peterson, 2015:691). thus, the nonstandard spellings representing the aa characters, when compared with the standard spellings for the white characters, portray the marginalization of the aa characters in the novel. another finding that can be identified through the analysis of the sentences containing aae phonological features is how the phonological features correspond with most of the aae phonological features found in reality, with there being 15 out of the 22 phonological features referred to in this study. such a high number clearly shows the ethnicity of the aa characters. as shown in figure 2, among the aae phonological features identified, the realization of [ɵ] and [ð] as [t]/[d] or [f]/[v] or assimilated occurs the most, some 540 times. the example below shows a sentence containing phonological features. example 2 dat’s de way sollermun was gwyne to do wid de chile. (twain, 2005:93) that’s the way sollermun was going to do with the child (that’s the way solomon was going to do with the child.) journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), …. jim speaks the above example in chapter 14. there are four non-standard pronunciations in this short sentence. the words showing the non-standard pronunciation of [ɵ] and [ð] are dat for that, de for the (twice), and wid for with. in the real world of american society, realizations of [ɵ] and [ð] as [t]/[d] or [f]/[v] or assimilated are also found in other non-standard english languages. however, the frequency of occurrence in the aae dialect is greater than in other dialects (thomas and bailey, 2015). such a high frequency of non-standard pronunciation is a strong indication of the background of the black figures as african-americans. another important point concerns the occurrence of the non-standard dental fricative pronunciation. besides illustrating the ethnic background of the speaker, the non-standard pronunciation could also indicate that the aa characters come from a low societal level. this corresponds to butter and nix’s research (1986), which showed that realizations of [ɵ] and [ð] as [t]/[d] or [f]/[v] or assimilated are rarely found in middleand high-class african-american societies, but they are found in low-class african-american society. another phonological feature that occurs at a high frequency, as seen in figure 2, is the consonant cluster reduction, appearing 536 times. a sentence containing the consonant cluster reduction can be seen in the following example: example 3: de bes’ way is to res’ easy en let de ole man take his own way. (twain, 2005:24) the best way is to rest easy and let the old man take his own way. (the best way is to relax and let the old man do what he wants.) the above sentence is again spoken by jim. in it, consonant cluster reduction can be found in the word bes (for best), res’ (for rest), en (for and) and ole (for old). in this sentence, the consonant cluster reduction may indicate that the black characters have an african-american ethnic background. various studies by linguists into speakers of several variations of the english language in america show that despite the fact that consonant cluster reduction is also found in some other english language variations, the occurrence is more frequent in aae than in other english language variations (thomas and bailey, 2015) . besides indicating the ethnic background of the aa characters, the consonant cluster reduction occurring in such high frequency for the aa characters may also reveal their social dewi et al. background. this concurs with some findings from sociolinguists who have investigated the simplification of consonant clusters in aae speakers, concluding that such phenomena are more often found in the lower class than the middle class (thomas, 2007). some interesting findings also relate to the phonological features of aae in the forms of consonant cluster reduction in the sentences uttered by the aa characters, which is in turn related to spelling consistency. the use of the word en for and makes a big contribution to the great amount of consonant cluster reduction. in representing the non-standard and pronunciation, twain writes en. however, in the sentences of the black characters, the and word is written five times in standard spelling, while twain writes and with the en spelling 228 times. twain also uses more than one spelling to represent the word don’t. twain writes both doan’ and don’t to represent don’t. the word doan’ appears 34 times: 33 times in jim’s sentences and one time in nad’s sentences. while the word don’t appears 13 times in standard language, eight of them appear in jim’s sentences and four of them in jack’s sentences. this indicates that for the same character, twain represents one word with more than one spelling. although they are relatively rare, twain seems to have had problems in consistently spelling these words. such problems are common for writers using non-standard spelling to convey a dialect in printed literary works (peterson, 2015). since the non-standard spelling may affect the characterization, such consistency problems are better avoided. another intriguing fact was identified with the non-standard spelling, especially for the representation of the word don’t. it has been mentioned that in the sentences of the aa characters’, the word don’t is represented by the standard spelling don’t and by the non-standard spelling doan. in jim’s and nad’s sentences, both forms can be found, but in jack’s sentences, there is only don’t. the sole use of don’t may have a reason: it may aim to show that jack, although a black character, is quite different to the other aa characters. in the novel, jack is depicted as a black slave working in his white master’s house and serving his daily needs rather than working on the farm. jack is also described as knowing much about his white master’s personal affairs, illustrating how often jack interacts with his white master. the use of don’t rather than doan in jack’s sentences illustrates that he is a black character with an intense interaction with white characters, more so than the other aa characters. this accords with wolfram’s findings that african-americans with predominantly african-american social journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), …. contacts employ the aae dialect features more often than those with predominantly white contacts (wolfram, 1969; ricford & ricford, 2000). as can be seen in figure 2, the third-most-frequent phonological feature is vocalization of /r/ or being eliminated, which is shown by po’ representing poor, heah representing hear, and mo’ representing more. even though it is not as frequently employed as the two phonological features discussed earlier, this phonological feature provides more information about the aa characters’ ethnic background. the non-standard /r/ pronunciation can indicate that the characters originate from an african-american ethnicity (thomas and bailey, 2015), from a low class society (wolfram, 1969), and from the southern regions of the united states (hinton and polloc, 2000). besides the non-standard /r/ sound pronunciation, another pronunciation that shows the ethnic background of the aa characters is the /er/ in the end of the word that becomes /ur/ or /ʌr. the occurrence can be seen in the words dar for there and warn’t for weren’t. american society uses such pronunciation to identify those who come from the southern regions of the united states (alim, 2015). the above explanation shows twain’s attempt to use phonological features of the aae dialect based on those from the real world, and he uses it to express the ethnic, geographical, and social background of the aa characters. from the sentences of the aa characters in the st, it can be seen how the aae dialect is used to illustrate how the aa characters in the novel the adventures of huckleberry finn come from african-american ethnicity, live in the southern regions of the united states, and belong to a low-class, marginalized society. the above discussions clearly demonstrate how twain tries to present the aae dialect using realistic phonological features. thanks to this, the readers of the original novel can easily recognize the ethnic and the social backgrounds of the aa characters through the words they speak. he clearly use the aae dialect as a characterization tool. in the indonesian translation, however, the tendencies above are not detected. the translator translates most utterances with aae phonological features into standard indonesian, and only some of them are translated into colloquial indonesian. some aa utterances are even deleted in the target language. this demonstrates the employment of naturalization, colloquilization, and deletion by the translator (berezowsky, 1997). the distribution of the three translation techniques is displayed in the following figure. dewi et al. 228 157 6 naturalization colloquilization deletion figure 3: translation technique used to translate utterances of the black characters containing aae phonologican features as shown in figure 3, the dominant technique is neutralization, including pure naturalization and partial naturalization. we use these two terms here because some sentences show standard indonesian language markers only, while some of them show dominant standard indonesian language markers with one or two colloquial markers. berezowsky (1997) does not mention this technique. however, since the translation work used as data for this research contain standard indonesian sentences, but with one or two words or expressions that represents colloquial indonesian, it was deemed that the partial neutralization technique was used. classifying such sentences as colloquilization would lead to confusion, because the standard indonesian language dominates the use of colloquial indonesian. the following example shows the use of the partial neutralization technique. example 4: st: but mos’ly i wisht dey’d lemme ‘lone, i does. (twain, 2005:287) but mostly i wish they’d leave me alone i does (but most of all, i wish they’d just leave me alone) tt: tapi aku berharap mereka dapat meninggalkan aku sendiri.(twain, 2012:330) (but i wish they can leave me alone) the above example is spoken by nad in chapter 36 when he talks to huckleberry finn and tom. in the st, almost all of the words in nad’s sentences are written in non-standard spellings that represent the features of aae. for example, mos’ly for the se word mostly represents cluster reduction; wisht for the se word wish represents devoicing of word-final voiced consonant; and dey for they represents realization of [ð] as [d]. those sentences are translated into standard indonesian. there is one indonesian language colloquial marker in the sentence, tapi, which in standard indonesian is written tetapi (kbbi). in the context of the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), …. sentence above, the words berharap and dapat are not commonly used in daily conversation in indonesian society. the word harap is more commonly used than berharap, and the word bisa is spoken more frequently than dapat in daily conversation. the above example also shows that the features of the aae dialect, in the form of nonstandard pronunciation, occur more frequently than non-standard indonesian language in the translation. the non-standard features in st can be identified in five words but only once in the tt, and the features do not correspond to the non-standard pronunciation. in other words, the partial neutralization technique applied by the translator is not in line with twain’s attempt to represent the aa characters’ way of speaking as naturally as possible. the prefix me attached to verbs in active sentences is frequently used by pheusy in her translation, as can be seen in the following examples: example 5: a) aku belum pernah mendengar tentang mereka, kecuali raja salomo. (twain, 2012: 107) (i haven’t heard about them, except the king of solomo) b) aku telah membeli panci dan wajan dan bahan makanan … (twain, 2012:154) (i have bought pan and frying pan and c) aku akan menangkap dan memukul kepalanya (twain, 2012: 110) ( i’d catch him and hit him over the head) in the colloquial version of the indonesian language, the prefix me, showing the active form, is usually omitted (sneddon, 1996; sneddon, 2006). for example, in daily conversation, the word dengar (to hear) is more commonly heard than mendengar; the word beli (to buy) is more commonly used than membeli; nunggu (to wait) is more commonly used than the word tangkap (to catch); and pukul is more commonly used than the words menangkap and memukul. this is more proof that twains’ efforts to present the natural speech of the aa characters have been lost in translation. another characteristic of the standard use found in the translation is the use of tidak (no, not) for negation. the word tidak is the standard variation for negation (rajeg, et al., 2018), while the colloquial variants of tidak are ndak, nggak, and tak (englebretson, 2003:14). in the st, some of the negations are presented with non-standard spellings showing non-standard pronunciation indicative of the african american english dialect (i.e., couldn’ for se couldn’t, warn’t for se weren’t, and doan’ for se don’t). in the indonesian version, they are translated into the standard indonesian word tidak, as can be seen table 2. dewi et al. table 2 examples of the use of “tidak” st target text i couldn’ git nuffn else (twain, 2005:52) (i couldn’t get nothing else) aku tidak bisa mendapat makanan lain. (twain, 2012: 58) (i couldn’t get any other food) de fambly foun’ it out ‘bout half an hour ago — maybe a little mo’ — en’ i tell you dey warn’t no time los’. (twain, 2005:133) (the family found it out about half an hour ago – maybe a little more – and i tell you they weren’t no time lost) keluarganya mengetahui hal itu satu setengah jam yang lalu, dan mereka sama sekali tidak membuang-buang waktu. (twain, 2012: 156) (her family found out it an hour and half ago, and they didn’t waste any time) well, anyways, i doan’ hanker for no mo’ un um, huck. (twain, 2005:179) (well, anyway, i don’t hanker no more on them, huck) bagaimana pun aku tidak berminat terhadap orang seperti mereka, huck. (twain, 2012: 209) (anyhow, i’m not eager to have any more of them, huck.) the expressions showing measurement in the translation also feature the standard indonesian language, as can be seen in table 3. table 3 examples of the use of “meter” st target text well, when it come dark i tuck out up de river road, en went ‘bout two mile er more to whah dey warn’t no houses. (twain, 2005:54) (well, when it come dark, i tuck out up the river road, and went about two mile or more to where they weren’t no houses.) nah, ketika hari sudah gelap aku keluar dari tepi sungai danpergi sekitar dua kilometer atau lebih ke tempat di mana tidak ada rumah. (twain, 2012: 61) (well, when it was dark, i came out of the river bank and went about two kilometers or more to a place where there was no house.) de river wuz arisin’, en dey wuz a good current; so i reck’n’ d’at by fo’ in de mawn in’ i’d be twenty-five mile down de river, en den i’d slip in jis b’fo’ daylight en swim asho’, en take to de woods on de illinois side. (twain, 2005:55) (the river was a-rising and they was a good current; so i recond that by four in the morning i’d be twenty-five mile down the river, and then i’d slip in just before daylight and swim ashore and take the woods on the illinois side.) sungai sedang pasang naik dan saat itu arus kuat, jadi kupikir pada jam empat pagi hari aku akan berada empat puluh kilometer jauhnya dan aku akan tidur sebelum pagi tiba dan berenang menyeberang ke hutan di sisi illinois (twain, 2012: 61-62) (the river was rising and it was strong at the time, so i thought at four o’clock in the morning it would be four kilometers away and i would sleep before.) as can be seen in table 3, the st column shows expressions for measurement (i.e., the plural for mile without the “s”: two mile and twenty-five mile). the two distance measurements are translated into dua kilometer and empat puluh kilometer. the use of meter in kilometer as a measurement of distance is rarely found in indonesian daily conversation. the colloquial variant journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), …. of kilometer is kilo. the use of kilometer in the above case indicates the standard indonesian variation. the translator’s attempt to translate the aa characters’ utterances with aae phonological features into standard indonesian becomes increasingly apparent in the indonesian sentences that show the neutralization technique. in the sentences showing the neutralization technique, no non-standard indonesian language variation markers are found at all, as shown in the example below. example 5: st: i see a light a-comin’ roun’ de p’int bymeby, so i wade’ in en shove’ a log ahead o’ me en swum more ’n half way acrost de river, en got in ‘mongst de driftwood, en kep’ my head down low, en kinder swum agin de current tell de raff come along. (twain, 2005:55) (i see a light coming around the point, so i waded out into the river and shoved a log ahead of me and swam. i swam more than halfway across the river, and i got in among the driftwood, and kept my head down low and swam against the current until a raft came along.) tt: aku melihat cahaya menuju ke arahku jadi aku menyeberang dan menyorongkan sebuah batang kayu di depanku dan berenang lagi setengah jalan meyeberangi sungai dan berada di sekitar kayu yang hanyut, dan tetap menjaga agar kepalaku tetap di bawah, kemudian aku berenang lagi melawan arus hingga sebuah rakit ikut hanyut bersamaku (twain, 2012:61) the above example is spoken by jim in chapter 8 as he talks to huckleberry finn. in the english sentence, a great number of words are written with non-standard spellings representing the typical pronunciation of aae. some examples include comin’ for the se word coming, roun’ for the se word round, en for the se word and, de for the se word the, and agin for the se word again. the english sentence with various markers of the african american english dialect is translated into standard indonesian. besides, it is relatively long as a sentence in conversations, and it uses prefixes ‘me-’ and ‘ber-’ attached to verbs in active forms. the standard indonesian sentences not only sound unnatural for daily conversation; they also eliminate the impression that the speaker comes from a lower class. the standard indonesian language is a variation that is valued more than other variants, being spoken mostly by the more educated members of society (sumarsono, 2002), which is very different to that of the aa characters in the novel. dewi et al. the above discussion shows how the translator employed colloquial variation markers in the translation to translate the utterances with aae phonological features. the occurrence of colloquial variation markers, however, is very rare compared to the occurrence of standard indonesian markers. the two variations are also used to translate the narration and the white characters’ dialog. consequently, the uniqueness of the aa characters’ manner of talking in the st is absent in the translation. by using the standard indonesian language, both with and without colloquial markers, to translate sentences containing aae phonological features, the translator prioritizes the clarity of the plot. this has the consequence that some messages that mark twain wished to deliver through the use of the aae dialect cannot be delivered to readers of the translation. since most sentences containing aae phonological features in the st are translated into standard indonesian, the readers of the translated version cannot easily perceive the ethnic and social background of the aa characters through the language they speak. the message that the aa characters speak differently to their white counterparts is also absent from the target language. conclusion and suggestion the findings of our study suggest that mark twain’s use of aae in his novel the adventures of huckleberry finn was intended to indicate the ethnic, social and geographical backgrounds of the aa characters. the findings also show that mark twain tries to present the aae dialect as a communication tool as naturally and as realistically as possible. however, the results of the use of dialect are completely absent in the translation, since the translator tends to translate any sentences containing aae phonological features into standard indonesian (i.e., using the neutralization technique) with a small degree of the colloquial technique, although not showing any particular dialect. the two techniques means the indonesian readers cannot enjoy “the uniqueness” of the language used in the original, although they may perhaps still enjoy the story. it is valid that when a translator decides to use a neutralization technique, he or she should at the very least provide an accompanying note about the use of dialect in the st, so readers of the translation can learn the purpose that the dialect would have served in the target language. in the case of twain’s novel, as discussed here, we see that the use of the aae dialect is far from incidental. it is a highly significant tool that characterizes a major character in the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), …. novel. it should therefore be translated, if possible, into an equivalent style. even though it is not easy to find a dialect in the target language that will function similarly to that in the st, a successful attempt to find one will greatly improve the quality and effectiveness of the translation. references alim, h. samy. (2015). hip hop nation language: localization and globalization. in sonja lanehart (ed). the oxford handbook of african american language. 850-862, oxford university press, new york. berezowski, leszek. (1997). dialect in translation. wroclaw: wydawnictwo uniwersytetu wroclawskiego. berthele, r. (2000). translating african-american vernacular english into german: the problem of ‘jim’ in mark twain's huckleberry finn.journal of sociolinguistics (4): 588614. bilyeu, zuzanne. (2010). mark twain’s bad bo.the new york times upfront, vol.124, march 1, 2010. accessed http://teacher.scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/upfront/features/index.asp?article=f 030110_twainon the 21st december 2012 bland-stewart, linda m. 2005. difference or deficit in speakers of african american english? the asha leader. 10: 6-31. doi:10.1044/leader.ftr1.10062005.6. brett, david. (2009). eye dialect: translating the untranslatability, annalss 6, 2009. 50-62. butters, ronald r., and ruth a. nix. (1986). “the english of blacks in wilmington, north carolina.” in michael b. montgomery and guy bailey (eds) language variety in the south: perspectives in black and white, 254-63. tuscaloosa: university of alabama. chambers, j.k & peter trudgill. (2004). dialectology, cambridge university press, new york. edwards, jan, et. al. (2014). dialect awareness and lexical comprehension of mainstream american english in african american english-speaking children. journal of speech, language and hearing reasearch. vo. 57. 1883-1895 englebretson, robert. (2003). searching for structure: the problem of complementation in colloquial indonesian conversation. philadelphia: john benjamins publishing company. federici, federico m. (2011). introduction: dialects, idiolects, sociolects: translation problems or creative stimuli? dalam federici, federico m. (edt) translating dialects and languages minorities, peter lang, bern. green, lisa.j. (2002). african american english: a linguistic introduction, cambridge university press, cambridge. halliday, m.a.k & hasan r. (1985). language, context, and text,.deakin university, melbourne. harvey, s, ian higgins & louise m. haywood. (1995). thinking spanish translation, routledge, new york. hatim, basil& ian mason. (1990). discourse and the translator, harlow, longman. hinton, linette n., and karen e. pollock. (2000). “regional variations in the phonological characteristics of african american vernacular english.” world englishes, 19: 59-71 http://teacher.scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/upfront/features/index.asp?article=f030110_twain http://teacher.scholastic.com/scholasticnews/indepth/upfront/features/index.asp?article=f030110_twain dewi et al. ilhem, serir-mortad. (2012). cultural outlook of literature dialect in hard times and silas marner. dalamrupkatha journal on interdisciplinary studies in humanities. 4(1):81-90. lanehart, sonja & ayesha m. malik, (2015). language use in african american communities: an introduction. in sonja lanehart (ed). the oxford handbook of african american language. 1-22, oxford university press, new york. lyman, huntington & margo a. figgins, (2005). “democracy, dialect, and the power of every voice. in english journal. 94(5): 41-47. minnick, lisa cohen. 2004. dialect and dichotomy: literary representation of african american speech. the university of alabama press: tuscaloosa. morillas, esther. (2011). when dialect is a protagonist too: erri de luca’s montedidio in spanish. in federici, federico m. (ed) translating dialects and languages minorities. bern: peter lang. morillas, esther. (2011). when dialect is a protagonist too: erri de luca’s montedidio in spanish. dalam federici, federico m. (ed) translating dialects and languages minorities. bern: peter lang. mufwene, salikoko s, (2001). what is african american english?, in socioculturan and historican context of african american english, edited by sonja l. lanehart, 21-51. john benjamins, amsterdam. nababan, mangatur rudolf. (2003). “arah penelitian penerjemahan” in kumpulan makalah konferensi nasional penerjemahan newmark, peter, (1988). a textbook of translation, prentice hall elt, london. paakkinen, tomi. (2013). a study of african american vernacular english in three novels and colloquial finnish in their translations – the dark tower ii: the drawing of the three, a time to kill and push. unpublished ma thesis, school of languages and translation studies. university of turku. peterson, james braxton. (2015). the (re) turn to remus orthography: the voices of african american language in american literature. in sonja lanehart (ed). the oxford handbook of african american language, 691-705, oxford university press, new york:. petrocchi,valeria, (2011). dialect identities in gadda’stranslation: the case of quer pasticciaccio brutto de via merulana. translation studies journal. 3(3). accessed from http:www.scholarship.org/uc/item/3g58c97hon 29 november 2012 powers, ron. (2010). mark twain’s adventures of huckleberry finn. accessed from http://www.america.gov/st/peopleplaceenglish/2010/may/20100505151725naneerg0.2608759.htmlon 21 desember 2012 pullum, geffrey k, (1999). african american vernacular english is not standard english with mistakes. in rebecca s. wheeler (ed), the workings of language. praeger, westport, ct., 39-58. rajeg, gedhe putu wijaya, karnila denistia, and i made rajeg. (2018). working with a linguistic corpus r: an introductory note with indonesian negating construction. linguistik indonesia.volume 36, no 1, 1-36. sneddon, james neil, (1996). indonesia: a comprehensive grammar, routledge, london. sneddon, james neil. (2006). colloquial jakartan indonesian. canberra: pasific linguistics. research school of pacific and asian studies: anu sumarsono, (2012). sosiolinguistik, pustaka pelajar, yogyakarta. http://www.america.gov/st/peopleplace-english/2010/may/20100505151725naneerg0.2608759.html%20on%2021%20desember%202012 http://www.america.gov/st/peopleplace-english/2010/may/20100505151725naneerg0.2608759.html%20on%2021%20desember%202012 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(4), …. szymaniska, izabela. (2017). the treatment of geographical dialect in literary translation from the perspective of relevance theory. research in language journal. 15 (1): p. 51-77 thomas, eric. r. (2007). phonological and phonetic characteristics of african american vernacular english. language and linguistics compas. 1(5): 450-475. thomas, erik r & guy bailey, (2015). segmental phonology of african american english. in sonja lanehart (ed). the oxford handbook of african american language. oxford university press, new york. twain, mark, (2012). the adventures of huckleberry finn. (translated by peusy sharmaya), gramedia, jakarta. twain, mark, (2005). the adventures of huckleberry finn. icon group international inc: san diego. wardhaugh, ronald, (1998). an introduction to sociolinguistics, massachussetts, blackwell. wolfram, walt & natalie schilling-estes, (2011). american english (second edition), blackwell publishing, malden, ma. wolfram, walt, (1991). dialects and american english, prentice-hall, london. wolfram, walt, (2004). urban african american vernacular english: morphology and syntax. in a handbook of varieties of english, b. kortmann& e. schneider, in collab. with k. burridge, r. mesthrie, c, upton. 319-340 (eds) walter de gruyter, berlin. wolfram, walter a. (1969). a sociolinguistic description of detroit negro speech. washington, d.c., center for applied linguistics. wu, ying-ping & yu-jing chang. (2008). chinese translation of literary black dialect and translation strategy reconsidered: the case of alice walker’s ‘the color purple. in translation journal 12.1., 2008. accessed in http://transjournal.net/journal/43colourpurple.hatm. on 20 november 2012 yuwono, dwi margo. (2008). penerjemahan bentuk negasi informal dalam novel the adventure of huckleberry finn karya mark twain. addabiyat, 7(2):1-12. http://transjournal.net/journal/43colourpurple.hatm.%20on%20%2020%20november%202012 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (2), 295-305 295 ethical discussions in the national literature as a form of moral education of the students farida gabidullina1, zifa akhatova2, irina karimova3, olga glukhova4, raif zakirov 5 abstract the article is devoted to the problems of moral education of students through the ethical conversations at the seminars of the course "history of tatar literature". on the example of several classical works, firstly, the educational potential of literature is shown, and secondly, the effectiveness of ethical conversations and the system of value-oriented situations is emphasized. experimental work on the basis of ranking the life values of young people shows the degree of effectiveness of the combination of ethical conversations and value-oriented situations in the formation of moral personality. key words: society, literature, moral education, transcendent dialogue, problem situation, valueoriented situations. introduction the problem of moral education is in the center of society's attention. this problem becomes especially urgent in the conditions of progressive change of all aspects of society. undoubtedly, education should begin with birth and even before it, but its duration also has a great importance. to student, being a practically formed personality, on the one hand, it is more difficult to be influenced by the educational influence than, for example, a pupil. however, a number of factors, in particular, immersion in a new environment for him create positive conditions for absorbing the positive impact of university life (akhmetshin et. al., 2017; aydarova et al., 2017; korableva et. al., 2017b). therefore, the work on the formation of spiritual and moral qualities of the individual continues in terms of study in a higher educational institution. each teacher of the university uses different forms and methods of teaching and education of students in order to improve the quality of education (bochkareva et al., 2017). the seminar lesson 1 assoc. prof., yelabuzhsky institute of kazan federal university, tatarstan, farida-vip@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof., naberezhnye chelny state pedagogical university, tatarstan, ahatova-z@yandex.ru 3 assoc. prof., naberezhnye chelny state pedagogical university, tatarstan, ava.tar16@mail.ru 4 assoc. prof.,, naberezhnye chelny state pedagogical university, tatarstan, kate-fashion@yandex.ru 5 assoc. prof., naberezhnye chelny state pedagogical university, tatarstan, razina.mh@mail.ru mailto:farida-vip@mail.ru mailto:ahatova-z@yandex.ru mailto:ava.tar16@mail.ru mailto:kate-fashion@yandex.ru mailto:razina.mh@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 295-305 is one of the most effective and at the same time the most complex form of educational process (tarman et al., 2015; yiğit & tarman, 2016). the level of the seminar, its pedagogical, methodical and educational effects are determined by the activity of students in the classroom. the development of personality depends on a variety of factors, among which the important role is played by the volume and nature of reading. reading helps to broaden their horizons, develop intelligence, the ability to see beauty in art and everyday life, the material selected for reading, affects the moral development of man (mauch, & tarman, 2016). moral and spiritual education forms the core of the individual, positively affecting all parties and forms of the relationship between man and world: on his ethical and aesthetic development, ideology and the formation of a civic stand, patriotic and family orientation (magsumov, 2017), intellectual capacity, emotional state and overall physical and mental development. the works of such famous teachers as huziahmetov (2006), nizamov (2005), magsumov (2013a, 2013b, 2014, 2015, 2016), and jallaliev (2003) etc. has made a significant contribution to the theory of moral education. their works mainly appeal to the means of national pedagogy, put at the forefront the formation of patience and tolerance, respect for elders, self-discipline and respect for the national wealth. at the same time, it should be noted that the socio-cultural situation in the country, creating a blurred value ideas and uncertainty of life orientations of young people, greatly complicated the educational process. method in this work we explore the possibilities of one of the methods of education of moral and spiritual qualities – ethical conversations (magsumov, 2014). the work is based on general scientific methods of analysis, synthesis, systematization and such empirical methods as observation, study of pedagogical activity results, experiment. findings observation of the reaction of students of philology faculty reveals two polar tendencies in their attitude to the environment: some of them show a pattern of tolerance to the events taking place in the historical arena, others show a hot disagreement with the socio-political situation. it is sometimes difficult to determine where are the tolerance and indifference border, the ability to fight for their rights, civic activism and madness of others (abduali et al., 2017; il’yashchenko et gabidullina et al. al., 2014). there is no doubt that history has tendency to repeat, which means that the substitution of concepts, increasingly and more clearly manifested double standards in respect of people of different backgrounds, different nationalities has already taken place in the national and world history, has already been described in the literature. defining the program of moral development of students, we set the following purposes: the student should understand the course and prospects of world development; correctly assess the events within the country and in the international arena; understand moral and spiritual values; strive for justice and freedom of peoples; it is important to foster love and devotion to the motherland; intolerance of national and racial hostility; culture of international relations; to form respect for own and other people's work; the desire to work in good faith for the common and personal good; to foster care in relation to nature, the ability to take care of the public wealth; ability to work in a team, to show humanity, mutual assistance; ability to take care of the family and upbringing of children; training the honesty, truthfulness, personal dignity, etc. seminar classes on the subject "history of tatar literature" showed the importance and expediency of applying to the transcendent dialogue, ethical conversations during the working with students. it is not necessary the approach to a common opinion in such lessons, in our opinion, "the revival" of the value and semantic sphere of the students' personality is much more important, their understanding of the spiritual and moral problems of educational content. the transcendental dialogue in the seminars on literature can be built on the following technological chain (korableva & kalimullina, 2016; korableva et al, 2017a): the teacher creates a problem situation on the basis of the content of the studied text. the task of students is to realize the inconsistency of the proposed situation. the teacher organizes reflection on the problem and its formulation. students identify and formulate the problem of moral content; the teacher organizes the search and testing of the hypothesis through the dialogue. students put forward hypotheses that explain the problem; the teacher organizes a generalization of all the hypotheses and gives a block of information. students summarize hypotheses and test them on the material of the text; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 295-305 the teacher establishes a connection between the studying story or events and similar events in the life. students compare and analyze the events of their own spiritual experience; transcendental dialogue helps to create truth, to understand the situation from different sides, because in life the same actions, based on motivation, historical reality, etc. can be regarded in different ways (tarman, 2016; korableva & kalimullina, 2014; тesleva & belkova, 2014). scientists, appreciating the advantages of this method of conversation, write: "live communication of the teacher and student in the process of analyzing works of art in the classroom takes place mainly in conversation" (fedorova, 2003, p. 55). at the same time to understand the term we refer to the work of ryabchikova (2009), in which the transcendent dialogue is explained as "the dialogue interaction of participants in the educational process, aimed at finding the truth, exploring the essence and content of values-ideals in the interaction of teachers and pupils" (p. 15). that is, the method is very close to ethical conversations, which serve as a method of attracting correct assessments and judgments to the development. in order to test the effectiveness of the method of conversation, we organized an experimental work. at the first stage of experimental work the initial diagnostics of the values' system of students of philological faculty was carried out. during the experiment, the predominant method was the questionnaire "ranking of the sphere of value orientations". in total, 32 full-time students participated in the experimental work. the work was carried out in the period from september 25 to december 30, 2017. students were offered to choose the five most important values out of 16 offered. thus, a total of 80 answers were chosen by students. the results of the survey are presented in table 1. table 1 the results of the survey system of values the number of choices system of values the number of choices (in percentage) (in percentage) material 15 (47%) material 15 (47%) professional 10 (31%) professional 10 (31%) panhuman 6 (19%) panhuman 6 (19%) thus, the choice of students shows that material and professional values are the most important for them. the spiritual values that were proposed in questions 3, 8, 10, 13 were designated as the gabidullina et al. least important. these questions in the questionnaire relate to enjoying the beauty of nature and art, initiation to the spiritual culture, realization of their talents and abilities, creative selfexpression. at the formative stage, we have organized seminars on the basis of the transcendental dialogue. the theme of the seminar lessons are in table 2. table 2 the theme of the seminar lessons the theme of the the purpose of the lesson the theme of the the purpose of the lesson the work of r. zaidulla. symbolic images in the story "soyembika". comparative characteristics of the queen soyembika and soyembika – the heroine of the story. education of national consciousness, denial of psychology of slavery as a brake of progress of the nation and happiness of the individual. the work of r. zaidulla. symbolic images in the story "soyembika". comparative characteristics of the queen soyembika and soyembika – the heroine of the story. education of national consciousness, denial of psychology of slavery as a brake of progress of the nation and happiness of the individual. the work of z. hakim. the problem of a positive character in the drama "sadness of the century". the problem of preserving humanity in a series of bloody historical events. education of understanding of that it is impossible to create good, operating evil. society built on blood and bones does not bring happiness even to its creators. the work of z. hakim. the problem of a positive character in the drama "sadness of the century". the problem of preserving humanity in a series of bloody historical events. education of understanding of that it is impossible to create good, operating evil. society built on blood and bones does not bring happiness even to its creators. the problem of drug abuse in the work by m. malikova "flower honey". show the dependence of the process of formation of the individual and his environment; return to the origins, to nature as a means of healing from vices. the problem of drug abuse in the work by m. malikova "flower honey". show the dependence of the process of formation of the individual and his environment; return to the origins, to nature as a means of healing from vices. the problem of preservation of purity and morality of the tatar people in the novel "karabulak" by f. bayramova. clash of national interests in the novel. to show the importance of preserving the integrity, the danger of blind adherence to public opinion (in the manner of anna vavilovna); education of respect for themselves, for their nation; the education of intolerance the problem of preservation of purity and morality of the tatar people in the novel "karabulak" by f. bayramova. clash of national interests in the novel. to show the importance of preserving the integrity, the danger of blind adherence to public opinion (in the manner of anna vavilovna); education of respect for themselves, for their nation; the education of intolerance journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 295-305 to any manifestations of genocide of nations. to any manifestations of genocide of nations. conversation, dialogue in the classroom, first of all, depends on the correct, well-chosen questions. they should not reveal how much the student is familiar with the plot of the work, as the seminar originally implies knowledge of the content, questions should show the student's attitude to the hero, actions; there should be a link between the past and the future, the work and today's realities. now we consider the issues that we discussed at the seminar on the novel "karabulak" by f. bayramova. 1. tell us about the main characters of f. bayramova's novel "карабулак" ("karabulak"). 2. what is the national character of the characters? is this characteristic of national heroes traditional in modern literature? 3. whose voice sounds stronger: the voice gulcihan or anna vavilovna? 4. is anna vavilovna patriot or pseudo patriot? what difference do you see between these two concepts? without going into the content of the novel, let us briefly explain the essence: the modern famous tatar writer f. bayramova tells about the tragic fate of the inhabitants of the tatar village karabulak. there honor and respect for their ancestors, for their land, faith reigned for a long time. even in the terrible soviet times, when those who held the post were persecuted by the authorities, the people tried not to retreat from the covenant of the oldest (fedorov, 2014a; fedorov, 2014b). as a result, rarely people did not live to a hundred years. once near the village begins construction of a strange object called "маяк" ("lighthouse"). presented as an object of salvation for the people (thanks to him, many received jobs), "маяк" ("lighthouse") in fact becomes the object of death. due to testing performed on "маяк" ("lighthouse"), a huge number of harmful, radioactive materials emitted into the air, hardly anyone in the village retains its health, children start to hurt, many people suffer from baldness, cancer in 40-50 years is becoming the norm. gulcihan goes into the struggle for life and health of the nation, which is also about fifty and third stage cancer. time spent in the archives, does not pass for nothing, a terrible secret reveals for gulcihan: experts have concluded that in the village of karabulak is forbidden to live long time ago, on paper residents have long been relocated; the fact that doctors respond to complaints from residents about their health "you have a common disease", in fact oncology; other areas affected by radiation, gabidullina et al. receive state aid through which somehow can support the body, residents were refused and in this, moreover, the village was erased from the map and the document of inhabitants are burned in specially arranged fire. gulcihan was fighting with injustice and for it she was considered nationalist, who is capable of terrorism. during the discussion of the second issue, the views of students were divided. it was expected that they would turn to pre-revolutionary works, where the national character is the most vivid: patience of yusuf (kul gali), hardworking nafisa (g. bashirov), but practice has shown that students prefer to turn to modern literature. for example, the idea that there is no trace of the national character in the modern tatar village is emphasized: the work of n.gimatdinova "проклятие белого журавля" ("curse of the white crane") describes a tatar village full of jealous, unhappy, drunk people. some students emphasized the subservience of the characters, their obedience to the detriment of their interests, their nation in the story of r. zaidulla "syuyumbike"; at the same time the national traits of the main characters zarif and zadin presented as mutual aid, humanity, passion for music in the drama of z. hakeem "немая кукушка" ("the mute cuckoo"). during the conversation, the way of creating a national hero in the tatar literature was traced: patient, generous, good-natured, honoring allah and the canons of islam in medieval literature; decisive, advocating for gender equality, the ability to fight for personal happiness of the enlightenment; devoted himself to the struggle for the progress of the nation of the early twentieth century. it was revealed that after the revolution of 1917 it becomes more difficult to operate with the concepts of the national hero, the national character, the nature of the bolshevik is talked about in the works. during the war years both the russian and tatar literature praises the heroism, the ability to sacrifice them for the homeland. based on contemporary works that are read by students in the course "modern tatar literature" the students shared thoughts about such national characteristics as the desire for a peaceful life, without the oppression of people of other nations, religions (m. khabibullin, "khan kubrat", humanism and the desire to help your friend (z. hakim, "the mute cuckoo", but contemporary national character is often broken by reality. other questions were also discussed with interest, students showed a high degree of interest. in particular, the image of anna ivanovna vavilova suffering from the cancer, losing her husband and her children because of the "lighthouse", but is staunchly showing "patriotism" caused no laughter, not condemnation, but regret that there are a lot of such social activists and we hear their voice, while the voice such as gulcihan's voice is tried to be drown out. there was discussion not journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 295-305 of the work, there was a discussion rather of a moral component which is useful for students, in the course of such seminars they are brought up such qualities as justice, honor, the ability to distinguish positive from negative, even if it is presented as positive. the effectiveness of this program was tested at the control stage of the study. to do this, an output diagnosis of the system of values of students by the method of "ranking the sphere of value orientations" was carried out at the end of the experimental work, the results of which are fixated in table 3. table 3 results of an output diagnosis of the system of values of students by the method of "ranking the sphere of value orientations" system of values the number of choices (in percentage) material 8 (25%) professional 14 (44%) panhuman 4 (12%) spiritual 6 (19%) conclusion one of the most important tasks of the seminar classes in literature is to educate a competent reader, and the word literacy means not a person with a high level of speech culture, but the qualification of the individual as a reader, watching not only the development of the plot, but also able to understand the text, understand the author's position, to make their own interpretation. thus, it was experimentally revealed that ethical conversations help the birth of truth, understanding the situation from different sides, as there are a lot of the same actions, based on motivation, which can be regarded in different ways; moreover, this form of work has an influence on the formation of moral values of students. acknowledgements the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. gabidullina et al. references abduali, b., konuratbayeva, z. m., abikenova, g. t., karipzhanova, g. t., sagdieva, r. k., husnutdinov, d. h., giniyatullina, l. m. (2017). historical and linguistic system of turkic names and some specific features of creating vocabulary. man in india, 97(18), 443-456. akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. aydarova s h, giniyatullina l m, sagdieva r k, husnutdinov d h, mirzagitov r h, gabidullina f i (2017). models of media education in teaching tatar language. espacios, 38(60) bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) fedorova t. v.(2003). the improvement of reading activity of high school students at literature lessons: th. cps. m., 2003. 295 p. fedorov, a. (2014a). commitment to asia. the russian academic journal, 28(2). doi:10.15535/267 fedorov, a. (2014b). the umbrella revolution. the russian academic journal, 29(3). doi:10.15535/269 huziahmetov a. n. (2006). the theory and methodology of education: the textbook for universities and colleges. kazan: magarif, 2006. 288 p. il’yashchenko, d.p., chinakhov, d.a., gotovshchik, y.m. (2014). maw productivity development and reduction of its harmful effect on human organisms. applied mechanics and materials, 682, pp. 122-126 jalaliev sh. sh. (2003). bases of national education. textbook. kazan: magarif, 2003. 150 p. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2014). the formation of a single legal space as a prerequisite for overcoming systemic risk. asian social science, 10(21): 256-260. korableva o. n., kalimullina o. v. (2016). strategic approach to the optimization of organization based on bsc-swot matrix. paper presented at the 2016 ieee international conference on knowledge engineering and applications, ickea 2016: 212-215. korableva o., kalimullina o., kurbanova e. (2017a). building the monitoring systems for complex distributed systems: problems & solutions. paper presented at the iceis 2017 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (2), 295-305 proceedings of the 19th international conference on enterprise information systems, 2: 221228 korableva o. n., razumova i. a., kalimullina o. v. (2017b). research of innovation cycles and the peculiarities associated with the innovations life cycle stages. paper presented at the proceedings of the 29th international business information management association conference education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020: from regional development sustainability to global economic growth: 1853-1862. magmusov, t.a. (2013a). school and children during the celebrations of the 300th anniversary of the romanov dynasty. bylye gody. (4) 30: 79-87. magsumov, t.a. (2013b). educational excursions in technical schools of pre-revolutionary russia. bylye gody. (1), 27: 52-60. magsumov, t.a. (2014). main approaches to the study of historical and educational process. bylye gody. (4), 34: 720-726. magsumov, t. (2015). charity societies for helping needy students in the volga region, late 19th early 20th centuries. rossiiskaia istoria. 4: 63-69. magsumov, t.a. (2016). the jigets: a great history of a small people. rusin. (3), 45: 247-253. doi: 10.17223/18572685/45/17 mauch, j., & tarman, b. (2016). a historical approach to social studies laboratory method. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2), 55-66. magsumov, t.a. (2017). family and school in russia at the beginning of the 20th century: attempts to bridge the gap. european journal of contemporary education. 6 (4): 837-846. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 magsumov, t.a., kornilova, i.v. (2015). book in the sociocultural history of the east of the russian empire. bylye gody. (1), 35: 211-214. nizamov a. m. (2005) national school: foundations of education. kazan: magarif, 2005. 335 p. ryabchikova, s. b. (2009). spiritually-moral education of younger adolescents in the study of ancient culture: autoabstract of cps. yaroslavl, 2009. 21 p. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1), 77-97. https://doi.org/10.17223/18572685/45/17 https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2017.4.837 gabidullina et al. tarman, b., baytak, a., & duman, h. (2015). teachers' views on an ict reform in education for social justice. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 11(4), 865-874. 10.12973/eurasia.2015.1445a тesleva e., belkova t. (2014). acoustic and elastic properties of cu3au alloy between 4.2...300 к. applied mechanics and materials. vol. 682, p. 519-524. yiğit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6(3), 339-353. 10.13136/isr.v6i3.119 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 197-208 rousseau’s philosophical and educational innovation in vietnam today dung bui xuan1 & thanh bui xuan2 abstract rousseau was a great thinker of educational philosophy. this paper explores rousseau’s view of educational philosophy to be aware of educational goals and innovation using dialectical materialism. methodology is a comprehensive principle, a development principle, and a specific historical focus. the above method is the basis for understanding people and human nature in general. the article indicates that education needs to understand educators as well as learners. the paper also describes the task of education to recognize that human nature is a process from childhood to adulthood. in addition, the report uses analytical and aggregated methods to realize that rousseau’s educational ideas have tremendous and profound implications for vietnam ’s educational innovation today. keywords: education, innovation, philosophy, rousseau, vietnam introduction educational philosophy in vietnam is currently interested in the process of educational innovation. there are many different views regarding the implementation of educational innovation, such as that education involves developing new ways for students to improve their knowledge, and that education is the imparting of skills and experience needed in order to join the workforce, so that is necessary to innovate in accordance with the requirements of enterprise. there is also the view that education must develop the individual freedom of the child. these views do not fully address educational content and methods in the 4.0 technology era, however, because today, as the amount of available knowledge constantly increases, conducting educational innovation by cramming knowledge into students will only make their minds immature; children are increasingly numb and tired. educational reform in vietnam should aim at building an educational philosophy with the goal of educating learners to actively build society and become the future owners of a developed nation. it is necessary to define education as 1 dr., faculty of high quality training, ho chi minh city university of technology and education, vietnam email: dungbx@hcmute.edu.vn orcid: : https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8323-6443 2 dr., school of social science, university of economics ho chi minh city, vietnam; email: xuanthanh@ueh.edu.vn orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5019-7222 (corresponding author) mailto:dungbx@hcmute.edu.vn https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8323-6443 mailto:xuanthanh@ueh.edu.vn https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5019-7222 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 197-208 serving people in social life. the philosophy of education needs to build harmony, form comprehensive people, and shape personal and collective values (berges puyo, 2020; ebersole & kanahele-mossman, 2020). jean-jacques rousseau, a french philosopher of the 18th century, emphasized that the mere use of reason is not enough to guarantee a virtuous life, because human nature, even if it is conditioned by reason, is also nature. according to rousseau, education that adds heavy “shackles” will not enable children to become mature, confident, and self-sufficient. in rousseau’s 1762 work émile, or, on education, a boy named emile is educated from birth to marriage by his teacher and becomes an “ideal citizen” through five stages of training; rousseau outlined philosophies and educational methods that help the “natural man” to have enough physical health and mental energy to cope with life’s challenges. according to rousseau, this development requires attention to the correspondence between the child ’s needs, strengths, and abilities. this relationship does not form naturally, and the child needs the care of adults. rousseau was strongly critical of artificial forms of society created by human reason for education, for this has corrupted the deepest nature of people. therefore, the educational philosophy of rousseau is that people are not “objects” but “subjects” of society and education. he maintained that the mission of education is not to train people for society but to maximize the “real” in people. such an education oriented to human nature should not be understood as a mere natural process, as if it were simply for adolescents to come to their natural maturity. making people capable of self-development in accordance with nature is an extremely important and difficult task, requiring educators to have a very accurate understanding of human nature. thus, education is conceived as the third factor between nature and society, an intermediate piece of land isolated from the impacts of society for natural development. and one’s nature can, in turn, develop itself only when detached from the mere natural process. the goal of education in vietnam today vietnamese education implements innovation to train vietnamese citizens with digital transformation knowledge and skills to become global citizens. therefore, education innovation is identified by the industry as a breakthrough stage, an important task to focus on in the coming years. innovation of educational goals and methods helps improve the quality of education and, more importantly, contributes to improving labor productivity, creating tremendous opportunities for international associations (pham, 2021). currently, education is implementing dung & thanh 199 innovation with the new general education program. in particular, the impact of covid-19 has brought pressure to educational activities, but at the same time it has created incentives for autonomy in teaching, innovation for teachers to become stronger, and opportunities for teachers and students to adapt and apply online teaching methods. since 2013, vietnam has carried out fundamental and comprehensive renovation s of education (vietnam, 2013). the success of education is not in textbooks. the decisive role in the success of educational innovation is the role of the teacher. therefore, it is necessary to clarify that educational objectives must be associated with the part of the teacher in the use of educational methods to educate students. this is even more evident when the teacher must notice that in each student there must be a different approach depending on the ability of each child. the goal of education allows people to meet the requirements of the times. the role of innovation thro ugh the teacher’s educational method is the basis for providing knowledge and ethics to learners; thereby, learners are equipped in an exciting, proactive, and active way in the educational process. vietnamese education is close to recognizing this and changing in the process of education innovation. regarding improving the quality of education and training, according to the world bank ’s 2020 report on human capital, vietnam’s human capital index reached 0.69, ranking 38th out of 174 economies; the educational outcome component of vietnam ranks 15th, equivalent to countries such as the netherlands, new zealand, and sweden (world bank, 2020). many indicators of vietnam’s general education are highly appreciated in the region, such as the rate of mobilization of six-year-old children in grade 1 reaching 99% (ranked 2nd in asean region, after singapore) and the rate of students going to school and completing the primary program after five years reaching 92.08%, ranking in the top of asean (world bank, 2020). rousseau and educational philosophy jean-jacques rousseau (1712-1778) was one of france’s most iconic thinkers during the enlightenment. one of his most famous works is émile, or on education (1762). this work, an educational treatise in the form of a novel, contains ideological content in many fields (philosophy, education, ethics, society, etc.). during the french revolution, it became the inspiration for the formation of the national education system. émile, or on education is both political and philosophical. it addresses the question of what the relationship between an individual and society journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 197-208 should be. rousseau’s philosophy of goals and modes of education is essential but not fundamental. the content of his educational philosophy is “understanding the learner.” this paper uses a unique dialectical method to study the history of thought, analyze the method of combination and synthesis, the process of loading and interpreting, comparing, and conceptualizing, to define rousseau’s concept of education in his philosophy. the pa per studies rousseau’s émile and uses materialistic dialectic methods, analytical and synthesis methods, induction and interpretation, comparison, and generalization to clarify rousseau’s educational philosophy to consider and evaluate the approach to goals and methods of educating a complete human being. educational goals an educational goal is a system of norms of a personality model formed in a specific educational object (bostan et al., 2021). there is a system of specific social requirements in each era, in each stage defined for the personality of a type of educational object. therefore, the objectives of education depend on each step of social development and each stage of the human education process (gunio, 2021; marouli, 2021; timberlake, 2020). according to rousseau, developing a child’s inner abilities and competencies is the primary goal of education (o’ hagan, 2002). this development should happen naturally. in émile, rousseau points out that education should minimize the limitations of civilization and bring people as close to nature as possible. his idea is to replace formal education with one that is both natural and spontaneous. rousseau is committed to describing young emile’s upbringing in a way that is consistent with the ideal society. emile is taken from his parents and school and placed in the hands of a tutor. tutoring brings him closer to the wonders and beauty of nature. natural education is an idea found to be at the heart of this work (diedericks, 2021). education will help a child survive. life is not only an act of breathing, but it consists of work, the development of sensory organs, and the rational use of bodily capacities. education gears toward making a child a natural person. according to rousseau, developing the senses is a primary goal of early education. the purposes of the human body act as portals of knowledge. therefore, education should help a child develop and train their senses (schaeffer, 2021). educational methods educational methods are the principles used by teachers to enable learners to learn. these strategies are defined in part by the topic being taught and partly by the nature of the learner. the dung & thanh 201 method of successful education is to be consistent and effective with the learner’s characteristics and the type of learning it is said to bring. teaching methods are approached from a variety of perspectives (coe et al., 2021). rousseau rejects the formal teaching methods of his time, believing that they lead to the suppression of natural inclinations in a child. his educational philosophy includes many teaching methods that serve as an alternative to formal educational processes. experience, direct observation, and learning by doing rousseau believes that understanding and direct observation enhance sensory organs and reasoning abilities. he advises children to have experience before expressing and objecting to words. he discourages book knowledge and insists on knowledge acquired through experience. these ideas are most evident in his saying, “let the child learn nothing from the book that they can learn from the experience” (rietmeijer et al., 2021). rousseau advocates for practical rather than theoretical education. he believes that the knowledge gained through employment is permanent compared to the knowledge gained through speech. since long lectures reduce children’s interest in learning new things, children should act for themselves (kent kükürtcü, et al. 2021; weissgerber, 2021). the widely classified teaching methods are teacher-centric and student-centered. in a teachercentric approach to learning, teachers are the leading authority figures; students, viewed as “empty vessels,” have a primary role in passively absorbing information through lectures and direct instruction with the ultimate goal of testing and evaluation. the role of teachers is to impart knowledge and information to their students. in this model, teaching and assessment see two separate entities. student learning is measured through tests and score assessment objectively. in a student-centered approach, on the other hand, teachers and students play equally active roles in the learning process. the teacher’s primary function is to train and facilitate students to learn and understand the entire material. methods with students are learning measures through formal and informal assessment forms, including group projects, student portfolios, and classroom participation. teaching and evaluation are interconnected; students learn action during the teacher’s teaching process. commonly used teaching methods may include taking classes, performing, rereading, or combining these methods (warman, 2021). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 197-208 discussion vietnam’s point of view on educational goals is similar to rousseau’s. in order to achieve its educational goals, vietnamese education must realize that the role of the teacher is decisive. the success of vietnam’s educational reform is due to the innovation in the teacher’s teaching philosophy that must be associated with the educational philosophy of the society. rousseau’s educational goals are associated with the role and duties of the teacher. education teaches a child to become a free person, not to train a product of rehabilitation in society or a citizen of a particular regime. a free person thinks and acts without being bound by material, prejudice, public opinion, or control by sensual passions. that is, a free person should be mature and independent in thinking and judgment, using reason to judge, make decisions, and act rationally toward “nature” and truth. to understand learners, it is necessary first to understand human nature. rousseau wrote that everyone dies in the end; this is the reality of living beings, and no one is exempt. he said that kindness represents humanity because people, of course, must do good to live well together. integrity is at the bottom of our hearts. it may or may not be consistent with human nature. if morality follows human nature, then man can only be mentally healthy and in good condition as long as he is in good faith. he also said that there is practically no good thing that exists between man and man. he wrote, “our true wisdom includes slave prejudices; all our customs are dependence, confusion, frustration and impulsiveness. people are born, live and die in slavery”; “as long as it holds the human face, it shackles our institutions”; “man is born free, but then he lives in chains. some people think they are the boss, and they are more slaves than their servants.” in the reality of such a society, rousseau says it is necessary to look for an excellent source to answer why interest is lost in society and restore goodness. rousseau argues that philosophical tendencies do not solve the problem of human nature because it comes only from one side of the “fundamental relationship between the individual and society (community)” or rather “the contradiction between the individual and the social person.” “in the case of the world, they look far in book quests that they don’t bother to do what’s around them... they forget that they must love their country first.” rousseau wanted to find the actual basis for explaining the good (the most apparent manifestation of human nature). he found, in his view, that dung & thanh 203 basis, which is the nature or nature of man. rousseau wrote: “prejudice, power, necessity, for example, all social organizations” “stifle nature and leave nothing instead.” rousseau refers to the human trait that is conscience. he wrote: “conscience! conscience! conscience is instinct, the gift of immortality. it is the voice of heaven; it’s solid reconnaissance for the ignorant and the crude. it is a sign of wisdom and freedom. it is a judge who never confuses good and evil and makes a man like god; conscience makes human nature great, and human action becomes moral. without conscience, man no longer feels human, but man feels nothing more than animals.” a person without a conscience has nothing but intellect and reason without principles. rousseau believes that conscience is the most natural element of man, which does good and makes human action moral. conscience is innate, god-given to man. it is an important thought, a moral point of view, and establishes the foundation for morality. by understanding human nature like this, rousseau explains why man is born out of a good spirit, but when he enters social life, he becomes evil, losing his nature. “it is necessary to attribute all that pristine tendency” and “once we know the roots, we see clearly where one leaves the path of nature.” the path to overcoming this situation can only be a new education. innovative educational methods in the past, education in vietnam was influenced by confucianism with the educational goal of serving a feudal society. vietnam is doing socio-economic renovation to build a socialist country, so it must have socialist people. therefore, education reform is attracting the attention of the whole society. innovating teaching methods include reforming general education toward modernity; promoting positivity, initiative, creativity, and knowledge application; focusing on teaching how to learn to think; encouraging self-study; and creating a basis for learners to update and renew knowledge, skills, and capacity development. to accomplish these goals is the synchronous and interactive operation of the elements in active teaching methods, overcoming the weaknesses of the method of one-way transmission, and at the same time harmoniously combining teaching instrumental knowledge with methodological knowledge, especially focusing on teaching how to learn and self-study methods so that learners can learn for life. rousseau was very interested in educational methods. the educational method determines the educational goal. and this duty belongs to the teacher. rousseau says that education must train one of the three types of teachers. the first is education from nature, the second is the education journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 197-208 of man himself, and the third is the education of things, due to our own experience of objects affecting us. rousseau argues that only human education is the most important and unique thing that we truly own. he asserts: “we begin to learn when we begin to live; our education begins at the same time as we are born; our first tutor is our nanny”; “education, teaching, education are three different things in the purpose of education. because in education we need teachers, tutors, and teachers. but the distinction of tasks in education is not properly understood. therefore, we ask that the child be followed only by one instructor.” rousseau found that education manifested in many relationships around the child, so he wants educators to combine all three: the teacher, the tutor, and the teacher. rousseau argues that the goal of education is learning. our true practice is “learning about the human condition”; “there is only one science to teach children: the science of human duty.” teachers are the guides for students to achieve the goals of education according to rousseau, to understand the teacher is to understand the future, what the child can become. the role of the teacher is mainly to guide the learner, not to impose on the child their understanding, thoughts, or even examples. rousseau wrote: “treat your students according to their age. first, the teacher must put himself in the student’s situation and control their actions before the teacher knows about a certain quality that they recognize; when learning, the student must practice it. moral education does not act but must be taught by doing. students only gain experience through employment. therefore, teachers should not force students to learn how to bear any punishment. because that doesn’t mean the student is wrong. therefore, teachers should never ask their students for forgiveness. because students don’t know they’ve offended. since there is no moral concept in its actions, it cannot do anything morally wrong, so it is not punishable or reprehensible”; “every student’s mind has special forms. therefore, education needs to nurture those forms of students. that is very important in the process of successfully caring for and nurturing such forms. human education needs to be tested for their nature for a long time and observe their students before saying the first word to it. therefore, let the seeds of personality manifest first. first of all, don’t tie it to anything. only then can you see the whole person.” therefore, according to rousseau, the child must be at the right age and have the appropriate content and form of education. although he may understand the psychology, wisdom, and accommodation of unscientific, holistic children, this thought is his own experience. dung & thanh 205 rousseau believes that educators (teachers) should do what is best for the child. the teacher must become the one who teaches everything around the child. the authority of the teacher is respect and virtue. teachers should not be stingy and harsh. teachers need to open their whole hearts to teaching and giving time, attention, and love. education must create people who are moral and compassionate, respecting others as well as themselves, and so teachers must be fair, compassionate, and noble, and they must teach charity and love for other living things. although rousseau asks teachers to “remember that before you dare to start training a person, you must be human,” he would like teachers to strive to be ideal humans. rousseau’s thinking is well suited to the view that learners are at the center of the whole work of education. learning is the process of understanding human nature. rousseau’s understanding of learners is inseparable from the knowledge of human nature in general. that has excellent value based on western traditions and from rousseau’s own experience. he points out that it is impossible to understand learners, including children, without a shared understanding of human nature. he points out that educational ideas in general and educational practices need to build on a defined philosophical foundation. the essential function of philosophy is the function of thought. philosophical thought is the standard guide to all human cognitive activities (andrews, 2019). educational thought and the whole work of organizing educational practices are carried out methodically, not arbitrarily. education cannot follow the person’s imagination doing academic work or being “assigned” to do academic work. suppose teachers are required first to understand human and human nature. in that case, teachers must understand the need for teachers (morris & chapman, 2020; smith, 2020; waychunas, 2020). teachers must be human before taking on the responsibility of educating the child to become a human being. therefore, a philosophical understanding of human nature will lead the entire educational activity of the teacher both in the formulation of the theory and the practice of education. conclusion rousseau’s educational ideas have lasting value. teachers must be aware of what will happen and the external environment that affects the child. teachers must understand the characteristics, psychological structure, physiology, and competence of the child. teachers must understand what has happened, what is happening, and what will happen to the child so that the teacher can guide journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 197-208 the child to become what they will. rousseau’s educational philosophy requires teachers to understand that learners are “new,” profound, and have great significance for such content. after nearly 35 years of renovation, vietnam has overcome many difficulties and challenges and achieved great feats of historical significance. vietnam has come out of underdeveloped status and entered the group of middle-income developing countries. however, economic achievements do not guarantee a strong and sustainable vietnam. during the period before and after our country’s renovation, the world has continuously witnessed profound changes in all aspects. the third and fourth industrial revolutions were born, and the thriving knowledge economy brings great development opportunities while posing significant challenges. additionally, climate change, resource depletion, environmental pollution, ecological imbalance, and political and social upheavals also pose global challenges. to ensure sustainable development, many countries have constantly innovated education to improve the quality of human resources and equip future generations with a solid cultural foundation and high adaptability to all changes of nature and society. therefore, building an educational philosophy is an urgent need for vietnam to promote educational goals and methods, renewing the autonomy and self-determination of teachers in ensuring the success of educational philosophy. acknowledgment this research is partly funded by university of economics ho chi minh city and ho chi minh city university of technology and education, vietnam. references andrews, k. (2019). book review: human rights and global diversity: basic ethics in action. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 71-74. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.6 berges puyo, j. (2020). a value and character educational model: repercussions for students, teachers, and families. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 bostan, c. m., ticu, c., vrabie, t., stanciu, t., & andronic, r.-l. (2021). supporting motivational persistence in the personality system in early academic stages through educational strategies. revista romaneasca pentru educatie multidimensionala, 13(2), 223-242. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 dung & thanh 207 coe, r., waring, m., hedges, l. v., & ashley, l. d. (2021). research methods and methodologies in education. sage. diedericks, m. (2021). assessment of jean-jacques rousseau’s educational concept “natural inclination” from a reformed worldview perpective. tydskrif vir christelike wetenskap| journal for christian scholarship, 57(1&2), 42-56. ebersole, m., & kanahele-mossman, h. (2020). broadening understandings of the cultural value of aloha in a teacher educator program. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 81-99. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.14 gunio, m. (2021). determining the influences of a hidden curriculum on students’ character development using the illuminative evaluation model. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 194-206. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.11 kent kükürtcü, s., erkan, n. s. ., & seyfeli, y. (2021). the development of the democratic behavior scale: a validity and reliability study. theory and practice in child development, 1(1), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.46303/tpicd.2021.5 marouli, c. (2021). sustainability education for the future? challenges and implications for education and pedagogy in the 21st century. sustainability, 13(5), 2901. morris, c., & chapman, l. (2020). special issue editorial: disrupting norms in teacher preparation programs: navigating challenges and sharing successes. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.ed o’ hagan, t. (2002). jean-jacques rousseau 1712–78. routledge. peckover, c. (2012). realizing the natural self: rousseau and the current system of education. philosophical studies in education, 43, 84-94. pham, k. t. (2021). the concept of pragmatism and its impact on education in the vietnamese context. review of international geographical education online, 11(4), 1453-1466. rietmeijer, c. b., blankenstein, a. h., huisman, d., van der horst, h. e., kramer, a. w., de vries, h., scheele, f., & teunissen, p. w. (2021). what happens under the flag of direct observation, and how that matters: a qualitative study in general practice residency. medical teacher, 1-8. rousseau, j. j. (1762/2010). émile, or, on education: includes emile and sophie, or, the solitaries. knowledge publishing house. schaeffer, d. (2021). learning to move: the body, the senses, and the foundations of judgment. in rousseau on education, freedom, and judgment (pp. 36-62). penn state university press. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.14 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.11 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.ed journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 197-208 smith, a. (2020). critical race theory: disruption in teacher education pedagogy. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 52-71. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.4 soëtard, m. (1994). jean-jacques rousseau. education (paris, unesco: international bureau of education), 24(3/4), 423-438. timberlake, m. (2020). recognizing ableism in educational initiatives: reading between the lines. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 84-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.5 vietnam, c. c. o. t. c. p. o. (2013). transforming a new and comprehensive version of education and training, responding to public requests modernization in the context of the market economy. resolution no. 29-nq/tw, november 4, 2013, hanoi. warman, w. (2021). establishing the governmental policy to promote engagement within the inclusive education system in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 12(1), 124-148. waychunas, w. (2020). where teachers thrive: a book review. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 129-132. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 weissgerber, t. l. (2021). training early career researchers to use meta-research to improve science: a participant-guided “learn by doing” approach. plos biology, 19(2), e3001073. world bank. (2020). vietnam’s human capital. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 109-131 109 the effect of service quality on student satisfaction and student loyalty: an empirical study teddy chandra1, martha ng2, stefani chandra3, and priyono4 abstract the study aims to observe the influence of service quality on student satisfaction and student loyalty in higher education institutions in riau. the participants were 1,000 students of 13 universities and colleges in riau. this study employed service quality as an exogenous variable, while student satisfaction and student loyalty became an endogenous one. data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (sem) and analysis of variance (anova) with spss21 and amos 21. the result indicated a positive influence of service quality on student satisfaction and a positive influence of student satisfaction on student loyalty. however, no influences were found about student quality on student loyalty. keywords: service quality, student satisfaction, student loyalty introduction for years, product quality has always been a concern. measuring product quality manufactured in a factory is easier than the one in service industry. despite its difficulty, the importance in measuring and controlling service quality needs to be carefully examined (seth, deshmukh, & vrat, 2005). tight competition among service industries urge those actors to continuously improve their services (bolton, lemon, & verhoef, 2004). as a part of the industries, higher education such as university and college has to provide the best service quality to the students as well. parasuraman, zeithaml, & berry (1988) introduced five dimensions in measuring service quality which help to determine customers’ expectation and perception including tangibility, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. there were researchers such as afridi, khattak, & khan (2016); arambewela & hall (2006); calvo-porral, lévymangin, & novo-corti (2013); kanakana (2014) as well as yousapronpaiboon (2014) who used these five dimensions to measure service quality. however, others such as abdullah (2006); 1 dr, lecturer, pelita indonesia school of business, teddy.chandra@lecturer.pelitaindonesia.ac.id 2 lecturer, pelita indonesia school of business, marthang@gmail.com 3 lecturer, pelita indonesia school of business, stefanichandra@staff.pelitaindonesia.ac.id 4 dr., faculty of economics lecturer, universitas bina darma palembang, indonesia, priyono@binadarma.ac.id mailto:teddy.chandra@lecturer.pelitaindonesia.ac.id mailto:marthang@gmail.com mailto:stefanichandra@staff.pelitaindonesia.ac.id mailto:priyono@binadarma.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 alves & raposo (2007); and duarte, raposo, & alves (2012) considered serqual as less precise. good service quality results in the increase of customer satisfaction and leads to longterm benefits in market share and profitability (anderson, fornell & lehmann, 1994). nowadays, there is tight competition in higher education not only for the local market but also the international one. to reach a big market share, student satisfaction needs to be maximized and one of the strategies is providing a high quality service (stevens, knutson, & patton, 1995). studies on education service qualities are considered new in the commercial sector. hence, it becomes a national priority (sultan & yin wong, 2010). indonesian government has emphasized on improving education quality, especially for higher education by merging the ministry of higher education and that of research and technology for the best result. aside, the government allows foreign universities and college to join the local market. therefore, it results in a tighter competition between local and international universities or colleges. students prefer higher education that provides better service quality and student satisfaction (tahir, bakar, & ismail, 2010) which either directly or indirectly affects student loyalty (annamdevula & bellamkonda, 2016b). when students are highly satisfied, they will be loyal to the chosen institutions (alves & raposo, 2009). the research done in india by (annamdevula & bellamkonda, 2016b) found positive relationships between service quality and student satisfaction, service quality with student loyalty, and student satisfaction with student loyalty. it was also supported by studies done by duarte et al. (2012) on higher education in portugal. conversely, dib & mokhles (2013) who did a study in syria found no significant relationship between service quality and student satisfaction. the same result goes to the relationship between student quality and student loyalty. however, they found significant relationship between student satisfaction and student loyalty. this research will reinvestigate the relationships between service quality and student satisfaction, service quality with student loyalty, and student sasfaction with student loyalty. riau is one of provinces in indonesia neighboring to malaysia and singapore, and it has around 79 universities and colleges with 146,230 students. the competition faced by the local universities and colleges does not only come from riau itself, but also from other provinces such as west sumatra, north sumatra, riau islands, provinces in java, and even malaysia and singapore. according to chen (2016), service quality determined a number of students enrolled in a university or college each year. this adds to the importance of measuring and evaluating chandra, t., et al. service quality provided by the institutions. regarding its condition, the indonesian government has already committed to improving the quality of higher education. to evaluate the service quality in riau, studies were conducted mostly in the commercial sectors, and none has studied the education sectors, especially higher education. the aims of this research are: 1. to examine the relationship between service quality and student satisfaction at higher education institutions in riau province. 2. to examine the relationship between service quality with student loyalty at higher education institutions in riau province. 3. to examine the relationship between student satisfaction with student loyalty at higher education institutions in riau province. literature review prior studies on service quality on student satisfaction and student loyalty become the references to determine the structural model as well as the concepts of service quality, student satisfaction, student loyalty, and their relationships. service quality parasuraman et al. (1988) introduced five dimensions of service quality which mostly are applied in repair and maintenance, retail banking, securities brokerage, long-distance telephone and credit cards, namely: a. tangibility : physical facilities, equipment, and appearance of personnel. b. reliability : ability to perform the service dependably and accurately. c. responsiveness : willingness to help customers and ability to inspire trust and confidence. d. assurance : knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence. e. empathy : caring, individualized attention provided for customers. this concept has been widely used to evaluate and measure service quality not only in commercial sectors but also in education sectors (higher education institutions) (afridi et al., 2016; arambewela & hall, 2006; calvo-porral et al., 2013; kanakana, 2014; yousapronpaiboon, 2014). yet, some critiques disagreed on this measurement. nonetheless, no better measurement journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 for service quality both in general and in education sector has been found (chen, 2016). another measurement system introduced by abdullah (2006) was higher education performance-only offering a non-academic dimension, reputation access, and program issues. chen (2016) in his study on higher education in taiwan found that the factors for service quality in higher education were school, staff, and teacher. studies conducted by senthilkumar and arulraj (2011) on higher education in india offered a model called sqm-hei (service quality measurement in higher education in india) consisting of three dimensions including teaching and methodology (tm), environmental change in study factor (ecsf), disciplinary action (da) and placement as the mediator and the outcome as the quality education. meanwhile, annamdevula and bellamkonda (2016a, 2016b) conducted a study on higher education in india and generated an instrument called higher education quality. these showed that there is no exact standard to measure service quality on higher education. this study combined the existing instruments and adapted to the stakeholder’s characteristics in indonesia, especially in riau province. the relationship between service quality and student satisfaction understanding student satisfaction was highly related to service quality. satisfaction is a customer response to the service provided (tse & wilton, 1998). according to oliver (1989), customer satisfaction is fairness due to its value paid. this is in line with the ideas of parasuraman, zeithaml, & berry (1985) that consumers can feel both satisfaction and dissatisfaction due to the service provided and the money paid. customers are satisfied whenever services provided are more than the price paid, and they are dissatisfied whenever services provided are less than the price paid. additionally, customer satisfaction does not always relate to complaints meaning that consumers who never complain do not necessarily mean that they are satisfied (kitapci & taylan, 2009). in higher education, the studies on student satisfaction are few due to its complexity (marzo navarro, pedraja iglesias, & rivera torres, 2005). theoretically, the relationship between service quality and student satisfaction remains unclear (anderson et al., 1994). the study conducted in india found a positive relationship between service quality and student satisfaction (annamdevula & bellamkonda, 2016a, 2016b), indicating that the increase in service quality was the increase in the student satisfaction. this is supported by alves & raposo (2009) and duarte et al. (2012) who conducted studies in portugal. similarly, khoo, ha., and mcgregor (2015) conducted a study in singapore which chandra, t., et al. found the strong relationship between service quality provided by private tertiary education sector and student satisfaction. a study on malaysian private education institutions found a positive relationship between tangibility which is one of the dimensions of service quality and student satisfaction (mansori, vaz, & ismail, 2014). they discovered that tangible facilities in the private campus determine student satisfaction. however, a study conducted on higher education institution in syria did not find any evidence about service quality influence on student satisfaction (dib & mokhles, 2013). considering prior studies on the relationship between service quality and student satisfaction, the first hypothesis was derived, namely: h1= service quality has a positive influence on student satisfaction. the relationship between service quality and student loyalty duffy (2003) mentioned that customer loyalty is consumer behavior to maintain the relationship with an institution and repurchase its products and services. customer loyalty is reflected on their recommending other people, repurchasing products and services, and increasing future business transaction (zeithaml, berry, & parasuraman, 1996). a study done by ngo & nguyen (2016) on vietnamese retail banking resulted in a significant positive influence of the service quality on customer loyalty. heung, mok, & kwan (1996) in their research of the brand loyalty level on hotels in hong kong found a strong relationship between service quality and hotel brand loyalty. however, cronin & taylor (1992) found that customer satisfaction has a greater influence on customer loyalty than service quality did. zeithaml et al. (1996) mentioned that a good perception of service quality influences student behavior. teaching quality and students’ emotion of their commitment to institution increase student loyalty (henning-thurau, langer, & hansen, 2001). in addition to those studies, positive relationship between service quality and student loyalty was found in a study conducted in india (annamdevula & bellamkonda, 2016a, 2016b). they concluded that a loyal student was helpful for institution staff in determining the right promotion, and development as well as maintaining a long-term success (annamdevula & bellamkonda, 2016a). the opposite result was found by dib & mokhles (2013) in their study in syria which found that there was no relationship between service quality and student loyalty. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 considering prior studies on the relationship between service quality and student satisfaction, the second hypothesis was derived, that is, h2 = service quality has a positive influence on student loyalty. the relationship between student satisfaction and student loyalty cronin & taylor (1992) stated that customer satisfaction influences customer loyalty more than service quality. the significant relationship between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty was also supported by dib & mokhles (2013). in the education sector, annamdevula & bellamkonda, (2016a & 2016b) found a firm relationship between student satisfaction and student loyalty, as was mentioned by duarte et al. (2012) in their study in portugal. therefore, the third hypothesis was derived, that is: h3 = student satisfaction has a positive influence on student loyalty. method research design this research used causal design or explanatory research whereby it examined the influence of service quality (x1) on student satisfaction (y1), influence of service quality (x1) on student loyalty (y2), and influence of student satisfaction (y1) on student loyalty (y2). service quality is the exogenous variable, while student satisfaction and student loyalty are the endogenous variables. structural equation modeling (sem) was used in examining the influence. furthermore, this study explained and tested the respondents’ responses based on demographic profile using anova (analysis of variance). path diagram of structural model figure 1 shows the model used to examine the influence of service quality on student satisfaction and student loyalty. chandra, t., et al. figure 1. path diagram of structural model survey instrument the twelve-indicator instrument used to assess service quality was adopted partly from prior studies where one indicator was formulated by the researchers and other eleven were adopted from prior studies (abdullah, 2006; annamdevula & bellamkonda, 2016a & 2016b; de jager & gbadamosi, 2010; lagrosen, seyyed‐hashemi, & leitner, 2004; mahapatra & khan, 2007). three of five indicators of student satisfaction were adopted from annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a & 2016b) and the other two were formulated by the researchers. in the student loyalty instrument, two indicators were adopted from annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a) and the others were formulated by the researchers. further information provided in table 1. table 1 list of constructs and indicators construct indicator source s e rv ic e q u a li ty ( x 1 ) x11 teachers treat all students in equal manner annamdevula & bellamkonda, (2016a & 2016b) x12 teachers follow good teaching practices annamdevula & bellamkonda, (2016a & 2016b) x13 course content develops students’ knowledge abdullah (2006); annamdevula & bellamkonda, (2016a & 2016b) x14 teachers are responsive and accessible lagrosen, seyyed‐hashemi, & leitner (2004) x15 administration staffs are courteous and willing to help mahapatra & khan (2007) x16 administration maintains accurate and retrieval records abdullah (2006); annamdevula & bellamkonda, (2016a & 2016b) x17 classrooms are clean and comfortable self x18 computer/science labs are well equipped de jager & gbadamosi (2010) x19 library has adequate academic resources annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a) journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 construct indicator source x110 university provides counseling services abdullah (2006); annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a) x111 campus environment is convenient to study well annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a) x112 university has safety and security measures annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a & 2016b) s tu d e n t s a ti sf a c ti o n ( y 1 ) y11 satisfaction with the decision to study here self y12 satisfaction with the quality of academic services annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a & 2016b) y13 feel comfortable to study here. self y14 satisfaction with the quality of teachers self y15 satisfaction with the quality of administrative services annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a & 2016b) y16 satisfaction with the quality of equipment and facilities annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a & 2016b) s tu d e n t l o y a lt y ( y 2 ) y21 this campus gives a positive impression to me self y22 recommending the campus to friends and family members annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a) y23 feeling proud to be associated with the campus’ activities annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a) y24 i will write a positive impression about this campus in social media self y25 i have no intention of moving to another campus self all indicators for service quality, student satisfaction, and student loyalty were measured using seven-point likert scale with 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). population and sample the population was 146,230 students registered in higher education institutions in riau province from 13 higher education institutions including 3 public universities, 2 private universities, and 8 private colleges. according to sekaran (2003), a total population of 75,000 or more require a minimum sample of 384 people. this study distributed 1,100 questionnaires and collected 1,002. two out of 1,002 questionnaires were eliminated due to incomplete information, meaning that there were 1,000 respondents and 90.91% of questionnaires were valid (n=1,000) as seen in table 2 (by their institution), table 3 (by their major selection), and table 4 (by demographic profile including gender, age, university type, and occupation). table 2 respondents by the institution origin number institutions number of students % 1 riau university 298 29.80 chandra, t., et al. number institutions number of students % 2 riau islamic university 102 10.20 3 state islamic university of sultan syarif kasim ii 105 10.50 4 stia lancang kuning 83 8.30 5 stikes al insyriyah 55 5.50 6 stikes hang tuah 28 2.80 7 stimik hang tuah 20 2.00 8 pelita indonesia school of business 109 10.90 9 open university pekanbaru 4 0.40 10 stmik dumai 77 7.70 11 akademi akuntansi riau dumai 43 4.30 12 riau muhammadiyah university 59 5.90 13 stikes awal bros 17 1.70 total 1,000 100.00 the samples also include almost all types of majors as shown in table 3. hence, the samples represent the total population. table 3 respondents by selected major number major number of students % 1 business 540 54.00 2 economic 168 16.80 3 nursing 26 2.60 4 public health 14 1.40 5 midwifery 15 1.50 6 medical records 28 2.80 7 computer science 97 9.70 8 master management 59 5.90 9 automotive engineering 19 1.90 10 biology 17 1.70 11 radiology 13 1.30 12 hospital administration 4 0.40 total 1,000 100.00 table 4 lists the profile of the respondents which includes gender, age, university type, and occupation. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 table 4 respondents demographic profile demography category frequency (%) gender male 299 29.90 female 701 70.10 age 17 – 20 533 53.30 21 – 24 414 41.40 25 – 30 16 1.60 > 30 37 3.70 university type public university 407 40.70 private university/college 593 59.30 occupation student 811 81.10 student and work 189 18.90 in indonesia, level of education is divided into diploma program (diploma), undergraduate program (bachelor’s degree), graduate program (master’s degree), and doctoral program (ph.d.). this study was limited to diploma program, undergraduate program, and graduate program with the students aged from 17-20 years and study duration of 3 years for diploma program, 4-5 years for undergraduate program, and 2 years for graduate program. the average age of the new students for higher education is 17 to 20 years old. the first group of the respondents aged 17-20 years (having 1 year of study duration); the second group of the respondents aged 21-24 years (graduated diploma and undergraduate program); the third group of the respondents aged 25-30 years (graduated from undergraduate program and continue to graduate program); and the fourth group of the respondents aged more than 30 (working people and study in graduate programs). the higher education institutions in riau province are differentiated into public and private universities or colleges where public universities are preferred by common students (fresh graduates of senior high schools) and private universities/colleges are preferred by working students. the data collected were analyzed using structural equation modeling (sem) and analysis of variance (anova) with ibm spss statistics version 21 and ibm amos version 21. sem was used to examine the causal relationship between service quality, student chandra, t., et al. satisfaction, and student loyalty, while anova was used to examine the respondents’ behaviors based on their demographic profile findings validity and reliability tests the result of the analysis can only be utilized after the survey instruments have been tested. to do so, validity and reliability test were conducted and the result is indicated in table 5. table 5 validity and reliability tests construct indicator correlation loading factor p value construct reliability ave s e rv ic e q u a li ty ( x 1 ) x11 0.606 0.603 *** 0.945 0.588 x12 0.779 0.781 *** x13 0.645 0.641 *** x14 0.697 0.695 *** x15 0.794 0.788 *** x16 0.805 0.810 *** x17 0.774 0.814 *** x18 0.804 0.838 *** x19 0.819 0.852 *** x110 0.784 0.830 *** x111 0.705 0.738 *** x112 0.734 0.770 *** s tu d e n t s a ti sf a c ti o n (y 1 ) y11 0.769 0.841 *** 0.912 0.634 y12 0.782 0.872 *** y13 0.814 0.862 *** y14 0.744 0.775 *** y15 0.721 0.713 *** y16 0.702 0.696 *** s tu d e n t l o y a lt y (y 2 ) y21 0.736 0.838 *** 0.901 0.647 y22 0.832 0.812 *** y23 0.841 0.824 *** y24 0.777 0.813 *** y25 0.664 0.729 *** *** = p-value< 0.01 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 the construct reliability was to measure the consistency and stability of the indicators in contributing to the construct. table 5 shows that all constructs are more than 0.900 while the cutoff value is only 0.70 (hair, anderson, tatham, & black, 1998). hence, all constructs are reliable. validity test was used to measure the accuracy of the measurement tools (the questionnaires). the questionnaires had to accurately measure certain indicators to be considered valid and the validity of the analytical instrument is possibly measured using correlation. the result shows that all indicators are greater than 0.600. hence, it is considered valid. based on the loading factor, all indicators have value greater than 0.600 with p-value smaller than 0.05, meaning that all indicators significantly give a contribution to their own constructs. in the confirmatory analysis, convergent validity can also be measured by loading factor which is called average variance extracted (ave) from the construct. the analysis result for ave is all above the cut-off value (0.500) (hair et al., 1998). therefore, all indicators and constructs were possibly used for this study. the goodness of fit in sem em model needed to be tested before it was used. the result can be seen in table 6. table 6 result of the goodness of fit the goodness of fit index cut-off* results fit criteria chi-square 1450.022 probability ≥ 0.05 0.000 marginal g f i ≥ 0.90 0.882 marginal a g f i ≥ 0.90 0.851 marginal t l i ≥ 0.90 0.926 fit c f i ≥ 0.90 0.936 fit n f i ≥ 0.90 0.926 fit i f i ≥ 0.90 0.936 fit rmsea 0.05 0.08 0.075 fit * source:(hair et al., 1998) chandra, t., et al. this study applied 8 measurements of the goodness of fit as seen in table 6. it indicates that only five out of eight measurements are categorized as fit, namely: tli, cfi, nfi, ifi, and rmsea. meanwhile, chi-square, gfi, and agfi are categorized as marginal. the gfi value reaches 0.882 and agfi value is 0.851, which is close to the critical value (0.9). hence, it is not categorized as ‘not applicable’ and is still acceptable. the high value of chi-square and a probability value of 0.000 was caused by the big amount of sample (n=200). therefore, the probability was not able to be calculated (hair et al., 1998). overall, the sem model is good and still acceptable for further analysis. analysis of variance analysis of variance (anova) was to examine different responses from respondents with various demographic profiles to have a better understanding of their behaviors, as is presented in table 7. table 7 anova result for age, gender, university type, major, and occupation. construct indicator mean f-test indicator construct age gender university type major occupation s e rv ic e q u a li ty ( x 1 ) x11 5.456 5.258 4.350*** 0.095 0.551 5.250*** 1.205 x12 5.196 11.316*** 1.137 13.988*** 7.536*** 0.003 x13 5.355 12.236*** 0.022 0.174 7.939*** 0.004 x14 5.370 8.320*** 5.487** 0.388 4.812*** 1.138 x15 5.256 11.345*** 1.989 6.028** 7.463*** 1.218 x16 4.950 13.796*** 1.488 21.828*** 9.043*** 0.200 x17 4.914 15.571*** 2.262 27.248*** 8.314*** 1.480 x18 5.338 10.267*** 7.134*** 50.350*** 11.640*** 3.665* x19 5.267 8.934*** 9.297*** 50.000*** 11.134*** 2.661 x110 5.338 10.086*** 5.823** 19.484*** 8.401*** 0.089 x111 5.286 4.680*** 0.743 35.419*** 6.397*** 1.336 x112 5.367 4.250*** 0.031 35.419*** 7.492*** 1.372 s tu d e n t s a ti sf a c ti o n (y 1 ) y11 5.624 5.585 2.976** 1.252 0.567 5.379*** 2.186 y12 5.845 1.925 0.011 3.027* 3.964*** 4.023** y13 5.664 2.788** 0.115 0.046 6.291*** 2.607 y14 5.690 2.518* 0.002 1.330 3.684*** 2.161 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 construct indicator mean f-test indicator construct age gender university type major occupation y15 5.317 7.689*** 1.404 14.635*** 7.670*** 0.110 y16 5.372 3.002** 0.186 0.642 8.154*** 0.200 s tu d e n t l o y a lt y ( y 2 ) y21 5.704 5.676 2.540* 0.009 1.478 6.145*** 6.860** * y22 5.593 4.477*** 0.356 2.221 4.322*** 3.608* y23 5.639 5.432*** 0.384 1.343 3.814*** 4.738** y24 5.610 2.839** 0.722 0.404 5.748*** 11.363* ** y25 5.834 1.761 0.077 0.213 2.855*** 0.680 *=p-value<0.1, **=p-value<0.05, ***=p-value<0.01 the average responses on service quality the respondents got from the campus are just normal (5.26). it indicates that the service quality of the existing higher education institutions in riau province is still not that good. the complaints generally revolved around the campus admin service in keeping and collecting data (4.95) and the less clean and comfortable classes (4.91). meanwhile, based on the age range, students with the age of 21-24 years old complained a lot about the campus service quality (5.01). students with the age above 30 years old gave good scores on the service quality they obtained (5.82). most students with the age of 17-20 years old got good service quality from the campus. this was due to the new environment that they felt in the campus compared to their previous schools which made them to have higher tolerance level. as time passed, they did not notice any changes in the campus, hence, those students who have completed almost half of their studies would feel that the service was lower than expected. it explained the reason for lower scores on service quality for students with the age of 21-24 years old. the students with the age of 25-30 years old and above 30 years old are mostly pursuing master degree whereby the service given will be better. it made them experienced greater service quality compared to their juniors. based on students’ gender, women are generally more sensitive towards service quality than men. women required the more responsive and contactable lecturers. they also asked for counseling service from the campus. moreover, they demanded enhancement in the laboratory and library. they differ from the men who are generally more tolerant. nevertheless, there was indifferent perception among students based on their working status. chandra, t., et al. based on the university types, it turns out that service quality given by private university / college (5.40) was better than public universities (5.05). the plus points lies on the quality of lecturers in teaching, polite and helpful admin staff, well-kept and accessible database record, clean and comfortable classrooms, proper library and laboratory, existence of student counseling service, and safe and comfortable campus environment. based on students’ majors, the lowest service quality was felt by students majoring in nursing (4.63), followed by the business major (5.01). nursing major was found in private universities / colleges, while business major was partly from the public universities. the best service quality was obtained by radiology students (6.21), followed by computer science students (6.18), and hospital administration students (6.06). these three majors were from private universities / colleges. it explains that despite lower service quality in public universities compared to private ones, the service quality in private universities / colleges did not spread evenly. thus, variance quality among private universities was very big. the best and the worst service quality can be found in private universities / colleges. generally, the student satisfaction in this research was quite good (5.59). based on the age range, students with the age of 21-24 years old were less satisfied. it was consistent with their low scores on service quality. students with the age range from 25 to 30 above 30 had higher level of satisfaction along with their high scores in service quality. based on gender, although women were more sensitive than men in service quality, they have equal level of satisfaction with the male students. meanwhile there was not much difference in the perception of working and non-working students on satisfaction. based on the university status, despite the better scores on service quality for private universities / colleges, both private (5.59) and public universities (5.58) had indifferent overall scores for student satisfaction. dissatisfaction of public universities students lies on the lower administration service (5.14). reviewing from the students’ majors, the dissatisfaction came from automotive engineering students (4.84), nursing students (4.94), and public health students (5.08). the satisfied students were found in hospital administration (6.29), radiology (6.18), and computer science (6.07). all these majors were from the private universities / colleges. these findings support the notion of high bias in private universities / colleges. the highest and the lowest student satisfaction can be found in private universities / colleges. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 in general, the level of student loyalty in riau province was quite good (5.68). based on the age range, students with the age of 21-24 years old were less loyal (5.54) than other students. it shows that the low service quality that they obtained resulted in lower satisfaction and made them to be less loyal. based on the gender, there were no meaningful difference of student loyalty level between men and women. however, based on the students’ working status, nonworking students were more loyal (5.72) than the working ones (5.51). this is because nonworking students were more active in the campus activities, hence, they had higher emotional bound than the working students. based on the university status, both public and private universities / colleges students had the same level of loyalty. therefore, although the perception of service quality obtained by students in public universities was lower than private ones, student satisfaction for both types of universities / colleges was not too different. based on the students’ majors, the more loyal students were found in hospital administration (6.90), radiology (6.37), computer science (6.07), and economic (5.94).while the less loyal students were found in nursing (5.06), public health (5.13), and midwifery (5.13). these findings reinforced the idea that students who obtained higher level of service quality will be more satisfied and hence, become more loyal. conversely, students who does not obtain good service quality will feel less satisfied and thus, less loyal. it is consistent with the study done by annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a & 2016b) in india and duarte et al. (2012) in portugal. empirical results after the test results of the survey and goodness of fit of the model were obtained, hypothesis testing was done using sem which was seen in table 8 and figure 2. table 8 final estimation of measurement model parameters hypotheses exogenous variable endogenous variable standardized coefficient critical ratio p-value conclusion h1 service quality student satisfaction 0.592 18.312 0.000 significant h2 service quality student loyalty -0.003 -0.130 0.897 insignificant h3 student satisfaction student loyalty 0.926 25.188 0.000 significant chandra, t., et al. figure 2. final estimation of measurement model parameters hypothesis 1 was accepted as service quality has a positive influence on student satisfaction, and it resulted in a positive and significant relationship. hypothesis 3 was accepted as student satisfaction has a positive influence on student loyalty. however, hypothesis 2 was rejected as there was no significant influence on service quality and student loyalty. discussion, conclusion and implications in conclusion, the results indicated that there were positive influences of service quality on student satisfaction, meaning that student satisfaction can be increased by improving service quality. this corresponds to the studies done by alves & raposo (2009); annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a & 2016b); duarte et al. (2012); and khoo et al. (2015), yet it is different from the findings of the study conducted by dib & mokhles (2013). the findings indicate that serious attention to service quality provided by universities and colleges in riau province is needed because the better the service qualities are provided, the higher the student satisfaction will be. these are suggested by the low rate of student satisfaction with the service quality given to the students in the age group of 21-24 years and students majoring nursing, public health, and automotive engineering. important points for service quality improvement were in the class comfort, cleanliness and the accuracy of student administration data. for public university students, although the service quality provided was lower than the private institutions, it did not affect their loyalty due to their preference in selecting public universities. nevertheless, it can become a serious problem if there are new and better universities/colleges in the future. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 the score of service quality of higher education in riau province was 5.26 which was considered as normal. it shows that the service quality of higher education in riau province is still not that high. it will make the good students to opt for better education outside riau province, such as malaysia and singapore. both malaysia and singapore are the closest neighbor countries to riau province with world class higher education quality. they indeed offered strong competitors. with the absence of world standard higher education institutions in riau province, both local universities / colleges and indonesian government are facing high challenges in improving higher education quality in riau province. this research did not found any influence of service quality on student loyalty. therefore, the improvement in service quality of higher education in riau province will not have much effect on the student loyalty. this finding corresponds with the study conducted by dib & mokhles (2013). on the other hand, student satisfaction had a significant influence on student loyalty, meaning that satisfied students will be more loyal. this finding is consistent with the research done by annamdevula & bellamkonda (2016a, 2016b); duarte et al. (2012). good service quality does not guarantee student loyalty, but the well-accepted one can increase student satisfaction which leads to student loyalty. measuring service quality without measuring student satisfaction was not effective to increase student loyalty. as was revealed by dib & mokhles (2013) in their study in syria, they found the influence of student satisfaction to student loyalty. however, there was no evidence of the effect of service quality to student loyalty. therefore, students who are satisfied due to good service quality have more loyalty, proved by the students in the age group of 21-24 years who got lower service quality had lower student satisfaction and student loyalty. the same result was obtained based on student majors. on the contrary, based on the university type, despite the low service quality received by students in public universities/colleges, they did not lower their satisfaction and had a higher loyalty than students in private universities/colleges. the competition among higher education institutions in riau province and other places is very tight and pushes universities and colleges to keep improving their service quality in order to meet the market demands. a good service quality increases the student satisfaction and leads to student loyalty because the level of service quality determines the number of students enrolled in universities/colleges (chen, 2016). students prefer universities and colleges that provide good service quality and high satisfaction (tahir et al., 2010). for private institutions, improvement in chandra, t., et al. service quality is compulsory. campus facilities are important points, especially classroom facilities, cleanliness and comfort, and improvement in student administration data. it corresponds with a study in malaysia (mansori et al., 2014) which found the importance in improvement of campus facilities in private universities. from the respondents’ responses, students from hospital administration and radiology had the best service quality, student satisfaction, and student loyalty. however, the hospital administration only consisted of 4 respondents and radiology with 14 respondents; hence, these numbers are not able to represent the whole students in these majors. the future research should reinvestigate with more respondents especially in these two majors to examine the consistency of this study. since the determination values (r2) are 0.350 (student satisfaction) and 0.854 (student loyalty), further studies need to be conducted to examine the result consistency and improve the determination by adding new variables. one possible variable is the image of an institution, especially for public universities. regarding the characteristic differences of the respondents between public and private universities/colleges, it is necessary to conduct research looking into the two types of universities separately in the future. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 references abdullah, f. (2006). measuring service quality in higher education: hedperf versus servperf. marketing intelligence & planning, 24(1), 31–47. http://doi.org/10.1108/02634500610641543 afridi, s. a., khattak, a., & khan, a. (2016). measurement of service quality gap in the selected private universities/institutes of peshawar using servqual model. city university research journal, 6(1), 61–69. retrieved from http://www.cityuniversity.edu.pk/curj/journals/journal/jan 2016/artcile 05a.pdf alves, h., & raposo, m. (2007). conceptual model of student satisfaction in higher education. total quality management and business excellence, 18(5), 571–588. http://doi.org/10.1080=14783360601074315 alves, h., & raposo, m. (2009). the measurement of the construct satisfaction in higher education. service industries journal, 29(2), 203–218. http://doi.org/10.1080/02642060802294995 anderson, e. w., fornell, c., & lehmann, d. r. (1994). customer satisfaction, market share, and profitability: findings from sweden. journal of marketing, 58(3), 53. http://doi.org/10.2307/1252310 annamdevula, s., & bellamkonda, r. s. (2016a). effect of student perceived service quality on student satisfaction, loyalty and motivation in indian university. journal of service management, 11(2), 488–517. http://doi.org/10.1108/mbe-09-2016-0047 annamdevula, s., & bellamkonda, r. s. (2016b). the effects of service quality on student loyalty: the mediating role of student satisfaction. journal of service management, 11(2), 446–462. http://doi.org/doi 10.1108/jm2-04-2014-0031 arambewela, r., & hall, j. (2006). a comparative analysis of international education satisfaction using servqual. journal of services research, 6, 141–163. retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&an=22535699&site=ehostlive bolton, r. n., lemon, k. n., & verhoef, p. c. (2004). the theoretical underpinnings of customer asset management : a framework and propositions for future research. journal of the academy of marketing science, 32(3), 271–292. http://doi.org/doh chandra, t., et al. 10.1177/0092070304263341 calvo-porral, c., lévy-mangin, j.-p., & novo-corti, i. (2013). perceived quality in higher education: an empirical study. marketing intelligence & planning, 31(6), 601–619. http://doi.org/10.1108/mip-11-2012-0136 chen, y. (2016). an empirical study on the student experience of higher education service quality in taiwan. international journal of management sciences, 6(12), 582–594. cronin, j. j., & taylor, s. a. (1992). measuring service quality: a reexamination and extension. journal of marketing, 56(3), 55. http://doi.org/10.2307/1252296 de jager, j., & gbadamosi, g. (2010). specific remedy for specific problem: measuring service quality in south african higher education. higher education, 60(3), 251–267. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9298-6 dib, h., & mokhles, a. (2013). the impact of service quality on student satisfaction and behavioral consequences in higher education services. international journal of economy, management and social sciences, 2(6), 285–290. http://doi.org/10.5296/jmr.v2i2.418 duarte, p. o., raposo, m. b., & alves, h. b. (2012). using a satisfaction index to compare students’ satisfaction during and after higher education service consumption. tertiary education and management, 18(1), 17–40. http://doi.org/10.1080/13583883.2011.609564 duffy, d. l. (2003). internal and external factors which affect customer loyalty. journal of consumer marketing, 20(5), 480–485. http://doi.org/10.1108/07363760310489715 hair, j. f. j., anderson, r. e., tatham, r. l., & black, w. c. (1998). multivariate data analysis (fifth edit). prentice hall internatiional, inc. henning-thurau, t., langer, m. f., & hansen, u. (2001). modeling and managing student loyalty—an approach based on the concept of relationship quality. journal of service research, 3(4), 331–344. http://doi.org/doi=10.1.1.456.6663 heung, v. c., mok, c., & kwan, a. (1996). brand loyalty in hotels: an exploratory study of overseas visitor to hong kong. australian journal of hospitality management, 3(1), 1–11. kanakana, m. g. (2014). assessing service quality in higher education using the servqual tool. in international conference on industrial engineering and operations management (vol. 1, pp. 68–74). bali. retrieved from http://iieom.org/ieom2014/pdfs/24.pdf khoo, s., ha, h., & mcgregor, s. l. t. (2015). service quality and student/ customer satisfaction in the private tertiary education sector in singapore. journal of service journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 109-131 management, 26(2), 430–444. http://doi.org/10.1108/mbe-09-2016-0047 kitapci, o., & taylan, d. (2009). the differences in customer complaint behaviour between loyal customers and first comers in the retail banking industry: the case of turkish customers. management research news, 32(10), 932–941. http://doi.org/doi10.1108/01409170910994141 lagrosen, s., seyyed‐hashemi, r., & leitner, m. (2004). examination of the dimensions of quality in higher education. quality assurance in education, 12(2), 61–69. http://doi.org/10.1108/09684880410536431 mahapatra, s. s., & khan, m. s. (2007). a framework for analysing quality in education settings. european journal of engineering education, 32(2), 205–217. http://doi.org/10.1080/03043790601118606 mansori, s., vaz, a., & ismail, z. m. m. (2014). service quality, satisfaction and student loyalty in malaysian private education. asian social science, 10(7), 57–66. http://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n7p57 marzo navarro, m., pedraja iglesias, m., & rivera torres, p. (2005). a new management element for universities: satisfaction with the offered courses. international journal of educational management, 19(6), 505–526. http://doi.org/10.1108/09513540510617454 ngo, m. v., & nguyen, h. h. (2016). the relationship between service quality, customer satisfaction and customer loyalty: an investigation in vietnamese retail banking sector. journal of competitiveness, 8(2), 103–116. http://doi.org/10.7441/joc.2016.02.08 oliver, r. l. (1989). processing of the satisfaction response in consumption: a suggested framework and research propositions. journal of consumer satisfaction, dissatisfaction & complaining behavior. http://doi.org/10.1086/209358 parasuraman, a., zeithaml, v. a, & berry, l. l. (1988). serqual: a multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality. journal of retailing, 64(1), 12–40. http://doi.org/10.1016/s0148-2963(99)00084-3 parasuraman, a, zeithaml, v. a, & berry, l. l. (1985). a conceptual model of service quality and its implications for future research. the journal of marketing, 49(4), 41–50. http://doi.org/10.2307/1251430 sekaran, u. (2003). reseach methods for business, a skill building approach (fourth edi). john wiley & son, inc. chandra, t., et al. senthilkumar, n., & arulraj, a. (2011). sqm‐hei – determination of service quality measurement of higher education in india. journal of modelling in management, 6(1), 60– 78. http://doi.org/10.1108/17465661111112502 seth, n., deshmukh, s. g., & vrat, p. (2005). service quality models: a review. international journal of quality & reliability management, 22(9), 913–949. http://doi.org/10.1108/02656710510625211 stevens, p., knutson, b., & patton, m. (1995). dineserv: a tool for measuring serqual restaurants. cornell hotel and restaurant administration quarterly, 36(2), 56–60. http://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-8804(95)93844-k sultan, p., & yin wong, h. (2010). service quality in higher education – a review and research agenda. international journal of quality and service sciences, 2(2), 259–272. http://doi.org/10.1108/17566691011057393 tahir, i. m., bakar, n. m. a., & ismail, w. z. w. (2010). importance-performance analysis of service quality among business students: an exploratory study. interdiciplinary journal of contempory research of business, 2(1), 330–341. retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/202009720_importance_performance_analysis_o f_service_quality_among_business_students_an_exploratory_study tse, d. k., & wilton, p. c. (1998). models of customer satisfaction formation: an extension. journal of marketing research, 25(2), 204–212. yousapronpaiboon, k. (2014). servqual: measuring higher education service quality in thailand. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 116, 1088–1095. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.350 zeithaml, v. a., berry, l. l., & parasuraman, a. (1996). the behavioral consequences of service quality. journal of marketing, 60(2), 31. http://doi.org/10.2307/1251929 http://doi.org/10.2307/1251929 undergraduates’ perspectives and challenges of online learning during the covid 19 pandemic: a case of the university of jordan www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (1), 149-173 undergraduates’ perspectives and challenges of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic: a case from the university of jordan suhair jaradat1 & aseel ajlouni2 abstract the covid-19 pandemic has affected many countries and has had a serious impact on education around the globe. jordan has followed strict nationwide procedures to stop the spread of the virus, one of which has been school closures and a shift to online learning. the purpose of this study was to investigate students’ perspectives of online learning at the university of jordan and determine the challenges they experienced as a result of shifting from face-to-face learning to a fully online learning environment. the study took a quantitative approach, using a web-based questionnaire to collect data from 398 undergraduate students enrolled at the school of educational science at the university of jordan. the data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. the results revealed that students preferred an online learning environment to face-to-face learning and perceived the former as being very useful. however, students encountered some challenges, such as mental health issues (anxiety and stress), unreliable internet connections, slow e-learning platforms and services, a lack of information and communication technology skills, poor time management skills, and distractions. these findings highlight the importance of providing students with counseling services for mental health, technical support, and training in time management skills to improve their online learning experiences. keywords: online learning; student perspectives, challenges, undergraduate, covid-19 introduction the new coronavirus (covid-19) emerged in wuhan city, china, at the end of 2019 (chahrour et al., 2020) and quickly spread to other countries. the world health organization (who, 2021) reported that there have been 99,864,391 confirmed covid-19 cases and 2,149,700 deaths, and the numbers are still increasing. the covid-19 pandemic has affected almost the entire world, and countries have closed their borders and restricted or completely terminated immigration (mccorkle, 2020). this pandemic has negatively affected the economy, social life, and educational facilities and services around the world (cakin, & kulekci akyavuz, 2021; farooq et al., 2020; niemi & kousa, 2020; nnebedum, obuegbe, & nwafor, 2021; paudel, 2021; unger & meiran, 2020). hundreds of 1 dr., the university of jordan, s.jaradat@ju.edu.jo 2 dr., the university of jordan, a.ajlouni@ju.edu.jo journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 millions of students have been affected because of nationwide lockdowns, which have taken place in the vast majority of the world’s countries (unesco, 2020). educational institutions suddenly shifted their courses away from a face-to-face approach to online classes to try to stop the spread of the coronavirus. as a result of this quick shift in the instructional delivery approach, decision makers, as well as instructors, initiated the exploration of opinions, aids, and resources for transferring face-to-face courses to online teaching. several technological tools and materials have been used in online courses in order to activate learning and instructional processes during the covid-19 pandemic, including synchronous and asynchronous communication tools, such as zoom, microsoft teams, moodle, blackboard, and google classrooms. the selection of the technological tools to be used was based on their convenience for the instructors or administrators and/or the availability of the tools. this quick and necessary transition forced schools to use the available tools to produce online learning resources and environments for different academic disciplines (kaur, 2020). as a result, learning and teaching processes have faced several challenges during this pandemic (crawford et al., 2020). educational institutions must persist in addressing several short-term online learning issues and challenges, such as those regarding pedagogical practice and long-term effects, such as budget cuts, the failure to meet students’ basic needs, and mental health issues (ajlouni & almahaireh, 2020; araújo et al., 2020; yang et al., 2020). in contrast, rajab et al. (2020) stated that other critics have expected a constructive (positive) influence of this pandemic. they predicted that it would lead to wider onlineand technology-based educational acceptance. the practices of online learning can significantly encourage educational equity through offering flexibility in terms of the learning place and time; enhancing administrative, communicative, and educational qualities; and supporting learning using limited resources and infrastructure (isaac et al., 2019). novikov (2020) indicated that the speed of adaptation to online learning is specified by students’ learning abilities in addition to different psychological and technological factors. the efficiency of online learning varies between educational institutions around the world. it will be more efficient in digitally advanced countries and less efficient in rural, marginalized communities and in countries that are used to handling academic and administrative activities with a more face-toface approach (basilaia & kvavadze, 2020; salam et al., 2017; wains & mahmood, 2008). https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/educational-equity jaradat & ajlouni 151 when it comes to the jordanian educational setting, online classes were recently established as the mode of instructional delivery as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. previously, online classes had not been part of the regular programs in jordanian public schools and universities, but several universities and schools offered e-learning tools, such as the learning management systems (lmss) of moodle, blackboard, edunation, and darsak, which were utilized to help teachers and their students to navigate through the learning material effectively and to enable online collaborations. the university of jordan adopted a blended learning approach, which incorporates the advantages of online and face-to-face learning (alameri et al., 2019). more specifically, during the covid19 pandemic, the university of jordan was among several institutions that quickly transitioned to online courses in order to maintain its learning and teaching processes by using lms moodle and microsoft teams for asynchronous and synchronous communication. the benefits of online learning and the challenges that students and instructors face have been specified in several studies, but none of these studies considered the influence of the covid-19 pandemic on online learning from jordanian students’ perspectives and in terms of the particular challenges they face. studying and examining students’ perspectives and the challenges regarding online learning across different educational institutions in jordan will help stakeholders and decision makers evaluate and enhance the quality of online learning under the new circumstances. toquero (2020) highlighted the need to improve curriculum practices to make them more responsive to students’ needs. he recommended that educational institutions conduct studies and document the effects of the covid-19 pandemic on the educational system. only a few studies have examined the effect of the covid-19 pandemic on learning processes among jordanian students. these issues stress the importance of this research in terms of obtaining an improved understanding of students’ views and the challenges of online learning during this pandemic in the context of online education in jordan. aim of the study based on the underlying problem, this study aims to reveal the perspectives of undergraduate students and the challenges they face with regard to online learning at the school of educational sciences (soes) at the university of jordan during the covid-19 pandemic by finding answers to the following research questions: https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/jehad-alameri-2168727396?_sg=031ptujskfbkp3l5fxzbx-xuum3pwesq5g7jepxoslcfpmcwjyr_1gu_n5qu9wkw6agrqiu.rtvy1h5tq1lupe7dzkf5_x40vd7b2f9fgmsdp37xjswua6eris1cxnv7zkllowzd7i3bjnnunacnorndjkcukg journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 1. what are the undergraduate students’ perspectives of online learning at the soes at the university of jordan? 2. what are the challenges that undergraduate students face during online learning in various subjects at the soes at the university of jordan? literature review online learning is more convenient since it permits students to learn at their own pace and in their own time (sit et al., 2005). in online learning, teachers and their students are separated by a physical space. technology is used to bridge this spatial gap and acts as the medium of delivery for the teaching and learning experience to make it more interactive for learners. this new mode of instruction provides students with appropriate flexibility, and it can be performed at any time and in any place without the need to be on a campus. however, there are a number of influences that impact the effectiveness of an online learning environment. some of these include distractions and family obligations, time management skills, motivation, and the availability of resources (kalman et al., 2020). in addition, several challenges exist regarding the development of learner-centered settings, for example, those concerning academic staff who progressively require higher levels of technological competency and proficiency in addition to their regular academic workloads (gillett-swan, 2017; swan, 2005). one theory connected with online learning is online collaborative learning theory. this theory concentrates on the internet as a learning resource for promoting collaboration and knowledge construction (demuyakor, 2020). in addition, constructivism is one of the most promising avenues for using technology in education as it is applied in distance education (doolittle & hicks, 2003; moller, 1998). constructivism highlights the active role played by learners in the construction of knowledge through social interaction with one another. with the facilitation of the instructors, learners use their individual experiences and prior knowledge to add to their new experiences (huang, 2002; ornstein & hunkins, 1998). constructivism theory has a great impact on both the learner and the instructor as the instructor’s role changes from that of someone who relays knowledge to that of a facilitator who guides learning. learners gradually become more active in acquiring knowledge. this impacts the teaching/learning process in terms of integrating with technology in education (aldoobie, 2015). jaradat & ajlouni 153 constructivist principles afford ideas and thoughts that help online instructors to build learnercentered environments and make the whole process more interactive and collaborative (jonassen et al., 1995). to align with constructivism, the environment needs to be active, collaborative, constructive, intentional, conversational, conceptualized, and reflective. instructional designers can incorporate constructivist strategies to improve their pedagogical practice and move toward a more progressive learning environment with technology as a support system (tenenbaum et al., 2001). online instructors can implement the instructional principles derived from constructivism, such as interactive learning, collaborative learning, facilitative learning, authentic learning, learnercentered learning, and high-quality learning, into their teaching and the designing of online courses (huang, 2002). in fact, establishing a rich learning environment is one of the most vital parts of constructivist instruction (carwile, 2007). under this new paradigm, several tools and technologies can be used to support online learning and facilitate instruction, such as online discussion groups and hypermedia (huang, 2002). regardless of the theory or model of learning, there are certain characteristics that help students to succeed in online learning, such as adaptability, organizational skills, and self-awareness (kalman et al., 2020). ramachandran and rodriguez (2020) demonstrated that undergraduate students who enrolled in an online chemistry course during the pandemic benefited the most from a mixture of watching and recording live lectures, the opportunity to reflect on course material, working on problem sets as a group, and extra practice such as homework and worksheets. many researchers have tried to study online instruction modes related to the covid-19 pandemic. some of these studies investigated the perspectives and/or perceptions of students with regard to online learning (ananga, 2020; atabey, 2021; elsaheli-elhage, 2021; hebebci, bertiz, & alan, 2020; ilhan, kaba, & sin, 2021; marpa, 2021). for example, zhu et al. (2020) conducted a study on university students and found that students’ attitudes toward online learning were generally positive and increased on completion of the course, and that their continuous intention to learn online was significantly predicted by self-regulatory factors and attitudes, mediated through perceived online social interactions. kalman et al. (2020) also conducted a study among undergraduate institutions in georgia and found that students in upper-level chemistry courses fostered adaptability, improved their organizational and self-awareness skills, developed a passion journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 for the subjects they learned, and became more successful in their online learning, even with a difficult subject matter. similarly, agarwal and kaushik (2020) conducted a study on 77 pediatric students who joined online courses using zoom during the covid-19 pandemic, and they revealed that the majority of the participants found online learning relevant to their learning needs and clinical practice as they found it to be interesting and enjoyable and they were motivated by it; they all agreed that online classes should become a part of the medical postgraduate curriculum. in his study, demuyakor (2020) demonstrated that higher education ghanaian students enrolled in online courses in china perceived online learning as being very beneficial; moreover, the majority of them agreed that online learning is effective. in contrast, owusu-fordjour et al. (2020) reported a negative impact of the covid-19 pandemic on ghanaian students’ learning. nambiar (2020) also revealed that the majority of indian university students preferred a face-to-face teaching method to online teaching. according to their perceptions, online teaching lacked quality. similarly, adnan and anwar (2020) also conducted a study that explored the attitudes of pakistani students toward higher education distance learning; it highlighted that distance learning cannot produce favorable results in underdeveloped countries, such as pakistan, and reported several barriers. likewise, xhelili et al. (2021) investigated albanian students’ perceptions of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic and found that students had a more positive attitude toward the classroom learning environment. in jordan, no study has yet investigated students’ perspectives or attitudes toward online learning during the covid-19 pandemic, but al-shboul et al. (2017) observed a positive perspective of the implementation of information and communication technology (ict) in teaching and learning processes before the pandemic. there is a clear gap in the literature with regard to the challenges and influences of online learning during this pandemic in the context of jordan. to enhance online learning quality, researchers in some countries explored the obstacles and challenges facing students during their online learning experiences. for example, farooq et al. (2020) conducted a study in pakistan and identified the challenges medical students have faced during the pandemic, which related to understanding the dynamics of online learning, internet connectivity, engagement, assessments, and the lack of faculty member training and institutional support. jaradat & ajlouni 155 koi-akrofi et al. (2020) conducted an analysis of the current literature on the challenges of online learning and found that such learning entails more challenges than other face-to-face and blended learning. the principal ones related to the lack of adequate time to study and the shortage of teaching and learning materials. xhelili et al. (2021) evaluated albanian students’ perceptions of their online learning and the challenges they faced with regard to it during the covid-19 pandemic. the results indicated that the major challenges students encountered were the unavailability of an internet connection and the lack of technological devices. in pakistan, adnan and anwar (2020) reported that the majority of pakistani higher education students could not access the internet due to several issues, and as a result, they lacked interaction with their instructors. meanwhile, in ghana, owusu-fordjour et al. (2020) employed quantitative research that involved 214 ghanaian students, demonstrating that they were unable to study effectively as e-learning posed challenges for the majority of them due to their limited access to the internet and their lack of technical skills. similarly, demuyako (2020) found that the major challenges faced by ghanaian students studying online were the cost of internet, learner isolation, differences in time zones, and slow internet speed. in india, nambiar (2020) investigated how indian university students face some barriers, like technical issues, a lack of structure, problems concerning the flow of their classes, and a lack of interest and motivation. other researchers, like agarwal and kaushik (2020), investigated how medical and science majors encountered time limitations in terms of the sessions as well as technical issues. similarly, rajab et al. (2020) reported some challenges that the medical students of the college of medicine of alfaisal university in saudi arabia faced, including communication issues, assessments, the use of ict tools, online experiences, mental health influences such as anxiety or stress, time management, and technophobia. furthermore, ramachandran and rodriguez (2020) identified distractions and a lack of focus and motivation as challenges among undergraduate chemistry students. in the jordanian context, the literature generally lacks studies that have examined the challenges faced by online students, and this is the first study to examine the challenges that online students have faced during the pandemic. al-shboul (2019) identified major factors that affect faculty members in jordanian universities when using ict in the teaching and learning process: a lack of ict skills, pedagogical training, confidence, a suitable educational system, and software, and the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 inflexible structure of the educational systems and curricula. similarly, al-shboul et al. (2017) revealed that the majority of jordanian universities are not interested in ict services because they do not trust such technology and have financial issues with regard to owning such services. during the covid-19 pandemic, a few studies have been conducted to explore the challenges students face with their online learning. almaiah et al. (2020) employed a thematic analysis study by conducting interviews with 61 participants from 6 universities in jordan and saudi arabia. the results showed that management, technical, and financial issues were the main difficulties that hindered e-learning system usage. although the study was conducted in 6 universities in saudi arabia and jordan, all students in the study were from king faisal university in saudi arabia, while faculty members in the study were from universities in jordan. similarly, rababah (2020) conducted a study of english language students from jadara university in jordan. it included just twelve students and showed the challenges that they faced, with three of these being the scarcity of effective training, the lack of accessibility, and the inconsistent teaching styles of instructors. furthermore, almaiah et al. (2020) identified that these challenges varied between countries with relation to the differences in their cultures, contexts, and readiness. to sum up, there is conflict and ambiguity in the results of the studies regarding the critical challenges and aspects that influence the effectiveness of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. for instance, jordanian studies are very limited in number, and therefore researchers should conduct more studies to investigate the barriers and challenges faced by jordanian students. it is the objective of this current study to complement the existing literature by exploring jordanian undergraduates’ perspectives on online learning during the covid-19 pandemic and the main challenges they face. this could provide more insight into the challenges faced in developing countries. methods design we implemented survey-based research with a quantitative approach to collecting data to examine the perspectives of undergraduates from the soes at the university of jordan and the challenges they face in terms of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. this design used an electronic survey, which was appropriate for the purpose of the study, especially during the covid-19 pandemic when students are off campus. prior to the covid-19 crisis, the university jaradat & ajlouni 157 of jordan offered some blended learning courses that merged face-to-face learning with online learning. during the covid-19 pandemic, all courses were shifted to the online learning mode. the participants, data collection, and procedure a total of 2116 undergraduate students from the soes were invited to participate in the study. however, the study sample comprised 389 undergraduate students (362 females and 27 males) who were enrolled in at least one online course during the first semester of the 2020/2021 academic year. this was a sufficient sample for the objective of this study since it is more than the required sample size specified by the raosoft sample size calculator, with a 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence interval. the required consent was obtained from the institutional board at the university of jordan and from the study participants before starting the study. data were gathered using an online questionnaire. the researchers asked undergraduate instructors in the soes to distribute the webbased questionnaire hyperlink to their students using several tools (e.g., microsoft teams, email, moodle, and whatsapp) and to encourage them to respond. a perspectives and challenges of online learning questionnaire (pclq) was used to collect data on undergraduates’ perspectives regarding the new online learning experience. all undergraduate students who were enrolled in an online course at the soes were invited to complete the questionnaire through their instructors. data were collected over the two weeks following the students’ exposure to the online learning experience, where the learning took place via both asynchronous and synchronous tools, including moodle and microsoft team, respectively. the result was a convenient sample consisting of all the students who were willing to participate in the study. table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the respondents. table 1 demographic characteristics of the respondents (n = 389) p f characteristic no 6.9 27 male gender 1. 93.1 362 female 10.5 41 library and information science major 2. 36.2 141 classroom teacher 3. 22.1 86 early childhood education 15.7 61 counseling and mental health 15.4 60 special education 15.7 61 excellent gpa 3. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 55.5 216 very good 25.7 100 good 3.1 12 poor 15.2 59 freshman school year 4. 34.4 134 sophomore 19.5 76 junior 30.8 120 senior 12.1 47 beginner online learning experience 5. 61.4 239 intermediate 26.5 103 advanced note. f: frequency, p: percentage, gpa: grade point average. in total, 389 students responded to the questionnaire (93.1% were female and 6.9% were male). among all the educational science majors, 10.5% were from library and information science, 36.2% were classroom teacher majors, 22.1% were from early childhood education, 15.7% were from counseling and mental health, and 15.4% were special education majors. the cumulative average of the respondents ranged from poor to excellent. a total of 15.2% of the respondents reported that they were freshmen students, and 34.4%, 19.5%, and 30.8% were sophomores, juniors, and seniors, respectively. among the respondents, 12.1% had little or no experience in online learning (beginners), 61.4% of them had an intermediate level of experience, and 26.5% reported having advanced experience in online learning. table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the respondents. study instrument to gather data for this study, a web-based, self-administered questionnaire called the pclq was developed based on the existing literature in the domain of students’ perspectives of online learning and the challenges faced (aboagye et al., 2020; adnan & anwar, 2020; amir et al., 2020; owusu-fordjour et al., 2020; rajab et al., 2020; ramachandran & rodriguez, 2020) to assess the experiences of undergraduates from the soes. the instrument comprised 29 items divided into three parts: demographic information (5 items, 1–5), undergraduates’ perspectives (8 items, 6–13), and the challenges students face (16 items, 14–29). responses were measured on a 5-point likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). the questionnaire content validity was reviewed and verified by nine experts from the departments of curriculum and instruction, educational psychology, and educational technology from the schools of educational sciences at several jordanian universities. before the beginning of the data collection process, to ensure internal validity and reliability, a pilot test of the jaradat & ajlouni 159 questionnaire was administered to a pilot sample of 50 undergraduate students (41 females and 9 males) from the study population, who were then excluded from the study sample. pearson’s correlation coefficients and cronbach’s alphas were extracted separately for each subscale. the internal validity correlations for the undergraduates’ perspectives subscale ranged between 0.65 and 0.80 and were all statistically significant at p < 0.05, whereas the same ranged between 0.68 and 0.78 for the challenges in online learning subscale and were all statistically significant at p < 0.05. the researchers calculated the cronbach’s alphas to determine the internal consistency and reliability of the instrument: 0.89 for the undergraduates’ perspectives subscale and 0.94 for the challenges in online learning subscale. these values revealed that the research instrument is valid and reliable with the same number of items. the findings related to the students’ perspectives of online learning were indicated on a 5-point likert scale with equal 1.33 intervals in between the points. the ranges for these mean values were as follows: 1.0–2.33 indicated a low degree, 2.34– 3.66 indicated a moderate degree, and 3.67–5.0 indicated a high degree. data analysis the responses to the student questionnaire were first segregated into clusters of items associated with participants’ demographics (items #1-#5) reported earlier in table 1 and the two research questions (e.g. items 6-13 and 14-29). these item data were analyzed using the statistical product and service solutions (spss) to provide descriptive statistics, such as item means, standard deviations, and response frequencies and percentages. the descriptive results are summarized and discussed under the specific research questions in the following text. results and discussion research question 1: what are the undergraduate students’ perspectives of online learning at the soes at the university of jordan? to answer the first research question on the perspectives of undergraduate students at the soes regarding online learning (items 6–13 in the questionnaire), the researchers calculated frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations for each statement of the perspectives dimension. as shown in table 2, 62% of the respondents reported that they can study more efficiently with online learning when compared to face-to-face learning (m = 3.68), and 67.6% of the respondents preferred online learning to face-to-face learning (m = 3.90). this could be attributed to the fact journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 that students feel much safer at home with regard to the risk of getting infected with covid-19. besides, they do not have to go onto the campus, use transportation, or waste their time. however, this finding was inconsistent with amir et al.’s (2020) findings, which reported lower preferences toward online learning compared with traditional classroom methods, as well as with xhelili et al.’s (2021) study, which found that students had a more positive attitude toward a classroom learning environment. furthermore, 66.6% of respondents agreed that the online learning mode provides an effective way to explore the educational materials (m = 3.78); 58.6% of them feel comfortable communicating digitally (m = 3.61), while only 40.1% of students consider that completing their group projects and assignments digitally is an easy task, with the lowest mean (m = 3.15). this may be attributed to the absence of physical presence, which is different in a face-to-face classroom where there are more opportunities for learners to interact with each other and form social connections. in addition, some group members may have problems establishing contact with each other to talk about the work for group projects due to different timetables and locations. furthermore, communicating digitally does not include body language and/or facial expressions, which can help individuals to better understand each other in other situations. these results are in line with the findings of adnan and anwar’s study (2020), which showed that 77% of the respondents were comfortable with communicating digitally, while 45% of them could not easily complete their digital group projects and assignments. table 2 undergraduate responses regarding their perspectives on online learning m±sd sa p(f) a p(f) n p(f) d p(f) sd p(f) statement no 3.68±1.016 22.9% (89) 39.1% (152) 22.4% (87) 14.7% (57) 1% (4) online learning is more effective than face-to-face learning 6. 3.90±1.105 38.3% (149) 29.3% (114) 19.8% (77) 9.8% (38) 2.8% (11) online learning is preferred to face-to-face learning 7. 3.78±1.099 30.1% (117) 36.5% (142) 18% (70) 12.3% (48) 3.1% (12) online learning enables the effective exploration of educational materials 8. 3.61±1.061 22.1% (86) 36.5% (142) 23.4% (91) 15.9% (62) 2.1% (8) online learning allows for comfortable electronic communication 9. 3.15±1.138 14.1% (55) 26% (101) 25.7% (100) 29.3% (114) 4.9% (19) online learning makes it easier to complete group projects and assignments 10. 3.16±1.109 12.9% (50) 27.2% (106) 28% (109) 27% (105) 4.9% (19) online learning saves time for students 11. 3.39±1.080 17% (66) 30.8% (120) 29% (113) 20.1% (78) 3.1% (12) online learning enhances knowledge acquisition 12. 3.81±1.146 35.7% (139) 28.3% (110) 21.1% (82) 11.3% (44) 3.6% (14) online learning is perceived as a very useful delivery mode in the soes 13. 3.56±0.829 total note. f: frequency, p: percentage, sd: strongly disagree, d: disagree, n: neutral, a: agree, sa: strongly agree. jaradat & ajlouni 161 as shown in table 2, 40.1% of respondents agreed that online learning saved them time (m = 3.16). this means that 60% of the respondents did not benefit from the flexibility of online learning and did not find that it saved them time. this difference between students may be related to several potential factors. one possibility may be that some students found it difficult to navigate the materials online and had to spend more time figuring things out. another possibility is that some students found it difficult to complete group work efficiently online. in addition, not having reliable internet access at home (or internet access at all) may have forced some students to go elsewhere to do their work. some students may have also faced difficulties in terms of time management. this suggests that decision makers and instructors should investigate the reasons behind this finding and emphasize and foster time management and self-regulation skills to make the online learning experience a successful one. researchers have indicated that self-regulated learners know how to manage their time (de waard & kukulska-hulme, 2019). this result conflicts with an earlier study (amir et al., 2020), which showed that 87.9% of respondents found that online learning gave them more time to study. of the respondents, 47.8% reported that online learning enhanced their knowledge acquisition (m = 3.39), and 64% considered online learning at the soes to be a very useful mode for learning, with the highest mean of the scale (m = 3.81). in general, the students were optimistic about online learning (m = 3.56). their positive experiences may be related to the benefits and advantages of such learning, such as the flexibility of learning from any place and at any time. this flexibility allows students to learn from the comfort of their homes, and they can access learning materials multiple times for better comprehension. they also save time and money because there is no need for transportation, and they are able to simultaneously collaborate with others (mirkholikovna, 2020; omelchenko, 2020). moreover, undergraduate students’ experiences with online learning in the spring and summer semesters of 2020 during the covid-19 pandemic affected their positive perspectives. research has found that for a learning environment to be effective, it should be open, active, creative, collaborative, motivating, flexible in terms of learning tools, and receptive to students’ needs by providing them with direct experience and immediate feedback (khlaisang & mingsiritham, 2016; khlaisang & songkram, 2019). at the university of jordan, a strong technological infrastructure was established to provide both synchronous and asynchronous journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 communication tools to enhance interaction among students and instructors. this was critical given that social interaction is a vital factor in the success of online learning. social interaction occurs when students participate in tasks and learning activities that are facilitated by technology (tick, 2013). the university of jordan adopted the moodle lms in 2012 to support its face-to-face learning mode, and, during the covid-19 pandemic, it was used as the main tool for asynchronous communication when classes went online. instructors were able to use it to upload learning materials and assignments, create discussion forums, and post announcements about their courses. moodle can be accessed by all registered students from anywhere in the world using internet browsers (abbad et al., 2009; almarabeh et al., 2014). microsoft teams—a cloudbased app that brings meetings, channels, files, conversations, and apps to microsoft 365—was also used to support synchronous communication for online learning. instructors at the soes incorporated these technologies into various settings for a variety of disciplines to support online learning. the study’s respondents and their instructors belong to the soes, which specializes in education with the intention of preparing highly skilled and motivated teachers, some of whom belong to the educational technology department. this may be one of the contributing factors to generating this positive perspective regarding online learning, as the students are taught to have a positive and constructive attitude toward different teaching methods. additionally, some may have responded positively to online learning during the pandemic out of concern for their health and safety. students at the soes learn about teaching and learning strategies as their instructors, who are specialized in the field of education, implement constructive principles and create rich learning environments with the available resources in order to offer high-quality education (martin & tapp, 2019). these factors help students achieve the intended learning outcomes for the course and contribute to their perceptions regarding the use of online teaching as being suitable and advantageous. the study findings align with demuyakor’s (2020) results, which found that students rated the effectiveness of online learning positively. however, the results are contrary to owusu-fordjour et al.’s (2020) findings, in which online learning was reported to have a negative impact among ghanaian students. research question 2: what are the challenges that undergraduate students face during online learning in various subjects at the soes at the university of jordan? https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10758-017-9310-7#ref-cr31 jaradat & ajlouni 163 to answer the second research question regarding the challenges that undergraduate students face during online learning (items 14–29 in the questionnaire), the frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations for each statement in the challenge dimension and for the whole scale were calculated. table 3 displays the findings regarding the challenges students faced when classes at the soes went online due to covid-19. table 3 online learning challenges faced by undergraduate students m±sd sa p(f) a p(f) n p(f) d p(f) sd p(f) statement no 3.08±1.157 10.3% (40) 28.5% (111 ) 32.1% (125) 17.2% (67) 11.8 % (46) online learning is more expensive than faceto-face learning 14. 3.50±1.104 18.5% (72) 37.8% (147) 24.7% (96) 13.6% (53) 5.4% (21) the internet connection is unreliable 15. 3.30±1.161 15.2% (59) 32.9% (128) 26.2% (102) 17.7% (69) 8% (31) e-learning platforms and services are slow 16. 3.27±1.172 13.9% (54) 34.7% (135) 25.2% (98) 17% (66) 9.3% (36) adequate hardware and software for online learning are not available in my house 17. 3.62±1.186 24.9% (97) 37.3% (145) 20.8% (81) 8.7% (34) 8.2% (32) i have mental health issues (e.g., anxiety, stress( that affect my online learning 18. 3.11±1.196 11.8% (46) 29.8% (116) 27.8% (108) 18.5% (72) 12.1% (47) i am not motivated to learn online 19. 3.36±1.135 16.5% (64) 32.9% (128) 27.8% (108) 16.2% (63) 6.7% (26) i cannot focus in an online learning environment and cannot avoid distractions 20. 3.47±1.226 21.6% (84) 35.7% (139) 18.8% (73) 15.4% (60) 8.5% (33) i have poor time management skills, which affect my online learning capabilities 21. 3.22±1.139 13.6% (53) 29.3% (114) 31.1% (121) 17.7% (69) 8.2% (32) i have poor ict skills, which affect my online learning 22. 3.03±1.146 9.5% (37) 27.5% (107) 30.6% (119) 21.3% (83) 11.1% (43) the technical assistance offered is not adequate 23. 2.80±1.178 7.7% (30) 21.6% (84) 30.1% (117) 24.2% (94) 16.5% (64) i have technophobia (a fear or dislike of advanced technology), which affects my online learning 24. 3.08±1.156 11.1% (43) 27.2% (106) 31.6% (123) 19.3% (75) 10.8% (42) the isolation of students in online education affects my learning 25. 2.83±1.151 6.9% (27) 24.2% (94) 28.3% (110) 26.5% (103) 14.1% (55) the instructor’s interaction and feedback are inadequate 26. 3.04±1.151 11.8% (46) 22.9% (89) 32.4% (126) 23.1% (90) 9.8% (38) the teaching strategies that are used are not appropriate 27. 3.15±1.096 9.8% (38) 31.1% (121) 31.9% (124) 19% (74) 8.2% (32) the learning material is poor quality 28. 3.18±1.145 12.9% (50) 28.5% (111) 30.8% (120) 19% (74) 8.7% (34) the assessment and evaluation methods are not suitable 29. 3.19±0.840 total note. f: frequency, p: percentage, sd: strongly disagree, d: disagree, n: neutral, a: agree, sa: strongly agree. regarding financial issues, 38.8% of respondents agreed (m = 3.08) that online learning is more expensive than face-to-face learning, which may result from the cost of internet access and the equipment and software required for online learning. furthermore, 56.3% of respondents reported having an unreliable internet connection, with the second highest mean of 3.5. this indicates that journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 many students experience difficulties in joining online synchronous meetings, downloading course materials, and so on, which affects their learning and comprehension. many students have inadequate internet capacities and speeds in their homes. these results are congruent with the findings by farooq et al. (2020) and xhelili et al. (2021), who found that internet connectivity is one of the major challenges students encounter. this result suggests that the ministry of communication should encourage the internet service provider (isp) in jordan to increase internet coverage and bandwidth. moreover, 48.1% of participants agreed with the statement that elearning platform services are slow (m = 3.3), which suggests that decision makers at the university of jordan should enhance the school’s technological infrastructure. of the respondents, 48.6% reported that they did not have adequate hardware and software at home for online learning, with a mean of 3.27. this aligns with owusu-fordjour et al.’s (2020) and xhelili et al.’s (2021) findings, which indicated that the lack of internet access and technological devices were main challenges. in addition, 77.6% of the respondents reported not having adequate learning resources to support self-learning at home. this result agrees with that of the study by koi-akrofi et al. (2020), who found that online learning has more challenges than the face-to-face equivalent. in terms of mental health, 62.2% of the respondents reported having issues, with the highest of all the means in the challenges scale (m = 3.62). this indicates that students need counseling services or specific strategies to help them deal with mental health issues, such as anxiety and stress, which affect their online learning. study respondents also emphasized the need for research, particularly from research-based centers like the educational research and development center at the university of jordan, to guide the school and community during the pandemic. this finding concerning mental health issues among students is consistent with that of ramachandran and rodriguez (2020), who reported that 21% (n = 259) of respondents in their study had mental health issues, such as depression and anxiety. this was also in line with studies conducted by ajlouni and almahaireh (2020), amir et al. (2020), and rajab et al. (2020), who found high levels of anxiety regarding the coronavirus among undergraduate students. of the respondents, 41.6% reported having a lack of motivation (m = 3.11), and 49.4% of respondents said they experienced difficulties focusing on online learning (m = 3.36). motivation has been recognized as a crucial factor in learning, in developing and maintaining a sense of community, and in achieving intended outcomes in an online learning setting (hartnett, 2016). jaradat & ajlouni 165 this is consistent with amir et al.’s (2020) and ramachandran and rodriguez’s (2020) research, which investigated the lack of both motivation and focus and found that as many as 62% of respondents experienced these issues. regarding poor time management skills, 57.3% of respondents reported facing this challenge (m = 3.47). this emphasizes the need to improve students’ time management skills by offering them training sessions. time management is the most critical skill that aids students in managing online course requirements (roper, 2007). this finding is aligned with that of rajab et al. (2020), who stated that time management is one of the challenges students faced while learning online. furthermore, 42.9% of respondents reported poor ict skills (m = 3.22), and 37% of respondents reported that they had insufficient technical guidance (m = 3.03). these results are congruent with the findings of owusu-fordjour et al. (2020) and rababah (2020), who reported the lack of technical skills as a challenge. these findings suggest that the soes should provide training to help students enhance their ict skills, and that administrators should offer more technical guidance through online technical support or additional supportive manuals and videos to guide students on how to use the online system and how to solve common technical problems that they may encounter during their online learning. only 29.2% of respondents reported having technophobia, a condition that causes people to worry about or not be confident in their ability to deal with computer hardware and software, while 40.7% did not experience such a challenge, and 30.1% of the students responded neutrally. this item had the lowest mean compared to other items in the scale (table 3). this may be due to students’ increased experience with online learning and ict literacy, which may have helped them become familiar with the technology and the required software and may have reduced or eliminated their technophobia. this finding is, to some extent, consistent with a previous study (rajab, 2020), where technophobia is considered a challenge. of the respondents, 38.3% felt isolated from other learners (m = 3.08), and 33.1% reported that they experienced a lack of interaction with instructors and considered the instructor’s feedback to be inadequate (m = 2.83). a total of 34.7% of respondents felt that their instructor used an inappropriate teaching strategy (m = 3.04). in terms of the quality of the learning material, 40.9% of respondents considered it to be lacking (m = 3.15). this may be due to the rapid transition to online learning because of the covid-19 pandemic. preparing computer-based materials is not an journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 easy task; it requires time, effort, resources, and a team. however, these results suggest that instructors should reevaluate the learning materials they offer and provide more e-learning content. unsuitable assessment and evaluation methods were reported by 41% of respondents (m = 3.18). this may result from new approaches to assessment that students are not accustomed to. this finding suggests that online instructors should enhance their assessment and evaluation methods. these results are in line with previous studies by farooq et al. (2020) and rajab (2020), who considered the lack of faculty member training and assessment as challenges, while they are inconsistent with amir et al.’s (2020) findings. the overall mean for all challenges in the scale was 3.19 (table 3), which reflects a moderate challenge level experienced among undergraduate students at the soes. the most prevalent challenge was an unreliable internet connection, followed by mental health issues. these findings highlight the internal barriers that undergraduates face during online learning, such as a reduction in motivation, a lack of focus, and poor skills. the study also highlights external issues students face related to infrastructure, instructors, internet connectivity, and the quality of learning materials. conclusion the covid-19 pandemic has impacted educational institutions across the world. in jordan, all the learning methods shifted to online instruction. this study examined students’ perspectives of online learning and the challenges faced by the undergraduates of the soes at the university of jordan. the findings of this study offer valuable information about the perspectives of undergraduates of the soes at the university of jordan with regard to the online learning mode implemented during the covid-19 pandemic. to obtain information about this phenomenon, a web-based questionnaire was developed, and data were collected from 398 respondents and analyzed using spss. the challenges faced by online learning during covid-19 were both internal and external ones of a moderate level, with a mean score of 3.19 on a 5-point likert scale; the reported challenges to online learning included issues related to financial difficulties, internet connectivity, e-learning platform services, hardware and software availability, mental health, motivation, focus, time management skills, technological skills, technical orientation and guidance, technophobia, isolation, instructors’ interaction, teaching strategy, learning material quality, assessment, and evaluation. despite the challenges, the study presented evidence that jaradat & ajlouni 167 undergraduates of the soes can adapt to online learning. the students liked online learning and they perceived it as being very useful. these results should encourage instructional designers and instructors in online learning to enhance the quality of their learning materials and to assist students with the challenges they face. this may be done through using specific strategies to foster student interaction, motivation, and time management skills. these results additionally encourage decision makers at the university of jordan to provide undergraduates with more technical guidance and orientation, to offer them counseling services for their mental health, to offer free internet packages to registered students, and to provide low-income students with the required software and devices for online learning. furthermore, these results inspire the isp to enhance internet coverage and services in jordan. the limitations of the study include that it was carried out at only one college/school in the university and has a very low number of male participants. the smaller number of male participants can be attributed to the low percentage of male undergraduate students who were enrolled at the soes (6.38%). the results are based only on perspectives of undergraduates, and including instructors’ perspectives in subsequent studies could help in terms of understanding the difficulties faced by instructors as well. furthermore, future research should include a larger sample size and cover more colleges, and it should repeat this study in other universities in the context of jordan. acknowledgement both authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. references abbad, m. m., morris, d., & de nahlik, c. (2009). looking under the bonnet: factors affecting student adoption of e-learning systems in jordan. the international review of research in open and distributed learning, 10(2), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v10i2.596 aboagye, e., yawson, j. a., & appiah, k. n. (2020). covid-19 and e-learning: the challenges of students in tertiary institutions. social education research, 2(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.37256/ser.212021422 adnan, m., & anwar, k. (2020). online learning amid the covid-19 pandemic: students’ perspectives. online submission, 2(1), 45–51. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 agarwal, s., & kaushik, j. s. (2020). student’s perception of online learning during covid pandemic. indian journal of pediatrics, 87(7), 554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-02003327-7 ajlouni, a. o., & almahaireh, a. s. (2020). relationship between coronavirus-related anxiety and optimism among undergraduates at the university of jordan. journal of critical review, 7(19), 7721-7727. doi:10.31838/jcr.07.19.879 alameri, j., ismail, h. b., akour, a., & fakhouri, h. n. (2019, october). blended learning and the use of ict technology perspectives among university of jordan students. international conference on information, communication and computing technology (pp. 271–280). aldoobie, n. (2015). technology integration and learning theory. american international journal of contemporary research, 5(6), 114–118. almaiah, m. a., al-khasawneh, a., & althunibat, a. (2020). exploring the critical challenges and factors influencing the e-learning system usage during covid-19 pandemic. education and information technologies, 1(6), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639020-10219-y almarabeh, t., mohammad, h., yousef, r., & majdalawi, y. k. (2014). the university of jordan e-learning platform: state, students’ acceptance and challenges. journal of software engineering and applications, 7(12), 999–1007. al-shboul, m. (2019). incentives and obstacles influencing faculty members’ use of information and communication technology (ict). modern applied science, 13(3), 1–35. http://doi.org/10.5539/mas.v13n3p66 al-shboul, m., al-saideh, m., & al-labadi, n. (2017). learners’ perspectives of using ict in higher education institutions in jordan. international journal of instructional technology and distance learning, 14(3), 27–86. amir, l., tanti, i., maharani, d. a., wimardhani, y., julia, v., sulijaya, b., & puspitawati, r. (2020). student perspective of classroom and distance learning method during covid-19 pandemic in the undergraduate dental study program. bmc medical education, 20(1), 392. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-02312-0 ananga, p. (2020). pedagogical considerations of e-learning in education for development in the face of covid-19. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(4), 310-321. araújo, f., de lima, l., cidade, p., nobre, c. b., & neto, m. (2020). impact of sars-cov-2 and its reverberation in global higher education and mental health. psychiatry research, 288, 112977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112977 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-020-03327-7 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-020-03327-7 http://dx.doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.19.879 http://doi.org/10.5539/mas.v13n3p66 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-02312-0 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112977 jaradat & ajlouni 169 atabey, d. (2021). covid-19 from the perspective of preschool prospective teachers: what can we do for children? international journal on social and education sciences (ijonses), 3(1), 82-94. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonses.76 basilaia, g., & kvavadze, d. (2020). transition to online education in schools during a sarscov-2 coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic in georgia. pedagogical research, 5(4), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/7937 cakin, m., & kulekci akyavuz, e. (2021). educational adventure of students in the covid-19 period in turkey: determination of parents' views. international journal on social and education sciences (ijonses), 3(1), 109-125. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonses.87 carwile, j. (2007). a constructivist approach to online teaching and learning. inquiry, 12(1), 68– 73. chahrour, m., assi, s., bejjani, m., nasrallah, a. a., salhab, h., fares, m., & khachfe, h. h. (2020). a bibliometric analysis of covid-19 research activity: a call for increased output. cureus, 12(3), e7357. http://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.7357 crawford, j., butler-henderson, k., rudolph, j., malkawi, b., glowatz, m., burton, r., magni, p., & lam, s. (2020). covid-19: 20 countries’ higher education intra-period digital pedagogy responses. journal of applied learning and teaching, 3(1), 9–28. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2020.3.1.7 de waard, i., & kukulska-hulme, a. (2019). learners’ self-directing learning in futurelearn moocs: a learner-centered study. in m. scheffel, j. broisin, v. pammer-schindler, a. ioannou, & schneider, j. (eds.), transforming learning with meaningful technologies. ec-tel 2019. lecture notes in computer science, vol 11722 (pp. 127–141). springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29736-7_10 demuyakor, j. (2020). coronavirus (covid-19) and online learning in higher institutions of education: a survey of the perspectives of ghanaian international students in china. online journal of communication and media technologies, 10(3), e202018. https://doi.org/10.29333/ojcmt/8286 doolittle, p. e., & hicks, d. (2003). constructivism as a theoretical foundation for the use of technology in social studies. theory & research in social education, 31(1), 72–104. http://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2003.10473216 elsaheli-elhage, r. (2021). access to students and parents and levels of preparedness of educators during the covid-19 emergency transition to e-learning. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 3(2), 61-69. farooq, f., rathore, f. a., & mansoor, s. n. (2020). challenges of online medical education in pakistan during covid-19 pandemic. journal of college of physicians and surgeons pakistan, 30(6), 67–69. http://doi.org/10.29271/jcpsp.2020.supp1.s67 https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/7937 http://oro.open.ac.uk/view/person/iw2447.html http://oro.open.ac.uk/view/person/ak35.html https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29736-7_10 https://doi.org/10.29333/ojcmt/8286 https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.29271%2fjcpsp.2020.supp1.s67?_sg%5b0%5d=qqjwrfoe6llyjdhpltggyvupgeselbakq-w8gsterni_pneb9-z2ouw0lfp5dvk_pluhd-yqpyx_e2adz6mthseqwq.qo-n26dze4dagg3ysns-qau3iytcq7x4cj8wmmpcdfytbu_8fubwvsf4dcoo6feiojlloreffzz6wce4cbp9fg journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 gillett-swan, j. (2017). the challenges of online learning: supporting and engaging the isolated learner. journal of learning design, 10(1), 20–30. http://doi.org/10.5204/jld.v9i3.293 hartnett, m. (2016). the importance of motivation in online learning. in hartnett, m. (ed.), motivation in online education (pp. 5–32). springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-100700-2_2 hebebci, m. t., bertiz, y., & alan, s. (2020). investigation of views of students and teachers on distance education practices during the coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(4), 267-282. huang, h. m. (2002). toward constructivism for adult learners in online learning environments. british journal of educational technology, 33(1), 27–37. ilhan, g. o., kaba, g., & sin, m. (2021). usage of digital comics in distance learning during covid-19. international journal on social and education sciences (ijonses), 3(1), 161-179. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonses.106 isaac, o., aldholay, a., abdullah, z., & ramayah, t. (2019). online learning usage within yemeni higher education: the role of compatibility and task-technology fit as mediating variables in the is success model. computers & education, 136(1), 113–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.02.012 jonassen, d., davidson, m., collins, m., campbell, j., & haag, b. b. (1995). constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. the american journal of distance education, 9(2), 7–26. http://doi.org/10.1080/08923649509526885 kalman, r., macias esparza, m., & weston, c. (2020). student views of the online learning process during the covid-19 pandemic: a comparison of upper-level and entry-level undergraduate perspectives. journal of chemical education, 97(9), 3353–3357. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00712 kaur, g. (2020). digital life: boon or bane in teaching sector on covid-19. clio an annual interdisciplinary journal of history, 6(6), 416–427. khlaisang, j., & mingsiritham, k. (2016). engaging virtual learning environment system to enhance communication and collaboration skills among asean higher education learners. international journal of emerging technologies in learning, 11(4), 103–113. khlaisang, j., & songkram, n. (2019). designing a virtual learning environment system for teaching twenty-first century skills to higher education students in asean. technology, knowledge and learning, 24(2), 41–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-017-9310-7 koi-akrofi, g. y., owusu-oware, e., & tanye, h. (2020). challenges of distance, blended, and online learning: a literature-based approach. international journal on integrating technology in education, 9(4), 17–39. https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.5204%2fjld.v9i3.293?_sg%5b0%5d=kgeqquwcisn9et5imwrme3ickqsdmcmapo-ymgd7e7se0chhl01-_2ldwcivch-dkgrtynzm_xa3y2jindgdj2az_a.xnsydagxwg7xz1snffmx5clwos8qoqh4rujpnb7gasv_dce8obpgqygkieset114bbrjvrtqu2dethbnaxnhpq https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.02.012 https://doi.org/10.1080/08923649509526885 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00712 https://www.researchgate.net/journal/technology-knowledge-and-learning-2211-1670?_sg=uoxxivxc7suqizzkkcgccqovwffxj-c_wpebhcwexlughjfro0arwowp0wf87zzqwtvnn0s5gpdbcahxbginojtv-tm8bkg.pkd4w3hs7canvn2ahvnnb_8jgjenqdlzg9azvbkl0yfpdrlqjijlk2bifliz72ngrl2cj9higzfmb_kbw1ye4g https://www.researchgate.net/journal/technology-knowledge-and-learning-2211-1670?_sg=uoxxivxc7suqizzkkcgccqovwffxj-c_wpebhcwexlughjfro0arwowp0wf87zzqwtvnn0s5gpdbcahxbginojtv-tm8bkg.pkd4w3hs7canvn2ahvnnb_8jgjenqdlzg9azvbkl0yfpdrlqjijlk2bifliz72ngrl2cj9higzfmb_kbw1ye4g https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-017-9310-7 jaradat & ajlouni 171 marpa, e. p. (2021). technology in the teaching of mathematics: an analysis of teachers’ attitudes during the covid-19 pandemic. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 3(2), 92-102. martin, l., & tapp, d. (2019). teaching with teams: an introduction to teaching an undergraduate law module using microsoft teams. innovative practice in higher education, 3(3), 58–66. mccorkle, w. (2020). problematizing immigration restrictions during covid-19 in the social studies classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.1 mirkholikovna, d. k. (2020). advantages and disadvantages of distance learning. наука и образование сегодня, 7(45), 70–72. moller, l. (1998). designing communities of learners for asynchronous distance education. educational technology research and development, 6(4), 115–122. nambiar, d. (2020). the impact of online learning during covid-19: students’ and teachers’ perspective. the international journal of indian psychology, 8(2), 783–793. niemi, h. m., & kousa, p. (2020). a case study of students’ and teachers’ perceptions in a finnish high school during the covid pandemic. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(4), 352-369. nnebedum, c., obuegbe, a. s., & nwafor, h. e. (2021). assessment of schools’ reopening after covid-19 closures. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 3(2), 86-91. novikov, p. (2020). impact of covid-19 emergency transition to on-line learning on international students’ perceptions of educational process at russian university. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 270–302. omelchenko, i. v. (2020). advantages and disadvantages of distance learning. herald pedagogiki. nauka i praktyka, 5(55), 17–52. ornstein, a. c., & hunkins, f. p. (1998). curriculum: foundations, principles, and issues (3rd ed.). allyn & bacon. owusu-fordjour, c., koomson, c. k., & hanson, d. (2020). the impact of covid-19 on learning –the perspective of the ghanaian student. european journal of education studies, 7(3), 88–101. http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3753586 paudel, p. (2021). online education: benefits, challenges and strategies during and after covid-19 in higher education. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 3(2), 70-85. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.1 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 149-173 rababah, l. (2020). ict obstacles and challenges faced by english language learners during the coronavirus outbreak in jordan. international journal of linguistics, 12(3), 28–36. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v12i3.17048 rajab, m. h., gazal, a. m., & alkattan, k. (2020). challenges to online medical education during the covid-19 pandemic. cureus, 12(7), e8966. http://doi.org/ 10.7759/cureus.8966 ramachandran, r., & rodriguez, m. c. (2020). student perspectives on remote learning in a large organic chemistry lecture course. journal of chemical education, 97(9), 2565– 2572. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00572 roper, a. r. (2007). how students develop online learning skills. educause quarterly, 30(1), 62. salam, s., jianqiu, z., pathan, z. h., & lei, w. (2017, december). strategic barriers in the effective integration of ict in the public schools of pakistan. in proceedings of the 2017 international conference on computer science and artificial intelligence (pp. 169–172). https://doi.org/10.1145/3168390.3168422 sit, j. w., chung, j. w., chow, m. c., & wong, t. k. (2005). experiences of online learning: students’ perspective. nurse education today, 25(2), 140–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2004.11.004 swan, k. (2005). a constructivist model for thinking about learning online. in j. bourne & j. c. moore (eds.), elements of quality online education: engaging communities (pp. 1–19). sloan-c. tenenbaum, g., naidu, s., jegede, o., & austin, j. (2001). constructivist pedagogy in conventional on-campus and distance learning practice: an exploratory investigation. learning and instruction, 11(2), 87–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0959-4752(00)000177 tick, a. (2013). special aspects of teaching in virtual learning environments. aspects of computational intelligence, tiei, 2, 195–206. springer. toquero, c. m. (2020). challenges and opportunities for higher education amid the covid-19 pandemic: the philippine context. pedagogical research, 5(4), em0063. https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/7947 unesco. (2020, march). covid-19. educational disruption and response. https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-emergencies/coronavirus-school-closures unger, s., & meiran, w. r. (2020). student attitudes towards online education during the covid-19 viral outbreak of 2020: distance learning in a time of social distance. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(4), 256-266. https://dx.doi.org/10.7759%2fcureus.8966 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00572 https://doi.org/10.1145/3168390.3168422 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2004.11.004 https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-emergencies/coronavirus-school-closures jaradat & ajlouni 173 wains, s. i., & mahmood, w. (2008). integrating m-learning with e-learning. in proceedings of the 9th acm sigite conference on information technology education (pp. 31–37). world health organization. (2021, january 27). who coronavirus disease (covid-19) dashboard. https://covid19.who.int/?gclid=cjwkcajwiax8brbzeiwaqqxgx4qmizyxho4rqnja cpxt1g7op62etmlsd1eflhh7pmv9xi4xnpbg5bocj14qavd_bwe xhelili, p., ibrahimi, e., rruci, e., & sheme, k. (2021). adaptation and perception of online learning during covid-19 pandemic by albanian university students. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 3(2), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonse.49 yang, y., li, w., zhang, q., zhang, l., cheung, t., & xiang, y. t. (2020). mental health services for older adults in china during the covid-19 outbreak. the lancet psychiatry, 7(4), e19. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30079-1 zhu, y., zhang, j. h., au, w., & yates, g. (2020). university students’ online learning attitudes and continuous intention to undertake online courses: a self-regulated learning perspective. educational technology research and development, 68(3), 1485-1519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09753-w https://covid19.who.int/ https://covid19.who.int/ https://covid19.who.int/?gclid=cjwkcajwiax8brbzeiwaqqxgx4qmizyxho4rqnjacpxt1g7op62etmlsd1eflhh7pmv9xi4xnpbg5bocj14qavd_bwe https://covid19.who.int/?gclid=cjwkcajwiax8brbzeiwaqqxgx4qmizyxho4rqnjacpxt1g7op62etmlsd1eflhh7pmv9xi4xnpbg5bocj14qavd_bwe https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonse.49 https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30079-1 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 140-157 140 the economic impact of uum international students’ expenditure on business activities in changlun sallahuddin hassan1, zalila othman2, noor sa’adah sabudin3, zalina mohd mohaideen4, mohamad helmi hidthir5 abstract this study examines the potential impact from the expenditure patterns of uum international students in changlun on local development particularly among changlun businesses. for this purpose, the international students’ expenditure patterns in changlun are examined in terms of the estimated monthly expenditure, the location of spending and the frequency of spending. this study employs the quantitative method to analyze the primary data that were collected from questionnaires distributed to a sample of 150 uum international students. among others, the findings of this study reveal that their subsistence spending contributes substantial impacts on changlun economy leading to continued developments of certain industries; foods and beverages, clothing, telecommunication, and entertainment in the short run. in view of the fact that uum operations considerably influence the economy of the adjacent town of changlun, it is recommended that the uum administrators to strategically plan for increased admission of potential international students to pursue their undergraduate and postgraduate studies at uum as a means towards continually promoting for intellectual and cultural diversity among uum students as well as enhancing the economic performance of local businesses. key words: economic impacts, international students’ expenditure, business activities, universiti utara malaysia introduction international education has become a notable phenomenon in recent years particularly for higher education. higher education has become increasingly globalized with a growing number of students keen to pursue their undergraduate and postgraduate studies outside of their home countries. in the context of malaysia, the country has served as the preferable host for some 150,000 international students in 2015 and the enrolment is projected to accelerate up to 200,000 1 assoc. prof, universiti utara malaysia, kedah, malaysia. din636@uum.edu.my 2 lecturer, universiti utara malaysia, kedah, malaysia. 3 lecturer, universiti utara malaysia, kedah, malaysia. 4 lecturer, universiti utara malaysia, kedah, malaysia. 5 senior lecturer, doctor of economics, universiti utara malaysia, kedah, malaysia. hassan et al. international students in 2020 (department of higher education, 2016; ministry of higher education, 2016). without a doubt, international students represent an important source of economic contributions to both national gdp and export revenues of host countries and the respective educational institutions (paltridge, mayson & schapper, 2012). annually, the higher education sector yields around rm4.5 billion and the sector is estimated to generate rm10.0 billion given the increase up to 200,000 international students by 2020 (afterschool.my, 2016). being as one of the higher learning institutions in malaysia, universiti utara malaysia (uum) has become a favourable destination of international students. figure 1 shows the number of international students at uum. statistically, uum has hosted a growing number of international students, from only 22 students in 2007 to 2,469 students in 2017 (uum, 2017). the trend has grown at the compound annual growth rate (cagr) of 60.3 percent per year from 2007 to 2017. the international students at uum come from 48 countries across the globe. as a result of the increasing number of international students and their diverse backgrounds, there is enriched intellectual and cultural diversity at the university. at the same time, their presence has brought economic, social and cultural benefits not only to the uum community but are extended to the community of the adjacent town of changlun as well. figure 1 total number of students in uum by nationality, 2007 2017 source: uum, 2017 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 140-157 the importance of universities for the local economies has long been recognized (armstrong, darrall & grove-white, 1997). more importantly, the short-term economic benefits that an international student brings to a local university are analogous to those generated by an international tourist (oxford economics, 2013). in this study, the focus of interest is the economy of changlun which is the nearest town to the university. generally, the admissions of international students to uum result in substantial injections of direct spending into the local economy. these injections mainly come from the subsistence spending6 of international students during their studies at uum. this spending is expected to support the economic activities of changlun business operators in the short term. in general, the malaysia’s public universities including uum have tolerably supported for the internationalisation policy by enabling more enrolments of international students who are keen to be studying in the malaysia’s higher education system ranging from the bachelor to phd levels, respectively (kassim, 2014; uum, 2017). this is line with the collective effort of the malaysia’s universities as means to meet rising globalization needs and continually improve respective positions within the world’s ranking in education. by and large, various initiatives have been undertaken over the years to compete among other universities across the globe and increase the enrolment of international students who are interested to be studying in malaysia. as a result, the admissions of international students in particular have positively brought considerable economic and social impacts to the country and local communities, accordingly. however, it is later found out that the overall impact of international students on the economic and social aspects has not been formally documented thus far by any university in malaysia. the motivation to undertake this study primarily hinges upon the aim of analyzing the short term impacts from the expenditure patterns of uum international students on changlun business activities. the expenditure patterns are assessed in terms of the estimated subsistence spending, spending locations and spending frequency levels in a month. the rest of this paper is structured as follows. section 2 reviews the existing literature on the economic impact of international students on the local economy and section 3 describes the methodology and data used in the study. the empirical results are reported in section 4 and section 5 wraps up with the policy implications and conclusions of this study. 6subsistence spending, which is interchangeably known as ‘off-campus’ spending, covers all expenses on goods and services excluding the tuition fees paid by international students. hassan et al. literature review international students have become an important source of economic contributions to the local communities and economies for many countries across the globe. numerous countries, including malaysia, have hosted a diverse group of international students as a means to function effectively in the age of globalization and to increase revenues (harryba, guilfoyle & knight, 2011). according to siegfried, sanderson and mchenry (2007), the basic procedure of economic impact studies is to sum up the various expenditures of the university community notably by the students, faculty, staff and visitors created by the university’s presence and multipliers are applied thereafter to account for the interdependency of economic activities in the local economy. hence, the results constitute the estimated ‘local economic impact.’ within the literature, inputs into a university impact analysis may come in the forms of direct employment and payroll less federal taxes, expenditures for equipment, supplies and services, construction costs, spending in the local community by students, administrative staff and faculty members, tuition fees paid by full-time and part-time students and expenditures by visitors, including alumni, who attend the academic and/or athletic events at the university. the pioneer study on the estimation of the overall economic impact of a college or a university on the local economy was developed by caffrey and isaacs (1971). the work of caffrey and isaacs (1971) employed a systematic model, which was known as the american council on education (ace) method, to handle the measurement of economic impacts. using a system of equations (linear cash-flow formulas), the model uses the university’s purchasing data, employees’ payroll and local spending of students and visitors to determine the total universityrelated direct expenditures. subsequently, regional economic multipliers were applied to the total expenditures to determine the overall economic impact (abidin, haseeb, azam, & islam, 2015; abidin, haseeb, & islam, 2016; abidina, haseeb, & jantan, 2016; tarman & yigit, 2013). since then, there have been a growing number of economic impact studies, each one adding innovations into the complexity and breadth of the studies. for instance, rosen, william and kramer (1985) undertook a study on the economic impact of the university of wisconsin – madison. given the size of the campus with 44,000 students, rosen et al. (1985) attempted to assess the impact by administering a series of surveys to local and international students, staff, residents and businesses, respectively, instead of adopting a snap-shot approach used by most of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 140-157 the previous studies. their 1985 study only reported the direct impact; there was no attempt to evaluate the multiplier effect using an input – output model of dane, the county in which the university is situated. however, the multiplier of another county, door, was used to evaluate the multiplier effect of the university. however, in an their updated study rosen et al. (1991), the multiplier effects were arbitrarily assumed, i.e. 3.00 for the economic impact for the state and 2.25 for the local economy (abidin, bakar, & haseeb, 2014, 2015; abidin & haseeb, 2015). williams (1989) embarked on a study to estimate the economic impact of northwestern state university of louisiana. a multiplier of 1.6 was adopted to estimate the economic impact of the students, employees and visitors spending. their direct spending of usd39 million annually was translated into usd63 million annually on the community of natchitoches. later, it turned out that williams (1989) took an average of the value of multipliers used in previous studies and considered the corresponding indicator to be reasonable for the local community. later, a well-documented study on economic impact was presented by the virginia commonwealth university (vcu, 1992). after identifying the direct effects and the intangible or long run benefits, vcu (1992) however, went on to leave out the estimations of multiplier effects both for the state and the local community. the reasons behind the exclusion of multiplier effects were due to the problems associated with the arbitrary selection of a multiplier and the overall credibility of the results. siegfried, sanderson and mchenry (2007) argued that the complexity of impact studies leads to higher dispersion in measurements, implying more diversity among the universities than there actually is, thus raising concerns about the accuracy and reliability of those multiplier estimates. in other parts of the world, for instance, armstrong, darrall and grove-white (1997) conducted an in-depth study on the local economic, social and environmental impacts of lancaster university in the united kingdom. the work of armstrong et al. (1997), which employed the input – output analysis, focused the north west region of england in the period 1991/1992 with the likely impact of its further expansion through 2001 being explored as well. from the findings of amstrong et al. (1997), it was revealed that lancaster university has major economic, environmental and social impacts as well as higher research employment and income multiplier effects on the local economy. specifically, with regards to the economic aspect, the benefits generated by the existence of lancaster university on the local area were increased local gdp and disposable income via the multiplier process as well as the prevailing positive effects hassan et al. on the local construction sector during the period of rapid expansion in the number of students in the uk. meanwhile, oxford economics (2017) undertook the 2014/2015 study on the overall economic impact of international students in the united kingdom (uk) universities on the uk economy as measured from their active spending on a wide range of goods, services and activities. with a total of 437,000 international students, i.e. from the eu and non-eu continents, this made up 19 percent of all registered students at uk universities in 2014/2015. among others, the findings of oxford economics (2017) revealed that the total subsistence spending of international students including payments to the uk universities were estimated to yield euro6.1 billion within the uk economy in 2014/2015. the students’ subsistence spending were calculated using surveys on the expenditure patterns of students who attended the english, welsh and scottish universities multiplied by the corresponding number of international students. also, the findings disclose that international students are found to significantly contribute substantial impacts to other british industries such as euro750 million being added to the uk transport industry and euro690 million being added to the retail industry. through a review of the literature, it is evident that there is a lack of studies that specifically examine the economic impact of international students studying in host countries’ universities on the local communities and economies particularly for malaysia. therefore, the present study on the economic impact of uum international students’ expenditure on changlun business activities, which is expected to bridge the existing gap in the literature, contributes to the new knowledge by highlighting the significant role that the uum international students plays in the growth and development of the local and regional economy. methodology data and sampling method this study utilizes primary data to examine the economic impact of uum international students’ expenditure on changlun business activities. a survey was administered to a sample of 150 uum international students in which the respondents were selected under a simple random sampling method. subsequently, the data were collected from the questionnaires distributed to the respondents. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 140-157 method of analysis the data were analyzed using the quantitative method. the method allows for objective observation and precise measurements while the statistical analysis and verifiable truths are valued for their reliability and validity (cavana, delahaye & sekaran, 2001). it is employed to collect demographic and numerical data on the economic aspects of the respondents. these data are measured in the forms of nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. next, the percentage values of the monthly expenditure patterns in changlun of uum international students as reflected through their monthly expenditures, spending locations and spending frequency levels in changlun can be estimated thereafter. results table 1 shows the frequency and percentage values of the demography aspects of the 150 international students. on gender, male students comprise 65 percent of the respondents compared to female at 35 percent. pertaining to nationality, the students come from 14 countries. a majority of the students are from pakistan at 29 percent followed by nigeria at 25 percent. a majority of the respondents (58 percent) are master students. also, a majority of the respondents are currently in their second year of study (44 percent). given the focus of this study is on the expenditure patterns of uum international students in changlun, three different aspects concerning the uum international students namely their monthly expenditures, spending locations and spending frequency levels in changlun are closely examined and reported in this study. hassan et al. table 1 demography and characteristics of respondents demography characteristics frequency percentage gender male 97 64.7 female 53 35.3 nationality pakistan 44 29.3 nigeria 38 25.3 algeria 15 10.0 bangladesh 12 8.0 jordan 10 6.7 indonesia 7 4.7 yemen 5 3.3 iraq 4 2.7 somalia 4 2.7 india 3 2.0 china 3 2.0 libya 2 1.3 tanzania 2 1.3 syria 1 0.7 program of study bachelor 13 8.7 masters 87 58.0 phd 48 32.0 others 2 1.3 year of study first year 35 23.3 second year 66 44.0 third year 29 19.3 fourth year 14 9.3 fifth year and above 6 4.0 accordingly, table 2 illustrates the respondents’ subsistence spending on 14 selected items or services in changlun in a month. overall, the ‘off-campus’ spending of the respondents in changlun in table 2 provides a picture of the international students’ expenditure patterns it is observed from table 2 that about half (49.3 percent) of the respondents spend more than rm400 per month on food and beverages in changlun while the other half (50.7 percent) are found to spend less than rm400 on food and beverages. based on this pattern, food-related industries have a good growth prospect due to the demand of uum international students. for clothing, 68 percent of the respondents are found to spend less than rm400 per month while the other 32 percent spend at least rm400 on clothing per month. with over 30 percent of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 140-157 the respondents spending at least rm400 per month on clothing, it is anticipated that the clothing industry has the potential to grow and expand further in the short term. pertaining to telephone, communication appliances, computer and accessories in table 2, it is revealed that a majority of the respondents (55.3 percent) spent between rm400 – rm600. about 70 percent of the respondents spent less than rm400 on these items while another 30 percent spent more than rm400. the young generation are it savvy and communication gadgets are essential items that support their lifestyles. therefore, there is a high potential for growth for the service providers as well as for computer and communication-related industries in the short term. the expansions of these industries are assisted by the expenditure made by uum international students. table 2 monthly subsistence spending of respondents in changlun (rm) no. item/service less than rm200 rm200 – rm400 rm400 – rm600 rm600 – rm800 rm800 – rm1000 more than rm1,000 1. food and beverages 18.7 32.0 20.6 14.0 10.0 4.7 2. clothing 21.3 46.7 16.0 5.3 8.0 2.7 3. petrol 10.7 71.3 6.7 3.3 6.0 2.0 4. housing rent 38.0 40.7 12.7 4.0 2.0 2.7 5. furniture and home appliances 12.0 71.3 8.1 3.3 3.3 2.0 6. health services 10.7 78.0 6.0 1.3 2.7 1.3 7. telephone, communication appliances, computer and accessories 14.7 55.3 12.7 7.3 6.7 3.3 8. public transportation 11.3 74.7 8.7 3.3 0.7 1.3 9. recreation, entertainment and leisure 18.6 52.0 12.0 8.0 6.7 2.7 10. photocopying/binding 12.6 58.7 12.6 6.7 6.7 2.7 11. car workshop 10.0 70.0 8.0 4.7 6.0 1.3 12. car wash 11.4 70.0 6.0 6.0 5.3 1.3 13. laundry 12.6 68.7 8.0 6.7 3.3 0.7 14. barber and beauty salon 10.0 71.4 7.3 5.3 4.7 1.3 note: all figures shown are in percentage (%). next, for recreation, entertainment and leisure as well as photocopying/binding, about 30 percent of the respondents (29.4 percent for leisure goods and 28.7 percent for photocopying/ hassan et al. binding) spend more than rm400 in these categories while another 70 percent of the respondents (70.6 percent for leisure goods and 71.3 percent for photocopying/binding) are found to spend below rm400 interval in both categories. their expenditure in entertainment-related industries and photocopying/binding-related industries in changlun help the businesses to continually expand their businesses in the short term. interestingly, a major proportion of the respondents that are found to spend less than rm400 for certain items or services. these are health services (88.7 percent), public transportation (86.0 percent), furniture and home appliances (83.3 percent) and petrol (82.0 percent). several reasons can be offered that explain this pattern. for health services, many of the respondents choose to utilize the free health service available at the university health centre located on the uum campus so as to minimize their health spending at private clinics in changlun. apart from that, there is low spending on furniture and home appliances where many of the respondents spend between rm200 to 400 monthly which implies the availability and adequacy of such items already available at their residential places (if they rented a fullyfurnished house) or they place lower priority on purchasing these items considering their stay in malaysia is temporary and not permanent. for instance, certain electrical items such as washing machines are no longer a necessary household item since there are several self-service laundries and the traditional laundries available in changlun now. this is corroborated by the spending pattern for laundry where 81 percent of the respondents spend up to rm400 for laundry services. also, regarding the use of public transport where 86.0 percent of respondents spend less than rm400 per month on this item, this reflects that a considerable proportion of international students do make long distance travel but a majority are heavily dependent on public transport such as taxis and buses. however, international students also travel by car which is implied by the evidence on the expenditure on petrol. cars are convenient because compared to public transport there is no time limit to use cars for travelling. students may own a car or they may rent a car because there are many car rental services in changlun now where students may rent a car by the hour or by the day. normal car rental rate for students is rm120 per day or rm7 per hour. however, their spending on petrol is moderate with 82.0 percent of the respondents spend less than rm400 on petrol per month. it is worth noting that the remaining items and services in the list namely housing rent, car workshop, car wash, laundry and barber and beauty salon journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 140-157 indicate that less than 25 percent of the respondents spend above rm400 per month for these items. to give a more comprehensive picture regarding the spending patterns of international students, table 3 provides some insights on the likelihood of uum international students to spend on items or services in changlun at various locations of interest in a month. with reference to the results in the table, it is revealed that certain items or services are primarily purchased from two locations namely shops and supermarket in changlun. accordingly, it can be deduced from table 3 that the supermarket constitutes a popular spending location of the uum international students to acquire the following general items; food and beverages, clothing, telephone, communication appliances, computer and accessories as well as recreation, entertainment and leisure. in this regard, several reasons can be put forward on why the supermarket is one of the favourite places of the international students. first, it is a convenient place to do shopping. second, there is relatively easy communication and considerably low language barrier in interacting with the staff. these reasons may possibly explain the popularity of the supermarket as being the preferred spending location in changlun among the respondents. there is currently only one supermarket in changlun and it currently is a one stop centre that students can get their food supply, personal items, as well as leisure and entertainment. meanwhile, the rest of places; gas station, private clinics and shops represent key spending locations in changlun among the respondents in a month as strategic means to acquire specific goods and services namely petrol, health services, furniture and home appliances, photocopying/binding, car workshop, car cleaning, laundry as well as barber and beauty salon. on the other hand, two spending locations; daily/night market and hawker are found to be the least preferred places to acquire items such as food and beverages, as well as clothing even though these items are widely sold in these locations. there may be several reasons behind this spending location pattern. daily/night market and street side hawker posed several challenges to the international students as the business is being held in an open space and possibly filthy areas. there is also the added challenge of parking hassle and communication problems in terms of the language barrier in interacting with the locals that pose as a deterrent resulting in these locations being the least preferred ones in the eyes of the respondents. table 3 hassan et al. spending locations of respondents in changlun no. item/service shop daily/night market super market hawker restaurant gas station clinic cybercafé 1. foods and beverages 9.3 5.3 63.3 2.1 20.0 2. clothing 33.3 3.3 62.1 1.3 3. petrol 100.0 4. housing rent 5. furniture and home appliances 60.7 3.3 34.0 2.0 6. health services 12.0 0.7 3.3 84.0 7. telephone, communication appliances, computer and accessories 45.3 1.3 52.1 1.3 8. public transportation 9. recreation, entertainment and leisure 25.3 3.3 59.4 2.0 8.7 1.3 10. photostat/ binding 44.6 26.7 28.7 11. car workshop 94.0 4.0 2.0 12. car cleaning 92.7 4.0 3.3 13. laundry 88.0 12.0 14. barber and beauty salon 87.3 12.7 note: all figures shown are in percentage (%). the results on spending frequency of the respondents in changlun in a month are reported in table 4. from the table, it is shown that 64.6 percent of respondents tend to shop for food and beverages more than six times in a month in changlun. on the contrary, the rest of the respondents, i.e. 33.4 percent, are found to shop between one and five times in a month for food and beverages. given the high frequency of shopping on food and beverages, it is predicted that the food-related industries have great prospects to further expand their business activities in the short term to satisfy the high demand for food and beverages among the uum international students. table 4 monthly spending frequency of respondents in changlun journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 140-157 no. item/service never 1 – 5 times 6 – 10 times 11 – 15 times 16 – 20 times more than 20 times 1. food and beverages 2.0 33.4 56.7 5.3 1.3 1.3 2. clothing 13.3 20.0 64.0 2.0 0.7 3. petrol 28.6 20.7 46.0 4.0 0.7 4. housing rent 5. furniture and home appliances 42.0 12.0 43.3 0.7 0.7 1.3 6. health services 41.3 8.0 46.7 3.3 0.7 7. telephone, communication appliances, computer and accessories 19.3 16.0 60.7 3.3 0.7 8. public transportation 21.3 22.0 52.7 2.0 0.7 1.3 9. recreation, entertainment and leisure 15.4 20.0 57.3 4.0 2.0 1.3 10. photostat/binding 21.3 12.7 61.4 3.3 1.3 11. car workshop 38.7 13.3 44.7 3.3 12. car wash 40.7 14.7 41.3 3.3 13. laundry 38.0 13.3 48.0 0.7 14. barber and beauty salon 32.0 16.7 50.0 1.3 note: all figures shown are in percentage (%). with regard to clothing, about 66.7 percent of the respondents tend to spend more than six times in a month for clothing. in contrast, a lesser proportion of international students, i.e. 20 percent, tend to spend between one and five times in a month. because of the high proportion of the respondents that tend to purchase this item in changlun at least six times and higher in a month, it is anticipated that the clothing industry to grow in size and capacity in the short term. looking at the expenditure pattern of the respondents for telephone, communication appliances, computer and accessories, it is observed that 64.7 them tend to spend more than six times in a month for these items while a smaller proportion or 16 percent, spend five times at the maximum for these items monthly. hence, in consideration of the substantial impacts brought by the purchases of these items in changlun, it is projected that the service providers as well as the computer and communication-related industries to be in a well-suited position to expand their businesses in changlun in the short term. as far as recreation, entertainment and leisure goods are concerned, 64.7 percent of the respondents are found to shop over six times in a month for these items while another 20 percent purchase these goods up to five times only in a month. given the high proportion of the hassan et al. respondents that shop at least six times in a month, this should provide considerably far-reaching effects on these businesses. it is forecasted that entertainment-related industries have an excellent prospect in expanding their business operations in the short term. pertaining to photocopying/binding, it is shown that 66 percent of the respondents tend to shop more than six times in a month compared to another 12.7 percent who are seen to be moderate by shopping for this item up to five times only in a month. based on this observation, a higher proportion of respondents spend more frequently in a month compared to a lesser proportion that spend less frequently, thus this should produce high demand on this item in changlun. eventually, the high demand may foster additional growth in the photocopying/binding industry to cater for their customers’ need in the short term. the remaining items and services; petrol, housing rent, furniture and home appliances, health services, public transportation, car workshop, car wash, laundry and barber and beauty salon show that about half of respondents shop more than six times in a month. finally, to estimate the total expenditure made by the uum international students in changlun in a month, the results are reported in table 5. to calculate the monthly estimated expenditure, the study used two variables namely the average spending per month on each item and the number of students. the amount used as the average spending is rm300 per month per student based on finding that a majority of the respondents spend in the rm200 – rm400 interval for all items in the list. to get the number of students for each item, the percentage of students in the rm200 – rm400 interval is multiplied by the total number of students. based on the calculation, it is estimated that the total monthly expenditure made by international students in changlun economy is close to rm6.4 million in 2017. further, it is observed from table 5 that all listed business activities in changlun receive varying injections with health services receiving the highest injection. additionally, by looking at the respective percentages of respondents who spend in the rm200 – rm400 interval in table 5, it is worth highlighting that there is a possibility of short term growth potential to be seized by certain businesses namely food and beverages, clothing, telephone, communication appliances, computer and accessories, recreation, entertainment and leisure and photocopying/binding since there is a high percentage of respondents who are spending above rm400 for these items per month. for example, only 32 percent of the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 140-157 respondents spend in the rm200 – rm400 interval, but 57 percent are spending above rm400 for this item. table 5 estimated monthly total expenditure of international students in changlun in 2017 no. item/service rm200 – rm400 (in percentage) rm200 – rm400 (in no. of students) total expenditure (in rm)* 1. food and beverages 32.0 790 237,000.00 2. clothing 46.7 1,153 345,900.00 3. petrol 71.3 1,760 528,000.00 4. housing rent 40.7 1,005 301,500.00 5. furniture and home appliances 71.3 1,760 528,000.00 6. health services 78.0 1,926 577,800.00 7. telephone, communication appliances, computer and accessories 55.3 1,365 409,500.00 8. public transportation 74.7 1,844 553,200.00 9. recreation, entertainment and leisure 52.0 1,284 385,200.00 10. photocopying/binding 58.7 1,449 434,700.00 11. car workshop 70.0 1,728 518,400.00 12. car wash 70.0 1,728 518,400.00 13. laundry 68.7 1,696 508,800.00 14. barber and beauty salon 71.4 1,763 528,900.00 total estimated expenditure of international students per month: 6,375,300.00 note: * is calculated based on a total 2,469 international students and an average spending of rm300.00 per month on each item and service in 2017. policy implications and conclusions the establishment of uum imparts substantial influence on the economy of changlun where its operations directly or indirectly impact business activities there. in particular, as shown by table 5, the international students’ off-campus spending on goods and services constitute an engine for economic growth and development. this is clear in view of the high total expenditure made in the local economy by the international students. the estimated amount of spending at rm6.4 million per month, varying across items and services, is expected to spur the business activities of these enterprises in changlun. based on the findings of this study, there are substantial impacts on changlun economy brought by the uum international students. in addition, based on their expenditure patterns, hassan et al. certain industries are the direct recipients of those benefits which are likely to spur their continued growth. these industries are; food and beverages, clothing, telecommunication, entertainment and photocopying/binding located in changlun. as such, these industries should plan suitable strategies to continue to attract the patronage of these international students at their business premises. furthermore, these businesses should be more creative in trying to create new business opportunities. for example, international students usually consume different diets back home. their cooking ingredients are different and are often not available in malaysia, particularly in a small town like changlun. therefore, there is a great potential to be had in the food and beverages business if this demand for foreign imported goods can be catered for by local businesses. for example, currently there are many students from african countries such as nigeria and somalia as well as the middle east studying at uum. based on the interviews with the international students, there are no shops supplying african food items in changlun and they have to travel to kuala lumpur to get their supplies. given the evidence that international students bring substantial impact on the local economy based on their estimated subsistence spending locally, it is therefore recommended that the uum administrators consider more aggressive ways to increase international student admissions to undergraduate and postgraduate studies in uum as a means of continually promoting for intellectual and cultural diversity among the students besides enhancing the economic competence of local businesses. in addition, the findings of this study particularly on the spending locations of interest from table 3 offer important signals to the local authority (the municipal council of kubang pasu) to ensure for continued improvement in existing amenities and related-infrastructures notably in the surrounding area of the supermarket and other commercial places such as the daily/night market and hawker areas in changlun. also, to encourage spending in the local economy in changlun and the vicinities, it is recommended that the local authority ensure efficient public transportation services such as buses and taxis. the bus station that has recently been upgraded needs to be maintained and inspected at regular intervals. by improving the public transportation services, it is expected that many people, including the international students, will be attracted to shop for various items and services in changlun. apart from that, the local authority should seriously consider upgrading public facilities in changlun considering this town is the nearest town to the point of entry from thailand and is often frequented by tourists travelling to and from thailand. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 140-157 it is hoped that the findings of this study serve as an eye opener to the relevant authorities about the significant contribution of the international students in the local economy. as such, there is an urgent need to ensure for the continued contributions of international students’ spending in the local economy by providing the international students with an environment that is conducive for studying and living. acknowledgements the authors would like to express their deepest gratitude to universiti utara malaysia (uum) for funding the study under the special grant research project (s/o code: 13538) in which this study represents a part of the overall research project. references abidin, i. s. z., bakar, n. a. a., & haseeb, m. (2014). an empirical analysis of exports between malaysia and tpp member countries: evidence from a panel cointegration (fmols) model. modern applied science, 8(6), 238. abidin, i. s. z., bakar, n. a. a., & haseeb, m. (2015). exploring trade relationship between malaysia and the oic member countries: a panel cointegration approach (1995-2012). asian journal of scientific research, 8(1), 107. abidin, i. s. z., & haseeb, m. (2015). investigating exports performance between malaysia and oic member countries from 1997-2012. asian social science, 11(7), 11. abidin, i. s. z., haseeb, m., azam, m., & islam, r. (2015). foreign direct investment, financial development, international trade and energy consumption: panel data evidence from selected asean countries. international journal of energy economics and policy, 5(3). abidin, i. s. z., haseeb, m., & islam, r. (2016). regional integration of the association of southeast asian nations economic community: an analysis of malaysia-association of southeast asian nations exports. international journal of economics and financial issues, 6(2). abidina, i. s. z., haseeb, m., & jantan, m. d. (2016). trans-pacific partnership (tpp) agreement: comparative trade and economic analysis for malaysia. the social sciences, 11(13), 3375-3380. afterschool.my. (2016). the benefits of international students in malaysian institutions. retrieved february 26, 2018 from https://afterschool.my/articles/the-benefits-ofinternational-students-in-malaysian-institutions. armstrong, h. w., darrall, j. & grove-white, r. (1997). maximizing the local economic, environmental and social benefits of a university: lancaster university. geojournal, 41(4), 339-350. caffrey, j. & isaacs, h. (1971). estimating the impact of a college or university on the local economy. washington, d. c.: american council on education. hassan et al. cavana, r. y., delahaye, b. l. & sekaran, u. (2001). applied business research: qualitative and quantitative methods (1st ed.). australia: john wiley and sons ltd. department of higher education (2016). annual report of the department of higher education, malaysia. putrajaya: ministry of higher education, malaysia. retrieved from http://jpt.mohe.my. harryba, s. a., guilfoyle, a. m. & knight, s. (2011). understanding the challenges of accessing university support services: the perspectives of staff members and international students. international journal of learning, 18(6), 263-289. jafri, s. h. a., dudley, j. d. & buland, d. (2000). economic impact of tarleton state university. retrieved from https://www.tarleton.edu. kassim, a. (2014). recent trends in transnational population inflows into malaysia: policy, issues and challenges. malaysian journal of economic studies, 51(1), 9-28. ministry of higher education (2016).higher education in malaysia: internationalisation policy 2011. putrajaya: ministry of higher education, malaysia. oxford economics (2013). the costs and benefits of international students in sheffield: a report for the university of sheffield. retrieved december 20, 2017, from http://www.oxfordeconomics.com. oxford economics (2017). the economic impact of international students in the uk universities. retrieved december 20, 2017, from http://www.oxfordeconomics.com. paltridge, t., mayson, s. & schapper, j. (2012). covering the gap: social inclusion, international students and the role of local government. australian universities’ review, 54(2), 29-39. pastor, j. m., pérez, f. & de guevara, j. f. (2013). measuring the local economic impact of universities: an approach that considers uncertainty. higher education, 65(5), 539-564. rosen, m. i., strang, w. a. & kramer, j. (1985). the university of wisconsin – madison and the local and state economies: a second look. monograph no. 20. madison, wi: university of wisconsin. rosen, m. i., strang, w. a. & kramer, j. (1991). the university of wisconsin – madison and the local and state economies: a second look (updated study). monograph no. 20. madison, wi: university of wisconsin. siegfried, j. j., sanderson, a. r. & mchenry, p. (2007). the economic impact of colleges and universities. economics of education review, 26, 546-558. tarman, b., & yigit, m. f. (2013). turkish economy and vocational education system: regressive or progressive? energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 5(1), 159-170. universiti utara malaysia (2017). about uum. retrieved december 20, 2017, from http://www.uum.edu.my. virginia commonwealth university (1992). the impact of virginia commonwealth university. richmond, va: virginia commonwealth university. williams, e. (1989). the economic impact of northwestern state university upon the area economy. mid-south journal of economics, 13(3), 373-381. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (1), 228-241 228 curriculum standardization for advocate education in indonesia st. laksanto utomo1 abstract implementation of advocate profession education by an advocate organization is a requirement for appointment of an advocate and it is regulated by the article 2 paragraph (1) of law no. 13 of 2003 on advocates. however there are many advocate associations in indonesia and each organization has different ways and standards to conduct the advocate education process. this article on curriculum standardization of advocate education in a period of transition describes legal reforms, liberalization of legal services, and the advancement of information technology (it). this article uses descriptive methods by examining the role of advocates who use legal skills to serve their clients. data collection involves experience and personal involvement. it concludes that there must be cooperation between advocate professional organizations with universities in the implementation of special education of advocate profession with a standardized curriculum. key words: curriculum standardization, advocate education, legal services liberalization, legal information technology introduction advocates in indonesia are better known as lawyers, and considered as a noble profession, because they devote themselves to the benefit of society and not to themselves and because of their obligations to upholding human rights. it is believed that advocates offer free legal service activities to the poor and the law-blind. the presence of advocate is very important in realizing the ideals of a nation: they help in realization of an egalitarian, just and prosperous society based on the national law. the advocate is labeled as law enforcement profession that should be carried out without pressure or intimidation from other sections of government. the role of advocate is to give advice on any matters of law to their client, sometimes it involves representing a client in the civil and criminal courts or advising a client on matters such as matrimonial and family law, trusts and estates, 1 lecturer in faculty of law, sahid university, jakarta, indonesia & chairperson of association of indonesian college of law higher education (appthi). utomo regulatory matters, property transactions and commercial and business law. the client may be a person, legal entity or other institution. to become an advocate, the candidate should normally hold s1 law degree (equal to bachelor of law), as stated in the explanation of article 2 paragraph [1] of law no. 18 year 2003. this degree may be awarded by the faculty of law, faculty of syariah, military law college or police science college. an advocate candidate must also attend special education programs pertaining to advocate profession and attend apprenticeship to an advocate office for at least 2 (two) years continuously. besides, in order to qualify for the special education of advocate profession (pendidikan khusus profesi advokat pkpa), he must also have passed the advocate profession exam (ujian profesi advokat upa); and taken the advocate appointment and oath. moreover, for the appointment of an advocate, it is required that the advocate profession education program should be offered by an advocate organization. this requirement is regulated by article 2 paragraphs (1) of law no 13 of 2003 on advocates. a renowned scholar of higher education of law can also be appointed as an advocate after having attending a special advocate education conducted by an advocate organization. there are several advocate professional organizations in indonesia that conduct special education of advocate profession, such as the indonesian advocate association (peradi), indonesian advocate congress (kai), ikadin (indonesian advocates association), aai (indonesian advocates association) and hapi (indonesian lawyers association / lawyers). each organization has different ways and standards in conducting advocate education process. this study examined the role of advocate, a legal profession that has been broadly defined to include lawyers who use their legal skills to pursue a wide range of social and political ideas and ideals beyond client services. this study focused specifically on standardization of advocate education curriculum in facing future challenges. recently the indonesian advocates are facing a period of transition marked by anxiety triggered by three things: first, it is the legal reforms that strive to create an institutional design for the establishment of a state level law. second, it is liberalization of legal services which is often considered as a mere play on words to expand the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 228-241 area service of the law. third, it is information technology (it) which threatens to overthrow the tyranny of distance and time in the merger between computer technology and communication. in such circumstances, it becomes essential for advocate education to ensure building up such core competencies that can address current legal issues in changing technological and social conditions. for this purpose it requires a curriculum or system of plans and arrangements regarding the learning materials content as a guide in teaching and learning activities for the prospective advocate. the curriculum should be tailored to the needs of today's legal services. this article discusses the preparation of an ideal advocate education curriculum drawn up by universities and advocate organizations in indonesia. literature review law reform is a kind of democratization of law making, law enforcement, and legal awareness. although legal reform has been pursued in indonesia since the 1950s, the law enforcement in indonesia has always remained weak. linnan (1999) criticized the existing efforts made in the direction of legal reforms and developed the interpretation of this problem since 1980 upto the reformation period. these interpretations act as advices of different approaches to make further legal development with implications for structural reforms in the indonesian legal system (linnan, 1999). lindsey (2004), in another study, states that indonesia's legal infrastructure has faced a period of a radical reforms for full six years since the crisis. as per the requirement, a number of commissions were set up such as the national law commission (komisi hukum indonesia khn) formed by president abdulrahman wahid in february 2000. the mandate was to provide a formal legal opinion to the president when required and to reform the legal institutions (lindsey, 2004). unfortunately, khn is not empowered to make its own recommendations, because it is outside the ministry or agency and reports directly to the president. it also depends upon on the political will of the president or other ruling leaders whether to accept or reject its recommendations. in order to bring law reforms in indonesian, it is necessary to have a highly improved legal environment that could establish institutional design required to realize a rule of law. a few steps have been taken towards legal reform such as laws like the national human rights commission (komnas ham), the business competition supervisory commission (komisi pengawas utomo persaingan usaha kppu), the corruption eradication commission (komisi pemberantasan korupsi kpk) and the commercial court. moreover, while legal prosecutors including the police too are moving towards a better change, lawyers are also increasingly asking clients for consulting services or litigation practices. their endeavors to bring reforms in law have driven to better legal services in indonesia. as said earlier, indonesian advocates are facing a few major disruptive situations: one, liberalization of legal services that has already taken place in developed countries and is considered a good substitute for substantial efforts to expand the area of the law services; second, the advancement in legal information technology that promises to change the pattern and type of works. to throw more light on these situations, it is evident that ever since liberalization started in southeast asia, indonesia has followed the declaration of asean concord ii or bali concord ii, which is the decision of heads of states from 10 member states. ever since the declaration was socialized in 2015, indonesia has become a single production-based market resulting in indonesia facing a free market phenomenon. after this declaration, imported goods now can easily enter into the indonesian market and compete with the local products. in order to reduce the legal uncertainty in the country, indonesian government also actively seeks to improve transparency. the government offices provide legal information, regulations, instructions, application forms and similar subsidiary instruments to the business community or any end user. however, the community has often complained that there is no one-stop informationcenter publicly accessible to find more about regulations issued by the government. the government is also providing the community with meaningful notice of and opportunity to comment on draft implementing regulations. regarding formal mechanisms for soliciting input from business and professional community for formulating and amending trade policy, there are still complaints from some business community that the government does not represent their interests when it creates regulations with respect to their sectors (brotosusilo, 2010). the impact of this ratification not only increases trade and foreign exchange, but also results in an increase in cross border workers, including legal service profession. law no. 18 of 2003 on advocates, and the presence of foreign advocates or legal consultants are not prohibited under the law. the article journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 228-241 23 of the advocate law restricts the authority of foreign advocates, which may only provide advice or legal opinion according to foreign law. these foreign advocates also are mere employees or consultants of law firms and hence they cannot practice directly or open a law firm or send their representatives in indonesia. it has also been observed that the increasing need for advocate services within the asean economic community has encouraged advocates as well as law firms of each asean member countries, to compete with one another for the legal services market. in such a situation, simanjuntak (2016) observes an urgent need for the readiness of indonesian advocates competing with foreign counterparts not only in the indonesian legal services market, but also in the entire asean region. this situation encourages indonesian lawyers to prepare for liberalization of legal services (simanjuntak, 2016). russell (2013) considers that information technology (it) has the potential to change the lawyers’ work patterns. for instance, the document assembly software in a disruptive legal situation can greatly reduce the time that lawyers spend on document drafting. he also classified that hand-held device provides relentless connectivity because of having wireless broadband access, powerful video, high processing speed and nearly endless storage capacity. technology further drives greater expectations among clients. he also envisioned the offering of legal services online and discusses the use of systems such as legal diagnoses, to generate legal documents, to assist in legal audits and to provide legal updates (russell, 2013). due to the globalization and rapid growth in the use of computers, it is expected that the computing power will double and maybe treble in a span of every five years. this increasing computing power and invention of new devices would drive current lawyering technologies such as document automation, decisions engines, e-discovery tools, communication and collaboration tools, legal research tools, and legal expert systems to continue to mature and progress in functionality and availability. “most of these tools started out in a desktop delivery environment, but there has been a sharp increase in the number of online tools available to attorneys. this trend will continue so that by 2020 most of the viable solutions will be available either exclusively over the internet or with very limited desktop interfaces”. he also predicted the entry of non-advocate service utomo providers into the legal market, some of which would focus exclusively on consumers, some on attorneys, and others would sell their merchandise to both consumers and lawyers. another study (setiawan et.al, 2017) examined the organization of advocate professional education in indonesia and united states and found out several are differences in organization imparting advocate education in indonesia and united states. first, advocate professional education programs in the united states are run by law schools while in indonesia these educational programs are offered by advocates organization. secondly, unlike the united states, advocate professional education in indonesia are such type of special education advocate professional programs (pendidikan khusus profesi advokat pkpa) that are the part of a higher education course and must meet national standards of higher education (setiawan et.al, 2017). similarly, the legal education offered in ukraine and germany have two common features: first, the legal system of two countries is based on an acknowledgment of appropriate basic law, both in the field of basic legal concepts; secondly, the curriculum is the basic normative document that determines the organizing of the educational process at higher education institutions of law in ukraine and germany nasilenko (2014) finds that the state is also involved in establishing the communicative competence of future lawyers and prepares them for education-learning, research and productive practices. the improvement in the communicative competence of future lawyers is seen in several activities such as integration of specialized courses in specialist and professional disciplines; perfection of verbal and written communication skills; occupational analytic soul receptions; and so on. all of these factors help shape the communicative competencies of the future (nasilenko, 2014). a profession is a position or occupation that requires expertise of its members; who carry out their duties through scientific techniques expertise and high level of ability and competence. in law number 14 of year 2005 on teachers and lecturers, a professional is defined as a person who takes for his livelihood such activities that requires expertise, skills, or proficiency. a professional must meet certain quality standards or norms including a minimum professional qualification. thus professionals indonesia are individuals with high skills, competences of standards and performance. regarding certification and qualification for such professionals, sagala (2009) journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 228-241 argues that there are several considerations to be taken for the appointment of teachers and lecturers in law (sagala, 2009). with the changing landscape of law, burk (2014) too argues that the role of legal education needs to change. unfortunately, many law schools have closed down because of their traditional model which had not been changed despite market pressures and development requirements (burk, 2014) in another study, hamilton (2014) insists for adopting a core competency-based curriculum and tailored courses according to the unique needs of the academic or core programs at every level. he asserts that such courses must be introduced at junior, intermediate as well as senior levels and provide training in key areas that develop various work-level skills and client-based services. such courses will also help the mid-level peers and junior colleagues in learning about people management, leadership and self-development and also to resolve management related issues (hamilton, 2014; zayed, 2018). heineman (2007) also observed that professional education must prioritize aspects of competence and skills, as these are based on knowledge and expertise required in any vocational education. there are six core competencies a lawyer must have: oratory skills, collaboration skills, emotional intelligence, project management skills, time management and mastery of information technology. law schools must endeavor to teach these competencies as core legal competencies. this should be done in a more systematic manner in teaching, together with other courses, where the "complementary competencies" required for current students are likely to have diverse careers and hopefully achieve leadership positions and responsibilities(b tarman, 2012; ben w. heineman, 2007; tünkler, tarman, & güven, 2016). in fact, advocate education is a professional educational program. hence the purpose, mission, reality of the legal profession in international world, and the provisions of legislation concerning professional education are all included in law no. 20 of 2003 on national education system as well as in the provisions of law no. 18 of 2003 on advocates. methods this article has used descriptive methods to examine the role of advocates who depend upon legal skills to serve their clients. it emphasizes the quality of entities and processes with their meanings that are not tested or measured experimentally in terms of quality, quantity, intensity, or frequency. utomo data collection involved experience and personal involvement. the researcher directly approached people, situations, and phenomena in indonesia the study the dynamics of advocacy organizations; transitional conditions associated with legal reforms, liberalization of legal services and legal information technology. the sources of data comprised secondary law material in the form of legislation. discussion when liberalization is applied on legal services, lawyers need to overcome cultural obstacles both in the form of community systems, customs, technology, behavior and language. this is the basic foundation of building the ability and readiness of global activities. for instance, proficiency in english or the language used by target countries is a constraint; but such limitations are not an inevitable burden. lawyers can learn to make a shift in the direction of an increasingly global and liberal market of legal services in the region and hone their competence. one of the requirements to become an advocate is to follow the advocate's education. it is the education of practitioners who are not prepared to become academicians but legal practitioners who would struggle with the realities of legal practice (wahyudi, s.ag., 2010). advocate educational programs are organized by advocate organizations in coordination with higher education institutions with a view to: a. providing knowledge, skills and expertise for learners to meet the minimum requirements to be appointed as an advocate, in accordance with the requirements set by law number 18 year 2003. b. delivering a scientific occupation advocate (not just a worker or a "handyman" who requires only knowledge and skills) but requiring certain basic knowledge (dogma / doctrine, principle, theory and philosophy of values) in this case legal science and auxiliary sciences useful to run the profession. c. producing advocates who have moral and honest oriented personalities and behaviors; that are honest, fair, and responsible and have high integrity to the profession and the interests of society / clients, not just personal interests (money and power) or certain groups. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 228-241 moreover, the enhancement of advocate skills requires an education process with a specific curriculum, certified profession, accreditation of professional education, and special licensing by professional associations. the provision of article 2 paragraph (2) of law number 18 year 2003 regarding advocate states that the advocate can be appointed as an advocate who has a higher education background in law and after attending special education of advocate profession conducted by advocate organization. based on the provisions of article 20 paragraph (3), article 21 paragraph (1) and paragraph (2) of law number 20 year 2003 on national education system, it is concluded that the implementation of professional education is held by universities only. the indonesian law is entitled to organize higher education programs and provide academic, professional or vocational degrees but only in collaboration with a university. it cannot award an academic degree, professional diploma or a vocational certification unless it enters into a mou with a university. in other words, advocate organizations and legal colleges cannot organize the educational program themselves, and must coordinate with the educational institutions like universities according to the law. in addition, other substantial issues such as standard curriculum, availability of professional teachers in every region still act as constraints for the higher education. it is also necessary to expect quality output from the professionals like advocates if they have benefited from the special education of advocate profession. these advocates must show evidence of understanding more deeply the quality condition in higher degrees of law. they must also determine the high quality of special education programs in advocate profession and the level of deficiencies associated with it. they must also be prepared to develop the competence and skills required of a law graduate. they should be motivated to join this special education law profession, and mold themselves accordingly in line with the standard quality of the expected advocates. advocates must make strong efforts to meet the expected objectives of the advocate profession. they must acquire higher education to match the real needs of the world of professional advocates. in response to the facts already mentioned above, it is therefore necessary for legal higher educational institutions or universities to cooperate with legal professional associations. they must mutually anticipate the needs of both parties and make such efforts that lead to the quality utomo improvement. such advocates should be produced who would be on high demand once they acquired a law degree through such collaborative programs. if we look further the world of advocates has two levels of specific expertise, russell (2013) noted that advocates who are professionals are still too general in their practice and handling of cases (especially litigations) , they do not need any specific specialist legal skills training provided by professional organizations. they have adequate general legal capabilities to perform and deliver their responsibilities. but an advocate is also required to possess technological capabilities that can support the settlement of client cases. secondly, advocates (as well as legal consultants) by professional associations are required to have specific expertise in dealing with certain legal issues. for example, advocates in the field of capital market law must have a certification as evidence of their expertise in the field of capital market law. in the past those who obtained certificates of expertise through courses and examinations, and obtained licenses from bapepam were both advocates and non-advocates. hence, advocates require not only general legal expertise but also specific skills. in order to increase their expertise in specific areas, advocates require an education process with a specific curriculum, professional certification, accreditation of professional education, and special licensing by professional associations. this is more beneficial if legal education institutions and professional legal associations can anticipate the professional needs of advocates and work together to design a model of professional education in accordance with the demands of skills needs. the association of indonesian college of law higher education (appthi) assesses that advocate organizations as stipulated in article 1 number 4 of the advocate law are called professional organizations, and not educational organizations. so that all forms of implementation carried out in educational activities is deviating from what is meant in the formation of an advocate organization itself, on the other hand, educational institutions including higher education institutions have a great responsibility in the implementation of education within the framework of achieving national education goals. related to that, the head of indonesian association of higher education leaders association filed a petition for judicial review of the advocate law to journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 228-241 the constitutional court related to the special education of advocate professional (pendidikan khusus profesi advokat pkpa) as regulated in article 2 paragraph (1) of the advocate law. the verdict of the constitutional court was a foothold for advocates' organizations and universities / high schools of law. the court mandated that the two parties must cooperate in the implementation of pkpa for advocates candidates. if possible, the ministry of research and technology higher education must also play an active role by making a special curriculum related to this pkpa material. in this way, all the material will be taught to all advocate candidates and they will have the same level of material quality and the same standard. in this way, the implementation of pkpa would really become a part of formal education that is not perfunctory. a case example can be cited here. the implementation of pkpa as the decision of the constitutional court in case 95 / puu-xiv / 2016 is expected to make pkpa to have quality level institution which is also equal to accreditation of university and / or high school lawyer. the existence of such benchmarks of minimum accreditation number b for college or law high school is accredited. in such cases, it is expected pkpa results will produce a reliable and qualified advocates who can help the community and improve the competitiveness of the nation. the cooperation between professional advocate organizations with universities can also be realized in the form of developing a model of professional education at two levels, namely the level of general profession and the level of the special skills. the professional education program should be considered to be an integrated program between general professional education programs, special professions and master programs (professions). this is so that the program participants get double benefits by holding a master’s (profession) field of law and bearing the title advocate (general), as well as advocates with special expertise in a particular field of law after they graduate in the education program. the next step is to prepare a model of learning in accordance with the demands of the world of legal professions including facilities and infrastructure with giving full importance to the lecturers / teachers. all the requirements of the learning process to suit the interests of professional lawyers and high quality legal education standards must be discussed together seriously by the world of utomo higher education law with legal professional associations, especially the association of advocates. only through mutually reinforced cooperation, the problem of professional education advocate can improve the quality of professional advocates. therefore it should start pioneering the existence of a joint forum between the law faculty with legal professional associations, in order to always be able to greet each other and provide input for the benefit of higher education law and the legal profession. last, but not the least, a standardization of advocate education allows students to perform better, because they must learn certain information in a given period. with a standardized curriculum in place, it would give lecturer specific instructions on subject to cover and how to assess students. however, the student can take course everywhere across the country. conclusion basically, advocacy education is a professional education, either because of the purpose factor, education mission, the reality of the history of the legal profession in the international world, and because of the provisions of legislation concerning professional education, both based on law no. 20 of 2003 on national education system as well as based on the provisions of law no. 18 of 2003 on advocates. the existence of decision of the constitutional court in case 95 / puu-xiv / 2016 gives the consequence of the need for cooperation between advocate professional organizations with universities in the implementation of pkpa with the standardization of curriculum in the implementation of pkpa. there are six core competencies an advocate must have: oratory skills, collaboration skills, emotional intelligence, project management skills, time management and information technology mastery. these competencies must be developed, if they can survive in facing disruptive situations. law schools should teach them; government agencies need to test them; law firms need to make their advocates expert in it. in addition, cooperation between professional organizations advocate with universities can also be realized in the form of developing a model of professional education in two levels, namely the level of general profession (general) and the level of a special profession (special skills). in relation journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (1), 228-241 to requirements of becoming an advocate in indonesia, it is suggested to formulate criteria and requirements for appointment and law firms eligible for apprenticeship for potential advocate members. references: ben w. heineman, j. (2007). lawyers as leaders. yalelawjournal.org, 116. retrieved from https://www.yalelawjournal.org/forum/lawyers-as-leaders brotosusilo, a. (2010). wto, regional and bilateral trade liberalization: it’s implication for indonesia. aseanlawassociation.org. retrieved from http://aseanlawassociation.org/9gadocs/w3_indonesia.pdf hamilton, n. w. (2014). changing markets create opportunities: emphasizing the competencies legal employers use in hiring new lawyers (including professional formation/professionalism). retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2412324 lindsey, t. (2004). legal infrastructure and governance reform in post-crisis asia: the case of indonesia. asian-pacific economic literature, 18(1), 12–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14678411.2004.00142.x linnan dk. (1999). indonesian law reform, or once more unto the breach: a brief institutional history. australian journal of asian law. retrieved from https://search.informit.com.au/documentsummary;dn=627557879189341;res=ielhss nasilenko, l. (2014). forming the future lawyers’ communicative competence: the experience of higher education in ukraine and germany. comparative professional pedagogy, 4(3), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.2478/rpp-2014-0041 oleh: abdullah tri wahyudi, s.ag., s. h. (2010). advokat berdasarkan undang-undang nomor 18 tahun 2003 | www.advosolo.wordpress.com. retrieved march 21, 2018, from https://advosolo.wordpress.com/2010/05/07/advokat-berdasarkan-undang-undang-nomor18-tahun-2003/ russell, h. (2013). susskind r. tomorrow’s lawyers: an introduction to your future (2013)oxford: oxford university press. isbn: 9780199668069. £9.99. legal information management, 13(4), 287–288. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1472669613000625 sagala, s. (2009). kemampuan profesional guru dan tenaga kependidikan: pemberdayaan guru, tenaga kependidikan, dan masyarakat dalam manajemen sekolah. simanjuntak, r. (2016). mempersiapkan advokat indonesia dalam menghadapi mea, peradi,15. retrieved march 21, 2018, from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=simanjuntak%2c+r.+%282 016%29%2c+mempersiapkan+advokat+indonesia+dalam+menghadapi+mea%2c+per adi%2c&btng= tarman, b. (2012). effective leadership in culturally diverse schools. energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 4(2), 1103-1114. utomo tünkler, v., tarman, b., & güven, c. (2016). a metaphorical approach regarding the equipment of students with abstract concepts and values included in the citizenship and democracy education curriculum *. education and science, 41(185), 123–145. https://doi.org/10.15390/eb.2016.6031 zayed, n. m. (2018). testing taylor’s rule to examine monetary policy regarding bank rate, inflation and output gap of bangladesh: 1972-2016. academy of accounting and financial studies journal, 22(1), 1528–2635. retrieved from https://www.abacademies.org/articles/testing-taylor-rule-to-examine-monetary-policy-15282635-22-1-111.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (3), 270-302 impact of covid-19 emergency transition to on-line learning on international students’ perceptions of educational process at russian university philipp novikov1 abstract the research aims to explore ways of improving adaptability of international first-year university students based on the experience of making the transition from face-to-face learning to various online platforms during the nationwide pandemic lockdown in russia in spring 2020. the research purpose is to analyze various sociocultural, technical and other challenges faced by international students after the one-day seamless transition to remote learning and their impact on the attendance record, motivation, academic performance and other quantitative and qualitative data. the research topic relevance is determined by the substantial rise in popularity of online learning, which had been demonstrating exponential growth even prior to the events of 2020, which further accelerated its expansion. the research methods integrate theoretical analysis of the current trends in online learning and its evolution as well as the strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities analysis. statistical data was collected and processed using the university's digital ecosystem. the research data includes the results of the survey consisting of multiple-choice, single-choice and open-end questions, interviews with the students as well as the faculty and the background material. the research sample includes international first-year students from 12 countries with cefr levels of the russian language proficiency ranging from a1 to b1. the research findings show that the speed of adaptation to online learning depends on various psychological and technological factors as well as the students’ learning abilities. the findings lead to the conclusion that despite the efforts of the faculty to make this process a seamless one, some factors lie beyond its reach, which makes neutralizing the disadvantages of remote teaching time-consuming. the research results demonstrate the potential ways of improving online learning for all parties concerned by implementing such features as risk management plans, knowledge bases, focusing on making the content user-friendly and introducing other various quality-of-life improvements. key words: online learning, remote teaching, pandemic lockdown, learning management systems, adaptability, covid-19, international students. introduction as evidenced by experts in education and by market research results, the popularity of online learning has been growing exponentially since the time of its origin in the last decade of the twentieth century (abe, 2020; kaufmann & buckner, 2019). the compound annual growth rate of 1 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, philippnovikov@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 271 online learning market is estimated at 36.5%, while its size is expected to reach $230 billion by the end of 2020 (guo & xiao, 2016). the aforementioned dynamics of online learning market natural growth largely correlate with the trend of the global internet access spread. the statistics provided by internet world stats show that in the period of time from 1995 to 2020 the number of users having access to the internet demonstrated growth from 16 million to 4.5 billion, which accounts for more than 80% of the global adult population. various factors, such as emergence of the world-wide web as a userfriendly and publicly accessible way of organizing the information contributed to this growth. furthermore, it is linked not only to the availability of the internet connection, but also to its quality, improved by the worldwide spread of mobile devices capable of offering stable high-speed connections with the bandwidth sufficient for real-time video communication (kim, 2019). while some researchers insist on the disambiguation of the terms online learning, e-learning remote learning and distance learning (moore et al., 2011; ohlin, 2019; tadeu et al., 2019), the consensus on their semantics has not been reached, the lack of consistency of their use is observed in the mass media and the general population. encyclopedia britannica suggests the equivalence of these terms that are frequently used synonymously by teachers and their students despite some semantic difference pointed out by the academics. corpus of contemporary american english provides the evidence of the term online learning being the most widely used one. for the purpose of the uniformity, this research was focused on the umbrella term online learning which encompasses various learning and teaching practices. they were conducted through the internet as opposed to the traditional in-person or face-to-face learning. it was done for the reasons mentioned in the previous paragraph as well as the following ones: 1) concept of distance or remote learning is not normally limited to the process involving the internet; however, it remained the only available option of communication between the students and teachers in the situation described in this research; 2) the overwhelming majority of respondents taking part in the research did not speak either english or russian as a native language, hence both questionnaires in these languages were adapted to be understood by the students without any ambiguity. moreover, the present study operates within the framework of emergency transition to on-line learning. it has acquired additional stance during the covid-19 international lockdown (archambault & borup, 2020; tarman, 2020). the current international settings of higher novikov education environment agree on the digital tools potential for the overall communication among university audiences, and their sustainable education (atabekova, 2020; budiharso & tarman, 2020). the present research analyzes the experience of a seamless transition to online learning and remote instruction performed by rudn university, also known as peoples’ friendship university of russia. the university was established in 1961 with the focus on diversity and inclusiveness, offering various degrees for international students with courses available in russian and english. one of its main goals is providing language and cultural training to the first-year international students, ensuring that they reach a high level of sociocultural adaptation. it should be mentioned that such a trend in general is found in major russian universities that pay a consistent attention to the comprehensive language policy within higher education environment in general, and to the first-year students’ perceptions, in particular (atabekova et al., 2016). rudn university entered the state of lockdown due to the covid-19 pandemic on 23 march while some faculty members switched to remote teaching as early as 17 march. the newly adopted learning process included various activities divided into three categories (khan, 2001): 1) full synchronous -implementing multiuser real-time video communication organized by the faculty and aimed at recreating the traditional classroom experience; 2) limited synchronous – encouraging project-oriented groupwork and spontaneous individual student-teacher communication using the learning environment provided by the university as well as the messaging systems of the students’ choice; 3) asynchronous – using the centralized learning management system to introduce individual assignments as well as guiding the students to use the external resources, communicating via text messaging, voicemail and email. the uniqueness of the situation under study is characterized by the emergency transition to online learning. it required a high speed of changes the educational process that moved online learning from optional to compulsory which may be seen as detrimental by some experts in education (burke, 2005). scholars insist that more attention should be given to the understanding of the way in which culture impacts online learning (kang & chang, 2016). they argue for the need of research on effective implementation of measures targeted at providing education during such force majeure events as pandemics (basilaia & kvavadze, 2020) and increasing the readiness of students for remote journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 273 education, which has been found to positively predict their satisfaction with the process (adnan, 2018). the current focus on online learning solutions and the experience acquired by the international healthcare community indicate the possibility of the lockdown measures being renewed (nazareth et al., 2020). the above situation supports the relevance of the current research on ground of the relevant literature analysis. research questions the goal of the present research is to identify the impact of emergency transition to on-line learning on the international students’ perceptions with regard to their learning process within the russian higher education environment. to reach the above goal, the following research questions have been addressed: 1. what is the immediate and mid-term impact of an emergency transition to online learning on the performance and adaptability of international students? 2. what types of issues do the international students encounter and perceive as disruptive during their transition to online learning? 3. what strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities can be identified within emergency transition of international students to online learning? literature review the analysis of the current trends in academic research on online learning and its history performed using google scholar and elsevier digital databases reveals its current popularity while emphasizing the importance of conducting a study that takes into consideration the specifics of the current situation in the global online learning environment. according to the text corpus analysis conducted using google books ngram viewer, the term “online learning” saw a slow rise in the number of mentions in the literature from 1991 to 1995. the term further demonstrated a subsequent significant increase in the number of mentions from 1999 to 2004, which marked its popularization and wide acceptance by academia, encouraged by the development of technology (see figure 1). the graph below was built using google ngram viewer with the following parameters: search term: “online learning”; corpus: english (2019); case-insensitive; smoothing of 5. novikov figure 1. ngram analysis of the term “online learning” (author’s data) while the abovementioned dynamics explain the relevance of online learning as a field of research in a typical non-emergency environment, taking into consideration the fast-growing trend of its natural increase of demand and availability did not suffice for the global readiness for the events of early 2020. that was the start of the period when the educational institutions all over the world were forced to suspend the face-to-face learning process during the pandemic lockdown. the web document analysis performed using google trends shows the correlation between the start of the global lockdowns affecting educational institutions and the worldwide peak of interest in the search term online learning in late march 2020, showing an increase of more than 70% within three weeks, which is uncharacteristic of this period of time. the study of the previous years (from 2010 to 2019) conducted using the same method demonstrates the typical saw tooth pattern of interest which peaks at the beginning of the school year in september and falls gradually until the start of the next semester, reaching its bottom in august and december with monthly fluctuations not exceeding 20% (see figure 2). the graph below was built using the following parameters: region: worldwide; time range: jun 1, 2010 – jun 1, 2020; category: all categories; search type: web search journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 275 figure 2. online learning patterns of search interest (author’s data) the abovementioned dynamics provide the evidence that the popularity of online learning requires specific urgent solutions in the current circumstances. scholars underline the role of ict in enhancing the sustainability of learning for citizens of all ages and providing new career opportunities for researchers (anikeeva et al., 2019; soltovets et al., 2020; strielkowski & chigisheva, 2018; tarman & dev, 2018). coldwell et al. (2008) recommend that the faculty should make sure that the digital content they offer can be utilized by all students regardless of their cultural background. it has been established that some aspects of international students’ adaptability largely depend on their individual adaptability (hua, 2017) which is positively related to cross-cultural adjustment (etherington, 2019; liu, 2017). therefore, the process of transition to online learning should be focused on mitigating the risks of maladaptation and avoiding the disruption of the learning process during such transition. the most often-cited reasons for students preferring online learning courses to face-to-face courses include improved logistics and flexibility that allow students to avoid spending time on commuting and facilitate communication with their peers and teachers (paechter & maier, 2010). additionally, educators list the following advantages: increased availability of information, improved speed of its transmission, and a higher degree of media interactivity (jansen, 2011). however, some of these advantages may not be perceived as such by the students. the perceived disadvantages of online learning include lower expected academic results, technical issues preventing students from achieving consistent results and more reliance upon self-control. they contribute to various informal theories explaining the unwillingness of some students to engage in online learning activities (o’neill & sai, 2014). academia also emphasizes the importance of the competencies required for online learning environments (baytak et al., 2010; sinacori, 2020) as well as the need to focus on providing the learning content designed for mobile devices (sevillano-garcía & vázquez-cano, 2015). academia cites various technical and novikov methodological issues faced by students when learning online as well as the specifics of the international students’ adaptability in the non-emergency learning environment. the findings obtained as a result of reviewing the current trends in academic research on the emergency transition to online learning reveal that no research so far has focused on optimizing the experience of international students in the aforementioned situation. scholars insist that more attention should be given to the understanding of the way in which culture impacts online learning (baez zarabanda, 2019; kang & chang, 2016). they argue for the need of research on effective implementation of measures targeted at providing education during such force majeure events as pandemics (basilaia & kvavadze, 2020) and increasing the readiness of students for remote education, which has been found to positively predict their satisfaction with the process (adnan, 2018). the latest developments in the filed explore the readiness of students to emergency transition to on-line learning within the covid-19 pandemics. however, it refers to students of particular specialties or majors, for instance, engineering (naji et al., 2020), geography (schultz & demers, 2020), chemistry (perets et al., 2020). further, it refers either to education in general (daniel, 2020), theory of pedagogy (crawford et al., 2020), consequences of the securitization of higher education for post-pandemic pedagogy (murphy, 2020), or to university management (johnson et al., 2020) or students of a particular country (rahiem, 2020). initial studies are paving their way with respect to international students’ perceptions of their learning during covid-19 lockdown. thus, the data can be found on the survey of ghanaian international students in china (demuyakor, 2020), chinese international students in australia (ma et al. 2020). the above results lead to the consideration of a number of points. first, the analysis of the current trends in academic research on online learning and its history reveals its current popularity. second, the literature confirms that academia has made immediate steps to consider the phenomenon of emergency transition to on-line learning within the current pandemic. however, a number of topics still are to be analysed. currently, no research has raised the question of immediate and mid-term impact of emergency transition to online learning on students’ perceptions. however, researchers mention the need for such angle of analysis (sahu, 2020). further, the issues of international students’ perception are empirically considered with regard to a particular ethnic group of youth representatives who held the status of international students during covid-19. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 277 however, we consider it important to try to map the perceptions of representative of different countries as the rudn university status allows for such an approach. further, particular topics of international students’ adaptability to an emergency transition to online learning have not become subject to academic research yet. nonetheless, this aspect seems to deserve particular attention. scholars underline that adaptability in general, and that of students, in particular, was one of the key issues during the recent lockdown (pelly et al., 2020). the review of literature confirms that scholars explore issues that students consider disruptive during their emergency transition to online learning. however, no particular emphasis has been laid on international students’ community, or on their perceptions with regard to studies at russian universities during the current pandemic. further, it should be mentioned that we have found no articles with an explicit focus on integrated approach in research that would cover e strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities (swot) within emergency transition of international students to online learning. bearing in mind the above situation, we might conclude that the present research should concentrate on the listed themes as they bear importance in terms of raising societal awareness of the issue under study, and promoting academic studies, as well. methods design this study used corpus based analysis design to which the contents of the corpus were thematised. the objective of this research is to identify the impact of emergency transition to on-line learning on the international students’ perceptions with regard to their learning process within the russian higher education environment. this research included theoretical and empirical studies, and involved a number of stages. the theoretical analysis of literature helped to map the academic rational of the study. the research core activities included empirical analysis of international students’ academic performance during lockdown period and their perceptions of the learning process within the mentioned context. data was analised using thematic analysis and descriptive statistics in the forms of rate percentage. research sample the sample for literature analysis covered over 578 papers which have been found on the google scholar and elsevier digital databases for the period limits 1999-2020. novikov the sample for empirical investigation included a diverse pool of 46 international first-year students who had started their education face-to-face and were later transferred to online learning groups. most participants (80.44%) were enrolled in one of the programs offered by the department of philology, majoring in linguistics, philology or journalism whereas a smaller percentage included those who were pursuing their degrees in law (15.21%) and economics (4.35%). the sex ratio was representative of the typical first-year group composition (57.14% female to 42.86% male). while the age of the students ranged from 17 to 40 (mode = 20, median = 22), the majority of them were aged 18-24. all of the students have completed their secondary education, graduating from an institution which corresponds to the equivalent of a high school, depending on their national system of education. some (19.56%) students have previously received an equivalent of a bachelor’s degree outside of russia. furthermore, among these students those who majored in a field different from the one chosen at rudn university (55%) were almost equally represented as those who chose to pursue a similar degree in a foreign language (45%). as this research focuses on cross-cultural adaptation of international students, the nationalities of the participants are also of major importance. the majority of the participants were citizens of peoples’ republic of china (65.21%), which is also representative of such groups pursuing the aforementioned degrees at rudn university. other nationalities included citizens of vietnam (6.52%), egypt (4.34%) and madagascar (4.34%) whereas the following countries were represented by 2.17% of the sample size: cuba, spain, syria, iraq, chad, serbia, afghanistan, guinea and south korea. native languages spoken by the students included mandarin chinese (65.21%), arabic (10.87%), vietnamese (6.52%), malagasy (4.34%), spanish (4.34%), korean (2.17%), serbian (2.17%), french (2.17%) and farsi (2.17%). despite the fact that the interface of the software provided by the university was not available in some of these languages, it is important to add that the majority of the students demonstrated the level of proficiency in english sufficient for understanding the instructions and using all the functionality of the software 76.08% were able to read instructions in english. the students who were not able to read the instructions in either russian or english received the necessary assistance from their peers, teachers and the students’ committee. the length of residence in russia at the start of the research varied from 1 month to 7 months. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 279 the cefr level of proficiency in russian varied from a1 to b1 due to the variance in the start of the first semester which ranged from september 2019 to february 2020. 41.30% have reached their b1 levels (first certificate in russian) by the start of the experiment, 30.43% have completed their a2 exams (basic level in russian) while the rest of the participants (28.26%) communicated at a1 level (elementary level in russian). table 1 sample key data (author’s data) major philology 80.44% law 15.21% economics (4.35%) sex female 57.14% male 42.86% age min 17 max 40 median 22 mode 20 nationality people’s republic of china 65.21% vietnam 6.52% egypt 4.34% other (listed above) 23.93% native language mandarin chinese 65.21% arabic 10.87% vietnamese 6.52% other (listed above) 17.4% level of proficiency in english > cefr a1 76.08% <cefr a1 23.92% level of proficiency in russian cefr a1 28.26% cefr a2 30.43% cefr b1 or higher 41.30% data collection several sorts of data were collected for research in line with research goal, questions. first, the academic publications on on-line learning and emergency transition to on-line studies during covid-19 were selected. second, quantitative information about the students’ academic performance results was aggregated. these data were represented in scores measured against students’ individual weekly learning plans and fixed in the university electronic database of students’ academic records. the individual performance records of the participants were extracted from the university’s moodle-based learning management system. the records were compared with the results of the previous years. the daily attendance record charts were compiled into a single database for their further quantitative analysis. the statistical quantitative data obtained during the observation stage were processed using the ibm spss statistics software. novikov third, the data covered on-line surveys and interviews of students by the author of this research from 17 march 2020 to 16 june 2020 on a weekly basis, provided their feedback on online learning and shared their vision of various adjustments that they deemed necessary to improve the process. fourth, the data included high-definition full video recordings of every synchronous online lesson that was conducted after the university had acquired written consent from all the students. finally, the data included the results of on-line survey constructed within microsoft forms. the survey was offered in english and russian and completed by all the research participants (n=46) with the average completion time of 4 minutes 27 seconds, the results were submitted on june 16 when the restrictions were still not lifted. the participants were classified as pt1 – pt46 in order to keep their personal data confidential. the answers in russian were translated into english with minimal modifications of grammar and lexis; to preserve the authenticity of the student’s responses, the text in english was not modified. the online survey prompted the students from different groups to answer various questions using the following formats: multiple choice, single choice and open-ended questions. the topics covered by the survey included the platforms used for all types of online learning activities (synchronous, limited synchronous and asynchronous) and student satisfaction with the process compared to the traditional face-to-face learning. the students were also asked to report any issues they encountered when studying online and suggest their ideas on how the process could be improved. all the research participants respondents completed the survey by 16 june 2020. the results were later analyzed with an aim to calculate percentages and build tables; the text data was exported into a text file for its subsequent thematic analysis and categorization. data analysis to shape the academic framework of the research, ngram viewer was used to analyse the frequency of the term online learning during the last two decades. google trends tool was used to explore the changes in research between the start of the global lockdowns affecting educational institutions and the worldwide peak of interest in the search term online/emergency learning. to explore students’ perceptions, a number of software and tools were used. microsoft forms was used to create the surveys and conduct them, integrating the students’ data from their corporate microsoft teams accounts and the internal university database. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 281 further, in order to examine the interaction between the students and teachers, the video footage obtained using capturing software bandicam and microsoft stream was processed using sony vegas video editing software to analyze the average input lag, video and audio delay and other issues of synchronous online classes. the bandwidth consumption was measured using the builtin tools in the operating systems. then, the data was processed and exported to mindmeister, a tool used for creation of mind map diagrams, with the aim of creating a swot (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis diagram of transition to online learning. this sort of tool has been recognized by academia as an effective situation analysis technique (gürel& tat, 2017). the swot mind map diagram was built based on the following: the findings obtained during the video footage analysis; the analysis of the data collected before and after the lockdown; the survey results and the verbal feedback provided by the respondents-participants to the empirical activities. results and discussion this section provides the results of the data analysis with three research questions that have been specified earlier, namely the following: 1) what is the immediate and mid-term impact of an emergency transition to online learning on the performance and adaptability of international students? 2) what types of issues do the international students encounter and perceive as disruptive during their transition to online learning? 3) what strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities can be identified within emergency transition of international students to online learning? the section also provides the author’s deliberation on the obtained results and suggestions for further university practice with regard to the educational context under study, bearing in mind the rudn university experience during lockdown. immediate and mid-term impact of emergency transition to online learning on adaptability of international students one of the aims of the faculty during the transition to online learning consisted of making the process seamless while maximizing its efficiency and recreating the classroom experience. novikov in order to ensure that both teachers and students were provided with an opportunity to adapt to the transition, the process was implemented gradually, with optional face-to-face groups being offered throughout the first 10 days and no requirements regarding the learning platform. while the majority of international students opted for online classes, 12.5% were strongly opposed to the change and preferred to be transferred to the groups which continued face-to-face studies for 10 more days. the sole form of control introduced by the faculty at that stage, which lasted until 14 april 2020, included weekly lessons plans listing the content and the tools used for remote teaching. afterwards the degree of control was increased by establishing microsoft teams as the default online platform with mandatory video recordings as well as by monitoring the observance of the timetable and the introduction of daily attendance reports. the types of lessons offered to first-year international students at rudn university include language classes, lectures and seminars. in order to improve their adaptability, the curricula are composed with the highest priority assigned to language classes which account for 100% of learning hours at the beginning of the first semester; this percentage is reduced to 66% during the second semester with the focus shifting on cultural studies and the specialization of the international students. it has been noted by the academia that models of student retention and their persistence in face-toface and online learning environments manifest in significantly different ways (boston & ice, 2010). the analysis of the retention rate across the observed groups reveals that the process of transition to online learning had a negative impact on the retention rate, which decreased by 13.04% immediately after the announcement was made, with some international students quitting the university and leaving russia. however, some of the students residing in their hometowns (4.34%) demonstrated a high level of motivation, participating in online lessons despite the technical issues caused either by the safety policy restrictions introduced by their countries or the lack of a high-quality and low-latency internet connection with the university servers located in russia. the online course content and instructions were offered in russian in order to improve students’ reading skills and prepare them for their future studies whereas the software interface and instructions were offered in russian and english. however, the formal instructions provided by the software developers were characterized by some students as complicated and non-intuitive, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 283 which led to teachers creating concise video instructions with voiceovers in english and improving the reliance on student-to-teacher individual consultations provided via instant messaging. the data obtained through the analysis of the daily attendance rate in the observed groups reveals an immediate negative influence of the transition evidenced by the decline to 66% within the first month. this time was required by the students to adapt to the new form of the learning process, acquire the necessary equipment and receive technical assistance from their peers and the faculty. however, the analysis of the subsequent attendance rate data demonstrates a recovery to an average of 85% which does not deviate from the pre-lockdown percentage. the results of the video data analysis reveal that the aforementioned daily attendance rate is not fully indicative of student participation in the synchronous online lessons due to a number of technical and psychological issues faced by the students, listed in the survey results below. with the number of classroom hours per day ranging from 4 to 8 (mean = 6), the attendance fluctuated, demonstrating the absence rate ranging from 42% to 15%. the technology-related issues were primarily influenced by the two factors listed below. first, 71.42% of the international students accessed the internet from their dormitory rooms where the wi-fi connection speed was not sufficient for multiuser real-time high-definition video communication. the second factor is the reliance of some students. it changed from 42.85% at the start of the observation to 14.28% as the university equipped with the laptops all the students who had requested them. the challenge was that mobile devices such as tablets and smartphones prevented students from being able to see the participants and the screen simultaneously and prompted the teachers to use various font and image scaling options, reducing the ease of use and the visibility of the learning resources. the respondents also mentioned that they were forced to use metered mobile data connection with an average hourly bandwidth consumption ranging from 700 megabytes to 1.3 gigabytes on their limited data plans as a reason for not attending some of their online lessons during the hours where the peak network usage was recorded. furthermore, the audio and video input and output delays caused by the low bandwidth of the students’ internet connections had a significant negative impact on conducting seminars and language classes, which require the highest degree of interactivity. according to the lesson footage analysis, the delay time in the interaction between students and teachers ranged from 2 to 10 seconds provided that the students were ready to answer the questions and no misunderstanding was discovered. novikov these circumstances greatly increased the time required for teachers to conduct productive dialogues with the students and initiate groupwork activities, rearranging their priorities and prompting them to allocate more time to monitoring student-centered work. the additional time was also spent on creating self-study materials for the students, using the learning management system and working extra hours, scheduling private consultations and providing technical and academic online support. in addition to the issues encountered during the synchronous online lessons, both teachers and students reported an increase of time spent on submitting and marking homework assignments designed to be handwritten and submitted in the paper form. as a result of the aforementioned circumstances, the overall teacher’s workload has significantly increased. moreover, the inability of some teachers to adapt to the process led to an increase in teacher attrition rate. following the transition to online learning, the reliance on the moodle-based learning management system for both assessment and new learning content delivery has increased. the emergency adjustments implemented by the faculty included the transfer of the paper-based end-of-course russian language test to the learning management system, which, due to its technical limitations, does not possess the capacity to replicate all the exam procedures and caused additional difficulties for the students. in order to prevent such misconduct as the unauthorized use of electronic devices, the outside interference and various forms of cheating, the university introduced a proctoring system with synchronous and asynchronous audio and video input monitoring. the video data analysis also reveals a positive change related to the transition to online learning the improvement of students’ attention concentration during their language lessons and seminars as the format requires them to actively participate in the process and does not present any opportunities for voice communication outside of the meeting. therefore, such negative factors as student-to-student distractions were minimized. additionally, the screen sharing function available to the students as well as the teachers greatly improved their ability to use a variety of multimedia resources, which is a feature that was had been unavailable in some classrooms lacking the necessary equipment. this function also empowers the students to improve their public speaking skills in a foreign language and facilitates conducting project-oriented activities. furthermore, the analysis of the academic performance results reveals that the form of learning did not have any considerable effect on the students’ exam results, with 73.42% being the average final weighted grade across all the groups of the respondents. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 285 the above data enhances the higher education experience with respect to on-line learning in specific context, namely in emergency transition to full scale on-line learning. it means shift from standard form of blended learning which combines face-to-face classes and students’ individual studies in an institutional electronic managements system, to group training in digital classes which are managed by the teacher. the above data makes it possible to set forth some thoughts with regard to immediate and midterm impact of the emergency transition to online learning on adaptability of international students. to our mind, immediate impact concerns students’ adaptability to training with regard to technical, organizational, and disciplinary issues. students’ adaptability to training in new settings requires the university support in terms of technical issues, choice of platforms and digital tools for training. our university experience confirms that there should be a comprehensive university policy and management which cover the mentioned aspects. the timely and concrete decisions at the university management level to select the tools, inform both students and teachers, and provide additional training , if necessary. further, the findings reveal that in terms of educational discipline, within the framework of full-scale digital education in emergency conditions, a proctoring system with synchronous and asynchronous audio and video input monitoring is relevant. the idea of such a system was earlier mentioned by experts in education with respect to on-line training in general (hylton et al., 2016). another aspect of immediate impact concerns students’ perceptions of their on-line workload . with regard to this point we would suggest that the self-study assignments be arranged in such a way that they would allow student to work off-line to minimize their dependence on the internet connection quality and speed, etc. further, with regard to mid-term impact of emergency transition to on-line learning on international students’ perceptions, we should mention that some aspects of international students’ adaptability largely depend on their individual features. scholars earlier mentioned that it is positively related to cross-cultural adjustment (hua, 2017; soltero lopez, & lopez, 2020). the findings obtained during the observation and interview analysis reveal that the rate of international students’ adaptability to online learning also depends both on their language skills and their technological literacy. thus, when designing the course, it is necessary to take into consideration the diversity of the students’ backgrounds and the potential inequality of the opportunities they were presented with as children in order to observe their student rights (atabekova et al., 2019). novikov additionally, the research has revealed the increased importance of constructive peer feedback in an online environment, which had been previously noted by academia (van popta et al., 2016). particular attention should be paid to teachers’ work as well. heads of the departments are expected to systematize the educational aids format, identify students’ workload per week, specify evaluation and assessment criteria, as well. types of issues that international students encounter and perceive as disruptive during their transition to online learning the findings have shed light on those points that first-year international students perceive as disruptive and led grounds for minimizing the risks related to online learning, improving the students’ adaptability, maximizing their satisfaction with the learning process and its efficiency. table 2 platforms used for synchronous online lessons (author’s data) platforms used for synchronous online lessons n microsoft teams 34 zoom 15 whatsapp 6 google hangouts (google meet) 5 whereby 5 the results of the survey indicate respondents did not limit to one and the same platform and tool. while microsoft teams was recommended by the university as the default platform for remote teaching with 52% of respondents using it as the main application, 23% used zoom, 8% took part in google hangouts meetings, 9% have used whatsapp for synchronous learning whereas 8% opted for the use of a less-known, albeit minimalistic and intuitive platform whereby. it has been discovered that each introduction of a new platform or application for on –line learning format was followed by a temporary average drop in participation. microsoft teams was used to conduct exams and online meetings since it was integrated into rudn university’s office 365 ecosystem. however, some students requested using such platforms as whatsapp, whereby and zoom, citing their stability, intuitiveness and familiarity as the reasons for their preference (abbreviation pt stands for a participant of the empirical studies): journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 287 pt 4: “first, we suggest improving the internet or working on a faster program, such as whatsapp”. pt 42 “a better, more stable software would be better”. the aforementioned responses as well as the feedback provided during the lessons reveal that international students may perceive the ease of use and the familiarity of the software as more important features than its functionality and the range of specialized learning-oriented features. table 3 tools used for homework assignment submission (author’s data) tools used for homework assignment submission n email 30 moodle-based learning management system 22 microsoft teams 18 whatsapp 13 google classroom 2 the analysis of the responses of the online survey items revealed a number of issues. it has been established that the majority of the respondents have used traditional non-specialized tools in order to submit their assignments. 65% cited personal or corporate email as a tool utilized to send files to their teachers and 28% mentioned whatsapp. this data confirms the findings of this research, stating that both teachers and students attach a higher value to the familiar platforms that they perceive as user-friendly, avoiding the use of software they have little experience with, unless specifically instructed to do so by the faculty. while the use of the moodle-based learning system created by the university was mandatory for every member of the faculty, it was mentioned only by 47% of the respondents, which may indicate that they did not perceive it as the primary platform used for student-to-teacher interaction. while 52% of the students acknowledged having used microsoft teams, only 39% of them said they used it to submit homework assignments. furthermore, 4% of the respondents belonging to the same learning group mentioned using google classroom, which demonstrates the willingness of the teaching staff to explore various options available in order to optimize the students’ experience. novikov table 4 issues encountered during remote learning (author’s data) issues encountered during remote learning n bad internet connection 36 disturbance caused by the roommates 19 not being provided with the necessary literature 16 difficulties encountered while viewing the teacher’s screen on the phone (laptop) 11 difficulties encountered while submitting homework assignments 11 other 3 the results of the research indicate that during the process of transitioning to online learning international students face various challenges that some of their russian peers may avoid. the overwhelming majority (78%) of them cited internet connection issues as a major factor that had a negative impact on their learning process (abbreviation pt stands for participant of the empirical studies): pt 5 “we all did acknowledge that the communication of video call is always poor.” pt 32 “better internet access.” pt 8 “the internet connection of university's hostel should be better since it's so bad.” pt 9 “the internet connection in the hostel is so bad and there is no way to connect sometimes to the session which leads to using our own internet that is expensive.” pt 34 internet access needs much improvement pt 37 the only thing i would say is to improve internet connection if possible. while the respondents did not distinguish between various hardware, software and connectivity issues that were negatively affecting their learning experience, a further investigation confirms that some of these issues can be solved by properly informing the groups and providing individual technical support. however, some of these issues lie beyond the scope of the faculty, such as offering technical assistance to the students who were studying abroad – in particular, in china and iraq. the wi-fi connection at the university campus was not initially designed for multiple simultaneous high-definition group video calls, which caused the network to underperform during the peak hours. any immediate upgrades of the system were not possible at the time of the emergency transition to online learning, yet the university addressed that issue by offering special journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 289 learning spaces with the necessary equipment and high-speed internet access, provided that the users practice social distancing. the hardware issues, including the use of lower-end devices incompatible with the modern software, were resolved by the university providing the students with personal laptops optimized for online learning use. the students who reported not having been able to connect to the sessions and using their own mobile data connection were contacted by the faculty. further it was discovered that they were using suboptimal data plans due to not being informed of the unlimited traffic options offered by other mobile network operators when arriving in russia and purchasing their sim cards. this example emphasizes the importance of creating a user-friendly knowledge base with simplified visual explanations and instructional videos as well as troubleshooting guides translated into several languages, aimed at providing students with immediate technical support or instructing their teachers to do so on the condition that the issue is common and does not require any special technical expertise. another issue especially relevant for students who live in dormitories in the period of self-isolation is interruptions caused by the roommates: 41% of respondents mentioned that they prevented them from studying efficiently, this includes the situations where two students were having lessons simultaneously in one room: pt 35 “students need access to reliable internet, devices, and a quiet space dedicated to studying.” this issue can be partially solved by instructing the students to use headsets and mute their microphones unless they are speaking. additionally, 34% of the respondents mentioned not having the access to the necessary paperbased learning materials while studying online; this particular issue is unique to the lockdown situation. one of the solutions proposed by the faculty consisted of compiling the lists containing the necessary literature and making requests to the library to deliver the books to the campus. some respondents (24%) cited the difficulties encountered while viewing the teacher’s screen on their mobile devices due to the scaling issues they encountered (abbreviation pt stands for participant): pt 43 “tutors making their screen (power point format) more viewable to the class.” novikov in order to minimize the negative impact of this issue, it is recommended that teachers use text and image scaling functions, magnifying the contents of their screen by up to 400% and analyzing feedback from the participants. another 24% of respondents cited taking pictures of their assignments and sending them to the teachers as another issue encountered during the lockdown, which is also especially relevant for international students focused on foreign language studies and improving their handwriting. in addition to the abovementioned technicalities, the respondents also cited methodological and psychological issues. some students expressed their willingness to study in a digital environment that fully recreates the classroom experience: pt 46: “for teachers to carry out classes as close to normal”. some survey participants considered face-to-face lessons to be of the highest importance for their russian language studies: pt 23 “i do not know russian very well, so i want to return to the classroom and talk with the participants to check for errors.” however, some participants mentioned the importance of completely restructuring the learning process, which should be taken into consideration in the long-term perspective: pt 38: “resources designed for online learning instead of quickly altered lesson plans” pt 3 “patient teachers and know how to use online lessons” the perceived lack of teachers’ patience related to delayed responses is a known factor in real time online conversations (schoenenberg et al., 2014). furthermore, the stress induced by the video call fatigue reveals a need of raising awareness of its psychological effects among both students and teachers: pt 9 “teachers should be more patient and able to understand students since the language is new and a hard one.” this particular effect was cited multiple times, leading to lowered levels of motivation: pt 7 “it’s just really hard to focus if you have online classes every single day” pt 14 “i have no idea. i think it is very difficult for me to take online class. it is hard to understand class to me. i feel sad and anxious everyday....” additionally, some students emphasized the perceived importance of adapting the procedure of reviewing the material in order to facilitate its comprehension and centralize its distribution: journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 291 pt 5 “i think prior to the lectures, the lecturer should go over the topics and lessons, that are going to be covered during the day or week with the students.” pt 21 “teacher writes an important point in the chat.” furthermore, the respondents expressed their opinion of the need to simplify the online lessons and make its content more accessible to the international students: pt 4 “we just want to talk and listen to programs online with people who speak slowly, like a teacher, and listen to videos and music slowly”. pt 2. “in my opinion facilitate the explanation and simplify the information due to the difficulty of transmitting information to students”. table 5 degree of satisfaction with the online learning experience (author’s data) degree of satisfaction with the online learning experience n neutral / slightly negative 22 highly negative 18 positive 6 according to the survey results, while the majority of students (86.95%) preferred traditional faceto-face learning and would opt in for such lessons provided that they had a chance to do so, 47.82% of them stated that they found their online lessons to be of a comparable efficiency with their classroom experience. a lower percentage of the respondents (39.13%) mentioned that various technical, cultural and other issues prevented them from making the learning process efficient and enjoyable. the further analysis of the negative opinions reveals that the students realize their inability to change the circumstances which caused them to study online and demonstrates their demotivation (abbreviation pt stands for participant of the empirical studies): pt 5. “online classes are very complicated and demotivating in my view” pt 22 “but you know that we don’t have an option, because everyone wants to get rid of the virus”. pt 16 “i don’t know how the online lesson will be better, i don’t like it!” pt 32 “having live classes is too hard” some students expressing a certain degree of indifference: novikov pt 10 “all is well” pt 19 “i have no questions.” furthermore, a lower percentage of the respondents (13.04%) expressed the highest degree of satisfaction with their experience of online learning, saying that they would prefer to study online despite having previously chosen a face-to-face course. the above data reveals that generally international students perceive two types of issues as disruptive during their emergency transition to online learning. first, it is all kind of technologyrelated points. with respect to this point, we should bear in mind , that individual’s adaptability to on-line learning is linked to the overall level of technological literacy, which greatly varies by country, as scholars mention (falck et al., 2016). its effect is amplified by the diversity in software practices traditionally used by students at home. moreover, understanding technical instructions in a foreign language introduces an additional layer of complexity for the international students whose language proficiency level is not sufficient for that task. therefore, a systemic technical support should be provided to students. in case of rudn university is was cross-faculty campus dormitories-based students’ volunteering team (organized by the students self-governing bodies in cooperation with the dean offices at the faculties) whose members turned out to be more advanced in technology and language use and managed to help their peers in the campus dormitories. another area seems to be more sensitive as it refers to social and cultural issues. the empirical data revealed relatively low percentage of positive verbal feedback in the survey results. to our mind it may be linked to the negative bias focus in open-ended responses. academia has been established that the dissatisfied respondents are more likely to provide feedback than their more satisfied counterparts (poncheri et al., 2008). however, in case of rudn university that has a long-standing experience as an international university, we consider that much depends on the teacher, whose objectives during emergency transition to on-line learning go far beyond the educational materials development and students’ works check. it is the academic staff who is responsible for maintaining the positive psychological climate in the digital classroom. the teachers are expected to balance the attention among all the students, identify their common and individual learning troubles. therefore, such issues should be subject for consistent consideration and discussion at the academic staff meetings during the journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 293 emergency transition to on-line learning. such a practice was introduced at rudn university and help both each teacher and the training departments in general to avoid students’ deep and long lasting depression related to emergency related changes in the training process. strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities within emergency transition of international students to online learning the research findings demonstrate the impact of various methodological, technological and psychological issues caused by the emergency transition to online learning on the adaptability of international students and offer an insight into the perceived advantages and disadvantages of the system as well as its opportunities and threats both in the short-term and the long-term perspectives. in order to categorize these variables and present their overview, the principles of strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities (further swot) analysis were implemented to build the swot mind map diagram, see figure 3: figure 3. swot analysis of transition to online learning (author’s data) according to the research findings, the advantages of online learning include an improved flexibility of the learning process with teachers being able to improve their degree of control and organize online lessons depending on their methodological preferences, taking into account the individual characteristics of their students. it has also been established that various online learning formats offer a wide range of possibilities for using multimedia content and interactive resources. this removes the dependency on the classroom equipment, which is highly relevant for international students primarily focused on novikov language training, generally provided to a large number of smaller groups simultaneously, reducing the chance of each individual group to be able to access a computer laboratory. another characteristic of online learning is the ability of the teachers to draw the students’ attention to the importance of individual home assignments and promote project-based learning either through the use of the university’s learning management system or other tools chosen by them based on a specific task. the findings obtained during the observation also demonstrate the improvement of the students’ concentration related to a reduced rate of distraction caused by their peers during the synchronous online lessons. as mentioned earlier, the disadvantages of transitioning to online learning that had an immediate effect on the learning process can be categorized into three groups: technical issues, methodological issues and psychological issues. the immediate effects of an emergency transition to online learning include a lowered student retention rate due to some students not being able to adapt to the change in the learning process, and a decline in the attendance rate, explained by the unverifiable technical issues. the technical difficulties include a range of issues related to the absence of the necessary equipment as well as software and hardware incompatibilities. additionally, both students and teachers may lack the required skills of using various online learning tools. the video footage analysis revealed a major increase in communication delays between the students and the teachers, which reduced the amount of content delivered to student during each lesson, leading to immediate significant modifications of the lessons plans, subsequently increasing the teachers’ workload. the research findings reveal the connection between the psychological and methodological issues. it has been established that video-call-induced fatigue may lead to students becoming demotivated and depressed, which dictates the necessity of introducing various methodological measures in order to prevent maladaptation issues amplified by the existence of the language barrier and the difficulties of cross-cultural adjustment. the long-term opportunities presented by the transition to online learning include the potential for training specialists in creation of high-quality online learning content, significantly increasing their competitiveness, improving the learning management systems and offering new unique programs to international students, regardless of their location. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 295 additionally, transition to online learning allows students to improve their computer literacy and self-control which have become increasingly important in the modern learning environment. it also encourages international students to become familiar with local practices of using specific software and learning platforms while raising their technological adaptability. the potential long-term disadvantages include the rise in teacher attrition rate, causing some faculty members with traditional face-to-face teaching experience to leave the university unless they adapt to online teaching practices and master the technology. furthermore, the newly established online learning practices may lead to devaluation of traditional face-to-face education, rapidly changing the global learning environment, increasing the competition between long-term oriented well-established universities and short-term oriented companies specialized in content creation and advertising, potentially lowering the competitiveness of the former. online learning has also been found to increase the reliance of international students on computers and mobiles devices, lowering the number of face-to-face social interactions, which may reduce the rate of their cross-cultural adaptation. in addition to the aforementioned issues, the analysis reveals an increased number of opportunities for cheating and other forms of misconduct which can be partially, albeit not fully prevented by utilizing proctoring software during tests and exams. the information obtained during the present swot analysis may be used to improve the future online learning experience of international students. conclusion the research provided the data according to which an impact on students’ perceptions operates as a multidimensional phenomenon, which could cover immediate and long-term impact, diverse types of disruptive issues and threats, as well as might contribute to certain strengths and opportunities. the analysis of the immediate and mid-term impact of online learning on international students reveals that various issues persisted throughout the semester, such as noticeable delays in the response time experienced by the students and teachers during the synchronous lessons, an increased probability of students cheating as well as the substantial rise in teachers’ workload. novikov the latter is caused by an increased number of hours dedicated to converting the content into the digital format, compiling and submitting reports designed to improve the online learning process and providing technical assistance to the students. however, mid-term impact refers to individual and social aspects. the research results reveal that the efforts of the faculty resulted in stabilization of the overall students’ performance as well as the recovery of their attendance record, despite the significant changes in the learning process. the analysis of the research data demonstrates the way in which first-year international students perceive the issues of transition to online learning and offer an insight into possible ways of minimizing the risks related to online learning, improving the students’ adaptability and maximizing their satisfaction with the learning process and its efficiency. the results of the analysis indicate that a rapid transition to online learning is accompanied by a number of short-term effects with the disadvantages being more perceivable than the advantages by both teachers and students. while taking immediate action during such emergency situations might not be possible, it is suggested that faculties create contingency plans and focus on risk management in order to minimize the negative impact of such situations on cross-cultural and technological adaptability of international students. a number of opportunities presented by the transition to online learning are related to improving the quality of content and methodology as well as entering the rapidly-growing global market of online education. the long-term negative effects include a potential devaluation of traditional classroom education and a decrease in the cross-cultural adaptability of international students due to a minimized number of face-to-face social interactions. furthermore, the research results lead to the conclusion that in order to ensure that the standards of quality are maintained during a transition to online learning, universities should be able to make specific efforts. they are supposed to complete such projects as converting the content designed for face-to-face learning into the digital format, making it more user-friendly, creating knowledge bases that offer the necessary information to international students, translating it into multiple languages in order to make it accessible. it is also recommended that they provide high-intensity adaptability training for teachers and students and introduce various technical and methodological quality-of-life improvements, considering the issues specific to international students. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 297 the research findings confirm the importance of addressing the impact of the current situation by conducting an interdisciplinary research on the way in which a forced emergency transition to online learning affects the adaptability of international students. the research findings contribute to the establishment of best practices aimed at improving the quality of online learning in general, preventing the adaptability issues of international students caused by a rapid transition to online learning and making this process a seamless one. the present research has some limitations. we should say that it has been a kind of pilot study with a limited number of participants and general sort of questions they were offered to reply. further investigation is supposed to be implemented with diverse trajectories of studies. they should take into account the students’ social-cultural background, geographical origin, level of technological literacy, age, gender, etc. such an approach would help to tailor the digital training within emergencies to particular student audiences at an international university. further studies should also include the response from the university management and academic staff, in terms of their perceptions od those issues that should be taken into account when working with first year international students within emergency settings due to pandemics. acknowledgements the publication has been prepared with the support of the rudn university program 5-100. special thanks are addressed to mr. kevin krause (usa), senior teacher of the rudn law institute foreign languages department, for his valuable comments and help in editing and proofreading. references abe, j.a. (2020). big five, linguistic styles, and successful online learning. the internet and higher education, 45, 100724. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.100724. adnan, m. (2018). professional development in the transition to online teaching: the voice of entrant online instructors, recall, 30(1), 88-111. doi: 10.1017/s0958344017000106. anikeeva, o.a., sizikova, v.v., demidova, t.e., starovojtova, l.i., akhtyan, a.g., godzhieva, r.b., karpunina, a.v., & maydangalieva, z.a. (2019). it and computer technologies for education of senior citizens and improving the quality of their life. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 15(11), 1-8. doi: 10.29333/ejmste/109504 novikov archambault, l., & borup, j. (2020). coming together as a research community to support educators and students in k-12 online and emergency remote settings. journal of online learning research, 6(1), 1-3. atabekova, a.a. (2020). university discourse to foster youth’s sustainability in society amidst covid19: international and russian features. sustainability 2020, 12(18), 7336. doi: 10.3390/su12187336 atabekova, a.a., belousov, a.a., & yastrebov, o.a. (2016). international university freshmen’s perceptions on culturally diverse community and internal stakeholders’ tactics. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(16), 9381-9389. atabekova, a., gorbatenko, r., shoustikova, t., & radić, n. (2019). language analysis of convention on the rights of the child to enhance societal awareness on the issue. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 506-529. baez zarabanda, d. (2019). ict and its purpose in the pedagogical practice. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.6 basilaia, g., & kvavadze, d. (2020). transition to online education in schools during a sarscov-2 coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic in georgia. pedagogical research, 5(4), em0060. doi: 10.29333/pr/7937 baytak, a., tarman, b., & ayas, c. (2011). experiencing technology integration in education: children's perceptions. international electronic journal of elementary education, 3(2), 139-151. boston, w., & ice, p. (2010). comprehensive assessment of student retention in online learning environments. proceedings of e-learn 2010 world conference on e-learning in corporate, government, healthcare, and higher education, 1593-1599. budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 burke, l.a. (2005). transitioning to online course offerings: tactical and strategic considerations. shreveport journal of interactive online learning, 4(2), 94. retrieved from www.ncolr.org/jiol coldwell, j., craig, a., paterson, t., & mustard, j. (2008). online students: relationships between participation, demographics and academic performance. the electronic journal of elearning, 6, 19-30. crawford, j., butler-henderson, k., rudolph, j., malkawi, b., glowatz, m., burton, r., ... & lam, s. (2020). covid-19: 20 countries' higher education intra-period digital pedagogy responses. journal of applied learning & teaching, 3(1), 1-20. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 299 daniel, s.j. (2020). education and the covid-19 pandemic. prospects, 1-6. doi: 10.1007/s11125-020-09464-3 demuyakor, j. (2020). coronavirus (covid-19) and online learning in higher institutions of education: a survey of the perceptions of ghanaian international students in china. online journal of communication and media technologies, 10(3), e202018. doi: 10.29333/ojcmt/8286 etherington, m. (2019). the challenge with educational transformation. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 96-112. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.8 falck, o., heimisch, a., & wiederhold, s. (2016). returns to ict skills, ieb working paper no. 2016/05. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.2744714 guo, z., xiao, l., van toorn, c., lai y., & seo, c. (2016). promoting online learners’ continuance intention: an integrated flow framework. information & management, 53(2), 279-295, doi: 10.1016/j.im.2015.10.010. gürel, e., & tat, m. (2017). swot analysis: a theoretical review. uluslararasısosyalaraştırmalardergisi the journal of international social research, 10(51), doi: 10.17719/jisr.2017.1832 hua, j. (2017). flourish or falter: the role of individual adaptability in cross-cultural adjustment. academy of management proceedings. 10050. doi: 10.5465/ambpp.2017.10050abstract. hylton, k., levy, y., & dringus, p. (2016) utilizing webcam-based proctoring to deter misconduct in online exams. computers & education, 92–93, 53-63. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2015.10.002. jansen, b.a. (2011). civic education and the learning behaviors of youth in the online environment: a call for reform. journal of social studies education research, 2(2), 2242. johnson, n., veletsianos, g., & seaman, j. (2020). us faculty and administrators' experiences and approaches in the early weeks of the covid-19 pandemic. online learning, 24(2), 621. kang, h., & chang, b. (2016). examining culture's impact on the learning behaviors of international students from confucius culture studying in western online learning context. journal of international students, 6(3), 779-797. kaufmann, r., & buckner, m. (2019). revisiting “power in the classroom”: exploring online learning and motivation to study course content. interactive learning environments, 27(3), 402-409. doi: 10.1080/10494820.2018.1481104. novikov khan, b. (2001). an event-oriented design model for web-based instruction. new jersey: educational technology publications. kim, d., & lee, m., (2019). the structural relationship among smartphone dependency, teaching presence, deep approach to learning and satisfaction in online deeper learning. proceedings of the 2019 8th international conference on educational and information technology (iceit 2019). association for computing machinery, new york, ny, usa. doi: 10.1145/3318396.3318416. liu, b. (2017). study on social cultural adaptability of international students in china under the background of "the belt and road". 7th international conference on social science and education research (sser 2017) advances in social science, education and humanities research, 132, 20-26. ma, t., heywood, a., & macintyre, c.r. (2020). travel health risk perceptions of chinese international students in australia–implications for covid-19. infection, disease & health, 25(3), 197-204. doi: 10.1016/j.idh.2020.03.002. moore, j., & krista, g. (2011). e-learning, online learning, and distance learning environments: are they the same? the internet and higher education, 14, 129-135. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2010.10.001. murphy, m. p. (2020). covid-19 and emergency elearning: consequences of the securitization of higher education for post-pandemic pedagogy. contemporary security policy, 41(3), 492-505. doi: 10.1080/13523260.2020.1761749 naji, k. k., du, x., tarlochan, f., ebead, u., hasan, m.a., & al-ali, a.k. (2020). engineering students’ readiness to transition to emergency online learning in response to covid-19: case of qatar. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 16 (10), em1886. doi: 10.29333/ejmste/8474 nazareth, j., minhas, j., jenkins, d., sahota, a., khunti, k., haldar, p., & pareek, m. (2020). early lessons from a second covid-19 lockdown in leicester, uk. lancet, 396(10245), e4–e5. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(20)31490-2. ohlin, c. (2019). information and communication technology in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.4 o’neill, d.k., & sai, t.h. (2014). why not? examining college students’ reasons for avoiding an online course. higher education, 68, 1–14. doi: 10.1007/s10734-013-9663-3. paechter, m., & maier, b. (2010). online or face-to-face? students' experiences and preferences in e-learning, the internet and higher education, 13(14), 292-297. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2010.09.004. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (3), 270-302 301 pelly, f. e., wiesmayr‐freeman, t., & tweedie, j. (2020). student placement adaptability during covid‐19: lessons learnt in 2020. nutrition & dietetics.[epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1111/1747-0080.12625 perets, e. a., chabeda, d., gong, a. z., huang, x., fung, t. s., ng, k. y., ... & yan, e. c. (2020). impact of the emergency transition to remote teaching on student engagement in a nonstem undergraduate chemistry course in the time of covid-19. journal of chemical education, 97( 9), 2439–244. poncheri, r.m., lindberg, j.t., thompson, l.f., & surface, e.a. (2008). a comment on employee surveys: negativity bias in open-ended responses. organizational research methods, 11(3). doi: 10.1177/1094428106295504, 614–630. rahiem, m.d. (2020). the emergency remote learning experience of university students in indonesia amidst the covid-19 crisis. international journal of learning, teaching and educational research, 19(6), 1-26. sahu, p. (2020). closure of universities due to coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19): impact on education and mental health of students and academic staff. cureus, 12(4),12(4), e7541. doi: 10.7759/cureus.7541 schultz, r.b., & demers, m.n. (2020). transitioning from emergency remote learning to deep online learning experiences in geography education. journal of geography, 1-5. doi: 10.1080/00221341.2020.1813791 schoenenberg, k., raake, a., & koeppe, j. (2014). why are you so slow? – misattribution of transmission delay to attributes of the conversation partner at the far-end. international journal of human-computer studies, 72(5), 477-487. sevillano-garcía, m.l., & vázquez-cano, e. (2015). the impact of digital mobile devices in higher education. journal of educational technology & society, 18(1), 106-118. sinacori, b. (2020). how nurse educators perceive the transition from the traditional classroom to the online environment: a qualitative inquiry. nursing education perspectives, 41(1), 1619. doi: 10.1097/01.nep.0000000000000490. soltero lopez, a., & lopez, p. (2020). expanding our reach: cross-institutional collaborations and teacher preparation in hispanic serving institutions. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 120-135. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.8 soltovets, e., chigisheva, o., & dmitrova, a. (2020). the role of mentoring in digital literacy development of doctoral students at british universities. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 16(4), em1839. strielkowski, w., chigisheva, o. (2018). research functionality and academic publishing: gaming with altmetrics in the digital age. economics and sociology, 11(4), 306-316. novikov tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed tarman, b. (2020). editorial: reflecting in the shade of pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), i-iv. doi: 10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), i-ii. doi: 10.46303/ressat.03.01.ed van popta, e. (2016). exploring the value of peer feedback in online learning for the provider. educational research review, 20. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2016.10.003. students’ self-adjustment, self-control, and morality www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (1), 174-193 students’ self-adjustment, self-control, and morality rifa hidayah1 abstract morality is very important in life, and it facilitates social interaction. the morality that is instilled in the home, in schools, and in the wider society makes it easier for individuals to function in their lives. for this reason, the factors influencing the morality of students warrant urgent investigation. a quantitative approach was chosen for this study, one using research scales. the three research scales comprised the morality scale, both selfadjustment scales, and the self-control scale. the research subjects comprised 210 students at the senior high school al-yasini pasuruan, all aged 14–18 years. the study resulted in four findings: first, self-adjustment influences the morality of students. second, self-control also influences the morality of students. third, self-adjustment and self-control both have a positive effect on morality. four, self-control proved to be a mediator between self-adjustment and morality. the results of this study suggest that a more comprehensive study for determining other research variables will yield different results, however. more specifically, further studies will be needed to reveal other factors that may promote morality in school students. keywords: self-control, self-adjustment, student morality. introduction the education system of indonesia has generally so far been able to foster a high level of morality in students, with the model for implementing educational programs in schools playing a central role in improving the morality of students. unfortunately, moral deviations persist in school environments, such as students participating in undesirable behavior like fighting with other students (cnn indoensia, 2020), skipping school, and cheating on exams (abdi, 2019). poor morality directly leads to low moral identity and a lack of altruistic behavior (yang et al., 2020). good morality is therefore needed to help students build a positive character. in the world of education, a morality crisis can only be prevented if moral education is delivered through each lesson in the school environment. various efforts therefore need to be made to ensure that students have the morality they need. individuals with a high level of morality tend to behave well and be accepted by others. good morality can also be observed in other individual aspects, such as self-control (hirtenlehner & kunz, 2016; morán-soto & benson, 2018 ; olivares & ceglie, 2020) and self-adjustment (aslan, 2021; bradley, 2021; hassan & elfeky, 2015; tarman & dev, 2018). monitoring one’s own condition and having good social interactions can be made possible at school through 1 dr. universitas islam negeri maulana malik ibrahim malang, indonesia, :rifa_hidayah@psi.uin-malang.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 175 various activities, such as discussions between peers about lessons and jointly solving problems related to morality. these trigger interactions between individuals and friends, especially about moral themes. these interactive group activities and self-reflection increase students’ understanding of morality as something positive. they also help understand how various behaviors manifest in accordance with the development of morality in students, especially for adolescents at high school (sma) level. however, the problem of morality in high school students is an urgent problem, so gaining insights into the relationship that self-adjustment and self-control has with the morality of students will be very useful. many psychologists have conducted studies about morality. in general, it is influenced by various internal and external factors (schauster et al., 2020; thomas & dunphy, 2014; xiang et al., 2020). morality arises not just due to external factors, such as external stimuli and environmental factors—it is also influenced by individual factors, such as personal characteristics (başok & sayer, 2020; hofmann et al., 2018). research into the importance of these internal factors has emphasized the psychological aspects of an individual’s internal self, including personality features and the attitudes of social groups (abd rahim et al., 2021; bursal & polat, 2020; graham et al., 2011; karademir coskun, erdogdu, & kokoc, 2020; padır, ayas, & horzum, 2021). another important factor is the role of emotions (eisenberg, 2000). we expect that the implementation and results of this research will practically benefit high school students and equivalent learners (polat, 2020). in addition, it will help guide the direct teaching of moral values in schools, such as by providing moral material or encouraging students to read books that have a moral theme and follow their development. what is more, the government, but especially schools, should understand that the morality of students can be developed through moral education in accordance with their level of development (solikhah & budiharso, 2020a). theoretically, this study will contribute for educational psychology in indonesia, especially for the theme of student morality. problems with morality can cause other more serious problems, such as aggressiveness (van den berg et al., 2020) and bullying. several recent studies have shown that happiness, sadness, and anger correlate with moral behavior (eisenberg, 2000). efforts are therefore needed to overcome the problem of poor morality, but improving morality requires adjustment. the various stages in this adjustment process include i) providing individual encouragement that is meaningful in terms of life opportunities and environmental demands; ii) learning about the state of the self and the limitations of the environment; iii) understanding oneself and the environment; iv) dynamically integrating drive, ability, and perception with the opportunities, hidayah demands, and limitations of the environment; and v) achieving a positive-negative or activepassive self or a combination thereof (hurlock, 1987; schneiders, 1964). self-control is one of the psychological aspects that correlates with morality (hirtenlehner & kunz, 2016). indeed, it is the most important element of morality because it regulates behavior (vitell et al., 2009). it is therefore a prerequisite for ethical behavior (geyer & baumeister, 2005), and it is very important for achievement and wellbeing (molden et al., 2012; more & rodgers, 2020). a study of tangney et al., (2004) showed someone with a high degree of self-control have greater values, are harder to try, and this is another characteristic of moral identity. otherwise the poor self-control lowering the value of personality resources (baytemir, 2016). the results of one study showed that self-control training is effective at reducing impulsive excessive purchasing (aboyassin & sultan, 2017). self-control activities are useful for helping students to understand morality, and this greatly aids them in their future lives. in general, research has only partially analyzed morality, so this complex phenomenon is not well described. this study is based on four basic assumptions: first, self-adjustment is important aspects in predicting a student’s morality. second, self-control is important aspects in predicting a student’s morality. third, morality results from the various factors that surround both self-control and self-adjustment. four, self-adjustment is positioned as an independent variable that affects morality, while self-control is positioned as a moderating variable because it helps strengthen this relationship with morality. literature review morality morality is often interpreted as guiding individuals to behaviors that are deemed desirable by society (rogers, 1977). morality has two characteristics: first, moral judgment is not determined solely. second, rules that are guided in a community (killen & dahl, 2019). there are three levels of moral development (kohlberg, 1975). the first pre-conventional stage includes paying attention to obedience and the law, and this usually takes place at age four to ten. the moral concept that develops, among other factors, determines if bad behavior occurs, depending on the level of perceived punishment for this bad behavior, such that it may become desirable to avoid that punishment. the next pre-conventional stage involves paying attention to the satisfaction of needs. good behavior is related to satisfying one’s wants and needs without considering others. the second level is conventional, and this involves the child paying attention to his or her own image and obeying laws and rules (aronson et al., 2020), this stage typically occurs at age 10–13 years. the third level is post-conventional, and this is experienced journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 177 by individuals aged 13 years and over. it includes the stage of paying attention to other individuals, with good behavior following social rules and standards. the next stage then involves paying attention to moral principles and good social behavior based on personal moral principles that derive from universal law. according to the various opinions of psychology figures (e.g., campbell & kumar, 2012; clarkeburn, 2002; derryberry & thoma, 2005; kohlberg, 1975; tangney et al., 2007; tongsuebsai et al., 2015) morality comprises four components. first, a person’s moral sensitivity involves feelings, such as how people feel sorry, resigned, and so on. for example, feelings of love enable a person to meet his or her moral obligations, such as when others are being ignored. such people care about the perception of something. in line with the opinion of clarkeburn (2002), moral sensitivity is when an individual correctly prioritizes the use of moral reasoning. moral sensitivity in reasoning leads to moral judgments (tongsuebsai et al., 2015). second, moral reasoning involves a settlement between individual interests and group interests, between desires and obligations. it includes emotional responses to children’s peers, such as empathy, and these are positively related to a child’s level of moral reasoning and directed help. it includes the reasoning a person applies when acting, based on applying moral values to certain situations (campbell & kumar, 2012). the third aspect is moral judgment, which is the ability of individuals to define themselves by selecting morals that determine what is to be done (derryberry & thoma, 2005). the fourth aspect is moral behavior, which explains whether a person behaves morally or immorally according to the rules and makes decisions and takes action according to moral values (tangney et al., 2007). the function of moral guilt in motivating moral behavior has received empirical support, whereas little or no evidence has been found for this with moral shame. a condition can be experienced by someone when what is the target of his life and according to the standard of fairness cannot be fulfilled and attributes this failure to him or herself. awareness of moral emotions is related to the steps of behavior, so emotion plays a big role in determining behavior (kohlberg, 1975). self-adjustment some figures in psychology define self-adjustment as the process by which individuals align their condition with the environment through learning, especially by individually interacting with the environment and the people in it (calhoun & acocella, 1990). self-adjustment makes it easier for individuals to adapt themselves to the environment. schneiders (1964) posits that there are self-adjustment factors that exist within or outside individuals. the internal factors hidayah include areas like physical condition, development and maturity, mental state in terms of selfconception, perception, intelligence, interests, and personality. the external factors, meanwhile, include the family–community environment, the school environment, the person’s upbringing, the community’s social norms and customs, and the prevailing culture. self-adjustment develops dynamically along with personality development (hurlock, 1987). individuals learn to respond to frustration and conflict in various ways, and these can become routine if they happen repeatedly. when these become a well-established habit, it is called a mechanism (salinas-vasquez et al., 2020). based on the opinions of various figures in psychology, there are several mechanisms for individual adjustment, including aggression. we typically encounter many aggressive reactions in the lives of children, because children are still relatively influenced by their subjective feelings. aggression causes individuals to attack the object of their frustration, and when repeated often, they develop aggressive habits. however, aggressive reactions do not always take the form of directly attacking the object of frustration, especially if attacking the object will disturb the individual. for example, if a student is frustrated with getting bad grades, his or her aggression may not be directed at the teacher who awarded the grades but rather friends or maybe parents, often through withdrawal. this reaction is relatively easy to implement and is usually chosen to avoid failure, so the person never tries if failure is a possibility. in education, this will be detrimental to the individual if it is practiced continuously (solikhah, imroatus & budiharso, 2020b). for example, a child who always wants to watch every activity rather than participate will lose his passion for his surroundings. next, through daydreaming, people achieve satisfaction with the delusional. people who have an aloof attitude are often more delusional. the classical system with a large number of students will encourage fantasizing as a means of adjustment. however, the impact of this classical system can be mitigated by paying attention to individual students, such as through curriculum adjustments. schneiders (1964) stated that self-adjustment comprises three aspects, including personal harmony, where individuals can see and accept their condition, including in physical aspects, whatever it may be. with personal harmony, individuals are also able to recognize and respect the rights of others. it is considered a major aspect in the context of adjustment, so individuals with personal harmony find it easier to achieve balance in society, wherever they may be. the second aspect is shock absorbing skills, frustration, and conflict without significant emotional stress. individuals who can overcome tensions and personal problems work efficiently and tolerate suboptimal situations without overacting or getting overexcited. the third aspect is journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 179 harmony with the environment, which implies being easily accepted by the community and getting along well with the people in it. being able to sympathize with the environment is an important aspect of self-adjustment, because it leads to respecting values, the integrity of law, traditions, and community customs. self-control self-control refer to people’s capacity to modulate their actions and responses (baumeister, 2002), it is self-competence to organize and direct oneself and adjust oneself (vitell et al., 2009), self-control overwrites an incipient response pattern and replaces it with another for example of an experiences (focus on controlling wild behavior), changing feelings (entering, leaving, or preserving unnatural emotions or moods), coordinating lust (for example, harboring seduction), modifying actions (holding back). self-control can serve to control negative behavior, and this indirectly relates to morality (vitell et al., 2009). vitell's (2009) study states that self-control effect on symbolization of moral identity (r = 0.31, p <0.01). tangney, et al., (2004) developed the concept of self-control and a measure of it based on five qualities: i) self-discipline; ii) a tendency to perform deliberate actions rather than impulsive ones (deliberate/non-impulsive action); iii) healthy habits (healthy habits); iv) self-regulation or good work ethics; and v) reliability. de ridder et al., (2012) developed another dimension of self-control that refers to the bsc concept, namely inhibition (inhibitor), which reflects the ability to refrain from directly acting on impulses for bad behavior. de ridder also developed a scale measurement instrument for self-control, where the inhibitor dimension consists of six items. a further dimension is the initiatory, which reflects the ability to initiate goal-directed behavior and initiate positive things (de ridder et al., 2012). ferrari et al., (2009) researched self-control by developing measurement instruments that refer to the opinion of tangney et al. (2004), who that there are self-discipline is an important aspect, which is the ability to focus while conducting duties and prevent various disturbances from affecting concentration. ferrari et al., (2009) compiled nine items as the dimensions of selfdiscipline, and these refer to general patterns of individual self-discipline behavior and impulse control. they also compiled four items for impulse control, which is an individual’s ability to control his or her responses to impulses that may appear in order to achieve his or her long-term goals. maloney et al. (2012) argues about the dimension of self-control is divided into two subdimensions, namely restraint tendencies that manifest when applying self-control. they also decomposed restraint into four items, one of which is impulsivity. impulsivity is a tendency to spontaneously act based on intuition. hidayah explanation of moderating variables barriers to individual development arise from many sources, and the presence of obstacles will hinder progress in the subsequent period (hurlock, 1987). adjustment is hampered when there are striking differences between expectations and individual behavior in society. if someone’s behavior does not align with the expectations of the community and the standards it demands , he or she will receive a bad assessment, especially if the behavior falls well below the expected standards (calhoun & acocella, 1990). this will affect the individual’s socialization process and lead to morality and societal norms not being applied (benlahcene et al., 2018). a person with adjustment barriers will tend to not develop morality or good self-control (bryant, 2009). other individuals may also find it difficult to accept them because of behaviors that manifest due to bad self-adjustment. for example, it will be more difficult for people to control themselves when making friends, because they will be less likely to accept them. in addition, it can also result in a quiet attitude, where one closes oneself off from the environment. what is more, it may be difficult to adapt to the community’s circumstances, because it feels uncomfortable and difficult to follow group standards, resulting in not following the rules of society and behaving modestly. adjustments are successful when they satisfy individuals and make them more likely to repeat an action, while unsuccessful adjustments will cause conflicts for individuals (calhoun & acocella, 1990). school is a place of learning, but childhood conflicts related to adjustment can emerge there. schools may therefore make preventive efforts to avoid children having difficulty adjusting. as learning takes place, teachers holistically know and understand their students and the types of difficulties they face. it is necessary to provide guidance, coaching, and training for these students, so they are not repressed when they make mistakes. a school needs to actively communicate with its students, and when correcting students, it must explain the child’s mistakes and educationally inform them (lepage et al., 2011). when students understand their mistakes, they will perform better. a further curative action may be needed when a student shows an outrageous attitude due to a failure in the adjustment process (schneiders, 1964). changing such behavior can only be achieved through concerted effort with professional assistance. the world of education should be oriented toward students, so they can later adjust themselves according to their role in society. indeed, students need to adjust thoroughly, such as by adapting to a school environment and its lessons, as well as a school’s curriculum. adjustments may involve changing personal appearance or physical skills and adapting to teachers, peers, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 181 social groups, and the wider community environment. there should be a balance between individuals changing themselves and changing the environment to suit themselves (darolia, 2020; mullins, 2019). individuals who successfully adjust themselves will find it easier to carry out various activities in society and comply with social norms, and this in turn influences their morality (hassan & elfeky, 2015). self-adjustment is one of the psychological aspects that correlates with self-control (tangney et al., 2004), and the success of students to cultivating moral values, is influenced by self-control (hirtenlehner & kunz, 2016). by promoting good self-adjustment in a well-directed school education, students gain a better understanding of selfadjustment, and their cultivation of moral values will be better (usakli, 2010). this article tries to cover the various shortcomings by proposing a combination of selfadjustment and self-control factors, with these being independent variables in our model. hypothetically, these two variables are important for improving morality. there are four hypotheses to test: i) self-adjustment plays a significant role in morality. ii) self-control is an important factor in morality. iii) self-control and self-adjustment both play a significant role in morality. finally, iv) the role of self-adjustment in increasing morality is greater when moderated by self-control. figure 1. literature review of the theoretical relationships between variables methods this study’s sample comprised students aged 14–18 years attending a high school in pasuruan. the choice of adolescent subjects was based on two reasons: first, adolescence is a period of social development as children begin to get involved in the process of socialization and interact with other people more broadly in line with their increasing social needs. second, cognitively speaking, adolescents aged 12 years and over are in the formal operational phase (piaget & selfadjustment self-control morality hidayah inhelder, 2019) which means that they have started becoming able to understand and think conceptually and abstractly. indeed, high school students are at the stage of psychosocial development, which in erikson’s view is the fourth stage, namely the industrial age (industry vs. inferiority). children need to socially cooperate and self-evaluate. achieving successful character building requires morality, pleasant social interactions, and character-building experiences at school. a total of 210 students at the senior high school al-yasini were randomly selected as research subjects, with 68 being male and 142 being female. a questionnaire was used for data collection. there were three main variables, namely self-adjustment as an independent variable, self-control as a moderating variable, and morality as the dependent variable. these were measured according to three scales for morality, self-adjustment, and self-control. the morality scale was based on the concept of morality put forward by campbell & kumar, (2012). clarkeburn (2002), derryberry & thoma, (2005), kohlberg (1975), (tangney et al., 2007) and tongsuebsai et al., (2015) and this comprises four aspects, namely, moral reasoning, sensitivity, judgment and behavior. the reliability estimate of the morality scale was originally 34, and after the trial, 31 items met the requirements for use as research data-collection tools with a cronbach’s alpha of 0.911. the item difference was between 311 and 610, with valid items having a significance level of p <0.05 and being positively correlated. what is more, a factor analysis test revealed a high degree of variance (kmo of 0.725), a probability value for bartlett’s test less than 0.05, and an item-loading factor greater than or equal to 0.5. the self-control scale was based on the concept of de ridder et al. (2012), where self-control comprises the two dimensions of inhibition and initiation, augmented with the opinion of ferrari et al., (2009), where there are the two dimensions of self-discipline and impulse control. maloney et al., (2012) also divided self-control over two dimensions, namely impulsivity and restraint. the self-control scale initially consisted of 45 items, but only 34 items met the requirements for a research data-collection tool, with a cronbach’s alpha of 0.904 and a difference in moving items between 0.304 and 0.551. this was further limited to items that were valid with a significance level of p <0.05 and positively correlated. what is more, a factor analysis test revealed a high degree of variance (kmo of 0.725), a probability value for bartlett’s test less than 0.05, and an item-loading factor of at least 0.5. the self-adjustment scale comprised 26 items based on the opinion of schneiders (1964), and this covers aspects of personal harmony, the ability to cope with tension, and harmony with the environment. of the 26 items, 20 items met the requirements for use as a research datajournal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 183 collection tool, with a cronbach’s alpha of 0.818 and a moving difference between 0.303 and 0.495. this was further limited to valid items with a significance level p <0.05 and a positive correlation. a factor analysis of the self-adjustment scale for three aspects is feasible because the factor analysis test data has a high degree of variance (kmo is 0.725), the probability value for bartlett’s test is under 0.05, and the item-loading factor is at least 0.5 results this study of morality in the high school students al-yasini pasuruan employs three main variables, namely self-adjustment, self-control, and morality as the dependent variable. these variables were analyzed using regression with the spss statistical software. based on this data analysis, the following research results were obtained. the effect of the self-adjustment on morality self-adjustment and self-control are important aspects in predicting a person’s morality because they predict a person’s capacity to align with the environment and interact with this world in three main aspects: i) personal harmony; ii) ability to cope with tension, frustration and conflict; and iii) harmony with the environment. being able to sympathize with the environment is an important aspect of adjustment in terms of respecting values, the integrity of law, traditions, and community customs. the results of hypothesis test are listed in table 1 below. table 1. hypothesis test results for the effect of self-adjustment on morality no. correlation p r square f remark 1 . .457a .000 . .208 57.760 accepted the correlation analysis for the self-adjustment variable and the morality variable resulted in the correlation value r = 0.457, f = 57.760, r square = 0.208, and of p = 0.000 (< 0.01). the research hypothesis was therefore accepted, namely that self-adjustment has a very significant effect on morality. this means that self-adjustment has a positive relationship with the morality of students, with it contributing 20.8%. the positive influence of self-adjustment on children’s morality manifests when students enjoy a personal harmony with the environment and interact more with their friends, which in turn helps students to develop moral values. hidayah the effect of self-control on morality self-control is also seen as an important psychological aspect for enhancing morality. in this study, self-control is manifested in terms of inhibition, initiation, self-discipline, impulse control, impulsivity and restraint. the spss analysis results reveal a correlation between selfcontrol and morality, which is reflected in table 2: table 2. test results for the effect of self-control on morality no. correlation p r square f remark 1 .660a .000 . 435 160.202 accepted the data analysis test for the effect of self-control on morality resulted in a correlation value r = 0.660, f = 160.202, p = 0.000, and r square = 0.435. the research hypothesis was therefore accepted, namely that self-control has a very significant and positive effect on morality. good self-control in students is therefore positively related to their morality, with an effective contribution of 43.5%. the better self-control that students have, the better their morality is. the effect of self-adjustment and self-control on morality this study proposes that self-adjustment and self-control jointly influence morality. the results are presented in table 3. table 3. test results for the effect of self-adjustment and self-control on morality correlation p r square f remark 0.665 .000 .442 82.095 accepted the hypothesis test resulted in a correlation value r = 0.665, f = 82.095, p = 0.000, and an r square = 0.442. the research hypothesis was therefore accepted, namely that self-adjustment and self-control a very significant influence morality. thus, self-adjustment and self-control do jointly have a positive relationship with morality, with an effective contribution of 44.2%. the acceptance of this hypothesis represents a positive contribution to the scientific knowledge of educational psychology for achieving a level of high morality in students. indeed, the results of this study indicate that self-adjustment and self-control are two important factors affecting the morality of students in senior high schools, both individually and collectively. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 185 the impact of self-control as a moderating variable the relationship between self-adjustment and self-control with regards to morality was analyzed in this study through two scenarios. the first scenario involved establishing the effect of each independent variable on morality, and both were found to have a significant effect. the second scenario involved positioning the self-control variable as a moderating variable between self-adjustment and morality. this suggests that a person with a high degree of self-adjustment can better adapt to other people when supported by better self-control. we speculate that someone with good self-control finds it easier to regulate behavior, making it easier to interact with other people and adapt to society. the results of the hypothesis test can be seen in table 4. table 4. test results for the effect of self-control as moderating the relationship between selfadjustment and morality no correlation p r square f remark 1 0.673a .000 .453 56.860 accepted the data analysis revealed a correlation value r = 673, f = 56.860, and p = 0.000 (< 0.01). this proves that self-control has a very significant effect on the relationship between self-adjustment and morality. the effective contribution of self-adjustment to morality was found earlier to be 20.8%, but on also considering the moderating variable of self-control, the effective contribution rose to 45.3%. discussion and conclusion this research proves that two dominant factors jointly influence morality, namely selfadjustment and self-control. however, morality is further improved when self-adjustment is complemented by self-control. individuals with a high capacity for self-adjustment will achieve even better moral behaviors when they can also exercise good self-control. indeed, when selfadjustment was measured alone, the effective contribution was just 20.8%, but when moderated by self-control, the effective contribution was a much higher 45.3%. self-control therefore amplifies the effect of self-adjustment on morality. the results of this study suggest that morality has multiple facets that are connected through multiple relationships. self-adjustment—which embodies values about interaction with, and adaptation to, the environment—will foster good levels of morality, especially when combined hidayah with good self-control. however, cultivating morality is not just about having good selfadjustment due to experience and a flexible perspective of the surrounding environment, thus making someone more able to adapt to the environment. indeed, this is not always the primary factor in making someone morally sound, because other factors are at play. while the combination of our two factors were shown to have significance for morality, the results of our statistical analyses also suggest that other factors also play a role in shaping students’ morality, because 54.7% contribution remains unexplained. however, people with a good level of morality are less likely to show negative or aggressive behaviors toward others (van den berg et al., 2020). this is in line with ecological theory that posits that individual development, including morality, is influenced by the social context (bronfenbrenner & evans, 2000). from the perspective of developmental psychology —such as family, school, and friends— plays an important role in individual development (bronfenbrenner & evans, 2000). learning in schools, in this regard, is just one source for learning about morality. however, the integrated learning model, does indeed provide ample opportunities for introducing the value of morality by integrating moral values into the curriculum and cultivating character through classroom and extra-curricular activities. good morality can manifest in the form of helpful behaviors toward others and a willingness to engage in more social activities. such morality can greatly support individual’s future success, because they will be more sensitive to other people’s problems and have a good character, so they will be easily accepted in society. personal skills are also needed to support social activities. good self-adjustment leads to behaviors that many people will approve of, because they have adapted to this end, while self-control will help regulate behavior during social relationships. good morality is therefore essential in social relationships between humans. the influence provided by good morality will be useful for people, especially in their social lives. this study, self-adjustment has a positive effect on morality, and this agrees with research that showed that in social comparison situations, compensation beyond the relationship between groups strengthens the interpersonal dynamics (terache et al., 2020) while the added value of social competence is also related to literacy competence (balsalobre-lorente et al., 2020; brown et al., 2020; marques & xavier, 2021; nkomo, dube, & marucchi, 2020; ramos et al., 2021). the success of students in all aspects, in addition to cultivating moral values, is influenced by self-control (hofmann et al., 2018) and self-adjustment skills (hassan & elfeky, 2015). the learning of morality should be continued along with the forming of life skills. this will need a journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 187 teaching infrastructure and institutions capable of bridging the transformation process from cognition to life skills. schools offer a social environment that is easier to control, although it also has the potential to create very exclusive peer groups. therefore, a pattern of parenting (nunes et al., 2020) that incorporates controlled mentoring from seniors may be another solution to pursue in addition to involving students in activities that nurture morality. activities that lead to solidarity developing between fellow students should also be further enhanced. self-adjustment influences morality, but character building and morality should not only be taught but also cultivated within a school environment through all the facets of learning, including integrating it into the curriculum, the actors involved, and the social infrastructure. the school environment should also strive to protect students from violent acts of any form by instilling ethical values and morality. schools should also act as a forum for all students to build a positive character. this can be facilitated through good interactions between teachers, students, and other educational personnel, and it can also involve the government and the wider community, as well as student guardians. an ideal school environment acts as a model for students to base a positive character on and shun negative behavior like violence. it turns out that positioning the self-control variable as a moderating variable amplifies the significance of the effect of self-adjustment on morality, thus demonstrating the complex nature of the factors influencing morality. instead of being influenced by a single variable, morality is a function of an individual’s character in terms of self-adjustment and self-control. having a character with a high level of morality is the most important aspect to develop in the world of education. the first step in helping students reach a high level of morality is to anticipate whether students can control themselves well in all environments, such as by refraining from violence (tittle et al., 2010). if not, a personal awareness can be planted that conveys how acts of violence are counterproductive and must be ended. instilling a high level of awareness about morality can begin at an early age in the family and school environments. religious education, when implemented correctly, is an effective way to safeguard the morality of students in early life (vitell et al., 2009). methodologically, this research reveals a need for alternative scenarios in statistical testing, which may also involve a moderating variable. theoretically, this research can also benefit from greater care in deriving the concepts of morality, self-adaptation, and self-control. there are at least three important areas where future studies could build upon this research. first, the research results showed that the contribution of the two independent variables is 44.2%., indicating that other unknown variables are also playing an important role in shaping students’ hidayah moral behavior. second, the results may differ if the analysis variables were to be analyzed at the level of the research indicator. third, considering that morality involves understanding concepts that are to be practiced, it does not arise in just the school environment—learning at the family level is also an important prerequisite in achieving a good level of morality. however, this study has some limitations and weaknesses in its analysis of self-adjustment’s effect on moral behavior. one drawback of this study is that it does not include social infrastructure variables. in addition, this study is limited to subjects in a certain age range at a certain high school. a more comprehensive and in-depth study is therefore needed to understand the influence of other factors on student morality. this will help us better understand which concepts and factors may help foster good morality in the character of school students in general. references abdi, a. p. (2019). kemendikbud catat 126 kecurangan selama ujian nasional 2019. tirto. https://tirto.id abd rahim, n. a., siah, y. h., tee, x. y., & siah, p. c. (2021). smartphone addiction: its relationships to personality traits and types of smartphone use. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 5(1), 128-140. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.165 aboyassin, n. a., & sultan, m. a. f. (2017). the role of human resources training in improving the employee’s performance: applied study in the five stars hotels in jordan. international journal of business administration, 8(5), 46. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijba.v8n5p46 aronson, b., banda, r., johnson, a., kelly, m. r., r., r., g., s., s., & wronowski, m. (2020). the social justice teaching collaborative: a critical turn towards critical teacher education. journal of curriculum studies research (jcsr, 2(2), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.8 aslan, s. (2021). analysis of digital literacy self-efficacy levels of pre-service teachers. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 4(1), 57-67. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijte.47 balsalobre-lorente, d., driha, o. m., shahbaz, m., & sinha, a. (2020). the effects of tourism and globalization over environmental degradation in developed countries. environmental science and pollution research, 27(7), 7130–7144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07372-4 başok, e., & sayer, p. (2020). language ideologies, language policies and their translation into fiscal policies in the u.s. perspectives of language education community stakeholders. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 54–80. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.13 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 189 baumeister, r. f. (2002). yielding to temptation: self‐control failure, impulsive purchasing, and consumer behavior. journal of consumer research, inc., 28(4), 670– 676. baytemir, k. (2016). the mediation of interpersonal competence in the relationship between parent and peer attachment and subjective well-being in adolescence. egitim ve bilim. https://doi.org/10.15390/eb.2016.6185 benlahcene, a., zainuddin, r. bin, & ismail, n. s. a. b. (2018). a study on moral reasoning among managers of the state-owned companies in algeria. international journal of academic research in economics and management sciences, 7(3), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarems/v7-i3/4438 bradley, v. m. (2021). learning management system (lms) use with online instruction. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 4(1), 68-92. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijte.36 bronfenbrenner, u., & evans, g. w. (2000). developmental science in the 21st century: emerging questions, theoretical models, research designs and empirical findings. social development, 9(1), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00114 brown, b.a., ribay, k., perez, g., boda, p.a., & wilsey m. (2020). a virtual bridge to cultural access: culturally relevant virtual reality and its impact on science students. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(2), 86-97. bryant, p. (2009). self-regulation and moral awareness among entrepreneurs. journal of business venturing, 24(5), 505–518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2008.04.005 bursal, m. & polat, f. (2020). middle school students’ line graph skills and affective states about common graph types used in science courses. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 8(4), 290-303. calhoun, j. f. &, & acocella, j. r. (1990). psychology of adjustment and human relationships. mcgraw-hill. campbell, r., & kumar, v. (2012). moral reasoning on the ground. ethics, 122(2), 273–312. https://doi.org/10.1086/663980 clarkeburn, h. (2002). a test for ethical sensitivity in science. journal of moral education, 31(4), 439–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305724022000029662 cnn indoensia. (2020). tawuran pelajar di bekasi renggut nyawa, 8 orang diamankan. https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20200723194552-12-528333/tawuran. de ridder, d. t. d., lensvelt-mulders, g., finkenauer, c., stok, f. m., & baumeister, r. f. (2012). taking stock of self-control: a meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. personality and social psychology review, 16(1), 76–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311418749 darolia, l. (2020). "he’s on fire for justice!”: using critical conversations to explore sociopolitical topics in elementary classrooms. journal of curriculum hidayah studies research, 2(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 derryberry, w. p., & thoma, s. j. (2005). moral judgment , self-understanding , and moral actions : the role of multiple constructs. merrill-palmer quarterly, 51(1), 67–92. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23096050 eisenberg, n. (2000). emotion, regulation, and moral development. annual review of psychology. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.665 ferrari, j. r., stevens, e. b., & jason, l. a. (2009). the role of self-regulation in abstinence maintenance: effects of communal living on self-regulation. journal of groups in addiction and recovery, 4(1–2), 32–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/15560350802712371 geyer, a. l., & baumeister, r. f. (2005). religion, morality, and self-control: values, virtues, and vices. handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality, 412–432. graham, j., nosek, b. a., haidt, j., iyer, r., koleva, s., & ditto, p. h. (2011). mapping the moral domain. journal of personality and social psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021847 hassan, a. e. ., & elfeky, a. a. . (2015). influences of social adjustment as predictors of moral values and academic achievement. the american journal of innovative research and applied sciences, 1(1), 1–5. hirtenlehner, h., & kunz, f. (2016). the interaction between self-control and morality in crime causation among older adults. european journal of criminology, 13(3), 393–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370815623567 hofmann, w., meindl, p., mooijman, m., & graham, j. (2018). morality and self-control: how they are intertwined and where they differ. current directions in psychological science, 27(4), 286–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418759317 hurlock, e. b. (1987). developmental psychology: a life-span approach. mcgraw-hill publishing co. karademir coskun, t., erdogdu, f., & kokoc, m. (2020). students’ profiles of information seeking behaviors on facebook: relations to personality, time management, gender, and facebook use. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(2), 144-159. killen, m., & dahl, a. (2019). the moral obligations of conflict and resistance. in behavioral and brain sciences (vol. 43). https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x19002401 kohlberg, l. (1975). the cognitive--developmental approach to moral education. the phi delta kappan, 56(10), 670–677. lepage, p., akar, h., temli, y., şen, d., hasser, n., & ivins, i. (2011). comparing teachers’ views on morality and moral education, a comparative study in turkey and the united states. teaching and teacher education, 27(2), 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2010.09.005 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 191 maloney, p. w., grawitch, m. j., & barber, l. k. (2012). the multi-factor structure of the brief self-control scale: discriminant validity of restraint and impulsivity. journal of research in personality, 46(1), 111–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.10.001 marques, r., & xavier, c. r. (2021). assumptions for developing the critical sense through the teaching and learning process. international journal on social and education sciences (ijonses), 3(1), 68-81. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonses.53 molden, d. c., hui, c. m., scholer, a. a., meier, b. p., noreen, e. e., d’agostino, p. r., & martin, v. (2012). motivational versus metabolic effects of carbohydrates on selfcontrol. psychological science, 23(10), 1137–1144. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612439069 morán-soto, g. & benson, l. (2018). relationship of mathematics self-efficacy and competence with behaviors and attitudes of engineering students with poor mathematics preparation. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 6(3), 200-220. doi: 10.18404/ijemst.428165 more, c., & rodgers, w. (2020). promoting change within special education teacher preparation program: a collision of needs. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 104-119. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.7 mullins, r. (2019). using dewey’s conception of democracy to problematize the notion of disability in public education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.1 nkomo, n., dube, a., & marucchi, d. (2020). rural young children with disabilities: education, challenges, and opportunities. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 2(2), 134-145. nunes, c., martins, c., ayala-nunes, l., matos, f., costa, e., & gonçalves, a. (2020). parents’ perceived social support and children’s psychological adjustment. journal of social work. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017320911614 olivares, v. & ceglie, r.j. (2020). the intergenerational transmission of mathematics attitudes. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 8(2), 76-91. padır, m. a., ayas, t., & horzum, m. b. (2021). examining the relationship among internet parental style, personality, and cyberbullying/victimization. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 5(1), 56-69. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.160 piaget, j., & inhelder, b. (2019). the psychology of the child. hachette uk. polat, s. (2020). multidimensional analysis of the teaching process of the critical thinking skills. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 134–157. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 ramos, j., rodin, j., preuss, m., sosa, e., dorsett, c., & burleson, c. (2021). work patterns and financing college: a descriptive regional report regarding students at hispanichttps://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.7 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.1 hidayah serving institutions in new mexico and texas. international journal on social and education sciences (ijonses), 3(1), 1-31. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonses.60 rogers, d. (1977). the psychology of adolescence. prentice-hall. salinas-vasquez, l., varela, d. g., martinez, m. e., & jones, d. (2020). a comparative study of the 21st century afterschool center on education in elementary schools in south texas. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 19–37. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.2 schauster, e., ferrucci, p., tandoc, e., & walker, t. (2020). advertising primed: how professional identity affects moral reasoning. journal of business ethics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04429-0 schneiders, a. a. (1964). personal adjustment and mental health. rinehart and winston. solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020a). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177–197. solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020b). standardizing bipa as an international program of a language policy. asian esp journal, 16(5.2), 181–205. tangney, j. p., baumeister, r. f., & boone, a. l. (2004). high self‐control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. journal of personality, 2(april 2004), 271–322. tangney, j. p., stuewig, j., & mashek, d. (2007). moral emotions and moral behavior. annu rev psychol, 58, 345–372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), i–ii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.ed terache, j., demoulin, s., & yzerbyt, v. (2020). warmth and competence in interpersonal comparisons: the quiz master paradigm through the lens of compensation. international review of social psychology. https://doi.org/10.5334/irsp.275 thomas, j., & dunphy, s. (2014). factors affecting moral judgment in business students. journal of the indiana academy of the social sciences, 17(1), 130–153. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&an=101197783&lang=es &site=ehost-live tittle, c. r., antonaccio, o., botchkovar, e., & kranidioti, m. (2010). expected utility, selfcontrol, morality, and criminal probability. social science research, 39(6), 1029–1046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.08.007 tongsuebsai, k., sujiva, s., & lawthong, n. (2015). development and construct validity of the moral sensitivity scale in thai version. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 191, 718–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.586 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 174-193 193 usakli, h. (2010). early childhood education: the case of turkey. contemporary issues in early childhood, 11(2), 215–218. https://doi.org/10.2304/ciec.2010.11.2.215 van den berg, t. g. c., kroesen, m., & chorus, c. g. (2020). does morality predict aggressive driving? a conceptual analysis and exploratory empirical investigation. transportation research part f: traffic psychology and behaviour, 74, 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2020.08.017 vitell, s. j., bing, m. n., davison, h. k., ammeter, a. p., garner, b. l., & novicevic, m. m. (2009). religiosity and moral identity: the mediating role of self-control. journal of business ethics, 88(4), 601–613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9980-0 xiang, y., cao, y., & dong, x. (2020). childhood maltreatment and moral sensitivity: an interpretation based on schema theory. personality and individual differences, 160(february). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109924 yang, l., cai, g., yong, s., & shi, h. (2020). moral identity: a mediation model of moral disengagement and altruistic attitude. social behavior and personality, 48(7), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.8867 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 403-419 403 geographical indications protection under the new regulation in indonesia wahyu sasongko 1 abstract since geographical indications are set out in the trips agreement, indonesia, as a member of the wto, has established a regulation on geographical indications in its national law. the geographical indications regulation was first stipulated in the law of the republic of indonesia no. 14 of 1997 concerning trademarks. after several changes, the law of the republic of indonesia no. 20 of 2016 concerning trademarks and geographical indications superseded the previous trademark law. the title of this statute separates the terms trademark and geographical indications; however, is this division correct? this paper examines the normative provisions on geographical indications in that statute and examines the practice of registering geographical indications products originating from lampung province. the results show the new indonesian trademark law has few changes, geographical indications are still associated with trademark registrations and registering geographical indications is a long and complicated process. keywords: geographical indications, trademark, legal protection introduction the existence of geographical indications (gis) in accordance with international law occurred with the ratification of the agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights, called the trips agreement. the trips agreement stipulates the standards regarding the availability, scope and use of intellectual property rights, specifically gis.2 once regulated in national law, in this context indonesian national law, gis provisions change into positive law. the trips agreement was ratified on 15 april 1994 in conjunction with the agreement establishing the world trade organizationcalled the wto agreement. the trips agreement is valid for a relatively long time, and its implementation has created some legal issues (evans & blakeney, 2006). the provisions in the trips agreement have the potential to create inter-norm (seregig, suryanto, hartono, & rivai, 2018) conflicts regarding the protection of gis from each wto member state. according to article 1 of the trips agreement: 1 fakultas hukum universitas lampung, bandar lampung 35145 indonesia, wahyusasongko@gmail.com 2 see, part ii and section 3 of trips agreement. mailto:wahyusasongko@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 403-419 members shall give effect to the provisions of this agreement. members may, but shall not be obliged to, implement in their law more extensive protection than is required by this agreement, provided that such protection does not contravene the provisions of this agreement. members shall be free to determine the appropriate method of implementing the provisions of this agreement within their own legal system and practice. that provision provides protection with minimum standards. while member states shall comply with the provisions set forth in the trips agreement, they are given the freedom to apply stronger protections. this provision is called trips-plus (unctad-ictsd, for trade, development, on iprs, & development, 2005). these provisions have caused controversy, as each wto member state is granted the freedom to make national laws according to their own legal system and practice. the difference in the regulation affects the rules regarding gis, and the different rules have caused legal controversy (evans & blakeney, 2006). while some regulations base gis protection on the principle of first to file, others base gis protection on the principle of first to use. for example, gis goods from the european union (eu), such as champagne wine from france, are not only used for wine brands in the united states (us) but also for cookies and crackers (babcock & clemens, 2004). gis protection in eu is based on registration,3 while in the us, gis protection is based on use, such as a trademark (moschini, menapace, & pick, 2008). when the government of indonesia implemented the trips agreement into national law, it seemed to apply a minimum standard of provisions concerning gis in the trips agreement, in accordance with the national legal system and applicable legal practice. the established rules on gis are only applied in three articles, and they are added to the indonesian trademark law (tm law). however, gis regulation in indonesia applies the trips-plus standard because the definitions and elements of gis in the tm law refer to the appellation of origin (ao), which has stronger legal protection than the gis rules in the trips agreement. gis protection in indonesia was stipulated for the first time in law no. 14 of 1997 concerning the amendment to law no. 19 of 1992 regarding trademarks (tm law 14/1997). as the name 3 dora de teresa. (2003). regional protection of gis in europe. paper of euasean workshop on geographical indications: a way into the market, hanoi, 7-8 october, p.3. sasongko implies, tm law 14/1997 is a change from the previous indonesian trademark law in 1992. the change was made by adding a special chapter between chapter ix and chapter x, namely chapter ixa on geographical indications and indication of source, which consisted of three articles: article 79a, article 79b and article 79c. the first indonesian trademark law lasted only five years before it was changed. five years is a relatively short existence for a law that has been enacted nationally. one of the main reasons why the government of indonesia issued tm law 14/1997 was its participation in the trips agreement, which had been passed into national law; therefore, the adjustment was mandatory. tm law 14/1997 did not last long. after just four years, tm law 14/1997 was replaced by tm law 15/2001. in tm law 14/1997, a government regulation was required to implement regulations. however, the government regulation had not yet been published, meaning tm law 14/1997 had to be replaced. in tm law 15/2001, the provisions on gis are regulated in chapter vii on geographical indications and indications of source and set forth in articles 56, 57 and 58. these provisions regarding gis are not vastly different from those set out in tm law 14/1997, and there are similarities in the elucidation of both laws’ articles. this indicates that the urgent change of tm law was made to accommodate changes in the substance of the trademark law rather than in gis protection. the provisions in tm law 15/2001 also require the existence of a government regulation for implementation. the government regulation was issued six years later. in 2007, the government of indonesia issued government regulation no. 51 of 2007 on geographical indication, hereinafter referred to as gr 51/2007. the provisions regarding gis protection in gr 51/2007 are more complete and comprehensive than in tm law 15/2001. the main rules in gr 51/2007 consist of 11 chapters and 28 articles. the set rules include a definition, duration of protection, terms and procedure of application, examination by an expert team and lawsuits. although gr 51/2007 is technically considered lower judicially than tm law 15/2001, the rules in gr 51/2007 extend beyond tm law 15/2001. there are also several provisions not regulated journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 403-419 in tm law 15/2001 that are regulated in gr 51/2007, such as the provisions of gis that do not have to be registered and the requirement to make the book of requirements. the extra provisions in gr 51/2007 exist despite the indonesian legal system applying the principle of lex superior derogate legi inferior, which states a regulation should not conflict with higher-level regulations (kusumaatmadja & sidharta, 2009). this principle becomes a reference in law no. 12 of 2011 on the establishment of laws and regulations, which set that the legal force of the legislation is in accordance with the hierarchy. in the legislation hierarchy, a statute is higher than a government regulation.4 thus, it is not surprising that the gr’s legal power causes controversy (sasongko, 2012a, 2012b). tm law 15/2001 and gr 51/2007 contain provisions for the definition of gis and their elements that are more similar to the lisbon agreement for the protection of appellation of origin and their international registration than the trips agreement. the lisbon agreement provides extremely strong protection to appellation of origin (ao) (zylberg, 2002). thus, the gis protection regime in indonesia falls into the trips-plus category because it has a stronger gis protection standard than the gis protection provisions in the trips agreement. after applying for approximately nine years, tm law 15/2001 was replaced by law no. 20 of 2016 on trademark and geographical indications (tm law and gis 20/2016). the gis name is paired with the trademark term to reinforce the recognition of the existence of gis as an intellectual property rights regime in the national legal system. the reasons the government of indonesia replaced tm law 15/2001 once again concerned the demands of facing global competition and providing legal certainty for the interests of industry, trade and investment. regarding the enactment of tm law and gis 20/2016, the protection of gis in the new regulation becomes a major legal issue. this paper aims to analyse and discuss the issue of gis protection under the new regulation. similar to the previous revisions, the law change does not result in significant alterations to the provisions concerning gis protection. 4 see, art. 7 of law no. 12 of 2011 regarding the establishment of legislation. sasongko research method this paper was based on the results of normative legal research methods, which were performed by conducting research and tracking the concepts, theories, doctrines, international treaties and national legal regulations concerning gis protection in references such as books and journal articles. the research also included reviewing legal documents, such as international treaties, national legal regulations and registered gis certificates. this study performed a legal comparison between the gis protections of several countries through a purposive sampling method. a comparison was also conducted regarding the legal provisions for the protection of gis with the implementation of the trips agreement. protection for geographical indications under the new regulations gis protection in tm law 15/2001 technically has no legal power because it was replaced with tm law and gis 20/2016. the provisions for gis in tm law 15/2001 can be categorised as guidelines for gis protection because the substances are regulated slightly and only contain a provision that has a general character, while specific natures are referred to the trademark provisions, such as the provisions for gis registrations and that appeals shall apply the provisions for trademarks mutatis mutandis.5 is such a gis regulatory pattern also used in the new tm law and gis rules? in contrast to tm law 15/2001, which only had three articles for regulations, the provisions for gis in tm law and gis 20/2016 are more quantitative, as described below. provisions of law no. 20 of 2016 on trademark and gis provisions articles part viii geographical indications article 53 article 55 part ix registration of geographical indications section 1 geographical indications that cannot be registered and refused section 2 substantive examination of geographical indications section 3 duration of protection and removal of geographical indications section 4 indications of source article 56 article 57 article 58 article 60 article 61 article 62 article 63 article 65 part x violation and lawsuit section 1 violation of geographical indications section 2 lawsuit article 66 article 67 article 69 part xi founding and supervision of geographical indications section 1founding section 2 supervision article 70 article 71 5 see, art. 56 (3) and (6) of tm law and gis 20/2016. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 403-419 definition of geographical indications in the general provisions of tm law and gis 20/2016, gis are defined as: ‘a sign indicating the origin of goods and/or products that, due to geographic environmental factors including natural factors, human factors or a combination of both factors provide a reputation, quality, and certain characteristics on the goods and/or products produced’. according to this definition, the first element of gis is a sign indicating the origin. the geographical name is often used as a sign indicating the place where the item originated. furthermore, the geographical name was used as a trademark long before gis, such as the trademark for dodol garut and rendang padang6 (rekarti & doktoralina, 2017). the possibility of overlapping between trademark protection and gis protection is extremely likely (stern, 2001). this element also has similarities with elements in the indication of source to identify an item’s origin.7 the second element is that the gis object is in the form of goods and/or products. this element differentiates between the gis definition under tm law and gis 20/2016, as well as the gis definition under tm law 15/2001 and the definition of gis under the trips agreement. according to article 56 paragraph (1) of tm law 15/2001, gis is defined as: ‘a sign indicating the origin of a good, which due to geographical environmental factors including natural factors, human factors, or a combination of these two factors, gives certain characteristics and qualities to the goods resulting from’. the gis definitions in tm law, gis 20/2016 and tm law 15/2001 are similar; the difference is only in the words of goods and/or products. in fact, the term ‘product’ in business includes goods and services.8 this means gis are like a trademark that can be used on goods and services. thus, the coverage of gis protection is becoming increasingly extended. 6 dodol is the name of traditional food from the province of west java. garut is the name of the city is located at the province of west java. as for rendang meat cow simmered in spices & coco (rendang), originated from one of the tribes in the west sumatra region. 7 see, official explanation of art. 64 of tm law and gis 20/2016. 8 pursuant to business dictionary, product type is a grouping of similar kinds of manufactured goods or services. available at http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/product-tpe.html (last visited july 7, 2017). http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/product-tpe.html sasongko the definition of gis under article 22.1 of the trips agreement states: ‘geographical indications are, for the purposes of this agreement, indications which identify a good as originating in the territory of a member, or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristics of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin’. this definition mentions only goods and not products, like the gis definitions in tm law and gis 20/2016. meanwhile, the term product is also used in ao.(birkbeck, 2016; calboli & ng-loy, 2017). according to the lisbon agreement: ‘appellation of origin means the geographical name of a country, region, or locality, which serves to designate a product originating therein, the quality and characteristics of which are due exclusively or essentially to the geographical environment, including natural and human factors’.9 the third element is geographical or environmental factors, including natural factors, human factors or a combination of these two factors. these factors are formulated alternatively and cumulatively at the same time. in the trips agreement, there are no such factors. therefore, the gis definition in the trips agreement is broader than in tm law and gis 20/2016. the trips agreement does not require geographical or environmental factors, including natural factors and human factors, as gis elements, and it only mentions ‘the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin’. in contrast, tm law and gis 20/2016 includes those factors as gis elements. these factors, in fact, become the elements of ao. thus, although tm law and gis 20/2016 uses the term gis, it also contains the elements of the ao definition. the fourth element is providing a reputation, quality and certain characteristics of the goods and/or products produced. this element is similar to the gis element in tm law 15/2001; there is little difference in the use of this term. the gis elements in tm law 15/2001 use the term ‘to give certain characteristics and qualities to the goods produced’, and there is no mention of reputation. the formulation of elements in tm law and gis 20/2016 is a cumulative formula because it uses the word ‘and’. consequently, all those elements must exist on gis goods and/or products. 9 see, art. 2.1 of lisbon agreement. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 403-419 meanwhile, the gis elements in tm law and gis 20/2016 are incorporated in the trips agreement. however, the definition features an alternative formula because it uses the word ‘or’; therefore, it does not require all the elements to be on the goods. basically, the elements contained in the definition are inherent features for the gis legal entity; thus, they must be maintained and defended in the requirements for the registration of rights. registration of geographical indications like a trademark, gis protection is also based on a constitutive system. under this system, gis rights come from registration. article 53 paragraph (1) of tm law and gis 20/2016 stated that gis are protected after registration. the provisions are similar to those established in tm law 15/2001.10 the constitutive system is aimed to ensure greater legal certainty, not only for rights holders but also for others, such as consumers who buy gis products. constitutive systems are also used for trademark protection. what products can be registered as geographical indications? as previously mentioned, a gis object can be registered as a product.11 there are differences in terms of gis objects that can be registered under tm law 15/2001 and tm law and gis 20/2016. in the gis definition according to tm law 15/2001, only goods are mentioned; no further description is provided regarding what kinds of goods can be registered as gis. however, article 56 paragraph (1) of tm law 15/2001 stated that the protection of gis includes goods produced by nature, agricultural goods, handicrafts or other industrial products. meanwhile, tm law and gis 20/2016 does not elaborate in detail regarding the products that can be registered as gis. article 53 paragraph (3) mentioned only: (a) natural resources, (b) handicraft goods or (c) industrial products. the only elucidation provided is that their natures must be ‘sufficiently clear’. unfortunately, the use of the term ‘goods’ instead of ‘products’, which is used in tm law and gis 20/2016, is not given a more detailed description. in fact, the issue of gis in the form of products remains debatable as to whether the gis objects include goods and/or products.12 10 see, art. 56 (1) of tm law 15/2001. 11 supra note 520. 12 unctad-ictsd, op. cit., p. 289-290. sasongko what sign cannot be registered as geographical indications? article 56 paragraph (4) of tm law 15/2001 regulates what sign cannot be registered, and it is similar to the provisions of article 56 paragraph (1) of tm law and gis 20/2016. however, in article 3 gr 51/2007, it is stated that the generic sign cannot be registered. the trips agreement does not use the term ‘generic’ but uses the term ‘common name’;13 the term ‘generic’ or ‘nongeneric’ has become a technical term or specialised in trademark law.14 the provision on a generic name does not exist in tm law and gis 20/2016; however, does this mean that generic names are now allowed to be registered as gis? this cannot be ascertained because tm law and gis 20/2016 delegates to the minister of law and human rights, who makes ministerial regulations and who also influences certain sections required to make government regulations. however, if consistent with the established hierarchy of rules, implementing regulations should not extend a prohibition norm that is missing from the relevant statute. due to the prohibition on registering generic names, the ‘jeruk bali’ (bali orange) products from indonesia cannot be registered as gis. in malaysia, the products can be registered as ‘limau bali’.15 in fact, there is no difference in meaning between ‘jeruk’ and ‘limau’. the term ‘limau’ in the indonesian language comes from the malay language, and it also means ‘oranges’ or ‘jeruk’. who can apply for registration? generally, the intellectual property rights applicant is the owner of the intellectual work’s rights, such as the creator or inventor. this concept is the conventional thinking in intellectual property law. however, the individual ownership concept does not apply to gis. ownership in gis is a collective ownership, which is called collective rights, or public ownership, which is called public rights (rangnekar, 2003). in fact, the right of gis is more appropriately called the right of control rather than the right of ownership because it is generally controlled by society; thus, it is called communal rights.16 based on the law, it is appropriate if tm law and gis 20/2016 states that only certain parties can register gis. alternatively, a certain party may act as an applicant to register the gis to the minister 13 see, art. 24.6 of trips agreement. 14 unctad-ictsd, op. cit., p. 305. 15 intellectual property corporation of malaysia, geographical indications. available at http://www. myipo.gov.my (last visited july 7, 2017). 16 sasongko, op. cit., p. 42. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 403-419 of law and human rights. the trips agreement uses the term ‘interested parties’ instead of ‘applicant’. the interested parties may include: (a) an institution representing a community in a certain geographical region that seeks goods and/or products; (b) a provincial or district or city government.17 according to the elucidation of that article, the institutions representing communities in the geographical region include producer associations, cooperatives and the gis community. this provision is slightly different than tm law 15/2001, which states the applicant for the right of gis is: (a) the institution representing the community in the region producing the goods concerned; (b) the institution authorised for it; or (c) the consumer group of the goods. this provision is somewhat confusing because there is no significant difference between ‘representative institutions’ and ‘authorised institutions’. according to legal theory in indonesia, both terms mean ‘giving of command’ (lastgeving in dutch) or ‘giving of authorisation’ (volmacht in dutch) (subekti, 1987). the party may act for, and on behalf of, the assignor or authoriser. classification of application for registration not all gis rights registration applications are acceptable. tm law and gis 20/2016 distinguishes between unacceptable registration applications and rejected applications, with an unacceptable application of registration being a request containing elements prohibited by tm law and gis 20/2016. unacceptable applications include: (1) an application that is contrary to the state ideology, legislation, morality, religion, morality and public order; (2) a request that misleads or deceives the public about the reputation, quality, characteristics, source origin, the process of making the goods and/or their use; (3) the application is a name that has been used as a plant variety and is currently used for a variety of similar plants, unless there is an addition to the equivalent word indicating a similar geographical indication.18 a rejected application is a registration application that does not fulfil the requirements under article 56 paragraph (2) of tm law and gis 20/2016: (a) the gis document of description 17 see, art. 53 of tm law and gis 20/2016. 18 see, art. 56 (1) of tm law and gis 20/2016. sasongko cannot be verified; and/or (b) has similarities with registered gis. tm law 15/2001 did not distinguish between unacceptable registration applications and rejected applications. applicants who have been denied their application may file an appeal. in this situation, tm law and gis 20/2016 refers to the provisions of article 28-article 32 concerning trademark appeals; the appeal may be filed with the trademark appeal commission. tm law 15/2001 also refers to the terms of the trademark appeal procedure. examination of registration application tm law and gis 20/2016 does not set administrative checks; it simply mentions the document of description without further explanation. tm law 15/2001 also does not regulate such documents; however, gr 51/2007 regulates the application of gis registration, the book of requirements and the inspection procedures. the application for registering gis shall be filed by the applicant or by an authorised assignee by filling out a form that requests personal information like the applicant’s name and address. in addition, the application must be submitted with a completed book of requirements, which is a set of documents containing information about the quality and characteristics that can distinguish one good from another within the same category. the book of requirements, according to article 6 paragraph (3) of gr 51/2007, contains comprehensive data and information on gis registration: (a) the identity of goods; (b) the characteristics and qualities that differentiate goods and relate to their region; (c) geographical environment, natural factors and human factors that affect the quality or characteristics of goods; (d) regional boundaries and/or regional maps; (e) history and tradition; and (f) the production process. considering the size of the book of requirements, it is difficult for the applicant to complete all the various documents. the process takes a long time and incurs a significant financial cost. these factors become obstacles in gis registration. therefore, it is not surprising that good products never get registered as gis. after all the documents of the book of requirements are prepared, the entire application is submitted to verify administrative completeness. if deemed complete, the application will be journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 403-419 examined by the expert team, which consists of experts in agriculture, geology, meteorology, marine, forestry, food, beverages and/or other fields that are related to the registered gis.19 the results of the expert team’s examination may result in approval or rejection of the gis registration application. if the expert team approves, the information will be announced along with the book of requirements. conversely, if the expert team rejects the application, the applicant will be notified and given the opportunity to provide a response. the gis registration regulations in tm law and gis 20/2016 are sufficient. however, regarding regulatory aspects, the provisions stipulated in gr 51/2007 seem to be more concise than the provisions in tm law and gis 20/2016. the provisions for gis in gr 51/2007 are described below. provisions of the government regulation no. 51 of 2007 on gis provisions articles part i general provision article 1 part ii scope of geographical indications article 2 article 4 part iii requirement and application procedures article 5 article 6 part iv procedures of examination article 7 article 14 part v using and supervision of geographical indications article 15 article 20 part vii change and ending of protection article 21 article 23 part viii appeal of geographical indications article 24 part ix violation and lawsuit article 25 article 26 part x prior user of geographical indications article 27 part xi closing provisions article 28 in the national law hierarchy, a statute is higher than a government regulation. if a statute is not in sync with its implementing rules, then as a consequence, the government regulation does not have binding power. in contrast to tm law 15/2001, which tm law and gis 20/2016 revoked, gr 51/2007 is still maintained. article 106 of tm law and gis 20/2016 states that implementing regulations of tm law 15/2001 is still valid as long as they are not contradictory to the provisions of tm law and gis 20/2016. this provision regulates the transition of regulatory enforcement. 19 see, official explanation of article 14.2 of government regulation 51/2007. sasongko in the next article, it is stated that the implementation rules of tm law and gis 20/2016 shall be stipulated no later than two years after their enactments.20 tm law and gis 20/2016 was enacted on 25 november 2016. thus, gr 51/2007 will be valid until 2018. lampung robusta coffee: gis product from lampung lampung province has a geographical area of 35,288.35 square kilometres, including the islands. the topography includes hills and mountains, including the bukit barisan mountain range with its peaks of mount tanggamus, mount pesawaran and mount rajabasa (biro pusat statistik, 2016). in the mountains and hills, coffee plantations cover an area of 173,819 ha, including the robusta coffee area (173,670 ha), with a production of 131,501 tons, and the arabica coffee area (149 ha), with the production of 16 tons. the pepper plant covers an area of 60,480 ha with a production of 23,350 tons.21 robusta coffee lampung is a superior product from lampung province. the community has cultivated robusta coffee from generation to generation, using selected varieties of coffee. robusta coffee farming is the main source of income for people living in the highlands of west lampung district, tanggamus district and way kanan regency. on the plateau, coffee is grown at an altitude between 275 and 1,000 meters above sea level, in volcanic soils of the fertile andosol type (direktorat jendral kekayaan intelektual, 2015). gelondong merah coffee is picked manually and carefully selected to maintain at least 95% purity, and the coffee is processed by drying naturally in the sun or by using a machine. medium-roasted coffee produces the main flavours: the fragrance of ground coffee and the smell of strong-brewed coffee with a sweet scent, spices, chocolate and more.22 lampung coffee obtained gis protection for robusta lampung coffee and robusta luwak coffee lampung, with its products consisting of bean, roasted bean and ground coffee. they are registered as gis with gis certificate no. id g 000 000 026 and with the mark or logo listed below.23 this logo has a meaning: 20 see, art. 108 of tm law and gis 20/2016. 21 ibid., p. 339. 22 ibid. 23 ibid. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 403-419 the image of siger tower lampung is typical of lampung province. robusta coffee with the lampung text shows it is an original product from lampung. coffee beans with brown colour are the colour of coffee after roasting. the green background colour indicates this product is environmentally friendly. the above data and information are quoted from the book of requirements. the content in the book of requirements is extremely comprehensive and is even similar to the research reports prepared by experts. the book of requirements is outlined below. substance book of requirement robusta lampung coffee a. nama indikasi geografis (name of gis) b. jenis barang dan bentuk produk (type of goods and product form) c. karakteristik dan kualitas (characteristics and quality) d. kopi biji beras/ose (green bean or coffee bean) e. kopi sangrai (roasted bean) f. kopi bubuk (ground coffee) g. deskripsi lingkungan geografis (faktor alam dan faktor manusia) (description of the geographical environment) (natural factors and human factors) h. faktor manusia (human factors) i. peta batasan wilayah produksi (boundary map of production area) j. asal usul nama lampung (origin of lampung name) k. sejarah lampung (history of lampung) l. sejarah kopi lampung (history of coffee lampung) m. adat istiadat (customs) n. proses produksi barang (production process of goods) o. metode pengujian mutu barang (method of quality control of goods) p. metode kontrol dan keterunutan ((methods of control and traceability) q. label indikasi geografis (geographical indications label) the coffee farming community finds it difficult to perform the necessary research to prepare such a thorough report. if they ask experts to do it for them, they must pay large sums of money for these services. thus, the obstacles in registering and in preparing the book of requirements are not merely money but also skill and managerial issues. this problem cannot be left to producer associations, cooperatives or gis protection communities, as they too are farmers. not surprisingly, the plantation office of lampung province initiated the registration of robusta lampung coffee. the government should play a role in solving the problems faced by the people, who in this context are the farmers producing the coffee. the difficulties coffee farming communities face in registering gis rights would not occur if the government of indonesia changed the gis paradigm in the rule of law in accordance with the gis sasongko concept in the trips agreement, which sets only minimum standards. this is unlike those standards set out in tm law 15/2001 and gr 51/2007, which are attached to the lisbon treaty. in fact, gis have their own characteristics, or sui generis, different from ao and trademarks (giovannucci, josling, kerr, o’connor, & yeung, 2009). conclusion based on the legal analysis of the new rules on gis protection in indonesia, there is no change in the gis concept. the gis definition is still the same as that contained in tm law 15/2001 and gr 51/2007, whose elements are similar to the ao in the lisbon agreement rather than the gis in the trips agreement. the inclusion of gis in the title of the law does not bring significant changes in the substance of the regulation. however, it proves that the regulation on gis protection thus far, according to the government of indonesia, is correct; therefore, there is no need for changes in policies and regulations, even though people find it burdensome to register their products as gis. the regulatory pattern of gis in tm law and gis 20/2016 is not much different from tm law 15/2001 and gr 51/2007. the new regulation of gis protections in indonesia only transfers the definition of gis into general terms; however, it does not change the principles and norms of gis protection in its articles. furthermore, the existence of gr 51/2007 is still maintained, at least for two years. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 403-419 references journal article evans, g. e., & blakeney, m. (2006). the protection of geographical indications after doha: quo vadis? journal of international economic law, 9(3), 575–614 rangnekar, d. (2003). geographical indications. geneva, ictsd and unctad, issue paper, (4), 46. rekarti, e., & doktoralina, c. m. (2017). improving business performance: a proposed model for smes. european research studies journal, 20(3a), 613–623. sasongko, w. (2012a). indikasi geografis: rezim hki yang bersifat sui generis. jurnal media hukum (vol. 19). seregig, i. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., & rivai, e. (2018). preventing the acts of criminal corruption through legal community education. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 138–159. stern, s. (2001). the overlap between geographical indications and trade marks in australia. melb. j. int’l l., 2, 224. zylberg, p. (2002). geographical indications v. trademarks: the lisbon agreement: a violation of trips. u. balt. intell. prop. lj, 11, 1. book badan pusat statistik (bps) provinsi lampung. (2016). lampung dalam angka 2015 (lampung in figures 2015). bandar lampung. birkbeck, c. d. (2016). the world intellectual property organization (wipo): a reference guide. edward elgar publishing. calboli, i., & ng-loy, w. l. (2017). geographical indications at the crossroads of trade, development, and culture: focus on asia-pacific. cambridge university press direktorat jendral kekayaan intelektual. (2015). buku indikasi geografis. kementerian hukum dan ham republik indonesia. retrieved from http://e-book.dgip.go.id/indikasigeografis/filemedia/buku indikasi geografis indonesia/mobile/index.html#p=28 giovannucci, d., josling, t., kerr, w., o’connor, b., & yeung, m. (2009). guide to geographical indications: linking products and their origins (summary). kusumaatmadja, m., & sidharta, b. a. (2009). pengantar ilmu hukum (suatu pengenalan pertama ruang lingkup berlakunya ilmu hukum), pt. alumni, bandung, cet-2. masyarakat indikasi geografis. (2013). buku persyaratan indikasi geografis (requirement book of geographical indications). bandar lampung. unctad and ictsd (2005). resource book on trips and development. cambridge: cambridge university press. sasongko, w. (2012b). indikasi geografis: studi tentang kesiapan indonesia memberikan perlindungan hukum terhadap produk nasional. universitas lampung. subekti (1987). pokok-pokok hukum perdata yang termuat dalam bw dan wvk (essentials of private law contained in bw and wvk). jakarta: pt intermasa sasongko sources from web sites business dictionary. available at http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/product-tpe.html (last visited july 7, 2017) intellectual property corporation of malaysia, geographical indications. available at http://www. myipo.gov.my (last visited july 7, 2017) the united states patent and trademark office. (2017). geographical indications protection in the united states. available at https://www.uspto.gov/sites/default/files/web/offices/ dcom/olia/globalip/pdf/gi_system.pdf (last visited july 7, 2017) conference proceeding babcock, bruce a. and roxanne clemens. (2004). geographical indications and property rights: protecting value-added agricultural products (midwest agribusiness trade research and information center (matric), iowa state university), matric briefing paper 04-mbp7. dora de teresa. (2003). regional protection of gis in europe. paper of euasean workshop on geographical indications: a way into the market, hanoi, 7-8 october, p.3 teresa, dora de. (2003). regional protection of gis in europe. paper of euasean workshop on geographical indications: a way into the market, hanoi, 7-8 october. unctad-ictsd, for trade, i. c., development, s., on iprs, u.-i. p., & development, s. (2005). resource book on trips and development. cambridge university press world intellectual property organization. (2002). the definition of geographical indications. geneva: standing committee on the law of trademarks, industrial designs and geographical indications, ninth session, november 11 to 15. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/product-tpe.html https://www.uspto.gov/sites/default/files/web/offices/%20dcom/olia/globalip/pdf/gi_system.pdf https://www.uspto.gov/sites/default/files/web/offices/%20dcom/olia/globalip/pdf/gi_system.pdf peasants' resistance against state-corporations: a social movement perspective www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 368-395 peasants' resistance to state-owned enterprises: learning from an indonesian social movement wahyudi1 abstract this study analyzes factors that triggered the land-ownership struggle for the titi tsoro forest area, the rights for cultivation use and to analyze the various differences in interests related to the land’s ownership as a major community resource or a production asset for national plantation company named as ptpn xii. this research is qualitative in nature and applies social movement theory. the informants for this research were the conflicting parties. data were collected using observations, interviews, and documentation. the analysis went through four steps, namely data collection, data filtering, data classification, and conclusions. results show the settlement of this agrarian conflict has pursued both legal and non-legal means. various efforts have been made by both parties to arrive at a mutually beneficial solution for both parties, but these efforts have so far failed to find a suitable mutual agreement. over time, this agrarian conflict has received encouragement and support from various political organizations, such as political parties, legislative institutions, and the ruling elite, who may support the community in order to gain public popularity and secure votes. the more parties that are involved in a conflict, the more difficult it is to resolve it. negotiations and legal efforts have not been able to overcome this difficulty in this case. a new approach is needed that incorporates customary arbitration that has power over the law. keywords: social conflict, movement, peasant, cultivation us of right ownership introduction issues of land grabbing and related activities—such as violence, discrimination, and the criminalization of farmers—often are the focus of this study. in indonesia land and agrarian problems continue unabated despite efforts for years from journalists, government agencies, ngos (non-government organizations), farmers, and society. indeed, agrarian problems come and go one after another. the energy, time, and money that have been devoted has failed to effect any significant changes to resolve the agrarian problems of indonesia (sasongko, 2006). agribusiness, banks, legislation with a strong urban bent, 1 dr., muhammadiyah university of malang, indonesia email: wahyudiwinarjo64@umm.ac.id mailto:wahyudiwinarjo64@umm.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 and/or corporate agriculture have been the principal threats to peasant agriculture so far (ploeg, 2017). in indonesia, inequality in the land-ownership distribution is the major trigger of land conflicts and disputes where resistance often arises. in social movements in java, for example, the farming communities most likely to be involved in conflicts over land rights are peasant societies that have not risen much from the lowest levels of social stratification (amin, 2010). in papua, movements have arisen to fight against extractive companies that operate in various areas, such as the resistance of the amung people to the freeport mining operation, the resistance of the nagari koto community in west sumatra to the batubasi hill mine plan (fringka, 2017), and the people’s fight against mining in manggarai in the east nusa tenggara province (regus, 2011), to name but a few. in addition, the kalibakar farmer social movement is driven by farmers from six villages— simojayan, tlogosari, tirtoyudo, kepatihan, baturetno, and bumirejo—with the aim of disputing the hgu (the right to work on state-controlled land) rights for a former dutch plantation and redistributing the land to the community. after a long and fruitless struggle, the farmers added further pressure by initiating a strategy that was referred to as “reclamation” by the farmers and “looting” by the plantation company. this social movement has been ongoing since the post-japanese occupation, persisting through the fight for independence from dutch colonialism, the old order (orla), the new order (orba), and the reformation era, thus continuing to this day. the focus of this research, however, is the peasant movement, as it has existed since the new order. the conflict began with the nationalization of former dutch plantations, including the kalibakar plantation. a decree of the ministry of home affairs dated june 18 then transferred the hgu to the state-owned plantation company ptpn xii. the hgu covered an area of 2,050 hectares and was valid until 2013. in the process of taking over this land, which was “controlled” by the people, there was a conflict of interest and a difference in opinion between the farmers as land owners and ptpn xii, as well as by extension the government. this conflict of interest led to various forms of resistance movements because the interests of the community were often ignored (astawa, 2016). wahyudi 370 in addition, conflicts arose because of differences in the opinions of the two parties. ptpn xii, based on the hgu, believed that the land did not belong to the community, while the people believed they had an ancestral right to the land. the low legal awareness among the community and systematic acts of provocation coincided with a period of reform where the authority of the law and government had weakened. this situation provided the momentum for the community to take action, namely through reclamation. an extensive harvesting of java cacao was carried out systematically between 1993 to 1998, leaving only 10.5 hectares of the total 2,050 hectares. this 17-year conflict resurfaced in 2013 when ptpn’s hgu expired. however, the community still controlled the land under the hgu, yet ptpn xii was in the process of extending its rights. the extension of the expired hgu was actually not ptpn’s reason for prohibiting the community from working the land, considering that the land was previously state land. however, ptpn was obliged to prevent the land from being controlled by another party (rediale, 2016). this conflict never reached a resolution due to the failure of the mediation team formed by the government. this mediation team was limited to meeting organizers, and no agreements were reached by the conflicting parties, nor were these efforts followed up by the authorities (kusbianto, 2016). using qualitative research methods, this study seeks to uncover the roots of this conflict between ptpn xii and the kalibakar community, as well as the efforts at conflict resolution made by each party. social movements through collective action are actively pursued by farmers, and these are often spearheaded by outside figures who, according to gramsci (1971), can be classed as organic intellectuals. such actors are often urban agrarian activists from academia and ngos who try to help rural farming leaders to promote their movement’s demands through demonstrations, media campaigns, lobbying, and political advocacy (reyes & dueñas, 2021). according to tauchid (2009), the agrarian problem is a concern for human life and livelihoods, because land is a source of nutrition for humans. the struggle for land is effectively a struggle for food, so people are willing to risk injury to defend it. according to rachman (2017), agrarian conflicts involving farmers have been recorded since the colonial era, when plantation businesses expanded and there was great tax pressures and journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 the annexation of farmers’ lands. the resistance from peasants varied, with it including demonstrations, rebellions, and individual and collective actions. it also varied in scale from local to regional, with some of it occurring spontaneously and some of it being more organized. social movement in the form of collective resistance by farmers is certainly based on an awareness of the actors involved. according to ife and tesoriero (2008), collective action is needed to deal with problems that cannot be solved by the individuals acting alone. indeed, it can be a much more powerful and effective way to raise public awareness about an issue and achieve change (asia et al., 2018). critical awareness is something that all conflict-affected farmers need. according to freire (2008), awareness is not a technique, form of information transfer, or skills training but rather a dialogical process that brings individuals together to solve their existential problems. critical thinking happens when there is dialogue between communities. without dialogue, there can be no communication, and without communication, there can be no true education. building farmers’ awareness through dialogical communication is not an easy step, however, because conditions in agrarian conflicts create a pattern for oppression, such as when farmers live in fear of losing their freedom. when building a social movement for collective action, there needs to be an awareness of all the roles within in the movement. awareness in social movements has actually been discussed in the sociological conception of durkheim (1951), and this can be understood in two forms, namely a mechanical society and an organic society. a mechanical society has a general awareness (i.e., collective knowledge) that underlies collective action. public awareness can also act as a coercive shared moral for each of society’s members. the organic consciousness, however, is more complex in that individuals are connected to each other based on a function of need. this organic consciousness is at the basis of a developed modern society. durkheim also proposed two types of social solidarity, namely mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity (susan, 2014). klandermans (1984) posited that the resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of structural factors, such as the availability of resources for collective and individual positions in social networks, thus highlighting the rationality for participating in wahyudi 372 a social movement. thus, klandersmans believes that individuals decide to engage in social movements not because of psychological traits but rather a rational decision that a person makes after considering the advantages and disadvantages of participating. a study conducted by sarwoprasodjo (2007) found that activist farmers carried out awareness-raising exercises by conducting training for farmers, holding public discussion meetings, and taking several social actions. this is supported by the results of the research of wijanarko (2014), who conducted a study of the al-barakah farmers association in ketapang village, susukan district, semarang regency, central java. this farmers association raised the awareness of farmers as a way to resist the marginalization of farmers’ communication at the local level, which had been dominated by the state. the forms of resistance carried out by activists include studies, seminars, and festivals. ramdloni (2005) found that farmer activism was carried out through several types of action, such as protests, occupations, and demonstrations, as well as submissions to the courts. some of these actions are often followed by acts of violence. in addition, a number of articles, books, and various discussions have made a very valuable contribution to public knowledge about the plight and resistance of indonesian farmers. in the modern era, closed forms of resistance have begun to be abandoned. several studies explain that most peasant resistance is open, such as the zapatista movement in mexico, the movimento dos trabalhadores rurais sem terra (landless rural workers movement) in brazil, the foderasi der indigenen organisationen des napo (indigenous peoples movement of napo), and the radical peasant movements in rural vietnam. this active resistance usually results from the lives of farmers being disturbed by the state or foreign parties within the capitalist framework (azhima, 2011; wager & schulz, 1995). family farming refers to legal relations. on a family farm, the family owns the resources, makes the decisions, and provides the majority of the labor. this definition distinguishes family farming from corporate farming by focusing on the institutional side. that is, it does not explain how resources are mobilized, merged, and developed, nor how production is organized and developed. it does not specify how the farm interacts with nature or society. a new paradigm is needed to handle these issues: farming style. a farming style defines how production and development are organized. it is a way of relating to the farmer's journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 cultural repertoire and the set of linkages between markets, technology, and state regulations, with a rich tradition in farming style research. this legacy has helped us grasp the wide range of farming practices, from peasant to entrepreneurial. new divides are forming at the intersections of the two. entrepreneurial farming threatens peasant farming (which comprises the vast majority of farmers and farms) and conflicts with the growing scarcities facing society (climate, water, employment, food). agricultural policies are increasingly constructed in such a way that the advantages go to the enterprising pole, while the expenses are spread across all farms or even covered by the peasant pole. various rationales are used in mainstream discourse (ploeg, 2017). the adherents of capitalism consider farmers an obstacle to development (mcmichael, 2010). big businesses gain an advantage by colluding with state authorities to exploit natural resources and displace farmers in the process. neoliberal policies prioritize international trade and industrialization at the expense of damaging the environment and forcing farmers to leave their land to capitalist entrepreneurs rather than providing for their fellow citizens (wibowo, 2010). the state’s adoption of neoliberal practices has supported multinational and transnational companies that then exploit natural resources in way that harms environments and marginalizes local people, leading to resistance movements emerging in various countries. the theory of awareness cannot be separated from paulo freire’s concept of education as a liberator, where consciousness is the result of a liberating education. indeed, freire (2008) divided human consciousness into magical, naive, and critical consciousnesses. magical consciousness reflects the awareness, or rather the lack of it, of people who are unable to see the relationship between one factor and another, so they regard factors outside of humans (i.e., the natural and supernatural) as the causes of their powerlessness. the naive consciousness, meanwhile, sees the human aspect as the root of problems in society. in this awareness, ethical issues, creativity, and the need for achievement are considered determinants of social change. human development can therefore be expected to act as a trigger for change. the third and most important awareness is critical awareness, because this sees aspects of the system and structure as the source of problems. wahyudi 374 the process of conscientization generates critical awareness (or a critical consciousness) of political and social conditions, and according to goldbard (2006), an awareness-raising process is rooted in pedagogy, education, and teaching, especially adult education. freire's conscientization, however, is different from that of the women’s rights movement because that could involve the transmission of preselected knowledge, with this in turn raising awareness (moenawar et al., 2019). syawaludin (2014) stated that the emergence of awareness sustains resistance movements and builds the identity of a popular resistance movement. it therefore acts as a means for maintaining the strength of resistance in the face of stronger opposing parties. building awareness among farmers is not easily achieved, however, because as freire (2008) mentioned, the conditions in agrarian settings are often conducive to oppression. more specifically, farmers feel fearful of losing their freedom, so in this social movement, the critical awareness of farmers is a factor in forming a social movement and taking collective action. social movements have been studied in the indonesian context, although not for agrarian conflicts. such studies include that of setyadi (2016), which found that the emergence of social movements was influenced by a lack of communication between the government and the community as a form of risk management. social movement communication was also studied by hapsari (2016), who examined how communication networks play a role in encouraging people to participate in environmental conservation movements. research questions to guide the research process in this study, the following two research questions were sought to answer. 1) what factors are identified to cause conflicts between the farmer community and the company in kalibabar? 2) what conflict resolutions are anticipated to find the win-win permanent solution between the farmer community and the company in kalibabar? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 literature review peasant social movements for thousands of years, peasant agriculture, or land-labour farming, has been around. the agricultural style is so unusual in that it bonds land and labor together in a certain way and has the ability to perpetuate itself regardless of the changing periods or contrasting ecological and socio-economic conditions. many different stories about its death have been spread. though this is the case, the globe is still heavily dependent on peasant-farmers; this is mostly because they produce over 70% of the world's food (samberg et al, 2016). peasant agriculture is marked by the use of one's own resources. to paraphrase, the agricultural industry is rich in the raw materials needed to create many types of food and fiber. these resources are a legacy that passes from one generation to the next and has to do with the farming family. farmers have the skill to be able to govern the living nature in their region (in the form of crops, animals, and local eco-systems) and turn it into food. control over production and development is possible with access to this type of resource. long (2001) contends that a self-controlled resource base (i.e., a space for maneuver) is the resource of primary importance to peasant producers. a closed cycle (such as using manure produced by cattle as fertilizer, and in doing so, the soil and land, to generate a surplus crop, livestock, and food) is important, as it can assist farmers to diversify their livelihoods. the high quality manure does not have to or needs very little fertilizer to be bought. the enjoyment of being able to purchase a concentrate or two for luxury lawn-andgarden use is offered by the ability to work with decent topsoil production. eating a wellorganized diet helps reduce stress and promotes a longer life. a key advantage of having your own herd is that it helps prevent disease problems by allowing the farm to select and breed the animals. farming is "gently farming" (zuiderwijk, 1998), yet is highly productive (larson et al., 2012). peasant farming helps protect the environment and it shows concern for society by keeping its ties strong. freeman (1979), in an article entitled “a model for analyzing the strategic options of social movement organizations,” argued that strategic decisions in a movement are not always made by a movement leader or an elite group within the movement because most wahyudi 376 movements are not subject to hierarchical control. in addition, the structure of a social movement also plays an important role in its success. according to harper (1998), structure means having a well-established network of social relations in which interactions between the various social roles, groups, organizations, and institutions that make up society become routine and repetitive. although we cannot use it as a benchmark, harper’s (1998) definition of structure may help us to understand the structure of peasant movement organizations like the pasundan farmers union in east priangan, the customary institutions in the tanah lot case, the bprpi in east sumatra, and the kaaplag in cimacan, west java. there are two models for the organizational structure of a movement, namely a centralized structure and a decentralized or segmented structure. centralized structures tend to require fewer resources than decentralized ones to maintain the continuity of the movement. there are also two types of activist farmer organizations, namely (1) those that emerge from within farming groups themselves and (2) those that emerge due to outside forces (mustain, 2007). a peasant movement is a social movement, generally a reformative one because farmers merely want some changes to some of the existing values and norms (aberle in sunarto, 2000; kornlum, 1988). such movements can be categorized into old and new with a movement being classed as “old” if it is related to economic factors and material needs (keun, 2000; larana, 1994; sing, 2001). a movement is “new,” however, if it relates to modern values and issues, such as human rights, justice, equal rights, environmental protection, peace, and so on (jaeyol, 2000; sing, 2001; tilly, 1998). a peasant movement is usually rooted in issues surrounding commodity production and a perceived conflict with the state (lindberg in omvedt, 1994). the conduciveness of the political climate is also relevant (martin & halpin, 1998; haber, 1997; tilly, 1998), because a movement can join a network of organizations with similar missions (rosenthal et al., 1985) with the aim of achieving common goals (molyneux, 1998). farmer movements often also occur due to personal and cognitive mobilization (keun, 2000). in terms of social movements, it is not uncommon to dramatize social issues in order to publicize them. this in turn opens up opportunities for social change and increased journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 structural access for participants and other community members (harper, 1989). social movements have a positive impact, both at the personal level of the movement’s participants and members of the community and at the macro level of society’s structure (cable & degutis, 1997). according to smelser (1962), humans engage in collective behavior because something is wrong in their social environment. several elements of the social environment are positioned as important determinants of collective behavior, namely structural conduciveness, structural tension, the growth and spread of “common trust,” accelerating factors, participant mobilization, and social control. smelser (1962) developed a concept he called “value added” to explain the process in which these various elements contribute to each other to trigger collective behavior. the current researcher notes that although smelser’s (1962) theory is rather old and has received a lot of criticism, it is still appropriate for analyzing the phenomenon of the reclaiming/looting movement in kalibakar, especially when related to the phenomenon of norm-oriented actors. while smelser’s (1962) theory of norm-oriented movements emphasizes the important role of norms, tilly (1978), on the other hand, discussed the collective action mobilization model, which emphasizes the interest aspect. according to tilly (1978), an analysis of collective action has five major components: interest; organization (i.e., a well-defined group); mobilization, which relates to factors of production such as land, labor, capital, and technology; opportunities (e.g., politics, coalitions, competition); and the collective action itself, which also has internal conflicts of interest. tilly's (1978) mobilization analysis model can complement the one of smelser (1962) in explaining how the peasant social movement arose in the case of kalibakar. the reason for this is that smelser (1962) did not emphasize interest, while tilly (1978) does not pay attention to the belief aspect. in reality, both these were very decisive in the kalibakar incident. regarding the formation of social networks, roger gould (2000) highlights this matter from a structuralist and rationalist perspective. from the structuralist perspective, it is said that social networks form under the influence of contextual local patterns or social wahyudi 378 structures. social actors are bound to specific roles or limited to the framework of certain institutions. social behavior is not only influenced by economic positions, attitudes, and considerations of profit and loss but also by “strong social attachments” to other people. from the rationalist perspective, in contrast, it is said that network formation is influenced by self-interest. the network theory used in this study may explain the process for creating a network structure in terms of the considerations or motives of actors to join, remain in, or leave a movement’s network. several considerations and motives have been identified in previous studies, for example: the role of actor commitment (cook & kollock, lawler & yoon in turner, 1998), rational calculations of cost and benefit in exchange theory (turner, 1991), considerations of self-interest (gould, 2000), and emotional glue (markovsky & lawlers in ritzer, 2003). studies conducted by various researchers (agustang et al., 2021; asrawijaya, 2021; djawa & jacob, 2021; putra et al., 2021; septi, 2021; wadu et al., 2021; zulfan, 2021) have also discussed the social movements of farmers, with the results showing that the motive for the community’s rejection was based on news intersections being less valid, thus causing misunderstandings for farmers. reasons included a lack of socialization, not involving the community in the decision-making process, the loss of culture, and damage to the surrounding natural environment. farmers and land for farmers, land is not just an economic commodity but also a sort of social and security commodity. economically speaking, land is somewhere to carry out agriculturalproduction activities, thus providing the income to improve the quality of life for farming families. socially speaking, land means self-existence, a feeling of being whole, so even the ground is a symbol of social status in society. in a security sense, owning their own land brings a certain sense of security to farmers, so land also has a psychological effect on farmers. overall, land occupies a strategic position in the life of farmers, because it is their main capital and the source of their very culture. when land can be owned by farmers journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 and passed down to their children, it has great value. in some cultures, land is even seen as a second spouse (bachri, 1999). bachri (1999) stated that if you emphasize a peasant movement’s relationship to the land, it will naturally reflect the ways in which farmers regard the land. the meaning of land for farmers is reflected in the values they profess to believe in. in the case of the peasant movement that took place in the 1980s, the peasants attributed an ideological meaning to land. they defended their land not just because of its commodity value but the accumulated ideological values that shaped their perceptions of it. farmers without land felt like they were no longer farmers. it is a sacred legacy from their ancestors that must be preserved, and land as a whole is associated with the very existence of the farmers themselves. farmer organization in general, farmers have no desire to fight unless some crisis really presses them into action, especially if outsiders encourage them to do so (wolf, 1969). the view that farmers are unable to organize themselves was posited by marx (1850) in peasantry as a class by saying that peasants could not fight for their class interests on their own behalf. as they are unable to represent themselves as a class, they must therefore be represented. these representatives must act as leaders, regulators, and institutional forces that protect this class from the pressures of other classes. structural and cultural pressures that reduce the subsistence conditions of farmers beyond their tolerance limit, according to scott (1976), are enough to trigger farmers into venting their anger against the existing social order. farmers are considered as always acting on behalf of the group when producing, engaging in politics, or fighting. observers often take the view that poor farmers cannot escape their plights or do not have the tactical resources to fight back. wahyudi 380 methods design this study applies a qualitative approach, which is a process of research for achieving an understanding of social phenomena or human problems. in this approach, the researcher painted a complex picture by examining texts, reporting the detailed views of respondents, and observing natural situations (creswell, 2009). this study uses an intrinsic case study research design, which emphasizes a deep understanding of a single case because it is interesting. its purpose is not to understand abstract constructs or phenomena that can then be generalized but rather emphasize the intrinsic importance over generalizations, because it is not intended to help form new theories (idrus, 2009). informants there were 18 informants selected from 6 villages. the informants were the head of villages 6, village secretary 6, and farmer leaders in the villages 6 persons. they were selected because of their authorities and roles in the villages. their knowledge and experience in the problems of conflicts between farmers and the company were considered rich and depth (yin, 2015; creswell, 2009). the informants and research subjects were selected using purposive sampling. this sampling technique employed certain considerations that made it easier for the researchers to explore the social situation under study, and the snowball method was also applied (sugiyono, 2014). in qualitative research, according to creswell (2009), researchers can conduct sampling at the location, event, or process level, as well as at the participant level. data collection the data-collection method, according to yin (2015) is an advice, comprising sources of evidence that could be used as the focus for collecting case study data. the sources of evidence, apart from the documents and interviews, are archival records, participant observation, and physical devices. data collection in this study took the form of in-depth interviews with informants. information of interest—such as the number of farmers participating in the social movement, both in the initial phase and during the research journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 period—were also obtained through interviews with farmers and other actors involved in the movement. further data collection took place through observation by visiting conflict locations and observing several events directly, following the conflict resolution agenda, and applying documentary methods by examining several conflict-related documents. visual materials were also obtained from archives that were maintained by several prominent farmers. data analysis consistent to a case study design and qualitative approach used in this study, we adapt data analysis from yin (2015) and cresswell (2009). in general, the analysis included (1) converting numeric and texts into narrative data, (2) identifying themes and unit of analysis to confirm to the research questions, (3) determining coding system sample of relevant themes, (4) applying coding system to the entire narrative data, and (5) verifying the data and selecting proper data for further analysis. results and discussion factors causing land conflict in the conflict between the farming community and ptpn xii, several factors lie at the source of the tension. results of observation and interview to the informants and farmers reveal six concerns causing the conflict between farmers and the company. the factors are as follows:  opposing views about the status of the disputed land  ownership status of the forest to become the community and the company  implementation of law no. 56 prp 1960 article 8 saying that every farmer and his family owns a minimum of two hectares of agricultural land  expired hgu for the farmers  sense of hatred directed at the behaviors, attitudes, and policies of plantations  farmers were reported to have a crime conduct by the company wahyudi 382 first, the conflicting parties—namely the people of the simojayan, tirtoyudo, and bumirejo villages and ptpn xii—have opposing views about the status of the disputed land. the disparity in these perceptions has been growing larger since 1942. ptpn xii argues that it adheres to the decree of the minister of agriculture no. 49/um/1953: 17-41958s, which was the basis for issuing the hgu to ptpn xii in 1988. the farmers, meanwhile, although their claim is weak in the eyes of the law, believe that the land belonged to their ancestors, so it is theirs by ancestral right. second, there is some debate about the status of the titi tsoro (or tt) forest. the community claims that the forest belonged to the villages and was borrowed by ptpn xii to be used for cocoa farming. the plantation company, meanwhile, believes the forest is part of the hgu plantation area, specifically the “t” plot. tt forest itself is located in north kalirejo and has an area of 22.50 hectares (wahyudi, 2005). the desire of the community to reclaim the tt forest land is pursued in various ways, from peaceful means to aggressive reclamation. third, there is also the implementation of the government’s land-reform program, which aims to make sure that every farmer and his family owns a minimum of two hectares of agricultural land, as stated in law no. 56 prp 1960 article 8. the implementation of this government program started in 1964 in order to overcome land scarcity, but it has invited a latent conflict that until now had not flared up. in addition, the idea of land reform among farmers has become a guiding principle that has been passed down from generation to generation, and it has become the strongest motivator for the community to engage in movements. fourth, the issuance of hgu certificate no.49/hgu/da/88 to ptpn xii for a land area of 1,936,7330 hectares was valid for 25 years, so it expired on december 31, 2013. some people posit that there were administrative irregularities in the hgu issuance procedure, while the plantation company insist that the issuance complied with the established procedures. the conflict between ptpn xii and the local community escalated in 2013 when ptpn xii’s hgu expired. fifth, there is a sense of hatred directed at the behaviors, attitudes, and policies of plantations. according to the community, the plantations have acted in a very cruel and journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 painful manner. in addition, the community believes that the actions and policies of the plantations do not agree with the norms and expectations of the communities around the plantations. indeed, the presence of plantations is not considered to provide any welfare benefits for nearby villages and communities. however, in contrast to what was conveyed by the community, the plantations assert that they have acted in accordance with the established rules. the difference between the two parties is stark. in the eyes of the community, plantations just take people’s land and use the farmers as cheap laborers, while in the eyes of plantations, they are just employers who are obliged to follow the rules that were set for them. sixth, the farmers were reported to the authorities by ptpn xii. the conflict, which had been brewing for years, began to boil over again on december 15, 2015 when ptpn xii reported 37 people to the authorities, accusing them of grabbing land and committing criminal acts, such as destroying or using land without ptpn xii’s permission. in addition, a report was also made for charges of trespassing and land grabbing in accordance with article 167 and article 385 of the criminal code and plantation law no. 39 of 2014 (draft press release ptpn xii kalibakar plantation year 2018). this intervention by the plantation company provoked a fierce reaction and retaliatory action from the community, and the conflict is still ongoing (fauziah, 2018). in terms of research findings for the factors causing the above conflict, rauf (2001) explains in his book that the conflict was caused by differences in opinions or perceptions. these differences in the perceptions of ptpn xii and the community cover various phenomena, including 1) land status; 2) the logging of trees and occupation of former dutch plantations; 3) the distribution of land by the village committee to farmers; 4) the status of titi tsoro forest; 5) the issuance of the hgu; 6) the commodification of labor; 7) the contribution of plantations to village development; 8) the reporting of farmers to the authorities; and 9) the withdrawal of dues for administering property rights certificates by the committee (fauziah, 2018). from the above causes of conflict, it can be seen that generally speaking, the causes of the conflict are differences in perceptions related to the plantation. according to the community, the major differences between the two lie in the following areas: 1) the land wahyudi 384 the farmers occupy was the result of their ancestors’ struggle to take it from the dutch colonial government. 2) the hgu issued by the national land agency was legally flawed. 3) the hgu has expired and is no longer valid. 4) the plantation company’s behavior toward the surrounding communities and their employees is almost colonial in nature. finally, 5) the presence of plantations does not bring any prosperity to the surrounding community. in contrast, according to ptpn xii, the conflict was caused by misinterpretations by the community in the following areas: 1) the disputed land was not customary (ulayat) or privately owned land. 2) the plantation companies obtained a hgu legally based on the rule of law. 3) the company has conducted itself professionally and 4) satisfied its obligations to nearby communities (fauziah, 2018). pruitt and rubin (2009) state that in addition to differences in the perception of a social conflict, differences in interest exist between two or more parties, so a conflict will become increasingly difficult to resolve if both parties do not quickly reach an agreement that satisfies both parties (i.e., a win-win solution). the difference in interests between the community and ptpn xii concerns the rights to, and status of, the land, with ptpn xii asserting that it is state land that must be managed to generate income for the state, while the community claims the land belonged to their ancestors, so it should also belong to the current community. land is the main productive resource for this community, especially farmers, so as a means to provide a livelihood, it should be used by the state for the benefit of the community. from the plantation company’s point of view, it is using a state asset to produce goods for generating foreign exchange and improving the welfare of the people around the plantations. pruitt and rubin (2009) also explain that there are three variables that determine the causes of a conflict, namely the aspiration level of one party, one party’s perception of the aspirations of the other party, and an inability to find alternatives that can benefit both conflicting parties. before one party’s interests can conflict with another’s, those interests must be translated into aspirations. the difference in these two party’s aspirations is as follows: the plantation company wants to acquire land that is in practice already being controlled by the community, while the community wants to gain legal ownership rights to the land in the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 form of certificates. between the two parties, the aspiration to acquire the land is so deeply rooted that each makes various efforts to obtain it. until now, the conflict between ptpn xii and the community has not reached a compromise that can be accepted by both parties. as stated by karl marx, conflict must be viewed in terms of unequal ownership of capital, production factors, and the means of production producing two classes, namely the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. marx’s analysis of conflict emphasized the ownership of production factors and the means of production, suggesting that a conflict is very economically dependent. the proletariat struggles for resources and economic adequacy against the bourgeoisie who control the means of production, so they have conflicting positions (rauf, 2001). in this matter, ptpn xii sees the economic view of the plantation land generating foreign exchange for the country, and it has a strong legal umbrella as the legal owner of the right to do so, so it is the party with the greater economic power. this position is also indirectly used as a tool by ptpn xii to commoditize the community, such as by obliging them to work as plantation workers. however, an awareness of this economic imbalance also occurs in a community where land is considered as the source of a livelihood. another consideration is that people believe that managing their own lands is much more profitable than working on a plantation. these economic considerations motivate each party to fight to achieve their aspirations. relations between the actors and conflict-resolution efforts conflicts cannot be separated from the relationship between the actors involved, but this relationship is often not a balanced one. the relationship in the conflict at the kalibakar plantation involves two actors: plantation company ptpn xii and the farmers of three villages, namely simojaya, tirtoyudo, and bumirejo (fauziah, 2018). community support came from interest groups, specifically advocacy groups represented by lbh surabaya malang (a legal aid institute). next, there is a group of political organizations, specifically ppp, pdi-p, and golkar. to this day, support is still being given to the people of kalibakar by several political parties, but this support is populist in nature to secure votes in the general election. the last group comprises social organizations represented by the south malang farmers communication forum. three interest groups wahyudi 386 deal directly with the plantation company’s side, including the plantation employees, both laborers and managers. in addition, bkbh unibraw malang is the legal counsel for the plantation company, and support is given under the pretext of competing with the actions of the community. the dynamics of the conflict over the years has resulted in each conflicting party making various efforts to escape the cycle of conflict. such efforts range from the persuasive to the repressive, but nothing has succeeded in reducing the tension between the two parties. this condition has caused the villages’ communities, as well as the village government, to stand idly by rather than immediately resolve the conflict. the community first attempted to use peaceful means by asking ptpn xii to hand the land back in accordance with the oral agreement made in 1951. the community did not get a response, however, until the community and its leading figures decided to take a more aggressive route for reclaiming the land. the occupation and reclamation of the plantation land was carried out systematically by the community, and it managed to control almost the entire plantation area. however, even though the land was in practice controlled by the community, the community experienced difficulties in establishing legal ownership of the land. in order to overcome the legal difficulties, the farmers and other stakeholders took various routes. the first route was to find weaknesses in the hgu procured by ptpn xii, and the community found many irregularities in the issuance procedure, so they considered ptpn xii’s hgu to be legally flawed (astawa, 2016). the next effort was to request the support of the regent and dprd in fighting for the rights to the kalibakar plantation land. the next step was to request assistance from lbh to act as the community’s legal representative when dealing with ptpn xii. the community then also held a demonstration to bpn and ptpn xii to demand evidence about the procedure for extending ptpn xii’s hgu (astawa, 2016). the village government has tried to resolve the conflict through bureaucratic efforts, thus negotiating with the authorities to find a solution to this conflict. this interaction between the community and the government has had an impact on the conflict-resolution strategies used by the community, namely in the form of a) rejecting all forms of offers submitted by ptpn xii; (b) forming landjournal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 settlement committees in each village; and (c) establishing a social network for farmers through the south malang farmers communication forum and submitting an application for land rights to the minister of agrarian affairs. ptpn xii has used a different strategy. on realizing that the farmers were strengthening their struggle, it made several efforts: (a) it took legal action, namely by reporting the farmers as provocateurs to the authorities, so they could be processed in accordance with applicable law, and (b) it approached the community, as well as village officials, in each conflicting village. these efforts took place in several forms, namely by conducting legal counseling with residents, holding several coordination meetings with all relevant parties, and trying to form friendships with local residents. (c) it also made an offer to set up cooperation in the form of a partnership where ptpn xii would plant basic crops, while residents would be given the opportunity to plant intercropping plants. (d) ptpn xii, through its legal representative, sent a letter to the minister of agriculture and agrarian affairs to confirm the ownership status of the plantation land, seeing as institutionally speaking, the central government is the only party with the authority to settle the kalibakar plantation land dispute. in an effort to resolve the conflict, the government of malang regency formed a conflictresolution team called the malang regency land settlement working group. the team was responsible for facilitating a resolution to the conflict between ptpn xii and the community in a neutral and impartial manner. several conflict-resolution efforts have been carried out by the working group, such as hosting coordination meetings and exploring bureaucratic channels with central government to find a resolution to this conflict. the working group proposed a compromise solution where half the land would be given to the community and the other half returned to the plantation (fauzaiah, 2018). each party involved in this conflict insisted on fulfilling their aspirations for the kalibakar plantation land, however. a strong desire to acquire the land was clear in their various efforts, which took the form of legal efforts in the courts or attempts to reach out-of-court settlements (pruitt and rubin, 2009). the plantation company mostly tried to resolve the conflict through legal channels, such as by reporting several farmers who they believed wahyudi 388 were the main actors in the movement for violating the law. however, this action, which started in 1996 and ended in 2015, fail to get the desired results. conflict resolution was also carried out through out-of-court channels, namely through negotiation and deliberation. this method requires the conflicting parties to communicate openly and reach an agreement in the form of a compromise (pruitt & rubin, 2009). the last effort to hold a meeting with the ministry of soes (state owned enterprises) of the republic of indonesia took place on june 6, 2016 in jakarta, and this resulted in concluding that the authority to release the kalibakar land was in the hands of the directors of ptpn xii and the soes of the republic of indonesia, because 90% of the shares in ptpn xii were owned by the state. in addition to the two efforts above, the plantation company also offered a partnership collaboration to the community. this is in line with what limbong (2014) conveyed, where such a partnership is an integrated cooperative relationship between smallholders and plantations such that both parties mutually benefit and respect each other’s position (limbong, 2014). the offered was made by the plantation company in 2007 but has always been rejected by the community because it wants a partnership pattern where the community owns the land and the plantation company is the manager. the people of bumirejo village did establish a partnership with the plantation, but it did not last long because it did not lead to prosperity for the villagers. in line with what was expressed by pruitt and rubin (2009), conflicting parties can use several strategies to escape a cycle of conflict. in the case of land conflicts, a contentious strategy is often adopted that tends to have an aggressive nature in carrying out various forms of contentious aspirational actions (pruitt & rubin, 2009). the first technique used in this strategy was to use persuasive arguments, so the community asked for the return of the land based on an oral agreement that the land would be returned to the community. in addition, a bureaucratic route was also taken to find a solution to the kalibakar plantation land issue. the highest level actions took the form of threats, however. these threats were made in response to the plantation company not acknowledging the community’s efforts. the threats began when the land-acquisition activists were stigmatized as pki minions if they journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 refused to hand over plantation land to ptpn xii. then the next threat was to report several people who were considered major stakeholders to the police (pruitt & rubin, 2009). despite the various efforts that have been made by each party, no middle ground has been found between the two parties, and the relationship between them remains a tense one. this study finds evidences that tension of conflict in the claim on the ownership status of forest has been compromised by both the community and company through win-win dialogues. legal aspects are avoided and participatory approach is emphasized. this study therefore has a novelty in that compromise approach to solve the conflict between farmers and company is to let the farmers continue to cultivate the land and the company allocates land for the farmers. conclusion in summary, factors affecting the conflict between farmers and the company in kalibabar that cause farmer’s social movement and involves plantation company ptpn xii and the communities of six villages, were caused by differences perceptions and interests of the conflicting parties. the differences in perception relate to the history of the land’s ownership, the status of titi tsoro forest, the validity of the hgu, the process for extending the hgu, and ptpn xii’s contribution to developing surrounding communities. the differences in interests, meanwhile, relate to whether the land should be a resource for the community or a production asset for ptpn xii. efforts to resolve this agrarian conflict have gone through legal and non-legal channels. various methods have been used by both parties to reach a solution that does not overly harm both parties, but such efforts have so far failed to find a suitable mutual agreement. along the way, such agrarian conflicts receive encouragement and support from various political organizations, such as political parties, legislative institutions, and the ruling elite, who may support the community in order to gain public popularity and secure votes in elections. this study is by no means perfect. intensive observation and involvement of the researcher in the conflict area is limited. future research is suggested to conduct ethnography approach and data are collected in a multisite approach. researchers should live together with community in a certain time so that enough data and perception have been clearly defined. wahyudi 390 references agustang, a., quraisy, h., & asrifan, a. (2021). muhammadiyah dalam gerakan sosial di kabupaten wajo. osf.oi, 1–16. https://osf.io/dpsg9 amin, s. (2010). mobilisasi dan perubahan sosial di wilayah konflik agraria: studi kasus paseduluran petani penggarap pt. tratak (p4t). jurnal anlalisis sosial, 15(1), 94– 134. asia, n., sarwoprasodjo, s., & gandasari, d. (2018). dialog dan tindakan kolektif kelompok tani dalam program sertifikasi kakao di provinsi sulawesi barat. jurnal komunikasi pembangunan, 16(1), 15–29. asrawijaya, e. (2021). konsep voluntarisme dalam gerakan samin tolak pabrik semen. etnoreflika: jurnal sosial dan budaya, 10(2), 144–156. astawa, k. d. (2016). strategi penyelesaian konflik tanah perkebunan. malang: universitas negeri malang azhima, a. f. (2011). keberhasilan gerakan zapatista di meksiko (19942009): analisa keterhubungan dengan masyarakat sipil global. jakarta: ui press. bachri, s., & djaenudin, d. (1999). iklim sebagai salah satu faktor penentu kesesuaian lahan untuk pengembangan tanaman pangan lahan kering didaerah pantura jawa barat bagian timur. jurnal penelitian dan pengembangan pertanian, 18(1), 29-39. cable, s. dan & degutis, b. (1997). movements outcomes and dimensions of social change: the multiple effects of local mobilizations. current sociology, 45(3), 121-135. creswell, j. w. (2009). research design, qualitative and quantitative approaches. sage publications inc. creswell, j. w. (2015). penelitian kualitatif dan desain riset, memilih di antara lima pendekatan (s. z. qudsy (ed.)). pustaka pelajar. djawa, r. m., & jacob, a. r. p. (2021). pembangunan pabrik tebu di kabupaten sumba timur (studi gerakan sosial masyarakat adat terkait penolakan pembangunan pabrik tebu di desa wanga, kecamatan umalulu, kabupaten sumba timur). jurnal politicon, 10(1), 9–22. durkheim, e. (1951). sociologie et philosophie. presses universitaires de france. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 fauziah, i. a. r. (2018). konflik pertanahan lahan perkebunan kalibakar antara ptpn xii dengan masyarakat di kabupaten malang (doctoral dissertation, universitas airlangga). freeman, j. (1979). a model for analyzing the strategic option of social movement. cambridge: cambridge university press. freire, p. (2008). pendidikan kaum tertindas. jakarta: lp3es. fringka, y. (2017). resistensi berbasis adat: perlawanan masyarakat nagari iii koto, tanah datar, sumatera barat, terhadap rencana tambang bukit batubasi. masyarakat: jurnal sosiologi, 21(2), 205–231. goldbard, a. (2006). new creative community: the art of cultural development. new village press. gould, roger v., (2000). why do networks matter? rationalist and structuralist interpretations, paper dalam workshop tentang “social movement analysis: the network perspective” di loch lomond skotlandia. gramsci, a. (1971). the modern prince. selections from the prison notebooks, 123-205. haber, p. l. (1997). social movements and socio-political change in latin america. current sociology, 45(2), 21–140. hapsari, d. r. (2016). peran jaringan komunikasi dalam gerakan sosial untuk pelestarian lingkungan hidup. jurnal komunikasi ikatan sarjana komunikasi indonesia, 1(1), 25–36. harper, c.l. (1989). exploring sosial change. new jersey: prentice hall, inc. englewood cliffs idrus, m. (2009). metode penelitian ilmu sosial pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif. penerbit erlangga. ife, j., & tesoriero, f. (2008). community development: alternatif pengembangan masyarakat di era globalisasi. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar, 265. keun, song ho, (2000). analysis of participants in the new social movements in korea: mobilization and network. korea journal/autumn, 2000, halaman 95–130. klandermans, b. (1984). mobilization and participation: social-psychological expansisons of resource mobilization theory. american sociological review, 583-600. wahyudi 392 kusbianto. (2016). penyelesaian sengketa tanah perkebunan pada areal perusahaan basan usaha milik negara (bumn) perkebunan di sumatera utara. sumatera: disertasi universitas sumatera utara. laporan hasil rapat kerja pendalaman pansus ranperda (2017). di hotel savana & convention malang pada 13-15 juli 2017. limbong, bernhard. (2014). politik pertanahan. jakarta: margareth pustaka larana, johnston gusfield, (1994). new social movements: from ideology to identity. temple university press. larson, d. f., keijiro otsuka, tomoya matsumoto & talpi k. (2012). should african rural development strategies depend on smallholder farms? an exploration of the inverse productivity hypothesis, policy research working paper 6190. long, n. (2001). development sociology: actor perspectives, routledge, london. martin, p. dan & halpin, d. (1998). landcare as a politically relevan new social movement?, journal of rural studies, 14(1), 445–457. marx, k. (1850). dalam teodor shanin (ed) 1971, peasantry as a class, middlesex: penguin books. mcmichael, p. (2010). petani membuat sejarah sendiri, tapi tidak seperti yang mereka inginkan. in gerakan-gerakan agraria transnasional (pp. 75–123). sekolah tinggi pertanahan nasional. moenawar, m. g., priatna, w. b., & santoso, h. (2019). consciousness raising dan partisipasi politik suku baduy di era digital. jurnal komunikasi pembangunan, 17(1), 69–80. molyneux, m. (1998). analysing women’s movements, development and change, 29(2), 219–245. mustain, (2007). petani vs penguasan: gerakan sosial petani melawan hegemoni negara, yogjakarta: ar ruzz media. omvedt, g. (1994). peasants, dalits and women: democracy and india’s new social movement, journal of contemporary asia, 24(1), 35–48. ploeg, van der d. j. (2017). the importance of peasant agriculture: a neglected truth. wageningen university & research: farewell address upon retiring as professor of transition processes in europe journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 putra, j. i., alfiandi, b., & afrizal. (2021). strategi pemanfaatan sumber daya dalam gerakan sosial perlawanan komunitas salingka gunung talang terhadap penetapan wilayah kerja geotermal gunung talang-bukit kili, kabupaten solok , sumatra barat. jurnal pendidikan tambusai, 5(1), 2109–2117. pruitt, d. g.& rubbin j. z. (2009). teori konflik sosial. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar offset rachman, n. f. (2017). petani dan penguasa, dinamika perjalanan politik agraria indonesia. insist press. ramdloni, m. (2005). teologi petani: analisis peran islam dalam radikalisme gerakan petani pada forum perjuangan petani nelayan batang pekalongan (fp2nb) di kabupaten batang dan pekalongan. [tesis]. surakarta: universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. rauf, m. (2001). konsesnsus politik dan konflik politik: sebuah penjajagan teoritis. jakarta: direktorat jendral pendidikan tinggi departemen pendidikan nasional rediale, r. (2016). penguasaan lahan hgu ptpn xii perkebunan oleh masyarakat penggarap dalam masa permohonan perpanjangan hak. malang: universitas brawijaya. regus, m. (2011). tambang dan perlawanan rakyat: studi kasus tambang di manggarai, ntt. masyarakat: jurnal sosiologi, 16(1), 1–26 reyes, a-e. & dueñas, j-m. (2021). medicinal gardens as an educational strategy in the teaching of the natural sciences: a pedagogical proposal. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 6(1), 25-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.2 ritzer, george dan goodman, douglas j., (2003). teori sosiologi modern (terjemahan dari alimandan). jakarta: prenada media. rosenthal, n. fingrutd, meryl; dan ethier, m. (1985), social movements and network analysis: a case study of nineteent-century women’s reform in new york state. american journal of sociology, 90(5), 1022–1054. samberg, l. h., james s g., navin r., m. herrero & paul c. west (2016). subnational distribution of average farm size and smallholder contributions to global food production, in: environmental research letters 11, 124010 doi:10.1088/17489326/11/12/124010 septi, k. h. (2021). menghadirkan kemandirian petani: studi kasus peran sekolah tani muda (sektimuda) sebagai civil society di yogyakarta. jurnal pemberdayaan wahyudi 394 masyarakat, 9(1), 98–119. sarwoprasodjo s. (2007). penggunaan ruang publik untuk pemecahan masalah sosial di pedesaan. [disertasi]. depok: universitas indonesia. sasongko, t. h. (2006). potret petani: basis pembaruan agraria. jakarta: akatiga. scott, j. c. (1976). the moral economy of the peasant, new heaven: yale university press. setyadi, y. (2016). komunikasi gerakan sosial penolakan relokasi kawasan rawan bencana gunung merapi (kasus desa glagaharjo, kecamatan cangkringan, kabupaten sleman, diy). ipb university sing, r. (2001). social movement, old and new: a postmodernist critique. new delhi/thousand oaks/london: sage publications. smelser, n. j., (1962). theory of collective behavior. new york: the free press. sugiyono. (2014). memahami penelitian kualitatif. alfa beta. sunarto, k. (2000). pengantar sosiologi, edisi kedua, jakarta: lembaga penerbit fe ui. susan, n. (2014). pengantar sosiologi konflik. kencana. syawaludin, m. (2014). perlawanan petani rengas terhadap ptpn vii di ogan ilir sumatera selatan. jurnal sosiologi reflektif, 9(1), 113–130. tauchid, m. (2009). masalah agraria sebagai masalah penghidupan dan kemakmuran rakyat indonesia. stpn press. tilly, c. (1978). from mobilization to revolution. amerika serikat: addison-wesley publishing company. tilly, c. (1998). social movements and (all sors of) other political interactions-local, national, and international-including identities. theory and society 27:453–480, 1998. turner, j. r. h. (1991). the structure of sociological theory: first edition. wadsworth publishing company. turner, j. r. h. (1998). the structure of sociological theory. sixth edition. wadsworth publishing company. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 368-395 wager, s.j., & schulz, d. e. (1995). civil-military relation in mexico: the zapatista revolt and its implication. journal of interamerican studies and word affairs, 27(1), 166– 251. wibowo, i. (2010). negara centeng. kanisius. wijanarko, (2014). komunikasi penyadaran kritis gerakan petani. makara hubs-asia, 18 (1), 1-14. wolf, e. r. (1969). dalam teodor shanin (ed) 1971, on peasant rebellion, middlesex: penguin books. wadu, j., lake, p., & pita, c. (2021). resistensi masyarakat adat dalam pembangunan waduk lambo di desa rendubutowe kecamatan aesesa selatan kabupaten nagekeo. jurnal administrasi publik, 16(2). wahyudi. (2005). formasi dan struktur gerakan sosial petani: studi kasus reklaiming/penjarahan atas tanah ptpn xii (persero) kalibakar. malang: universitas muhammadiyah malang zulfan. (2021). pengaruh elit pedesaan terhadap gerakan sosial di indonesia pada tahun 1818-1935. serambi akademica: jurnal pendidikan, sains, dan humaniora, 9(2), 192–200. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11(4), 275-303 the role of families in cultivating children’s personality values: an analysis of social psychology education suko susilo1 abstract the purpose of this study was to analyze the role of the family in cultivating value for children. in addition, it is also used to analyze the effect of values on children's attitudes, beliefs and behavior in the family. furthermore, it aims to analyze the role of value education in reducing stress levels. this research applies a combination of survey and qualitative research. both approaches were chosen because when analyzing and understanding the process by which a family instills values in children, we cannot rely on written questions and answers—we also need structured interviews that can solicit data that would be unobtainable through surveys. this research was conducted in the city of kediri over a 14-month period from january 2019 to march 2020, and it involved 300 informants. results show that the key to successful value cultivation is indeed family. the family can act as a vehicle for the process of seeding and applying values. the cultivation of values, however, is not limited to the parents—it can extend to other adults who live with their children, such as grandparents. a wellinternalized value can improve the welfare of all family members, and the process of instilling values in children can improve their attitudes. in addition, a child's self-confidence and behavior can also improve. children can also exploit these internalized good values when dealing with stress. keywords: family, social psychology, value planting introduction in the family, the emotional bond between parents and children is a very close one. this closeness may arise from problems faced by these family members. in a traditional family (islami, 2014), the social and emotional relationship between a father and mother is something that will be imitated by a child if he or she perceives it as something good. when children judge that the relationship between their parents is not good, however, they will try to build good communications while still referring to values they believe to be good. unfortunately, with the existence of social enterprises brought by technological change, families face increasingly complex challenges in functioning as the basic unit that is responsible for specific goals and processes (schwab et al., 2002). children’s very intense interaction with digital devices reduces the time they spend with their families cultivating values (carvalho et al., 2015). this is backed up by the findings of jago, edwards, urbanski, and sebire (2017), who found that 1 dr. institut agama islam tribakti (iait) kediri, indonesia; email: sukosusilo@gmail.com mailto:sukosusilo@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 much of children’s free time is spent on activities involving their digital devices, thereby diminishing the normal functioning of the family and consequently the value-planting process. according to valdemoros et al. (2017), it is a challenge for parents to avoid being swallowed up by the times and maintain the normal family function. in the value-planting process, the family’s function is described as a very multidimensional construct that reflects the extent to which the interaction between family members helps enhance the welfare of all family members (ryan et al., 2005). furthermore, schwab et al. (2002) explain that family function is closely related to the family’s role in developing and maintaining family members both socially (i.e., the social relationships between family members), psychologically (i.e., the value-planting process), and biologically (i.e., ensuring physical wellbeing). in reality, together with the level of activity between the parents, the value-education process within the family has been neglected. for example, in the morning, everyone is busy preparing to go to work or school. during the day, there is no direct communication between family members. in the evening, both parents return from work late, so there is little time for them to impart values to family members. the relationship between family members is very important at every stage of life, and for younger family members, these relationships are an important foundation for forming social relationships throughout their lives. this accords with the opinion of umberson et al. (2010), who states that there is nothing more important to social relations than the relationship between family members. likewise, umberson, crosnoe, and reczek (2010) also state that the better the family relationships, the higher the level of welfare is for family members. umberson and montez (2010) argue that social relationships consistently and greatly affect the welfare of all family members. hartwell and benson (2007) explain in detail that a harmonious family relationship can provide meaning and purpose, as well as real social resources for realizing welfare. in their words, family connections can provide greater meaning and purpose, as well as tangible social resources that benefit the wellbeing of each family member. quality family relationships, according to kawachi and berkamn (2001), are not limited to providing social support, however. they can, for example, also supply love, advice, and attention, but they can also cause tension (e.g., through arguments, criticism, excessive demands), and this can affect welfare in psychosocial, behavioral, and physiological ways. susilo 277 social psychologists like grundy (2005) argue that children can learn moral values and social conventions through the socialization process that comes through the parenting process within the family. while inculcating these values, a two-way process occurs that involves a complex interaction between evolutionary trends and genetic and sociocultural factors. according to grusec (2011), socialization occurs in different domains marked by different aspects, both from the parent–child relationship and from different fundamental mechanisms. each domain requires different parenting actions that must match the milieu in which the child operates in order to produce suitable results for the child. these domains include protection, reciprocity, control, guided learning, and group participation. the same thing was stated by robert et.al (2019) that citizenship education is able to instill good values for children. merz et al. (2009) explain that during the process of cultivating values, children and parents tend to stay in close contact with each other throughout the course of their lives, and the quality of intergenerational relationships is very important for the welfare of both generations. polenick et al. (2016), meanwhile, explain that the quality of the relationship between a child and father will always be improved when they desire greater welfare. recent research has also shown the importance of relationships with grandchildren to aging adults, and their existence can increase the closeness of the relationships between other family members (mahne & huxlold, 2015). they further explain that grandparents can also instill good and bad values, manners, character, and morals in their grandchildren and children. in addition, the level of welfare for parents, adult children, and grandparents can improve when they get together. grandparents often pay attention to a child at different points than their parents, so grandchildren have a better value-based experience during their lives’ journeys, and this can contribute to social support, help deal with stress, and provide social control mechanisms. all of these, according to nomaguchi and milkie (2003) and reczeck et al. (2014) can influence health and wellbeing in an important way over the course of life. garnier and stein (1998) argue that traditional values generally help protect adolescents from problematic behavior. humane and egalitarian values can protect adolescents from delinquency but also increase the risk of drug use. however, mothers can play a role in protecting adolescents journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 from drug use. low family values often lead to problematic adolescent behavior, which is often marked by drug use, delinquency, dropping out of school, and sexual behavior. hwang (2002) emphasizes the need to study cultural heritage values from the existential phase of moral reasoning in confucian society and ethics in order to distinguish the important features of confucian ethics by referring to the difference between positive and negative, as well as perfect or imperfect, duties. the features of confucian wisdom were further analyzed in terms of schwartz’s (2003) work to distinguish between rationally defensible moral codes. thomas, liu, and umberson (2017) explain that good and bad values from family relationships play a central role in shaping individual wellbeing throughout life. from the perspective of family life, the marital relationship is one of the most important relationships influencing the context of life, and this in turn affects the wellbeing of individuals throughout adulthood. marriage relationships that result in children also act as a vehicle for instilling values in children and future grandchildren (umberson & montez, 2010). nursalam (2020) states that even though traditional values seem local, they have global meanings, because good values are recognized by all people in the world. getting married, especially when the union results in a happy family, not only improves mental and physical health—it also acts as a seed for cultivating values in all family members (umberson et al., 2015). the strong effect of marriage on children’s health and successful value education is related to the sacrifices of each party (sbarra, 2009). several studies have shown that individuals with better health tend to be married. with a happy marriage that results in children, the internalization of values can occur (lipowicz, 2014). values are concepts and beliefs that act as guiding principles in life. they represent an orientation that is determined by a person’s awareness of something he or she is facing based on whether he or she has made a positive or negative assessment of that particular entity or situation (paoli, 2002). values are instilled in a family by parents in the hope that their children will become good adults who will benefit the community (paoli, 2002). indeed, family is very important in the physical, emotional, spiritual, and social development of children. research shows that each family is unique, but all have the same potential strengths. we must remember, however, that: 1) family is susilo 279 a source of love, protection, and identity for its members; 2) all families have their strengths, but many now face extraordinary challenges; and 3) family is the backbone of the community (islam, 2014). islam (2014) further explains that family values are traditional or cultural values that have been passed down from generation to generation, and they are related to structure, function, role, beliefs, attitudes, and ideals. paola cubas barrag’n (islam, 2014) found that value education does have a positive impact on children’s welfare. he showed that this occurs because a value is a positive self-quality that can be useful in certain situations. islam (2014) explains that a traditional family where the father acts as the breadwinner and the mother has limited employment or focuses on maintaining the home is able to cultivate better values than a family that leaves their children in other people’s care. islam (2014) says that in social science, sociologists use the term traditional family to specifically refer to the child-rearing environment that was previously called “the norm” by sociologists. this traditional family comprises a breadwinner father and a homemaker wife who raises her biological children. any deviation from this model is considered an untraditional family. in modern reality, most families in urban areas follow the modern model, where both parents have little time to cultivate values in their children and other family members. some strategy is therefore needed to revitalize the value-planting process, even though families are very busy. for example, activities could take place in the morning, weekends, and public holidays. research questions the research questions of this study are developed as follows: 1) is there any influence between the cultivation of values by the family on the understanding of the values controlled by the child and all other family members? 2) is the cultivation of values able to improve individual attitudes, beliefs (self-confidence), and behavior? 3) is the cultivation of values able to reduce the stress of family members in the midst of the hustle and bustle of work, study, and other activities? journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 conceptual framework the concept of value education the social psychologist kluckhohn (1951) explains that value is an explicit or implicit conception of “the desired.” this conception of desirability characterizes groups as well as individuals. it reconnects the psychological study of value with its sociological roots and draws attention to the influence of social experience and the importance of values. islam (2014) explains that values can be defined as broad preferences for an appropriate action or outcome. values therefore reflect a person’s feelings about right and wrong, such as ideas about what ought to be, equal rights, what is worthy of admiration, and how people should be treated with dignity and respect. furthermore, rokeach (1973) formally defines a value as a persistent belief that a certain personal or social form of behavior is preferable to another form of behavior. by referring to values as beliefs about modes of behavior and preferable outcomes, rokeach conceptualizes values as forming a hierarchical system of thinking in terms of good, medium, and bad. values tend to influence attitudes and behavior (donohue, 2020). personal values provide internal references for what is good, beautiful, useful, constructive, important, desirable, and so on. they trigger behaviors and help solve the shared human goal of survival with comparative value ratings, thus explaining why people do what they do. personal values exist in relation to cultural values, with them agreeing or disagreeing with the prevailing norms (islam, 2014) allport and vernon (1931) offer four points for assigning values in personality studies, especially in relation to the role of the family in cultivating personality values. first, they assert that measuring isolated traits, capacities, and other specific constructs yields understanding. they believe that personality is the overall structure that defines these elements. second, they argue that each personality is a unique system, and they are not directly comparable with one another. third, a construct that is suitable for investigating personality must be able to describe each individual as a coherent system rather than in terms of a number of isolated personality aspects. fourth, value constructs must meet the requirements for etymologizing the value generated by children’s thoughts after they conduct an assessment. susilo 281 values play an important role in all institutional arrangements. these standards are largely derived from society, studied, and then internalized. schwartz (2011) says that a value (a) is a concept or belief; (b) is a desired final state or behavior; (c) goes beyond certain situations; (d) guides the selection and evaluation of behaviors and events; and (e) is sequenced based on relative importance. family values involve enduring beliefs about the importance of family and who should play the key roles in it (e.g., raising children, taking care of the home, and earning a living). for example, first, a gold ring has a dominant value, and someone might perceive it as a shiny object. this aesthetic evaluation process indicates good value. second, rings are objects made of certain metals, and this is a form of theoretical evaluation, namely that gold can be turned into an attractive ring. third, rings have a certain market value, and this is a form of economic evaluation, so the ring has a high economic value. fourth, a ring is a symbol of love and loyalty, and this is a form of social evaluation. fifth, a ring can symbolize certain rights and obligations, so there is a political evaluation process about the rights and obligations of its wearer. sixth, a ring can have sacred or mystical value, and this is a form of religious/spiritual evaluation. the role of value education in cultivating personality rokeach (1973) also conceptualizes values within the framework of personality theory. he views personality as a concentric subsystem of beliefs arranged from the most central to the most peripheral. at the core of personality lies a set of beliefs about oneself, with the next layer of beliefs being values. a person’s personality is therefore very dependent on the values he or she believes in. for rokeach (1973), each person has a unique combination of values, and people differ in how they associate the relative importance to the same limited set of values in their value hierarchy. in other words, while values guide all people, their preferences may differ. there are those who adhere closely to the prevailing values, while others may disregard these values. this is where the differences in people’s values begin. culture is a social system that embodies a common set of values, and these values enable social expectations and a collective understanding of what is good, beautiful, constructive, and so on. values relate to cultural norms, but they are more global and abstract than norms (berges puyo, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 2020). norms provide rules for behavior in certain situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or bad. while norms represent standards, patterns, rules, and guidelines for expected behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and valuable. for example, flying the national flag on holidays is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. likewise, wearing dark clothes and appearing somber at a funeral is a normative behavior by showing respect. different cultures reflect values in different ways and at different levels of emphasis (islam, 2014). rokeach (1973) attempted to formulate a value catalog through the value survey (rvs) measurement process, which comprises two lists, one of terminal values and one of instrument values. the respondents rated 18 values on each list from most to least important as guiding principles in their own lives. (see table 1). table 1 the ten basic values of the individual basic value motivational core goals universalism understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the wellbeing of all people and nature virtue preservation and enhancement of the wellbeing of those with frequent personal contact tradition respect for, commitment to, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that a person’s culture or religion applies to individuals conformity restraint in actions, inclinations, and impulses that may irritate or harm others and violate social expectations or norms security security, harmony, and stability of society, relationships, and oneself power social status and prestige, control or domination over people and resources achievement personal success by showing competence according to social standards hedonism pleasure and sensual pleasure for oneself, stimulation, excitement, novelty, and challenges in life self-direction independent thought and action in choices, creations, exploration source: schwartz, s.h., 1992. universals in the content and structure of values: theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. in: zanna, m. (ed.), advances in experimental social psychology (vol. 25, pp. 1–65). academic press, london. the role of family in cultivating values social (family) psychologists argue that marriage has different meanings and dynamics across socioeconomic statuses (ses) and racial–ethnic groups due to varying social, economic, historical, and cultural contexts (edin & kefalas, 2005). there are two theoretical models to explain why marital relationships influence wellbeing: 1) the marital resource model and 2) the stress model (waite & gallager, 2000). first, the marital resource model asserts that marriage promotes wellbeing through increased access to economic, social, and health resources (camarero-figuerola susilo 283 et al., 2020; umberson et al., 2013). second, the stress model proposes that an unhappy family can be a source of stress, but this stress gradually diminishes as the relationships between family members improve, because each family member can then apply good social values in interactions with fellow family members (umberson et al., 2013). with regard to gender, revenson et al. (2016) explain that men receive more physical health benefits from marriage than women, while women are more psychologically and physiologically susceptible to marital stress than men. in a happy marriage, women tend to receive more financial benefit from their male partners, who often earn more than they do, while men generally receive more health-promoting benefits, such as emotional support and encouragement for healthy behavior, from marriage than women do (liu & waite, 2014). this likely arises because in traditional marriages, women tend to be more responsible for maintaining social relationships with family and friends, so they are more likely to provide emotional support to their husbands, whereas men are more likely to receive emotional support and enjoy the benefits of these social relationships. social networks can also improve the husband’s health and wellbeing (revenson et al., 2016). becoming a parent in a family that already has children can generate respect for being a good parent, but it can sometimes be stressful when a child gets involved in juvenile delinquency, illegal drug use, alcohol abuse, and other illegal activities. this emphasizes the importance of the family’s role in instilling values in children, so they do not adopt unwanted behaviors (umberson et al., 2010). being a parent can limit free time, generate stress, and reduce wellbeing, especially when children reach adulthood because they already have their freedom, and if they have not adopted good values, this will generally increase parental stress (nomaguchi et al., 2005). however, being a parent can also increase social integration, which in turn leads to greater emotional support and a sense of belonging and meaning as a parent who is able to raise better offspring (berkman et al., 2000), and this has positive consequences for the welfare of all family members for which they are responsible. studies show that adult children play an important role in the social networks that their parents have nurtured throughout life. such family relationships can be continued by adult children. of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 course, when parents have successfully instilled good values in their children, these will be more meaningful (umberson et al., 2010). the effects of parenting on health and wellbeing become increasingly important at an older age, because adult children are one of the main sources of care for aging adults, especially when parents have succeeded in instilling good values in their children (seltzer & bianchi, 2013). the norm of adult children being obliged to care for their aging parents is a form of social capital that can be accessed by parents when the need arises. indeed, when their health declines, care from adult children will be needed (silverstein et al., 2006). reading all the above theories, we can understand the importance of both parents, as well as grandparents, for instilling values in children. in addition to being an asset for the family, this can also act as social capital for parents in maintaining social relations with their relatives. methods design this study used a case study design and applied qualitative approach to analyze data (creswell, 2014, yin, 2014). basically, this study applied a mixed methodology over two stages, namely a survey with a closed questionnaire and a structured interview (iliadis et al., 2019). data of this study are analyzed using qualitative approach implementing a case study suggested by yin (2014). sample the population for this study comprised people living in the city of kediri who were married and had families or already had children and grandchildren. there are 32,096 such heads of families (kk) in kediri (central statistics agency, kediri city, 2020). the purposive sampling technique was used to determine the number of participants, which was 10 times the number of indicators. as the number of indicators in the instrument lattice was 30, the desired sample size was 300 people. over the study period, 290 complete responses were solicited from respondents, and these were young couples with one child (n=85), young couples with two children (n=70), families from a previous marriage (n=25), families with a single female parent (n=25), families with a single male parent (n=30), polygamous couples (n=10), couples with one to two grandchildren (n=35), and couples with three or more grandchildren (n=20). see table 2. susilo 285 table 2 characteristic of sample no family category f % 1 young couples with one child 85 29 2 young couples with two children 70 24 3 families from a previous marriage 25 8 4 families with a single female parent 25 8 5 families with a single male parent 30 11 6 polygamous couples 10 3.2 7 couples with one to two grandchildren 35 12 8 couples with three or more grandchildren 20 6 total 290 100 research instrument this research instrument is in the form of closed questions, developed by researchers based on existing theories. the questionnaire for the cultivation of values variable consisted of eight questions, the children's attitudes variables consisted of seven questions, the understanding of value variable consisted of eight questions, and the children's stress level variable consisted of seven questions. before using the instrument, it was tested on thirty respondents to see its validity and reliability. based on the results of the product-moment correlation test analysis, all instrument items are valid and based on the results of the reliability analysis, all instruments are reliable. see table 3. table 3 the results of the reliability test of the role of family education in cultivating values reliability statistics variable cronbach’s alpha cronbach’s alpha based on standardized items no. of items cultivation of values .804 .872 30 children's attitudes .706 .814 30 understandin g of value .824 .894 30 children's stress level .783 .821 30 source: data analysis by spss 19.0, 2020 the cronbach’s alpha are greater than 0.60, so it can be concluded that the 4-variable (30 item) questionnaire are reliable and consistent. to determine the normality of the sample compared to the population, the researcher performed the kolmogorov–smirnov test. the results of this showed that the sample did not significantly differ from the population. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 data collection techniques the questionnaire was developed based on the theory used, and then an operational definition was formulated before the dimensions and indicators were determined. after these three steps, a research instrument grid was compiled. the second stage of structured interviews asked survey participants to elaborate on their responses to the questionnaire. the two stages are discussed in more detail below. stage 1: the research survey used research instruments compiled by the researcher with reference to the most up-to-date and relevant theories. the responses from the survey participants could be obtained in a timely manner because the researcher directly asked each informant, item by item, the questions in the research instrument. this was followed up with a structured interview to collect further responses from the participants. stage 2: structured interviews were conducted with some of the respondents to the survey. only those interested in participating in follow-up interviews took part. the researcher deliberately chose the interview sample to achieve maximum variation in terms of (a) length of the marriage, (b) number of children, and (c) number of grandchildren. these interviews provided insight into the main trends found in the survey data. in-depth structured interviews were the mainstay of the stage 2 research. both stages 1 and 2 resulted in primary data. in this study, primary data play an important role in answering the formulated research questions, more so than secondary data would have. that said, secondary data were also gathered from various official government official documents, the literature, and the results of various relevant research studies. the survey was conducted between january 2019 and march 2020 in the city of kediri, both in the city center and the suburbs. this included elite housing, moderate housing, and densely populated housing, including illegal residential areas (i.e., illegal housing), communities around markets, places of worship, school environments, pesantren, riverbanks, and other marginal locations. data analysis the mean difference analysis (t-test) was used in this study to analyze the data (ghozali, 2016). the qualitative interview data that had been collected was reduced so that only valid data would susilo 287 be analyzed. all this valid data were classified according to typology in accordance with the uniqueness of the data obtained before proceeding to draw conclusions. the conclusions drawn were inductive in nature, starting in a specific field and then generalizing them in a wider scope. the survey participants were recruited through a door-to-door approach, both in the city center and the suburbs. houses were visited in turn according to predetermined criteria, so the target sample size could be achieved. to increase the effectiveness of the research, the researcher consulted the head of the neighborhood unit (rt), the head of the rukun warga (wr), the head of the village, and the lurah at the village level. this was to obtain permission from them, as well as to get them to accompany the researcher in the community, thus reassuring the residents. the completion of the questionnaire was always guided by the researcher, so there could be no misinterpretation or misunderstanding. if participants encountered problems or did not understand a question, they could ask the researcher for clarification. the questionnaire also requested the email address and telephone number of the respondent, so if there were any missing or ambiguous responses, the researcher could contact the relevant participant. although this approach has its limitations (westbrook & saperstein, 2015), it facilitated the acquisition of a fairly representative sample in terms of age, length of marriage, single/multiple parents, number of children, and number of grandchildren. the research also included people who had been divorced, whether they were still single or had remarried, as well as men with more than one wife. the study also included elderly couples who had grandchildren. it observed and interviewed men as the heads of families, mothers, married and unmarried children, and adult grandchildren who lived with their parents or grandparents. results prior to the analysis, normality test was conducted to see whether the data were normally distributed as seen in table 4. table 4 data normality test results description unstandardized residual no. 300 kolmogorov–smirnov z .861 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .449 source: analysis data by spss 19.0, 2020 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 the results of the one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov normality test showed a significant asymp. sig. (2-tailed) value of 0.449, which is greater than 0.05, so the kolmogorov–smirnov normality test for the data from 300 participants was found to be normally distributed. rq 1: what is the role of family in installing values in children? the results of the data analysis that answer the role of family in installing values for children appear in tables 5 and 6. table 5 the results of the r test for the role of the family in children adopting values 1 .898a .806 .791 2.314 source: analysis data by spss 19.0, 2020 table 5 shows that determination coefficient of the role family adoption can explain values by children with an adjusted r2 of 0.791 or 79.1%. the remaining contribution can be explained by other variables is 79,1% and not included in the research model (20,9%). this means that the better the process for instilling values in children, the better the children’s mastery of values will be. table 6 the results of the t-test for the role of the family in children adopting values coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 10.528 1.292 8.147 .000 role of the family adoption .132 .024 .303 5.482 .000 a. dependent variable: children adopting values source: analysis data by spss 19.0, 2020 from table 6, the model regression that can be formed are: y = 10,528 + 0,132 x + e based on the above equation, it can be interpreted as follows: model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate a predictors: (constant), children adopting values susilo 289 1) the constant value of 10.528 means that if the variable of role of the family are noting, the children adopting values will be 10.528. 2) the coefficient value of role of the family of 0.132 is positive, meaning that if role of the family has increased by 1 point, the children adopting values will increase by 0.132 points. the better the role of the family, the better the children adopting values table 6 shows that the role of the family affects the children adoption values a t-value of 5.482 with a sig. of 0.000. this shows that the family makes a significant contribution to the adoption of values by children. it means the proposed hypothesis is accepted rq 2: how do values affect attitudes, beliefs, and individual behavior? the results of the data analysis relating to effect of values on individual attitudes, beliefs, and behavior can be seen in tables 7 and 8. table 7 r test results for the effect of values on attitudes, beliefs, and individual behavior model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .653a .427 .425 1.712 2 .632a .399 .397 1.753 3 .721a .519 .514 1.573 a. predictors: (constant), attitudes, beliefs, and individual behavior source: analysis data by spss 19.0, 2020 table 8 the results of the t-test for the effect of value on attitudes, beliefs, and individual behavior coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 2.129 1.077 1.977 .049 attitude .063 .018 .146 3.513 .001 beliefs .315 .043 .393 7.301 .000 individual behavior .141 .022 .346 6.463 .000 a. dependent variable: attitudes, beliefs, and individual behavior source: analysis data by spss 19.0, 2020 table 7 shows that the effect of value (x) on attitude (y1) is 0.427 with a t-value of 3.513 with a significance of 0.000. this means that children’s attitudes toward socializing in family, school, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 and society contribute 42.7% toward their attitudes during the learning process and their inculcation of values . the effect of value (x) on children’s self-confidence (y2) is 0.399 with a t-value of 7.301 and a significance of 0.000. this means that value contributes 39.9% to beliefs during the learning process and the inculcation of values in children. the effect of value (x) on good individual behavior (y3) is 0.519 with a t-value of 6.463 and a significance of 0.000. this means that value contributes significantly (51.8%) to individual behavior. the remaining 48.2% of contribution came from other variables not considered in this study. rq 3: what is the role of value education in reducing stress levels? the results of the data analysis for the role of education in reducing the stress levels of family members can be seen in tables 9 and 10. table 9 r test results for the effect of value education on stress levels model summary model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate a. predictors: (constant), stress levels source: analysis data by spss 19.0, 2020 table 10 the results of the t-test for the effect of value education on stress levels coefficientsa model unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta 1 (constant) 12,428 1,381 7,342 ,000 stress levels ,143 ,026 ,303 6,334 ,000 a. dependent variable: stress levels source: analysis data by spss 19.0, 2020 table 9 shows that value education has a negative effect on the stress level of all family members with an r2 of 0.092 and a t-value of 6.334 with a sig. of 0.000. this shows that value education in the family makes a significant (9.2%) contribution to reducing stress levels, with the remainder being explained by other variables not included in our research model. this means that a better value-planting process results in lower levels of stress, all else being equal. conversely, when 1 -.303a .092 .089 2.155 susilo 291 value education with the family fails, this leads to increased levels of stress not just for the child but also other family members. discussion deriving the research questions of the study, the recent research obtains that values cultivation was rooted in the family environment. evidences show that the family represents as a vehicle for the process of seeding and applying values. the cultivation of values include also adults who live with their children, such as grandparents. a well-internalized value can improve the welfare of all family members, and the process of instilling values in children can improve their attitudes. in addition, a child's self-confidence and behavior can also improve. children can also exploit these internalized good values, dealing with stress. to provide more elaborated features, discussion is addressed the results of the study. the role of family in instilling values in children although many factors influence a person’s behavior, values are often a very important contributing factor. for values to be associated with behavior, they must be regarded as being relevant to the person’s culture. however, values are inherently abstract, so their relevance to certain situations is often unclear and only applicable to some cultures and not others. as such, the values that apply to the people of kediri did not necessarily resemble those that apply in other regional cultures, let alone those of other countries. however, some universal values apply to all cultures, and these are more manifest than other abstract values. as maio (2010) notes, someone may see equality, for example, as relevant to situations of ethnic or gender diversity, but the same person may fail to perceive societies that regard women as more dignified than men. he proposes that abstract values relate to behavior, which is a “concrete example” of these values, if they can be expressed in real-life situations. maio (2010) summarized a series of experiments that showed how values influence behavior more when people have thought about the real applications of these values. the people of kediri consider values as abstract, but they can easily exemplify them in everyday life starting with the family, work, and community environments. the values that apply to the people of kediri are similar to those generally present in indonesia, such as respecting older family and community members, those who are more accomplished in academia, and those with a higher journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 rank and social position. in practice, not everyone respects the richer members of society or those with great social titles, because a person’s level of wealth or achievement is relative. the kediri people say that above the sky, there is yet more sky. as such, people who have a high social position do not necessarily receive the respect of people with an even higher social position. here, values that initially seemed concrete start to become rather vague. family plays an important role in instilling values in children, so they always respect concrete values and recognize them as something that should be upheld and not left behind. this accords with the opinion of bardi and schwartz (2003), who state that several mechanisms link value to behavior (schwartz, 2009). first, values influence choices, because people act to achieve, affirm, or defend goals according to their most important values. for example, parents emphasize the importance of maintaining household harmony and preserving close ties with the family. if this is not done by the family, including among the kediri people, then according to the opinion of caprara et al. (2006), this situation will threaten the achievement and preservation of these values. in other words, a person’s values determine the importance that people ascribe to the consequences of any action. actions are more attractive and subjectively more positive if they promote the achievement of a worthy goal. value-based judgments about potential options usually derive from awareness. values enter the consciousness when actions are considered to have conflicting implications for different cherished values. in the kediri community, parents still very strongly expect their children to always maintain household harmony, because they want to be able to live side by side with their children and their children’s grandparents. second, values influence behavior. the greater the priority attributed to a value, the more likely people will formulate a plan of action that will lead to its expression. planning focuses people on the pros of the desired action rather than the cons. this increases people's confidence in their ability to achieve worthy goals, their persistence in the face of obstacles and distractions, and belief in their desire to achieve goals. by promoting planning, the importance of value encourages behavior that is consistent with the relevant values (caprara et al., 2006). in the kediri community, many household heads, especially muslim ones, always pray at night and follow various fasts in order to create a happy family, not just for themselves but also for all susilo 293 family members, including their grandchildren. the various “concerns” of parents can be better understood as an effort to improve the family’s common welfare. third, values influence behavior via their influence on attention, perception, and interpretation in some situations. people pay more attention to those aspects of a situation that offer opportunities for achieving something in line with the values they uphold. for example, someone may think that not returning to his or her hometown during eid is something that will threaten their value of friendship. someone else might interpret returning to the home village as an opportunity to meet up with family members and old friends. every perception or value-based interpretation can show that a value can be realized through real action. several mechanisms in family life link values to behavior, as stated by bardi and schwartz (2003) and schwartz, (2009). in kediri society, values influence choices because people act to achieve, affirm, or maintain some goals that express their important values. thus, when a family applies values, they have a noble goal in mind, namely to improve the inner and outer welfare of all family members. the approaches discussed above treat value as an individual characteristic, thus placing value theory in mainstream psychology. value priorities are also used to describe and compare societies and cultures. in the kediri community, social or cultural values usually combine the individual values of family members in order to achieve above-average happiness. this accords with the opinion of inglehart and baker (2000), who opine that cultural values lie in the minds of the individuals. the opinion above is also corroborated by that of hofstede (2000), who states that the function of family and community institutions in instilling values in the younger generation is a tangible manifestation of the physical and psychological wellbeing of the wider society. in his research, schwartz (2011) also found an influence of cultural values on the individual attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of all family and community members. all of these relate to cultural values and the characteristics of groups and communities (e.g., influence, social policies, socioeconomic change, etc.). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 the explanation above can be drawn from an understanding that the family plays a very large role in instilling values in children, not just through their parents but also through the grandparents who live with them. this study therefore has some novelty when compared to previous studies in that the process of cultivating values can be carried out by other family members close to the child and not just the parents. the influence of value on attitudes, beliefs, and individual behavior the explanation above implies that family is the most important vehicle for instilling values in children. the family takes the values that apply in society and encourages children to internalize them from the age of three. from that point on, children can be taught about values that will increase their future happiness. this study has succeeded in investigating the influence of cultural values on attitudes, beliefs, and individual behaviors in the kediri community and their relationship with the cultural values that have developed in the kediri community itself. another characteristic of family members, especially the children of families in kota kediri, is that it seems clear that children born into married families received better lessons about values from their parents. the existence of the family as a vehicle for developing values can also help improve the welfare of all members of the family. this accords with the opinion of hughes and waite (2009) in that married people, in general, enjoy better mental and physical health and have a longer life expectancy than people who are divorced or separated, widowed, or unmarried. a similar opinion was also expressed by simon (2002), who said that the health of married people has increased in the last few decades. thoits (2010), meanwhile, believes that the welfare of married people can be improved through increased selfesteem, which involves adopting a more positive view of oneself. they can also instill good values in their children, so the welfare of all family members improves (fukukawa et al., 2000) children and other family members in kota kediri receive support from each other and consequently feel a greater sense of self-worth, and this increase in self-esteem can be a psychological resource for developing optimism, positive influence, and better mental health susilo 295 (symister & friend, 2003). under such conditions, the process of instilling values in children can be directly applied as part of social life and the results enjoyed immediately. here, the influence of values on the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of individuals in kediri families manifests in real life in the community, and the community can assess the results of the ongoing process of value cultivation in the family in particular and wider society in general. with these values, the attitude of all family members toward society will be enhanced. the sense of selfconfidence that society will accept all family members increases, and ultimately, the individual behaviors of all family members will also be accepted by all of society. family members in the kediri community can also regulate each other’s behaviors, namely through social control and by providing guidance and encouragement in behaving in a more appropriate manner and being more effective at applying the values that have been learned, followed, and practiced in the family and society. this agrees with the opinions of cohen (2004) and reczek et al. (2014), who state that the whole process of cultivating values that has been carried out by parents will be repeated in real life society by their children. williams and umberson (2004) conclude that marriage is able to mold values about life and everything that may affect the welfare of family members. a first marriage can improve psychological wellbeing and reduce depression. the value-planting process in this situation is much more effective than before (frech & williams, 2007). likewise, musick and bumpass (2012) state that although the benefits of remarriage (second and so on) may not be as great as those from the first marriage when they have offspring, the process of instilling values in the children can still be carried out effectively. in the kediri community, couples can encourage those closest to them to engage in behaviors that further improve health. they will try to instill values in the family in order to achieve peace and prosperity in life, and these efforts contribute to better health outcomes for the entire family. this accords with the opinion of umberson et al., (2010), who state that the family contributes to the process of cultivating values and can therefore improve the health and wellbeing of family members, both physically and psychologically. the discussion above leads to the conclusion that cultural values that are instilled in children and other family members basically go on to influence individual attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors in society. the better the process for instilling values journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 in the family, the better the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of family members will be, including in the wider community. the role of value-building in reducing family stress most kediri people believe that marital relations can indeed cause stress, and this can even break the marriage bond itself, ultimately damaging the welfare of all family members. however, with a successful process for instilling values in the family, stress levels can be reduced, thus also reducing the high number of family conflicts and divorces. this agrees with the opinion of williams and umberson (2004) in that the stress model shows that negative aspects of marital relationships, such as marital tension and breakup leading to stress and damaging wellbeing. the positive aspects of the community’s marital relationships in kota kediri encourage social support, increase self-esteem, and promote healthier behaviors in general and for dealing with stress. marriage-based relationships also tend to become more prominent with age. families are also able to provide social support when one family member experiences stress. the process of handling stress can also apply values that are recognized as being faithful and effective. for example, if a child is being bullied by a peer and experiences stress, the parents can encourage the child to apply the values of feeling self-confident, not taking revenge, not being hurt, always forgiving, and so on. if stress is not dealt with through good values, stress can harm mental health, although social support can serve as a source of protection. stress is detrimental to health and wellbeing. this is where the family’s role in protecting all family members from stress through values is considered a valuable approach. as stated by thoits (2010), stress can be overcome through a discussion process within the family. stress can also be handled well when parents have directed their children to apply values. stress can also lead to behaviors that endanger health, such as coping mechanisms for dealing with stress (ng & jeffery, 2003). this is also consistent with the opinion of graham et al. (2006) in that stress caused by strained relationships can result in physiological processes that impair immune function, affect the cardiovascular system, and increase the risk of depression. therefore, the application of values in dealing with stress is very useful. parents are the most instrumental resource in training children susilo 297 to apply values to deal with stress. a happy family life can help relieve stress. moreover, children can apply values to every problem that arises. therefore, all families should be able to practice and apply values in the lives of their children, starting from the moment when they begin to understand what life is like. socializing with playmates can also cause stress, but when children have an understanding of values, they will be able to overcome such problems and not feel stressed. a wise parent who is bound in marriage is able to protect family members and provide emotional support by applying good values. indeed, the example of a parent leaves a deep mark on a child. this accords with the opinion of william (2003), who states that close relationships have a stronger impact on welfare because children are able to apply their values from a narrow family setting to a broader community one. adult children, especially those who receive a good education in values, provide benefits for the welfare of their parents. children will always be devoted to both parents, as well as grandparents, because the values that have been instilled in them by their parents have flourished. this agrees with the opinion of merz et al. (2010), who say that receiving social support from adult children is related to welfare. an identity of independence and usefulness can also offset some of the benefits of receiving support from adult children. older parents are also very likely to provide instrumental or financial support to their adult children, often contributing more than they receive and providing emotional support to their adult children, and this is linked to greater wellbeing for parents (grundy, 2005; thomas, 2010). if adult children are unable to apply good values in interactions with their parents, the quality of the relationship will be bad, thus damaging the welfare of the parents. tension between parents and adult children also deteriorates cognitive health. this agrees with the opinion of thomas and umberson (2017), who state that children who fail to apply values will cause tension with their parents and affect their welfare. when values are successfully instilled in children, adult children can take on caring roles for their older parents. this concurs with the opinion of pinquart and soerensen (2007), who opine that even though children have busy work lives, they can still care for their aging parents. adult children often experience competing pressures from working, looking after their own children, and caring for older parents (evans et al., 2006). there is a positive contribution to family functioning in many domains of individual development and wellbeing, namely physical development (el-sheikh & kelly, 2017). the family plays a very big role in the psychological development of children, so the children do not experience stress journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 (halliday, palma, mellor, green & renzaho, 2014). the family also plays a role in cultivating values, so that all family members have good mental health and happiness (botha & booysen, 2014). psychological health should be another fulcrum for family roles (evans, cowlishaw, forbes, parslow & lewis, 2010). furthermore, family functioning is a key indicator and a basic element of family stability and resilience. o’neal et al. (2018) conducted research on the families of soldiers who had been posted far from the family, and he found that more intense communication was needed for household affairs to still run effectively. this means that an adequate quality of interaction is needed for a family to survive in difficult situations. in such situations, the process of cultivating values in the family can still be carried out by those family members who are still present among children and other family members. the above description gives us the understanding that the successful cultivation of values can reduce stress in the family and in society. stress can therefore be relieved by adopting constructive, healing values. the successful instilling of values in family members can reduce stress, and even when there is stress, it can always be overcome with good values. this study implies that values cultivation derives from the family and they are represented by the adults in the family. schools should collaborate with parents to cultivate the values at homes, society and daily environments. conclusion drawing the results in mind, we can conclude that the family plays a very big role in the process of instilling values in children. families who actively instill values in children find that their children and other family members can guide their behavior toward loftier goals. when a family does not teach values, however, the mastery of values in family members becomes weak. the process of cultivating values is not only carried out by both parents but also other adults in the family, such as grandparents. a successful process for instilling values results in being able to influence individual attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. children who understand these values have better attitudes, greater self-confidence, and better individual behaviors within the family and society. the successful planting of values also improves the welfare of children and other family members. children can control stress, manage it during challenges, and take opportunities to manage stress effectively. when children master good universal values, they solve problems that cause stress by always applying the values they already hold. in essence, when a person has mastered universal values, then every step of his or her actions, words, and attitudes is always susilo 299 framed in the light of good values. they do not act arrogantly or selfishly, they can respect others, and they can accept suggestions or criticisms from others. references bangerter, l. r., liu, y., kim, k., zarit, s. h., birditt, k. s., & fingerman, k. l. (2018). everyday support to aging parents: links to middle-aged children’s diurnal cortisol and daily mood. gerontologist, 58(4), 654–662. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnw207 berges puyo, j. (2020). a value and character educational model: repercussions for students, teachers, and families. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 berkman, l. f., glass, t., brissette, i., & seeman, t. e. (2000). from social integration to health: durkheim in the new millennium. social science and medicine, 51(6), 843–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00065-4 beuving, j., & vries, g. de. (2014). doing qualitative the craft of naturalistic inquiry (1st ed.). amsterdam university press. botha, f., & booysen, f. (2014). family functioning and life satisfaction and happiness in south african households. social indicators research, 119(1), 163–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0485-6 camarero-figuerola, m., dueñas, j.-m., & renta-davids, a.-i. (2020). the relationship between family involvement and academic variables. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 57-71. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.4 caprara, gian vittorioshalom schwartz, cristina capanna, michale vecchione, c. b. (2006). personality and politics : values , traits , and. blackwell publishing, 27(1), 29. carvalho, j., francisco, r., & relvas, a. p. (2015). family functioning and information and communication technologies: how do they relate? a literature review. computers in human behavior, 45, 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.037 creswell, j. w. (n.d.). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). donohue, d. (2020). culture, cognition, and college: how do cultural values and theories of intelligence predict students’ intrinsic value for learning?. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 edin, k., & kefalas, m. (2011). promises i can keep: why poor women put motherhood before marriage. promises i can keep: why poor women put motherhood before marriage. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 https://doi.org/10.1525/ohr.2006.33.2.120 fogarty, c. t. (2009). evaluating and treating families. the primary care companion to the journal of clinical psychiatry, 11(4), 176. https://doi.org/10.4088/pcc.08bk00770 from-cieciuch, j., schwartz, s.h., davidov, e. (2015). values, social psychology of. in: james d. wright (editor-in-chief), international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences, 2nd edition, vol 25. oxford: elsevier. pp. 41–46, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277718203 garnier, h.e., stein, j.a. (1998). value and family: risk and protective factors for adolescent problem behaviors. youth & society, https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x98030001004 grundy, e. (2005). reciprocity in relationships: socio-economic and health influences on intergenerational exchanges between third age parents and their adult children in great britain. british journal of sociology, 56(2), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14684446.2005.00057.x grusec, j. e. (2011). socialization processes in the family: social and emotional development. annual review of psychology, 62, 243–269. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131650 hartwell, s. w., & benson, p. r. (2007). social integration: a conceptual overview and two case studies. mental health, social mirror, 1951, 329–353. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-38736320-2_14 hughes, m. e., & waite, l. j. (2009). marital biography and health at mid-life. journal of health and social behavior, 50(3), 344–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650905000307 hwang, k. k. (1998). two moralities: reinterpreting the findings of empirical research on moral reasoning in taiwan. asian journal of social psychology, 1(3), 211–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-839x.00015 islam, s. (2014). effect of values on family realtionship. indian journal of positive psychology. 5( vo 5(4) https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1p3-3591963281/effectof-values-on-family-relationships). islami, s. (2014). effect of values on family realtionship. indian journal of positive psychology. vo 5(4) https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1p3-3591963281/effect-of-values-onfamily-relationships jago, r., edwards, m. j., urbanski, c. r., & sebire, s. j. (2013). general and specific approaches to media parenting: a systematic review of current measures, associations with screen-viewing, and measurement implications. childhood obesity, 9(suppl.1). https://doi.org/10.1089/chi.2013.0031 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277718203_the_social_psychology_of_values?enrichid=rgreq-76d2202fefb465d811d684e44844f1b7-xxx&enrichsource=y292zxjqywdlozi3nzcxodiwmztbuzo1ntuynze5mtcymzyymjramtuwotm5odu0otczmw%3d%3d&el=1_x_2&_esc=publicationcoverpdf https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0044118x98030001004 https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1p3-3591963281/effect-of-values-on-family-relationships https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1p3-3591963281/effect-of-values-on-family-relationships susilo 301 kawachi, i., & berkman, l. f. (2001). social ties and mental health. journal of urban health, 78(3), 458–467. https://doi.org/10.1093/jurban/78.3.458 lipowicz, a. (2014). some evidence for health-related marriage selection. american journal of human biology : the official journal of the human biology council, 26(6), 747–752. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.22588 mahne, k., & huxhold, o. (2015). grandparenthood and subjective well-being: moderating effects of educational level. journals of gerontology series b psychological sciences and social sciences, 70(5), 782–792. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu147 merz, e.-m., consedine, n. s., schulze, h.-j., & schuengel, c. (2009). well-being of adult children and ageing parents: associations with intergenerational support and relationship quality. ageing & society, 29, 783–802. https://doi:10.1017/s0144686x09008514 nomaguchi, k. m., & milkie, m. a. (2003). costs and rewards of children: the effects of becoming a parent on adults’ lives. journal of marriage and family, 65, 356–374. https://doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00356.x 0022-2445 nursalam, n. (2020). glocal vision to deconstruct internalization in indonesian higher education. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 137-152. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1931 paoli, l. (2002). illegal drug trade in rusia. freiburg, edition luscrim pinquart, m., & sörensen, s. (2006). gender differences in caregiver stressors, social resources, and health: an updated meta-analysis. journals of gerontology series b psychological sciences and social sciences, 61(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/61.1.p33 polenick, c. a., depasquale, n., eggebeen, d. j., zarit s. h., & fingerman, k. l. (2016). relationship quality between older fathers and middle-aged children: associations with both parties’ subjective well-being. the journals of gerontology, series b: psychological sciences and social sciences, gbw094. https://doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw094 reczek, c., beth thomeer, m., lodge, a. c., umberson, d., & underhill, m. (2014). diet and exercise in parenthood: a social control perspective. journal of marriage and family, 76(5), 1047–1062. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12135 reczek, c., liu, h., & spiker, r. (2014). a population-based study of alcohol use in same-sex and different-sex unions. journal of marriage and family, 76(3), 557–572. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12113 rijali, a. (2019). analisis data kualitatif. alhadharah: jurnal ilmu dakwah, 17(33), 81. https://doi.org/10.18592/alhadharah.v17i33.2374 robert, a., nganga, l., james, j. (2019) citizenship and civic education in costa rica, https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1931 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 275-303 myanmar, and the united states. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 97126. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/952/410 rokeach, m. (1982). on the validity of spranger-based measures of value similarity. journal of personality and social psychology, 42(1), 88–89. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.42.1.88 rokeach, m. (1973). the nature of human values. the free press, new york sbarra, d. a. (2009). marriage protects men from clinically meaningful elevations in c-reactive protein: results from the national social life, health, and aging project (nshap). psychosomatic medicine, 71(8), 828–835. https://doi.org/10.1097/psy.0b013e3181b4c4f2 schwab, k. (2018). the fourth industrial revolution (industry 4.0): a social innovation perspective. tạp chí nghiên cứu dân tộc, 7(23), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.25073/0866773x/97 schwartz, s. h. (2012). values: cultural and individual. in fundamental questions in crosscultural psychology (issue 921). https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511974090.019 schwab, j., gray-ice, h., & prentice, f. (2002). family functioning: the general living systems research model. new york: kluwer academic publishers seltzer, j. a., & bianchi, s. m. (2013). demographic change and parent-child relationships in adulthood. annual review of sociology, 39, 275–290. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071312145602 schwartz, s.h. (2003). value orientations. european social survey core questionnaire development (chapter 7). at: http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/index.php? option com_docman&task cat_view&gid 83&itemid 80thomas, p. a., & umberson, d. (2018). do older parents’ relationships with their adult children affect cognitive limitations, and does this differ for mothers and fathers? journals of gerontology series b psychological sciences and social sciences, 73(6), 1133–1142. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx009 thomas, p, liu, h. umberson, d, (2017). family realtionships and well being. inovation in aging. vol 1(3). https://doi:10.1093/geroni/igx025tjiptono, f. (2004). pemasaran jasa. malang: bayumedia publishing umberson, d., & karas montez, j. (2010). social relationships and health: a flashpoint for health policy. journal of health and social behavior, 51(1_suppl), s54–s66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383501 umberson, d., pudrovska, t., & reczek, c. (2010). parenthood, childlessness, and well-being: a life course perspective. journal of marriage and family, 72(3), 612–629. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00721.x umberson, d., thomeer, m. b., kroeger, r. a., lodge, a. c., & xu, m. (2015). challenges and opportunities for research on same-sex relationships. journal of marriage and family, 77(1), 96–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12155 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/952/410 http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/index.php?option=com_docman%26task%3dcat_view%26gid%3d83%26itemid%3d80 http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/index.php?option=com_docman%26task%3dcat_view%26gid%3d83%26itemid%3d80 http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/index.php?option=com_docman%26task%3dcat_view%26gid%3d83%26itemid%3d80 http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/index.php?option=com_docman%26task%3dcat_view%26gid%3d83%26itemid%3d80 http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/index.php?option=com_docman%26task%3dcat_view%26gid%3d83%26itemid%3d80 http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/index.php?option=com_docman%26task%3dcat_view%26gid%3d83%26itemid%3d80 https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2fgeroni%2figx025 susilo 303 umberson, d., williams, k., & thomeer, m. b. (2013). family status and mental health: recent advances and future directions. in aneshensel, c. s. & phelan, j. c. (eds.), handbook of the sociology of mental health (2nd edn, pp. 405–431). dordrecht: springer publishing. https://doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_20 valdemoros-san-emeterio, m. a., sanz-arazuri, e., & ponce-de-león-elizondo, a. (2017). digital leisure and perceived family functioning in youth of upper secondary education. comunicar, 25(50), 99–107. https://doi.org/10.3916/c50-2017-09 vernon, p. e., & allport, g. w. (1931). a test for personal values. journal of abnormal and social psychology, 26(3), 231–248. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0073233 yin, r. k. (2003). case study research design and methods (3rd ed.). sage publications. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3), 27-44 27 the improvement of indonesia students ‘engagement in civic education through casebased learning’ muhammad japar1 abstract this paper reports on a study of civics education, conducted in a public junior secondary school in jakarta, indonesia. civics education plays an important role in students’ engagement in human rights issues and problems, and leads to active participation in society. the indonesia government has an educational policy for the implementation of civics education in schools through curricula integration. students study civics education to increase critical appreciation of social and human rights realities. this qualitative study was conducted using interviews and observations in a civics education classroom. the researcher worked with 15 year 2 students and their teacher over four meetings of 135 minutes each. in this study, teachers provided opportunities for students to engage in active learning through discussion and reflection in case-based learning. the process not only transformed knowledge, but also developed a mutual respect between the teacher and student. the study found that civics education, through case-based learning improved student ‘engagement and’ critical voice. it also enabled the teachers’ pedagogical practices engagement. key words: civics education, case-based learning, human rights, junior secondary school introduction education has an important role to play in engaging people in human rights awareness and participation. byron (1970) initially stated that, in school, a person becomes a future citizen by learning to act like one. in this context, social learning is as important as cognitive learning when it comes to political socialization and political learning. teaching young people about their rights and duties as citizens is important, however, it is also necessary to enable them to behave like citizens. in school, civics education plays important role in engaging students’ to develop their citizenship, empathy, and critical thinking. indonesia’s education is decentralized with power and autonomy devolving to regional educational ministries (soule, 2003). currently, the ministry of education provides guidelines for the content of civics instruction. civics education, as part of pancasila, has emphasized principles 1 assoc. prof., pancasila and civic education, universitas negeri jakarta, mjapar@unj.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 27-44 over political engagement. pancasila continues to be taught while new standards and increased regional autonomy are encouraging curricular innovation (soule, 2003). pancasila is five values from indonesia ideology. as the state ideology, pancasila is a concept that has historically been manipulated by indonesian regimes for their political interests. the history of civics education in indonesia, in the broad sense of efforts to provide knowledge to citizens about their rights and responsibilities, began prior to independence. there are at least three factors that contriuted to the failure of pancasila education. first, we have to understand the orientation of pancasila education has designed to support the regime and its maintance of power. second, we have to remember the pancasila education material did not teach concept of democracy and its reliance upon the importance of freedom of expression. last the method used to pancasila civic education during the new order contributed to its failure. the subject was taught through indoctrination, in which instructors who had been trained and certified by the government to teach the ,aterial played dominant roles in the classroom. as noted by winataputra (2015), before gaining independence, indonesia showed great concern for the education of its youth. in 1930, for example, ki hajar dewantara, known as the father of national education, said that education is an effort to develop children’s character (budi pekerti), intelligence, and body. according to ki hajar, national education must be based on national culture, it should aim to enhance the status of the nation and its people and encourage the development of mutual collaborations with other nations (ubaedillah, 2017). in 2013, the ministry of education revised their regulations about the civics education curriculum. as a result, in the teaching-learning process, a teaching model was introduced that helps students improve their overall potential in order to be smart, good, eager to participate, democratic and responsible citizens (larry & narvaez, 2014). schools could promote human rights where students learn and internalise important values in their lives. in indonesia, the government puts a highly priority on civics education through a national educational policy; civic responsibility and human rights education: a pan‐educational alliance for social justice (osanloo, 2009). however, when the policy is implemented in schools it becomes shallow learning, because focused on the recall of knowledge rather than on critical thinking and empowerment. students tend to focus more on science and mathematics than civics education which leads to their disengagement in its principles. because based on the experiences as teacher educator, civics education is usually taught through teacher-centred approach which focuses on content knowledge.for that required educators and students needs learning media that japar can provide the synergy in civic education. educators need to teach a civics education approach that could give provoke students to critically engage with their society and their government. over the past few decades, human rights education (hre) has incorporated both content and pedagogy in relation to international human rights norms, into educational practice which has been increasingly adopted by governments and nongovernment organizations (ngos) around the world (michalinos, constadina & panaylota, 2016, 197). the current curriculum 2013 in indonesia greatly focuses on character building, in which the achievement of the core competencies is emphasised. these competencies are: spiritual attitudes, social attitudes and knowledge and skills and are integrated into all subjects (national education department, 2013). in indonesia, civics education is a discipline that examines issues in an interdisciplinary forum, not merely to teach the articles of the constitution. according to branson (1999), there are three primary components in civics education: civic knowledge, civic skills and civic desposition. however, the effectiveness of the teaching approach in indonesia civics education is not yet well explored. this research has employed case-based learning which, according to cevik (2013), has succeded in improving novice learners problem solving skills. the study by hemphill (2015) on pre-service teacher perspectives of case-based learning in physical education teacher education has shown that (cbl) has the potential to promote critical thinking, contribute to students’ cognitive development and affect students’ value orientation. based on mclean’s perspective (2016) the goal of cbl is to prepare students for clinical practice through the use of authentic clinical cases which links theory to practice and contributes knowledge to the cases. this research project focused on civics education learning in year 8 in teaching the topic of human rights. the participating teachers employed case-based learning by providing examples of bullying to stimulate students’ critical reflections on their daily life problems. literature review civics education is the one of the important parts in social studies which aims to deepen students’ understanding of their nation and its history (otsu, 2000). civics education which teaches values appears to play a particularly important role in the formation of social capital, one of the foundation stones of civil societies and democracies (montgomery, 1998). empirical evidence shows that civic habits and values provide opportunities to influence and change young generations, therefore, schooling can be effective when other efforts to educate citizens would fail journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 27-44 (sherrod, flanagan, & youniss, 2002). according to (gutmann, 1987), school-based education is our most deliberate form of human instruction. societies have long had an interest in the ways in which their young are prepared for citizenship and in how they learn to take part in civic life. civics education, as democracy education, enables students to learn their roles and responsibilities as a citizen in the making and in the implementation of public policies. civics education includes many aspects of democracy such as, government, constitution, rule of law, human rights obligations of citizens, and the democratic process. therefore, osler and starkey (2010) argue that civics education is necessarily transformative since it is based on a commitment to equal demorcatic and human rights. civics education in indonesia aims to develop knowledge and skills in the context of ideas, values, concepts, and morals of the five principles of pancasila, democratic citizenship, and belief in the country. therefore, the indonesian civics education emphasizes civic knowledge, civic skills, and civic dispositions by embedding values and learning experiences in the form of behaviours that need to be manifested in everyday life. civics education in indonesia involves the implementation of the five principles of pancasila which are a belief in god, humanity, unity, democracy and social justice. the implementation of the civics curricula is used to provide an understanding of the meaning of pancasila in the hope that the principles would be implemented by the students in their everyday lives. civics education has a particular characteristic in that it is the teacher who has to explore their own characteristics of social competence. learning civics education is not only about how to be a good citizen. the curriculum content and learning experiences are grounded in and lead to the elaboration of values. indonesian civics education is expected to be the way of overcoming various problems in society. therefore, civics education should provide experience for the students in solving problems in their context environment. the contribution of civics education is considered to be a significant influence, both directly and indirectly, to the character of young citizens. according to mcdonell and russell (1999), schools play an important role for overcoming the crisis of character that is raging all around us. the new paradigm of civics education in indonesia is focused on democracy, human rights and the relationship between nations and citizenship as political democratic education. therefore, the role of civics education in this context is essential for students to build and develop their concern with human rights. japar human rights aims to provide a transformational response to local struggles against oppression. human rights are rights possessed by human beings that have been acquired and brought together with their birth and presence in community life (budiardjo, 1982). the curricular subjects of civics education are mandated to provide human rights learning. this can be seen from the ministry law of 24/2016 which explains the core competence and basic competence where the concept of human rights can be seen at the secondary school level. the conception of human rights provide the civic education teacher must be able to view the study of intrinsically human rights, where the concept of human rights are analyzing the process of formulation and determination of pancasila as the state basis, understanding the norms prevailing in social life to bring about justice, identifying the diversity of tribes, religions, races and antargologies in the frame of bhinneka tunggal ika (motto unity in diversity of indonesian people written on the symbol of state of indonesia). analyzing the meaning of the national awakening 1908 in the struggle for independence of the republic of indonesia. the principle of indonesian people are harmony in social, cultural, economic, and gender diversity of tribes, religions, races and intergroups within the framework of bhinneka tunggal ika. thereare to emphasize the conception of human rights, while the real challenge, is how human rights can be instilled to all students so that they are consciously and responsibly able to develop human rights values in their lives, both in the school environment and within the family and community. this is not just the civics education teachers’ task, it requires cooperation between the principal, teachers, and the entire school staff. in indonesian school when students in the school area, they have second parents and we call them teacher. civics education teachers are expected to show a positive attitude by giving examples of human rights values. therefore, case-based learning in civics education is a way of engaging students in the problems they face in their specific context. teaching civics education using case-based learning enables students to better understand human rights. case-based learning is a cognitive model that values the concrete over the abstract (kolodner, 1991) and helps students understand how an expert uses his/her own experiences and those of others, and how to develop their own expertise, to reason and learn. case-based learning employs constructivist pedagogy by developing students’ knowledge from their experience. the constructivist pedagogy dominate the constructivism concept. constructivism learning consider that student continuously examine new information which contrast with old rule and revise the rule it is no longer appropiate (euis, 2017:1). the student plays an important roles in their learning. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 27-44 the term ‘case study’ covers a wide range of problems posed for analysis but most types include several key elements (winter, 1994). case-based learning can help students organize and bring to life abstract and disparate concepts by forcing them to make difficult decisions about complex human dilemmas. therefore, case-based learning was employed in this study to engage students in solving challenging problems they face in their lives. education about human rights must be conducted at school, especially through civics education because relevant to the function of an institution in education is the role of civics education in realizing awareness of human rights at school. the cultivation of human rights provides an understanding of the rights and obligations of citizens for students through civic education learning. one of the topic is relevant to give concept to the students isbullying. it was integrated into this study as it has become an issue in secondary school. the level of bullying in a school environment often occurs because of a lack of students' understanding of human rights. ela zain, sahadi and meilanny (2017:129) have factors that influence teenager in bullying. and one of the bullying victim is someone 15 years old and still in secondary high school in bali. based on the research we need to improve the case-based learning method. this case was expected to stimulate students’ awareness of human rights in indonesia context. the researchers are civics education teacher educators who continuously focus on the field of civics education, guiding preservice teachers to deliver lessons about the cultivation and awareness of human rights in civics education. the results of the research will be employed to develop different approaches concerning human rights concerns within the school environment through case studies. method the study employed qualitative research in in-depth interviews, focus group interviews and classroom observations. in this study the research question are: 1. how does the case-based learning engage students in civic education learning, 2. how does the case-based learning improve teaching competence? the research focused on how case-based learning was being implemented, and what the implications were on students’ learning. the research was deployed by providing a case study aimed at improving student engagement in civic education. the case study studies a phenomenon in its real-world context (yin, 2009). case study research has a functional and legitimate role in doing evaluations. based on yin (2009), this research have application are case study portion viewed as complementary and providing explanatory information. after that as the japar primary evaluation method where the initiative being evaluated becomes the main case and the last as a part a dual-level evaluation arrangement in which asingle evaluation consists of one or more subevaluations with the potential of case study playing various roles to inform the program evaluations as a whole. for instance, a case study can express and defend intentions because it represents a unique case, deserving to be studied on its own right. the case studies which were integrated from cases relating to the human rights topic. the teacher provided a case study on human rights cases related to law no.39 of 1999 article 28-35 namely bullying among students. based on yin’s (2002:26) perspective, case study research design has five components, a study questions, propositions, units of analysis, the logic linking the data to the propositions and the criteria for interpreting the finding. the case study research should rest upon multiple sources of evidence, with data needing. in this research, six evidentiary sources of documentation were used; archival records, interviews, direct observations, participant observation and physical artifacts.the research was conducted at a public junior secondary school, in jakarta, indonesia. 15 students volunteered to participate in the study. they were divided into 3 groups with 5 members in each group. participants had already studied the topic of human rights. the research was conducted over four meetings of 135 minutes each. during the learning process, the teacher explained about human rights, while the researcher observed the learning process as it was being conducted. observations focused on the learning process that stimulated student engagement, developed student interaction and understanding. the process of implementing case-based learning engaged students in real-world situations. after the case analyses and discussion, the teacher reflected on the learning outcomes by conducting an assessment. in-depth interviews of 20-30 minutes per student were conducted after each lesson by selecting three students from each group. the interviews to students were aimed at obtaining results from the case studies provided by the teacher and student thinking. each student was given a question about what they learned about bullying. after that the interview focus on what they understand about human rights and explain the solution to the case raised. students were also given questions about their feelings during the civics education process using case-based learning. interviews with students aimed to obtain the results of implementation of case-based learning in civics education lesson. based on the interview, the researcher hope to reveal information about the impacts of case based learning journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 27-44 two cases of bullying were incorporated into the activities in a method employed by guess (2014). the cases happened in jakarta (2017) and at the time shocked indonesian society. the two cases are described below. case 1 : bullying in a school:seniority in senior high school ade fauzan, a senior high school student, became a victim of violence from his senior students of 82 of senior high school in jakarta. ade was treated at pertamina central hospital (rspp), kiai maja street, south jakarta. at that time ade was about to take his geography book that had been left in senior class. it is common knowledge in senior high school that junior student cannot pass through a corridor known as name the gaza corridor, only senior students can pass through it. ade was immediately smashed on his face. "i do not remember who is smash, so it is the third grade children," said ade. the violence on ade was not over yet. at the end of school, ade was asked by one of the senior student to go to warung taman (wartam), about 50 meters from the school. ade went to wartam followed his friends from class 1 who watched from a distance. in the shop, ade hair gel put in the ears and across his hair by the senior students. then the third graders summoned ade's friends to beat ade. however, ade's friends stayed silent. apparently, this silent action made the third grade students angry. they began to poke ade. ade tried to stand up and was about to fight but around 30 students from senior class went straight to ade and after that he cannot remember anything, and he remember waking at the rspp emergency room. after beating ade, the senior students ran away while the junior students immediately took ade to the hospital by taxi. ade was unconscious for about 3 hours and just woke up before in the evening. "my friends were told to admit that i was hit by another senior high school student, i cannot admit being beaten by senior students," ade said. case 2: bullying in a school: seniority vhia was rebuked, beaten and bruised by three seniors because he was not wearing an inner shirt (singlet). the singlet rule had been applied by his seniors, not by the school. vhia had been trying to explain the reason why she wasn’t wearing the singlet. but the three seniors students did not japar want to hear excuses and continue to scold vhia. after that vhia got beating by her senior. the senior student who beat vhia got the suspects were charged with article 170 for the beatings and article 351 for violence causing injury. senior vhia was designated as a suspect. all three had previously graduated from 70 of senior high school in bulungan. however, when the file of vhia's complaint was ready to be transferred to the jakarta district court, vhia and her parents revoked her report. the reporting party and the reported parties have made a peace agreement. based on cases above, the research project used case study to students to discuss and then the teacher guided the students what they are expected to do. the students worked in groups to solve the problems through discussion. the teacher provided the students with opportunities regarding problem solutions and students gave comments to other groups’ problem solutions. at the end, the teacher straightens the problem from various groups and then gives a conclusion. in this part, the teacher should straighten the statement from the student about the result of discussion. data analysis of interviews were transcribed and analyzed by data reduction and triangulation. interview transcripts were made of tables containing the participant labels s1-s15 and t1-t2. the author also read articles from scholarly journals that helped in the analysis of the transcripts. the focus of the research analysis was to identify the level of engagement by indonesian students in understanding human rights through case-based civics education. findings the results showed that case-based learning in civics education improved student emgagement and their critical voice, and transformed teaching practices. the teacher challenged the students to solve the problems close to their lives with issues that had been reported in the news. students and groups were given the opportunity to search for cases that violated human rights and they then analyzed the cases. the students looked engaged in the activities and worked together in solving the problems. the study found that there were three aspects of civics education that were developed during the process; student engagement, student critical voice, and transforming teaching practices. these findings are elaborated on in the following paragraphs. students’ engagement journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 27-44 the students showed engagement in the learning process by tackling challenging problems. the civics education lesson is mostly shaped by recalling the facts which lead to the shallow learning. therefore in this lesson, students’ engagement becomes important in students learning, especially for leading to students’ empowerment. students with high levels of engagement had a positive emotional response to the learning and, according to connell (1990) and connell & wellborn (1991) they will survive in the face of challenges). conversely, students who had low student engagement will be passive learners, will not try hard, they will be bored, give up easily, and display negative emotions such as, anger, blame and denial (skinner & belmont, 1993). the level of students engagement is exemplified in the interview results below. we engaged with the case study given and discussed the bullying which also happened in our situations. the bullying has become an issue in society, which we debated in the group to solve the problem. in this case, we learnt that we should help and care for our friends (student 2, interview, march 8, 2017) i’m not just listening to the teacher in front of class, the case has stimulated us to be active in our learning. in the bullying case, i learned to become more caring for others in the class. if we bully our friends it means we didn’t care about human rights, so we have to stop it. (student 3, interview, march 8, 2017) the interviews with students showed that they need motivation to keep their spirits up during the class. where opportunities were provided for students to help classroom teachers, it made the student feel valued. through civics education, students can learn that teachers not only value smart and active students but that all students can have the opportunity to help teachers in the preparation of the learning process. through these activities, a positive relationship can be established with all teachers and students in a class. teachers play important roles in developing interactions and collaborations among class members in the group as stated below. the discussions helped us to appreciate each other's opinions and different perspectives without offending friends. (teacher 1, interview, march 8, 2017) japar i did not feel fearful in class but the teacher made us feel comfortable to learn and yearn for civics education classes. there is such a relationship of friendship that exists between teacher and pupil in class without losing our respect for the teacher. (student 4, interview, march 8, 2017) the teachers and students stated that student engagement made them feel comfortable learning civics education and there was no discrimination to make passive students become active. in the learning process, there was no tension between the teacher and the students but rather they complemented each other. teachers not only gave lectures but also provided motivation and opportunities for students to give their opinions. students’ critical voice the students learnt to express their critical voice by discussing the issues raised in the case studies mentioned above. it is commonly challenging for students to express their critical voice and participate actively in the classroom. therefore the case-based learning has stimulated them to provide their opinion which was related to their lives. the cases studies provided opportunities for students to analyse the issues in relation to civics education outcomes. the students reported on their experiences as per the statements below: i have opportunity to provide comments on the interesting case. i felt that the case has stimulated me to think critically from different perspectives. my friends also listened to my opinion and we discussed the solutions. in the bullying case, we need to consider the human rights and situation given (student 6, interview, march 8, 2017) in discussing the case, we discussed about the related topic in civics education of human rights. it is the violation of human rights, in which we need to develop a good environment by creating the rules, including rewards and punishment. (student 7, interview, march 8, 2017) journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 27-44 human-rights based learning, in civics education lessons, improved students' critical voice in the classroom. the students provide the opinions that considered different practices and values such as human right, relationship with others, and society. the students’ critical voice in this research became initial stimulation for developing students’ critical thinking. in addition to student activeness was directed positively and the teacher's response made students feel valued. teacher pedagogical practices engagement learning civics education, which encourages students to think critically, analyse and improve the student overall potential in order to be smart, good, eager to participate, democratic and responsible citizens, and then teacher can practices the constructivist pedagogy. so that casebased learning given by the teacher is received by the students well. from the observation, casebased learning through case studies on bullying provides teachers with opportunities to practice teaching of human rights materials. human-rights, case-based learning helps me to transform learning experiences in order to create meaningful learning experiences within students’ context (teacher 2, interview, march 9, 2017). i feel there is a change of students' views on civics education which they always become excited when i come to class and (they are) ready to learn. in addition to i came to a better understanding of students with different characters and could appreciate their opinions and their critical thinking (teacher 1, interview, march 9, 2017). perceived changes are not only by the teacher, but also by the students as stated bellow. the teacher motivated me to be active in class by giving me the opportunity to comment on the results of the discussions. the cases given were always interesting which gave us opportunity to learn about each other. (farrell, interview, march 8, 2017) japar from observing the teachers it appeared that they felt confident about transferring the information about civics education to the students. case-based learning in civics education requires that the teacher ensures students think critically about the issues raised. students learn to analyse human right issues such as bullying through discussion with their teacher. the results show that casebased learning, as an active learning tool, has given students. the knowledge about human right isn’t just for understanding but they need to implementation the theory of human right to real life situations such as in school area or in their surrounding environment. based on the interview and observation students can give critically about complex situations in bullying cases. discussion, conclusion and implications the findings of the study on case-based learning encourages civics education teachers to implement the desired changes in their teaching and promote student participation in the classroom. human-rights based learning requires an enormous effort on behalf of the teacher as they are challenged to consider the vagueness and broadness of their understanding of human rights. these challenges are documented in the literature by (brunner, cassidy, & webster, 2014; jacott &messina, 2013 and zembylas et al., 2015). the first time a teacher gives a human-rights based lesson, students appeared not to care about it. the teacher introduced an issue and students chose a group to work with. the teacher then talked about the issue and asked the students to consider the implications. during the lesson, several students remained silent. from the results, the teaching challenges can be partly attributed to the elusiveness of the concept of human rights, that is, how human rights are defined and understood differently by different scholars (dembour, 2006). for that reason case-based learning provides a different understanding of human rights in civics education. participants in this study provided their comments individually. they gave their opinions as to why they chose their statement.there was almost no discussion of the rights of people in cyprus (okafor & agbakwa, 2001). in indonesia shows that human rights violations can happen anywhere, especially in schools. the case-based learning in civics education provides an opportunity for teachers to instill an understanding of student concerns for human rights. in the research study the class practiced how to accept human rights when they gave their opinions. from the interview with one of student, he said the subject of civics education in discussing human rights violations. the application of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 27-44 human-rights based learning in civics education has implications for improving student engagement, their critical voice, and for teaching pedagogical practices. thecase-based learning as an active learning tool have been studied by williams (2004). the case-based learning can develop self-knowledge and identify one’s own assumptions according to martijn van der steen, mark van twist and paul frissen’s (2016). thecase study where a didactically strong and interactive way of teaching has helped millions of students to better understand theory. case study create groups and monitor them showing the teacher clarifying personal beliefs about teaching, comparing and evaluating their own and others 'perceptions and developing the practice of reflection when group members are assigned broad perspective seems like winter (1994) statement about the term' case study 'cbl has been linked with the effective development of critical thinking, problem solving, clinical reasoning and analysisbased on dunne and brooks (2004) research results where case-based learning was also used to facilitate a model of self-directed and reflective learning that served students very well in future courses and careers. case-based learning through case studies facilitates students’ engagement and critical voice. based on findings, case-based learning facilitates students to think critically, analyse and act democratically the demands that teachers are able to teaching pedagogical practicethe learning effectively. so that the teaching given by the teacher is received by the students well and have same understanding about civics education such as influencing policy change in florida, tennessee and hawaii. although civics education takes place every day in homes and community centers, k-12 schools in the united states are in a unique position to nurture and reinforce the civic development of all young people (circle working paper, 2014:37) in pakistan, civics education is citizenship education that involves a wide range of different elements of learning including knowledge and understanding, skills and aptitudes and values and dispositions (khush, ajmal, fazalur and nabi,2011:42). . iwan muharji (2014) in his research shows civics and citizenship teaching in indonesia. students think creatively and critically about political and social issues. the students try to put the matters forward in classroom discussions relevant to the material covered in class. from that research conclude case-based learning in civics education can be used as a solution to encourage creativity, analysis and reflection by students. it has also been observed by winter and dunne that practical activities needed to be emphasized in order to have a senses of good citizenship among students. the result and discussion shows the case-based learning gives improvement in civics education especially for indonesia students. japar the understanding of civics education by applying an effective case-based learning curriculum in public junior secondary school. implementation of the five values of pancasila could be developed into civics education. once in a while, teaching and learning strategies can be disseminated. in addition, this study could guide teacher who are interested in changing the learning process for students, especially in the context of civics education. this study identified student perceptions about the interpersonal behavior of teachers as an important element in classroom practice. the conclusion that civics education through case-based learning has improved student engagement, their critical voice and has enabled the teachers to teaching pedagogical practice. in addition, cooperation between the school of education and culture in school can be achieved through case-based learning. the connection with the understanding of human rights needs to be improved in order to reduce bullying cases, especially in schools. case-based learning can become a model of learning that can be implemented by teachers in the learning process of civics education. based on the results, case-based learning can improve the teaching pedagogical and then the teachers can appreciative and respect the students as subjects of learning. then the teacher must build a conducive atmosphere in order to assist students in learningteacher should provide training on lessons concerned with human rights aspects. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 27-44 references branson, s., m.(1999).belajar civic education dari amerika.yogyakarta: lkis byron, m. g. (1970).the school in the political socialization of children youth.educational leadership 31-35 campbell, d. e., levinson, m., & hess, e .m. (2012).making civics count : citizenship education for a new generatiom.cambridge, ma: harvard education press cassidy, c., brunner, r., & webster, e. (2014).teaching human rights? “all hell will break loose!”.education, citizenship and social justice, 9(1),19–33. http://doi.org:10.1177/1746197913475768f connell, j. p. (1990).context, self and action: a motivational analysis of self-system processes accross the life-span.in d. cicchetti (ed.), the slef in transition: from infancy to childhood, 61-97.chicago: university of chicago press connell, j. p., & wellborn, j. g. (1991). competence, autonomy and relatedness: a motivational analysis of self-system processes. in m. gunnar & l. a. sroufe (eds.), minnesota symposium on child psychology: vol. 23. self processes in development (pp. 43–77). chicago, united state of america : university of chicago press dembour, m.-b. (2006). who believes in human rights? reflections on the european convention. new york, ny: cambridge university press. dunne, d. & brooks, k. (2004).teaching with cases.society for teaching and learning in higher education.green guide no.5.dalhousie university, halifax, nova scotia. fredricks, j. a., blumenfeld, p. c., & paris, a. h. (2004). school engagement: potential of the concept, state of the evidence. review of educational research, 74 (1), 59 –109 guess, k. a. (2014).methodology for case teaching : becoming a guide on the side.journal of accounting and finance 14(6), 113-126 gutmann, a. (1987).democratic education.princeton, new jersey: princeton university press hemphill,a. michael, k. richards,a r. . (2015).pre-sevice teacher perspectives of case-based learning in physical education teacher education.european physical education review 21(2), 432-450. http://doi.org: 10.1177/1356336x15579402 hina, k.,b., ajmal, m., rahman, f., & jumani, n., b.,.(2011). state of citizenship education: a case study from pakistan.international journal of humanities and social science 1 (2), 37-43 kolodner, j. l .(1991).improving human decision making through case-based decision aiding.artificial intellegence magazine, 12(2), 52-68 martoella, initials? (1994).elementary social studies: developing, reflective,competent and concerned citizen.boston toronto, canada: litle, brown and company. messina, c., & jacott, l. (2013). an exploratory study of human rights knowledge: a sample japar of kindergarten and elementary school pre-service teachers in spain. human rights review, 14, 213–230 mcdonnell, g. & denver, r a.(1999).antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action and resistance. clinical microbiology reviews, 12(1), 147-179 mclean, s. f. (2016).case-based learning and its application in medical and health-care fields: a review of worldwide literature.journal of medical education and curricular development. 3, 39-49.doi: 10.4137/jmecd.s20377 montgomery, j. (1998).making a city: urbanity vitality and urban design.journal of urban design, 3 (1), 93-116 muharji, i. (2014). civics and citizenship teaching in indonesia.ethos 22 (3), 34-37 nurhidayati., e.(2017). pedagogi konstruktivisme dalam praksis pendidikan indonesia .indnonesian journal of educational conseling.1 (1), 1-14 okafor, o. c., &agbakwa, s. c. (2001). re-imagining international human rights education in ourtime: beyond three constitutive orthodoxies. leiden journal of international law, 14, 563–590.http://doi.org:10.1017/s0922156501000280 osanloo, a. (2009). civic responsibility and human rights education : a pen educational alliance for social justice. intercultural education. 20(2), 151-159 http://doi.org:10.1080/14675980902922176 osler, a. & vincent, k. (2002). citizenship and the challenge of global education.stoke-ontrent:trentham otsu, k. (2000).civic education in japan : values promoted in the school curriculum. asia pacific journal of education, 20(1), 53-62. http:/ doi.org: 10.1080/0218879000200105 sherrod, l. r., flanagan, c. & youniss, j.(2002).dimensions of citizenship and opprtunities for youth development: the what, why, when, where, and who of citizenship development.applied developmental science, 6(4), 264-272 skinner, e. a., & belmont, m. j. (1993). motivation in the classroom: reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year. journal of educational psychology, 85, 571–581 soule, s.(2003). unity through diversity?. international conference on civics education research, november 16-18, new orleans. staff, c.(2014).civic education policy change: case studies of florida, tennessee, and hawai. the center for information and research on civic learning and engagement: tuft university steen, m.,v.,d.(2016). learning from experience: from case based learning teaching to experience-based learninf.teaching public administration 1-21, pages?? http://doi.org: 10.1177/0144739416670701 ubaedillah, a. (2017). civic education for muslim students in the era of democracy: journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 27-44 lessons learned from indonesia.institute on culture, religion & world affairsbook winter.(1994).teaching with case studies.speaking of teaching stanford university newslatter on teaching. yasemin, c d., & andre. t. (2013).examining preservice teacher’s decision behaviors and individual differences in three online case-based approaches. international journal of education research 58, 1-14 http://doi.org: 10.1016/j.ijer.2013.01.005 zembylas, m.(2015).pedagogy of discomfort and its ethical implications: the tensions of ethical violence in social justice education. journal ethics and education, 10(2), 163 174 http://doi.org: 10.1080/17449642.2015.1039274 zembylas, m., charalambous, c. & charalambous, p. (2016). teachers’ pedagogical perspective and teaching practices on human rights in cyprus: an empirical exploration and implication for human rights. pedagogical: an international journal 11(3), 197-217 http://doi.org/10.1080/1554480x.2016.1182436 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (1), 95-123 technology integrated on media literacy in economic studies on higher education saparuddin mukhtar1, k. y.s. putri2 abstract this study aims to analyze the technology integrated into media literacy in higher education. this research uses a qualitative approach. the type of case study in this research is explanatory. data collection was carried through interviews to analyze integrated technology to help students understand media literacy and student interest in using android-based applications. then, to identify the competency level of student media literacy and product feasibility using questionnaires data collection. researchers collaborated with 36 students of economic studies year 2017. this study shows that students can use technology in media literacy activities in development economics, but there was a problem in understanding the context and content. after introducing the android economic development application (eda), students can improve their media literacy understanding. the eda application is feasible to use with a percentage of 79.96% and easy-touse. students' media literacy competency level also increased from 28% to 69% at the medium level. the eda application makes it easy for students to get information about the meaning, characteristics, competence, and media literacy level. this study shows that this application effectively improves students' critical thinking skills in the learning process. however, media literacy activists also need to encourage media literacy activities to passively refrain from spreading fake news and actively spreading media literacy awareness. the application of eda is expected to guide students in facing the digital economy. keywords: technology, media literacy, economic studies . introduction currently, the world economy has undergone a process of transformation (pérez-escoda et al., 2017). therefore, the students in higher education can find the change in the development of the digital economy. according to foster (2020), the digital economy is an economic praxis based on acculturation between digital technology and the financial system. economic studies have a role in directing students to improve their understanding of digital technology through media literacy. mcanulty (2020) explains that media literacy can help find the information needed quickly, easily, and relevant. when the economy is integrated with a technological system, the economic process takes place faster and has a broad reach (graham, hjorth, & lehdonvirta, 2017). it is challenging 1 dr., universitas negeri jakarta, saparuddin@unj.ac.id 2 dr., universitas negeri jakarta, kinkinsubarsa@unj.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 for students of economic studies in higher education to face technology in the economic area (ansong & boateng, 2019). in the digital economy, the layers of consumers in carrying out consumption activities are students. students can consume irrationally and tend to have consumptive behavior for students (gazzola, et al., 2020). therefore, economics in higher education provides an overview of allocating resources optimally and provides insight into socioeconomic development issues (novo-corti, et al., 2018). likewise, students need to understand media literacy in sorting information from a social, educational, and economic perspective (akinbadewa & sofowora, 2020; kapel & schmidt, 2018). according to martzoukou et al. (2020), higher education students should have digital competencies for learning and everyday life online participation. therefore, technological developments must be followed by media literacy skills to change various forms of economic activity fundamentally by students. this change is marked by the transition of economic activity patterns from conventional to systemised patterns utilising technology in networks (aslan, 2021; bergeson & rosheim, 2018; dittmar & eilks, 2019; johnson & westbrooks, 2021; leung & cossu, 2019). with social media exposure, technological developments, and mass media, media literacy becomes strategic learning to protect students in managing information. the study of alzou'bi (2020) revealed that the impact of media literacy is that students can improve critical thinking skills. datu et al. (2021) offer preliminary evidence to enhance students' literacy media skills through a kindness curriculum. meanwhile, gordon et al. (2020) explained that to reduce social media's negative impact, they using an rct design through social media programs. on the other hand, chen et al. (2018) suggested to set the norm for new media literacy can be done by large-scale research conducted in singaporean schools. based on several previous studies, there is still no development of a particular application made for media literacy with integrated technology. in addition, britain, the united states, australia, and canada promulgate media literacy into education by the formal school curriculum (olagbaju & popoola, 2020; weninger, hu, & choo, 2017). students become individuals who understand, have extensive knowledge, can analyse, assess, and can have a critical opinion on the information or media messages that we get (athique, 2020; marques & xavier, 2021; olmos perez, 2019;). morales et al. (2020) study improve the learning process, and lecturers preparing innovative learning are very good for the learning process. according to lestari, maksum, and kustandi mukhtar &putri 97 (2019), creative knowledge can be useful for higher education students using an android-based application as a learning tool. thus, in this study, technology integrated into media literacy can help students increase their knowledge. tagg and seargeant (2019) show that literacy will encourage students to think further about the information contained in social media and mass media. for this reason, media literacy is useful in understanding sources and technology for students. higher education students need to be active in the learning process to need an appropriate learning model (loh & ang, 2020; susanto, hobri, & nugrahaningsih, 2021). learning media literacy helps students produce and select information to change higher education students more active in the learning process (turunen, 2019; xie, gai, & zhou, 2019). media literacy leads to social media and android technology, which can be more specified in digital literacy, a derivative of broader media literacy (marfil-carmona & chacón, 2017). therefore, in higher education, media literacy training is needed to exercise a critical attitude in responding to any information and interactions (guo & huang, 2020). students need to provide education regarding the rules and ways they use social media in everyday life (polizzi, 2020). the goal is to find out whether the content of the news has balanced information or not. concerning economic education, media literacy material is important to enter the learning process. media literacy can become knowledge for students in facing the digital economy. in addition, an important result of higher education is that students can think critically. according to gao (2020), improving students' critical thinking can be done through online learning on media literacy. likewise, elder-vass (2018) suggested that the best practice to change student behavior in media literacy by technology integration. therefore, in this study, our research focused on understanding economic education students' media literacy after using android-based applications. on the other hand, this research also identifies media literacy in economic studies and media literacy in higher education. literature review the existence of media literacy in economic studies in economic studies, students learn about digital economy development is marked by trade transactions using the internet as a communication medium. it can also collaborate and cooperate between companies and individuals through communication media (elder-vass, 2018). therefore, it has an impact on student digital skills. evans (2015) explained that economic literacy needs to journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 instill and nurture from an early age because economic literacy does not arise automatically except for strongly influenced by others. students can also recognize and use economic concepts and economic thinking to improve and gain prosperity (happ, et al., 2016). economic literacy is a life skill that students must possess to help them make the right economic decisions. therefore, economic literacy must be accompanied by media literacy (oleabhiele & ede, 2020). media is not only just existed but created with a specific purpose. mass media and students relationship is built by media messages, while they have their characteristics (neuner, soroka, & wlezien, 2019). the mass media provides information and entertainment and invites students to change behaviour (joseph, 2014). the media messages look very attractive for students in understanding media literacy through various distinctive and unique media content. framing messages through text, images, and sound is a media activity to influence student thoughts and feelings (tsuriel, et al., 2019). lack of media literacy can pose a danger to society if students are not well equipped to evaluate and analyse the endless stream of media messages they receive (white, 2020). in economic studies, media literacy aims to help students have sufficient knowledge and understanding of media content to control media influence in their lives (chan-olmsted & su, 2017). based on allen et al. (2015), media literacy is useful for protecting vulnerable and weak students from the impact of media penetration of new media culture. therefore, there is the existence of media literacy in economic studies. sohn (2019) suggested that media literacy using technology aims to produce students who are well informed and can make judgments on media content based on their knowledge and understanding of the media in question (müller, 2020). besides that, media literacy shows the method and level of a student using mass media in his daily life provides forms of communication media content with various kinds of knowledge that have been structured (livingstone, 2015). in the meaning of communication, media literacy shapes cultural content in cross-cultural communication (gallardo-echenique, et al., 2015). ashley (2015) also explains that media literacy provides a basic foundation in many cases, and then it is beneficial in the learning process in the classroom (vraga & tully, 2016). on the other side, vraga and tully (2017) explained that technological advancement promoted mass media development into social media and affected students' media literacy skills. social media is one of the internet services most used by internet users today (mccaughey et al., 2014). the ease of interacting and disseminating information is the main attraction of social media. mukhtar &putri 99 students who use social media need to create an information and knowledge-based society through media literacy (vanwynsberghe, et al., 2015). vlieghe, vandermeersche, and soetaert (2014) explained that social media literacy is needed to understand literacy. this effort is carried out by integrating information technology as a form of social media literacy education. based on kurilovas and kubilinskiene (2020) research results, students are highly motivated by technology and show great interest in media literacy. therefore, researchers aim to develop mobile-based applications to improve student media literacy in higher education. media literacy in higher education jindal (2020) shows that there is a positive influence of new media in education on students. in higher education, media literacy is combined with communicative competence, which is seen as the ability to question media coverage in a critical way (kiviluoto, 2015). meanwhile, media use is carried out to communicate their position (weedon & knight, 2015). student participation in opinion-making can be done via social media, which is used as a decision-making process for current policies (grgurina, et al., 2011; chu & lee, 2014). on the other hand, media literacy also encourages students to be more reflective about the ethical choices they make as communicators(reyna, et al., 2018; white, 2020). based on zhu et al. (2020), literacy media education contributes to tertiary institutions' students' personality development. the media provide space to experience and test various life processes. oomen-early and early (2015) explained that in the current millennial era using new media as learning media must be based on students' media literacy competencies. higher education contributes to literacy media education by using content and skills and practically supporting their personal information, mostly in knowledge and awareness on social media (romero walker, 2020). global educators need to encourage critical media literacy by analysing coded messages in resources (harshman, 2017). the current generation must develop media literacy because they are accustomed to using smartphones(gallardo-echenique et al., 2015). media literacy is a dynamically developing concept (shaimardanova, et al., 2020). therefore, the interpretation is strongly influenced by cultural and technological changes. media literacy is a new way to transfer knowledge by combining traditional concepts with technology (kalimullina et al. 2021; pfaff-rüdiger & riesmeyer, 2016). in line with alshrooqi and rawadieh (2017), media literacy can access, understand, and create communication between students in various contexts. new digital cultural norms are increasingly journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 emerging and question the relevance of old approaches to media literacy pedagogy and practice(mihailidis, 2018). one of the methods developed by mihailidis (2015) is determined by the access that includes users of digital media devices and carrying out their tasks creatively, especially using social networking sites. the portability of devices connected to the internet allows use anytime and anywhere, which offers tremendous potential in reaching students with quality learning opportunities (dezuanni, 2018). the context of intensive use of devices connected to android-based applications plays an important role in student development and learning in literacy opportunities (schreurs & vandenbosch, 2020). android is built to be completely open so that an application can call one of a cellphone's core functions such as making calls, sending text messages, using the camera, and others (zhao, et al., 2017). android uses a virtual machine specifically designed to optimise its memory and hardware resources according to students' characteristics (saudagar & mohammad, 2018). android is open source, can be freely extended to include new, more advanced technologies as they emerge(papadakis, et al., 2017). for this reason, in this study, we use android as a media literacy learning media tool for economic education students. this platform will continue to evolve to build innovative mobile applications. researchers develop android applications using the android software development kit (sdk) (abdalla, et al., 2012), providing the tools and application programming interface (api) needed to start developing applications on the android platform. especially, increasing the competency level of media literacy and critical thinking of economic education students face the digital economy. although there are many studies on media literacy in education, very few studies have integrated technology-related media literacy interventions in universities. thus, this study seeks to assist academics in developing innovative learning in media literacy learning. method research design this study uses a qualitative approach using a case study research type (creswell, 2017). the type of case study in this research is explanatory, developed by yin (2011). this research leads more to the use of case studies, historical and experimental strategies. the focus of this research is the ability of students to access and understand information. then communicate this information into social media. the study aims to analyse media literacy in economic studies students through integrated technology based on android. it is done to collect detailed information related to mukhtar &putri 101 students' media literacy competencies using android application-based programs. because basically, this research leads to the question, (1) how integrated technology helps students understand media literacy; (2) how is the level of media literacy competence in economic education students? and (3) why students of economic education are more interested in using applications during the media literacy learning process?. the qualitative approach is applied to the design of case studies in-depth analyzed both in terms of the case itself, risk factors, influencing, events related to the case, and actions and reactions of cases to a particular treatment or exposure— the location of this research at the state university of jakarta, jakarta, indonesia. we have carried out this study from january to december 2020. participants in this study, the integrated technology analyses on media literacy in economic studies on higher education collaborated with 36 students of economic studies at the state university of jakarta. there are no fixed rules about the minimum number of participants (twining, heller, nussbaum, & tsai, 2017). it is because the participants were chosen not randomly but based on considerations according to the research needs. therefore, this study used the purposive sampling technique (aldhafeeri & khan, 2016). the number of participants in this study was not large because the participant used was through purposive sampling technique with the criteria as follows: (1) students of class 2017 were studying development economics at the state university of jakarta, (2) had a smartphone, and (3) actively used social media. to maintain the code of ethics of participants, the names of students using code s-1 to s-36 with the following data: table 1 the characteristic of participants gender no gender frequency percentage 1 man 13 36% 2 women 23 64% total 36 100% source: (research document, 2020) table 1 shows that 64% of the female participant is much more than the male. the total number of women students is more than the man in economic education. table 2 the characteristic of participants age journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 no age frequency percentage 1 18 7 20% 2 19 21 58% 3 20 8 22% total 36 100% source: (research document, 2020) table 2 shows that the participants' ages were 18, 19, and 20 years—the largest number of participants aged 21 years at 58%. table 3 the participants knowledge of it no categories frequency percentage 1 advanced 2 medium 10 28% 3 basic 26 72% total 36 100% source: (research document, 2020) table 3 shows that the students' knowledge of it has a set of abilities that allows basic use of the media. the student knows about the basic function and uses it for specific ends to determine the tool. the characteristics in table 3 are based on the level of media literacy of table 9. table 3 shows that students have a percentage of 72% on the basic level greater than the medium category. table 4 the participants actively used social media no actively used social media frequency percentage 1 instagram 15 42% 2 facebook 5 14% 3 twitter 2 5% 4 youtube 14 39% total 36 100% source: (research document, 2020) referring to table 4 shows that the social media often used by students is instagram. it is in line with the students' it abilities that they have abilities that allow the media basic use. research instruments mukhtar &putri 103 the following are the research instruments used by researchers to identify integrated technologyrelated media literacy interventions in universities: table 5 interview guidelines no. aspect indicator 1. access (evaluate and use technology; use electronic program guides; access, store, retrieve content and services; search for learning materials effectively and safely) use navigate manage 2. understanding (understand the context and motivation of the media; understand the information following the learning material; have a quality viewpoint; evaluate information about the media and services offered) read deconstruct evaluate 3. create (use technology to search for learning materials and communicate information and opinions; post on social media; use social media responsibly and ethically) produce distribute publish source: (pfaff-rüdiger & riesmeyer, 2016) table 6 questionnaire instruments no. aspect indicator number 1 layout design text 1,2 layout colour 3,4 figure 5,6 animation 7,8 sounds 9,10 2 navigation navigation effectivity 11,12 navigation form 13,14 3 material usability learn to be independent 15,16 ease of learning 17,18 source:(kustandi, wargahadibrata, fadhillah, & suprayekti, 2020) this dimensional questionnaire was conducted to analyze students' literacy levels after using the eda application as a learning resource. it is important to do to develop students' abilities in understanding media literacy. the distribution of this questionnaire was carried out through the literacy level dimensions from vauutur (2019) in table 7, as follows: table 7 literacy level dimensions no. dimensi indicator number 1 technical skills media used 1,2 reading print or online newspapers 3 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 using the internet 4,5 sending e-mail with attached files 6,7 using the internet to find the information 8,9 using peer-to-peer file sharing 10 creating a web page for the task 11 2 critical understanding trust of information that is presented by media sources 12,13 awareness of information that is presented by media sources 14,15 awareness of the influence of advertising 16 knowledge of media regulations 17,18 ability to identify options for gathering information 19,20 comparision of information accros sources 21 3 communicative abilities engagement with public debate 22 social networking online 23 collaborating online on a joint project 24 source: (vautour, 2019) data collection this research type of case study is explanatorily by yin (2011). so this research leads to the use of case studies, historical and experimental strategies. researchers used a structured question model that participants had to answer themselves to determine the level of media literacy before and after using the developed application (gray & downer, 2020). therefore, data collection through interviews was carried out through the interview guidelines in table 5 (creswell, 2017). a recording device is used to record conversations during interviews. interviews were conducted before participants used android-based applications in the learning process of economic development. during the interviews, the participants were motivated and encouraged to speak freely about their media literacy understanding. interviews were conducted for 30 to 45 minutes. after that, the researchers provided information on using the eda application in the development economics learning process. students used the eda application to look for information in the learning process. after collecting data through interviews, the researcher distributed a questionnaire as a student assessment of the use of the eda application. collecting data through this questionnaire is an experimental strategy conducted by researchers to see the product's feasibility. this activity is a series of case study elaboration with explanatory type. therefore table 6 shows the questionnaire instrument that was given to participants after using the eda application. this activity is a series of case study elaboration with explanatory type. fortier et al. (2020) explain that it can be done to identify and explore the media literacy research topic's aspects through the questionnaire method. therefore, the researcher collected data through the mukhtar &putri 105 questionnaire method to give students the freedom to assess the eda application's feasibility based on the questionnaire instrument in table 6. the researcher used a likert scale with a range of 1-5. starting from unfeasible to highly feasible. after the students filled out a questionnaire related to the eda application's feasibility, the researcher analyzed the dimensions of participants' literacy levels trustworthiness of data to find the trustworthiness of the data, the researcher applied triangulation. triangulation in credibility testing is defined as checking data from various sources in various ways and times (twining et al., 2017). thus, there is a triangulation of sources, triangulation of data collection techniques, and time. the source triangulation is used to check data about its validity, comparing the interviews with document contents by utilizing various information data for consideration (yin, 2011). one of the triangulation used was conducting interviews with participants to check the validity of the data. then give questions about student interest in economic education in using applications during the media literacy learning process. data analysis this study uses data analysis on the results of interviews using data reduction. the reduction was carried out from the time the data was collected, starting with summarizing the students' media literacy skills, exploring themes, and writing memos to set aside irrelevant data, then data verified. the qualitative data presentation is presented in the narrative text to be designed to combine information arranged in a coherent and easily understood form. the researcher analyzes the results of the eda feasibility questionnaire using the following qualifications: scores (∑) with the total ideal score (n) the validation criteria used in the validity of media research are presented in table 8. table 8 the percentage of media feasibility journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 no achievement level qualification 1 81-100% highly feasible 2 61-80% feasible 3 41-60% moderately feasible 4 21-40% less feasible 5 <20% unfeasible based on the results of the questionnaire in table 8, student points are calculated and added up. the sum is adjusted to the score and level in table 9, as follows: table 9 level media literacy level definition score basic  the student has a set of abilities that allows basic use of the media. there is limited use of media.  the student knows about the basic function and uses it for specific ends to determine the tool. 70-116 medium  students can use media and know its function. also, students know how to get and assess the information they need.  students can carry out evaluations in information seeking strategies 117-232 advanced  students are very active in using media. besides that, they have in-depth knowledge of techniques and languages  students can analyse conditions that affect their communicative relationships 233-350 source: (festl, 2020). findings the level of media literacy competence in economic education students individual competence is a person's ability to use and utilise media(aguaded-gómez, tiradomorueta, & hernando-gómez, 2015). social competence consists of communicative skills, namely communication skills and participation through the media(swarts, 2020). this study analyses the extent to which students' understanding of media literacy in the learning process takes place. thus, the results of the interview show communication skills and student participation. in mukhtar &putri 107 addition, communicative skills also include the ability to create and produce media content (alagözlü, koban koç, ergül, & bağatur, 2019). it was done to provide a variety of instruments and to carry different indicators. due to the conditions of the covid-19 pandemic, interviews were conducted using health protocols, which is to divide the interview into two stages with five students at each stage. researchers conducted interviews related to student access as in data (1): (1) during the learning process, i used google to search for material (s-3, 2020). data obtained via the internet will be immediately accessed and stored as a learning resource. even though i had difficulty finding learning materials because of the lack of keywords to write (s-5, 2020). the variety of information available in digital technology provides its difficulties when understanding the content. like when looking for an understanding of development economics, google searches from the web, and online news has the same information (s-6, 2020). when i search for learning materials, i usually use google scholar. it can help me understand information related to economic development (s-8,2020). i can also access information related to learning materials related to economic development through e-learning provided by the university. however, e-learning often has problems when opened via smartphone (s-10, 2020). usually, i use smartphone technology to looking for learning materials related to economic development. because it is easy to use and effective (s-9,2020). when storing data related to learning materials through social media, i usually do a screenshot via a mobile phone. because it can be read back. but if the data is in pdf form, i save it in the mobile phone memory (s-4, 2020). even though the learning materials are easy to find via the internet, the content is difficult to understand because of various information and data sources. so it requires filtering to sort out the correct and incorrect information (s-7, 2020) data (1) shows that in media literacy activities in development economics, students can use technology but still experience problems understanding the context and content. as seen in data (2), students should complete the technology integrated into media literacy in economic studies. students emphasise that technology plays a key role. (2) becoming an economic study student has a big challenge related to technological developments and economic activity changes. using technology during the learning process helps students evaluate information. (s-1,2020). the lack of guidance about analysis, evaluation, and finding essential points from the data obtained makes students difficult in the learning process (s-6, 2020). economy development material is closely related to the digital economy. the lack of understanding regarding media literacy makes it difficult for me to understand the material (s-7, 2020). reading information via the internet is very easy to understand; it's just that it is difficult to evaluate information, especially through social media (s-10, 2020). lack of understanding of media literacy makes me less consistent in the statement's quality of viewpoints (s-4, 2020). the lack of media literacy leads to easily accessible information, making me quickly take a stand without conducting in-depth analysis and evaluation (s-9, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 the understanding aspect of the interview results shows: (3) through media that the internet can access, i understand a little about the information's context, but i do not fully understand it. it is because it is difficult to analyse information without guidance (s-7, 2020). usually, i read the information directly from the internet without doing an evaluation. also, getting information from social media is limited to reading (s-8, 2020). when looking for information, i did not immediately post or disseminate it but did the analysis first. (s-9, 2020). if this information is of interest to me, i will share it through social media without analysis (s-10, 2020). i rarely post information related to learning materials through social media. i usually use social media to post quotes about life (s-5, 2020). data (3) suggest that students searched for information, but not all of them conducted evaluations. students also do not post directly. on the other hand, some students disseminate information without conducting assessments. based on these three data in general, according to pfaff-rüdiger & riesmeyer (2016), show that students can use technology, understand the context of information, and post the information they get. it is just that there are still obstacles in evaluating the information obtained. the application of literacy media feasibility using android technology how can integrated technology help students understand media literacy? based on the findings to help students in economic studies understand media literacy, we introduce the eda (economic development application) application. based on the results of interviews data (1), (2), and (3), the purpose of media literacy is so that students can understand and know media content, media effects, and the media industry (carver, wiese, & breivik, 2014). therefore, ways to improve media literacy understanding are using technology. developing media literacy skills also makes students better understand which information needs are appropriate (rhinesmith & stanton, 2018). based on data (2), researchers made mobile learning products to instill media literacy competencies in students. the process of making this android-based media uses three steps, namely creating a design using coreldraw x8. then change it using the ispring software and make android-based applications using the software development kit (sdk). figure 1 shows a picture of an application called eda (economic development application). mukhtar &putri 109 figure 1. eda menu source: (research document, 2020) the application of eda has been tested by material experts and media experts using due diligence instruments. the trial results show that 81% state that eda is suitable for students as a media literacy tool in development economics courses. thus, researchers introduced eda as a learning tool that could improve students' media literacy. in the development economics learning process, students are directed to open the eda application. in this application, students find the eda menu, namely economic development, which provides information related to the notion of economic development and economics. next up is the economic news. students can conduct analyses related to economic development materials through the latest news. so that students are directed to use media and know its function. also, students know how to get and assess the information they need—especially information related to learning economic development. to improve students' media literacy, researchers added information about the meaning, characteristics, competence, and media literacy level. in addition, to help students understand media literacy and make them active, this application is also equipped with events. the menu helps students find part-time jobs and informs news containing hoaxes by contacting our menu. the development of the eda application is in line with park and burford (2013) research that new digital devices can increase media literacy in table 11. to see the student's response to the eda application, the researcher conducted a data analysis based on the results of a validated product feasibility questionnaire following table 8. students responded to the questionnaire designed by the researcher using a 5-point scale. the results of the eda application due diligence are as follows: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 table 10 the results of product feasibility no aspect percentage category 1 layout design 79,10% feasible 2 navigation 78,90% feasible 3 material usability 81,90% highly feasible total 79,96% feasible source: (research document, 2020) table 10 shows that the application of eda is considered feasible to increase media literacy. in the material aspect, usability received the highest percentage of 81.90% in the highest feasible category. the triangulation is used to check data about its validity, comparing the interviews' results using various information data sources for consideration. in this case, the writer compares the data from the feasibility of the interview. also, researchers ask students how their experience was learning media literacy through the eda application? it is very interesting to learn through the eda application. the application made me understand more about media literacy. (s-1, 2020). eda application can also analyse the latest news related to economic development. (s-3, 2020). the application is easy-to-use in the learning process and more enjoyable. the application also provides students with the opportunity to explore. (s-5, 2020). eda not the only application of development economic learning materials but also guides how to access, evaluate, and communicate the information obtained. the sources are obtained through news menus, galleries, and also media literacy. eda application helps students in economic studies to understanding economic development, especially in the field of the digital economy (s-7, 2020) the results of the comparisons conducted by researchers were not significant. instead, students gave a positive response to the use of the eda application as a learning medium. besides that, they can understand deeply about media literacy. the interview results show that technology integration using cell phones supports learning, which can be used as a learning resource (andrews, dyson, & wishart, 2015). it is shown by the response of the s-7 eda application helps students in economic studies understand economic development, especially in the digital economy. so those students are directed to how to get and assess the information they need. then, students are invited to be active in using media. therefore, information literacy is critical in improving student learning success (whitworth, mcindoe, & whitworth, 2011). why are students of economic education more interested in using applications during the media literacy learning process? based on table 10, the eda application is easy to use. besides that, the design used in mukhtar &putri 111 the eda application also makes students interested. the application also provides students with the opportunity to explore more information. to verify the research findings, the researcher realizes that we must use an ethical perspective in looking for meaning. therefore, researchers verified economic development lecturers. the eda application can help students and lecture to understand media literacy. so they can analyse and evaluate the information. besides that, the design of the eda application is also very interesting. (lecture, 2020). the lecturer's statement shows that the eda application can help the student learning process. it provides understanding to students related to media literacy. to see the effectiveness of integrated technology on student literacy in economic education, the following are the results of the questionnaire: table 11 the result of media literacy competency level scores interval categories before using the application using the application frequency % frequency % 233 – 350 advanced 0 0% 5 14% 117 – 232 medium 10 28% 25 69% 70 – 116 basic 26 72% 6 17% total 36 100% 36 100% source: (research document, 2020) table 11 shows an increase in media literacy competence in students of economic studies study programs. it is shown that economic studies students have a literacy dimension at the medium level, with 69%. overall, students can use media and know its function. also, students learn how to get and assess the information they need. students can carry out evaluations in informationseeking strategies. the increase in media literacy competence was seen in the advanced category by 14% after using the eda application. it is shown that five students are very active in using media. students can analyse conditions that affect their communicative relationships. it is in line with the results of a study from havelka (2013), which explains that media literacy via mobile supports students' learning process. because with integrated technology, students can develop dimension-level literacy, such as technical skills, critical understanding, and communicative abilities(vautour, 2019). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 discussion through the lens, the research findings reflect integrated technology that can make it easier for students to improve media literacy. media literacy is needed as a tool to protect oneself from media exposure. the study results answered research questions about how to understand media literacy through integrated technology in higher education. in the technological era, the use of smartphones is increasing. therefore, the learning process for students needs to be improved with integrated technology. the research of gallardo-echenique et al. (2015) explained that digital competence and digital literacy could be identified only by the diversity of theories and literature. however, this research shows that students must also actively use the media and be directed through tools such as mobile-based applications. thus, they can carry out information analysis and can carry out evaluations in information-seeking strategies. this research collaborates with students included in generation z. this generation was influenced by technology and social media. one way to improve understanding of media literacy with online media is applications that are easily accessible via smartphones. research by chu and lee (2013) carried out media education through the media organization media literacy (moml) use. so that media literacy education is offered through social processes or direct interaction through an organizational institution. it is just that not all students can participate in these activities, and there is commercialism. whereas in this study, the media used were easy to find and free. students only need an internet connection to access the eda application. the existence of eda as an integrated technology in media literacy for students in economic subjects is considered feasible. of the three aspects of using the eda application, the material usability aspect received the highest percentage, namely 81.90%. according to the students' responses that the eda application is easy to use. therefore, this study shows that cellular learning is considered the usefulness of material as a tool to increase media literacy. meanwhile, ashley (2015) study shows no clear method for selecting learning content in media literacy education. media literacy is only the focus of the original research article, and the segment is not that broad. meanwhile, the eda application can help students improve self-guided inquiry. the media literacy menu provided is general, not only focusing on the political and economic context. besides that, this research also shows that media literacy can improve through mobilebased applications in addition to media textbooks from alshorooqi and rawadieh. thus, literacy skills do not appear automatically, but a process is needed. mukhtar &putri 113 researchers use this process to invite students to have attitudes in using technology. because technological advances encourage the improvement of education quality, especially in educational institutions (budiharso & tarman, 2020), this study integrated technology development can encourage student motivation to use media for the learning process. thus, students can analyze conditions that affect their communicative relationships in the class. these study results are in line with lee (2016), who shows that students can be more active in exploring learning by using technology. the study of lee (2016) has not made precise what technology was used because laptops and ipads cannot be adequately maximized if there is no clear media literacy education guide. at the same time, this research describes the improvement of students' literacy competencies through media devices. the new media tools described in the study increase students' independence and adaptability in a better direction. therefore, android-based technology affects the learning process. on the other hand, this study develops android applications and provides materials to students to instill media literacy. students have real skills in reading and writing contexts obtained by android-based applications. before students used this application, there were no students who got the advanced category. however, after understanding media literacy through integrated technology based on android, the percentage increased to 14%. of the 36 students, 5 of them can analyze conditions that affect their communicative relationships. thus, information literacy importance raises a new awareness that has driven many information professionals and organizations supporting them to compete in providing the most appropriate definition of information literacy(pérez-escoda et al., 2017). this shows that online practice helps the development of student media literacy. thus, the eda application information disclosure to cultivate economic studies in media literacy can be sharpened more than using textbooks. although reyna, hanham, and meier (2018) consider that to teach media literacy, there are conceptual, functional, and audiovisual domains. on the other hand, this research also includes all three and can train students' critical behavior in analyzing information. the 21st-century learning framework that prioritizes innovative learning makes this research a learning medium for students and becomes a tool in developing media literacy. the movement of media literacy to education is important because millennial generation students are in the era of technology and information. therefore, researchers use the eda application as a learning medium tailored to the current educational conditions. in the eda application, researchers provide students journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 with several internet ethics points as part of their responsibility to protect themselves from the media's bad influence. economic development learning materials understand digital development and hone students' media literacy competencies to recognize and use economic concepts and economic thinking to improve and gain prosperity. apart from sorting information, the eda application is also a means for students to make the right economic decisions. therefore, economic literacy must be accompanied by media literacy. learning media aids such as the application of eda integrated into media literacy can encourage critical media literacy through an evaluation that aims to obtain information about the success rate and implementation of literacy activities in universities. through media literacy, students can absorb knowledge and explore the world that is beneficial for their lives. thus, students can improve their critical thinking skills in the learning process. to integrate technology into media literacy education in learning economic development, you can use android-based smartphone applications. although there have been several media literacy education models, the novelty in this study is android-based applications. besides that, the eda application's presence motivates students to continue innovating and analyzing information, so they can't get caught up in hoax news. students use technology to copy and paste material and are also able to evaluate and be responsible conclusion advances in technology encourage educational institutions to improve the quality of learning. the need for media literacy in students is important as a solution to increase the level of literacy competence. students can not only access information but also understand and communicate it well. this study concluded that students' understanding of media literacy in learning economics has different levels ranging from basic, medium to advanced. integrated technology in media literacy education makes it easy for students to analyze information. even before using androidbased applications, students could use technology but still experienced problems in context and content. thus, the current research study analyzes the implications of integrated android-based technology to instill media literacy in economic studies students at the state university of jakarta. identification is carried out using an instrument of media literacy level, the media's feasibility, and the percentage is determined and calculated appropriately. based on the presentation in the results and discussion section, there was an increase in student media literacy in learning economics through android-based applications. media literacy is one mukhtar &putri 115 of the skills that students must-have in the current era of information technology. some students notice it and try to learn this skill independently by reading a lot. however, media literacy activists also need to encourage media literacy activities to passively refrain from spreading fake news and actively spreading media literacy awareness. research that combines media and digital literacy with other variables is still scarce. therefore, the researcher suggests that further research may involve other variables to enrich the study of media literacy and integrated technology. the method used in conducting media research and digital literacy is relatively uniform, namely descriptive qualitative. this choice impacts the results that do not explain in depth the phenomenon of media literacy among university students in indonesia. with the minimum variety of methods used in media literacy research, the researcher suggests that further research can use mixed methods research to enrich the results and represent the field's reality. researchers also suggest that further research should be carried out with many samples and more diverse sample characteristics. references abdalla, h., soares martins, a. j., garrosini, d., & maolinaro, l. f. (2012). experiences of applying a "blended" learning approach to client-based student projects. international journal of electrical engineering education, 49(2), 170–176. aguaded-gómez, i., tirado-morueta, r., & hernando-gómez, á. (2015). media competence in adult citizens in andalusia, spain. information communication and society, 18(6), 659– 679. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2014.985244 akinbadewa, b. o., & sofowora, o. a. (2020). the effectiveness of multimedia instructional learning packages in enhancing secondary school students’ attitudes toward biology. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 2(2), 119-133. al-zou'bi, r. (2020). the impact of media and information literacy on acquiring the critical thinking skill by the educational faculty's students. thinking skills and creativity. alagözlü, n., koban koç, d., ergül, h., & bağatur, s. (2019). news media literacy skills and violence against women in news reporting in turkey: instrument development and testing. gender, technology and development, 23(3), 293–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2019.1672296 aldhafeeri, f. m., & khan, b. h. (2016). teachers' and students' views on e-learning readiness in kuwait's secondary public schools. journal of educational technology systems, 45(2), 202–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239516646747 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 allen, j. a., duke, j. c., davis, k. c., kim, a. e., nonnemaker, j. m., & farrelly, m. c. (2015). using mass media campaigns to reduce youth tobacco use: a review. american journal of health promotion, 30(2), e71–e82. https://doi.org/10.4278/ajhp.130510-lit-237 alshorooqi, f., & rawadieh, s. m. (2017). media implications in bahrain's textbooks in light of unesco's media literacy principles. journal of social studies education research, 8(3), 259–281. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.57230 andrews, t., dyson, l. e., & wishart, j. (2015). advancing ethics frameworks and scenariobased learning to support educational research into mobile learning. international journal of research and method in education, 38(3), 320–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727x.2015.1026252 ansong, e., & boateng, r. (2019). surviving in the digital era – business models of digital enterprises in a developing economy. digital policy, regulation and governance , 21(2), 164–178. https://doi.org/10.1108/dprg-08-2018-0046 ashley, s. (2015). media literacy in action? what are we teaching in introductory college media studies courses? journalism and mass communication educator, 70(2), 161–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695815572191 aslan, s. (2021). analysis of digital literacy self-efficacy levels of pre-service teachers. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 4(1), 57-67. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijte.47 athique, a. (2020). integrated commodities in the digital economy. media, culture and society, 42(4), 554–570. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443719861815 bergeson, k. & rosheim, k. (2018). literacy, equity, and the employment of ipads in the classroom: a comparison of secure and developing readers. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 6(2), 173-181. doi:10.18404/ijemst.408940 budiharso, t., & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 carver, r. b., wiese, e. f., & breivik, j. (2014). frame analysis in science education: a classroom activity for promoting media literacy and learning about genetic causation. international journal of science education, part b: communication and public engagement, 4(3), 211–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/21548455.2013.797128 chan-olmsted, s. m., & su, l. (2017). relationship between advertising and consumption in china: exploring the roles of economic development and mass media. global media and china, 2(3–4), 232–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/2059436417744368 mukhtar &putri 117 chen, d. t., lin, t. bin, li, j. y., & lee, l. (2018). establishing the norm of new media literacy of singaporean students: implications to policy and pedagogy. computers and education, 124, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.04.010 chu, d., & lee, a. y. l. (2013). media education initiatives by media organizations: the uses of media literacy in hong kong media. journalism and mass communication educator, 69(2), 127–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695813517884 creswell, j. (2017). research design, qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (fourth). sage publication. datu, j. a. d., ping wong, g. s., & rubie-davies, c. (2021). can kindness promote media literacy skills, self-esteem, and social self-efficacy among selected female secondary school students? an intervention study. computers and education, 161(october 2020), 104062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104062 dezuanni, m. (2018). minecraft and children's digital making: implications for media literacy education. learning, media and technology, 43(3), 236–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2018.1472607 dittmar, j. & eilks, i. (2019). an interview study of german teachers’ views on the implementation of digital media education by focusing on internet forums in the science classroom. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 7(4), 367-381. elder-vass, d. (2018). moral economies of the digital. european journal of social theory, 21(2), 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431017734165 festl, r. (2020). social media literacy & adolescent social online behavior in germany. journal of children and media, 0(0), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1770110 fortier, j., stewart-tufescu, a., salmon, s., garces davila, i., macmillan, h. l., gonzalez, a., … afifi, t. o. (2020). what type of survey research questions are identified by adults as upsetting? a focus on child maltreatment. child abuse and neglect, 109(may), 104764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104764 foster, c. (2020). research agendas for the digital economy. sociology, 54(5), 1041–1046. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038520932747 gallardo-echenique, e. e., de oliveira, j. m., marqués, l., & esteve-mon, f. (2015). digital competence in the knowledge society. journal of online learning and teaching, 11(1), 1. gao, q. (2020). professional development and ict literacy of college teachers based on fpga and image target recognition education. microprocessors and microsystems, (september), 103349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpro.2020.103349 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 gazzola, p., grechi, d., papagiannis, f., & marrapodi, c. (2020). the sharing economy in a digital society: youth consumer behavior in italy. kybernetes. https://doi.org/10.1108/k-122019-0796 gordon, c. s., rodgers, r. f., slater, a. e., mclean, s. a., jarman, h. k., & paxton, s. j. (2020). a cluster randomized controlled trial of the some social media literacy body image and wellbeing program for adolescent boys and girls: study protocol. body image, 33, 27– 37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.02.003 graham, m., hjorth, i., & lehdonvirta, v. (2017). digital labour and development: impacts of global digital labour platforms and the gig economy on worker livelihoods. transfer, 23(2), 135–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/1024258916687250 gray, m., & downer, t. (2020). midwives' perspectives of the challenges in mentoring students: a qualitative survey. collegian. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colegn.2020.05.004 grgurina, r., brestovac, g., & grbac, t. g. (2011). development environment for android application development: an experience report. mipro 2011 34th international convention on information and communication technology, electronics and microelectronics proceedings, (june 2018), 1693–1698. guo, j., & huang, j. (2020). information literacy education in wechat environment at academic libraries in china. journal of academic librarianship, 46(1), 102073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2019.102073 happ, r., förster, m., zlatkin-troitschanskaia, o., & carstensen, v. (2016). assessing the previous economic knowledge of beginning students in germany: implications for teaching economics in basic courses. citizenship, social and economics education, 15(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/2047173416646597 harshman, j. (2017). developing globally minded, critical media literacy skills. journal of social studies education research, 8(1), 69–92. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.36194 havelka, s. (2013). mobile information literacy: supporting students' research and information needs in a mobile world. internet reference services quarterly, 18(3–4), 189–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/10875301.2013.856366 jindal, n. (2020). the drift in journalism education in india vis-à-vis new media: use of new media by administrators/ educators in journalism schools. asia pacific media educator, 30(1), 28–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1326365x20945430 johnson, k. l., & westbrooks, k. (2021). quelling the boredom with alternative instruction: augmented reality, escape kits, and scavenger hunts. international journal on social and education sciences (ijonses), 3(1), 180-196. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonses.65 joseph, t. (2014). mediating war and peace: mass media and international conflict. india mukhtar &putri 119 quarterly, 70(3), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/0974928414535292 kalimullina, o., tarman, b. & stepanova, i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher's role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226-238. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 kapel, s., & schmidt, k. d. (2018). media literacy and newspapers of record. reference services review, 46(2), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1108/rsr-02-2018-0012 kiviluoto, j. (2015). information literacy and diginatives: expanding the role of academic libraries. ifla journal, 41(4), 308–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0340035215596177 kurilovas, e., & kubilinskiene, s. (2020). lithuanian case study on evaluating suitability, acceptance and use of it tools by students – an example of applying technology enhanced learning research methods in higher education. computers in human behavior, 107(december 2018), 106274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106274 kustandi, c., wargahadibrata, h., fadhillah, d. n., & suprayekti, k. i. n. (2020). flipped classroom for improving self-regulated learning of pre-service teachers. international journal of interactive mobile technologies, 14(9), 110–127. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v14i09.11858 lee, a. y. l. (2016). media education in the school 2.0 era: teaching media literacy through laptop computers and ipads. global media and china, 1(4), 435–449. https://doi.org/10.1177/2059436416667129 lestari, i., maksum, a., & kustandi, c. (2019). mobile learning design models for state university of jakarta, indonesia. international journal of interactive mobile technologies, 13(9), 152–171. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v13i09.10987 livingstone, s. (2015). from mass to social media? advancing accounts of social change. social media and society, 1(1), 2–4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305115578875 loh, r. c.-y., & ang, c.-s. (2020). unravelling cooperative learning in higher education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 22–39. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.2 marfil-carmona, r., & chacón, p. (2017). arts education and media literacy in the primary education teaching degree of the university of granada. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 237(june 2016), 1166–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2017.02.174 martzoukou, k., fulton, c., kostagiolas, p., & lavranos, c. (2020). a study of higher education students' self-perceived digital competences for learning and everyday life online participation. journal of documentation, 76(6), 1413–1458. https://doi.org/10.1108/jd-032020-0041 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 marques, r., & xavier, c. r. (2021). assumptions for developing the critical sense through the teaching and learning process. international journal on social and education sciences (ijonses), 3(1), 68-81. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonses.53 mcanulty, j. (2020). preservice teachers' perceptions of teaching news media literacy. social studies research and practice, 15(1), 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1108/ssrp-11-2019-0054 mccaughey, d., baumgardner, c., gaudes, a., larochelle, d., wu, k. j., & raichura, t. (2014). best practices in social media: utilizing a value matrix to assess social media's impact on health care. social science computer review, 32(5), 575–589. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439314525332 mihailidis, p. (2018). civic media literacies: re-imagining engagement for civic intentionality*. learning, media and technology, 43(2), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2018.1428623 müller, k. f. (2020). beyond classic mass media and stand-alone technologies: using media online in the domestic sphere. european journal of communication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323120966837 neuner, f. g., soroka, s. n., & wlezien, c. (2019). mass media as a source of public responsiveness. international journal of press/politics, 24(3), 269–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161219832416 novo-corti, i., badea, l., tirca, d. m., & aceleanu, m. i. (2018). a pilot study on education for sustainable development in the romanian economic higher education. international journal of sustainability in higher education, 19(4), 817–838. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijshe-052017-0057 oleabhiele, e. o., & ede, m. o. (2020). economic literacy as veritable instrumen sustainable development. journal of economics and environmental education, 4(1). olagbaju, o.o. & popoola, a.g. (2020). effects of audio-visual social media resourcessupported instruction on learning outcomes in reading. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 3(2), 92-104. olmos perez, m. (2019). the bridge is broken, how will we repair it? the articulation of the media and teaching in public education institutions. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 3(1), 47-55. oomen-early, j., & early, a. d. (2015). teaching in a millennial world. pedagogy in health promotion, 1(2), 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/2373379915570041 papadakis, s., kalogiannakis, m., sifaki, e., & vidakis, n. (2017). access moodle using smart mobile phones. a case study in a greek university. in interactivity, game creation, design, learning and innovation (pp. 376–385). springer cham. mukhtar &putri 121 park, s., & burford, s. (2013). a longitudinal study on the uses of mobile tablet devices and changes in digital media literacy of young adults. educational media international, 50(4), 266–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2013.862365 pérez-escoda, a., contreras-pulido, p., delgado-ponce, á., gozalvez, v., mateos, p. m., renésarellano, p., & pérez-rodríguez, a. (2017). mobile apps and social media: enablers of media literacy in primary school students. acm international conference proceeding series, part f1322. https://doi.org/10.1145/3144826.3145418 pfaff-rüdiger, s., & riesmeyer, c. (2016). moved into action. media literacy as social process. journal of children and media, 10(2), 164–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2015.1127838 polizzi, g. (2020). digital literacy and the national curriculum for england: learning from how the experts engage with and evaluate online content. computers and education, 152(february), 103859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103859 reyna, j., hanham, j., & meier, p. c. (2018). a framework for digital media literacies for teaching and learning in higher education. e-learning and digital media, 15(4), 176–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042753018784952 rhinesmith, c., & stanton, c. l. u. (2018). developing media literacy in public libraries: learning from community media centers. public library quarterly, 37(4), 420–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/01616846.2018.1525527 romero walker, a. (2020). a new media literacy: using film theory for a pedagogy that makes skills courses more inclusive, representative, and critically media literate. journalism and mass communication educator, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695820960631 schreurs, l., & vandenbosch, l. (2020). introducing the social media literacy (smile) model with the case of the positivity bias on social media. journal of children and media, 0(0), 1– 18. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1809481 shaimardanova, m., akhmetova, l., & nikishina, s. (2020). socialization of foreign university students through the formation of reading literacy. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 42–63. sohn, d. (2019). spiral of silence in the social media era: a simulation approach to the interplay between social networks and mass media. communication research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650219856510 susanto, h. a., hobri, & nugrahaningsih, t. k. (2021). developing a handbook on multimedia integration in mathematics teaching for indonesian primary school students. international journal of education in mathematics, science, and technology (ijemst), 9(2), 236-251. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.1550 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (1), 95-123 swarts, g. (2020). re/coding global citizenship: how information and communication technologies have altered humanity… and created new questions for global citizenship education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.4 tagg, c., & seargeant, p. (2019). context design and critical language/media awareness: implications for a social digital literacies education. linguistics and education, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2019.100776 tsuriel, k., dvir gvirsman, s., ziv, l., afriat-aviv, h., & ivan, l. (2019). servant of two masters: how social media editors balance between mass media logic and social media logic. journalism, 146488491984941. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884919849417 tully, m., & vraga, e. k. (2017). effectiveness of a news media literacy advertisement in partisan versus nonpartisan online media contexts. journal of broadcasting and electronic media, 61(1), 144–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2016.1273923 turunen, i. (2019). computer-assisted use of reading-through-writing method in relation to technical literacy and reading motivation. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 2(1), 42-59. twining, p., heller, r. s., nussbaum, m., & tsai, c. c. (2017). some guidance on conducting and reporting qualitative studies. computers and education, 106, a1–a9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.12.002 vanwynsberghe, h., vanderlinde, r., georges, a., & verdegem, p. (2015). the librarian 2.0: identifying a typology of librarians' social media literacy. journal of librarianship and information science, 47(4), 283–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000613520027 vautour, c. (2019). focus on the power dimensions of an adult's literacy-related practices. international journal of lifelong education, 38(4), 379–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370.2019.1574924 vlieghe, j., vandermeersche, g., & soetaert, r. (2014). social media in literacy education: exploring social reading with pre-service teachers. new media and society, 18(5), 800–816. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814547683 vraga, e. k., & tully, m. (2016). effectiveness of a non-classroom news media literacy intervention among different undergraduate populations. journalism and mass communication educator, 71(4), 440–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695815623399 weedon, a., & knight, j. (2015). media literacy and transmedia storytelling. convergence, 21(4), 405–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856515601656 weninger, c., hu, g., & choo, s. s. (2017). the influence of individual and contextual variables on teachers' understanding and classroom practice of media literacy. teaching and teacher mukhtar &putri 123 education, 67, 429–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.07.013 white, c. (2020). wielding social media in the cyber-arena: globalism, nationalism, and civic education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 white, p. r. r. (2020). the putative reader in mass media persuasion – stance, argumentation and ideology. discourse and communication, 14(4), 404–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750481320910512 whitworth, a., mcindoe, s., & whitworth, c. (2011). teaching media and information literacy to postgraduate researchers. italics innovations in teaching and learning in information and computer sciences, 10(1), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.11120/ital.2011.10010035 xie, x., gai, x., & zhou, y. (2019). a meta-analysis of media literacy interventions for deviant behaviors. computers and education, 139(may), 146–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.05.008 yin, r. k. (2011). qualitative research from start to finish. new york: the guilford press. zhao, n., wu, m., & chen, j. (2017). android-based mobile educational platform for speech signal processing. international journal of electrical engineering education, 54(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020720916639329 zhu, s., hao yang, h., xu, s., & macleod, j. (2020). understanding social media competence in higher education: development and validation of an instrument. journal of educational computing research, 57(8), 1935–1955. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633118820631 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 65-81 65 ensuring service quality in education for indonesia’s sustainable education maya puspita dewi 1 , mudiyati rahmatunnisa 2, asep sumaryana 3 , jb kristiadi 4 abstract the improvement of educational service quality to create sustainable education is not solely dependent on creating well-designed plans and regulations. despite the fact that the central government already composed beneficial education plans, there is no guarantee that local government implements them effectively. thus, implementation is the most essential part of creating sustainable education, specifically in indonesia. this article reports on a case study of the service quality implemented in primary, secondary and tertiary level of institutions in tasikmalaya, west java, indonesia. this qualitative study was conducted by using observations, interviews and reviews of related documents. the researcher worked with the total of fifty informants consisting of ten informants for each level of education; primary, secondary (junior and senior high school), tertiary, and another ten from local government staffs, all were chosen based on purposeful sampling method. the researcher collected information related to the implementation of educational service as instructed by the central to local government then to the educational institutions. the study found that good plans and regulations are not sufficient to deliver the interchangeable educational services to the community. the local government is considered unable to provide the standardized service quality in education as promulgated by the central government. the poor economic condition in tasikmalaya also contributes to the complexity of educational development there. the research results suggest the significant role of the local governments in responding to educational development planning which is initiated by the central government to achieve well-qualified education. further, capacity building is proposed to be a solution for promoting responsive local governments. key words: service quality in education, sustainable education, local government, capacity building. introduction education is a key factor for creating a sustainable economy (issc, 2016). furthermore, good quality of education can decrease the high unemployment rate of a country (passey & samways, 2016). hence, development issues in education are interesting topics that need to be discussed. 1 post graduate student in public administration, faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, maya16005@mail.unpad.ac.id 2 faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, m.rahmatunnisa@unpad.ac.id 3 faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, asep.sumaryana@unpad.ac.id 4 faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, kristiadijb@gmail.com mailto:m.rahmatunnisa@unpad.ac.id mailto:asep.sumaryana@unpad.ac.id mailto:kristiadijb@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 65-81 currently, educational development in indonesia is unstable. as a developing country, indonesia has encountered complex and complicated problems in relation to resolving educational issues related the educational quality. to resolve issues on the quality of education in indonesia and set standards for minimum educational services, the central government created government regulation no. 65/2005 or the guidelines for preparation and implementation service standard. this regulation evolved into the minister of home affairs regulation no. 6/2007 or the technical guidelines for planning and implementation service standard. for primary education, it has a separate service standard for municipalities through the minister of education regulation no. 15/2010. the regulations are then promulgated to local government to be applied in regional parties and institutions. some points are subject to change depending on the local context of the community. however, the basic principles of the regulation from the central government are maintained. as mentioned above, indonesia’s education is decentralized with power and autonomy to regional (local) educational ministries (soule, 2003). the regional ministries might modify the supplementary content of the regulation and curricula based on the proper consideration upon the needs and urgencies of the educational context and practitioners. the problem comes when the basic standardized principle from the government are eliminated either by chance or intention for certain reasons. this is what happens in tasikmalaya. the educational service quality in tasikmalaya is not compatible with the ideal service standards created by the central government. during the decentralization era, the local government of tasikmalaya executes a number of educational services based on the local capacity. however, they have limitations and boundaries as local developments are still included in the national development corridors. local developments need to actively respond to implementation processes to create good national development. at present, tasikmalaya possess less effective and efficient education programs. developmental planning from the central government do not receive positive responses from the local government since the education programs from the central government lacked in information on how tasikmalaya could achieve sustainable education. moreover, no local regulations on the implementation of suitable service standards, which are in accordance with national education service standards, are available. dewi et al. beside what have been mentioned above, social problem also contributes to the low educational attainment. the fact that tasikmalaya is the poorest district in west java lead to the failure of educational development there as the poor economic condition affect the people’s capability to afford the cost of obtaining good educational services at schools and universities. financial matter becomes the most significant barrier. while educated human resources are important to support economic growth (issc, 2016), they can also influence social welfare conditions of a community in that low educational attainment is closely connected to. drawing upon the problems mentioned above, this study tries to analyze the dimensions of service quality in education for indonesia’s sustainable education. this study also examines the implementation of service quality in education sector for primary, secondary and tertiary level, as well as the responses given by the local government upon the regulations issued by the central government. the factors which affect the implementation of the service quality are also investigated. literature review quality is an elusive and indistinct construct which often mistaken as “goodness, luxury, shininess or weight” of something (andrews, 2017; crosby & free, 1979). garvin (1984) measures quality by counting the incidence of “internal” and “external” domain. internal refers to the area before the products are released, while external means the opposite. quality is also related to the consumers’ perception and satisfaction of certain products. in educational setting, the consumers are the students and educational practitioners while the products are the educational services in any form. the students’ perception upon service quality may vary depending on the context in which they are in, when and how they build the perception. this perception will affect their expectation about the services they may obtain during and after their period of study. in terms of service quality, there are three characteristics of services that must be noticed well for a full understanding, they are: intangibility, heterogeneity, and inseparability. the first is that services need to be intangible because they are not objects but performances (lovelock, 1981). therefore, the specifications are often hardly to determine. most services cannot be calculated, measured, inventoried, tested and verified initially to ensure the quality (parasuraman, zeithaml, & berry, 1985). because of these criteria, the authorities may get difficulties in understanding how journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 65-81 consumers or users (the students and educational practitioners) perceive the services and how they can evaluate the service quality. the second criterion is heterogeneity. services are heterogeneous in that they vary from the producer (maker) to producer, user to user, and day to day (parasuraman et al., 1985). the central government may create the standardized formula of educational service, but when it comes to the local authorities, adaptation and adjustment may be different. the user (students and the educational practitioners) may also receive and respond differently. day to day implementation is also possible to change based on the related situation and context. not to mention other possible factor that might affect the change such as the dynamic social environment and also unexpected occurrences. the consistency of the service quality is difficult to assure (booms & bitner, 1981) because what the producer/maker intend to deliver might be different from what the consumer/user receives. thirdly, production and consumption of many services are inseparable (upah, 1980). consequently, the quality of services is not organized solely in the manufacturing process by the central government. the inseparability also takes place during the service delivery when the local authorities present it to the educational institution then from educational practitioners (teachers) to the students by interaction. the service producers (central and local authorities) may also have less control upon the services quality where the consumer participation is intense. for example, in a teaching activity in class, a teacher is delivering the material to the students based on the curriculum and syllabus from the government. for particular reason, the teacher offers the students to suggest any material and learning activities which are related to their needs. the teacher then varies the teaching material and makes adjustment based on his/her students. the students’ input, the material content and how it should be delivered based on their needs analysis becomes critical to the quality of service performed by the teacher. it can be concluded that the service quality control may take place from the initial until the end process. much research has been conducted on service quality in education. the first is a research by hill (1995). in his research, frances m. hill discusses the aspects of service quality theory in the context of uk higher education (he). hill focuses on the role of students as the primary consumers of he services, a relatively recent conceptualization in this country, and its implications for the management of service quality in higher education organizations (heos) (hill, 1995). the findings of his study may not be generalized to the student population as a whole because of its dewi et al. limited scope. however, it highlights the need for heos to gather information on student expectations during their time at a university and at the start of their schooling and even before. the results suggest that to manage student expectations from enrolment to graduation and align them as closely as possible with what can be delivered through quality service, student evaluation processes or upward appraisal need to be more detailed, comprehensive, and multi-focused. hill also acknowledges the need for further research to investigate the matters stated above (hill, 1995). wright & o’neill (2002) investigate the conceptualization and measurement of service quality within the he sector in western australia. the results in their study reveal the significance of core service quality dimensions to students and demonstrate the usefulness and relative simplicity of disconfirmation models for evaluating the service quality constructs in the context of he (wright & o’neill, 2002). other notable research is by parasuraman, zeithaml, and berry (1985), who studied the factors that determine the characteristics of services quality; caruana and wantara (2008), who studied the factors of customer satisfaction; and armstrong, adam, denize, and kotler (2014), who proposed that the users value drives the effective marketing strategy. method research design this research employed qualitative case study methods (merriam, 2009) to examine the implementation of service quality in educational setting in tasikmalaya regency, west java indonesia. this method is chosen due to its function to describe, examine, assess, and assist information (dey, 2003; ritchie, lewis, nicholls, & ormston, 2013; ruhl, 2004; seidman, 2013). the information gathered is needed as the basis to analyze the phenomenon took place. the research was deployed by providing a case study aimed at investigating the implementation of educational service quality in tasikmalaya, west java. the reason of choosing this model is because case study research studies a phenomenon in its real-world context (yin, 2009). case study research has a functional and legitimate role in conducting evaluations. further, yin (2009) mentions that case study portion viewed as complementary and providing explanatory information. as a case-study research, it should rely on various sources of evidence, with the data needed. in this research, six sources of documentation evidence used; archive archives, interviews, direct observation, participant observation and physical artifacts. this researcher conducted the study by journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 65-81 observations, interviews and reviews of related documents. the total of fifty informants consisting of ten informants for each level of education; primary, secondary (junior and senior high school), tertiary, and another ten from local government staffs, all were chosen based on purposeful sampling method. observation was carried out at the education institutions from primary to tertiary level covering all activities related to educational services. in-depth interview was conducted with the local governmental policy makers and educational practitioners including teachers and stakeholders, and especially the students as direct consumers of the services. the case study took place over 6 months during 2017-2018 school year, as the investigators interviewed the informants (principals, lecturers, teachers, administrators, students, and local government staffs), observed the services in school and classroom, and examined documents (e.g.: minimum service standard (spm) documents, school documents such as teachers presence list, school improvement plan, local government accountability report, and others) to better understand the acceptability, responses, and implementation of educational service. sample the samples (informants) of this research were 40 informants consist of teachers from primary to secondary schools and lecturers of higher education. another 10 informants were school principals, administrators and local government staff. the informants were chosen based on purposeful sampling method where participants (informants) were selected based on the criteria of the research problem. this research examined the service quality in educational setting from primary to higher education level. therefore, the informants chosen were teachers, lecturers, principals, administrators, and local government staffs who were either directly or indirectly contribute to the implementation of the educational services. data source the researcher conducted 50 individual interviews with teachers (40 teachers from four level: primary, secondary (junior and senior high school), and higher education), administrators, and local government staffs. these teachers and administrators were directly involved in the implementation of schools program. the researcher initially interviewed each of these professional (principal, administrators and local governments staffs) once (a total of 10 interviews) and then conducted follow-up interviews with the teachers from primary to secondary level and lecturers. dewi et al. prior to the second interviews which were conducted with 40 teachers and lecturers, the researcher observed classroom activities of 10 teachers and lecturers chosen with purposeful-sampling method. how the teachers and lecturers deliver the materials and its adjustment with the students were observed. these observations lasted from 60 to 90 minutes and were documented using field notes. these purpose of these observations was to document the instructional delivery and to provide information that will be used to formulate questions for the next interview. the interview lasted approximately 27 minutes each in median, from 15 min to 30 min. mcleskey, waldron, & redd (2014) states that median length of interview is reported to measure the tendency better as two interviews lasted longer than other. each of the interviews was recorded and transcribed. the interviews were conducted as open-ended questions regarding factors that contribute to the successfulness and failure of the implementation of the educational service. the reception and responses as well as adjustments of the regulations were also asked. social barrier such as the level of financial ability was also become the question subject whether it gave impact to the educational attainment or not. data analysis transcripts of the interviews and field notes from the observations were collected and analyzed to discover emerging issues by using four steps. first, after the data from interviews and observations obtained, the researcher broke away or grouped the data to identify important points that can be employed to determine possible themes that arise (beirne-smith, ittenbach, & patton, 2002). second, after all interviews and observations completed, the researcher examined the data to provide different perspective and develop “imaginative variation” (beirne-smith et al., 2002) about the themes. third, the researcher developed a set of themes and presented it to a group of teachers and lecturers and the principal for feedback and check. finally, the researcher used this feedback to formulate the final set of themes that come from this investigation. findings the result showed that policy on primary education, which was authored by the central government, was not positively received by the local governments in the region. it is evidenced by the lack of specific regulations on primary education as most implemented in tasikmalaya. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 65-81 moreover, no reports for service standards in primary education are available. however, as mentioned previously, the central government has created some standards for service quality in education for local governments. the findings show that no active responses from the local government to central government regulations are available. without reports, assessments of service standards from the local government to the community cannot be conducted. based on the results obtained during the fieldwork, the lack of responsiveness of local governments to regulations from the central government is caused by the lack of capacity development at the local government level. from the documents review, it is found that the budget allocations for educational development in tasikmalaya from 2012 to 2015 have increased. in 2012, the budget allocation for educational development was 480,339,384.951 rupiahs, which increased to 540,212,378,864 rupiahs in 2013. from 2014 to 2015, the local government allocated 648,959,363,203 rupiahs. it can be seen that the budget allocated increased every year. based on the data, the local government was trying to support educational activities and show an active response for creating sustainable education in tasikmalaya. however, when we looked deeper into the reports, it is found that 89% of the budget allocation went to the salaries of civil servants in charge of education and 11% were allocated for educational development. at the local level, the tasikmalaya government formulated local education regulations, such as tasikmalaya local regulation no. 4/2007. as per local regulations, no standard of service quality in education for primary or secondary education was found. this finding shows that the local government has not prioritized service quality in education. furthermore, the local government has no active response to central government plans and regulations for educational development. therefore, as the poorest region in west java, the tasikmalaya local government was unable to provide good service quality in education for its communities (muslim, 2015) other finding is that the minimum service standard (standar pelayanan minimal (spm)) of primary education as a reference for the implementation of educational services issued by relevant ministries, such as the central government, have not been integrated into education planning and budgeting in the region. in government regulation (pp) number 2 year 2018 concerning minimum service standard (spm), it is stated that spm for education covers the autonomous region or also called the region, namely the provincial education spm and the district / city dewi et al. education spm. for basic service (pelayanan dasar (pd)) in education, spm in province level consists of secondary education and special education. the type of pd in educational spm province consists of secondary and special education. and the type of pd in district / city educational spm consists of early childhood education, basic education, and equality education. discussion, conclusion, and implications in the era of government decentralization in indonesia, every level of government has different roles in development. the central government has no authority to directly implement development plans because the authority is given to the local governments. hence, local governments have an important role in the development process as the implementers. in indonesia, the role of the central government in developing plans needs to be specified by local regulations. basically, local regulations and plans cannot go against central government regulations and plans; they must support it. in some cases, the central government has the role of controlling and making general plans for development. here, the implementation of the development depends on the local governments. the finding that showed that there was lack of receive and response from the local government caused by insufficient capacity development at the local government level can be solved by composing regulations which adjust to the scope and authoritative limitations of the local government. capacity building for local governments to obtain well-qualified public services can also become alternate solution (milen, 2004) in ratnasari, jenivia dwi makmur, mochamad ribawanto, 2013). capacity building is seen as assistance to local organizations especially by providing funding and equipment, increasing financial accountability and strengthening technical skills(milèn & organization, 2001). based on a study conducted by wang, hawkins, lebredo, & berman (2012), capacity building is a useful conceptual focus for understanding sustainability implementation. it is mentioned in the finding that the budget for educational development increased every year. however, it is allocated more on the civil servants salaries of around 89%. as per central government regulations, local governments have to allocate a minimum of 20% from their budgets for educational development, excluding the salaries of civil servants in charge of education. this shows that the tasikmalaya local government was not able to implement educational development as per central government regulations. consequently, communities were unable to receive good journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 65-81 service quality in education. in this case, the local government needs to change its budget allocation models to provide good service quality (milen, 2004) in ratnasari, jenivia dwi makmur, mochamad ribawanto, 2013) in education to different communities. the recent conditions of educational development in tasikmalaya show that its gross enrollment ratio (ger) has reached 114.07% for primary schools (sd/mi) and 103.12% for secondary schools (smp/mts). meanwhile, the net enrollment ratio (ner) has reached 99.47% for elementary schools (sd/mi) and 94.23% for junior high schools (smp/mts). according to the data on the educational accessibility indicators, tasikmalaya has managed to achieve the wajar dikdas 9year program (wajib belajar) as proclaimed by the central government (hildayani, sugianto, tarigan, & handayani, 2014; khoeriyah & nurmandi, 2016; miller, 2018; rahmatina, sumarmo, & johar, 2014; rizaluddin, 2017; ulfatin, mukhadis, & imron, 2010; wajdi et al., 2018). tasikmalaya also created a board of education as an independent institution that aims to increase service quality in education at the municipal level. they conducted surveys at 50 primary public schools and four secondary public schools in 2014 to evaluate the achievements of primary education services, which are referred to in the ministry of education regulation no. 23/2013. the results revealed that among the 25 indicators of service standards, the average service standard achievement is 93.055. unachieved indicators include quantity of students in class, availability of teachers, quantity of teachers in school, supervision and training for school inspectors, availability of laboratory equipment, availability of books in libraries, class supervisors, and implementation of school-based management. these factors should have been accomplished since they contribute to the quality assurance; a significant role of supervision(archibong, 2012; ayeni & adelabu, 2012; swai & ndidde, 2006; wanzare, 2012), teachers’ education (early et al., 2007; makopa, 2011; swai & ndidde, 2006) and motivation (akuoko, dwumah, & baba, 2012; kagema, 2018; kratt, 2018; swai & ndidde, 2006), classroom quality (early et al., 2007; swai & ndidde, 2006), service quality (grover, cheon, & teng, 1996; swai & ndidde, 2006; wantara, 2008), adequate infrastructure(goktas, yildirim, & yildirim, 2009), there is regular and effective horizontal and vertical communication and school administration has the ability to utilize school funds and other materials effectively (swai & ndidde, 2006). service quality is a comparison of how a service is delivered to recipients’ expectations. the perception of service can be used for evaluating service quality and observing gaps (lewis & booms, 1983; parasuraman et al., 1985). education is a service, whereas schools are educational dewi et al. service systems. educational services deliver the values that are beneficial for service recipients and focuses on people rather than products (davies, qiu, & davies, 2014). the principal tasks of a service provider are to identify relevant attributes, process them into specifications through which services can be designed and developed, and generate measures by which compliance to specifications can be continually assessed (cassidy, barthelme, schimmel, & rodriguez, 1994). as the people in charge of educational services, local governments are responsible for identifying resources and relevant needs related to educational services and determining measurements for assessing the quality of educational services. service quality in education is usually related to measuring and forming methods and perceptions of service quality and its implication for service recipients (li, gan, & jia, 2017). local governments need to measure and form methods to maintain good service quality (grover et al., 1996) for education as they implement regulations from the central government and focus on intensifying education in their regions. communities, as service recipients, expect to receive good service from their local governments, and their needs must be considered to create good service quality in education. a good and sustainable educational service depends on a variety of factors, including what local governments offer to meet the expectations of the communities, how services are delivered, and how the government utilizes available resources (davies et al., 2014). these factors show how far local governments have fulfilled their duty as implementers of educational services in a region as a form of decentralization implementation according to the annual report of tasikmalaya municipality, published in 2014, the ger and ner are the only micro indicators used to measure achievements. as stated in the third mission, “increase accessibility and education quality and community health level to produce good quality and competitive human resources.” the mission aims to increase accessibility and quality of education, but no indicators are related to the implementation of quality education. some scholars argue that the role of the central government has no direct impact on educational development at the local level (shanahan & jones, 2007). in indonesia, law no. 22/1999 and the more recent law no. 32/2004 state that all education affairs are decentralized in the local level. hence, local governments have the authority to lead the educational development of their region. in this case, the central government can only create standards for service quality in education to journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 65-81 be implemented by the local governments. therefore, the success or failure of its implementation depends solely on the local governments. active responses of local governments can be created by capacity building at local levels. local governments have to implement standards for service quality in education, which is regulated by the ministry of home affairs regulation no. 6/2007. in the case of tasikmalaya, the local government could not achieve the standards set by the central government mainly because of the local government’s incapacity to deliver standard educational services. in the decentralization era, local governments have the authority to deliver some services to different communities. furthermore, local governments have to provide high-quality services for the region(bovaird & loeffler, 2007). responsive local governments are needed for creating sustainable development. moreover, as mentioned earlier, educational development is one of the sustainable development goals that should be achieved (leiserowitz, kates, & parris, 2005). capacity building for local governments is a must for increasing responsiveness. some scholars believe that although capacity building is a complex issue, it can help local governments become more responsive to the central government’s actions. furthermore, it could affect the implementation of development programs. capacity building is the process of building individual, group, or organizational capacity (ratnasari, 2013) by building abilities, potentials, and opportunities. furthermore, it assists organizations in responding to environmental changes more easily. organizations change as they respond to environmental changes. in the case of tasikmalaya, its local government needs to undergo capacity building to respond to the central government’s plans and regulations for educational development. without an active response, the effective implementation of educational development cannot be achieved. capacity building is designed to build an organization’s strength. it will increase an organization’s capabilities for decision-making, improve its human resources, and consequently create an efficient and effective organization. organizations have their basic functions, and capacity building can help organizations perform those functions better. some scholars believe that capacity building is one of the strategies that organizations use to increase efficiency, effectiveness, and government responsiveness (keban, n.d.; pribadi & keban, 2009). furthermore, in this case, capacity building may aid in making local governments as responsive organizations. dewi et al. conclusion based on the discussion above, the service quality in education in indonesia, particularly in tasikmalaya, is still weak and underdeveloped. this paper concludes that active responses from local government implementers are needed in creating sustainable education. the central government has given excellent plans and regulations for supporting good service quality in education, but local governments still need to play a big role. furthermore, local governments have a direct impact on the creation of sustainable education at the local level. capacity building is the answer for creating more responsive local governments. in decentralized indonesia, the central government has the authority to control development, but not to implement them. in this case, the central government’s role is to create standards for service quality in education. however, implementing those standards is the local governments’ job. references akuoko, k. o., dwumah, p., & baba, w. m. (2012). teacher motivation and quality education delivery: a study of public basic schools in tamale metropolis in ghana. international journal of social science & interdisciplinary research, 1(12), 29–46. andrews, k. (2017). culture, curriculum, and identity in education. [book review]. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 99-101. archibong, f. i. (2012). instructional supervision in the administration of secondary education: a panacea for quality assurance. european scientific journal, esj, 8(13). armstrong, g., adam, s., denize, s., & kotler, p. (2014). principles of marketing. pearson australia. ayeni, a. j., & adelabu, m. a. (2012). improving learning infrastructure and environment for sustainable quality assurance practice in secondary schools in ondo state, south-west, nigeria. international journal of research studies in education, 1(1), 61–68. beirne-smith, m., ittenbach, r. f., & patton, j. r. (2002). metntal retardation (6th). pearson education. booms, b. h., & bitner, m. j. (1981). marketing strategies and organization structures for service firms. marketing of services. https://doi.org/citeulike-article-id:1192024 bovaird, t., & loeffler, e. (2007). assessing the quality of local governance: a case study of public services. public money and management, 27(4), 293–300. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 65-81 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9302.2007.00597.x cassidy, m. f., barthelme, k. c., schimmel, b. j., & rodriguez, j. (1994). understanding quality in training and education services. performance improvement quarterly, 7(4), 70–88. crosby, p. b., & free, q. i. (1979). the art of making quality certain. new york: new american library, 17. davies, p., qiu, t., & davies, n. m. (2014). cultural and human capital, information and higher education choices. journal of education policy, 29(6), 804–825. dey, i. (2003). qualitative data analysis: a user friendly guide for social scientists. routledge. early, d. m., maxwell, k. l., burchinal, m., alva, s., bender, r. h., bryant, d., … griffin, j. a. (2007). teachers’ education, classroom quality, and young children’s academic skills: results from seven studies of preschool programs. child development, 78(2), 558–580. garvin, d. a., & quality, w. d. (1984). really mean. sloan management review, 25. goktas, y., yildirim, s., & yildirim, z. (2009). main barriers and possible enablers of icts integration into pre-service teacher education programs. journal of educational technology & society, 12(1). grover, v., cheon, m. j., & teng, j. t. c. (1996). the effect of service quality and partnership on the outsourcing of information systems functions. journal of management information systems, 12(4), 89–116. hildayani, r., sugianto, m., tarigan, r., & handayani, e. (2014). psikologi perkembangan anak. hill, f. m. (1995). managing service quality in higher education: the role of the student as primary consumer. quality assurance in education, 3(3), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1108/09684889510093497 issc, i. d. s. (2016). unesco (2016) world social science report 2016, challenging inequalities: pathways to a just world. unesco publishing, paris. kagema, j. (2018). the school curriculum and its influence on teacher motivation in curriculum implementation in kenya. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 9-25. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/3 keban, t. (n.d.). yeremias, 1999. capasity building sebagai prakondisi dan langkah strategis bagi perwujudan otonomi daerah di indonesia. khoeriyah, i. f., & nurmandi, a. (2016). evaluasi program wajib belajar 9 tahun pada sekolah negeri dan sekolah swasta (studi kasus di sekolah dasar negeri dan sekolah dasar dewi et al. muhammadiyah di kota yogyakarta). journal of governance and public policy, 1(1). kratt, d. (2018). teachers’ perspectives on educator mental health competencies: a qualitative case study. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 22-40. leiserowitz, a. a., kates, r. w., & parris, t. m. (2005). do global attitudes and behaviors support sustainable development? environment: science and policy for sustainable development, 47(9), 22–38. lewis, r. c., & booms, b. h. (1983). emerging aspect of service quality in emerging perspectives on services marketing. chicago: american marketing association en, 100. li, z., gan, s., & jia, r. (2017). the impact of social capitals on service quality of chinese educational institutions: a multilevel analysis. concurrency and computation: practice and experience, 29(24), e4217. lovelock, c. h. (1981). why marketing management needs to be different for services. makopa, z. (2011). the provision of the basic classroom teaching and learning resources in zimbabwe primary schools and their relationship with the grade 6 pupils’ achievements in the sacmeq iii project. paris: unesco. mcleskey, j., waldron, n. l., & redd, l. (2014). a case study of a highly effective, inclusive elementary school. the journal of special education, 48(1), 59–70. merriam, s. b. (2009). qualitative data analyis. in qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation (pp. 169–207). milèn, a., & organization, w. h. (2001). what do we know about capacity building?: an overview of existing knowledge and good practice. miller, l., m. (2018). social networking strategy for creating public value in eastern india. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 85-93. muslim, s. r. (2015). pengaruh penggunaan metode student facilitator and explaining dalam pembelajaran kooperatif terhadap kemampuan pemecahan masalah matematik siswa smk di kota tasikmalaya. jp3m (jurnal penelitian pendidikan dan pengajaran matematika), 1(1), 65–72. parasuraman, a., zeithaml, v. a., & berry, l. l. (1985). a conceptual model of service quality and its implications for future research. the journal of marketing, 41–50. passey, d., & samways, b. (2016). information technology: supporting change through teacher education. springer. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 65-81 pribadi, u., & keban, p. p. d. y. t. (2009). restrukturisasi organisasi pemerintah kabupaten sleman dan pemerintah kota surabaya 1999-2007. rahmatina, s., sumarmo, u., & johar, r. (2014). tingkat berpikir kreatif siswa dalam menyelesaikan masalah matematika berdasarkan gaya kognitif reflektif dan impulsif. jurnal didaktik matematika, 1(1). ratnasari, j. d. (2013). pengembangan kapasitas (capacity building) kelembagaan pada badan kepegawaian daerah kabupaten malang. jurnal administrasi publik, 1(3), 103–110. ritchie, j., lewis, j., nicholls, c. m., & ormston, r. (2013). qualitative research practice: a guide for social science students and researchers. sage. rizaluddin, r. (2017). implementasi program wajib belajar sembilan (9) tahun pada lembaga pendidikan muhammadiyah di mandailing natal. edu-riligia: jurnal ilmu pendidikan islam dan keagamaan, 1(3). ruhl, k. (2004). qualitative research practice. a guide for social science students and researchers. jstor. seidman, i. (2013). interviewing as qualitative research: a guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. teachers college press. shanahan, t., & jones, g. a. (2007). shifting roles and approaches: government coordination of post‐secondary education in canada, 1995–2006. higher education research & development, 26(1), 31–43. soule, s. (2003). unity through diversity? data from a new civic education program in indonesia. in international conference on civic education research: november. citeseer. swai, f., & ndidde, a. (2006). local research on the characteristics of effective primary schools in singida, tanzania. paris: adea. ulfatin, n., mukhadis, a., & imron, a. (2010). profil wajib belajar 9 tahun dan alternatif penuntasannya. jurnal ilmu pendidikan universitas negeri malang, 17(1). upah, g. d. (1980). mass marketing in service retailing-a review and synthesis of major methods. journal of retailing, 56(3), 59–76. wajdi, m. b. n., wajdi, m. b. n., halim, p., badruddin, s., . h., abdullah, h. a., simarmata, j. (2018). advancement of e-book through automation system in department of islamic education (stai) miftahul ula nganjuk. international journal of engineering & technology, 7(3.6), 438–441. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i3.6.17489 dewi et al. wang, x. h., hawkins, c. v., lebredo, n., & berman, e. m. (2012). capacity to sustain sustainability: a study of u.s. cities. public administration review. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2012.02566.x wantara, p. (2008). pengaruh citra. reputasi dan kualitas pelayanan terhadap kepuasan dan loyalitas mahasiswa pts di jawa timur (studi pada stie dengan program studi yang terakreditasi. disertasi universitas brawijaya. wanzare, z. (2012). instructional supervision in public secondary schools in kenya. educational management administration & leadership, 40(2), 188–216. wright, c., & o’neill, m. (2002). service quality evaluation in the higher education sector: an empirical investigation of students’ perceptions. higher education research & development, 21(1), 23–39. yin, r. k. (2009). case study research: design and methods 4th ed. in united states: library of congress cataloguing-in-publication data (vol. 2). developing delta internal quality assurance to evaluate www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2018:9 (3),177-197 177 developing delta internal quality assurance to evaluate the quality of indonesian islamic universities siti choiriyah1, kumaidi2, badrun kartowagiran3 abstract the purpose of this study is to examine aspects of internal quality assurance to evaluate indonesian islamic universities, develop delta internal quality assurance (diqa), and provide empirical evidence for using diqa as a standard model of evaluation. it is a research and development (r&d) endeavor in the context of the input, process, and product. this study applies four cycles, namely exploration, preliminary testing, main field testing, and main operational testing, and the development process took place through a two-round delphi method. in terms of findings, the study presents a prototype instrument named diqa, which is subsequently refined though the main field and operational testing phases. it is then processed using cfa and lisrel statistical analysis to determine its validity and reliability. the final version of diqa accommodates seven dimensions of evaluation, 10 sorts of questionnaire, and 477 question items. the implication is that diqa will help face the challenge of aligning with the national accreditation system set by the government. it follows that diqa should be publicly and disseminated, and islamic universities should be encouraged to use diqa confidently. in terms of originality and value, diqa has the special property of promoting islamic values in the internal quality assurance, which is important to the specific properties of islamic universities in indonesia. keywords–internal quality, benchmarking, quality assurance, islamic values. introduction this article derives from a doctoral dissertation reporting on the development of an instrument for internal quality assurance for islamic universities in indonesia that has a focus on vision and mission, curriculum, teaching/learning process, infrastructure and facilities, and student outcomes. the instrument was developed using the delphi method, and we named it delta internal quality assurance (or diqa for short). this study was conducted for three reasons: i) because quality assurance is central to higher education management (legčević and hećimović, 2016; tam, 2001) and part of benchmarking (shafer and coate, 1992); and ii) 1dr candidate. state islamic institute of surakarta, indonesia. email: choiriain@gmail.com 2prof. dr. muhammadiyah university of surakarta, indonesia. email: kum231@ums.ac.id 3prof. dr. state university of yogyakarta, indonesia, email: badrunkw@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197 diqa is an attractive tool for evaluating internal quality assurance in islamic universities (choiriyah, 2018). the issue of the quality of higher education and the need to apply continuous quality improvement (cqi) are obvious characteristics of a good education development policy (legčević and hećimović, 2016). the key to quality assurance is to inform the academic community— f r o m teachers to students and the administrative staff—that quality assurance will be put into practice and implemented in their respective institution (tam, 2001). higher education institutions have recently put emphasis on academic quality as a benchmarking process, introducing systematic evaluations of education at departmental, faculty, and university-wide levels (rossi, lipsey and freemans, 2004). higher education, much like any industry, has to benchmark its operations with set performance targets. this benchmarking process helps to understand the drivers of the processes and their output quality (shafer and coate, 1992). benchmarking provides institution managers with an external reference or standard for evaluating the quality and value of the internal activities, practices, and processes (tam, 2001). the quality of higher education should be measured according to its purposes and main goals. the assessment program determines the measured outcomes and the qualitymeasurement approach of tam (2001), thus emphasizing the quality of research, public service, and student education (patil and pudlowski, 2005; tam, 2001). unfortunately, the indonesian education system face a plethora of quality problems, specifically low input quality and process-to-output quality, school graduates’ outcomes, and an in ability to meet industrial needs (fitri, 2016). many higher education institutions are unaccredited, and there is a dire shortage of human capital. meeting global standards is hard, because greater investment and internationalization in research capacity is needed in universities (woodhouse, 1999, p. 20). islamic universities should therefore devise their own instruments to aid stakeholders in improving the culture of educational quality. this study proposes diqa, an instrument to evaluate internal quality assurance for islamic universities. three research questions guide the investigation: 1. what aspects of internal quality assurance are needed to evaluate indonesian islamic universities and help them to operate standard services for university teaching programs? choiriyah et al. 2. what are the development processes of diqa for achieving a standard evaluation model? 3. what evidence is there to support diqa’s role in assessing the internal quality of indonesian islamic universities? literature review internal quality assurance before conceiving internal quality assurance, quality must first be defined. watty (2006, p. 293) argues that quality is about efficiency, high standards, excellence, value for money, fitness for purpose, and customer focus. fitness for purpose includes the mission, goals, objectives, and specifications, and it means an organization uses procedures that are appropriate and effective for its stated purposes. table 1 shows the five components of as defined by harvey and green (1993). with this in mind, quality assurance is a mechanism to control quality. it should therefore ensure that adequate conditions and provisions are in place to enable students to reach a certain standard. woodhouse (1999, p.30), meanwhile, defines quality assurance as follows: “all attitudes, objects, actions, and procedures which together with the quality control activities, ensure that appropriate academic standards are being maintained and enhanced in and by the program, institution or system, and make this known to the educational community and the public at large.” table 1. harvey and green’s classification of quality classification brief explanation quality as exceptional a focus on meeting high standards, such as excellence quality as perfection or consistency as embodied in the idea that something is done correctly or to a consistent standard every time quality as fitness for purpose where quality is defined in terms of the achievement of a desired educational or quality assurance goal quality as value for money a focus on ensuring that stakeholders receive good value for their investment quality as transformation a focus on ensuring that students are genuinely empowered as a result of their learning according to lenn (2004), approaches in quality assurance vary in accreditation, assessment, academic audit, and external examination, each of which allows for the development and application of criteria for a program’s set standards by the accrediting body. the motivation journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197 may be to identify further improvements for a program or the larger educational system. in addition, arcaro (1995, p. 1) suggests that a quality program basically includes a commitment to change, a good understanding of the condition of the program or institution, a clear vision of the future that everyone sticks to, and plans for implementing educational quality. practices inquality assurance practices in quality assurance relate to assessment and benchmarking. pressure to facilitate universal access makes the assessment of higher education a major p u b l i c concern (tam, 2001; patil and pudlowski, 2005). koslowski (2006) suggests that much like with industry, higher education is a measurable product, service, or knowledge that is essentially evaluated by customer satisfaction. a university’s quality is therefore determined by its output, such as whether or not it uses its resources efficiently to produce highly skilled, employable graduates. quality is defined by the customer, and management is responsible for achieving that quality. koslowski (2006) asserts that a process has quality when higher education institutions view it as valuable, measurable, and improvable. assessment is a measurable process to help improve quality by evaluating it. a ssessments can take the form of guided self-assessment, intermediary conduct assessment, independent self-assessment, and studentcompetenciesbased assessment. guided self-assessment can be peer-review b as ed , similar to business certification standards like iso 9000. koslowski (2006) believes that the academic audit has become the dominant model for institutional assessment in higher education. through independent self-assessment, institutions assess the needs of its customers, resulting in a process of education. in addition, internal quality assurance (utuka, 2012) includes ( i ) a quality assurance policy that is publicly available and part of a strategic planning (tam, 2001); (ii) the design and approval of programs to meet the set objectives and achieve the intended learning outcomes, such as through regulation of student admission, progression, recognition, and certification (tam, 2001; patil and pudlowski, 2005); (iii) teaching staff, learning resources, and student support; (iv) effective management of programs, where published information is clear, accurate, objective, up-to date, and readily accessible (tam, 2001); and (v) periodic monitoring and choiriyah et al. reviewing of programs to continue meeting the set objectives by responding to the needs of students and society (utuka, 2012; tam, 2001; patil and pudlowski, 2005). to implement their internal quality assurance, universities apply their available resources and quality assessment using a continuous quality improvement (cqi) and peopleoriented approach (yakubova, 2009; roffe, 1998). roffe (1998, p. 74) states that cqi derives from the japanese term kaizen, which means to make slow, never-ending improvements in all aspects of life. outside the japanese context, kaizen or cqi is to continuously make small improvements to an existing system through the people who manage or work in that system. the structural steps to this are as follows: 1. define the area of improvement 2. analyze and select appropriate problems 3. identify causes 4. plan countermeasures 5. implement them 6. confirm the results 7. standardize (roffe, 1998). ban-pt (2002) recommends that internal quality assurance be controlled through the pdca model (plan, do, check, action) that results in cqi. pdca-based quality control management works on the following principles. 1. quality first: the thoughts and actions of education managers should be focused on quality. 2. everything for stakeholders: all thoughts and actions of education managers must aim to satisfy stakeholders. 3. our stakeholders: any person working in higher education should aim to satisfy the consumers of their work product. 4. speak with data: any action and decision taken in higher education should be based on analyzing collected data rather than supposition. 5. upstream management: all decision-making in higher education must be participatory not authoritative. quality assurance should be internally driven, institutionalized within each organization’s standard procedure, and involve external parties that produce outputs and outcomes as part of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197 public account ability (ban-pt, 2002), thus having internal and external quality assurance systems. the internal quality assurance (haris, 2013) comprises three major areas: 1. assessing the extent to which internal quality assurance is implemented 2. presenting a quality profile for every learning unit to reveal the strengths and weaknesses of the quality assurance program 3. recording feedback, suggestions, and recommendations to the university thatcan be implemented in the internal quality assurance to improve, develop, and strengthen its implementation. quality assurance and measurement quality assurance and quality measurement are used when the structure of the higher education sector become more complex (tam, 2001; kelchen, 2017). the internationalization process in higher education, as well as the growth in free trade, has caused universities to focus on quality and emphasize standards for assessing the quality of their education structures (anderson, johnson and milligan, 2000, p. 52). any industrial activity covering an input, process, and output can be adapted for quality assessment in three stages according to anderson johnson and milligan (2000), as shown in figure 1. fig. 1. the block diagram of an educational cycle (adopted from anderson, johnson and milligan, 2000, p. 52) educational input: the input parameters relate to student intake/enrolment into an educational process and comprise:  societal needs  new knowledge choiriyah et al.  advancing technologies  human and material resources  student enrolment process  student fee structure  student eligibility criteria educational process: the educational process lies between the input and the output, where learning is facilitated. it may comprise the following important factors:  curriculum design  learning styles  learning methods  teaching/learning facilities  assessment methods  staffing learning outcomes: the output component is associated with student outcomes following the course curricula. it comprises:  academic results  professional profile  employability  on-the-job success rate  social, workplace, and other activities measurement and benchmarking in quality assurance measurement and benchmarking are inseparable elements of quality assurance. according to chinta et al., “what you measure is what you get” (2016, p. 989) and “what benchmarks you use is what meaning you get” (2016, p. 990). measurement is the basis for applying multiple metrics in performance management across multiple dimensions (chinta, et. al. 2016; podsakoff, et. al. 2000). benchmarking is then evaluating an action with a standard for journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197 comparison. employee engagement can then be enhanced with greater shared understanding of the metrics used (chinta, et. al. 2016; rich, et. al, 2010; fuller and belkin, 2015). with benchmarking, factors affecting the quality of education systems include effective learning and teaching, leadership, lecturers, students, institutional management, the physical environment and resources, stakeholder satisfaction, institutional culture, learning outcomes/performance, and accountability (bridge, judd and moock, 1973; abadie-mendia, 2013). sallis (2002) and ewell (2010) indicate ten indicators for quality assurance: (1) effective learning and teaching, (2) leadership, (3) staff, (4) students, (5) standards, (6) organization, (7) physical environment and resources, (8) external relations, (9) access, and (10) service to customers. methods approach this is a research and development (r&d) study that applies a qualitative and quantitative approach. it adapts the r&d approach of borg and gall (2003), whose steps are: (1) researching and collecting information; (2) planning; (3) developing the preliminary form of the product; (4) preliminary field testing; (5) revising main product; (6) main field testing; (7) revising operational product; (8) operational field testing; (9) revising final product; and (10) disseminating and implementing. in the development process, we use a two-round delphi method and cipp (context, input, process, product) as the framework of evaluation (rezaee and shokrpour, 2011; nea (national education association), 2006). this study essentially applies the following stages: exploration to develop prototype, trials to refine the prototype into a model, and revision of that model. research was conducted at the faculty of islamic education and teaching (fitk) of the islamic state institute (iain) of surakarta from january to november 2017. participants this study involved 222 participants (see table 2), including academic experts, managers of six study programs, lecturers, and students. participants were recruited using purposive sampling, and all were all involved in the exploration, preliminary testing, main field testing, and operational main testing (borg & gall, 2003). choiriyah et al. table 2. participants and their roles in the research stage no research stages participants total experts lecturer management students 1 exploration 2 5 5 10 22 2 preliminary testing, delphi method 10 10 10 na 30 3 main field testing 10 10 50 70 4 operational main testing 10 10 100 120 222 research procedures during the exploration stage, data were collected through observation and interviews with experts, lecturers, management, and students in a restricted format. this stage revealed the needs analysis and a prototype for internal quality assurance and evaluation criteria. in the preliminary testing, the prototype was evaluated and improved through a tworound delphi method, which is an established research methodology for exploring the expected future of novel and evolutionary phenomena. it involves obtaining a group of experts’ most reliable consensus of opinion (sekayi and kennedy, 2017) by allowing them to express their views on a topic. the method is based on the premise that well-informed individuals can better predict the future than a simple extrapolation of trends (grobbelarr, 2007). participants are also provided with a summary of opinions from a previous round before answering the next questionnaire. it is believed that such a consensus process guides the group toward the “best” response. in the first round, the prototype was submitted to 30 members participating in the delphi method, and a questionnaire to assess the quality of the prototype was attached. the members provided comments identifying weaknesses in the prototype and suggesting ways to improve it. in the second round, members were invited to meet and discuss the results from the first round. the consensus was that the prototype was acceptable as an internal quality assurance model for islamic universities ((sekayi and kennedy, 2017). in the main field testing and operational main testing, the data were subjected to statistical analysis. spss was applied to provide evidence for the validity, reliability, and conformity of each item of the diqa, using confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) and a journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197 hypothesis testing model using the lisrel 8.70 program (ghozali, 2009, pp.29-34), as summarized in table 3. the test includes: 1. goodness of fit index (gfi) that describes the overall suitability of the model compared to the actual data, where a gfi value greater than 0.90 suggests good suitability. 2. root mean square error of approximation (rmsea) to indicate the fit model with value <0.05, where rmse 0.08 to 1.0 is a sufficient fit. 3. normed fit index (nfi) as a comparative measure between the proposed model and the null model, with the recommended value of nfi being greater than 0.90. table 3. summary of data analysistechniques analysis technique application descriptive statistics calculating mean and percentage and determining criteria obtained from expert validation, delphi technique, and instrument sheet scores from reviewer efa using spss 17 and cfa using lisrel program construct validity testing instrument for diqa obtained from main field testing and operational main testing cronbach alpha using spss 17 reliability testing of the instrument obtained from main field testing and operational main testing. results and discussion the development of the diqa prototype the development of diqa began with exploring the needs analysis. the needs analysis portrays seven dimensions that cipp evaluation requires (gaspersz, 2005; msche (middle states commission on higher education), 2005), namely (1) vision and mission of the program, (2) curriculum, (3) competency of lecturers and administrative staff, (4) infrastructure and facilities, (5) teaching and learning processes, (6) student supervision atmosphere, and (7) graduate learning outcomes. a first, we developed 10 sorts of questionnaire with 483 items, which after revision became 477 items. a two-round delphi technique was applied to the diqa prototype (as shown in table 4) at this stage. the results of the preliminary format are summarized in tables 5 and 6, and the criteria to evaluate the results are in table 7. choiriyah et al. table 4. evaluation object and number of items in diqa no evaluation object number of items 1 vision and mission document 7 2 curriculum document 12 3 lecturer competency 85 4 competency of staff and administration 32 5 infrastructure and facilities 184 6 document of teaching learning planning 15 7 teaching learning process 26 8 assessment of teaching and learning 12 9 document of student supervision 30 10 graduate competency 77 total 480 table 5. the general appearance of diqa no. indicator score % criteria 1 cover 33 94 very good 2 content appearance 32 91 very good 3 scope of evaluation 30 86 very good 4 depth description of the components 30 86 very good 5 readability 32 91 very good 6 ease of understanding 30 86 very good 7 systematic writing 34 97 very good 8 language use 31 89 very good 9 layout of writing 32 91 very good 10 word choice, font, and spacing 33 94.3 very good 11 thickness of pages 30 85.7 very good 12 practicality of answer 29 83 very good 13 time effectiveness 30 86 very good 14 evaluation achievement 32 91 very good of the 24 aspects, 7 were above 76% (very good). in particular, diqa is practical (85% ease and 89% benefit) and efficient (86%), and it goes deeper than ami (89.5%). diqa is divided into six books considering efficiently used, evaluation-based objectives. these books are:  book 1: questionnaire evaluating mission vision, curriculum, lesson planning, and student coaching  book 2: questionnaire for lecturer competence  book 3: questionnaire for employee competency evaluation journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197  book 4: questionnaire for evaluation of facilities  book 5: questionnaire for process evaluation and assessment of learning  book 6: questionnaire for graduate competency evaluation. table 6. evaluation of instrument dimensions component dimension score % criteria vision and mission of study program vision and mission of islamic study program 33 94.3 very good curriculum curriculum of islamic education 32 91 very good competency of lecturers and administrative staff lecturer competency 27 90 very good competency of administrative staff 32 91 very good infrastructure and facilities general standard 34 97 very good mosque 30 86 very good classroom 29 83 very good library 31 89 very good laboratory 24 79 good leader room 25 80 good lecturer room 34 97 very good administration room 33 94 very good toilet 33 94 very good teaching learning process teaching/learning plan 33 94 very good teaching implementation 34 97 very good assessment 29 83 very good student guidance aims and objectives 32 91 very good kinds of student guidance 29 97 very good graduate competency personality competency 28 93 very good pedagogic competency 32 91,4 very good professional competency 29 96.7 very good social competency 27 90 very good choiriyah et al. table 7. degree of component in diqa percentage criteria 1% 20.99% very poor 21% 40.99% poor 41% 60.99% moderate 61% 80.99% good 81%-100% very good main field testing and operational main testing descriptive analysis of diqa descriptive analysis was used to quantitatively report the result rates for diqa, as shown in table 8. this shows all instruments attaining greater than 76%, meaning that diqa is “very good.” table 8. descriptive analysis of the instrument in themain field testing no. parts to be evaluated mean % criteria 1 vision and mission of study program 3.826 95.65 very good 2 infrastructure and facilities 3.826 95.65 very good 3 lecturer competency 3.315 82.88 very good 4 administrative staff competency 3.681 92.03 very good 5 curriculum 3.826 95.65 very good 6 student supervision 3.826 95.65 very good 7 document of teaching learning process 3.826 95.65 very good 8 assessment 3.826 95.65 very good 9 teaching learning process 3.536 88.40 very good 10 graduate competency 3.674 85.50 very good table 9. result of quality evaluation forall study programs of fitk iain surakarta evaluation no name mean category input 1 vision and mission 3.83 very good 2 competency of lecturer and administration staff 3.31 very good 3 curriculum 3.66 very good 4 infrastructure and facilities 3.54 good mean of input 3.36 very good process 5 teaching learning process 3.73 very good 6 supervisory 3.58 very good journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197 evaluation no name mean category mean of process 3.65 very good output 7 competency of graduates 3.34 good mean of output 3.34 good mean of evaluation 3.45 very good the data in tables 7 to 9 summarize the results of the quality evaluation, with the study programs in fitk being “very good” on average with a score of 3.45. between the input, process, and output evaluation in the diqa model, there is comprehensive linkage, showing that good output is also determined by excellent input and process quality. as table 9 suggests, of the 24 aspects evaluated for diqa, 20 scored over 76% (excellent), with five—page thickness, evaluation guidance, data analysis, criteria determination, and preparation of evaluation report—scoring above 51% (good). in addition, table 10 shows that in general, diqa is easy to use (92%) and efficient (86.7%) when compared with ami. the in-depth analysis using cfa proves the result of the item index, indicating validity and reliability for each item of the diqa questionnaire. table 10. result of review of all instruments for pba, pbi, pgmi and tbi no indicator max score % criteria general format 1 package & appearance of the model 464 357 76.94 very attractive 2 layout of writing 464 391 84.27 very good 3 selection of words, font, and spacing 464 408 87.9 very good 4 systematic writing 464 398 85.8 very good 5 language use 460 404 87.8 very good 6 thickness of page 464 277 59.7 fairly thick 7 readability 464 462 99.6 easy to read 8 easy to understand 464 427 92 easy to understand substance of the model 1 evaluation guide 460 349 75.9 easy to understand 2 scope of evaluation 460 436 94.8 scope of evaluation already covered 3 depth of component description 464 384 82.8 component been described 4 guidance to use the instrument 464 452 97.41 easy to understand 5 ease of work 464 397 85.6 easy to do 6 time to work 460 391 85 time effective 7 significance 464 413 89.01 very useful 8 urgency of evaluation 464 420 90.5 needed to evaluate school choiriyah et al. 9 achievement of evaluation 464 393 84.7 enables evaluation of study program 10 comparison to internal quality audit (ami) 444 385 86.7 easier to use 11 comparison to other evaluation model 448 383 85.5 easier to use procedure of evaluation 1 preparation and planning 452 418 92.5 practical 2 execution of evaluation 456 353 77.4 very easy to do 3 analysis of evaluation data 452 329 72.8 easy to do 4 decision of evaluation criteria 452 317 70.1 easy to do 5 report result of evaluation 448 315 70.3 easy to do results of confirmatory factor analysis 1) cfa test for vision and mission aspect the vision and mission section, as the name suggests, comprises the vision and mission of the study program and its goals. results of the cfa on mission and vision shows seven items are satisfied. the measurement model achieves a good fit, as demonstrated by a cfi of 0.97, which is greater than 0.9. in addition, the t-values for all items are greater than 1.00, which means they are generally compatible with the mission aspect theory. this indicates that the seven points are valid points for constructing a measurement of the vision and mission of a study program. 2) cfa curriculum aspects the curriculum aspect comprises curriculum design and curriculum criteria, as measured by 12 items. the cfa results indicate a cfi value of 1.00. being greater than 0.9, this means the diqa model achieves a good fit. the t values of all items are greater than 1.96, meaning all items generally conform with the curriculum construct. 3) cfa for aspects of competency for lecturers and administrative staff the competency of lecturers and administrative staff is measured according to seven points. the value of good fit is p = 0.31018 (p> 0.05),meaning these items are suitable. in addition, the t values for all items are greater than 1.96, so the items are generally compatible with staff competencies and valid for measuring them. 4) cfa for infrastructure and facilities measurement of cfa for infrastructure and facilities is performed according to nine points: general standards, mosque, space, library, laboratory, leadership room, faculty room, administration room, and toilet. the test yielded the following results: gfi = 0.94, agfi = 0.93, nfi = 0.94 and cfi = 1.00 (> 0.9). this means the items have a good fit. in addition, the t values journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197 for all items are greater than 1.96, which means all items generally conform to the infrastructure stated in the diqa model, and they contain valid points for measuring infrastructure aspects. 5) cfa for aspects of learning the learning process covers three components—namely planning, implementation and assessment—and comprises 12 items. the test yielded the following results: gfi = 0.94, agfi = 0.93, nfi = 0.94 and cfi = 1.00 (> 0.9). the items therefore have a good fit. in addition, the tvalues for all items are greater than 1.96, meaning that they are generally compatible with aspects of learning and form valid points for measuring the process. 6) cfa for aspects of student development aspects of student coaching cover guidance, guardianship, skill practice, literary reading, and bilingual support, as measured by 30 items. the test gives the following result: gfi = 0.97, agfi = 0.97, nfi = 0.93 and cfi = 0.97 (> 0.9). this means diqa’s items are a good fit here. the t-values for all items are also all greater than 1.96, meaning they conform with student coaching aspects and are valid points for measuring them. 7) cfa for aspects of graduate competence graduate competency comprises four components, namely personality competency, pedagogical competency, professional competency, and social competency components, as measured by 15 items. the results of the cfa were: gfi = 0.97, agfi = 0.97, nfi = 0.93, and cfi = 0.97 (>0.9). this means the items have a good fit. in addition, the t values for all items are greater than 1.96, meaning they conform with aspects of graduate competence and are valid points on which to measure them. result of hypothetic model testing for diqa the hypothetic model testing of diqa provides evidence that diqa accommodates the evaluation of all the input, process, and output components. the input quality influences the quality of the process, and the quality of the process influences the output. input quality evaluation: this evaluation seeks to determine the quality of an islamic education study program by looking at (a) vision and mission of the study program; (b) the curriculum and its design; (c) the pedagogical competence of lecturers and other relevant staff, as well as professional, social, and personality competence; and (c) infrastructure and facilities, choiriyah et al. such as mosques, classrooms, libraries, multimedia equipment, laboratories, leadership rooms, faculty rooms, administration rooms, and toilets. quality process evaluation: this evaluation seeks to assess the quality of the study program by looking at (a) the planning and implementation of processes related to learning; and (b) student coaching, such as through thesis guidance, study guidance, al-qur'an literacy coaching, expertise practice, and language development. evaluate output quality: this evaluation seeks to establish the quality of graduates by measuring their professionalism, such as through pedagogical competence, professional competence, social competence, and personality competence. the results of the statistical analysis are clarified below. the diqa test with cfa using sem proves that diqa has a good ability to match data (i.e., it is a good fit). evidence from the standardized loading of the hypothetical model with component relations, variables of input quality evaluation, process quality, and output quality show that the correlational indicators among variables have a high loading factor ≥ 0.3 (tabachnick and fidell, 2007, p. 217; harrington, 2009, p. 215). this means that the main indicator of latent construct for the diqa model has been well-received and understood by the respondents, so the diqa model’s constructs have been well applied and are highly suitable for use. regarding the loading factor value, the evaluation of input to process quality has a loading factor value of 0.32 with a quadratic value of 0.1024. this means that 10.24% variance of input quality influences process quality. in addition, the evaluation of process quality to output quality has a loading value equal to 0.57 with quadratic value 0.3249, so 32.49% variance of process quality influences output quality. thus, the evaluation of input quality affects the process quality and ultimately contributes to output quality. this result is reinforced by a t-value with a 5% cut-off (value t = 1.96). conclusion and implication in summary, this study makes three contributions: the requirements for an internal quality assurance, a process for developing diqa, and empirical evidence to validate the final diqa model. the needs analysis was useful for internal quality assurance in the islamic university. it covered the vision and mission of study programs, curricula, competency of lecturers and administrative staff, infrastructure and facilities, student coaching, the teaching/learning process, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197 assessment of the teaching/learning process, and graduate competency. diqa comprises 10 different sets of questionnaire and a total of 480 items. it is based on the notion of cipp to develop constructs, methods of evaluation, and procedures. the development of items began at the exploration stage when performing the needs analysis and constructing the initial diqa package. the validation of items then started with preliminary testing using a two-round delphi method. the results of this were then used to develop the prototype into a model. the revised diqa then had seven evaluation dimensions, 10 sets of questionnaire, and 477 items in a strong format. the model was then named diqa (delta internal quality assurance). qualitative and quantitative techniques were employed in the development of diqa. a qualitative approach was used to develop the prototype during preliminary testing and main field testing. quantitatively speaking, statistical analysis using spps and isrel was applied to provide evidence for the validity and reliability of the items and options in each questionnaire. the results clearly prove that diqa is very good for consistently evaluating a study program and its individual items are valid. the final version of diqa also improves on the questionnaires from ami and ban-pt. this research, however, does have limitations in the form of less cooperative respondents, uncertain timing for the evaluation of study programs, the dilemma of respondents when measuring graduate competencies, and positioning diqa with government accreditation. the less cooperative respondents made evaluation objectives that were not clear and did not fully match. evaluation times also frequently did not conform, so some external validity may be lost. determining graduate competence, meanwhile, is a very subjective matter, and comprehensive data about graduate competency is not fully available. finally, diqa could not gain government evaluation for accreditation. the limitations therefore have implications for study programs and future research. firstly, benchmarking is the ultimate goal of accreditation, and benchmarking through accreditation makes study programs strive to receive a good accreditation value by meeting all the indicators. thus, an islamic education program must follow the rules and standards set by ban pt, although the specific peculiarities of islamic values are not covered. study programs can make use of diqa to accommodate islamic values, however, and an internal quality choiriyah et al. evaluation for islamic education programs helps produce professional teachers, which in turn helps them prepare for external evaluation. regarding future research, this study experienced a reluctance by respondents to become involved in the research and conduct evaluations in a timely fashion, thus affecting the validity of the items. this implies that diqa contains less comprehensive attributes for accreditation, so aligning diqa with ban-pt will be problematic. future research can help with this by verifying diqa’s items and improving both these and the dimensions of evaluation. efforts to align diqa as the initial accreditation system are also recommended if it is to be used by islamic universities. references abadie-mendia, t. (2013). accountability and quality in higher education: a case study. unf theses and dissertations 375, jacksonville: university of north florida. acaro, j.s. (1996). quality in education: an implementation handbook, abingdon: routledge. anderson, d; johnson, r and milligan, b. (2000). quality assurance and accreditation in australian higher education: an assessment of australian and international practice, canberra: detya. ban-pt (national accreditation body for higher education), (2002). guidelines for internal quality assessment of higher education (2nd ed.), jakarta: ministry of national education. borg, w.d and gall, m.d. (2003). educational research: an introduction, new york: longman. bridge, g.r; judd, c.m. and moock, p.r. (1973). the determinants of educational outcomes, massacusetts: ballinger pubhlising company. chinta, r; kebritchi, m and ellias, j. (2016). "a conceptual framework for evaluating higher education institutions," international journal of educational management, vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 989-1002. choiriyah, s. (2018). model evaluasi mutu internal program studi pendidikan islam dalam menghasilkan guru profesional, solo: universitas negeri yogjakarta. ewell, p. (2010). "twenty years of quality assurance in higher education: what’s happened and what’s different?," quality in higher education, vol. 16, no. 2, p. 173–175. fitri, z.a. (2016). "quality assurance system between the islamic university and the state university," aljamiah, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 208-235. fuller, a and belkin, d. (2015). "the watchdogs of college education rarely bite," wall street journal, 17 june 2015. gaspersz, v. (2005). total quality management, jakarta: pt gramedia pustaka utama. ghozali, i. (2009). aplikasi analisis multivariate dengan proses spss, semarang: badan penerbit universitas diponegoro. grobbelarr, s. (2007). data gathering: delphi method. r&d in the national system of innovation: a system, dynamic model, pretoria: university of pretoria. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9(3), 177-197 haris, i. (2013). "assessment on the implementation of internal quality assurance at higher education (an indonesian report)," journal of educational and instructional studies in the world, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 45-49. harrington, d. (2009). confirmatory factor analysis, oxford: oxford university press. harvey, l. and green, d. (1993). "defining quality," assessment and evaluation in higher evaluation, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 9-34. kelchen, r. (2017). higher education accreditation and federal government, wasington dc: urban institute. koslowski f. (2006). "quality and assessment in context," quality assurance in education, vol. 3, pp. 277-288. legčević, j and hećimović, v. (2016). "internal quality assurance at a higher education institution," poslovna izvrnost, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 75-87. lenn, m.p. (2004). quality assurance and accreditation in higher education in east asia and the pacific, washington dc: the world bank. msche (middle states commission on higher education). (2014). standards for accreditation and requirements of affiliation (13th ed.), philadelphia: msche. nea (national education association), (2006). "school quality: issues in education," nea (national education association), washington, dc. patil, a.s. and pudlowski, z.j. (2005). "important issues of the accreditation and quality assurance and a strategy in the development of accreditation framework for engineering course," global journal of engineering education, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 49-62. podsakoff, p.m; mackenzie, s.b; paine, j.b and bachrach, d.g. (2000). "organizational citizenship behaviors: a critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research," journal of management, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 513-563. rezaee, r and shokrpour, n. (2011). "performance assessment of academic departments: cipp model," european journal of social sciences, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 228-236. rich, b.l.; lepine, j.a. and crawford, e.r. (2010). "job engagement: antecedents and effects on job performance," academy of management journal, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 617-635. roffe, i.m. (1998). "conceptual problems of continuous quality improvement and innovation in higher education," quality assurance in education, vol. 6, p. 74–82. rossi, p.h; lipsey, mw. and freeman, he. (2004). evaluation: a systematic approach (7th ed.), ca: sage publications. sallis, e. (2002). total quality management in education, london: kogan page limited. sekayi, d and kennedy, a. (2017). "qualitative delphi method: a four round process with a worked example.," the qualitative report, vol. 22, no. 10, pp. 2755-2763. shafer, b.s and coate, l.e. (1992) "benchmarking in higher education: a tool for improving quality and reducing cost," business officer, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 28-35. tabachnick, b.g. and fidell, l.s. (2007). experimental designs using anova, colombia: thomson & brooks/cole. tam, m. (2001). assessing quality in higher education by examining the effects of university experiences on learning outcomes and student development, durham: university of durham. choiriyah et al. utuka, g. (2012). quality assurance in higher education: comparative analysis of provision and practices in ghana and new zealand, wellington: victoria university of wellington. van vught f. and westerheijden, d. (1994). "towards a general model of quality assessment in higher education," higher education, vol. 28, pp. 355-371. watty, k. (2006). "want to know about quality in higher education? ask an academic," quality in higher education, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 291-301. woodhouse, d. (1999). "quality and quality assurance: an overview," in quality and internationalisation in higher education , h. de wit and j. knight, eds., paris, oecd, pp. 29-43. yakubova, s. (2009). perception of quality in changing university education in kazakhstan, kent: kent state university college and graduate school of education, health, and human services. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi i from the editor hello, we have realized may 2015 issue of journal of social studies education research. the journal is becoming more prestigious with every new issue. this issue is also an indication of it. both the quality and the quantity of the manuscript being submitted are increasing. moreover, the journal is being indexed (ei) and/or under indexing process (eric) with even more indexing institutions. i believe, the articles published in the journal are useful addition to the pedagogical knowledge in general and to the reader him/herself. the other academic activity of asse is its annual symposium. this year’s symposium (usbes 2015) was held in abant i̇zzet baysal university at 23-25 april 2015). the symposium was also very successful as its predecessors. i am grateful the organizers of the symposium namely education faculty dean, head of social studies education department, their colleagues and students. the symposium was held with both national and international attendance. there were 219 oral presentation, 2 workshops, 2 keynote speakers, exhibition and social event. the main theme was edi̇törden merhaba, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi / journal of social studies education research (jsser)’nin mayıs 2015 sayısıyla yeniden birlikteyiz. elinizdeki sayıyla her geçen gün yayın kalitesi artan/yeni indeksler tarafından taranmak üzere izlemeye alınan bir dergi olmanın haklı gururunu yaşıyoruz. çok kısa sürede birçok indeks tarafından taranan jsser, education index (h.w. wilson) tarafından taranmaya başladıktan sonra şimdi de eric tarafında izleme sürecine dâhil edilmiş bulunmaktadır. bu dergide yayınlanan çalışmaların hepsi siz okuyucularımız için ufuk açıcı, bilimsel bilgi ve gönence katkı sağlayıcı makaleler olduğu inancını taşıyorum. bilimsel bilgi ve gönence katkı sağlayan bir başka bilimsel şölen olan uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumunun dördüncüsü (usbes 2015), abant i̇zzet baysal üniversitesinde 23-25 nisan 2015 tarihlerinde gerçekleştirildi. bu sempozyum da bundan önceki sempozyumlar gibi başarılı bir şekilde gerçekleşti. bu başarılı sempozyum hayata geçiren abant i̇zzet baysal üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dekanlığı ve sosyal bilgiler eğitimi www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi ii ‘peace education’. this important theme was discussed in detail in the hope that the results were meaningful not only academically but also it will contribute to the initiatives to maintain peace in turkey, and to establish peace in the countries around turkey. we hope the symposium contributed to this greater aim by informing the community in general. in this issue there are seven articles being accepted for publication after blind review process. two of the articles are from the united states of america. the first one is by julie a. taylor & okezie iroha “social studies education and public art: the detroit billboard project”. the second one is by joshua l kenna & william benedict russell iii “secondary social studies teachers’ time commitment when addressing the common core state standards”. the other articles are the work of turkish scholars in consecutive order; “an investigation into the organization levels of social studies teachers with regard to constructivist learning environments in terms of several variables” by hüseyin çalışkan; “çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının akademik başarı üzerindeki etkisi: bir meta-analiz çalışması” by eyüp yurt & seyat polat; “examining the citizenship anabilim dalı başkanlığının saygıdeğer idarecileri, öğretim elemanları ve öğrencilerini tebrik ve teşekkürlerimizi arz ederiz. bu sempozyumda ulusal ve uluslararası düzeyde katılım gerçekleşmiş, 219 adet sözlü sunum, 2 davetli konuşmacı, 2 çalıştay, sergi ve sosyal etkinliklerle hem bilimsel çalışmaların paylaşıldığı hem de ufuk açıcı etkinliklerin gerçekleştirildiği bir bilgi şöleni hayata geçirilmiş oldu. ana teması “barış eğitimi” olan bu bilgi şöleni türkiye’de, yakın çevresinde ve dünyanın diğer bölgelerinde var olan çatışma ortamlarının giderilmesinde eğitimcilere ve özellikle sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerine düşen görevlerden birisi olan kamuyu aydınlatma görevini layıkıyla yerine getirmiş olduğu inancını taşımaktayım. elinizdeki sayıda hakem süreci tamamlanmış olan; ikisi amerika birleşik devletlerinden olmak üzere toplam yedi makale bulunmaktadır. bu makalelerden ilki julie a. taylor & okezie iroha tarafından “social studies education and public art: the detroit billboard project” başlığı ile kaleme alınmıştır. i̇kinci makalemiz ise joshua l kenna & william benedict russell iii’ün yazarlığını üstlendiği “secondary social studies teachers’ time commitment when addressing the common core state www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi iii and democracy education textbook and curriculum in terms of global education” (küresel eğitim çerçevesinde vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programı)” by elvan günel & ayşegül pehlivan; “sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının bakış açısından coğrafya derslerinde medyanın rolü” by cemalettin ayas; and finally “the impact of ict on pupils’ achievement and attitudes in social studies” by emin cener , i̇smail acun and gökhan demirhan. i would finally like to thank to everybody who contributed to the may 2015 issue of jsser. bülent tarman, ph.d president of asse standards” başlıklı makaledir. ardından “an investigation into the organization levels of social studies teachers with regard to constructivist learning environments in terms of several variables” başlığı ile hüseyin çalışkan’ın makelesi yer almaktadır. daha sonra eyüp yurt ve seyat polat’ın “çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının akademik başarı üzerindeki etkisi: bir meta-analiz çalışması”; elvan günel & ayşegül pehlivan’ın yazarlığını üstlendiği “examining the citizenship and democracy education textbook and curriculum in terms of global education” (küresel eğitim çerçevesinde vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi ders kitabı ve öğretim programı)” başlıklı makale; cemalettin ayas’ın “sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının bakış açısından coğrafya derslerinde medyanın rolü” son olarak da emin cener , ismail acun ve gökhan demirhan’ın “the impact of ict on pupils’ achievement and attitudes in social studies” başlıklı makalesi yer almaktadır. nihayet jsser’nin mayıs 2015 sayısının okuyucuyla buluşmasını sağlayan herkese teşekkür ederim. bülent tarman, ph.d sbeb başkanı www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 28-46 the level of intellectual security and its relationship with life satisfaction among mutah university students abdallah almahaireh1, mamduh alzaben2, fatima aladwan3 & mohammad aljahani4 abstract the study aimed to reveal the level of intellectual security and its relationship to life satisfaction among students at the university of mutah, jordan. a correlation approach was used. to achieve those objectives, intellectual security and life satisfaction scales were developed, and their psychometric characteristics were verified. the sample consisted of 297 students (146 males, 151 females). the study results showed moderate levels of intellectual security and life satisfaction among the students, and that there is a relationship between intellectual security, social-life satisfaction, and personal-life satisfaction. intellectual security did not differ between genders, and the life satisfaction of the females was better than that of the males. intellectual security and life satisfaction did not differ by academic year. the study recommends paying attention to students struggling academically and providing therapeutic programmes to help them, and especially the males, in the development of life satisfaction. keywords: intellectual security, life satisfaction, mutah university. introduction university comes at an important stage of the individual’s life. the move from high school to university is a transitional period for students as they experience greater freedom and interaction. on campus, the individual acquires new life skills and enters new relationships with both individuals and groups. these relationships have different motivations and varying purposes and concepts. university students find themselves exposed to challenging circumstances and stressful life situations. the developmental, psychological, and social changes they experience present them with demands and needs to be satisfied and ambitions and goals to be achieved (atef, 2017). intellectual security is a relatively modern term. it has risen to prominence recently in the context of the information revolution, the resulting ease of cultural transmission and their influence on each other. it has become clear that in arab and islamic societies the concept of intellectual 1 dr., university of jordan, a.mahaere@ju.edu.jo 2 dr., university of jordan, mamdohalzaben45@yahoo.com 3 dr., university of jordan, f.aladwan@ju.edu.jo 4 dr., mt_aj@hotmail.com mailto:a.mahaere@ju.edu.jo mailto:mamdohalzaben45@yahoo.com mailto:f.aladwan@ju.edu.jo mailto:mt_aj@hotmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 28-46 security has become closely linked with concepts of terrorism and intellectual deviation. the concept is aimed primarily at fortifying members of society from being misled by threats to their ideology and culture. researchers have proposed several definitions for intellectual security, and the united nations university has described it as protecting human beings from serious risks and fears of life dangers, regardless of whether those threats are at the level of the individual, group, or state, and whether direct or indirect. intellectual security is focused on securing and protecting individuals and communities from fears or threats affecting their lives (clark, et al., 1994; van overschelde, & piatt, 2020). intellectual security can be defined as ensuring that the ideas and minds of individuals are free from all forms of misconception that may pose a threat to the life of the individual, the community and the achievement of security and stability in all areas of life (al-haidar, 2010). al-maliki (2008) describes intellectual security as involving the safety of people’s thinking from deviation and from straying away from moderation in their understanding of political, religious, and social matters. intellectual security thus leads to the maintenance of public order and the achievement of security and stability in various areas of life (al-faqi, 2010). it is also defined as an individual or collective conception that includes values that safeguard society from the forces of deviation and gives them ideas that provide people with happiness and reassurance and protect them from fears and terrorism. the disruption of thought systems among members of society is a major problem facing societies and a threat to later generations; therefore, interest in intellectual security to confront and reduce psychological and social problems is increasing. intellectual security studies focus on the creation of positive relationships between three main axes: the political, the civilizational, and the religious. through these, the aim is to provide comprehensive security for society through the provision of freedom, democracy, the consecration of tolerance among individuals and the development and building of society (aronson et al, 2020; johnson, 2005; robbins et al., 2019). achieving security in its most comprehensive sense is a goal whose objectives are achieving stability in society, protecting youth, and preventing them from accepting extraneous and destructive ideas, and preventing them from obeying and complying with groups that would brainwash them and change their beliefs. for the university student, intellectual security allows the individual to question and think freely, allowing the student the freedom to take positions that almahaireh et al. 30 are contrary to the general context of society without being looked down upon, but to discuss those attitudes and ideas openly. in this way, the students are helped to grow, to innovate, to explore and to build knowledge. intellectual security is of particular importance in achieving security in that it is a continuous process of deepening the sense of duty towards society, developing a sense of belonging and instilling a love of order and cooperation between individuals in society. this process builds individuals who are actively responsible and are conscious of both their responsibilities and rights (carothers, 2018; merrow, 2004). one of the reasons for and indicators of intellectual insecurity is the negative impact of media outlets, as the media play a major role in shaping the attitudes, values, ideas, and beliefs of individuals. the weak role of social institutions is another factor, together with poor parenting, as evident in neglect, lack of care, absence of good role models, and a lack of consideration for the characteristics accompanying growth with their purposeful needs (chaldan, 2013; hamad, 2017). intellectual insecurity leads to aberrations, violence, and terrorism, and has many negative effects on individuals and societies. these include psychological effects: feelings of fear, anxiety, tension, psychological strife, inability to define future goals, and the inability of the individual to understand his or her meaning and purpose in life. the social consequences of intellectual insecurity include poverty, family and social disintegration, poor social control, disintegration, and dissolution of the principles of society, the emigration of national competencies due to terrorism, the spread of violence, changes in the economic and social development of the state, accompanied by instability. these factors all impact the life satisfaction of individuals, since satisfaction with life requires the individual to feel safe (shrestha, 2019; williams, 2009). azab & moslehi (2021) pointed that the intellectual security important and has a role in defeating the tourism among university students. also, alkushki & al saban (2021) addressed that the quality of family life effects negatively on the intellectual security. the results of jaradat & ajlouni (2021) shows that the students prefer online learning compared with face-to-face learning which means that they were facing problems that effects intellectual security. the concept of life satisfaction refers to the degree of personal satisfaction an individual feels with his or her life. life satisfaction includes factors such as the quality of the dwelling, economic conditions and problems suffered by the society, such as the rates of crime and accidents. the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 28-46 concept of life satisfaction also refers to the experience and knowledge of the individual and to their understanding of the difference between ambitions and achievements. according to the world health organization (who), life satisfaction involves the beliefs the individual has about their life, goals, expectations, and interests, in the light of the cultural and value system that prevails in the society in which they live. it is a broad concept that is affected by the physical health of the individual and by their psychological state, social relations, and relationship with all the components of the environment within which they live (issa & rashwan, 2006). martin et al. (2008) defines life satisfaction as an internal state that the individual feels and which influences his emotions, behaviours, and responses to situations. it reflects his satisfaction and acceptance of all aspects of life, including his acceptance of himself, his family, and others. paschali and tsitsas (2010) define it as a knowledge-based process in which an individual assesses his life in the light of his own understanding and evaluates his circumstances in the light of his personal standards. chaing (2010) suggests that life satisfaction results from the successful solution of several psychological and social crises facing the individual throughout his life span. life satisfaction expresses the degree to which the individual feels happy about his general situation in life. the term ‘life satisfaction’ is an important indicator of positive psychological bliss (psychological well-being). it has been defined as a cognitive assessment of the areas of life in general, or of the important areas of life such as family and school (huebner, et al., 2005), shawaqfeh and almahaireh (2019) pointed that the using of technology impact on the life satisfaction and can improve it in many ways, also, the quality-of-life effects on life satisfaction (tavakoly sany et al., 2021), the results of jaradat & ajlouni (2021) revealed that students preferred an online learning environment to face-to-face learning and perceived the former as being very useful. however, students encountered some challenges, such as mental health issues (anxiety and stress), which effects their life satisfaction, the result of chandra et al. (2018) indicated a positive influence of service quality on university student satisfaction. life satisfaction is also a component of personal bliss (subjective well-being), which includes the satisfaction of individuals with the environment in which they currently live, their willingness to change, and satisfaction with the individual’s future expectations and their personal opinions about the nature of their relationships with individuals in their lives (cenaseven-onder, 2012). almahaireh et al. 32 one of the theories that interprets life satisfaction is the theory of values, objectives and meaning. developed by oishi (1999), this theory is described in al-ashe (2002) and suggests that individuals feel life satisfaction when they achieve their goals, although feelings of satisfaction will differ. although people have different goals and their degree of importance to the individual will differ, individuals who are truly aware of their goals and aspirations and succeed in achieving them will enjoy a higher degree of life satisfaction than those who are unaware of the realities of their goals. the theory of adaptation states the following: adaptation is always taking place, and individuals can become accustomed to new events in their lives. depending on their personality type, their reactions, their goals in life and whatever exposure the individual must events that negatively affect him, he will have the ability to adapt and return to being how he was before being exposed to those events (diener, 2000). the core of judge’s self-evaluation theory states that the partial evaluation of all aspects of any area of life produces an ultimate feeling of life satisfaction (tomlinson, 1997, cited in attia, 2008). however, in his social comparison model, esterlin (2001) argues that individuals compare themselves with others and are happier if their circumstances are better than those of others around them. life satisfaction thus depends on a comparison of social, physical, or cultural norms on the one hand, and what the individual has achieved, on the other. evaluation theory sees that life satisfaction can be measured according to various criteria. the most important of these criteria depend on the individual: their dominant values, their temperament and the circumstances surrounding them, all of which affect their sense of life satisfaction. this theory sees no relationship with age and education as possible variables of life satisfaction (diener, 2000). study problem the hashemite kingdom of jordan has been subjected to several terrorist campaigns in recent years. these have targeted all aspects of jordanian society: its economy, politics, and lifestyle, and called for chaos as a punishment for the society due to what is seen as its deviant ideology. this was evident in the events that took place at karak fort and salt, where the behaviour of the young people, resulting from their intellectual deviation, disintegrated into extremist groups. for the human being, the need to live safely is a necessary and indispensable condition, and the need for intellectual security is therefore one of the most important requirements of the present day because of the multiple pressures on young people to practice the type of terrorism from which jordan journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 28-46 suffered. many analytical studies, such as those of al-azzam (2018) and al-zahrani (2017), point to the importance of intellectual security in achieving national security. universities are among the most important educational institutions that can help to develop and organize the ideas of young people and help them understand their role in life and what is needed to achieve success. the choices made by university students are more important than those at other educational stages. it is of huge importance to society that students understand the origins of civilization as they will be the makers of change, influencing the future of generations to come. ali (2017) notes, in his study, that university students face many challenges and that foremost among them is intellectual security. research questions the current study therefore aims to answer the main question, ‘what is the level of intellectual security and its relationship to life satisfaction among the students of mutah university?’ the study will investigate this by asking the following secondary questions: 1. what are the levels of intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically? 2. is there a statistically significant relationship at the level of significance (α=0.05) between intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically? 3. are there a statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α=0.05) in the levels of intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically according to gender? 4. are there a statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α=0.05) in the levels of intellectual security and life satisfaction of mutah university students who are struggling academically according to academic years? hypotheses 1. ha1: there a statistically significant relationship at the level of significance (α=0.05) between intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically. almahaireh et al. 34 2. ha2: there a statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α=0.05) in the levels of intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically according to gender. 3. ha3: there a statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α=0.05) in the levels of intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically according to gender. method research design this study uses a quantitative approach by correlation approach to investigate the levels of intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically, and possible relationship among these two variables. also, to investigate the differences in them according to gender and academic years (creswell & creswell, 2017). intellectual security scale and life satisfaction scale were applied students who are struggling academically on the mutah university in the academic year of (2020). participants the study community consisted of all mutah university students who were struggling academically in their first and third academic years. according to statistics from the admissions and registration department at mutah university (2020), there were approximately 2971 undergraduate students who were struggling academically in the first semester. the study sample was chosen randomly and was made up of 297 students from both genders (146 males, 151 females) in their first or third year (140 in the first year, 157 in the third year) from all faculties, they were aged between 18-20 years old, representing 10% of the study community. once the names of the students who were struggling academically had been identified by the dean of the college, 10% of them were invited to participate in the study. before the study commenced, the written consent of the students and the approval of the university were obtained. table 1 demographic characteristics of the respondents (n=297) variable number percentage gender males 146 49.2% females 151 50.8% academic year first 140 47.1% third 157 52.9% journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 28-46 data collection tools intellectual security scale the researchers conducting the study created an intellectual security scale, adapting it from ali (2017), al-azzam (2018), al-zahrani (2017) and hamad (2017). the scale comprised 27 items, each of which was rated on a five-point scale from 5 (always) to 1 (never). higher scores reflected a higher level of intellectual security. the researchers calculated the validity and reliability and found that the discriminate evidence ranged between 0.35 and 0.77. cronbach’s alpha was initially 0.82, and then 0.78 at the retest, three weeks later. life satisfaction scale the researchers adapted the life satisfaction scales of al-juhani (2014) and huebner (2005). the inventory comprised 40 items, each of which the participants were asked to rate on a five-point scale from 5 (always) to 1 (never). higher scores reflected a higher level of life satisfaction. it included four dimensions: family life satisfaction, university life satisfaction, social life satisfaction, and personal life satisfaction. the researchers extracted the validity and reliability and found that the discriminate evidence ranged between 0.33 and 0.65, while the internal validity of the dimensions ranged between 0.45 and 0.67. cronbach’s alpha for the scale and its dimensions ranged from 0.75–0.88, and then from 0.84–0.96 at the retest, three weeks later. data collection the researchers obtained approval for this study from the institutional review board. data were collected by questionnaires covering the two measures: intellectual security and life satisfaction, it was distribution by the dean of the college, 10% of them were invited to participate in the study. the questionnaires answers were checked to make sure it can be analysis. data analysis spss was used to discover the results. to answer the first question, descriptive statistics using arithmetic averages and standard deviations were calculated. to answer the second question, pearson correlation test was extracted because it analyses the linear correlation between two sets of data . to answer the third question, the independent t-test was used to examine the differences between the averages of intellectual security and life satisfaction according to gender. to answer the fourth question, the independent t-test was used to examine the differences between the averages of intellectual security and life satisfaction according to academic year. the independent t-test was used because its analyses the statistical differences between the means of two groups. almahaireh et al. 36 findings classic assumption test this test is useful for determining whether there are deviations in the assumptions before regression because the regression equation must not deviate from the blue (best linear unbiased estimator) criteria. the classical assumption test comprises the steps below. results of the normality test & homogeneity test the normality test and homogeneity test using levene’s test were made for intellectual security and life satisfaction, the results shows that there is a normality distribution (ghozali, 2018) and there was a homogeneity according to hair et. al. (2018), the skewness for intellectual security were 0.350-, while the kurtosis was 0.270, and the homogeneity test where not significant at the level of (0.05). while the skewness for life satisfaction was 0.578, while the kurtosis was 0.207, and the homogeneity test where not significant at the level of (0.05). multicollinearity test this test helps ensure the existence of the independent variables based on the vif and tolerance values. the data are free from multicollinearity if tolerance is greater than 0.10 and the vif value is less than 10 (ghozali, 2018). level of intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically arithmetic averages and standard deviations for the intellectual security and life satisfaction scales are shown in table 2: table 2 arithmetic average and standard deviation for intellectual security and life satisfaction, including the latter’s sub-dimensions variable dimension average standard deviation level dimension rank total for intellectual security 3.18 1.13 moderate life satisfaction family life satisfaction 2.45 1.23 moderate 4 university life satisfaction 3.06 0.69 moderate 3 social life satisfaction 3.12 0.62 moderate 2 personal life satisfaction 3.43 1.30 moderate 1 total life satisfaction 2.77 0.53 moderate journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 28-46 it is to be noted from table 2 that mutah university students who were struggling academically achieved moderate levels of intellectual security with an arithmetic average of 3.18 and a standard deviation of 1.13. they achieved a moderate degree of life satisfaction with an arithmetic average of 2.77 and a standard deviation of 0.53. the various dimensions of life satisfaction also achieved moderate levels, with arithmetic averages ranging between 2.45 and 3.43. hypothesis testing ha1: the relationship between intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically to answer this question, the pearson correlation coefficient was calculated, and table 3 illustrates the results. table 3 correlation coefficient between intellectual security and life satisfaction variable family life satisfaction university life satisfaction social life satisfaction personal life satisfaction total score for life satisfaction intellectual security correlation 0.07 0.08 0.23 * * 0.15 * 0.04 r2 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.00 sig. 0.18 0.16 0.00 0.01 0.45 it is noted in table 3 that the correlation coefficients for personal and social life satisfaction with intellectual security were statistically significant as the correlation coefficients were positive, the social life satisfaction effects 5% on intellectual security, while the personal life satisfaction effects 2% on intellectual security, whereas there was no statistical significance at the level of significance (0.05) between the dimensions of family life satisfaction and university life satisfaction or between total life satisfaction and intellectual security. ha2: differences relating to gender in the level of intellectual security and life satisfaction of mutah university students who are struggling academically to answer the fourth question, a test (test-retest) was used to examine the differences between genders in relation to performance averages and the statistical significance of intellectual security and life satisfaction of students who were struggling academically. table 4 illustrates this. almahaireh et al. 38 table 4 results, according to gender, of average performance on intellectual security and life satisfaction scales by students who struggle academically factor n gender arithmetic average standard deviation df t sig. intellectual security 146 male 3.05 1.10 295 -1.94 0.06 151 female 3.29 1.14 life satisfaction 146 male 2.65 0.39 295 -3.72 0.00 151 female 2.87 0.61 as can be noted from table 4, there were no differences in intellectual security between male and female students as the value of t (1.94) is a non-significant statistical value. however, there were differences between male and female students in terms of life satisfaction, as the value of t (3.72) was significant, showing that females scored better at life satisfaction than males. ha3: differences according to academic year in the level of intellectual security and life satisfaction of mutah university students who are struggling academically to answer the fifth question related to the academic year, a test (test-retest) was used to examine the differences according to academic year between average performance on intellectual security and life satisfaction for firstand third-year students who were struggling academically at mutah university. table 5 illustrates this. table 5 results of average performance on intellectual security and life satisfaction of students according to academic year factor n academic year arithmetic average standard deviation df t sig. intellectual security 140 first 3.22 1.06 295 0.66 0.51 157 third 3.14 1.18 life satisfaction 140 first 2.78 0.52 295 0.28 0.78 157 third 2.76 0.54 table 5 shows that there were no differences in either intellectual security or life satisfaction between students in different academic years, with t values of 0.66, and 0.28, respectively. these are not statistically significant values, which indicates that the current situation of students, despite their academic weakness, does not differ according to academic year. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 28-46 discussion the study results showed moderate levels of intellectual security and life satisfaction among the students, and that there is a relationship between intellectual security with social-life satisfaction, and personal-life satisfaction. intellectual security did not differ between genders, and the life satisfaction of the females was better than that of the males. intellectual security and life satisfaction did not differ by academic year. level of intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically the results of the first question show that mutah university students who are struggling academically have achieved a moderate degree of intellectual security. it is suggested that this is due to the training and enrichment programmes organized by the university, and the services provided by the dean of student affairs for students who are struggling academically. these have aimed to involve them in the community and to organize enriching activities for them. the result can be explained that the universities are a safe place for students to build knowledge, explore, and evaluate ideas; they also encourage them to think, research, and freely question what they are learning. additionally, if students take counter-societal attitudes, and sympathise with some of the others' ideas that may be anomalous and false, their presence within the academic environment allows faculty and educators to change and correct those ideas rationally and logically (bucher & manning, 2005). many studies have indicated the seriousness of the intellectual deviation, resulting from the lack of intellectual security levels in university students. universities must achieve intellectual security for their students to adjust their intellectual paths (al-aklabi & ahmed, 2010). in this way, the results of this study differ from the results of a study by al-zahrani (2017), which indicates a high level of intellectual security among gifted students in the city of jeddah. it also differs from the results of a study by mubarak (2016), which indicates a high level of intellectual security among employees at al-bayt university. the results show that mutah university students who are struggling academically have achieved a moderate degree of life satisfaction, in all its dimensions, and this result can be attributed to the provision of financial and moral support from families and the high social value given by society to its university students, and society’s customs and traditions that reflect positively on the personal life satisfaction of the students. personal life satisfaction ranked first, with family life satisfaction almahaireh et al. 40 ranking last. this may be due to problems experienced by the students at the university, which influence their family relations. university life satisfaction came in the penultimate position due to the students’ low academic achievements and low grades, which were under 65%. the results of the current study differ from the findings of studies by zbaidat (2015), al-juhani (2014), hamdan-mansour et al. (2012), anye (2013), and shqura (2012), which indicated high levels of life satisfaction in all individuals, both in total score and in all its dimensions. relationship between intellectual security and life satisfaction among mutah university students who are struggling academically the results show that the correlation coefficients between the personal and social dimensions of life satisfaction and intellectual security were positive and statistically significant. this means that university students who are struggling academically still enjoy personal and social satisfaction. and these results are aligned with high levels of intellectual security. this can be explained by the fact that achieving personal and social goals makes students feel safe and enables them to think in a moderate and safe manner with logical and achievable goals and ambitions. however, there was no statistical significance at the level of significance (0.05) between the dimensions of family life satisfaction and university life satisfaction, or between total life satisfaction and intellectual security. this can be explained by the fact that the students’ personal and social life satisfaction is more important to them than the other types of life satisfaction, and in this, the results of the current study correspond to the results of studies by ali (2017), al-azzam (2018), al-zahrani (2017), zbaidat (2015), shqura (2012) and hammad & al-shahrani (2020) and show the existence of correlating relationships between the variables of intellectual security and life satisfaction, with many variants involving factors such as psychological flexibility, personality traits and emotional intelligence. differences relating to gender in the level of significance (0.05 = α) in the level of intellectual security and life satisfaction of mutah university students who are struggling academically the results show that there are no differences in terms of intellectual security between male and female students, although life satisfaction scores favour the females, the researcher attributes the results to the females’ greater acceptance of their situation, and received social support better than males, as they accept what they have, even if it is very little, while males frequently reject the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 28-46 status quo. this is possibly due to methods of family upbringing that allow sons to revolt and reject, but do not allow the females the same freedom, these results differ from those of zbaidat (2015), shqura (2012) and abu al ula, (2009), which showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the level of life satisfaction due to gender. this may be due to the difference of the study sample in terms of the country in which this study was applied, as it was applied in palestine, where males and females suffer from war conditions that directly affect life satisfaction. differences relating to academic year (first or third) at the level of significance (0.05 = α) in the level of intellectual security and life satisfaction of mutah university students who are struggling academically the results show that there are no differences in intellectual security and life satisfaction among students in different academic years. the researcher attributes the absence of differences in intellectual security and life satisfaction relating to academic year to the convergence of ages at the university at which the student’s study and because a low level of academic achievement is a common problem among all students in the sample, whether in their first or third year. this finding differs from findings in the study by zbaidat (2015) which showed that there were statistically significant differences in the level of life satisfaction due to the academic year in favor of the third year compared with the second year, and there were no differences between the third year and the first year. the difference between the results is that the current study was applied to first and third year students only. conclusion and implications from the study results, we conclude that intellectual security is important for individuals and societies, and that university students immunize themselves against severe danger and various threats, such as intellectual deviation, terrorism, and departure from moderation in their understanding of religious, social, and political matters. this is especially relevant considering the spread of extremism and terrorism, which leads to loss of security and stability in various areas of life. through their university experience, the students can free their minds from wrong beliefs and ideas that cause threats to security and stability. this intellectual security is linked to life satisfaction and to the individual’s convictions about their life, their living situation and what they almahaireh et al. 42 aspire to. if an individual possesses a high level of intellectual security, he or she will achieve satisfaction in life. hence, it is worth noting the importance of maintaining the levels of intellectual security and life satisfaction among students and working to improve and raise these levels, particularly among students who are struggling in their studies. because they feel anxious about their academic futures, these students can become victims of extremism and terrorism. the life satisfaction of males should be strengthened through specialized extension programmes and extracurricular work for students who are failing in their studies in jordanian universities. intellectual security and life satisfaction should be incorporated into university courses and additional studies should be conducted with larger samples of university students. also, the study recommended the universities to reinforce life satisfaction, intellectual security, spiritual and moral values, enhance citizenship and belonging, hold courses and training programs to strengthen life satisfaction skills in their students, and hold seminars and lectures to introduce the risks of intellectual deviation and extremism and how to reduce it. a limitation of this study is that it was conducted during the covid-19 pandemic. finally, we conclude the importance of the questions and hypotheses through the results and discussion reached by the researchers. acknowledgement all authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study. references abu al ula, mohammed ashraf (2009). “satisfaction with life and its relationship with stressful life events”. scientific journal of the faculty of literature 44, 481-528. al-aklabi, m. d., & ahmed, a. m. a. (2010). a proposed teaching strategy to inculcate the values of students ’intellectual security to immunize them against extremism and terrorism:“ with an applied model” to teach the value of good citizenship. security research journal, 16(46), 75-124 al-ashe, akram (2002). life satisfaction and its relationship to attachment patterns in the middle stage of adulthood (40-60 years). unpublished doctorate dissertation, university of jordan. al-azzam, maysam. (2018). the role of university education in enhancing intellectual security from the point of view of faculty members at hail university. international specialized educational journal, (7) 2, 124-134. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 28-46 al-faqi, ibrahim (2010). the first national conference on intellectual security, intellectual security., riyadh: prince nayef bin abdul aziz chair for intellectual security studies, king saud university. al-haidar, abdulrahman. (2010). the general directorate of prisons and its efforts to achieve intellectual security for the inmates”. prince nayef bin abdul aziz chair for intellectual security studies, king saud university. ali, atef. (2017). intellectual security and its relation to emotional intelligence and decisionmaking among cairo university students, journal of psychological counselling, 52, 143202. al-juhani, mohammed (2014). patterns of communication among parents and their relationship to life satisfaction among middle school students in the kingdom of saudi arabia, unpublished master thesis, mutah university. alkushki, m. & al saban, a. (2021). the quality of family life as a mediating variable in the relationship between intellectual security and one-track mindedness among a sample of saudi arabia university students, journal of educational college, (37) 4, 410-459. al-maliki, abd ulhafeeth (2008). towards building a national strategy to achieve intellectual security to face terrorism, unpublished doctorate dissertation, naif arab university for security sciences. al-zahrani, muhammad (2017). intellectual security and its relationship with the personal qualities of the gifted in jeddah. the scientific journal of the faculty of education, (33) 1, 445-472. anye, e., gallien, t., bian, h., & moulton, m. (2013). the relationship between spiritual wellbeing and health-related quality of life in college students. journal of american college health, 61, 414–421. aronson, b., banda, r., johnson, a., kelly, m., radina, r., reyes, g., sander, s., & wronowski, m. (2020). the social justice teaching collaborative: a collective turn towards critical teacher education. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 21-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.8 attia, ahmed. (2008). academic delay and its relationship with motivation for achievement and satisfaction with the study of students at king khalid university in saudi arabia”, gulf children magazine with special needs. azab, h., & moslehi, s. (2021). a proposed strategy to achieve intellectual security for university youth, the journal of sport sciences, (14) 27, 1-22. bucher, k. t., & manning, m. l. (2005). creating safe schools. the clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues, and ideas, 79(1), 55-60. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.8 almahaireh et al. 44 carothers, d. (2018). a culture of equality?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(2), 42-57. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.01.02.3 cenkseven-önder, f. (2012). the influence of decision-making styles on early adolescents' life satisfaction. social behavior and personality: an international journal, 40(9), 1523-1536. chaldan, fayez (2013). the role of the faculties of education in the palestinian universities in enhancing intellectual security for their students and methods of activating it, journal of islamic university for educational and psychological studies, (21) 1, 33-73. chandra, t., ng, m., chandra, s. & priyono (2018). the effect of service quality on student satisfaction and student loyalty: an empirical study. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 109-131. chiang, l. m. (2010). the development of a leisure and life satisfaction scale for outpatient (llssop) leisure activity programs in iowa. https://scholarworks.uni.edu/etd/938/ clark, m. l., beckett, j., wells, m., & dungee-anderson, d. (1994). courtship violence among african american college students. journal of black psychology, 20(3), 264-281. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984940203002 creswell, j. w., & creswell, j. d. (2017). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. sage publications. diener, e. (2000). subjective well-being: the science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. american psychologist, 55(1), 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.34 easterlin, r. a. (2001). life cycle welfare: evidence and conjecture. the journal of socioeconomics, 30(1), 31-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1053-5357(01)00092-0 ghozali, i. (2018). aplikasi analisis multivariate dengan program ibm spss 25, edidi 9. semarang: badan penerbit universitas diponegoro. hair, j. f., black, w. c., babin, b., anderson, r. e., & tatham, r. (2018). multivariate data analysis: cengage. hamad, assam (2017). effectiveness of a cognitive counseling program for the development of intellectual security and emotional intelligence among jordanian university students, unpublished doctorate dissertation, university of mu'tah. hamdan-mansour, a., halabi, j., & dawani, h. (2012). depression, hostility, and substance use among university students in jordan. mental health and substance use, 2, 52–63. hammada, m. a., & al-shahranib, h. f. (2020). the relationship between emotional intelligence and intellectual security among university students. int. j. innov. creativity chang, 14(12), 545-566. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.01.02.3 https://scholarworks.uni.edu/etd/938/ https://doi.org/10.1177%2f00957984940203002 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.34 https://doi.org/10.1016/s1053-5357(01)00092-0 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 28-46 huebner, e. s., valois, r. f., paxton, r. j., & drane, j. w. (2005). middle school students’ perceptions of quality of life. journal of happiness studies, 6(1), 15-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-004-1170-x issa, jaber and rashwan, rabie (2006). emotional intelligence and its impact on compatibility and life satisfaction and academic achievement in children, journal of educational and social studies, (4) 1, 35-130. jaradat, s., & ajlouni, a. (2021). undergraduates’ perspectives and challenges of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic: a case from the university of jordan. journal of social studies education research, 12(1), 149-173. johnson, d. (2005). maintaining intellectual freedom in a filtered world. learning & leading with technology, 32(8), 39-41. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej697382 martin, k., huebner, e. s., & valois, r. f. (2008). does life satisfaction predict victimization experiences in adolescence?. psychology in the schools, 45(8), 705-714. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20336 merrow, j. (2004). safety and excellence. educational horizons, 83(1), 19-32. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej684935.pdf mubarak, nour (2016). the level of intellectual security among employees at al-bayt university and its relation to organizational development, master thesis, al-bayt university. paschali, a., & tsitsas, g. (2010, april). stress and life satisfaction among university students-a pilot study. in annals of general psychiatry (9) 1, 96, biomed central. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-859x-9-s1-s96 robbins, c., bishop, j., & tarman, b. (2019). against reactionary populism: opening a needed conversation in education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), i-vi. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.ed shawaqfeh, b., & almahaireh, a. (2019). technowellness and its relationship with happiness and optimism among university of jordan students. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 10(2), 145-167. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1220719.pdf shqura, yahya (2012). psychological flexibility and its relation to life satisfaction among palestinian university students in the gaza governorates, unpublished master thesis, alazhar university. shrestha, m. (2019). influences of gender and locale on teachers’ job satisfaction. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.2 tavakoly sany, s. b., aman, n., jangi, f., lael-monfared, e., tehrani, h., & jafari, a. (2021). quality of life and life satisfaction among university students: exploring, subjective norms, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-004-1170-x https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej697382 https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20336 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej684935.pdf https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-859x-9-s1-s96 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.ed https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1220719.pdf https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.2 almahaireh et al. 46 general health, optimism, and attitude as potential mediators. journal of american college health, 1-8. tomlinson, j. (1997). values: the curriculum of moral education. children & society, 11(4), 242251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.1997.tb00033.x van overschelde, j., & piatt, a. (2020). u.s. every student succeeds act: negative impacts on teaching out-of-field. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.1 williams, e. (2009). security intellectual and the influence intellectual, journal of applied research in intellectual, (22) 2, 135 – 139. zbaidat, muhammad (2015). the emotional balance and its relation to life satisfaction among students of the teachers college in sokhnin, master thesis, amman arab university. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.1997.tb00033.x https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.1 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 120-143 a learning model for teaching “population geography” course in higher education through case study of international women's migration muhammad zid1 & asep rudi casmana2 abstract the purpose of this study was to determine a learning model for teaching "population geography" to geography education students in universities using international women's migration as a case study to increase their understanding of the material and their curiosity in the learning process. a case study and qualitative approach were adopted in this research with data collected from 15 geography education students currently taking population geography courses in department of geography education jakarta, indonesia. data were collected through interviews and focus group discussions (fgd) for approximately 120 minutes, three times during the learning process. the results showed that in-depth studies on international women's migration increase engagement and understanding of the course. furthermore, it enables students to participate actively in the classroom learning process by asking questions, discussing, and giving their opinions. students are able to give their opinion in the classroom with regard to the international women migration. for example, they are able to determine the use of remittances and the adaptation process after an immigrant returns to indonesia. they also know about the main reason why some indonesian women decide to work and migrate to abroad and leave their family. in addition, students’ understanding is also visualized in the process of interpreting, giving examples, clarifying, summarizing, drawing conclusions, comparing, and explaining cases of women's international migration. this research is useful for educators, especially geography education teachers and lecturers. keywords: women migration, population geography course, critical thinking skill, student engagement, student understanding introduction population geography course is one of the most important studies in tertiary institutions because it provides students with the basic concepts and experiences required to improve their skills (nguyen, 2018; williams et al., 2017). the rapid development of information and communication technology has created several learning resources used by both students and educators to convey their knowledge have been created (ye et al., 2020). besides using lecture learning models and 1 dr, department of geography education, faculty of social science, universitas negeri jakarta, mzid@unj.ac.id 2 ma, department of pancasila and civic education, faculty of social science, universitas negeri jakarta, aseprudi@unj.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 121 telling stories on population geography, other methods such as current interesting case studies are also adopted (korson & kusek, 2016). currently, the main problem faced by lecturers is the learning difficulties experienced by students in the classroom, such as their inability to absorb the learning materials (christie & morris, 2021; thomas & allen, 2021). these problems are caused by learning motivation, attention, and interest, attitude, perseverance, socio-economic, and physical and psychological factors (cantu et al., 2021; oguilve et al., 2021; van overschelde & piatt, 2020). one of the difficulties faced by students’ due to external factors is inability to carry out assignments, thereby leading to poor performance in the final semester exams (newton et al., 2020; sun et al., 2021). according to preliminary studies, the continuous use of similar learning methods by lecturers’ without variations is one of the main factors affecting students’ poor performance (morales, ruggiano, carter, pfeifer & green, 2020). for example, one of the lecturers’ adopted the use of lecture method in teaching population geography irrespective of the lengthy study duration without using other media with illustrations, such as pictures, videos etc. therefore, for an entire semester, almost all the students were unable to understand and absorb the information conveyed by the thereby leading to difficulties in the learning process (masud, 2020). the lecturers' inability to use varieties of learning processes leads to boredom, and the need for innovative learning methods capable of increasing students' enthusiasm and motivation to learn, thereby leading to a rise in knowledge assimilation. therefore there is a need for new innovations and variations in the learning process adopted in the classroom (hamilton, et al., 2019; watson, 2020). population geography also plays an important role in terms of knowledge and experiences acquired by students especially on the topic related to international migration (winarnita, chan, & butt, 2020). according to butt, ball, & beazley (2016) migration is a common phenomenon in indonesia, due to the urge to earn additional income. to work abroad, one needs to acquire knowledge, skills, learn to speak a foreign language and understand the local culture of the destination country (hewett, 2019). therefore, this course examines this phenomenon by equipping students with relevant knowledge and skills on migrating abroad (spaan, & van naerssen, 2018). one of the strategies used to ensure students understand this phenomenon better is by using the case study method (hallgren& österlind, 2019). zid & casmana population geography is one of the courses that examine cases of population migration abroad and provides adequate knowledge by aspiring immigrants (karolčík et al., 2016; lee, 2018). this is consistent with the study carried out by dharr (2012) which stated that the international women migration teaches students on the strategies adopted by women to improve their living standards from an economic perspective. in addition, this topic also teaches on the remittance management process engaged by these women after they returned to their country (dhar, 2012). it further inspires and aids students to understand that they are opportune to work in their home country and abroad to increase their standard of living (ullah, 2017). therefore, in this context, international women's migration provides insight, knowledge, and commonly faced problems (lindquist, 2017). hence, this topic is used as a case study in the learning process for undergraduates in pursuing population geography (patimo & lucero, 2021). several learning methods are needed to make this course easier for students to understand, one of which is the use of case studies. karolčík, ipková, and mázorová (2016) reported the relevance of case studies and the use of maps in teaching students, besides the utilization of computers. teachers or lecturers have to instruct students in studying population geography courses in tertiary institutions (polat, 2020). this method increases students' curiosity, interest in the learning process and offers direct experience (de miguel gonzález & de lázaro y torres, 2016; eaves, 2020). in addition, opoku, serbeh, and amoah (2021) stated that case studies motivate students to learn and develop critical thinking skills when studying a phenomenon. in indonesia, studies on the international migration of women are becoming increasingly popular, because the percentage of women that migrate regularly is significantly higher than men (khoo & yeoh, 2018). therefore, this is an interesting phenomenon to study, both in terms of the economic and social aspects and to determine the problems encountered when people decide to migrate abroad (de miguel gonzález & de lázaro y torres, 2016; opoku et al., 2021). the adoption of case studies on women's migration as a learning process enables students to interact and communicate with one another and their lecturers (rahmadi et al., 2020). therefore, this approach is one of the best ways used to teach population geography to students. based on previous research, the classroom case study learning model offers positive benefits, such as exposing students to the topic being taught, thereby enabling them to understand the real situation and conditions of migration (svobodová et al., 2020). furthermore, this learning model journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 123 increases students’ curiosity, thereby encouraging them to carry out research on the phenomenon of international female migration (mitchell, 2016). based on these 2 benefits, international women's migration serves as one of the main approaches in the study of population geography in tertiary institutions. although, no research has been carried out on the use of international women’s migration as one of the main cases in population geography, preliminary studies, succeeded in using this method to improve students’ learning abilities. therefore, it has a positive impact on educators, especially those in the field of geography. this is a useful research, especially due to the use of case studies to learn international migration of women. apart from universities, educators at the high and junior school levels are also one of the groups expected to benefit from this research. therefore, this learning model is useful for both undergraduates and teachers. based on the research background, the main problem is based on ways to use case studies of international women's migration to learn population geography in universities. research questions based on the study background and the theoretical gaps identified in several previous studies, the research questions are as follows. 1) how is the student engagement in the classroom affected at the population geography course using the issue of international women migration? 2) how is the improvement of student understanding at the population geography course after discussing the issue of international women migration? theoretical review as part of geography education, this course aims to improve students' abilities, understanding, and experiences related to the human population because it is one of the modules explored by undergraduates. in addition, humans are the main focus of this course, starting from population density, its composition in a certain area, to migration from one place to another (zid, casmana, & hijrawadi, 2020; zid, alkhudri, casmana, & marini, 2020). zid & casmana according to dhar (2012), there are 3 main philosophical bases behind the relevance of teaching population geography in universities. first, this course teaches students on the movement of people from one place to another, such as from villages to cities and one country to another, respectively (weston, 2020). an instance is someone that migrates from tegal to jakarta with the aim of increasing their income and standard of living. in addition, the movement from indonesia to hong kong to become indonesian migrant workers (tki) is based on the same goal of improving their standard of living (dharr, 2012). usually, people decide to migrate due to certain factors, therefore this serves as an interesting study in learning population geography (de waal & williams, 2020; lee, 2020). another interesting aspect is the employment structure in a region. bent, bakx, and brok (2017) stated that this course discusses and examines the unemployment structure in a country. this is important because when the unemployment rate is high, the citizens of that country are unable to acquire a decent job and livelihood (lindquist, 2018). therefore, population geography is an important course that needs to be studied by students. in accordance with several productive ages in each region, this also tends to stimulate ones' interest in the economic process (kressler, 2020). meanwhile, according to szkornik (2017), population geography is based on the relationship between humans and their surroundings. it aims to instill knowledge in the students to improve their understanding (loh & ang, 2020). therefore, to learn population geography courses, it is necessary to adopt a special method that students easily understand. however, there are several ways to realize this, such as story-telling, lectures, group discussions, and the use of case studies (yin, 2019). the appropriate topic that needs to be discussed is international women’s migration from one place to another (aburaida, 2020). this is because students need to understand the factors that motivate a person to migrate abroad (platt, 2018). the international migration of women is one factor that triggers people's movement (rother, 2017). in this case, the displacement is usually from indonesia to abroad based on several reasons, including natural disasters such as floods, landslides, earthquakes, etc (bélanger & rahman, 2013). however, in the context of the international migration of indonesian women, the goal is to improve their standard of living (leal, malhotra, & misra, 2019; lyons, 2017). there is a yearly increase in the number of women that migrate abroad to help their husbands, improve social status, or to acquire better education (zid, casmana, & hijrawadi, 2020). based on the explanation of international migration, this interesting research is used as a case study by students. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 125 case studies are one of the methods adopted to teach the students certain phenomena thoroughly. according to yin (2017), it as a knowledge-seeking process to investigate and examine the phenomena that occur in real life. yin further stated that case studies are used when certain phenomena, in reality, have vague or blurred boundaries. in addition, case studies also have various sources which serve as evidence and information search tools. however, assuming these conditions are not met, the research is unable to use case studies. in addition, yin, polit, and hungler (2017) stated that case studies are focused on determining the dynamics related to the reason individuals think and develop themselves. the population geography course aids in training and developing problem-solving skills oriented towards authentic issues encountered daily, which tends to stimulate high critical thinking skills (golightly & raath, 2015; sarkadi& fadhillah, 2020; yeung, 2010). preliminary studies stated that problem-based learning is a teaching model characterized by the students’ ability to think critically and acquire knowledge (golightly, 2021; golightly & muniz, 2013; raath & golightly, 2017). the learning process adopted requires a real case which enables students to memorize theories and develop the ability to think about the background, driving factors as well as a person's life after migrating to other countries (chappell, 2006; spronken-smith, 2005). in conclusion, problem-based learning in population geography courses is an approach to understanding ways to resolve issues in the real world, such as international women's migration. finally, students acquire critical thinking and problem-solving skills, to understand the important concepts involved in the learning process (alexson & kemnitz, 2001; chappell, 2001; pawson et al., 2006) method research design this case study is part of an educational project that aims to investigate international women's migration regarding population geography courses in higher institutions using a case study design (yin, 2017). in addition, this research is intended to see the improvement of student engagement and student understanding after discussing the issue of international women migration. the case discussed in this study is the international women migration from indonesia to other countries such as malaysia, taiwan, hong kong, saudi arabia and other nations. the characteristic of this case zid & casmana study lies on the implementation of international women migration issue as a contemporary phenomenon in the population geography. the issue of international women migration has been a big issue in the population geography course since it discussed about the reason why women decided to move abroad, how they survive during working abroad, how they use the remittance after returning abroad and the life changes after migration abroad (hewett, 2019). this research follows the recommendation of yin (2017) in revealing the case in which he said that a researcher should focus and pay attention to the accuracy of information aspect, the informant suitability, and critical interpretation. therefore, to discover a detailed use of the learning model in the population geography course, interview, observation, and fgd techniques were also performed (cresswel, 2014). participants the research participants are 15 geography education students at the state university of jakarta. consequently, due to the common characteristics possessed by the participants, they were not randomly chosen. therefore, the purposive sampling technique used in this study was based on the following criteria (1) students of geography education at the state university of jakarta were chosen, (2) they need to have taken a population geography course or at least in the 2nd semester, and (3) they also need to understand the issue of international women’s migration. in order to obtain maximum results, this research carried out 4 meetings which lasted for 135 minutes each. based on the ethical standard, the initials of the students were used rather than their real names. the detailed characteristics of the participants are shown in table 1. table 1 the characteristic of participants gender no gender frequency percentage 1 male 7 46 % 2 female 8 54 % total 15 100 % table 1 shows that 54% of the female students participated in this study. conversely, the male participants were only 46%. overall, the female geography education students are more than the males. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 127 table 2 the characteristic of participants based on the semester in campus no semester frequency percentage 1 2nd semester 3 20 % 2 4st semester 6 40 % 3 6th semester 6 40% total 15 100 % table 2 shows that the participants of this research were in the 2nd semester, which implies they have already taken the population geography course. furthermore, 20% of students are in the 2nd semester, while the others are in the 4th and 6th semesters. research instruments this section is based on the research instruments used to ascertain the students understanding of the international women's migration case. in qualitative research and case studies, the key instrument is the researcher himself, so in addition to having a role as a researcher, researcher also has a role as a key instrument. the main benefits when researchers become key instruments are responsiveness and adaptability. when the researcher becomes a research instrument, they will be able to develop knowledge, carry out preliminary studies and get the opportunity to clarify certain meanings if there are things that need to be deepened in their research studies. in addition, researchers are also able to investigate very unique things when found in the field (yin, 2019). in order to enrich the research results, apart from the researcher himself as the instrument, this research also uses interviews and focus group discussions (fgd) to enrich the research results and obtain in-depth data. the interview instrument is a guide used by researchers to be able to study more deeply on matters related to women's international migration. meanwhile, in the fgd the researcher asked the students more specifically about the benefits of using the learning model that had been delivered. to be able to validate it, triangulation of data from the instruments used is carried out (yin, 2019). so that the data collection process is carried out after the instrument is validated. the purpose of this research is to find out that the case study learning model, especially in the case of international migration of indonesian women, can increase student engagement and improve zid & casmana student understanding in the subject of population geography in universities. in this learning activity, lecturers can deliver material by providing illustrations in the form of sources or examples of cases that are happening, especially regarding the international migration of women from indonesia to abroad. data from interviews and fgd were transcribed and used codes to be able to analyze them. in this case, there are two main focuses in analyzing the results of this study, including 1) student engagement (dee, 2020) and 2) student understanding (chappell, 2001). these two things are the most important studies in determining the use of this case study-based learning model. the results of this data transcript are divided into fifteen transcripts which are coded student transcript 1 = st1, student transcript 2 = st2, student transcript 3 = st3 etc. table 3 the interview guidelines about the knowledge and student understanding towards the case of international woman migration no. indicator aspect 1. interpretation the students’ interpretation of the case study 2. providing examples the students’ abilities to give an example of the case study after fgd 3. classifying the students’ abilities to classify other cases 4. summarizing the students’ abilities to summarize the information 5. concluding the students' abilities to draw conclusion after a discussion 6. comparing the students' abilities to draw conclusion after a discussion 7. explaining the students’ abilities to explain the case study the indicators in table 3 were used to analyze the student’ understanding of the international women’s migration case after the fgd. it is important to ascertain that they understand the lecture delivered. this is an interesting case study for the students in geography education department. therefore it needs to be reviewed from their perspective. in addition, the fgd with some of the participants were observed. research procedure and data collection the research procedure is the steps needed to be able to collect data in order to answer the research questions posed in this study by discussing more about the location and data collection techniques. this research procedure is very important because it can be used as an indicator of the research implementation process. in addition, the data collection means how the data in this research was journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 129 collected (cresswel, 2014). since research procedure and data collection are importance, this part will show how the procedure of the research and data was collected. this study adopted the procedure designed by yin (2019), which stated that there are 4 main steps in carrying out a research based on a case study approach. first, there is a need to ascertain whether the case study is appropriate and relevant to the investigated research topic. second, the case must be relevant to the topic. third, there is a need to analyse the case. the fourth and final stage of this research is centered on data interpretation, recorded unique experiences during the collection process, and rewrites the results. to analyze the student engagement and student understanding after participating in the discussion of international women migration, this research use classroom observation, in-depth interview and fgd. classroom observation means the researcher see how the teaching population geography works in the classroom. the aspects that are studied during observation is student engagement and student understanding. in the student engagement process, the researcher see the student movement, student response, student opinion and student interest during the population geography learning. for instance, during the learning process, when students raising hands, responding teachers opinion about international women migration, it seems that the student engagement is high. in contract, when there is no respond from student and there is not interest in sharing the idea in the classroom, then they are considered to be boring or they are no interest in learning population geography. case studies on international women's migration, in-depth and focus groups, interviews, and classroom observations were carried out to maximize the results. in this research, fgd was carried out to determine the interaction between students and lecturers regarding international women's migration. after the learning process was completed, 3 students were selected from each group, and an in-depth interview that lasted for 20 to 30 minutes was conducted. meanwhile, 15 students participated in the fgd. the aim is to obtain the results of the lessons regarding the international women's migration case in indonesia. each student is asked whether they understood the cases of women's international migration. afterward, the interviews focused on possible solutions to the problems encountered by indonesian women during the migration process. in addition, they were also asked about the way they felt when learning a population geography course using a case study model. a particular case usually zid & casmana adopted was carried out by guess in 2014. some case of international females' migration which occurred in 2017 is described as follows. after the fgd based on the sarmi case, 15 students were interviewed, and the results were transcribed, analysed, and rewritten. data analysis this study adopted the analytical model designed by yin (2017). according to yin, there are 3 events used to review case studies, namely pattern matching, explanations, and time series analysis. explanation is the analytical technique adopted in this study to analyze the data by making an explanation of the case in question. in this research, 2 main factors regarding students’ engagement when using international migration case studies was analysed. the focus of the first analysis is whether or not students were actively engaged after carrying out the learning process in the classroom. in addition, the second focus is on students’ understanding of international migration cases. both were studied using the yin analysis model. after the data acquisition, the interviews' results were transcribed, analyzed, interpreted and triangulated based on the conversations between students and lecturers during the fgd session. this study aims to describe that in order to make learning in population geography courses more interactive, a case study on women's international migration is needed, so that students can more easily understand and understand the context. by using the analytical concept presented by yin (2017), analytical techniques can make research data more accurate and richer in explanations from lecturers in population geography courses. the questions in the interview instrument were arranged to see how the students responded to the case studies that had been made during the learning process. in this case, the analysis focuses on how the use of case studies in population geography courses can improve student engagement and student understanding in the classroom. in the learning process, student engagement and student understanding have a very important role. so with the data that has been obtained and triangulated, the results can see how case studies using international women migration can make it easier to study population geography. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 131 findings research question 1: how is the student engagement in the classroom affected at the population geography course using the issue of international women migration? students' engagement is extremely important in the learning process. this is because communication between the students and lecturers is one of the characteristics of learning population geography. in universities, this course examines issues associated with international migration based on the aim to work abroad. in accordance with the success of these cases, students' engagement in learning geography is important. fassett, priddie, and brckalorenz (2018) stated that students’ engagement plays an important role in the classroom (fassett, priddie, & brckalorenz, 2018). furthermore, supposing the students are actively engaged, they happily receive materials during the learning process (banks, 2015; rudolph & horibe, 2016). conversely, assuming the interactive session or students’ engagement is poor, they do not understand the cases being discussed or bored with the adopted learning process (sarkadi & fadhillah, 2020). the level of participation in learning population geography is high, as reported by several students. "we are happy to be involved in the discussion on the sarmi case given by the lecturer because it is interesting and inspiring. besides, we understand that student's levels of education do not affect their success." "case studies are important in learning population geography. this is because assuming learning about migration is based on theory, and then it is read about in books. however, the studies delivered by the lecturer made the students to understand the main reason people migrate abroad” dw "learning about international women's migration does not only enhance knowledge, rather it also increases understanding and motivation to strive for success continuously," mar. the interview results with the 3 students showed that their engagement level was extremely high in the learning process adopted to study population geography. this is because they are not only taught about theory, they are also able to analyze the entire factors that cause an individual to migrate internationally and are motivated to be successful in the financial field. ts reported that they were motivated by sarmi’s story that worked in saudi arabia for 10 years and was able to start a business that not only met their daily needs, however sarmi was also able to establish a company and buy several plots of land. mar also feels the same way and believes that knowledge zid & casmana in the form of theory is not only acquired in the classroom. in addition, mar never believed that a person with only an elementary school certificate could achieve financial success. based on this information, the civic students' engagement in the case study of women's international migration was extremely high. dee (2020) stated that although there are several main indicators associated with civic engagement, at least 2 most important parts of students' participation include (1) an extremely deep interest in humanitarian issues and (2) develop the attitude to solve problems together. geography education students are interested and curious about the success stories of indonesian female workers in saudi arabia. based on observations, some students were still interested in the lecture, irrespective of the fact that time had run out. case studies on international migration not only instil knowledge it also inspires students to be better. the second characteristic concerning ways to solve problems motivated the students to find solutions to the issues being studied at the end of the discussion. therefore, the concept of global citizenship, through population geography courses, tends to be implemented. "usually, i never speak or giver my opinion during the learning process, however the cases initially delivered was interesting, and i tried to read and understand them, which prompted me to become actively involved in the learning process." "i really feel confident when i give my opinion in front of the lecturer. i believe that the case given by the lecturer is real because the story is similar to that of my mother that once worked as a tkw abroad" mz. the students enjoyed the adopted learning process. some students even felt the spiritual circumstances in the studies delivered by the lecturer because their mothers were working abroad. on the contrary, dta is always silent in the classroom, however this case study has enabled dta to argue as well as offer solutions continuously. based on some of the aforementioned information regarding the students' participation in the learning process, it is evident that all were active. this serves as proof that students' engagement causes the learning process of population geography courses to be successful. research question 2: how is the improvement of student understanding at the population geography course after discussing the issue of international women migration? students' understanding of population geography courses, with respect to women's migration, is important. this is because assuming students are unable to understand the concepts being taught, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 133 it simply implies that the case study was not successful delivered during the lectures. an example is in the learning process, students not only listen to the series and flow or materials presented by the teacher, rather they already possess the basics of knowledge which serves as a form of understanding. therefore, in this concept, the students need to be able to understand the way and manner the learning process and scientific transfer occurs. this is in accordance with si and dta’s statements when interviewed after several lecture sessions on population geography. "after i tried to understand and study the cases presented by the lecturers, i was happy because, in the end, i was able to interpret the circumstances surrounding women's migration. i discovered the reason those that migrated abroad were able to start a business after returning home" si i am happy when giving examples of comparative cases related to women's migration, such as those reported in the population geography course. in my opinion, this study is interesting, therefore i tried to discover several similar cases with the aim of being able to provide comparisons" dta. si and dta are geography education students studying in population geography courses. they are taught to be able to analyze several phenomena associated with cases of international women's migration. after understanding and studying the case, students interpret and provide similar comparative examples. according to the theory of understanding, there are several indicators by which students tend to understand the cases conveyed in the learning process, including (1) students interpret the outcomes of these case studies, (2) they provide other examples as a comparison after the learning process, (3) students are able to classify certain items after the process (lilley, barker, & harris, 2015; malone, 2020). however, as conveyed by si and dta in the interview results, they are able to interpret cases related to international women's migration. these include both positive and negative ones. for example, in sarmi's case, si is able to interpret the reason sarmi finally decided to travel to saudi arabia, including the manner sarmi managed finances after they completed their work contract in that country. in addition, the second indicator is being able to provide examples of other cases and confirm that they have also been understood. dta is a geography education student interested in cases of international women's migration. after learning about the case taught by the lecturer, dta immediately tried to discover similar cases of successful indonesian women abroad. dta was able to compare and give examples in the classroom. meanwhile, when students are able to find comparable, and also provide examples zid & casmana of similar cases, they are included in the category that understood the studies discussed in class. apart from si and dta, the following are indicators of understanding a case study research. table 4 indicators and research results on the aspect of knowledge no aspect indicator attitude example 1 knowledge interpretation after learning population geography with case studies, students were able to understand the reasons and interpret the impacts of international women's migration. 2 providing examples geography education students provide examples of other similar cases, both success stories, and vice versa. 3 classifying geography education students are able to classify the impacts or reasons sarmi ultimately decided to work abroad over the years. 4 summarizing students are able to summarize the discussions they had with their friends about the use of remittances 5 concluding students are able to draw the conclusion that not all women's migration activities have a negative impact, some have a positive influence 6 comparing students were able to compare several success stories of a woman that have engaged in international migration 7 explaining students are able to explain the entire situation from the background to a conclusion. table 4 describes several indicators from understanding the shared knowledge through the population geography learning process. however, when viewed from these 7 indicators, overall geography education students acquire knowledge and explain cases related to international women's migration to others. this is supported by the opinion of aw, a geography education student. "during the learning process, i was suddenly appointed by the lecturer to conclude the results with a case study on women's migration. although i usually hesitate in carrying out such activities, this time it was easily done because the simplified materials and case studies provided were helpful" aw. the summary of the outcome is a relevant means and the main goal in the learning process. in the concluding aspect, students were not able to summarize the topic they have learned. this is irrespective of the fact that this process is also carried out by listening from the beginning, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 135 searching for reference sources, and reflecting on the learned topic. in this case, the students understood the topics learned, especially regarding international women's migration. for example, students concluded the reasons people tend to migrate internationally. therefore, this process needs to be integrated as a learning source in population geography courses. discussion the main purpose of this research is to determine the ideal learning process for studying population geography courses. the students' engagement during the learning process, as well as their understanding of the case studies on international women's migration, was carefully analysed. the discussion regarding the use of a case study is based on the analysis results on population geography courses. it was discovered that this method increases student engagement with each other and their lecturers. in addition, this learning process also improves their understanding of international migration. the first evidence revealed that the initial student engagement in the population geography course before using international women migration case study tend to be weak. it is related to the first research question which shows that the issue of international women migration in population geography can help improve the student engagement. it was because the educator of population geography course used a classical teaching method such as speech and focusing on a theory, thus the students found difficulty in following the classroom engagement. based on the first finding, it shows students' engagement can be seen from the interactive discussion in the classroom after the use of case study. initially, the students were not interested in learning population geography because they presumed it was difficult and were bored with the methods adopted by their teachers, irrespective of the fact that it is one major course in the geography learning process. the use of the case study method triggers' students' interest and makes them to easily and comfortably interact and discuss both during the learning process, and outside the classroom. furthermore, college students prefer this unique case study method. in addition to the improvement of student engagement, the formulation of international women migration creates students to be actively in the classroom. most of the students show up their opinion, going to the front of the class to give the speech and they are also encouraged to read a lot of literature and news about international women migration. there is one student who never give their opinion in the classroom as he is not interested learning this population geography, but zid & casmana he is engaged actively after the lecture give the case of international women migration. the case study method increases students’ engagement because it is related to migration. in addition, certain complex problems are associated with this method, thereby making students more curious to study and explore it, thereby providing solutions to the problems associated with international migration. therefore, it needs to be developed and adopted as one of the main methods in teaching population geography. these research results are consistent with the studies carried out by rudolph and horibe (2016), spronken-smith (2005), and williams (2014), which stated that the case study method needs to be implemented because it makes students easily understand social sciences such as geography. according to the results of these 3 studies, this tends to increase the students' involvement in the learning process. however, when viewed from the perspective of preliminary studies, using this method makes the students actively communicate during the learning process. the communication is usually between the lecturers and students. this proves that the use of case studies is one way to boost student engagement. in addition, this method causes students that are currently studying geography education to become active in the classroom, however this term is also known as civic engagement. it is important in the learning process because the students actively discuss and express their opinions (rudolph & horibe, 2016). apart from civic engagement, another most important aspect is the students’ understanding. student understanding plays also an important role in the classroom learning process. initially, the students were less interested in learning population geography subjects because they felt that the courses only focused on theory. it is related to the second research question which shows that although students are less interested and difficult to understand, the issue of international women migration can help them to understand the population geography course. the construction of students’ opinion and students thinking with regard to the issue of international migration is more progressive since the educator create the classroom to have more dialogue between students. also, the students feel more critical in in the class as educator create an analytical situation. williams (2014) reported that learning based on case studies increases students’ participation in class and their understanding of the process. meanwhile, sproken-smith (2005) stated that using this method causes students to become more interactive. both opinions are evident in this research, which stated that the students became more interactive because they journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 137 understood the learning content. in the case study of sarmi, the main focus was on the reason for migrating abroad, the life transformation after returning from saudi arabia, and the use of remittances. finally, the students were able to draw conclusions and make assumptions about the reasons sarmi decided to migrate internationally. according to dhar (2012), people engage in international migration due to economy and educational factors. in terms of the economy, most indonesian female workers decide to travel abroad because of the difficult economic problems encountered daily. in sarmi's case, it was extremely difficult to cope with the economy as a married woman with children, irrespective of the fact that the husband was employed. the income was unable to meet their daily needs and educate the children. sarmi wanted to work harder but due to her diploma in elementary school, it was difficult to get a job in indonesia (m zid et al., 2020). therefore, one way to improve their standard of living was by migrating abroad, despite being employed as domestic servants. according to darmawati and manda (2017) one way to determine the outcome of a case study is to ensure it is understood by the students. in accordance with the results of this research, the students understood the learning content based on the adopted case studies. some indicators are they were able to provide examples, conclude and analyze the results of the case study about sarmi (darmawati & manda, 2017). through the issue of international women migration learning model, population geography seems to be more actively engaged in the classroom. students can actively giving a speech about their opinion, understand the use of remittance from abroad, know the main reason why women are interested to work in abroad and so forth. therefore, it supports the argument that a case study learning model in teaching social science particularly population geography can help improve student engagement and student understanding. the novelty of the study is in the use of international women migration as a case in teaching population geography for the students in the university. although the use of case study might be used by some educators in the university, they tend to use other case study as an issue in the classroom. therefore, it is suggested for teachers to use a case study for the research. conclusion in conclusion, this research increased students’ interest and participation in learning "population geography" by using international women's migration as a case study. generally, the case of zid & casmana international women's migration is one of the relevant studies in geography learning. in connection with the importance of this course, students must communicate among themselves to understand the current concepts easily and properly analyse the background of migrants, the associated factors, and the use of remittances after their return to indonesia. according to the students, the most interesting aspect is discussing life after the migrants returned. although this study has succeeded in assessing learning processes involving the use of case studies in population geography courses, there are some limitations. firstly, the students are aware that they were being observed during the fgd, which makes them to be pretentious when answering questions. secondly, only 15 students participated, therefore it is rather difficult to conclude that this is the most appropriate method. therefore, further research need to be conducted using more participants from various universities. reference aburaida, l. m. (2020). obstacles facing rural women development in the palestinian society: nablus governorate as a case study. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.1 alexson, r. g., & kemnitz, c. (2001). the world bank scenario a problem-based learning activity in human geography and environmental science. planet, 4(1), 25–26. https://doi.org/10.11120/plan.2001.00040025 banks, j. a. (2015). failed citizenship, civic engagement, and education. kappa delta pi record. retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00228958.2015.1089616 bélanger, d., & rahman, m. (2013). migrating against all the odds: international labour migration of bangladeshi women. current sociology, 61(3), 356–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392113484453 bent, g. j., bakx, a., & den brok, p. (2017). primary education teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs for teaching geography lessons. international research in geographical and environmental education, 26(2), 150–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2016.1235358 butt, l., ball, j., & beazley, h. (2016). false papers and family fictions: household responses to ‘gift children’ born to indonesian women during transnational migration. citizenship studies, 20(6–7), 795–810. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2016.1204984 cantu, n., varela, d., jones, d., & challoo, l. (2021). factors that influence school choice: a look at parents’ and school leaders’ perceptions. research in educational policy and management, 3(1), 19-41. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.2 chan, c. (2017). not always ‘left-behind’: indonesian adolescent women negotiating transnational mobility, filial piety and care. asia pacific journal of anthropology, 18(3), 246–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/14442213.2017.1311372 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.2 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 139 chappell, a. (2001). challenging the teaching convention in geography using problem-based learning: the role of reflective practice in supporting change. planet, 4(1), 18–22. https://doi.org/10.11120/plan.2001.00040018 chappell, a. (2006). using the “grieving” process and learning journals to evaluate students’ responses to problem-based learning in an undergraduate geography curriculum. journal of geography in higher education, 30(1), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260500499584 cresswel, j. w. (2014). research design:qualitative, quantitative and moxed method. in sage publications inc. christie, h., & morris, n. (2021). using assessed blogs to enhance student engagement. teaching in higher education, 26(4), 573–585. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2019.1662390 darmawati, p., & manda, d. b. \&. (2017). problem based learning model development of civic education to improve the motivation and learning outcomes. … of environmental \& science education. retrieved from http://www.ijese.net/makale_indir/ijese_1967_article_5a0a15bb26e33.pdf de miguel gonzález, r., & de lázaro y torres, m. l. (2016). educating geographers in spain: geography teaching renewal by implementing the european higher education area. journal of geography in higher education, 40(2), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2016.1139556 de waal, j. h., & williams, s. (2020). reflections on 100 years of geography at stellenbosch university: the role of physical and environmental geography. south african geographical journal, 102(3), 282–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2020.1775690 dee, t. s. (2020). education and civic engagement. the economics of education. retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780128153918000082 dhar, r. (2012). women and international migration: a cross-cultural analysis. social change, 42(1), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/004908571104200106 eaves, l. t. e. (2020). interanimating black sexualities and the geography classroom. journal of geography in higher education, 44(2), 217–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2020.1753029 fassett, k. t., priddie, c., brckalorenz, a., & ... (2018). activists, non-activists, and allies: civic engagement and student types at msis. frontiers in education. retrieved from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2018.00103/full golightly, a. (2021). selfand peer assessment of preservice geography teachers’ contribution in problem-based learning activities in geography education. international research in geographical and environmental education, 30(1), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2020.1744242 golightly, a., & muniz, o. a. (2013). are south african geography education students ready for problem-based learning? journal of geography in higher education, 37(3), 432–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2013.794332 golightly, a., & raath, s. (2015). problem-based learning to foster deep learning in preservice geography teacher education. journal of geography, 114(2), 58–68. zid & casmana https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2014.894110 guess, a. k. (2014). a methodology for case teaching: becoming a guide on the side. journal of accounting and finance, 14(6), 113–127. hallgren, e., & österlind, e. (2019). process drama in civic education: balancing student input and learning outcomes in a playful format. education sciences. retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/9/3/231 hamilton, a., rubin, d., tarrant, m., & gleason, m. (2019). digital storytelling as a tool for fostering reflection. frontiers: the interdisciplinary journal of study abroad, 31(1), 59– 73. https://doi.org/10.36366/frontiers.v31i1.443 hewett, r. (2019). (re)-migration: indonesians of mixed descent and the journey ‘home.’ social identities, 25(3), 360–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2018.1499224 karolčík, š., čipková, e., & mázorová, h. (2016). application of digital technologies in the geography teaching process from the teachers’ perspective. international research in geographical and environmental education, 25(4), 328–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2016.1207992 khoo, c. y., & yeoh, b. s. a. (2018). the entanglements of migration and marriage: negotiating mobility projects among young indonesian women from migrant-sending villages. journal of intercultural studies, 39(6), 704–721. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2018.1533539 korson, c., & kusek, w. (2016). the comparison of a thematic versus regional approach to teaching a world geography course. journal of geography, 115(4), 159–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2015.1076498 kressler, b. (2020). critical self-reflection as disruption: a black feminist self-study. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 21–38. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.2 leal, d. f., malhotra, r. s., & misra, j. (2019). visualizing feminized international migration flows in the 1990s. socius: sociological research for a dynamic world, 5, 237802311881994. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023118819940 lee, d. min. (2018). using grounded theory to understand the recognition, reflection on, development, and effects of geography teachers’ attitudes toward regions around the world. international research in geographical and environmental education, 27(2), 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2016.1273616 lee, d. min. (2020). a phenomenological study of the meaning of geography teacher-researcher identities. international research in geographical and environmental education, 29(1), 23– 39. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2019.1657686 loh, r. c.-y., & ang, c.-s. (2020). unravelling cooperative learning in higher education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 22–39. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.2 lilley, k., barker, m., & harris, n. (2015). exploring the process of global citizen learning and the student mind-set. journal of studies in international education, 19(3), 225–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315314547822 lindquist, j. (2017). brokers, channels, infrastructure: moving migrant labor in the indonesianjournal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 141 malaysian oil palm complex. mobilities, 12(2), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2017.1292778 lindquist, j. (2018). reassembling indonesian migration: biometric technology and the licensing of informal labour brokers. ethnos, 83(5), 832–849. https://doi.org/10.1080/00141844.2017.1364780 lyons, k. (2017). women, migration and social work. affilia journal of women and social work, 32(2), 243–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109917702086 malone, m. (2020). teaching critical physical geography. journal of geography in higher education, 00(00), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2020.1847051 masud, m. m. h. (2020). international student migration and polymedia: the use of communication media by bangladeshi students in germany. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 95–110. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.5 mitchell, d. (2016). geography teachers and curriculum making in “changing times.” international research in geographical and environmental education, 25(2), 123–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2016.1149338 morales, d. m., ruggiano, c., carter, c., pfeifer, k. j., & green, k. l. (2020). disrupting to sustain: teacher preparation through innovative teaching and learning practices. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 nguyen, t. p. (2018). education for sustainable development in vietnam: exploring the geography teachers’ perspectives. international research in geographical and environmental education, 27(4), 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2017.1366204 newton, j. r., williams, m. c., & feeney, d. m. (2020). implementing non-traditional assessment strategies in teacher preparation: opportunities and challenges. journal of culture and values in education (jcve), 3(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.3 oguilve, v., wen, w., bowen, e., abourehab, y., bermudez, a., gaxiola, e., & castek, j. (2021). community making: an expansive view of curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 69-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.8 opoku, f., serbeh, r., & amoah, e. g. (2021). geography education in perspective: an enquiry into ghanaian senior high school students’ positive and negative attitudes towards geography. international research in geographical and environmental education, 30(1), 39–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2020.1727115 patimo, d. m., & lucero, ma. b. a. (2021). predictors of success in advance higher education: a case in northwest samar state university, philippines. research in social sciences and technology, 6(1), 40–52. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.3 pawson, e., fournier, e., haigh, m., muniz, o., trafford, j., & vajoczki, s. (2006). problembased learning in geography: towards a critical assessment of its purposes, benefits and risks. journal of geography in higher education, 30(1), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260500499709 platt, m. (2018). migration, moralities and moratoriums: female labour migrants and the tensions of protectionism in indonesia. asian studies review, 42(1), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.8 zid & casmana https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2017.1408571 polat, s. (2020). multidimensional analysis of the teaching process of the critical thinking skills. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 134–157. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 raath, s., & golightly, a. (2017). geography education students’ experiences with a problembased learning fieldwork activity. journal of geography, 116(5), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2016.1264059 rahmadi, i. f., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113–133. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 rother, s. (2017). indonesian migrant domestic workers in transnational political spaces: agency, gender roles and social class formation. journal of ethnic and migration studies, 43(6), 956– 973. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2016.1274567 rudolph, j. l., & horibe, s. (2016). what do we mean by science education for civic engagement? journal of research in science …. retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/tea.21303 sun, f. r., pan, l. f., wan, r. g., li, h., & wu, s. j. (2021). detecting the effect of student engagement in an svvr school-based course on higher level competence development in elementary schools by sem. interactive learning environments, 29(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1558258 sarkadi, & fadhillah, d. n. (2020). the engagement of learning management on civic education for civic disposition building in senior high school. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 11(3), 134–155. spaan, e., & van naerssen, t. (2018). migration decision-making and migration industry in the indonesia–malaysia corridor. journal of ethnic and migration studies, 44(4), 680–695. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2017.1315523 spronken-smith, r. (2005). implementing a problem-based learning approach for teaching research methods in geography. journal of geography in higher education, 29(2), 203–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260500130403 svobodová, h., mísařová, d., durna, r., & hofmann, e. (2020). geography outdoor education from the perspective of czech teachers, pupils and parents. journal of geography, 119(1), 32–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2019.1694055 szkornik, k. (2017). teaching and learning on a transnational education programme: opportunities and challenges for flying faculty in geography and related disciplines. journal of geography in higher education, 41(4), 521–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2017.1337735 thomas, c. l., & allen, k. (2021). driving engagement: investigating the influence of emotional intelligence and academic buoyancy on student engagement. journal of further and higher education, 45(1), 107–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877x.2020.1741520 ullah, a. k. m. a. (2017). male migration and ‘left–behind’ women: bane or boon? environment and urbanization asia, 8(1), 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0975425316683862 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 120-143 143 van overschelde, j., & piatt, a. (2020). u.s. every student succeeds act: negative impacts on teaching out-of-field. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.1 watson, e. (2020). #education: the potential impact of social media and hashtag ideology on the classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 40–56. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 weston, h. (2020). the cultural dimensions of information use: a mixed methods approach to the information use experience of emiratis in higher education. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.8 williams, r. d., tooth, s., & gibson, m. (2017). the sky is the limit: reconstructing physical geography from an aerial perspective. journal of geography in higher education, 41(1), 134–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2016.1241986 winarnita, m., chan, c., & butt, l. (2020). narratives of exile twenty years on: long-term impacts of indonesia’s 1998 violence on transnational chinese-indonesian women. identities, 27(2), 191–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/1070289x.2018.1537639 ye, c., gao, y., yu, j., & he, y. (2020). teaching human geography using a couplet game. journal of geography in higher education, 00(00), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2020.1849062 yeung, s. (2010). problem-based learning for promoting student learning in high school geography. journal of geography, 109(5), 190–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2010.501112 yin, r. k. (2017). case study research and applications: design and methods. los angeles: sage publications. zid, m, casmana, a. r., & hijrawadi, s. n. (2020). the development of international education towards migration abroad by indonesian women. universal journal of educational research. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.080532 zid, muhammad, alkhudri, a. t., casmana, a. r., & marini, a. (2020). ex migrant workers of international women and social entrepreneurship : study at kenanga village in indramayu regency in west java province in indonesia. 29(06), 1855–1861. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.1 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (3),198-214 198 literary development of schoolchildren as an important issue of modern educational curriculum zhumagul a. maydangalieva1, tatiana e. benkovskaya2, elena r. yadrovskaya 3, irina v. sosnovskaya 4 abstract the paper considers the questions associated with the opportunities of teaching literature at school using variable models of methodological system of schoolchildren's literary development. literature teaching packages for grades 5 to 11 currently used in russian schools – the ones edited by belenkiy (2006), korovina (2009), kutuzov (2007, 2010) and marantsman (2005) – have been analyzed. for the analysis, 13 author criteria were singled out that allow characterizing the variability extent of the teaching models employed for ensuring successful literary development of schoolchildren within the educational curriculum of contemporary school. the results of the research presented give convincing evidence about the necessity of upgrading the current teaching packages in literature for grades 5 to 11 in relation to their variability, which will allow enhancing the quality of school social and humanitarian education. keywords: literary development of schoolchildren, variable model, conceptual model, teaching package, educational curriculum, secondary education introduction by the beginning of the 21st century, the russian methodological science had amassed an experience of studying the problem of schoolchildren's literary development for various stages of its being stated and solved. the statement of the problem of schoolchildren's literary development dates back to the point of emergence of literature teaching methodology as a science in the works of outstanding scientists and methodologists of the 19th century (ostrogorskiy, 1885; stoyunin, 1862). in the late 19th – early 20th centuries, an important contribution to its working out and solving was made by i. f. annenskiy (1890), a. d. alferov (1911), z. p. baltalon (1910), v. v. danilov (1917), a.m. lebedev (1923), i. p. plotnikov (1921), v. m. fisher (1914), and other teachers of the russian language and literature. literary development of schoolchildren as a scientific problem was finally established in both theory and 1 senior lecturer, dr., s. baishev aktyubinskii university, maydangalieva@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof., dr., orenburg state pedagogical university, tbenkovskaya@yandex.ru 3 assoc. prof., dr., herzen state pedagogical university of russia, beisher@mail.ru 4 assoc. prof., dr., irkutsk state university, sosnoirina@yandex.ru journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 198-214 practice of teaching and studying literature at school in the 1920-1950s owing to the methodological explorations of kudryashev (1948), sokolov (1928) and their followers. broad scientific and research activity of belenkiy (1973), kudryashev (1970), marantsman (1974), moldavskaya (1968), rez (1979), rotkovich (1974) and other scientists and methodologists furthered working out of theoretical bases of the problem of schoolchildren's literary development in literature teaching methods of the 1960-1970s. the problem of literary development of schoolchildren becomes the priority one in literature teaching methods of the 1980-2000s (buslaev, 1992; rybnikova, 1985). the efforts of scientists and methodologists representing the schools of thought created on the bases of chairs in literature teaching methods of herzen russian state pedagogical university of russia (led by marantsman), moscow state pedagogical university (led by bogdanova), and the laboratory of literary education of the institute of general secondary education at the russian academy of education (led by belenkiy) are aimed at making the research of the problem of the 21st century school-aged readers` development more extensive and profound. evidently, the historical and methodological literature has not reflected the experience of stating and solving the problem of schoolchildren's literary development in the methodological science comprehensively. the schoolchildren literary development problem remains quite a bulky one according to the quantity of its aspects under study. their expansion is due to the scientists and methodologists and teachers of the russian language and literature using the scientific systemic and variable approaches to solving the problem. the emergence of diverse variable concepts, curricula, literature teaching technologies has rendered the idea about the problem of schoolchildren's literary development (which has turned patchwork enough as it is) yet more complicated; it is characterized by chaotic arrangement of theoretical and practical experience fragments in stating and solving the problem as well as its association with functional literacy (chigisheva, 2018). educational theorists all around the world also focus on the necessity of methodical and pedagogical training of modern school teachers (anisimova and sharafeeva, 2018; aydin et al., 2017; umami, 2018; soboleva et al., 2018) as well as writing and reading capabilities of students (lacerda & farbiarz, 2016; fields, 2016). the "fragments" of author (personal) "local" experience coming to the foreground, as a rule, obscure the panorama of historical experience in stating and solving this important problem in teaching methodology of the early 21st century. maydangalieva et al. conceptual, theoretical and methodological framework of the study certain conceptual and theoretical significance for this study have the notions of "conceptual model" and "variable model". their essence in relation to the system of literary development of schoolchildren is described by two aspects: 1) the "conceptual model" of the system of schoolchildren's literary development reflects historical experience of solving the schoolchildren literary development problem; the "variable models" of the system of schoolchildren's literary development reflect the (personal) "local" experience of the research authors; 2) the "conceptual model" of the system of schoolchildren's literary development can be constructed in literature teaching methodology of the 2000s after completing the study of the processes characterizing the formation of the schoolchildren literary development system (the 1960-1970s), its evolution (the 1980-1990s) and improvement (the 2000s); while the teachers and methodologists construct the "variable models" of the schoolchildren literary development system before creating the system of work on implementing these models in literature teaching practice. the schoolchildren's quality of reading and interpretation ability development level depend on the effectiveness extent of the variable model of the methodological system of schoolchildren's literary development that is rooted in the curriculum and literature teaching package (tp). the distinction in the effectiveness extent of each of the variable models of methodological system of schoolchildren's literary development consists in availability of completely or partially represented variable models for shaping the structural constituents of conditions for the schoolchildren literary development process to go on successfully. the purpose of the research was to analyze the curricula and tp in literature for grades 5 through 11 approved by the rf ministry of education (ones ed. by belenkiy, 2006; korovina, 2009; kutuzov, 2007, 2010; and marantsman, 2005) and currently used in the school educational process, with a focus on their variability, and to identify the most appropriate tp for teaching contemporary schoolchildren. the authors proceed from the problem existing in modern general education that in the contemporary curricula and tp the variable models of schoolchildren literary development methodological system are included, and their effectiveness extent (ability to influence, capacity) journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 198-214 varies. however, this means that school teachers wishing to use more resources providing quicker and more qualitative literary development of schoolchildren need at least some evaluation mechanism to make a right choice at the beginning of the school year when deciding for one or another complex tp in literature for the whole year. the authors of the paper have developed their own criteria for assessing the effectiveness extent of each of the variable models of schoolchildren literary development methodological system included in the contemporary curricula and tp in literature was the availability of the following completely or partially represented variable models for shaping the structural constituents of the conditions for a successful process of schoolchildren's literary development:  variable model of the methodological system of connection between classbased and out-of-school lessons in literature;  variable model of the methodological system of using the forms of classbased and out-of-school work in literature;  variable model of the methodological system for shaping the reader's abilities in schoolchildren;  variable model of the methodological system of methods and techniques of schoolchildren's literary development;  variable model of consistency of literary development stages for schoolchildren;  variable model of the methodological system of school analysis of literary works;  variable model of the methodological system for bringing into life the intersubject communications at literature classes;  variable model of the methodological system of creative works, assignments and exercises in literature;  variable model of the methodological system of criteria of schoolchildren's literary development;  variable model of the methodological system of methods for studying the schoolchildren's literary development;  variable model of the methodological system of bringing into life of the connection of literature with other arts; maydangalieva et al.  variable model of the methodological system for bringing into life the integration communications at literature classes;  variable model of the methodological system for bringing into life the intrasubject communications at literature classes (benkovskaya & maydangalieva, 2017). evaluation on the basis of each criterion was followed by the comparison of the results and generalization of the obtained data. thus, this research has both theoretical and practical value for literature methodology development and may be applied both in russian and kazakhstan schools. results and discussion in literature curricula and tp (ed. by belenkiy, 2006; korovina, 2009; kutuzov, 2007, 2010; marantsman, 2005) analyzed by the authors, the variable model of the methodological system of connection between class-based and out-of-school lessons in literature is provided by the compilers by choosing the works for class-based and out-of-school reading in line with the structural principles of the curricula and the age-related reader's interests of schoolchildren. the curricula either have no recommendations in any form for holding a class-based and out-of-school lesson in literature (the curriculum ed. by belenkiy, 2006) or they contain ones but the recommendations are inconsistent in nature (the curricula ed. by korovina, 2009; kutuzov, 2007, 2010; marantsman, 2005). notably, in the curriculum edited by kutuzov (2007, 2010) the system provides for the final readers' conference as a form of out-of-school work in literature from grades 5 through 11. on the whole, the variable model of the methodological system of using the forms of class-based and out-of-school work in literature is not represented in the curricula analyzed. the variable model of the methodological system for shaping the reader's abilities in schoolchildren is unfolded consistently from grade to grade by the curriculum and tp in literature edited by marantsman (2005). meanwhile, in other literature curricula and tp, it is only a list of reader's abilities that can be found in the "requirements for the graduates' training level" section (ed. by korovina, 2009), the "requirements for the training level of students of the 9th grade" and in the " requirements for the training level of secondary school graduates" section (ed. by belenkiy, 2006). the main reader's abilities of schoolchildren are merely listed by the compilers of the curriculum for grades 5-11 edited by kutuzov (2007, 2010) in the explanatory note. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 198-214 it should be pointed out that the variable model of the methodological system for shaping the reader's abilities in schoolchildren provided in the literature curriculum and tp edited by marantsman (2005) seems to be the most appropriate one because it details a greater correlation with the structural constituents of the process of schoolchildren's literary development and conditions for it to be successful. it is in the curriculum edited by marantsman (2005) of all those under analysis that the variable model of the methodological system of methods and techniques of schoolchildren's literary development finds clear expression. according to the way methods and techniques for shaping the structural constituents of the process of schoolchildren's literary development and conditions for it to take place are described, other curricula lose to it because they are limited to nominative sentences in this or that section that characterize the content of methods and techniques for shaping the structural constituents of the process of schoolchildren's literary development and conditions for it to be successful. moreover, the curriculum edited by kutuzov (2007, 2010) uses for teaching literature the same methods as for teaching natural sciences. this points to the fact that directly transferring methods not only from the adjacent sciences (didactics, literature studies) but from other subject teaching methods too is fraught with negative consequences for literary development and upbringing of school-aged readers. the variable model of consistency of literary development stages for schoolchildren is considered by the authors from the standpoint of its being ensured both from the first through the final year and from grade 5 through 11. on the one hand, none of the curricula and tp in literature edited by korovina (2009); kutuzov (2007, 2010) and marantsman (2005) is a guarantee of consistency for schoolchildren's literary development at the primary (grades 1-4) and the main stages (grades 5-11) being fulfilled, because they are not a curriculum ensuring a seamless course of literary education (grades 1-11). this idea is indirectly confirmed by analysis results of the contemporary concepts of literary education for the primary stage and the secondary school grades given in i. v. sosnovskaya's thesis research "literary development of learners during analysis of a literary work" (2005): "it is difficult to identify if a secondary stage literary education concept is a continuation of a certain primary school concept. each of them is independent, although the principal ideas of the curricula resonate to some extent" (sosnovskaya, 2005, p. 49). maydangalieva et al. with regard to this, it should be pointed out that the curricula edited by marantsman (2005) that are designed for a certain stage of education feature the united conceptual framework in shaping the key structural components of the schoolchildren literary development system. it is this "unity" that ensures a "smoother, more organic transition to mastering the grade 5 curriculum edited by marantsman" (benkovskaya, 2007, p. 329), or, more broadly speaking, the consistency of the primary and basic stage of schoolchildren's literary development. the principle of consistency being provided for and observed "on the outside", for example, in learning the theory of literature, in performing the literary creative assignments, is far from guaranteeing the consistency of schoolchildren literary development stages. it is no mere chance that a theoretical notion may become a barrier preventing one from perceiving the literary text directly (especially if its introduction is mistimed – e.g. the notion of kind and genre at grades 5-6 in the curriculum edited by kutuzov (2007), too, and quite an impressive part of questions and assignments may be aimed at reproducing literature theory knowledge items (benkovskaya, 2007, p. 367). the situation when the "seeming" consistency of schoolchildren's literary development is ensured remains for the primary school as well, when the authors of curricula in literary reading tend to combine the objectives of shaping the skill of reading and of schoolchildren's literary development. however, in this case it can hardly be spoken about a system existing or the principles of gradual approach and more profound literary development from grade to grade being observed. in general, of all the literature curricula and tp designed for a certain stage of education (from grade 5 through 11) analyzed by the authors, it is in the curriculum edited by marantsman (2005) that the consistency of shaping the prevailing quantity of structural constituents of the process of schoolchildren's literary development and conditions for it to be successful in their proportion is observed. variable models of the methodological system of school analysis of literary works that are implemented via literature curricula and tp, in particular, ones edited by belenkiy (2006), kutuzov (2007, 2010) and marantsman (2005) can be analyzed based on the criteria that are clearly outlined in sosnovskaya's thesis research "literary development of learners during analysis of a literary work" (2005). 17 aspects according to the total of which it has become possible to evaluate how much the compilers of each of the curricula pay attention to the imagery journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 198-214 and expressive world of the literary work were the basis for singling out these models, in particular: 1) sympathy with what one has read; 2) topic, idea, and problems; 3) plot and composition; 4) motive; 5) artistic image; 6) a character's image; 7) deed; 8) artistic feature; 9) detail; 10) portrait, landscape; 11) implied sense; 12) circumlocution; 13) symbolism, symbol; 14) metaphorization; 15) sound image, color image; 16) phenomena of psychologism; 17) the author of the literary work. the maximum presence of components from the number of the possible ones is registered in the variable model of the literary work school analysis system included in the curriculum edited by marantsman (2005) (15 components – from grade 5 on, and 2 more – later than grade 5). the curriculum edited by belenkiy (2006) (6 components – from grade 5 on, and 6 more – later than grade 5) ranks second, and the one edited by kutuzov (2007, 2010) (4 components – from grade 5 on, and 7 more – later than grade 5) ranks third. the analysis of the curriculum edited by korovina conducted by the authors according to the same structure has shown that the variable model of the literary work school analysis system implemented in it comprises 10 components – introduced from grade 5, and 3 more – later than grade 5 (topic, idea, problem; circumlocution; phenomena of psychologism). however, with regard to this, it is not every literary work analysis system represented as a variable model that can be a structural constituent of conditions for a successful process of maydangalieva et al. schoolchildren's literary development. isachenkova's conclusion (2007) on ensuring the consistent approach to pursuing one of the literary work analysis ways is a particular confirmation of the advantage of the literature curriculum edited by marantsman and described by sosnovskaya (2005): "it is in the curriculum in literature compiled by a team of authors led by marantsman that the comparative analysis system is represented in the most consistent way" (isachenkova, 2007, p. 23). in all curricula and tp in literature edited by belenkiy (2006), korovina (2009); kutuzov (2007, 2010) and marantsman (2005), variable models of the methodological system for bringing into life the intersubject communications at literature classes are represented at the level of groups of two humanities cycle subjects (literature and the russian language). establishing these communications in order to shape such structural constituent of the schoolchildren literary development process as the system for developing the speech in schoolchildren is evident. alongside with that, the variable model of the methodological system for bringing into life the intersubject communications at literature classes included into the literature curriculum and tp edited by marantsman (2005) finds its implementation at the level of esthetic cycle subjects too (literature, arts, and music) while the communications with history and the russian language are especially clearly pronounced in textbook edited by korovina (2009). in many literature curricula and tp, the variable model of the methodological system of creative works, assignments and exercises in literature is compromised. the results of analyzing the curricula in literature (ed. by belenkiy, 2006; korovina, 2009; kutuzov, 2007, 2010; and marantsman, 2005) have allowed making the following conclusions: the objectives for which a certain assignment is applied are not traced clearly enough within the framework of the most curricula; the majority of the curricula make poor use of the capacity of creative assignments for organizing the team work; the percentage ratio of oral and written assignments is unbalanced. although a number of textbooks feature quite diverse and interesting comparative assignments, nevertheless, they frequently point at the accompanying nature of the comparison technique. this gives evidence about the comparative analysis having failed to win its deserved place within the system of literary analysis of artistic works. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 198-214 an unhappy yet reassuring conclusion is contained in kochetova's thesis research (2009) "figurative generalizations as the basis of methodology for studying yu. trifonov's works at grades 10 and 11". the analysis of current tp in literature (korovina (2009), belenkiy (2006), kutuzov (2007)) has shown that assignments for comparing and matching are represented in all tp but they are of a split up and fragmentary nature. the assignments for comparing and matching are first given as a system in the tp edited by marantsman. a clearly organized structure of this system has its regularities and allows teaching the techniques of comparison and matching. when evaluating the way literature curricula and tp solve the problem of correlation of the scientific manner and accessible presentation, the choice of ways for mastering the historical and theoretical notions of literature, benkovskaya (2007) came to the conclusion that this assessment criteria was not met by the curricula in literature edited by kutuzov (2007) because their literary creative assignments were first and foremost aimed at consolidating the theory of literature notions (benkovskaya, 2007). within the aspect of shaping another structural constituent of the schoolchildren literary development process – the system of their emotional development – the curriculum edited by kutuzov (2007, 2010) loses to the one edited by marantsman (2005) too. questions and assignments targeting the emotional and sensitive spheres of students, their imagination that seem so important for them to develop as readers are represented in the curriculum and textbooks edited by kutuzov (2007) for secondary school grades only. meanwhile, in the tp edited by marantsman (2005), the questions addressing emotions, reproducing and creative imagination when studying literary works accompany the learners in all years of schooling, grades 9-11 included. thus, the results of studies give evidence about the curriculum and tp in literature edited by marantsman (2005) demonstrating the systemic approach to the development of creative assignments to the full extent. the approach consists in the focus on shaping as many structural constituents of the process of schoolchildren's literary development as possible. as yadrovskaya (2009) summed up the analysis of the literature tp edited by marantsman (2005), "the nature of assignments allows boosting the work of all perception spheres – emotions, imagination, and thinking…" (yadrovskaya, 2009, p. 68). maydangalieva et al. the system of creative works in literature has only been developed by the compilers of the curricula edited by kutuzov (2007) and by marantsman (2005) from grades 5 through 11 of all the literature curricula and tp analyzed by the authors. this is also confirmed by yadrovskaya's paper "the problem of creative works in school literature education" (2009): "meanwhile, the greater attention was paid to creative works in the curriculum ed. by kutuzov and the one ed. by marantsman; they had the relevant special sections singled out – "creative workshop", "creative practice session" (the curriculum ed. by kutuzov) and "literary creativity" (the curriculum ed. by marantsman). other curricula contained the creative works but the latter were not a structure-forming component" (yadrovskaya, 2009, p. 67). for instance, in the curriculum edited by korovina (2009), it is only a list of oral and written assignments in literature for grades 5-9 and 10-11 that is suggested. yet, it is the curriculum and tp in literature edited by marantsman (2005) that meet the creative works system assessment criteria most. the variable model of the methodological system of criteria of schoolchildren's literary development is only represented in the curriculum and tp in literature edited by marantsman (2005). as a consequence, the other curricula and tp in literature (ed. by belenkiy, 2006; korovina, 2009; kutuzov, 2007, 2010) lack the variable model of the methodological system of methods for studying the schoolchildren's literary development, too. the only difference is the fact that in the literature curricula edited by belenkiy (2006) and kutuzov (2007, 2010) the compilers do not specify the quantity of hours for the teacher to conduct this or that activity. as for the curriculum edited by korovina (2009), in its course scheduling, they specify both the hours for identifying the learners' literary development level (however, it is not always at the beginning and at the end of the academic year) and the survey method – testing – but no assignments for it are given. the variable model of the methodological system of methods for studying the schoolchildren's literary development is represented in the literature curriculum edited by marantsman (2005) as a program for studying the learners' literary development level that is provided in each literature course section of grades 5-11. variable models of the methodological system of bringing into life the connection of literature with other arts are only featured by the literature curricula edited by belenkiy (2006) and marantsman (2005). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 198-214 according to the first two kinds of integration communications singled out in 2000 by domanskiy as applied to the courses of literature, the curricula edited by belenkiy (2006), korovina (2009), kutuzov (2007, 2010), marantsman (2005) are not designed for implementing the variable model of the methodological system for bringing into life the integration communications at literature classes. in fact, these curricula are no integrative courses and they do not imply establishing the relationships with other humanitarian subjects (the russian language, history, world culture of art, and philosophy) by means of ideas, knowledge nodes while at the same time maintaining the autonomy of each subject. thus, the curriculum edited by marantsman (2005) carries out the third type of integration communications at literature classes, as "the literary topics are presented as accompanied by various phenomena of artistic life that allow setting the correlation of arts: literature, painting, architecture, sculpture, music, theatre, and cinema; in their synthesis, they give the learners an idea about different ways of depicting the man and the world in art and expand their knowledge of the artistic schools and trends" (domanskiy, 2000, p. 176). the authors also judge about the variable model of the methodological system for bringing into life the intrasubject communications at literature classes being represented in the literature curricula and tp (ed. by belenkiy, 2006; korovina, 2009; kutuzov, 2007, 2010; and marantsman, 2005) and its elaboration and implementation extent by the intrasubject communications existing in it. they reflect various extent of attention of its authors to it as well as various implementation forms of the communications itself both in the "vertical" and "horizontal" dimensions of the course. as the authors' analysis has shown, it is far not all curricula and textbooks that use these communications consistently and in many aspects. the results of the comparative analysis of the contemporary curricula and tp in literature (ed. by belenkiy, 2006; korovina, 2009; kutuzov, 2007, 2010; and marantsman, 2005) have allowed identifying the effectiveness extent for the variable model of the methodological system of schoolchildren's literary development included in each of them (see table 1). maydangalieva et al. table 1. literature curriculum and teaching package as an indicator of the effectiveness extent of the variable model of the methodological system of schoolchildren's literary development variative models for shaping the structural constituents of conditions for a successful process of schoolchildren's literary development curriculum edited by g . i. b e le n k iy v . y a . k o ro v in a a . g . k u tu z o v v . g . m a ra n ts m a n variable model of the system of connection between class-based and out-of-school lessons in literature + + + + variable model of the system of using the forms of class-based and out-of-school work in literature variable model of the system for shaping the reader's abilities in schoolchildren ± ± ± + variable model of the system of methods and techniques of literary development of schoolchildren ± ± ± + variable model of consistency of literary development stages for schoolchildren + ± ± + variable model of the system of school analysis of literary works + ± + + variable model of the system of bringing into life the intersubject communications at literature classes ± ± ± + variable model of the system of creative works, assignments and exercises in literature ± ± ± + variable model of the system of criteria of schoolchildren's literary development + variable model of the system of methods for studying the schoolchildren's literary development + variable model of the system of bringing into life the connection of literature with other arts + + variable model of the system of bringing into life the integration communications at literature classes ± variable model of the system of bringing into life the intrasubject communications at literature classes ± ± ± ± "+" 4 1 2 10 "±" 5 7 6 2 total ("+" and "±") 9 8 8 12 "-" 4 5 5 1 note: "+" present, "±" partially present, "-" not available. source: authors. the data given in table 1 give evidence about the fact that the distinction in the effectiveness extent of each of the analyzed curricula consists in the quantity of variable models for shaping the structural constituents of conditions for a successful process of schoolchildren's literary development that are completely or partially represented in the curricula. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 198-214 conclusion it is evident that the total quantity of completely and partially represented variable models for shaping the structural constituents of conditions for a successful process of schoolchildren's literary development in the literature curriculum edited by a. g. kutuzov (2007, 2010) and in the one edited by v. ya. korovina (2009) is the same. in this case, the similarity has a "quantitative" distinction: the curriculum edited by a. g. kutuzov (2007, 2010) has a slight advantage in the quantity of the completely represented variable models for shaping the structural constituents of conditions for the successful process of schoolchildren's literary development. for this case, it is of no little interest to note also that the curriculum edited by a. g. kutuzov (2007, 2010) has another advantage over the curriculum edited by korovina (2009) when comparing the variable models of the system of creative works, assignments and exercises in literature that got the same score ("±" – partially present). the advantage consists in the fact that in the curriculum edited by kutuzov (2007, 2010) the system of creative works in literature developed by the compilers with variable approach taken into account is the "structure-forming" component, unlike in the curriculum edited by korovina (2009). this fact points at the necessity to consider another criterion of assessing the effectiveness extent of each of the variable models of the methodological system of schoolchildren's literary development included in the contemporary curricula and tp in literature – the quality of the partially represented in them variable models for shaping the structural constituents of conditions for the successful process of schoolchildren's literary development. taking into account this criterion is appropriate in the case when the quantity of the completely or partially represented variable models for shaping the structural constituents of conditions for a successful process of schoolchildren's literary development coincides in the two literature curricula. as it can be observed, the curriculum and tp in literature edited by marantsman (2005) has the quantitative advantage in its containing the completely represented variable models for shaping the structural constituents of conditions for a successful process of schoolchildren's literary development. thus, the literature curriculum and tp edited by marantsman (2005) feature a more reliable indicator of the effectiveness extent of the variable model of the methodological system of schoolchildren's literary development. they can be recommended for maydangalieva et al. use in order to ensure a full-fledged development of students within the system of the contemporary secondary education. references alferov, a.d. (1911). native language at school: an experience of methods. moscow: sotrudnik shkol. anisimova, t., sharafeeva, l. (2018). methodical training of future teachers as a requirement of new standards. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 65-79. annenskiy, i. f. (1890). educational importance of the native language. russian school, 1, 2144. aydin, h., ozfidan, b., carothers, d. (2017). meeting the challenges of curriculum and instruction in school settings in the united states. journal of social studies education research, 8(3), 76-92. baltalon, ts.p. (1910). experimental research of class reading. in works of the second allrussian meeting on pedagogical psychology in saint-petersburg in 1909 (june 1-5). spb.: p.p. soikin typography, 321-334. belenkiy, g.i. (1973). theory of literature at secondary school (grades vii-x). phd thesis. moscow. benkovskaya, t.e. (2007). scientific schools and trends in the 20th century literature teaching methods. phd thesis. spb. benkovskaya, t., maydangalieva, z. (2017). integrating russian methods of teaching literature into the world science and practice. international journal of applied linguistics and english literature, 6(1), 286-297. buslaev, f.i. (1992). teaching the native language: a study guide for students of pedagogical institutes in the "russian language and literature" spec. m.: prosveshchenie. chigisheva, o. (2018). functional literacy: terminological ambiguity in the worldwide educational context. astra salvensis, vi, special issue, 963-970. curricula of general education institutions: literature. grades 5-11. (2006). belenkiy, g.i., lyssiy, yu.i. (eds.). moscow: mnemozina. curricula of general education institutions: literature. grades 5-11 (basic level). grades 10-11 (profile level). (2009). korovina, v.ya. (ed.). m.: prosveshchenie. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (3), 198-214 curriculum in literature for general education institutions (grades 5-11). (2010). kutuzov, a.g. (ed). m.: drofa. curriculum of literary education (grades 5-9). marantsman, v.g. (ed.). m.: prosveshchenie, 2005. danilov, v.v. (1917). literature as a subject to teach. m.: i.d. sytin partnership typography. fields, s.s. (2016). classroom writing community as authentic audience: the development of ninth-graders’ analytical writing and academic writing identities. literacy research, practice and evaluation, 7, 157-181. fisher, v. (1914). on teaching literature at secondary school. pedagogical review, 3, 1-12. isachenkova, n.v. (2007). the influence of comparative analysis of a literary work on the creative activity of a school-aged reader. phd thesis abstract. spb. kochetova, e.v. (2009). figurative generalizations as the basis of methodology for studying yu. trifonov's works at grades 10-11. phd thesis abstract. spb., 2009. kudryashev, n.i. (1948). on some relevant problems of literature teaching methods. literature at school, 1, 55-63. kudryashev, n.i. (1970). theoretical foundations of literature teaching methods (teaching methods as a science. a course of literature at secondary school. methods of teaching). phd thesis. moscow. kutuzov, a.g. (2007). curriculum for general education institutions, grades 5-11. m.: drofa, 2007. lacerda, m.g., farbiarz, j.l. (2016). design in reading: the possibility of mediation between the young reader and literary reading. international journal of visual design, 10, 29-44. marantsman, v.g (1974). analysis of a literary work and reader's perception of schoolchildren: teaching aid. l.: a.i. herzen lspi. moldavskaya, n.d. (1968). upbringing of readers at school. independent work on the literary piece text as one of the conditions for literary development of senior school students. m.: prosveshchenie. organization of learners' creative activity in literature classes. collection of works. (1979). l.: a.i. herzen lspi. ostrogorskiy, v. (1885). discussion on teaching the russian language and literature. moscow: demakov's typography. maydangalieva et al. plotnikov, i.p. (1921). methodological trilogy. part 1. psychological school in linguistics and methods of teaching the native language. kursk: administration of kursk government department of education. rybnikova, m.a. (1985). essays on literary reading teaching methods: a guide for teachers. m.: prosveshchenie. soboleva, e.v., galimova, e.g., maydangalieva, z.a., batchayeva, k.k. (2018). didactic value of gamification tools for teaching modeling as a method of learning and cognitive activity at school. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 14(6), 2427-2444. sokolov, n.m. (1928). studying literary works at school. m.-l.: state publ. n. bukharin typography in leningrad. sosnovskaya, i. v. (2005). literary development of learners during analysis of a literary work. phd thesis. moscow. stoyunin, v.ya. (1862). thoughts on foundations of a detailed curriculum in the russian language and literature at secondary education institutions by stoyunin, the senior teacher of the 3rd saint-petersburg gymnasium school. in: remarks on the draft charter of general education institutions and the draft general public schools’ establishment plan. part 1. spb., 446-453. studying literature at school. a collection of methodological papers and sample lessons. lebedev, a.m. (ed.). m.; pg.: giz. the contemporary problems of literature teaching methodology. materials of the all-russian seminar meeting of pedagogical institute teachers of literature teaching methodology. rotkovich, a.ya. (ed.). kuibyshev. umami, i. (2018). moderating influence of curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment practices on learning outcomes in indonesian secondary education. journal of social studies education research, 9(1), 60-75. yadrovskaya, e.r. (2009). the problem of creative works in school literature education. in: proceedings of herzen state pedagogical university of russia. spb., no. 112, 63-72. civil law agreement and its implication on regulation for prevention of corruption within covid-19 pandemic www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2020:11 (4), 28-51 the social impact of force majeure and the consequences of the determination of the covid 19 disaster status on learning the manpower law evita isretno israhadi1 abstract this study aims to explore learning about the labor law regarding the force majeure event due to the determination of the 2019 corona virus disease pandemic (covid-19) national disaster, which has implications for the termination of employment in indonesia. this type of research is normative-empirical legal research. research using non-judicial studies is based on primary legal materials, social behavior guidelines, and relevant previous research. data are identified using an approach statute which emphasizes empirical legal learning to lead to problem-solving. results show that the impact of social force majeure on termination of employment due to the determination of the covid 19 disaster status imposed by the government has resulted in an increase in unemployment and increased economic difficulties for the community. the law of force majeure based on labor regulations and policies reveals that layoffs are carried out after going through the renegotiation process stage. layoffs cannot just be carried out unilaterally by companies, especially on the covid 19 outbreak. this is because there are independent auditing steps carried out by stakeholders before actually being declared to have experienced a force majeure condition and enforcing layoffs. in other words, layoffs can be done if both parties have negotiated and are looking to solve the company's financial problems. this research's main contribution is for stakeholders, especially work bound by the company's work contract. by increasing the legal literacy force majeure, the unemployment rate due to layoffs should be controlled. in this case, the government needs to review the manpower act regulation related to the force majeure criteria so that social justice can truly be realized for indonesian workers. keywords: covid 19, employment, force majeure, learning, social impact. introduction the determination of the status of a national disaster due to the spread of covid 19 has a significant impact on workers and business activities in indonesia (siallagan, 2020). domestic actors (workers who experience termination of employment) experience economic difficulties. business actors have difficulty even being unable to fulfill their obligations, bound by labor contracts and business contracts.the central statistics agency survey revealed that the income of 84 percent of small and medium enterprises (mses) fell during covid 19. likewise, large medium enterprises (umb) decreased by 82 percent. this condition is reflected in the results of the covid 19 impact survey on business actors; this survey was conducted in mid-july 2020. 1 dr. faculty of law, borobudur university, jakarta, indonesia, evita_isretno@borobudur.ac.id mailto:evita_isretno@borobudur.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 29 this survey was attended by 34,558 business actors, consisting of 6,821 low-cost businesses, 25,256 small medium enterprises, and 2,482 businesses from the agriculture sector (cnn indonesia, 2020). world bank predicts indonesia's growth is only 0 percent. the inability to meet life necessities due to pressure due to the pandemic has been seen in the first quarter of 2.84 percent, which decreased dramatically compared to consumption in the fourth quarter of 2019 of 4.97 percent. this problem specifically affects the sustainability of business contracts and workers' contracts, where empirically, the business industry in indonesia is in a condition of economic difficulty with low levels of welfare (olefirenko & galuschenko, 2018; siallagan, 2020). before the presence of presidential decree no.12 of 2020, business actors could use the spread of covid 19 as an excuse for force majeure if they were unable to fulfill the contract agreement as long as the reasons are given for the failure of the agreement were not due to company negligence but due to something unpredictable and unavoidable (berger & behn, 2020). the covid 19 pandemic has put strong enough pressure on what companies have never faced, and partnerships have even experienced the project's failure (casady & baxter, 2020). as a result, many companies have terminated their employment. article 164 paragraph 1 of law number 13 the year 2003 concerning manpower provides room for companies to lay off employees on the grounds of force majeure due to covid 19. there is no explanation at all what is meant by compelling circumstances in the manpower law. therefore, this coercive situation's interpretation largely depends on the judges at the industrial relations court (phi). another problem that is no less important is the social impact of force majeure on layoffs. layoff decisions due to force majeure have had a sizable social impact, especially unemployment. the following are some of the companies that laid off due to corona, 1) gojek indonesia implemented a layoff policy for 430 employees; 2) traveloka companies lay off 100 people or 10 percent of their total employees; 3) pt shyang yao fang laid off 2,500 employees; and 4) pt express trasindo utama tbk (taxi) laid off 81 employees and made a salary cut of 40 percent for the remaining 390 employees (santia, 2020). these companies are proof that mass layoffs have actually caused a serious unemployment problem in indonesia. israhadi based on data from the central statistics agency (csa) in the indonesian labor sector, it was recorded that up to february 2020, the number of unemployed had increased by 60 thousand people. meanwhile, the open unemployment rate, which is an indicator to measure the labor market that is not absorbed by the labor market, is 4.99 percent. this indicates that out of 100 people in the workforce, there are around 5 unemployed people with a higher male open unemployment rate than women (badan pusat statistik, 2020a). even though, in fact, the covid 19 pandemic regulation cannot be the reason for companies to layoff the high number of layoffs amid the covid 19 situation is a strong reason for the importance of legal literacy in force majeure agreements related to the implications for layoffs. it is hoped that stakeholders understand that layoffs are the last step taken after going through the renegotiation process. force majeure (french) or known as vis major (in latin), is defined as superior strength, otherwise known as cas fortuit (french) or casus fortuitas (in latin), bad events, or situations outside the plan that cannot avoid. force majeure is an excuse to be exempted from all obligations to pay compensation (litvinoff, 1985). several recent studies related to this research explain cases of force majeure determination and the implications of covid 19. research conducted by casady & baxter (2020) reviews several international policies using the highway 104 novia scotia twin project as an illustrative force risk management case. majeure at the time of the covid 19 pandemic. furthermore, the issue of force majeure doctrine and difficulties in dealing with legal effects from unforeseen circumstances. this research discusses the causes of the covid 19 pandemic, which involves the doctrine of force majeure and domestic partners. research recommends the idea of the unexpected and the inevitable for determining the force majeure criteria (berger & behn, 2020). organizational resilience during the covid 19 pandemic. the study states that the crisis that occurred due to the pandemic has worsened economic conditions. but force majeure cannot be said to be the reason that causes losses and is deemed to deviate from article 164 paragraph 3 of law number 13 of 2003 concerning manpower (juaningsih, 2020). another study conducted in the uk states that two things are considered about force majeure conditions, namely: the basic concept of clausal force majeure is to provide an alternative to the rigors of the frustration doctrine and in one case 'callosal force majeure must be interpreted by considering every word words that precede or follow it and pay attention to the general terms of the contract (giaretta, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 31 from various previous studies, most of them discussed important points that led to the doctrine of force advanced, legal effects, and contracts difficulties. very few researchers have found previous research that discusses lessons learned from determining force majeure situations and the resulting social impacts. among them is research conducted by hamzah, (2020) about social learning in civil law agreements and the implications of regulations in the covid 19 pandemic, which revealed that good faith is the key to resolving frustrating agreement problems to secure the agreement between the two parties to the contract. as well as previous research that explains lessons learned about the importance of reviewing the provisions of force majeure in the contract agreement to reduce the challenges of covid 19 in the nigerian construction industry (kabiru & yahaya, 2020). other findings reveal that the covid 19 pandemic's social impacts have disrupted trading activities, paralyzed supply chains, and forced businesses to seek pragmatic ways to make their businesses survive. researchers suggest that business people learn how to use sensitive conflict management and negotiation skills to obtain social contracts and help companies successfully navigate their business in the face of economic uncertainty (akpan, 2018; benlagha & hemrit, 2018; bukusi, 2020; idowu et al., 2020). abidin, suryanto & utami (2020) added that the beyond muamalah principle in digital payment education can be an important alternative to social education to shape individual character. research questions based on the background of the problem, two questions cover the background to the problem that has been raised, namely: 1. what are learn about force majeure in the manpower law due to the determination of the covid 19 disaster status? 2. what does the consequences of determining the covid 19 disaster status for work? methods design the type of research used is normative-empirical legal research. this research is a non-judicial case study. this research is a research method generally used for research on business and human rights (socio-law), which includes the (obvious) need to comply with national laws and israhadi self-regulating to cover any gaps between the application of written national law and its practice. (de facto), and as international legal standards (buhmann, fasterling, & voiculescu, 2018). this research uses a qualitative approach, without conflict so that there is no interference in court. this study aims to present empirical data more objectively, showing interest and concern for developing new understandings about the impact of social force majeure and the consequences of determining covid 19 disaster status on the learning of the manpower law. data and sources of data based on the source, the research focuses on the secondary data. sources of data from primary legal materials consist of; 1) law number 13 of 2003 concerning manpower; 2) the 2017 world bank guidelines on provisions for public-private partnerships (ppp) contracts; 3) presidential regulation no. 36/2020 concerning work competency development through the preemployment card program; 4) law of the republic of indonesia number 11 of 2020 concerning job creation; 5) presidential decree (keppres) number 12 of 2020 concerning stipulation of non-natural disaster for the spread of covid 19; 6) financial services authority regulation number 11 of 2020 concerning national economic stimulus; 7) pjok number 14/pjok.05/2020 concerning countercyclical policies on the impact of coronavirus spread in 2019 for non-bank financial services institutions; and 8) civil code related to manpower. secondary data sources and purpose of evaluating are presented in table 1 below. table 1. sources of data theme the secondary data information learning the manpower law 1. law number 13 of 2003 concerning manpower 2. civil code related to manpower, pasal 1244 dan pasal 1245 3. the 2017 world bank guidance criteria for contract conditions of public-private partnerships (ppp) 4. law of the republic of indonesia number 11 of 2020 concerning job creation the purpose of evaluating data is to demonstrate the importance of learning about labor law in particular regarding termination of employment journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 33 social impact of policy the covid 19 disaster status 1. financial services authority regulation number 11 of 2020 concerning national economic stimulus 2. pjok number 14/pjok.05/2020 concerning countercyclical policies on the impact of coronavirus spread in 2019 for non-bank financial institutions 3. presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 36 of 2020 concerning work competency development through the pre-employment card program the purpose of evaluating this data is to determine the strongest policy implications for people affected by layoffs related to the social impacts of determining the status of the covid 19 disaster in indonesia. determination of the covid 19 disaster status presidential decree (keppres) number 12 of 2020 concerning stipulation of non-natural disaster for the spread of covid 19 the purpose of evaluating data is to find out the contents of policies related to the determination of non-natural disasters for the spread of covid 19 data collection data collection is carried out through legal studies contained in primary legal materials. the main legal materials are presented in the data described in table 2: table 2. description of research data theme primary legal data sources indication code rq manpower 1. law number 13 of 2003 concerning manpower 2. the 2017 world bank guidance criteria for contract conditions of public-private partnerships (ppp) 3. presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 36 of 2020 concerning work competency development through the preemployment card program 4. law of the republic of indonesia number 11 of rq 1 rq2 rq1 rq2 rq2 2, 4, 5 13 6, 8 11, 12 14 israhadi 2020 concerning job creation non-disaster spread covid-19 presidential decree (keppres) number 12 of 2020 concerning stipulation of non-natural disaster for the spread of covid 19 rq 1 1, 3 financial services authority (pjok) regulations 4. financial services authority regulation number 11 of 2020 concerning national economic stimulus 5. pjok number 14/pjok.05/2020 concerning countercyclical policies on the impact of coronavirus spread in 2019 for non-bank financial institutions rq1 rq2 9 10 civil code to manpower civil code related to manpower, pasal 1244 dan pasal 1245 rq 1 7 referring to the 4 data above, the study applies a normative-empirical legal analysis, as stated by (buhmann et al., 2018). the steps for collecting data from each document are carried out as follows; 1) classify the data that has been collected based on predetermined themes; 2) adapting the theme to the rq, preparing the data for analysis; 3) determine the unit of analysis from primary legal sources based on rq; 4) determine the coding system rules; 5) apply coding to the data; 5) outlining facts and chronology of events; 6) legal analysis and opinion; 7) conclude what data is ultimately used. data analysis techniques the analysis technique for normative-empirical legal research includes (lawless, robbennolt, & ulen, 2010): 1) data reduction (summarizing research data, coding, looking for relevant themes, creating clusters); 2) analyzing the legal basis and statutory regulations related to the research conducted; 3) describe the facts and chronology of events and reinforce them in a sequence of events based on the timing of the problems in the study; 4) analyzing and legal considerations on the main issues based on predetermined legal provisions and related previous research; 5) analysis of the problem refers to the legal facts and regulations that have been identified as in table 1; 6) a section on the description of opinions on the subject matter based on analysis and legal considerations and relevant previous research; 7) make conclusions and solutions to problems. efforts to draw conclusions that are in line with the researcher's theme, namely regarding the impact of social force majeure and the consequences of determining the covid 19 disaster status on the learning of the manpower law. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 35 result and discussion force majeure learning in labor law the first finding indicates that termination of employment cannot be avoided by companies in the midst of uncertain economic conditions. moreover, facing the low purchasing power of the community due to the stipulation of presidential decree (keppres) number 12 of 2020 concerning the determination of non-natural disasters for the spread of covid 19, considering data 1. (1) "non-natural disasters caused by the spread of corona virus disease 2019 (covid-19) have had an impact on increasing the number of victims and property losses, expanding the number of victims and property losses, expanding the coverage of areas affected by disasters and having implications for socio-economic aspects that are widely in indonesia." about company decision making, the termination of employment must pay attention to aspects as the objectives of the manpower law number 13 of 2020 in article 4 letter a, considering data 2. (2) “empowerment and workforce utilization is an integrated activity to provide the widest possible job opportunities for indonesian workers. through this empowerment and empowerment, it is hoped that indonesian workers can participate optimally in national development, but while still upholding their human values.” it is evident that the content in the explanation in article 4 prioritizes several aspects, namely: 1) empowering and optimally empowering human resources; 2) realizing equal employment opportunities and labor supply according to development needs; 3) protect workers; and 4) fair or non-discriminatory employment agreement provisions. this indicates that the termination of employment is the last step taken by the company. given that companies must also comply with government regulations in supporting efforts to empower workplaces to achieve people's welfare. so, in this case, companies and workers should negotiate together in finding solutions to face the consequences of presidential decree (keppres) number 12 of 2020 concerning the determination of non-natural disasters for the spread of covid 19. further information israhadi regarding the prohibition of discrimination is explained in articles 5 and 6, which reads, considering data 3. (3) “every worker has the same opportunity without discrimination to get a job (article 5). every worker/ laborer has the right to receive equal treatment without discrimination from employers (article 6).” as stipulated in article 1320 of the civil code, a valid agreement must fulfill five elements: a binding agreement, the ability to make an engagement, a certain subject matter, a cause that is not prohibited, and an employment relationship. of course, it can be understood that negotiations are clearly highly recommended, given that a working relationship bounds the company and workers. also, negotiation is a form of enforcing justice as a form of rejection of acts of discrimination. termination of employment contracts unilaterally without clear reasons and the absence of independent auditing is clearly not justified because the action is contrary to the objectives of the manpower law. based on the manpower act number 13 of 2020 concerning manpower as contained in article 163, considering data 4. (4) “employers can make a termination of employment for workers/laborers in the event of a change in status, merger, consolidation, or change in company ownership. workers are not willing to continue their working relationship.” from the explanation in article 163, several reasons for the company to conduct a termination of employment can be seen. however, it is unfortunate that if the company took this step without independent auditing regarding the force majeure, it would not be by the manpower act's as explained earlier. further, article 156 regulates severance pay or service fees or forms of work service awards and compensation for rights that should be received and must be paid by companies. referring to article 164, paragraph 1 of law no.13 of 2003 concerning manpower, it states that employers can carry out employment termination for workers/laborers because they close due to force majeure. furthermore, article 164 paragraph 3 adds that employers can also carry out a termination of employment of workers/laborers with the following provisions, namely: considering data 5. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 37 (5) “1) the provisions of article 151 apply whereby when conducting a termination of employment, an intensive social dialogue must be carried out with a union of workers/ labor unions; 2) there must be evidence of loss for 2 consecutive years audited by an independent audit.” it needs to be understood that there is an unclear definition of force majeure, which causes conditions of non-natural disasters and/or quarantine regulations to be used as reasons for layoffs. these findings corroborate the research presented by casady & baxter (2020) , which reveals the relationship between the covid 19 pandemic and public-private partnerships (ppp) and force majeure. it was explained that this force majeure leads to a situation where contract execution is not possible and an effort to resolve problems arising from poor performance due to the suspension or termination of the first party. according to the study, the covid 19 pandemic was a force majeure event, as long as it met the criteria of the 2017 world bank guidelines on provisions for public-private partnerships (ppp) contracts, considering data 6 (6) “the majeure event force in a ppp contract represents any event or combination of events that exceed reasonable control limits, is unexpected or cannot be prevented/cannot be prevented, and is not a direct result of any breach of the ppp contract by the private partner.” further in clause (1) is described, “a) epidemics, diseases, epidemics and natural disasters, but not limited to hurricanes, cyclones, hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, earthquakes, volcanic activity, landslides, tsunamis, floods, lightning, and drought; b) fire, explosion, or nuclear, biological or chemical contamination (other than caused by the private partner, its contractor or any subcontractor, supplier or vendor); c) war (whether declared or not), armed conflict (including but not limited to hostile attacks, blockades, military embargoes), hostilities, invasions, acts of foreign enemies, acts of terrorism, sabotage or piracy [in any case occurring abroad ]; d) civil wars, rebellions and revolutions, riots, military or power seizures, civil unrest or chaos, mass violence, acts of civil disobedience [in any case that occurs outside the state]; e) radioactive contamination or ionizing radiation [occurring outside the state]; or f) general labor disturbances such as boycotts, work strikes and lockouts, sluggishness, occupation of factories and premises, do not belong to similar israhadi situations in ppp projects and specific to private partners or their subcontractors [and occur outside the country] (the world bank, 2017).” based on the criteria from the 2017 world bank guidelines regarding the provisions for publicprivate partnerships (ppp), it is clear that the criteria for enforcing force majeure against companies at the time of the covid 19 incident are not much different from the provisions of the manpower law number 13 of 2020. both depend on conditions other laws such as the negotiation process, dispute resolution in court, limitation of responsibility in contract agreement's content, liquidated compensation, governing law, and the right to termination based on each government policy's decision. the government played an important role in the force majeure event. as stated by smith (1936) explaining the force majeure doctrine and the impossibility of performance, in the case of force majeure, the central government and local government authorities' actions and regulations have been considered force majeure. as in the statutory regulations, the termination of employment provision basically obliges employers or companies to provide severance pay to workers/laborers. however, this becomes a social problem when the unemployment rate due to the termination of employment in the midst of a national disaster has increased, and severance pay is no longer sufficient to meet daily needs. in this case, there should be renegotiation between workers and the company as a form of the labor agreement. the force majeure alias overmatch is regulated in article 1244 of the civil code, which explains, considering data 7. (7) “the debtor must be punished to compensate costs, losses, and interest if he cannot prove that the agreement was not carried out or that the agreement was not carried out on time due to unforeseen circumstances that could not be borne by though there was no bad intention to him.” unfortunately, in fact, some companies did not do it and dismissed unilaterally. meanwhile, most lay workers do not understand the legal provisions regarding the terms of the termination of employment in a force majeure situation and accept it. even though, as workers, especially those who are bound by a contract, they can file court demands related to their rights as workers who are bound by an agreement contract. therefore, workers must understand that the force majeure that can result in the termination of employment must fulfill three elements, namely; unforeseen situations, cannot be prevented by the party that must fulfill obligations, or carry out journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 39 the agreement, beyond the fault of the party. these provisions have been explained in article 164 paragraph 1 of law no.13 of 2003 concerning manpower. the problem is that the definition of force majeure is not regulated in detail in the civil code in indonesia. article 1245 of the civil code states, considering data 8. (8) “costs, losses, and interests don't need to be compensated for an overmatch or an accidental situation. the debtor cannot provide or do something required or the same things that have committed an illegal act.” responding to the implementation of contract agreements for some people who have been laid off and experiencing economic difficulties, it has been regulated in the financial services authority regulation number 11 of 2020 concerning national economic stimulus as a countercyclical policy on the impact of the spread of corona virus disease 2019. although the contents of the explanation in the regulation aim to encourage banking performance, about companies, this policy really helps ease the debt burden for companies constrained by loans or financing at the bank. of course, by paying attention to the principles of prudence and monitoring mechanisms to prevent misuse in the application of regulations (moral hazard). as explained in the regulation of the financial services authority of the republic of indonesia number 11/pjok.03/2020 concerning national economic stimulus as a countercyclical policy the impact of the spread of corona virus disease 2019 states, considering data 9. (9) “......the countercyclical policy on the impact of the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) is aimed at encouraging banking performance, especially the intermediation function, maintaining financial system stability, and supporting economic growth, namely by providing special treatment for bank credit or financing with a certain amount and restructured credit or financing to debtors affected by the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-2019) include micro, small and medium business debtors....” based on the stipulation of presidential decree (keppres) number 12 of 2020 concerning the determination of non-natural disasters for the spread of covid 19 and the provisions of the manpower act number 13 of 2020. it is understood that force majeure and difficulties provide legal tools to deal with long-term effects and the uncertainty of the covid 19 situation, especially in long-term contracts. this finding is in line with research conducted by berger & behn (2020) , israhadi which states that at the time of the covid 19 situation, the doctrine of force majeure and difficulties acting as regular law was not an exception to recovery. this allows for risks stemming from an unprecedented crisis. then distributed evenly among stakeholders. the same statement was made by maskow (1992) regarding the difficulty and force majeure determination in the revolutionary events of the post-world war i inflation crisis period and the seventies oil crisis in eastern europe and parts of eastern germany. what is clearly stated is that the contract must define the rights and obligations of each party. one of the natural methods used is to maintain the contract stability and flexibility as the 'pacta servanda sunt' law. it is further explained that the force majeure criteria must reflect the values of justice and the requirements to bind someone to the promise and protect the promised interests. even in a situation where the first party cannot keep its promise, and both parties cannot reasonably expect a profit and without any compensation. it should be understood that the force majeure principle is the main principle of most legal contracts and is recognized as a rule of international law (ripert, 1949). in other words, in following up on force majeure learning and the issue of termination of employment, a sufficient understanding of the principles of force majeure itself is needed, especially understanding the criteria and standardization that have been determined by stakeholders, namely government regulations and international organizations such as the world bank. designing appropriate contracts to examine and carefully assess the criteria needed to claim force majeure as well as renegotiation, arbitration, and litigation and force majeure clauses that clearly rearrange when damages can be claimed, but not after notification has been filed (giaretta, 2020). two aspects can be considered criteria for determining the force majeure under the covid 19 situation, namely competent management to avoid reasonable doubt in determining force majeure and unpredictable and unpredictable situations (ward, 2020). if examined more deeply, good faith and moral strength as a standard in a labor contract's behavior as an agreement that binds the company and the workforce is needed. therefore, a return to moral strength, human values, justice, and negotiation is carried out before deciding on employment termination. moral strength is an integral part of preventing contract violations and at the drafting stage, predicting uncertain situations such as covid 19. these findings are reinforced by previous research that recommends the rapid development of trust, pursuing project rescue agreements, embracing collaborative responsibility, being optimistic and journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 41 innovative to create results that benefit both parties to the contract. and in the long term, it is hoped that the current situation requires a comprehensive revision of the force majeure provisions to prioritize mitigation measures more adequately (casady & baxter, 2020). the consequences of determining covid 19 disaster status on employment one of the development targets stated in the state budget to improve people's welfare is to reduce unemployment, which is supported by quality economic growth and a successful social protection program. in the midst of a situation determining the covid 19 disaster status, workers who were victims of the termination of employment were the biggest contributor to the unemployment rate. not without reason, due to force majeure conditions, the company dismissed workers so that most of the workforce experienced economic difficulties. this is quite a social problem, given that the poverty rate in indonesia due to covid 19 is quite high. until march 2020, there were 26.42 million people, with a percentage reaching 9.78 percent (badan pusat statistik, 2020b). humanitarian disasters must be watched out for. moreover, the covid 19 pandemic situation is very vulnerable to a survival crisis. even in india, a humanitarian disaster has occurred. about 99 percent of india's workforce is employed in sectors that are not well organized, losing their livelihoods for household needs, hunger, destitution, and abuse (sengupta & jha, 2020). most of the workers have lost their jobs due to the covid pandemic 19. this has increased unemployment because most of the workforce depends on the economy on companies or business actors. contract workers and self-employed workers also have to face the inequality of the government assistance program. a study revealed that there were four groups of workers who were socially affected during the covid 19 crisis, namely 1) sick people who did work but did not get sick leave; 2) unemployed workers who wish to claim unemployment insurance but do not meet the requirements; 3) workers who are unemployed and receive insurance but have run out; and 4) workers are not covered by government programs (wandner & o’leary, 2020). workers may not survive long unless they have a sufficient amount of savings (martin, markhvida, hallegatte, &walsh, 2020). they have to deal with decreasing income and use their savings until their savings are completely depleted. if this happens en masse, unemployment due to employment termination will lead to global poverty and famine. israhadi the second finding regarding the consequences of determining the covid 19 disaster status for employment in indonesia concerns the policies that have been taken by the government to overcome economic difficulties. one of them is the press release issued by the financial services authority regulation (pjok) in the implementation of government regulation instead of law (perppu) number 1 of 2020 concerning state financial policy and financial system stability for handling pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) and/or financial system stability. this regulation aims to maintain financial system stability and encourage the running of the national economy. in other words, through the financial services authority regulation (pjok), the government is trying to overcome the increase in unemployment due to mass layoffs from the aspect of financial institutions. the regulation is outlined in pjok number 14/pjok.05/2020 concerning countercyclical policy on the impact of the coronavirus distribution in 2019 for non-bank financial institutions with the following conditions, considering data 10. (10) “providing financing restructuring for debtors affected by covid 19 and various other provisions such as a deadline for submitting periodic reports; implementation of fit and proper test; determination of asset quality in the form of financing and financing restructuring; calculation of the level of solvency of insurance companies, sharia insurance companies, reinsurance companies, and sharia reinsurance companies; calculation of the quality of funding for pension funds administering defined benefit pension plans; and implementation of provisions for asset management according to the age of the participant group (life cycle fund) for pension funds that organize defined contribution programs." to overcome unemployment, especially victims of the termination of employment affected by the determination of the covid 19 disaster status, the government provided a pre-employment card. this is part of a strategic step in the social protection program to encourage indonesia's workforce expansion and quality. the pre-work card is a card given by the government to job seekers or workers to obtain vocational training services (skilling and re-skilling) and/or job competency certification. the total budget for 2020 provided by the government to implement this policy is idr 10 trillion, with a target of 2 million participants (direktorat penyusunan anggaran apbn, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 43 the following is the pre-work card implementation scheme; figure 1. pre-employment card scheme source: processed data, (direktorat penyusunan anggaran apbn, 2020) based on the design of the pre-work card implementation, as in figure 1, it can be seen that vocational training services consist of two categories, namely skilling and re.skilling. the difference lies in the goals, objectives, and outcomes the government wants to achieveskilling targets fresh graduate job seekers. the goal is to build adjustment skills and vocational skills for work. and the outcome to be achieved is to reduce unemployment. meanwhile, re-skilling has a target aimed at a change of profession, a terminated worker, or a potential termination of employment. the pre-employment card program is contained in the presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 36 of 2020 concerning job competency development through the preemployment card program. in chapter 1 general provisions article 1, paragraph 1 and 2 reads, considering data 11. (11) “the pre-employment card program is a working competency development program aimed at job seekers, workers/laborers who have been terminated, and/or pre-employment card skilling re-skilling training services digital training target regular  goals  aim  outcome  goals  aim  outcome  training  intensive  training  certification  incentives israhadi workers/laborers who need increased competence (paragraph 1). pre-work card is a sign or identity card given to beneficiaries of the kartuprakerja program.” the purpose of providing different or new vocational skills is for transferring professions and/or entrepreneurs. the outcome to be achieved is to prevent re-unemployment. it can be understood that the government is trying to overcome the social impact of determining the covid 19 disaster status on employment or increasing unemployment by implementing the re-skilling pre-employment card policy. as explained in chapter i general provisions article 2 which explains that, considering data 12. (12) pre-employment card program aims; a. develop workforce competencies; and b. increase the productivity and competitiveness of the workforce. there are two kinds of implementation design used, namely digital implementation and regular implementation. the difference lies in the provision of certification for 0.5 million regular track participants, which is lower than the total digital implementation budget, reaching 1.5 million participants. in a digital implementation, participants are given training and incentives. the training is conducted online (e-learning) and offline (face-to-face) provided by the private sector. whereas for the regular route, the next development stage, including training and certification, is carried out by government job training institutions (including vocational training centers), private lpks, and industrial tcs. training and certification institutions are adjusted to the management of the executors. the problem of unemployment should be resolved after the existence of a poverty alleviation program, or at least be able to increase productivity and work competitiveness in the midst of the covid 19 situation as the program's initial objectives. according toirawan, ludiya, romi, & rahardianto (2019), productivity and work competitiveness can increase competitive advantage, especially human resource management. but the facts tell another. the findings indicate that the pre-employment card is not directed at leading and potential industries such as the textile and apparel industry sector. the government's focus does not, in detail, determine the direction of the training program. it may be that the design and training content provided is not the type of skill a potential market is looking for. the training program may not add new skills; thus, the program recipients find it difficult to find jobs. this finding is in line with previous research, which explains that the government also does not guarantee that after the pre-work program, people can journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 45 get a job or not (zubaidi, pratama, & al-fatih, 2020). the effectiveness of pre-employment cards has not really achieved the goal of tackling unemployment. first, this program has drawn criticism because of most of its fund's go-to service providers. for training materials, it was generally available before the program was implemented, so it seemed ineffective. second, the lack of a transparency program in providing training services (ing & vadila, 2020). the government should have a clear database of targeted benefits. as the findings of setyawan, rika gamayuni, & muhammad ahmad (2019)state that the implementation of e-budgeting and an internal control system can be done to achieve accountability and good governance. also, the program must be distributed fairly. this controversial and polemic government program requires a quick and precise solution, considering that the covid 19 pandemic is still not over. meanwhile, the community has to struggle every day to face the consequences of determining the covid 19 disaster status. the most likely condition for the community to maintain their survival amid the covid 19 pandemic is working from home or work from home (wfh). work from home is a working concept where workers can do their work from home. the possibility of getting a job via the internet is also a great opportunity for job seekers to earn just an income. this wfh can be linked to article 86 paragraph (1) letter an of law number 13 of 2013 concerning manpower, considering data 13. (13) “every worker/laborer has the right to obtain protection for occupational safety and health.” workers get a form of protection for worker safety when they implement wfh. however, in this case, neither the government nor the company can guarantee that workers are completely protected by working at home. this will be successful if the community follows the health protocol properly. the problem is, wfh can only be accessed by people who understand the internet. in other words, workers/laborers who do not understand how to access digital technology or are still working outside are very vulnerable to being unprotected for their workplace safety and health rights during social distancing during the covid 19 pandemic. there is a social security administering body as a protection body for occupational safety and health. the government requires every company to register its workers with social security administrator (ssa) employment. however, this only applies to the four programs, as stated in israhadi law of the republic of indonesia number 24 of 2011 concerning social security administering bodies article 6 paragraph 2, namely work accident insurance, old age security, pension security, and death security. meanwhile, there is no guarantee program as compensation, as stated in this government regulation, if it terminates the employment relationship. there is only severance pay, as stipulated in article 156 paragraph 2 of the manpower act. in this case, the job creation law number 11 of 2020 has changed employment relations between employers and workers, article 81, number 37. and the regulation of severance pay as stipulated in article 156 paragraph 2 of the job creation law reads, considering data 14. (14) as referred to in paragraph 1, the severance pay is provided with the following conditions: a. the work period is less than 1 (one) year, 1 (one) month of wages; b. the work period of 1 (one) year or more but less than 2 (two) years, 2 (two) months of wages; c. the working period of 2 (two) or more but less than 3 (three) years, three months of wages; d. the working period of 3 (three) years or more but less than 4 (four) years, 4 (four) months of wages; e. the working period of 4 (four) years or more but less than 5 (five) years, 5 (five) months of wages; f. the work period of 5 (five) years or more, but less than 6 (six) years, 6 (six) months of wages; g. the work period of 6 (six) years or more but less than 7 (seven) years, 7 (seven) months of wages; h. the work period of 7 (seven) years or more but less than 8 (eight) years, 8 (eight) months of wages; i. the work period of 8 (eight) years or more, 9 (nine) months of wages.” as written in the job creation law, it is clear that there are provisions regarding severance pay. however, this regulation cannot guarantee that the company can pay severance pay according to the provisions, especially if the company is declared bankrupt. in this case, termination of employment insurance and termination of employment credit insurance in indonesia are still managed by private companies. termination of employment insurance can protect business owners from the obligation to pay severance pay when termination of employment occurs. meanwhile, termination of employment credit insurance is a form of protection and guarantees the insured as a credit recipient/debtor if he experiences termination of employment. unfortunately, claims can only be made when the company is declared truly bankrupt by a court decision that is legally binding by the manpower act number 13 of 2003. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 47 government programs based on the presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia, number 36 of 2020 concerning work competency development through the pre-employment card program, require novelty to overcome the current unemployment problem. not without reason, if the after evaluation of these policies is not carried out, the impact of an economic recession can occur as has happened in developing countries and developed countries. in line with the findings, previous research revealed that programs that can be carried out to overcome social impacts as an effort to improve the economy at the time of covid 19 are by providing income support programs, compensation (woodbury, 2020), insurance benefits, and job subsidies (ortiz, salvo, & astudillo, 2020). this is done in unique ways, namely in the form of a transfer of income paid within a certain period. it was further explained that these programs need further protection to be right on target. although in the implementation of the possibility of failure, negative impacts and obstacles will definitely exist, over time with local businesses' support and the right government policies can ensure that the economy can run conducive. based on the results of a study on government policies in overcoming the problem of termination of employment, which is considered to increase unemployment and is related to the covid 19 disaster, it can be understood that the implication of the policy that has the most impact on society is the presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 36 of 2020 concerning the development of work competence through the card program. pre-employment by paying attention to data 11. it is clear that through the pre-employment card program, it is hoped that unemployment due to termination of employment can be minimized. however, it seems that it still needs evaluation and improvement in the future. but empirically, this program has been implemented and has been felt by most people affected by layoffs in indonesia. conclusion the first findings reveal that learning from force majeure during the covid 19 pandemic encourages the importance of good faith and moral strength as a standard in labor contract behavior as an agreement that binds the company and the labor party. in this case, the criteria and principles of force majeure must also be considered. the second finding shows that the social impact of force majeure on employment is the occurrence of mass unemployment. to overcome these social impacts, the government implemented a pre-employment card program. israhadi however, it seems that the program has not been able to solve the current mass unemployment problem. this research has quite broad implications. first, researchers highlight the importance of increasing legal literacy of force majeure agreements, especially in situations of economic uncertainty. learning about force majeure is urgently needed for those who agree. contract so that both parties can find a solution by the applicable legal provisions. if this is done, it is hoped that the company might avoid breaching contractual obligations. second, this research's normative-empirical approach helps to build and explain legal provisions related to force majeure and its social impacts. of course, it is hoped that this research can become a reference for the government to determine policy direction in dealing with unemployment problems. future research should investigate the potential of the importance of learning force majeure law as a strategic step in determining the criteria and solutions faced by companies and workers in a situation of economic uncertainty. references abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. akpan, l. (2018). the political undertone in the development of nomadic education in africa: lessons from nigeria. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 1-21. badan pusat statistik. (2020a). keadaan ketenagakerjaan indonesia februari 2020. berita resmi statistik, (40), 20. retrieved from https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2020/05/05/1672/februari-2020--tingkat-pengangguranterbuka--tpt--sebesar-4-99-persen.html badan pusat statistik. (2020b). profil kemiskinan di indonesia. berita resmi statistik, (56), 1– 12. retrieved from https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2020/01/15/1743/persentasependuduk-miskin-september-2019-turun-menjadi-9-22-persen.html benlagha, n., & hemrit, w. (2018). the inter and intra relationship between economics, administrative sciences and social sciences disciplines. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 92-115. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.6 berger, k. p., & behn, d. (2020). force majeure and hardship in the age of corona. ssrn electronic journal, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3575869 journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 49 buhmann, k., fasterling, b., & voiculescu, a. (2018). business & human rights research methods. nordic journal of human rights, 36(4), 323–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/18918131.2018.1547522 bukusi, a. d. m. (2020). how empathy , social contracts and deep conversations are helping companies in kenya overcome the disruptive impact of the covid-19 pandemic, 14(10), 309–312. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajbm2020.9081 casady, c. b., & baxter, d. (2020). pandemics, public-private partnerships (ppps), and force majeure | covid-19 expectations and implications. construction management and economics, 0(0), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2020.1817516 cnn indonesia. (2020). survei bps: pemasukan 84 persen usaha kecil turun saat corona cnn. cnn. retrieved from https://www.cnnindonesia.com/ekonomi/20200915192919-92546903/survei-bps-pemasukan-84persen-usaha-kecil-turun-saat-corona direktorat penyusunan anggaran apbn. (2020). pokok-pokok apbn 2019. kementerian keuangan r.i. retrieved from https://www.kemenkeu.go.id/media/13730/informasi-apbn2020.pdf giaretta, b. (2020). covid-19 force majeure notices under english law: what comes next? nysba new york dispute resolution lawyer, 13(2), 47–49. retrieved from http://nysbar.com/blogs/resolutionroundtable/summer-2020_web disputeresolutionlawyer.pdf#page=47 hamzah. (2020). civil law agreement and its implication on regulation for prevention of corruption within covid-19 pandemic. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 156–176. idowu, s., ifedayo, t., & idowu, e. (2020). assessing the career conflict options of senior secondary school students of ado-odo ota local government, ogun state, nigeria. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 55-77. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.3 ing, l. y., & vadila, y. (2020). implementing indonesia’s covid-19 stimulus. east asia forum quarterly, 12(2), 27–28. retrieved from https://search.informit.com.au/fulltext;dn=282923054210961;res=ielhss irawan, a., ludiya, e., romi, m., & rahardianto, r. (2019). influence of human resource management practices on competitive advantage through operational excellence: case study on sme food and beverages in bandung regency west java indonesia. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.10-9-2019.2289336 juaningsih, i. n. (2020). analisis kebijakan phk bagi para pekerja pada masa pandemi covid19 di indonesia. buletin hukum dan keadilan, 4(1), 189–196. https://doi.org/10.15408/adalah.v4i1.15764 abstract: israhadi kabiru, j. m., & yahaya, b. h. (2020). can covid-19 considered as force majeure event in the nigeria construction industry? international journal of scientific engineering and science, 4(6), 34–39. retrieved from http://ijses.com/ lawless, r. m., robbennolt, j. k., & ulen, t. (2010). empirical methods in law. new york: aspen publishers. litvinoff, s. (1985). force majeure , failure of cause and théorie de l ’ imprévision : louisiana law and beyond, 46(1). martin, a., markhvida, m., hallegatte, s., & walsh, b. (2020). socio-economic impacts of covid-19 on household consumption and poverty. economics of disasters and climate change, 4(3), 453–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-020-00070-3 maskow, d. (1992). hardship and force majeure. the american journal of comparative law, 40(3), 657. https://doi.org/10.2307/840591 olefirenko, a., & galuschenko, a. (2018). major features, benefits, and prerequisites for intelligent enterprise managing system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 68-91. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.5 ortiz, p. a., salvo, a. a., & astudillo, n. (2020). covid-19 and labour law : chile. italian labour law e-journal, 13(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.15618048/10775 ripert, g. (1949). la règle morale dans les obligations civiles. paris: lgdj. santia, t. (2020). terkapar, 6 nama besar yang harus phk ratusan karyawan akibat corona tira. liputan 6. retrieved from https://www.liputan6.com/bisnis/read/4309209/terkapar-6nama-besar-yang-harus-phk-ratusan-karyawan-akibat-corona#:~:text=dari surat edaran yang diterima,indonesia (aprisindo) firman bakri. sengupta, s., & jha, m. k. (2020). social policy, covid-19 and impoverished migrants: challenges and prospects in locked down india. the international journal of community and social development, 2(2), 152–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/2516602620933715 setyawan, w., rika gamayuni, r., & muhammad ahmad, s. (2019). analysis the effect of ebudgeting and government internal control system on the quality of financial reporting of local government in indonesia in islamic perspectives. ikonomika, 4(2), 137–150. https://doi.org/10.24042/febi.v4i2.5204 siallagan, w. a. (2020). redam kesulitan ekonomi akibat covid 19, pemerintah lakukan upaya ini. kemenkeu.go.id. retrieved from https://www.kemenkeu.go.id/publikasi/artikeldan-opini/redam-kesulitan-ekonomi-akibat-covid-19pemerintah-lakukan-upaya-ini/%0a smith, j. d. (1936). impossibility of performance as an excuse in french law: the doctrine of journal of social studies education research 2020: 11(4), 28-51 51 force majeure. the yale law journal, 45(3), 452. https://doi.org/10.2307/791608 the world bank. (2017). guidance on ppp contractual provisions. washington dc: http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/217281498617774364/guidance-on-ppp-contractualprovisions-2017-edition.pdf. retrieved from www.worldbank.org wandner, s. a., & o’leary, c. j. (2020). an unemployment insurance covid-19 crisis response. employment research, 27(2), 3–4. https://doi.org/10.17848/1075-8445.27(2)-2 ward, m. (2020). eskom’s covid-19 force majeure. emerald emerging markets case studies, 10(3), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1108/eemcs-05-2020-0149 woodbury, s. a. (2020). disaster unemployment assistance would help gig, contract, selfemployed workers afected by covid-19. employment research, 27(2), 4–4. https://doi.org/10.17848/1075-8445.27(2)-3 zubaidi, n., pratama, r. g., & al-fatih, s. (2020). legal perspective on effectiveness of prework cards for indonesian people. bestuur, 8(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.20961/bestuur.v8i1.42722 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 384-404 the meaning of life and its relations with unhealthy behaviors among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan fatima aladwan1 & mamduh alzaben2, abdallah almahaireh3 & mohammad sulaiman4 abstract this study aimed to explore the meaning of life among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan. in particular, it investigated the relationship between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan. the sample comprises 225 syrian adolescent refugees (104 males and 121 females). the clustering random sampling method was used. moreover, a scale for exploring the meaning of life was developed to meet the study’s goals. a scale for exploring unhealthy behaviors was also developed. the psychometric characteristics of those scales explored were validity and reliability. the respondents’ meaning of life level is moderate, and the extent of practicing unhealthy behaviors is moderate. there is a negative statistically significant relationship between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors among the respondents. in addition, there is a significant difference between the respondents’ meaning of life levels, which can be attributed to gender in favor for females. conversely, there is a significant difference between the respondents’ extent of practicing unhealthy behaviors, which can be attributed to gender for the favor of males. as a result, the researchers recommend exerting effort to reduce the extent of practicing unhealthy behaviors by syrian adolescent refugees. furthermore, they recommend exerting effort to improve the meaning of life among them. keywords: meaning of life, unhealthy behaviors, syrian refugees, adolescents, public schools. introduction the adolescence stage is significant; it is the stage when one’s personality is significantly developed. positive perceptions about oneself are formed during this stage. moreover, one tends to become more independent and make decisions independently during this stage. ultimately, adolescence is when one starts forming one’s own identity – connected to the meaning of life – and starts searching for knowledge to form the meaning of life. therefore, it is necessary to provide 1 dr., university of jordan, f.aladwan@ju.edu.jo 2 dr., university of jordan, mamdohalzaben45@yahoo.com 3 dr., university of jordan, a.mahaere@ju.edu.jo 4 dr., birzeit university, mohammadaloury@hotmail.com mailto:f.aladwan@ju.edu.jo mailto:mamdohalzaben45@yahoo.com mailto:a.mahaere@ju.edu.jo mailto:mohammadaloury@hotmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 385 adolescents with guidance to recognize their capabilities or potentials and think and make decisions independently (bowen, 2010). the adolescence stage is critical because one experiences difficult social, political, and psychological conditions. in addition, adolescents may suffer from emotional shocks and much stress, affecting their ability to adjust to the surrounding environment (caplan, 2000; masud, 2020). ma’roof (2020) believed that the adolescence stage is a stage leading to adulthood. during this stage, one significantly develops in cognitive, physical, emotional, and social aspects. during this stage, one also starts forming philosophy of life, planning for the future, handling responsibilities, and understanding the goal behind one’s life (tamang & shrestha, 2021; yasen, 2020). however, al-attar (2021) defined adolescence as the stage through which one grows from a child into an adult. he added that during this stage, one develops cognitively, physically, emotionally, and socially. he further explained that this stage occurs during the second decade of one’s life. it usually starts when one is 11 years old and ends when one is 21 years old. it is necessary to give attention to adolescents and understand their emotions and behaviors. for adolescents to develop properly, it is necessary to provide them with guidance. that will raise their quality of life and enable them to manage their emotions efficiently (abdellah, 2020). adolescents go through various physical, cognitive, emotional, and psychological changes. they may face contradicting values in society, affecting their school, society, and family behaviors. they also experience numerous problems due to their difficulty achieving independence and forming meaning in life (mirza, 2018; younsi, 2012). adolescents have several needs. for instance, they have social needs, such as forming positive relationships with people from a different gender (al-en’aimat, 2020). social needs include forming positive relationships with people, planning for the future, and adjusting socially to the surrounding environment. adolescents also have psychological needs, such as enjoying selfacceptance and accepting the necessary physical and sexual changes. psychological needs include enjoying emotional stability and the need to form positive attitudes towards society, family, parents, and peers (bakkar, 2010). they also include the need to enjoy psychological security and adopt social values (al-zou’bi, 2010). adolescent refugees suffer greater risks than others because of their age category. the suffering is attributed to the problems of seeking refuge. adolescent refugees suffer from psychological and physical problems. for instance, some of them were shot earlier during wars. the stress aladwan et al. experienced by adolescent refugees changes their lifestyle, makes them feel isolated, leads them into deviant behaviors, and makes them have no meaning in life (unhcr, 2013). most adolescent refugees went through negative experiences (death of family members and seeing people killed and tortured), which led them to lose the meaning of life. those experiences negatively affect the development of adolescent refugees. for example, many people – including adolescents – today suffer from physical and psychological problems due to the syrian conflicts. the negative psychological impacts of the negative experience on adolescent refugees may continue for a long period. such impacts negatively affect adolescent refugees’ well-being, social skills, and behaviors (abed al-razeq, 2021). the research is dedicated to the increasing number of refugees, wars, and natural disasters worldwide. the term refugee refers to every person who cannot return to his homeland due to oppression or war, that can lead them to do unhealthy behaviors (al-refai’ & al-momani, 2020). unhealthy behaviors refer to every behavior that threatens physical and mental health. thus, they can be defined as every behavior that may cause illness or death directly or indirectly. the longer one commits unhealthy behaviors, the higher the risks of such behaviors affecting one’s health (conner & norman, 2015; kim & jia, 2020). therefore, the risk associated with unhealthy behaviors increases when one starts committing them during the adolescent stage. the centre for disease control and prevention of risky behavior suggested that unhealthy behaviors are related to six areas: bad eating habits, lack of physical activity, sexual activities that spread sexually transmitted diseases, abortion, violence, and harmful behavior (al-zyadat, 2018). adolescents carry out unhealthy behaviors to prove that they are independent and distinguished from others. such behaviors indicate that an adolescent has unconscious self-harm desire. the psychological shocks, emotional deprivation, biological factors, and adjustment-related problems that adolescents may have experienced lead them to commit unhealthy behaviors (bin salem, 2015). adolescents usually take risks, as suggested by abed al-raheem (1986), when elaborating on the basic needs of adolescents. he added that male adolescents tend to take risks and commit deviant and violent acts to prove their manliness. moreover, adolescents acquire new expertise by taking social, physical, and cognitive risks (al-sahar, 2002). taking drugs is the most dangerous unhealthy behaviors (ghazeel, 2020). it is a complex and multidimensional problem that must be addressed comprehensively. the world health journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 387 organization (2001) suggested that drug taking as an unhealthy behavior include family conflicts, having friends who take drugs (watson & lenergen, 2004), lack of parental support, having bad experiences at schools during childhood, and having poor social competencies (al-fa’oori, 2020). nikitina (2018) found that despite students realizing the risk factors that may affect their health in the future, they are not eager to become champions of healthy behavior by default. however, sociological research has found that they need to assist and support students in their informal efforts to implement healthy behavior in their daily lifestyle. humans have biological needs (e.g. eating, drinking, sleeping, and resting) and psychological needs (e.g. feeling appreciated and accepted). adolescents’ biological and psychological needs must be met for them to be stable biologically and psychologically and develop properly in those aspects. if adolescents’ biological and psychological needs are not met, they may experience emotional instability and conflicts. they may also begin to take risks and commit violent and deviant acts. moreover, they may begin to commit dangerous, unhealthy behaviors, such as taking drugs, indulging in bad eating, and sleeping habits, stealing, lying, and exhibiting aggressive behaviors. furthermore, they may suffer from psychological and social problems, such as becoming isolated, having negative attitudes towards life and school, losing the meaning of life, and failing to adjust to the school and home environment. the expression meaning of life is a significant expression in positive psychology. it is connected to happiness, satisfaction with life, and psychological well-being. the therapy based on meaning of life emphasizes on the significance of valuing oneself, enjoying living, and becoming distinguished. furthermore, this therapy emphasizes the significance of exerting effort to overcome the difficulties faced in life (kruger, 2002; more & rodgers, 2020; snounu, 2019). finding the meaning of life is essential to overcoming the psychological problems and challenges one faces. moreover, existentialists believe the meaning of life affects personality. they believe that the absence of the meaning of life causes psychological problems and negatively affects one’s motivation to do any activity. they further believe that the meaning of life affects one’s selfcontrol and that having meaning in life enables one to show high levels of productivity, life efficacy, and inner stability (mohammad & iskandar, 2020). however, the meaning of life differs from one person to another. therefore, each person has unique opportunities to discover the meaning of life (frankel, 2004). aladwan et al. frankel is one of the early philosophers who developed theories about the meaning of life. he generated his ideas about the meaning of life while in concentration camps in vienna after wwii. frankel realized that the formation of the meaning of life is affected by several circumstances and factors. however, the meaning of life is formed during adolescence. they believed that the meaning of life is formed after one’s identity gets developed. hence, identifying the responsibilities that one has in life enables one to form the meaning of life (frankel, 1998). steger et al. (2015) suggested that each adolescents forms their meaning of life and searches for it. he suggested that everyone seeks to discover the goal of their existence because he lives in a world full of meanings and goals. the meaning of life might be formed during the hardest moments in life when one experience the ultimate amount of pain. he believed that the meaning of life enables one to survive the hardest moments of life, enabling one to stay optimistic towards the future. frankel also believed that each person is responsible for finding the meaning of their life and that each person is responsible for turning the worst experiences into moments of glory and success to meet a specific goal in life. he believed that life is full of opportunities that enable creativity (chetan. 2009; al-sharqawi, 2010). that applies even if one’s life is full of crises, pain, and suffering. frankel (1998) suggested that the meaning of life is based on three main principles: will of meaning, meaning of life, and perception of life (frankel, 1998). also, shawaqfeh and almahaireh (2019) maintained that the meaning of life is an important aspect of happiness. copper (2003) believed that losing the meaning of life is a state that many people suffer. this state may be experienced during any stage of life. for instance, it may be experienced during adolescence, crises, or after retirement, and it may cause many psychological disorders, such as depression, addiction, or suicide. earnshaw (2000) defined losing the meaning of life as the state in which one does not have any goal in life, but frankel (2004) defined it as the state in which one feels bored and does not have any ambition. in this state, one believes that all acts do not have any value. moreover, in this state, one cannot handle stressful events. many syrian adolescent refugees feel that they are socially rejected and constitute a burden to society; many of them feel they do not have any goal in life and, therefore, suffer from depression and social injustice. that makes them feel frustrated and experience a state of hopelessness and deprivation. eventually, it leads to losing the meaning of life and feeling that they do not have any value in life (abed al-wahad, 2012; corey, 2011). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 389 syrian adolescent refugees suffer from social and psychological problems, including unhealthy behaviors and losing the meaning of life. thus, they must handle the challenges because the meaning of life may be lost during the adolescence stage. in this case, one may ask, why am i living, and what is the goal sought from living? asking such questions might lead the adolescent into deviant acts (mahmood, 2001). syrian refugee students are enrolled in jordanian schools had painful experiences due to war, which affected their psychological status, the ability to adjust socially, and the ability to handle responsibilities (al-smadi, 2020). also, forced displacement is considered a major shock that causes psychological instability may cause depression, anxiety, and frustration. it may also lead to losing the meaning of life and starting to commit unhealthy behaviors. this study has studied the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors among syrian refugee students. which can promote awareness about the significance of providing social and psychological services to them, by developing counselling programs to reduce unhealthy behaviors and promote the positive meaning of life among adolescent refugees, which helps them to overcome the difficulties faced in life. bani ali (2019) discovered that there is a negative relationship between anger and quality of life. al-zyadat (2018) found that the meaning of life negatively correlates with unhealthy behaviors. she found that the meaning of life significantly affects the extent of carrying out unhealthy behaviors and that there is a significant difference between students regarding unhealthy behaviors due to gender in favor of females. al-saqer (2017) found a positive relationship between the meaning of life and self-efficacy among students. he found a difference between respondents in meaning of life, which can be attributed to gender for the favor of females. fatooh (2016) found that the rise in the depression level leads to a rise in the meaning of life level among syrian refugees. brassai et al. (2015) found that the meaning of life contributes to preserving healthy behaviors, such as carrying out physical activities and good eating habits. they found that the difference is in favor for females. they also found that the meaning of life negatively correlates with unhealthy behaviors among adolescents in romania. moreover, bahlool (2018) found a significant relationship between quality of life and unhealthy behaviors. the previous studies didn’t investigate the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors among adolescent refugee students, which is important to understand why they act negatively in schools and to help them to move on in their lives. aladwan et al. study problem adolescents suffer from many social, behavioural, and psychological problems due to changes in hormones. they start becoming independent. they seek to discover new things and carry out risky behaviours that may threaten their lives and health. therefore, there is a need to carry out more studies on syrian refugees. the migration of syrian refugees negatively affected them while facing new society, homeland, and school, but some syrian refugees faced such challenges positively and adjusted socially. however, other syrian refugees were negatively affected by the forced migration. for instance, their meaning of life was negatively affected. some of them started carrying out negative, unhealthy behaviours. erikson and mashya believed that the meaning of life is formed during adolescence and after one’s identity is developed. identity development involves recognising and fulfilling responsibilities. identifying the responsibilities that one has in life enables one to form the meaning of life (frankel, 1998). the researchers work in educational and humanitarian fields, where they learn about refugees’ problems and challenges. hence, they conducted a field study to explore the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours among syrian adolescent refugees. research questions the current study investigated the relationship between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan. the investigation is conducted by asking the following secondary questions: 1. what is the meaning of life level among the syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan? 2. what is the extent of practising unhealthy behaviours among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan? 3. is there any relationship at the statistical significance level of (a = 0.05) between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours among the syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan? 4. are there statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α = 0.05) in the level of the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours according to gender? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 391 method research design this study used a quantitative correlation approach to investigate the levels of the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors among the syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan by calculating the means and standard deviations to investigate the levels of the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors, the possible relationship among these two variables by person correlation test to test the first hypothesis, and the differences in the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors according to gender by independent t-test to test the second hypotheses (creswell & creswell, 2017). the meaning of life scale and unhealthy behaviors scale were applied to syrian adolescent refugee students in public schools in amman in the academic year 2021. participants the study community comprised all syrian adolescent refugee students in public schools in amman in the academic year 2021. according to the jordan ministry of education (2020) statistics, syrian adolescent refugee students were approximately 3412. the study sample was chosen randomly and was made up of 225 students from 8th, 9th, and 10th grade in public schools in amman, representing 7% of the study community. before the study commenced, the written consent of the students and the approval of the jordan ministry of education were obtained. table 1 demographic characteristics of the respondents (n = 225) gender/ grade 8th 9th 10th total males 42 (18.7%) 40 (17.8%) 39 (17.3%) 121 (53.8%) females 36 (16%) 35 (15.6%) 33 (14.7%) 104 (46.2%) total 78 (34.7%) 75 (33.3%) 72 (32%) 225 (100%) data collection tools the meaning of life scale the researchers conducting the study created the meaning of life scale, adapting it from al-sandi et al. (2013), mu’amareye (2012), and mustafa (2013). the scale comprised 30 items distributed in three dimensions: goals in life, experiences in life, and perception for life. each item was rated on a five-point scale from five (it applies to me to a very great extent) to one (it does not apply to me). higher scores reflected a higher level of meaning of life. the researchers calculated the validity and reliability and found that the discriminate evidence ranged between 0.31 and 0.81. in aladwan et al. contrast, the internal validity of the dimensions ranged between 0.51 and 0.74. cronbach’s alpha initially ranged between 0.86 and 0.92, and then the retest ranged between 0.84 and 0.87 two weeks later. the unhealthy behaviours scale the researchers adapted the scale of the unhealthy behaviour of mahmood (2001), redwan & reeskah (2011), and al-amami (2007). the inventory comprised 45 items, each of which the participants were asked to rate on a five-point scale from five (it applies to me to a very great extent) to one (it does not apply to me). higher scores reflected a higher level of unhealthy behaviours. it included three dimensions: misuse of drugs and medications, lack of personal care, and malnutrition. the researchers extracted the validity and reliability and found that the discriminate evidence ranged between 0.35 and 0.74, while the internal validity of the dimensions ranged between 0.66 and 0.74. cronbach’s alpha for the scale and its dimensions ranged from 0.81–0.89, and then from 0.83–0.91 at the retest, two weeks later. data collection the researchers obtained approval for this study from the jordan ministry of education. data were collected by questionnaires covering the two scales: the meaning of life and the unhealthy behaviors together on the three grades by online form. the questionnaire answers were downloaded from the online survey and checked to make sure they were analyzable, the answers were record by the five likert scale rate five (it applies to me to a very great extent), four (it applies to me to a very great), three (it applies to me to a medium degree) two (it applies to me to a low degree), to one (it does not apply to me). data analysis spss was used to discover the results. then, descriptive statistics using arithmetic means and standard deviations to answer the first and second questions, whereas the pearson correlation test was extracted to answer the third question because it analyses the linear correlation between two data sets. moreover, to answer the fourth question, the independent t-test was used to examine the differences between the averages of intellectual security and life satisfaction according to gender. the independent t-test was used because it analyses the statistical differences between the means of two groups. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 393 findings classic assumption test this test is useful for determining whether there are deviations in the assumptions before regression because the regression equation must not deviate from the blue (best linear unbiased estimator) criteria. the classical assumption test comprises the steps below. results of the normality test and homogeneity test the normality and homogeneity tests using levene’s tests were made for the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours, as a requirement for using parametric tests. the results show a normality distribution (ghozali, 2018), and there was homogeneity, according to hair et al. (2018). the skewness for the meaning of life was 0.280 while the kurtosis was 0.190, and the homogeneity test was not significant at the level of (0.05). the skewness for unhealthy behaviours was 0.463, while the kurtosis was 0.172, and the homogeneity test was not significant at the level of (0.05). the results indicate that data of this study are normally distributed and the sample are homogeneous showing that both groups are equal. statistically this allows to proceed to see the different of both groups. multicollinearity test the multicollinearity test is a requirement for using correlation test to ensure the existence of the independent variables based on the vif and tolerance values. the data are free from multicollinearity if tolerance is greater than 0.10 and the vif value is less than 10 (ghozali, 2018). this means that data are about the same and statistical analysis to see variance inflation factor (vif) to identify the independent variables and the strength of that correlation is approved. aladwan et al. the meaning of life level among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan arithmetic averages and standard deviations for the meaning of life are shown in table 2. table 2 arithmetic average and standard deviation for the meaning of life, including the latter’s subdimensions variable average standard deviation level dimension rank perception for life 3.29 0.85 moderate 1 experiences in life 2.89 1.01 moderate 2 goals in life 2.28 1.08 low 3 the total meaning of life 2.85 0.64 moderate it is to be noted from table 2 that the syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan achieved moderate levels of meaning of life with an arithmetic average of 2.85 and a standard deviation of 0.64. in addition, the various dimensions of the meaning of life also achieved arithmetic averages ranging between 2.28 and 3.29, the perception for life came first with mean of 3.29, followed by experiences in life with a mean of 2.89, while the goals in life came last with mean of 2.28. the extent of practising unhealthy behaviours among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan arithmetic averages and standard deviations for the unhealthy behaviours are shown in table 3. table 3 arithmetic average and standard deviation for unhealthy behaviours, including the latter’s sub-dimensions variable average standard deviation level dimension rank malnutrition 3.58 1.00 moderate 1 misuse of drugs and medications 3.50 0.89 moderate 2 lack of personal care 3.45 1.14 moderate 3 total unhealthy behaviours 3.51 0.70 moderate notably, from table 3, the syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan achieved moderate levels of unhealthy behaviours with an arithmetic average of 3.51 and a standard deviation of 0.70. furthermore, the various dimensions of unhealthy behaviours also journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 395 achieved a moderate level with arithmetic averages ranging between 3.45 and 3.58, the malnutrition came first with mean of 3.58, followed by misuse of drugs and medications with a mean of 3.50, while the lack of personal care came last with mean of 3.45. hypothesis testing ha1: there is a statistically significant relationship at the statistical significance level of (a = 0.05) between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours among the syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan. the pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to test the first hypotheses, and table 4 illustrates the results. table 4 the correlation coefficient between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours variable total unhealthy behaviours misuse of drugs and medications lack of personal care malnutrition total meaning of life 0.44*0.29 * 0.30*0.29* goals in life 0.30*0.13 * 0.18*0.25* experiences in life 0.28*0.16 * 0.22*0.30* perception for life 0.41*0.59 * 0.23*0.34* from table 4, the correlation coefficients for the meaning of life with unhealthy behaviours and its dimensions were statistically significant as the correlation coefficients were negative, the relationship between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours were -0.44. in contrast, the relationships between the dimensions ranged between -0.13 and -0.59, but the relationships between the meaning of life dimensions and unhealthy behaviours were ranged between -0.28 and -0.41. also, the relationships between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours dimensions were ranged between -0.29 and -0.30. ha2: there are statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α = 0.05) in the level of meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours according to gender. the independent t-test was used to test the second hypothesis to examine the differences between genders concerning performance averages and the statistical significance of the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours of syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan. table 5 illustrates this. aladwan et al. table 5 results, according to gender, of average performance on the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours factor n gender mean standard deviation df t sig. meaning of life 104 male 2.46 0.61 223 9.140.00 121 female 3.14 0.50 unhealthy behaviours 104 male 3.68 0.56 223 4.180.00 121 female 3.31 0.76 table 5 shows a statistically significant difference at the statistical significance level of (a = 0.05) in the meaning of life level due to gender in favour for females with a mean of 3.14, the t value were -9.14. also, the results show a statistically significant difference at the statistical significance level of (a = 0.05) between the respondents’ extent of practising unhealthy behaviours due to gender in favour for males with a mean of 3.68, the t value were -4.18. discussion the study results showed moderate levels of meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors among the syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan, that there is a relationship between the variables. however, females and males differ regarding the level of meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors, respectively. the meaning of life level among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan the meaning of life level among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan is moderate. respondents’ attitudes towards the perception of life and experiences in life are moderate. however, respondents’ attitudes towards goals in life are negative. the overall mean is 2.85, and the overall standard deviation is 0.64. the latter result could be attributed to the fact that having dangerous behavior affects one’s meaning of life and perception of life. the mean of experiences in life is ranked second. which means that those refugees need to organise their experiences in life considering the changes they went through. the mean of the perception for life is moderate and ranked third. the latter result can be attributed to providing social and psychological support for refugees during early adolescence. institutions, families, and teachers provide such support. also, the meaning of life came in moderate level because of the counsellor’s role in supporting and guidance the students in their problems. the result in this regard is consistent with the one reached by al-zaben & al-sharah (2017), who found that the meaning of life level journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 397 is moderate. however, the result is not consistent with the one reached by al-zyadat (2018). the latter researchers found that the meaning of life level is high. the extent of practicing unhealthy behaviors among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan the researchers found that the extent of practicing unhealthy behaviors is moderate, which applies to all the dimensions jointly and separately. those dimensions are the misuse of drugs and medications, lack of personal care, and malnutrition. the overall mean is 3.51, and the overall standard deviation is 0.70. this result could be attributed to the fact that those refugees suffered from shocks (e.g. torture, fear, death of parents and friends, and seeing people killed or hurt). such shocks also include loss of healthcare services and basic needs like food, water, safety, and a sense of belonging, which made refugees migrate from their place of residence and lose hope. it also led to the practice of unhealthy behaviors to a moderate level. the unhealthy behaviors practiced by refugees include misuse of drugs and medications, lack of personal care, and malnutrition. the mean of the lack of personal care is ranked last. this may be attributed to those refugees living in camps that do not have all the resources needed for personal care and properly carry out hygienerelated practices. the misuse of drugs and medications may be attributed to many refugees taking medication for insomnia and some refugees smoking. it may also be attributed to many refugees taking drugs because they feel insecure and unsafe. the result in this regard is inconsistent with the one reached by al-zyadat (2018), who found that the extent of practicing dangerous behavior is low. the relationship between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors among syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan the researchers found a negative, statistically significant relationship at the statistical significance level of (a≥0.05) between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors among the syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in jordan. the correlation coefficient value is −0.44. this result means that improving the meaning of life can reduce the extent of practicing unhealthy behaviors. moreover, it means that a fall in the meaning of life level can increase the extent of practicing unhealthy behaviors. it further means that it is necessary to improve the meaning of life among refugees to reduce the degree to which they practice unhealthy behaviors. this result can be explained that the psychosocial support provided to syrian students in amman by counsellors through intensive individual and group counselling programs led to an improvement in the quality of life and a reduction in the practice of unhealthy behaviors due to aladwan et al. adopting new life goals for these students and practicing new experiences and discussing them in a safe environment, and they receive nutrition corrective review to modify unhealthy behaviors and acquire healthy behaviors. the result in this regard is consistent with the ones reached by abed al-haleem (2010), al-saqer (2017), bahlool (2018), bani ali (2019), brassai et al. (2015), fatooh (2016), and al-zyadat (2018). differences in the level of meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors according to gender the researchers found a statistically significant difference at the statistical significance level of (a = 0.05) between the respondents’ meaning of life levels, which can be attributed to gender for the favor of females. this is because the t-value is −9.14, which is statistically significant. they also found a statistically significant difference at the statistical significance level of (a = 0.05) between the respondents’ extent of practicing unhealthy behaviors, which can be attributed to gender for the favor of males. this is because the t-value is −4.18, which is statistically significant. having differences between respondents’ meaning of life level for the favor of females indicates that females realize the value of life. the degree to which female respondents practice unhealthy behaviours is lower than the level of their male counterparts. that means that more attention must be provided for males to improve the meaning of their lives and reduce the degree to which they practice unhealthy behaviors. the result in this regard is consistent with the result reached by alsaqer (2017). the latter researcher found a difference between respondents regarding the meaning of life, which can be attributed to gender for the favor of females. the result in this regard is not consistent with the result reached by al-zaben & al-sharah (2017), who found no significant difference between respondents’ meaning of life level, which can be attributed to gender. the result is also not consistent with the result reached by fatooh (2016), who found no significant difference between respondents’ meaning of life level, which can be attributed to gender, the gaps between the results can be explained by that the participants in this study were in amman while fatooh (2016) participants were in the refugee's camps, which means that the refugees in the cities had differences in the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviors between the camps and cities. also, the novelty of this research, conducting counselling programs to help males improve the meaning of life and reduce unhealthy behaviors and provide them with healthy behaviors that help them integrate with society and the school, in addition to conducting guidance programs for journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 399 females to improve the meaning of life in order to set realistic goals that they seek to achieve and give them more hope and enhance ability to take responsibility. conclusion and implications the result of this study indicates that the meaning of life and the extent of practising unhealthy behaviours levels are moderate which means that the syrian refugee students behave in an unhealthy way that can affect their life’s and physical and psychological health, and they lost the purpose of their life’s during the war and refugee. there is a negative relationship between the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours which indicates that losing the meaning of life can increase unhealthy behaviours because they didn't worry about anything, and they think that nothing matters. there is a significant difference in the meaning of life level, which can be attributed to gender in favour for females. there is a significant difference in the unhealthy behaviours, which can be attributed to gender for the favour of males, that’s mean the males was psychologically affected by the war more than females. a limitation of this study is that it was conducted during the covid-19 pandemic. also, it’s applied on the 8th, 9th, and 10th refugees’ students on amman, in the 2021 academic year. the scales were applied by online survey. regarding the results of this study, the researchers presented the conclusion and offered several recommendations. for instance, they found that more attention must be given to the refugees enrolled in public schools and that the meaning of life must be improved among syrian refugee students. moreover, they found that the unhealthy behaviours committed by refugee students must be reduced. therefore, they recommend developing counselling programmes for meeting such goals. they also recommend conducting more studies on the meaning of life and unhealthy behaviours, targeting other age categories. references abdellah, y. (2020). values and its relationship with the quality of life among female blind adolescents. the journal of young researchers in the educational sciences. (4), 365 355 abed al-haleem, a. (2010). future anxiety and its relationship to the meaning of life and psychological stress among a sample of young people, the fifteenth annual conference, psychological counseling center, ain shams university, 335-368. aladwan et al. abed al-raheem, t. (1986). psychological foundations of human development. 2nd edition. kuwait. dar al-qalam abed al-razzaq, m. (2021). fear of loss and its relationship with the phobia of losing mobile phones among refugee adolescents. the educational journalsohaj university. (82), 1169. abed al-wahed, n. (2021). a proposed program for delivering social services to handle the negative impacts of unemployment on family. the 25th international conferences for the faculty of social services in helwan university. egypt, (3), 946-889. al-en’aimat, k. (2020). the social problems among adolescent students in the southern badeya directorate of education from the perspective of those students. the islamic university journal for educational and psychological studies. 28 (4), 53 – 66 al-amami, b. (2007). the degree to which primary school students in ma’an have health awareness and practice healthy practices. the faculty of education journalal-azhar university. 145(1). 119-149 al-attar, m. (2021). the problems and burdens of female adolescents from psychological and educational perspective. the arab journal for educational and psychological sciences. (16), 475 – 508. al-fa’oori, d. (2020). the psychological and social problems of secondary school students and their relationship with addiction on drugs. the journal of amman arab university for research. 4(1), 251 – 274 al-refai’, a. & al-momani, f. (2020). the effectiveness of recreational activities and psychodramas in reducing the aggression level among a sample consisting from several syrian students. the islamic university journal for educational and psychological studies. 28(1), 589-616. al-sahar, k. (2002). attitudes towards taking risks and their relationship with psychological and demographic variables among the youth involved in intifada in gaza, unpublished ma thesis. the islamic university. gaza. al-sandi, b., abed al-aziz, s., & jadan, e. (2013). the impact of using the self-affirmation method in improving the meaning of life among the female university students. the journal of the basic education faculty. (12), 532-554. al-saqer, h. (2017). the quality of life and it’s relationship with self-efficacy among high school students, education research journal, 15 (4), 653-673. al-sharqawi, n. (2010). the effectiveness of using meaning-based therapy in encouraging youth to engage in voluntarily works and the impact of that on reducing the severity of alienation. dirasat in social services and human sciences. 29(2), 971-1008 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 401 al-smadi, d. (2020). posttraumatic growth and its relationship to self-management and optimism among syrian refugee students in jordanian schools, al-quds open university journal, 55, 1-17. al-zaben, m. $ al-sharah, h. (2017). the level of sense of meaninglessness and social isolation among employed and the unemployed in the jesa district, jordanian educational journal, (2), 1, 213-240. al-zou’bi, m. (2010). the psychology associated with the adolescence stage: theories, development aspects, problems and methods for addressing them. jordan: dar zahran al-zyadat, m. (2018). the meaning of life and its relationship with unhealthy behaviours among the students in the university of jordan. dirasat: educational studies. 45(2). 311-325 bahlool, a. (2018). the unhealthy behaviours related to smoking, drinking, and physical activity and their relationship with the quality of life and beliefs. the journal of medical psychology studies. (6). 59-81 bakkar, a. (2010). adolescents: how can we understand and guide them? dar al-salam. egypt bani ali, m. (2019). the relationship between quality of life and anger among jordanian adolescents and their syrian refugee counterparts, unpublished master’s theses, al yarmouk university. bin salem, h. (2015). developmental psychology, al-warraq: jordan. bowen, j. (2010). visual impairment and its impact on self-esteem and emotional intelligence, british journal of visual impairment, 28(1), 47-65. brassai, l., piko, b. f., & steger, m. f. (2015). a reason to stay healthy: the role of meaning in life in relation to physical activity and healthy eating among adolescents. journal of health psychology, 20(5), 473-482. caplan, g.j. (2000). building strong family school partnerships to support high student achievement. the informed educator series. arlington, va: educational research service. chetan, j (2009). an empirical validation of viktor frank logo therapeutic model. university of missourikansas city. conner, m., & norman, p. (2015). ebook: predicting and changing health behaviour: research and practice with social cognition models. mcgraw-hill education (uk). copper, m. (2003). existential therapies, london: sage publication. aladwan et al. corey, g. (2011) theory and practice of counselling and psychology, ny: brooks/cole publishing. creswell, j. w., & creswell, j. d. (2017). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. sage publications. earnshaw, l. (2000). religious orientation and meaning in life: an exploratory study. unpublished manuscript. central methodist college. fayette mo. fatooh, z. (2016). depression and its relationship to the meaning of life and future anxiety among a sample of tripoli university students. think and creativity journal, 106, 281-340. frankl, v. (1998). viktor frankl recollections: an autobiography, ny: plenum publishing. frankl, v. (2004). the theory and therapy of mental an introduction to logo therapy and existential analysis. translator. james, m. new york brunnerrouteedge. gazeel, f. (2020). addiction on drugs among adolescents. tibah journal for scientific and academic studies. (4), 100 – 119 ghozali, i. (2018). aplikasi analisis multivariate dengan program ibm spss 25, edidi 9. semarang: badan penerbit universitas diponegoro. hair, j. f., black, w. c., babin, b., anderson, r. e., & tatham, r. (2018). multivariate data analysis: cengage. jordan ministry of education (2020). statistical report 2020. kim, d., & jia, f. (2020). “ever wondered what schizophrenia was?”: students’ digital storytelling about mental disorders. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 144-169. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.14 kruger, a. (2002). counselling and philosophy: a personal existential view. american journal of pastoral counselling, 6(1), 51-63. ma’roof, s. (2020). the psychology associated with the adolescence stage. the international journal of educational and human sciences, art and languages. 1 (6), 138 – 152 mahmood, a. (2001). developing a scale for measuring the healthy behaviours of the girls who carry out sport activities and ages range between 16 – 25 years. the journal of research in comprehensive education. 1, 66 – 87 masud, m. m. (2020). international student migration and polymedia: the use of communication media by bangladeshi students in germany. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 95-110. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.5 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 384-404 403 mirza, s. (2018). impact of mentoring on at-risk youth. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 36-53. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.3 mohammad, o. & iskandar, s. (2012). meaning of life and its relationship with endurance among employees in public facilities. al-ustath journal. 200, 349 416 more, c., & rodgers, w. (2020). promoting change within special education teacher preparation program: a collision of needs. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 104119. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.7 mu’amareye, b. (2012). the meaning of life is a basic concept in positive psychology, standardization of a questionnaire to measure it in the algerian environment, arab journal of psychological sciences, 34 (12), 135-157. mustafa, s. (2013). studies about the psychometric characteristics of the existential emptiness among a sample consisting from several young university students. the journal of counsellingthe centre of counselling, 35 (1), 600-687. nikitina, o. (2018). identifying the demand for shaping the social skills of healthy behaviour in russian students. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 317-328. redwan, s. & reeskah, k. (2001). healthy behaviours and attitudes towards health: a comparative field study targeting german and syrian students. shawaqfeh, b. & almahaireh, a. (2019). technowellness and its relationship with happiness and optimism among university of jordan students. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 145-167. snounu, y. (2019). disability and higher education in palestine. journal of culture and values in education, 2(3), 61-78. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.02.4 steger, m. f., fitch-martin, a. r., donnelly, j., & rickard, k. m. (2015). meaning in life and health: proactive health orientation links meaning in life to health variables among american undergraduates. journal of happiness studies, 16(3), 583-597. tamang, m., & shrestha, m. (2021). let me fly abroad: student migrations in the context of nepal. research in educational policy and management, 3(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.1 unhcr (2013). war’s human cost, the un refugee agency. watson, r., & lenergen, k. (2004). the psychology related to children and adolescents. translated by dania izzat mo’men. egypt: madbooli library for publication world health organization. (2001). the world health report: 2001: mental health: new understanding, new hope. world health organization. aladwan et al. yasen, m. (2020). the effectiveness of integrative therapy in developing self-management skills and its impacts on psychological wellbeing among a sample of adolescents. the international journal of human and educational sciences. (35). 111154. younsi, b. (2012). the meaning of life: a major concept in the positive psychology scientific field. the arab journal of human sciences. 34, 86 – 104 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 352-363 352 employing food bank in civic education as a pedagogical tool in project-based learning yayuk mardiati1 & katarina leba2 abstract the purpose of the study is to employ food bank in civic education as a pedagogical tool in projectbased learning. two classes of undergraduate students enrolled in required general civic education course in the odd semester of 2017 in the university of jember participated in food bank project to help tackle impoverished community of garahan village, jember, east java. the study employed qualitative research method. to implement food bank in civic education this research assessed and engaged students into seven essential components of larmer and mergendoller’s meaningful projects; a need to know, a driving question, student voice and choice, 21st century skills, inquiry and innovation, feedback and product, and a publicly presented product. after investigating poor households, students planned and organized fundraising strategies in order to buy a large quantities of non-perishable food so that it looks like a bank to be distributed to those who were in need. classroom components of the project included assigned readings on poverty, small groups discussion, and writing reflective journals. students culminated the project publicly in a showcase. the result indicated that food bank project is effective civic pedagogical skill. key words: civic education, food bank, pedagogy, poverty, project based learning. introduction the current available national and regional data on poverty in indonesia show that in february 2017 more than 27.7 million people, or 10.7 percent of indonesia's population, earned an income at rp344,809 ($24.8) a month (badan pusat statistik, 2017). poverty in east java alone, especially in jember district constitutes 11.28 percent of jember’s population (badan pusat-statistik, 2015). interventions to eradicate poverty supported by government, non-governmental, and religious organizations have used such such programmes as rice for the poor (ind.raskin) and conditional cash transfers (ind. bantuan langsung tunai) (kozak, lombe, & miller, 2012). however, studies found that such interventions are only one step in reaching millenium development goal (mdg) #1. 1yayuk mardiati, university of jember, ymardiati@gmail.com 2katarina leba, university of jember, katrinwatunglawar@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 352-363 even though indonesian government, non-governmental, and religious organizations’ efforts to address poverty include cash transfers there is almost no efforts to employ robust educational strategies to address hunger. this preliminary study found that civic education lecturers in the university of jember employed traditional teaching methods and strategies characterized by lecturing aided by powerpoint presentations. the conventional teaching method is problematic since it only emphasizes transmission of knowledge. even though the lecturers used group discussion, there are no rules regarding who does what. consequently, the same students dominate discussion during question and answer sessions. as ramos (2005) notes, implementing such a conventional method is like paulo freire’ s concept of banking education, where the role of the teacher is depositor while students are receivers. these studies implement food bank activities in civic education which engages students through project-based learning. literature review food bank studies that use food bank as one step in eradicating poverty are both intervention and evaluative-based. the intervention-based studies conducted by roncarolo, adam, bisset, & potvin (2015) in montréal, québec addressed the urgent need for food. however, the finding found that participants in traditional food bank interventions have less access to resources (food bank), do not provide sufficient food variety, and raise moral concerns associated with social and political issues, all of which do not satisfy an individual’ s hunger. the problems pivot around how to distribute food and what kinds of food meet a nutritious diet. case studies conducted by kozak, lombe, & miller (2012) in four countries: (columbia, indonesia, jamaica, and uganda) have found that the higher average of poverty in those countries is caused by the disengagement of people from the formal labor market. it is also the case in indonesia that due to limited employment opportunity in the formal sector, the share of working poor has stagnated at 8.2% since 2002 (stalker, 2008). to respond to the problem of poverty, the indonesian government has implemented cash transfers that enable poor households to pay for health and education expenses (kozak, lombe, & miller, 2012). in addition to cash transfers, the indonesian government policy found in the food nutrition action plan 2006-2010 aims to eradicate hunger (minister of national development planning, 2010). recent studies argue that although these first steps in eradicating poverty and hunger were strong, the creation of the action programs is only one step in reaching mdg #1 (kozak, lombe, & miller, mardiati & leba 2012). in addition, non-profit organizations, such as food bank of indonesia, contributes to reduce hunger, but only in the areas of west java (kompas, 2015). in an educational context, studies which evaluated a service-learning project conducted at a public university in the southern united states of america have suggested that students’ volunteerism and fundraising were the most important components to help students understand food insecurity (tallant, 2011). this study implements food banks in civic education as a pedagogical tool in project-based learning. the projects include complex tasks based on challenging questions or problems that involve students in designing, problem solving, decision making, and other investigative activities (larmer and mergendoller, 2010). further, some scholars and educators believe that using project-based learning methods, which constructs new knowledge by challenging students with driving questions to guide their investigation (blumenfeld et al. 1991; krajcik & soloway, 1997).unlike conventional methods which focus on lectures and text-book based instruction, project-based instruction uses constructivism as its theoretical foundation where students construct knowledge through interactions with their social environment (perkins 1991; piaget 1969; vygotsky, 1978). so, by conducting investigations, conversations (interviews), and activities, students are learning by constructing new knowledge. therefore, instead of using a lesson plan that directs students to specific learning outcomes, the employment of project-based learning allows students to conduct in-depth investigations into a topic worth learning more about (harris & katz, 2001). studies conducted by jones, ramussen, & moffitt (1997) found that by engaging students in authentic activities provides students the opportunity to work autonomously over extended periods of time and culminate in realistic products or presentations. the activities culminate in students’ working in groups whose outcomes are presented publicly in a showcase as a realistic product. project-based learning studies that support effectiveness and implementation of project-based learning employed as an instructional method are primarily in science and interdisciplinary studies, including civic education and social studies (barron & darling-hammond, 2008; krajcik & shin 2014; larmer & mergendoller, 2010; parker, et al. 2013; thomas, 2000). historically, the term project learning derives from the work of john dewey and william heard kilpatrick’s ‘project method’dating back to 1918 (larmer, 2014; pellegrino & hilton, 2012; peterson, 2012). ravitch (2000) asserts journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 352-363 that the key to the ‘project method’-lies in activities undertaken by students that really interest them. ravitch’s assertion emphasis that project-based learning (pbl) is theoretically constructivism. constructivists believe that learning is an active process, where learners utilize their prior knowledge of the topic to construct new ideas (french, 2016). pbl is rooted in the constructivist ideas of piaget (1990), where humans were born with the schemas to which individuals add through the process of assimilation or accommodation. by employing prior experience and the environment around them, pbl engages learners’ intellectual development through observation and investigation to expand their preexisting schemas concerning the topic being studied (french, 2016). the social nature of pbl also accords with social constructivist theories of vigotsky where social interaction is critical in student learning (mclood, 2014). according to vigotsky (1978), students absorb the information they are receiving through interactions with others and internalize the conversations to create knowledge about a particular topic. empirical studies on the effectiveness of project-based learning were mostly conducted in science education (alacapinar, 2008; krajcik, resier, shuterland, & fortus, 2012). meanwhile, qualitative studies on the implementation of project-based learning were conducted in two science classrooms. the former was called project-based inquiry science, or pbis (kolodner, krajcik, edelson, reiser & starr, 2009-2013) the latter was called investigating and questioning our world through science and technology, or iqwst (krajcik, resier, sutherland, & fortus, 2012). further, study on the implementation of pbl was conducted in social studies curriculum with knowledge in action, or kia (boss et al. 2011; parker et al. 2011). french (2016) conducted studies on integrating social studies and literacy through project-based learning. according to barrows (french, 2016) the characteristics of pbl includes the following. first, ill-structured problems are presented as unresolved so that students will generate not only multiple thoughts about the cause of the problem, but multiple thoughts on how to solve them. second, a studentcentered approach is one in which students determine what they need to learn. it is up to the learners to derive the key issues of the problems they face, define their knowledge gaps, and pursue and acquire the missing knowledge. third, teachers act as facilitators and tutors, asking students the kinds of meta-cognitive questions they want to ask themselves. in subsequent sessions, guidance is reduced. fourth, an authenticity forms the basis of problem selection, embodied by an alignment with professional or real world practice. this study implements food bank in civic mardiati & leba education as a pedagogical tool by adopting larmer & mergendoller’ s elements of pbl. the aim of the research is to enhance students’ awareness of social responsibility by collecting and distributing a large quantity of groceries to needy people. the research questions are as follows: 1.what is the operational definition of project-based learning? 2.what are the elements of project-based learning? 3.why uses food bank project to teach civic education? 4.how does food bank project enable students to enhance awareness of social responsibility? methodology this study employs research and development by gall and borg (2003). according to gall and borg (2003), sugiyono (2014), and rachman (2015) the research and development approach is the approach to conduct research, development, and the examination of a product. in addition, research and development aims to examine the effectiveness and practice in order that the product can function and be utilized by the community. therefore, the research and development approach is longitudinal or conducted over a span of years. in educational contexts, the products of research and development include: such results as policy, system, working method, curriculum, reference book, media, learning model, educational aid, prototype, simulator, training/science kit, instrument assessment, and the likes (gall and borg, 2003; sugiyono, 2014; rachman, 2015). for this study a learning model in civic education course titled ‘developing project-based learning through food bank was employed. this model included ten steps (gall & borg, 2003): 1) research and information collecting, 2) planning, 3) develop preliminary form of product, 4). preliminary field testing, 5) main product revision, 6) main field testing, 7) operational product revision, 8) operational field testing, 9) final product revision, and 10) dessimination and implementation. gall and borg (2003) categorized the ten steps into three main steps: 1) introduction to examine the existing model used, 2) development process to include designing the model, arrangement of model components, and limited try-outs 3) validation step to actualize the final model to be implemented. the study was first conducted in university of jember in 2017 as limited try-outs to implement project-based learning through food bank in a civic education course. further, the results of the study would be presented in an international conference. the second phase (second journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 352-363 year) 2018 of the study would be implemented to the teacher’s training college pgri jember. the study involved undergraduate students who enrolled in civic education as one of the required general courses in university of jember to investigate issues of poverty in garahan village, jember. the students chose garahan village as their research since it is a village in jember where citizens live below national poverty line (the statistics agency, 2014). operational definition of project based learning through food bank and its elements in civic education operational definition of project-based learning through food bank project-based learning through food bank is designed to address social problems of poverty by involving students to find out one of the solutions by collecting donations of large quantities of groceries so that it looks like a bank and distributing to poor households. designing syntagmatic of project-based learning through food bank prior to conducting the project, the class was divided into groups of 5-6 heterogenously in terms of gender, ability, and ethnic groups. providing responsibility to each member of each group, whether as a chair, a recorder, or as members to respond the participants’ questions and observations. examining journal articles of social problems to decide complicated problems on poverty in a village as a means of resource investigation in the field. 1) during the project students arrange project plan through observation, interview, and documentation (a need to know) 2) creating a driving question “how to eradicate hunger?” 3) makinga project proposal which includes activity list in weekly bases (weekly i, weekly ii, weekly iii et cetera) to promote fundraising strategy (student voice and choice). 4) monitoring collaborative activities of the groups (who does what?) in collecting nonperishable food or groceries from individuals and companies through the chair of each group (21st century skills). 5) examining project result through editing both writing and documentation of pictures or video that was used in oral presentation in a showcase (feedback and product). mardiati & leba 6) examining students’ finding about the patterns of poverty, both structural and cultural (inquiry and innovation). 7) presenting the learning outcomes through showcase outside class, including the delivery of groceries to 2-3 poor households symbolically. after the project, students distribute groceries to poor households from the result of students’ investigation in the field by each group. submitting a portfolio (hard copy & soft copy) of food bank project activities in groups. submitting a one-page reflective journal on a series of food bank activities individually. the strengths of a series activities in implementing project-based learning through food bank in civic education. 1. enhancing students’ working cooperatively and collaboratively within and outside groups 2. enhancing students’ sharing knowledge and skills through discussion in solving social problems of poverty. 3. creating comrades among friends with different ethnic groups and cultures. 4. enhancing students’ higher order thinking skills. 5. encouraging students as critical thinkers and problem solvers 6. improving students respecting individual accountability within groups. 7. strengthening a sense of solidarity and integrity in solving the problems of poverty. 8. strengthening a sense of sympathy towards people in need. 9. strengthening a sense of empathy towards people in need, which is the highest moral responsibility. 10. advancing students’ democratic thinking and action. the weaknesses of a series activities in implementing project-based learning through food bank in civic education. 1. time consuming since it requires long time planning to coordinate class meeting among chairs of each group for setting up weekday schedule available to them. 2. challenging to collect variety of food or groceries using conventional door to door strategy. 3. challenging to monitor who does what of the members of each group. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 352-363 strategies to minimize the weaknesses in implementing project-based learning through food bank in civic education 1. class meeting coordination is held on the weekends; saturdays or sundays, based on the agreed weekly bases. 2. creating non-traditional fundraising by selling product to the community and to the city square, conducting students’ concert, or conducting a service of car wash. 3. creating rules to the members of each group who participate in the project to sign both before and after the activities. discussion the purpose of civic education is to prepare students to be effective citizens. one of the ways to actualize being effective citizens is that students should act as part of the solution. developing project-based learning through food bank in civic education helps students engage actively to eradicate hunger in garahan village, jember sub-district. using larmer and mergendoller’ s seven essential elements of meaningful projects (2010) the development of a project-based learning model to teaching civic education proves to be effective for a number of reasons: it includes students’ observation and interview regarding who are categorized as poor (a need to know). after discovering the issues from first-hand observation and interview, students were encouraged to raise awareness of food insecurity by creating a driving question: how to eradicate hunger? (a driving question). additional activities include students’ writing project proposals in groups to use in promoting their project (student voice and choice). in order to respond to their driving question students need to move further to action by collaborating with other classes to distribute the research project proposal to individuals and companies as fundraising strategy (21st century skills). in writing journal entries, students had the opportunity to reflect on their thinking and problem solving processes, which they need to explain in their oral presentation in a showcase (feedback and product). after the discussion of their finding about the patterns of poverty, whether it is structural or cultural, both of them probe students’ inquiry (inquiry and innovation). a series of students’ activities on the project is finally well documented and presented in a public showcase. mardiati & leba even though indonesia has made moderate progress to eradicate hunger, problems of distributing nutritious food to targeted poor households has enjoyed a little success. this happens due to limited access to resources concerning transportation. therefore, it requires intervention for both need and practicality to engage students’ participation through formal education. as most students wrote in their reflective journal entries, they love and enjoy doing these social and humanitarian activities in practice, rather than just learning from the theory they have obtained from lectures. they also have emotional attachment to the people they investigated that they never had before. many students shared their experience that most members of households they investigated are already old and are not able to walk and work. in addition, garahan village community, jember mostly lives in below the poverty line (bpl), and have limited access to formal jobs. from the group report, it also shows students’ pride to be part of the solution of eradicating hunger to this community temporarily. even though this project proves to be effective pedagogical skills and meet the analysis in terms of need and practically, the implication of practical tool is suggested for further research by conducting variety of well-planned fundraising strategies. additional implication of research would be possibility investigating more than one village. this proposed project-based learning model is expected to help government policy for transparency in food distribution for the purpose of eradicating hunger through formal education in higher education nationwide. conclusion this study found that project-based learning implemented through food bank in higher education further developed students’ awareness of the eradication of poverty among those who most need the attention of the indonesian community. these are the people who constitute approximately 40% of the entire population and remain vulnerable of falling into poverty (world bank, 2017). implementing civic education requires innovative teaching and learning strategies. the food bank project and practical help in eradicating poverty enabled significant progress toward both goals. the work has not only furthered students’ goals of the university of jember to be aware of food insecurity, it also assisted indonesian government policy under the auspices of higher education to introduce such welfare programs through a food bank project which alleviates poverty and hunger as alternative solution. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 352-363 references alacapinar, f.,(2008). effectiveness of project-based learning. egitim arastirmalari eurasianjournal of educational research, 33, 17-34 barron, b. & darling-hammond, l.,(2008). teaching for meaningful learning: a review of research on inquiry-based and cooperative learning. retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/edutopia-teaching-for-meaningful-learning.pdf blumenfeld, p.c., et al., (1991). motivating project-based learning: sustaining the learning. educational psychology, 26 (3 & 4) 369-398 doi: 10.1080/00461520.1991.9653139 booth, s. & whelan, j.,(2014). hungry for change: the food banking industry in australia. british food journal,vol.116 issue:9, pp.1392-1404. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1108/bfj-01-2014-0037 boss, s., johanson, c., arnold, s. d., parker, w. c., nguyen, d., mosborg, s., nolen, s., valencia, s., vye, n., & bransford, j.,(2011). the quest for deeper learning and engagement in advanced high school courses: the foundation review, 3 (3), 12-23. subdirektorat publikasi dan kompilasi statistik., (2017). laporan bulanan: data sosial ekonomi. (edisi 89). jakarta: badan pusat statistik. dann, c., (2012). is project-based learning more effective than direct instruction in school science classrooms? an analysis of the empirical research evidence. master of education theses. canada: university of manitoba, winnipeg. french, k., (2016). integrating social studies and literacy through project-based learning. education and human development master’s theses. the college at brockport: state university of new york. gall, m.d; gall, j.p and borg, w.r., (2003). educational research: an introduction. (seventh edition). new york: pearson publishing, inc. gangopadthyay, s., lensink, r., & yadav, b.,(2015). cash or in-kind transfers? evidence from a randomized controlled trial in new delhi, india. the journal of development studies, 2015. vol. 51, no. 6, 660-673. retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2014.997219. grant, m., (2002). getting a grip on project-based learning: theory, cases, and recommendations. meridian: a middle school computer technologies journal, vol.5, issue 1, winter 2000 grant, m.m.,(2009). understanding projects in project-based learning: a student’sperspective.americaneducational research association. april 16, 2009. https://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/edutopia-teaching-for-meaningful-learning.pdf https://doi.org/10.1108/bfj-01-2014-0037 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2014.997219 mardiati & leba harris, h. j., & katz, l. g., (2001). young investigator: the project opproach. new york: teachers collegepress. jones, b. f., ramussen, c. m., & moffitt, m. c.,(1997). real-life problem solving: a collaborative approach to interdisciplinary learning. washington, dc: america psychological association. kolodner, j. l., krajcik, j. s., edelson, d. c., reiser, b. j., & starr, m. l.,(2009-2013). project-based inquiry science (middle school science curriculum materials). mt. kisco, ny: it’s about time. kompas. (2015). food bank indonesia. retrieved from www.foodbankindonesia.org krajcik, j. s., reiser, b. j., sutherland, l. m., & fortus, d. (2012). iqwst. investigating and questioning our world through science and technology (middle school science curriculum materials). greenwich, ct: active learning krajcik, j. s. & shin, n. (2014). project-based learning. in r. k. sawyer (ed.), the cambridge handbook of learning sciences (2nd ed.) (pp. 275-297). new york, ny: cambridge university press. krajcik, j.s, & soloway, e. (1997). enacting project-based science: challenging for practice and policy. elementary school journal, 97 (4) 341 – 358. larmer, j. (2014). project-based learning vs problem-based learning vs x-bl. edutopia. retrieved from www.edutopia.org larmer, j. & mergendoller, j.r., (2010). giving students meaningful work. educational leadership. vol. 68, no.1, 34-37. retrieved fromhttp://ascd.org/publications/educational_leadership/sept10/vol.68 ministry of national development planning.,(2010). report on the chievement of the millennium development goals indonesia 2010. retrieved from http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs//mdg%202010%20report%20final%20full%20lr. pdf mcleod, s.,(2014). lev vygotsky. retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html parker, w. c., lo. j., yeo, a. j., valencia, s. w., nguyen, d., abbott, r. d., nolen, s. b., bransford, j. d., &vye, n. j.,(2013). beyond breadth-speed-test: toward deeper knowing and engagement in an advanced placement course. american educational research journal, 50 (6), 1424-1459. pellegrino, j. w., & hilton, m. l. (eds)., (2012). education for life and war: developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. washington, dc: national http://www.foodbankindonesia.org/ http://www.edutopia.org/ http://ascd.org/publications/educational_leadership/sept10/vol.68 http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs/mdg%202010%20report http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 352-363 academies press. perkins, d. n., (1991). what constructivism demands of the learner. educational technology, 31, 18-23 peterson, b. w.,(2012). uncovering the progressive past: the origins of project-based learning. unboxed: a journal of adult learning in schools, 8 piaget, j., (1990). the child conception of the world. new york: littlefield adams rachman, m., (2015). 5 pendekatan penelitian: kuantitatif, kualitatif, mixed, ptk, r&d. yogyakarta:magnumpustaka utama ramos, m.b., (2005).pedagogy of the oppressed/paulo freire: 30th anniversary edition. new york: the continuum international publishing group inc. ravitch, d.,(2000). left back: a century of failed school reforms. new york, ny: simon & schuster. roncarolo, f., adam, c., bisset, s., & potvin, l.,(2015). traditional and alternative community food security intervention in montréal, québic: different practices, different people. j community health (2015) 40:199 – 207 doi 10.1007/s10900-014 9917-8 stalker, p.,(2008). let speak out for mdgs: achieving the millennium development goals in indonesia. retrieved from http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs/let%20speakout%20for%20mdgs%20 %20en.pdf subdirektorat publikasi dan kompilasi statistik., (2017). laporan bulanan: data sosial ekonomi. (edisi 89). jakarta: badan pusat statistik. sugiyono.,(2014). metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r & d. bandung: alfabeta. tallant, a., (2011). rock on! band together to fight hunger: result from a food insecurity awareness project. international journal for the scholarship of teaching and learning, vol. 5. no. 2 (july 2011) thomas, j.,(2000). a review of research on project-based learning. retrieved from http://bie.org/index.php/site/re/pbl_research/29 vygotsky, l. s.,(1978). mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. cambridge, ma:harvard university press. world bank.,(2017). world bank report on poverty. retreived from www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia/overview http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs/let%20speakout%20for%20mdgs%20http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs/let%20speakout%20for%20mdgs%20http://bie.org/index.php/site/ http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indone www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 285-300 285 bridging the dichotomous gaps between trade unions and management of tertiary institutions in nigeria bunmi isaiah omodan1 & bekithemba dube2 abstract the study examined the relationship between activities of trade unions and management of tertiary institutions in a bid to provide empirical solution to the lingering industrial actions by the staff unions in various tertiary institutions in nigeria. the population comprises all tertiary institutions in ekiti state, nigeria. four hundred and fifty subjects consisted of 390 members of unions that were selected using proportionate sampling techniques and 60 top management staff of the selected institutions was selected purposively. two self-designed instruments namely, “trade unions and management of tertiary institutions questionnaire” (tumtiq) and “management of tertiary institutions questionnaire (mtiq)” were used to collect relevant data from the subjects. the researchers and another expert in educational management and test and measurement did the face and content validity. in addition, the test-retest method of reliability was adopted with a reliability coefficient of 0.66 and 0.72 respectively. the data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics and the three hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. the study revealed that there was a significant relationship between activities of trade unions and leadership style of management of tertiary institutions. the study also showed that there was a significant relationship between trade unions’ dissatisfaction with conditions of service and management of tertiary institutions. based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that management of tertiary institutions should adopt a leadership style that is all-inclusive through a participatory system of management. government should also provide funding for management to enhance conditions of service in the form of a better pay package, in-service training, overseas trips and their welfare packages for staff. . key words: trade unionism, leadership style, conditions of service, management, tertiary institutions. introduction tertiary education is regarded as the third stage of education all over the world after secondary education. it is considered as post-secondary education, which according to bamiro (2012), includes universities, colleges of education, polytechnics and mono-technics in the case of nigeria. more importantly, tertiary institutions are centres of excellence where knowledge is disseminated and acquired by those who seek it. this apparently could be the reason why 1 lecturer, school of education studies, university of the free state, south africa, omodanbi@ufs.ac.za 2 lecturer, school of education studies, university of the free state, south africa, dubeb@ufs.ac.za journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1) ,285-300 ogunlade, ekundayo and omodan (2015) described it as academic communities comprised of intellectuals such as teaching and non-teaching staff as well as administrators in charge of teaching and non-teaching activities of the system. to this end, the important roles being played by tertiary institutions as an apparatus of social engineering and societal efficacy cannot be undervalued because these institutions instigated advancement and diffuses societal consciousness for the maintenance and adaptive structures of the society (rotem & glasman, 1977; uko & nnaji, 2015; oyewunmi & oyewunmi, 2017). specifically, the goals of tertiary education are fundamental to the build-up of a successful society. this is due to its contributions to the production of higher-level skills and competencies, which are essential to national development, particularly in the context of globalisation and the agitation to shift towards knowledge-based economies (akinyemi & bassey, 2012). these goals, according to section 45 of the national policy on education 2004 include promotion of national and international understanding and interest, contributing to national development through high level of relevant work force training, developing and inculcating proper value for the survival of the individuals and society among others (federal republic of nigeria, 2004). in the same vein, the federal republic of nigeria (2013) further stressed that tertiary institutions shall pursue the following goals: teaching, research and development, virile staff development programme, generation and dissemination of knowledge to mention a few. however, upon all these laudable goals and objectives that are expected to be performed as expatiated above, the reality appears to be contrary. there are various constraints observed such as demoralisation of staff and periodic staff strikes as a result of unpalatable condition of service, funding, lack of educational facilities and bad leadership styles from the side of schools management (asiyai, 2006; ekundayo, 2012). in order to bridge these long standing managerial deficiencies in nigerian tertiary institutions, especially with regard to the welfare and treatment of workers, which constitute the work force, these workers organised themselves into various groups otherwise referred to as the trade unions. their view is to protect the interest of their members through stated mechanisms of agitation such as dialogue, protest and strikes among others. trade unionism from a simple point of view connotes the reaction of workers to the employer’s actions (george, owoyemi & onokala, 2012; omodan, 2016). from a practical point of view, a trade union is defined as an organised group(s) of workers who have come together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions for their members, ensuring members’ welfare coupled omodan & dube with their full recognition to the decision making body of their institutions (arikewuyo, 2008; gichaba, 2013). notably, there are various representatives of employee groups, otherwise referred to as the trade unions in the tertiary institutions in nigeria. these include academic staff union of universities (asuu), senior staff association of nigeria university (ssanu), non-academic staff union of universities (nasu), association of university technologists of nigeria (asuton), senior staff association of universities teaching hospitals research institute and allied institutions (ssauthriai) and association of secretariat staff of nigeria universities (assnu). for polytechnic, there are academic staff union of polytechnic (asup), nonacademic staff union of polytechnics (nasup) and polytechnic senior staff association (possa). for colleges of education, there are colleges of education academic staff union (coeasu), colleges of education non academic staff union (coenasu) and senior staff union in colleges of education (ssucoen) among others (asiyai, 2006; okebukola, 2010). however, various sources of contention were perceived between the trade unions and the management of the tertiary institutions in nigeria, most especially in ekiti state. these include unpalatable conditions of service such as unquantifiable and irregular salaries for staff, epileptic payment service allowances, delay in payment retirement and pension entitlements as well as irregular and delay in appointment and promotion of staff. this is also supported by the observation of fakunle (2017) that the majority of the conflicts between staff and school management are mostly due to late payment of remuneration and non-payment of outstanding allowances and other services allowance, which according to him, led to the 2013 academic staff union of universities national strike in nigeria. the conditions of service have caused severe disagreement and dichotomy between trade unions of tertiary institutions and their institutional management. this was justified by the list of requests made by asuu to the federal government of nigeria that the earned allowances and amendment of the pension and retirement age of academics staff needed to be reviewed (abayomi, adesulu, asomba & arenyeka, 2013). asuu had believed that government and management of tertiary institutions seem to have demonstrated insincerity on these issues (uwerunonye, 2018). meanwhile, one of the major tasks of personnel management in every tertiary institutions is to ensure that the staff are well catered for with good remuneration such as payment of their entitlements as and when due. this may be in form of salary, fringe benefits, personal emolument, https://independent.ng/author/uwerunonye/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1) ,285-300 retirement benefits, pension allowances and welfare packages among others (olaleye, 2002). if all these were recognised and implemented, it would not only stand as sources of motivation for staff but also reduce the tendencies of misunderstanding and disagreements between the staff unions and their institutional managements. this is corroborated by the findings of adeoye (2000) that one of the major causes of conflict between the employer and labour unions is the question of salary and conditions of services. therefore, an effective salary administration has many welldefined goals. some of these are provision of a systematic determination of equitable compensation for the workers, control of salary cost by the organisation, production of staff turnover, motivation of staff to enable them to perform at an optimum level with the provision of financial and non-financial incentives and promotion of employee-employer relations (adeoye, 2000). thus, conditions of service are aimed at attracting workers, retaining the good and productive workers and motivating them for higher productivity devoid of disagreements. the findings of djastuti (2010) justified this that better job characteristics/conditions will lead to job satisfaction and high organisational commitment, in turn reducing the intention of conflicts. no wonder a breach of this consensual motivator usually trigger disharmony and dichotomies between the staff unions and the management of tertiary institutions. hence, the kind of leadership styles of school management also appear to have made it impossible for the objectives of the tertiary education to be realised, as stipulated in the national policy on education. this is because the style of leadership adopted by the management of these tertiary institutions appears to determine whether they will enjoy an amiable relationship with the staff union (trade unions). for example, the leadership of the nigerian tertiary institutions perceived to have preferred an autocratic approach to resolving issues with the unions as suffices in the opinion of ekundayo (2012) that the cause of conflict between the university managers and the trade unions is the high-handedness of school administrators. meanwhile, it was observed that school managers, including head of departments, are ruling the departments single-handedly without involving other staff members. this is supported by arogundade (2010) and omodan (2016) that the leadership of tertiary institutions seems to be autocratic in their management styles, which could however attract catastrophic implications on the peace and productivity of the institutions. omodan & dube hence, it is not a gainsaying that there have been records of gross misconduct and abuse of power by some management of institutions in nigeria, which has consequently resulted into major unrest or crisis. omotosho (2013) cited the example of the vice chancellor of the university of abuja, prof isa muhammed, who unilaterally dismissed 35 lecturers, dissolved the senate of the university, created programmes and altered the academic calendar of the university. this vice chancellor ran the university like a chiefdom and with unbelievable brutality (egbokhare, 2000). this high handedness on the part of some major managers of the institutions has triggered disharmony and conflicts between them and their institutional trade unions. according to ajayi and ayodele (2002), an authoritarian leader makes all the decisions without involving their subordinates. this is obviously affecting the relative peace in the school system because an autocratic leader is primarily concerned with production and the use of power and authority without concern for humanity (nwafor, 2012; ajayi & ekundayo, 2016). thus, the above identified missing gaps constitutes the urgent need to find lasting solutions to the conflicting variables (condition of service and leadership styles) as possible reasons for perpetual dichotomy between staff unions and leadership of tertiary institutions in nigeria. this may be uneasy to be achieved in an environment where staff motivation and leadership treatment is lagging behind. thus, every organisation, especially tertiary organisations, will fight for leaders who will be concerned with the job and the people doing the job (nwanko, 2014). therefore, for the educational system to sustain its existence, it must place a strong emphasis on the sustainability of human resources as against the usual “unintended consequences” such as competition and financial return (ekundayo & omodan, 2018). however, the stakeholders at the helm of affairs in the education system, academic and political leaders, should recognise that skilled and motivated staff could make a significant difference in the pursuance of predetermined goals and objectives of the system. situating the problem it has been observed that the frequent industrial actions embarked upon by various trade unions in different tertiary institutions seems to have hindered the speedy actualisation of the set pre-determined goals and objectives of tertiary institutions in nigeria and in ekiti sate in particular. trade unions, most especially academic staff unions of these institutions, had at most times been at loggerheads with the authorities of their various institutions as a result of the perceived inability of their institutional management to meet their demands. this is evidenced in journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1) ,285-300 fakunle and omodan (2017) that there are industrial/strike actions in some institutions due to the disagreement on the conditions of service between the academic staff and the management of the institutions, which had resulted in disjointed academic calendars. hence, it appears that the leadership styles of school management, coupled with unpalatable conditions of service, at most times propel unavoidable disagreements between the unions and the school management. ekundayo (2012) supports this, by indicating that one of the causes of disagreement between the staff unions and management is leadership style of university administrators, which is perceived to be unfriendly to the staff. the end result of this is abrupt disruption of the approved academic calendar, infrastructural collapse, social distortion, wider moral crisis among the staff and other stakeholders (david, 2013). even students are at the receiving end because when there is strike action by the trade unions on campuses, all academic activities is shut down and students are usually directed to vacate the school premises for the period. this and much more usually lead to elongation of students’ expected years of study. the aim and objectives of the study the aims of the study are to provide empirical solutions to the lingering industrial actions by the staff unions in various tertiary institutions in nigeria and to ensure peaceful co-existence between staff and the management of their institutions in order to achieve overall goal achievement of the system with the following objectives:  the study also examined the influence of leadership styles of management of tertiary institutions on the trade union’s activities.  the study equally investigated relevant influence of conditions of service on unionsmanagement dichotomy in tertiary institutions.  possible solutions were recommended based on the findings. research question the following research question was generated to reveal the extent to which the activities of trade unions have gone in respect of their frequent industrial actions and many other reactional activities; 1. what is the level of trade unions’ activities in tertiary institutions in ekiti state? research hypotheses the following research hypotheses were raised to pilot the study: omodan & dube 1. there is no significant relationship between activities of trade unions and management of tertiary institutions 2. there is no significant relationship between activities of trade unions and leadership style of the management of tertiary institutions 3. there is no significant relationship between dissatisfaction with conditions of service and the management of tertiary institutions method research design the study is a descriptive research of the survey design. the design is descriptive because it involves the collection of data in order to describe the existing situation with respect to trade unions’ activities and its effect on the management of tertiary institutions in ekiti state. it is also a survey design because it has a wide range of scope and coverage (bamikole, 2017) from where inferences will be drawn about the features of the chosen population in order to make generalisations if possible (omopariola, 2017). population, sample and sampling techniques the population of this study consisted of all the 4,174 academic and non-academic staff of three selected tertiary institutions including members of top management. the sample for the study consisted of 390 members of the unions who were selected using proportionate sampling techniques because of the variation in the numbers of staff in the selected tertiary institutions. this technique is also appropriate because it takes care of the number of differentials in the subgroup of the population (alleydog, 2018), such as asuu, nasu, asup, nasup etc. sixty top management staff of the selected institutions was selected purposively. purposive, according to taherdoost (2016), is a strategy targeted at a particular person or event to obtain important information that cannot be obtained from other sources. this technique was employed because the information needed to correlate with staff unions could only be obtained from top management staff. data collection two set of self-designed instruments were adopted for the study. the first was questionnaire titled “trade unionism and management of tertiary institutions questionnaire (tumtiq)”. the second questionnaire was titled “management of tertiary institutions journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1) ,285-300 questionnaire (mtiq)”. the researcher and another expert in the field of educational management and test and measurement in ekiti state university, ado ekiti, ascertained the face and content validity. the test-retest method of reliability was employed with a reliability coefficient of 0.66 and 0.72 respectively, which were considered highly reliable.. data analysis the data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. the research question was answered using percentage scores, frequency count and standard deviation while all hypotheses were tested using pearson product moment correlation (ppmc). all hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance and the results are presented below. results and findings the following were the results based on the research question and the hypotheses generated. research question 1: what is the level of trade unions’ activities in tertiary institutions in ekiti state? in order to answer the question, scores on activities of trade unions in tertiary institutions in ekiti state were computed using tumtiq. the score (mean= 43.48 and the standard deviation sd=1.28) were used to categorise the respondents into “low”, “moderate” and “high” levels of activities of trade unions. the low level of activities of trade unions was obtained using the difference between the mean score and the standard deviation. the moderate was obtained by using the mean score while the addition of the mean score and standard deviation were used to generate the high-level group in terms of trade union activities. the results are presented in table 1 and figure 1. table 1. level of activities of trade unions in tertiary institutions in ekiti state level of trade unions’ activities frequency percentage low (0.00–42.20) 27 7.20 moderate (42.21–44.75) 295 78.20 high (44.76–100) 55 14.6 total 377 100.0 omodan & dube table 1 shows that 7.2% of the respondents had low level of union activities, 78.2% had moderate level while 14.6% had high level of activities of trade unions. the result on each of the sampled tertiary institution shows that the level of trade union activities is moderate, which implies that there are active trade unions in tertiary institutions. this was made known based on their frequent industrial actions and other protest activities while pressing home their demands. this is graphically expatiated below in figure 1; hypothesis 1: there is no significant relationship between activities of trade unions and management of tertiary institutions. in order to test the hypothesis, scores on activities of trade unions and management of tertiary institutions were subjected to statistical analysis involving pearson product moment correlation at 0.05 level of significance. the result is presented in table 3. table 2. pearson correlation of activities of trade unions and management of tertiary institutions variables n mean sd rcal rtable remark activities of trade unions 60 43.48 1.28 0.531* 0.250 significant leadership style of management 60 57.77 4.82 *p<0.05 table 2 shows that rcal (0.531) is greater than rtable (0.250) at 0.05 level of significance, which implies that there is a significant relationship between activities of trade unions and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1) ,285-300 management of tertiary institutions. the null hypothesis was rejected because the relationship between the activities of trade unions and management of tertiary institutions in ekiti state is moderately high and statistically significant in a positive direction. hypothesis 2: there is no significant relationship between activities of trade unions and the leadership style of the management of tertiary institutions scores relating to activities of trade unions (tumtiq) and the leadership style of management of tertiary institutions (item 1-20 of mtiq) were subjected to pearson product moment correlation at 0.05 level of significance. the result was presented in table 3. table 3. pearson correlation of activities of trade unions and leadership style of management of tertiary institutions variables n mean sd rcal rtable remark activities of trade unions 60 43.48 1.28 0.421* 0.250 significant leadership style of management 60 12.87 1.22 *p<0.05 table 3 shows that rcal (0.421) is greater than rtable (0.250) at 0.05 level of significance, which implies that there is a significant relationship between activities of trade unions and the leadership style of management of tertiary institutions. the null hypothesis was rejected because the relationship between activities of trade unions and the leadership style of the management of tertiary institutions in ekiti state is moderately high and statistically significant in a positive direction. hypothesis 3: there is no significant relationship between trade unions’ dissatisfaction with conditions of service and the management of tertiary institutions. in testing the hypothesis, scores relating to trade unions’ dissatisfaction with conditions of service (items 6-11 of tumtiq) and the management of tertiary institutions (items 1-20 of mtiq) were computed and subsequently subjected to statistical analysis involving pearson product moment correlation at 0.05 level of significance. the result is presented in table 4. omodan & dube table 4. pearson correlation of dissatisfaction with conditions of service and the management of tertiary institutions variables n mean sd rcal rtable remark trade unions’ dissatisfaction with conditions of service 60 17.23 0.49 0.481* 0.250 significant management of tertiary institutions 60 57.77 4.82 *p<0.05 table 4 shows that rcal (0.481) is greater than rtable (0.250) at 0.05 level of significance, which implies that there is a significant relationship between trade unions’ dissatisfaction with conditions of service and the management of tertiary institutions. the null hypothesis was rejected because the relationship between trade unions’ dissatisfaction with conditions of service and management of tertiary institutions in ekiti state is moderately high and statistically significant in a positive direction. discussion the study showed that the level of activities of trade unions in tertiary institutions in ekiti was moderate which further confirms that the frequent union activities in terms of their reactions in the form of protests, strikes and industrial actions is rampant. findings of the study showed that there was a significant relationship between activities of trade unions and the management of tertiary institutions. this further confirms the observation of ekundayo (2012) that there is constant conflict between the various staff unions and the university administrators, which according to the findings of arikewoyo (2010), leads to demoralisation of staff and students and periodic staff strikes. the study also revealed that there is a significant relationship between activities of trade unions and management of tertiary institutions, which indicates that various reactions from trade unions towards agitating their interest do have a significant effect on the management of tertiary institutions. this is supported by the conclusion of omisore (1999) that the mutual relationship between the management of tertiary institutions within the broad framework of the objectives will ensure goals’ actualisation without obstructions. the study revealed that there was a significant relationship between activities of trade unions and the leadership style of management of tertiary institutions. the finding also supported omisore (2011) who stressed that the success of any institutional management depends solely upon the character and roles of leadership. this is further validated by the findings of pitan & akindele (2016), that the above picture underscored the source of conflict situation which demands journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1) ,285-300 a kind of situational administrative mechanism by institutional authorities in resolving conflicts. this may be connected with the position of agbonna, yusuf and onifade (2009) that most violent conflicts in nigerian higher institutions of learning have been traced to contested bases of citizenship rights, greed, predatory rule, autocracy and unresolved grievances as a result of leadership styles adopted by school management. this finding also corroborates the recommendation of okebukola (2010) that dialogue, mutual respect of feelings, neither party feeling superior or more powerful and voluntary participation in decision making with a win-win method of conflict resolution will go a long way to ensure a good relationship between staff and management of tertiary institutions. the study showed that there was a significant relationship between trade unions’ dissatisfaction with conditions of service and the management of tertiary institutions. the finding is in consonance with the finding of adeoye (2000) that one of the major causes of conflict between the employers and labour is the question of salary and conditions of service. the finding of garvey and ringim (2016) also confirm that the federal government of nigeria is sitting on financial resources and unwilling to distribute them to various tertiary institutions to motivate staff. the finding is favourably in support of fakunle (2017) that there is a significant relationship between remuneration and job performance among academic staff. aswathappa (2005) states that conditions of service followed by remuneration as monetary reward will make employees devout to his or her duty without side distractions. finally, only better job characteristics and job conditions will lead to job satisfaction and high organisational commitment. this will in turn reduce the intention of conflict (djastuti, 2010). conclusion and recommendations the role and responsibilities of trade unions in tertiary institutions cannot be underrated because they are the important stakeholders in charge of teaching disposition and academic excellence. however, if the trade unions and management of tertiary institutions are working towards actualising the intention and goals the system, their dichotomies could be harmonised for the purpose of effectiveness and efficiency in the overall management of their institutions. this could be achieved through a management leadership style that is centred on how to maintain balance between the job and the people with provision of corresponding conditions of service that are within the dimensions of trade unions. based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: omodan & dube  tertiary institutions should be reoriented to be able to adopt acceptable situational styles of management of international standard in such that institutions will be properly run by ensuring that qualified and credible personnel are saddle with management responsibilities. this will further improve staff morale and reduce their disagreement tendencies; this could be through a participatory system of management and functional committee system and the government/management must be ready to implement whatever burning decision made by the committee.  since it has been confirmed that conditions of service is one of the reasons for staffmanagement dichotomy, the state and federal government must ensure adequate funding of the tertiary institutions to enable management enhances conditions of service in the form of better pay packages, in-service training, overseas trips and their welfare packages for staff. this will boost workers’ morale, increase productivity and stem the tide of incessant industrial conflict in the tertiary institutions. references abayomi, a., adesulu, d., asomba, i. & arenyeka, l. (2013). controversies trail fg’s n130bn allocation to varsities. vanguard nigeria. september 19, 2013. adeoye, m. a. (2002). basic concepts, nature and functions of personnel administration. in f. o. olaleye. personnel management at glance. monograph, university of ado-ekiti, nigeria. agbonna, s. a.; yusuf, a. & onifade, a. b. (2009). communication and conflict manager’s personality in school security and conflict management. being a text of paper presented at the 25th annual national conference of the social studies association of nigeria; held at michael otedola college of primary education, noforija, epe, lagos state; 17th to 20th november. ajayi i. a. & ayodele, j. b. (2002). fundamentals of educational management. ado-ekiti: green line publishers. ajayi, i. a. & ekundayo, h. t. (2016).towards effective decision making in the school system. in j. a. adegun, j. b. babalola & i. a. ajayi (eds); concurrent issues in education. (chapter one: pg 1-13). lagos: premier publishers. akinyemi, s & bassey, o. i. (2012). planning and funding of higher education in nigeria: the challenges. international education studies, 5(4):86-95. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1) ,285-300 alleydog.com (2018). proportionate sampling. (n.d.). in alleydog.com's online glossary. retrieved from: https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definitioncit.php?term=proportionate+sampling/ 10/12/2018. arikewuyo, m.o. (2008). university management and staff unions in nigeria: issues and challenges. sa-educ journal, 3(1); 15-22 asiyai, r. i. (2006). variables inducing trade unions disputes in nigerian universities. tnjgc, 11(1): 146-154. aswathappa, k. (2005). human resource and personnel management text and case, 4thed. tata mcgraw hill. bamikole, o. i. (2017). classroom management and students’ academic performance in public senior secondary schools in ekiti state. unpublished master’s thesis, ekiti state university, ado-ekiti, nigeria. bamiro, o. a. (2012). tertiary education in nigeria and the challenge of corporate governance. speech at the tetfund year 2012 strategic planning workshop, held at the idris abdukadir auditorium, national universities commission, maitama abuja, 7th to 8th august, 2012. david, a. 2013. students' crisis in nigerian tertiary educational institutions: a review of the causes and management style. khazar journal of humanities & social sciences, 16(1):5676. djastuti, i. (2010). the influence of job characteristics on job satisfaction, organizational commitment and managerial performance. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11737034.pdf. accessded 28/07/2018. ekundayo, h. t. (2012). towards strengthening the relationship between trade unions and university management in nigeria. african research review: an international multidisciplinary journal. ethiopia, 6(2), 266-273. ekundayo, h. t. & omodan, b. i. (2018). managing human capital for better productivity in nigerian universities. in c. a. daramola. a. n. duyilemi, o. s. alimi, f. o. alabi, g. i. osifila & a. i. oyetakin (eds.) educational development in africa, a book in honour of professor williams olusola ibukun, (chapter eleven: pg 131-142). lagos: daroye publishers. . egbokhare f. (2000). nigerian universities today: imperatives for change and relevance. recall: a chronicle of nigerian events, 1. fakunle f. a. (2017) influence of job satisfaction on job performance among academic staff in tertiary institutions in ekiti state. unpublished master’s thesis, ekiti state university, ado-ekiti, nigeria. https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition-cit.php?term=proportionate+sampling/ https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition-cit.php?term=proportionate+sampling/ https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11737034.pdf.%20accessded%2028/07/2018 omodan & dube fakunle, f. a. & omodan, b. i. (2017). promotion and workload as determinants of job performance among academic staff in tertiary institutions in ekiti state. in j. a. adegun, j. b. babalola & i. a. ajayi (eds), (pg 28-35). dynamics of education. ado ekiti: ekiti state university press. federal republic of nigeria (2013). national policy on education. revised edition. yaba, lagos: nerdc press federal republic of nigeria (2004). national policy on education. revised edition. yaba, lagos: nerdc press. garvey, o. m. & ringim, k. j. (2016). trade unionism on academic performance and development of nigerian universities: a comparative study. journal of world economic research, 5(6), 91-100. george, o. j. owoyemi, o. o. & onokala, u. (2012). trade unions and unionism in nigeria: a historical perspective. research in world economy, 3(2), 68-74. gichaba, s. m. (2013). perceived influence of trade unions on terms and conditions of service and job security of employees at kisii university-kenya. unpublished master’s thesis, university of nairobi, kenya. nwafor s. o. (2012). the essential leadership styles for effective administration of universities in nigeria. asian journal of social sciences & humanities. 1(3), 173-179 uwerunonye, n. (2018). ngige, oloyede cause outrage over n8bn earnd academic allowance. daily independent.https://independent.ng/ngige-oloyede-cause-outrage-over-n8bnearned-academic-allowance/ accessed 24/07/2018. ogunlade, a. l., ekundayo, h. t. & omodan b. i. (2015). funding and educational facilities as determinants of staff management dichotomy in tertiary institutions in ekiti state. african journal of studies in education, 10(2), 102-109. okebukola, f. o. (2010). staff unions, conflicts and conflict resolution in tertiary institutions in nigeria. lead paper presented at the 1st national conference of the colleges of education academic staff union (coeasu), tai solarin college of education, omu-ijebu, ogun state. nov; 30 2010. olaleye, f. o. (2002). personnel management at glance. monograph, university of ado-ekiti, nigeria. omisore, d. (1999). major events in nigeria. lagos venture publishing. omisore, d. (2011). breached agreements: threat to management-union relationship. medwell journals. 6(4): 299-306. https://independent.ng/author/uwerunonye/ https://independent.ng/ngige-oloyede-cause-outrage-over-n8bn-earned-academic-allowance/ https://independent.ng/ngige-oloyede-cause-outrage-over-n8bn-earned-academic-allowance/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1) ,285-300 omodan, b. i. (2016). influence of trade unionism on management of tertiary institutions in ekiti state. m.ed. thesis, ekiti state university, ado ekiti, nigeria. omopariola, o. f. 2017. quality assurance and teacher’s job performance in secondary schools in ekiti state, nigeria. m.ed thesis, ekiti state university, ado ekiti, nigeria. omotosho, f. (2013). reinventing governance and public accountability for improved productivity in nigerian higher institutions. academic journal of interdisciplinary studies. 2(3): 89-97. oyewunmi, o. a. & oyewunmi, e. o. (2017). nigeria’s public university system: are trade unions still viable? asia pacific journal of academic research in social sciences, 2, 1-7. pitan, o. o. & akindele, s. t. (2016). university management perception of academic staff union of universities [asuu] struggles in nigeria: implication for counselling and productivity. international journal of humanities and social science invention, 5(2), 33-37. rahaman, m. (2005). visionary leadership with bold initiative for national development: african affairs. bangladesh’s position in asia. rotem, a. and glasman, n. (1977). evaluation of university instructors in the united states: the context. higher education, 6: 75-92. taherdoost, h. (2016). sampling methods in research methodology; how to choose a sampling technique for research. international journal of academic research in management (ijarm), 5(2), 20-27. uko, e. s. & nnaji, e. s. (2015). managing tertiary institutions for the promotion of lifelong learning in cross river state, nigeria. global journal of educational research, 15, 41-47. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 104-124 the legacy of a school: developing better schools based on mutual cooperation nur kholis1 abstract this research aimed to analyze (1) how hard legacy was used to develop a school—namely min (madasah ibtidaiyah negeri) tegalsari, wlingi sub-district, blitar regency—and (2) how soft legacy was applied at the same school. the research took a qualitative approach with a case study design. it was conducted at a madrasa, namely min tegalsari in blitar regency, between january and june in 2020. the research was concerned with school programs and activities and the impressions of the school’s stakeholders about them. in-depth interviews, observations, and documentation were used for data collection. what is more, the data’s validity was checked for credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. the data were then integratively analyzed through data presentation, data reduction, and the drawing of tentative conclusions. the results revealed firstly that the school’s legacy has resulted from a transformation from a school that was not well-regarded by the community into an excellent school. the dramatic improvement in this school was marked by changes in its culture in terms of transparent and accountable school management, environment-based and enjoyable learning, and increased support and participation from various school stakeholders. in addition, the school also has a soft legacy that manifested in three aspects, namely a collaborative leadership structure, transformational leadership, and effective communication. keywords: management, accountability, legacy, stakeholder. introduction during the 1960s, an argument that emerged from coleman’s (1968) research was that a school’s approach cannot be grafted onto another school, so it is impossible for a school to imitate to another school that it considers to be better. others, meanwhile, have assumed that the success of a school may be emulated (i.e., grafted) in other schools. as a result, comparative studies have been recommended to learn the best practices of certain schools, and even now, comparative studies from elementary to tertiary levels have been undertaken (budiharso & tarman, 2020). however, such activities cannot automatically translate the best practices of one school to other schools. indeed, many factors contribute to why a school may be more effective and efficient than others. the quality of a school, among other things, is determined by its culture. the stronger this is the better, so a superior academic culture in a school contributes to how effective the school will be 1 dr. state islamic university (uin) sayyid ali rahmatullah tulungagung, indonesia email: nurkholisblt@iain-tulungagung.ac.id file:///c:/users/jpn/dropbox/business-editing/inet%20orders/teguh%20budiharso/20211110/nurkholisblt@iain-tulungagung.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 105 (hargreaves, 1995). the academic culture of a school is defined by the extent to which all members of the school community develop competitive attitudes, spirits, and behaviors (adebayo, 2013). good schools always develop a good culture, both internally and externally. previous studies conducted by purkey & smith (1983) and murphy (1983) found that leadership plays a key role in developing the school culture. indeed, a clear and measurable vision is needed for a principal to lead all a school’s stakeholders in delivering the shared goal of academic excellence. thus, a clear vision, a detailed mission plan, comprehensive aims, and thorough programs can enhance work spirit (solikhah & budiharso, 2020). there are many determinants of a good school culture, including, among other things, the various physical inputs (e.g., the characters of students and teachers, library and classroom facilities, etc.), the socioeconomic composition of teachers and students, the morals among school community members, teachers’ aspirations for their students, and students’ interest in learning (coleman, 1975). what is more, it is also important to communicate the school’s programs and activities to concerned external parties. in this era of technology, there are many ways (e.g., social media) to promote a school’s programs and activities. the principal who participated in this research made use of social media and social networking to improve the participation of relevant school stakeholders. school-based social media is therefore a matter of urgency for school management to develop a good school culture (mutongoza, et.al., 2021). each school principal leaves a legacy that is inherited by his or her successor, and this may be used to assist in managing the school. the achievements of a principal’s ideas and programs may be referred to as political legacy, which can be defined as impacts of leadership that continue to be felt by subsequent school principals. such political legacy usually manifests when a principal retires or moves to another school. in such cases, the principal’s achievements in both academic and non-academic aspects continue to be felt, to some extent, even after he or she leaves the school. in political sciences, a principal’s legacy may be distinguished into two forms, namely hard legacy and soft legacy (fong, et. al., 2017). fong, et. al., (2017) adopted this theory in their political study aimed at portraying the leadership of the president of the united states. their research theoretically divided political legacy into two types, which we used to analyze leadership at school. hard legacy is a leader’s concrete work. for a governing official, hard legacy is policy achievement, such as a measurable public policy. soft legacy, meanwhile, reflects the wider public memory of a leading figure. soft legacy is inevitably kholis influenced by hard legacy, however, because a leader will rarely be remembered well by the public if he or she never made any concrete achievements. in contrast, a leader will be remembered and regarded well by the public if he or she did some good work that improved people’s quality of life or an institution’s quality. each principal should perform duties with awareness of the current conditions while aiming to realize measurable changes in future. this awareness is created by reflecting on the problems encountered (internally and externally), the school’s academic culture, and the expectations of school stakeholders that have yet to be realized. with such an awareness, principals can create a vision that will be realized within the period of their leadership. for a leader, this vision is not merely a piece of paper pinned to the board but rather an inherent drive that stimulates leadership and progress in the form of programs and concrete activities. these are then promoted to develop relationships with stakeholders, so they will help realize the vision. previous studies of school legacy have been mainly conducted in the field of education politics, such as segregation schools (bell, 1977; horsford, 2010; lemon, et. al., 2009; reece & o’connell, 2016; saporito & oni, 2006). other researchers, meanwhile, have focused on school legacy for improving learning quality and cooperation among all school stakeholders (e.g., cummins, 2015; orr & goodman, 2010; raudenbush, 2009). a school’s effectiveness is determined by two main factors, namely learning quality and the effectiveness of the principal’s leadership in developing the school to reach its quality goals. this topic was explored by cheng (1994) to find the best model for creating a superior school. this present study, meanwhile, intended to explore leadership effectiveness for realizing a superior school culture. more specifically, this research focused on two matters: (1) how is hard legacy used to develop min (madrasa ibtidaiyah negeri) tegalsari, wlingi sub-district, blitar regency? and (2), how is soft legacy applied to develop this school? knowledge about a school’s hard legacy could potentially assist practitioners and academics in formulating specifications for superior schools and models to realize them. a detailed explanation of the various superiority specifications will help other principals to replicate successes and develop schools in line with the desires of the school’s stakeholders. knowledge about a school’s soft legacy, meanwhile, may be used as a reference for identifying other determinants of a superior school. indeed, these two aspects of a school’s legacy may ultimately be used to develop a theory for achieving a superior school culture. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 107 the results of this research are expected to lead to a description for how a school’s legacy can be effective in achieving improvements. moreover, this could lead to a detailed map for cooperationbased school development. indeed, the community’s involvement in developing a school depends upon the principal’s leadership characteristics, because an ambitious, driven principal will encourage the local community to become actively involved in the process of improvement (mutongoza, et. al., 2021). what is more, a culture of mutual cooperation that is passed from one generation to the next may be useful in developing a school. as a result, the principal should know and understand the values, norms, and socio-religious culture of the local community. when a school is transparently managed and includes the community based on its cultural values and beliefs, it will help the principal to engage the community in actively developing a good school (yamauchi & purcell, 2009). methods research type and approach a qualitative approach was chosen for this research (creswell, 2018; miles & huerman, 1994) based on the following reasons: (1) the setting was natural, 2) the examined case occurred some years ago, namely during saiful’s tenure as principal from 2000 to 2010, and 3) min tegalsari developed well in this period in terms of the number of students, community participation, and changes in the school culture. other considerations to choose the qualitative was based on : 1) the data to be gathered dealt with knowledge, points of view, awareness, and subjective interpretations of the social dynamics of the internal–external school environment; 2) the subjective interpretations of the principal’s most impressive achievements in developing a good school culture; and 3) the subject’s experience of dealing with the phenomena of developing a school, both the negative and positive aspects (husserl, 2001). this research was conducted at min tegalsari, wlingi sub-district, blitar regency, indonesia and ran from january to june in 2020. min tegalsari was previously a madrasa (islamic school) that had been independently established by islamic figures in the village. it originally did not have any school buildings, with the students studying in three homes of local residents. all the residents in tegalsari—both muslims and non-muslims, such as hindus, buddhists, and christians—worked together to establish the madrasa. at the beginning, seven students were non-muslims. solidarity, kholis harmony, and a culture of mutual cooperation in social activities were therefore well maintained in the community despite people following different religions. mutual cooperation and assistance among the people of different religions has continued for a long time. while the research was being conducted, the researchers observed non-muslims giving snacks to the workers building a mosque in the madrasa. this cooperative culture among the community is important social capital for the process of building the cooperation needed to develop a superior school, because such cooperation does not only reflect among the citizens but also between these citizens and their social institutions. for instance, a culture of cooperation in the community can be transferred to building and operating schools, mosques, churches, temples, and other public facilities. for the people of tegalsari, their attitudes have passed through the religious space, but the common good in the wider social space supersedes the narrow religious one. participants participants of this study were 12 persons, 7 male and 5 female. the participants were composed of principal 1, deputy principals 3, parents of the students 3, school teacher 3, and school communities 2. see table 1. table 1. study participants no participants male female total f % f % 1 principal 1 8.3 1 2 deputy principal 2 16.6 1 8.3 3 3 school teacher 1 8.3 2 16.6 3 4 student parents 1 8.3 2 16.6 3 5 school community 2 16.6 2 7 58.5 5 41.5 12 the 12 participants have their own role and function. the principal performed to grow, develop and mobilize for changes to occur according to the school's vision and mission. the vice principal for curriculum and teaching has the function of compiling lesson schedules, coordinating curriculum implementation, and supervising teacher teaching (internal); vice principal in the field of administration and finance has the function of planning the budget, coordinating and supervising the use of the budget; vice principal for student affairs and cooperation has the function of growing and developing students' talents and interests and developing school internal-external cooperation. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 109 three selected guardians provide information about the dynamics of school development, both aspects of soft legacy and shard legacy. in addition, three selected teachers function as policy implementers and the development of quality teaching programs while providing information about the community. data-collection techniques the data were collected using three techniques, namely in-depth interviews, observations, and documentation (creswell, 2018; miles & huberman, 1994). the in-depth interviews were the main tool for data collection. if concepts arose in the in-depth interviews that could not be fully understood, observations were made and/or documentation—such as in the form of pictures, photos, and videos—was examined. in-depth interviews started with the key informant, namely the principal, and this gave a general picture of the dynamics of developing the school from its previous state. observations and documentation techniques were also adopted to completely and concretely understand any concepts that could not be grasped orally. indeed, it is necessary to gain a detailed, deep comprehension, especially for unique concepts, hence why the observations and documentation were needed. the data were collected through various stages: first, an exploration was made. the second stage then went into more depth, before the third stage identified patterns. the exploration stage involved the principal and the vice principal for the curriculum and learning affairs. following this exploration, in-depth interviews were conducted to learn about the technical aspects of implementing the programs and activities, and these interviews involved the teachers, members of the school committee and the class association, and representatives of the local community. during the interviews, the researchers did not bring any interview materials because they had memorized in detail the objects and indicators they wished to investigate. the researchers were therefore more free to act naturally during interviews. the final stage was to identify patterns through the process of data collection, selection, and reduction. trustworthiness of data the collected data in this study needed to fulfill four criteria, namely credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. first, credibility requires that all research participants fully know the entire situation. consequently, the researchers engaged with the participants for a kholis relatively long time and tried to confirm the data and the results of the analysis with other participants (i.e., peer checking). second, to ensure transferability, the researchers tried to present data and analyses in a way that enabled the readers, participants, and other parties to gain knowledge through clear descriptions of the context and the research results. third, for dependability, the consistency of the findings and data analyses is key if it is to be studied by other parties. other researchers should be able to obtain the same data and analysis results if they were to examine the same object using the same methods used in this present research. as such, the researchers performed a structured data analysis and interpreted the research results well, so that other researchers would be able to yield the same or similar research findings and conclusions. as a result, the researchers tested the obtained data using stability, consistency, and equivalence standards. finally, for confirmability, the researchers attempted to reveal and analyze the data transparently, so that other parties (e.g., researchers, participants) could agree with all the research results. data analysis the data analysis went through a continuous process from data presentation to data reduction before drawing tentative conclusions. the analysis process in this study adopted theory of miles & huberman (1994) that is interactive analysis. miles & huberman (1994) outline four steps; data collection, data reduction, data display, and verification and conclusion drawing. the data was presented based on the categories of the research focus, and this was followed with tabulation to facilitate the data categorization. the results of the data presentation were then standardized in line with objective conditions in the field. if any data seemed inappropriate to our needs, they were moved into backup files. the next step was to draw tentative conclusions. the researchers then discussed the results with peers and some informants. if the data were still considered to be incomplete, the researchers collected additional data according to the need, such as by deepening and exploring further. the three steps of the data analysis were repeated until it was deemed valid according to the validity criteria given in the sub-section above. some firm conclusions were then drawn. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 111 results theme 1: principal leadership the first area concerned the concrete achievements of the principal’s leadership (i.e., the hard legacy) in the 2000–2010 period. this involved transforming a marginal school that was not wellregarded by the parents and guardians of prospective students into one that drew the interest of many people, even from beyond the village. the principal therefore succeeded in developing it into a superior school. prior to this, the community referred to the school building as “a goat pen,” since it was unmaintained, dirty, smelly, and certainly not pleasant. this was described by the principal: (1) in the past, when i first entered this school, the condition was unpleasant. the building was unmaintained, dirty, and smelly. especially in the rainy season, there was mud, and the traces of children’s playing could be seen on the walls of classrooms. the classrooms were never locked, so sometimes goats entered them at night. in the morning, no one cleaned them, and all the teachers came late, and it was even the principal who should clean them. most teachers also worked in other places or had jobs besides being teachers, so they came late, and after teaching, they went directly home. indeed, according to the principal’s reflection, the school’s condition was really bad. the principal, together with the vice principal for the curriculum and teaching affairs, had discussions and found solutions for developing attitudes and habits of mutual cooperation at school. the aim of this program was to involve all the school’s stakeholders, both internal and external, as stated by the vice principal: (2) the keyword we agreed upon is mutual cooperation. all internal and external school stakeholders were involved in each school program and activity. through this mutual cooperation, we could make changes in all school aspects. through this mutual cooperation, we were able to hold workshops, meetings, and visitations with all members of the class association. because of this mutual cooperation, all programs and activities that had been considered impossible became easy. theme 2: school change this fundamental change had been brought about by the principal. he presented his ambitious ideas to all the school’s stakeholders in a workshop forum about school cultural changes. according to the principal, there were three targets for change agreed through this process of mutual cooperation, namely budget transparency, contextual learning, and synergy between the kholis school and the community. these three targets became the trigger for community involvement with the school for developing a superior school. on the basis of the relevant document, the researchers studied the motto of the principal, namely “mutual cooperation changes everything.” the principal conveyed his vision and programs to anyone, anytime with the expectation that they would want to become involved in them and cooperate in developing a school that the community could be proud of. the principal always communicated programs and activities in formal forums at school and nonformal ones in the community. a prominent figure, who also served as the head of the school committee, also helped promote the school’s programs and activities. this person stated that he thought that the principal and the head of the school committee should possess the same vision and awareness when a school is developed through mutual cooperation, so everything will be developed in the same way. the involvement of all people from various socioeconomic backgrounds is also vital, so everyone will understand the changes to be carried out. they should also all know about the school’s mission, programs, and activities. making big changes also needs a big budget, however, and this was a reason for many teachers to be pessimistic. according to the vice principal for administrative and financial affairs, to realize the dream at that time, a workshop involving all teachers, the school committee, and representatives of the students’ guardians was held. the principal acted as the facilitator in the workshop, with the agenda being to equate perceptions of the programs, match the budget with the programs, and plan for where the money would come from. the workshop made an important decision in terms of agreeing with changes in the school’s programs and culture and supporting the necessary budget independently. the vice principal for the administrative and financial affairs described this in detail: (3) after the workshop forum agreed the programs and activities for school cultural changes, the budget support was decided. for each program and each activity, a matrix was constructed to establish the budget support in terms of money, staff, goods, services, and the budget sources. the budget sources were various: the school, the local community, and/or third parties. the task of the school leader and the committee was to look for financial support from third parties. the forms of support from these third parties were various, such as, among others, money, services, goods, and professional staff. meanwhile, the financial support from the school came from two sources, namely a grant from the government (the ministry of religion) and the student tuition fees. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 113 theme 3: transformation and cultural change all the school’s stakeholders accepted that the school’s operation needed money. some funding came from grants and tuition fees, but the school also planned to cooperate with a third party to establish a business, which would make use of the land next to the school, near the road, and be professionally managed. the school’s openness to outside parties gave an opportunity to secure the resources needed to support the school’s operational costs. planning, implementing, and reporting the school’s operational budget were all done under the principle of transparency. planning was undertaken based on the work meeting held at the beginning of the fiscal year, which all internal–external school stakeholders could attend. the budget was adjusted to accommodate the school’s programs and activities, including a determination of the source and form of funding for each activity. according to the vice principal for administrative and financial affairs, before the operational costs were definitive, the detail would be sent to all school stakeholders. in addition, it was displayed on the school board, so it could be view by anyone. at the end of the year, how the budget was used was reported to all concerned parties, such as to the ministry of religion, the teacher council, the school committee, and the class association. the workshop on cultural change also mandated the principal and teacher council to plan and implement contextual learning, where learning activities adopt a student-centered learning approach. teachers played roles as the planners, implementers, and facilitators to ensure that learning was still relevant to the curriculum and the dynamics of society. in a scientific sense, the school environment and the community were together used as the learning medium. this learning model enabled all teachers, students, parents, and class association members to become involved in supporting and facilitating the learning process. they were very enthusiastic and synergized in working together, so the learning process could be conducted effectively and efficiently. the vice principal for the curriculum and instruction affairs discussed this in detail: (4) the principle used for developing the teaching capacity at school was based on asah (caring for), asih (loving), and asuh (nurturing) each other. each month, a meeting was held to share knowledge and teaching experiences. the learning process was conducted by making use of the school facilities and environment, the community environment, and learning media. each day before entering the classroom, the students did morning prayer and dhuha prayer in the school yard as their “morning tasks.” at the end of the semester, each group put together an environment-based learning portfolio. at the end of the year, a learning bazaar was held, where each class could exhibit their learning kholis products to the community at a bazaar in the school yard. this bazaar was organized with cooperation between the students and the class associations, and it showed their best works. according to the head of the school committee, the school was developed by following the ancestral value of mutual cooperation. mutual cooperation was common in building houses, mosques, schools, bridges, and roads for the village. this was what had been practiced by the village’s people in the past. indeed, they could only survive and develop by cooperating with one another. as a result, this value could be adopted at school for aspects of financing, learning, and physical development. according to the principal, “we always synergized hopes, desires, programs, and activities with the potency possessed by the village’s society.” the second area, soft legacy, relates to what people remember. the basic change was transforming a school that was dismissed by local people into one with a good record of achievement, not just locally but also nationally, within two school leadership periods. this was indeed an extraordinary achievement. the principal even mentioned that an institution from the us once made a comparative study of min tegalasri, with the intention of directly learning about the growth process, the school’s development, and management in this school. at the time, min tegalasri was one of the practical examples put forward by the ministry of religion for succeeding in achieving a cultural change. a representative of the class association said that the principal always had new and interesting stories to tell. most of the students’ parents or guardians who picked up their children rarely left the school before listening to the principal’s newest story. as a result, the principal often spent time to engage with parents and guardians who were waiting for their children in the schoolyard. taking shelter under the trees, the principal often conveyed information about the school’s programs and activities. such opportunities were always leverage by the principal to share ideas about development and tell stories about the success of the school. thanks to such informal engagement, the parents and guardians were willing to support the ideas that would be implemented by the school. according to the head of the school committee, the principal could easily convince others. he added that it was the first time that a member of the school committee came from another village and area. at the time, the principal convinced two people to join the school committee, namely mr. sunu of wlingi village, wlingi sub-district and a businessman from sidoarjo regency. these journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 115 two people, both from outside the village, made great contributions according to the school committee. for example, for each eid adha, they contributed cows and sheep for the qurban at school. thus, each year at eid adha, the school always held the routine activity of qurban in the schoolyard with the assistance of the school committee and the class association. according to the teachers, the principal was an effective leader in implementing programs and activities. all ideas, plans, and school activities were based on the results of work meetings held at the beginning of the year, so they could be fulfilled in the academic year. the principal’s work effectiveness and leadership played an important role in transforming a substandard village school into one that was well-regarded at the national level. every idea was communicated and carried out together with all the concerned parties, and almost all school programs and activities involved the community and other third parties, although the precise parties involved could differ between one program and another. the school culture became lively and dynamic, with all teachers and stakeholders competing to come up with original ideas for developing the school into an even better one. the principal’s effectiveness in transforming the school was also recognized by the local officers and the ministry of religion in blitar regency. the public information chief of the ministry of religion for blitar regency once said that the principal of min tegalsari was the best asset possessed by the ministry in the regency. he could work in a disciplined manner and embrace and involve all people, and he also had the ability to convince others to support the school’s programs and activities. his programs and activities also did not just depend on grants from the ministry of religion—he also looked for support from third parties. besides being an effective communicator, he was also very efficient in making decisions and implementing them. his abilities allowed him to implement the school’s programs and activities effectively and efficiently. the research results are presented in a simple way in table 2. table 2. findings of the research results indicator sub-indicator hard legacy transforming into a superior school soft legacy 1. collaboration/mutual cooperation 2. transformational leadership 3. effective communication source: research of kholis et al., 2020 kholis discussion the school legacy that was much discussed in the 1990s in the us was related to instructional leadership. one study focused on the effect of leadership on the effectiveness of the learning process at school (hallinger & heck, 2010). indeed, learning is the main aspect to consider when developing a mediocre school into an excellent one. any principal should therefore focus his or her attention on effective learning policies to realize learning goals that accord with the competencies expected by the school and its stakeholders. for example, min tegalasri, blitar regency developed an adiwiyata green school, which won the national championship. based on previous research results, this achievement can be said to have been influenced by effective instructional leadership (munardji, et. al., 2020). indeed, the principal was the major factor in determining the direction of learning policy in accordance with his leadership vision. a principal with a strong vision, effective communication skills, and organizational competence will often be able to realize rapid changes (hörnqvist & leffler, 2014). indeed, the above three factors enable a principal to achieve his school’s goals, so he or she may be accurately called an effective principal. effective principals can make changes and transform their schools into better ones, both in terms of learning and school culture. however, this progress is also influenced by internal and external factors, and a school principal needs to show leadership to overcome these barriers (hallinger, 2003). some previous studies have found that a principal is the dominant factor in making changes and coordinating all school stakeholders (kholis, et. al., 2014). as a result, in order for a principal to leave a memorable legacy that serves as good practice for subsequent generations, he or she needs to have a vision and the ability to communicate it to all school stakeholders. the main hard legacy at min tegalsari is how the principal could transform a school that was disregarded by local people into a high-quality one. this change occurred through a systematic and measurable process starting with the school’s internal culture and a participatory culture that encouraged school stakeholders in the local village. the changes were not realized instantly, of course, because they had to go through a process of establishing a core team for implementing changes and communicating the efforts to all stakeholders in the surrounding community, including the parents and guardians of students and other school stakeholders. thus, the school’s management changed entirely, the school culture was modified dramatically, and a culture of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 117 community participation was established at the stages of planning, coordinating, implementing, and evaluating the school’s programs and activities. the principal leadership legacy at min tegalsari, blitar, indonesia can be grouped into two aspects, namely positive and negative legacies. a positive school legacy can usually serve as a learning model that can be continuously developed by the school from one generation to the next. this way, a school with a positive legacy can continue developing itself and its culture in ever better ways. moreover, a leader who is successful in developing a good institutional culture often has a strong character (levy, 2020). synergistic efforts are therefore needed to strengthen the characters of school leaders, and this is an urgent matter for principals. for example, the government could cooperate with educational consulting agencies or other institutions to implement programs for strengthening the leadership characteristics of principals. a principal with a strong character is willing to delegate authority to the vice principals and teachers in line with the needs of the school’s programs. this is something that contributed to the significant transformation of min tegalsari into a superior school, because distributing the authority for implementing school programs can diminish the loss that is experienced when a principal leaves and is replaced (hargreaves & fink, 2006). getting a school used to the habit of collective leadership will be beneficial in the process of regeneration, assure the permanence of the school’s legacy, and generate productive social capital. the three benefits of collective leadership contribute to ultimately improving a school’s effectiveness in terms of school management, learning, and the relationship with the surrounding community. a study conducted by nappi (2014) found that distributed school leadership authority can improve the social capital and effectiveness of a school. the attainment of a policy, program, or leadership activity will always be remembered by people as either a good or bad legacy. good leadership achievements will mean a principal is remembered as an effective leader who contributed to the institution. indeed, the principal at min tegalasri, blitar regency is remembered well by community members, the parents and guardians of students, and other school stakeholders as a leader who effectively improved the school dramatically. based on the research results, the school stakeholders recalled three main things about the principal, namely that he was a collaborative leader, an effective leader, and an excellent communicator. these three characteristics are what made him special as a leader. he succeeded in leveraging all the school’s assets to attain his goal of developing a superior school. kholis effective leadership contributes to school superiority directly and indirectly through the quality and success of learning at school (hallinger & heck, 2010). indeed, learning quality can be improved if the following conditions are met: i) the academic atmosphere develops well; ii) the facilities and infrastructure are adequate; and iii) and there is participation from all school stakeholders (hipp, 1996). this is supported by the research findings of li et al. (2016). a school’s physical and social environments can also be leveraged in the learning process, such as through laboratory sessions or learning media. such learning adopts a contextual learning model where students get direct experiences in addition to theoretical knowledge. it is also suggested that good learning combines various activities that enable interactions between students and teachers, independent activities, and interactions among students. effective principal leadership manifests in a principal with a vision for managing a school and improving learning effectiveness and efficiency (tarim, 2015). teachers are the implementers of a principal’s learning policies, however, so teachers’ involvement in developing these policies is essential. a principal therefore needs to develop a framework of collaborative leadership with his vice principals and teachers. moreover, the teachers are the leaders in their classrooms, so they should be given the discretion to pursue their own innovations in dynamic and diverse class situations. a similar principle applies to the vice principals. they should be given opportunities to plan and implement their own responsibilities. according to one study, collaborative leadership can improve the efficiency of a school’s programs (hallinger & heck, 2011). a good school atmosphere can also encourage the participation of all school stakeholders (bandur, 2012). in turn, the participation of vice principals, teachers, students and their parents or guardians, the school committee, and the local community acts as a keystone in the transformation process. a transformational leader acts as a role model, a source of inspiration, an effective manager, a strong motivator, and a solver of all the problems that an institution encounter (bandur, 2012). he or she demonstrates creativity and innovation to achieve success for the institution’s programs and activities. moreover, a transformational leader inspires every individual in an organization to work more effectively and efficiently (hurduzeu, 2015). in addition, achieving institutional goals also means improving the welfare of every individual. programs and activities that are developed and expected to be successful should be coordinated among all stakeholders and follow a schedule that has been determined through cooperation. moreover, it is important for a leader to delegate broad authority in accordance with the work scope of each element in the institution. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 119 the process of becoming a superior school will be more quickly felt by school stakeholders when it is completed within a certain leadership period. a previous study found that a school led by a professional principal could change dramatically, and this principal would be remembered as leaving a spectacular and long-lasting legacy (botha, 2004). such principals generally possess good personal capacity, a sense of trust, and values. what is more, a school is developed with a focus on improving the professional capacity of teachers (wang, et. al., 2016). hence, efforts to improve the capacity of a school’s principal, the establishment of a collaborative leadership model, and the securing of support from all school stakeholders can contribute to improving the quality of a school. support from internal and external school stakeholders will increase when they know, understand, and respond favorably to a school’s programs and activities (ajzen & fishbein, 1977), which requires a principal with effective communication skills. this present study found that the principal was an effective communicator, such that the teachers, guardians and parents of students, class associations, and the school committee were willing to support the school’s programs. they were even willing to listen to the principal’s stories every day when they collected their children. the emotional closeness between the principal and the students’ parents and guardians enhanced their trust in the school’s programs and activities, which in turn helped him to secure support for further programs and activities. effective communication from a principal correlates with creating a good school climate and achieving learning goals (halawah, 2005). indeed, at each stage of developing the dynamics of programs and activities, effective communication is needed, as well as the ability to recognize the characteristics of the school stakeholders and what may trigger them into becoming involved voluntarily (husain, 2013). each stakeholder in an organization will have his or her own expectations, goals, motivations, and characters, and being sensitive to this variety allows a principal to accommodate them in in a way that will achieve the school’s objectives. it is therefore important to involve all stakeholders in school processes, so effective communication is a musthave skill for every principal. conclusion in summary, min tegalasri has transformed into a superior school, and this has been marked by changes in the school culture in terms of more transparent and accountable school management, environment-based and enjoyable learning, and better support and participation from school kholis stakeholders. the school’s soft legacy manifests in terms of collaborative leadership, transformative leadership, and effective communication. this leadership model is the main thing that is remembered by stakeholders, because it played an important role in the school’s transformation from a mediocre school into a superior one. the principal is considered to have been an effective leader in elevating the school’s status by demonstrating his own qualities. hence, the abovementioned three factors of leadership could be regarded as a basis for improving a school’s quality. the school stakeholders and local community were viewed from religious, cultural, and economic aspects. taking account of community concerns and seeking mutual cooperation help the principal to develop a better school, and this is a good example of best practice for educational practitioners and scholars. in theory, religious and social values can act as the basis for developing a spirit of mutual cooperation in the community, and this can be leveraged to improve a school. indeed, stakeholders may contribute their ideas, time, energy, and funding. however, this present study has not fully established whether a community’s diversity is really a determinant for the development of a culture of mutual cooperation or vice versa. moreover, this research has also not determined whether the values of each religion act as a catalyst for mutual cooperation among fellow human beings. the success enjoyed by a principal in securing support from school stakeholders is also not simple to determine conceptually, because community involvement may be influenced by factors like attitudes, behaviors, and descriptive norms. this research has been very much dominated by the roles of active school stakeholders, meaning that the collected data gives a limited picture of the full diversity of the school’s users. opinions from less active parents/guardians and community members should also be solicited and considered. it would therefore be appropriate for future research to widen the variety of research subjects. there are also other suggestions for further research: first, a study could examine the motivations of the community in mutually cooperating to improve a public institution. second, a study could investigate how religious values and beliefs underlie cultures of mutual cooperation. third, future researchers could investigate religious and cultural doctrines where a community lives harmoniously in diversity, so that such practices may be adopted in other communities. fourth, a study could examine whether the qualities of an effective principal are innate or the result of education and training. a quantitative approach should also be considered to complement the shortage of existing data, so that a theory of cultural development for excellent schools in various journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 121 settings can be built. moreover, a mixed-methods research approach may provide more comprehensive data. references adebayo, f. a. (2013). stakeholders’ perception of teachers’ integrity in elementary schools in nigeria. literacy information and computer education journal, 4(4), 1123-1128. ajzen, i. & fishbein, m. (1977). attitude-behavior relations: a theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. psychological bulletin, 84(5), 888. bandur, a. (2012). school-based management developments and partnership: evidence from indonesia. international journal of educational development, 32(2), 316-328. bell jr, d. a. (1977). the legacy of web dubois: a rational model for achieving public school equity for america's black children. creighton l. rev., 11, 409. botha, r. j. (2004). excellence in leadership: demands on the professional school principal. south african journal of education, 24(3), 239-243. budiharso, t & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institute. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. doi: 10.29333/ejecs/306 cheng, y. c. (1994). principal's leadership as a critical factor for school performance: evidence from multi‐levels of primary schools. school effectiveness and school improvement, 5(3), 299-317. coleman, j. s. (1968). equality of educational opportunity. integrated education, 6(5), 19-28. coleman, j. s. (1975). equal educational opportunity: a definition. oxford review of education, 1(1), 25-29. creswell, j. w., & poth, c. n. (2018). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). sage publications. cummins, j. (2015). how to reverse a legacy of exclusion? identifying high-impact educational responses. language and education, 29(3), 272-279. fong, c., malhotra, n. a., & margalit, y. (2017). political legacies. stanford university graduate school of business research paper no. 17-57. graham-clay, s. (2005). communicating with parents: strategies for teachers. school community journal, 15(1), 117-129. kholis halawah, i. (2005). the relationship between effective communication of high school principal and school climate. education, 126(2), 335-345. hallinger, p. (2003). leading educational change: reflections on the practice of instructional and transformational leadership. cambridge journal of education, 33(3), 329-352. hallinger, p. (2010). developing instructional leadership. developing successful leadership. springer, dordrecht, 61-76. hallinger, p., & heck, r. h. (2010). leadership for learning: does collaborative leadership make a difference in school improvement? educational management administration & leadership, 38(6), 654-678. hallinger, p., & heck, r. h. (2011). collaborative leadership and school improvement: understanding the impact on school capacity and student learning. in international handbook of leadership for learning (pp. 469-485). springer. hargreaves, a., & fink, d. (2006). sustainable leadership. jossey-bass. hargreaves, d. h. (1995). school culture, school effectiveness and school improvement. school effectiveness and school improvement, 6(1), 23-46. hipp, k. a. (1996). teacher efficacy: influence of principal leadership behavior. 1-37 hörnqvist, m.-l. & leffler, e. (2014). fostering an entrepreneurial attitude – challenging in principal leadership, education + training, 56(6), 551-561. horsford, s. d. (2010). mixed feelings about mixed schools: superintendents on the complex legacy of school desegregation. educational administration quarterly, 46(3), 287-321. hurduzeu, r. e. (2015). the impact of leadership on organizational performance. sea–practical application of science, 3(7), 289-293. husain, z. (2013). effective communication brings successful organizational change. the business & management review, 3(2), 43-50. husserl, e. (2001). phenomenology and the foundations of the sciences (vol. 1, no. 3). springer science & business media. kholis, n., zamroni, z., & sumarno, s. (2014). mutu sekolah dan budaya partisipasi stakeholders. jurnal pembangunan pendidikan: fondasi dan aplikasi, 2(2). 130-142 kouzes, j. m., & posner, b. z. (2004). follower-oriented leadership. encyclopedia of leadership, j.m. burns, g.r. goethas, & g. j. sorenson (eds.), berkshire publishing, 494499 https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=maj-lis%20hörnqvist https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=eva%20leffler https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/0040-0912 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 104-124 123 lemon, a., & battersby‐lennard, j. (2009). overcoming the apartheid legacy in cape town schools. geographical review, 99(4), 517-538. levy, e. j. (2020). legacy work: three strategies of adversarial meaning-making of historical characters. american journal of cultural sociology, 1-37. li, l., hallinger, p., & ko, j. (2016). principal leadership and school capacity effects on teacher learning in hong kong. international journal of educational management, 30(1), 76-100. miles, m. b & huberman, a. m. (1994). data management and analysis methods. in n. k. denzin & y. s. lincoln (eds.), handbook of qualitative research (pp. 428–444). sage publications, inc. munardji, kholis, n., & mufidah, n. (2020). community multicultural integration pattern in environment-based learning. international journal of instruction, 13(1), 101-124. murphy, c. (1983). effective principals: knowledge, talent, spirit of inquiry. research brief: improvement support program, 1-15. mutongoza, b.h., olawale, b.e. & mzilikazi, b. (2021). chronicling school principals’ experiences on school management in the context of covid-19 stringency. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 6(3), 146-162. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.35. nappi, j. s. (2014). the teacher leader: improving schools by building social capital through shared leadership. delta kappa gamma bulletin, 80(4). 29-34. nur’aini, s. (2021). university students’ learning disruption and affordance in a contested learning environment. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 6(3), 2544. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.23 orr, a. c., & goodman, n. (2010). people like me don't go to college: the legacy of learning disability. journal of ethnographic & qualitative research, 4(4), 213-225. poliakoff, e., & webb, thomat. l. (2007). what factors predict scientists’ intentions to participate in public engagement of science activities. science communication, 29(2). purkey, s. c., & smith, m. s. (1983). effective schools: a review. the elementary school journal, 83(4), 427-452. raudenbush, s. w. (2009). the brown legacy and the o’connor challenge: transforming schools in the images of children’s potential. educational researcher, 38(3), 169-180. reece, r. l., & o’connell, h. a. (2016). how the legacy of slavery and racial composition shape public school enrollment in the american south. sociology of race and ethnicity, 2(1), 42-57. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.35 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.23 kholis saporito, s., & sohoni, d. (2006). coloring outside the lines: racial segregation in public schools and their attendance boundaries. sociology of education, 79(2), 81-105. solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 11(3), 177-197. www.jsser.org. tarim, w. i. (2015). visionary leadership in the process of change in effective schools: a multicase study in three primary schools. journal of science and research, 6(8), 129137. wang, l. h., gurr, d. and drysdale, l. (2016), successful school leadership: case studies of four singapore primary schools. journal of educational administration, 54(3). yamauchi, lois, a., & purcell, andrea k. (2009). community involvement in a place-based programme for hawaiian high school students. journal of education for students placed at risk (jespar), 14(2), 170-188. http://www.jsser.org/ https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=loke%20heng%20wang https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=david%20gurr https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=lawrie%20drysdale https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/0957-8234 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 319-333 319 strategising local regulations on women’s representation in village policymaking as a realisation of sustainable development goals: a study on semarang regency ani purwanti1, budi ispriyarso2 & dyah wijaningsih3 abstract since 2015, indonesia has been part of an international resolution called sustainable development goals (sdgs), in which gender equality is a critical objective for the betterment of human lives. accordingly, the indonesian government has started to pay attention to women’s political representation, and it has stipulated policies and regulations regarding women’s political participation at every policymaking level. starting from the state context, the issue of women’s representation has recently been expanded to village policymaking through the stipulation of the village act (law no. 6/2014). given the escalating trend of decentralisation and democratisation of villages, local governments have also implemented initiatives regarding women’s political participation, which have inspired the present article. this article explores the extent to which local regulation corresponds to the implementation of the village act concerning women representatives in the village representative council (vrc). to investigate this, the research is conducted in semarang regency, where the local government has promulgated two policies in this regard. the research method used in this article is the sociolegal approach, whereby a statute or regulation is analysed through empirical facts, whether quantitative, qualitative or both. as a conclusion, we find that the mechanism of women’s representation as stipulated by the semarang regency government is more focussed on quality than quantity, thereby stressing the role of women representatives and women constituent groups, not only in the context of policymaking in the vrc but also in village politics at large. key words: policymaking, women’s representation, sustainable development goals, gender equality, semarang regency introduction the sustainable development goals (sdgs) are a set of global goals set in 2015 through resolution 70/1 of the united nations general assembly; the signing state parties are obliged to commit to achieving such goals by 2030 at the latest. sdgs encompass five basic principles of development, as follows: people, the planet, prosperity, peace and partnership. these basic principles are interdependent and inseparable for a harmonious progression between human and 1 lecturer, faculty of law diponegoro university, indonesia, ani_purwanti81@yahoo.com 2 lecturer, faculty of law, diponegoro university, indonesia, budiispriyarso@ymail.com 3 lecturer, faculty of law diponegoro university, indonesia, dyah.wijaningsih@gmail.com mailto:ani_purwanti81@yahoo.com mailto:budiispriyarso@ymail.com mailto:dyah.wijaningsih@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 319-333 nature to reach a more sustainable life in the future. as an international resolution, the signed state parties have declared their commitments to alleviating poverty, hunger, illiteracy, injustice, inequality, and gender-based discrimination. as one of the signers, the indonesian government has supported the resolution by stipulating presidential decree no. 59/2017 on sdgs. as further response, the indonesian government under joko widodo’s presidency has also initiated national development strategy called nawacita. this strategy puts forward the agenda of democratization, development equality and good governance through goals such as; restoration of public trust towards the integrity of democratic institutions, strengthening the developments on underdeveloped regions and villages, and eradicating corruption (seregig, et al., 2018). this resolution has clearly had positive effects in indonesia, as its human development index (hdi) is reported to have increased steadily since the inception of sdgs (united nations development programme [undp], 2016). notwithstanding the increase of indonesia’s hdi, the progression seems to be unevenly enjoyed among different groups of people. apparently, the rates of genderbased discrimination and inequality are still significant (undp, 2016). the indonesian government is still committed on tackling this gender-based inequality and discrimination. this is evident in that the government has promulgated policies and regulations seeking to promote gender equality and alleviate gender-based discrimination. one of these is affirmative action on women’s political participation. this policy is intended to generate an opportunity for women to be elected as representatives in legislative institutions at all administrative levels, from the highest entity – the state – to the lowest tier of government – the village. regarding the latter, a provision for women’s political participation is stipulated through the village act (law no. 6/2014 on villages) and its derivative regulations, government regulation no. 43/2014 and ministerial regulation of home affairs no. 110/2014, which mandate a substantive representation of women on the village representative council (vrc), a village legislative institution. in addition, several local governments have engaged in initiatives to provide a policy in that regard. one of these is the semarang regency government, which has enacted two policies regarding women’s political participation in the vrc, namely regency regulation no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018, which represent the focus of this article. purwanti et al. literature review gender equality and sustainable development gender equality is one of the critical indicators of sustainable development. several studies have asserted the importance of gender equality as both a human rights issue and a precondition for sustainable development. however, it is often, if not always, the case that efforts to elevate the status of women in society to be equal to men are hindered by the patriarchy prevailing in the social and legal system. the reports from the undp show that gender equality is also a critical factor of good governance, whereby reserving opportunities for women to be involved in policymaking can support the empowerment of society at large, and especially women (undp indonesia, 2016; 2017; un women, 2016). this creates a potential to build a better social system in which human rights and gender equality become fundamental social norms that are institutionalised into social behaviours. the sdgs include gender equality as one of the core goals. sustainable development depends on an equitable distribution of resources, and it cannot be achieved without gender equality. otherwise, the effects of unsustainable development will intensify the gender inequality, where the disproportionate capacity of citizens to realise their rights as women and men will be situated and perceived differently due to economic, social, and environmental shocks and stresses (gupta & vegelin, 2016). women’s political representation is one of the ways of achieving gender equality and combatting gender-based discrimination. the quota system is the most common approach in policy for securing women’s representation in institutions and policymaking (choi, 2018; kagema,2018; karakus, 2018; bjarnegård & zetterberg, 2014; clayton, 2015; dahlerup, 2005, 2007; krook, 2008; purwanti, 2015; schwindt-bayer, 2009; siregar, 2005). the quota system basically allots opportunities exclusively to a certain group – that is, women – as a means of ensuring inclusivity so that their opinions and interests can be heard or included in a deliberative process. however, several previous studies have suggested that the quota system alone cannot ensure that women’s interests – let alone women’s rights – will be considered in the deliberations that occur (bird, saalfeld, & wüst, 2010; bjarnegård & zetterberg, 2014; celis, 2013; clayton, 2015; maggio, 2007; pande, 2003). strategising a policy supporting gender equality in politics through a quota system is not enough, as the problem lies in its foundation, concerning whether representation must be presented tangibly or substantively (mansbridge, 1999; sanbonmatsu, 2003; wängnerud, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 319-333 2010). the representativeness of political representation can only be secured if deliberative democracy is upheld, maintaining disagreement and consensus, checks and balances of claims, inclusivity and equal respect through streamlined communication between the representatives and the represented (celis, childs, kantola, & krook, 2008; darcy, welch, & clark, 1994; karpowitz & mansbridge, 2005; wängnerud, 2010). women’s political representation in sustainable development goals (sdgs) point 5 of the sdgs is ‘achiev[ing] gender equality and empower[ing] all women and girls’. this goal point, along with the other 16 represents the three core elements that need to be harmonised to achieve sustainable development, which are economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection. considering the three core elements, the goal of achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment is expanded into nine targets, one of which is ‘ensur[ing] women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of policy-making in political, economic, and public life’. furthermore, this target has indicators of achievement, which are as follows: 1) the increasing proportion of seats held by women compared to men in national parliaments and local governments, and 2) the increasing proportion of women compared to men in managerial positions. the signed state parties are expected to create and implement strategic policies, supported by integrated national funding and financing frameworks, to achieve the sdgs. furthermore, there are three policy criteria that ought to be applied for advancing women’s political representation, which are as follows: 1) gender-sensitive rules and procedures in parliament, 2) equal participation and empowerment of women as elected representatives and 3) legal frameworks for promoting gender equality in society. the first criterion is the principle pillar of a gender-friendly and nondiscriminatory political environment that can substantiate a substantive representation in practice by validating the views, perspectives and priorities on gender equality. it is expected to create a gender-sensitive parliament able to respond to the interests of both men and women in its policymaking and remove the barriers to women’s participation, thereby offering a positive example to society at large. the actions that can be taken to create a gender-sensitive parliament are as follows: 1) establishing a gender equality committee, 2) establishing a multi-portfolio committee, 3) creating a women’s caucus or council and 4) establishing internal party networks that are not necessarily referred to in the political party, as these will be supportive, capacitybuilding groups for women representatives. the second criterion refers to increasing the proportion purwanti et al. of women representatives and their capacity. in this criterion, actions that are often taken include temporary special measures or affirmative action. a common form of affirmative action that is widely implemented is the quota system, which mandates a number of reserved positions or seats that are exclusively for women and make up a designated minimum amount, commonly about 25– 50% of the total parliamentarians. finally, the third criterion refers to the drafting and enactment of laws regarding gender equality in society, the promotion of which is often conducted by women representatives with interest in issues related to gender-based discrimination and violence. research method sociolegal research is the method employed in this article due to the need to determine the implications of law or regulation for the empirical context of social life (banakar & travers, 2005). this article focusses on the implementation of two local regulations of semarang regency, namely regency government regulation no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018. these are analysed in comparison with empirical data concerning the laws’ on-site implementation. primarily quantitative (statistical) data are presented as the empirical results. results, discussion, and conclusion women’s political participation in indonesian village law since the early 2000s, the indonesian government has been embracing the global action toward democratisation as initiated through the millennium development goals and their successors, the sdgs. regarding action concerning point 5 of the sdgs, which relates to gender equality, the indonesian government has taken an initial action by establishing affirmative action for women’s political participation in legislative elections (purwanti, 2015; siregar, 2005). the current active affirmative action provision is stipulated in the political party act (law no. 2/2011) and legislative election act (law no. 7/2017). the provisions regulate a form of legislative quota whereby a political party is mandated to include women up to 30% minimum of the total of party membership and its electoral candidates. given the increasing number of women representatives in legislative bodies – which only mandated by the affirmative action (the political party act and legislative election act at the state, provincial and municipal levels – the issue of expanding women’s participation to other fields of policymaking, such as the village level, is also attracting journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 319-333 more attention. this has resulted in the inclusion of affirmative action provisions in the stipulation of the village act (law no. 6/2014). the momentum of the village act’s promulgation corresponds to the issues of expanded democratisation, decentralisation and distribution of wealth through to the lowest tier of staterecognised community, which is the village and customary village (antlöv, wetterberg, & dharmawan, 2016; salim, bulan, untung, laksono, & brock, 2017; vel & bedner, 2015; veljac, 2016). the stipulations of the village act have essentially democratised the village governance system, in which the separation of powers is maintained through the presence of an executive – a village government led by a village leader – and a legislative institution, namely the village representative council (vrc). like in a typical democratic government, the policymaking procedures on policy and regulations involve cooperation between the executive and legislative branches. the village leader and members of the vrc are elected differently: where the former is elected through a ballot election, the latter is either selected through ballot election or the deliberation of community constituents. moreover, the village act stipulates that the vrc must consists of an odd number of members in the range of five to nine people. regarding the member formation of the vrc, the provision of affirmative action is implemented through the village act. given the progressive policy advocacy of the bigger context of democratisation, the proposal of including women’s participation in village governance has also received substantial support. eventually, this proposal was stipulated in the village act and its derivative regulations (government regulation no. 43/2014 and ministerial regulation of home affairs no. 110/2014), in which the stipulation of vrc – the ‘parliament’ of the village – includes one-woman representative as a minimum. it must be noted that the reserved seat is only provided for women representatives who have been elected by women constituents, female villagers that have been registered as voters. this indicates an intentional interpretation from the lawmakers which supposed a women representative as a direct representation of the voices, opinions, and objectives of women villagers for the betterment of their lives. however, although there is only one reserved seat for women representative, the village act does not exactly constrict women’s participation to one person per se. article 58 paragraph (1) of the village act stipulates further about this as “the number of members of the village representative council shall be set in odd amount, at 5 (five) and at most 9 (nine), with considerations of the territory, women, population, and the financial capacity of the village.” women candidates can also be elected by other types of constituent than purwanti et al. women constituents. therefore, the affirmative action within the village act’s electoral design is not based on descriptive representative whereby the representativeness is based on the shared similarities between the representative and the represented. but instead, the design is principally based on substantive representative whereby the representative is ought and bound to advocate the voices and agenda of the people they represented (see further in celis et al., 2008; jr. & pitkin, 1969; mackay, 2008; sanbonmatsu, 2003; tenenbaum & griffiths, 2001; urbinati & warren, 2008; wängnerud, 2010) furthermore, the vrc has the same type of rights and obligations as the usual parliament of state, such as the following: 1) the right to supervise, 2) the right to speak and state opinions and 3) the right to budget. moreover, the vrc members also acquire individual rights as representatives, such as the following: 1. the right to propose a village legislation; 2. the right to question; 3. the right to speak and state opinions; 4. the right to elect and be elected; 5. the right to gain remunerations from the village budget; and 6. additional privileges, such as the following: a) access to capacity-building facilities, such as education, workshops, policy briefs, technical mentoring, and onsite visitation, and b) prestigious recognition from the regional government (province or municipality) for outstanding achievements. furthermore, the vrc members also hold obligations as stipulated by the regulations, such as the following: 1. holding and practicing the values of pancasila, the 1945 constitution, and maintaining social harmony; 2. embodying democratic principles that promote gender equality and gender-based justice on practicing governance; 3. prioritising social interests above those of the self or group; 4. respecting the existing sociocultural values, customs and traditions of the village; 5. maintaining the ethics and norms in cooperation with other village governmental institutions or village institutions; and journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 319-333 6. safeguarding and conveying people’s interests in accordance with the performance of good governance. the policymaking procedures in the villages not only focus on the deliberation of the executive and legislative, but they also include community constituents in the deliberation. the site of such debate is called as the village deliberative forum, which has the following functions; 1) allowing the government to consult the society – through the constituent representatives – on policy and regulations, and 2) allowing the government to report its conduct and actions taken during the administration period. hence, the village deliberative forum is a type of general assembly in which the village government, vrc and representatives of community constituents can meet and deliberate on village affairs. the forum also manifests the right of the vrc to question the village government regarding governmental affairs. regarding women’s participation, women’s constituents can also be involved in the forum, as mandated by the village act. therefore, there is a dual way for women to participate in village policymaking, either internally as members of the vrc or externally through the village deliberative forum. the political system of village policymaking and administrative bureaucracy as stipulated in the village act shows characteristics that fit the custom and tradition of village as a tight-knit community. the deliberation process in policymaking is designed to be as accommodative as possible, where the communications between the representatives and the constituents – villagers and interest groups – are responsive and sensitive to the villagers’ needs (antlöv, 2003; antlöv & wetterberg, 2011; antlöv et al., 2016; salim et al., 2017). given the democratic purpose of the village act, the political system’s design is intended not only for community-driven development but also for the advancement of underprivileged, marginalised groups, such as women (bebbington, dharmawan, fahmi, & guggenheim, 2004; salim et al., 2017). women’s political participation in semarang regency semarang regency is a district located in central java province, indonesia, and its area covers about 950.21 km2. it consists of 19 sub-districts and 235 lower administrations (208 villages and 27 kelurahan)4. its population was statistically reported as 1 014 198 citizens in the latest census, which took place in 2017. in terms of gender, the population of semarang regency is reported to 4 kelurahan is an equivalent administration of the village; thus, it is the lowest tier government available. kelurahan does not have the same independency as the village, as it is heavily bureaucratised, authorised and supervised directly by the municipality/regency government. purwanti et al. comprise 515 874 female citizens and 498 324 male citizens. regarding the vrcs in semarang regency, every village is reported to have a vrc; thus, there are 208 councils in total. the village deliberative forum is also often held as needed for various occasions, such as when the vrc wants to question the village government regarding governmental affairs, or sometimes as an annual report event by the village government. since the inception of the village act in 2014, the government of semarang regency has supported it with great enthusiasm. soon, the semarang regency government adopted corresponding regulations for the implementation of the village act. especially, the government of semarang regency has established local regulations corresponding to the vrc through the regent government regulation of semarang no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018. both are local regulations that are intended to specify the implementation of the vrc – the council, election, socialisation of the election, campaigns, voting system, tools, and so on – via specific procedures. the local regulations specify electoral procedures of the vrc members concerning representation of two groups – women and the territory population. regarding women’s representation, the local regulations stipulate the mechanism of election of women representatives as follows: 1. it is intended that women’s representation on the vrc will be secured by electing one female candidate as a representative; 2. the female representative will be a female villager who has fulfilled the requirements of applying for candidacy, by which she shall be proven to have experiences and expertise on voicing and advocating for women’s interests; and 3. the election of said female representative shall be done by female villagers who have a right to vote, in that they have been registered with the local electoral commission. according to the regent government regulation of semarang no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018, the election of woman representatives in vrc only includes female villagers – who have the right to vote and are authorised through citizen recognition – to ensure the representation of women not only in a physical sense, but also in interest alignment between the prospective representatives and the constituents. the election procedure starts from the selection of prospective female candidates. the two regulations stipulate that, under territorial consideration, there can only be one female prospective candidate to be delegated as the female candidate of that territory’s journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 319-333 constituents. the delegation is determined by deliberative consensus of women’s constituents of the community group (rukun warga)5 and neighbourhood group (rukun tetangga)6. the forum of this deliberation consists of two members of the family welfare programme7, one representing the community group and the other representing the neighbourhood group, and two women’s interest figures. subsequently, the selected prospective candidate officially becomes the women’s representation candidate from that territorial constituency. the next and final step is the villagelevel election, where one female candidate is selected as the women’s representative of the village representative forum. there are two mechanisms of election available, namely a consensus forum and a direct voting system. in either of these, the election of women representatives will be undertaken by village-level women’s constituents, including one member of the village branch of the family welfare programme, one member of the community group branch of the family welfare programme and two women’s interest figures. in their implementation, the local regulations of semarang regency (regent government regulation of semarang no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018) have proven to be effective for strategising policies to ensure women’s representation in the vrcs. this is shown by statistical data. there were 1574 members throughout all the vrcs in semarang regency in 2018. however, the tenure periods of these members were not homogenous, as 1119 members were new representatives, with a tenure period of 2017–2023, and 455 were from the old tenure period of 2014–2020. the gender balance of the vrc members is illustrated in the following figures 1.1 and 1.2. 5 a community group is a social unit where the population and territory constitute the administrative territory of a village or kelurahan. the community group usually consists of around 3–10 neighbourhood groups. 6 the neighbourhood group is the smallest social unit, consisting of around 10–50 families in a designated area. 7 the family welfare programme – or pembinaan kesejahteraan keluarga abbreviated as pkk in indonesian – is a community-based organisation that targets the empowerment of women – commonly housewives – and their families. this organisation is a staple of civil society organisations in most villages and other modern settlements in indonesia. 82.59% 17.41% gender discrepancy in semarang regency's village representative council (vrc), as of 2018 male female purwanti et al. figure 1.1 (top) and figure 1.2 (bottom). source: village empowerment agency, semarang regency government, 2018 as displayed in the figures, there is indeed a discrepancy in terms of gender representation in the vrc of semarang regency. women representatives only comprise 17.41% of the total representatives. however, there is a unique finding concerning the tenure discrepancy. as mentioned above, the composition of membership in the vrcs in semarang regency is mixed, with old and new tenure representatives. from the empirical research, it is reported that 30 villages out of 208 have old tenure representatives, all of which have no women’s representation whatsoever. it must be noted that the old tenure was authorised in 2014, before the promulgation of the regent government regulation of semarang no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018, at a time when the village act was not widely known or implemented. furthermore, the gender discrepancy of old tenure representatives is much greater than that of new representatives: the former ratio is 10.375 to 1, while the latter is 3.78 to 1. regardless, from the interview with the head of the village empowerment agency of the semarang regency government, the government intends to include women’s representation more than in the old tenure councils, in which women’s representation was non-existent. the results of this research present preliminary data on the progression toward gender equality in politics through the context of the semarang regency. they indicate that the promulgation of local regulations (regent government regulation of semarang no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018) in response to the village act have contributed to the proliferation of women representatives in semarang regency’s villages. moreover, the local regulations provide a more 415 40 885 234 0 200 400 600 800 1000 male female discrepancy between old and new tenured active representatives, as of 2018 old new journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 319-333 substantial improvement to the principles of representation via not only descriptive representation through physical resemblances – women representing women – but also a substantive representation in which the representative also embodies the intentions and interests of the constituents she is representing. this is shown through the direct participation of constituents to the election and policymaking process. the local regulations of the regent government regulation of semarang no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018 show an exhaustive mechanism of accountability checking for representatives in which deliberation and consensus are the core principles. this is unsurprising, however, as deliberation and consensus are the living customs in indonesian villages’ social systems (antlöv & wetterberg, 2011; cohen, 1996). after all, the deliberative concept of representation works well in a tight-knit, custom-based community like a village (cohen, 1996; karpowitz & mansbridge, 2005; mansbridge, 2018). through such mechanisms, the communication between the representatives and represented is kept streamlined and as fluid as possible; thus, the political and interest alignment between the representatives and the represented can be kept linear. this indicates that the mechanism for improving women’s participation has been designed to be gender sensitive, both for female representatives and women constituents, so that the objectives of gender equality development can be realised concomitantly with the village’s development at large. conclusion in response to the trend of decentralisation and democratisation of local government, as mandated by the village act and sdgs, the issue of gender equality and women’s political participation has also expanded to the village context. the government of semarang regency has responded to this by establishing the regent government regulation of semarang no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018, two regulations in which women’s political participation is established and ensured in the village decision-making process. the statistical data have shown a substantial improvement in women’s representation in vrcs, as all newly tenured vrcs have at least one female representative. assessing the situation from the perspective of the mechanisms and purposes stipulated by the regent government regulation of semarang no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018, it can be concluded that these two regulations provide an exhaustive mechanism for ensuring women’s political representation in both the quantitative and qualitative senses. the two regulations have adopted the living customary tradition of deliberative social politics and modern democracy governance, which affects the guarantee of accountability and representativeness of purwanti et al. women representatives when it comes to putting women’s interests forward in policymaking. therefore, the women’s political representation provisions in the regent government regulation of semarang no. 4/2018 and regent decree no. 21/2018 indicate a purposive establishment of a political system that is inclusive and sensitive to women’s issues, which are important for the development of gender equality and gender justice in the social life of women in the village. references antlöv, h. (2003). village government and rural development in indonesia: the new demcratic framework. bulletin of indonesian economic studies, 39(2), 193-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074910302013 antlöv, h., & wetterberg, a. (2011). citizen engagement, deliberative spaces and the consolidation of a post-authoritarian democracy: the case of indonesia (working paper of swedish international centre for local democracy no. 8). visby: swedish international centre for local democracy antlöv, h., wetterberg, a., & dharmawan, l. (2017). village governance, community life and the 2014 village law in indonesia. bulletion of indonesian economic studies, 52(2), 161-183. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2015.1129047 banakar, r., & travers, m. (2005). theory and method in socio-legal research. oxford: hart publishing & oñati international series in law and society. bebbingtion, a., dharmawan, l., fahmi, e., & guggenheim, s., (2004). village politics, culture, and community-driven development: insights from indonesia. progress in development studies, 4(3), 187-205. doi: 10.1191/1464993404ps085oa bird, k., saalfeld, t., & wüst, a. m. (2010). the political representation of immigrants and minorities: voters, parties and parliaments in liberal democracies. london and new york: routledge bjarnegård, e., & zetterberg, p. (2014). why are representational guarantees adopted for women and minorities? comparing constituency formation and electoral quota design within countries. representation, 50(3), 307–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2014.951171 celis, k. (2013). representativity in times of diversity: the political representation of women. women’s studies international forum, 41, 179-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2013.07.007 celis, k., childs, s., knatola, j., & krook, m. l. (2008). rethinking women’s substantive representation. representation, 44(2), 99-110. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890802079573 choi, n. (2018). women’s political pathways in southeast asia. international feminist journal of politics, 0(0), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616742.2018.1523683 clayton, a. (2015). women’s political engagement under quota-mandated female representation: evidence from a randomized policy experiment, comparative political studies, 48(3), 333-369. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890802079573 cohen, j. (1997). procedure and substance in deliberative democracy. in j. bohman & w. rehg (eds.), deliberative democracy: essays on reason and politics (pp. 407-437), massachussets: mit press https://doi.org/10.1080/00074910302013 https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2015.1129047 https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2014.951171 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2013.07.007 https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890802079573 https://doi.org/10.1080/14616742.2018.1523683 https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890802079573 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 319-333 dahlerup, d (ed.). (2005). women, quotas and politics. london: routledge _______. (2007). electoral gender quotas: between equality of opportunity and equality of result. representation, 43(2), 73-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890701363227 darcy, r., clark, j. & welch, s. (1994). women, elections & representation (revised edition). nebraska: university of nebraska pressgupta, j. & vegelin, c. (2016). sustainable development goals and inclusive development. international environment agreements: politics, law and economics, 16(3), 433-488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-016-9323-z kagema, j. (2018). the school curriculum and its influence on teacher motivation in curriculum implementation in kenya. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 9-25. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/3 karakus, m. (2018). the moderating effect of gender on the relationships between age, ethical leadership, and organizational commitment. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 74-84. karpowitz, c. f. & mansbridge, j. (2005). disagreement and consensus: the need for dynamic updating in public deliberation. journal of public deliberation, 1(1), 348-364 krook, m. l. (2008). quota laws for women in politics: implications for feminist practice. social politics, 15(3), 345-368, https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxn014 johnsson-latham, g. (2007). a study on gender equality as a prerequisite for sustainable development (report to the environment advisory council, sweden 2007:2). sweden: ministry of the environment mackay, f. (2008). ‘think’ conceptions of substantive representation: women, gender, and political institutions. journal of representative democracy, 44(2), 125-139. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890802079607 maggio, j. (2007). “can subaltern be heard?”: political theory, translation, representation, and gayatri chakravorty spivak. alternatives: global, local, political, 32(4), 419-443. https://doi.org/10.1177/030437540703200403 mansbridge, j. (1999). should blacks represent blacks and women represent women? a contingent “yes.” the journal of politics, 61(3). https://doi.org/10.2307/2647821 _______, (2003). rethinking representation. american political science review, 97(4). 515-528 pande, r. (2003). can mandated political representation increase policy influence for disadvantaged minorities? theory and evidence from india. american economic review, 93(4), 1132-1151, https://doi.org/10.1257/000282803769206232 pitkin, h. f. (1969). the concept of representation. political science quarterly, 84(4), 678-680. doi: 10.2307/2147153 purwanti, a. (2015). quota law’s for women in politics: implementation in indonesia. south east asia journal of contemporary business, economics, and law, 6(4), 28-36 salim, a., bulan, w. r., untung, b., laksono, i. & brock, k. (2017). indonesia’s village law: enabler or constraint for more accountable governance? (making all voices count research report), brighton: institute of development studies sanbonmatsu, k. (2003). gender-related political knowledge and the descriptive representation of women, political behavior, 25(4), 367-388. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:pobe.0000004063.83917.2d schwindt-bayer, l. (2009). making quotas work: the effect of gender quota laws on the election of women. legislative studies quarterly, 34(1). 5-28. https://doi.org/10.3162/036298009787500330 seregig, i. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., rivai, e. & prasetyawati, e. (2018). preventing the acts https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890701363227 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-016-9323-z http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/3 https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxn014 https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890802079607 https://doi.org/10.1177/030437540703200403 https://doi.org/10.2307/2647821 https://doi.org/10.1257/000282803769206232 https://doi.org/10.1023/b:pobe.0000004063.83917.2d https://doi.org/10.3162/036298009787500330 purwanti et al. of corruption through legal community education. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 138-159 siregar, w. z. b. (2005). parliamentary representation of women in indonesia: the struggle for a quota. asian journal of women’s studies, 11(3), 36-72. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2005.11665993 united nations. (2014). the world survey on the role of women in development (report of the secretary-general), new york: author. retrieved from http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2014/10/world-survey-2014 un women. (2016). women and sustainable development goals. new york: author. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb010586 united nations development programme indonesia. (2016). human development report 2016. indonesia: author _______, (2017). change makers: programming for gender equality and helping men and women in indonesia shape a fairer world (undp indonesia gender equality strategy and action plan 2017-2020). washington d. c.: author. retrived from http://www.id.undp.org/content/dam/indonesia/2017/doc/insgender%20strategy%20revised%203%20(spread).pdf urbinati, n. & warren, m. e. (2008). the concept of representation in contemporary democratic theory. annual review of political science, 11, 387-412. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.053006.190533 vel, j. a. c., zakaria, y. & bedner a. w. (2017). law-making as a strategy for change: indonesia’s new village law, asian journal of law and society, 1-25, doi:10.1017/als.2017.21 vel, j. a. c., w. berenschot and r. daro minarchek. (2016). new law, new villages? changing rural indonesia (report of the workshop), leiden: koninklijk instituut voor taal-, land en volkenkunde (kitlv). retrieved from: http://www.kitlv.nl/workshop-new-law-newvillages-changing-rural-indonesia/ vel, j. a. c. & bedner, a. w. (2015). decentralisation and village governance in indonesia: the return of the nagari and the 2014 village law. journal of legal pluralism and unofficial law, 47(3), 493-507. https://doi.org/10.1080/07329113.2015.1109379 wängnerud, l. (2010). women in parliaments: descriptive and substantive representation, 12, 51-69. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.053106.123839 world bank. (2016). the 2030 agenda for sustainable development : goals , targets and indicators, new york: author. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2005.11665993 http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2014/10/world-survey-2014 https://doi.org/10.1108/eb010586 http://www.id.undp.org/content/dam/indonesia/2017/doc/ins-gender%20strategy%20revised%203%20(spread).pdf http://www.id.undp.org/content/dam/indonesia/2017/doc/ins-gender%20strategy%20revised%203%20(spread).pdf https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.053006.190533 http://www.kitlv.nl/workshop-new-law-new-villages-changing-rural-indonesia/ http://www.kitlv.nl/workshop-new-law-new-villages-changing-rural-indonesia/ https://doi.org/10.1080/07329113.2015.1109379 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.053106.123839 https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 5 feb 2022 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 237-258 lessons learned from child protection rights in religion paradigm and national law siti nurjanah1, dri santoso2, husnul fatarib3, mat jalil4, elfa murdiana5 abstract this study aims to provide learning about child protection as one of the most important human rights in the world paradigm of islam and national law in indonesia. the research method using legal studies refers to religious provisions and statutory regulations. the focus of this research is on obtaining protection from human rights violations and the right to 12-year compulsory education. the findings reveal two main topics. first, the islamic religious paradigm views child protection as a child's human right who has a noble position, god's mandate for parents, and a form of piety to god. second, national law makes children's human rights in care for life, education, and the responsibility of both parents based on court decisions. the conclusion is that child protection in the paradigm of religion and national law is a form of responsibility, has educational rules, and legal provisions that are inextricably linkedto the elements of human rights. the expected implication is that the government includes values about child protection in the national education curriculum to provide lessons about the importance of children's human rights to create a better future generation. keywords: lessons learned, islamic law, child protection rights, nasional law introduction every child has fair opportunities and parents have several obligations that they must perform, society, and the state. for decades, professional research has explored various cases of violations of child protection such as cases of violence, neglect, exploitation, and child abuse. it's critical to look into the role of kid protection as a human right in a comprehensive system in the future. unicef noted the high number of cases of child protection in the world, especially in poor and developing countries (clark et al., 2020). a child protection system needs to produce reliable evidence to support information in advocacy, reforming laws, and updating policies according to international standards (bouma et al., 2018; lópez et al., 2019); professional expert development (aletheiani, 2022; whitaker & croft, 2020) and a national movement through simulated training to train welfare workers and public financial management performance budget screening for 1rector of institut agama islam negeri (iain) metro, email: sitinurjanahmetrouniv@gmail.com 2lecturer of institut agama islam negeri (iain) metro, email:dri.santoso@metrouniv.ac.id 3lecturer of institut agama islam negeri (iain) metro, email:husnulfatarib@metrouniv.ac.id 4lecturer ofinstitut agama islam negeri (iain) metro, email:matjalil@metrouniv.ac.id 5lecturer of institut agama islam negeri (iain) metro, email:elfa.murdiana@metrouniv.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 238 children (chiu, et. al., 2022). in a child protection system, parents need to supervise, overcome children's resistance, and children's discomfort in their environment (schoch et al., 2020; tilbury & ramsay, 2018). researchers found that parents of children with special needs were less likely to have cases of infringement than those without intellectual disabilities (slayter & jensen, 2019). this is of particular interest to future research focusing on child protection. the literature finds that parents have an important influence in shaping interventions for children. the reason is that the experience of parents seeing workers using power is the main influence in shaping parents' views (dumbrill, 2006). in indonesia, children account for one-third of the population or 85 million people. the great potential becomes an economic opportunity for children who are quite good in the future. despite having strong child protection policies and laws and the situation of children has improved over the last few years, gaps still exist (wismayanti et al., 2021). more than 50 percent of the population lives in urban areas, this trend is increasing every year. unicef revealed that extreme poverty rates are very high at 14.5 percent and moderate poverty at 48.7 percent. every year, climate change affects hundreds of thousands of children, malnutrition, natural disasters, and other disasters. disparities occur because of the large size of the country and the variety of social groups. children also experience various trends in cases of children's rights breaches in the modern period of the covid 19 pandemic. the most recorded complaints include family clusters and 1,622 cases of caregiving; education clusters, learning from home situations related to school policy complaints reached 1,463 cases; 651 cases of pornography and cyber clusters. this number is the highest in 10 years. the challenges of child protection are exacerbated by geography, bullying, and humiliation in schools, teachers often use physical and emotional punishment to discipline children because of their lack of knowledge and skills in dealing with the problems they are experiencing (unicef, 2017). future research must provide lessons on child protection human rights in the religious paradigm and national law as a way to overcome the challenges faced by children in indonesia. this is based on previous research that discusses the country's efforts to build a child protection system that requires an original indonesian paradigm (o’leary et al., 2019). because the majority of indonesian children are muslim and live in a strong muslim community, the religious paradigm of child protection through the study of islamic law is based on this fact.the study reveals that the paradigms of national law and religious law have an interrelated relationship in providing nurjanah et al. important lessons that have an impact on human activities to achieve prosperity in the future(abidin et al., 2020). cheruvallil-contractor et al. (2021) revealed that islam has special teachings connected to the safety of children, such as care, inheritance rights, and child guardianship rights. so far, most of the islamic teachings on child protection have overlapped with the western paradigm of understanding so there are several contested positions. research also reveals the importance of learning about religious protection and religious education for muslim children so that they have a strong religious foundation. therefore, child protection in the religious paradigm requires the concrete, clear, and true nature of islamic teachings in building evidencebased practice in the muslim community. the legal paradigm in indonesia is based on the pancasila ideology which developed in positivism legal theory (ma’rifah & fajri, 2022; seregig et al., 2018; situmorang et al., 2021). previous research has revealed that the covid-19 pandemic has increased the risk factors for children's vulnerability to violations of children's rights. this indicates that there are weaknesses in regulations regarding child protection, especially for children who have been abused and neglected(brown et al., 2021). law in indonesia currently refers to international conventions without regard to the existence of islamic law and customary law. the issue of when the legal values contained in shari'ah, fiqh,and siyasa shari'ah are enforced in indonesia has not been revealed and answered with certainty. the indonesian legal system still refers to or adheres to the continental european legal system which adheres to the flow of legalism, which views the law as a certainty and is written in the form of legislation or government regulation, although in law no. 14 of 1970 provides an opportunity for islamic and customary law systems to be enforced. even though it has been explained in social justice theory that socio-philosophically it is necessary to adhere to the principle of fair equality of rights (irawan et al., 2021). recent demographic changes over the past few years have investigated various legitimate models in the child protection system as regulated by international conventions and national laws. the implication is that to improve child protection performance both through government and nongovernment child protection agencies (palacios et al., 2019). however, on the other hand, the complexity strategy and efforts to conceptualize child protection services as a complex and adaptive system have risks. the identified risks are a combination of over-promoting culture; a people-centered attitude to child death investigations; culture is to blame, and a poor performance management system (munro, 2010). the novelty of the research reveals important lessons about journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 240 child protection under religious law and national law which have been extensively investigated. the researcher uses secondary data that refers to the importance of contemporary islamic religious law practices regarding child protection and laws and regulations that are relevant to the research. this study is an important part ofthe consideration in learning for the muslim community and evaluating the quality and effectiveness of government regulations on the rights of indonesian children. research question the focus of the research, according to the findings of the literature assessment, is on the contribution of islamic law and legislation in indonesia. laws explaining child protection, such as law number 35 of 2014 addressing child protection and the majority of indonesian residents who are muslim, are very important to debate. in this study, here's how the issue is stated; 1. what is the lesson learned from child protection in the islamic paradigm? 2. what are the lessons learned from child protection rights in national law in indonesia? literature review learning about human rights human rights are a form of protection of human status that there are rights (entitlements) that are inherent to every human being, which provides moral guarantees and enjoys freedom from all forms of treatment that cause humans to not have the right to live with dignity and worth (griffin, 2008). the idea that human dignity is capable of providing the basis for universal human rights protects it from attacks by any other human power (panikkar & panikkar, 1982). human rights have been owned by humans since their birth or presence in society (sen, 2005). according to landman & carvalho (2009), learning about human rights must be measured based on a comprehensive methodological framework that includes methods, strengths, and biases. the literature explains that in studying human rights, it's important to emphasize the evaluation of the moral value of human actions to minimize violations against them. if human rights are not guarded, protected, respected, even to the point of being revoked or ignored by certain people/groups, it means that human rights violations have occurred (mccamant, 2019). two types of human rights violations, namely; 1) ordinary human rights violations, namely cases of minor human rights violations that do not threaten the safety of others, for example, intentional environmental pollution nurjanah et al. and the use of hazardous materials for public consumption 2) serious human rights violations that threaten human life such as murder, robbery, and slavery (aydin & avincan, 2020). child protection child protection is defined as an effort to guarantee and protect children's rights that are in accordance with human dignity and are properly regulated by law (bechett, 2007). the literature reveals that there are five forms of child protection. first, protecting children from ignorance by providing them with good and proper teaching and education as citizens. education is the best form of protection for them to get a good future, which is given in the form of formal education and informal education. children are given the right to choose their form of education and career (ajaps & obiagu, 2020; zvereva et al., 2019). second, protection against all types of physical and mental abuse. this form of violence does not only come from parents but also other parties. third, protection of physical and mental health where parents are in charge of guaranteeing the health of their children is guaranteed and providing good teaching for their growth and development. fourth, is the protection of freedom within the limits regulated by norms and laws. fifth, protection from exploitation of energy, money, and sexuality. parents are the first teachers for children because of their big role in providing child protection (waldfogel, 1998). restraints in expressing aspirations, opinions, and freedom to play and associate are a form of violation of the law against child protection (dumbrill, 2006). protection of children's human rights in the learning process for their psychological development is the most important part of human rights (waldfogel, 2009). three specific barriers to child protection are financial and psychological poverty, hiv/aids infection which can change the social structure of society, and the consequences of post-traumatic stress caused by war (lachman et al., 2002). several previous studies reveal the forms of legal protection for children. a legal review according to religion, constitution, and custom as a whole, contains provisions regarding legal relations related to blood kinship, inheritance rights, and marriage (pulla et al., 2018). according to chernaya (2018), in the current social and humanitarian discourse, the concept of children's rights is linked to education, humanity, welfare, legal socialization institutions, and legal culture. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 242 method design the legal research design was used in this study to investigate learning about child protection rights in the paradigm of religion and national law. the design of legal research investigates legal principles, legal norms, the book of laws and regulations as well as certain legal doctrines or teachings that aim to answer certain legal issues or problems (llewellyn, 1940). canick (2009) explains that well-structured legal research can be a means to build a knowledge base that can be used as a strategy in developing effective rational research in the future. this research focuses on secondary data is gathered by studying literature research based on primary legal materials and associated studies that are relevant to the human right of child protection. a study of the national legal paradigm and the islamic religious paradigm is carried out to obtain valuable lessons on child protection in indonesia. data and sources of data the data used are secondary data derived from primary legal documents, such as; (1) law number 23 of 2002 concerning child protection; law number 35 of 2014 respecting legislative amendments no. 23 of 2002, relating to child protection; civil code (kuhp); law no. 10 of 2012 with relation to the convention on the rights of the child's optional protocol has been ratified; and law no. 1 of 2000 concerning ilo convention no. 182 ratification; and law no. 4 of 1979 concerning the welfare of children. secondary data derived from islamic law consists of islamic law's sources on child protection in the qur'an which have been interpreted by muslim scholars; and islamic law's sources regarding child protection in the sahih hadith books. table 1. type of document theme the secondary information destination children's rights in the islamic perspective 1. sources of islamic law regarding child protection in the koran which have been interpreted by muslim scholars 2. sources of islamic law regarding child protection in authentic hadith books the goal of the data analysis is to discover religious laws that protect children's human rights and to learn more about how to keep children safe from abuse, neglect, and exploitation children's rights in the national law paradigm 1. the child protection law no. 23 of 2002 2. amendments to law no. 23 of 2002 concerning child protection (law no. 35 of 2014).law no. 39 of 1999 concerning human rights the goal of the data analysis is to learn about the national law on children's rights to provide lessons on how to safeguard children from violence, neglect, exploitation, and abuse. nurjanah et al. 3. law no. 10 of 2012 on the optional protocol to the convention on the rights of the child's ratification 4. international labor organization (ilo) conventions ratification law no. 1 of 2000 5. civil code (kuhp) 6. children's welfare law no. 4 of 1979 7. juvenile court law no. 3 of 1997 data collection techniques the research uses the documentation method that has been compiled concerning two studies, particularly, the child's human rights in the national law paradigm and the child's human rights in the islamic paradigm. problem identification is carried out by selecting articles in the republic of indonesia's legislation and sources of the islamic law that are relevant to islamic culture in indonesia and ensuring that the data can provide a clear and accurate picture. rq1 examines the learning of the religious paradigm covering aspects of blood kinship, inheritance rights, and marriage. rq2 examines the learning of the national legal paradigm covering aspects of education, humanity, welfare, legal socialization institutions, and legal culture. the two rqs focus on the study of child protection as a human right with different but related paradigms. (see table 1) table 2 data collection process theme primary legal data sources indication rq code data child protection in the religious paradigm 1. sources of islamic law regarding child protection in the qur'an at-tahrim (66) verse 6 and surah al-nahal verse 78 which have been interpreted by muslim scholars 2. sources of islamic law regarding child protection in the hadith book narrated by sahih al-bukhari number 2415, hadith narrated by ibn majah number 3046 rq 1 1, 2 3, 4 child protection in the national law paradigm 1. article 1 paragraph of law no. 23 of 2002 concerning child protection (1) 2. article 1 paragraph 2 of law no. 35 of 2014 concerning amendments to law no. 23 of 2002 concerning child protection 3. the human rights law of 1999 (number 39) 4. the juvenile criminal justice system act of 2012 (law no. 11 of 2012) is a law that governs the juvenile criminal justice system (uuspa) 5. optional protocol to the convention on the rights of the child concerning the sale, prostitution, and abuse of children pornography was ratified by law no. 10 of 2012. 6. law no. 1 of the year 2000 ratified the ilo convention no. 182 concerning the prohibition and immediate action for the elimination of the worst forms of child labor.. 7. article 1 paragraph of the child welfare law no. 4 of 1979 (2) 8. article 330 of the civil code and article 2 of the civil code, paragraph (1) rq 2 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 244 data analysis the study employs the analytical method offered by krippendorff (2018), which is a strategy for in-depth study of legitimate information's content that may be re-examined from data depending on its context. the first step is to formulate the purpose of the analysis by collecting the data to be analyzed. in this study, the data analyzed are the intrinsic elements contained in child protection lessons in the paradigm of religion and national law in indonesia. the second step is conceptualization and operationalization by simplifying research and considering the construct of thought on child protection, measuring aspects of legal review, and the theoretical framework of human rights. the third step is a coding sheet, which is bringing the operationalization down to a more manageable level a coding sheet by entering what you want to see and how to measure it. the fourth step is to formulate data collection techniques on predetermined resources. in this study, data sources are derived from primary legal sources, which are taken based on the criteria that have been determined by the researcher. the fifth step is coder training and instrument testing so that it meets the requirements. the sixth step is the coding process that has been compiled by number 1 for data code [1], number 2 for data code [2], number 3 for data code [3], number 4 for data code [4], number 5 for data code [5], and so on until the last data code. the data codes [1,2,3, and 4] make up rq1.the data codes [6,7, and 8] make up rq2.data that has been coded is used to answer the research problem formulation. the sixth step is data reduction, namely filtering carried out during the data analysis process so that irrelevant data can be minimized. researchers conduct research studies that are logical, objective, and systematic by the facts or evidence obtained from research materials and legal sources. the seventh step is input data analysis, it involves understanding the meaning of data that has been processed and coded to find information.. the eighth step is inferring or grouping data that meet the originality requirements to draw conclusions and suggestions addressed to stakeholders. result and discussion rq1: lessons learned from child protection rights in religious paradigm the first finding answers the problem formulation that discusses learning about child protection rights in the religious paradigm. the findings reveal that conceptually the teachings of islam view children as a mandate from allah swt that must be protected.as a result, children must be properly caredfor to develop and grow spiritually and physically. the presence of children can nurjanah et al. make their parents happy. children, on the other hand, can put their parents to the test. children can make parents arrogant and the highest of people. in islam, the kid holds a high rank since he or she is the heir to the lineage, the keeper of the parents' reward, and an independent entity. a pious child has obedience to the law of allah swt who can guarantee the fulfillment of prayers for his parents. independent beings mean that children are creations of allah swt who have their destiny which must be their responsibility regardless of the coercion of others, including their parents a result, it is critical for parents to properly educate and protect their children. the right of religious maintenance (hifzal-din) for a newborn child in the world is under the responsibility of both parents. a child's adopted religion must be the same as his parents' faith until the child can determine for himself whether he wants to continue following the religion he has followed since birth or choose the best religion for him. the maintenance of religious rights for children in islam must first be carried out by both parents, especially a mother who is pregnant, gives birth, and raises children. children's religious development must begin from the beginning of the child's life period, namely from the womb. this can be done by getting children used to hearing good sentences such as reading the koran, blessings, dhikr, and others. when a child is born into the world, parents must also provide religious guidance to the newborn child, namely in the form of inculcating divine values. consider data 1. “in verse 6 of the qur'an at-tahrim (66).' regarding the word of allah command to protect yourselves and your families from hell's امنواقواانفسكمواهليكمنارا inferno, 'mujahid said' fear allah. while qatada said; that is, you should command them to obey allah and prevent disobedience to him.” based on data 1 islamic teaching maintains the rights of children to get an education, texts, protection, and maintenance as in the qur'an. guarantees need to be given so that every child gets these rights. the protection and granting of rights to children have been according to the qur'an and hadith, to be applied in human life (al-ghazaliy, 1983). the protection carried out by parents in the qur'an is the responsibility of meeting the needs of children, cognitive, emotional, and spiritual intelligence. this is because children are creatures who do not know anything so they need protection and guidance from their parents so that humans can worship god well. consider data 2. “abdurahman muhammad abdullah bin al-sheikh on ibn kasir's commentary explains that children are creatures who do not know anything as allah has said in surah al-nahal verse 78, which means, 'and allah brought you out of your mother's journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 246 womb without knowing anything, he also blessed you with hearing, sight, and a grateful heart.” from data 2, every parent realizes that children have certain rights that must be respected, implemented, and protected. this is done so that the class of children can protect their rights in a way that is by religious teachings (abdullah, 2004). some of the learning recommendations made by parents in religious education for their children are the lecture method, the exemplary method, and storytelling about the stories of the prophets (kusuma, 2021). important lessons regarding education and awareness of children about their rights are found in one of the hadiths narrated by al-bukhari number 2415. consider data 3. “hadith from qutaibah, from malik, from abi hazm, from sahal bin sa'ad r.a that the messenger of allah was served a drink while on his right there was a child and on his left, there were several adults. the prophet saw asked the little boy: 'do you allow me to give drink to the adults today first?' the child said: 'no, by allah i do not give my share to any of them. to the little boy.” the hadith in data 3 explains that the prophet saw taught children that he had rights, and the fulfillment of his rights took priority to his position, namely the right to take precedence in getting a drink even though many adults were also present and had the right. to provide learning and awareness of these rights, the prophet saw intended to teach people to respect the existence of children and their rights, not to underestimate, and not to violate their rights(al-bukhari, 1997). the prophet saw taught that those who have rights are not only fathers and mothers or other parties, but also children who have rights, opinions, and desires that are considered (al-nasa’i, 1997). the form of protection provided in the traditions of the prophet saw in the form of the min janib al-'adam aspect, namely the existence of legal provisions that prohibit all actions that are detrimental and violate the rights of children as described in the hadith narrated by ibn majah. consider data 4. “hadith from abu bakr bin abi shaibah and hannad bin al-sirri, from al-ahwash, from syahib bin gharqadah, from sulaiman bin 'amr bin al-ahwash, from his father who heard the prophet saw say during the hajj wada: 'o people. remember, which day is holier?' the crowd replied: 'day of the great hajj.' the prophet saw said: 'indeed, your blood, your wealth, and your fortune is as sacred to you as your day is, in this month of yours, in your country. remember, it is never someone who commits a crime but the consequences will befall him. parents cannot do evil to their children and a child cannot do evil to people.” nurjanah et al. this hadith narrated by ibn majah number 3046 explains the prohibition of acts of violence against children, especially for their older daughters (ibnu majah, 1997). the history of muslim hadith number 34723 also emphasizes the prohibition of violence against girls because they have a soft nature and are sensitive to their feelings. it is forbidden to murder on the grounds of poverty, fear of humiliation, inability to bear the shame, and so on (muslim, 1972). more deeply in regards to children's rights in islam consisting of biological children, adopted children, milk children, adopted children, stepchildren, and children out of wedlock, the classification of these children can determine their position or status, both in descent and inheritance, as well as guardianship in islamic law. in islam, there are five kinds of human rights to children, namely the maintenance of religious rights (hifz al-din), the preservation of the soul (hifz al-nafs), the maintenance of honor and lineage (hifz al-nasl), maintenance of reason (hifz al-‘aql) and property maintenance (hifz al-mal). therefore islam really respects children's rights. the study of child protection issues is based on islamic law, which is one of the rules embraced in society. because of the suppleness of islamic law, fresh analogies and interpretations must be established in light of the modern-day situation of child criminality. the transcendental principles inherent in islamic legal rules persuade believers that religious teachings oppose the exploitation of fellow humans, especially minors(tarazi, 1995). sanctions given to perpetrators who employ children and neglect children get a jarimah ta'zir sanction. this sanction has been explained in a previous study by mesrati (2022) that the implementation of child protection also includes sanctions that must be accepted. if there is exploitation and violence against children, sanctions must be implemented as a form of humanitarian obligation. the right to maintain lineage/offspring (hifz al-nasl) is a form of the right to maintain lineage in islam, which can be seen in the concept of maintaining honor. the honor of a child can be realized by recognizing his identity as a child of his biological parents. therefore, in islam, the adoption of a child should not cause the child to lose the origin of his descendants. the right to maintain children's lineage in the view of islam includes; the defense of rights and dignity of the child, the biological father may not be replaced by another person's name even though the child has become an adopted child; rights and honors are related to the child's psyche, because if the child is known as a child without a father or clear lineage, then he will experience big problems in his personality growth later (ashfaq, 2017). if the origin of the child is not known, it is feared that there will be journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 248 problems withmuharramat. al-muharramat(contained in illegitimate affairs) related to children is a prohibition of marriage with a woman only for a certain time, because there is a reason for it, it cannot be married. rabb (2022)explains that the legal consequences for children born from marriages whose origins are not clear, therefore there is no legal relationship between the child and his father. in this case, islamic law is very clear about the legal status of children to provide protection for them which is essentially meant to maintain human dignity. the right to maintain a child's soul (hifz al-nafs) is an obligation, both physical and mental health maintenance so that children can grow normally, not be overtaken by physical or mental illness (rothman & coyle, 2018). efforts to maintain children's health must be carried out from the time they are in the womb. islamic attention to the health of children is not only carried out when he is in the womb but also given after he is born. when a child is born in the world, the maintenance of the child's health is given to efforts for healthy growth, prevention and healing. at the growth stage, among the efforts that can be made by parents so that their children grow up healthy, among others, through radha'ah (breastfeeding), circumcision, prevention, and healing efforts (tarazi, 1995).thus islam respects and implements the right to health of children, both physically and mentally. if parents have given attention and responsibility to the health of their children, the generation that is nurtured will have physical and mental strength, passion, and enthusiasm, so that they become a young generation who are ready to carry out human mandates as khalifah fil ardhi. the implementation of intellectual rights (hifz al-‘aql) one of which is the right to obtain children's education is an important pillar for efforts to increase the degree of humanity and advance human civilization which in islam is known as hifzal-'aql. islam teaches that education for every human being is very important because it shapes the character and morals of children (halstead, 2007). parents are the most important responsibility holders. if parents and families are unable to carry out their obligations, then the community and the government will take on these responsibilities and obligations. in the sense that the government as the bearer of responsibility is obliged to encourage and make it easier for children's rights to be implemented education because it is with an education that god's degree will be elevated by god in the world and in the hereafter (sukardi, 2016). increasing human degrees through education can be realized if the conception of children's education is not only focused on intellectual abilities but also must develop children's mental and spiritual abilities. early education for a child is an obligation that must be carried out by parents as mandated by allah. nurjanah et al. the islamic right to maintain property (hifz al-mal),islam gives great attention to the social rights of everyone, especially for vulnerable groups, namely the poor, women, and children by imposing the basics of social security.in social terms, islam provides guarantees for every child born to a muslim, be it the child of a government official, employee, worker, or commoner (cheruvallilcontractor et al., 2021). once the importance of parents in bearing the socio-economic burden of children, then god gives a very big reward for a father who provides a living for his family. on the other hand, if he does not want to provide for his children and family even though he is able, then he will get a very big sin. based on the findings, it is clear that in the view of islam, children have a noble position before allah swt. this position makes children have protection rights that must be fulfilled as a form of human obedience to god. the literature reveals that islamic teachings command love, care, and education. parents must be good role models, one word and deed, fair and do not discriminate against children in terms of age, gender, strengths, and weaknesses, and appreciate the potential of children with an attitude of love and affection (giladi, 2014). religion's humanitarian missions include maintaining justice, combating injustice, and the necessity for cooperation in overcoming social problems(hutchinson et al., 2015). the latest study mentions that fulfilling the child's position is not a risk-free matter if it is not integrated properly. need adjustments to policies and child services. this means that children are protected and obtain child and family-centered welfare. the role of care and responsibility of the government towards children is as important as the role of foster parents in fulfilling their rights (takaffoli et al., 2022). therefore, children must have their needs met, love, education, clothing, food, and shelter, as well as religious cultivation, are necessary for them. justice for children is to give them the freedom to explore the potential of their minds so that they can interpret nature as well as possible. of course, you still have to rely on the regulations that he has established, and the guidance of the prophet saw as an explanation, and the ijtihad of the fuqaha also become the basis for perfecting the current conditions that continue to develop. rq2: lessons learned from child protection rights in national law the second finding reveals lessons learned about child protection rights in positive law that applies in indonesia. the findings show that in positive law, children are the nation's future generation, and they have human rights that are tailored to them. these human rights include the widest journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 250 opportunity to live, grow and develop properly by the provisions of universally applicable laws. the function of positive law is to protect the rights and interests of children from criminals. reviewing positive laws means knowing the advantages and disadvantages of each of these laws to complement each other in providing children's human rights. the legitimacy of child protection in indonesia is established by the presentation and enactment of law number 23 of 2002 on child protection, followed by law number 35 of 2014 on amendments to law no. 23 of 2002 on child protection. consider data 6. “according to article 1 paragraph 2 (protection of children) encompasses all activities aimed at ensuring and protecting children's rights to live, grow, develop, and participate in society to their full potential in a way that respects human dignity and is devoid of violence and discrimination. parents are required to protect their children from the time they are in the womb, according to article 1 paragraph (1) of law number 23 of 2002 about child protection. if parents try to deprive a kid of their right to life (read: abort) without particular reasons and causes, they will face legal processes and will be held accountable for their actions. children must be prepared early to become strong, intelligent, and independent human beings. therefore, children must have a sense of security and peace under the protection and love in the arms of their families.” according to the law, measures to protect children must be conducted consistently to maintain their welfare, since children are one of the most valuable assets for a nation's future prosperity. this is why a child protection system needs to produce reliable evidence to support information in advocacy, reforming laws, and updating policies according to international standards (bouma et al., 2018; lópez et al., 2019). consider data 7. “human rights for children are one type of human right that must be respected, defended, protected, and implemented internationally. according to ri law no. 39 of 1999 concerning human rights, the state is responsible because children's rights are considered as human rights. the juvenile criminal justice system (uuspa) is defined in law no. 11 of 2012 on the difference between juvenile justice and adult justice to protect young people who have violated the law. the convention on the rights of the child has two protocols, including law number 10 of 2012 which ratifies the optional protocol to the convention on the rights of the child concerning the sale of children, child prostitution, and child pornography. uu no. 1 of 2000 which ratified the ilo convention no. 182 concerning the prohibition and immediate action for the elimination of the worst forms of work; civil rights and liberties; family environment and alternative care; basic health and well-being; educational, recreational, and cultural activities.” the level of protection provided to children should be comparable to that provided to adults. the the united nations convention on the rights of the child is an international treaty that protects nurjanah et al. children's rights has also proven successful in becoming a guide for indonesia in going through various crises caused by disasters, conflicts, and problems in protecting and fulfilling children's rights. in the child protection system, parents supervise, overcome children's resistance, and children's discomfort in their environment (schoch et al., 2020; tilbury & ramsay, 2018). consider data 8. “minors under the age of 21 (twenty-one) are referred to as children. according to article 330 of the civil code, the child has never been married. this interpretation conforms with article 1 paragraph (2) of the child welfare law no. 4 of 1979. a child is defined as someone who has not yet turned 21 (twenty-one) years old and has never been married. this definition of a kid includes individuals who are not yet mature, as well as those who have not yet attained the legal legitimacy age limit as a legal subject or as an ordinary legal subject as decided by civil law.” according to data 8, the primary indonesian child protection patterns is founded on the principles of welfare guarantees and child benefits as future values. children have a very broad position and play a very important role in civil law, especially when it comes to the protection of children's civil rights (syafiuddin et al., 2021). for example, in the matter of the distribution of inheritance, even a child in the womb of a woman is considered to have been born if the interests of the child so desire as intended by article 2 of the civil code. in general, people who are called adults (meerderjarig) can carry out legal actions legally, unless the law does not stipulate so. given the gap that exists in indonesia, the state, in collaboration with the entire society, should act to safeguard various sorts of violence and manipulation are perpetrated against children by irresponsible adults who use children as a vehicle for their crimes. for example, one of the programs in the indonesian school system that is a type of child protection by the state is the adoption of a child-friendly cultural program that promotes the basic concept of nondiscrimination, the interests of children's rights to life, and respect (widodo & galang, 2020). the paradigm of islamic law and the law on child protection provides an important lesson that a child is someone who is considered immature and must be given protection so that his rights are fulfilled like an adult human. the government's role in building nasab and protecting children is contained in islamic teachings, and vice versa (engelcke & yassari, 2019). previous studies revealed that the two have an interrelated relationship in providing maximum protection for the rights of muslim children, especially for those who are 'without parents' and people with disabilities. the role of the state in building nasab and protecting children is contained in islamic teachings, and vice versa (engelcke & yassari, 2019). recent research explains that the best journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 252 interests of children are a shared responsibility. islamic law and positive law, both have regulated the real position of the child. even if it is hit by slanted issues and is considered not conducive to providing children's rights, this is the wrong perspective(azizah et al., 2022). the law on children's rights protects them, it's just that the practice is sometimes not by the guidance that should be carried out by the stakeholders due to certain factors. the novelty of research reveals that a child must get more serious attention from all aspects of his life, both in terms of national law based on pancasila principles and the provisions of the true teachings of islam. as previous research revealed that the legal paradigm of child protection is based on the ideology of pancasila which is part of human rights and the law develops in positivism legal theory (ma’rifah & fajri, 2022), and in the context of islamic teachings, o’leary et al. (2020) and cheruvallil-contractor et al. (2021) revealed that islam has special teachings connected to the safety of children, such as care, inheritance rights, and child guardianship rights. as a result, it is vital to take preventative actions in order to preserve and guarantee the fulfillment of their rights. even if the acknowledgment of a kid's origins is done through the methods and rules that have been established, more efforts are needed to raise public awareness about child protection. conclusion conclusions can be inferred from the above explanation. first, learning in the islamic religious paradigm is seen from five kinds of human rights to children known as maqasid al-shari'ah, namely religious freedom is upheld (hifz al-din), preservation of the soul (hifz al-nafs), maintenance of honor and nasab/descendants (hifz al-nasl, the preservation of reason (hifz al-'aql) and property maintenance (hifz al-mal) therefore islam respects children's rights. islamic law as one of the norms adopted in society must use as the basis for reviewing the issue of child protection. second, important lessons from the national legal paradigm regarding the protection of children are accommodated in at least eight laws that must be obeyed by all citizens. thus, it can be understood that the criteria for children as stipulated in the act, must be given adequate protection, and it is the obligation of parents or guardians and the state in its implementation so that the rights of the children are truly respected can be fulfilled to the maximum. protection of children in the context of the state eventually develops into an obligation and responsibility of the state because it is a universally applicable human right. each component and element has its share of duties and responsibilities in protecting children. this is so that they can live, grow, develop, nurjanah et al. and participate to their full potential in a way that is respectful of human dignity and free of violence and prejudice.. references abdullah, a. m. (2004). tafsir ibnu kasir. pustaka imam asysyafi’i. abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. al-bukhari, s. al-b. (1997). mausu`ah al-hadits al-syarif (2nd ed.). global islamic sofware company. al-ghazaliy, a. h. (1983). al-mustashfa fi ‘ilm al-ushul. dar al-kutub al-ilmiyyah. al-nasa’i, s. al-n. (1997). mausu`ah al-hadits al-syarif (2nd ed.). global islamic sofware company. aletheiani, d. r. (2022). schooling practices, curriculum, and educational opportunities of the children in the fisherman’neighbourhoods in indonesia archipelago. the curriculum journal, 33(1), 2022. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/curj.144 ajaps, s., & obiagu, a. (2020). increasing civic engagement through civic education: a critical consciousness theory perspective. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 ashfaq, h. (2017). right of progeny and cairo declaration of human rights in islam. 19–30. https://doi.org/10.12816/0037077 aydin, h., & avincan, k. (2020). intellectual crimes and serious violation of human rights in turkey: a narrative inquiry. international journal of human rights, 24(8), 1127–1155. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2020.1713108 azizah, e. n., hayatudin, a., & sulistiani, s. l. (2022). kedudukan hukum anak hasil incest menurut putusan mk no. 46/puu-viii/2010 dan hukum islam. bandung conference series: islamic family law (vol., 2(1). https://proceedings.unisba.ac.id/index.php/bcsifl/article/view/1264 bechett, c. (2007). child protection: an introduction. sage publication ltd. http://pustaka.unp.ac.id/file/abstrak_kki/ebooks/child protection an introduction.pdf bouma, h., lópez, m. l., knorth, e. j., & grietens, h. (2018). corrigendum to “meaningful participation for children in the dutch child protection system: a critical analysis of relevant provisions in policy documents” [child abuse & neglect 79 (2018) 279–292] https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 254 (s0145213418300802) (10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.02.016)). child abuse and neglect, 82(may), 210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.05.010 brown, s. m., orsi, r., chen, p. c. b., everson, c. l., & fluke, j. (2021). the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on child protection system referrals and responses in colorado, usa. child maltreatment. https://doi.org/10.1177/10775595211012476 canick, s. (2009). legal research assessment. legal reference services quarterly, 28(3–4), 201–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703190902961569 chernaya, a. v. (2018). children’s rights concept in modern social and humanitarian discourse. journal of social studies education research, 9(4), 140–167. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.29413 cheruvallil-contractor, s., halford, a., & phiri, m. b. (2021). the salience of islam to muslim heritage children ’ s. religions, 12(6), 1–12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12060381 chiu, y. l., cross, t. p., wheeler, a. b., evans, s. m., & goulet, b. p. (2022). development and application of a self-report measure for measuring change during simulation training in child protection. journal of public child welfare, 16(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2021.2016546 clark, h., coll-seck, a. m., banerjee, a., peterson, s., dalglish, s. l., ameratunga, s., & costello, a. (2020). a future for the world’s children? a who–unicef–lancet commission. the lancet, 395(10224), 605–658. http://www.akrabjuara.com/index.php/akrabjuara/article/view/919 dumbrill, g. c. (2006). parental experience of child protection intervention: a qualitative study. child abuse and neglect, 30(1), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.08.012 engelcke, d., & yassari, n. (2019). child law in muslim jurisdictions: the role of the state in establishing filiation (nasab) and protecting parentless children. journal of law and religion, 34(3), 332–335. https://doi.org/10.1017/jlr.2019.40 giladi, a. (2014). the nurture and protection of children in islam: perspectives from islamic sources. islamic texts command affection, care, and education. child abuse and neglect, 38(4), 585–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.03.016 griffin, j. (2008). on human rights mark hannam. in heinonline. oxford university press. https://heinonline.org/hol-cgibin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/flr66&section=18%0ahttps://books.google.es/books? hl=es&lr=&id=custdaaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pr9&dq=human+rights+and+deprivation +of+liberty+pdf&ots=jo6wu1zsve&sig=jpysmifsw98k6uvoguhr1kgf-9c halstead, j. m. (2007). islamic values : a distinctive framework for moral education ? journal of nurjanah et al. moral education, 36(3), 283–296. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240701643056 hutchinson, a. j., o’leary, p., squire, j., & hope, k. (2015). child protection in islamic contexts : identifying cultural and religious appropriate mechanisms and processes using a roundtable methodology. child abuse review, 24(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1002/car.2304 ibnu majah, s. i. m. (1997). mausu`ah al-hadîts al-syarif (2nd ed.). global islamic sofware company. irawan, a., handayani, i. g. a. k. r., & kusriyah, s. (2021). reconstruction of the legal definition of children to protect sexual disabilities based on justice insight. scholars international journal of law, crime and justice, 4(5), 272–278. https://doi.org/10.36348/sijlcj.2021.v04i05.002 krippendorff, k. (2018). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. ltd. kusuma, a. p. (2021). child religious protection for the muallaf family in sibolangit district, deli serdang regency (analysis of child protection law no.35 of 2014 and the concept of hadhonah). britain international of humanities and social sciences (biohs) journal, 3(1), 8–20. https://doi.org/10.33258/biohs.v3i1.352 lachman, p., poblete, x., ebigbo, p. o., nyandiya-bundy, s., bundy, r. p., killian, b., & doek, j. (2002). challenges facing child protection. child abuse and neglect, 26(6–7), 587–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(02)00336-8 landman, t., & carvalho, e. (2009). measuring human rights. in measuring human rights. routledge, taylor & francis group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203867594 llewellyn, k. n. (1940). the normative, the legal, and the law-jobs: the problem of juristic method. the yale law journal, 49(8), 1355–1400. lópez, m. l., bouma, h., knorth, e. j., & grietens, h. (2019). the dutch child protection system: historical overview and recent transformations. 173–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93348-1_9 ma’rifah, & fajri, m. n. (2022). the protection of human rights for the asian diaspora in southeast asia and eradication mafia of trade people (comparative study of singapore, malaysia and indonesia references). jurnal jantera hukum borneo, 5(1), 1–29. mccamant, j. f. (2019). a critique of present measures of"human rights development" and an alternative. in global human rights: public policies, comparative measures, and ngo strategies (pp. 123–146). routledge, taylor & francis group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429052118-9 mesrati, a. o. a. (2022). the best interests of the child ’ under islamic law. in child rights to journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 256 guardianship. springer international publishing ag. munro, e. (2010). learning to reduce risk in child protection. british journal of social work, 40(4), 1135–1151. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcq024 muslim, s. (1972). muslim bin hajjaj alnaisabury, shahih muslim, (beirut: dar ihya’al turâts al-arabi, 1972), juz ii, h. 119, no. 34723. dar ihya’al-turâts al-arabi. o’leary, p., abdalla, m., hutchinson, a., squire, j., & young, a. (2020). child protection with muslim communities: considerations for non-muslim-based orthodoxies/paradigms in child welfare and social work. british journal of social work, 50(4), 1201–1218. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcz088 o’leary, p. j., young, a., mcauliffe, d., & wismayanti, y. (2019). developing the social work role in the indonesian child protection system. international social work, 62(2), 814–828. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872817747028 palacios, j., adroher, s., brodzinsky, d. m., grotevant, h. d., johnson, d. e., juffer, f., martínez-mora, l., muhamedrahimov, r. j., selwyn, j., simmonds, j., & tarren-sweeney, m. (2019). adoption in the service of child protection: an international interdisciplinary perspective. psychology, public policy, and law, 25(2), 57–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000192 panikkar, r., & panikkar, r. (1982). is the notion of human rights a western concept? diogenes, 30(120), 75–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/039219218203012005 pulla, v., tarar, m. g., & ali, a. (2018). child protection system and challenges in pakistan. space and culture, india, 5(3), 54–68. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v5i3.302 rabb, i. a. (2022). in the classroom and in the courtroom or, comparative perspective on the origins of islamic legal canons. vill. l. rev. 831, 66(5), 1265–1519. https://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/vlr/vol66/iss5/1 rothman, a., & coyle, a. (2018). toward a framework for islamic psychology and psychotherapy : an islamic model of the soul. journal of religion and health, 57(5), 1731–1744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-018-0651-x schoch, a., aeby, g., müller, b., cottier, m., seglias, l., biesel, k., sauthier, g., & schnurr, s. (2020). participation of children and parents in the swiss child protection system in the past and present: an interdisciplinary perspective. social sciences, 9(8), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9080148 sen, a. (2005). human rights and capabilities. journal of human development, 6(2), 151–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880500120491 seregig, i. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., rivai, e., & prasetyawati, e. (2018). preventing the nurjanah et al. acts of corruption through legal community education. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 138–159. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.65190 situmorang, j., sahman, a., suryanto, t., & gani, z. (2021). literation of land rights law in (tola gumi) protection of indigenous peoples and its impact on community welfare. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 180–209. slayter, e. m., & jensen, j. (2019). parents with intellectual disabilities in the child protection system. children and youth services review, 98(september 2018), 297–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.01.013 sukardi, i. (2016). character education based on religious values : an islamic perspective. ta’dib: journal of islamic education, 21(1), 41–58. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.19109/tjie.v21i1.744 syafiuddin, m. n., safa, r., & djatmika, p. (2021). international journal of multicultural and multireligious understanding understanding child support in the pattern of child protection based on the principle of child protection. international journal of multicultural and multireligious understanding, 8(23), 92–99. takaffoli, m., arshi, m., vameghi, m., mousavi, m. t., & shati, m. (2022). how to promote the child welfare approach? a qualitative content analysis study in iran. the british journal of social work, 52(1), 354–373. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcab268 tarazi, n. (1995). the child in islam. american trust publications. tilbury, c., & ramsay, s. (2018). a systematic scoping review of parental satisfaction with child protection services. evaluation and program planning, 66(october 2017), 141–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2017.10.010 unicef, i. (2017). children in indonesia. unicef.org/indonesia, 1. unicef.org/indonsia/children-in-indonesia waldfogel, j. (1998). rethinking the paradigm for child protection. future of children, 8(1), 104–119. https://doi.org/10.2307/1602631 waldfogel, j. (2009). prevention and the child protection system. future of children, 19(2), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.0.0037 whitaker, s. k., & croft, v. f. (2020). effects of accreditation on united states and canadian veterinary college libraries in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. journal of the medical library association, 108(2), 167–176. https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2020.882 widodo, w., & galang, t. (2020). child friendly culture in the education system in indonesia. journal of education and practice, 11(3), 19–23. https://doi.org/10.7176/jep/11-3-03 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 237-258 258 wismayanti, y. f., o’leary, p., tilbury, c., & tjoe, y. (2021). the problematization of child sexual abuse in policy and law: the indonesian example. child abuse and neglect, 118(august 2020), 105157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105157 zvereva, e. v., belenkova, n. m., & kruse, i. i. (2019). international framework, national legal discourse on educational rights and students’ perceptions: comparative analysis in russia and france. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 530–549. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (4), 302-319 moral teachings and spirituality in manuscript studies: a critical study of social values in the digital age ahmad asmuni1 abstract this research aims to study the moral teachings and spirituality of the javanese-muslim ethnic group, as well as how it implements islamic teachings in the digital age. it applies a qualitative research methodology that focuses on the theme of javanese morals and islamic teachings. the main sources of primary data were interviews and observations, while secondary data to support the research were obtained from documentary studies of ancient manuscripts and other relevant literature. the study used qualitative data analysis techniques over four steps, namely data collection, data reduction, data presentation, and finally the drawing of conclusions and verification of data. the findings revealed that the teaching of kejawen morals and spirituality has its origins in the cultural traditions of the javanese tribal community, which teaches about the pakem (standards/rules) for a good life and noble standards to form hanjawani morals (for a commendable character). kejawen islamic philosophy, which combines islamic teachings and aspects of javanese society, is manifested in the digital era in the form of spiritual intelligence. through spiritual intelligence and akhlatul kharimah, people can understand every phenomenon and act wisely in responding to various situations and conditions in the digital era thanks to such teachings. the expected implication is that stakeholders will be able to support the preservation of the positive values of islamic kejawen culture, which in turn will help increase the spirituality and noble morality of the indonesian people in order to foster harmony among themselves, the nation, and the wider world. keywords: moral, kejawen, islam, digital era introduction the rapid onset of the digital era has brought changes to behavior in the global community. indeed, the digital revolution has created a new, more modern social paradigm, as well as much stronger community behavior (nasution et al., 2021; shaw, et. al., 2020). with information and communication technology (ict), people can connect socially over long distances through virtual spaces (abdel-aziz et al., 2016; ohlin, 2019; tadeu et al. 2019). however, several case studies have found that this technology has also acted as the main means for extremists and terrorists to radicalize potential recruits (edwards & gribbon, 2013), and it can also lead to mental health problems (kim & jia, 2020; scott et al., 2017), bad/violent behavior, cultural shifts, and technology-based abuse (messing et al., 2020; roqib, 2021). 1dr. state islamic institute (iain) syekh nurjati cirebon, indonesia, email: ahmadasmuni1158@gmail.com mailto:ahmadasmuni1158@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 302-319 according to pastor-escuredo & vinuesa (2020), the current global system is not balanced, so society is very vulnerable and fragile in terms of humanity and moral values. it seems that the digital revolution has indirectly changed people’s behavioral patterns, both in terms of spirituality and morality. modernity has also resulted in cultural shifts in society (inglehart, 2018). the literature has posited that the bad influences of the digital era have caused moral and ethical degradation in society (laite, 2020; nyamai, 2021; shatunova et al., 2021). the negative use of technology tends to nurture negative practices that target others in the digital community, leading to social conflict (habibi, 2020; suntana & tresnawaty, 2021). it is therefore very important to promote the spiritual intelligence that comes from moral teachings and noble spiritual values in traditional culture. this can serve as a way of life, and it lies at the foundation of the indonesian nation’s character, so people are protected against the negative effects of the digital revolution. indeed, previous studies have posited that spiritual intelligence can positively influence people’s attitude toward themselves and their environments (evans-amalu et al., 2021; mahmood et al., 2018). the concept of spirituality essentially emphasizes attitudes for understanding life experiences. spirituality itself is often associated with religion, even though they are technically distinct concepts (rosmarin & koenig, 2020). in indonesia, the diverse range of cultural traditions can be used as a guide for local people’s lives. it has even become a symbol of the nation’s cultural heritage, which has been preserved from generation to generation (fatmawati, 2021; jamilah, 2021). the literature states that one framework for living well that still survives in the modern era is the kejawen teachings of ethnic javanese communities (wacławek, 2015). in this modern era, the practice of kejawen is often confused with practices of shamanism or kanuragan (occult or mystical powers). as a result, the true teachings of kejawen are fading and becoming vulnerable to intolerant perceptions in society (permana, 2019). for a long time, the influence of kejawen has been part of a political discourse in indonesia, thus attracting the attention of various middle eastern countries (mccabe, 2007). teachings in the form of kejawen beliefs can be seen in ancient texts, traditional rituals, and historical sources from paguyuban members and historians (wasisto, 2021; solikhah & budiharso, 2020). in its history, kejawen practices have experienced syncretism, such as kejawen islam, which combines islamic values with ethnic javanese traditions, such as the nyanggar kuning ritual (sari et al., 2020). thus, kejawen islam attempts to preserve local asmuni 304 cultural wisdom (widodo & eldo, 2021), which may counteract religious radicalism and the negative effects of modernization (savitri et al., 2020). based on the background to the problems stated above, a study of some manuscripts was carried out, because these documents contain ancient writings and other information about the way of life for the javanese kejawen community. a study of arifin et al. (2019) found that it was very important to study the values of traditions in ethnic javanese communities contextually to minimize any social conflicts between kejawen schools. ancient manuscripts are very fragile, and it is feared they will become extinct over time, along with many treasures in the form of javanese moral and spiritual teachings in handwritten form that have not yet been studied by previous researchers. the researcher therefore sought to investigate their relevance to the present context, so that the kejawen traditions will not be seen as merely relics with no relevance to the digital age. research questions two research questions were formulated to guide this study, and they relate to the kejawen teachings of morality and spirituality and the islamic values contained therein: 1) what are the kejawen teachings of morality and spirituality based on the manuscript? 2) how does kejawen islamic teachings take a role of moral teaching in the digital age? literature review moral teachings moral teachings are generally accepted teachings about what is good or bad, and they attempt to build a moral character that remains strong in the human soul, thus guiding certain actions and removing the need to think and plan (buckley, 1982). morality is also considered a set of ideas about how humanity should behave in life based on a particular world view or religion based on applicable values and norms (ernsberger & manaster, 1981). moral values represent the goodness in people, while moral norms indicate how humans should live on earth. the term “moral” is used to determine the acceptable limits of behavior or to define a person’s character as being good or bad, worthy or not worthy (arendt, 1994). moral teachings can be based on various religious perspectives, such as that of islam, christianity, and hinduism, to name but a few. traditions for moral and ethical values, as well as religion, aim to shape the future through the essence of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 302-319 spirituality (bhat, 2019; magesa, 2014). virtue can grow based on the spiritual values contained in a belief system, which can guide and educate a person (shahriyari, 2019). javanese spirituality spirituality is understood as being aware of a transcendent dimension, such that one experiences life in way that is characterized by the values of the “essential.” spirituality creates a sense of longing and a strong urge in a person to understand various things about his or her life (elkins et al., 1988). kejawen translates as “javanism,” reflecting how it encompasses everything related to javanese customs and beliefs. kejawen spirituality is a philosophical view of life that has existed throughout the javanese tribal society in the form of morality, ethics, and religiosity in the form of worship to, and reverence for, god, with the main activities being pasa (fasting) and tapa (medication) (pranoto, 2008). the term kejawen is used because the ancient texts about this way of life are written in the javanese language, which is also part of the local culture and expresses the kind of relations people have with each other. for example, there is the ngugemi reverence ritual for gusti kang murbeng dumadi. kejawen encompasses arts, culture, traditions, and rituals, as well as the philosophy of the javanese tribal community. javanese belief asserts that kejawen is everything that exists in the world, so it is essentially the unity of life under the concept of balance between nature and society, with nature being considered sacred (setyawan, 2018). kejawen teachings offer esoteric knowledge about the spiritual, psychological, and social aspects of the ethnic javanese community (wasisto, 2021), and adherents rarely extend their teaching activities beyond java, preferring instead to routinely provide guidance to the community. the symbols of behavior that demonstrate kewingitan (magic authority) can be seen in javanese traditional instruments like the kris, puppets, the chanting of mantras, and the use of seven kinds of flowers with symbolic meanings (sugiharto, 2008). methods research design the research design adopted a content analysis (zhang & wildemuth, 2009) and applied qualitative approach (creswell, 2014) with the aim of examining the meaning of javanese moral teachings and spirituality and how they apply to the life experiences of javanese muslim people in the digital era. specifically, the scientific study of the manuscripts through codicology aimed to asmuni 306 support some observations about kejawen islam. physiology refers to studying old manuscripts to determine their authenticity, form, and meaning of their contents, with a focus on several cultural manifestations. codicology, meanwhile, studies all aspects of a manuscript, including the material, age, and writing of the manuscript. the data-analysis process, meanwhile, followed the qualitative analysis theory proposed by creswell (2014) and content analysis of zhang & widemuth (2009). participants the research participants were all subjects who were involved in mental, emotional, and physical activities as informants for our research activities on javanese moral and spiritual teachings. the participants comprised 10 people, namely two historians of javanese society, six members of the kejawen community, and two traditional elders of kejawen islam. table 1 description of participants variable characteristics frequency percentage (%) gender male female 8 2 80 20 age group 26-35 years old 51+ years old 3 7 30 70 participant expert on javanese history member of kejawen chief of tradition 2 6 2 20 60 20 total 100 data and their sources both primary and secondary data were used in this study. the primary data came from interviews with, and observations of, the 10 research participants, while the secondary data came from written sources and relevant studies in the literature. the written sources were ancient texts about javanese moral teachings and spirituality, namely kakawin (i.e., kawi literature), macapat (carakan literature), babab (history), suluk (spiritual path), piwulang (teaching), and primbon (set). the moral teaching theme comprised two dimensions, namely knowledge of the rules for the adopted religion and the values of ethical behavior. the theme of kejawen spirituality was viewed from three perspectives: 1) the vertical relation point of view referred to the depth of the relationship with the creator. 2) the social relations perspective related to how kejawen spiritual intelligence journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 302-319 influences attitudes in social life. finally, 3) the ethical point of view refers to adhering to ethical and moral values. table 2 types of data based on research themes theme data focus primary data secondary data moral teachings moral values participants’ knowledge about moral teachings with focus on the typical values and norms of kejawen and islamic teachings ancient manuscripts such as kakawin, macapat, babab, piwulang, and primbon 1. study of literature about moral values in javanese and islamic teachings javanese spiritual the values of kejawen and islamic teachings participants’ knowledge about spiritual values and their understandings of the kejawen tradition 1. suluk ancient texts 2. literature study of javanese and islamic spiritual values instrument the instrument for this study was the tool used to collect data for examining and investigating the problem at hand. this research instrument comprised two approaches, namely interviews and observations. an interview guide was developed by the researcher with reference to the research theme, with individual items being put into a question that the researcher used to collect data. each theme was represented by more than one question in the instrument. the researcher developed the question items and checked their feasibility by soliciting the assessments and considerations of experts in the field of indonesian history, especially kejawen islamic culture, through group discussions. the observation guidelines, meanwhile, focused on assessing the participants’ experience and knowledge of the teachings of kejawen morality and spirituality, as well as the islamic teachings commonly found in javanese culture. table 3 instrument questions rq1: what are the teachings of javanese morality and spirituality based on manuscript studies? precepts of morality 1. what do you understand about moral teachings? 2. what is your experience with the practice of moral teachings in javanese society? kejawen spirituality 1. what do you understand about kejawen spirituality? 2. what is your experience with the practice of kejawen spiritual values? rq2: what is the role of kejawen islam in the digital era? kejawen-islam 1. what do you understand about kejawen islam? 2. what is your experience with the practice of islamic kejawen in the digital era? asmuni 308 data-collection procedures data collection was conducted to obtain relevant research data in the form of interviews, observations, and document analysis, which included a manuscript study of kejawen teachings. the data collection was carried out with the help of notebooks, cameras, and video recordings. the first step was to conduct preliminary research into the traditions of javanese muslims and then use the document analysis to guide the collection of required data, namely by examining ancient manuscripts, documenting kejawen ceremonies, and conducting a review of research literature related to kejawen teachings and islamic values. next, the participants were observed during the interview process, with them being given a manual code (e.g., participant 1 = ps_1, etc.) for use in the coded interview data. the interviews lasted 15–20 minutes for each participant, with them taking place at different times and places according to the preferences of each participant. it took at least a week to collect the interview data, which focused on the participants’ knowledge and experience of the javanese kejawen tradition. data analysis the qualitative data analysis technique proposed by zhang & wildemuth (2009) to see the content of the document and creswell (2014) to see the qualitative data analysis process. the researcher therefore followed four steps: the first was data collection, namely from interviews, observations, and document analysis. the second was data reduction, which involved simplifying the data to get more-meaningful information and make it easier to draw conclusions. this stage distilled the data down to what was relevant to the research theme, namely kejawen teachings and the associated islamic moral values. the third step was to present the data in narrative form, so it could be easily understood. the fourth step was to draw conclusions and verify the data with reference to the purpose of the study, which was to examine kejawen teachings about morality and spirituality and explore the implications of islamic values in the digital era with the support of valid, precise, and objective evidence. in particular, the analysis include (1) converting numerical data and text from the transcript record as the research data base into narrative evidences, (2) selecting themes and units of analysis that are appropriate to the research questions, (3) determining coding system and its unit analysis from the data base, (4) applying the while coding system into the data and revising the data if improper journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 302-319 coding is incorrect, and (5) determining the final data as the evidence of this study (creswell, 2014; zhang & wildemuth, 2009). the process of data analysis started from transcription of interview in a verbatim record, identifying proper themes, selecting the unit of analysis in terms of phrases, sentences and paragraphs, and put them coding. in addition, data obtained from documents are added to the data from the interview transcripts. in the next, data from interview and documents are categorized in terms of the similar themes and classified as the structure of the research questions. this way, the first research questions that aims to see kinds of the kejawen teachings of morality and spirituality can be answered through the teaching of kejawen categorized, and the second research question on the role of kejawen in the digital age ia answered based on the intended meaning in the literal text of the manuscripts (creswell, 2014; zhang & wildemuth, 2009). results and discussion kejawen morals and spirituality in manuscript studies this study set out to examine the javanese people’s kejawen teachings about morality and spirituality and their implementation within the context of islamic teaching in the digital age. an initial finding for the theme of kejawen moral and spiritual teachings was that the ancient suluk manuscript (the spiritual path) is closely related to moral and spiritual teachings, because this script details procedures for taking the supernatural path toward a noble hanjawani personality, and it is believed that anyone who achieves such perfection will gain supernatural powers. the previous study of fanani (2018) for the suluk wujil manuscript talked about how to achieve the essence of the highest truth, with it carrying sufistic teachings about socio-religious discourse. the content of suluk wujil uses four steps of semiotic reading, namely narrative schema reading, sign discovery primer, syntagmatic analysis, and paradigmatic reading. the main signal in suluk wujil is the phrase “arriving in mecca” at the end of the manuscript’s text, thus expressing concern for the spiritual journey toward the spiritual truth of islamic values. the paradigmatic analysis, meanwhile, shows that there are simultaneous parallel and oppositional signals, such that the combination of these signs forms a synthesis that leads to an understanding of the importance of opposite but complementary syntagmatic signs. hanjawani, which are known in islamic teachings as akhalakul karimah, are commendable morals that are described in terms of self-sacrifice, honesty, courtesy, fairness, and other noble behaviors (pratisti, 2018). hanjawani is also described as people being obedient to their religion asmuni 310 spiritually, psychologically, and socially by avoiding religious prohibitions and following religious orders, all while still upholding their identity as an indigenous people with a culture and customs that do not conflict with their religion (wasisto, 2021). therefore, in javanese spiritual and moral teachings, respect for religious teachings and the message of pinisepuh is a very valuable and wise quality. the message of the parents is upheld like an ancestral heirloom, and goodness and truth are guarded, so they cannot be misused. this corresponds with data item 1: (1) kejawen spirituality emerged as a form of blending process for several immigrant beliefs or religious sects and the original beliefs of the javanese people. the teachings of kejawen philosophy encourage people to obey their god. that is the essence of kejawen teachings, namely “sangkan paraning dumadhi” (“from the return of the servant of god”). therefore, javanese people believe in kejawen, so they are relatively obedient to their religion while preserving themselves as indigenous people. based on the results of the interviews, it was explained that kejawen itself aims to build etiquette for a good life. unfortunately, this tradition has now been partially abandoned by modern javanese people because it is considered a relic of antiquity. however, kejawen islam represents an effort to preserve local cultural wisdom (widodo & eldo, 2021), and this could be used to counter religious radicalism and social conflicts between kejawen schools (arifin et al., 2019). only a few javanese traditions are still preserved, such as the nyadran ritual, mitoni, tedhak siten, and the wetonan tradition. this is reflected in data item 2: (2) nyadran is a ceremony carried out before fasting. it takes the form of a pilgrimage to the tomb and sowing flowers. mitoni is a seven-month ceremony for pregnant women. tedhak siten is a ritual to prepare children to lead a successful life. wetonan is similar to the birthday tradition, but it is held up to 10 times a year according to the javanese calendar. the point here is that the traditions carried out in the form of art, culture, attitudes, rituals, and philosophies cannot be separated from spirituality as a way for building manners in social life. kejawen itself does not have a holy text, but the javanese have a coded language which is sed in ancient texts without undergoing the slightest change, because it has a standard and tightly guarded set of rules (permana, 2019). overall, kejawen teachings give the main practice of adhering to the noble rules of life with the aim of forming hanjawani (commendable) morals. this is reflected in data item 3: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 302-319 (3) kejawen teachings continue to be maintained but are guided by the standard. in them, there are rules of life and commendable moral values that are a must for the javanese. there are at least seven kejawen manuscripts that describe this standard, namely kakawin (kawi literature), macapat (carakan literature), babab (history), suluk (spiritual path), kidung (prayers), piwulang (teaching), and primbon (set). these manuscripts cover all aspects of javanese life. there are also many other texts in the form of advice, philosophy, and kaweruh (knowledge). kejawen teachings have practices (laku), and some are based on the religious teachings of javanese philosophers. even though they are based on the same mindset, we can see that not just the teachings of islam have been assimilated—there are hindu and buddhist variations known as kejawen hinduism and kejawen buddhism. data item 4 expresses more about this: (4) kejawen has hundreds of religious sects, such as budi dharma, kawruh begia, maneges, padepokan cakrakembang, pangestu, and sumarah. in its development, religious teachings have also been adopted by the javanese since the royal period. these schools emphasized the balance aspect of life and did not prohibit their members from practicing certain religions. in the nature of javanese thought, there are two cosmoses (natures), namely the macrocosm and the microcosm. the macrocosm represents life within a universe that contains supernatural and mysterious powers, while the microcosm represents life in the real world, so there is a need to find and create a balance between these two cosmoses. for the javanese people, the center of the world is the kings and the palace (the residence of the kings). the king is a source of cosmic power that brings peace, justice, and fertility, while the palace is the sacred center of the kingdom and the residence of the king. in the ancient javanese kejawen script, the religious symbol of hyang using cakrabindu (a sacred symbol) describes kejawen teachings as “directing people.” sangkan paraninh dumadhi, meanwhile, refers to the coming and return of the servant of god, while manunggaling kawula lan gusthi, refers to the unity of a person with god (pranoto, 2008). from this unity, kejawen teachings describe four blessings: 1) mamayu hayuning privadhi (a blessing for oneself); 2) mamayu hayuning kulawarga (a blessing for the family); 3) mamayu hayuning sasama (a blessing for fellow human beings in society); and 4) mamayu hayuning bhawana (a mercy to the universe) (setyawan, 2018). thus, kejawen teachings relate to dimensions of morality and spirituality, because they essentially contain advice and kaweruh (knowledge) for following standards of good behavior toward oneself, one’s family, and one’s society. asmuni 312 the implementation of islamic teachings within the context on kejawen morality and spirituality in javanese society during the digital age the second finding relates to the theme of islamic teachings within the context of kejawen morality and spirituality. this study found that islamic teachings are attached to javanese moral and spiritual teachings in javanese society, and this implementation can be seen in the attitudes, beliefs, and traditions of the people within the javanese muslim community. this spiritual intelligence is very important in the digital age, because people can handle every phenomenon and act wisely in responding to various situations and conditions by taking lessons (mahmood et al., 2018). the teachings of morality embedded in the kejawen islamic way of life manifest in obedience and respect and a sense of responsibility through qualities like honesty, justice, wisdom, helpfulness, and trustworthiness. unfortunately, the existence of kejawen has begun to erode in the midst of the digital age. data item 5 alludes to this: (5) kejawen islamic beliefs are passed down from generation to generation from ethnic javanese muslim ancestors. these beliefs, although some of their traditions have been abandoned, are in fact still tied to the culture of the javanese tribal community. the practice of kejawen is acculturated with sociocultural values in society. even though the people do not adhere to the javanese teachings, they still carry out the traditions taught by kejawen such as nyadran, pasa, and tedhak siti. in islam, religious teachings act as a source for human morality by guiding how people should behave. as explained by rahman (1982), the basic teachings of islam place emphasis on the teachings of god and social justice. islamic teachings are believed to be one of the ngelmu (guidelines for human life) that are passed down from generation to generation by the javanese people. in terms of morality and spirituality, nothing has changed in the hanjawani values (akhlatul kharimah) in the rules of kejawen islamic discourse and kaweruh, even in the digital age. for example, they demand worship, commendable behavior, friendship, and respect for parents. the findings from the interviews show that the changes in society have mostly manifested in socioeconomic activities due to the use of digital technology, but beliefs, morals, and spiritual teachings about god and noble values have not changed from the standard. ngelmu can therefore act as the foundation for carrying out various life activities in the digital age, allowing a person to face all obstacles and evil by starting with strong intentions and faith. data item 6 talks about this: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 302-319 (6) ngelmu (science) and behavior for the javanese islamic community are regulations about good and noble behavior. both are based on javanese spirituality, which emphasizes inner values, not science-based rationality or empiricism. fiber wedhatama by mangku negara iv states, “ngelmu iku kolakone kanthi behavior. lekasi versus cash, tegese cash nyamkosani. setya budya pangekese dur angkara.” thus, knowledge can only be achieved by mujahadah, starting with a firm intention and faith to overcome all obstacles and evil. the success of ngelmu begins with defeating evil passions (dur angkara) to achieve a degree of noble character (akhlak al karimah). in addition, one must cleanse oneself to achieve union with god (manunggaling kawula-gusti). the participants revealed that kejawen islam was born out of the great tradition of the javanese palace, where the values of islamic teachings contained within can rid oneself of despicable traits. in the digital era, islamic values for morality and spirituality help form a harmonious relationship between people and their families, society, and the nature around them. in the midst of the negative impacts of digitalization, there is both moral and ethical degradation in society (laite, 2020), because it serves as a means for radicalizing people into extremists and terrorists (edwards & gribbon, 2013), a cause of mental health problems (scott, et al. 2017), and a trigger for shifts in ethical behavior (messing, et al., 2020). the islamic teachings of kejawen offer a way to cultivate a spiritual intelligence that derives from moral teachings and noble spiritual values from the culture of ethnic traditions. moral teachings in islam refer to subjective and objective moral terms. the former refers to determining good and bad based on something beyond human control, namely revelation and the quran, while the latter refers to determining good and bad based on human reasoning, because it has the capacity to do so. kejawen adopted the islamic teachings of immigrants during the islamic kingdom on the island of java where sultan agung mataram, a philosopher, laid the foundations for kejawen islam in java (widodo & eldo, 2021). kejawen islam therefore contains moral and spiritual teachings that can guide and educate a person to live his or her life under the concept of “balance” between oneself, society, and nature. see data item 7: (7) even though it has entered the digital era, the teachings of kejawen islam can still be seen in the daily lives of javanese people. one of them is the javanese calendar, which has primbon about the day of life, or in the kejawen tradition, it is called the day of birth-marriage-death. other important days are 1) suran (sura new year); 2) market or birth ceremony and aqiqah; 3) mantenan (a wedding with a traditional ceremony); 4) death ceremony and prayers (kenduri, wirid, ngaji) on the 7th, 40th, 1000th, and 3000th days after death; 5) the 28th and asmuni 314 29th of the month of ruwah (the month of spirits) are called megeng pasa days, which are used to send prayers to those who have died, as well as the time of munjung silahturahmi (sending a complete meal with side dishes to the elders of a large family); 6) the 29th and 30th of the pasa month are called megeng sawal days, and they have the same purpose as megeng pasa, namely gathering for those who do not have the opportunity to do so on megeng pasa; 7) the third, fourth, and fifth of the month of shawwal are called kupat holidays, which are performed for parents whose children are abandoned before marriage; 8) the islamic holidays, namely eid al-fitr and eid al-adha; and 9) friday, muludan (mawlid kanjeng prophet muhammad saw) and sekaten (syahadatain). in addition to the javanese calendar traditions, there are also other forms of fasting that are performed on certain days or months: (8) …namely 1) pasa mutih, a fast of only eating white rice and drinking water without any additives; 2) pasa patigeni, fasting where it is only allowed to eat, drink, an sleep in a room without lighting; 3) ngebleng pasa, fasting where it is not allowed to eat and drink or leave the room except to momentarily use the toilet; 4) pasa ngalng, fasting where one does not eat or drink but may sleep and leave for a while; 5) pasa ngrowot, fasting where it is not allowed to eat rice, and one can only eat fruits or vegetables; 6) wungon pasa, fasting where you are not allowed to eat and drink, and you must sit cross-legged and put your hands on your knees while concentrating on what is planned for that day; 7) tapa jejeg pasa, fasting where it is not allowed to eat and drink and one must stand for at least 12 hours; and 8) pasa ngelowong, fasting where it is not allowed to eat and drink for a certain time (kasinu & rokhmawanto, 2016). research reveals that the kejawen teachings of morality and spirituality basically refer to noble character values. this is clear from the results of interviews, where participants explain the values of god and living in society. in the teachings of kejawen, which are also compatible with islam, the belief of kejawen itself is used as a way of life. the novelty of this research lies in the findings that mention the implications of kejawen islamic teachings in the digital era, something that has not been mentioned in previous research. it can be understood that kejawen islamic spirituality, if applied correctly, can instill a mindset about the oneness of god and help achieve security and inner peace in life without having to abandon the benefits of modernization and globalization in the digital era. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 302-319 conclusion this research has revealed that the kejawen teachings for morality and spirituality emphasize rules (standards) for a good life and being able to form hanjawani (commendable) morals through mujahadah (spiritual behavior). it can be concluded that kejawen islam, which combines islamic teachings and ethnic javanese traditions, manifests in a form of spiritual intelligence and akhlatul kharimah. people who understand and practice ngelmu and laku can more wisely respond to challenging situations and conditions in the digital era and foster harmonious relationships between themselves, other people, and the natural environment. future studies could build upon this study by studying the cultural traditions of various ethnic groups around the world and how they relate to religious values, as well as go into more depth about the impacts of modernization. this research also reflects the important role of government and society in preserving ancestral traditions that foster noble character values, because these can help form spiritual intelligence and ethical morals for counteracting the negative influences of some foreign cultures and modern technology. references abdel-aziz, a. a., abdel-salam, h., & el-sayad, z. (2016). the role of icts in creating the new social public place of the digital era. alexandria engineering journal, 55(1), 487–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2015.12.019 arendt, h. (1994). some questions of moral philosophy. social research, 61(4), 739–764. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40971058. arifin, m., abdullah, i., & ratnawati, a. t. (2019). contestation between puritan islam and kejawen in the urban yogyakarta of indonesia. al-albab, 8(2), 193–210. https://doi.org/10.24260/alalbab.v8i2.1460 bhat, a. (2019). islamic philosophy of education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 73-76. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 buckley, a. b. (1982). moral teachings of science (7th ed.). new york: d. appleton & co publishers. creswell, j.w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). london: sage publications. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 asmuni 316 https://books.google.co.id/books?id=4ub76ic_poqc&printsec=copyright&hl=id#v=one page&q&f=false. edwards, c., & gribbon, l. (2013). pathways to violent extremism in the digital era. rusi journal, 158(5), 40–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071847.2013.847714 elkins, d. n., hedstrom, l. j., hughes, l. l., leaf, j. a., & saunders, c. (1988). toward a humanistic-phenomenological spirituality: definition, description, and measurement. journal of humanistic psychology, 28(4), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167888284002 ernsberger, d. j., & manaster, g. j. (1981). moral development , intrinsic/extrinsic religious orientation and denominational teachings. genetic psychology monographs, 104(1), 23–41. evans-amalu, k., lucey, t., & lin, m. (2021). spirituality and mindfulness practices of early childhood and elementary preservice teachers: a snapshot. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 207-221. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.12 fanani, a. (2018). the javanese quest of islamic spirituality in suluk wujil: a semiotic reading. analisa: journal of social science and religion, 3(2), 221–238. https://doi.org/10.18784/analisa.v3i02.654 fatmawati, e. (2021). strategies to grow a proud attitude towards indonesian cultural diversity. linguistics and culture review, 5(1), 810–820. https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5ns1.1465. habibi, h. (2020). hoax: technological mechanisms, moral degradation, and critical loss of society’s reason. diadikasia journal, 1(1), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.21428/8c841009.9f295293 inglehart, r. (2018). culture shift in advanced industrial society. new jersey, as: princeton university press. jamilah, s. (2021). moderate islamic education to enhance nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0, journal of social studies education research, 12(3), 79-100. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3506 kasinu, a., & rokhmawanto, s. (2016). islamic education for community of coastal south java (a case study of coastal south regency in purworejo, central java). jurnal pendidikan islam, 5(1), 171–191. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.14421/jpi.2016.51.171-191 kim, d., & jia, f. (2020). “ever wondered what schizophrenia was?”: students’ digital storytelling about mental disorders. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 144169. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.14 laite, j. (2020). the emmet’s inch: 'small' history in a digital age. journal of social history, 53(4), 963–989. https://doi.org/10.1093/jsh/shy118. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.12 https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5ns1.1465 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.14 https://doi.org/10.1093/jsh/shy118 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 302-319 magesa, l. (2014). african religion: the moral traditions of abundant life. orbit books. https://doi.org/10.2307/1581564. pp. 499-501. mahmood, a., arshad, m. a., ahmed, a., akhtar, s., & khan, s. (2018). spiritual intelligence research within human resource development: a thematic review, management research review, 41. https://doi.org/10.1108/mrr-03-2017-0073 mccabe, b. j. (2007). the influences of sufism and kejawen in indonesian political discourse. university honors. retrieved from http://commons.lib.niu.edu/handle/10843/16695 messing, j., bagwell-gray, m., brown, m. l., kappas, a., & durfee, a. (2020). intersections of stalking and technology-based abuse: emerging definitions, conceptualization, and measurement. journal of family violence, 35(7), 693–704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896019-00114-7 nasution, d., muda, i., sumekar, a., & abubakar, e. (2021). analysis of the economic behavior of society e-commerce as an impact on the development of the 4.0 industrial revolution and society 5.0. in proceedings of the 2nd eai bukittinggi international conference on education, biced (pp. 1–9). bukititinggi, west sumatera, indonesia: european alliance for innovation. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.14-9-2020.2305669 nyamai, d. (2021). the secreted curriculum and youth education to become the professionals the world craves for. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 169-193. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.10 ohlin, c. (2019). information and communication technology in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.4 pastor-escuredo, d., & vinuesa, r. (2020). towards and ethical framework in the complex digital era. arxiv preprint arxiv:2010.10028. permana, i. y. (2019). eksistensi kejawen di tengah era modern. newslab.uajy.ac.id. retrieved from http://newslab.uajy.ac.id/2019/12/10/e ksistensi-kejawen-di-tengah-eramodern/ pranoto, t. (2008). spiritualitas kejawen: ilmu kasunyatan, wawasan & pemahaman, penghayatan & pengamalan. yogyakarta: kuntul press. https://opac.perpusnas.go.id/detailopac.aspx?id=441820 pratisti, s. a. (2018). syncretism of islam and javanism. in international conference on culture and language in southeast asia (icclas 2017) (vol. 154, pp. 189–192). atlantis press. roqib, m. (2021). increasing social class through islamic boarding schools in indonesia. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 12(2), 305-329. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3291 rosmarin, d. h., & koenig, h. g. (2020). handbook of spirituality, religion, and mental health. https://doi.org/10.2307/1581564 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.4 asmuni 318 academic press. sari, d. p., susanto, d., & marimin. (2020). the form of kejawen islam in nyanggar janur kuning rituals in indonesia. international journal of multicultural and multireligious understanding, 7(1), 623–628. savitri, p. l., purbadi, y. d., & sumardiyanto, b. (2020). architectural acculturation: islamic and javanese spiritual elements in sumur gumuling design at tamansari, yogyakarta. jurnal arsitektur komposisi, 13(2), 73–85. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.24002/jars.v13i2.3399 scott, d. a., valley, b., & simecka, b. a. (2017). mental health concerns in the digital age. international journal of mental health and addiction, 15(3), 604–613. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-016-9684-0 setyawan, a. y. (2018). spirituality, ritual and materiality: hendrawan riyanto ’ s contemporary ceramics practice in indonesia. academic international de la ceramique. https://www.aic-iac.org/wp-content/uploads/albert-yonathansetyawan_lecture_2oct2018.pdf. shahriyari, r. (2019). the principles of nurturing children´ s moral virtues based on educational teachings of hazrat zahra (as). ethic winter, 8(2), 1–13. shatunova, o., bozhkova, g., tarman,b. & shastina e. (2021). transforming the reading preferences of today’s youth in the digital age: intercultural dialog, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(3), 62-73. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 shaw, r., kim, y. kyun, & hua, j. (2020). governance, technology and citizen behavior in pandemic: lessons from covid-19 in east asia. progress in disaster science, 6, 100090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2020.100090 solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177-197. sugiharto, b. (2008). javanese epistemology revisited. melintas, 24(3), 369–384. https://doi.org/10.26593/mel.v24i3.941.369-384 suntana, i., & tresnawaty, b. (2021). multidimensional social crisis and religious violence in southeast asia: regional strategic agenda, weak civilian government, triune crime, wealth gaps, and coopted journalism. journal of culture and values in education, 4(2), 113. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2 tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed wacławek, j. (2015). nie-religia w yogyakarcie (jawa centralna). historia, problemy i wyzwania http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 302-319 kejawen. studia religiologica. zeszyty naukowe uniwersytetu jagiellońskiego, 48(3), 259– 270. https://doi.org/10.4467/20844077sr.15.019.3790 wasisto, m. a. (2021). reflecting on kejawen: javanese esoteric teachings in indonesian national development. udayana journal of law and culture, 5(2), 96. https://doi.org/10.24843/ujlc.2021.v05.i02.p01 widodo, a. s., & eldo, d. h. a. p. (2021, january). strengthening in-local wisdom disaster risk reduction on mount slamet. in icons 2020: proceedings of the 1st international conference on social science, humanities, education and society development, icons 2020, 30 november, tegal, indonesia (p. 278). european alliance for innovation. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.30-11-2020.2303718 zhang, y & wildemuth, b. m. (2009). qualitative analysis of content, in: b. m. wildemuth, ed., applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science, libraries unlimited, 2009. pp. 1-12. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (4), 170-196 online learning on the covid-19 pandemic to create educational access inequality subur1 abstract education is the right of every student, therefore access to education is a necessity. education during a pandemic is carried out through online learning as an alternative. the goal is to ensure continuity of education for students. with online learning, it is hoped that students can still learn optimally because it is supported by more practical and efficient facilities so that they can learn without having to go to school. in online learning, various difficulties are faced by students. students from underprivileged circles feel the most difficulty in this online learning. this paper focuses on research on the experiences of students from economically disadvantaged families in accessing education. the research objective was to analyze inequality in access to education, including its factors and implications. sources of data in this study were elementary school teachers in the district kedungbanteng and students who do not have online learning tools. this research uses descriptive-qualitative-phenomenological research with data collection through field observations and open interviews with informants. the collected data were analyzed through reduction, display and verification of data / conclusions. the results showed that the difficulty of access felt by students from economically weak circles in the form of (1) online learning activities were given in the form of giving assignments using the whatsapp group application which was considered the easiest application, (2) student participation in online learning activities was low because students must borrow a cellphone belonging to a relative or friend, (3) students have difficulty accessing learning resources from the internet, (4) most parents are unable to provide regular assistance or help complete their child's assignments, because of the time available more used to earn a living, so that children's difficulties are not resolved properly, (5) the learning conditions of students at home have the initiative to learn independently, but there are those who do not have the initiative to learn so that time is used a lot to play, (6) motivation student learning decreased by curry na there is no interaction with teachers or friends, while parents are less accustomed to encouraging learning, even though they are with children at home and (7) the teacher's assessment of students who cannot afford it is based on work results which are then compared with the results of pre-term assignments pandemic. keywords: access to education, inequality in education, online learning, pandemic period. introduction education is a basic necessity for every child’s life prospects. every child, regardless of social status, has the right to receive an education even in difficult situations, so nothing should hinder a child’s right to receive an education (tareen & haand, 2020). the government is also obliged to provide facilities to support a smooth and successful education. through its various agencies, the 1dr. state islamic university (uin) prof. kh. saifuddin zuhri purwokerto, indonesia, email: subur@uinsaizu.ac.id mailto:subur@uinsaizu.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 indonesian government has made efforts to improve educational resources, systems, and facilities. however, considering the vast territories of indonesia and its very diverse culture, not all these improvements could be realized quickly (budiharso & tarman 2020). adequate education provision has therefore not happened in all indonesia’s regions. many children still cannot study because they live in remote areas with no access to digital communication, and poverty is also a factor (hoe et al., 2021). education during the covid-19 pandemic happened through online systems to avoid contact and the associated spread of disease. the goal was to continue the acquisition of knowledge, values, and skills going forward (salehudin, et al., 2020). in theory, online learning has various advantages (e.g., it is practical, efficient, modern) because it is supported by digital technology. it is also an indicator of progress in society (van deursen, 2020). at the same time, however, online learning is a source of contention in the world of education due to several technical problems in terms of the necessary supporting facilities, such as access to devices and internet connectivity. this presented an additional burden for students, teachers, and parents. students from underprivileged families felt this limitation the most. some teachers and parents also had problems adapting, so such problems need to be resolved quickly, so learning can take place smoothly (lubkov et al., 2020). online learning studies were unthinkable at one time. knowledge and values are generally passed on when learning is carried out through direct, in-person interactions between individuals. indeed, education is generally more complete when conducted face to face, but the covid-19 pandemic forced education to move online (naziaha, et al., 2020). online learning became an attractive option for continuing access to education, but it required the existence of hardware, connection signals, data quotas, prepared content and learning programs, and student participation. there is a growing belief that online learning will be used in the future, even though it has had an impact in terms of student access inequalities that were not anticipated (jones & sharma, 2020). this paper conveys the specific experiences of students from economically disadvantaged families when participating in online learning activities. these relate to accessing learning and adapting to overcome the problems. online learning is indeed a new alternative, but it created a number of access problems for students from economically disadvantaged circles (kim et al., 2021). however, something new can generally be accepted once the various teaching troubles have been addressed. subur 172 research (e.g., evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; nur’aini, 2021; purwanto et. al, 2020) into online learning experiences during the covid-19 period has been mostly carried out by academics, observers, and education practitioners. these studies indicated that in addition to the convenience of online learning, there were also many obstacles for teachers, students, and supporting systems, because it was new and largely unfamiliar. the research revealed the various experiences and responses of teachers, students, and parents to online learning at various levels of education and their implications for the wider community. the studies focused on students from economically disadvantaged families and their inequality in accessing education through online learning. this inequality is based on students’ ability to participate in online learning, opportunities for connecting to the internet, and an inability to prepare learning tools. other factors relate to the state of the online learning infrastructure, the digital literacy of students, and the abilities of their parents, as well as the implications for standardized evaluations, descriptions of students’ competencies, and experiences in determining a mastery of technology. thus, this study focuses on the causes of, and the implications of, unequal access to education. this paper departs from the assumption that online learning during the covid-19 pandemic has been a perfect solution for students to continue learning. it instead visits the differences in access to learning for students with various socioeconomic backgrounds. while online learning provides convenience, because it can be done in a practical and efficient way, even during a pandemic, there are differences in the ability to access it. students who can access it effectively tend to do well, while those who cannot due to financial reasons tend to perform poorly. indeed, some students’ families can afford the necessary tools, while others cannot. thus, online learning presents problems for both the students and parents of poorer families, and it also requires adapted behaviors (zhang et al., 2020). this study therefore sought to determine (1) the barriers to students accessing education, (2) the factors limiting their access to education, and (3) the implications that this limited access has for students’ education. research questions this paper posits that transitioning to online learning during this pandemic was a necessary step, but it has led to many fundamental problems, especially for students from poorer backgrounds, so the study discusses how to solve them. from this theme, three research questions were formulated: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 1) how does unequal access to education for poorer students during coved-19 pandemic occur in indonesia? 2) what factors lead to this unequal access for poorer students during coved-19 pandemic occur in indonesia? 3) what implications does this inequality have for poorer students during coved-19 pandemic occur in indonesia? literature review online learning online learning is generally defined as a form of learning that delivers learning content through digital communication, usually using the internet as the main medium for interaction between students and teachers (tareen & haand, 2020). online learning can involve various technologies such as the world wide web, email, chat applications, sms messages, and audio and video conferencing through computer networks (ez-zaouia et al., 2020). according to wang et al. (2018), online learning (e-learning) is positioned as allowing people to study anytime and anywhere without the need to leave their homes. in addition, online learning practices can have many positive impacts on the learning process, with the teacher being a facilitator. indeed, many universities and colleges have long used online learning as an alternative main method for learning (king & boyatt, 2015). however, in the current situation, online learning was implemented quickly as an alternative to the usual learning process by schools and colleges around the world in order to continue learning during the covid-19 pandemic despite lockdowns in various regions (salleh et al., 2020). in general, online learning during the covid-19 pandemic has faced many challenges, such as problems with students, educators, and learning content. it has been challenging for institutions to engage students and encourage them to participate in the online teaching and learning process. in addition, teachers have also had to adapt and change their teaching methodologies and effectively manage learning time. content development is also a crucial challenge that not only includes the curriculum but also involves students (dhawan, 2020). in the opinion of patricia aguilerahermida (2020), online learning has produced various reactions because of the rapid transition triggered by the covid-19 pandemic, so many students report that online learning experiences are unpleasant and there is a lack of supporting resources, such as access to learning centers, libraries, and interaction with teachers. this has become an important challenge during the transition to subur 174 online learning, because direct interaction is usually a motivating factor for students to engage in learning (olawale et al., 2021). this opinion was also supported by adnan (2020), who posited that conventional learning in the classroom through face-to-face interactions is more motivating than when distance learning. there therefore needs to be considerable evaluation of the implementation of online learning, especially during the covid-19 pandemic (hodges et al., 2020; wolhuter & jacobs, 2021). inequality in access to education education inequality has escalated due to the digital divide and covid-19-related lockdowns in various countries (tarman, 2020). more specifically, internet access is not evenly distributed among the population, so the use of the internet for online learning has not produced a consistent effect (van deursen, 2020). the digital divide relates to an imbalance in students having access to the internet and the related computers and tablets, especially as there have been decreases in people’s incomes since the start of the pandemic (odriozola-chéné et al., 2020). this gap in online education is felt deeply in rural communities, who generally need additional support to address the educational challenges created by the covid-19 pandemic. we therefore need policies from school leaders and policymakers to prioritize computer and internet access for rural communities (bacherhicks et al., 2021). according to azubuike et al. (2020), the relationship between socioeconomic status and school type can validate bourdieu’s theory of sociocultural reproduction by considering that digital and education inequality are related to classical inequalities in urban sociocultural forms. in addition, it is not just about access, because many may lack the digital skills needed to participate in online learning. the difference in accessing online learning implementations is directly proportional to the clear socioeconomic stratification that exists in the community in terms of a lack of internet infrastructure, equipment, and training, which are major obstacles for the lower socioeconomic classes (carter et al., 2020). in addition, the difficulties resulting from the covid-19 pandemic have caused suffering, so many are more resistant to online learning, children lack adequate knowledge, and parents lack the time, facilities, and professional knowledge to support online learning (dong et al., 2020). in addition to the specific effects of covid-19, developing countries often have a background of educational problems due to high poverty rates, and distance education solutions are particularly difficult to implement due to inadequate access to electricity and journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 telecommunications. this is indeed the case in many regions of indonesia bottrell & armstrong, 2007). the inequality problem is a major challenge for all elements of the country to address in order to advance education in future. covid-19 therefore provides the momentum for the government to improve the education system, especially for online education. student competence competence is an important part of measuring students’ development. according to baartman & de bruijn (2011), student competence is an individual’s ability to integrate knowledge, skills, and attitudes when engaging in learning, be it cognitive, affective, or psychomotor learning. according to nellitawati (2017), meanwhile, student competence does not only include cognitive, affective, and psychomotor competencies but is also related to spiritual competence by understanding spiritual values and norms. this assessment is also based on the suitability and effectiveness of student learning performance (mcnamara, 2013). in general, increased student competence can be achieved with a learning project model that is conducted in groups (usmeldi, 2019). the teacher is a very important component in evaluating and assessing the competence of students with the same characteristics and regulatory variables. this can be implemented by giving exams at the end of a set learning period (stupans, 2017). student competence positively correlates with the ability to practice for a longer time (hart, 2014). the evaluations of competence can be documented, classified, and compared with other students to guide changes toward better learning (ilyasin, 2019). ideally, online learning has many advantages for helping the learning process and improving student competence. indeed, the use of features in some software can accelerate learning, and even online learning with an e-learning system can be adapted to the learning style of each student (abdulmajid et al., 2017). however, the current online learning that is being applied all over the world has come about due to the covid-19 pandemic. online learning is heavily dependent on technology and the internet, so it has a major impact on students with poor connectivity and/or no access to digital devices for online learning. many students find that they simply cannot participate in online learning due to limited ict resources, and if they only have access to older equipment, it may cause difficulties in terms of accessing assignments and learning materials (adedoyin & soykan, 2020). thus, the achievement of student competencies through online learning must be accompanied with supporting factors, such as having adequate tools, the ability to access subur 176 information, good internet connectivity, and a home environment that is conducive to the learning process (beaunoyer et al., 2020) methods design this study is a phenomenological design that aims to investigate and uncover human life experiences (caelli, 2001; groenewald, 2004). doing phenomenology, as defined by bentz and shapiro (1998) and kensit (2000), requires capturing detailed descriptions of experiences and their contexts. it attempts to understand the subjects from their own perspective to describe human experience to give an account of what a person actually feels and thinks (bentz & shapiro, 1998) and to allow the essence to emerge (cameron et al., 2001). as subjects, students and teachers partaking in online learning during the covid-19 pandemic are the focus here (coffey & atkinson, 1996; greene, 1997). between november 2020 and february 2021, this study was conducted in the northern banyumas regency. there are mountains and valleys in this area, making it difficult for many kids to participate in online learning activities because of the severe economic and topographical conditions there. participants the study included 33 people: 21 primary school teachers and 12 pupils (5 in grade v and 7 in grade vi). the teachers taught at north banyumas. an informant's secrecy is maintained by using the abbreviation “i.” followed by a number (groenewald, 2004; bentz & shapiro, 1998). the teachers were chosen based on their suburban assignments and their pupils' knowledge. students were chosen based on their financial circumstances, such as not having a smartphone for online study, and information from their teachers (groenewald, 2004). but not all pupils who couldn't access online learning were taken because their issues were similar. table 1. table 1 demography of the participants no participants grade 5 grade 6 total f % f % a teacher = 21 10 30.3 11 33.3 21 1 male 4 12.1 5 15.2 9 2 female 6 18.1 6 18.2 12 b students =12 5 15.2 7 21.2 12 1 male 2 6.1 3 9.1 5 2 female 3 9.1 4 12.1 7 15 45.5 18 54.5 n=33 f=100 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 instruments this study used a five-item interview guide as its primary tool. interview questions covered topics such as barriers to online learning, students' digital literacy and parental support, and the implications for standardized assessment measurement tools, such as student participation in online learning and opportunities for internet access. the interview guide also included information about advantages and disadvantages related to student participation in online learning (caelli, 2001; groenewald, 2004; bentz and shapiro 1998). an expert reviewed the interview guide to ensure the items were valid before data collection began. wording was changed and our inquiries as the introduction before collecting the substance data were stressed to initiate the conversation, as a consequence of expert opinion. after that, the guide's suggested questions were asked in their entirety. data collection in the most direct manner possible, information was gathered regarding how the individuals think and feel (bentz & shapiro, 1998). it was the researcher's goal to understand what was going on inside the participants' heads, and he asked them to express their lived experience in a language that was free from intellectual and social conceptions as much as possible (vandenberg, 1997). the data collecting process consisted of interviews, which were conducted either through the whatsapp chat app or in-person meetings, which were supplemented with field notes. because of the pandemic scenario, interviews with instructors were conducted via whatsapp, while interviews with kids were conducted face-to-face in person. the interviews with students were primarily intended to gain an understanding of their perceptions on online learning. when conducting interviews, informants were asked a series of questions utilizing the instruments that had been developed in advance of the interview. all interviews were taped, with the permission of the interviewees, and utilized in this way (arksey & knight, 1999; bailey, 1996). it was allocated an interview code, like "participant, 21 may 2002," for each interview. in cases where more than one interview was conducted on the same day, each interview was given a unique alphabet character. each interview was recorded on a separate cassette by the researcher. each interview tape had a label on it with the code assigned to it. after each interview, the researcher listened to the audio and took notes as quickly as possible. research subur 178 participants/informants' voices were allowed to be heard by the researcher who recorded significant words, phrases and utterances. qualitative research uses field notes as a secondary data storage strategy to collect and organize information. taking field notes by the researcher is essential in qualitative research because the human mind has a tendency to forget information rapidly (lofland & lofland, 1999). thus, following each interview, the researcher must discipline himself or herself to record as completely as possible without passing judgment, such as "what happened and who was involved?" who was involved in this? what location did the activities take place? "what caused an incident to occur, and how did it occur?" says the author. lofland and lofland (1999) also stressed that field notes "should be written no later than the morning after" they were taken. aside from discipline, field notes also incorporate "luck, feelings, timing, playfulness, and art" into their composition (bailey, 1996: 13). data analysis according to coffey and atkinson (1996), analysis is defined as the methodical process of identifying fundamental aspects and interactions between those features and their surroundings. the data analysis include (1) bracketing and reduction, (2) delineation of units of meaning, (3) clustering of units of meaning, (4) summarization of each interview, and (5) the extraction of general and unique themes from all interviews. the procedure is broken down into five phases: 1. bracketing and phenomenological reduction the researcher's personal opinions or preconceptions are represented by bracketing (miller & crabtree, 1992). holloway (1997) and hycner (1999) urge that the researcher listen to the audio recording of each interview several times in order to become familiar with the words of the interviewee/informant in order to generate a holistic sense. zinker (1978) notes that the term phenomenology refers to a procedure that places an emphasis on the individual experiences of participants in a study. the fact that those personal experiences took place in the present moment lends them an existential sense of immediacy. in this research, the researcher listened frequently the record on interview to find themes appropriate to the research questions and listed the themes as the data. 2. delineating units of meaning the next step of analysis in this study is delineating units of meaning. the researcher worked based on the results of themes listed. from each interview, a list of relevant meaning units is journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 compiled, and those that appear to be redundant are deleted (moustakas, 1994). so the researcher takes into account all of these factors, as well as any non-verbal or para-linguistic cues that may have been used to convey a meaning. the real meaning of two seemingly comparable units of meaning may differ based on the weight or the chronology of the events that make up those units (hycner, 1999). 3. clustering of units of meaning to form themes the third step of analysis is clustering units of meaning to form themes. in this regards, the researcher must again bracket their presuppositions after compiling a list of non-redundant meaning units. the researcher attempts to elicit the essence of meaning of units in a holistic context by meticulously studying the list of meaning units. by grouping together units of meaning (creswell, 2016; moustakas, 1994) and identifying major subjects, the researcher creates a cluster of themes (sadala & adorno, 2001). in both holloway (1997) and hycner (1999), the necessity of returning to the recorded interview and returning to the list of non-redundant units of meaning is emphazised. the clusters are often overlapped, which is to be expected given the nature of human activities. "which expresses the essence of these clusters" are found by examining the meaning of each cluster (hycner, 1999, p. 153). 4. summarizing each interview, validating it and where necessary modifying it the outcomes of the interview were validated and adjusted in the next analysis session. the researcher then returns to the informant to confirm that the essence of the interview has been appropriately captured (hycner, 1999). this validity check emphasizes the truth-value of qualitative research and lists a number of ways to reach truth. the phenomenological research design aided truth in this study. the researcher bracketed himself purposefully to comprehend the phenomenon that the focus was on an insider perspective. the audio recordings of each interview and the bracketing during transcription contributed to the truth. then each got a copy of the text to make sure it matched their views on the phenomenon. next is a summary of the study's findings. 5. extracting general and unique themes from all the interviews and making a composite summary as soon as the entire interview procedure has been completed, the researcher will seek for themes and variants that appear in many, if not all, of the interviews (hycner, 1999:154). if there are major variances, it is important to avoid grouping similar subjects together. there are essential counterpoints to the phenomenon being examined in the form of unique or minority viewpoints. it subur 180 is imperative that researchers write a composite summary that reflects the environment or horizon where the themes were first discovered (hycner, 1999; moustakas, 1994). at this moment, the researcher changes the participants' daily expressions into expressions relevant to the scientific discourse supporting the investigation (sadala & adorno, 2001). coffey & atkinson (1996) emphasize that effective research is not generated by rigorous data alone but by going beyond the facts to generate new ideas. results through observations and interviews, data were obtained for online learning during the covid-19 pandemic, with it being regarded differently from one student to another, from one place to another. some students experienced challenges in engaging with the online learning process, especially those from disadvantaged socioeconomic groups. unequal access to education during covid-19 outbreak in order to respond to research question 1, the testimony of one instructor and seven pupils is presented. the following hurdles to obtaining higher education were discovered, notably poor economic conditions and the implications of these conditions for students' learning results. the issues that have evolved in relation to uneven access can be divided into three categories. • student participation rate during the covid-19 pandemic • level of ability for accessing online sources of knowledge (e.g., youtube, google, etc.) • did not possess a supported device according to the findings of this study, low-income students face particularly severe smartphone ownership issues. because pupils aren't allowed to use cellphones in class, teachers believe, they are less motivated to learn and participate in class activities. students who solely complete paperbased assignments are showing signs of learning loss, as are those who are unable to participate in class discussions because they lack a cell phone and those who have never completed an online project. see (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5). teacher (i.1) expressed the following: (1) “student participation in online learning was classified as low and not timely, because it was awkward and decreased learning motivation. during the covidjournal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 19 period, students could not study as they had done face-to-face. they could only study in the form of doing assignments, and if they did not understand, by sending questions via whatsapp. it could not follow a written schedule due to the absence of smartphones, with students using them alternately with siblings who go to different schools or borrowing a friend’s phone because their houses are close to each other. during the covid-19 era, there was one child who could not participate in learning at all because he did not have a cellphone. his father had died and his mother was insane. as a solution, children were given student worksheets (lks) to help study at home”. aditia ramdani, a fifth grade student at sd kebaseh i, said: (2) “i never studied at home and never did my assignments because i didn’t have a cellphone and my parents (mother) died and my father worked in the river breaking stones to sell, so he left early in the morning and came home late in the evening. that is when he comes home looking tired and needing rest, so there is no time to help me study.“ there was also bintang andika, a grade 6 child, who said: (3) i never attended lessons and did not collect the assignments given by the school because i didn’t have a cellphone and didn’t have time to do my assignments because i lived with my elderly grandmother, while my mother was paralyzed. every day, i often take care of my mother, who can’t do anything. my friends also did not come to the house because it was forbidden to gather together. another student, radila, said, (4) “i’m not studying at home. i’m mostly doing my assignments, but because i don’t have a cellphone, i go to my friends place to ask about school assignments.” meanwhile, muhammad feri riyanto, a grade 6 student, said: (5) i don’t study because i don’t have a cellphone, and i can’t gather [with other students]. i want to study, so i feel lazy. i like to help my father break river stones to sell so we can get money to live, even if i have to study at night. i think it’s about an hour, and that is also not routine, because sometimes it is night when we finish breaking stones. statements of students that have no handphone that affect students did not study at school is extracted based on data (6), (7), and (8). the testimony show that the students did not work their assignment, joint with a friend who has a handphone, and do not involve in the classroom at all. ulfatun azizah said: (6) i don’t have a cellphone, so i can’t learn much. at least if i have a new school assignment, i go to a friend [winda, who has a cellphone] whose house is less than a kilometer away to ask for assignments given by school. i write it out and i do it at home, and then i take it to school. if i don’t have school assignments, to subur 182 fill my spare time, i work on the questions in the book because this also increases my knowledge. meanwhile, muhammad rizal said: (7) at home, i never studied at home. i only collected assignments given by the teacher through a borrowed vivo cellphone from my uncle, because my parents didn’t have a cellphone. i borrowed my uncle’s cell phone at seven in the morning because the cellphone would be taken to his work as a ngglondong (a laborer cutting and transporting wood). i can’t do my assignments smoothly because there is no one to help if i have difficulty with hard questions. teguh waluyo also said: (8) while i was at home, i studied. most of all, i did the assignments given by the teacher at school. if there was an assignment from the teacher, i went to my friend alfa’s place to ask about the assignment given by the school. i am sad that i cannot study at school. at home, lilik sarinah helps sometimes at night. level of ability for accessing online sources of knowledge (e.g., youtube, google, etc.) regarding the ability to access online sources, the evidence show five sorts of preblems, as indicated below: • did not possess a supported device • technological literacy • mobile networks • technological literacy • parental support did not possess a supported device ulfatun azizah/alfin) said, (9) “i’ve never accessed the internet because i don’t have a cellphone, even though i really want to be like my other friends.” bintang andika, meanwhile, said, “i don’t have a cellphone, but i can open youtube, because i learned to use bulik khulaifia’s cellphone when i had nothing to do.” aditia ramdani said, (10 “i don’t have a cellphone, but i can use it because i sometimes borrow my cousin huda’s. i used to use a smartphone, but now i have forgot it again because i don’t have a cellphone.” journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 did not possess a supported device the prohibition of gatherings and frequent interactions due to the emergence of covid-19 caused decreases in incomes in developing economies, and other issues deriving from economic problems also manifested (dewi, 2020). several children (muhammad rizal, ramdani, naefa rahmania, ulfatun azizah, muhammad feri riyanto, bintang andika, aditia, and teguh waluyo) explained that they did not have cellphones, and while some of them had cellphone signals at home, they often couldn’t connect because of the valley’s location. factors limiting access to education for students research question 2 regards with access factors to access online facilities. factors that limited the access to education for students include: • mobile networks • technological literacy • parental support mobile networks muhammad rizal said, (11) “the only network is telkomsel, because here the place is low. at home, this signal is actually comfortable, but there is no cellphone for studying, and i go to a friend who has a cellphone but no signal, so in the end, it is difficult to learn. the only network is telkomsel, that’s all, and if there is no signal in the valley, my friends who have cellphones have to run upstairs first.” teacher (i.3) expressed: (12) in online learning, teachers are not required to use certain applications or websites (e.g., google classroom, whatsapp, google meet, zoom, etc.), so it is up to each teacher to use the application that is considered easiest for students, because in principle this can help students to study at home. technological literacy the level of technological literacy among poorer students was illustrated by the following data: (13) “i don’t have a cellphone, but i have been taught by a friend to be able to open youtube and find additional study material,” said ulfatun azizah. according to miskatin irma: subur 184 (14) “children now adapt quickly, even though they are not very skilled. children who do not have cellphones can operate them even though they are limited to whatsapp and the internet. usually, when they meet friends at school, they borrow their cellphones for a while if they happen to be not using them, and that’s where the children seem to have learned to open whatsapp and access the internet. (15) “students’ ability to operate devices is still weak, especially for students who cannot afford cellphones, and they cannot operate cellphones by themselves,” said teacher (i.1). parental support the level of parental support, in supplementing the teacher’s role, for children can be seen in the following statement of ulfatun azizah: (16) “my mother works to find cardamom in the garden to sell. she never helps with my assignments, because if she reads an assignment and doesn’t understand it, she gets dizzy. in the opposite, radila said: “my parents never pay attention to me because they go with my old grandmother, so they can’t teach me. yes, i never study, sometimes at night, sometimes. my parents never helped me study because they cannot read.” the parents of the students are generally laborers working in areas like construction and domestic help, so they leave early in the morning and come home late. some also care for elderly relatives, so they cannot help them to study. what is more, many parents do not understand the digital world, as expressed by istianah (i.3): (17) on average, the guardians of students work from morning to evening with heavy physical labor, so in the end, they can only see their children after sunset. even then, they are very tired, so they prefer to take a break, resulting in them not paying much attention to their children’s lessons, which should be accompanying learning. there are three kinds of attitudes for parents toward children at home: just advise their children to study, accompany their children in studying and help with assignments, and accompany their children but not be able to help with assignments. furthermore, teacher (i.1), said, (18) on average, parents cannot replace the teacher. in addition to many who are busy with work and have not engaged with the subject matter being studied by children for a long time, they mostly find it difficult to explain the subject matter to children because the current curriculum is difficult, and it is very different to the curriculum used when parents used to study, so they often don’t connect with it. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 implications of limited access to education for students finally, research question 3 answers the implication of limited access for student performance. the implications of limited access for poorer students consist of three themes below. • evaluating students during the covid-19 pandemic • students’ competence • technology’s role evaluating students during the covid-19 pandemic teachers claim to employ a comparable criterion of evaluation to determine student success during the pandemic era of the pandemic. prior to the epidemic era, the fundamental rules to be followed included questions, assignments, attendance in class, and participation. as part of the covid-19 era, the indicators have been lowered and are now based solely on paper-based assignments and google form examinations. students who do not have access to a smartphone are given a paperbased exam, which they must complete and submit manually to the instructors. teacher (i.2) said: (19) to determine student achievement, i basically do an assessment using the usual norms (e.g., questions, assignments, attendance, activeness). but during the covid-19 pandemic, the measuring tool i often used was assignments that i conveyed to students, and after the assignments were returned, i then corrected them one by one. even then, sometimes there were those who turned in too late, but i understand. in the past, i used the results of tests that were done in school. something somewhat different was conveyed by (i.4): (20) i assess student achievement not solely based on the level of truth of the student in doing assignments or answering questions, but also based on the speed at which students submit the assignment sheet or question answers to me, because if it was based on the correctness of the answers to the questions, i would not know exactly how students did the questions or whether they did them with their own abilities or with the help of others. but previously i said that students who are quicker to return assignments will have it considered in their grades. teacher (1.3) said: (21) in determining student achievement in class, i first check the assignments done by students to see what is right and wrong, and after that, i compare it with the assignments the students did before covid. i compare the forms of writing style and the language used. i compare the students’ abilities with the work that was deposited, and sometimes the tasks that were done before and after covid were subur 186 completely different. most were better work after covid, so teachers indeed often have difficulty determining grades for students. teacher (i.1), meanwhile, said: (22) i judge students in this pandemic era first by using google forms to fill in the students, and i also make a short video about the assignment i have given, but because it is very hard for students, especially for children who don’t have cellphones, they are sorry that they can’t do it at all. in the end, i replaced this by giving assignments to be done at home and then submitted to the school. even then, they were often not on time for various reasons. that’s all the tools i used to assess students. students’ competence teacher (i.4) said about this: (23) student competence varies because it is influenced by differences in their ability to access learning resources and the learning process. student competence has decreased when compared to before covid-19, because enrichment cannot be done online with elementary-level students who still like to play a lot. most teachers give assignments to do at home, but even then, many students have difficulty. if they have cellphones, students can ask the teacher something via whatsapp, but students with cellphones are often silent. because they don’t know what to do, they sometimes ask friends who have cellphones, but in the end, they still lag behind their friends. meanwhile, teacher (i.2) said: (24) the competence of students varies because they study at home without being accompanied by a teacher and only accompanied by parents, but not all parents do this regularly, and even then, many parents complain because even though they can accompany the children, they cannot teach them, especially for the javanese language. next, (i.3) said: (25) the competence of students clearly differs. there are children who are enthusiastic, but there are children who are ignorant of the assignments given by the school, and this shows when submitting their assignments. some are late and some are carelessly done. of course, the attitude of these students determines their competence. finally, teacher (i.1) said: (26) the subject matter delivered by the teacher to students does not happen at the same time and place, and only through the form of a definite assignment can we understood the students’ abilities in a variety of ways. the ability to work is also different, so their understanding will automatically differ. online problems also have various impacts on capabilities. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 technology’s role student achievement is determined not only by the availability of technology but also the mastery of it. this can be seen in the following statement of munjidah: (27) the teacher, in determining the final achievement, still dominantly sees aspects of the ability and cleverness of students in doing assignments, but if you measure their ability to use digital means, it feels like students in the village are not quite right, because some have cellphones and some don’t. there are those who can use cellphones and those who can’t. if this is used, it feels unfair. teacher (i.3) said about this: (28) even though many children have cellphones and some don’t, in determining the final score for learning during the covid-19 pandemic, the teacher, in particular, uses the same student ability standards as was used before the covid-19 pandemic. in my opinion, the essence of learning before and after covid-19 is the same, so basic competency indicators are also the same, and the only difference is the technical implementation through online means and replacing enrichment activities with doing assignments. discussion for impoverished students in indonesia, the covid-19 epidemic was a major component in the uneven characteristics of online learning, according to this study. problems stem from the fact that disadvantaged children can't afford to get a phone, which has been a primary instrument for fundamental learning. these students not only are unable to participate in the learning process, but they also completely cease to participate other than in the form of completing assignments and exams on paper. another set of studies shows that impoverished indonesian university students in higher education level are affected by five variables, including (1) did not possess a supported device, (2) technology literacy and (3) mobile networks, and (4) technology literacy. as a result, students lose learning and their overall competency is reduced when their performance is judged using the same criteria. there are three ways in which the findings are relevant to discussion. when it comes to the covid19 epidemic, the use of online learning was not a choice but rather a requirement because of government policy. the community (i.e., teachers, students, and students' parents) faced both psychological and technical challenges as a result of this new online learning experience. as a result of having to engage in online learning, which had never been considered before, let alone planned for, people experienced psychological issues (soft skills). all found the same thing (zhang subur 188 et al., 2020; naziaha, et. al., 2020; adnan, 2020) and isidro & teichert, 2020). furthermore, technological obstacles (hard skills) arose because of the meticulous preparation required for the execution of online learning. it's also essential to have access to the internet on a laptop, tablet, smartphone or other mobile device. in addition, preparing for all of this in a short period of time is difficult (evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; shabalina et al., 2021). students, teachers, and parents said that they were unable to participate in online learning activities because of a lack of technological proficiency, additional fees for mobile internet use, and their regular occupations. even though, in practice, adaptations occurred in a variety of ways depending on the individual's abilities (azubuike et al., 2020; bacher-hicks et al., 2021; odriozola-chéné et al., 2020; purwanto et al., 2020). online learning provides several benefits for students and teachers. some software features can speed up learning, and online learning can be tailored to each student's learning style (abdulmajid et al., 2017; azubuike et al. 2020; bacher-hicks et al., 2021). however, the global adoption of online learning is owing to the covid-19 pandemic. online learning is primarily reliant on technology and the internet, thus students with bad connectivity or no access to digital devices will be negatively impacted. many students are unable to participate in online learning due to a lack of ict resources, which makes accessing assignments and learning materials problematic (adedoyin & soykan, 2020; zhang et al., 2020). thus, achieving student competences through online learning requires supporting variables such as proper tools, information availability, strong internet connectivity, and a learning-friendly home environment (adedoyin & soykan, 2020; beaunoyer et al., 2020; zhang et al., 2020). it is also common for students and teachers to engage intensively in the same location at the same time in order to learn. enrichment and transmission of values and skills are intense in this kind of environment. face-to-face instruction can cultivate educational values and inspire pupils to learn more readily (azubuike et al., 2020; bacher-hicks et al., 2021; odriozola-chéné et al., 2020; salehudin et al., 2020). because of this, it's easy for students who are having difficulty understanding the material or completing assignments to seek help from their teachers. teachers and students develop a natural social tie, and students also form emotional bonds with each other and with their teachers. students' motivation, interest, and excitement for learning improves as a result of greater psychological development. all of these activities had to be moved to online learning during the covid-19 pandemic, which had a significantly different character from what journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 was used before the pandemic (adedoyin & soykan, 2020; salehudin et al., 2020). despite the promise of online learning, students actually find it to be less flexible than face-to-face classes. as a result, online education continues to be plagued with issues that severely limit students' ability to obtain an education (insyiroh et al., 2020; zhang et al., 2020). however, because online learning provides no content enrichment for pupils, learning objectives cannot be reached in terms of measures of learning activeness (abdulmajid et al., 2017). assignments can only be given to students as a substitute for enrichment in online learning, even though this is not the goal. neither do students want to learn from the teacher. in a covid-19 epidemic, students, parents, and other close relatives must work together to complete homework (aguilera-hermida, 2020). collaboration is also required because telephones and hence whatsapp access must be shared. they found that 31 students owned cellphones whereas 94 had to borrow one from a parent or sibling (salehudin et al., 2020). this type of cooperation is not always viable due to time constraints. however, teamwork is required because materials can be challenging to work on. however, willing siblings or parents may not understand the subject matter because it has changed after a parent studied it. narrative content is prevalent and demands close attention (azubuike et al., 2020; bacher-hicks et al., 2021; odriozola-chéné et al., 2020). this research fills in the gaps left by prior studies that did not analyze students' income and socioeconomic position during the course of their learning process through online learning, which had serious consequences for their learning. in addition, past research have not yet specified the technical supports that cause impoverished students to become completely disengaged from the learning process altogether. as a result, the current study presents a methodological innovation in that it uses a phenomenological design to investigate the learning loss of poor pupils throughout the pandemic era, which provides compelling evidence. this paper adds a theoretical framework that recognizes that while addressing learning in the context of a pandemic epidemic, it is critical to include the determinant element that has an economic impact on the situation being discussed. conclusion for the sake of conclusion, online learning during the covid-19 pandemic in the north banyumas region has an impact on educational disparity in the region. the negative consequences arose when pupils continued to learn by making a variety of modifications, which were, of course, unsatisfactory in terms of learning outcomes. pupils who did not have access to a cellphone subur 190 attempted to join in activities by borrowing one from friends and neighbors, and even students from less affluent homes were able to use smartphones during activities. although digital technological capabilities were a hindrance to the evaluation of learning outcomes, the difficulties associated with evaluating basic competencies and accomplishment markers in a remote-learning system were significant as well. nonetheless, certain steps may be done to improve students' access to learning in the scenarios outlined above, if the appropriate resources were made available. teachers, for example, can better fulfill their tasks and responsibilities by meeting with parents and students on a more frequent basis, despite the fact that the health program continues to have constraints. to keep students motivated and excited about learning, teachers may meet with students once a week, even if it's just for five minutes, to offer advise and encouragement, because students typically value guidance from their teachers. teachers can also provide parents guidance on how to encourage their children to continue their education at home by visiting with them at school. alternatively, teachers could hand out worksheets to pupils in order to assist them keep up with their studies. methodological and theoretical innovations are highlighted in this work, which uses a phenomenology approach to better uncover teaching problems in the pandemic era and the socioeconomic position of disadvantaged students. considering that it is limited to the kedungbanteng sub-district of the banyumas regency, this research provides a limited insight into the experience of unequal access to educational opportunities in indonesia. as a result, it is not indicative of the experiences in other locations with various features, and as a result, no generalizations can be drawn from it. similarly, because this research is limited to kids at an early stage of learning, it is unable to provide a comprehensive picture of the status of more advanced pupils. while this research focuses on students from lower socioeconomic origins, there is a need for more extensive research into the particular issues that prevent students from accessing higher education online from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. references abdulmajid, n. w., pramuntadi, a., riyanto, a. b., & rochmah, e. (2017). penerapan elearning sebagai pendukung adaptive learning dan peningkatan kompetensi siswa smk di kabupaten bantul. taman vokasi. https://doi.org/10.30738/jtvok.v5i2.2475 https://doi.org/10.30738/jtvok.v5i2.2475 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 adedoyin, o. b., & soykan, e. (2020). covid-19 pandemic and online learning: the challenges and opportunities. in interactive learning environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1813180 adnan, m. (2020). online learning amid the covid-19 pandemic: students perspectives. journal of pedagogical research. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpsp.2020261309 aguilera-hermida, a. p. (2020). college students’ use and acceptance of emergency online learning due to covid-19. international journal of educational research open. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100011 arksey, h., & knight, p. (1999). interviewing for social scientists: an introductory resource with examples. london: sage. shorturl.at/tzbi8 azubuike, o. b., adegboye, o., & quadri, h. (2020). who gets to learn in a pandemic? exploring the digital divide in remote learning during the covid-19 pandemic in nigeria. international journal of educational research open. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100022 baartman, l. k. j., & de bruijn, e. (2011). integrating knowledge, skills and attitudes: conceptualising learning processes towards vocational competence. in educational research review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2011.03.001 bacher-hicks, a., goodman, j., & mulhern, c. (2021). inequality in household adaptation to schooling shocks: covid-induced online learning engagement in real time. journal of public economics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104345 bailey, c.a. (1996). a guide to field research. thousand oaks, ca: pineorge. beaunoyer, e., dupéré, s., & guitton, m. j. (2020). covid-19 and digital inequalities: reciprocal impacts and mitigation strategies. computers in human behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106424 bentz, v. m., & shapiro, j. j. (1998). mindful enquiry in social research. thousand oaks, ca: sage. https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/mindful-inquiry-in-social-research/book7789 bottrell, d., & armstrong, d. (2007). changes and exchanges in marginal youth transitions. journal of youth studies, 10(3), 353-371. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260701342616 budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 caelli, k. (2001). engaging with phenomenology: is it more of a challenge than it needs to be? quantitative health research, 11, 273-282.https://doi.org/10.1177/104973201129118993 https://doi.org/10.33902/jpsp.2020261309 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100011 https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260701342616 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f104973201129118993 subur 192 cameron, m. e., schaffer, m., & hyeoun, p. (2001). nursing students' experience of ethical problems and use of ethical decision-making models. nursing ethics, 8, 432-448. https://doi.org/10.1177/096973300100800507 carter, r. a., rice, m., yang, s., & jackson, h. a. (2020). self-regulated learning in online learning environments: strategies for remote learning. information and learning science. https://doi.org/10.1108/ils-04-2020-0114 coffey, a., & atkinson, p. (1996). making sense of qualitative data: complementary research strategies. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications, inc. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996-98161-000 creswell, j. w., & poth, c. n. (2016). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. dewi, wahyu aji fatma. "dampak covid-19 terhadap implementasi pembelajaran daring di sekolah dasar." edukatif: jurnal ilmu pendidikan 2.1 (2020): 55-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.36312/jime.v7i4.2399 dhawan, s. (2020). online learning: a panacea in the time of covid-19 crisis. journal of educational technology systems. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520934018 dong, c., cao, s., & li, h. (2020). young children’s online learning during covid-19 pandemic: chinese parents’ beliefs and attitudes. children and youth services review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105440 evans-amalu, k. & claravall, e. b. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research (jcsr), 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 ez-zaouia, m., tabard, a., & lavoué, e. (2020). emodash: a dashboard supporting retrospective awareness of emotions in online learning. international journal of human computer studies. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2020.102411 greene, m. (1997). the lived world, literature and education. in d. vandenberg (ed.), phenomenology & education discourse (pp. 169-190). johannesburg: heinemann. https://people.stfx.ca/aforan/phenomenological%20pedagogy%20and%20the%20question %20of%20meaning.pdf groenewald, t. (2004). a phenomenoligical research design illustrated. international journal of qualitatve research, 3(1), 42-56. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690400300104 hart, j. t. (2014). guided metacognition in instrumental practice. music educators journal. https://doi.org/10.1177/0027432114552569 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f096973300100800507 http://dx.doi.org/10.36312/jime.v7i4.2399 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f160940690400300104 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 hycner, r. h. (1999). some guidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data. in a. bryman & r. .g. burgess (eds.), qualitative research (vol. 3, pp. 143-164). london: sage. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/bf00142995 hodges, c., moore, s., lockee, b., trust, t., & bond, a. (2020). the difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. educause. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/104648 hoe, l., manja, m. a. z., mathew, v., engkamat, a., ibrahim, z., & anis, a. l. (2021). effectiveness of online training for rural entrepreneurs during a global pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 194-212. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.38 holloway, l. e., krogh, b. h., & giua, a. (1997). a survey of petri net methods for controlled discrete event systems. discrete event dynamic systems, 7(2), 151-190. doi: 10.1023/a:1008271916548 ilyasin, m. (2019). students’ discipline management in strengthening modern human resources. in dinamika ilmu. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej1237375 insyiroh, i. m., hariani, e. p., & mubaroq, s. (2020). pendidikan berbasis kearifan lokal sebagai solusi menghadapi kesenjangan digital dalam kebijakan pembelajaran jarak jauh pada masa pandemi di indonesia. indonesian journal of social development, 1(1), 51–72. shorturl.at/mpyfn isidro, e. and teichert, l. (2021). towards socially just literacy teaching in virtual spaces. journal of curriculum studies research (jcsr), 3(1), 21-41. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.6 jones, k., & sharma, r. s. (2020). on reimagining a future for online learning in the postcovid era. ssrn electronic journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3578310 kensit, d. a. (2000). rogerian theory: a critique of the effectiveness of pure client-centred therapy. counselling psychology quarterly, 13(4), 345-342. https://doi.org/10.1080/713658499 kim, d., coenraad, m., & park, h. r. (2021). digital storytelling as a tool for reflection in virtual reality projects. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 101-121. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.9 king, e., & boyatt, r. (2015). exploring factors that influence adoption of e-learning within higher education. british journal of educational technology, 46(6), 1272–1280. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12195 lofland, j., & lofland, l. h. (1999). data logging in observation: fieldnotes. in a. bryman & r. g. burgess (eds.), qualitative research (vol. 3). london: sage. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/104648 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.38 https://doi.org/10.1080/713658499 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.9 subur 194 lubkov, a. v., gordienko, o. v., & sokolova, a. a. (2020). a humanitarian approach to the digitization of education. education and self development, 15(3), 89–96. https://doi.org/10.26907/esd15.3.08 mcnamara, j. (2013). the challenge of assessing professional competence in work integrated learning. assessment and evaluation in higher education. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2011.618878 miller, w. l., & crabtree, b. f. (1992). primary care research: a multimethod typology and qualitative road map. in b. f. crabtree & w. l. miller (eds.), doing qualitative research. research methods for primary care (vol. 3). newbury park, ca: sage. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1992-97742-001 moustakas, c. (1994). phenomenological research methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage. shorturl.at/wex79 naziaha, s. t., maula, l. h., & sutisnawati, a. (2020). analisis keaktifan belajar siswa selama pembelajaran daring pada masa covid-19 di sekolah dasar. jurnal paedagogy : jurnal penelitian dan pengembangan pendidikan, 7(2), 109–120. http://eprints.ummi.ac.id/1794/ nellitawati, n. (2017). the contribution of headmaster’s personality competence to the teacher’s social competence of vocational high school. couns-edu: the international journal of counseling and education. https://doi.org/10.23916/002017027710 nur’aini, s. (2021). university students’ learning disruption and affordance in a contested learning environment. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 25-44. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.23 odriozola-chéné, j., díaz-noci, j., serrano-tellería, a., pérezarozamena, r., pérez-altable, l., linares-lanzman, j., garcía-carretero, l., calvo-rubio, l. m., torres-mendoza, m., & antón-bravo, a. (2020). inequality in times of pandemics: how online media are starting to treat the economic consequences of the coronavirus crisis. profesional de la informacion. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.jul.03 olawale, b., mutongoza, b., adu, e., & omodan, b. (2021). covid-19 induced psychosocial challenges in south african higher education: experiences of staff and students at two rural universities. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 179-193. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.37 purwanto, a., pramono, r., asbari, m., santoso, p. b., wijayanti, l. m., choi, c. h., & putri, r. s. (2020). studi eksploratif dampak pandemi covid-19 terhadap proses pembelajaran online di sekolah dasar. edupsycouns: journal of education, psychology and counseling, 2(1), 1–12. https://ummaspul.e-journal.id/edupsycouns/article/view/397 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.23 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.37 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 170-196 salehudin, m., marniah, & hariati. (2020). siswa sd menggunakan smartphone dalam pembelajaran online. ibtida’: media komunikasi hasil penelitian pendidikan guru madrasah ibtidaiyah, 1(2), 229–241. https://doi.org/10.37850/ibtida’.v1i1.155 salleh, f. i. m., ghazali, j. m., ismail, w. n. h. w., alias, m., & rahim, n. s. a. (2020). the impacts of covid-19 through online learning usage for tertiary education in malaysia. journal of critical reviews. https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.08.30 sadala, m. l. a., & adorno, r .dec. f. (2001). phenomenology as a method to investigate the experiences lived: a perspective from husserl and merleau-ponty‟s thought. journal of advanced nursing, 37(3), 282-293. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2002.02071.x shabalina, n. & bykov, a. (2021). problem of forming a literate reader in the digital age based on the material of modern children’s and youth prose, journal of social studies education research, 12(3), 175-203. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3356 stupans, i. (2017). a curriculum challenge—the need for outcome (competence) descriptors. pharmacy. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy5010007 tareen, h., & haand, m. t. (2020). a case study of uitm post-graduate students’ perceptions on online learning: benefits & challenges. international journal of advanced research and publications, 4(6), 86-94. shorturl.at/jycer tarman, b. (2020). editorial: reflecting in the shade of pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed usmeldi, u. (2019). the effect of project-based learning and creativity on the students’ competence at vocational high schools, 299, 14–17. https://doi.org/10.2991/ictvet18.2019.4 van deursen, a. j. (2020). digital inequality during a pandemic: quantitative study of differences in covid-19-related internet uses and outcomes among the general population. journal of medical internet research. https://doi.org/10.2196/20073 vandenberg, d. (1997). phenomenological research in the study of education. in d. vandenberg (ed.), phenomenology & education discourse (pp. 3-37). johannesburg, south africa: heinemann. doi: 10.1016/j.nedt.2018.06.002 wang, y., liu, x., & zhang, z. (2018). an overview of e-learning in china: history, challenges and opportunities. research in comparative and international education, 13(1), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745499918763421 wolhuter, c., & jacobs, l. (2021). covid-19, the global education project and technology: disrupting priorities towards rethinking education. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 96-109. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.13 https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.08.30 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2002.02071.x https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3356 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed https://doi.org/10.2991/ictvet-18.2019.4 https://doi.org/10.2991/ictvet-18.2019.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.13 subur 196 zhang, w., wang, y., yang, l., & wang, c. (2020). suspending classes without stopping learning: china’s education emergency management policy in the covid-19 outbreak. journal of risk and financial management, 13(3), 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13030055 zinker, j. (1978). creative process in gestalt therapy. brunner/mazel. https://books.google.co.id/books/about/creative_process_in_gestalt_therapy.html?id=f1t fqgaacaaj&redir_esc=y https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13030055 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 125-142 counseling based on local wisdom for conflict settlement in the workplace: a case study in kendari muh. shaleh1, faizah binti awad2, anita rezki3 abstract conflicts can manifest in nearly any environment, including the workplace, and they arise from people’s interactions with each other, which can be both constructive and destructive. there are many ways to settle these issues, but one way is to include local residents in counselling. this study, therefore, reflects on the degree to which a counselor’s actions and measures for settling conflicts using local wisdom can benefit both parties. this research focuses on how disputes arise in the workplace and how counseling based on local wisdom can help resolve them. the participants for this study were four employees who had worked for more than two years in the same division, namely administrative services, but came from different tribes. the results of this study revealed that a counseling approach based on local wisdom could significantly help to resolve disputes that often occurred among the employees in the office, demonstrating that approaches that use local expertise can successfully settle conflicts in the workplace. the implementation of cultural values by counselors—such as kohanu (culture of shame), moreu (politeness), medulu (join), mepokoaso (unite), and samaturu (helping each other)—have positive consequences in terms of making colleagues more respectful and helpful toward each other when conducting work. this in turn had an indirect effect on personal and office efficiency. key words: counseling, local wisdom, workplace conflict introduction in general, conflict occurs when different interests, preferences, beliefs, feelings, values, ideas, or perceptions of truth collide. conflict creates anxiety (hirsh & kang, 2016; wasino, et. al., 2021), so it can cause extreme reactions from community members if they become too obsessed with it and constantly look for it. they may also become very afraid and avoid it at all costs (coleman & ferguson, 2014). an employee-focused study conducted by the chartered institute of staffing and growth (2015) showed that about four out of ten employees, some 42% of uk respondents, experienced workplace tensions in the past 12 months. many disputes arise between employees 1 dr. faculty of education and teacher training, iain kendari, muhshaleh@iainkendari.ac.id 2 prof. dr. faculty of ushuluddin, adab and da’wah, iain kendari, faizah@gmail.com 3 lecturer of iain kendari, anitarezki@gmail.com mailto:muhshaleh@iainkendari.ac.id mailto:faizah@gmail.com mailto:anitarezki@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 125-142 and their supervisors, and the study revealed that workers were more likely to report friction with their superiors at work (chory & hoke, 2019). conflicts are inevitable in any organization because of the differences in work and personal interests among employees. there are different ways of expressing confrontation such as embarrassment, non-cooperation, coercion, and frustration (velotti, et. al., 2014). conflicts are caused mostly by personality clashes among employees, misunderstandings, and a lack of communication among workers (faude & fuß, 2020). the problems created by organizational disputes include absences, productivity issues, and staff turnover (nur & susanto, 2020). employees who feel high levels of job pressure are also affected by inadequate contact with their co-workers. this was confirmed in research by pitafi, et. al., (2020), who showed that conflict’s influence on employee performance can be determined based on the root of the conflict, namely the manner in which the conflict is conveyed. more specifically, workplace conflicts can take the form of relationship conflicts between employees, and to prevent this from happening, a safe, comfortable work environment is needed for employees. in a well-functioning work environment, workers participate in direct but polite conversation, show empathy and accept each other’s differences, and respect everyone in the workplace, regardless of position or length of tenure. if a workplace has a mechanism for resolving conflicts at an early stage, such as by providing counseling or having a manager capable of mediating disputes, then employees will generally feel more fairly treated and be more satisfied with their work (butts, 2016). indeed, reducing employee conflict can help increase employees’ productivity, motivation, and loyalty while decreasing medical costs, worker compensation claims, and litigation costs (ekienabor, 2016). a leader who can provide a sense of security and comfort is therefore very necessary, especially if he or she can provide suitable counseling for any employees who are experiencing conflict in their work environment (boekhorst, 2015). thus, counseling programs for employees play a very important role in improving workplace performance. in general, they have a direct influence on performance, job satisfaction, motivation, and reactions to stress. the successful implementation of counseling programs in companies and other organizations is inseparable from the management role, because managers must also encourage and facilitate career development to improve employee performance. through counseling, workplace or organizational problems that need resolving will be exposed, such as whether an employee needs to engage in educational and training activities to acquire the skills shaleh et al. 127 needed to carry out his duties effectively or whether that employee has the right attitude to react to various changes and complex problems in working relationships. in this sense, employee counseling plays a very important role in the world of work, especially for career development and employees’ mental health (thompson, et. al., 2014), because it helps employees to feel comfortable with themselves and their environment and to have an objective and positive view of others, so they are able to meet the needs of themselves and their families. to achieve this, counseling should provide advice, reassurance, communication, a relaxation of emotional tension, clarity of thought, and reorientation in the world of work. counselors can help employees deal with non-technical problems in the office, such as dealing with an unpleasant boss, unsupportive colleagues, or even seemingly detrimental workplace policies. with satisfactory guidance from a counselor, employees will feel relieved and empowered to continue their work comfortably, ultimately increasing productivity (xiong, et. al., 2016). in contrast, without any solution to these non-technical problems, they will continue to burden the employees and ultimately reduce productivity in the workplace. in practice, counseling activities can be offered at any time (an open-door policy) or during performance appraisals, and these approaches have both advantages and disadvantages. the former is expected to be more useful because problems can be resolved faster, and employees will not hesitate to be more open with their counselors. however, if these counselors are also functional managers, there is a risk that such counseling activities may waste their time and detrimentally affect their day-to-day work. the latter approach is more widely applied, such that at certain times during a performance appraisal, employees will be given the opportunity to talk about any problems or obstacles they face. based on the abovementioned problems, this study aims to investigate the extent to which counseling based on local wisdom can provide solutions to employees who experience conflicts in their work environment, as well as what the counselor’s efforts are in resolving disputes through the local wisdom approach. this study also adopts the theory of humanistic existence, which posits that every individual basically has an active potential in choosing and making decisions for him or herself and the environment. the theory emphasizes responsible freedom, such that individuals have broad freedom to carry out any action as long as they bear the risks and avoid abnormal behavior. conflict theory is the antithesis of functional structural theory, which emphasizes order in society. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 125-142 research questions in this study, several key issues were examined that relate to using counseling based on local wisdom to resolve conflicts in the work environment. thus, our research questions were as follows: 1. are there any conflicts between employees in the work environment? 2. how can counseling based on local wisdom be applied to help resolve conflicts in the work environment? literature review conflict in the workplace rahim (2001) reported that social conflict research has received varied interest from the political science, economics, psychological, and anthropological fields of academia. a substantial amount of study on social conflict has also been undertaken by sociologists and theorists. management researchers have also begun looking at it in recent years. it is generally agreed that social pressures can both positively and negatively affect efficiency conflict in the workplace represents an important risk factor for an organization or institution, as well as human life due to welfare concerns (sonnentag, et. al., 2013). among the various conflicts in the workplace, human causes are generally considered by conflict researchers to be the most common (e.g., oxenstierna, et; al., 2011; danielsson, et. al., 2015). researchers have also concentrated on the role of environmental and organizational influences in the occurrence of work disputes (e.g., lu, et. al., 2011). many aspects of the work environment—such as the physical characteristics, social assistance from co-workers and supervisors, or the nature of the work—have all been found to contribute to organizational tensions (carmine, et. al., 2021; shrestha, 2019). furthermore, caesens, et. al., (2019) emphasized that conflicting relationships impair performance, and this effect has often emerged in various studies and meta-analyses. therefore, improving the physical work environment for employees, increasing their level of social awareness, and possibly changing the nature of work assignments can minimize work-related tensions and thus improve employee performance. counseling through local wisdom counseling literally involves an exchange of ideas and feelings between two people (i.e., the counselor and client) in order to help clients, develop their abilities, so they can solve their own shaleh et al. 129 problems and adjust in a way that will help them feel comfortable, maintain good mental health, have an objective view of others, and fulfill their daily needs well. counseling in the workplace helps settle issues and address human needs and problems. workplace job issues can cover many aspects, such as retirement, promotion, demotion, disputes, tension, and so on. by recognizing interpersonal problems, workers can learn to organize their emotions, so they can perform more efficiently. the role of a counselor is very diverse and can include, for example, providing advice and direction, assisting clients in making choices about a situation at hand, showing what steps they can take, and reassuring the client (botha & hugo, 2021; nur’aini, 2021; prayitno, 1997). in terms of beliefs, the counselor will develop the client’s beliefs by giving them the courage and confidence to solve problems and achieve their goals and aspirations. employee communication becomes smoother by daring to express feelings and communicating better with superiors and subordinates, and tensions will automatically diminish as a result. on discussing their problems with people they trust, worker’s emotional tensions will slowly decrease, allowing them to face their problems again and think constructively about how to solve them. prayitno (1997) stated that for providing good service to both parties, there are several forms of counseling that could be considered in the world of work. 1) job placement placement services help job seekers by providing information about jobs, job analysis, and other cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects of job placement. from the institution’s perspective, the role of the counselor is to help the office recruit suitable workers according to the type, strata, and structure of the work involved. from the perspective of both job seekers and employers, counselors try to build a good atmosphere by having the right person in the right place, so workers are placed according to their personal characteristics, talents, interests, and areas of expertise. such placement services can also apply to workers looking to occupy new positions within an existing structure. 2) work adjustment counselors can provide orientation services to novice workers who need to gain the right perceptions, insights, and accurate knowledge about their new field of work. the main theme of this is to ensure an appropriate and rapid adjustment to meet the performance demands of a new workplace, because this can assure the success of the novice’s initial work. 3) job satisfaction journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 125-142 it is desirable for workers to feel happy and at home at work and be satisfied with their working conditions, because this leads to workers to carrying out further duties with even greater enthusiasm. if a state of dissatisfaction befalls workers, counseling services are needed to help them develop positive attitudes toward their work. 4) transfer of workers the transfer of workers is not just done due to dissatisfaction with an existing job—employees may also want to move to gain new experiences or satisfy some other desire. whatever the reason, the job-transfer process often requires counseling assistance for both placement and adjustment. 5) alleviation of other problems personal problems may relate to family, health, attitudes and daily habits, hobbies and free time, social relationships, and so on, so these can also be objects of counseling. if these problems are left unaddressed and allowed to escalate, they will start to affect the productivity of the worker concerned and possibly others in the workplace. conversely, if these personal problems are handled properly, it has a positive impact on working relationships and the performance of the worker. local wisdom is defined as human conventions for acting in a certain space, and this explicit knowledge emerges over a long period of time in a particular culture. this long process of civilization is embedded in society, making local wisdom a potential resource, not just as a reference for one’s behavior but also for dealing with the dynamics of a particular society. local wisdom is reflected in various types of traditions and cultures—such as songs, proverbs, sasanti, advice, slogans, utterances and ancient books—and related to daily behavior. local wisdom also often manifests in long-lasting life habits, and its sustainability is reflected in the values that apply to certain groups of people, with them usually becoming an inseparable part of life that can be observed through daily attitudes and behavior. conflict resolution through counseling based on local wisdom interethnic conflict, ethnic conflict, and ethno-religious conflict are all terms used to describe conflicts arising from variations in values, beliefs, and communication patterns, as well as the range of rites and traditions whose contrasts and contradictions are embedded within (hartoyo, et. al., 2020). the national motto of indonesia is “bhineka tunggal ika,” which translates as “unity shaleh et al. 131 in diversity.” this philosophy reflects the diverse communities in indonesia in terms of geography, race, ethnicity, and even religion, because indonesia hosts a wide variety of cultures. culture is a unit of interpretation, memory, and meaning for people, and it often influences their beliefs, values, and norms. culture influences human behavior, because everyone reflects their culture, and this leads to characteristic human groups. in reality, culture causes values to be inherited, interpreted, and implemented in line with a process of social change (harper & leicht 2018; johnson & hinton, 2019; olonisakin et al., 2021). in a workplace, there may be frequent quarrels and disputes between parties. to prevent this from happening, managers really need to pay attention to the quality and performance of their subordinates, because this can be affected by their interactions at work. if these interactions are not harmonious, it will cause problems. such problems can be avoided or resolved through work counseling, which aims to provide insights that help employees to find solutions to the problems they face. thus, counseling is central for developing workers and even managers. indeed, all supervisors can be included in the same counseling process as part of their normal work (xiong, et. al., 2016). for managers, an important goal of counseling is to allow employees to accept some responsibility for developing themselves. for example, they can first advise employees with the intention of directing them toward a series of desired activities. second, they can reassure employees, so they will be confident to undertake such activities. third, it can help open up communication with management and also provide opportunities to explain various views to employees. fourth, it can relieve the emotional tension of employees when they have the opportunity to discuss their problems with others. finally, clearing the mind of serious problems with other people will help employees to think more clearly about their problems (prayitno, 1997). local wisdom, which reflects the life values and development of a community, are largely unwritten, but it can have a strong binding power in society, so it may be very relevant to problemsolving through counseling in a workplace. indeed, the local wisdom that applies in an area may mandate sanctions from the community if someone violates these rules. lev & holt (2019) argued that the customs that exist in society where people are still seeped in their original culture will often be applied in everyday life by the community. what is more, customs also play a role in the national legal system of indonesia. the values of local wisdom are positioned highly as playing a role in the conservation and preservation of natural resources, the development of human journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 125-142 resources, and the development of culture and science, and they serve as a source for advice and beliefs and act as a basis for forming a communal environment, developing ethics and morals, and serving a political function (lev & holt, 2019). conflict resolution through counseling based on local wisdom in kendari southeast sulawesi’s local wisdom, especially in kendari, is very diverse. awad & shaleh (2018) explained that in general, the tolaki people have four cultural value structures as follows: (1) cultural value system (mutual support, harmony, etc.), (2) system of norms (everyone’s social position in society; attitudes and actions in the community; and manners among family, society and the state), (3) legal system (e.g., punishment for people who violate islamic doctrine), and (4) basic rules system (e.g., ceremonies for birth, marriage, and death). furthermore, some important notions in tolaki culture include kohanu’s “shame culture,” moreu’s “politeness,” medulu’s “merging,” mepokoaso’s “unifying,” and samaturu’s “helping each other” (awad & shaleh, 2018). awad & shaleh (2018) found that one tolaki community leader reported that the elements of togetherness and the integrity of a collective in the cultural value system were still maintained, but they were beginning to fade. the data showed that the youth were mostly uneducated about kalosara traditions. in our study, we found that tolaki culture is virtually extinct, including its ideals and symbols, so drastic action is urgently needed before things get any worse (awad & shaleh, 2018). therefore, the implementation of values based on traditional wisdom need to be addressed in social life, so that traditions continue to be handed down from generation to generation. in terms of counseling based on local wisdom, the people in kendari, especially the tolaki tribe, often use a local culture called kalosara3 to solve problems. this is divided into five areas, namely sara wonua (governance), sara meombu (ritual customs related to religion), sara mbedulu (marriage customs), and sara mandarahi (arts). the fifth is sara mondau, mombopaho, mombakani, melambu, and me’oti-oti, which relates to farming, gardening, raising livestock, and fishing. for violations of law and conflict resolution, sara wonua is used. the symbol for this in 3kalosara is a local tradition that is used by the tolaki community to solve various kinds of problems, including those related to violations of the law. shaleh et al. 133 kalosara is rattan with the ends forming a figure of eight, while for sara mbedulu, one end of the rattan sticks out. these two types of kalosara symbols are commonly used. various cases can be resolved with sara wonua. one incident involved a dispute between the tolaki people and the balinese people that took place in a particular region. the balinese had a strong legal right to a property, but the other side also had strong evidence. the people on this property had long-established homes and the surrounding trees still remained. to settle the conflict, tribal members assembled in a field to try to find a unanimously acceptable solution. the answer was found according to kalosara customary law, with the tolaki customary organization being in a position to make a different decision. it was determined that the land would be split in half. by taking this decision, these people with different ethnicities could continue to live in peace. the kalosara process involves local customary stakeholders called tolea and pabitara,4 with the tolea being the customary leader and the pabitara being the spokesperson. disputes and conflicts in the social system of a society will often occur, because every society will have tensions, and there may be elements of domination and coercion. methods research design the study employs an interpretive case study design. it is adopted to elucidate a complex phenomenon which might be a school leader, a group of pupils, a curriculum, a practice, an occurrence, a process, or a collection of people (creswell & creswell, 2017). in this study, the phenomenon is in the form of workplace interpersonal conflict practices and problem solving strategies. this design is critical because it teaches readers about workplace problems and how to overcome them using local wisdom. as a result, this design can be used not just as a theme approach, but also as a means for generalizing what is gained through a case study process to other circumstances and contexts that someone may encounter. participants due to the occurrence of their frequent job conflicts, the researcher employed four lecturers who were also administrative staff in one division. this was made possible because the researchers 4 tolea is the customary leader, while pabitara is the spokesperson who carries out the kalosara cultural court process by presenting various parties. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 125-142 were emotionally attached in them as well as their supervisors. they are occasionally involved in conflict situations for a variety of reasons. initially, the researcher inquired about the availability of ten volunteers to be interviewed, but only four responded positively. they have worked as subordinates for more than two years and represent a diverse range of races, genders, and ages (see table 1). the four participants represented a variety of ethnic groups, including bugis, tomia, tolaki, and gorontalo. the four participants were categorized as male or female based on their gender. they are also of varying ages. there are individuals aged 24, 29, 30, and 31 years old. to maintain ethical standards in research, the author's name is written as a pseudonym. the following table summarizes the demographic characteristics of the participants. table 1. participants of this study no pseudonames gender age etnic 1 partisipant_1 female 29 bugis 2 partisipant_2 male 31 tomia 3 partisipant_3 female 30 tolaki 4 partisipant_4 male 24 gorontalo data collection tools this study's data were obtained through observation and in-depth interviews. observations were conducted between january and march of 2021. the observations focused on how employees communicate with one another, how they carry out their assigned tasks and responsibilities, and how they resolve conflicts among themselves. the researcher used a semi-structured questionnaire instrument for in-depth interviews. the semi-structured interview guide asks questions such as "what conflicts frequently occur between them" and "how do they resolve conflicts." this inquiry is based on a research question proposed by flippo (1980). in-depth interviews were conducted at the university and at home in an informal, relaxed, and stress-free environment. this occurred as a result of the covid-19 condition subsiding and the government continuing to permit house-tohouse visits. similarly, all participants voluntarily provide the researcher with the information he or she requires. according to widodo (2014), the purpose of the interview was to gather information about the reality of the phenomenon, which in this case is work conflict among employees. face-to-face interviews were conducted and audio recordings were made. as a result, the findings can be transcribed by incorporating supporting data from the audio recording. the transcription is followed by a description of the interview's time. this was performed from the shaleh et al. 135 start to the end of the interview in order to create a neat and organized transcription. as a result, the transcription is compiled into a complete artifact that is compared to a predefined concept. data analysis according to widodo (2014), the analysis of interview data begins by using recorded interviews, recording the essentials, writing data, codifying data, interpreting data, and validating data using triangulation methods. in addition, the results of the in-depth interview transcriptions are processed through a construction process, which provides additional new insights to the case study. in this study, data were analyzed by using thematic analysis. findings this section presents the findings about conflicts that are often found in the work environment of the administrative services division of an institution in kendari. observations were conducted between the first week of december 2020 and the fourth week of january 2021. after making observations, the informants were given a questionnaire, and several informants were interviewed about the conflicts they often encountered and whether a counselor helped them to resolve disputes. it should be noted that in this division, a leader often serves as a person for employees to tell their stories to if they are under pressure. presented below are the results from the observations of the employees who were the informants for this study and the interviews with them. conflicts that often occur in the workplace a number of questions were put to participants about what conflicts they often encountered and how they dealt with such conflicts. based on the interviews with participants, it was found that disputes often occur among workers, especially in terms of differences of opinion, differences in work allocations, and differences in perceptions about handling problems due to poor communication in the administrative services division. however, such disputes did not lead to major or prolonged conflicts that reduced the performance of employees. below are some responses from participants to questions about the conflicts that often arise. (1) “disputes are like miscommunications. however, such misconceptions do not lead to a reduction in performance. if there’s a misunderstanding, it’s usually resolved right away. it does not stay long.” (partisipant_1, personal communication, januari 15, 2021). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 125-142 (2) “i don’t feel that there are disputes or arguments because of personal problems between me and my co-workers. i also don’t feel any emotional conflict between myself and my coworkers. misunderstandings do occur sometimes, but they are normal and do not persist.” (partisipant_2, personal communication, januari 29, 2021). (3) "conflicts that occasionally develop are typically a result of the environment and workload. work accumulates and, on average, has tight deadlines. as a result, emotional control is impacted when communicating with coworkers.” (partisipant_3, personal communication, march 13, 2021). (4) "i occasionally clash with a coworker when we are assigned tasks to complete together yet he has reasons to avoid the work." (partisipant_4, personal communication, february 11, 2021). from the responses above, it can be concluded that disputes in the work environment are commonplace, but most importantly, these disputes do not create tension between fellow employees. this may be due to the presence of a counselor as a person for employees to express their complaints to at work. if there is a dispute between fellow employees, this counselor can provide advice that is guided by the cultural values of kendari, where all these employees work. the role of counseling based on local wisdom in resolving conflicts in the workplace from the interviews and observations, the researchers derived several findings. first, for counseling based on local wisdom, the leaders of these employees have in this case succeeded in growing an awareness of cultural values in the employees, as evidenced by the responses of some employees in their interviews: (5) “while disagreements or misunderstandings sometimes occur, we also support each other if one of us has work that is building up.” (partisipant_3, personal communication, march 17, 2021). (6) “also, many other friends support me if i’m not able to go. although there are moments when things go bad, i’m happy that i’ve been backed up when i couldn’t get to the office.” (partisipant_1, personal communication, february 20, 2021). shaleh et al. 137 in addition, the employees also said that they did not feel any personal clashes between themselves. any disputes that occur are limited to work, as evidenced by the results of the observations. the employees work according to their respective duties. when someone asks for help with their work but there is a misunderstanding, the parties are only at odds for a limited time. once the problem is resolved, they continue to work properly together. this was supported by a statement from one of the employees: (7) “my co-workers always help me when i have a heavy workload, even though it is not something they are obliged to do.” (partisipant_2, personal communication, january 17, 2021). this proves that cultural values, especially the tolaki “samaturu” culture of helping each other, are very well understood by employees. other such values are also embodied in the employees of this administrative service division, namely the “kohanu” culture of shame and the “moreu” culture of politeness, which were suggested by the counselor. this is evidenced by a response from one of the employees: (8) “the counselor once told me that working in this division must involve dignity, because there is a leadership authority that must be maintained. therefore, there needs to be a culture of shame and politeness in work that involves communicating with other people. thus, even when there are internal problems with fellow employees, for example, it is not allowed to make this known to many people, and everyone must still be courteous with fellow employees when communicating” (partisipant_4, personal communication, march 21, 2021). based on the results of the interviews and observations, it can also be concluded that despite frequent conflicts between employees in the administrative service division of the institution, the employees were able to handle them themselves thanks to the cultural values that the counselor, in this case their leader, reminded them of. even though the employees come from different ethnic backgrounds, this does not weaken the assumption that each individual will uphold the values of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 125-142 their own tribe. moreover, because their workplace is located in kendari, it is necessary to appreciate the cultural values that are shared by the surrounding community, such as kohanu’s “shame culture,” moreu’s “politeness,” medulu’s “merging,” mepokoaso’s “unity,” and samaturu’s “helpfulness” (awad & shaleh, 2018). discussion the theory of humanistic existence basically explains that every individual has the active potential to make choices and decisions for him or herself in the environment. this theory emphasizes responsible freedom, so individuals are given broad freedom to carry out any action as long as they bear the risks and avoid abnormal behavior. thus, counseling programs for employees are very important for improving workplace performance. indeed, it has a direct influence on performance, job satisfaction, motivation, and reactions to stress. however, successful implementations of counseling programs in organizations cannot be separated from the role of management, because they can also encourage career development and improve employee performance. through counselling, problems can be revealed that must be resolved, such as whether or not employees need to engage in educational and training opportunities in order to acquire further skills for carrying out their duties or whether they have the necessary attitude for dealing with various changes and complex issues. the role that counseling plays in improving productivity in the workplace seems to answer some of the challenges of globalization. organizations therefore need to provide counseling to employees in order to develop quality human resources who are both moral and cultured in addition to being highly skilled in areas like science and technology. indeed, with effective counseling, employees can carry out their duties in an effective manner and help achieve organizational goals. managers are also very important for a counseling program, because they operate as guides, leaders, decision-makers, and motivators for employees. they also function as drivers of performance in the quest for operational effectiveness. however, if a counseling program is not successful in improving employee performance, organizational performance will also be affected, so some form of disciplinary action may be needed. what is more, society cannot be separated from the traditional cultural values that have been passed down from one generation to the next (wang, et. al., 2014; zeng & greenfield, (2015). drawing on geertz (2007), local wisdom is something that really influences human dignity in the shaleh et al. 139 community. therefore, if the traditional values that exist in a society are undermined, the community loses its identity, as well as its sense of pride and belonging. if these values have been forgotten, counselors can use local wisdom to remind employees of them, thus providing urgently needed guidance and advice. conclusion based on the research conducted, it can be concluded that conflicts between employees are indeed something that cannot be entirely avoided, especially those that arise from misunderstandings in communication, workload and less of attention. however, they can be resolved using counseling based on local wisdom, and this can also be done by managers. in addition, counseling based on local wisdom is important for instilling cultural values, thus preventing the culture itself from becoming extinct. furthermore, when employees come from different ethnic backgrounds, they can learn the culture of other employees and therefore enrich their cultural knowledge, helping them to respect each other in the workplace. this research, however, has limitations, most particularly in the areas of cultural comprehension. counselors will confront difficulties in grasping the cultural conceptions of each office worker due to southeast sulawesi's cultural diversity. as a result, it is strongly required that counselors or mediators who assist in resolving conflict in this office have a varied cultural understanding to grasp the character of employees who come from diverse ethnic backgrounds and cultural perspectives. additionally, this research can be expanded by including islamic beliefs into counseling. hence, not only local wisdom is utilized, but also religious aspects are integrated to shape the character of employees who not only adhere to local norms and customs, but also uphold the noble principles of religion while performing their job responsibilities. references harper, c. l., & leicht, k. t. (2018). exploring social change: america and the world. routledge. awad, f. b. & shaleh, m. (2018, july). integrating counseling values in marriage ritual of tolakinese culture society in indonesia. in iop conference series: earth and environmental science (vol. 175, no. 1, p. 012175). iop publishing. boekhorst, j. a. (2015). the role of authentic leadership in fostering workplace inclusion: a social information processing perspective. human resource management, 54(2), 241-264. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 125-142 botha, r. j., & hugo, j.-p. (2021). effective mentoring to improve job satisfaction among beginner teachers at south african primary schools. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 64-81. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.26 butts, t. (2016). manager as mediator: attitude, technique, and process in constructive conflict resolution in the workplace. in advancing workplace mediation through integration of theory and practice (pp. 189-217). springer, cham. caesens, g., stinglhamber, f., demoulin, s., de wilde, m., & mierop, a. (2019). perceived organizational support and workplace conflict: the mediating role of failure-related trust. frontiers in psychology, 9, 2704. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg. 2018.02704. carmine, s., andriopoulos, c., gotsi, m., härtel, c. e., krzeminska, a., mafico, n. & keller, j. (2021). a paradox approach to organizational tensions during the pandemic crisis. journal of management inquiry, 30(2), 138-153. chartered institute for personnel and development. (2015). getting under the skin of workplace conflict: tracing the experiences of employees. retrieved from http://www.cipd.co.uk/binaries/getting-under-skin-workplace-conflict_2015-tracingexperiences-employees.pdfn chory, r. m., & hoke, h. g. g. (2019). young love at work: perceived effects of workplace romance among millennial generation organizational members. the journal of psychology, 153(6), 575-598. coleman, p.t. & ferguson, r. (2014). making conflict work: harnessing the power of disagreement. houghton mifflin publishing company creswell, j. w., & creswell, j. d. (2017). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. sage publications. danielsson, c. b., bodin, l., wulff, c., & theorell t. (2015). the relation between office type and workplace conflict: a gender and noise perspective. j. environ. psychol., 42, 161– 171. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.04.004 ekienabor, e. e. (2016). impact of job stress on employees' productivity and commitment. international journal for research in business, management and accounting, 2(5), 124-133. flippo, e. (1980). personnel managemen 5th ed. tokyo: mcgraw hill int book co. faude, b., & fuß, j. (2020). coordination or conflict? the causes and consequences of institutional overlap in a disaggregated world order. global constitutionalism, 9(2), 268-289. geertz (2007). local wisdom in education. journal of education. http://www.ied.edu.hk/cric/ https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.26 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.%202018.02704 shaleh et al. 141 hartoyo, h., sindung, h., teuku, f., & sunarto, s. (2020). the role of local communities in peacebuilding in post-ethnic conflict in a multi-cultural society. journal of aggression, conflict and peace research, 12(1), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1108/jacpr-06-20190419 hirsh, j. b., & kang, s. k. (2016). mechanisms of identity conflict: uncertainty, anxiety, and the behavioral inhibition system. personality and social psychology review, 20(3), 223-244. johnson, c., & hinton, h. (2019). toward a brillant diversity. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 56-70. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.5 lev, d. s., & holt, c. (2019). judicial institutions and legal culture in indonesia (pp. 246-318). cornell university press. lu l., zhou f., & leung k. (2011). effects of task and relationship conflicts on individual work behaviors. int. j. confl. manag, 22, 131–150. 10.1108/10444061111126675 nur, i., & susanto, s. (2020). social conflict in indonesia: safeguarding a nation as a new approach for resolving national disintegration. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 151-173. nur’aini, s. (2021). university students’ learning disruption and affordance in a contested learning environment. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 25-44. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.23 olonisakin, t., adebayo, s., & idemudia, e. (2021). social worldviews and social attitudes: examining the psychological correlates for other-concern. journal of culture and values in education, 4(2), 65-83. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.7 oxenstierna, g., hanson, l. l. m., widmark, m., finnholm, k., stenfors, c., elofsson, s., & theorell, t. (2011). conflicts at work—the relationship with workplace factors, work characteristics and self-rated health. industrial health, 49(4), 501-510. pitafi, a. h., khan, a. n., khan, n. a., & ren, m. (2020). using enterprise social media to investigate the effect of workplace conflict on employee creativity. telematics and informatics, 55, 101451. prayitno. (1997). layanan konseling untuk para pekerja. ikip padang. rahim, m. a. (2001). managing conflict in organizations (3rd ed.). greenwood publishing group, inc. shrestha, m. (2019). influences of gender and locale on teachers’ job satisfaction. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.2 https://doi.org/10.1108/jacpr-06-2019-0419 https://doi.org/10.1108/jacpr-06-2019-0419 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.23 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.7 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.2 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 125-142 sonnentag, s., unger d., & nägel i. j. (2013). workplace conflict and employee well-being: the moderating role of detachment from work during off-job time. international journal of conflict management, 24, 166–183. thompson, i., amatea, e., & thompson, e. (2014). personal and contextual predictors of mental health counselors' compassion fatigue and burnout. journal of mental health counseling, 36(1), 58-77. velotti, p., elison, j., & garofalo, c. (2014). shame and aggression: different trajectories and implications. aggression and violent behavior, 19(4), 454-461. wang, h. j., lu, c. q., & lu, l. (2014). do people with traditional values suffer more from job insecurity? the moderating effects of traditionality. european journal of work and organizational psychology, 23(1), 107-117. wasino, w., suyahmo, s., brata, n., & shintasiwi, f. (2021). making peace with the past: peace education in post-conflict societies through the application of cognitive behavioral therapy. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 330-376. widodo, h. p. (2014). methodological considerations in interview data transcription. international journal of innovation in english language teaching and research, 3(1), 101. xiong, s., allen, c., & wood, j. l. (2016). the role of community college counselors as validating agents on men of color student success. community college journal of research and practice, 40(6), 558-561. zeng, r., & greenfield, p. m. (2015). cultural evolution over the last 40 years in china: using the google ngram viewer to study implications of social and political change for cultural values. international journal of psychology, 50(1), 47-55. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 193-216 exploring digital access as a social determinant of health amongst uae students rakan alhrahsheh1, ganka ivanova2 abstract digital information and communication technology usage has increased dramatically over the last decade across different fields of personal and professional life. this study was conducted with the aim to investigate how digital access affects health outcomes, particularly in uae, and gathered data from 300 students at al ain university’s abu dhabi campus, uae. this study explores the connection between digital education, social media access, and health service outreach and usage. many people, especially younger individuals, use more than a single smart device. this study investigated whether digital access directly correlated with better healthcare service and improved individual’s health by examining the data gathered to draw predictabilities and possibilities to be considered in the future. the findings of this study indicated significant correlations (p < .05) between the dependent variable (digital access to health) and independent variables (work; p = .165) and (income; p = .000). surprisingly, this study also showed that for the participants, there were no significant differences between education levels and digital access to health (p = .0724). keywords: digital access and the digital divide, information and communication technology, diffusion of technology, electronic commerce, health introduction the world is currently witnessing the fourth industrial revolution with the dawning of a new age. most of the worlds’ population has access to a multitude of digital platforms that are used for different reasons: communication, education, shopping, and access to public services. people use mobile phones, applications, computers, laptops, and other devices for the purpose of completing various tasks and accessing services that just a couple of years ago required their physical presence, along with limited resources of time and financial efforts however, does the use of these modern devices and communication methods provide us faster and better quality of service? does technological access and digital awareness correlate with better access to health care? have most users of digital information and communication technology (ict) become completely reliant on digital access and become accustomed to service access experiences 1 dr. rakan alhrahsheh, al ain university, rakan.alhrahsheh@ aau.ac.ae 2 dr. ganka yordanova ivanova, al ain university, ganka.ivanova@aau.ac.ae journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 194 that require far less physical presence and face-to-face transactions because of covid-19 as well? the unprecedented pandemic has radically changed our lives (tarman, 2020). scientists confirm that digitization has helped reduce the gap between technology and education, providing tools with good content and enabling faster communication networks (kalimullina et al., 2021; marquesramos, 2021). are digitally educated people experiencing the privilege of better health and well-being because of their digital access? this study sought to answer the questions raised above and attempted to find out if there is a direct positive correlation between digital access and health. having postulated these overarching questions, one must understand that there is a myriad of nuances in the ongoing advances in digital access and peoples’ reactions, acceptance, willingness, and the ability to embrace these advances. this process is diverse and based on an individual`s cultural, social, and economic circumstances. it has yet to be clearly determined whether data access is of particular significance in terms of the effects on health outcomes, as in many cases, the populations of marginalized individuals suffer more disproportionally from inequitable digital access and are more vulnerable to health problems due to their social-economic circumstances. in such a context, the technological transformation of society into one where people are ever more reliant on digital icts could exacerbate existing health inequalities, as digital inequality and health disparities occur along similar axes and are both rooted in an unequal distribution of resources. this study examined how digital access may be influencing health outcomes. this study is timely as digital icts are increasingly critical for accessing resources. the uae is a country where the population is encouraged to actively participate in the knowledge-based economic growth, and its people have access to the wider world when it comes to goods, commodities, and services, especially when it comes to experiencing the latest, cutting-edge technology products. from the beginning of the pandemic, many new applications and platforms have been developed, or preexisting platforms experienced wider usage by much of the population, especially young people, and students. education, income, and work are important markers of the society and are part of the considered factors of this study. the sample of the study below represents students from across the spectra of the emirati society; many of them are working students with families and great social responsibility. alhrahsheh & ivanova research questions the following research questions were sought to be answered in this study: rq1. is digital access a social determinant of health? rq2. is there a statistically significant relationship between the digital access of people linked to their level of education, work, and income status? hypothesis there are statistically significant differences at the level of significance (p = .05) when it comes to digital access to health amongst al ain university students related to their level of education and employment status. theoretical framework while trying to identify the association between the digital access to services with the health status of uae students, the first step was to search and find other aspects of social determinants and see the existing data and similar research to compare and draw specific conclusions toward the end of this study. in their study, gibbing’s and wickremesinghe (2021) tested the social determinants of health in the u.s.a, the healthcare systems’ framework, and its ability to provide superior care. a qualitative research approach was adopted including a literature review. montagni et al. (2018) developed a program to identify the social determinants of digital health and conducted a field survey, which captured the effect of university students' use of information technologies on their health and well-being and considerations of socio-demographic conditions. their study consisted of a sample of 507 surveyed, and the results indicated that: (1) 93.4% of the students had digital access, (2) 64.5% of respondents suffered from some type of pain and illness, (3) 68.1% professed to have good nutritional diets, (4) 51.1% reported experiencing study stress and anxiety, and (5) 92.2% of students considered the us health system as an institution to be the best and that there is a significant difference in the use of digital health by gender and year of study. mesanovic et al. (2018) investigated how social media can change the access approach to healthcare with some case studies. after an investigation with a group of digital health companies, their study showed that if the healthcare system were to rely heavily on digital health technologies in the future, it would change the form of healthcare provision. instead of office visits in the hospital, the interaction would be done automatically through smartphones or social media journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 196 platforms according to the demand. digital companies are extremely keen on collaborating with stakeholders and engineers, as they see the potential benefit and lucrative opportunities that these digital health technologies represent. a separate study was conducted, consisting of a sample of 59 people in the countryside of lebanon (talhouk et al., 2016). the study considered several factors, most notably the literacy of the sample members. it showed that the use of smartphones by refugees provided a quick opportunity to access health services. influence of digital access on social determinants of health as mentioned above, the uae as a country has started to play a primary role when it comes to digital education and digital health access. several supporting data points to this assertion released in 2020 through government statistics and press reports show that the uae ranked number 1 in the world in per capita mobile phone usage. additionally, in 2020, the uae formed the abu dhabi digital authority to meet the increasing demand for services accessed via additional platforms and devices. however, of more interest to this study is the possible connection between digital access, factors affecting the digital access, individual health status, health concern outcomes, and all other factors affecting this process. a study of the social determinant of health is a useful prism for understanding how health outcomes are connected to the level of digital access. the study concerning social determinants of health also aims to examine the ways in which health inequalities within and between countries are not natural but rather the result of social factors (marmot et al., 2008). the social determinants of health show that the unequal distribution of access to important resources directly impacts the conditions in which one lives, especially in terms of access to critical things such as education, housing, or healthcare, and shapes frequency of morbidity conditions and effects on mortality rates in vulnerable age groups, because of these existing socioeconomic conditions (marmot et al., 2008). furthermore, by employing social determinants of health, the perspective and focus of this research are to see how social structures affect health outcomes. in other words, by incorporating a more structure-oriented approach to understanding health disparities, socioeconomic or demographic differences in health are understood in terms of the role of historically constructed in relation to one’s economic or financial power rather than an individual’s characteristics or behaviors (williams, 2003). alhrahsheh & ivanova fundamental cause theory suggests that social conditions can be directly connected to a disease that one may experience, as they cannot be explained solely in terms of how they shape more proximal risk factors. quite often, the individual and contextual social conditions shape an individual's access to vital resources that are essential for avoiding risks that lead to early morbidity and mortality, as these vital resources can minimize or prevent the consequences of illness, should it occur (link & phelan, 1995). individuals can avoid risks for disease with the help of a number of resources; in this context, the most beneficial are financial resources, knowledge, skills, abilities, power, and prestige, as well as more interpersonal properties, such as social connectedness. access to such resources is the essential feature of fundamental social cause theory. working within a framework informed by fundamental cause theory, an individual's access to vital resources is supposed to be considered essential for promoting and maintaining good health. put in terms of the digital divide, access to so many resources has become largely – and in some cases entirely – available via digital icts, and digital access surely affects health outcomes up to a specific degree. these resources can be seen as the mechanisms that link digital access to health outcomes. digital access: a sequential model for the purposes of this study, digital access and probable causes of digital inequality can be best explained by summarizing van dijk's (2005) multi-stage access model. within the framework of this model, digital access occurs sequentially in terms of four types of successive stages: (1) motivational, (2) material or physical, (3) skills, and (4) usage access. although there are different perspectives for understanding the digital divide, van dijk's sequential model is specifically useful, providing multiple points at which ones' level of digital access may be either restricted or advanced by their access to resources. in addition the above-mentioned, when viewed through the lens of capturing the ability to use digital icts in ways that reap offline rewards for the user into the concept of digital access, this unique perspective is helpful in explaining how individual health outcomes might be shaped by one's level of digital access. motivational access the first phase and kind of access described by the model, motivational access, can be understood as the motivation on the part of the potential user to use digital icts (van dijk, 2005). many people journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 198 lack the motivation to access icts either because they perceive digital icts to be irrelevant to their lives (stanley, 2003) or because they are skeptical regarding digital icts (harrington et al., 1990; stanley, 2003; torkzadeh & angulo, 1992; weil et al., 1990). material and physical access once an individual has overcome the barriers to motivational access, their further access is shaped by the second stage of data access actualization, namely material and physical access. this is understood as being able to access a computer with an internet connection. the diffusion of smartphones and other forms of technology, such as tablets, has enlarged the means of access. this stage and type of access are differentiated as physical and conditional access, according to van dijk’s framework (2005). in this context, physical access refers to the hardware of computers and other digital icts, as well as the network connection. conditional access, on the other hand, refers to the applications, programs, and other digital content that often requires an additional fee. increasingly, physical access can only be as useful as the level of conditional access available. skills access the third factor covered by the model is skills access, which refers to various kinds of knowledge, skills, and abilities (ksas) individuals possess, ksas are indeed necessary for utilizing digital icts. usage access usage access can be understood in terms of the frequency and duration of use, types of activities performed, and content accessed using digital icts (van deursen & van dijk, 2014). this disparity in usage behavior is important because not all digital ict activities provide users with the same benefits (zillien & hargittai, 2009). as van dijk (2005) noted, while the first three stages and types of digital access are necessary preconditions to usage access, they are not sufficient. as such, among those who have achieved the stages of motivational, material and physical, and skills access, there are disparities in how people use the internet and as a result, their internet use returns. in other words, the benefits of using digital icts are not uniformly distributed among people who have attained the first three levels of access, because what an individual does with the internet, for alhrahsheh & ivanova example, passive consumption uses versus active and creative uses, remains critical. considering social determinants and fundamental cause perspectives in conjunction with van dijk’s sequential model for understanding digital access has provided us with a useful framework for understanding the relationship between digital access and health. the following sections discuss certain mechanisms through which the relationship might operate. more specifically, education and income are discussed in terms of their relationship to health outcomes and in terms of disparities in digital access. education digital access may affect health outcomes as digital icts have become increasingly more important for accessing educational opportunities. research has thoroughly demonstrated that education is a significant predictor of health across various health outcomes (schnittker, 2004). health outcomes may be affected by levels of digital access, especially in terms of the relationship between access to digital icts, education opportunities, and academic achievement. nowadays, digital icts are often part of the curricula at every level of education across the developed world. however, deursen and van dijk (2017) argued that while operational and formal digital skills can be taught in primary education environments, they are largely absent from the curriculum. these skills related to cognitive content, specifically the ability to search, select, process, and evaluate information from the internet, are extremely vital for academic achievement, especially for higher education. this suggests that those who have acquired these content-related digital skills have more success in attaining higher levels of education, and thus, in this sense, access to digital skills may impact educational attainment. in fact, some research suggests that even among elementary class students, digital access is often associated with a higher academic achievement (juang & russel, 2006; judge, 2005; paino & renzulli, 2013). formal digital literacy skills instruction, as well as informal learning supported through digital icts, have become integral to the curriculum of formal education learning environments around the world (marais, 2021; mbhiza, 2021). in that context, an individual's level of access to skills may depend on the formal education they have received. research indicates that individuals with higher levels of education have increased levels of digital access, and vice versa (hargittai, 2002, 2003; zillien & hargittai, 2009). as a matter of fact, the gap in access to digital icts and internet connection when segmented by an individual’s educational attainment level is the most journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 200 pronounced. as of 2019, a study reported that 98% of college graduates use the internet, as opposed to 84% of those who graduated from high school, and even more pronounced, only 71% of those with less than a high school diploma reported internet use (pew research center internet/broadband fact sheet, 2021). educational attainment is not only a strong predictor of internet adoption but is also highly related to the range of digitally mediated activities engaged in, skills possessed (van deursen & van dijk 2011), and the percentage of individual ownership of digital ict devices. income digital access may affect health through an income pathway both in terms of an individual's ability to find and maintain employment and the type of employment or occupation they are qualified to do. people with low to no digital access are confronted with considerable barriers when looking for work both in terms of the kinds of jobs they are eligible for (skills access) and the way in which the access to employment opportunities has become digitized with online job listings and applications. a study reported that 54% of adult americans have used the internet to search for information about a job, and 45% have submitted a job application online (smith, 2015). higher level of digital skills benefits job seekers, as they may be more efficient and faster in gathering information and online communication. kuhn and mansour (2011) found that the internet helps people find work and reduces unemployment by about 25%. digital skills are also viewed by employers as a desired skill set and are often checked as part of the interview process. higher level of digital skills often makes an individual more competitive in the labor market. additionally, research has indicated that the expansion of personal social networks through online activity can provide an individual with access to informal information about job opportunities (hampton & wellman, 2000; fountain, 2005). in this sense, digital access may lead to increased social capital, which in turn can lead to better employment opportunities. access to digital icts also plays a significant role in structuring earnings for individuals who are employed. a study showed that internet users gain significantly more in earnings than non-users (dimaggio & bonikowski, 2008). this may be because higher levels of digital skills mean employees have better access to labor-market information and are better and more efficient at doing their work. moreover, we postulate that health disparities as structured and analyzed by alhrahsheh & ivanova economic income level also seem to correlate with digital accessibility, as the level of access to data platforms has been shown to vary by level of income, as one might except, owing to an individual’s ability to fund a better quality of data platforms and internet services when their income increases. studies have shown that only 62% of low-income individuals (those who earn less than $30,000 per year) use the internet, compared to 90% of individuals who earn $50,000– 74,999 per year and 97% of those who earn more than $75,000 per year (zycor & smith, 2012). the level of income directly impacts access to digital icts in several ways. for example, income may impact motivational access in terms of the equipment and connection one has available to them. the quality of the equipment available and the reliability of the connection impact how people come to the decision of whether they want to access digital icts. leisure time may also be a mechanism at work in the relationship between income and motivational access. in the same way that economic capital provides the material necessities for existence, it also provides freedom from spending time acquiring and maintaining those necessities (bourdieu, 1990). in turn, motivational access may be shaped by the amount of time resources an individual has at their disposal (van dijk, 2005). the relationship between income and material and physical access is straightforward in terms of the extent to which people can afford digital icts equipment and internet connection. although many people in the developed world have access to computers and an internet connection from their homes, majority of them prefer physical and material access at public computer labs, the homes of friends and family, and at work or school. while material and physical access is understood as being able to access a computer with internet connection, the availability of various technology platforms such as tablets and smartphones, has expanded this type of access. nowadays, many devices are used to access the internet and this may enable or limit the types of usage activities that one is able to access and use. it is important to consider not only personal access to the internet via smartphones or computers but also the quality of the device used, the reliability of the sources accessed, the speed of the network connection, along with the location where a person gains internet access. the level of income may also have a correlation with one`s access to digital skills. for example, children who grow up with computers and internet in their homes are at an advantage when it comes to access to digital skills because research has shown that much of digital literacy is learned informally at home as it is embedded in one's life. some scholars have suggested that digital journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 202 literacy skills are usually acquired in informal spaces (meyers et al., 2013) as opposed to through formal instruction. as such, individuals who find themselves in environments where digital icts are being used on a frequent and fluid basis might be in a position to develop their digital skills faster. usage access is another important consideration for the mechanisms through which digital access may be shaped by the level of income. reasons and patterns of usage access can be understood as being shaped by the disproportionate distribution of economic, cultural, and social capital. as with motivational access, economic capital may determine levels of usage access in terms of quality of the equipment available and connection reliability. findings of different surveys have revealed an interesting correlation that individuals using computers are significantly more likely to participate in “capital enhancing” activities than those using mobile devices (pearce & rice, 2013). after having now reviewed the theories and findings in similar research efforts as foundational information, the next section discussed what the data captured through our questionnaire revealed, specifically when it comes to uae students and correlations of digital access and health outcomes, and their correlation to education and health. methods research design this study was conducted with the objective to determine the social determinants of digital access to health, specifically the impact and correlation of education and health variables, as they are seen as the primary social determinants of digital access to health. this study relied on the descriptive approach through a questionnaire prepared for this study by the researchers themselves after reviewing similar literature. the research design is linked to multiple variables. the dependent variable is digital access to health, and the independent variables are education, work, and income as social determinants of digital access to health services. to find the correlation and its effect between the variables, this study relied on the analysis of the multiple correlation coefficient between the independent variables (education, work, and income). alhrahsheh & ivanova sample this study used an intentional random sample consisting of 300 university students enrolled at al ain university, abu dhabi campus, uae, enrolled in the academic year 2020–2021. two-third of the participants were female (n = 200, 66.70%), while one-third were male (n = 100, 33.30%). the participants split into the following streams: sociology (65.00%, n = 195), psychology (25.00%, n= 76), and special education (10.00%, n= 29). table 1 notes these frequencies and distribution. table 1 distribution of the study sample by gender, department, and age student users (n = 300). ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ variable n % m sd range ــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ gender male 100 33.3 female 200 66.7 total 300 100 ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ department sociology 195 65.00 psychology 76 25.00 special education 29 10.00 total 300 100 ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ age (years) less than 20 150 50.00 20 to less than 30 122 41.00 31 and above 28 09.00 total 300 100 ـــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ data collection tool the data collection tools included a four-part survey questionnaire, the first part of which captured socio-demographic data. the second part consisted of nine questions designed to measure the impact of digital access on health that required participants to mark them if relevant, as follows: (1) “i have a smart device,” (2) “i pay attention to health products on the internet,” (3) “i usually conduct research on nutritional health,” (4) “i research physical strength development,” (5) “i use my device to search for the right health services,” (6) “i use the internet to find the right doctor and clinic,” (7) “i book an appointment with a doctor online,” (8) “i consult a doctor online,” and (9) “i get my medicine online.” the third part consisted of six questions that measured the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 204 homogeneity betwe education as a determinant of digital access to health and required marking from participants as well as relevancy: (1) “i can read and write,” (2) “i use internet applications regularly,” (3) “i use digital access to book doctor’s appointments,” (4) “i use digital access to learn about reasons for health conditions,” (5) “i use digital access to search for a specialist,” (6) “digital access has helped me a lot in keeping track of my health.” the fourth section consisted of two survey questions that measure income and its role in digital access to health through the following indicators: (1) “i have a high income” and (2) “my income brings me high digital access to health care.” data collection process data were collected through an online survey described above, conducted by the authors for a period of three weeks in october 2021. this study has been approved by the university administration. initially, the questionnaire was sent through email to 350 randomly selected students. among these, 304 completed the questionnaire and sent it back, three samples were deleted because they were incomplete, and 46 questionnaires were not returned. the total sample of the questionnaires used for the purpose of this study was 300, to ensure a sufficient representative number of the students participated to better capture community attitudes toward the topic assessed. to ensure questionnaire validity, the authors had the questionnaire reviewed by a group of arbitrators at al ain university and the university of sharjah in the uae, and their observations were taken into due consideration. the stability of the questionnaire was confirmed using cronbach's alpha test, as its value was .90. the high value of this parameter (> .60) indicated the high reliability of the study tool (sekaran & bougie, 2016). table 2 summarizes these results. table 2 cronbach's alpha of the reliability of the questionnaire ــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــ domain no. of items cronbach's alpha ــ ــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ digital access to health 9 .881 education determinants 6 .851 work determinants 3 .865 income determinants 2 .831 total 20 902 ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ alhrahsheh & ivanova data analysis in this study, spss-23 software was used to perform statistical analysis. this resulted in descriptive statistics, including frequency distribution and percentage of data used to display the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. as the study has multiple correlations, standard multiple regressions were used to test the hypothesis of the study, and from there, the homogeneity between the variables was measured, and the normality was determined. in addition, a linear test between the variables was used. furthermore, the mean and standard deviation were used to determine the descriptive statistics of the variables included in the regression study and matrix correlation between the three independent variables. the correlations between dependent variables and the degree of influence by the independent variables were examined. more specifically, r-square test was employed to find out the correlation coefficient between the dependent variable and the independent variables and analysis of variance (anova) test to show the p-value and the level of significance between the dependent variable and the independent variables. the last step also helped determine the validity of the hypothesis, the effect of the variables, and the beta value. results rq1. is digital access a social determinant of health? table 3 the responses of the study sample individuals to the factors driving the digital healthcare divide ــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ item arithmetic standard average deviation ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ i have a smart device and use the internet 4.21 1.67 i pay attention to health products on the internet 4.11 1.65 i usually conduct research on nutritional health 3.89 1.56 i am researching the development of physical strength 3.62 1.47 i use my device to search for the right health services 2.35 1.23 i use the internet to find the right doctor and clinic 2.30 1.11 i’m booking an appointment with a doctor online 1.91 1.76 i consult a doctor online 1.81 1.13 i get my medicine online 1.56 1.00 arithmetic average 3.64 2.23 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ the results presented in table 3 reveal indicators of the digital gap in access to health. the item: “i have a smart device and use the internet,” received the highest approval from the study sample with an average value 4.21 out of 5.00. the statement: “i pay attention to health products on the internet” received the second highest approval of the study sample with an average 4.11, whereas “i get my medicine online” ranked ninth with an average 1.56. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 206 table 4 the responses of the study participants to the items of the relationship between the digital accesses of people and education. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ item arithmetic standard average deviation ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــ i can read and write 4.55 2.22 i use internet applications regularly 4.35 2.33 i use digital access to learn more about reasons for health condition 3.61 1.16 i use digital access to book doctor’s appointments 1.86 2.05 i use digital access to search for a specialist doctor 1.55 2.13 digital access has helped me a lot in keeping track of 1.40 2.05 my health arithmetic average 3.64 2.23 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ table 4 shows the relationship between individuals' digital access and education, the statement “i can read and write” ranked first in terms of approval from the study, participants with an average 4.55 out of 5.00. the option “i use internet applications regularly” received the second highest approval from the participants with an average 4.35. the statement “digital access has helped me a lot in keeping track of my health” received the lowest approval (1.40 out of 5.00). table 5 the responses of the study participants to the items of the relationship between the digital accesses of people and labor ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ item arithmetic standard average deviation ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ work allows me continuous digital access 2.23 1.67 my work provides me with tools that aid in rapid digital access 2.15 1.56 my business provides me with electronic services in the field of health care 1.78 1.17 my income brings me high digital access to health care 1.35 1. 12 arithmetic average 1.87 1.38 ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ table 5 depicts the relationship between individuals' digital access and labor. on the one hand, the statement “work allows me continuous digital access” received the highest approval from the participants with an average 2.23 out of 5.00. on the other hand, the statement “my income brings me high digital access to healthcare” showed the lowest approval with an average 1.35 out of 5.00, which indicates that there is no clear correlation between them. alhrahsheh & ivanova table 6 descriptive statistics for the variables included in the regression study ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــ mean std. deviation n ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ digital access to health 4.3333 1.97105 300 education .466 .49827 300 work .6000 .45653 300 income 12.000 6.19687 300 ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ the results presented in table 6 show the descriptive statistics for the variables included, i.e., the mean and standard deviation for digital access to health, education, work, and income. the results evidence that education and work have no effect on the digital access to health, as their average is less than 1, and it has no effect. as for the income variable, it appears to have a significant effect on the access to digital health. rq2. is there a statistically significant relationship between the digital access of people, linked to their level of education, work and income status? prior to identifying the strength of the correlation between the dependent variable and the independent variables, it became clear through data analysis that the data distribution was normal as the data appeared together around the horizontal line. therefore, the spread follows the normality distribution. table 7 matrix of correlations between the three independent variables and the dependent variable ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ digital access education work income to health ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـ person correlation digital access to health 1.00 .925 .234 .423 education .925 1.000 .145 .654 work .246 .149 1.000 .0354 income .471 .456 .082 1.00 ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــ sig. (1-tailed) digital access to health . .000 .095 .004 education .874 1.978 .215 .001 work .014 .0323 . .334 income .004 .0239 .334 . ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ n digital access to health 300 300 300 300 education 300 300 300 300 work 300 300 300 300 income 300 300 300 300 ــ ــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 208 the findings encapsulated in table 7 indicate that there was a strong direct correlation between digital access and both work and income, but interestingly, in contrast, there was no relationship between education and digital access to health. table 8 shows the correlation coefficient between the dependent variable and the independent variables ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ model r r-square adjusted r-square std. error of estimate ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 1 .932a .868 .853 .75505 ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ a. predicators: (constant), education, work, income b. dependent variable: digital access to health the results shown in table 8 indicate that the independent variables explain the variance in the process of digital access to health, which is a significant percentage. to verify this further, the anova test was performed. table 9 the analysis of variance between the dependent variable and the independent variables ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ model sum of squares df mean square f sig ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 1 regression 97.843 3 34.614 57.231 .000a residual 14.823 3 .587 total 112.667 3 ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ a. dependent variable: digital access to health b. predicator: (constant), education, work, income table 9 shows the value of f (57.231) and the value of significance (.000) less than (.05), which indicates the null hypothesis should be rejected, and the alternative should be accepted, as the regression is large and not equal to zero. thus, there was a significant relationship between the independent variable, digital access to health, and the dependent variables: work, income, and education. however, to determine which of these variables had the greatest effect, we checked the value of beta in the method described as follows. alhrahsheh & ivanova table 10 coefficients of the variables and correlation ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ model unstandardized standardized t sig correlation coefficient coefficient zero order partial b std. error ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــ 1 constant .086 .503 . .171 .866 education .874 .021 .946 10.567 .724 .925 .901 work .435 .230 .104 1.428 .165 .276 .271 income .274 .343 .042 .36 .000 .471 .270 ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــ results presented in table 10 suggest that the variables work and income were significant, which means that there existed significant differences at the significance level (p = 0.05) when it comes to digital access to health among al ain university students regarding their employment status. the variable education has a significance level of more than 0.05 and thus had no effect on the dependent variable digital access to health, and there was no direct correlation between them, indicating no significant differences at the significance level (p = 0.05) between education and digital access to health. discussion the uae was ranked first in the following indices per capita in 2020: mobile broadband internet subscriptions, mobile broadband subscriptions, and mobile network coverage. in the uae, major digital achievements included all key sectors, such as education, health, economy, as well as the realm of human and societal development. given this context, this study looked at the interrelated ways in which the level of digital access might affect health outcomes. regarding the factors that lead to the digital healthcare gap, the results of this paper showed that the total study population had digital access through the availability of a smart device, while the higher levels of digital healthcare access were not always associated with the availability of a smart device such as mobile phones or a computer. in addition, most people searched the internet for sports tools for health, and the findings revealed much lower average interest of the individuals in the sample when it came to searching for health services, accessing a doctor's consultation, and dispensing medication via the internet. from the students’ responses, it was observed that their professional environment supported and allowed them to have continuous digital access. this latter condition fostered the habit of being in touch and using a number of digital platforms. digital access has become something we are all journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 210 accustomed to. although we posed additional unique questions, the results of our study are aligned with similar previous studies conducted by van dijk (2005), stanley (2003), harrington et al., (1990), torkzadeh and angulo (1992), and weil et al. (1990). the last of these states that many people lack motivation toward digital access and do not believe that communication and the internet are relevant to their lives. some participants were also skeptical and had anxiety or distrust when it comes to digital ict usage and impact. these studies also showed that people who were motivated to use digital icts were constantly using the internet and considered it relevant to their lives. the continual usage of digital access through their workplace or business also fostered the importance of the internet in their lives. when it comes to specific usage in the context of this study and its research questions, the findings also showed lower average interest among individuals overall in searching for health services, getting a doctor's consultation, and dispensing medicines online, which showed the importance of personal contact, even in times of increased digital access. regarding the field of work, the results showed that work did not provide numerical access. . in addition, this finding is consistent with the fact that mobile-dependent users do not have the same level of access in terms of developing digital literacy skills and self-confidence or the breath of online activities they can execute (katz et al., 2019; kumar et al., 2019; puspitasari & ishii, 2016; dunaway et al., 2018; mascheroni & olafsson, 2016; park 2015; wijetunga, 2014) in regard to the relationship of education to digital access to healthcare, the results indicated that the study participants were literate and had great interest in digital access; they used the internet permanently and often sought to learn about their health status. the results also showed that people were not interested in searching for the “right” doctor for their health condition online nor did they care to book an appointment online with the doctor, and finally, digital access did not help them much in the field of healthcare. however, regarding digital access to health and its correlation to education, according to the results of this study, there was no explicit correlation between the two nor an indication of a significant negative impact owing to lack of advanced education. as remarked earlier, this research is very timely, as people globally have increased their technology access and usage and use their own mobile devices for multiple reasons, far beyond simple communication. covid-19 has dramatically changed our lives and made us consider social distancing and achieve the same by executing various tasks, functions, and activities online for health-related reasons. owing to these considerations, this study and its findings are especially useful and can be used for the development of further longitudinal study on a national level and alhrahsheh & ivanova indeed worldwide as technology usage has been increased globally and health is one of the pillars essential to everyone`s life. digital access is one of the demands of our time, and thus, it is important to define the correlation between it and human health. conclusion this study furnished interesting answers to critical questions raised in a time of increased usage of ict and digital access to all kinds of services and aspects of life. health is often regarded as the most important virtue and a basic human necessity for survival. health-related services and their ease of access and quality often determine one`s choices when it comes to selecting a community or even the country, where individuals and their families decide to reside. in times of covid-19 and during the past decade, we have all experienced the necessity to tremendously increase our individual online presence and learned to access all kinds of services digitally. hence, the questions that this research posed and the answers to them are coming at a most appropriate time and context to postulate interesting predictions ahead, linking old and new habits to basic needs and drawing correlations. the participants of this study accurately represent uae’s youth and exemplify the universal widespread and heavy usage of mobile phones and ict across the uae. when it comes to the relationship between work and the level of digital access to health care, the results indicated that work provided the participants with digital access at a medium level and provided them with technological tools that help them achieve digital access at a medium level. the results also showed the lack of digital access in the field of health in the workplace. finally, this study also indicated that an individual's income does not necessarily allow easier digital access to healthcare and is directly correlated with the latter. regarding the hypothesis that an advantageous position at the individuals place of employment and a high income is invariably linked to a large digital access to healthcare, we concluded that it is possible that this may apply to people who work in developed societies, but the results of this study in our sampling did not support that. in this regard, this study also presented similar findings that corresponded to similar research conducted in other countries. this study is of particular importance and provides empirical data to guide developing community decision-makers as those leaders strive to provide high-standard services and serve their populations in the most efficacious way and provide a better tomorrow to the entire community in journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 212 their charge. this study can be expanded to the national and even global level to maximize its benefit, resulting in the added value of information-driven policies and innovations ahead, if can be conducted as a longitudinal study in the future. references anderson., m., & madhumitha, k. (2019, may 11). “digital divide persists even as lower-income americans make gains in tech adoption. pew research center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/05/07/digital-divide-persists-evenas-lowerincome-americans-make-gains-in-tech-adoption/ antonovsky, a. (1967). social class, life expectancy and overall mortality. milbank memorial fund quarterly, 45(5), 31–73. https://doi.org/10.2307/3348839 bennett., m., marie t., theresa., g, laura., l, & allison, m. (2018). addressing social determinants of health (sdoh): beyond the clinic walls. https://edhub.amaassn.org/stepsforward/module/2702762 bourdieu, p. (1990). in other words: essays towards a reflexive sociology. stanford, ca: stanford university press. https://silo.pub/in-other-words-essays-toward-a-reflexivesociology.html breen, r., kristian, b., & anders h. (2013). total, direct, and indirect effects in logit and probit models. sociological methods & research, 42(2), 164–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124113494572 crimmins., m. & yasuhiko, s. (2001). trends in healthy life expectancy in the united states, 1970-1990: gender, racial, and educational differences. social science & medicine, 52(11), 1629–1641. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00273-2 cutler, m. & adriana l. (2006). education and health: evaluating theories and evidence. working paper series, 12352(1). https://doi.org/10.3386/w12352 dimaggio., p. & bart, b. (2008). make money surfing the web? the impact of internet use on the earnings of us workers. american sociological review, 73(2), 227–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240807300203 elo, t. & samuel, p. (1996). educational differentials in mortality: united states, 1979-85. social science & medicine, 42(1), 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(95)00062-3 fountain, c. (2005). finding a job in the internet age. social forces, 83(3), 1235–1262. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2005.0030 https://doi.org/10.2307/3348839 https://edhub.ama-assn.org/stepsforward/module/2702762 https://edhub.ama-assn.org/stepsforward/module/2702762 https://silo.pub/in-other-words-essays-toward-a-reflexive-sociology.html https://silo.pub/in-other-words-essays-toward-a-reflexive-sociology.html https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124113494572 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00273-2 https://doi.org/10.3386/w12352 https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240807300203 https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(95)00062-3 https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2005.0030 alhrahsheh & ivanova hampton, n. & barry, w. (2000). examining community in the digital neighborhood: early results from canada's wired suburb. digital cities, 1765(1).475–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/3540-46422-0_16 gibbings, r. & wickramasinghe, n. (2021). social determinants of health in the us: a framework to support superior care co-ordination and leverage digital health solutions. health policy and technology, 10(3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hlpt.2021.100523 gubrium, a., & harper, k (2013). participatory visual and digital methods, ebook isbn9781315423012. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315423012 harshman, j. (2016). critical global competence and the c3 in social studies education. the social studies, 107(5), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377996.2016.1190915 hargittai, e. (2003). “the digital divide and what to do about it. (pp. 821–839). new economy handbook edited by j. c. derek san diego, ca: academic press. hargittai., e. & amanda h. (2008). digital inequality differences in young adults' use of the internet. communication research 35(5), 602–621. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650208321782 harrington, v., james c., & paula c. (1990). computer anxiety and computer-based training: a laboratory experiment. journal of educational computing research, 6(3), 343–358. house, s., james m., lepkowski, m., kinney, p., mero., ronald c., & a. regula jerzog. (1994). the social stratification of aging and health. journal of health and social behaviour, 35, 213–234. https://doi.org/10.2307/2137277 juang, j. & susan r. (2006). the digital divide and academic achievement. the electronic library, 24(2), 160–173. https://doi.org/10.1108/02640470610660350 judge, s. (2005). the impact of computer technology on academic achievement of young african american children. journal of research in childhood education, 20(2), 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568540509594554 kalimullina, o., tarman, b. & stepanova, i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher's role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226-238. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 karpov, a. (2017). education for knowledge society: learning and scientific innovation environment. journal of social studies education and research, 8(3), 201–214, journal of social studies education research (jsser.org) kitagawa., m., & philip m. (1973). differential mortality in the united states: a study in socioeconomic epidemiology. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674188471 https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-46422-0_16 https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-46422-0_16 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hlpt.2021.100523 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315423012 https://doi.org/10.1080/00377996.2016.1190915 https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650208321782 https://doi.org/10.2307/2137277 https://doi.org/10.1108/02640470610660350 https://doi.org/10.1080/02568540509594554 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674188471 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 214 kohler, u., kristian k., & anders, h. (2011). comparing coefficients of nested nonlinear probability models. the stata journal 11(3), 420–438. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x1101100306 kuhn, j., and hani m. (2011). is internet job search still ineffective?, leibnizforschungsinstitut zur zukunft der arbeit, no. 5955. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1929655 marais, e. (2021). a journey through digital storytelling during covid-19 students preparedness to use technology for learning in the language classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 169-182. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.17 márquez-ramos, l. (2021). does digitalization in higher education help to bridge the gap between academia and industry? an application to covid-19, industry and higher education, https://doi.org/10.1177/0950422221989190 marmot, michael. (2002). the influence of income on health: views of an epidemiologist: does money really matter? or is it a marker for something else? health affairs, 21(2), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.21.2.31 marmot, m., sharon f., ruth b., tanja, h., & sebastian, t. (2008). closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. public health, 372(9650), 1661–1669. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61690-6 marmot, m., & richard g. (2006). social determinants of health. 2nd ed. oxford (wilkinson, editors), oxford university press mattews, s.a. (2016). digital participatory research to foster global competence: constructing multimedia projects as a form of global and civic citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 1–29. mbhiza, h. (2021). shifting paradigms: rethinking education during and post-covid-19 pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 279-289. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.31 mesanovic., n., & smajic, e. (2018). digital health: the future of healthcare. cardiologia croatica, 13(11), 461-478. https://doi.org/10.15836/ccar2018.461 meyers, m., ingrid e, & ruth v. (2013). digital literacy and informal learning environments: an introduction. learning, media, and technology, 38(4), 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2013.783597 mirowsky, j. & catherine (2003). education, social status and health. hawthorne, ny, aldine de gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x1101100306 https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1929655 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.17 https://doi.org/10.1177/0950422221989190 https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.21.2.31 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(08)61690-6 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.31 https://doi.org/10.15836/ccar2018.461 https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2013.783597 alhrahsheh & ivanova montagni, i., cariou, t., feuillet, t., langlois, e., & tzourio, c. (2018). exploring digital health use and opinions of university students: field survey study. jmir mhealth and uhealth, 6(3), e9131. paino, m., & linda, a. (2013). digital dimension of cultural capital the (in) visible advantages for students who exhibit computer skills. sociology of education, 86(2), 124–138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040712456556 pearce, k.e. & ronald e.r. (2013). digital divides from access to activities: comparing mobile and personal computer internet users. journal of communication, 63(4), 721–744. pew research center (2021). internet/broadband fact sheet https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/internet-broadband/#who-hashomebroadband rapoport, a. (2020). development of global identity in the social studies classroom, journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 1-20. journal of social studies education research (jsser.org) ross., e., & chia-ling, w. (1995). the links between education and health. american sociological review, 69(5), 719–745. https://doi.org/10.2307/2096319 schnittker, j. (2004). education and the changing shape of the income gradient in health. journal of health and social behavior, 45, 286–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650404500304 shabalina, n. & bykov, a. (2021). problem of forming a literate reader in the digital age based on the material of modern children’s and youth prose. journal of social studies education research, 12(3), 175–203. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/219959/ shim, k. (2002). understanding the routinised inclusion of race, socioeconomic status and sex in epidemiology: the utility of concepts from technoscience studies. sociology of health & illness, 24(2), 129–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.00288 smith, a. (2015) searching for work in the digital era. pew research center. stanley, l.d. (2003). beyond access: psychosocial barriers to computer literacy special issue: icts and community networking. the information society: an international journal, 19(5), 407–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/715720560 swan, k., hofer, m., & swan, g. (2011). examining authentic intellectual work with a social studies digital documentary inquiry project in a mandated state-testing environment. journal of digital learning in teacher education, 27, 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2011.10784666 https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040712456556 https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/internet-broadband/#who-hashome-broadband https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/internet-broadband/#who-hashome-broadband https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser https://doi.org/10.2307/2096319 https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650404500304 https://www.learntechlib.org/p/219959/ https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.00288 https://doi.org/10.1080/715720560 https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2011.10784666 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 193-216 216 talhouk, r., mesmar, s., thieme, a., balaam, m., olivier, p., akik, c., & ghattas, h. (2016). syrian refugees and digital health in lebanon: opportunities for improving antenatal health. in proceedings of the 2016 chi conference on human factors in computing systems, 331–342. https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858331 torkzadeh, g. & irma, e. (1992). the concept and correlates of computer anxiety. behavior and information technology, 11(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/01449299208924324 tarman, b., kilinc, e., & aydin, h. (2019). barriers to the effective use of technology integration in social studies education, contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 19(4), 736–753. tarman, b. (2020). reflecting in the shade of pandemic, research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed the united arab emirates government portal. (2021). https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/digitaluae/digital-transformation-in-the-uae van deursen, a., & ellen, j. (2015). the third-level digital divide: who benefits most from being online? communication and information technologies annual, 10(1), 29-52. https://doi.org/10.1108/s2050-206020150000010002 van deursen, a., jan a., & van d. (2014). the digital divide shifts to differences in usage. new media & society, 16(3), 507–526. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813487959 van., d. & jan, a. (2005). the deepening divide: inequality in the information society. sage publications. online isbn: 9781452229812. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452229812 weil, m., larry d., & stuart, e. (1990). the ethology of computerphobia. computers in human behavior., 6(4), 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/0747-5632(90)90014-8 williams, h. (2003). the determinants of health: structure, context and agency. sociology of health & illness, 25(3), 131–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.00344 zickuhr, k. & aaron smith. (2012) digital differences. pew internet & american life project. http://www.pewinternet.org/2012/04/13/digital-differences/ zillien, n. & eszter, h. (2009). digital distinction: status specific types of internet usage. social science quarterly, 90(2), 274–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00617.x https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858331 https://doi.org/10.1080/01449299208924324 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed https://doi.org/10.1108/s2050-206020150000010002 https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813487959 https://doi.org/10.1016/0747-5632(90)90014-8 https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.00344 http://www.pewinternet.org/2012/04/13/digital-differences/ https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00617.x www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 1-29 1 viewing videos of controversial issues instruction: what influences transformative reflection? jay m. shuttleworth1, timothy j. patterson2, & ashley taylor jaffee3 abstract this qualitative study examined how and under what conditions pre-service social studies teachers reported transformations to their controversial issues pedagogy. this study began in 2011 and was situated in a pre-service social studies seminar at a graduate school of education in the united states. data collection occurred in five different seminars and lasted three years. afterwards, the authors met intermittently between 2014 and 2016 to establish findings. the study examined preservice social studies teachers’ responses to classes that utilized videotaped instruction of an experienced practitioner’s lessons about controversial free speech and terrorism. the following question guided data collection: “how, and under what conditions, do pre-service social studies teachers report transformations to their controversial issues pedagogy when viewing videos of an experienced teacher?” the theoretical framework drew upon enlightened political engagement, and data was derived from the written reflections of pre-service social studies teachers in five different seminars. findings emphasized that the pre-service social studies teachers were most likely to report pedagogical transformations when reflecting with a peer and when they were free to choose their analytical focus. also, they were most likely to contextualize these pedagogical transformations within the observed teacher’s classroom, a phenomenon we called ‘transposing’. implications of this study identify issues about how to teach for pedagogical transformations in controversial issues instruction. key words: controversial issues education, technology and social studies teacher education, social studies curriculum and instruction introduction many pre-service social studies teachers avoid controversy in their classroom because of its perceived negative consequences (adler, 2008; busey & mooney, 2014; byford, lennon, & russell, 2009; crouch, 2014; hess, 2008; ho, mcavoy, hess, & gibbs, 2017; rothschild, 2003). this reluctance is concerning because a primary objective of teaching controversial issues is for members of society to make informed and well-reasoned decisions on public matters (gutmann, 1 assist. professor, long island university, brooklyn, jay.shuttleworth@liu.edu 2 assistant professor, temple university, tuf79684@temple.edu 3 associate professor, james madison university, jaffeeat@jmu.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 1999; hess, 2008; national council for the social studies, 2010; zimmerman & robertson, 2017a, 2017b;). thus, preparing pre-service social studies teachers to implement this kind of instruction occupies a critical role in the development of participatory democracy itself (bickmore & parker, 2014; flanagan, 2013; noddings & brooks, 2017; ochoa-becker, 2007; parker, 2008; tolley, 2017; totten & peterson, 2007). owing this imperative, robust research exists on how to prepare pre-service social studies teachers to teach controversies inherent in subjects like heteronormativity (gibbs, 2018; tschida & buchanan, 2018), nativism (rodriguez, 2018; ward, 2018), and pluralistic and multicultural societies (gilbert, 2018; mccoy, 2018). however, pre-service social studies teachers often have narrowly informed preconceptions about what constitutes ‘good’ teaching, and transforming their pedagogical beliefs remains an ongoing challenge (barnes & smagorinsky, 2016; grossman, 1991; martin & dismuke, 2018). transformative opportunities for pre-service social studies teachers exist when teacher educators utilize the work of experienced practitioners in teaching methodology courses. social studies teacher educators have long-encouraged pre-service teachers to observe veteran teachers in hopes of spurring their transformational reflections (calderhead, 1989; lortie, 1975; schon, 1983; zeichner, 1996). honing this practice by utilizing videotaped instruction of an experienced practitioner provides added benefits, especially owing its novelty for observing and revisiting complex interactions and discussing those practices with faculty and peers (brophy, 2004; gauden & chaliès, 2015; gelfuso & dennis, 2014; hatch & grossman, 2009; könig, blömeke, klein, suhl, busse, & kaiser, 2014; moore-russo & wilsey, 2014). the instructional promise of using videos of experienced teachers to guide pre-service social studies instruction is well documented (e. g., blomberg, sherin, renkl, glogger, & seidel, 2014), yet few video-based studies examine what influences pre-service social studies teachers to transform their controversial issues pedagogy (blomberg, sturmer, & seidel, 2011). therefore, this study investigates if and in what ways pre-service social studies teachers’ analysis of videotaped instruction influenced transformations to their thinking about controversial issues pedagogy. specifically, it aims to increase understanding of how instructional choices by the teacher educators and analytical approaches of the pre-service social studies teachers influenced the latter’s reported transformations, if at all. beginning in 2011, this study was situated in a united states graduate school of education, specifically within a preservice social studies seminar. it spanned five different seminars across three years and utilized shuttleworth et al. the written reflections of the enrolled pre-service students (63 in total). the following research question guided the study: “how, and under what conditions, do pre-service social studies teachers report transformations to their controversial issues pedagogy when viewing videos of an experienced teacher?” conceptual framework in this study we analyze how supporting enlightened political engagement through multimedia representations of teaching influences pre-service social studies teachers’ conceptualization and implementation of teaching controversial issues (hess, 2009; hess & mcavoy, 2014; ho & seow, 2015; philpott, clabough, mcconkey, & turner, 2011; swalwell & schweber, 2016). broadly, enlightened political engagement aims for the realization of democratic ideals by combatting self-centered political action (mcavoy & hess, 2013; parker, 2005; parker & hess, 2001). parker (2003) posits that enlightened political engagement is guided by the “moral-cognitive knowledge norms, values and principles” of democracy (p. 34). hess (2009) moves this framework towards actions by suggesting that a key feature of enlightened political engagement is deliberation over controversial political issues. thus, the classroom discussion of controversial issues is both a means of teaching for and engaging in democracy. this study explored how pre-service social studies teachers reported pedagogical transformations in the topic of controversial free speech and terrorism, an issue that generates controversy for both conservative and liberal groups (camera, 2016; stoddard & hess, 2016; tucker & aleaziz, 2017). for many social studies researchers, the september 11, 2001 attacks are an “ultimate teaching moment” because so many disagree on what the social studies objective should be (hess, 2009, p. 131; hess & stoddard, 2007, p. 231). the subject presents additional challenges for teachers who must mediate divergent viewpoints (ho & seow, 2015; journell, 2011; richmond, 2016) and defend their instructional choices to family and community members (brkich & newkirk, 2015). framed by enlightened political engagement and these contexts, we were especially interested in analyzing reflections where pre-service social studies teachers reported transformations about how to teach this controversial topic. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 method this qualitative, exploratory study investigated how and under what circumstances do pre-service social studies teachers report transformations to their controversial issues pedagogy when viewing videos of an experienced teacher. data collection relied upon reflective essays written by pre-service social studies teachers who analyzed videos of controversial free speech instruction. data analysis involved a deductive approach and focused on the pre-service social studies teachers’ reported transformative applications to their controversial issues pedagogy. research design and study group data collection spanned 2011-2013, and analysis occurred intermittently from 2014 to 2016. data collection occurred for three years within 15-week long social studies student teaching seminars situated in a graduate school of education in the united states of america. each year, we studied a five-week span of classes that utilized video analysis of an experienced practitioner teaching lessons about controversial free speech and the september 11 terrorist attacks. different instructors taught each of the five seminars, and a broadening of instructional objectives occurred in year two and three of the study. data collection and analysis centered on the reflective essays completed by all of the enrolled pre-service social studies teachers’ reflective essays (63 in total), which were completed at the end of the five-week span of instruction. seminar instructors gave pre-service social studies teachers an option to not participate in the study, but all chose to take part. deductive analysis identified essay passages where pre-service social studies teachers discussed an ‘application’ to their own teaching practice, and inductive approaches clarified if those applications merely reinforced or transformed their thinking about controversial issues instruction. we acknowledge that this research approach was not an exhaustive analysis of all data stemming from this study, nor were video analysis strategies particularly emphasized. the study focused on a required seminar for pre-service social studies teachers who were enrolled in a program leading to a master of arts degree and teaching credential. this seminar met once a week for 110 minutes and averaged 15 students. most of the students in the course had come directly from an undergraduate course of study. a few students came from professional experience in private school settings or other sectors entirely. in all three years, the course instructors were advanced doctoral students in the university’s social studies program, shuttleworth et al. and their experience teaching in k-12 settings ranged from three to nine years. the objective of this sequence of lessons (hereafter referred to as the “unit”) was to help pre-service social studies students deepen their comprehension of pedagogical strategies and to encourage reflection on how these concepts might contribute to their own instruction of controversial free speech issues. these specific strategies involved topics like direct instruction, questioning, and contextualizing content. the culminating project of this instructional unit (and a focus of this study’s data analysis) featured a 7-10 page multimedia reflective essay. to support the creation of this reflective effort, course instructors and pre-service social studies teachers devoted five of the 15 course meetings to analyzing videos of controversial issues instruction. in the first day, instructors introduced the project and the digital learning environment where the pre-service social studies teachers would be interacting with the videos and each other. in this digital space, pre-service social studies teachers could view videos and share comments with peers and instructors. the videos centered on a series of lessons on controversial free speech in the 12th grade government classroom of an experienced teacher, frank sims (all names referred to in this study are pseudonyms). the videos were unedited, and viewers saw two camera angles at the same time: one was trained on sims, and the other offered a broad view of his students. following the introduction to the video analysis project, the pre-service social studies students had a homework assignment with several tasks. first, they watched the approximately 45-minute long video of the first day’s instruction. second, they identified at least three clips that demonstrated how mr. sims utilized direct instruction, contextualizing context, and questioning to implement instruction on controversial free speech (students had read an article on each of these topics lessons preceding the unit). in this digital space, they next posed discussion questions to their peers about each of the three teaching strategies. the instructor used these questions to guide a whole-class discussion during the second day of instruction. for homework before the third day of instruction, the pre-service social studies teachers watched a second video of sims’ instruction (about 45 minutes long) and a shorter video of him reflecting on both days of the lesson. also, pre-service social studies teachers wrote the first part of a multimedia essay where they reflected by themselves on what they learned from the videos, and they described which pedagogical strategies they focused on in their analysis. in this essaywriting platform, pre-service social studies teachers used embedded clips of sims’ teaching in journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 their prose as evidence to support their claims. the prompt for this assignment asked, “explain how this process may or may not have caused you to challenge your understandings of how social studies instruction should occur.” in the third class, students shared drafts of their essays with at least one partner, and they collectively reflected upon them. in preparation for the fourth class, the instructor asked the students to complete their essays by adding a section where they commented on what they had learned (if anything) from the opportunity to collectively reflect with a peer. the prompt for this part asked students to describe how their “…understandings of social studies instruction may or may not have changed because of this interaction with your colleague.” students also addressed an additional prompt, which asked them to reflect upon how the entire experience influenced their development as a teacher (if at all). in the fifth class meeting, the students collectively participated in a wholegroup discussion about the content of their reflective essay. in the first year of the study, the instructors explicitly constructed learning objectives to focus on how direct instruction, questioning, and contextualizing content influenced the delivery of controversial issues (fisher & frey, 2007; larson & keiper, 2007; sherin & van es, 2005). we rationalized that providing analytical lenses for the pre-service social studies teachers to pick from might deter superficial observations and reflections. however, in the second and third year of the study, instructors altered this initial narrow instructional approach in response to requests by pre-service social studies teachers to expand analytical options. new topics included enacting a ‘hook,’ differentiation, equitable participation, role play, using visuals, closure, classroom management, use of technology, classroom arrangement, movement of teacher, assessment, and/or a topic of their choosing. especially with the last option, this methodological change sought to provide a platform more considerate of the pre-service social studies teachers’ needs and interests. therefore, the use of the same assignment with a few adjustments over a three-year period allowed for the examination of the pre-service social studies teachers’ reported interconnections. data collection and analysis we collected reflective essays written by each of the pre-service social studies teachers enrolled in the seminar across three years of instruction (27 papers collected from year one, 23 from year two, and 13 from year three). a member of the research team maintained these essays shuttleworth et al. in digital format and anonymized them with pseudonyms. these essays were then uploaded to a file-sharing network. analysis of these reflection papers utilized deductive coding before opening it up to inductive approaches. the research team relied upon a framework by american education professors miriam sherin & elizabeth van es (2005), whom others have acknowledged for its differentiation between superficial and transformative reflecting on videotaped instruction (cherrington & loveridge, 2014; husu, toom, & patrikainen, 2008). davis (2006) describes superficial reflecting as unfocused or judgmental, like noticing that the experienced practitioner slouches during instruction. while more difficult to define, others describe transformative reflecting as making applications to one’s pedagogy, challenging assumptions, and considering alternative points of view (cherrington & loveridge, 2014; fund, 2010; moore-russo & wilsey 2014). sherin and van es (2005) established four ways to deductively code what pre-service teachers reported in their reflections. they were 1) ‘noticing’ (i noticed an idea.); 2) ‘making connections’ (i noticed a connection between what i’m seeing and something else.); 3) ‘integrating’ (i reflected on the relationship of this connection.); 4) ‘application’ (i applied this to my practice.). the first two can be described as superficial reflecting, the fourth one can be described as transformational, and the third can be seen as a transitional phase between the two. because we were interested in how viewing videos of an experienced practitioner could lead to reported pedagogical transformations, we avoided frameworks that analyzed other phenomenon. for example, we did not use a coding scheme that grouped reflections into most commonlymentioned categories because those parameters were too broad for our objectives (e. g., sherin & han, 2003). while any coding scheme may indicate a degree of evaluation (thomas, wineburg, grossman, oddmund, & woolworth, 1998), we were not interested in coding that sorted data based on ‘best’ teaching practices. for example, we did not utilize a coding scheme set up to analyze hypothetical ‘recommendations’ given by viewers to the videotaped practitioner (rowley & hart, 1993). for this study, we focused exclusively on passages where pre-service social studies teachers reported an ‘application’ to their teaching philosophy. our reasoning was that the first three coding categories (‘noticing’, ‘making connections’, and ‘integrating’) frequently yielded cosmetic-type remarks, while ‘applications’ offered insights into how pre-service social studies journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 teachers related the video of the experienced practitioner to their own teaching philosophy (cherrington & loveridge, 2014; davis, 2006; moore-russo & wilsey, 2014). however, after coding yielded 224 reflective essay passages as ‘application’, we inductively reasoned that new sub-categories were needed to articulate emergent, transformative understandings. because passages coded as an ‘application’ could signal a reinforcement of or a transformation to one’s teaching philosophy, we created three sub-categories accounting for those differences, as shown below. table 1 subcategories for ‘application’ code name of code how code paraphrased passage containing an ‘application’ ‘reinforcing’ it reinforced my belief. ‘elaborating’ i’ve thought about it more deeply, but my beliefs are the same ‘transforming’ it changed the way i think about my practice. note. an important difference between the three codes is that ‘transforming’ identifies passages where a pre-service social studies teacher reports a change to one’s controversial issues pedagogy, and ‘elaborating’ and ‘transforming’ codes identify passages that do not. this inductive coding approach strove to distinguish passages where pre-service social studies teachers reported making a pedagogical transformation, like when they challenged their understanding of how controversial issues instruction should occur versus when they were merely observing something. to norm procedures and achieve a degree of inter-rater reliability, two of the researchers began the analysis process by randomly selecting ten essays to code. each researcher coded the essays individually and compared their findings afterwards. when discrepancies arose after comparing their outcomes, they convened the entire research team to discuss ways to reach an agreeable conclusion. after this norming process, the original two research members finished coding the remaining 53 essays. as disagreements arose, the entire team convened to arbitrate a decision. additionally, when the two researchers identified the need to expand the scope of the ‘application’ code, the entire research team met to agree on the phrasing of those sub-categories. the instructional unit utilizing videos of an experienced teacher had numerous learning objectives (hatch, shuttleworth, taylor jaffee, & marri, 2016), and we did not attempt an exhaustive analysis of those objectives nor engage the collected data through an array of other possible theoretical perspectives. for example, this study does not focus on pre-service social studies teachers developing critical media literacy, nor does it involve meta-analysis of videos. shuttleworth et al. instead, it focuses narrowly on how and under what conditions pre-service social studies teachers were most likely to report a transformative application to their controversial issues pedagogy. findings this section highlights three areas of note where the pre-service social studies teachers reported transforming applications to their controversial issues instruction. because this research was qualitative and exploratory in nature, these findings are not generalizable, especially since the study describes reflections of pre-service social studies teachers enrolled in a particular graduate seminar. first, they were most likely to report transformations to their controversial issues pedagogy when analyzing and dialoguing with a peer instead of when analyzing individually. second, when instructors broadened the assignment’s analytical options, the preservice social studies teachers were more likely to report transformations to their pedagogies than when the instructional objectives were comparatively narrow. third, the pre-service social studies teachers unexpectedly reported more transformations to their pedagogy when they opted not to extend their analyses to their student teaching placements and instead ‘transposed’ themselves within the classroom of the experienced practitioner. the aggregated results of the analysis of students’ essays reveal the rarity of transformative applications. figure 1 shows that of 224 coded passages, only 15 demonstrated a transforming application to their own practice. of note is that many pre-service social studies teachers’ essays included multiple examples of ‘reinforcing’ or ‘elaborating’ applications, but none referenced more than one transforming application (and thus, a total of 15 individual preservice social studies teachers reported a pedagogical transformation to their controversial issues pedagogy). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 figure 1. comparison of total reported applications to one’s pedagogy. note. some pre-service social studies students reported multiple examples coded as ‘elaborations’ and ‘reinforcing’. no single pre-service social studies student reported more than one passage coded as ‘transformation’. although only about 24% of the pre-service social studies students reported transformations to their practice (15 of 63), we explored in-depth what conditions may have been influential in their formation. the comparatively small number of pre-service social studies teachers reporting transformations reinforces findings of other researchers. analyzing videotaped instruction does not necessarily result in critical thinking or challenging one’s pre-conceptions and may actually reinforce preconceptions (brophy, 2004; erickson, 2007). while viewing videos of instruction may provide opportunities for reflection, they may be superficial or unproductive (cherrington & loveridge, 2014; davis, 2006). the rarity of transformative reflecting may derive from viewers’ unfamiliarity with the viewed classroom context (derry & hmelo-silver, 2002; hatch & grossman, 2009). it may also be derived from lortie’s (1975) “apprenticeship of observation” (p. 61), which heaton & mickelson (2002) described as “teachers teach the way they were taught” (p. 51). overcoming pre-service social studies teachers’ preconceptions of what ‘good’ teaching is a persistent obstacle to transformative reflecting. reinforcing, 100 elaboration; 109 transformation, 15 shuttleworth et al. finding 1: reported transformations more likely when working with peer than by self here we highlight that pre-service social studies teachers were four times more likely to report a ‘transforming’ application when they collaborated with a partner than when they analyzed the videos on their own. this data is shown below in table 2: table 2 reporting transforming applications: self versus with a partner the data in this table illustrates that when analyzing the videos by one’s self in each of the study’s three years, the pre-service social studies teachers were far less likely to report pedagogical transformations on their own than when they analyzed with a partner. this finding arises from the two distinct tasks the seminar instructors asked of the pre-service social studies teachers: 1) to first analyze the videos individually, on one’s own time, and 2) to analyze the videos with a partner in class. when the pre-service social studies teachers reported transformations to their pedagogy, they were most likely to do so when a partner’s observations influenced them to reflect anew on how to teach controversial issues. an illustration of this occurred when maria, a pre-service social studies teacher from year three of the study, reported a transformation to her pedagogy when she interacted with a peer about the use of a ‘hook’. they reflected upon a segment of a lesson where mr. sims used a hook in the middle of a lesson by offering an example of controversial free speech. of the september 11 terrorist attacks, he said, “osama bin laden did a good thing that day.” maria reflected, before speaking with [kevin], i conceptualized the hook technique as something that an educator utilized at the beginning of their class to give their students a preview of the material for that day as well as getting them excited for that day… however, as [kevin] explained, a hook does not have to only be used once in the beginning of class. rather, the hook can be used several times throughout the class to motivate students… [kevin]’s conceptualization of a hook was not only a new, refreshing, and valuable characterization how analyzing year 1 year 2 year 3 all years by self 4% (1 of 27 essays) 9% (2 of 23 essays) 8% (1 of 13 essays) 6% (4 of 63 essays) with a partner 11% (3 of 27 essays) 22% (5 of 23 essays) 23% (3 of 13 essays) 24% (11 of 63 essays) journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 of the pedagogic technique but served to positively challenge preexisting expectations regarding mr. sim’s practice as well as my own. here, maria offered an enthusiastic endorsement of her partner’s influential views on utilizing hooks throughout a controversial issues lesson and not just at its beginning. maria admitted that she had not thought of this strategy when she said, “i never conceptualized using it multiple times throughout the class instruction.” underlining the value of analyzing with a partner, maria did not report a transformation when she initially analyzed the videos on her own through the lens of how to provide ‘closure’ to a lesson. gem, a pre-service social studies teacher from year two of the study, similarly recalled a moment when her partner’s observation influenced her reported pedagogical transformation. when they jointly discussed the video showing mr. sims reflecting on his instruction, gem recalled, “my partner noticed… that it was important for a teacher to evaluate themselves after their lecture and be willing to make changes in order to enhance the lesson and engage the students.” here, gem and her partner discussed a moment of the lesson where a student appeared uncomfortable engaging in controversial, albeit hypothetical, free speech. mr. sims brought a student to the front of the room and asked her to stand in an imaginary “sound proof box.” emphasizing that in private, citizens have wider speech freedoms than in public, he encouraged her to “say something terrible” about him. as gem and her partner noted, the selected student was reluctant to say anything “terrible” about sims because it was not a private setting, and everyone in the class, including mr. sims, could hear whatever she said in this imaginary box. gem argued that asking students to utter hypothetical examples of controversial free speech required ongoing reflection because it risked embarrassment or recourse concerns. for example, gem wondered if the selected student was comfortable uttering hypothetically controversial words in front of the teacher and her peers. gem said, “it will be imperative to look back at the results of the lesson and change any portions that were ineffective. this practice is continuous. no matter how much experience a teacher has, he or she is always a student.” spurred by interaction with her partner, her transformative reflection revealed that when she asked students to pose hypothetically controversial free speech, she needed to carefully reflect on students’ preparedness and comfort level. because the 12th grade government class was located in one of the cities attacked on september 11, 2001, several pre-service social studies teachers reflected upon a) how the shuttleworth et al. students’ families might have been personally affected by the terrorist attacks and b) how to use that knowledge to properly contextualize instruction. for example, when mr. sims set forth a hypothetical example of controversial free speech about the event where he said, “…on 9/11, bin laden should have gone further,” a pre-service social studies teacher from year two of the study reported a transformation to how he might differently contextualize such a lesson. after dialoguing with a peer about the videotaped instruction, the pre-service social studies teacher (thomas) said: i wondered if [sims] could have used another real life example of terrorism in us history that did not include relations to our country’s present day international conflict and wars. if i were the teacher i would keep the kkk reference to freely march in [a nearby park], but i would hesitate and probably not include the 9/11 events as part of my contextualizing. i feel the subject is still too personal and recent in u. s. history, and it may shut students down as opposed to engaging them deeper in the lesson concept. i realize now after viewing his role play that it takes time to prepare to use role play in a lesson. here, thomas reflected on how he updated his pedagogy to include ‘testing’ controversial issues topics beforehand for their appropriateness and relevance. in so doing, he elevated the importance of considering his own students’ backgrounds alongside the unanticipated challenges of using controversial political topics in social studies activities. like gem, who wondered if encouraging a student to utter controversial speech was an appropriate pedagogical decision, thomas also did not have access to any prior conversations where mr. sims investigated his student’s relationship to the september 11 attacks. brian (a pre-service social studies teacher from the second year of the study) also reported a transformation to his pedagogy when his partner, danielle, argued that role-playing ought to have learning objectives that extend beyond providing a ‘fun’ activity. in his reflective essay, he reported that role-playing offered opportunities for students to experiment and refine their own worldviews. he wrote: …[danielle’s] explanation made me think about it in a different way…i had not made this connection when i first watched [mr. sims] …i found particularly interesting her opinion that role-play is important because it gives students control over the material they’re learning… one of the main purposes of secondary social studies education is to journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 encourage students to consider a variety of viewpoints and determine their own opinion and stances on the world. once i considered [danielle’s] words and began thinking about role play as supporting this process, i realized just how important it is to give students a chance, with no real consequences involved, to try on different opinions and perspectives and see what feels right. there are few opportunities like this that exist outside the classroom, and once i had considered what [danielle] had said, i realized that perhaps role-play is an even more important tool in the social studies classroom than i had originally thought. here, brian’s interaction with a partner produced a reported transformation in how he conceptualized role-playing. he argued that the ‘low-stakes’ opportunity to interact with peers was likely more supportive than a controversial issues interaction outside of the classroom, and thus, it was a valuable opportunity for developing student agency. he also noted that role-playing within controversial issues instruction had more significant learning objectives than he previously thought. for brian, it was an opportunity for students to begin forming their opinions of controversial issues in a space moderated for respectful experimentation and dialogue. for brian, gem, maria, and thomas, their partner’s fresh perspectives of the videotaped instruction sparked applications. each reported transformation with a partner originated when one of them introduced a new way of thinking. while we were interested to see what a mutually reported transformation looked like (when both partners reported a ‘new’ way of thinking about their teaching), the influence of peer interaction on pedagogical transformations was clearly evidenced. finding 2: reported transformations more likely when broadening instructional options pre-service social studies teachers were twice as likely to report a ‘transforming’ application to their pedagogy when they had flexibility to choose their analytical lens than when they could only select from a few options. 15% of pre-service teachers reported pedagogical transformations when they could only use one of three pre-selected analytical lenses in year one of the study. however, in year two and three of the study when they could choose their analytical lens, 30% and 31% of teachers, respectively, reported transformative reflections to their pedagogy. these comparisons are shown in table 3: shuttleworth et al. table 3 narrow versus broader instructional options instructional options analyzing by self analyzing with partner total narrowa year 1 4% (1 of 27) 11% (3 of 27) 15% (4 of 27) broaderb year 2 9% (2 of 23) 22% (5 of 23) 30% (7 of 23) year 3 8% (1 of 13) 23% (3 of 13) 31% (4 of 13) note. athese options were direct instruction, questioning, and contextualizing content. bthese expanded options were discussed in the instructional context of the methodology section; notably, students could select an analytical lens of their choosing. james (a pre-service social studies teacher from year two of the study) chose to examine the videotaped instruction for the role of instructional gatekeeping (thornton, 2017). in his reflection essay, he acknowledged his transformed thinking about responsibilities to carefully select discussion topics involving controversial free speech. he remarked: i see the importance of having strong beliefs about how to educate students and the value in making sure those beliefs, whatever they may be, are present in all aspects of the classroom... [and] i must make the conscious effort to think about how i will use these elements in all of my lessons. this reflection highlighted the importance of choosing material for an ‘open’ lesson on controversial issues (hess, 2008). although he did not hint at how his personal beliefs might influence such a decision, james’ reflection signaled his interest in developing a protocol for selecting a controversial issues topic. david, a pre-service social studies teacher from the third year of the study, similarly reported transformations to his pedagogy when his partner (tania) shared how she analyzed the videos for classroom management. recalling their dialogue, david said, “my peer shared insight with me that i would have never noticed by simply analyzing the videos myself without discussion.” he also revealed that he had not thought of using classroom management as an analytical lens, and so the added dynamic of discussing each other’s perspectives proved valuable in transforming david’s pedagogical views. he said, before doing this project, i was a bit skeptical of methodological approaches that emphasized classroom routines and management… however, this project helped me journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 realize the importance of routines in creating a classroom environment that is conducive to learning… as i prepare to teach my own classes, i will think carefully about establishing routines… although speaking in a general nature, david’s reported pedagogical transformation revealed that he wanted to change his controversial issues pedagogy to include “clearer expectations” around norms and expectations. like with david and james, patricia reported a pedagogical transformation when she opted to analyze the videos through a topic of personal interest, in this case, assessing group work. a pre-service social studies teacher from year two of the study, she said she analyzed the videos this way because mr. sims made little effort to check for understanding during the free speech mock trial. she wrote in her reflection that some students used the time instead to “socialize.” she said, prior to this assignment, i was unaware of how to combat the free-rider mentality students possess. however, after witnessing the problems associated with sims’s mock trial debate, i realized that un-assessed group work reinforces negative work habits… all students must be held accountable for their contributions, or lack thereof… [maybe] enabling students to grade their classmates or allowing them to reflect that un-assessed group work reinforces negative work habits. patricia reflected that mr. sims should check in with students before the mock trial to ensure their arguments were supported and they were not planning to ‘wing it’ or let their peers do more of the work. here, patricia emphasized that formative and summative assessment of individuals’ contributions to group work was paramount. otherwise, unprepared members’ contributions could resemble more of a spontaneous argument utilizing superficial evidence – an environment not conducive to thoughtful and respective interchanges, particularly on controversial issues. patricia applied this reflection specifically to the many ‘audience’ members of the debate whom mr. sims did not audibly or visibly assess before, during, or after the free speech debate. for her, these were the “freeloaders” of the lesson. when pre-service social studies teachers like patricia, david, and james utilized an analytical perspective of their choosing, they were twice as likely to report pedagogical transformations than when their peers had to choose from a narrower selection. while these three pre-service social studies teachers viewed the videos through different analytical lenses, they shuttleworth et al. each reported a change to how they would like to implement controversial issues instruction. for example, james signaled his new-found commitment to selecting a truly ‘open’ topic for discussion, and david and patricia revealed that they wanted to refine their protocols for ensuring engagement with and understanding of the opinions shared about the controversial issue. finding 3: reported transformations more likely when ‘transposing’ self with experienced teacher finding three emerged from conditions set unexpectedly by the pre-service social studies teachers. because the essay instructions did not ask them to contextualize their reflections, they described transformations to their pedagogy however they chose. for example, some pre-service social studies teachers discussed how they might implement transformations in their student teaching placement. others imagined implementing changes more abstractly, like after they finished their teaching credential and preceded with phrasing like, “in the future…” however, a majority of those who reported pedagogical transformations in their reflective essays (11 of 15) imagined themselves ‘in the shoes’ of the videotaped teacher, as shown in figure 2: figure 2. classroom context for reported pedagogical transformations when ‘transposing’ 'transposing' with mr. sims' classroom (11) in student teaching placement (2) in future classroom setting (2) journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 when the pre-service social studies teachers described their pedagogical transformations by switching places with the experienced practitioner shown on the videotape, we called this phenomenon ‘classroom transposing.’ here, classroom transposing is a means of imagining one’s self taking over someone else’s classroom, using language like, “if i were teaching the lesson” or “if this was my classroom.” they described how they would implement their transformed pedagogy if they were able to switch places with the experienced practitioner shown in the video, although none of them explained why this choice was preferable to contextualizing in a classroom of their own. amy, a pre-service social studies teacher from the first year of the study, reported a ‘transposing’ transformation when she reflected upon how to select an appropriate topic for controversial issues discussion. similar to the reflections made by thomas (as discussed in finding one), she said that she had not previously thought about using a more culturally-relevant approach to selecting a controversial issues topic. she said that mr. sims selected a topic of personal interest instead of a more relatable one for his students. because few students participated orally in the free speech debate, she inferred that a more relevant topic might encourage more engagement. imagining herself taking the place of mr. sims in his classroom, she wrote, “if i were teaching his class…i must find ways to relate material to students’ lives… as opposed to looking for what i find interesting.” she did not elaborate on why she was in a position to assume the teaching role of mr. sims, but she hinted at limitations of transposing one’s self into another person’s classroom. she said, “i obviously have no way of knowing how much the classroom dynamic will change once… i am standing at the front of the room.” here she acknowledged possible flaws in imagining herself ‘taking over’ for another teacher; she had almost no knowledge of the students or the school community. thus, why she chose to imagine herself in this mostly foreign classroom remained unclear. ann, a pre-service social studies teacher from year two, similarly transposed herself into mr. sims’ classroom when she reported a transformation about selecting appropriate controversial issues for discussion. while amy said earlier that instruction might be undermined by students’ lack of familiarity with the september 11 attacks, ann was concerned that the topic was too recent and personal. transposing herself into mr. sims’ class, she reflected upon her pedagogical transformation: shuttleworth et al. had i been teaching [sims’s] class, i realize now [and] i understand why it may be necessary… to run certain context choices by a colleague or another student in a different class just to make sure that as the instructor i am not crossing the boundaries… and insulting any of my students. here, ann’s reported transformation valued colleagues’ input when selecting a controversial issue. also, she underscored the challenge of transposing one’s self into another’s classroom: she did not have direct knowledge that mr. sims did or did not investigate any of his students’ potential connection to the event beforehand. jill, a seminar classmate of ann’s, also reported transformations to her pedagogy while transposing herself into mr. sims’ classroom. analyzing the videos for lesson pacing, she said, if i were teaching this class, i would try to ask more questions for students to answer in order to check for understanding… i definitely would have allowed the students to answer the questions instead of making sure my lecture was on track. jill said that mr. sims may have devoted too much time to contextualizing the mock trial, and she would do some things differently: “i cannot expect my students to feel comfortable… participating fully if i dominate the scene by taking center stage.” her pedagogical transformation elevated the importance of whole-class deliberation on the lesson’s key questions and not on merely completing the lesson plan. however, she did not know if mr. sims followed up on these passed-over discussion topics in later classes. for jill, amy, and ann, their reflections represented a broader trend among the other preservice social studies teachers who described pedagogical transformations ‘in the shoes’ of the videotaped teacher. these considerations represented a surprising outcome and hinted at the challenge of determining what reflective context was the most appropriate. why they chose to transpose themselves into mr. sims’ classroom was mysterious, especially because they did not indicate if doing so was realistic or advisable. whatever the case may be, most of the pre-service social studies teachers imagined themselves in mr. sims’ classroom and not in their student teaching placement. overall, this section identified three major findings to the research question, “how, and under what conditions, do pre-service teachers report transformations to their controversial issues pedagogy when viewing videos of an experienced teacher?” in finding one, we utilized the reflections of four pre-service social studies teachers to demonstrate the influence a partner had journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 in increasing the likelihood of reporting a pedagogical transformation. in finding two, we used the reflections of three pre-service social studies teachers to illustrate that they were more likely to report transformative reflections when they had the freedom to choose their analytical lens. in finding three, we explained three pre-services social studies teachers’ tendency to contextualize their pedagogical transformations within the videotaped teacher’s classroom. these findings raised several issues for preparing pre-service social studies teachers to implement controversial issues instruction, of which we explore more fully in the next section. discussion although only a small percentage of the 63 pre-service social studies teachers reported pedagogical transformations (24%), their reflections raised implications for how social studies teacher educators and researchers could approach this kind of instruction in the future. we found that the role of dialoguing with a peer and having freedom to choose one’s analytical lens to be an important consideration when developing the skills for teaching controversial issues in teacher education programs. while we acknowledged that ‘transposing’ one’s self into another’s classroom was fraught with challenges, we also identified this phenomenon as an opportunity for additional whole-class discussions. in the first finding, the pre-service social studies teachers were four times more likely to report transformations when they dialogued with a peer than when they analyzed the videos on their own. future iterations of this kind of instruction could benefit from engaging pre-service social studies teachers in whole-class discussion about why they were more likely to report transformations in peer settings. emphasizing how, and under what conditions these transformations occurred might remind them that peer-based methodologies most influential on their reflections could be similarly impactful for their own instruction. examining this phenomenon may further strengthen their commitment to utilizing peer-to-peer dialogue with their own students when discussing controversial issues. in the second finding, pre-service social studies teachers who chose their own analytical lens were twice as likely to report pedagogical transformations than those who had to choose from selections provided by the instructor. this outcome strengthened assertions by others (e. g., cherrington & loveridge, 2014) who have argued that transformative applications were more likely to be reported when pre-service teachers used their own interests to guide investigations of shuttleworth et al. videotaped instruction. in the first year of the study, seminar instructors worried that removing the initiallynarrow analytical options might cause pre-service social studies teachers to rely upon superficial reflections or descriptions (something cherrington & loveridge (2014) called “judgmental framing” (p. 42)). in the second and third year of the study, seminar instructors avoided this outcome by modeling possible analytical lenses in class and informally conferencing with pre-service social studies teachers to discuss their analytical preferences. in the third finding, the pre-service social studies teachers were most likely to contextualize their pedagogical transformations within the videotaped teacher’s classroom, which raised questions about how teacher educators should guide such reflections. for example, we wondered if the seminar instructors should encourage contextualizing in student teaching placements or even in a future-based, hypothetical classroom where they would be the teacher of record. admittedly, transposing one’s self ‘into the shoes’ of the videotaped teacher was a hypothetical, if not futile exercise owing their limited knowledge of the rapport between mr. sims and his students. situating reflections within one’s student teaching classroom represented a more realistic opportunity to implement these transformations, albeit a somewhat limited one given the vagaries of instructional freedom afforded during this apprenticeship experience. transposing one’s self into the videotaped teacher’s classroom was an exercise in hypothesizing but a mostly dead end affair; the pre-service social studies teachers were not going to teach in the videotaped scenes from mr. sims’ classroom. however, we were unsure if seminar instructors should discourage transposing one’s self into another’s classroom. given that the objectives of the study was to investigate how, and under what circumstances the pre-service social studies teachers reported pedagogical transformations, placing limits on how they can contextualize their applications might stifle the frequency and variety of such reflections. seminar instructors could raise the idea of classroom transposing for whole-class discussion; further dialogue might provide insights about how pre-service social studies teachers envision bridging the gulf between theoretical and practical-based pedagogical transformations. limitations and conclusion we acknowledge that the qualitative, exploratory nature of this study creates possible limitations. for example, the answers to our research question represent an in-depth analysis of the reflections by participants in our study, but they are not generalizable. also, the total number journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 of pre-service social studies teachers who participated in the study is small (63), and a larger number of participants might have produced more opportunities for insight into the nature of and influences on transformative reflections. in conclusion, our study reveals the influence of certain instructional practices on these pre-service social studies teachers’ reported pedagogical transformations. practically, viewing videos of experienced practitioners provided opportunities for entire seminars to collectively view and reflect upon multiple days of controversial issues instruction, an almost insurmountable logistical challenge without such technological supports. for researchers and teacher educators, it highlighted how collectively reflecting and selecting analytical lenses influenced the frequency of reported pedagogical transformations. it also raised questions about how to best contextualize such reflections, thus signaling future research possibilities. shuttleworth et al. references adler, s. (2008). the education of social studies teachers. in l. s. levstik & c. a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 329-351). new york, ny: routledge. barnes, m. e. & smagorinsky, p. (2016), what english/language arts teacher candidates learn during coursework and practica. journal of teacher education, 67(4), 338-355. bickmore, k. & parker, c. (2014). constructive conflict talk in classrooms: divergent approaches to divergent perspectives. theory and research in social education, 42(3), 336-374. blomberg, g., sherin, m. g., renkl, a., glogger, i., & seidel, t. (2014). understanding video as a tool for teacher education: investigating instructional strategies to promote reflection. instructional science, 42(3), 443-463. blomberg, g., sturmer, k., & seidel, t. (2011). how pre-service teachers observe teaching on video: effects of viewers’ teaching subjects and the subject of the video. teaching and teacher education, 27(7), 1131-1140. brkick, c. a. & newkirk, a. c. (2015). interacting with upset parents/guardians: defending justice-oriented social studies lessons in parent-teacher conference simulations. theory and research in social education, 43(4), 528-559. brophy, j. (2004). discussion. in j. brophy (ed.), using video in teacher education. advances in research and training (pp. 287-304). amsterdam, netherlands: elsevier. busey, c. l. & mooney, e. (2014). controversy and social studies teacher education. academic exchange quarterly, 18(4). retrieved from: rapidintellect.com/aeqweb/5512z4.pdf byford, j., lennon, s., & william, b. (2009). teaching controversial issues in the social studies: a research study of high school teachers. clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues, and ideas, 82(4), 165-170. calderhead, j. (1989). reflective teaching and teacher education. teaching and teacher education, 5(1), 43-51. camera, l. (2016, september 19). how to teach 9/11 to students with no memory of it. u. s. news and world report. retrieved from: https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2016 09-09/how-to-teach-9-11-to-students-with-no-memory-of-it journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 cherrington, s. & loveridge, j. (2014). using video to promote early childhood teachers’ thinking and reflection. teaching and teacher education, 41, 42-51. crouch, e. (2014, august 20). edwardsville teachers told to avoid discussing ferguson events with students. st. louis post-dispatch. retrieved from: http://www.stltoday.com/news/local/education/edwardsville-teachers-told-to-avoid discussing-ferguson-events-with-students/article_1358925d-3e54-5823-9ce3 2f9938fc4c22.html davis, e. (2006). characterizing productive reflection among pre-service elementary teachers: seeing what matters. teaching and teacher education, 22(3), 281-301. derry, s. & hmelo-silver, c. (2002). addressing teacher education as a complex science: theory-based studies within the step project. in p. bel, r. stevens, & satwicz (eds.), international conference of the learning sciences. (pp. 611-615). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. erickson, f. (2007). ways of seeing video: toward a phenomenology of viewing minimally edited footage. in r. goldman, r. pea, b. barron, & s. derry (eds.), international conference of the learning sciences (pp. 611-615). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum. fisher, d., & frey, n. (2007). checking for understanding: formative assessment techniques for your classroom. alexandria, va: ascd. flanagan, c. a. (2013). teenage citizens: the political theories of the young. cambridge, ma: the harvard university press. fund, z. (2010). effects of communities of reflecting peers on student-teacher development— including in-depth case studies. teachers and teaching, 16, 679-701. gaudin, c., & chaliès (2015). video viewing in teacher education and professional development: a literature review. educational research review, 16, 41-67. gelfuso, a. & dennis, d. v. (2014). getting reflection off the page: the challenges of developing support structures for pre-service teacher education. teaching and teacher education, 38, 1-11. gibbs, b. (2018). the bending of history made straight. in s. b. shear, c. m. tschida, e. belows, l. b. buchanan, & e. e. saylor (eds.), (re)imagining elementary social studies. a controversial issues reader (pp. 219-234). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. shuttleworth et al. gilbert, l. (2018). putting mrs. rosa parks front and center of an elementary methods course. in s. b. shear, c. m. tschida, e. belows, l. b. buchanan, & e. e. saylor (eds.), (re)imagining elementary social studies. a controversial issues reader (pp. 199-218). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. gomez, l. m., sherin, m. g., griesdorn, j., & finn, l. (2008). creating social relationships: the role of technology in pre-service teacher preparation. journal of teacher education, 59, 117-131. grossman, p. l. (1991). overcoming the apprenticeship of observation in teacher education coursework. teaching and teacher education, 7(4), 345-357. gutmann, a. (1999). democratic education (2nd ed.). princeton, nj: princeton university press. hatch, t. & grossman, p. (2009). learning to look beyond the boundaries of representation: using technology to examine teaching (overview for a digital exhibition: learning from the practice of teaching). journal of teacher education, 60(1), 70-85. hatch, t., shuttleworth, j. m., taylor jaffee, a., & marri, a. t. (2016). videos, pairs, and peers: what connects theory and practice in teacher education? teaching and teacher education, 59, 274-284. heaton, r. & mickelson, w. (2002). the learning and teaching of statistical investigation in teaching and teacher education. journal of mathematics teacher education, 5, 35-59. hess, d. (2008). controversial issues and democratic discourse. in l. s. levstik & c. a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 124-136). new york, ny: routledge. hess, d. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. new york, ny: routledge. hess, d. & mcavoy, p. (2014). the political classroom: evidence and ethics in democratic education. new york, ny: routledge. hess, d. & stoddard, j. (2007). 9/11 and terrorism: “the ultimate teachable moment” in textbooks and supplemental curricula. social education, 71(5), 231-236. ho, l., mcavoy, d., hess, d., & gibbs, b. (2017). teaching and learning about controversial issues and topics in the social studies: a review of the research. in m. m. manfra & c. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 m. bolick (eds.), the wiley handbook of social studies research (pp. 321-335). hoboken, nj: wiley. ho, l. & seow, t. (2015). teaching controversial issues in geography: climate change education in singaporean schools. theory and research in social education, 43(3), 314344. journell, w. (2011). teachers’ controversial issue decisions related to race, gender, and religion during the 2008 presidential election. theory and research in social education, 39(3), 348-392. könig, j., blömeke, s., klein, p., suhl, u. busse, a., & kaiser, g. (2014). is teachers' general pedagogical knowledge a premise for noticing and interpreting classroom situations? a video-based assessment approach. teaching and teacher education, 38, 76-88. larson, b. & keiper, t. (2007). instructional strategies for middle and high school. new york, ny: routledge. lortie, d. (1975). schoolteacher: a sociological study. chicago, il: university of chicago press. martin, s. d. & dismuke, s. (2018). investigating differences in teacher practices through a complexity theory lens: the influence of teacher education. journal of teacher education, 69(1), 22-39. mcavoy, p. & hess, d. (2013). classroom deliberation in an era of political polarization. curriculum inquiry, 43(1), 14-47. mccoy, m. l. (2018). preparing pre-service educators to teach american indian boarding school histories. in s. b. shear, c. m. tschida, e. belows, l. b. buchanan, & e. e. saylor (eds.), (re)imagining elementary social studies. a controversial issues reader (pp. 255277). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. moore-russo, d. a. & wilsey, j. n. (2014). delving into the meaning of productive reflection: a study of future teachers’ reflections on representations of teaching. teaching and teacher education, 37, 76-90. national council for the social studies (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies: a framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. washington, d. c.: national council for the social studies. shuttleworth et al. noddings, n. & brooks, l. (2017). teaching controversial issues: the case for critical thinking and moral commitment in the classroom. new york, ny: teachers college press. ochoa-becker, a. s. (2007). democratic education for social studies: an issues-centered decisionmaking curriculum. greenwich, ct: information age publishing. parker, w. c. (2003). teaching democracy: unity and diversity in public life. new york, ny: teachers college press. parker, w. c. (2005). teaching against idiocy. phi delta kappan, 86(5), 344-351. parker, w. c. (2008). knowing and doing in democratic citizenship education. in l. s. levstik & c. a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social education (pp. 65-80). new york, ny: routledge. parker, w. c., & hess, d. (2001). teaching with and for discussion. teaching and teacher education, 17(3), 273-289. philpott, s., clabough, j., mcconkey, l., & turner, t. n. (2011). controversial issues: to teach or not to teach? that is the question! the georgia social studies journal, 1(1), 32-44). richmond, e. (2016, september 11). making 9/11 relevant to young learners. the atlantic. retrieved from: https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2016/09/making-911 relevant-to-young-learners/499457/ rodriguez, n. n. (2018). not all terrorists: a teacher educator’s approach to teaching against islamophobia and for religious tolerance. in s. b. shear, c. m. tschida, e. belows, l. b. buchanan, & e. e. saylor (eds.), (re)imagining elementary social studies. a controversial issues reader (pp. 129-152). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. rothschild, m. (2003, april 28). high school teachers punished in new mexico. the progressive. retrieved from: http://www.sharedhost.progressive.org/mag_mcnm rowley, t. b., & hart, p. m. (1993). catching and releasing expert teacher thought: the effects of using videotaped presentations of expert teacher knowledge to promote preservice teacher in thinking. in m. o’ hair & s. odell (eds.), diversity and teaching (pp. 122 137). fort worth, tx: harcourt brace jovanovich. schon, d. a. (1983). the reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action. new york, ny: basic books. sherin, m. g., & van es, e. a. (2005). using video to support teachers’ ability to notice journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 1-29 classroom interactions. journal of technology and teacher education, 3, 475-491. sherin, m. g. & han, s. y. (2003). teacher learning in the context of a video club. teaching and teacher education, 20, 163-183. stoddard, j. & hess, d. (2016). 9/11 and the war on terror in american secondary curriculum fifteen years later. in w. journell (ed.), reassessing the social studies curriculum: promoting critical civic engagement in a politically polarized, post-9/11 world (pp. 1528). lanham, md: rowman & littlefield press. swalwel, k. & schweber, s. (2016). teaching through turmoil: social studies teachers and local controversial current events. theory and research in social education, 44(3), 283-315. thomas, g., wineburg, s., grossman, p., oddmund, m. & woolworth, s. (1998). in the company of colleagues: an interim report on the development of a community of teacher learners. teaching and teacher education, 14(1), 21-32. thornton, s.j. (2017). a concise historiography of the social studies. in m. m. manfra & c. m. bolick (eds.), the wiley handbook of social studies research (pp. 9-41). hoboken, nj: wiley. totten, s. & pederson, j. (eds.) (2007). addressing social issues in the classroom and beyond: the pedagogical efforts of pioneers in the field. charlotte, nc: information age publishing. tschida, c. m. & buchanan, l. b. (2018). unpacking the paradox: pre-service teachers’ affirming beliefs about lgbtq families and the persistent avoidance of lgbtq topics in elementary schools. in s. b. shear, c. m. tschida, e. belows, l. b. buchanan, & e. e. saylor (eds.), (re)imagining elementary social studies. a controversial issues reader (pp. 111-128). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. tucker, j. & aleaziz, h. (2016, september 11). remembering 9/11 when it’s not your memory. san francisco chronicle. retrieved from: https://www.sfchronicle.com/news/article/remembering-9-11-when-it-s-not-yourmemory-9215219.php ward, c. (2018). using history labs to examine immigration policy and the dream act. in s. b. shear, c. m. tschida, e. belows, l. b. buchanan, & e. e. saylor (eds.), shuttleworth et al. (re)imagining elementary social studies. a controversial issues reader (pp. 95-110). charlotte, nc: information age publishing. zeichner, k. (1996). teachers as reflective practitioners and the democratization of school reform. in k. zeichner, s. melnick, & m. l. gomez (eds.), currents of reform in preservice teacher education (pp. 199-214). new york, ny: teachers college press. zimmerman, j. & robertson, e. (2017a, april 26). the case for contentious curricula: teachers should not shy away from addressing controversial issues in the classroom. the atlantic. retrieved from: https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2017/04/the-case-forcontentious-classrooms/524268/ zimmerman, j. & robertson, e. (2017b). the case for contention: teaching controversial issues in american schools. chicago, il: the university of chicago press. 30 oct 2021 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 121-143 analysis of ict development supporting the e-learning implementation on nadhatul ulama universities in indonesia hanief saha ghafur1 abstract the purpose of the study was to determine e-learning in the development of ict in the field of education at private universities under the auspices of nadhatul ulama indonesia. the research is located at two well-known private islamic universities, namely the islamic university of malang (unisma) and nadhatul ulama university surabaya (unusa). the methodology used is qualitative research by exploring and understanding the role of e-learning and ict development in the university. sources of data come from observations and interviews with academics from two research locations written in field notes and relevant documents. qualitative data analysis was carried out by conducting data reduction in the form of abstractions, arranging them in units which were then categorized while coding and checking the validity of the data. the results of the study after exploring the two best nahdatul ulama universities (ptnu), it turns out that unisma is better prepared as a pilot project leader for ptnu e-learning in indonesian and international university networks in the future. meanwhile, unusa continues to struggle to persuade teachers and students to engage in regular e-learning. also, there is a lack of executive support for making flexibility in the teaching and learning process relevant to e-learning deployment. these findings suggest that the role of e-learning in islamic universities under the leadership of nadhatul ulama indonesia is still hampered by a number of challenging issues. interestingly, the problem of internet data connection constraints is not found in the two nadhatul ualam islamic colleges which are generally found on other campuses, the main obstacle is the lack of support from human resources and decision-makers in terms of management support. the expected implication is for universities to evaluate and improve in terms of technology management. in addition, the government supports facilities and policies in enhancing the development of ict with more modern features in the future. keywords: e-learning, development ict, universities introduction in the industrial revolution, education was extremely important. academics and creative young people benefit much from the 4.0 age. not without reason, the use of digital technology is a golden path that is able to provide unique opportunities and bring new changes to the quality, methods, and quality of innovative and interactive learning. the study stated that engineering through distance education enhanced by digital technology contributed greatly to educating students in a 1 *lecturer of graduate school of strategic and global studies, univesitas indonesia, email: haniefsahaui@gmail.com mailto:haniefsahaui@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 number of developed countries such as the united states (kocdar et al., 2021). the trend of elearning as a form of implementing information and communication technology (ict) is an extraordinary and interesting choice in the digital era because there is no time and place limit for the course of the education and learning process (gleason, 2018). in addition, mastering ict is very useful for academics as a standard of competence in facing global challenges. the features offered by ict can assist the administrative management of educational institutions in managing administrative problems by providing accurate and targeted information for policymaking. students and teachers can utilize and process information as a source of learning and ability assessment through the latest technological devices (agrawal & mittal, 2018; baez zarabanda, 2019). the study states that e-learning and ict support motivation and learning methods that are not monotonous or become more interesting, and this encourages the advancement of the world of education. unfortunately, academics and students do not all have the appropriate level of digital competence or are called digital natives, namely the adequate ability to use ict in academia and the professional future (martín et al., 2020). another obstacle is the high cost of quality education in the 21st century and may be difficult to find for educational institutions in certain areas, making not all areas of education able to enjoy the advantages of ict even in poor and developing countries which are still very limited (ajit & mete, 2012). other influencing factors are the limitation of qualified it personnel, minimal socialization or training, weak internet network, and inadequate infrastructure (jegede et al., 2019). although ict has a positive effect on economic growth through primary school education to reduce educational inequality, ict has no significant effect on inequality and economic growth through universties in 48 african countries (tchamyou et al., 2019). the development and evaluation of ict has provided universities in indonesia with tremendous opportunity to enhance borderless learning. several indonesian universities have built e-learning systems in a variety of approaches. some are confined to distributing lecture materials via the internet, while others already have an integrated framework for their e-learning system to be used on a larger scale, not just for ordinary students but also for distance students who can only study outside of campus (titan et al., 2019). meanwhile, press release no. 53/hm/kominfo/02/2018 states that since 2017 internet users have increased from 112 million to 262 million (34%) of the ghafur 123 total population in indonesia, with 80 percent of whom are young people aged between 15–19 years (kominfo, 2018). indonesia has expressed interest in implementing e-learning over the last ten years, according to previous studies, but still faces challenges in infrastructure, resources, access to information and personal characteristics, institutional support, technology and connectivity, instructional design, and trust. technology, as well as culture and politics, are all factors to consider. for example, from the 2000s to the twenty-first century, basuki (2007), performed research on the relevance of effective coordination in the case of e-learning in indonesia. furthermore, indonesia, like other developing nations, faces more specific obstacles than industrialized countries, necessitating an understanding of what motivates students to adopt e-learning and other ict applications. different study groups, countries, and communities may respond to knowledge-oriented projects in different ways (salehudin et al., 2021). as a result, it is critical to investigate the role of e-learning and the growth of ict in indonesia. indeed, e-learning in the growth of ict comprises several components, including students, lecturers, technology, and the environment, all of which must be prepared in order to construct a cohesive and feasible strategy. most universities in indonesia use blended e-learning, a combination of conventional classrooms and e-learning, both distance learning and the use of social media as an e-learning mediator. the indonesian islamic universities association has also started implementing e-learning as the first step towards a moderate islamic university(sutiah & supriyatno, 2020).what is interesting is that e-learning and ict development are new things for islamic universities under the auspices of nadhatul ulama because so far the majority have used traditional learning systems and unique characteristics (satori, 2018). nahdlatul ulama (meaning "awakening ulama," abbreviated as nu) is an indonesian conservative sunni islamic movement that adheres to the four schools of fiqh, the asyari and maturidi schools of theology, and the al-gazali and junaidi sufi schools. the noble value of 'ahlu sunnah wa jamaah,' a feature of the islamic heritage that has undergone interaction, contextualization, indigenization, interpretation, and vernacularization in conformity with sociocultural conditions in indonesia, is strongly held by nahdlatul ulama (musaropah et al., 2020). islamic traditions promote moderation, compassion, anti-radicalism, inclusivity, and tolerance (abidin et al., 2020; purwanto et al., 2019). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 based on the background of the problem, the novelty of the research is shown from the object of research where there is no recent research that examines the role of e-learning in the development of ict in islamic universities under the auspices of nu which has very strong islamic characteristics and traditions compared to islamic universities in the past. generally. in addition, because in general nu educational institutions are traditional pesantren (salafiyah) (zarkasyi, 2019). moderate islamic studies such as the use of e-learning are an experience of new learning methods for nu islamic educational institutions from salaf to modern (khalaf) (setiawan, 2020). will this change become an obstacle or not for most ptnu?.the study was conducted at two of the best nu islamic universities, namely nadhatul ulama university surabaya and malang islamic university because both of them have received positive attention for their internal and external quality assurance systems, as well as being role models for 253 universities. other best nu islamic colleges such as wahid hasyim university semarang, nu islamic university jepara, universitas nahdatul ulama lampung, university of science al quran wonosobo, universitas nahdatul ulama al ghazali cilacap, universitas nahdatul ulama sidoarjo and universitas nahdatul ulama surakarta. research question from the background of the problems that have been raised, there are two important themes that are the focus of research, namely e-learning in ict development at nahdatul ulama universtities in indonesia. based on the focus of the theme, the formulation of the research question is: 1. what is the importance about the development of ict in supporting the implementation of elearning at the universities of nadhatul ulama in indonesia? 2. how can the development of ict support the development of e-learning at the universitiesof nadathul ulama in indonesia? 3. why does the development of ict need to support the implementation of e-learning at the universities of nadathul ulama in indonesia? literature review theory of acceptance and use of technology the theory of acceptance and use of technology (utaut) proposed byvenkatesh, morris, davis, & davis (2003)is a model of acceptance of technology that combines eight models at once, ghafur 125 namely the theory of reasoned action in the technology acceptance model (tam) with two determinants. intention namely ease and usefulness; theory of motivation in the adoption of new technologies; the theory of diffusion of innovation that explains the acceptance or rejection of innovation is based on the beliefs that users form about the innovation; and social cognitive theory in the context of computer use. this theory adds subjective constructs of norms and voluntary as predictors of intention to use technology that can be used to measure the level of acceptance in education. the factors that influence a person to use technology in this theory are performance expectations, effort expectations, facilitating conditions, self-efficacy, anxiety levels (nair, ali, & leong, 2015). previous studies have stated that the development of ict in education, especially in the adoption of e-learning systems, can be influenced by the theory of acceptance and use of technology (el-masri & tarhini, 2017). the use of ict with different educational backgrounds can show different attitudes and tend to be higher towards the technology(nistor et al, 2014). all activities linked to technological equipment to process and transport information between media are referred to as information and communication technology (ict). ict has two components. to begin, information technology encompasses everything connected to the process, tool use, modification, and management of data. second, communication technology refers to all technologies that are used to process and send data from one device to another (shortis, 2001). in the context of learning, ict includes everything related to the use of computers to process the information obtained and as a learning aid (mansab, 2012). ict is also used as a source of information for teachers and students. previous studies mentioned the role of ict in education, namely: 1) as a repository of knowledge and a source of digital-based learning materials, both core content and supplementary content (tatnall, 2020); 2) as learning aids such as interactive videos, e-learning, and multimedia presentations; 3) as tools and facilities that complement the functions of educational institutions (daguet, 2021; livingstone, 2012); 4) as a standard of competence and skills; 5) as a supporter of education management and decision support systems in educational institutions; and 6) as the formation of ethical and axiological competence (vladimirovich et al., 2021). it is deeper than the impact of ict on education depending on the subject and the type of use of ict (mbodila et al., 2013). the use of ict in education requires a very careful evaluation aimed at identifying in which areas, for what use, and what methods of use will be able to have a positive effect on educational outcomes (fernández-gutiérrez et al., 2020). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 e-learning e-learning through the use of computer networks (intranet and extranet) for teaching materials, interaction, and/or facilitation is known as e-learning. e-learning is a great tool for increasing teaching and learning quality (lim et al., 2018; tsakeni, 2021). e-learning is also a cutting-edge method of delivering education via electronic forms of information that improves students' knowledge, talents, or other abilities (tavangarian et al., 2004). students benefit from e-learning because of enhanced information accessibility, better content delivery, tailored education, content standardization, accountability, on-demand availability, speed, interaction, confidence, and convenience. faculty gain from e-learning because it lowers expenses, allows for constant content delivery, and improves tracking, among other things. e-learning lowers the costs of classrooms and facilities, training, travel, printed materials, labor, and information redundancy (jethro et al., 2012; tarman et al., 2019). in addition to hardware costs, software licensing, learning material development, equipment upkeep, and training, e-learning projects necessitate a significant investment in technology (childs et al., 2005; kalimullina et al., 2021). meanwhile, infrastructure, money, access to information, personal qualities, and institutional support continue to be barriers to e-learning in developing nations (aung & khaing, 2016; maatuk et al., 2021; wolhuter & jacobs, 2021 ). learner characteristics, teacher characteristics, e-learning environment, quality of institutions and services, quality of infrastructure and systems, quality of courses and material, and motivation are seven elements of e-learning success, according to bhuasiri et al., (2012). well-designed courses, curricula, and learning materials are the primary components that can influence learning success in developing nations based on these aspects. computer skills, technical background, training programs, and computer literacy for faculties/schools are also key variables in implementing elearning in underdeveloped nations, according to this study. (kaisara & bwalya, 2020). research methodology research design this study uses a phenomenological research design adopted from donalek (2004). the phenomenological design aims to critically, thoroughly, and systematically examine human experience through the description of the people involved in a phenomenon. researchers utilize phenomenological study design to examine the phenomenon of participants in articulating their ghafur 127 experiences, opinions, attitudes, beliefs, and ways of thinking concerning the usage of e learning. because research studies phenomena that include 'online habitats' and involve individual experiences in living life on campus, the researchers adopt the cyber ethnography theory hallett &barber (2014). according to hallett & barber (2014), cyber ethnographic theory studies how to integrate data from online spaces into physical communities and social interactions. cyber ethnography is a theory used by researchers to explore the phenomena of uniqueness in the context of participants using ict in a campus community. the researcher uses a qualitative approach with the aim of describing the meaning of the participants' experiences using ict in supporting the implementation of e-learning at ptnu in indonesia. this research model requires researchers to understand well the research process and the themes studied. according to moleong (2013), qualitative research tries to collect in-depth knowledge on the circumstance encountered by research subjects, where the process underlying the occurrence of something is explored. therefore, this study does not emphasize the generalization of the data but on the meaning contained in the research subjects. the research locations are two universities under ptnu, namely nahdlatul ulama university in surabaya and islamic university in malang. participant there were a total of 66 participants in this study, consisting of: (1) 33 unusa participants (28 lecturers and 5 ppptik managers); and (2) 33 unisma participants (53 teaching lecturers and 13 ppptik). the role of the participants (lecturers) is to provide information about their experiences and views on the use of ict in supporting the implementation of e-learning in the subjects taught. the criteria for the lecturers selected as participants are lecturers who teach economics and digital technology courses, use e-learning for more than two semesters, and have attended e-learning training based on the moodle program. and the role of the participants (pptik manager) is to provide information about the development of ict, especially those used in technology-based learning systems on campus. researchers used a code of ethics by asking in advance about the participants' willingness to participate in this study. next, the researcher conducted a formal licensing process for the participants. participants have the right to keep their confidentiality, so the researcher uses initialization as a pseudonym. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 table 1 participant description variable unusa unisma partisipant 28 lecturer 5 ppptik manager 25 lecturer 8 ppptik manager gender 13 female 15 male 14 female 11 male age group age 28-35 year, 11 participant age >35 year, 17 participant age 28-35, 10 participant age >35 year, 15 participant instruments observation and structured interviews with four indicators and eight study items were utilized as instruments. structured interviews were utilized to collect data from study participants using a systematic technique in which the researcher asked a series of questions in a preset order and the responses were recorded in a standardized format. face-to-face observations and interviews were carried out with the utmost care. the researcher created a left-grid design of the instrument in order to get valid study instruments. this grid aims to show the relationship between the research themes and the data sources that have been collected. in the study, each theme was given an explanation until it became a question item. researchers formulate question items based on themes obtained from previous research studies which are then submitted to experts to select instruments that have good precision (see table 2) table 2 interview guidelines and observation guidelines observation interview the observations made were observing the seriousness of the campus in developing ict in supporting the implementation of e-learning, including: 1. objective: to obtain good information and data regarding the physical and non-physical conditions of the implementation of ict development 2. the aspects observed are the location of the campus, the physical environment of the campus in general, ict rooms, development strategies and methods, ict equipment/labs, atmosphere/climate in the process of developing ict and e-learning, process activities and anyone who plays a role in the development of the ict. interviews were conducted with pppptik lecturers and managers 1. lecturer – the goal is to find out how far the implementation of e-learning on campus is 2. ppptik manager – the aim is to find out the extent of ict development in supporting the implementation of e-learning ghafur 129 researchers first prepare instruments by considering the factors that influence someone in the field of education to use technology, such as learning aids, competency and skill standards, educational management support, and decision support systems, before consulting with colleagues to ensure that the tools are truly appropriate.the interview consisted of one major theme, namely e-learning in the development of ict and 7 aspects were arranged as a draft instrument, the following aspects were examined: a) characteristics of learning using e-learning; b) characteristics of the instructor; c) e-learning environment and ict-based service development; d) quality of ict institutions and services; e) the quality of infrastructure and ict systems; f) the quality of courses and information obtained by the academic community; and g) motivation of lecturers and ict managers. the purpose of the interview instrument is to generate questions that will allow the essential information to be gathered in a fashion that is appropriate for this study. table 3. table 3 instrument rq1: what is important about the development of ict in supporting the implementation of e-learning at the islamic universities of nadhatul ulama in indonesia? 1. state your identity? 2. how is your participation in ict development? 3. to what extent is the development of ict in supporting the implementation of e-learning on campus? 4. according to your experience, what is important about the development of ict in supporting the implementation of e-learning on campus? rq2: how can the development of ict support the development of e-learning at the islamic universities of nadathul ulama in indonesia? 1. in your opinion, how can strategy-taking in ict development support the implementation of e-learning? 2. according to your experience, what are the inhibiting and supporting factors for implementing elearning on campus? rq3: why does the development of ict need to support the implementation of e-learning at the islamic universities of nadathul ulama in indonesia? 1. explain your motivation in using e-learning on campus? 2. in your opinion, why does the development of ict need to support the implementation of e-learning on campus? data collection procedures data collection techniques were carried out by observation, interviews, and documentation studies. observations and interviews were conducted with several lecturers and managers of ppptik at unusa and unisma. a. observation research observation is a data collection method that involves attentively observing or examining information at the research site to determine the conditions that exist and obtain the information data required for this study. researchers came directly to the location to make observations related journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 to ict development in supporting the implementation of e-learning on campus with complete health protocols to prevent the spread of covid 19. because the university allows only a few faceto-face interactions with special needs, observations can be made directly. researchers pay close attention to the data sources obtained from participants on both campuses. participants were invited to a room at the ict building campus by researchers accompanied by ppptik staff. observations were made during ppptik business hours, specifically mondays. the primary goal of observation is to collect data and information on both the physical and non-physical aspects of ict adoption and development. in addition, the researcher observes the ict space as well as ict development methodologies or equipment. b. interview before the interview, the researcher has established a timetable for participants on both campuses, including distinct sessions and days. the interview was place at unisma on the first day, with 33 participants, and at unusa on the second day, with the same number of participants. schedule the first session (morning) at 08:00-12:00 wib for participants (lecturers) and the second session (afternoon) at 13:00-15:00 wib for participants (lecturers) (pptik manager). according to the researchers, the average interview time per participant was around 30-45 minutes. a lecturer assisted the researcher in recording the discourse during the interview. while tracking the subject of the questions, which covered performance expectations, business expectations, facilitation settings, and self-efficacy, the researcher took field notes and transcript notes. the interview began with a tour question and then moved on to a substantive topic about the necessity of ict development and ict assistance for implementation. the researcher summarizes what is seen, heard, felt, and questioned during the tour question stage in order to acquire a general picture of the situation and conditions that are the subject of research. c. document analysis the researcher collected several official documents in the form of ppptik manuals and reports on ict implementation programs reports which contain the availability of ict-based services, implementation of e-learning, and their impacts. a public document from ptnu in the form of reports on ppptik operations, strategic plans, and ict advances best meets the study question. personal papers, such as assignment notes and participant posts/blogs on campus ict, as well as documents containing physical evidence objects, such as training materials, handbooks, and the ghafur 131 ppptik agenda other sources come from a variety of historical research, as well as ict nu and ptnu indonesia's track records and ideology. data analysis techniques the research design of this study is based on donalek (2004) phenomenological theory and hallett &barber (2014) cyber ethography theory. describe participants' experiences with the phenomenon being studied, list important questions according to topics, take questions and group them into meaningful units, write textural descriptions of participants' experiences, and describe structural descriptions, according to donelek's theory (2004). setting a participant as a key informant, conducting interviews, researchers' attention to the object of research, and starting to ask descriptive questions are the first steps in hallet & barber's (2014) theory, which are followed by interview analysis, conducting domain analysis, determining focus using taxonomic analysis, asking contrast questions using componential analysis, and finally writing down the results. as a result, data analysis entails going over the sequence of data, organizing it into patterns, categorization, and basic description units, as well as identifying themes and working hypotheses. because the goal of this study is to descriptively describe the phenomena of ict development in ict implementation in order to make conclusions. furthermore, data analysis was conducted by building actual phenomena in the study object, with the goal of providing a unique image of ict development in the two nadhatul ulama campuses. the process of data analysis begins with collecting data from previous studies to create a theme so that the research theme is obtained, namely the development of ict and e-learning. after the theme is determined, the selection of the unit of analysis is carried out according to the research objectives. selection of the unit of analysis related to the participants as research subjects. thus, the unit of analysis in this study is the intention to develop ict in supporting the implementation of e-learning for ppptik lecturers and managers. the data that has been studied and analyzed is reduced by making abstractions that summarize the essence, processes and statements of participants. the next step is to organize the data in categorization units and code them. the coding focused on five dimensions of the problem, namely performance expectations, effort expectations, facilitation conditions, self-efficacy, anxiety levels. the last step of data analysis is to check the trustworthiness of data using triangulation of the data with the aim of increasing the degree of confidence in the data so that the data can be accounted for. checks with peer-debriefers with colleagues/colleagues take the form of discussions regarding journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 the research process and results in order to obtain feedback on methodology and action implementation. after this stage, the next step is the process of interpreting the data in processing temporary results to answer research questions in substantive form to then draw conclusions and suggestions. the data interpretation process was carried out by the researcher by describing the meaning of the participants' experiences and organizing the data by focusing it to answer the research problem formulation. researchers provide a critical view of the results of data analysis that has been carried out and relate them to theories and previous research studies that are relevant to the problems faced in this phenomenon. results and discussion rq1: what is important about the development of ict in supporting the implementation of e-learning at the universities of nadhatul ulama in indonesia? this research has investigated the role of ict development in supporting the implementation of elearning at two major nadhatul ulama campuses in indonesia. the first finding reveals that the development of ict as an independent e-learning medium can provide new experiences in learning that are not limited by space and time but are still within the scope of moderate islamic religious values. learning can be done anytime and anywhere as long as it is covered by the internet network. by increasing the development of ict, internet facilities with various platforms become more accessible, especially on campus. thus, campus residents can explore general science and moderate islam. facilities that have been developed by ict and can be utilized by campus residents are e-books, e-libraries, interaction with experts, email, and others. the importance of ict development in supporting the implementation of e-learning at universities has also been explained by several previous studies. the literature states that the use of ict in education can improve the quality of student learning, expand access to education, and help visualize more innovative and creative learning ideas (bandyopadhyay, bardhan, dey, & bhattacharyya, 2021). other findings reveal that ict development can support more effective e-learning in terms of communication and administration(bukar & mustafa, 2020). thus, it is clear that the development of ict is very important in supporting the implementation of e-learning in order to increase the competence of lecturers and students, especially in absorbing religious knowledge. improving ict as a pedagogical tool provides cognitive and affective benefits in education. this is the main driving force in supporting the implementation of more advanced e-learning (foutsitzi & caridakis, 2019; ghafur 133 cener et al., 2015). higher ict development has a positive effect on the implementation of elearning so that student learning outcomes can be maximized. although there are other supporting factors that depend on the subject and the type of technology used(fernández-gutiérrez et al., 2020; ige, 2019). based on the results of the research, it is known that unusa and unisma have started to be strict in implementing e-learning since the covid 19 pandemic but only unisma has strengthened ict. unisma malang has the best server network equipment or devices where the wifi internet network is fast, easy, convenient, and free for all unisma members. this is a major progress in efforts to improve the quality and quality of ptnu towards the moderate islamic campus and world class university. interviews with participants, considering data 1. (1) “unisma already has a center for management and development of information and communication technology (p3tik) which is in charge of providing services and complaints related to ict. the services are; 1) mikrotik network management service, which is a service that manages and manages client connections in the internal network and towards the external; 2) linux web hosting, which is a service for storing data and displaying internet information; 3) web service, namely web design or web creation services with a collection of online content including documents and applications; 4) data center, namely a centralized repository, both physical and virtual for storage management, dissemination of organized data and information; 4) now-unismawifi hotspot, which is an internet service that can be used directly to support the teaching and learning process; 5) academic information system (sisfo-kampus) which is an application intended for the entire campus community; 6) online learning is a learning tool used by lecturers and students; 7) open journal systems (ojs), namely suggestions provided as a place to accommodate and publish journals; 8) open conference systems (ocs), which is a place to accommodate and publish regional, national, and international seminars; 9) gmail.com email account, which is a means to send and receive letters in digital format; 10) nextcloud (letter warehouse) which is a centralized mail archive storage place; 11) agenda information system (siaga), namely the agenda list service with scheduled and ongoing status; and 12) electronic kits (e-la), namely application letter services to p3tik with various statuses.” based on the results of these interviews, it is known that there are at least 12 ict-based services that have been developed. so not only improving e-learning features that are more sophisticated in addition to the simplest form of a website but also e-learning in the form of learning software or lms that can be accessed anywhere as long as access to the internet is available. in addition, recent literature explains that in the mission of education to meet the needs of the labor market it is necessary to improve and update the development of education, training programs, and methods journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 (tri et al., 2021). more precisely the renewal in the field of digital technology. in fact, several well-known universities in indonesia such as padang state university have developed blended learning based on integrated learning for more innovative learning and able to improve cognitive, affective, and 4c abilities (communication, collaboration, collaboration, and creativity) as well as psychomotor students and lecturers (jalinus et al., 2021). this is the reason the development of elearning which is part of ict is very important to open up opportunities and take advantage of the benefits of this revolution. considering data 2. (2) “complete e-learning facilities are available in the form of an lms. the state-of-the-art lms has been running for almost a year and has been further improved since the implementation of the covid 19 emergency ppkm. the facilities provided include student attendance management, learning material management, learning process management, and evaluation as well as communication management with the facilitators. e-learning facilities have provided many conveniences for learning activities without face-to-face meetings.” various applications and academic management facilities can be accessed by the entire academic community. unisma's email account has been integrated with google apps, and even siaga has a data sorting feature based on units or institutions that input data for various activities. what is more interesting is that e-la is in the form of an application letter service to p3tik which is useful for monitoring the results of application letters with various statuses such as waiting, process status, finished status, and cancel status. one of the main advantages of p3tik is that there is an academic management information system (mis) service application available with the windows operating system and an online learning information center. meanwhile, unusa uses a simpler management information system called 'esorogan'. not many ict-based features or services have been found, such as those of unisma. this finding is different from the findings in a previous study conducted by tchamyou et al. (2019). the findings of tchamyou et al. (2019) states that ict has no significant effect on inequality and economic growth. it is important to note that the impact of ict on education depends on the subject and the type of use of ict (daguet, 2021). however, both campuses have made progress in terms of information technology because they use the concept of multi-application to ensure the continuity of online lecture activities where lecturers can choose applications and learning management systems (lms) such as google meet, zoom, google classroom, and edmodo. this is considered more flexible because it allows lecturers and students to get the latest features and the best experience from each application. thus the purpose ghafur 135 of the campus to reduce educational inequality with e-learning is getting clearer in front of the eyes. rq2: how the development of ict can support the implementation of e-learning at the universities of nadathul ulama in indonesia? the second finding reveals that the development of ict can support the implementation of elearning optimally with adequate ict infrastructure and facilities so as to enable lecturers and students to be in an e-learning system which is expected to minimize the possible negative impact of the use of ict. although indeed to provide facilities and infrastructure will require investment because the development of more sophisticated ict will require a large budget. previous literature revealed that without adequate infrastructure for ict development it could affect students' academic achievement because the e-learning method was not optimal in the teaching and learning process (ainon & rosmaizura, 2019). inadequate ict infrastructure and budgetary constraints are the main causes of weak success in the implementation and provision of e-learning(kibuku et al., 2020). although e-learning is only applied to compulsory subjects, this step is quite advanced when compared to ptnu owned by pesantren under lptnu and ptnu based on other universities foundations which are still massive. interviews with participants, considering data 3. (3) “since the pandemic took place last year, unisma has accelerated the implementation of ict strengthening. currently, some of the benefits of using ict have been felt. we have broad access to various information related to academic activities. the quality of learning, although initially experienced many obstacles in the process of adapting technology, has now undergone many improvements including the quality and quality of learning between lecturers and students. we learned a lot in developing digital technology-based learning materials such as making interactive learning videos, participating in international conferences, and using e-learning.” it is understood that ict has become a source of curriculum and content that has unlimited capacity for better access to knowledge. ict has offered enormous advantages and benefits in supporting a higher-quality learning system at ptnu. as previously said, student characteristics, teacher characteristics, the e-learning environment, the quality of institutions and services, the quality of infrastructure and systems, the quality of courses and material, and motivation all play a role in the success of e-learning. e-learning literacy, as well as digital media skills, training programs, and e-learning literacy, are significant variables to consider while implementing e-learning journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 (kaisara & bwalya, 2020). for example, participants explained that students can easily access learning materials. considering data 4. (4) as educators, the use of e-learning makes it easier for us to assess student competencies and abilities. a computerized basis can provide test results as they should. thus reducing the risk of cheating. this is also the standard of education obtained after the existence of ict.” therefore, ict is a priority that must be understood by all lecturers as the current standard of competence. the study states that ict has improved the quality and quality of learning, increased the professionalism of lecturers, and increased the effectiveness and efficiency of management, management, and administration of educational institutions (tatnall, 2020). considering data 5. (5) “the obstacle we feel while using e-learning is that the supporting facilities and infrastructure are still limited. in addition, we still lack experts in the field of ict. but in the future, plans and strategies will be made to strengthen ict so that e-learning can become a more effective learning method. for internet availability, it is quite capable.” based on interview and observation data, as well as several previous literature studies, it is clear that the problems that occur in these two campuses are not due to unstable network problems as is generally reported in previous studies investigating challenges and obstacles in e-learning-based learning methods in development. ict in universities is rather a management problem and limited human resources who are experts and understand in the field of ict. studies conducted by santosa & devi (2021) and branch et al. (2021) stated that islamic universities experienced technical problems with unstable networks and infrastructure during the use of e-learning which resulted in less effective learning activities. thus, both unisma and unusa are quite successful in implementing the e-learning method development policy in the development of ict. rq3: why ict development needs to support the implementation of e-learning at the universities of nadathul ulama in indonesia? based on the data analysis that has been done, the third finding reveals the reason for the development of ict to support the implementation of e-learning at the islamic university of nadathul, namely because these two nu campuses have a vision, mission, and goal to become a moderate islamic university in the international arena. thus, the development of ict is the main requirement in addition to the basis of religious education as a modern learning medium (khalaf). previous studies explained that one of the main factors influencing islamic universities to develop ict, especially e-learning methods, was to become a moderate international islamic university ghafur 137 (wasatiyah)(abubakar & hemay, 2020; ademola, 2019). the success of the implementation of elearning is influenced by the readiness of many factors, one of which is the support from educational institutions and its characteristics in upholding the noble values of ahlu sunnah wal jamaah (aswaja) as a capital for character building and inculcating nationalism in the tri dharma of universities which is strengthened by the existence of p3tik from the aspect of lms. considering data 6. (6) “the application of the concept of the e-learning method cannot be separated from learning about the values of ahlu sunnah wal jamaah, namely maintaining the congregation or the integrity of muslims, being tasamuh and tawassuth, tawazun or balanced and ahlussunnah always being i'tidal. this is an internalization of the noble values of character building that supports learning at ptki which is characterized by the nu organization. the main thing is to cultivate nationalism and local wisdom.” unisma and unusa focus on e-learning in the development of ict while still upholding islamic values. this study also found that unusa and unisma have their own characteristics which are advantages in terms of e-learning learning methods compared to islamic universities in general. both are able to adapt from salaf to modern by adopting ict developments. this is different from the findings in previous research studies which revealed that in general nu educational institutions are traditional pesantren (salafiyah) (zarkasyi, 2019). so that the majority of nu campuses develop traditional learning systems. this finding reveals that there are nu campuses that have developed ict as the first step towards an international moderate islamic university. so it can be understood that the nu campus not only adheres to islamic traditions to promote moderation, compassion, anti-radicalism, inclusiveness and tolerance (abidin et al., 2020; purwanto et al., 2019) but also develops modern learning methods to improve the competence of students in the face of global competition. this finding has demonstrated the novelty of ict strengthening that affects e-learning readiness at ptnu in indonesia, where university policies aimed at increasing ict development support more effective e-learning with careful and accurate evaluation so that it can have a positive impact on educational outcomes. conclusion the purpose of this study is to explore the two best ptnu universities related to the development of ict in supporting the implementation of e learning in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0. from the results of research and discussion, it can be concluded that there are three main points. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 first, that the development of ict contributes greatly in maximizing the use of e-learning based on moderate islamic education, especially on campuses that have a strong internet network. the results of the first study also found that unisma is better prepared for e-learning because a number of ict services managed by p3tik have been developed and continue to undergo renewal that facilitates better access to e-learning. meanwhile, unusa is still struggling to attract teachers and students to use e-learning on a regular basis. also the lack of support from the executive level to make flexibility in the teaching and learning process relevant to the implementation of elearning. the second conclusion is that the development of ict can support the implementation of e-learning by improving the ict infrastructure even better. in the development of ict in universities under nadhatul ulama indonesia, ict has progressed which is superior in supporting the implementation of ict. although there are still various problems of complexity due to the lack of support from human resources and decision makers in terms of management support. but the positive thing is, the entire academic community can experience new and modern experiences and knowledge. the third conclusion is that both campuses carry out ict development in supporting the implementation of e-learning to strengthen moderate islam. future research needs to consider quantitative research methods and use a wider coverage area. other factors that influence elearning and the development of ict need to be included in the material for further research studies. this study revealed something new about the importance of ict in enhancing the preparedness of efficient e-learning learning approaches. this is one of ptnu's endeavors toward becoming an international moderate islamic university, which is intended to have a good impact on student competency in the modern period.the researcher recommends the need for campus and government policies in increasing the strength of ict not only in academic services but also in the development of quality and quality in order to achieve moderate islamic campuses and go international campuses. references abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2355 abubakar, i., & hemay, i. (2020). pesantren resilience: the path to prevent radicalism and violent extremism. studia islamika, a27(2), 397–404. ghafur 139 https://doi.org/10.36712/sdi.v27i2.16766 ademola, a. l. (2019). factors influencing the adoption and use of ict among academician in higher educations institutions. international islamic university malaysia. retrieved from http://210.48.222.250/bitstream/123456789/9456/1/t11100417945adebiyilookmanademol a_24.pdf agrawal, a. k., & mittal, g. k. (2018). the role of ict in higher education for the 21st century: ict as a change agent for education. multidisciplinary higher education, research, dynamics & concepts: opportunities & challenges for sustainable development, 1(1), 76–83. ainon, r., & rosmaizura, m. z. (2019). the impact of facilities on student choice. college student affairs journal, 22(1), 23-. ajit, m., & mete, j. (2012). edcuation ict in higher education : opportunities and challenges. bhatter college journal of multidisciplinary studies, (issn 2249-3301), vol. ii, 2012. ed. pabitra kumar mishra, ii(2277), 45–47. aung, t. n., & khaing, s. s. (2016). challenges of implementing e-learning in developing countries: a review. advances in intelligent systems and computing, 388, 405–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23207-2_41 baez zarabanda, d. (2019). ict and its purpose in the pedagogical practice. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.6 bandyopadhyay, s., bardhan, a., dey, p., & bhattacharyya, s. (2021). ict in education. bridging the education divide using social technologies. singapore: springer international publishing ag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-6738-8_4 basuki, s. (2007). it and education, the case study of e-learning in indonesia . korea-asean academic conference on information revolution and cultural integration in east asia, ho chi minh city, vietnam, january 25-26, 2007., 1–13. retrieved from http://eprints.rclis.org/9048/1/e-learning_-_vietnam_-_2007.pdf bhuasiri, w., xaymoungkhoun, o., zo, h., rho, j. j., & ciganek, a. p. (2012). critical success factors for e-learning in developing countries: a comparative analysis between ict experts and faculty. computers and education, 58(2), 843–855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.10.010 branch, t., gharehbagh, z. a., seifi, b., & moeini, f. (2021). assessing the quality of elearning courses during the covid19 pandemic from the perspective of nursing students of islamic. medical education bulletin, 2(3), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.22034/meb.2021.301099.1022 bukar, m., & mustafa, a. s. (2020). integrating ict and education for administrative purposes: analysis of access to information at khazar university, azerbaijan. azerbaijan journal of educational studies, 2(2), 27–43. https://doi.org/10.29228/edu.117 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.6 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 cener, e., acun, i., & demirhan, g. (2015). bilgi ve i̇letişim teknolojilerinin (bi̇t) sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde öğrenci başarısı ve tutumuna etkisi. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 190–207. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.67856 childs, s., blenkinsopp, e., hall, a., & walton, g. (2005). effective e-learning for health professionals and students--barriers and their solutions. a systematic review of the literature--findings from the hexl project. health information and libraries journal, 22 suppl 2, 20–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1470-3327.2005.00614.x daguet, h. (2021). information and communication technology (ict) in education: an issue that is still relevant today. devolution and autonomy in education, 53–67. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119851349.ch4 donalek, j. g. (2004). phenomenology as qualitative resreach method. urologic nursing, 24(desember), 516–517. el-masri, m., & tarhini, a. (2017). erratum to: factors affecting the adoption of e-learning systems in qatar and usa: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology 2 (utaut2)(education tech research dev, 10.1007/s11423-016-9508-8). educational technology research and development, 65(3), 765–767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-017-9526-1 fernández-gutiérrez, m., gimenez, g., & calero, j. (2020). is the use of ict in education leading to higher student outcomes? analysis from the spanish autonomous communities. computers and education, 157(july). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103969 foutsitzi, s., & caridakis, g. (2019). ict in education: benefits, challenges and new directions. in 10th international conference on information, intelligence, systems and applications, iisa 2019 (pp. 1–8). ieee. https://doi.org/10.1109/iisa.2019.8900666 gleason, n. w. (2018). higher education in the era of the fourth industrial revolution. higher education in the era of the fourth industrial revolution. singapore: palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0194-0 hallett, r. e., & barber, k. (2014). ethnographic research in a cyber era. journal of contemporary ethnography, 43(3), 306–330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241613497749 ige, o. a. (2019). impact of computer-assisted instructional strategy on schoolchildren’s social skills. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 490–505. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1389 jalinus, n., verawardina, u., azis nabawi, r., & darma, y. (2021). developing blended learning model in vocational education based on 21st century integrated learning and industrial revolution 4.0. turkish journal of computer and mathematics education, 12(8), 1239–1254. jegede, d., ebio, l. a., & iroegbu, a. i. (2019). challenges facing the administration of ict infrastructural facilities in public primary schools in nigeria. electronic research journals 168, 1(october), 30–40. ghafur 141 kaisara, g., & bwalya, k. j. (2020). investigating the e-learning challenges faced by students during covid-19 in namibia. international journal of higher education, 10(1), 308. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v10n1p308 kalimullina, o., tarman, b. & stepanova, i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher's role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226-238. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 kibuku, r. n., ochieng, d. o., & wausi, a. n. (2020). e-learning challenges faced by universities in kenya: a literature review. electronic journal of e-learning, 18(2), 150– 161. https://doi.org/10.34190/ejel.20.18.2.004 kocdar, s., bozkurt, a., & goru dogan, t. (2021). engineering through distance education in the time of the fourth industrial revolution: reflections from three decades of peer reviewed studies. computer applications in engineering education, 29(4), 931–949. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22367 kominfo. (2018). jumlah pengguna internet 2017 meningkat, kominfo terus lakukan percepatan pembangunan broadband. kementrian komunikasi dan infotmatika, (53), 1–6. retrieved from https://www.kominfo.go.id/content/detail/12640/siaran-pers-no53hmkominfo022018-tentang-jumlah-pengguna-internet-2017-meningkat-kominfo-t… lim, c. p., victoria l. tiniosmith, m. l., & bhowmik, m. k. (2018). digital learning for developing asia countries: achieving equity, quality, and efficiency in education. london and new york: routledge/taylor & francis group. livingstone, s. (2012). critical reflections on the benefits of ict in education. oxford review of education, 38(1), 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2011.577938 maatuk, a. m., elberkawi, e. k., aljawarneh, s., rashaideh, h., & alharbi, h. (2021). the covid-19 pandemic and e-learning: challenges and opportunities from the perspective of students and instructors. journal of computing in higher education, (0123456789). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-021-09274-2 mansab, s. (2012). the role of information and communication technology (ict) in higher education for the 21st century. science, 1(1), 30–41. martín, c. s., cabezas gonzález, m., & garcía peñalvo, f. j. (2020). digital competence of early childhood education teachers: attitude, knowledge and use of ict. european journal of teacher education, 43(2), 210–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2019.1681393 mbodila, m., jones, t., & muhandji, k. (2013). integration of ict in education : key challenges. scholarly journal of mathematics and computer science, 3(11), 515–520. moleong, l. j. (2013). qualitative research methodology revised edition. bandung: pt remaja rosdakarya offset publisher. musaropah, u., mahali, m., delimanugari, d., suprianto, a., & nugroho, t. (2020). internalisasi nilai luhur ahlu sunnah wal jama’ah bagi pengembangan karakter kebangsaan di perguruan tinggi. nuansa akademik: jurnal pembangunan masyarakat, http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 121-143 5(2), 89–102. https://doi.org/10.47200/jnajpm.v5i2.576 nair, p. k., ali, f., & leong, l. c. (2015). factors affecting acceptance & use of rewind: validating the extended unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. interactive technology and smart education (vol. 12). https://doi.org/10.1108/itse-02-2015-0001 nistor, n., lerche, t., weinberger, a., ceobanu, c., & heymann, j. o. (2014). towards the integration of culture into the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. british journal of educational technology, 45(1), 36–55. retrieved from https://epub.ub.unimuenchen.de/14693/1/nistor-lerche-weinberger-preprint.pdf oludare jethro, o., moradeke grace, a., & kolawole thomas, a. (2012). e-learning and its effects on teaching and learning in a global age. international journal of academic research in business and social sciences, 2(1), 2222–6990. roy purwanto, m., mukharrom, t., & munjin nasih, a. (2019). inclusive, exclusive, radical and nahdlatul ulama. international journal of innovation, creativity and change. www.ijicc.net, 9(10), 94–103. retrieved from www.ijicc.net salehudin, m., zulherman, z., arifin, a., & napitupulu, d. (2021). extending indonesia government policy for e-learning and social media usage. pegem egitim ve ogretim dergisi, 11(2), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.14527/pegegog.2021.00 santosa, s., & devi, a. d. (2021). the problematics online lectures on human resource management courses (hrm) at the islamic college level. nazhruna: jurnal pendidikan islam, 4(2), 261–271. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31538/nzh.v4i2.1452 satori, a.-. (2018). model pendidikan multikultural pada pesantren tradisional di kota tasikmalaya dalam mencegah ancaman radikalisme. sosiohumaniora, 20(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.24198/sosiohumaniora.v20i1.10304 setiawan, a. r. (2020). islamic education in southeast asia. islamic education in southeast asia, 2(april), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.31237/osf.io/e794d shortis, t. (2001). the language of ict: information and communication technology. london: psychology press. sutiah, s., & supriyatno, t. (2020). analysis of e-learning implementation readiness in the state islamic higher education in indonesia during covid-19 pandemic. ilkogretim online elementary education online, 19(4), 885–897. https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2020.04.197 tarman, b., kilinc, e., & aydin, h. (2019). barriers to the effective use of technology integration in social studies education. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 19(4). retrieved from https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/socialstudies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education tatnall, a. (2020). encyclopedia of education and information technologies. in technological innovation in ict for education. united state america: springer, cham. https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education https://citejournal.org/volume-19/issue-4-19/social-studies/barriers-to-the-effective-use-of-technology-integration-in-social-studies-education ghafur 143 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10576-1_51 tavangarian, d., leypold, m., nölting, k., röser, m., & voigt, d. (2004). is e-learning the solution for individual learning?. electronic journal of e-learning, 2(2), 273–280. tchamyou, v. s., asongu, s. a., & odhiambo, n. m. (2019). the role of ict in modulating the effect of education and lifelong learning on income inequality and economic growth in africa. african development review, 31(3), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/14678268.12388 titan, t., fernando, e., murad, d. f., warnars, h. l. h. s., & oktriono, k. (2019). development conceptual model and validation instrument for e-learning succes model at universities in indonesia: perspectives influence of instructor’s activities and motivation. 2019 international congress on applied information technology, ait 2019, (november 2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/ait49014.2019.9144754 tri, n. m., hoang, p. d., & dung, n. t. (2021). impact of the industrial revolution 4.0 on higher education in vietnam: challenges and opportunities. linguistics and culture review, 5(s3), 1–15. tsakeni, m. (2021). transition to online learning by a teacher education program with limited 4ir affordances. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 129-147. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.15 venkatesh, v., morris, m. g., davis, g. b., & davis, f. d. (2003). user acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view. mis quarterly: management information systems, 27(3), 425–478. https://doi.org/10.2307/30036540 vladimirovich, k. o., viktorovich, g. v., igorievich, p. o., victorovna, s. z. v., & akopovna, k. n. (2021). formation of ethical and axiological competencies when using ict in education. international journal of applied exercise physiology www.ijaep.com, 12(8), 78–82. https://doi.org/10.5373/jardcs/v12i8/20202448 wolhuter, c., & jacobs, l. (2021). covid-19, the global education project and technology: disrupting priorities towards rethinking education. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 96-109. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.13 zarkasyi, h. f. (2019). appraising the moderation indonesian muslims with special reference to muhammadiyah and nahdlatul ulama. addin, 12(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.21043/addin.v12i1.4179 the role of the college of education at kuwait university in countering violent extremism among students www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 204-224 the role of the college of education at kuwait university in countering violent extremism among students maadi mahdi alajmi1 abstract this study aims to identify the forms of violent extremism among students of the college of education at kuwait university and specify the causes that drive youth towards it. this study used a cross-sectional design to which manova analysis was used to analyze data. sample of this study included 192 faculty members and 426 students of kuwait university. three indexed questionnaires searching the forms of violent extremism, causes and the role of faculty members to counter violent extremism were used to collect data. the analysis was addressed descriptively to see the indexes of violent extremism and their statistical impacts on the attributes in terms of occupation, gender, age, and experience to counter violent experiences. results show that violent extremism among students occurred due to political, social, economic, and cultural aspects. this study has also determined the role of education in countering violent extremism and decreasing its prevalence among youth. one of the most important results is observing the spread of several indicators and types of violent extremism among some students. therefore, attention must be paid to teaching these students how to resolve their differences by legal and peaceful means. it is recommended that an educational strategy be developed to prevent violent extremism among students, which should emphasize the importance of upgrading the curriculum and programs within the college to spread a culture of peace, tolerance, and acceptance of social and cultural diversity. keywords: violent extremism, kuwait university, youth, college of education, educational strategy. introduction the majority of the countries worldwide are facing a spreading threat of violent extremism leading to terrorism. in response, the united nations and its affiliated organizations like the united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization (unesco) have established laws to prevent and protect youths from becoming affected by this growing phenomenon (steven et al., 2019). kuwait has suffered from many violent extremism and terrorism incidents in previous years due to its geographical location near areas of war and conflict. the existence of terrorist groups in afghanistan and iran is also a significant reason. for instance, the 1985 car bomb attack against kuwait ruler sheikh jaber al-ahmad al 1 dr. kuwait university, college of education, curriculum & instruction department, drmaadi1@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 205 sabah and the bombing of local cafes killed 11 people and wounded 98 citizens in the same year. another incident was the aljabria aircraft hijacking in 1988. additionally, the iraq invasion of kuwait led by saddam hussein in 1990 represented countrywide terrorism. former undersecretary of the kuwaiti minister of social affairs and labor saad al-kharraz said that kuwait attaches great importance to the fight against terrorism and the drying up of its sources, especially regarding the social focus and sustainable development. thus, this study aims to help the education faculties counter violent extremism among students by indicating the forms and actors that cause violent extremism. another goal is to determine the role of the curriculum, faculty members, and teaching methods in preventing violent extremism. the main objective of this study is to identify the forms of violent extremism among students of the college of education at kuwait university, as well as its causes and ways to combat it. one of the goals is to raise awareness of the danger of violent extremism spreading among youth, which leads to terrorism. this study is critical because it may help protect youths from being affected by ideas, views, or activities of violent extremist and terrorist groups. furthermore, the findings are expected to contribute to the development of curricula, teaching methods, and teacher training to counter the spread of violent extremism among students. purpose of the study this study aims to identify the forms and causes of violent extremism among students of the college of education at kuwait university and indicate the factors causing violent extremism among them. also, to determine the role of the college of education's curriculum, faculty members, and teaching methods in preventing violent extremism among students. addressing the problem education plays a crucial role in countering violent extremism and terrorism. it ensures the growth of the human personality mentally, socially, spiritually, and physically. education can prevent terrorism through curriculum training programs and teacher preparation. the education faculty in kuwait shares responsibility for protecting students from being affected by violent extremism, which influences the educational process and society in general. study questions the problem addressed in this study is represented in the following research questions: 1) what are the forms of violent extremism among the college of education at kuwait university to counter student violent extremism in terms of occupation, gender, age, and experience? alajimi 2) what are the factors that the college of education at kuwait university make to control the spread of violent extremism in terms of occupation, gender, age, and experience? 3) what is the role of the college of education at kuwait university in countering violent extremism among its students in terms of occupation, gender, age, and experience? null hypothesis in regard to the research questions above, this study attempts to verify the following null hypotheses: 1) there are no different forms of violent extremism used by college of education to counter student attitude of violent extremism in terms of occupation, gender, age and experience. 2) there are no different factors of violent extremism that cause college of education to counter student attitude of violent extremism in terms of occupation, gender, age and experience. 3) there are no different role among college of education at kuwait university in countering violent extremism among its students in terms of occupation, gender, age, and experience. significant of the study the results of this study will be helpful to the college administration in developing college curricula and programs to confront the problem of the spread of violent extremism among students. in addition, these results will help faculty members use appropriate teaching methods to guide students to avoid practicing forms of violent extremism and introduce students to the types of violent extremism to prevent them. literature review the rapid growth of violent extremism concerns various politicians, militaries, sociologists, and educators worldwide who hope to restore peace, safety, and stability in all societies to allow civilization to flourish and develop; however, according to gunaratna & ali 2015), if people are frightened because of a specific threat, they cannot think stably. as a result, their production rates decrease, posing a severe threat to their families and themselves, affecting society. international efforts to confront extremism and terrorism the terrorist attacks in september 2011 led to a global war on terrorism. it transformed the methods used to counter extremism and terrorism globally and led to enacting a series of laws and executive orders to prevent other attacks. the u.n. security council resolution (1373/2001) obliged all member countries under chapter vii to take specific measures to journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 207 combat terrorism and establish a special commission with authority to follow up with governments to counter terrorism. in addition, the european council (stahl, baak, adams & peterson, 2021) found a work plan to counter violent extremism and terrorism by setting laws (10586/04), followed by the creation of a strategic agreement to prevent terrorism (stephens, sieckelinck & boutellier, 2021). recently, the assembly, u. g. (2015). issued a work plan to counter violent extremism and terrorism called the security general plan of action to prevent violent extremism (pave). in this context, the flexibility of this plan has been emphasized. different sources cite different definitions of violent extremism. for instance, the federal bureau of investigation (2016) defines violent extremism as encouragement, condescension, justification, or support for committing a violent act to achieve political, ideological, or economic goals (ty, 2021). on the other hand, the united nations has defined terrorism as acts that endanger innocent human lives, threaten political freedoms, or violate human dignity (baker et al., 2017). in general, terrorism is the use of coercion to subdue a party to the will of the terrorist. according to heath-kelly, (2017), extremism is opposed by words or actions of fundamental british values, including democracy, the rule of law, individual freedom, mutual respect, and tolerance between different religions and beliefs. the present study agrees with pearson, (2020) who state that violent extremism is the failure to accept or allow another point of view and the belief that only one’s point of view is correct. indicators and forms of violent extremism several indicators show how violent extremism and terrorism affect youths, and early indicators appear among some young people (unesco, 2016). additionally, repetitive use of the internet and websites related to violent extremism and the use of or reference to conspiracy theories can be alarming indicators of this issue. kurzman, kamal & yazdiha (2017) mention other factors like traveling to areas with conflict and war, providing moral support to extremist and terrorist groups, conspiring to harm others, storing weapons, and providing false information as the leading causes of violent extremism. factors leading to the spread of violent extremism among youths many factors attract youths to join violent extremism and terrorism activities, including neglect, inequality, discrimination and persecution, limited opportunities, and the denial of civil rights and freedoms (unesco, 2016). the factors leading to violent extremism and terrorism can be divided into the following groups. alajimi political factors political factors are some of the most common causes affecting youths and leading them to violent extremism or to join extremist and terrorist groups. these factors involve the denial of civil freedoms and political rights and include repressive regimes that violate human rights, the spread of corruption, a lack of law enforcement, inability of the government to provide security, and government support for terrorist organizations (choi, 2016) moreover, a lack of justice under the pretext of national security and political conflicts affect civil life, and so does political exclusion on ethnic grounds (kurzman, kamal, & yazdiha, 2017). social and cultural factors many social and cultural causes spread extremism and terrorism. according to viana & da silva (2021), the fbi has addressed some of these factors to prevent violent extremism in schools. however, several social and cultural reasons influence young people and push them toward extremism and terrorism (agnese, 2016). these influences include the influence of civil society institutions such as mosques and churches; the spread of a hateful culture in society; disrespect for the beliefs, values, and opinions of others; a sense of isolation, marginalization, exclusion, and social inequality among groups of society; the feeling of a loss of dignity in the community; loss of national identity; and the lack of a sense of social belonging. economic factors economic factors, particularly deteriorating economic conditions, encourage youths to join violent extremism. additionally, the spread of financial corruption in the institutions of society, poverty, unemployment, and a lack of suitable employment opportunities for young people encourage them to engage in violent extremism (viana & da silva, 2021; stephens, sieckelinck & boutellier, 2021). educational factors there is no doubt that young people's lack of access to high-quality education is one of the most severe reasons for increasing extremism and terrorism in society. the educational factors mentioned by chomsky and papp (2013) describe the problems in society due to the lack of education policies. other influential factors include failure of the curriculum to instill positive attitudes towards society, lack of interest in educational media and information programs, and lack of educational activities that contribute to filling leisure time among young people. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 209 the role of education in countering violent extremism education is a tool through which a community can achieve its goals. it plays a significant role in preparing youth mentally, physically, emotionally, and socially to become productive members of society. the former british prime minister, tony blair, stated that security measures on their own would not defeat violent extremism. therefore, education must also be engaged in this battle to achieve victory (ghosh et al., 2016). the u.n. has also considered education in its strategy as the prime fundamental pillar to counter violent extremism and terrorism through a culture of peace, justice, the spread of ethics, tolerance, and respect for all religions (jerome & elwick, 2020). accordingly, establishing a suitable learning system is encouraged, along with programs that raise awareness about all aspects of society. furthermore, security council legislation (2015) emphasizes the role of media, the civil community, religious entities, economic sectors, and educational institutions in establishing a healthy social environment that does not provoke or encourage extremism and terrorism. the action plan of the u.n. security council (assembly (2015) emphasizes the need to increase investment in education to combat and prevent the spread of violent extremism among youth. the u.n. secretary general's plan of action deems high-quality education as the foundation for preventing extremism and terrorism. according to this plan, education has a role in preventing conflicts, spreading a culture of peace, teaching human rights, facing violent extremism through emphasizing critical thinking, encouraging students to accept differences, and expressing points of view in peaceful ways (jerome & elwick, 2020). unesco’s teacher's guide on the prevention of violent extremism reaffirms that education could help learners upgrade their communication skills, improve dialogue to face differences with others, and learn peaceful ways to make necessary changes. moreover, it could promote accepting diversity and social, cultural, ethnic, and religious differences in society and respect for minorities (choi, s. h. (2016). according to ghosh, manuel, chan & dilimulati (2016), specific procedures can achieve this. first, the level of general education should be modified to battle youth unemployment. second, critical thinking skills and decision-making skills should be enhanced. third, curricula that promote diversity and human rights need to be developed. moreover, courses should be designed to emphasize anti-racism education and focus on implanting ethical and proper religious education that promotes the acceptance of diversity and differences ( mohammadi, 2021)). the current curricula need to be reconsidered to omit any parts that might provoke extremism and the spread of hateful culture among youth. it is alajimi essential to ensure that the curriculum contains the following types of education due to their essential roles in battling extremism and terrorism. first, peace education should be included to spread a culture of peace, tolerance, and cross-cultural and interfaith dialogues to teach youth peaceful ways to solve conflicts (ghosh, manuel, chan & dilimulati, 2016). second, there should be a significant emphasis on human rights, social justice, and gender equality, which are essential to strengthening peace and reducing the spread of extremism and terrorism (unesco, 2016). several terrorist organizations in many countries worldwide have been able to break through to schools and universities to recruit students to serve their goals and spread their extremist ideas (christodoulou, 2020). therefore, communities represented by educational ministries must pay attention to the importance of having plans and strategies to counter violent extremism and embed them within curricula and educational programs. moreover, it is vital to select and train educators who respect cultural and religious diversity, are well-prepared to face extremism and terrorism, and serve as good role models for youth through sincerity, impartiality, non-dependence, and non-racism (kurzman, kamal & yazdiha, 2017; tolba, 2018). the majority of the studies discussed agree on the dangers of violent extremism and terrorism for societies. furthermore, they indicate a need to pay attention to education to protect youths from extremist and terrorist activities, behaviors, and ideas, which have spread in many countries in the past decade. the current study aims to analyze concepts of violent extremism and terrorism and acknowledgment their forms. it also investigates the reasons behind their prevalence and the role of educational institutions in countering this phenomenon. thus, the present study differs from previous studies to shed light on kuwaiti society and identify the manifestations and causes of extremism in the college of education in kuwait. furthermore, one of the aims is to present suggestions and solutions to help prevent college youth from being affected by or involved in extremist or terrorist groups. methodology design this research adopts a descriptive method as the most appropriate approach for this type of study, which is meant to describe a phenomenon and reach a generalization by analyzing and reviewing previous research (creswell, 2013). this study used multivariate analysis as it research design and accordingly quantitative approach that relied upon statistical tool to analyze data. the purposes of this study are to describe three phenomena of violent extremism in the university including forms of violent extremism, causes of the violent journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 211 extremism and the role of faculty members to hold violent extremism in the university. specifically, this study employed multivariate analysis to manova analysis was used to analyze data. the purposes of the study were to examine whether college of education at kuwait university take the forms and causes of violent extremism among students. specifically, the differences are elaborated into occupation, gender, age, and experience. the study took place at kuwait university. the study sample the number of college students for the academic year 2018/2019 is 5837. the number of male students is 552, while the number of female students is 5285. the number of faculty members in the college reached 192, including 89 females and 103 males (kuwait university, 2018). of the whole population, the researcher assigned 545 as sample of this study. the sample include 119 faculty members (44 female and 75 male), and 426 students (310 female and 116 male). table 1 shows the characteristics of the research sample. table 1. characteristic of the sample of this study demography f % faculty members (n=192) male 103 53.7 female 89 46.3 more than 25 years of age 100 52.1 less than 25 years of age 92 47.9 more then 10 years experience to counter violent extremism 135 70.3 less then 10 years experience to counter violent extremism 57 29.7 students (n=426) male 310 72.8 female 116 27.2 above 25 years of age 300 70.4 below 25 years of age 126 29.6 2 years to counter violent extremism 202 47.4 more than 2 years to counter violent extremism 224 52.6 instruments the current study used a questionnaire that consisted of three indexes: violent extremism, causes of violent extremism and effect of faculty member to handle extremism violence. each alajimi question in the questionnaire requires a yes no answer. the first index focused on violent extremism forms among students examined and consisted of 7 items. the items include: (1) use of threatening (intimidating) language against those who disagree with their opinions, (2) clashes and aggressive verbal violations, (3) distributing posters and leaflets that provoke conflicts and trouble, (4) strikes and running extremist riots, (5) damaging public facilities, (6) fighting and causing harm to others, and (7) writing extremist phrases on the walls of the college. the second index of the questionnaire focused on factors that cause violent extremism among students consisted of 9 items. the items are: (1) discrimination and inequality in academics, (2) the spread of nepotism, (3) the impact of the media and social networks, (4) lack of entertainment and sports activities where students can spend their leisure time, (5) existence of instructors who approve of the ideas of extremist groups, (6) lack of a sense of belonging to the community, (7) depriving students of their rights, (8) civil liberties and freedom of opinions, and (9) loss of national identity. finally, the third one focused on the role of the faculty to counter violent extremism among students and consisted of 9 items. these are: (1) developing the skills of communication, dialogue, and accepting different opinions of others, (2) teaching human rights and spreading a culture of peace and tolerance among students, (3) increasing the awareness of the dangers of extremism and terrorism among students, (4) paying attention to educational media to spread love, cooperation, and understanding among students, (5) teaching principles and values of citizenship to all students, (6) purifying the curriculum of the college from all that provokes hatred and extremism, (7) directing the curriculum to focus on societal issues and the needs of youth, (8) applying rules and regulations of the college to everyone, and (9) training members of the teaching staff on ways and methods to face extremism. validity of the instrument the validity test aimed to ensure that the instrument tests what is meant to test (creswell, 2013). to ensure the validity of the questionnaire in terms of comprehensiveness, importance, languages, and clarity, validity was tested through two ways: face validity the questionnaire was designed in arabic and sent to seven experts in curriculum and instruction, instructional design, and educational psychology. the experts were asked to review the questionnaire before finalizing it. according to the reviewers’ feedback, some of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 213 the statements have been edited, added to, or deleted to conclude with (25) items divided into three indexes to ensure a high level of instrument validity. the researcher has used a method of average for each item evaluated by the seven reviewers and eliminated only the items that obtained less than 3 scores out of 5. in addition, each reviewer was given a form containing research questions and objectives. the reviewers were provided with a scale from 1 to 5 to evaluate the relevance of each statement in the questionnaire. the reviewers were also given an option to make some changes, if necessary, to the items. content validity an inter-item correlation test using kmo analysis was employed to validate the instrument's content by identifying the correlation between the score of each of the questionnaire items and the total instrument score and each of the statements and the category to which it belongs. in addition, a correlation test was conducted among the scores of the three axes of the questionnaire and the total instrument score. table 2 describes the inter-item correlations. table 2. questionnaire’s inter-item correlations items of forms of ve items of factors causing ve items related to the role of education statement index correlation statement index correlation statement index correlation 1 0.639* 1 0.767* 1 0.731* 2 0.741* 2 0.638* 2 0.736* 3 0.743* 3 0.642* 3 0.622* 4 0.539* 4 0.719* 4 0.732* 5 0.727* 5 0.532* 5 0.525* 6 0.643* 6 0.725* 6 0.619* 7 0.303* 7 0.630* 7 0.641* 8 0.718* 8 0.740* 9 0.534* 9 0.734* * significant at α=0.05 the table 2 above shows a high correlation between the statements, the total instrument score, and the items and their relevant category. that means the questionnaire instrument used in this study is internally valid in addition to face validity. reliability test reliability test of this instrument was analyzed using cornbach alpha coefficient. table 3 shows that reliability coefficients ranged from (0.797-0.821) for the three categories. therefore, the result for the total questionnaire equals (0.799), which means the overall high reliability of scales used in the survey. alajimi table 3. summary statistics of reliability test category statement no. cronbach’s alpha items of forms of ve 7 .797 items of factors causing ve 9 .779 items related to the role of education 9 .821 total 25 .799 data collection data of this study were collected through the online survey questionnaire to use google platform. the first questionnaire was distributed to 200 faculty members and 500 students at kuwait university. of the 200 faculty members, 192 answers were replied properly. additionally of 500 students, 426 replies were considered proper. each reply was shorted its frequency appropriate to three indexed: violent extremism, causes of violent extremism and effect of faculty member to counter violent extremism. further, the index was adjusted to factors affecting the involvement to counter violent extremisms, including: occupation, gender, age, and experience. data analysis this study used manova for the data analysis operated using spss released 29 software. through this statistical tool, descriptive statistics data and hypothesis testing can be obtained accordingly. at the first step, each research question was elaborated its descriptive statistics data on the mean score, frequency, and the rate percentage. research question (1) 7 items on the violent extremism are elaborated in terms of mean score, frequency and rate percentage. furthermore, to see the different effect of demographic t-test was used though the hypothesis testing. similarly, research question (2) that emphasized on causes of violent extremism and research questions (3) that see the effectiveness of lecturer’s role to prevent violent extremism are elaborated each items descriptively and their interaction effects through hypothesis testing using t-test. through this analysis, answers to the forms of violent extremisms, causes of violent extremisms, and the role of faculty members to counter violent extremism can be elaborated descriptively and the different attributes of the faculty members and students were significantly identified. results and discussion the study includes three questions and three null hypotheses, and the analysis of the following results is to answer these questions and verify the hypotheses. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 215 rq1: what are the forms of violent extremism among the college of education at kuwait university to counter student violent extremism in terms of occupation, gender, age, and experience? it has been stated that the most prominent forms of violent extremism among college students include clashes and aggressive verbal violations, fighting and causing harm to others, and the use of threatening (intimidating) language against those who disagree with their opinions. as presented in table 4, the highest mean rating of 4.11 was obtained for item 2, "clashes and aggressive verbal violations," followed by item 9, "fighting and causing harm to others," with a mean of 4.10. the participants also mentioned that the most noticeable forms of extremism often appeared during student elections. however, some of these forms agreed with those presented by ty (2021). moreover, the indicators mentioned by macaluso (2016) did not occur among kuwaiti students, such as traveling to war areas, murder conspiracies, using weapons, or financing extremist and terrorist groups. table 4. forms of violent extremism among students at the college of education at kuwait university no. items mean s.d. rank 2 clashes and aggressive verbal violations 4.11 1.232 1 6 fighting and causing harm to others 4.10 1.020 2 1 use of threatening (intimidating) language against those who disagree with their opinions 3.84 1.248 3 3 distributing posters and leaflets that provoke conflicts and trouble. 3.82 1.421 4 4 strikes and running extremist riots. 3.81 1.352 5 7 damaging public facilities. 3.80 1.372 6 5 writing extremist phrases on the walls of the college. 3.78 1.211 7 table 5 related to the first null hypothesis: there are no significant differences between the faculty members and the students regarding the forms of violent extremism among students at the college of education at kuwait university (due to occupation, gender, age, or experience). it is shown in table 5 that the value of the t-test related to the occupation is 1.097, and the level of significance is .290 > .05. it means that there are no significant differences between the responses of the participants due to the profession. as for gender, the t-test value is alajimi 3.059, and the significance level is .331 < .05 indicating statistically significant differences between the participants due to gender. as for age, the t-test value is 1.366, and the significance level is .363 > .05, indicating no statistically significant differences related to age. finally, the value of the t-test related to experience with violent extremism is 1.410, and the level of significance is .389 > .05. it was pointed out that there was no statistical significance associated with this experience, which means accepting the null hypothesis regarding occupation, age and experience, and rejecting it regarding the gender variable, as the results showed statistically significant differences related to this variable. this indicates that the prevalence of violent extremism forms among male students is higher than among female students. this may be due to the feminine nature that tends to peace and dialogue and hates violence. table 5. t-test results and level of significance related to the forms of violent extremism among students at the college of education at kuwait university significance level t-test s/d m n participants types .290 1.097 1.132 4.011 119 faculty member occupation 1.215 4.086 426 student .0331* 3.059 2.885 2.93 354 f gender 1.114 4,021 191 m .363 1.366 1.057 4.030 119 more than 25 age 1.313 4.100 426 less than 25 .389 1.410 1.101 4.012 102 more than 10 experience with violent extremism 1.442 3.996 443 less than 10 * significant at α=0.05 rq2: what are the factors that the college of education at kuwait university make to control the spread of violent extremism in terms of occupation, gender, age, and experience? as shown in table 6, the respondents mentioned several causes that drive youth to practice violent extremism. the causes are specified in item 3, "the impact of the media and social journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 217 networks," which had a mean of 4.16, as well as item 2, "the spread of nepotism," with a mean of 4.11. another cause mentioned in item 1, "discrimination and inequality in academics," with a mean of 3.94, and item 4, "lack of entertainment and sports activities where students can spend their leisure time," with a mean of 3.91. a few participants mentioned other causes with a lower influence, such as the existence of instructors who approve of the ideas of extremist groups, a loss of national identity, lack of a sense of belonging to the community, and depriving students of their rights, civil liberties, and freedom of opinions. there were no indicators of curricula or courses that contained topics that promoted a culture of hatred among students. these results agree with those mentioned in other studies (choi, 2016; macaluso, 2016). table 6. factors causing the spread of violent extremism among students at the college of education at kuwait university no. items mean s.d. rank 3 the impact of the media and social networks. 4.16 1.231 1 2 the spread of nepotism. 4.11 1.022 2 1 discrimination and inequality in academics. 3.94 1.251 3 4 lack of entertainment and sports activities where students can spend their leisure time. 3.91 1.415 4 5 existence of instructors who approve of the ideas of extremist groups. 3.84 1.452 5 9 loss of national identity. 3.80 1.382 6 6 lack of a sense of belonging to the community. 3.77 1.231 7 7 depriving students of their rights. 3.59 1.433 8 8 civil liberties and freedom of opinions. 3.10 1.689 9 table 7 relates to the second null hypothesis, which states: there are no significant differences between the faculty members and the students regarding the causes of the spread of violent extremism among students at the college of education at kuwait university (due to occupation, gender, age, or experience). table 7 shows that the t-test value related to occupation is 1.188 and the significance level is .201 > .05. as for gender, the t-test value is 1.373, and the significance level is .289 > .05. regarding age, the t-test value is 1.055, and the significance level is .311 > .05. finally, as for the experience with violent extremism, the t-test value is 1.480, and the significance level is alajimi .311 > .05. these results indicate no statistical differences between the participants' responses regarding the factors causing the spread of violent extremism among college students. this means that the second null hypothesis is accepted. table 7. t-test results and level of significance related to the factors causing the spread of violent extremism among students at the college of education at kuwait university significance level t-test s/d m n participants types .201 1.188 1.116 3.841 119 faculty member occupation 1.201 3.792 426 student .289 1.373 1.450 3.666 354 f gender 1.280 3.823 191 m .115 1.055 1.071 3.799 119 more than 25 age 1.769 3.693 426 less than 25 .311 1.480 1.121 3.711 102 more than 10 experience with violent extremism 1.742 3.801 443 less than 10 * significant at α=0.05 rq 3: what is the role of the college of education at kuwait university in countering violent extremism among its students in terms of occupation, gender, age, and experience? the participants stressed the importance of the role of the college of education in confronting the spread of violent extremism among its students through the implementation of the following measures, as shown in table 8. the first was item 2, "teaching human rights and spreading a culture of peace and tolerance among students," followed by item 1, "developing the skills of communication, dialogue, and accepting different opinions of others," which received the highest means (4.27 and 4.22, respectively). next was item 6, "teaching principles and values of citizenship to all students," with a mean of 3.92, followed by item 4, "increasing the awareness of the dangers of extremism and terrorism among students," with a mean of 3.86, and item 5, "paying attention to educational media to spread love, cooperation, and understanding among students," with a mean of 3.81. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 219 also among items with the highest means were item 11, "training members of the teaching staff on ways and methods to face extremism," with a mean of 3.80, item 7, "purifying the curriculum of the college from all that provokes hatred and extremism," with a mean of 3.73, item 9, "applying rules and regulations of the college to everyone," with a mean of 3.51, and item 8, "directing the curriculum to focus on societal issues and the needs of youth," with a mean of 3.06. the items that had lower mean scores were "developing an educational strategy to limit the spread of extremism among students," "encouraging students to comprehend the ties between the local and global communities," "linking the college curriculum to the needs of the labor market in society," "banning external influences from affecting the educational environment," and "providing entertainment and sports activities to fill the students' free time." these roles agreed with what has been mentioned in the recommendations by pearson, (2020), muwajdah (2016), and svennevig, jerome, & elwick, (2021)). table 7 indicates no significant differences (p<0.05) between the faculty members and the students regarding the role of the faculty of education at kuwait university to counter violent extremism among its students. table 8. role of the college of education at kuwait university in countering violent extremism among its students. no. items mean s.d. rank 2 teaching human rights and spreading a culture of peace and tolerance among students. 4.27 1.244 1 1 developing the skills of communication, dialogue, and accepting different opinions of others. 4.22 1.024 2 5 teaching principles and values of citizenship to all students. 3.92 1.242 3 3 increasing the awareness of the dangers of extremism and terrorism among students. 3.86 1.443 4 4 paying attention to educational media to spread love, cooperation, and understanding among students. 3.81 1.452 5 9 training members of the teaching staff on ways and methods to face extremism. 3.80 1.394 6 6 purifying the curriculum of the college from all that provokes hatred and extremism. 3.73 1.411 7 8 applying rules and regulations of the college to everyone. 3.51 1.441 8 7 directing the curriculum to focus on societal issues and the needs of youth. 3.06 1.693 9 table 9 relates to the third null hypothesis, which states: there are no significant differences between the faculty members and the students regarding the role of the faculty of education at kuwait university in countering violent extremism among its students (due to occupation, gender, age, or experience). alajimi table 9 shows no statistically significant differences between the participants' responses regarding the role of the college of education in countering the spread of violent extremism among students. the evidence for this is the significance levels .210, .453, .331, and .394 for each occupation, gender, age, and experience variables are bigger than (.05). thus, this hypothesis is acceptable. table 9. t-test results and level of significance related to the role of the college of education at kuwait university in countering violent extremism among its students. significance level t-test s/d m n participants types .210 1.087 1.122 4.511 119 faculty member occupation 1.415 4.163 426 student .452 1.444 1.393 4.777 354 f gender 1.337 3.974 191 m .331 1.143 1.236 4.595 119 more than 25 age 1.890 3.896 426 less than 25 .394 1.215 1.231 4.401 102 more than 10 experience with violent extremism 1.799 4.299 443 less than 10 * significant at α=0.05 the findings of this study confirm that three prevalent forms of violent extremism exist. they are (1) clashes between students and aggressive verbal violations, (2) fighting and causing harm to others, (3) threatening (intimidating) language against those who disagree with their opinions, and (4) putting up posters and leaflets that provoke conflicts and troubles. these results are consistent with the findings of many other studies (ty, 2021; macaluso, 2016; mawajdeh et al., 2017). in general, young people are affected by global and regional events. satellite stations and social networking sites play significant roles in spreading such forms of violent extremism. regarding the reasons that drive students to violent extremism, the study found the following evident: (1) the impact of the media and social networks, (2) the spread of nepotism in society, and (3) discrimination and inequality in academics. the reasons mentioned above journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 221 are consistent with the findings of both choi (2016) and macaluso (2016). the reasons for the spread of these forms may be due to several factors, such as wars and the spread of extremist groups in several places. there are also internal reasons, such as administrative corruption, unemployment, negative media, and the failure of education to perform its role in society. finally, as for the role of education to reduce the spread of violent extremism, the study showed that (1) teaching human rights and spreading a culture of peace and tolerance among students, (2) developing the skills of communication, dialogue, and accepting different opinions of others, (3) teaching principles and values of citizenship to all students, (4) increasing the awareness of the dangers of extremism and terrorism among students, and (5) purifying the curriculum of the college from all that provokes hatred and extremism. these roles are consistent with those indicated in the literature and other studies on this subject (donohue, 2021; lee & lee, 2020; muwajdah, 2016; soyer, 2019; svennevig et al., 2021; veenkamp & zeiger, 2014). given the close relationship between violent extremism and terrorism, research on this topic faces difficulties from university officials and social pressure groups. there was hesitation from some participants before they were assured of the confidentiality of the data and that it was only for educational research to develop the curricula and programs of the college. there are some faculty members, although they are few, who are characterized by violent extremism and even belong to groups that practice some of the violent extremism in society. as is well known, the university is a part of society that is affected and affected by what is happening in it. all of the above had a negative impact on some of the study results conclusions and recommendations in this study, three questions related to the forms and causes of violent extremism among students of the college of education at kuwait university were answered. in addition to determining the role of the college in limiting its spread. the study also addressed three null hypotheses about any statistically significant differences between the categories of participants on violent extremism. the participants agreed on the forms of violent extremism, the factors of its spread among students, and the college's role in confronting it. however, it was also found from the responses of the female participants that they disagree with males about the forms of violent extremism. from the researcher's point of view, this may be due to the difference between females and males in terms of emotions, ways of expressing an alajimi opinion, the female's tendency to peace, the style of calm dialogue, and her lack of inclination to violence. violent extremism and terrorism are a considerable danger for kuwaiti youth, especially the college of education students, because they are future teachers. the spread of several indicators and forms of violent extremism has been noticed among college students, such as increased clashes, aggressive verbal violations, and fights between students, especially during student elections. in addition, violent extremism has also been observed using threatening and intimidating language against those who disagree with ideas and orientations. the faculty members attributed this phenomenon to several causes, such as the impact of media, social networks, and the spread of nepotism, discrimination, and inequality among students. the college of education should reconsider its affiliate curriculum and programs to focus on developing critical thinking skills. they need to teach students how to solve problems legally and peacefully without being inclined to extremism. additionally, the focus should be on training members of the teaching staff in the styles and methods of countering violent extremism and taking advantage of the experiences and strategies of developed countries to limit this phenomenon. based on the results of this study, it is suggested that similar studies be conducted on high school students in the state of kuwait to reduce this phenomenon among teenage youth. acknowledgment the author is very thankful to all the associated personnel that contributed to this research. references assembly, u. g. (2015). plan of action to prevent violent extremism. report of the secretarygeneral. disponible sur https://www. un. org/counterterrorism. christodoulou, e. (2020). boosting resilience” and “safeguarding youngsters at risk”: critically examining the european commission’s educational responses to radicalization and violent extremism. london review of education, 18 (1): 18–34. https://doi.org/10.18546/lre.18.1.02 choi, s. h. (2016). a teacher's guide on the prevention of violent extremism. ailable atav https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-bd&q=choi%2c+s.+h.+%282016%29.+a+teacher%27s+guide+on+the+prevention+of+v iolent+extremism.%e2%80%8f. retrieved on 12 august 2021. https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-d&q=choi%2c+s.+h.+%282016%29.+a+teacher%27s+guide+on+the+prevention+of+violent+extremism.%e2%80%8f https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-d&q=choi%2c+s.+h.+%282016%29.+a+teacher%27s+guide+on+the+prevention+of+violent+extremism.%e2%80%8f https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-d&q=choi%2c+s.+h.+%282016%29.+a+teacher%27s+guide+on+the+prevention+of+violent+extremism.%e2%80%8f https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-d&q=choi%2c+s.+h.+%282016%29.+a+teacher%27s+guide+on+the+prevention+of+violent+extremism.%e2%80%8f journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 204-224 223 donohue, d. k. (2021). culture, cognition, and college: how do cultural values and theories of intelligence predict students’ intrinsic value for learning?, journal of culture and values in education, 4(1), 1-14, https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 ghosh, r., manuel, a., chan, w. a., & dilimulati, m. (2016). education and security. a global literature review on the role of education. gunaratna, r., & ali, m. b. (eds.). (2015). terrorist rehabilitation: a new frontier in counter-terrorism (vol. 7). world scientific. heath-kelly, c. (2017). the geography of pre-criminal space: epidemiological imaginations of radicalisation risk in the uk prevent strategy, 2007–2017. critical studies on terrorism, 10(2), 297-319. jerome, l., & elwick, a. (2020). teaching about terrorism, extremism and radicalisation: some implications for controversial issues pedagogy. oxford review of education, 46(2), 222-237. kurzman, c., kamal, a., & yazdiha, h. (2017). ideology and threat assessment: law enforcement evaluation of muslim and right-wing extremism. socius, 3, 2378023117704771. lee, a., & lee, a. (2020). experience with diversity is not enough: a pedagogical framework for teacher candidates that centers critical race consciousness. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 40-59. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.9 macaluso, a. (2016). from countering to preventing radicalization through education: limits and opportunities. hague inst. glob. justice work. pap, 18, 1-15. mawajdeh, b. s., talhouni, m. h., rashaydeh, m. s., & hussein, i. j. (2017). the culture of peace and the prevention of terrorism from the perspectives of islamic education and the united nations. journal of education and practice, 8(1), 43-56. mohammadi, m. (2021). the role of education in combating violent extremism in developing countries with an emphasis on afghanistan, shanlax international journal of education, 9(3), 273-287. pearso, e. (2020). between protection and participation: affect, countering violent extremism and possibility for agency. new direction in women pease and security, 91110. soyer, g. (2019). urie bronfenbrenner: the ecology of human development book review. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 77-80. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.6 stahl, g., baak, m., schulz, s., adams, b., & peterson, a. (2021). preventing violent extremism: resourcing, stakeholder strategies and fostering belonging and connection in australian schools. british educational research journal. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.9 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.6 alajimi stephens, w., sieckelinck, s., & boutellier, h. (2021). preventing violent extremism: a review of the literature. studies in conflict & terrorism, 44(4), 346-361. steven, d., locke, r., & rüttinger, l. (2019). beyond 16: the sigs and the opportunity to build a more peaceful world. driving transformative change, 26. svennevig, h., jerome, l., & elwick, a. (2021). countering violent extremism in education: a human rights analysis. human rights education review, 4(1), 91-110. tolba, n. (2018). from rebellion to riots. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 93-114. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.6 ty, r. (2021) pedagogy and curriculum to prevent and counter violent extremism. teaching in a world of violent extremism, 48. united nations educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco). (2016). global education monitoring report summary 2016: education for people and planet: creating sustainable futures for all. unesco viana, m. t., & da silva, p. p. d. s. (2021). preventing extremisms, taming dissidence: islamic radicalism and black extremism in the us making of cve. critical studies on terrorism, 14(1), 24-46. zembylas, m. (2021). the affective dimension of far right rhetoric in the classroom: the promise of agonistic emotions and affects in countering extremism. discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education, 42(2), 267-281. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.6 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 30-48 30 teaching about religion within early childhood and elementary social studies: exploring how preservice teachers perceive their rights and responsibilities as educators rory p. tannebaum1 abstract the purpose of this qualitative multi-case study is to explore the ways in which preservice teachers seeking either early-childhood or elementary licensure understand their roles and responsibilities in regards to the teaching of religion. seven participants participated in the study and provided a range of data including – though not limited to – interviews, lesson plans, questionnaires, teaching philosophies, and in-class comments. findings suggest that preservice teachers have neither the confidence to teach religion nor a strong enough foundation to understand their constitutional rights to expose students to various religions in a non-proselytizing manner. future scholarship should present practical, meaningful programmatic suggestions for how to best help preservice teachers understand the benefits of teaching various religions and means for doing so effectively. key words: religion, teacher education, social studies education, preservice teachers, elementary education, early childhood education introduction few topics exist in the united states that are as ubiquitous within society or as divisive in conversation as that of religion. most people come in contact with either spiritual people, principles, or practices on a daily basis as they read the news, attend places of work or school, or simply engage in informal conversations with friends and family. because of its relatively inescapable nature, everyone seems to have an opinion on religion and its place in society. despite this, however, a wide-range of empirical studies consistently proves that many americans – ranging from students in k-12 schooling to those well beyond their formal education lack even the most foundational knowledge about different religions throughout the world let alone simply the united states (e.g., hossain, 2013; marks, binkley, daily, 2014; moore, 2006). this consistent finding is troubling and, given the ubiquitous nature of religion in the life of the everyday american, it would seem somewhat necessary for citizens to have – at the very least –a working understanding both of various religions and their role in society (evans, 2007). 1 assistant professor of education, merrimack college, tannebaumr@merrimack.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 30-48 and there exists no better place for citizens to learn about religion than in the k-12 classroom where objective facts can be shared across a diverse body of individuals in a mature and educational setting. however, teachers are often hesitant to discuss religion in the classroom for a variety of reasons – many of which are quite reasonable (evans, 2007). teachers may fear offending either a parent or a student, they may choose to ignore religions that are not explicitly discussed in their state-provided standards, or – simply – they may not have a strong enough understanding of various religions or their legal rights to feel confident enough to teach about world religions and the place of religion in society (carey, 2010; frederick, 1988; hartwick, hawkins, & schroeder, 2016; moore, 2012). regardless of the reason, however, teachers do a disservice to students when they do not speak about religion and work to educate students on various world religions. because, it has been noted, that schools are the most diverse settings most students will experience in their k-12 years, schools need to be places where students can both share their own beliefs and be exposed to those that may be different than their own. and though there is certainly no single practice or study that help practicing teachers learn how to integrate religion into their curriculums, a good place to start is within teacher education – where enthusiastic and open-minded future educators can begin to learn about the place of religion in their own classrooms. why the social studies? though religion is certainly a part to any good k-12 curriculum regardless of the content area, the social studies is often charged with the task of introducing students to new beliefs systems and teaching them about tolerance and understanding of views different than their own (barton & james, 2010; marks, binkley, daly, 2014; mcclain & nielsen, 1997). as parker (2010) notes, in social studies lessons and units of study, students don’t simply experience the world (they always do anyway, in school and out), but are helped systematically to understanding it, to take care for it, to think deeply and critically about it, and to take their place on the public stage, standing on equal footing with others. (p. 3). though parker does not explicitly mention religion within this quote, it is easy to understand where the social studies fits into parker’s purpose statement of the social studies. teaching about religion allows students to learn about their world and better understand that their beliefs are neither better nor worse than peers who may come from different backgrounds. tannebaum expanding upon parker’s view, the social studies focuses on developing reform-oriented citizens (hess, 2009), advocacy for helping students to understand the importance of civic engagement (barton, 2012), and the incorporation of multicultural perspectives and diverse views (ncss, 2004). it is for these reasons that the social studies is often where standards involving religion are written and placed, where teachers are expected to discuss various religious practices, and where students go to learn about culture in a broad, secular sense. literature review countless scholarly articles exist exploring the preparation of preservice teachers who are aware of the value of multicultural education and culturally relevant and responsive pedagogy (e.g., au, 2009; barry & lechner, 1995; gay & kirkland, 2003; yildrim & tezci, 2016). teacher education, in this sense, is dominated by articles and presentations that advocate for reform-oriented teachers who seek to include diverse perspectives and beliefs into their pedagogy (au, 2009; banks, 1993; barry & lechner, 1995; hess, 2009). within this body of research, however, there exists less of an emphasis specifically on religion (moore, 2006; moore 2012; subedi, 2006). somewhat lost in the conversations on race, gender, sexuality, socioeconomic status and other topics on diversity, religion appears to be less emphasized within the literature. while other issues relating to social justice are certainly critical to the field of education, religion’s place in these discussions often seems somewhat marginalized within teacher education and that the topic deserves to be treated on occasion as an isolated topic warranting individual attention. though limited, there does exist research on the religion’s place in the classroom seen through the perspective of both teacher educators and preservice teachers (often conducted outside of the field of the social studies). anderson, mathys & cook (2015), for instance, looked at the relationship between how 22 elementary preservice teachers connected their personal beliefs on religion with their pedagogy within a semester-long field placement. the authors, more specifically, found a positive impact while providing preservice teachers with opportunities to teach about religion throughout their training. reflecting countless pieces of literature on developing effective educators, this study demonstrated that preservice teachers benefit by having opportunities to learn through trial-and-error with such experiences increasing both their confidence and base of knowledge. specific to this study, the participants appeared to learn more journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 30-48 about other religions and have higher self-efficacy to teach religion without having their own personal beliefs regarding religion altered based on these new experiences. and even more specifically, there is little available specifically focusing on how preservice teachers’ view the place of religion in their classrooms in addition to their understanding of their rights and responsibilities. aside from a sole study completed by marks, binkley, & daly (2014) which looked into the knowledge preservice teachers within three teacher education programs had regarding religious knowledge and the first amendment to the constitution of the united states, little empirical research exists detailing the relationship between preservice teachers and the teaching of religion. though not related specifically to preservice teachers, zam and stone (2006) looked specifically at how teacher educators view religion’s place within the curriculum. though their study does not focus on the perceptions of the preservice teachers (due to the fact that such information fell outside of the scope of their study), the findings of the study do help paint a picture of how religion is viewed within teacher education from a different lens. interestingly enough, the vast majority of their participants noted that k-12 teachers do not have enough time to teach religion in their curriculum and that it was not the job of teacher educators to prepare preservice teachers to incorporate religion into their pedagogy. such findings, albeit counter to the key tenants of this study, do demonstrate why many preservice and in-service teachers lack the necessary foundation of knowledge needed to integrate religion into their classroom. purpose of study the purpose of this empirical study is to explore the extent to which preservice teachers seeking to teach early childhood or elementary education understand both their roles and responsibilities in regards to teaching about religion. the research questions the study seeks to answer, therefore, include: 1. to what extent do preservice teachers feel confident discussing religion with pre-k – 5 students? 2. to what extent do preservice teachers understand their constitutional rights to discuss religion in their pre-k-5 classrooms? 3. to what extent do preservice teachers associate the teaching of religion with broad principles of diversity and multicultural education? method tannebaum research design after the development of the research questions, a multi-case study was decided upon as the best approach for collected and analyzing data and, subsequently, drawing conclusions. a multi-case study was appealing in that it provided the opportunity to collect a “rich and robust” body of data and tell a story about each participant through a wide-ranging analysis of their individual data set (stake, 1995; yin, 2009). the intent for choosing a multi-case study was to be able to draw conclusions from an array of sources collected over a period of time in which ideas and perspective could both evolve and validate through consistency (yin, 2009). context the present study occurred at a mid-sized catholic college in the northeast united states. the institution – which has an emphasis on augustinian values and traditions – seeks to instill principles of social justice, community service, and diversity within graduates. to that end, many classes at the college are developed with an expectation of being connected to many of the principles underlying the field of education. amongst an array of other missions, these themes include emphasizing diversity as a good for society, teaching about the value of collectivity, and promoting various forms of service to the community and, more broadly, society as a whole. that said, however, the participants were viewed through the lens of preservice teachers in the broadest sense. in an attempt to make the study more generalizable and transferable, the religion of the participants was not considered aside from acknowledging their enrollment at an institution with a specific religious association. more specifically, the study took place within a course dedicated to the teaching of social studies at the early childhood or elementary level. the class ran for six-weeks (as a half-semester course) and was taught by the primary researcher of the present study. the course is the only time in the participants’ undergraduate curriculum in which they are exposed to the social studies in an isolated context. the course, for that matter, only met 12 times and, therefore, could only do a cursory overview of many prevalent topics within the field. participants participants for this study included seven preservice teachers seeking licensure at the early childhood or elementary level. each participant was of traditional college age (19-21) and was aiming to teach after graduating either from college or graduate school. the participants ranged in their career intentions in that they ranged in wanting to teach pre-kindergarten students journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 30-48 to fifth grade students. as seen in table 1, the participants ranged in terms of their ultimate goals and their religious backgrounds and beliefs, but were relatively homogeneous in regards to their age and sex. table 1 participant information. participant (pseudonym sex early childhood or elementary preferred grade leve to teach jill f elementary education 1st grade meredith f early childhood ed. pre-k amanda f elementary education k-1st sammy f elementary education 5th kelly f elementary education 1st 2nd jessica f early childhood ed. 3rd grade sarah f elementary education 1st – 3rd grade data collection tools data for the present study consisted of one qualitative questionnaire completed by participants in class, one semi-structured interview conducted and transcribed outside of class time, and a range of data collected for the course. both the qualitative questionnaire and the semi-structured interview questions can be seen in appendix i & ii, respectively. each of these pieces of data was meant to paint a picture of how the participants felt about their understanding of world religions and the extent to which they felt confident teaching world religions. due to the short duration of the course and the scheduling challenges brought about by the participants’ class schedules, the qualitative questionnaire and semi-structured interview occurred over a three-week period at the participants’ convenience. in each case, the data collected as part of the class consisted of a unit plan and multiple lesson plans, a book review, in-class comments, reading response, and a teaching philosophy generated within the context of the social studies. these assignments had been mandated in previous iterations of the course and, therefore, were viewed as periphery data that could contribute to the research, but were not the focus of data collection. therefore, the researcher/instructor did not seek to “lead” participants as they completed these assignments throughout the course of the semester. data collection tannebaum data for the present study was conducted using an open-coding method over a threeweek period. (glaser, 1978). participants were asked to set up a one-on-one interview with the researcher at their convenience. during this three-week period, participants were asked within the course they were enrolled in to take the questionnaire that was meant to both support and expand upon several of the interview questions. in some cases, participants took the questionnaire prior to taking part in the interview and some participants were interviewed prior to being asked to complete the questionnaire in class. as data was being collected on each participant, the researcher searched for relevant pieces of evidence and themes and marked them throughout the collection process. such evidence was determined based on the extent to which the data helped to answer the initial research questions as well those pieces of evidence that were consistently seen across each participant’s data. a running “list” was generated as the study progressed (yin, 2009). in other words, if a participant explored an idea that was relevant to the research questions during an interview, this was noted and, subsequently, added to a running list of key ideas that would ultimately be part of the triangulation process. this list continuously evolved as the study became more complex and data continued to shape the themes. as will be described in the data analysis section, these themes were ultimately developed into both individual case reports and cross-case reports. data analysis data for the present study was analyzed in two ways. initially, individual case reports were generated for each participant (yin, 2009). as the study progressed, the researcher compiled individual participant research and placed any and all relevant data in a document isolated specifically to that participant. in other words, the researcher organized the data initially based on each individual participant on a word document and sought to find themes for each participant with these documents. this allowed for a clean and clear picture to be developed specifically about each of the seven participants and their ideas about religion in the k-12 curriculum (stake, 1995; yin, 2009). after the seven individual case reports had been created, the researcher scanned each of the participants’ case reports to create a cross-case analysis. within this step of the data analysis, the research sought to discover themes across the cases that were relevant to one of the three journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 30-48 research questions. if a theme was seen across multiple cases and relevant to the original research questions, it was marked as such and, ultimately, turned into the findings presented within the next section (yin, 2009). limitations despite the thorough and diverse body of research collected and analyzed, two key limitations existed in the present study. the first involves the context of the study – a predominantly catholic school. though speculative in nature, it is safe to assume that those who attended the institution likely had a biased toward religion that impacted both how they felt about religion as well as how they will teach in the future. such a study would greatly benefit from either being conducted at a secular institution or analyzed in comparison to preservice teachers attending a public, non-religious institution. findings four critical findings stemmed from data analysis. ultimately, it was found that most of the participants were ill-prepared to teach religion at the early childhood or elementary level on account of a lack of knowledge about their legal rights as well as a superficial understanding of the doctrines of prominent religions. in addition to this, there existed widespread concern amongst the participants about upsetting parents who may not support their children being exposed to different religions in either a public or private school setting. this section will provide an overview of each individual finding prior to synthesizing them and providing recommendations to the field for both future research and more efficient preparation of preservice teachers. finding i: a lack of understanding about religious freedom and the first amendment marks, binkley, & daly (2014) conducted a similar study attempting to answer the question of “what preservice teachers and, consequently teachers, actually know about religion and about the first amendment” (p. 248). after completing this study, the authors provided a simple answer: “not much”. the present study drew similar conclusions. even after completing multiple courses throughout their formal education that dealt with the first amendment, participants still seemed unsure about its role both in their lives and that of their pedagogy. this finding was not limited to the establishment clause, either, as it extended to broad principles of freedom of speech granted in the first amendment (the latter of which guarantees american tannebaum citizens “freedoms concerning religion expression, assembly and the right to petition”). broadly speaking, the participants lacked fundamental knowledge about the rights that they hold as both citizens and future educators. this finding primarily stemmed from two questions within the questionnaire asking participants about their knowledge of both the first amendment and the bill of rights. with each question, participants were explicitly asked to not look up what each meant and, instead, to write anything that comes to mind. kelly, for instance, when asked about what she knew about the establishment clause noted that it was “the right to modify the first 10 amendments to the constitution”. somewhat similarly, sarah claimed that the bill of rights made it so that “african americans/women can vote”. each of these comments – though certainly a reflection of a wider problem regarding students’ political knowledge – demonstrates a lack of knowledge about critical components to the rights of american citizens. even when the participants did accurately recall the first amendment or the bill of rights, their descriptions appeared limited in depth. sammy noted that the first amendment involved “freedom of speech” while amanda wrote that it involved “freedom and rights”. likewise, meredith simply wrote “freedom of religion” to describe the first amendment without providing any additional information. jill, on the other hand, curiously provided a seemingly rote response by claiming that “the first amendment gives freedom to assemble, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom of the press” (questionnaire). likewise, each of the seven participants was asked to describe their knowledge about the scopes monkey trial from 1925 – a case which set the standard for the teaching of evolution in schools and, more broadly, the place of religion in the k-12 curriculum. six of the seven participants responded by saying they had never heard of the case while the seventh (kelly) claimed that she had remembered hearing about it, but could not remember what it was or who was involved in the case. though it is unclear the extent to which the participants had been exposed to the case prior to this study, the idea that six out of seven of the participants had no familiarity with it reflects the findings of zam and stone (2006) and anderson, mathys & cook (2013) in which teachers were found to be lacking in essential information needed to effectively teach about religion in their courses. because of the sensitive nature of religion (especially within the classroom), it is concerning to see that the participants had such inaccurate or limited understandings of the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 30-48 separation of church and state, the establishment clause of the constitution, or their own rights that are present within the bill of rights. such knowledge is essential for being ale to teach openly and freely about sensitive and critical issues including religion. the participants were given an infinite amount of space to explore and describe these various components to the constitution and their responses were often missing critical pieces of information needed in order to effectively teach. finding ii: a lack of confidence and religious knowledge similar to their lack of knowledge about the first amendment, the participants also consistently emphasized a lack of understanding about religion, in general. most of the participants, for that matter, made comments regarding their lack of exposure to religions other than their own and their inability to accurately teach about various doctrines and principles of other religions. this lack of understanding – it should be noted – is likely by no fault of their own. the majority of the participants, it is safe to assume, went through an educational system where their instructors suffered from the same lack of confidence and knowledge about how to teach religion to k-12 students (reflecting the word of anderson, cook & mathys, 2013 as well as zam and stone, 2006) thus perpetuating a cycle of limited knowledge regarding “other” religions. this was seen primarily in the participants’ interviews in which there remained a consistent theme of concern for their own knowledge regarding the various religions of the world that often are part of the k-12 curriculum. each participant was asked if they would feel confident teaching a lesson to early childhood or elementary students about religion two hours after the interview. by-and-large, their responses reflected a group of preservice teachers who needed time to prepare. when asked about whether she felt confident to teach this type of lesson, kelly claimed “not really” and said she would need additional time to prepare. sammy’s response reflected kelly’s in that she, too, quickly responded to the question by saying “no, not really… i don’t think i could” (interview, 13 november 2017). jill, likewise, claimed that she would have to use the two hours prior to the class to study, but that she felt she could successfully do it. similar to jill, meredith noted that she “could do a little but [she’d] have to do a lot more research. ultimately, only amanda noted that she felt comfortable enough with the topic of religion to accurately teach it to her students. amanda, to that end, expressed both in her tannebaum interview and her questionnaire that she probably could teach a lesson on religion within a couple of hours if she had been asked to do so. pairing this self-proclaimed lack of knowledge regarding religion with a limited understanding about their protected rights under the first amendment, it is understandable to see why many of the participants expressed a hesitancy to fully embrace the teaching of religion in the k-12 classroom. though teachers certainly do have a number of rights in regards to integrating religion into their practice, they cannot be expected to take advantage of them if they are neither familiar with these rights or confident in the content they are expected to teach. finding iii: airing on the side of caution due to parents while the majority of participants did believe that teaching about religion is an important component of the social studies, they overwhelmingly aired on the side of caution in regards to teaching religion in their own classrooms. though a portion of this was on account of a lack of knowledge about world religions and how to teach them, the primary motivation for this sense of caution was the fear of offending parents, teachers, administrators or students and, perhaps subsequently, getting in trouble for doing so. in this sense, the seven participants all opted to be overtly cautious when thinking about their future selves as teachers. within the data, this theme was consistent across participants. the most frequent concern was upsetting parents who may not support the teaching of various religions that conflict or undermine their own beliefs (regardless of within a public or private school). jill, for instance, when asked whether she would teach religion noted that “i feel like students will go home and talk to their parents and then some parents might feel upset that we might be teaching their kids things that they might not believe in or talking about it” (interview, 13 november 2017). in a similar manner, amanda in interview claimed that “i don’t know if people would like if i brought that into the classroom. like, parents may not agree with it. (interview, 13, november, 2017). parents, however, were not the only concern for the participants in regards to the teaching of religion. in kelly’s interview, for instance, said she’d be okay with teaching about religions but only if “the school was okay with it” (interview, 13 november 2017). likewise, when asked whether her administrators (or “bosses”) would feel comfortable with her teaching about religion, amanda quickly and confidently said “probably not” again reflecting a sense of concern for support about teaching religion. collectively and regardless of the data source, there journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 30-48 always appeared to be an assumption by the participants that parents would inevitably become upset by what was being taught if it conflicted with the views and beliefs being taught at home. however, the concern about parents extending beyond a simple fear of offending parents. such concern also stemmed from the idea of imparting incorrect wisdom and then having parents upset about this. meredith, for instance, noted within her interview that she was concerned both with her own knowledge and the reaction of parents. she expressed this sentiment by stating “i don’t want to say something wrong and impart wisdom and then have students go home and say ‘mom this is what i learned today’ and then getting angry emails. that would not be good” (meredith, interview, 13 november 2017). connecting this back to a previous finding, it is clear that the participants, despite going to a religiously-affiliated school themselves, did not feel comfortable with their knowledge to both teach the right content and do so in a manner that did not offend students. such a finding, however, was not only seen within the interviews and the questionnaires. in addition to these two data sources, participants also did not once mention the use of various religions in their assigned unit plans that were constructed of multiple lessons for the course they were enrolled in throughout the study. despite having the opportunity to add religion in at various points in their units and being able to select from a wide-range of state-provided standards that focused on religion, the participants all instead opted to choose topics that they were either familiar with or that were considered less controversial. finding iv: religion should be taught – and within the social studies despite the lack of knowledge that the participants had regarding their rights and various religions and their concern about offending a variety of individuals, the participants mostly agreed that teaching with religion was an important facet of a curriculum and a way to curb some of the ignorance surrounding religion in the twenty-first century. though they varied in the ways in which they felt it should be taught (i.e., with an historical approach or by considering current issues), the participants consistently found a place for religion within the early-childhood or elementary curriculum and, more often than not, this space was within the social studies. in her interview, for instance, amanda noted that religion should be discussed in schools “because the students can have a better understanding of different religions and how other people in the world believe… since they might not believe the same thing” (interview, 13 november 2017). likewise, jessica claimed that she “would be happy to teach various religions because it’s tannebaum important to expose children to different cultures and religions in order to help them become a more well-rounded student” (questionnaire). kelly, further, noted that religion could help students “understand the world around them” (interview, 13 november 2017). though to different extents, each data piece expressed this understanding of the inherent value of religion’s place in the early childhood or elementary classroom and the connection such practices have with providing a curriculum grounded in multiculturalism. this is despite that they were concerned with their background knowledge and concerned about offending parents, students, or administrations. after each participant expressed some belief of the value in teaching religion in k-12 school, they were asked to situate religion within the context of an early childhood or elementary education curriculum. the participants unanimously noted that religion belongs within the social studies curriculum. amanda, for instance, noted in her questionnaire that it should be taught “during history courses” and, again, that it should take place “maybe in a specific subject . . . like a history course” in her interview (13 november 2017). likewise, jill said in her interview that “it should be taught through history” (13 november 2017). meredith, similarly, noted that she definitely thinks “it’s more of the social studies history background so definitely when you’re doing that subject”. discussion the vast majority of scholars in the field of education acknowledge both the place and importance of religion in the social studies curriculum. however, clearly there are a wide-range of factors preventing preservice educators from integrating the teaching of religion into their pedagogy. though there does not exist one single remedy for the lack of confidence preservice teachers hold toward the teaching of religion, there do exist several different means for improving this practice. this section seeks to explore three of those by discussing the importance of educating preservice teachers on: 1) the purpose of teaching religion, 2) their legal rights as educators, and 3) ways to teach religion. educate preservice teachers on the purpose of teaching religion those within the social studies do a phenomenal job of emphasizing the importance the field in providing an accurate and equal schooling experience for all students. a wide-range of literature is available detailing the need for social studies teachers to expose k-12 students to journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 30-48 different perspectives and narratives from various races, genders, sexual orientations, and the like. within this conversation on providing k-12 students with an education grounded in multiculturalism should be a continued discussion on how religion fits within this framework. though there are a variety of ways in which this could be done, a good starting point could be national council for the social studies, whose ten strands explicitly note that students should be taught about “belief systems, religious faith [and] religious institutions” (ncss, 1994). this, too, can be seen within the recently released c3 framework that preservice teachers should be exposed to and asked to use in their own pedagogical and curricular decisions. those within the field of social studies education need to continue advocating for the inclusion of religion within the k-12 curriculum in part because of its prominence in the lives of most citizens of the united states. if those in education want to have an educated, reformedoriented, and tolerant group of citizens, they must educate our current body of k-12 students on how religion will impact their daily lives and the differences between belief systems within our multicultural society. educate preservice teachers on their legal rights as demonstrated within this essay, its common for preservice teachers to fear what may happen if they teach about religion “incorrectly” to k-12 students. because of this, they err on the side of caution and often avoid the topic entirely or teach it in a relatively “watered-down” manner. it is, therefore, essential for preservice teachers to understand that they will not, in fact, get in trouble if they discuss religion with their students in a manner that exposes them to the content and introduce them to the values and beliefs of those who may be different than them. preservice teachers, in other words, must be made aware that they are legally allowed and encouraged to expose students to viewpoints that make up a pluralistic and globalized world. it is when they attempt to indoctrinate or coerce students within a public school environment into believing a viewpoint that they are breaking a law. though there are certainly grey areas to be considered, the vast majority of fear held by preservice teachers could be curbed if their teacher education programs helped them to better understand their rights and the difference between coercive teaching and simple exposure to diverse viewpoints. educate preservice teachers on ways to teach religion tannebaum as noted by many of the participants of the present study, part of the reason they are unsure about the teaching of religion is due to the lack of knowledge they are provided specifically about how to teach it. beyond simply understanding the topic’s importance and the difference between exposure and coercion, preservice teachers need to be introduced to practical pedagogical strategies that help k-12 students engage with world religions in meaningful and engaging ways. in order for this to happen, preservice teachers need to be introduced to pedagogical strategies for exposing students to various religions and provided with simulations on how this can and should occur in the classroom. though there is certainly no correct answer for how to do this, one positive step toward doing so would be to better connect methods courses with content-based courses. often times, methods and content-based courses exist in silos where the students are expected to be the ones to connect the two. however, having better interaction between the two types of courses will, ideally, will help students see that the content the learn about in their world geography, history, and religion courses can and should be integrated into their own pedagogical decision-making within the k-12 classroom. it is, for that matter, not enough for teacher educators to simply express the need for students to be exposed to various religions, these future educators need to see and experience how religion can be integrated into the k-12 classroom. conclusion and implications the present study’s findings reflect those from previous studies in that they demonstrate a lack of understanding by preservice teachers on their roles and responsibilities as teachers. this is not to say that they are ill-intentioned, but that their training has not yet prepared them to see the value in discussing religion or constitutionally-sound ways for including religious-oriented pedagogy into their own practice (as seen in: barry & lechner, 1995; evans, 2007; marks, binkley, & daly 2014). reflecting the suggestion of barry & lechner (1995), this study demonstrates the need for those in teacher education to reflect on how we prepare preservice teachers to work with diverse bodies of students through an altered approach to our practice in the classroom and the theories written about within formal bodies of scholarship. preservice teachers need to be exposed both to a variety of religions in their classes (through one another and course-based assignments) and to the legal cases directing teachers about what they can teach and ways in which they can legally do so (evans, 2007). ideally, such preparation will lead to a group of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 30-48 upcoming educators who are confident discussing religion in their classroom and educating younger generations on the religions of the world. though there is certainly no one way to teach aspiring educators about all of the religions and the murky waters that they must navigate to do so effectively teach them, it is essential that the field continues to try to explore new and practical approaches for preparing preservice teachers. for instance, subedi (2006) recommends an interdisciplinary approach (subedi, 2006) meant to provide students with an understanding of the historical foundations of religion, the present issues surrounding religion in contemporary society, and the general practices and doctrines of various prominent religions throughout the world. this could be done through simple exposure in a social studies methods course, by providing texts that provide preservice teachers with diverse perspectives on religion, or through more concerted attempts to connect the subject-matter preservice teachers learn in their world history and geography courses with that which occurs in their teacher preparation coursework (dávila, 2015). regardless of the method, it is essential that teacher education begins to better prepare preservice teachers to incorporate religion into their k-12 curriculum. tannebaum references anderson, d. l., cook, t., & mathys, h. (2013). pre-service teachers' middle-level lessons on world religions: planning, teaching, and reflecting. journal of education and learning, 2(4), 1-12. anderson, d., mathys, h., & cook, t. (2015). religious beliefs, knowledge, and teaching actions: elementary teacher candidates and world religions. religion & education, 42(3), 268-288. au, k. (2009). isn't culturally responsive instruction just good teaching?. social education, 73(4), 179-183. barry, n. h., & lechner, j. v. (1995). preservice teachers' attitudes about and awareness of multicultural teaching and learning. teaching and teacher education, 11(2), 149-161. barton, k. c. (2012). agency, choice and historical action: how history teaching can help students think about democratic decision making. citizenship teaching & learning, 7(2), 131-142. barton, k. c., & james, j. h. (2010). religion in history and social studies. perspectives: newsmagazine of the american historical association, 48(5), 50-51. carey, a. k. (2010). religion in the classroom. honors program thesis. university of northern iowa. dávila, d. (2015). #whoneedsdiversebooks?: preservice teachers and religious neutrality with children's literature. research in the teaching of english, 50(1), 60. davis, o. l. (1991). teacher education and teaching about religion: no easy remedies, only ambiguous opportunities. religion & public education, 18(2), 229-236. evans, m. p. (2007). learning to teach about religion in public schools: perspectives and experiences of student teachers in the program for religion and secondary education at harvard divinity school. religion and education, 34(3), 19-47. frederick, r. c. (1988). teaching about religion in the social studies classroom. eric clearningohuse for social studies. bloomington, in. gay, g., & kirkland, k. (2003). developing cultural critical consciousness and self-reflection in preservice teacher education. theory into practice, 42(3), 181-187. glaser, b. g. (1978). theoretical sensitivity: advances in the methodology of grounded theory. sociology press. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 30-48 gollnick, d. m., & chinn, p. c. (2009). multicultural education in a pluralistic society. columbus, oh: pearson education. hartwick, j. m., hawkins, j. m., & schroeder, m. p. (2016). emphasis on diversity of religious views in social studies: a national survey of social studies teachers. the journal of social studies research, 40(4), 249-262. hess, d. e. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. routledge press. hossain, k. i. (2013). understanding islam in the us classroom: a guide for elementary school teachers. multicultural education, 20(2), 49. kniker, c. r. (1990). teacher education and religion: the role of foundations courses in preparing students to teach about religions. religion & public education, 17(2), 203-222. marks, m. j., binkley, r., & daly, j. k. (2014). preservice teachers and religion: serious gaps in religious knowledge and the first amendment. the social studies, 105(5), 245-256. mcclain, j. e., & nielsen, l. e. (1988). religion in the elementary classroom: a laboratory approach. religion & public education, 15(2), 162-169. moore, j. r. (2006). islam in social studies education: what we should teach secondary students and why it matters. the social studies, 97(4), 139-144. moore, j. r. (2012). teaching about religion in social studies: the first amendment and academic freedom. social studies research and practice, 7(2), 86-97. national council for the social studies, ncss. (2014). study about religions in the social studies curriculum: a position statement. national council for the social studies. retrieved from https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/study_about_religions stake, r. e. (1995). the art of case study research. sage. tran, y. (2017). what does faith got to do with it? influences on preservice teachers’ racial identity development. religion & education, 44(2), 203-224. subedi, b. (2006). preservice teachers' beliefs and practices: religion and religious diversity. equity & excellence in education, 39(3), 227-238. yildirim, s., & tezci, e. (2016). teachers' attitudes, beliefs and self-efficacy about multicultural education: a scale development. universal journal of educational research, 4(n12a), 196-204. yin, r. k. (2009). case study research: design and methods. sage publications. thousand tannebaum oaks. yin, r. k. (2009). case study research: design and methods. sage publications. thousand oaks. zam, g. a., & stone, g. e. (2006). social studies teacher educators: a survey of attitudes toward religion in the curriculum. religion and education, 33(1), 90-105. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2), 233-259 233 kuwaiti social studies teachers' expectations for the futures of students ordinarily sit near the teacher abdullah j. alhajri1 abstract the current study aimed to reveal kuwaiti social studies teachers' expectations for the future conduct of the students who ordinarily sit close to the teacher. these expectations are related to academic, behavioral, social, and vocational conduct domains. a descriptive, analytical method was used. a questionnaire was used to collect data. the study was applied to a random sample of social studies teachers in kuwaiti schools in six educational districts. the sample consisted of 224 social studies teachers. the study revealed that the level of social studies teachers' expectations about the future conduct of students sitting in locations close to the teacher was closely aligned with both the scientific and behavioral domains and moderately aligned with both the social and vocational domains. it was also found that there were no statistically significant differences in teachers' expectations due to years of experience, and there were no statistically significant differences in teachers' expectations due to gender in all study domains except for the academic domain, in which male teachers showed higher future academic expectations than the females. it is recommended to provide training courses for teachers on classroom management, emphasizing the importance of rotating students' seating locations and encouraging teachers to use other seating arrangements that provide equal opportunities for all students to be close to the teacher. keywords: teachers' future expectations, academic conduct, social conduct, vocational conduct, behavioral conduct. introduction szparagowski (2014) indicates that teachers spend 70% of the time allocated for classroom teaching with students who sit in the front of the class, especially in traditionally shaped classrooms consisting of rows and columns, in a manner that advantages the academic performance of those students sitting closer to the teacher. as a result, they experience enhanced achievement gains compared to the distanced students. their abilities, as confirmed by meeks, knotts, james, williams, vassar, and wren (2013), ngugi and thinguri (2017), and will, bischof and kingstone (2020), are positively affected. classroom characteristics can affect students' performance, so every effort must be taken to provide the most enriching learning experiences. this effort includes improving student 1 assoc. prof., kuwait unversity, college of education, department of curriculum &instruction, alhajri1952@gmail.com mailto:alhajri1952@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 234 proficiency by addressing the disadvantages that may result from their proximity to or remoteness from the teacher, and it can positively or negatively affect classroom performance. the most important teacher characteristics that can enhance classroom interaction with students and classroom management are understanding and respecting students' personalities, meet their needs, stimulate motivation, and help them grow in and beyond the cognitive domain. these characteristics cannot be found in a teacher who holds negative expectations of students (abu daly, 2014). perhaps one of the most important influencing factors in determining the interactions between teachers and learners is teachers' expectations. in 1968, rosenthal and jacobson conducted one of the first studies that provided strong evidence that teachers' expectations can significantly affect student achievement. since then, teachers' expectations about students have been analyzed extensively for their impact on student's performance and achievements. marx (1999) also claims that teachers' expectations toward students differ according to seat location, with teachers having certain perceptions about those who sit in the front seats and those who sit in the rear seats. he points to the need to increase teachers' awareness of these perceptions to develop their expertise in dealing properly with these expectations. it then becomes necessary to provide learning conditions in which students can comfortably learn and communicate by sitting near the teacher. that implies that more research is needed to elucidate the necessary learning conditions. purpose of the study we aim to investigate whether students' locations in the classroom cause kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers to form expectations about students' future academic, social, behavioral, and vocational conduct. the study also investigates how teachers' genders and years of experience help form these expectations. statement of the problem the literature has shown that students who sit in the front rows have a higher intelligence level, higher achievement level, and more academic interests than students who sit in the back seats (mayers, 1967; lotfy, 2012; woodson, 2013; abu al-hassan 2016; kuklinski & weinstein, 2000). teachers' expectations for students can affect how teachers interact with students. ahmad (2010) claim that students who are the subject of high expectations are more oriented toward perfection, whereas a-rayyes and al-majed (2016) add that expectations can affect students' alhajri 235 attitudes toward education in general. that has led meeks, knotts, james, williams, vassar, & wren (2013) to invite teachers' attentive observations of their expectations and the factors that cause them to form. there is a notable absence of attention to the impact of student seat location in the classroom on teachers' expectations in kuwaiti schools. that led the researcher to conduct this study on kuwaiti schools to reveal teachers' expectations and their influence on the future academic, behavioral, social, and vocational conduct of their students who sit in the front of the classroom. in addition, the relationship of these expectations with variables such as teachers' gender and years of experience is also examined. significance of the study teachers' expectations have been shown to have an impact on students. for example, al-rayyes and al-majed (2016) argue that these expectations can cause academic, social, and psychological harm for students, affecting students' attitudes toward education in general. in addition, students' proximity to or distance from the teacher can affect teachers' expectations of students. however, studies of such type in the kuwaiti context are so scarce. moreover, very few studies attended to teachers' awareness of the formation of such expectations towards students. additionally, the effect of the student's location in which he sits has not been brought up in previous research. therefore, the present study results can be of great significance to the kuwaiti ministry of education officials and teacher preparation institutions. the results should be beneficial for both in-service and preservice teachers. they should make these teachers aware of forming false expectations that previous studies have proven to exist to avoid forming undesired consequences. research questions we seek to answer the following questions: 1what are the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers for the future academic conduct of students sitting close to the teacher? 2what are the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers for the future social conduct of students sitting close to the teacher? 3what are the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers for the future behavioral conduct of students sitting close to the teacher? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 236 4what are the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers for the future vocational conduct of students sitting close to the teacher? 5are there statistically significant differences in kuwaiti social studies teachers' expectations about students sitting close to the teacher according to teacher gender (male/female) or years of experience (less than five years, 6-10 years, or more than ten years)? terminology of the study teachers' expectations: teacher expectations are inferences formed by the teacher about a student's ability to achieve in the classroom (ormrod, anderman, & anderman, 2016), as well as about students' future performance based on students' present knowledge. these expectations affect teachers' perceptions and interpretations of students' actions (ahmad, 2010, p. 8). the researcher defines teachers' expectations procedurally as the conclusions that kuwaiti social studies teachers form about the students sitting close to the teacher regarding their academic, social, behavioral, and vocational conduct. they are also defined as teachers' perceptions and interpretations of students' actions affected by students' seat locations. student location: the researcher procedurally defines student location as where a student sits in the classroom for the scholastic term. literature review before the concept of teacher expectations for students emerged, researchers used the term "selffulfilling prophecy" to point to the body of research about teachers' impressions of their students. this term is related to the expectations that affect students' performance, and student attempts to conform to these expectations. farhan, al-kinani, & rizk (2020) clarifies further by stating, "when we expect certain things from the student, this will lead to higher or lower performance and academic achievement" (farhan, al-kinani, & rizk, 2020, p. 389). teachers' expectations are associated with what teachers think of students' ability or inability to achieve and succeed (woodcock & faith, 2021), and this confirmed by kususanto (2012), who adds that these expectations do have their effects on improving such students' abilities as well as their achievements, whereas, in the same run, alhajri's (2021) study results showed that teachers tend to form different expectations based on their attractiveness and uniform tidiness. alhajri 237 jimenez (2013), on his part, points that what the teacher observes in the student's socially desired behaviors can cause these expectations to be formed, thus positively affect the student's academic performance, teachers' expectations determine the level of interaction between the teacher and the learner (falsario, 2014; jeon, 2017) and denessen (2014) clarifies that by pointing that students are dealt with differently when interacting with teachers according to the teacher's expectation. this lead rubie-davies (2015) to invite the teachers to be keen in forming positive teacher expectations about students, and korman (1967) and mansfield (1973) refer to the effect of these expectations on students' self-esteem, which they consider can play a role on even choosing occupations. robertson, smeets, lubinski, and benbow (2010) support this notion and add that these expectations can reflect students' career choices, and in the same sense papageorge, gershenson, and kang's (2020, p. 3) assert that teacher expectations can raise students' views about themselves and their performance. besides the wide body of research confirming the effect of teacher expectations, other studies, such as those of jussim (1994), sweatt (2000), and gentrup (2020), deny such effects of teacher expectations. however, woodcock and faith's (2021) study does not completely deny the existence of these expectations, but they deny relating their effects to certain students; rather, the study claims that lower expectations are formed towards all students regardless of their ability levels. despite these conflicting results, bergh, denessen, hornstra, voeten, and rob (2010), turner (2015), akifyeva (2018), and barrigaa (2019) suggest that the formation of teacher expectations is generally based on students' characteristics, such as sex, race, household income, or past performance, and farfan, holla, and vakis (2021) support the notion of the effect of household income and indicate that teachers' negative assessments of children's behavior are based on their low economic backgrounds. in the same manner, teklu and kumar (2013) found that teachers' expectations of academic achievement were positively correlated with students' social skills and behavior with emotional and behavioral disorders. al-muzairi and hanafi (2019) indicate that these negative effects are particularly found in students with low ability levels. other studies refer to teachers' characteristics rather than students' characteristics' effect in forming expectations. for example, watson et al. (2015) found that teacher gender was associated significantly with teacher expectations of student achievement, with negative implications for journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 238 students taught by male teachers. on the other hand, harris, rosenthal, and snodgrass (1986) show no significant effects related to teacher gender. some studies examined the effect of a teacher's years of experience. for example, fox (2015) claims that more experienced teachers have higher expectations, whereas barrigaa's (2019) findings show no differences between in-service and preservice teachers. falsario (2014) and jeon (2017) assert that the classroom must be made a better place to enhance students' interactions with the teacher; malmberg (2019), as well suggests providing a supportive environment for students' daily interactions. gronostay (2020) indicated that such an environment is an effective tool that influences learning activities and outcomes, and this has led rayan (2013) to encourage teachers to work on improving the classroom environment to achieve better results, and it led loughlin (2011) to indicate that educators need to understand better the relationship between learning environments and student learning outcomes which malik (2010), lotfy (2012), woodson (2013), and sowell (2013) claim as having advantages for the positive teacher conduct for student performance. yigit, alpaslan, cinemre, and balcin (2017), also referred to the classroom environment, but in terms of classroom size and its prominent role in increasing interactions between teacher and student and affecting students' performance, but this is not supported by wright, horn, and sanders (1997) and ngoboka and schultz (2002), who deny such classroom size effects. all of that indicates that it is not easy for teachers to establish good, interactive relationships with all students (jinam, 2016). teachers must have the ability to interact with students positively; such abilities, as abu daly (2014) asserts, cannot be found in a teacher who holds negative expectations for students (abu daly, 2014). in addition to these studies about teachers' expectations, other studies have investigated the effect of student location in the classroom on the formation of teacher expectations. for instance, parker, hoopes, and eggett (2011) point to such an effect, indicating that it affects student behavior and academic performance, and meeks, knotts, james, williams, vassar, and wren (2013), ngugi and thinguri (2017), and will, bischof, and kingstone (2020) confirm this and point that students' proximity to teachers positively affects their abilities compared to the distanced students. studies analyzing the effect of student location on performance have been conducted before the 1970s (rist, 1970). studies from that era assert that students sitting in front seats achieve more and that teachers interact more with them (rist, 1970; tagliacolloab, volpatoac, & pereira, 2010; alhajri 239 zomorodian et al., 2012; ngware, 2013; and smith, 2018). since then, many researchers have dealt with the effect of a student's classroom location on his classroom performance (lotfy, 2012; and malik, 2010). these studies point to the relationship between student location and performance (tagliacolloab, volpatoac, & pereira, 2010; gronostay, 2020), which has made thinguri (2017); laiqa, shah, and khan (2011); and parsons (2016) suggest allocating sufficient teacher-student distances to facilitate communication with students, and it also led will, bischof, and kingstone (2020) to claim that low student performance is related to being sitting far from the teacher, and this is supported by rist's (1970, p. 420); zomorodian et al.'s (2012); tagliacolloab, volpatoac, and pereira's (2010); and marx, urs, and terry's (1999) findings of differences in students based on location. zomorodian et al. (2012) identify the role of the "action zone,"; that is, the area of the classroom in which most of the student-teacher interactions take place; in elevating students' interactions, and this drove ngware, ciera, musyoka, and oketch (2013) to invite teachers to change student seat locations to improve learning gains. meeks, knotts, james, williams, vassar, and wren (2013), woodson (2013), smith, hoare, and lacey (2018), and phoong, phoong, moghavvemi, and sulaiman (2019) do not agree with the notion of such effects of student's seat location on his performance and claim this increased student performance is rather caused by being exposed to effective learning experiences, and meeks, knotts, james, williams, vassar, and wren (2013), however, claim that studies on the effects of student seat location on teachers' expectations are scarce. since teachers' expectations for students seem to differ according to their seat locations (given that teachers' perceptions about those who sit in front seats and those who sit in rear seats vary), there is an urgent need to increase teachers' awareness of this to develop their expertise in dealing properly with these expectations (marx, 1999). it becomes necessary, then, to provide learning conditions in which students can comfortably learn and communicate with each other by sitting near the teacher. method research design due to the descriptive nature of the study, a quantitative approach was used to describe and analyze the expectations of social studies teachers in kuwaiti schools toward students sitting close to the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 240 teacher. therefore, a researcher-prepared questionnaire was utilized to collect data from the study sample of social studies teachers regarding the respondents' demographics and expectations for the future conduct of students sitting near teachers. the questionnaire was applied because it was the most appropriate tool for this descriptive study. study sample the total population of kuwaiti social studies teachers consists of about 7.700 teachers. the study sample consisted of 224 participants of different genders (99 male teachers and 125 females; 44.2% and 55.8% consecutively ) and years of experience (49 less than five years, 42 between 610 years, and 133 more than ten years; 21.9%, 18.8%, and 59.4% consecutively) who were willing to respond to the study questionnaire which was distributed using google forms (see table 1 and 2). table 1 the study sample according to gender. sample’s genders sum percentage males 99 44.2% females 125 55.8% total 224 100% table 2 the study sample according to years of experience. sample's years of experience sum percentage less than five years 49 21.9% 6-10 years 42 18.8% more than 10 years 133 59.4% total 224 100% study instrument a questionnaire was used to collect data from the study sample. it asked for demographic information (gender and years of experience) and included 32 items developed by the researcher and related to the investigated domains. each domain of the present study consisted of eight of alhajri 241 these items included in this questionnaire which the researcher developed after reviewing previous studies. a triple likert scale (high agreement, moderate agreement, and disagreement) was used to calculate the study sample's responses to the study tool. the high agreement response was given a score of three, the moderate a score of two, and the disagreement a score of one. the level and range of verification for each response to the three-point likert scale were 2.34-3.00 for the high agreement, 1.672.33 for the moderate agreement, and 1.001.66 for the disagreement. validity and reliability of the study instrument instrument's validity: two methods were used to calculate the validity of the study instrument. construct validity was determined by presenting the study tool to a group of six department colleagues to verify its validity. their observations, which included deleting, adding, and modifying elements of the tool, were used to put the tool in its final form. second, internal consistency validity was ensured as well. the pearson correlation coefficient was used to measure the coefficient correlations between the scores for each domain in the study, and the general score was used to ensure coherence and homogeneity between these domains (see table 3). as a result, the correlation coefficients between all the questionnaire domains and the questionnaire's total score are statistically significant (1%), indicating high internal consistency validity. table 3 pearson correlation coefficient for the validity of the study tool. domain academic social behavioral vocational total academic 1 **0.903 **0.906 **0.886 **0.931 social 1 **0.771 **0.720 **0.778 behavioral 1 **0.715 **0.794 vocational 1 **0.796 total 1 (**) significant at level (0.01). instrument's reliability: the cronbach alpha coefficient was used to ensure the reliability of the study tool. the reliability coefficient on each of the study domains was high (0.897, 0.885, 0.876, and 0.926 for the academic, social, behavioral, and vocational domain consecutively), and the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 242 general reliability score (0.965) was very high, indicating the reliability of the results reached by the study. data collection data were collected during the 2020-2021 academic year, which involved distributing the questionnaire through google forms using the whatsapp and myu applications. two hundred and twenty-four social studies teachers from kuwait's government schools responded. data analysis to analyze the data, the researcher used the following statistical methods: 1pearson correlation coefficient to ensure the validity of the study instrument. 2cronbach's alpha laboratories to ensure the stability of the study tool. 3 mean, and the standard deviation calculated the average of the responses to the questionnaire and the degree of deviation from it. 4 t-test was used to calculate the differences between respondents based on gender (male or female). 5 one-way anova was used to analyze the differences between respondents based on years of experience (less than five years, 6-10 years, or more than ten years). findings the following is a presentation of the results and findings of the study's statistical analysis, which encompasses its main questions. research question 1 the first research question investigating the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers for the future academic conduct of students sitting close to the teacher, stating "what are the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers of the future "academic conduct" of students sitting in locations close to the classroom teacher?" was addressed using means and standard deviations (table 4). alhajri 243 table 4 the means and standard deviations related to the academic domain. # statement mean sd level rank 1 always attains high levels of achievement. 2.43 0.602 large 2 2 has a great capacity to participate in discussions. 2.54 0.567 large 1 3 properly pursues his homework. 2.35 0.567 large 5 4 strives to achieve in all classes highly. 2.38 0.630 large 4 5 strives to outperform on classroom tests. 2.38 0.587 large 3 6 resorts to extra supplementary resources. 2.14 0.574 medium 8 7 will hold creative thinking abilities. 2.20 0.663 medium 7 8 he will be self-determined to extra readings. 2.29 0.600 medium 6 total 2.34 .600 large table (4) shows that the total mean of the social studies teachers' expectations of the future conduct of the students sitting in locations close to the classroom teacher in the "academic" domain came with a (large) agreement score. the scored mean was (2.34) and the standard deviation was (0.600). the means on each item ranged between (2.54) with a high degree of agreement and (2.20 ) with a medium agreement degree, and the standard deviation ranged between (0.567) and (0.663), which indicates the homogeneity of the opinions of the study sample. statement no. (2), which refers to " has a great capacity to participate in discussions," came in the first place, with a large agreement rating of (2.54) and a standard deviation of (0.567). statement no. (1) scored a large agreement as well. it refers to "always attains high levels of achievement" and ranked 2nd with a mean of (2.43) and standard deviation of (0.602). last in the ranking was statement no. (6), "resorts to extra supplementary resources," with a mean of (2.14) and (0.574) standard deviation showing medium agreement precedented by journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 244 statement no. (7) "will hold creative thinking abilities," with a mean of (2.20) and standard deviation of (0.597) in penultimate rank. research question 2 the second research question investigating the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers for the future social conduct of students sitting close to the teacher, stating " what are the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers of the future "social conduct" of students sitting in locations close to the classroom teacher?" was addressed via mean and standard deviation (table 5). table 5 the means and standard deviations related to the social domain. # statement mean sd level rank 1 will be highly skilled in communicating with others. 2.37 0.615 large 1 2 will contribute to solving community problems. 2.12 0.598 medium 7 3 social pressures will not constitute an obstacle to him. 2.00 0.599 medium 8 4 will intelligently deal with others. 2.25 0.593 medium 4 5 will be proficient in teamwork. 2.32 0.631 medium 3 6 will be able to transmit thoughts and ideas to others easily. 2.25 0.623 medium 5 7 will enjoy many leadership qualities. 2.34 0.684 large 2 8 will enjoy public awareness about community affairs. 2.18 0.566 medium 6 total 2.22 0.613 medium table (5) shows that the total mean of the social studies teachers' expectations of the future conduct of the students sitting in locations close to the classroom teacher in the "social" domain came with alhajri 245 a (medium) agreement score. the scored mean was (2.22) and the standard deviation was (0.613). thus, the means on each item ranged between (2.37) with a high degree of agreement and (2.00) with a medium agreement, and the standard deviation ranged between (0.567) and (0.663), which indicates the homogeneity of the opinions of the study sample. statement no. (1), which states "will be highly skilled in communicating with others," ranked first in the sample's high agreement in this domain with an average of (2.37) and standard deviation of (0.615). statement no. (7) was second in the rank with a mean of (2.34) and (0.684) standard deviation. it stated, "will enjoy many leadership qualities." statement (3) was pointing to "social pressures will not constitute an obstacle to him." this statement was the least in the sample's agreement, with a mean of (2.00) and standard deviation (0.599) showing medium agreement. statement (2), which stated, "will contribute to solving community problems," was in penultimate rank. it scored a mean of (2.12) with (0.598) standard deviation. research question 3 the third research question investigating the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers for the future behavioral conduct of students sitting close to the teacher, stating " what are the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers of the future "behavioral conduct" of students sitting in locations close to the classroom teacher?" was addressed via mean and standard deviation (table 6). table 6 the means and standard deviations related to the behavioral domain. # statement mean sd level rank 1 will carry on good behavioral and moral conduct. 2.43 0.567 large 2 2 he will grow as a selfdisciplined person. 2.45 0.589 large 1 3 will become a persuasive individual. 2.18 0.539 medium 7 4 he will avoid hassling and conflicting with others. 2.36 0.583 large 4 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 246 5 will easily compete with other opponents. 2.42 0.622 large 3 6 he has high confidence in his abilities. 2.35 0.602 large 6 7 he will not commit what could expose him to penalties. 2.36 0.589 large 5 8 he will exemplify tolerance with every affair. 2.17 0.525 medium 8 total 2.34 0.577 large table (6) shows that the total mean of the social studies teachers' expectations of the future conduct of the students sitting in locations close to the classroom teacher in the "behavioral domain "came with a (large) agreement score. the scored mean was (2.34) and the standard deviation was (0.577). the means of each item ranged between (2.45) with a high degree of agreement and (2.17) with a moderate (medium) degree of agreement, and the standard deviation ranged between (0.525) and (0.622), which indicates the homogeneity of the opinions of the study sample. statement no. (2) states, "he will grow as a self-disciplined person," and it ranked first in the sample's agreement with a mean of (2.45) and (0.589) standard deviation. statement no. (1) ranked next. it stated, "will carry on good behavioral and moral conduct." the mean was (2.43) with a standard deviation of (0.567). statement no. (8) stated, "he will exemplify tolerance with every affair," and it came last in ranking with a mean of (2.17) and standard deviation of (0.525), and statement no. (3) stated, "will become a persuasive individual," was in penultimate rank. the mean of the sample's responses here was (2.18) and the standard deviation was (0.539), both showing medium agreement. research question 4 the fourth question investigating the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers for the future vocational conduct of students sitting close to the teacher, stating " what are the expectations of kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers of the future "vocational conduct" of alhajri 247 students sitting in locations close to the classroom teacher?" was addressed with means and standard deviations (table 7). table 7 the means and standard deviations related to the vocational domain. # statement mean sd level rank 1 will properly choose the most suitable future job. 2.27 0.578 medium 5 2 will achieve a sophisticated future career. 2.22 0.572 medium 8 3 will easily acquire job skills and requirements. 2.30 0.595 medium 4 4 will be eager to attend to developments in the profession. 2.23 0.581 medium 7 5 will play an influential role in the improvement of the work environment. 2.26 0.574 medium 6 6 will win the trust of his employers. 2.45 0.597 large 1 7 his colleagues will always resort to his consultations. 2.34 0.592 large 2 8 possesses teamwork abilities. 2.33 0.628 medium 3 total 2.30 0.589 medium table (7) shows that the total mean of the social studies teachers' expectations of the future conduct of the students sitting in locations close to the classroom teacher in the "vocational" domain came with a (large) agreement score. the scored mean was (2.30), and the standard deviation was (0.589). the means of each item ranged between (2.45) with a high degree of agreement and (2.22) with a moderate (medium) degree of agreement, and the standard deviation ranged between (0.572) and (0.628), which indicates the homogeneity of the opinions of the study sample. statement no. (6) ,which states "will win the trust of his employers," ranked first with a strong agreement average mean of (2.45) and (0.597) standard deviation. next in the ranking was statement no. (7). this statement stated, "his colleagues will always resort to his consultations," and the mean scored was (2.34) with (0.592) standard deviation. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 248 ranking last was statement no. (2) with a mean of (2.22) and standard deviation of (0.572). this statement stated, "will achieve a sophisticated future career." statement no. (4) stated, "will be eager to attend to developments in the profession," was in penultimate rank. the mean of the sample's responses here was (2.23) and the standard deviation was (0.581). research question 5 the fifth research question, investigating statistically significant differences in kuwaiti school social studies teachers' expectations about students sitting close to the teacher according to teacher gender (male/female) and years of teaching experience (less than five years, 6-10 years, and more than ten years) stating "are there statistically significant differences in the kuwaiti school social studies teachers' expectations about students sitting in locations close to the classroom teacher according to the gender variable (male-female), and the variable of years of experience (less than five years, 6-10 years, and more than ten years)?" following is a presentation of the results related to the effects of teacher gender and the effects of years of teacher experience on teacher expectations of students' future conduct in the four examined domains. 1differences according to gender a t-test was used to examine the differences between the study sample responses in the four domains of the study (see table 8). table 8 differences according to gender. domain gender sum average sd t value significance academic male 99 18.9394 3.19700 0.866 0.049 female 125 18.5120 4.00124 social male 99 18.0505 3.29308 0.752 0.752 female 125 17.6800 3.93003 behavioral male 99 19.3131 2.89492 0.203 2.734 female 125 18.0880 3.63898 vocational male 99 18.6970 3.60967 0.631 1.004 female 125 18.1760 3.04224 total male 99 75.0000 11.66628 0.202 1.435 female 125 72.4560 14.25997 alhajri 249 the results presented in this table show that there are no significant differences between the male and female teachers in their expectations of the future social, behavioral, and vocational conduct of the student located near the teacher. furthermore, the t value showed no significance at either level 1% or 5%. 2differences according to years of experience a one-way anova was used to analyze the differences present in the study sample according to years of teaching experience (less than five years, 6-10 years, more than ten years). table 9 presents the differences between the study sample's expectations of the students' future conduct in the four investigated domains. table 9 differences according to years of experience (less than five years, 6-10 years, more than ten years). domain experience sub-sum mean sd f value significance academic less than 5 49 18.7959 3.59386 0.913 0.403 6-10 42 19.3333 3.52459 more than 10 133 18.4662 3.73669 sum 224 18.7009 3.66596 social less than 5 49 18.5918 3.43340 1.809 0.166 6-10 42 18.1190 3.17922 more than 10 133 17.4812 3.85062 sum 224 17.8438 3.65897 behavioral less than 5 49 19.3469 2.78052 1.588 0.207 6-10 42 18.6905 2.93414 more than 10 133 18.3459 3.67845 sum 224 18.6295 3.37907 vocational less than 5 49 19.2449 3.71108 1.954 0.144 6-10 42 18.6667 3.83607 more than 10 133 18.0150 3.88857 sum 224 18.4063 3.85734 total sum less than 5 49 75.9796 11.86818 1.954 0.201 6-10 42 74.8095 12.30752 more than 10 133 72.3083 13.86580 sum 224 73.5804 13.20935 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 250 the results presented in this table show no statistically significant differences between teachers' expectations based on the variable of years of experience regarding the future conduct of the close sitting students in all study domains. the significance level of the fvalue was greater than 5%. discussion the following discusses the study's statistical analysis results and findings, which encompasses its questions. research question 1 the means and standard deviations of teachers' expectations for student's future academic performance sitting near teachers showed a high agreement score. thus, the results of this academic domain indicate that students sitting near the teacher are expected to show constant academic potentials, such as creative thinking, achieving, and discussion participation, in the future. classroom discussions in these locations are always higher in ratio than in other locations. students in these locations have more chances than their counterparts to participate in classroom activities. being in such close locations puts these students in direct eye contact with the teacher. teachers can easily spot them, obliging them to interact with classroom activities continually. all of this might have caused teachers to form more positive expectations about the future academic conduct of these students. this finding supports previous research of zomorodian et al. (2012) about teachers' formations of positive expectations regarding students in this "action zone." it also supports the findings of kususanto (2012), meeks, knotts, james, williams, vassar, and wren (2013), ngugi and thinguri (2017), will, bischof, and kingstone (2020), and alhajri (2021). it refutes the findings of previous studies that deny such a relationship between teacher expectations and student achievements, such as jussim (1994), sweatt (2000), wren (2013), smith, hoare, and lacey (2018), and gentrup (2020). woodson (2013), on the other hand, links this performance to effective learning experiences rather than to students' locations in the classroom, whereas phoong, phoong, moghavvemi, and sulaiman (2019) relate improved performance to teachers' employment of technology-based smart classrooms. alhajri 251 research question 2 the means and standard deviations of teachers' expectations for the social future of students sitting near the teacher showed a moderate agreement score. these results confirm that the students' locations affect teachers' expectations in the social domain. students who sit near the teacher are the subject of more positive teacher expectations about their future social conduct because they have more chances to communicate with the teacher, which builds good communication capabilities and leadership qualities. these expectations may be due to what teachers notice of their students' keenness to communicate with them more than their counterparts sitting in distanced locations. that leaves a good teacher impression regarding the future social conduct of those students. furthermore, students sitting close to the teacher are usually more ready to take on leadership responsibilities for classroom activities and groups, and they help teachers organize events, thus leading to teachers' formation of positive impressions leading to positive expectations of student's acquisition of such leadership qualities in the future. this finding supports previous research, such as lane, givner, and pierson (2004), parker, hoopes, and eggett (2011), jimenez (2013), teklu and kumar (2013), farhan, al-kinani, and rizk (2020), gronostay (2020), and farfan, holla, and vakis (2021), in which teachers' expectations related to social conduct were found to be positively correlated with academic achievement. research question 3 the total mean of the social studies teachers' expectations of the future behavioral conduct of the students sitting close to the teacher came with a large agreement score. that may indicate that the students who sit in these closer front seats are motivated by their distinct academic excellence to commit to acceptable behavioral conduct. they often like, or maybe are obliged to, meet and abide by teachers' regulations, especially behavioral classroom conduct regulations. academic achievement motivates them to be more committed to acceptable behavioral conduct. that is reflected in their teachers' positive expectations for their future behavioral conduct. misbehaving students mostly reside in rear seats; they rarely sit-in near the teachers' locations. that conforms to denessen (2014) and parker, hoopes, and eggett (2011), who demonstrated that physical seat location affects student behavior. the findings also support meeks, knotts, james, williams, vassar, and wren (2013, p. 377), who claim that "classroom arrangement and circulation have also been found to affect student performance and behavior." this study's results journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 252 also confirm rist's (1970, p. 420) indication that students sitting at closer tables tend to be quieter than those at other tables, and they support teklu and kumar's (2013) study on students with behavioral and emotional disorders, which found that teachers' expectations of academic achievement positively correlated with students' social and behavioral skills. however, farfan, holla, and vakis (2021) do not relate students' behavior to the location in the classroom; rather, they indicate that teachers' negative assessments of children's behavior are related to children's social, especially for those who come from poor backgrounds. research question 4 the total mean of the social studies teachers' expectations for the future vocational conduct of the students sitting close to the teacher came with a high agreement score. these results suggest that teachers' expectations of the future vocational conduct of students sitting in the front seats are related to academic, social, and behavioral expectations. teachers tend to observe students' profound abilities and expect them to continue in the future. therefore, teachers see these three phases of conduct (academic, social, behavioral) as a good indication of a successful vocational future. the results confirm robertson, smeets, lubinski, and benbow's (2010) results, which indicate that students' cognitive abilities are important for career choice and performance. papageorge, gershenson, and kang (2020, p. 3) assert that "teacher expectations matter because they raise students' views about their performance and outcomes." in addition, korman (1967) and mansfield (1973) point to the importance of lifting students' self-esteem since high-self-esteem students are more likely to choose occupations that require high abilities. that implies that teachers' expectations can play a distinctive role in lifting students' self-esteem, leading to better future occupation choices. research question 5 the results show that there are no significant differences between male and female teachers in their expectations of the future social, behavioral, and vocational conduct of the students located nearer the teacher. that supports the findings of barrigaa's (2019) study, which confirms that there are no statistical differences between male and female teachers' expectations. it also supports the findings of rosenthal and snodgrass (1986), bergh, denessen, hornstra, voeten, and rob (2010), turner (2015), watson et al. (2015), and akifyeva (2018). on the other hand, the study results showed significant statistical differences in the teachers' expectations about these students' future academic conduct according to gender in favor of male alhajri 253 teachers. that indicates that male social studies teachers form positive expectations regarding the future academic conduct of the students sitting nearby. that could indicate increased attention by male teachers to academic performances at the expense of the other kinds of performance. that might be explained by the fact that the teachers consider themselves comfortably able to deal with and attend to the other performance domains. the low male and female teacher expectations regarding students' future vocational conduct might be interpreted by assuming that the students do not show any present career interests upon which the teacher can base his or her expectations regarding the student's future vocational conduct. these results support will's (2020) findings of significant differences between the expectations of male and female teachers concerning the academic achievement of students located in close seats. watson et al. (2015) also confirm the effect of gender on teachers' expectations. however, these results contradict ahmed's (2010) study, which does not find differences between the expectations of male and female teachers regarding students' academic achievements. they also contradict harris, rosenthal, and snodgrass (1986), who show no significant effects of teachers' genders on teachers' expectations for students' performance. the results showed no statistically significant differences between teachers' expectations based on years of experience regarding the future conduct of the closely sitting students in any study domains. that may indicate that teachers' years of experience have no impact on their expectations of the future academic, social, behavioral, or vocational conduct of the students sitting near them. the results conform to sweatt's (2000) study, which indicates no relationship between teacher expectations and students' academic achievement and that all teachers sense their responsibilities toward the education of all their students. the results also conform to barrigaa's (2019) results, which indicate no differences in teachers' expectations based on years of experience. on the other hand, the present study results did not conform to ahmad (2010). that study shows differences between teachers' expectations of their students' academic conduct based on experience. they also did not conform to fox's (2015) findings, indicating that teachers with more experience are more likely to have higher expectations for their students. conclusion this study has shown that teacher expectations matter because they raise students' views about their performance and outcomes. the present study has produced several results. first, it journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 254 demonstrated positive teacher expectations about the future conduct of the students sitting at locations close to the teacher in the academic and behavioral domains, whereas their expectations regarding future conduct in the social and vocational domains scored a moderate agreement. the results seem to show similarities in the expectations of both male and female teachers in most domains. for example, they did not differ in their expectations for future social, behavioral, or vocational conduct for students sitting close to the teacher, but male teachers differed from females in their expectations of these students' future academic conduct. the results showed no statistically significant differences in kuwaiti schools' social studies teachers' expectations about the future conduct of students sitting close to the teacher according to years of experience in any domain of the study. the present study results should drive educators to carefully attend to teachers' expectations to ensure that they do not negatively harm students, specifically those sitting far from teachers. these results suggest teachers' provision of an adequate, educative classroom environment. they also suggest considering the invitations for teachers to form positive expectations about students and consider lifting their self-esteem. recommendations besides adding to the literature about teachers' expectations and the impact of students' proximity to teachers on the formation of positive or negative teacher expectations, the present study has some implications for the schools of kuwait. the study recommends considering the following actions: 1exerting every effort to investigate further teachers' expectations toward students and their impact on academic and non-academic performance. 2teacher training programs need to focus on developing preservice teachers' attitudes and expectations toward students, especially students with low achievement. that may assure that students' futures will not be affected by teachers' expectations, 3providing training courses for teachers on classroom management and systematically alternating students' seat locations to grant students equal chances. 4encouraging in-service teachers to develop arrangement mechanisms of organizing students' seat locations that furnish appropriate teacher-student distancing. alhajri 255 5reassuring teachers' development of the most appropriate communication skills with students. 6further studies are needed to investigate teachers' expectations toward students sitting in the rear seats and students from different socio-economic backgrounds. study limitations the scope of the current study is limited to kuwaiti social studies teachers' expectations of the future conduct of students sitting close to the teacher. it was applied in the 2020-2021 academic year, and its sample is confined to social studies teachers in government schools in kuwait. thus, the researcher suggests future research covering other school subjects and private schools to see if similar results may be reached. additionally, the researcher suggests replicating the study to examine teachers' expectations of students sitting in rear locations. in addition, since the research was conducted during the covid-19 pandemic, the results might have differed had the teachers been teaching in regular classrooms. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 256 references ahmad, e. (2010). effect of teacher expectations of their student's academic achievement on academic competency and teacher-enhancing behavior among middle school students (in arabic). journal of the faculty of education in mansoura, 2 (1), 1-55. abu al hassan, a. (2016). a study of the relationship of the student's seated position in the classroom with his academic achievement: an applied study on fifth-grade students in the basic education phase in el-obeid city. (in arabic). journal of the university of west kordofan sciences and humanities: university of west kordofan. (11): 51-80. abu daly, a. (2014). teacher expectations about students: their concept, importance and impact on academic achievement. (in arabic). educational and psychological studies: zagazig university college of education. (83): 317349. alhajri, a. (2021). effect of students' attractiveness and tidiness on the development of studentteachers' expectations of their intellectuality. international journal of business and social science, 12(2). al-muzairi, y. and hanafi, a. (2019). teachers' expectations towards implementing comprehensive education for deaf and hard of hearing students in public education schools in riyadh (in arabic) . arab journal of disability and talent: the arab foundation for education, science and arts. (9), 399-430. al-rayyes, t. and al-majid, f. (2016). teachers' expectations about the capabilities of deaf students in special education institutes and programs in riyadh. (in arabic). journal of special education and rehabilitation: the institution for special education and rehabilitation. 3 (12), 1-30. bergh, l., denessen, e., hornstra, l. voeten, m. and rob, w. (2010) " the implicit prejudiced attitudes of teachers: relations to teacher expectations and the ethnic achievement gap. " american educational research journal. 47 (2), 497-527. farfan bertran, m. g., holla, a., & vakis, r. (2021). poor expectations. open knowledge repository. 1-45. world bank document. farhan, a., al-kinani, m. and rizk, m. (2020). accuracy of teachers' expectations of their students' achievement and its relationship to teacher praise and encouragement for his students at the secondary stage in kuwait. (in arabic). reading and knowledge journal: ain shams university college of education egyptian society for reading and knowledge. (227): 383-415. fox, l. (2015). seeing potential: the effects of student-teacher demographic congruence on teacher expectations and recommendations. aera open, 2(1), 2332858415623758. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/35305/poor-expectations-experimental-evidence-on-teachers-stereotypes-and-student-assessment.pdf?sequence=1 alhajri 257 gronostay, d. (2020). "are classroom discussions on controversial political issues in civic education lessons cognitively challenging? a closer look at discussions with assigned positions." studia paedagogica. 24 (4), 85-100. harris, m. j., rosenthal, r., & snodgrass, s. e. (1986). the effects of teacher expectations, gender, and behavior on pupil academic performance and self-concept. the journal of educational research, 79(3), 173-179. jeon, c. (2017). "classroom environment and academic performance." (master's thesis). ramon magsaysay memorial college. general santos city. jinam, e. (2016). "the essentials of classroom management." (in arabic). alustath. 1 (218), 147-156. korman, a. k. (1967). self-esteem as a moderator of the relationship between self-perceived abilities and vocational choice. journal of applied psychology, 51(1), 65. kuklinski, m., & weinstein, r. (2000). classroom and grade level differences in the stability of teacher expectations and perceived differential teacher treatment. learning environments research, 3 (1), 1-34. laiqa, r., shah, r., and khan, s. (2011). "impact of quality space on students' academic achievement." international journal of academic research, 3 (3), 706-711. lane, k. l., givner, c. c., & pierson, m. r. (2004). teacher expectations of student behavior: social skills necessary for success in elementary school classrooms. the journal of special education, 38(2), 104-110. lotfy, n. (2012). "seating arrangements and cooperative learning activities: students' on-task / off-task participation in efl classrooms." (master's thesis). digital archive and research repository, the american university in cairo. malik, s. impact of altering seating arrangement in classroom on student learning and behaviour. https://www.academia.edu/9883230/impact_of_altering_seating_arrangement_in_class room_on_student_learning_and_behaviour. (retrieved january 31, 2021) mansfield, r. (1973). self-esteem, self-perceived abilities, and vocational choice. journal of vocational behavior, 3(4), 433-441. marx, a., urs, f., and terry, h. (1999). "effects of classroom seating arrangement on children's question-asking." learning environments research. 2 (3), 249-263. mayers, a. (1967)." the effects of student location and teacher role on learning from itv. " educational technology research and development, 15 (2), 169-179. https://www.academia.edu/9883230/impact_of_altering_seating_arrangement_in_classroom_on_student_learning_and_behaviour https://www.academia.edu/9883230/impact_of_altering_seating_arrangement_in_classroom_on_student_learning_and_behaviour journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 233-259 258 meeks, md, knotts, tl, james, kd, williams, f., vassar, ja, & wren, ao (2013). the impact of seating location and seating type on student performance. education sciences, 3 (4), 375-386. ngoboka, p., & schultz, b. (2002). the effects of class size on student academic performance in principles of microeconomics course. proceedings of the midwest business economics association, 198-207. ngugi, m. and thinguri, r. (2017) a critical analysis of the impact of classroom dynamics on students' social interaction in secondary schools in kenya. european journal of education studies, 3 (1), 377-385. ngware, m., ciera, j., musyoka, p., and oketch, m. (2013). the influence of classroom seating position on student learning gains in primary schools in kenya. scientific research. 4 (11), 705-712. ormrod, j. e., anderman, e. m., & anderman, l. h. (2016). educational psychology: developing learners. pearson. papageorge, n. w., gershenson, s., & kang, k. m. (2020). teacher expectations matter. review of economics and statistics, 102(2), 234-251. parker, t., hoopes, o., & eggett, d. (2011). the effect of seat location and movement or permanence on student-initiated participation. college teaching, 59(2), 79-84. parsons, c. s. (2016). " space and consequences": the influence of the roundtable classroom design on student dialogue. journal of learning spaces, 5(2), 15-25. phoong, sy, phoong, sw, moghavvemi, s., & sulaiman, a. (2019). effect of smart classroom on student achievement in higher education. journal of educational technology systems, 48 (2), 291-304. rist, r. (1970). student social class and teacher expectations: the self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education. harvard educational review, 40(3), 411-451. robertson, k. f., smeets, s., lubinski, d., & benbow, c. p. (2010). beyond the threshold hypothesis: even among the gifted and top math/science graduate students, cognitive abilities, vocational interests, and lifestyle preferences matter for career choice, performance, and persistence. current directions in psychological science, 19(6), 346351. rosenthal, r., & jacobson, l. (1968). pygmalion in the classroom. the urban review, 3 (1), 1620. rubie-davies, c. (2015). teachers' instructional beliefs and the classroom climate. international handbook of research on teachers' beliefs, 266-283. alhajri 259 ryan, h. (2013). the effect of classroom environment on student learning. honors theses, 2. western michigan university. smith, dp, hoare, a., & lacey, mm (2018). who goes where? the importance of peer groups on attainment and the student use of the lecture theater teaching space. febs open bio, 8 (9), 1368-1378. sowell, h. (2013). "classroom management strategies: the impact on school achievement." (doctoral dissertation). liberty university. lynchburg, virginia. tagliacolloab, va, volpatoac, gl, & pereira jr, a. (2010). association of student position in the classroom and school performance. educational research, 1 (6), 198-201. teklu, f., & kumar, r. s. (2013). teachers' expectations on academic achievement and social skills and behaviour of students with emotional and behavioural disorders. eastern africa social science research review, 29(2), 79-95. watson, p. w. s., rubie-davies, c. m., meissel, k., flint, a., peterson, e. r., garrett, l., & mcdonald, l. (2015). gendered teacher expectations of mathematics achievement in new zealand: contributing to a kink at the base of the stem pipeline? international journal of gender, science and technology, 8(1), 82-102. will, p., bischof, wf, & kingstone, a. (2020). the impact of classroom seating location and computer use on student academic performance. plos one, 15 (8), e0236131. woodcock, s., & faith, e. (2021). am i to blame? teacher self-efficacy and attributional beliefs towards students with specific learning disabilities. teacher development, 1-24. woodson, hubert (2013). the effectiveness of classroom seating arrangements on student learning and teacher instruction. (action research project). the university of texas at arlington, arlington. wright, s., horn, s., and sanders, w. (1997). teacher and classroom context effects on student achievement: implications for teacher evaluation, journal of personnel evaluation in education, 11 (1), 57-67. yigit, m., alpaslan, m., cinemre, y., and balcin, b. (2017). examine middle school students' constructivist environment perceptions in turkey: school location and class size, journal of turkish science education, 14 (1), 23-34. zomorodian, k., parva, m., ahrari, i., tavana, s., hemyari, c., pakshir, k., ... & sahraian, a. (2012). the effect of seating preferences of the medical students on educational achievement. medical education online, 17(1), 10448. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 168-184 168 the development model of socio-economic institution of community-based tourism village in botubarani, bone bolango, gorontalo province, indonesia amir halid1, irawati abdul2 abstract to encourage community’s role in the field of tourism, the local government of gorontalo province analyzes the impact of the development of independent tourism village on community empowerment. it involves community in the decision-making process, related to the income, employment, preservation of the environment, and people’s culture. this research aims to determine the factors of independent variables that influence people’s activity. community empowerment (y) and independent variables are tourism tour (x1), infrastructure (x2), budget policy (x3), resources (x4), and some demography variables such as gender (djk), types of work (dkj), and level of education (dpd) by the descriptive and multiple linear regression method. the results of this study reveal that the development model of independent tourism is the involvement of the villagers in every aspect of tourism in the village. independent village development in the community empowerment simultaneously has a positive and tangible effect on the improvement of community empowerment as well as having a partial positive influence against the infrastructure and resources. key words: socio-economic institution, independent tourism village, community, empowerment introduction coastal areas are closely related to the livelihood of many people, particularly those who stay in the area. it has a wide potential, including primary food sources containing protein (especially animal protein from fish and shrimp), additional petroleum, gas and mineral resources in the mining, tourism, residential and industrial development potential. the potential of the coastal areas can be an opportunity to carry out the development in various aspects of life for people’s welfare, one of which is through the development of coastal areas into tourism objects. the field of tourism is a potential field in the development of a country because tourism is considered having a positive impact as a motor of people's economic activity. 1 doctoral, state university of gorontalo, amirhalid_ung@yahoo.com 2 magister, state university of gorontalo, irawatiabdul74@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 168-184 areas with tourism potential can revive economic activities of surrounding communities with the emergence of small to medium-sized enterprises, reduce unemployment, increase public revenues, and increase local revenues (pad) which will be re-used by the government to carry out the development in the region and to achieve prosperity (miller, 2018; riyaningtyas & harsono, 2014). tourism village has some special characteristics that deserve to be a tourist destination. in this region, the residents still have an original tradition and culture. in addition, several supporting factors, such as typical foods, agricultural systems, and social systems also reflect this area. based on these factors, the original natural resources and environment are important factors in a tourism village area. a unique tourism village is also needed to have various facilities to support it as a tourist destination. those facilities that facilitate the visitors in doing their activities include transportation, telecommunication, health, and accommodation. for the accommodation facility, a tourism village is able to provide lodging facilities in the form of a home stay, so that the visitors can feel the atmosphere of the place that is still original (soemarno, 2010). the social relationship among people who involve in this tourism object is required to develop social value because it will become one of the wisdom in solving problems and become an unwritten role in the institutional perspective. almost all models improved in social objects have a significant influence on the development of institutional models including on the tourism perspective (tulus suryanto, 2015). gorontalo province is located between 00 19'-00 57' north latitude and 1210 23'1250 14' east longitude. this area is directly adjacent to two other provinces, including central sulawesi province in the west area and north sulawesi province in the east area. further, the north area directly faces the sea of sulawesi, and the south area is bordered by tomini bay. the total area of gorontalo province as a whole is 12,435 km2. compared to the territory of indonesia, this province is only 0.63 percent. gorontalo province consists of 5 regencies and one city, namely boalemo regency, gorontalo regency, pohuwato regency, bone bolango regency, gorontalo utara regency, and gorontalo city. the hilly soil surface in gorontalo province causes it to have mountains with different altitudes (central bureau of statistics, 2015). bone bolango regency is one of the regencies that has an area of 1,984.58 km2 or 16.24% of the total area of gorontalo province. it is divided into 18 sub-districts, consisting of 165 villages. kabila bone sub-district is one of 18 districts in bone bolango regency; this is located at 0.300 halid & abdul north latitude, 10 south latitude, 1210 east longitude, 1230 300 west longitude. it is also geographically adjacent to bone pantai sub-district adjoining kota timur sub-district (gorontalo city) in the west, botupingge sub-district to the north, and to the south bordering with tomini bay. the total area of kabila bone is 143.50 km2 or 7.23 % of the total area of bone bolango regency. botubarani village is one of seven villages in kabila sub-district. this area has become one of the villages targeted by visitors for a holiday and the like. the thing distinguishing this tourism village from other places is the presence of 17 mammals (whale sharks). from may to june 2016, there were 32,043 visitors using boats, 573 visitors snorkeling, and 197 visitors diving. it creates opportunities for local people to meet the demand from visitors, such as a home stay, restaurant, transportation, and other to help the community’s economy. figure 1. maps of tourism development sites in the development of tourism villages in gorontalo province, one of the newly-developed villages that becomes an independent tourism village is botubarani, kabila, bone bolango regency. it is able to influence people and even foreigners to see the whale shark in this village. however, constant visiting causes the unstable income of the people in this area along with the less concern of the government that is impactful on the tourism management because there is no a clear arrangement of the standard of the tourism focus of this village. for this reason, a study entitled "an analysis of the development of independent tourism village in bone bolango (a case study on marine tourism development of whale sharks in botubarani, kabila, bone bolango regency) is conducted to encourage visitors and villagers to manage the whale shark tourism object and increase people’s income. the government should also concern with such an independent tourism village. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 168-184 method this research is intended to find the relationship between the roles of government and community-based tourism, and sustainable tourism development. based on the above research background, botubarani village has a good potential of a tourism place in which it has a unique whale shark. moreover, it creates an opportunity for this area to become an independent village by seeing the factors that have a good impact on the community empowerment. thus, the hypothesis is that the tourism potential, infrastructure, budget policy, and resources have a positive and significant effect on the community empowerment. there were 310 respondents in the botubarani village, kabila, bone bolango regency. the sample was selected by employing the slovin method with the following formula: 𝑛 = 310 1+(300 x 0,152) 𝑛 = 310 1 + (300 x 0,0225) 𝑛 = 310 1 + 6,75 𝑛 = 310 7,75 n = 40 n: the number of the sample n: the number of population e: error tolerance the multiple regression to analysis the impact of the development of independent tourism village on community empowerment in botubarani, kabila, bone bolango regency used the following formula (sudjana, 2002): ŷ : empowerment x1: tourism potential x2: infrastructure x3: policy x4: resources d : demography (dummy variable) 𝑛 = n 1 + (𝑁 𝑥𝑒2) ŷ = α + β1 x1+ β2x2+ β3x3+ β4x4+ β5djk + β6dkj1 + β7dkj2 + β8dkj3 + β9dkj4 + β10dkj5 + β11dpd1 + β12dpd2 + β13dpd3 halid & abdul for the identification of the development model, the independent tourism was analyzed by using the descriptive analysis as a method to describe a phenomenon; it explained how the development model of independent tourism village in the site area. through this research, some decisions taken by social actors in the community can be figured out. according to newman (1997) in sunuantari (2017), this study also analyzed the data differently. immersion provided an intimate familiarity with people’s life and culture. this research looked for the pattern in their life, actions, and words in completing the case as a whole. meanwhile, in order to determine the impact of the development of independent tourism village on community empowerment in botubarani, kabila, bone bolango regency, this study utilized the multiple regression analysis. findings botubarani beach is a tourism area in botubarani village, kabila bone, bone bolango regency, gorontalo that becomes a leading tourism destination and an alternative for people who like travelling. this beautiful beach has 17 whale sharks that are ready to be invited to do some attractions. on the boat, when the shrimp is thrown to the beach, the whale sharks will come up, so that the visitors no need to dive or snorkel. they can take pictures while enjoying the attractions. the existence of these whale sharks with up to 20 tons of weight attracts people’s attention since the location is quite close to the beach which is only about 50 meters away. hence, by using a canoe, the visitors can freely witness the appearance of whale sharks. further, this mammal in gorontalo language is called “munggiango hulalo” that is very tame. if people want to see the whale shark, they should be in queue to rent a boat. table 1 domestic visiting and abroad tourists in tourism object of bone bolango regency, 2015 no. tourist attraction the number of people domestic foreign 1 lombongo 5,162 139 2 botutonuo 50,031 0 3 molotabu 5,381 0 4 bindalahe 860 0 5 olele 4,126 429 6 meranti 31,972 0 total 97,532 568 based on table 1 showed that the most visited domestic tourist for 1 year were botutonuo of 51%. visitors. meanwhile, for foreign tourist visits for many years was olele tourist attraction of 76%. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 168-184 the characteristics of respondents age age is the time span from birth to present possessed by the respondents (in years). table 2 the number of respondents by age population, 2016 no age interval (tahun) botubarani village information the number of people the percentage (%) 1 0 – 15 0 0 not productive yet 2 16 – 60 40 100 productive 3 > 60 0 0 not productive total 40 100 based on the results of the data analysis of the respondents’ age in the village, there are 40 productive-aged persons (100%) and no one with unproductive age. education based on the results of the data analysis of the respondents' educational level in the village. table 3 the number of respondents by education level, 2016 no level of education botubarani village the number of people the percentage (%) 1 elementary school 12 30 2 junior high school 6 15 3 senior high school 13 33 4 collage 9 22 total 40 100 there are 12 persons (30%), six persons (15%), 32 persons (32%), and nine persons (23%) who go to elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, and university respectively. the number of family members the results of the data analysis of the number of respondents' family members in the village below: table 4. the number family member, 2016 no the number of respondents paguyaman the number of people the percentage (%) 1 0 – 2 23 58 2 3 – 5 16 40 3 6 – 8 1 2 total 40 100 halid & abdul reveal that 23 persons (57%) have 0 to 2 family members, 16 persons (40%) have 3 to 5 family members, and one person (2%) has 6 to 8 family members. the impact of independent village tourism development on community empowerment 1. multiple regression analysis the regression analysis shows the results of the equation below: ŷ = 47,577 + 0,136 x1 + 0,091 x2 – 0,194 x3 + 0,014 x4 – 6,668 djk4,564 dkj1+ 3,730 dkj3 + 3,369 dkj4 + 4,244 dkj5 + 2,534 dpd12,326 dpd2 + 5,288 dpd3 the above equation obtains the constant value of 47.577, which can be interpreted that if all the independent variables have a value of zero, then the value of the community empowerment variable is 47.577. in addition, the values of x2 (infrastructure), x3 (budget policy), x4 (resources) are 0.091, -0.194, and 0.014 respectively. the results of the regression analysis of community empowerment model through several demographic variables (dummy variable) indicate that the coefficient value of each variable is that djk (gender) is -6.668; dkj1 (type of work1) is -4.564; dkj3 (type of work3) is 3.730; dkj4 (type of work4) is 3.369; dkj5 (type of work5) of 4.244; and dpd1 (educational level1) is 2.534; dpd2 (educational level2) is -2.326; dpd3 (educational level3) is 5.288; it implies that if each independent variable is increased by 1%, it will also increase or decrease the value of community empowerment of the coefficient value of the demographic variables. simultaneous variable impacts of the development of independent village tourism on community empowerment in botubarani, kabila, bone bolango regency simultaneous influence means to show statistically the collective influence of independent variables in the study on the impact of the development of independent tourism village on community empowerment in botubarani, kabila, bone bolango regency. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 168-184 table 5 regression analysis results variable regression coefficients (β) sig. (p-value) information tourism potential (x1) 0.136 0.422 not significant infrastructure (x2) 0.091 0.010 significant budget policy (x3) -0.194 0.484 not significant resources (x4) 0.014 0.018 significant gender (djk) * -6.668 0.025 significant job (dkj1) * -4.564 0.125 not significant job (dkj3)* 3.730 0.716 not significant job (dkj4)* 3,369 0.756 not significant job (dkj5)* 4.244 0.000 significant education (dpd1)* 2.534 0.142 not significant education (dpd2)* -2.326 0.016 significant education (dpd3)* 5.288 0.004 significant dependent : community empowerment (y) constants : 47,577 r-square (r2) : 0,459 f-statistic : 2,998; p-value : 0,013 *dummy variabel f-count reaches 2.998 and the sig. level of 0.013. the value of f-arithmetic is greater than the f-table value of 2.270 at a probability level of 0.05 (sig 0.013 <α 0.05). based on the simultaneous testing of independent variables, tourism potential (x1), infrastructure (x2), budget policy (x3), resources (x4), and demographic variables (djk; dkj1; dkj3; dkj4; dkj5; dpd1 ; dpd2; dpd3;) have a significant effect on the improvement of community empowerment. the correlation coefficient (r) of 0.677 reveals a strong relationship among the variables of tourism potential, infrastructure, budget policy, resources, and demography (gender, occupation, educational level) on the community empowerment. the determination coefficient (r2) is equal to 0.459 (table 5). this signifies there is 45.9% contribution of tourism potential, infrastructure, budget policy, resources, and demographic variables (gender, occupation, educational level) to the community empowerment and 54.1% is influenced by other factors excluded in the model. 2. partial variables influence and impact of village development tourism community empowerment in botubarani, kabila, bone bolango partial influence is intended to show the statistic data regarding the independent influence of independent variable x to y. independent variables of research comprise tourism potential (x1), infrastructure (x2), budget policy (x3), resources (x4) and demographic variables ( djk; dkj1; halid & abdul dkj3; dkj4; dkj5; dpd1; dpd2; dpd3;). the partial influence was analyzed by using statistical ttest. the analysis results are described as follows. based on table 5 above, the partial significance test can be explained as follows: a. tourism potential the result is shown by the value of significance (p-value) of 0.422; this outnumbers the value 0.05 (sig. 0.422>α 0.05). the increase of tourism potential (x1) does not significantly contribute to the improvement of community empowerment of independent tourism village in kabila, bone bolango regency. b. infrastructure this result signifies that the infrastructure variable (x2) has a significant effect on community empowerment. the result is supported by the value of significance (p-value) of 0.010; it is smaller than 0.05 (sig. 0.010<α0.05). the increasing of infrastructure (x2) significantly contributes to the improvement of community empowerment of independent tourism village in kabila of bone bolango regency. c. budget policy the result is signified by the fact that the value of significance (p-value) of 0.483; this outnumbers the value 0.05 (sig. 0.483> α 0.05). the improvement of budget policy (x3) does not significantly contribute to the decrease of empowerment of self-rural tourism villages in kabila of bone bolango regency. d. resources the result is supported by the value of significance (p-value) of 0.018; it is smaller than 0.05 (sig. 0,018 <α 0.05). the increased resources (x4) significantly contributes to the improvement in the empowerment of the community of independent tourist villages in kabila, bone bolango district. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 168-184 e. gender this result signifies that gender variable (djk) significantly contributes to the social empowerment. it is shown by the value of significance (p-value) of 0.025; it is less than 0.05 (sig. 0.025 <α 0.05). thus, the increase of gender variation (djk) significantly contributes to the decrease of community empowerment of independent tourism village in kabila of bone bolango regency. f. type of work this result shows that the job-type variable as entrepreneurship (dkj5) significantly contributes to the community empowerment. it is shown by the value of significance (p-value) of 0.000; this value is smaller than 0.05 (sig. 0.000 <α 0.05). thus, the increase of self-employed workers (dkj5) significantly contributes to the improvement of the empowerment of the community of independent tourist villages in kabila of bone bolango regency. g. level of education this result reveals that the junior high school education level (dpd2) and high school education level (dpd3) significantly contributes to the community empowerment. it is shown by the value of significance (p-value) of 0.016 and 0.004; both values are smaller than 0.05 (sig 0.016 <α 0.05 and sig. 0.004<α 0.05). junior high and senior high graduates contribute to the improvement of the empowerment of the community of independent tourist villages in kabila, bone bolango district. the following diagram of test results direct influence of independent variables (x) on the dependent variable (y) shown in figure 4. halid & abdul figure 4. the direct effect testing result diagram discussion, conclusion and implications model of independent village tourism development community development is still a debatable issue that is relevant to be discussed with strength people's awareness to be engaged with development. community development should be an integral part of a nation's efforts to improve the level of initiation and participation of its citizens in the development process. the participatory development pattern emphasizes the importance of community-based development, meaning that development programs are designed to involve 5.288 s -2.326 s 2.534 ts 4.244 s 3.369 ts 3.370 ts -4.564 ts -6.668 s 0.014 s -0.194 ts 0.091 s 0.136 ts tourism potential (x1) infrastructure (x2) budget policy (x3) resources (x4) community empowerment (y) gender (djk) type of work (dkj) type of work1 (dkj1) type of work1 (dkj3) type of work1 (dkj4) type of work1 (dkj5) level of education (dpd) level of education1 (dpd1) level of education1 (dpd2) level of education1 (dpd3) information: s = significant; ts = not significant = partial effect = effect simultaneously journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 168-184 community participation at every stage, starting from the stage of identifying needs, planning, implementing, evaluating and enjoyed the outcome of the program. it is clearly explained by sunuantari (2017) that local community participation is needed in building a tourism village by holding various community activities to sustain the program. it is a program which is capable of improving the quality of life. then, a sustainable tourism business is a business of community empowerment. the public is fully involved in tourism activities proposed. the arguments for justifying a human-centered development model are: 1) society is the central focus and the ultimate goal of development, therefore participation is the logical consequence of the proposition. 2) participation raises self-worth and personal ability to participate in important decisions concerning the community. 3) participation creates a good environment, comprising attitudes, aspirations, needs and conditions of the area; empowerment will not be revealed without these aspects. 4) participation provides an environment conducive to the actualization of the community's potential and growth. 5) participation is seen as reflecting the democratic rights of individuals to be involved in their own development. in addition to sunuantari (2017) regarding the maintenance of the sustainability of human life, it goes without saying that people must communicate with others. effective communication will benefit all the people. the characteristics of effective communication are providing practical information, giving the fact, clarifying and summarizing information, saying something specific, and persuading others and offering recommendations. its aim, i.e. sustainable tourism product is operated in harmony with the local environment, society and culture, so that they become permanent beneficiaries and not the victims of tourism development (adi, 2017). there are many concepts about the tourism village. such definitions can refer to the facilities provided, the performed or culture and community. from the perspective of facilities, a tourism village is regarded as an area with facilities that meet the demands of tourists to learn the uniqueness of the village. such demands involve activities of residential, social interaction, customary activities and so on. it can be realized a harmonious environment which is re-creative and integrated with the environment. one of the most important elements in the development of village tourism is the involvement of villagers in every aspect of tourism in the village. botubarani village is one of the independent tourism villages that attract the attention of tourists due to its characteristics exclusive to this site. the focus of attention of tourists in the village is the presence of mammals, i.e. whale sharks. it is easy to reach the habitats of these halid & abdul mammals. the coastal community provides diving equipment. this opens opportunities for local people to run other businesses, such as lodges and restaurants. the government also contributes to the development of tourism potential by providing facilities, such as diving equipment. analysis of development model the fgd by implementing local cultural approach (local genius) "mehuyula" or "gotong royong" results in some models of the development of independent tourism as follows: 1. community-based development around it is found that the people around the tourist sites are still implementing the "mohelumo" discussion culture to discuss/discuss matters related to the utilization of the surrounding environment, including in discussing the management of marine tourism potential "whale shark". this culture is relevant with the development and utilization of inclusive and sustainable tourism potential. this model can be adapted to develop this tourism potential because all the impacts and dynamics of tourism development is the responsibility of society monitored by the local organization or institute by optimizing tradition and culture above. the model of maritime tourism development "whale shark" in botubarani village is a community based tour model around the tourism area focuses on the existing socio-economic and cultural conditions that develop the site to empower the society. 2. government-based development this model is more directed to the development of facilities and infrastructure, i.e. the investment or government spending for the development of coastal ecotourism. this is to provide assurance services and infrastructure to domestic and foreign tourists . the economic benefits in the form of levies and taxes become a source of economic income for governments. this opens the opportunity to subsidize sectors, such as agriculture, education, transportation and other sectors related to supporting of tourism development in bone bolango. the such an approach is applicable in the whale shark tourism destination considering the lack of the income of the fishermen in the site. this hinders them from providing facilities and infrastructure and another requirement in accordance with the standard of tourism service. 3. government-and community-driven development this pattern is more likely to be implemented as the government relies more on its budgeting and aspects, such as infrastructure preparation. the community of the ecotourism site relies on the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 168-184 social capital aspect. these two potentials enable the synergize where the government can take a role in the preparation of programs and budgets while the surrounding community can act as program implementers and supervisors. this pattern positively impacts the long-term and sustainability of the whale shark tourism object as the community will participate in maintaining and preserving the area. adi (2017) argues if the role of the government is getting better, then the implementation of community-based tourism and sustainable tourism development will also improve. the role of government showed in figure below: figure 3. the scheme of independent partnership model of whale shark tourism development in bone bolango carter (1991), from (suarthana, 2015) argues that large-scale tourism development often serves as the precursor to small-scale entrepreneurs. this suggests that as tourism development proceeds, indigenous firms and locals gain knowledge and experience in the tourism business. the government should coordinate regarding the investment of infrastructure and the needs of smallscale entrepreneurs and the needs of local communities. this is by paying careful attention to environmental component and economic. conclusion 1. the model of development of independent tourism village in botubarani, kabila district, bone bolango regency is the involvement of the village community in every aspect of tourism. the government can better develop other programs because of tourist village can further enhance its role in reducing poverty. it can also be done by developing the uniqueness of the tourism site and communities at whale shark beach tourist sites tourists, restaurant, lodging, transportation and tour guide marine tourism shark inclusive government of bone bolango(government tourism office) halid & abdul developing the model of participatory development areas that need improvement, as well as by preserving the culture or customs of the site. 2. the independent village development on community empowerment simultaneously has a positive and tangible effect on the improvement of community empowerment, while the partial effect contributes to the infrastructure and resources. demographic variables (dummy variables) also contribute significantly to the empowerment of the community, among others: gender variables, self-employed, and level of education (junior and senior high school equivalent). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 168-184 references journal article adi, nyoman rasmen, et all. (2017). the role of government in community based tourism and sustainable tourism development at penglipuran traditional village-bali. journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss), 22 (6), ver.13 (june. 2017), 15-20. doi: 10.9790/0837-2206131520/ www.iosrjournals.org hakan k, alper a, merve g. (2015). tourism and growth: the case of next-11 countries, international journal of ecnomics and financial, 5(4): 1075-1081. hooi l, sio h.c and chee-wooi h. (2014). tourism and economics growth: comparing malaysia and singapore, international journal of economics and management, 7(1): 67-83. miller, l., m. (2018). social networking strategy for creating public value in eastern india. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 85-93. riyaningtyas, mifta d and dwi h. (2014). coastal development strategy as tourism object in pacitan district. journal of state administration science vol 2, no 1 (2018), faculty of social sciences, yogyakarta state university. suarthana, i ketut, et all. (2017). exploring the community participation, tourism village, and social-economic to environment impact (case study: pentingsari village, yogyakarta). www.grdspublishing.org/index.php/people/article/viewfile/919/806 sunuantari, manik. (2017). tourism communication in community based tourism in dieng community, central java, indonesia. http:www/journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/bbr/article/viewfile/1894/3170 suryanto, t. (2015). implementation of fair value accounting on agency problem contact mudharaba in islamic finance. international journal of economic perspectives, 2015, volume 9, issue 4-102. wibowo a.a. (2010). development of tourism village as a community empowerment model in brayut village, sleman sub-district, sleman district, special province of yogyakarta province. essay. faculty of social and political sciences, sebelas maret university, surakarta. https://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/jser/index http://www.grdspublishing.org/index.php/people/article/viewfile/919/806 http://www.grdspublishing.org/index.php/people/article/viewfile/919/806 http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/bbr/article/viewfile/1894/3170 http://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/bbr/article/viewfile/1894/3170 halid & abdul book ascholani c. (2010). developing a tourism village as an effort to reduce poverty. scientific book. gadjah mada university press, yogyakarta. sudjana. (2002). statistical method. publisher pt tarsito, bandung. books with multiple editors and chapters cheam c.l, rosli m, hussin a, and ong s.c. (2013). tourim selected macroeconomics variables and economics growth: an econometrics of long run and short run relationship. international journal of economics and management, 7(1): 67-83. master’s thesis andini n. (2013). community organizing in agro-tourism development in tourism village (case study: kembangarum tourism village, sleman district journal of regional and city planning, department of urban and regional planning, faculty of engineering, diponegoro university. murniati. (2008). community participation in village tourism development (qualitative descriptive study on community participation in tourism village development in wirun village, mojolaban sukoharjo district). essay. faculty of social and political sciences, sebelas maret university, surakarta. sources from web sites central bureau of statistics. (2015). gorontalo in figures 2015. gorontalo province. retrieved may 25, 2015, from https://www.scribd.com/doc/304827259/gorontalo-in-figure-2015 soemarno. (2010). tourism village. international conference report on cultural tourism. gadjah mada university press, yogyakarta. retrieved may 15, 2016, from https://ugm.ac.id/.../15762-ugm.tuan.rumah.international.conference.critical.tourism.st. https://www.scribd.com/doc/304827259/gorontalo-in-figure-2015 https://www.scribd.com/doc/304827259/gorontalo-in-figure-2015 https://ugm.ac.id/.../15762-ugm.tuan.rumah.international.conference.critical.tourism.st. https://ugm.ac.id/.../15762-ugm.tuan.rumah.international.conference.critical.tourism.st. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (1),47-75 the role of principals’ leadership abilities in improving school performance through the school culture tonich1 abstract the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of principals’ leadership abilities on school performance, both directly and through their schools’ organizational culture. this study adopted a survey design and applied a quantitative approach when analyzing the data. the dependent variable for this research was school performance, an interactive variable was school culture, and the independent variable was school principal leadership. the population for this study was the school principals in charge of the schools/madrasahs under the auspices of palangka raya city education office, with these ranging from elementary schools to high schools and involving 46,194 people. the study’s sample comprised 350 school principals who had served at least one year to ensure that they had applied leadership methods and established a new school organizational culture during their one year in office. to collect data, this study used survey questionnaires, which were divided over three parts, namely the principal’s managerial style, school organizational culture, and school performance. all the instruments were developed by the researcher with reference to the theories, dimensions, and indicators that have been previously put forward by experts and researchers. our results show that a principal’s leadership ability can have a significant effect on school performance, but it also influences the organizational culture of the school and improves performance through this channel. however, the direct influence of a principal’s ability on school performance is greater than when it transmits through the school’s organizational culture, because a school’s organizational learning also affects school performance. keywords: competence, organizational culture, school performance, principal introduction the emergence and development of education cannot be separated from policy support. policies that support the development of education greatly determine how it evolves over time (gocen, 2021; shelley & purzer, 2018; tonich, 2020; walter et al., 2021). in palangka raya city, central kalimantan, indonesia, the city’s policy to develop education is very clear and systematic. this is exemplified in the city’s vision as laid out in the rpjmd 2008–2013: “the realization of the city of palangka raya as a city of education, services, and high-quality tourism, being organized and 1assoc. prof. faculty of teacher training and educational sciences, university of palangka raya, central kalimantan, indonesia; email: tonichuda@fkip.upr.ac.id mailto:tonichuda@fkip.upr.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 48 environmentally friendly in the shift towards a prosperous society according to the ‘betang’ cultural philosophy.” unfortunately, the leadership abilities of school principals are still somewhat lacking in central kalimantan, including in palangka raya city, and this is reflected in the small number of schools that have received an a accreditation. indeed, only 28% of schools are accredited an a, 58% are accredited a b, and 10% are accredited a c, with the remainder not yet being accredited because they are too new (national accreditation board, 2020). the low level of principal leadership in palangka raya also reflects in the fact that there are only 0.1% international-standard schools and 1% pilot-level international-standard schools, with the majority (98.09%) still following national standards. the low level of school principal leadership is also evident in the limited number of learning innovations that have been successfully deployed by teachers. indeed, most teachers still use conventional learning methods, such as lectures, question-and-answer sessions, and assignments (86.5%). few teachers (13.5%) have implemented cooperative learning (palangka raya city education office, 2020). the practice of using two languages, namely indonesian and english, for all subjects has also not gone well, with only 2% of subjects being delivered in two languages, with these efforts only being made at international-standard and pilot-level international-standard schools. another problem in schools is the organizational culture, which can provide a conducive learning environment at the school level, thus increasing the motivation to learn and enhancing student achievement. the organizational culture at the school level remains dull and monotonous, however, with schools providing a tedious experience rather than a fun environment in which to learn (alzahrani & flynnwilson, 2021; brown et al., 2020; etim, etim, & blizard, 2020; honegger, 2020; koyuncuoglu, 2021; namyssova et al., 2019). indeed, the learning process in schools is rigid, and students’ creativity remains to be developed. most students seem overwhelmed by the entire learning content. various efforts have been made to increase the number of schools receiving an a or b accreditation, such as by establishing international-standard schools and encouraging the use of two languages in instruction for all subjects. palangka raya city education office has also tried to increase the use of innovative teaching practices, but it has not enjoyed optimal results, despite its vision being “the realization of the city of palangka raya as a city of education.” tonich operationally, the vision and mission of developing palangka raya in the field of education has been set out by technical agencies, specifically the office of youth and sports education office for palangka raya city. its stated mission is to 1) realize the expansion of, and equal access to, opportunities for a quality education based on national standards; 2) position palangka raya as an education-oriented city with a global outlook and a culture that is knowledgeable, faithful, healthy, skilled, and devoted to god almighty; 3) establish well-planned, orderly, high-quality, effective, and efficient educational facilities and infrastructure as centers of excellence for servicing the community; and 4) provide the professional staff and other human resources needed to provide excellent education services to the community. many studies have demonstrated the important role that leadership’s managerial ability plays in organizational performance, including for schools, both directly and through the school culture. for example, one study found that leaders must have good managerial abilities and technology (boyatzis & ratti, 2009; kopish, & marques, 2020), while the study of morley et al. (2010) identified three factors related to global leadership competencies, namely management perceptions, cognitive-oriented competencies, and interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies. the results of further research by morley et al. (2010b) concluded that leadership and cognitive competence are closely related to improving organizational performance. another study by avolio et al. (2009) found that the ability to work with schemas is important to cognitive leadership, because it can help leaders understand a specific context when trying to improve organizational performance. it also showed a clear link between leadership competence and organizational performance. likewise, cappeli & neumark (2001) found organizational performance to be strongly linked to the managerial ability of leaders and the organizational cultures they develop. plaatjies’ (2019) research, meanwhile, revealed that school principals have poor leadership abilities, especially in areas like making decisions and developing professionalism, so this problem needs to be rectified. in a related study, martinez & tadeu (2018) concluded that a principal’s leadership affects how other management and teaching staff develop a professional identity. principals therefore need to collaborate with teachers and encourage them to collaborate with other teachers to improve their professionalism and ultimately the school’s overall performance. several studies, however, state that school leadership has no managerial effect on school performance (e.g., mastrangelo et al., 2014), nor does it significantly affect organizational culture. this is supported by the study of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 50 jafari & bidarian (2012), which found that competent leadership does not directly influence a school’s culture or organizational performance. based on the abovementioned issues, this study aims to examine the influence of principals’ leadership on their schools’ performance, both directly and through organizational culture. research questions based on the study’s background and the theoretical gaps identified in several previous studies, the research questions for this study are: 1) does a principal’s leadership have any significant effect on the organizational culture of a school in palangka raya, central kalimantan, indonesia? 2) does organizational culture have any significant effect on the performance of a school in palangka raya, central kalimantan, indonesia? 3) does a principal’s leadership have any significant effect on the performance of a school in palangka raya, central kalimantan, indonesia? 4) does a principal’s leadership have any significant effect on performance through the intervening variable of organizational culture for a school in palangka raya, central kalimantan, indonesia? hypotheses based on the research questions above, the following hypotheses were developed: ha1: a principal’s leadership has a significant influence on the organizational culture of a school in palangka raya, central kalimantan. ha2: organizational culture has a significant influence on performance at a school in palangka raya, central kalimantan. ha3: the managerial ability of a school principal has a significant influence on performance at a school in palangka raya, central kalimantan. ha4: the managerial ability of a school principal has a significant influence on performance through the intervening variable of organizational culture for a school in palangka raya, central kalimantan. tonich literature review principals’ leadership schools are unique and complex institutions. they are complex because a school, as an organization, has various dimensions that are interrelated and thus influence each other. they are unique because each school has its own character for conducting the teaching–learning process and providing a place for culturing human life. due to this complex and unique nature, schools require a high level of coordination, and the success of a school is the success of its principal (yulk, 2001). the word “principal” derives from the latin word principal is, referring in this context to “first” or “chief.” simply put, a principal is usually a teacher who is assigned the task of leading a school and directing its teaching and learning processes (mulyasa, 2011). a school’s success essentially depends on the effectiveness of its leader, namely the principal. principals therefore need to have strong leadership qualities to ensure a school’s success. the progression of a school depends on the quality of the graduates it produces (dunkin & biddle, 1974), and the quality of graduates is very much dependent on whether or not the school is run efficiently, which in turn is very dependent on the ability of the principal. a school’s performance can also be measured through the performance of its teachers in the school organization, which is again influenced by the principal’s leadership, and it reflects upon the achievements of their students (moedjiarto, 2002). school organizations need to prioritize quality and identify market opportunities, meaning they should adapt to the needs of their consumers (i.e., the students and their future employers). this adjustment is essential for an organization to move forward by modifying its structure (robbins, 1989), processes, and behaviors (pidarta, 1990). a school is an organization that is engaged in education, but it must of course also develop itself to progress in accordance with the needs and desires of not just the school environment but also the community (ozturk, 2020; suharsaputra, 2010). the principal presents one medium through which to advance a school, because his or her role is very important in various activities, such as managing organizational aspects of the school, and he or she needs to consider various aspects related to management so that organizational goals can be set accordingly. it is challenging, however, for a principal to properly drive a school’s organization and cultivate the performances of its teachers. indeed, many things need to be understood, many journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 52 problems need to be resolved, and many strategies must be mastered. an organization’s strategy needs to be developed in a way that involves all parties that are relevant to any activity in the organization, including making decisions, being open to suggestions and opinions, and allowing other forms of participation (williams, 2002). leadership competence almatrooshi, singh & farouk (2016) state that leadership is a determinant of organizational success. the beliefs and values of organizational leaders also inevitably affect their performance (soebbing et al., 2015). ssekakubo et al. (2014) studied leadership competencies and their effects on organizational performance, finding that it can improve employee performance, which is in turn reflected in organizational performance. leadership makes a key contribution to organizational performance. according to mastrangelo et al. (2014), competent leaders influence their followers and play an important role in achieving organizational goals by creating a conducive environment that encourages good attitudes and behavior, as well as motivation. however, as mentioned by jafari & bidarian, (2012), competent leadership challenges employees to engage and improve their performances, so leadership abilities determine organizational success. creating an effective approach to coaching and managing an organizational workforce requires expertise in human resources and the support of the executive leadership. if an organization aims to develop innovative, high-quality products, employee performance plays an integral role in achieving that goal (cho & dansereau, 2010). organizational culture organizational culture represents the model of norms, values, beliefs, and attitudes that direct organizational behavior. kavanagh & ashkanasy (2006) position organizational culture as “a shared philosophy, ideology, values, assumptions, beliefs, expectations, behavior and norms that bind an organization.” robbins (1990), meanwhile, refers to it as “the general perception held by members of the organization,” while jones (2010) defines it as “the design of informal values, norms that control how people and groups in the organization interact with each other and with parties outside the organization” (berson, oreg, & dyir, 2005). a shared pattern of values and beliefs can help individuals to understand organizational functioning and provide them with a guide for how to behave in an organization (deshpande & webster, 1989; nasir, 2020). tonich the culture has clear implications for improving the performance of a community (sergiovanni & green, 2015). in educational organizations, culture positively influences not just the students but also the staff (jerald, 2006). the organizational culture in schools is like the spirit of life (hinde, 2004) in that it influences each person’s thoughts, feelings, and actions in every aspect of schooling (recepoglu, 2013). in this context, kaplan & owings (2013) also suggest that “culture is able to change everything to change.” peter and waterman (2004) also concluded that every change and influence in an organization is highly dependent on organizational culture. organizational culture is a primary construct in management research due to its influence on organizational behavior and sustainability (meier, 2019; schwartz, 1994). several conceptualizations for organizational culture can be seen in the literature (gregory et al., 2009), but generally, the term “culture” refers to core organizational values and norms (flamholtz, 2001), which in turn influence various factors in organizational settings. according to moorman (1995), organizational culture influences organizations because it can affect, first, “the choice of company results and, second, the ways to achieve those results, including organizational structures and processes.” jones (1983) argues that organizational culture acts as a cognitive map for providing the mechanisms, norms, and values that members should internalize and follow. organizational culture also influences how people think, both consciously and unconsciously, and make decisions, ultimately affecting how they perceive, feel, and act (lok & crawford, 2004). it has also been shown to significantly affect performance (rashid et al., 2003; mannion et al., 2005). organizational culture is considered “one of the most interesting yet difficult to understand topics for management researchers” (harris & ogbonna, 2002). the central role of organizational culture in the business and management literature is based upon the belief that social characteristics are powerful determinants of organizational, group, and individual behavior (hartnell et al., 2011). organizational performance a business’s potential success depends on its organizational ability in terms of implementing strategies effectively to achieve institutional goals (randeree & al youha, 2009). several variables exist to represent organizational performance, such as business model effectiveness, efficiency, and final results (deshpandé et al., 1997; boyatzis & ratti, 2009; ryan et al., 2009). the performance of an organization depends on its leader’s level of expertise for implementing journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 54 strategies based on a conditional relationship between the leader and his or her followers. organizational performance and leadership competencies correlate with social, cognitive, and emotional intelligence (ryan et al., 2012). boyatzis & boyatzis (2009) position social intelligence as a leader's ability to focus on innovation and motivate team members. leadership ability and organizational performance, according to cho & dansereau (2010), are closely related to company performance. likewise, tomal & jones (2015) define organizational performance as the actual outcomes of an organization in comparison to its desired outcomes. methods design this study used a survey design with a quantitative approach to analyze the phenomenon (cresswell, 2014). the dependent variable for this research was school performance, an interactive variable was school culture, and the independent variable was the school principal’s leadership. the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of principals’ leadership abilities on school performance, both directly and through their schools’ organizational culture. the data were analyzed using spss version 19.0. sem approach with a two-sided t-test to show the direction of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable was used. the study took place in palangkaraya, indonesia. population and sample the population for this study was all the school principals of the schools/madrasahs under the auspices of the palangka raya city education office, with them ranging from elementary to high schools and involving 46,194 people. the study sample comprised 350 school principals with at least one year in the job to ensure they had applied their leadership methods within their current schools and established a new organizational culture. the distribution of schools in the research sample is shown in table 1. table 1. number and distribution of the research sample based on school level no district primary school junior high school senior high school/vocatio nal school total 1 pahandut 30 20 20 70 2 jekan raya 30 20 20 70 tonich 3 sebangau 30 20 20 70 4 bukit batu 30 20 20 70 5 rakumpit 30 20 20 70 total 150 100 100 350 instrument this study used a survey questionnaire to collect data. the questionnaire was divided over three parts relating to the principals’ managerial ability, organizational culture, and school performance. there were seven items about managerial ability, eight for organizational culture, and nine for school performance, making for a total of 24 instruments (table 2). all instruments were developed by the researcher based on the theories, dimensions, and indicators that had been previously put forward by previous experts and researchers. to determine the validity of the instrument items, the product-moment correlation test was used to correlate the item scores to the total score. all items had a correlation above 0.6 and a significance below 0.05, so all 24 items were suitable for use in the research. the instrument’s reliability was tested using cronbach’s alpha. the results for all variables demonstrated a good reliability level above 0.7, so the instrument was suitable for our research (table 3). table 2. research instrument variable dimension item total principal leadership leadership style 2 7 coordination 3 cooperation 2 organizational culture organizational climate 3 8 social relations between workers 3 organizational environment 2 school organizational performance target 3 9 output 3 stakeholder satisfaction level 3 total 24 24 table 3. results of the reliability test cronbach's alpha cronbach's alpha based on standardized items n of items leadership 0.854 0.823 7 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 56 cronbach's alpha cronbach's alpha based on standardized items n of items org. culture 0.823 0.821 8 school performance 0.798 0.765 9 from table 3, we can see that for the leadership variable, the cronbach’s alpha value is 0.854, which is greater than 0.60, so this seven-item instrument is reliable. for the organizational culture variable, the cronbach’s alpha value is 0.823, which is greater than 0.60, so this eight-item instrument is reliable. finally, for the organizational culture variable, the cronbach’s alpha is 0.798, which is again greater than 0.60, so this nine-item instrument is reliable. data collection the collection of data from the sample was achieved using questionnaires that were designed and structured to reveal each principal’s managerial ability. the participating principals who returned valid questionnaires included 150 primary school principals, 100 junior high school principals, and 100 high school or vocational high school principals, for a total of 350 principals (table 1). there were actually 385 respondents, but due to some being incomplete or flawed, only 350 could be retained for analysis. data analysis data analysis was performed over three steps: first, a normality test confirmed that the sample followed a normal distribution. second, the descriptive statistics were tested to show the central tendency of the results. third, hypothesis testing was performed to see if the independent variables influenced the dependent variable. all analyses were applied using spss version 19. the results of the kolmogoriv–smirnov test for normality are shown in table 4, and they convey that the sample was not significantly different from the population. quantitative descriptive analysis is intended to present data in the form of a central measure and a measure of the spread of each indicator, namely through the average, median, mode, minimum, maximum, range, and total. the spread is represented through variance and standard deviation. accordingly, research hypotheses were tested using the sem approach, allowing a two-sided t-test to show the direction of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. a two-sided test was used because the tonich independent variable both positively and negatively affects the dependent variable (helm et al., 2010). descriptive statistic data the data sourced from the sample related to areas of the principals’ managerial ability, organizational culture, and school performance. these were analysed using structural equation modelling (sem) in the lisrel 8.8 software, which was chosen because its analysis involves both indigenous and exogenous variables. in addition to the dependent and independent variables, there is also an intervening variable. the sem data analysis comprised two steps: the measurement instrument was validated through confirmatory factor analysis, and then the structural model was estimated. to test the hypotheses, the correlation test looked at the r coefficient between variables and the t-test results. if the t-test results had a significance below 0.05, the correlation results were significant, so the null hypothesis could be rejected in favour of the working hypothesis. results demography analysis details about the number of elementary schools (sd/mi) in palangka raya and their students are shown in table 4. table 4. number of elementary schools and their students in palangka raya no district schools students public private total public private total 1 pahandut 35 13 48 8,173 2,685 10,855 2 jekan raya 34 3 37 8,499 2,579 11,077 3 sebangau 8 2 10 1,775 0 1,775 4 bukit batu 14 2 16 1,580 252 1,832 5 rakumpit 9 0 9 584 0 584 total 100 20 120 20,610 5,516 26,123 source: basic education data for palangka raya there are 120 schools at the sd/mi (elementary school/madrasah ibtidayah) level in palangka raya, mostly public schools (100 or 83.33%), while the rest were private (20 or 16.67%). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 58 table 5. number of junior high schools and their students in palangka raya no district schools students public private total public private total 1 pahandut 6 11 17 3,044 1,738 4,782 2 jekan raya 6 10 16 2,271 1,314 3,585 3 sebangau 5 0 5 547 0 547 4 bukit batu 3 2 5 535 30 665 5 rakumpit 5 0 5 134 0 134 total 25 23 48 6,531 3,182 9,713 source: basic education data for palangka raya there are 48 schools at the smp/mt level (junior high school/madrasah tsanawiyah) in palangka raya. of these, just over half are public schools (25 or 52.08%), while the rest are private (23 or 47.92%). table 6. number of high schools and their students in palangka raya no district schools students public private total public private total 1 pahandut 2 12 14 2,500 2,005 4,505 2 jekan raya 4 6 10 1,895 445 2,340 3 sebangau 0 1 1 0 79 79 4 bukit batu 1 2 3 287 48 335 5 rakumpit 0 0 0 0 0 0 total 7 21 28 4,682 2,577 7,259 source: basic education data for palangka raya there are 28 schools at the sma/ma (senior high school/madrasah aliyah) level in palangka raya city. of these, most are private schools (21 or 75.00%), while the rest are public schools (7 or 25.00%). these 28 schools are confined to four sub-districts in in palangka raya city, with rakumpit district having no such schools at all. the greatest number of sma/ma schools (14) is found in pahandut district, followed by jekan raya district (10 schools), bukit batu district (three schools), and sabangau district (one school). this is conveyed in more detail in table 6. normality test the kolmogorov–smirnov z test was used to test for normality in the three research variables. the results of this are shown in table 7. tonich table 7. data normality test results description unstandardized residual (leadership) unstandardized residual (organizational culture) unstandardized residual (school performance ) n 350 350 350 kolmogorovsmirnov z 0.878 0.843 0.841 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) 0.449 0.449 0.449 source: data analysis by spss 19.0, 2020 the results of the one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test for normality yielded asymp sig (2tailed) values that were all greater than 0.05, indicating that the data from the sample for the three variables could be regarded as being normally distributed. descriptive statistical analysis the results of the descriptive analysis for the three research variables are presented in table 8. table 8. the principals’ leading abilities in school indicator very good good quite good poor very poor average status principal’s managerial success 22.15 54.46 19.38 3.08 0.92 3.94 good principal’s managerial track record 19.22 55.37 22.15 2.61 0.65 3.90 good source: primary data processing for the track-record indicator of school principal leadership, most of the respondents (55.37%) thought it was good, followed by another 22.15% who thought it was quite good, 19.22% who thought it was very good, 2.61% who thought it was poor, and 0.66% who thought it was very poor. table 9. the principals’ abilities to cultivate an organizational culture indicator very good good quite good poor very poor average status journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 60 student achievement in intracurricular and extracurricular fields 20.31 43.38 33.54 2.46 0.31 3.81 good breakthroughs in creating learning methods 11.04 55.52 30.06 2.76 0.61 3.74 good increased student interest in independent learning 11.66 34.66 48.16 5.21 0.31 3.36 good source: primary data processing in terms of the principals’ ability to develop student achievement in the intracurricular and extracurricular fields, 43.38% of respondents thought it was good, followed by 33.54% who thought it was quite good, 20.31% who thought it was very good, 2.46% who thought it was poor, and 0.31% who thought it was very poor. meanwhile, in terms of the principals’ ability to introduce breakthroughs to increase the effectiveness of learning methods, some 55.52% of respondents thought it was good, followed by 30.06% who said it was quite good, 11.04% who said it was very good, 2.76% who thought it was poor, and 0.61% who thought it was very poor. for the principals’ ability to increase student interest in independent study, most respondents (48.16%) thought it was quite good, followed by 34.66% who thought it was good, 11.66% who thought it was very good, 5.21% who thought it was poor, and 0.31% who thought it was very poor. table 10. the principals’ abilities to improve school performance indicator interval total % very poor 37.00–66.60 3 0.91 poor 66.70–96.30 12 3.66 quite good 96.40–126.00 74 22.56 good 126.10–155.70 164 50.00 very good 155.80–185.40 75 22.87 total 328 100 source: primary data processing as can be gleaned from table 10, the overall abilities of the school principals for improving school performance can be regarded as already being relatively good, as illustrated by the 72.87% of respondents who gave a “good” or “very good” rating. unfortunately, many school principals only scored “quite good” (22.56% of respondents), and a handful even scored “poor” or “very poor” (3.66% and 0.91% of respondents, respectively). tonich table 11. the principals’ ability to cultivate a school culture indicator very good good quite good poor very poor average status student achievements in intracurricular and extracurricular fields 20.31 43.38 33.54 2.46 0.31 3.81 good breakthroughs in creating learning methods 11.04 55.52 30.06 2.76 0.61 3.74 good increased student interest in independent learning 11.66 34.66 48.16 5.21 0.31 3.36 good source: primary data processing in terms of the principals’ overall ability to develop student achievement in intracurricular and extracurricular fields, 43.38% of respondents thought it was good, followed by 33.54% who thought it was quite good, 20.31% who thought it was very good, 2.46% who thought it was poor, and 0.31% who thought it was very poor. meanwhile, in terms of the principals’ abilities to make breakthroughs to increase the effectiveness of learning methods, 55.52% of respondents thought it was good, followed by 30.06% who said it was quite good, 11.04% who said it was very good, 2.76% who thought it was poor, and 0.61% who said it was very poor. for the principals’ overall ability to increase student interest in independent study, most respondents (48.16%) thought it was quite good, followed by 34.66% who thought it was good, 11.66% who expressed a very good opinion, 5.21% who thought it was poor, and 0.31% who thought it was very poor. hypothesis testing before the data were analyzed to answer the four research questions, normality and other assumption tests were carried out. data normality was confirmed by estimating the slope and kurtosis of each measurement item. the slope values ranged from 0.342 to 0.124, and the kurtosis values ranged from -0.017 to 0.243., and because these values are between ± 2 and ± 5, they are considered as confirming a normal distribution (basrowi & kasinu, 2006). referring to the results of the analysis using lisrel, the result for the ratio coefficient χ2 / df (i.e., 267.49 > 3.03) can be used to indicate an acceptable fit for the model. other goodness of fit indicators include rmsea = 0.087, nfi = 0.978, nnfi = 0.954, cfi = 0.957, gfi = 0.945, agfi = 0.954. based on the above, it was concluded that this study’s model was feasible and acceptable, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 62 being in accordance with the standards recommended by hu and bentler (1999). the results of the above analysis (see table 12) indicate that the model created by the researcher accords with the empirical data (kline 1998). table 12. goodness of fit criteria gofi score good standard of fit conclusion nilai p χ2 0.056 nilai p> 0.05 fit rmsea 0.087 rmsea ≤ 0.08 fit nfi 0.978 nfi ≥ 0.90 fit nnfi 0.954 nnfi ≥ 0.90 fit cfi 0.957 cfi ≥ 0.90 fit gfi 0.945 gfi ≥ 0.90 fit agfi 0.954 agfi ≥ 0.90 fit source: primary data, processed with lisrel version 8.80. all research hypotheses were tested using the sem approach. we applied a two-sided t-test to show the direction of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. as stated by helm et al. (2010), if an independent variable can both positively and negatively affect the dependent variable, a two-sided test should be used. according to the two-tailed test (df = 350), a significance level of 0.05 (p < 0.05) requires a t-value greater than 1.96, while a significance level of 0.01 (p < 0.01), requires a t-value greater than 2.63, and a significance level of 0.001 (p < 0.001) requires an t-value greater than 3.40. figure 1. structural model results based on the diagram above, the results can be tabulated in a summary form, as shown in table 13. table 13. path coefficients hypothesis aspect path coefficient t-statistic conclusion school organizational culture (soc) school performance (sp) principals’ managerial ability (pma) 0.66 0.64 0.76 tonich h1 pma–soc 0.66 9.32 significant h2 soc–sp 0.64 11.32 significant h3 pma–sp 0.76 11.62 significant h4 pma–soc-sp 0.34 6.88 significant source: primary data, processed with lisrel version 8.80. the results therefore confirm hypothesis h1, which states that a principal’s managerial ability has a positive effect on a school’s organizational culture (β = 0.66, t = 9.32, p: 0.000). h2 posits that a school’s organizational culture has a positive effect on that school’s performance in palangka raya, central kalimantan. the result (β = 0.64, t = 11.32, p: 0.000) also confirms that this hypothesis can be accepted. h3 states that a principal’s managerial ability has a positive impact on a school’s performance in palangka raya, central kalimantan. the analysis results (β = 0.76, t = 11.62, p: 0.000) confirm that this hypothesis is also accepted. finally, h4 asserts that a principal’s managerial ability will have a positive effect on school performance through a school’s organizational culture. the results (β = 0.42, t = 6.88, p: 0.000) support this hypothesis, so it can be accepted. discussion this research aims at determining the effect of principals’ leadership abilities on school performance through schools’ organizational culture. results show that principal’s managerial ability affects schools’ performance and organizational culture. to interpret the results of the study the following discussion is addressed. principals’ managerial abilities and school performance principals often do their best to serve both staff and students, and they know a lot about their duties and set the rhythm for the school. they are clearly important in organizing school life in order to achieve optimal outcomes. successful principals understand their schools as unique, complex organizations and are able to take a leading role in them. leadership means having the ability to use all the available resources in an organization in the best way possible to achieve the stated goals. according to robbins (1989), in organizational practice, the word “lead” implies moving, directing, guiding, protecting, fostering, giving examples, giving encouragement, providing journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 64 assistance, and so on, and this gives an indication of the breadth of the duties and roles of an organizational leader. leadership is usually defined by experts according to their personal views, as well as aspects of particular interest for the expert concerned. yukl (2001) defines leadership as a trait, a personal behavior, an influence on others, a pattern of interaction, a cooperative relationship between roles, an administrative position, and a perception as someone worthy of influence. leadership is the ability to move, motivate, and influence people to take actions that will help achieve organizational goals while courageously making decisions about activities. qualified principals will have some basic abilities, personal qualifications, and professional knowledge and skills. according to mulyasa (2011), these abilities must be possessed by any kind of leader, and they include conceptual skills, human skills, and technical skills. more specifically, 1) technical skills relate to processes, procedures, or techniques, as well as special skills for analyzing certain matters and utilizing specific facilities, equipment, techniques, and knowledge. 2) human skills represent the ability to work effectively as a member of a group to foster collaborative efforts within that group. 3) conceptual skills reflect the ability of a leader to view the organization as a whole. in addition to these basic abilities, principals should have personal qualifications in the form of traits that are essential for any leader. in other words, leadership must be supported by good mental, physical, and emotional health, as well as suitable social characters, attitudes, ethics, and personalities. the novelty of this research lies in establishing that when a principal has good leadership abilities, his or her school’s performance will improve. the process of improving school performance also starts by raising the ability of teachers to apply good learning methods, which in turn improves their students’ outcomes. the better that the quality of a school’s teaching is, the better its performance is. principals’ leadership and organizational culture the government has established standards for the skills of school principals, and these are mandated in the regulation of the minister of national education number 13 of 2007 concerning standards for school and madrasah principals. in the context of school management, a school principal must build a school’s culture through planning, developing the organization, leading the school, managing change, regulating the school climate, managing school facilities and infrastructure, managing community relationships, managing students, managing curriculum tonich development and learning activities, managing school finances, administering the school, developing methods for special learning, managing school information systems and taking advantage of technology, and monitoring, evaluating, and reporting the status of the school’s activities. the description above agrees with that of kotter (1996), who states that organizational culture can be a strategic asset for making an organization more adaptable and suitable to its environment. likewise, the results of this study agree with peters & waterman’s (2004) opinion that dynamically speaking, a strong organization is a harmonious and systematic collaboration process between organizational members in a formal and hierarchical order, with everyone acting in accordance with agreed terms to effectively and efficiently achieve goals. the principals in palangka raya have already implemented good leadership management, including building an organizational culture. bertocci (2009), lumby (2012), zhu & engels (2013) explain that organizational culture is a system of meaning that is followed by organizational members as a relatively new phenomenon. a novel finding of this research is that principals’ managerial abilities are related to improving a school’s organizational culture. the better the leadership abilities of a principal, the better his or her school’s performance will be. conversely, when a principal has poor managerial abilities, the school’s performance will also be limited. organizational culture and school performance organizational culture is desirable to improve the performance of a school (robbins, 1990). it is the invisible hand guiding people’s behavior (peterson, 2013; singh, 2014). however, it is an individual “character” that unites, provides meaning and direction, and mobilizes and influences the thoughts, feelings, and actions of organizational members, and this is reflected in a principal’s good managerial competence (duchon & plowman, 2005; sampson, ifenthaler, spector & isaias, 2014; storey, 2011), because organizational culture is the “core and spirit” of a school. without this, a school will tend to be incomplete and unable to succeed (fry & cohen, 2009; mitchell & sackney, 2016). culture in any organization, including schools, acts as an adaptive and regulative mechanism (georgiades, 2015; parameshwar, 2005). strong leadership in an organization, including schools, is very important, because this determines the organizational culture (yuan & lee, 2011). the results of this study concur with those of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 66 several other recent studies that have shown that leadership contributes significantly to the quality of organizational culture and performance (bendikson, 2012; harwiki, 2013; murphy & torre, 2015). indeed, effective leadership is the main precondition for creating a conducive organizational culture that can strengthen systems that may otherwise fail or become difficult to control. without good leadership and a sound organizational culture, any organization will likely collapse (ali & ngang, 2011; eric, steven & boberg, 2016). organizations rely heavily on strong leadership for dealing with unexpected changes in everyday operations. indeed, many studies have found that even strong organizations can fail due to weak leadership (cross, ernst & pasmore, 2013). strengthening an organizational culture must therefore be achieved by upholding good leadership through the use of various direct and indirect strategies (lin & mcdonough, 2011). the findings of this study are consistent with those of ostroff and schmitt (1993) in that organizational effectiveness is influenced by organizational culture. juechter, fisher & alford (1998) conducted a study that found that organizational culture greatly influences the effectiveness of business organizations. likewise, thibodeaux & favilla (1995) made use of planning and goal setting, flexibility and adaptation, information management, communication, readiness, evaluation by external entities, and the concept of organizational effectiveness stability to examine strategic management processes and found significant correlation. this study also confirms the findings of asree et al. (2010), who stated that organizational culture—including vision, integrity, openness, dedication, and creativity among leaders—helps improve organizational performance. the success of an organization therefore ultimately depends on the competence of its leaders and its organizational culture (soebbing et al., 2015). this study is novel in finding that when a school’s organizational culture is good, its level of performance will also increase, because it improves the morale of teachers and other staff, as well as the students. principals’ leadership, performance, and organizational culture the principal, as a school’s administrator, holds the key to driving a school’s progress. he must be able to lead and fulfil his role, such that all activities are controlled and directed toward innovative efforts to try new ideas and new practices to achieve a more effective and efficient classroom experience. the principal is also fully responsible for fostering an organizational culture tonich for education in his or her school, so school performance can improve. to be able to carry out their duties properly, principals should understand and master all the activities within their purview as an educational administrator, so they can improve the organizational culture and consequently school performance. furthermore, the management of a principal should be directed at improving the performance of teachers, students, and other educational components, but this will also improve the organizational culture and consequently school performance. the educational paradigm offers broad authority to schools to develop various organizational cultures, but this requires able principals that are adept in various managerial aspects to achieve a school’s goals and ultimately improve school performance. the principal is essentially a teacher who has been assigned the task of leading a school and building its organizational culture such that school performance is improved (moedjiarto, 2002). such a role cannot easily be filled by anyone, so candidates are selected according to factors like experience, age, rank, and integrity, in accordance with permendiknas number 28 of 2010 concerning the assignment of teachers as principals of schools/madrasahs. this study’s findings strongly support those of pradhan & pradhan (2015) in that leadership is currently considered a keyword because those in charge of organizations prefer to be called leaders rather than managers. according to mcnair et al. (2011), leaders must learn the art of motivating a team of people to act appropriately, thus building an organizational culture, in order to achieve shared goals. leadership is a way to recruit followers through the skilled creation of organizational culture, thus improving organizational performance (lee et al., 2015). pradhan & pradhan (2015) suggest that the competence of a leader is best measured by his or her ability to improve organizational culture and performance. ssekakubo et al. (2014) studied leadership abilities and their consequences for organizational culture and performance through efforts to enhance employee performance. leaders who can achieve the best performance act as agents of change, because this triggers improvements in organizational culture and consequently employee and organizational performance. indeed, bass & steidlmeier (1999) emphasize that management can support its commitment to operating a successful business through achieving a good organizational culture and meeting established goals. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 68 this study also supports the findings of bass & steidlmeier (1999) in that leadership ability reflects on overall success through building an organizational culture and achieving high performance. almatrooshi, singh & farouk (2016) found that due to their good management, leaders are able to implement leadership strategies and techniques and build a good organizational culture that enables employees to achieve their full potential (siddique, 2012). a novel finding is that a principal’s managerial abilities can help improve the performance of a school, both directly and through the organizational culture. implications this study has practical implications for improving school performance, because this can be facilitated by improving the managerial skills of principals, which in turn will give them the ability to create a conducive organizational culture in school. when these two things are done effectively, school performance should improve significantly. conclusion in summary, this study reveals that a principal’s managerial ability exerts a significant influence over a school’s organizational culture and overall school performance. what is more, a good school culture can significantly contribute to improving school performance. however, the managerial abilities of school principals make a greater direct contribution to the performance of schools than they do indirectly through organizational culture, so efforts to optimize the managerial abilities of school principals should be prioritized over improving a school’s organizational culture, because this will yield stronger and quicker improvements in school performance. this study however has its limitation in that the elaboration of cultural organization is limited. the future research is suggested to enlarge the indicators of cultural organization by connecting with the leadership style to improve the limitation of the study. in addition, school performance is added to see the policy of principals in context of digital leadership. references almatrooshi, b., singh, s.k. & farouk, s. (2016). determinants of organizational performance: a proposed framework. international journal of productivity and performance management, 65(6), 844-859. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijppm-02-2016-0038 https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=bashaer%20almatrooshi https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=sanjay%20kumar%20singh https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=sherine%20farouk https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/1741-0401 https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/1741-0401 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijppm-02-2016-0038 tonich alzahrani, s. s., & flynn-wilson, l. (2021). cultural influences on early intervention services. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 3(1), 1-9. asree, s., zain, m. & rizal razalli, m. (2010). influence of leadership competency and organizational culture on responsiveness and performance of firms. international journal of contemporary hospitality management, 22(4), 500-516. doi: 10.1108/09596111011042712 avolio, b.j., walumbwa, f.o. & weber, t.j. (2009). leadership: current theories, research, and future directions. annual review of psychology, 60, 421-449. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621 badan perencanaan pembangunan daerah kota palangka raya. (2012). kota palangka raya dalam angka tahun 2011. kerjasama dengan badan pusat statistik kota palangka raya. palangka raya. basrowi & kasinu, a. (2005). metodologi penelitian pendidikan. surabaya: jenggala pustaka utama. bass, b.m. & steidlmeier, p. (1999). ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior. leadership quarterly, 10(2), 181-217. doi: org/10.1016/s1048-9843(99)000168 bendikson, l. i. (2012). principal instructional leadership. teaching & learning research initiative, 1, 2-8. doi: 10.1108/jea-01-2014-0006 bertocci, d. i. (2009). leadership in organizations: there is a difference between leaders and managers. lenham md.: university press of america. boyatzis, r. & boyatzis, r.e. (2009). competencies as a behavioral approach to emotional intelligence. journal of management development, 28(9), 749-770. doi: doi.org/10.1108/02621710910987647. brown, b.a., ribay, k., perez, g., boda, p.a., & wilsey m. (2020). a virtual bridge to cultural access: culturally relevant virtual reality and its impact on science students. international journal of technology in education and science (ijtes), 4(2), 86-97. cho, j. & dansereau, f. (2010). are transformational leaders fair? a multi-level study of transformational leadership, justice perceptions, and organizational citizenship behaviors. the leadership quarterly, 21(3), 409-421. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.03.006 creswell, j. w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1108%2f09596111011042712 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/s1048-9843(99)00016-8 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/s1048-9843(99)00016-8 https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1108%2fjea-01-2014-0006 https://doi.org/10.1108/02621710910987647 https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1016%2fj.leaqua.2010.03.006 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 70 cross, r., ernst, c., & pasmore, b. (2013). a bridge too far? how boundary spanning networks drive organizational change and effectiveness. organizational dynamics, 42(number), 8191. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2013.03.001 deshpande, r., farley, j.u. & webster, f.e. (1997). factors affecting organizational performance: a five-country comparison. working paper no. 97-108, marketing science institute, cambridge, ma. dinas pendidikan pemuda dan olah raga kota palangka raya. rangkuman data pokok pendidikan kota palangka raya tahun 2010/2011. palangka raya. duchon, d. & plowman, d. a. (2005). nurturing the spirit at work: impact on work unit performance. leadership quarterly, 16(number), 807-833. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.07.008 dunkin dan biddle. (1974). curriculum an introduction. london: open books. eric, j., steven, b., & boberg, j. e. (2016). the effects of integrated transformational leadership on achievement. journal of educational administration, 54(number), 357-374. doi: 10.1108/jea-07-2014-0086 etim, j. s., etim, a. s., & blizard, z. d. (2020). class size and school performance: an analysis of elementary and middle schools. international journal on studies in education (ijonse), 2(2), 66-77. flamholtz, e. (2001). corporate culture and the bottom line. european management journal. 19(3), 268-275. doi: repec:eee:eurman:v:19:y:2001:i:3:p:268-275 fry, l. w. & cohen, m. p. (2009). spiritual leadership as a paradigm for organizational transformation and recovery from extended work hours cultures. journal of business ethics, 84(number), 265-278. doi: doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9695-2 georgiades, s. (2015). employee engagement in media management: media business and innovation. the netherlands: springer. gocen, a. (2021). neuroleadership: a conceptual analysis and educational implications. international journal of education in mathematics, science, and technology (ijemst), 9(1), 63-82. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.1237 gregory, b.t, harris s.g, armenakis, a.a, & shook, c.l. (2009). organizational culture and effectiveness: a study of values, attitudes, and organizational outcomes, journal of business research, 62(7), 673-679. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.05.021 harris, l.c. & ogbonna, e. (2002). the unintended consequences of culture interventions: a study of unexpected outcomes. british journal of management. 13(1), 31-49. https://www.academia.edu/3667692/the_unintended_consequences_of_culture_interve https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2013.03.001 https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1016%2fj.leaqua.2005.07.008 https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1108%2fjea-07-2014-0086 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9695-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.05.021 tonich ntions_a_study_of_unexpected_outcomes hartnell, c. ou, a., & kinicki, a. (2011). organizational culture and organizational effectiveness: a meta-analytic investigation of the competing values framework's theoretical suppositions. journal of applied psychology, 96(4), 677-694. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021987 harwiki, w. (2013). the influence of servant leadership on organization culture, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior and employees performance (study of outstanding cooperatives in east java province, indonesia). journal of economics and behavioral studies, 5(12), 876-885. doi: https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v5i12.460 hinde, e. r. (2004). school culture and change: an examination of the effects of school culture on the process of change. essays in education, 12(number), 1-12. doi: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.404.6474&rep=rep1&type=pdf. honegger, m. (2020). what does education mean: cultural values in educational language. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 42-53. doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12. jafari, p., & bidarian, s. (2012). the relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behavior. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 47, 18151820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.905 jerald, c. d. (2006). school culture: “the hidden curriculum” (issue brief). washington, dc. jones, g. (1983), transaction costs, property rights, and organisational culture: an exchange perspective. administrative science quarterly, 28, 454-67. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2392252 jones, p., (2010). collaboration at a distance: using a wiki to create a collaborative learning environment for distance education and on-campus students in a social work course. j. teach. social work, 30(2), 225–236. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/08841231003705396 juechter, w. m., fisher, c., & alford, r. j. (1998). five conditions for high performance cultures. training and development, 52(5), 63-68. doi: http://www.balancepointinternational.com/elnet/5conditions.htm kaplan, l. s. & owings, w. a. (n.d.). culture re-boot: reinvigorating school culture to improve student outcomes. thousand oaks, ca: corwin press. kavanagh, m. h., & ashkanasy, n. m. (2006). the impact of leadership and change management strategy on organizational culture and individual acceptance of change during a merger. british journal of management, 17(number): s81-s103. doi: doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2006.00480.x https://doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v5i12.460 https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.404.6474&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.905 https://doi.org/10.2307/2392252 https://doi.org/10.1080/08841231003705396 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2006.00480.x journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 72 kopish, m. & marques, w. (2020). leveraging technology to promote global citizenship in teacher education in the united states and brazil. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 45-69. kotter, j. p. (1996). leading change. boston: harvard business school. koyuncuoglu, d. (2021). an investigation of potential leadership and innovation skills of university students. international journal of education in mathematics, science, and technology (ijemst), 9(1), 103-115. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.1374 lin, h. e., & mcdonough iii, e. f. (2011). investigating the role of leadership and organizational culture in fostering innovation ambidexterity. ieee transactions on engineering management, 58(3), 497-509. doi: 10.1109/tem.2010.2092781 lok, p. & crawford j. (2004). the effect of organisational culture and leadership style on job satisfaction and organisational commitment. journal of management development, 23(4), 321-338. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621710410529785 lumby, j. (2012). leading organizational culture: issues of power and equity. educational management administration & leadership, 40(number), 576-591. doi: doi.org/10.1177/1741143212451173 mannion r., davies h. t., & marshall m. n. (2005). cultural characteristics of “high” and “low” performing hospitals. journal of health organization management. 19(6), 431439. doi: 10.1108/14777260510629689 martinez, i.g. & tadeu, p.j.a. (2018). the influence of pedagogical leadership on the construction of professional identity: a systematic review. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 272-289. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/279/272 mastrangelo, a., eddy, e.r. & lorenzet, s.j. (2014). the relationship between enduring leadership and organizational performance. leadership and organization development journal, 35(7), 590-604. doi: 10.1108/lodj-08-2012-0097 mcnair, d.e., duree, c.a. & ebbers, l. (2011). if i knew then what i know now: using the leadership competencies developed by the american association of community colleges to prepare community college presidents. community college review, 39(1), 3-25. doi: doi.org/10.1177/0091552110394831 meier, l. (2019). questioning the problematic nature of school culture in elementary teacher education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 34-44. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.3 mitchell, c. & sackney, l. (2016). school improvement in high-capacity schools: educational leadership and living-systems ontology. educational management administration & leadership, 4(number), 853-868. doi: /doi.org/10.1177/1741143214564772 https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1109%2ftem.2010.2092781 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1108/02621710410529785 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f1741143212451173 https://doi.org/10.1108/14777260510629689 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/279/272 https://doi.org/10.1108/lodj-08-2012-0097 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0091552110394831 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.3 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f1741143214564772 tonich moedjiarto (2002). sekolah unggul. metodologi untuk meningkatkan mutu pendidikan. surabaya: duta graha. moorman, c. (1995). organizational market information processes: culture antecedents and new product outcomes. journal of marketing research, 32(august), 318-35. doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.68.2.114.27788 morley, m.j., cerdin, j.-l., bird, a., mendenhall, m., stevens, m.j. & oddou, g. (2010). defining the content domain of intercultural competence for global leaders. journal of managerial psychology, 25(8), 810-828. doi: 10.1108/02683941011089107 mulyasa. (2011). manajemen dan kepemimpinan kepala sekolah. jakarta: bumi aksaran. murphy, j. & torre, d. (2015). vision: essential scaffolding. educational management administration & leadership, 43(6), 177-197. doi: doi.org/10.1177/1741143214523017 namyssova, g., tussupbekova, g., helmer, j., malone, k., afzal, m., & jonbekova. d. (2019). challenges and benefits of blended learning in higher education. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 2(1), 22-31. nasir, m. (2020). curriculum development and accreditation standards in the traditional islamic schools in indonesia. journal of curriculum studies research. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 ostroff, c. & schmitt, n. (1993), configurations of organizational effectiveness and efficiency. academy of management journal, 36(6), 1345-1361. doi: doi.org/10.2307/256814 ozturk, i. (2020). book review. educational leadership and management: developing insights and skills. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 133-137. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.8 pemerintah kota palangka raya. rencana pembangunan jangka menengah (rpjm) kota palangka raya tahun 2008-2013. palangka raya. peraturan pemerintah nomor 19 tahun 2005 tentang standar nasional pendidikan. permendiknas nomor 13 tahun 2007 tentang standar kepala sekolah/madrasah permendiknas nomor 28 tahun 2010 tentang penugasan guru sebagai kepala sekolah/madrasah peters, t., & waterman, r. h. (2004). in search of excellence: lessons from america’s best-run companies. new york: harper collins publishers, inc. peterson, j. f. (2013). creative leadership signposts in higher education: turn left at the duck pond. rotterdam: sense publishers. https://doi.org/10.1509%2fjmkg.68.2.114.27788 https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1108%2f02683941011089107 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f1741143214523017 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 https://doi.org/10.2307/256814 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.8 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(1), 47-75 74 pidarta, made. (1990). manajemen pendidikan indonesia. jakarta: bumi aksara. plaatjies, b.o. (2019). investigating principal capacity in literacy instructional leadership at selected primary schools. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 391-414. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/968 pradhan, s. & pradhan, r.k. (2015). an empirical investigation of relationship among transformational leadership, affective organizational commitment and contextual performance. vision: the journal of business perspective, 19(3), 227-235. doi: doi.org/10.1177/0972262915597089 randeree, k. & al youha, h. (2009). strategic management of performance: an examination of public sector organizations in the united arab emirates”, international journal of knowledge, culture and change management. 9(4), 123-134. doi: http://eureka.sbs.ox.ac.uk/803/ rashid, z., sambasivan, m. & johari, j. (2003). the influence of corporate culture and organisational commitment on performance. the journal of management development, 22(7/8), 708-728. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621710310487873 robbins, s.p. (1989). organizational behavior. new jersey: prentice hall, inc. ryan, g., emmerling, r.j. & spencer, l.m. (2009). distinguishing high-performing european executives: the role of emotional, social and cognitive competencies. journal of management development, 28(9), 859-875. doi: 10.1108/02621710910987692 sampson, d. g., ifenthaler, d., spector, j. m., & isaias, p. (2014). digital systems for open access to formal and informal learning. cham: springer international publishing, springer. schwartz s. h. (1994). beyond individualism/ collectivism: new cultural dimensions of values. thousand oaks, ca: sage publication. sergiovanni, t. j. & green, r. l. (2015). the principalship: a reflective practice perspective (6th ed.). boston, ma: allyn & bacon shelley, m., & purzer, s. (2018). culture, identity, and motivation in engineering education. international journal of education in mathematics, science and technology (ijemst), 6(3), i-iv. doi: 10.18404/ijemst.428160 soebbing, b.p., wicker, p. & weimar, d. (2015). the impact of leadership changes on expectations of organizational performance. journal of sport management, 29(5), 485-497. https://fis.dshs-koeln.de/portal/en/publications.html ssekakubo, j., lwanga, f. & ndiwalana, g. (2014). employee motivation, job satisfaction and organizational performance in uganda’s oil sub-sector. global advanced research journal of management and business studies, 3(7), 315-324. https://www.academia.edu/29604136 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/968 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0972262915597089 http://eureka.sbs.ox.ac.uk/803/ https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1108%2f02621710910987692 https://www.academia.edu/29604136 tonich storey, j. (2011). leadership in organizations. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall. subarino, ali, a. j. & ngang, t. k. (2011). kepemimpinan integratif: sebuah kajian teori [integrative leadership: a theoritical framework]. jurnal manajemen pendidikan, 7(number), 17-50. doi https://www.neliti.com/publications/114159/kepemimpinanintegratif-sebuah-kajian-teori suharsaputra, u. (2010) administrasi pendidikan. bandung: refika aditama. thibodeaux, m. s. & favilla, e. (1995). strategic management and organizational effectiveness in college of business. journal of education for business, 70(4), 189-196. tonich (2020). strategi peningkatan manajerial kepala sekolah. lampung: aura publishing undang-undang nomor 14 tahun 2005 tentang guru dan dosen. undang-undang nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang sistem pendidikan nasional williams, c. (2003). management. usa: thomson, south-western. yeung, a. c. l., lai, k., & yee, r. w. (2007). organizational learning, innovativeness, and organizational performance: a qualitative investigation, international journal of production research, 45(11), 2459–2477, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207540601020460 yuan, c. k., & lee, c. y. (2011). exploration of a construct model linking leadership types, organization culture, employees performance and leadership performance. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 25, 123-136. yukl, g. (2001) leadership in oganization, fifth edition. alih bahasa budi supriyanto. jakarta: indeks. zhu, c., engels, n. (2013). organizational culture and instructional innovations in higher education: perceptions and reactions of teachers and students. educational management administration & leadership, 42, 1-23. http://ema.sagepub.com/content/42/1/136 walter, e. m., beach, a. l., henderson, c., williams, c. t., & ceballos-madrigal, i. (2021). understanding conditions for teaching innovation in postsecondary education: development and validation of the survey of climate for instructional improvement (scii). international journal of technology in education (ijte), 4(2), 166-199. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijte.46 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207540601020460 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2022:13 (2),221-242 improving curriculum and lecturers: challenges to quality based-technology suhadi winoto1 abstract this study aims to investigate the challenges of improving the quality of education concerning curriculum and quality of lecturers-based technology in the state islamic university (uin). the qualitative research method with a phenomenological approach focuses on three themes, including the quality of education, aspects of the education curriculum of the state islamic religious university (ptkin), and the quality of lecturers who collectively suggest the challenges of implementing digital technology. the research location was uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember, west java province. the findings reveal three primary points, namely; (1) the main challenges in improving the quality of education from the aspect of the education curriculum are integrating skills, themes, concepts, and topics based on digital technology amid a shift in cultural, ethical values, and inequality in access to education; (2) the second challenge is the quality of lecturers who are still not qualified due to the traditional paradigm of religion, limited funds, low learning motivation in participating in technology-based training, and self-competence; (3) the strategy of curriculum development and improving the quality of lecturers through an internal quality assurance system, local wisdom values in the frame of religious moderation, and towards a technology-based independent campus program conducted by uin so that the quality of education continues to improve to achieve educational goals. the expected implication suggests that the government pays attention to aspects of curriculum development and the quality of lecturers through policies to improve the quality of education at ptkin throughout indonesia to create education equality towards the acceleration of development-oriented human resources. keywords: quality of education, curriculum, quality of lecturers, islamic university, technology introduction education has a central role in nation-building. therefore, the quality of education is critical in making it happen. the role of information and communication technology (ict) in education is undeniable to support the quality of education. ict is a tool with a strong potential to expand educational opportunities for every society. ict has excellent prospects in increasing the relevance and quality of continuing education (carvalho, et. al., 2022). likewise, supporting teaching and learning process facilities that can create a conducive learning environment without being limited by distance and time, develop creative ideas, and open up new challenges for higher quality education is exceedingly crucial (das, 2019). however, the increasing dependence on technology 1dr. uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember, indonesia; email: s.winoto@gmail.com mailto:s.winoto@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 is a challenge difficult to avoid. increased possibility of cyber-attacks and crimes can impact student psychology. a study recommends a blackboard system to prevent it. although, in truth, no single technology is entirely safe, they have various positive and negative impacts needing to be anticipated and resolved (elsawy & ahmed, 2019). scientists view that quality education can change the attitudes and behavior of a person/group to mature themselves and get closer to god. the literature states that human resource factors, especially educators, tremendously affect the quality of student learning outcomes, ultimately changing their attitudes and behavior for the better. the quality of education requires an accurate description of all components to assess its realization and evaluation plan. systems theory in an integrated conceptual framework and recognizing the interdependence between components of quality education and their supporting aspects is a vital concern for successful long-term quality education (garira, 2020). the education plan of the central government primarily depends on its implementation in every educational institution. no guarantee exists for all educational institutions ensuring that they can face the challenges of today's digitalization era. research reveals that good planning and regulation alone are not enough to provide educational standards to the community (dewi et al., 2018). in addition to internal factors, such as human resources, socioeconomic, political, and infrastructure, the impact of decentralization also affects the education gap in indonesia (muttaqin, 2018). previous studies have revealed tension between formal quality and reduced government effectiveness (fomba et al., 2022). another tension is about the quantity and human resources. moreover, another issue is political and epistemological instability between theory and practice for uplifting education. all pose a real challenge to the quality of education in developing countries. the quality of the targeted education requires various actors who can integrate the training process and contribute to human resource development. notably, the pedagogical project complies with the act and is committed to taking on the challenge from a reflective perspective and a fundamental transformation (adamy & teixeira, 2018). the quality of education at the state islamic religious university (ptkin) in indonesia is still behind other countries, especially related to the internal quality of campuses, namely curriculum, facilities, and quality of human resources. the central issue is the growth in the number of students not accompanied by the fulfillment of the aspect of curriculum development and the uneven quality of lecturers. the study revealed that campuses recruited non-pns lecturers themselves without a straightforward selection process to meet the availability of teaching lecturers due to many state winoto 223 islamic university (uin) students. in fact, in the last three years, public interest in ptkin has been exceedingly high even compared to private universities (pts), reaching 3,044. in 2021, not less than 280 thousand prospective students registered. the number of ptkin continues to increase to accommodate the increasing number of students. the 2020 higher education database statistics show that the number is 58, comprising 23 uin, 30 iain, and 5 stain. the number of uin is still far compared to iain, even though uin can accommodate many students. it is related to transforming iain into uin, which is complicated and must meet specific requirements. uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember is one of the ptkins that has transformed since 2021 (bps, 2021). it is imperative to investigate the various factors supporting these efforts to improve the quality of education. the covid 19 pandemic has inflicted various problems at uin in the country since 2020. the transformation of digital-based learning has become the mainstay of uin to continue learning activities despite the ongoing pandemic situation. unfortunately, the study states that distance learning is ineffective in specific cases. uin is a form of state islamic higher education that has characteristics in its islamic studies in theory and practice. distance learning is a big challenge as the quality level of lecturers is not the same for every uin throughout the archipelago. the indonesian government took the policy as a responsive step so that students, educators, and education staff are healthy and safe during the learning process. at least since 2020, government policies focusing on education have been contained in the circular letter of the minister of education and culture number 1 of 2021, circular of the minister of education and culture number 3 of 2020, and circular of the minister of education and culture number 4 of 2020. the literature poses that the university curriculum positively influences the quality of education. thus, curriculum implementation can support better quality education (alam et al., 2022). other findings show that the institution’s quality positively impacts student achievement and supports the institution in facing educational challenges and failures. nevertheless, the better the ratio of qualified lecturers, the better the uin students tend to be in their learning outcomes (fomba et al., 2022). the results and achievements of the educational process cannot be separated from the quality of education per the curriculum and the quality of the teaching staff. the low education level of the indonesian population graduates at the tertiary level is alarming at only 9.67 percent, while 29.21 percent have graduated from high school/equivalent. previous research investigated the challenges of improving the quality of education from the perspective of proper infrastructure. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 it supports the teaching and learning process making it more comfortable without obstacles. other research centers on leadership aspects in improving the quality of education in era 5.0 (ishak, 2022). this study shows novelty as it investigates aspects of curriculum development and quality of lecturers from ptkin, which has just transformed into uin, namely uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember, recently inaugurated by the president of the republic of indonesia, signed a decree with number 44 of 2021, dated may 11, 2021. this transformation poses a challenge for uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember in terms of improving the quality of education. changing status from iain jember to uin khas jember creates a massive challenge in achieving the vision in the era of globalization, namely, “to become a leading islamic university in southeast asia in 2030 with the depth of knowledge based on local wisdom for humanity and civilization." based on previous studies, the role of lecturers and the educational curriculum needs to be investigated in-depth to improve the competitiveness and quality of education (qurrota & fauzi, 2021; junaris et al., 2021). aspects of lecturer readiness, digital technology development, and educational curriculum development referring to the independent learning-campus independent policy (mkbm) are the most investigated factors by previous research regarding the challenges to the quality of education in indonesia. research question based on the background of the problems raised, three themes were studied, including the quality of education, aspects of the educational curriculum of ptkin, and the quality of lecturers who collectively proposed the challenges of implementing digital technology. from this theme, three research problems have arisen: 1. what are the challenges of improving the quality of education from the curriculum aspects of uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember technology-based? 2. what are the challenges of improving the quality of education from the quality aspects of uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember technology-based? 3. what is the strategy from the curriculum aspects and the quality of technology-based uin lecturers to face the challenge of improving the quality of education? winoto 225 literature review quality of education quality of education is the ability of the education system concerning management and the educational process itself directed effectively to increase the added value of the various dimensions impacting it to produce the highest output (arcaro, 1995). it consists of five dimensions, including (1) dimensions of learning characteristics affected by conducive conditions from the family environment, health, and educational institutions, (2) seeking input generated by human resources (teachers/educators, school principals, supervisors, and education staff) and physical resources (learning facilities such as school buildings, classrooms, books, and teaching materials including libraries and laboratories as well as other supporting facilities), (3) the teaching and learning process supported by strengthening techniques, the use of media, and fun teaching aids, (4) learning outcomes (covering the ability to read, write, count, and life skills) expected by all parties supported by emotional and social intelligence and community values, (5) family context/environment including parental and community support (laevers, 1994). the quality of education needs to emphasize learning for meeting human needs, preparation for the world of work, and social development through increasing skills and abilities. effectiveness, equity, relevance, and sustainability are the foundations for assessing the quality of education (barrett et al., 2006). setting educational goals for quality education is based on personal and social learning outcomes and good quality. the quality of education is designed for implementing curriculum objectives. it means that curriculum management can improve the quality of education by creating quality education through various supporting factors (adamy & teixeira, 2018). the previous findings emphasized that the quality of education is the ability of educational institutions to utilize educational resources to improve optimal learning abilities. the quality must be supported by quality educational institutions, which can collectively provide satisfaction to the community to achieve a good quality education. on top of that, a relationship exists between the quality of education and educators (doherty, 2008). the educators can provide good quality with qualified competencies. qualified education personnel exhibit extraordinary performance in their teaching, create a conducive learning climate, are skilled in teaching with various learning methods, and can be role models (rowley, 1995). qualified teaching staff contributes to the students’ progress in effective learning. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 education curriculum the educational curriculum is a set of subjects and educational programs provided by formal educational institutions containing lesson plans that will be given to students in a specific period. the preparation of these subject sets is then adjusted to the conditions and abilities of each education level, aligning with the workforce’s needs. the length of the period in a curriculum will be adjusted to the aims and objectives of the education system. this educational curriculum can direct education towards the directions and goals included in learning activities (barnett, 2009). the study revealed that in developing an islamic education curriculum, paying attention to ten components of educational goals and guidelines based on laws and islamic values is necessary, namely (1) betterment in priesthood and piety; (2) improvement of noble character; (3) enhancement of the potential, intelligence, and interest of students; (4) the diversity of regional and environmental potentials; (5) regional and national development demands; (6) the demands of the world of work; (7) the development of science, technology, and art; (8) religion; (9) the dynamics of global development; and (10) national unity and values (mahfud, 2019). the literature articulates that the educational curriculum will continue to develop following the times to adapt to needs. the curriculum fulfills its primary function as a tool to achieve educational goals to keep up with the times. furthermore, the educational curriculum is a program and teacher guideline in teaching and learning. the curriculum can support educational goals if all the primary and supporting components exist (bridges, 2000). then, the education curriculum comprises four components: objectives, content or material, teaching and learning interactions, and assessment (rasinen, 2003). another curriculum function is the continuity used at lower levels so that it can adjust the curriculum it organizes and the function of preparing staff by preparing educators regarding content, organization, and teaching methods. subandijah (1993) suggested a component of media facilities and infrastructure as the fifth component of the education curriculum. lecturer quality lecturer quality is an attitude or quality of self, skills, and understanding a person has concerning teaching and character. the quality of teaching staff highly depends on the expertise gained from the education and training process. also, it is closely related to lecturers’ welfare issues. training and education are much better if the welfare of the educators is adequate. therefore, being a qualified lecturer is beyond a position. they build their quality over time (goodwin & kosnik, 2013). expertise and professional organizations also support the educators’ qualification and winoto 227 competency standards. studies reveal that educators play a central role in the education curriculum. lecturers skilled in teaching can create enthusiasm for learning to spur students to learn more optimally (bachtiar, 2016). the quality of lecturers can be seen in their competence. thus, at least three competencies can assess the quality of lecturers. first, personal competence; that is, having a strong and exemplary personality. second, professional competence, namely having broad, indepth knowledge of the field of study being taught, being able to choose, and using various teaching methods. third, social competence is explicitly communicating well with others, especially students (arubayi, 2009). lecturers play a role in providing quality educational services. the relationship between lecturers and universities is expected to encourage lecturers' interest to be committed to making better academic potential to improve the quality of education (kaya, 2021). qualified lecturers can translate, describe, and transform the values contained in the curriculum for students. the behavior of educators in the learning process will considerably influence the development of student behavior and personality. therefore, the quality of lecturers receives substantial attention from stakeholders regarding professionalism and self-competence due to their role (rekarti et al., 2020). according to hammond & prince (2007), the quality of lecturers includes four traits: (1) intelligence and verbal abilities functioning to organize and explain ideas, observe, and think diagnostically; (2) knowledge of how to teach in a field of study, and specifically related to teaching techniques and how to develop thinking skills; (3) the ability to understand students and the dynamics and learning styles, the ability to assess and design lessons and help students with difficulties in the learning process; (4) adaptability skills enabling educators to make decisions about what to do to meet learning needs. previous findings state that the quality of lecturers is essential for achieving good learning quality. hence, qualified lecturers will “eliminate” learning problems due to the curriculum. quality lecturers must focus on the innovative and creative subject matter (wiranto & slameto, 2021). methodology research methods the qualitative research method with a phenomenological approach aims to investigate the challenges of improving the quality of education from the aspect of the curriculum and the quality of technology-based uin lecturers. researchers choose a phenomenological research design for journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 two reasons. (1) the scientific method can describe the challenges faced by the quality of uin education as it does not manipulate the data and ensures its objectivity (2) this method considers the object of study as something interconnected with other objects. phenomenological research positions humans as research subjects to capture various societal problems and reveal the meanings contained therein. the problem investigated focuses on three themes, improving the quality of education, aspects of the education curriculum, and aspects of the quality of lecturers/educators at uin. the stages of qualitative research refer to newman's (2014) research, namely selecting topics, narrowing the focus, designing research, collecting data, analyzing data, interpreting data, and making research reports. the research lasted from november 2021 to january 2022. the research location was uin kh. achmad shiddiq (khas) jember, having his address at jl. mataram no. 1 mangli district, kaliwates, jember regency, west java province. participants participants are the people taking part in the research. participants in this study were lecturers of uin kh. ahmad siddiq jember. participant criteria included using a purposive sampling technique, meaning that the researcher relies on their judgment when selecting participant members to participate in the study. participants in this research are permanent pns and non-pns lecturers who have taught at uin for over three years. they possess aa and pekerti certifications, have experience preparing learning curricula, and are active in scientific activities, mainly research and self-competence training. twenty participants consisted of 12 male lecturers and eight female lecturers. (see table 1) table 1 participant description description number of participants gender male 12 participants female 8 participants age >30 year 7 participants <30 year 13 participants faculty faculty of islamic economics and business 5 participants faculty of da'wah 4 participants faculty of tarbiyah and teacher training 6 participants faculty of usuluddin, adab, and humanities 5 participants total 20 participants winoto 229 data the primary resources are observations and interviews with participants. secondary data come from primary legal materials and literature studies. primary legal materials consist of seven legal bases, including “(1) law no. 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system; (2) law no. 12 of 2021 concerning higher education, (3) regulation of the minister of research, technology and higher education no. 8 of 2012 concerning the indonesian national qualifications framework; (4) regulation of the minister of research, technology and higher education of the republic of indonesia no. 44 of 2015 concerning national higher education standards; (5) regulation of the minister of religion no. 1 of 2016 concerning diplomas, academic transcripts, and certificates of companion for diplomas in religious colleges; (6) permenristek dikti no. 55 of 2017 concerning teacher education standards; (7) director-general regulation no. 2500 of 2018 concerning graduate competency standards and learning outcomes of undergraduate study programs at ptkin and the faculty of islamic religion.” data collection technique data collection in this study involved semi-structured interview techniques. there are things conveyed to the research subjects before the observation and interview process is conducted, namely: (1) goals and interests, (2) confidentiality, (3) research procedures, and (4) preparation for starting interviews. the interview process was carried out directly in a rectorate room usually used for meetings. the researcher obtained an official permit to conduct this study and was assisted by a lecturer collecting the participants with strict health protocols. the participants have agreed to provide the required information as long as their names are kept confidential in scientific publications. researchers used notebooks and assistive devices, such as cameras, camcorders, and recorder types, to collect the primary data. the interview time for each participant ranged from 30 to 45 minutes and was recorded for easy member check. research data analysis data collection for phenomenology research uses interpretative phenomenological analysis (ipa) techniques. science analysis is an analytical method to understand “what” and “understand” something from the participant's point of view so that cognition occurs in a central position (creswell, 2009). the focus of the analysis is to explore the experiences, events, and status of the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 participants related to the challenges to the quality of education at uin kh. ahmad siddiq jember. the stages are (1) rereading the data sources that have been collected; (2) making initial research notes per the research objectives; (3) determining the research theme; (4) looking for the relationship between one theme and another; (5) compiling research results by writing textual and structural descriptions of the experiences occurred; (6) looking for patterns across cases investigated by researchers. the validity of the data consists of four criteria. first, credibility is performed through the data triangulation process, namely by checking and comparing the degree of trustworthiness of the information obtained by cross-checking the data obtained with the secondary data source journals. researchers conducted member checks by looking at the results of interviews and checking the appropriate transcripts. the second is dependability, checking the entire research process with colleagues through discussion. third, transferability involves making research reports clear, detailed, and systematic so that readers easily understand them. the researcher explains in detail the findings through structured and meaningful sentences. fourth is confirmability, containing the quality of research results relevant to the occurring phenomena. results and discussion the challenge of improving quality of education from curriculum aspects of uin kh. achmad siddiq jember technology-based the first findings reveal the challenges of improving the quality of education from the curriculum aspects of uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember technology-based contained in the preparation of mbkm by the minister of education and culture (mendikbud) with permendikbud no. 3 of 2020 concerning national higher education standards. the curriculum preparation is not easy, primarily if it is based on qualified technology. four substantial policy packages that became uin's imposing challenges occurred based on the interview results. . consider data 1. (1) “four mkbkm packages are a challenge in curriculum development. first, the campus accreditation system will be simplified. study programs and campuses must apply for accreditation in which the five-year program accreditation run by ban-pt will continue with improvements. with the enactment of a new policy on accreditation, the campus needs extra personnel in completing the accreditation form. second, the opening of new study programs after obtaining a or b accreditation. third, higher education with the power of a legal entity. autonomy and flexibility in managing finances quickly require careful and well-targeted considerations so as not to be misused by certain parties. fourth is the right of students to study outside their study program for two or three semesters. the fourth winoto 231 package of challenges requires the campus to have cooperation with third parties both nationally and internationally to help students gain learning outside their study program.” these challenges motivate campuses to improve the quality of education through technologybased curriculum aspects. the mbkm program designed by the campus requires the fulfillment of the capacity and capability of qualified human resources. it has practical competence collaborative with the industrial world and the convergence of digital technology innovation. literature reveals that the development of an islamic education curriculum to improve the quality of education needs to pay attention to the ten components of educational goals and guidelines mentioned above based on statutory regulations and islamic values. the existence of supporting facilities is another factor becoming a challenge for uin (consider data 2). (2) “uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember has not been a uin for a year. previously, uin had undergone a change in status from the original iain khas jember. the name proposal is closely related to the figure of kh. achmad siddiq is a local figure who has been known to the muslim community for generations and has become a role model. the uin campus has a curriculum that delivers the nation's next generation to become muslim intellectuals who are expected to contribute to the nation and state as well as the wider community. this means that the implementation of the curriculum aspect is able to answer the challenges in improving the quality of education. this is because the uin curriculum aims to achieve educational goals, namely giving birth to muslim scholars who have solid faith, steady in worship, noble in character, broad in knowledge and insight, established in life skills, and high in ethos.” the facilities support the teaching and learning process that can establish a conducive learning environment without being limited by distance and time, develop creative ideas, and open up new challenges for higher quality education (das, 2019). the primary reason is that understanding this challenge ensures that the educational curriculum can support educational goals. of course, all the primary and other supporting components comprise four components: objectives, content or materials, teaching and learning interactions, and assessment (bridges, 2000; rasinen, 2003). the education curriculum needs to accentuate learning to fulfill human needs, prepare for the work world, and social development through increasing skills and abilities; effectiveness, equity, relevance; and sustainability, besides the basis for assessing the quality of education (barrett et al., 2006). previous studies found a positive influence between the university curriculum and the quality of education; the curriculum implementation could support better quality education (alam et al., 2022). adamy and teixeira (2018) explained that setting quality education goals depends on personal and social learning outcomes and good quality. the quality of education is designed journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 for implementing curriculum objectives. it means that aspects of the campus education curriculum can improve the quality of education by creating quality education through all the main and supporting components. the challenges to improve quality of education from quality aspects of uin kh. achmad siddiq jember technology-based the second study’s results revealed the challenges of improving the quality of education from the quality aspects of uin kh. achmad siddiq jember technology-based. the main challenge relates to the demands of an “independent learning-free campus.” the challenges from the era of digital technology demand technologically-literate quality lecturers. five development focuses include distance, multimedia, software, computer-based, and online learning. the need for quality lecturers has increased since the transformation into uin. consider data 3. (3) “in order to be classy in southeast asia, the important message of the indonesian minister of religion for the 2014-2019 period – when he was a resource person at the workshop on strengthening the capacity for motivating religious moderation – could serve as a guide for lecturers. first, islamic-based study programs must be superior and not fade.” participants explained that based on on-campus experience, several islamic-based study programs lost to the general study program. however, the islamic study program should be positioned as a center of excellence. therefore, previous studies have revealed that paying attention to the quality of lecturers is necessary to provide continuous training and education. the identity of uin must be the essential source of knowledge in southeast asian science. it has been confirmed in perpers no. 44 2021concerning uin khas jember. this technology literacy challenge demands that the general study program opened at uin khas jember has a uniqueness or distinction compared to the general study program at public universities. the quality of lecturers in each study program must be improved. according to arubayi (2009), three competencies determine the quality of lecturers. first is personal competence, which involves having a strong and exemplary personality. the second, professional competence, means having broad, in-depth knowledge of the field of study being taught and choosing and using various teaching methods. the third is social competence; that is, communicating well with other people, especially students. it aims to encourage qualified lecturers according to their respective study programs. of course, the uniqueness of uin khas with its grand vision suggests that lecturers in each study program can translate the big vision. that is why lecturers receive great attention to improve the quality of winoto 233 education concerning professionalism and self-competence due to their role (rekarti et al., 2020). another challenge relates to the tri dharma uin khas jember aimed at religious moderation, specifically research and community service to promote religious moderation. this religious moderation keyword encourages lecturers to spread islam rahmatan lil alamin, friendly islam; islam free from violent ideas. development of curriculum aspects and quality of lecturers of uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember based on technology to face the challenges of improving the quality of education the third finding reveals the potential for curriculum aspect development and the quality of lecturers at uin kh. technology-based achmad shiddiq jember to face the challenge of improving the quality of education refers to government policies in the indonesian presidential regulation number 8, 2021 concerning the indonesian national qualifications framework (kkni) and the regulation of the minister of research, technology, and higher education. kkni is beneficial as a guideline for assessing the equality of learning outcomes and workforce qualifications. based on interviews with participants, two main challenges existed to achieving the vision of uin kh. ahmad siddiq jember. first, the vision to become the leading uin in southeast asia in 2030 depends on the ability of the academic community, lecturers, education staff, and students to implement the tri dharma of islamic religious higher education carried out before the transformation of uin khas jember was realized. leading in southeast asia has started since the status of stain jember and iain jember in collaborating with various universities abroad, especially in southeast asia, such as malaysia, thailand, singapore, and brunei darussalam. second, the vision of depth of knowledge based on local wisdom for humanity and civilization cannot be separated from the figure of kiai haji achmad siddiq, chosen as the name of uin khas jember. this pattern of local wisdom is a campus characteristic combining the pillars of islam with pancasila as the building of humanity and civilization. consider data 4. (4) “typical is the figure of jember's 'local wisdom' which is used as a religious and national principle. khas's thinking about pancasila as a single principle reflects argumentative and academic thinking. khas also laid the initial foundation for thinking about the relationship between religion and pancasila, which gave birth to a moderate view, which is expected to strengthen uin institutions and answer challenges in order to improve the quality of education in indonesia. since being trusted by the head of stain jember and the chancellor of iain jember, a network of cooperation with the international community has been established through various activities and even transformed into uin khas jember. in fact, during the covid 19 pandemic since 2020, international cooperation journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 activities were not hampered by using online communication media. the holding of this activity is one of the efforts to improve the quality of education through aspects of the quality of lecturers. among them are academic activities such as international collaborative research conducted with australia, america, germany, and the middle east, as well as other experts.” the interview results revealed that "the purpose of national education is to educate the nation's life as described in the preamble to the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. not only that, to support the achievement of this goal, in the 1945 constitution, article 31, paragraph 1, it is emphasized again on the rights of every citizen in obtaining an education. the legal basis for education is re-explained in detail in law number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system to ensure that every citizen gets an education with proper facilities and infrastructure so that the teaching and learning process can be followed comfortably without any obstacles.” it is the basis for uin kh's efforts. achmad shiddiq jember improved the quality of education from the aspect of curriculum and quality of lecturers (wiranto & slameto, 2021) and stated that the quality of lecturers is one of the main requirements for achieving good quality education. qualified lecturers will “eliminate” learning problems through the development of educational curricula. within the curriculum development framework, the objectives concerning the kkni and the national higher education standards (snpt) cover 16 aspects. consider data 5. (5) “(1) encourage the operationalization of the vision, mission, and goals into the content and structure of the curriculum and learning experiences for students; (2) developing an accountable and transparent recognition process for learning outcomes obtained through education, training, and work experience; (3) increase the contribution of learning outcomes obtained through education, training, and work experience; (4) encourage the transfer of students and workers based on equality of qualifications; (5) determine the learning achievement scheme obtained; (6) establish a scheme for recognizing learning achievement qualifications; (7) equalizing the qualifications between the learning outcomes obtained; (8) develop methods and systems for recognizing the qualifications of human resources from countries that will work in the islamic field; (9) obtain a correlation between the quality of outputs, learning outcomes and educational processes; (10) encourage adjustment of learning achievement and equalization of the quality of graduates at the same qualification level; (11) becomes the main guideline in developing the recognition mechanism for the learning outcomes possessed; (12) to be a bridge of mutual understanding between universities and graduate users; (13) provide guidance for graduate users to make adjustments to their abilities in the development of lifelong learning; (14) ensure the increase in the accessibility of human resources to the job market; (15) obtain recognition from other countries bilaterally, regionally and internationally without leaving the nation's personality; (16) facilitate the development of academic mobility mechanisms to increase mutual understanding and solidarity in higher education between countries.” winoto 235 achmad shiddiq jember then set the goals and objectives of curriculum development guidelines. by referring to the kkni and the national higher education standards (snpt), as stated in 16 aspects, curriculum development is expected to improve the quality of education in uin kh. consider data 6. (6) “the purpose of the guide is a reference for curriculum preparation in each study program within the ptki and a reference for control, supervision, and quality assurance of curriculum implementation in each study program. the targets are hr include; (a) the chancellor/chairman, who will then determine the curriculum development policy at ptki; (b) the dean/director of the postgraduate program/head of the department, who then determines the curriculum development policy in the faculty/department/postgraduate program; (c) head of study program to prepare and develop curriculum in accordance with the study program; (d) lecturers to develop learning plans, processes, and assessments that are in line with the predetermined cp graduates.” the stages of curriculum preparation and development need to pay attention to various aspects, especially regarding needs analysis and technology-based learning design. there are nine aspects of curriculum development conducted, namely; (1) determination of graduate profiles; (2) determination of graduate learning outcomes (cpl); (3) determination of study materials; (4) determination of courses; (5) determination of the number of course credits; (6) preparation of the number of course credits; (7) learning process; (8) assessment; (9) preparation of semester learning plans. (see picture 1). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 figure 1 stages of compilation of technology-based study program curriculum based on figure 1, uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember can develop a curriculum development by paying attention to the core values becoming the scientific paradigm of uin, vision, mission, and goals. these core values are reflected in the graduate profile description. technology-based curriculum development can start by conducting a swot analysis, determining the scientific vision of the study program supporting the vision and mission of uin, conducting a needs analysis, and considering the input of stakeholders and professional associations. the formulation of graduate learning outcomes resulting from the analysis of graduate profiles must meet the provisions listed in the snpt and kkni (ditjen pendidikan islam kemenag ri, 2018). based on the results of interviews, determining the ability to profile graduates can involve stakeholders to contribute, so convergence and connectivity are needed between educational institutions and uin tasks & study programs curriculum development team duties laboratory studies field tasks map/scientific cluster involvement of all lecturers study program decree association & stakeholder input • market & stakeholder needs analysis; • analysis of scientific and skill developments; • vision & mission university, analysis of national & international qualification needs; graduate profile formulas graduate learning outcomes (cpl) matrix selection of study material: cpl: attitude, breadth: knowledge, general skill depth mastery and skill level special courses and number of credits course arrangement lesson plan (curriculum documents) referring to kkni, sn dikti, renstra dikti duties of study program curriculum development team curriculum structure learning strategies winoto 237 stakeholders as graduate users. determination of graduate abilities must include four elements of graduate learning outcomes: attitudes, knowledge, general skills, and special skills supported by technological capabilities. each study program accommodates the profile and formulation of graduate learning outcomes as a marker of competence. the compulsory subjects have been stipulated by law no. 12 of 2021 concerning higher education, which must include study programs at uin, namely religion, pancasila, citizenship, and the indonesian language. religious studies at uin were developed into several courses per the specified cpl. in contrast, the dose of learning time is charged to students per week per semester in the learning process called sks regulated in permenristekdikti no. 44 of 2015 concerning snpt. the last stage is evaluating the learning program consisting of five obligations concerning the snpt. consider data 7. (7) “(1) carry out the preparation of curriculum and lesson plans in each subject; (2) organize learning programs according to content standards, process standards, and assessment standards that have been set in order to achieve graduate learning outcomes; (3) carry out systematic activities that create an academic atmosphere and quality culture; (4) conducting periodic monitoring and evaluation activities in order to maintain and improve the quality of the learning process; and (5) reporting the results of the learning program periodically as a source of data and information in making decisions about improving and developing the quality of learning.” learning program evaluation activities are a benchmark to improve the quality of education through educational curricula development. one form of evaluation of learning programs conducted is distributing learning program questionnaires to students before learning activities are completed each semester. the results of the questionnaires are tabulated and analyzed to determine the level of learning success carried out by the lecturers in each course. in addition to curriculum development strategies, what is next is the role of government intervention. it relates to the development of the quality of lecturers' human resources. the uin category is directed at three possibilities taken from the results of the learning program’s evaluation from the development of the education curriculum. (see table 2). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 table 2 government intervention strategy from the aspect of curriculum development and lecturer quality school category general condition intervention less to enough 1. lecturers are not yet competent. 2. the campus does not meet the minimum standards. 1. increasing the competence of lecturers 2. lecturers are guided in technology-based learning, such as e-learning and blended learning. 3. fulfillment of minimum service standards enough to good the standard has been reached, but the performance is not steady. 1. strengthening the achievements/performance of lecturers 2. increasing accountability of lecturers and educational curriculum 3. strengthening governance (funding and institutional) 4. development of technology-based learning models 5. provide quality and standardized media/teaching aids good to very good performance has been steady; the quality improvement system is running. 1. professional development of lecturers and professional learning community 2. expansion of autonomy in it-based learning and governance 3. encouraging to innovate 4. development of access to financing outside the state budget, such as financing by local governments, third parties, and grant funds from table 2, uin kh. achmad shiddiq jember is in the comparatively good category, meaning there is room for performance improvement. one strategic step is using communication and information technology by providing internet media to open teachers’ access to learning materials. furthermore, providing a device filled with the same material (preloaded) for supporting lecturers is critical. the novelty of the research is that the campus has begun to develop a mechanism to encourage quality development materials for lecturers with national and international standards. therefore, it is not only an islamic religious base but also a moderate campus with support from aspects of curriculum development and quality of lecturers so that the quality of education is improving. it confronts many challenges as a campus that has just transformed into a uin. the central government’s education plan highly depends on its implementation in every educational institution. there is no guarantee for all educational institutions that they can face the challenges of today's digitalization era. in the end, good planning and regulation alone are not enough to provide educational standards to the community (dewi et al., 2018). it is because the education curriculum and the quality of lecturers are not the only factors posing a challenge. other factors, such as socioeconomic, political, and infrastructure, the impact of decentralization also affect the winoto 239 educational gap in indonesia (muttaqin, 2018). previous studies have revealed a growing tension between formal quality and reduced government effectiveness (fomba et al., 2022). therefore, uin has made adjustments and streamlined national education standards to improve the technology-based learning process besides performance indicators and lecturer accountability. uin also develops an educational quality assurance framework through internal and external campus quality assurance institutions centered on campus excellence and uses accreditation, quality assurance, and lecturer evaluation and curriculum development to identify challenges and solutions to improve the quality of education. conclusion our results suggest that curriculum development is implementing regulations that can face challenges to improving the quality of education on an ongoing basis. guidelines are needed as practical references to help manage study programs and kh lecturers ahmad siddiq jember. there are three main points needed to be understood. first, the main challenge in improving the quality of education per the education curriculum is integrating skills, themes, concepts, and topics based on digital technology amid a shift in cultural and ethical values and inequality in access to education. the second challenge concerns the quality of lecturers still not qualified due to the traditional paradigm of religion, limited funds, low motivation to learn in technology-based training, and self-competence. finally, the strategy of curriculum development and improving the quality of lecturers is conducted through implementing an internal quality assurance system, local wisdom values in the frame of religious moderation, and a technology-based independent campus program by uin. the government focuses on curriculum development and quality of lecturers through policies to improve the quality of ptkin education based on technology and local wisdom seeking to implement national education goals. thus, the quality of education continues to improve to achieve educational goals. references adamy, e. k., & teixeira, e. (2018). the quality of education in times of new national curriculum parameters. revista brasileira de enfermagem, 71(suppl 4), 1485–1486. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-201871sup401 alam, m. j., islam, s. r. bin, & ogawa, k. (2022). discrete primary education curriculum in bangladesh. in handbook of research on acquiring 21st century literacy skills through journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 game-based learning (pp. 716–730). hershey, pennsylvania: igi global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-7271-9.ch036 arcaro, j. (1995). quality in education: an implementation handbook. crc press. arubayi, d. o. (2009). lecturer quality, quantity and gender in colleges of education in nigeria. college student journal, 43(2), 669–676. bachtiar, m. y. (2016). pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan. publikasi pendidikan, 6(3), 196– 202. https://doi.org/10.26858/publikan.v6i3.2275 badan pusat statistik. (2021, ). statistik pendidikan 2021. jakarta pusat: badan pusat statistik. https://www.kindpng.com/picc/m/215-2158189_graduation-cap-andbooks-clipart-hd-pngdownload.png barnett, r. (2009). knowing and becoming in the higher education curriculum. studies in higher education, 34(4), 429–440. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070902771978 barrett, a. m., chawla-duggan, r., lowe, j., nikel, j., & ukpo, e. (2006). the concept of quality in education: a review of the ‘international’ literature on the concept of quality in education. edqual working paper, 3(3), 23. bridges, d. (2000). back to the future: the higher education curriculum in the 21st century. cambridge journal of education, 30(1), 37–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057640050005762 carvalho, m, cabral, i, verdasca, j, alves, m. j. (2022). strategic action plans for school improvement: an exploratory syudy about quality indicators for school improvement plan evaluation. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 13(1), 143-163. creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. sage publications (vol. 8). sage publication, inc. das, k. (2019). the role and impact of ict in improving the quality of education: an overview. international journal of innovative studies in sociology and humanities (ijissh), 4(6), 1– 7. from www.ijissh.org dewi, m. p., rahmatunnisa, m., sumaryana, a., & kristiadi, j. b. (2018). ensuring service quality in education for indonesia’s sustainable education. journal of social studies education research, 9(4), 65–81. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.26856 ditjen pendidikan islam kemenag ri. (2018). panduan pengembangan kurikulum ptki mengacu pada kkni dan sn-dikti kementerian agama republik indonesia. jakarta: ditjen pendidikan islam kemenag ri. http://kopertais10.or.id/file/f8b5347e49593cdec22189f5356585e9.pdf winoto 241 doherty, g. d. (2008). on quality in education. quality assurance in education, 16(3), 255– 265. https://doi.org/10.1108/09684880810886268 elsawy, a. m., & ahmed, o. s. (2019). elearning using the blackboard system in light of the quality f education and cyber security. international journal of current engineering and technology, 9(1), 49–54. fomba, b. k., talla, d. n. d. f., & ningaye, p. (2022). institutional quality and education quality in developing countries: effects and transmission channels. journal of the knowledge economy, (0123456789). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-021-00869-9 garira, e. (2020). a proposed unified conceptual framework for quality of education in schools. sage open, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019899445 goodwin, a. l., & kosnik, c. (2013). quality teacher educators = quality teachers? conceptualizing essential domains of knowledge for those who teach teachers. teacher development, 17(3), 334–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530.2013.813766 hammond, l. d., & prince, c. d. (2007). strengthening teacher quality in high-need schools: policy and practice. united states of america: council of chief state school officers. imam junaris, e. r. m. z. m. m. (2021). marketing strategies education oriented market, customers and advantages competitive. journal of education and teaching learning (jetl), 3(3), 29–40. https://doi.org/10.51178/jetl.v3i3.274 ishak, d. (2022). the role of the principal in improving the quality of education. budapest international research and critics institute-journal (birci-journal), 5(1), 1431–1441. https://doi.org/doi: https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v5i1.3746 kaya, m. m. (2021). state, citizens and education in the ottoman empire: civic education curriculum in the early 20th century. research in educational policy and management (repam), 3(2), 42-72. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.6 laevers, f. (1994). the definition of quality in education. in defining and assessing quality in early childhood education (p. 159). leuven university press. mahfud, c. (2019). evaluation of islamic education curriculum policy in indonesia. premiere educandum : jurnal pendidikan dasar dan pembelajaran, 9(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.25273/pe.v9i1.4016 muttaqin, t. (2018). determinants of unequal access to and quality of education in indonesia. jurnal perencanaan pembangunan: the indonesian journal of development planning, 2(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.36574/jpp.v2i1.27 qurrota, a., & fauzi, i. (2021). standarisasi mutu lulusan sebagai kesiapan mahasiswa calon guru profesional pada program studi pendidikan agama islam fakultas tarbiyah dan ilmu keguruan universitas islam negeri kiai haji achmad siddiq jember pendidikan agama journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 221-242 islam sebagai suatu proses i, 2(02). https://doi.org/10.35719/jier.v2i2.163 rasinen, a. (2003). an analysis of the technology education curriculum of six countries. journal of technology education, 15(1), 31–47. retrieved from https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919/8307/rasinen.pdf?sequence=1 rekarti, e., buana, u. m., suharjo, b., & nurmalina, r. (2020). the quality of lecturer-higher education institution relationship as an antecedent of academic behavioural intention, (march). rowley, j. (1995). a new lecturer’s simple guide to quality issues in higher education. international journal of educational management, 9(1), 24–27. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513549510076005 subandijah. (1993). pengembangan dan inovasi kurikulum. pt. raja grafindo. wiranto, r., & slameto, s. (2021). heliyon alumni satisfaction in terms of classroom infrastructure, lecturer professionalism , and curriculum. heliyon, 7(october 2019), e06679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06679 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 49-64 49 towards development and implementation of learner-centred education in kosovo naser zabeli1, jeffrey alvin anderson2, and blerim saqipi3 4 abstract this article presents a study that examined how teachers understand student-centred teaching and learning among a sample of in-service teachers in kosovo, as it emerges as an independent state. in this study, 36 practicing teachers responded to a survey exploring how teachers understand and use contemporary and traditional teaching methodologies. using a largely qualitative analytic framework, findings revealed that teachers currently appear to understand the philosophy of learner-centred teaching but also possessed a rather superficial view of how these approaches can be implemented in classroom settings. the authors concluded that to broaden the use of these kinds of practices, deliberate emphasis needs to be placed on expanding teacher understanding from theory to practice. the authors recommended that to be most effective, such development will need to be driven by educational policy, embedded in teacher preparation, and supported by opportunities for ongoing collaborations among practicing teachers. key words: learner-centred education, teacher understanding, teacher practices, teacher education, kosovo. introduction more than 2000 years ago, plato noted that to make a lasting impact on students, education needs to be learner-centred. definitions of learner-centred education (lce) indicate that teaching and learning should allow learners to choose not only what to study but how to study it (rogers, 1983). throughout the 20th century, the learner-centred teaching and learning paradigm continued to grow in prominence among educational theorists and practitioners (warnich & meyer, 2013) and increasingly, lce approaches are not only influencing teaching around the world, but are leading to changes in classroom practices (saqipi, 2014). these ideas have been linked to constructivist philosophies that deliberately incorporate both student interests and needs into teaching, with the goal of preparing learners for a dynamic and changing future. “pedagogically, student, or learner, 1 associate professor, faculty of education, university of prishtina, naser.zabeli@uni-pr.edu 2 professor, school of education, indiana university, jander2@indiana.edu 3 assistant professor, faculty of education, university of prishtina, blerim.saqipi@uni-pr.edu 4 corresponding author for this article is: dr. blerim saqipi, university of prishtina. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 49-64 centred approaches to teaching have emerged from changing understandings of the nature of learning and, in particular, from the body of learning theory known as constructivism. in the broadest terms, constructivist learning is based on an understanding that learners construct knowledge for themselves” (barraket, 2005, p. 65). warnich and meyer (2013) recently summarized the evolution of lce, “since the start of the progressive education movement in the 19th century and due to the influence of theorists, such as, john dewey (1915, pp. 240-243), jean piaget (schewebel & raplh, 1944) and carl rogers (1951) whose collective work focused on how students learn, some educators started to replace traditional teacher-centred approaches with more learner-centred ‘hands-on’ activities” (p. 14). this orientation is predicated on the ideal that all people, including teachers, best learn by doing (mclaughlin, 1976). simply put, the lce paradigm acknowledges the complexity and dynamic nature of learning. “learning is considered to be a complex process that is not possible to deconstruct into logical parts. the learner is not a passive receiver of knowledge but, rather, an active participant. the learner has the responsibility to accommodate the learning process to his/her own unique learning style in order to structure his/her own learning” (sablonniere et al., 2009, p. 3). such methods require teachers to assist students in taking responsibility for their own learning. learning involves deep exploration of complex problems and ideas in order to acquire new knowledge and skills, while simultaneously developing new ways of thinking and acting. at the same time, learner-centred teaching challenges instructors to release some of their control over the classroom (brackenbury, 2012). the lce environment places learner responsibility and activity at the center of classroom functioning. such approaches are in contrast to more conventional, didactic teaching, that emphasizes instructor control of the curriculum and instruction (cannon, 2000). in lce, teachers become change agents by creating, facilitating, and monitoring the learning environment (e.g., ayele, schipers & ramos, 2007). shifting teaching practices from didactic to lce has been a major topic of research for several decades, attracting broad interest because of the potential for reforming education. researchers have noted that students find learning more meaningful when they are engaged in topics relevant to their lives, needs, and interests, and when they can actively create, understand, and connect to their learning (mccombs & whisler, 1997). in lce, instructors focus on constructing authentic, real-life tasks that seek to motivate learner involvement and participation (weimer, 2002). lce aims at developing pedagogy that initially assesses students in terms of prior zabeli, anderson & saqipi experiences, interests, and preferred approaches to instruction and engagement (emenyeonu, 2012). learner-centred teaching also emphasizes knowledge and skills that are constructed by students, rather than directed by instructors (brackenbury, 2012). thus, teachers practicing lce recognize that learners in any classroom learn at different rates with different styles, and possess different abilities and talents. teachers also understand that students will vary in terms of their self-efficacy about learning, both across subjects and over time. emphasizing students and their learning require a fundamental change in the role of the educator, from didactic teacher to facilitator of learning (chiphiko & shawa, 2014). weimer (2002) identified lce as encompassing five changes to practice: “(i) shifting the balance of classroom power from teacher to student, (ii) designing content as a means to building knowledge rather than a ‘knowledge end’ in itself, (iii) positioning the teacher as facilitator and contributor, rather than director and source of knowledge, (iv) shifting responsibility for learning from teacher to learner; and (iv) promoting learning through effective assessment” (barraket, 2005, p. 66). each of these stages requires educators to rethink traditional classroom approaches, moving the emphasis from the outcomes of learning to processes of learning. in sum, implementing lce in the classroom will require both teachers and learners to interact in non-traditional ways (lea & troy, 2003). in kosovo, the education system has been engaging in ongoing reform aimed at developing student-centred environments in its public school systems. these aspirations were articulated in the kosovo education strategic plan 2011-2016 and 2017-2021, the 2011 national curriculum and the 2011 law on pre-university education. as part of this agenda, the national education system has adopted an educational policy agenda, including curricular revision, in a concerted effort to modernize teaching and learning practices in kosovar schools (kosovo curriculum framework, 2011). educational legislation now includes revised teacher professional practice standards that are intended to shape teacher practices around the core elements of lce (saqipi, 2014). there has been ongoing efforts to raise standards for the teaching profession with the anticipation that it will lead to enhancement of teacher practice. most recently, kosovo adopted in 2017 a more sophisticated teacher development framework that provides for a more elaborated version of teaching standards which reflect all the contemporary characteristics and dimensions of good teaching. however, despite the ongoing efforts and inputs in developing lce practices, there is scant research examining the extent to which these investments and development efforts are journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 49-64 producing satisfactory results. furthermore, it remains unclear whether kosovo teacher practice has progressed to a level that can support broad adoption of lce approaches. therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine two broad research questions: (a) how do teachers in kosovo understand the lce philosophy? and (b) how are teachers in kosovo using lce in practice? methodology within this descriptive study, we explored several dimensions of teacher development, curriculum, and quality assurance. analyzing distinctions between policy aims and actual practice allowed the researchers to identify gaps between actual practice and the potential for development of the student centred teaching culture in kosovo education system. data were collected through the administration of a survey composed mainly of open-ended questions that focused on how teachers understand learner-centred teaching philosophy and practice. before describing the survey, study sample, and analytic strategies used in this study, additional information about the kosovar context is provided. setting teacher professional practice in kosovo. teacher professional practice in kosovo has been dynamic for almost two decades (saqipi, 2014; saqipi, 2017). as kosovo emerged from a war in the late 1990s, policy development was used to reform education as a way to facilitate societal transformation. historically, kosovo education was influenced by the former yugoslav communist system, which was a control-oriented and centralized education system operating at the service of the state. in other words, schools primarily served political regimes. pedagogy, particularly objectives, content, and method, was unified and typically externally controlled. teaching focused on delivering specified and often ideologically flavored knowledge, with little if any opportunity for individual learners to express personal interpretations, initiatives, or critical thinking (oecd, 2003; sahlberg & boce, 2010). although teacher professional development has been offered in kosovo continuously since 1999, it has been fragmented, sometimes lacking cohesion and direction. overall, the focus of teacher education over the past 15 years has focused on activities that were funded by different donors (e.g., grants from international bodies) rather than self-standing mechanisms (saqipi 2012). however, in 2011, the kosovar ministry of education, science and technology (mest) introduced a teacher licensing system under the provisions of the law on pre-university education. zabeli, anderson & saqipi the new licensing scheme included a set of incentives and control mechanisms for teachers. for example, under the new system, all teachers attend ongoing professional development as a requirement of maintaining their professional status. teachers also are assessed to ensure they meet the minimal performance standards outlined by mest. numerous challenges derive from a traditionally centralized education system (see e.g., mclaughlin, 1976; day, 2002; sahlberg, 2011; hargreaves, 2003) teachers, for example, often do not have consistent access to professional development. these challenges also have been linked to limited school autonomy and school-based development in the kosovar education system. consequently, school systems have not developed mentoring practices or any other form of professional collaboration at the school level. similarly, because curriculum policy has developed under the same context as teacher professional development, it is seen as a top-down policy. further, given that curricula in kosovo, to date, has been centralized and highly prescribed, it is difficult for schools to take on the responsibilities of developing school-based innovations. however, the current curriculum, a competency based approach enacted in 2011, differs significantly from the objectives-oriented curriculum that had been adopted in 2001. the 2011 curriculum provides more flexible approaches that allow schools to develop subject curricula that can be responsive to the local communities they serve (see kosovo curriculum framework, 2011). moreover, this newer approach also supports learner-centred teaching philosophy. linked with both the teacher development and curriculum policy, scholars recognize that a quality assurance system is of crucial importance to support these new initiatives. currently, however, the kosovo education system does not have quality assurance practices in place. although legislation calls for these practices, schools lack guidance about how to implement recent changes. in a system that is transitioning from a centralized to a school-based developmental approach, quality assurance mechanisms are crucial in empowering, rather than controlling, schools to engage in developmental initiatives. hence, it remains unclear whether recent developments in kosovo’s education system will encourage enhancement of teaching and learning. however, practitioners, researchers, and other education advocates are hopeful that the education system in general is moving towards the creation of school environments that are supportive of student-centred classrooms. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 49-64 procedures survey. for this study, data were collected through a survey comprised primarily of openended questions, which asked teachers to discuss learner-centred teaching philosophy and practice, including questions examining how teachers characterize learner-centred and traditional teaching. respondents were also asked what best or most characterizes their personal teaching practices. the survey was developed to explore the nature of the professional development programming teachers were experiencing in kosovo. focused on issues related to definitions teachers have about lce, the survey also examined distinctions teachers make between lce and traditional education, as well as perspectives about the appropriate role teachers need to play in terms of implementing lce. sample. data for this study were collected from a group of 36 in-service teachers, gathered at the time they were beginning a training designed to expose participants to teaching and learning strategies based on the lce philosophy. the training had been developed to help teachers understand the new curriculum emerging from the legislative reforms previously described. the sample for this study was drawn from the overall group being trained (n = 330 teachers), by randomly selecting one training cohort. the selected group was diverse, consisting of teachers who differed in age, gender, and profile. data was gathered in the school year 2013/2014. training. the training program included a two-day workshop and was accompanied by follow up mentoring and reflection meetings. the trainers administered the survey at the beginning of the workshop and it took participants approximately one hour to complete. because the purpose of the survey was to gather information about current perceptions on these issues, trainers played a passive role during survey administration and did not provide any additional explanation to the respondents. analytical strategies. data were collected and analyzed by the authors using inductive methods that included creating categories and themes. initially, data were coded into specific categories that described respondents’ understandings of learner centred teaching (mathhew & ross, 2010). in the first iteration, each author coded the data independently and then met several times to discuss and make initial coding decisions. during initial discussions, a number of themes were identified which in turn were used as a framework to analyze all of the data. after the initial independent coding of data, the authors analyzed the data jointly to form certain categories upon which the interpretation of the conclusions were drawn. from this process, a unified coding zabeli, anderson & saqipi scheme was created and the identified categories were ordered and organized based on the number of respondents referring to certain themes in their responses. in other words, the number of times themes were mentioned by respondents was used as an indicator of relative strength of the findings. findings analysis indicated that the data could best be organized into the following categories: understanding learner centred teaching; role of the teacher; and how teachers perceive their roles. each category is described in the following sections. overall and not entirely unexpected, findings suggested that although respondents know about lce, they also held rather superficial views of learner-centred teaching philosophy and practice. understanding learner-centred teaching respondents demonstrated general pedagogical knowledge about modern teaching practices and correctly understood that traditional teaching practices tend to be more teachercentred than contemporary approaches. relative to their understanding of student-centred education, responses nicely fell into several categories (the numbers associated with each group refer to specific themes in the narrative responses to survey questions): (a) students being at the centre of the teaching process (14); (b) making students active in the learning process (13); (c) encouraging free expression of ideas (11); (d) using group work (11); (e) encouraging students as inquirers (10); and (f) implementing inclusive educational practices (7). these data suggest that the teachers involved in this study understood learner-centred teaching philosophy in terms of the students’ role in the learning process; namely, that teaching is a student-driven process. however, these findings also indicate that although teachers understood student-centred teaching as “students being at the centre,” how actually to apply these concepts appears to be less understood by respondents. specifically, some basic elements of student-centred teaching, such as the importance of students engaging in research activity or the provisions of authentic teaching situations that reflect real life, seemed to be problematic for the teachers who participated in this study. role of the teacher one goal of this study was to examine how teachers orient themselves to the various tasks of teaching. findings suggest that the teachers who were involved in this study viewed their primary roles more as: (a) manager (15); (b) teaching concepts and ideas (8); (c) using a variety of teaching techniques (8); (d) conducting assessment (7); (e) implementing a variety of teaching journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 49-64 resources (6); and (f) teaching the curriculum (4). again, the numbers next to the categories represent the amount of times statements were coded for each specific category from the narrative survey responses. in sum, findings suggest that teachers' thinking is characterized more as being oriented towards teacher-centred than student-centred approaches. these data reflect teachers who view themselves as more techno-rational practitioners instead of facilitators of lce approaches. in other words, teachers are viewing themselves as the facilitators of student-centred classrooms. how teachers perceive their approach to teaching table 1 (in the annex a) summarizes the results of the forced choice portion of the survey, providing the frequency of how often teachers perceive that they use various activities in their work. the numbers represent actual teacher responses derived from the survey, which were then ranked based on the order of teacher preference for certain activities. as can be seen, teachers are not emphasizing the development of students’ taking responsibility for their own learning and inquiry. on the other hand, data suggest that teachers demonstrate a preference for making sure students are active and involved in the class. teachers also show preference for involving students in large and small groups aimed at problem solving. furthermore, teachers indicated a preference for offering students support for problem solving, as well as for debate, and encouragement to learn. overall, data indicate that this group of teachers appears to understand their role as (i) developing deep learning, (ii) enabling active student learning, and (iii) developing relationships in the classrooms in terms of students working with one another. discussion a clearer understanding of the current realities of teacher practice and support in kosovo can provide a major step towards improving schools. we recommend to the kosovar educational leadership that having a better understanding of support structures for teachers will allow for the development of explicit plans for improving educational opportunities for all students. indeed, the findings from this study indicate that practicing teachers possess a general understanding of student-centred teaching and learning approaches. teachers were able to define and differentiate lce approaches from more traditional pedagogies. this is an encouraging finding because it suggests that the practicing teachers who participated in this survey understand, at least in principle, the importance of using lce approaches in classroom practice. on the other hand, even though teachers demonstrated a relatively clear and comprehensive understanding of lce zabeli, anderson & saqipi approaches to student-centred teaching, they also appeared to lack the ability to apply these ideas in practice. indeed, our findings indicated that educators may have difficulties in understanding the relationship between theory and practice, particularly in terms of assessing and utilizing students’ prior experiences or interests. this is important as lce orients the teacher as activity organizer: someone who creates, arranges, and facilitates learning processes, then motivates and encourages students, and ultimately provides authoritative feedback on students’ performance (tudor, 1993). in the student-centred environment, teachers provide the learning opportunity (e.g., issue, case, problem), and then facilitates learning, while students determine the nature of engagement and production of learning outcomes, then formulate plans and carry out those plans in developing products and outputs (pedersen & liu, 2003). in an authentic student-centred environment, the teacher sets the learning objectives, and then offers a set of possible activities designed to help learners reach those objectives (massouleh et al, 2012). furthermore, although the teacher provides the architecture for learning, s/he does not directly determine all of the content to be learned (brackenbury, 2012). this goes beyond the use of certain teaching techniques, requiring certain activities in the class, or setting the same learning objectives for all students, and is critical to bear in mind when examining the development of lce environments. results of this study also suggest that teachers are not necessarily going to implement lce principles in ways that encourage students to explore topics, by utilizing contemporary tools and techniques like the internet. moreover, it appears that textbooks still prevail as the primary classroom learning resource and the provision of opportunities to engage in real-life learning situations are not widespread. it has to be noted though that kosovo school system is faced with the challenges of teachers having the access to resources for materials creation. these kinds of limitations may in turn interfere with opportunities for students to actively engage in inquiry and discovery-based learning (saqipi, 2014). although it goes beyond the data collected in this study, we suggest that education system variables lead us to believe that this disconnect between understanding the ideas of lce and the willingness to implement actual lce practices in the classroom are a consequence of an education system which, for decades, focused mainly on the development of theoretical knowledge. thus, one challenge for the kosovo education system now is to transform from a primary focus on the theoretical to implementing practical and pragmatic schooling. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 49-64 while these findings also suggest that respondents appear to prefer activities that would connect academic concepts to real life, participants indicated lower preferences for activities related to creating and/or using wider varieties of learning resources. this may be connected to our results that teachers appear to place less emphasis on the importance of developing student autonomy in the inquiry processes of learning, or developing classroom environments in which students engage in creating and using learning resources. as indicated, these differences between knowledge and practice likewise present barriers to the widespread and successful implementation of lce classrooms. this level of teacher understanding in kosovo also points to a reality in how initial teacher education institution trains teacher at the level of reflecting about practical implementation of good teaching. because the lce goals of deep, performative, and proactive knowledge have been connected to significant learning experiences, we recommend that teachers strive not only to assess the abilities of different students, but become experts at differentiating curriculum and instruction to ensure all learners have sufficient and appropriate opportunities to learn (mutlaq al-zu'be, 2013). as acknowledged by lce principles, authentic teaching and learning are highly complex processes that largely transcend the limitations of many traditional teaching techniques, requiring instead that teachers facilitate and enable their students to create their own learning experiences (saqipi, 2014). we are reminded of mclaughlin’s (1976) seminal work on importance of mutual adaptation when attempting large scale changes in education: “implementation was a dynamic organizational process that was shaped over time by interactions between project goals and methods, and the institutional setting” (p. 340). finally, it is worth reiterating the idea that classrooms are diverse, dynamic socio-physical systems, that “contain actors, artifacts, and relationships that are potential resources, and it is through interacting with resources that students can learn” (kurdziolek, 2011, p. 120). scholars have shown that although many educators view contemporary teaching as inquiry-based problem solving that incorporates various teaching aids, this study found limited recognition of the importance of these practices. even the most basic ideas, such as using library or the internet to find information, did not appear to be highly valued by respondents. we end with a reminder that the teacher-student relationship is one of the most powerful elements in any learning environment (liberante, 2012) and student-centred teaching can significantly make teacher-student relationships far more interactive. in such settings, teachers view their role as being assistive, while at the same time developing mutual respect. unfortunately, this idea of more dynamic student zabeli, anderson & saqipi teacher interactions was not found in this study. we therefore recommend that kosovo reformists encourage and support positive relationships between teachers and students, with the goal of ultimately promoting a “sense of school belonging” that encourages all students to “participate cooperatively in classroom activities” (hughes & chen, 2011, p. 378). this study points to the need to look at broader school factors, including the school culture and the overall accountability and quality assurance mechanisms to understand the challenges in pushing the reform ideas beyond the stage of understanding, more sustainable organized effort is required for deep change. this study is subject to several limitations that require readers to use caution when considering the importance of these findings. first, it was a single point-in-time study and was focused only on the perceptions of a small group of teachers. this study was intended only to establish a baseline that could be used to identify themes that need further examination. the goal being to provide scholars and policymakers better understandings of both opportunities and challenges in widespread implementation of lce philosophy in kosovo. future research needs to be focused on comprehensive examinations of teachers’ classroom beliefs about lce philosophy and how belief patterns can be operationalized into classroom practice. we further recommend that future research also looks at how pre-service teacher training and in-service professional development can be embedded with a much greater focus on the practical applications of lce against the set of contextual variables of an education system undergoing transition. conclusion the foundations for educational change in kosovo have been established and there is an exciting opportunity for making substantive and long lasting change in teacher and classroom practice. we are encouraged that teachers, at least the participants in this study, are thinking about the importance of developing lce environments. however, the need also exists to deepen teachers’ abilities to actually implement lce philosophy in the classroom. to reach the stage of meaningful and widespread implementation of the lce philosophy in kosovo schools, both organizational culture changes, along with support for implementation, must be systematically addressed. in line with earlier research (mclaughlin, 1976), evolution towards a lce-focused educational system should: (i) be easily explained to teachers, (ii) enable teachers to be engaged in trial efforts to internalize new policies and approaches as part of their professional identity, and (iii) ensure that journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 49-64 the existing but outdated values and practices are challenged in thoughtful but firm ways. implementing a new philosophy throughout kosovo schools will not be sustained if previouslyheld values are not changed to ensure that new practices are in congruence with the principles and practices of lce. to achieve these ends, school systems not only must allow, but also must encourage and support teachers to engage in meaningful collegial collaboration about how they will implement lce philosophy in their own settings. additionally, teachers will need to be consistently supported and monitored to translate lce into a meaningful professional practice. these transition processes will require ongoing interactions between and among individual teachers, administrators, community partners, families, and other interested stakeholders. we recommend new system policies be developed and enacted that reflect both support for and expectations that lce approaches will be effectively utilized and sustained. obviously, ongoing opportunities for engagement in continuous professional learning processes that go beyond formal ad-hoc workshops will be required. transitioning from understanding to implementation should be supported vis-à-vis an educational culture that embraces this new philosophy as a precondition to successful change of teacher beliefs and practices. lce is not just another educational “fad.” zabeli, anderson & saqipi references ayele, d., schippers, a., & ramos, m. (2007). student-centred teaching and learning experience from the external world. ethiopian journal of education and science, 2(2), 119-120. barraket, j. (2005). teaching research method using a student – centred approach? critical reflections on practice. journal of university teaching & learning practice, 2, 59 – 74. cannon, r. (2000). guide to support the implementation of the learning and teaching plan year 2000. australia: the university of adelaide. chiphiko, e. & shawa, l. b. (2014). implementing learner centered approaches to instruction in primary school in malawi. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 23, 967975. day, c. (2002) ‘school reform and transition in teacher professionalism and identity’, international journal of educational research, vol. 37, pp.677–692. emenyeonu, o. c. (2012). student centered learning in oman: challenges and pitfalls. international journal of learning & development, 2(5), 243-253. hargreaves, a. (2003) teaching in the knowledge society: education in the age of insecurity, open university press, berkshire, uk. hughes, j. n. & chen, q. (2011). reciprocal effects of student–teacher and student– peer relatedness: effects on academic self efficacy. journal of applied developmental psychology, 32(5), 278–287. inset module 3: teaching & learning. (2012). prishtina, kosovo: mest & giz. janet, a. t. (2013). what is student centeredness and is it enough? the international journal of the first year in higher education. 4(2), 39-48. kosovo curriculum framework (2011). prishtina, kosovo: ministry of education science and technology. kosovo education strategic plan 2017-2021. (2016). prishtina, kosovo: ministry of education science and technology. kosovo education strategic plan 2011-2016. (2011). prishtina, kosovo: ministry of education science and technology. kurdziolek, m. a. (2011). classroom resources and impact on learning. blacksburg, virginia. dissertation retrieved from https://theses.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-08162011160010/unrestricted/kurdziolek_ma_d_2011.pdf lea, s., stephenson, d., & troy, j. (2003). higher education student attitudes to student centred journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 49-64 learning: beyond ‘educational bulimia’. studies in higher education 28(3), 321-334. liberante, l. (2012). the importance of teacher–student relationships, as explored through the lens of the nsw quality teaching model. journal of student engagement: education matters, 2(1), 2–9. massouleh, sh. n., branch, r., & jooneghani, r. b. (2012). learnercentred instruction: a critical perspective. journal of education and practice, 3(6), 50-59. mathews, b. & ross, l. (2010). research methods: a practical guide for the social science. harlow: pearson education limited. mclaughlin, m. w. (1976). implementation as mutual adaptation: change in classroom organization. teacher college record, 77(3), 339-351. mccombs, b., & whisler, s. j. (1997). the learner-centered classroom and school: strategies for increasing student motivation and achievement. san francisco: jossey – bass. mest. (2011). law on pre-university education. prishtina, kosovo: official gazette of the republic of kosova / no. 17 / 16. mutlaq al-zu’be, a. f. (2013). the difference between the learner – centred approach and the teacher – centred approach in teaching english as a foreign language. educational research international, 2(2). 24 – 31. organisation for economic co-operation and development (oecd) (2002). annual report. public affairs division, public affairs and communications directorate. office of the secretary-general. retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/about/2506789.pdf pedersen, s. & liu, m. (2003). teachers’ beliefs about issues in the implementation of a student – centred learning environment. etr & d. 51(2), 57-76. rogers, e. m. (1983). diffusion of innovations. new york, ny: collier macmillan. rutkauksiene, d., schreurs, j., huet, i., & gudoniene, d. (2010). train the teachers in studentcentered learning and teaching. conference icl2010, 15 17 september. hasselt, belgium. retrieved from http://www.iclconference.org/dl/proceedings/2010/contributions/contribution290.pdf sahlberg, p. (2011) ‘the fourth way of finland’, journal of educational change, vol. 12, no. 2, pp.173–185. sahlberg, p. & boce, e. (2010), are teacher teaching for a knowledge society? teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 16(1), 31-48. zabeli, anderson & saqipi saqipi, b. and vogrinc, j. (eds) (2017) the prospects of reforming teacher education,: libri shkollor, prishtina, kosovo, isbn: 978-9951-23-085-9. saqipi, b. (2014). developing teacher professionalism and identity in the midst of large-scale education reform – the case of kosovo”. journal of teacher researcher 2/2014, jyvaskyla (finland): tuope. issn 1238-4631; isbn 978-952-5066-73-9. saqipi, b. (2012). teacher professional development needs assessment: implementing new kosovo curriculum framework (unpublished research report). prishtina: teacher training and capacity building for school directors, ec ipa 2009 project implemented by a consortium led by giz is. tudor, i. (1993). teacher roles in the learner centred classroom. elt journal, 47(1), 22 – 31. sablonniere, r., taylor, d. m., & sadykova, n. (2009). challenges of applying a student – centred approach to learning in the context of education in kyrgyzstan. international journal of educational development. www.elsevier,com/locate/ijedudev. shulman, l. (1987). knowledge and teaching: foundations of the new reform. harvard educational review, 57(1), 1-22. warnich, p. & meyer, l. (2013). trainee teachers’ observation of learner – centred instruction and assessment as applied by history and social sciences teachers. yesterday & today 9. weimer, m. (2002). learner-centred teaching: five key changers to practice. san francisco: jossey bass. http://www.elsevier,com/locate/ijedudev journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 49-64 annex a table 1. task orientation of teachers (n = 36) action/ approach often sometimes rarely students are highly involved in class activities and exams 34 2 0 students share their ideas with each other and me 31 3 0 students work in small or larger groups when solving problem 24 6 2 i help students to explore, extend, and connect their ideas 23 7 5 i give support for solving problems, but do not give away the answers 23 9 4 students debate issues and viewpoints 21 9 6 i ask questions that encourage students to think 20 10 6 students can relate new concepts to their own lives 19 13 6 i relate new information or problems to what students have already learned 19 10 7 i provide diagrams or pictures to make information cleaner 18 12 6 students use a range of resources to help them try out their ideas e.g. making models 15 15 5 students prepare with a partner or team before sharing ideas with the class 15 8 11 students suggest possible problems than can be addressed 14 8 13 students develop ideas using a variety of resources 10 13 13 students collect information that extends across subject areas 12 10 11 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2), 1-23 the relevant motivator elements in becoming an academic entrepreneur mauricio monge-agüero1, pedro baena-luna2 & esther garcía-río3 abstract this study aims to understand the motivation behind academic entrepreneurs launching their business ideas as a company. to accomplish this objective, we analysed the reasons that motivated seventy-four academic entrepreneurs. the results showed that there is no single motivating element for starting an entrepreneurial project for academic entrepreneurs. among them, the identification of a business opportunity, the existence of a support network and the possibility of having qualified staff to manage them are considered relevant elements. the results of this study may be useful for researchers and agents elaborating on successful public policies for academic entrepreneurship. due to their scientific base, these types of companies become key in improving the innovation capacity of a territory and the effect on the rest of society in general. keywords: academic entrepreneurship, motivation for entrepreneurship, spin-off, technology-based company, business opportunity. introduction the establishment of high-tech companies by professors and researchers from universities and institutions helps advance the economic improvement of a territory (guo et al., 2019; iwu et al., 2021). the promotion of entrepreneurship in different fields has special relevance worldwide (dorji, 2021). traditionally, research has been considered one of the most relevant objectives of the university, however, nowadays it is necessary that they also favour economic growth and development (sciarelli et al., 2021). the so-called spin-offs constitute one of the main mechanisms of knowledge transfer from research centres and universities to the business and industrial world (mathisen & rasmussen, 2019). current global competitiveness indicates an increasing demand for better products. as a result, companies in different countries need to be innovative (boone et al., 2019; palos-sánchez et al., 2019). following the success of other countries and also because of improvements in the standard of living, the scientific and technological growth of this type of company is being promoted, in 1 ph.d. researcher, costa rica institute of technology, mmonge@itcr.ac.cr 2 ph.d. lecturer and researcher, university of seville, pbaenaluna@us.es (corresponding author) 3 ph.d. lecturer and researcher university of seville, egrio@us.es journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 particular, the spin-offs. academic entrepreneurs feel more capable of starting an academic venture due to the concepts of entrepreneurship and university being increasingly linked (hambali, 2019). they are now playing a fundamental role in the socio-economic development of society (davey & galan-muros, 2020). there is no definitive definition of the phenomenon of spin-offs although several studies have addressed this reality (galati et al., 2020). it could be established that an academic spin-off is a type of company created by the teaching and research staff of a university due to a research project (fuster et al., 2019; sheng & shiquan, 2020). they aim to utilise a business opportunity based on the knowledge and/or scientific results acquired in a university environment (hesse & sternberg 2017). this way an academic entrepreneur can effectively transfer their knowledge to the industry (hessels et al., 2021; mathisen & rasmussen, 2019). this is crucial for universities to achieve their purpose of transferring knowledge to society and companies (miller et al., 2017). they are also an instrument for the development of a territory (hayter et al., 2018; olo et al., 2021). spinoffs also are important because allow the commercialisation of research results that would otherwise have remained undeveloped (mathisen & rasmussen, 2019). university support for academic entrepreneurship is increasingly in demand. however, the knowledge of what are the real elements that lead academic scientists to opt for entrepreneurship is not yet clearly identified by universities (wang et al., 2022). it is important to know what the real motivators are for launching an academic spin-off. sometimes these types of entrepreneurs, if they do not have clear objectives as a company, may focus on testing the new technology and not so much on satisfying the needs of the market (buratti et al., 2021). spin-offs are a reality that has yet to be analysed in depth. the dual nature, entrepreneurial and academic (sheng & shiquan, 2020) of them recommends the study of what are the real motivating elements for these academic entrepreneurs. this article addresses and responds to this pending space in related research, of particular relevance both at the theoretical and practical level for the university and society in general. the study aims to identify and analyse the elements that motivate academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company. the results showed that the relevant motivating elements for entrepreneurship are a set of motivational factors that influence a person's behaviour (daliman et monge-agüero et al. 3 al., 2019) and include identifying a business opportunity (even in adverse circumstances), the possibility of having a qualified person managing their business, and the existence of a support network. however, the availability of resources, elements related to the environment, the role model, and attitude towards business creation are not considered motivating elements for entrepreneurship in a relevant way. to achieve the objective of this paper, this article has been structured in the following sections in addition to this introduction. first, the most significant arguments from the literature review are presented. these concepts, for a better understanding, are addressed individually and connected to other realities. next, the most relevant methodological aspects for obtaining the results derived from the empirical work are presented. the results obtained are then discussed based on the research questions and finally, the most relevant conclusions are presented together with the limitations of this work and a research agenda. review of literature a review of the antecedents of this study of the elements that motivated academic entrepreneurs when launching a business project found that there have been different studies and results when investigating the key motivating elements. a sample of the most prominent studies can be seen in table 1. autio & kauranen (1994) analysed the existence of a triggering event in the business creation phenomenon. the authors, through quantitative research on 104 spin-off founders and 22 nonentrepreneurial researchers, established a series of possible motivational items that could be grouped into external, personal, market pull, and technology push. the academic entrepreneur is key to launching spin-offs (meoli et al., 2019). this is due to a series of individual actions arising from qualities like personality, skills and competencies, professional career and the willingness to participate in business activities (qian et al., 2018). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 table 1 the background to the study of the motivating elements for academic entrepreneurs research work main motivating elements for academic entrepreneurship (doutriaux & peterman, 1982) boredom with the academic routine. the value of independence and freedom at work (samsom & gurdon, 1990) the opportunity to create a company and become an entrepreneur. the opportunity to make money/wealth. (doutriaux & dew, 1992) making money from a share in the capital obtaining greater benefit from a technology transfer (autio & kauranen, 1994) making the most of the external opportunities personal motivation taking advantage of market opportunities using technology practically (weatherston, 1995) economic desire for freedom distrusting the companies’ ability to market a product the need to keep control of a personal invention job dissatisfaction (chiesa & piccaluga, 2000) the identification of market opportunities economic the need to exploit an idea. aversion to bureaucracy unstable research environment personal success and need for independence (shane, 2004) desire to put technology into practice desire for wealth the desire for independence (prodan & slavec, 2009) dissatisfaction with the academic environment the desire to secure permanent employment the desire to take on broader responsibilities the desire to obtain wealth the desire to put technology into practice the desire to disseminate results in scientific literature and continue perfecting the technology the desire to acquire more research funding (wennberg et al., 2010) broadening experiences professional development (novotny, 2014) dissatisfaction with the university salary motivation has an important impact on subjective success (berbegal-mirabent et al., 2018) intrinsic motivation extrinsic motivation prosocial motivation (davey & galan-muros, 2020) obtain funding/financial resources increase my chance of promotion improve my reputation within the university use my research in practice gain new insights for research contribute to the mission of the university address societal challenges and issues lauto et al. (2009) addressed the reasons for the motivation of academic entrepreneurs, where they studied 249 academic entrepreneurs from multiple disciplines working in italian universities. prodan & drnovsek (2010) intended to fill the existing gap in the literature about the determinants and characteristics of the processes that guide entrepreneurs when utilising their entrepreneurial monge-agüero et al. 5 intentions. the authors also proposed a conceptual model of the intentions of academic entrepreneurs. goethner et al. (2011) showed the relationship between the attitude and the perception of control of entrepreneurs, and the prediction of entrepreneurial intentions when launching a business idea. these authors also showed how economic, human and social capital factors indirectly affected entrepreneurial attitude and perception of control in entrepreneurs. renault & mello (2011) studied the economic, human and, more importantly, the technological resources the entrepreneurs had in the organisations where they worked, as potential motivator elements. the academic unit’s business orientation and the availability of social capital, finance and resources as driving forces of spin-offs in the organisation were also studied. garcía-cabrera et al. (2017) analysed 296 academic entrepreneurs who founded their companies in brazil to determine whether business internationalization decisions are conditioned by entrepreneurial motivation of them. they concluded that entrepreneurial motivation to seize opportunities affects the decisions made throughout the company’s entire journey. the study also takes into consideration that authorities must try to stimulate the creation of more companies by motivating academic entrepreneurs to generate higher rates of wealth and employment. therefore, methods to promote academic entrepreneurial motivation must be available for this to happen. research questions based on the above, we can establish (grouped in five main groups) the most relevant motivational elements for academic entrepreneurs: identifying a business opportunity, the desire to apply knowledge, the motivation (internal and external), the availability of resources and the influence of the environment. from these five groups of motivational elements, the six following research questions can be established in this article: q1. does the identification of a business opportunity directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? q2. do the desire to apply the knowledge and the desire to transfer it directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 q3. does personal motivation directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? q4. does the previous organisation directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? q5. does the availability of resources directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? q6. do the family environment and the attitudes of society toward the creation of companies influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? based on the theoretical foundations, the model to be tested in this research is illustrated in figure 1. figure 1. proposed model method sample the study population was chosen from public universities in costa rica and spain. all subjects had connections with the production sector, identified a business opportunity from a research process and created a company. the basic knowledge of the company can be either tacit or explicit. monge-agüero et al. 7 seventy-six academic entrepreneurs from sixty-eight academic spin-offs were identified and asked to participate in the study. the response rate was 97%, and 74 academic entrepreneurs were used as the sample for this study as can be seen in table 2. table 2 description of sample percentage (%) gender men 86.36 women 13.64 age 23-35 13.60 36-55 36.40 ≥ 56 50.00 area of knowledge at university of academic entrepreneurs health science 11.36 social science and law 18.18 sciences 15.90 engineering & architecture 52.27 art & humanities 2.27 business sector spin-offs agriculture 22.80 industry 27.20 services 50.00 instrument the instrument used is based on the theoretical proposal of autio & kauranen (1994), which established forty items organised into four groups that are possible motivating elements for the decision to create a company. these are a) opportunity, b) personal motivation, c) technology development and d) market development. some items were adapted to facilitate the reader's understanding, thereby resulting in questions on thirty-five different items. these elements were grouped into six categories: a) opportunity, b) knowledge, c) personal motivation, d) previous organisation motivation, e) available resources and f) environment. a likert 5-point scale was used to measure the opinions of academic entrepreneurs regarding the motivating elements when launching a business. table 3 shows the cronbach's α and ave calculated for the constructs. cronbach's α values ranged from 0.866 to 0.978, thus exceeding the recommended level of 0.70, and indicating strong internal reliability for the constructs. the composite reliability ranged from 0.867 to 1.015, whereas the ave ranged from 0.882 to 0.922. both are above the recommended minimum levels. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 table 3 cronbach alpha, cr, and ave cronbach alpha composite reliability average variance extracted (ave) knowledge 0.960 0.961 0.927 environment 0.947 1.015 0.857 previous organisation 0.978 0.978 0.919 personal motivation 0.915 0.924 0.922 behavioural intention 0.866 0.867 0.882 opportunity 0.956 0957 0.885 resources 0.955 0.986 0.755 data collection responses were collected through a questionnaire distributed online via e-mail. to ensure the veracity of the respondents’ answers, participation in the survey was voluntary. in addition, the process was monitored to make sure that none of the respondents replied twice, something that might have affected the consistency and reliability of the answers to the questionnaire. data analysis the results derived from the data obtained were analysed using the pls-sem and the fs-qca techniques. pls-sem is considered very suitable for exploratory studies and analysis, like in this case (hair et al., 2017; henseler et al., 2016). this technique is being widely used in social sciences and organisations (sosik et al., 2009). we report recent studies in the fields of management (garroabarca et al., 2020), decision-making (saura et al., 2020), it (palos-sanchez et al., 2019), hospitality and tourism (hernandez-rojas et al., 2021) and cryptocurrencies adoption (palossanchez et al., 2021). the fs-qca technique is characterised by starting from a complex potential causality while focusing on asymmetric relationships. to determine the likelihood of producing a specific result, the necessary and sufficient conditions must be studied (duarte & pinho, 2019). an exploratory analysis of the data has been carried out to detect the existence of missing values, outliers, and underlying statistical assumptions (normality, linearity of relationships, multicollinearity). monge-agüero et al. 9 for the total results, less than 10% of the missing data were observed. no notable outliers outside the specified range were observed. for the estimation of normality, the arithmetic means, the standard deviation of the distribution, skewness, and kurtosis values were calculated. all elements presented a distribution close to normal with skewness and kurtosis values below ± 2, except for two elements that were at a value of 3. values in the range [-1, + 1] (ferrando & anguianocarrasco, 2010) [-1.5, + 1.5] (gallardo-pujol et al., 2009), or even [-2, + 2] (lloret-segura et al., 2014) are considered acceptable. concerning normality, wolf (1980) states that partial least squares structural equation modelling (pls-sem) does not require the conditions demanded by traditional covariance structural equation modelling (cbsem) with respect to statistical distributions (normality of the data concerning the observed variables); that is, they use nonparametric tests, thus allowing a non-normal distribution for the analysis (rojas & abarca, 2014). pls models are used in predictive and non-confirmatory situations. the pls methodology does not assume normality and estimates by recursive least squares, which is recommended in cases of small samples and using a regression scheme with "weak" assumptions. research design the methodology used in this research is non-experimental and based on a correlational design. this has been carried out to demonstrate the relationship between the variables analysed. with this correlational design, it is not possible to analyse the cause-effect relationship, but it is possible to suspect that there is a causal relationship. therefore, this work aims to analyse the relationship between the factors included in the model and the degree of intention or motivation to carry out. this type of research based on a correlational design aims to find the relationship or the degree of relationship between some concepts, categories, or variables in a particular context (cabanillas & mori, 2018). in this way, the degree of relationship between two or more variables is evaluated, measuring each one of them to subsequently quantify and analyse their link with the variable studied, based on hypotheses subjected to a test of acceptance or rejection. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 results the results obtained after processing the data collected using the pls-sem and fs-qca technique allow us to answer the research questions of this work. as can be seen in figure 2, this shows the results obtained concerning the structural model tested. figure 2. structural model therefore, the result of the influence of the relationships between the different elements that affect entrepreneurial intention can be seen in table 4. table 4 path coefficients (β) relationships β (standard path coefficients) supported kn → bi 0.481 yes en → bi 0.106 yes pm→ bi 0.141 yes po → bi 0.172 yes op→ bi 0.483 yes re → bi -0.085 no a significant and positive relationship has been confirmed between the variables, like knowledge, environment, personal motivations, organisation of origin, and opportunity. in contrast, the monge-agüero et al. 11 environment has insignificant weight and there is a negative relationship between the environment and entrepreneurial intention. r2 represents a predictive value measure that indicates the amount of variance of a construct explained by the endogenous construct's predictor variables, with the values ranging from zero to one. the results of the model showed it has a high predictive power, with the total variance being 97.1%. in terms of the factors predicting entrepreneurial intention, the opportunity had the greatest influence, followed by knowledge, personal motivations, and the origin of the organisation. considering the existence of multiple possibilities regarding the achievement of a high academic entrepreneurial intention, we carried out an fs-qca analysis. table 5 presents the configurations that explain the existence of academic entrepreneurial intention using the intermediate solution. the solutions provide coverage of 0.931 and consistency of 0.959, which indicates that 93.10% of cases with an outcome of interest are covered by the solution. this consistency shows that 95.90% of the cases covered by the configurations have an interesting outcome. both measures meet the required thresholds and are therefore considered a valid solution. table 5 configurations of the conditions for behavioural intention (bi outcome variable) configuration 1 2 3 opportunity ● ● knowledge ● ● ● personal motivation ● ● previous organisation ● ⊗ ⊗ resources ⊗ ● environment ⊗ ⊗ consistency 0.953824 0.981464 0.990276 raw coverage 0.518431 0.844444 0.638954 unique coverage 0.0253596 0.267451 0.0360785 overall solution consistency 0.959613 overall solution coverage 0.931765 note: condition present (●), condition absent (⊗) the analysis of the solutions that explain the intention to undertake in the academic area shows how the set of opportunities, knowledge and personal motivations in the absence of the previous organisation variable shows greater consistency. the presence of knowledge, opportunity and personal motivations in the three intermediate solutions indicate the importance of the relationship between these variables with high entrepreneurial intention. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 table 6 shows the configurations to explain the non-occurrence of entrepreneurial intention by analysing the intermediate solution. these configurations have a coverage of 0.845 and a consistency of 0.840. the intermediate solution shows three configurations, with a low level of the environment variable being present in all three. there is also a low level of personal motivation, prior organisation, resources, environment and high knowledge present in the first configuration. in the second, there is both a low level of previous organisation and environment and a high level of opportunity, knowledge and personal motivation. however, in the third, the only variable present is pre-organisation, with the others being absent. table 6 configurations of the conditions for behavioral intention (~bi outcome variable) configuration 1 2 3 opportunity ● ⊗ knowledge ● ● ⊗ personal motivation ⊗ ● ⊗ previous organisation ⊗ ⊗ ● resources ⊗ ⊗ environment ⊗ ⊗ ⊗ consistency 0.955267 0.797002 0.978435 raw coverage 0.555525 0.55021 0.786853 unique coverage 0.0148252 0.0363637 0.253706 overall solution consistency 0.840423 overall solution coverage 0.845595 note: condition present (●), condition absent (⊗) this section answers the six research questions posed in this work derived from the five hypotheses established in the proposed model on the main motivational elements for being an academic entrepreneur in the university environment: q1. does the identification of a business opportunity directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? the most important motivating element when launching a business idea is converting it into a product and/or service. this element has an average score of 4.38 and 59.5% of entrepreneurs rated it as very important. identifying customers’ needs to obtain an average of 4.31 between important and very important and it has a frequency of 88.10%. monge-agüero et al. 13 therefore, it can be said that identifying an opportunity is a relevant motivating element for launching a business idea for academic entrepreneurs. q2. do the desire to apply the knowledge and the desire to transfer it directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? in this section, we analyse two motivational elements: the desire to apply knowledge and the desire to transfer it. the most important of these is the desire to apply knowledge. 88.10% considered the willingness to advance technical knowledge to be important or very important, while 74.50% considered putting the acquired knowledge into practice as important or very important. the willingness to transfer knowledge had an average score of 3.99. this was due to the high value given to scientific knowledge and it being an exclusive motivating element in creating companies. adding value to the company's knowledge base obtained a score of 80.50%, lying between important and very important. the exclusivity of the available knowledge (the non-existence of that knowledge in other r&d environments) obtained a score of 70%, lying between important and very important. finally, the difficulty in transferring the basic knowledge of the company in the university environment showed a score of 60%. q3. does personal motivation directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? elements of personal motivation when starting a business idea obtained an aggregate average of 4.02, which excludes the average desire for wealth. we grouped the elements into three subsets, and the results were: the desire to achieve results had an average score of 4.15, the need to be independent had an average score of 3.88, and the desire for wealth had an average score of 2.84. therefore, the desire to achieve results was the primary reason for launching a business idea, followed by the need to be independent and, finally, the desire for wealth. in the most important group, the willingness to work with one’s ideas received the highest rating of 4.36 with a frequency of 59.10%, which is very important. the desire to assume and fulfil broader responsibilities showed an average score of 3.93 and a frequency of 53.50%, and this is very important. the desire to test one's ability to create a new company is also very important and had an average score and a frequency of 3.37 and 37.20%, respectively. the element with the lowest average score in this subgroup was the desire to do something that others could not, which had an average score of 3.00 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 (considered very important) and had a frequency of 38.10%. therefore, these results show that working with one’s ideas and the desire to assume and fulfil broader responsibilities are the main motivating elements in this group. the subgroup of the need to be independent as a motivating element when launching a business idea had an aggregate average score of 3.88. both the desire for independence and the advantages of self-employment had an average score of 3.89 with a frequency of 59.10% and 54.50%, respectively, and both were valued as very important. having a job offering better opportunities and facing difficulties than the previous professional career had the lowest scores of 2.68 and 2.12, respectively. the desire for wealth, i.e., the desire to earn more money than working for a salary, had an average score of 2.12 and a frequency of 47.70%, and it was considered unimportant. q4. does the previous organisation directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? the previous organisation is very important in the decision to create a company. companies are created so that the academic entrepreneur can leave their current organisation and thus seize the opportunities this gives them. it is the case of some authors who state the academic entrepreneur encounters more barriers than help when trying to approach the home organisation when launching a business idea. some entrepreneurs felt that the managers of their previous organisations did everything possible to make business initiatives fail. q5. does the availability of resources directly and positively influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? the available resources for starting a company are divided into two subgroups: financial resources and social resources. the most important element of both groups was to have readily available social resources, and in this subgroup, the most important point was that contacts be available for starting the company and also an available network of contacts in the potential market. these elements, which were considered very important, had average scores of 3.58 and 3.66, respectively, and had frequencies of 45.00% and 43.90%, respectively. q6. do the family environment and the attitudes of society toward the creation of companies influence academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas as a company? monge-agüero et al. 15 an academic entrepreneur gains motivation from two subgroups: (1) the influence of family business roles and (2) society’s attitudes towards the creation of companies. the family was found to have very little importance with academic entrepreneurs, as 70.80% stated that no entrepreneurial family figure had influenced their entrepreneurship. however, 24.40% also stated that it was important to them that a family member was an entrepreneur. the average score was only 2.10 points. having a successful company as a role model which evaluates the influence of known entrepreneurs had an average of 2.80. this was considered either not or not very important by 33.90% and to either be important or very important by 29.60%. the results obtained from the test of the hypotheses based on the proposed model have surprisingly shown that the availability of resources is not the main element for being an academic entrepreneur. the direct and positive influence of knowledge and the identification of a business opportunity stand out above the rest of the hypotheses as real motivating elements for these potential entrepreneurs. the direct and positive influence of knowledge and the identification of a business opportunity stand out above the rest of the hypotheses as real motivating elements for these potential entrepreneurs. to a lesser extent, although also in a direct and positive way, the elements of motivation itself, the perception of support from the university or research centre, as well as from the entrepreneur's own environment stand out. discussion this study shows that the results of opportunity and knowledge as a motivating element differ in some cases from other reports. similarly, in the case of the availability of resources to start a business, it is surprisingly not a relevant motivating element. the positive relationship of knowledge, motivation of the entrepreneur, and support from the previous organisation together with the environment of the potential entrepreneur is found to be aligned with the results of other related work. in the case of autio & kauranen (1994), they found that identifying the needs of potential customers and/or deficiencies in existing products were the most important factor. they found this journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 to be the fourth most important factor when finding a good market opportunity (shane, 2000). however, it also shared similar results with us, where they stated that identifying a business opportunity was an important motivating element. however, the results of this study contrast with hossinger et al. (2020) who establish that identifying a business opportunity should not be considered as a part of the motivation for launching a business idea, but as an independent element having wider relevance and should therefore be studied further to understand its effects on the behaviour of entrepreneurs. the study found that both identifying a new product and/or service idea and identifying potential clients’ needs are the most important motivational elements for academic entrepreneurs. we eliminated the following factors as the results showed they were not important motivating elements: difficulties when exploiting a patent and discovering a new production method. our results showed that unsurprisingly, knowledge as a motivating element is important for academic entrepreneurs, as scientists are usually interested in knowledge-based and technological companies. however, this can give excess value to a company's knowledge and the scientifictechnical part and relegate other important aspects like customers, marketing and administration. in the case of these authors, they found that the achievement subgroup is the most important part of personal motivation for academic entrepreneurs. the results obtained show that both the desire to work with one’s ideas and the desire to take on and fulfil broader responsibilities are the most important factors in this subgroup. on the other hand, it is important to take into the results related to the previous organisation. in this case, we also found that the previous organisation is a very important motivating element. the frequently interviewed academic entrepreneurs commented that the organisational culture and institutional authorities disagreed with their entrepreneurial initiatives due to their incompatibility with the organisation’s academic functions organisation. this disagreement led them to decide to leave the academic organisation to fully devote themselves to the company. regarding the influence of the environment the results showed that examples of other successful entrepreneurs had a greater impact on academic entrepreneurs than on the family entrepreneurial tradition. however, both elements are well below the minimum value to be important, so we monge-agüero et al. 17 concluded that role models have little or no influence on the decision to launch a business idea. our results also showed that the role and attitude towards the creation of companies were not considered motivation to create a company. we can highlight that the main motivation for academic entrepreneurs to create a company includes opportunity, previous organisation, knowledge, and personal motivation. entrepreneurs consider business opportunities so important that, even though the university environment is unfavourable for utilising them, they always look for ways to launch their projects. this can be done either by reducing their responsibilities at the university or leaving the university completely since they are interested in applying and transferring their knowledge to society. personal fulfilment via the feeling of achievement and independence brought about by the entrepreneurial idea is another motivational element for the entrepreneur. we used previous studies by autio & kauranen (1994) as a reference for this study because they investigated motivation from different points of view and formed constructs that allowed both the subject to be studied and comparisons to be made. our study is based on the already established theoretical framework. previous research found that opportunity was a separate motivation construct and hence they did not include it in their results. however, in this study, we included opportunity as one of the motivating elements for launching a business idea (garcía-cabrera et al., 2017). conclusions in light of the empirical results and their discussion, we highlight those that could be considered the main conclusions drawn from this work. the study results showed that identifying a business opportunity and the knowledge are the most important motivations for an entrepreneur launching their business idea, followed by dissatisfaction with their previous organisation of origin and personal motivations. however, the availability of resources, especially financial ones, does not motivate academic entrepreneurs to launch projects. social resources, like the availability of an appropriate individual as the company’s manager, having production facilities, or the existence of a business incubator, are reasons for starting a company. in the case of having contacts to help start the company and the availability of a potential market network are considered valuable resources when launching a business idea. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 motivation from the environment, like role models and attitude towards the creation of companies, did not motivate academic entrepreneurs to launch their business ideas. entrepreneurs consider business opportunities so important that even though the university environment is unfavourable for utilising them, they search for ways to launch their projects. this can be done either by reducing their responsibilities at the university or quitting the university completely, as the entrepreneur is interested more in applying and transferring their knowledge to society. this work, like any other study, suffers from some limitations. these limitations are particularly related to the size of the sample. the low number of spin-offs analysed makes it necessary to be cautious when extrapolating conclusions from one territory to another. a larger number of observations in the sample would have partially helped in mitigating this potential limitation. also, it is also important to consider that this is a cross-sectional study, as only longitudinal studies can ensure the existence of causal relationships. regarding the potential future avenues of research which can be derived from our study, the effect that the legislation of different territories may have on the start-up of spin-offs can be analysed. another potential line of research is related to what universities do and how they do it to promote the transmission of knowledge generated through the creation of spin-offs. references autio, e., & kauranen, i. (1994). technologist-entrepreneurs versus non-entrepreneurial technologists: analysis of motivational triggering factors. entrepreneurship & regional development, 6(4), 315–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985629400000019 berbegal-mirabent, j., gil-doménech, d., & alegre, i. (2018). why would you ever want to become an academic entrepreneur? in r. s. d. (eds) tur porcar a. (ed.), inside the mind of the entrepreneur. contributions to management science (pp. 33–45). springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62455-6_3 boone, c., lokshin, b., guenter, h., & belderbos, r. (2019). top management team nationality diversity, corporate entrepreneurship, and innovation in multinational firms. strategic management journal, 40(2), 277–302. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2976 buratti, n., profumo, g., & persico, l. (2021). the impact of market orientation on university spin-off business performance. journal of international entrepreneurship, 19(1), 104–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-020-00282-4 monge-agüero et al. 19 cabanillas rincón, e. m., & mori sanchez, r. (2018). nuevo modelo de aceptación tecnológica (tam) y su relación con el grado de aceptación del app usmp mobile. universidad san martín de porres (usmp). chiesa, v., & piccaluga, a. (2000). exploitation and diffusion of public research: the case of academic spin-off companies in italy. r&d management, 30(4), 329–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9310.00187 daliman, d., sulandari, s., & rosyana, i. (2019). the achievement of entrepreneurship competence and entrepreneurial intentions: gender role, attitude and perception of entrepreneurship controls mediation. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 392–426. davey, t., & galan-muros, v. (2020). understanding entrepreneurial academics ‐ how they perceive their environment differently. journal of management development, 39(5), 599– 617. https://doi.org/10.1108/jmd-09-2019-0392 dorji, t. (2021). content analysis of entrepreneurship education in primary and secondary school textbooks. research in educational policy and management, 3(1), 42–59. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.3 doutriaux, j. a., & dew, g. e. (1992). motivation of academic entrepreneurs and spin-off development: analysis of regional and university effects through case studies. 12th annual babson college entrepreneurship research conference, 231–232. doutriaux, j., & peterman, d. (1982). technology transfer and academic entrepreneurship. frontiers of emtrepreneurship research, 430–488. duarte, p., & pinho, j. c. (2019). a mixed methods utaut2-based approach to assess mobile health adoption. journal of business research, 102, 140–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.05.022 ferrando, p. j., & anguiano-carrasco, c. (2010). el análisis factorial como técnica de investigación en psicología. papeles del psicologo, 31(1), 18–33. fuster, a., plosser, m., schnabl, p., & vickery, j. (2019). the role of technology in mortgage lending. review of financial studies, 32(5), 1854–1899. https://doi.org/10.1093/rfs/hhz018 galati, f., bigliardi, b., passaro, r., & quinto, i. (2020). why do academics become entrepreneurs? how do their motivations evolve? results from an empirical study. international journal of entrepreneurial behaviour and research, 26(7), 1477–1503. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijebr-11-2019-0619 gallardo-pujol, d., garcía-forero, c., maydeu-olivares, a., & andrés-pueyo, a. (2009). desarrollo del comportamiento antisocial: factores psicobiológicos, ambientales e interacciones genotipo-ambiente. revista de neurología, 48(04), 191. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 https://doi.org/10.33588/rn.4804.2008084 garcía-cabrera, a. m., garcía-soto, m. g., & durán-herrera, j. j. (2017). motivación por oportunidad del emprendedor e internacionalización de la actividad de la pyme. revista emprendimiento y negocios internacionales, 2(2), 6–11. https://doi.org/10.20420/eni.2017.188 garro-abarca, v. m., palos-sanchez, p. r., & rus-arias, e. (2020). working in virtual teams: a systematic literature review and a bibliometric analysis. in ieee access (vol. 8, pp. 168923– 168940). https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.3023546 goethner, m., obschonka, m., silbereisen, r. k., & cantner, u. (2011). foundations of academic entrepreneurship: a path model for the prediction of scientists’ academic entrepreneurial intention. magnetic resonance imaging, april, 1–5. guo, f., zou, b., guo, j., shi, y., bo, q., & shi, l. (2019). what determines academic entrepreneurship success? a social identity perspective. international entrepreneurship and management journal, 15(3), 929–952. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-019-00569-6 hair, j. f., hult, g., ringle, c., & sarstedt, m. (2017). a primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (pls-sem) (2a). sage publications inc. hambali, i. m. (2019). examining the relevance of indonesian vocational high school career outcomes to the labor market. journal of social studies education research, 10(1), 133–155. hayter, c. s., nelson, a. j., zayed, s., & o’connor, a. c. (2018). conceptualizing academic entrepreneurship ecosystems: a review, analysis and extension of the literature. journal of technology transfer, 43(4), 1039–1082. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-018-9657-5 henseler, j., hubona, g., & ray, p. a. (2016). using pls path modeling in new technology research: updated guidelines. industrial management and data systems, 116(1), 2–20. https://doi.org/10.1108/imds-09-2015-0382 hernandez-rojas, r. d., folgado-fernandez, j. a., & palos-sanchez, p. r. (2021). influence of the restaurant brand and gastronomy on tourist loyalty. a study in córdoba (spain). international journal of gastronomy and food science, 23, 100305. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100305 hesse, n., & sternberg, r. (2017). alternative growth patterns of university spin-offs: why so many remain small? international entrepreneurship and management journal, 13(3), 953– 984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-016-0431-6 hessels, l. k., mooren, c., & bergsma, e. (2021). what can research organizations learn from their spin-off companies? six case studies in the water sector. industry and higher education, 35(3), 188–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950422220952258 monge-agüero et al. 21 hossinger, s. m., chen, x., & werner, a. (2020). drivers, barriers and success factors of academic spin-offs: a systematic literature review. management review quarterly, 70(1), 97–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11301-019-00161-w iwu, c. g., opute, p. a., nchu, r., eresia-eke, c., tengeh, r. k., jaiyeoba, o., & aliyu, o. a. (2021). entrepreneurship education, curriculum and lecturer-competency as antecedents of student entrepreneurial intention. the international journal of management education, 19(1), 100295. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2019.03.007 lauto, g., bau, m., & compagno, c. (2009). resources and motivational factors enabling the creation of academic spin-off: the italian experience. esu conference 2009 on entrepreneurship, 1–12. lloret-segura, s., ferreres-traver, a., hernández-baeza, a., & tomás-marco, i. (2014). el análisis factorial exploratorio de los ítems : una guía práctica , revisada y actualizada introducción determinación de la adecuación del análisis. anales de psicología, 30(3), 1151–1169. mathisen, m. t., & rasmussen, e. (2019). the development, growth, and performance of university spin-offs: a critical review. the journal of technology transfer, 44(6), 1891– 1938. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-018-09714-9 meoli, m., paleari, s., & vismara, s. (2019). the governance of universities and the establishment of academic spin-offs. small business economics, 52(2), 485–504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-017-9956-5 miller, k., cunningham, j. a., & albats, e. (2017). entrepreneurial academics and academic entrepreneurs: a systematic literature review. international journal of technology management, 77(1/2/3), 9–37. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijtm.2018.091710 novotny, a. (2014). motivation and success of academic spin-offs: evidence from hungary. the annals of the university of oradea. economic sciences, 23, 1212–1219. olo, d., correia, l., & rego, c. (2021). higher education institutions and development: missions, models, and challenges. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 1–25. palos-sánchez, p. r., baena-luna, p., & casablanca peña, a. (2019). análisis de las competencias educativas para evaluar a las personas emprendedoras. interciencia, 44(5), 291–297. http://hdl.handle.net/10433/6569 palos-sanchez, p. r., correia, m. b., & saura, j. r. (2019). an empirical examination of adoption of mobile applications in spain and portugal, based in utaut. international journal of mobile communications, 17(5), 579–603. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijmc.2019.102085 palos-sanchez, p. r., saura, j. r., & ayestaran, r. (2021). an exploratory approach to the adoption process of bitcoin by business executives. in mathematics (vol. 9, issue 4). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 1-23 https://doi.org/10.3390/math9040355 prodan, i., & drnovsek, m. (2010). conceptualizing academic-entrepreneurial intention: an empirical test. technovation, 30(5–6), 332–347. prodan, i., & slavec, a. (2009). the influence of ten different motivational factors on academic entrepreneurial intentions. portland international conference on management of engineering & technology, 1909–1914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2010.02.002 qian, x. d., xia, j., liu, w., & tsai, s. b. (2018). an empirical study on sustainable innovation academic entrepreneurship process model. sustainability, 10(6), 1974. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10061974 renault, t., & mello, j. m. c. (2011). analysis of the relationship between academic spin-offs and their parent organization. paper presented at the triple helix ix international conference “silicon valley: global model or unique anomaly? rojas, m., & abarca, m. (2014). lealtad del cliente de los servicios de coaching de negocios en guadalajara, méxico: factores determinantes y propuesta de un modelo de lealtad. paper knowledge . toward a media history of documents, 8(1), 460–480. samsom, k. j., & gurdon, m. a. (1990). entrepreneurial scientist: organizational performance in scientist-started high technology firms. paper presented at the frontiers of emtrepreneurship research, research conference. saura, j. r., palos-sanchez, p., & blanco-gonzález, a. (2020). the importance of information service offerings of collaborative crms on decision-making in b2b marketing. journal of business & industrial marketing, 35(3), 470–482. https://doi.org/10.1108/jbim-12-20180412 sciarelli, m., landi, g. c., turriziani, l., & tani, m. (2021). academic entrepreneurship: founding and governance determinants in university spin-off ventures. journal of technology transfer, 46(4), 1083–1107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-020-09798-2 shane, s. (2000). prior knowledge and the discovery of entrepreneurial opportunities. organization science, 11(4), 448–469. shane, s. (2004). academic entrepreneurship: university spin offs and wealth creation. edward elgar publishing. sheng, g., & shiquan, w. (2020). a literature review and prospects of university spin-offs. foreign economics & management, 42(10), 107–124. https://doi.org/10.16538/j.cnki.fem.20200610.401 sosik, j. j., kahai, s. s., & piovoso, m. j. (2009). silver bullet or voodoo statistics?: a primer for using the partial least squares data analytic technique in group and organization research. monge-agüero et al. 23 group and organization management, 34(1), 5–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601108329198 wang, m., soetanto, d., cai, j., & munir, h. (2022). scientist or entrepreneur? identity centrality, university entrepreneurial mission, and academic entrepreneurial intention. journal of technology transfer, 47(1), 119–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-021-09845-6 weatherston, j. (1995). academic entrepreneurs: is a spin-off company too risky? international council for small business (icsb). wennberg, k., wiklund, j., detienne, d., & cardon, m. (2010). reconceptualizing entrepreneurial exit: divergent exit routes and their drivers. journal of business venturing, 25, 361–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.01.001 wolf, s. (1980). asymmetrical freedom. the journal of philosophy, 77(3), 151–166. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),78-96 the effect of socioeconomic status and religiosity on hungarian young adults’ marriage behavior gabriella pusztai1, hajnalka fényes2 & ágnes engler3 abstract this study focuses on young people’s marriage behavior, which includes cohabitation, marriage, and plans to marry among the unmarried. the decline in marriages and planning to marry is often explained by the general expansion of education, which contributes to women’s economic independence and decision to postpone marrying. research suggests that religiosity has a greater impact on marriage decisions than either socioeconomic status or education. in this study, we aim to contribute to the literature on how young adults’ marriage behavior is influenced by religiosity and socioeconomic status, as measured by education, financial status, and the place of residence. during the analysis, we used data from the hungarian youth 2016 survey on young adults aged 18 to 29 years. we examined the determinants of young people’s marital status and plans to marry using multinomial and logistic regression analysis. according to our results, the positive effect of religiosity on marriage and plans to marry could be confirmed even after controlling for the influence of education. although education strengthened plans to get married, it also delayed their occurrence. furthermore, we found that religiosity increased the chance of cohabitation compared to being single in the sample, but its effect on marriage was stronger. limitations of this study include our examined age group(18–29 years) , as at this age not all marriage decisions had been made, so it was not possible to fully investigate what proportion refrained from marriage entirely. keywords: marriage behavior, cohabitation, marriage, marriage planning, education, religiosity, quantitative analysis introduction in most european countries, one can observe a diminishing population and an aging society if international migration is not taken into account. this trend presents a challenge for various fields, including the economy, education, the social welfare system, and health care. in central and eastern europe, there is also a clear tendency among young people to delay commitment, as evidenced by the popularity of cohabitation without having children (makay & domokos, 2018; mucić & devedžić, 2018; wahhaj, 2018). family policies have been introduced in several 1 full professor in education, mta-de parent-teacher cooperation research group,university of debrecen, debrecen, hungary, pusztai.gabriella@arts.unideb.hu 2 associate professor in sociology, mta-de parent-teacher cooperation research group, university of debrecen, debrecen, hungary, fenyes.zsuzsanna@arts.unideb.hu 3 associate professor in education, university of debrecen, debrecen, hungary, engler.angnes@arts.unideb.hu journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),78-96 countries to encourage people to start a family (biryukova & sinyavskaya, 2021; daly & ferragina, 2018). a significant increase in the hungarian marriage rate was registered in the 2010s, which is explained by new family policies, as well as by the fact that marriages which had been postponed during the global financial crisis could finally take place (murinkó & rohr, 2018). nevertheless, we believe that the effectiveness of family policies can only be demonstrated in the long term. family life education can influence plans to marry in younger generations, but in hungary it is not included into the curriculum of the formal education system. informal channels influence the young generations’ views about marriage (bozhkova et al. 2020). passing of these values is present only in religious education settings and in religious communities (safitri 2018). the literature on marriage and plans to marry focuses mainly on the effect of education and occupational status through financial security, but even the developers of family policy concepts point out that these factors alone are not sufficient to incentivize marriage decisions (white & rogers, 2000). in this study, we examine the effects of religiosity of young people on their marital status and plans to marry, alongside the effect of the level of education or financial situation. in the theoretical section of this study, we review the factors which influence marriage and marriage plans based on the literature, including findings in connection to cohabitation. in our empirical analysis, we use a subsample of the hungarian youth 2016 database with young adults aged 18–29 to examine through multinomial and logistic regression the effect of various factors on two dependent variables (marital status and plans to marry among the unmarried). explanatory variables in our analyses include gender, age, young people’s educational attainment, subjective financial situation, place of residence, and self-reported religiosity. our hypotheses, formulated based on the literature, are verified in the discussion. at the end of the discussion, we consider the limitations of our analysis, which is followed by our most significant conclusions and policy proposals. the novelty of our research is that our first dependent variable, the marital status of young adults, has three values, including cohabitation, which is rarely discussed in the literature. the other novelty that we examine are the effects on plans to marry among singles, not just the effects on marital status. further, through multivariable regression analysis, we can examine the effects of several explanatory variables on our dependent variables, and the effect of religiosity can be controlled for the effect of social status indicators. pusztai et al. 80 factors which influence marriage and plans to marry in western culture, the history of marriage as an institution has gone through two major turning points: first, the influence of romantic relationships as opposed to economic rationality on marriage, which became prevalent about a century ago, and second, the increase in extramarital sexual relationships and cohabitation over the past half century. the latter change coincided with the expansion of higher education and rising secularization in society. all this resulted in a significant transformation of marriage behavior, as evidenced by the postponement of marriages, a decrease in the proportion of married people in the population, the rise of the single lifestyle, frequent extramarital cohabitation and non-cohabiting sexual partnerships, and increasing relationship instability (sobotka & toulemon, 2008). all these phenomena can be observed in in central and eastern europe, albeit with some delay (makay & domokos, 2018). among young people, the proportion of the married and those planning to get married has consistently increased with age. research on the timing of marriage has found, in addition to widespread evidence on the postponement of marriage, that it is still a global phenomenon that, on average, women and men do not get married at the same age. in modern western societies, however, the age disparity in marriage is narrowing as women catch up with men and get married later (allendorf et al., 2017; ortega, 2014). research from hungary has demonstrated women’s greater willingness to have a relationship, preferring to be in a relationship which should last in the long term according to their plans, and are more inclined to get married than men (makay & domokos, 2018; moore & govender, 2013). in contrast, international data display no gender differences in the above indicators (kaufman & goldscheider, 2007), while others suggest that increasing economic stability of women reduces their willingness to marry (tucker 2002). in addition to the effect of demographic factors, the analysis of socioeconomic status is also crucial, which we measure in this study through educational attainment, financial situation, and the settlement type of the place of residence. as a result of the expansion of education, women’s educational attainment has not only caught up with that of men but has even slightly exceeded it. at the turn of the millennium there are more women among graduates than men (fényes, 2012). according to the independence hypothesis, women’s high educational attainment and earnings are associated with an increased ability to establish and maintain independence, leading to a decrease in their willingness to get married. economic exchange theory also predicts a decline in marriages, assuming that educated women who can provide for themselves decide to get married with a journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),78-96 diminishing frequency, which in the past they would have done in exchange of their domestic work with the assumption that their husbands would provide for the family through participating in the labor market (becker, 1992). in the second half of the 20th century, there was a general consensus among researchers about the claim that increased educational attainment had a negative effect on marriage, but some researchers believe that the extended participation in education caused marriages to be postponed though not avoided (oppenheimer, 1988). according to the postponement hypothesis, highly educated and economically independent women do not refrain from marriage but decide to marry later since it takes longer for them to obtain their qualifications, to achieve a high occupational status, and to find the most suitable partner in the marriage market (oppenheimer, 1988). the willingness to marry among highly educated women, albeit with a delay, does increase (sobotka & toulemon, 2008). high educational attainment, in addition to postponing marriages, has also been demonstrated to strengthen plans to marry compared to those with low educational attainment (kim & kamo, 2018). overall, international data have shown that highly qualified women are more likely to marry than women with less academic background (burnstein, 2007; goldscheider & waite, 1986; oppenheimer, 1997; white & rogers, 2000). using data spanning 35 years, montez et al. (2014) found that women with low educational attainment were less likely to marry. hungarian data revealed that there were more married people among graduates and urban youth than among those with low educational attainment, and the former were more likely to plan to get married (makay & domokos, 2018). if we consider trends over time in hungary, in contrast to other european countries, the increase in age at the first marriage has significantly slowed down in the past decade among both women and men (it has increased by only 1.4 years since 2010, compared to about 4 years in the previous decade), which has been attributed to the recent boom in marriages (kovács, 2018). besides the direct effect of educational attainment on marriage, according to economic theory, high educational attainment is associated with high earnings and socioeconomic status, which favorably affects the decision to marry. this is because individuals who earn more are more desirable partners in the marriage market (schnor et al., 2017; torr, 2011). nevertheless, the positive effect of education on the financial situation is not similarly significant everywhere. in certain regions and professions, despite their educational attainment, young people possess modest pusztai et al. 82 financial resources. this is why in this study we examine the effect of the financial situation and education on marriage behavior separately. cohesive traditional communities in rural environments represent a catalyst for marriages and plans to marry, at the same time rural regions are mostly disadvantaged, which is not conducive to marriage. recent trends show that the proportion of those who cohabit with their partner in rural environments has become similar to urban levels, and the share of births outside of marriage has also increased, which suggests a decline in the rural tendency for marriage (doignon et al., 2020; vasiliu, 2019). in eastern europe, urban-rural differences are combined with gender differences: whereas towns and cities have a higher proportion of single women, villages have a higher proportion of single men (mucić & devedžić, 2018). in addition, hungarian data has shown that the proportion of those who cohabit with their partner is higher in smaller settlements, and there are more single people in large towns (makay & domonkos 2018). the fact that young people who study for a long period of time opt for cohabitation or being single instead of getting married can also be explained by economic and cultural reasons (esteve et al., 2013; sobotka & toulemon, 2008). in countries where young people face economic insecurity and housing problems, it is common to remain single for a long time. in central and southern europe, young adults often keep living with their parents, without long-term planning, mainly due to financial reasons, including to reduce cost of living (billari, 2004). various studies in hungary (e.g., engler, 2020; makay & blaskó, 2012) highlighted that young people did not view material factors (e.g., owning a home, having a secure job) as a necessary condition of marriage; instead, they considered it to be crucial to have a stable relationship, which should involve trust and faithfulness. both marriage and religiosity are often mentioned as institutions with a positive individual and social impact on physical health, longevity, mental health, happiness, a favorable family atmosphere, and educational attainment (acs, 2007; engler, 2020; pusztai, 2015; waite & lehrer, 2003). at the same time, the interaction between the two is less often in focus. the integrating, regulating, and norm-setting social functions of religiosity also play an important role in the maintenance of marriages (marks, 2009; waite & lehrer, 2003), but it is worthwhile to consider how religiosity affects the formation of marriages. it is an important fact, that among post-socialist countries, marriages rates fell the most in the most secularized societies (sobotka & toulemon, 2008). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),78-96 changes in the social role of religiosity and in individuals’ religious commitment and practice are significantly intertwined with transformations in various dimensions of family life (thornton & camburn, 1987), including premarital sex, contraception, cohabitation, divorce, and marriage. in their longitudinal study on the link between religiosity and the decision to enter into different forms of relationship (marriage or cohabitation), thornton et al. (1992) found that religious commitment and practice clearly influenced behavior regarding cohabitation and marriage. this is mainly due to the fact that religious young people plan to marry and get married earlier out of respect for religious norms, as well as the effective control exerted by religious parents. at the same time, it should be taken into account that the proportion of young adults in hungary who consider themselves religious and also follow the teachings of a church is low compared to those who identify as religious in their own way. not only does this mean a declining number of those who regularly practice their religion in some institutional form, but it also suggests that an increasing share of the population does not consider the teachings of a church to be fundamental in areas of life management such as premarital sex and cohabitation. additionally, it has been found that even those young people who feel particularly attached to their church shape their religious practices themselves and make their relationship decisions accordingly (pusztai & demeter-karászi, 2019). religiosity can also cause marriages to be postponed by making it more difficult to find a suitable partner in terms of religion in local marriage markets (mcclendon, 2016). consequently, cohabitation is much more common among non-religious people, and marriage and plans to marry are less common among them than among the religious. the inverse relationship between religiosity and extramarital sex is significant even if people from different cultural, ethnic, migration, socioeconomic, and residential backgrounds are compared (kogan & weissman, 2019). research questions and hypothesis in our paper, our first research question is how demographic variables (age and gender), socioeconomic background (level of education, financial situation, and the type of settlement), and the religious self-identification of young adults affect the marital status (chance of marriage, cohabitation, and being single). our second question concerns how these explanatory variables affect plans to marry among those who are single in our sample. h1: based on the literature we hypothesize that the chance of cohabitation, marriage, and plans to marry increases with age among young adults. pusztai et al. 84 h2. in addition, we hypothesize that cohabitation, marriage, and plans to marry are more common among women, as the literature suggests that on average women get married at a younger age than men get. h3: we hypothesize that higher education level of the 18–29 age group has a negative correlation with marriage and cohabitation due to the postponement effect, but a positive relationship with plans to marry. h4: we assume that a favorable subjective financial situation has a positive effect on both marriage and plans to marry, but cohabitation is more common among those with an unfavorable financial background. h5: we hypothesize that a rural residence among young adults is not associated with higher rates of marriage and plans to marry, but it increases the chance of cohabitation. h6: finally, we hypothesize that religious self-identification increases the chance of marriage compared to both cohabitation and being single, and plans to marry are also more common among religious young adults even after controlling for the effect of our other explanatory variables. methods research design our research is a secondary data analysis of a hungarian open access quantitative survey database. the analysis is explanatory and deductive, as we test hypotheses formulated based on the literature. participants and data collection the research is the 5th wave of the hungarian youth study series started in 2000. the 2016 survey was managed by the “kutatópont” research center in the form of face-to-face survey. the survey was carried out with multistage stratified, probability sampling. the original database represents hungarian youth aged 15–29 (n=8000), but we limited the sample to those over 18 years of age (n = 5747). the survey was financed by the hungarian government as well as various non-profit organizations. the questionnaire was prepared by a research team of the kutatópont, and the database was made available after individual consideration. the last wave of the survey was performed in 2020, but in our analysis we used the 2016 database, as availability of the 2020 database was delayed due to the covid-19 pandemic. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),78-96 examined variables and instruments as we can see in table 1, the proportion of women was 50.4%, and men made up 49.6% of the sample. the survey was conducted in the same proportion for each age cohort. the proportion of graduates in the sample was 10.8%, and 14.7% were higher education students at the time of the survey. the proportion of those with a rural residence was 30.9% among the respondents. some 43.2% of young adults in the sample were satisfied with their financial situation. we measured religiosity using tomka’s self-rating scale (tomka, 2011). the proportion of those in the sample who followed the teachings of a church was 5%, compared to 43.7% for those who identified as being religious in their own way. the other half of the sample fell into three categories: those with other beliefs (4.6%) and those who were non-religious (41.5%) or unsure (5.3%). to counter the fragmentation of the self-classification scale and the subjectivity of expectations, we separated those who identified as religious (48.7%) from those who did not consider themselves religious (51.3%). marriage behavior was measured by the current marital status (married, cohabiting, single) and by the intention to marry among those who were not yet married (as measured by the response to the question as to whether they planned to get married). among the young adults in the sample, 14% were married, 21% were cohabiting and 65% were single, and 66% of the unmarried respondents planned to get married. table 1 descriptive statistics of dependent and independent variables dependent variables current marital status 14% married, 21% cohabiting, 65% single plans to marry among those not yet married 66% yes, 34% no independent variables gender 50.4% female, 49.6% male age mean = 24.6, std. deviation = 2.83 whether the respondent holds a tertiary degree 10.8% yes, 89.2% no whether the respondent holds a tertiary degree or is a he student 25% yes, 75% no subjective financial situation (1: favorable) 43.2% satisfied, 56.8% not satisfied place of residence 69.1% urban, 30.9% rural identifies as religious 48.7% yes, 51.3% no pusztai et al. 86 data analysis we applied multinomial and logistic regression analyses to examine the relationship between marital status and plans to marry as dependent variables and the sociodemographic background indicators listed above as independent variables. the dependent variable of our multinomial logistic regression analysis took three values (married, cohabiting with partner, single). in logistic regression analysis, we examined the determinants of whether unmarried respondents planned to get married or not. both regressions were carried out in two iterations: in the first model, we measured respondents’ education by recording whether they held a tertiary degree or not, and in the second, we employed higher education experience instead (which considered graduates and university students in combination). the data analysis was made by spss.22 software. findings our first research question concerned how young adults’ sociodemographic background and religiosity affect their marital status in our sample. the two models (the results presented in table 2 and table 3) differ in measuring the respondents’ level of education. as marital status has three categories, we applied multinomial logistic regression to reveal the effects on it. table 2 multinomial logistic regression results for marital status as the dependent variable (coefficients marked in bold if p ≤ 0.05 according to the wald statistic) (first model) the chance of cohabitation as opposed to being single the chance of marriage as opposed to being single the chance of marriage as opposed to cohabitation exp(b) wald sign. exp(b) wald sign. exp(b) wald sign. gender (1: male) 0.587 .000 0.471 .000 0.802 .021 age 1.28 .000 1.588 .000 1.24 .000 whether the respondent holds a tertiary degree 0.689 .001 0.668 .002 0.971 .836 subjective financial situation (1: favorable) 0.646 .000 .996 .965 1.542 .000 place of residence (1: urban) 0.856 .038 1.017 .86 1.187 .092 identifies as religious 1.189 .014 1.802 .000 1.516 .000 note. nagelkerke r-squared 0.225 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),78-96 table 3 multinomial logistic regression results for marital status as the dependent variable (coefficients marked in bold if p ≤ 0.05 according to the wald statistic) (second model) the chance of cohabitation as opposed to being single the chance of marriage as opposed to being single the chance of marriage as opposed to cohabitation exp(b) wald sign. exp(b) wald sign. exp(b) wald sign. gender (1: male) 0.569 .000 0.456 .000 0.801 .021 age 1.264 .000 1.57 .000 1.242 .000 whether the respondent holds a tertiary degree or is a he student 0.389 .000 0.391 .000 1.005 .97 subjective financial situation (1: favorable) 0.712 .000 1.087 .341 1.527 .000 place of residence (1: urban) 0.917 .251 1.084 .397 1.182 .102 identifies as religious 1.240 .002 1.888 .000 1.522 .000 note. nagelkerke r-squared 0.246 the chance of cohabitation and marriage compared to being single was elevated if the young adult was female, was older, and the respondent had no higher education experience. self-reported religiosity also had a positive effect on the chance of cohabitation and marriage compared to being single, but the effect on marriage was somewhat stronger. among religious people, the chance of marriage was almost double that of being single, whereas the chance of cohabitation was only about 1.2 times higher than that of being single. in addition, a favorable financial situation had a negative effect on the chance of cohabitation as opposed to being single. here, however, cause and effect might be interchanged. it could also be the case that cohabitation is associated with a more unfavorable financial situation compared to being single because singles in the sample still either lived with their family or their family paid for their living expenses. it is also can be seen in the first model that rural place of residence increased the chance of cohabitation as opposed to being single, which is in accordance with the previous result. the chance of marriage as opposed to cohabitation was higher among women, older young adults and who were satisfied with their financial situation. this chance was unaffected by the pusztai et al. 88 respondents’ education. among religious people, the chance of marriage was over one and a half times that of cohabitation. our second research question was how the examined explanatory variables influence plans to marry among those who are single. in this case, we have two different models which differ in measuring the respondents’ level of educational attainment. table 4 logistic regression results for plans to marry as the dependent variable among those not yet married (n = 4193) (coefficients marked in bold if p ≤ 0.05 according to the wald statistic) first model second model exp(b) wald sign. exp(b) wald sign. gender (1: male) 0.757 .000 0.762 .000 age 0.904 .000 0.926 .000 whether the respondent holds a tertiary degree 2.181 .000 whether the respondent holds a tertiary degree or is a he student 2.383 .000 subjective financial situation (1: favorable) 1.219 .005 1.135 .079 place of residence (1: urban) 1.16 .046 1.105 .184 identifies as religious 1.426 .000 1.406 .000 note. nagelkerke r-squared 0.051 and 0.067 as we can see in table 4, among the unmarried, the chance of planning to marry was higher among women, younger people, and who has higher education experience. in the first model favorable financial situation and urban place of residence also increased plans to marry. additionally, the effect of religion was also significant, although this effect lagged behind that of education. in both models, the chance of planning to marry as opposed to the absence of such intentions was almost one and a half times higher among religious people. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),78-96 discussion in our paper, we have two research questions, the first is what affects the marital status (chance of marriage, cohabitation and being single) of hungarian young adults, and the second is what affects plans to marry among those who are single. beside demographic variables (age and gender) and socioeconomic background (level of education, financial situation, and the type of settlement), we examined the effect of religious self-identification of respondents. we have formulated hypotheses based on the literature about how these explanatory variables affect the chance of marriage, cohabitation, being single, and plans to marry among singles. the literature suggests that religiosity increases the chance of marriage, and the lack of religiosity is often associated with cohabitation. as there are more highly educated young people among the religious, and the general increase in educational attainment is usually associated with postponing marriages whereas religiosity is thought to accompany traditional family forms, separating the effects of religiosity and education on marriage behavior is necessary. the novelty of our research is our use of multivariable regression method, with the help of which, we could separate the above effects. moreover, we have several indicators of the social background, so we could differentiate between the effect of education and other factors like, for example, financial situation of respondents. a further novelty is that besides effects on the chance of marriage, we examined the effects on the chances of cohabitation compared to being married or being single, which is rarely discussed in the literature, and we revealed what effects plans to marry among singles as well. our presumption in the first hypothesis that the chance of marriage, cohabitation, and plans to marry were increasing with age was partially corroborated. an older age increased the chance of cohabitation and marriage as opposed to being single, as well as that of marriage compared to cohabitation. in contrast, young, unmarried respondents were more likely to plan to get married than their older peers. the fact that in the first years of adulthood it was common among hungarian young people to plan a subsequent marriage suggests that they did not bring a negative image of marriage from the family, but for some reason this enthusiasm diminished at a later age. those in our sample who were unmarried in the second half of their twenties appeared to have lost the determination to get married due to the shrinking opportunities to establish relationships, the diminishing marriage market for older cohorts, and the proliferation of work at the expense of leisure. pusztai et al. 90 in accordance with our hypothesis and the literature (moore & govender, 2013; makay & domokos, 2018), we found that the chance of marriage and cohabitation (as opposed to being single) and the chance of marriage compared to cohabitation was higher among women than men. this is explained by the fact that women are usually younger when they enter into a relationship. in addition, we also found that more unmarried women planned to marry compared to unmarried men, in line with our hypothesis. presumably, this is the result of women marrying at an earlier age, so they have related plans earlier. nevertheless, due to the age limit of our sample, we were unable to verify whether men caught up with women in terms of marriages and plans to marry at a later stage in life. another hypothesis concerned the impact of young people’s social background. our findings corroborated the hypothesis with respect to education. in the 18–29 age group, the postponement effect of education (see oppenheimer, 1988) resulted in a decreased chance of marriage and cohabitation as opposed to being single among respondents with high educational attainment. in contrast, the chance of marriage compared to cohabitation was unaffected by the educational attainment of the parents or the respondent. in other words, young graduates or students who were in a relationship behaved similarly to those with low educational attainment in terms of the form of partnership. however, plans of a subsequent marriage (measured among unmarried respondents) was more common among higher education students and young graduates, in accordance with our hypothesis and the literature (kim & kamo, 2018; sobotka & toulemon, 2008). therefore, the postponement effect only influenced the marital status while plans to marry remained pronounced among the highly educated. in our fourth hypothesis regarding the effect of financial resources, we assumed that a favorable financial situation had a positive effect on the chance of both marriage and cohabitation among young adults based on the literature (schnor et al., 2017; torr, 2011). in accordance with our hypothesis, a favorable financial situation had a positive effect on the chance of both marriage as opposed to cohabitation and the chance of cohabitation as opposed to being single among young adults. moreover, a favorable financial situation also increased the chance of plans to marry among unmarried young people, and a better subjective financial situation was associated with a higher chance of marriage as opposed to cohabitation. in our fifth hypothesis regarding the effect of the place of residence, we assumed that rural residents did not have above-average rates of marriage or plans to marry, but cohabitation was journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),78-96 more frequent among them (doignon et al., 2020; vasiliu, 2019, makay & domonkos 2018). partly in accordance with our hypothesis rural place of residence increased the chance of cohabitation as opposed to being single, but urban place of residence increased the plans to marry among those who not yet married. it appears, that traditional patterns of behavior only partly characterize rural communities in hungary. our last hypothesis concerned the effect of religiosity. we found that religiosity, even with the inclusion of other control variables, significantly increased the chance of marriage, cohabitation, and plans to marry, which is in accordance with thornton et al. (1992), lehrer (2008), and kogan & weissman (2019). the finding that religiosity also increased the chance of cohabitation compared to being single is novel, which we discuss in more detail below. in addition, the intention to get married was also more common among religious unmarried respondents than among their non-religious unmarried peers, although the effect lagged behind that of education. the generalizability of our results is limited in that we could only test our hypotheses on hungarian data of the 18–29 age group. the database we used provided insight into young people’s marital status and relationship plans, the subsequent realization of which remained unknown, however. examining the marital status and related plans of older age groups may yield further interesting results regarding the effect of explanatory factors. conclusions in this study, we looked for factors behind two social phenomena: young people’s marital status and plans to marry among unmarried young people. we found that explanatory factors influenced the two phenomena differently. this could indicate a discrepancy between related plans and implementation among hungarian young adults, which may be attributed, among other things, to the negative social representation of marriage, the impact of new technologies and media, excessive individualism, the rise of material life goals, the popularity of the single and “yuppie” lifestyles, the extreme difficulty of achieving work-life balance, and peer pressure. the literature on marriage and plans to marry highlights the contradictory effects of education. education is closely related to age, and the resulting postponement of marriage is a striking phenomenon. at the same time, the postponement of marriage is not the same as not marrying at all, nor does it imply a lack of intention or willingness. in the age group we examined (18–29 years pusztai et al. 92 old), the decision process about marriage had not yet been completed, so the actual absence of marriage could not be fully analyzed. there may be multiple reasons for the beneficial effects of religiosity on marriage and plans to marry. on the one hand, those with a religious worldview might acquire traditional ideas of relationship as part of their religious socialization. on the other hand, social networks organized around religion make attitudes toward marriage more positive and offer the opportunity to connect with like-minded people, which is not experienced by the increasingly lonely peers who do not have contact with the social organizing power of religiosity. according to one of our most interesting findings, religiosity also increased the chance of cohabitation compared to being single, although the effect of religiosity on marriage was stronger. the significant share of religious people cohabiting with their partner shows that this form of relationship has become widespread despite the fact that it is not condoned by churches. moreover, those who identified as religious reported having cohabited with someone just as often as nonreligious respondents. religious young adults were therefore not distinguished from their peers by the avoidance of premarital sexual intercourse, but by their relationship behavior. our results have implications for several fields, including family policy and education policy. by understanding young adults’ marital status and future plans, it is possible get an idea of expected demographic processes and behavior patterns in different social groups. family policy measures in hungary, which are generous in international comparison, may also be amended based on insights from our findings. our results may also provide input for trainings on relationship culture, which are not particularly common in hungary. the curricula of social studies education should be expanded with family life education topics. similarly, religious organizations may find these results useful in planning activities among young adults. for higher education policy, plans to marry could be supported by expanding the concept of family-friendly universities and rethinking student benefits. acknowledgement we would like to thank “kutatópont” research center and levente székely, principal investigator of the hungarian youth 2016 study for providing the data. the research on which this paper is based has been implemented by the mta-de-parent-teacher cooperation research group and with the support provided by the research programme for public education development of the hungarian academy of sciences. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),78-96 references acs, g. (2007). can we promote child well-being by promoting marriage? journal of marriage and family, 69(5), 1326-1344. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00450.x allendorf, k., thornton, a., mitchell, c., young‐demarco, l., & ghimire, d. j. (2017). early women, late men: timing attitudes and gender differences in marriage. journal of marriage and family, 79(5), 1478-1496. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12426 becker, g. (1992). a treatise on the family. cambridge: harvard university press. billari, f. (2004). becoming an adult in europe: a macro (/micro)-demographic perspective. demographic research 3(2), 15–44. https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2004.s3.2 biryukova, s. s., & sinyavskaya, o. v. (2021). more money—more births? estimating effects of 2007 family policy changes on probability of second and subsequent births in russia. monitoring of public opinion: economic and social changes journal, 14(2), 48– 72. https://doi.org/10.14515/monitoring.2021.2.1830 bozhkova, g., shatunova, o., & shastina, e. (2020). influence of the family on the process of forming a child's personality: types of families: a case of modern youth prose. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 220-241. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/217741/ burstein, n. r. (2007). economic influences on marriage and divorce. journal of policy analysis and management, 26(2), 387–429. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30162792 daly, m., & ferragina, e. (2018). family policy in high-income countries: five decades of development. journal of european social policy, (28)3, 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928717735060 doignon, y., eggerickx, t., & rizzi, e. (2020). the spatial diffusion of nonmarital cohabitation in belgium over 25 years: geographic proximity and urban hierarchy. demographic research, 43(48), 1413–1428. https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2020.43.48 engler, á. (2020). career path and family life. ruzomberok: verbum. esteve, a., lópez-ruiz, l., & spijker, j. (2013). disentangling how educational expansion did not increase women's age at union formation in latin america from 1970 to 2000. demographic research, 28, 63–76. https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2013.28.3 fényes, h. (2012). “gender inequalities in higher education. evidence from the “partium” region.” corvinus journal of sociology and social policy 3, no. 1:3-34. https://doi.org/10.14267/cjssp.2012-01-01 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00450.x https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12426 https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2004.s3.2 https://doi.org/10.14515/monitoring.2021.2.1830 https://www.learntechlib.org/p/217741/ http://www.jstor.org/stable/30162792 https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928717735060 https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2020.43.48 https://m2.mtmt.hu/api/publication/31332291 https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2013.28.3 https://doi.org/10.14267/cjssp.2012-01-01 pusztai et al. 94 goldscheider, f. k., & waite, l. j. (1986). sex differences in the entry into marriage. american journal of sociology, 92(1), 91–109. https://doi.org/10.1086/228464 kaufman, g., & goldscheider, f. (2007). do men "need" a dpouse more than women?: perceptions of the importance of marriage for men and women. the sociological quarterly, 48(1), 29–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954x.2010.01924.x kim, h. & kamo, y. (2018). women’s socioeconomic characteristics and marriage intention in korea. international journal of contemporary sociology, 54(1), 33–56. kogan, i., & weißmann, m. (2019). religion and sexuality: between-and within-individual differences in attitudes to pre-marital cohabitation among adolescents in four european countries. journal of ethnic and migration studies, 46(17), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2019.1620416 kovács, m. (ed.) (2018). microcensus 2016. demographic data. hungarian central statistical office. https://www.ksh.hu/docs/eng/xftp/idoszaki/microcensus2016/microcensus_2016_3.pdf lehrer, e. (2008). religion, economics and demography: the effects of religion on education, work, and the family. routledge. makay, zs., & blaskó, zs. (2012). family support system, childraising, employment. in őri, p. and spéder zs. (eds.) demographic portrait of hungary 2012. (pp. 45–56) demographic research institute. https://www.demografia.hu/en/publicationsonline/index.php/demographicportrait makay zs., & domokos t. (2018). társadalmi újratermelés – a magyarországi ifjúság demográfiai folyamatai [social reproduction – demographic processes of hungarian young people]. in székely l. (ed.) magyar fiatalok a kárpát-medencében [hungarian young people in the carpathian basin] (pp. 77–106) kutatópont. mcclendon, d. (2016). religion, marriage markets, and assortative mating in the united states. journal of marriage and family, 78(5), 1399–1421. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12353 marks, l. (2005). how does religion influence marriage? christian, jewish, mormon, and muslim perspectives. marriage and family review, 38(1), 85–111. https://doi.org/10.1300/j002v38n01_07 montez, j., sabbath, e., glymour, m., & berkman, l. (2014). trends in work–family context among u.s. women by education level, 1976 to 2011. population research and policy review, 33(5) 629–648. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-013-9315-4 https://doi.org/10.1086/228464 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954x.2010.01924.x https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2019.1620416 https://www.ksh.hu/docs/eng/xftp/idoszaki/microcensus2016/microcensus_2016_3.pdf http://demografia.hu/en/publicationsonline/index.php/demographicportrait/article/view/817/274 https://www.demografia.hu/en/publicationsonline/index.php/demographicportrait https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12353 https://doi.org/10.1300/j002v38n01_07 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-013-9315-4 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),78-96 moore, e., & govender, r. (2013). marriage and cohabitation in south africa: an enriching explanation? journal of comparative family studies, 44(5), 623–39. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23644622 mucić, m., & devedžić, m. (2018). marriage postponement with male population in the republic of serbia. zbornik matice srpske za drustvene nauke, 17(167), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn1867489m murinkó, l., & rohr, a. (2018). partnerships and marriage. in monostori, j., őri, p., & spéder, zs. (eds) demographic portrait of hungary (pp. 9–29) hungarian central statistical office. https://www.demografia.hu/en/publicationsonline/index.php/demographicportrait oppenheimer, v. k. (1988). a theory of marriage timing. american journal of sociology, 94(3), 563–591. https://doi.org/10.1086/229030 oppenheimer, v. k. (1997). women's employment and the gain to marriage: the specialization and trading model. annual review of sociology, 23(1), 431–453. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.431 pusztai, g., and demeter-karászi, z. (2019). “analysis of religious socialization based on interviews conducted with young adults.” religions 10, no. 6: 365. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10060365 pusztai, g. (2015). pathways to success in higher education. frankfurt am main: peter lang. safitri, d. d. (2018). managing school based on character building in the context of religious school culture (case in indonesia). journal of social studies education research, 9(4), 274-294. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/jsser/issue/43626/534262 schnor, c., vanassche, s., & van bavel, j. (2017). stepfather or biological father? educationspecific pathways of postdivorce fatherhood. demographic research, 37(51), 1659– 1694. https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2017.37.51 sobotka, t. & toulemon, l. (2008). changing family and partnership behaviour: common trends and persistent diversity across europe. demographic research, 19(8), 85–138. https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2008.19.6 torr, b. m. (2011). the changing relationship between education and marriage in the united states, 1940–2000. journal of family history, 36(4), 483–503. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363199011416760 thornton, a., & camburn, d. (1987). the influence of the family on premarital sexual attitudes and behavior. demography, 24(3), 323–340. https://doi.org/10.2307/2061301 thornton, a., axinn, w. g., & hill, d. h. (1992). reciprocal effects of religiosity, cohabitation, and marriage. american journal of sociology, 98(3), 628–651. https://doi.org/10.1086/230051 http://www.jstor.org/stable/23644622 https://doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn1867489m https://www.demografia.hu/en/publicationsonline/index.php/demographicportrait https://doi.org/10.1086/229030 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.431 https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10060365 https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/jsser/issue/43626/534262 https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2017.37.51 https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2008.19.6 https://doi.org/10.1177/0363199011416760 https://doi.org/10.2307/2061301 https://doi.org/10.1086/230051 pusztai et al. 96 tucker, m. b. (2002). marital values and expectations in context. in the ties that bind: perspectives on marriage and cohabitation. waite, j., bachrach, c., hindon, m., & thomson, m. (pp. 166–187). de gruyter. tomka, m. (2011). expanding religion: religious revival in post-communist central and eastern europe. de gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110228168 vasiliu, r. (2019). education as a tool for transition to motherhood: a demographic perspective. scientific annals of the alexandru ioan cuza. university: sociology and social work section, 11(2). 91-103. https://anale.fssp.uaic.ro/index.php/asas/article/view/533/487 wahhaj, z. (2018). an economic model of early marriage. journal of economic behavior and organization, 152(3), 147–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.06.001 waite, l. j., & lehrer, e. e. (2003). the benefits from marriage and religion in the united states: a comparative analysis. population and development review, 29(2), 255–276. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2003.00255.x white, l., & rogers, s. j. (2000). economic circumstances and family outcomes: a review of the 1990s. journal of marriage and family, 62(4), 1035–1051. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01035.x https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110228168 https://anale.fssp.uaic.ro/index.php/asas/article/view/533/487 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.06.001 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2003.00255.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01035.x www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (3), 56-78 exploring factors in the adaptation of the first grade student: transition from preschool to first grade primary school vlora sylaj1 & adelina hajrullahu ramabaja2 abstract the adaptation of the child in the first grade, namely the cooperation and of the school with the parents in this regard is one of the most discussed issues today. the purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of teachers and parents on the adaptation of first graders during the transition from preschool to first grade. specifically, to explore the perceptions of transition parents through first graders parents. in terms of design, the study is exploratory, ie of a qualitative nature. the study conducted 21 interviews, 12 with first grades teachers and 9 with parents, of first grade children as well. the study used an analytical framework in order to identify the factors in the adaptation of students in the first grade as a problem of teachers and challenging factors in this regard, as well as the experience of parents in this regard. descriptive statistical analysis was used to analyze the study findings. the results assumed a common opinion among the representatives of the sample, teachers and parents. the study makes us understand that parents are satisfied with the work of teachers in terms of adaptation of the child, but on the other hand we find that teachers consider that professionalism is still needed in this regard. the study also shows that teachers recommend training teachers for their professionalism in child adaptation. keywords: the preschool institutions, first grade, educators, parents introduction experiences show us that the involvement of parents in the transition of the child in the first grade, is a great help for the child to have a smooth transition in primary school (erkan et al., 2021; pianta, 2003). according to the authors fabian & dunlop (2007), parental involvement helps children experience adaptation to the new environment, which inclusion according to barnett & taylor (2009) should be done on an ongoing basis. brizuela & garcia-sellers (1999) present a comprehensive school adaptation perspective that considers the child, family and school and centers on various factors such as cognitive development, socialization, cultural and political environment and family and teacher expectations 1 assoc. prof., university of prishtina”hasan prishtina, faculty of education, kosovo, vlora.sylaj@uni-pr.edu 2 ass. dr. university of prishtina”hasan prishtina”,faculty of education, kosovo,adelina.hajrullahu@uni-pr.edu journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 57 and argue for the role of a mediator home-school as a facilitator of children's adaptation to school. an article by willemse, et. al., (2017) among others states that parent-teacher cooperation is specifically intended for primary education, which means that teachers and parents work together for students / children during primary education because this is the most sensitive phase for children including the adaptation of children to school. but sometimes teachers, especially beginners, are reluctant to involve parents in school, so bingham & abernathy (2007) found that young teachers were unsure on the way of how to involve parents in a meaningful way for a variety of reasons, among others: lack of their skills. candidates for teachers need to be prepared to establish productive relationships with families (durmusoğlu & yıldız taşdemir, 2022; henderson, et. al., 2007), but in the beginning teachers feel unprepared (hornby & witte, 2010). while family involvement means that it should not remain at a formal level, but be very cooperative. according to the study by cowan, et. al., (2009) if parents cooperate with each other and with school present a fundamental difference in the adaptation of children in primary school, this came to the conclusion from the results of tests of children's academic achievement and observations of teacher checklists for internal and external behaviors. the work patterns of adults bonding mothers and fathers, and couples bonding mothers and fathers are related to how effectively they behave with each other and their child, and the way how their child adaptively meets social, emotional, and academic challenges to make the transition to elementary school. over the past 25 years, numerous studies have focused on the implications of parents of safe or unsafe working role models for their children’s development (sroufe, et. al., 2005). almost all of these studies found correlations between the safety of attachment parents in relation to their parents, and the various measures of their children's safety of attachment, adaptation, or welfare. the work patterns of adult and couples bonding mothers and fathers are related on that to how effectively they behave with each other and their child, and how their child adaptively meets social, emotional, and academic challenges to make the transition to elementary school. a large amount of research demonstrates that many factors are directly related to the quality of each parent's relationship with the child and the level of mental and social adjustment of the child (cummings, 1994). also the child to start the first grade goes through a transition from pre-primary to first grade, so in a study done by chan (2012) which took into account the perceptions of parents, educators and first grade teachers observed children and derives the following results: their sylaj & ramabaja performance observed during the transition period shows that they have different expectations for the transition. even, parents can become aware of the transition process of the child in the first grade as a result of participation in transition programs (carida, 2011). rather, parents have high expectations for their children’s academic ability and self-discipline. both primary school teachers and parents of child caregivers classify pre-academic skills as the most important area of development, while kindergarten teachers rank them as the least important. research questions the purpose of this study is to explore how teachers and parents perceive the adaptation of the child in the first grade and what are the methods but also the challenges they face in this regard. while research questions: 1) which are the main obstacles that teachers perceive during the period of adaptation of the student in the first grade? 2) which are the perceptions of parents about the process of adaptation of the student in the first grade? literature review adaptation is one of the most serious phenomena encountered especially in the first weeks of school. the adaptation of the student in the first grade is one of the determining factors of the proper social, emotional and academic development of the student, therefore it is very important to identify the factors that contribute to this process. the child's ability to adapt to school life determines the degree of harmony of social characteristics, affective, cognitive, physical, learning needs of children dhe qualities required from the learning environment (spencer, 1999). whereas, cassidy (2005) in his study on the perceptions and attitudes of first grade teachers about the transition period of students, out of six first grade teachers interviewed, identified their concern for the ability of students to adapt with the school where and recommended a visit to a preschool center as a valuable experience for the fact of knowledge. children bring from preschool was vital to ensure a smooth transition. then, studies show that the child's relationships with peers are influential in the adaptation of the first grader (buhs, 2005; erkan et al., 2021; gülay, 2011; ladd et al., 1997; ogelman & sarıkaya, 2013). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 59 there are other researchers whose studies tell us about the impact of the relationship between students and teachers in the process of adaptation (hamre & pianta, 2001; baker, 2006; ladd, 1990; birch & ladd, 1997). therefore, the positive and cooperative climate in the classroom should be aimed at, the importance of which is emphasized by the researchers nganga, et.al. (2021), according to them in classrooms based on respect, all cultures are understood and appreciated, creating an inclusionary and culturally responsive education. in the adaptation of the student in the first grade, indisputably is the importance of the cooperation of parents with the school, which according to wong (2001), should be initiated by the school. research suggests that parents must be involved in this transition process to improve their awareness in this respect, and to have an effect on the acquisition and development of effective practices (giallo et al., 2010). the parents of the child in school ust definitely cooperate with the child's school, because the parents have an influence on the children in how these children will adapt to school. the school can not function well without the help of parents because the school must communicate with parents for at least four reasons, among which are: information, recognition, counseling and consultation. based on family involvement, school-family cooperation, family involvement refers to a wide range of activities through which parents, grandparents, older siblings, tribal members and other family members contribute to the support of the learning of the student. (brewster, & railsback, 2003). epstein and her colleagues, two years later, fully identify a consistent framework with the six dimensions of parental involvement, which influence children’s academic achievement. these six dimensions were: the skills and habits of the parents; communication; volunteerism; home teaching; school decision making; collaboration with community agencies (epstein, et al., 1997). epstein's typology, for many scholars, became a theoretical framework for parental involvement, creating a stability in the way studies are conceived, but also in terminology. based on this framework, for example the researcher (catsambis, 1998) re-dimensioned parental involvement using this framework, but already for parents. furthermore, she devised a comparative adaptation of parental involvement practices between junior high school (9-year school) and high school. the theory supported by researchers is also the theory of hoover-dempsey and sandler. based on the theory of the bioecological model of bronfenbrenn (1986), but also on the psychological and social results, the researchers (hoover & sylaj & ramabaja sandler, 1995, 1997, 2005), presented a theory, where they explain in detail that what motivates parents to get involved in education by listing some major reasons: building a personal parenting role to pass on to children a model of parenting; to increase their sense of competence as parents in order to help their children have success in school; their reaction to the opportunity given to them by both children and their schools for get involved in school life; the context of the parents' life. the theory of opportunity creation and family empowerment is one of the theories on family school cooperation. the theoretical model of creating opportunity and empowering the family is widely used in the world, this model is represented by different authors, for example in europe the representatives are scholars pourtois and desmet, in america by dunst, johanson, rounds, trivette and hamby and in canada by bouchard as well as talbot, pelchat, and boudreault (deslandes, 2001). in a study conducted by zorbaz & ergene (2019), this study group consisted of 81 teachers and 517 parents. these data obtained from for 517 children aged between 64 and 98 months, it turned out that family involvement has no statistically significant direct influence on first-grade students' school adjustment, por u gjet se externalizing behaviors affect school adjustment, but impact was found externalizing behaviors, teacher-student relationship, and peer relations have a significant direct impact on first-grade students' school adjustment. the model of reciprocity relationship is based on the principles of opportunity creation, strengthening the protection of the parent-teacher relationship, to fully share knowledge, habits and experiences. empowerment means making the necessary resources and legal force available, while creating opportunity refers to giving parents the opportunity to understand their role and determine what kind of cooperation they will decide. the model describes the parent-teacher relationship as based on mutual exchange in every aspect of knowledge and experiences. this model relies on social pedagogy intervention, meaning that educational attitudes, beliefs, and facilitated practices by the relationship of interdependence, where parents and teachers learn from each other (deslandes, 2001). the path of cooperation (partnership) must necessarily be based on the views and expectations of the parties and where parents and teachers have a lot of knowledge and experience to share between them. this relationship requires that both parties show willingness to strengthen this cooperation. dunst & trivette (2010) describe four categories that strengthen and stabilize this relationship: predisposition and emotional attitudes based on faith, commitment, generosity, empathy and understanding, intellectual readiness based on honesty; journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 61 trust, mutual respect, flexibility and division of responsibilities; open two-way communication, where listening is just as important as speaking; actions that manifest attitudes and beliefs. “the politeness of teachers in the classroom environment has an important role in building of the students’ character. the emotional intelligence of students affects the long-term behavior development of the students and politeness of teachers at primary level helps in ensuring that the positive characteristics are enforced in the students” (mudiono, 2019, p.15). to summarize this we can say that the theory of spheres overlap epstein, et. al. (2009) is an opportunity to create a clearer picture of the various factors that influence family-school cooperation. the model of hoover & sandler 1995, 1997, 2005), helps us understand the reasons why parents choose to participate or not in school activities, and how building parenting roles, the feeling of being able to help the child affects of this success or even the opportunities and invitations offered by the school and the child himself to determine the type of parental involvement according to these factors. also, the theoretical model of empowerment and family empowerment helps us to understand that in family-school cooperation, we ultimately have subjects of equal importance, that both subjects aim to achieve student success and find ways to make this cooperation and this bilateral relationship work (deslandes, 2001). the study conducted by tan & goldberg (2009) focuses on the involvement of parents in the education of children both at school and at home. ninety-one families with school-age children (91 fathers and 91 mothers) participated in a study that assesses levels of parental involvement (directly at the school site, homework, extracurricular educational activities, and interpersonal involvement) and relationships. with children’s grades and parental reports of children’s anxiety about school and of their satisfaction. the analyzes demonstrated the unique contributions made by fathers and mothers in the change explained of children’s grades and adjustment to school. researchers, such as deforges & abouchaar (2003) stated: for young learners, parents provide the child with a context in which he or she can master school, and develop psychological qualities of motivation and self-worth. sdcoe (2005) had presented some of the goals and missions of education among which one of the goals includes exactly how children through school-family partnership manage to adapt to school according to their social, emotional and academic skills. moreover, emotions are a fundamental part of an individual's life and culture (ivanova & severinova, 2021). sylaj & ramabaja “the politeness of teachers in the classroom environment has an important role in building of the students’ character. the emotional intelligence of students affects the long-term behavior development of the students and politeness of teachers at primary level helps in ensuring that the positive characteristics are enforced in the students” (mudiono, 2019, p.15). among the studies is the one from ponitz et.al (2009) where the gender difference in the transition to the first grade was examined exploring child and classroom contributions to self‐control and achievement in a rural sample. teachers (n = 36) reported on children's (n = 172) initial adjustment difficulty and end‐of‐year self‐control. observed classroom organization and teacher‐reported classroom chaos measured complementary aspects of classroom organizational climate. children's literacy and mathematics skills were assessed in the fall and spring. boys had more difficulty than girls adjusting to first grade, and initial adjustment fully explained gender differences in self‐ control. method research design in terms of design, the study uses qualitative methods grounded on phenomenological research paradigm cohen et al. (2018), which focuses on the awareness (perceptions, experiences, and thoughts) of individual and explores findings with a holistic view (creswell, 2014). phenomenological research paradigm has been used in order to raise awareness in focus on the perceptions and experiences of teachers and parents. phenomenology is the study of phenomena as manifested in our experience, in the way we understand phenomena in our experience, and of the meaning phenomena have in our subjective experience (wooduff, 2018). by examining an experience as it subjectively lived, new appreciations can be developed to inform, how we understand that experience (laverty, 2003). used for the first time by the american philosopher kuhn (1962) which implies a philosophical way of thinking. “it is the conceptual lens through which the researcher examines the methodological aspects of their research project to determine the research methods that will be used and how the data will be analysed” (kivunja & kuyini, 2017, p.26). paradigms are thus important because they provide beliefs and dictates, which, for scholars in a particular discipline, influence what should be studied, how it should be studied, and how the results of the study should journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 63 be interpreted. the paradigm defines a researcher’s philosophical orientation and, as we shall see in the conclusion to this paper, this has significant implications for every decision made in the research process, including choice of methodology and methods. and so a paradigm tells us how meaning will be constructed from the data we shall gather, based on our individual experiences, (i.e. where we are coming from)” (kivunja & kuyini, 2017, p.26). participants as sampling method, we used intentional sampling, sampling which allows comprehensive analysis of situations that can best represent the population and provide rich data (buyukozturk, et. al., 2016). in total we had 21 respondents, 12 first grade teachers and 9 parents, of first grade children as well. the participants’ background data are in table 1. table 1 overview of teacher’demographic data nr. professional degree working experience 2 3 2 4 1 4 years of ba degree 4 years of ba degree 4 years of ba degree 4 years of ba degree ma degree 4,23 9,25,12 5,11 6,15,29,10 2 total 12 data collection we used the paradigm of phenomenological study in order to explore the experiences of teachers and parents of the adaptation of children in the first grade. cohen et al. (2018) have suggested that while there are alternative ways to approach the phenomenological paradigm, there is a consensus among researchers on its following characteristics: a belief in the importance, and even the primacy, of subjective consciousness; the importance of documenting and describing immediate experiences; the significance of understanding how and why participants’ knowledge of a situation comes to be what it is; the social and cultural situatedness of actions and interactions, together with participants’ interpretations of a situation; an understanding of consciousness as active, as meaning bestowing; a claim that there are certain essential structures to the consciousness of which we gain direct knowledge by a certain kind of reflection (cohen et https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186x.2020.1859438 sylaj & ramabaja al., 2018, pp. 20–21). qualitative methods grounded on phenomenological research paradigm were considered appropriate since our study focuses on different higher education stakeholders’ experiences, attitudes and perceptions of the teachers and parents about the process of students adaptation in the first grade. the recorded findings were then transcribed continuing with their analysis. the study was conducted through semi-structured interview with teachers and parents, which were included questions about the barriers to adaptation of first graders and the difficulties in this process as well as their experiences throughout the transition from preschool to first grade primary school. this choice provides the participants with the possibility of free expression and allows for a more indepth analysis of the issue at hand, reflecting this was more exploratory research (matthews and ross, 2010).these interviews lasted between 30 and 40 minutes. data used in this study was collected at the schools’ premises. to ensure anonymity and confidentiality, the researchers scheduled interviews at school, during school days. these were conducted face to face with individual teachers. respondents who participated gave the researcher their signed consent forms. the researcher used digital recording devices to record the interviews and then interviews were transcribed and coded by two independent researchers. to comply with the ethical principles, codes were used instead of the participants' names. we implemented the coding approach. data coding and analysis followed a thematic analysis (matthews & ross, 2010). based on according to marshall and rossman (2016), one of the reasons is investigation on the lived experiences of individuals. thematic analysis is the process of identifying patterns or themes within qualitative data. the goal of a thematic analysis is to identify themes, i.e. patterns in the data that are important or interesting, and use these themes to address the research or say something about an issue (maguire & delahunt, 2017). this method provides core skills that will be useful for conducting many other kinds of analysis” (braun & clarke, 2006, p.78). according to bryman (2008), thematic analysis is one of the most widely used approaches to qualitative data analysis. in order to analyze the data, we used the following two categories as a guiding framework: 1) adaptation of first graders as a problem of teachers and challenging factors in this regard, 2) adaptation of first graders as a problem of parents. this is a part of data analysis, include it in the data analisis. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186x.2020.1859438 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 65 data analysis we implemented the coding approach. data coding and analysis followed a thematic analysis (matthews & ross, 2010). based on according to marshall and rossman (2016), one of the reasons is investigation on the lived experiences of individuals. thematic analysis was performed based on the data obtained a method for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data (braun and clarke, 2008). according to bryman (2008), thematic analysis is one of the most widely used approaches to qualitative data analysis. in order to analyze the data, we used the following two categories as a guiding framework: 1) adaption of first graders as a problem of teachers and challenging factors in this regard, 2) adaptation of first graders as a problem of parents. the findings were then analyzed based on the thematic analysis. coding and data analysis followed a thematic analysis (matthews & ross, 2010). after this phase, the categories were identified and conceived. the coding approach was implemented, where initially the interviews were recorded on audio, they were transcribed into the text verbatim and then followed by the coding focusing on issues related to the purpose of the research. we grouped the codes into topics on the basis of which we draw conclusions about the attitudes of teachers and parents. the study generated open coding. the data was registered during the focus groups and interviews, and later transcripted and analysed. results were analysed and interpreted based on the thematic analysis method in three steps, namely (1) development of indicators to identify the data easier, (2) development of codes and categories from the extracted topics, and (3) summary and interpretation of data. we are based on the principles of inductive approach. we discuss the results based on our research questions. findings and discussion our study aimed to explore the perceptions of parents and teachers about the adaptation of the child in the first grade, aiming to also understand the methods used in terms of the adaptation of the child in the first grade. the findings of the study enable us to have a narrative description of the practice of adaptation of the child in the first grade. topics are defined based on research questions. sylaj & ramabaja the main obstacles during the period of adaptation of the student in the first grade from the techer’s perspectives in table 2, we have a summary of the topics that emerge from the interviews with teachers regarding the adaptation of the student in the first grade. four important topics for the study were identified, such as: lack of standard for adaptation of the child in the first grade, lack of professional development for adaptation of the student in the first grade, communication and positive atmosphere in the class, pedagogical culture of parents and counseling service. table 2 codes and topics derived from thematic analysis of teacher interview data codes themes method for adaptation of the child in the first grade, teacher's own selection. the directorate does not require an action plan for student adaptation, the adaption of the child, the approach to adaptation lack of standard for adaptation is the independence of the teacher, the school does not of the student in the first grade. have any standards for adaption to students, there is no written rule for adaption of the first grade student, lack of school regulation foradaptation, there is no written strategy for cooperation with the parent in terms of adaptation of the student in the first grade. we have not attended training for adaptation lack of professional development for of students in the first grade, during schooling adaptation of the student in the first grade we did not attend the course for adaptation of the student in the first grade. continuous communication with parents communication and positive transparent communication with the parent atmosphere in the classroom various forms of communication. positive attitude of the student towards the school. positive attitude of the student towards peersand teachers positive emotional state of the student in the classroom. the parent considers that all the work in terms of adaptations belongs to the teacher, parents do not know enough about the possibilities for cooperation with the teacher, frustrated approach pedagogical culture of parents of the parent towards the adaptation of the student in the first grade, more problems with the parent himself than with the students for his adaptation, the level of education of the parents is an obstacle to understanding the process of adaptation of the student. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 67 the involvement of the psychologist funstioning of the consulting service significantly influences the involvement and respect for divergences of the initial parent in the adaptation individual personality. lack of standard for adaptation of the child in the first grade a very worrying topic that emerged from the interviews with teachers is the lack of a written document for the teacher's work in terms of student adaptation. based on the answers of the teachers if in the schools where they work they have any document or regulation on how the teachers should approach the adaptation of the student in the first grade. in no written plan or rule is found any of the documents on how teachers develop the child's adaptation. lack of professional development for adaptation of the student in the first grade although teachers have attended numerous trainings to improve classroom teaching practices, they are not trained to adapt to first graders. "unfortunately, i have never had the opportunity to attend trainings specifically for the adaptation of students in the first grade." or, the teacher statement, such as: "nor even any other training is that mentions adaptation to first graders" (teacher, 9). "we did not attend special training for student adaptation, but even during schooling we did not dwell on this issue, it was only mentioned as a fact, but not more information on student adaptation issues or methods that the teacher should use for the purpose adaptation ”(t4). most of these teachers show interest in developing professionally related to student adaptation. during the interviews, we identify the teachers' interest in the issue, such as: "it would have been a good idea to have such trainings, focus on adaptation and effective methods in this regard" (t12). in two of the teachers stated in the study, we find the need to work further with teachers in their professional preparation towards the adaptation of the child in the first grade. "adequate training in terms of adaptation of the child for first grade is also welcome" (t7); "i have had situations where i felt unprofessional, as a result of the difficulty in terms of adapting the child to the class, especially in my beginnings as a first grade teacher" (t2); "the successful adaptation of the child in the first grade occurs only due to the dedication of the parents, ours as teachers and school staff as a whole" (t12). the adaptation of the child has to do not only with his own crying, but as soon as he is involved in the company of other students, in the activities we organize, other (t1) but, sylaj & ramabaja on the other hand, we have teachers who emphasize the fact that parents should have information on the issue of adaptation of the child in the first grade, not only us as teachers and schools, we find this attitude in the statements of respondents: communication and positive atmosphere in the class; feedback to help with adaptation from the answers of the teachers comes the topic of the non-existence of pedagogical culture sufficient of the parents for the issue of adaptation of the student in the first grade. a total of 7 teachers pointed out this hindering factor, in fact the main problem for parents. then, based on the teachers' opinions, the feedback on the student adaptation process is very important for the process and the correction of mistakes during the student adaptation. policymakers should be careful in setting policies for first graders' adaptation as with a clear document in schools, the teacher's work and responsibility for student adaptation will be easier. except this, students and parents will be better informed and better prepared for their responsibilities regarding student adaptation in the first grade. teachers participating in the research refer to these methods which they use for the adaptation of the child in the first grade, some of them: most of the interviewed teachers do not leave without emphasizing the communication with the parents as the key factor in the adaptation of the child and the communication with the child himself. "the key is transparent communication with the parent" (t6); "creating a positive, friendly atmosphere in the classroom" (t1); "in the first months, two of them, i select activities aimed at adaptation" (t3); one of the teachers states that he uses the presentation of the school as positive, thus promoting the positive attitude of the child towards school, teachers and classmates. (t7). only in one of the interviewed teachers do we receive the statement that “adaptation lets it happen naturally, it is not that i treat the respective child as a case for adaptation. the common thing that is mentioned to the teachers is the attendance in the preschool institution by the child, according to whom with this category of children the process of adaptation is much easier. pedagogical culture of parents and counseling service the school and the family should build a partnership based on mutual communication with shared obligations and responsibilities. parents express their satisfaction with the commitment of teachers in terms of child adaptation, but in the teachers involved in the research, we find room to still improve in this regard, as follows: journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 69 "and the parent himself should ask for suggestions regarding the adaptation of the child in the classroom, but also the work with the child in general" (t8); "we try hard in terms of adaptation, but it would be helpful not to burden the children with the curriculum provided for the first grade. at the same time we have to realize an overloaded curriculum for the first grade ". (t10) "the school should work towards raising the pedagogical culture of parents in terms of adaptation for the first grade, to take into account the large number of children in the class and the difficulties we encounter in this regard" (t3). these statements of teachers, leave to be considered that from the point of view of professionals, teachers in this case, the school should be improved in terms of adaptation of the child in the first grade. based on the semi-structured interviews, we can summarize that a pedagogical culture of parents is needed for the adaptation of the child in the first grade, commitment not only of teachers but also other professional service in schools such as psychologist, social worker, teacher training on the subject, reducing the number of students in the first grade. whereas, the findings of the study on the main obstacles during the period of adaptation of the student in the first grade, based on the perceptions of teachers, these attitudes of the research participants turn out to be similar to the findings of other researchers as well. regarding the teachers' point of view on their work as a child, we find in teachers their dilemma for quality work in this regard, noting the lack of experience as a initial teacher, findings that we encounter in the study conducted by horbny & wette (2010). even in the study gacia (2014) the findings show that parents and leaders are aware of the transition, but the researcher's findings show that none of these entities use effective practices for the transition process. based on the findings of the interviewed teachers, several factors are identified which should be taken into account in terms of improvement, despite the satisfactory level of teachers for the studied subject, the adaptation of the child in the first grade. so, some obstacles are identified in this regard. teachers say that when dealing with children who find it difficult to adapt in the first grade, one should always keep in mind the fact that children are individual, unique and each of them can have their own ways of adaptation. teachers say they try to talk to the parents, explain their child's condition and ask for their help and cooperation. it takes a lot of work from parents as well, as only one party is impossible to achieve success. also, we find the source which indicates positive associations between parent–teacher relationships and children’s academic and behavioral adjustment, especially in the early grades (henderson & mapp, 2004). sylaj & ramabaja chun (2003) researched the identification of parents 'and teachers' perceptions of their role in the period of first-grader adaptation, and students also who reported having difficulty adapting to a new set of rules and complaining about the number of the tests they had to do. whereas, based on the study of zorbaz & ergen (2019), externalizing behaviors affect school adjustment through the mediating role of teacher–student relationship and peer relations. also, the total effect of the externalizing behavior variable on school adjustment is −0.55. the student– teacher relationship (b = 0.53) and peer relationship (b = 0.48) variables have also had an effect on school adjustment. parents' perceptions of the process for adaptation of the student in the first grade table 3, presents a summary of the topics that emerge from the interviews with parents regarding the adaptation of the student in the first grade. two important topics for the study were identified, such as: communication and discussion with the teacher and the second topic the feedback to help adapt. table 3 codes and topics derived from thematic analysis of interview data with parent. codes themes continuous communication with the teacher, warm environment in the classroom for the student. communication and discussion discussion about the child's personality taking into with the teacher account the opinions of the parent. warm communication with the child parents freely discuss with the parent about student adaptation verification of student progress in adaptation lack of teacher time in the classroom feedback to help with adaptation praise for the student adaptation process feedback worrying large number of students as obstructive factors in the work of the teacher. teacher workload with more large number of students in the class students minimizes the time for them to commit enough. the teacher does not allocate enough time for the student. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 71 communication and positive atmosphere in the class; feedback to help with adaptation practices and experiences of parents towards the adaptation of the child in the first grade. based on the statements of the parent respondents, we understand that they are assisted by teachers in terms of adapting the child to the first grade. their children's teachers are very supportive, they argue. some of the parents say that their child has adapted very easily in the first grade, has managed to socialize with other children also and this has been achieved with the cooperation of the teacher and the parents themselves. the parents considered the adaptation of the child in the first grade important and expressed their positive attitude towards the work of teachers in this regard. we do not encounter any dissatisfaction to the teacher and his / her task in this regard. in general, the parents participating in the research express their experiences as: teachers encourage the adaptation of the child in the first grade. (p9). ; "with the child i had a problem adjusting, left him to school with crying, but the closeness and communication of the teacher made the gradual adaptation of the child in class." (p5) "teachers to make it easier for students to acclimatize in the first grade they try to create a warm environment in the classroom by always speaking to them with sweet words, mainly conversations with students, but also through activities and motivation through them." (p1). ; ".... the discussions i had with my child's teacher helped me" (p3); in both parents we find that their help in terms of child adaptation were communications / discussions with other parents (p5 and p9). ; "the child's teacher, at the beginning, suggested to all parents to discuss the child's personality in individual meetings and i consider that this was a help for me as a parent in terms of adapting my child in the classroom." (p7). ;"my child's teacher has also taken into account my opinion / advice regarding the child's adaptation." (p2) large number of students in the class parents were also asked about the help that teachers can provide to them during the collaboration in the student adaptation process and it turned out that the feedback is a help appreciated by the parents. it turns out that the large number of students in the classroom is another challenge for the teacher. "the teacher says that there is a large number of students in the class and that it is difficult to follow and dedicate enough to the student with difficulty in adaptation" (p4). below are some of the teachers' thoughts on this topic: another challenge that 9 out of 12 interviewed teachers see is the large number of students in the class. according to them, often the lack of time of the teacher as a result of the large number of students makes it impossible for the sylaj & ramabaja teacher to be sufficiently dedicated to the students with difficulty in adaptation. here are some of the parents' thoughts on this hindering factor for the teacher: "my child's teacher can not do more, there are 38 other students in the class" (p5). "talking to other parents we see that the main problem is the large number of students in the class and the inability of the teacher for his sufficient commitment in the adaptation of the student, then the responsibility is transferred automatically to us parents" (p7). as it pertains to the findings of our study on parents' perceptions of first grader adaptation,our research shows that parents are satisfied with the work done by the teacher in terms of adapting the child to the first grade. from the participants of our study we also get their belief that parents contribute to the adaptation of the child. and the study done by tan & goldberg ( 2009) focuses on the involvement of parents in the education of children both at school and at home and the adaptation of the child to school. the analyzes of the researchers in question demonstrated the contribution of parents in adapting the child to school, attitudes that we take from our research. in both of the parents participating in the research, their experience is presented that in terms of the child's adaptation they are helped thanks to the communication between the parents themselves, findings that we encounter in a study conducted by cowanm cowan & mehta (2009) where it is stated that if the parents cooperate with each other and with the school they present a fundamental change in the adaptation of the children in the primary school. parental involvement in school is related to student adaptation in school (häfner et al., 2018). then, of course, this reflects on the students as well. researchers pianta & stuhlman (2004), explored the teacher-student relationship in first grade and found that this relationship had a positive impact on the social skills needed to succeed in school. conclusion the purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of teachers and parents on the adaptation of students in the first grade, during the transition from preschool to first grade. the study, achieved the objectives and received answers to research questions. the findings from this study enabled us to identify the lack of the document on which the teachers would work professionally in the adaptation of the student in the first grade. these data make us understand that our teachers make the adaptation not on the basis of proper educational preparation in this journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 73 regard, at least training as assistance in this regard. but, despite this, we find a good communication relationship between teachers and parents, despite the barrier for teachers such as the large number of students in the classroom and the result of this the difficulty in targeted cooperation with parents. we found teachers' concerns about the lack of school counseling service which significantly affects the inclusion and respect of the divergences, of initial parent in adaptation, followed by the higher involvement of the psychologist in the treatment of children in terms of first grade adaptation given individual personalities. based on the finding on the pedagogical culture of parents, our study recommends further awareness of parents in their role of the help they can give their children to adapt to the first grade. also, further preparation of teachers in their role for the help they can give their students to adapt to the first grade. there should be a close relationship between parents and teachers through which the exchanges of informations takes place (giallo,2010). regarding the limitations of the study, it is the small number of participants in the study, the small sample size imposes a limitation which can be overcome by taking larger samples. this study, nevertheless, can be used to frame additional research that could be generalized to a larger population the comparative studies that cover a range of contexts can offer a bigger picture of the issue of adaptation of the student in the first grade. references bingham , a., & abernathy, t. (2007). promoting family-centered teaching: can one course make a difference? issues in teacher education,16 (1), 37-60. brizuela, b. m., & garcia-sellers, m. j. (1999). school adaptation: a triangular process. american education research journal. 6 (2), 345-370. bronfenbrenner, u. (2005). interacting systems in human development. research paradigms: present and future(1988). making human beings human: bioecological perspectives on human development, 67–93. thousand oaks,ca: sage publications ltd. barnett, m. & taylor, l. (2009). parental recollections of school experiences and current kindergarten transition practices. journal of applied developmental psychology, 30 (2), 140-148. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2008.11.00 buhs, e. s. (2005). peer rejection, negative peer treatment, and school adjustment: selfconcept and classroom engagement as mediating processes. journal of school psychology, 43(5), 407-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.09.001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.09.001 sylaj & ramabaja baker, j. a. (2006). contributions of teacher – child relationships to positive school adjustment during elementary school. journal of school psychology, 44(3), 211-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.02.002. birch, s. h., & ladd, g. w. (1997). the teacher-child relationship and children’s early school adjustment. journal of school psychology, 35(1), 61-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/s00224405(96)00029-5. braun, v., & clarke, v. (2006). using thematic analysis in psychology. qualitative research in psychology, 3 (2), 77–101. bryman, a. (2008). social research methods. oxford: university press. catsambis, s. (1998). expanding knowledge of parental involvement in secondary education – effects on high school academic success. baltimore: crespar (center for research on the education of students placed at risk), johns hopkins university. cassidy, m. (2005). "they do it anyway": a study of primary 1 teachers' perceptions of children's transition into primary education. early years: an international journal of research and development, 25(2), 143-153. creswell, j. w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. corsaro, w., molinari, l., gold, k. h. & sugioka, h. (2003). keeping and making friends: italian children´s transition from preschool to elementary school. social psychology quarterly. 66 (3), 272-292. retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/social psychology quarterly. cohen, l., manion, l., & morrison, k. (2018). research methods in education (8th ed.). london: routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315456539 carida, h. c. (2011). planning and implementing an educational programe for the smooth transition from kindergarten to primary school: the greek project in all-day kindergartens. the curriculum journal, 22(1), 77-92. cokuk, k., kozikoglu, i., (2020). school adaptation problems of primary school students in mixed-age classroom, research in pedagogy, 10(1), 13-31. cori, b., & railsback, j. (2003). building trusting relationships for school i̇mprovement: implications for principals and teachers. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.02.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-4405(96)00029-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-4405(96)00029-5 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315456539 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 75 cowan, p. a., cowan, c. p., & mehta, n. (2009). adult attachment, couple attachment, and children's adaptation to school: an integrated attachment template and family risk model. attachment & human development, 11(1), 29–46. cummings, e. m., davies, p. t., & simpson, k. s. (1994). marital conflict, gender, and children's appraisals and coping efficacy as mediators of child adjustment. journal of family psychology, 8(2), 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.8.2.141 chan, w. l. (2012). expectations for the transition from kindergarten to primary school amongst teachers, parents and children. early child development and care. chun, w. n. (2003). a study of children's difficulties in transition to school in hong kong. early child development and care, 173(1), 83-96. ivanova,g.,& dimova,s.d. (2021). the role of happiness in applying suggestopedia and fostering the language learning process. journal of social studies education research, 12 (4), 365-383. desforges, c., & abouchaar, a. (2003). the impact of parental involvement, parental support and family education on pupil achievement and adjustment: a literature review (vol. 433). nottingham: dfes publications. deslandes, r. (2001). a vision of home-school partnership: three complementary conceptual frameworks. paper presented at the ernape conference in rotterdam 22-23 november 2001 dunst, c. j., & trivette, c. m. (2010). family-centered helpgiving practices, parent-professional partnerships, and parent, family and child outcomes. handbook of school-family partnerships. u c. j. dunst. durmuşoğlu, m. c., & yıldız taşdemir, c. (2022). determining the parent education preferences and needs of parents with children in preschool education institutions in turkey. theory and practice in child development, 2(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.46303/tpicd.2022.7 erkan, n. s. ., elkin, n. ., kavgaoğlu, d. ., ocal dörterler, s., & kerigan, b. . (2021). views of kindergarten and first-grade teachers on school readiness. theory and practice in child development, 1(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.46303/tpicd.2021.2 epstein, j. (1987). parent involvement: what research says to administrators. education and urban society. epstein, j., sanders, j., sheldon, m., simon, s., & salinas, b. (2009). school, family, and community partnerships: your handbook for action. corwin: thousand oaks. laverty, s.m. (2003) hermeneutic phenomenology: a comparison of historical and methodological considerations. international journal of qualitative methods, 2, 1-29. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0893-3200.8.2.141 https://doi.org/10.46303/tpicd.2022.7 https://doi.org/10.46303/tpicd.2021.2 sylaj & ramabaja ladd, g. w. (1990). having friends, keeping friends, making friends and being liked by peers in the classroom: predictors of children’s early school adjustment? child development, 61(4), 1081-1100. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130877. ladd, g. w., kochenderfer, b. j., & coleman, c. c. (1997). classroom peer acceptance, friendship, and victimization: distinct relational systems that contribute uniquely to children’s school adjustment? child development, 68(6), 1181-1197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01993.x. fabian, h., & dunlop, a. w. (2007). outcomes of good practice in transition processes for children entering primary school. working papers in early childhood development, no. 42. bernard van leer foundation. po box 82334, 2508 eh, the hague, the netherlands gülay ogelman, h., & erten sarıkaya, h. (2013). examination of school adaptation levels of children who have received pre-school education at the age of 5 and 6: two-year longitudinal study. journal of academic social science studies, 6(7), 417-434. http://dx.doi.org/10.9761/jasss1658 giallo, r., treyvaud, k., matthews, j., & kienhuis, m. (2010). making the transition to primary school: an evaluation of a transition program for parents. australian journal of educational & developmental psychology, (10), 1–17. garcia, m.a.u. (2014). transition from preschool to first grade primary school in mexico: the perceptions of teachers, headteachers and parents. university of york. gülay, h. (2011). school adjustment and peer relationships in children aged 5-6. electronic. journal of social sciences, 10(36), 1-10 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/esosder/issue/6150/82585 henderson at, mapp kl. a new wave of evidence: the impact of school, family and community connections on student achievement. southwest educational development laboratories; austin, tx: [accessed december 13, 2004]. 2004. (also available at www.sedl.org/connections/research-syntheses.html. [google scholar] hamre, b. k., & pianta, r. c. (2001). early teacher – child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. child development, 72(2), 625638. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00301. hoover-dempsey, k.v., & sandler, h. m. (1997). why do parents become involved in their children’s education? review of educational research, 67(1), 3–42. hornby, g., & witte, c. (2010). parental involvement in secondary schools in new zealand: implications for school psychologists. school psychology international. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130877 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb01993.x http://dx.doi.org/10.9761/jasss1658 https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/esosder/issue/6150/82585 http://www.sedl.org/connections/research-syntheses.html https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=a+new+wave+of+evidence:+the+impact+of+school,+family+and+community+connections+on+student+achievement&author=at+henderson&author=kl+mapp&publication_year=2004& https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00301 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 56-78 77 hoover-dempsey, k.v., & sandler, h. m. (1995). parental involvement in children’s education: why does it make a difference? teachers college record, 97(2), 310–331. hoover-dempsey, k. v., & sandler, h. m. (2005, march). the social context of parental involvement: a path to enhanced achievement. final performance report for the office of educational research and improvement (grant no. r305t010673). presented to project monitor, institute of educational sciences: u.s. department of education häfner, i., flunger, b., dicke, a. l., gaspard, h., brisson, b. m., nagengast, b., & trautwein, u. (2018). the role of family characteristics for students’ academic outcomes: a person– centered approach. child development, (89), 1405–1422 kivunja, ch., & kuyini, a. (2017). understanding and applying research paradigms in educational contexts. international journal of higher education, 6(5),26-41. doi:10.5430/ijhe.v6n5p26 mudiono, a. (2019). teaching politeness for primary school students in indonesia: mediating role of self efficacy and self esteem of learners. journal of social studies education research, 10 (4), 427-445. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1587/424 matthews, b. & ross, l.(2010). research methods: a practical guide for the social sciences (harlow, pearson education limited). matthews, b. & ross, l. (2010) research methods. london: pearson longman. marshall, c. and rossman, g. (2016) designing qualitative research. 6th edition, sage, thousand oaks. maguire,m. & delahunt.b. (2017). doing a thematic analysis: a practical, step-by-step guide for learning and teaching scholars. aishe-j.8 (3). 3351-33514. nganga, l., kambutu, j., reed w. scull , w.r., han,t.k. (2021). high school students of color in the u.s. speak about their educational experiences: schooling, culture and pedagogy. journal of social studies education research, 12 (3), 1-27. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2622/511 pointz,c.c., kaufman,s.e,r., & nathanson,l. (2009). early adjustment, gender differences, and classroom organizational climate in first grade. the elementary school journal, 11(2),142-162. pianta, r. c., & stuhlman, m. w. (2004). teacher-child relationships and children's success in the first years of school. school psychology review, 33(3), 444–458. sroufe, l. a., egeland, b., collins, w. a., & carlson, e. (2005). placing early attachment experiences in developmental context. attachment from infancy to adulthood: the major longitudinal studies. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1587/424 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2622/511 sylaj & ramabaja smith, d. woodruff. (2008). phenomenology. stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/ tan, e. t., & goldberg, w. a. (2009). parental school involvement in relation to children's grades and adaptation to school. journal of applied developmental psychology,(30), 442-453. zorbas,s.d, & ergen,t. (2019). school adjustment of first-grade primary school students: effects of family involvement, externalizing behavior, teacher and peer relations. children of youth services review. (11), 307-316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.04.019 willemse, t. m., de bruine, e. j., griswold, p., vloeberghs, j., & van eynde, s. (2017). teacher candidates’ opinions and experiences as input for teacher education curriculum development. journal of curriculum studies,(49),782-801. wong, n.c. (2003). a study of children’s difficulties in transition to school in hong kong. early child development and care, 173(1), 83-96. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.04.019 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12(2), 305-329 increasing social class through islamic boarding schools in indonesia moh. roqib1 abstract to increase social classes in the society, this study describes the community living in pesantren, an islamic boarding school in indonesia. three research questions to be sought include: (1) what social class of santri on pesantren is viewed by society in the pesantren culture and in the social setting? (2) how is the cultural basis of pesantren as an entity legally perceived throughout the history of the pesantren? and (3) how is pesantren as a social agency transformed in the community environment were the research questions. this research used a qualitative approach to data analysis and described its style as ethnography. ethnography allowed for direct observation in a natural setting and embedded the researcher in a specific group to study its attitudes and interactions. the research participants in this study were 5 kiyai and 2 senior santri. data were collected through direct observation, diary studies, video recordings, photography, and artifact analysis. results show that pesantren does a good job reflecting the socioeconomic status of students attending the seminary. the low social class shows that support systems help in the success of the learning process, while the role of kiyai, the saint people, is vital. since the dutch colony, pesantrens have acted as cultural foundations. the association is legitimized because historically pesantrens have been agents of changes, cultural legitimacy, and a religious center of the view. pesantren is a social reformer, a critical educational institution that can serve as cornerstones for change in society and the university. such change is supported by a new modern infrastructural foundation, one built using modern technology-based systems. furthermore, a pesantren is not merely a religious school. still, the population has modernized the school to an institution that gives competitive knowledge, science, attitudes, and culture rooted in islamic values. keywords: pesantren, transformation, cultural change, religious agency. introduction this study explores the new trend and demand in indonesia regarding the issues on islamic boarding school (henceforth, ibs) and its role to increase social status. the growth of ibs in indonesia in 2020 is truly remarkable, demonstrating that islamic life in indonesia is moving at a breakneck rate. pesantren started as a traditional education based on a mosque or boarding school, but it is now growing into a modern institution that offers education at all levels, including primary, junior high, high school, and tertiary education. according to the ministry of religion, 1dr. state islamic university (uin) prof. k.h. saifuddin zuhri, purwokerto, indonesia; email: moh.roqib@iainpurwokerto.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 306 there were 28,194 ibs in 2020, with a total of 5 million students. there are 21,263 ibs in java, which includes west java, banten, dki jakarta, central java, and east java, with 1.5 million students (ministry of religion, 2020). the emergence of pesantren indicates a further expansion of islamic study groups located in mosques or the houses of kiyai (van bruinessen, 1994) and a symbol of islamic resistance and identity among the santri community (isbah, 2020; azra, 2006; ismail, 2021). the pesantren has now emerged as the epicenter of social transformation, and it is helping transform the competence of santri into something higher in quality (isbah, 2020; putro, 2021). in the history of ibs, they have proven to be a place where "care" is provided to disadvantaged children from socially and economically vulnerable families. it is through the pesantren that they are able to learn to become successful people in life (ismail, 2021). the religious leaders and ulama from the pesantren education went on to do various things, from working in various professions to teaching in non-pesantren mosques and in other regions of the country (hidayah, 2021). while a number of them have been able to start ibs and madrasas to meet the spiritual and academic needs of muslims, not all have succeeded (putro, et. al, 2021; tahili et al, 2021). the role of pesantren has become prominent to form the social status of the muslim in the society in indonesia that takes various roles in the country. leaders and politicians that concern with pesantren are many. for example, kh. nur iskandar, sq, caretaker of the ash-shiddiqiyyah islamic boarding school, was able to defeat the capital city of jakarta with their information. muhaimin iskandar, the dpr-deputy ri's chairman, abdul azis, a member of the dprd central java, and imam akhfas, a member of the dpr-d banyumas, are among them. kh. ma'ruf amin, vice president of the republic of indonesia, ida fauziyah, minister of manpower, khofifah indar parawansa, governor of east java, and asip kholbihi, regent of pekalongan district, are among the students who are currently executive officers. they are among hundreds, if not thousands, of santri who have been elected by indonesians to different positions ranging from village head to president of the republic of indonesia (putro, 2021). according to asnawi, et. all. (2016), ibs have social resilience, are able to develop communities, build scientific and cultural traditions, as well as being economically independent. this level of competence places pesantren in the indonesian social system between the upperand lower-class categories. in agreement, siswanto (2020) suggests pesantren parented students who received social welfare, protection, and the environment in line with the child social welfare institution standards (lksa). roqib. pesantren education as a system for academic and personal growth has been studied thus far. religious education, along with practical skills, enables santri to be useful members of society. andiani & putri (2019) find that social support is positively linked to santri adjustment. siswanto's study (2020) shows that social welfare-based pesantren parenting develops well-rounded, capable individuals. specifically, pesantren has performed as a class transformation force in which santris are raised from the lower social class to competence. pesantren definitely proves to be an educational alternative for the poor. the emergence of muslim as minority and receives minor perception in education and social class has occurred also in other countries. in denmark, the social classes of muslim are perceived minority (ismail, 2021), in germany, education for muslim is considered not satisfied. regarding the issues on islamic phobia, muslim in indonesia are regarded to some contexts as intolerance because of the conduct affiliated to terrors and misconception of jihad. there has been little exploration to what extent religious background influences perceptions and behavior regarding filial obligations. now a substantial and growing proportion of social status, it is societal relevance to gain more advanced insight into muslim status in social and education that apply islamic education practices. the main goal of this paper is to supplement the shortcomings of prior studies by analyzing how the involvement of pesantren in helping students with different educational backgrounds to move up in their educational careers. in particular, this paper explains not only the potential of the pesantren in facilitating class change, but also the significance of the role of the pesantren for pesantren tradition sustainability. the researcher notes that pesantren institutions are not only places where students learn about religious values, but they are also places where students become empowered, allowing them to be more well-educated and prosperous. although ibs provide an alternative education option for the lower classes of society, they also support the status of the santri through their efforts. pesantren has established itself as a key institution, and as a result, class change is inevitable. since community development is becoming increasingly relevant, the importance of pesantren will likely increase from time to time. research questions initiated by the background of the social agency attached to the pesantren, the following three research questions were sought to answer in this research. they are: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 308 1) what social class of santri on pesentren are perceived by the society in the pesantren community and in the social environment? 2) how is the cultural foundation of pesantren as an agency legally perceived during the history of the pesantren? 3) how is pesantren as social agency transformed in the community environment? review of literature madrasah an islamic school is referred to as a madrasah or a school in arabic. in today's world, the term refers to any form of islamic educational institution, especially primary and secondary education. the madrasahs started as lectures given at mosques on a regular basis. princely and affluent families donated funds for the design of the building and student stipends. in the 12th century, mosques, madrasahs, and educational institutions became widespread in damascus, baghdad, mosul, and many other muslim cities. madrasahs served as theological seminaries and law schools for centuries, until the 20th century. islamic theology and law were studied in addition to arabic grammar, mathematics, logic, and natural science in madrasahs. tuition was free, along with food, lodging, and medical care. the course included primarily memorization of textbooks and lectures from the instructor (bhat, 2019; masud, 2020; nasir, 2020; silalahi, & yuwono, 2018). the lecturer gave his students certificates giving them permission to repeat his words. according to geertz (1960), in indonesia pesantren was modeled after javanese hindu-buddhist monasteries from the 7th to 16th centuries, but the content was replaced with islamic content (geertz, 1960). the nature of pesentren and madrasah differs from the system of education. pesantren refers to ibs whose core business was the provision of islamic learning for muslim pupils. pesantren are islamic educational institutions that share many common characteristics. their physical and organisational structures commonly share several elements: mosque, dormitory, students (popularly called santri), and kiyai (islamic scholar who leads pesantren). the central place is occupied by a mosque where the students and kiyai pray five times a day, and do other activities that involve a large number of people, such as public lectures, collective prayers, and public preaching. the house of the kiyai is commonly located beside the mosque and the dormitory where the students reside (dhofier 1999). today’s pesantren also commonly have classrooms roqib. and other school buildings. the other characteristic is the teaching of islamic texts, organised mainly after prayer times. in a more formal language, pesantren are commonly called pondok pesantren. pondok literally means a ‘hut’, while pesantren means ‘a place of the santri’. the term ‘santri’ denote ‘pesantren’s student’. in the past, pesantren was used only in java, but today the term pondok pesantren is also commonly used in other regions of indonesia as this term has been adopted by the central government to refer to ibs (azra, 2006; hidayah, 2021; solikhah & budiharso, 2019). the development of pesantren is tremendeous, showing a huge increase all over indonesia. table 1 shows the number of pesantren, santri and education units operated by pesantren in java. table 1 number of pesentren and its santri in java by 2020 no province number of pesantren education unit santri staying in pondok non-staying santri 1 west java 8343 5465 148.987 306.728 2 banten 4579 2884 60.897 96.842 3 dki jakarta 102 28 17.355 6.568 4 central java 3787 1992 166.605 132.269 5 east java 4452 794 323.293 241.006 21.263 11.163 717.137 1.500.500 pesantren as social agency since the founding of ibs, pesatren has become agencies that have the ability and capacity to encourage social changes and influence the lives of those they reach (recht & grynszpan, 2019). to understand the importance of pesantren in indonesia, we must remember that islamic values and traditions are an inseparable part of society. in turn, it enables pesantren education to directly influence people's mindset and social behavior (mustafa et al. 2018; ma'rifah, 2015). because pesantren teaches and instills values and traditions that are seen as forms of authority and obedience, it is able to serve as a social control and influence in community development (nasution, 2017). in pesantren, we have everything from social resources, including various models, to ensure that our practices and the practices of others both support social change (busyairi, 2017; bano, 2010; garibay, 2018). pedagogies that emphasize human values taught by the qur'an and hadith (known as hadith pedagogies) are created and fostered by pesantren, whose goals include encouraging creativity and promoting social justice (ma'arif, 2018; awabien, 2020). according to abu-nimer journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 310 and nasser (2017), ibs have come to function as institutions that serve to promote peaceful values and harmony within the community. pesantren have been viewed as intermediaries that help to both spread knowledge and generate progress by encouraging resources, empowering development in all areas, and developing scientific and technological advancement (usman, 2013). according to abdelnour et al., (2017), the formation of pesantren as a catalyst (agent of change) is also influenced by the support of the pesantren leader actors. likewise, the most important actors in educational policymaking are the ulama, whose efforts, include significant participation in making education policies (abdelnour et al., 2017). it is vital that actors play an active role in school initiatives, as they possess significant agency power and influence student education objectives, especially by fostering positive character development and development of competency (parag & janda, 2014; fata, 2014). for years, ibs have served as leaders in the push for a new form of education that focuses on learning and development from a holistic perspective while also incorporating customs and values found in the local community (abubakar, 2018). rokhman et al. (2014) report that pesantren sould shape attitudes, behaviors, and mastery of technology. in addition, pesantren act as information transfer hubs as well as molders of attitudes, character behaviors, and mastery of technology. despite its success, however, heriyudanta (2016) identified there are also failures of pesantren education to fulfill its role in birthing students who possess the aptitude and mastery of technology in islamic sciences which can aid in the transformation of society. social responsibility pesantren a pesantren is an educational institution that is responsible for both its functions and objectives in society. pesantren also has a social responsibility that consists of two essential components, namely theological responsibility and management responsibility. in addition to their roles as messengers of truth, spreaders of goodness, and agents of change, syahrul (2017) identifies the theological responsibilities seen in the role of pesantren. at the same time, management responsibility can be seen in implementing policies and decisions that benefit society. in agreement, hedblom et al. (2019) stated that a pesantren's social responsibility is based on spiritual values aimed at maximizing islamic teachings by ensuring that the school avoids behavior that deviates from religion so that the pesantren has a strong influence on shaping values in their students' daily lives. also part of the concept of ukhuwah islamiyah is the concept of pesantren as roqib. an institution that produces students with good spiritual and spiritual capacities, and as an entity that is able to apply islamic values in society (arpannudin, 2016; fadhli, 2018; subagja, 2016). the tebuireng islamic boarding school employed social response in a very straightforward manner, such as during the khadratussyaikh kh era. some others also offer their services in order to serve the needs of other students. for example, they will help cook or wash clothes in exchange for having an opportunity to be included in meals or a small amount of money (compensation) (mansur & karyadi, 2010). for as long as the pesantren tradition has existed, the exchange of mutually-beneficial social interactions such as this has continued. as a religion-based educational institution, pesantren not only have a spiritual responsibility in practicing islamic values and traditions, but are also socially responsible because as an institution, they empower their students (thahir, 2014). zaki et al. (2020) demonstrate that the responsibilities of ibs for empowering their students are demonstrated by increasing the potential that students have through provision of numerous types of disciplines and life skills. in compliance with the teachings of the qur'an and hadith, demonstrating commitment to developing long-term sustainable resources uphold good morals and ethics (patriadi, 2017; fua et al., 2018). ibs emphasize islamic values in their curricula and instructional methods, as evidence by the application of curricula and instructional methods that include texts from the qur’an, helping students understand their religion (hussain & read 2015; amin et al. 2019). developing competence and character based on islamic religious values and laws was the concern (hayah, 2017). students learn many life skills in the process of having sex and in everyday life. cleanliness, security, and repair of facilities or pre-ibs also work to improve this competence. class mobility pesantren are involved in various aspects of their students' development. in discussing the role ibs play in facilitating students' ability to take part in dominant national discourses and influence discourse on islamic religious values. baba (2011) stated, "these institutions play a role in promoting students' skill in adopting the dominant national discourse, with regards to islamic religious values." hefner (2016) feels that religion-based education emphasises leadership training and da'wah training for students so that many of them will attain well-paying jobs with the aim of helping them climb the social ladder. pesantren provide opportunities for students to develop their life skills through the pesantren business, as explained by isbah (2016). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 312 considering that the majority of students are from impoverished families and have a hard time financially, pesantren enriches students by letting them take part in businesses according to their skills where the profits from the business are used to cover education and living expenses for students in the pesantren (isbah , 2016). hasan (2012) believes that the rising use of pesantren (the type of boarding school often with higher levels of student participation) has given rise to a new social class of students that adhere to islamic values but which is separate from the traditional muslim class. ibs helps students master islamic disciplines. it helps foster financial independence for the community and self-sufficiency. pesantren had a notable shift in their positioning and focus on issues like economic, social, and political issues (ma'arif, 2018) when developing, ibs provide not only islamic education but also social mobility (nuha, 2016). finally, to conclude, lazuardi et al (2017) indicated that pesantren contributes significantly to social change, mobility, and the emergence of democracy, work ethic, and sustainable education. this definition suggests that ibs have a role to prepare students to explore and master islamic science, also known as tafqquh fid din, which results in da'i cadres who study religion and give fatwas (istikhomah, 2017). muhammadiyah organization sees pesantren have a strategic position in the process of using islamic principles to build science and in the betterment of the ummah. therefore, it is absolutely necessary for muhammadiyah to have ibs to raise ulama who are capable of organizing, defending, and supporting muhammadiyah activities to make their dreams a reality (lazuardi et al., 2017). methods design this study used an ethnography that used qualitative approach (holroyd, 2001). ethnography is a study through direct observation of users in their natural environment rather than in a lab. as a qualitative research, an ethnography immersed the researcher in a particular community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close (caufild, 2021). ethnography is flexible to gain a deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, social dynamics, and ethical challenges (lester, 1999). the study focused on the exploration of pesantren community as an agent of struggle for social progress, the kiyai penderek or santri kamil which are members of the low socioeconomic class. specifically, this study examines the phenomenon roqib. of the increase in students who while at the pesantren develop the qualities of a khadim or kiyai and khidmah lecturer and give khidmah lectures at the pesantren due to their parents' financial constraints. relying on a qualitative approach, this study implemented thematic analysis model from miles and hubermen (1994). ethnography methods include direct observation, diary studies, video recordings, photography and artifact analysis such as devices that a person uses throughout the day. the study took place in central java indonesia. participants in this study, the participants included 5 kiyai and 2 senior santri, each of which holds a position of status within society their exposure to pesantren education had an impact on their social standing. the kiyai were aged between 55 to 65 years of age and the santri aged 50 years. each participant had been living and involved in the pesantren for more than 35 years. the participants were recruited using snowball sampling technique, which starts out small but increases in size because of the incorporation of certain factors (sugiyono, 2010). the snowball technique was used to gather new information from each individual informant, so that the information becomes more and more comprehensive and in-depth. the kiyai were those who are senior and their teachings have been maintained as the exemplars. in addition, the two senior santri had dedicated their entire lives, telling their stories to the santri and students. data of this study primary data for an in-depth investigation were provided by the interviews of the next three students, who spoke about their time serving as leaders at the pesantren. the investigation discovered the students' motivations, educational process, and hidden aspects such as their experiences and what socioeconomic conditions were like when they were students. data of ethnography centered at the social interaction of users in a given environment, providing an indepth insight into the user’s views and actions along with the sights and sounds they encounter during their day. it provides the researcher with an understanding of how those users see the world and how they interact with everything around them. the data from the interview was original as the first hand sources, either as a separate object or as the raw material of the perpetrator, which is referred to as first-hand information (silalahi, 2012). as a result, they are analyzed based on secondary data, such as research or findings, which have journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 314 been studied with the results of different references, all of which form a foundation for this theory. second-hand information (i.e. data that was already acquired before the research was done) is data collected from other sources or second-hand information that has previously existed. the second source includes information regarding the primary sources' comments, perspectives, or discussions (bungin, 2006). data collection data of this study were collected through an in-depth interview. the researcher interviewed and recorded via audiotape the participants regarding their experience of ‘being-incommunity’ of this research. each participant needed 45 to 50 minutes for the interview. the interviews were unstructured and proceeded with the question: what was your experience of being-in-pesantren community? this facilitated a free dialogic flow between co-researchers, which allowed other open-ended questions to be asked during the interview based on the emergent data. the interviews were transcribed verbatim. however, the procedure for the one of the transcripts was subject to modifications. before reading the transcripts, the first stage of the phenomenological procedure were considered the ‘phenomenological attitude’. this is a two-fold procedure consisting of the epoché or bracketing and the eidetic reduction. both steps are essential to phenomenological methodology. bracketing consists of suspending ones ‘natural attitude’, or our taken-forgranted approach to everyday living informed by culture and education, including our “past knowledge of the phenomenon encountered” (giorgi, 1997). bracketing requires a rigorous reflection on one’s bias, opinions, and cultural and socio-economic backgrounds. mckenna (1997) suggests that epoché is a way of making the transition from our more normal way of considering consciousness and the world to the properly phenomenological way of considering them. following epoch comes the eidetic reduction which “involves the movement from objects as facts to objects as exemplars (essences). in this process, particular features of a phenomenon are reduced or set aside so that note can be taken of that which shows itself as universal” (ehrich, 1999). roqib. data analysis the analysis model of this study was thematic analysis that focused to map the analysis domains as a single or multiple domains (mungin, 2006). when the domain is a single concept, a case study may be done describing the domain in terms of vertical phenomena (such as history, development of phenomena, structure of phenomena), or horizontal phenomena (such as dynamics and changes of phenomena, the transfer between statuses that occur from the people in this case study). case studies can be carried out alongside explaining a single phenomenon, as well as explaining the relationships between the different phenomena. for instance, a case study could look at how the structural characteristics of the phenomenon connect to its change, like how the way the phenomenon is structured impacts how it evolves. analysis was emphasized to find pattern tern recognition, describe and explore aspects of the subject. in addition, data tracing in the form of field notes (note taking) to find cultural patterns were used. accordingly, data analysis encompassed analyzing data, organizing it, searching for patterns, and discovering what was important and what was learned. according to miles & huberman (1994), three stages must be followed in the analysis of qualitative research data, with the first stage, data reduction, being especially important. removing unnecessary data was meant to summarizing, looking for themes and patterns, and focusing on the important aspects. this means that reduced data helps to produce a clearer picture, allowing researchers to collect more information. results and discussion social class of santri the pesantren becomes an agent in the class struggle. it is more than a place for children to learn about religion and/or grow. instead, it has become a place for combating "poverty" or "deprivation" and transforming these negative characteristics into something better. because the majority of students at the pesantren are typically also from the lower class of society, they will see the pesantren grow and develop in the lower-class community, and to bring down the economic and social standing of the lower classes. though there is an above-average percentage of santri (nontraditional village priests) who have parents who are farmers, small traders, or village officials, it has also been found that some of the santri are children of broken home families, neglected children, destitute, or lost, whose families are no longer able to care for and educate journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 316 them. the fact that in this latter case parents only view pesantren as capable of restoring their children to a straight and moral path highlights the significance of pesantrens in muslim society. pesantren students who are from loweror struggling-class families have greatly benefited from the concrete figures, positive motivations, and nurturing models that they have received. parents believe that ibs best prepare their children for success in modern society, and this motivates them to select that education path for their children. one of the kiyai said: “our santri came from various cities all over indonesia. at normal, the santri are from lower social classes who access to social economy and linkages are restricted.” care patterns in pesantren, the concept of the process of seeking knowledge (thalabul ilmi) and worship to serve and seek the pleasure of allah swt is acted out in the following ways: (1) through the unity of the kiyai and santri who are accommodated in the boarding school complex with the same intention (namely, to research and worship to be subservient and supplicate to allah swt), and (2-2) through the optimal use of time allocated for studying various fields of science, most importantly islamic sciences. finally, the duha prayer, with the exception of kiyai tow students who get additional tasks for cooking, caring for livestock, or other various jobs, is done by implementing and applying knowledge in worship and social life and exemplifying this knowledge through kiyai. additionally, it also includes demonstrating knowledge through one's actions by performing tasks that assist people and livestock, thus practicing it naturally, utilizing the facilities and media are both useful methods for this project. the role of kiyai in the care of students as is seen in the pesantren, the role of the kiyai is central in the practice of the five nurturing patterns. designing the process and the method of teaching knowledge, as well as their practice, is an attempt by successive generations of kiyai to reproduce the educational model of the prophet muhammad. the kiyai positions themselves as a central figure like the prophet who must be followed and appreciated by students as friends in various areas of life, from waking up to sleeping, by repeating the same procedure of going to sleep and then waking up. in daily life, students focus on studying the classical islamic literature (also known as the yellow book), on religious practices, roqib. and on learning everyday life skills. he then shouts kiyai (a muslim term of praise or exultation) before going outside to worship, recite verses from the koran, and offer prayers. afterward, he often invites his students to the fields to farm, raise livestock, and even learn to become craftspeople and to build ships as taught by abdul ghofur at the sunan drajat lamongan islamic boarding school in east java. two elderly kiyai from banyumas state have shared their experiences while attending the islamic boarding school, and later returning to their hometown, of serving or helping the kiyai. after their return, they worked their way up the social hierarchy, becoming major kiyai in the community. furthermore, muhammad hidayat sokaraja banyumas, who has served kh. maksum lasem, father of kh. ali maksum krapyak yogyakarta, a rois am pbnu after kh. bisri sansuri denanyar jombang, was also with kh. maksum krapyak on that day. after having a family and residing in sokaraja, kiyai hidayat founded a pesantren. in his philanthropic work, he served as a rois syuriyah pcnu of banyumas regency, where he was the regency's rois syuriyah pcnu for two periods. the existence of proof recognizes the quality of science and social communication as having an impact on the greater public. numerous bahtsul masail (involving current problems) result in fresh ideas such as bribery and political money; however, truth may be defended or power seized, all of which helps to avert corruption in the religious order. it is an admirably charismatic leader. in the district, kiyai hidayat is a role model and reference for both lawyers and organization managers. kh second, sobri tinggarjaya jatilawang banyumas is a charismatic kiyai who cares for the al-falah islamic boarding school, also, a'wan syuriyah pwnu central java mustasyar pcnu banyumas. this shows that this person is known for his scientific quality and social interaction. he is a well-known pesantren kiyai and, as such, regularly offers advice and lectures on the haj and umrah pilgrimages. as a boy, sobri did [that] kh. jazuli, the boarding school caretaker, serves his sons, such as kh. zainuddin jazuli, kh. hamim jazuli, and others. his reputation as a scientist and his authority within the scientific community was confirmed, and he became a respected and respected individual. although villagers like him might not make as much money as people with more favorable economic and social statuses, they believe it is their responsibility to change their destinies by continuing to study and recite the koran. both hassan and hassan felt that given the limited funds, the best course of action was to serve the scholars, and that would enable them to continue to learn and receive blessings from allah swt while also journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 318 bringing them knowledge and pleasure. this reality is in agreement with what kh had previously stated. malaysian scholar hasyim asy'ari (2001) describes this practice in his book, adab al-'alim wa al-muta'allim, where he writes that students must serve the kiyai with the intention of worship in order to receive the reward of allah swt. there is no doubt that having an authentic goal will direct students to acquiring knowledge of dhohir and an awareness of their inner nature, and will ensure a higher degree of future life. other than khadam kiyai, three other students, namely mudatsir, ulul huda, and najmuddin, experience the same thing. the first is mudatsir (a student from a poor family in bungsingsubo pajangan, bantul, yogyakorusya), who taunted the kiyai from 1989 to 1999 at mrs. nyai rosyidah's pesantren, al-munawwir krapyak. so it is known as the santri dpr members for the simple reason that their tasks mostly consist of running a kitchen. studying religion and the blessings of life was why he studied and taught kiyai and ndalem. his parents and he both felt that the kiyai deserved the insults. he decided to join the krapyak lodge because his family had already been there and they were motivated by his parents and kiyai. simbah nyai wakes him up for midnight prayers every night, but i sleep through it most of the time. sometimes, when she hears mbah nyai approaching her room, she pretends to be awake. immediately putting on his complete prayer garb, he faced the qiblat and appeared to be awake and praying. even though at first he was only able to go to grade 2 of madrasah aliyah, he was able to go to high school while memorizing the qur'an. at the end, smart, beautiful, and rich female students still loved her, and formed a happy family. his wife teaches at isi jogjakarta while he is a teacher at madrasah tsanawiyah in pondok krapyak. in addition, there is a lecturer at jenderal soedirman university (unsoed) in purwokerto named ulul huda, s.ag. m.si. this (interview that will take place on 10 february 2021) originated in banyuwangi in 1982. he is the son of a village chief elder and is employed as a village teacher at a pesantren. starting in 1996, she held the title of khodam, or lady, of nyai robiah, wife of kiyai iskandar, and at some point thereafter she assumed the position of khidmah, or housekeeper, to kiyai ghozali with the added responsibility of cleaning the kiyai's house and surroundings, cooking, and doing laundry. her parents totally surrendered to her mother when she was in her early teens in order to allow her to attend mts school, which allowed her to save money and pursue her education. after graduating from madrasah aliyah (sma), he completed his khidmah and received a masters in kh. dr. noer iskandar al-barsani in purwokerto. roqib. during his time in purwokerto, he simultaneously functioned as the mayor of the city and a student at stain (now state islamic university (uin) prof. k. h. saifuddin zuhri) purwokerto, utilizing stain officials' educational aid in the process. on his own, he performs duties such as domesticity, together with his usual studiousness, sometimes by getting involved in menial tasks such as peddling goods on the side. the important thing is to make money. as of this moment, he is employed as a permanent lecturer at unsoed (universitas jendral soedirman) and a lecturer at lb (extraordinary) at iain purwokerto. he is involved in the forum for religious harmony, especially when the issue of religious intolerance arises (fkub). his current position has helped him move up in socio-economic status, and he is currently considered a young leader in banyumas. in addition, najmudin (interview on 11 february 2021) dr. najmudin, se., msi was born on april 10, 1977 in pelamunan village, kec. kramatwatu kab. serang banten province, and currently lives in the sokaraja lor, sokaraja district, banyumas regency. first lectur at al-hidayah islamic boarding school, purwokerto from 1995 to 2000 are motivated by two main factors: spiritual training and being a good person, so they could study their life closely; they wanted to gain direct knowledge and ask for their blessings and prayers. their desire for a unique experience encourages them to join, and influential for this time. they are disciplined in praying five times a day and in congregation, and teach organization (often friendship). the current social (economic-political) condition is felt, because of their upbringing or the blessing of giving their talents to the kiyai/pesantren. cultural foundation of pesantren as an agency historical legitimacy of pesantren javanese islamic educational institutions are established by people known as santos (guardians) and early islamic scholars on the island of java and its surrounding islands. some muslim boarding schools trained pupils who became religious scholars in mecca, and these men would go on to be leaders in the holy land of mecca and national figures as well (https://era.id/nasional/41391/harisantri-nasional-berikut-tokoh-nasional-yang-berlatar-rear-santri). if it is traced all the way back, it can be mentioned, and it includes other things. see table 2. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 320 table 2 the history of pesantren in java no initiator competence year 1 sunan ampel dll. (nine saint) multitalenta ulama 1500 2 syekh mahfudh al-tamasi, syeh khotib assambasi, dll. famous ulama haramain (in saudi arabia) 1800 3 kh. hasyim asy’ari, kh. ahmad dahlan, ulama, founder of nu-muhammadiyah 1900 to independence 1945 4 kh. idham kholid ulama-politician old order 5 kh. prof. said aqil siroj, prof. din samsuddin, hidayat nur wahid ulama, head of islamic organization new order and reform era 6 kh. mustofa bisri ulama and sastrawan reform era 7 kh. makruf amin ulama, politician now vice president pesantren people who are now viewed as having diverse and extensive professional, economic, and socio-political capacities have had dramatic effects on the pesantren, which is now able to rise to greater heights (stories of successful santri) cultural legitimacy: ibs as cultural institutions it is in this academic culture that one can see the seeds of such powerful figures as julius caesar, genghis khan, and many others. a pesantren has established a subculture that encourages selfimprovement and in which it is practiced. many ibs include islamic education as part of their cultural approach because they fuse traditional islamic values with the country's indigenous culture. several cultural traditions were founded in pesantren, among them being pesantren literature and eventually, as islam nusantara, which is the term used to describe the shades and strategies of the da'wah of islam in indonesia and southeast asia. religious legitimacy: religion as a "way" out ibs demonstrate a friendly version of islam with a message to the community. in order to thrive, local culture is constructed so that it serves as a way out for itself. islam's continual efforts to convey that it is a lively, living religion are aided by boarding schools offering classes in islamics such as istiqamah (religion studies) in a cheerful, entertaining environment with comfortable seating. islam which has been implanted in this pesantren is anchored in progressive islam, as it takes on a different shape while the pupils are eating. the structure of progressive islam changes roqib. when they eat. islamic pesantrens aim to uphold a respect for history while also striving to establish modern and better influences. pesantren as social agency: transformational an important part of a pesantren's mission is to transfer knowledge and values at the same time. the offer of change is bolstered by strong science and sound ethics. knowledge and moral ethics which are packaged with attractive material as wisdom (hikmah), mau'idhah hasanah, and stories that inspire dhikr (mujadalah). pesantren have become social actors as a result of their prominence in both exoteric and esoteric aspects. pesantren alumni appear accepting, malleable, and pliable in diverse social contexts. ibs in modern era science and morality are upheld in the pesantren, both kiyai, santri, and alumni. as a result, public appreciation grows from time to time. scholarly expertise can be counted on in important positions in government, the media, and academic staff. hafidzliqul qur'an such as mudasir above ridiculed at the krapyak lodge because of his persistence in memorizing the koran and obtaining the wife of a santri who went on to be a lecturer at isi. there were also politicians clerics like muslih ilyas and kiyai krapyak, and islamic boarding school principal kh. ahmad sobri tinggarjaya jatilawang banyumas, all of whom mocked at the krapyak lodge because of their focus on memorizing the koran. as a result, the level of commitment from parents to placing their children in ibs has increased. new pesantren law regulations, infrastructure development assistance in the form of boarding school dormitories, and stimuli to ustadz-ustadzah have been distributed as well. pesantren popularization (not only religious schools) as well as a growing number of people, both in the community and in the government, providing more support, the pesantren's popularity has skyrocketed although opportunities for pesantren education are growing more diverse, they are still often met by real people's needs. it's not only that the pesantren offers open religious studies along with classical book studies, but also open education models of madrassas, schools, and even religious and public colleges. even in this new era of global expansion, the spread of information and communication technology (ict) has somewhat decreased the popularity of pesantren among cyberspace users. today, it can be said that there is no community in the western hemisphere that cannot access pesantren information. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 322 this study shows that kiyai's nurturing is able to alleviate children from lower-class communities from moving up to the middle class and to the upper class. they gained better human qualities because of their relationship with the pesantren's kiyai. santri have obtained strategic roles using pesantren's social and cultural capital. pesantrens have an influential role in society because of this. alumni achievement has a profound impact on the pesantren's development. the phenomenal success of pesantren as a way to empower children into the social class is due to the fantastic care, experience, assistance, facilities, motivation, and prayers provided by the caregivers. in the pesantren education process, religion has become the cornerstone and foundation, and so also combines abilities that exist in the physical and the mental worlds. on the other hand, the pesantren classroom is also an open space that accommodates the needs of those who are economically disadvantaged, so that they can take advantage of pesantren educational opportunities. pesantren education is said to be effective because of the kiyai's elevated status within society. trusted and believed to protect the community, kiyai is found in the upper social strata. the symbolic legitimacy of the kiyai and the pesantren he serves has now become the primary community focus, bringing solutions for both religious and moral problems as well as economic and political issues. orphanages and dormitories have outdated care models, while pesantren kiyai show authentic care. the strategic roles of pesantren and kiyai have been widely studied, as seen in the study of horikoshi (1987) who conducted research in several ibs in indonesia, which stated that kiyai: 1) don't hinder change but rather aid it, 2) provide fresh perspectives, and 3) come up with social change on their own. previous studies have highlighted the role of pesantren as a moral fortress, but this role has not been examined in terms of how it shapes society's social class. this study shows that pesantrens are the solution to issues of poverty and income inequality in the community. this study shows that the agency has become a force that facilitates the growth of pesantren institutions. the kiyai of this pesantren model is capable of acquiring or duplicating the type of care and attention given to children who live in the community or in the community. daily activities exhibit an integrated approach to parenting and education when strong totality is part of the design. additionally, this pesantren education tradition can be used as a model for other educational institutions to develop educational institutions that strive to improve the structure of society in a roqib. way that transforms social classes that are widely needed in countries with an unbalanced character structure. conclusion this finding is that ibs outside of their traditional roles in religious, social, and moral education are found to be capable of being social agents capable of increasing the social class for "short" santri or santri who serve pesantren kiyai. santris who come from poor, disadvantaged families are delegated to kiyai and students who dedicate themselves to the cause without the knowledge of their parents. he ends up having "social, intellectual, and spiritual competence needed by society." and when he returns to society, he will hold a higher social status either as a kiyai, religious leaders, lecturers, or government officials. the expressiveness of kiyai in the process of education and the total harmony of students can deliver success. students from the lower classes can be served by pesantrens thanks to pesantren kiyai serving as social agents. this in turn increases public recognition of all pesantrens. because this study is not based on a case study that focuses on a specific pesantren, its conclusions must be taken with a grain of salt. to conclude, then, this paper is unable to present a specific historical process that took place in a pesantren education institution. to have an in-depth understanding, you will need comparative and in-depth case studies. in order to overcome these shortcomings, it is suggested that further research is required to conduct a comparison of several pesantren. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 324 references abdelnour, s., hasselbladh, h., & kallinikos, j. (2017). agency and institutions in organization studies. organization studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840617708007 abu-nimer, m., & nasser, i. (2017). building peace education in the islamic educational context. international review of education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-017-9632-7 abubakar, i. (2018). strengthening core values pesantren as a local wisdom of islamic higher education through ma’had jami’ah. iop conference series:earth and environmental science. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012144 amin, m. i., haryani, t. n., arifah, n. h., & husna, a. m. (2019). islamic education in supporting de-radicalization: a review of islamic education in pondok pesantren. nadwa. https://doi.org/10.21580/nw.2018.12.2.2581 arpannudin, i. (2016). implementasi nilai sosial ukhuwah islamiah di pondok pesantren. humanika. https://doi.org/10.21831/hum.v16i1.12069 asnawi, yudha heryawan soetarto, endriatmo damanhuri, didin s. sunito, satyawan, transformasi sosio ekonomi pesantren (konstruksi rasionalitas ulama dan perubahan peran lembagatradisional). (2019). https://repository.ipb.ac.id/handle/123456789/82540. awabien, m. r. (2020). living hadis di kampung madinah, temboro, magetan. jurnal living hadis. https://doi.org/10.14421/livinghadis.2020.2171 baba, n. m. (2011). islamic schools, the ulama, and the state in the educational development of northern nigeria. bulletin de l’apad. https://doi.org/10.4000/apad.4092 bano, m. (2010). madrasas as partners in education provision: the south asian experience . development in practice. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614521003763129 bhat, a. (2019). islamic philosophy of education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 73-76. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 bungin, burhan. (2006). metodologi penelitian kualitatif; aktualisasi metodologis ke arah ragam vagam kontemporer. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. busyairi, m. (2017). education unit transformation for maintain its existence in islamic boarding school (multi-case study on tebuireng islamic boarding school , gading islamic boarding school malang, and sidogiri islamic boarding school pasuruan). journal of education and practice, 8(5), 56–64. caulfield, jack. (2021). a guide to ethnography. available on retrieved on 2 march 2021. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 roqib. dhofier, zamakhsyari. (1994). tradisi pesantren: studi tentang pandangan hidup kiyai, jakarta: lp3es. fadhli, m. (2018). internalisasi nilai-nilai kepemimpinan profetik dalam lembaga pendidikan islam. at-ta’dib: jurnal ilmiah prodi pendidikan agama islam. fata, b. s. (2014). arah baru pesantren di indonesia: fundamentalisme, modernisme dan moderatisme. esensia: jurnal ilmu-ilmu ushuluddin. https://doi.org/10.14421/esensia.v15i1.762 fua, j. l., wekke, i. s., sabara, z., & nurlila, r. u. (2018). development of environmental care attitude of students through religion education approach in indonesia. iop conference series: earth and environmental science. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012229 geertz, clifford, (1960). “the javanese kiyai: the changing role of a cultural broker, dalam comvaratif studies in society and history”, 2(2), 32-54. garibay, j. c. (2018). beyond traditional measures of stem success: long-term predictors of social agency and conducting research for social change. research in higher education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-017-9470-2 hasan, n. (2012). education, young islamists and integrated islamic schools in indonesia. studia islamika. https://doi.org/10.15408/sdi.v19i1.370 hayah, r. k. (2017). character education in islamic boarding school and the implication to students’ attitude and critical thinking skills on biodiversity learning. journal of physics: conference series. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/812/1/012101 hedblom, d., hickman, b. r., & list, j. a. (2019). toward an understanding of corporate social responsibility : theory and field experimental. national bureau of economic research. hefner, c.-m. (2016). models of achievement: muslim girls and religious authority in a modernist islamic boarding school in indonesia. asian studies review. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2016.1229266 heriyudanta, m. (2016). modernisasi pendidikan pesantren perspektif azyumardi azra. mudarrisa: jurnal kajian pendidikan islam. https://doi.org/10.18326/mdr.v8i1.145-172 horikoshi, hiroko. (1987). kiyai dan perubahan sosial, terj.umar basalim dan andy muarly sunrawa, jakarta: p3m. hussain, s., & read, j. g. (2015). islamic schools in the united states and england: implications for integration and social cohesion. social compass. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768615602149 isbah, m. f. (2016). varieties of curriculum action research: constraints and typologies in journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 326 american, british and irish projects. in journal of curriculum studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027930250504 ekanita, andiani & dhian riskiana putri. (2019). dukungan sosial dengan penyesuaian diri santriwati kelas vii madrasah tsanawiyah (mts) pondok pesantren di sukoharjo. psikologika: jurnal pemikiran dan penelitian psikologi, 24(2), 149-154, doi:10.20885/psikologi.vol24.iss2.art5 ehrich, l. c. (1999). untangling the threads and coils of the web of henomenology. education research perspectives, 26, 219-226. giorgi, a. (1997). the theory, practice, and evaluation of the phenomenological method as a qualitative research procedure. journal of phenomenological psychology, 28, 236-60. holroyd, carls. (2001). phenomenological research method, design and procedure: a phenomenological investigation of the phenomenon of being-in-community as experienced by two individuals who have participated in a community building workshop, indopacific journal of phenomenology, 1:1, 1-10, doi: 10.1080/20797222.2001.11433859 imam gunawan. (2014). metode penelitian kualitatif; teori dan praktik, jakarta; bumi aksara. ismail, mohamad, abir. (2021). care in practice: negotiations regarding care for the elderly multicultural arab muslim families in denmark, contemporary islam, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-020-00458-8 isbah, falikul, m. (2020). pesantren in the changing indonesian context: history and current developments, qudus international journal of islamic studies (qijis), 8(1), 65-144. doi: 20.21043/qijis.v8i1.5629. istikhomah. (2017). modernization pesantren toward superior school. 1–9. lazuardi, daulay, h., & rasyidin, a. (2017). education orientation of pesantren muhammadiyah in north sumatra. international journal of humanities and social science invention, 6(7), 7–14. lester, stand. (1999). an introduction to phenomenological research. essex: stan lester developments. ma’arif, s. (2018). education as a foundation of humanity: learning from the pedagogy of pesantren in indonesia. journal of social studies education research (jsser). https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.58854 ma’rifah, s. (2015). pesantren sebagai habitus peradaban islam indonesia. jurnal penelitian. https://doi.org/10.21043/jupe.v9i2.1325 https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showcitformats?doi=10.1080/20797222.2001.11433859 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-020-00458-8 roqib. mansyur, muhammad & karyadi, fathurrahman, (2010). hadratus syeikh kh. m. hasyim asy’ari di mata santri (wawancara dengan kh abdul muchith muzadi),jombang: pustaka tebuireng, 2010. masud, m. m. (2020). international student migration and polymedia: the use of communication media by bangladeshi students in germany. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 95-110. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.5 mckenna, w. r. (1997). in l. embree, e. behnke, d. carr, c. j. evans, j. huertas-jourda, & j. kockelmans. (eds.), encyclopedia of phenomenology (pp. 177-180). boston: kluwer academic publishers. miftahusyaian, moh. (2019). “mobilitas sosial pesantren di indonesia” j-pips, 3(1), 76-92. ministry of relegious affair of republic of indonesia. (2020). statistik pondok pesantren di indonesia tahun 2020. available on https://ditpdpontren.kemenag.go.id/pdpp/statistik. retrieved on 2 march 2021. mustafa, m., yudono, a., wikantari, r., & harisah, a. (2018). implementation of islamic values in houses around darul istiqamah islamic boarding school in maccopa, maros. pertanika journal of social sciences and humanities. nasir, m. (2020). curriculum development and accreditation standards in the traditional islamic schools in indonesia. journal of curriculum studies research. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 nasution, r. d. (2017). kiyai sebagai agen perubahan sosial dan perdamaian dalam masyarakat tradisional. sosiohumaniora. https://doi.org/10.24198/sosiohumaniora.v19i2.10346 nuha, u. (2016). the role of pondok pesantren in encountering asean economic community (aec). addin, 10(2), 365. https://doi.org/10.21043/addin.v10i2.1739 parag, y., & janda, k. b. (2014). more than filler: middle actors and socio-technical change in the energy system from the “middle-out.” energy research and social science. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.07.011 patriadi, h. b. (2017). surviving in the globalized world through local perspectives: pesantrens and sustainable development. in sustainable future for human security: society, cities and governance. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5433-4_3 prasodjo, sudjoko. (1982). profil pesantren, ,cet.2, jakarta: lp3es. putro, yuwono, agung, ahmad; suyanto & suryono, yoyon. (2021). education and glorious culture of pondok pesantren. psychology and education, 58(2), 24741488. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 305-329 328 recht, s., & grynszpan, o. (2019). the sense of social agency in gaze leading. journal on multimodal user interfaces. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12193-018-0286-y rokhman, f., hum, m., syaifudin, a., & yuliati. (2014). character education for golden generation 2045 (national character building for indonesian golden years). procedia social and behavioral sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.197 silalahi, r., & yuwono, u. (2018). the sustainability of pancasila in indonesian education system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 58-78. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 silalahi, ulber. (2012). metode penelitian sosial, bandung; refika aditama. siswanto. (2020). pola asuh pesantren al-mafaza berbasis kesejahteraan sosial anak di banguntapan bantul yogyakarta, imej: islamic management and empowerment journal, 2(1), 1 – 16, doi: 10.18326/imej.v2i1.1-16. website: http://ejournal.iainsalatiga.ac.id/index.php/imej soekamto. (1999). kepemimpinan kiyai dalam pesantren, yogyakarta: lp3es. solikhah, i & budiharso, t. (2019). investigating the learning outcomes of an inqf-based english language teaching curriculum in indonesia, journal of social studies education research (jsser), 10(4), 153-175. solichin salam. (1963). k.h. hasjim asj’ari: ulama besar indonesia, jakarta: jaya murni. subagja, s. (2016). paradigma nilai-nilai kepemimpinan profetik (spirit implementasi model kepemimpinan di lembaga pendidikan islam). progresiva : jurnal pemikiran dan pendidikan islam. https://doi.org/10.22219/progresiva.v3i2.2062 sugiyono. (2013). metode penelitian pendidikan: pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d, bandung: alfabeta. suwito dan fauzan. (2008). sejarah sosial pendidikan islam, ed.1 cet.2, jakarta: kencana. syahrul, s. (2017). tanggung jawab sosial pesantren: studi pada pondok pesantren al munawwarah pondidaha, konawe. shautut tarbiyah. tahili, m., tolla, i., ahmad, m., saman, a., & samad, s. (2021). the effect of strategic collaboration approach on the national educational standards achievement and service quality in basic education at local government in indonesia. research in social sciences and technology, 6(1), 53-82. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.4 thahir, m. (2014). the role and function of islamic boarding school : an indonesian context. international journal for historical studies. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.4 roqib. usman, m. i. (2013). pesantren sebagai lembaga pendidikan islam (sejarah lahir, sistem pendidikan, dan perkembangannya masa kini). jurnal al-hikmah. zaki, i., widiastuti, t., yudha, a. t. r. c., wijayanti, i., & mi’raj, d. a. (2020). implementation of islamic entrepreneurial culture in ibs. international journal of innovation, creativity and change. ziemek, mofred. (1986). pesantren dalam perubahan sosial, cet.1, jakarta: p3m. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (3),79-100 moderate islamic education to enhance nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0 sitti jamilah1 abstract this study aims to investigate the role of moderate islamic education in enhancing nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0. the research design took a qualitative approach, and the location for the research was iain parepare, southeast sulawesi province, indonesia. some 21 people participated in the study, including 18 students who belonged to an islamic student organization and three lecturers who taught islamic religious education courses. data were collected through observation, interviews, and documentation that focused on three themes, namely moderate islamic education, islamic student organizations, and nationalism. the findings revealed that the process for internalizing moderate islamic values through islamic religious education courses can foster a spirit of nationalism that manifests in the attitudes and behaviors of students in the community. unfortunately, moderate islamic education at iain parepare has not been optimally applied, with observations showing that promotion of the moderate islamic movement through seminars and workshops is still limited. in addition, students who belong to the islamic student organization have not fully enhanced their moderate islamic literacy on campus. in reality, moderate islamic values are very important for improving students’ moral and intellectual capacity and instilling a broad sense of nationalism. stakeholders should therefore support campus activities for moderate islamic education as a way of preventing radicalism and improving the intellectual and moral capacities of islamic college graduates. it is hoped that through moderate islamic education and a strong sense of nationalism, islamic student organizations throughout indonesia can help support national development and realize a peaceful life for everyone. keywords: moderate islamic education, islamic student organization, nationalism introduction the pros and cons of student organizations are highly relevant to colleges and universities. the literature mentions how these educational institutions have complicated relationships with the student organizations that are active on campus (roqib, 2021). on the one hand, the presence of student organizations is thought to have a positive impact on students themselves in terms of developing them professionally, learning soft skills, and psychologically developing (harper & 1dr. state institute of islamic studies (iain) parepare, south sulawesi, indonesia; email: stjamilahamin@iainpare.ac.id mailto:stjamilahamin@iainpare.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 80 quaye, 2007; borges et al., 2017; nolen, daniel, & bucklin, 2020). in this case, student organizations are considered productive fields for promoting sustainable development goals (sdgs) and learning about principles for responsible education. on the other hand, participation in student organizations can also have negative impacts, such as role conflicts, time-management problems, and decreased academic performance (baker, 2008; kabiba et al., 2021; laporte et al., 2017). some institutions avoid responsibility in the event of default or other legal losses caused by student actions (rooksby, 2019). based on existing history, student organizations clearly play a big role in sociopolitical life and leadership-capacity development (rosch & collins, 2017; gross, 2021). they may be very enthusiastic in various efforts to support the unity and integrity of the nation and protest prevailing socioeconomic injustices (bégin-caouette & jones, 2014). even though some student organizations often end up as little more than anarchist groups, their role in upholding the spirit of nationalism and patriotism should also be taken into account by the government (donohue, 2021; nasir, 2020). student organizations are born from groups of students with similar interests (peterson, 1972). the literature states that pure student organizations have nothing to do with racial or ethnic separatism on campus (addai-mununkum, 2019; bowman et al., 2015; negy & lunt, 2008). indeed, they are better known as agents of social integration (guiffrida, 2003). however, some previous studies have found that some student organizations that were dominated by white students engaged in racist practices and social injustices against black students (jones, 2020). islamic student organizations are formed based on the common goal of upholding islamic values, so in essence, there is no negative ideology within it. as a forum for religious aspirations, it strongly motivates students to form islamic student organizations in all indonesia’s universities, as well as those around the world. in indonesia, an islamic student organization called the himpunan mahasiswa islam (hmi) is the second-largest student organization after the gerakan mahasiswa nasional indonesia (gmni). it aims to nurture academics, creators, and devotees who will breathe islam and strive to realize a just and prosperous society that is blessed by allah swt (cipta & riyadi, 2020). the hmi is followed in third and fourth place by the pergerakan mahasiswa islam indonesia (pmii) and ikatan mahasiswa muhammadiyah (imm). as the largest student organization in indonesia, the gmni plays an important role as an agent of economic, social, and cultural change, as well as a champion of other aspects of life that relate to individuals, society, and the nation (saepudin, sumara, & asriani, 2018). jamilah in their development, islamic student organizations are very vulnerable to being infiltrated by radical ideology. many cases have shown that the advocates of radicalism and perpetrators of global terrorism tend to be graduates of islamic education institutions, such as one who was a graduate of a salafi model school. this suggests that global democracy is currently in an ideological struggle with transnational islamic education (masud, 2020; suharto, 2018), and this urgently needs to be addressed. islamic universities must guide students on the path of rahmatan lil alamin and not the other way around, so that the negative view of islamic university graduates may change in the eyes of the world. especially in the era of society 5.0, the millennial generation tends to always want to know about the times. humans learn in an environment that relies on technology (abidin et al., 2020; afif & dwijayanto, 2021; basrowi & utami, 2020; tahili et al., 2021), and millennials trust user-generated content (ugc) more than conventional media sources. a moderate islamic education is therefore very important for them to strengthen their sense of nationalism and safeguard themselves from negative behaviors and paradigms in the era of society 5.0, which has recently grown stronger (rahmat, aliza & putri, 2019). the paradigm of moderate islamic education has thus far been considered an investment in the future, one that helps build human resources and shapes behaviors and attitudes suitable for multicultural learning. moderate islamic values can also protect against radical ideology if directed properly (smeer & rosyidah, 2021). indeed, the internalization of moderate islamic values through islamic religious education courses and campus activities, especially in islamic universities, can fight radicalism thanks to the nationalistic attitudes shown by students (hadi, 2019). nationalism embedded in members of islamic student organizations can therefore actively overcome radicalism on campus (riza, 2021). moderate islamic education is expected to encourage a system and pattern of thinking that associates more positive values with the nation and state. moderate islamic education must therefore be positioned as an effort to ensure the preservation of ecosystems, the value of social responsibility, and sustainability. amid this background, the researcher sought to investigate the role of moderate islamic education in increasing nationalism within indonesian islamic student organizations. the novelty of the research is based on the limitations of empirical studies aimed at islamic student organizations in indonesia. previous studies of student organization membership have highlighted college involvement in the development of interpersonal, non-intellectual, and student feelings about the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 82 college (abrahamowicz, 1988). no previous research has discussed in depth the importance of moderate islamic values in islamic student organizations and how they may nurture a spirit of nationalism in the era of society 5.0, as well as their various advantages and disadvantages. it is hoped that by establishing the direct advantages and disadvantages of this object of research, this study can contribute to the development of islamic education within a large islamic student organization in indonesia. by focusing on the three research themes—namely moderate islamic education, islamic student organizations, and nationalism—this study will contribute to the literature by highlighting the importance of moderate islamic education in islamic universities in the era of society 5.0. research questions based on the background of the problem described above, this study focuses on the role of moderate islamic values when taught within islamic education courses at islamic universities. the research questions to be sought to answer are as follows: 1) what elements of moderate islam are considered relevant to teach in the students islamic organization at iain parepare in the era of digital age 5.0? 2) how is the attitude to receive moderate islam into the student islamic organization at iain parepare in the era of digital age 5.0? literature review moderate islamic education in addition to intellectual development, education is also an effort to develop and mature other potential qualities in students. the concept of critical education is based on working realistically, critically, and creatively while relying on principles and decisive action (idris & sulaiman, 2018). islam describes education through the terms at-tarbiyah, at-ta'lim, and at-ta'dib (atiyah al abrasyi, 1955). at-tarbiyah means to nurture, bear, develop, and maintain students in a physical and spiritual context. the term at-ta'lim refers to the process of transferring knowledge and offering a basic introduction to individuals without certain limitations. at-ta'dib, meanwhile, is a process of gradual recognition and guidance that is instilled in students, and it concerns the exact place of everything in creation, ultimately leading to a recognition of god's power in the order of jamilah his being and existence. the term at-ta'dib therefore does not just focus on the transfer of knowledge but also how the educator can help students develop knowledge (ridwan, 2018). the concept of islamic education emphasizes humanization and liberation in its educational orientation, and it places students and teachers as subjects in the learning and teaching process (idris et al., 2018). several aspects of education are included in the concept of islamic education, including divinity and morality, intellectual education in sciences, physical education, psychological development, art, skills development, and social aspects (al-syaibany, 1979). in islam, the value system is a source of ijtihad, which is a way of thinking in an islamic way. morals trigger actions and determine a person’s relationships with his or her fellow human beings, god, and the universe (rahman, 2016). moderate islam is referred to as wasthiyah, which means fair, good, middle, and balanced (amar, 2018). moderate islamic education puts forward the teachings of islam as rahmatan lil alamin, which means a mercy to all creations, so it brings benefits like peace to the soul of mankind, compassion, and a culture of helping, respecting, and honoring others. a moderate islamic education respects differences in both aqidah (creed) and madhab (ways of acting). it helps students to understand reality (fiqh al-waqi'), priorities (fiqh al-awlawiyyat); the immutable constants of allah’s system (sunnatullah), and religious texts, and it encourages them to be open to the outside world and promotes dialogue and tolerance (yasin, 2019). according to al qardhawi (1999), characteristics and behaviors are developed through wasathiyah, namely a) helpfulness and tolerance; b) actions based on conscience before physical behavior; c) a wise, loving attitude toward fellow muslims and tasamuh (respect) for nonmuslims; d) a preference for unity over division; e) a combination of knowledge, faith, material creativity, a noble soul, economic shrewdness, and a strong character; f) a firm and clear purpose, but one that is gentle and based on human and social values; and g) a comprehensive understanding of aqidah, sharia, da'wah, and the state. nata (2016) mentions 10 basic values in moderate islamic education: 1) respect for peace, human rights, and unity between races and religious groups; 2) a potential for entrepreneurial efforts and partnerships; 3) attention to the prophetic vision of islam as humanization and liberation for social change; 4) the teaching of tolerance in religion; 5) the teaching of islam as a moderate mainstream religion; 6) a balance between intellectual, spiritual, moral, and skilled insights; 7) the production journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 84 of intellectual scholars; 8) a solution to modern educational problems; 9) an emphasis on a highquality, comprehensive education; and 10) a mastery of foreign languages. moderate islamic education is the dominant culture for opposing radicalization (susilo & dalimunthe, 2019), because the three teachings of urgency form the basis of moderate islamic education. first, islamic aqeedah is the firm belief, without doubt, that the obligations and obedience of individuals are based on reason, revelation, and nature in relation to allah swt as support for all problems that are beyond the ability of the human mind. second, islamic law (sharia) is an integral guide for regulating all aspects of human life. third, islamic morality (khuluk) means having a character that regulates actions and attitudinal patterns in way that manifests in good deeds without considering oneself first (al-ghazali, n.d.). islamic student organizations student organizations, as the name suggests, are organizations of student members with the aim of accommodating their talents, interests, and potentials through coand extra-curricular activities (peterson, 1972). according to conyne (1983), the introduction of student organizations is a way to intentionally develop students. such organizations can be intra-campus, inter-campus, extracampus, or regional in nature, with the latter type generally having cross-campus members. in general, students who join such organizations get more involved in campus life and the wider society (eklund-leen & young, 1997). islamic student organizations, meanwhile, seek to develop islamic academics with a noble character, public speaking skills, and leadership abilities while also deepening their knowledge of islam and appreciation of the nation. student movements within islamic student organizations also engage in social activities and concrete actions to respond to the nation's issues and strengthen ties with, and networks of, islamic organizations. it is an expression of student idealism for religion and nationalism in the state (chamadi & sumantri, 2019). in essence, a student organization is a forum in which students can gather for a common goal in ways that are approved by all members of the organization and its management (izudin, 2021). it therefore follows that a student organization must not operate outside the main rules and aims of the college or university. this study therefore positions islamic student organizations as a strategic tool for a moderate religious education, because they are a medium for transmitting religious thoughts between activist members through cadre-based education and group discussions (sagap, sya’roni, & arfan, 2020). jamilah nationalism nationalism, in a narrow sense, is a feeling of love and pride for one’s nation, but it can be so excessive that one looks down on other nations. in a broader sense, it is still a feeling of great love or pride for one’s homeland but without looking down on other nations (brubaker, 2004). indeed, nationalism is a determinant of identity and attitude within a country (meier-pesti & kirchler, 2003). this is reflected in favorable attitudes toward the state as a manifestation of ideals and goals that are bound by political, socioeconomic, and cultural attitudes based on the principles of freedom and equality in social and state life (oguilve, et. al., 2021). nationalism can be considered a consequence of national identity that represents a positive evaluation of one's own group, but it implies that there are different social goals (blank & schmidt, 2003). a nationalist population is characterized by 1) the existence of national unity and integrity; 2) the existence of an organization with a modern, national form; 3) the aim of liberating the country, such that the ultimate power is in the hands of the people; and 4) the importance of education in elevating the life of individuals and the state. however, the characteristics of a nationalist attitude proposed by hafnidar, karina, and meurah hadiah (2021) include a willingness to sacrifice, a love of the homeland, a desire to uphold the values of the nation, pride in being a native citizen, obedience to the rules, and discipline. a positive nationalist attitude can foster harmony within a nation, but excessive nationalism can become a means for creating divisions between different nations (reyes & dueñas, 2021; subedi & subedi, 2020). one form of nationalism is called civil nationalism, which arises out of superior liberal democratic values (kwan, 2016). other forms include ethnic nationalism based on the origin or ethnic culture of a society; romantic/organic/identity nationalism based on what unifies people according to the spirit of romanticism; cultural nationalism based on a shared culture rather than ethnicity; and religious nationalism based on a shared religion and its politicization (brubaker, 2012). the literature mentions that a nation state is often vulnerable to ethnic nationalism because it faces problems related to the neutrality of the state and the construction of a multicultural nation (brown, 1998). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 86 methods design a qualitative research design was used to investigate the research problem. according to taylor and bogdan (1984), qualitative research produces descriptive data in the form of the speech and behaviors of the people being observed. such research is expected to be able to produce in-depth narrative texts from speech, writing, and behavior, which are observed by researchers through a holistic perspective. this research focuses on three themes: moderate islamic education, islamic student organizations, and nationalism. the research location was iain parepare, southeast sulawesi province, indonesia, and the study was carried out between february and april 2021. participants the research participants comprised 21 people, of which 18 were students and 3 were lecturers. the inclusion criteria for the students included being active students at iain parepare, male, and a member of the southeast sulawesi islamic extra-campus student organization (omek). the criteria for the lecturers were that they were active lecturers and taught islamic religious education courses. data and its sources the main data sources in a qualitative research design are the words and actions of the participants, with additional data coming in the form of documents and previous literature. the research data is therefore divided into two groups. first, primary data were obtained through interviews and observations related to the application of moderate islamic education at iain parepare and the southeast sulawesi islamic student organization. second, secondary data were obtained in the form of documentation about moderate islamic education learning activities, the activities of the southeast sulawesi islamic student organization, and research literature related to the research theme. instrument the research instrument focused on three research themes, namely 1) the characteristics and values of moderate islamic education at iain parepare; 2) the nationalism and moderate islamic behavior of student members of the islamic student organization; and 3) the perception of nationalism. the jamilah three themes in the instrument are seen through the lens of the teaching of divinity and morals, intellectual scientific education, physical education, psychological education, art and skills education, and social aspects. for the three themes, appropriate indicators were selected from previous studies and translated into questions. validation was achieved through validation from experts. this works by asking experts to examine and evaluate something systematically and pass judgment. when testing the validity of the instrument, the researcher sought approval from expert lecturers in the field of moderate islamic education and character education. in the process, each lecturer scrutinized each question item to ensure it accorded with theoretical study and was suitable for use. to guide the research, the researchers compiled a grid of research instruments, which were then used as a reference in interviews and observations. table 1. grid of research instruments theme interview guide grid observation guidance grid moderate islamic education 1. planning the content of moderate islamic education in islamic religious education courses 2. the steps taken in the implementation of moderate islamic education 3. methods and media used by lecturers when implementing moderate islamic education 4. media when giving moderate islamic education through islamic religious education courses 5. obstacles and solutions when implementing moderate islamic education 1. using a variety of approaches, learning media, and other learning resources, so that students give their opinions based on their actual self-perceptions 2. provide opportunities for thinking to foster creative and critical thinking attitudes toward the practice of moderate islamic education and nationalist behavior 3. provide feedback and conduct research about observations that have been made in order to identify the advantages and disadvantages islamic student organization 1. steps that have been implemented by student organizations in implementing moderate islamic education and nationalism 2. methods and media used by islamic student organizations in implementing moderate islamic education and nationalist behavior 3. obstacles and solutions when implementing moderate islamic education and the nationalist behavior shown by islamic student organizations nationalism 1. asking for the characteristics of nationalist behavior in the narrow and broad sense of the participants 2. asking what nationalist characteristics students already have data collection the data were collected from the subjects and other sources using observation, interview, and documentation methods. non-participatory observation was carried out by analyzing and systematically recording the behaviors of participants after observing them through the internet. the zoom application with record mode was used to make it easier for researchers to collect observations and interviews. this was important because the policy on the implementation of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 88 restrictions on community activities (ppkm) had been affected by the covid-19 pandemic. the researchers observed the attitudes and characters of the participants when applying the values of moderate islamic education to determine the extent of their sense of nationalism. interviews were conducted through one-sided questions and answers based on the interview guidelines while referring to the syllabus and teaching materials and conveying the main points that the researcher wanted to investigate. the researcher stated in advance the questions had been systematically arranged and all the oral answers given by the participants would be recorded. it was especially important that the lecturer participants of iain parepare, southeast sulawesi were recorded, so no data would be missed about the learning process, the application of moderate islamic education, and the vision and mission. the documentation collected took the form of notes describing the activities of iain parepare, a description of the activities within the southeast sulawesi islamic student organization, the syllabus and teaching materials for islamic religious education courses, and documentation about facilities and infrastructure, as well as previous literature related to the research theme. data analysis the data analysis technique comprised three stages in line with the theory of miles, huberman, and saldaña (2013). first, data reduction is a form of summarizing, so the main aspects are chosen according to the theme, thus focusing on only the important things. at this stage, the collected data was in the form of observation and interview data related to the role of moderate islamic education in developing a sense of nationalism in students who are members of an islamic student organization. the second stage involved presenting the data by making tables out of narrative texts in the form of short, meaningful descriptions. the presentation of this data was arranged in a relationship pattern, starting with the results of interviews, observations, and documentation so that it would be easy to understand. the third stage involved verifying the data, which was initially temporary. data that had been presented with strong supporting evidence was collated to derive conclusions that met the objectives of the research study. a brief summary of the findings is given in the conclusions and suggestions. at this stage, the data was discussed to establish what happened, so general conclusions could be drawn about the role of moderate islamic education on enhancing nationalism among islamic student organizations. a data validity test was carried out to test the credibility of the data using triangulation, namely by comparing and checking both the jamilah degree of trustworthiness of the obtained information by ensuring the honesty of the researcher and checking the data sources through the different methods and theories used. results and discussion teaching moderate islam the research into the role of moderate islamic education in enhancing nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0 revealed that moderate islamic education through the islamic religious education courses at iain parepare, southeast sulawesi did significantly foster an attitude of nationalism. this could be seen in the behaviors of students who belonged to the southeast sulawesi islamic student organization. students are not just technology literate—they use technology to build communities with social goals. unfortunately, moderate islamic education at iain parepare has not been maximally promoted. moderate islam is considered acceptable to teach to develop nationalism for the student islamic organization at iain parepare. themes of moderate islam that appear from the student opinions are as follows:  nationalism in moderate islam  attitude toward nationalism  technology literate  community goal based  seminar  workshop  mentally control developed  spiritually developed  awareness to reduce radicalism  unity in diversity  improving intellectual morality accordingly, the principles of implementation indicate three conducts, including at-tarbiyah, atta’lim and at-ta’dib.  at-tarbiyah: to nurture, bear, develop, and maintain the physical and spiritual context of its students. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 90  at-ta'lim: transferring knowledge and giving a basic introduction to students without certain boundaries, both in terms of ethnicity and race.  at-ta'dib: process introducing and gradually guiding students as they learn about the power of god. through observations, it was found that moderate islamic education through seminars and workshops was still at a low level. students who belonged to the islamic student organization were therefore not all obtaining a moderate islamic literacy on campus. in reality, moderate islamic values are very important for developing students both intellectually and morally, and they help develop a spirit of nationalism that wards off radicalism and the possibility of anarchist action. however, in terms of technology support, the campus has begun to implement this. however, the campus should not only focus on online learning but also support campus activities for implementing moderate islamic education as a way to prevent radicalism and improve the intellect and morality of islamic college graduates. as explained by atiyah al abrasyi (1955) and ridwan (2018), islam recognizes education through the terms at-tarbiyah, at-ta'lim, and at-ta'dib. at-tarbiyah means that a campus must be able to nurture, bear, develop, and maintain the physical and spiritual context of its students. the term at-ta'lim, meanwhile, means transferring knowledge and giving a basic introduction to students without certain boundaries, both in terms of ethnicity and race. finally, at-ta'dib is the process of introducing and gradually guiding students as they learn about the power of god. it should be understood that moderate islamic education is the dominant culture in deradicalization (susilo & dalimunthe, 2019). moderate islamic values help fortify individuals from the ideology of radicalism, especially when students are given knowledge and guidance and are cared for properly (smeer & rosyidah, 2021). the application of moderate islamic education at iain parepare is divided over two phases, namely 1) planning diniyah teaching and learning activities and 2) applying moderate islamic education. one lecturer explained: lecturers make lecture schedules in the form of lecture program units (lpu) and a syllabus, together with scheduled supporting activities for students for one semester. in teaching and learning activities, lecturers are required to show moderate islamic values, so graduates are expected to have tolerance, a sense of nationalism, intellect, respect for differences, and an aversion to radicalism. jamilah learning activities in islamic religious education courses basically have the same goal as general education in that they seek to develop human potential through a process of intellectual and moral maturation. in terms of the emergence of nationalist attitudes, this depends on the ways and means of education itself. when applying the concept of critical education, this aims to work in reality, critically and creatively, and it relies on principles and total action (idris & sulaiman, 2018; silalahi & yuwono, 2018). a moderate islamic education is expected to create a system and pattern of thinking with greater benefits for the nation and state in terms of preserving the ecosystem, valuing social responsibility, and meeting needs sustainably. in order to improve the quality of learning, iain parepare regularly holds various online seminars and invites resourceful people who are competent in their fields. the observations revealed that the campus held various islam-oriented capital market seminars, it-based library workshops, educational curriculum development workshops, and online and offline lpu preparation workshops. judging from the results of the interviews, it seems that the seminars and workshops did not focus on increasing the role of moderate islamic education and nationalism, however. the practice of moderate islamic education could be seen in activities based around book reviews, student life skills, field experience debriefing (fed), activities in the sports science week, and the arts and research of iain parepare. meanwhile, the development of a sense of nationalism could be seen in the exchange of indonesian students with other countries, national halaqah (study groups), and public lectures as annual events. when nationalism is embedded in students who belong to the southeast sulawesi islamic student organizations, they can actively overcome radicalism on campus (riza, 2021). attitude to receive moderate islam into the student islamic organization a nationalist attitude in indonesia is reflected through the ideology of pancasila, so a moderate islamic education curriculum must also reflect the ideology of pancasila. this is all part of appreciating the differences in both aqidah and madhab; understanding reality (fiqh al-waqi'); appreciating priorities (fiqh); understanding the sunnatullah (stipulations of natural and religious law) in creation; comprehending religious texts; being open to the outside world, and promoting dialogue and tolerance (yasin, 2019). a recent study found that islamic universities must address differences through student development and moderate islamic education (idris & putra, 2021). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 92 there are four ways in which islamic educational institutions can promote religious moderation in the era of society 5.0: first, they can hold seminars and workshops based on religious moderation. second, they can directly develop student organizations through supervision. third, they can integrate religious moderation into the basic competencies of learning subjects. fourth, they can coordinate all campus residents and islamic student organizations in adopting religious moderation, because this also helps synergize religious moderation with curriculum materials and internet-based learning processes, and it helps familiarize students with applying religious moderation in the campus environment. student organizations essentially play a big role in sociopolitical life and leadership-capacity development (rosch & collins, 2017; gross, 2021). this is why student organizations exist and grow stronger over time, although some negative impacts must also be watched out for. they can be very enthusiastic in various actions to support the unity and integrity of the nation and protest socioeconomic injustices (bégin-caouette & jones, 2014). likewise, with islamic student organizations being the largest group of student organizations in indonesia, they play an important role as agents of economic, social, and cultural change, and they affect other aspects of life at the individual, societal, and national levels (saepudin et al., 2018). in fact, they are better known as agents of social integration (guiffrida, 2003). consider another comment: more or less, our organization applies learning materials about moderate islamic values, such as respect for human rights, religious tolerance, intellectual development, spirituality, morality, and skilled insights. we do this because these values do not conflict with the goals of the islamic student organization. we also practice the values of caring for fellow human beings by being covid19 volunteers, using domestic products, and participating in nature-loving communities and other social organizations. we also promote southeast sulawesi traditions and culture, as well as promote tourism through social media. in this case, student organizations are considered productive fields for promoting sustainable development goals (sdgs) and learning about the principles of responsible education. consider the comment below: as an indonesian islamic student organization, protecting and safeguarding our country from threats in any form is an obligation. however, in practice, it often requires positive guidance and support from stakeholders. what we need is not only moderate islamic education but also examples of how to implement good jamilah practices from the stakeholders themselves so as to motivate us to be more active in building a sense of nationalism in our daily lives. responding to the participants' perceptions, it can be understood that nationalism requires an example to be set by the nation's leaders, so they need education not just from internal and external campuses but also from the government as policymakers. as explained earlier, nationalism determines the identity and attitude of a country (meier-pesti & kirchler, 2003). this is in turn reflected in political, socioeconomic, and cultural attitudes, so it should be not just islamic community organizations but also stakeholders that show attitudes of nationalism based on principles of freedom and equality in social and state life. moderate islamic education is very important for strengthening people’s sense of nationalism and fortifying them against negative behaviors and paradigms in the era of society 5.0, which has grown stronger recently (rahmat et al., 2019). when it comes to the purpose for students joining islamic student organizations, the theory of experiential learning has been cited as a possible means for attracting and retaining members in student organizations. in one study, students evaluated various organizational features in relation to their intentions to participate in student organizations, because students value activities that bring professional and intellectual development. in addition, age can also influence students' intentions to participate. this study also found that students do not focus on ethnicity in professional student organizations—they focus more on experiences, social networks, and career and skill development (munoz, miller, & poole, 2016). thus, this study deepens our understanding of students' motivations for joining an islamic student organization beyond just professionalism, networking, and skills development, because it also involves various other important aspects, such as social justice, a sense of unity and oneness, and religious values. according to smith and chenoweth (2015), students who are involved in extra-campus student organizations rate themselves higher for leadership traits and behaviors compared to students who are not involved in such organizations. although lecturers may not interact directly with student organizations, students practice their learning on campus in their daily lives according to their beliefs. the same happens for students who are members of islamic student organizations, so they feel they have a sense of nationalism and a responsibility to support the nation's progress as part of their organization's goals. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 94 regarding the role of moderate islamic education in enhancing nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0, the islamic education experience is filled with learning about the importance of islamic values in student behavior. students learn about aqidah, morality, and sharia from theory to their practice in society. they engage in a broad moderate islamic behavior, with nationalism uniting them in a spirit of unity and oneness. the research points to a need for stakeholders to become involved in supporting and nurturing students to get them on the right track. this study has empirically identified new discussions about the role that moderate islamic education plays in islamic student organizations in terms of a growing sense of nationalism, something that is much needed in the era of society 5.0. previous studies have mentioned many cases where the perpetrators of radicalism and global terrorism have been graduates of islamic educational institutions (suharto, 2018). this study shows that it is very important for islamic universities to guide students on the path of rahmatan lil alamin through moderate islamic education, so that any negative views of islamic university graduates can be changed in the eyes of the world. this study brings a novelty in that digital era 5.0 is an obvious teaching setting the university must prepare and obviously student organization should adjust for their management perspectives. positive attitude toward the digital era is the basic management to develop and increase nationalism, reducing radicalism and promoting unity in diversity. conclusion the findings reveal that internalizing moderate islamic values through islamic religious education courses can foster a spirit of nationalism that manifests in the attitudes and behaviors of students in the community. unfortunately, moderate islamic education at iain parepare has not been fully exploited. the observations reveal that moderate islamic education through seminars and workshops is still at a low level. students who belong to an islamic student organization also did not obtain a maximal literacy of moderate islam on campus. in reality, moderate islamic values are very important for enhancing students intellectually and morally and kindling a spirit of nationalism in the broad sense. however, stakeholders must support campus activities the supply moderate islamic education, because it serves as a means for preventing radicalism and improving the intellect and morality of islamic college graduates. it is hoped that through a moderate islamic jamilah education and a high degree of nationalism, islamic student organizations throughout indonesia can support national development and realize the life of rahmatan lil alamin. references abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. abrahamowicz, d. (1988). (1988). college involvement, perceptions, and satisfaction: a study of membership in student organizations. journal of college student development, 29(3), 233–238. addai-mununkum, r. (2019). students’ representation of “other” religions. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 afif, y., & dwijayanto, a. (2021). moderate islamic education and religious digital literature: the making of children’s moderate identities through the nu kids application. in icis 2020: proceedings of the 2nd international conference on islamic studies (p. 68). ponorogo, indonesia: european alliance for innovation. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.27-102020.2304174 al-ghazali, a. h. m. (n.d.). nashîhah al-mulȗk. beirut: dar al-kutub al-ilmiyah. al-syaibany, o. m. a. t. (1979). falsafah pendidikan islam, terj. hasan langgulung. jakarta: bulan bintang. al qardhawi, y. (1999). a comparative study of zakah, regulation and philosophy in the light of al qur’an and sunnah. jeddah: scientific publishing centre king abdulaziz university. amar, a. (2018). pendidikan islam wasathiyah ke-indonesia-an. al-insyiroh: jurnal studi keislaman, 2(1), 18–37. https://doi.org/10.35309/alinsyiroh.v2i1.3330 atiyah al abrasyi, m. (1955). ruh at-tarbiyah wa at-ta’lim. qahirah: daru ihya’i al-kutubi al arabiah,‘esa al-baby al-halaby wa syirkah. baker, c. n. (2008). under represented college students and extracurricular involvement : the effects of various student organizations on academic performance. social psychology of education volume, 11(february), 273–298. basrowi, & utami, p. (2020). building strategic planning models based on digital technology in the sharia capital market ? journal of advanced research in law and economics, 11(3), 747–754. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.14505/jarle.v11.3(49).06 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 96 bégin-caouette, o., & jones, g. a. (2014). student organizations in canada and quebec’s “maple spring.” studies in higher education, 39(3), 412–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.896178 blank, t., & schmidt, p. (2003). national identity in a united germany: nationalism or patriotism? an empirical test with representative data. political psychology, 24(2 spec.), 289–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895x.00329 borges, j. c., ferreira, t. c., borges de oliveira, m. s., macini, n., & caldana, a. c. f. (2017). hidden curriculum in student organizations: learning, practice, socialization and responsible management in a business school. international journal of management education, 15(2), 153–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2017.03.003 bowman, n. a., park, j. j., & denson, n. (2015). student involvement in ethnic student organizations: examining civic outcomes 6 years after graduation. research in higher education, 56(2), 127–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-014-9353-8 brown, d. (1998). why is the nation-state so vulnerable to ethnic nationalism? nations and nationalism, 4(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1354-5078.1998.00001.x brubaker, r. (2004). in the name of the nation: reflections on nationalism and patriotism. citizenship studies, 8(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/1362102042000214705 brubaker, r. (2012). religion and nationalism: four approaches. nations and nationalism, 18(1), 2–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8129.2011.00486.x chamadi, m. r., & sumantri, r. a. (2019). tipologi gerakan mahasiswa melalui organisasi mahasiswa islam di purwokerto. titian: jurnal ilmu humaniora, 03(02), 241–259. cipta, s. e., & riyadi, t. s. (2020). perkembangan tradisi keilmuan islam dan gerakan pemikiran: islam madzhab ciputat dan himpunan mahasiswa islam. cakrawala: jurnal studi islam, 15(1), 30–45. https://doi.org/10.31603/cakrawala.v15i1.3448 conyne, r. k. (1983). models for conducting student organization development. the personnel and guidance journal, 61(7), 394–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.21644918.1983.tb00052.x donohue, d. k. (2021). culture, cognition, and college: how do cultural values and theories of intelligence predict students’ intrinsic value for learning?, journal of culture and values in education (jcve), 4(1), 1-14, https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 eklund-leen, s. j., & young, r. b. (1997). attitudes of student organization members and nonmembers about campus and community involvement. community college review, 24(4), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/009155219702400405 gross, b. g. (2021). student organization leader engagement. northeastern university. jamilah guiffrida, d. a. (2003). african american student organizations as agents of social integration. journal of college student development, 44(3), 304–319. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2003.0024 hadi, s. (2019). urgensi nilai-nilai moderat dalam lembaga pendidikan di indonesia. kahpi, 1(1), 1–13. hafnidar, h., karina, m., & meurah hadiah, c. (2021). pengembangan alat ukur sikap nasionalisme pada mahasiswa. jurnal penelitian psikologi, 12(1), 43–51. harper, s. r., & quaye, s. j. (2007). student organizations as venues for black identity expression and development among african american male student leaders. journal of college student development, 48(2), 127–144. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2007.0012 idris, m., & putra, a. (2021). the roles of islamic educational institutions in religious moderation. ajis: academic journal of islamic studies, 6(1), 25. https://doi.org/10.29240/ajis.v6i1.2555 idris, s., za, t., & sulaiman, f. (2018). critical education paradigm in the perspective of islamic education. advanced science letters, 24(11), 8226–8230. https://doi.org/10.1166/asl.2018.12529 izudin, a. (2021). revealing the orientation of the post-reformation islamic student movement in indonesia. politika: jurnal ilmu politik, 12(1), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.14710/politika.12.1.2021.11-24 jones, v. (2020). (2020). challenging race neutral rhetoric: black student leaders’ counternarratives of racial salience in pwi student organizations. journal of diversity in higher education, 13(1), 23–32. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000105 kabiba, arfin, & junaidin. (2021). faktor penyebab terjadinya konflik peran dalam proses pembelajaran pada mahasiswa pengurus organisasi. didaktis: jurnal pendidikan dan ilmu pengetahuan, 21(1), 76–85. kwan, j. p. (2016). the rise of civic nationalism: shifting identities in hong kong and taiwan. contemporary chinese political economy and strategic relations: an international journal, 2(2), 941–973. laporte, d., kim, e., & smith, j. (2017). engineering to help communities or students’ development? an ethnographic case study of an engineering-to-help student organization. international journal for service learning in engineering, humanitarian engineering and social entrepreneurship, 12(2), 103–117. https://doi.org/10.24908/ijsle.v12i2.6593 masud, m. m. (2020). international student migration and polymedia: the use of communication media by bangladeshi students in germany. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 95-110. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.5 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 98 meier-pesti, k., & kirchler, e. (2003). nationalism and patriotism as determinants of european identity and attitudes towards the euro. journal of socio-economics, 32(6), 685–700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2003.10.006 miles, m., huberman, m., & saldaña, j. (2013). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook: an expanded sourcebook, 408. retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/43491723/miles___huberman_data_a nalysis.pdf?awsaccesskeyid=akiaiwowyygz2y53ul3a&expires=1554078814&si gnature=c9k75fdt6sjvo4egpjsp2ftcib8%3d&response-content-disposition=inline%3b filename%3dmiles_huberman_da munoz, l., miller, r., & poole, s. m. (2016). professional student organizations and experiential learning activities: what drives student intentions to participate? journal of education for business, 91(1), 45–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2015.1110553 nasir, m. (2020). curriculum development and accreditation standards in the traditional islamic schools in indonesia. journal of curriculum studies research. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 nata, a. (2016). peta keragaman pemikiran islam di indonesia. jakarta: divisi buku perguruan tinggi, rajagrafindo persada. retrieved from pageshttp://books.google.co.id/books?id=radyaaaamaaj&dq=intitle:pemikiran+ekon omi+islam&h l=&source=gbs_ap negy, c., & lunt, r. a. (2008). what college students really think about ethnic student organizations. journal of diversity in higher education, 1(3), 176–192. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012751 nolen, z. l., daniel, k. l., & bucklin, c. j. (2020). perceived benefits from participating in content-based student organizations. journal of student affairs research and practice, 00(00), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/19496591.2020.1796689 oguilve, v., wen, w., bowen, e., abourehab, y., bermudez, a., gaxiola, e. & castek, j. (2021). community making: an expansive view of curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research (jcsr), 3(1), 69-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.8 peterson, patti mcgill. (1972). student organizations and the antiwar movement in america, 1900-1960. american studies, 13(1), 131–147. https://doi.org/10.2307/40641066 rahman, a. (2016). pendidikan akhlak menurut az-zarnuji dalam kitab ta’lim al-muta’allim. at ta’dib, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.21111/at-tadib.v11i1.647 rahmat, d., aliza, d. m., & putri, v. a. (2019). media sosial sebagai upaya pencegahan radikalisme. jurnal ilmu komunikas, 9(2), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 jamilah reyes, a-e. and dueñas, j-m. (2021). medicinal gardens as an educational strategy in the teaching of the natural sciences: a pedagogical proposal. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 6(1), 25-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.2 ridwan, m. (2018). konsep tarbiyah, ta’lim dan ta’dib dalam al-qur’an. nazhruna: jurnal pendidikan islam, 1(1), 26–44. https://doi.org/10.31538/nazhruna.v1i1.97 riza, f. (2021). islam and nationalism : the role of the universitas al washliyah in the era of post independent 1950s. journal of contemporary islam and muslim societies, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.30821/jcims.v5i1.7971 rooksby, j. h. (2019). understand pros, cons of telling student groups to stop using institution’s name, marks. campus legal advisor, 20(4), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1002/cala.40136 rosch, d. m., & collins, j. d. (2017). the significance of student organizations to leadership development. new directions for student leadership, 2017(155), 9–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20246 roqib, moh. (2021). increasing social class through islamic boarding schools in indonesia. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 12(2), 305-329. saepudin, s., sumara, a. r., & asriani, d. (2018). ruang publik virtual dan sikap politik organisasi mahasiswa. diakom : jurnal media dan komunikasi, 1(2), 51–61. https://doi.org/10.17933/diakom.v1i2.22 sagap, s., sya’roni, s., & arfan, a. (2020). education on religious moderation among islamic student organization activists, 438(aes 2019), 251–254. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200513.056 silalahi, r., & yuwono, u. (2018). the sustainability of pancasila in indonesian education system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 58-78. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 smeer, z. b., & rosyidah, i. (2021). religious moderation in islamic education learning to counter radicalism. ulul albab, 22(1), 176–203. smith, l. j., & chenoweth, j. d. (2015). the contributions of student organization involvement to students self-assessments of their leadership traits and relational behaviors. american journal of business education (ajbe), 8(4), 279–288. https://doi.org/10.19030/ajbe.v8i4.9422 subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid-19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 suharto, t. (2018). transnational islamic education in indonesia: an ideological perspective. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 79-100 100 contemporary islam, 12(2), 101–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-017-0409-3 susilo, s., & dalimunthe, r. p. (2019). moderate southeast asian islamic education as a parent culture in deradicalization: urgencies, strategies, and challenges. religions, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10010045 tahili, m., tolla, i., ahmad, m., saman, a., & samad, s. (2021). the effect of strategic collaboration approach on the national educational standards achievement and service quality in basic education at local government in indonesia. research in social sciences and technology, 6(1), 53-82. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.4 taylor, s. ., & bogdan, r. (1984). introduction to qualitative research methods: the search for meaning (2nd ed.). new york: john wiley & sons, inc. yasin, r. (2019). implementation of wasathiyatul islam in the curriculum of modern islamic boarding school darussalam gontor (study of k.h. imam zarkasyi’s thought). at-ta’dib, 14(2), 75–96. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.4 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 312-342 the adversity quotient between teacher professionalism on student’s autonomous learning fatimah saguni1, hamlan2, gusnarib3 abstract the purpose of this study was to determine the aq correlation between teacher professionalism and student autonomous learning at madrasah aliyah, south banawa district, donggala regency, central sulawesi, indonesia. the research design used a quantitative approach. the number of research samples was of 36 students and 19 teachers with a simple random sampling technique. the main data collection was performed by means of a questionnaire. product moment correlation was employed in data analysis, by checking the normality and timeliness of the data. the first finding revealed no relationships (r= 0.073) between aq and teacher professionalism. while the second finding showed a relationship (r= 0.961) between the aq between teacher professionalism and student autonomous learning. this finding can likely provide evidence as references for educational institutions, particularly for those at the madrasah aliyah level, educators, and the government to increase the aq between teacher professionalism and student autonomous learning so that it can enhance student achievement and enable supports for national developments in the future. it is essential to provide positive supports given the low professionalism of teachers in remote areas, albeit the potential for student’s autonomous learning also deserves deliberation as a form of social justice for all indonesian people. keywords:adversity quotient, teacher professionalism, autonomous learning introduction adversity quotient (aq) is the most significant element in assessing a person's ability to succeed in a particular career (adversity intelligence). the literature states that in the realm of education, the performance of teachers, workers, and students in the process is strongly influenced by factors such as aq and resilience to failure(villagonzalo, 2013; singh & parveen, 2018; puspitacandri et. al., 2020; sigit et. al., 2019; wang et. al., 2021; zhao et. al., 2021). the aq is the key point in helping teachers, students, and staff subdue problems or challenges they may encounter within their work in efforts to achieve the initially set goals related to education. numerous handicaps most likely emerge during the endeavors to achieve those goals. 1 lecturer of institut agama islam (iain) palu, indonesia, fatimahiainpalu@gmail.com (corresponding author) 2 lecturer of institut agama islam (iain) palu, indonesia, hamlan@iainpalu.ac.id 3 lecturer of institut agama islam (iain) palu, indonesia, gusnarib@iainpalu.ac.id mailto:fatimahiainpalu@gmail.com mailto:hamlan@iainpalu.ac.id mailto:gusnarib@iainpalu.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 313 aq is a factor to determine a person's level of success in life. individuals' capacity to overcome any hurdles or issues in their lives are evaluated using aq (stoltz, 2000). the employee holding a high aq is a diligent worker equipped with a solid self-control. as a result, close monitoring over work completions is no longer necessary. regardless of their job, one's aq will always correspond with one's performance (ablaña & isidro, 2015; hong, 2020; phoolka & kaur, 2012; runta et. al, 2019). in general, when someone's hardship quotient is intense, likewise his or her performance . alternatively, once someone has a poor ability to cope with predicaments; hence, his or her performance is severely affected. recent studies revealed that students' self-reliance in fulfilling their demands or goals well is referred to as autonomous learning (du, 2020; edward flores, 2021; mehdiyev, 2020). in this instance, the student is capable of managing his or her learning, determining how to learn successfully, executing learning tasks and conducting learning activities effectively on his or her own. in the realm of education, self-reliance is an extremely essential element since students who scarcely hold self-determination to study will find it strenuous to take charge of all aspects of their lives, particularly in the learning process. furthermore, children are unable to make their own choices and unequipped with thoughts, ideas, and efforts in response to every presented issue due to their reliance on others, particularly on his parents and classmates, as well as inclination to rely on people at all times (hurlock, 1980). children equipped with self-dependent learning capacity may likely be identified by their learning activities; they administer learning activities on their own initiatives and hardly require instructions during learning process (khulaifiyah et. al., 2021). it is pivotal to perceive the qualities of selfreliance in learning to determine whether or not a learner has this ability (thomas & rohwer, 2020). autonomous learning is a situation wherein individuals engage in autonomous learning activities without relying on others and exercise their own free choices and accept personal responsibility for addressing barriers to their learning (cao, 2013). when students actively manage their work, assess their progress, and subsequently plan for future learning; consequently, they acquire learning independence. additionally, students most likely wish to be active participants in the educational process (du, 2020; gairola, 2019). performance in an organization is most likely enhanced if the staff are highly motivated, creativeminded when faced with challenges, contented with their jobs and convenient with their working environment (budiharso & tarman, 2020). similarly, the school administrative staff of education saguni et. al. also play the key roles (tubosun & umar, 2016). moreover, the frequent hurdles or challenges the administrative staff encounter in the line of duty most likely emerge due to internal as well as external factors such as work facilities and pre-retirement preparation, working environment conditions, and so forth (nakpodia, 2010; shah, 2014; tus, 2020). administrators working in distant regions as in central sulawesi are also included in this category of staff members. south banawa sub-district is a subdivision of the donggala regency in indonesia. this subdistrict is located approximately 27 kilometers south of the capital city of donggala regency , which is located in the province's northern area. wataru village is where the administration headquarter located. this sub-district comprises the most villages in donggala regency, of 114 villages in total. as was the case at madrasah aliyah school, the teaching and learning process in this region is beset by great deal of barriers and complexities, both in terms of facilities and infrastructure. consequently, achieving the school’s educational goals is complicated for the school elements consisting of teachers, students, and administrative staff. previous researches investigating this topic have yet been found, particularly regarding the relationship between aq and teacher professionalism within students' autonomous learning in remote areas. several previous studies were conducted with the same theme -investigating the effect of aq on teacher performance (kartikasari & wiarta, 2021; sanusi, 2017; sekreter, 2019; sukardewi et. al., 2013). while other literature surveyed the impact of aq on the quality of graduates of educational institutions(puspitacandri et. al., 2020), and the use of aq in strong leadership(tripathi, 2011). the research novelty is reflected in the relationship of aq; thereby the impact emerged on students' autonomous learning through teacher professionalism. it is intriguing that the research scrutinizes the role of teacher professionalism within students’ autonomous learning located in rural schools supplied with limited facilities, infrastructure, and the internet. in this context, the researcher emphasizes aq described as an aspect for measuring the abilities of teachers and students at rural schools. autonomous learning is a learning system designed for students supplied initiatives, motivation, and responsibility for learning things in their preferred way. while professionalism is the skills and abilities of teachers in performing their duties as educators despite the existing limitations in rural areas. previous studies found that school location has a significant impact on students' learning motivation and academic achievement (owoeye & yara, 2011; lamb, 2012). the findings indicated that the students at urban areas acquired greater academic achievement than those at rural areas. it is noted that in this case, the professionalism of teachers can most likely journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 315 encourage students to improve their students' academic performance. unfortunately, rural schools are less captivating to professional teachers; therefore, serious problems concerning educational inequality emerge (yang et. al., 2019). the poor quality of rural school education correspondingly results in unfavorable conditions for schoolchildren graduated from rural schools to enroll in higher education. this creates serious problems in the socioeconomic development of rural areas (yapparova & kuznetsova, 2021). a recent study found that the development of teacher professionalism using the aq learning method increased students' autonomous learning (albusaidi & al-seyabi, 2021; jodaei et. al., 2021; yazdani & ghasedi, 2021). the covid-19 pandemic situation has prompted teachers to hold greater professionalism in applying autonomous learning so that learning remains effective. the implementation of student autonomy provides opportunities for students to think creatively, confidently, and responsibly so that students' academic achievements are expected to be better. therefore, it is crucial to explore this problem and identify the aq between teacher professionalism and student autonomy learning with a quantitative approach to determine the correlation among aq, teacher professionalism and student learning independence in rural areas. the authors’ hope is to find a promising solution for a better quality education. based on the presented literature review, the research concentrates on looking into the aq between teacher professionalism on student's autonomous learning at rural schools . this research is expected to reveal the educational gap that occurs in aq between teacher professionalism and student autonomous learning in rural areas. research questions based on the background of the problem, the research focuses on three topics; namely aq, teacher professionalism, and autonomous learning students. from these three topics, the researcher formulated three questions as follows: 1. is there any relationship between aq and teachers professionalism atmadrasah aliyah donggala? 2. is there any relationship between aq and autonomous learning at madrasah aliyah donggala? 3. is there any interaction among aq, teachers professionalism, and autonomous learning atmadrasah aliyah donggala? saguni et. al. hypothesis there are three hypotheses shown to test the relationship between the variable of x and y. the problems tested in this study are; ha1: there is a correlation between aq and teachers professionalism of madrasah aliyah donggala teachers ha2: there is a correlation between aq and autonomous learning atmadrasah aliyah donggala ha3: there is interaction between aq, teachers professionalism, and autonomous learning of madrasah aliyah donggala literature review adversity quotient aq is an individual’s ability to observe and process difficulties with their intelligence so that adversities turn into challenges to be solved by the individual. four main characteristics of aq provide the basis for the organization of aq measurement tools in children; namely, (1) control dimension is related to a person's slow or spontaneous reaction to a problem; (2) origin, ownership, and size of a person's ownership; (3) reach is regarded as a quantity facilitating a person's existence by reducing the handicap level that surrounds him; (4) endurance that shows how a person perceives adversity (stoltz, 2000). previous studies discovered factors that influence the formation of aq. the first factor is adversity and competitive quotient. individuals dealing with pressures or work pressures will likely hold low intelligence because of a lack of competitiveness ; thus, it leads to the loss of the ability to create opportunities in the midst of problems (singh & sharma, 2017). the second factor is productivity positively correlated with employees performance. thus, one's constructive reaction to a problem will help improve performance. conversely, one's destructive response will impair performance (bautista et. al., 2016). the third factor is individuals equipped with strong motivation to invent opportunities amid adversity; i.e, highly-motivated individuals shall attempt to solve problems by manipulating all available skills (susanto & sofyani, 2019). the fourth factor is people supplied with excellent resilience and willingness to take risks in contrast to their performed activities. for instance, those who possess a high aq are supposedly better at producing constructive responses once they encounter complicated circumstances (shohib, 2013). the fifth factor is great adversity intelligence by which someone attempts to solve problems by means of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 317 concrete actions. for instance, despite the adversity, someone attempts to change varied parts of his/her life to mitigate problems from worsening and affecting the other parts of their life(singh & sharma, 2018). the sixth factor is perseverance or someone’s ability to produce self-endurance amid an adversity should always be rewarded. in terms of learning, someone equipped with positive reactions shall learn a lot and gain greater success compared to the one who shows pessimism (phoolka & kaur, 2012; seregig et. al., 2018). research conducted by suprapto et al. (2021)found a relationship between the factors that affect aq with the teacher's work ethic. the findings reveal that if teachers hold sound traits and attitudes, beliefs, motivations, personality, culture, family, and curriculum; consequently, their work ethic should intensify and dispense benefits for their lives. wang et. al., (2021) surveyed aq students and analyzed the factors that influence them. the results revealed the average score of students’ aq was moderate . in other words, they explained that students are most likely selfcaused of the adversity; they attributed the causes of learning handicaps to themselves in addition to other triggers like psychosocial and cultural problems. another study discovered a significant effect of aq on students' ability to complete tasks given by the teacher (hulaikah et. al., 2020). the literature finds aq's contribution to teacher performance; i.e, the amount of aq's contribution to teachers performance in completing their duties is the key to improve education quality (kartikasari & wiarta, 2021). teacher professionalism according to yamin (2007), professionals are people in pursuit of work on the basis of knowledge, abilities, methods, and processes based on intellectual abilities. a professional holds special abilities that enable him to take responsibilities and perform duties to the best of his ability. in the field of education, the management of teacher professionalism is a collection of functions, obligations, and responsibilities based on abilities obtained through specific education and training in the field of work to develop scientifically.teacher professionalism refers to a set of functions, duties, and responsibilities within education field based on skills acquired through specific education and training provided within work field. those functions shall develop scientifically in addition to their professional field (sockett, 1993).in its development, the definition of teacher professionalism is associated with increasing accountability, educational standards, performance appraisal, and teacher education. this study argues that teacher professionalism is built through saguni et. al. performance management, standards, and increased accountability as managerial professionalism. unfortunately, teacher education policies fail to recognize the importance of preparing researchliterate teachers and the requirements for accountability. additionally, poor education policies can cause teachers to become less professional (mayer & mills, 2021; moody, 2020; morris, & chapman, 2020). the literature states that teacher professionalism is often centered on issues of teacher salary, status, autonomy, and respect for teachers. as such, these matters are critical and particularly brought up when recruiting gifted individuals to teach particularly challenging subjects (darlinghammond, 1990; shrestha, 2019). levels of teachers professionalism are not only related to their professional orientation but also it involves the trust of educational institutions where they work. educational institutions' perceptions of the professionalism of their peers were found to be strongly related to the professional orientation in exercising authority by administrators, as well as the trustworthiness of educational institutions. furthermore, to encourage greater teacher professionalism, school leaders should avoid bureaucracy and express implicit distrust to . they can provide better services by exerting their administrative authority with a professional orientation and extending adaptive discretion to teachers in performing their work. additionally, they can adopt practices directed to the building of strong trust among school leaders, teachers, students, and parents(tschannen-moran, 2009). goodwin (2021)explains that teacher professionalism refers to meeting certain and skill-related standards in education . global teachers are to think and teach beyond local boundaries in order that teacher professionalism be reshaped by globalization forces. in this case, teacher professionalism can be assessed from the pedagogic aspect, professional aspect, social aspect, and personality characteristics(demirkasimoǧlu, 2010). fostering transformative professionalism can be applied by developing aq learning methods, especially by making curriculum changes (carey & coutts, 2021). autonomous learning the word autonomy is defined as a form of freedom and independence to manage one's affairs. it is generally understood as the ability to manage one's affairs as opposed to a dependency situation in which one is subject to the decisions and control of others (broady & kenning, 1996). according to holec (1980), taking charge of one's learning means being able to take responsibility for decisions concerning all learning aspects either in setting goals, defining content or development, selecting methods, and techniques to be used. in addition, the person is also able to monitor the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 319 acquisition procedure and evaluate what has been learned and obtained. people are considered autonomous when they have five qualities, which consist of (1) self-confidence; namely, having confidence in abilities and self-assessment in terms of completing tasks and choosing the most successful method; (2) having the ability to work alone refers to one's own efforts to create something that prides itself on its sincerity and competence; (3) master abilities and skills compatible with his work to enable performances consistent with the anticipated potential in his work environment; (4) appreciating time; namely, the ability to manage daily plans prioritized on useful and efficient activities; (5) being responsible for something; namely, doing or performing what are assigned(alfaiz et. al., 2019). uswatun (2013)explains that students are to be independent thinkers and to hold a clear view of the learning process, including learning objectives and methods, choices of learning materials, and so forth. autonomous learning is a goal of many benefits and it requires class members’ collaboration to achieve it; including that of teachers and students. independent learning is an attitude oriented to an awareness of independent learning and that students are the decision makers for all actions and considerations related to learning activities, thus making students fully responsible for the learning process (boud, 2012). the youtube platform can promote student autonomous learning to foster independent learning to students (zaida, 2021). students’ ability to build self-reliance within learning process determines their success. however, the achievement of independent learning is not only addressed to students but it is also related to the role of parents and school teachers to expand it. in this case, independent learning to be expectedly more open to allow awareness of student learning responsibilities to be achieved optimally(firman et. al., 2020). in this case, students perceive independent learning as a full understanding; i.e., a learning situation containing self-targeted learning, either from styles, strategies, and initiatives with the teachers’ or other parties’ nonexistent help (khulaifiyah et. al., 2021). methods research design this research is quantitative research with the type of correlational method. creswell, (2009) asserted that the quantitative correlational research design is a research wherein statistical methods are employed to measure each component between two or more variables. this study aims to examine the effect of each component of the aq variable (independent) between the teacher professionalism variable (dependent 1) and the student learning independence variable (dependent saguni et. al. 2). the research location was at madrasah aliyah, south banawa district, donggala regency, central sulawesi, indonesia and conducted in the even semester of the 2019-2020 school yea. sample participants in this study were a sample of 36 students and 19 teachers of madrasah aliyah donggala. according to bertram (2007) in determining the number of samples for correlational research, there are approximately 30 subjects (people) or multiples of the total population taken. the sampling, hence, has met the criteria to be used a sample in this study. in addition, the choice of the smallest sample is determined on the basis of far-reaching distance between students' residence and madrasah aliyah donggala. conversely, if the largest sample is taken, the research should cost a lot and miss the submission due date. the sampling technique used a cluster sampling technique based on the consideration of sample size to provide a stable sample variation. grades 10-12 were sampled because they share similar characteristics, whereby the class division does not provide a superior class so that student autonomy is treated equally. the criteria for teachers are pga (religious teacher education) graduates besides those who continue to take diploma programs and bachelor’s degree majoring in education at the open university. teachers graduated from pga were sampled because their didactics or pedagogical knowledge portion reached 70 %, and methodologies were honed during their education so they hold sound dedication and professionalism to fit the criteria for the research sample. table 1. research sample grades students gender total number of students age of students teacher gender total number of teachers age of teachers female male female male grade 10 9 6 15 15-16 2 4 6 28-40 grade 11 6 2 8 16-17 4 3 7 28-50 grade 12 7 6 13 17-18 2 4 6 30-55 total 22 14 36 15-18 8 11 19 28-55 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 321 instrument the instrument in this study was a questionnaire utilized to measure aq between teacher professionalism and student learning independence. the indicators in each variable were determined and consisting of :1) learning autonomy traits and attitudes, beliefs, motivation, personality, culture, family, and curriculum); 2) teacher professionalism; namely, being able to develop sound responsibilities; able to appropriately manage its roles and functions; to work for the manifestation of school educational goals; to exercise the roles and functions in classroom learning and 3) student learning independence; namely; self-confidence, responsibility, initiative, and discipline. the indicators have 14 items in form of a checklist. each question is given a likert scale with 5 answer criteria with scores ranging from 5, 4,3,2, and 1. alternative answers are provided; namely, strongly disagree, disagree, in doubt, agree, and strongly agree. validity and reliability testing was carried out after distributing the questionnaires to teachers and students as research samples. according to sugiyono (2009), validity is conducted to measure the validity or instrument validity. the type of test used is a product-moment correlation (pearson) with r criteria of 0.30. the results of the instrument test are said to be valid because they have a significant correlation or > 0.30 where the parameter value is at a score of 0.6-0.8 (high/good validity). reliability is a series of measurements containing the consistency when measurements are repeated. the reliability test results contain cronbach's alpha value of 0.600, meaning that the instrument is of great reliability. the results of the calculation of the reliability of the data are 0.830; thus, this research instrument is reliable. data collection procedures researchers began to collect data through questionnaires and then analyzed the documents. the questionnaires were distributed directly to teachers and students of madrasah aliyah donggala to ensure that the results of filling out are of great clarity and accuracy. student-related questions were listed according to the general description of respondents, concerns, and opinions concerning the effect of aq on student learning independence. moreover, teacher-related questions are listed regarding the general description of respondents, concerns, and opinions towards the influence of aq between teacher professionalism and student learning independence. the questionnaires were distributed upon the completion of even semester exams for the 2019-2020 school year. questionnaires addressed to teachers and students were dispersed through class groups using the saguni et. al. whatsapp application specifically designed for research purposes. in addition, participants were to answer instantly and correctly in numbers as the responses to the questionnaire were provided for them. the documents collected contained school profile data, organizational structure, location plans, teacher and student data, and school facilities and infrastructure obtained from the principal. the collected documents were subsequently adjusted to each variable and converted into numerical evidence by giving a value ranging from 0-10. the assessment was organized by researchers by concentrating on the indicators of aq, teacher professionalism, and student independence. data analysis this study utilized the anova correlation data analysis technique aimed at testing hypotheses to draw conclusions. according to creswell (2009), hypothesis testing employing the anova test was conducted to determine the number of total variability in the dependent variable and to be explained by contingencies between categories in the independent variables whose basic assumptions include normality, variance similarity, and independent observations. the first step is the classical assumption test consisting of tests of normality and linearity. the purpose of the classical assumption test is to discover whether the data has met the analytical assumptions as a prerequisite to perform pearson's product-moment correlation analysis.while the aq with teacher professionalism is not linear. the second step is the anova test; i.e., upon fulfilling the three assumptions, the next test is to test the hypothesis by means of anova. the first step is to calculate the means of each group and its total. next, it is to calculate the deviation from the group mean value as well as the total mean to see the overall variability of the data sample. all variability of the whole sample was measured and the degree of freedom was also calculated. subsequently, it is to perform calculations for inter-group variables and in-group variances by calculating the fratio value by comparing the mean squared. the calculated f-ratio value was then compared with ftable. if the f-ratio is greater than the value of ftable, the null hypothesis is rejected. it means that there is a significant distinction between the mean of the data groups. the final step is to draw conclusions.. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 323 results the anova test was performed accordingly and the data was ensured to have met the assumption --the sample was randomly taken, normally distributed, and the sample variance was homogeneous. the first assumption has been fulfilled wherein the value contained in one group scarcely depended on the value in the other group. meanwhile, the fulfillment of the second and third assumptions was managed with the help of spss. the results of the analysis of the assumption test obtained by the researcher are as follows. 1. normality test the normality test aims to determine that data distribution in this study is normal, with the k-sz criteria being smaller than the p-value. table 2 data normality test results variable k-sz value p information student autonomous learning .070 .200 * normal teacher professionalism .114 .200* normal aq .058 .200* normal note: * p > 0,05 data that is typically dispersed the results of the calculation of the data normality test produce the k-sz value for the three variables smaller than the p-value of 0.200, so that the processed data is normally distributed. normally distributed data shows that the data distribution occurs around the average value of the variable and is distributed in a balanced way between the values located above and below the average variable. this implies that the data of the variables mentioned above contains a uniform inclination and meet the correlation test to be performed at the correlation analysis stage. the normal status of these data indicates that if grouping is managedby means of the percentile method, it should beworkable. for example, the normal status of teacher professionalism reflected the average contained in the data distribution of teacher professionalism can represent the value of all teacher professionalism statistically. there is a spread of data around the average, but the distribution of data is balanced, whether the data is larger or smaller around the average. the dismal it is from the average, the lower are the scores of teacher professionalism. saguni et. al. 2. homogeneity test the homogeneity test aims to determine a good and homogeneous research sample with the criteria for the glejser coefficient value greater than 0.05. the results of the homogeneity test are illustrated in table 3. table 3 data homogeneity test results levene statistic df1 df2 sig. glejser 0,73 1 .789 note: * p < 0,05 the two linear variables the calculation results obtained a significance value of 0.789 which means the variance between population groups correlate with homogeneous variance. the homogeneity test revealed that the data tend to be uniform and have a balanced data deviation. the implication of homogeneous data showed that the external factors made up the data score were mostly alike. the results of the homogeneity test supported the results of the previous normality test. as the purpose of the glejser test is to examine the uniformity of the residue through the research model, the homogeneity obtained shows that the data diversity arising from the external model was most likely similar. furthermore, external factors that triggered teacher professionalism were the same. the homogeneous status of the research data is expected to provide the results of the correlation analysis on the teacher professionalism, autonomous learning and aq data applicable to the population. 3. descriptive statistic results descriptive statistics provides an overview of the descriptive results of demographic sampling, the variable trends, and the percentage level of each determinant. the following are descriptive statistics containing the three variables based on the data obtained with categorized criteria: table 4 means and standard deviations for all aq, tp, and al variables dimension x min. x max. f % mean sd aq overall 42 55 47 85.45 4.12 0.225 develop responsibilities 3.47 0.732 roles and functions 4.50 0.737 work for education 4.41 0.844 teacher professionalism (tp) overall 15 19 10 52.63 4.02 0.450 self-confident 4.65 0.669 responsible 3.72 0.627 initiative 4.01 0.782 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 325 disciplined 3.70 0.766 autonomous learning (al) overall 20 34 28 77.77 3.73 0.387 traits and attitudes 4.76 0.870 confidence 3.62 0.765 motivation 3.77 0.455 personality 3.60 0.775 culture 2.90 0.723 family 2.81 0.614 curriculum 4.65 0.630 note: n = 55 based on table 4, the results of processing descriptive statistical data consist of three criteria. first, the smallest value in the total aq questions (x minimum) is of 42, and the largest value (x maximum) is of 55. the tendency of the participants' aq variable is in the high category, as many as 47 participants (85.45%) out of the total sample of 55 participants. second, the value of the smallest total tp questions (x minimum) is of 15, and the largest value (x maximum) is of 19. the tendency of the participant tp variable is in the moderate category; namely, 10 participants (52.63%) out of the total sample of 19 teachers. third, the value of the smallest total of al questions (x minimum) is of 20, and the largest value (x maximum) is of 34. the inclination for the participant al variable to be in the high category is of 28 participants (77.77%) out of a total sample of 55 participants. the mean value of the three variables is greater than the standard deviation value. in other words, the occurrence of data deviation is low, the the values are evenly distributed and the mean value could be utilized as a representation of the entire data. the results of descriptive analysis are related to the results of homogeneity and normality tests. the average teacher professionalism is 4.02 with normal data conditions providing information that the data is centered around a score of 4.02 and a uniform deviation of values greater and less than the average. with normal data conditions, it means that the value of 4.02 can represent teacher professionalism data as a whole and the minimum score of teacher professionalism is 15 and the maximum score of 19 is very unlikely to happen. this value can be a data outlier to be possibly eliminated. the condition of the homogeneous model shows that albeit there are maximum and minimum values that are beyond the average, the maximum and minimum values can still be utilized in the overall model. saguni et. al. 4. hypothesis testing ha1: there is a correlation between aq and teachers professionalism of madrasah aliyah donggala teachers table 5 reveals the extent to which the variables aq and tp are related. the product-moment person correlation coefficient (r) indicates the strength and direction of the linear relationship between aq and tp. table 5. correlational coefficients for aq and tp self-confident responsible initiative discipline roles and functions as a teacher 0.361** 0.310** 0.268** 0.391** work for education 0.433** 0.278** 0.296** 0.455** developed responsibilities 0.455** 0.302** 0.410** 0.277** note: ** correlation is sig. (2-tailled) at .001,* correlation is sig. (2-tailed) at .005 the correlation coefficient of the aq and tp dimensions is in the p category of 0.001 at two different degrees, medium and low. the researcher found that several aq dimensions were moderately correlated with the tp dimensions. for example, work for education is shown with self-confident (0.433) and developed responsibilities with initiative (0.410). however, it is also found that there are dimensions of a weak correlation; for example, work for education with responsible (0.278). a positive relationship was found, meaning that the higher the aq is, the higher is the professional status of the teacher, and conversely, the lower the aq is, the lower is the professional status of the teacher. the hypothesis test shows a correlation between the components of tp and aq, so we can accept ha1. in general, it can be said that the correlation between variables in table 5 is below 0.5, this value indicates that there is a weak positive correlation. respondents' perceptions of high tp are not followed by respondents' opinions about high aq, as well as low tp scores are not followed by low aq scores, and vice versa. in other words, the positive relationship between the tp and aq components is weak. respondents' high perception of one component of the tp is not followed by a high perception of respondents on the aq component. the correlation between developed responsibilities and self-confident is of 0.455, indicating that when respondents perceive develop responsibilities as a high achievement, at the same time, respondents perceive self-confidence as a low achievement. however, there are some respondents journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 327 show a high opinion of both components, but the number is less than the other respondents who do not agree. ha2: there is a correlation between aq and al of madrasah aliyah donggala table 6 reveals the extent to which the variables aq and al are related. the person productmoment correlation coefficient (r) indicates the strength and direction of the linear relationship between aq and al. table 6. correlational coefficients for aq and al roles and functions as a teacher work for education developed responsibilities traits and attitudes 0.362** 0.370** 0.580** confidence 0.428** 0.440** 0.534** motivation 0.430** 0.409** 0.423** personality 0.359** 0.422** 0.391** culture 0.320** 0.320** 0.382** family 0.301** 0.411** 0.315** curriculum 0.348** 0.344** 0.328** note: ** correlation is sig. (2-tailled) at .001,* correlation is sig. (2-tailed) at .005 the researcher found that the aq dimension was moderately correlated with the al dimension; for example, traits and attitudes were moderately correlated with work for education (r=0.370), confidence develop responsibilities (r=0.534), and so on. on the other hand, there were certain weak correlations such as traits and attitudes with develop responsibilities (r=0.180). from table 5 it is noted that the relationship between the two variables is inversely proportional to the relationship between aq and tp, which means that the higher the aq is, the greater is the student's learning independence, and the lower the aq is, the lower is the student's learning independence. the researcher found several variables that were moderately correlated with the aq items. the hypothesis testing shows a correlation between the components of al and aq, so we can accept ha2. in general, it can be said that the correlation between variables in table 5 is below 0.5, this value indicates that there is a weak positive correlation. respondents' perceptions of high al are not followed by respondents' opinions about high aq, as well as low tp scores are not followed by low aq scores, and vice versa. in other words, the positive relationship between the al and saguni et. al. aq components is generally weak. respondents' high perception of one component of al was not followed by high respondent's perception of the aq component. there are only two correlations containing a value above 0.5: namely, the correlation between developed responsibilities and 2 components of al (traits and attitudes and confidence). most of them show a weak correlation. the correlation of traits and attitudes to roles and functions as a teacher is of 0.362, indicating that when respondents view traits and attitudes as a high achievement, at the same time, respondents think that roles and functions as a teacher are hardly high achievements. however, there are some respondents who show a great opinion of both components, but the number is less than the other respondents who disagree. ha3: there is interaction between aq, teacher professionalism, and autonomous learning of madrasah aliyah donggala table 6 shows the extent to which the variables aq, tp, and al are related. the criteria for assessing the pearson moment product correlation coefficient are zero (no correlation) to <=+0.4 (low), > +0.4 0 (medium), and > +0.9 (high). the results of statistical tests are shown in table 7. table 7. correlational test results dependent variable aq (independent variable) correlation p value student autonomous learning teacher professionalism aq 0,961 0,073 0,607 0,001** 0,654 0,016* note: * p < 0,05; ** p < 0,01 from table 7, the person product-moment correlation coefficient (r) shows the strength and direction of the linear relationship between aq, tp, and al. the correlation coefficient of the strength of the relationship between aq and tp is very weak (r=0.073). the correlation coefficient of the strength of the relationship between aq and al is very high (r=0.961). the researcher found a significant positive correlation between the three variables (r=0.607) which were interrelated where aq manifested tp and al. although the strength of the relationship between aq and tp is very weak, the relationship is positive. the direction of the significant positive relationship indicates that the higher the aq, the higher the overall tp and al. meanwhile, the lower the aq, the lower the overall tp and al. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 329 discussion in the study discussion, according to the research problem formulation, the first part presents the correlation of findings between aq and teacher professionalism, the second part discusses the correlation of findings between aq and autonomous learning, and the third part indicates an interaction betweenaq, teacher professionalism, and autonomous learning.in research on teacher professionalism, researchers focus on the teachers ability of teachers to perform their main duties as educators and teachers, which include the ability to plan, conduct, and manage evaluations over student learning. in this case, the researcher refers to the four professional teacher competencies have been stipulated in the law of the republic of indonesia number 14 of 2005 concerning teachers and lecturers; namely, pedagogical, personality, professional, and social competencies. therefore, in addition to being skilled at teaching, a teacher must also hold broad knowledge, wisdom, and social nature. in addition, the teachers at madrasah aliyah, must also be provided with qualified islamic religious education skills such as reciting and reading the quran, the holy book. research on student learning focuses on student performance after the implementation of independent learning. the autonomous learning is conducted out of the far-reaching distance between students residence and school. students are required to perform self-learning. despite all the limitations such as inadequate school facilities and infrastructure and internet, students are motivated to organize eitherlearning strategies, time, or place such as reading textbooks, listening to materials, and taking important notes. students are also trained to be responsible by improving the way of learning and regularly doing exercises and assignments from the teacher. students attempt to take advantage of various existing learning resources, either obtained from modules, the internet, and books in the library. in terms of interactions on aq, professionalism, and student self-learning, the researcher focused on student learning styles. the relationship between aq and teachers professionalism of madrasah aliyah donggala the strength of the relationship between aq and teacher professionalism is very weak. however, the relationship between the two variables is positive, meaning that the higher the aq, the higher the professional status of the teacher, and conversely, the lower the aq, the lower the professional status of the teacher. the weak relationship probably occurs because teachers professionalism is saguni et. al. considerably low due to the failure of both schools and government policies to prepare teachers in remote areas who are technology literate so that aq becomes weak. the literature shows that poor education policies can lead to unprofessional teachers (mayer & mills, 2021). another problem identification appears in some teachers who scarcely teach subjects within their educational qualifications due to limited teaching staff. previous studies found that teacher professionalism is centered on issues of teacher salary, status, autonomy, and respect for teachers; therefore, recruiting talented individuals to teach complicated subjects is required(darling-hammond, 1990). in its development, the resulted positive relationship indicates the important demands of teachers to improve their aq and professionalism. goodwin (2021)explains that teacher professionalism refers to meeting certain standards in education and skills. global teachers are to think and teach beyond local boundaries to reshape teacher professionalism by means of globalization forces. the findings of this study are not by the theoretical concept proposed bysockett (1993). according to sockett (1993), teacher professionalism relates to the role of the professional teacher, the moral demands he makes, and the practical art of teaching with educational institutions and contemporary problems. from the findings of this study, the relationship between aq and the professionalism of madrasah aliyah teachers is relatively low, their professionalism as teachers is also low. the literature finds that one of the main reasons why teachers in indonesia, particularly in remote areas, hold low professionalism is the heavy load and responsibility. generally, the community’s education level in remote areas remain low in addition to limited learning facilities and infrastructure (harjanto et. al., 2018). as a result, strong and innovative teachers are needed to improve the overall quality of education. the level of teacher aq is a determining factor for the quality of student learning outcomes. teachers equipped with a high level of aq can help students achieve a high level of academic achievement (competence). teachers low levels of aq, on the other hand, are associated with lower levels of student performance. according to dorji & singh (2019), the relationship between aq and teacher professionalism must be strong in the context of learning. this shows that the tenacity, hard work, and patience of teachers in dealing with all kinds of learning problems in the field can help them improve their professionalism as educators. teachers must hold a great deal of fighting spirit, efforts, creativity, innovation, willingness to try new things, and capability of learning from their mistakes in their approach to their work. all these factors shall encourage them to adopt a professional attitude towards their work. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 331 based on previous literature studies, researchers found differences in the aq between educators working in developed and developing countries. while being compared to remote areas with developed urban areas, the difficulties and challenges of the education process are much higher in remote areas. as stoltz points out, emotional intelligence is defined as a person's ability to observe difficulties and then process them with his intelligence to create problems to be solved (stoltz, 2000). the barriers faced by madrasah aliyah teachers in remote areas are considered as challenges to be solved or coped with through the intelligence or potential application. recent studies stated that professional teachers are expected to have adequate teaching standards and become the mindset of a group of students who act as supervisors and class controllers. teachers now have to think and teach following technological developments (goodwin, 2021). additionally, by creating a controlled environment and encouraging learning spirits in students,teachers ensure that every learning experience can influence student behavior andprovideopportunitiesfor the learned materials to be applicable in real life (harisman et. al., 2019). the literature states that with effective teacher professionalism, the information provided is hoped to be handy not only for teachers and students but also for other society members and national development (iroegbu & ogbodo, 2019). in this case, teachers at madrasah aliyahshould not only present professionalism to take charge of their responsibilities, but they should also be able to position themselves as highly qualified educators in the process. quality learning and education will naturally produce an educated generation and individuals. hence, madrasah aliyah students will have autonomous learning that can support their learning achievement. professional teachers are considered to have the ability to motivate students to reach their full potential within the framework of meeting established educational standards. as professional educators, they have certain educational qualifications to be able to carry out their profession in harmony with the teaching profession (demirkasimoǧlu, 2010). therefore, teachers professionalism is reflected in the implementation of task servicecharacterized by the expertise in both material and methodology taught to students of madrasah aliyah. since the study found that professionalism was low, this indicated that the teaching method remained inadequate in supporting student autonomous learning. professional teachers are required to have four basic skills in education consisting of professional, pedagogic, social, and psychological competencies(demirkasimoǧlu, 2010). based on the existing literature, assessment of learning outcomes and student development aims for students to reach saguni et. al. their full potential. the mastery of diverse and extensive teaching materials is defined as a professional competence (epstein & hundert, 2002). this includes mastery of subject curriculum materials in schools and scientific substance that underlies curriculum materials, as well as the mastery of the structure and methodology of scientific inquiry (grangeat & gray, 2007; kunter et. al., 2013; orazbayeva, 2016; bazhukova et. al., 2020). pedagogic competence is the capacity to understand students, develop and implement learning activities, and evaluate learning outcomes. in this case, the effectiveness of relationship patterns between teachers and students is possible to be developed in the context of teachers' understanding of the characteristics and potentials of students(nind & lewthwaite, 2018). social competence refers to a teacher's ability to communicate and interact successfully with students, education staff, parents/guardians of students, and other people from the surrounding community (aleva, 2020). psychological competence is related to perceived competence, commitment, self-esteem, and ethical orientation which play an important role in teacher identity(granjo et. al., 2021). from the above-mentioned explanation, a teacher provided with a high aq will perceive all adversities as a source of motivation to achieve success in his profession. any shortage of existing learning facilities and infrastructure is deemed as a challenge to be handled. teachers creativity shall emerge at this point of encountering all the challenges possibly arise in their classrooms. to deal with the existing limitations of the teaching and learning process, all available potentials, including pedagogic, personality, professional, and social competencies, should be utilized. teachers furnished with a high aq can develop the four competencies listed above to help them become professional teachers, wherever they teach as each location has its challenges and difficulties. a teacher, on the other hand, can turn adversity into a source of inspiration for students to achieve success. the relationship between aq and autonomous learning of madrasah aliyah donggala therelationship between aq and student independence is very strong. the relationship is inversely proportional to the resulting aq on teacher professionalism. it is noted that the higher aq determines the greaterindependence of student's autonomy, and the lower aq leads to the lowerlearning independence of students. the objectives of this study include estimating the adversity intelligence of students from various demographic backgrounds and geographic areas. furthermore, the findings indicate that both male and female students living in remote areas are journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 333 not affected by adversity; this means that both students who live in remote areas have equal opportunities in terms of the aq level. unfortunately, the literature finds that school location has a significant impact on students' academic achievement(owoeye & yara, 2011; lamb, 2012). in other words, student independence is insufficient to produce greater performance in rural schools because of the distance factor. poor rural school education creates undesirable conditions for quality rural graduates to enroll in higher education (yapparova & kuznetsova, 2021). students' autonomous learning to handle obstacles is essential for the successful learning. as such, each individual’s intelligence is distinct, and intelligence is considered as a relative term. if it is associated with the ability to tackle handicaps, the type of intelligence used is the aq. the literature explains that the development and implementation of student-centered education meansto train students to possess autonomous learning. thus, the emphasis needs to be placed on expanding teacher understanding obtained from theory to practice (zabeli et. al., 2018). an individual can get through adversities accordingly as measured by his intelligence. combating adversity is often incorporated into the aq equation. aq is deemed to help students improve their learning achievement. students supplied with adversity intelligence are more likely capable of coping with the existing hardships. in contrast to students equipped with lower aq levels, they are more likely to perceive adversities as the pinnacle of struggle, resulting in lower levels of learning achievementb (dorji & singh, 2019; puspitacandri et al., 2020; singh & parveen, 2018; wang et. al., 2021). there is interaction between aq, teachers professionalism, and autonomous learning of madrasah aliyah donggala there is an evidence revealing the strong relationship between aq, teacher professionalism, and student learning independence. it is noted that the higher the aq, the higher is the professionalism and independence of students' overall learning. while the lower aq shall generate the lower teacher's professionalism and overall student learning independence.by increasing the realized aq ability teacher professionalism and student autonomous learning are expected to encourage student achievement in the future. the literature illustrated that students furnished with a high aq can provide fighting power to deal with various obstacles occur during the teaching and learning process, as well as theirpersonal saguni et. al. handicaps. individuals of a high aq can also provide endurance against the adversities and maintain a consistent and solid position (bautista et. al., 2016; wang et. al., 2021). madrasah aliyahheightens the acquisition of knowledge and skills for their students by practicing intensive autonomous learning, student learning and teaching activities, as well as the process of shifting attitudes to a more positive direction. if students reflect consistent behaviors, their success in the teaching and learning process will be well defined. students who practice consistency can build relationships between attitudes and behavior until goals are achieved. according to robbins (1994), students' ability to learn is influenced by their ability to cope with obstacles. moreover, students find it common to have a higher level of intelligence than those of their classmates in the field of education. since the intelligence level of each individual is unique, therefore, intelligence is considered relative . once associated with the ability to handle challenges, the type of intelligence used is the aq. students' autonomous learning to enhance learning achievement is perceived to be vigorously influenced by their aq. students provided with adversity intelligence are more likely to be capable oftackling the existing challenges. conversely, children equipped with a low level of aq tend to see handicaps as the peak of their efforts; hence, their learning success rate is low. students supplied with a high aq can support their fighting power in dealing with various adversitiespossibly emerge during the teaching and learning process as well as within the selflearning process. in fact, student struggles have apparently raised severe concerns(singh & parveen, 2018). the low fighting ability of students shows the students inability to deal with complicated situations. inevitably, it generates a negative impact not only on the education progress but also on the students themselves. the consistent self-performance decreases as a result of the students inability to overcome the existing hardships. the learning process of individuals supplied with a high level of aq are inclined to be capable of dealing with adversities. however, once they successfully solve the problems , students must be able to remain steady, firm in their stance, and focus on the typical main task of students. everyone demands great results; yet, it has hardly been easy to achieve success for it requires struggle as there will always be trials and obstacles to cope with. in the end, the researchers succeeded in identifying the weaknesses of previous research regarding the effect of teacher professional development by means of the aq learning method to upgrade students' autonomous learning (jodaei et. al., 2021; al-busaidi & al-seyabi, 2021; yazdani & journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 335 ghasedi, 2021), where the aq method has a significant impact on teacher professionalism. other studies elaborated the magnitude of aq contributionto teachers performance in exercising their duties to improve education quality (kartikasari & wiarta, 2021). research by wang et. al (2021) investigates students' aq and analyzes the factors that influence them where average aq score of students is found moderate. students most presumably attribute the causes of learning barriers to themselves and to specific psychosocial and cultural problems. this research is novel for its disclosure of a weak correlation between aq and professionalism.whereas, when the aq relationship is developed between teacher professionalism and autonomous learning the relationship grows strong and positive. conclusion based on the findings presented on the aq relationship between teacher professionalism and autonomous learning of madrasah aliyah studentsdonggala, two things can be concluded. first, the relationship between aq and teacher professionalism is very little since it is still extremely influenced by the geographical location of the research location in question. second, the aq relationship between teacher professionalism and student’s autonomous learning indicates a very strong relationship. there is a positive direction in this relationship. thus, on average, the higher the aq of students, the higher their learning independence; on average, the lower student's aq leads to the lower learning independence of students. the study conducted on correlational analysis is limited to madrasah aliyah in one disadvantaged area, there is still little evidence of a relationship between aq teacher professionalism and student’s autonomous learning. further research is suggested to improve the drawback of this research by increasing the number of senior high schools and madrasah aliyah since samples in this study are derived from one school. consequently, the findings may most likely be different once a larger population is used. in addition, it is necessary that further study have an in-depth analysis into other factors that affect students' independent learning in order to support the national development by creating the next generation of an independent nation. saguni et. al. references ablaña, m. v. b., & isidro, d. j. (2015). correlation between adversity quotient and job performance of lgu employees of tayabas city: input to effective public personnel management. collage of arts and science, 11(october), 1–75. al-busaidi, s., & al-seyabi, f. (2021). project-based learning as a tool for student-teachers’ professional development: a study in an omani efl teacher education program. international journal of learning, teaching and educational research, 20(4), 116–136. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.4.7 aleva, l. (2020). assessment methods for social competence in elementary school. in measuring the quality of education (pp. 79–91). united states: crc press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003072416-6 alfaiz, hidayah, n., hambali, i. m., & radjah, c. l. (2019). human agency as a self-cognition of human autonomous learning: a synthesized practical of agentic approach. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 370–391. bautista, l. v., pascua, m. g. d., tiu, j., & vela, c. d. (2016). adversity quotient and leadership styles among student leaders in bulacan state university. unpublished thesis. bulcan state university, malolos. bazhukova, o. a., mallaev, d. m., & boldinova, o. g. (2020). criteria for teachers’ professional competence in design of inclusive education. vi international forum on teacher education, 1, 199–206. https://doi.org/10.3897/ap.2.e0199 boud, d. (2012). developing student autonomy in learning. england: routledge/taylor & francis group. broady, e., & kenning, m. (1996). promoting learner autonomy in university language teaching. london: centre for information on language teaching and research. budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 cao, y. (2013). cultivation of autonomous learning ability-essential requirement for college students. in proceedings of the international conference on information engineering and applications (iea) (vol. 217 lnee, pp. 11–18). london: springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4850-0_2 carey, g., & coutts, l. (2021). fostering transformative professionalism through curriculum change within a bachelor of music. in expanding professionalism in music and higher music education (pp. 42–59). london and new york: routledge/taylor & francis group. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 337 https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003108337 creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. sage publications (vol. 8). thousand oaks, california: sage publication, inc. darling-hammond, l. (1990). schools as collaborative cultures: creating the future now. schools as collaborative cultures: creating the future now. bristol, pa 19007.: academia.edu. retrieved from http://www.tcrecord.org/content.asp?contentid=1091 demirkasimoǧlu, n. (2010). defining “teacher professionalism” from different perspectives. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 9, 2047–2051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.444 dorji, r., & singh, d. k. (2019). role of adversity quotient in learning. international journal of education, 11(46229), 119–125. retrieved from http://ijoe.vidyapublications.com du, y. (2020). study on cultivating college students&#39; english autonomous learning ability under the flipped classroom model. english language teaching, 13(6), 13. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v13n6p13 edward flores, m. d. l. c. (2021). emotional intelligence and autonomous learning in student cyberbullying in times of covid-19. turkish journal of computer and mathematics education (turcomat), 12(6), 2253–2266. https://doi.org/10.17762/turcomat.v12i6.4831 emenike iroegbu, e., & ogbodo, c. m. (2019). teacher professionalism and nigeria’s national development, 9(3), 40–44. https://doi.org/10.9790/1959-0903034044 epstein, r. m., & hundert, e. m. (2002). professional competence. american medical association, 287(2), 226–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944364808979077 firman, tersta, f. w., & afria, r. (2020). students’ perception of autonomous learning activities in english language teaching and learning context at one of public senior high school in jambi. j-shmic : journal of english for academic, 7(1), 66–76. retrieved from https://journal.uir.ac.id/index.php/jshmic/article/view/3905 gairola, r. (2019). attitudes of secondary teacher trainees towards entrepreneurial education. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 44-54. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.4 goodwin, a. l. (2021). teaching standards, globalisation, and conceptions of teacher professionalism. european journal of teacher education, 44(1), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1833855 grangeat, m., & gray, p. (2007). factors influencing teachers’ professional competence development. journal of vocational education and training, 59(4), 485–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820701650943 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.4 saguni et. al. granjo, m., castro silva, j., & peixoto, f. (2021). teacher identity: can ethical orientation be related to perceived competence, psychological needs satisfaction, commitment and global self-esteem? european journal of teacher education, 44(2), 158–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1748004 harisman, y., kusumah, y. s., & kusnandi, k. (2019). how teacher professionalism influences student behaviour in mathematical problem-solving process. journal of physics: conference series, 1188(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1188/1/012080 harjanto, i., lie, a., wihardini, d., pryor, l., & wilson, m. (2018). community-based teacher professional development in remote areas in indonesia. journal of education for teaching, 44(2), 212–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2017.1415515 holec, h. (1980). autonomy and foreign language learning. council of europe: strasbourg. hong, s.-b. (2020). an analysis on the relationships of tax official’s adversity quotient factor with their resilience and job performance. world journal of accounting, finance and engineering, 4(1), 35–40. https://doi.org/10.21742/wjafe.2020.4.1.04 hulaikah, m., degeng, i. n. s., sulton, & murwani, f. d. (2020). the effect of experiential learning and adversity quotient on problem solving ability. international journal of instruction, 13(1), 869–884. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13156a hurlock, e. b. (1980). psikologi perkembangan: suatu pendekatan sepanjang rentang kehidupan. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. jodaei, h., zareian, g., amirian, s. m. r., & adel, s. m. r. (2021). the interplay of teacher motivation and learner motivation: a q method study. current psychology, 40(4), 1696– 1710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0091-5 kartikasari, n. p. d., & wiarta, i. w. (2021). the contribution of adversity quotient dan working motivation to teachers’ performance. proceedings of the 2nd international conference on technology and educational science (ictes 2020), 540(ictes 2020), 469– 477. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210407.280 khulaifiyah, widiati, u., anugerahwati, m., & suryati, n. (2021). autonomous learning activities : the perceptions of english language students in indonesia. pegem journal of education and instruction, 11(3), 34–49. https://doi.org/10.14527/pegegog.2021.00 kunter, m., kleickmann, t., klusmann, u., & richter, d. (2013). the development of teachers’ professional competence. in cognitive activation in the mathematics classroom and professional competence of teachers (8th ed.). london: springer berlin heidelberg. lamb, m. (2012). a self system perspective on young adolescents’ motivation to learn english in urban and rural settings. language learning, 62(4), 997–1023. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00719.x journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 339 mayer, d., & mills, m. (2021). professionalism and teacher education in australia and england. european journal of teacher education, 44(1), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1832987 mehdiyev, e. (2020). opinions of efl students regarding autonomous learning in language teaching. dil ve dilbilimi çalışmaları dergisi, 16(2), 521–536. https://doi.org/10.17263/jlls.759241 moody, r. (2020). contextualizing "practice”: helping pre-service teachers unpack the ideological and sociopolitical dimensions of required practices for licensure. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 60-80. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.10 morris, c., & chapman, l. (2020). special issue editorial: disrupting norms in teacher preparation programs: navigating challenges and sharing successes. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.ed nakpodia, e. d. (2010). human resource management in school administration in delta state nigeria. journal of social sciences, 23(3), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2010.11892827 nind, m., & lewthwaite, s. (2018). methods that teach: developing pedagogic research methods, developing pedagogy. international journal of research and method in education, 41(4), 398–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727x.2018.1427057 orazbayeva, k. o. (2016). professional competence of teachers in the age of globalization. international journal of environmental and science education, 11(9), 2659–2672. https://doi.org/10.12973/ijese.2016.714a owoeye, j. s., & yara, p. o. (2011). school location and academic achievement of secondary school in ekiti state, nigeria. asian social science, 7(5), 170–175. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v7n5p170 phoolka, e. s., & kaur, n. (2012). adversity quotient: a new paradigm to explore. contemporary business studies, 3(4), 67–78. retrieved from http:/ /www.akpinsight.webs.com puspitacandri, a., warsono, soesatyo, y., roesminingsih, e., & susanto, h. (2020). the effects of intelligence, emotional, spiritual and adversity quotient on the graduates quality in surabaya shipping polytechnic. european journal of educational research, 9(3), 1075– 1087. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.9.3.1075 robbins, s. p. (1994). essentials of organizational behavior (vol. 7). englewood cliffs, n.j.: prentice hall international. runta, d., aldrin, n., & merdiaty, n. (2019). effect of work ethics on job performance with adversity quotient as a mediator. international journal of research in business and social https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.10 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.ed saguni et. al. science (21474478), 8(5), 98–103. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v8i5.457 sanusi, s. (2017). performance of fiqh teachers in the learning process at madrasah tsanawiyah (mts) in palopo–south sulawesi. advanced science letters, 23(11), 10903– 10905. https://doi.org/10.1166/asl.2017.10182 sekreter, g. (2019). emotional intelligence as a vital indicator of teacher effectiveness. international journal of social sciences & educational studies, 5(3), 286–302. https://doi.org/10.23918/ijsses.v5i3p286 seregig, i. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., rivai, e., & prasetyawati, e. (2018). preventing the acts of corruption through legal community education. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 138–159. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.65190 shah, m. (2014). impact of management information systems (mis) on school administration: what the literature says. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 116, 2799–2804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.659 shohib, m. (2013). adversity quotient dengan minat entrepreneurship. jurnal ilmiah psikologi terapan, 1(1), 32–39. retrieved from http://ejournal.umm.ac.id/index.php/jipt/article/view/1355 shrestha, m. (2019). influences of gender and locale on teachers’ job satisfaction. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.2 sigit, d. v., suryanda, a., suprianti, e., & ichsan, i. z. (2019). the effect of adversity quotient and gender to learning outcome of high school students. international journal of innovative technology and exploring engineering, 8(6 c2), 34–37. singh, k., & parveen, s. (2018). impact of adversity quotient on learning behaviour among secondary school students. indian journal of public health research and development, 9(12), 1773–1779. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-5506.2018.02247.7 singh, s., & sharma, t. (2018). affect of emotional intelligence on adversity quotient of indian managers. in aip conference proceedings (vol. 2016). aip publishing. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5055537 singh, sandeep, & sharma, t. (2017). affect of adversity quotient on the occupational stress of it managers in india. procedia computer science, 122, 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.11.345 sockett, h. (1993). (1993). landasan moral bagi profesionalisme guru. amsterdam avenue, new york, ny 10027.: teachers college press. stoltz. (2000). adversity quotient mengubah hambatan menjadi peluang. jakarta: grasindo. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.2 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 312-342 341 sugiyono. (2009). metode penelitian dan bisnis. bandung: alfabeta. sukardewi, n., dantes, n., & natajaya, n. (2013). kontribusi adversity quotient, etos kerja, dan budaya organisasi terhadap kinerja guru sma negeri di kota amlapura. e-journal program pascasarjana universitas pendidikan ganesha, 4(2), 1–12. suprapto, hamzah, s., yulistio, d., & susetyo. (2021). the relationship organizational culture, motivation, resilience and leadership of principals with the work ethic of indonesian language teachers. jurnal iqra’: kajian ilmu pendidikan, 6(1), 192–210. susanto, r., & sofyani, n. (2019). analisis keterkaitan kecerdasan emosional ( emotional quotient ) dan ketahanmalangan ( adversity quotient ) dalam pembentukan motivasi belajar siswa kelas va di sekolah dasar negeri jelambar baru 01. jurnal dinamika sekolah dasar, 1(1), 1–13. retrieved from https://journal.pgsdfipunj.com/index.php/dinamika/article/view/96 thomas, j. w., & rohwer, w. d. (2020). proficient autonomous learning: problems and prospects. cognitive science foundations of instruction. england: routledge/taylor & francis group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315044712-1 tripathi, s. (2011). use of adversity quotient in creating strong business leaders of tomorrow. sndt women’s university, mumbai. retrieved from https://www.peaklearning.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/peak_gri_tripathi.pdf tschannen-moran, m. (2009). fostering teacher professionalism in schools. educational administration quarterly, 45(2), 217–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161x08330501 tubosun, b. v., & umar, h. a. (2016). school administration and instructional supervision of secondary school chemistry for students ’ academic performance. issues in scientific research, 1(3), 27–36. tus, j. (2020). an assessment of the school culture and its impact. international journal of all research writings, 1(11), 23–28. uswatun, h. (2013). autonomous learning as language learning strategy based on students preferenced learning style. ideas: journal on english language teaching and learning, linguistics and literature (vol. 1(2)). retrieved from http://ejournal.iainpalopo.ac.id/index.php/ideas/article/view/163 villagonzalo, r. r. (2013). intelligence quotient, emotional quotient, spiritual quotient, and adversity quotient® and the academic performance of students. journal of chemical information and modeling, 53(9), 1689–1699. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004 wang, x., liu, m., tee, s., & dai, h. (2021). analysis of adversity quotient of nursing students in macao: a cross-section and correlation study. international journal of nursing sciences, saguni et. al. 8(2), 204–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnss.2021.02.003 yamin, m. (2007). (2007). profesionalisasi guru dan implementasi ktsp. jakarta: gaung persada press. yang, j., yu, h., & chen, n. shing. (2019). using blended synchronous classroom approach to promote learning performance in rural area. computers and education, 141(july), 103619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103619 yapparova, d. i., & kuznetsova, a. r. (2021). differentiations in educational services in urban and rural areas in the republic of bashkortostan (russia). lecture notes in networks and systems, 206, 479–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72110-7_51 yazdani, h., & ghasedi, p. (2021). efficacy of efl teachers’ assessment literacy and professional identity in boosting learners’ autonomy. journal of language teaching and research, 12(3), 395–403. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1203.09 zabeli, n., anderson, j. a., & saqipi, b. (2018). towards development and implementation of learner-centred education in kosovo. journal of social studies education research sosyal, 9(4), 49–64. zaida, n. (2021). using youtobe platform to promote students’ autonomus learning. in the 11th aisofoll: facing industrial revolution 4.0 through language education (pp. 258– 266). jakarta: seameo qitep in language. zhao, y., sang, b., & ding, c. (2021). the roles of emotional intelligence and adversity quotient in life satisfaction. current psychology, (january), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144021-01398-z www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 178-192 178 the implementation of the allocation and distribution of school operational assistance program for compulsory education units in kuningan regency, west java province bahri 1, asep sumaryana 2 , erlis karnaesih3 , nina karlina4 , abstract this study aims to describe the allocation and distribution policy of the school operational assistance program (soap), which is also known as the bantuan operasional sekolah funds for compulsory education units in kuningan regency, west java province, indonesia. this study is a qualitative research that uses primary and secondary data. primary data are obtained from informants, namely, structural officials of the ministry of education and culture, ministry of home affairs, and ministry of finance. secondary data comprise official documents, such as the special allocation fund and institutional profiles, activity reports, and research results and relevant information. results reveal that soap had been implemented in accordance with the provisions contained in the soap handbook.however, weaknesses should be addressed by school principals as the recipients and managers of the soap funds. results of the evaluation reveal that in 2017, the soap funds for all 41 state junior high schools in kuningan district amounted to nearly idr 22,134,027,000. the largest proportion of 30% was allocated for the salaries of honorary teachers, employees (locally referred to as guru tidak tetap and pegawai tidak tetap), and freelance workers; 25% for service goods expenditure; 20% for teaching and learning activities; 15% for student activities; and 10% for building maintenance. key words: school operational assistance program (soap), bantuan operasional sekolah (bos), primary education, evaluation. introduction the allocation of the school operational assistance program (soap), which is locally known as the bantuan operasional sekolah (bos), is an indonesian government policy that supports educational funding to improve access and quality of education, particularly primary education. soap was first implemented in 2005, during the previous administration. this program enables the central government to provide funds to elementary and junior high schools that are willing to 1 post graduate student in public administration, faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, bahri16001@mail.unpad.ac.id 2 faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, asep.sumaryana@unpad.ac.id 3 faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, erlis.karnesih@unpad.ac.id 4 faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, nina.karlina@unpad.ac.id mailto:bahri16001@mail.unpad.ac.id mailto:asep.sumaryana@unpad.ac.id mailto:erlis.karnesih@unpad.ac.id mailto:nina.karlina@unpad.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 178-192 meet the conditions and requirements. schools covered by soap are public and private elementary and junior high schools. the program was first implemented in july 2005 at the beginning of school year 2005–2006. conceptually, the bos program differs from the previous education sector compensation program for reducing fuel oil, known as the program kompensasi pengurangan subsidi bahan bakar minyak (pkps-bbm). until fiscal year 2004–2005, pkps-bbm was allocated to elementary and junior high schools in the form of scholarships for indigent students or as student special assistance (bantuan khusus murid (bkm). the bkm funds were given directly to selected students through a designated post office. soap adopted a different approach for funds distribution because the bkm funds were given to and managed by schools rather than to indigent students. the amount of soap funds given to schools is calculated on the basis of the number of students in each school. the aim of bos is to waive tuition for indigent or underprivileged students, thereby enabling them to receive the nine-year compulsory education services. the soap allocation and distribution policy is implemented through fund transfers from the state general cash account to the provincial regional general cash account and forwarded directly to public and private elementary education units in the form of grants. the program’s implementation mechanism raises issues, specifically in the implementation policy design of the regional government regarding the principles of distribution adopted in law no. 23 (2014) concerning regional government ( law no. 23 of 2014). this issue pertains to kuningan regency, west java province. kuningan regency receives soap funds annually on the basis of the governor’s decree, which stipulates that each education unit will be allocated soap funds from the province in the form of grants for the management of the basic education unit. however, the funds remain allocated in west java. the distribution and implementation of soap funds in kuningan regency are delayed. thus, the state compulsory education and the private compulsory education units receive the funds late in the school year. consequently, the schools experience difficulties funding teaching and learning activities, specifically purchasing books to prepare for the national examinations. the soap allocation increases regardless of the relatively low school performance. moreover, the soap funds are allocated on the basis of the input of the number of students enrolled in the basic education data, which are locally known as data pokok pendidikan, and not on performance. therefore, the schools and local governments are not encouraged or motivated to implement bahri et al. proper planning and management to develop and improve the quality of education. planning only covers the school operational costs, which increase annually. established and implemented public policies should be monitored by the policy evaluation oversight mechanism. the objective of policy evaluation is to assess the extent to which public policy effectiveness is accountable to the public and the extent to which its objectives are achieved. evaluation is necessary to address the gap between expectations and reality in the context of compulsory education under the authority of the kuningan regency local government. based on the background above, the main focus of this research is to describe the implementation of the allocation and distribution of school operational funds for compulsory education unit in kuningan regency, west java province. the research aims to answer the question "how is the implementation of the allocation and distribution policy of school operational assistance program (soap) funds in the compulsory education units in kuningan regency west java province?" literature review concept of policy evaluation evaluation is one of the most important stages in the public policy process because it can assess the policy’s effectiveness, efficiency, and accuracy. r. nugroho (2003) stated that a public policy cannot be blindly implemented. public policies must be monitored by an oversight mechanism called policy evaluation. winarno (2012, 2016) stated that if a policy is considered a pattern of sequential activities, then policy evaluation is the final stage in the policy process. however, other researchers believe that evaluation is not the final stage. public policy evaluation must be understood as a positive concept. evaluation aims to determine the deficiencies and compensate for the shortcomings. anderson and winarno (2016) stated that policy evaluation can be generally considered an activity that involves estimating or evaluating policies that cover substance, implementation, and impact. in this case, policy evaluation is viewed as a functional activity. that is, policy evaluation is implemented in the final stages and during the entire policy process. therefore, policy evaluation can include the formulation of policy issues, proposed programs for resolving issues, implementation, and policy impact issues. thus, policy evaluation is used to assess or determine the success and failure of the public policy implementation (mustofa, 2017). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 178-192 this statement was confirmed by anderson (2003), who stated that policy evaluation is “the appraisal or assessment of policy, including its content implementation and impact.” policy evaluation can be interpreted as evaluating or testing a policy, including content, implementation, and impact. tangkilisan (2003) explained that “policy evaluation is basically comparing the objectives of the program with the results, which measure the impact of programs that might be distributed to policy.” school operational assistance program (soap) the bos funds provided for schools should be managed properly. the “technical guidelines for the use of soap funds in 2012” (p. p. r. i. nomor, 32ad) indicated that soap is a government program, which provides funding for non-personnel operating costs for compulsory education units that implement compulsory education programs. other countries use similar subsidies called conditional cash transfers (ccts). ccts provide monetary subsidy to indigents in return for fulfilling specific behavioral conditions, which are designed to minimize failures in terms of the objective of the subsidy while transferring money to the poor. de janvry and sadoulet (2006)formulated three rules to enable ccts to assist in the efficient use of subsidies. the first rule aims to select the indigent recipients, the second determines eligibility among the indigent recipients, and the third is the calibration of transfers, particularly if budgets are insufficient to offer large universal transfers for all indigent recipients. in terms of selecting the underprivileged students to be assisted, the selection proxy indicators should be defined to identify and target indigents (alatas, banerjee, hanna, olken, & tobias, 2012; coady, grosh, & hoddinott, 2004; de wachter & galiani, 2006; ma’sum & wajdi, 2018). ccts are viewed as a method to reduce future poverty by investing in the next generation’s human capital (fiszbein and schady, 2009). the benefits of ccts include increasing the likelihood of students to attend school, remain in school, matriculate to the succeeding grade level, and matriculate to a tertiary institution (barrera-osorio, bertrand, linden, & perez-calle, 2008). apart from providing additional transfers to families, ccts provide supply-side complements, such as infrastructure or additional teachers (garcía & saavedra, 2017). in this regard, cct implementation is similar to that of soap. since its launch in july 2005, soap’s main objective is to accelerate the achievement of the nineyear compulsory education program and to accelerate the advancement of higher bahri et al. learning(rodli, prasnowo, wajdi, & sajiyo, 2018). in 2009, the program’s main objectives emphasized improving quality, relevance, competitiveness, governance, accountability, and the public image (supriyadi, 2010). over time, the objectives changed depending on the needs and priorities. however, the main priority of soap is the non-personnel operational costs of schools. soap funds from the central government are limited; thus, the costs for school investment and teacher welfare should be financed from other sources, such as the local government and capable communities (karim, 2014). several factors influence the implementation of the soap policies, namely resources and communication (regina 2015; yuliana, widayati, & taufiq, 2015). regina (2015) further explained the challenges of the communication factor, namely, the two-way communication between the parties,in which the policy implementers submit and implement the policies formulated in conjunction with the feedback from the school as the spearhead of the soap policy implementation. second, resource factors comprise staff members, information, authority, and facilities available to support soap. nugroho, widowati, and rihandoyo (2013) determined that a relationship exists between the ability to implement and the actual implementation of the program. the program implementers’ mastery of the procedures to implement soap (i.e., accounting, administration, and reporting abilities), which is supported by their educational background that is in accordance with the specifications, will facilitate the program implementation. if the executor can submit reports promptly, then the soap funds will be allocated on time. moreover, a relationship exists between implementing abilities and communication. the availability of transparent information facilities and intensive socialization from the work units to the program implementers (schools) can support the implementation of programs in schools. other factors that influence the success of soap are the management of funds and all the resources included in soap. transparency is necessary in the financial management of schools regarding openness in financial policy, in the amount of financial resources, and openness in its use and accountability for stakeholder reporting (hariswati: 2015). the proper management of the soap funds is important in achieving its objectives effectively and efficiently. moreover, such a proper management can be achieved through a systematic collaborative process starting from planning and implementation to evaluation. in the planning stage of the bos fund utilization, the school principal first adjusts the overall school development plan, including the short-term and long-term journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 178-192 developments. short-term developments are one-year development, whereas long-term developments are 5-, 10-, and 25-year developments. the soap funds can be used properly by following this plan. the use of the soap funds should be based on mutual agreement and decisions among the school soap management team, teacher council, and school committee. the results of the agreement should be recorded in a meeting and signed by all the meeting participants. not all school needs can be fulfilled by the soap funds because it can only finance certain activities, such as purchasing/copying textbooks, student learning and extra-curricular activities, school care, monthly honorarium payments for honorary teachers, and so on. accountability follows the use of the soap funds. in one form of accountability, each manager is required to report the results of his/her activities to the relevant parties. in general, program implementers report on the relevant statistics, such as the receipt of assistance, distribution, absorption, and fund use, as well complaints when problems arise. . method research design this study is a qualitative research with six basic assumptions that are consistent with merriam (1998) and creswell (2002). these studies discussed that a qualitative research is described as follows: (1) emphasizes processes rather than results or products; (2) is interested in the meaning that people attach to their lives, experiences, and structures; (3) is the main instrument for data collection and analysis; (4) involves field work; (5) is descriptive because researchers are interested in the process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or images; and (6) is inductive because researchers construct abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from the details research location this research was conducted in kuningan regency, west java province. location selection in kuningan was conducted on the basis of the education profile of west java province in 2015. kuningan regency includes eight regencies in west java province (eighth place), the elementary school pure participation rate (ppr) percentage of which is below the national standard. such a low levelis prevalent despite the compulsory school ppr for west java province reaching above bahri et al. the national standard of 96.65%. kuningan regency also includes 14 regencies/cities with middle school gross enrollment rate percentages below the national standard. data types and sources this research used two types of data, namely, primary and secondary data. primary data were obtained through informants, such as structural officials of the ministry of education and culture, ministry of home affairs, and ministry of finance. secondary data comprised official documents, such as special allocation fund and institutional profiles, activity reports, study results, and research with information relevant to the present research. informant selection the informants were determined using a purposive sampling technique with particular considerations and objectives (sugiyono, 2015). the informants are credible and competent experts who, apart from being a manifestation of their position and expertise, are considered capable of providing information related to the substance of the data and information on the subject matter analyzed in the current study. furthermore, the determination of informants refers to the soap team established at the central, provincial, and regency/city levels on the basis of the provisions in the minister of education and culture regulation no. 16 of 2016. table 1 research informants no. unit total 1. ministry of education and culture (central soap team) 1 2. ministry of finance (central soap team) 1 3. ministry of home affairs (central soap team) 1 4. head of west java provincial education office (provincial soap team) 1 4. head of kuningan district education office (kab soap team) 1 5. elementary and middle school principals (school soap team) 10 total 15 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 178-192 research instrument as this is a qualitative research, the researchers acted as the research instruments to understand the phenomeon under the study of events, actions, talk, and interaction (barrett, 20017) and that the researcher play a central role in generating and interpreting the data (xu & storr, 2012). the researcher conducted the interview and observation. open interview guide, observation checklist, field notes, tape recorders, and cameras were used to list, record, observe, and document the interview and observation activities with the informants. data collection techniques and data validation data were collected in natural settings related to all matters of the soap fund allocation for compulsory education units by interviewing the informants and observing the implementation of soap as well as reviewing the related documents. in addition, focus group discussions (fgds) were conducted. those two data were expected to obtain comprehensive data to answer the problems presented in this study. data were obtained from in-depth interviews with informants and secondary sources and documents. triangulation techniques on sources and methods were used to ensure the validity, objectivity, and reliability of the data collected through in-depth interviews and documents or relevant studies. the source and method triangulation were conducted by verifying the data sources and methods with other data. this technique was applied to strengthen the data and ensure correctness and completeness. moreover, this technique was implemented continuously until the researchers were satisfied and certain with the validity of the data. data validity in qualitative research applies stages of validity based on creswell (2002) and are divided into internal and external validities. to ensure internal validity, the strategies implemented include data triangulation, analysis by members or informants, and long-term and repeated observations at the research site. data analysis technique data analysis was performed to process data into information and understand the characteristics and utilize them to solve the research-related problems. qualitative analysis was used in accordance with miles and huberman. in the miles and huberman models, data are analyzed in three-stage cycles, namely, data codification, data presentation, and conclusion or verification. the bahri et al. third stage presents the research findings on the basis of the data analysis that was performed on the results of the in-depth interviews and documents. a combined structuralism and heretic interpretation method was used for the data interpretation activities. in the structuralism method, the position of elements within a series of other elements (i.e., a series of words, phrases, and sentences in this case) are analyzed. in the heretic method, data or information obtained on the basis of the researcher’s knowledge derived from reading materials or literature are interpreted. that is, the obtained data are interpreted with the aid of theoretical and conceptual knowledge. the combined data interpretation methods were conducted in two data interpretation stages: data interpretation that uses the structuralism and heretic methods. findings and discussion coverage of the soap funds for students from indigent families the scope of the soap funds for students from indigent families is based on the results of the student data compilation implemented by the school, draft of the school revenue and expenditure budget (sreb), and accountability report for the implementation of soap in the kuningan district middle school. the number of students from indigent families range from 20% to 33% of the total student population. schools have been unable to completely provide adequate services for all indigent students. services are distributed in stages because of the limited sources of funds used for school operations. school resources from parents/guardians, the kuningan regency local government budget (lgb) assistance, the soap funds have been unable to provide proper services for indigent students despite the soap program contributing to poverty reduction by approximately 20%–25%. this issue was reinforced by interviews with several principals, who expressed that although the soap funds are insufficient for all school operations, it has generally improved the operations of schools. however, the soap fund school contributions is relatively large compared with the minimal lgb assistance. school services for indigent students is limited to scholarships, specifically the exemption of tuition (idr 55,000–idr 60,000) and donations. although the donation amount is determined by the school committees, schools are currently unable to implement the soap program in accordance with the set guidelines. moreover, the schools have been unable to provide transportation assistance for indigent students because of the limited funds available for school operations. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 178-192 the results of the study on the soap financial accountability report revealed that the soap funds have contributed substantially to education in the region. the results of a study of the accountability report of the soap implementation in 10 sample schools indicated that the soap funds support the school expenditure and expenditure budget an average of 25%–30% of the total planned income and expenditure budget set by the school. from the interview results of the 30 respondents, the majority of the participants (i.e., 13 respondents or 43.3%) stated that soap eased the burden of underprivileged students, while 10 respondents (i.e., 33%) stated that the program was beneficial for underprivileged students. the remaining 7 respondents stated that the program was adequate in assisting underprivileged students. by considering the dominant answers, soap can be concluded to be beneficial for the families of underprivileged/indigent students. this conclusion is reinforced by the results of the interviews with the principals of 4 kuningan middle schools with a total of 928 students. of the total student population, as many as 200 students (20%) were given scholarships in the form of exemptions for building assistance and tuition, except fees for planned school tours. coverage of the soap funds for students from underprivileged families the results of the interviews with the principals of state junior high school number 9 and state junior high school number 4 in kuningan regency (respondents in this study) revealed that the soap program waived the cost of education for students who could not afford it. the results of this study strengthened the results of the interviews with dr. sri santoso, head of the education office, who concurrently serves as the chairman of the soap district management team in kuningan district. dr. santoso expressed that if the implementation of the soap program is consistent and the commitment is in accordance with the soap guidance provisions, then soap will be able to waive educational costs for indigent students. the statement from the head of the office or the chairperson of the soap management team is supported by the results of the interviews with the head of state junior high school number 21, who expressed that the implementation of the soap program has been able to assist students who were unable continue their education. the results of the research documentation for the 2017 sreb and 2017 accountability report for the implementation of school activities, including state junior high school number 4, state junior high school number 9, state junior high school number 21, state junior high school bahri et al. number 34, and state junior high school number 3 (comprising the research sample) indicated that each of the schools was able to waive all costs for indigent students. from the five state junior high school sample, administrators can budget to waive educational costs for 15%–20% (approximately 200 students) of the total student population per school. interviews with several public middle school principals revealed that the soap funds received by schools were relatively effective in providing broad access to indigent families for completing the compulsory nine-year education. this result was proven by the study of the soap financial accountability reports. the results revealed that the soap funds have contributed substantially to education in the region in terms of supporting underprivileged students. benefits and impact of the soap implementation the 41 kuningan district middle schools were determined to have used the majority of the soap funds as follows: (1) pay for the salaries of honorary teachers, staff members, and freelance employees; (2) purchase goods and services; and (3) pay for teaching and learning activities. schools have not completely used the soap funds in accordance with the operational guidelines because these funds as transportation provisions for indigent students have not been provided. transportation for teachers and freelance staff members are obtained from the local revenue and expenditure budget. student admission is subject to various levies for building rehabilitation, purchase of equipment (e.g., computers), for the school perimeter fence repair, and others that are indirectly related to the educational process. the impact felt by schools with soap includes increases in the quantity and quality of educational facilities, thereby enhancing the quality of the teaching and learning processes and reducing the students' financial burdens. for example, the tuition in kuningan for each student before the implementation of soap was approximately idr 90,000. after soap, tuition was reduced to idr 55,000, thereby decreasing the cost for each student by as much as idr 35,000 (approximately 30%–35%). another impact is the school allocation for special assistance for indigent students that is relatively large, the range of which is 15%–20% of the total number of students. the results of the evaluation of the accountability report on the soap implementation from the sampled schools and those of the interview with the principal of junior high school number 4 revealed that for school year 2016–2017, the allocation for special assistance for under 20% (approximately 200 of the 928 students) was given in the form of scholarships, including the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 178-192 exemption of all educational costs, except the cost of study tours. this number increases annually and is realized through soap and the implementation of the school cross-subsidy management for abled parents to assist in paying for the educational fees of indigent students. the results of the soap financial accountability report determined that the soap funds have a considerable impact on education in the region. the results of a study of the accountability reports on the soap implementation in 10 sample schools determined that soap funds support the sreb draft by an average of 25%–30% of the total planned income and expenditure set by the school. for the middle school sreb, the state of kuningan regency allocated approximately idr 1.5 million to idr 1.8 billion. discussion in general, the soap implementation in the kuningan district public middle school has proceeded well. however, weaknesses remain in such an implementation. the findings revealed that a few practices were inconsistent with the soap implementing guidelines. a. the soap implementation manual indicates that the specific purpose of soap is to assist indigent or disadvantaged students in availing quality nine-year compulsory education services. however, the practice differs in reality, in which soap is used for general subsidies to finance school operational activities for the benefit of the entire student population. consequently, not all students from indigent or disadvantaged families can obtain adequate educational services. b. the majority of the soap funds was used by the 41 kuningan district middle schools (1) for the salaries of the honorary teachers, staff members, and freelance staff members; (2) to purchase goods and services; and (3) pay for teaching and learning activities. schools have been unable to completely use the soap funds in accordance with operational guidelines. the reason is that the soap funds should be used for transportation provisions for indigent students, teacher competitions, and salaries of freelance staff members. at present, these expenses are financed by the local government. students are currently subject to various levies for building rehabilitation, purchase of equipment (e.g., computers), perimeter fence repairs, and others matters that are indirectly related to education. c. schools can use the soap funds to implement various activities that have been prepared on the basis of the school budget revenue and expenditure plan or the rencana anggaran pendapatan dan belanja sekolah (rapbs) prepared by school administrators and committees. bahri et al. rapbs, as a requirement to receive soap, should be approved by the school committee head. however, the results of the study on the soap implementation have revealed the dominating role of the principal in the preparation of rapbs and management of the soap funds for nearly all schools. teachers and parents were rarely invited in the rapbs preparation process, while school committees generally participated only in the signing the rapbs prepared by the school. this practice has contributed to the ineffectiveness of the control functions. d. the soap implementation guidebook indicates that the soap fund disbursement is implemented in two stages, while the soap funds are received during the first month of each stage. however, the soap fund disbursement is actually delayed. in 2017, the soap funds for the first quarter from january to june was disbursed as late as the last semester, thereby causing problems for schools as executors of teaching and learning activities. learning activities are required to continue regardless of unavailable funds, thereby prompting schools to exert considerable effort to seek funding to ensure that the educational processes proceed smoothly. e. realization of disbursement of the soap funds the 2017 soap funds for public and private junior high schools was idr 220,487,130,000 for 622,845 students. the realization of the soap fund disbursement was implemented through two stages: the first stage was from january to june 2017, while the second stage was from july to december 2017. the soap fund disbursement for the first phase (january–june 2017) amounted to idr110,243,565,000.00. the first phase of the realization was highly effective and efficient because the funds were received by the schools. the soap fund disbursement for the second stage (july–december 2017) amounted to idr 110,243,365,000. the second realization revealed weaknesses in the process of channeling soap funds, which have not been disbursed in accordance with the predetermined schedule. regardless of the delay in the actual fund disbursement, the soap guidebook regulated that the distribution of the soap funds every three months and channeled during the first month of the three-month period. the new soap funds can be disbursed in two stages, namely, in june and december for the first and second stages, respectively, thereby solving the issue of soap fund disbursement at the end of the quarter and even at the end of the semester. despite the ability of schools to implement operational activities without the soap funds, this delay causes chaos within the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 178-192 school administration. learning activities are required to be implemented whether the school has reserved funds, thereby disturbing the student learning process. references alatas, v., banerjee, a., hanna, r., olken, b. a., & tobias, j. (2012). targeting the poor: evidence from a field experi\ment in indonesia. american economic review, 102(4), 1206–1240. anderson, a. (2003). evaluating xacml as a policy language. technical report, oasis. barrera-osorio, f., bertrand, m., linden, l. l., & perez-calle, f. (2008). conditional cash transfers in education: design features, peer and sibling effects evidence from a randomized experiment in colombia. the world bank. coady, d., grosh, m., & hoddinott, j. (2004). targeting outcomes redux. the world bank research observer, 19(1), 61–85. creswell, j. w. (2002). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative. prentice hall upper saddle river, nj. de janvry, a., & sadoulet, e. (2006). making conditional cash transfer programs more efficient: designing for maximum effect of the conditionality. the world bank economic review, 20(1), 1–29. de wachter, s., & galiani, s. (2006). optimal income support targeting. international tax and public finance, 13(6), 661–684. garcía, s., & saavedra, j. e. (2017). educational impacts and cost-effectiveness of conditional cash transfer programs in developing countries: a meta-analysis. review of educational research, 87(5), 921–965. karim, a. (2014). kajian efek spasial bantuan operasional sekolah (bos) menggunakan analisis spasial. jurnal statistika universitas muhammadiyah semarang, 2(1). ma’sum, t., & wajdi, m. b. n. (2018). pengembangan kemandirian pesantren melalui program santripreneur. engagement, 2(2), 221–232. merriam, s. b. (1998). qualitative research and case study applications in education. revised and expanded from" case study research in education.". eric. mustofa, i. (2017). rasionalisasi bantuan operasional sekolah (bos) pada pendidikan keagamaan islam formal. intizam, jurnal manajemen pendidikan islam, 1(1), 48–60. bahri et al. nomor, p. p. r. i. (32ad). tahun 2013 tentang perubahan atas peraturan pemerintah nomor 19 tahun 2005 tentang standar nasional pendidikan. dokumen negara. nomor, u.-u. r. i. (2014). nomor 23 tahun 2014 pemerintahan daerah. 30 september 2014. lembaran negara republik indonesia tahun. nugroho, r. (2003). kebijakan publik: formulasi, implementasi dan evaluasi. jakarta: elex media komputindo. nugroho, r. w., widowati, n., & rihandoyo, r. (2013). implementasi kebijakan penggunaan dana bantuan operasional sekolah di kota semarang (studi kasus di sekolah menengah pertama negeri semarang selatan tahun 2011). journal of public policy and management review, 2(1), 171–178. regina, b. (2015). implementasi kebijakan bantuan operasional sekolah di kota malang (studi di dinas pendidikan kota malang). jurnal administrasi publik, 3(1), 61–66. rodli, a. f., prasnowo, a., wajdi, m. b. n., & sajiyo, s. (2018). building a culture of learning to accelerate the advancement of higher learning. in international conference on religion and public civilization (icrpc 2018). atlantis press. sugiyono, p. (2015). metode penelitian kombinasi (mixed methods). bandung: alfabeta. supriyadi, u. d. (2010). pelaksanaan bos dan minat masyarakat mengikuti pendidikan dasar gratis. jurnal ilmu pendidikan universitas negeri malang, 17(1). tangkilisan, h. n. s. (2003). kebijakan publik yang membumi: konsep, strategi & kasus. kerjasama lukman offset & yayasan pembaruan administrasi publik indonesia. winarno, b. (2012). kebijakan publik: teori, proses, dan studi kasus: edisi dan revisi terbaru. center for academic publishing service. winarno, b. (2016). kebijakan publik era globalisasi: teori. proses, dan studi kasus komparatif, edisi. yuliana, r., widayati, w., & taufiq, a. (2015). evaluasi pelaksanaan kebijakan pendidikan gratis pada jenjang sekolah menengah di kabupaten sukoharjo. journal of politic and government studies, 4(3), 261–270. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 175-203 problem of forming a literate reader in the digital age based on the material of modern children’s and youth prose nadezhda shabalina1 & anton bykov2 abstract the purpose of this article is to identify the types of readers’ characters, to study the literary preferences of readers’ characters and the influence that the book has on the inner world, to analyze the positive and negative aspects of the influence of the internet on the reading process. this study used a content analysis design and a qualitative approach to data analysis. in addition, quantitative analysis was also used to visualize qualitative data using numerical values, fixing elements of the text content (the frequency of different types of readers). as a result of this research, interesting observations were made: reading saves teenage characters from temporary difficulties, puberty rebellion, helps to find their place in life and decide on the choice of a future profession. it also forms a culture of communication and contributes to the maturation of the characters. using the content analysis method, the authors were able to identify such types of reading characters as developing (spoilers by elena ozhich, the perks of being a wallflower by stephen chbosky, the book thief by markus zusak), literate (anka m and anka p by tatyana mart), unformed (death to dead souls by andrey zhvalevsky and evgeniya pasternak), and professional (literodura by yulia linde, black swan green by david mitchell). having considered the problem of forming a competent reader, the authors came to the conclusion about three main agents of influence on the reading taste of a teenager: teachers, parents, and friends. however, in modern realities, the internet seriously affects the formation of a teenager’s reading taste, and with the help of the use of internet resources, it is possible to support and promote reading, as well as solve the problem of forming a competent reader. keywords: reading problem, children’s and youth prose, character-readers, evolving reader. introduction in the modern world, reading is one of the most important elements of culture, which is also a tool for increasing an individual’s intellectual and creative potential. during the past decades, the problem of reading has been in the purview of different academic specialists: there is a clear trend in the change of reading practices associated with the process of capturing belles-letters on the global internet. the opinions concerning this subject range from stating a deep crisis of reading 1 assoc. prof., yelabuga institute, kazan federal university, email: nadezhada_85@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof., yelabuga institute, kazan federal university, email:anton-77-@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 176 culture: children do not read much, preferring other types of leisure activities to books; children read low-quality literature that is widely replicated on the internet, and so on. all this leads to a deterioration in the reading quality, and as a result, a decrease in the literacy level of the younger generation in general and the reader in particular (isidro and teichert, 2021; kalimullina et al., 2021; kim et al., 2021). it is significant that reading becomes a serious factor of personal success or failure in various life spheres (kozol, 1985; plotnikov, 1999; chudinova, 2012; saenko et al., 2020; poghosyan, 2018). at the same time, a new model of reading is being approved: the nature and methods of working with printed and electronic texts, as well as reader preferences, are changing: vishniakova “dynamic reading methodology”, “acmeological reading technology” (vishniakova, 2011), borodina and borodin, the role of reading for obtaining information in the world of computers (borodina, 2017). at the same time, the problem of educating a competent reader is being discussed (smetannikova, 2007; tikhomirova, 2004; koshkarov, 2020; volkova et al., 2020; akhmadeev & bykanova, 2021), as well as the teacher’s role in introducing schoolchildren to reading (marantsman, 1965), and the development of effective reading techniques in the process of literary education (svirina, 2012)). however, in all these studies, the emphasis is placed on the socio-psychological and pedagogical interpretation of the reading phenomenon while analyzing the problem. at a time when the number of articles devoted to reading problems is steadily growing and ways to solve them are being proposed in modern reality, the reflection of this problem has already appeared in the fiction of the 20th-21st centuries. the postulate of tikhomirova – “to teach without teaching” – may be considered as a certain leading motive for solving the reading problem, which is fully reflected in the pedagogical essay as a novel by the french writer and teacher pennac. this book radically changed teachers’ approaches to the way of introducing children to reading and awakening their love for books. “in every reading process,” writes pennac, – “there is inherent, however repressed, joy of being able to read, and it is akin to the delight of an alchemist. such a joy of being able to read is indestructible, it is not afraid of any spectacle, even television, going day by day as a continuous avalanche” (pennac, 2005). the philological and pedagogical aspect proposed by pennac supposes that it is necessary to make the student not a reading slave, but an accomplice, free to choose a book and a genre. the russian researcher antipova in the article “the image of a reading child in russian literature of the 20th century” (antipova, 2004), appealing to the characters of soviet writers of the 1920s shabalina & bykov 1930s (charskaya, annensky, vodovozova, lukhmanova, ognev, kassil, lyubimova, kaverin) and 1960s-1980s (pogodin, frolov, demykina, pashneva, vyazemsky), analyzes how the attitude towards the book characters changes. all in all, she comes to the conclusion that in the first half of the 20th century, reading was not a desirable activity, it was subjected to a negative assessment of the younger generation, but since the second half of the 20th century, the status of reading increases. bobina in the article “book and reading in modern adolescent and youth prose” (bobina, 2013) considers the influence of books on generation z, using the material of modern prose (the books: shakespeare did not even dream by zhvalevsky and pasternak, the sms bible by aya an, boys before the flood by rain, winter and summer of the boy eugene by kovaleva, one miracle for life by murashova, a boy who does not feel pain by likhanova, a terrible fairytale. a non-fictional story about childhood and war by samokhleb, warm things by nisenbaum, deeds and horrors of zhenya osinkina by chudakov, potapov, come to the blackboard! by kryukova), and concludes that humorist writers attract children and teenagers to reading fiction by means of their characters’ example. thus, the problem of reading is gradually reflected from the literary point of view. however, there is not any single work based on the material of modern prose that would reveal the influence of reading on the formation of a teenager’s personality (anka m and anka p by mart, death to dead souls by zhvalevsky and pasternak, literodura by linde, the perks of being a wallflower by chbosky, black swan green by mitchell, the book thief by zusak). the novelty of this study is as follows, not just to classify the characters of teenage prose but also to confirm the significant role of fiction in the life of the younger generation, in the formation of a literate reader. a certain belief system, tastes, and preferences start being formed in the adolescence period, at the same time interests develop, and needs for self-affirmation and self-realization appear. in particular, the teenager begins to define him/herself as a reader. works of art have a powerful educational potential; therefore, the objective significance of books and reading in the formation of an independent and creative thinking personality with high spiritual culture is undeniable. the latest teenage literature is only reviewed in the school course of literature, but the modern literary process is undoubtedly interesting for a new generation of schoolchildren since literature (with its openness and lack of a bright edifying, instructive function) is able to meet the cognitive needs of the student. also, it may touch on topics and problems that concern modern teenagers, thereby reflecting the worldview of a new generation. therefore, this article will be interesting not journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 178 only for teachers and parents but also for teenagers, since the image focuses on a character who is experiencing all the difficulties of the awkward age, who has already managed to achieve creative realization and respect among peers through reading books. in order to reach the objectivity of the study results, the authors decided to take the works of both russian and foreign writers of various genres. the practical significance of the results obtained is that the borrowed and tested classification of the types of characters-readers can be used in the educational and scientific-cognitive process, as well as in other studies related to reading problems. in addition, the final statistics of the appearance frequency of reading characters can serve as a basis for psychological or literary studies. research questions this study aims to answer the following research questions: 1. what impact does the book have on teenagers in the digitalization century according to the material of modern children’s and youth prose? 2. what types of characters-readers are mostly met on the pages of modern children’s and youth literature? literature review a particular interest in the study of the reader as a unique figure appears from the middle of the 19th century (tolstoy, korf, alchevskaya, and michurin). the first typology of readers appears in 1896 in the book by rubakin a study on the russian reading public. the author classifies readers according to certain types: “abstract type (...), certain (...), emotional” (rubakin, 1975). the first type is aware of concepts in the text, the second concentrates on images, and the third – on emotions. a special contribution to the development of the typology of fiction readers was made in the classification by ryskin. the author proceeded from the level of reading culture, and therefore, in accordance with the given position, he distinguished: the emotional type of the reader (“they look for images of strong feelings in the book”), the thinking type, capable of knowing the text, and the aesthete-reader (who possesses the ability to understand the artistic merits) (ryskin, 1996). modern authors analyze the reader’s activity in a wider range of diverse manifestations. belyaeva identifies five types that are similar to the previous three: the reader looks at the work aesthetically, shabalina & bykov or basing on facts, or with a rational, emotional, and superficial perception (belyaeva, 1971). trubnikov has a different typology, which considers the interests of the reader. this is a reader who possesses: an indefinite taste (the reader sees no difference in the choice of a book: it just should be fascinating), a one-sided purposefulness (only one topic in the text is important), a versatility (the reader is interested in any author, topic, or genre). there are also readers who are not harmonically developed (with a wide range of interests in literary works, but chaotic in their choice) and vice versa – readers with an advanced taste (they differ from the previous type by the purposeful choice of the book) (trubnikov, 1978). golev and maksimova offer a gender typology of readers: externally-indicative type, internally-indicative type, mnemonic, creative, paragmatic, and semantic types (golev, 2008). so, it is quite obvious that “the readership is very complex, just as an individual person is complex with his or her individual reader interests, needs and motives for reading” (kovalevskaya, 2017). therefore, at this very moment, there is no one universal classification of readers’ types. in order to reach the reliability and completeness of the study, the authors will use several similar, complementary classifications. in total, they will proceed from the classification of trubnikov, which is based on the principle of reading motivation. the other one is the ryskin classification. of course, it can be argued that all the existing types of readers are similar to each other, but they can not be called completely identical. different visions of readers are explained by the subjective perception of the world picture by each researcher in the aspect the authors are considering. they are also interpreted by the fact that it is read by people with different worldviews, which are formed depending on the level of education, place of residence, environment, individual experience, and many other factors. thus, researchers agree that the role of fiction today is significantly reduced, so psychologists, classifying reading literacy, distinguish such adolescents as the ones that are “inharmoniously developed”, “distracted” or “with undefined taste”. the formation of “emotional”, “versatile” readers is really rare. first, this happens due to gadgets, and second, to the increased influence of peer authority on the choice of a particular book. their opinion is incompetent, based only on personal experience, so it misleads the unsophisticated reader and consequently leads to a total reading refusal. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 180 methods research design this study is a content analysis design and used a qualitative approach for the data analysis (krippendorff, 2018), which is applied to such works as: spoilers by elena ozhich, anka m and anka p by tatyana mart, death to dead souls by andrey zhvalevsky and evgeniya pasternak, literodura by yulia linde, the perks of being a wallflower by stephen chbosky, the book thief by markus zusak, and black swan green by david mitchell. the content analysis method allowed the authors to work with formal content units of the text (images) and to obtain high-quality data by analyzing the images of readers’ characters in modern prose. the authors used a qualitative approach to find the types of readers, as well as a quantitative approach to highlight the frequency of appearance of certain types of reader characters in the works of teenage prose. this study reflects the contemporary social reality that is predicted in literary texts. sources of data the corpus was the source of the study (material and formal units of a literary text: the study of the types of characters-readers, the influence of fiction on the younger generation). the qualitative data were analyzed as well, namely: 7 character-readers (table 1). the table allows visualizing the data. table 1 data sources no. author name of the literary work main character (name) character-reader 1 e. ozhich spoilers zakhar tabashnikov a student of the 10th grade who arranges a literary quest in social networks in order to successfully pass the unified state exam 2 t. mart anka m and anka p namesake cousins named anya twelve-year-old girls who attend the literary club and are not indifferent to literature and culture 3 a. zhvalevsky, e. pasternak death to dead souls valya teenagers who visit the library under duress shabalina & bykov 4 yu. linde literodura zhenya shchetinina zhenya, who is gifted with the ability to fantasize, uses rhymes in order to convey her feelings 5 s. chbosky the perks of being a wallflower charles fifteen-year-old charlie loves reading books, dreams of becoming a writer 6 m. zusak the book thief liesel liesel dreams of learning to read, and at the end of the novel becomes a writer 7 d. s. mitchell black swan green jason taylor jason is passionate about poetry, he writes poetry and loves the works of orwell data collection procedure the data collection procedure included the selection of factual material, the study of images of characters-readers in the works of contemporary authors who received literary awards. in order to do this, the authors selected works with reading teenagers as the main figures, and after analyzing the characters, established the latest type-classification. this classification was based on the studies of trubnikov (1978) and ryskin (1996), which are focused on the level of reading culture and readers’ interests. therefore, they identified the following types: thoughtful reader, literate reader, unformed reader, emotional reader, versatile reader, inharmoniously developed reader. the authors expected to see the predominance of the unformed reader and emotional reader types over the literate, thinking, and versatile reader, as in the digital age, teenagers are increasingly attracted to social networks. however, the authors were convinced after answering the questions raised: 1. it is impossible to deny the influence of the book on the younger generation. special conditions are necessary for the formation of interest in books: family reading, interactive methods in teaching, selection of the right literature, the authority of the teacher. reading has a beneficial effect on adolescent children, as it helps them to survive the period of puberty rebellion, form a culture of communication, solve family conflicts, decide on the choice of a future profession, find their place in life, promote their maturation (which is reflected in table 2, figure 1). 2. indeed, the type of literate character-reader prevails, but it is a little less popular than the thinking character-reader, which confirms the fact that children read and want to read (in this conclusion, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 182 the authors fully agree with the position proposed by the team of authors verevkina et al. (2016). in the twenty-first century, children and teenagers most often choose the internet for leisure, so not all the characters pay due attention to books. anyway, there is a type of unformed reader, but the life and type of a competent reader are reflected in the results – figure 2. data analysis in order to answer the questions of this study, the authors analyzed the socio-philosophical and pedagogical literature on the problem of the article and made sure that there was not a single study, which could give an idea of the influence of books on the formation of a literate reader, as well as their types in modern children’s and youth prose. it happens although modern authors are also involved in the discussion and cover similar problems in fiction. thereafter 1. in response to the first question of the study, the authors analyzed “what impact a book has on teenagers in modern children’s and youth prose” by using the method of krippendorff content analysis (krippendorff, 2018). 2. in response to the second question, the authors also used the krippendorf content analysis method because of determining the frequency types of characters-readers in modern children’s and youth prose. the quantitative approach allowed visualizing the qualitative data by means of using numerical values, fixing the elements of text content (in this case, the frequency of occurrence of different types of characters-readers), and then quantifying the data obtained. when analyzing content, krippendorff (2018) works with the text according to the following stages: 1. defining objects of research: based on the authors’ research question, a range of texts were chosen, i.e. a sample was made, since the content has a large volume, because the subject of research was literary texts of the 21st century; 2. the units and categories of analysis are defined: the characters of reading teenagers in the works of fiction of modern children’s and youth prose were subjected to a detailed analysis; shabalina & bykov 3. a set of coding rules has been developed: the modern literary era, as well as the typology of images of heroes-readers, have become the dominant criteria for including these works in the authors‘ research interest; 4. encoding of images of heroes-readers was carried out using the classification of trubnikov (1978) and ryskin and (1996); 5. interpreting the obtained results, based on the objectives and theoretical context of the research. to answer research question 1, the authors first analyzed data on the impact of the book on teenagers and then identified their frequency. using the descriptive statistics, the authors found the rate percentage of each occurrence of the themes. to visualize the results of the rate percentage, the authors displayed them in the diagram. to answer research question 2, reader characters were first analyzed, then the authors determined the frequency of their appearance in the texts. using descriptive statistics, the authors found the percentage of the frequency of each appearance of the image of the reader character. to visualize the results of the rate percentage, the authors displayed them in the diagram. results and discussion research question no 1. what impact does the book have on teenagers in the digitalization century according to the material of modern children’s and youth prose? the results of data analysis to answer research question 1 appear in table 2 for convenience and clarity. special attention was paid to this question in the description later on table 2. table 2. the influence of books on the teenagers’ characters (based on the material of modern children’s and youth prose) no. author name of the literary work main character (name) characteristic, attitude towards the book the influence of the book on the teenager 1. e. ozhich spoilers zakhar tabashnikov zakhar tabashnikov does not like reading. his perception of the book begins with compulsory reading. initially, he looks for easy, understandable ways for a modern teenager to solve the problem with a complex final essay of the unified state exam. therefore, he chooses a game format for reading the classics. gradually, the process of studying the book becomes fascinating for him. at last, the style of spoilers narration is changing as the way of as he participated in the literary challenge, zakhar tabashnikov learned to express his thoughts in a correct way, he learned to analyze people’s relationships. so, for the first time, he discussed family conflicts with his mother – all this contributes to the character’s growing up. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 184 teenager’s thinking – and the boy moves from retelling texts to literary analysis by the end of the story. 2 t. mart anka m and anka p namesake cousins named anya the tradition of family reading is really common in the family of anka p. adults stimulate the teenager’s love for books by reading fairy-tales, discussing and arguing about the plots of classic books, that is why anka p. knows the etymology of some lexemes and is interested in the pronunciation of phonemes. anka really “infects” her sister with this love: she retells the myths and legends of ancient greece. anya respects everything related to books, such as the profession of a librarian. reading forms the girl’s curiosity, empathy, a sense of the subtleties of the native language, good manners. books inspired her interest in the cities’ sights and biographies of classical writers. literature helps the main character to determine her place in life. 3 a. zhvalevsky, e. pasternak death to dead souls valya the main character of this book is the girl valya, the librarian’s granddaughter, who visits the library not only under the teachers’ compulsion but also on duty. like many teenagers, valya does not possess a literary taste, so she is attracted to “empty” novelties. however, valya’s tastes change dramatically after she joins the fight for the classics. books help valya to understand herself, to find her place in life. 4 y. linde literodura zhenya shchetinina extensive reading and subtle perception of reality make zhenya a “white crow” in the class. this gives rise to the character’s puberty rebellion: she wants to be similar to everyone else. books helped the girl to develop the child’s imagination, which facilitated an abstraction from various problems – from kindergarten to school. reading helps her to avoid puberty rebellion. 5 s. chbosky the perks of being a wallflower charles initially, charles likes reading books, but the reading process is related to the emotional cognition of a book. a book for charles is a symbol of an invisible connection with the loved ones he has lost. throughout the novel, he is learning to analyze a book in all its complexity, acquiring the skills of a thoughtful reader. books help charles to survive loneliness, to understand himself. they help him to find his place in life – to decide on the future profession. shabalina & bykov 6 m. zusak the book thief liesel liesel dreams of learning to read, as reading, in her opinion, makes her closer to her dead brother and lost mother. books replace liesel’s present, fill her world with light and warmth, so the character even becomes capable of stealing. the book becomes a kind of universal code for uniting people (germans during the second world war). it is the books that give liesel the opportunity to dream about the future, develop sensitivity and sensibility. they also help liesel to decide on her future profession. 7. d. s. mitchell black swan green jason taylor jason taylor is an unusual teenager: he is endowed with a poetic talent (writes poetry). however, he is shy about this talent, because he is afraid of becoming a “whipping boy”. books help him to know himself, to grow up, to decide on his future profession. this conclusion totally confirms the opinion of the researchers kozol, plotnikov, and chudinova that it is impossible to raise a fully developed, successful person without a love for reading. this is clearly illustrated in such texts as: spoilers, anka m and anka p, death to dead souls, literodura, the perks of being a wallflower, the book thief, black swan green. the authors of modern children’s and youth prose present a type of evolving character: one meets a teenager before meeting with the literature/book and after. in two works of seven (spoilers by ozhich and black swan green by mitchell). the characters of the novels by ozhich and mitchell find themselves through the books. tabashnikov stops hiding from private problems with his mother, as books have taught him to analyze life, compare facts, and make the right decisions. jason taylor stops running away from problems in a fictional world by knowing himself better. in three works of seven (anka m and anka p, death to dead souls, the perks of being a wallflower), the books help the characters find their place in life: anka found meaning in talking about literature and culture with peers and adults; valya learned to distinguish the main thing: first to feel the author’s idea in the book, then to understand the idea of paintings, and then to understand people. in three books (the perks of being a wallflower, the book thief, black swan green), literature became the main sense of life, as the characters: liesel, charles, and jason want to become writers. in one literary text (literodura), reading helps to prevent puberty rebellion. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 186 in all the works, the authors pay attention to the point how literature forms the best person’s qualities: empathy, sensitivity, good manners (anka in anka m and anka p), curiosity, responsibility (valya in death to dead souls, zakhar tabashnikov in spoilers), receptivity, the ability to dream, responsiveness (liesel in the book thief, jason in black swan green, zhenya shchetinina in literodura), tolerance, confidence (charles in the perks of being a wallflower). reasons for changing attitudes towards books and reading are shown in figure 1. figure 1. reasons for changing attitudes towards books and reading therefore, speaking about modern children’s and youth prose, the authors analyzed seven works (100%). as a result of this analysis, the authors identified a special type of reader – an evolving one. the character is changing under the influence of the book, but the role of external factors is really significant in this process, in particular the role of the teacher in introducing students to reading (brazhe, marantsman). as a result of the study, the authors concluded that in 4 (58%) works (spoilers by ozhich, literodura by linde, the perks of being a wallflower by chbosky, black swan green by mitchell), the love of the book was instilled by a teacher or mentor. in 3 (23%) works (anka m and anka p by mart, the book thief by zusak, literodura by linde), reading in the family circle has a beneficial effect on the characters. in 2 (16%) works (spoilers by ozhich, the perks of being a wallflower by chbosky), the interactive methods help to arouse interest in reading: literary quest, challenge, reviews, articles in the newspaper. in 1 (3%) work (death to dead souls by zhvalevsky and pasternak), the librarian helps the character to understand the book. the authors of children’s and youth prose clearly reflected all the variety of solutions to the problem of the reading crisis, invisibly joining the discussion. teacher / mentor 58% family reading 23% interactive methods 16% librarian 3% reasons for changing attitudes towards books and reading shabalina & bykov research question no 2. what types of characters-readers are mostly met on the pages of modern children’s and youth literature? the authors demonstrated the answer to this question by means of the diagram (figure 2). figure 2. the analysis results of the types of characters-readers in children’s and youth prose thus, the authors analyzed 7 (100%) works of modern children’s and youth prose and came to the conclusion that in 4 (80%) texts there was a special kind of character-reader – the evolving reader (spoilers by ozhich, death to dead souls by zhvalevsky and pasternak, the perks of being a wallflower by chbosky, the book thief by zusak). the main characters gradually become literate readers from lazy and unformed ones under the influence of mentors, they possess a different motive for reading (from compulsion – to desire), cultivated literary taste (classical books, but not “novelties” attract), broadened horizons. they begin to think creatively, rather than using templates, and they develop a skill for analyzing a literary work. in 3 (65%) cases, one meets a competent reader (anka m and anka p by mart, literodura by linde, black swan green by mitchell). in these novels, teenagers initially have a special reverence for the literary word, they are able to understand the artistic merits of the works: anka is interested in the myths and legends of ancient greece, jason likes the work of orwell, zhenya is passionate about the prose of leo tolstoy and remarque. in 2 (35%) works (the perks of being a wallflower by chbosky, the book thief by zusak), one finds a kind of thoughtful (but inharmoniously developed) reader: this character possesses a wide range of interests in literary works but is chaotic in his or her choice. charles (chbosky) perceives reading on an emotional-intuitive level: “i finished reading to kill a 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% types of character-readers (based on the material of modern children's and youth prose) evolving reader 80% literate reader 65% thoughtful reader 35% unformed reader 15% types of characters-readers journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 188 mockingbird. it’s my favorite book now. however, i always think so until i read the next one” (chbosky, 2012). at the same time, the character of the novel the perks of being a wallflower strives to improve: “i like reading twice”, “i don’t read this trash literature” (chbosky, 2012). liesel from the work of zusak the book thief perceives the book as a mystical connection with the past, so initially, she almost does not think about the artistic merits of the book, but later she understands the power of the word: “words found paths to everyone who was in the shelter” (zusak, 2016). there is a kind of unformed reader in 1 (15%) work (death to dead souls by zhvalevsky and pasternak). the main characters of the novel death to dead souls are teenagers (valya and nick) who visit the library under the compulsion of teachers. they do not have enough experience in choosing books, so they prefer mass literature with a beautiful cover, a standard plot, illustrations, and a simple storyline. all this reflects real everyday life, in which there are two extremes. on the one hand, children are not able to become literate readers on their own, they need the help of not only a competent teacher but also not an indifferent person. on the other hand, these conclusions prove that the interest in the book as such among the younger generation is still great, but a teenager does not always have enough reading experience to choose a high-quality work, not a surrogate of literature, which forever discourages interest in reading. thus, in order to develop a literary taste, according to koshkarov, “…we, parents, teachers, librarians and just good friends need to know how to master the tool of fine-tuning the teenager’s soul to the boundless fascinating world of reading” (kashkarov, 2020). literaturocentrism was a special cultural feature of the twentieth century – it was the persistent attraction of culture in expression through literary and verbal forms. accordingly, a book played an important role in a person’s life, the character-reader perceived it as an important part of childhood, which introduced him or her to the unknown phenomena of life (aksakov, keil, kaverin). the book was also considered the guardian of the universal codes of life. this tradition is also represented in the novel the book thief (2006) by the modern australian writer markus zusak. the title of the novel is metaphorical; on the one hand, it carries a negative connotation, condemnation of the committed act, on the other – the reality itself resembles kafka’s absurdity in zusak’s novel. the world is turning upside down, so the norms of morality are also doing the same. a reader can see germany, which had come across the war, which is fighting not only shabalina & bykov against jews and communists but also against books. this is a struggle for a sterile society, without memory and culture. in this novel, the book becomes a kind of universal code for understanding life and one’s place in it: “a person remains meaningless without words” (zusak, 2016). in these circumstances, a book theft can be considered as self-identification: the inclusion of oneself in the flow of events, the involvement in the german nation, in an effort not to lose oneself as a person. it is a paradox, but in zusak’s interpretation, stealing is equivalent to gaining, despite the circumstances. the main character liesel meminger perceives the book as an invisible connection with the past (her mother and brother) (bozhkova, 2021). liesel needs to feel connected to her family all the time, but she is not able to read. so she enters the world of dream-obsession: she begins to simply appropriate (steal) books, as long as she can not read. at the age of ten, the girl’s adoptive father, hans hubermann, teaches liesel reading: “reading is the appropriation of words” (zusak, 2016). in this case, words carry a cultural code: reading becomes liesel’s way of knowing reality. the novel mentions only fictional works, with the exception of hitler’s book mein kampf, the one which liesel never read (therefore, she remained pure from the ideology of nazism). her father’s lessons form a thoughtful character-reader. initially, she is fascinated by the process of composing words, so she does not care what she reads (instructions to the gravedigger was liesel’s first book). gradually, liesel begins to have her own questions and judgments about the books. ilse herman, the burgomaster’s wife who invites her to the home library also plays an important role in the development of the girl as a literate reader: “books are everywhere! each wall was reinforced by a shelf filled with dense but immaculate rows of books” (zusak, 2016). from that moment on, the character’s attitude towards books changes: “how many books she touched, how many she felt. this time she did it more slowly, with a full palm, feeling like magic, like beauty, like bright lines of light” (zusak, 2016). books become the meaning of liesel’s life, so when the burgomaster’s wife refused the house, she felt like she was dying. the book is vital to the girl: she reads during the bombings and raids, she reads to the dying max, she reads in the bomb shelter to the frightened people. as long as the book is alive, as long as the words sound, the memory is alive. the book takes on a certain sacredness, so in the finale of the novel the book thief, liesel meminger became a writer: “it’s incredible... although the letters faded, she was able to read her words. the fingers of her soul touched the story written so long ago in the basement in himmel strasse” (zusak, 2016). the character’s work is an attempt to preserve german history and culture for the future. thus, the value and authority of the book are preserved in modern journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 190 literary works. in the story of the book thief, like in a drop, the difficult history of germany in 1939-1945 is reflected. zusak shows how talent is born under the influence of insurmountable circumstances, how liesel turns from an illiterate emotional reader into a person who thinks independently and analyzes the laws of life. the past is also addressed by mitchell in his novel black swan green. the time of action is the eighties of the twentieth century; there are tense relations between england and argentina, a military conflict. the reason for the appeal of modern writers to the past, in the opinion of the authors, was an attempt to explain the origins of the change as the literary-centered cultural model was replaced by the media-centered one. it was also an attempt to understand the reasons for rejecting reading by modern teenagers. if in zusak’s novel the book thief, reading was equated with dissent, which was severely punished (liesel reads books in the basement), then in mitchell’s work, the main character – jason taylor – is ashamed of his poetic gift, as it sets him apart from the ruck, makes him different from everyone else, causes harassment. so, the rejection of the book is largely due to the tradition and historical background. at the beginning of the twentieth century, reading was a necessary point of evolution, as an activity reflected belonging to the era, but at the end of the twentieth century, reading became an atavism among teenagers, it turned into a cause for mockery, as there was a shift in orientation towards audio visualization. it is also important to note the fact that this is typical for the environment of teenagers who have not yet learned the generally accepted value rules. the character of the novel black swan green jason loves reading, he is passionate about the work of orwell, and loneliness pushes him to create poetry. the character is ashamed of his work, so he takes a pen name – eliot bolivar. jason is a literate reader: he possesses a broad outlook, a well-formed literary taste, a sense of style, and an understanding of literary laws. however, he is not able to accept the fact that he is able not just to read but also to create value judgments. eva van utrive de cromellinck became the person who helps jason to accept himself as he is; it is a woman he meets at the priest’s house. she was also the first he spoke openly about his poems with: “your poems are strong enough to be criticized”, “your images are fresh” (mitchell, 2006). she considers him as the person with the ability to write the most burning issues of the day (“the metaphor of domesticity” – england, “demons fighting in the garden” – margaret thatcher and general galtieri). the first critical analysis of jason’s poetry makes him take place not so much in the context of society as for himself. the character shabalina & bykov understands the meaning of his vocation: he wishes to expose reality with words. thus, it is possible to observe an appeal to the problem of reading in the novels of modern writers. in other words, writers invisibly enter into a discussion about the crisis of reading, trying to determine the origins of this situation, and also talking about the self-value of books and reading for the person’s formation. inquisitive, thoughtful readers arise in their works, as a book helps them to understand reality and themselves. the intermediary between the book and the teenager is both parents and mentors. nowadays, in the 21st century, people are able to observe a sad metamorphosis: television, radio, the internet, and social networks are gradually replacing the artistic word from everyday people’s cultural life. this process provoked the inevitable evolution of the reader’s image on the pages of children’s and youth prose in the 21st century. the purpose of the appeal to the book is school necessity. in modern reality, the type of reading-compulsion is most often presented (for preparing for lessons and state examinations). it is possible to find the confirmation of this idea in the work spoilers by elena ozhich, which is written under the pen name of zakhar tatashnikov. the narrative is filled with all the signs of the 21st century, among those – the complexity of the final essay of the unified state exam. the main character of this ozhich’s novel is a student of the 10th grade zakhar tabashnikov; he is confused with the typical delusion for non-reading young people supposing it is easy to pass the exam in literature, even if one is not familiar with the necessary texts. in order to fill in the gaps in his knowledge, he accepts a “challenge” from his teacher: starts reading classical works during all summer and then sends free-style reviews to the mail, as well as posts them in social networks and takes part in the discussion of the reviews between his classmates. to begin with, tabashnikov takes up plays. the choice of a teenager is clear: he is convinced that the simplest and smallest book is thunderstorm by ostrovsky. zakhar reads the play with interest and he is fascinated by the eternal conflict of fathers and children because he recognizes the common problems of the 19th-century characters in modern times. the young man compares kabanikha with his mother, arguing the conclusion with her favorite remark: “yes, my father and i put our lives on you, and you snap your fingers at us!” (tabashnikov, 2019). the teenager provided a modern reading of the drama: tabashnikov is sure that katerina should have gone against her mother-in-law and “affirm the triumph of feminism” (tabashnikov, 2019). in without a dowry, zakhar is attracted by the semantics of the main characters‘ surnames: “knurov – so, a journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 192 pig <...> ogudat’ – seduce, deceive” (tabashnikov, 2019). in order to understand the characters better, tabashnikov transfers the plot of the play to modern realities: “... in our days <...> old harita ignatyevna would still instruct her daughter where to inject botox and in which clinic it is better to pump silicone” (ozhich, 2019). knurov and vozhevatov are hated by the teenager, their attitude towards the woman irritates him: “yeah, nobody considers larisa as a person, really?” (tabashnikov, 2019). then tabashnikov proceeds to read the novel oblomov by goncharov. the schoolboy considers ilya ilyich as a lazy person, because the character does not use the possibilities of fate, but the boy respects his antipode for the hard labor. zakhar explains the difference in the characters by their upbringing and different social status: “stolz is like this one, cause he does not have a passive income, like ilyushka, such a couch potato” (ozhich, 2019). the young man is ironic, advising his peers to think about money: “... save up for real estate <...> while you are young, so that by the age of thirty you can <...> enjoy life” (tabashnikov, 2019). therefore, elena ozhich uses the technique of intertext in her work spoilers, creating monoand poly-referential borrowings from other texts in the internal structure, thus recreating the portrait of a teenage rebel reader of the 21st century. the postmodern text represents the problems of modernity: loneliness in the network, lack of freedom of choice; misunderstanding of fathers and children; “devaluation” of moral values (bozhkova, 2020). with the help of a literary “challenge”, the author managed to find out that the world of literary texts initially seems meaningless to a teenager. however, the experience in writing reviews aroused interest in classical literature. the original teenage slang makes the language of the book understandable to modern schoolchildren. the interpretation of the classics is also interesting: the author assures that it should not shock, because it is time to re-read many works of art. however, a new approach to the works, which demonstrates the use of the rhizome principle, generated by a new type of thinking and reading, will not help to pass the unified state exam in literature, but it will contribute to the reinterpretation of the classical books. zakhar tabashnikov’s teacher helped him to love reading, turning him from a lazy reader into a literate one. closer to the end of the work, the style of narration and the way of thinking of the teenager change as well: he moves on to literary analysis at the level of themes, microthemes, images, details, and names from simple text-retelling and highlighting the most interesting semantic parts (bozhkova, 2020). the creativity of reading in the digital age manifests itself in two ways: on the one hand, in the process of creative work with the text, zakhar tabashnikov shabalina & bykov refracts it through the prism of personal perception and reconstructs it in his mind with the help of imagination, memory, and intelligence. on the other hand, he forms new meanings through the creation of his own texts and reviews. chbosky also recreates the portrait of an american teenager of the late 1990s in the novel the perks of being a wallflower with the help of a postmodern intertext technique. the inclusion of references to the works of lee to kill a mockingbird, fitzgerald beyond paradise, the great gatsby, knowles a separate world, barry peter pan in the structure of the novel recreates the main narrative outline and represents the key theme of the novel – growing up. also, it highlights the social problems of the early 2000s: drug use, alcoholism, suicide, early pregnancy, homosexuality. it is important to note that chbosky focuses on the point that reading is an alternative in overcoming the stated problems. in his novel the perks of being a wallflower, chbosky tells the story of an extraordinary fifteenyear-old teenager who struggles with depression (the reason is the death of aunt hellen) and loneliness (the reason is the suicide of michael’s only friend). the image of michael is a key one in the work. this image arises in the context of charlie’s memories and most often it appears through the prism of a poem he wrote (about loneliness), which becomes a kind of credo of the character and reveals one of the reasons for the importance of reading for him. it is an escape from the world’s triviality, from thoughts about his own worthlessness and uselessness. therefore, the character begins to write letters to a stranger, because he feels the need for live communication. the work the perks of being a wallflower is an epistolary novel: the narrative coming from the first person, on the one hand, is subjective, on the other – it fully conveys the true feelings and thoughts of a teenager to the readers. the plot core of the novel is the formation of the character as a person (one can find certain echoes of salinger’s novel the catcher in the rye). an important factor that plays a significant role in the evolution of the character is reading. one can see a type of emotional “inharmoniously” developed reader in the exposition of the work (trubnikov, 1978). throughout the story, the author shows how charlie’s habits and literary tastes are changing. there are several stages realizing during the transformation of the character from a thoughtful reader to a literate one. the first is an introduction to the teacher bill, who considers charlie as a special and capable person: “he speaks, i have a sense of language and a great ability to perceive text” (chbosky, 2012). this opinion completely reverses the existing perception of the boy as a socially inactive – “quiet” one. bill is journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 194 a sensitive psychologist: he seeks to become not a mentor but a friend in communicating with charlie. he tries to establish an emotionally warm relationship: instead of a prim “mr.” – he uses “you”, also he notices any details in the behavior of the teen (“bill noticed that i was watching others”), calls charlie for a heart-to-heart conversation, the moral lesson of which the teacher suggests to learn from the books (“he patted me on the shoulder and gave me another book” (chbosky, 2012)). the novel presents a very informal model of relations in the teacher-student system, which largely contributes to the formation of the literary taste of the character. in the first stage, charlie expresses his attitude towards reading in the category: i like – i don’t like: “what is your favorite book?” “beyond paradise”. “why?” “because i have just read it” (chbosky, 2012). the character-reader perceives the book as a sensory experience, so bill directs him: “he says that i use a loose sentence structure”, “he said that i need to use literary words”. the main type of work is essays. in the second stage, charlie begins to express value judgments about books: “sometimes i read books and imagine myself in the place of heroes”, “when you hold a book in your hands, there is an unusual feeling” (chbosky, 2012). gradually, charlie develops his “sense of language”, “sentence structure”, the ability to analyze the actions of the characters from the books. “the main thing here is that this boy does not want to grow up, and when wendy does it, he regarded it as a betrayal” (chbosky, 2012). the third stage is implementation in independent activity: reading, literature, and books become the meaning of charlie’s life. an episode of a new year’s eve party is indicative, where a “secret santa” (one of the party participants) gives a gift to a random person. chbosky shows the world of ordinary people with a template mindset: they give each other socks, slacks, jackets, shirts, and only charlie gives alice a book by ann rice. at this time, the character’s self-determination takes place: “i decided that i would probably become a writer” (chbosky, 2012). the symbolic burden is also borne by sam’s gift (the girl charlie is in love with) – it is a second-hand typewriter: “someday write about me” (chbosky, 2012). so, the work of chbosky the perks of being a wallflower shows the process of becoming a personality, the evolution of the character-reader from emotional to literate one, the rethinking of his purpose and self-determination. thus, in the novels of ozhich and chbosky, it is possible to meet an experienced mentor – a teacher helping teenagers to open the world of the books, while skillfully stimulating the interest of the characters in works of art. this person also helps to look at reality from a different angle, reveals shabalina & bykov the personal potential of the student, outlines the right guidelines for life. at the same time, the rejection of reading as a form of even leisure activity is not so much a problem of the school as of the family. it is necessary to instill a love for reading by example: if parents are passionate about the books, then the children, later, will come to it themselves. so in the work anka m and anka p by mart, parents help the girls to become full-fledged readers. cousins-namesakes go to visit each other, being accompanied by adults, exploring the sights of different cities, forming their own view of their architecture and culture. books help to brighten up the hardships of the journey. the author creates the image of a reading teenager through the description of the dialogues of children with their parents and with each other: “why is not red square red?” i whispered to anka <...>. “probably red means “beautiful”! – i guessed it” (mart, 2019). in the character’s family, the tradition of family reading is widespread: all the family members unite in the evenings, reading fairy-tales, discussing and arguing about the plots of classical books, so anya p knows the etymology of some lexemes and is interested in the pronunciation of phonemes: “a-anechka-a...”. a singsong “a” trailed through the air, then flowed into a smooth “ee” and a new “a”, deep and long. “why does she draw out the words so <...>?” i whispered in anka’s ear” (mart, 2019). anka often retells ancient greek myths and legends to her sister: “they say that atlanteans fulfill their wishes!” i said <...>. you just have to hold their feet! for their thumbs”, “i told her all the legends that i know about sculptures and monuments” (mart, 2019). all these details help to characterize anka p as a versatile, passionate about culture and literature person. anka’s favorite pastime is visiting a literary club, where the young character has been studying for several years. once again, attention is drawn to the extraordinary interior: “on the walls <...> there is a brave young man in a red shirt from the legend of danko who is holding his burning heart in the palm...” (mart, 2019). anka p read the story of maxim gorky “old izergil” long ago; despite the fact that she was 12 years old, the girl really wanted to understand the illustration on the walls in the club. passion for reading makes the speech of the main character literate; this fact convinces the breadth of reading horizons of a teenager from st. petersburg. anya appreciates everything related to reading and literature; for example, the girl speaks with respect about the profession of a librarian (“they have a difficult job <...> well, they need to inspire children to read books...” (mart, 2019), she asks parents to buy her a book that interests her. anka p is not indifferent to russian culture; for example, when the representatives of the older generation in the bus become outraged about journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 196 the low level of culture among modern teenagers (“they don’t know anything! neither when pushkin was born, nor when lermontov died” (mart, 2019), she objects: “lermontov was killed in a duel in eighteen forty-one” (mart, 2019). the example of anka p’s parents is illustrative, as due to family reading, the girl developed such qualities as curiosity, empathy, a sense of her native language, and good manners. at last, it may be considered as a reason why she became a literate reader. modern teenagers believe that the texts from the reading list are boring, so the choice of schoolchildren often focuses on the books of popular culture, which is largely due to both the advice of their peers and excessive internet addiction. a similar problem is raised in the work death to dead souls by zhvalevsky and pasternak. the authors use the technique of the grotesque, resurrecting the second volume of dead souls by gogol: the trainee kira conducted a comic ritual, which turned into serious consequences – a work burned by the writer appeared on the shelf. it became the leader of a revolt against the readers of classical literature and their favorite books, striving for unconditional primacy: “we are to rule the world!” (zhvalevsky, 2016). the quoted statement implies the capture of two complementary worlds: the human and the literary. the episode of the release of the second volume of dead souls can be considered as an opening, which represents the conflict within each world. books on the library shelves began to whisper to each other, and readers forgot about classical literature and wanted to get acquainted with the newly revived novelty. the postmodern method of intertextuality once again expands the ideological and thematic plan, highlighting the problems of modernity. the codes of different epochs symbolically appear in the work: instead of uniting in the current situation, modern novelties oppose classical literature, since the reader is not interested in them at all (bozhkova, 2020). the authors activate the contrast of epochs with the help of color painting (“acid covers” (zhvalevsky, 2016); classical literature is contrasted with bright books of modernity, free of content (“valya <...> found completely empty sheets” (zhvalevsky, 2016)), sound recording (“...their carefree voices were mixed into one ringing wasp itch” (zhvalevsky, 2016) – a characteristic of literary novelties) and colloquial vocabulary of novelties (“no need to care of the small – no one will listen to it, but the red one should be removed!” (zhvalevsky, 2016)). the trainee spent one hour with modern novelties while getting acquainted with the library fund and noticed that she became more aggressive: “i’ve had it up to here with them!” kira said aside and continued reading. valya and her grandmother looked at each shabalina & bykov other in a complete bewilderment” (zhvalevsky, 2016). the purpose of the revolted books is to achieve absolute control of the minds of the reading audience. so, first of all, they planned to eradicate interest in classical literature, assuring that such literature is easier to learn with the help of summaries: “retellings will be read” (zhvalevsky, 2016). so the authors pay attention to the topical problems of book culture – classical literature is not read, because children do not yet have the experience to understand the meaning of some works. “i am so guilty before the children” tolstoy sighed <...> “i would not have mastered war and peace at the age of sixteen. and what for?” (zhvalevsky, 2016). as a result, high school students are ready to take up reading any work that is not included in the school list: “take it, take it, this is the captain’s daughter, it is in your school curriculum”. “in the curriculum?” the girl gasped. “ok, then i certainly won’t read it!” (zhvalevsky, 2016). all these problems weaken society, lead to the lack of spirituality, which was used by the resurrected edition of gogol. therefore, in the work death to dead souls, the authors enliven classical literature, endow each writer with a voice. there is a type of unformed reader – these are teenagers who visit the library under the compulsion of teachers, they lack experience in choosing books and a mentor along the way. therefore, they prefer mass-market books with a beautiful cover, illustrations, and a simple storyline (bozhkova, 2020). however, the situation changes dramatically: against the background of the struggle for the survival of books from different eras, many young readers who are immersed in these problems (valya, nick) develop literary taste, they dream of reading a novelty that has appeared in the library. that is why kira’s spiritualistic session contributes to the fact that more visitors come at last to the library. as for the fifteen-year-old character of literodura by yulia linde, her typical day at school is the mockery of classmates. the technique of color painting helps to reveal the psychological portrait of a teenager: “... and i am not white – the most ordinary gray: both eyes are gray, and hair is gray, usually light brown. no, i’m not white or gray – i’m transparent” (linde, 2019). in the article “teenage loneliness: causes and consequences”, kiseleva argues that such an experience leads to a dual outcome: a person either becomes more aware or loses heart (kiseleva, 2003). only books, a reading family, and a competent teacher helped zhenya to understand her life purpose. while choosing books, zhenya takes into account the advice of her mom and aunt sima. the experienced characters understand that the girl has an original imagination; even in kindergarten, she believed that wrapped in a blanket during a quiet hour, she would wake up like a butterfly. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 198 zhenya’s mother is a “chief librarian” (linde, 2019). in order to make literature closer to teenagers, anastasia takes into account their interests – “... recently she has launched and promoted new memes #booka <...> and #literodura” (linde, 2019). therefore, signs of modern reality that have become relevant in the teenage environment over the past two years appeared in the story, and anastasia studies them to be closer to her reader. it is impossible to inspire every library visitor to read, but at home, book propaganda has been beneficial: “audiobooks are not in any way comparable to my mother’s reading” (linde, 2019) – admits zhenya. the second person who helped the girl make books a part of her life is her aunt sima. she taught the girl the alphabet, and in this case, she “was a sorceress” (linde, 2019): she asked zhenya to choose a word in a rhyme and draw the result for each new letter. that is how the child developed an imagination which helped her to abstract from problems in kindergarten, and then – in school. artistic works strengthened the girl’s desire to express a sense of sorrow for the participants in the chechen war through rhymes: “i like reading a lot about the war < ... > tolstoy, remark ...” (linde, 2019). zhenya is a literate, interested reader. books make puberty much easier for her. all in all, the authors of this article made an attempt to analyze the types of readers’ characters based on the material of little-studied modern children’s and youth prose. as a result of the study, they came to the following conclusions: the dominant type of the character-reader was the evolving type (the reader who remains in an internal transformation). unlike many researchers, modern authors believe that the teenager’s interest in reading can be aroused by means of family reading, the authority of parents or teachers, the use of interactive methods and innovative reading techniques, which do not always have a negative impact in the process of learning literature. in the 21st century, the digital era, the character-reader is able to realize his or her creative abilities and creative thinking in the internet environment. the influence of a book on a teenager can be considered as an indisputable one, since it is reading that reveals the personal potential, shapes the behavior of a teenager, and influences his or her success/failure in the future. thus, the interest in the book and reading allows bringing up not only a competitive individual but also a worthy citizen. with this article, the gap began to be bridged, associated with the fact that previous research did not mention the types of reading characters, the potential of reading in the formation of a successful personality, the impact of books in the digital age on teenagers. one can solve this problem by showing that literature for teenagers is much affected by information and communication shabalina & bykov technology. supervisions from parents and schools are required. at the same time, it is the internet resources and proper work with them that allows developing the creativity of thinking and creative abilities of teenagers. the novelty of this work is in that it pays attention to the fact that teenagers continue to read, and the type of evolving reader is the most frequent in children’s and youth prose. discussion and conclusion in this study, the authors considered the influence of the book on the formation of a literate reader in the digital age on the material of modern children’s and youth prose. in summary, this study indicates that book has a powerful influence on the younger generation: it develops empathy (zhenya shchetinina (linde, literodura)), critical thinking abilities (of mart’s work anka m and anka p), attentiveness (zakhar tabashnikov (spoilers)), responsiveness (liesel from the novel by zusak), fortitude, and curiosity (valya (death to dead souls), jason (black swan green)). analyzing the types of character-readers in modern literature, the authors have come to the conclusion that writers create a type of modern character, who became a teenager, who scrolls the internet, social networks and prefers tv to the books. in modern children’s and youth prose, the type of unformed reader is common (zakhar tabashnikov in spoilers, charles in the perks of being a wallflower, valya in death to dead souls, liesel in the book thief). however, the type of literate reader is also vital – anka m and anka p by mart; zhenya shchetinina in literodura, jason taylor in black swan green). it is also important that in the analyzed books, the authors identified a new type of character-reader – the evolving one, who is changing under the influence of books. there is a transformation from an inharmoniously developed reader to a literate person. at the same time, an attempt was made to debunk the myth that the internet has only a negative impact on a reading teenager. the point is that it is possible to support and promote reading through internet resources, focusing on the requirements of the time, and it could really help to solve the problem of forming a literate reader (zakhar tabashnikov in spoilers). limitations and directions for future study the subject of this study was the problem of forming a competent reader on the pages of modern children’s and youth prose. as a result of the study, it can be concluded that the most authoritative influence agents in relation to adolescents’ reading are friends, parents, teachers, and in recent decades, the internet has played an important role. it is an interesting fact but a key role in the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 200 formation of a competent reader is played by libraries (anka m and anka p, death to dead souls). the authors have established the need for pedagogical support for the reading activity: the problem of reading is to be solved together by parents, teachers, psychologists, and even writers. having considered the influence of the book on the younger generation, comparing the data of past eras with the modern realities of the attitude towards the book, it is possible to see the reasons not so much for the regression, but for the progress in the attitude of adolescents towards reading. the process of reading is an internal creative work: the change of thoughts, images, fantasies, and memories that arise in the mind at the moment of perception of the text, that is why the change in reading techniques does not always have a positive effect. nevertheless, it is the internet environment that supports the desire of readers to identify a personal position, exchange impressions, and thus stimulate readers’ interest (shatunova, 2021). these data can be useful in the further study of modern children’s literature, as well as in solving the problems of adolescent reading. references antipova i. a (2004). the image of a reading child in russian literature of the xx century. school library. no 1, 19-23. akhmadeev, r. g., & bykanova, o. a. (2021). taxation instruments for the support of research and advanced development expenses in the manufacturing sector of the economy. paper presented at the iop conference series: earth and environmental science, , 666(6) doi:10.1088/1755-1315/666/6/062140 belyaeva l. i (1971). problems of integration of library science and psychology. library scrip. 50, 53. bobina t. o (2013). book and reading in modern adolescent and youth prose. crisis of reading: energy of overcoming: collection of scientific and practical works. moscow: mcbs, 244-247. bozhkova g. n., salakhova d. r., solunova ya. a (2020). the influence of the book on the formation of the personality of adolescent heroes (based on the material of modern children’s and adolescent prose). philological science. questions of theory and practice. tambov: diploma. volume 13. issue 2. 5-9. doi: 10.30853 bozhkova g., shabalina n., ibragimova e. (2021) images of fathers by younger generation in modern fiction: socio-psychological analysis. journal of social studies education research (jsser). 12(2), 210-232. shabalina & bykov bozhkova, g., shatunova o. & shastina, e. (2020). influence of the family on the process of forming a child’s personality: types of families: a case of modern youth prose. journal of social studies education research (jsser). 11(3), 220-241. retrieved from: https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2243/467 borodina v. a (2017). changes in the productivity of reading texts of a new nature: the main directions of research in the interests of the future of libraries. library science. book. reading. reader. volume 66. no 2 – 159-164. doi: 10.25281/0869-608x-2017-66-2 borodina v. a (1981). a course on dynamic reading. leningrad: a. f. mozhaysky wiki, 4-8. chbosky s. (2012). the perks of being a wallflower. mtv: books, 60-224. chudinova v. p. (2012). reading moscow teenagers in a real and electronic environment. materials of sociological research. moscow: interregional center for library cooperation, 122-144. golev n. d., maksimova s. a. (2008). on the foundations of the gender typology of readers (based on the material of reflections on the literary text of younger adolescents) https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/k-osnovaniyam-gendernoy-tipologii-chitateley-namateriale-refleksiy-o-hudozhestvennom-tekste-mladshih-podrostkov isidro, e., & teichert, l. (2021). towards socially just literacy teaching in virtual spaces. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 21-41. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.6 kalimullina o. tarman b., & stepanova i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher’s role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, vol. 8, no. 1, 226-238 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 kiseleva v (2003). teenage loneliness: causes and consequences. education of schoolchildren. no. 6. 47-52. kovalevskaya n. i., petrova l. i. (2017). methodology for studying children’s reading. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/metodologiya-izucheniya-detskogo-chteniya kozol j (1985). illiterate america. new york: doubleday and company, 1985. 8 29. koshkarov a. p. (2020).reading in high school. how to grow a reading person. retrieved from https://azbyka.ru/deti/chtenie-v-srednej-shkole-kak-vyrastit-chitajushhego-chelovekakashkarov-ap krippendorff, k (2018).content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. retrieved from: https://books.google.ru/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ne1adwaaqbaj&oi=fnd&pg=pp1&dq=krippe ndorff,+k+(2018).content+analysis:+an+introduction+to+its+methodology.&ots=yz8n journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 175-203 202 xsgteu&sig=ftqpjlkrmpmnlt58o3dssmo5b4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=krippendorff%2c%20k% 20(2018).content%20analysis%3a%20an%20introduction%20to%20its%20methodolog y.&f=false asp. kim, d., coenraad, m., & park, h. r. (2021). digital storytelling as a tool for reflection in virtual reality projects. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 101-121. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.9 linde yu (2019). literadura. moscow: children’s literature, 7-45. marantsman, v. g (1965). biografi ya pisatelya v sisteme esteticheskogo vospitaniya shkol’nikov: posobiye dlya uchitelya. m.-l., 10-12. march t (2019). anka m and anka p. m.: kompasgid, 23-186. mitchell d. (2006). black swan green. london: hodder headline, 123-318. pennac d. (2005). as a novel: essay. moscow: samokat, 2005. 46-59. plotnikov s. n. (1999). reading and ecology of culture text. homo legens: in memory of sergey nikolaevich plotnikov.(1929 1995) : sb. nauch. tr.. m.: house of intellectual books, 1999. p. 46-58. poghosyan, v. (2018). philosophies of social behavior research: meta-analytic review. wisdom, 11(2), 85-92. doi:10.24234/wisdom.v11i2.212 rubakin, n. a. (1975). a study about the russian reading public. retrieved from https://viewer.rusneb.ru/ru/000199_000009_003671894?page=1&rotate=0&theme=white saenko, n., voronkova, o., zatsarinnaya, e., & mikhailova, m. (2020). philosophical and cultural foundations of the concept of “nihitogenesis”. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 88-103. svirina n. m (2012). free reading with the children. saint petersburg: npc omega, 15-23. smetannikova n. n. (2007) educating the reader in a culture-creating model of education support and development of reading in the library space of russia: a collection of scientific and practical works. moscow: mcbs, 65-74. shatunova o, bozhkova g. & tarman b., shastina e. (2021). transforming the reading preferences of today’s youth in the digital age: intercultural dialog. journal of ethnic and cultural studies 2021, vol. 8, no. 3, 62-73 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 shabalina & bykov tikhomirova i. i. (2004). about the development of children’s positive attitude to reading. reading children and adolescents as a factor in the formation of human capital. materials of the all-russian scientific and practical conference. spb, 44. tabashnikov z (2019). spoilers. retrieved from https://www.labirint.ru/contest_media/text/525/5c6ebaffddb0614eefcf370296dae159.pdf trubnikov s. a (1978). the problem of typology of readers of fiction. book: <url>. and materials. moscow: kniga, 18-36. verevkina i.n., bozhkova g.n., shabalina n.n., fayzullina. o.r. (2016). adolescent dialogue with writers as a means of reading culture formation. the european proceedings of social & behavioural sciences. volume xii 417-423. doi: 10.15405 vishniakova e.i (2011). aktsentnoe chtenie kak priem raboty s tekstom (reading for specific information as the way of working with the text). metodicheskaia programma obrazovatel’noi sistemy «shkola 2100». volgograd, izd-vo «uchitel’», 1–3. volkova, p. s., orekhova, e. s., saenko, n. r., trofimova, l. v., & barova, a. g. (2020). features of the modern process of differentiation of sense and meaning in communication. media watch, 11(4), 679-689. doi:10.15655/mw/2020/v11i4/204639 zhvalevsky a (2016). death to dead souls. moscow: vremya, 9-24. zusak m. (2016). the book thief. – random house children’s books, 445-514. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 102-122 102 teaching about human rights: female genital mutilation in america james r. moore1 abstract increasing immigration from asia, latin america, africa, and the middle east has enhanced cultural diversity in the united states. the wide array of foods, languages, customs, and unique historical experiences associated with immigration have contributed to the political, social, and economic fabric of a multicultural democracy. however, immigrants may also bring certain cultural practices that violate american constitutional law and various state laws. moreover, these practices, such as female genital mutilation (fgm), are incompatible with american ideals of equality, social justice, and human rights. recent research indicates that an increasing number of girls and women in the united states have undergone or are at risk for various forms of fgm. over 200 million females have experienced fgm and 513,000 females in the united states are at risk of fgm. this practice is also a violation of the universal declaration of human rights, signed by the united states in 1948. the research methods include a historical analysis of fgm, a quantitative and geographic description of the nature and extent of fgm, and a discussion of the relevant american and international laws that prohibit fgm. furthermore, the article employs a rationale for teaching about fgm in social studies courses. this includes a description of viable methods and activities based on national council for the social studies standards (ncss). this article will describe the nature, causes, and consequences of fgm on females. this may stimulate student activism, a major goal in social studies. a primary purpose of this study is to increase educators’ awareness of this illegal practice, improve education about human rights, and help educators assist female students at risk of fgm. furthermore, the article will describe the legal and professional responsibilities teachers must take if they have students at risk of fgm in their classes. key words: human rights, democracy, female genital mutilation, law, equality introduction according to the national council for the social studies (ncss), “human rights education, in both its civil and humanitarian aspects, is a necessary element of social studies programs and should be integrated throughout the educational experience of all learners from early childhood through advanced education and lifelong learning (ncss, 2015, p 161). this major educational goal is, of course, compatible with the core ideals—freedom, equality, social justice, the rule of law, and individual rights—that constitute the foundation of american law and democracy. these democratic ideals, while often broached in history and practice, are the moral force compelling the united states to eliminate all forms of discriminatory behaviors 1 assoc. prof. cleveland state university, j.moore2@csuohio.edu mailto:j.moore2@csuohio.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 based on race, ethnicity, religion, national origins, language, and sex/gender (huntington, 2004; marger, 2015; schlesinger, 1998). america’s political and legal principles are articulated in the declaration of independence and the constitution; simultaneously, numerous judicial and legislative acts protect human and civil rights. because most social studies courses do not discuss fgm/c (an emotional and controversial topic) this conceptual, historical, and legal study will contribute to the social studies literature. preservice teachers are seldom knowledgeable about fgm/c and its effects on students. moreover, fgm/c is a crucial human rights issue relevant to secondary social studies education. teaching about human rights is a core social studies responsibility, especially in an era of increasing migration and continued atrocities—torture, rape (as an instrument of war), genocide, slavery, human trafficking, and female oppression—in many countries (ncss, 2015, p.161; shuttle worth, 2012). secondary social studies courses are the appropriate venue to teach about human rights abuses that are a violation of america’s commitment to social justice, individual liberty, and equality. furthermore, secondary school students find human rights issues relevant because they have a strong moral component that compels students to become engaged in expanding human rights, an issue that teachers can correlate with history, geography, economics, and government/civics. moreover, in 1948, the united states signed the universal declaration of human rights (udhr), an epic united nations document designed to protect the natural human rights of all people (general assembly, 1948). these rights include political and civil protections (freedom of expression and religion; democracy; equality before the law; and the right to liberty and due process), and social, cultural, and economic rights (the right to food, education, work, travel, and marry). additionally, the udhr prohibits slavery, discrimination, unjust detainment, and torture. of course, protecting human rights for all people remains extremely difficult in a world ripe with competing notions of morality, immense religious and cultural diversity, numerous political systems, and different historical experiences. this is true in the united states, where immigrants, who bring many positive attributes to the united states, including unique experiences and a strong work ethic, may bring specific cultural practices that are a violation of american federal or state laws (burrage, 2016; nyangweso, 2014). in some cases, these practices are anathema to the core values of american democracy and law and may warrant criminal prosecution, even though the practices may have support from various groups based on moore the principle of cultural autonomy and tolerance for diverse cultural practices. these practices include child marriage, child labor, honor killings, human trafficking (labor, sex, and organ harvesting) and female genital mutilation/cutting (fgm/c). female genital mutilation/cutting (fgm/c), still a common practice in many countries, especially in africa and the middle east, is increasing in the united states, primarily because of increasing immigration from developing countries (anderson, 2013; burrage, 2016; department of homeland security, 2017; goldberg et al., 2013; mishori, 2017; nyangweso, 2014; population reference bureau, 2017; population reference bureau, 2016). globally, over 200 million girls and women have experienced fgm/c in 30 countries and 4 million females are at risk each year (hui, 2018). experts believe that over 500,000 females in the united states are at risk or have undergone fgm/c (population reference bureau, 2016). often, the relevant immigrant populations are afraid to talk about fgm/c (the penalties for talking about the procedure are harsh, including death in some cases) and it is difficult for law enforcement and medical personnel to obtain data (nyangweso, 2014). however, more girls and women are starting to describe their experiences to government officials and doctors (burrage, 2016). thus, it is imperative that all educators acquire knowledge about fgm/c and are able to recognize students who may be at risk of this procedure; this is especially true for educators in school districts with large numbers of immigrant children from north africa and the middle east. teachers have a legal and professional obligation to report child abuse. of course, educators must approach this controversial and emotional topic in a scholarly and sensitive manner implementing appropriate methods. fgm/c is an appropriate topic for secondary school students; indeed, these students may find fgm/c is a compelling moral, political, and cultural issue that inspires them to become engaged in stopping this illegal act. however, many americans are unaware of this illegal practice, including the nature, causes, types, and consequences of fgm/c on females (population reference bureau, 2016; mishori, 2017). this is not surprising given the topic is very alarming, controversial and is rarely discussed in public forums (mishori, 2017). some teachers and school officials may be hesitant to discuss the issue because it could provoke accusations of cultural bigotry (defenders of fgm/c may assert that there are religious reasons for the practice, immigrant populations are entitled to cultural autonomy, and it is ethnocentric for american law to prohibit the practice) and stir controversies in the classroom. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 nevertheless, it is a crucial human rights issue and should be discussed in social studies courses in secondary schools (ncss, 2014); the most appropriate venue for discussing controversial topics (the issue may not be appropriate for elementary and middle school students; teachers should exercise good judgment when teaching about all controversial issues). it is important students understand this issue; some of their classmates could be at risk and fgm/c is a crime and violation of female’s rights. furthermore, girls under age 18 make up one-third of all u.s. females who are at risk of fgm/c (population reference bureau, 2016), and teachers, especially in major immigrant destinations, may have these girls in their classes. thus, all educators should understand this issue to carry out their professional and legal responsibilities. if they become aware that any student is at risk for fgm/c, they must report it to the authorities. human rights education is central to social studies education and “students must understand fundamental principles of human rights and humanitarian law to appropriately exercise their civic responsibilities and take their place in the world at large” (ncss, 2014). fgm/c is a highly controversial and emotional issue with powerful moral, political, and cultural implications; therefore, it is a viable topic for secondary social studies education and the development of civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions. however, the most viable way to eliminate this human rights violation in the united states is via education and increasing public awareness. the social studies profession must address this issue and educate all students that sex/gender equality is a legal mandate in america and abolishing fgm/c is consistent with our commitment to individual liberty, the rule of law, and equality. teaching about fgm/c will allow students to confront one of the most contentious debates in international politics and multiculturalism: are human rights universal (they apply to all human beings based on natural law principles) or are they determined by specific cultures or nation-states (each culture or country has the right to establish their own human rights ideals and laws)? educators can examine all of the competing arguments and students can learn how to construct and defend a position based on evidence and their political, religious, and social values. teaching about fgm/c give students the opportunity to engage the didactic (facts, data, and statistics), the reflective (critical thinking, logic, and problem-solving skills), and the affective (emotions, values, and beliefs) domains. fgm/c is a complex moral issue rooted in cultural patriarchy (burrage, 2016; nyangweso, 2014) and has the potential to induce outrage, especially for american students nurtured in a society committed to sex/gender equality, basic moore human rights, individual freedom, and social justice. moreover, this issue may inspire students to become actively involved to stop this illegal practice; active student participation in civic affairs is a primary goal of social studies education and a mark of a healthy democracy. this article will examine the nature, extent, causes, types, and consequences of fgm/c and explain how this practice is a violation of american law and international human rights law. second, the article will analyze why fgm/c is increasing in the united states and how the federal and state governments are responding to this trend with more forceful law enforcement, education, and outreach programs. additionally, schools and teachers can help at risk students; for example, a gambian girl in the united kingdom told her teacher that she was going to be “cut” and the teacher prevented this by notifying the appropriate authorities (nyangweso, 2014). third, the article will discuss some of the major implications for social studies and propose some strategies that educators can implement in their courses that are pedagogically defensible and comport with ncss standards for teaching about controversial issues, such as fgm/c, and academic freedom (ncss, 2016). methods this article is a theoretical and conceptual analysis of female genital mutilation/ cutting (fgm/c), a major human rights issue that affects millions of women worldwide. the primary research methodology was historical research on the origins, causes, extent, and consequences on women and affected societies. in addition, there was a brief literature review, which incorporated historical and contemporary sources on fgm/c across the globe. furthermore, the article relied on several legislative acts—based on american law and international law—to describe and explain the provisions of laws that prohibit fgm/c and provide for punishments under the appropriate laws. finally, the article relied on empirically based social studies methods and activities for teaching secondary school students about fgm/c. additionally, the article describe how students can become actively engaged—a core goal in social studies education— in abolishing this practice. the types, causes, and consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting the collective term given to several traditional practices that involve the cutting of female genitals is fgm/c. the procedure is commonly performed between the ages of four and 12 as a rite of passage and can occur a few days after birth or prior to marriage or after the first pregnancy (population reference bureau, 2017). in communities where fgm/c is prevalent, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 there is enormous social pressure for females to undergo the procedure for social acceptance. fgm/c is a rite of passage into womanhood and “purifies” girls, making them much more attractive for marriage (nyangweso, 2014). since fgm/c is illegal in almost all countries, parents (usually mothers), aunts, and grandmothers perform the procedure on babies and toddlers and there are efforts to avoid detection and arrest (nyangweso, 2014). this silence exacerbates efforts to stop the practice as well as hinders law enforcement in their attempts to arrest and prosecute perpetrators. teachers may find that atrisk students are afraid to tell anyone, even though they desperately wish to avoid fgm/c. the world health organization (who) has classified fgm/c into four major categories, which range from the least harmful to the most harmful. the first type of fgm/c is clitoridectomy and involves the partial or total removal of the clitoris, or in some rare cases, the practitioner removes only the prepuce (fold of skin surrounding the clitoris). the second type is excision and involves the partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora; this may also include the excision of the labia majora. this type accounts for 80% of all fgm/c incidents globally (nyangweso, 2014). the third type is referred to as infibulation, this is the narrowing of the vaginal opening by cutting and moving the labia minora or labia majora, thus forming a seal. the fourth type refers to all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, such as piercing, incising, scraping, and cauterizing the genital area (world health organization, 2017). all forms of fgm/c cause pain, ranging from mild to excruciating, depending on the type of fgm/c and the conditions (anesthesia is seldom used, the instrument used to mutilate or cut the genitals, and the skill of the performer) during the procedure (nyangweso, 2014). female genital mutilation has its roots in the historical inequality between men and women (world health organization, 2017). medical and historical evidence—egyptian mummies verify the practice, and herodotus noted it in the 5th century bce—date the practice of fgm/c to 4,000-5,000 years ago (nyangweso, 2014). furthermore, fgm/c was justified in england as a medical treatment to cure women of their “vexing mental disorders” and in the united states as a cure for excessive masturbation and lesbianism (nyangweso, 2014, p. 31). thus, fgm/c has a long and storied history regarding the purposes of the practice, and its centrality to cultural identity. this is a current issue in the united states as some people justify the procedure to validate cultural autonomy and view opposition to fgm/c as a form of western moore imperialism (nyangweso, 2014). this is part of a much larger discussion on whether human rights are universal or culturally specific; this issue has generated enormous disagreements among social scientists, academics, medical personnel, and the public (blanton and kegley, 2017). defenders of fgm/c will argue it is necessary to control to women’s sexuality (the practice often eliminates any sexual desire) and the practice validates their cultural identity. the procedure increases the chances of marriage for girls and women. moreover, some people erroneously claim that some religions requires fgm/c. however, no religion sanctions fgm/c but it is a cultural practice in muslim, christian, and jewish communities in africa and the middle east (nyangweso, 2014; suleman, 2017). since the practice occurs in many muslim countries, some people have falsely implicated islam in sanctioning fgm/c. educators should take this opportunity to inform students of this fact to abolish myths about islam. fgm/c is a manifestation of male patriarchy and its primary purpose is to exert control over women; it is an extreme form of discrimination and violence against women (burrage, 2016; goldberg et al., 2016; world health organization, 2017; suleman, 2017). fgm/c ensures premarital virginity and martial fidelity and “purifies” females of unclean and unfeminine body parts (world health organization, 2017). there are no medical reasons for fgm/c; there are no benefits and a plethora of physical and psychological harms for girls and women who have experienced this procedure (burrage, 2016; world health organization, 2017). it is a violation of females’ human rights and there is a growing international effort to abolish this practice (world health organization, 2017). fgm/c is not analogous to male circumcision; there are specific health benefits to male circumcision unrelated to cultural values. there are numerous, and very serious, short-term and long-term consequences of fgm/c on females. the risks increase with the severity of the procedures described by the world health organization. practitioners use unsterile razor blades, broken glass, scissors, and knives when performing fgm/c; typically, anesthesia is absent during the procedure (nyangweso, 2014; world health organization, 2017). this results in severe pain, excessive bleeding, fevers, infections, painful urinary problems, swelling, cysts, scarring, shock, sepsis, and even death (burrage, 2016; population reference bureau, 2017; world health organization, 2017). the long-term consequences include serious urinary tract infections, agonizing sexual intercourse, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 vaginal infections, and higher risk for hiv/aids, higher infant mortality rates, higher infertility rates, and painful menstrual problems (nyangweso, 2014; world health organization, 2017). furthermore, many females experience a wide range of psychological problems resulting from fgm/c. for example, depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and low self-esteem are common and women typically do not have access to mental care or refuse to seek help because of the pervasive social acceptance of the practice in the community (world health organization, 2017). fgm/c is a social norm that is often unquestioned in practicing communities and some medical personnel and powerful community leaders—religious and political—uphold the tradition (world health organization, 2017). even if medical personnel perform the procedure, fgm/c is still a medically unwarranted practice that causes great harm to females (world health organization, 2017). not surprisingly, many women, conditioned to support the practice, often perform the procedure on their daughters or other relatives. abolishing fgm/c will take concerted efforts, such as education, outreach programs, medical services for victims, and an increased focus on human rights. moreover, as more africans migrate to europe and north america (attoh, 2010), these regions will have to take several steps to prevent the practice. female genital mutilation/cutting: extent and spatial patterns fgm/c is an ancient practice that continues today in africa and parts of the middle east. additionally, as african immigrants migrate to europe, the united states, and other developed countries, they transport the practice to their new countries. between 2000 and 2013, the foreignborn population from africa more than doubled, from 881,000 to 1.8 million (population reference bureau, 2016). entrenched cultural beliefs and practices are difficult to eradicate, and passing restrictive laws and enforcement are not enough to change centuries-old attitudes and behaviors. globally, according to international organizations, at least 200 million girls and women have undergone some form of fgm/c (department of homeland security, 2017; world health organization, 2017). girls 14 and younger represent 44 million of those who have endured the practice and in some countries, such as somalia, 98% of females aged 15-49 have been cut. the practice is also common in egypt, indonesia, nigeria, ethiopia, liberia, sudan, kenya, and djibouti (population reference bureau, 2017). in the united states, about 507,000 females have undergone fgm/c or are at risk of the procedure; this is more than double the number in 2000 (228,000) (population reference bureau, moore 2016). about 97% of u.s. females at risk are from african countries, only 3% are from asia. three countries—egypt, ethiopia, and somalia—accounted for 55% of all u.s. females at risk in 2013 (population reference bureau, 2016). this is significant because fgm/c is very high in these countries and they send, relatively speaking, many immigrants to the united states. in fact, some estimates place the african population in the u.s. over 900,000 (attoh, 2010) and these immigrants hail from patriarchal societies where women experience several forms of sex discrimination (attoh, 2010). many of the females are cut in the united states, and others are sent abroad to undergo the procedure (department of homeland security, 2017). historically, immigrants have settled in specific regions or urban areas for numerous economic and cultural reasons, such as the availability of jobs, family reunification, and finding locales that have similar geographic and cultural attributes to their homeland. in 2013, about 60% of all u.s. females at risk of fgm/c lived in just eight states: california, maryland, new jersey, new york, texas, virginia, and washington (population reference bureau, 2016). these states are magnets for immigrants; they are culturally diverse (perceived as more welcoming of immigrants), economically vibrant, offer many types of employment, and some offer generous welfare programs. minnesota, even though it has not been a major immigrant destination like new york or california, has a large somali population (31,000 in 2013) that is at higher risk for fgm/c (population reference bureau, 2016). it is important to note that most fgm/c victims are usually under age 18 and will be attending public schools; teachers should be aware of students’ backgrounds and be prepared to help at-risk students. as immigrants have migrated from the traditional immigrant destinations, states like ohio and georgia, are receiving new immigrants that are at greater risk of fgm/c. for example, as of march 2018, ohio is debating senate bill (sb) 214 which would ban fgm/c in ohio, a state that a significant somali population. in fact, columbus, ohio has a somali population of 50,000, the second largest in the united states after minneapolis, minnesota (ohio senate judiciary committee, 2018). according to the population reference bureau, the number of females at risk in the united states will increase soon, as more africans migrate and have families. thus, ending fgm/c in africa will have a positive impact on immigrant families across the globe. furthermore, daughters of women with some education are less likely to undergo fgm/c compared to daughters of women with no education; educating females— abroad and in the united states—is a very effective method to protect women’s human rights journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 (population reference bureau, 2017). social studies, more than any other school discipline, can instill into all students that sex/gender equality is a moral and legal obligation in the united states. female genital mutilation/cutting: international law and american law in 2012, the united nations general assembly adopted a resolution that banned the practice of fgm/c across the globe (general assembly, 2012). the 194-member organization adopted the resolution and demonstrated the nearly universal efforts by the international community to ban a practice that deemed violent discrimination against females and is a violation of their human rights. this resolution, which was preceded by other united nations resolutions designed to protect the rights of children and women, was the result of a difficult effort to forge a global consensus and create language that was clear and acceptable to all countries (blanton and kegley, 2017; general assembly, 2012). moreover, this resolution called for the elimination of other human rights abuses, such as child marriage (usually, children under 14 who do not have the power to refuse marriage) and female infanticide. in fact, abolishing fgm/c by 2030 is one of the united nation’s objectives in the sustainable development goals program. it is part of a larger effort to eradicate all forms of gender-based discrimination and violence (unicef, 2017). in addition, while the criminalization of fgm/c is crucial to ending the practice, it will fail unless there are sustained efforts aimed at changing the underlying discriminatory attitudes and cultural beliefs that remain dominant in some countries and immigrant communities in the united states and europe (suleman, 2017). a concerted campaign—employing social media, government agencies, advocacy organizations, education, and the medical community—to end fgm/c is just as important as law enforcement, which is experiencing significant failure in procuring arrests and convictions for cultural reasons (suleman, 2017). educational efforts, including in the united states, must emphasize the moral and legal equality between males and females and strongly condemn any form of violence or discrimination against all individuals. moreover, victims of fgm/c must have access to high quality medical care, such as medications to fight infections, surgery that can repair some of the damage, and counseling therapy (cruickshank, 2017). in 1996, the united states congress passed the federal prohibition of female genital mutilation act, making it illegal to perform fgm/c on any female younger than 18 years of age moore (goldberg et al., 2016). additionally, this law required the department of health and human services (hhs) to acquire “data on fgm/c and engage in educational programs and outreach for relevant communities.” congress ordered the immigration and naturalization service (ins) to provide information on the adverse health effects of fgm/c and the legal consequences for violating this law to all immigrants issued u.s. visas (goldberg et al., 2016). in 2013, congress passed another law, the transport for female genital mutilation act, which made it a crime to transport a girl out of the country for undergoing fgm/c; this reduced the practice of families sending their daughters to their home countries for the procedure (goldberg et al., 2016). many families believe that it would be easier for their daughters to undergo fgm/c in counties and communities where the procedure is ubiquitous and laws that may prohibit fgm/c are seldom enforced. this law holds parents or legal guardians responsible and they may be subject to arrest even if they did not perform the procedure; of course, any person—including medical doctors— who perform the procedure are at risk of arrest, prosecution, and incarceration. in early 2017, the police arrested dr. jumana nagarala, a detroit, michigan emergency room physician, for performing fgm/c on two 7-year old girls (global woman peace foundation, 2017). the girls were told by their mothers that they were going to travel from minnesota to detroit for a “special girls’ trip” and instructed the girls not to tell anybody about the trip. the police also arrested dr. fakhruddin attar and his wife, farida attar, and charged with conspiracy, fgm/c, and aiding and abetting in the commission of a felony. the doctors in this case are from the dawood bohra, a shiite islamic sect based in india, where fgm/c is common (raja, 2017). the federal bureau of investigation (fbi) investigated the charges, interviewed the girls, and believed that the doctors have performed fgm/c on about one hundred girls since 2005 (global woman peace foundation, 2017). indeed, medical exams verified that both girls had undergone fgm/c and they received medical treatment for their wounds. however, on november 21, 2018, united states district judge bernard friedman ruled the federal law prohibiting fgm/c was unconstitutional because congress lacks the authority to regulate crimes, such as fgm/c, that are within the jurisdiction of states and not the federal government (belluck, 2018). the judge dropped the charges against the doctors; this ruling, while constitutionally sound, will hinder efforts to stop fgm/c in the united states. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 in addition to the now unconstitutional federal law, 26 states have laws prohibiting fgm/c (goldberg et al., 2016). the state laws mirror the federal law, but there are some differences. for example, minnesota, tennessee, and rhode island prohibit the practice even on consenting adult women (center for reproductive rights, 2004). furthermore, many antifgm/c groups are advocating for all states to ban fgm/c and engage in education and outreach programs in relevant communities. the u.s. government is working to abolish fgm/c across the globe; progress made in africa and other regions will reduce the number of immigrants who support the procedure (population reference bureau, 2016). according to u.s. laws, fgm/c in any form is a gender-based human rights violation rooted in notions of male dominance and ending this practice is a major goal of the government, especially the department of homeland security. educational institutions, including american public schools, must teach about fgm/c and its horrifying effects on girls and women (burrage, 2016). in addition, teaching about fgm/c in a professional and ethical manner that is scholarly is crucial; however, teachers have the law on their side: fgm/c is a felony in the united states. without intervention, up to 63 million more women across the globe could undergo fgm/c by 2050 (burrage, 2016). educators can implement several strategies and activities in social studies courses to assist in the abolition of an appalling human rights abuse that is a betrayal of american ideals of liberty, personal responsibility, and equality before the law. the rationale for teaching about fgm/c in secondary social studies education human rights education is a major theme in global education—an umbrella term encompassing international politics, population, world cultures, ethnic conflicts, economic interdependence, migration, war, and other issues—because of globalization (blanton and kelley, 2017; chapin, 2015). modern technologies (the internet, social media, advanced communication and transportation systems, international trade and investments, migration patterns, and cultural diffusion) have created an increasingly interdependent world. these changes have compelled social studies education to focus on vital global issues to prepare students to live in a high-tech global economy and culturally diverse world. human rights education is a central issue in contemporary social studies education and infusing it into all social studies disciplines is prudent. in fact, the ncss (2017) is encouraging the federal government to moore support human rights education in public schools by honoring human rights treaties and international human rights law. teaching about fgm/c in secondary social studies classes, like discussing any controversial issues, requires that educators follow the first amendment decisions by the supreme court (frequently, controversial issues involve religion and freedom of expression) and the guidelines established by the national council for the social studies concerning academic freedom (ncss, 2016, p. 186). in fact, the ncss offers a strident defense of academic freedom by asserting that teachers and students have a right to discuss controversial issues without any fears of censorship or retribution. the ncss (2016) position paper, academic freedom and the social studies educator, states that “academic freedom for social studies educators and students includes the right and responsibility to study, investigate, present, interpret, discuss, and debate relevant facts, issues, and ideas” (ncss, 2016, p. 186). this is a prerequisite for finding truth and informed decision-making in a democracy; avoiding controversial issues is a disservice to students and the country. additionally, students who receive a high-quality civic education are “more likely to vote and discuss politics at home, to volunteer and work on community issues, and are more confident in their ability to speak publicly and communicate with their elected representatives” (ncss, 2013a, para 5). therefore, studying about fgm/c, as well as other controversial issues, is educationally legitimate and comports with american laws. of course, teachers must be prudent in their approach to these issues, ensuring that all viewpoints are welcome, information is accurate, dissent is a hallmark of a healthy democracy, and civility characterizes all class activities. furthermore, it is important to recognize that no right or liberty is absolute; there are constitutional limits that educators and students must adhere to in public schools. teachers should exercise caution when teaching certain issues—fhm/c, poverty, war, crime, abuse, and so forth—because they may have students in class who have experienced these issues. moreover, studying about fgm/c is interdisciplinary and involves the core social studies topics of history, government/civics, economics, and geography. additionally, educators can incorporate themes from anthropology, sociology, psychology, and international relations, as well as from the humanities and the medical sciences. it also provides students the opportunities to engage in analytical research, recognize the role of bias, propaganda, distortions, and omissions in the literature, and make rational decisions based on knowledge and a commitment journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 to democratic ideals (ncss, 2016). fgm/c has a compelling moral and social justice component that students will find fascinating and the issue has the potential to stimulate student activism outside of the classroom, a major, albeit difficult, goal in social studies education. teaching about fgm/c: strategies, activities, and resources planning to teach about human rights and fgm/c is crucial to producing a rich, challenging, and rewarding educational experience for students. it is important for educators to establish clear goals, objectives, activities, resources, and assessment measures for meaningful learning. educators’ lesson plans should reflect ncss or state standards, this is important to justify the topics, objectives, and activities. while there are, of course, numerous approaches to teaching about fgm/c, one viable approach would be to utilize “the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history” (ncss, 2013b). this is an inquiry-based curriculum that emphasizes the importance of compelling and supporting questions, research (based on the structure of each social studies discipline), collaboration, communication, and activism. fgm/c is an excellent topic for an inquiry-based project; there is an abundance of scholarly materials, research articles, and organizations dedicated to human rights education and abolishing fgm/c. the c3 framework requires intense preparation but offers students superb educational experiences. teachers can assist students with developing a compelling question (one that is enduring, complex, intellectually challenging, and interesting to students) and supporting questions in history, government/civics, geography, and economics. in addition, while educators act as facilitators, guiding students to ensure on task behavior and assisting with research and resources, the onus is on students to create a viable project. teachers many wish to review the c3 framework (ncss, 2013b) and decide if this will work given their specific needs (time considerations, ability level of their students, and state and school district requirements for standardized testing). other viable options include writing essays detailing the origins and purposes of fgm/c, readings followed by class discussions, interactive lectures, short videos (available at the population reference bureau website), mock trials (this would be excellent for analyzing the legal and moral issues associated with fgm/c), and debates. regardless of the specific approaches to teaching about fgm/c, it is important to teach students the facts about fgm/c. students need to know the causes, types, and the consequences moore of fgm/c, on not only females, but also the entire community. they need to know that the procedure is illegal in the united states and international law, and it has no support from the united states government, major international organizations, or the u.s. medical community. many of the resources used in this article, such as the world health organization (who), the population reference bureau (prb), the department of homeland security (dhs), and the united nations (un) provide empirical data, statistics, and research on fgm/c. these resources can help teachers design a pedagogically sound curriculum based on american law and ncss standards. furthermore, it is important that educators inform students that various groups support fgm/c and in relevant immigrant communities; these defenders may assert that there are historical, religious, and cultural reasons to continue the procedure. this is analogous to informing students that other controversial issues throughout history, such as slavery, segregation, and prohibiting women’s suffrage have had significant support from several constituencies. indeed, for most of human history, slavery was not controversial; it was a universal practice (often unrelated to race until the 15th century) that was accepted throughout the world (klein, 2014). this fact, of course, does not imply slavery, segregation, or fgm/c are morally correct. however, it is vital students understand that there are contrasting views and some people will take positions that students find morally repugnant and indefensible. human rights are controversial because individuals and cultures exhibit some profound differences in beliefs, values, historical experiences, geography, religion, and politics. some countries may reject the international definition of human rights; others may argue that the universal declaration of human rights (udhr) is essentially a western document without input from non-western nations, such as india, china, and egypt; still, other countries may disagree over the relative importance between individual and community rights (blanton & kegley, 2017). however, these challenges make teaching about human rights interesting, though provoking, and stimulate debates, discussions, dissent, and compromises. an effective starting point for teachers may be readings (excerpts from documents, such as the declaration of the rights of man and the citizen, the declaration of independence, the constitution are excellent resources) and discussions on the development of democracy and human rights. additionally, having students read the 1948 universal declaration of human rights (the preamble and thirty statements) and discuss the philosophy undergirding these rights journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 will help them understand the premise of the united states (liberty, equality, social justice, the rule of law, and limited government) and current international law. for example, article i contends “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. they are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.” (general assembly, 1948). article five states that “no one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment” (general assembly, 1948). article 7 affirms, “all are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. all are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination” (general assembly, 1948). article 12 proclaims, “no one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks” (general assembly, 1948). thus, these political ideals condemn fgm/c, which is torture, sex discrimination, and invasion of privacy, as a clear violation of human rights. the udhr, based on natural law and influenced by western democracies, is an excellent primary source for teaching about fgm/c and other controversial issues. students who acquire a command of the literature on human rights will be able to articulate a reasoned opinion on a variety of issues—poverty, freedom of expression and religion, child marriage, due process of law, and others—that are central to a comprehensive social studies education. teachers may wish to produce a powerpoint presentation that incorporates the relevant facts and statistics (definition, causes, types and consequences of fgm/c, legal citations banning the procedure). moreover, the presentation can include maps showing the spatial distribution of the procedure globally and in the united states. this could provoke a discussion on cultural differences among nations and immigration patterns that explain why and where fgm/c is common. incorporating charts, graphs, videos, music, and political cartoons with vital information and opinions also teaches students how to interpret and assess the validity of information and statistics; teaching them to have a healthy skepticism about authority, facts, and statistics is constructive. students could interview fgm/c victims or doctors to gain factual knowledge or personal insight on the procedure. this would be feasible in cities like new york, seattle, los angles, minneapolis, washington dc, and columbus, ohio that have large at-risk immigrant populations. they need to vet sources, look for contrasting evidence, hear diverse moore views, research issues, and think for themselves. therefore, asking excellent questions—thought provoking, complex, nuanced, and open-ended—is important in social studies. civic education should not be a passive endeavor; student engagement—solving problems, community service, actively seeking social justice and equality—motivated by a passion for knowledge and civic responsibility and promoting democratic ideals is the primary goal in civic education (ncss, 2013a). as immigration from africa and other nations increases, experts believe, and current data supports their claims, that fgm/c will increase in the united states unless there is a concerted effort to abolish this practice, abroad and at home (population reference bureau, 2016). thus, prosecuting individuals who allow or commit fgm/c is imperative to abolishing fgm/c. additionally, education and outreach programs are crucial to bring widespread awareness to a barbaric and anachronistic practice that is an affront to human rights and democratic ideals (burrage, 2016; population reference bureau, 2016; general assembly, 2012; world health organization, 2017). social studies education, by teaching all students, including the immigrant children at risk of fgm/c in their classrooms, that all human beings are equal and free, can play a major role in abolishing fgm/c in the united states and protecting human rights for all people in accordance with american law. unlike most countries, americanism is not rooted in blood (to whom born) or soil (where one is born) but on the democratic ideals of a common humanity (huntington, 2004; schlesinger, 1998). if all social studies teachers incorporate human rights into their curricula (of course, it must be age and maturity appropriate), the profession cultivates young citizens who will work towards the abolition of fgm/c and other human rights abuses (shuttleworth & kirkland, 2012). conclusions and implications the international community, via the united nations, has passed laws prohibiting fgm/c, a procedure that had affected 200 million females across the globe. fgm/c is an ancient practice rooted in cultural traditions regarding female purity, fidelity, and viability for marriage. no religion sanctions fgm/c and it continues to be ubiquitous throughout africa and parts of the middle east, as well as indonesia, pakistan, and other asian countries. there are over 500,000 females at risk in the united states owing to increasing immigration from developing world countries. federal law in the united states prohibits female genital mutilation/cutting and it is illegal to transport a female out of the country to undergo fgm/c journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 (burrage, 2016; nyangweso, 2014). it is imperative that all fifty states pass laws prohibiting fgm/c, this is crucial in light of the november 2018 judicial decision declaring the federal law unconstitutional. female genital mutilation/cutting is a major human rights issue and fgm/c is a violation of women’s rights to equality, privacy, and choice regarding their bodies. research indicates that the most effective methods to abolishing fgm/c include strong laws with severe punishments for violators, international cooperation, and increasing efforts to educate people about fgm/c and the actions they can take to stop fgm/c in their countries or communities. the social studies profession can have a profound impact on fgm/c and other human rights issues by incorporating them into the core curriculum. human rights issues are important to secondary students and they will be interested in ways to become engaged in civic participation—the ultimate goal in social studies education. fgm/c is a powerful moral issue that can spawn passion that motivates students to expand the ideals of personal freedom and equality to all individuals. references attoh, s.a. (2010), geography of sub-saharan africa (3rd ed.), prentice hall, new york, ny. blanton, s.l. & kegley, c.w. (2017), world politics: trends and transformation. cengage learning, boston, ma. burrage, h. (2016), female mutilation: the truth behind the horrifying practice of female genital mutilation. new holland press, london, england: chapin, j. (2015), a practical guide to middle and secondary social studies. pearson, new york, ny. federal prohibition of female genital mutilation act of 1996, 18 u.s.c. § 116 (1996). general assembly. res. 67 (146), a, u.n. doc. a/res/ 67 (146) (dec. 20, 2012). general assembly. res. 217 (111), a, u. n. doc. a/res/ 217 (111) (dec. 10, 1948). goldberg, h., stupp, p., okoroh, e., behera, g., goodman, d., & danel, i. (2016). “female genital mutilation/cutting in the united states: updated estimates of women and girls at risk, 2012.” public health reports, vol. 131, pp.1-8. huntington, s.p., (2004), who are we? the challenge to america’s national identity, simon & schuster, new york, ny. klein, m.a. (2014), slavery and abolition, (2nd ed.), rowman & littlefield, new york, ny. moore marger, m.n., (2015), race and ethnic relations, (10th ed.), cengage learning, stamford, ct. nyangweso, m. (2014), female genital cutting in industrialized countries: mutilation or cultural tradition? praeger, oxford, england. schlesinger, a.m. (1998), the disuniting of america: reflections on a multicultural society. w.w. norton & company, new york, ny. shuttleworth, m. & kirkland, m. (2012), youth for human rights educator’s guide. youth for human rights international, los angeles, ca: transport for female genital mutilation act of 2013, pub. l. no. 112-239, §1088, 126 stat. 1970 (2013). web-based references anderson, l. (2013). female genital mutilation on the rise in the united states-report. retrieved september 20, 2017, from http://news.trust.org/item/?map=female-genital-mutilation-on-the-rise-in-the-unitedstates-report/ belluck, p. (2018). federal ban on female genital mutilation ruled unconstitutional by judge. retrieved november 28, 2018, from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/21/health/fgm-female-genital-mutilation-law.html center for reproductive rights, (2004). legislation on female genital mutilation in the united states. retrieved october 4, 2017, from https://www.reproductiverights.org/sites/default/files/documents/pub_bp_fgmlawsusa.pdf cruickshank, h. (2017). surgery offers hope for victims of female genital mutilation. retrieved october 4, 2017, from https://www.healthline.com/health-news/surgery-for-victims-of-female-genital mutilation#1 department of homeland security. (2017). female genital mutilation or cutting (fgm/c) outreach strategy. retrieved september 17, 2017, from https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/uscis/humanitarian/special%20situations/dh sfgm_outreach_plan_-_final_-_1-17-17.pdf global woman peace foundation (2017), michigan to become 26th state to ban fgm/c. retrieved october 4, 2017, from http://news.trust.org/item/?map=female-genital-mutilation-on-the-rise-in-the-united-states-report/ http://news.trust.org/item/?map=female-genital-mutilation-on-the-rise-in-the-united-states-report/ https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/21/health/fgm-female-genital-mutilation-law.html https://www.reproductiverights.org/sites/default/files/documents/pub_bp_fgmlawsusa.pdf https://www.healthline.com/health-news/surgery-for-victims-of-female-genital-%20%20%20mutilation#1 https://www.healthline.com/health-news/surgery-for-victims-of-female-genital-%20%20%20mutilation#1 https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/uscis/humanitarian/special%20situations/dhsfgm_outreach_plan_-_final_-_1-17-17.pdf https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/uscis/humanitarian/special%20situations/dhsfgm_outreach_plan_-_final_-_1-17-17.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 102-122 http://www.globalwomanpeacefoundation.org/michigan-will-become-the-26th-u-s-stateto-ban-fgmc/ hui, s. (2018). u.s., u.k. step up co-operation against female genital mutilation: officials. retrieved november 7, 2018, from https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/u-s-u-k-step-up-co-operation-against-female-genitalmutilation-officials-1.4083644 mishori, r. (2017). the criminalization of fgm in the united states: responding to female genital cutting: the michigan case and beyond. retrieved october 24, 2017, from https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/forum/female-genital-cutting-the-michigan-caseand-beyond/responses/the-criminalization-of-fgm-in-the-united-states national council for the social studies. (2017). ncss to encourage the united states government to include support for human rights education in public schools as part of its commitment to honor various ratified treaties and approved declarations regarding human rights and humanitarian law. retrieved october 11, 2017, from https://www.socialstudies.org/about/hod/2016resolutions#16-04-2 national council for the social studies. (2016), academic freedom and the social studies educator. retrieved october 11, 2017, from https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/may-june2016/academicfreedom-and-social-studies-teacher national council for the social studies. (2015). human rights education: a necessity for effective social and civic learning. retrieved october 11, 2017, from https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/human_rights_education_2014 national council for the social studies. (2013a). revitalizing civic learning in our schools. retrieved october 11, 2017, from https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/revitalizing_civic_learning national council for the social studies. (2013b). the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. retrieved october 20, 2017, from, https://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/2017/jun/c3-framework-for-socialstudies-rev0617.pdf ohio senate judiciary committee. (2018). testimony before the ohio senate judiciary http://www.globalwomanpeacefoundation.org/michigan-will-become-the-26th-u-s-state-to-ban-fgmc/ http://www.globalwomanpeacefoundation.org/michigan-will-become-the-26th-u-s-state-to-ban-fgmc/ https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/u-s-u-k-step-up-co-operation-against-female-genital-mutilation-officials-1.4083644 https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/u-s-u-k-step-up-co-operation-against-female-genital-mutilation-officials-1.4083644 https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/forum/female-genital-cutting-the-michigan-case-and-beyond https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/forum/female-genital-cutting-the-michigan-case-and-beyond https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/forum/female-genital-cutting-the-michigan-case-and-beyond/responses/the-criminalization-of-fgm-in-the-united-states https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/forum/female-genital-cutting-the-michigan-case-and-beyond/responses/the-criminalization-of-fgm-in-the-united-states https://www.socialstudies.org/about/hod/2016resolutions#16-04-2 https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/may-june2016/academic-freedom-and-social-studies-teacher https://www.socialstudies.org/publications/socialeducation/may-june2016/academic-freedom-and-social-studies-teacher https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/human_rights_education_2014 https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/revitalizing_civic_learning https://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/2017/jun/c3-framework-for-social-studies-rev0617.pdf https://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/2017/jun/c3-framework-for-social-studies-rev0617.pdf moore committee in support of s.b. 214. columbus, ohio. retrieved november 1, 2018, from search-prod.lis.state.oh.us/.../sb214proponenttestimonydr.kristineseveryn3.20.18.pdf population reference bureau. (2017). female genital mutilation/cutting: data and trends. retrieved september 29, 2017, from http://www.prb.org/pdf17/fgmc%20poster%202017.pdf population reference bureau. (2016). women and girls at risk of female genital mutilation/cutting in the united states. retrieved september 29, 2017, from http://www.prb.org/publications/articles/2015/us-fgmc.aspx raja, t. (2017). i underwent genital mutilation as a child—right here in the united states. retrieved october 12, 2017, from http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2017/04/genital-cutting-indian-doctor-womenkhatna/ suleman, a. (2017). a necessary conversation: debunking religious justifications for fgm/c. retrieved october 12, 2017, from https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/forum/female-genital-cutting-the-michigan-caseand-beyond/responses/a-necessary-conversation-debunking-religious-justifications-forfgm-c unicef. (2017). female genital mutilation/cutting: a global concern. retrieved september 25, 2017, from http://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/fgmc-2016-brochure_250.pdf united nations women. (2012). united nations bans female genital mutilation. retrieved september 25, 2017, from http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2012/12/united-nations-bans-female-genitalmutilation world health organization. (2017). female genital mutilation. retrieved september 25, 2017, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=2ahukewjksuwi6rpeahvk3imkhyk-a8iqfjabegqiabac&url=http%3a%2f%2fsearch-prod.lis.state.oh.us%2fcm_pub_api%2fapi%2funwrap%2fchamber%2f132nd_ga%2fready_for_publication%2fcommittee_docs%2fcmte_s_judiciary_1%2ftestimony%2fcmte_s_judiciary_1_2018-03-20-1015_1261%2fsb214proponenttestimonydr.kristineseveryn3.20.18.pdf&usg=aovvaw1xwmsh1pxw4hrf0otnsmmt https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=2ahukewjksuwi6rpeahvk3imkhyk-a8iqfjabegqiabac&url=http%3a%2f%2fsearch-prod.lis.state.oh.us%2fcm_pub_api%2fapi%2funwrap%2fchamber%2f132nd_ga%2fready_for_publication%2fcommittee_docs%2fcmte_s_judiciary_1%2ftestimony%2fcmte_s_judiciary_1_2018-03-20-1015_1261%2fsb214proponenttestimonydr.kristineseveryn3.20.18.pdf&usg=aovvaw1xwmsh1pxw4hrf0otnsmmt http://www.prb.org/pdf17/fgmc%20poster%202017.pdf http://www.prb.org/publications/articles/2015/us-fgmc.aspx http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2017/04/genital-cutting-indian-doctor-women-khatna/ http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2017/04/genital-cutting-indian-doctor-women-khatna/ https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/forum/female-genital-cutting-the-michigan-case-and-beyond/responses/a-necessary-conversation-debunking-religious-justifications-for-fgm-c https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/forum/female-genital-cutting-the-michigan-case-and-beyond/responses/a-necessary-conversation-debunking-religious-justifications-for-fgm-c https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/forum/female-genital-cutting-the-michigan-case-and-beyond/responses/a-necessary-conversation-debunking-religious-justifications-for-fgm-c http://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/fgmc-2016-brochure_250.pdf%20(25 http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2012/12/united-nations-bans-female-genital-mutilation http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2012/12/united-nations-bans-female-genital-mutilation http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2),152-179 role of legal consultants education on corporate social responsibility and social impact sahal afhami1 abstract the purpose of this study was to examine the role of corporate legal consultant education (eclc) on corporate social responsibility which has an impact on social life. this study uses a normative legal study approach. namely the statutory regulations statute approach, the conceptual approach, and the case study approach as stipulated in the law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system, law of the republic of indonesia number 40 of 2007 regarding limited liability companies, government regulation number 47 of 2021 concerning social and environmental responsibility of limited liability companies, regulation of the minister of law and human rights number 14 of 2020, and law number 13 of 2011 concerning handling of the poor. based on the literature study, it is revealed that corporate legal consultant education (phkp) is very important for companies that practice csr. it is believed that the eclc can provide a basis for thinking and acting for business actors in line with the prevailing laws and regulations in indonesia. skills in communicating and making the right decisions are beneficial for companies in establishing reciprocal relationships from social bonds with the community. especially to avoid social conflicts related to ulayat land, customary permits, and socio-economic problems. these findings found that current regulations still pose a dilemma in the definition and practice of csr. the expected implication is that through the role of eclc, the company can achieve a balance or integration of economic, environmental and social problems. and at the same time can meet the expectations of stakeholders. companies must be guided by the triple botton lines (profits, people, and plans and consider the benefits of eclc in csr practices. the government needs to support the socialization of corporate legal consultant education and examine more deeply the regulations on limited liability companies in order to contribute to the economic development of local communities and the wider community. keywords: legal, education, consultant, corporate social responsibility, social impact. introduction the reciprocal relationship between communities and company activities is an important part of sustainable development. not without reason, the smooth development of a country's economy is based on the responsibility of stakeholders. to realize the social role in development, companies have substantially corporate social responsibility. this is an opportunity to achieve a balance or integration of the economy, environment and fulfill stakeholder expectations. with the issuance of the republic of indonesia regulation in law number 40 of 2007 concerning limited liability 1 dr. faculty of law, universitas darul ulum jombang indonesiaaa, sahalafhami@undar.ac.id mailto:sahalafhami@undar.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 153 companies, several new provisions must be recognized by executives, decision-makers, and legal practitioners in good corporate social responsibility practices. this is considered very relevant considering that many rights and obligations must be carried out sustainably by carrying out business activities in a limited liability company. however, in practice, corporate social responsibility (csr) often intersects with regulations and the surrounding community. developing countries are increasingly promoting csr discourse. hence there has been a shift to human capital development. the relationship between state-level social trust and firm-level financial performance emphasizes csr's role as a mediator (khan, lockhart, & bathurst, 2021). in a community environment, strong social beliefs, individuals, organizations are expected to work well together and behave honestly. thus, social interactions are guided by belief norms and a willingness to trust others(jung & im, 2020). therefore, companies must meet social trust norms by engaging in socially responsible activities and having a positive effect on the company's financial performance. the literature that discusses corporate social responsibility considers strategic efforts that support positive impacts on economic, social, and environmental orders (khan et al., 2021; rothenberg, hull, & tang, 2017). the strategic effort in question includes legal studies on legal consultant education in supporting csr practices in indonesia. recent studies reveal the role of legal education in public sector practices (abidin, suryanto, & utami, 2020) and csr practices on corporate sustainability performance (khan et al., 2021; bolay & knierzinger, 2021). previous research has explained that legal consultant education, better known as corporate advocate education, is considered a noble profession because it bridges the company and the community's interests. a person who received a legal consultancy education and worked as an advocate has an obligation to uphold human rights (utomo, 2018). therefore, legal education institutions like this can affect the economic prosperity of a country (motilewa et al., 2019). it is hoped that a legal education institution will increase the number of stakeholders who will learn and understand the importance of ethics education, human rights, csr, and sustainability (ajaps & obiagu, 2020; christensen, et al., 2007; honegger, 2020). the education of corporate legal consultants that stakeholders have had the potential to be superior in dealing with csr practice problems. this possibility occurs because of the opinion of company professionals such as ceos and company managers who understand the company's legal problems that can solve legal problems that occur (sitepu, hutagalung, & leonard, 2020). this is in line afhami with legal professional organizations in indonesia. in explaining the bylaws of the capital market legal consultants association of 2016, article 2 concerning the purpose and functions, it is explained that conceptually the association of capital market legal consultants (hkhpm) plays a role in encouraging educational activities. previous legal studies stated that it is important to collaborate between advocates of professional organizations and universities to implement advocacy special education with a standard curriculum in indonesia to improve corporate legal skills (utomo, 2018). utilizing the services of a legal consultant is often seen as a way to solve company problems. in fact, the role of legal consultants has limitations in influencing stakeholders. human resource legal skills with a corporate law education have excellent potential in the global legal market (silver, 2011). other literature states that organizing advocacy education specifically for managers can affect shareholder value and have implications for sustainable development (lópez-pérez, melero, & javier sesé, 2017) and support the promotion of corporate governance social responsibility reporting (clune & o’dwyer, 2020). unfortunately, business professionals have different views about corporate responsibilities and obligations even though business professionals need to keep up with legal changes in their practice and business environment (spoor, 2019). departing from this problem, this researcher expands the study of laws and regulations regarding legal consultant education and their involvement with csr practices in indonesia. the novelty in this research is to offer legal insights about the education of corporate legal consultants that impact society. this study was not found much from previous research. this study also investigates laws and regulations regarding the education of corporate legal consultants and csr practices because previous studies have different views on the education of legal consultants on csr practices. another consideration is that today's society has low levels of trust and low expectations of reputation and legitimacy due to various social scandals (mueller & theuvsen, 2014). as a result, the company's reputation and brand image are not good. it is important to communicate targeted csr practices from a legal consultant's education point of view. so that public trust increases (jung & im, 2020). comprehensive knowledge of economic instruments and methods in the legal aspect has become an obligation for business actors from the demands of the global economy. this is to know the national law in the scope of statutory regulations and the needs in csr practice. therefore, it is essential to conduct a legal review of the educational role of legal consultants for the actions of companies that want to carry out csr practices. by understanding the regulation of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 155 advocate education and its benefits, stakeholders are not only able to get feedback but also be able to support sustainable development. other literature states that government regulatory support has a positive impact on csr practices and has an impact on sustainable development (lamarche & bodet, 2018; rose & rose, 2019)). it is hoped that understanding the existing legal rules can support the socialization of law, csr practices, and existing legitimacy in indonesia. based on the background of this problem, the researcher intends to dig deeper based on legal analysis about the role of legal education (in this study, the researcher focuses on the role of corporate legal consultant education or advocate education) on csr practices and social impacts. research questions this study investigates the legal rules of corporate legal consultant education and csr practices in indonesia that have a social impact. from the background of the problems that have been started, the researcher examines two problem formulations that are considered relevant to this research, namely as follows: 1. what is the role of government regulations related to the practice of corporate social responsibility in indonesia? 2. what is the role of corporate legal consultant education on corporate social responsibility and its impact on social life based on government regulations ? literature review legal education in a democratic social system supported by the principle of the rule of law, legal education is a training of skills and professional values that are a source of development (alviar, 2008; bekele,& ago, 2020; gerst & hess, 2009; strunc, 2019), regulation, and law enforcement (cracknell, 2017). whether in realizing human resources who are experts in the field of law or various thoughts on legal substance, public interest, and improvement and administration of law. but to achieve this role, it is necessary to review the state of legal education that makes it possible or does not support the implementation of that role (darolia, 2020; strunc, 2020). putting and realizing legal education as a subsystem of the legal system is very important and fundamental. this approach allows legal education to be integrated and functional, both theoretically and practically, with all components afhami of the legal system consisting of legal rules, law administrators, legal professionals, legal education, and lawmakers (lasswell & mcdougal, 1942). through legal education, legal experts produce legal experts who see the ins and outs of corporate law rules, law enforcement, and fill legal institutions and participate in creating and developing laws through legal teachings and legal analysis. it is essential to understand the rule of law and the basis of legal objectives in depth so that there is no imbalance between legal education and the legal profession (edwards, 1992). the ups and downs of legal education are also based on the quality of the teaching (minzner, 2012). more in meyer, strietholt, & epstein (2018) explains that three abilities are useful when receiving legal education, namely providing legal knowledge, solving legal problems from the knowledge of the law that is mastered, and the ability to make choices from existing legal rules. corporate legal consultant education, better known as company advocate education, focuses on providing advice and/or the ability to carry out non-litigation duties or provide legal services outside the court (utomo, 2018). legal consultant education is based on integrity and morals, good faith, and fairness which are placed as development or renewal of legal education (langdon & sytsma, 1978). to get a legal consultant education does not have certain requirements, as long as you have a legal background and have specific experience in certain areas of law(panjaitan et al., 2020). literally, people who have received a legal consultancy education have the sharpness of analyzing legal problems and conducting legal research. so, it is essential to master the substance of the law. it is further explained that an advocacy organization can organize engagement to promote corporate social and environmental accountability to promote corporate social responsibility reporting and management practices (clune & o’dwyer, 2020) the literature states that the role of legal consultant education is for development and law enforcement for sustainability, facing business competition, and increasing expertise in law. this education can build supervisor-advocate behavior oriented towards social justice and healthy legal practices (anand & hsu, 2020; lund, wilbur, & kuemmel, 2020). as with legal education in general, legal consultant education must deconstruct matters and methods related to legal rationality, structuring, formulation, and bureaucratization. this educational attention focuses on controlling regulations, structures, and procedures (spoor, 2019). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 157 corporate social responcibilty corporate social responsibility is an ongoing commitment by the business world to act ethically and contribute to the economic development of the local community or the wider community, along with improving the standard of living of workers and their families (nath et al., 2019). the study states that how customer involvement in csr initiatives leads to greater csr participation. the findings explain that there is a positive relationship between customer csr perceptions and csr participation intentions. this relationship is more visible when csr's credibility is higher than when the credibility is low (hur, moon, & kim, 2020). csr is implemented as a way for a company to achieve balance or integration of economic, environmental, and social problems while fulfilling the expectations of stakeholders. csr targets three things, namely profits, people, and plans or what is known as the triple bottom lines (suharto, 2005). the benefits of csr include, “a) winning new business; b) enhanced relationship with stakeholders; c) attracting retaining, and maintaining a happy workforce; d) media interest and good reputation; e) access to funding opportunities; f) enhancing your influence in the industry; g) differentiating yourself from the competitors; h) saving money on energy and operating costs, and i) increase in customer retention (zulkifli, 2017).” from a management perspective, csr compliance can risk being exposed to the public by third party organizations, which can negatively affect its market share. several factors carried by the csr strategy affect company performance, such as risk exposure, competition, and premium costs. the findings suggest that csr-compliant operations are carried out either when the risk of exposure is high enough or when the cost premium is low (bian et al., 2021). the literature reviews the importance of disclosing corporate social performance (wang, hsieh, & sarkis, 2018). several factors drive csr disclosure in developed and developing countries: company size, industrial sector, profitability, and good corporate governance mechanisms. external factors such as political, social, and cultural situations influence csr. in large countries, the concern of stakeholders such as regulators, shareholders, creditors, investors, and environmentalists, and the media is considered to have contributed to csr disclosure. in developing countries, most csr reporting is influenced by external forces or strong stakeholders such as international buyers, foreign investors, and international regulatory bodies (ali, frynas, & mahmood, 2017). afhami method research design the research design uses normative legal research or doctrinal law. normative legal research methods are used to find legal rules, legal principles, and legal doctrines. doctrinal research defines characteristics using reasoning and analysis of the rule of law (chynoweth, 2001). the aim is to answer certain legal issues generally written in statutory regulations and cases. this research is focused on corporate consultant education and the context of corporate social responsibility. this research design makes it possible to find relevant legal rules and examine which rules to apply in situations facilitated by the existence of these legal doctrines. this study describes legal standards in indonesia, which are supported by the literature. the steps in the research design carried out refer to the qualitative approach of krippendorff (2018), in which the analysis process is carried out by identifying and formulating analysis objectives, understanding conceptually, coding, and referencing the study of character values objectively and systematically. the aim is to make valid inferences on research results based on a normative legal context. data and sources of data the data source of this research comes from secondary data. types of documents derived from primary legal materials consist of: a) law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system; b) law of the republic of indonesia number 40 of 2007 concerning limited liability companies; c) government regulation number 47 of 2021 concerning social and environmental responsibility of limited liability companies; d) regulation of the minister of law and human rights number 14 of 2020; and e) law number 13 the year 2011 concerning handling of the poor. secondary data sources from secondary legal materials consist of legal materials that explain primary legal materials obtained from literature studies in the form of literature related to the problem's background. data sources and evaluations are presented in table 1. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 159 table 1. document type theme the secondary data destination legal consultant education 1. law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system 2. main agenda of bylaws and code of ethics of the consultant association capital market legal entity (hkhpm) 3. hkhpm decree no. kep. 01/hkhpm/ 2005concerning standards for capital market legal consultants 4. law number 13 year 2011 concerning handling the poor the data evaluation aims to investigate the rule of law regarding the education of corporate legal consultants in indonesia corporate social responcibilty 1. law of the republic of indonesia number 40 of 2007 concerning limited liability companies 2. government regulation number 47 of 2021 concerning social and environmental responsibility of limited liability companies 3. regulation of the minister of law and human rights number 14 of 2020 the purpose of evaluating the data is to investigate the legal rules of csr practices carried out by companies in indonesia data collection data collection was carried out to ensure all research information was carried out by the research analysis unit, namely documents on legal regulations for legal consultant education and csr legal rules. data collection on research questions was carried out by examining the legal rules relevant to the research theme. the collection criteria for rq1 are laws and regulations that examine legal consultant education. meanwhile, the rq2 criteria are laws and regulations that examine csr practices. the coding system that researchers apply considers 1 for the data code [1], considering 2 for the data code [2], and so on. data was determined based on themes and unit analysis collected from documents. question 1 presents theme 1 in several analysis units consisting of 4 data codes [1,2,3, & 4]. and question 2 displays theme 2 in 10 data codes [5,6,7,8,9,10,11, 12, 13, & 14]. the data collection process is necessary to ensure that the data that has been collected can describe the characteristics of the content clearly and accurately (krippendorff, 2018). data collection uses normative legal analysis as presented in table 2. afhami table 2. data collection theme primary legal data sources indication rq code data corporate social responcibilty 1. law of the republic of indonesia number 40 of 2007 concerning limited liability companies 2. government regulation number 47 of 2021 concerning social and environmental responsibility of limited liability companies 3. regulation of the minister of law and human rights number 14 of 2020 rq 1 1 2,3 4 legal consultant education 1. hkhpm decree no. kep. 01/hkhpm/ 2005 concerning standards for capital market legal consultants 2. main agenda of bylaws and code of ethics of the consultant association capital market legal entity (hkhpm) 3. law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system 4. law number 13 year 2011 concerning handling the poor rq 2 5,6,7 8,9 10,11,12 13,14 from table 2, it is explained that there are two themes studied, namely 1) the rule of law for csr practice and 2) education of legal consultants. of the two themes, there are fourteen coded data. the coded data is also supported by various previous studies. csr consists of three legal rules with four codes. legal consultant education consists of 4 legal sources with 10 codes. the data is then sequenced in analysis to investigate the rule of law regarding the education of legal consultants and csr practices. data analysis data analysis in this study refers to doctrinal analysis or the rule of law analysis. in common law jurisdictions, the rule of law can be found in statutes (chynoweth, 2001). in this study, the doctrine of consideration is advocacy law and csr. in data analysis using a qualitative approach from krippendorff (2018). the data analysis procedure works by formulating analysis objectives, conceptualizing them, creating coding sheets, and referencing studies of character values objectively and systematically. the final step is to interpret the data obtained based on the formulation of the problem and the data that has been collected. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 161 the doctrinal analysis begins by finding the relevant legal code from at least a few references to guide the initial research code. the doctrinal analysis consists of two units of analysis, namely corporate social responsibility (csr) and corporate legal consulting education (advocate education). the data analysis technique for answering rq1 and rq2 consists of seven steps, namely 1) converting documentary data sourced from statutory regulations into the written text; 2) determine the appropriate unit of analysis based on the theme and code of each unit of analysis that the researcher has made; 3) establish coding guidelines in the form of category names, coding, and rules; 4) determine and check the coding of the three analysis units; 5) testing and checking the consistency of the coding system; 6) looking for answers that are in accordance with the theme of the statutory regulations; and 7) draw relevant conclusions and present a reconstruction of the meaning of the findings. findings and discussion government regulations related to corporate social responsibility (rq1) based on the results of the analysis of documentation data, the basic legal rules regarding corporate social responsibility, especially for limited liability companies in indonesia, are contained in three laws and regulations, namely 1) law of the republic of indonesia number 40 of 2007 concerning limited liability companies, 2) government regulation number 47 of 2021 concerning social and environmental responsibility of limited liability companies, and 3) regulation of the minister of law and human rights number 14 of 2020. it is explained that csr functions as non-formal law and important legal principles that serve as part of a set of guiding values many actions in csr (buhmann, 2006). in the regulation of law number 40 of 2007 concerning limited liability companies, it is found that the problems that occur in the csr program do not necessarily originate from good intentions to advance the community and the surrounding environment. if identified based on previous literature studies on csr issues, various problems are found at the realization stage. first, the legal aspects both abstractly and the definition as regulation affect the substance, implementation, and communication of csr to stakeholders. this can be seen clearly in law number 40 of 2007 concerning limited liability companies, article 74 (1) of the limited liability company law, considering data 1. afhami (1) “companies that carry out their business activities in the field and/or related to natural resources are required to carry out social and environmental responsibility.” in the law, it is clearly stated that companies have an obligation to implement csr practices. however, the legal regulations in these laws and regulations that emphasize the company's obligation to implement csr in indonesia do not include the imposition of the firm and coercive sanctions. previous literature states that the application of law number 40 of 2007 has generated significant debate about csr, both voluntary and mandatory. csr rules in indonesia are considered to confuse the substance and procedure (waagstein, 2011) second, government regulation number 47 of 2021 concerning social and environmental responsibility of limited liability companies as the implementation regulation of article 74 of the law on limited liability companies number 40. article 4 paragraph (1), considering data 2. (2) “the board of directors carries out social and environmental responsibility based on the company's annual work plan after obtaining approval from the board of commissioners or the gms by the company's articles of the association unless otherwise stipulated in the laws and regulations.” if the legal provisions regarding csr practices are violated, then the sanctions will be imposed in accordance with the laws and regulations of article 74 paragraph (3), considering data 3. (3) “companies that do not carry out the obligations referred to in article 3 that do not carry out social and environmental responsibility are subject to sanctions by statutory provisions.” this law number 40 concerning companies does not clearly regulate the sanctions imposed on companies that do not carry out social and environmental responsibility. both administrative sanctions and civil sanctions. government regulations on csr practices and sanctions do not guarantee a better level of disclosure. in this case, structural elements are needed to accompany legislation changes(luque-vílchez & larrinaga, 2016). however, the government has threatened to impose sanctions on companies that do not carry out csr practices properly. this is because many communities around industrial estates live in poor conditions and experience low health levels due to environmental pollution. the most companies have an awareness of the importance of carrying out their csr obligations. companies in this group are aware that their results have an important correlation with the surrounding environment. but unfortunately, the means for channeling this awareness are limited. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 163 the company wants to provide csr, but the community around the environment is not ready to manage the csr assistance. this causes many companies to carry out their csr obligations far outside their territory. therefore, it is essential to establish cooperation between local governments and companies. for example, csr practices are carried out in the suku anak dalam community in jambi province. the government to improve the economy in this community was not entirely successful. so that the cooperation with the csr of pt. pertamina ep asset field jambi. the findings show that this collaboration brings big changes to the community(effendi & purnomo, 2020). third, to support human rights in indonesia, regulation of the minister of law and human rights number 14 of 2020 describes the external potential related to csr, considering data 4. (4) “the budget limitations that exist in the correctional work unit in supporting the procurement of facilities and infrastructure to achieve work plans can be pursued by collaborating with third parties through the csr program.” legal regulations explain the strategy of collaborating with third parties through the csr program. however, csr laws are often not well-targeted. the presence of the industry in certain areas is quite high, especially in the city center. due to the large potential of csr, csr management agencies have sprung up offering cooperation. in practice, however, these institutions cannot be fully accounted for their dedication. this resulted in the csr program not being on target. the study states that external stakeholders influence the level of csr disclosure in the indonesian context, but pressure from external stakeholders is generally weak (ramadhini, adhariani, & djakman, 2020). fourth, although it has external potential, unfortunately, both the limited liability company law and government regulation number 47 taun 2021 as implementing regulations do not specifically regulate the minimum amount of funds donated for csr programs. article 74 paragraph (2) of law number 40 the year 2007 only stipulates that the csr program is a company obligation that is budgeted and calculated as a company expense, the implementation of which is carried out with due observance of legal compliance fairness. furthermore, related to the financing of csr implementation in indonesia, it seems that it is regulated by regional regulations where the company is located. for example, the east kalimantan provincial regulation number 3 of 2013 concerning limited liability company social and environmental responsibilities and the partnership and community development program. article 23 paragraph (1) number 3 of 2013 afhami regulates that the financing for the implementation of csr practices is allocated 3% of the company's net profits each year. previous studies have explained that the csr law in indonesia has provided a mechanism for distributing corporate wealth or resources for local governments to support local community welfare programs (zainal, 2019) . it seems that the synergy between industrial entrepreneurs and the government is not optimal, so that the direction and targets of csr are not well planned. if this is the case, then the csr program is more than just a name formality so that the company is seen as having fulfilled one of its obligations. however, csr is nothing more than just a corporate social service activity for the community at the actual level of reality. there is no ongoing assistance or coaching(retnaningsih, 2015). as a result, social activities are carried out more sporadically without clear and definite targets (goals). according to zulkifli (2017), company involvement in the csr program is motivated by several benefits. first, reputation management. to be successful, any business that relies on stakeholder relationships is not just customer-focused. when the relationship between the company and stakeholders increases, stakeholders' potential support to the company and its strategic objectives increases. several leading companies produce reports on their environmental, social, and ethical performance to communicate csr activities to stakeholders. these activities enhance stakeholder relationships and facilitate increasing market value. second, risk management. all businesses have risks and assess the level of risk that is most appropriate for that business risk. risk management has a major influence on the market value of the company in the long run. some companies adopt the term risk, which also refers to social and environmental problems. companies that combine risk and opportunity with continuity in the internal risk assessment process may have the opportunity to manage risk more effectively than those that do not. third, job satisfaction. as a development, companies most likely depend on technology. however, the company also depends on its employees and good relations with stakeholders to run its business. therefore, understanding the values of workers with company values is important for the sustainability of the company. some professional job seekers evaluate companies based on their financial performance and csr performance. and this can help ensure the success of the company. fourth, innovation and education (learning) are critical for the company's sustainability. quality enables companies to identify new market opportunities and establish more efficient operations. recent evidence reveals that companies known for their csr using innovation and learning as a journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 165 competitive advantage can be tools to turn environmental barriers and social pressures into promising business opportunities. fifth, access to capital. investors believe that risk management has a positive effect on market value in the long term. as a result, csr is considered an indicator of the quality of company management. access to capital helps companies benefit from business opportunities: sixth, financial performance. in fact, csr activities help companies improve their bottom line in several ways; help companies understand how materials are used in processes; reduce operating costs by actively managing energy and corporate waste; integrate environmental specifications into new assets to reduce recycling costs to improve company efficiency. the role of legal consultant education on corporate social responsibility and its impact on society (rq2) legal rules related to corporate legal consultant education in indonesia consist of three laws and regulations, namely: 1) law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system; 2) main agenda of bylaws and code of ethics of the consultant association capital market legal entity (hkhpm); and hkhpm decree no. kep. 01/hkhpm/2005 concerning standards for capital market legal consultants. and one is related to social impacts, namely law number 13, the year 2011 concerning handling the poor. described in the professional standards for the capital market legal consultant association based on the decision of the hkhpm number kep.04/hkhpm/ xii/2021 regarding the definition of a legal consultant, considering data 5. (5) “....e. capital market legal consultants (“legal consultants”) are advocates who have undergone special professional education in the field of maternal markets organized or recognized by hkhpm, registered with bapepam, and comply with applicable regulations....” in this rule of law, there is also a general standard and professional character that a person who is taking legal consultancy education has expertise as a legal consultant and must have mastery in other areas of law. the literature states that people who have received legal consultancy education have sharp analysis of legal issues and carry out legal research. it is further explained that an advocacy association can organize engagement to advance the corporate environment to promote the implementation of corporate social responsibility reporting and management practices (clune afhami & o’dwyer, 2020). this is also shown in the law, namely 230 professional attitude, considering 6 and 7. (6) “legal consultants must have the expertise to carry out activities in the capital market sector.” (7) “legal consultants are required to be professional in carrying out their profession.” this rule of law does focus on the legal consultant profession. however, if it is examined more deeply, legal consultant education encourages professional attitudes in all fields, both corporate and public environments. in this rule of law, the professional attitude is the ability to act carefully and carefully. the attitude always questions, evaluates, and analyzes facts, evidence, and information and can honestly and transparently maintain its integrity. the literature study states that legal consultant education is based on integrity and morals, good faith, and fairness which are placed as development or renewal of legal education (langdon & sytsma, 1978). so, it is clear that basically, the rule of law can create a professional attitude that supports csr practices and has a social impact. specifically for the legal rules regarding the bylaws of the 2016 capital market legal consultants association chapter i opening article 1 legal basis which discusses the activities of the legal consultant association originating from, considering data 8. (8) “ ......a. law number 8 of 1995 concerning the capital market; b. bapefam regulation number viii.b.1 attachment to decree of the chairman of bapepam number kep37/pm/1996 concerning registration of legal consultants conducting activities in the capital market; and c. capital market legal consultant association's bylaws of association; d. code of ethics for the capital market law association; e. professional standards for the capital market legal consultant association.” based on the legal basis, the company legal consultant association does not explain the education of legal consultants. still, it needs to be underlined that one of the legal bases explains the code of ethics of legal consultants, which leads to the ethics and skills of legal consultants. this means that companies generally make public offerings on the capital market using legal consultants because of their expertise. this indicates that it is true that legal consultant education is capable of providing good communication skills and understanding of the rule of law. therefore, the capital market legal consultants association is very supportive of corporate legal consultants' activities and educational activities for stakeholders, especially ceos and company managers, to better journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 167 understand the company's responsibilities and public interests. this is shown in the statutory rules of the capital market legal consultant association's bylaws of 2016 chapter i opening article 2, considering 9. (9) “as a legal professional organization, the capital market law association (hkhpm) must function effectively to carry out activities related to the interests of its members and the public. conceptually, hkhpm must be able to play a role to further encourage educational activities, organizational competence and other roles so that it becomes an advocate or legal consultant who has high standards and competencies..” this law regulation also explains, "programs in the field of education and competence with subfields such as the basic education sector, the field of advanced education, the field of special education, and the field of competence as stated in chapter i opening of article 5." based on the analysis of legal regulations; it can be understood that the fields of legal education aimed at legal consultant education not only produce legal experts who see the ins and outs of corporate legal rules, apply the law and fill legal institutions, but also contribute to creating and developing corporate responsibility and the interests of the wider community. in this case, meyer, strietholt, & epstein (2018) explain three abilities that are useful when receiving legal education, namely providing legal knowledge, the ability to solve legal problems from the knowledge of the law that is mastered, and the ability to make choices from existing legal rules. corporate legal consultant education (eclc) is a professional education that studies companies' procedures and regulations. there are no special requirements to become a corporate legal consultant, as long as you have a legal background and have specific experience in the field of corporate law. literally, undergoing the profession as a legal consultant must have a sharp analysis of legal issues and conduct legal research. the corporate legal consultant profession is required to master the substance of the law. eclc is generally intended for shareholders of limited liability companies and public companies, company directors and boards of commissioners, corporate secretaries, legal departments, corporate in-house lawyers, corporate lawyers, corporate development managers, corporate planners, corporate treasurers, lawyers or legal consultants, academics, and all related parties who want to increase their knowledge of company law. training participants who have passed corporate legal consultancy education receive a corporate law expert certificate from an organization/institution that provides education. for example, justitia training afhami & networking center charter institute of legal professional (cilp) indonesia (justitia training center head office, 2019). through this education, it is hoped that it will provide a basis for thinking and acting according to the applicable legal rules in a country or region. education is beneficial for executives, decisionmakers, and legal practitioners (nath et al., 2019). students can have special skills in making the right decisions for the company. broadly speaking, the material taught in corporate legal consultant education are: a) introduction to corporate law; b) responsibilities of directors and commissioners in the company; c) the important role of a legal consultant for the company; d) contract drafting and review of business extracts; e) legal due diligence (ldd); f) legal aspects of business asset guarantees; g) protection of intellectual property rights (ipr); h) procurement of goods and services; i) dispute resolution, and j) case studies (justitia training center head office, 2019). the benefits of corporate legal consultant education are: a) students can understand the ins and outs of corporate law; b) students can understand the forms of business organizations that apply in their country and internationally; c) students can understand the company arrangements in the new limited liability company law; d) participants can understand the functions, positions, and responsibilities of company organs; e) students get an overview of the settlement of disputes related to limited liability companies; f) students can get an overview of the implementation of good corporate governance (gcg) and csr required in the implementation of corporate law and; g) students can understand the methods of procuring goods and services in companies and governments(justitia training center head office, 2019). achievement of expertise as a corporate legal consultant is obtained from formal education and professional special education. this is owed in the legal regulations of the capital market legal consultants association's professional standards. company legal consultants must undergo sufficient and continuous continuing education. in contrast to corporate legal consultant education, which is included in the category of non-formal education organized by private training institutions. in the regulations of the law of the republic of indonesia number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system chapter 1 general provisions article 1 number 12, data considering 10. (10) “non-formal education is a path of education outside formal education that can be implemented in a structured and tiered manner.” journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 169 while the provisions concerning the implementation of nonformal education are regulated in chapter vi pathways, levels, and types of education part fifth on nonformal education article 26, considering data 11. (11) “(1) non-formal education is provided for community members who need educational services that function as a substitute, supplement, and/or complement to formal education in the context of supporting lifelong education. (2) non-formal education functions to develop students' potential with an emphasis on mastery and functional skills as well as developing professional attitudes and personalities. (3) non-formal education includes life skills education, early childhood education, youth education, women's empowerment education, literacy education, education and work skills, equality education, and other education aimed at developing students' abilities. (4) non-formal education units consist of course institutions, training institutions, study groups, community learning activity centers, majelis taklim, and similar educational units. (5) courses and training are held for people who need knowledge, skills, life skills, and attitudes to develop themselves, develop a profession, work, work independently, and/or continue their education to a higher level ...” although it cannot be guaranteed with certainty, the learning materials in eclc can provide knowledge for industry players to carry out csr practices as best as possible because legal consultant education targets shareholders of limited liability companies and public companies, company directors and boards of commissioners, corporate secretaries, legal departments, corporate in-house lawyers, corporate lawyers, corporate development managers, corporate planners, corporate treasury, lawyers, or legal consultants. , academics, and all related parties who want to increase their knowledge of company law. this is the basis of the principles of the implementation of education in indonesia as in chapter iii basic, functions and objectives of article 4, considering 12. (12) “(1) education is carried out in a democratic and just manner and is not discriminatory by upholding human rights, religious values, cultural values , and national pluralism. (2) education is organized as a systematic unit with an open and multi-meaning system. (3) education is carried out as a lifelong process of cultivating and empowering students. (4) education is held by giving an example, building a will, and developing students' creativity in learning purposes. (5) education is carried out by developing afhami reading, writing, and arithmetic culture for all society members. (6) education is carried out by empowering all components of society through participation in the implementation and control of the quality of education services.” when examined from the material and benefits of eclc, it is clear that the possibility of students' awareness of the importance of csr practices is greater when compared to those who did not receive eclc. european companies, for example, european companies that have received education about csr tend to prioritize aspects of csr, both human resource managers and employee representatives competing to get positions to shape the csr adaptation process in their companies (preuss, haunschild, & matten, 2009).other literature that examines csr's idea from a professional perspective states that legal education can give birth to law enforcement practices among business actors and the relevance of competing with each other, working together, and ensuring the continuity of their work areas(windell, 2005). human resources who have received eclc (including external consultants) can contribute to csr performance in a sustainable manner. literature studies suggest that csr can be a multifaceted initiative, which is an important strategy for companies. for csr to be successful, companies need a framework to improve human resources in planning, implementation, monitoring, and institutionalization(lam, khare, miller, timothy, & thompson, 2010).thus, the company will receive feedback, and the surrounding community and the environment will benefit from targeted csr programs. the diversity of laws and policies and the cultures in which companies operate cause differences in csr practices(sobti, 2020). with the help of eclc, the possibility of making csr planning, disclosure, and strategic management are much better in the creation of a 'market for good.' regarding the standardization of nonformal education in indonesia, corporate legal consultants' education is almost the same as the standard and mode of education for advocates. it's just that the process is different. advocate professional education is regulated in article 2 paragraph (1) of law number 13 of 2003 concerning advocates. meanwhile, education for corporate legal consultants is contained in law number 18 of 2003. this nonformal education is influenced by the transition period of legal reform, the liberalization of legal services, and advances in information technology (utomo, 2018). theoretically, eclc provides lessons on how to communicate well and make an active commitment to the community and the environment that can bring a much better harmonious relationship and get feedback. legal education for the community can encourage an antijournal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 171 corruption culture in indonesia(seregig, suryanto, hartono, rivai, & prasetyawati, 2018). this role can clarify the regulations underlying the commodification of csr; in this case, it must ensure transparency in reporting and implementation that positively impacts society(brès & gond, 2014).previous studies have stated that tertiary education on csr can instill a strong volunteer spirit among communities and stakeholders (demetriou, thrassou, & papasolomou, 2018). csr program partnerships, namely collaboration between companies, communities, and the government in indonesia for the poor, focusing on livable and sustainable settlements. there are at least two articles in law number 13 the year 2011 concerning handling of the poor that pertain to csr implementation. first, in article 36 paragraph (1) letter c, considering data 13. (13) “the funds set aside from the corporate company as referred to in paragraph (1) letter c shall be used as much as possible for the handling of the poor..” in addition, article 41 uses the term community development. article 41 paragraph (3), considering data 14. (14) “business actors participate in providing community development funds as a manifestation of social responsibility for handling the poor.” this csr program partnership agenda is expected to be able to realize the essence of national development. adequate settlements for people living around the industry can support livelihoods and livelihoods. this program is also supported by the directorate general of human settlements, ministry of public workers, and public housing(dja kemenkeu, 2015). in essence, businesses are eager to present themselves as honest and reliable corporate citizens who care for the welfare of society and the environment. companies that carry out good csr practices gain a social reputation from stakeholders and are sorry for its sustainability in the future(gössling & vocht, 2007). it's just that there are a small number of companies that deviate from this method due to various reasons and problems, as previously discussed by researchers. companies in indonesia carry out csr programs based on taking care of government obligations to follow the regulations made by the central government and local governments. but apart from this, the company should have been wise to improve the welfare of the community. in this case, the capacity of legal consultants is, of course, limited to influencing their clients' behavior. therefore, corporate legal consultant education supports csr practices because of its added value associated with a communicative approach. unfortunately, currently, there is still a lack of coordination and institutional mechanisms that support efforts to inculcate social responsibility in afhami corporate strategic management(skouloudis & evangelinos, 2014). in the end, all of these problems must be based on various parties, including companies, governments, communities, and other related parties, to make good regulations regarding the csr program(rahma, 2018). the company must carry out the csr program implemented by each company to support its reputation and image. without a motive, community desire, and management that is not transparent, the csr program will run exclusively and do not participate in society. in the end, using a normative legal framework, researchers have revealed the role of corporate legal consultant education as non-formal education that follows indonesian national education standards. as stated in chapter xv's rule of community participation in education, the second part of article 55. "non-formal education is a community-based education that must be by the uniqueness of religion, social environment and culture for the benefit of society." the main objective of non-formal education is by the preamble to the constitution of the republic of indonesia, which reads. considering data 12, (15) “........a national education system that increases faith and devotion to god almighty and noble morals in order to educate the nation's life as regulated in law.” the preamble to the 1945 constitution also mentions "the role of education, both formal, nonformal and informal as an effort to advance public welfare, educate the nation's life, and participate in implementing world order based on independence, eternal peace, and social justice." this is the reason why this research is important. conclusion and implications legal regulations in indonesia that explain corporate responsibility and legal consultant education essentially support economic, social and environmental arrangements. although the literature study found that there were different paradigms about the two, especially regarding corporate responsibility and obligation, this study clearly explained it through the legal rules discussed. what is clear, legal regulations related to legal consultant education are able to support csr practices because of the professional nature that is instilled through education. the expected implication is that by implementing the legal rules of csr practice and legal consultant education, public trust can increase. the government needs to consider and review the unclear csr practice laws regarding legal sanctions. and support the strategic effort of the role of corporate legal consultant education which is not only aimed at advocates but also ceos and company managers or corporate journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 173 professionals engaged in csr practices. it is hoped that by understanding the rule of law through legal consultant education, csr practices can increase and be in line with national development. this can lead to the feedback the company has hoped for so far. future studies can examine more deeply related to international legal rules regarding csr practices and legal consultant education. apart from that, other factors that might support social impacts can also be considered for the company's sustainability performance. pedagogical implication previous studies have had different views on the education of corporate legal consultants. even at a glance, the same is between legal consultant education and the legal consulting profession. from a review of legal regulations, although they have the same benefits in terms of professionalism, it can be seen clearly that the criteria are different. if the legal consultant profession must be pursued through formal education and professional education, legal consultant education is pursued through non-formal education. if corporate legal consultants' education is in the right position, it can provide education that may be of higher quality than informal schools because it can encourage the values of social and public justice. legal consultant education can be an additional and alternative preparation for csr practices in indonesia. stakeholders, especially company preprofessionals, need to realize that legal consultant education is as important as the legal consulting profession, which can strengthen marginalization and stigmatization. both government regulations and the education of corporate legal consultants through csr practices can realize the objectives of the preamble to the 1945 constitution, namely to support the welfare of society and the environment references abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. ajaps, s., & obiagu, a. (2020). increasing civic engagement through civic education: a critical consciousness theory perspective. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 ali, w., frynas, j. g., & mahmood, z. (2017). determinants of corporate social responsibility (csr) disclosure in developed and developing countries: a literature review. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 afhami corporate social responsibility and environmental management, 24(4), 273–294. https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.1410 alviar, h. (2008). the classroom and the clinic: the relationship between clinical legal education, economic development and social transformation. ucla j. int’l l. & foreign aff, 13, 197. anand, d., & hsu, l. (2020). think outside the book: transformative justice using children’s literature in educational settings. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 122-143. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.13 bekele, w., & ago, f. (2020). good governance practices and challenges in local government of ethiopia: the case of bonga town administration. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 97-128. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.6 bian, j., liao, y., wang, y. y., & tao, f. (2021). analysis of firm csr strategies. european journal of operational research, 290(3), 914–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2020.03.046 bolay, m., & knierzinger, j. (2021). corporate gift or political sacrifice? state-sponsored csr and electricity provision in guinean extractive enclaves. political geography, 84, 102300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2020.102300 brès, l., & gond, j. p. (2014). the visible hand of consultants in the construction of the markets for virtue: translating issues, negotiating boundaries and enacting responsive regulations. human relations, 67(11), 1347–1382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726713519278 christensen, l. j., peirce, e., hartman, l. p., hoffman, w. m., & carrier, j. (2007). ethics, csr, and sustainability education in the financial times top 50 global business schools: baseline data and future research directions. journal of business ethics, 73(4), 347–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9211-5 chynoweth, p. (2001). legal research. in a. knight & l. ruddock (eds.), advanced research methods in the built environment (vol. 3, pp. 63–71). united kingdom: blackwell publishing ltd. https://doi.org/10.1097/00128488-200112000-00003 clune, c., & o’dwyer, b. (2020). framing engagement that resonates: organizing advocacy for corporate social and environmental accountability. european accounting review, 29(5), 851–875. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638180.2020.1746374 cracknell, a. p. (2017). uavs: regulations and law enforcement. international journal of remote sensing, 38(8–10), 3054–3067. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2017.1302115 darolia, l. (2020). "he’s on fire for justice!”: using critical conversations to explore sociopolitical topics in elementary classrooms. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.13 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.3 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 175 demetriou, m., thrassou, a., & papasolomou, i. (2018). beyond teaching csr and ethics in tertiary education: the case of the university of nicosia, cyprus (eu). world review of entrepreneurship, management and sustainable development, 14(1–2), 97–122. https://doi.org/10.1504/wremsd.2018.089079 dja kemenkeu. (2015). mewujudkan permukiman layak huni dan berkelanjutan melalui kemitraan program csr. jakarta: kementerian pekerjaan umum dan perumahan rakyat. retrieved from https://simantu.pu.go.id/personal/imgpost/superman/post/20181129104200__f__kms_book_20180723030028.pdf edwards, h. t. (1992). the growing disjunction between legal education and the legal profession. michigan law review, 91(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.2307/1289788 effendi, g. n., & purnomo, e. p. (2020). collaboration government and csr a case study of suku anak dalam in pompa air village, jambi-indonesia. international journal of academic research in business, arts and science (ijasbas), 2(1), 19–39. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3632103 gerst, s., & hess, g. (2009). professional skills and values in legal education: the gps model. valparaiso university law review, 43(2), 513–557. gössling, t., & vocht, c. (2007). social role conceptions and csr policy success. journal of business ethics, 74(4), 363–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9512-3 honegger, m. (2020). what does “education” mean: cultural values in educational language. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 42-53. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12 hur, w. m., moon, t. w., & kim, h. (2020). when and how does customer engagement in csr initiatives lead to greater csr participation? the role of csr credibility and customer– company identification. corporate social responsibility and environmental management, 27(4), 1878–1891. https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.1933 jung, j. c., & im, j. (2020). the role of csr in the relationship between social trust and financial performance. in academy of management proceedings (vol. 21, pp. 1–9). briarcliff manor,ny: academy of management. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2020.12053abstrac justitia training center head office. (2019). pendidikan konsultan hukum perusahaan (pkhp). retrieved march 31, 2021, from http://www.justitiatraining.co.id/event/pendidikankonsultan-hukum-perusahaan-pkhp/ khan, m., lockhart, j., & bathurst, r. (2021). the institutional analysis of csr: learnings from an emerging country. emerging markets review, 46(october), 100752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ememar.2020.100752 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12 afhami krippendorff, k. (2018). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. london: ltd. lam, h., khare, a., miller, d. w., timothy, e., & thompson, m. (2010). felix ekardt and martin wilke implementing business and professional ethics in an asian context: three steps to rethinking the impact of religion on business values: understanding its reemergence and measuring its manifestations. journal of international business ethics, 3(2), 1–85. lamarche, t., & bodet, c. (2018). does csr contribute to sustainable development? what a régulation approach can tell us. review of radical political economics, 50(1), 154– 172. https://doi.org/10.1177/0486613416635038 langdon, r. g., & sytsma, c. l. (1978). duty of good faith and fair dealing and the pre adjudicatory role of the insurance company advocate. ins. counsel j, 45, 309. lasswell, h. d., & mcdougal, m. s. (1942). legal education and public policy: professional training in the public interest*. yale lj, 52, 203. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203787380-3 lópez-pérez, m. e., melero, i., & javier sesé, f. (2017). does specific csr training for managers impact shareholder value? implications for education in sustainable development. corporate social responsibility and environmental management, 24(5), 435–448. https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.1418 lund, e. m., wilbur, r. c., & kuemmel, a. m. (2020). beyond legal obligation: the role and necessity of the supervisor-advocate in creating a socially just, disability-affirmative training environment. training and education in professional psychology, 14(2), 92–99. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/tep0000277 luque-vílchez, m., & larrinaga, c. (2016). reporting models do not translate well: failing to regulate csr reporting in spain. social and environmental accountability journal, 36(1), 56–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969160x.2016.1149301 meyer, h.-d., strietholt, r., & epstein, d. y. (2018). three models of global education quality and the emerging democratic deficit in global education governance. new york: routledge/taylor & francis group. minzner, c. f. (2012). the rise and fall of chinese legal education. ssrn electronic journal, 36(2). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2128151 motilewa, d. b., aziegbe-esho, e., & ngwu, f. n. (2019). navigating the csr discourse from a developing country’s perspective: a shift to human capital development? in corporate social responsibility in developing and emerging markets: institutions, actors and sustainable development (p. 119). united kingdom: cambridge university press. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 177 mueller, h., & theuvsen, l. (2014). influences on consumer attitudes towards csr in agribusiness. the 2014 aaea/eaae/caes joint symposium: social networks, social media and the economics of food montreal, canada, 29-30 may 2014, (may), 1–23. nath, a., kumar, r., behura, a. k., tara, k., & sundararajan, m. (2019). corporate social responsibility for sustainable development. indian journal of environmental protection, 39(6), 545–550. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315749495-3 panjaitan, h., murniarti, e., widyani, i., pandiangan, l., & siringoringo, p. (2020). legal certainty toward advocate professional special education in indonesia. palarch’s journal of archaeology of egypt / egyptology, 17(4), 1638–1651. preuss, l., haunschild, a., & matten, d. (2009). the rise of csr: implications for hrm and employee representation. international journal of human resource management, 20(4), 953–973. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585190902770893 rahma, y. (2018). menguak problematika csr di indonesia. retrieved march 31, 2021, from https://ksm.ui.ac.id/menguak-problematika-csr-di-indonesia/ ramadhini, a., adhariani, d., & djakman, c. d. (2020). the effects of external stakeholder pressure on csr disclosure: evidence from indonesia. dlsu business and economics review, 29(2), 29–39. retnaningsih, h. (2015). permasalahan corporate social responsibillity (csr) dalam rangka pemberdayaan masyarakat. aspirasi, 6(2), 177–188. rose, k. j., & rose, k. j. (2019). calling out the anti-money launderers through csr regulation. copenhagen business school, cbs law research paper, 19–21. retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3391147 rothenberg, s., hull, c. e., & tang, z. (2017). the impact of human resource management on corporate social performance strengths and concerns. business and society, 56(3), 391– 418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0007650315586594 seregig, i. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., rivai, e., & prasetyawati, e. (2018). preventing the acts of corruption through legal community education. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 138–159. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.65190 shala, a. (2019). formal and non-formal education in the new era formal and non-formal education in the new era, (june 2016). silver, c. (2011). digital repository @ maurer law the variable value of u . s . legal education in the global legal services market the variable value of u . s . legal education in the. afhami sitepu, f. i. t. b., hutagalung, t. l., & leonard, t. (2020). role of the legal consultant as related party in trade at the capital market. legal standing: jurnal ilmu hukum, 4(2), 51–63. retrieved from https://news.detik.com/berita/d-3567290/polling-58-masyarakatpuas-kinerja-kpk, skouloudis, a., & evangelinos, k. (2014). exogenously driven csr: insights from the consultants’ perspective. business ethics, 23(3), 258–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/beer.12054 sobti, n. (2020). legal perspective on global csr practices-case based approach. international journal in management & social science 5.4, 05(04), 360–374. spoor, l. (2019). on the effectiveness of executive education of corporate professionals regarding the role and responsibility of group management from a business law perspective. ssrn electronic journal, (july). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3424810 strunc, a. (2020). editorial: are they listening? policymakers and their role in public education. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.ed strunc, a. (2019). the politics of culture. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 7180. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.6 suharto, e. (2005). membangun masyarakat, memberdayakan rakyat. bandung: refika aditama. utomo, s. l. (2018). curriculum standardization for advocate education in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 9(1), 228–241. voegtlin, c., & greenwood, m. (2016). corporate social responsibility and human resource management: a systematic review and conceptual analysis. human resource management review, 26(3), 181–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2015.12.003 waagstein, p. r. (2011). the mandatory corporate social responsibility in indonesia: problems and implications. journal of business ethics, 4(3), 455–466. wang, z., hsieh, t. s., & sarkis, j. (2018). csr performance and the readability of csr reports: too good to be true? corporate social responsibility and environmental management, 25(1), 66–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.1440 wibisono, y. (2007). membedah konsep & aplikasi csr (corporate social responsibilty). jakarta: gramedia. windell, k. (2005). professionalization in emerging fields : the contestation of csr. in 21st european group of organizational studies (egos) colloquium on ‘unlocking organizations’ (pp. 1–29). berlin: european group of organizational studies (egos). https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.ed https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.6 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 152-179 179 zainal, r. i. (2019). analysis of csr legislation in indonesia: mandate to business. business and economic research, 9(3), 165. https://doi.org/10.5296/ber.v9i3.14978 zulkifli, a. (2017). masalah dan manfaat tanggungjawab sosial perusahaan atau issues and benefits of corporate social responsibility. retrieved april 1, 2021, from https://bangazul.com/masalah-dan-manfaat-tanggungjawab-sosial-perusahaan-atauissues-andbenefits-of-corporate-social-responsibility/ article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),291-307 facility and infrastructure management at the international class program of the state islamic university in indonesia sari famularsih1, agus nuryatin2, eko handoyo3, sri wuli fitriati4 abstract this study investigated the development and management of existing facilities and infrastructure at the international class program (icp) of the state institute for islamic studies (sius), indonesia. the researchers adopted a descriptive qualitative approach involving nine informants in the professional capacities of chancellor, vice chancellor, dean, deputy dean, head of the program, director of icp, and the heads of division and related departments. the researchers utilized observation, interview, and documentation to collect the data. the data were analyzed using content analysis, thematic analysis and miles & huberman model that involve data collection, data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing. the results showed that management of facilities and infrastructures in the icp fulfills requirements of a place, amenity, or piece of equipment for a particular purpose and the basic physical space required for the operation of the icp. the facility and infrastructure development and management in the icp of sius account for long-term needs in accordance with the master plan that has been prepared. furthermore, to obtain optimal development results with timely and appropriate indications, sius has compiled a grand design of facilities and infrastructure for 2020–2024. keywords: facility development and management, infrastructure development and management, icp, sius introduction rapid technological developments in recent times demand progress in all domains of life, including education. in the last few decades, classroom teaching media have evolved from blackboard to whiteboard to lcd screens (adu et al., 2022; subedi & subedi, 2020). students can now easily access their educational needs through their mobile phones. however, formal education in the form of classroom teaching remains the prime choice to acquire knowledge. therefore, formal education from elementary to higher levels must adapt to the dynamics of ongoing developments (budiharso, et. al., 2022). 1doctore candidate, semarang state university, indonesia, email: sarifamularsih@students.unnes.ac.id 2prof. dr, semarang state university, indonesia, email: agusnuryatin@mail.unnes.ac.id 3prof. dr. semarang state university, indonesia, email: eko.handoyo@mail.unnes.ac.id 4prof. dr. semarang state university, indonesia, email: sriwuli.fitriati@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:sarifamularsih@students.unnes.ac.id mailto:agusnuryatin@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:eko.handoyo@mail.unnes.ac.id mailto:sriwuli.fitriati@mail.unnes.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 291-307 education can be defined as a process of self-formation and self-determination in an ethical manner and conforming actions to the conscience (kohnstamm & gunning, 1995). the education system comprises several components that are interconnected with each other. none of these components is more important than the other as each component has an equally important role in supporting the quality of education. to achieve quality education, these components must be linked holistically. infrastructure is one of the components that support the establishment of high-quality education. an institution’s infrastructure of good quality in the form of comfortable study rooms, laboratories, and complete teaching aids actively assists the learning process and thus contributes to the institution’s education quality. students’ fieldwork practices tend to be more fruitful when carried out in a proper place that can broaden their insight and experience (budiharso & tarman, 2020; matabane et al., 2022). based on a survey conducted by pisa (programme for international student assessment) in 2018, education quality in indonesia ranked 74 out of 79 countries. budi trikorayanto, an education observer, said that one of the reasons behind indonesia’s low ranking was its underqualified education managers. educational management aims to facilitate the implementation of educational activities and place them according to their roles so that educational goals can be accomplished (hikmat, 2009). achievements need to be made in various aspects of education itself adjusted to the management function, including the management of infrastructure. therefore, if the management is poor, no improvements will be made in education (whitaker, et al., 2022). universities play a major role in students’ overall development. in the process, of course, many obstacles are encountered considering that the management of higher education is fairly complex (muniapan, 2007). gulua (2020) conducted a study to analyze the challenges of higher education management, which were discussed from two different perspectives: the management process and its supporters, namely, ergonomics and infrastructure issues. facilities and infrastructure, therefore, are factors supporting the course of learning in higher education. therefore, it is important to pay attention to the facilities and infrastructure that can support the development of the education management model required by universities. fodrey & lindbeck (2010) noted that universities must be as effective and efficient as possible in involving the technological means and facilities for its development so that they can contribute to students’ academic success. facility and infrastructure management is a collaborative process to utilize all educational facilities and infrastructure owned by schools effectively and efficiently (baharuddin, 2010). facilities and famularsih, et al. 293 infrastructures are the prime components of education, and their management is necessary to support fruitful teaching and learning. bafadal (2004), as cited by kurniawati & sayuti (2013), affirmed that facility and infrastructure management is used to provide professional services in the field of facilities and education to implement the educational process effectively and efficiently. to elaborate and explore more about this management, the state islamic university of salatiga (henceforth, sius) as one of the state islamic universities in indonesia has opened an international class program (icp), where it tries to incorporate all the components of national education with international essence in terms of language and practice to maximize students’ potentials and to educate the next generation of the nation to develop cognitive abilities, creative skills, and have the ability to adapt and socialize. however, in practice, facility and infrastructure management of the icp is confronted with various obstacles. for example, the planning of infrastructure facilities was still unclear, such as funding and the person in charge of its managerial work. furthermore, procurement of infrastructure facilities was not optimized either from the purchasing or caring or recycling of goods. the maintenance and storage management of the infrastructures, as well as administrative procedures, have not been clearly recorded, thereby hindering an effective and efficient learning process. in addition, the icp shared the use of the infrastructure with the regular class, even though it is seen from the load of courses and skills that must be achieved. it is only natural that the icp gets several supporting facilities to achieve the desired competence, such as an art room and a common room so that students can learn optimally. to some extent, the infrastructure is still lacking in terms of specifications and is inadequate for such a special class. furthermore, the researchers also noted that there was no special laboratory for icp students at sius. the need for this laboratory is related to language and cultural learning, which is highly intensive for icp students at sius. from the above discussion, it is clear that there exists a gap in facility and infrastructure management during teaching and learning activities of the icp at sius, which lent an impetus to the researchers for studying, reviewing and researching the same. the findings of this study are expected to furnish insights regarding the merits and shortcomings of facility and infrastructure development and management of the icp at sius. the study results are anticipated to be useful for improving the performance of education managers, stakeholders, as well as students who are the objects of program implementation. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 291-307 literature review infrastructure management facility and infrastructure management is a process focusing on regulating and maintaining educational infrastructure so that the educational process can be implemented optimally and meaningfully. these management activities can be in the form of planning, procurement, supervision, inventory storage, and elimination and arrangement. this was confirmed by the ministry of national education (2013), which remarked that facility and infrastructure management is an arrangement of facilities and infrastructure, which includes planning, organizing, implementing, and evaluating programs of facility and infrastructure activities in schools, guided by the principles of management implementation. the scope of facility and infrastructure management according to the ministry of national education (2013), as cited by ananda & banurea (2017), can be explained as follows: 1) needs analysis and planning: according to mustari & rahman (2014), planning for educational facilities and infrastructure is a process of analyzing and determining the requirements of the learning process so that the terms “primary needs” and “supporting needs” emerge. therefore, planning for infrastructure requires a needs analysis because the needs for infrastructure are dynamic. 2) procurement: it is a process of setting the program for obtaining the facilities and infrastructure of educational institutions in the future to achieve educational goals. as this process is a followup process after the planning, the latter must be prepared in a clear and detailed manner so that the procurement of the required facilities can be arranged according to the requirements identified by the needs analysis. 3) inventory: it is the activity of recording and coding of goods as well as making reports on the procurement of goods. 4) distribution and utilization: after the inventory is carried out, the infrastructure is distributed according to its use, to be further utilized by those who need it. utilization of these goods must adhere to the principles of effectiveness and efficiency in accordance with the sop made by the manager so that there are clear regulations regarding the use of these goods. 5) maintenance: maintenance of infrastructure is implemented so that the facilities can perpetuate the durability of the goods. in addition, the infrastructure is expected to always be ready, famularsih, et al. 295 pleasing to the eye, and easy to use. therefore, maintenance is an important aspect of infrastructure management. 6) elimination: elimination aims to prevent large expenditures for security and/or maintenance costs. it also prevents wastage of maintenance over inventory items that are no longer useful and lighten the inventory burden. 7) supervision and accounting (reporting): it is an effort made to control infrastructure as part of the activity of keeping, maintaining, and utilizing infrastructure for the success of learning in an educational institution. furthermore, it is necessary to underline that school facilities and infrastructure belong to non-individual institutions; indeed, the situation must be reported to the authorities. the standard of facilities and infrastructure the standard of learning infrastructure is a minimum criterion of facilities and infrastructure in accordance with the needs of the content and learning process to achieve high-quality learning outcomes of the students. ananda & banurea (2017) discussed the regulation of the minister of research, technology and higher education no. 44 in 2015, concerning national higher education standards, and remarked that the standard of learning facilities includes but is not limited to: (1) furniture, (2) educational equipment, (3) educational media, (4) books, e-books, and repositories, (5) information and communication technology facilities, (6) experimental instrumentation, (7) sports facilities, (8) art facilities, (9) public facilities, (10) consumables, and (11) maintenance, safety, and security facilities. the number, type, and specifications of the facilities are determined on the basis of the ratio of the use of the facilities in accordance with the characteristics of the methods and forms of learning and must ensure the implementation of the learning process and academic administration services (sukmayadi & yahya, 2020). meanwhile, infrastructure standards include but are not limited to: (1) land, (2) classroom, (3) library, (4) laboratory/studio/workshop/production unit, (5) place to exercise, (6) space for art, (7) student activity unit room, (8) college leadership room, (9) lecturer room, (10) administration room, and (11) public facilities (ananda & banurea, 2017). management of facilities and infrastructure is the responsibility of the institution and must include the phases of planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating (sukmayadi & yahya, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 291-307 infrastructure management should also be included if new programs are introduced. in this case, the icp at sius is an instance of a superior program introduced by universities to maximize the potential of graduates. therefore, in addition to the infrastructure requirements fulfilled by the university, as a flagship program, there are several additional infrastructure facilities that have been determined, namely: (1) student boarding house, (2) international standard classrooms, (3) language laboratory, (4) art room, (5) common rooms, and (6) proper wireless internet connection (ananda & banurea, 2017; sukmayadi & yahya, 2020). methods to achieve the objectives described previously, this study used a descriptive qualitative approach. a qualitative approach helps achieve an understanding of how the studied phenomenon is viewed by the participant or other informants or stakeholders and does not relate to the researcher’s own perspective (creswell & poth, 2018; sugiyono, 2014). therefore, the researchers utilized interviews to collect data and documentation to support the result data of the research (schamber, 2000). in qualitative research, the main research instrument is the researcher himself/herself. researchers, as human instruments, play a role in determining the focus of research, selecting informants as data sources, collecting data, assessing data quality, analyzing data, interpreting data, and giving meaning and making conclusions from their findings (creswell & poth, 2018; sugiyono, 2014). therefore, the researcher is the key instrument in qualitative research. the data sources in this study are the parties concerned or involved in the management of a cross-study based education curriculum of the icp at sius. to collect data, the researchers used observation, interview, and documentation (sugiyono, 2014). the researchers chose the 10 informants who were competent in organizational management and were in the professional capacities of chancellor, vice chancellor, dean, director of the icp, and the heads of division and related departments. observation observation in this study has been made three times during the research. the first observation was used to check the overall facilities and infrastructures in general suitable with what the documents identified. second observation was to see whether the functions of the main facilities and infrastructures are well developed. the last observation was specifically used for supervision and famularsih, et al. 297 monitoring. careful check was made to confirm the properness of the quality of the facilities and infrastructures. results of three-time observation were recorded to see the proper functions of the facilities and infrastructures. interview semi-structured interview was made to collect more depth information regarding the facilities and infrastructures of icp. semi-structured interview was selected because it is easy to construct and if the questions are not proper, the researchers are easy to skip and change to other questions that are more relevant (creswell & poth, 2018). the interview took 30-40 minutes each, so for 10 interviewees the researchers need around 400 minutes or 6 hours. the interview started at 08.00 am and ended at 2 pm, with one hour break at 12.00 am for lunch. during the interview a research collaborator helped the researchers to set the records and video-tape the interview processes. the results of interview were transcribed verbatim so that they appeared as the original dialogues (schamber, 2000). document analysis documents to be analyzed in this study include agenda, minutes of meetings, manuals, books and brochures, printed and electronic materials, computer based and internet that contain words and images (corbin & strauss, 2008). the documents present ‘social facts’ that are produced, shared, and used in socially organized ways (atkinson & coffey, 2004) to elicit meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge (corbin & strauss, 2008). the empirical evidences from the documents are identified and categorized relevant to the research questions and together with the results of observation and interview, data are integrated. to analyze the data, the researcher used miles, et.al., (2014) model, which involves data collection, data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing or verification. in addition, the researchers also used content analysis initiated by zhang & wildemuth (2016). data analysis according to zhang & wildemuth (2016) works as follows. data that are obtained from the interview are transcribed verbatim. based on the transcript, themes are identified according to the research questions. then, the data are given number on each category and the researchers selected the proper themes that have been numbered for the final data (fereday & muir-cochrane, 2006). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 291-307 thematic analysis is to recognize data that emerge themes for the basis of categories for analysis (fereday & muir-cochrane, 2006). results and discussions facility and infrastructure management of the icp issues pertaining to facilities and infrastructures of icp regard with financial, procurement of land and building for learning activities, and proposal to approve the budget. management of facilities and infrastructures of the icp is carried out by submitting requests for needs to the faculty as the institution that oversees the icp. icp management holds an audience with stakeholders to collect initiatives for the development of facilities and infrastructure, especially in the icp, as given the changing times, facilities and infrastructure must be developed and improved as well. the director said: (1) international program is our ultimate goal to make advantage of our university. therefore, facilities and infrastructures to fill the standard of international program are of priority. in managing the infrastructure development, the icp director encountered various obstacles, such as the unavailability of special classrooms to implement learning activities so that the icp shared facilities with other study programs and faculties. such a problem surfaced because icp management has funding constraints to apply for extensive facilities and infrastructure. funding for facilities and infrastructure is requested through submission, and then the budgeting is decided by the dean (kolios & read, 2013). meanwhile, the analysis of the needs for infrastructure is performed to determine the current requirements for facilities and infrastructure to achieve the program’s vision and mission. given such circumstances, the icp director coordinates with the rector and the dean of the needs analysis process for the planning of facilities and infrastructure of the icp. in addition, the icp director strives to carefully and precisely maintain educational facilities and infrastructure, so that the existence of these infrastructure facilities will always be in a ready-to-use state as and when they required. financial manager explains: (2) management regarding financial supports is our big issue. beside limited budget is available, options to handle basic needs such as land for the international building standard is hard to find. in addition, it is quite problematic in our context to increase the number of tuition fee from the students. the procurement of the facilities and infrastructures is done in accordance with the institute’s regulations. however, some facilities still belong to the institute or faculty, and therefore, the icp famularsih, et al. 299 authorities need to submit the request for special needs, including icp courses, such as dance and drama, which require a special room. in addition, icp students also need a space, or a common room, wherein they can gather and interact. currently, these rooms are used on a sharing basis, where if the icp students need the room, they can borrow it from the faculty. furthermore, as icp is implemented on a full-day basis, icp management requires a permanent residence for its students to run this program optimally. previously, when the icp was run on campus 2 of sius, the dormitory was located near the campus area, making it easier for students to mobilize to and from the campus. however, when the policy changed, and the new policy required the implementation of the program to be moved to campus 3, the former dormitory could no longer be used as it was too far away. therefore, the icp management committee decided to use a rental house or use a house that was donated for student activities. the coordinator states: (3) it is still a problem to serve a house of dormitory for the international students. the house should be able to accommodate international students. as our budget is not enough to procure, we rent a house that is suitable for this objective. regarding the maintenance, icp faculty is responsible for maintaining the facilities and infrastructures of the icp. maintenance plays a critical role in the management of facilities and infrastructures because it contributes to facilitating the learning activities, for instance, the case with traditional gamelan musical instruments, which require maintenance and repair. their maintenance is necessary to preserve the authenticity of the sound of the musical instruments. the types of infrastructure maintenance efforts that have been carried out include replacement, repair, transformation, and procurement. besides the maintenance of facilities and infrastructures, supervision and reporting are also the responsibility of the faculty. efforts have been made to supervise the infrastructure of the kki program to maintain the infrastructure used by storing these items in a special room and providing a certificate of borrowing and returning. the facility and infrastructure accounting (reporting) scheme is implemented in accordance with faculty regulations. the process of evaluating the availability and use of infrastructure facilities for the icp identifies the facilities that are necessary and can be added or replaced. one major obstacle in the development and management of facilities and infrastructure is waiting for the proposed budget facility to be approved. this can be ascribed to red tape bureaucracy, where the application is on the waiting list for a long time without any clear decision of approval journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 291-307 (david & david, 2011; budiharso & tarman, 2020). the optimization of the procurement, use, maintenance, and arrangement of infrastructure facilities for the kki program are still not optimal because the rooms are still moving to adjust the spatial planning needs with other programs (david & david, 2011). the availability of infrastructure is influenced by the availability of rooms and funding. however, the evaluation of infrastructure facilities in the icp has revealed better outcomes in recent times (budiharso & tarman, 2020). recently, the facilities and infrastructure have fulfilled the needs that support the success of learning in the icp, but the fulfillment of other infrastructure facilities such as special international classrooms, art rooms, and common rooms are still very much needed for the optimization of the icp (dyson, 2004). this finding confirms the study of budiharso & tarman (2020) stating that facilities and infrastructure are the basic needs of higher education management. the facilities have to made available (ananda & banurea, 2017) for the icp in a high standard. the process of the procurement, however, should be integral to the strategic policy (budiharso, et.al, 2022). further, the strategic management will commence from the planning, implementing and evaluation (budiharso, et, al, 2022) that is a part of strategic management (david & david, 2011). development and management of icp the development of infrastructure and facilities is carried out with reference to long-term needs in accordance with the master plan that has been prepared by sius. to get optimal development results with timely and appropriate quality indications, sius has compiled the 2020–2024 facilities and infrastructure grand design (david & david, 2011). the management of infrastructure development for the icp is carried out by the general section of sius based on the needs compiled by the icp management committee. the need for these infrastructure facilities is compiled in the form of program and budget proposals by following the general rules of government agency budget planning (dyson, 2004). this finding is in agreement with david & david (2011) budget in common has been a big problem to find that needs a careful strategic management. more budget impacts problems on the effective use of the finance. in addition, budget also relates to the analysis that relates to swot (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis and analysis of pestle (political, economic, social, famularsih, et al. 301 technology, legal and environmental) (kolios & read, 2013). financial chief of the university admits: (4) we sometimes already planned the budget, submit to the government, but often the proposal is refused, or we receive less than what we propose. consequently, we cancel the program or we build as the finance can afford. the primary responsibilities of management of facility and infrastructure development for the sustainability of the icp are: 1) providing convenience to users (students) so that service quality and satisfaction levels are maintained through good management of infrastructure; 2) managing infrastructure development adequately, thereby significantly impacting the quality of output/graduates management; and 3) ensuring the suitability of the facilities and infrastructures provided in accordance with the demands and needs (kolios & read, 2013). for fulfilling needs related to facilities and infrastructures, there are two types of planning applied in sius, namely: (1) planning for infrastructure facilities based on the master plan, as outlined in the grand design, and (2) optimization and adjustment of infrastructure-related needs by collecting data on proposals from units, institutions, and faculties (david & david, 2011). the procurement of facilities and infrastructure should consider ict that serve the whole university needs for communication and publication services. the director says: (5) the facilities and infrastructure in this era should involve information technology. it means we have to serve big bandwhich that can cover the needs for teaching, public information and other needs of publication. this study finds that financing program adheres to the regulation in the university. we find that the form of financing carried out in funding infrastructure facilities on campus is done through two regulations. first, the development of infrastructure facilities is sourced from the apbn, pnbp, and sbsn budgets with the amount of the budget in accordance with the approval of the ministry of finance. second, the budget allocation for infrastructure for the icp is given in accordance with the proposal by considering the availability and adequacy of the macro budget at the institutional level. the regulations follow steps of management to meet the standard procedures (budiharso, et. al., 2022; david & david, 2011; dyson, 2004; kolios & read, 2013). in addition, the procedure for the procurement of facilities and infrastructures follows the following pattern: input (proposal/planning) –approval (budget approval) – process (procurement process) –output (results/goods) (famularsih, et al., 2016; dyson, 2004). each level, be it institute journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 291-307 or faculty, follows the same steps without any special treatment. in the procurement of infrastructure for the icp, there is a form of cooperation with other parties by adjusting the applicable provisions (kolios & read, 2013). then, for the method of procurement of infrastructure in the icp, it is proposed to the faculty, and then the faculty proposes to the rector/institute by following the applicable rules (dyson, 2004). sources of funds for the procurement of infrastructure for the icp come from pnbp, spp, and ukt. however, to procure infrastructure, there is a difference between the icp and the regular class as it is a flagship program of faculty and not a major of regular class in faculty (david & david, 2011). in general, the procedure of inventory for the facilities and infrastructures of the institute where all assets owned by sius are recorded in the simak-bmn application. the facility and infrastructure inventory code scheme automatically appears according to its type after being entered into the simak-bmn application. the finance and bmn divisions assisted by simakbmn operators are the parties responsible for facility and infrastructure investment (dyson, 2004). then, the role of the dean and icp director in the facility and infrastructure inventory process for the icp is that the inventory supports the rectorate because the asset recording system is centralized (famularsih, et al., 2016). the scheme for distributing infrastructure from the institute to the icp is submitted through the faculty. there are infrastructure facilities that can be used by all levels of the institute, such as a prayer room, however, there are also those that can only be used by certain groups, such as gamelan (hole, 2010). based on the statement of the head of the faculty section, the icp’s facilities are in accordance with the regulations of the ministry of research, technology and higher education no. 44 in 2015 concerning national higher education standards, in which the standard of learning facilities includes, but is not limited to: (1) furniture, (2) educational equipment, (3) educational media, (4) books, e-books, and repositories, (5) information and communication technology facilities, (6) experimental instrumentation, (7) sports facilities, (8) art facilities, (9) public facilities, (10) consumables, (11) and maintenance, safety, and security facilities (hrebiniak, 2006). meanwhile, infrastructure standards include but are not limited to: (1) land, (2) classroom, (3) library, (4) laboratory/studio/workshop/production unit, (5) place to exercise, (6) space for art, (7) student activity unit room, (8) college leadership room, (9) lecturer room, (10) administration room, and (11) public facilities (ananda & banurea, 2017). famularsih, et al. 303 although some facilities and infrastructures are still used together with other study programs, the standard of facilities and infrastructure, as mentioned above, can be fulfilled by the faculty and institute. in addition to the above facilities and infrastructure, there are other facility and infrastructure requirements that should be fulfilled by the faculty considering that icp is the faculty’s flagship program, such as art room, common room, and a wifi connection (huang, et. al., 2009). some of these have been fulfilled but are still being shared with other study programs, such as a wifi connection. then, at the student dormitory itself, there is no wifi connection facility, even though there is still learning going on at the dormitory. the icp still shares other facilities and infrastructures, such as art rooms and classrooms, with regular classes (kolios & read, 2013). in addition, the art room is still joined with other rooms, while the common room and language laboratory are still not fully developed (huisman, et. al., 2007). considering the high intensity of learning activities and intensive language learning studies, these two facilities should be provided to maximize the teaching and learning process at icp (ananda & banurea, 2017). furthermore, as stated earlier, the icp dormitory at campus 2 could not be used. this resulted in a reduction in students’ productivity as they were too tired during their course. therefore, the temporary solution regarding this problem would be to use a rental house that could be used for learning as well as a boarding house for students (mahlalela, 2017). the scheme for the utilization of special infrastructure facilities is through submitting permission to the related parties. the role of the rectorate, dean, and icp director in the process of distributing and utilizing infrastructure for the icp is to distribute goods or infrastructure carried out by the general section of the rectorate to related units in accordance with the proposal. to some extent, the head of the administration of ftik is the party responsible for supervising the infrastructure of the icp (mahlalela, 2017). the role of the dean in the process of monitoring and accounting (reporting) of infrastructure for the icp is to conduct regular monitoring of infrastructure facilities including the condition, number, and position of infrastructure facilities as outlined in the list of room items (dbr) (kolios & read, 2013). some efforts have been made to supervise the infrastructure of the icp by coordinating special infrastructure facilities through whatsapp. meanwhile, the infrastructure facilities accounting (reporting) scheme is developed to update the list of room items (dbr) every year to ascertain the condition of the infrastructure (mahlalela, 2017). if any form of damage is found, maintenance or repair is considered necessary. if the condition of the goods is not feasible, then it is reported to journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 291-307 the general rectorate for recording and entering the warehouse prior to deleting the goods (huisman, et. al., 2007). evaluation of the availability and the use of infrastructure facilities on the campus for the icp is through regular monitoring by both the rector and the faculty. meanwhile, the obstacles in developing facilities and infrastructure on campus surface due to the limitations of the flow and the applied rules. in addition, the availability of space, which is very limited, causes overlooking of certain requests, which contributes to the hindrances encountered by the icp director in further developing the facilities and infrastructures (budiharso & tarman, 2020). the reporting of the utilization in developing infrastructure facilities is done by recording goods in the warehouse and the minutes of deletion being material for the preparation of infrastructure plans and budgets for the following year (david & david, 2011). to optimize the procurement, use, maintenance, and arrangement of infrastructure facilities for the icp, it is carried out by collecting a comprehensive proposal data for the needs of icp facilities and infrastructures to prepare a procurement plan. it implies that the aspects that affect the availability of infrastructure are the availability of budget and the priority scale of infrastructure facilities at the institutional level (john & senith, 2013). conclusion the management of facilities and infrastructures of the icp currently implemented is an effort to procure the fulfillment of a place, amenity, or piece of equipment provided for a particular purpose and the basic physical space required for the operation of the icp. most of the requirements of the facilities and infrastructures have been fulfilled, though they are utilized on a sharing basis. however, there are still some facilities that need to be procured, such as an art room, a common room, and a language laboratory. the facility and infrastructure development and management at the icp of sius is developed with reference to long-term needs in accordance with the master plan that has been prepared. to obtain optimal development results with timely and appropriate indications, sius has compiled a grand design of facilities and infrastructure for 2020–2024. this study has a novelty in that management that fits to serve facilities and infrastructure is strategic management that is integral with vision and mission of the organization. however, this study has the drawbacks in that limited participants are involved in this study. future research is suggested to extend the sample and implemented survey research to improve the pitfalls of this study. famularsih, et al. 305 references adu, k., badaru, k., duku, n., & adu, e. (2022). innovation and technology: a panacea to teaching and learning challenges during the covid-19 lockdown in south africa. research in social sciences and technology, 7(1), 69-89. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.5 ananda, r., & banurea, o. k. (2017). manajemen sarana dan prasarana pendidikan. medan: cv. widya puspita. atkinson, p. a. & coffey, a. (2004). analysing documentary realities. in d. silverman (ed.), qualitative research: theory, method and practice (2nd ed.), london: sage, 56–75. bafadal, i. (2004). manajemen perlengkapan sekolah. bumi aksara. baharuddin. (2010). manajemen pendidikan islam tranformasi menuju sekolah atau madrasah unggul. uin maliki press. budiharso, t, makruf, i, mujahid, i. (2022). porter’s five forces: evaluating education management practices for the postgraduate program of uin rm said surakarta, indonesia. journal of social studies education research. 13(1), 164-192, https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4035 budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 corbin, j. & strauss, a. (2008). basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (3rd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. creswell, j. w., & poth, c. n. (2018). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). sage publications. david, f. r., & david, f. r. (2011). strategic management: concepts and cases a competitive advantage approach (f. r. david & f. r. david (eds.); 16th ed.). pearson education, inc. www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. dyson, r. g. (2004). strategic development and swot analysis at the university of warwick. european journal of operational research, 152(3), 631–640. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-2217(03)00062-6 famularsih, s., saputra, h., nurlatifah, a. i., nugroho, m. a., nuryansah, m., & taqwdaswintrani, e. b. (2016). pedoman penyelenggaraan pendidikan dan wisma program khusus kelas internasional (kki). salatiga: sius. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.5 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 291-307 fereday, j. & muir-cochrane, e. (2006). demonstrating rigor using thematic analysis: a hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development. international journal of qualitative methods, 5(1), 80–92. retrieved 12 january 2009, from http://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/5_1/pdf/fereday.pdf. fodrey, b., & lindbeck, r. (2010). using technology in undergraduate admission: a student perspective. journal of college admission. gulua, e. (2020). management of process and infrastructure in higher education institution. european journal of interdisciplinary studies, 6(1). https://revistia.org/files/articles/ejis_v6_i1_20/gulua.pdf hikmat. (2009). manajemen pendidikan. pustaka setia. hole, g. (2010). teaching with technology – considering your options. online learning and assessment in higher education, 21–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-84334-5770.50002-x hrebiniak, l. g. (2006). obstacles to effective strategy implementation. organizational dynamics, 35(1), 12–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2005.12.001 huang, x., ao, s., & wai, p. a. (2009). trends in commucation technologies and engineering science. in dr. sio-iong ao (ed.), lecture notes in electrical engineering (volume 33, vol. 59). springer. http://www.springer.com/series/7818 huisman, j., meek, l., & wood, f. (2007). institutional diversity in higher education: a crossnational and longitudinal analysis. higher education quarterly, 61(4), 563–577. john, d. s. f., & senith, m. s. (2013). factor branding in selection of higher educational institutions in india. iosr journal of business and management, 9(5), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.9790/487x-0954550 kohnstamm, & gunning. (1995). the cambridge handbook of intelligence. cambridge university press. kolios, a., & read, g. (2013). a political, economic, social, technology, legal and environmental (pestle) approach for risk identification of the tidal industry in the united kingdom. energies, 6(10), 5023–5045. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6105023 kurniawati, p. i., & sayuti, s. a. (2013). manajemen sarana dan prasarana di smk n 1 kasihan bantul. jurnal akuntabilitas manajemen pendidikan, 1(1), 98-108. mahlalela, a. m. (2017). a strategic management model for transforming selected swaziland’s teacher training colleges into learning organisations (issue february). university of south africa. http://www.ual-/ famularsih, et al. 307 matabane, m., matabane, r., moloi, t., & sibaya, k. (2022). the exploring factors that teachers view as hindering quality in teaching and learning at a tvet college. research in educational policy and management, 4(1), 51-64. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2022.9 miles, mattew b.; huberman, michael, a & saldana, jhonny. (2014). qualitative data analysis a methods sourcebook. 3rd ed. eds. helen salmon, kaitlin perry, kalie koscielak, and laura barrent. los angeles: sage publication. muniapan, b. (2007). issues and challenges of management education in malaysia. in quality driven initiatives: sharing good practices in higher education. mustari, m., & rahman, t. (2014). manajemen pendidikan. rajagrafika persada. sugiyono. (2014). metode penelitian pendidikan pendekatan kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r & d. alfabeta. schamber, l. (2000). time-line interviews and inductive content analysis: their effectivenss for exploring cognitive behaviors. journal of the american society for information science, 51(8), 734-744. subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid-19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 sukmayadi, v., yahya, a. h. (2020). indonesian education landscape and the 21st challenges. journal of social studies education research, 11(4), 219-234. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/901/481 the ministry of national education. (2013). standardized facilities of indonesian education for the international class. jakarta: directorate general of national education. whitaker, w., kress, t., & lake, r. (2022). leveraging local knowledge to envision educational policy and management outside the plunder of neoliberal technorationality. research in educational policy and management, 4(2), i-v. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2022.12 zhang, y. & wildemuth, b. (2016). qualitative analysis of content. available online at: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/qualitative-analysis-of-content-by-zhangwildemuth/b269343ab82ba8b7a343b893815a0bae6472fcca. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2022.12 https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/qualitative-analysis-of-content-by-zhang-wildemuth/b269343ab82ba8b7a343b893815a0bae6472fcca https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/qualitative-analysis-of-content-by-zhang-wildemuth/b269343ab82ba8b7a343b893815a0bae6472fcca www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (3), 98-119 integrating hots-based student electronic worksheet: teaching styles in elementary school during the covid-19 pandemic siti dewi maharani1, rahmi susanti2, luluk hanum indarti3, atikah syamsi4 abstract this study was conducted to help improve elementary school students’ critical thinking skills by integrating student electronic worksheets (sew) in distance or virtual learning. this research uses a mixed-method, combining quantitative and qualitative, with research instruments in the form of questionnaires, observations, and interviews, executed by the researchers with a sample of 108 students (56 male and 52 female) and six teachers at the state elementary school 19 of rambang niru in palembang revealed that: 1) teachers have not adopted technology-based learning aids such that the student worksheet is still in the form of sheets of paper; 2) most teachers lack experience in making sew; 3) the questions given to students are not higher-order thinking skills (hots)-based. it is attributable to the fact that teachers still use classical media (whatsapp) in virtual learning. thus, the learning materials delivered by the teacher to students are less attractive. this condition lowers students' interest in learning and, in turn, makes it difficult for students to understand the lessons delivered by the teacher. the most noteworthy finding in this study is the teacher's activity in using sew with hots-based questions. the researchers noted that integrating a sew made by inserting lessons and explanations in the form of video and audio and adjusting the learning materials according to the students’ grade level made the students more interested in learning and more confident in answering questions using electronic media. keywords: distance learning, elementary school, student electronic worksheet, higherorder thinking skills introduction learning style in the contemporary digital era supports the teaching and learning process at every level of education. due to the covid-19 pandemic, the current global situation has forced most countries to halt face-to-face teaching activities and begin online mode-teaching (demuyakor, 2020). the indonesian ministry of education and culture (kemendikbudristek, 2021) urges that teaching and learning activities from elementary school to university can be conducted from home by adopting modern technologies. although technology cannot completely replace a teacher, it can still help ease the teaching and learning process. since the emergence of the pandemic aligns with the rapidly growing technology, teaching and learning activities are primarily conducted in a virtual model using electronic media. technology is required to achieve learning objectives in the current pandemic through long-distance or online learning; however, it 1 dr., universitas sriwijaya, maharani.sitidewi@gmail.com 2 dr., universitas sriwijaya , mamahabnur@yahoo.co.id 3 magister, universitas sriwijaya 4 dr., iain syekh nurjati, atikahpgmi@syekhnurjati.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 99 does not reduce the effort required to gain knowledge (adu et al., 2022; tondeur et al., 2017). teachers must be trained to adapt themselves to such extraordinary situations where they must use electronic devices such as smartphones or laptops as the equipment used to convey learning materials to students. most teachers only possess basic pedagogical knowledge, even though, according to the 2013 curriculum, a teacher must also master, utilize, and be able to apply technology-based media so that the teacher can operate a computer or laptop for smooth delivery of learning materials to students (erbilgin & şahin, 2021; rahmadi et al., 2020; syamsi, 2014). the goals can be measured in various ways in the learning process, one of which is through the students’ learning outcomes. therefore, appropriate learning strategies are required to improve learning outcomes in the classroom. furthermore, critical thinking skills are essential in dealing with problems in the learning process. according to santrock (2012), critical thinking is a form of thinking executed actively and continuously, and the consequences of this activity will produce or involve specific evidence. meanwhile, jensen (2011) stated that critical thinking is an attitude process conducted by everyone to produce vital knowledge or idea. critical thinking ability can also be called thinking skills. it is necessary to implement appropriate learning strategies, suitable teaching materials, and learning equipment facilitating effective delivery of material to students to upgrade students’ thinking skills. it is the students’ worksheet, where the roles and activities of students can be seen, and they can fully interact with the learning materials provided (hanafiah & suryani, 2021). online learning has become a viable option to break the boredom of students learning in face-toface settings (fisher & baird, 2006). the blended mode has recently evolved as an effective way to execute teaching and learning activities. although this model requires a support device that may be reasonably expensive, it is effective and easier to implement. teachers must employ technological assistance by developing a breakthrough known as the student electronic worksheets (sew), containing lessons, explanations in the form of video or audio, and elaborating the learning materials. in this way, students are more interested in learning and more confident while answering questions using electronic media. making the sew is supported using a framework of the technological and pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) (voogt et al., 2013), where students must complete a technology-based worksheet containing the learning materials, new for the students. thus, the questions are designed using hots to stimulate students' thinking levels, so they are accustomed to working on hots-based questions. face-to-face interviews conducted by the researcher from january 11 to february 3, 2021, with the fifth-grade teachers at state elementary school 19 of rambang niru revealed that: 1) the teachers have not made technology-based learning equipment, in which the student worksheet made is still in the form of sheets of paper only; 2) the teachers do not have any experience in making sew, and 3) the questions given to students are not based on hots. it is attributable to the fact that teachers still employ classical media (e.g., whatsapp) in the virtual learning process. thus, the learning materials delivered by the teacher to students do not attract the students' learning interest. therefore, it becomes challenging for students to understand the instructions given by the teachers. one solution teachers can use to overcome the problems above is to use sew packaged in an attractive form so that they can be adapted to extraordinary conditions such as the current global pandemic. maharani et al. 100 literature review hots in bloom taxonomy hots was originally known as the benjamin s. bloom concept (bloom & krathwohl, 1956), categorizing various levels of thinking called bloom’s taxonomy, ranging from the lowest to the highest. this concept entails a learning goal divided into three areas, i.e., cognitive (mental and knowledge), affective (attitudes and feelings), and psychomotor (physical abilities). hots is part of the cognitive realm in bloom's taxonomy and aims to hone mental skills in the knowledge aspect. bloom's cognitive realm was later revised by krathwohl (2002). bloom's taxonomy describes six types of learning: 1) knowledge, 2) comprehension, 3) application, 4) analysis, 5) synthesis, and 6) evaluation. the first two types, knowledge and understanding, do not require critical thinking skills. however, in the last step, applications, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation require a high level of reflection, characterizing critical thinking. definitions of this category provide a seamless transition from educational theory to practice with a distinctive assessment design that researchers and instructors can use to assess students' skills born in a particular category. other researchers and even entire departments have studied how to apply bloom's taxonomy to refine questions and encourage teaching strategies (krathwohl, 2002). nowadays, many researchers have switched to using the new version (hanafiah & suryani, 2021; ichsan et al., 2019a), like in this study that used the new version of bloom's taxonomy. the difference between the new version of bloom's taxonomy and the old version appears in table 1. table 1 version differences in bloom's taxonomy old version new version learning outcomes key words knowledge remembering recall information identify, describe, name, label, recognize, reproduce, follow comprehension understanding understand the meaning, paraphrase concept summarize, convert, defend, paraphrase, interpret, give examples application applying use the information or concept in a new situation build, make, construct, model, predict, prepare analysis analyzing break information or concepts into parts to understand it more fully compare/contrast, break down, distinguish, select, separate synthesis evaluating put ideas together to form something new categorize, generalize, reconstruct evaluation creating make judgments about value appraise, critique, judge, justify, argue, support adopted from krathwohl (2002) bloom's taxonomy underwent a major overhaul in 2001 by anderson, krathwohl, and others. following the revision, bloom's most recent taxonomy was created. the original taxonomy has been updated to include a two-dimensional structure, which the revised taxonomy introduces. these two dimensions are cognitive process and knowledge. the initial taxonomy proposed by bloom is analogous to the cognitive component. there have been relatively few noteworthy modifications made (wilson, 2016). the position of cognitive levels, assessing, has now taken precedence over producing, which is another difference. both of the points that follow have been modified as in figure 1 (wilson, 2016). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 101 figure 1 anderson taxonomy it's time to move away from non-algorithmic instruction that emphasizes low level thinking (lots) and focus on high-level thinking skills (hots) (ichsan et al., 2019)). there are two separate dimensions to the cognitive mechanism in the anderson and krathwohl's revised bloom taxonomy. memorizing (c1) explains lot and how it differs from other types of memory retrieval and recall. contextual understanding (c2) is the process of extracting meaning from various forms of communication (oral, textual and visual) and applying it to one's own contexts. executing or enforcing an action is defined in c3. hot is defined by c4. analyzing (c5) is the process of separating, organizing, and assigning the various components of a given piece of content in order to better understand how they relate to one another and the overall structure or function. analyzing is the process of analyzing and evaluating information to arrive at conclusions based on criteria and standards. creating (c6) is the process of putting together parts to create a new pattern or structure through the use of development, design, or manufacturing (ichsan et al., 2019) integration of hots-tpack in electronic teaching during pandemic era tpack is one of the frameworks implemented to overcome the learning loss due to the covid19 pandemic in indonesia and improve critical thinking skills and the ability to argue (one of the indicators in hots). according to heck & strohfeldt, (2011) and voogt et al. (2013), the framework characterizes the use of technology and blends it with pedagogy, content, and knowledge. one of the learning models due to tpack-based development is blended learning (hybrid learning) that combines face-to-face and online learning. teachers can utilize existing blogs or websites for online purposes or even create and develop their own (harrak et al., 2019; hlatshwayo et al., 2022; vaughan, 2014). mishra & koehler (2006) argued that a framework is increasingly being used to determine whether teachers are effectively teaching using technology. an educator can thus use a learning framework referring to the 2013 curriculum; that is, tpack, wherein through this approach, content and pedagogical aspects are involved, and aspects of technology usage as a learning media that will upgrade students’ knowledge. here is the tpack framework written by mishra & koehler appearing in figure 2. maharani et al. 102 figure 2 tpack framework from mishra, p., & koehler, m.j. (2006) (source: adopted from mishra & koehler, (2006) in teaching-learning, a teacher must combine lessons, pedagogical and technological knowledge, and the interaction of any knowledge that will be shared with the students. thompson & mishra (2007), as cited in dias & ertmer (2013), stated that seven different types of knowledge are needed for the integration of knowledge and technology: content knowledge (ck); pedagogical knowledge (pk); technological knowledge (tk); pedagogical content knowledge (pck); technological content knowledge (tck); technological and pedagogical knowledge (tpk); and tpack. since the emergence of the covid-19 pandemic, teaching and learning activities have transitioned from face-to-face to online mode to reduce the risk of exposure to the virus (graham et al., 2020). ajmal et al. (2019) remarked that online learning, where learning is executed with the help of telecommunication devices, is a form of learning separating teachers and students physically. in addition, kachalov et al. (2020) stated that distance (online) learning is another way of learning that can be implemented during the pandemic. this type of learning seems effective and lowcost. moreover, it does not reduce the learning process and can be done anytime. cheng (2020) and belay (2020) stated that the current situation could be referred to as “school is out, but class is on,” meaning that even though virtual mode or also known as learning from home, does not decline the enthusiasm of students to accept the lessons as usual. the above-mentioned studies confirm that even during the pandemic, the learning process can continue, and schools can use distance learning that is effective, efficient, and flexible. student electronic worksheets (sew) hots-based student worksheets are used by students in learning activities for interaction between students and teachers. on the one hand, prastowo (2011) noted that student worksheets are printed teaching materials in the form of sheets of paper containing lessons, summaries, and instructions for working on a learning task that must be completed by students aligning with the learning objectives. on the other hand, kaymakci (2012) stated that the form of teaching materials could be visual, audio, and other interactive media. one of the teaching materials’ visual forms with a journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 103 vital role in learning activities is the student electronic worksheets (sew). meanwhile, abdurrahman et al. (2020) stated that using student worksheets in learning can improve students’ critical thinking skills. in line with the previous opinion, a student worksheet has an equally crucial function as learning by using other teaching aids (untayana & harta, 2016), as cited in sagita et al., (2018). according to winder, worksheets are as necessary as lesson plans requiring teaching aids. another opinion regarding teaching aids is as follows. “your plan for a topic should include details of relevant resources, such as textbooks, worksheets, and ict resources web-based materials” (sarah & rani, (2020) argued that student worksheets are the media students can use to take lessons and do exercises. live worksheets software is a place to enter data, or material users will submit through google chrome (online). teachers can develop this worksheet and design it according to the situations and conditions in the learning activities that will be executed. concerning the recent technological developments, teachers can use the help of this software while performing their teaching duties. according to cruz (2013), live worksheets is a website that allows students to convert worksheets that can eventually be printed to produce hard files (e.g., doc, pdf, jpg, and others) into existing more interactive worksheets. it is a way of modifying a worksheet from sheets of paper into an interactive technology-based worksheet without changing the orders and rules of the worksheet itself for students. the tasks are in the form of multiple-choice, essay, and matching and are equipped with video and audio recordings with the rules for completing assignments online with the help of smartphones. also, students’ scores will automatically appear if they have completed and submitted their assignments on the live worksheets website. method design our study uses a mixed-method research method, meaning that it uses the procedure of combining quantitative and qualitative data to obtain a comprehensive analysis of research problems (creswell & creswell, 2018). both methods were developed using a case study design to singlecase. yin (2018) explained that this type places the case as an object of research that needs to be researched to reveal the deep essence lying behind the case. it is not tied to the unit of analysis because our study’s unit of analysis is fused with the case, namely the application of hots-based sew in one location of a village school (creswell & creswell, 2018; yin, 2018). it explored the integration of hots-based sew as one of the learning innovations during the pandemic such that learning was not executed through whatsapp groups. quantitative data are used to discover how students respond to sew using a descriptive method. the mixed-method design is seen in figure 3. maharani et al. 104 figure 3 research design of mixed method: convergent parallel design 0020 source (j. w. creswell, 2014) based on the fig 1, this research developed quantitative design as the first part where a questionnaire was used as the main tool of data collection. the answers of the questionnaire were elaborated then in-depth phenomena in the answers were described into more details through an interview. this way, the questionnaire was used to elaborate quantitative data and the answers of the questionnaire were developed in-depth through interview to deepen qualitatively through interview. participants the participants of the study were 6 teachers and 102 students totaling 108 selected from 6 schools. (see table 2). our study focused on teachers and students at state elementary school 19 of rambang niru, one of the villages in palembang. the school was chosen because of its location and characteristics as an urban area with adequate internet accessibility. participants were carefully selected with the following criteria to achieve this purpose: (1) six (6) teachers of the fifth-grade students; (2) as many as 108 students in the fifth grade, with the consideration that at this level, they can be invited to think at a higher level, and; (3) classes that have been doing virtual learning for the last two years. in line with the mixed methods, the whole 108 respondents were assigned to collect the quantitative data obtained from the questionnaire. to collect the qualitative data from which an interview was conducted, 12 respondents were selected for interview (krippendorf, 1984). as suggested by krippendorf (1984) the number of respondents in a qualitative research should consider the appropriateness of the information. in other words, the whole respondents of this study is 108 to participate in the quantitative methods, and 12 of them were involved to collect the qualitative data from an interview. the 12 respondents were selected using purposive sampling. quantitative data collection and analysis qualitative data collection and analysis compare or relate interpretation journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 105 table 2 respondents of this study no school teacher students total f % f f % 1 s-1 1 .93 17 15.7.4 18 16.67 2 s-2 1 .93 17 15.7.4 18 16.67 3 s-3 1 .93 17 15.7.4 18 16.67 4 s-4 1 .93 17 15.7.4 18 16.67 5 s-5 1 .93 17 15.7.4 18 16.67 6 s-6 1 .93 17 15.7.4 18 16.67 6 5.58 102 94.44 108 100.2 instrument the research instruments used in this study are check list, observations, interviews, and document analysis. the checklist was used to collect data on the quality of the worksheet quantitatively. the checklist was developed into verbal data through observation and interview to elaborate the data into qualitative data. observations were made on six teachers and 108 students by filling out the checklist observation sheets and answering simple questions during the interview. the researchers also observed the sew document as instruments in the form of daily observations and interview sheets distributed to participants through google form, as is the case in disseminating its questionnaires through the g-form. they went directly to state elementary school 19 of rambang niru to check the requirements for implementing ict-based products and see the students’ data in the study. this step was executed to develop a product, which could later be run or used with the help of a smartphone. thus, the researchers needed to see the availability of these devices for each student. data collection the data sources used in this study are divided into primary and secondary. primary data are data in the form of the speech obtained from verbal discourse, behavior, or personality of the subject of research conducted by a trustworthy subject or information obtained from the reality of the respondent. the primary data sources in this study are the data obtained from informants; influential people collecting data. the quantitative data obtained are subsequently presented as a description of the data.(sugiyono, 2017) qualitative data are obtained directly through interviews and observations. qualitative data used in this study include interview materials with questions stored in text files and open-ended questions, and audio recordings to explore the interview content further. interviews were conducted with the six teachers of the fifth-grade students. the interview was related to the use of student worksheets given to students and their responses while using sew. the researchers made two validation sheets to assess several aspects regarding the suitability between the developed sew and the “learning science materials” presented on theme 3 (“healthy food”) and sub-theme 1 (“how does the body process food?”) in the fifth grade of elementary school students. data analysis quantitative data obtained from the scores of sew was analyzed through descriptive statistics focusing on mean, rate percentage, table and diagram. in addition, the qualitative data analysis maharani et al. 106 was based on krippendorff’s (2022) theory on content analysis. what is meant by the design of the analysis here is a content analysis solely for description, describing aspects and characteristics, and not intended to test a particular hypothesis or the relationship between variables. in this case, sew analyzes the contents of written information with the following research steps (bauer, 2007). the data triangulation technique was executed by giving a checklist observation sheet to the fifthgrade students about the teacher's teaching style by using an e-worksheet. notably, this teaching style is only limited to state elementary school 19 of rambang niru and cannot be generalized to other schools in the city of palembang. thus, this research is only limited to the type of case study. results analysis of student responses to the application of hots-based sew our study’s results include some aspects based on the focus research question consisting of problem analysis, including the practical application of sew-based hots, analysis of student responses to the application of sew in the classroom, and how technology helps motivate students to use hots. observations on the application of hots-based sew in the classroom are as follows: figure 4 results of observation indicators the following is an example of a form of sew that researchers developed and conducted in this study by working on the fifth-grade students. the data above were collected through observation with a three-point differential semantic scale, visible -doubt invisible/none (margono, 2013). from the observed results above, 88% of students used and applied hots-based electronic worksheets well. moreover, using this technology could attract the attention and motivation of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 107 students learning as much as 82.4% of the 108 students observed. figure 5 part of the hard-file of sew design source: personal documents of the results researcher's sew, a) english version; b) indonesian version. in addition to the above, our observations in general, the results of class observations related to the implementation of sew in the classroom, and problems in the application of sew arising in online learning include the limitations of electronic devices to fill or work on sew. no interaction exists between educators and students during learning, so when students cannot understand the questions asked by the teacher, they cannot immediately answer. moreover, the teacher can only assess the results because no visible attitude of students exists in the implementation. not all parents of students can concentrate on learning activities, even though students still have to be accompanied because the learning is conducted online. the teacher cannot observe the activities of students in doing sew. therefore, follow-up is needed in synchronous and asynchronous learning. the problem of an unstable signal also highly affects the learning with sew. observations were made during the 2x pre-use of sew and when using sew research. while participating in 2x observations in class, teachers used powerpoint media with the theme of the material. it was underway and related to environmental and ecosystem themes, although the assignment was performed through sew. however, the researchers concluded that selecting materials, learning methods, and worksheets must be appropriate following class conditions and the characteristics of their students. the process of using sew provides innovations in improving students' cognitive competence. it can be seen based on the instruction words in the hots-based sew used in one of the following learning themes, with many instruction words (n=15) in each sub-theme of the worksheet, the details follow. a b a b maharani et al. 108 figure 6 use of hots through instruction verbs in sew from the one worksheet of hots-based sew which we analyzed, it is not that the applying verb contained in the cognitive mots level is the 3x instructions, all three of which use the instruction word "let's try it," but in the analyzing category there are as many as three kinds of instruction words used, namely, "analyze the pattern, checking or peer review, and let's practice." although it uses different instructions, it has the same analysis category, and students show promising results in applying hots-based sew, as in the following table: table 3 student task results of hots-based sew level cognitive item student responses in assignments percentage correct (%) average (%) correct incorrect doubt c3 1 78 27 3 72,2 69,1 2 83 23 2 76,9 3 63 42 3 58,3 c4 4 79 24 5 73,1 74,1 5 80 25 3 74,1 6 87 17 4 80,6 7 85 21 2 78,7 8 74 30 4 68,5 9 75 27 6 69,4 c5 10 90 15 3 83,3 83,8 11 89 12 7 82,4 12 87 17 4 80,6 13 96 9 3 88,9 c6 14 95 11 2 88,0 78,7 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 109 15 75 26 7 69,4 the cognitive level of evaluation (c5) in the picture above has the highest average of 83.8%, so hots-based sew can direct students to consider forming new ideas that reconstruct previous thoughts. in addition, the creation process also occupies the next highest value of 78.7%. in the context of hots-based sew, the process of creating is executed through the instruction "create an idea.” however, there are still students hesitant to do this task, which needs to be studied further. analysis of teacher responses to the application of hots-tpack-based sew based on the results of the interviews with six elementary school teachers, several questions contained in a series of content analyses of the tpack abilities of state elementary school 19 of rambang niru teachers can be summarized as follows: table 4 results of tpack for elementary school teachers no. component indicator assessment criteria 1 technological able to teach students by using different websites enough knowledge (e.g., youtube, wag, zoom) have technical skills in utilizing technology enough able to master technology easily enough able to combine learning with the use of the internet for students enough able to use software conferencing (e.g., msn, messenger, enough skype, yahoo, im) 2 pedagogical able to direct students to learn independently good knowledge able to design group activities for students good able to select learning themes that are suitable for group activities good able to educate children to be able to monitor learning achievement independently enough able to educate students to choose the appropriate learning strategy enough 3 content have strategies to improve understanding in the field of study taught good knowledge have varied ways to improve self-understanding on subsequent learning topics enough able to focus on the subject matter such as an expert who focuses on his teaching subject good have adequate mastery of the subjects taught good 4 technological content knowledge able to utilize the right technology in accordance with the content of the field of study enough able to select the content of basic competencies appropriate in teaching using technological means enough carry out learning activities with other technological media such as laptops, lcd projectors, pointers. enough able to understand the content of teaching that uses technology facilities so that students can easily master the lesson enough maharani et al. 110 5 pedagogical able to assess the process and learning outcomes of students good content knowledge able to develop curriculum, syllabus, and other learning tools good designing learning activities good do educational and communicative teaching good 6 technological pedagogical knowledge able to think about the influence of technology on teaching approaches used in the classroom good able to think critically about how to use technology to students enough able to choose the use of different technologies for different learning activities enough able to use information and communication technology for student group discussion activities good 7 technological pedagogical content knowledge able to utilize strategies that combine material content, technology, and teaching techniques enough able to help students and peers to apply the use of technology, materials, and teaching approaches in schools enough able to select the use of technology in the classroom in an effort to improve the learning process of students enough able to provide lessons that match the combination of fields of study, technology, and teaching techniques enough able to utilize technology in teaching certain material units to students good the assessment and scoring conversion criteria are presented in table 4 (syahputra, 2020): table 5 conversion of scores and assessment criteria interval criteria 96–100 very good 86–95 good 76–85 enough 56–75 poor 0–55 bad table 4 shows seven components of tpack containing hots, and researchers analyzed six teachers. each tpack indicator has an explanation and description of activities analyzed for six teachers of sd rambang niru whom we interviewed and observed. the most critical observations are: 1. technological knowledge (tk) of the teachers of the school under consideration on average is in the “enough” category. it can be seen from the teacher's ability to use applications such as zoom and whatsapp groups and access videos from youtube in the learning that has been done, even though these teachers have only mastered basic skills. thus, it can be interpreted that the level of technological ability of the teachers of this school is still unsatisfactory. this score further proves that the teachers’ ability concerning the “use of technology” still needs to be developed and improved for the future. yanuarto et al., (2020) emphasized that this dimension of tk can be measured by using the level of mastery of information technology and the level of adaptability of teachers to new information technology. based on the assessment of this study, teachers are considered “enough” capable of mastering new information technology in learning to students. here is the result of an interview with a grade 5 teacher who stated: teacher: "because of this covid, it forced us to adapt to learning applications, back when journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 111 we first used whatsapp groups only, but now we use learning management systems from the ministry of education, culture, and technology with the belajar.id application, and it can increase our ability even though we are still learning to use it" (ns, female, grade 5 teacher). 2. content knowledge (ck) of the school teachers under consideration has been included in the “good” assessment category. it covers the ability to focus on the subject, such as an expert focusing on his teaching subject. thus, it can be interpreted that the teachers’ level of mastery and teaching materials are satisfactory. it aligns with the assumption of rahayu (2019), who explained that this dimension is measured by the level of mastery of the teachers regarding the subject matter. in summary, teachers can master the content of teaching materials taught to students. 3. the pedagogical knowledge (pk) of the teachers of this school has also been categorized as “good,” directing students to learn independently, designing group activities for students, and selecting learning themes suitable for group activities. it is by the teacher's question regarding thematic learning in sew: teacher: “the sew assigned to a student already contains thematic learning per government regulations so that this sew can be done immediately and strongly supports our pedagogical knowledge because this sew begins with an explanation of the lesson plan and learning objectives first" (sf, male, sixth-grade teacher). per rosyid’s (2017) findings, teachers can readily apply their pedagogical abilities in learning activities. they can use teaching materials well, aligning with learning objectives and learning media that support students’ achievement. thus, it can be interpreted that the teachers’ level of pedagogical knowledge is satisfactory. 4. technological content knowledge (tck) teachers of the school under consideration, on average, is only in the “enough” assessment category. according to rahayu (2019), teachers can be in the “adequate” category in presenting teaching materials through technology. thus, it can be concluded that the technological ability of the teachers to deliver learning materials is still not satisfactory. 5. this school’s technological pedagogical knowledge (tpk) is also in the “good” assessment category. hence, one can conclude that the level of pedagogical competence of the teachers regarding technology is relatively satisfactory. rosyid argued that as the fifth component variable of tpack, the ability of teachers to teach using communication technology is included in the “good” category, meaning that the application of technology in teacher pedagogy skills is highly relevant but has not been developed and appropriately improved. 6. the level of pedagogical knowledge or pedagogical content knowledge (pck) of the teachers of this school is considered “good.” rahayu (2019) explained that teachers have been competent in mastering teaching strategies and techniques per the content and appropriate subject topics so that the competence of teachers in this aspect can be stated as “good.” thus, one can conclude that the level of teacher pedagogical competence related to the teacher’s maharani et al. 112 presentation of content and learning materials is satisfactory. 7. tpack of teachers of the school under consideration is in the “enough” assessment category. it helps students and peers to apply the use of technology, materials, and teaching approaches in schools, utilize strategies that combine material content, technology, and teaching techniques, and select the use of technology in the classroom to improve the students’ learning process. thus, it can be deduced that the tpack qualifications for the teachers are still unsatisfactory and need to be developed, and they must be trained to improve according to the current demands. according to sum (2020), elementary school teachers are the key to the success of early childhood education and learning activities. with the development of an increasingly rapid and modern era, accompanied by various technologies, teachers must adjust their quality to develop their skills, expertise, and knowledge. literature pertinent to teaching, technology, and teaching strategies can attract students' interest in learning. in today's complex era, a teacher can be called a professional educator by studying technology well for educational activities. sumantri et al. (2022) reported that they can adopt the use of technology at various levels of elementary school. learning materials can be delivered using technological devices, one of which is through the sew. it is not only to familiarize children with technological gadgets but also to ensure that students can increase their critical and creative thinking skills. one can see the results of students' responses to the teacher's teaching style by using hots based sew, as depicted in the following image: figure 7 student response regarding teachers’ teaching style figure 7 (response from 108 students) illustrates that 68.5% of students responded very well to the teaching style of teachers who use online webpages, and based on the results of interviews with students, most teachers use whatsapp groups in distributing sew. as in the following statement: journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 113 student r: “my teachers usually use whatsapp groups when asking us to do tasks but rarely use google meet.” in addition to the findings, students also responded to the use of technology per the content of healthy food sub-theme materials in the fifth grade of this elementary school, as follows (see figure 8): figure 8 student response regarding the conformity of technology with the material a total of 64 students gave a “good” response to teachers regarding the suitability of technology utilization with the content of the material provided, that is, in the sub-theme of healthy food proven through the use of learning videos with youtube media. discussion sew based on hots by taking the context of tpack is an innovation of student worksheets on theme three; one of the learnings explains that food has three advantages. (1) contextual and relevant to current environmental issues related to the scarcity of cooking oil. (2) hots-based, (3) tpack, and (4) for elementary school level. this advantage has the potential that sew can improve the quality of learning, especially for elementary school children in the 21st century, known as the ability to think critically and creatively, which is also in line with the results of subur's (2021) research. however, in this case, it is different because the researcher developed herself with a simpler context for the background of students far from big cities. based on table 3 (see table 3) on the student cognitive level chart, it can be seen that the cognitive level of evaluation (c5) in the picture above has the highest average value of 83.8%. in addition, the creation process also occupies the next highest value of 78.7%. in the context of hots-based sew, the process of creating is executed through the instruction "create idea.” it is evidenced by the learning outcomes that provide verbs according to the hots keywords, as maharani et al. 114 stated in bloom's taxonomy table (see table 1), so that hots-based sew can direct students to consider forming new ideas and reconstruct previous thoughts (ichsan et al., 2019b). analyzing has also looked good at the cognitive level because teachers with good content knowledge teach students. the sew-based hots that corresponds to the tpack approach is implemented in the form of questions (see figure 2) by involving six cognitive aspects of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating those given to 108 students. the level of remembering applying (c1–c3) is categorized as low-level thinking ability or lots, while the level of analysis creating (c4–c6) is categorized as higher-level thinking ability or hots (abduljabbar, 2015). the questioning was conducted after hybrid learning, with some students through online learning and some through face-to-face (related to regional restrictions due to covid 19). for online purposes, teachers use the sew that researchers have designed. this learning model aims to overcome learning loss due to the covid-19 pandemic in indonesia and improve critical thinking and debating skills (as one of the indicators in hots). sew is different from other online learning (alhrahsheh & ivanova, 2022; ghafur, 2021) because it is a student worksheet based on hots and has six learnings centered on one theme, that is, ecosystem. moreover, previously developed worksheets are more general and not yet hotsbased (ichsan et al., 2019a). another advantage of hots-based sew is that it is more contextual and relevant. sew-based hots is a learning tool that can facilitate students, especially in the countryside, with more depth and prioritize discussion with peers. sew-based hots with the tpack approach is a skill that teachers, even elementary school teachers, must possess because they support the teaching profession in the recent era known as the digital reform. it has already been averred by nasution & nurhafizah (2019), who explained that the world of education is now closely related to the digital era. it means that all educational activities must be adapted to technological developments. likewise, teachers’ competencies must reflect the knowledge and abilities to apply technology in learning activities because children today are primarily familiar with technology. with the introduction of children to technology devices and technology-based communication media, the world of education is also required to keep up with developing technology. elementary school teachers are also required to master the skills and the ability to adapt technology as a learning challenge in this digital era and to change the way of educating and teaching by utilizing information and communication technology as a more sophisticated facility for learning activities. learning materials can be delivered using technological devices, like a laptop or computer. therefore, professional teachers play a vital role in adopting, implementing, and using technology in teaching and learning activities. it is to familiarize children with technological gadgets and ensure that children do not stutter, as it is a modern developmental necessity. this study has two implications. first, hots inevitably appears as the means of critical thinking in the digital teaching system. second, the use of sew a teaching instrument that adapts technology and hots is recently a core teaching model to accommodate technology. consequently, this study promotes its novelty in that critical thinking appears in the profile of sew where technology-based teaching model through tpack is applicable. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 115 conclusion as for the conclusion, the teaching style of elementary school teachers must keep up with the times. technology only functions as a support and media in educational activities. improving hots in the digital teaching materials has been well accommodated using tpack. accordingly, hots that is based on bloom taxonomy is applicable to integrate into technology knowledge where digital teaching platform is dominant in the covid-19 pandemic era. tpack is one of the frameworks that can be applied to bridge learning losses in extraordinary times; for example, during this pandemic, using electronic student worksheets can improve students' abilities and develop their resourcefulness so that they possess high levels of thinking and other essential skills required in the industrial era 4.0. to achieve these opportunities, every teacher or student must adapt well and quickly through the integration of sew based on hots. this study is limited in terms of the elaboration of hots in the sew and the exploration of quantitative data analysis. however, the results of the use of sew to apply hots is effective. it is suggested that students' hots abilities can undoubtedly be improved in various ways. one is that teachers can present an interesting sew because it will impact more active learning. the activeness of students working on sew provides opportunities for increasing hots following 21st-century learning. in addition, quantitative data analysis can be expanded into inferential statistics applying an experimental study. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank all participants for their willingness to fill out the interviews and the support of universitas sriwijaya for this research. references abduljabbar, d. (2015). exam questions classification based on bloom’s taxonomy cognitive level using classifiers combination. journal of theoretical and applied information technology, 78(3), 447–455. https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/84940667147 abdurrahman, romli, s., distrik, i. w., herlina, k., umam, r., ramadhani, r., & sumarni, s. (2020). development and validation of open ended based on worksheet for growing higher level thinking skills of students. european journal of educational research, 9(2), 445455. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.9.2.445 adu, k., badaru, k., duku, n., & adu, e. (2022). innovation and technology: a panacea to teaching and learning challenges during the covid-19 lockdown in south africa. research in social sciences and technology, 7(1), 69-89. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.5 ajmal, m., arshad, m. & hussain, j. (2019). instructional design in open distance learning: present scenario in pakistan. pakistan journal of distance & online learning, 5(2), 139156. anderson, lorin w. & krathwohl, david r. (2001). kerangka landasan untuk pembelajaran, pengajaran, dan asesmen. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/84940667147 https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.9.2.445 https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.9.2.445 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.5 maharani et al. 116 alhrahsheh, r., & ivanova, g. (2022). exploring digital access as a social determinant of health amongst uae students rakan journal of social studies education research, 13(1), 193– 216. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3748/556 bauer, m. w. (2007). book reviewcontent analysis: an introduction to its methodology (2nd revised edition) krippendorff, klaus. british journal of sociology, 58(2), 329–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2007.00153.x belay, d. g. (2020). covid-19, distance learning and educational inequality in rural ethiopia. pedagogical research, 5(4), em0082. https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/9133 brueck, j.s & lenhart, l.a. (2015). e-buku dan tpack apa yang dibutuhkan guru. guru membaca vol. 68 edisi 5 hlm. 371–374 doi: 10.1002 / trtr.1323 © 2014 international reading association cheng, x. (2020). challenges of “school’s out, but class’s on” to school education: practical exploration of chinese schools during the covid-19 pandemic. sci insight edu front, 5(2), 501-516. https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.20.ar043 creswell, j. w. (2014). educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). pearson. creswell, w. j., & creswell, j. d. (2018). research design: qualitative, quantitative adn mixed methods approaches. in sage open (fifth edit, vol. 53, issue 9). sage. cruz, anna paula s. (2013). ‘bab ii landasan teori’, journal of chemical information and modeling, 53.9 (2013), 118. dias, l. b. & ertmer, p. a. (2013). goldilocks and tpack, journal of research on technology in education, 46(2), 103-128, doi: 10.1080/15391523.2013.10782615 demuyakor, j. (2020). coronavirus (covid-19) and online learning in higher institutions of education: a survey of the perceptions of ghanaian international students in china. online journal of communication and media technologies, https://www.ojcmt.net/article/coronavirus-covid-19-and-online-learning-in-higherinstitutions-of-education-a-survey-of-the-8286 erbilgin, e., & şahin, b. (2021). the effects of a professional development program for technology integrated algebra teaching. research in educational policy and management, 3(2), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.4 fisher, m., & baird, d. e. (2006). making learning work: utilizing mobile technology for active exploration, collaboration, assessment, and reflection in higher education. journal of educational technology systems, https://doi.org/10.2190/4t10-rx04-113n-8858 ghafur, h. s. (2021). analysis of ict development supporting the e-learning implementation on nadhatul ulama universities in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 12(4), 121–143. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3655/533 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3748/556 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2007.00153.x https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/9133 https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/9133 https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.20.ar043 https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.20.ar043 https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2013.10782615 https://www.ojcmt.net/article/coronavirus-covid-19-and-online-learning-in-higher-institutions-of-education-a-survey-of-the-8286 https://www.ojcmt.net/article/coronavirus-covid-19-and-online-learning-in-higher-institutions-of-education-a-survey-of-the-8286 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.4 https://doi.org/10.2190/4t10-rx04-113n-8858 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3655/533 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 117 graham, s. r., tolar, a. & hokayem, h. (2020). teaching preservice teachers about covid-19 through distance learning. electronic journal for research in science & mathematics education. 24(3), 29-37. international consortium for research in science & mathematics education (icrsme) hanafiah, s., & suryani, i. (2021). the effect of science in development of student character education with the application of hots. in linguistica antverpiensia. researchgate.net. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/sutarman-sutarman4/publication/353382438_the_effect_of_science_in_development_of_student_charact er_education_with_the_application_of_hots/links/60f97adc2bf3553b290430f9/theeffect-of-science-in-development-of-student harrak, f., bouchet, f., & luengo, v. (2019). from students’ questions to students’ profiles in a blended learning environment. in journal of learning analytics (vol. 6, issue 1). society for learning analytics research. https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2019.61.4 heck, d., & strohfeldt, t. (2011). ict pedagogy: teaching teachers the future. in 2011 learning & teaching week program and abstracts book (p. 19). university of the sunshine coast. hlatshwayo, b., skosana, n., & khoza, s. (2022). teachers pedagogical content knowledge in graphical communication concept: a case of four selected township schools. journal of curriculum studies research, 4(2), 44-58. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2022.11 ichsan, i. z., hasanah, r., aini, s., ristanto, r. h., & miarsyah, m. (2019). higher order thinking skills assessment based on environmental problem (hots-aep): mendesain evaluasi pembelajaran abad 21. jurnal biotek, 7(1), 14–26. ichsan, i. z, sigit, d. v., miarsyah, m., ali, a., arif, w. p., & prayitno, t. a. (2019a). hotsaep: higher order thinking skills from elementary to master students in environmental learning. european journal of educational research, 8 (4), 935-942. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.8.4.935 jensen, e. (2011). pembelajaran berbasis otak: paradigma pengajaran baru. jakarta: indeks. kachalov, d. v., ivanova, o. n., gubanova, n. v., belotserkovskaya, n. v., & kuznetsov, s. v. (2020). implementation of a differentiated approach to the organization of distance learning. propósitos y representaciones, universidad san ignacio de loyola, vicerrectorado de investigación. 8(3), e584. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.20511/pyr2020.v8n2.584 kaymakci, s. (2012). a review of studies on worksheets in turkey. karadeniz technical university, trabzon, turkey. us-china education review a 1 (2012) 57-64. earlier title: us-china education review, issn 1548-6613 kemendikbudristek. (2021). regulation of the minister of education, culture, reserach, and technology of the republic of indonesia number 17 year 2021 on national assessment (pp. 1–10). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/sutarman-sutarman-4/publication/353382438_the_effect_of_science_in_development_of_student_character_education_with_the_application_of_hots/links/60f97adc2bf3553b290430f9/the-effect-of-science-in-development-of-studenthttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/sutarman-sutarman-4/publication/353382438_the_effect_of_science_in_development_of_student_character_education_with_the_application_of_hots/links/60f97adc2bf3553b290430f9/the-effect-of-science-in-development-of-studenthttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/sutarman-sutarman-4/publication/353382438_the_effect_of_science_in_development_of_student_character_education_with_the_application_of_hots/links/60f97adc2bf3553b290430f9/the-effect-of-science-in-development-of-studenthttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/sutarman-sutarman-4/publication/353382438_the_effect_of_science_in_development_of_student_character_education_with_the_application_of_hots/links/60f97adc2bf3553b290430f9/the-effect-of-science-in-development-of-studenthttps://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2022.11 https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.8.4.935 https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.8.4.935 https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.8.4.935 http://dx.doi.org/10.20511/pyr2020.v8n2.584 http://dx.doi.org/10.20511/pyr2020.v8n2.584 http://dx.doi.org/10.20511/pyr2020.v8n2.584 maharani et al. 118 krathwohl, d. r. (2002). a revision of bloom’s taxonomy : an overview. theory into practice, 41(4), 212–219. krippendorff, k. (2022). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. in content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878781 margono, g. (2013). pengembangan instrumen sikap terhadap statistika menggunakan skala diferensial semantik. proceeding seminar nasional psikometri, 304–311. mishra, p., & koehler, m. j. (2006). technological pedagogical content knowledge: a framework for teacher knowledge. teachers college record: the voice of scholarship in education, 108(6), 1017–1054. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810610800610 mishra, p., & koehler, mj. (2006). teknologi pengetahuan konten pedagogis: kerangka kerja untuk pengetahuan guru. catatan guru perguruan tinggi, 108 (6), 1017–1054. nugroho, r. s. (2020, maret 12). apa itu pandemi global seperti yang dinyatakan who pada covid-19? www.google.co.id/amp/s/amp.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/03/12/060100465/ apa-itu-pandemi-global-seperti-yang-dinyatakan-who-pada-covid-19 prastowo, a., (2011), panduan kreatif membuat bahan ajar inovatif, yogyakarta, diva press purwadinata. (1967). psikologi pendidikan dengan pendidikan baru. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. rahmadi, i., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113-133. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 rohmatullah, a. zuhdan k. p., & haryo a. p. (2019). implementation of the 2013 curriculum for science learning. graduate school, universitas negeri yogyakarta, yogyakarta, & universitas sanata dharma, indonesia. mimbar sekolah dasar, 6(1) 2019, 105-115. http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/mimbar rosyid a. (2017). j. mat. pendidik. mat. (3) 446. google scholar sagita, l., widagsa, r,. & dwipa. n. m. s. (2018). mengembangkan lembar kerja ilmia bilingual untuk integral tak tepat. jurnal pendidikan matematika. universitas pgri yogyakarta. 9(2), 249-258. https://doi.org/10.22342/jme.9.2.5401.249-258 santrock, j. w. (2012). life span development; perkembangan masa hidup (terj. benedictine) (13th ed.). erlangga. sarah, i., & rani, s. (2020). effectiveness of student worksheets on environmental project-based e-learning model in building student character. in journal of physics: conference series (vol. 1521, p. 32005). iop publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/3/032005 subur (2021). online learning on the covid-19 pandemic to create educational access https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878781 https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810610800610 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/mimbar http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/mimbar http://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/mimbar https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=rosyid+a+2017+j.+mat.+pendidik.+mat.+3+446 https://doi.org/10.22342/jme.9.2.5401.249-258 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 98-119 119 inequality. journal of social studies education research, 12(4), 170–196. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3726/535 sugiyono. (2017). metodepenelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif dan r&d. bandung: pt alfabet. syamsi, a. (2014). implementasi kurikulum 2013 di mi darul hikmah kota cirebon. in d. edison (ed.), konferensi nasional pendidikan dasar sps upi; pendidikan berkualitas dalam membangun generasi emas 2045 (pp. 60–75). isbn 978-602-98647-3-1. tondeur, j., aesaert, k., pynoo, b., & braak, j.van, fraeyman, n., erstad, o. (2017). developing a validated instrument to measure preservice teachers’ ict competencies: meeting the demands of the 21st century. british journal of educational technology, https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12380 thompson, a. d., & mishra, p. (2007). breaking news: tpck becomes tpack! journal of computing in teacher education, 24, 38, 64. untayana, j. r., & harta, i. (2016). pengembangan perangkat pembelajaran limit berbasis pendekatan saintifik berorientasi prestasi belajar dan kemampuan komunikasi matematika. jurnal riset pendidikan matematika, 3(1), 45-54. vaughan, n. (2014). student engagement and blended learning: making the assessment connection. education sciences. https://www.mdpi.com/85706 voogt, j., fisser, p., roblin, n. p., & ... (2013). technological pedagogical content knowledge–a review of the literature. … assisted learning. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.13652729.2012.00487.x yanuarto, w.n., maat, s.m. & husnin, h. (2020). a measurement model of technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) in indonesian senior mathematics teachers’ scenario. j. phys.: conf. ser. 1663 012018 https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1663/1/012018 yin, r. k. (2018). case study research and applications: design and methods (sixth edit, issue 5). sage publications inc. https://doi.org/10.1177/109634809702100108 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3726/535 https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12380 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (2),280-304 the independent campus program for higher education in indonesia: the role of government support and the readiness of institutions, lecturers and students furtasan ali yusuf1 abstract this study seeks to analyze the relationship between the kampus merdeka (independent campus) program of indonesia and the readiness of stakeholders in universities, specifically whether the latter has a positive influence on implementing the program. the research applied a quantitative approach, which is suitable when trying to assess the appropriateness of an implemented educational program, while the analysis was informed by relevant prior research. it was necessary to learn whether there are internal and external factors support an implementation, so this research was conducted among private universities in region iv (west java and banten provinces) of the higher education service institutions of indonesia with a sample of 111 lecturers. based on the data analysis, the readiness of universities, lecturers, and students, as well as government support, were found to positively influence the implementation of the independent campus program. more precisely, the effect revealed by the r2 value was 10.4 percent. of the four independent variables considered, the strongest influence came from government support, with an r2 of 7.7 percent, followed by lecturer readiness (4.7 percent), student readiness (4.7 percent), and campus readiness (3.6 percent). all four of these independent variables therefore had a significant influence on the implementation of the independent campus program, suggesting that any such implementation of the program must proceed in line with the preparedness of the relevant stakeholders. strong support from the government also seems to be very important, however, if the independent campus program is to achieve its goal of enhancing the capacity and quality of higher education in indonesia. keywords: campus policy, education readiness, lecturers, students, government support introduction the kampus merdeka (independent campus) program was launched by indonesia’s ministry of education and culture (mendikbud) at the end of 2020. it aims to develop higher education in line with ministry of education and culture regulation no. 22 of 2020 for the 2020–2024 strategic plan. the program’s objectives were defined according to the eight key performance indicators (kpis) that were stipulated in the ministry’s decree no. 754/p/2020. the independent campus program seeks to enhance the capacity and quality of education in indonesia’s higher education institutions. indonesia’s higher education sector is very diverse, so the program’s implementation has been designed by the government to take place in phases under a tiered system. according to 1dr. universitas bina bangsa, jakarta, indonesia; email: fay@binabangsa.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 281 statistical data from the director general of higher education, the ministry of education and culture supervises 3,169 tertiary education institutions, both public and private. of these, 1,033 provide vocational education, while 2,136 are academic higher education institutions, such as universities (directorate general of higher education, 2020). the existing literature suggests that the readiness of higher education institutions and their lecturers and students, as well as government support, may influence the implementation of the independent campus program in indonesia, but no studies have yet analyzed in depth the effect of the abovementioned aspects of readiness and how they may help achieve the program’s objectives (solikhah & budiharso, 2019). what is more, most studies have focused on the independent campus program for just one institution, so their findings have limited generalizability. research has revealed how these institutions and their students have reacted to the program (qorib & harfiani, 2021). most tertiary institutions, especially those in remote areas beyond the capital city, have not rushed to adopt the program, and the unique situation of each institution presents obstacles to implementing it, such as students lacking a good understanding of the program (budiharso & tarman, 2020; subedi & subedi, 2020; wahyuni & anshori, 2021). curriculum digitization also faces challenges, because not all campuses have adequate cooperation networks and internet connectivity (kalimullina et al. 2021; karmini, suda, agung, & suasti, 2020). in addition, the ongoing covid-19 pandemic has prompted further challenges, such as requiring online teaching and social distancing measures, especially in the large cities where most universities are located (qorib & harfiani, 2021). an appropriate state-based reference framework for higher education is therefore needed (peristiwo, 2020; dube & tsotetsi, 2019; lucey, 2021). the independent campus program needs students to be prepared, because it focuses on action learning, concept mapping, and value clarification based on information and communication technology (ige, 2019). this transformation in educational policy must also accord with educational theory and practice during the transition, stabilization, and growth-potential periods (strunc, 2020; tarman & chigisheva, 2019). we must therefore understand how the readiness of students and lecturers, as well as government support, can affect students’ achievements, so education can continue to advance as a science and support optimal outcomes for graduates (bekele & ago, 2020; cantu et al., 2021; waychunas, 2020). with the above in mind, this research sought to investigate how the readiness of higher education institutions and their lecturers and students, as well as government support, influence the yusuf implementation of the independent campus program in indonesia. this study is especially relevant given that this government program was recently launched at the end of 2020. thus, as a relatively new intervention in the education sector, it warrants studies to help guide universities in how to implement the program in an optimal manner. research questions five relevant research questions were posed based on an analysis of the background: 1. how does an institution’s readiness influence a successful implementation of the independent campus program? 2. how does the readiness of lecturers influence a successful implementation of the independent campus program? 3. how does the readiness of students influence a successful implementation of the independent campus program? 4. how does government support influence a successful implementation of the independent campus program? 5. how does the combination of all the above-mentioned factors influence a successful implementation of the independent campus program? hypotheses after formulating the problem based on a review of the literature, the following research hypotheses were proposed: ha1: campus readiness (x1) has a positive influence on a successful implementation of the independent campus program (y). ha2: lecturer readiness (x2) has a positive influence on a successful implementation of the independent campus program (y). ha3: student readiness (x3) has a positive influence on a successful implementation of the independent campus program (y). ha4: government support (x4) has a positive influence on a successful implementation of the independent campus program (y). ha5: the readiness of campuses (x1), lecturers (x2), and students (x3), as well as government support (x4), has a combined positive influence on a successful implementation of the independent campus program (y). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 283 literature review freedom of learning and independent campuses freedom of learning is where educational institutions are given the freedom and autonomy to operate independently of the bureaucratic system. merdeka belajar–kampus merdeka (mb-km), which translates as freedom of learning–independent campus, is a policy aimed at encouraging students to master various disciplines, so they can perform competitively on entering the workforce (dewobroto, 2020). furthermore, the program kompetesi-kampus merdeka (pk-km), which translates as the independent campus competition program, is an open-competition program that continues the concept of freedom of learning from the so-called institutional support system (iss). the pk-km takes place over three years, with proposals being submitted each year. its goal is to help generate capable graduates that are physically and mentally healthy, intelligent, adaptable, creative, innovative, skilled, productive, and representative of the values of pancasila, the foundational philosophy of indonesia (directorate general of higher education, 2020). among the key instruments for implementing this program are the eight key performance indicators (kpis) stipulated by the ministry of education and culture. these measure the quality of eight forms of experiential learning for developing students’ knowledge and skills, namely through internships and fieldwork practices, teaching assistant roles in educational units, research, humanitarian projects, entrepreneurial activities, independent studies and projects, themes based on real work, and domestic and overseas student exchanges (directorate general of higher education, 2020). the hierarchy used by the pk-km in 2021 for universities is divided into three tiers, as shown in table 1. table 1 pk-km leagues and degree of funding higher education criteria league 1 league 2 league 3 the number of active students in the 2019/2020 academic year .>18,000 (a) minimum idr – n/a (b) maximum idr 10 million/active student (c) companion funds 10% 5,001–18,000 (a) minimum idr 1 billion (b) maximum idr 8 million/active student (c) matching funds 7.5% 1,000 – 5,000 (a) minimum idr 500 million (b) maximum idr 5 million/active student © matching funds 5% program scope (a) undergraduate study program (b) postgraduate study program (c) new programs in potential fields (d) maximum 5 study programs (a) undergraduate study program (b) maximum 3 study programs (a) undergraduate study program (b) maximum 2 study programs (e) program iss (c) program iss (c) program iss source: (directorate general of higher education, 2020) yusuf a brief description of the development goals for each pk-km league is given below: a) each university, whether public or private, can only propose one measure based on the eight kpis. b) tertiary institutions that fall into the pk-km’s league 1 are expected to accelerate their transformation to become globally competitive. a proposal can involve five study programs, both undergraduate and postgraduate (master’s and doctoral). it can also propose programs at the institutional level for managing an independent campus or iss. the proposed budget must be in line with the proposed program’s scope and number of active students, with a maximum limit per program of idr 10 million for every active student. new study programs that have yet to be developed within the necessary scientific disciplines should be based on the projected number of students, with this being four times the number of new students each year. the proposed program should achieve the stipulated kpis within three years. c) universities that fall into the pk-km’s league 2 are expected to become more relevant and improve their educational quality by implementing the independent campus program. proposals should include a maximum of three study programs at the undergraduate level and courses at the institutional level that are suitable for the iss system. the budget is set according to the proposed programs’ scope and the number of active students on each study program, with the minimum budget being idr 1 billion and the maximum budget being idr 8 million per active student. the proposed programs must achieve the desired kpis within a maximum of three years. d) universities included in the pk-km’s league 3 are expected to improve their management and human resources and innovate in the field of learning. proposals should involve two programs at the undergraduate level, but they can also propose a program at the institutional level that is suitable for the iss system. the budget is set according to the proposed programs’ scope and the number of active students on each study program, with the minimum being idr 500 million and the maximum being idr 5 million per active student. the proposed programs must achieve their designated kpis within a maximum of three years (directorate general of higher education, 2020). the budgets for the pk-km leagues cover eight categories: 1) curriculum support equipment; 2) experts; 3) staff development; 4) workshops, seminars, and partnership development; 5) learning journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 285 innovation; 6) student assistance and incentives; 7) financing for other components, with a maximum limit of 20%; and 8) internal management (directorate general of higher education, 2020). the independent campus program seeks to 1) improve the quality of teaching and learning, as well as the relevance of higher education; 2) improve the skills of lecturers and other staff in higher education; and 3) achieve a high-quality level of management in line with the ambitions of the director general of higher education. the program promotes four policies. first, campuses become autonomous legal entities with the ability to introduce new study programs with a and b accreditations (wahyuni & anshori, 2021; hidayah, 2021). they can therefore develop new study programs provided that they collaborate with businesses, non-profit organizations, multilateral institutions, and/or other public/private universities ranked in the top 100qs, albeit not in health and education fields. second, the higher education accreditation system, which is a systematic or automated process, must be performed by universities every five years. third, the program makes it easier for institutions to transition from state universities (su) to public service bodies (psb) and ultimately to legal entities (le), something that was previously limited to tertiary institutions with an a accreditation. fourth, the program offers students the opportunity to study for three semesters outside their study program by shifting the semester credit system (scs) away from the notion of “learning hours” to one of “working hours.” under this new system, students can take courses outside their study program for up to two semesters or the equivalent of 40 credits (bernie, 2020; qorib & harfiani, 2021). this is because learning takes place not just in the classroom but also through internship programs, student exchanges, entrepreneurship, research, independent study, and teaching activities in remote areas. the influence of lecturer readiness on a successful implementation of the independent campus program the readiness of lecturers relates to aspects of competency (yuniawan, mulyono & setiowati, 2015). when lecturers are mentally and physically prepared, they are more likely to possess the pedagogical skills, personal characteristics, and social and professional skills (sagala, 2009) needed to develop suitable learning plans and strategies and apply them competently. indeed, the plans and strategies for a successful implementation must be carefully considered and formulated (dina, 2018), and the readiness of lecturers is an important aspect. lecturer competence also yusuf influences students’ motivation to learn and consequently their academic progress, so universities must ensure their lecturers are sufficiently capable if they want to deliver successful teaching and learning programs. if lecturers are unprepared, it will be hard to achieve the desired goals (prasetio, sary & luturlean, 2017). an outcome-based education (obe) curriculum and suitable information systems are needed to support an independent campus in indonesia. the flexible learning offered by an independent campus prompts lecturers to be more agile in cultivating an innovative and unfettered culture while meeting the community’s needs (muhammad et al., 2020). research has found that lecturers are affected by changes in financial support from higher education institutions, with loan-based maintenance assistance and the introduction of fees believed to have encouraged consumerist attitudes. changes in attitudes and behaviors due to financial policies have damaged the profession in terms of competency, job satisfaction and retention rates, and recruitment (rolfe, 2002). the influence of student readiness on a successful implementation of the independent campus program the study of wahyuni & anshori (2021) at medan state university revealed that students realize the importance of learning discourse on an independent campus, although some students disagree with the program. the study found that this arises due to low student literacy and a lack of engagement from stakeholders. students also believe the program will make it more challenging for them to graduate as they planned. another study found that universities want to produce graduates who can adapt to industrial needs, so the skills of graduates in indonesia need to be developed by adopting the concept of an independent campus for educational goals programs (egps), learning outcomes (lo) programs, and student apprenticeship programs (lestari, kusumanto, hasri & akmaluhadi, 2020). amril and hardiani (2021) found that students have a strong interest in becoming entrepreneurs, so an implementation of the independent campus program can cultivate their ambitions by enhancing the entrepreneurship-learning process and equipping students for future entrepreneurial endeavors. the digitalization of academic systems can also support these potential entrepreneurs’ creativity based on local wisdom (karmini, suda, agung & suasti, 2020). according to munadi, alwiyah, and umar (2021), to support students’ readiness during a program’s implementation, their emotional maturity needs to be considered and developed through extracurricular and cojournal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 287 curricular activities and guidance counseling, so they can learn to think scientifically. emotional maturity reflects in areas like teamwork, leadership, and sportsmanship (munadi et al., 2021). the influence of government support on a successful implementation of the independent campus program the government plays an important role in the success of educational programs. without government support, the development of a high-quality education system is impossible, as programs will fail without massive, targeted funding (astawa, 2017). one study found that government support also encourages students to enroll in higher education programs (chatterjee, bhattacharjee, tsai & agrawal, 2021). several cases have shown that limited government support often hinders the successful implementation of educational programs (wimala, akmalah, irawati & sururi, 2016). the government should therefore support lecturers in understanding how to implement the independent campus program. various government-funded training initiatives also help to improve the teaching abilities of lecturers. government support can also help guide institutions through the independent campus competition. this can be useful for universities wanting to submit a program proposal and accelerate their transition to a competitive university (directorate general of higher education, 2020). methods research design this study applies a quantitative research design, because it is deductive and detailed in nature, and because it seeks to establish the relationships between four independent variables and one dependent variable. according to neuman (2003), quantitative research must be conducted systematically to ensure a valid analysis. this study analyzed data that was collected through a questionnaire. sample the population for this study comprised all the 24,099 lecturers at private universities within higher education service institutions (lldikti) region iv (west java and banten provinces). from this, a sample of 111 private lecturers was selected using random sampling, with every yusuf member in the population having an equal probability of being chosen (apuke, 2017). the sample comprised 61 female and 50 male lecturers, all aged 30–55 with at least two years of teaching experience in tertiary education. see table 2. table 2 the characteristics of the sample university gender total male female bina bangsa university 13 16 29 serang raya university 10 14 24 banten jaya university 7 10 17 pamulang university 8 9 17 tangerang muhammadiyah university 12 12 24 total 50 61 111 data-collection tools the research instrument comprised a set of indicators that were analyzed based on theories and findings from previous related studies. replies were expressed on a four-point likert scale as strongly agree (4), agree (3), disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1). in this case, the researcher omitted a neutral option, because doubt is an ambiguous attitude that does not reflect positive or negative attitudes. the questionnaire comprised 21 items (see table 3), with there being three dimensions for each of the studied variables. table 3 research instruments variable dimension items total campus readiness leadership understanding 2 5 campus support 2 engagement from the entire community 1 lecturer readiness lecturer understanding 2 5 readiness to guide students 2 lecturer competence 1 student readiness student understanding 2 5 readiness to attend courses off-campus 2 readiness for community service 1 government support socialization policy 1 3 supporting funds 1 guidebook 1 successful implementation of the independent campus program campus performance 1 3 competitiveness 1 campus sustainability 1 total 21 21 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 289 source: theoretical review the cronbach’s alpha was greater than 0.60 for all the five variables, confirming that all the items were valid, as shown in table 4. table 4 results of the reliability test cronbach's alpha cronbach's alpha based on standardized items num. of items campus readiness 0.800 5 lecturer readiness 0.811 5 student readiness 0.798 5 government support 0.879 3 successful implementation 0.756 3 source: results of the spss 26 analysis data collection the primary data for this research comprises the results of the distributed questionnaire survey, which was developed based on previous research studies and relevant theories. it was implemented in google forms and then sent to the respondents. the formulation of operational definitions, instrument grids, and indicators was determined in detail. at the time of study, the indonesian government mandated social distancing measures that excluded direct observation, so observation took place remotely to ascertain the readiness of campuses of several universities. observations were guided based on the dimensions of each variable of interest. secondary documentary data were obtained from the guidebook for the independent campus competition provided by the directorate general of higher education. data analysis for the first stage, the researcher evaluated the consistency and suitability of the collected data based on defined criteria. this was required to test the research hypotheses. in the second stage, the obtained data were coded and transferred to a computer for processing with the spss 26.0 application. during this stage, the researcher thoroughly ensured the accuracy of the processed data to avoid any data-cleaning errors. in the third stage, the data analysis’s results were entered into a table for interpretation. finally, the results were discussed, and the findings were supported by theoretical studies. yusuf results and discussion classical assumptions and descriptive statistics before testing the hypotheses, a classical assumptions test was performed, including a normality test, linearity test, and the homogeneity test. following this, a descriptive test was performed for each variable as in table 5. table 5 normality test n x1 x2 x3 x4 total y 111 111 111 130 normal parametersa,b mean 26.0692 74.6538 10.9231 26.0321 22.4538 std. deviation 3.55726 8.71487 2.52619 3.52351 3.15764 most extreme differences absolute .090 .077 .116 .074 .120 positive .082 .077 .096 .073 .087 negative -.090 -.066 -.116 -.114 -.120 kolmogorov-smirnov z 1.021 .873 1.318 .834 1.318 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .248 .431 .062 .054 .058 a. test distribution is normal. b. calculated from data. in the calculations’ results (see table 5), the significance figures for the variables x1, s2, x3, x4, and y were all normally distributed with kolmogorov smirnov z coefficients of x1 = 1.021, x2 = 0.873, x3 = 1.318, x4 = 0.834, and y = 1.318, with an overall significance greater than 0.05. in other words, the level of normality for the sample did not significantly differ from that of the population. table 6 test for the homogeneity of variances levene statistic f1 df2 sig. total based on mean 0.628 4 128 0.434 based on median 0.657 4 128 0.554 based on median and with adjusted d.f. 0.659 4 62.32 0.572 based on trimmed mean 0.658 4 128 0.476 the test for the homogeneity of variances (table 6) showed that the cronbach alpha is 0.658 and significant, so it can be concluded that the data is homogeneous, thus allowing the researcher to continue to the next testing stage. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 291 table 7 linearity test linearity test f sig. conclusions x1—y 43.440 0.000 linear x2—y 12.328 0.000 linear x3—y 4.315 0.000 linear x4—y 16.543 0.000 linear the test for linearity took the significance coefficient and compared the significance value of the f coefficient with the selected alpha, which was 5% (0.05), so if the significance value is greater than 0.05, it is not linear. the results of the analysis (table 7) show the following coefficients: f (x1–y) = 43.440 with a significance of 0 < 0.05; f (x2–y) = 12.328 with a significance of 0 < 0.05; f (x3–y) = 4.315 with a significance of 0 < 0.05; f (x4–y) = 16.543 with a significance of 0.000 < 0.05. all the tests therefore indicated linearity, meaning that any increases in the variables for the readiness of campuses (x1), lecturers (x2), and students (x3), as well as government support (x4), are always accompanied by an increase in the variable for the successful implementation of the independent campus program (y). table 8 descriptive analysis descriptive x1 x2 x3 x4 y valid 111 111 111 111 111 missing 0 0 0 0 0 mean 26.0692 74.6538 26.8167 22.4538 22.8838 std. error of mean .31199 .76434 .19088 .27694 .27984 median 26.0000 74.5000 27.0000 23.0000 23.0000 mode 26.00 73.00a 27.00 22.00a 23.00a std. deviation 3.55726 8.71487 1.47857 3.15764 3.15764 variance 12.654 75.949 2.186 9.971 9.971 skewness -.402 -.293 .026 -.591 -.354 std. error of skewness .212 .212 .309 .212 .212 kurtosis 1.334 1.294 .841 1.372 1.324 std. error of kurtosis .422 .422 .608 .422 .422 range 22.00 52.00 5.00 19.00 19.00 minimum 13.00 45.00 28.00 11.00 11.00 maximum 35.00 97.00 20.00 30.00 30.00 sum 3389.00 9705.00 2209.00 2919.00 2919.00 the data in table 8 shows that the readiness of campuses (x1) has a mean of 26.06, a median of 26.00, a mode of 26, and a skewness coefficient of 1.334, which is greater than 0.5, so the distribution is slightly squinted to the right. the kurtosis value of 0.841, meanwhile, is greater than 0.263, so the distribution has a platikurtic horizontal peak. yusuf the readiness of lecturers (x2) has a mean of 74.6, a median of 74.00, a mode of 73, and a skewness coefficient of -0.293, which is less than 0.5, so the distribution is slightly squinted to the left. the kurtosis value of 1.294, meanwhile, is greater than 0.263, so the distribution again has a platikurtic peak. the readiness of students (x3) has a mean of 26.8, a median of 27.00, a mode of 27, and a skewness coefficient of 0.026, which is less than 0.5, so the distribution is slightly squinted to the right. the kurtosis value of 0.841, meanwhile, is greater than 0.263, so the distribution has a platikurtic peak. government support (x4) has a mean of 22.45, a median of 23.00, a mode of 22, and a skewness coefficient of -0.591, which is greater than 0.5, so the distribution is slightly squinted to the left. the kurtosis value is 1.372, meanwhile, which is greater than 0.263, so the distribution has a platikurtic peak. the independent campus program (y) has a mean of 22.88, a median of 23.00, a mode of 23, and a skewness coefficient of -0.354, which is smaller than 0.5, so the shape of the distribution is slightly squinted to the left. the kurtosis value of 1.324, meanwhile, is greater than 0.263, so the distribution has a platikurtic peak. hypotheses testing rq1: the influence of campus readiness on a successful implementation of the independent campus program analyzing the data for the first hypothesis yielded the results shown in table 9. table 9 output for h1 model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 0.190 0.036 0.027 2.81133 source: results of the spss 26.0 analysis table 9 reveals that campus readiness influences the successful implementation of the independent campus program with an r-value of 0.19 and an r2 squared of 0.036 (3.6 percent), with a t-statistic of 2.364 and a significance value of 0. this indicates that private universities understand the importance of timely preparation for the independent campus program. indeed, there is no reason not to, and universities currently have a positive attitude toward this government policy. the adoption of suitable technology, however, must also reflect the vision of the independent campus program. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 293 the independent campus program affects several fundamental aspects in higher education. although the program’s arrangements are clear for companies that offer internships for students, institutions must also ensure that internships are not abused as a source of cheap labor. the responsibility for adapting such programs is shared by universities and the non-educational partners, so students doing internships are not exploited. the chancellor of the bina bangsa university expressed his support for the independent campus program, saying that his university strives to support the program fully. however, he said it was challenging to implement this program due to covid-19 restrictions. the use of remote learning systems means a lack of face-to-face contact, thus presenting an obstacle to maximizing the benefits of the program. the implementation of the independent campus program has therefore needed to be adapted, especially in terms of the curriculum, students, lecturers, and information systems. higher education institutions typically build a curriculum-formulation team and develop a basic curriculum framework (bcf), which serves as a guideline for developing curricula for all study programs, thus accelerating the implementation of the independent campus program. a research team is also usually tasked with conducting studies for various policies, necessary resources and competencies, teaching–learning flexibility, synergy with partners in developing competencies, and the use of technology for learning and dissemination. during implementation, various obstacles need to be overcome to achieve independence and excellence for higher education in indonesia. in future, higher education institutions will also design multidisciplinary and cross-disciplinary curricula that enable students to learn additional knowledge. in addition, several universities offer remote-based courses and overseas internship programs and student exchanges that may replace final assignments. students are therefore given final assignments in the form of a thesis, scientific research, or internship program, assuming they understand the terms and conditions and have completed all the compulsory courses during their study period. students can therefore learn in a more flexible way without being limited by time or distance. institutions understand that they must adapt in order to provide more flexibility for student learning. some, such as the bogor agricultural institute (bai), have even implemented a major– minor curriculum, so students can take supporting study programs. there are also studentexchange schemes and summer classes. bai has also developed a new curriculum for literacy in the three areas of data, technology, and humanity. a further project was developed with the yusuf capstone method to encourage students to become more accustomed to collaborating across disciplines (bernie, 2020) by integrating curricular education and student activities in order to strengthen the character and competitiveness of students. the findings reveal that most tertiary institutions support the independent campus program and seek to gradually improve their implementations. previous studies have found that campus support is an inseparable part of successful higher education (baker, 2013; hinck & brandell, 2000), because private tertiary institutions need professional and qualified lecturers and other educational staff, making it relatively easy to adapt to the independent campus program. several universities have not fully implemented the independent campus program, but these have started to draft proposals for the independent campus competition. when implementing the program, however, private universities may still be constrained by campus readiness, especially in terms of educational facilities. universities take the view that this program helps increase the flexibility for students to study across disciplines, so they can combine courses that suit their needs better than a prescribed combination. learning is therefore tailored to the interests, talents, and requirements of the students. the independent campus program also helps bring students closer to social reality, so they can learn to build social relationships and solve various social problems. through study programs, higher education institutions must prepare students to become productive graduates who can contribute to the economic development of indonesia. institutions therefore strive to follow the progression of science and technology. in addition, the budget ceiling for program proposals is quite large, even though it is for three years, so the independent campus competition can be leveraged to maximize the potential for institutions to develop graduates for the global economy. rq 2: the influence of lecturer readiness on a successful implementation of the independent campus program data analysis for the second hypothesis yielded the results shown in table 10 below. table 10 output for h2 model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 2 0.218 0.047 0.039 2.79477 source: results of the spss 26.0 analysis journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 295 these results reveal that lecturer readiness promotes a successful implementation of the independent campus program, as expressed by an r of 0.218 and an r2 of 0.047 (4.7%) with a tstatistic of 2.317 and a significance of 0. lecturers’ perceptions appear to have a significant effect, with a positive response helping the program’s success. indeed, most respondents felt that lecturer readiness was needed to support the successful implementation of the program. lecturers also play a big role in developing new study programs, and this presents great opportunities for lecturers at private universities. lecturers’ readiness also reflects in the quantity and quality of their activities for tri dharma perguruan tinggi (the three basic goals of higher education). to ensure lecturer readiness, soft skills and an organizational culture must be built, and compensation should be suitable (polnaya, nirwanto & triatmanto, 2018). indeed, prior studies have found soft skills, organizational culture, and compensation to positively influence lecturer performance. enhancing the skills and qualifications of active lecturers will support the implementation of an independent campus program, because lecturers will be ready to meet the necessary quality standards for teaching and learning. previous studies have proposed five stages of preparation: increasing knowledge, persuading, making decisions, implementing, and confirming. lecturers, as educators, then become accustomed to freedom of learning (kusumo, ardhanariswari, perdana & indah, 2020). helping lecturers to learn and develop in the three basic goals of higher education is mandated by ministry of education and culture regulation no. 3 of 2020. lecturer familiarization, however, can also help prepare lecturers for the independent campus program by helping to bridge the gap between lecturers and students in various program activities. the literature indicates that a positive relationship between lecturers and students leads to a more conducive campus environment, especially in institutions with considerable sociocultural diversity (chepchieng, mbugua & kariuki, 2006). this in turn can further support an implementation of the independent campus program. indeed, a healthy relationship between lecturers and students typically enhances students’ academic, personal, and social outcomes. lecturer competence also has a positive effect on students’ motivation to learn (lumbantobing, 2020). in addition, the readiness of lecturers should also help students to adapt to new learning programs, especially for off-campus activities. yusuf rq 3: the influence of student readiness on a successful implementation of the independent campus program data analysis for the third hypothesis yielded the results shown in table 11 below. table 11 output for h3 model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 3 0.216 0.047 0.038 2.79574 source: results of the spss 26.0 analysis table 10 suggests that student readiness positively influences an implementation of the independent campus program, as expressed by an r of 0.216 and an r2 of 0.047 (4.7%) with a tstatistic of 2.3 and a significance of 0. the respondents seem to believe that student readiness is important to a successful implementation of the independent campus program. as explained earlier, the primary objective of this policy is to create competitively skilled graduates. student readiness means that students are physically and mentally healthy, intelligent, adaptable, creative, innovative, skilled, and productive, and they have characters in line with the values of pancasila. in reality, however, not all students are so well prepared, so they need support from lecturers and colleges to physically and mentally prepare themselves. previous research suggests that lecturers are important determinants of students’ academic achievement (prasetio, sary & luturlean, 2017). a key instrument for supporting student readiness is the application of the eight main performance indicators (mpis) stipulated by the ministry of education and culture. these cover procedures for quality assurance when implementing eight forms of experiential learning for developing students’ knowledge and skills, such as through internships or fieldwork practices, teaching-assistance roles in educational units, research studies, humanitarian work, entrepreneurial activity, independent studies or projects, real-work themes, and student domestic and international exchanges (directorate general of higher education, 2020). in addition, universities must improve by implementing a technology-based learning system. rq 4: the influence of government support on a successful implementation of the independent campus program data analysis for the fourth hypothesis yielded the results shown in table 12 below. table 12 output h4 model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 4 0.277 0.077 0.068 2.75151 source: results of the spss 26.0 analysis journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 297 these reveal that government support has a positive and significant influence on a successful implementation of the independent campus program, as expressed by an r of 0.277 and an r2 of 0.077 (7.7%) with a t-statistic of 2.993 and a significance of 0.003. the effect of government support is the strongest of all the independent variables, stressing its importance to a successful implementation. as the provider of educational programs, the government plays a key role in their successful adoption, but without continued support, these educational programs are unrealizable (astawa, 2017). prior research posits that government support can also increase students’ intentions to engage in higher education programs (chatterjee, bhattacharjee, tsai & agrawal, 2021). the allocation of government funds to support the adoption of the independent campus program is the most obvious form of support at this time. government funding for higher education reached idr 2.9 trillion in 2020 and will increase by a further 70 percent in 2021 to idr 4.95 trillion. three main approaches are used to encourage freedom of learning: 1) by providing incentives for state universities (su) based on their achievements in the main performance indicators (mpis); 2) by providing suitable funding for cooperation with partners in other sus and private universities (pu); and 3) by encouraging the implementation of the independent campus program through a competition. the government also provides bonus funding for state universities that successfully improve their performance in the mpis (nasrun, 2020). tertiary institutions previously only received basic allocation funds and discretionary funding aimed at disadvantaged tertiary institutions. in addition, local governments can determine the teaching needs of students in their regions, such as for sought-after competencies. ultimately, however, government support from the ministry of education and culture (kemendikbud) provides the flexibility for universities to educate the nation’s people in a way that will benefit society by providing students with new opportunities like internships at companies, which can provide work experience that will further support their abilities after graduation and help them overcome various socioeconomic problems in future life. rq 5: the influence of campus, lecturer, and student readiness, as well as government support, on a successful implementation of the independent campus program data analysis for the final hypothesis yielded the results shown in table 13 below. yusuf table 13 results for h5 model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 5 0.322 0.104 0.070 2.74925 source: results of the spss 26.0 analysis table 14 regression analysis model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 91.861 4 22.965 3.038 .021b residual 793.630 105 7.558 total 885.491 109 source: results of the spss 26.0 analysis the results in tables 13 and 14 show a combined influence of campus, lecturer, and student readiness, as well as government support, on a successful implementation of the independent campus program with an f-value of 3.038 and a significance of 0.021 (<0.05). in addition, the combination also yielded an r of 0.322 and an r2 of 0.104 (10.4%) with a t-value of 1.979 and a significance of 0, indicating that an implementation is more likely to succeed when all four dimensions support each other. indeed, the combined effect is much greater than when considering any one independent variable alone. previous studies have indicated many factors that may inhibit the success of a tertiary education program, such as misperceptions and unpreparedness among managers, students, and lecturers and a lack of government support (yuniawan et al., 2015). in this study, the stakeholders’ perceptions of, and readiness for, the independent campus program were found to be positive, but private universities should in future establish a special division to manage any implementation of the independent campus program. the government’s aim behind the independent campus program is to produce graduates who meet the needs of today’s globalized industry. unfortunately, the government has not yet addressed all the inequalities in higher education, such as the disparity in ranking scores among different institutions. it is essential to remedy this to provide the best possible foundation for the independent campus program. steps have therefore been taken to 1) accelerate the skills development of lecturers, 2) update teaching methods, and 3) build educational facilities and infrastructure (nasrun, 2020). campus, lecturer, and student readiness, as well as government support, for the independent campus program is closely related to performance in the eight mpis, because it means institutions, lecturers, students, and the government can work together to achieve the program’s goals and journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 299 transform higher education in indonesia. first, student readiness is expected to translate into graduates who go on to take up good, well-paid jobs. second, campus readiness provides opportunities for students to gain off-campus experience through internships, village projects, teaching, research, entrepreneurship, and higher-level studies. third, lecturer readiness provides opportunities for lecturers to seek new experiences beyond their institutions, such as in industry or other institutions. it also provides opportunities for lecturers to develop their teaching practices and make them more relevant to industry. lecturer readiness also supports the research and outreach work of lecturers, which in turn benefits the community and attracts international recognition. fourth, campus readiness also presents opportunities to collaborate with excellent partners, whether it be in the form of curricula, internships, or student exchanges. campus readiness can also support collaborative and participatory learning through project-based evaluations and case studies, as well as encourage the establishment of study programs with international accreditation or certification. there are seven considerable challenges to the independent campus program, however: 1) not being able to secure the commitment of lecturers, thus hindering the introduction of new study programs in tertiary institutions; 2) curriculum-adjustment constraints due to the teaching period being reduced from eight semesters to five semesters; 3) constraints on lecturer performance and load management; 4) constraints on fulfilling the two-semester study obligation for a total of 20 credits/semester or 40 credits/year; 5) socialization constraints in the form of not securing the participation of all stakeholders in the program’s implementation; 6) unclear student funding in the program’s implementation, such as whether it will be funded by students, the institution, or government; and 7) a recognition of students developing competencies, competitiveness, and readiness (agung, 2020). based on the discussion of the results, the readiness of campuses, lecturers, and students, as well as government support, must all be in place to support the educational transformation through the independent campus program, so higher education in indonesia can be recognized globally. without support from all stakeholders, it will be hard to achieve the program’s objectives. it is certainly worth striving for commitment from these four important elements to support an implementation of the independent campus program. in future, the participation of national companies should also be secured to develop better community management. yusuf the findings of this study are novel in terms of studying the factors that influence the success of the independent campus program (y), specifically the readiness of campuses (x1), lecturers (x2), and students (x3), as well as government support (x4). previous studies, in contrast, have focused more on curriculum maturity, cooperation, budgets, and stakeholder assistance. another novelty of this research is that it was conducted among private university lecturers in indonesia, whereas other studies have focused more on state universities, most of which are already established in terms of resources and income. conclusion and implications in summary, our findings revealed that the readiness of higher education institutions, lecturers, and students, as well as government support, all have a positive and significant effect on a successful implementation of the independent campus program, with a combined effect of 10.4%. the strongest influence (7.7%) was found for government support, followed by lecturer readiness (4.7%), student readiness (4.7%), and campus readiness (3.6%). the four independent variables therefore have a strong influence on an implementation of the independent campus program. thus, based on the perceptions of private higher education lecturers, the readiness of the campus, lecturers, and students, as well as government support, are needed to ensure the success of the independent campus program. this study has the implication that the independent campus program should be preceded by first ensuring the preparedness of universities, lecturers, and students for the program while securing government support to achieve its goals, which involve improving the capacity and quality of higher education in indonesia. further research is needed, however, to delve deeper into the technical model for the independent campus program. future research could also build upon this study by investigating the readiness of all universities in indonesia, both private and public. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 301 references agung, i. (2020). kebijakan kampus merdeka sebagai upaya menyiapkan tenaga kerja lulusan perguruan tinggi. jakarta: kemendikbud. amril, a., & hardiani, h. (2021). entrepreneurship intentions for students in jambi province, indonesia (study in response to the implementation of the freedom to learn, independent campus). jurnal perspektif pembiayaan dan pembangunan daerah, 8(6), 595–608. https://doi.org/10.22437/ppd.v8i6.11239 apuke, o. d. (2017). quantitative research methods : a synopsis approach. kuwait chapter of arabian journal of business and management review, 6(11), 40–47. https://doi.org/10.12816/0040336 baker, c. n. (2013). social support and success in higher education: the influence of on-campus support on african american and latino college students. the urban review 45, 5, 632–650. retrieved from /citations?view_op=view_citation&continue=/scholar%3fhl%3dptbr%26as_sdt%3d0,5%26scilib%3d1&citilm=1&citation_for_view=ws0xi2waaaaj:2os ognq5qmec&hl=pt-br&oi=p bekele, w., & ago, f. (2020). good governance practices and challenges in local government of ethiopia: the case of bonga town administration. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 97-128. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.6 bernie, m. (2020). mahasiswa tanggapi kebijakan kampus merdeka ala nadiem makarim. retrieved february 23, 2021, from https://tirto.id/mahasiswa-tanggapi-kebijakan-kampusmerdeka-ala-nadiem-makarim-evro budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 cantu, n., varela, d., jones, d., & challoo, l. (2021). factors that influence school choice: a look at parents’ and school leaders’ perceptions. research in educational policy and management, 3(1), 19-41. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.2 chatterjee, s., bhattacharjee, k. k., tsai, c.-w., & agrawal, a. k. (2021). impact of peer influence and government support for successful adoption of technology for vocational education: a quantitative study using pls-sem technique. quality & quantity, 1–24. chepchieng, m. c., mbugua, s. n., & kariuki, m. w. (2006). university students’ perception of lecturer-student relationships: a comparative study of public and private universities in kenya. educational research and reviews, 1(3), 80–84. dewobroto, w. (2020). dosen penggerak merdeka belajar-kampus merdeka. retrieved february 26, 2021, from https://www.kompas.com/edu/read/2020/12/01/143948771/dosenhttps://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.6 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.2 yusuf penggerak-merdekabelajar-kampus-merdeka-sudahkah-move-on?page=all dina, n. s. (2018). kesiapan dosen program studi pendidikan sejarah dalam pelaksanaan pembelajaran di universitas pgri palembang. kalpataru: jurnal sejarah dan pembelajaran sejarah, 2(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.31851/kalpataru.v2i1.1314 direktorat jenderal pendidikan tinggi. (2020). panduan program kompetisi kampus merdeka. pkkmdikti.kemdikbud.go.id. jakarta pusat: direktorat jenderal pendidikan tinggi. retrieved from pkkmdikti.kemdikbud.go.id dube, b., & tsotetsi, c. (2019). state-based curriculum making in a post colonial zimbabwe: making sense of family, religious and moral education in a global context. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 10(1), 241–258. hinck, s. s., & brandell, m. e. (2000). the relationship between institutional support and campus acceptance of academic service learning. american behavioral scientist, 43(5), 868–881. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177%2f00027640021955522 ige, o. (2019). using action learning, concept-mapping, and value clarification to improve students’ attainment in ict concepts in social studies: the case of rural learning ecologies. journal of social studies education research, 10(1), 301–322. kalimullina, o., tarman, b. & stepanova, i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher's role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226-238. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 karmini, n. w., suda, i. k., agung, a. g., & suasti, g. a. (2020). academic system digitalization of" campus independence" in universitas hindu indonesia denpasar in creating entrepreneurs based on local wisdom. talent development & excellence, 12(1), 2020. kusumo, y. w., ardhanariswari, k. a., perdana, a. b., & indah, s. n. (2020). independent campus implementation at upn “veteran” yogyakarta. the indonesian journal of communication studies, 13(2), 60–75. lestari, f., kusumanto, i., hasri, s., & akmaluhadi. (2020). independent campus on industrial engineering undergraduate program in indonesia: a delphi method. in ieee international conference on industrial engineering and engineering management (vol. 2020-decem, pp. 1083–1087). https://doi.org/10.1109/ieem45057.2020.9309800. lucey, a. t. (2021). notions of spiritual capital-a matter of extinction for social education, journal of social studies education research (jsser), 12(1), 1-23. ma’arif, s. (2018). education as a foundation of humanity: learning from the pedagogy of pesantren in indonesia. journal of social studies education research (jsser). https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.58854 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(2), 280-304 303 lumbantobing, p. a. (2020). the contribution of lecturer pedagogical competence, intellectual intelligence and self-efficacy of student learning motivation. budapest international research and critics in linguistics and education (birle) journal, 3(1), 564–573. https://doi.org/10.33258/birle.v3i1.852 muhammad, a., sehabudin, n., anggraeni, d., mahliyadin, e., rizkia, r., muhammad, a., … rizkia, r. (2020). model of obe (outcome-based education ) curriculum and syllabus information system to support an independent, 17(5). munadi, m., alwiyah, n., & umar, a. (2021). emotional maturity development model in formal education of indonesia, xxx, 442–451. https://doi.org/10.24205/03276716.2020.2041 nasrun, a. t. d. (2020). transformasi dana pemerintah untuk pendidikan tinggi dalam merdeka belajar kampus merdeka. retrieved february 26, 2021, from http://lldikti9.kemdikbud.go.id/berita/detail/transformasi-dana-pemerintah-untukpendidikantinggi--dalam-merdeka-belajar--kampus-merdeka neuman, w. l. (2003). social work research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches. boston london: allyn and bacon. peristiwo, h. (2020). curriculum redesign of sharia economic through integration of science towards independent learning and independent campus at the state islamic university of. al qalam, 37(2), 85–100. polnaya, i., nirwanto, n., & triatmanto, b. (2018). the evaluation of lecturer performance through soft skills, organizational culture and compensation on private university of ambon. academy of strategic management journal, 17(2), 6104. prasetio, a., sary, f., & luturlean, b. (2017). student personality, lecturer competency, campus facilities, and students’ learning motivation in private univ, (may), 87927. https://doi.org/10.20472/iac.2017.031.039 qorib, m., & harfiani, r. (2021). independent campus policy in the new normal era. proceeding international seminar of islamic, 2(1), 13–20. retrieved from http://journal.umsu.ac.id/index.php/insis/article/view/6204 rolfe, h. (2002). students’ demands and expectations in an age of reduced financial support: the perspectives of lecturers in four english universities. journal of higher education policy and management, 24(2), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080022000013491 sagala, s. (2009). kemampuan profesionl guru dan tenaga kependidikan. bandung: alfabeta. solikhah, i & budiharso, t. (2019). investigating the learning outcomes of an inqf-based english language teaching curriculum in indonesia, journal of social studies education research (jsser), 10(4), 153-175. yusuf strunc, a. (2020). editorial: are they listening? policymakers and their role in public education. research in educational policy and management, 2(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.ed subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid-19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 tarman, b., & chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i-iv. 10.17499/jsser.93128 temon astawa, i. n. (2017). memahami peran masyarakat dan pemerintah dalam kemajuan mutu pendidikan di indonesia. jurnal penjaminan mutu, 3(2), 197. https://doi.org/10.25078/jpm.v3i2.200 wahyuni, i., & anshori, a. (2021). student response of medan state university to independent campus discussion, (september), 110–116. https://doi.org/10.12928/commicast.v waychunas, w. (2020). where teachers thrive: a book review. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 129-132. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 wimala, m., akmalah, e., irawati, i., & sururi, m. r. (2016). overcoming the obstacles to green campus implementation in indonesia. international journal of civil and environmental engineering vol:10, no:10, 2016 overcoming, 10(10), 1366–1371. yuniawan, a. e., mulyono, w. a., & setiowati, d. (2015). persepsi dan kesiapan dosen terhadap pembelajaran interprofesional. jurnal keperawatan soedirman (the soedirman journal of nursing), 10(2), 105–114. https://doi.org/https://dx.doi.org/10.20884/1.jks.2015.10.2.595 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.02.01.ed https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4), 1-23 social studies teachers’ interpretations of global citizenship anatoli rapoport1 & vahap demir2 abstract the purpose of this study was to investigate how social studies teachers conceptualize global citizenship and how personal, professional, and contextual characteristics influenced respondents’ choices of a global citizenship model and their confidence to teach about global citizenship in the classroom. the online data were collected from 209 secondary social studies teachers and analyzed by calculating the conditional distribution of responses. although the majority of participants agreed that they were familiar with the concept of global citizenship, the range of opinions about what global citizenship entails demonstrated that many of them interpreted it in their own way without a systemic understanding of this concept. the findings of the study also indicated the need for more inclusive curricula in secondary citizenship education and more global citizenship-related topics in teacher education programs, particularly those that prepare future social studies teachers. keywords: global citizenship, global citizenship education, secondary education, social studies education introduction for several decades, the attention to citizenship education has been mostly the result of belated attempts to coordinate curricular development in citizenship education with the rationalization of numerous emerging models of citizenship. the rising wave of globalization has profoundly influenced the very notion of citizenship and citizenship education rationales by infusing a distinct global perspective and by challenging the core principles of citizenship as an idiosyncratically nation-state-related concept. recently, there has been increasing interest in the development of citizenship and citizenship education. supported by the rise of nationalism, on the one hand, and globalization, on the other, the growing role of previously marginalized racial and ethnic groups, and expanding feminist, human rights, and social justice movements, this renewed interest in citizenship has elevated citizenship education to a new level (banks, 2014; harshman, 2018; kerkhoff & cloud, 2020; lourenço, 2021; rapoport, 2020; unesco, 2013). nation after nation has reviewed and updated 1 professor of curriculum & instruction, purdue university, rapoport@purdue.edu 2 doctoral candidate, purdue university, vahap@purdue.edu mailto:rapoport@purdue.edu mailto:vahap@purdue.edu journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 citizenship education curricula or introduced new programs and courses in citizenship education. curricular changes gave impulse to a further reinterpretation of the purpose and rationale of citizenship education, which was originally developed as a means to instill patriotic and nationalist sentiments but is increasingly becoming a space for critical reassessment of the place and role of a government and an individual in society (andreotti, 2006; dejaeghere, 2009; goren & yemini, 2017; pashby, 2018). political realignments, a global pandemic, advances in technology, communication, and transportation, and other global trends bring new challenges to citizenship education. on the one hand, citizenship is used in education discourses and spaces as an ideological tool to instill loyalty and preserve narrow traditionalistic communitarian views of responsibility in a community; on the other hand, citizenship is interpreted as an active agency of change on all levels, including global (banks, 2014; myers, 2006). among citizenship discourses, the discourse of global citizenship (gc) has recently become one of the most prominent. it inevitably led to significant developments in global citizenship education (gce). the nation-centered model of citizenship education is no longer sufficient to educate citizens who spend significantly less time in the community in which they were born than did their peers decades ago. originally vague, contested, and very controversial, gc and gce are now recognized by political scientists and educators and were officially codified by unesco. its outcome document of the technical consultation on gce, “global citizenship education: the emerging perspective” (unesco, 2013), defines gc as “a sense of belonging to the global community and common humanity, with its presumed members experiencing solidarity and collective identity among themselves and collective responsibility at the global level” (p. 3) and states that the goal of gce is “to empower learners to engage and assume active roles both locally and globally to face and resolve global challenges and ultimately to become proactive contributors to a more just, peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure and sustainable world” (p. 3). despite the attempt to formally codify a general framework of gce (unesco, 2013, 2015) and institutionalize its goals and delivery (unesco, 2013), the world of global citizenship and global citizenship education is diverse and represented through multiple, sometimes contradictory interpretations and thematic discourses. scholars suggested a number of typologies that categorize gc and gce using various ideological, cultural, economic, or social lenses. table 1 demonstrates examples of gc/gce typologies that are based on the analyses of various discourses, pedagogies, or ideological stances. rapoport & demir 3 table 1 typologies of gc and gce 3 dominant discourses (roman, 2003) • intellectual tourists/voyeurs/vagabonds • consumers of multicultural and international differ • democratic civilizers and nation-builders 2 frameworks of gce (andreotti, 2006) • soft gce • critical gce 3 approaches (shultz, 2007) • neoliberal • radical • transformationalist 4 ideological constellations/currents (schattle, 2008) • moral cosmopolitanism • liberal multiculturalism • neoliberalism • environmentalism 5 heuristics (gaudelli, 2009) • neoliberal • national • marxist • cosmopolitan • world-justice 4 conceptualization frames (stromquist, 2009) • world culture • new-era realism • corporate citizenship • planetary vessel 2 discourses (camicia & franklin, 2011) • neoliberal cosmopolitan • critical democratic cosmopolitan 3 forms (veugelers, 2011) • open gc • moral gc • social-political gc categories and types of gc (oxley & morris, 2013) • cosmopolitan types: political gc, moral gc, economic gc, and cultural gc • advocacy types: social gc, critical gc, environmental gc, and spiritual gc dimensions of ethical gc framework (bosio & schattle, 2021) • value creation • identity progression • collective involvement • glocal disposition • intergenerational mindset the sheer number of different forms, orientations, or types of gc and gce is evidence of the complexity of these constructs and the multiplicity of factors that influence the interpretation of the latter. in these circumstances, classroom teachers who are genuinely interested in incorporating global themes in citizenship education make their own decisions as to how to interpret gc and introduce it in the classroom. it has long been established that despite the notorious “shrinking autonomy” of teachers (archibald & porter, 1994), what teachers believe about the world, society, culture, student characteristics, and environment directly influences the curriculum they provide journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 for their students. such curricular-instructional gatekeeping, when teachers are “the primary determinant of content, sequence and instructional strategy” (thornton, 1989, p. 5), becomes particularly critical when a new construct paves the way to the classroom. the last two decades have witnessed a growing number of both political and curricular documents that encourage social studies educators to incorporate global themes, including gc-related themes, in classroom instruction (ncss, 2016), as well as growing interest in gce from teachers and administrators (harshman, 2018; heilman, 2008; krutka & carano, 2016; leduc, 2013; myers, 2006; rapoport, 2010, 2013, 2020). however, scholarship about teachers’ conceptualization and rationalization of gc or its introduction and application in curricula or classroom practices in the united states is still scarce. research conducted among pre-service and in-service teachers demonstrates that teachers consider education for global citizenship important and that they are becoming increasingly interested in providing instruction that includes aspects of global citizenship (an, 2014; goren & yemini, 2017; hilburn & maguth, 2015; kopish, shahri, & amira, 2019). at the same time, teachers are usually oblivious about curricular content materials or instructional strategies related to teaching global citizenship or other supra-national models of citizenship (gallavan, 2008; gaudelli, 2009; myers, 2006; robbins, francis, & elliot, 2003; yamashita, 2006). there are several reasons for this: (a) there is no consensus on the meaning of global citizenship; (b) the lack of “curricular heritage” (gaudelli, 2009) and the vagueness of global citizenship education frameworks; (c) the lack of knowledge and experience in teaching supra-national models of citizenship due to inadequate preservice and in-service training; and (d) fears among teachers and officials that global citizenship education undermines the patriotism of students. although teachers include international and global perspectives in their instruction, they conceptualize global citizenship through the frameworks and discourses of the subjects they teach. the lack of a distinct definition of what global citizenship entails is clearly one of the major obstacles for a broader introduction of the global citizenship framework in teaching practices. there is evidence, however, that teachers who are genuinely interested in developing global competences in their students interpret and conceptualize global citizenship through more familiar concepts, particularly the concepts and principles related to the subjects they teach (schweisfurth, 2006; rapoport, 2010). it is important to understand how personal, professional, or contextual characteristics impact teachers’ interest in incorporating elements of gce into their instruction rapoport & demir 5 and make them confident about teaching about gc. substantial research was conducted to problematize teachers’ opinions and perceptions of the place and role of gce in various contexts, particularly in regard to different socio-economic groups of student population (goren & yemini, 2016, 2017a, 2017b; myers, 2008; reynolds et al., 2015; b. e. wood, 2012). however, research on how other contextual characteristics (e.g., school type or level) or teachers’ personal (e.g., gender, political views) and professional characteristics (e.g., years in profession, degree) are sporadic (appleyard & mclean, 2011; dill, 2013; gacel-ávila, 2005; tormey & gleeson, 2012). considering teachers’ role in designing curriculum (pinar, 2004; connelly & clandinin, 1988; thornton, 1989), it is critical to understand how they conceptualize global citizenship and to what extent personal and professional characteristics influence their conceptualization and interpretation of global citizenship. purpose the purpose of this study was twofold: to investigate how indiana social studies teachers conceptualize global citizenship; and to determine to what extent such factors as gender, years of experience, school environment, or ideological standing influenced teachers’ choices of a global citizenship model and their confidence to address gc in the classroom. theoretical frameworks this study is informed by several theoretical frameworks. holistically based on the theory of social constructivism (berger & luckman, 1966) and epistemological constructivist theory (dewey, 1925/2003; garrison, 1997; von glasersfeld, 1989), it draws on curriculum theory (bruner, 1996; connelly & clandinin, 1988; pinar, 2004) and the global citizenship model paradigm developed by oxley and morris (2013). knowledge that is socially constructed evolves through negotiation and interpretation of meanings. we negotiate meanings through a discourse in the social environment that includes people, artifacts, and texts and interpret those meanings based on our existing knowledge, values, cultural norms, and traditions. we construct concepts based on meanings and develop curricula around concepts. a constructed meaning, therefore, is foundational for curricular development. teachers play a central role in curriculum planning and development, a process critical to teacher activity and responsibility. they are intimately involved in curriculum development by infusing their personal knowledge, values, and experiences in the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 curricular process. citizenship that gives membership status to individuals and confers individuals’ identity (abowitz & harnish, 2006) is a social construct that developed as the result of the interaction of various systems (bronfenbrenner, 1979). citizenship is obtained through socialization where formal education plays a significant role. thus, educating citizens who would see themselves as members of a global community requires making individuals aware of their global status. this in turn requires that teachers should design curricula and instruction in such a way that they facilitate and enhance the development of individuals’ global identity and global competences and concurrently provide appropriate constructivism-based rationale for the advance of civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions. the teacher’s understanding, conceptualization, and interpretation of global citizenship, therefore, is particularly significant. research design survey research design (check & schutt, 2012; singleton & straits, 2009) was used to investigate to what extent indiana secondary social studies teachers feel confident to teach about global citizenship and what factors influence their conceptualization of global citizenship/choice of global citizenship model (oxley & morris, 2013). surveys allow for a large population-based collection of data that can then be quantitatively analyzed. an invitation to participate in the study was sent electronically to 1,000 middle and high school social studies teachers randomly selected from a list of teachers who teach social studies in indiana, which was provided by the indiana department of education. of these, 162 requests returned as undeliverable, and 209 teachers (24.9% of those who potentially received invitations) agreed to participate. participants anonymously completed a 12-item survey sent to them electronically. the instrument consisted of two parts: the first part included demographic questions (age, gender), questions about respondents’ professional activity (number of years in education, type and level of their schools, socioeconomic status of student population), respondents’ ideological standing (conservative or liberal), and a request to evaluate to what extent they were familiar with the concept of global citizenship and the ideas of global citizenship education. the second part included eight scenarios/interpretations each related to eight models/conceptions of global citizenship developed by oxley and morris (2013). the study participants were asked to rank those scenarios according to their personal rapoport & demir 7 understanding of the importance of various aspects of global citizenship. each scenario presented a possible reason that global citizenship should be taught in secondary social studies classroom. to avoid confusion, each scenario was designated by a color rather than a number, with the global citizenship models identified by oxley and morris (2013) in parentheses after the colors. • reason blue (political gc). i think we should teach students global citizenship because in the near future, they will live in a well-ordered world society that will be governed by a globally elected governing body. in the future, it is also possible that world citizenship will replace national citizenship. we will all have rights and duties as world citizens just like we do now as national citizens. • reason grey (moral gc). i believe we should teach students global citizenship because there are values and moral norms, written or unwritten, that are similar for all human beings, and we should instill those values in our students and help them understand that following these moral norms will benefit everyone on the planet. • reason yellow (economic gc). we should teach global citizenship because in the near future, the whole planet will become one big interconnected economic system and all individuals will be a part of this system. because all individuals have the same fundamental wants and needs, by serving their own self-interests they ultimately serve the interests of everyone and humankind as a whole. • reason red (cultural gc). we should teach global citizenship because there is an inevitable trend in cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism. people are becoming more aware of each other’s culture, which will eventually lead to a multicultural global society where people will share similar cultural features. for example, the dominant language english is becoming even more popular and reducing the barriers between culturally different people. • reason purple (social gc). we need to teach global citizenship because there is a growing global civil society whose actions transcend national borders. global civil society manifests ideas trans-nationally and makes sure every person’s voice is heard. • reason pink (environmental gc). we should teach global citizenship because of environmental issues. the earth and nature need protection, and it should be the task of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 global citizens to protect the global environment. the protection can be ensured either through global civil societies, governments, or corporations • reason orange (spiritual gc). we should teach global citizenship because of the spiritual and emotional connection of all people. global citizenship is a means to advocate commitment of all human beings to love, caring, and compassion. • reason green (critical gc). we should teach global citizenship because people should be able to critically assess social norms, fight inequalities and oppression, and advocate for actions to improve the lives of minorities. the data were analyzed by calculating the conditional distribution of respondents’ confidence to teach about gc based on personal, professional, and contextual characteristics and respondents’ choices of cg model (oxley & morris, 2013) based on those characteristics. conditional distribution, that is a probability distribution that shows the probability of a specific characteristic in a sub-population, was calculated using the percentage of responses about a specific characteristic. findings the first part of the survey asked participants to self-evaluate their level of familiarity with the concept of global citizenship and how confident they feel to teach (about) it in class. the four likert scale self-evaluation responses are presented in table 2. table 2 likert scale participants’ responses how familiar are you with gc and gce and how confident do you feel to teach it? i am very familiar. i heard much about gc and i am confident i can teach about it in class. i am familiar. i heard about gc, but i am not confident i can teach about it. i am not very familiar/not sure. i didn’t hear much about gc or gce. i am not familiar at all. i have never heard about gc or gce. the following tables present the percent of respondents who believe they are very familiar, familiar, or not very familiar/not sure with gc and gce. rapoport & demir 9 table 3 percent of respondents familiar with gc by ideological affiliation very familiar familiar not very familiar not familiar at all conservative 26.9 61.2 10.4 1.5 liberal 43.6 42.6 12.2 1.6 neither 22.7 65.9 4.8 4.5 although the number of those who are not very familiar or not at all familiar with gc and gce is almost the same among conservative (11.9%) and liberal (13.8%) respondents, social studies teachers who participated in the survey and identified themselves as liberals are much more likely to state that they are very familiar with gc and gce (43.6%) than those who identified as conservatives (26.9%) or did not specify their political ideology (22.7%). table 4 percent of respondents familiar with gc by degree very familiar familiar not very familiar not familiar at all bachelor’s degree 31.5 57.8 6.6 5.2 master’s degree 35.4 52.1 13.3 degree does not indicate difference among those participants who were very familiar or familiar with gc and gce: 89.3% of bachelor’s degree holders and 87.5% of teachers with a master’s degree stated that they were very familiar or familiar with both concepts. however, unlike 5.2% of bachelor’s degree holders, none of the teachers with a master’s degree said that they are not at all familiar with gc and gce. table 5 percent of respondents familiar with gc by school level very familiar familiar not very familiar not familiar at all middle school 29.9 55.8 11.7 2.6 high school 35.5 52.3 10.3 1.9 more high school social studies teachers (35.5%) feel comfortable teaching about gc than their colleagues in middle schools (29.9%). high school teachers are also less likely to respond that they are not very familiar or not at all familiar with gc (12.2%) than middle school teachers (14.3%). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 table 6 percent of respondents familiar with gc by years of experience in school very familiar familiar not very familiar not familiar at all 1-5 years in school 37.0 51.9 7.4 3.7 6-10 years in school 28.1 59.4 6.3 6.3 11-15 years in school 41.7 55.6 2.8 _ more than 15 years 30.2 50.3 18.3 1.2 in the area of teaching experience, 88.9% of respondents who worked in school less than 5 years, 87.5% of respondents who worked in school 6-10 years, 97.3% of those who worked in school 1115 years, and 80.5% of those who worked in school more than 15 years say that they are familiar or very familiar with gc and gce. however, 19.5% of the most experienced teachers with more than 15 years of teaching are not very familiar or not at all familiar with gc and gce, which is 1.5 times more than those who have taught for 6-10 years, almost 2 times more than new teachers, and 7 times more than teachers with 11-15 years of experience. the data suggests that those who graduated from teacher education programs 15 or more years ago are less familiar with gc than those who graduated less than 15 years ago. table 7 percent of participants familiar with gc by type of school very familiar familiar not very familiar not familiar at all rural schools 32.9 56.1 7.3 3.7 suburban schools 35.3 51.5 11.4 2.8 urban schools 29.0 51.6 16.1 3.3 while 35.3% of teachers working in suburban schools reported that they are very familiar with gc and gce, only 29% of urban school social studies teachers reported the same; 19.4% of respondents from urban school are not very familiar or not at all familiar with gc and gce. table 8 percent of respondents familiar with gc by students’ socio-economic status (ses) very familiar familiar not very familiar or not familiar at all high/middle-high 41.0 45.5 13.5 middle income 30.0 62.0 8.0 low-middle 28.6 55.7 15.7 low income 39.0 46.3 14.7 rapoport & demir 11 an almost identical percentage of respondents who teach social studies in schools with student populations from predominantly high or middle-high socio-economic status (ses) families (86.5%) and schools with student populations from low ses families (85.3%) reported that they are very familiar or familiar with gc and gce. only 28.6% of respondents from schools with student populations from predominantly low-middle ses families said that they were very familiar with gc and gce, which is 11.4% and 10.4% lower than in schools with students from predominantly high/middle-high ses or low ses families, respectively (41% and 39%). in the second part of the survey, respondents were asked to identify the purpose of global citizenship education (gce) by ranking the eight gc types/models (oxley & morris, 2013) presented as scenarios. figure 1 demonstrates the percentage of respondents by choices 1 (most important purpose of gce or type of gc) and 8 (least important purpose of gce or type of gc). colored graphs represent the percentage of #1 choices. black graphs represent the percentage of #8 choices. figure 1 participants’ interpretation of gc the study demonstrates that although an overwhelming majority of respondents (85%) believe that they are either familiar (53%) or very familiar (32%) with global citizenship, there is no unanimity among them in identifying the purpose of global citizenship education. only a relative majority (28%) of respondents identified moral global citizenship as the primary purpose for teaching gc, 1 7 % 2 8 % 1 3 % 7 % 1 2 % 3 % 7 % 1 5 % 5 1 % 5 % 7 % 7 % 4 % 7 % 1 0 % 1 0 % s o c i a l st u d i es t eac h e r s’ i n t e r p r e tat i o n o f g lo b a l c i t i z e n s h i p political gc moral gc economic gc cultural gc social gc environm gc spiritual gc critical gc journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 arguing that we should teach (about) global citizenship because there are values and moral norms that are similar for all human beings. respondents were more unified in identifying the least appropriate reason to teach gc: 51% agreed that teaching political gc, i.e., that people will live in a world society governed by a globally elected governing body and that world citizenship will replace national citizenship, is the least appropriate reason. the other seven choices ranged from 18% to 3%. table 9 percent of choices #1 (most preferable) and #8 (least preferable) of gc types among male and female participants gender political gc moral gc economic gc cultural gc social gc environ gc spiritual gc critical gc male 14.6/55.9 27.2/2.9 16.5/4.9 7.8/6.9 6.8/5.9 4.9/7.8 5.8/6.9 16.5/8.8 female 20.0/42.7 25.3/8.0 8.0/10.7 5.4/6.7 17.3/2.7 2.7/6.7 8.0/13.3 13.3/9.3 a relative majority of both female (25.3%) and male respondents (27.2%) selected moral gc as the most preferable model to teach about gc. a relative majority of female (42.7%) and an absolute majority of male respondents (55.9%) identified political gc as the least preferable model to teach in social studies classrooms. a larger percentage of female respondents than male respondents chose social gc (17.3% vs. 6.8%) and spiritual gc (8.0% vs 5.8%) models as primary models to teach. a larger percentage of male respondents (16.5% vs. 5.0%), on the other hand, chose economic gc as the primary model. table 10 percent of choices #1 (most preferable) and #8 (least preferable) of gc types among participants with different ideological views ideological affiliation political gc moral gc economic gc cultural gc social gc environ gc spiritual gc critical gc conservative 13.4/53.7 38.8/1.4 9.0/9.0 4.5/4.5 7.5/3.0 1.4/9.0 4.5/7.5 20.9/12.0 liberal 14.8/54.1 19.7/4.9 11.5/8.2 11.5/13.1 19.7/3.2 3.2/1.6 13.1/8.2 6.6/6.6 neither 18.1/38.6 18.1/11.4 22.7/4.5 6.8/2.3 6.8/4.5 6.8/6.8 4.5/16.0 16.0/13.6 self-identified liberal respondents were much more likely (43.6%) to admit that they are very familiar with gc than self-identified conservatives (23.9%) or those who said that they were neither liberal nor conservative (22.7%). although the majority of both conservative and liberal respondents reject the idea of teaching global citizenship through a political framework that rapoport & demir 13 focuses on a world society governed by a globally elected body that will replace national citizenship, ideological self-identification did play a role in the choice of a preferable model. twice as many self-identified conservative respondents chose the moral gc model than self-identified liberal respondents (38.8% vs. 19.7%), and almost three times as many self-identified conservative respondents chose the critical gc model than self-identified liberals (20.9% vs. 6.6%). the latter is most unexpected and needs further investigation. table 11 percent of choices #1 (most preferable) and #8 (least preferable) of gc types among participants with bachelor’s and master’s degrees degree political gc moral gc economic gc cultural gc social gc environ gc spiritual gc critical gc bachelor’s degree 17.3/49.2 24.8/6.5 12.2/5.8 8.7/6.8 11.2/8.2 3.5/3.5 7.3/8.2 15.0/11.8 master’s degree 18.1/51.2 25.2/4.3 15.5/7.3 7.3/6.6 8.5/1.6 4.2/7.3 7.3/10.8 13.9/10.9 respondents’ degrees did not play a role in their choices of gc model. almost the same percentage of respondents with master’s and bachelor’s degrees selected each gc model as the primary framework to teach about gc. table 12 percent of choices #1 (most preferable) and #8 (least preferable) of gc types among participants according to years of experience in education years of experience political gc moral gc economic gc cultural gc social gc environ gc spiritual gc critical gc 1-5 years 10.7/46.4 21.4/3.6 10.7/7.1 3.6/10.7 10.7/7.1 3.6/3.6 14.3/10.7 25.0/3.6 6-10 years 19.4/54.8 22.6/6.5 9.7/0 6.5/3.3 16.1/0 0/3.3 6.3/12.9 19.4/19.4 11-15 years 16.7/52.8 25.0/2.8 16.7/5.6 8.3/2.8 11.1/5.6 5.6/8.3 2.8/13.9 11.1/8.3 more than 15 years 14.4/49.4 29.1/4.7 14.0/9.4 8.1/8.2 10.5/2.4 3.5/8.2 9.3/7.1 11.6/22.2 data revealed that years of experience affect participants’ interpretation of gc. a relative majority in three of four groups prefer to interpret gc through the moral framework (22.6% of those who worked in education 6-10 years, 25.0% of those who worked 11-15 years, and 29.1% of those with more than 15 years of experience). the relative majority (25.0%) of the least experienced group (1-5 years) believe that the students should learn about gc because this is how they learn to critically assess social norms and fight inequalities and oppression (critical gc). more than half journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 of participants in the 6-10 and 11-15 years groups and almost half in two other groups believe that political gc is the least appropriate interpretation of gc. the study demonstrates that social studies teachers believe that they now are better aware of global citizenship and what it entails than before. the study also supports the conclusion of previous research that there is progress, albeit modest, in providing more information about global education and global citizenship education in teacher education programs. discussion the study investigates to what extent various personal, professional, and contextual characteristics influenced social studies teachers’ confidence to teach about global citizenship and whether gender, ideological views, degree, and number of years in the profession play a role in social studies teachers’ conceptualization of global citizenship. participants were asked to self-evaluate whether they believed they knew about gc and gce and were confident to teach about it (“very familiar”), believed they knew about gc and gce but were not confident to teach about it (“familiar”), or did not know much about gc and gce (“not familiar”). almost 90% of participants confirmed that they heard about gc, which is consistent with recent reports about the increasing interest among pre-service and in-service teachers in global issues and gc in particular (an, 2014; buchanan, burridge, & chodkiewicz, 2018; harshman, 2018; kopish, shahri, & amira, 2019; lourenço, 2021; rapoport, 2020). however, the number of those participants who feel confident to teach about gc is smaller. almost twice as many self-identified liberal participants feel confident to teach about gc compared to their conservative peers. the idea of supra-national, global, or cosmopolitan citizenship is usually associated with liberal views and discourses (camicia & franklin, 2011; pais & costa, 2020). teachers who incorporate global education into their instruction usually include discourses of multiculturalism, social justice, human rights, anti-racism, or peace education. it is, therefore, not surprising that teachers with liberal views feel more confident to teach about gc. ideological preferences among participants also manifested themselves in the choice of gc models. although the majority of both conservative and liberal participants rejected the political model in gce, twice as many conservative participants preferred the moral model of gc and almost three times as many liberal participants preferred the cultural and social models. the most intriguing finding, though, is that almost 21% of self-identified conservative respondents chose the critical model of gc as their rapoport & demir 15 first choice. critical gce, (andreotti, 2006; dejaeghere, 2009; pashby, 2018), in contrast with traditional, “soft” (andreotti, 2006) gce, is based on critical pedagogy, critical multicultural education, human rights education, and critical peace education, which help students re-evaluate, create, and negotiate new meanings of participation and membership through reviewing, critiquing, and reflecting on contexts, policies, and institutions that define the notion of citizenship. the study demonstrates that neither gender nor degree predicts teachers’ confidence to teach about gc. although all participants with master’s degrees heard about gc, unlike participants with bachelor’s degrees, 5.2% of whom never heard about gc, the data demonstrates that preferences in interpretation of global citizenship or purpose of global citizenship education do not depend on the degrees of the respondents. it is not surprising: master’s degrees in education programs, except specific programs in global or international education, rarely include global education-related courses. although scholars have pointed to the problems of the internationalization of teacher education, including gce in post-secondary education (gacel-ávila, 2005; jorgenson & shultz, 2012; shultz & jorgenson, 2008), there is also a growing general consensus that higher education institutions have a very important role to play in preparing teachers who are informed and able to participate in the complex globalized and globalizing world (jorgenson & shultz, 2012). following their european and asian counterparts, more states in the united states require a postgraduate/postbaccalaureate degree for teacher certification. as a result, according to the national center for education statistics, the percentage of public school teachers who held a postbaccalaureate degree (i.e., a master’s, education specialist, or doctor’s degree) was higher in 2017–2018 (58%) than in 1999–2000 (47 %) (nces, n.d.). this growing tendency will require even more attention to the expansion of global education courses in post-secondary teacher education programs. although respondents’ gender was not a factor in respect to their familiarity with gc, almost three times more women (17.3%) than men (6.8%) selected social gc as their preferred choice of why gc should be taught in school (“we need to teach global citizenship because there is a growing global civil society whose actions transcend national borders”). the only other seemingly important difference between genders was the preference of the economic gc model among men (16.5% vs. 8.0%). the latter gap can be explained by a long-observed tendency (goren & yemini, 2017; rapoport, 2010; schweisfurth, 2006) that in the absence of a clear definition of gc and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 administrative guidance, teachers tend to interpret gc and gce through the concepts, constructs, and content of the subjects they teach. among 37 respondents who reported teaching economics and other social studies subjects, only 12 were female. among five respondents who teach economics, only one was female. data about participants’ familiarity with gce and confidence to teach about gc in different types of schools (table 7) and in schools with different student populations (table 8) present mixed results. according to their studies in israeli schools, goren and yemini (2017) suggested that teachers in schools with student populations from families of low ses are less interested in teaching about gc because they believe that their students, who will likely seek employment locally, will never need it. data from table 7 confirms this assumption. urban schools in the u.s. usually serve students from middle-low or low ses families. almost 20% of respondents, who teach in urban schools, either do not know much about gc and gce or never heard about them. conversely, table 8 demonstrates that the percentage of teachers in schools with student populations from low-income families who are very familiar and familiar about gc and gce is almost similar to the percentage of their colleagues from schools with student populations from high-income families. this contradiction can be the result of an unclear distinction between what different levels of ses entail, particularly when respondents assessed the socio-economic status of their students’ families themselves. another possible explanation is the difference in the economic development of indiana regions. the least knowledgeable about gc and least confident to teach about it was a cohort of respondents who taught 15 years and more. this seems to be additional evidence of the growing interest in global education, gc, and gce in the education community. this may be attributed to the fact that for the last two decades, teacher education programs have paid more attention to global issues by adding courses on global and international education to their curricula and continuing internationalization of teacher education and campuses in general (gacel-ávila, 2005; quezada, & cordeiro, 2016). this led to the recorded increasing interest of pre-service teachers in global education that has translated into an expansion of the use of global topics in classroom instruction (kirkhoff & cloud, 2020). an increased inclusion of global topics in teacher education programs and broadening the scope of global education and internationalization in teacher preparation can also explain the difference in choices of preferred gc model among the cohorts of respondents with various years of teaching experience. more than twice as many respondents with 1-10 years rapoport & demir 17 of teaching experience selected the critical gc model than did respondents with 11+ years of experience. this confirms the conclusion of many observers that global and international education courses often address topics on human rights, social justice, racial inequality, democratic development, and peace (an, 2014; andreotti, 2006; dejaeghere, 2009; myers, 2006), comprising core themes of critical education. there was no unanimity among respondents what model of gc should be taught in schools; in other words, respondents disagreed about how to conceptualize and interpret gc. only a little more than a quarter of respondents (28%) identified moral global citizenship as the primary purpose for teaching gc. this choice is not surprising. the moral model of gc, based on the ideas of cosmopolitan ethics and global moral values, is pervasive in academic, political, and educational discourses. this model, in one form or another, is present in the majority of gc typologies (bosio & schattle, 2021; oxley & morris, 2013; schattle, 2008; stromquist, 2009; veugelers, 2011). the ideas of moral global citizenship date back to the stoics of ancient greece and emmanuel kant, who popularized the idea that human beings belong to a single moral community (oxley & morris, 2013). political gc, the model that advances the idea that the world will be governed by a global government and that national citizenships will be replaced by global citizenship, is considered one of the most radical ideas (cory, 2006; p. b. wood, 2007). it is also considered the most identifiable model of gc because it relates directly to the idea of citizenship as a political status (oxley & morris, 2013). the idea of a global governing body that eliminates national governments evokes harsh criticism in many conservative circles (myers, 2006; rapoport, 2010). considering that 37% of respondents identified themselves as conservatives and only 31.5% as liberals, the majority choice of the political model as the least appropriate for social studies instruction is not surprising. conclusion for the last two decades, a growing number of scholars and practitioners have called for more inclusive citizenship education that would address problems and topics beyond national and regional borders. despite the visible recent upsurge of nationalistic sentiments and nation-centered tendencies in civic education, particularly during the global pandemic, supranational and extraterritorial citizenship and educational frameworks reflective of these types of citizenship continue to draw attention among educators. unesco’s (2013) institutionalization of global journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 citizenship, one of the most frequently used concepts of supranational citizenship, provided an additional impulse for gce. although school in a democratic society is not the only place of citizenship education, it plays, along with other educational institutions both public and private, a significant role in informing young citizens what it means to be a good citizen and part of a community. unlike many informal agents of citizenship education such as family, neighborhood, or media, schools in a democratic society can expand students’ views on good citizenship and provide civic knowledge and skills that informal agents rarely can. teachers are an integral, most important part of a citizenship education system. teachers’ understanding, conceptualization, and interpretations of various forms and types of citizenship should be one of the foci in citizenship education research. the current study demonstrates that although the number of social studies teachers who believe that they are familiar with global citizenship has increased, many still lack confidence that they can teach about global citizenship. the lack of confidence is likely a result of inadequate coverage of this topic in school and college curricula. the study also demonstrates that there is no unanimity among indiana social studies teachers in conceptualization or interpretation of global citizenship. there is, however, some level of agreement about what global citizenship is not: almost 56% of male respondents and almost 43% of female respondents rejected the idea of teaching political global citizenship, the future abandonment of national citizenship and national government in favor of one global government. there was less consensus as to what global citizenship is and what form of global citizenship should be taught in the classroom. a relative majority of 28% of respondents agreed that the most appropriate form of global citizenship to teach in school is a moral global citizenship that includes moral norms and values shared by all people. the study also demonstrates that there is an ideological divide between those who feel more confident addressing problems of global citizenship in the classroom and those who feel less confident to do so. this result is not surprising: in popular literature and media, all types of supranational citizenship—global citizenship in particular—are presented as liberal concepts. nevertheless, almost 27% of self-identified conservative participants in the study claimed that they knew enough about global citizenship to confidently teach it in class. it seems that the principal lesson of this study is that we urgently need more inclusive curricula in secondary citizenship education and more global citizenship-related topics in teacher education programs, particularly those that prepare future social studies teachers. although the majority of rapoport & demir 19 participants in this study agreed that they are familiar with the concept of global citizenship, the range of opinions about what global citizenship entails means that many of them interpret it in their own way without a systemic understanding of this concept. this, in turn, leads to mischaracterization of possible pedagogies and curricular devices to teach about global aspects of citizenship. references abowitz, k. k., & harnish, j. (2006). contemporary discourses of citizenship. review of educational research, 76(4), 653–690. an, s. (2014). preparing elementary teachers as global citizenship educators. journal of education, 134(3), 25–38. andreotti, v. (2006). soft versus critical global citizenship education. policy & practice: a development education review, 3, 40–51. appleyard, n., & mclean, l. (2011). expecting the exceptional: pre-service professional development in global citizenship education. international journal of progressive education, 7(2), 6–32. archibald, d., & porter, a. (1994). curriculum control and teachers’ perceptions of autonomy and satisfaction. educational evaluation and policy analysis, 16(1), 21–39. berger, p. l., & luckman, t. (1966). the social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of knowledge. garden city, ny: doubleday & company, inc. banks, j. a. (2014). diversity, group identity, and citizenship education in a global age. journal of education, 194(3), 1–12. bosio, e., & schattle, h. (2021). ethical global citizenship education: from neoliberalism to a values-based pedagogy. prospects. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-021-09571-9 bronfenbrenner, u. (1979). the ecology of human development. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. bruner, j. (1996). the process of education. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-021-09571-9 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 buchanan, j., burridge, n., & chodkiewicz, a. (2018). maintaining global citizenship education in schools: a challenge for australian educators and schools. australian journal of teacher education, 43(4). http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v43n4.4 camicia, s., & franklin, b. (2011). what type of global community and citizenship? tangled discourses of neoliberalism and critical democracy in curriculum and its reform. globalization, societies and education, 9(3–4), 311–322. check, j., & schutt, r. (2012). survey research. in j. check & r. schutt (eds.), research methods in education (pp. 159–185). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. connelly, m., & clandinin, j. (1988). teachers as curriculum planners: narratives of experience. new york: teachers college press. corry, o. (2006). global civil society and its discontents. voluntas, 17(4), 303–324. dejaeghere, j. (2009). critical citizenship education in multicultural societies. intercultural journal of education for democracy, 2(2), 85–98. dewey. j. (1925/2003). experience and nature. kessinger publishing. dill, j. (2013). the longings and limits of global citizenship education: the moral pedagogy of schooling in a cosmopolitan age. new york, ny: routledge. gacel-ávila, j. (2005). the internationalization of higher education: a paradigm for global citizenry. journal of studies in international education, 9(2), 121–136. gallavan, n. (2008). examining teacher candidates’ views on teaching world citizenship. the social studies, 99(6), 249–254. garrison, j. (1997). an alternative to von glasersfeld’s subjectivism in science education: deweyan social constructivism. science & education, 6, 301–312. gaudelli, w. (2009). heuristics of global citizenship discourses towards curriculum enhancement. journal of curriculum theorizing, 25(1), 68–85. goren, h., & yemini, m. (2016). global citizenship education in context: teacher perceptions at an international school and a local israeli school. compare: a journal of comparative and international education, 46(5), 832–853. 10.1080/03057925.2015.1111752 goren, h., & yemini, m. (2017a). global citizenship education redefined: a systematic review of empirical studies on global citizenship education. international journal of education research, 82, 170–183. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ s0883035516308163? casa_token=yqlwvhyvovgaaaaa:xobhjs1rx5xvvo ypxs6e xmhp8plrlzov1ojhigflkbutd6_xpqqqyktqcgnr-ukzff8bwc59ww#bib0075 http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v43n4.4 https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2015.1111752 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/%20s0883035516308163?%20casa_token=yqlwvhyvovgaaaaa:xobhjs1rx5xvvo%20ypxs6e%20xmhp8plrlzov1ojhigflkbutd6_xpqqqyktqcgnr-ukzff8bwc59ww#bib0075 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/%20s0883035516308163?%20casa_token=yqlwvhyvovgaaaaa:xobhjs1rx5xvvo%20ypxs6e%20xmhp8plrlzov1ojhigflkbutd6_xpqqqyktqcgnr-ukzff8bwc59ww#bib0075 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/%20s0883035516308163?%20casa_token=yqlwvhyvovgaaaaa:xobhjs1rx5xvvo%20ypxs6e%20xmhp8plrlzov1ojhigflkbutd6_xpqqqyktqcgnr-ukzff8bwc59ww#bib0075 rapoport & demir 21 goren, h., & yemini, m. (2017b). the global citizenship education gap: teacher perception of the relationship between global citizenship education and students’ socio-economic status. teaching and teacher education, 67, 9–12. harshman, j., & augustine, t. (2013). fostering global citizenship education for teachers through online research. the educational forum, 77(4), 450–463. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00131725.2013.822040 harshman, j. (2018). developing global citizenship through critical media literacy in the social studies. the journal of social studies research, 42(2), 107–117. heilman, e. (2008). including voices from the world through global citizenship education. social studies and the young learner, 20(4), 30–32. hilburn, j., & maguth, b. (2015). spatial citizenship education: civic teachers׳ instructional priorities and approaches. the journal of social studies research, 39(2), 107–118. jorgenson, s., & shultz, l. (2012). global citizenship education (gce) in post-secondary institutions: what is protected and what is hidden under the umbrella of gce? journal of global citizenship & equity education, 2(1). https://journals.sfu.ca/jgcee/index.php/ jgcee/article%e2%80%8c/viewarticle/ 52/26 kerkhoff, s., & cloud, m. (2020). equipping teachers with globally competent practices: a mixed methods study on integrating global competence and teacher education. international journal of educational research, 103, 101629. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijer.2020.101629 kopish, m., shahri, b., & amira, m. (2019). developing globally competent teacher candidates through cross-cultural experiential learning. journal of international social studies, 9(2), 3–34. krutka, d., & carano, k. (2016). videoconferencing for global citizenship education: wise practices for social studies educators. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 109–136. leduc, r. (2013). global citizenship instruction through active participation: what is being learned about global citizenship? the educational forum, 77(4), 394–406. lourenço, m. (2021) from caterpillars to butterflies: exploring pre-service teachers’ transformations while navigating global citizenship education. frontiers of education, 6:651250. doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.651250 myers, j. (2006). rethinking the social studies curriculum in the context of globalization: education for global citizenship in the u.s. theory and research in social education, 34(3), 370–394. https://doi.org/%2010.1080/00131725.2013.822040 https://doi.org/%2010.1080/00131725.2013.822040 https://journals.sfu.ca/jgcee/index.php/%20jgcee/article%e2%80%8c/viewarticle/ https://journals.sfu.ca/jgcee/index.php/%20jgcee/article%e2%80%8c/viewarticle/ https://doi.org/10.1016/ journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 1-23 myers, j. (2008). making sense of a globalizing world: adolescents' explanatory frameworks for poverty. theory & research in social education, 36(2), 95– 123. 10.1080/00933104.2008.10473368 nces/national center for education statistics. (n.d.). fast facts: teacher qualifications. https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=58 ncss. (2016). global and international education in social studies. https://www.socialstudies.org/ position-statements/global-and-international-educationsocial-studies osler, a., & starkey, h. (2003). learning for cosmopolitan citizenship: theoretical debates and young people's experiences. educational review, 55(3), 243–254. pais, a., & costa, m. (2020). an ideology critique of global citizenship education. critical studies in education, 61(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2017.1318772 pashby, k. (2018). identity, belonging and diversity in education for global citizenship: multiplying, intersecting, transforming, and engaging lived realities. in i. davies, l-c. ho, d. kiwan, c. l. peck, a. peterson, e. sant, and y. waghid (eds.), the palgrave handbook of global citizenship and education (pp. 277–293). london: palgrave. pinar, w. f. (2004). understanding curriculum. new york, ny: peter lang publishing. quezada, r. l., & cordeiro, p. a. (2016). internationalization in teacher education in the us: innovative programs and practices to meet the global challenges of tomorrow’s schools. in j. chi-kin lee & c. day (eds.), quality and change in teacher education: professional learning and development in schools and higher education (pp. 195–212). springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24139-5_12 rapoport, a. (2010). we cannot teach what we don’t know: indiana teachers talk about global citizenship education. education, citizenship and social justice, 5(3), 179-190. rapoport, a. (2013). global citizenship themes in the social studies classroom: teaching devices and teachers’ attitudes. the educational forum, 77(4), 407-420. rapoport, a. (2020). development of global identity in the social studies classroom. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 1-20. reynolds, r., bradbery, d., brown, j., carroll, k., donelly, d., ferguson-patrick, k., & mcqueen, s. (2015). contesting and constructing international perspectives in global education. rotterdam, netherlands: sense publishers. robbins, m., francis, l. j., & elliott, e. (2003). attitudes toward education for global citizenship among trainee teachers. research in education, 69(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2008.10473368 https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=58 https://www.socialstudies.org/%20position-statements/global-and-international-education-social-studies https://www.socialstudies.org/%20position-statements/global-and-international-education-social-studies https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2017.1318772 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24139-5_12 rapoport & demir 23 schweisfurth, m. (2006). education for global citizenship: teacher agency and curricular structure in ontario schools. educational review, 58(1), 41–50. singleton, r., & straits, b. (2009). approaches to social research. new york: oxford university press. shultz, l., & jorgenson, s. (2008). global citizenship education in post-secondary institutions: a review of the literature. https://www.academia.edu/1407517/global_citizenship _education_in_post_ secondary_institutions_a_review_of_the_literature thornton, s. (1989). aspiration and practice: teacher as curricular-instructional gatekeeper in social studies. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, san francisco, ca. march. (eric document reproduction service no.ed315347) tormey, r., & gleeson, j. (2012). the gendering of global citizenship: findings from a largescale quantitative study on global citizenship education experiences. gender and education, 24(6), 627–645. 10.1080/09540253.2011.646960 unesco. (2013). global citizenship education: an emerging perspective. https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000224115 unesco. (2015). education 2030. incheon declaration and framework for action. paris: unesco. von glasersfeld, e. (1989). cognition, construction of knowledge, and teaching. synthese, 80(1), 121–140. wood, b. e. (2012). scales of active citizenship: new zealand teachers' diverse perceptions and practices. international journal of progressive education, 8(3), 77–93. https://ijpe.inased.org/makale/2523 wood, p. b. (2007). the impossibility of global citizenship. brock education, 17(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.26522/brocked.v17i1.99 yamashita, h. (2006). global citizenship education and war: the needs of teachers and learners. educational review, 58(1), 27–39. https://www.academia.edu/1407517/global_citizenship%20_education_in_post_ https://www.academia.edu/1407517/global_citizenship%20_education_in_post_ https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2011.646960 https://ijpe.inased.org/makale/2523 https://doi.org/10.26522/brocked.v17i1.99 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 81-92 81 developing creative potential of a schoolchild by means of native language gelyusya kayumova1, shamil sheymardanov2, raziya akhtarieva3, aray zhundibayeva4 abstract the paper discusses the issues of developing schoolchildren's creative potential in tatar and kazakh languages and literature classes. the authors define the environmental conditions, including the educational environment, as an important condition for the development of creativity and innovative thinking. according to the federal state education standards (fses), schooling should be focused on simultaneous achieving subject, meta-subject, and personal results. the authors consider developing creative potential as a process aimed at formation of personal results since the ability to think outside the box can be viewed as a personal quality contributing to selfdetermination in a profession and as a person. the study shows that modern textbooks of tatar and kazakh languages and literature focus on the actualization of creative thinking. at the same time, the authors emphasize that a textbook is only a crutch, while teacher's creative understanding of the tasks proposed in textbooks and methodological guidelines play a much greater role. keywords: creative thinking, creative abilities, creative potential, textbook, project activities, case technology, conversation. introduction creativity is a complex, controversial process, the psychology of which is difficult to explain. even ancient philosophers paid attention to creativity as a personal quality and even believed that this trait brought an individual closer to gods. the interest in this phenomenon is not diminishing, but still increasing, reflecting the decisive role of creativity in the development of the individual, society, and the state. the modern educational process is characterized by reforms, innovations, 1 associate professor of the department of tatar literature, kazan federal university, russia, gulfar21@mail.ru 2 senior lecturer, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, russia, pedagogshamil@mail.ru 3 associate professor of the department of pedagogy, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, russia, raziyaa@yandex.ru 4 phd, shakarim state university of semey, (ssus) (state university named after shakarim of semey city) kazakhstan, arayzhkz@gmail.com mailto:gulfar21@mail.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=pedagogshamil@mail.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=raziya%2da@yandex.ru https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=raziya%2da@yandex.ru mailto:arayzhkz@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 81-92 modernization, which are due to the rapidly changing reality of our time. some scholars argue that modern people need the speed of reaction, a variability of actions, and irregularity in solving numerous professional and personal tasks (belkova, 2012). the need for creative thinking and abilities ceases to be the prerogative of a specific group of people (musicians, poets, artists). edward de bono wrote that the need for creativity is already quite clearly recognized in business (bono, 2005). in the conditions of socio-economic alterations, the society puts forward a new social demand to the educational institutions – formation of a developing personality, fully fitting into the new social system (akhmetshin et al., 2017; bochkareva et al., 2017). despite the fact that the question of bringing up a creative person is being raised with increasing frequency in our society, its characteristics and criteria require further clarification. when describing the features of thinking that characterize a creative person, it is necessary to emphasize the speed – an ability to express the maximum number of ideas; flexibility – a variety of ideas, ease of association; originality – an ability to generate extraordinary ideas; sophistication – an ability to improve one's product or give it a finished look. highly developed creative thinking is a necessary quality of a successful modern personality (bochkareva et al., 2018), therefore it is reasonable to assume that developing a creative potential should occupy a central place in tatar and kazakh language and literature classes. thus, the relevance of this paper is determined by the increasing interest of scientists and researchers to the development context of schoolchildren creative abilities; the lack of systematic research in the field of teaching non-standard technologies in tatar language and literature and kazakh language and literature classes. in the view of the above, the objective of this paper is to disclose the possibilities of tatar literature classes in the development of schoolchildren creative potential. method the authors aim to determine the possibilities of the tatar language and literature classes in the development of creative potential. the purpose of this report is defined by the following objectives: to determine the potential of the tatar language textbooks in the development of schoolchildren creative potential; to define the potential of the tatar literature textbooks in the development of schoolchildren creative potential; to reveal the conditions for the development of kayumova et al. creative thinking in the tatar language and literature classes. to achieve these objectives, the authors utilized the following methods: theoretical analysis of literary, linguistic, pedagogical, and methodical literature; analysis of the modern tatar language and literature textbooks; as well as the general scientific methods of description and comparative analysis. findings the accumulation of experience and knowledge is a prerequisite for creative activity. the authors have analyzed the modern tatar language and literature textbooks. the headings of the existing native language textbooks in the turkic-speaking schools represent only two types of tasks declared by the authors: 1) speech development tasks; 2) independent performance tasks. in fact, the tasks proposed by the textbooks' authors are quite diverse and are aimed at the formation of both a solid knowledge basis and a creative personality. let us illustrate this statement with several examples (the examples are taken from a textbook for the 9-th grade (developed by m. zakiev)): – due to the fact that some sounds do not correlate with letters, there are certain difficulties in the spelling of words. organize a conversation on the topic "is it necessary to change the tatar alphabet?" and present your opinion in the essay (zakiev and ibragimov, 2015: 18). commenting on this task, we note that the problem of changing the alphabet was particularly relevant two decades ago. however, according to the authors of the textbook, the problem does not lose its relevance; they suggest students think about ways to solve it. since there can't be only one correct answer, this question can be identified as a problematic issue for the case. a teacher has to provide references including scientific literature and online resources, as well as some guide questions helping to solve the issue. – create a vocabulary of neologisms you know (zakiev and ibrahimov, 2015). we highly recommend organizing a project study based of this task with the provision of the final product – a school neologism vocabulary in the tatar language. we focus on project activity because it is an "integrative activity synthesizing elements of cognitive, value-orientational, creative, transformative and communicative activities, allowing creative perception of reality, shaping self-education skills, interest in the program material studied, affecting the quality of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 81-92 knowledge, the level of literary education and the personal development of students" (safonova, 2010: 72). the students' project activities shall be implemented in stages. at the initial stage, the task is to justify the relevance of creating school neologism vocabulary. during the conversation about the role of neologisms in life, about the factors provoking a surge in the formation of new words, students should independently justify the need to perform such a task. the initial work is directed to the development of personal results, in particular, the students' consciousness of their ethnicity, knowledge of history, language, and culture. at the planning stage, the students shall be divided into different groups and will be planning their activities in accordance with their capabilities and preferences. during the project, the students can be divided into the following groups: 1) the first group: performing the task with neologisms borrowed from the english language; 2) the second group: performing the task with neologisms borrowed from the forgotten arab-persian language, which have become popular at the beginning of the 21st century; 3) the third group: writing an introduction to the neologism vocabulary. 4) the fourth group: selecting the illustrative material for the neologism vocabulary. research work is an important stage of the project activity. the criteria for this stage are scientific nature and independent thinking. relying on lexicographical sources, the students shall find the meanings of the collected words. the difficulty lies in the fact that dictionaries hardly manage to register such changes in the language as the appearance of new words. the words are often found in the language of the media, so the students have to analyze the word in its context and offer their own vocabulary entry on certain neologisms. at this stage, the students develop such personal achievements as aesthetic consciousness and aesthetic creative activities. at the conclusion stage, we recommend to hold one more lesson or devote the biggest part of the lesson to this issue. at this stage, we consider it important that schoolchildren form a holistic worldview, corresponding to the modern level of science and social practice; develop the willingness and ability to engage in dialogue with other people and to reach mutual understanding in it. kayumova et al. at the presentation stage, the students offer a layout of the future vocabulary (an electronic version). each group presents their workflow; introduces the results of their work and their role in the final result. this stage allows forming a conscious and responsible attitude to one's own actions (for example, children realize that thanks to mutual help, unity and concessions, the result becomes possible). it also contributes to developing a communicative competence during collaboration with peers (the presentation of the finished product and one's role in the process of creating a product requires stylistically competent accurate and eloquent speech, an ability to make reasonable arguments). at the evaluation stage, you can organize a conversation in which the students shall answer the questions: what are the positive aspects of the research progress, what are they connected with? did you experience any failures or blunders, what are their reasons? at this stage, the work contributes to the achievement of such personal results as the development of moral consciousness and competence in solving moral problems based on personal choice. of course, at the request of the teacher and students, the project work can be implemented in other fields. – write an essay on the topic "native village", use the geographical names of your region (zakiev and ibragimov, 2015: p. 120). the authors believe that such a task perfectly contributes to creative thinking and speech development. moreover, the students involved in this work form an interest in their native land, its history, and etymology of geographic names of the native land. several tasks aim at organizing a conversation on a particular topic. at the same time, the objective of the textbook is to offer an ambiguous, interesting and relevant issue, able to develop a real discussion or an exciting conversation. it is important to remember that a teacher is highly responsible for this conversation; he should ensure the flow of different thoughts, encourage students to creative thinking with the help of the guide questions. we completely agree with the opinion of f. gabidullina, who emphasizes that a conversation, a dialogue in a classroom primarily depends on the correctly asked, well-chosen questions (gabidullina et al., 2018a; 2018b). the authors of the tatar literature textbooks also pay much attention to the formation of a creativeminded person. let us consider some of the questions and tasks that can push students to search for non-standard solutions. the data is presented in tables. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 81-92 table 1 creative questions and tasks in the tatar literature classes (on the example of the tatar literature textbook by a. zakirzyanov, 9-th grade) creative task topic studied question (task) essay lyrics by h. tufan write an essay on the topic "the lyrical hero of hassan tufan" (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 19) writing a report modern tatar prose what writers from your region do you know? use additional resources and write a report (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 151) presentations modern tatar prose make a presentation about the life and work of writers at the suggestion of a teacher (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 151) work with online resources lyrics by h. tufan name famous writers and poets whose names became the names of the planets. use online resources (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 19) expression of personal opinions about a masterpiece, a hero, an epimyth, etc. on friday, in the evening by a.gilyazov express your personal opinion about the final (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 73) the handkerchief by t. minnullin hatira believes that you can be happy if you keep the beauty of your soul. she proves it in her own way, delighting grandmothers-neighbors. she considers it right to wait patiently for the coming happiness. do you agree with her? (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 144) exchange views in groups or in class on friday, in the evening by a.gilyazov name the works about a village, memory, intergenerational relations written by russian and tatar writers of the 20th century discuss them in class (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 73) morning wind by f. sadriev people like nuriasma have various problems in life. what do you think? make your point (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 221) problematic issues the handkerchief by t. minnullin who is a positive hero in the piece? (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 144) what can you say about the author's position? what did he want to say to the readers? (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 144) morning wind by f. sadriev "here is the only judge: justice" how do you understand these words? (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 221) the city has no memory... how do you understand these words? (zakirzyanov and fakhretdinova, 2015: 221) of course, this is only a small part of all creative tasks. they are presented in creative task section. the tasks under the headings "independent performance tasks", "comparative tasks", and "speech development tasks" have as big potential as "creative tasks" for the formation of a creative-minded person (zhundibayeva et al., 2013). thus, we can conclude that a textbook is a good help for a teacher in the formation of a creative personality in the tatar literature classes. another feature of creative potential development in language and literature classes at turkicspeaking schools is the education and upbringing of students on a broad historical and cultural background; that is, the implementation of a culturological approach, the formation of ethnocultural competence. at the same time, the role of the native language becomes much wider than the subject of learning: in the modern context of classes, the native language can and should be perceived as a special national phenomenon embodying the historical and aesthetic memory of the people, a source of knowledge in various areas of human and national culture. kayumova et al. there are two directions in teaching the native language and literature within the cultural approach. the first one is teaching the native language and literature in the context of the native culture, cognition, comprehension of the native culture reflected in the language and in literary works. the second direction is the cognition of the native people culture in the dialogue of cultures, awareness of originality and uniqueness of the native language and literature in comparison with other cultures and languages. let us compare a. gilyazov's "on friday, in the evening" and a. solzhenitsyn's "matryona's place". this comparison shall cover several issues; some of them are shown in the table below. table 2 comparison of the works of different nations the author and his work "on friday, in the evening" by a.gilyazov "matryona's place" by a. solzhenitsyn location aksyrgak village on the banks of the ik river talnovo village near moscow main characters bibinur nan the narrator, ignatich, matryona auxiliary characters zhigangir, zuhrabanu, galikey thaddeus, yefim, kira, kira's husband episodic characters asmabike, vali, zakia three sisters who is the narrator? the author, characters, bibinur (her thoughts) the narrator portrait and behavioral features of the main characters bibinur is a grandmother who has long been living alone in poverty (there is not even a samovar or a sewing machine). she doesn’t know other life and holds no grudge. matryona is a lonely, hardworking, people-loving woman. there is nothing in her house except for ficus, mice, cockroaches, and a lame cat. the villagers do not understand her, but matryona doesn't feel offended. main character's features marries a person who is much older than herself in order to help orphans to survive and develop as a person. children grow up and show themselves as callous people, but bibinur does not tolerate bad words about her children. at the end of her life, she falls in love with zhigangir, chairman of the collective farm; her love is her relief. but this joy does not last long: the chairman dies. the story ends with the death of bibinur. matryona is a sick woman, who is deprived of a pension. but she finds solace in work that she does for free. she got married as a young girl, gave birth to six children, but they all died. when she married thaddeus, she gave a lot of energy to raising his daughter kira. kira becomes the indirect culprit of matryona's death. opposition bibinur – fellow villagers bibinur – relatives bibinur – adopted children matryona – fellow villagers matryona – relatives matryona – state authorities attitudes to the main characters the author depicts the indifference of society to the fate of individuals. bibinur is not offended by anyone, not deprived, but her misfortune is in her solitude: there is no one who would listen to her, who would understand her. the author depicts the indifference of society to the fate of individuals. matryona is also not offended by anyone, not deprived, but she is still alone: she has no one to share her joys and sorrows. the author's attitude to the main character. the narrator loves her, regrets, honors as holy. the narrator loves her, considers intelligent and beautiful, incapable of betrayal. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 81-92 what torments the main character? people's indifference, misunderstanding, extinction of moral values people's indifference,, misunderstanding, extinction of moral values the title meaning friday is a holy day for muslims. on this day, as a rule, holy people die. the place reflects matryona's life, the fate of this house, as well as people who are interested in material gain in relation to this house. value good and compassion are vital to people, this is the only meaning of life. each place is alive as long as holy people like matryona live in it. matryona is a lodestar of life according to the laws of conscience. of course, this comparison was carried out not by students themselves, but during a heuristic conversation. the authors of the textbooks offer many tasks and questions that require an exchange of opinions, organization of a conversation. scholars highly appreciating the merit of the conversation method in literature classes, write, "live communication between a teacher and a student in the process of analyzing a literary work in a classroom occurs mainly in conversation" (fedorova, 2003). n.i. kudryashev proposes using a heuristic method in organizing students' analytic activities: analyzing an episode, selecting quotes for answering a question, analyzing characters, comparing characters, writing essays on private and generalizing topics" (kudryashev, 1971: 84). the dialogue in literature classes s.a. leonov has been reviewed in detail by. the scholar puts forward the following position, "based on the general scientific theory of a dialogue, considering the specificity of literature classes at school, it is advisable to use the following types of dialogues for the development of students' speech: critical, literary studies, including commentary-textual studies as the types of interpersonal dialogues, as well as theatrical and artistic studies as functional-role dialogues" (leonov, 1994: 60). the tasks should increase the readers' attention to peculiarities of the verbal image of life, they should focus on teaching young readers to see the life described in the book, to hear the voice of the author with the help of a figurative word. such activities have a positive impact on the students' creative potential development. however, it is worth noticing that creative personality development occurs under certain conditions, without which the students' creative potential can remain only at the intuitive-creative and reproductive-creative levels. the goal of the native language and literature classes is to develop the students' creative potential to the creative-generalizing and creative-research levels. the analysis of theoretical and methodological literature has contributed to the identification of the following conditions for achieving this goal (belkova, 2012; kudryashev, 1971; leonov, 1994; mayorova, 2016; orlova, 2016; pogodina, 2010): kayumova et al. 1) evaluation of both the final result and the process of creativity. for this, we believe it is important not to be limited to such tasks as writing essays, reports, abstracts, and so on, which will be performed by students independently at home but to include creative tasks in the course of the lesson. excellent opportunities are provided for this purpose by such innovative technologies as case technologies, business games, role-playing, simulation games, as well as 2) encouraging the desire to experiment with materials, forms, ideas, techniques, and expressive means. lack of desire to experiment turns the creative process into reproductive activity. more recently, the projects, cases, and quests have become a new phenomenon in school, including literature lessons. today, many innovative methods are already familiar to students, thus the new, non-traditional forms and methods are one of the promising objectives of a teacher. we consider the book trailer method effective, especially since it is a new method in pedagogy; the teachers consider it the most effective means of propaganda and advertising of leisure reading. this method creates a huge space for experiments with ict technologies, music, integration of various industries and arts. but the main condition is the students' understanding of the conceptual foundations of the piece of art, based on which the book trailer has been created, as well as 3) providing interdisciplinary connections. as was noted above, many innovative methods are focused on the fact that students have to integrate knowledge, skills, and abilities to different sciences and arts. highlighting various aspects of human life, different historical epochs, various social phenomena, a piece of art creates excellent conditions for ensuring interdisciplinary connections. here are some examples of drawing attention to the books included in the school curriculum: – "mom, i saw a puppy!" by r. minnullin (6-th grade): tatar literature + zoology + psychology. that is, in this lesson, you can discuss the problem of keeping pets in a city apartment, the problem of stray dogs; make a brief description of child psychology, with an emphasis on why young children often dream of a four-footed friend. – "the itil river flows" by n. fattah (9-th grade): tatar literature + history. moreover, in literary criticism, there are several comparative works which provide interdisciplinary connections of russian and tatar literature (gabidullina, 2014). this trend is noticeable in textbooks as well. thus, the 9-th grade textbook provides a comparative analysis of "on friday, in the evening" by a. gilyazov and "matryona' place" by a. solzhenitsyn. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 81-92 4) creating an atmosphere of creativity. interest in creative activities is contagious. if a teacher enthusiastically explains, shows, suggests methods of action, or pushes students to solve the problem situation, the students become involved in the process. if on the contrary, a teacher is indifferent to the organized activities, then, according to scholars, the results will be much lower than the real possibilities of students. 5) ensuring the perception of creative activities not only as an exciting pastime but also a serious occupation. 6) supply support. this condition is dictated by the realities of modern times. despite the fact that history knows many examples when children who grew up in poor families achieved high creative results, modern scholars write that "without observing this condition it is very difficult to achieve high results" (mayorova, 2016: 160). we do not think that this factor is decisive in the creative development potential in the tatar language and literature classes; we would like to designate it as providing students with the latest trends in literary criticism (gabidullina and sattarova, 2015; gabidullina et al., 2017). conclusion thus, after describing the phenomenon of creativity and creative activities, the authors have examined the possibilities of developing the creative potential of an individual in the tatar language and literature classes. the analysis of the tatar language and literature textbooks allows us considering them as a basis for educating a creative person, which is connected with the fact that the tasks addressed to the students are different: there are many questions proposed for discussion in class; problematic issues; many topics for writing essays and reports. the authors believe that many textbook issues and tasks can be used as a basis for students' case studies or project work. we also consider it expedient to use the book trailer method, which allows applying the students' creative potential. all of the above confirms that in the tatar language and literature classes the teacher can and should pay attention to the creative process. it is important to evaluate both the result and the process; encourage the desire to experiment; ensure the integration of various fields of sciences and arts; create an atmosphere of creativity; perceive creative activities as a serious occupation; get acquainted with the latest trends and directions of scientific works. in these conditions, the creative thinking develops, including its speed, flexibility, originality and improvement. kayumova et al. acknowledgements the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. the work is carried out in order to improve the scientific skills and competitiveness of scientists and to maintain the "law of the republic of kazakhstan on education". references akhmetshin, e. m., makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. belkova a.n. (2012) development of creativity of senior preschoolers in joint activities: abstract of thesis. ... cand. ped. of science st. petersburg., 21 p. bochkareva, t., akhmetshin, e., osadchy, e., romanov, p., & konovalova, e. (2018). preparation of the future teacher for work with gifted children. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 251-265. doi:10.17499/jsser.76113 bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) bono e. (2005) serious creative thinking. translation from english d.y. onatskaya. minsk: popurri llc, 2005. 416 p. fedorova t.v. (2003) improving the reading activity of high school students in literature classes: dis. cand. ped. sciences. m., 2003. 295 p. gabidullina f.i. (2014). religious motives in the work of sagit sunchalay and anna akhmatova. recent trends in social and behaviour sciences proceedings of the 2nd international congress on interdisciplinary behavior and social sciences 2013, icibsos 2013. pp: 475 477. gabidullina, f.i., sattarova, g.g. (2015) reflects the traditions in contemporary prose. mediterranean journal of social sciences. vol 6, no 5, pp.: 201 203. doi: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n5s2p201 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 81-92 gabidullina, f., minnullina, r., nureyeva, a. (2017). the concept of the character in the novels of gayaz ishaki. man in india. no.97, issue no. :10, pp : 177-182 gabidullina, f., akhatova, z., karimova, i., glukhova, o., & zakirov, r. (2018a). ethical discussions in the national literature as a form of moral education of the students. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 295-305. doi:10.17499/jsser.91257 gabidullina, f., zhundibayeva, a., makarova, v., galiullin, r., & mubarakshina, i. (2018b). the realization of the hermeneutical approach to the text in practical classes in the literature during the work with students of philological faculty. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 226-240. doi:10.17499/jsser.32940 kudryashev n.i. (1971) on the process of guiding the perception of a literary work by high school students. the art of analyzing a work of art. moscow: prosveschenye. pp. 76 105. leonov s.a. (1994) speech activity in literature classes. m .: flint, 1994. -224 p. mayorova v. (2016) new genre. buktrailer in modern school. classroom management and education of schoolchildren. № 7-8. p.10-11. orlova l.k. (2016) the specifics of the formation of creative abilities at an advanced stage of learning english. problems of creative personality development in the education system: collection of articles based on the materials of the iii all-russian research and practical workshop march 31, moscow: ihoik rao, 2016. p. 135-137. pogodina s.v. (2010) theory and methods of development of children's fine art. m .: academy, 2010. 352 p. safonova o.v. (2010) project activity of schoolchildren in the study of monographic topics (for example, the works of a.s. pushkin in 9th grade): dis. ... cand. ped. sciences. m. 207 p. zakirzyanov am, fakhretdinova g.m. (2015) lessons of literature. grade 9: textbook for educational organizations in the tatar language. in 2 parts. part two. kazan: tatar book publishing. 255 p. zakiev m.z., ibragimov s.m. (2015) the tatar language. grade 9: tutorial for educational organizations in the tatar language. kazan: tatar book publishing. 135 p. zhundibayeva, a. k., ergobekov, k. s., & espenbetov, a. s. (2013). the lyrical hero in the works of kazakh's poet shakarim kudaiberdiev. life science journal, 10(spl.issue11), 113-117. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2022:13 (3),256-281 readiness to change state islamic institute status to become state islamic university from the aspect of lecturer human resources and education staff sofyan tsauri1 abstract this study aims to investigate the readiness to change the status of the state islamic institute (iain) to become a state islamic university (uin) from the aspect of lecturer human resources (hrlecturer) and education personnel. the research location is iain khas jember, now transformed into the state islamic university of kiai achmad siddiq jember, east java, indonesia. we used the qualitative research method to examine the condition of natural objects where the researcher was the critical instrument; data source collection was based on observations, interviews, and documentation studies. participants in the study comprised 25 people, including 15 lecturers and ten education staff. the findings reveal three main points. (1) the urgent need for studying the readiness to change the status of iain to uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education staff. it can be seen from many institutions experiencing the same obstacles and challenges that require providing motivation and major changes from a multidimensional perspective, strengthening vision, mission, and goals. (2) the relationship between the two, both theoretically and empirically, is related to hr management. (3) the design framework involves planning, human resource mapping, evaluation stages, and implications for iain progress toward uin as reference material in human resource development. as a supervisor and policyholder, the ministry of religion of the republic of indonesia (ri) is expected to support the development of human resources in higher education per the needs fairly and wisely. keywords: state islamic institute, state islamic university, human resources for lecturers, education staff introduction human resources are the most important for an educational institution. human resources with the competence and professional advantages are able to utilize institutional resources effectively to achieve the vision, mission, and goals of higher education institutions. in the era of digitalization due to the covid-19 pandemic, various studies on hr investigated cultural development, human behavior, organizational effectiveness, legal issues involving hr, and relevant federal laws and actions on personnel management processes (pennington et al., 2022). effective human resource development is able to create sustainable and ethical institutions/organizations. sustainability is understood as a balance between economic, environmental, and social factors of society (kuzior et al., 2022). the role of it-based technology, artificial intelligence, and character education 1 dr. universitas islam negeri kiyai haji achmad siddiq (khas) jember, indonesia, email:info@uinkhas.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 support hr management in the pandemic era (vahdat, 2021; tyas & naibaho, 2020; tambe et al., 2019). previous research has stated that sound human resource development provides both individual and public benefits to higher education institutions in the form of productivity, work efficiency, stability, and morale (yunus, 2021; wang et al., 2020; dollinger et al., 2018). without the support of qualified human resources, lecturers, and education staff, it is challenging to encourage students to become better people in the future. an interesting study revealed that the human resources of lecturers and education staff positively influence readiness to transfer to higher education (zulham, 2022). unfortunately, the study also reveals that the human resources at ptki in indonesia are still limited in quantity and quality. most potential human resources are in the capital city area, in contrast to areas far from the capital (shaturaev, 2021). additionally, the high need for human resources for lecturers and education staff suggests that institutions recruit human resources without a fine and correct selection (sayidah et al., 2019). in indonesia, islamic educational institutions have started using their full potential and transformed into a state islamic university (uin). in 2021, six iains becoming official uins based on the state islamic religious higher regulations (ptkin) were as follows: (1) uin sayyid ali rahmatullah tulungagung based on presidential decree no. 40 of 2021; (2) uin professor kiai saifuddin zuhri purwokerto based on presidential decree no. 41 of 2021; (3) uin raden mas said surakarta based on presidential decree no. 43 of 2021; (4) uin sultan aji muhammad idris samarinda based on presidential decree no. 42 of 2021; (5) uin kiai haji achmad siddiq jember based on presidential decree no. 44 of 2021; (6) uin fatmawati sukarno bengkulu based on presidential decree no. 45 of 2021 (kemenag, 2021). the increasing trend in this transformation is allegedly to meet the demands of the development of science and technology and the process of integrating islamic religious knowledge with other sciences. the government also supports efforts to realize quality human resources through transforming the uin. unfortunately, several studies have identified that several problems arise during transitioning from an educational institution to a university. they relate to facilities and infrastructure; land; and human resources as they are not able optimally to support institutional readiness. therefore the program to improve the quality of human resources and low-quality management requires that the transition process will last for years (marin & pereschica, 2018; dennison, 2006; mcroy & gibbs, 2003). tsauri 258 based on preliminary observations made by researchers, iain khas jember was revealed to have been inaugurated and changed its status to uin k.h. ahamd siddiq jember based on presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 44 of 2021. uin khas jember is one of the leading islamic religious universities (ptin) in the tapalkuda area. recently, uin khas jember has been transformed into the first state islamic university in the tapalkuda area. various educational facilities and infrastructure, the mahad and the magnificent lecturer building, were inaugurated by the minister of religion of the republic of indonesia in early 2017. to become a university, the journey taken is undoubtedly not easy. the lack of human resources for lecturers and education personnel is a challenge. for approximately five years before becoming a university, the quantity and quality of human resources for lecturers and teaching staff were not optimal. the institutional structure as a process toward uin underwent a substantial change, demanding that these two crucial aspects increase by more than 100%. learning from the experience of uin khas jember and the latest supporting literature, hopefully, the existing and the potential at uin khas jember can be mapped in a readiness design framework used by future researchers and institutions in the process of heading to the university. uin typical jember is able to get an excellent opportunity to become uin typical jember considering the real support demographically, good facilities and infrastructure, and the considerably large land. human resource development (lecturers/educators and education staff) increases work productivity and improves the institution’s quality. several studies relevant to this study investigated ptin, lecturer human resources, and education staff. maya (2016) analyzed the public policy of converting iain to uin and found the advantages and disadvantages as well as the impact of the conducted conversion. the formulation of basic policies for transforming iain into uin occurred in different contexts and situations during three periods: the first period comprised 6 uin from 2002 to 2005; the second period had from 5 uin from 2013 to 2015; the third period included 6 uin from 2017 (arifin, 2021). hr development is one development model to change the status of iain to uin (kamal, 2017). the literature reveals the need to develop indicators to measure the achievement of higher education governance processes by strengthening and implementing islamic aspects and qualified human resources (muksin, 2019). the change in the institutional status of iain to uin has not been conducted optimally. therefore, it is necessary to implement new policies in policy communication, increase numbers, resources (human, financing, and infrastructure), and expand the bureaucracy. previous studies have become journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 material for studies related to the development of human resources and education personnel at ptkin, generally focusing on analyzing the evaluation of the education system, education curriculum, and performance management. the contribution of the transformation of islamic education must be studied more deeply from the aspect of educational planning and the use of human resources, both from the aspect of character building, spirituality, and militancy (tolchah & mu’ammar, 2019). another interest of future studies is in the opportunities and challenges of building a solid strategy for islamic higher education institutions in the era of globalization. the novelty of the research is depicted in the research objective and the scope investigated by the researcher, describing the process of readiness to change the status of iain to become uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel. previous research has not in-depth developed the preparedness design framework until the institution is able to transform into a uin. in a study on human resource development in the case of developing human resources at iain bengkulu to uin bengkulu, they explained the importance of studies investigating the actual conditions presented in the research as benchmarks and guidelines in fostering the careers of lecturers and education staff (asnaini et al., 2020). in addition, the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education staff has not been investigated regarding the readiness to change the status of iain to uin typical jember. three main problems are investigated based on the background of the problem regarding readiness to change the status of iain to become uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel. . the first is about the challenges and obstacles occurring during the readiness process of islamic education institutions and changing the status of iain to uin from the aspect of lecturer and education personnel hr. the second involves the lack of literacy in human resources for lecturers and education personnel about the importance of readiness to change the status of iain to become uin. the third covers the deficiency of a clear framework for the readiness design conducted by islamic education institutions to transfer the status of iain to uin. it needs to be investigated more profoundly, considering the importance of developing human resources for lecturers and education staff toward uin in the future. however, previous studies have not revealed in-depth investigations on the readiness of developing human resources and education personnel. tsauri 260 research questions thus, the researcher formulates the problem as follows: 1. what is the urgency of the study on readiness to change the status of iain into uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel? 2. what is an explanation of the relationship between readiness to change iain status to become a uin with the human resource aspect of lecturers and education personnel? 3. what is the draft framework for readiness to transfer the status of iain typical jember to uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel? literature review islamic educational institutions education essentially develops according to needs with three main concepts: the transfer of knowledge, transfer of value, and transfer of skills (daulay & pasa, 2016). education as an institution has a curriculum to guide the learning process. the curriculum in question is a set of plans and arrangements regarding the objectives, content, learning materials, and methods used as guidelines for implementing learning activities to achieve specific educational goals (meyer, 1977). an islamic educational institution is an institutional body organizing educational activities, teaching, learning, and/or training guided by the basics of islam as its main goal. they include skills such as reading the koran, observing worship, reading prayers, practicing islamic morals, the science of jurisprudence, and islamic history (subandi, 2012). the literature explains that educational institutions are critical for life because education is a major benchmark to continue one’s life. if no education is available, a person will have minimal value in society. islamic education institutions also have community social functions, such as places for deliberation, collecting and distributing zakat, and establishing peace in a dispute (salleh, 2013). the relevant national education authority or equivalent authority generally accredits or approves such islamic educational institutions private organizations, such as religious bodies, islamic education companies, and non-profit private training, may also operate islamic educational institutions. however, formal educational institutions include madrasah, islamic boarding schools, dayah, meunasah, and islamic universities (nata, 2012). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 three factors, the rulers, the kyai, and local factors, influence the development of islamic educational institutions. more profoundly, islamic educational institutions are about individuals and the public channeling ideas in society (mohamed et al., 2016). islamic educational institutions are also parts of social and cultural institutions and have the following issues. they (1) have implications for the formation of a religious atmosphere with various types of existing institutions; (2) serve in the formation of existing tolerance due to differences occurring, which is one of the advantages of a country; (3) prove that the role of the community is substantive in the education of islamic institutions; (4) cannot be separated from the influence of the understanding of its founder on the students; (5) suggest that educational institutions in a country cannot be separated from the influence of the rulers at that time (kraince, 2007). human resource development human resources (hr) are individuals and members of specific companies or institutions. hr is the main factor for the sustainability of the institution/organization. human resource development is a series of planned and systematic activities designed by institutions/organizations to provide opportunities for each member to learn skills and improve abilities to achieve institutional effectiveness (mcmahon, 2009). the key to human resource development is performance. the higher the performance of human resources is, the more crucial the development of human resources is and vice versa (swanson, 1995). hr plays a primary role in organizational innovation in developing communities and the public. the literature confirms that hr development is an integrated part of hr management. it means that hr management activities must be conducted properly to increase the potential of human resources. hr management comprises planning, organizing, leading, and controlling all aspects of the workforce, policies, and provisions of the law (werner & desimone, 2011). human resource development requires added-value research approaches conceptually and theoretically to achieve general goals. analyzing the framework of a strategic hr planning framework is necessary to determine the direction of hr development in the short, medium, and long term. the development of hr competencies is an indicator of the success of the goals to be achieved by the institution because, in its development, hr is able to make a positive contribution to the organization/institution. dimensions needing consideration are individual human capital, including workability, performance, and career development. the organization’s scope includes investment, ownership, skills, and knowledge (garavan et al., 2001). sylvia and wilfred (2012) tsauri 262 explained that hr development is not a standing-alone function in an institution and involves stakeholders. the changing environment recognizes that competition highly depends on human resources skills and knowledge. the findings reveal that the achievement of organizational goals is only possible if the performance of its human resources is assessed. because institutions have multiple demands, on the one hand, to improve quality services to students, on the other hand, the obligation to create an economy for knowledge transfer. education personnel the teaching profession closely relates to the education system. it is because educators are members of the community perpetuating themselves and are appointed to support implementing education. the educational staff comprises principals, representatives/heads of fields, administrative staff, and other staff within an educational institution. it needs to be developed optimally to support education’s vision, mission, and goals (bachtiar, 2016). in developing education personnel, it is necessary to focus on the planning method used as the first step in implementing the development function. educational institutions commonly use two planning methods. first, the traditional method concentrates on the number of workers and the types and levels of skills in the organization. second, an integrated planning method centers on a strategic vision and is used as a standard for organizational achievement (simpson et al., 1993). previous research revealed that the development of education personnel should be conducted comprehensively and continuously by executing human resource planning processes, recruitment, selection, placement, compensation, awards, coaching, training/development, and termination (leko et al., 2015). educational staff development engineers the work behavior of educators in such a way that they can exhibit optimal performance in their work. it requires specific assessment standards to ensure the quality of education (stufflebeam, 1991). the study revealed that advances in science and technology require that education personnel play a strategic role in building the nation's character and improving the quality of human resources (pilotti & almubarak, 2021). the development of educational staff is influential in supporting student learning. therefore, management is needed, including a managerial system, coaching, and educational staff development (farmer, 2009). educational staff are individuals meeting the requirements of the applicable laws and regulations, appointed by authorized officials, and assigned specific duties and responsibilities. its development can be conducted through the education and training pathway (continuing education, upgrading, seminars, and workshops) (harun, 2013). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 methods research design the research was conducted using a qualitative method to investigate the natural condition of readiness to transfer the status of iain to uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel. sugiyono (2009) suggests that qualitative research methods are those used to examine the condition of objects naturally, where the researcher is the key instrument, the data collection technique is done by triangulation (combined), the data analysis is inductive, and the research results accentuate meaning. the natural object in question is the object, not manipulated by the researcher so that the conditions when the researcher enters the object, after being in the object, and after leaving the object are relatively unchanged. while conducting research on the meaning of life for people with disabilities who are entrepreneurs, the researcher does not regulate readiness to change the status of iain to uin occurring or manipulating variables. the main characteristic of qualitative research is the meaning. in this case, qualitative research does not concentrate on the similarities of the research object but instead reveals views centering on phenomena from different people. this thinking is also based on the fact that the meaning existing in each person is different. therefore, it is impossible to reveal the reality of this unique person using any other tool except humans as an instrument. the reality or phenomenon regarding the meaning of life in the aspect of human resources for lecturers and educational personnel will be seen due to the construction of dynamic and meaningful thinking using this qualitative method. it aligns with the theory of creswell (2009), stating that reality in qualitative research methods is a construction of understanding all data and their meaning. so by using a phenomenological approach, researchers seek to explore values in the experience and life of a lecturer and education staff at uin khas jember related to the search for the meaning of his life. the research location is uin khas jember, at jalan mataram, jember, postal code 68136, east java, indonesia. the research was conducted for approximately two semesters or one year, from january 2021 to january 2022. this research has followed the iain readiness process to become uin. participants research participants were determined using the purposive sampling technique, selected with specific considerations and objectives. the research participants are devoted to the human tsauri 264 resources of lecturers and education staff who have worked at uin khas jember for at least two years following the objectives of this research. participants in this study comprised 25 people, including 15 human resources lecturers and ten education staff. table 1 depicts detailed information. table 1 participant description classification total gender female 13 male 12 hr lecturer/educator 15 educational staff 10 age 25 years – 35 years 9 >35 year 16 total 25 research instruments in qualitative research, the researcher himself is the research instrument or tool. researchers become human instruments functioning to determine the focus of research, select informants as resources, collect data, assess data quality, analyze data, interpret data, and draw conclusions. researchers as instruments need to be "validated" on how far they are ready to conduct research in the related field. this validation process is conducted through self-evaluation of the extent of understanding of qualitative methods, mastery of theory, insight into the field to be studied, readiness, and provision to enter the field. moleong (2013) asserts that the role of researchers in qualitative research methods is quite complicated, namely as instruments in qualitative research methods that are planners, implementers of data collection, analysis of data interpretation, and in the end, become a reporter for research results. therefore, in this study, the researcher will go into the field himself for data collection, analysis, and conclusion. according to the research problem formulation, the research instrument focuses on two or three themes. first, the theme of islamic educational institutions comprises al-quran reading skills, worship skills, prayer reading skills, islamic moral practice, jurisprudence, and islamic history. second, the development of human resources for lecturers includes planning, organizing, leading, and controlling all aspects of the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 workforce, policies, and provisions of the act. third, the education staff contains aspects of the synergy of the performance of education personnel in creating reliable human resources and the implementation of effective education; aspects of sustainability in adapting educational programs to the needs of students; aspects of leadership and a harmonious work climate creating a human organization at every level. data collection technique sugiyono (2009) mentions that qualitative research data collection is executed in natural conditions, primary data sources, and data collection techniques are mainly instrumental observation, interviews, and documentation. based on this theory, the researcher performed the data collection techniques. first, he conducted interviews that were unrestricted compared to structured interviews. this type of interview is to find problems more openly, where the parties invited to the interview are asked for their opinions and ideas according to the research theme. second, thanks to observations, researchers can learn about behavior and the meaning of that behavior. the type of observation conducted in this study is passive participatory observation, meaning that the researcher came while he was still a jember specialist iain and after becoming jember khas uin but was not involved in activities in the context of readiness for transformation to uin. in this study, the documents used to support the interview data were articles in the mass media on subjects one and two and public documents on subjects three. mass media such as newspapers, magazines, and television have covered subjects one and two several times, so researchers use the documentation to collect research data after interviews. data analysis the content analysis technique used in this study is based on the theory from creswell (2009): first, it describes personal experiences with the phenomenon of readiness to transfer iain status to uin. the researcher begins with a thorough description of his experience related to the phenomenon. it is an attempt to isolate the researcher’s personal experience so that the focus on analyzing this data will be directly on the subject of this research. second, it develops a list of important statements from the subject. the researcher then finds statements from the collected data sources about how the subject experiences a topic and lists these critical statements. this process is called horizontalizing the data, and the researcher develops a list of statements without repeating tsauri 266 or overlapping statements. third, it combines crucial statements from this process into meaningful units, called "meaning units." the researcher then describes "what" the research subject experiences about the phenomenon. next, the researcher describes the “how” of the participants' experiences. this stage is called "structural description." the researcher reflects on the background and circumstances in which the subject experiences the phenomenon. in the last stage, the researcher writes a combined description combining the data in the previous stage, namely the textural and structural descriptions. this section is the essence of the experience and describes the pinnacle aspect of phenomenological research. it is a long paragraph telling the reader "what" the subject's experience with the phenomenon and "how" they experienced it so that conclusions and research suggestions are obtained. result and discussion the urgency of the study on readiness to change the status of iain to become uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel the first findings reveal that four main reasons exist for the urgency of investigating the readiness to transfer the status of iain typical jember to uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel. it relates to the change in institutional status having consequences for uin typical jember. the transformation process requires campus readiness not only for facilities and infrastructure but also for improving the human resources of lecturers and the workforce ready to support. first, several higher education institutions moving toward universities have the same obstacles and challenges. they need actual examples of successful institutions in building a university readiness design framework. previous research has revealed the importance of studies investigating the factual conditions presented in research on the readiness of uin transformation as benchmarks and guidelines in fostering the careers of lecturers and education staff (asnaini et al., 2020). meeting the demands of the development of science and technology and integrating islamic religious knowledge with other sciences are also relevant (kemenag, 2021). of course, when higher education institutions have actual examples, the study programs prepared are hoped to collaborate with other islamic study programs. therefore, it sets an example for others. moreover, it is able to strengthen the integration of islamic scholarship and general science. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 interviews have revealed that iain khas jember tries to be optimistic about the direction of change toward uin. this enthusiasm and optimism were depicted by holding a logo contest for the uin typical jember addressed to a broad audience with the theme “the spring of science: realizing the depth of knowledge based on local wisdom.” this competition’s purpose is to provide a symbolic meaning for uin jember so that it becomes easy to recognize its vision, mission, and goals to educate the nation. second, major changes from a multidimensional perspective in institutions can become one of the best teachers in motivating iain khas jembersi to be more advanced. this major change is described in the three fundamental pillars/tri dharma of higher education: providing education and teaching, conducting research, and doing community service. human resources for lecturers and education staff are vital, namely focusing on efforts to improve their competence in their respective fields to conduct these three dimensions. maya (2016) explains that the development of human resources (lecturers/educators and education staff) is executed to increase work productivity so that the institution’s quality increases. the eight dimensions of institutional management measurement include the dimensions of accountability, responsibility, independence, fairness, effectiveness, efficiency, and non-profit (apriyanti, 2020). knowledge of this change has substantially contributed to changing the perspective of human resources for lecturers and education staff while contributing to institutions' readiness and solving various community problems. therefore, efforts to prepare adequate human resources are critical because they are responsible for producing a smart generation. consider data 1. “uin jember was named k.h achmad siqqid (khas), a scholar who had served as rais 'aam syuriah nadhatul ulama and pioneered the establishment of uin jember. before changing the status of uin typical jember, human resources were prepared to be adequate. changes were made starting from the increased number of students, the ratio of additional human resources for lecturers, sufficient education staff, and the scientific fields of study programs and faculties that were opened. the impact of increasing the number of lecturers, students, and education staff will help move the economic wheels of the community around the campus with the growth of shopping centers, culinary centers, boarding houses, and various businesses that provide campus needs.” this phenomenon is expected to be able to strengthen good communication relations between the campus and the community. previous studies explained that campuses conduct training, workshops, and seminars to realize professionalism and present islamic values to improve human resources (harun, 2013). one of the advantages of human resources for iain khas jember lecturers is their research activities. the knowledge and research possessed by human resources of tsauri 268 lecturers and education staff become a substantial capital for campus readiness and solutions that the community needs. lecturers are challenged to make a major contribution to handling the problems faced by society, such as unemployment, morality, corruption, and juvenile delinquency. it makes the human resources of lecturers have competencies supporting the campus toward the university. consider data 2. “changes in uin typical jember will try to answer the challenges in dealing with the problems faced by the community along with the increasing quantity of campus resources. competitive research can be done by participating in national and international research competitions that can be synergized with other campuses. as stated in the scientific philosophy of uin khas jember, namely “mata air ilmu,” then service is the implementation of science that can provide and find solutions for the community.” the contribution of the campus in moving together with the campus is conducted through community service activities. this activity emphasizes three aspects: 1) aspects of performance synergy in creating reliable human resources and the implementation of effective education; 2) aspects of sustainability in adapting educational programs to the needs of the community; and 3) aspects of leadership and a harmonious work climate that is able to create a human organization at every level (wigle & wilcox, 1996). the third service includes mobilizing the community to solve problems together. the experience gained by human resource lecturers in community service activities can provide valuable lessons usable to support campus readiness. consider data 3. “in 2020, it was recorded that iain khas jember had lecturer hr as many as 344 permanent lecturers and 30 non-permanent lecturers and 18,185 students. if, in 2019, there are 29 religious study programs and six general study programs, it is projected that in 2024, there will be 42 and 16 general study programs set at the s1, s2, and s3 levels. community service is expected to be stronger with the current composition of lecturer positions which include ten professors, 46 head lectors, 99 lectors, 66 expert assistants, and 123 prospective lecturers, which will continue to be improved.” this finding is identified from the results of observations and observations conducted by researchers. previous cases revealed that human resources for lecturers and education staff were not considered in supporting the readiness to transfer status to university. the campus has difficulty determining the required readiness framework, so it ignores such an important aspect, human resources. facilities and infrastructure alone are not enough to support the institution toward a university that must have the appropriate human resources. fourth is about strengthening vision, mission, and goals. in this context, the urgency to strengthen islamic educational institutions’ vision, mission, and goals is equally important. although in journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 different scopes, human resources for lecturers and education staff have the same vision, mission, and goals as a unit in supporting campus readiness toward the university. based on the results of interviews conducted regarding this vision, mission, and goals, the urgency of investigating more deeply the campus readiness from the aspect of human resources and education personnel becomes a necessity and extraordinary mandate. because regulatory changes in institutions regulated in the decree of the minister of religion (kma) no. 15 of 2014 explained that islamic higher education institutions meeting the requirements to become universities are able to make islam a center of civilization in solving various social problems. the relationship between readiness to change status of iain to become uin with aspects of human resources for lecturers and education personnel the second finding found the relationship between readiness to change iain status to uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel. first, the relationship theoretically means that ptin readiness helps determine the direction of existing hr development. institutions can identify obstacles and challenges to make these two aspects useful to reach uin. the second is a practical relationship meaning that the development of human resources for lecturers and education staff is conducted carefully and well-planned. institutional guidance is conducted to strengthen the relationship between these two aspects. coaching is executed to maintain the number of lecturers and staff in the institutional environment, strive for dynamic skills and knowledge, and maintain the quality of work. it is expected to support the readiness to change the status of iain typical jember to become a uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel. observations reveal that the institute organizes various development programs for lecturers' human resources by holding national seminars, workshops, symposia, and promotion systems. meanwhile, the education staff development program is conducted by implementing a work performance and a promotion system. the institution also supports independent coaching by recommending supporting courses and training, reading scientific articles, and using the internet as a medium to broaden knowledge. human resource development forms human beings with a noble character, always worship allah who spreads mercy to the universe, and they fear allah. as creatures created by allah swt, humans are equipped with free will, rationality, and moral awareness. if implemented, humans have islamic traits that can provide goodness to themselves, society, and their environment. the tsauri 270 first islamic trait is siddiq, meaning being honest or not telling lies. what one says aligns with reality; it does not add or subtract from the existing reality. second, amanah, being trusted by others, and when working or being entrusted by others. third, tabligh, namely conveying, includes tasks as well as possible to their superiors. fourth, fatanah means being wise in solving problems arising from oneself and others (kurniawan, 2018). the development of these two aspects has a broad reach to support the readiness to transfer the status of iain typical jember to become uin through a work design framework. that is to say, development focuses on capacity building through formal channels for a long time, providing learning opportunities, and required performance analysis. it has been described by garavan et al. (2001); that human resource development requires research approaches having added value both conceptually and theoretically to achieve general goals. however, theoretically refers to the theory of hr management comprising planning, organizing, leadership, and controlling all aspects of the workforce, policies, and provisions of the act (werner & desimone, 2011). the performance approach includes three dimensions. the first dimension is procedural performance analysis by comparing the actual performance with the performance standards set. if there is a discrepancy, a further investigation is conducted on the challenges and obstacles affecting it. this process ends with finding a solution to address the problems faced in supporting the readiness to transfer the status of iain typical jember to become uin. the second dimension is the analysis of development needs through the identification of performance standards, identification of the performance of human resources for lecturers and education staff, and identification of development needs. the third dimension is an analysis of the resources needed to support development, including costs, facilities, and the number of human resources needed. learning facilities include libraries, laboratories, media, practice tools, and books. supporting facilities contain adequate transportation, printing equipment, ict, and the internet. design framework readiness to transfer the status of iain typical jember to uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel the third finding states that the design framework conducted at the time of readiness to transfer the status of iain typical jember to uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education staff includes three stages: the planning stage, the mapping stage, and the evaluation stage. the planning stage is to execute six steps in problem-based hr development decisionjournal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 making. first is problem identification, namely analyzing or diagnosing human resource problems for lecturers and education staff so they can focus on problems actually occurring and find solutions. the leader of uin, khas jember, formed a research team to investigate the barriers and challenges to developing these two aspects before taking additional policies. second is the collection of various alternatives to obtain complex information. identifying hr problems is conducted satisfactorily to select an implicit solution early in this process. the third is to choose an alternative from the data obtained. in this step, a solution is sought from the alternatives proposed by the research. the quality of problem-solving becomes more effective and efficient by choosing a solution to the identified problem. fourth is to evaluate alternatives carefully, especially in assessing the advantages and disadvantages of the alternatives taken. the team focuses on three indicators not to get caught in the error of determining the solution to the draft framework. these indicators are the level of alternative possibilities to solve problems without causing problems, the level of acceptance of the stakeholders involved, and the level of possible implementation carried out later. the fifth is to decide what action to take. at this stage, the head of the policy-making team for readiness to go to the university is sensitive to conditions that may arise from the solution being implemented. the team leader has a central role in decision-making, the act of choosing the strategy or action and the best solution. errors in decision-making can fail to implement the framework (resky & kuncoro, 2012). sixth is effective decision-making with rational selection. decisions taken together with a team comprising lecturers and education staff cooperate in following up on decisions taken by the team leader. these decisions are made carefully, and they can be accounted for. the second stage is mapping human resources for lecturers and education staff. hr mapping activities are conducted by positioning hr rationally and logically per the required measurement dimensions. consider data 6. “uin khas jember did the mapping with three main contributions, namely; (1) by mapping, it is hoped that a descriptive picture will emerge regarding the distribution and distribution of possible problems arising from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education staff, (2) the existence of mapping is expected to provide a predictive aspect of the distribution of the identified problems, and (3) providing an interactive model determining the intervention and its impact on the sustainability of the institution after the transformation later.” tsauri 272 from data 6, one can understand that the mapping at uin khas jember, in principle, aims to improve the quality of campus quality. it is hoped that the institution will be better prepared to transform into a university by improving the quality of the campus. in developing human resources, uin khas jember has prepared a program of hr development activities and human resources that will be developed as well as possible. the problem previously identified by the research team related to hr development, namely the lack of hr aspects for lecturers and education personnel, has found the ideal solution by opening job vacancies for lecturers and education staff according to standards. the quantity and quality of human resources for lecturers and teaching staff are still not optimal and continue to be improved after the hr mapping is conducted. they obtain facilities to improve skills and creativity qualified in their respective fields. conducting hr mapping to support campus readiness for the university requires implementing hr workload analysis. according to asnaini et al. (2020), a workload analysis is conducted to create the effectiveness and professionalism of human resources owned by the campus so that the tasks given can be completed correctly and professionally. the campus is very concerned about factors affecting their hr workload, especially internal factors from the body due to reactions to external workloads. concerns arise if the workload of hr is not evenly distributed subjectively and objectively, decreasing performance. it is because the covid-19 pandemic phenomenon with an impact on the health of human resources marks the situation leading to the university. meanwhile, external factors such as physical tasks, work organization, and work environment have been made as good as possible. the main obstacle faced lies in government policies conducting social distancing so that campuses with all face-to-face limitations must work extra to remotely develop human resources for lecturers and education staff. the measures would include holding limited face-to-face meetings for the urgency of readiness to go to university, collaborating with the government in vaccinating, providing health assistance and quota replacement, and so on. a mapping flow for lecturers and education personnel was composed to conduct the readiness of iain kkas jember me readiness to change the status of iain khas jember to become uin. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 figure 1 the flow of mapping human resources for lecturers and education personnel judging from the readiness design framework through the hr mapping strategy, the institution compiles a map of real (objective) conditions, namely a portrait of the existing conditions of lecturers' hr based on educational qualifications, field expertise, and rank. the map of the real condition of human resources for iain khas jember lecturers comprises three indicators. the first is based on the ratio of lecturers to students. for example, the sharia faculty has x lecturers with details; x1 lecturers of pns, x2 permanent non-pns lecturers, and x3 lecturer ordinary areas (dlb). hence, teaching and learning activities (kbm) assign x lecturers. if the lecturer's hr exceeds the maximum limit, then an excess of students exists per lecturer, and vice versa. if the lecturer's hr does not reach the maximum limit, then a shortage of students occurs per lecturer. (1:30). the second covers qualifications of education level and type of lecturer. it means that lecturers' human resources must meet the minimum educational qualifications of a lecturer, namely masters (s2), doctor/ph.d. (s3), and professor (professor) degrees. if the ban-pt form assessment instrument requires a minimum of 50% of lecturers with a doctoral degree, then the faculty must increase its human resources for lecturers with doctoral degrees to meet the initial data collection related to human resources for lecturers and education personnel at iain typical jember conduct pre-research and literature review identify and classify assignments, lecturer performance, and educational performance analysis of the real condition of human resources for lecturers and education staff objective needs analysis based on task load readiness to transfer the status of iain typical jember to become uin through mapping of human resources for lecturers and education staff subjective workload analysis through a questionnaire detailing the main tasks of each line of work tsauri 274 requirements of the existing study programs. the third includes the functional position of the lecturer (academic positions). it refers to the "decree of the coordinating minister for the supervision, development, and utilization of state apparatus no. 38/kep/mk.waspan/8/1999 concerning lecturer functional positions and credit scores, jo. menpan regulation number per/60/m.pan/2006, dated june 1, 2005, comprises expert assistants for group iii/b 150 ak, lector for group iii/c 200 ak and group iii/d 300 ak, head lector for group iv/a 400 ak, class iv/b 550 ak, and group iv/c 700 ak, and teachers group iv/d is 850 ak and group iv/e is 1050 ak.” consider data 7. “these four levels of position and class of rank space are obtained with the condition that the fulfillment of credit scores according to the predetermined level. institutions through faculties plan strategies to add lecturers with the rank of professor and head lector by supporting lecturers for doctoral schools, must be it literate, contribute to international journals, and assist in managing the fulfillment of credit scores (ak), which includes four elements, namely; education and teaching, research, community service, and support. lecturers who have met the requirements for credit numbers and the required time can propose an increase in their functional position to the pak iain khas jember team and then propose a promotion to the chancellor or diktis of the ministry of religion of the republic of indonesia for the position of head lector (iv/a) and above.” in addition to these three aspects, identification of the scientific relevance of lecturers in learning is also executed. first, the courses taught by looking at the educational background of masters and doctoral degrees, the higher the percentage of irrelevant lecturers in the courses being taught, the more critical it is for the faculty to conduct a process of increasing relevance because it will disrupt the quality of alumni. therefore, the direction of lecturer development starts from the formation proposal stage, and the recruitment system assesses the educational qualifications required following the science or courses in each faculty's curriculum. currently, the institution has five undergraduate faculties: faculty of islamic economics and business; da'wah faculty; sharia faculty; faculty of tarbiyah and teacher training; and the faculties of ushuluddin, adab, and humanities. postgraduate programs include masters program (s2), islamic studies and doctoral programs (s3), and islamic religious education. second, the phenomenon of dual teaching lecturers is identified. due to the shortage of lecturers' human resources, lecturers often teach more than a course, which is more concerning if they are too far away from their field of knowledge. this habit started to be abandoned by institutions so that the competence of lecturers is genuinely effective and optimal in the teaching and learning process. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 the map of the real condition of the education staff of ptin khas jember comprises five types. the first is about personnel who have expertise in the laboratory field. given the demand for a curriculum based on the kkni for this workforce, the institute has opened job vacancies for educational staff in the field of laboratory assistants. ideally, the target is one for each study program, so the institution requires at least seven experts. second, sufficient librarians exist for each department and study program. it is the same with educational staff in laboratory assistants; ideally, every faculty and study program has at least one librarian. third, the education staff remains in the technician section. it is one of the focuses of the institution's attention in developing ict and toward a moderate international standard university. ideally, five technicians are needed in electricity, electronics, and buildings. fourth, education staff in the administration field starts from structural officials from the highest, namely the head of the bureau, to the general functional position (jfu). one study program ideally has three administrative staff. the fifth is about other supporting staff, such as outsourcing security guards and office assistants to meet the standards. both support staff uses a third party as the person in charge. within the framework of the readiness design for transferring the status of iain typical jember to uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel, the institution has three main targets. the first target is to increase the availability of high-quality and competent human resources for lecturers. the programs executed are (1) improving lecturer hr management, (2) appointment and recruitment of lecturers' human resources, (3) improving the qualifications and competence of lecturers' human resources based on study programs and majors, (4) nominating professors and head lectors based on academic qualifications, professional competence, and study program needs, and (5) opening the path of professional lecturers. the second target is to increase the availability of qualified and competent education personnel (see table 2). tsauri 276 table 2 availability framework between the ideal ratio and the real condition of education personnel no classification main tasks 1 administrative education staff/operators are educational staff who are assisted in every division in the institutional environment, especially in each faculty. 1. prepare student exam materials; 2. receive and manage semester grades; 3. compile and archive semester scores; 4. manage and calculate student gpa and transcripts based on hss; 5. study and review the characteristics of krs according to the study program; 6. administer siakad; 7. license letter; 8. receive and check student final exam files; 9. check student kkn registration, list of graduations, and files for making certificates; 2 laboratory education personnel are educational staff seconded in each laboratory unit within the institution. three laboratories have been running: mini bank laboratory, zakat and waqf laboratory assistant, and investment gallery and sharia cooperative laboratory assistant. 1. plan and implement laboratory development; 2. plan and implement quality practicum services for the internal and external environment; 3. determine and evaluate practicum materials according to the applicable curriculum; 4. develop and manage the scheduling of practicum activities; 5. coordinate practicum activities according to interests/fields of knowledge; 6. conduct technical capacity building; 7. conduct periodic inventory and maintenance of laboratory facilities and infrastructure; 8. coordinate with the head of the study program and other heads of the laboratory. 3 it education staff are educational staff who are seconded to institutions in the it field 1. control the campus internet network; 2. prepare all application/software devices needed by the campus. 4 electronic, electrical, and building technician education personnel 1. play a role in the maintenance of equipment as assets of institutional infrastructure; 2. coordinate the proposal, management, distribution, and maintenance of inventory items. 5 support staff (security/outsourcing & ob) 1. security plays a role in supporting the smooth process of lectures and security in the campus environment, 2. ob acts as supporting staff to ensure the campus is clean. in the end, theoretically, strategic management is critical in this transformation, as well as aspects of human resources based on the development of technical capabilities, thinking skills, and managerial abilities encouraging the development and progress of institutions to produce outputs with an effective investment of resources (odero, 2017; selvanathan et al., 2019; yani, 2022). previous studies found the influence of hard skills, soft skills, organizational learning, and innovation capabilities on lecturer performance (wibowo et al., 2020). the institution has also developed a quality assurance organization structure and an hr management system referring to planning standards, human resource standards, monitoring and evaluation standards, and standard compliance mechanism. the study revealed that in the implementation standards, hr facilities must be fulfilled, which are guided by written documents regarding the orientation and placement journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 system of employees; mentoring of human resources for lecturers and education staff; coaching and development (advanced studies, training, participation in scientific activities, and internships). meanwhile, hr monitoring and evaluation standards include regular performance evaluations and use the evaluation results for continuous improvement and performance improvement. performance allowances and rewards, as well as strict sanctions, are given in a transparent, fair, and accountable manner per applicable regulations. the direction of institutional hr development is the starting point for getting to uin and the future and will be central. therefore, the development of these two aspects is conducted effectively and accompanied by clear legal documents so that the transformation performed does not become a boomerang in the future but is able to make a positive contribution to the nation and state, especially in education. conclusion based on the findings, one can conclude that the institution has made a draft framework for the readiness to transfer the status of iain typical jember to uin from the aspect of human resources for lecturers and education personnel by conducting targeted mapping until finally officially becoming the only uin in the current tapalkuda area. the institution has developed an hr quality policy to support an effective framework. it includes recruiting human resources lecturers to meet qualifications such as having integrity and academic competence, recruiting and developing education personnel, and providing opportunities and facilities for human resources lecturers. furthermore, it implements a system of assessing lecturers' work performance and awards based on the principles of usefulness, feasibility, and legality from education (dikjar), publications, and community service. first, it will be exceedingly important in the future to seek cooperation with other universities both nationally and internationally. this cooperation will predominantly be in human resources for lecturers and education staff in the it field to support uin requiring the availability of professional human resources with competence and noble character. this study contributes to institutions progressing toward uin as reference material in human resource development. as a coach and policyholder, the government, especially the ministry of religion of the republic of indonesia, is expected to support human resource facilities and infrastructure at universities per the needs fairly and wisely. tsauri 278 references arifin, n. (2021). higher education policy analysis: the transformation of iain to uin for the period 2002–2017 in the ministry of religious affairs of the republic of indonesia. jurnal pendidikan islam indonesia, 5(2), 153–169. https://doi.org/10.35316/jpii.v5i2.288 asnaini, yunus, f., & polindi, m. (2020). pengembangan sdm tenaga pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan. rajawali pers. bachtiar, m. y. (2016). pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan. publikasi pendidikan, 6(3), 196–202. https://doi.org/10.26858/publikan.v6i3.2275 creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. sage publications (vol. 8). sage publication, inc. daulay, h. p., & pasa, n. (2016). pendidikan islam dalam lintasan sejarah. kencana. dennison, j. d. (2006). from community college to university: a personal commentary on the evolution of an institution. canadian journal of higher education, 36(2), 107–124. https://doi.org/10.47678/cjhe.v36i2.183541 dollinger, m., lodge, j., & coates, h. (2018). co-creation in higher education: towards a conceptual model. journal of marketing for higher education, 28(2), 210–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/08841241.2018.1466756 farmer, l. s. j. (2009). school library media specialist collaboration with special education personnel in support of student learning. evidence based library and information practice, 4(2), 37. https://doi.org/10.18438/b8r02b garavan, t. n., morley, m., gunnigle, p., & collins, e. (2001). human capital accumulation: the role of human resource development. journal of european industrial training, 25, 48– 68. https://doi.org/10.1108/eum0000000005437 harun, a. (2013). pengembangan tenaga kependidikan. jurnal islamika, 13(2), 167–176. kamal, z. (2017). model of higher education development : a study on the existence and challenge of ptai and the change of. al-fikrar, 5(2), 270–291. kemenag. (2021). selamat ! 6 iain ini resmi berubah jadi uin. sevima.com, pp. 1–7. retrieved from https://sevima.com/6-iain-ini-resmi-berubah-jadi-uin/ kraince, r. g. (2007). islamic higher education and social cohesion in indonesia. prospects, 37(3), 345–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-008-9038-1 kurniawan, s. (2018). pendidikan karakter dalam islam pemikiran al-ghazali tentang pendidikan karakter anak berbasis akhlaq al-karimah. tadrib: jurnal pendidikan agama journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 islam, 3(2), 197. https://doi.org/10.19109/tadrib.v3i2.1792 kuzior, a., kettler, k., & łukasz, r. (2022). digitalization of work and human resources processes as a way to create a sustainable and ethical organization, 1–13. leko, m. m., brownell, m. t., sindelar, p. t., & kiely, m. t. (2015). envisioning the future of special education personnel preparation in a standards-based era. exceptional children, 82(1), 25–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402915598782 marin, p., & pereschica, p. (2018). becoming an hispanicserving research institution: involving graduate students in organizational change. association of mexican american educators journal, 11(3), 154. https://doi.org/10.24974/amae.11.3.365 maya, r. (2016). analisa kebijakan publik konversi menjadi uin. edukasi islami jurnal pendidikan islam, 5(1), 1175–1183. https://jurnal.staialhidayahbogor.ac.id/index.php/ei/article/view/36/32 mcmahon, w. w. (2009). higher learning, greater good: the private and social benefits of higher education. jhu press. mcroy, i., & gibbs, p. (2003). an institution in change: a private institution in transition. international journal of educational management, 17(4), 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540310474374 meyer, j. w. (1977). the effects of education as an institution. american journal of sociology, 83(1), 55–77. https://doi.org/10.1086/226506 mohamed, h. a. b., ab. ghani, a. m., & basir, s. a. (2016). factors influencing the implementation of islamic qms in a malaysian public higher education institution. total quality management and business excellence, 27(9–10), 1140–1157. https://doi.org/10.1080/14783363.2015.1064765 moleong, l. j. (2013). qualitative research methodology revised edition. pt remaja rosdakarya offset publisher. muksin, m. (2019). perubahan status kelembagaan perguruan tinggi agama islam: studi perubahan iain menjadi uin dan stain menjadi iain. kelola : jurnal sosial politik, 2(2), 70– 84. https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/kelola/article/view/5820/3323 nata, h. a. (2012). manajemen pendidikan: mengatasi kelemahan pendidikan islam di indonesia. kencana. odero, j. a. a. m. e. m. (2017). employee involvement and employee performance: the case of part time lecturers in public universities in kenya. journal of physical therapy science, 5(2), 1178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.07.010%0ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vi tsauri 280 sres.2014.07.001%0ahttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2018.08.006%0ahttp://www.ncbi.nl m.nih.gov/pubmed/24582474%0ahttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2018.12.007%0ahttps: pennington, i., mathis, r., & jackson, j. (2022). , 2021, through sunday, january 2. pilotti, m. & almubarak. h. a. m. (2021). systematic versus informal application of culturally relevant pedagogy: are performance outcomes different? a study of college students. journal of culture and values in education (jcve), 4(2), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.1 resky, r., & kuncoro, e. a. (2012). pengaruh gaya kepemimpinan terhadap motivasi dan tampaknya terhadap kinerja sumber daya manusia. ulasan bisnis binus, 3(1), 400–412. https://journal.binus.ac.id/index.php/bbr/article/view/1328/1190 salleh, m. s. (2013). strategizing islamic education. ijern.com, 1(6), 1–14. https://www.ijern.com/journal/june-2013/13.pdf sayidah, n., ady, s. u., supriyati, j., sutarmin, winedar, m., mulyaningtyas, a., & assagaf, a. (2019). quality and university governance in indonesia. international journal of higher education, 8(4), 10–17. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v8n4p10 selvanathan, m., surendran, n. n., arumugam, t., subramaniam, s. j., & yusof, n. m. (2019). lecturer’s perspective on talent management in private higher learning institutions in kuala lumpur, malaysia. international journal of higher education, 8(5), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v8n5p257 shaturaev, j. (2021). indigent condition in education and low academic outcomes in public education system of indonesia and uzbekistan. архив научных исследований, 1(1), 1–11. http://journal.tsue.uz/index.php/archive/article/view/247 simpson, r. l., whelan, r. j., & zabel, r. h. (1993). special education personnel preparation in the 21st century: issues and strategies. remedial and special education, 14(2), 7–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193259301400203 stufflebeam, d. l. (1991). the personnel evaluation standards: how to assess systems for evaluating educators. tsage publications, inc. subandi, m. (2012). some notes of islamic scientific education development m. subandi in the name of allah, the most gracious, the most merciful. international journal of asian social science, 2(7), 1005–1011. http://digilib.uinsgd.ac.id/4127/1/some pdf3 notes of islamic sci ed..pdf sugiyono. (2009). metode penelitian dan bisnis. alfabeta. swanson, r. a. (1995). human resource development: performance is the key. human resource development quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.3920060208 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),256-281 sylvia, n. n., & wilfred, i. u. (2012). evaluation of human resource development and training at a higher educational institution in namibia. african journal of business management, 6(49), 11859–11864. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajbm12.1401 tambe, p., cappelli, p., & yakubovich, v. (2019). artificial intelligence in human resources management: challenges and a path forward. california management review, 61(4), 15– 42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0008125619867910 tolchah, m., & mu’ammar, m. a. (2019). islamic education in the globalization era; challenges, opportunities, and contribution of islamic education in indonesia. humanities and social sciences reviews, 7(4), 1031–1037. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2019.74141 tyas, h. e., & naibaho, l. (2020). building superior human resources through character education, (11864), 11864–11873. vahdat, s. (2021). the role of it-based technologies on the management of human resources in the covid-19 era. kybernetes. https://doi.org/10.1108/k-04-2021-0333 wang, w., kurnia, s., & linden, t. (2020). investigating key benefits and benefit drivers of enterprise systems implementation in the higher education institution context. proceedings of the 24th pacific asia conference on information systems: information systems (is) for the future, pacis 2020, (1998), 1–14. werner, j. m., & desimone, r. l. (2011). human resource development. cengage learning. wibowo, t. s., badi’ati, a. q., annisa, a. a., wahab, m. k. a., jamaludin, m. r., rozikan, m., … muhaini, a. (2020). effect of hard skills, soft skills, organizational learning and innovation capability on islamic university lecturers’ performance. systematic reviews in pharmacy, 11(7), 556–569. https://doi.org/10.31838/srp.2020.7.80 yani, a. (2022). manajemen strategi transformasi iain menjadi uin mataram. jurnal mumtaz, 2(1), 30–49. yunus, h. (2021). online learning management system (olms) in indonesian higher education: investigating benefits and obstacles. pjeis: parahikma journal of education and integrated sciences, 1(1), 1–8. https://journal.parahikma.ac.id/pjeis/article/view/42 zulham. (2022). the public behavior and the social role of national legal business education. journal of social studies education research, 13(2), 83-102. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4120/563 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4120/563 principals’ perception on the quality of online learning in mts in ciamis district in the post pandemic www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2023:14 (2),236-252 principals’ perception on the quality of online learning in mts in ciamis district in the post pandemic krisna sujaya1 abstract this study aims to describe the quality of online learning at mts in ciamis regency during and after the pandemic. with this survey it can be mapped, the percentage of the best quality level, good, medium, lacking and very lacking, so that corrective steps and policies are found that must be taken by both internal and external stakeholders. the design of this research is survey research that looks at trends in field phenomena by exploring through questionnaires or research instruments filled out by the heads of madrasah tsanawiyah (mts) of ciamis regency, both state and private. the research was conducted from january to november 2021 with a population of 152 heads of public and private mts, vice principals for curriculum, finance, and student affairs. primary data analysis using percentage descriptive analysis. based on the survey results, it can be concluded that the quality of online learning at mts ciamis post-pandemic is very unsatisfactory. online learning outcomes are lower than offline. the method that is mostly used by teachers is lecture and question and answer. low level of satisfaction, and far more non-technical constraints than technical constraints. keywords: online, pandemic, principal, quality of learning, survey introduction the quality of online learning during a pandemic is indeed not encouraging (abbasi et.al, 2020), because the level of students' absorption of subject matter is very low, low signal quality causes children to be unable to record the learning process properly, not all areas get a good signal, many students only study while lying on the bed or sofa (akyüz & samsa, 2009). judging from the teachers, many teachers stutter about information technology (al-rahmi, et.al, 2019; evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; subedi & subedi, 2020), many teachers cannot provide shared learning media such as zoom, google meetings, and so on. many teachers are unable to show subject matter (andersson & grönlund, 2009), so that zoom meetings only rely on lectures (bovill, 2020). teacher access to control the active involvement of students in the learning process is very weak. the data shows that only 15.3% of teachers who are literate in interactive teaching technology online, at the start of pandemic, were only 15.3%. at the beginning of the following year, namely in 2020, the number of teachers who mastered information technology rose to 45.2, and in 2021, the number of teachers who were literate in information technology 1dr. indonesian university of education, bandung indonesia, email: krisnasujaya@upi.edu mailto:krisnasujaya@upi.edu journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 236-252 237 became 68.1%, the remaining 30.9% still did not master technology and information (yu, et.al, 2020). from the administrative side, many administrations have not been able to assist teachers (yang, 2010) in providing teaching and learning media via zoom. they have not been able to become facilitators for teachers to prepare zoom media and others. administration is not that big in facilitating teachers and students online. administration that is literate in technology and capable of facilitating teachers and lecturers can be said to be less than optimal (adu et al., 2022; waychunas, 2020). data stated that only 24.5% of administrators were already literate in technology, the remaining 75.5% had not yet mastered technology and information. all education data, all of which are uploaded to the education data and reporting system by officials who have been specially appointed by the local government, assigned to each school. the competency requirements that must be possessed by them are mastering technology and information. administrative staff, ultimately are very dependent on them in terms of uploading all school data (mutongoza et al., 2021; prabowo, 2022). this is what causes school administration to become lazy in learning technology and information in the field of school administration and teacher facilitation in carrying out teaching online. table 1 the level of student satisfaction during online learning no satisfaction level f % 1 very dissatisfied 23 46 2 not satisfied 13 26 3 currently 8 16 4 satisfied 5 10 5 very satisfied 1 2 total 50 100 source: 2022 pre-survey results table 1 shows that during the online learning process the majority of students (45%) answered that they were very dissatisfied with the online learning process. as many as 26% said they were not satisfied, 16% answered moderate, 10% answered satisfied, and only 2% answered very satisfied. sujaya table 2 table of student absorption levels during online learning no absorption rate f % 1 not very good 22 44 2 not good 14 28 3 currently 8 16 4 well 5 10 5 very good 1 2 total 50 100 source: 2022 pre-survey data table 2 shows that, the number of students who stated that their absorption ability was very poor was 44%, 28% was not good, 16% was moderate, 10% good, and 2% was very good. table 3 the method used by teachers in teaching online no teaching method f % 1 lecture 18 36 2 faqs 16 32 3 discussion 7 14 4 jigsaw 4 8 5 stads 3 3 6 problem solving 2 4 total 50 100 source: 2022 pre-survey data table 3 provides information that the majority of teachers in providing online learning use the lecture method 36%, question and answer method 32%, discussion 14%, jigsaw 8%, student team achievement divisions 6%, problem solving as much as 4%. thus, in teaching online, the majority of teachers have not used cooperative and innovative learning methods. results of previous research (murphy, 2020) showed that the quality of online learning during the pandemic was still very lacking at 48%, 34%, and the remaining 18% said it was good. another study stated that the obstacles to online learning during the pandemic were 58% internet network constraints, 28% teacher it skills, 8% quota constraints, and 4% other constraints. other literatures (murphy, 2020; prabowo, 2022) also mention that, the cause of online learning failure is because not all children have cell phones 54%, there is no signal at the student's home location 34%, the level of seriousness of students is low 12%. novelty of this research looks at the post-pandemic online learning process at the high school level, where the majority of students are not yet mature, they are still childish so there is a chance that they will be very obedient when supervised by teachers and parents. meanwhile, when they are not supervised, they feel there is no responsibility to study hard. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 236-252 239 research questions 1. what is the perception of school principals about the quality of online learning at mts in ciamis regency after the pandemic? 2. what are the results of online learning at mts in ciamis regency after the pandemic? 3. what are the learning methods that are most often used in online learning at mts in ciamis regency after the pandemic? 4. what is the level of satisfaction of school principals during the online learning process at mts in ciamis regency after the pandemic? 5. according to the perceptions of the mts principal in ciamis regency, what are the obstacles faced after the pandemic? review of literature theoretically, the success of the learning process is influenced by learning media, teaching methods, facilities and infrastructure, student motivation (harandi, 2015), and various other aspects (ngampornchai & adams, 2016)). other literature states that the success of the learning process is influenced by the level of children's learning interest, a fun learning environment, study partners, parental support, motivation from teachers, and others (nawaz & kundi, 2010). research states that the success of online learning is highly dependent on internet network infrastructure, teacher digital literacy, children's digital literacy, cooperative and innovative teaching methods, methods of delivering learning material to students (munich, 2014). other experts say that the success of the online learning process is heavily influenced by the availability of internet networks, quotas, services from teachers, parental support, and motivational aspects (meyer & barefield, 2010). in other research it was stated that online learning will work well, when there is growing awareness of students during the learning process to actively participate in it (noesgaard & ørngreen, 2015), seriousness of students in following the learning process, minimal disruption to student learning, and teacher concern in applying the learning method. good teaching during online learning (meyer & barefield, 2009). the results of studies conducted by previous researchers stated that the better the learning method used, the higher the level of student mastery of the learning material presented (martínez-argüelles & batalla-busquet, 2016). when the teacher is not able to choose a good learning method, students will become bored, not enthusiastic (sleepy), student absorption is low, sujaya and the success rate of the learning process is low (yew & jambulingam, 2015). teachers who are able to choose the right learning method, students will remain enthusiastic in participating in the learning process (makokha & mutisya, 2016). recent literature states that the requirements for the online learning process must be carried out optimally because teachers cannot control student activities in front of them because of their cellphones or laptops, so they need active, student-centered methods, and always invite students to be continuously involved in the learning process (madani, 2019). the teacher periodically asks students to ask or answer questions both from the teacher and from other students (liu & lee, 2012). obstacle factors in the online learning process according to previous researchers (lister, 2014). because the signal is not good, not all teachers are technology literate, not all students have data packages, student saturation, and other aspects (shah & cheng, 2019). in addition, online learning also faces technical obstacles such as signals that come and go, parental objections to the cost of procuring internet packages for students, and low student enthusiasm to take part in the online learning process (little & knihova, 2014). the success rate of students during the online learning process is low because the teacher is unable to control student activities during the learning process. when the teacher is not involved in the learning process, many students only turn on the zoom meeting, but are left to do various other activities (mahlomaholo & mahlomaholo, 2022; makura, 2022; omodan, 2022). the strategy to increase the success rate in the online learning process is to use a good two-way method. questions and answers should always be done by the teacher. when teachers are able to use active and creative or innovative methods, students will always be passionate about participating in the learning process (bada & jita, 2022; kintu, et.al., 2017). methods research design this research uses a quantitative approach, especially surveys (henseler, et.al, 2016). the survey approach was taken because researchers wanted to describe in detail the quality of postpandemic online learning both from student motivation, learning methods used by teachers, student success in mastering learning material, student motivation in learning, constraints in the online learning process, and so on. the research was conducted in ciamis regency, west java, journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 236-252 241 from january to june 2021. the choice was for ciamis district, because ciamis district is in the southern coastal area of west java bordering central java, which incidentally is not very good in terms of internet network. research subjects the subjects of this study were the heads of madrasah tsanawiyah (mts) and their representatives, both public and private, in cianjur regency with a total of 152 people. with details of heads and deputy heads of state madrasah tsanawiyah as many as 32 people, and private as many as 120 people. total 152 people. they all filled out the research instrument and all fields were declared complete and fit to be used to answer the problem formulation. research instruments surveying instruments developed based on the prepared grid based on the theory put forward by experts (see table 4). the instrument consisted of 12 items, that has aspect, dimension and indicator. the aspect deals with the quality of online learning is the quality of the learning process using online media such as zoom and google meet. dimensions comprise six items, they are: (1) it quality, (2) learning methods, (3) student engagement, (4) student's motivation to study, (5) obstacle, and (6) strategy to overcome obstacles. in addition, indicators are of 12 items, namely: internet network, mobile/laptop quality, innovation method, cooperative method, follow zoom, carry out a task, motivation during the learning process via zoom, motivation to repeat subject matter after online learning, technical hurdles, non-technical obstacles, collaborate with friends, and increase the spirit of learning. table 4 research instrument grid aspect dimensions indicator item number the quality of online learning is the quality of the learning process using online media such as zoom and google meet it quality internet network q1 mobile/laptop quality q2 learning methods innovation method q3 cooperative method q4 student engagement follow zoom q5 carry out a task q6 student's motivation to study motivation during the learning process via zoom q7 motivation to repeat subject matter after online learning q8 obstacle technical hurdles q9 non-technical obstacles q10 strategy to overcome obstacles collaborate with friends q11 increase the spirit of learning q12 source: modification of various theories (khamparia & pandey, 2017) sujaya test the validity and reliability of research instruments based on the results of the analysis of the validity and reliability tests (henseler, et.al, 2014) for 50 samples can be tabulated as follows. table 5 instrument validity test instrument no r sign conclusion 1 0.7540.000 0.000 all items are suitable for use in research and answering the problem formulation 2 0.786 0.000 3 0.876 0.000 4 0.856 0.000 5 0.756 0.000 6 0.754 0.000 7 0.757 0.000 8 0821 0.000 9 0.832 0.000 10 0.814 0.000 11 0.754 0.000 12 0.741 0.000 source: 2022 instrument validity analysis results data above shows that all instruments are said to be feasible to use because all of them are valid having a product moment coefficient > 0.7 (hair, et.al, 2017). all dimensions are represented by their indicators, it is proven that there are no indicators that fall. the instrument reliability can be seen in table 6. table 6 instrument reliability test dimensions cronbach's alpha sign. conclusion 1 0.834 0.000 reliable 2 0.872 0.000 reliable 3 0.923 0.000 reliable 4 0.853 0.000 reliable 5 0.954 0.000 reliable 6 0.851 0.000 reliable source: instrument trial data analyzed 2022 all data according to table 6 shows good reliability because it is above 0.7 (hair, et.al, 2010) data analysis process data analysis used quantitative descriptive analysis, especially percentages (henseler, et. al., 2009). percentage analysis is used because this type of research is a survey about the quality journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 236-252 243 of online learning. therefore, data analysis is limited to efforts to describe the quality of online learning at madrasah tsanawiyah in ciamis regency. the analysis is adjusted to the research problem formulation, (hair, et.al, 2017) so that all problem formulations can be answered through analysis of the data that has been obtained. results and discussion principals' perceptions of the quality of online learning perception is a picture of a person's opinion based on information that enters his mind which is then processed by the mind so as to produce a conclusion on the perception of everything that is felt, experienced, seen, felt, and heard. table 7. principals' perceptions of the quality of online learning no response f % 1 very good 9 5,9 2 well 18 11,8 3 currently 51 33,6 4 not enough 42 37,6 5 very less 32 21.1 amount 152 100 source: results of 2022 data analysis table 7 provides an understanding that the perception of school principals regarding the quality of online learning at mts is still very poor (21.1%), not good 3.6%, moderate 33.6%, good 11.8%, and very good 5 .9%. according to the results of the interviews, information was obtained that the cause of the poor quality of the post-pandemic online learning process was because students were bored with the online learning process, students were only passive and not actively participating in the learning process, the learning method applied by the teacher had to be lecturing, and debriefing. the results of this study are in line with the findings (tomas, et.al, 2019) which says that, when students are bored, the process of internalizing knowledge cannot be carried out by the teacher. the transfer of knowledge cannot go both ways. a one-way process will not be able to increase the process of transfer of knowledge (stone, 2020) sujaya online learning outcomes results online learning at mts ciamis regency can be said to be still low. table 8 provides evidence of that. table 8 online learning outcomes no learning outcomes f % 1 very good 11 7,3 2 well 30 19,7 3 currently 58 38,2 4 low 30 19,7 5 very low 23 15,1 amount 152 100 source: primary data analysis results for 2022 table 8 assures that the results of online learning according to the perception of the head of the ciamis district mts are still very low 15.1%, low 19.7%, moderate 38.2%, good 19.7%, and very good 7.3%. various causes of low online learning achievement according to some school principals are because, the majority of students do not follow the learning process properly, besides studying online they are also busy with various other activities. results this research is in line with the opinion (yew & jambulingam, 2015) which says that online learning achievement is much lower than offline because the level of student mastery in online learning is not as high as offline learning. the habit of students studying offline has caused these habits to have been formed and cannot be changed immediately when there is a covid. the post-pandemic online learning process also shows low achievement, because children's learning motivation is indeed low when they have to study online (ngampornchai & adams, 2016). the learning method most often used in online learning the easiest online teaching method according to the school principal is the lecture method combined with question and answer. the research results show that, as table 9. table 9 perceptions of utilizers lecture methods and learning questions during online learning no perception f % 1 very good 41 26,9 2 well 53 34,9 3 enough 27 17,8 4 not enough 18 11,8 5 very less 13 8,6 152 100 source: primary data analysis results for 2022 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 236-252 245 data on table 9 can be understood that, the perception of school principals related to the use of the lecture and question and answer method can be assessed as very good by 41 school principals (26.9%), good as much as 34.8%, moderate as much as 17.7%, not good 11, 8%, and very poor 8.6%. the results of this research confirm research which states that the lecture and question and answer method is the most popular online learning method and can even reach 85.6%. the remaining 14.4% use innovative, creative and fun methods (kebritchi, & et.al., 2017). methods that are practical, active, innovative, creative, effective, and fun are indeed difficult to apply to the learning process indirectly. this method is only suitable when done offline. results this research is in line with research (hussain, et.al, 2018) which found that lecturers prefer to use the lecture method combined with question and answer, because when they want to use other methods, lecturers find it very difficult to do. other research is in line with research which concludes that, to apply active and innovative methods when online learning is very difficult, because additional media is needed that can increase student activity. the studentcentered learning process becomes difficult to do, so the learning process shifts to a teachercentered learning process. the level of satisfaction of school principals with online learning level principal satisfaction with the online learning process is very low, because students are more interested in participating in face-to-face learning, meeting directly with teachers, and being able to meet face-to-face with friends in the same class. the principal's level of satisfaction with practical lessons is also low, such as in natural sciences, because students cannot practice in the laboratory. table 10 describes the principal's satisfaction with the online learning process. table 10 principal's level of satisfaction with online learning no response f % 1 very good 13 8,6 2 well 29 19,1 3 enough 48 31,6 4 not good 38 25.0 5 not very good 24 15,7 amount 152 100 source: primary data analysis results for 2022 sujaya table 10 explains that, as many as 8.6% of school principals felt very satisfied, as many as 19.1% felt satisfied, as many as 31.6% felt that it was sufficient, as many as 25% felt dissatisfied, as many as 15.7% felt very dissatisfied. results of this research is in accordance with the findings (hussain, et. al. 2018) which concludes that the level of satisfaction with the online learning process is still low because it is boring, more passive, monotonous, and unable to get various fun distractions. the results of this study are also in line with the findings (prabowo, 2022) which concluded that, the level of student participation is very low in the online learning process, because students feel dissatisfied, and want to immediately complete the online learning process and be replaced with offline obstacles faced by teachers according to the perception of the principal schools, teachers and students face many obstacles during the online learning process. these constraints include technical and non-technical constraints. technical constraints such as the absence of a network, weak internet network, no facilities for smartphones, gadgets, laptops, and lack of financial support to buy internet data packages. non-technical obstacles, such as many activities outside of learning, lots of distractions from playmates, lack of focus on the learning process, loss of motivation, depleting support from parents, and various other aspects that can hinder the implementation of the online learning process. table 11 various obstacles faced by students according to the principal's perception no constraint type f % 1 technical constraints 65 42.8 2 non-technical constraints 83 54,6 3 another obstacle 4 2,6 amount 152 100 source: primary data processed in 2022 table 11 provides information that non-technical constraints (54.6%) are far more numerous than technical constraints which are only 42.8%. non-technical constraints in the implementation of online learning are suggested because students are not focused on participating in the learning process. this is certainly more difficult to fix than the obvious technical problems. results of this research is actually in accordance with previous research (alrefaie, et.al, 2020) that, in the implementation of online learning, non-technical constraints such as students' activities outside of learning actually make students not focus on learning. non-technical journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 236-252 247 obstacles are even more difficult to overcome than technical obstacles. non-technical obstacles concern aspects related to students, therefore only the students themselves can overcome these obstacles (choudhary, 2020). the school principal in his capacity as school leader who is responsible for implementing online learning tries to overcome various obstacles faced, both technical and non-technical (abbasi, et.al, 2020). technical constraints related to school facilities and infrastructure that can support the implementation of online learning can be provided to the fullest, it's just that non-technical obstacles involving students are difficult to overcome immediately. support is needed from various parties to overcome technical and non-technical obstacles in implementing online learning (allo, 2020). the results of online learning at mts in ciamis regency after the pandemic are still low. the majority of school principals have the perception that online learning outcomes are low, because students cannot meet directly with teachers and friends, so they do not focus on participating in the entire learning process. low learning outcomes were noted because teachers are only able to instill cognitive aspects, while affective and psychomotor aspects are difficult to convey to students. conclusion based on the results of the analysis and discussion, it can be concluded that the principal's perception of the quality of online learning at mts in ciamis regency after the pandemic is still very low, this is because students' learning motivation to take part in the online learning process is very low. teachers use more monotonous methods so that the level of student saturation is high. the results of online learning at mts in ciamis regency after the pandemic are still low. the majority of school principals have the perception that online learning outcomes are low, because students cannot meet directly with teachers and friends, so they do not focus on participating in the entire learning process. low learning outcomes because teachers are only able to instill cognitive aspects, while affective and psychomotor aspects are difficult to convey to students. the learning method that is most often used in online learning at the post-pandemic mts ciamis regency is the lecture and question and answer method. the teacher chose the two methods, because the two methods were the most practical. teachers experience difficulties when they sujaya have to use student-centered learning methods. finally, the method that is mostly used by teachers is a teacher-centered learning method plus question and answer to increase student activity. the level of satisfaction of school principals during the online learning process at mts in ciamis regency after the pandemic can be said to be still low. the low level of satisfaction of principals is because teachers seem less enthusiastic about teaching online. students are also more enthusiastic when participating in offline learning. according to the perception of the postpandemic head of the mts school in ciamis regency, the obstacles faced by teachers are that there are more non-technical obstacles. technical obstacles such as facilities and infrastructure are actually easier to overcome than non-technical obstacles that come from students who study online. this study reemphasizes its novelty in that good perception should be applied to see the learning process in the school management. however, this study has the drawback that its study sample is secondary school students in islamic education system that to some extents islamic schools are considered less advanced than government public schools. therefore, future research is suggested to extend the research subject to university students or government public schools if it focuses on secondary school management. references abbasi, s., ayoob, t., malik, a., & memon, si (2020). perceptions of students regarding e-learning during covid-19 at a private medical college. pakistan journal of medical sciences, 36(covid19-s4), 57–61. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.covid19-s4.2766 adu, k., badaru, k., duku, n., & adu, e. (2022). innovation and technology: a panacea to teaching and learning challenges during the covid-19 lockdown in south africa. research in social sciences and technology, 7(1), 69-89. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.5 akyüz, h.i., & samsa, s. (2009). the effects of blended learning environment on the critical thinking skills of students. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 1744–1748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.308 al-rahmi, wm, yahaya, n., aldraiweesh, aa, alamri, mm, aljarboa, na, alturki, u., & aljeraiwi, aa (2019). integrating technology acceptance model with innovation diffusion theory: an empirical investigationonstudents'intention to use e-learning systems. ieee access, 1(1), 99. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2899368 https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.covid19-s4.2766 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.308 https://doi.org/10.1109/achttps://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2899368 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 236-252 249 allo, m.d.g. (2020). is online learning good in the midst of the covid-19 pandemic? the case of efl learn-ers. journal of synesthesia, 10(1), 1–10. https://sinestesia.pustaka.my.id/journal/article/view/24 alrefaie, z., hassanien, m., & al-hayani, a. (2020). monitoring online learning during the covid19 pandemic;suggested online learning portfolio (covid-19 olp). mededpublish, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.15694/mep.2020.000110.1 andersson, a., & grönlund, å. (2009). a conceptual framework for e-learning in developing countries: a critical review of research challenges. the electronic journal of information systems in developing countries, 38(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1681-4835.2009.tb00271.x bada, a., & jita, l. (2022). advancing cooperative learning pedagogy in science classrooms: challenges and possible solutions. journal of culture and values in education, 5(2), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.1 boville, c. (2020). co-creation in learning and teaching: the case for a whole-class approach in higher education. higher education, 79(1), 1023–1037.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-01900453-w choudhary, r. (2020). covid-19 pandemic: impact and strategies for education sector in india. et government. https://government. economictimes. indiatimes.com/news/education/covid-19pandemic-impact-and-strates-for-education-sector-in-india/75173099 evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 hair, jf, jr., hollingsworth, cl, randolph, ab, & chong, ayl (2017). an updated and expanded assessment of pls-sem in information systems research. industrial management and data systems, 117(1), 442– 458. https://doi.org/10.1108/imds-04-2016-0130 hair, jf, jr., black, w., babin, b., & anderson, r. (2010). multivariate data analysis: a global perspective. pearson education. harandi, sr (2015). effects of e-learning on students' motivation. 3rd international conference on leadership, technology and innovations management, 423430.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.905 henseler, j., hubona, g., & ray, pa (2016). using pls path modeling in new technology research: updated guidelines. industrial management and data systems, 116(1), 2-20. https://doi.org/10.1108/imds-09-20150382 henseler, j., ringle, cm, & sarstedt, m. (2014). a new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-basedstructuralequation modelling. journal of the academy of marketing science, 43(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8 https://sinestesia.pustaka.my.id/journal/article/view/24 https://doi.org/10.15694/mep.2020.000110.1 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1681-4835.2009.tb00271.x https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.1 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00453-w https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00453-w https://government.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/education/covid-19-pandemic-impact-and-strategies-for-education-sector-in-india/75173099 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 https://doi.org/10.1108/imds-04-2016-0130 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.905 https://doi.org/10.1108/imds-09-2015https://doi.org/10.1108/imds-09-2015-0382 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8 sujaya hussain, m., zhu, w., zhang, w., & abidi, smr (2018). student engagement predictions in an elearning system and their impact on student course assessment scores. computational intelligence and neuroscience, 1, 21. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6347186 kebritchi, m., lipschuetz, a., & santiague, l. (2017). issues and challenges for teaching successful online courses in higher education. journal of educational technology systems, 46(1), 4–29. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239516661713 kintu, m.j., zhu, c. & kagambe, e. (2017). blended learning effectiveness: the relationship between student characteristics, design features and outcomes. international journal of educational technology in higher education, 14(7),1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0043-4 lister, m. (2014). trends in the design of e-learning and online learning. journal of online learning & teaching, 10(4), 671–680. https://jolt.merlot.org/vol10no4/lister_1214.pdf little, b. & knihova, l. (2014). modern trends in learning architecture. industrial and commercial training, 46(1), 34–38. https://doi.org/10.1108/icq-07-2013-0046 liu, s.-h. & lee, g.g. (2012). knowledge sharing behavior in e-learning materials developing team. international education technology conference, 681–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.080 madani, r.a. (2019). analysis of educational quality, a goal of education for all policies. higher education studies, 9(1),100–109.https://doi.org/10.5539/hes. v9n1p100 mahlomaholo, m., & mahlomaholo, s. (2022). assessment in sustainable remote teaching and learning environments during emergency situations. journal of culture and values in education, 5(2), 1631. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.17 makokha, g.l. & mutisya, d.n. (2016). status of e-learning in public universities in kenya. international reviews of research in open and distance learning, 17(3), 341–359. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i3.2235 makura, a. (2022). south african female academics’ work from home experiences during the covid19 pandemic: challenges and opportunities. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), 1322. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.3 martínez-argüelles, m.j. & batalla-busquet, j.m. (2016). perceived service quality and student loyalty in an online university. international review of research in open and distance learning, 17(4), 264– 279. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i4.2518 meyer, j.d. & barefield, a.c. (2009). developing and sustaining online education: an administrator's guide to developing an online teaching program. lap academic publishing. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6347186 https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239516661713 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0043-4 https://jolt.merlot.org/vol10no4/lister_1214.pdf https://doi.org/10.1108/ict-07-2013-0046 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.080 https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v9n1p100 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.17 https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i3.2235 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.3 https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i4.2518 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 236-252 251 meyer, j.d & barefield, a.c. (2010). infrastructure and administrative support for online programs. on line journal of distance learning administration, 13(3), 47–56. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej914144 munich, k. (2014). social support for online learning: perspectives of nursing students. international journal of e-learning & distance education, 29(2), 1–12. https://ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/891/1565 murphy, m.p.a. (2020). covid-19 and emergency elearning: consequences of the securitization of higher education for post-pandemic pedagogy. contemporary security policy, 41(3), 492–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2020.1761749 mutongoza, b., olawale, b., & mzilikazi, b. (2021). chronicling school principals’ experiences on school management in the context of covid-19 stringency. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 146-162. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.35 nawaz, a. & kundi, g.m. (2010). sustained technical support: issues and prospects for e-learning in heis. malaysian journal of distance education, 12(2), 61–77. http://mjde.usm.my/vol12_2_2010/mjde12_2_5.pdf ngampornchai, a. & adams, j. (2016). students' acceptance and readiness for e-learning in northeastern thailand. international journal of educational technology in higher education, 34, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-016-0034-x noesgaard, s.s. & ørngreen, r. (2015). the effectiveness of e-learning: an explorative and integrative review of the definitions, methodologies and factors that promote e-learning effectiveness. the electronic journal of e-learning, 13(4), 278–290. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1062121.pdf omodan, b. (2022). virtual management of students’ unrest during the covid-19 new normal: the need for an innovative approach. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.2 prabowo, ls. (2022). the effect of iso and leadership quality on the sustainable development of academic competence and student performance. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 13(3), 31-55. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4232/575 shah, m., & cheng, m. (2019). exploring factors impacting student engagement in open access courses. open learning, 34(2), 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680513.2018.1508337 stone, k. (2020). zoom for educators: how to set up virtual classrooms for distance learning. https://getvoip.com/blog/2020/04/08/zoom-for-educators/ https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej914144 https://ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/891/1565 https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260.2020.1761749 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.35 http://mjde.usm.my/vol12_2_2010/mjde12_2_5.pdf https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-016-0034-x https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1062121.pdf https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.2 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4232/575 https://doi.org/10.1080/02680513.2018.1508337 https://getvoip.com/blog/2020/04/08/zoom-for-educators/ sujaya subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 tomas, l., evans, n., doyle, t., & skamp, k. (2019). are first year students ready for a flipped classroom? a case for a flipped learning continuum. international journal of educational technology in higher education, 16(5), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0135-4 waychunas, w. (2020). where teachers thrive: a book review. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 129-132. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 yang, y. (2010). roles of administrators in ensuring the quality of online programs. knowledge management and e-learning, 2(4), 363–369. https://doi.org/10.34105/j.kmel.2010.02.026 yew, o.f. & jambulingam, m. (2015). critical success factors of e-learning implementation at educational institutions. journal of interdisciplinary research in education, 5(1), 17–24. https://myjurnal.mohe.gov.my/filebank/published_article/43124/2.pdf yu, j., huang, c., han, z., he, t., & li, m. (2020). investigating the influence of interaction on learning persistence in online settings: moderation or mediation of academic emotions? international journal of environmental research and public health,17(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072320 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0135-4 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 https://doi.org/10.34105/j.kmel.2010.02.026 https://myjurnal.mohe.gov.my/filebank/published_article/43124/2.pdf https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072320 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 82-101 82 student-teacher relationships as a panacea for students’ academic performance in nigeria secondary schools: an attachment perspective bunmi isaiah omodan1 & cias t. tsotetsi2 abstract this study examines the practices involved in student-teacher relationships vis-à-vis its correlational effect on academic performance of secondary school students in an attempt to suggest solutions to the lingering problems affecting secondary school students’ academic performance in nigeria. a descriptive survey research design was adopted and the population comprised all public secondary schools in nigeria. through homogenous sampling, 300 respondents were selected from the sampled schools. two self-designed instruments, the “student-teacher relationship questionnaire (strq)” and the “students academic performance questionnaire (sapq)” were used to collect relevant data from the respondents. the face and content validity were done and the test-retest method of reliability was adopted to test the reliability of the instruments. data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics and the three hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. the study revealed a significant correlation between the student-teacher relationships and academic performance of students in secondary schools. it also indicated that classroom engagement and motivation were significantly related to students’ academic performance. the study recommends that teachers should be regularly trained and equipped with classroom engagement skills, and that they should furthermore be equipped through development programmes to develop various motivational strategies for better students’ academic performance, among others. key words: student-teacher relationships, classroom engagement, student motivation, academic performance, secondary schools. introduction the contributions of education to the development of society and the individual cannot be underrated, and that is why both developed and developing countries all over the world perceive education as a device for the advancement of both individual and national development. this developmental tenet is suffixed in the education policy documents of south africa and nigeria respectively (department of education, south africa, 2003; federal republic of nigeria, 2013). this might seems to be responsible for various stakeholders’ concern in education regarding the 1 lecturer, school of education studies, university of the free state, south africa, omodanbi@ufs.ac.za 2 assistant dean, faculty of education, and lecturer, school of education studies, university of the free state, south africa, tsotetsict@ufs.ac.za journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 perceived problems that are likely to affect it as well as the implications such problems could have on the management and administration of education. aspects of such problems as perceived by fakunle (2017) and babalola (2018) include intentional absenteeism of teachers, nonchalant attitude of teachers towards students, teachers’ ineffectiveness and disconnectedness between secondary school students and their teachers. there is therefore an urgent need to really look into the future of our nation’s education vis-à-vis the challenges ahead, with a view to achieving effectiveness, quality and relevance in the entire system to be able to keep abreast with international standards. by discussing the challenges ahead, managers and administrators, including teachers of secondary schools, must be aware of their massive task and be able to provide solutions to the problems currently threatening the system. the success and or failure of any educational system, whether in developed or developing nations of the world, depends to a large extent on the teachers, because they form the hub of the educational system. it is further argued by ekundayo, omodan & omodan (2018) that education itself can rarely rise above the quality of its teachers. there is therefore no doubt that the services of teachers in schools are indispensable and critical to the nation’s future and the kind of individuals that society wants. the quality of the future citizens of a country depends on the quality, competence and practices of the teachers. the application of positive classroom pedagogy is therefore critical. this is corroborated by the argument of okolocha & onyeneke (2013) that one of the most important aspects of secondary schools is the application of pedagogical knowledge into a classroom-oriented plan of action, which constitutes the most essential fabric upon which the success of the school, its administration, and the entire democratic and pedagogical process rests upon. the application of classroom pedagogy could only be achieved in an environment and atmosphere where the learners are free to interact within themselves and their teachers, in other words in situations where there is an interactive relationship between students and between students and teachers. the federal republic of nigeria (2013) in the national policy on education, states that the purpose of teaching and learning should be to produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom activities for all levels of education in nigeria; to encourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity in both teachers and students; to help them to fit into the social life of the community and society at large and to enhance their commitment to national objectives; to provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment omodan & tsotetsi and to make them adaptable to any changing situation; and to enhance teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession, not only in nigeria, but also applicable in the wider world. despite the stated teaching and learning objective to ensure effective classroom activities, the reverse is the reality, as observed by the researcher. it appears as if student engagement in classroom activities and student motivation for better productivity in secondary schools in nigeria are still far from expected. this is supported by the observations of falade (2018) and faremi & jita (2018) that a lack of motivation techniques in teaching and learning process is probably responsible for the perceived teacher and student ineffectiveness. overview of students’ academic performance the academic performance of secondary school students in nigeria has become a great concern to all education stakeholders in recent time. this is supported by adeyemi and adeyemi (2014) who stated that there has been a remarkable record of failure in public examinations, especially in basic subjects such as english and mathematics. the annual release of the west african examinations council (waec) results has contributed to the public's condemnation of the entire education system in nigeria because of the rate of graduates with poor results. according to the perception of general public, it is questionable whether teachers in public secondary schools are effective. the most important factor is the effectiveness of schools, and this is dependent on the student teacher relationship, and the quality and competence of teachers to teach effectively (akinsolu, 2010). teachers have been said to play a crucial role in academic performance and educational attainment, because the teacher is ultimately responsible for translating policy into action and principles based on practice during interaction with the students (afe, 2003). the unfortunate reality is observation as shown in waec results in many states of nigeria, that the students perform below average, especially in english and mathematics. this is supported by ayeni (2014) that only about 23% of students who sat for waec between 2010 and 2014 obtained credit level passes in five subjects and above (including english language and mathematics) in nigeria. this is not far from the analysis of arafat (2015) that in 2015, waec examination recorded that only 649,156 candidates (38.81%) of the 1,677,224 candidates that enrolled for the examination obtained 5 credit passes in nigeria. besides, the results of students who sat for waec in ekiti journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 state in the period of 2012 to 2017 clearly showed that the academic performance of secondary school students is still below average (bamikole, 2017). the above is in line with the observations of adeyemi and adeyemi (2014) and onaolapo (2017) that despite government’s huge investment in public education, its output in terms of quality of students is unequal with government expenditure. one aspect that might have an impact on the poor academic performance of students in public secondary schools may be connected with student-teacher relationships. in other words, the perceived poor student-teacher relationships in terms of lack of vibrant classroom engagement and motivation for learners could be responsible for the observed poor performance of secondary school students in nigeria. classroom engagement and motivation as variables of student-teacher relationships one of the variables that could sustain the student-teacher relationship for better academic performance is classroom engagement. mango (2015) stated that classroom engagement is the extent to which students take part in educationally effective practices in the classroom. student engagement in classroom is a term used to describe an individual’s interest and enthusiasm for classroom activities which impacts on his or her academic performance and behaviour (gallup, 2013). evidence has it that children who have been described as actively engaged in classroom activities have more positive academic outcomes (hughes & kwok, 2007; deteso, 2011). it therefore becomes imperative for teachers to adopt strategies that could enhance student engagement toward improving student academic performance. this would only be possible if there is an adequate and friendly relationship between students and their teacher which was on the contrary as observed by the researchers that teachers seem not to take cognizance of this important aspect of the teaching and learning process. motivation is another factor of the student-teacher relationship that promotes student academic performance. it is believed that the quality of communication between teacher and student has a significant impact on the quality of learning motivation (krasovskaya, 2016). in a number of studies, the key role of motivation in the relationship between teacher and student and its impact on academic achievement is demonstrated (fan & williams, 2010; krasovskaya 2016). motivational theories, according to fan and williams (2010), suggest that students’ perception of their relationship with teachers plays an essential role in forming interest in the subject and motivating students to learn better. it can therefore be deduced that a formidable relationship omodan & tsotetsi between students and teachers is a powerful motivational factor that can influence student academic performance. according to the researchers’ own observations, coupled with those of faremi & jita (2018), this aspect is lagging behind. a brief review on student-teacher relationships the student-teacher relationships is one of the most important features in the context of learning. it is also one of the factors affecting student-teacher development, school engagement and academic motivation. student-teacher relationships form the basis of the social context in which learning takes place (spilt, koomen & thijs, 2011). student-teacher interactions are not only influenced by a number of aspects including gender, but in turn also influence a student’s academic performance and behaviour (roorda, koomen, spilt, & oort, 2011). supportive and positive relationships between teacher and students ultimately promote a sense of school belonging and encourage students to participate cooperatively in classroom activities (hughes & chen, 2011). one positive aspect about the above perceptions from literature is evidence that good relationships between students and their teachers are essential to the development of all students in school (hamre & pianta, 2001). in the report of hamre and pianta (2001), they posited that positive student-teacher relationships are a valuable resource for students. a constructive relationship with a teacher enables students to be able to work on their own because they know their teachers are there for them in case problems arise. they also know that such teachers will recognise and respond to the problem promptly. as children enter the formal school setting, relationships with teachers provide the foundation for successful adjustment to the social and academic environment (hamre & pianta, 2001). roorda et al. (2011) demonstrated that the quality of student-teacher relationships is strongly related to students’ motivation to learn. in the same vein, nurmin (2012) found that teachers ensure more close relationships with highly engaged students. the association of teacherstudent relationships is stronger with student engagement than with learning achievement (cornelius-white, 2007). self-determination theory also exemplifies on the importance of good student-teacher relationships. the theory argues that individuals have three basic psychological needs: the need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence (ryan & deci, 2000). the need for relatedness, or belonging, refers to a human being’s tendency towards wanting “to feel connected to others; to love and care” (fosen, 2016). the need for belonging is so strong that individuals journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 seek to develop relationships even in adverse situations. the need to belong is a powerful motivation in itself, and that is why students who feel connected with and supported by their teachers are more likely to feel motivated to learn (ryan & patrick, 2001). student-teacher relationships are correlated with students’ intrinsic motivation (oecd 2013). fredricks, blumenfeld and paris (2004) highlight three types of student-teacher engagement, namely emotional, behavioural, and cognitive engagement. they further said that it is useful for understanding why good relations promote intrinsic motivation. according to fredricks et al. (2004), emotional engagement refers to students’ emotional reactions such as interest. teacher warmth and attention to students can motivate students to participate in classroom activities. such positive emotions drive student motivation (skinner, furrer, marchand & kindermann, 2008), and can therefore lead to behavioural engagement, i.e. when students cooperate by following rules and participating in learning activities (fredricks et al., 2004). in line with the above, furrer and skinner (2003) believe that students’ participation can be externally motivated by wanting to please teachers, which means that students might seek teacher approval and attention as a reward. when there is no student-teacher relationships, it is overtly characterised by conflict which may be damaging to students, more damaging than simply a lack of close teacher-student relationships (murray & murray, 2004). that is why spilt, hughes, wu and kwok (2012) argue that conflicting relationships with teachers cause feelings of distress and insecurity in students, thereby restricting their ability to concentrate on learning. students with more conflictual teacherstudent relationships had insufficient down-regulation of cortisol levels, meaning they were constantly more stressed than students with good teacher-student relationships (murray & murray, 2004). educators’ relationships with students are equally beneficial to teachers, with research showing that good teacher-student relationships are positively correlated to teachers’ job satisfaction and effectiveness (day & gu, 2009; fosen, 2016). negative teacher-student relationships are a common source of teacher stress and burnout (chang, 2009; spilt et al., 2011). this is understandable when one considers the emotional labour that is part of teachers’ work, especially in relation to dealing with disruptive student behaviour (chang, 2009). this could eventually lead to brain drain in the system. the above literature shows that student-teacher relationships have a great impact on students’ attitudes towards achievement. it is also obvious that if students are comfortable with omodan & tsotetsi their teachers and the school environment, positive relationships will be easily developed, which might benefit their social behaviours and skills. this is in consonance with koen (2018)’s statement, that the development of interpersonal relationships, either between student and teacher or between students and students, is simply the keystone in building what individual learners want to achieve in both the classroom and life itself. from the above it can be deduced that studentteacher relationships are the emotional bond that exists between teachers and students in school. both students and teachers have the power to shape and change the quality of these relationships (sabol & pianta, 2012). in the same vein nugent (2009) suggests that by creating healthy relationships, teachers can motivate students during the learning process, which is one of the main objectives in a teacher’s practice. to make relationships between teachers and students easier, teachers must be aware of the students’ emotional and academic needs and must be able to work with it. theoretical framework this study is rooted in the attachment theory. the theory is relevant to this study because it focuses on the relationships between two or more people, particularly long-term relationships such as those between parents and children and between romantic partners (cherry, 2018). this theory was developed by one of the foremost psychologists, namely john bowlby in 1958, and published in the trilogy attachment and loss in 1969 (bowlby, 1969). he describes attachment as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings and that it is a kind of behaviour focused to establish and maintain closeness and contact with an adult and figure who is sensible and responsive to the child needs (bowlby, 1958; cherry, 2018). the theory, according to bowlby (1969) and krstic (2015), argues that when adults provide emotional support in a predictable, consistent, and safe environment, it helps children to be more self-reliant and learn better, because they are sure that an adult will guide and help them. this is supported by krstic (2015) that when children feel safe and comfortable, complementary exploratory systems, which encourage them to explore, are activated. the theory proposes a motivational system that guides relational behaviour (riley, 2012). student-teacher relationships can also be viewed from a motivational perspective, in which students benefit not only from their perception of caring teachers, but also from the structure that is provided by the classroom environment, and the support that teachers provide in response to https://www.verywellmind.com/john-bowlby-biography-1907-1990-2795514 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 students’ needs (davis, 2003). it cuts across various forms of organisations and has produced many interesting findings, including research on student-teacher relationships (shaver & mikulincer, 2011; riley, 2012). attachment is a theoretical framework used by researchers to better understand how children develop positive working relationships with their teachers (deteso, 2011). the perspective of attachment theory underpinning teacher-student relationships argues that students’ perception of teacher nurturing and caring can provide a solid foundation for students’ academic performance and general social growth (roorda, koomen, spilt, & oort, 2011; berman-young, 2014). pianta (1999) and berman-young (2014) suggest that pupils transfer patterns of adaptation to interactions with new adults and new situations, while also potentially learning new patterns of adaptation. from these situations one could see that classroom engagement fosters student-teacher interactions as a result of good relationships. the teaching-learning process based on relationships engenders the critical thinking and inquiring skills required from learners to emancipate themselves in various situations (du preez & botha, 2018). viewing these perspectives, it is evidenced that students’ interactive relationships with their teachers will help them learn how to navigate the environment of the classroom and beyond (berman-young, 2014). this is why hamre and pianta (2001) concluded that children with full interactive engagement with their teachers will develop positive motivational beliefs about school and classroom engagements, which would definitely have a positive impact on their academic performance. this theory is therefore relevant to this study because it underpins the importance of student-teacher relationships as the basis of academic excellence for students, as well as teachers’ job satisfaction. there is no doubt that when good and amiable relationships exist between students and their teachers, this will enable students to develop sense of belonging and a kind of free mind to consult and interact with their teachers at any point without fear or intimidation. this is why student engagement and motivation respectively, as tools for teacher-student relationships, is an antidote that could instigate students’ interest and positive feelings about school, achievement and their academic performance (hughes, luo, kwok, & loyd, 2008). purpose of the study this study examined the practices involved in student-teacher relationships vis-à-vis its correlational effect on academic performance of secondary school students in an attempt to proffer omodan & tsotetsi a lasting solution to the lingering problems affecting student performance in nigeria, with the following objectives:  the relationship between classroom engagement as a subset of student-teacher relationships and academic performance of secondary school students in nigeria.  the relationship between motivation as a subset of student-teacher relationships and academic performance of secondary school students in nigeria. research question in order to discover the extent of student-teacher relationships in public secondary schools in nigeria, the following research question was raised to guide the study: 1. what is the level of student-teacher relationships in secondary schools in nigeria? research hypotheses 1. there is no significant relationship between student-teacher relationships and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria. 2. there is no significant relationship between classroom engagement as a variable of studentteacher relationships and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria. 3. there is no significant relationship between motivation as a variable of student-teacher relationships and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria. method research design the study examines the practices involved in student-teacher relationships in correlation with academic performance of secondary school students in nigeria, with cognizance to classroom engagement and student motivation. the study adopted a descriptive survey research design. it is descriptive because it involves the collection of data in order to describe the existing situation with respect to student-teacher relationships in nigerian secondary schools. as a survey design, it covers a wide scope to be able to make generalization possible (omopariola, 2017). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 population, sample and sampling techniques the target population of this study comprised all public secondary schools in nigeria. nigeria consist of six geo-political zones with at least six states in each of the zones, with at least 200 public secondary schools in each of the states. the sample size for the study consists of 300 respondents using the multi-stage sampling procedure. the first stage involved the selection of one state in each of the geo-political zones using simple random sampling. the second stage involved the random selection of two secondary schools from each state, and the third stage involved the selection of 300 respondents; 25 participants from each of the selected schools, involved both students and teachers, were selected using convenient sampling. this sampling technique is appropriate since it empowers scientists to make use of participants who are advantageous for the study (alvi, 2016). data collection the research instruments used for data collection was the student-teacher relationships questionnaire (strq), administered to students, and the students’ academic performance questionnaire (sapq), designed to collect information from the teachers. the instruments were validated by experts in the department of educational management and leadership at both the university of the free state, south africa and ekiti state university, ado ekiti nigeria for necessary validation and modification through the use of face and content validity. according to fakunle (2017), face and content validity will ensure that the instruments measure what they are supposed to measure. the test-retest method was used to determine the reliability of the instruments. after the instruments were administered to the respondents twice within an interval of two weeks, according to the test-retest principle, the results of the two tests were correlated using pearson product moment correlation (ppmc) with reliability coefficient of 0.76 for (strq) and 0.79 for (sapq) respectively. this implies that the instruments were highly reliable. data analysis both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed to analyse data collected; the research question was answered using descriptive such as simple percentages, while the three hypotheses were tested using pearson product moment correlation (ppmc). all hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. omodan & tsotetsi results and findings the results for this study is statistically presented below, using both descriptive and inferential statistics such as simple percentages to answer the research question and pearson product moment correlation (ppmc) to test all the hypotheses. research question what is the level of student-teacher relationships in secondary schools in nigeria? table 1 level of student-teacher relationships in secondary schools in nigeria level of student-teacher relationships frequency percentage low (20.00 33.64) 30 10.0 moderate (33.65 37.35) 240 80.0 high (37.36 84.00) 30 10.0 total 300 100.0 table 1 presents the level of student-teacher relationships in secondary schools in nigeria. using a mean score of 35.50 and a standard deviation of 1.86 on student-teacher relationships, the result reveals that 30 respondents, representing 10% of the total sample, had a low level of studentteacher relationships, 240 (80%) indicated a moderate level while 30 (10%) had a high level of student-teacher relationships. this implies that the student-teacher relationship as an apparatus for academic performance in secondary schools in nigeria is moderately lagging. testing of hypotheses hypothesis 1: there is no significant relationship between student-teacher relationships and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria. in order to test the hypothesis, scores on student-teacher relationship and academic performance were subjected to statistical analysis involving pearson product moment correlation at 0.05 level of significance. the result is presented in table 2 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 table 2 student-teacher relationships and academic performance of secondary schools students variable n mean sd r p remark student-teacher relationships 300 35.50 1.86 0.612** 0.01 significant academic performance 300 52.58 11.14 **p<0.05 table 2 reveals that there is a significant relationship between student-teacher relationships and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria (r=0.612, p<0.05). the null hypothesis is rejected. the relationship between student-teacher relationships and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria is moderately high and statistically significant in a positive direction. hypothesis 2. there is no significant relationship between classroom engagement and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria. in order to test this hypothesis, scores on classroom engagement and academic performance were subjected to statistical analysis involving pearson product moment correlation at 0.05 level of significance. the result is presented in table 3 table 3 classroom engagement and academic performance of secondary school students variable n mean sd r p remark classroom engagement 300 19.22 2.66 0.515** 0.01 significant academic performance 300 52.58 11.14 **p<0.05 table 3 reveals that there is a significant relationship between classroom engagement and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria (r=0.515, p<0.05). the null hypothesis is rejected. the relationship between classroom engagement and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria is moderate and statistically significant in a positive direction. omodan & tsotetsi hypothesis 3 there is no significant relationship between motivation and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria. in order to test this hypothesis, scores on motivation and academic performance were subjected to statistical analysis involving pearson product moment correlation at 0.05 level of significance. the result is presented in table 4 table 4 motivation and academic performance of secondary school students variable n mean sd r p remark motivation 300 16.30 2.80 0.737** 0.01 significant academic performance 300 52.58 11.14 **p<0.05 table 4 reveals that there is a significant relationship between motivation and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria (r=0.737, p<0.05). the null hypothesis is rejected. the relationship between motivation and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria is high and statistically significant in a positive direction. discussion the findings of the study show that the level of student-teacher relationships in secondary schools in nigeria is moderate. this is an indication that the use of student-teacher relationships is actually in operation, but a high priority is not placed on it in managing classroom activates by teachers in secondary schools. the findings of the study further indicate that there is a significant relationship between student-teacher relationships and academic performance of secondary school students in nigeria. this is in consonance with spilt, hughes, wu and kwok (2012), who argue that students who have conflicting relationships with their teachers have feelings of distress and insecurity, which restrict their ability to concentrate on learning. this is also supported by fosen (2016) who found that teachers’ relationships with students are not only beneficial to students but equally significant to teachers’ performance. good student-teacher relationships are positively correlated to teachers’ job satisfaction and effectiveness. since there is a correlation between the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 student-teacher relationships, it has justified the argument of krstic (2015) that when emotional support is consistently provided by a teacher in a safe environment, it helps children to be more self-reliant. they also learn better because they are sure that an adult will guide and help them. that may be the reason why krstic (2015) also concluded that when children feel safe and comfortable, their willingness to explore is encourage and activated. the findings of the study also reveal that there is significant relationship between classroom engagement and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria. this is supported by the research of deteso (2011) that children who have been described as actively engaged in classroom activities have been found to have more positive academic outcomes. it also supports the conclusion by okolocha and onyeneke (2013), that secondary schools are the application of pedagogical knowledge into a classroom-oriented plan of action which constitute the most essential fabric upon which the success of the school, its administration and the entire democratic process rest. this showed that students’ interactions and engagement with their teachers will help them learn how to navigate the environment of the classroom (berman-young, 2014). this is also in line with attachment theory that could be used to better understand how children develop positive working relationships with their teachers (deteso, 2011). the findings of the study further reveal that there is a significant relationship between motivation and academic performance of students in secondary schools in nigeria. this, according to oecd (2013), is an indication that student-teacher relationships are correlated with studentteachers’ intrinsic motivation. this is also supported by fredricks, blumenfeld and paris’ study (2004) that good relations promote intrinsic motivation among learners. this finding is also supported by skinner, furrer, marchand and kindermann (2008) where they state that teachers’ attention to students can motivate students in order to participate in classroom activities, because positive emotions drive student motivation. the argument of self-determination theory, that individuals have three basic psychological needs (relatedness, autonomy, and competence) refers to human beings’ tendency towards wanting “to feel connected to others” (fosen, 2016). this is corroborated by ryan and patrick (2001) that the need to belong is a powerful motivation in itself, and that is why students who feel connected with and supported by their teacher are more likely to feel motivated to learn. this is also in line with the suggestion of fan and williams (2010) that omodan & tsotetsi students’ perception of their relationship with teachers plays an important role in motivating them to perform better. conclusion from the attachment theory perspective and the inference drawn from the findings of this study, it can be stated that student-teacher relationships are as important as the teaching and learning component itself. based on the above it is evidenced that when there is a decent connection between learners and their instructors, this will empower learners to communicate with their teachers at any time without dread. effective classroom engagement therefore provides students with opportunities to socialise while learning, because it keeps students motivated towards their works, provides appropriate instruction with friendly feedback, and keeps disruptive behaviour to a minimum (ekundayo, konwea & yusuf, 2010). learners with a positive engagement with their teachers will experience positive motivational convictions about school and classroom commitment, and this would positively correlate with their performance and achievement in school. classroom engagement and student motivation are therefore dimensions and determinants of student academic performance in secondary schools in nigeria. recommendations based on the above empirical exploration, ranging from the identification of the problem, related literature, findings and conclusion, the following recommendations to enhance students’ academic performance were made. these are however not limited to the nigerian context. 1. intensive efforts should be made by all relevant stakeholders to work towards improving the existing relationships between students and teachers. this should be done vis-à-vis other subordinate staff that works directly or indirectly for student achievement to better the current academic performance of students through professional inspection of teachers and other supervisory actions for effective teaching and learning. 2. secondary school administrators, alongside with government through agencies such as the ministry of education at both state and federal levels and federal and state teaching service commissions, should constantly ensure that teachers are trained and equipped with classroom engagement skills that will enable teachers to effectively communicate feelings, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 ideas and thoughts. this will enable students to develop a sense of belonging and enhance their readiness to learn for better academic performance through healthy relationships. 3. teachers should be equipped through various development programmes such as workshops, capacity building, training and retraining sessions to enable them to develop various motivational strategies that could be used to motivate students’ interest, and develop them to learn for better academic performance and overall achievement. omodan & tsotetsi references adeyemi, a. m. & adeyemi, s. b. (2014). personal factors as predictors of students' academic achievement in colleges of education in south western nigeria, educational research and reviews, 9(4), 97-109. babalola, c. t. (2018). principals’ behaviours as correlates of teacher effectiveness in public secondary schools in ekiti state, nigeria. unpublished master’s thesis, ekiti state university, nigeria. bamikole, o. i. (2017). classroom management and students’ academic performance in public senior secondary schools in ekiti state. unpublished master’s thesis, ekiti state university, nigeria. berman-young, s. b. (2014). teacher-student relationships: examining student perceptions of teacher support and positive student outcomes. unpublished doctorate dissertation, university of minnesota, usa. bowlby, j. (1969). attachment and loss: vol. 1. attachment. new york: basic. bowlby, j. (1973). attachment and loss: vol. 2. separation, anxiety and anger. new york: basic chang, m. l. (2009). an appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: examining the emotional work of teachers, educational psychology review, 21(3), 193–218. cherry k. (2018). the story of bowlby, ainsworth, and attachment theory: the importance of early emotional bonds. accessed february 19, 2018 https://www.verywellmind.com/what is-attachment-theory-2795337. cornelius-white, j. (2007). learner-centered teacher-student relationships are effective: a meta analysis, review of educational research, 77, 113-143. davis, h. (2003). conceptualizing the role and influence of student–teacher relationships on children’s social and cognitive development. educational psychologist, 38(4), 207–234. day, c. & gu, q. (2009). veteran teachers: commitment, resilience and quality retention, teachers and teaching, 15(4), 441–457. department of education. (2003). national curriculum statement grades 10-12 (general): life orientation. pretoria: south africa. deteso j. a. (2011). student-teacher relationships as predictors of reading comprehension gains in 2nd grade. unpublished doctorate dissertation, columbia university, usa. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-%09ishttps://www.verywellmind.com/what-%09isjournal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 available from https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/d89029sm. retrieved 20/05/2018. du preez, p. & botha, j. (2018). teaching-learning for democracy and human right in the life orientation curriculum. in m. nel (ed.), life orientation for south african teachers. (pp.27-35). pretoria: van schaik. ekundayo, h. t, omodan, b. i. & omodan, c. t. (2018). dynamics of organizational behaviour: a case of principals’ activities and teacher effectiveness in secondary schools in ekiti state, nigeria, the international journal of humanities & social studies, 6(8), 225-332. fakunle f. a. (2017) influence of job satisfaction on job performance among academic staff in tertiary institutions in ekiti state. unpublished master’s thesis, ekiti state university, nigeria. falade, c. a. (2018). impact of teachers’ professional development on effective teaching of business studies at junior secondary schools in ado local government area of ekiti state. in m. m. dichaba & m. a. o. sotayo (ed.), rethinking teaching and learning in the 21st century (pp. 276-290). pretoria, south africa: african academic research forum. fan, w. & williams, c. m. (2010). the effects of parental involvement on students’ academic self-efficacy, engagement and intrinsic motivation, educational psychology, 30(1), 53–74. faremi a. f. & jita l. c. (2018). assessment of family characteristics and learners’ variables in enhancing academic achievement motivation in secondary schools. in m. m. dichaba & m. a. o. sotayo (ed.), rethinking teaching and learning in the 21st century (pp. 147 161). pretoria, south africa: african academic research forum. federal republic of nigeria (2013). national policy on education: revised edition. yaba, lagos: nerdc press fredricks, j. a., blumenfeld, p. c. & paris, a. h. (2004). school engagement: potential of the concept, state of the evidence, review of educational research, 74, 59-109. furrer, c. & skinner, e. (2003). sense of relatedness as a factor in children's academic engagement and performance, journal of educational psychology, 95(1), 148-162. hamre, b. k., & pianta, r. c. (2001). early teacher-child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade, child development, 72, 625-638. hughes, j. n., luo, w., kwok, o. & loyd, l. k. (2008). teacher-student support, effortful engagement, and achievement: a 3-year longitudinal study, journal of educational psychology, 100(1), 1-14. https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/d89029sm omodan & tsotetsi hughes, j. n. & chen, q. (2011). reciprocal effects of student–teacher and student– peer relatedness: effects on academic self-efficacy, journal of applied developmental psychology, 32(5), 278–287. koen, m. (2018). relationships. in m. nel (ed.), life orientation for south african teachers. (pp. 299-318). pretoria: van schaik. krasovskaya m. (2016). interrelation between close teacher-student relationships and engagement: the case of finnish pre-schools. unpublished master’s thesis, university of jyväskylä, finland. krstić k. (2015). attachment in the student-teacher relationship as a factor of school achievement, teaching innovations, 28(3), 167–188. nugent, t. t. (2009). the impact of teacher-student interaction on student motivation and achievement. unpublished doctoral dissertation, university of central florida, usa. retrieved from http:// etd.fcla.edu/cf/cfe0002884/nugent_tisome_t_200912_edd.pdf. retrieved 20/05/2018 nurmin, j. e. (2012). students' characteristics and teacher-child relationships in instruction: a meta-analysis, educational research review, 7(30): 177-179. oecd (2013). pisa 2012 results: ready to learn: students’ engagement, drive and self-beliefs (volume iii). oecd publishing. okolocha, c. c. & onyeneke, e. n. (2013). secondary school principals’ perception of business studies teachers’ teaching effectiveness in anambra state, nigeria, journal of education and practice, 4(2), 171-182. omopariola, o. f. (2017). quality assurance and teacher’s job performance in secondary schools in ekiti state, nigeria. unpublished master’s thesis, ekiti state university, nigeria. onaolapo, t. b. (2017).evaluation of classroom implementation of senior secondary school english language curriculum in ekiti state, nigeria. unpublished master’s thesis, ekiti state university, nigeria. pianta, r. c. (1999). enhancing relationships between children and teachers. washington, dc: american psychological association. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 82-101 riley, p (2012). attachment perspectives on classroom relationships: helping ourselves through helping others. joint aare apera international conference, sydney 2012. roorda, d. l., koomen, h. m. y., spilt, j. l. & oort, f. j. (2011). the influence of affective teacher-student relationships on students’ school engagement and achievement: a meta analytic approach, review of educational research, 81,493-529. ryan, a. & patrick, h. (2001). the classroom social environment and changes in adolescents’ motivation and engagement during middle school, american educational research journal, 38, 437–460. ryan, r. m., & deci, e. l. (2000). self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being, american psychologist, 55, 68-78. sabol, t. j. & pianta, r. c. (2012). recent trends in research on teacher–child relationships, attachment & human development 14(3), 213–231. shaver, p. r. & mikulincer, m. (2011). an attachment-theory framework for conceptualizing interpersonal behavior. in l. m. horowitz & s. strack (eds.), handbook of interpersonal psychology: theory, research, assessment and therapeutic interventions (pp. 17-35). hoboken, n.j.: wiley. skinner, e., furrer, c., marchand, g. & kindermann, t. (2008). engagement and disaffection in the classroom: part of a larger motivational dynamic?, journal of educational psychology, 100, 765–781. spilt, j., koomen, h. m. & thijs, j. (2011). teacher wellbeing: the importance of teacher– student relationships, educational psychology review, 23(4), 457–477. spilt, j.l., hughes, j.n., wu, j.y., & kwok, o.m. (2012). dynamics of teacher–student relationships: stability and change across elementary school and the influence on children’s academic success, child development, 83(4), 1180–1195. udey, f. u, ebuara, v. o., ekpoh, u. i. & edet, a. o. (2009). management and administration of nigeria education system: problems, challenges and the way forward. paper presented at the eleventh international conference of educational management association of south africa. (emasa) august 79. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 1-30 1 after the content course: an expert-novice study of disciplinary literacy practices michael a. kopish1 & sarah lane2 abstract this manuscript presents findings and implications from a multiple case study of how teacher candidates in secondary and middle childhood programs learn specialized knowledge, skills, and expertise from disciplinary experts in content courses and enact practices of disciplinary literacy in field placements. an expert-novice framework was employed to explore the pedagogical content knowledge of experts (professors of economics and history) and novices (middle childhood and secondary social studies teacher candidates) who taught history and economics during their clinical internships. data were analyzed from participants’ think-aloud and card sort activities, semistructured interviews, classroom artifacts, and classroom observations. the findings provide key insights in the preparation of teacher candidates in social studies. key words: teacher preparation, pedagogical content knowledge, social studies instruction, disciplinary literacy introduction at many universities, social studies teacher candidates take the majority of their content courses outside colleges of education. to illustrate, at one medium sized public university of the 121 total credit hours social studies teacher candidates must successfully complete to graduate, 54 of those credit hours are taken in content-specific courses in other colleges. the breakdown of the 54 credit hours for candidates are as follows: 27 credit hours in history, 9 in geography, 6 in economics, and 12 in political science. the range and number of content-specific credit hours prepare social studies teacher candidates to have depth and breadth of content knowledge in four core disciplines of social studies (i.e. history, geography, economics, civics/government). moreover, the courses should equip candidates with the requisite content knowledge needed to enact curriculum and instruction aligned with the state standards in social studies and pass any content examinations required for certification or licensure (i.e., praxis ii, ohio assessment of educators). 1 associate professor, ohio university, kopish@ohio.edu 2 undergraduate student, ohio university, sn640612@ohio.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 as it stands, a significant proportion of teacher candidates’ learning occurs in content classes from disciplinary experts who not only provide foundational content knowledge, but model practices of curriculum design, teaching, disciplinary thinking, and disciplinary literacy practices. there is growing recognition that disciplinary literacy involves understanding discourses, social and cognitive practices, ways of thinking and reasoning, and habits of mind undertaken by disciplinary experts (fang, 2014; moje, 2008; shanahan & shanahan, 2008). thus, while content knowledge differs from discipline to discipline, so does the discourse and rhetorical knowledge of each discipline. to be sure, the role disciplinary experts play in the development of future teachers is profound. as teacher educators, we must prepare our candidates to address questions that guide social studies today: what does thinking in the different disciplines look like? what do the experts do and how do school-aged students learn to accomplish it by comparison? what sorts of changes in thinking practices do learners need to undertake in order to become more knowledgeable about and proficient at understanding the world? the answers to these questions involve disciplinary thinking and cognitive and literacy practices compatible with those undertaken by disciplinary experts in history, geography, economics, and civics (lee & swan, 2013). social studies educators are currently experiencing a paradigm shift from incorporating generic literacy instruction to teaching discipline-specific language and literacy practices (ncss, 2013). the enactment of this new paradigm can be particularly difficult for current and future social studies educators who teach multiple disciplines (e.g. history, civics, economics, geography). during practicum experiences and internships, social studies teacher candidates are implored to enact literacy practices across multiple disciplines and provide students with opportunities engage in cognitive practices compatible with those undertaken by disciplinary experts (cuenca, castro, benton, hostetler, heafner, & thacker, 2018). but, how are teacher candidates learning the literacy and cognitive practices from disciplinary experts? how are social studies teacher candidates developing deep understanding of disciplinary content, habits of mind, and research-based practices from their content courses? to better prepare social studies teachers to meet the advanced literacy demands in the field, some guidance is needed. therefore, the aim of this study is to better understand how social studies teacher candidates in secondary education and middle childhood programs learn specialized knowledge, skills, and expertise from kopish & lane disciplinary experts in u.s. history and economics courses and enact practices of disciplinary literacy in field placements. literature review many researchers agree that teacher candidate learning is highly influenced by the communities of practices within which learning takes place (barton & levstik, 2004; van hover & yeager, 2007; ball & cohen 1999; darling-hammond & bransford, 2005; wilson & wineburg, 1988; zeichner & conklin, 2005). as a whole, this line of research emphasizes the role of mentor teachers in the novice teacher preparation. however, it is important to acknowledge that teacher candidates are often members of several communities of practice: 1) at placement sites with mentor teachers; 2) in content specific courses with disciplinary experts; and 3) in pedagogy courses with education experts. for this study, content courses are of particular interest given the reliance on college of arts and sciences for the content-specific training of teacher candidates. the collaborative training of candidates between colleges of education and the colleges of content courses is not without challenges (e.g., cochran-smith, 2005; king, 1987; zeichner, 1993). social studies educators have expressed concern that when teacher preparation in content and pedagogy occurs separately, candidates often struggle to apply content knowledge in classroom settings (segall, 2004). at a minimum, teacher educators expect candidates to acquire common content knowledge and have a strong desire for candidates to develop specialized content knowledge (ball et al, 2008). in history, for example, teacher educators want candidates to have specialized historical content knowledge that involves deep understanding of the processes of historical thinking (e.g., wineburg, 2001). likewise, in economics, teacher educators have similar desires for teacher candidates to develop discipline-specific economic reasoning and thinking skills consistent with research (cee, 2000; davies, 2006; wentworth, 1987; wentworth & schug, 1993). for today’s social studies teachers, however, content knowledge alone is insufficient and must be complimented with knowledge of pedagogy and disciplinary literacy. disciplinary experts not only provide foundational content knowledge for teacher candidates, they also demonstrate expert knowledge of literacy practices commensurate with their respective fields of study. this study is informed by previous research that helps explain how literacy is conceptualized in two disciplines of social studies: history (bain, 2012; reisman, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 2012; vansledright, 2012; wineburg, 2001) and economics (schug & walstad, 1991; miller & vanfossen, 1994; walstad, 1992; morton, 2005). while these studies provide much needed direction for social studies educators, they are limited by their emphasis on cognitive and skill demands of career-level experts. with the exception of history, these studies offer little to the field with respect to pedagogy. put differently, while these studies moved social studies education toward disciplinary practices, they do not address the transformation of the disciplinary content and practices learned from experts and how teacher candidates in field placements enact it in practice. compounding the problem, other studies reveal students and teacher candidates are rarely taught to read, write, think, and reason in discipline-specific ways (fang, 2014; moje, 2008; shanahan & shanahan, 2008). these gaps in the literature warrant an investigation of teacher candidate preparation by content experts outside of teacher education on their journey to become social studies teachers. specifically, this study addresses three key questions: 1. how do teacher candidates from middle childhood and secondary programs organize curriculum in us history and a self-identified weak social studies content area? 2. how does candidates’ organizational schemes for curriculum compare with experts? 3. how do novices and experts teach disciplinary knowledge and literacy practices? perspective in order to capture the alchemy of teaching content and skills through appropriate pedagogical practices, this study acknowledges there is wide acceptance among teacher educators that “content knowledge unique to teaching – a kind of subject-matter-specific professional knowledge” exists (ball, et al 2008, p. 389). first conceptualized by lee shulman (1987), pedagogical content knowledge (pck) is the “blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners and presented for instruction” (p. 8). pck is based on an understanding of what it is about the content that the teacher knows (and has come to understand) to purposefully shape the pedagogy and the associated approach to student learning (loughran et. al., 2004). pck develops over time as a repertoire of teacher pedagogical constructions “that the experienced teacher has developed as a result of repeated planning and teaching of, and reflection on the teaching of, the most regularly taught topics” (hashweh, 2006, kopish & lane p. 277). pck provides a sound framework to examine how curriculum is conceptualized and enacted to address content and disciplinary literacy requirements. methods research design for this research, a multiple-case design (yin, 2003) using an expert-novice framework was employed. expert-novice studies have a long history in teacher education and have contributed greatly to our understanding of history education (wineburg, 1991; 1992; 1994; leinhardt & young, 1996), and economics education (miller & vanfossen, 1994). participants participants for this expert novice study were derived from three distinct groups: a) four (4) undergraduate se teacher candidates enrolled in a social studies methods course, b) four (4) undergraduate mce teacher candidates enrolled in a social studies methods course, and c) two (2) disciplinary experts – a tenured history professor and a tenured economics professor. all of the teacher candidates who participated were enrolled in social studies methods courses (one for se candidates and one for mce candidates). running concurrent to the methods course, all teacher candidates completed a 150-hour clinical experience during the 2015 fall semester followed by a full-time professional internship (student teaching) during the spring 2016 semester. the lead author taught both methods courses, but did not supervise teacher candidates during their clinical experience or professional internship. the disciplinary experts had experience teaching both survey and upper division courses in their respective fields. due to variation in individual teacher candidates’ programs of study and course selections, not all candidates enrolled in the expert’s courses. presented in the findings are data from two students, ben (an se candidate) and jennifer (an mce candidate) are representative of the two groups and their experiences are included in this manuscript. ben completed his professional internship teaching 9th grade history and 11th grade economics at a small rural high school and jennifer completed her professional internship teaching an 7th grade class at a rural middle school. to be licensed in ohio, teacher candidates must pass an ohio assessment of educators (oae) content test in social studies – one test is aligned with high school social studies content and one test is aligned with middle school social studies content. on the oae, both passed the full examination; ben earned passing scores of 3 our of 4 on the u.s. history and economic sections and jennifer earned passing scores of 3 out journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 of 4 for u.s. history and 2 out of 4 for economics. both students were highly accomplished in their studies and exemplar teacher candidates. study methodology expert novice studies initially emerged to better understand expert thinking in physics (larkin, mcdermott, simon & simon, 1980; chi, feltovich, & glaser, 1981) and chess (chase & simon, 1973). in education research, card sort methodology is employed to examine expert thinking (barton & levstik, 1998; harris, 2008). the card sort methodology involves participants sorting through a stack of cards and constructing some sort of concept map by arranging the cards in a pattern that reflects their understandings, labeling groupings of cards, and indicating connections between cards. such studies allow researchers to examine thinking of disciplinary experts (and novices) with content experience and pedagogy as they organize content for instructional purposes. data collection and tools for this study, all participants first completed a think-aloud and card sort activity adapted from a protocol used with world history experts and novice (harris, 2008; harris & bain, 2011). the think-aloud and card sort activity reflected state standards for u.s. history and economics in ohio (see appendix a). all se and mce teacher candidates who participated completed two card sort activities: one for u.s. history, a self-identified area of strong content understanding and one in economics, a self-identified weak content area. the rationale for having candidates identify strong and weak content areas is informed by research that demonstrates educators who teach outside of disciplinary expertise often struggle (gudmundsdottir & shulman, 1987; wilson & wineburg, 1988), which offered the researchers a unique opportunity to analyze disciplinary knowledge and practices of teacher candidates in two content areas. presented in this manuscript are findings from candidates who taught both u.s. history and economics during their fall clinical and spring professional internships. disciplinary experts, on the other hand, only completed one card sort activity for their respective discipline. second, all participants completed semi-structured interviews to explore how they employ and enact disciplinary practices (fang & coatoam, 2013) with students in their respective classrooms (see appendix b). third, the researchers collected and analyzed examples of classroom artifacts and other teaching materials from all participants; the researcher also collected teacher candidates’ reflective journals from their internships. finally, the lead researcher observed classroom kopish & lane instruction by all participants. each teacher candidate was observed two times teaching a u.s. history course and two times teaching economics while the experts were observed one time each. table 1 alignment of research questions with procedures and products research question procedure product 1. how do teacher candidates from middle childhood and secondary programs organize curriculum in us history and a self-selected weak social studies content area? 2. how does candidates’ organizational schemes for curriculum compare with experts? card sort semi-structured interview concept map interview transcripts 3. how do novices and experts teach disciplinary knowledge and literacy practices? artifact review (syllabi, relevant course materials) classroom observation text data – artifact descriptions field notes data analysis the two authors worked to transcribe all interviews and think-aloud, organize all field notes from classroom observations and artifacts from classroom instruction. we enacted processes of triangulation (patton, 2001), which involved corroboration of findings across data sources (i.e., interviews, think-aloud, field notes, and classroom artifacts) and member checks with participants to ensure validity of our findings. together, the authors began with an inductive open coding process to identify themes followed by an axial coding process to note relationships (miles & huberman, 1994) followed by a deductive process to assign categories. the authors began coding a subset of the transcripts and coding schemes were compared, discussed, and amended. consensus was reached on the main themes related to the primary research questions. data from the subset were re-coded using the new coding scheme, which was then applied to all transcripts and other data sources (see appendix c). to ensure reliability, any coding discrepancies were addressed until final consensus was reached. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 findings novice organization of us history similar to previous research that employed a card sort methodology with social studies content (harris 2008; harris & bain, 2011), both se and mce candidates in this study made few attempts to connect events, offered little detail to explain connections, and appeared unsure how to represent particular content between historical events. the absence of making connections resulted in both se and mce candidates relying on chronology as the main organizational scheme for units of instruction (see figures 1 and 2) and explained connections though cause and effect. for example, ben stated, “i’d start with imperialism, and within that i would usher in world war i because imperialism was a cause to world war i, international agreements would not go next because world war i led to international agreements.” candidates also drew few lines to demonstrate connections between themes and events and often appeared unsure how to represent connections for their students. cards were placed in order based on candidates’ belief that events and themes should be imparted on students based on magnitude of impact. using the world war i as a reference, jennifer placed the theme “international agreements” in this unit of instruction because “there’s always something going on that ties the world together, i think world war i is in my opinion the one place in time where international agreements were most important.” candidates found ways to sort and group cards to construct historical meaning of u.s. history through a chronological exploration of tension and conflict. they constructed pedagogical meaning for themselves by demonstrating moderate factual knowledge and basic understanding of when events occurred. taken together, the historical and pedagogical meaning framed how they sought to impart u.s. history on their students during classroom instruction as well. kopish & lane figure 1. u.s. history mce candidate card sort journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 figure 2. u.s. history se candidate card sort disciplinary practices of candidates when candidates were observed in their classrooms they constructed historical meaning by ordering historical events and themes chronologically and explained connections between events and themes by cause and effect. this general structure, however, did not include persistent themes in u.s. history, essential questions, or deep exploration into the complex connections among historical themes and events. in short, there was no larger historical narrative through which the course focused. units were taught as separate time periods that influenced subsequent periods (i.e. “imperialism was a cause to world war i, international agreements would not go next because world war i led to more cooperation.”). however, across units of instruction in u.s. history, candidates wanted to establish a skills-based framework to teach disciplinary practices and promote historical thinking. opportunities and barriers of disciplinary literacy. candidates sought to engage students’ curiosity and to “not just accept history as some that just happened.” they expressed a kopish & lane strong desire to employ a range of disciplinary practices by: incorporating multiple sources beyond the textbook, promoting inquiry with overarching historical questions for each unit that are open ended and debatable (i.e. during times of war, should there be checks on the commander in chief?), and teaching students historical argumentation using evidence. there was a distinct difference between se and mce candidate’s opportunities to enact their desired practices; it was contingent on the candidates’ placement and the pedagogical perspectives and practices of their mentor teacher. ben, for example, was able to enact his vision of teaching history. he promoted inquiry through “critical analysis of readings, of pictures, of video clips, of maps, primary sources, secondary sources, and novels” and taught his students “different perspectives from people who have different positions so they can see that history is not one single story.” in the classroom, ben designed several opportunities for his students to practice perspective taking by analyzing multiple primary sources of content familiar to students. one lesson engaged students in a critical analysis of columbus with perspectives of the tainos, bartolome de las casas, king ferdinand and queen isabella, columbus’s crew, and columbus’s journals. a second lesson involved comparing personal accounts of the slave trade from olaudah equiano, ottobah cugano and several slave-ship captains. jennifer, on the other hand, was placed in a classroom where, students didn’t analyze documents, they didn’t question sources and certainly weren’t given a chance to question claims and evidence. they were given tasks to complete that guided them to correct answers. it was challenging to change the type of learning i want to promote in the classroom from names, dates, people, places to teaching historical controversies, bringing in multiple perspectives and teaching historical argumentation. in jennifer’s middle school classroom there was a reliance worksheets and general skills and strategies by reading the textbook using strategies such as, “stop and jot, text mark, and sketch your way through the text, semantic maps, kwl, and anticipation guides.” even when she was afforded greater autonomy, she struggled to enact disciplinary practices to promote historical thinking during her internship. expert organization of us history during the card sort activity, the expert was considerably more deliberate and purposeful than novices in his approach to review all cards before constructing an organizational scheme than the novices. for example, the history expert initially moved cards in a “loose chronological journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 order” and re-sorted by foreign and domestic connections followed by social and cultural ideas. the professor quipped, he could “reorient this thing about five different times depending on the way i would approach a course” before arriving at a “course architecture,” an organizational scheme that focused the study of history through relationships and themes. he stated, when i teach us history there are broad themes and subjects, almost methodologies of history that i will embed within the overall architecture of the course. so, something like immigration, slavery, or racism i mean if they are connected in the period i am looking at in important ways and they are things that will be covered at multiple times. i don’t quarantine them into one unit. the course proceeds in a more event or biographically driven way that is more chronological in focus with a thematic understructure. for example, in figure 3, one can see two-way arrows between the transcontinental railroad and industrialization and immigration. to him, the transcontinental railroad has a moment in time when it is significant, and can be viewed through several themes or lenses (i.e. industrialization and immigration). he mentioned the transcontinental railroad is something that would be discussed “in the context of how people were talking about the role of government and how they were debating imperialism, industrialization, and federalism.” in other words, he draws on multiple themes to analyze an episode of history in order for students to see history as having layers of complexity. kopish & lane figure 3. u.s. history expert card sort disciplinary practices of the u.s. history expert intellectual architecture of u.s. history. for the history professor, there is an overarching “intellectual architecture” that is explicit and guides students. first, his classes are constructed on the concept of liberty and freedom; two democratic values that are not static terms but have different meanings at different times and in different contexts. liberty, for example, “changes meaning from when the puritans use it in the 17th century to thomas jefferson’s natural liberty in the 18th century to abolitionists like harriet jacobs use it in the 1840s and 50s.” as a recurring theme, liberty becomes a “signpost” for students to reexamine the concept to determine different meanings depending on the context. a second theme in his “intellectual architecture” is not viewing us history in isolation but through a sense of place globally in order for students to “think about their own world in a broader global context.” he incorporates two troupes to encourage historical thinking: one is context – “to situate the people we are looking at within the world in which they lived” and a second, agency – “whether history is determined by overarching structures that sweep aside individuals or if history is made by journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 decisions of individuals and groups.” in his view, history is the story of tension between context and agency and one cannot rely solely on one or the other to analyze history. making the tacit explicit. in the history expert’s course, students are provided a framework with three focus questions or three themes that are explicitly stated in a weekly handout and highlight how the readings integrate into the questions or themes. this pedagogical tool helped the history professor enact his “intellectual architecture.” for example, he assigns readings from eric foner’s give me liberty to provide students with an overarching narrative and then incorporates primary sources from classic political texts (i.e. thomas payne’s common sense, the declaration of independence, andrew jackson’s bank veto, federalist papers). he then moves to biographical accounts from “voices that are not as easily conveyed in the dominant stories of history” (i.e. slave narratives from equiano, harriet jacobs’ incidents in the life of a slave girl) to account for the lived experience of people during particular time periods. taken together, the intellectual framework situates the events, people, and multiple readings encourage students to relate to an individual or focus on a controversy. put succinctly, the professor believes “studying history allows you to understand the complicated mechanisms around which you can apply the richer understanding of historical processes and individual agency to different circumstances.” candidates’ organization of economics each study participant was also asked to identify their weakest content area among geography, civics/government, economics, and world history. the majority of se and mce candidates selected economics as their weakest content area and completed card sort activities based on state standards for economics. when the candidates completed the card sort for u.s. history, they were able to use chronology as a basic organizational scheme. without chronology, candidates elected to group familiar economics concepts into self-created categories (i.e. basic terms, the impact of systems, economics and the individual, and economic decisions) or used one of the cards as the title for grouping (i.e. economic systems, economic decisions, financial responsibility: planning and money management, and economic indicators). there was considerable variation across the candidates’ iterations of an economics curriculum through the card sort activity (see figure 4 and 5) as candidates loosely grouped cards “with no particular order.” however, there was similarity in that candidates made no connection between groupings or offered an overarching question or approach as a guide to economics. kopish & lane figure 4. economics mce candidate card sort journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 figure 5. economics se candidate card sort challenges from lack of economic content knowledge. during the card sort activity, the candidates struggled mightily to get the economics cards sorted into some kind of order that offered conceptual coherency for themselves or for learners. as candidates articulated how they arrived at their decisions for card placement, it was clear that background knowledge and a depth of understanding of concepts and ideas that are important in the study of economics was absent. for example, jennifer explains her thinking behind the creation of the economic systems category: for economic systems, i think we can also kind of move into you know, kind of what makes, you know, what makes it up. so, we’ve got the consumers, producers, goods and services, and supply and demand. i think those tie in very well with each other. in jennifer’s previous card sort for u.s. history she was able to organize the cards chronologically and at a minimum explain the connection between events and themes using cause and effect. as she worked through her explanation of economics systems, she did not offer kopish & lane additional information; her rationale for including concepts in the category was simply, “i think those tie in very well with each other.” this pattern followed for each of the categories she developed. ben also offered few insights behind his selection of concepts for categories. for example, ben stated, i would put markets in economic systems. what is the role that markets play? i would put credit and debit in basic terms. what’s going through my mind right now in economic systems is capitalism and communism. and i would put incentives in there because i know in capitalism we’re all about risk and going and taking a risk and making some money for it. similar to jennifer, ben provided this level of detail as a rationale for all the categories he developed. overall, candidates were not able to offer conceptual coherency for their card sort activity nor were they able to articulate a reasoned rationale for inclusion of concepts in the categories. for the overarching structure, candidates created discrete categories and did not make any connections between categories. disciplinary practices of candidates as one might imagine, for se and mce candidates in the field, economics was taught differently at the two levels. for ben, at the high school level, four broad units were established for his course (i.e. background, microeconomics, macroeconomics, and comparative economics) while at the middle school level economics was infused throughout the social studies curriculum by topic (i.e. economic decision-making and skills, production and consumption, markets, financial literacy). at jennifer’s eighth grade placement, economics was taught as a stand-alone unit. for both candidates, the lack of conceptual coherency and absence of overarching structure or connections between categories that was demonstrated in card sort activity also plagued candidates teaching of economics in the field. traditional instruction. without strong economic content knowledge, candidates’ instructional practices in economics were limited to traditional forms of instruction (i.e. direct instruction through power point, textbook reading and worksheets). these practices were modeled by their mentor teachers and shared with the candidates for enactment. in u.s. history, candidates at least expressed a desire to enact disciplinary literacy practices to promote historical thinking; this was not the case in economics – there was no acknowledgement of a desire to teach economic thinking. perhaps one of the greatest inhibitors for the se and mce candidates journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 in economics is that they learned content ahead of the students and relied heavily on the textbook and prepared curriculum from mentor teachers. evading economic thinking. for the most part, the candidates offered few authentic opportunities to explore economics through classroom activities to promote economic thinking. when they did offer an opportunity to explore economics beyond the textbook and lecture, they led students through simulations: middle school students participated in a personal budget simulation and high school students participated in a stock market simulation. in both simulations, however, the candidates de-emphasized economic thinking, the analysis and application of economic concepts and principles. instead, the activities were structured to promote competition between student groups. for example, in the personal budget simulation, students were “awarded bonus points for keeping their household budget in the black.” the stock market simulation had a similar de-emphasis on economic thinking promoted student learning through an award structure that offered “extra credit points for those students who earned the most money from their stock selection.” throughout the economics course and unit, there were limited opportunities for students to apply economic concepts and principles to the real world. expert organization of economics prior to engaging in the card sort activity, the economics expert discussed how part of her job as a professor is to clear up a misperception her students have that economics is about money. she offered the following statement as an example of what economics is to her: “economics is a behavioral science about decision-making and it’s really decisions about scarcity and what are the influences and factors that go into making decisions.” with a focus on decisions, the economics expert was as deliberate and purposeful as the u.s. history expert during the card sort activity. she sorted the cards multiple times throughout the activity and eventually settled on a diagram that explained economics as a process of decision-making and the factors that contribute to economic decisions (see figure 6). to explain the logic and flow of the diagram, the economics expert started with the center of the diagram; incentives and cost/benefit analysis influence all economic decisions, which are made by consumers and producers. these considerations result in types of economic decisions (i.e. credit and debt, savings and investing) for both consumers and producer and result in the aggregate supply and demand, which is “ultimately what a society produces at the end is the result of decisions.” she also pointed out that economic decisions are “not made in a vacuum; kopish & lane they are made within an economic context that includes government policies, a macroeconomic context, and other inputs to consider.” when she teaches, she tries to convey to her students that rather than expecting an economist to say something is right or wrong, “the real way economists think is in terms of tradeoffs.” figure 6. economics expert card sort disciplinary practices of the economics expert authentic experience for learning. to the economics professor, “economics is a process” and “the core of economics is decision-making.” this simple but profound message is what she tries to convey to all of her students and accomplishes this by engaging students in authentic situations to learn economic thinking. pedagogically, she incorporates economic simulations, inquiry projects, and teaches controversial issues to her students. for example, one simulation she teaches is a computer simulation where students are buyers or sellers of textbooks. the purpose of the textbook simulation is to place students in a position to experience making economic decisions and to directly apply economic concepts represented in the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 simulation (i.e. supply and demand curve, market-clearing price, and the law of one price). to promote critical thinking and economic analysis, the professor assigns an inquiry project that requires students’ research an anti-trust lawsuit to explore monopolies. for an iteration of the project, she collaborated with a college coach and asked the students: should we pay college athletes? this controversy was germane and of interest to the students; it required students to conduct research, applies economic concepts from class, and prepare questions to ask the college coach during an open discussion. through these activities, students were again able to engage in economic thinking in an authentic learning experience. modeling to develop economic skills for the real world. economics can be abstract to learners and the professor wants all students to walk away from her classes with the ability to make informed economic decisions. she acknowledged this is no easy task and teaches economic thinking and reasoning by modeling. for example, different case studies in economics were analyzed in class to “flush out every cost and benefit, even opportunity costs.” her pedagogical approach demonstrates critical thinking and economic reasoning like she explained in her card sort (see figure 7). in addition, she required her students to apply economic thinking skills through authentic writing assignments. the writing assignment required students to take on the role and perspectives of a consultant with real-world data sets. students learned how to calculate data, analyze components or drivers of poverty in developing countries, write to tell a story using data, and prepare a written product for various non-governmental organizations. in another authentic writing example, students performed a rise analysis using data available from nonprofits and wrote reports for the non-profit. from a pedagogical perspective, this professor taught students the disciplinary practices of economists through authentic experiences and modeling. discussion, conclusion and implications teacher preparation is an irreducibly complex process that involves candidate mentorship in multiple communities of practice (barton & levstik, 2004; van hover & yeager, 2007; ball & cohen 1999; darling-hammond & bransford, 2005; wilson & wineburg, 1988; zeichner & conklin, 2005). a challenge for social studies teacher educators is to try and capture the unique and often disparate contributions to teacher candidates from various stakeholders. this study focused on how social studies teacher candidates in secondary and middle childhood programs learn specialized knowledge, skills and expertise from disciplinary experts in u.s. history and economics and how candidates enact disciplinary literacy practices during student internships. kopish & lane the findings yielded several important contributions to the literature on teacher candidate preparation in social studies. first, there is a stark contrast between novice teacher candidates and content experts in how they conceptualize and organize curriculum in the disciplines and enact disciplinary practices. this comes as no surprise given the difference in experience between the two groups. novices made fewer attempts to connect or link concepts, offered little detail to explain connections, and appeared unsure how to represent particular content during the card sort. experts were able to coherently construct frameworks or approaches during the card sort that demonstrated flexibility in disciplinary thinking and facilitated student learning around core disciplinary concepts thinking and big ideas. novices explained their process of organization as discrete and factual while experts were able to focus learning through disciplinary thinking and perspectives to connect students to a human element that is critical for learning. second, while novices’ content knowledge should be considered emerging, experts demonstrated specialized historical content knowledge in history (wineburg, 2001) and economics (cee, 2000; davies, 2006; wentworth, 1987; wentworth & schug, 1993). this level of content knowledge enabled experts to purposefully shape the pedagogy and the associated approaches to student learning (hashweh, 2006; loughran et. al., 2004; shulman, 1987) is consistent with extant research of disciplinary practices in history (bain, 2012; reisman, 2012; vansledright, 2012; wineburg, 2001), and economics (miller & vanfossen, 1994; morton, 2005; schug & walstad, 1991; walstad, 1992). third, researchers have highlighted the perennial problem of disconnect between teacher education coursework and field experience (pryor, 2006; misco & hamot, 2012; zeichner, 2010) for teacher candidates in this study an additional gap emerged among what candidates learn in content courses, teacher education courses, and their field experiences. put simply, candidates’ professional readiness and pedagogical content knowledge is a work in progress and requires teacher educators to experiment and collaborate more purposefully to bolster the quality of candidates’ experiences in different communities of practice (e.g., bain, 2012; journell & tolbert, 2016, marri, et. al, 2011). fourth, candidates’ experiences in content courses are often from the perspective of a student, not of an educator. students look for the right answer without understanding the complexity of disciplinary knowledge or how values, beliefs, and practices that shape evidence journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 in different time periods and locales. to be fair, professors assume their craft is explicitly taught; but this research shows social studies teacher candidates often miss the nuance. we need to find ways to make tacit and elusive practices and pedagogy more explicit to teacher candidates. more importantly, when critical components of disciplinary knowledge and literacy are missed in content course, they are not learned in field placements or in teacher education courses. this problem can be exacerbated when content courses are taken online. teacher educators need to consider different interventions with teacher candidates when they take content courses. it could be pairing teacher education courses with content courses or greater outreach and collaboration on the part of social studies educators to work with content experts to help make their pedagogy more explicit (harris & bain, 2011). lastly, research of pck in non-history disciplines is sparse (joshi & marri, 2006; journell, 2013) and although the number of participants in small, it is a necessary step to begin investigating pck of teacher candidates in multiple disciplines. research shows teaching outside of ones’ disciplinary expertise is struggle for teachers (gudmundsdottir & shulman, 1987; wilson & wineburg, 1988); the same is true for candidates in this study. most teacher candidates are placed in schools based on availability rather than matched by content area expertise or disciplinary interest. the likelihood a candidate will teach a course outside of their content area is high. this research sheds light on areas candidates’ development of pck in a commonly taught content area (e.g. u.s. history) and in areas of struggle where candidates are assigned (e.g. economics). further, this research helps practitioners to see how candidates conceptualize curriculum and disciplinary literacy, how literacy tools are used (or not used) in classes and placements, and how candidates blend pck and disciplinary literacy practices to enact in classrooms. references bain, r. b. (2012). using disciplinary literacy to develop coherence in history teacher education: the clinical rounds project. the history teacher, 513-532. ball, d., & cohen, d. (1999). developing practitioners: toward a practice-based theory of professional development. in g. sykes & l. darling-hammond (eds.), teaching as the learning profession: handbook of policy and practice (pp. 3–32). san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. ball, d. l., thames, m. h., & phelps, g. (2008). content knowledge for teaching: what makes kopish & lane it special? journal of teacher education, 59, 389–407. barton, k., & levstik, l. (2004). teaching history for the common good. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. chase, w. g., &simon, h. a. (1973). perception in chess. cognitive psychology, 4, 55-81. chi, m. t. h., feltovich, p. j., & glaser, r. (1981). categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. cognitive science, 5,121-152. cochran-smith, m. (2005). the new teacher education: for better or for worse? educational researcher, 34 (7), 3–17. council for the accreditation educator preparation (caep). (2013). standards. retrieved from http://caepnet.org/standards/introduction. council on economic education (cee). (2000). the great economic mystery book: a guide to teaching economic reasoning in grades 9-12. new york, ny: the economics america and economics international programs. cuenca, a., castro, a., benton, b., hostetler, a., heafner, t., & thacker, e. (2018). national council for the social studies: national standards for the preparation of social studies teachers. retrieved from https://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/media/2017/nov/ncss_teacher_s tandards_2017-rev9-6-17.pdf darling-hammond, l., & bransford, j. (eds.). (2005). preparing teachers for a changing world: what teachers should learn and be able to do. san francisco: jossey-bass. davies, p. (2006). educating citizens for changing economies. journal of curriculum studies, 38(1), 15-30. fang, z. (2014). preparing content area teachers for disciplinary literacy instruction. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 57(6), 444-448. fang, z., & coatoam, s. (2013). disciplinary literacy: what you want to know about it. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 56(8), 627-632. gudmundsdottir, s., & shulman, l. s. (1987). pedagogical content knowledge in social studies. scandinavian journal of educational research, 31, 59–70. harris, l. m. (2008). building coherence in world history: a study of instructional tools and teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. phd diss., university of michigan. harris, l. m. & bain, r. b. (2011) pedagogical content knowledge for world history journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 teachers: what is it? how might prospective teachers develop it? the social studies. 102(1), 9-17. hashweh, m. z. (2005). teacher pedagogical constructions: a reconfiguration of pedagogical content knowledge. teachers and teaching: theory and practice. 11(3), 273-292. joshi, p., & marri, a. r. (2006). an economics methods course? challenges of teaching an economics education methods course for secondary social studies pre-service teachers. the social studies, 97, 197–202. journell, w. (2013). what pre-service social studies teachers (don’t) know about politics and current events—and why it matters. theory & research in social education, 41, 316 351. journell, w., & tolbert, l. c. (2016). working together, not sharing the burden: a collaborative approach to developing pedagogical content knowledge with secondary social studies pre-service teachers. in rethinking social studies teacher education in the twenty-first century (pp. 123-142). springer international publishing. king, j. a. (1987). the uneasy relationship between teacher education and the liberal arts and sciences. journal of teacher education, 38, 6–10. larkin, j., mcdermott, j., simon, d., & simon, h. (1980). expert and novice performance in solving physics problems. science, 208, 1335-1342. lee, j. & swan, k. (2013). is the common core good for social studies? yes, but… social education, 77(6), 327330. leinhardt, g., & young, k. m. (1996). two texts, three readers: distance and expertise in reading history. cognition and instruction, 14,441-486. loughran, j., mulhall, p., & berry, a. (2004). in search of pedagogical content knowledge in science: developing ways of articulating and documenting professional practice. journal of research in science teaching, 41(4), pp. 370-391. marri, a. r., perin, d., crocco, m. s., riccio, j. f., rivet, a., & chase, b. j. (2011). content-driven literacy: one approach to urban secondary teacher education. the new educator, 7(4), 325-351. kopish & lane miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook of new methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage. milner, h. (2002). civic literacy: how informed citizens make democracy work. london: university press new england. miller, s. l., & vanfossen, p. j. (1994). assessing expertise in economic problem solving: a model. theory & research in social education, 22(3), 380-412. misco, t. & hamot, g. e. (2012). “he was the opposite of what we learned a teacher should be”: a study of preservice social studies students’ cooperating teachers. the journal of social studies research, 36 (4), 305–328. moje, e. b. (2008). foregrounding the disciplines in secondary literacy teaching and learning: a call for change. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 52(2), 96-107. morton, j. s. (2005). the interdependence of economic and personal finance education. social education, 69(2), 66-69. ncss. (2013). national council for the social studies (ncss) social studies for the next generation: purposes, practices, and implications of the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards. silver springs, md. bulletin 113. pryor, c. r. (2006). pre-service to in-service changes in beliefs: a study of intention to become a democratic practitioner. theory and research in social education, 34(1), 98 123. reisman, a. (2012). reading like a historian: a document-based history curriculum intervention in urban high schools. cognition and instruction, 30(1), 86-112. schug, m., & walstad, w. (1991). teaching and learning economics. in j. shaver (ed.), handbook of research on social studies teaching and learning, (pp. 411-419). new york: macmillan reference books. segall, a. (2004). revisiting pedagogical content knowledge: the pedagogy of content/the content of pedagogy. teaching and teacher education, 20, 489–504. shanahan, t., & shanahan, c. (2008). teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: rethinking content-area literacy. harvard educational review, 78(1), 40-59. shulman, l. s. (1987). knowledge and teaching: foundations of a new reform. harvard educational review, 57, 1–21. vansledright , b. ( 2012 ). learning with texts in history: protocols for reading and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 practical strategies. in t. jetton & c. shanahan (eds.), adolescent literacy in the academic disciplines: general principles and practical strategies (pp.199-226). new york, ny: guilford. van hover, s. & yeager, e. (2007). “i want to use my subject matter to…”: the role of purpose in one u.s. secondary history teacher’s instructional decision making. canadian journal of education, 30(3), 670-690. walstad, w. b. (1992). economics instruction in high schools. journal of economic literature, 2019-2051. wentworth, d. r. (1987). economic reasoning: turning myth into reality. theory into practice, 26(3), 170-175. wentworth, d. r., & schug, m. c. (1993). fate vs. choices: what economic reasoning can contribute to social studies. social studies, 84(1), 27-31. wilson, s. m., & wineburg, s. (1988). peering at history through different lenses: the role of disciplinary perspectives in teaching history. teachers college record, 89(4), 525-539. wineburg, s. s. (1991). historical problem solving: a study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence journal of educational psychology, 83, 73-87. wineburg, s. s. (1992). robing the depths of students’ historical knowledge. perspectives of the american historical association, 30, 20-24. wineburg, s. s. (1994). the cognitive representation of historical texts. in g. leinhardt, i. l. beck, & c. stainton (eds.), teaching and learning in history (pp. 85-135). hillsdale, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates, inc. wineburg, s. (2001). historical thinking and other unnatural acts: charting the future of teaching the past. temple university press. yin, r. k. (2003). case study research: design and methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. zeichner, k. m. (1993). traditions of practice in u.s. pre-service teacher education programs. teaching and teacher education, 9, 1–13. zeichner, k. (2010). rethinking the connections between campus courses and field experiences in collegeand university-based teacher education. journal of teacher education, 61(1/2), 89-99. kopish & lane zeichner, k. m., & conklin, h. (2005). teacher education programs. in m. cochran-smith & k. m. zeichner (eds.), studying teacher education: the report of the aera panel on research and teacher education (pp. 645-735). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 appendices appendix a – examples of concepts from state standards in card sort activity us history revolutionary war civil war world war i world war ii manifest destiny the louisiana purchase slavery federalism triangle trades voyages of discovery industrialization transcontinental railroad assembly line segregation consumerism great depression immigration social movements cold war vietnam war space race culture wars conservatism vs. liberalism war on terror imperialism nuclear age communism international agreements civil rights role of government economics economic systems markets consumers producers supply and demand competition incentives economic decisions goods and services economic indicators globalization trade, quotas, tariffs, subsides comparative advantage income, wages, benefits taxation cost/benefit financial responsibility: planning and money management saving and investing credit and debt risk kopish & lane appendix b – semi-structured interview protocol general literacy 1. what are the most common reading and writing strategies that you use in your classroom? why do you use them? what are their objectives? 2. what literacy skills do students need in your class? disciplinary literacy 1. what are the texts of your discipline? how do you select texts for your classes? 2. what are the major understandings of the discipline (e.g., patterns/themes, types of questions asked, burning questions/controversies)? 3. what is the critical language and discourse of the discipline? 4. how do you teach students to read and write like members of your discipline? practices 1. describe your pedagogical style. 2. what are the essential characteristics of an ideal curriculum in your discipline? 3. how do you assess students in your classes? 4. describe ways of thinking in your discipline. (history example: chronological thinking, comprehension, analysis and interpretation, historical research, issues-analysis and decision-making) 5. describe how experts reason in your discipline. (history example: asking historical questions, using sources, contextualization, argumentation, using substantive concepts, using meta-concepts) 6. describe habits of mind that are necessary for success in your discipline and in your class. 7. what literacy tools do you teach for your students? 8. what technologies are used in practice in your discipline? appendix c – selected coding examples codes theme definition quote  establish order  sequence of events  temporally bound chronology teacher candidates opted to organize the card sort chronologically and described an order of events for the rationale. “i’d start with imperialism, and within that i would usher in world war i because imperialism was a cause to world war i, international agreements would not go next because journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 1-30 world war i led to international agreements.”  persistent themes  guiding questions  framing of units intellectual architecture the expert provides specific examples of themes, questions, and frames that are explicitly shared with students to guide learning. “i think about the actual intellectual framework in which i am trying to situate this event, this person, this reading. then, students will be able to know where i’m going with the lecture and not just sitting there grasping at straws. i guess the short answer is they get to a place early in the course where they’ve understood here’s the intellectual architecture for this class. the implications of learning management system on education quality in the new normal era: evidence studyon islamic higher education www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2), 83-102 the public behavior and the social role of national legal business education zulham1 abstract this study investigates the role between public behavior and the social function of the national legal education for the online loan literacy case. the scope of the research includes community behavior integrated with technology and consumer education concerning business law regarding self evaluation and protection of personal information in the case of online loans. the normative legal study design assesses ten principal legal documents, including nine rhode island laws, four government regulations issued by the minister of communication and information and the financial services authority, and one civil code. the study focuses on positive law regarding self evaluation and protection of consumer information and business law education on online loans. the findings disclose that in national law, online loan literacy cases occur in digital societies. it is necessary to conduct an independent evaluation to control the exploitative attitude of people literate in online loans and determine each area of personal data protection related to rights, obligations, and sanctions based on government regulations. the second finding explains that the social role of business law education on the consumptive behavior of digital society; is shown in primary legal materials. it provides many benefits in self-evaluation and consumer protection, including self-control not to behave wastefully in using online loans, making online loan decisions, and forming a business-savvy personality. legally, their role for digital society and business law education exists. it includes learning about making humans knowledgeable and having skills in meeting their needs and achieving a better standard of living or progress. the government needs to revise the law, encouraging healthy digital community behavior. therefore, the rules of honesty, transparency, and justice become applicable. keywords: public behavior, social role, national legal business education introduction the progress of a country in the era of digitalization can involve various dimensions of life. liu et al. (2021) reported a meaningful relationship between the development and science and technology in developing countries. the ability to manage natural resources, technological advances and economic moderation, the education system, and the rule of law are some addressed issues by scholars. recent studies have focused on the problems arising in the digital society and have related them to the education system and national law. according to coccia (2021), the advancement of a digital society driven by technology poses drastic changes in people's behavior. 1lecturer at universitas islam negeri sumatera utara medan, indonesia, email: zulhamuisu@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 these behavioral changes; are felt in physical and mental health. however, scientific, social, and technological advances do not automatically lead to welfare. they may also produce adverse behavioral effects and cause some health problems. studying science originating from the educational dimension is exceedingly crucial for the digital market and protects society from the probable negative influences. it also manifests opportunities and challenges for developing human resources and social policies during the industrial revolution 4.0 (song et al., 2021). unfortunately, educational infrastructure is purportedly inadequate, specifically in disadvantaged areas during the pandemic (batubara, 2021; sari & nayır, 2020). the low quality education causes failure (allen & sims, 2018). the decline in the quality of education accompanies an unfavorable environment with corrupt practices, political instability, or a decreased state efficiency (fomba et al., 2022). in indonesia, technological developments have boosted the needs and inflicted changes in people's consumption patterns. nevertheless, inadequate legal literacy may lead to exploitative behavior, stumbling into problems with online loan services (tibrisi et al., 2020). business law education concerning the role of law with the demands for renewal and development of human resources has become more relevant than ever. the role public behavior and the social role of national education may cover the social influence on consumptive behavior (chin et al., 2020; nur ismail et al., 2021), data leakage, and data access restrictions (aryana, 2022; hidayat et al., 2020; myranika, 2021), legal studies on online business transactions (aspan et al., 2020; harahap & zulkarnain, 2020) and financial literacy in preventing illegal fintech on business (effendi et al., 2021). thus, several studies have highlighted the problem of people's wasteful behavior and online lending and related it to the prominence of learning about the relevant laws. it calls for the urgency of increasing public legal awareness so that people will be aware and obedient to their responsibilities and constitutional protections by conforming to the applicable law in their country. research on public behavior and the study of normative legal education’s social role have become more relevant as the development of online financial services has risen steadily. for example, the work conducted by noor et al. (2021) has revealed that legally, there exist no regulations specifically regulating online business transactions, including fintech lending. thus, consumer protection is weak in the eyes of the law. the central factor for the increase in online loans is the community behavior and business people who have not yet obtained access to finance from zulham 85 banks. it could also be due to not getting capital from any sources. in december 2021 period, there were 103 fintech lending providers with total assets reaching idr 4060.35, an increase from the january period, reaching idr 3990.19 billion (ojk, 2021) (see table 1). table 1 company overview summary total of companies (units) total assets (idr billion) total liabilities (idr billion) total equities (idr billion) conventional organizer 96 3.986.22 1.554,35 2.431.88 sharia operator 7 74.13 45,92 28.22 total 103 4060.35 1600.26 2460.09 period: december 2021 period: december 2021 * per 3 jan 2022 oct-21 nov-21 dec-21 number of active borrower accounts (entity) outstanding loans (idr billion) twp 90 number of active borrower accounts (entity) outstanding loans (idr billion) twp 90 number of active borrower accounts (entity) outstanding loans (idr billion) twp 90 1.90% 19.949.798 27.905 2.13% 20.877.572 29.127 2.24% 17.287.241 29.880 source: (ojk, 2021) from table 1, it is evident that online loans substantially contribute to the sustainability of economic activity. outstanding loans reached idr 19,949,798 billion, dominated by millennials to hit idr 15 trillion. it was recorded that throughout 2021, the financial services authority (ojk) recorded online financing of idr 29.88 trillion, with a realization that grew 95.05 percent compared to the 2020 period reaching idr 15.32 percent (ojk, 2021). previous findings elucidate that the public's inadequate understanding of financial products and services is not commensurate with the public's comprehension of the risks (amidjono et al., 2016). legal education and education, in general, are critical because they have a social impact on society, handily preventing violations of government regulations (afhami, 2021; abidin et al., 2020). based on previous studies of the last three years, researchers have not adequately studied the role of business law education in online loan cases. the studies usually center on analyzing the effect of online loan services on business continuity, particularly for msmes (darma et al., 2020), company performance analysis, risk prevention, and law enforcement against privacy and personal data breaches (harahap & zulkarnain, 2020; aspan et al., 2020).the novelty of research reveals the importance of understanding public behavior and business law because it can provide journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 social knowledge for self-evaluation, self-control, and consumer protection. this study also finds that with the social role of business law education, people have the legal knowledge to meet their standard of living well. therefore, this study explores the social role of business law education in online loan cases related to public behavior. it is because not all people and business people take formal and non-formal education channels, specifically to use legal consulting services with advocacy. communities need literacy, achievable through informal education from various sources that can be accessed anytime and anywhere. therefore, the public as consumers and pinjol companies comprehend their limitations on national legal rules, allied to online loan literacy. one of them comes from this research, where business law education, personal information protection, and online loans are examined in depth through normative legal studies and relevant literature reviews. research questions from the described context, this study is to answer the problem concerning the role public behavior and national legal education for online loan literacy in indonesia. two research questions are proposed. 1. what is the positive legal review about the social role of national legal education on people's behavior? 2. what are the public behavior and the social role of business legal education in literacy cases for online loans? literature review public behavior consumptive behavior involves a behavior or lifestyle that likes shopping for goods and services without rational and not well-planned considerations, but for the encouragement of personal desires. dependence on digital technology has no noticeable harmful effect on consumption behavior. however, addictive abuse and dependence drive unhealthy individual behaviors such as overspending and other addiction issues (grover et al., 2011). the literature articulates that a consumptive digital society tends to use online loans to have goods due to status considerations (dapp, 2014). the exploitative public with low digital literacy often experiences financial problems and are engaged in online loans. they cannot manage finances because they prioritize zulham 87 wants over basic needs (nurjanah et al., 2018). internal factors affecting consumptive behavior include motivation, self-esteem, learning process, and self-concept. the positive impacts arising from it; comprise providing satisfaction for the public, offering benefits for producers, and improving the economy. consumer education, manifesting the learning and self-development process, is critical to protecting the community from the adverse effects of consumptive behavior, especially online loan services, such as social inequality and triggering inflation (li et al., 2020). business law education education can be obtainable through self-taught coming from experiences that occur in everyday life. the goal is, as a means, freeing someone from ignorance to make humans knowledgeable and have the skills to meet their needs and achieve a better standard of living or progress (moore, 1991). business law education implies a learning process of knowing, evaluate, and apply business law knowledge gained from classroom learning besides life experiences (davidson & forsythe, 2020). studying global issues and business law can help a person conduct his life tasks related to business and be more independent and responsible (zakieva et al., 2019; martin & manwaring, 2015). in social sciences, business education can offer many benefits in exercising self-control, generating a sensible business-minded personality, and having the business skills needed (miller, 2018). online loans an online loan is a loan spendable through an online application. this application is the fruit of technological innovation in the financial industry (meyer et al., 2016). online loans supply financing facilities to consumers through an application system. consumers can borrow a limited amount of funds through an online loan application by attaching a personal identity, photo, and access to a phone book (contact list) without going through a bank as an intermediary (balyuk & davydenko, 2018). previous studies have stated that online loans carry a mega risk, especially using long tenors where the daily interest expense makes the loan amount much higher than the funds obtained from the borrower (everett, 2015). recent literature accentuates several meanings when borrowing online. in addition to the need to study the amount of interest offered, consumers need to know the rules and the entire lending process (najaf et al., 2022). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 methodology design this study investigated public behavior and the social function of national education. the researcher adopted a legal research design to attain research objectives related to online loan. llewellyn (1940) remarked that the design of legal research must aim to answer legal issues through a study based on legal principles, laws, and pertinent doctrines. therefore, the said design was selected because it aligned with the research objective, that is, to investigate the two primary focuses of research in the scope of consumptive behavior in a digital society and business law education concerning the laws and regulations of the government in indonesia. the researcher referred to legal research design using a content analysis developed by hall and steiner (2020) to investigate legal regulations regarding public behavior toward online loan services. according to hall and steiner (2020), if a researcher wants to investigate the regulation first and then understand the content of the regulation, the relationship between the content of the regulation and the original purpose of making the regulation or the relationship between the content of the regulation and its impact must be established. thus, content analysis can be used in legal research in the form of statutory regulations, policy regulations, or judges’ decisions. that is, there is no question of what type of regulation will be analyzed as long as the text of the regulation can be reduced to fundamental concepts. the analysis proposed by krippendorff (2018) was used to guide this research, with the first focus being content analysis of the identification of legal facts/national laws and legal issues regarding public behavior toward online loan services. the second focus was on the inventory of rules as a legal basis for analysis in terms of business laws, including self-evaluation and protection of consumer information. data and sources of data this study used secondary data, which can be defined as data gathered through intermediaries or parties who have previously collected the data. the secondary data source in this study is the data issued by the government in the form of laws and regulations. llewellyn (1940) explained that statutory regulations are written regulations that contain legally binding norms in general and are formed or determined by state institutions or authorized officials through the procedures set out in the legislation. secondary data were derived from 14 statutory regulations containing legal provisions of self-evaluation and protection of consumer information to reveal important lessons zulham 89 about the social role of business law education and the service behavior of online loan users. the secondary data in this study consisted of nine indonesian laws and regulations, four government regulations through the ministry of communication and information, the financial services authority (pjok), and one civil code (kuh perdata). table 2 secondary data theme data destination positive laws on self-evaluation and information protection 1. amendments to the population administration law no. 23 (law no. 24 of 2013) 2. implementing law no. 23 of 2006 on population administration (government regulation no. 40 of 2019). 3. consumer protection law no. 8 was enacted in 1999. (ukp) 4. the 2022 indonesian national police act (law no. 2) 5. minister of communication & information technology regulation no. 20 of 2016 (personal data protection in electronic systems) 6. the indonesian national police is governed under law no. 2 of 2022. 7. law no. 14 (the disclosure of public information); 8. amends law no. 11 of 2008 (law no. 19 of 2016, information and electronic transactions); 9. amendments to information and electronic transactions law no. 11 of 2008 (law no. 19 of 2016) it is a review of primary legal documents that aims to provide learning about the selfevaluation that must be carried out in accordance with national regulations. business law education on online loans 1. the national education system act of 2003 is the first step in establishing a national education system (law no. 20). 2. the constitution of the ri was adopted in 1945. 3. application of law no. 23 of 2006, government regulation no. 40 of 2019. 4. indonesian civil code (kuhperdata) 5. the consumer protection law no. 8 of 1999 is a law that protects consumers (uukp) 6. pjok regulation no. 77 of 2016 (information technology-based lending and borrowing services) providing information about online loans within the scope of business law education data collection techniques this study employed documentation analysis organized into two key areas, responding to the two problem formulations. document study, i.e., viewing and analyzing documents made by the subjects themselves or by other people about the research subjects, is a qualitative data collection method used by researchers. in this study, the criteria for the selected documents were public documents related to the social role of business education, legal regulations on information protection, and legal regulations on online loans. first, the researcher collected data from primary legal materials concerning independent evaluation and protection of consumer information. second, the researcher gathered essential legal data on online loans within the scope of public behavior and business law education. the researcher identified problems by selecting articles on journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 laws and regulations, government regulations, the indonesian criminal code, and literature studies relevant to business law education, personal data protection, and online loans. the first question (rq1), assesses the positive legal social impact of learning consumer self-evaluation and consumer protection in online loans on public behavior. the second question (rq2), explores the community consumptive behavior and the social impact of business legal education on online loan services. table 3 collected data theme national law indication rq code(s) self-evaluation and information protection 1. amendments to the population administration law no. 23 (law no. 24 of 2013), article 1 point 22 and article 84 paragraph (1) 2. article 28d paragraph (1) of the 1945 constitution and government regulation no. 40; 3. article 2 paragraphs (1) and (2), article 21 paragraph (1), article 36paragraph (2) (the minister of communication and information technology's regulation); article 26 paragraph (2) of law no. 19 of 2016; 4. amends law no. 11 of 2008 (law no. 19 of 2016, information and electronic transactions); 5. the public information disclosure law no. 14 of 2008; rq 1 10 6 2, 3, 4 1, 9 7 business law education and online loans 1. the national education system act of 2003 is the first step in establishing a national education system (law no. 20), article 3; 2. the constitution of the ri; was adopted in 1945, article 28g paragraph (1) and article 28d paragraph (1); 3. application of law no. 23 of 2006, government regulation no. 40 of 2019, paragraph 58); 4. article 1365 of the civil code; 5. pjok regulation no. 77 of 2016 (information technology-based lending and borrowing services), articles 7, 20, 29, and 30. rq 2 8 6 6 5 11 data analysis the researcher used krippendorff's (2018)data analysis to study the content of visible communication in-depth to explain explicit things (latent). the first step involved determining the content to be analyzed according to the research questions. from this research question, two contents were found, namely, public behavior toward online loans and the social role of business law education. the second step was determining the unit and category of analysis. in this study, the units and categories of analysis are legal facts about self-evaluation, information protection, business law education, and online loans. by simplifying the facts and considering the constructions of thought of specialists in the legal context, the second step involved conceptualization and operationalization. the third step involved developing a set of rules for coding. the self-evaluation and information protection theme data source for coding positive law zulham 91 for self-evaluation and information protection focused on reviewing legal documents and laws and regulations that provide learning about self-evaluation. the business law education and online loans theme data source for coding online loan business legal education which provides learning about online loans in a business legal education environment that each data source has a code starting from code 1 to 11 (see table 3). this phase of research involved developing data collection procedures based on the primary legal sources collected. the data sources are divided into two categories, with the first type of data for self-evaluation and information protection consisting of nine data sources, whereas the second data for the theme business law education and online loans contains six data sources. the fourth step involved coding according to the rules to ensure it meets the requirements of content analysis. irrelevant data were minimized by conducting logical, objective, and systematic research studies depending on the evidence obtained from legal sources and relevant literature studies. in this study, initially, there were 14 data entries, which were then reduced to 10 most relevant entries. conclusions are drawn by selecting and determining the main idea based on the research theme. the main idea was rewritten in the author's sentence briefly. so that a new statement was obtained which was derived from the truth value of the findings. results and discussion a positive legal review about the social role of business law education in the behavior of individuals who use online loan services the research question was centered on self-evaluation and information protection. the positive legal review of the social impact of business law education on the behavior of the public using online loan services includes consumer protection law and business law. the social impact of business law education is presented in the study of consumer self-evaluation and protection of personal information. the themes that the people with consumptive behavior tend to use online loan services based on laws and government regulations. the public, herein referred to as “business people” must protect their data by knowing and understanding the rights in the national law and understanding the defining alternatives in making decisions about their data. the following are data (1). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 (1) national laws are an important part of self-evaluation and consumer protection. this is because, “national law emphasizes the importance of self-evaluation to control consumer behavior. good self-evaluation in knowing their rights in the electronic transaction (ite) law (1), where the use of personal information and privacy data through electronic means requires the consent of the consumer involved in the transaction. personal rights in the use of it include the right to a life free from any interference; the right to relate to others; and the right to monitor access to information consumers need.” based on data (1), the consumer self-evaluation diagnosis function involves identifying the advantages and disadvantages of government regulations to protect consumer data. noor et al. (2021) explained that no specific rules governing online business transactions, including online loans, were legally present. thus, consumer protection was weak and inadequate in the eyes of the law. previous findings show that the rights of consumers in the ite law included in the category of online business transactions may be fragile in the eyes of the law. more specifically, the government has mentioned data privacy; consumer rights are as described in the ite law. the following are data (2). (2) “according to the source of the national law on the privacy data in electronic systems, privacy information protection in electrical components includes protection against the acquisition, collection, processing, analysis, storage, display, announcement, transmission, dissemination, and ruination of privacy information.” from data (2) in detail, the ministerial regulation elucidates every principle of good privacy data. it is the very reason why the government regulations that support the self-evaluation of data privacy are critical. however, it should be noted that the government conducts the placement function to discover the position of exceptions and sanctions on the protection of private data. the following are data (3). (3) “according to the national law on the protection of privacy data in electronic systems, in certain situations, the public is prohibited from using other people’s private data, and such violations are punishable. efforts are being made by law enforcement to protect private data. private data may be used: (a) with permission unless otherwise provided by laws and regulations; and (b) after verification of the accuracy and suitability of obtaining and collecting such privacy data.” based on data 3, consumer self-evaluation focuses on law enforcement needs. it means that there are exceptions and sanctions for personal data protection. identifying exceptions and sanctions in the electronic system can provide an opportunity to improve the community’s ability to assess evaluations as a reference in conducting business actions, including the decision to use online loans. the following are data (4). zulham 93 (4) “the national law on the protection of privacy data in electronic systems is described in article 36. there are administrative sanctions that will be imposed on people who violate compliance with personal data without permission. administrative sanctions are verbal warnings, written warnings, temporary suspension of operational activities, and/or (d) online site announcements. article 26 paragraph (2) explains that the community as victims who experience loss or suffering because their data are used without consent has the right to file a claim for compensation in the competent court.” self-evaluation in understanding electronic media systems’ use means understanding the sanctions obtained if one takes actions that harm others. the following are data (5). (5) “implicitly, the national law in the indonesian civil code explains that people not obeying the law in electronic transaction activities must compensate for their actions. furthermore, the national law on consumer protection guarantees legal certainty to protect consumers from violating the ite law.” as per data (5), data privacy is protected as a fundamental right with four necessary elements for its realization: (i) the existence of protection from the government; (ii) a promise of legality; (iii) citizens’ rights; and (iv) punishment for lawbreakers. clearly, self-evaluation creates an understanding of caution in using electronic media systems to protect personal data. the following are data (6). (6) “according to national law, all levels of society have the right to be recognized by law and are afforded equal legal protection. the general public can seek legal redress by reporting noncompliance to the police. according to the police law, the police, as the authority in charge of protecting the indonesian people, also plays a role in protecting and providing services to the community in ensuring domestic security.” from data (6), it is evident that in legally ensuring consumers get protection, the role of the police involves providing assurance for consumer protection concerning criminal acts. accordingly, the privacy data also relate to the disclosure of public information for specific purposes. the following are data (7). (7) “according to the national law on public information disclosure, every public agency is required to provide open access to public information. the only exception is when the applicant has access to public information that could reveal a private detail. personal secrets in question include family members’ histories and conditions, a person’s history, conditions, treatment, including physical and psychological healthcare, financial situation, assets, income, and bank accounts.” from data (7), it is clear that consumer self-evaluation regarding positive law is not only limited to consumer decision-making but also involves a diagnostic function and a placement function. consumer self-evaluation implies the value assessment process includes determining each aspect journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 of personal data protection and conducting an internal government regulation assessment. the public as consumers should be shrewder in using pinjol even though it has a prestigious name and good credibility. several studies have remarked that legal protection efforts against borrowing cases have involved several laws and policies (aryana, 2022; myranika, 2021; hidayat et al., 2020; disemadi et al., 2020). a study by kharisma (2021) illuminates that it is extremely crucial to intervene in the government and the house of representatives (dpr) in ratifying the draft law (ruu) on personal data protection as an instrument to protect the public. violations of consumer rights in the ite law can lead to sanctions. meanwhile, the rule of law should not overlay as it hinders the justice process (fischer et al., 2021). according to the theory of legal protection, national law regulates the protection and limitation of conflicting stakeholders in coordinating diverse interests in societal structure (philipus, 1987). the digital community needs to understand well the online loan literacy they have on the decisions they make to meet their life needs. de waal & maritz (2022) reported that sustainable solutions for education in developed and developing markets require unique innovative design combinations that can offer potential opportunities to become the first movers in education contributing to the nation’s progress. studies have revealed that optimizing the excellence in education demands quality, social justice, and accountability, as the critical keys for states (aithal & aithal, 2020; beerkens, 2018; rossouw, 2015; stewart, 2012; bush, 1992). it is the reason for the social impact of business law education through self-evaluation learning and consumer protection as an alternative to minimizing the consumptive behavior of the digital community by using illegal online loan services. thus, self-potential can support better life behavior. the public behavior and the social impact of consumer education in online loan services in terms of business law this research question was centered on public behavior and national law, focusing on business law education and online loans. it explored the digital community behavior and the social role of business law education in online loan services. the first finding of the consumer self-evaluation and personal information protection dimensions revealed that the consumptive behavior of people using online loan services, especially illegal loans, should be tracked. the findings revealed that the social role of business law education can reinforce consumer self-evaluation through learning by providing an understanding of business law conceptually and by government regulations using zulham 95 sustainability principles. likewise, when referring to the national law on the education system and data privacy, business law does not only relate to the procedures for running a business, but it is also identical to the legal rules regulating public behavior in making business decisions and financial matters related to meeting the needs of making business decisions. certain risks for certain benefits. the following are data (8). (8) “the national education system is governed by national law to develop students’ potential. people can grow into human beings who believe in and fear the almighty, have a noble character, are healthy, knowledgeable, and capable, and citizens who are innovative, self-sufficient, and democratic. as a result, it is hoped that by supporting teaching in the context of developing the potential of students, in this case, the community to understand the rules of business law, consumer evaluation in information protection, and online lending, the community will become more aware of the law and capable of reducing the negative impact of business law education. people with enough morals and knowledge about a subject that involves addressing their needs will be able to respond to economic and social challenges in a creative, competent, independent, and democratic manner.” from data (8), it is obvious that business law education means a learning process of knowing, evaluating, and applying business law. davidson and forsythe (2020) explained that business law education could be acquired from experiences. thus, this study showed that business law education should not be restricted to classroom education and should rather include informal education obtained from the family and social environment independently, as long as humans have the knowledge and morals to perform independent evaluations (gordon & howell, 1959). for the online credit incidence, the first conclusion demonstrates that one of the sources of knowledge for consumer self-evaluation in internet-related decision-making is government legislation governing the security of personal data. the public cannot learn about independent evaluation of all forms of citizen rights concerning privacy and personal data, besides the obligations of electronic system administrators, without government regulations and specific laws. the following are data (9). (9) “according to the national law on information and electronic transactions, every electronic system operator is required to delete irrelevant electronic information and/or electronic documents at the request of the public who may feel legally disadvantaged over data privacy due to court decisions. as a result, these business actors must provide a method for deleting electronic information and/or electronic documents.” according to data (9), the law affirms that people have the right to file a lawsuit if they are harmed by the misuse of private data. the misuse of private data is mostly by illegal loans, namely, online journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 loans not officially registered with the ojk. seventy percent or more are by illegal loans and the remainder by legal ones (ojk, 2021). in case of online loans, for delinquent consumers, who have not repaid the loans, personal information is made available to the entire contact list of the consumer concerned. from the perspective of the law on the education system and private data, the personal identity information is confidential, not public; only online loan business actors and consumers should know the occurrence of debts between them. the function of business law education has accentuated the importance of preparing people to understand and practice the rules. the following are data (10). (10) “the public has privacy, according to article 1 number 22 of the national law on population administration, namely, the privacy of their family, honor, dignity, and property under their control. as a result, the community has the right to a sense of security and protection from threats to exercise a universal right.” according to data (10), the law on population administration specifies privacy data as a fundamental right. the goal serves as a medium for freeing someone from online loans not complying with government regulations in their implementation. thus, the public needs to conduct an independent assessment concerning online loans. the following are data (11). (11) “the national law concerning information technology-based lending and borrowing services in article 7 explains business actors’ obligations for registration and licensing to ojk. suppliers who register officially are required to follow all online loan requirements. article 20 governs the existence of electronic documents, as well as the parties’ identities and respective rights and obligations. according to the article, access to information for loan recipients regarding the status of the loan received, as mentioned in paragraph (3), does not include information about the identity of the loan company.” as per data (11), the legal regulations emphasize the vitality of studying the online loans’ implementation. although it provides convenience, the billing method and the prescribed fines should meticulously be considered as they are not specified in the law. thus, a negative stigma forms from the self-evaluation of consumers having unpleasant experiences with online loans. moore (1991) explained that by conducting self-evaluation, humans have become knowledgeable and developed skills required for meeting their needs and attaining a better standard of living or progress. business law education derived from primary legal materials can benefit in conducting independent evaluations involving self-control and forming a shrewd business-minded personality. miller (2018) stated that business law education through informal channels is zulham 97 necessary for an individual and the community; the higher an individual’s education, the greater is their knowledge. with better education, an individual is more likely to have a better career, job, and position in the present and future (hirst, 2013). this study investigated the role of government regulations in online loans, stressing the relevance of providing clear rules on online loans without violating the lending rules using the principle of fairness. legal clarity and government policies are critical to supporting the economy (brown-hruska & zwirb, 2007). this finding supported previous studies showing that efforts to protect the law against borrowing cases required several regulations and policies (aryana, 2022; disemadi et al., 2020). the novelty of the present research is that it shows the social role of business law education in online loans in indonesia. business law not only covers legal provisions for business people but is also relevant for the digital public as consumers. the society can obtain literacy; thus, legal educationbecomes beneficial for their lives through relevant legal sources.the study findings reveal the implications of the enactment of legislation on consumer protection and business law. the laws and regulations bring hope and legal certainty for the protection of the public in the financial services sector in indonesia. the implications of laws and regulations that describe the social role of business law bring benefits that help people make decisions on using online loans more wisely, i.e., according to their needs to avoid adverse impacts on the future such as fraud and misuse of personal data. hopefully, by understanding the law better, the community will avoid consumptive behavior and illegal loans, which may harm them and others. therefore, the social role of business law education has high relevance in the consumer self-evaluation and protection of personal information. the consumptive public using online loans should follow the rules for the sustainability of economic life and social roles. conclusion this study concludes that consumer self-evaluation determines every detail of personal data protection to conduct an internal evaluation of rights, obligations, and sanctions based on government regulations. in this case, the social role of business law education sourced from primary legal materials can be useful in conducting independent evaluations, such as self-control, online loan decision-making, and the formation of intelligent business-minded people. therefore, through legal review, humans can acquire knowledge and skills to meet their needs and achieve a better standard of living. the novelty of this study is that it demonstrates the social role of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 business law education in encouraging people to make online loan decisions carefully. thus, with regard to legal research methods, legislation on consumer protection and business law not only study business affairs but can also be used to study public behavior. this study theoretically provides new insights related to the development of consumer protection theory, corporate law theory, and social behavior theory. this study has limitations that can be taken into consideration for future researchers to obtain better findings. the limitation of this study is that it only covers the laws and regulations of the republic of indonesia regarding consumer protection and business law, and thus, the research results cannot be generalized to a wider region. in addition, this study only focuses on the social role of business law in online loan problems; therefore, conclusions are drawn only based on these problems. future studies can add other factors that can influence public behavior in online loan decision-making and explore international laws that play a role in solving consumer data protection legal issues. references abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. afhami, s. (2021). role of legal consultants education on corporate social responsibility and social impact. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 152–179. aithal, p. s., & aithal, s. (2020). analysis of the indian national education policy 2020 towards achieving its objectives. international journal of management, technology, and social sciences, 5(2), 19–41. https://doi.org/10.47992/ijmts.2581.6012.0102 allen, r., & sims, s. (2018). do pupils from low-income families get low-quality teachers? indirect evidence from english schools. oxford review of education, 44(4), 441–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2017.1421152 amidjono, d. s., brock, j., & junaidi, e. (2016). financial literacy in indonesia. in international handbook of financial literacy pp. springer international publishing ag. aryana, i. w. p. s. (2022). legal consequences of using other people ’ s identity in online loans. sociological jurisprudence journal, 5(1), 61–70. aspan, h., siregar, f. r., & lestari, i. (2020). enhance business settings and transactions in the digital age. 5653–5660. zulham 99 balyuk, t., & davydenko, s. a. (2018). reintermediation in fintech: evidence from online lending. 31st australasian finance and banking conference 2018, 18–17. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3189236 batubara, b. m. (2021). the problems of the world of education in the middle of the covid-19 pandemic. budapest international research and critics institute (birci-journal): humanities and social sciences, 4(1), 450–457. https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v4i1.1626 beerkens, m. (2018). evidence-based policy and higher education quality assurance: progress, pitfalls and promise. european journal of higher education, 8(3), 272–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568235.2018.1475248 brown-hruska, s., & zwirb, r. s. (2007). legal clarity and regulatory discretion exploring the law and economics of insider trading in derivatives markets. capital markets law journal, 2(3), 245–259. https://doi.org/10.1093/cmlj/kmm016 bush, g. (1992). a revolution to achieve excellence in education. phi delta kappan, 74(2), 130. https://doi.org/doi:10.3390/su13063165 chin, p. y., evans, n., liu, c. z., & choo, k. k. r. (2020). understanding factors influencing employees’ consumptive and contributive use of enterprise social networks. information systems frontiers, 22(6), 1357–1376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-01909939-5 coccia, m. (2021). effects of human progress driven by technological change on physical and mental health. studi di sociologia, 2(1), 113–132. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.26350/000309_000116 dapp, t. (2014). fintech – the digital (r)evolution. deutsche bank research, 7(1), 1–39. www.dbresearch.com darma, d. c., kadafi, m. a., lestari, d., ekonomi, f., mulawarman, u., ekonomi, f., & mulawarman, u. (2020). fintech and msmes continuity: applied in indonesia. international journal of advanced science and technology, 29(4), 4676 – 4685. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342246983 davidson, d. v., & forsythe, l. m. (2020). business law: principles and cases in the legal environment. wolters kluwer law & business, aspen publishing. de waal, g. a., & maritz, a. (2022). a disruptive model for delivering higher education programs within the context of entrepreneurship education. education and training, 64(1), 126–140. https://doi.org/10.1108/et-03-2021-0102 disemadi, h. s., yusro, m. a., & balqis, w. g. (2020). the problems of consumer protection in fintech peer to peer lending business activities in indonesia. sociological jurisprudence journal, 3(2), 91–97. https://doi.org/10.22225/scj.3.2.1798.91-97 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 effendi, k. a., ichsani, s., saputera, d., hertina, d., wijaya, j. h., & hendiarto, r. s. (2021). the importance of financial literacy in preventing illegal fintech in msmes in indonesia. review of international geographical education online, 11(6), 316–322. https://doi.org/10.48047/rigeo.11.06.38 everett, c. r. (2015). group membership, relationship banking and loan default risk: the case of online social lending. banking and finance review, 7(2), 15–54. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1114428 fischer, c., reins, l., burtraw, d., langlet, d., löfgren, å., mehling, m., weishaar, s. e., zetterberg, l., van asselt, h., & kulovesi, k. (2021). the legal and economic case for an auction reserve price in the eu emissions trading system. colum. j. eur. l., 26(1), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3477716 fomba, b. k., talla, d. n. d. f., & ningaye, p. (2022). institutional quality and education quality in developing countries: effects and transmission channels. journal of the knowledge economy, 0123456789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-021-00869-9 gordon, r. a., & howell, j. e. (1959). higher education for business. columbia university press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7312/gord91408 grover, a., kamins, m. a., martin, i. m., & davis, s. (2011). from use to abuse: when everyday consumption behaviours morph into addictive consumptive behaviours. journal of reserch for consumers, 19(1), 1–9. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2207025 hall, d. m., & steiner, r. (2020). policy content analysis: qualitative method for analyzing sub-national insect pollinator legislation. methodsx, 7(1), 100787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2020.100787 harahap, h. h., & zulkarnain, n. j. r. (2020). the online business transactions in perspective positive law in indonesia. palarch’s journal of archaeology …, 17(7), 15102–15111. https://archives.palarch.nl/index.php/jae/article/view/5758 hidayat, a. s., alam, f. s., & helmi, m. i. (2020). consumer protection on peer to peer lending financial technology in indonesia. international journal of scientific and technology research, 9(1), 4069–4072. hirst, b. h. (2013). education, knowledge and practices. in beyond liberal education. routledge/taylor & francis group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203031780-16 kharisma, d. b. (2021). urgency of financial technology (fintech) laws in indonesia. international journal of law and management, 63(3), 320–331. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijlma-08-2020-0233 krippendorff, k. (2018). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. ltd. zulham 101 li, j., wu, y., & xiao, j. j. (2020). the impact of digital finance on household consumption: evidence from china. economic modelling, 86, 317–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2019.09.027 liu, y., chen, w. m., wang, s. y., & wu, x. l. (2021). sustainable growth from a factor dependence and technological progress perspective: a case study of east china. discrete dynamics in nature and society, 7, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8739442 llewellyn, k. n. (1940). the normative, the legal, and the law-jobs: the problem of juristic method. the yale law journal, 49(8), 1355–1400. martin, f., & manwaring, k. (2015). online feeback to students studying taxation and business law-how does it rite. journal of the australasian tax teachers association, 10(1), 1–19. https://www.business.unsw.edu.au/about-site/schools-site/taxationbusiness-law-site/jattavolumes/jatta-2015_martin_manwaring.pdf meyer, t., heng, s., assistant, t., kaiser, s., director, m., & walter, n. (2016). online p2p lending nibbles at banks’ loan business. deutsche bank research, 2(1)(july), 39-65. miller, l. l. (2018). the use of case studies in law and social science research. moore, m. g. (1991). distance education theory. the american journal of distance education (ajde), 1(25), 1–8. https://www.nooa.no/wpcontent/uploads/2017/11/deosnews1_25.pdf myranika, a. (2021). legal protection of online loan recipients based on financial services authority. linguistics and culture review, 5(s4), 2390–2402. https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5ns4.1986 najaf, k., subramaniam, r. k., & atayah, o. f. (2022). understanding the implications of fintech peer-to-peer (p2p) lending during the covid-19 pandemic. journal of sustainable finance and investment, 12(1), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/20430795.2021.1917225 noor, a., ahamat, h., marzuki, i., wulandari, d., junaidi, a. a., lisdiyono, e., & trisnawati, b. (2021). regulation and consumer protection of fintech in indonesia. linguistics and culture review, 6(august 2021), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v6ns3.1938 nur ismail, a. r., noviartati, k., syahril, s., & fikri, a. r. (2021). investasi digital sebagai solusi mengurangi perilaku konsumtif milenial masa pandemi covid-19. capital: jurnal ekonomi dan manajemen, 4(2), 125. https://doi.org/10.25273/capital.v4i2.8742 nurjanah, s., ilma, r. z., & suparno, s. (2018). effect of economic literacy and conformity on student consumptive behaviour. dinamika pendidikan, 13(2), 198–207. https://doi.org/10.15294/dp.v13i2.18330 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 83-102 ojk. (2021). statistik fintech lending periode desember 2021. https://www.ojk.go.id/id/kanal/iknb/data-dan-statistik/fintech/default.aspx philipus, m. h. (1987). perlindungan hukum bagi rakyat indonesia. surabaya. rossouw, j. (2015). quality , social justice and accountability – crucial. bulgarian comparative education society, paper presented at the annual international conference of the bulgarian comparative education society, 13(1), 17–27. sari, t., & nayır, f. (2020). challenges in distance education during the (covid-19) pandemic period. qualitative research in education, 9(3), 328–360. https://doi.org/10.17583/qre.2020.5872 song, x., cong, y., song, y., chen, y., & liang, p. (2021). a bearing fault diagnosis model based on cnn with wide convolution kernels. journal of ambient intelligence and humanized computing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-021-03177-x stewart, v. (2012). a world-class education: learning from international models of excellence and innovation. ascd. tibrisi, a., hasan, m., dinar, m., mustari, m., & ... (2020). the effect of the intensity of accessing instagram and financial literacy on the consumptive behavior: a research study. international journal of arts and social science, 3(5), 26–31. zakieva, r. r., kolmakov, v. v., pavlyuk, a. v., ling, v. v., medovnikova, d. v., & azieva, r. h. (2019). the significance of studying legal protection of rights on innovative creations: the case of entrepreneurship education. journal of entrepreneurship education, 22(3), 2651. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 101-119 karl marx’s theory of the productive forces in the present fourth industrial revolution kien thi pham1 abstract the purpose of the article is to assert marx’s correctness in maintaining the role of the productive forces in the production process. the paper clarifies the concept of productive forces, describes the factors that make up productive forces, and looks at productive forces in social development. nowadays, in the fourth industrial revolution, marx’s arguments are still valid when explained from the perspective of the factors that make up the productive forces. the paper uses a method of justifying with clarifying the relationship of workers and the production process using a comprehensive and historical practice. in addition, the article also uses analytical and synthesis methods to re-systemize the concept of productive forces in this day and age. the study results show that the more science and technology develop, the higher the requirements for human qualifications, skills, capacity, and health. labor still plays an essential role in the production process, whether it be performed by humans or artificial intelligence. keywords: productive forces, karl marx, historical materialism, socio-economic forms, material production activities introduction this paper examines karl marx’s theory on labor forces in the digital era and aims to examine whether labor forces remain relevant in this age and how the ideology affects social capital in the ideology. overall, this paper will discuss productive forces and the theories underlying them. to examine the concepts, a discussion section is provided focusing on marx’s arguments regarding productive forces, the relationship between labor and the production process, and the development of productive forces in the fourth industrial revolution. social development is about material production to create more material wealth for society. the study of marx’s philosophy on historical materialism is the basis for research. marx clarified the relationship between workers and the means of production. engels evaluated this discovery of marx, “discovering the law of development of human history” in the same way darwin discovered the law of organic nature. theoretically, marx (1983) affirmed his completely materialistic conception. the movement and development of productive forces become the science and technology that will 1 dr., school of social science, university of economics ho chi minh city, vietnam, orcid: https://orcid.org/00000001-8024-8679, email: kienpt@ueh.edu.vn. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8024-8679 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8024-8679 mailto:kienpt@ueh.edu.vn journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 101-119 102 change people’s lives. the productive forces in the fourth revolution are also the object of the paper’s research. the article uses materialistic dialectic, comprehensive methodology, and historical methodology to clarify whether the research object is productive in the second industrial revolution. in addition, the article also uses methods of observation, description, analysis, and synthesis to clarify the content that forms the factors that create the productive forces through human labor and the production process. the scope of the study is to learn about productive forces from marx’s point of view, from the time of marx to the present, that is, the material production process of capitalism from the second half of the 19th century to the present day, the early 21st century. the above factors still interact and directly affect the development of productive forces (bapuji et al., 2020). by studying productive forces, those working in management and policy-making are the basis for making human development policies and the need for policies that promote science and technological development. productive forces productive forces is a concept of historical materialism to clarify the role of the mode of production in determining the development of society in different epochs (vareshchenko & karpenko, 2021). productive forces are mentioned in many aspects such as economics, politics, the philosophy of plato or adam smith, and marxist philosophers (shuliakov, 2021; stepnov et al., 2021). in the present day, which includes the covid pandemic, the fourth industrial revolution is enhanced by capitalist governments and companies and increased investment to replace workers. when machines can be replaced, workers lose their jobs. at this time, enterprises have the right to demand labor of knowledge such as creativity and high-level technical skills. as a result, workers always face the risk of unemployment, mental pressure at work, and increasingly poor material life due to high income tax. especially during the covid pandemic, capitalism revealed its essence. to ensure the stable economic growth of businesses, the state does not close production to protect workers from the epidemic; they do not care about the health and spiritual and material life of employees. this makes workers feel meaningless. they feel depressed, abandoned by the state and the companies for which they work. therefore, the renewed study of historical materialism, in which productive forces affect humans in the digital age, is of interest. labor is part of the productive forces; employees are people with specific knowledge, experience, labor skills, and creative capacity in the production process. labor is the subject in the production pham process, for workers show creativity in production and consumption to create material wealth (nureev & orekhovsky, 2021). this is the basis for continuous production to meet human needs. at this time, material wealth exists as goods (shatunova et al., 2019). the production process is necessary for organizing production, including labor documents and labor objects (stepnov et al., 2021). labor documents are the material elements of production that people rely on to impact the labor object to transform the labor object into a product to meet the production needs of people. in labor documents, including labor tools and means of work, labor tools are material means that people directly use to impact the working group to transform them to create material wealth to serve the needs of people and society. labor tools are “intermediate” material elements used to “transfer” between workers and objects of labor in the production process. the labor tools are the “organ” of knowledge in the human brain, the material production process. therefore, labor tools play a decisive role in labor productivity and product quality (benlagha & hemrit, 2018; miller, 2021). in the development process, infrastructure (including roads, ports, electricity systems, telecommunications, etc.) is becoming increasingly important and plays a decisive role in the production process and production capacity of social production (saenko et al., 2020). the subject of labor is the material element of production that human labor and labor documents impact to change the shape and physical properties of the employees. productive forces in the fourth industrial revolution the development of society has changed much compared to marx’s 19th century, and many argue that marx’s conception of productive forces is no longer valid. with the analysis of the structure that formed the productive forces, however, the fourth industrial revolution proved that marx’s argument was correct in expressing labor with the production process. besides the factors of the employees, the production process expresses the subject of labor and labor documents. in the labor documents, labor tools with the means of work create material wealth. labor documents complete to develop high labor productivity. the more human knowledge grows, the more modern labor tools people create. at all times, labor tools engaged in production are always the most critical factor of the labor tools. the level of development of labor tools is a measure of the story of the natural conquest of people. it is a different manufacturing industry and penetrates the elements that make up the productive forces journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 101-119 104 that bring quality changes to the productive forces. thus, science and technology developed to become the direct cause of many significant changes in production, and life has become natural for productive forces (skryl & gregorić, 2021). from marx’s day to the current fourth industrial revolution, productive forces research many different ways. the concept of the productive forces introduced to date remains intact. therefore, this study refers to the productive forces during the fourth industrial revolution as clarifying the movement and development of labor and production process from marx’s time to the present. thereby, the article finds that the theoretical basis of the concept to be clarified in this article is the productive forces. the theoretical basis of the concept of productive forces productive forces is a concept (german produktivkräfte) central in marxism and historical materialism. marx first scientifically explained the idea in a 1845 work criticizing friedrich list’s national system of political economy. marx argued that the force of production is a material activity, and marx exposed list’s mundane nature (marx & engels, 2010f). according to marx, the productive forces exist objectively. people are not free to choose their productive forces “since every productive force is a force that achieves a product of a by-operation... not created by them, but by the previous generation... each of the next generations has had productive forces erect previous generations and used by the new generation as raw materials for the new production” (marx & engels, 2010g). marx put forward the theory of productive forces, a view called historical materialism. marx predicted that although capitalism had created enormous material wealth for society, internal crises would lead to self-destruction in the future, and capitalism would be replaced by a new system called socialism. marx traced the history of many modes of production, in which the clarification of the productive forces was evident for that purpose. based on the different modes of production, marx made a judgment about the collapse of the industrial capitalist model of production and its replacement by communism. the productive forces elationship between labor and nature reflects the ability of humans to conquer nature with absolute power. that power is generalized into productive forces. the level of productive forces manifests itself in the story of the conquest of humans; productive forces speak to the actual pham capacity of people to produce material wealth for society to ensure human needs. overall, those factors are productive forces. the descriptive method indicates the factors that make up the production process, marx states in his writings. people as workers are involved in the production process. marx refers to the strength of the physical and intellectual, the factors that make up the ability of people to work: “to possess the real body of nature in a form useful to one’s own life, man uses the natural forces that belong to their bodies: hands, feet, head, and hands” (marx & engels, 2010a). however, if it stops there, the material production process is not yet possible. in addition to the working subject himself, humans use other factors such as “the mechanical, physical, chemical properties of objects, depending on their purpose, using those objects as tools to act on other objects” (marx & engels, 2010g). these things, called “organs,” give workers the ability to extend their hands and impact the natural world more effectively. if the production process is necessary for the material production process, the employees are the subject, playing a role in deciding production development (olefirenko & galuschenko, 2018). thus, according to marx, without humans who know how to manufacture and use labor tools to impact the natural world, there will be no material production process (mcneill, 2021). marx believed that natural production is the prediction for every production process. he wrote: without mentioning the more or less developed edging of social production, labor productivity associated with natural conditions ... economically, the natural conditions outside are divided into two major categories: the natural abundance of resources used as living materials, that is, the fertile nature of the land, the very fishy currents, etc., and the natural plenty of resources used as labor documents such as fast-flowing waterfalls, rivers that boats can walk, wood, metal, coal, etc. at the beginning of civilization, the first type of resource was decisive; at a higher stage of development, the second type of natural resources was powerful. (marx & engels, 2010b) however, marx emphasized that natural production does not play a decisive role in progressive development (development by increasing social productivity); on the contrary, “too generous nature will lead people away like walking a toddler. it does not make human development natural, inevitable” (marx & engels, 2010b). productive forces have labor (an important factor) and a production process. the production process has labor documents (labor tools and means of work) and the subject of labor. even science and journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 101-119 106 technology are the core elements of the productive forces. still, science itself cannot cause any positive or negative impact on the world, but it will affect human practice. the development level of the productive forces of a people is most evident at the development level of the labor division. the productive forces play a functional role in creating material wealth and are the motivation of social development. discussion marx’s arguments regarding productive forces the point of this paper is to clarify marx’s arguments in the process of his implementation of research on socio-history, the production process of human reality, and social development to this day. marx said that humans themselves began to be distinguished from animals when humans produced living materials for their essential needs. “one must be able to live before he can ‘make history,’” he wrote, but to live, we first need food, water, shelter, clothing, etc. the first prerequisite for human existence is the production of materials to satisfy essential needs (marx & engels, 2010f). marx wrote, “the production of materials for the direct and political material activity of a certain stage of economic development of a people or an era creates a basis from which people develop state institutions, legal views, art and even religious notions of people”(marx & engels, 2010e). that has affirmed the radicality of marx’s materialist conception. according to marx, material production is a typical human activity. it is an essential activity that determines the existence and development of humans and human society. in the process of material production, humans simultaneously have two relationships: with nature and with each other. the human side associated with nature is the manifestation of the productive forces; however, not all human relationships with nature create productive forces (such as emotional, aesthetic, and perception relationships). only relationships in which people and nature make up material wealth that serves their needs while helping them transform themselves are relationships that create productive forces. marx said that the productive forces show people’s practical capacity to change the natural world. when conducting material production, people use labor tools to impact the natural world to create material wealth to serve their essential needs. in the same process, humans grasp the laws of nature, turning the natural world from unspoiled and pure to a “second world” with the participation of pham human hands and minds. material production changes, so the productive forces is a dynamic factor and a process that innovates and develops. the productive forces create a material basis for the existence and development of human society. it is also the essential criterion for evaluating social progress in each certain historical period. marx and engels’ critique of political economy refers to the combination of work (tools, machines, land, infrastructure, etc.) with human labor. marx and engels probably came up with this concept from adam smith’s reference to “the productive power of labor” (e.g., chapter 8 of the wealth of nations, 1776) (samuels, 1977), although the german political economist friedrich list also mentioned “power productivity” in the national system of political economy (1841). therefore, in his work “german ideology”, marx affirmed, “history is just a continuation of the individual generations in which each generation exploits the materials, capitalism, productive forces left by all previous generations; therefore, each generation, on the one hand, continues the activity passed down, under circumstances that have completely changed, and on the other hand, transforms the old circumstances with a completely changed activity” (marx & engels, 2010f). the productive forces applying humans to the production process (body and brain, tools and techniques, materials, resources, the quality of cooperation of workers and equipment) are included in this concept, including technically indispensable management and technical functions for production (in contrast to social control functions). human knowledge can also be a motivation for production. along with production’s social and technical relations, the productive forces form a historically specific production method. at each stage of human history, production is conducted in a certain way, a way of life, its way of production, and its method. the method of production is how humans conduct material production at specific historical periods of human society. the mode of production is the unity between the productive forces with a certain level and the corresponding production relationship. the level of productive forces manifests itself in the story of the natural conquest of humans; the productive forces speak to the actual capacity of people to produce material wealth for society to ensure human needs. to conduct production, humans must use particular materials and technical elements. these factors are the productive forces, including the labor force, which involves three factors: fitness, mental strength, and labor skills. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 101-119 108 labor includes direct workers and indirect workers and managers; along with the development of science and technology, the proportion of indirect workers increases and requires more highly presented workers. high-quality workers do not have to participate in the production line but become the operator and inspect the production line. the production process is the physical element of the output that people rely on to influence labor. labor power is the material factor of labor production. in labor documents, production tools are the decisive factor, and a part is a transporter, the general production conditions, called infrastructure (such as roads, ports, electricity systems, telecommunications, etc.). in the development process, the infrastructure system is becoming increasingly important and plays a decisive role in the production process and production capacity of social production. science and technology in the production material finished with extensive development is the role that determines the development of the productive forces in the current period. productive forces labor production process labor documents subject of labor labor tools means of work figure 1: diagram of productive forces pham the concept of productive forces marx explained that the productive forces begin with the premises of material production that require factors belonging to the employees (capacity, skills, knowledge, etc.), along with inevitable production processes: the subjects of labor and labor documents (labor tools, means of work) in the production process. all these factors form the productive forces of the production process. thus, the amount of production is the synthesis of materials and spiritual aspects that create the practical power of changing nature according to human survival and development needs. marx used various classifications. in the first division, marx said, the abstract labor process does not depend on different historical forms. it does not put people to work in society but places people with nature, from the point of view of a simple labor process (marx & engels, 2010g). in his second division, marx said, “people, with their productive forces personality, not only created material wealth but together with natural production became the revolutionary force that promoted the development of society” (marx & engels, 2010f). the factors that make up the productive forces, each of which marx analyzed, explains its role. labor, represented by human beings with sure knowledge, experience, skills, and creativity in the production process, creates a considerable amount of social material wealth. labor is the employee who implements their labor process. based on hegel’s point of view, marx explains, labor is at the heart of self-determination, and laborers must feel happy with their activity when creating products as fruit in conquering the natural world (bashir et al., 2021). labor is an activity that makes products for satisfying the material and spiritual needs of people; however, as the privately owned system of manufacturing materials, capitalism deprived it of the value of labor as it was, instead approaching labor as a job, manipulation that workers take to repay the capitalist debt to meet their current needs. the worker who makes the product does not have to satisfy his purpose, and his labor product does not belong to him. instead, these products are confiscated and sold for profit (hanon, 2021). furthermore, marx said, humans are “tool-making animals.” therefore, in addition to using the labor tools available in nature, man also makes a “naturally supplied” object that is improved through many production processes to become a product that meets human needs. therefore, the strength, knowledge, and level of people assert higher and higher. marx discussed the results of the immediate production process. the production process involves human-purpose manufacturing processes for creating material products. the production process used for human activities using labor documents directly impacts the subject of labor to create social journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 101-119 110 material wealth. to satisfy the basic needs of humans, people need labor documents production and subject labor in productive processes. so the development of the productive forces transforms the product in the life and determines the evolution of society from low to high (lafrance, 2021). thereby withdrawing, the productive forces become meaningful and essential through workers’ relationship with the production process. it demonstrates labor’s practical ability to renovate the natural world. labor uses labor tools to impact the natural world and create material wealth that serves its essential needs. in the same process, men grasp the laws of nature and transform nature into a “second world” with the participation of their hands and minds. material production is constantly changing, so the productive forces are a dynamic factor and a continuous innovation and development process. it is also the essential criterion for evaluating the progress of society in a specific historical period. therefore in the work “german ideology,” marx affirmed: “history is nothing but the success of different generations, each generation exploiting material, capital, productive forces passed on to it by previous generations. therefore, on the one hand, continues to operate traditionally in completely changing circumstances, on the other hand, modifying the old circumstances with a completely changed activity” (marx & engels, 2010f). the production process shows its existence through two factors: labor documents and the subject of labor. the subject of labor is a concept in marx’s political economy that addresses everything that people apply to labor (o’regan, 2021). the subjects of labor may be materials directly supplied by nature, such as wood or coal or materials that labor has renovated. in the second case, the object of labor (for example, fibers in a textile plant or semiconductor chips in a computer assembly plant) is called raw materials (marx & engels, 1845). a subject of labor is sometimes called an object of labor. subjects of labor are material forms capable of being created into items according to the purpose, requirements to meet particular human needs, and only when affected by humans will it become the object of labor. marx said that “while all raw materials are subject to labor, is that all employees are raw materials. the subjects of labor are understood only as raw materials if they went through the labor process” (marx & engels, 2010c). labor documents are the material element of production that people rely on to impact the labor object to transform the hybrid into a product that meets the needs of the human output. labor documents are things that don’t directly produce products but have a significant impact on production. labor documents affect the efficiency of the social output. these factors contribute to pham increasing or reducing transaction costs and the cost of transporting supplies, preserving products also taken from the product’s value. labor documentation is an essential component of labor tools (for example, tools, equipment, and machines). labor documents include labor tools and means of work. means of work are material production factors and labor tools that people use to impact workers in material production. the relationship between labor and the production process the research process found that marx made his arguments about the productive forces with the workers and production process being two constituent factors. however, the paper found the most harmonious and justified relationship between workers and the production process during the study. thereby, the role of knowledge of workers and the development of science and technology contributing to the production process has created a unified whole of productive forces in creating material wealth in society. to marx, the relationship between labor and production process shows that people want to renovate the natural world to create material wealth and have synthetic strength. first of all, it is fitness and mind, the factors that make up the ability of men to work. “to possess natural things in a form useful for his life, man uses the forces of nature in himself: hands and feet, head and hands” (marx & engels, 2010g). however, if it stops there, it is impossible to take place in the production process. in addition to themselves, humans use other factors, such as “using the mechanical, physical and chemical properties of objects to act on other objects according to their purposes” (marx & engels, 2010g). these objects are called “tools” by marx to help workers reach out, making the process of impacting nature more effective. if production material is a necessary condition for material production, the employee is the subject that plays a decisive role in the development of production. according to marx, without humans making and using labor tools to impact the natural world, there would be no production of material wealth. the amount of production changes the production of society through relationships with workers and the production process. labor has a vital role to play in contributing to the production process through their productivity. according to marx, production capacity is the production capacity of specific production. it reflects the results of the purposeful labor of people in a sure unit of time. therefore, according to marx, “in the form of social production, the production capacity of labor depends on the natural conditions in which labor carry out ... external natural conditions, from an journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 101-119 112 economic point of view, is divided into two large classes: natural wealth for self-signing that is, fertile land, water has many fish, etc.; and natural wealth in labor tools, such as waterfalls, rivers, wood, metal, coal, etc. at the beginning of civilization, it was the first class of decisive significance; later, it was the second class in a more advanced society” (marx & engels, 2010g). the production force that represents the role of labor concerning the production process has created a huge amount of material wealth thanks to labor’s productivity. in particular, the role of science and technology participates in the production process. marx said, “the development of capital is a symbol of the extent. general social knowledge transforms into an immediate force of production, so it is also an expression of the degree to which the conditions of the process can take place subject to the control of popular intelligence and adapted to that process. still, the productive force is not to create as knowledge. still, it is also the direct social practical organ of the process. real-life process” (marx & engels, 2010d). knowledge is constantly evolving and becomes a direct productive force. join a certain profession, and for that profession, the application of science to production immediately becomes one of the decisive and simulated factors (marx & engels, 2010d). thus, productive processes are people’s practical ability to influence nature to create material wealth. in social material life, productive processes together with relations of production constitute the mode of production. therefore, productive processes make materials to satisfy the needs of human existence and development. the productive forces are a factor of creativity that is historical. the development level of the productive forces reflects the level of the conquest of the natural world of humans. the manual level of the productive forces reflects a much lower level of biological conquest than the productive forces at the level of industrial engineering and high technology. the productive forces manifest in the fourth industrial revolution today, science and technology have made significant progress, contributing to creating productive forces that humanity has never seen. social knowledge, in general, is becoming an instant productive force, as marx predicted, and as a result, productivity increases rapidly. productivity is measured by the number of products generated in a unit of time or by the amount of time spent producing a product unit. through it, productivity reflects the effectiveness of the use of labor. in essence, it measures the value of output generated by an employee over a certain time, or the amount of time it takes to produce a unit of production. thus, productivity reflects the relationship between the production (product) and input (labor) measured by labor time. pham the fourth industrial revolution currently characterizes the combined use of hardware, robots, and information technology software, a combination of advanced technologies such as the internet of things (iot), artificial intelligence (a.i.), virtual reality (v.r.), augmented reality (a.r.), social networks, cloud computing, big data analytics, etc. the entire real world to the digital world is very fast and large, integrating many fields with multi-dimensional interaction (kien, 2020). marx developed his doctrine during the second industrial revolution. (the first revolution marked the advent of steam engines, and the second of electricity.) today, productive forces have far exceeded those in marx’s time. meanwhile, humanity is nearing the end of the third industrial revolution with digital tools (computers) and is entering the fourth revolution to open the era of artificial intelligence. modern science and technological achievements have directly impacted all factors that constitute the productive forces: production process and labor objects. in particular, during the fourth industrial revolution, workers mainly used the production process as natural resources and machinery to create products (xie & chen, 2021). the fourth industrial revolution is changing the mode of production and manufacturing, strongly impacting all elements of the productive forces. therefore, marx’s socio-economic doctrine in general and the view of the productive forces need to be refreshed to be socially aware. labor, the fourth industrial revolution, machinery, robots, artificial intelligence, and the application of information technology creates through the replacement of labor capacity with some industries and professions that are rapidly penetrating the workplace in the labor market. the employment trend will shift from manual labor production to manufacturing in a fast automation process of output. the fourth industrial revolution also changed the function of humans in production: humans gradually no longer directly operated technical systems but moved to primarily create and regulate that process. so, the working class includes purely foot-and-limb workers and mental workers with scientific and technical qualifications. employees’ skills, experience, and creative capacity are now much higher (panić et al., 2021). labor in the feudal society made great progress. that progress is due to the requirements of the revolution forcing them to develop their own knowledge to meet the requirements of science and technology. specifically, during the period of the first revolution (in the late 18th to early 19th centuries), the simple, small-scale economy based on manual labor was replaced by industry and large-scale machinery manufacturing. during the second industrial revolution at the end of the 19th journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 101-119 114 century, economic and technical advances were made possible by developing the telegraph, telephone, railway, and the application of the production line of goods; the second industrial revolution is mainly about internal combustion engines and electric machines. the third industrial revolution in the latter half of the 20th century saw advances in electronic infrastructure, computers and digital technology based on the development of semiconductors and supercomputers, personal computers, and the internet. this process is basically complete thanks to high-tech scientific achievements. the fourth industrial revolution began at the beginning of the 21st century (around 2016) with the innovations of the digital revolution, new technologies such as 3d printing, robotics, artificial intelligence, the internet of things, smac, nanotechnology, etc. the revolutions show that machines have changed the way people work. at the first revolution, the skilled craftsmen of earlier days were pleased to see a product from start to finish. when they see a knife, barrel, shirt, or skirt, they feel like they’ve done their job. but when the second and third scientific and technological revolutions developed, machines were programmed to break down the production process into several stages and let workers work with a small operation, repeating the same job over and over again, making working speeds faster. the key to these changes was that plant managers enforced industrial discipline, forcing workers to work regular, often long, hours. with advances in science and technology, this fourth industrial revolution will change the nature of businesses along with the changing needs of workers’ skills. information technology and automation can change the way work is done by augmenting or replacing workers in specific tasks. that could alter demand for certain types of human labor, eliminating some jobs and creating new ones. at the same time, the need for enhanced cognitive skills, social behavior skills, and skill combinations related to greater adaptability is emerging. the return of the productive forces puts demands on labor. the educated workforce tends to increase in quantity and quality, which has gradually changed the balance of standard and higher-level workers. labor must meet the technical skills requirements (medium and high) including in-depth knowledge and skills to perform specific jobs, and at the same time it requires core soft skills including creative thinking ability and initiative in work, computer and internet skills, foreign language skills, teamwork skills, occupational discipline, safety and compliance skills, problemsolving skills, time management skills, focused skills, etc. digital technology integrates all information related to technology, processes, production methods, the needs of industries, professions, skills, etc., and especially the ability to connect and share information worldwide pham through technological devices. that will change the supply and demand structure in the labor market, abolishing complex boundaries between countries in the region and promoting creative employment for each member state. improving the qualifications of human resources by applying automation to production will create opportunities to transfer workers to different dynamic positions and train them to adapt more quickly to technology. instead of manually doing their job, workers will now have their machine control skills enhanced to do those jobs for them (rytikova & medvedev, 2021). however, labor shows its relationship to production when the worker exercises control with their voice. labor can buy stocks and shares, but it is not the owner of the means of production. labor doesn’t have power in the enterprise; therefore, labor is not a production relation (wijaya et al., 2021). thus, the current conception of workers is no different from marx’s point of view when referring to workers in terms of qualifications, knowledge, skills, abilities, and experience. however, these requirements are at a higher level, more specialized, and technologically modern. and the labor of workers is not focused on labor but knowledge, especially scientific knowledge. during the fourth industrial revolution, the object of labor, the concentration of resources, fuels, and raw materials, is not only identified as what is available in nature but shows increasing diversity, including many with an increasingly high content of knowledge. new materials are born, be it intelligent materials, self-repair, or self-cleaning; metals can recover original shapes; ceramics and crystals can turn pressure into energy. in digitalization, a prominent feature of digital technology is introducing the internet of things. it refers to connecting things and people through connected technologies on different platforms (iphone, 3g, 4g, 5g). when the digital internet was born, it could be ng. therefore, human material production may be tangible that may be invisible. however, according to marx, it retains its purpose, which is suitable for human use (kalitanyi & goldman, 2021). labor documents, including labor tools and means of work, shows in the fourth industrial revolution: labor tools are automation in production with workers using advanced technology in the production process to transfer a large part or all of the human-made output to machinery and equipment. automated processes will not need too much human intervention but will use different control systems to help machines operate faster and more accurately; there are even some fully automated processes. automation in manufacturing will become a thriving sector shaped by the internet of things, big data, and analytics services related to far-reaching digital changes in journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 101-119 116 manufacturing. as a result, machines operate continuously without resting in the middle of shifts like workers. labor productivity is pushed to the maximum by the labor force of devices. social relations also do not need to be established. thus, the labor tool is still the same as marx offers, which is a material means for people to directly influence labor to create material wealth to serve human needs. means of work, including supply chains, logistics, data management system (edms), artificial intelligence, along with labor tools, directly participates in the process of impacting labor objects acting to produce material wealth (nielsen et al., 2021). the article’s research object is that the productive force and its development should mainly put a person in a relationship with nature without clarifying conditions in the production relationship. therefore, it is not possible to explain labor productivity or describe production methods. moreover, the article does not place the productive forces and historical context of humankind to analyze the profound changes of historical circumstances that change the productive forces. conclusion today, science has become a direct cause of many significant productions and changes in human life. science and technology are penetrating profoundly into the elements of the productive forces, leading to a change in the quantity and quality of productive troops during the fourth industrial revolution today. today’s productive forces have many new characteristics far beyond those of marx’s era. in particular, the various industrial revolutions have pushed science and technology to new productive forces, with high levels of workers and modern production process. thus, we cannot deny the enormous role of the productive forces in conquering the natural world of humankind. at the same time, the development of productive troops led to globalization and was the driving force for the development of the fourth industrial revolution. that development is the basis for affirming marxism’s accurate and sustainable values of productive forces; at the same time, new requirements are to increase the vitality of that doctrine to suit the conditions and circumstances of the current period. however, the productive forces were no different in nature or structure than those that formed the productive forces that marx had given. and just as marx said, other economic times are not about what they produce but how they grow and with what labor tools. that is why, even today, one still wants to learn about the theory of marx. however, because the article focuses only on the study of productive forces and elements of productive forces, it observed, described, and analyzed the relationship of the productive troops with pham the production relationship. however, it is not possible to see the self-determination of employees in the reality of their capacity in the production process. that is also the limitation of the article when it is not clear how production methods affect the development of society. it is impossible to show the nature of what the production process is for and for whom. the article proposes that it is necessary to improve labor’s qualifications, skills, knowledge, culture, and ethics, science and technology into production. to do so, labor has enough material and spiritual conditions in life. only then will labor be happy in labor, work with passion, and master the production process. acknowledgment this research is funded by university of economics ho chi minh city, vietnam references bapuji, h., ertug, g., & shaw, j. d. (2020). organizations and societal economic inequality: a review and way forward. academy of management annals, 14(1), 60-91. bashir, a. b., kura, s. m., & musa, a. (2021). the application of marx and hegel’s theories of recognition and inequality on contemporary nigerian societies. benlagha, n., & hemrit, w. (2018). the inter and intra relationship between economics, administrative sciences and social sciences disciplines. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 92-115. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.6 cohen, g. a. (2020). karl marx’s theory of history. princeton university press. hanon, i. (2021). moishe postone, the mode of production of capital and cuban agriculture. capitalism nature socialism, 1-19. kalitanyi, v., & goldman, g. a. (2021). human capital management in the fourth industrial revolution. in research anthology on cross-industry challenges of industry 4.0 (pp. 15921612). igi global. kien, p. t. (2020). industrialization and modernization with the development of productive forces in the industrial revolution 4.0 in vietnam today. national political publisher truth. lafrance, x. (2021). the vacuity of structurelessness: situating agency and structure in exploitative and alienated social relations. historical materialism, 1(aop), 1-23. lenin, v. i. (1978). collected works (vol. 4). moscow: progress publishing house. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 101-119 118 marx, k. (1983). the portable karl marx. penguin classics. marx, k., & engels, f. (2010a). collected works (vol. 23). lawrence & wishart. marx, k., & engels, f. (2010b). collected works (vol. 23). lawrence & wishart. marx, k., & engels, f. (2010c). collected works (vol. 42). lawrence & wishart. marx, k., & engels, f. (2010d). collected works (vol. 46). lawrence & wishart. marx, k., & engels, f. (2010e). collected works (vol. 19). lawrence & wishart. marx, k., & engels, f. (2010f). collected works (vol. 3). lawrence & wishart. marx, k., & engels, f. (2010g). collected works (vol. 23). lawrence & wishart. marx, k., & engels, f. (1845). the german ideology. mecw volume, 5, 19-539. mcneill, d. (2021). the development of the concept over time. in fetishism and the theory of value (pp. 23-37). springer. miller, r. w. (2021). history. in analyzing marx (pp. 169-314). princeton university press. nielsen, p., holm, j. r., & lorenz, e. (2021). work policy and automation in the fourth industrial revolution. in globalisation, new and emerging technologies, and sustainable development (pp. 189-207). routledge. nureev, r. m., & orekhovsky, p. a. (2021). discussion around productive forces (political economy of socialism: cognitive deadlock of the 1970s). actual problems of economics and law, 15(2), 197-214. olefirenko, a., & galuschenko, a. (2018). major features, benefits, and prerequisites for intelligent enterprise managing system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 68-91. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.5 o’regan, j. p. (2021). global english and political economy: an immanent critique. routledge. panić, a. a., cvetanović, s., & turanjanin, d. (2021). competitiveness of the countries of southeast europe in the era of the fourth industrial revolution. knowledge international journal, 46(5), 731-736. rytikova, v. o., & medvedev, m. a. (2021). statistical data and programming languages analysis for developing a chatbot in telegram. aip conference proceedings. pham saenko, n., voronkova, o., zatsarinnaya, e., & mikhailova, m. (2020). philosophical and cultural foundations of the concept of “nihitogenesis”. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 88-103. samuels, w. j. (1977). the political economy of adam smith. ethics, 87(3), 189-207. shuliakov, i. (2021). cultural intercourse process model. interconf, 423-432. skryl, t., & gregorić, m. (2021). the impact of the fourth industrial revolution on network business models. in digital strategies in a global market (pp. 53-65). springer. stepnov, i., kovalchuk, j., & zayed, n. m. (2021). distributed capitalism model as a reflection of changes in production forces in the digital economy. academy of strategic management journal, 20, 1-8. vareshchenko, v., & karpenko, l. (2021). productive forces development and regional economy. research and innovation, 84. wijaya, a., kasuma, j., tasenţe, t., & darma, d. c. (2021). labor force and economic growth based on demographic pressures, happiness, and human development. journal of eastern european and central asian research (jeecar), 8(1), 40-50. wise, r. d., & niell, m. c. (2021). capital, science, technology and development of productive forces in contemporary capitalism. monthly review-an independent socialist magazine, 72(10), 33-46. xie, y., & chen, m. (2021). the new development and modern value of engels’ letters to materialism in his later years. scientific and social research, 3(2), 190-194. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 75-103 gender differences in the motivational profile of undergraduate students in light of selfdetermination theory: the case of online learning setting aseel ajlouni1 & saleh rawadieh2 & abdallah almahaireh3 & ferial abu awwad4 abstract motivation has a vital role in successful learning and has garnered the interest of numerous scholars in a wide array of contexts, especially education. despite such influence, literature in motivation has inconsistent findings with regard to gender. also, shifting to online learning as a consequence of covid-19 has impacted students’ academic motivation. this study is novel as it is the first to classify motivation types according to self-determination theory among jordanian undergraduates in online learning environment throughout the covid-19 pandemic. in particular, it examined the motivational jordanian undergraduate profile and investigated the same in relation to gender. this study employed a quantitative approach with a web-based questionnaire. the study sample comprised 433 undergraduates who were enrolled in online courses offered at the university of jordan. the data were collected in september of the academic year 2021–2022 using the academic motivation scale. mann–whitney u test was performed to examine gender differences in motivation type. results demonstrated significant gender difference in motivation types. females had more self-determination (u = 19,106, p = .024), intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (u = 17,030, p = .000), identified regulation (u = 14,997, p = .000), and introjected regulation (u = 17,557, p = .000), while males had more amotivation (u = 17,557, p = .000). implications of this study can inform online instructors and decision-makers to carefully consider online learning settings and employ intrinsic motivation strategies to boost students’ self-determination and enhance their motivation quality. keywords: motivation, online learning, self-determination theory, academic motivation scale, gender difference. introduction and theoretical framework gender has been extensively discussed in psychological and educational research in terms of several constructs, and motivation is one of these important constructs that has a long history in the educational field. it affects learning success and is considered a prerequisite for all learning setting (özen, 2017; islam et al., 2018). lack of motivation is one of the most noteworthy 1 dr., al-ahliyya amman university, a.ajlouni@ju.edu.jo 2 prof., qatar university, srawadieh@qu.edu.qa 3 dr., university of jordan, a.mahaere@ju.edu.jo 4 prof., university of jordan, abuawwad@ju.edu.jo journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 76 challenges of online learning, and it influences and correlates with academic achievement (carter et al., 2020; hartnett, 2016). motivation among online learners is influenced by certain motivational factors that may relate to internal, external, and personal factors such as learning environment, variation in students’ abilities, and the skills required for online learning (kim & frick, 2011). furthermore, the influence of covid-19 pandemic is increasingly visible on social and educational lives (dube & ndaba, 2021; novikov, 2020; omodan et.al., 2021; subur, 2021; tarman, 2020;), it has been shown to hinder learners’ motivation by evoking negative emotions and mental health issues including depression, anxiety, fear, and stress (al-kumaim et al.,2021; chiu & lonka, 2021; ajlouni & almahaireh, 2020; jaradat & ajlouni, 2020; 2021; zaccoletti et al., 2020). in regard to gender, pasion et al. (2020) demonstrated that the covid-19 pandemic had different impact on females and males in terms of student engagement. gender role in academic motivation is still unclear, and the findings of different studies are equivocal (cokley et al., 2001; kissau, 2006). motivation and self-determination theory in online learning context motivation is conceptualized as an inner construct that leads, changes, or maintains goals, actions, and preferences, and it allows students to achieve their goals, engaging them in learning activities. it is the force that encourages them to cope with all difficulties and challenging circumstances (amrai et al., 2011; bzuneck, 2001; beluce & oliveira, 2015; gopalan et al., 2020; jones, 2009). a number of motivation theories have been introduced to understand motivation in education, for example, self-determination theory, which views motivation as a multi-dimensional construct and a continuum between fully self-determined and non-self-determined. self-determined action is volitionally performed, where the regulatory process is a choice, and the perceived locus of causality (ploc) is interior to the self, whereas controlled action is compelled by some interpersonal where the regulatory process is compliance and the ploc is external to the self. internalization process transforms the external regulations into internal ones (black & deci, 2000; deci et al., 1991; zimmerman et al., 1992). according to self-determination theory, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are intentional and vary according to the underlying regulatory process. in autonomous motivation, the action is performed for fun and enjoyment where there are sense of volition and choice to perform this action, whereas in controlled motivation, there is a sense of pressure and instrumental demands (gagné & deci, 2005). ajlouni et al. amotivation (amo) is a situation in which there is no intent to act. intrinsic motivation includes: (1) intrinsic motivation to know (imtk), in which an individual engages in learning, exploring, or understanding something new to have pleasure; (2) intrinsic motivation to accomplish (imta), in which the an individual engages in an activity to achieve a new standard, or accomplishment to have pleasure; and (3) intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (imtes), in which an individual engages in action to stimulate sensations, i.e., sensory pleasure, fun, excitement (sisle & smollan, 2012; orsini et al., 2015; vallerand et al., 1992). extrinsic motivation encompasses: (1) external regulation (er), which is the lower form of selfdetermined motivation in which behaviors are performed for a reward or avoid punishment; it is the case of motivation to satisfy an external demand or a socially constructed contingency; (2) introjected regulation (inr), in which individuals internalize the reasons for the behaviors they perform to avoid guilt and shame or achieve ego enhancement and feelings of worth but are still regulated for external demand; (3) identified regulation (idr), in which individuals are able to identify with the value underlying the regulation, and the behavior is performed to represent a behavioral goal that is personally important (gagné & deci, 2005). according to self-determination theory, to support motivation, one should support the basic psychological needs, which are a) autonomy, in which individuals feel internally assent regarding their behavior and feel free of external constraints on behavior; b) competence, in which the individuals feel connected or skilled in their behavior; c) relatedness, in which the individuals meaningfully feel connected or involved with others (beluce & oliveira, 2015; ryan & deci, 2000; sheldon & filak, 2008). supporting these needs allows an individual to become selfdetermined and fulfilled. self-determination theory proposes that social context influences impact the basic needs that have been suggested to influence motivation (alexandris et al., 2002). the more satisfied basic psychological need the more self-determined students and intrinsically motivated (behzadnia & fatahmodares, 2020). (behzadnia & fatahmodares, 2020). students with more intrinsic motivation are more prominent in schools and have great academic achievements (richard & edward, 2000). students studying in online mode should be self-determined and have intrinsic motivation to succeed (ayub, 2010). design methodology in online learning environments can be instructorcontrolled in which the instructor guides students, or student-controlled environment, wherein the students’ study is self-paced, providing more autonomy to proceed (moore et al., 2011). however, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 78 the online designer and instructors should recognize and adopt appropriate instructional strategies to motivate students, engage them, boost interaction, and offer guidance and support (anderson, 2008; bonk & reynolds, 1997). previous studies that examined academic motivation were varied in their objective, sample (i.e., nationality, age), type of motivation (number of subscales of academic motivation scale [ams] considered), results, and context. nishimura et al. (2017) conducted a study among junior high school students and investigated general changes in student motivation. their results indicated that autonomous motivation shifted to controlled motivation among students. liu et al. (2017) conducted a study among chemistry students using chemistry-specific version of ams according to seven types of motivation and found that students had a high level of three types of external regulation and intrinsic motivation to know, and they had moderate level of intrinsic motivation to accomplish and experience stimulation, and low amotivation. further, omari et al. (2021) conducted a study among university students in morocco using ams considering three types of motivation and found that the students had high extrinsic motivation, moderate intrinsic motivation, and low amotivation to learn english language. also, nguyen (2021) found that motivation-boosting strategies can help students overcome the challenges and barriers they face in online learning during the pandemic. cadête et al. (2021) conducted a study among medical university students in brazil by using ams considering seven types of motivation and demonstrated that they had a moderate level of intrinsic motivation to know and accomplish, external and identified regulation, as well as a moderate level of intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation and introjection, and a low amotivation. so far, only a few studies have been conducted to investigate sdi among students and most of them extracted sdi to find their association or impact on other variables such as intervention program, for example, manzano-sánchez et al. (2019) found a mean score for sdi among students equal to 6.10. similarly, hegarty (2010) reported an sdi with a mean score of 7.30 among graduate students and demonstrated that intrinsic motivation changes over time. furthermore, hegarty et al. (2012) reported that the university students had a mean score for sdi equal to 5.9; also, scifres et al. (2021) conducted a study among business and non-business students and found that their sdi mean scores were 6.24 and 5.86, respectively. ajlouni et al. gender differences in online learning setting and motivation male and female experience the online learning setting in different ways with regard to several variables, i.e., achievement, motivation, perceived learning, habits, and behavioral communication, self-regulation, self-efficacy, computer use, and student satisfaction (chyung, 2007; astleitner & steinberg, 2005; harvey et al., 2017). a number of studies have been conducted to understand the gender gap in online learning setting to provide better learning environment and success. these studies prove that females were more connected to their classmates and perceived the online learning more than males (rovai & baker, 2005), whereas a few studies on online communication in regard to gender have consistent results (shea et al., 2001, clay-wamer & marsh, 2000). studies on student motivation have demonstrated gender differences in motivational construct (meece et al., 2009). researchers have explained gender differences in terms of socialization and other several factors, i.e., self-perceptions of ability, self-competence (metallidou & vlachou, 2007; graham et al., 2008; kissau, 2006). also, the conducted studies confirmed the role of parental influence and school and home environments in shaping the gender differences in motivation (meece et al., 2009; eccles & blumenfeld, 1985). the conducted studies on basic psychological needs had contrasting findings with regard to gender; while some studies demonstrated significant gender differences, others did not (harvey & retter, 2002; antunes et al., 2020). the findings of previous studies on motivation regarding gender differences are equivocal (cokley et al., 2001). furthermore, only a few studies have investigated this aspect and considered all motivation types based on self-determination theory. abu-awaad (2009) conducted a study among primary school students, that aimed to validate ams considering just five subscales and found that it was valid and reliable as females had significantly higher levels of all types of motivation except for amotivation, as this is the only conducted study in the context of jordan yet it is old and administrated at anrwa school not jordanian school. orsini et al. (2015) conducted a study considering seven motivation types and revealed that females had significantly more of all types of motivation, and only the intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation had no significant differences with regard to gender. their findings also showed that male students had higher statistically significant scores in the amotivation subscale. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 80 further, caleon et al. (2015) conducted a study using ams among singapore secondary students consideringly seven types of motivation and found that students had higher levels of all types of motivation, except for amotivation, which had medium levels. also, they found no gender differences in all types of motivation except for amotivation subscale in favor of male students. saygili (2018) conducted a study among school students according to two motivation types, namely, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, in regard to gender and found that there are no significant differences. furthermore, burgt et al. (2018) conducted a study based on four motivational profiles that combined autonomous motivation and controlled motivation, and the results demonstrated that females had more autonomous motivation than males regarding learning. additionally, asif et al. (2018) directed a study on college students and showed that they had moderate level of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and low amotivation; furthermore, males had significantly lower intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation than females, and had significantly higher amotivation than females. ardeńska et al. (2019) conducted a study among polish university students using the polish version of ams and found that students had a moderate level of intrinsic motivation to accomplish and experience stimulation and introjected regulation, and they had a high level of intrinsic motivation to know, identified regulation and external regulation, and low amotivation. they also found significant differences in all types of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation to know in favor for female, whereas in males more amotivation. zhang and lin (2020) conducted a study among online high-school students to examine their motivational profiles and found statistically significant gender differences according to the motivational profiles; female students had highquality profiles and tended to be more autonomous and self-determined than males. similarly, kuśnierz et al. (2020) conducted a study to examine the validity of ams considering seven subscales and found that students had a high level of all types of motivation except for intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation and amotivation, which were moderate and low, respectively, and female students had significantly higher levels of seven types of motivations except for amotivation. furthermore, naz et al. (2020) conducted a study on university students in pakistan and demonstrated that male students had significantly higher levels of extrinsic motivation. ajlouni et al. study problem the findings of different studies on academic motivation in regard to gender are contradictory, but they all recommend conducting further studies. additionally, there are only a few studies that aimed to assess and classify motivation in online learning settings on the basis of selfdetermination theory, as most of them have been classified it according to the two or three main broad domains of motivation types, and not all the seven types. furthermore, no study has been conducted on online learning setting during covid-19 pandemic in jordanian context. these issues were the motivating factors to conduct this study. the undergraduates at the university of jordan (uoj), jordan, have been subjected to the covid19 consequences, as the pandemic has disrupted students’ lives, habits, routines, and learning. therefore, undergraduates’ motivation types and levels could be negatively impacted by the pandemic. furthermore, as motivation could decline over the years among university students and shift from intrinsic to extrinsic, it must be regularly assessed, and this underscores the need to conduct studies on undergraduates’ motivation types and levels. the motivation among undergraduates at the uoj could be affected by the university closures and the rapid shift from face-to-face to online learning methods while facing new instructional strategies, online learning platforms, the absence of social presence. for instance, their motivational profile could be changed, and these changes could differ with gender because of the socialization factors in jordan similar to the gender differences in online learning self-efficacy and digital skills required for online learning. this study is novel as it is the first investigation conducted on jordanian undergraduate students in the context of online learning setting. therefore, this study will contribute new insights into undergraduate motivation types in relation to gender, thereby filling a research gap. the results can inform decision-makers and online instructors at the uoj about undergraduates’ academic motivation to enhance the quality of online learning and teaching processes. research questions this study was conducted with the objective to find the gender differences in the motivational profile of online undergraduates at the uoj by answering the following formulated questions: qr1: what is the level of self-determination among online undergraduates at the uoj throughout the covid-19 pandemic? journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 82 qr2: what are the types of motivations among online undergraduates at the uoj throughout the covid-19 pandemic? hypothesis based on the theoretical framework and the formulated research questions, the following hypothesis was sought to be answered: hy1: there exist statistically significant differences in the level of self-determination according to gender. hy2: there exist statistically significant differences in motivation’s types according to gender. method research design in this study, a quantitative research methodology was adopted, and a descriptive study design was implemented using a web-based questionnaire to investigate the motivational profiles according to gender among the undergraduates from the uoj. the quantitative method permits researchers to conduct statistical analyses to conclude about a sample population, whereas the descriptive design provides a numeric description of population’s motivation by investigating a sample of that population (ahmad et al., 2019; asenahabi, 2019). a web-based questionnaire was designed for the undergraduate participants, and it comprised demographic items and the ams. also, nonparametric analysis using mann–whitney u (mwu) test was conducted to examine gender differences in motivational profile. mwu test is the most appropriate test to observe differences between two groups on a single, ordinal variable with no normal distribution of data sample (macfarland & yates, 2016). several psychological studies on motivation have used non parametric test because of the non-normal distribution of this variable among the investigated groups (rožman et al., 2017; sivrikaya, 2019). participants the total of approximately 35,000 undergraduates at the uoj who had registered in the summer term of 2021 were requested to take part in this study. the study sample comprised 433 undergraduates (271female and 162 male) who had enrolled in the summer term. this was an ajlouni et al. appropriate random sample since it is more than the required sample size (380) specified by stephen thompson's equation with confidence level of .95 and margin error of .05 (thompson, 2012). the participants were taught using the synchronous online learning method during the summer term of academic year 20202021 where the teaching and learning process took place online at a distance from the main campus through moodle and microsoft teams. the uoj provides the latest learning management systems (lms). students can access the lms any time, with all learning materials, such as powerpoint slides, instructional videos, url for supported related topics along with some assignments and forums. also, the uoj has a well-designed infrastructure that provides online technical support, remote access to the e-library, and a virtual visit to campus using augmented reality and virtual reality. in total, 433 undergraduates responded to the questionnaire (62.6% female and 37.4% male). among all the undergraduates, 49.4% were from humanities, 35.3% from scientific, and 15.2% from medical programs. about 28% had an excellent gpa, 49% were very good, and 23.1% reported that their gpa was good or less. a total of 2.5% of the undergraduates stated that they were seniors, and 24.3%, 58.4%, and 14.8% were juniors, sophomores, and freshmen, respectively. the result was an appropriate sample comprising all the undergraduates who were exposed to online learning experiences and willing to join the study. table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the participants. table 1 characteristics of the participants (n = 433) p f value variable no. 37.4% 162 male gender 1 62.6% 271 female 49.4% 214 humanities school categories 2 35.3% 153 scientific 15.2% 66 medical 23.1% 100 good or less gpa 3 49% 212 very good 28% 121 excellent 14.8% 64 freshman academic level 4 58.4% 253 sophomore 24.3% 105 junior 2.5% 11 senior f: frequency, p: percentage. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 84 data collection tool online learner academic motivation was assessed using the ams, which was proposed by vallerand et al. (1992) and available at https://www.lrcs.uqam.ca. the scale comprised 28 items and encompassed seven subscales: imtk, imtes, imta, idr, itr, exr, amo. each subscale contained four items, and each item asked the participants to answer questions such as “why do you go to study at a university?” the subjects answered using a 7-point likert that ranges from 1 = doesn't correspond at all to 7 = corresponds exactly. the self-determination indices (sdi) were calculated using the following formula presented by guay et al. (2003): ((2*intrinsic motivation) + (1*identified regulation)) – ((1*external regulation) + (2* amotivation)). the computed sdi scores ranged between −18 and +18. these indices represent individual’s relative levels of self-determination. the higher the score, the higher the intrinsic motivation and more self-determined an individual (hegarty, 2010; guay et al., 2003). several studies ensured the validity and reliability of ams (utvær & haugan, 2016; fairchild et al., 2005; natalya & purwanto, 2018; liu et al., 2017). they confirmed that ams has satisfactory internal consistency and high reliability and construct validity (orsini et al., 2015). the validity and reliability of ams were ensured by conducting a pilot study among 50 undergraduates. the correlation coefficients between the subscale scores ranged from 0.35 to 0.81, and the correlation between the subscale and the total score ranged from 0.72 to 0.89. the item– total correlation between each item of the ams and the respective subscale ranged from 0.71 to 0.90, and the correlation between each item of the ams and the total score ranged from 0.44 to 0.80. this confirmed the internal consistency of the scale. also, the total ams cronbach's alpha score was 0.95. it also showed that cronbach's alpha for ams subscales ranged between 0.78 and 0.88. these values confirmed that the ams was a reliable scale in this study. data collection data were gathered on september 2021 at the end of summer term throughout the covid-19 pandemic using web-based questionnaire with 32 items 4 items for demographic data and 28 items for the academic motivational measure. the consent was obtained from the participants of the study and the institutional board at the uoj before starting the study. the researchers posted the url of the questionnaire on lms and different social media groups (i.e., facebook and ajlouni et al. whatsapp) for uoj undergraduates. participants were asked to respond to the questionnaire anonymously. it took approximately half an hour to respond to the questionnaire. four hundred and thirty-three undergraduates from uoj responded. data analysis the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) program version 26.0 was employed to conduct the statistical analysis. the descriptive statistics, i.e., means and standard deviations for sdi and each subscale of ams to respond to the first and second formulated questions were extracted. non-parametric test and mwu test were employed to assess the formulated hypotheses to test the existence of significant gender differences in uoj undergraduates’ motivational profile (i.e., sdi, imtk, imta, imtes, idt, itr, etr, amo). before conducting mwu analysis, their initial assumptions were ensured. findings and discussion initial assumption the normality test was done using shapiro–wilk test, and the findings showed that the data were not normally distributed (p < .005) for any motivation types according to gender. this indicated that the non-parametric mwu is the most appropriate statistical test to validate the study hypothesis (mcknight & najab, 2010). next, the assumption test for mwu was ensured and checked by the researchers prior to performing the statistical mwu test, as shown in the following steps. mwu assumptions the first mwu assumption is that the study sample is randomly drawn from the study population (refugio & delmo, 2018; nachar, 2008), which is assumed by the random study sample. the second assumption is that the dependent variable is ordinal, which implies that it should be measured at the ordinal level (nachar, 2008; refugio & delmo, 2018). this was assumed in this study, as the dependent variable of the study is motivation types, assessed using the ams 7-point likert scale and rated from 1 to 7. the third assumption for mwu is that the independent variable is dichotomous, which implies that it has two categories (refugio & delmo, 2018), which is also journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 86 assumed in this study, as the independent variable of the study is gender, which comprises two categories, i.e., male and female. the last assumption is the sample independency, which indicates that the two groups contain different subjects, i.e., the observation is just in one group and cannot be in both, which implies the two groups are not related (nachar, 2008; refugio & delmo, 2018). this was also assumed, as the observations corresponded to different participants, and were drawn from either female group or male group and did not belong to both. in other words, the observations of the study were independently drawn. the findings of the assumptions satisfied the required conditions to perform mwu test. qr1: the level of self-determination among online undergraduates at the uoj throughout the covid-19 pandemic descriptive statistics for sdi score were extracted to answer the first research question. the mean, standard deviation, and the maximum and minimum values were calculated to investigate the level of self-determination among the online undergraduates at the uoj throughout the covid-19 pandemic. the findings related to the undergraduate’s sdi were measured using sdi formula (guay et al., 2003). as stated earlier, the sdi scores ranged between −18 and 18. the descriptive statistics for undergraduate sdi according to gender are summarized in table 2. table 2 descriptive statistics for undergraduate sdi scores according to gender. variable value (n = 433) m 8.27 sd 2.3 max 12.83 min −3.38 table 2 shows that the sdi for undergraduates ranged between −3.38 and 12.83, with a mean value of 8.27. it demonstrates that the total sdi for undergraduate students at the uoj were m = 8.27, which indicates that undergraduates were not fully self-determined. ajlouni et al. qr2: types of motivation among online undergraduates at the uoj throughout the covid-19 pandemic the researcher examined the types and level of the undergraduate motivation, which reflected the sdi of undergraduates, by extracting descriptive statistics for each ams subscale, i.e., means and standard deviations (sd). the findings related to the undergraduates’ motivation level of each type were measured on a 7-point likert. the mean values ranged between 1.0 and 3.00, indicating a low level, 3.01–5.01 indicating a moderate level, and 5.02–7.0 indicating a high level. the descriptive statistics for ams are presented in table 3. table 3 descriptive statistics for ams subscales (n = 433). type of motivation m + sd level imtk 4.23 ± 0.86 moderate imta 4.26 ± 0.83 moderate imtes 4.09 ± 0.85 moderate idr 6.45 ± 0.79 high itr 4.25 ± 2.09 moderate exr 4.45 ± 1.85 moderate amo 1.11 ± 0.32 low the results in table 3 reveal that the undergraduates of the uoj were highly motivated students and had different levels and quality of motivation. in particular, the results indicated that undergraduates had a high level of identified regulation with a mean score 6.45, which was the highest score of motivation among them, as it belonged to extrinsic motivation. also, they reported a moderate level of both introjected and external regulation with mean values of 4.25 and 4.45, respectively, which also belong to extrinsic motivation. furthermore, the results showed that undergraduates at the uoj had a moderate level of all the intrinsic motivation types (imtk, imta, imtes) with the mean scores of 4.23, 4.26, and 4.09 respectively. the results also revealed that undergraduates at the uoj had low amotivation with a mean score of 1.11. hypothesis testing hy1: there exist statistically significant differences in the level of self-determination according to gender. to answer the first hypothesis, descriptive statistics for sdi according to gender were extracted, and non-parametric mwu test was performed to investigate any statistical significance differences for undergraduates’ sdi according to gender. the results are encapsulated in table 4. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 88 table 4 mann-whitney u-test, means, standard deviations for undergraduates’ sdi scores according to gender. variable male (162 ) female (271 ) u p-value sr m sd sr m sd sdi 32,308 7.85 2.78 61,652 8.52 1.8 19,106 .024* sr: sum rank, *: significant value at level .05. it is evident from table 4 that a significant difference existed (u = 19106, p = 0.024) in the level of self-determination in favor of female students (m = 8.52). it implies that female students were more self-determined than male students. hy2: there exist statistically significant differences in motivation types according to gender. to answer the second hypothesis, descriptive statistics for ams subscales were extracted, and non-parametric mwu test was performed to investigate any statistical significance differences for academic motivation type, including imtk, imta, imtes, idr, itr, exr, and amo according to gender. the results are summarized in table 5. table 5 mann-whitney u-test, means, standard deviations for undergraduates’ ams scores according to gender. motivation’s type male (162 ) female (271 ) u p-value sr m sd sr m sd imtk 33,159 4.12 1.01 60801 4.32 0.75 19,957 .099 imta 33,856 4.16 0.97 60105 4.34 0.73 20,653 .271 imtes 30,233 3.91 1.05 63728 4.21 0.69 17,030 .000* idr 28,200 6.20 0.84 65761 6.61 0.69 14,997 .000* itr 34,283 4.42 2.26 63201 4.54 1.94 17,557 .000* exr 34,283 4.42 1.84 59678 4.50 1.84 21,080 .487 amo 38,456 1.17 0.38 55504 1.07 0.25 18,649 .000* *significant value at level .05. results demonstrated the existence of a significant difference (u = 17,030, p = .000) in favor of the female students regarding intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation. therefore, the intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation was found higher among female students (m = 4.21) than male students. furthermore, results indicated that identified regulation was significantly differ (u = 14,997, p = .000) in favor of females (m = 6.61). similarly, the finding demonstrated that a significant ajlouni et al. difference existed (u = 17,557, p = .000) in the introjected regulation according to gender in favor of female students (m = 4.54). it means that female students had higher rates of introjected regulation. table 4 also shows that there existed significant difference in amotivation according to gender (u = 17,557, p = .000) in favor of males (m = 1.17), which indicates that males had higher amotivation than females. discussion the findings of this study showed that undergraduates of the uoj were not fully self-determined, and they were multi motivated students. they reported a moderate level of imtk, imta, imtes, itr, exr, and high level of idr and low level of amo. however, females and males were different regarding the motivation types. the level of self-determination among online undergraduates at the uoj throughout the pandemic of covid-19 the findings of this study reveal that the undergraduates at the uoj were not fully self-determined, and they reported a total mean score of 8.27, which is lower than typical returns, which are around 10 (hegarty, 2010). its indicates that they were less self-determined regarding some learning behaviors but were more in other learning behaviors. sdi means indicate that undergraduates were moderately selfdetermined. this result could be attributed to the covid-19 pandemic influences as well as the new learning settings, which could impact their basic psychological needs, i.e., relatedness, autonomy, and competences. social distancing was boosted among undergraduates by both covid-19 pandemic and forced new learning settings, which impact their relatedness. also, online learning settings impacted students’ competence need because it requires digital skills and online learning self-efficacy. students require more sense of competence to use learning platforms and access internet resources, as well as more sense of relatedness to communicate and connect with classmates and instructors (thomas, 2022). undergraduates of the uoj were exposed to new instructional strategies. also, they virtually interacted over the internet, where the social presence is less than face-to-face learning method, which impacted the instructor–student relationships, student–student relationship, making close and friendly relationship and connecting with others. furthermore, peer journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 90 acceptance among students could also be affected by new learning climate (marshik et al., 2016; klassen et al., 2012). this social influence highly impacted relatedness, which highly affect students’ sdi (bolliger et al., 2010). these issues contribute to the roughly moderate sdi that they have. thus, online instructors could facilitate student’s internalization process to improve their self-determination by supporting the three basic psychological needs using appropriate practices. instructor can be supportive by providing students with choices, positive feedback and accommodating their interests (orsini et al., 2015; goodboy et al., 2015; ryan & deci, 2020). online instructors can support relatedness in their learning setting by establishing a positive learning climate context, fostering instructor–student relationships, making connections with their students and among students, understanding the students, caring about them, and being friendlier with them, and involving parents and boosting peer acceptance among their students. they could employ ict tools to foster interaction and collaboration among students to support the need for relatedness (thomas, 2022; marshik et al., 2016). this roughly moderate sdi results are consistent with the study conducted by scifres, et al. (2021), manzano-sánchez et al. (2019), hegarty and lu (2012), and hegarty (2010). types of motivation among online undergraduates at the uoj throughout the covid-19 pandemic in accordance with self-determination theory and ams results, we found that undergraduates were highly motivated by identified regulations indicating that undergraduates were able to recognize the value underlying the regulation, and their actions were accomplished to represent a personally significant and behavioral goal. students reported that they went to the university because they highly believe that education will enable them to get a job they like, and it will prepare them for this job, help them make better choices related to job orientation, and enhance their job competencies. this finding is consistent with the finding by cadête et al. (2021), omari et al. (2021), kuśnierz et. al. (2020), ardeńska et al. (2019), liu et al. (2017), and caleon et al. (2015). also, the undergraduates showed a moderate level of external regulation, which suggests that they were moderately extrinsically motivated to learn, i.e., their learning process and academic progress were regulated by external demands. this is attributable to the effort that they made to achieve their goal of passing the course exam, maintaining a high gpa to improve their future life and a chance to have a prestigious job with a better salary in future as they responded to the questions ajlouni et al. related to this subscale. this result supports the findings by ardeńska et al. (2019). however, this finding was inconsistent with cadête et al. (2021), caleon et al. (2015), and liu et al. (2017) findings which reported high level of external regulation among students. additionally, undergraduates were moderately motivated by introjected regulation, indicating that the reasons behind their effort in academic tasks and learning are to avoid guilt and shame or to realize ego improvement, indicating that they are regulated to learn by external demand. undergraduates’ responses to the inr subscale demonstrated that they go to university to prove to themselves that they can complete the bachelor’s degree and succeed in their studies to feel they were intelligent and important people. this result is in line with the findings by cadête et al. (2021) and ardeńska et al. (2019), whereas it is inconsistent with finding by caleon et al. (2015) and liu et al. (2017) who they found a high level of introjected regulation among students. these results also demonstrated that undergraduates have a moderate level of intrinsic motivation to know, indicating that they are engaged in academic tasks and learning process when it is new and they feel satisfied. they responded to this scale and demonstrated that they obtained a moderate level of pleasure when they learn something new, discover new things, or get to know something new related to their interest. this result is in line with studies conducted by cadête et al. (2021), ardeńska et al. (2019), and caleon et al. (2015) who found high level of intrinsic motivation to know among students. furthermore, the students were moderately motivated by intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation. this could be derived from their intense feelings as they communicated their own ideas with others through online platforms, such as discussions or live lectures, when they were engaged in group work, from the pleasure they had when they read interesting works by different authors, and when they read about interesting subjects as they reported on the subscales of intrinsic motivations. this result is consistent with the studies by cadête et al. (2021), omari et al. (2021), kuśnierz et al. (2020), liu et al. (2017), and ardeńska et al. (2019), while it is inconsistent with caleon et al.’s (2015) result, which reported high level of intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation. results also demonstrated that the students were moderately motivated by intrinsic motivation to accomplish, indicating that they were engaged in the learning process and academic activities for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from them. this attributed to their feeling of pleasure and satisfaction when they performed difficult academic tasks and when they surpassed their own journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 92 expectations in their study. these students were engaged and motivated in trying to reach a new standard, as they focused on the process of learning and engaging in the learning task rather than the outcome itself. this finding supports the finding by liu et al. (2017) and ardeńska et al. (2019), while it is inconsistent with findings by cadête et al. (2021) and caleon et al. (2015), which reported this level high. also, the results demonstrated that undergraduate students had low amotivation, which could be attributed to their understanding of what they are doing in school and their feelings that they are not wasting their time in school. this could arise from the social influence, well-designed learning setting, and learning materials, such as good teaching practices and strategies, which were combined to prevent them from becoming less motivated. this result is in line with previous studies by cadête et al. (2021), omari et al. (2021), ardeńska et al. (2019), and liu et al. (2017), whereas it is inconsistent with caleon et al.’s (2015) finding, who found moderate level of amotivation among students. differences in the level of self-determination according to gender the results show significant differences in terms of the level of self-determination according to gender in favor of female students. this indicates that female students were more self-determined than males and tended to be more autonomous. this gender difference is attributable to the socialization factors derived from school, family, and society. social factors impact the satisfaction of psychological needs, which in turn affect the self-determination of students (olafsen et al., 2018). the socialization factors cause females and males had different learning behavior and orientation, as well as have different skills and set different goals that shape the quality of their academic motivation (zhang & lin, 2020). the prevailing style of socialization supports females to focus more on their learning and educational goals and orientation, to believe in the importance of their education, which in turn lets females have more autonomous motivation to learn unlike males, whose interests in school education changed and decreased over the age. this is in line with the study by burgt et al. (2018), who found that females are more autonomously motivated than males regarding learning. additionally, covid-19 has impacted the types of motivation differently among gender. antunes et al. (2020) demonstrated that it has moderately positively impacted female students’ engagement, which in turn, enhances the relatedness among females. this relatedness facilitates the ajlouni et al. internalization process that enhances their self-determination and makes them more autonomous than males (pasion et. al., 2020). these results could be attributed to gender differences in information and communication system self-efficacy in favor of females (hatlevik et al., 2018), which could support female competences required to learn online and boost their sdi. these results are aligned with zhang and lin (2020), who found significant gender differences according to the motivational profiles, where females had a high level and tended to be more autonomous and self-determined than males. differences in the motivation type according to gender the study results confirm significant differences in terms of intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation and identified and introjected regulation with regard to gender in favor females. in addition to significant difference in amotivation in favor of male. studies have attributed gender differences in motivation types to socialization factors and basic phycological needs. first, results showed significant differences among students in intrinsic motivated to experience stimulation in favor of female students suggesting that females were delighted when learning and doing academic tasks and engaging in learning activity for the pleasing atmospheres that derives from it. these results are attributed to the support female gain from socialization (alyousef, 2018; abu-awwad, 2009), which boosts their intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation. these socialization differences are related to cultural models in jordanian society. these results are consistent with the results of the aforementioned studies (kuśnierz et al. 2020, ardeńska et al. 2019, orsini et al., 2015) second, the results demonstrated significant differences among students in identified regulation in favor of female students, which indicates that females engaged in learning activity because it is recognized as worthy on a personal level. this can be explained in view of the guidance provided by their family and society since their childhood that focuses on the value and importance of learning for females, which can then support their future. this result also in line with studies conducted by kuśnierz et al., (2020), ardeńska et al., (2019) and orsini et al., (2015). also, the study results showed significant differences in introjected motivation according to gender in favor of females. this indicates that the degree of awareness and desire for constructive competition is greater among females than males. female students engaged in academic activity to avoid guilt, and for self-esteem and ego enhancement. this is attributable to the fact that females journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 94 at university become more aware of their professional desires and practical ambitions, as they search for competition with themselves and with others, in addition to the fact that females in jordan grow up hearing a lot of advice and directions related to the importance of learning (abuawaad, 2009; alyousef; 2018). this finding is aligned with that of kuśnierz et al. (2020), ardeńska et al., (2019) and orsini et al., (2015). furthermore, the study results demonstrated significant differences in amotivation according to gender in favor of males, which indicates that males lack academic motivation more than females. this can be explained by social and economic issues that changed their goal from the educational to other goals. abu-awaad (2009) noted that male students in jordan view the educational process as economically inviable, further male students are spent more time outside their home which effect their motivation in doing their learning task (alyousef, 2018). this result is in line with the findings by kuśnierz et al. (2020), ardeńska et al. (2019), asif et al. (2018), caleon et al. (2015), and orsini et al. (2015). however, these findings contradict the study by saygili (2018), who found no gender differences according to any type of motivation. conclusion and implications this study is the first to classify motivation types according to self-determination theory among jordanian undergraduates in online learning setting throughout the covid-19 pandemic. the findings of the study revealed that undergraduates at the uoj were multi motivated students but not fully self-determined. there is a significant difference in motivation’s types according to gender, female students were more motivated to learn than male student, similarly they were more self-determined. regarding these results, more attention should be given to undergraduates of uoj, instructors in on line learning setting should support online students to enhance the quality of their motivation, especially male students. online instructors can support the three basic psychological needs among online students to enhance their self-determination and intrinsic motivation. this can be achieved using a well-designed online setting, course structure, and learning material, along with intrinsic motivational strategies. online instructors should be autonomy-supportive and use constructive online settings that minimize controls, offer choices, provide feedback, more student responsibility, more self-initiation behavior, and more social presence and connections. ajlouni et al. despite the limitations of the study sample, its results can serve as a guide for decision-makers at the uoj regarding motivations among online students. researchers are encouraged to conduct a replicate study that investigates academic motivation profiles in relation to gender. the implications of this study are anticipated to prompt online instructors, educational stakeholders, and decision-makers to employ intrinsic motivational strategies and construct an autonomysupportive online learning setting to sustain and improve the quality of online students. references abu-awwad f. (2009). the global structure of the academic motivation scale. a psychometric study on a sample of sixth-grade students and the tenth in the schools of the united nations relief and works agency (unrwa) in jordan, 3(25). journal of damascus university. ahmad, s., wasim, s., & irfan, s. (2019). qualitative vs. quantitative research. population. 1(43), 2828-2832. doi: 10.18410/jebmh/2019/587 ajlouni, a. & almahaireh, a. (2020). relationship between coronavirus-related anxiety and optimism among undergraduates at the university of jordan. journal of critical review, 7 (19), 7721-7727. doi: 10.31838/jcr.07.19.879 alexandris, k., tsorbatzoudis, c., & grouios, g. (2002). perceived constraints on recreational sport participation: investigating their relationship with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation, journal of leisure research, 34 (3), 233-252. doi: 10.1080/00222216.2002.11949970. al-kumaim, n. h., mohammed, f., gazem, n. a., fazea, y., alhazmi, a. k., & dakkak, o. (2021) exploring the impact of transformation to fully online learning during covid19 on malaysian university students’ academic life and performance, international journal of interactive mobile technologies, 15 (5), 140-158. doi: 10.3991/ijim.v15i05.20203 alyousef r., (2018), achievement motivation among graduate students at the university of jordan in light of the number of variables. dirasat, the university of jordan. 2 (45), 360 374. doi: 10.35516/0102-045-002-024 amrai, k., motlagh, s.e. zalani h. a. & h. parhon. (2011). the relationship between academic motivation and academic achievement students. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 15, 399-402. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.111 anderson, t. (2008). the theory and practice of online learning, athabasca university press. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 96 antunes, r., frontini, r., amaro, n., salvador, r., matos, r., morouço, p., & rebelo-gonçalves, r. (2020). exploring lifestyle habits, physical activity, anxiety and basic psychological needs in a sample of portuguese adults during covid-19. international journal of environmental research and public health, 17(12), 4360. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17124360. ardeńska, m., ardeńska, a., & tomik, r. (2019). validity and reliability of the polish version of the academic motivation scale: a measure of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and amotivation. health psychol. rep, 7, 254-266. doi: 10.5114/hpr.2019.8619 asenahabi, b. m. (2019). basics of research design: a guide to selecting appropriate research design. international journal of contemporary applied researches, 6(5), 76-89. asif, s., kamal, a., fahim, m., naveen, n., & yousaf, f. (2018). exploring gender differences in academic motivation among adolescents. general section-original articles, 16 (4), 912-917. astleitner, h., & steinberg, r. (2005). are there gender differences in web-based learning? an i̇ntegrated model and related effect sizes. aace journal, 13 (1), 47-63. https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/18902/. ayub,. n. (2010). effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on academic performance. pakistan business review. 8, 363-372. behzadnia, b., & fatahmodares, s. (2020). basic psychological need‐satisfying activities during the covid‐19 outbreak. applied psychology: health and well‐being, 12(4), 1115-1139. doi: 10.1111/aphw.12228 beluce. a. and oliveira. k. (2015). students’ motivation for learning in virtual learning environments. paidéia,ribeirão preto, 25 (60), 105-113. doi: 10.1590/198243272560201513 black a. & deci, e. (2020). the effects of i̇nstructors' autonomy support and students' autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: a self-determination theory perspective, science education, 84 (6), 740-756. doi: 10.1002/1098237x(200011)84:6<740::aid-sce4>3.0.co;2-3 bolliger, c., supanakorn s., & boggs, c. (2010). impact of podcasting on student motivation in the online learning environment, computers & education, 55 (2), 714-722. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2010.03.004. bonk, j. c., & reynolds, h. t. (1997). learner-centered web instruction for higher-order thinking, teamwork and apprenticeship: web-based instruction. educational technology publications. englewood cliffs, nj. ajlouni et al. bzuneck,. j. a (2001). motivação do aluno: aspectos introdutórios. in e. boruchovitch & j. a. bzuneck (orgs.), a motivação do aluno: contribuições da psicologia contemporânea , 3, 9-36. cadête filho, a. d. a., peixoto, j. m., & moura, e. p. (2021). medical students’ academic motivation: an analysis from the perspective of the theory of self-determination. revista brasileira de educação médica, 45 (2), 1-10. doi: 10.1590/1981-5271v45.220200129.ing caleon, i., wui, m., tan, j., chiam, c., soon, t., & king, r. (2015). cross-cultural validation of the academic motivation scale: a singapore investigation. child indicators research, 8(4), 925–942. doi:10.1007/s12187-014-9298-7 10.1007/s12187-014-9298-7. carter jr, r. a., rice, m., yang, s., & jackson, h. a. (2020). self-regulated learning in online learning environments: strategies for remote learning. information and learning sciences, 121 (5), 321-329. doi: 10.1108/ils-04-2020-0114 chiu, t. k., lin, t. j., & lonka, k. (2021). motivating online learning: the challenges of covid-19 and beyond. the asia-pacific education researcher, 30(3), 187-190. doi: 10.1007/s40299-021-00566-w chyung, s. y. (2007). age and gender differences in online behavior, self-efficacy and academic performance. quarterly review of distance education, 8 (3), 213-222. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej875061 clay-wamer, i, & marsh, k. (2000). implementing computer mediated communication in the college classroom. journal of educational computing research, 23(3), 257-274. doi: 10.2190/6e87-c10q-l6fd-xcju cokley, k. o. bernard, n. cunningham d. & motoike. j.(2001). a psychometric i̇nvestigation of the academic motivation scale using a united states sample. measurement and evaluation in counseling and development, 34 (2), 109-119. doi: 10.1080/07481756.2001.12069027. dube, b., & ndaba, x. p. (2021). educating progressed learners in times of covid-19: how can bricolage help?. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 22-36. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.9 eccles, j. s., & blumenfeld, p. (1985). classroom experiences and student gender: are there differences and do they matter?, wilkinson, & c.. fachada, n., rodrigues, j., lopes, v. v., martins, r. c., & rosa, a. c. (2016). micompr: an r package for multivariate i̇ndependent comparison of observations. the r journal, 8(2): 405-420. doi: 10.32614/rj-2016-055 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 98 fairchild, a. j. horst, s. j. finney s. j., & barron. k. e. (2005). evaluating existing and new validity evidence for the academic motivation scale. contemporary educational psychology. 30 (3), 331-358. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.11.001 gagné m. & deci. e. l., (2005). self‐determination theory and work motivation. journal of organizational behavior, 26 (4), 331-362. doi: 10.1002/job.322 goodboy, a. martin m. & goldman, z. (2015). students’ experiences of bullying in high school and their adjustment and motivation during the first semester of college, western journal of communication, 80 (1), 60-78. doi: 10.1080/10570314.2015.1078494. gopalan, v. bakar j.a. & zulkifli, a.n. (2020). a review of motivation theories models and instruments in learning environment. journal of critical reviews, 7 (6), 554-559. graham, j., tisher, r., ainley, m., & kennedy, g. (2008). staying with the text: the contribution of gender, achievement orientations, and interest to students’ performance on a literacy task. educational psychology, 28(7), 757-776. doi: 10.1080/01443410802260988 hartnett, m. (2016). the importance of motivation in online learning. motivation in online education, 5–32. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0700-2_2 harvey, h. l., parahoo, s., & santally, m. (2017). should gender differences be considered when assessing student satisfaction in the online learning environment for millennials?. higher education quarterly, 71(2), 141-158. doi: 10.1111/hequ.12116 harvey, v. s., & retter, k. (2002). variations by gender between children and adolescents on the four basic psychological needs. international journal of reality therapy, 21(2), 3336. hatlevik, o. e., throndsen, i., loi, m., & gudmundsdottir, g. b. (2018). students’ ict selfefficacy and computer and i̇nformation literacy: determinants and relationships. computers & education, 118, 107-119. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2017.11.011 hegarty, n. (2010). application of the academic motivation scale to graduate school students. the journal of human resource and adult learning, 6(2), 48-55. hegarty, n., brasco, r., & lu, f. (2012). what motivates students in graduate school? an empirical study. business education & accreditation, 4 (2), 39–47 islam, s., baharun, h., muali, c., ghufron, m., el bali, i., wijaya, m., & marzuki, i. (2018). to boost students’ motivation and achievement through blended learning, journal of physics: conference series, 1114, p. 012046. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1114/1/012046. ajlouni et al. jaradat s. & ajlouni, a. (2020). social presence and self-efficacy in relation to student satisfaction in online learning setting: a predictive study, international journal of education and practice, 8 (4), 759-773. doi: 10.18488/journal.61.2020.84.759.773. jaradat s. & ajlouni, a. (2021) undergraduates’ perspectives and challenges of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic: a case from the university of jordan. journal of social studies education research, 12 (1), pp 149-173. jones, b.d. (2009). motivating students to engage in learning: the music model of academic motivation. international journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 21 (2), 272-285. kim, k. & frick, t. (2011) changes in student motivation during online learning, journal of educational computing research, 44 (1), 1-23. doi: 10.2190/ec.44.1.a. kissau, s. (2006). gender differences in motivation to learn french. canadian modern language review, 62(3), 401-422. doi: 10.3138/cmlr.62.3.401 klassen, r. perry n & frenzel, a. (2012). teachers' relatedness with students: an underemphasized component of teachers' basic psychological needs., journal of educational psychology, 104 (1), 150-165. doi: 10.1037/a0026253. kuśnierz, c., rogowska, a. m., & pavlova, i. (2020). examining gender differences, personality traits, academic performance, and motivation in ukrainian and polish students of physical education: a cross-cultural study. international journal of environmental research and public health, 17(16), 5729. doi: 0.3390/ijerph17165729 litalien, d., gillet, n., gagné, m., ratelle, c. f., & morin, a. j. (2019). self-determined motivation profiles among undergraduate students: a robust test of profile similarity as a function of gender and age. learning and individual differences, elsevier , 70, 3952. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2019.01.005 liu, y. ferrell, b. barbera j. and lewis j.e. (2017). development and evaluation of a chemistryspecific version of the academic motivation scale (ams-chemistry). chemistry education research and practice, 18 (1), 191-213. doi: 10.1039/c6rp00200e macfarland, t. w., & yates, j. m. (2016). mann–whitney u test. in introduction to nonparametric statistics for the biological sciences using r, springer. manzano-sánchez, d., valero-valenzuela, a., conde-sánchez, a., & chen, m. y. (2019). applying the personal and social responsibility model-based program: differences according to gender between basic psychological needs, motivation, life satisfaction and intention to be physically active. international journal of environmental research and public health, 16(13), 1-11. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16132326 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 100 marshik, t. ashton p. & algina, j. (2016). teachers’ and students’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness as predictors of students’ achievement, social psychology of education, 20 (1), 39-67. doi: 10.1007/s11218-016-9360-z. mason, s. j., & graham, n. e. (2002). areas beneath the relative operating characteristics (roc) and relative operating levels (rol) curves: statistical significance and i̇nterpretation. quarterly journal of the royal meteorological society: a journal of the atmospheric sciences, applied meteorology and physical oceanography, 128(584), 2145-2166. doi: 10.1256/003590002320603584 mcknight, p. e., & najab, j. (2010). mann‐whitney u test. the corsini encyclopedia of psychology, 1-1. doi: 10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0524 meece, j. l., glienke, b. b., & askew, k. (2009). gender and motivation. handbook of motivation at school, routledge. metallidou, p., & vlachou, a. (2007). motivational beliefs, cognitive engagement, and achievement in language and mathematics in elementary school children. international journal of psychology, 42(1), 2-15. doi: 10.1080/00207590500411179 mohammed, t. gin l. and cooper, k. (2021). the effects of online science learning environments on undergraduates with depression, the faseb journal, 35 (1), 1. doi: 10.1096/fasebj.2021.35.s1.01507. moore, j. l., dickson-deane, c., & galyen, k. (2011). e-learning, online learning, and distance learning environments: are they the same?, the internet and higher education, 14 (2), 129-135. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2010.10.001. nachar, n. (2008). the mann-whitney u: a test for assessing whether two i̇ndependent samples come from the same distribution. tutorials in quantitative methods for psychology, 4(1), 13-20. doi: 10.20982/tqmp.04.1.p013 natalya l. & purwanto, c. exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the academic motivation scale (ams)–bahasa indonesia, makara human behavior studies in asia, (2018). 22 (1), 29-42. doi: 10.7454/hubs.asia.2130118. naz, s., shah, s. a., & qayum, a. (2020). gender differences in motivation and academic achievement: a study of the university students of kp, pakistan. global regional review, v(i), 67-75. doi:10.31703/grr.2020(v-i).09 nguyen, h.(2021). boosting motivation to help students to overcome online learning barriers in covid-19 pandemic: a case study, international journal of interactive mobile technologies, 15 (10), 4. doi: 10.3991/ijim.v15i10.20319. ajlouni et al. nishimura t. & sakurai, s (2017). longitudinal changes in academic motivation in japan: selfdetermination theory and east asian cultures, journal of applied developmental psychology, 48, 42-48. doi: 10.1016/j.appdev.2016.11.004. novikov, p. (2020). impact of covid-19 emergency transition to on-line learning onto the international students’ perceptions of educational process at russian university. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 270-302. olafsen, a. h., deci, e. l., & halvari, h. (2018). basic psychological needs and work motivation: a longitudinal test of directionality. motivation and emotion, 42(2), 178189. doi: 10.1007/s11031-017-9646-2 omari, o. moubtassime m. & ridouani, d. (2021).assessing moroccan university students’ english learning motivation: a comparative study, advances in language and literary studies, 9 (1), 81-88. doi: 10.7575/aiac.alls.v.9n.1p.81 omodan, b. i., tsotetsi, c. t., & ige, o. a. (2021). managing the culture of covid-19" new normal" as a motivation for university students in south africa, research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 37-51. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.10 orsini, c. binnie, vevans,. p. ledezma, p. fuentes f., & villegas. m.j. (2015). psychometric validation of the academic motivation scale in a dental student sample. journal of dental education, 79 (8), 971-981. doi: 10.1002/j.0022-0337.2015.79.8.tb05989.x özen. s.o. (2017). the effect of motivation on student achievement. the factors effecting student achievement. springer. pasion, r., dias-oliveira, e., camacho, a., morais, c., & franco, r. c. (2020). impact of covid19 on undergraduate business students: a longitudinal study on academic motivation, engagement and attachment to university, accounting research journal, 2(34), 1-12. doi: 10.1108/arj-09-2020-0286 pintrich, p. r., brown, d. r., mckeachie, w. j., & weinstein, c. e. (eds.). (1994). student motivation, cognition, and learning: essays in honor of wilbert j. mckeachie. routledge. ryan & deci, (2020). intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: definitions, theory, practices, and future directions, contemporary educational psychology, 61. 1-11. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860. refugio, c., & delmo, e, j. (2018). empirical research on mann-whitney u-test. statistics class projects. richard r, & edward. d. (2020). self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. american psychologist, 55 (1), 68-78. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.10 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 75-103 102 rovai, a. p., & baker, j. d. (2005). gender differences in online learning: sense of community, perceived learning, and i̇nterpersonal i̇nteractions. quarterly review of distance education, 6(1), 31-44. http://www.infoagepub.com/products/journals/qrde/order.html rožman, m., treven, s., & čančer, v. (2017). motivation and satisfaction of employees in the workplace. business systems research: international journal of the society for advancing innovation and research in economy, 8(2), 14-25. savage, m.j. james, r. r., magistro, d. donaldson, j. healy, l.c. .nevill, m & hennis p.j. (2020). mental health and movement behaviour during the covid-19 pandemic in uk university students: prospective cohort study, mental health and physical activity, 19, 1-6. doi: 10.1016/j.mhpa.2020.100357. saygili, g. (2018). factors affecting students’ learning motivation, european researcher, 9 (2), 163-170. doi: 10.13187/er.2018.2.163 scifres, e. l., cox, m., crocker, r. m., mishra, r., & scott, g. w. (2021): academic motivation and the undergraduate business major, journal of education for business, doi: 10.1080/08832323.2020.1869680 shea, p., pickett, a., & li, c. s. (2005). increasing access to higher education: a study of the diffusion of online teaching among 913 college faculty. international review of research in open and distributed learning, 6(2), 1-27. doi: 10.19173/irrodl.v6i2.238 sheldon k. & filak, v. (2008). manipulating autonomy, competence, and relatedness support in a game-learning context: new evidence that all three needs matter, british journal of social psychology, 47 (2), 267-283. doi: 10.1348/014466607x238797. sisle r. & smollan. r. (2012). emotional labour and self-determination theory: a continuum of extrinsic and intrinsic causes of emotional expression and control. new zealand journal of employment relations, 37 (2), 41-57. sivrikaya, a. h. (2019). the relationship between academic motivation and academic achievement of the students. asian journal of education and training, 5(2), 309-315. steven k . thompson,(2012).sampling.third edition, john wiley & sons. stolk, j. d., jacobs, j., girard, c., & pudvan, l. (2018). learners’ needs satisfaction, classroom climate, and situational motivations: evaluating self-determination theory in an engineering context. ieee frontiers in education conference (fie), 2018, 1-5. doi: 10.1109/fie.2018.8658880 subur, s. (2021). online learning on the covid-19 pandemic to create educational access inequality. journal of social studies education research, 12, no. 4 170-196. ajlouni et al. tarman, b. (2020). editorial: reflecting in the shade of pandemic. research in social sciences and technology 5(2), i-iv. doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed thomas k. f. chiu (2022). applying the self-determination theory (sdt) to explain student engagement in online learning during the covid-19 pandemic, journal of research on technology in education, doi: 10.1080/15391523.2021.1891998 utvær b. & haugan, g. (2016). the academic motivation scale: dimensionality, reliability, and construct validity among vocational students, journal of vocational education and training, 17-45. doi: 10.3384/njvet.2242-458x.166217. vallerand, r. pelletier, l. blais, m. briere, n., senecal c., and vallieres. e., (1992). the academic motivation scale: a measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education. educational and psychological measurement, 52 (4), 1003-1017. doi: 10.1177/0013164492052004025 van der burgt, s. m., kusurkar, r. a., wilschut, j. a., tsoi, s. l. t. a., croiset, g., & peerdeman, s. m. (2018). motivational profiles and motivation for lifelong learning of medical specialists. journal of continuing education in the health professions, 38(3), 171-178. doi: 10.1097/ceh.0000000000000205 vecchione, m.. alessandri g & marsicano, g. (2014). academic motivation predicts educational attainment: does gender make a difference?, learning and individual differences, 32, 124-131. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2014.01.003. zaccoletti, s., camacho, a., correia, n., aguiar, c., mason, l., alves, r. a., & daniel, j. r. (2020). parents’ perceptions of student academic motivation during the covid-19 lockdown: a cross-country comparison. frontiers in psychology, 3602. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.592670 zhang, y., & lin, c. h. (2020). motivational profiles and their correlates among students in virtual school foreign language courses. british journal of educational technology, 51(2), 515-530. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12871 zimmerman, b. j., bandura, a., & martinez-pons, m. (1992). self-motivation for academic attainment: the role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting, american educational research journal. 29 (3), 663-676. doi: 10.3102/00028312029003663 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 143-163 strategic action plans for school improvement: an exploratory study about quality indicators for school improvement plan evaluation marisa carvalho1, ilídia cabral2, josé verdasca3 & josé matias alves4 abstract school strategic planning and strategic action plans (saps) are considered relevant tools for school improvement. this study was conducted with the aim of identifying quality indicators for school saps and test their utility in the portuguese context. by using a qualitative content analysis throughout diverse data sources (plans of portuguese schools, national guidelines, and educational literature), a grid with quality indicators for school improvement plan analysis was designed. nine quality indicators guided the analysis of 663 saps of portuguese schools. results indicated that plans lack relevant quality dimensions, which are more of a description or a list of actions than a tool that supports the strategic action of a given school. notwithstanding, plans are aligned with national policies and provide meaningful and relevant information to guide plan implementation. the findings of this study are anticipated to derive implications for policies, practices, and research related to school improvement. keywords: school improvement, strategic planning, quality indicators, qualitative study. introduction school improvement is a central aim of educational systems and a core concept in educational literature research (hajisoteriou et al., 2018; harris et al., 2015; leithwood et al., 2006). a number of studies have affirmed strategic planning as a valuable tool for school improvement anchored in schools’ vision and strategy (e.g., mbugua & rarieya, 2014; meyers & vangronigen, 2019). the terms “strategy” and “strategic planning” are still being confused and largely perceived as synonymous (eacott, 2008). despite being related, strategy and strategic planning in schools are different concepts that must be acknowledged differently (carvalho et al., 2021a; davies, 2006; eacott, 2008; quong & walker, 2010). nowadays, the concept of strategy accentuates the need 1 assist. prof. universidade católica portuguesa, faculty of education and psychology, research centre for human development, portugal, mscarvalho@ucp.pt 2 assist. prof. universidade católica portuguesa, faculty of education and psychology, research centre for human development, portugal, icabral@ucp.pt 3 assoc. prof. universidade de évora, évora, portugal, jcv@uevora.pt 4 assoc. prof. universidade católica portuguesa, faculty of education and psychology, research centre for human development, portugal, jalves@ucp.pt journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 for a comprehensive and holistic perspective related to school planning. school strategy incorporates three core dimensions articulated with a schoolwide perspective: (i) vision, mission, and direction; (ii) intentional thinking; and (iii) articulated decision-making and action (carvalho et al., 2021). therefore, school strategic plans should be based on and derived from a coherent and comprehensive strategy for a specific school. the design and implementation of a plan are related and must be articulated and aligned with the school’s global mission. the quality of a plan’s implementation is related to the quality of the plan and planning process (davies, 2006, 2007; eacott, 2008, 2011; meyers & vangronigen, 2019). high-quality planning process is believed to be a core dimension that supports a school’s actions toward improvement as it directs schools, teams, and professionals to specific priorities, goals, and activities (acton, 2021; fernandez, 2011; strunk et al., 2016). furthermore, it reinforces stakeholders’ compromise and involvement and facilitates reflection, capacity building, and professional and organizational development (carvalho et al., 2021b; fernandez, 2011). such arguments suggest that requiring schools to devise plans for school improvement would be uncontroversial. this idea is reinforced by school reforms worldwide that have mandated formal planning to foster improvement (e.g., agi, 2017; al-zboon & hasan, 2012; schlebusch & mokhatle, 2016). for example, in portugal, like other countries, several educational reform policies have mandated formal planning for school improvement. portuguese schools are asked to design strategic action plans (saps) on a regular basis to improve student success (ministry of education, 2016, 2018, 2020). as a result, school improvement plans are regarded as demand for improvement and a tool to guide the same. though schools’ strategic plans have been adopted extensively, little evidence exists about emergent challenges related to school improvement planning (cf. carvalho et al., 2021) and about plan quality concerning their processes and outcomes (e.g., leithwood et al., 2006; strunk et al., 2016), which is also true within the portuguese educational system. thus, some researchers have been critical of the notion that formal planning can produce considerable improvements in schools (bell, 2002). indeed, some studies have highlighted limitations or difficulties concomitant to school improvement planning, such as the inability to recognize plan value as a result of a topdown imposition to schools, teachers and administrators’ overloading, or rigidity of plan prescriptions (bell, 2002; fernandez, 2011; strunk et al., 2016). carvalho et al. 145 previous studies concerning school improvement planning have identified the prevalence of plans to accomplish externally driven requirements (meyers & vangronigen, 2019) more than plans to intentionally support schools’ mission, vision, and direction. additionally, in terms of structure, improvement plans seem to be fairly similar, typically listing goals and strategies (meyers & hitt, 2018). also, most plans are short-term oriented and based on the immediate needs of the school (mbugua & rarieya, 2014). moreover, school improvement planning is not always fully embraced, knowledge-based, and evidence-based, which has raised questions about schools' efficacy on strategic planning and action processes (cheng, 2011; fernandez, 2011; schildkamp, 2019; strunk et al., 2016; wanjala & rarieya, 2014). some authors have argued that most stakeholders lack knowledge about strategic planning and implementation processes, debating about what should be known by the different stakeholders, what data are required to support planning and decision-making, and how to accomplish planning, implementation, and evaluation of school improvement plans (acton, 2021; fernandez, 2011; schildkamp, 2019; wanjala & rarieya, 2014). therefore, it is urgent to shift from short-term, crisis-driven school improvement planning approaches to broader strategic processes (davies, 2006), supported by an integrated and holistic appraisal of a school’s strengths and weaknesses involving the entire school community (cheng, 2010). in this regard, data-based processes are required to identify priorities for a specific school, to involve different stakeholders from the start by making sense of data, priorities, and strategy, and to support and validate decision-making (acton, 2021; schildkamp, 2019). considering all the above, school improvement planning does not completely assure school improvement or even strategic action, and it requires taking into account the quality of the plans. thus, it is essential to deepen the knowledge about the planning and implementation of processes for high-quality school strategic plans. key known indicators of high-quality planning for school improvement can be derived from the extant educational literature (e.g., acton, 2021; carvalho et al., 2021b; dunaway et al., 2012; fernandez, 2011; garcia & cerado, 2020; immordino et al., 2016; meyer et al., 2020; strunk et al., 2016). the comprehensive and integrated nature of the plans, their alignment with the school vision, mission, and priorities, the option for research-based strategies, a well-defined plan considering goals and implementation, a clear definition of a data-based and monitoring process, the community involvement, and the provision of professional development opportunities may be journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 regarded as relevant indicators for quality school plan evaluation (e.g., acton, 2021; dunaway et al., 2012; fernandez, 2011; immordino et al., 2016; meyer et al., 2020; strunk et al., 2016). some studies aimed to evaluate school plans in terms of quality by taking into account some of these specific indicators (e.g., chukwumah, 2015; domingo et al., 2020; fernandez, 2011; meyers & vangronigen, 2019; strunk et al., 2016). for instance, the findings of fernandez’s (2011) study evidenced a positive relationship between the quality of strategic planning and a school’s academic performance and identified specific indicators for planning that have higher relevance in improvement (e.g., comprehensive and integrated nature of the plans, monitoring process). however, the author also acknowledged that contextual school factors mediate the impact of planning in academic performance and improvement (e.g., leadership and institutional dynamics; problems the school faces). thus, planning may be argued to be relevant to school improvement, but it requires appraising the quality of the plans from a comprehensive and holistic perspective. determining a plans’ quality and the indicators that may guide the planning processes in schools is central. this study was conducted with the aim to identify adequate indicators to characterize saps in terms of quality in portuguese schools. method data context the portuguese educational reform agendas reflect the need for school improvement (machado, 2017; oecd, 2020). the compulsory education expansion until 12 years of formal education and the maintained aim to improve students’ academic success rates have compelled policies for alleviating and preventing students’ academic challenges. since the 1980s, the portuguese government has mandated school programs for academic success, as is the case of the national programme to promote educational success (programa nacional de promoção do sucesso escolar, pnpse, 2016) launched in 2016 (oecd, 2020). pnpse is a comprehensive strategy to combat school failure and grade repetition with a strong emphasis on building capacity for teachers and school leaders (oecd, 2020). it is a strategy to support schools to develop improvement plans for their saps. sap can be defined as a tool to guide and structure school action to address its core problems by defining aims and priorities in a participative and constructive manner (verdasca et al., 2019). for carvalho et al. 147 sap elaboration, ministry of education provided some guidelines, which account for three aspects: pedagogical (e.g., innovative pedagogical strategies, evaluation practices); organizational (e.g., collaborative practices); and format and content (problem identification, beneficiaries, practice identification/name, goals, targets, indicators, activities, timeline, professionals involved, additional resources and the need for professional development activities related to the project). guidelines and support were also provided for the planning process in schools. a group of three people from each school received information and training during the planning process. still, each school was instructed to ensure broad participation in sap elaboration and its implementation and strong dissemination. the saps were elaborated and approved for the first time in july 2016, and since september 2016, they have been implemented in 663 portuguese schools (of 811 public schools existing in portugal; verdasca et al., 2019). in september 2018, saps were reformed for continuity, and in 2020, they were reformulated with regard to their priorities (oecd, 2020). therefore, saps are considered instrumental in school action and improvement in portugal. purpose and research questions the quality of school improvement plans is a critical issue that requires due consideration of policymakers, practitioners, and researchers in education. this is particularly required in educational contexts (e.g., portuguese) that usually mandate strategic action plan elaboration to support and guide schools’ actions toward improvement. for this reason, it is important to analyze the characteristics of school improvement plans in portuguese schools considering quality indicators. the existence of school improvement plans does not guarantee schools improvement, nor does it mean that the school has a clear and intentional strategy articulated with a specific mission. therefore, the quality of school improvement plans and of the planning process itself is a relevant issue to be addressed in educational research. as stated earlier, little evidence exists about actual challenges related to school planning (cf. carvalho et al., 2021) and about plans’ quality concerning their processes and outcomes (e.g., leithwood et al., 2006; strunk et al., 2016). though some indicators of high-quality plans for school improvement can be derived from educational literature (e.g., acton, 2021; carvalho et al., 2021b; dunaway et al., 2012; fernandez, 2011; garcia & cerado, 2020; immordino et al., 2016; meyer et al., 2020; strunk et al., 2016), agreement journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 on which indicators can be used to define high-quality saps is required to support planning processes as well as to evaluate the plans itself and their implementation. as literature on school improvement plans’ quality is scarce, this study aimed to identify what indicators can be used to evaluate school strategic action plans' quality and test these specific indicators in terms of utility in portuguese schools' plans. therefore, this qualitative study was conducted with the purpose of developing a set of indicators that can appraise the quality of saps designed for portuguese schools. the aforementioned definition of saps given by verdasca et al. (2019) has been used in this study. quality indicators are generally used to identify core dimensions to accomplish when planning, implementing, and evaluating saps. this study attempted to answer the following questions: rq1. what are the indicators that can be used to appraise the quality of saps of portuguese schools? rq2. what are the main characteristics of the saps of portuguese schools considering the quality indicators previously defined? data collection and analysis this study was conducted using qualitative content analysis (mayring, 2014), which is defined as “a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use” (krippendorff, 2004, p. 24). as the primary aim of this study was to define specific indicators from a set of relevant documents (e.g., literature, guidelines, recommendations, and school plans) and test their usage by analyzing another set of documents (school improvement plans), qualitative content analysis was considered appropriate. according to mayring (2014), there are three fundamental forms of interpretation in qualitative content analysis: summary: the object of the analysis is to reduce the material in such a way that the essential contents remain, in order to create through abstraction a comprehensive overview of the base material which is nevertheless still an image of it. explication: the object of the analysis is to provide additional material on individual doubtful text components (terms, sentences...) with a view to increasing understanding, explaining, interpreting the particular passage of text. carvalho et al. 149 structuring: the object of the analysis is to filter out particular aspects of the material, to give a cross-section through the material according to pre-determined ordering criteria, or to assess the material according to certain criteria. (pp. 63–64) in this study, qualitative content analysis by structuring was applied in two different phases of data analysis after data collection. data collection included (1) collecting relevant educational literature related to school planning and school evaluation, which already presented specific indicators, (2) collecting guidelines and recommendations for sap issued by portuguese ministry of education, and (3) collecting the total of 663 saps approved and implemented in 2016 in different portuguese schools. for sap collection, authorization for usage was obtained from the ministry of education representative of the respective program (pnpse, 2016), and the saps were made available by this same representative. even though saps are public and available on each school’s website, this procedure is guaranteed to acknowledge ethical requests. after sap collection, documents were prepared for analysis with nvivo 12 software. a code was attributed to each plan (corresponding number and type – measures adopted or results – as this example: 1_m). during the first phase of data analysis, inductive analysis was performed to filter out particular aspects of the material, in this case, the quality indicators for sap evaluation, which involved analyzing educational literature, ministry of education guidelines for sap elaboration, and the total of 663 portuguese schools sap. a grid with quality indicators for schools' improvement plans analysis was designed in accordance with three different sources: (1) qualitative content analysis of school saps of portuguese schools, (2) national guidelines of portuguese ministry of education, and (3) educational literature devoted to school improvement and planning. in the second phase, deductive analysis was conducted to assess the material according to certain criteria. the plans were analyzed considering quality indicators defined at the end of the first phase. each quality indicator of the grid was used as a category for sap analysis. findings based on the research questions and the analysis conducted, results were organized as follows: (1) quality indicators for school sap evaluation (rq1) and (2) evaluation of the portuguese school saps (rq2). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 3.1. what are the indicators that can be used to evaluate the quality of saps of portuguese schools? from the inductive analysis, some common categories were identified as pertinent to quality indicator selection and preparation. generally, saps present a straightforward scanning of problems and resources and an intentional focus on priorities defined by the ministry of education (e.g., change school and classroom organization, improve teachers' collaboration, and reinforce supervision practices). the ministry of education in portugal has provided some guidelines for schools to develop their saps regarding pedagogical priorities (e.g., innovative pedagogical strategies, evaluation practices) and organizational concerns (e.g., collaborative practices). recommendations for the saps’ format and content have also been provided (problem identification, beneficiaries, practice identification/name, goals, targets, indicators, activities, timeline, professionals involved, additional resources, and need for professional development activities related to the project). as expected, there is some convergence between sap and part of the guidelines/recommendations provided. from sap analysis, four categories were identified: (1) school problems, (2) goals to accomplish, (3) activities proposed, and (4) sap monitoring. it is worth noting that the categories identified are convergent with the guidelines issued by the portuguese ministry of education. schools problems. this category corresponds to the aspects that must be changed or improved in each school. in saps, the problems most reported concerned students, school results, and teachers. problems confronted by students are mostly related to learning disabilities, indiscipline, demotivation, and social condition. school results refer to academic results and social results. problems faced by teachers are mainly related to lack of collaborative work, absence of supervision practices, and inadequate teaching practices. goals to accomplish. this category refers to the goals defined by schools to be achieved with implementation of saps. as problems reported, goals were also related to students, school results, and teachers. considering students, goals to attain include academic improvement, higher motivation, and involvement. in regard to school results, goals are defined to improve academic and social results. considering teachers, goals are to improve teaching practices and reinforce collaborative work. saps also present goals for school organization improvement related to services and structures. carvalho et al. 151 activities proposed. this category refers to the activities designed to attain the above-mentioned goals. the proposed activities in saps concern students (e.g., support), teachers (e.g., teamwork, supervision, professional development), and school organization (e.g., resources). sap monitoring. this category refers to the objectives, indicators, and instruments to monitor sap implementation. in saps, several indicators and instruments were identified. some of the emergent categories from the analysis mentioned above are reported in the literature as quality indicators of school plans (e.g., dunaway et al., 2012; fernandez, 2011; immordino et al., 2016; strunk et al., 2016). in this study, the contributions of fernandez (2011) and strunk et al. (2016) were particularly considered because of the relevance of these works to the current study and the portuguese context. fernandez (2011), in his study on the relationship between the quality of plans and school performance, used a scoring rubric with 17 indicators to assess the different components of the plans. the indicators were (1) comprehensiveness, (2) specific goals, (3) measurable goals, (4) achievable goals, (5) relevant goals, (6) timely goals, (7) inquiry process, (8) research-based strategies, (9) master plan design, (10) professional development gaps, (11) professional development focus, (12) parental involvement, (13) monitoring plan, (14) monitoring frequency, (15) evaluation process, (16) use of time and opportunities, and (17) other required elements. strunk et al. (2016), in a study about plan quality, factors associated with plan quality, and the relationship between plan quality and implementation, identified the following as indicators for high-quality school plans: (1) aligned with mission and vision, (2) tailored to student population/context, (3) high expectations for students and staff, (4) evidenceand research-based plans, (5) strong parent and community engagement, (6) strategic use of data, (7) implementable, (8) use of governance model/flexibility, and (9) quality of writing. combining content analysis of saps of portuguese schools, national guidelines of the portuguese ministry of education, and the two studies mentioned above, the grid of analysis was developed in this study. it included nine categories, as presented in table 1, along with the definition of each category considered for the analysis in the second phase. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 table 1 categories for quality plan analysis category definition alignment relevant elements of the proposal are aligned with the school’s mission/vision and national priorities. tailored to the students’ population and school context the proposal presents relevant data about students and school contexts that inform solutions. it includes support related to students' needs and school characteristics. comprehensiveness the proposal presents a comprehensive and integrated nature. a clear and explicit link exists between needs, goals, and solutions. smart goals the proposal presents specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and timely goals. evidenceand research-based strategies the proposal explicitly identified evidence or research-based practices or strategies to be used. parental and community involvement the proposal identifies activities for parents or community members, or it implies their involvement somehow. implementation the proposal specifies how the plans and their actions intend to be implemented. data-based decisions and monitoring the proposal includes a specific and coherent plan for monitoring and data-based decisions (indicators, instruments, moments, participants, regulation, and feedback). professional development focus the proposal includes an integrated and articulated plan for professional development. 3.2. what are the main characteristics of the saps of portuguese schools considering the quality indicators previously defined? in the second phase, the quality of sap was analyzed through the indicators previously defined (table 1). all the 663 saps were analyzed. table 2 presents the frequencies and percentages of references coded in each category. along with the description of the results, extracts of sap are used to illustrate. their code identifies the respective sap (for example, 304_m identified the sap number 304 of measures type). carvalho et al. 153 table 2 categories for quality plan analysis category coded references frequencies percentages alignment 4,358 37.03% tailored to the students’ population and school context 46 0.44% comprehensiveness 0 0 smart goals 976 7.02% evidenceand research-based strategies 0 0 parental and community involvement 802 0.50% implementation 9,182 55.01% data-based decisions and monitoring 0 0 professional development focus 0 0 total 15,364 100% alignment. this category refers to sap identification with the school’s mission, vision, and national priorities. the plans analyzed did not explicitly refer to the school’s mission and vision. nevertheless, some expressly considered national priorities previously identified in portuguese ministry of education guidelines. some of the priorities evidenced in the plans are prioritized intervention in the first school years, reinforcing collaborative work, and the use of differentiated instruction, as in the example below: establish coteaching practices in the first and second levels of the school to create relative homogeneity to apply differentiated instruction strategies to support students with difficulties until the middle of the year and improve capabilities until the end of the year. (1_m) as presented in table 2, 37.03% of the coded references correspond to aspects of saps that cover national priorities for schools and education. tailored to students’ population and school context. this category acknowledges relevant data about students and school contexts that inform the proposed solutions for problems in the saps. designing for all students considering their specific needs and characteristics is particularly relevant in the portuguese context considering inclusive policies adopted and generalized in all schools. however, in saps, the adequacy of the solutions to the students' needs is not always clear or explicit as the references to the students and school problems or needs do not mean that the plan responds to them. for the analysis purpose, data were coded only if the link between journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 students/school context characteristics and measures proposed was explicitly referred to. only a few plans explicitly demonstrate the relationship between students’ needs and solutions. in the example presented below, a clear relationship exists between students’ needs in terms of reading/writing and the proposed solution to accomplish improvement in these specific skills. problem identified: low proficiency in reading and writing in the first and second levels of studies with a tendency to low in the second year of studies. aim: improve reading and writing proficiency in the first and second years of studies. activities: coteaching practices in the classroom to support students with difficulties; organize homogeneous groups in terms of school performance; organize groups by proficiency level. (304_m) comprehensiveness. this category highlights the comprehensive and integrated nature of saps by identifying a clear and explicit link between needs, goals, and solutions. the plans under consideration have problem identification, aims, and activities, yet there is no explicit and clear link. the comprehensive and integrated nature of these plans is not detailed in any of them. this can be explained by the template used by schools that the ministry of education provided. even though guidelines refer to aspects related to comprehensiveness, the template does not offer this topic to be fulfilled. smart goals. this category refers to specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and timely goals designed for the plan. all the saps identified goals as it was a topic of the template provided by the ministry of education. however, most of the plans do not define goals in a smart way, as evidenced by the following examples: raise levels of success during the second year of studies (120_m) develop teaching and learning differentiated and personalized practices using ict. raise the quality of students' academic success in the first and second years of school. (122_m) reduce academic failure in the first cycle of studies, and the retention rate the second year of studies. (151_m) regardless of some of the relevant and specific goals that were identified, most are not measurable, timely defined, or even achievable. it is difficult to clearly define activities to accomplish goals and mostly to plan the monitoring process, both necessary for implementing quality plans. evidenceand research-based strategies. this category refers to proposals that explicitly identified evidenceand research-based practices or strategies to be used. the saps under carvalho et al. 155 consideration have no references concerning this category, although some selected practices may be informed by evidence or research. in the portuguese context, it is not usual to explicitly support practices on evidence or research, even though some evidence is used when planning in domains such as education or educational psychology. since 2018, policies and laws have reinforced the preference for evidence-based practices. however, this was not a reality when elaborating on the first launched saps. parental and community involvement. this category is used when the proposal identifies activities for parents or community members or somehow implies their involvement. some of the selected saps include activities both as an activity to respond to problem identification or as partners in activity implementation. an example of an activity for family intervention is presented: games: student and school and social mediation service with a multidisciplinary team which includes psychologists and social workers; this service is responsible for an intervention program with students and families (…) (128_m). implementation. this category refers to how the plans and their actions intend to be implemented. implementation is presented in all the plans, corresponding to 55.01% of the coded references. this was one of the topics of the template provided by the ministry of education, and all the plans present specific actions that intend to be implemented. the degree of description and explanation of actions varies significantly from plan to plan. most of the plans refer to activities, resources, and participants involved in the implementation. an example is presented below: organize groups of five students, for three hours a week, in another room. in the first cycle of studies, the teacher refers to students, and at the second cycle of studies, the teachers’ council refer students; develop students' work by phases ("learning packages"), expressed by learning descriptors. in the first cycle of studies, phases and descriptors are elaborated by students’ teachers and support teachers. in the second cycle of studies, phases and descriptors are elaborated by teachers’ councils and support teachers; implement specific tasks to overcome learning difficulties by ict and games. (109_m) data-based decisions and monitoring. this category means that the proposal includes a specific and coherent plan for monitoring and data-based decisions (including indicators, instruments, moments, participants, regulation, and feedback). the plans under consideration only include indicators and, in some cases, tools for data collection. aspects like moments, participants, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 regulation, and feedback are rarely presented or may even be inexistent. despite the inclusion of this theme in the template provided, the schools could not elaborate on a specific and comprehensive plan for monitoring. professional development focus. this category refers to an integrated and articulated plan for professional development. all the plans include themes for professional capacity but not an integrated plan that can explicitly answer the school needs. discussion, conclusion and implications there exists a consensus about the dire need for strategic planning toward school improvement. however, a common understanding persists that the existence of school plans is enough to guide school actions and positively impact change and improvement. previous studies have underscored the fact that just having plans does not mean that the planning process is of high quality and integrates a comprehensive strategic action for school improvement (e.g., fernandez, 2011; leithwood et al., 2006; strunk et al., 2016). therefore, the quality of the sap, as well as the quality of planning and implementation processes, must be explored. research on saps and schools planning process quality is scarce (fernandez, 2011; meyers & vangronigen, 2019; strunk et al., 2016), and this study intended to explore this issue. hence, a noteworthy contribution of this study was identifying the indicators that could be used to appraise the quality of the school saps (rq1) and test these specific indicators by applying them to portuguese schools' improvement plans (rq2). by qualitative content analysis of diverse data sources, nine quality indicators were defined: (1) alignment, (2) tailored to the students’ population and school context, (3) comprehensiveness, (4) smart goals, (5) evidenceand research-based strategies, (6) parental and community involvement, (7) implementation, (8) data-based decisions and monitoring, and (9) professional development focus. some of these indicators were particularly informed by literature (e.g., evidenceand research-based strategies, comprehensiveness, and monitoring), and other indicators were selected in accordance with the analysis of school improvement plans and portuguese guidelines (e.g., goals, implementation, professional development). it is worth noting that some of these indicators have gained particular relevance in light of the latest policies and laws implemented in portugal (e.g., tailored to the students’ population and school context, evidence carvalho et al. 157 and research-based strategies, data-based decisions and monitoring) such as the example of the portuguese law of inclusive education published in 2018 (decree-law 54/2018). with this grid of indicators, sap of portuguese schools were analyzed for quality evaluation using the indicators previously determined. the results of this study indicate that school saps have included problem identification, aims, and solutions but excluded aspects like comprehensiveness, evidence-based practices, data-based decisions, as defined in this study. indeed, the plans are much more a description or a list of actions than a tool to support the strategic action of a given school. this may undermine the plans' quality and implementation as it does not consider relevant quality dimensions. for example, the comprehensive and integrated nature of the plans was identified in the literature as a critical indicator of planning that relates to academic performance and school improvement (fernandez, 2011). equally important for school improvement are the use of evidenceand research-based practices (garcia & cerado, 2020) and data-based decisions (schildkamp, 2019). however, in the saps under consideration, these dimensions are seriously compromised. despite some of the above-mentioned limitations of saps, two relevant dimensions were presented: alignment and implementation. it is relevant to discuss the extent and implications of sap alignment with a specific vision (national priorities) and how it offers clear information to guide sap implementation. educational literature relates plans’ quality to plans' implementation, supporting the idea that planning must be strategically school-based (davies, 2006, 2007; eacott, 2008, 2011; meyers & vangronigen, 2019). strategy in education can be seen as thinking and choosing a direction within a given context (carvalho et al., 2021a; davies, 2006, 2007; eacott, 2008, 2011). in this sense, shortto long-term plans must emerge from a strategic vision. in saps, alignment appears mostly related to national priorities granted by the ministry of education and less explicitly related to its specific school vision. from these data, one can question if the saps are really strategic because the authors of this study could not identify evidence that supports the alignment between the plans and the school mission or vision. it is indeed necessary to recognize that the alignment with national policies is also relevant as it represents a global mission for schools considering portuguese context and its cultural specificities. additionally, one needs to be cautious about the interpretation of these data, because the absence of explicit alignment between plans and school vision in sap does not mean that this alignment does not exist. although this may be true, it also journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 may be argued that some school principals elaborated on these plans to answer external expectations and requirements that do not necessarily respond to school needs or context problems (meyers & vangronigen, 2019). by the same token, another question to consider is: “do principals have the tools they need” (acton, 2021, p. 43) to be agents of change and improvement? conditions related to professional development of leaders and teachers are stressed as fundamental for school strategy (acton, 2021; carvalho et al., 2021a) but may be not covered in planning and implementation processes. under these circumstances, the sap may represent an effort to identify school problems and solutions considering the ministry of education guidelines. the template used supported schools and professionals in determining the list of topics to be considered in a plan and guided the planning process. even though the guidelines and the template from the ministry of education have included plans’ quality indicators, the saps that were analyzed seem to lack relevant dimensions such as a comprehensive nature, which integrates needs and solutions in a data-based process supported on evidenceand research-based options (garcia & cerado, 2020; fernandez, 2011; schildkamp, 2019; strunk et al., 2016). whereas the template created may be considered a tool to guide and support schools, it could also reduce principals' school autonomy and constrain strategic thinking and planning (meyers & vangronigen, 2019). more than just checkboxes for accomplishing external requirements, plans should be strategically articulated and aligned to the school mission and vision (carvalho et al., 2021a; meyers & vangronigen, 2019). of course, conditions and supports for the planning of saps need to be acknowledged to understand better the results presented. for instance, the moment of the first sap elaborated has occurred at the end of the school year, with overloaded teachers and schools with a limited timeline to accomplish this specific task. as presented in other studies, some of the desired dimensions for quality plans were sought but constrained by the conditions specified (e.g., carvalho et al., 2021b). the results of this study highlight the substantial challenges that policymakers and school leaders encounter for improvement and change. it is essential to improve strategic leadership in schools such that plans and actions explicitly represent the school vision and mission (acton, 2021; carvalho et al., 2021a). besides, it is necessary to develop knowledge about what planning is and how to do it strategically when considering strategic planning. providing adequate support and guidance for leaders and teachers and giving them time for action research collaboratively is central to high-quality plans (bush, 2018; day et al., 2011). in regard to participation, it is worth carvalho et al. 159 noting that each teacher must be provided with the opportunity to participate (carvalho et al., 2021b) also in addition to other stakeholders from the community. one relevant group to participate in are students with an attempt to improve school with students more than for students (wells, 2019). decision-making and planning must be predicated on purpose, compromise, and participation from the start to create conditions for adequate plan implementation and, consequently, for school improvement (cheng, 2011; strunk et al., 2016). therefore, policymakers need to give attention to the previous model for planning, conditions, and timing. another relevant implication derived from our results is related to the guidelines and recommendations supporting school plan elaboration. first, a model must be designed for quality planning evaluation with explicit and relevant indicators. this proposal may serve to this end as it was tested in portuguese schools. second, guidelines and recommendations must be timely available to support leaders and teachers. third, training and favorable conditions for growth must be provided to schools and professionals. this study has contributed to discussions on the quality of school planning and school saps (and, therefore, schools improvement). however, some limitations must be acknowledged. first, this is a study devoted to a specific program that required portuguese schools to elaborate plans, namely “strategic action plans”. even though this particular program still exists in portugal, saps were time-framed. the study results are limited to the specific plans and must be interpreted accordingly. second, even though all portuguese saps were analyzed, other data were unavailable. it would be helpful to include qualitative data collected from leaders and teachers to enhance and test quality plan evaluation indicators. therefore, further research in this field area is suggested. acknowledgments the authors are grateful to the fundação para a ciência e tecnologia (fct) for the support to this publication (ref. uid/ced/04872/2020). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 references acton, k.s. (2021). school leaders as change agents: do principals have the tools they need? management in education, 35(1), 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020620927415 agi, u. (2017). school development planning: a strategic tool for secondary school improvement in rivers state, nigeria. journal of the international society for teacher education, 21(1), 88–99. al-zboon, w., & hasan, m. (2012). strategic school planning in jordan. education, 132(4), 809–825. bell, l. (2002). strategic planning and school management: full of sound and fury, signifying nothing? journal of educational administration, 40, 407–424. bush, t. (2018). preparation and induction for school principals: global perspectives. management in education, 32(2), 66–71. carvalho, m., cabral, i., verdasca, j.l., & alves, j.m. (2021a). strategy and strategic leadership in education: a scoping review. frontiers in education, 6(706608), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.706608 carvalho, m., cabral, i., verdasca, j., & alves, j. (2021b). what about us? teachers’ participation in schools’ strategic action plans. participatory educational research, 8(3), 156–175. https://doi.org/10.17275/per.21.59.8.3 cheng, y. (2010). a topology of three-wave models of strategic leadership in education. international studies in educational administration, 38(1), 35–54. chukwumah, f.o. (2015). developing quality strategic plan in secondary schools for successful school improvement. journal of education and practice, 6(21), 136–144. day, c., sammons, p., leithwood, p., hopkins, d., gu, q., brown, w., & ahtaridou, e. (2011). successful school leadership: linking with learning and achievement (1st ed.). open university press davies, b. (2006). processes not plans are the key to strategic development. management in education, 20(2), 11–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/089202060602000204 davies, b. (2007). developing sustainable leadership. management in education, 21(3), 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020607079984 domingo, j., domingo, i., & marces, i. (2020). impact assessment of continuous improvement projects (cip) on schools' performance in the division of antipolo city. asian journal of multidisciplinary studies, 3(2), 1-10 https://asianjournal.org/online/index.php/ajms/article/view/273 carvalho et al. 161 dunaway, d., kim, d., & szad, e. (2012). perceptions of the purpose and value of the school improvement plan process. the educational forum, 76(2), 158–173, https://doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2011.652490 eacott, s. (2008). an analysis of contemporary literature on strategy in education. international journal of leadership in education, 11(3), 257–280, https://doi.org/10.1080/13603120701462111 eacott, s. (2011) leadership strategies: re-conceptualizing strategy for educational leadership. school leadership & management: formerly school organisation, 31(1), 35–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2010.540559 fernandez, k.e. (2011). evaluating school improvement plans and their effect on academic performance. educational policy, 25(2), 338–367. garcia, m., & cerado, e. (2020). developing an evidence-based evaluation tool for continuous improvement program of the department of education. american journal of educational research, 8(7), 502–507. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-8-7-8. hajisoteriou, c., karousiou, c., & angelides, p. (2018). successful components of school improvement in culturally diverse schools. school effectiveness and school improvement, 29(1), 91–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2017.1385490 harris, a., adams, d., jones, m.s., & muniandy, v. (2015). system effectiveness and improvement: the importance of theory and context. school effectiveness and school improvement, 26(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2014.987980 immordino, k. m., gigliotti, r. a., ruben, b. d., & tromp, s. (2016). evaluating the impact of strategic planning in higher education. educational planning, 23(1), 35–47. krippendorff, k. (2004). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology (4th ed). sage publications. leithwood, k., jantzi, d., & mcelheron-hopkins, c. (2006). the development and testing of a school improvement model. school effectiveness and school improvement, 17(4), 441– 464. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243450600743533 machado, j. (2017). políticas educativas para a promoção do sucesso escolar. in i. cabral & j. m. alves (coord.), da construção do sucesso escolar. uma visão integrada (pp. 11–30). fundação manuel leão. mayring, p. (2014). qualitative content analysis: theoretical foundation, basic procedures and software solution (1st ed.). klagenfurt. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 143-163 mbugua, f., & rarieya, j.f.a. (2014). collaborative strategic planning: myth or reality? educational management administration and leadership, 42(1), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143213499258 meyer, f., bendikson, l., & le fevre, d.m. (2020). leading school improvement through goalsetting: evidence from new zealand schools. educational management administration & leadership, 20(10), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143220979711 meyers, c., & hitt, d. (2018). planning for school turnaround in the united states: an analysis of the quality of principal-developed quick wins. school effectiveness and school improvement, 29(3), 362–382. meyers, c., & vangronigen, b. (2019). a lack of authentic school improvement plan development: evidence of principal satisficing behavior. journal of educational administration, 57(3), 261–278. https://doi.org/10.1108/jea-09-2018-0154 ministry of education (2016). programa nacional de promoção do sucesso escolar — edital de abertura de candidatura à apresentação de planos de ação estratégica dos agrupamentos de escolas/escolas não agrupadas com vista à promoção do sucesso escolar. retrieved july 01, 2018, from https://www.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/pnpse/pnpse_edital.pdf oecd (2020). education policy outlook: portugal. oecd. retrieved february 15, 2022, from https://www.oecd.org/education/policy-outlook/country-profile-portugal-2020.pdf quong, t., & walker, a. (2010). seven principles of strategic leadership. international studies in educational administration, 38(1), 22–34. schildkamp, k. (2019). data-based decision-making for school improvement: research insights and gaps. educational research, 61(3), 257–273, https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2019.1625716 schlebusch, g., & mokhatle, m. (2016) strategic planning as a management tool for school principals in rural schools in the motheo district. international journal of educational sciences, 13(3), 342–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/09751122.2016.11890470 strunk, k.o., marsh, j.a., bush-mecenas, s.c., & duque, m.r. (2016). the best laid plans: an examination of school plan quality and implementation in a school improvement initiative. educational administration quarterly, 52(2), 259–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161x15616864 verdasca, j., neves, a. m., fonseca, h., fateixa, j. a., procópio, m., & magro, t. (2019). relatório pnpse 2016-2018: escolas e comunidades tecendo políticas educativas com base em evidências. pnpse/dge. https://pnpse.min-educ.pt/relatorios carvalho et al. 163 wanjala, c.n., & rarieya, j.f. (2014). strategic planning in schools in kenya: possibilities and challenges. isea, 42(1), 17–30. wells, r. (2019). whose vision and whose voice? setting the school improvement agenda 'with' students, not 'for' students. australian educational leader, 41(3), 40–42. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/ielapa.751380270337840 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (4), 286-301 the values of perfect human beings in the dignity seven of insān kāmil sumanta1 abstract this paper investigates the role of religion in developing human beings in the form of a sufismbased education, one that is based on the pursuit for the perfect human. this investigation aimed to demonstrate that a human being is an insan kamil, a person with seven levels of mental and moral development. religion and spirituality play a critical role in maintaining mental and physical health according to recent studies. this study claims that natural perfection—which culminates in bodily rebirth, resurrection, and union with god—and the cultivation of one’s soul are two forms of perfection pursued by humans. a person’s free will determines the sort of existence that develops in the physical process between birth and death, and this is marked by the first stage of life. sufis refer to people on this path of self-cultivation as insan kamil (flawless people). they are those on the route to god and a return to the real human condition. as a muslim, you are considered insan kamil if you have understood that your inner essence is that of allah. such people are said to be a true human being, a manifestation of the attributes of allah. keywords: insan kamil, human being, perfect person, life cultivation. introduction questions about whether religion and spirituality can benefit a person’s physical and mental health are now being raised. recent research indicates that religion and spirituality are possible determinants of positive physical and mental health outcomes, which is consistent with previous findings (koenig et al., 2012). in order to fully understand the growing awareness of, and interest in, religious and spiritual diversity, as well as the implications for preventative and curative efforts (richards & bergin, 1997), it is necessary to look for fundamental insights into the human existence (andrews, 2019; bhat, 2019; soyer, 2019). this study delves into the ideals of a perfect human education based on the beliefs of sufism. theoretically, it places the concept of insan kamil within the context of traditional sufism, with the primary goal of exploring the seven dignities. al-insan al-kamil, also known as insan-i kamil and insan-kamil in islamic theology, is an honorary title given to the prophet muhammad. the name literally means “the entire person,” and it is used to refer to an individual who has attained 1dr. state institute of islamic studies (iain) syekh nurjati corebon, indonesia; email: sumanta.hasyim@gmail.com mailto:sumanta.hasyim@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 286-301 perfection (suntana & tresnawaty, 2021). the effect of religiosity on mental and physical health has been shown to be considerable, and this paper investigates the conceptual and theoretical foundations upon which insan kamil is defined in the holy quran. in addition, this paper discusses some views of insan kamil as they relate to the dignity of seven (donohue, 2021). numerous researches in the field of human health have demonstrated the positive impact of spirituality on mental and physical health. larson et al. (1997) reviewed 212 research studies about the impact of religious commitment on healthcare outcomes, with most of them revealing a beneficial influence on health. of the remainder, some 17 percent reported mixed or no effects, while only 7 percent reported negative effects. numerous studies have also shown that persons with strong religious beliefs have lower blood pressure, fewer strokes, a lower fatality rate from heart attacks, and a longer overall life expectancy, and they make use of medical services less frequently (roqib, 2021). humans have an innate desire to do things that are morally good, and they are always on a quest for moral values. morality therefore represents a measure of human perfection, and it is an essential challenge in all faiths to nurture moral virtues as spiritual values (parhan et al., 2020). to present spiritual values, it is vital to raise awareness of ilhiyya in order to get closer to god (sodiman, 2014). human beings have two forms of perfection: intelligence and compassion. the first comes naturally and results in bodily death, resurrection, and unity with god, whereas the second can only be accomplished through deliberate cultivation of the soul, as opposed to the natural state of the soul (chittick, 2000). the first happens over the stages of life between birth and death, while the latter results from exercising one’s free will to choose the form of existence that occurs in the physical processes between birth and death. sufis refer to individuals on this route for voluntary developing the soul as being on the path to god, the path to return to the genuine human condition, and they refer to such people as the insan kamil (perfect people). redefining insan kamil the perfect being, or insan kamil, is someone who has discovered their inner nature as being that of allah. a true human being manifests allah’s traits, acts, conduct, behavior, and virtues (muhaiyaddeen, 1979). an insan kamil is a perfected, god-realized being who has abandoned worldly prosperity, being motivated by the mind and directed toward allah’s wealth. he or she is sumanta 288 the being who has absorbed god’s traits and acts in accordance with them, encapsulating oneself inside them (muhaiyaddeen 2006). this is the highest state a human being may achieve, as it is a state that represents oneness with god (muhaiyaddeen 2006). insan kamil combines the best aspects of both human forms, and all human characteristics fall under the category of existing in perfection. allah bestows such perfection as a gift, and it is the fruit of becoming able to protect oneself from all forms of harm and danger, as well as the ability to utilize those forms. it is also possible to achieve perfect knowledge, with this being perfected through the desire to learn more. even so, in order to satisfy their curiosity, humans must be able to leverage the inherent potential that resides within them in order to learn as much as possible (harahap & siregar, 2017). this is why such people are referred to as insan kamil. an insan kamil is an ideal human being who functions as allah most high’s caliph in maintaining a secure, peaceful, and orderly world. such people are not just physically perfect but also intellectually perfect, and their knowledge is unique because it comes from the source of knowledge itself, having combined logical and intuitive abilities to gather information (budiyanti et al., 2020). an insan kamil is a philosopher with rational understanding but also a saint who is enlightened with wisdom (dewi, 2015). the notion of perfect human beings reflects a self-forgetful person engaged in devoted worship in accordance with god’s laws of conduct (saudah & nusyirwan, 2007). someone with such a superb personality can plainly demonstrate his or her faith through actions and deeds performed in everyday life (nurrahman, 2015). the return of people to their natural state as faithful servants of allah who are conscious of their position as khalifatullah (idris, 2017; setiawan, 2020; subhi, 2014) emphasizes the crucial function of the insan kamil in regulating the universe. human genealogy in islam humanity was created in likeness of the creator. according to islamic teachings, a human is a union of the body and spirit. a person’s general structure is made up of a combination of physiological and psychological components. after successfully integrating one’s physiological and spiritual identities, one gains a feeling of self-awareness known as the “experience center,” which is a place where one can reflect on life and learn from it (dardiri, 2013). the most noble structure among allah’s creatures, the human being, is the result of his creative genius. due to the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 286-301 various elements that make up the human race, the perfect being can be said to possess a singularity above all other beings. it is vital to be a perfect creature in the eyes of allah through study of the quran and the hadiths, which are a primary reference for comprehending oneself. an essential aspect about the dignity of seven was revealed by mahrus (2015) within the context of one’s self-teaching experience when trying to reach al-insan al-kamil, which is the ultimate objective of islam. he explained that the notion of insan kamil is represented by the dignity of seven. the following describes the specific nature of the seven dignities in the muhammadiyah congregation (mahrus, 2015). the first is aadiyah, which translates as all-powerful, which was given to allah swt as a gift. the second dignity is wadah, which can be defined as the dignity of allah’s attributes. the third dignity is widiyyah, which is distinguished by the fact that it is designated as the asma dignity. the fourth dignity relates to the spirit world, because it encompasses explanations for all of the spirits allah has created. the fifth dignity concerns the misl realm, which is also known as the shape realm and takes the form of an example or shadow. the sixth dignity is the ajsm realm, which is the shape realm when it has been established. the insan kamil dignity is the final dignity, because every human being is flawless. it is possible to refer to the seventh dignity as the ultimate dignity, because it was achieved through the preceding six dignities. the process of becoming insan kamil must be linked to the above description of the nature and perspectives of the seven dignities. as the members of the muhammadiyah congregation have god-given qualities, they are able to reflect those qualities through wise divine attitudes thanks to the seven dignities. the researcher’s goal in this current study is to present these divine attitudes from a sufism perspective, so that this paper may contribute to the literature by helping to improve our understanding of insan kamil as the seventh dignity. the seven dignities from a sufism perspective: al-ghazali and al-jili a thorough inquiry into the thoughts and beliefs of a figure requires an understanding of both the external and internal life experiences of that person, because the social, cultural, and political context in which that person lived has an impact on the paradigm that serves as a reference point for that person’s state of mind. when considering how a particular idea or way of thinking came sumanta 290 into being, it is impossible to separate it from the internal and external factors that shaped the way people lived at that point in time (berger, 1991). as al-jili put it, a cosmic concept first dips into matter then rises back out of it again (quoted in waliuallah 34-35). al-jili divided this “journey” into three parts: the “oneness” stage, the “huwiya” stage, and the “aniya” stage (again quoted in waliuallah 34-35). among al-insan alkamil’s many synonyms are phrases like “the worldwide being,” “the perfect human or servant,” and “the perfected creature.” according to schimmel (1992), this is the purpose and aim of creation. the sufism opinions of al-jili for the concept of al-insan al kamil are difficult to describe without understanding the context of a figure. al-ghazali’s sufism thoughts when it came to sufism, al-ghazali always founded his beliefs on the quran and hadith, whether directly or indirectly. it appears that the quran and hadith, like the ideas of other muslim philosophers, provide a more indirect basis for thinking, particularly when it comes to the human concept (al-ghazâlî, 1968). this implies that when al-ghazali came face to face with texts from the quran and hadith, he was not in a vacuous state. indeed, his own personal propensities and fundamental beliefs had already shaped his interpretation of the quran and hadith, which in turn influenced his understanding of the texts themselves. al-ghazalis’ philosophy is distinguished primarily by the trends and the fundamental ideas that underpin it, but this does not imply that he was immune to prevalent or emerging ideas at the time. avicena’s philosophical thoughts included the definition of the soul (al-nafs) that he gave in ma'ârij al-quds, where he divided this into the vegetative soul (al-nafs al-nabâtiyah), the sensitive soul (al-nafs al-hayâwaniyah), and the human soul (al-nafs al-insâniyah) (simuh, 1981), and this demonstrates that he considered many philosophers’ views. another example can be seen in alghazali’s distinction between two kinds of spirits, the theoretical and the practical, which he refers to as “the two kinds of souls” (sumanta, 2009). al-farabi and avicena’s two-part categorization of the mind was the model he used (nasution, 2003). the discussion of virtues (ummahât al-fadh'il) is another example of al-ghazali’s greek-style philosophical view as transferred through islamic philosophers. al-ghazali defined virtue as the balance (al-‘adl) of human powers (al-ghazâlî, n.d.), which resembles aristotle’s viewpoint. alghazali also had an alternative philosophical stance on logic and ethics. to be included as a science, logic was not disputed by al-ghazâlî in al-munqidz (al-ghazâlî, n.d.). his stance toward journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 286-301 logic was similar to his attitude towards ethics, which comprises soul traits, morality, types, and divisions, as well as ways to improve and perfect the soul. these topics were all drawn from previous philosophers (al-ghazâlî, n.d.). al-ghazali’s articulation of sufism was strongly influenced by, and thus cannot be isolated from, the varied viewpoints and experiences of different sufis, whether they lived before or during the time of al-ghazali. consequently, those sufis who were most influential on al-ghazali’s sufistic thought formulation, as indicated by noer (2002), were those who were the most important for him and had the greatest impact on him. approximately three centuries before al-ghazâlî, al-hâris ibn asad al-muhâsibî (w. 243 h/637 m) was a moderate sufi who resided in the same region. between sufism and syariah, al-muhâsibî found common ground. when it came to science, characteristics, interactions, and behaviors, alqusyayrî posited that no one could compete with him (al-qusyayrî, n.d.). al-muhâsibî, according to arberry (1979), was the first major sufi writer to set the primary pattern for subsequent concepts. his teachings on self-discipline (muhâsabah), particularly al-ri'ayah li huqûq allâh, had a significant impact on al-ghazali’s decision to write ihya 'ulûm al-dîn (noer, 2002). he also had a significant impact on al-ghazali through his other work al-washyâ (or al-nashâ'ih), which presented a series of suggestions, particularly on the subject of becoming zuhud. in almuhâsibî’s work, the preface is autobiographical, and it had been on al-ghazali’s mind when he produced al-munqidz min al-dhalâl, which is widely regarded as one of the greatest works of islamic literature (arberry, 1979). according to bakar (1991), the autobiographical characteristic had been based in part on al-muhâsibî’s introduction to the book al-washâyâ (noer, 2002). abû nashr al-sarrâj (w. 378 h/988 m) was another moderate sufi who preceded al-ghazali. he contributed to some of the earliest works on sufism. as a guide to the teachings and practices of sufism, al-lumâ' is a very important book with numerous citations from various sources. technical sufistic phrases—such as the euphoric expressions of abû yazîd al-busthâmî, whose interpretations were reported word for word by al-junaydî—were given special attention by alsarrâj. he concluded his book with a lengthy and detailed analysis of the mistakes that certain sufis had made in both their theory and practice (noer, 1999). a unique picture of al-ghazali’s sufistic thoughts has emerged from scholars’ evaluations of his place and influence in the history of the development of sufism (noer, 2002), and this has given rise to a unique picture of al-ghazali’s sufistic thoughts. a large number of scholars, particularly sumanta 292 sunni ones, who were interested in the taxonomy of sufism, have debated al-ghazali’s status in the history of sufism. his classification includes knowing sufism’s relationship to the quran and sunnah, such that there is sufism that adheres to the quran and sunnah and there is sufism that does not. there are also terms like “sunni sufism” (al-tashawwuf al-sunnî) or “akhlaki sufism” (al-tashawwuf alakhlâqî), and “philosophical sufism” (al-tashawwuf al-falsafî) or “semi-philosophical sufism” (al-tashawwuf syibh al-f) (ner, 2002). according to simuh (1981), sufism’s adherents can be separated into two major schools, namely transcendentalism and unionism, which are both based on the teachings of sufism. as long as the fundamental monotheistic concepts are maintained, transcendentalism, as a school, divides monotheism into wâjib al-wujûd (god) and mumkin al-wujûd (creatures), with there being a fundamental difference between these two species. this transcendentalism model incorporates alghazali’s sufism thinking (syukur & masyharuddin, 2002). simuh (1981) added that the ultimate level of a sufi servant is having ma'rifah (knowledge) of god and appreciation of the unseen (kasyf). this is a laduniyah science, a science gifted by god without learning processes, and it may be reached merely by using the way of kasyf. the term insân al-kâmil is not used in this school, but the basic description or idea of it is, namely through the “wali” khawwâsh group. the walî allah (i.e., khawwâsh) people have directly received a supranatural science from lawh mahfûzh, so they can learn from the angels and the spirits of the prophets, know destiny in order to understand what will happen (ngerti sadurunge winara in javanese), and even have ma'rifah (knowledge) of allah. although the insân kâmil (walî allâh) is not god, he or she is a holy person on a level below the prophets. according to al-ghazali, the essence of a sufistic spirit is to study religion in order to appreciate and practice it, because religion is fundamentally a response to a deep human calling (fithrî). the sufistic spirit, in this view, is part of the religious system, and in the absence of this sufistic spirit, religion and its various forms are meaningless. they would simply be a collection of static formal laws that would not interest anyone who possesses an esoteric awareness (syukur & masyharuddin, 2002). al-ghazali aspired to live by practicing religious truths and testing the facts with the sufis’ experimental techniques, as described in the sufi literature. consequently, one can experience a journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 286-301 living religion through a deepener inner (esoteric) existence. in addition, sufism has no cognitive purpose other than for religion (rahman, 1979). many believe that al-ghazali’s version of sufism was based on the above two conclusions rather than the romantic form of sufism developed by abû yazîd al-busthâmî under the term ittihâd and abû manshûr al-hallâj under the term hulûl, so it is a rather orthodox form of sufism (al-ghazali, 1967) emphasizing spiritual holiness and generosity. al-ghazali's sufistic thoughts had a profound impact on the world of islam because of their position and qualities (syukur & masyharuddin, 2002). to the best of the author’s knowledge, two elements of al-ghazali’s sufism construction were responsible for its strong influence. most sunni academics and ulema agree that al-ghazali was the primary advocate for sunni sufism. sufism is a sort of religion that can be understood and embraced by everyone, even those who are not religious. however, if we pay close attention to alghazali’s misykât al-anwâr, we cannot accept this appraisal, because we can clearly discover his radical occult and philosophical views in the work (syukur & masyharuddin, 2002). al-ghazali dared to express himself in misykât al-anwâr by rejecting the wihdat al-wujûd theory in this text, which was only offered to his students. “nothing in this creature except allah” he wrote, “except his face” (qs. 28: 88). as a result, the sufism to which al-ghazali personally subscribed could be more appropriately classified as being philosophical rather than sunni. it is therefore unsurprising for scholars to charge al-ghazali with hypocrisy, because he taught moderate sufism to his students while holding a radically esoteric and philosophical view that he kept to himself and a select group of students who had reached spiritual maturity. sufism’s image was rehabilitated thanks to the introduction of al-ghazali’s sufism construction. when those of al-hulûl busthamai and al-hulûl hallaj emerged, they were both rejected by fiqh and kalam experts who claimed they were deviant schools that were not compatible with islamic principles. however, al-ghazali’s sufism building may well have helped reconcile the two camps. according to al-ghazali’s style of sufistic thought, several inferences can be inferred from descriptions of the sources. for example, al-ghazali defended the “gulf” between a sufi and the absolute, even though a sufi has reached the level of ma'rifah fi allâh (i.e., knowing god). in other words, a sufi is still a servant and god is still god, as expressed by using the term al-qurb as the end of sufism. second, al-ghazali said that the peak of sufistic appreciation is very difficult and cannot even be explained, so no concept or form of words can properly describe it. al sumanta 294 ghazali’s theological premise, ifsya'u al-sirri al-rubûbîyah kufr (revealing divine secrets to others is kufr), is applicable here. as a result, al-ghazali felt compelled to offer a critical assessment of aspects of sufism that was unique to his time. ittihad and hulûl, as well as sufism’s other peak experiences, are examples of this. al-jili’s sufism thoughts as a devout muslim, al-jili always based his opinions on the quran and hadith, both directly and indirectly, although his indirect reliance appears more prevalent. al-jili was more likely to approach revelatory texts substantively, meaning that when he interpreted a verse, he avoided the harfi (literal) meaning and instead sought the deeper meaning. the verses’ contents were therefore inextricably linked to his propensities and fundamental thoughts, with them always influencing his interpretation of a passage. as al-jili stated in his declaration that “any science that is not founded on the quran and sunnah is mistaken,” his ideas on al-insân al-kâmil were always based on the quran and hadith. when studying books on sufism and its sources (i.e., the quran and hadith), most people fail to realize that they have a short-sighted perspective, resulting in incorrect impressions of many sufism concepts (al-jili, 1975). al-saqâfah al-sa'îdah, the source of al-jili’s philosophy, was primarily derived from the teachings of his instructor, as recorded in books authored by ibn arabî (affifi, 1938), such as al-futûhât almakkiyah and fushûsh al-hikâm, as well as the teachings of other sufis. in addition, he directly examined the works they wrote (mahrus, 2015), and all of them appear to serve as a backdrop for developing the concept of al-insân al-kâmil. when seen through the lens of the type of discussion, the writings constitute a hybridization of philosophy and sufism. as a result, philosophy was also a source of al-jili’s thoughts, albeit in an indirect manner. a closer examination of the sources reveals that the concepts proposed by sufis before al-jili, such as ibn 'arabî with the concept of wahdat al-wujûd, al-busthâmî with the theory of al-ittihâd, alhallâj with the concept of hulûl and his prophetic theory, al-ghazâlî with his light theory in almisykâh. according to oleh al-farabi, this theory was influenced by the philosophers plotinus and plato and based on their ideas. al-jili wrote al-insân al-kâmil fî ma'rifat al-awâ'il wa al-awkhîr, a collection of sufism ideas. this book is divided into chapters covering topics such as god’s philosophy, nature, and worship. however, it appears to focus on the concept of the human, which is explored in al-insân al-kâmil. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 286-301 al-jili claimed that the debates in the other chapters explain the chapter al-insân al-kâmil (‘abd al-karîm, 1975), calling it the essence of the previous chapters. sufism, as it has evolved since the prophet’s time, must first be presented in order to distinguish al-jili’s version of it. the three stages of sufism’s development can be summarized as follows: early sufism was characterized by zuhud behavior that was inspired by the prophet’s life, his companions, and the tabi'in (supremacists), who placed a higher value on eternal life (akhirat). the notion of walî or quthb initially appeared in sufi literature with the arrival of the figure uways al-qarnî, who was known as a pious servant (al-kalabâdzî, 1969). the second stage of development was al-tamkîn (formation), which involved moving from the concept of zuhud to that of ma'rifah, with zuhud now being regarded as a tool for reaching ma'rifah. dzûn al-nûn al-mishrî (badawî, 1976) explained ma'rifah for the first time, while al-hallâj (w. 309 h.) interpreted it as the delineation of god and the place of tajallî (appearance) for god’s substance. the third stage was a form of polishing. previous conceptions were reconstructed in terms of islamic philosophy. al-suhrawardi, ibn ‘arabi, and al-jili were prominent sufi figures during this time. some sufis also had similar beliefs about the place of flawless human beings at the refinement level. all existence is based on quthb, the axis of all existence; wâsithah, which is an intermediate between allah and nature; and keempat, which is a place where god’s image (nuskhah) is depicted in nature (mahrus, 2015). at this point, sufism and philosophy came together in a unique way. according to al-jili, this encounter is depicted in his work entitled al-insân al-kâmil. this encounter occurs because both sufism and philosophy posit that humans are two-dimensional, with there being an exterior and an inner sphere of existence. the mind (nazharîyah) with its center in the brain and feelings/intuitions (dzawqiyah) with their center in the qalb make up the two powers in the inner dimension, both of which serve as a means for getting to know god (ma'rifah fi allâh). sufism and philosophy both share a pressure point in their perception of humanity: they tend to consider humans as immaterial objects in nature, and this immaterial component is regarded as the substance that makes up human beings. human beings therefore have significance if their substantial dimension is still present. however, if it has passed away from the self, the human is referred to as having become a corpse (nasution, 1994). sumanta 296 the dignity of seven from the sufism perspective the process of attaining the final level of human dignity, as described in the preceding section, is the final stage for humans after they have received the almighty’s attributes. many similarities can be drawn between insan kamil’s notion of the “seventh dignity” and that of the muhammadiyah congregation’s “seventh dignity,” because the process leading to it has the same goal, namely to possess the divinity that is mirrored in human nature. aside from allah, a devout individual is one who is closest to him. piety is sometimes viewed as being one who is most scared of allah, so being the most pious implies being the most fearful, suggesting a weak rather than perfect being, thus motivating the soul to obey and uphold allah’s precepts. thus, according to the quran, pious humans are servants who feel dha'îf (weak) and have little knowledge when they meet allah, the most perfect and mighty being. for sufis, the idealization of a flawless human refers to the personality of the prophet muhammad saw, both as a creation (al-khalq) and as a deity (al-khalqiya, al-haqq). the prophet muhammad saw encountered the tajallî of god in humanity, and a perfect human can achieve the same level of perfection. sufis are motivated to model their behavior after the prophet muhammad saw, and every prophet is a source of instruction and an example of a perfect human. those who follow the path of the prophets may receive wirâsah (heirlooms) from them, and these have three basic dimensions: works or behavior as a manifestation of noble character, states or inner experiences from supernatural reality, and knowledge, perceptions, or direct understandings of the various modalities of reality (sumanta, 2009). في رسول هللا أسوة حسنة لمن كان يرجو هللا واليوم األخر وذكروا هللا كثيرالقد كان لكم indeed, in the messenger of allah you have an excellent example, for whoever has hope in allah and the last day remembers allah often. (qs. al-ahzâb (33): 21.) the above verse is consistent with the notion of the dignity of seven for someone who possesses the almighty’s character through the prophet’s good example (or uswatun khasanah). this is mirrored in the prophet’s noble personality, because he had great spiritual experiences due to his virtuous deeds and noble traits. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 286-301 as stated in the quran, a muslim’s obligation is to follow the teachings of the prophet muhammad. al-ghazali regarded al-muthâ' as an equal to muhammad in terms of status. when it comes to the relationship between allah and al-muthâ', al-muthâ' was likened to an invisible light or the smoldering charcoal, an analogy that leads sufis to think of muhammad’s light as being a light from god. in al-muthâ', amr (divine command) also manifested (sumanta, 2009). it is the goal of sufism to reach a state known as ma'rifah, a union of the souls of the servant and god, followed by fana. fana then gives rise to mukhâsyafah and musyahadah processes that allow sufis to see the angels and meet the spirits of the prophets, hearing their voices and learning things from them. for some, wushûl (up to god), hulûl (god’s spirit in humans), and ittihâd (god’s spirit in humans) are all opportunities for reaching this inner appreciation, which ends in an experience that cannot be articulated with words. people who have reached a unique degree of perfectness are known to have achieved the personification of al-insân al-kâmil, which is divided into two major schools based on the form of the inner experience at its understanding (simuh, 1981). the first is the transcendentalism school, which still adheres to the notion of monotheism while distinguishing two sorts of entities, namely wâjib al-wujûd (god) and mumkin al-wujûd (satan) on the one hand and creatures on the other hand. this school upholds the notion of dissimilarity between servants and god, a notion that was established centuries ago. according to this school of thought, the highest maqâm is ma'rifah. the second school of thought is the union school, which posits that people are the light of god and possess divine traits. in its natural state, a human is identical to god. to put it another way, alinsân al-kâmil refers to those who have succeeded in breaking free from material ties in order to uncover their divine traits once again. in this sense, their pre-life parallels god’s life. the al-insân al-kâmil is therefore a fictional character created by the author of a novel called al-insân al-kâmil (simuh, 1981). since the attributes held by god are inherent in humanity, they are referred to as “insân kâmil” from the sufi perspective. the “dignity seven” is included in the union school, so the seven components are indivisible attributes of the almighty and the framework for the unity of dignity. conclusion to summarize this study, it claims that al-jili and al-ghazali’s understandings of the perfect man were based on the religious teachings of al-insân al-kâmil. as far as they were concerned, a sumanta 298 superficial understanding of religious principles can only get you so far, so they argued that it is imperative to gain a thorough grasp of the subject matter. as al-ghazali and al-jili discovered, philosophy can be employed as a foundation for gaining deeper understandings, while sufism can serve as a form of appreciation that leads to perfection in this area. they believed that this will allow humanity to reflect on the divine in their daily lives and discover their actual selves. while al-ghazali and al-jili’s understanding of al-insan al-kamil is a philosophical doctrine, they continuously built their framework of thought on the quran and hadith, because as al-jili stated, any science not founded on the quran and hadith will lead to errors. when people respond incorrectly to their own concepts, it is because they do not want to fully comprehend their own ideas. isyary interpretation was used by al-jili and al-ghazali in interpreting the passages of the quran dealing with sufism, because they are best understood using this form of interpretation. a systematic and philosophical approach to sufism has been presented in their works due to a combination of islamic doctrine with greek philosophy. references al-jili, (1975). ‘abd al-karîm, al-insân al-kâmil fi ma’rifat al-awâkhir wa al-awâil, dâr al-fikr. affifi, a. e. (1968). the mystic philosophy of muhyid dîn ibnul ‘arabî. ashraf. al-ghazâlî (1968). qanûn al-ta’wîl. maktabah al-jundi. al-ghazâlî (n,d.). mîzân al-‘amal. maktabah al-jundi. al-ghazâlî (n.d.). minhâj al-‘ârifîn. in majmû’ rasâ’il al-imâm al-ghazâlî. dâr al-fikr. al-kalabâdzî (1969). al-ta’âruf li mazhab ahl al-tashawwuf. maktabah kulliyah al-azhariyyah. andrews, k. (2019). book review: human rights and global diversity: basic ethics in action. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 71-74. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.6 arberry, a. j., (1979). sufism: an account of the mystics of islam. george allen & unwim ltd. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203706848 bakar, o. (1991). tawhid and science: essays on the history and philosophy of islamic science. nurin enterprise. https://philpapers.org/rec/baktas https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.6 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203706848 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 286-301 badawî,’abd al-rahmân (1976). syathâhât al-shûfiyyah. dâr al-qalam. berger, p. l., & suci, l. (1991). agama sebagai realitas sosial. jakarta: lp3es. bhat, a. (2019). islamic philosophy of education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 73-76. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 budiyanti, n., aziz, a. a., palah & mansyur, s. a. (2020). the formulation of the goal of insan kamil as a basis for the development of islamic education curriculum, ijeca international journal of education and curriculum application, 3(2), 81-90. https://doi.org/10.31764/ijeca.v3i2.2252 chittick, w. c. (2000). sufism: a beginner's guide. oneworld books. shorturl.at/rvd69 dardiri, d. (2013). epistemologi pendidikan menurut muhammad iqbal. madania: jurnal ilmuilmu keislaman, 3(2), 180-198. http://ejournal.uinsuska.ac.id/index.php/madania/article/view/4754/3076 dewi, e. (2015). konsep manusia ideal dalam persepektif suhrawardi al-maqtul. substantia, 17(1), 41–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.22373/subtantia.v17i1.4107 donohue, d. k. (2021). culture, cognition, and college: how do cultural values and theories of intelligence predict students’ intrinsic value for learning?, journal of culture and values in education (jcve), 4(1), 1-14, https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 hadi, w.m, abdul. (2001). tasawuf yang tertindas: 9 kajian hermeneutik terhadap karya karya hamzah fansuri. paramadina. harahap, m. & siregar, l. m. (2017). konsep pendidikan islam dalam membentuk manusia paripurna. jurnal pendidikan agama islam al-thariqah, 2(2), 148. https://doi.org/10.25299/althariqah.2017.vol2(2).1040 idris, s. (2017). insan kamil: theological and psychological perspectives. asian journal of social sciences, arts and humanities, 5(2), 9–28. shorturl.at/cmwa4 koenig, h. g., mccullough, m. e., & larson, d. (2001). handbook of religion and health. oxford university press. shorturl.at/diho3 larson, d. b., swyers, j. p., & mccullough, m. e. (1997). scientific research on spirituality and health: a consensus report. national institute for healthcare research. https://www.amazon.com/scientific-research-spirituality-healthconsensus/dp/b0061r0gnc mahrus, m., & muklis, m. (2015). konsep multikulturalisme perspektif hadits: studi kitab bulughul maram. fenomena, 7(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.21093/fj.v7i1.263 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 https://doi.org/10.31764/ijeca.v3i2.2252 http://ejournal.uin-suska.ac.id/index.php/madania/article/view/4754/3076 http://ejournal.uin-suska.ac.id/index.php/madania/article/view/4754/3076 http://dx.doi.org/10.22373/subtantia.v17i1.4107 https://doi.org/10.25299/althariqah.2017.vol2(2).1040 https://doi.org/10.21093/fj.v7i1.263 sumanta 300 muhaiyaddeen, b. (2006). the map of the journey to god lessons from the school of grace. fellowship press. muhaiyaddeen, b. (1979). change to insan kamil: the direct connection. fellowship press. nasution, h. (1994). pertemuan antara falsafat dan tasawuf dalam peradaban islam dalam miqat, no. 80 th. xx, januari-pebruari. noer, k. a. (2002). tasawuf perenial: kearifan kritis kaum sufi. jakarta: pt serambi ilmu semesta. noer, k. a. (1999). mengkaji ulang posisi al-ghazâlî dalam sejarah tasawuf, paramadina jurnal pemikiran islam, 1(2). nurrahman. (2015). konsep manusia unggul: kajian atas naskah anis al-muttaqin. jurnal lektur keagamaan, 11(1), 181–202. https://doi.org/10.31291/jlk.v11i1.56 parhan, m., faiz, a., karim, a., nugraha, rh, subakti, ge, rindu, m., islamy, f., budiyanti, n., fuadin, a., & tantowi, ya (2020). internalization values of islamic education at. international journal of psychosocial rehabilitation, 24(08), 14778–14791. https://doi.org/10.37200/ijpr/v24i8/pr281455 rahman, f. (1979). islam. chicago: the university of chicago press. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/subject/su53/su53_4.html richards, p. s. & bergin, a. e. (1997). a spiritual strategy for counseling and psychotherapy. washington, dc: american psychological association. shorturl.at/uvwkp roqib, m. (2021). increasing social class through islamic boarding schools in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 305-329. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3291 saudah, s. & nusyirwan. (2007). konsep manusia sempurna. jurnal filsafat, 14(2), 185–191. https://doi.org/10.22146/jf.31332 schimmel, a. (1992). islam: an introduction. state university of new york press. shorturl.at/dzgr4 setiawan, w. (2020). the spiritual education toward insan kamil in the education of modern humankind. in international seminar on education, (pp. 478-483). sodiman, s. (2014). menghadirkan nilai-nilai spiritual tasawuf dalam proses mendidik. alta'dib: jurnal kajian ilmu kependidikan, 7(2), 37-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.31332/atdb.v7i2.316 https://doi.org/10.31291/jlk.v11i1.56 https://doi.org/10.37200/ijpr/v24i8/pr281455 https://doi.org/10.22146/jf.31332 http://dx.doi.org/10.31332/atdb.v7i2.316 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 286-301 soyer, g. (2019). urie bronfenbrenner: the ecology of human development book review. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 77-80. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.6 simuh, (1981). konsepsi tentang insân kâmil dalam tasawuf. in. al-jami ’ah, no. 26. th. 1981, iain sunan kalijaga yogyakarta. subhi, m. (2014). doktrin manusia universal dalam antropologi metafisis seyyed hossein nasr. jurnal universitas paramadina, 11(3), 1128–1145. sumanta (2009). pencerahan spiritual dalam perspektif tasawuf: komparasi antara tasawuf al-ghazali dan al-jili. sajadah press. suntana, i. & tresnawaty, b. (2021). multidimensional social crisis and religious violence in southeast asia: regional strategic agenda, weak civilian government, triune crime, wealth gaps, and coopted journalism. journal of culture and values in education (jcve), 4(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2. syukur, h. m. a. & masyharuddin, h. (2002). intelektualisme tasawuf,.intelektualisme tasawuf: studi intelektualisme tasawuf al-ghazâlî. lembkota kerjasama dengan pustaka pelajar. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 214-230 214 language mediators’ support for refugees at border crossing points: enhancing societal tools for sustainable communication in multicultural communities of austria, germany and russia nataliya m. belenkova1, irina i. kruse2, doris vydra3 abstract the contemporary international situation is characterized by the humanitarian crisis and a great wave of refugees. the border crossing point of a host country separates the refugees` former life full of suffering and pain and the expectations of a new peaceful life. here a language mediator is considered like a person who can show the refugee the way to a new life. the issue of the language mediation to refugees at border points is the subject matter of this paper. the main purpose of the research is to study the practical experience of different countries in the provision of the language mediation assistance to refugees. the research papers concerning various aspects of the refugees’ migration, the un documents and the various materials on the topic and the practical experience of austria, the federal republic of germany and the russian federation are examined. the government departments in the countries under study that are responsible for the work and assistance to refugees are stated. the professional activity of a language mediator is viewed from various angles. in the framework of the research a survey on the language mediation activity, the refugee obstacles at border crossing points and the opinions of the language mediators from austria, germany and russia was held. the findings of the survey were generalized and the recommendations to improve the translators/interpreters activity were made. the research is implemented within the framework of the rudn university participation in the russia-wide 5-100 project. keywords: language mediation, refugee status, border-crossing point, host country, migration policy introduction one of the characteristics of the contemporary world is a refugee crisis. the contemporary world statistics indicates 22.5 million people as refugees (that are also called forced displaced or stateless people) and their quantity is constantly increasing (center for international governance innovation, 2017). over half of these people are under the age of 18 (figures at a glance, 2017). nowadays each european country faces the problem of refugee migration and consequently has the legislative framework that regulates the adaptation of a refugee in the new country of 1 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, belenkovanm@mail.ru 2 assoc. prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university, kruseirina@rambler.ru 3 prof., dr., director of the salzburg centre of european union studies, university of salzburg, doris.wydra@sbg.ac.at mailto:belenkovanm@mail.ru mailto:kruseirina@rambler.ru mailto:doris.wydra@sbg.ac.at journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 214-230 residence. the first step to this adaptation is realized at the border crossing points. here a person seeking for a status of a refugee has to pass an oral interview, to fill in the mandatory documents for receiving a refugee status. the interview and the documents are aimed at setting the legal priorities, on the one hand, and restrictions, on the other hand, for certain categories of people. at a border crossing point people are anxious, worried and sometimes even depressed they have left their motherlands and do not know what expects them in the new country. they need the assistance of the officials. besides the psychological depression, the people who just overcame the way full of danger and risks to their lives and to the lives of their families can face some language problems. at this moment, the role of a language mediator is crucial. each country has a certain system of interrelated legal norms and language support provided to refugees at border crossing points. nowadays, when the refugee crisis seized almost all european countries, it is very important to share the national experience and to study the positive practice of each country concerning the language mediation assistance to refugees at border points. the importance of these issue for the international environment determines the topicality of the further research. the purposes of the current research are: first, to explore the practice of the language mediation assistance provided to refugees in germany and austria, on the one hand, and in the russian federation, on the other hand; second, to hold a survey among the language mediators working with refugees at border points and compare the findings of the survey; third, to develop the recommendations to language mediators working with the refugees at the border points. the output of the research confirms the importance of international collaboration to implement the language mediation assistance to refugees at border points. literature review the issues connected with the refugees’ problems in the countries that we focus on cause much interest of the researchers. many papers suggest the historical review of the events connected with the refugee migration in austria, germany (keyserlingk, 2009) and russia (gatrell & nivet, 2014) from the end of the belenkova et al. xix century up to the great war in 1914. historical and comparative analysis of the legislation concerning social rights and social assistance to refugees and migrants in germany, the netherlands and the uk was carried out by anja eleveld (2014). the main wave of the forced migrants and stateless people in russia is related to the collapse of the soviet union. at that time more than 3 million russian people were persecuted for their national origin or inability to speak the national language of the new independent countries. in some places, russian people were forced to leave their homes and flee to their historical motherland to save their lives and children being under the risk to suffer in the armed conflicts (kosygina, 2018). another wave of refugees was caused by the national conflict and by military actions in ukraine (gulina, 2015; mukomel, 2017). the evolution of the concept “refugee”, the laws connected with the changes of the refugee status after the world war ii were considered by giorgio grappi (2010). the refugees in germany are characterized by their diversity. this fact can be explained by their various background and the wave of refugee migration that brought the forced displaced to europe. the reasons of why some refugees can and are eager to be integrated into the local society whereas the others are reluctant to any integration are described by olaf j. de groot and lutz sager (2010). german policy aimed at the refugees’ integration requires mush efforts and costs on the part of the authorities and public society. there are cases when migrants oppose the rules of social conduct and life regulations that new for them (burmester, 2018). in the last years there are more and more people that hesitate whether “welcome and integration” german policy can do harm to german culture, well-being and safety (funk, 2016). the refugees’ diversity results from their different national origin, religious views and cultural habits. these features can explain the inequality of the refugees in social spheres (fauser et al., 2012). there is a common opinion that most refugees in austria and germany are from turkey, they make the majority of muslims in these countries and play an essential role in the political life. the adherence of the turks to the national cultural traditions and customs annoys the citizens of austria and germany. though the second and the third generations of the refugees have already been brought in these european countries, they are still considered as “foreign workers” and are expected to go back home. the problem is that the young turks do not go home and assume the countries that hosted their grandparents and parents as their motherland (koc, 2009). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 214-230 since the xx century the refugees’ disappointment is used by the local politicians for their political campaigns. in addition, this tendency is becoming more and more evident (kohnert, 1993). the refugee crises of the last decade is so huge that political parties in austria think of the approaches how to regulate and cope with the influx of refugees to the country. two approaches are debated: first, to build a “legal wall” and decrease the number of asylum applicants; and second, to keep the door to the country “slightly ajar”. in fact, both approaches try to cope with the fear of the nation and to protect austria and its citizens from the refugee threat (rheindorf & wodak, 2018). in several years a new generation of people was born in germany. however, these people not being integrated into the national environment represent the second generation of refugees which still depends on the public and social assistance in germany (fertig & schmidt, 2001). an opposite standpoint also exists: young refugees intend to get good education, appropriate work and be successful in a host country. the refugees from different countries have a unique experience in their adaptation to a new life (cohen, 2007; tarman & gürel, 2017). special attention of the german authorities is drawn to the unaccompanied minor refugees (zalewski, 2017; atabekova, 2017). a long-standing conflict in syria caused a new wave of many unaccompanied syrian children have become refugees; they suffer both psychologically and physically. the latest results show that the majority of the minors became orphans and left syria for other countries (ahsan, 2018). fazila bhimji (2016) studies the ways that the refugees claim for the change of their status in germany. as having arrived from such countries as italy, spain or hungary the refugees can be deported there back as their fingerprints were first taken in these countries. this legal regulation is set by the eu law. ulrike hamann and serhat karakayali (2016) focus on the ability of the german citizens and the society in general to incorporate another culture and acknowledge the current society as a “society of immigration”. it is evident that the issue of refugees and refugee migration as well as the influence of this phenomenon on the national situation inside the country is viewed from different angles. however, very often the refugees face many problems in understanding the language of the host country starting from the very first moments after they cross the border line of a foreign country. the literature review indicates that only a few research papers discuss the refugees’ challenges belenkova et al. related to the linguistic issues and translation/interpreting service for refugees (atabekova et al., 2017; díez, 2011; gibb & good, 2014; jones & jill, 1998; sijilmassi, 2017). the papers mentioned above focus on various issues of the translation/interpreting to help refugees: health care, search of living accommodation, professional training, employment etc. however, no attempts were made to analyze the experience of the language mediators’ assistance to refugees at border points i.e. at the first minutes on the territory of a foreign country when they reached their destination after a long trip full of risk and danger. the lack of the study on this issue makes this research topical. materials and methods the study consisted of several stages: (1) the examination of the documents clarifying the role of the language mediators in their assistance to refugees especially at boarder points; (2) the analysis of the national departments’ activity of the countries under study in their work with refugees; (3) the survey of the language mediators who had the experience of practical work with refugees; (4) the analysis and generalization of the experiment output. apparently, such research design can assist to realize the positive practices and the obstacles in the language mediators’ work with refugees. one of the main documents regulating the assistance to refugees in the modern world is the “guidelines on international protection no. 11: prima facie recognition of refugee status” by the united nations high commissioner for refugees. the guidelines determine the refugee status and asylum procedures and are mandatory for interpreting/translation services for refugees in all countries (handbook and guidelines on procedures and criteria for determining refugee status, 2011). the document indicates the main function of an interpreter as a language mediator, and specifies some recommendations to implement professional activity. a language mediator must behave in a professional way following the ethical rules of conduct. he/she should be aware of the purpose and content of the work both in relation to the official structure, and in relation to the individual. the mediators should be able to change the algorithm of the actions in different situations (handbook and guidelines on procedures and criteria for determining refugee status, 2011). the document determines the main aspects of the language mediators ‘activity: translation and interpreting the refugees’ personal data; journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 214-230 translation and interpreting during the interview with the applicant for the refugee status; translation and interpreting in course of monitoring the situation when the information about theperson applying for the refugee status is collected; translation and interpreting in course of the communication of the medical staff with the person applying for the refugee status; translation and interpreting in course of obtaining confidential information on the identification of the persons subjected to all kinds of violence. communicating with the applicants for the refugee status and the representatives of the migration service, police and other formal bodies a language mediator should be impartial and stick to the neutral position. sometimes it is difficult to achieve the ethical and psychological independence as a language mediator could be influenced by the officials (migration service, police officers etc.), on the one hand, and by the refugees who try to conceal the important information and provide false information instead, on the other hand. among the destructive factors that can make effect on the language mediator activity the following issues can be identified, first, former refugees can work as language mediators and consequently they can feel some sympathy to the former compatriots. second, due to the hard psychological working conditions the concentration and the quality of translation/interpreting of a language mediator can fade during the day. sometimes a language mediator does not feel safe. the “handbook and guidelines on procedures and criteria for determining refugee status” (2011) clarifies many various aspects of the language mediators’ role in their work with refugees e.g. the prohibition to provide any sociological, anthropological or historical information received in the personal communication with refugees. it also touches upon such issues as the evaluation of memory resources; the relationship of such concepts as "perception" and "awareness"; the ways of keeping notes and using symbols; the role of the "cultural component" in the translation/interpreting; the mandatory awareness of legal and medical vocabulary etc. this document contains the detailed information on the translator/ interpreter’s activity and can be considered as a corner stone in the language mediators’ setting. the provisions of the handbook are valid for all national language mediation services. nevertheless, each country has some specific features in language mediation service. the issues of the refugee migration are examined and settled by various national bodies. in austria they are the ministry of home affairs/ federal ministry of the interior/ belenkova et al. bundesministerium für inneres (http://www.bmi.gv.at) and federal office for foreigners and asylum/ bundesamt für fremdenwesen und asyl (http://www.bfa.gv.at). in germany these bodies are federal office for migration and refugees/bundesamt für migration und flüchtlinge (https://www.bamf.de/de/startseite/startseite-node.html) and the federal agency for civic education/bundeszentrale für politische bildung (https://www.bpb.de). in russia such government bodies as the main office for migration of the ministry of home affairs of russia/ glavnoye upravleniye po voprosam migratsii mvd rossii (https://гувм.мвд.рф) and federal migration service/federal'naya migratsionnaya sluzhba (http://government.ru/en/department/247/events/) implement and control all issues connected with the refugee migration. the legal support of the refugees in russia is realized according to the federal law on the citizenship of the russian federation (federal law of the russian federation “on the citizenship of the russian federation with amendments” of 31.05.2002 n 62-fz); federal law on the refugees (federal law of the russian federation “on the refugees” of 19.02.1993 n 4528-1 art. 12); federal law on the forced migrants (federal law of the russian federation "on the forced migrants" of 19.02.1993 n 4530-1 art. 1). clarifying many issues connected with the refugees and their duties, social support and their life on the territory of the russian federation, no information about the language mediation service to the refugees in general and in the russian boarding points in particular is found. a language mediator can also assist a refugee in searching the important information (e.g. the samples of the documents to be submitted and their translations in a foreign language) at web resources of the appropriate government departments that are responsible for the refugee support (nikolaeva & pak, 2017). all sites of the national bodies give information in the national language russian or german and in english. moreover, the departments of germany provide the information in the arabic and turkish languages. in germany the federal office for migration and refugees developed a document the "code of conduct for the specialist involved in interpreting and translating activity with refugees" dated 09.06.2017 (verhaltenskodex für sprachmittler beim bundesamt für migration und flüchtlinge, 2017). the document is of crucial importance as the office employs translators and interpreters without any experience and special skills to deal with refugees. the code of conduct outlines the goals and tasks of translators/interpreters (as language mediators) in the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 214-230 situations when refugees are at the border points, when they fill in the documents for the refugee status and during an interview when they apply for the refugee status. the code of conduct also regulates the interpersonal contacts of translators/interpreters and the cases when the provisions of the code of conduct for specialist involved in interpreting and translating activity with refugees are breached (verhaltenskodex für sprachmittler beim bundesamt für migration und flüchtlinge, 2017). "procedure for granting asylum to refugees (review of step-by-step actions and legal documents” (ablauf des deutschen asylverfahrens, 2016) published by federal office for migration and refugees/bundesamt für migration und flüchtlinge clarifies the stages where a language mediator can be involved: the registration and submission of the documents for the refugee status; the verification of the data provided; an interview etc. (ablauf des deutschen asylverfahrens, 2016). in austria the federal office for foreigners and asylum/ bundesamt für fremdenwesen und asyl worked out the “recommendations on the effective activity of translators/interpreters" (april 2017) (asylverfahren, 2015). this document specifies the requirements of the federal office for migration and refugees to the universal and professional qualities of the "language mediators" who provide the language mediation assistance and support to refugees. special attention is paid to the role of an interpreter during the interview on applying for the refugee status. the outcome of the interview very often depends on the ability of an interpreter to convey the information received from an applicant adequately. the applicant is often under stress and cannot always answer the questions of the interviewers reasonably. taking into consideration the responsibility of translators/interpreters and the psychological component of this responsibility, the austrian ministry of home affairs/ federal ministry of the interior/ bundesministerium für inneres and the un refugee agency initiated a pilot project "quada" (qualitatsvolles dolmetschen im asylverfahren, 2015) and a training course for interpreters aimed at: simulating the algorithm of the actions of translators/interprets in various situations; making the information collected and analyzed available to all language mediators involved in the work with refugees; creating a permanent "platform" for coordinating the cooperation and collaboration of belenkova et al. various departments involved in the work with refugees (trainingshandbuch für dolmetscherinnen im asylverfahren, 2015). studying the problems of language mediators at border points, it was useful to learn the opinion of the translators and interpreters working with the refugees at border crossing points. for this purpose, the questionnaire was used. it included 10 issues most of them were openended: 1. are you aware of the refugee problems? if yes, please specify. 2. did you work with refugees at border crossing points? yes, no 3. do you think that the refugees at the border crossing points were familiar with the legal documents of the national migration service? 4. what problems did the refugees mention at border crossing points? 5. did you work as a language mediator at border crossing points? yes, no 6. did you provide any kind of translation/interpreting assistance to refugees at border crossing points? if yes, what kind of assistance? 7. was your assistance effective? why do you think so? 8. are you a professional a) translator/interpreter b) an expert in another area (what?)? what is your practical experience in this profession? 9. did you encounter any professional difficulties in your work with refugees at border crossing points? if yes, please, indicate 2-3 examples. 10. what other translation/interpreting services are necessary for refugees at border crossing points? the survey was held on line in the professional community of a social network in the countries under study. results and discussion the current study showed that all countries under study have legal regulations of the issues concerning migrants though the scope of problems covered by the national legislation on the migrants’ problems differs in various countries. moreover, each country has special departments that concentrate on the challenges caused by the migration crisis in the contemporary international environment. however, the language mediators working with migrants face different obstacles depending on the country of their professional activity. as most of the issues of the survey did not assumed a brief answer, the findings of the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 214-230 questionnaire were discussed in different ways. some findings were presented in the table; the others need to be explained in a more extended way. the cultural and national differences made an impact on the way the participants of the survey responded, so the data of the survey are shown according to the country of the mediators’ professional activity. moreover, due to its geographical position the russian federation is far from the main routes of refugees’ migrants, so the russian participants of the survey shared their experience of mediation activity on the territory of greece and other countries where they worked as the members of non-profit organization “translators without borders” (office in moscow). table 1 the experience of language mediators from austria, germany and russia in the work with refugees at border points mediators from austria and germany mediators from russia 1. the awareness of refugee problems 100% positive 60% negative 40% positive 2. mediators working with refugees at border points 100% negative 80% negative 20% positive 3. the refugees’ awareness of national legal documents 100% 90% negative 10% positive 4. the refugees’ problems at border points the difficulties in communication and comprehension misunderstanding the representatives of the humanitarian funds, the lack of the appropriate knowledge of the legal procedures of the refugee status documents submission, poor living conditions in the refugee camps 5. the experience as a language mediator at border points 100% no experience 60% % no experience 40% some experience 6. the mediation assistance to refugees at border points 100% no assistance 80% no assistance 20% some assistance 7. the efficacy of the assistance 100% did not answer 10% are not sure 10% positive 8. the professional training and working experience 100% professional training as a translator/interpreter the average practical experience is more than 3 years 60% professional training is not connected with translation or interpreting the practical experience is more than 5 years. 9. professional problems in the work with refugees at border points 100% did not answer 60% did not answer 40% some problems 10. other language mediation services 100% negative 60% negative 40% positive belenkova et al. as the survey implied the extended replies to some questions, a more detailed analysis of the findings can be realized. the language mediators in germany and austria as well as the migration service officers and lawyers usually take part in special sessions and meetings where the up-to-date information on the refugees from the border points is discussed and examined. during these meetings, the language mediators (100%) learn about the problems of the refugees. 60% of the russian language mediators do not know anything about the refugee obstacles, whereas 40% come to the conclusion about the refugee problems from their own practical experience. the issues most frequently mentioned include the changes of the personal data in the original documents, the wrong translation or transliteration of the personal data, the illegal border crossing, the illegal attempt to leave the host country, the documents forgery, the reluctance to renew the documents etc. the language mediators from austria and germany who participated in the survey reported that they worked with the refugees not at the border points but at the sites of temporary or permanent residence in cities and rural areas. the russian respondents had an experience of communicating with the refugees who arrived in greek islands. all respondents from austria and germany are sure that the refugees arriving to the host country are not aware of the national legislation and migration law. the majority of their russian counterparts (90%) agree with this point of view, though 10% hesitate about it and assume that if the refugee know the language of the host country he/she can have at least a vague idea of some migration rules or other national laws. all respondents from austria and germany and 60% of the russian respondents never worked as language mediators at the border points. consequently, the west european mediators and 80% russian mediators (20% more than in the previous issue) could not provide any translation or interpreting assistance to refugees at border points. 20% of the russian mediators made translations of the documents and trained some refugees as interpreters. apparently, those language mediators that respondent negatively in the previous issue gave no reply to this item. one-half of the russian mediators providing assistance to refugees at border points are sure that they were helpful and their work was quite effective. all respondents from the eu countries under study have professional training as interpreters journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 214-230 and/or translators. their practical experience is quite modest (about 3years). 60% of the russian respondents got their professional education as managers, economists, lawyers, psychologists, the other 40% were trained as interpreters and/or translators. the practical experience of the russian respondents ranges from 6 to 14 years. the language mediators from austria and germany could not respond to items 9 and 10. the russian respondents stated that the main problem of the language mediator at a border point is the lack of special professional training including not only the training as a translator and/or interpreter, but psychological training and the basic and general psychiatric training as people arriving at the border point can be depressed and be in poor psychiatric condition. moreover, a language mediator should be aware of the cultural and national traditions and customs of the refugee migrants. in such circumstances, a language mediator as a person who speaks the language of a refugee is considered as the only one who can support and assist the refugee in an unknown place. as far as the other services at border crossing points are concerned, the legal assistance is very important as a refugee should be clarified the rights and duties of the host country. conclusion as the international situation remains very tense, the number of refugees is constantly growing. the governments of all developed countries and the international organizations work out the measures to support the forced displaced or stateless people, to socialize them, to provide their families with diverse assistance. various issues concerning the refugees and their problems are investigated by the researchers. still there are some cases and situations that are not studied yet. among such issues is the language mediation assistance to refugees at border points. each country has both the theoretical and practical experiences in this area. the aim of this paper was to examine the official information on some aspects of the refugee migration problem and the language mediation assistance provided to refuges in border points in austria, germany and russia. apparently, the assistance of a language mediator is essential when the application of a refugee status is submitted to the migration service; when the interviews in the process of processing documents for refugee status are held; when the necessary information on various issues concerning the refugees should be searched at on line belenkova et al. resources and sites of the national migration departments the main rules of a translator/ interpreter are clarified in the un documents. nevertheless, the particular regulations of the activities and responsibilities of language mediators (translators and interpreters) should be developed for various situations including the language mediation assistance at border points. the international collaboration of the language mediators working with refugees might be useful and fruitful for those who are involved in the language mediation activity at border points. various workshops and practical conferences can provide the language mediators with positive practical experience and make their assistance to refugees more efficient and effective. acknowledgements the authors thank peoples’ friendship university of russia rudn university for financial and administrative support. the publication was prepared with the support of the rudn university program 5-100 as part of the research under grant № 090511-2-000. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 214-230 references ablauf des deutschen asylverfahrens (ein überblick über die einzelnen verfahrensschritte und rechtlichen grundlagen). (2016). germany, nürnberg: bundesamt für migration und flüchtlinge. retrieved from https://www.bamf.de/shareddocs/anlagen/de/publikationen/broschueren/das-deutscheasylverfahren.pdf?__blob=publicationfile ahsan, u. (2018). conflicts and displacements in syria: exploring life trajectories of separated refugee minors. asian journal of middle eastern and islamic studies. retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/25765949.2018.1485922 asylverfahren. (2015). asylum procedures, das bundesamt für fremdenwesen und asyl (bfa). austria. atabekova, a. (2017). migration crisis: protecting minors against abuse and exploitation. in: 4th international multidisciplinary scientific conference on social sciences and arts sgem2017. bulgaria, albena. atabekova, a.a., stepanova, v.v., udina, n.n., gorbatenko, o.g., shoustikova, t.v. (2017). interpreting in the context of refugee migration: emerging professional challenges and needs. xlinguae, 10(4), 184-195. bhimji, f. (2016). contesting the dublin regulation: refugees' and migrants' claims to personhood and rights in germany. intersections. east european journal of society and politics, 2(4), 51-68. burmester m. (2018). kommunale armutsverwaltung – zwischen gesetzlichem auftrag und kommunalem gestaltungswillen. in book: huster e.-u., handbuch armut und soziale ausgrenzung (pp.717-740). springer fachmedien wiesbaden gmbh. center for international governance innovation. (2017). retrieved from https://www.cigionline.org/interactives/2017annualreport/?gclid=cj0kcqianudtbrdu arisal41edowtlu3izcsgyyg9wevzzcqddqfsijsecnfsed0cwnvxryde5sgt8aavl-ealw_wcb#/?slide=11 cohen, b. (2007). education, work and identity young turkish migrants in germany and young pakistani migrants in england. in: jugend, partizipation und migration. orientierungen im kontext von integration und ausgrenzung (pp. 261-279). vs verlag für sozialwissenschaften. https://www.bamf.de/shareddocs/anlagen/de/publikationen/broschueren/das-deutsche-asylverfahren.pdf?__blob=publicationfile https://www.bamf.de/shareddocs/anlagen/de/publikationen/broschueren/das-deutsche-asylverfahren.pdf?__blob=publicationfile belenkova et al. díez, i.g. (2011). the role of the interpreter in constructing asylum seeker’s credibility: a hearing at the spanish asylum and refugee office. sociolinguistic studies, 4(2). eleveld, a. (2014). the duty to work without a wage. a legal comparison between the social assistance legislations in germany, the netherlands and the united kingdom. european journal of social security, 16(3), 204-224. fauser, m., voigtländer, s., tuncer, h., liebau, e., faist, t., razum, o. (2012). transnationality and social inequalities of migrants in germany. sfb 882 working paper series, no. 11 dfg research center (sfb) 882 from heterogeneities to inequalities research project c1. germany, bielefeld. federal law of the russian federation “on the citizenship of the russian federation with amendments” of 31.05.2002 n 62-fz. retrieved from http://fzrf.su/zakon/o-grazhdanstve62-fz.php federal law of the russian federation "on the forced migrants" of 19.02.1993 n 4530-1 art. 1. retrieved from http://fzrf.su/zakon/o-vynuzhdennyh-pereselencah-4530-1/.php federal law of the russian federation “on the refugees” of 19.02.1993 n 4528-1 art. 12. retrieved from http://fzrf.su/zakon/o-bezhencah-n-4528-1/.php fertig, m., schmidt, c. m. (2001). firstand second-generation migrants in germany. leibniz information centre for economics. discussion paper series, 286. retrieved from https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/21139/1/dp286.pdf figures at a glance. the un refugee agency. retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/figures-ata-glance.html funk, n. (2016). a spectre in germany: refugees, a welcome culture and an “integration politics”. journal of global ethics, 12(3), 289-299. gatrell, p., nivet, p. (2014). refugees and exiles. in: j. winter (ed.), cambridge history of the first world wa, vol. iii: civil society (pp. 186-216). cambridge, uk, cambridge university press. gibb, r., good, a. (2014). interpretation, translation and intercultural communication in refugee status determination procedures in the uk and france. language and intercultural communication, 14(3), 385-399. grappi, g. (2010). refugees and partition in a migrants' world. refugee watch, 35, 64-72. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 214-230 groot de, o. j., sager, l. (2010). migrants in germany: separate and unequal. german institute for economic research. weekly report, 6(34). gulina, o. (2015). the "special" status of ukrainian refugees in russia. intersection russia/europe/world. retrieved from http://intersectionproject.eu/article/russiaeurope/special-status-ukrainian-refugees-russia hamann, u., karakayali, s. (2016). practicing willkommenskultur: migration and solidarity in germany. intersections. east european journal of society and politics, 2(4), 69-86. handbook and guidelines on procedures and criteria for determining refugee status (under the 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol relating to the status of refugees). (2011). retrieved from http://www.refworld.org/docid/4f33c8d92.html jones d., jill p.s. (1998). breaking down language barriers. bmj clinical research, 316(7143), pp. 1476. keyserlingk, r.h. (2009). a history of migration from germany to canada 1850-1939 (review). university of toronto quarterly, 78(1), 289-290. koc, g. (2009). turkish migrants in austria and germany: stereotypes and xenophobia. in: turks in europe. culture, identity and integration (pp. 103-128). netherlands: turkevi research center. kohnert, d. (1993). wer hat angst vorm schwarzen mann? afrikanische flüchtlinge in europa spielball der politiker. in: r. hofmeier (ed.), afrika jahrbuch 1992 (pp. 65-76). germany, opladen: leske u. budrich. kosygina, l. (2018). ‘forced re-settlers’ in post-soviet russia: gender and age dimensions of social inequality in state assistance with permanent housing. in: m. ilic (ed.), the palgrave handbook of women and gender in twentieth-century russia and the soviet union. london: palgrave macmillan. mukomel, v. (2017). migration of ukrainians to russia in 2014-2015. in: migration and the ukraine crisis. a two-country perspective. bristol, england: e-international relations publishing. (e-book). nikolaeva, y.s., pak, n.i. (2017). newest web-technologies for studying and diagnosing individual abilities of learners. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), 130144. belenkova et al. qualitatsvolles dolmetschen im asylverfahren (2015). austria: bundesministerium für inneres and the un refugee agency. retrieved from http://www.bfa.gv.at/bmi_documents/1600.pdf rheindorf, m., wodak, r. (2018). borders, fences, and limits – protecting austria from refugees: metadiscursive negotiation of meaning in the current refugee crisis. journal of immigrant & refugee studies, 16(1–2), 15-38. sijilmassi, n. (2017). translating and interpreting for immigrants and refugees in valencia: the role of translators and interpreters in their access to the public service. in: e. monzó-nebot, j.j. salcedo (eds.), les llengües minoritzades en l'ordre postmonolingüe (pp. 255-275). castelló de la plana: universitat jaume. tarman, b., gürel, d. (2017). awareness of social studies teacher candidates on refugees in turkey. journal of social studies research, 41(3), 183-193. trainingshandbuch für dolmetscherinnen im asylverfahren (2015). austria: unhcr. retrieved from http://www.bfa.gv.at/files/broschueren/trainingsprogramm_web_15032016.pdf verhaltenskodex für sprachmittler beim bundesamt für migration und flüchtlinge. (2017). germany: bundesamt für migration und flüchtlinge. retrieved from https://www.bamf.de/shareddocs/anlagen/de/downloads/infothek/dasbamf/verhaltens kodex-dolmetscher.pdf?__blob=publicationfile zalewski, i. (2017). unaccompanied minor refugees in the state of brandenburg, germany. in: the 13th conference of the european sociological association (esa), (un)making europe: capitalism, solidarities, subjectivies, athens. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 1-34 social studies, civics, and fracking: ohio teacher perceptions of controversial environmental issues matthew s. hollstein1 abstract hydraulic fracturing or fracking as it commonly referred, has seen tremendous growth in ohio over the last 10 years. however, this growth comes at a price which makes fracking a current event which is also a controversial environmental issue. recent work by young activist like greta thunberg and others have highlighted a sincere interest from social studies students in issues related to the environment. fracking is an ideal issue for study in an american government classroom. the purpose of this study was to determine the status of teaching about fracking in ohio american government classrooms, as well as any self-identified barriers that may have prevented them from teaching about the issue. this study was a mixed methods study which utilized surveys and content analysis to be able to draw conclusions. this study presents the findings of 62 ohio american government teachers and their positions on fracking and whether fracking is appropriate for a social studies classroom. the results showed that participants geographic location appeared to play a role in their positionality on the issue of fracking. specifically, whether teachers were teaching about fracking and any self-identified barriers. this study highlights the multiple layers that exists in classrooms where issues like fracking may be addressed. the intersectionality of participants and their personal autonomy were important to understanding the results and suggestions for future research in this area and related areas of study. keywords: civics, fracking, social studies, controversy, environmental education introduction the shale oil and gas boom in the united states has led to the united states potentially surpassing saudi arabia as the world’s largest oil and gas exporter (dichristopher, 2019). there are many, including presidents obama and trump, who have heralded this as new era in american energy independence and have gone so far as to label it a matter of national security (dichristopher, 2019; slack, 2013). the primary means of accessing previously inaccessible oil gas deposits has been horizontal hydraulic fracturing or fracking (zuckerman, 2013). ohio is at the center of this boom as fracking operations have grown tremendously in the last 15 years (ohio department of natural resources, 2013; 2019). fracking presents a nested issue that involves environmental, political, 1 assoc. prof., social studies education, school of teaching, learning, and curriculum studies, kent state university, mhollste@kent.edu mailto:mhollste@kent.edu journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 historical, civic, and social implications and should be covered in ohio american government classroom. fracking is an example of controversial environmental issues citizens should be aware, informed, and have knowledge to make informed action. the correlation between ohio and natural resources stretches far back into the state’s past. historically, ohio has been exposed to natural resource extraction by both internal and external players who have harvested the state’s resources, such as coal and timber, for financial gain at the economic and environmental expense of the region (eller, 2008). fracking constitutes a contemporary version of this legacy. it is a controversial, contemporary issue that has polarized the state and the nation. significant tensions exist between those who argue that fracking is an unprecedented economic windfall and national security issue while others view it as an environmental disaster with long-term consequences that will leave the state devastated, both economically and environmentally (dolesh, 2011; hatzenbuhler & centner, 2012; obama, 2012; ohio department of natural resources, 2014). social studies teachers are tasked with guiding students through their development as citizens. this process entails understanding the nature and nuance associated with good citizenship. specifically, social studies teachers must help students unpack the why and how good citizens should act, engage, and participate in our complex democracy. fundamental in this process are issues and events which social studies teachers determine to be essential to enacting good citizenship. environmental issues are a set of issues which often do not find their way into the social studies classroom. furthermore, controversial environmental issues are often relegated to cursory overviews or all together not discussed in social studies. fracking is one example of a controversial environmental issue which is complex and layered but whose understanding is necessary in social studies. in some cases, controversial environmental issues like fracking are discussed as economic issues. however, in this study the author argues that controversial environmental issues are essential to the social studies classroom because concern and stewardship for the environment are essential components of good citizenship. therefore, the rational for this study comes from the author’s 15 plus years of classroom teaching where few other teachers were discussing environmental issues in social studies classrooms. hollstein 3 civic environmentalism civics education aims to foster the development of knowledgeable, engaged, and active citizens who will view their roles, beliefs, and actions as being essential to their democracy (chinn & barber, 2010; ncss, 2010). for this study civics education serves as the primary term while citizenship education is considered as nested within civics education. today’s common core curriculum and the national council for the social studies’ c3 framework represent the most existing articulation of civics education and the movement towards broadening the notion of citizenship (ncss, 2013). consequently, “good” citizenship now also must include an awareness of and social action towards environmental issues. e.o. wilson (2006) argues that it is impossible to separate the individual and the environment while bill mckibben (2011) has suggested that the price of inaction concerning environmental issues amounts to a global disaster. presently, young activists like greta thunberg and her contemporaries have showcased this position in real time. controversial issues in social studies the use of controversial issues has proven to be a fruitful and worthwhile endeavor for both social studies teachers and students, as it allows for the critical examination of contemporary issues through the lens of the various social studies disciplines (hess, 2004; misco & patterson, 2007). the process of examining controversial issues in the social studies begins with the teacher (camicia, 2008). in order to fully understand the process, i will present a model that integrates both diana hess’ (2005) and thomas kelly’s (1986) model in order to offer a structure that seeks to yield a deeper understanding of controversial environmental issues in the social studies classroom as shown in table 1. this model emerged from my experiences teaching controversial issues. specifically, as a new teacher i modeled hess’ balanced approach to teaching about controversial issues and purposefully did not share my opinions with students. however, i soon realized that i was underestimating my students’ intelligence and intuitiveness and that through their questions and observations could clearly see that i had an opinion on the issue. furthermore, students realized that i had an opinion on an issue merely by deciding to teach about it (hollstein & smith, 2020). i soon realized it was necessary to put trust in my students’ academic ability to wrestle and unpack complex controversial issues while sharing my own to treat them as academic equals in the classroom. i often said it was “our classroom” but was not reflecting this in my actions. i was aware of kelly’s journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 (1986) model and often utilized hess’ (2005) model. i found that by combining these two models i was able to create a framework for addressing controversial issues in the social studies classroom which were more in line with how and why i taught controversial issues. i realized that by concealing my opinions was not helping prepare my students for times after they leave my class and engage in issues outside of the classroom. table 1 model for assessing controversial issues in social studies approach description denial it is not a controversial political issue privilege teach toward a particular perspective on the controversial political issue avoidance avoid the controversial political issue balance teach the matter as genuine controversial political issue without favoring a particular perspective balanced privilege teacher interjects their beliefs and an explanation of their thinking on the issue note: adapted from “how do teachers’ political views influence teaching about controversial issues?” by d. hess, 2005, social education, 69(1), p. 47-48. kelly, t.e. (1986). “discussing controversial issues: four perspectives on the teacher's role.” theory and research in social education, 14(2), 113. controversial environmental issues in social studies in recent decades the environmental movement has started to have a deeper impact on local, regional, and global communities, and one need only look to the impact of teen activist greta thunberg (alter et al., 2019; tzou & bell, 2012). presently, not only in the united states but around the world, issues of sustainable energy use, development, and freshwater are just a few of the many issues that face humanity (bromley et al., 2011). it is of paramount importance that students be aware of relevant and pressing contemporary and controversial environmental issues (evans, 2004; hess, 2005). traditionally, environmental issues have been in the domain of the sciences (ogunyemi & ifegbesan, 2011). however, it is important to recognize that the scientific and social components of environmental issues are inseparable (mckibben; 2011; wilson, 2006). often, environmental issues are deemed controversial because numerous parties have invested and potentially opposite interests in their outcome. only recently has the social studies begun to hollstein 5 address issues of sustainability (ncss, 2013). however, to effect lasting curricular change, social studies teachers and teacher educators must adopt the position that civics education includes environmental awareness and responsibility as a requirement of good citizenship (kumler, 2011; ncss, 2013). significance this research contributes new knowledge about civics education, current events, and controversial environmental issues in the social studies (hess, 2002; kumler, 2011). although there is much scholarship on controversy in the social studies classroom, little is known about the use of controversial environmental issues (camicia, 2008; hahn, 1991; 1996; hess, 2002; 2005; 2008; 2009; journell, 2011; kelly, 1986; king, 2009; misco & patterson, 2007). this study sought to add to the emerging scholarship on controversial environmental issues in the social studies classroom. as both hess’ and kelly’s models contain gaps that do not fully address teachers’ beliefs, actions, and experiences. this study introduces a new five-dimensional model for examining controversial issues based upon the work of hess and kelly. the first four dimensions will be based on hess’ model; the fifth dimension will be based in part on kelly’s (1986) fourth dimension of committed impartiality. the five dimensions of this new model are: denial, privilege, avoidance, balance, and balanced privilege. this model allowed for a more comprehensive interpretation and allowed the researcher to assess teachers’ views on approaching controversial issues in the classroom. limitations this study was limited by exclusively using surveys. while it was necessary to use online surveys, they do present a limited snapshot of participants’ views. it would have been very beneficial to conduct onsite visits but was not practical to accomplish 62 sites visits, at a time when all participants were teaching relevant topics. purpose the purpose of this research is to assess the status of teaching about fracking in ohio american government classrooms, and to determine what barriers existed that may prevent the teaching of environmental issues such as fracking. the decision to focus on the status of teaching about journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 fracking was made because what is taught in a social studies classroom may be reflective of what social studies teachers believe to be important and because the controversial nature of fracking has a direct impact on how issues are taught in the classroom (hess, 2002; 2005; hollstein & smith, 2020; kelly, 1986; king, 2009; misco & patterson, 2007). when social studies teachers fail to address controversial issues, such as fracking and its underlying causes, students may continue to frame such issues as non-controversial and marginalize their relevance. in this study, controversy serves as a term defined by the respective participants. this research is based on the notion of civic environmentalism, i.e. good citizenship includes an awareness of the social implications of environmental issues. research questions this study seeks to answer the following research questions: 1. what is the status of teaching about fracking in ohio american government classes? 2. what barriers exist that may prevent teaching about fracking in ohio american government classes? review of literature fracking in the united states in a controversial environmental issue that is dichotomous in nature. on one side, you have an issue at the center of an american energy renaissance. conversely, on the other side, exist an issue which has a high-risk factor for any potential reward due to its potential for major environmental fallout. furthermore, the reward has typically gone to a wealthy few while the fallouts have been placed upon communities with little ability to respond. fracking is a complex issue which cuts across lines of social studies, science, and environmental education. but fracking represents an ideal issue for study in civics, current events, and controversial issues instruction. theoretical framework this study was an exploratory study utilizing exclusively surveys given the size and scope of the participant pool, but which used an emergent design framework. this framework was selected given the limited nature that online surveys present and the limited ability of the researcher to physically observe 62 teachers from across ohio (creswell, 2017). an emergent design was most hollstein 7 appropriate because, while the researcher had questions and a focus in mind, it was not clear what might emerge from the data collection. this framework lends itself to follow-up studies in which the researcher can complete further check-ins with the participants to determine change over time. hydraulic fracturing horizontal hydraulic fracturing or fracking, as it is commonly called, is a process energy companies use to access and harvest previously un-accessible natural gas deposits found in shale formations (gjelton, 2012). in this process, engineers drill down vertically and then horizontally to access deposits and then employ chemical combinations of fracking fluids and water that are pumped into shale formations at extremely high pressures causing the shale rock to physically crack and release the trapped natural gas (belcher & resnikoff, 2013; gjelton, 2012). some wells can use up to 2-4 million gallons of fresh water to frack a well one time; the average well can be fracked up to 15 times in its lifespan (ecowatch, 2012). after a well is fracked, the extracted natural gas returns to the surface with fracking wastewater, commonly referred to as brine. companies often depose of the brine by storing it in clay-lined ponds, known as wastewater ponds. in ohio, it is often pumped back into the ground into abandoned wells commonly called wastewater injection wells (belcher & resnikoff, 2013; gjelton, 2012). ohio sits on top of two large shale formations as shown in figure 1 (us energy information administration [eia], 2011). presently the fracking process in ohio has aroused much controversy. as of 2014, the ohio department of natural resources (2014) had approved permits for 1,123 fracking wells, and 750 of those wells were actively producing compared to 2019 approved permits for 3267 wells with 2761 producing and most of which can be found in the eastern half of ohio (odnr, 2019). this shows that regardless of the impact of fracking, there has been a rapid uptick in production. an added layer of controversy stems from presidents obama andtrump framing fracked natural gas as vital to american energy security (dichristopher, 2019; slack, 2013) journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 figure 1. marcellus and utica shale formations in ohio source: ohio department of natural resources (2014). central to the fracking debate are questions of economics, environmental degradation, and the equitable distribution of risk versus reward. the appalachian region has seen decades of mineral extraction at the expense of local communities and has allowed outside groups to gain economic windfall while taking few of the environmental risks, leaving local populations with all the environmental risks and none of the economic rewards (eller, 2012). much of the anti-fracking movement is grassroots while the pro-fracking movement is dominated by the industry, itself (helman, 2013). civics education fostering good citizenship and civics education has been an essential role of the social studies throughout its history (american historical association, 1899; anderson et al., 1997; beard, 1929; evans, 2004; hess, 2002; 2005). beginning with the american historical association (1899) report from the committee of seven to the national council for the social studies (ncss) (2014) hollstein 9 college, career, and civic life framework, it is clear that civics education has shaped both the field of social studies and the academic choices made by teachers. ncss believes in engaged and informed citizens who engage in a successful civic life (ncss, 2010; 2013; risinger, 2009). while civics has always been a component of the social studies curriculum, there has not always been agreement on what civics education might look like and its actual purpose (risinger, 2009). the goal of civics education is to develop engaged, participatory, and active citizens capable of identifying problems in the civic space, followed by appropriate action (levinson & brantmeier, 2006; ncss, 2013; risinger, 2009). like civics education, environmental education aims to develop informed citizens who care about their environment and possess the skills and knowledge necessary to effect change (hollstein & smith, 2020; naaee, 2019; palmer, 1999). while the history of environmental education in the united states is of shorter duration than that of the social studies, both offer histories intended to develop similar citizens. the literature suggests a confluence of both goals and intended outcomes. both include curricular models that require active engagement of real-world problems (ceasar, 2012). little is known about teachers’ perspectives on the intersection of civics and environmental education and more research is needed to fill this gap. controversial issues throughout the history of social studies education, controversial public issues (cpi) have been a part of the curriculum (hess, 2002; 2005). as a discipline, the social studies takes responsibility for addressing controversial issues, both directly and indirectly, in order to develop informed and participatory citizens (evans, 2004; hess, 2002; 2005; king; 2009). going back further, the american history association’s (1899) committee of seven report suggested that history, as a precursor to the modern social studies, should be used to examine the social life. as the social studies evolved and was formally founded in the early 20th century, the inclusion of controversy persisted (ncss, 1921). for much of the history of the social studies, the connection between controversial issues and effective citizenship has been the importance of being able to navigate and discuss controversial issues as a component of civics education (newman, 1989). in today’s highly connected world, it is important that students possess the skills necessary for understanding, discussing, and acting upon these issues (hahn, 1991; hess, 2002; 2005; 2008; jorgensen, 2013; king, 2009; patterson et al., 2012). until recently, controversy in the social studies has mostly journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 been centered on curriculum choices rather than on teachers’ dispositions (hess, 2002; washington & humphries, 2011). hess (2002) notes the importance of face-to-face discourse in the examination of controversy; this allows students to be able to easily understand the nature of controversy, while allowing teachers to facilitate the discourse taking place. current events the use of current events in the social studies classroom has been widespread since its beginnings (deveci, 2007). much of the literature shows that social studies teachers are in favor of and do use current events (pass, 2007). however, lipscomb and doppen (2013) note that how current events instruction takes place and what this looks like is not clear. in addition, some social studies teachers may over-estimate how much they cover current events (lipscomb & doppen, 2013). while there are few stand-alone current events courses, current events instruction is typically embedded in existing social studies courses. ncss’ c3 framework (2013) provides a clear framework for incorporating current events on a consistent basis. current events foster civic literacy, civic awareness, critical literacy, historical literacy, critical thinking, empathy, and personal understanding of internal conflicts regarding controversial issues (journell, 2013; libresco, 2003; luckhardt, 2014; pass, 2007; pescatore, 2007; sharp, 2009). what has changed the social studies and the use of current events in the classroom is the development of new technologies and processes which enhance access to materials and information, in addition to potential filters that might skew information (levinson, 2012). as current events and our level of access to them has changed, the duty of social studies teachers to be the informed among colleagues and serve as models of critically informed citizens is even more important (libresco, 2003). additionally, camicia and dobson (2009) suggest that having critical and informed citizens allows for issues of social justice to be better addressed. the study of current events in the social studies also allows students to find relevance in social studies subjects (luckhardt, 2014). teaching current events helps students better develop the necessary skills to become successful members of a community and the greater civic collective (camicia & dobson, 2010; haas & laughlin, 2000; journell, 2013; king, 2009; libresco, 2003; mccoy, 2008; pass, 2007). teachers might find it easier to employ higher order thinking skills with current events instruction given the often-complex nature of the events (camicia & dobson, 2010). controversial current events hollstein 11 require certain civic skills to understand and navigate the world in which we live (hess, 2002; 2005; 2008; king, 2009; sharp, 2009). much of the literature suggests that the study of current events is an essential component of social studies education (journell, 2013; ncss, 2010; sharp, 2009). place-based education place-based education (pbe) has long been a part of social studies education (beard, 1929). dewey’s (1923) democracy in education is a piece that many suggest as central to the focus of pbe. central to this idea is the connection students make when connecting and examining the area they live in and which surrounds them. pbe is central to the study of controversial environmental issues like fracking and this study because the issue and events occurred and are occurring in the backyards of participants. furthermore, pbe ask students and teachers to examine how issues we study in the classroom directly impact the places we call home (resor, 2010). resor (2010) notes that it is imperative that when utilizing pbe in the classroom that teachers must be thoughtful and purposeful in their decisions to disconnect the topic from the place and allow students to see both simultaneously. pbe is well-suited to the study of fracking in the social studies because it has used frequently in the sciences and when studying environmental issues (seneschal, 2007). fundamental to the use of pbe is the understanding that the definition of place is subjective to the student (creswell, 2004). it is important for teaches to help students unpack these ideas to help them better examine the consequences of issues like fracking and there it occurs. methodology design the purpose of this study was to assess the status of teaching about fracking and any barriers to it being taught. further, the researcher wanted to determine how the geographic positionality of participants played a role in influencing their responses. the variables the included participants knowledge of fracking, their comfort level with it, their geographic location, and any potential personal connections they may have had to fracking or related fields, either directly or indirectly. this study was mixed method and used a survey as a means of data collection (see appendix a). descriptive statistics of participant responses as well as participant written responses to the survey journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 administered via qualtrics were compiled and analyzed in the findings section (creswell & creswell, 2017). the general population for this study constituted 9th through 12th grade social studies teachers of american government with an n=62. initially, invitations were sent to 150 american government teachers which gave a response rate of 41%. the rationale for targeting these teachers was two-fold. first, american government is intended to teach students the necessary skills for good citizenship, and second, this class serves as a transition from student to full citizenship. the theme of american government and topics covered make it an ideal course for analyzing the status of teaching about an issue such as fracking. participants the participants in this study were a collection of 62 different american government teachers from across ohio. this group was equally geographically distributed to create an equitable set of data from multiple participants. the teachers had varying levels of experience in the classroom but were mostly non-hispanic white males with an average of 11 years of classroom teaching experience. instrument the instrument used was an anonymous qualtrics online survey which allowed for easy dissemination and retrieval. this survey included both quantitative and qualitative questions to elicit responses which allowed for a robust set of data. the qualtrics survey proved to be the most effective means to collect the data given the even geographic distribution of participants across the state. the survey employed likert scale-based questions as well as questions which allowed participants to complete extended responses to various questions. the survey gave participants the opportunity to express deeper thoughts and beliefs regarding certain parts of the study. further, using a mixed set of questions create an opportunity quantify responses using descriptive statistics while also allowing for thematic content analysis. data collection random sampling was used with the random number generator in microsoft excel. purposeful sampling was used to select a population of american government teachers across ohio (patton, 2002). the ohio department of education’s (ode) typology of school districts was used as a hollstein 13 framework as shown in table 2. to streamline the typologies, numbers one through four were combined into a new typology labeled rural/small town, numbers four and five were combined and labeled suburban, and numbers seven and eight were combined an labeled urban. this decision allowed for a more streamlined review of data and equal distribution of participants across the newly labeled typologies. the new typological classification focused on the distinctions of urban, suburban, and rural due to the disproportionate number of fracking operations being situated in rural and small-town communities versus suburban and urban communities which have very little as shown in table 3 (odnr, 2019). random sampling was used until the required number of 50 teacher participants for each of the three typologies had been reached (n=62). non-representative sampling was used to ensure that all three typology classifications in the state of ohio were represented, due to the distribution of typologies not being representative of the population concentration within the state. surveys were administered using qualtrics data collection software. after completing data collection through a statewide survey, the data were analyzed for common themes. table 2 ohio department of education typologies typology classification 1 rural high student poverty & small student population 2 rural average student poverty & very small student population 3 small town low student poverty & small student population 4 small town high student poverty & average student population size 5 suburban low student poverty & average student population size 6 suburban very low student poverty & large student population 7 urban high student poverty & average student population 8 urban very high student poverty & very large student population source: ohio department of education (2020) journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 data the data in this study was collected purely from the qualtrics survey. however, the data itself was both quantitative and qualitative in nature. the data was a collection of likert scale questions which allowed for the use of descriptive statistics. in addition, the extended responses were helpful and offered deeper insights in spaces where participants could offer their own descriptions of ideas and responses to questions related to the issue of fracking. data analysis the data were analyzed using thematic analysis the following three themes: participant background information, the status of teaching about fracking, and perceived barriers to teaching about fracking. further, descriptive statistics were used to help determine slight interpretations of the data from a quantitative perspective. questions which allowed for extended responses were analyzed for coming themes and the researcher noted the various themes which emerged from the data. overall, this proved to be the most effective way to analyze the data to create meaningful interpretations of the data that appeared. delimitations this study was delimited to teachers of american government, a course typically taught during the junior or senior year of high school. data collection was limited to a statewide online survey due to the size and scope of the population studied, specifically the decision to examine the entire state of ohio, as well as the limited time and resources that were available to the researcher. the total number of participants was n=62 and was evenly distributed across typology as shown in table 3. table 3 participants by typology typology rural suburban urban number of respondents 21 20 21 hollstein 15 results the results of this study will be separated into three thematic sections derived from the research questions: participant background information, that status of teaching about fracking in participant classrooms, and perceived barriers to teaching about fracking in participant classrooms. this structure answers the two primary research questions which were: 1. what is the status of teaching about fracking in ohio american government classes? 2. what barriers exist that may prevent teaching about fracking in ohio american government classes? the data revealed the answers to the two research questions were far more nuanced and offered a sometimes-contradictory picture while simultaneously showcasing clear trends in what the participating high school american government teachers were doing. specifically, a few of the participants were teaching about fracking while a majority were not due to a few perceived internal and external factors. the data shows this perceived lack of autonomy for some participants and their ability to be gatekeepers (thorton, 1989). broadly, responses from participants who were not teaching about fracking cited a perceived lack of agency with the decision. participant background information the ohio american government teachers in this study held different personal and professional beliefs about fracking, citizenship, and controversial issues. the perspectives of these teachers were influenced by several factors including demographics, years of teaching experience and typology. in general, the teachers in this study were mostly non-hispanic white males; three fourths of teachers reported having at least 11 years of teaching experience, and males outnumbered females two to one. these demographics were significant regarding the status and barriers because each plays a significant role in shaping the identify and decision making of each teacher. further, this suggests that while participants may have had some belief differences, they were part of a homogenous population with significant experience. it is important to recognize the impact that one’s background has on how they view the world. for the participants in this study, where they live, how long they have been teaching and other identifying factors may have played a role in shaping their beliefs towards fracking. geographic location was significant due to fracking journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 being a place-based issue that can only occur in certain parts of the state as shown in figure 2. specifically, those in regions where fracking was actively occurring may have been more aware but taught about it less. figure 2. geographic distribution of participants initially, participants were asked about the following definition of fracking: “hydraulic fracturing (fracking) is a technique used by energy companies in which they drill vertically and then horizontally into shale formations in order to crack the shale formation with high pressure fluids to release natural gas and oil”. they were then asked to rate their level of concern about fracking. the results clearly show that in urban areas where fracking was not happening as shown in table 4, teachers were more concerned than in regions where it was occurring as shown in table 5. hollstein 17 table 4 teacher reported fracking operations response rural suburban urban total n % n % n % n % yes 11 52% 3 15% 4 19% 18 29% no 9 43% 13 65% 15 71% 37 60% i do not know 1 5% 4 20% 1 5% 6 10% no response 0 0% 0 0% 1 5% 1 2% total 21 100% 20 100% 21 100% 62 100% table 5 level of concern about fracking response rural suburban urban total m sd m sd m sd m sd 2.19 0.93 2.55 1.1 3.57 1.33 2.77 1.12 n % n % n % n % not concerned 6 29% 5 25% 2 10% 13 21% somewhat concerned 6 29% 3 15% 2 10% 11 18% moderately concerned 8 38% 8 40% 6 29% 22 35% highly concerned 1 5% 4 20% 4 19% 9 15% very highly concerned 0 0% 0 0% 7 33% 7 11% totals 21 100% 20 100% 21 100% 62 100% *m=mean, sd=standard deviation the status of teaching about fracking in american government classrooms while assessing participants responses there were several factors which impacted their decision on whether to teach about fracking in their classrooms. at issue are the nuanced layers of decision making which take place from curricular and pedagogical perspectives for teachers. further, these decisions were significantly impacted by the intersectionality of their personal and professional identities through their roles as classrooms teachers and as members of the community surrounding the schools where they teach. just under half of all participants in this study (n=28; 45%) indicated they were teaching about fracking in the classroom as shown in table 6. while teachers overwhelmingly believed fracking to be appropriate for the social studies and controversial, a slight majority were not teaching about it. further, teachers who were teaching about fracking indicted they presented it as an economic journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 issue and not an environmental issue. this decision to bucket this issue as financial/economic and not environmental is significant as it shows that teachers were circumventing the environmental perspective. instead making it financial which helps to alleviate the pressure due to the controversial nature of the issue. most participants indicated that fracking was an appropriate issue to address in the social studies classroom as shown in table 7. slightly over 80% of participants (n=51; 82%) indicated they believed it was acceptable to teach about fracking while slightly fewer than 20% (n=10; 16%) did not. therefore, while an overwhelming majority of participants believed it should be taught, notably just over 75% (n=47; 76%) also believed it was controversial a controversial issue. table 6 teaching about fracking response rural suburban urban total n % n % n % n % yes 11 52% 9 45% 8 38% 28 45% no 9 43% 11 55% 13 62% 33 53% no response 1 5% 0 0% 0 0% 1 2% total 21 100% 20 100% 21 100% 62 100% table 7 fracking in the social studies answer rural suburban urban total n % n % n % n % yes 16 76% 17 85% 18 86% 51 82% no 4 19% 3 15% 3 14% 10 16% no response 1 5% 0 0% 0 0% 1 2% total 21 100% 20 100% 21 100% 62 100% it was important to understand participants knowledge of fracking because in most cases if a teacher is not knowledgeable of a topic, they may not teach about it. when asked if about their knowledge of fracking, most teachers believed they had some knowledge of fracking meaning they could not claim ignorance of its existence as shown in table 8. only 20% of participants indicated they had a high to very high level of knowledge about fracking (n=12; 19%) while 1/3rd (n=23; 37%) believed they had a sufficient knowledge base about fracking or only had some knowledge hollstein 19 (n=24; 39%). nearly one-fifth of teachers surprisingly, only three teachers (5%) indicated they had no knowledge about fracking. interestingly, rural (m=2.67, sd=.66) teachers’ data illustrated they had less knowledge of fracking compared to the entire population (m=2.77; sd=0.95) while suburban teachers (m=2.9; sd=1.21) had slightly more knowledge. this is significant because fracking operations currently only occur in rural or suburban areas with none occurring in urban areas. table 8 knowledge about fracking response rural suburban urban total m sd m sd m sd m sd 2.67 0.66 2.9 1.21 2.76 1 2.77 0.95 n % n % n % n % none 0 0% 2 10% 1 5% 3 5% some 9 43% 6 30% 9 43% 24 39% sufficient 10 48% 7 35% 6 29% 23 37% high 2 9% 2 10% 4 19% 8 13% very high 0 0% 3 15% 1 5% 4 6% total 21 100% 20 100% 21 100% 62 100% perceived barriers to teaching about fracking in participant classrooms the barriers to teaching about fracking were, in most cases, internal. often, teachers choose to teach about things found outside of the curriculum that have some level of importance to them. that are of interest. participants in this study indicated their level of concern about fracking. given that less than half of the participants were teaching about fracking it was not surprising that just over 25% (n=16) of participants were highly to very highly concerned about fracking whereas 75% (n=46) were not concerned to moderately concerned. thus, at best, three out of four teachers were moderately concerned about fracking (n=46, 74%). this presents a barrier in that if one does not find an issue concerning or important, they will likely choose not to commit class time to that subject. interestingly, even though fracking operations are more prevalent in rural participants school districts, the level of concern among suburban (m=2.55; sd=1.1) and urban (m=3.57; sd=1.33) teachers in this study was higher than among the rural teachers (m=2.19; sd=0.93). urban teachers were the most concerned when compared to the entire sample (m=3.57, sd=1.33), and were the only group with teachers who indicated a very high level of concern, even though at journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 the time of this study no fracking operations were taking place in any urban area in ohio as shown in table 4. given that less than half of teachers were teaching about fracking it was important to understand what, specifically, may have prevented them from teaching about the subject. however, it was very surprising to learn that three out of four participants in this study (n=45; 73%) believed there were no barriers existed. this is very significant because it suggests that in the absence of any barriers, participants were simply choosing to not teach about fracking. therefore, the teachers themselves were a significant barrier which is reflected in their perception of fracking’s level of importance. only 24% (n=15) of participants cited barriers as shown in table 9. however, while half of urban teachers cited barriers only one rural participant responded there were any barriers. those participants who indicated that barriers did exist gave written responses. themes that emerged were a lack of time, a lack of knowledge, no ready-made classroom resources, current curriculum standards demanding priority, and the belief that fracking was an issue best examined in science courses. another look at the data reveals that teachers’ responses indicating whether barriers existed to teaching about fracking depended upon the geographic location. notably, rural teachers cited few barriers and indicated the lowest level of concern. the most frequently mentioned barriers included curriculum requirements, opposition from stakeholders, teachers’ beliefs about the issue, and time constraints. table 9 barriers to teaching about fracking response rural suburban urban total n % n % n % n % yes 1 5% 4 20% 10 48% 15 24% no 18 86% 16 80% 11 52% 45 73% no response 2 10% 0 0% 0 0% 2 3% total 21 100% 20 100% 21 100% 62 100% another barrier to teaching about fracking was participants comfort level the issue of fracking. most teachers were not teaching about fracking and felt only moderately comfortable with teaching about it as shown in table 10. only one out of four of the teachers in this study (n=16; 26%) felt highly to totally comfortable with teaching about fracking whereas nearly three out of five felt hollstein 21 only somewhat to moderately comfortable (n=37; 59%). further, rural teachers illustrated a lower level of comfort (m=2.55, sd=.94) when compared to suburban (m=2.9; sd=1.29) and urban teachers (m=2.71; sd=1.23). thus, teachers’ decision to not teach about fracking, even though they believed it relevant may have been due to a lack of comfort with the topic. table 10 comfort level with teaching about fracking response rural suburban urban total n % n % n % n % not comfortable 3 14% 2 10% 3 14% 8 13% somewhat comfortable 6 29% 8 40% 8 38% 22 35% moderately comfortable 8 38% 3 15% 4 19% 15 24% highly comfortable 3 14% 4 20% 4 19% 11 18% totally comfortable 0 0% 3 15% 2 10% 5 8% no response 1 5% 0 0% 0 0% 1 2% total 21 100% 20 100% 21 100% 62 100% discussion issues of energy use have become central to many conversations over the last decade. specifically, the work of young environmental advocates like greta thunberg have raised the profile of issues like fracking to the forefront of many classroom conversations. however, this study highlighted that while popular sentiment regarding issues like fracking are changing, the teachers in this study were not addressing them. what made this surprising was that almost three fourths of participants (n=45; 73%) cited no existing barriers. overall, less than half of participants were teaching about fracking and those that were chose to present it as an economic issue rather than an environmental one. notably, in the absence of barriers a majority were not teaching abut fracking. the barriers that were cited to teaching about fracking were framed around issues of time, materials, knowledge, and their belief that it was an issue best suited for a science course. however, a more nuanced look revealed that almost 75% of participants simply were not concerned about fracking while most participants did not have a strong comfort level with teaching about the topic. broadly, the findings highlight the complex nature of deciding to teach about issues like fracking. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 the average teacher makes countless decisions throughout the day and across the academic year regarding curriculum and pedagogy. specifically, what to cover, when to cover it, and why should one cover it in their classroom. the results of this study showed that when it comes to fracking, most teachers were simply not teaching about for various reasons. this notion is connected to teacher autonomy in the classroom to be able to make curricular decisions and to feel supported in the process. integral to all the decisions teachers make regarding what to teach and when to teach it are their personal backgrounds. the intersectionality of participants identities and where they find themselves is vital because one cannot separate oneself from any of the various roles each of us holds. a significant part of participants identity was their connectedness to their geographic location. specifically, participants from different parts may have held different levels of autonomy. this played out in the responses with urban teachers having more concerns but teaching it less. however, rural teachers only slightly taught about fracking more than urban teachers but showed lower levels of concern. this is all important because self-reported fracking operations were happening more in rural areas than in any other areas. this all suggests further direct exposure to fracking operations caused lower levels of concern. one may wonder if this is due to geographic tolerance. additionally, this helps to explain why most participants framed fracking as an economic issue rather than an environmental one. potentially, due to issues of energy independence, economic benefit of fracking in ohio, and the mostly positive view of fracking as an overall beneficial endeavor. furthermore, all fracking operations in ohio were taking place in rural areas in locations which have seen decades of economic decline due to a reliance on industrial economies. this explains much in terms of why participants taught it the way they did and their self-reported levels of concern. overall, most participants were not teaching about fracking, cited few barriers, and were not very concerned. however, these responses differed depending upon the geographic location. ultimately, the results of this study showed that much more data is needed to create a complete picture. implications and further research this study has shown that a slightly less than half of participants are teaching about fracking in their classrooms while a clear majority of participants reported having no barriers to teaching about hollstein 23 fracking in their classrooms. however, most teachers were framing fracking through an economic lens and not as an environmental issue thereby minimizing fracking as a controversial environmental issue. the foundation of social studies is civics education, and it is imperative that the notion of citizenship shift from personally responsible and participatory behavior to social justice-oriented behavior. to achieve this, preservice and in-service teachers need to be offered opportunities to foster social justice-oriented behavior and citizenship. further, social studies teachers should be more inclusive of place-based education. it is unreasonable to expect social studies teachers to engage their students in civic behaviors with which they themselves have no experience. additionally, social studies must expand the notion of citizenship to include environmental awareness and environmentally responsible behavior. this must coincide with expanding the definition of citizenship to include environmental issues as relevant to the social studies. social studies teachers and students must understand and agree that environmental issues are social issues. doing this could do much to reduce potential barriers to teaching about controversial environmental issues. however, it is imperative that teacher education programs respond to these changes. how we prepare social studies teachers must include focused and direct opportunities to learn and teach about controversial and environmental issues. specifically, these experiences must include how to teach students to navigate controversial and environmental issues and how to adequately deal with potential barriers they may encounter. it is essential that teachers are cognizant of their personal perspectives on specific controversial issues before they engage their students in discussion. to achieve this objective hess’ (2005) model for assessing teachers’ approaches to controversy, denial, privilege, avoidance, and balance should be expanded to include balanced privilege. teachers must not be made to feel inadequate for sharing their personal perspective while still presenting multiple divergent perspectives to their students. instead, teachers should be inclined to share their opinions as an act of educational trust in their students. it is undeniable that teachers rely upon national and state academic standards as a basis for their instruction. while many go beyond these standards, the inclusion of content and activities would go a long way towards increasing awareness and action involving environmental issues such as fracking. furthermore, the national curriculum standards for social studies, the ohio learning standards, ncss’ c3 curriculum, and the common core, should all be expanded to move beyond journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 sustainability and sustainability practices to include environmental awareness, understanding, and action. controversial environmental issues such as fracking are social issues equal to others such as immigration, abortion, and gay rights. it is important that teachers understand the dynamic nature of these issues. prior research has already indicated that issues such as fracking have been traditionally viewed as best suited for the sciences. however, to overcome this issue teacher preparation programs and high schools need to foster professional development and curricular opportunities that focus on the social nature of environmental issues such as fracking. this will allow preservice and in-service teachers to better understand such issues. further research is needed to better understand the ways in which participants are teaching in their classrooms. this data was limited to participant self-reporting which leaves much of the classroom decisions and experiences unexamined. future research which focused on what teachers were doing by conducting field observations and document analysis of lessons plans and student assignments would yield a much deeper understanding what participants say they are doing and are doing in their classrooms. it would also be beneficial to expand the sampling to include more teachers across multiple grades. this work is important to understanding how issues like fracking are or are not being taught in social studies classrooms during a time of unprecedented climate awareness and potential upheaval. references alter, c., haynes, s., and worland, j. (2019, december). time 2019 person of the year: greta thunberg. time. retrieved from https://time.com/person-of-the-year-2019-gretathunberg/ american historical association. (1899). the study of history in schools: report by the committee of seven. new york: mcmillan. anderson c, avery pg, pederson pv, et al. (1997) divergent perspectives on citizenship education: a q-method study and survey of social studies teachers. american educational research journal 34(2): 333–364 beard, c.a. (1929). the trend in social studies. the historical outlook, 20, 369-372. belcher, m., & resnikoff, m. (2013). hydraulic fracturing radiological concerns for ohio. retrieved from https://www.fractracker.org/a5ej20sjfwe/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/136-resnikoff-hilited-hydraulic-fracturing-radiological-concerns-for-ohio.pdf https://time.com/person-of-the-year-2019-greta-thunberg/ https://time.com/person-of-the-year-2019-greta-thunberg/ https://www.fractracker.org/a5ej20sjfwe/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/13-6-resnikoff-hilited-hydraulic-fracturing-radiological-concerns-for-ohio.pdf https://www.fractracker.org/a5ej20sjfwe/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/13-6-resnikoff-hilited-hydraulic-fracturing-radiological-concerns-for-ohio.pdf hollstein 25 bromley, p., meyer, j. w., & ramirez, f. o. (2011). the worldwide spread of environmental discourse in social studies, history, and civics textbooks, 1970-2008. comparative education review, 55(4), 517-545. camicia, s. p. (2008). deciding what is a controversial issue: a case study of social studies curriculum controversy. theory and research in social education, 36(4), 298-316. camicia, s.p. & dobson, d. (2010). learning how to respond to current events: partner journals between u.s. preservice teachers and children. teaching and teacher education, 26, pp.576-882. ceaser, d. (2012). our school at blair grocery: a case study in promoting environmental action through critical environmental education. journal of environmental education, 43(4), 209-226. chin, k., & barber, c. e. (2010). a multi-dimensional exploration of teachers' beliefs about civic education in australia, england, and the united states. theory and research in social education, 38(3), 395-427. creswell, t. (2004). place: a short introduction. malden, ma: blackwell publishing. creswell, j. w., & creswell, j. d. (2017). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. new york: sage publications dichristopher, t. (2019, march). us will soon threaten to topple saudia arabia as the world’s top oil exporter: iea. cnbc. retrieved from https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/11/us-threatensto-topple-saudi-arabia-as-worlds-top-oil-exporter-iea.html deveci, h. (2007). teachers' views on teaching current events in social studies. educational sciences, theory & practice, 7(1), 446-451. dewey, j. (1923). democracy and education: an introduction to the philosophy of education. new york, new york: macmillan. dolesh, r. j. (2011). fracktured parks. parks & recreation, 46(6), 56. ecowatch. (2011, december). breaking: fracking compounds found in drinking water. retrieved from http://ecowatch.com/2011/12/08/fracking-compounds-found-in-drinking-water eller, r.d. (2008). uneven ground: appalachia since 1945. lexington, kentucky: university of kentucky press. evans, r.w. (2004). the social studies wars: what should be we teach the children? new york: teachers college. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/11/us-threatens-to-topple-saudi-arabia-as-worlds-top-oil-exporter-iea.html https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/11/us-threatens-to-topple-saudi-arabia-as-worlds-top-oil-exporter-iea.html journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 gjelten, t. (2012). the dash for gas. world affairs retrieved from http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/dash-gas-golden-age-energy-game-changer hahn, c. l. (1991). controversial issues in social studies. in j. p. shaver (ed.), handbook of research on social studies teaching and learning (pp. 470-480). new york, ny: macmillan. hahn, c. l. (1996). research on issues-centered social studies. in r. w. evans & d. w. saxe (eds.), handbook on teaching social issues (pp. 26-39). washington, dc: national council for the social studies. haas, m. e., & laughlin, m.a. (2000). teaching current events: its status in social studies today. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, new orleans, la. hatzenbuhler, h., & centner, t. j. (2012). regulation of water pollution from hydraulic fracturing in horizontally-drilled wells in the marcellus shale region, usa. water 4(4), 983-994. doi:10.3390/w4040983 helman, c. (2013, january). an investigation of the global anti-fracking movement. forbes. retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/energysource/2013/01/02/an-investigationof-the-global-anti-fracking-movement/ hess, d. (2002). discussing controversial public issues in secondary social studies classrooms: learning from skilled teachers. theory and research in social education, 30(1), 10-41. hess, d. (2004). discussion in social studies: is it worth the trouble? social education, 68(2), 151155. hess, d. (2005). how do teachers’ political views influence teaching about controversial issues. social education, 69(1), 47-48. hess, d. (2008). controversial issues and democratic discourse. in l. s. levstik & c. a. tyson (eds.), handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 124-136). new york, ny: routledge. hess, d. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. london, england: routledge. hollstein, m. s., & smith, g. a. (2020). civic environmentalism: integrating social studies and environmental education through curricular models. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 223-250. jorgensen, c. (2013). moral problems as issues-centered social studies education: discovering dewey as a guiding foundation. international journal of progressive education, 9(1), 4158. http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/dash-gas-golden-age-energy-game-changer http://www.forbes.com/sites/energysource/2013/01/02/an-investigation-of-the-global-anti-fracking-movement/ http://www.forbes.com/sites/energysource/2013/01/02/an-investigation-of-the-global-anti-fracking-movement/ hollstein 27 journell, w. (2011). teachers' controversial issue decisions related to race, gender, and religion during the 2008 presidential election. theory and research in social education, 39(3), 348-392. king, j. t. (2009). teaching and learning about controversial issues: lessons from northern ireland. theory and research in social education, 37(2), 215-246. kelly, t.e. (1986). discussing controversial issues: four perspectives on the teacher's role. theory and research in social education, 14(2), 113 king, j. t. (2009). teaching and learning about controversial issues: lessons from northern ireland. theory and research in social education, 37(2), 215-246. kumler, l. m. (2011). students of action? a comparative investigation of secondary science and social studies students’ action repertoires in a land use context. journal of environmental education, 42(1), 14-29. libresco, a. s. (2003). current events matters for elementary social studies methods students. international social studies forum, 3(1), 273-276. lipscomb, g.e., & doppen, f.h. (2013). finding one’s place in the world: current events in the k-12 social studies classroom. in j. passe, & p. fitchett (eds.) research on the status of social studies: views from the field (pp. 447-456). charlotte, nc: information age publishing co. levinson, b. a. u. (2003). hopes and challenges for the new civic education in mexico: toward a democratic citizen without adjectives. international journal of educational development, 24,269-282 levinson, b. u., & brantmeier, e. j. (2006). secondary schools and communities of practice for democratic civic education: challenges of authority and authenticity. theory and research in social education, 34(3), 324-346. luckhardt, c. (2014). teaching historical literacy and making world history relevant in the online discussion board. history teacher, 47(2), 187-196. mckibben, b. (2011). eaarth: making a life on a tough new planet. random house llc. misco, t., & patterson, n. c. (2007). a study of pre-service teachers' conceptualizations of academic freedom and controversial issues. theory and research in social education, 35(4), 520-550. national council for the social studies. (1921). the historical outlook, 12, 144. national council for the social studies. (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies: a framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. silver spring, md: author journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 national council for the social studies. (2013). college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver spring, md: author. retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org/c3 north american environmental education association. (2019, december). guidelines for excellence: best practices in ee. retrieved from https://naaee.org/ourwork/programs/guidelines-excellence ogunyemi, b., & ifegbesan, a. (2011). environmental literacy among preservice social studies teachers: a review of the nigerian experience. applied environmental education and communication, 10(1), 7-19. ohio department of natural resources (odnr). (2014, march). shale well drilling and permitting. retrieved from http://oilandgas.ohiodnr.gov/shale ohio department of natural resources (odnr). (2019. december 10). shale well drilling and permitting. retrieved from http://oilandgas.ohiodnr.gov/shale palmer, j. a. (1999). research matters: a call for the application of empirical evidence to the task of improving the quality and impact of environmental education. cambridge journal of education, 29(3), 379-395. pass, s. (2007). exploring teaching ethics in social studies. international journal of social education, 21(2), 62-78. patterson, n, doppen, f., & misco, t. (2012). beyond personally responsible: a study of teacher conceptualizations of citizenship education. education, citizenship, and social justice, 7(2), pp 191-206 patton, m.q. (2002), qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.) sage publications thousand oaks, ca. pescatore, c. (2007). current events as empowering literacy: for english and social studies teachers. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, 51(4), 326-339. resor, c.w. (2010). place-based education: what is its place in the social studies classroom. the social studies, 101(5), 185-188. risinger, c.f. (2009). citizenship education: the goal of education. social education, 73(7), pp. 330-331. seneschal, e. (2007). environmental justice in egleston, square. in place based education in a global age: local diversity, ed. d.a. gruenewald and g.a. smith, 85-111. new york: taylor and francis group. https://naaee.org/our-work/programs/guidelines-excellence https://naaee.org/our-work/programs/guidelines-excellence http://oilandgas.ohiodnr.gov/shale hollstein 29 sharp, k. a. (2009). a survey of appalachian middle & high school teacher perceptions of controversial current events instruction. online submission, slack, b. (2013). environmental fracturing vs. fracking: while 'fracking' is the subject of much contention in political and social arenas, environmental fracturing continues to make quiet headway. pollution engineering, (9). 18. sobel, d. (2004). place-based education: connecting classrooms and communities. barrington, maorion society. thornton, s. j. (1989, march). aspiration and practice: teacher as curricular-instructional gatekeeper in social studies [paper session]. american educational research association, san francisco, california, united states. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed315347 thornton, s. j. (1991). teacher as curricular-instructional gatekeeper in social studies. in j.s. shaver (ed.) handbook of research on social studies teaching and learning (p. 237-248). macmillan. tzou, c. t., & bell, p. (2012). the role of borders in environmental education: positioning, power and marginality. ethnography and education, 7(2), 265-282. us energy information administration. (2011, july 08). review of emerging resources: u.s. shale gas and shale oil plays. retrieved from http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/usshalegas/ washington e.y. & humphries, e. (2011). a social studies teacher’s sense making of controversial issues discussions of race in a predominantly white, rural high school classroom. theory and research in social education, 39(1), 92-114. wilson, e. o. (2006). the creation: an appeal to save life on earth. new york: norton. zuckerman, g. (2013). the frackers: the outrageous inside story of the new billionaire wildcatters. new york, new york: penguin publishing. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed315347 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 appendix a: survey status of the teaching of hydraulic fracturing in ohio american government classrooms questionnaire directions the status of teaching about fracking survey 1. what is the purpose of social studies? 2. what is the purpose of civics education? 3. which of the following items is most vital to good citizenship? a. being personally responsible i. example: i am a good citizen. in my personal life, for example, i recycle because i care about the environment. b. being participatory i. example: i am an active citizen, for example i go out in the community and help organize a campaign to promote recycling. c. being justice oriented i. example: i care about social justice, for example i question why my city doesn’t recycle and why some citizens don’t. i actively try to get my government and citizens to support recycling. 4. do you require your students to engage in civic activities, such as voting drives, volunteering in the community, or engaging local government officials in community issues? if yes, please list and explain. if no, why not a. yes b. no 5. how often do you teach about current events? a. never b. occasionally c. monthly d. weekly e. daily 6. how do you address current events in your classroom? please describe. 7. do you believe current events instruction should be a major component of the social studies? a. yes b. no hollstein 31 8. do you teach about current environmental events/issues in your classroom? if so, how? if not, why not? a. yes b. no 9. in your opinion, what, if any, is the value of teaching about current environmental events? 10. in your opinion, what makes an issue controversial? 11. how often do you teach about controversial issues in your classroom? a. never b. occasionally c. monthly d. weekly e. daily 12. do you address controversial issues in your classroom? if so, what are some of those issues? 13. what, if any, barriers exist that might prevent you from teaching about controversial issues? 14. how would you characterize your approach to teaching about controversial issues? please select the statement that best describes your approach. a. even though some people might think something is controversial, i might not. b. even though an issue might be controversial, i don’t mind favoring one position over another. c. when an issue is controversial but i believe more strongly in favor of one position, i prefer to avoid the controversial issue in my classroom. d. when an issue is controversial, i make sure not share my opinion and present all sides equally. e. if i feel an issue is controversial, i tell my students my opinion to let them know where i stand and then try to present all sides of the issue equally. 15. how would you rate your level of concern of environmental issues? a. not concerned b. somewhat concerned c. moderately concerned d. highly concerned e. very highly concerned 16. do you teach about environmental issues in your classroom? why/why not? a. yes journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 b. no 17. please rate your level of agreement with the following statement: the social studies curriculum should include controversial environmental issues. a. strongly disagree b. disagree c. neutral d. agree e. strongly agree 18. hydraulic fracturing (fracking) is a technique used by energy companies in which they drill vertically and then horizontally into shale formations in order to crack the shale formation with high pressure fluids to release natural gas and oil. please rate your level of concern about this issue. a. not concerned b. somewhat concerned c. moderately concerned d. highly concerned e. very highly concerned 19. how would you rate your level of knowledge of the process of hydraulic fracturing? a. none b. some c. sufficient d. high e. very highly 20. is hydraulic fracturing taking place in your community? a. yes b. no c. i don’t know 21. have any energy industry companies offered professional development or educational sessions related to fracking in your school community? if yes, did you participate, why/why not? a. yes b. no c. i don’t know 22. do you believe hydraulic fracturing to be an appropriate topic in the social studies curriculum? a. yes b. no hollstein 33 23. do you believe hydraulic fracturing is controversial? why/why not? a. yes b. no c. i don’t know 24. do you teach about hydraulic fracturing in your classroom? why/why not? a. yes b. no 25. are there any barriers that might prevent you from teaching about fracking? if yes, what barriers? please explain. a. yes b. no 26. considering your own level of knowledge, how comfortable do or would you feel teaching about hydraulic fracturing? a. not comfortable b. somewhat comfortable c. moderately comfortable d. highly comfortable e. totally comfortable background information 27. in what school district do you currently teach? 28. how many years of teaching experience will you have at the end of this school year? a. 1 b. 2-5 c. 6-10 d. 11-15 e. 15-20 f. 20-25 g. 25+ 29. how many years of teaching experience in your current district will you have at the end of this school year? a. 1 b. 2-5 c. 6-10 d. 11-15 e. 15-20 f. 20-25 g. 25+ 30. what is your gender? journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 1-34 a. male b. female 31. which of the following best represents your ethnic background?? a. white, non-hispanic b. hispanic c. black, non-hispanic d. american indian or alaska native e. asian or pacific islander f. multi-racial g. other 32. would you be willing to participate in a personal follow-up interview? if so, please provide your contact information below. a. name b. telephone number c. email address school www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2023:14 (1), 143-168 new concepts of ecological-social justice: a micro-optic reflection on ecological citizenship education in indonesia andang l. binawan1 abstract this study aims to explain how the go green movement at schools initiated by the indonesian government becomes a starting point for reflection on ecological citizenship education and social justice. reflection on such an initiative reinforces the importance of citizenship education as citizens are associated with a territorial view of the country based on tangible ‘‘land.’’ therefore, the state's role in education is to empower its citizens and create new societal behaviors, or habitus, as part of a social justice concept. in the past, the role of habitus within the context of social justice was easily dismissed. currently, more availability of social facilities and infrastructures implies environmental care by the state, resulting in new habitus. the relational nature of social justice highlights that the state needs to be recognized and respected as a separate entity. subsequently, encompassing the environment and caring for its citizens embodied in the ecological habitus, the state plays an important role in attaining ecological-social justice. keywords: ecological citizenship education, social justice, indonesia, habitus, micro-optic view introduction in 2012, candida brady, an english film director, released a documentary on waste titled “trashed.” narrated by jeremy irons, the film highlights the impact of waste, particularly plastic waste, in many parts of the globe, including indonesia. in addition to the portrayal of waste accumulation, the film conveyed ways of waste management using conventional and modern methods. although the information presented in this documentary was not surprising, the film highlighted the urgency of environmental issues depicted in the film, including the ongoing issues in indonesia. the film’s depiction of waste in indonesia, particularly in urban areas such as jakarta, showed how waste has persistently become a social and environmental issue in the country. amid numerous complex social problems in indonesia, environmental issues, especially waste, remain front and center. these issues can be broadly categorized into urban and rural problems. 1 dr.; driyarkara school of philosophy, jakarta, indonesia; andang.binawan@driyarkara.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 air pollution remains a growing concern in the cities, while rural areas face environmental deforestation and excessive mining. these environmental issues are social problems that have become the consequences and the cause of environmental damage (kavaz et al, 2021; tarman & kent kukurtcu, 2022). in other words, environmental damage reflects the disorganized social management in indonesia (sumargo et al., 2019). several endeavors signify the government’s attempts to resolve environmental issues. one resolution is the environmental care program, a relatively new approach to ecological citizenship education. in addition to law enforcement efforts and more socio-political policies, several socioeducational approaches have been instigated. these efforts include the awarding of adipura for cities that meet the green-city criteria, the kalpataru award for individuals who have outstanding and consistent initiatives in realizing a good living environment, and the adiwiyata school award for schools that meet the green-school criteria (parker & prabaya-sear, 2020). within formal education in schools, the adiwiyata school award is a government program aimed at realizing environmental care in schools through the go green schools movement (gerakan peduli dan berbudaya lingkungan hidup di sekolah or pblhs movement). according to the minister of environment and forestry of the republic of indonesia regulation number 52 of the year 2019, the pblhs movement is a conscious, voluntary, networked, and sustainably collective action carried out by schools implementing environmentally friendly behavior. if a certain school runs this program and meets the criteria, the school will be awarded as an adiwiyata school from the regional to the national level (indahri, 2020). this article will portray citizenship as a mutual relationship between the state and its citizen, a relationship that should benefit each other within the framework of social justice. from this viewpoint, it will be emphasized how the pblhs movement can serve as an ecological citizenship education initiative while providing a broad perspective on the meaning of social justice. while the purpose of social justice is stated implicitly, a deeper reflection on the subject points toward the meaning of social justice and its relevance to citizenship education in indonesia. as stated in the fifth principle of the state ideology, pancasila, “social justice for all the indonesians,’’ it remains essential that social justice is emphasized in citizenship education in the country. this study is a micro-perspective reflection on social movements in the country's school systems. the premise uses a different approach to the well-known macro thinkers, such as nancy fraser and axell honeth, on the politics, economics, social, and cultural discourse of social justice. binawan 145 andrew sayer and paul gomberg had different approaches, i.e., a micro-perspective approach, by analyzing social justice in human works. it leads to their concept of contributive justice (gomberg, 2007; sayer, 2009). a micro-perspective reflection means, in concrete, that it will portray the indonesian government's efforts in citizenship education from the perspective of ecological social justice. it will put the perspective of contributive justice in a different context. based on the reflection and analysis of these governments' initiatives, in the first place, it will bring a more meaningful perspective to such efforts. these efforts are closely related to the concept of social justice in pancasila, the state ideology of indonesia. the second one is to enrich the meaning of social justice by offering two notions of ecological citizenship and social justice. research questions two reflective inquiries are addressed based on the above-mentioned context of ecological citizenship and social justice. 1. how is ecological-civic education, through the adiwiyata school program, carried out by the indonesian government, considering that ecological awareness in indonesia is still relatively low? 2. how does ecological-civic education cultivate a broader understanding of social justice as stipulated under the fifth principle of the state ideology, pancasila? literature review citizenship education recognizes numerous definitions with several dimensions to the terminology ‘‘citizen-state.’’ the word ‘‘citizen’’ is interpreted politically as membership in a political entity called the state, with all its rights and obligations (lydersen, 2011). furthermore, ‘‘citizen’’ is seen here within a political relationship between citizens and the state and between citizens and social groups. citizenship education in this context is an all-encompassing effort to educate the citizen to achieve awareness of rights and obligations, the ability to live together with other citizens, and participation in social activities in a proper manner. the said objective is based on the assumption that good citizens are ‘‘made,’’ not born (galston, 2001). consequently, the debate is on the journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 comprehension of the word ‘‘good’’ as it is associated with relational perception and its ideal (light, 2006; sandel, 2009). meanwhile, such a concept has developed in an ecological context, so there is a relatively new concept of ecological citizenship. there are various definitions of ecological citizenship, with some contradictory descriptions (latta & wittman, 2010). according to melo-escrihuela (2008), some terms reflect these meanings, such as 'ecological citizenship' (christoff, 1996; curtin, 1999, 2002; dobson, 2003, 2006; smith, 1998), 'green citizenship' (dean, 2001; smith, 2005), 'environmental citizenship' (dobson & bell, 2006; luque, 2005), 'sustainability citizenship' (barry, 2006), 'environmentally reasonable citizenship' (hailwood, 2004; hollstein, 2022; hollstein & smith, 2020) or 'ecological stewardship' (barry, 1999, 2002)" (p. 114). in dobson’s piece, for instance, the writer makes the distinction between environmental citizenship and ecological citizenship. as he emphasized it, "the former concerns the enjoyment of rights in the public sphere, while the latter relates to enjoyed rights and responsibilities both in private and public" (melo-escrihuela, 2008, pp. 120–121). this distinction is temporarily ignored, and ecological citizenship is closer to the understanding of environmental citizenship. the perspective and terminologies mentioned above were comprehensively formulated by the european network for environmental citizenship (enec). according to enec (2018), ecological citizenship education is "the type of education, which cultivates a coherent and adequate body of knowledge as well as necessary skills, values, attitudes, and competencies that an environmental citizen should be equipped with to be able to act and participate in society as an agent of change in the private and public sphere, on a local, national, and global scale, through individual and collective actions, in the direction of solving contemporary environmental problems, preventing the creation of new environmental problems, in achieving sustainability as well as developing a healthy relationship with nature." the concepts of citizenship are broadly related to the meaning of social justice with two distinct approaches. on the one side, some philosophers, such as fraser (1995, 1996, 1998), honneth (1995, 2004), and benhabib (1992), emphasized redistribution and recognition, focusing on the rights of the people, or the obligation of the state, though there is a dilemma on those two concepts (lazzeri, 2009; panigassi, 2020). on the other side, some emphasized the obligation of the citizens, which includes contributive justice, as "what people are expected and able to contribute in terms of work” (sayer, 2009). this binawan 147 connotation is in line with gomberg (2007), who claimed that “contribution to a social group with which we identify is central to our well-being” (p. 151). although gomberg initially defined the meaning of ‘‘work’’ within the context of economic justice, it was later revised as an integral component of cultural justice, as ‘‘work’’ is associated with not only labor but also a part of an individual’s wider work effort. hinged upon this view, changes in behaviors are closely related to the concept of justice, specifically in the new behavior process requiring effort and time. timmerman's (2018) study further broadened this perspective. in his study, ecological citizenship education has an empowering dimension that uniquely underlines citizenship obligations rather than formal rights. in other words, they reflected the concept of social justice from a communitarian perspective, in which the mutual relationship between the citizens and the state is highlighted. the concept of contributive justice offers a new perspective on how citizens participate in social justice not just through their habits, but through their works. the efforts to realize social justice do not only depend on the initiatives of the state. it should involve the citizens' efforts, and one of these efforts is to form a social habit or habitus. in this regard, bourdieu's habitus concept will help deepen the reflection. through his lens, we can analyze the formation of environmentally friendly behavior in which an occasional act gradually becomes a social habit to better society (bourdieu, 1977; maton, 2008). critics on this matter are associated insufficiency with social change (king, 2000; lau, 2004). however, it is worth referring to habitus in a broad sense as a social habit signifying a socially engineered practice (ambrasat et al., 2016). two fundamental points are implied from bourdieu's view. first, constant repetition is required to achieve spontaneous action or behavior. habitus is not a natural, spontaneous action but the result of the personal formation of practices in a social context. also, it cannot be assumed that the initiative to modify existing behavior arises spontaneously. therefore, habitus needs to be created, even exerted on a certain scale. this is where the state plays a prominent role by issuing regulations, providing guidance, and enforcing citizens to act repetitively, thus becoming a habit. consequently, the participation of both citizens and the state in implementing these desired behavior changes are necessary. moreover, ecological citizenship education should not only provide awareness but also lead to behavior changes or the formation of new habits. although the state’s role is vital, it is not the sole contributing factor in habitus formation. the involvement of individual citizens communities and non-government organizations journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 remains imperative. caring for the environment as our home will make the essence of citizenship more profound. based on the above literature, there is a very close relationship between ecological citizenship, social justice, contributive justice, and habitus. however, there is no study yet about it to deepen the theoretical reflection. the studies by sayer and gomberg as mentioned above reflected the meaning of work in the context of contributive justice, but they did not mention yet about habitus. several studies have also been written examining citizenship in indonesia (hefner, 2001; hiariej & stokke, 2017; lydersen, 2011; van klinken, 2019). however, such studies derived a political stance and are associated with individual and group rights. according to stokke (2017), citizenship has the following four interrelated elements: membership, legal status, rights, and participation (p. 5) relating to membership and its associated entitlements and responsibilities (p. 14). nonetheless, stokke’s portrayal of entitlements and responsibilities is inadequately depicted. likewise, the other three books portray the nuances of politics as overbearing the above studies show that although a tinge of culturalism exists in citizenship education in indonesia, political elements remain dominant. state politics dominate the discourse revolving around citizen education, while the small-politics or neighborhood politics education, such as neighbourhood community (rukun tetangga) and citizens community (rukun warga), are generally side-lined. moreover, as state politics are emphasized over “community politics,” social justice education overly focuses on macroeconomic and structural effects (casmana, 2018; lydersen, 2011; nurdin & dahliyana, 2018). hence, indonesia requires a broader political education system urging greater involvement of its citizens in smaller-scale community political units. another area that has been generally neglected is the subject of ecological citizenship education. one of the most pressing challenges facing citizenship education in society at the time of this writing is the issue of global warming and environmental damage, which incidentally also pose a grave national threat. environmental damage, especially the problem of waste in urban areas, reflects the weakness in the sense of citizenship in indonesian society. the lack of proper waste disposal etiquette and recycling indicates a weak sense of belonging among indonesian citizens. to improve citizenship education in indonesia in this context, the central government, under the binawan 149 direction of the ministry of environment and forestry, launched the adiwiyata school program or ‘'go-green school’’ in 2009. this article will reflect the meaning of habitus in the context of social justice by reflecting on the adiwiyata school program or the go green movement in indonesia. there are many studies on the relationship between ecological citizenship education and the change in ecological behavior among students through that program. but those studies show only how the program is implemented to change the student's awareness and behavior (adawiah, 2019; anggraeni et al., 2021; bahrudin, 2017; handayani et al., 2020; iswari & utomo, 2017; jannah, 2019; juraid et al., 2019; kusuma & kusuma, 2020; kuswantoro, 2018; munawar et al., 2019; nikasari & purnomo, 2022; nuzulia et al., 2020; pahru et al., 2021; rotari & komalasari, 2017; syah et al., 2021; tompodung et al., 2018). some articles focused on a pedagogical viewpoint only (aprilianto & arief, 2020; murdani et al., 2018; sagala, 2019), while some more articles analyzed how the adiwiyata school program supports ecological citizenship (amini et al., 2022; fahlevi et al., 2020; nada et al., 2021; pratiwi, 2022; wulandari, 2019; yusuf et al., 2020). there is no conceptual study yet which reflects the program from a broader perspective, i.e. social justice. this article, then, will offer a broader conceptual reflection on the program which can be used to deepen its meaning. method research design this research will use a hybrid method, i.e. systematic literature review and the grounded theory method, as an inductive methodology that provides systematic guidelines for gathering, synthesizing, analyzing, and conceptualizing qualitative data for the purpose of the theory construction (charmaz, 2015). it uses systematic literary review because it will analyze the reports and articles published concerning the topics. it will use the grounded theory method in the steps it follows. in other words, it is a qualitative constructivist research, whose goal is a social philosophical (creswell & poth, 2018; spencer et al., 2014), not merely a program evaluation (quartaroli, 2012) that is technical in character. the data, primary and secondary, will be reflected and interpreted inductively, through a philosophical lens, to gain a broader understanding. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 the design will follow berg model (2001) and is developed by creswell and poth (2018). it will start with some ideas, then the data collection and description follow. this data will be reflected, analyzed, and interpreted further through a coding system (open coding, axial coding, and selective coding) with the help of some more philosophical views. based on this analysis and reflection, we will get some findings that show the new notion of the reflected topic. population and participants the primary data are collected through interviews with six teachers in jakarta who get involved actively in the adiwiyata school program and with two officers of the ministry of environmental affairs and forestry. the secondary data are collected from the internet, both the news of social media and the reports or articles published about this topic during the last six years (2017-2022). data collection tools the data are collected from the internet by google search engine, using some keywords such as 'adiwiyata', 'go green school indonesia,' 'adiwiyata and citizenship education,' and also 'ecological citizenship education in indonesia.' data collection there are 45 reports and articles found, and mostly (29) from java (15 from east java, 6 from central java, 3 from yogyakarta special region, 3 from west java, 1 from banten, and 1 from jakarta special region). the rest are from other islands (5 from kalimantan, 8 from sumatra, and 3 from sulawesi). most of them (42) are written based on field research. data analysis as the data are collected based on the focus on citizenship education and social justice, the documents and reports of the program will be described with existing theoretical comprehensions, following the shortened model of charmaz, thornberg, and keane (2018). the collected data will be analyzed step by step, first by making open coding, then axial coding, followed by selective coding. binawan 151 the first step is open coding, used especially to understand comprehensively the topics. this first step was conducted by investigating the existence of adiwiyata as one of the government programs to generate students' ecological awareness amid the ecological crisis faced by indonesian society and on the other side to bring ecological citizenship education for the students. this second goal should be based on the values of pancasila as the official state ideology. pancasila has an important role as it is the philosophy of life and the main idea of all policies. because of this assumption, the second step reflects further the close relationship between the program and pancasila, especially with the idea of social justice value contained in the 5th principle, from the perspective of citizenship education finally, the third step of this study examines the extent to which adiwiyata school program implementation is related to the broader understanding of ecological-social justice and then suggests a broader conceptual understanding of the issue. the first and second steps will answer the first research question but on the other side, they will become the basis for further reflection in the third step which will answer the second research question. findings ecological-civic education through the adiwiyata school program the necessity to implement citizenship education in indonesia is based on a socio-cultural perspective. indonesia is an archipelago encompassing 17,000 islands, 270 million people, 1,340 different ethnic groups, and six officially recognized religions. this diversity stems from the former dutch east indies colony, which has been described as an imagined community by many scholars, including anderson (2006). rooted in such diversity, indonesian citizens undoubtedly face a variety of socio-cultural challenges. the pancasila ideology is symbolized by the garuda bird called the garuda pancasila. at the feet of the garuda bird, there is an inscription stating bhinneka tunggal ika, which translates to “unity in diversity.” the ideology of pancasila was built on this premise and embodies five precepts or principles, which include "social justice for all indonesians.’’ in this context, social justice differs from personal justice embodied in the second principle, which expresses a "just and civilized humanity." taking this into account, citizenship education in indonesia also incorporates the meaning and purpose of social justice. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 the uniqueness of indonesia is an interesting topic for academics. besides benedict c. anderson, indonesianist george mcturnan kahin (1952) from cornell university describes how nationalism was instilled in young indonesian citizens. jacques bertrand (2004) further elaborated on this concept by explaining ethnic conflicts as part of a wider struggle to agglomerate nationalism in indonesia. in other words, the idea of indonesians and citizenship becomes a struggle. thus, the uniqueness of indonesia formulates citizenship beyond the idea of classical nationalism. provided that nationalism is conventionally associated with place of birth (natus sum), and the concept of a nation is related to blood or lineage, indonesian nationalism is, therefore, above and beyond traditional comprehension. this is the basis of anderson’s description that indonesian nationalism is imaginary. indeed, promulgating the idea of nationalism is a constant process. following a long-drawn-out process of citizenship education during the reign of president soekarno (1945–1965), president suharto (1965–1998), and the reformation government (1998 until now), the problem of ethnic diversity, after 77 years of independence, can certainly be resolved. the idea of indonesia has now advanced to tribal ideas. two major indicators showcase this point. first, the country’s distinct “ethnic tribes” have accepted indonesian as the national language without lawsuits or objections. second, the issue of interracial marriage is practically non-existent in indonesia. under this broader sociological and historical perspective, the decision of the central government, under the direction of the ministry of environment and forestry, to launch the adiwiyata school program in 2009 can be understood as a citizenship education as well. since 2019, the program has been formally implemented under the go green schools movement (or pblhs movement). the pblhs movement has collaborated with several other ministries, including the ministry of education and culture, the ministry of religion, and the ministry of home affairs, to formulate a conscious, voluntary, networked, and sustainably collective action force carried out by schools to build environmentally friendly practices across the country. while the pblhs movement is still relatively new, its agenda includes formalizing all remaining goals of the adiwiyata school program. before it became the basis for the pblhs movement, the adiwiyata school program was commonly known as an award for schools that meet the green school criteria set by the government. the program has also placed a heavy focus on the process of meeting its goals, in binawan 153 addition to the program’s outcome. most strikingly, the program has gradually changed its focus and objectives since it was formally implemented. in comparison to the focus last set out in the regulation of ministry of environmental affairs and forestry no. 5 the year 2013 on guidelines of the adiwiyata program, the new policies mentioned in the regulation of the ministry of environmental affairs and forestry no. p.52/menlhk/setjen/kum.1/9/2019 on the environmental care and culture in schools movement (pblhs) and p.53/menlhk/setjen/kum.1/ 9/2019 on the adiwiyata school award, have several important changes that are evident in the goals of the adiwiyata schools which are closely linked to the pblhs movement. most notably, the criteria and objectives in the 2019 policy included changes in environmentally friendly attitudes and behavior. behavior, in this context, refers to personal behavioral changes, which differ from previous policies, emphasizing top-down structural-institutional reforms, as stated in article 1. under the new focus, the education dimension is increasingly visible because community behavioral changes require synergistic and continuous efforts over a significant period, as mentioned in a speech by siti nurbaya bakar, the minister of environmental affairs and forestry (bakar, 2021). the collected data confirm this focus. both the activists and the researchers appreciate the government program. the program is very important in educating students on ecological knowledge and awareness and in changing their behavior. many activities were generated to support this program, such as planting trees and managing the water. the other important activity is to manage waste or garbage. both the activists and the researchers noticed that many schools got involved in this pblhs movement and they need the greater involvement of other elements of society, such as religious organizations because such a program is also in line with the values of pancasila as the state ideology and can be regarded as an ecological-civic education. in 2019 there was a policy change in the emphasis on waste-related issues. attention to waste management, both on a community scale and institutionally, is related to urgent national issues and the importance of changing personal attitudes and behaviors to tackle these problems. it is now well understood that waste is not only a structural problem but also an increasingly personal problem for citizens. in this sense, it would be safe to say that the pblhs movement is an environmental awareness education program with particular emphasis on changing attitudes and behavior toward more environmentally friendly practices. however, the pblhs movement does journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 not explicitly include any context regarding citizenship education, making it difficult to ascertain whether it is accurate to refer to the movement as an ecological citizenship education program. regarding this matter, during the adiwiyata mandiri and the nasional adiwiyata achievement awards held in jakarta on december 13, 2019, the minister of environmental affairs and forestry of indonesia stated his hopes for the adiwiyata schools to educate and produce a generation of environmentally conscious children that also excel academically to aid the nation’s progress. in 2021, the minister also stated that since the start of this program (around 16 years ago), there have been 4726 schools that received the adiwiyata mandiri and national adiwiyata award, with about 26,770 schools participating (bakar, 2021). the increase in schools participating in this program throughout 2017–2021 is evident since only 7,278 schools participated from 2006–2016. this signifies that there is a positive response from schools toward this movement. on average, before 2017, only 661 schools were joining annually, while from 2017–2021 (in a period of 5 years), 3,898 schools joined yearly. it must be noted that there are participants at all levels, from the city, province, to national levels. in 2021, the environmental service proposed 932 schools from 150 regencies, 34 cities, and 24 provinces to receive the national adiwiyata and adiwiyata mandiri awards. three hundred and forty-four schools met the criteria and received the national adiwiyata award. meanwhile, 77 schools met the criteria and won the adiwiyata mandiri school award (klhk, 2021). furthermore, the report also states that between 2006–2021, adiwiyata schools actively implemented waste management practices with 3r (reduce, reuse, and recycle) amounting to 42,534 tons per year, planting and maintaining 354,450 trees/plants, 70,890 biopore holes, 14,178 infiltration wells, and electricity and water savings on average 10 – 40 % per school. there are no accurate reports detailing the occurrence of behavioral changes because they are very difficult to measure. the quantitative data above slightly reflects how changes in behavior (habitus) begin to occur. in this first step, it is worth noting that according to some activists and researchers, the adiwiyata school program is a very good tool to generate ecological awareness among students, especially in facing ecological challenges in indonesia. for this, changing behavior has become their focus. they mentioned that behavior reflects awareness and knowledge, which are brought not only theoretically in the classroom, but also via concrete activities. it means that the educational binawan 155 dimension of the pblhs movement is very dominant. these highlighted points collected from the data can answer the first research question, furthermore, for such an education, the supporting values of religions and also from pancasila as the state ideology are important to offer perspective and to motivate students. the importance of the values of pancasila gives a deeper meaning to pblhs movement. it is not only an ecological education in technical terms, but it is an implementation of pancasila's values. this meaning will be reflected in the second step below. ecological-civic education cultivated in state ideology pancasila according to the short study concerning ecological citizenship, the pblhs movement indirectly supported enec's definition as it specifically mentioned the element of a relationship with nature. this relationship with nature can be reinforced as citizenship cannot be separated from land and water (conditio sine qua non). simultaneously, the concept of a state includes a certain territory comprising land, water, and air. in indonesia, the word tanah-air has a deeper meaning. though the word translates to land-water in a literal sense, it also suggests homeland. the pblhs movement aims to form environmentally friendly attitudes and behaviors that correlate to the concept of ‘‘homeland,’’ thus, conforming to the concept of citizenship. within this frame of reference, citizenship education is immensely associated with the concept of homeland. consequently, being environmentally friendly implies caring for the land (‘‘tanah’’) and water (‘‘air’’), which constitute the foundation of life, both personally and socially. under these circumstances, the state is an abstraction and embodiment of the ‘‘land’’ and ‘‘water.’’ from this perspective, ecology is an integral dimension ingrained with citizenship education, alongside political, economic, and cultural spheres. some teachers shared their experiences in putting the ecological dimension in the ppkn (pendidikan pancasila dan kewarganegaraan, or pancasila and citizenship education). the focus is on the second and fifth principles of pancasila. the second principle mentions the importance of just and civilized humanity, while the fifth one mentions the importance of social justice for the people. some reflections are also written on this matter (asrori, 2020; aulia et al., 2018; fahlevi et al., 2020). they highlighted the meaning of ecological citizenship in the context of civilization and living together well in society. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 in this case, some of the teacher-activists highlighted more on the second principle of pancasila. they assumed that caring for nature and proper personal behavior in managing garbage are important indications of modern civilization. for this, they referred to some modern countries such as japan and scandinavian countries. some others highlighted the fifth principle more that the second one because caring for nature is closely related to social justice. for them, a good society could not exist without good nature, something which needs a deeper reflection. this second step concludes that the adiwiyata school program has a further goal, i.e. citizenship education. it is not only a practical program to educate students about ecological awareness and skills, but also an ideological program that educates students to love their homeland concretely. the teachers ask the students to implement pancasila values in ecological caring for the homeland. this second step has added some more reflective points to answer the first question of this research. however, the further question is how such activities on the other side enrich the values of pancasila, as mentioned in the second research question mentioned above. to answer this question needs a conceptual reflection which will be done in the third step. habitus in the context of social justice further reflection explores how pblhs contributes to the conceptual relationship between ecological citizenship education and social justice. in this matter, factors to consider are as follows. first, pblhs movement is regarded as an individual approach as such movement advocates for changing an individual behavior or forming new habitus, commonly known as the micro approach. it emphasizes how individuals participate in society or the state through their behaviors. with such an interpretation, an “obligation dimension” is emphasized. such a micro approach is distinct from the structural macro approach implemented by philosophers, including nancy fraser, whose analysis applies a macro perspective in society's political, economic, and cultural realms. second, the micro approach focuses on the obligations of individuals or groups of people with social justice as justice for society. meanwhile, the focus of the macro approach is on the rights of individuals or groups, highlighting social justice as the state's responsibility. society or state in this context is identified as an entity separate from individuals, instead of merely being an aggregate sum of its citizens. on that account, social justice is not just for the welfare of individuals or groups but also for the welfare of society or the state. binawan 157 the above-mentioned points are important considerations that justice is not solely an assurance and fulfillment of a subsistent life, but a good life. based on this interpretation, justice can then be formulated as appreciation, recognition, and good life treatment. appreciation is related to the dignity of life, conveying morality, and is recognized under the domain of recognition (honneth, 1995). in that respect, the existence of the rights and obligations of individuals or groups are guaranteed by the state. the citizens receive an official identity card from the state, and the citizens reciprocally acknowledge and recognize state authority. for that matter, the most tangible manifestation of justice is life treatment or fulfilling the rights and obligations, as best determined by the law. are individuals and groups the only ones who are valued, recognized, and treated well? this simply cannot be answered in nancy fraser’s work. when obligations are fulfilled, individuals act under the assumption that the appreciation, recognition, and good life treatment will be fulfilled by the community, or the state, which accordingly implies a specific tangible piece of land or territory. this conveys that social justice is an appreciation, recognition, and good life treatment from citizens to the state or vice versa. another conception of social justice can be done by analogizing the state, as an entity with its rights to life, to an organism. this traditional metaphor of a society which was used by spencer (1901), and revived by dunn (2016), will help understand this concept of social justice. for an organism to live well, it needs external support, such as the aforementioned appreciation, recognition, and good life treatment. however, these support systems need internal requirements relating to the fulfillment of life. like an organism, society needs a head, heart, lungs, blood vessels, and nervous system. in this context, the head is the government, the heart, and blood vessels are the economies, the lungs are the green open spaces, and the nervous system is the communication and transportation infrastructure. much more could be added to this analogy, but this is an attributive attachment to a fundamental piece of justice. without such attributes, the quality of justice can be interpreted as insufficient, far below what is needed in a “fair society.” considering this analogy and the analysis above, the context of social justice from a microperspective becomes clear and comprehensible. as mentioned earlier, from a macro-perspective viewpoint (roark, 2015; schmidtz, 2006), four essentials elements comprise the notions of social justice: 1) economic welfare (with its social structure and system), 2) general welfare, both journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 physical and psychological (public health, stability, peace, tranquility), 3) recognition of groups in society, with special attention to minority groups, and 4) provision of social facilities and their related infrastructure. these elements are broader than what was mentioned by hobhouse (1922) a century ago. however, according to gomberg (2016), it needs deeper reflection because of the insufficiency of the so-called distributive justice. he mentioned the importance of contributive justice, though there is also insufficiency in this matter because the study on this topic is limited to the socio-economic context, as analyzed by chuang (2018) in his thesis. a micro-perspective analysis of the pblhs movement reflects the existence of social justice content that is regularly overlooked, including most notably, behavior or habitus of the community. the existence of a communal or social habitus in accordance with the available infrastructure is important in the context of modernity. the availability of modern facilities and infrastructure without appropriate habitus makes modern facilities and infrastructure less meaningful. for example, technological developments that provide higher speeds in vehicles require more advanced road facilities and traffic systems compared to facilities during the era when vehicles could go a maximum of 30 km/hour. a new habitus is needed from the community for the facilities and infrastructure built to function optimally. likewise, the change in environmentally friendly behavior targeted by the pblhs movement is the focus of social justice in modern society. one of the desired behavioral changes is caring for trash, which is a cornerstone for social justice. garbage in modern times has vastly different characteristics from ancient waste because the time required to decompose materials back into small particles is much longer than those in the past, thus requiring significant personal and structural investments in management and time. habitus becomes a part of the focus of social justice for two primary reasons. first, habitus is a ''good’’ condition for constructed facilities and infrastructure. second, the formation of habitus is a process (reay, 2004) that requires an active role of the government. forming a habitus is a relatively long process involving all sectors of society. in addition to providing understanding and insight, certain segments of the populace must be “forced” to comply. thus, enforcement in the context of society requires compliance with the law. in this context, the government solely possesses the right, and even the obligation, to force citizens. this mutual relationship between the state and the citizens, in a certain sense, is missing from sayer's and gomberg's views on contributive justice. the necessary mutual involvement of the state and citizens in forming habitus binawan 159 gives an additional element to the understanding of the contributive justice (timmermann & félix, 2015). this additional element of contributive justice shows that habitus is an important notion of social justice which rarely mentioned explicitly. as mentioned earlier, some thinkers like honneth and fraser reflected on the meaning of social justice from a macro-optic view so that in a certain sense ignored habitus as part of social justice. implicitly, they only mention the four notions of social justice: 1) economic welfare (with its social structure and system), 2) general welfare, both physical and psychological (public health, stability, peace, tranquility), 3) recognition of groups in society, with special attention to minority groups, and 4) provision of social facilities and their related infrastructure. now, this micro-optic reflection based on the making of habitus in the pblhs movement shows the close relation of habitus with other notions of social justice. it means that the habitus of the people is the fifth notion of social justice. this third step reflection answers the second research question above that the close relationship between habitus which is one of the goals of the adiwiyata school program, citizenship education, and social justice. a deeper reflection, through the micro-optic lens of the adiwiyata school program and conceptual analysis, shows that habitus is an integral part of social justice, which is ignored by many scholars. conclusion based on the above discussion, especially from the first and second steps of this reflection, we can answer the first research question that the pblhs movement or the adiwiyata school program in indonesia has succeeded in stimulating many schools in indonesia to be more ecological in character and in generating new habitus for the students. it has motivated many people to work together. besides, it has become a good tool for ecological citizenship education. though the documents of the pblhs movement do not explicitly mention this second goal it goes beyond expectation. a deeper reflection of ecological citizenship education itself, to answer the second research question, reflects the micro-optic view of justice in conjunction with the common perspective of ecological citizenship education and social justice. the most important to highlight is the notions of habitus which is reflected from the social justice point of view. habitus or social habit as one of the main goals of the pblhs movement is important not only for the individuals but also for journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 the society and the state as an entity. habitus is a conditio sine qua or is a necessity, to get social justice. it is the new important notion of social justice which is frequently neglected. regarding ecological citizenship education, the pblhs movement in indonesia reinforces the importance of education as citizenship is inseparable from the state. considering the natural limitations of citizens as human beings, the government needs to administer an active role in this education by empowering citizens and collaborating with non-government organizations. apart from the factors mentioned above, social justice includes a reciprocal relationship between citizens and the state that requires respect, recognition, and good life treatment. the state recognizes the rights of the citizens, and the citizens recognize the right to life of the state. the disposition recognition of citizens to the state is the basic element of contributive justice and can be manifested by implementing social habits that contribute to the state's welfare. without the new habitus, newly built social facilities and infrastructure will be inconsequential. theoretically, the importance of habitus as part of social justice conclusively complements the notions of contributive justice. furthermore, for indonesia, this perspective enhances the meaning of social justice in pancasila, in the fifth precept of state ideology. moreover, the significance of the environment for humans, as emphasized in the united nations resolution dated july 28, 2022, stating "clean, healthy and sustainable environment" as a human right, can be proposed to the indonesian government to transpose the fifth precept of pancasila from "social justice for all indonesian people," to "ecological-social justice for all indonesian people." such a formulation could stimulate the people better, especially the students at schools, to build a sense of ecological citizenship for future indonesia. limitation and suggestions this study is a conceptual reflection of an ecological movement in indonesia, as an academic effort to understand the movement better. it reflects further the relationship between ecological habitus, citizenship, and social justice in the indonesian context from a micro-optic view. it is the limitation. so, for future research, a similar study on the topics of ecological habitus, citizenship, and social justice from different contexts could enrich this conceptual reflection. besides, this deeper reflection could enrich other future research on the pblhs movement in indonesia to get a more meaningful program. binawan 161 references adawiah, r. (2019). implementation of adiwiyata program to build environmental awareness. journal of wetlands environmental management, 7(2), 106. https://doi.org/10.20527/jwem.v7i2.196 ambrasat, j., von scheve, c., schauenburg, g., conrad, m., & schröder, t. (2016). unpacking the habitus: meaning making across lifestyles. sociological forum, 31(4), 994–1017. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12293 amini, m. z., prasetiyo, w. h., & gunarsi, s. (2022). civic disposition based on ecological citizenship : a case study at smp negeri 1 wirosari. journal of etika demokrasi, 7(3), 373–382. https://doi.org/10.26618/jed.v anderson, b. (2006). imagined communities: reflecitions on the origin and spread of nationalism. verso. anggraeni, f. t., untari, m. f. a., & priyanto, w. (2021). analisis program sekolah adiwiyata dalam membentuk karakter peduli lingkungan di sd negeri 1 purbalingga kidul kabupaten purbalingga. jurnal persada, iv(2), 68–78. aprilianto, r. n., & arief, a. (2020). sekolah adiwiyata dalam dimensi karakter dan mutu pendidikan. trihayu: jurnal pendidikan ke-sd-an, 6(1), 776-783. https://doi.org/10.30738/trihayu.v6i1.7879 asrori, m. a. r. (2020). insertion of pancasila values in the adiwiyata school program. international journal of innovation and research in educational sciences, 7(6), 540–551. https://ijires.org/administrator/components/com_jresearch/files/publications/ijires_1799_ final.pdf aulia, s. s., arif, d. b., & arpannudin, i. (2018). ppkn dan etika lingkungan hidup di sekolah adiwiyata. prosiding seminar nasional “pengembangan profesionalisme dosen dan guru indonesia,” 2, 82–88. http://eprints.uad.ac.id/id/eprint/12705 bahrudin, m. d. f. (2017). pelaksanaan program adiwiyata dalam mendukung pembentukan karakter peduli lingkungan di sma negeri 4 pandeglang. jurnal pendidikan geografi, 17(1), 25–37. bakar, s. n. (2021). sambutan menteri lingkungan hidup dan kehutanan pada penyerahan penghargaan adiwiyata mandiri dan adiwiyata nasional 2021 serta talkshow perempuan dan alam. retrieved july 28, 2022 from https://www.sitinurbaya.com/sambutan-menterilingkungan-hidup-dan-kehutanan-pada-penyerahan-penghargaan-adiwiyata-mandiri-danadiwiyata-nasional-2021-serta-talkshow-perempuan-dan-alam journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 barry, j. (1999). rethinking green politics. sage publications. barry, j. (2002). vulnerability and virtue: democracy, dependency and ecological stewardship. in b. a. minteer & b. p. taylor (eds.), democracy and the claims of nature (pp. 133– 152). rowman and littlefield. barry, j. (2006). resistance is fertile: from environmental to sustainability cctizenship. in a. dobson & d. bell (eds.), environmental citizenship (pp. 21–48). the mit press. benhabib, s. (1992). situating the self: gender, community and postmodernism in contemporary ethics. polity press. berg, b. l. (2001). qualitative research methods for the social sciences (fourth ed.). allyn and bacon. https://doi.org/10.2307/1319429 bertrand, j. (2004). nationalism and ethnic conflict in indonesia. cambridge university press. bourdieu, p. (1977). outline of a theory of practice. cambridge university press. casmana, a. r. (2018). a critical review of citizenship education in developing civic intellectual in indonesia. proceeding international conference on university and intellectual culture, 1, 279–289. seminars.unj.ac.id/icuic charmaz, k. (2015). grounded theory: methodology and theory construction. in j. d. wright (ed.), international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (second ed., vol. 1, pp. 6396-6399.). elsevier. charmaz, k., thornberg, r., & keane, e. (2018). evolving grounded theory and social justice inquiry. in n. k. denzin & y. s. lincoln (eds.), the sage handbook of qualitative research (fifth ed., pp. 720–776). sage publications. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-0171319-x christoff, p. (1996). ecological citizens and ecologically guided democracy. in b. doherty & m. de geus (eds.), democracy and green political thought. sustainability, rights and citizenship (pp. 151–169). routledge. chuang, k. w.-c. (2018). an account of contributive justice. university of michigan. creswell, j. w., & poth, c. n. (2018). qualitative inquiry & research design: choosing among five approaches. (fourth ed.). london: sage publications. curtin, d. (1999). chinnagounder’s challenge: the question of ecological citizenship. indiana university press. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.37-5631 binawan 163 curtin, d. (2002). ecological citizenship. in e. f. isin & b. s. turner (eds.), handbook of citizenhip studies (pp. 293–304). sage publications. dean, h. (2001). green citizenship. social policy and administration, 35(5), 490–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9515.t01-1-00249 dobson, a. (2003). citizenship and the environment. oxford university press. dobson, a. (2006). citizenship. in a. dobson & r. eckersley (eds.), political theory and the ecological challenge. cambridge university press. dobson, a., & bell, d. (2006). introduction. in a. dobson & d. bell (eds.), environmental citizenship (pp. 1–17). mit press. dunn, m. b. (2016). reviving the organismic analogy in sociology: human society as an organism. university of california riverside. enec. (2018). environmental citizen. european network for environmental citizenship. retrieved july 28, 2022, from https://enec-cost.eu/environmental-citizen/ fahlevi, r., jannah, f., & sari, r. (2020). implementasi karakter peduli lingkungan sungai berbasis kewarganegaraan ekologis melalui program adiwiyata di sekolah dasar. jurnal moral kemasyarakatan, vol.1, no.(2), 57–63. fraser, n. (1995). from redistribution to recognition? dilemmas of justice in a ‘post-socialist ’ age. new left review, 1(212), 68-149. fraser, n. (1996). social justice in the age of identity politics: redistribution, recognition, and participation. in the tanner lectures on human values, stanford university. fraser, n. (1998). social justice in the age of identity politics: redistribution, recognition, participation. discussion papers, ssg sozialwissenschaften, usb koln. retrieved july 20, 2022, from https://ideas.repec.org/p/zbw/wzboem/fsi98108.html galston, w. a. (2001). political knowledge, political engagement, and civic education. annual review of political science, 4(1), 217–234. gomberg, p. (2007). how to make opportunity equal: race and contributive justice. malden, ma: blackwell publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470692431 gomberg, p. (2016). why distributive justice is impossible but contributive justice would work. science and society, 80(1), 31–55. https://doi.org/10.1521/siso.2016.80.1.31 hailwood, s. (2004). how to be a green liberal: nature, value and liberal philosophy. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 acumen. handayani, n., hariri, h., sowiyah, s., & ridwan, r. (2020). the shaping of the student character caring for the school environment through the green school movement in smp negeri 2 adiluwih. journal of physics: conference series, 1655(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1655/1/012115 hefner, r. w. (2001). introduction: multiculturalism and citizenship in malaysia, singapore, and indonesia. in r. w. hefner (ed.), the politics of multiculturalism: pluralism and citizenship in malaysia, singapore and indonesia. university of hawai’i press. hiariej, e., & stokke, k. (eds.). (2017). politics of citizenship in indonesia. yayasan pustaka obor indonesia. https://doi.org/10.1080/18918131.2018.1510643 hobhouse, l. t. (1922). the elements of social justice. henry holt and company. hollstein, m.s. (2022). social studies, civics, and fracking: ohio teacher perceptions of controversial environmental issues. journal of social studies education research, 13(1), 1-34. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3414/548 hollstein, m.s., &smith, g.a. (2020). civic environmentalism: integrating social studies and environmental education through curricular models, journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 223-250. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1606/457 honneth, a. (1995). honneth struggle for recognition. the mit press. honneth, a. (2004). recognition and justice: outline of a plural theory of justice. acta sociologica, 47(4), 351–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699304048668 indahri, y. (2020). pengembangan pendidikan lingkungan hidup melalui program adiwiyata (studi di kota surabaya). aspirasi: jurnal masalah-masalah sosial, 11(2), 121–134. https://doi.org/10.46807/aspirasi.v11i2.1742 iswari, r. d., & utomo, s. w. (2017). evaluasi penerapan program adiwiyata untuk membentuk perilaku peduli lingkungan di kalangan siswa (kasus: sma negeri 9 tangerang selatan dan ma negeri 1 serpong). jurnal ilmu lingkungan, 15(1), 35–41. https://doi.org/10.14710/jil.15.1.35-41 jannah, n. (2019). adiwiyata: membangun kepedulian dan budaya lingkunganwarga sekolah (studi kasus: smpn 2 gurah kediri, jawa timur). jurnal ilmiah pendidikan lingkungan dan pembangunan, 20(02), 50–59. https://doi.org/10.21009/plpb.202.05 binawan 165 juraid, hamzah, b., mahpudz, a., & khaldun, r. i. (2019). implementation and development of adiwiyata schools to realize character of students care for environment. international journal of scientific and technology research, 8(10), 1226–1129. kahin, g. m. (1952). nationalism and revolution in indonesia. cornell university press. kavaz, t. ., kizgut-eryilmaz, b. ., polat, b. ., amca-toklu, d. ., & erbay, f. (2021). investigation of preschool children’s perceptions to protect the environment through drawings. theory and practice in child development, 1(1), 41–55. https://doi.org/10.46303/tpicd.2021.4 king, a. (2000). thinking with bourdieu against bourdieu: a “practical” critique of the habitus. sociological theory, 18(3), 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/0735-2751.00109 klhk, p. (2021). penghargaan adiwiyata 2021: refleksi optimisme generasi muda peduli lingkungan. sp.453/humas/pp/hms.3/12/2021. retrieved july 28, 2022, http://ppid.menlhk.go.id/berita/siaran-pers/6351/penghargaan-adiwiyata-2021-refleksioptimisme-generasi-muda-peduli-lingkungan kusuma, y., & kusuma, h. e. (2020). hubungan nilai-nilai pola pikir dan perilaku ramah lingkungan siswa sekolah dasar adiwiyata. review of urbanism and architectural studies, 18(2), 24–43. https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.ruas.2020.018.02.3 kuswantoro, m. d. z. (2018). pengaruh penerapan konsep sekolah adiwiyata terhadap kepedulian lingkungan bagi peserta didik smp negeri 3 surabaya. universitas islam negeri sunan ampel surabaya. latta, a., & wittman, h. (2010). environment and citizenship in latin america: a new paradigm for theory and practice. european review of latin american and caribbean studies, 89(october), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.2307/20788578 lau, r. w. k. (2004). habitus and the practical logic of practice: an interpretation. sociology, 38(2), 369–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038504040870 lazzeri, c. (2009). recognition and redistribution: rethinking n. fraser’s dualistic model. critical horizons: a journal of philosophy and social theory, 10(3), 307–340. https://doi.org/10.1558/crit.v10i3.307 light, a. (2006). ecological citizenship: the democratic promise of restoration. in r. h. platt (ed.), the humane metropolis: people and nature in the 21st-century city (pp. 169–181). university of massachusetts press. luque, e. (2005). researching environmental citizenship and its publics. environmental politics, 14(2), 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644010500054947 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 lydersen, k. m. (2011). democratic citizenship education in indonesia post-suharto: political indoctrination or critical democratization? universitetet i oslo. maton, k. (2008). habitus. in m. grenfell (ed.), pierre bourdieu: key concepts (pp. 49–66). acumen. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315015583 melo-escrihuela, c. (2008). promoting ecological citizenship: rights, duties and political agency. acme: an international e-journal for critical geographies, 7(2), 113–134. munawar, s., heryanti, e., & miarsyah, m. (2019). hubungan pengetahuan lingkungan hidup dengan kesadaran lingkungan pada siswa sekolah adiwiyata. lensa (lentera sains): jurnal pendidikan ipa, 9(1), 22–29. https://doi.org/10.24929/lensa.v1i1.58 murdani, d., hakim, a., & yanuwiadi, b. (2018). strategies of regency adiwiyata(green) school management at secondary education level in sintang regency. jurnal pembangunan dan alam lestari, 9(2), 102–110. https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jpal.2018.009.02.07 nada, h. n., fajarningsih, r. u., & astirin, o. p. (2021). adiwiyata (green school) program optimization strategy in malang regency to realize environmentally friendly school citizens. ijorer : international journal of recent educational research, 2(2), 121–137. https://doi.org/10.46245/ijorer.v2i2.83 nikasari, d., & purnomo, a. (2022). strategi pengelolaan sekolah adiwiyata dalam mewujudkan karakter siswa peduli lingkungan di smp negeri 1 jetis ponorogo. excelencia: journal of islamic education & management, 2(85–99). nurdin, e. s., & dahliyana, a. (2018). civic education as patriotism education in indonesia. proceedings of the 2nd international conference on sociology education (icse 2017), icse 2017, 427–431. https://doi.org/10.5220/0007099604270431 nuzulia, s., sukamto, s., & purnomo, a. (2020). implementasi program adiwiyata mandiri dalam menanamkan karakter peduli lingkungan siswa. sosio-didaktika: social science education journal, 6(2), 155–164. https://doi.org/10.15408/sd.v6i2.11334 pahru, s., akbar, s., & hitipeuw, i. (2021). pelaksanaan program adiwiyata dalam mendukung pembentukan karakter peduli lingkungan. jurnal pendidikan: teori, penelitian, dan pengembangan, 6(1), 119. https://doi.org/10.17977/jptpp.v6i1.14405 panigassi, p. l. (2020). axel honneth and nancy fraser: dilemmas between recognition and redistribution. revista sem aspas, 9(2), 231–246. parker, l., & prabaya-sear, k. (2020). environmental education in indonesia. in routledge binawan 167 explorations in environmental studies. routledge. pratiwi, a. d. m. (2022). peran sekolah dalam menerapkan konsep kewarganegaraan ekologis di smp negeri 10 malang. universitas muhammadiyah malang. quartaroli, m. t. (2012). program evaluation. in s. d. lapan, m. t. quartaroli, & f. j. riemer (eds.), qualitative research: an introduction to methods and designs. jossey-bass. reay, d. (2004). “it’s all becoming a habitus”: beyond the habitual use of habitus in educational research. british journal of sociology of education, 25(4), 431–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142569042000236934 roark, p. d. (2015). social justice and deep participation: theory and practice for the 21st century. palgrave macmillan. rotari, s., & komalasari, k. (2017). peran program adiwiyata mandiri dalam meningkatkan kepedulian lingkungan peserta didik. citizenship jurnal pancasila dan kewarganegaraan, 5(1), 42–54. https://doi.org/10.25273/citizenship.v5i1.1177 sagala, l. p. (2019). implementation of adiwiyata “green school” in chieving education for sustainable development (case study at forestry vocational school of pekanbaru). kaunia, 15(2), 31. sandel, m. j. (2009). justice: what’s the right thing to do. allen lane. sayer, a. (2009). contributive justice and meaningful work. res publica, 15(1), 1–16. schmidtz, d. (2006). elements of justice. cambridge university press. smith, g. (2005). green citizenship and the social economy. environmental politics, 14(2), 273– 289. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09644010500055175 smith, m. j. (1998). ecologism: towards ecological citizenship. open university press. spencer, h. (1901). essay the social organism. in h. spencer (ed.), essays: scientific, political and speculative (issue 1, pp. 265–307). williams and norgate. spencer, r., pryce, j. m., & walsh, j. (2014). philosophical approaches to qualitative research. in p. leavy (ed.), the oxford handbook of qualitative research (pp. 81–98). oxford university press. sumargo, b., kasuma, k. a. p., & tsang, y. f. (2019). social-environment factor as a weak point of sustainable development in indonesia. aip conference proceedings. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5061866 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1),143-168 syah, n., hidayat, h., yuca, v., ardi, z., & magistarina, e. (2021). examining the effects of ecoliteracy on knowledge, attitudes, and behavior through adiwiyata environmental education for indonesian students. journal of social studies education research, 12(4), 209–230. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3470/537 tarman, i., & kent kukurtcu, s. (2022). the perceptions of the children attending the preschool education about nature and nature pollution. international electronic journal of elementary education, 15(1), 53–64. https://www.iejee.com/index.php/iejee/article/view/1900 timmermann, c. (2018). contributive justice: an exploration of a wider provision of meaningful work. social justice research, 31(1), 85–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211017-0293-2 timmermann, c., & félix, g. f. (2015). agroecology as a vehicle for contributive justice. agriculture and human values, 32(3), 523–538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-014-95818 tompodung, t. c. g., rushayati, s. b., & aidi, m. n. (2018). efektivitas program adiwiyata terhadap perilaku ramah lingkungan warga sekolah di kota depok. jurnal pengelolaan sumberdaya alam dan lingkungan (journal of natural resources and environmental management), 8(2), 170–177. https://doi.org/10.29244/jpsl.8.2.170-177 van klinken, g. (ed.). (2019). postcolonial citizenship in provincial indonesia. palgrave pivot singapore. wulandari, d. a. (2019). pengaruh program adiwiyata dan budaya sekolah terhadap pembentukan karakter kewarganegaraan ekologis siswa di sekolah binaan sma negeri 17 palembang. universitas negeri yogyakarta. yusuf, r., sanusi, s., lukman, m. bin, & fajri, i. (2020). hubungan antara kewarganegaraan lingkungan terhadap perilaku lingkungan siswa di sekolah adiwiyata. jurnal pendidikan kewarganegaraan, 10(1), 1–15. tablo 3 i̇lköğretim okullarında görev yapan eğitimcilerin cinsiyetlerine göre adö yaklaşımı ortalama algılarına i̇lişkin bağımsız gruplar için ttesti sonuçları www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(1), 49-83 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 an investigation into the organization levels of social studies teachers with regard to constructivist learning environments in terms of several variables hüseyin çalışkan 1 abstract the purpose of this research project was to evaluate the performance and conditions of elementary-level social studies teachers, and how such variables affect their overall ability to create a constructivist learning environment. the research group was composed of 241 social studies teachers. a turkish translation of the work “constructivist learning environment scale” by tenenbaum, naidu, jegede & austin (2001), adapted by fer & cırık (2006), was used as a guide for data collection. this research shows that the teachers were largely successful in creating the constructivist learning environment, but that by far the most pertinent factor in the success or failure in creating such an atmosphere is the geographical location of the school in relation to an urban center. keywords: social studies, teacher, constructivist learning environments introduction in an era marked by the constant increase in the amount of information available, it is important to not make the learner memorize the information, but rather allow the learner to understand, interpret, and even mentally sieve the comprehended new information, so as to be able to produce new information through various connections. within this context, the learners should primarily acquire high levels of mental skills so that they can make these connections happen. educational programmes have been reviewed and restructured in recent years to achieve these goals for learners. the renewed social studies programme was also based on the constructivist programme approach. constructivism dates back to socrates, who stated, "knowledge is just a perception". however, it also revealed itself in the opinions of the philosopher, vico, in the 18 th century (şimşek, 2004). it is an approach that came into prominence in the studies of various researchers such as piaget, vygotsky, asubel, bruner, gardner, von glasersfeld and 1 assoc. prof. dr., sakarya university, faculty of education, caliskan06@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 50 habermans in the second half of the 20th century (şimşek, 2004; açıkgöz, 2003; watson, 2000; fosnot, 1996; kindsvatter, wilen and ishler, 1996). constructivism has been subjected to certain changes throughout history. loving (1997) emphasized that this change followed a course from personal to radical, from radical to social and from social to critical (ref. özerbaş, 2007). fosnot (1996) considered constructivism as cognitive and social constructivism. according to the constructivist approach, learning is a mental process that occurs as a result of the fact that learners construct the information in their minds (fosnot, 1996). while constructivism was previously an approach that tried to explain how learners learn the information, it has now turned into an approach that tries to explain how learners construct the information in their minds. in constructivist learning, in which the learners play an active role, learning is achieved through active participation in the learning process such as discussing, defending one's opinions, hypothesizing, investigating, and sharing opinions. interaction of individuals with each other is important to the process. crucially, learners do not accept the information as it is presented; they either reproduce or rediscover it (perkins, 1999). learners use the information they have learned while dealing with the real life problems. it is important for the constructivist learning environment that learners take responsibility for their own learning, that is, organize, monitor and evaluate their own learning (loyens, rikers and schmidt, 2008). the constructivist learning environment is defined as an environment in which learners actively participate in real life situations, and problem based situations are created (loyens, rikers and schmidt, 2007). social studies is a very suitable subject for creating the constructivist learning environment because it is a course that is nested in everyday life; it aims to raise individuals who participate in life efficiently, can make good decisions and produce solutions to the problems they face (safran, 2004; meb, 2005). the aim is to ensure that learners have attained significant and permanent skills. to ensure the creation of a constructivist learning environment in social studies courses, the learning should be associated with individuals' own experiences. experiences should be gained through living and exploring things; information should be learned through communication, sharing with other group members and taking responsibilities; and the newly learned information should be adapted to new situations and concepts (crawford and witte, 1999). the environments created for a constructivist education should be established in a way that enables the learners to fashion their individual identities, participate in the research processes, and organize their own learning environments. the teacher should prepare the layout, for these practices in this environment should be organized in accordance with the hüseyin çalişkan 51 needs of the learner. the applied programme should give learners many opportunities for dealing with real and significant problems (luke, 2004). within this context, a social studies course that includes real-life information enables the learners to effectively deal with real and significant problems in accordance with their own needs. the learners in the educational environments are organized in such way in order to take the opportunity to verify the information that they previously constructed in their minds, correct any mistakes, and even give up on the previous information and replace it (yaşar, 1998). tenenbaum naidu, jegede and austin (2001) define the basic properties of the constructivist learning environment as discussions and debates, cognitive conflicts, sharing thoughts, materials and resources to take to solution, and motivating for concept exploration and reflection. it is true that a positive learning environment does not only facilitate the application of all programmes in general, but it also increases the programmes’ achievement. teachers play an important role in the application of the programmes. a teacher with a constructivist approach has three important duties: providing guidance, assessment and evaluation, and creating a constructivist learning environment. teachers who have a primary role in creating a constructivist learning environment should help learners to construct their own knowledge, realize their mistakes, process and refine the prior knowledge, and interact with other individuals and information sources. teachers should support individual constructions, warn learners when necessary, but also avoid managing the situation harshly; learners should be encouraged to be tolerant towards different perspectives. accordingly, it can be said that a teachers' function revolves around which learning will be encouraged in the learning environment, identifying problems and solving them through cooperation with the learners (şimşek, 2004). appropriate learning environments should be created so that the social studies programme, which is renewed based on a constructivist approach, can become successful. social studies teachers have great responsibilities in creating appropriate environments. despite the social studies course including real-life information, the learning environments in which it is taught should be enriched so that the information to be learned makes sense in the context of the learners' lives, since many subjects of the course are abstract. it is highly important within this context to identify the benefits of applying constructivism to a social studies programme, and assess social studies teachers' positive and negative attributes when creating a constructive learning environment in classrooms. it would be possible through this evaluation to identify certain missing aspects of the social studies teachers in creating a constructivist learning environment, and take precautions for improvement. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 52 much research has been conducted to reveal teachers' opinions on the programmes and the constructivist learning approach, identify the roles of teachers, and establish the problems in the applications (gözütok, akgün and karacaoğlu, 2005; gömleksiz, 2005; özdemir, 2005; korkmaz, 2006; tatli, 2007; ekici, 2007; gömleksiz, 2007; karadağ, deniz, korkmaz and deniz, 2008; çiftçi, sümbül and köksal, 2013). the research groups have been mainly composed of primary and secondary school teachers. certain surveys have been performed on social studies teachers creating a learning environment (scott and hanafin, 2000; pedersen and liu, 2003; marra, 2005); however, such research has included the opinions of all teachers, instead of those of social studies teachers specifically. in their descriptive studies, journell (2009) mentions the recommendations for what can be done to increase the use of computer-based learning by secondary school social studies teachers. meanwhile, ehman (2002) addresses the reason why teachers are reluctant to adopt information technology. it has been seen that research conducted to reveal social studies teachers' opinions on the constructivist learning environment, especially regarding the creation of a constructivist learning environment, have fallen short. a few surveys conducted on the subject of creating a constructivist learning environment (yılmaz, 2006; ağlagül, 2009; dündar, kabapınar and deniz, 2011) have also included class teachers as the research group. in their qualitative research, kaya (2008) and scott (2008) investigated the opinions of social studies/history teachers on student-oriented teaching. ocak (2012) evaluated the creation of constructivist learning environments by teachers in their classrooms according to the opinions of teachers and teacher candidates of different branches. in their research, lucey, shifflet and weilbacher (2014) compared and examined the applications and beliefs of preschool, primary and secondary school social studies teachers within the context of the teacherand studentoriented education. this is an original study because it directly aims to identify social studies teachers' qualities when creating a constructivist learning environment and determine whether these qualities differ according to teachers' sex, seniority, field of undergraduate degree (history, geography, social studies) and place of duty. the following research was conducted to identify the benefits of creating a constructivist learning environment for the subject of social studies regarding teachers working at secondary schools in different turkish cities, and investigate their relationship with several variables. within this context, the answers to the following questions were sought: 1. how proficient are secondary school social studies teachers' at creating a constructivist learning environment? hüseyin çalişkan 53 2. does the proficiency of secondary school social studies teachers creating a constructivist learning environment differ according to their sex, seniority, field of undergraduate degree, and place of duty? method research model the relational screening model (of the general screening model) was used as the research model. the general screening models are the screening adjustments made on the whole population, or a sample of it, in order to pass a general judgment on the population, provided that it is composed of a great number of elements. the relational screening model is a model used in the research that aims to identify the covariance among two or more variables and/or the degree of this covariance (karasar, 2005). this research was designed in the relational screening model because social studies teachers' ability to organize a constructivist learning environment is compared by using several various variables. research group the research group is composed of 214 social studies teachers, who participated in the course “introduction to the teaching program”, organized by the turkish ministry of education in bursa, erzurum, bilecik and yalova. some attributes of the teachers in the research group are shown in table. table 1 the attributes of the research group attributes f % sex male 174 72.20 female 67 27.80 place of duty province 96 39.83 district 91 37.76 town 28 11.62 village 26 10.79 field of undergraduate degree social studies 115 47.72 history 94 39.00 geography 32 13.28 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 54 when table 1 is examined, 174 (72.2%) of the teachers participated in the research are male while 67 (27.8%) of them are female; 96 (39.83%) of them serve in the cities, 91 (37.76%) serve in counties, 28 (11.62%) serve in towns, and 26 (10.79%) serve in villages, all at secondary schools. in addition, 115 (47.72%) of the teachers were specialized in social studies, 94 (39.0%) in history, and 32 (13.28%) in geography. data collecting tool the "constructivist learning environment scale (cles)" (teacher form) by tenenbaum, naidu, jegede & austin (2001), translated and adapted into turkish by fer & cırık (2006), was used in the research. the scale was composed of seven factors discussions and debates (5 items), cognitive conflicts (3 items), sharing thoughts (4 items), materials and resources to take to solution (3 items), motivating for concept exploration and reflection (6 items), satisfying the needs of learner (5 items), and making meaning and real-life examples (4 items) and total 30 items of 5-point likert type (tenenbaum, naidu, jegede and austin, 2001; fer and cırık, 2006). the turkish form of the scale, adapted into english by fer and cırık (2006), was applied to 234 class teachers, who teach at 23 different elementary schools in the european side of i̇stanbul. it was found, as a result of the structure validity test, that the mutual variance of 30 items in the scale varied between .51 and .86 and the factor loads varied between .44 and .90. the amount of variance explained by five factors was found to be 64%. in the structure validity test performed, based upon the factors without excluding any items because each factor was independent in the original scale, it was determined that the factor load values of the scale factors varied between .76 and .95. the cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of each factor varied between .89 and .94. for the whole scale, the cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient was found to be .95. because the scale was tested on the class teachers and it has been a long time since the adaptation process, it was applied again, with validity and reliability analyses, over the collected data for this research. it was found, as a result of the structure validity test without excluding any items, that 30 items of the scale were grouped under two factors. 27 factors belonged to the first factor while 3 items were in the second factor; their mutual variance varied between .46 and .83, and the factor load values varied between .47 and .86, and explained 40% of total variance. it was seen, as a result of the structure validity test performed with the factors, taking the original scale into consideration, that the factor load values of the scale factors varied between .66 and .86, and explained 54% of total variance. it was also determined that cronbach's alpha internal consistency coefficients of the sub-factors of the scale applied to this research group varied between .70 hüseyin çalişkan 55 and .84. for the whole scale, the cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient was found to be .91. since the fact that the reliability coefficient calculated for a psychological test was .70 and surpassed the condition of sufficiency for the test reliability at a high level, it can be said that this measuring tool is an objective one. analysis of data data obtained from the social studies teachers, who serve at several secondary schools in turkey, was transferred to the spss software package by the researcher. social studies teachers' ability to create a constructivist learning environment was addressed as a dependent variable. the independent variables are sex, seniority, field of undergraduate degree, and place of duty. t-test and one-way variance analyses were performed to determine whether social studies teachers' abilities to provide the constructivist learning environment varied depending on the aforementioned independent variables. the arithmetic mean, standard deviation and p values were taken into consideration while testing the research questions. the significance level was considered to be .05. the scale sub-factors that did not have any significant difference were not included in the results of the study so as to not occupy unnecessary space. the normality assumptions were tested before performing all said analysis, and accordingly, it was decided via the levene's test whether the parametric tests would be used. table 2 results of levene's test for social studies teachers' ability to organize the constructivist learning environment variable levene's statistical value sd1 sd2 p sex 1.18 1 239 .28 seniority .35 3 237 .79 field of undergraduate degree 2.62 2 238 .08 place .33 3 237 .81 when table 2 is examined, it is seen that the variances of all variables are homogenous according to levene's statistical results, obtained to determine whether the variances of the average scores concerning social studies teachers' ability to organize a constructivist learning environment are homogenous based on sex, seniority, field of undergraduate degree and place of duty (p>.05). according to these results, parametric tests were used in the analyses performed for all variables. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 56 findings in this section, findings obtained as a result of the statistical analyses conducted in accordance with the purposes of the research are declared. table 3 descriptive statistics for social studies teachers' levels of organizing the constructivist learning environment when table 3 is examined, “discussion and debating” was found to be the most frequent ( x =4.15) sub-factor used by social studies teachers in the creation of a constructivist learning environment in their classrooms. teachers also consistently employed sub-factors: the “meaning arrangement and relating to real life” ( x =4.08) and “sharing thoughts” ( x =3.86). however, the "cognitive conflict” ( x =2.66) was the least frequently encountered sub-factor. when the teachers were evaluated on the basis of their total scores for creating the constructivist learning environment, their average was 3.70. table 4 results of t-test for social studies teachers' ability to organize the constructivist learning environment according to sex factors of cles sex n x s sd t p discussion and debating female 67 4.15 .61 239 .031 .975 male 174 4.15 .50 cognitive conflict female 67 2.63 .76 239 .296 .767 male 174 2.67 .83 sharing thoughts female 67 3.84 .65 239 .427 .670 male 174 3.88 .58 materials and resources to take to solution female 67 3.26 .82 239 1,556 .121 male 174 3.43 .69 motivating for concept female 67 3.67 .69 239 .571 .569 factors of cles n x s discussion and debating 241 4.15 .54 cognitive conflict 241 2.66 .81 sharing thoughts 241 3.86 .60 materials and resources to take to solution 241 3.38 .73 motivating for concept exploration and reflection 241 3.71 .59 satisfying the needs of learner 241 3.72 .61 making meaning and real-life examples 241 4.08 .57 total 241 3.70 .44 hüseyin çalişkan 57 exploration and reflection male 174 3.72 .56 satisfying the needs of learner female 67 3.62 .67 239 1.501 .135 male 174 3.76 .59 making meaning and real-life examples female 67 4.03 .61 239 .715 .475 male 174 4.09 .56 total female 67 3.67 .48 239 .729 .467 male 174 3.73 .42 when table 4 is examined, it is seen that scores of the teachers in creating a constructivist learning environment did not pose any significant difference according to sex, based on the sub-factors and the total score [p>.05]. it can also be said that the average scores of male and female teachers in creating a constructivist learning environment were very close to each other, both in terms of the sub-factors and the total score. table 5 results of anova for social studies teachers' ability to organize the constructivist learning environment according to seniority factors of cles seniority n x s sd f p discrepancy total 1-5 years 60 3.68 .45 3 .685 .562 6-10 years 105 3.70 .47 11-15 years 52 3.69 .39 16 years and above 24 3.82 .44 when table 5 is examined, no significant difference was found in the scores of secondary school social studies teachers in creating a constructivist learning environment according to seniority based on the sub-factors and the total score [p>.05]. table 6 results of anova for social studies teachers' ability to organize the constructivist learning environment according to field of undergraduate degree factors of cles field of undergraduate degree n x s sd f p discrepancy materials and resources to take to solution social studies 115 3.25 .79 2 3.614 .028 soc. stud.history, soc. stud.geog. history 94 3.49 .67 geography 32 3.53 .65 total social studies 115 3.69 .47 2 1.150 .318 history 94 3.72 .42 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 58 geography 32 3.80 .32 the field of their undergraduate degree only made a significant difference in the average scores of secondary school social studies teachers in creating a constructivist learning environment for the sub-factor of “materials and resources to take to solution” [f(2238)=3.614, p<.05], no significant difference was seen in other sub-factors and the total score [p>.05]. the post hoc-lcd test, performed to determine which field of undergraduate degree was the cause of the difference, revealed that there was a difference between social studies teachers and history teachers, and social studies teachers and geography teachers; this difference is against the social studies teachers. table 7 results of anova for social studies teachers' ability to organize the constructivist learning environment according to place of duty factors of cles place n x s sd f p discrepancy materials and resources to take to solution province 96 3.34 .73 3 3.547 .015 district-village district 91 3.55 .70 town 28 3.25 .76 village 26 3.08 .74 satisfying the needs of learner province 96 3.69 .62 3 2.816 .040 district-town, district-village district 91 3.85 .59 town 28 3.54 .57 village 26 3.57 .65 total province 96 3.70 .42 3 4.818 .003 province-village, district-village district 91 3.80 .42 town 28 3.63 .49 village 26 3.45 .44 when table 7 is examined, the average scores of secondary school social studies teachers in creating a constructivist learning environment exhibited a significant difference according to the place of duty, as measured by “materials and resources to take to solution”, “satisfying the needs of learner”, and grand total scores [f(3-237)=3.547, p<.05; f(3-237)=2.816, p<.05; f(3-237)=4.818, p<.05, respectively]. no significant differences were seen in other subfactors [p>.05]. the post hoc-lcd test was applied to find which places of duty were the causes of the differences. as a result, it was found that teachers working in central districts emphasized the sub-factor, "materials and resources to take to solution", in creating a constructivist learning environment more than teachers working in villages. it was also hüseyin çalişkan 59 determined that teachers working in central districts favored the sub-factor, "satisfying the needs of learner", in creating a constructivist learning environment more than teachers working in villages and towns. it was found that social studies teachers working in villages had lower organizational levels of creating a constructivist learning environment than social studies teachers working in central cities and districts, as measured by the averages of the grand total score. discussion, results and recommendations without doubt, it is important that teachers create a constructivist learning environment, and teach lessons in this environment, so that the renewed programmes can be applied successfully and the desired goals can be achieved. in the research, it was found that social studies teachers' organizational levels of creating a constructivist learning environment through discussions and debates, cognitive conflicts, sharing thoughts, materials and resources to take to solution, motivating for concept exploration and reflection, satisfying the needs of learner, and making meaning and real-life examples were very high. this result is in line with the research results (ocak, 2012; ağlagül, 2009; yılmaz, 2006) concerning the classroom teachers in regard to constructivist learning environments. ağlagül (2009) concluded that class teachers created the constructivist learning environment in the social studies course (in a general sense) at a high level. ocak (2012), however, concluded that participating teachers thought that they created the constructivist classroom environment, but the teachers who observed them did not agree with this. on the other hand, kaya (2008) found, in the study concerning the social studies teachers, that teachers' opinions on student-oriented teaching were positive. the conclusion of much research that teachers did not see themselves as adequate for applying the constructivist programme approach (gözütok, akgün and karacaoğlu, 2005; gömleksiz, 2005; özdemir, 2005; korkmaz, 2006; gömleksiz, 2007; karadağ, deniz, korkmaz and deniz, 2008) contradicts the result of this research. however, this contradiction can be explained through the characteristics of the research group, or the fact that social studies teachers gain experience in teaching lessons using the constructivist approach over time. another result, obtained in this research, is that social studies teachers used activities/applications for using the method of cognitive conflict in establishing the learning environment less than the other factors. in their researches, ocak (2012), ağlagül (2009) and yılmaz (2006) concluded that teachers used activities for creating cognitive conflict, in establishing the learning environment, less than the other dimensions. the reason for social journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 60 studies teachers’ underuse of cognitive conflict in their organizations of constructivist environment could be a result of their incomplete understanding of the items related to this factor, or their perception of students experiencing conflict in their classes as a negative situation. however, given that the thought that students will acquire various high-level skills such as critical thinking, questioning, thinking in different dimensions and comprehending the concepts in real terms in the constructivist learning environment, it is clearly important that students should have cognitive conflicts in the courses. within this context, it may contribute to the organization of a constructivist learning environment if teachers were to be informed, via in-service trainings to be provided on the programmes or constructivism, about what cognitive conflict is, and how it should be used in the courses. in this research, sex and seniority did not significantly affect the social studies teachers’ ability to organize a constructivist environment. it can be concluded from this result that neither the teachers' sex, nor their seniority, are factors that impact their organization of a constructivist learning environment. the difference according to sex and seniority in the research agrees with the results obtained by ağlagül (2009). however, in the research by kabapınar and deniz (2011) on social studies teachers, the finding that female teachers had a more constructivist approach than male teachers contradicts the result of this study. the result that tatli (2007) and yılmaz (2006) obtained in their research, which is that class teachers' organization of a constructivist learning environment in the science and technology course did not differ according to sex and seniority, has similarities with the results of this research. the fact that dündar, kabapınar and deniz (2011) found, in their study on social studies teachers, that experienced teachers have higher and more significant organizational levels of creating a constructivist learning environment than less-experienced teachers (10 years or below) is a very interesting result. the finding obtained by ocak (2012) that there was a significant difference in creating a constructivist classroom environment in terms of seniority contradicts this result of this research. the difference, especially in the seniority variable, can be expected to be in favor of less experienced teachers who comprehended and adopted the constructivist approach. in other words, teachers who recently graduated from university were not encountered in this research. the reason for this situation could be that novice teachers cannot put the theoretical knowledge they have into practice adequately. it was determined, as a result of this research, that the circumstances of organizing a constructivist learning environment in the classes of social studies teachers did not reveal any significant difference related to the field of the teachers’ undergraduate studies. however, in the “materials and resources to take to solution” sub-factor, a significant difference against hüseyin çalişkan 61 social studies teachers was detected. the fact that teachers' fields of undergraduate degree were history, geography or social studies did not have any impact in their ability to create a constructivist learning environment. however, it can be said that history and geography teachers may attach more importance to materials and resources in creating a constructivist learning environment, as they utilize these tools in being more solution-oriented in comparison to social studies teachers. it can be said that history and geography teachers are more experienced in recognizing and using the resources and materials than social studies teachers because they have more seniority. given that younger teachers are more open and adapt faster to innovation (tezcan, 1995), this result may seem to be the exact opposite of the expected result. the reason behind this result may be that the research group was composed of teachers who participated in in-service training and were open to, and enthusiastic about, innovation. therefore, the same subject could be studied with a more heterogeneous research group through comparison of the results. however, it was determined that teachers' abilities to organize a constructivist learning environment did not differ significantly as a result of the field of the teachers’ undergraduate studies. this research found that social studies teachers' levels of organizing a constructivist learning environment revealed a significant difference according to place of duty. this difference was against teachers who served at villages. it was also determined that there were significant differences in the subfactors "materials and resources to take to solution" and "meeting the needs of learner" according to place of duty. accordingly, the direction of significant differences was against social studies teachers working in towns and villages. ekinci (2007) states that programmes prepared in accordance with the constructivist approach of social studies teachers do not take village conditions into account. brooks and brooks (1999), honebein (1996) and windschitl (2002) argue that teachers need to shape the course in accordance with the wishes and needs of the students, and change the current teaching strategies. they must lay stress on student issues and use other resources and materials that facilitate student interaction, as well as raw data and basic resources for constructivist learning environments. however, it can be said that these conditions can be better provided in places with better facilities. accordingly, it can be concluded that social studies teachers who work in city centers (province and district), where the facilities are better, have higher levels of organizing a constructivist learning environment than teachers who work in rural areas (town and village). within this context, it can be said that teachers who work in districts use the opportunities and professional experience they have (teachers who work in city centers are generally more senior) in organizing the constructivist learning environment. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 62 ensuring a constructivist learning environment requires appropriate environmental conditions: an abundance of instruments at schools. in other words, the school must have the necessary equipment for teaching. it can be concluded that the fact that village schools do not have enough of such facilities negatively impacts their social studies teachers in organizing the constructivist learning environment. conditions at rural schools should be enhanced and they should be provided with necessary equipment to eliminate the difference between city teachers and rural-area teachers. the fact that teachers who work at rural area schools are mostly inexperienced, and do not exactly know the interests and wishes of their students, may cause such differences between teachers. the internship practices during the undergraduate programme could include longer service in the areas that have different conditions so that new teachers can acquaint themselves both with the area and its students. this may help them to acquire the necessary experience before they start teaching professionally, making it easier for them to adapt to different situations. in the light of these results, it can be said that social studies teachers have very high ability levels of organizing a constructivist learning environment. this is important for applying the programmes successfully and achieving the desired goals. however, rural-area (village, town) teachers have lower organizational levels than teachers who work in city centers (province, district). this problem requires heavy thinking and taking precautions toward enhancing the conditions in rural areas in the future. references açıkgöz, k. ü. (2003). aktif öğrenme. i̇zmir: eğitim dünyası yayınları. ağlagül, d. (2009). beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde sınıf öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı düzenleme becerilerinin değerlendirilmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, çukurova üniversitesi, adana. brooks, m. g. and brooks j. g. (1999). in search of understanding: the case for constructivist classrooms. alexandria: merrill prenticehall. büyüköztürk, ş. (2006). sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. crawford, m. and witte, m. (1999). strategies for mathematics: teaching in context. educational leadership, 57(3) 34-38. çiftçi, s., sünbül, a.m. ve köksal, o. (2013). sınıf öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı yaklaşıma göre düzenlenmiş mevcut programa ilişkin yaklaşımlarının ve hüseyin çalişkan 63 uygulamalarının eğitim müfettişlerinin görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi. mersin üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 9(1), 281-295. dündar, ş., kabapınar, y. and deniz, l. (2011). constructivist learning environments in social studies classes: teachers’ perceptions. the international society for the social studies annual conference proceedings, issue 1, february 24-25, orlando, 34-38. ehman, l. h. (2002). why haven’t secondary social studies teachers adopted information technologies? the international social studies forum, 2(2), 175–178. ekinci, a. (2007). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programının yapılandırmacı yaklaşım bağlamında değerlendirilmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, osmangazi üniversitesi, eskişehir. fer, s. ve cırık, i̇. (2006). öğretmenlerde ve öğrencilerde, yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı ölçeğinin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması nedir? yeditepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 2(1), 1-26. fosnot, c. t. (1996). constructivism: a psychological theory of learning. c. t. fosnot (ed.), constructivism: theory, perspectives and practice (p. 8-33). new york: teachers college press. gömleksiz, m. n. (2005). yeni ilköğretim programının uygulamadaki etkililiğinin değerlendirilmesi. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri dergisi, 5(2), 339–384. gömleksiz, m. n. (2007). yeni ilköğretim programına ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından değerlendirilmesi. eğitim araştırmaları, (27), 69–82. gözütok, d., akgün, ö. e. ve karacaoğlu, ö. c. (2005). i̇lköğretim programlarının öğretmen yeterlilikleri açısından değerlendirilmesi. eğitimde yansımalar viii yeni ilköğretim programının değerlendirme sempozyumu bildiriler kitabı (s. 17–40). ankara: sim matbaası. honebein, p. c. (1996). seven goals for the design of constructivist learning environments. g. b. wilson. (ed.) constructing learning environments: case studies in instructional design (p. 11-24). englewood cliffs: educational technology publications, inc. journell, w. (2009). maximizing the potential of computer-based technology in secondary social studies education. social studies research and practice, 4, 55-70. karadağ, e., deniz, s., korkmaz, t. ve deniz, g. (2008). yapılandırmacı öğrenme yaklaşımı: sınıf öğretmenleri görüşleri kapsamında bir araştırma. eğitim fakültesi dergisi, xxi (2), 383-402. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 64 karasar, n. (2005). bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: nobel yayın dağıtım. kaya, y. (2008). social studies teachers' views of learner‐centered instruction. european journal of teacher education, 31(1), 35-53. kindsvatter, r., wilen, w. w. and ishler m. (1996). dynamics of effective teaching. new york: longman publishers. korkmaz, i̇. (2006). yeni ilköğretim programının öğretmenler tarafından değerlendirilmesi. i. ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği kongresi bildiriler kitabı [(2), 249–260]. ankara: kök yayıncılık. loyens s. m. m., rikers, r. m. j. p. and schmidt, h. g. (2008). relationships between students’ conceptions of constructivist learning and their regulation and processing strategies. instructional science, 36(5-6), 445–462. luke, c. l. (2004). inquiry-based learning in a university spanish class: an evaluative case study of a curricular implementation. unpublished doctoral dissertation. texas university, texas. marra, r. (2005). teacher beliefs: the impact of the design of constructivist learning environments don instructor epistemologies. learning environments research, 8, 135–155. meb. (2005). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı ve kılavuzu 6-7. sınıflar. tc. milli eğitim bakanlığı talim ve terbiye kurulu başkanlığı. ankara: meb yayınları. ocak, g. (2012).öğretmenlerin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı kurma başarılarının öğretmen ve öğretmen adaylarınca değerlendirilmesi. eğitim ve bilim, 37(166), 25-40. özdemir, m. s. (2005). i̇lköğretim okullarındaki öğretmenlerin yeni ilköğretim programına (iv. sınıflar) ilişkin görüşleri. xiv. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kongresi bildiriler kitabı (s. 573–581). denizli: ani yayıncılık. özerbaş, m. a. (2007). yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına ve kalıcılığına etkisi. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi, 5(4), 609-635. pedersen, s. and liu, m. (2003). teachers’ beliefs about issues in the implementation of a student-centered learning environment. educational technology research and development, 51(2), 57–76. perkins d. n. (1999). the many faces of constructivism. educational leadership, 57(2), 354– 371. hüseyin çalişkan 65 safran, m. (2004) i̇lköğretim programlarında yeni yaklaşımlar sosyal bilgiler. bilim ve aklın aydınlığında eğitim dergisi, 5(54-55), http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/sayi5455/safran.htm adresinden indirilmiştir. scott, b. n. (2008). the role of teacher epistemology in integrating student-centered instructional software: a case study in social studies education. unpublished doctoral dissertation, auburn university, auburn, alabama. scott, b. n. and hannafin, r. d. (2000) how teachers and parents view classroom learning environments. journal of research on computing in education, 32(3), 401-416. şimşek, n.(2004), yapılandırmacı öğrenme ve öğretime eleştirel bir yaklaşım. eğitim bilimleri ve uygulama, 3(5), 115-139. tatli, e. (2007). sınıf öğretmenlerinin fen ve teknoloji dersinde yapılandırmacı öğretmen rollerini yerine getirme düzeyleri. süleyman demirel üniversitesi, burdur. tenenbaum, g., naidu, s., jegede, o. and austin, j. (2001). constructivist pedagogy in conventional on-campus and distance learning practice: an exploratory investigation. learning and instruction, 11, 87-111. tezcan, m. (1995). toplumsal değişme, ankara: bilim yayınları. thomas, a. l., shifflet, r. a. and weilbacher, g. a. (2014). patterns of early childhood, elementary, and middle-level social studies teaching: an interpretation of illinois social studies teachers’ practices and beliefs. the social studies, 105(6), 283-290. watson, j. (2000). constructive instruction and learning difficulties. support for learning, 15(3) 134-140. windschitl, m. (2002). framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: an analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. review of educational research, 72(2), 131-175. yaşar, ş. (1998). yapısalcı kuram ve öğrenme öğretme süreci. anadolu üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 8(1-2), 68-75. yılmaz, b. (2006). beşinci sınıf öğretmenlerinin fen ve teknoloji dersinde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı düzenleme becerileri. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, yıldız teknik üniversitesi, i̇stanbul. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 66 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını düzenleme düzeylerinin çeşitli değişkenlere göre i̇ncelenmesi hüseyin çalışkan 2 özet: araştırma, ortaokullarda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını düzenleme düzeylerinin çeşitli değişkenlere göre farklılık gösterip göstermediğini ortaya çıkarmak amacıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. araştırma grubunu 241 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni oluşturmuştur. veri toplama aracı olarak tenenbaum, naidu, jegede ve austin (2001) tarafından geliştirilmiş, fer ve cırık (2006) tarafından türkçeye çevrilerek uyarlanan “yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. araştırmanın sonucunda, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeyleri oldukça yüksek bulunmuştur. ayrıca sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeyleri cinsiyetlerine, kıdemlerine ve mezuniyet alanlarına göre anlamlı düzeyde farklılaşmadığı ancak görev yapılan yerleşim birimine göre farklılaştığı tespit edilmiştir. anahtar kelimeler: social studies, teacher, constructivist learning environments giriş bilginin sürekli bir şekilde arttığı bu çağda, önemli olan öğrenene bilgiyi ezberletmek değildir. öğrenenin bilgiyi anlaması, yorumlaması hatta kavranılan yeni bilgiyi zihinsel süzgecinden geçirerek çeşitli bağlantılarla yeni bilgiler üretebilmesidir. bu bağlamda öğrenenin bunları gerçekleştirebilmesi için üst düzey zihinsel becerileri kazanmış olması gerekmektedir. öğrenenler üzerinde bu hedeflenenlerin gerçekleştirilebilmesi için son yıllarda eğitim programları gözden geçirilerek yeniden yapılandırılmıştır. yenilenen sosyal bilgiler programlarında da yapılandırmacı program anlayışı esas alınmıştır. en eski kökeni, “bilginin sadece algı” olduğunu ifade eden socrates’e dayandırılan yapılandırmacılık, 18. yüzyılda felsefeci vico’nun görüşlerinde de kendini göstermiştir (şimşek, 2004). 20. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren piaget, vygotsky, asubel, bruner, gardner, von glasersfeld ve habermans gibi araştırmacıların çalışmalarıyla ortaya çıkan bir yaklaşımıdır (şimşek, 2004; açıkgöz, 2003; watson, 2000; fosnot, 1996; kindsvatter, wilen ve ishler, 1996). yapılandırmacılık bu süreç esnasında bir takım değişiklikler geçirmiştir. loving (1997) bu değişimin kişiselden radikale, radikalden sosyale ve sosyalden eleştirele 2 doç. dr., sakarya üniversitesi, eğitim fakültesi, caliskan06@gmail.com hüseyin çalişkan 67 doğru bir seyir izlediğini vurgulamıştır (akt. özerbaş, 2007). fosnot (1996) ise yapılandırmacılığı bilişsel ve sosyal yapılandırmacılık şeklinde değerlendirmiştir. yapılandırmacı anlayışa göre öğrenme, zihinsel bir süreçtir ve öğrenenin bilgiyi zihninde yapılandırması sonucu gerçekleşir (fosnot, 1996). yapılandırmacılık önceleri öğrenenlerin bilgiyi nasıl öğrendiklerini açıklamaya çalışan bir yaklaşım iken daha sonraları öğrenenlerin bilgiyi zihinde nasıl yapılandırdıklarını açıklamaya çalışan bir yaklaşım halini almıştır. öğrenenin etkin rol aldığı yapılandırmacı öğrenmede sadece okumak ve dinlemek yerine tartışma, fikirleri savunma, hipotez kurma, sorgulama ve fikirler paylaşma gibi öğrenme sürecine etkin katılım yoluyla öğrenme gerçekleştirilir. süreçte bireylerin birbirleriyle etkileşimi önemlidir. öğrenenler, bilgiyi olduğu gibi kabul etmezler, bilgiyi kendileri oluşturur ya da tekrar keşfederler (perkins, 1999). öğrenen, öğrendiği bilgiyi her türlü gerçek yaşam problemleriyle başa çıkmada kullanır. öğrenenlerin kendi öğrenmelerinde sorumlu olması yani kendi öğrenmesini düzenlemesi, izlemesi ve değerlendirmesi yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı için oldukça önemlidir (loyens, rikers ve schmidt, 2008). yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı, öğrenenlerin gerçek yaşam durumlarına etkin katılımının sağlandığı ve probleme dayalı durumların oluşturulduğu bir ortam (loyens, rikers ve schmidt, 2007) olarak tanımlanmaktadır. sosyal bilgilerin de yaşamla içe içe bir ders olması ve yaşama etkin bir şekilde katılan, doğru kararlar alabilen ve karşılaşmış olduğu sorunlara çözüm üretebilen bireyler yetiştirmeye amaçlaması (safran, 2004; meb, 2005) gibi hususlardan dolayı yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamının oluşturulmasına oldukça uygun bir derstir. böyle bir ortamda amaç, öğrenenlere kazanımların anlamlı ve kalıcı bir şekilde kazandırılmasıdır. sosyal bilgiler derslerinde yapılandırmacı bir öğrenme ortamının sağlanabilmesi için öğrenme, bireyin kendi deneyimleriyle ilişkilendirilmeli, deneyimler; yaşayarak, keşfederek yaparak öğrenilmeli, işbirliği içinde grup üyeleri arasında iletişim kurarak, paylaşarak, sorumluluk alarak öğrenilmeli ve öğrenilen bilgiler yeni durum ve kavramlara uyarlanmalıdır (crawford ve witte, 1999). yapılandırmacı bir eğitim için oluşturulmuş ortamlar, öğrenenlerin bireysel kimliklerini geliştirmelerine, araştırma süreçlerine katılmalarına ve öğrenme çevrelerini düzenlemelerine imkân verecek şekilde düzenlenmelidir. ayrıca ortamdaki uygulamalar için hazırlanan düzen, öğrenenin ihtiyaçları yönünde düzenlenmiş olmalıdır. uygulanan program da öğrenenlere gerçek ve anlamlı problemlerle çalışmak için bol bol fırsatlar vermelidir (luke, 2004). bu bağlamda gerçek hayata dair bilgileri içeren bir ders olan sosyal bilgiler dersi de öğrenenlere, kendi ihtiyaçları doğrultunsa gerçek ve anlamlı problemlerle etkin bir şekilde çalışma imkânı sağlar. bu şekilde düzenlenmiş eğitimsel ortamlarda öğrenenler, journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 68 zihinlerinde daha önce yapılandırdıkları bilgilerin doğruluğunu sınama, yanlışlarını düzeltme ve hatta önceki bilgilerinden vazgeçerek yerine yenilerini koyma fırsatları elde ederler (yaşar, 1998). tenenbaum naidu, jegede ve austin (2001), yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamının temel özelliklerini tartışmalar ve görüşmeler, kavramsal çelişkiler, düşünceleri diğerleriyle paylaşma, materyal ve kaynaklarla çözüme ulaşma, yansıtma ve kavramları keşfetmeye motive olma olarak belirtmişlerdir. olumlu bir öğrenme ortamı, genelde tüm programların özelde ise sosyal bilgiler programlarının uygulanmasını kolaylaştırdığı gibi başarıyı artırdığı da bir gerçektir. programların uygulamasında öğretmenlerin yeri oldukça önemlidir. yapılandırmacı anlayışa sahip bir öğretmenin rehberlik yapma, ölçme değerlendirmeyi gerçekleştirme ve öğrenme ortamını oluşturma gibi üç önemli görevi vardır. yapılandırmacı bir öğrenme ortamının oluşmasında birincil bir role sahip olan öğretmenler, öğrenenlerin kendi bilgilerini yapılandırmasına, hatalarını fark etmesine, ön bilgilerini işleyerek rafine etmesine, diğer bireylerle ve bilgi kaynakları ile etkileşime girmesine yardımcı olmalıdır. öğretmenler bireysel yapılandırmaları desteklemeli, gerektiğinde uyarmalı fakat süreci katı bir şekilde yönetmekten kaçınmalıdır. öğrenenlerin değişik bakış açıları için toleranslı olmalarını özendirmelidir. buna göre, öğretmenlerin işlevi daha çok öğrenme ortamının düzenlenmesinde hangi öğrenmelerin teşvik edileceği ve farklı çözümler için üzerinde birlikte çalışılarak problemlerin belirlenmesi ile ilgili (şimşek, 2004) olduğu söylenebilir. yapılandırmacı bir anlayış temel alınarak yenilenen sosyal bilgiler programının başarılı bir şekilde uygulanabilmesi için öncelikle uygun öğrenme ortamlarının hazırlanmasını gerektirmektedir. uygun ortamların oluşturulmasında ise sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine büyük görevler düşmektedir. her ne kadar sosyal bilgiler dersi hayatın içinden bilgileri içeren bir ders olsa da birçok konusu soyut olduğu için öğrenilecek olan bilgilerin öğrencilerin yaşamlarında anlamlı hale getirmek için öğrenme ortamlarını zenginleştirmesi gerekmektedir. bu bağlamda sosyal bilgiler programının uygulamalarındaki mevcut durumunu ve sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin derslerinde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını oluşturmaya ilişkin olumlu ve olumsuz durumlarını tespit etmek oldukça önemlidir. ortaya konulan bu durumla öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler programlarının uygulanmasında yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını düzenlemede eksik kalan yönlerinin neler olduğu tespit edilerek iyileştirmeye yönelik tedbirler alınması mümkün olabilecektir. alan yazın incelediğinde öğretmenlerin programlara ve yapılandırmacı öğrenme yaklaşımına yönelik görüşlerini ortaya çıkarmak, öğretmen rollerini belirlemek ve uygulamalardaki problemleri tespit etmek için birçok araştırma (gözütok, akgün ve hüseyin çalişkan 69 karacaoğlu, 2005; gömleksiz, 2005; özdemir, 2005; korkmaz, 2006; tatli, 2007; ekici, 2007; gömleksiz, 2007; karadağ, deniz, korkmaz ve deniz, 2008; çiftçi, sümbül ve köksal, 2013) yapılmıştır. yapılan bu araştırmalarda araştırma grubu daha çok ilk ve ortaokullardaki öğretmenler, çoğunluklada sınıf öğretmenleridir. öğretmenlerin öğrenme ortamlarını düzenleme durumlarına ilişkin yapılmış birtakım araştırmalara (scott ve hanafin, 2000; pedersen ve liu, 2003; marra, 2005) rastlanmış lakin bu araştırmalarda sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri üzerine değil tüm öğretmenlerin görüşlerine yönelik gerçekleştirilmiştir. journell (2009) ortaokul sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin derslerinde bilgisayar temelli öğretimi kullanımlarını artırmak için yapılabileceklerle ilgili önerilerini ve ehman (2002) ise bilişim teknolojilerini niçin benimsemediklerini içeren betimsel araştırmalar yapmışlardır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme yaklaşımına özellikle de yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemeye yönelik görüşlerini ortaya çıkarmak için yapılan araştırmaların oldukça yetersiz olduğu görülmüştür. yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlenmesine yönelik var olan bir kaç araştırmada (yılmaz, 2006; ağlagül, 2009; dündar, kabapınar ve deniz, 2011) yine sınıf öğretmenleri üzerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. kaya (2008) ve scott (2008) nitel araştırmaya dayalı gerçekleştirdikleri araştırmalarında öğrenci merkezli öğretime yönelik sosyal bilgiler/tarih öğretmenlerinin görüşlerini incelemişlerdir. ocak (2012) ise, yapmış olduğu çalışmada öğretmenlerin derslerinde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını oluşturmasını farklı branşlardan öğretmen ve öğretmen adaylarının görüşlerine göre değerlendirmiştir. lucey, shifflet ve weilbacher (2014) da yapmış oldukları araştırmada okulöncesi, ilkokul ve ortaokul sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin uygulama ve inançlarını öğretmen ve öğrenci merkezli eğitim bağlamında karşılaştırarak incelemişlerdir. yapılan bu araştırmayla ise doğrudan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlenme düzeylerini genel anlamda belirlenmeye, öğretmenlerin cinsiyetlerine, kıdemlerine, mezuniyet alanlarına (tarih, coğrafya, sosyal bilgiler) ve görev yapılan yerleşim birimlerine göre durumun farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığı tespit edilmeye çalışıldığı için özgün bir çalışmadır. araştırma, türkiye’nin farklı illerindeki ortaokullarında görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını düzenleme düzeylerini belirlemek ve çeşitli değişkenlerle ilişkisini incelenmek amacıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. bu amaç doğrultusunda şu sorulara cevaplar aranmıştır: 1. ortaokullarda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin derslerde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeyleri nasıldır? 2. ortaokullarda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin derslerde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeyleri cinsiyetlerine, kıdemlerine, lisans mezuniyet journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 70 alanlarına ve görev yaptıkları yerleşim birimlerine göre anlamlı bir farklılık göstermekte midir? yöntem araştırmanın modeli araştırma modeli olarak genel tarama modellerinden ilişkisel tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. genel tarama modelleri, çok sayıda elemandan oluşan bir evrende, evren hakkında genel bir yargıya varmak amacı ile evrenin tümü ya da ondan alınacak bir örneklem üzerinde yapılan tarama düzenlemeleridir. i̇lişkisel tarama modeli ise iki veya daha çok değişken arasında birlikte değişim varlığını ve/veya bu değişimin derecesini belirlemeyi amaçlayan araştırmalarda kullanılan modellerdir (karasar, 2005). araştırmada sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin derslerinde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme durumları çeşitli değişkenlere karşılaştırıldığı için ilişkisel tarama modelinde tasarlanmıştır. araştırma grubu araştırma grubunu, milli eğitim bakanlığı tarafından bursa, erzurum, bilecik ve yalova illerinde düzenlenen “öğretim programını tanıtma kurs”larına katılan amaçlı örnekleme yoluyla araştırmaya katılan 241 sosyal bilgiler öğretmeni oluşturmaktadır. araştırma grubundaki öğretmenlerin birtakım özellikleri tablo 1’de verilmiştir. tablo 1 araştırma grubunun özellikleri özellikler f % cinsiyet erkek 174 72.20 kadın 67 27.80 görev yapılan yerleşim birimi i̇l 96 39.83 i̇lçe 91 37.76 belde 28 11.62 köy 26 10.79 mezuniyet alanı sosyal bilgiler 115 47.72 tarih 94 39.00 coğrafya 32 13.28 tablo 1 incelendiğinde, araştırmaya katılan öğretmenlerin 174’ü (%72.2) erkek, 67’si (%27.8) kadın olup, 96’sı (%39.83) il, 91’i (%37.76) ilçe, 28’i (%11.62) belde ve 26’ı hüseyin çalişkan 71 (%10.79) köy merkezindeki ortaokullarda görev yapmaktadırlar. ayrıca araştırma kapsamındaki öğretmenlerin 115’i (%47.72) sosyal bilgiler, 94’ü (%39.0) tarih ve 32’si (%13.28) ise coğrafya alanlarından mezun olan öğretmenlerdir. veri toplama aracı araştırmada, orijinali tenenbaum, naidu, jegede ve austin (2001) tarafından geliştirilmiş, fer ve cırık (2006) tarafından türkçeye çevrilerek uyarlanan “yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı ölçeği (öğretmen formu)” kullanılmıştır. ölçek, tartışmalar ve görüşmeler (5 madde), kavramsal çelişkiler (3 madde), düşünceleri diğerleriyle paylaşma (4 madde), materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmeyi amaçlaması (3 madde), yansıtma ve kavram keşfi için motive etme (6 madde), öğrenen ihtiyaçlarını karşılama (5 madde) ve anlam oluşturma ve gerçek yaşam olaylarıyla bağlantı (4 madde) olmak üzere yedi alt faktörden ve beşli likert tipi toplam 30 maddeden oluşturulmuştur (tenenbaum, naidu, jegede ve austin, 2001; fer ve cırık, 2006). fer ve cırık (2006) tarafından uyarlanan ölçeğin türkçe formu, i̇stanbul ili avrupa yakasında bulunan 23 farklı ilköğretim okulunda bulunan 234 sınıf öğretmenine uygulanmıştır. yapı geçerliği sınanması neticesinde ölçekteki 30 maddenin ortak varyansının .51 ile .86, yük değerleri ise .44 ile .90 arasında değiştiği bulunmuştur. beş faktörün açıkladığı varyans miktarı ise %64 olduğu belirlenmiştir. özgün ölçekte her bir faktörün bir birinden bağımsız olmasından dolayı hiçbir madde çıkarılmadan faktörler baz alınarak yapılan yapı geçerliği sınamasında da ölçeğin faktörlerinin faktör yük değerlerinin ise .76 ile .95 arasında değiştiği tespit edilmiştir. ayrıca ölçeğin her bir faktörünün cronbach alpha güvenirlik katsayısı .89 ile .94 arasında değerler almıştır. ölçeğin bütünü için cronbachalpha güvenirlik katsayısının ise .95 olduğu saptanmıştır. ölçeğin sınıf öğretmenleri üzerinde test edilmiş ve uyarlama işleminin üzerinden oldukça uzun bir zaman geçmiş olmasından dolayı tekrardan araştırmacı tarafından ölçek araştırma için toplanan veriler üzerinden geçerlilik ve güvenirlik işlemlerine tabi tutulmuştur. yapılan yapı geçerliği sınamasında hiçbir madde çıkarılmadan ölçekte bulunan 30 maddenin iki faktörde toplandığı birinci faktörde 27 ikinci faktörde ise 3 maddenin olduğu bunların ortak varyansının .46 ile .83, faktör yük değerleri ise .47 ile .86 arasında değiştiği toplam varyansın %40’nın açıkladığı bulunmuştur. özgün ölçek dikkate alınarak faktörlerle yapılan yapı geçerliği sınamasında ise ölçeğin faktörlerinin faktör yük değerlerinin ise .66 ile .86 arasında değiştiği, toplam varyansın ise %54’ünü açıkladıkları görülmüştür. yine bu araştırma grubu için uygulanan ölçeğin alt faktörlerinin cronbach alfa iç tutarlılık katsayısı .70 ile .84 arasında değiştiği belirlenmiştir. ölçeğin bütünü için cronbach-alpha güvenirlik katsayısının ise .91 olduğu tespit edilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 72 psikolojik bir test için hesaplanan güvenirlik katsayısının .70 ve daha yüksek olması test güvenirliği için yeterliliği (büyüköztürk, 2006) şartını yüksek düzeyde karşıladığından bu ölçme aracının oldukça objektif ve güvenilir olduğu söylenebilir. verilerin analizi türkiye’nin çeşitli ortaokullarında görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinden elde edilen veriler araştırmacı tarafından spss paket programına aktarılmıştır. araştırmada sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme durumları bağımlı değişken olarak ele alınmıştır. bağımsız değişkenler ise cinsiyet, mesleki kıdem, lisans mezuniyet alanı ve görev yapılan yerleşim birimidir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını sağlama durumları sayılan bu bağımsız değişkenlere göre farklılık gösterip göstermediği belirlemek için t-testi ve tek yönlü varyans analizleri kullanılarak değerlendirilmiştir. ayrıca araştırma sorularının test edilmesinde aritmetik ortalama, standart sapma ve p değerleri dikkate alınarak yorumlanmıştır. anlamlılık düzeyi .05 olarak dikkate alınmıştır. ayrıca anlamlı farklılık çıkmayan ölçeğin alt faktörler için yapılan analiz sonuçları çalışmayı tablolarla boğmaktan kaçınmak ve alandan tasarruf etmek için verilmemiştir. bahsi geçen tüm bu analizler yapılmadan önce normallik varsayımları test edilmiş ve buna göre parametrik testlerin kullanılıp kullanılmayacağına levene testi ile karar verilmiştir. tablo 2 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme durumlarına ait levene testi sonuçları değişken levene i̇statistik değeri sd1 sd2 p cinsiyet 1.18 1 239 .28 kıdem .35 3 237 .79 mezuniyet alanı 2.62 2 238 .08 yerleşim birimi .33 3 237 .81 tablo 2 incelendiğinde, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme durumlarına ait ortalama puanlarının cinsiyete, kıdeme, mezuniyet alanına ve yerleşim birimine göre varyanslarının homojen olup olmadığını belirlemek amacıyla yapılan levene istatistik sonuçlarına göre, tüm değişkenlerin varyanslarının homojen olduğu görülmektedir (p>.05). elde edilen bu sonuçlara göre tüm değişkenler için yapılan analizlerde parametrik testler kullanılmıştır. hüseyin çalişkan 73 bulgular bu bölümde araştırmanın amaçları doğrultusunda gerçekleştirilen istatistiksel çözümlemeler neticesinde ortaya çıkan bulgulara yer verilmiştir. tablo 3 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeylerine i̇lişkin betimsel i̇statistikler tablo 3 incelendiğinde, öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler derslerinde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede en çok “tartışma ve görüşme” ( x = 4.15) alt faktörünü kullandıkları görülmektedir. ayrıca öğretmenlerin “anlam düzenleme ve gerçek yaşamla bağlantı” ( x =4.08) ve “düşünceleri paylaşma” ( x =3.86) alt faktörlerini ise yoğunlukla kullandıkları, ancak "kavramsal çelişki” ( x =2.66) alt faktörünü ise sosyal bilgiler derslerinde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede en az kullandıkları belirlenmiştir. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeyleri ölçeğin genelini ifade eden toplam puan ortalamaları bazında değerlendirildiğinde ise aritmetik ortalamanın 3.70 olduğu görülmektedir. tablo 4 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeylerinin cinsiyetlerine göre ttesti sonuçları yöoö’nin faktörleri cinsiyet n x s sd t p tartışma ve görüşme kadın 67 4.15 .61 239 .031 .975 erkek 174 4.15 .50 kavramsal çelişki kadın 67 2.63 .76 239 .296 .767 erkek 174 2.67 .83 düşünceleri paylaşma kadın 67 3.84 .65 239 .427 .670 yöoö’nin faktörleri n x s tartışma ve görüşme 241 4.15 .54 kavramsal çelişki 241 2.66 .81 düşünceleri paylaşma 241 3.86 .60 materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi 241 3.38 .73 kavram keşfi ve yansıtma i̇çin motive etme 241 3.71 .59 öğrenen i̇htiyaçlarını karşılama 241 3.72 .61 anlam düzenleme ve gerçek yaşamla bağlantı 241 4.08 .57 toplam 241 3.70 .44 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 74 erkek 174 3.88 .58 materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi kadın 67 3.26 .82 239 1.556 .121 erkek 174 3.43 .69 kavram keşfi ve yansıtma i̇çin motive etme kadın 67 3.67 .69 239 .571 .569 erkek 174 3.72 .56 öğrenen i̇htiyaçlarını karşılama kadın 67 3.62 .67 239 1.501 .135 erkek 174 3.76 .59 anlam düzenleme ve gerçek yaşamla bağlantı kadın 67 4.03 .61 239 .715 .475 erkek 174 4.09 .56 toplam kadın 67 3.67 .48 239 .729 .467 erkek 174 3.73 .42 tablo 4 incelediğinde, ortaokullarda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin cinsiyet bakımından yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme puanları, alt faktörlerde ve ölçeğin genelini ifade eden toplam puanlar bazında anlamlı düzeyde bir farklılık oluşturmadığı görülmektedir [p>.05]. ayrıca kadın ve erkek öğretmenlerin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme puanları aritmetik ortalamaları hem alt faktörlerde hem de toplamda birbirine oldukça yakın olduğu söylenebilir. tablo 5 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeylerinin kıdemlerine göre anova sonuçları yöoö’nin faktörleri kıdem n x s sd f p fark toplam 1-5 yıl 60 3.68 .45 3 .685 .562 6-10 yıl 105 3.70 .47 11-15 yıl 52 3.69 .39 16 yıl ve üstü 24 3.82 .44 tablo 5 incelediğinde, ortaokullarda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin kıdem bakımından yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme alt faktörler puanları ve ölçeğin genelini ifade eden toplamda anlamlı düzeyde herhangi bir farklılık bulunmamıştır [p>.05]. hüseyin çalişkan 75 tablo 6 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeylerinin mezuniyet alanlarına göre anova sonuçları yöoö’nin faktörleri alan n x s sd f p fark materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi sosyal bilgiler 115 3.25 .79 2 3.614 .028 sos. biltarih; sos. bil.-coğr. tarih 94 3.49 .67 coğrafya 32 3.53 .65 toplam sosyal bilgiler 115 3.69 .47 2 1.150 .318 tarih 94 3.72 .42 coğrafya 32 3.80 .32 tablo 6 incelediğinde, ortaokullarda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme puanları mezuniyet alanlarına göre sadece “materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi” alt faktöründe anlamlı düzeyde bir farklılık göstermiş [f(2-238)=3.614, p<.05]; diğer alt faktörler ve ölçeğin genelini ifade eden toplam puan ortalamaları bazında ise anlamlı farklılıklar bulunmamıştır [p>.05]. farklılığın hangi mezuniyet alanlarından kaynaklandığını bulabilmek için yapılan lcd çoklu karşılaştırma testi analizi sonucunda, mezuniyet alanı sosyal bilgiler olan öğretmenler ile mezuniyet alanı coğrafya ve tarih olan öğretmenler arasında bir farklılığın olduğu; bu farklılığın ise mezuniyet alanı sosyal bilgiler olan öğretmenler aleyhine olduğu belirlenmiştir. tablo 7 sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeylerinin görev yapılan yerleşim birimlerine göre anova sonuçları yöoö’nin faktörleri yerleşim birimi n x s sd f p fark materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi i̇l 96 3.34 .73 3 3.547 .015 i̇lçe-köy i̇lçe 91 3.55 .70 belde 28 3.25 .76 köy 26 3.08 .74 öğrenen i̇htiyaçlarını karşılama i̇l 96 3.69 .62 3 2.816 .040 i̇lçe-belde, i̇lçe-köy i̇lçe 91 3.85 .59 belde 28 3.54 .57 köy 26 3.57 .65 toplam i̇l 96 3.70 .42 3 4.818 .003 i̇l-köy, i̇lçe-köy i̇lçe 91 3.80 .42 belde 28 3.63 .49 köy 26 3.45 .44 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 76 tablo 7 incelediğinde, ortaokullarda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme puanları görev yapılan yerleşim birimine göre “materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi”, “öğrenen i̇htiyaçlarını karşılama” ve ölçeğin genelini ifade eden toplam puan ortalamaları bazında anlamlı düzeyde bir farklılık göstermiş [sırasıyla f(3-237)=3.547, p<.05; f(3-237)=2.816, p<.05; f(3-237)=4.818, p<.05]; diğer alt faktörlerde ise anlamlı farklılıklar bulunmamıştır [p>.05]. farklılıkların hangi yerleşim birimleri arasından kaynaklandığını bulabilmek için lcd çoklu karşılaştırma testi analizi yapılmıştır. yapılan bu analizler sonucunda, ilçe merkezinde çalışan öğretmenlerin köylerde çalışan öğretmenlere göre yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede “materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi” alt faktörünü daha fazla belirttikleri bulunmuştur. ayrıca ilçe merkezinde çalışan öğretmenlerin köy ve beldelerde çalışan öğretmenlere göre yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede “öğrenen i̇htiyaçlarını karşılama” alt faktörünü daha fazla vurguladıkları belirlenmiştir. ölçeğinin genelini ifade eden toplam puan ortalamaları bazında da köylerde çalışan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin il ve ilçe merkezinde görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine göre yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede daha düşük düzeyde oldukları bulunmuştur. tartışma, sonuç ve öneriler kuşkusuz öğretmenlerin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını oluşturarak derslerini işlemeleri yenilen programların başarı ile uygulanabilmesi ve istenilen hedeflerin gerçekleştirilebilmesi açısından oldukça önemlidir. araştırmada, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin tartışma ve görüşme, düşünceleri paylaşma, materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi, kavram keşfi ve yansıtma için motive etme, öğrenen ihtiyaçlarını karşılama, anlam düzenlemeye ve gerçek yaşamla bağlantı ve toplam yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeylerinin oldukça yüksek olduğu bulunmuştur. araştırmanın bu sonucu, öğretmenlerin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını düzenleme durumlarını tespit etmek için yapılmış olan araştırmaların (ocak, 2012; ağlagül, 2009; yılmaz, 2006) sonuçlarıyla da oldukça benzerlik taşımaktadır. ağlagül (2009) yapmış olduğu araştırmada sınıf öğretmenlerinin sosyal bilgiler derslerinde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını genel anlamda yüksek düzeyde düzenlediklerini sonucunu tespit etmiştir. ocak (2012) ise yapmış olduğu çalışmasında genel olarak öğretmenlerin yapılandırmacı sınıf ortamını düzenlediklerini düşündüklerini, ancak onları gözlemleyen öğretmen adaylarının ise aynı kanaate sahip olmadıkları sonucuna ulaşmıştır. kaya (2008) da sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerine yönelik hüseyin çalişkan 77 gerçekleştirdiği çalışmada öğrenci merkezli öğretime yönelik öğretmenlerin görüşlerinin olumlu olduğu sonucuna ulaşmıştır. ayrıca yapılan birçok araştırmada (gözütok, akgün ve karacaoğlu, 2005; gömleksiz, 2005; özdemir, 2005; korkmaz, 2006; gömleksiz, 2007; karadağ, deniz, korkmaz ve deniz, 2008) öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı program anlayışını uygulama konusunda kendilerini yeterli görmemeleri araştırma sonucuyla çelişmektedir. bu çelişki ise araştırma grubunun özelliğiyle ya da sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin zaman geçtikçe yapılandırmacı anlayışla ders işleme konusunda tecrübelenmeleriyle açıklanabilir. araştırmada elde edilen diğer bir sonuç ise, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede kavramsal çelişkiyi oluşturmaya yönelik etkinliklere/uygulamalara çok az yer veriyor olmalarıdır. ocak (2012), ağlagül (2009) ve yılmaz (2006) da yaptıkları araştırmalarda, öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede kavramsal çelişki oluşturmaya yönelik etkinlikleri diğer boyutlara nazaran daha az kullandıkları sonucuna ulaşmışlardır. sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede kavramsal çelişkiyi çok az kullanmalarının nedeni olarak, öğretmenlerin derslerde öğrencilerin çelişki yaşamasını olumsuz bir durum olarak algılamaları olduğu düşünülmektedir. oysaki yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamında öğrencilerin derslerde kavramsal anlamda çelişkiler yaşaması öğrenciye eleştirel bakma, sorgulama, farklı boyutlarda düşünme ve kavramları gerçek anlamda kavrama gibi birçok farklı üst düzey beceriler kazandıracağı düşünülürse, öğrencilerin derslerde kavramsal çelişkiler yaşaması oldukça önemlidir. bu bağlamda öğretmenlere, programlarla veya yapılandırmacılıkla ilgili verilecek olan hizmet-içi eğitimlerde kavramsal çelişkinin ne olduğu ve derslerde nasıl kullanılması gerektiğiyle ilgili bilgiler verilmesi, yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamının düzenlemesine katkı sağlayabilir. araştırmada, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını sağlama durumları cinsiyetlerine ve kıdemlerine göre anlamlı düzeyde farklılaşmadığı tespit edilmiştir. bu sonuç, öğretmenlerin cinsiyetlerinin ve kıdemlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemelerinde etkili olan bir faktör olmadığı şeklinde yorumlanabilir. araştırmada cinsiyete ve kıdeme göre farklılık çıkması ağlagül’ün (2009) elde etmiş olduğu sonuçlarla da örtüşmektedir. lakin dündar, kabapınar ve deniz (2011)’in sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri üzerine yapmış oldukları araştırmada kadın öğretmenlerin erkek öğretmenlere göre daha yapılandırmacı bir anlayışa sahip oldukları bulgusu bu çalışmanın sonucu ile çelişmektedir. ayrıca tatli (2007) ve yılmaz’ın (2006) yaptıkları araştırmalarda, sınıf öğretmenlerinin fen ve teknoloji dersindeki yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını düzenlemede journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 78 cinsiyet ve kıdemlerine göre bir farklılığın olmadığı sonucu da bu araştırmanın sonuçları ile benzerlik göstermektedir. dündar, kabapınar ve deniz (2011) de sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri üzerine yapmış oldukları çalışmada deneyimli sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin deneyimsiz olanlara (10 yıl ve daha az) göre yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme durumlarının daha yüksek ve anlamlı olduğu bulgusu da hayli ilginç bir sonuçtur. ocak (2012) da yapmış olduğu araştırmasında yapılandırmacı sınıf ortamı oluşturmanın kıdem acısından anlamlı bir farklılık bulgusu araştırmanın bu sonucu ile çelişmektedir. özelikle kıdem değişkeninde, eğitimleri esnasında yapılandırmacı anlayışı kavramış ve benimsemiş mesleki deneyimi daha az olan yani lisans eğitimlerini yeni tamamlamış olan öğretmenler lehine olması beklenilebilecek olan fark bu araştırma da çıkmamıştır. meslekte yeni olan öğretmenlerin teoride sahip oldukları bilgilerini uygulamaya yeterince yansıtamamaları bu durumun nedeni olarak düşünülebilir. araştırma sonucunda, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin derslerde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeyleri mezuniyet alanlarına göre anlamlı bir farklılık göstermediği; ancak “materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi” alt faktöründe mezuniyet alanı sosyal bilgiler olan öğretmenler aleyhine anlamlı düzeyde bir farklılık gösterdiği belirlenmiştir. bu sonuçlara göre genel anlamda öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede lisans mezuniyet alanlarının tarih, coğrafya ya da sosyal bilgiler olmasının herhangi bir etkisinin olmadığı şeklinde yorumlanabilir. ancak lisans mezuniyeti tarih ve coğrafya olan öğretmenlerin sosyal bilgiler mezunu olan öğretmenlere göre yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede materyal ve kaynakları daha fazla önemsedikleri ve bunları çözüm odaklı kullandıkları söylenebilir. ayrıca mezuniyeti tarih ve coğrafya olan öğretmenlerin genelde mesleki kıdemlerinin fazla olmasından dolayı, sosyal bilgiler mezunu olan öğretmenlere nazaran kaynak ve materyalleri tanıma ve kullanma ile ilgili daha tecrübeli oldukları söylenebilir. gençlerin yeniliğe daha açık ve daha çabuk adapte olduğu da (tezcan, 1995) düşünülürse bu sonuç beklenen sonucun tam aksi gibi görülebilir. bu sonucun nedeni olarak araştırma grubuna katılan tüm öğretmenlerin hizmet-içi eğitimine gelmiş yeniliğe açık ve istekli öğretmenlerden oluşan bir grup olması da gösterilebilir. dolayısıyla aynı konu daha heterojen bir araştırma grubu ile de çalışılarak sonuçlar karşılaştırılabilir. ancak genel itibariyle değerlendirildiğinde öğretmenlerin mezuniyet alanlarının yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme durumların üzerinde herhangi bir etkisinin olmadığı sonucu elde edilmiştir. araştırma sonucunda, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme durumları görev yapılan yerleşim birimine göre anlamlı bir farklılık hüseyin çalişkan 79 oluşturduğu, bu farklılığında köylerde görev yapan öğretmenler aleyhine olduğu tespit edilmiştir. ayrıca görev yapılan yerleşim birimine göre “materyal ve kaynakların çözüme götürmesi” ve “öğrenen ihtiyaçlarını karşılama” alt faktörlerinde de anlamlı düzeyde farklılıkların olduğu belirlenmiştir. bu sonuçlarda da anlamlı farklılıkların yönünün belde ve köylerde görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenleri aleyhine olduğu saptanmıştır. ekinci (2007) de yaptığı araştırmada, sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı yaklaşıma göre hazırlanan programların köy şartlarına uygun olmadığı görüşüne sahip olduklarını ifade etmektedir. brooks ve brooks (1999), honebein (1996) ve windschitl (2002) öğretmenlerin, öğrencilerin istekleri ve merakları doğrultusunda dersi şekillendirmelerini ve kullanılan öğretim stratejilerinde değişikliğe gitmelerini, öğrencilerin soruları üzerinde durmalarını ve öğretmenlerin ham veriler ve temel kaynakların yanı sıra öğrencilerin etkileşimini sağlayan diğer kaynaklar ve materyalleri kullanmalarını yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamları için gerekli görmektedirler. ancak bu şartların daha çok imkânları daha iyi olan yerleşim birimlerinde sağlanabileceği söylenebilir. buna göre imkânları daha iyi olan şehir (il ve ilçe) merkezlerindeki okullarda görev yapan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını sağlama durumlarının daha çok imkânsızlıklara sahip olan kırsal (belde ve köy) bölgelerdeki okullarda çalışan öğretmenlere nazaran daha olumlu olduğu şeklinde yorumlanabilir. bu bağlamda ilçelerde çalışan öğretmenler sahip oldukları imkânları ve mesleki tecrübelerini (şehir merkezlerinde görev yapan öğretmenler genelde daha kıdemli öğretmenlerdir) yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını düzenlemede kullandıkları söylenebilir. yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamının sağlanabilmesinde çevre şartlarının uygun olması, okulun araç-gereç bakımından zengin olmasını yani okulun eğitim-öğretim için gerekli donamı sahip olmasını gerektirir. köylerin ise bu tür imkânlara yeteri kadar sahip olmaması, yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenlemede köylerde çalışan sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerini olumsuz etkilediği şeklinde yorumlanabilir. şehir merkezlerinde ve kırsal bölgede çalışan öğretmenler arasındaki farkın ortadan kaldırılabilmesi için kırsal bölgelerde bulunan okullardaki şartların iyileştirilmeli yani okullar gerekli donanıma kavuşturulmalıdır. ayrıca kırsal bölgelerdeki okullarda görev yapan öğretmenlerin çoğunlukla yeni ve tecrübesiz öğretmenler olması, bölge şartlarını ve o bölgede yaşayan öğrencilerin ilgi ve isteklerini tam olarak bilmemesi de öğretmenler arasındaki farkın nedenlerinden olabileceği söylenebilir. gerek görev yapılacak bölgeyi gerekse o bölgede yaşayan öğrencileri tanımak için öğretmenlere lisans öğrenimleri sırasındaki staj uygulamaları değişik şartlara sahip olan bölgeleri de kapsayacak şekilde daha uzun yaptırılabilir. bu durum, öğretmen adaylarına journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 80 mesleğe başlamadan önce gerekli tecrübeyi kazandırabileceği gibi onları değişik durumlara uyum sağlamaya da alıştırabilecektir. tüm bu sonuçlar genel olarak değerlendirildiğinde ortaokul sosyal bilgiler öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamlarını düzenleme düzeylerinin oldukça yüksek olduğu bu durumun ise programların başarılı bir şekilde uygulanması ve istenilen hedeflere ulaşma açısından oldukça önemli olduğu söylenebilir. ancak kırsal (köy, belde) bölgelerde çalışan öğretmenlerin şehir (il, ilçe) merkezlerinde çalışan öğretmenlere göre yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamını düzenleme düzeylerinin düşük çıkması üzerinde düşülmesini ve kırsal bölgelerdeki şartlarında iyileştirilmesine yönelik tedbirlerin alınmasını gerekli kılmaktadır. kaynakça açıkgöz, k. ü. (2003). aktif öğrenme. i̇zmir: eğitim dünyası yayınları. ağlagül, d. (2009). beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde sınıf öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı düzenleme becerilerinin değerlendirilmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, çukurova üniversitesi, adana. brooks, m. g. and brooks j. g. (1999). in search of understanding: the case for constructivist classrooms. alexandria: merrill prenticehall. büyüköztürk, ş. (2006). sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. ankara: pegem a yayıncılık. crawford, m. and witte, m. (1999). strategies for mathematics: teaching in context. educational leadership, 57(3) 34-38. çiftçi, s., sünbül, a.m. ve köksal, o. (2013). sınıf öğretmenlerinin yapılandırmacı yaklaşıma göre düzenlenmiş mevcut programa ilişkin yaklaşımlarının ve uygulamalarının eğitim müfettişlerinin görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi. mersin üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 9(1), 281-295. dündar, ş., kabapınar, y. and deniz, l. (2011). constructivist learning environments in social studies classes: teachers’ perceptions. the international society for the social studies annual conference proceedings, issue 1, february 24-25, orlando, 34-38. ehman, l. h. (2002). why haven’t secondary social studies teachers adopted information technologies? the international social studies forum, 2(2), 175–178. hüseyin çalişkan 81 ekinci, a. (2007). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programının yapılandırmacı yaklaşım bağlamında değerlendirilmesi. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, osmangazi üniversitesi, eskişehir. fer, s. ve cırık, i̇. (2006). öğretmenlerde ve öğrencilerde, yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı ölçeğinin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması nedir? yeditepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 2(1), 1-26. fosnot, c. t. (1996). constructivism: a psychological theory of learning. c. t. fosnot (ed.), constructivism: theory, perspectives and practice (p. 8-33). new york: teachers college press. gömleksiz, m. n. (2005). yeni ilköğretim programının uygulamadaki etkililiğinin değerlendirilmesi. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri dergisi, 5(2), 339–384. gömleksiz, m. n. (2007). yeni ilköğretim programına ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından değerlendirilmesi. eğitim araştırmaları, (27), 69–82. gözütok, d., akgün, ö. e. ve karacaoğlu, ö. c. (2005). i̇lköğretim programlarının öğretmen yeterlilikleri açısından değerlendirilmesi. eğitimde yansımalar viii yeni ilköğretim programının değerlendirme sempozyumu bildiriler kitabı (s. 17–40). ankara: sim matbaası. honebein, p. c. (1996). seven goals for the design of constructivist learning environments. g. b. wilson. (ed.) constructing learning environments: case studies in instructional design (p. 11-24). englewood cliffs: educational technology publications, inc. journell, w. (2009). maximizing the potential of computer-based technology in secondary social studies education. social studies research and practice, 4, 55-70. karadağ, e., deniz, s., korkmaz, t. ve deniz, g. (2008). yapılandırmacı öğrenme yaklaşımı: sınıf öğretmenleri görüşleri kapsamında bir araştırma. eğitim fakültesi dergisi, xxi (2), 383-402. karasar, n. (2005). bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. ankara: nobel yayın dağıtım. kaya, y. (2008). social studies teachers' views of learner‐centered instruction. european journal of teacher education, 31(1), 35-53. kindsvatter, r., wilen, w. w. and ishler m. (1996). dynamics of effective teaching. new york: longman publishers. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 49-83 82 korkmaz, i̇. (2006). yeni ilköğretim programının öğretmenler tarafından değerlendirilmesi. i. ulusal sınıf öğretmenliği kongresi bildiriler kitabı [(2), 249–260]. ankara: kök yayıncılık. loyens s. m. m., rikers, r. m. j. p. and schmidt, h. g. (2008). relationships between students’ conceptions of constructivist learning and their regulation and processing strategies. instructional science, 36(5-6), 445–462. luke, c. l. (2004). inquiry-based learning in a university spanish class: an evaluative case study of a curricular implementation. unpublished doctoral dissertation. texas university, texas. marra, r. (2005). teacher beliefs: the impact of the design of constructivist learning environments don instructor epistemologies. learning environments research, 8, 135–155. meb. (2005). i̇lköğretim sosyal bilgiler dersi öğretim programı ve kılavuzu 6-7. sınıflar. tc. milli eğitim bakanlığı talim ve terbiye kurulu başkanlığı. ankara: meb yayınları. ocak, g. (2012).öğretmenlerin yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı kurma başarılarının öğretmen ve öğretmen adaylarınca değerlendirilmesi. eğitim ve bilim, 37(166), 25-40. özdemir, m. s. (2005). i̇lköğretim okullarındaki öğretmenlerin yeni ilköğretim programına (iv. sınıflar) ilişkin görüşleri. xiv. ulusal eğitim bilimleri kongresi bildiriler kitabı (s. 573–581). denizli: anı yayıncılık. özerbaş, m. a. (2007). yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamının öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına ve kalıcılığına etkisi. türk eğitim bilimleri dergisi, 5(4), 609-635. pedersen, s. and liu, m. (2003). teachers’ beliefs about issues in the implementation of a student-centered learning environment. educational technology research and development, 51(2), 57–76. perkins d. n. (1999). the many faces of constructivism. educational leadership, 57(2), 354– 371. safran, m. (2004) i̇lköğretim programlarında yeni yaklaşımlar sosyal bilgiler. bilim ve aklın aydınlığında eğitim dergisi, 5(54-55), http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/sayi5455/safran.htm adresinden indirilmiştir. scott, b. n. (2008). the role of teacher epistemology in integrating student-centered instructional software: a case study in social studies education. unpublished doctoral dissertation, auburn university, auburn, alabama. hüseyin çalişkan 83 scott, b. n. and hannafin, r. d. (2000) how teachers and parents view classroom learning environments. journal of research on computing in education, 32(3), 401-416. şimşek, n.(2004), yapılandırmacı öğrenme ve öğretime eleştirel bir yaklaşım. eğitim bilimleri ve uygulama, 3(5), 115-139. tatli, e. (2007). sınıf öğretmenlerinin fen ve teknoloji dersinde yapılandırmacı öğretmen rollerini yerine getirme düzeyleri. süleyman demirel üniversitesi, burdur. tenenbaum, g., naidu, s., jegede, o. and austin, j. (2001). constructivist pedagogy in conventional on-campus and distance learning practice: an exploratory investigation. learning and instruction, 11, 87-111. tezcan, m. (1995). toplumsal değişme, ankara: bilim yayınları. thomas, a. l., shifflet, r. a. and weilbacher, g. a. (2014). patterns of early childhood, elementary, and middle-level social studies teaching: an interpretation of illinois social studies teachers’ practices and beliefs. the social studies, 105(6), 283-290. watson, j. (2000). constructive instruction and learning difficulties. support for learning, 15(3) 134-140. windschitl, m. (2002). framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: an analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. review of educational research, 72(2), 131-175. yaşar, ş. (1998). yapısalcı kuram ve öğrenme öğretme süreci. anadolu üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 8(1-2), 68-75. yılmaz, b. (2006). beşinci sınıf öğretmenlerinin fen ve teknoloji dersinde yapılandırmacı öğrenme ortamı düzenleme becerileri. yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, yıldız teknik üniversitesi, i̇stanbul. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2022:13 (3),229-255 cultural representation in english and arabic textbooks endorsed by indonesian government: what do textbooks tell us about? st kuraedah1, fahmi gunawan2, samsu alam3, m. faruq ubaidillah4 abstract although research on cultural representation in textbooks has been widely discussed, little is known about the cultural representation in arabic and english textbooks endorsed by the indonesian government. this study investigates the cultural representation in the two textbooks to fill the lacuna. nested in the conceptual framework of cultural representations of a social context that consists of (1) introduction, (2) time, (3) profession, (4) health, (5) story and (6) daily activities, the present study reports that the culture in the two textbooks is represented using the categories of person, product, perspective, and practice. specifically, in the person category, arabic textbooks display more arabic names than local names and tend to be linguicism. this case is contradictory to english textbooks which accommodate some familiar local words. in general, more cultural representations are presented in the forms of local culture than foreign cultures, although in some parts, english textbooks are different from arabic textbooks. for example, arabic textbooks provide more visual data and contrast with english books in local culture. likewise, arabic textbooks tend to present more verbal than visual data in foreign cultures, while english textbooks do not. finally, this research has implications for the need for specific regulations from the indonesian government to regulate the percentage of cultural values in arabic and english textbooks so that they can stimulate the emergence of cross-cultural understanding, which is essential for multicultural education. keywords: arabic textbooks, cultural representation, english textbooks, foreign culture, local culture. introduction english learners throughout the globe are more likely to use textbooks as their primary resource for learning the language and culture of the target language despite the fast growth of technology (lee & li, 2020; sadeghi & sepahi, 2018). as learners participate in their learning, gray (2013) contends that textbooks can be the primary means of language learning that function as agents of socialization. in the same vein, textbooks are considered information centers for teachers and students worldwide (imelwaty et al., 2022; yazan et al., 2021). a report conducted by risager 1 dr. institut agama islam negeri kendari, southeast sulawesi, indonesia; kuraedahshahib@gmail.com 2 dr. institut agama islam negeri kendari, southeast sulawesi, indonesia; fgunawan@iainkendari.ac.id 3 dr. candidate, washington state university, usa; alanmaddussila@gmail.com 4 dr. candidate, universitas islam malang, indonesia; mfubaidillah@unisma.ac.id mailto:kuraedahshahib@gmail.com mailto:fgunawan@iainkendari.ac.id mailto:alanmaddussila@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 (2018) showcased that textbooks can represent the perspectives, persons, practices, and products of the target language to develop a cross-cultural understanding for language learners. this cultural representation can undoubtedly affect their image of the target language. it is vital because language learners in various higher education institutions, especially in indonesia, do not have direct access to communicate with speakers of the target language in everyday life. they, in fact, only communicate with the instructors and rarely communicate directly. as reported by birrell (2006) and jwa (2017), on the low level of english proficiency among international students graduating from australian universities, one of the barriers is social integration with native speakers. as a result, many international students cannot access an adequate level of language experience. empirical evidence reported that foreign language textbooks help language learners develop linguistic skills and knowledge and preserve their cultural identity (davidson & liu, 2020). this can be found in textbooks that focuses on a particular local culture, such as japan. on the other hand, kramsch (1988, p. 65) asserts that textbooks are considered 'culturally coded educational constructs.' textbooks represent how writers and publishers understand language, culture, and learning and how they interpret the world that is integrated with the target language and cultural communities. in short, textbooks are a vehicle to canalize the language and culture of the target language, apart from functioning as agents of socialization, information centers, centers of cultural representation, identity preservation, and construction of culturally coded education (halpern, 2018; honegger, 2020; stacy et al., 2020; taylor, 2022). to date, there is a growing body of textbook research examining cultural representations. however, little is known about arabic and english textbooks in the indonesian context. therefore, it is imperative to determine whether the curriculum content relates to education and cultural introduction in islamic institutions. in particular, it has been injected into two foreign language textbooks and how to infuse arabic and english in the islamic educational institutions, madrasah tsanawiyah (islamic junior high school) that recent reach 18,176 in number (emis data of the ministry of religion of the republic of indonesia. 2019/2020). existing studies on textbook analysis have been extensively enacted from multiple perspectives. first, previous research examines the representation of textbooks in various languages that convey cultural and ideological meanings about certain communities, identities, and target languages. in general, terms in different languages manifest a diversity of differences, hybridity, practices, st kuraedah, et. al. 231 perspectives, and members who have specific community characteristics, such as in japan (kubota, 2003), denmark (risager, 2016), and france (thompson, 2013). likewise, the research is limited to using one particular theory in analyzing data, such as the framework of critical multiculturalism (thompson, 2013), social-semiotic theory of meaning (chapelle, 2016), critical discourse analysis (risager, 2018), and gray's (2013) crucial work on language textbooks (bory, 2018). second, the previous research examines cultural representation from a pedagogical perspective (bennett et. al., 2003; byram, 2013; kramsch, 2013; syairofi et al., 2022). these studies revealed that language and culture are inextricably linked, implying that learning languages without cultural elements in textbooks would merely develop pupils' speaking abilities. they will be unable to comprehend the culture associated with the language learned. further, in syairofi et al’s (2022) work, theories of sla are applicable as pedagogy-driven activities in student learning. third, previous research also examined cultural representations related to cross-cultural teaching and learning materials (awayed-bishara, 2015; sadeghi & sepahi, 2018; su, 2016; tajeddin & teimournezhad, 2015). findings from the study suggest that culture has a significant role in language teaching and learning. culture is an essential component of any language teaching approach. the increasing awareness of readers about the importance of culture in cross-cultural communicative competence and language education raises the passion for analyzing cultural information in a textbook. interestingly, the three trends show that the analysis of artistic representation in arabic and english textbooks in indonesia is under-researched. to the best of our scholarly understanding, two studies have examined the cultural representation in the indonesian textbooks (riadini & cahyono, 2021; setyono & widodo, 2019). however, these studies do not comprehensively compare arabic and english textbooks for junior high students. in response to this void, the present study explores the cultural representations manifested in arabic and english textbooks used by indonesian junior high school students. more specifically, this study portrays textual and visual contents in the textbooks. therefore, this study is guided by the following two research questions: 1) how are local and foreign cultures represented in the two textbooks? 2) how is the cultural content in the two textbooks defined? the answers to these questions shed light on both theoretical and empirical contributions. theoretically, this research extends the literature by analyzing cultural representations in textbooks involving the theory of kachru (1985) regarding local culture and foreign culture, moran (2001) journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 regarding cultural representation, and krippendorff (2013) regarding verbal text and visual text. while empirically, this study caters to new insights into how culture in arabic and english texts is represented critically and compare the similarities and differences between the two textbooks. the concept of cultural representation in textbooks cultural representation based on moran's (2001) theory the concept of culture is complex and multi-dimensional to define. however, various definitions have been used to describe the term culture. this study uses moran's (2001) definition, which contends that culture is "the evolving way-of-life of an individual or group, which is made up of practices and products that are shared by all members based on common worldviews" (moran, 2001. p. 24). moran (2001) also classifies culture into products, practices, perspectives, communities, and persons. however, this study only uses four cultural items: products, procedures, attitudes, and persons because community items include item persons. the artistic representation in the textbooks in this study refers to several indicators of cultural expression carried out by moran (2001), as shown in table 1. table 1 cultural representation dimensions examples products artifacts : food, documents, language, money, tools place : buildings, cities, houses institutions : family, law, economy, religion, education, politics art forms : music, clothes, dancing, painting, movie, architecture practices operations : manipulation of cultural products acts : ritualized communicative practices scenarios : extended communicative practices lives : stories of members of the future perspectives they represent the perceptions, beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie the products and guide people's behavior in the practice of culture. they can be explicit, but often they are implicit, outside conscious awareness person they refer to individual members who embody the culture and its communities uniquely. personal identity and life history play critical roles in developing a cultural person. cultural representation based on the theory of kachru (1985) the circle model theory, developed by kachru (1985), is also used in this study to define culture. a three-circle model proposed by kachru (1985) depicts the spread of english in three concentric spheres. these circles represent "dissemination, acquisition patterns and functional domains in which english is spoken across cultures and languages" (kachru, 1985, p.12). inner circle refers to the traditional basis of english which is dominated by variations of the mother tongue or first st kuraedah, et. al. 233 language. the united states, united kingdom, canada, australia, and new zealand are countries that are considered to be included in the 'inner circle.' the term 'norm-providing' is used here in english. the early stages of the spread of english in non-english-speaking societies, such as the former british colonies of malaysia, singapore, india, ghana, and kenya, are covered under the outer circle model. some people in these nations believe it to be a "norm-developing" language. expanding circle refers to countries where english is studied as a foreign language and serves as the most valuable means of international communication, such as indonesia, china, japan, greece, and poland. the english used in expanding circles is considered 'norm-dependent.' in this regard, this study uses an inner ring or norm providing local culture and an expanding circle or normdependent as a foreign culture in arabic and english textbooks recommended by the indonesian government. finally, the present study combines the concept of cultural representation of moran (2001), kachru's (1985) circle model, and krippendorff's (2013) verbal and visual text in analyzing data. this is because most of the previous research adopted textbook cultural representation theory (moran, 2001) and local and foreign culture theory by kachru (1985). however, the use of these two theories seems to be difficult to analyse english and arabic textbooks. this is because the analysis carried out will report findings that are less detailed and comprehensive because they cannot distinguish illustrated text data and written text data. therefore, the use of krippendorff's (2013) theory which divides data into verbal and visual data is unavoidable. methods research design the study employed a content analysis approach based on krippendorff's (2013) methodology to answer the research questions. the textual and visual data from the chosen textbooks are permanent, verifiable, and replicable, which is a benefit of content analysis. the content analysis in the present study includes classifying, coding, and counting the written and visual texts, as opposed to anecdotal analysis, which is dependent on the researchers' impressions and reflection. to enable accurate inferences, the qualitative data was rigorously analyzed and transformed into quantitative data. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 instrument in this empirical study, we adopted english and arabic textbooks for junior high schools. it aims to conduct a comparative study to look particularly at how culture is presented in the two types of textbooks used in indonesian territory which is multiethnic, multireligious, and multicultural. this comparative study allows us to analyze commonalities between different kinds of textbooks and their differences. k-13 curriculum, which is extensively utilized in junior high schools and is endorsed by the indonesian government, is where these two types of textbooks' similarities may be found. this essential criterion indicates that the curriculum artifact is part of the national curriculum artifact used by students and teachers. in the meantime, the distinction can be seen in the cultural representation of the western (english) and eastern worlds (arabic). this empirical study used three english and three arabic textbooks for junior high school students (grade vii, viii, and ix). the arabic textbook entitled "arabic," edited by muh. wahib dariyadi (2020a, b, c) and written by different authors, while the english book used is entitled "when english rings a bell," an english book written by wachidah et al. (2017). detailed information is shown in table 2 below. table 2 english textbooks no textbook series grade authors year editors publishers 1 when english rings a bell 7 siti wachidah, asep gunawan, diyantari, yuli rulani khatimah 2017 rd. safrina noorman dan lestari manggong ministry of education and culture 2 arabic 7 faruq baharuddin 2019 moch. wahib dariyadi ministry of religious affairs 3 when english rings a bell 8 siti wachidah, asep gunawan, diyantari, yuli rulani khatimah 2017 rd. safrina noorman dan lestari manggong ministry of education and culture 4 arabic 8 masrukhin 2019 moch. wahib dariyadi ministry of religious affairs 5 when english rings a bell 9 siti wachidah, asep gunawan, diyantari, yuli rulani khatimah 2017 rd. safrina noorman dan lestari manggong ministry of education and culture 6 arabic 9 yushi m mahmudah 2019 moch. wahib dariyadi ministry of religious affairs data collection we selected verbal and visual texts that describe cultural representations in dialogues, information bubbles, statements, and other texts for textual analysis. following moran's (2001) conceptual st kuraedah, et. al. 235 framework for critically evaluating cultural representations in verbal and visual texts (pictured). a general quantitative analysis (percentage) was performed to determine cultural representation based on the following three criteria: 1. the frequency of appearance of cultural representations in the form of people, products, perspectives, and practices. 2. the frequency with which local and foreign cultures appear in textbooks 3. the frequency of occurrence of verbal and visual texts in the context of introductions, time, professions, health, stories, and daily activities we manually recorded the number of cultural representations in each unit of study (chapters). first, frequency is calculated to identify verbal and visual people, products, perspectives, and practices belonging to both local and foreign cultures. after that, we compared the six textbooks classified into arabic and english. then, following a general quantitative analysis of cultural representations, we conducted discursive research emphasizing cultural visibility in six texts in which we used these parameters of social context: (1) acquaintance, (2) time, (3) profession, (4) health, (5) stories and (6) daily activities. we chose this contextual parameter because this social context shows how culture is comprehensively described. data analysis the present study analyzes cultural representation in english and arabic textbooks using three theories simultaneously: moran's theory (2001), kachru's theory (1985), and krippendorff's theory (2013). the three theories are combined while taking into account the fact that arabic and english are used in the textbooks under consideration. each theory is used in conjunction with the others to make data coding and categorization simpler and more accurate. the theories used are those of moran (2001), which emphasizes the product, practice, perspective, and person conceptual frameworks in examining cultural aspects; krippendorff's (2013) theory is adopted to classify written text and picture text, whereas kachru's (1985) theory highlights the circle data in textbooks, whether it is included in the category of local cultural or foreign cultures. in order to draw reliable conclusions, the qualitative data acquired is next subjected to a systematic analysis and transformed into quantitative data. the researcher tabulates the data as they are being analyzed. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 findings cultural representation in arabic and english textbooks this study explores what cultural content is contained in arabic and english textbooks and what local and foreign cultures are in these textbooks. the results showed that the cultural content contained in arabic and english textbooks took the form of a person, product, perspective, and practice. however, the realization of its occurrence in arabic and english texts varies in frequency. table 3 shows the frequency of the 4ps (person, product, perspective, and practice) in the two language textbooks (english and arabic) that are used for junior high school in indonesia. the finding reveals an imbalance in the cultural aspects. persons were the most frequently appearing element, and perspectives seemed the least. table 3 representation of culture in arabic and english textbooks circle model (kachru, 1985) english arabic p1 p2 p3 p4 p1 p2 p3 p4 (krippendo rff, 2013) verbal text (vt) introduction 2 11 0 0 26 16 1 2 time 4 14 0 0 1 4 0 8 profession 12 0 4 0 9 30 1 9 daily activities 7 3 1 2 10 1 2 15 health 2 2 1 0 2 0 3 17 story 7 3 1 2 6 1 2 7 total frequency 34 33 7 4 54 52 9 58 pictorial text(pt) introduction 13 16 0 1 24 0 1 0 time 10 5 0 1 0 6 0 4 profession 0 0 0 0 35 30 0 6 daily activities 8 11 0 3 14 9 1 15 health 6 0 0 0 17 6 4 17 story 2 0 0 0 4 1 0 1 total frequency 39 32 0 5 94 52 6 43 verbal text (vt) introduction 1 1 0 0 57 1 0 0 time 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 1 profession 1 0 0 2 35 0 0 2 daily activities 1 0 0 0 10 2 0 0 health 0 0 1 0 4 0 1 0 story 0 0 0 0 18 5 0 0 total frequency 3 1 1 5 127 8 1 3 pictorial text(pt) introduction 4 5 1 9 3 3 0 0 time 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 profession 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 daily activities 0 1 0 0 4 5 0 5 health 1 9 0 0 0 0 1 0 story 2 0 1 1 1 4 0 0 total frequency 7 15 4 12 8 12 1 8 note : p1 = person, p2 = product, p3 = perspective, p4 = practice st kuraedah, et. al. 237 representation of person (p1) the representation person (p1) in the local culture of english textbooks is dominated both in and visual text compared to the foreign culture. in the text of local culture, p1 is mentioned 34 times and in the pictorial text is 39 times. meanwhile, in the foreign culture, p1 is mentioned only three times in the verbal text and seven times in the graphical text. the introduction theme has a vast difference between local culture and foreign culture representations. p1 representation, which includes name and individual, is presented chiefly in indonesia culture, as can be seen in the example of pictorial text (1): example (1): english textbooks, grade 8, p. 22 as can be seen in the conversation bubble, all the students use indonesian’s name from different places such as hasnida from padang, a city in sumatra island, max bae from kupang, ntt, tito from seram island, haira from palangkara, kalimantan island, dedeh from bandung, java island, and azwar from makassar, sulawesi island. the pictures also show different kinds of races. it can be seen from their hair and skin colors. meanwhile, foreign culture is represented in limited numbers, as can be seen in example (2): journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 example (2) in english textbooks, grade 8, p. 33 both students used mr and mrs to introduce their parents, which used bapak and ibu for the indonesian context. also, the man mentions his family names that seem foreign (non-indonesian names), such as mr. henry, mrs. yulia, elsa, and erick. although the authors used most indonesian words and terms representing a person, they still inserted foreign names and phrases. meanwhile, in the arabic textbook, the person (p1) representation in the introduction theme is dominated by a foreign culture. in the verbal text, foreign names are found 127 times, and in the pictorial text are found eight times. for local culture, p1 is mentioned 54 times in verbal text texts and 94 times in graphical texts. generally, local culture's data is represented by the parameter person, and only one local indonesian name is found, that's naufal. person's representations which are represented by name and individual, are defined by the foreign culture, which is dominated by arabic words like the example (3): example (3): arabic textbook, grade 7, page 11. st kuraedah, et. al. 239 the textual text (3) is an example of the introduction theme where azzam, from malang, east java, converses with naufal from bogor, west java. both are introducing themselves while introducing their friends named mahmud from samarinda and ahmad from jakarta. four names that are mentioned are derivations from the arabic language. they are azzam, mahmud, and ahmad dan naufal. they start the conversation with assalamualaikum then answered by waalaikumussalam, which is considered as a greeting for muslims when meeting with other muslims which comes from the arabic language, then continued by وسهال which means اهال 'welcome.' representation of product (p2) the representation of p2 in english books also shows an immense difference in local and foreign cultures both in textual and visual texts in all chosen themes. in the textual text of local culture, p2 representations are mentioned 33 times, with the majority mentioned in the article of introduction (11) and times (14). in the visual text, product representation consists of 32. those are contrary to the foreign culture, the wherein textual text is only mentioned once, and the visible text is mentioned 15 times. surprisingly, p2 representation in the health theme was mentioned nine times in the foreign culture. on the other hand, p2 expression that includes artifacts, places, institutions, arts, and food in the local culture is primarily found in the introduction, daily activities, and times. the example of p2 representation in local culture can be seen in example (4): example (4): english textbook, grade 7, page 52 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 the example (4) shows the national days in indonesia (cultural product), which means that although they are textual in english, the content is all about local culture. even some days, only indonesia has kartini day, pancasila day, and batik day. also, the picture of two girls talks about kartini day, which considers local cultural products in indonesia as a symbol of gender equality day. kartini is a symbol of women's resurrection in indonesia. in terms of cultural product, although foreign culture is limited in most themes, in the composition of health, foreign cultural p2 is mentioned many times, as can be seen in example (5): example (5): english textbook, grade 9, page 59 the example (5) shows that the foreign culture produces the medicine used for the example. it can be seen from the name of the products, and one of the labels shows it was a product from greece. meanwhile, there are many medicines produced by indonesian pharmacists. also, indonesia has many traditional medicines, and almost every culture has its conventional treatments. in arabic, p2 representation shows a vast difference between local and foreign cultures in both textual and visual texts in all chosen themes. in the textual text of local culture, p2 representations are mentioned 52 times, and majorities are mentioned in the article of profession 30 times and the composition of the introduction 16 times. these representations are immensely different from foreign cultures, where p2 dimensions are mentioned eight times in the textual texts, and the visual texts are mentioned 12 times. p2 word in a foreign culture in the textual texts is found in the theme of daily activities represented in the picture narrations (a man drying his hair using a hairdryer and a bathroom with a shower. meanwhile, in the p2 representation, the visual texts are found in three themes: introduction, daily activities, and story. the pictures in those themes show a kid who is wearing a turban, a man st kuraedah, et. al. 241 journalist who is interviewing a blonde hair man, a cook who is serving food, a man who is cooking in the kitchen, a man with a white hat is eating bread, sheep, and elephants in muhammad's story. example (6) is the example of visual pictures of foreign culture: example (6): arabic textbook, grade 8, p. 27 the pictures (6) are examples from several data of foreign cultures in the arabic textbook for junior high school in indonesia. besides, those pictures are considered visual text and are considered textual texts because each picture is followed by verbal narration. the first picture is a kid having his breakfast with bread, meat, egg, and vegetable. this picture represents foreign culture because indonesians usually have breakfast with rice, not bread. a second picture is of a man drying his hair with a hairdryer. the third picture is a bathroom with two showers without a bucket dipper that indonesian generally have in their bathrooms. representation of perspective (p3) perspective (p3) representation in culture generally consists of beliefs, values, and attitudes. english textbooks for junior high school endorsed by the indonesian government have not used many terms that show p3 representation. it can be seen from the data that from all themes chosen, only seven times of p3 can be found in local culture and only four in a foreign culture. most p3 representations are in the composition of the profession, which consists of 4 terms, and others are in the theme of health, daily activities, and history, which only one word. the example of p3 can be seen in example 7. dialogue (7) shows that talking about parents' jobs is expected in daily conversation. this shows indonesian culture's habits and attitude. also, mothers or women identically work like homemakers, and fathers work as farmers in many communities in indonesia. miss mutia praises all students whatever students say about their parents' job by saying outstanding, excellent, or sound. it shows that indonesian people get used to respecting all people, whatever their background and profession, as indonesian society's principle. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 example 7: conversation between teacher and student, grade 7, p. 128 p3 representation, based on a theory of moran (2001) which consists of beliefs, values, and attitudes, is accommodated very few in arabic textbooks, both in local culture and foreign culture. in local culture, p3 is found nine times in the verbal texts and six times in the visual texts. meanwhile, foreign culture is found in both textual and graphic texts. vocalized text of p3 dimensions is found in five themes: introduction (1 time), profession (1 time), daily activities (2 times), health (3 times), and story (2 times). visual texts are found in 3 themes: health (4 times), introduction (1 time), and daily activities (1 time). most p3 parameters are located in the health theme in textual and visual texts. below are some examples of perspectives represented in arabic: example 8: representation of perspective (p3) picture six (8) gives the p3 aspect of value, such as caring for a sick friend. solidarity in showing empathy, discipline waking up in the early morning, implementing values that people believe, applying good manners when greeting and interacting with others by saying assalamu alaikum. st kuraedah, et. al. 243 representation of practice (p4) practice (p4) representation in local culture was only mentioned four times in the verbal text and five times in visual text from all the themes chosen. meanwhile, foreign culture was mentioned five times in the spoken text and 12 times in the visible text. of all cultural representatives in this recent study, p4 is the second largest in the number of visual text data after p2 representation that foreign culture represents more than local culture. terms that represent p4 were found the most in the theme of introduction. one example can be seen as follows example (9): representation of introduction practice (p4), grade 7, p. 32 the visual text above shows that students who introduce themselves by using hello. however, saying "hello" is not identical to the indonesian culture. also, talking about hobbies and favorites is not part of local indonesian culture in introductions. in the arabic textbook, p4 representation in verbal text in the local culture is found 58 times in all themes chosen. the article on health has the most mentioned with 17 times. in visual texts, the highest percentage is in the health theme with 17 times. the following examples are the representations of p4 in the textual and visual text: example (10): representation of health practice (p4), grade 8, p. 90 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 example (11): representation of daily activities practices (p4), grade 8, page 22 foreign culture representation in the p4 dimension is limited to verbal and visual text in the arabic textbook. foreign culture representation in the spoken text is found three times in the theme of time (1 time) and profession (2 times). in the visual text, foreign culture representations are found eight times. the time theme is found once, the profession topic is found twice, and the daily activities topic is found five times. the examples of foreign culture representation in the theme of times are students going to the school-by-school bus. an example of foreign culture in the topic of the profession is a chef cooking in the kitchen and an engineer wearing a tie. in daily issues, other examples can be found in everyday activities such as a chef preparing food, a chef cooking in the kitchen, and two boys having breakfast with bread. those examples are considered foreign cultures, but some indonesians have already adapted and practiced those practices. the frequency of local and foreign culture in english and arabic textbooks according to this study, "frequency of local and foreign cultures" (kachru, 1985) in english and arabic textbooks shows that local culture (lc) is more prevalent than foreign culture (fc) in two types of junior high school textbooks. for example, 154 times more lc data can be found in english textbooks than fc data in arabic texts. from the two types of books, it was also seen data showing that arabic texts had a more significant amount of data both on local culture data (lc) and on fc. the representation of each can be seen in the table 4 below: st kuraedah, et. al. 245 table 4 representation of local and foreign culture in english and arabic textbooks circle model (kachru, 1985) frequency (person, product, perspectives, practices) english arabic local culture foreign culture verbal text (krippendorff, 2013) introduction 13 45 time 18 13 profession 13 49 daily activities 13 28 health 8 22 story 13 16 total 78 173 pictorial text introduction 30 25 time 16 10 profession 0 71 daily activities 22 39 health 6 44 story 2 6 total 76 195 total local 154 368 verbal text introduction 2 58 time 3 4 profession 3 37 daily activities 1 12 health 1 5 story 0 23 total 10 139 pictorial text introduction 19 6 time 4 1 profession 0 2 daily activities 1 14 health 10 1 story 4 5 total 38 29 total foreign 48 168 table 4 also presents cultural data based on the type of verbal data, which we call oral text (vt), and visual data, which we call pictorial text (pt) (krippendorff, 2013). it is generally agreed that lc data is superior to fc data in english and arabic textbooks. however, research results on six selected themes found that the uniqueness of the data on lc and fc is found if classified into vt and pt if lc and fc are categorized into vt. first, the pt, english textbooks with vt data types are more dominant than pt data. in contrast, for arabic texts, pt is more prevalent than vt. next, for fc with vt data in english textbooks, the number is less than pt, while for arabic books, vt is superior to pt, as can be observed in the following diagram: journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 figure 1 frequency of local and foreign culture discussion the findings of this study indicate that there are differences and similarities between the two textbooks in displaying cultural values. a fundamental thematic difference is found in the person data. english books present by accommodating the names of people involved in text discourse from specific terms of several regions, such as dedeh from bandung, max bae from kupang, and tito from seram island. the textbook can be said that english prioritizes local accommodation. meanwhile, arabic books use arabic domination by using many names of people taken from arabic vocabulary derivations such as 'azzam, mahmud, ahmad, naufal. a case like this is what phillipson (1997) calls a subtype of linguicism by exemplifying the work of british linguistic imperialism, which is dominating and continuing to be maintained, and the ongoing restoration of cultural, and structural inequalities between english and other languages (davidson, 2020 ). velez (1998) mentioned that linguicism can occur overtly and covertly, linguicism as an ideology and a practice that suggests an imbalance between groups defined based on language and leads to linguistic imperialism. in the process of assimilation, there is an assimilation of language and culture that is usually not equal. some have become more dominant yuen (2010), even though arab countries are not imperialists. still, arabic strongly influences linguistic practice as a form of culture. for example, many indonesians are proud to use names derived from arabic because the name chosen has a positive meaning and hope (neethling, 2012). the scholars like endo (2015), gay (2018), brecht & walton (1994), and lee (2002) argued that it is necessary to preserve the inherited language today if, in the past, it was left to the family or community to maintain the 78 173 10 139 76 195 38 29 0 100 200 300 local culture in english local culture in arabic foreicn culture in english foreign culture in arabic frequency of local culture and foreign culture (verbal text and pictorial text) verbal text st kuraedah, et. al. 247 language. in this case, inclusive terminology must be used to avoid prioritizing one language over another. still, nowadays, language educators need to emphasize the importance of the value of preserving the inherited language not only as a personal resource but also as a personal resource and as the wealth of the national community. despite the fact that the two english and arabic textbooks show similarities in the presentation of local culture, which is more dominant than foreign culture, the author of textbooks lives in a cultural environment that exerts a strong influence on him and is manifested as nationalism and the character of love for the homeland, so that consciously or unconsciously, it is actualized in every activity he engages in; the unbalanced representation frames the relationship between language and culture as one that is more found along national boundaries (mc conachy & hata, 2013). risager's findings (2018) also report that cultures are sometimes framed exclusively within the frame of the language textbooks studied. this assumption implies a dilemmatic condition in accommodating foreign cultures in preparing textbooks. cortazzi and jin (1999) highlighted the importance of cultural information because knowing one's culture will help students better understand their cultural identity and introduce their culture to the world. according to mcconachy and hata (2013) and negedu & ojomah (2021), questions in the textbook focused on achieving student understanding rather than encouraging students to analyze and reflect on socio-cultural content from multiple perspectives, which could lead to a loss of the nation's cultural identity. an abnormality was found in a survey of 10 textbooks at chinese colleges whose results seemed to imply that chinese culture was suppressed since it appeared in just three series of books (liu et al., 2021). in small quantities, it will impact insufficient cultural and linguistic capital for chinese students to communicate their culture with the world. in contrast, lin & yudaw, 2013) suggest a reinterpretation of community-based language revitalization as an emerging process with a common goal that can be sought and actively negotiated. language learners should be able to examine the cultural characteristics portrayed and the explanations for cultural group behavior and values, as proposed by (baker, 2015), to reflect on the validity of cultural generalizations. legitimizing cultural substance, it is necessary to articulate one's critical viewpoint (byram 1997; houghton 2013; kurylo, 2014). textbooks are published nationally and can be accessed so that they become a medium for socialization and broad cultural introduction. as written in the 1945 constitution, article 32, "the state advances indonesian national culture amid world civilization by guaranteeing the people's freedom to maintain and develop their cultural journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 values. the 2013 curriculum design emphasizes the use of a contextual approach so that learning becomes meaningful. the concept of contextual learning is carried out by linking the subject matter studied by students with the context of experience and previous knowledge to find and build students' knowledge independently. since local culture still dominates the surrounding environment and is used as a context for learning, textbook writers often emphasize local culture over foreign culture (wasino, suharso, utomo & shintasiwi,2020). this argument is supported by the work of halliday and webster (2003) that discourse is a process and product, created, embedded, and interpreted in a specific social context. mckay (2003) also reports that the textbooks used in chile emphasize the local culture more than the target language culture. widodo (2018) assumes that the presentation displayed by language users relates to their intentions, ideologies, and thoughts. an investigation in morocco on the design of cultural content for english language learning also revealed that most teachers agree that only a tiny amount of foreign culture should be included in textbooks (adaskou et al., 1990). this study also shows that local culture in the form of illustrated text in arabic textbooks is more dominant than verbal data. on the other hand, verbal data in english textbooks is more prevalent than visual data. images are two-dimensional visual presentations that employ images to think about everyday life (yasar & seremet, 2007). picture media can combine facts and ideas clearly and powerfully by expressing words with pictures because students need visual language (cutting & massironi, 1998). in particular, arabic is relatively foreign compared to english, as kuntz & belnap 2001; trentmann & brewer, 2006) report that students studying abroad, such as in morocco and yemen, use little arabic outside of the classroom. therefore, students often struggle to develop meaningful interactions with native arabic. to help students' understanding and imagination, pictures and writing will explore their creativity from the books they see so that the book's contents become real and more evident to them (carney & levin 2000; cutting & massironi, 1998). in contrast to english which is more socialized, mckay (2003) puts an intense spotlight on it and insists that the international nature of english cannot be attributed to indigenous cultures. thus, where english plays an international role, countries should take advantage of its local content teaching. pictures also help children visualize stories if they do not understand a few words. pictures can help explain the meaning of words and capture the story's intention from the pictures. carney and levin (2002) reported that the image serves to channel messages and information sources to the st kuraedah, et. al. 249 message's recipient. the channel used concerns the sense of sight, and the message conveyed is poured into visual communication symbols. cutting and massironi (1998) showed that the power of image expression as a means of communication in the statement of one picture is equal to thousands of words. in addition, images grab the reader's interest and allow them to focus. illustrations support the presentation of problems more concretely and realistically and enable students to identify objects they cannot understand in words. finally, pictures encourage readers to think more creatively (yasar & seremet, 2007). foreign culture data on visual text in arabic textbooks are more significant than in english books because, in each theme, there is always a person's name mentioned. it turns out that names are dominated by names that use arabic vocabulary in various forms. in english textbooks, the authors accommodate many foreign cultures. because indonesia has adopted many western cultures, image data for english textbooks is easily accessible because indonesian people have widely practiced it. for arabic books, the authors selectively display foreign cultures that are less relevant to the arabic language and the limited cultural data relevant to arabic, which represents the culture of the arab community. apart from this interpretation, canale (2016) reports another argument in the form of the fact that textbooks often construct overly simplistic ideas about culture and cultural differences. mcconachy (2018) also presents data from an english class in japan which shows some students debating the content of textbooks in written reflection. furthermore, various political, social, and professional contexts must be considered when preparing the book. this complex reality presents a challenge to the field of foreign language teaching, and how language learning experiences can be engineered to prepare students for authentic experiences. an interesting discussion about intercultural language learning is the importance of developing students' capacities to interpret and reflect on how culture influences the meaning-making process and how culture is represented in various forms of discourse (baker, 2015; kramsch, 2013; mcconachy & hata, 2013). this study implies that cultural representation is one of the most important aspects discussed in educational textbooks and every aspect of life. in indonesia's multiethnic, multireligious, and multicultural context, understanding across cultures, religions, and ethnicities is essential to create a more harmonious life, develop closer relationships, foster mutual understanding, and avoid various cultural-based conflicts. therefore, the present study suggests the need for special regulations from the indonesian government to regulate cultural values in arabic and english journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 textbooks so that they can stimulate the emergence of cross-cultural understanding, which is important for multicultural education. conclusion the present study found similarities and differences between the two textbooks taught in junior high schools. the difference that needs to be underlined is that the author's presentation of arabic books has fallen into the term linguicism which must be avoided in the preparation of expected textbooks to become agents of cultural socialization. the general similarity can be seen in presenting local culture data in the two books, which dominate more than foreign culture. however, the quantification is more than in arabic textbooks. specifically, the results of this study report that arabic texts provide more visual data to describe local culture than english. on the other hand, english textbooks provide more verbal data (written text) than visual data. arabic textbooks tend to present more verbal data than visual data to describe foreign cultures, while english textbooks give more visual data than visual data. this shows that the author has the freedom to express his perceptions and views. in addition, textbook authors do not follow the same regulations and guidelines for writing language textbooks. in addition, this study also shows differences in the author's perspective in presenting cultural value education that needs to be socialized into textbooks, regardless of the possibility of other factors causing them to have different ways, whether they realize it or not. this study suggests a guideline from the government that is broken down from related regulations regarding the importance of the percentage of cultural values being injected into language textbooks. the textbooks are arranged nicely for understanding cultural values and their diversity which is part of multicultural education. this research is inseparable from various limitations. the weakness lies in the approach used. this study only uses a cultural concept framework with content analysis and does not use data analysis of critical discourse analysis, corpus analysis, multimodal, and multimodal semiotics. similarly, the data used are limited to arabic and english books for junior high schools and do not discuss arabic and english books for elementary, high school, and university students. therefore, future research is encouraged to analyze textbooks using discourse analysis, multimodal analysis, corpus analysis, or a combination of the three examinations. st kuraedah, et. al. 251 references adaskou, k., d. britten and b. fahsi. (1990). design decisions on the cultural content of a course for morocco. elt journal 44(1), 3–10. awayed-bishara, m. (2015). analyzing the cultural content of materials used for teaching english to high school speakers of arabic in israel. discourse & society, 26(5), 517–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926515581154. baker, w. (2015). culture and identity through english as a lingua franca. de gruyter mouton. bennett, j. m., bennett, m. j., & allen, w. (2003). developing intercultural competence in the language classroom. culture as the core: perspectives on culture in second language learning, 237–270. birrell, b. (2006). implications of low english standards among overseas students at australian universities. people and place, 14(4), 53-64. brecht, r. d., & walton, a. r. (1994). national strategic planning in the less commonly taught languages. the annals of the american academy of political and social science, 532(1), 190-212. byram, m. (1997). 'cultural awareness' as vocabulary learning. language learning journal, 16(1), 51-57. byram, m. (2013). foreign language teaching and intercultural citizenship. iranian journal of language teaching research, 1(3), 53–62. canale, g. (2016.) researching culture in foreign language textbooks, or the politics of hide and seek. language, culture and curriculum, 29(2), 225–243. carney, r. n., & levin, j. r. (2002). pictorial illustrations still improve students' learning from text. educational psychology review, 14(1), 5-26. chapelle, c. a. (2016). teaching culture in introductory foreign language textbooks. london: palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137495990 cortazzi, m. and l. jin. (1999). cultural mirrors: materials and methods in the efl classroom. in culture in second language teaching, ed. e. hinkel, 196–219. cambridge: cambridge university press. cutting, j. e., & massironi, m. (1998). pictures and their special status in perceptual and cognitive inquiry. perception and cognition at century's end: history, philosophy, and theory. academic press, san diego, ca, 137-168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926515581154 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 davidson, c. (2020). against english domination in educational contexts: an argument for learning our students' languages and for allowing their voices to speak. international multilingual research journal, 14(3), 206-216. davidson, r., & liu, y. (2020). reaching the world outside: cultural representation and perceptions of global citizenship in japanese elementary school english textbooks. language, culture and curriculum, 33(1), 32-49. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 07908318.2018.1560460 endo, r. (2015). from unconscious deficit views to affirmation of linguistic varieties in the classroom: white preservice teachers on building critical self-awareness about linguicism's causes and consequences. multicultural perspectives, 17(4), 207-214. gay, g. (2018). culturally responsive teaching: theory, research, and practice. teachers college press. gray, j. (2013). critical perspectives on language teaching materials. new york: palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137384263. halliday, m. a. k., & webster, j. j. (2003). on language and linguistics: volume 3. a&c black. halpern, c. (2018). multicultural for who? a review of a comprehensive multicultural textbook. journal of culture and values in education, 1(2), 58-62. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.01.02.4 honegger, m. (2020). what does “education” mean: cultural values in educational language. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 42-53. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12 houghton, s. a. (2013). making intercultural communicative competence and identitydevelopment visible for assessment purposes in foreign language education. the language learning journal, 41(3), 311-325. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2013.836348 imelwaty, s., gunawan, f., kuraedah, s., mardiana, w., wardhana, d. e. c., & boulahnane, s. (2022). moral values in indonesian primary school thematic textbooks: the marrying of language appraisal and moral foundation theories. education 3-13, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279. 2022.2120771. jwa, s. (2017). facework among l2 speakers: a close look at intercultural communication. journal of multilingual and multicultural development, 38(6), 517-529. kachru, b. (1985). "standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: the english language in the outer circle." in english in the world: teaching and learning the language and literatures, edited by r. quirk and h. widdowson, 11–30. cambridge: cambridge university press. https://doi.org/10.1080/%2007908318.2018.1560460 https://doi.org/10.1080/%2007908318.2018.1560460 https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137384263 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.01.02.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12 https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2013.836348 https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.%202022.2120771 st kuraedah, et. al. 253 kramsch, c. (2013). culture in foreign language teaching. iranian journal of language teaching research, 1(1), 57–58. krippendorff, k. (2013). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. los angeles, ca: sage. kubota, r. (2003). critical teaching of japanese culture. japanese language and literature, 37 (1), 67–87. https://doi.org/10.2307/3594876 . kuntz, p., & belnap, r. k. (2001). beliefs about language learning held by teachers and their students at two arabic programs abroad. al-'arabiyya, 91-113. kurylo, a. (2014). intercultural dialogue in practice: managing value judgment through foreign language education lee, j. f., & li, x. (2020). cultural representation in english language textbooks: a comparison of textbooks used in mainland china and hong kong. pedagogy, culture & society, 28(4), 605-623. lee, j. s. (2002). the korean language in america: the role of cultural identity in heritage language learning. language culture and curriculum, 15(2), 117-133. lin, m. c. a., & yudaw, b. (2013). rethinking community-based indigenous language revitalization using cultural–historical activity theory. current issues in language planning, 14(3-4), 436-456. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2013.831586 liu, y., zhang, l. j., & may, s. (2021). dominance of anglo-american cultural representations in university english textbooks in china: a corpus linguistics analysis. language, culture and curriculum, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2021.1941077 mcconachy, t. (2018). critically engaging with cultural representations in foreign language textbooks. intercultural education, 29(1), 77-88. doi:10.1080/ 14675986.2017.1404783. mcconachy, t., & hata, k. (2013). addressing textbook representations of pragmatics and culture. elt journal, 67(3), 294-301. mckay, s.l. (2003). teaching english as an international language: the chilean context. elt journal, 57(2), 139–48 moran, p. (2001). teaching culture. boston: heinle & heinle. neethling, b. (2012). naming in the muslim and xhosa communities: a comparative analysis. south african journal of african languages, 32(2), 161-166. negedu, i. a., & ojomah, s. o. (2021). intercultural communication in the wake of globalism. intercultural education, 32(6), 667-681. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2021.1985805 https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2013.831586 https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2021.1941077 https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2021.1985805 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),229-255 phillipson, r. (1997). realities and myths of linguistic imperialism. journal of multilingual and multicultural development, 18(3), 238-248. riadini, u. s., & cahyono, b. y. (2021). the analysis of the culture-related contents in an indonesian english textbook. indonesian journal of english language teaching and applied linguistics, 5(2), 285-295. risager, k. (2018). representations of the world in language textbooks . bristol, uk: multilingual matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/risage9559 sadeghi, k., & sepahi, z. (2018). cultural content of three efl textbooks: teachers' and learners' cultural preferences and cultural themes of textbooks. pedagogies, 13(3), 222–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554480x.2017.1417128 setyono, b., & widodo, h. p. (2019). the representation of multicultural values in the indonesian ministry of education and culture-endorsed efl textbook: a critical discourse analysis. intercultural education, 30(4), 383-397. stacy, j., fernández, y., & reyes mcgovern, e. (2020). el instituto: centering language, culture, and power in bilingual teacher professional development. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 120-137. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.16 su, y. c. (2016). the international status of english for intercultural understanding in taiwan's high school efl textbooks. asia pacific journal of education, 36(3), 390–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2014.959469 syairofi, a., mujahid, z., mustofa, m., ubaidillah, m. f., & namaziandost, e. (2022). emancipating sla findings to inform efl textbooks: a look at indonesian school english textbooks. the asia-pacific education researcher, online first, 1-12. tajeddin, z., & teimournezhad, s. (2015). exploring the hidden agenda in the representation of culture in international and localised elt textbooks. language learning journal, 43(2), 180–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2013.869942 taylor, b. (2022). a reductionist approach in curricular planning for teaching language arts. journal of curriculum studies research, 4(2), 30-43. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2022.10 thompson, k. d. (2013). representing language, culture, and language users in textbooks: a critical approach to swahili multiculturalism. the modern language journal, 97 (4), 947– 964. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12047.x . trentmann, f., & brewer, j. (2006). consuming cultures, global perspectives: historical trajectories, transnational exchanges. berg publishers. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554480x.2017.1417128 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.16 https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2014.959469 https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2013.869942 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2022.10 st kuraedah, et. al. 255 velez, w. (1998). race and ethnicity in the united states: an institutional approach. rowman & littlefield. wasino, w., suharso, s., utomo, c., & shintasiwi, f. (2020). cultural ecoliteracy of social science education at junior high school in north java indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 11(4), 52-83. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1444/474 widodo, h. p. (2018). a critical micro-semiotic analysis of values depicted in the indonesian ministry of national education-endorsed secondary school english textbook. in h. p. widodo, l. v. canh, m. r. g. perfecto, & a. buripakdi (eds.), situating moral and cultural values in elt materials: the southeast asian context (pp. 131–152). new york: springer. yasar, o., & seremet, m. (2007). a comparative analysis regarding pictures included in secondary school geography textbooks taught in turkey. international research in geographical & environmental education, 16(2), 157-188. yuen, c. y. (2010). assimilation, integration and the construction of identity: the experience of chinese cross-boundary and newly arrived students in hong kong schools. multicultural education review, 2(2), 1-30. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1444/474 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2023:14 (1), 83-109 what type of citizen am i? examining the development of preservice teachers’ civic identities esther a. enright1 & william toledo2 abstract this study advances our understanding of the role social studies methods courses can play in supporting pre-service teachers’ development of their awareness of civic identities. specifically, this study examines the use of interactive civic activities in developing preservice teachers’ awareness of how their civic identities shape their social studies instruction. we analyzed data from preservice students’ written memos, class activities, and conversations. findings show that different instructional activities elicited differences in pre-service teachers’ reported civic identities. additionally, we found that identities were fluid relative to the issues presented, with students identifying with multiple identity types depending on their knowledge of and orientation to the social issues. findings indicate that further research is needed to investigate a possible relationship between perceptions of civic identities and socio-political climates, exploring the intersection between place-based theories of learning and civic identity development in preservice teachers. keywords: civic identity, citizenship types, pre-service teacher education, social studies instruction introduction research suggests that civic engagement enhances important academic outcomes for youth across the grades in elementary, secondary, and postsecondary schooling in the united states (astin et al., 2006; bridgeland et al., 2006; prentice & robinson, 2010). specifically, hurtado & deangelo (2012) found a significant correlation between children’s civic and academic engagement. cress (2012) found that a focus on civic engagement increases a range of important academic knowledge and skills, such as knowledge of subject-area content (gallini & moely, 2003), critical thinking (cress, 2004), communication skills (cress, 2004), as well as emotional intelligence (bernacki & jaeger, 2008). this relationship between civic engagement and positive academic outcomes is bidirectional; high-quality, interactive social studies teaching has also been shown to increased civic engagement (kahne et al., 2006; mcdevitt & kiousis, 2006; syvertesen et al., 2009). given the symbiotic relationship between civic and academic engagement is so fruitful, we are even more 1 assist. prof. of educational leadership, university of maine, usa, esther.enright@maine.edu 2 assist. prof. of secondary education, california state university fullerton, usa, wtoledo@fullerton.edu journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 concerned that research shows that black and latine students (blas, 2019), as well as students living in poverty, are far less likely to encounter high-quality interactive social studies teaching (kahne & middaugh, 2008). thus, the lack of high-quality interactive social studies (and civics) instruction ought to be framed as an issue of justice in schooling, being the most effective way to ensure that all students in the u.s. develop skills, knowledge, and dispositions fundamental to being civically engaged. developing those skills, knowledge, and dispositions at an earlier age is critical since research has documented a decline in feelings of civic efficacy between high school and college (e.g., fry & bentahar, 2013). in this article, we claim that elementary social studies and civics instruction is especially important in building civic engagement, cultivating the fruitful relationship between civic and academic engagement early. the need for early exposure leads us to ask -how might a teacher education social studies methods course support the development of preservice teachers’ capacity to engage in interactive social studies instruction and foster civically engaged students? researchers have noted the reduced time for social studies, in general, and civics instruction, in particular, in elementary schools in the u.s. (burroughs et al., 2005; good et al., 2010; heafner et al., 2006; lintner, 2006; rock et al., 2006). we hypothesize that the reduction in time for social studies coupled with the increased risk of controversy has led teachers to resort to more traditional (less interactive) instructional strategies, including reliance on lectures, textbooks, and worksheets. in preservice elementary teacher education, there is an additional concern that the lack of past interest in teaching social studies together with a dearth of meaningful social studies clinical placements (among other factors) create additional barriers to reversing this concerning trend (good et al., 2010). not only do we need more instructional time dedicated to social studies, but we also need to ensure that the instruction is learner-centered and interactive (hess, 2009; levinson, 2012; mcdevitt & kiousis, 2006), composed of active learning-focused experiences that teach students civic education content as well as develop agency. the lack of emphasis on social studies content in high stakes testing in elementary school leads to higher levels of autonomy for schools and teachers in this diverse curricular space. in their research on citizenship education, willemse and colleagues (2015) claim that “this [autonomy] increases the need for schools and teachers to become aware of how they conceive citizenship and citizenship education [ce], decide how they want to teach ce and reflect on their existing practices and roles” (p. 120). if this is true for in-service teachers, we argue it is also important for pre-service teachers. kaplan and colleagues (2014) call for enright & toledo 85 teachers to focus on four design principles in their roles as identity agents for their students: promote relevance of content, engage students in identity exploration through personal reflection activities, foster a safe classroom environment, and design activities through which students can examine their own identities. we argue that preservice teachers cannot take up this call without a better understanding of their own identities, and for those teaching social studies, understanding their civic identity is crucial. additionally, we claim that preservice teachers need interactive instructional experiences when learning about civic identity if we expect them to be capable of utilizing those strategies themselves in their own teaching. we believe these calls for identity development also necessitate meeting preservice teachers where they are in the development of their identities, better understanding their needs, and fostering their development vis-à-vis preparation for interactive social studies instruction. through this study, we focus on better understanding the role of individual and collaborative interactive activities in a social studies methods course can play in developing preservice teachers’ perceptions of their civic identities and understanding of how those identities could impact their social studies instruction. this research will better enable teacher educators to understand preservice teachers’ needs and prepare them to engage in skilled, interactive social studies instruction. toward these aims, this study investigates the following research questions: 1. how do interactive activities grounded in westheimer and kahne’s (2004) civic identity typology in a social studies methods course help preservice teachers develop awareness of their civic identities? 2. what connections do the preservice teachers make between their reported civic identities and their future social studies instruction? literature review elementary teachers must be positioned to teach social studies as a constellation of disciplines, not merely cover content topically for other disciplines. thus, teacher education needs to prepare preservice elementary teachers to teach knowledge, skills, and dispositions foundational to those disciplines, especially history due to the emphasis on local, state, and national history in the elementary grades. over the past decades, research trends in teacher education have focused on the need for preservice teachers to develop different forms of knowledge used in teaching (e.g., ball & bass, 1999; shulman, 1986), instructional practices (e.g., grossman & mcdonald, 2008; journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 grossman et al., 2009; kazemi et al., 2007), and even moral character (e.g., narvaez & lapsley, 2008; lapsley & woodbury, 2016). we do not challenge the contributions of these bodies of research; however, in this paper, we argue for an increased focus on preservice teacher identity development within disciplinary contexts in teacher education, in particular, to build capacity for social studies instruction. our review of the literature lays out our argument for why preservice teachers’ civic identity development must be a purposeful part of the social studies methods course curriculum in teacher education. to begin, we highlight the crucial relationships between teacher identities and teaching. then, we review the specific importance of civic identities and the relationship of those identities to pre-service teachers’ professional identities. finally, we present our theoretical framework that integrates westheimer and kahne’s (2004) typology of civic identity with an interactive civics activity-based instructional approach (littenberg-tobias, 2015) in a social studies methods course for preservice teachers. relationships between teacher identities and teaching teachers’ professional identities are shaped by a variety of factors, including personal and professional histories (flores & day, 2006). teachers’ identities are influenced by as well as influence the knowledge they use in their professional lives, with this knowledge being directly impacted by political and social forces (britzman, 1991). based on the relationship between teachers’ personal and professional identities, and the ways in which political forces impact identity, we believe that teachers’ personal civic identities, perspectives, and knowledge likely influence their professional identities and how they teach civics in classrooms. the importance of understanding teachers’ civic identities has been established by prior research. for example, over the past decade, two case studies have examined the experiences of teachers working in international schools (alviar-martin, 2011) and the civic identity development of high school teachers (obenchain et al., 2016). in addition, a mixed-methods study examined in-service teachers’ beliefs and classroom goals alongside the westheimer and kahne (2004) framework (patterson et al., 2012). finally, most recently, researchers have used westheimer and kahne (2004) civic identity types to describe the development of preservice elementary teachers’ social justice orientations to teaching (fry & o’brien, 2015) and their understanding of the construct of a good citizen in which they found that pre-service teachers adopted a more personally responsible model of citizenship than a justice-oriented one (o’brien & smith, 2011). enright & toledo 87 this study seeks to extend prior research in two important ways. first, we aim to focus specifically on a case of elementary pre-service teachers developing awareness of their own civic identities through interactive activities and their conceptualizations of civic identity during a social studies methods course. we believe it is important to understand elementary pre-service teachers’ civic identities specifically to provide quality methods course experiences and to help them shape these identities. second, this research was conducted during the aftermath of the 2016 election. as referenced, we believe context plays a particularly important role in how civics is taught and learned in schools. we conducted this study during a time of extreme political polarization in the u.s. following the transition between president barack obama and donald j. trump presidencies. trump’s stances and policies reversed many of those of obama, highlighting the extreme differences in ideology between voting blocks in the u.s. (johnston et al., 2017; pew research center, 2016a, 2016b) that could be found in other public spaces across the country, including public schools (rogers et al., 2017). this study centers on this socio-political context as the participants were examining their civic identities in their methods course. civic identity development in social psychology in this article, we consider specifically civic identities and the relationship of those identities to pre-service teachers’ professional identities. civic identities are developed in different ways, and through experiences that are situated within specific sociopolitical contexts. specifically, we define civic identities as (a) how one defines citizenship and participation in civic life (rubin, 2007) and (b) the civic knowledge one has and how they enact that knowledge (enright, toledo, drum, & brown, 2022; toledo, 2020). as we considered civic identities, we reflected on the ways in which individuals’ multiple identities affect their professional identities, specifically as teachers: the decisions they make, the content they teach, and the perspectives they include or do not include. through this study, we advance the claim that teacher education can learn from research in educational psychology, in particular to learn more about the development of students’ civic dispositions and identities. although beyond the purview of this study, we believe that a better comprehension of how (pre)teachers’ identities influence their social studies instruction will advance our understanding of how instructional interactions between teachers and their students help develop those students’ civic identities in social studies. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 civic identity development and the theory of mind part of the civic identity development that takes place in elementary classrooms has to do with theory of mind (peterson et al., 2012; slaughter, 2015; wellman & cross, 2001). theory of mind, or “the explicit understanding of how human behavior is governed by mental states of belief, intention, memory and desire” (peterson et al., 2012, p. 469), includes people’s capacity to infer another is thinking. this skill is crucial to civic identity development, in general, and civic perspective-taking, in particular, because it lays a foundation for people to understand that their own opinions or beliefs may differ from others on a variety of topics. researchers have defined elements associated with theory of mind that are central to civic engagement and identity development (wellman & liu, 2004): (a) diverse desires, or the capacity to know that others may like and want different things; (b) diverse beliefs, or the capacity to understand that others can hold different beliefs about the same thing; (c) knowledge access, or the capacity to understand that people who have seen or experienced something have knowledge of that event or experience while those who have not seen or experienced it does not; (d) false belief, or the capacity to understand that people take action based on what they think, even if perhaps they are mistaken or misinformed; (e) hidden emotion, or the capacity to understand that people may conceal their emotions intentionally with their facial expressions; and (f) sarcasm, or the capacity to understand that people sometimes say the opposite of what they actually mean in an attempt to provide humor or levity. table 1 3 to 7-year-old children pass rates on theory of mind tests (from slaughter, 2015) test theory of mind concept assessed percentage of children who pass diverse desires different people may want and like different things 92 diverse beliefs different people can hold beliefs about the same thing 87 knowledge access people who see something also know about it; if they do not see, then they do not know 85 we considered each of these six elements to be related to civic identity development to some degree. however, the first three were crucial in considering how students’ civic identities may be built in classrooms: (a) diverse desires, (b) diverse beliefs, and (c) knowledge access. slaughter enright & toledo 89 (2015) looked across multiple studies conducted with american, australian, and european children between the ages of three and seven and determined what percentage of children were able to engage with each of these elements (see table 1). this established that as early as pre-k, children may begin to develop key pieces of their civic identities. additionally, other research indicates that children as young as four years old showed evidence of engaging in identity development and perspective-taking (marvin et al., 1976) (see table 1). we also examined empathy, a concept closely related to civic identity. research defined empathy as one’s affective response to another’s emotional state, or an understanding of what another person may be feeling (eisenberg et al., 1994). for example, someone who was to watch a sad movie and in turn feel sad themselves would be experiencing empathy. empathy, and in turn aspects of civic identities, involves both a cognitive (e.g., understanding of others’ emotions or thoughts) and affective (e.g., shared emotional state or thought pattern) component. piaget (1926) described empathy as thinking that involves envisioning the world and situations that arise within it from the eyes of another. researchers in psychology (batson et al., 1997; lee & ashby, 2001) have researched the concept of empathy with individuals of various ages. in terms of a trajectory of how empathy develops in children by age, eisenberg and colleagues (1998) state that empathy begins to develop in the second and third years of life and tends to increase across early childhood. the research we conducted to examine educational psychology connects back to research directly in civic education. researchers have evidence that children’s civic dispositions and understandings begin to develop long before they reach their teenage years (rubin, 2007) and the ways that young children think about civic issues may be inherently different from the ways their older peers consider these issues (barton & levstik, 1997; schweber, 2008). this signals the importance of understanding teachers’ identities and how they impact their instruction -teachers’ own civic dispositions influence their students’ identities based on what is taught, or not taught, in classrooms. therefore, as teacher educators, we must examine our preparation programs to find opportunities for preservice teachers to learn about their own identities and dispositions in the context of their teaching and content areas. conceptual framework we draw from civic identity and social psychology research to construct our framework for developing preservice teachers’ civic identity awareness, which we will examine in this section. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 we utilized an interactive civics activity process to support students in the development of their civic identities (see figure 1). three elements went into developing this framework. first, we use westheimer and kahne’s (2004) typology of civic identity to structure the learning experiences and provide civic identity content in the social studies methods course at the core of this study. second, we draw from littenberg-tobias’s (2015) conceptualization of interactive civic activities, highlighting the importance of the instructional approach within that methods course to shaping learning opportunities for preservice teachers. third, we examine the development of the preservice teachers’ perspectives using the first three constructs in the theory of mind: diverse desires, diverse beliefs, and knowledge access (wellman & liu, 2004). figure 1 displays a visual of our framework. figure 1 interactive civics activity process selecting a typology of civic identity westheimer and kahne’s (2004) typology of civic identity types emerged from their research on ten programs that participated in the surdna foundation’s democratic values initiative to advance democratic citizenship education. the typology represents three generalized “visions of citizenship” that emerged from their research: the personally responsible citizen, participatory citizen, and justice-oriented citizen (p. 2). westheimer and kahne defined the personally responsible citizen as an individual who contributes to society by obeying existing laws, contributing to civic initiatives (e.g., recycling or donating blood), and acting with integrity within their community. taking a more active leadership role to improve society, their second type is the participatory citizen seeks to care for others in need by organizing initiatives (e.g., environmental clean-ups or a food drive). this more active civic leader has an operational understanding of enright & toledo 91 governance and social organization. they seek to contribute by participating in existing structures and systems, often through leadership roles. the third type is the justice-oriented citizen who challenges the status quo structures and systems to improve society. this type of citizen questions the root causes of injustice, seeking to better understand the foundations of unjust systems. this type of citizen has a more advanced understanding of social change and complex systems as well as skills they use to organize against injustice. we chose westheimer and kahne’s (2004) typology of civic identity for our framework for civic identity development of preservice elementary teachers for three main reasons. first, westheimer and kahne’s research shared a geo-national context with our own research studies completed in the united states. this ruled out other typologies from meaningfully different national contexts and political cultures (e.g., bellamy, 2008; pakulski & tranter, 2000; petrovska, 2019; tranter & donoghue, 2007). second, their typology used direct, familiar language that we felt the preservice teachers could understand and relate to with their experience. we felt that was especially critical given the focus of the methods course was on teaching preservice teachers to develop social studies instructional practices, and there was limited time to teach highly specialized language as content. since elementary teachers are trained as generalists, in comparison to secondary teachers who specialize in a content area, we did not want to assume they had an advanced background in civics content knowledge. this constraint ruled out other civic identity frameworks with highly specialized language from psychology (e.g., petrovska, 2019), identity studies (e.g., bellamy, 2008; hart et al., 2011), or sociology (e.g., tranter & donoghue, 2007). third, prior research studies in teacher education utilize westheimer and kahne’s typology (fry & o’brien, 2015; patterson et al., 2012), allowing us to build on prior work in this conceptual space. supporting civic identity development through interactive civic activities the social studies methods course at the center of this study utilized interactive social studies activities to model their use for preservice teachers. we use littenberg-tobias’s (2015) conceptualization of interactive civic activities: “classroom activities where students discuss issues with one another and engage in hands-on activities” – including, but not limited to, discussions, simulations, and engagement in civic acts, such as letter-writing campaigns (p. 11). littenbergtobias notes three characteristics that meet the definition of interactive activity, citing other research in defining these characteristics. first, the activity is learner-centered, shifting the responsibility of engagement to the student (pederson & liu, 2003). second, the activity requires journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 that students communicate with others in writing or verbally to support their processing of that learning and contribute to a community discourse (lave & wenger, 1991; putnam & borko, 2000). third, an activity is only considered interactive if it engages students in “authentic forms of civic participation that expose students to the types of civic activities they might engage in as adults” (as cited in littenberg-tobias, 2015, p. 12; finlay et al., 2010; levine & higgins-d’alessando, 2010). in this study, we extend this third characteristic to include the practices that social studies teachers engage in as professionals. since research claims social studies instruction that is high-quality and interactive can result in more civic engagement (kahne et al., 2006; mcdevitt & kiousis, 2006; syvertesen et al., 2009) as well as academic engagement (hurtado & deangelo, 2012) in students, this model provides a proximal representation of the type of social studies instruction that, as researchers and teacher education faculty, we want to see in our preservice teachers’ classrooms. furthermore, modeling interactive activities in social studies instruction is critical since research documented that black and latine students, as well as students living in poverty, have less exposure to interactive social studies instruction (kahne & middaugh, 2008), and thus, are less likely to benefit from the documented positive outcomes as well. structuring interactive civic activities to develop diverse desires, beliefs, and knowledge access the theory of mind (peterson et al., 2012; slaughter, 2015; wellman et al., 2001) was used to guide the construction of the interactive civic activities focusing on civic identity development in the social studies methods course at the center of this study. as discussed in the literature review, theory of mind is “the explicit understanding of how human behavior is governed by mental states of belief, intention, memory and desire” (peterson et al., 2012, p. 469). also referred to as mind reading, this ability takes on an important role in civic identity development since the capacity to infer what another thinks or believes is critical to civic discourse. fostering awareness of the first three elements associated with the theory of mind (wellman & liu, 2004) is central to the development of students’ civic identities: (a) diverse desires, (b) diverse beliefs, and (c) knowledge access. in alignment with our argument about the importance of modeling key components of engaging social studies teaching for preservice teachers, the interactive civic activities in the social studies methods course focused on fostering awareness of these three elements as well. awareness enright & toledo 93 was developed through readings, reflections, discussions, and other engaging activities, such as the diverse beliefs sorting activity (see figure 2) and subsequent class discussion. figure 2 diverse beliefs sorting activity method context this research was conducted at a western u.s. public university with very high research activity (formerly known as r1) and high undergraduate activity distinctions. the university is a transitional hispanic serving institution (hsi) that serves over 20 thousand students. data were collected across three semesters in a social studies methods course, with data from 99 preservice teachers (i.e., students in social studies methods courses). data and analysis we used a combination of content analysis (hsieh & shannon, 2005) and grounded theory (charmaz, 1983; 2000) in our data analysis to examine how preservice teachers’ civic identities developed over the course of a semester during social studies methods courses. working within these two complementary and well-established qualitative traditions allowed us to examine data thematically and to identify key themes related to civic identity and civic thinking within the data. more details about these processes can be found in the data analysis subsection. participant selection and characteristics data was collected in the form of written memos, class work samples, and observations from small and whole group discussions over the course of three semesters from a single instructor’s social studies methods course. at the beginning of three different semesters, all the students enrolled in journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 the social studies methods course were asked to participate in the study, which would allow researchers to collect coursework. those students (i.e., participants) were undergraduate students enrolled in either elementary or secondary teacher education programs. they were mostly traditional college-age students (i.e., 18-24 years old). there was substantial racial/ethnic diversity, reflective of the demographics of the hispanic serving institution where the study took place, and nearly equal representation between men and women. the researchers chose to collect data from the complete population rather than engaging in sampling. all students enrolled in the social studies methods course were given the opportunity to participate in the research study, and 99 out of 101 students chose to participate in our research. there are no known distinguishing characteristics separating the two students who opted out of the study from the participants. during the consent process, the students were made aware that their participation in the research would grant them no special privileges or compensation, and their decision to decline to participate would not result in any adverse actions. students’ rights and study details were outlined in consent documents that were approved by the university’s institutional review board (irb). the analysis of the data occurred after the students had received their course grades to rule out any influence the analysis process could have on student assessment. data collection the students were invited to consent to the collection of observational data, their written memos, and class work samples. data were collected both in person as students submitted written work or memos, and virtually as students completed coursework in online environments using digital learning platforms. a total of 99 students across three semesters engaged in five activities related to the westheimer and kahne (2004) citizen types: (a) an individual reading of the article before class; (b) small group discussions on the reading and its themes; (c) a mini-lecture on citizen types and examples of characteristics of each citizen type; (d) a whole group activity in which students used color-coded cards with their names on them to demonstrate their citizen identity and how deeply they cared about different public issues (see figure 2), and (e) a written memo in which students reflected on their engagements with the reading and described their civic identities and how those identities related to their future identities as teachers. the written memo doubled as an activity and formative assessment of the students’ learning. observational data from the discussions, mini-lecture, and whole group activity were collected in the form of video recordings and instructional memos. students’ reported perspectives on their civic identities and relationship enright & toledo 95 to their teaching in whole class discussions, through which data were collected. the written memos served as a third data point to triangulate our findings from the observational and interview data. data analysis we used content analysis to identify and make meaning of the uses, roles, and relationships of words, themes, and concepts in the written data. first, we used conventional content analysis to derive our coding categories directly from the raw data, an inductive strategy (hsieh & shannon, 2005). then, we followed with a directed content analysis strategy in which we used an existing civic identity framework to identify related themes in the data (hsieh & shannon, 2005). additionally, we utilized a constructivist approach to grounded theory as a data analysis technique. this approach to grounded theory supported our efforts “…to pursue varied emergent analytic goals and foci instead of pursuing a priori goals and foci such as a single basic social process” (charmaz, 2014, p. 180). we conducted a two-stage cycle of inductive and then deductive coding of all three data sources (miles et al., 2014). in stage one, we did a round of open coding (maxwell, 2012) to flag key themes in the data related to students’ civic identities to examine relationships between codes. for example, we examined how students self-identified as citizen types in their written memos and how they described their civic thinking or actions in small and whole group discussions. we proceeded with a round of selective coding in which we refined the codes identified in the open coding by searching for the key themes across data sources (maxwell, 2012). this coding strategy allowed us to triangulate the findings. we did this by analyzing each of the three data sources separately and then comparing the findings across those sources. the triangulation process confirmed that the findings for each data source were consistent with the others. for example, during triangulation, we were able to examine how key themes in written memos were present in our observational data and vice versa. in stage two, we engaged in deductive coding (miles et al., 2014) utilizing westheimer and kahne’s (2004) citizen types as thematic codes that we searched for in our three data sources. to establish interrater reliability, we (the two co-authors/researchers) each independently coded a subset of the data and then compared our code schemes to one another to reconcile any differences in understanding of the codes and data. we found that we aligned at a very high rate with one another, and we were easily able to reconcile the couple of instances we were not aligned. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 findings the majority of pre-service teachers self-identified as personally responsible citizens (table 2). table 2 participant reported pre-service identity types with examples from data westheimer & kahne citizenship type number of preservice teachers’ identity types common themes in written memos and discussions example from data personally responsible citizen 70 identified as personally responsible citizens; sometimes based lack of time to be more involved, or a lack of confidence in understanding socio political structures “i would like to be the person who is active and takes charge, but i’m not.” “the other citizens deal a lot with calling issues out that deal with public injustices and they have a lot to do with politics. that is not where i am strong or even comfortable.” participatory 8 identified as participatory citizens; described leadership qualities that allowed this “a participatory citizen is an active member of the community and enjoys helping those in need. i feel like this fits me because i try to be involved in the community by volunteering and communicating with other members of my community in school and work.” “i used to organize food drives and blood drives for my school and was good at leading groups to do the same.” justice oriented 8 identified as justice-oriented; described deep commitments to fighting for social justice; “progressive values,” commitment to deep engagement with social issues. “i truly desire advocating for those that have been silenced to have opportunities.” “i have always tried to pursue most issues from a ‘why’ philosophical perspective in order to create solutions.” “i am always questioning the system. i am not content with the status quo.” other 13 identified as multiple citizen types; identified connects and disconnects with multiple citizenship types. “i do not believe that i am exclusively just one type of citizen. i personally think that i draw out a few characteristics from all three of the different citizen types. i also admit that there are characteristics in each citizen type that i know i don’t align with.” “i feel that i do not fit into any one category. as far as my actions go, i feel that i identify as a personally responsible citizen; however, in my thoughts and feelings i identify as more of a justice-oriented citizen.” enright & toledo 97 each semester, 50 percent of the class or more ranked every single issue at a seven or higher for their personal care for every issue. as westheimer and kahne (2004) indicated, this was the type of program that students likely saw most frequently in schools, which may have influenced preservice teachers’ selections of this identity type. this was also confirmed by students in their discussions and memos. table 2 displays our participants’ reported pre-service teacher identity types with examples from our data sets. pre-service teachers' civic identity apprenticeships by and large, the participants reported in class discussions and memos that they identified with the model of personally responsible citizenship (see table 3). 70 of the 99 students identified as personally-responsible citizens. however, perhaps even more noteworthy was that the next most common identification was “other” students who felt that they were a “blend” of different citizen types, or that they were not clearly aligned with just one type of citizenship. table 3 participants’ reported identity types by course section semester personally responsible participatory justice oriented other total participants fall 2018, section 1 13 1 1 1 16 fall 2018, section 2 21 0 1 3 25 spring 2019, section 1 9 0 3 1 13 spring 2019, section 2 9 0 1 2 12 fall 2019, section 1 5 4 1 2 12 fall 2019, section 2 13 3 1 4 21 70 8 8 13 99 connections between civic identities and teaching dispositions/ other identities pre-service teachers made clear and distinct connections between their self-reported civic identities and how these identities may influence how they teach social studies content. one pre-service journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 teacher, trevor, identified as a justice-oriented citizen. he noted that this identity would influence how we taught social studies, saying, “in how i teach social studies and civics in the future, i believe that the question, ‘why?’ will be at the root of most of my inquiries. for example, rather than discuss directly what happened in the civil rights movement, i would prefer to ask, ‘why did the civil rights movement occur?’ [my classroom] will be primarily inquiry-based.” here, trevor saw the connection between justice-oriented citizenship and inquiry-based teaching and learning, a central tenet of the social studies methods class. in a small group discussion, trevor elaborated on this. “justice is a piece of inquiry, because you are allowing students to make their own connections and form their own arguments. you are giving them the tools, the compelling question, but they are going to be the ones making their own interpretations. that is justice.” another student spoke to the possible tension between her identity as a personally-responsible citizen and how she would teach students social studies in her own future classroom: i could see that my lack of being a participatory or justice-oriented citizen could affect the way that i teach civics. i may unconsciously not teach practices or activities that promote solving problems or getting to the source of problems since i have seen myself as a personally responsible citizen (jocelyn, written memo). here, jocelyn identified the possibly problematic nature of teachers’ civic identities impacting their instruction, and how they taught students. i would say i am a personally responsible citizen. however, i would like to be a participatory citizen, i feel like i have done things that fall into this category. i act responsibly in my community, work and pay taxes. i follow the laws and donate my time to those in need. it may influence my teaching because i want to help kids be responsible, but i need to aim higher (courtney, written memo). here, courtney spoke to the need to “aim higher” to push students to a type of civic thinking and identity fulfillment beyond her own. justin described that he would like to become more justice-oriented and engaged with his community to set a positive example for his future students: this could affect my way of teaching social studies, because if i preach about going out to the community and helping out, but do not really do it myself, i would be a hypocrite. (justin, written memo). enright & toledo 99 justin discussed not only the disconnect between his own civic identity and how he wanted to teach students, but the tension between his identity and how he wanted to teach students social studies. jill felt this same tension: i guess you could say i “do the bare minimum.” i feel that with children, leading by example is incredibly important and by me simply going with the flow of the community and not really taking a stance or going out of my way in big ways could possibly hinder the children from doing so as well (jill, written memo). other students made connections between their other personal and professional identities and their civic identities: i lie somewhere between participatory and justice-oriented. i would like/ strive to be justice-oriented. as an undergraduate in philosophy, i loved the critical assessment and look beyond the micro systems to see the broader scope/ holistic causes (bonnie, written memo). mismatch of civic identity labels and pre-service teacher traits pre-service teachers’ conceptualizations of their own identities did not always match the civic traits/ ways of thinking that they displayed. one pre-service teacher, jenny, described herself in a class discussion as a personally responsible citizen. out of all three, i definitely fit the mold of the personally responsible citizen. i was raised to always contribute within my household, which in a way is the first “community” i was exposed to. not contributing or giving back meant that i was lazy and not a good daughter, although that isn’t the best mind set, it did make me be self-aware (class discussion, 5/6/19). however, that same day, jenny displayed justice-oriented civic traits. in a small group discussion, she told her group that, “part of our role as teachers is to make sure our students are protected. everything that is going on with trump right now, kids will come up and talk to me about that. they will ask about the wall, or deportation. i just tell them, ‘it’s unfortunate that it’s that way.’ i don’t know if that is showing my bias, but i can’t not say anything because it’s a social justice issue.” here, jenny exhibited justice-oriented citizen traits. later, jenny reiterated another justice-oriented disposition. when talking about the teaching force, she said, “we need more diversity. no offense, but it is a bunch of white people. as a person of color, i see the need for more [teachers] of color. i have all these little brown kids, who i might be the first brown teacher they had. i might also be journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 the only [teacher of color] one at the school, which makes it hard for me”. here, jenny spoke to the social justice issue of diversifying the teaching force for the benefit of students having teachers who “look like them,” and for teachers to have colleagues who look like them (bristol & goings, 2019; ladson-billings, 1994). fluidity of civic identities in addition, several students indicated that they identified with multiple types of civic identities depending on either their connection to a civic issue or their knowledge about a civic issue. one pre-service teacher named adam said in a class discussion, “i feel like i am sometimes a participatory citizen and sometimes i am justice-oriented. it kind of depends on [the issue], like how much i know about it, or am connected to it. cindy echoed this same sentiment. “for me i am both [indicating personally responsible and participatory] or maybe even all three? some things i care a lot about, like when we talked about gun control, as a teacher, it’s always going to be something because of the school shootings. other things, like marijuana. i don’t partake, so i just… feel disconnected maybe. i am kind of all of these.” adam and cindy spoke to the possible fluid nature of civic identities and indicated that perhaps one’s civic identity shifts and changes from issue to issue, or even from context to context. other students spoke to this same phenomenon: “i don’t think we can be just one, consistently. it goes all over the map, for me. some things i could care less about, others i am all in, like all in. and i would organize for those things, or start to think of the root cause,” said julia. students wrote about this in their memos as well: i do not believe that i am exclusively just one type of citizen. i personally think that i draw out a few characteristics from all three of the different citizen types. i also admit that there are characteristics in each citizen type that i know i don’t align with (madison, written memo). these data, alongside the sizable number of students who considered themselves a blend of different citizen types in their memos, speak to the possible fluidity of civic identities, particularly in young professionals, still determining their roles in society. discussion this study confirms that preservice teachers do not arrive at their social studies methods courses with a tabula rasa regarding civic identity. their prior exposure to citizenship models across enright & toledo 101 contexts and influencers amount to more than prior experience with civics; that exposure adds up to an apprenticeship of sorts. traditional preservice teachers in university-based teacher education programs, a description that represents all the participants in this study, are being inducted into citizenship as they are becoming professional teachers. in other words, they are at critical junctures in their civic identity development as well as professional identity development. they have proximal exposure to civic education as children, then adolescents, and now early adults. they are beginning to vote, can legally run for office, and are, in general, viewed as full citizens in their national, state, and local contexts. in the case of developing professional teachers, their early exposure to civic education creates templates for how preservice teachers view their own civic identities. this study advances the argument that social studies methods courses need to consider these templates for civic identity and the apprenticeships that have fostered the development of those civic identities, in particular when preparing preservice teachers to teach social studies. westheimer and kahne’s (2004) conceptualizations of citizenship offer a starting place to begin to conceptualize civic identities to support this work in social studies methods courses. however, as found in previous work on preservice teacher identity development (e.g., fry & o’brien, 2015), this research indicates that civic identity may be more fluid, and that perhaps, the teachers and students in our school may shift between these identities based on the civic issue at hand and their connection to the issue. as adam had mentioned, for some individuals it may be that they exhibit personally responsible civic involvement or traits when it came to issues that they were less connected to, and that they may exhibit participatory or justice-oriented citizenship traits when it came to issues they were more connected to or knowledgeable about. additionally, a sizable number of students identified as “in-between” different citizenship types, or noted that they connected to different citizen identities depending on the focal public or social. this indicates that this framework may need to be reconceptualized as a more fluid framework. providing students a space to consider and engage with their civic identities proved to be beneficial to supporting students in their civic and professional identity development. by offering multiple ways for students to consider and debrief their civic identities, from individual reading and memo writing to small and whole group discussions and activities, the methods course provided a space that students utilized to problematize civic identities and to consider connections between their civic identities and other lived experiences. moreover, the activities and assessments in the course allowed students to consider pieces of their identity that many of them had not before in ways that, journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 according to their memos and class discussions, may substantially impact their future as teachers. as westheimer and kahne (2004) indicated, civic education programs that promoted personally responsible citizenship were most common in schools. based on this claim, it was likely that many pre-service teachers were exposed to this type of civic development program in schools as they engaged in practicum experiences, or even as students themselves, which may have influenced pre-service teachers’ selections of this identity type. for example, one student in the methods course affirmed, “when we grew up, it was always “character counts” type stuff. talk to others with respect, follow the rules. i was raised to be more of a personally responsible citizen by both my parents and my teachers” (jessica, written memo, 11/26/18). for this to change, public schools would need to shift to more critical civic thinking and learning. limitations and implications one limitation of this work is how the framework was used. the original purpose of the westheimer and kahne (2004) framework was to identify civic programs in schools. here, the framework was used by teachers to consider their own identities based on these categories. it may be that a more specific, fluid framework would lend itself more-so to this type of identification. however, this research allowed us as researchers and these students to understand civic identities and their connections to teaching dispositions, which provided useful data in beginning to think about civic identities and their connection to teaching social studies. future research may focus on adapting the westheimer and kahne framework to update it for use with pre-service and in-service teachers to help teachers better understand their civic identities and how these identities connect to their teaching practices. another possible limitation may be the contentious political climate that surrounded this study’s data collection and analyses. however, we believe the political climate allows us to speak to a specific (and important) historical context that researchers in the future will need to understand. we believe future research should continue to examine pre-service teachers’ civic identities with a consideration of larger sociopolitical contexts and how those contexts may influence civic identities and civic thinking. enright & toledo 103 conclusion this study examined the ways that pre-service teachers conceptualized their own civic identities through a variety of individual and collaborative data. our findings speak to the fluid nature of civic identities, and the justice-oriented thinking and traits many pre-service teachers displayed, regardless of their self-identification as other citizen types. the sociopolitical issues that surrounded greater society influenced their thinking and were often brought up in the classroom. we plan to continue to research how pre-service teachers think about civic identities, with the next step being the development of an updated framework specifically for the purposes of reflecting upon one’s own civic identity for use in social studies methods classrooms. references alviar-martin, t. (2011). reconciling multiple conceptions of citizenship: international school teachers' beliefs and practice. journal of education, 191(3), 39-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741119100306 astin, a. w., vogelgesang, l. j., misa, k., anderson, j., denson, n., jayakumar, u., saenz, v., & yamamura, e. (2006). understanding the effects of service-learning: a study of students and faculty. report to the atlantic philanthropies (pp. 1-154). ball, d. l., & bass, h. (1999). interweaving content and pedagogy in teaching and learning to teach: knowing and using mathematics. in j. boaler (ed.), multiple perspectives on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 83–104). ablex. barton, k. c., & levstik, l. s. (1997, march). middle graders' explanations of historical significance. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association. chicago, il. batson, c. d., sager, k., garst, e., kang, m., rubchinsky, k., & dawson, k. (1997). is empathy-induced helping due to self–other merging? journal of personality and social psychology, 73(3), 495. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.495 bellamy, r. (2008). citizenship: a very short introduction. oup oxford. bernacki, m., l., & jaeger, e. a. (2008). the impact of service-learning on moral development and moral orientation. michigan journal of community service-learning, 14(2), 5-15. blas, t. (2019, october 23). “latinx” is growing in popularity. i made a comic to help you understand why. the gender-neutral term that’s supposed to be for everyone, well, isn’t. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741119100306 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.495 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 vox. https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/10/15/20914347/latin-latina-latino-latinxmeans bridgeland, j. m., diiulio jr, j. j., & morison, k. b. (2006). the silent epidemic: perspectives of high school dropouts. civic enterprises (pp. 1-44). bristol, t. j., & goings, r. b. (2019). exploring the boundary-heightening experiences of black male teachers: lessons for teacher education programs. journal of teacher education, 70(1), 51-64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487118789367 britzman, d. p. (1991). practice makes practice. a critical study of learning to teach. state university of new york press. burroughs, s., groce, e., & webeck, m. l. (2005). social studies education in the age of testing and accountability. educational measurement: issues and practice, 24(3), 13-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3992.2005.00015.x charmaz k. (1983). the grounded theory method: an explication and interpretation. in emerson r. m. (ed.), contemporary field research: a book of readings (pp. 109–126). little. charmaz k. (2000). constructivist and objectivist grounded theory. in denzin n. k., lincoln y. (eds.), handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 509–535). sage publications. charmaz k. (2014). constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). sage publications. cress, c. m. (2012). civic engagement and student success: leveraging multiple degrees of achievement. diversity and democracy, 15(3), 2-4. cress, c. m. (2004). critical thinking development in service-learning activities: pedagogical implications for critical being and action. inquiry: critical thinking across the disciplines, 23(1), 87-93. https://doi.org/10.5840/inquiryctnews2003/2004231/221 eisenberg, n., fabes, r. a., murphy, b., karbon, m., maszk, p., smith, m., o’boyle, c., & suh, k. (1994). the relations of emotionality and regulation to dispositional and situational empathy-related responding. journal of personality and social psychology, 66(4), 776797. enright, e. a., toledo, w., drum, s., & brown, s. (2022). collaborative elementary civics curriculum development to support teacher learning to enact culturally sustaining practices. the journal of social studies research, 46(1), 69-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2021.11.007 finlay, a., wray-lake, l., & flanagan, c. (2010). civic engagement during the transition to adulthood: development opportunities and social policies at a critical juncture. in l. https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/10/15/20914347/latin-latina-latino-latinx-means https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/10/15/20914347/latin-latina-latino-latinx-means https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487118789367 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3992.2005.00015.x https://doi.org/10.5840/inquiryctnews2003/2004231/221 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2021.11.007 enright & toledo 105 sherrod, j. torney-purta, & c. flanagan, handbook of research on civic engagement (pp. 277-306). john wiley & sons. flores, m. a., & day, c. (2006). contexts which shape and reshape new teachers’ identities: a multi-perspective study. teaching and teacher education, 22(2), 219-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2005.09.002 fry, s. w., & bentehar, a. (2013). student attitudes towards and impressions of project citizen. journal of social studies education research, 4(1), 1-23. fry, s. w., & o’brien, j. (2015). cultivating a justice orientation toward citizenship in preservice elementary teachers. theory & research in social education, 43(3), 405-434. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2015.1065530 gallini, s. m., & moely, b. e. (2003). service-learning and engagement, academic challenge, and retention. michigan journal of community service learning, 10(1), 5-14. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.3239521.0010.101 good, a.j., heafner, t. l., rock, t. c., o’connor, k. a., passe, j., waring, s. m., & byrd, s. (2010). the de-emphasis on social studies in elementary schools: teacher candidate perspective. current issues in education, 13(4), 1-19. grossman, p., compton, c., igra, d., ronfeldt, m., shahan, e., williamson, p. (2009). teaching practice: a cross-professional perspective. teachers college record, 111(9), 2055-2100. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810911100905 grossman, p., & mcdonald, m. (2008). back to the future: directions for research in teaching and teacher education. american educational research journal, 45(1), 184-205. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207312 hart d., richardson c., & wilkenfeld, b. (2011). civic identity. in: s. schwartz, k. luyckx, & v. vignoles (eds.) handbook of identity theory and research. springer, (pp. 771-787). heafner, t. l., lipscomb, g. b., & rock, t. c. (2006). to test or not to test? the role of testing in elementary social studies, a collaborative study conducted by ncpsse and scpsse. social studies research and practice, 1(2), 145-164. hess, d. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. routledge. hsieh, h. f., & shannon, s. e. (2005). three approaches to qualitative content analysis. qualitative health research, 15(9), 1277-1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2005.09.002 https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2015.1065530 http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.3239521.0010.101 https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810911100905 https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207312906 https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 hurtado, s., & deangelo, l., (2012). linking diversity and civic-minded practices with student outcomes: new evidence from national surveys. liberal education, 98(2), 1423. johnston, r. j., pattie, c. j., jones, k., & manley, d. (2017). was the 2016 united states’ presidential contest a deviating election? continuity and change in the electoral map. journal of elections, public opinion and parties, 27(4), 369–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2017.1354004 kahne, j., chi, b., & middaugh, e. (2006). building social capital for civic and political engagement: the potential of high-school civics courses. canadian journal of education, 29(2), 387-402. https://doi.org/10.2307/20054169 kahne, j., & middaugh, e. (2008). democracy for some: the civic opportunity gap in high school (working paper 59). the center for information and research on civic learning and engagement. center for information and research on civic learning and engagement (circle). kaplan, a., sinai, m., & flum, h. (2014). design-based interventions for promoting students’ identity exploration within the school curriculum. motivational interventions (advances in motivation and achievement), 18, 243-291. https://doi.org/10.1108/s0749742320140000018007 kazemi, e., lampert, m., & ghousseini, h. (2007). conceptualizing and using routines of practice in mathematics teaching to advance professional education: report to the spencer foundation. spencer foundation. ladson-billings, g. (1994). the dreamkeepers: successful teachers of african-american children. jossey-bass. lapsley, d., & woodbury, r. (2016). moral-character development for teacher education. action in teacher education, 38(3), 194-206. https://doi.org/10.1080/01626620.2016.1194785 lave, j., & wegner, e. (1991). situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. cambridge university press. lee, p., & ashby, r. (2001). empathy, perspective taking and rational understanding. rowman and littlefield. levine, p., & higgins-d'alessando, a. (2010). youth civic engagement: normative issues. in l. sherrod, j. torney-purta, & c. flanagan (eds.), handbook of research on civic engagement in youth (pp. 115-138). john wiley & sons. levinson, m. (2012). no citizen left behind. harvard university press. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2017.1354004 https://doi.org/10.1108/s0749-742320140000018007 https://doi.org/10.1108/s0749-742320140000018007 https://doi.org/10.1080/01626620.2016.1194785 enright & toledo 107 lintner, t. (2006). social studies (still) on the back burner: perceptions and practices of k-5 social studies instruction. journal of social studies research, 30(1), 3-8. littenberg-tobias, j. (2015). teaching citizens: exploring the relationships between teacher professional learning, interactive civics, and student achievement on naep civics (doctoral dissertation, boston college). marvin, r. s., greenberg, m. t., & mossler, d. g. (1976). the early development of conceptual perspective taking: distinguishing among multiple perspectives. child development, 47(2), 511-514. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128810 maxwell, j. a. (2012). qualitative research design: an interactive approach. sage publications. mcdevitt, m., & kiousis, s. (2006). deliberative learning: an evaluative approach to interactive civic education. communication education, 55(3), 247-264. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520600748557 miles, m. b., huberman, a. m., & saldana, j. (2014). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). sage publications. narvaez, d., & lapsley, d. k. (2008). teaching moral character: two alternatives for teacher education. the teacher educator, 43(2), 156-172. https://doi.org/10.1080/08878730701838983 obenchain, k. m., balkute, a., vaughn, e., & white, s. (2016). high school teachers' identities: constructing civic selves. the high school journal, 99(3), 252-278. https://doi.org/10.1353/hsj.2016.0009 o'brien, j. l., & smith, j. m. (2011). elementary education students’ perceptions of “good” citizenship. journal of social studies education research, 2(1), 21-36. pakulski, j., & tranter, b. (2000). civic, national and denizen identity in australia. journal of sociology, 36(2), 205-222. https://doi.org/10.1177/144078330003600205 patterson, n., doppen, f., & misco, t. (2012). beyond personally responsible: a study of teacher conceptualizations of citizenship education. education, citizenship, and social justice, 7(2), 191-206. https://doi.org/10.1177/174619791244085 pederson, s., & liu, m. (2003). teachers' beliefs about issues in the implementation of a student-centered learning environment. education technology research and development, 51(2), 57-76. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02504526 peterson, c. c., wellman, h. m., & slaughter, v. (2012). the mind behind the message: advancing theory‐of‐mind scales for typically developing children, and those with https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520600748557 https://doi.org/10.1080/08878730701838983 https://doi.org/10.1353/hsj.2016.0009 https://doi.org/10.1177/144078330003600205 https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197912440856 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (1), 83-109 deafness, autism, or asperger syndrome. child development, 83(2), 469-485. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01728.x petrovska, i. (2019). peculiarities of various types of civic identity. the journal of education, culture, and society, 10(2), 43-54. pew research center. (2016, august 18). clinton, trump supporters have starkly different views of a changing nation. retrieved from http://www.people-press.org/files/2016/08/08-182016-august-political-release.pdf pew research center. (2016). few clinton or trump supporters have close friends in other camp. retrieved from http://www.people-press.org/files/2016/08/08-03-2016 campaignconvos-release.pdf piaget, j. (1926). psychology:(translated from the french by marthe sturm). the monist, 36(3), 430-455. https://doi.org/10.5840/monist192636333 prentice, m., & robinson, g. (2010). “improving student learning outcomes with service learning.” higher education. paper 148. putnam, r. d., & borko, h. (2000). what do new views of knowledge and thinking have to say about research on teacher learning? educational researcher, 29(1), 4-15. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x029001004 rock, t. c., heafner, t., o'connor, k., passe, j., oldendorf, s., good, a., & byrd, s. (2006). one state closer to a national crisis: a report on elementary social studies education in north carolina schools. theory & research in social education, 34(4), 455-483. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2006.10473318 rogers, j., franke, m., yun, j. e., ishimoto, m., diera, c., geller, r., & brenes, t. (2017). teaching and learning in the age of trump: increasing stress and hostility in america’s high schools. ucla’s institute for democracy, education, and access. retrieved from https://idea.gseis.ucla.edu/publications/teaching-and-learning-in-age-oftrump rubin, b. c. (2007). “there's still not justice”: youth civic identity development amid distinct school and community contexts. teachers college record, 109(2), 449-481. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810710900202 schweber, s. (2008). “what happened to their pets?”: third graders encounter the holocaust. teachers college record, 110(10), 2073-2115. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810811001001 shulman, l. s. (1986). those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. educational researcher, 17(1), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x015002004 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01728.x https://doi.org/10.5840/monist192636333 https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x029001004 https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2006.10473318 https://idea.gseis.ucla.edu/publications/teaching-and-learning-in-age-oftrump https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810710900202 https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810811001001 https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x015002004 enright & toledo 109 slaughter, v. (2015). theory of mind in infants and young children: a review. australian psychologist, 50(3), 169-172. ttps://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12080 syvertesen, a., stout, m. d., flanagan, c., mitra, d. l., oliver, m. b., & sundar, s. s. (2009). using elections as teachable moments: a randomized evaluation of the student voices civic education program. american journal of education, 116(1), 33-67. toledo, w. (2020). civically minded: the types of knowledge teachers use to adapt a civics curriculum. journal of curriculum studies, 52(1), 64-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2019.1650118 toledo, w., & enright, e. a. (2022). reconceptualizing civic perspective-taking: an analysis of elementary student verbal and written contributions within a curricular intervention. the elementary school journal, 123(1), 64-98. https://doi.org/10.1086/720719 tranter, b., & donoghue, j. (2007). colonial and post‐colonial aspects of australian identity. the british journal of sociology, 58(2), 165-183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14684446.2007.00146.x wellman, h. m., & cross, d. (2001). theory of mind and conceptual change. child development, 72(3), 702-707. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00309 wellman, h. m., & liu, d. (2004). scaling of theory-of-mind tasks. child development, 75(2), 523–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). educating the" good" citizen: political choices and pedagogical goals. ps, political science & politics, 37(2), 241-247. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1049096504004160 willemse, t. m., ten dam, g., geijsel, f., van wessum, l., & volman, m. (2015). fostering teachers' professional development for citizenship education. teaching and teacher education, 49, 118-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.03.008 https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12080 https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2019.1650118 https://doi.org/10.1086/720719 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2007.00146.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2007.00146.x https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00309 https://doi.org/10.1017/s1049096504004160 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.03.008 students’ geographic skills in indonesia: evaluatinglearning material questions about gisusing taxonomy of spatial thinking www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 266-287 266 students’ geographic skills in indonesia: evaluating gis learning material questions using taxonomy of spatial thinking syahrul ridha1,2, sugeng utaya3, syamsul bachri4, budi handoyo5 abstract geographic skills area major competency that must be developed through spatial thinking. this paper describes whether learning material questions about geographic information system (gis) in geography textbooks contains components of spatial thinking: concepts of space, use of representation tools, and reasoning processes. this study uses a descriptive qualitative approach with content analysis design. we conducted the evaluation of learning material questions about gis on four geography textbooks of senior high schools in indonesia by coding using taxonomy of spatial thinking. the 92 questions evaluated in this study contained multiple choice and essay practice questions. we identified questions by the following steps: 1) classifying concepts of space questions into non-spatial, spatial primitives, simple spatial, complex spatial; 2) determining the nature of tools of representation in the questions—use and non-use; 3) classifying processes of reasoning from each question into input, processing, and output. the results showed that the majority of gis learning material questions are not based on spatial thinking. seventy-one percent of questions are non-spatial, 73 percent of questions did not use maps to represent spatial thinking, and 67 percent of questions are low-level reasoning process (input). these findings indicate that gis learning material questions in geography textbooks do not include the complete spatial thinking component. as a result, the lack of a complete spatial thinking component in gis learning material questions in geography textbooks results in less developed geography competency among students. learning material questions should contain the components of spatial thinking at a high level, such as using complex spatial on concepts of space, using tools for representation, and using output for reasoning processes. therefore, for geographic textbooks, the national education standards agency must develop standardized questions focused on spatial concepts to represent highlevel spatial thinking. key words: geographic skills, evaluating, gis learning material question, taxonomy of spatial thinking, indonesia introduction to improve students’ geographic skills, it is critical that spatial thinking is integrated into student practice questions in geographic information system (gis) learning materials. spatial thinking is an essential element in geography education (heffron & downs, 2012) because it helps students to represent, analyze, plan an area, and connect between objects and humans (heffron, 2012). besides, it is important for students to improve their understanding 1 students doctoral of graduate school universitas negeri malang, syahrul.ridha.1607219@students.um.ac.id 2 geography education, sekolah tinggi keguruan dan ilmu pendidikan al-washliyah banda aceh 3 prof., geography education, faculty of social science universitas negeri malang, sugeng.utaya.fis@um.ac.id 4 ph.d, geography education, faculty of social science universitas negeri malang, syamsul.bachri.fis@um.ac.id 5 dr, geography education, faculty of social science universitas negeri malang, budi.handoyo.fis@um.ac.id mailto:sugeng.utaya.fis@um.ac.id mailto:syamsul.bachri.fis@um.ac.id mailto:budi.handoyo.fis@um.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 of location, distribution, interrelation of geosphere phenomena, and the use of geospatial technologies such as gis, remote sensing, and gps (global positioning systems) (gersmehl, 2008). students generate hypotheses by asking “what if” questions involving spatial thinking to solve spatial problems and to improve their ability to interpret maps correctly (chu et al., 2016). the form of the question becomes an analytical tool that leads to a general hypothesis about spatial phenomena. this is why the components of spatial thinking need to be included in gis learning material questions. gis can increase spatial thinking and geographic skills (chun, 2010) and influences spatial thinking; once students learn gis, their spatial thinking skills improve (lee & bednarz, 2009; madsen & rump, 2012). learning gis can improve students' understanding of location, scale, representation, and distance (sinton, 2015). gis becomes a principle tool in learning geography to describe objects on the surface of the earth (demers, 2016). learning gis is important in learning geography to improve spatial thinking and geographic skills. unfortunately, in indonesia there is no study that focuses on this issue. however, the latest national curriculum expects student improvement in geographic skills, especially in map creation. previous research has attempted to evaluate geography textbook questions in general; past research has not focused on a particular topic. for example, a study conducted by scholz et al., (2014) in university geography textbooks in the usa concluded that the majority of questions did not use representation tools and the concepts of space. for this reason, this study focuses on evaluating gis learning material questions contained in senior high school geography textbooks in indonesia. the findings of this study will be used to design questions with spatial thinking. questions that contain spatial thinking must include three components: spatial concepts, representation, and reasoning (wakabayashi & ishikawa, 2011; moore-russo, viglietti, chiu, & bateman, 2013; metoyer & bednarz, 2017). other experts propose that there are three components of spatial thinking in geography textbook questions: concepts of space, use of representation tools, and reasoning processes (national research council, 2006; jo & bednarz, 2011). components of spatial thinking must be integrated into gis material questions (bodzin, 2011; jo, klein, bednarz, & bednarz, 2012). questions with spatial thinking must be implemented in gis learning materials to help students obtain geographic skills. learning gis helps students think spatially; this is evident from the increase of result and relationship between activities and gis learning experiences of spatial thinking skills (lee & bednarz, ridha et al. 2012). currently, learning material in indonesia does not integrate components of spatial thinking to improve spatial thinking skills. therefore, it is necessary to evaluate gis learning material questions in senior high school geography textbooks against the cuurent indonesia national curriculum standards. the geography education curriculum of senior high school in indonesia refers to the competency standards of the current national curriculum, which expects an increase in geographic skills. for example, students are expected to be able to make a map of disaster potential in an area and explain disaster mitigation strategies based on the map. to achieve this competency standard, students need the geographic skill to create maps through gis. the instruction for this competency needs to be developed in schools (alhosani & yagoub, 2015). in other words, this competency emphasizes mastering gis to create maps. students will be expected to use geospatial technology to make maps. to achieve geographic skills, students need spatial thinking assignments or questions that involve the use of gis in creating maps. this leads to the question: do gis learning material questions in current geography textbooks contain components of spatial thinking to improve students’ geographic skills? to answer this question, researchers should evaluate instructional material questions about gis by finding out whether the questions involve components of spatial thinking or not (jennings, 2006; yasar & seremet, 2007), so that, the weaknesses of learning material questions about gis can be detected and corrected (lee & catling, 2017). evaluation of gis learning material questions based on spatial thinking in geography textbooks is important to because teachers in indonesia depend heavily on textbooks as they teach geography in senior high school (purwanto, fatchan, purwanto, & soekamto, 2015). this becomes a problem because teachers use textbooks without first evaluating the questions (bednarz, stoltman, & lee, 2004; purwanto, 2013; shin, milson, & smith, 2016). as a result, the expected learning goals cannot be achieved (wang & chen, 2013). it is necessary to evaluate gis learning material questions geography textbooks using taxonomy of spatial thinking to find out whether learning material questions about gis contain components of spatial thinking or not (zhang & foskett, 2003; jennings, 2006). literature review spatial thinking combines cognitive skills (national research council, 2006). it is defined as knowledge, skills, and thinking habits to use the concepts of space such as distance, orientation, distribution, and association; representational tools such as map, graph, and diagram; and reasoning processes such as cognitive strategy to facilitate problem solving and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 decision making to structure problems, find answers, and express solutions to problems (national research council, 2006; collins, 2018). metoyer & bednarz (2017) expressed similar views that spatial thinking builds cognitive skills through the combined concepts of space, the use of representational tools, and reasoning processes. the keys to spatial thinking consist of three components: concepts of space, use of representation tools, and reasoning processes (lee & bednarz, 2012). these three components of spatial thinking can be used in geography learning, especially in learning gis. learning gis influences spatial thinking skills, as evidenced by improved test scores. learning gis can help students think spatially (lee & bednarz, 2009). another opinion suggests that spatial thinking is the ability to visualize and solve problems spatially (nielsen, oberle, & sugumaran, 2011;tureniyazova, 2019). these three components of spatial thinking are explained as follows. concepts of space concepts of space help us understand location, distance, pattern, affordability, morphology, association, spatial relationship, and the relationship of a geosphere phenomenon (golledge, 2002; gersmehl & gersmehl, 2007). concepts of spaceare divided into four subcategories: non-spatial, spatial primitives, simple spatial, and complex spatial (jo & bednarz, 2009; scholz et al., 2014). these four subcategories are represented by questions. questions categorized as non-spatial are questions that do not contain the components of spatial thinking (scholz et al., 2014). example question: how many people come from pidie district in takengon city, central aceh-indonesia? spatial primitives are concepts of space at a low level that use the concepts of location, place-specific, identity, and magnitude in questions (golledge, 1995). example question: what province is located between central java and bali in indonesia? this question is identified as a specific place between central java and bali. simple spatial is a concept of space at a higher level than spatial primitives based on concepts and distribution, including distance, direction, connection and linkage, movement, transition, boundary, region, shape, reference frame, arrangement, adjacency, and enclosure (golledge, 1995; scholz et al., 2014). example question: in what climate areas can the rainforest be found? this question is identified as the distribution of forests in the world based on latitude. complex spatial is the highest spatial concept based on spatial distribution, including distribution, pattern, dispersion and clustering, density, diffusion, dominance, hierarchy and ridha et al. network, spatial association, overlay, layer, gradient, profile, relief, scale, map projection, and buffer (golledge, 1995, 2002; scholz et al., 2014). example question: where is the best place in banda aceh-indonesia to establish coastal disaster prevention forest by considering the distribution of population and land available on the city planning map? this question is identified as a concept of distribution and spatial association based on available data. using tools of representation the second component of spatial thinking is using tools to represent information. the tools are map, diagram, graph, chart, photo, and answering questions (jo & bednarz, 2011; scholz et al., 2014). this component is divided into two subcategories: use and non-use. use involves questions that require the use of representation tools to answer those questions. example question: based on the satellite image of palu city after the earthquake and tsunami (september 28, 2018), which caused damage of infrastructure and socio-economy, to build palu city, what geographical approach is used? non-use is questions that do not use representation tools to answer questions.these are not classified into spatial thinking questions (scholz et al., 2014). example question: who is the inventor of planetesimal theory? this question does not require map, graphic, or other representations to answer questions. processes of reasoning the third component is processes of reasoning, which are cognitive skills that require complex reasoning (jo & bednarz, 2009). for example, reasoning could be activity that involves interpreting information on a map and using that information. interpretation is carried out by mentioning, explaining, and analyzing objects on a map. processes of reasoning are divided into three subcategories: input, processing, and output (scholz et al., 2014). input is the receipt of information at low level, including name, definition, list, identify, recognize, recite, recall, observe, describe, select, complete, count, and match (lee & bednarz, 2012). example question: mention five of the most populous cities on javaindonesia. this question asks students to name five of the most densely populated cities in java and it is evaluated as an input question in taxonomy. processing is a higher level reasoning process; it is the act of analyzing information received, including explain, analyze, state causality, compare, contrast, distinguish, classify, categorize organize, summarize, synthesize, infer, make analogies, exemplify, experiment, and sequence (jo, bednarz, & metoyer, 2010; scholz et al., 2014). example question: explain the factors that cause population density in a city and explain the relationship between crime rate journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 and densely populated city. this question asks students to analyze population density factors and explain the relationship between population density and crime. output is the highest level of reasoning process; it uses analysis of information received to evaluate, judge, predict, forecast, hypothesize, speculate, plan, create, design, invent, imagine, generalize, build a model, apply a principle (jo & bednarz, 2009). example question: based on the rainfall data displayed on the map in batu city, indonesia, which plantations are suitable to be developed in the region? this question asks students to predict and evaluate as output. taxonomy of spatial thinking used to evaluate gis learning material questions is explained in figure 1. figure 1. taxonomy of spatial thinking for evaluating gis learning material questions (adapted from jo & bednarz, 2009) methods research design this study used a descriptive qualitative approach conducted with content analysis design. we used this design to analyze geography textbooks. content analysis is a method in which content is classified by certain coding scheme (krippendorff, 2004; jo, 2007). ridha et al. sources of data the data source in this study were senior high school geography textbooks. this study evaluated gis learning material questions from four senior high school geography textbooks. those four books were: 1) textbook a: buku siswa geografi untuk sma/ma kelas x kelompok peminatan ilmu-ilmu sosial (hermanto, 2016); 2) textbook b: geografi untuk sma/ma kelas x kelompok peminatan ilmu pengetahuan sosial (priastomo, 2016); 3) textbook c: buku siswa geografi untuk sma/ma kelas xii kelompok peminatan ilmu-ilmu sosial (hermanto & firman, 2015); and 4) textbook d: geografi untuk sma/ma kelas xii (wardiyatmoko, 2014). these four books were selected for evaluation because they are the most widely used as learning resources for indonesia senior high school students and because the books were standardized by the national education standards agency. we then reviewed the selected textbooks for learning material questions about gis to be evaluated using taxonomy of spatial thinking. we evaluated 92 questions located in assignment, multiple choice, and essay practice questions. table 1 shows the number and location of the questions evaluated. questions are an important part of geography textbooks (jo & bednarz, 2009). one component of the material in geography textbooks is gis, which consists of narrative texts and a series of questions (kragler, walker, & martin, 2005; jo & bednarz, 2009). many questions measure student knowledge about learning material. the questions are placed in the subchapter and the end of the chapter. some questions are designed for developing skills such as map reading (jo & bednarz, 2009). these questions almost always appear on the margins of a page or in anadditional section. table 1 number and locations of gis learning material questions questions location learning material a learning material b learning material c learning material d total assignment 5 (29,5%) 2 (11%) 11 (38%) 4 (15%) 22 (24%) multiplechoice 7 (41%) 5 (26%) 11 (38%) 8 (30%) 31 (34%) essay 5 (29,5%) 12 (63%) 7 (24%) 15 (55%) 39 (42%) total 17 (100%) 19 (100%) 29 (100%) 27 (100%) 92 (100%) data collection we used question coding in the data collection conducted in this study. in this part, we focused on the question evaluation. we evaluated the questions by coding that used taxonomy of spatial thinking. coding of spatial thinking components consists of three categories: journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 concepts of space, use of representation tools, and reasoning processes (jo & bednarz, 2011). each category consists of subcategories with taxonomy. questions were identified by the following steps: 1) classifying concepts of space questions into non-spatial, spatial primitives, simple spatial, and complex spatial; 2) determining the nature of tools of representation in the questions, use and non-use; and 3) classifying processes of reasoning from each question into input, processing, and output. each question was checked according to concepts of space, using representation tools and reasoning processes to answer questions. each question was encoded using the numbers assigned to each subcategory. coding examples are presented in table 2. table 2 example of coding gis learning material questions question: _____find some attribute and map data related to landslides. make a map of landslide-prone areas by using overlay method manually to produce the latest map. concepts of space tools of representation processes of reasoning 0 1 2 3 0 1 1 2 3 complex spatial use output (adapted from jo, 2007) furthermore, the result of coding as shown in table 2 was interpreted in each question to be set into one of the components of spatial thinking. examples of spatial and non-spatial thinking questions are presented in table 3. a question of spatial thinking is a question that is integrated with three components of spatial thinking (scholz et al., 2014). a non-spatial question of concepts of space uses non-spatial subcategories and non-use tools of representation. table 3 examples of spatial and non-spatial thinking questions question category concepts of space tools of representation processes of reasoning non-spatial thinking question question in gis learning materials what are kinds of geographic information system software? non-spatial non-use input spatial thinking question question in gis learning materials find some attribute and map data related to landslides. make a map of landslide-prone areas by using overlay method manually to produce the latest map. complex spatial use output ridha et al. data analysis to analyze our data, we used descriptive statistics presented in the table of relative frequency distribution (jo, 2007; mundir, 2013). we then converted the coding results into percentages. after conducting the evaluation, we provided a recommendation based on the evaluation results (jo et al., 2012; yang, 2013). research procedures this research began with observation in schools to gather information about geography textbooks. we conducted the observation in 12 senior high schools in malang city, east java province, indonesia. based on our observation, we selected the most commonly used four geographic textbooks for evaluation. these textbooks were also based on the current national curriculum in indonesia. in these textbooks, we reviewed gis learning material questions to be assessed for three components of spatial thinking. the next process was to analyze the data and develop our conclusion. the research framework is described in figure 2. figure 2. evaluating procedures for gis learning material questions journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 findings and discussion based on the current indonesia national curriculum geographic skills competency standard, the questions of gis learning materials should be compiled based on the presence of all components of spatial thinking. to achieve the geographic skills standard, it is necessary to develop gis learning material questions based on spatial thinking. developed learning material can improve students' understanding of learning material (gafur, 2012; ayas, 2015; aydin, ozfidan, & carothers, 2017). table 4 shows the percentage of components of spatial thinking contained in gis learning material questions. table 4 percentage of components of spatial thinking in gis learning material questions component of spatial thinking learning material a learning material b learning material c learning material d total number of questions 17 19 29 27 92 concepts of space non-spatial 13 (76%) 11 (57%) 25 (86%) 22 (82%) 71 (77 %) spatial primitives 1 (6 %) 2 (11%) 2 (6%) 2 (7%) 7 (8 %) simple spatial 1 (6%) 2 (11%) 1 (4%) 1 (4%) 5 (5 %) complex spatial 2 (12%) 4 (21%) 1 (4%) 2 (7%) 9 (10 %) using tools of representation use 3 (18%) 4 (21%) 7 (24%) 5 (18%) 19 (21 %) non-use 14 (82%) 15 (79%) 22 (76%) 22 (82%) 73 (79 %) processes of reasoning input 12 (70%) 13 (68%) 22 (76%) 20 (74%) 67 (73 %) processing 2 (12%) 4 (21%) 6 (20%) 5 (19%) 17 (18 %) output 3 (18%) 2 (11%) 1 (4%) 2 (7%) 7 (8 %) through our analysis of gis learning materials in four geography textbooks, we found that the majority of learning material questions about gis was not developed with spatial thinking components: 71 percent of questions were non-spatial, 73 percent of questions did not use maps to represent spatial thinking, and 67 percent of questions were low-level reasoning process (input). the lack of spatial thinking components causes gis learning material in geography textbooks to be less effective in the development of geography competency. our data analysis reveals that, the questions in current gis learning materials focus only on low levels of spatial thinking and do not use representation tools and low-level reasoning processes. it can be concluded that the questions are designed without using the taxonomy of spatial thinking. as a result, students’ geographic skills cannot be measured. there are three components of spatial thinking that must be contained in gis learning material questions: concepts of space, use of representation tools, and reasoning processes. each component has a subcategory to facilitate identifying the level of spatial thinking found in learning material questions about gis (scholz et al., 2014). determination of spatial thinking level in gis learning material questions is done through compilation of each component of ridha et al. spatial thinking. the three components of spatial thinking in learning material questions about gis are explained as follows. concepts of space figure 3. concepts of space in gis learning material questions figure 3 shows that gis learning material questions are dominated by non-spatial. the questions were designed to be more focused on non-spatial than the other concepts. concepts of space consist of questions that contain location, distance, pattern, affordability, morphology, association, spatial linkage, and relationship of geosphere phenomenon (gersmehl & gersmehl, 2007; metoyer & bednarz, 2017). concepts of space have some subcategories: non-spatial, spatial primitives, simple spatial, and complex spatial (golledge, 2002). non-spatial questions are questions that do not contain spatial elements (jo & bednarz, 2011). example question: how many volcanoes are on the java island? spatial primitives questions are questions with low-level thinking (golledge, 1995). example question: in what province is mount bromo located? simple spatial questions are those with high-level thinking; such questions use the concept of geography. example question: why do coffee trees grow in central aceh region of indonesia and do not grow in banda aceh city of indonesia? that question relates to the concept of area deferment. the difference between central aceh and banda aceh is in altitude, which affects air temperature. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 complex spatial questions are questions with very high-level thinking (jo & bednarz, 2011). this level uses the principles of distribution and interrelation to explain geosphere phenomena by overlaying maps or planning maps (scholz et al., 2014). example question: based on the data presented in map, table, graph of distribution of population, availability of raw material, transportation, affordability and morphology, in which areas are the most strategically developed extractive industry locations on the sumatera island? using tools of representation figure 4. using tools of representation in gis learning material questions figure 4 shows that the use of representation tools in gis learning material questions is dominated by subcategories of non-use. this is due to the absence of the use of representation tools, such as map, chart, graphic, and photo. using representation tools is the students’ task to represent geosphere phenomena using gis software. this activity is done through laboratorybased learning that requires skills in operating gis software. as a result, students are expected to be able to produce map, table, sketches, and diagram to explain and identify object on the map and its relation to space (metoyer & bednarz, 2017). thus, using representation tools is the use of map, diagram, chart, graph, and photo (jo & bednarz, 2009). evaluation of gis learning material questions on this component looks at the presence or absence of representation tools and requires students to use gis software to create maps. in brief, learning material questions about gis should focus on higher-level cognitive processes to support the competency level of geographic skills established by the indonesia national curriculum. ridha et al. processes of reasoning figure 5. processes of reasoning in gis learning material questions figure 5 shows that the reasoning processes in gis learning material questions are dominated by the subcategory of input. our analysis shows that the questions were designed to be more focused on low-level reasoning. processes of reasoning questions are questions that contain elements of reasoning (jo & bednarz, 2009). these questions capture the information contained in the map, so that students can use the information to understand the map. example: a map that shows the distribution of animals and plants in indonesia. students perform reasoning by mentioning, explaining, and analyzing objects on the map. the reasoning shows the level of knowledge building in that: 1. input is categorized at low level (scholz et al., 2014). example question: mention three of the most populous cities on sumatera island. 2. processing is categorized at high level (jo & bednarz, 2009, 2011). example question: how is the relationship between the crowded population and the market that will be built in the area? 3. output is categorized at a very high level because it uses information to evaluate, assess, predict, design, and create (scholz et al., 2014). example question: based on rainfall data displayed on the map in lombok island, what plants are suitable to grow in the region? journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 application of components of spatial thinking in compiling gis learning material questions gis learning material questions should contain all three components of spatial thinking: concepts of space, use of representation tools, and reasoning processes. concepts of space has subcategories: non-spatial, spatial primitives, simple spatial, and complex spatial. use of representation tools has subcategories: use and non-use. third, reasoning processes has subcategories: input, processing, and output. each subcategory has a taxonomy used to design gis learning material questions (jo et al., 2010). table 5 shows the taxonomy of spatial thinking integrated into gis learning material questions. table 5 taxonomy of spatial thinking integrated into gis learning material questions components of spatial thinking taxonomy category subcategory concepts of space complex spatial overlay using tools of representation use map processes of reasoning processing explain output create based on table 5, the gis learning material questions could be implemented in the form of a thematic map assignment. the map would be made with overlay analysis technique. students would be assigned to explain the results of analysis by asking the question "what if there are differences in forest distribution based on the overlay result?" thus, the three components of spatial thinking could be integrated into the question. examples of questions that could be designed based on table 5 are shown in figure 6. taxonomy of spatial thinking used in table 5 is a high level of spatial thinking components. this is seen in the use of the subcategory complex spatial, which includes taxonomy of overlay and using maps as a representation tool. the use of subcategory processing, including taxonomy of explain, is also a high level of component of spatial thinking, in which students are assigned to explain a phenomenon illustrated in maps. in addition, the use subcategory, output using taxonomy of create, is very high-level spatial thinking, in which students are assigned to create maps with gis. ridha et al. figure 6. using taxonomy of spatial thinking to compile gis learning material questions the example question above was used in our formative evaluation of learning geography within the evaluation design of a small group trial. the purpose of the evaluation was to find out the effectiveness of the question. the question was tested in two groups of students. in the first group, students were asked to answer the question using a gis application. in the second group, students were asked to answer the question by overlaying the map manually by using a map depiction on transparent paper. the two groups showed different results. differences were identified from the maps produced. the first group produced a better map than the second group. the first group created a map in the form of a digital map. the use of a gis application helped students make decisions more easily in solving a spatial problem. in contrast, the second group needed to interpret the map before deciding upon a solution for a spatial problem. from this, we can see that gis learning material questions designed using taxonomy of spatial thinking is an effective way to improve students’ geographic skills. this study concludes that spatial thinking in gis learning material questions in senior high school geography textbooks has not been used effectively. the deficiencies we found in gis learning materials become an obstacle for students to learn gis. students cannot master the concept of gis without knowing about the benefits of gis and how to use it. learning gis journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 can improve spatial thinking because gis affects spatial thinking (chun, 2010).the lack of effective learning materials in textbooks will hamper indonesian students from meeting national curriculum competency standards. the gis learning material should be of good quality and be easily understood by students. deficiencies in the learning material result in low numbers of students comprehending gis learning material (bearman, jones, andré, cachinho, & demers, 2016). gis learning material contained in high school geography textbooks does not meet current national curriculum standards, which require that students should be able to create maps with gis. the questions should be based on predetermined curriculum standards (chen & wang, 2015). each question in gis learning material has three components of spatial thinking. it functions to improve students' ability in spatial thinking (lubienski & dougherty, 2009). spatial thinking is the basis of the latest geographic skills that must be developed in school (jo et al., 2010). learning gis is an essential principle for understanding geosphere phenomena (demers, 2016). gis learning material must be developed by the teacher to improve the quality of learning (bednarz et al., 2004; dölek & demir, 2011; susiati, utaya, & susilo, 2016). other experts say that by learning gis through 3d maps, students are able to read maps and understand the information on the map (carrera, avarvarei, chelariu, draghia, & avarvarei, 2017). questions that contain elements of spatial thinking are needed in gis learning materials in senior high school. to meet competency standards of the latest national curriculum, educators need to create an integration between skill and the use of geospatial technology by using gis to teach geography. this is the goal of the current national curriculum in indonesia to improve students’ skills through learning geography with geospatial technologies, such as gis, remote sensing, and global positioning system (gps) (baker et al., 2015; jadallah et al., 2017). the implementation of computer-based gis learning must be done in the classroom; it has a positive impact on students’ understanding and creates an effective learning (demirci, 2011; demirci, karaburun, & ünlü, 2013; demirci, 2015). one of the positive impacts is that students can learn immediately to create maps with gis in the computer laboratory. as a result, students’ skills can increase in creating maps. therefore, it is necessary to improve or develop gis learning material that contains spatial thinking questions. this can be done by using the component of spatial thinking as a basis for students to study geography. in addition, the questions should be developed in accordance with the objectives of the curriculum (sitepu, 2012); for example, using geospatial technology in learning geography. ridha et al. ideally, gis learning material questions must contain three components of spatial thinking: concepts of space, use of representation tools, and reasoning processes (scholz et al., 2014). the questions compiled require students to use gis for creating map to solve geosphere problems proposed through the developed questions. for example, student could use gis to map densely populated areas around schools. from that activity, students could use spatial thinking to create and complete the map (battersby, golledge, & marsh, 2006; lubienski & dougherty, 2009). gis learning material includes three components: 1) gis concept, including definition, component, software, and hardware; 2) the data used in gis, including spatial and non-spatial data; and 3) data source, including remote sensing data, field measurement using gps, and terrestrial data. the learning material is the basis for utilizing gis in daily life in areas such as environmental management. to utilize gis, spatial thinking must become part of the learning material questions. first, concepts of space: in this activity students answer questions related to non-spatial, spatial primitives, simple spatial, and complex spatial. the questions are based on the information contained in the map (gillen, skryzhevska, henry, & green, 2010). second, using gis to create a map: the map is made by following gis subsystems processing and output. students are provided with tutorials in creating a thematic map to improve students' ability. third, processes of reasoning: using the map they generated, students are assigned in groups to reason on the phenomena drawn on the map in groups. the reasoning process starts from input, processing, and output based on the questions given by the teacher. conclusion generally, gis learning material questions in senior high school geography textbooks in indonesia have low levels of spatial concepts and are ineffective in the development of geographic skills. this weakness affects students’ ability to acquire the competent geographic skills. gis learning material questions in geography textbooks should be designed using questions that can represent spatial thinking and high-level thinking processes. gis learning material questions that are designed using spatial thinking taxonomy are effective tools to help students learn gis to improve geographic skills. therefore, based on our research, we developed recommendations for the implementation of taxonomy of spatial thinking in geographic skills education. first, the teacher must evaluate and design gis learning material questions using taxonomy of spatial thinking. second, spatial thinking is the foundation in building important geographic skills; spatial thinking skills must be developed in schools. teachers can foster this development in compiling questions assigned to students. third, the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 design of gis material questions should focus on high-level thinking processes; for example, with the overlay technique, students are assigned to create a thematic map. assignments like these can trigger high-level thinking that integrates the complex spatial component by using spatial representation tools and cognitive processes to create maps and explaining phenomena drawn on the map. to achieve the competency in creating maps, schools must be provide computer laboratories equipped with gis. this learning environment will give students the tools to learn and explore geographic knowledge. in this environment, teachers can help students meet the geographic skill standard in the national curriculum. in addition, government agencies such as the national education standards agency must determine the standard questions in geography textbooks that focus on spatial concepts to represent high-level spatial thinking and the teacher must be able to design gis learning material questions using taxonomy of spatial thinking. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank lembaga pengelolaan dana pendidikan/lpdp (indonesia endowment fund for education), the ministry of finance, the republic of indonesia for providing the scholarship for syahrul ridha. references alhosani, n. m. d., & yagoub, m. m. (2015). geographic skills: a case study of students in the united arab emirates. international research in geographical and environmental education, 24(1), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2014.967513 ayas, c. (2015). the role of media in geography courses from the perspectives of preservice social studies teachers. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 172–189. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.62774 aydin, h., ozfidan, b., & carothers, d. (2017). meeting the challenges of curriculum and instruction in school settings in the united states. journal of social studies education research, 8(3), 76–92. baker, t. r., battersby, s., bednarz, s. w., bodzin, a. m., kolvoord, b., moore, s., … uttal, d. (2015). a research agenda for geospatial technologies and learning. journal of geography, 114(3), 118–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2014.950684 battersby, s. e., golledge, r. g., & marsh, m. j. (2006). incidental learning of geospatial concepts across grade levels: map overlay. journal of geography, 105(4), 139– 146. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221340608978679 ridha et al. bearman, n., jones, n., andré, i., cachinho, h. a., & demers, m. (2016). the future role of gis education in creating critical spatial thinkers. journal of geography in higher education, 40(3), 394–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2016.1144729 bednarz, s. w., stoltman, j. p., & lee, j. (2004). preparing geography teachers in the united states. international research in geographical and environmental education, 13(2), 176–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580408668511 bodzin, a. m. (2011). the implementation of a geospatial information technology (git)supported land use change curriculum with urban middle school learners to promote spatial thinking. journal of research in science teaching, 48(3), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20409 carrera, c. c., avarvarei, b. v., chelariu, e. l., draghia, l., & avarvarei, s. c. (2017). map-reading skill development with 3d technologies. journal of geography, 116(5), 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2016.1248857 chen, c.-m., & wang, y.-h. (2015). geospatial education in high schools: curriculums, methodologies, and practices. in o. muñiz solari, a. demirci, & j. schee (eds.), geospatial technologies and geography education in a changing world: geospatial practices and lessons learned (pp. 67–76). tokyo: springer japan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55519-3_6 chu, g., choi, j., hwang, c. s., andersen, d., keller, k. h., robinson, m., & swanson, k. (2016). teaching spatial thinking with the national atlas of korea: a valuable resource for advanced placement human geography. the geography teacher, 13(4), 166–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/19338341.2016.1210529 chun, b. a. (2010). effect of gis-integrated lessons on spatial thinking abilities and geographical skills. journal of the korean geographical society, 45(6), 820–844. collins, l. (2018). the impact of paper versus digital map technology on students’ spatial thinking skill acquisition. journal of geography, 117(4), 137–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2017.1374990 demers, m. n. (2016). geospatial technology in geography education. the geography teacher, 13(1), 23–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/19338341.2016.1151722 demirci, a. (2011). using geographic information systems (gis) at schools without a computer laboratory. journal of geography, 110(2), 49–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2011.532563 demirci, a. (2015). the effectiveness of geospatial practices in education. in o. muñiz solari, a. demirci, & j. schee (eds.), geospatial technologies and geography education in a changing world: geospatial practices and lessons learned (pp. 141–153). tokyo: springer japan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55519-3_12 demirci, a., karaburun, a., & ünlü, m. (2013). implementation and effectiveness of gisbased projects in secondary schools. journal of geography, 112(5), 214–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2013.770545 dölek, i̇., & demir, s. b. (2011). coğrafi bilgi sistemi (cbs) ile coğrafya derslerine yönelik öğretim materyallerinin hazırlanması. sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi, 2(2), 122–143. gafur, a. (2012). desain pembelajaran: konsep, model, dan aplikasinya dalam perencanaan pelaksanaan pembelajaran. yogyakarta: ombak. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 gersmehl, p. j. (2008). teaching geography. new york: guilford press. gersmehl, p. j., & gersmehl, c. a. (2007). spatial thinking by young children: neurologic evidence for early development and “educability.” journal of geography, 106(5), 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221340701809108 gillen, j., skryzhevska, l., henry, m. c., & green, j. (2010). map interpretation instruction in introductory textbooks: a preliminary investigation. journal of geography, 109(5), 181–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2010.501381 golledge, r. g. (1995). primitives of spatial knowledge. in t. l. nyerges, d. m. mark, r. laurini, & m. j. egenhofer (eds.), cognitive aspects of human-computer interaction for geographic information systems (pp. 29–44). dordrecht: springer netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0103-5_4 golledge, r. g. (2002). the nature of geographic knowledge. annals of the association of american geographers, 92(1), 1–14. heffron, s. g. (2012). gfl2! the updated geography for life: national geography standards, second edition. the geography teacher, 9(2), 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/19338341.2012.679889 heffron, s. g., & downs, r. m. (eds.). (2012). geography for life: national geography standards (2nd. ed). washington, dc: national council for geographic education. hermanto, g. (2016). buku siswa geografi untuk sma/ma kelas x kelompok peminatan ilmu-ilmu sosial. bandung: yrama widya. hermanto, g., & firman, j. (2015). buku siswa geografi untuk sma/ma kelas xii kelompok peminatan ilmu-ilmu sosial. bandung: yrama widya. jadallah, m., hund, a. m., thayn, j., studebaker, j. g., roman, z. j., & kirby, e. (2017). integrating geospatial technologies in fifth-grade curriculum: impact on spatial ability and map-analysis skills. journal of geography, 116(4), 139–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2017.1285339 jennings, s. a. (2006). a content comparison of six physical geography textbooks spanning a century. international research in geographical and environmental education, 15(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.2167/irgee183.0 jo, i. (2007). aspects of spatial thinking in geography textbook questions (thesis). texas a&m university, texas. jo, i., bednarz, s., & metoyer, s. (2010). selecting and designing questions to facilitate spatial thinking. the geography teacher, 7(2), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/19338341.2010.510779 jo, i., & bednarz, s. w. (2009). evaluating geography textbook questions from a spatial perspective: using concepts of space, tools of representation, and cognitive processes to evaluate spatiality. journal of geography, 108(1), 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221340902758401 jo, i., & bednarz, s. w. (2011). textbook questions to support spatial thinking: differences in spatiality by question location. journal of geography, 110(2), 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2011.521848 jo, i., klein, a., bednarz, r. s., & bednarz, s. w. (2012). an exploration of spatial thinking in introductory gis courses. in d. j. unwin, k. e. foote, n. j. tate, & d. dibiase ridha et al. (eds.), teaching geographic information science and technology in higher education (pp. 211–229). oxford: waley-blackwell. kragler, s., walker, c. a., & martin, l. e. (2005). strategy instruction in primary content textbooks. the reading teacher, 59(3), 254–261. https://doi.org/10.1598/rt.59.3.5 krippendorff, k. (2004). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology (2nd ed). thousand oaks, calif: sage. lee, j., & bednarz, r. (2009). effect of gis learning on spatial thinking. journal of geography in higher education, 33(2), 183–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260802276714 lee, j., & bednarz, r. (2012). components of spatial thinking: evidence from a spatial thinking ability test. journal of geography, 111(1), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2011.583262 lee, j., & catling, s. (2017). what do geography textbook authors in england consider when they design content and select case studies? international research in geographical and environmental education, 26(4), 342–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2016.1220125 lubienski, c., & dougherty, j. (2009). introduction: mapping educational opportunity: spatial analysis and school choices. american journal of education, 115(4), 485– 491. https://doi.org/10.1086/599783 madsen, l. m., & rump, c. (2012). considerations of how to study learning processes when students use gis as an instrument for developing spatial thinking skills. journal of geography in higher education, 36(1), 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2011.576336 metoyer, s., & bednarz, r. (2017). spatial thinking assists geographic thinking: evidence from a study exploring the effects of geospatial technology. journal of geography, 116(1), 20–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2016.1175495 moore-russo, d., viglietti, j. m., chiu, m. m., & bateman, s. m. (2013). teachers’ spatial literacy as visualization, reasoning, and communication. teaching and teacher education, 29, 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.08.012 mundir, h. (2013). statistik pendidikan pengantar analisis data untuk penulisan skripsi dan tesis. yogyakarta: pustaka belajar. yogyakarta: pustaka belajar. national research council (ed.). (2006). learning to think spatially. washington, d.c: national academies press. nielsen, c. p., oberle, a., & sugumaran, r. (2011). implementing a high school level geospatial technologies and spatial thinking course. journal of geography, 110(2), 60–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2011.534171 priastomo, y. s. (2016). geografi untuk sma/ma kelas x kelompok peminatan ilmu pengetahuan sosial. jakarta: erlangga. purwanto, e. (2013). strategi pembelajaran bidang studi geografi. malang: um press. purwanto, e., fatchan, a., purwanto, & soekamto, h. (2015). development of geography text books used by senior high school teachers case study at east java-indonesia. journal of education and learning, 5(1), 60–67. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v5n1p60 scholz, m. a., huynh, n. t., brysch, c. p., & scholz, r. w. (2014). an evaluation of university world geography textbook questions for components of spatial journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(4), 266-287 thinking. journal of geography, 113(5), 208–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2013.872692 shin, e. e., milson, a. j., & smith, t. j. (2016). future teachers’ spatial thinking skills and attitudes. journal of geography, 115(4), 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2015.1100654 sinton, d. s. (2015). spatial thinking and gis. in tstip@ cosit (pp. 29–35). retrieved from http://ceur-ws.org/vol-1557/paper7.pdf sitepu, b. p. (2012). penulisan buku teks pelajaran. bandung: remaja rosdakarya. susiati, a., utaya, s., & susilo, s. (2016). kajian pendekatan saintifik buku siswa geografi sma berdasarkan kurikulum 2013. jurnal pendidikan: teori, penelitian, dan pengembangan, 1(8), 1505–1511. tureniyazova, a. (2019). using graphical organizers in the teaching process of ict. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 31-40. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/416 wakabayashi, y., & ishikawa, t. (2011). spatial thinking in geographic information science: a review of past studies and prospects for the future. international conference: spatial thinking and geographic information sciences 2011, 21, 304–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.07.031 wang, y.-h., & chen, c.-m. (2013). gis education in taiwanese senior high schools: a national survey among geography teachers. journal of geography, 112(2), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2011.637227 wardiyatmoko, k. (2014). geografi untuk sma/ma kelas xii. jakarta: erlangga. yang, d. (2013). comparing assessments within junior geography textbooks used in mainland china. journal of geography, 112(2), 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2011.648211 yasar, o., & seremet, m. (2007). a comparative analysis regarding pictures included in secondary school geography textbooks taught in turkey. international research in geographical and environmental education, 16(2), 157–188. https://doi.org/10.2167/irgee216.0 zhang, h., & foskett, n. (2003). changes in the subject matter of geography textbooks: 1907–1993. international research in geographical and environmental education, 12(4), 312–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382040308667544 https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/416 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2), 170-195 developing future teachers’ digital competence via massive open online courses (moocs) yerkinay yelubay1, dina dzhussubaliyeva 2, bakytgul moldagali 3, assem suleimenova 4, shyryn akimbekova5 abstract this empirical study was conducted to develop third-year students’ digital competence at abai kazakh national pedagogical university, kazakhstan and test the effectiveness of massive open online courses (moocs) to increase digital competence. future teachers’ digital competence was regarded as a combination of knowledge, skills, abilities, strategies acquired in their learning experience and improvement in integrated activities using digital and network technologies to solve professional issues. the relevance of developing future teachers’ digital competence was associated with their insufficient knowledge and skills, which was reflected during the diagnostic stage analysis in using digital and network technologies in the educational process. many approaches and tools have been adopted to develop future teachers’ digital competence and one of them is moocs. in this study, mixed methods were used, for example, theoretical analysis of pertinent literature, generalization, systematization, specification of conclusions and statistical analysis of the pedagogical experiment. the primary data were collected through the researchers’ preand postexperiment questionnaires. the findings of this study confirm that moocs as a distance learning technology have positively affected all participants and effectively improved future teachers’ digital competence depending on four components (motivational, technological, cognitive, and ethical) and the indicators of future teachers’ digital competence presented. keywords: digital technologies, digital skills, digital competence, distance learning, massive open online courses (moocs). introduction today's students are surrounded by digital technologies and networks that have become highly prevalent and indispensable for imparting education. researchers have actively investigated students’ relationship with technology (bennet et al., 2008; lea & jones, 2011; prensky, 2001) and their lack of digital skills in the digital learning environment (prescott, 2018). prensky (2001) introduced the 1 ph.d. student at abai kazakh national pedagogical university, kazakhstan, yerkynay_y@mail.ru (corresponding author) 1 senior lecturer at international information technology university, kazakhstan, y.yelubay@iitu.edu.kz 2professor at ablaikhan kazakh university of international relations and world languages, kazakhstan, dinaddm@mail.ru 3 post-doctoral student at abai kazakh national pedagogical university, kazakhstan, bahados_@mail.ru 4 ph.d. at pavlodar pedagogical university, kazakhstan, suleimenova1978@bk.ru 5 post-doctoral student at abai kazakh national pedagogical university, kazakhstan, akimbekova.shyryn@gmail.com mailto:yerkynay_y@mail.ru mailto:y.yelubay@iitu.edu.kz mailto:dinaddm@mail.ru mailto:bahados_@mail.ru mailto:suleimenova1978@bk.ru mailto:akimbekova.shyryn@gmail.com yelubay et al. 171 terms “digital natives” and “digital immigrants” and discussed the differences between them. he further claimed that “digital learners” are accustomed to acquiring information very quickly, and they like to process or multitask in parallel and evaluate information in fundamentally distinct ways than their ancestors. these disparities are substantially more profound and pervasive than most educators recognize. a digital immigrant is an individual who was not born in the digital age but was attracted by and embraced most features of modern technology at some time in his or her life. today's learners or digital natives are defined as the natural speakers of digital devices and the internet. those educators who adopted technology later in their lives and interact in an “obsolete language” are trying to teach learners who interact in an altogether new and different language (prensky, 2001). the term “digital immigrant educator” refers to an educator who does not acquire sufficient digital knowledge or skills, but there is a contradictory opinion among researchers on the concept of digital natives. for instance, researchers (gallardo-echenique et al., 2015; kennedy & fox, 2013; prescott, 2018; voogt et al., 2013) have posited the idea that even though today’s students are highly engaged in the digital environment, they do not possess the requisite digital skills for learning. they rather use digital technologies primarily for personal aims, such as entertainment and communication and are unable to attend conventional academic studies (gurung & rutledge, 2014; lea & jones, 2011). the assumption that current students are technologically advanced as they were born into a digital age may limit their progress toward being digitally competent (prescott, 2018). some researchers have also noted the idea that most students studying for careers beyond computer science, electronics, and information technologies have enough computer knowledge, skills and abilities, which may even be incorrect (li & ranieri, 2010; van deursen, 2010). a similar condition is faced and the diagnostic phase’s results verify the research findings in the present investigation. the pre-survey analysis justifies that future teacher do not attain enough digital skills for effective education. although they are knowledgeable or familiar with ict, new teachers may not be able to incorporate technologies in their future profession and exhibit enough competency for didactic purposes (ciriza-mendívil et al., 2022). the digitalization of education and the urgent pandemic has transformed teachers’ current role, brought new standards and expectations for new competencies in their professional activities and requirements for ongoing professional growth. teachers are beyond knowledge carriers but they are instructors, giving guidance to digital learning environments. and these processes have also brought new requirements for learners (dube et al., 2022; from, 2017; tachie, & kariyana, 2022). especially, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 the pandemic accelerated the role of ict as an educational tool (tadeu, 2019; tarman, 2020) and interaction among educators and learners to comprehensively build knowledge together (erbilgin & şahin, 2021; kalimullina, 2021). thus, teachers and students should attain knowledge, skills and abilities to work with digital technologies, organize their self-study, search or employ pertinent information and adopt teamwork and collaborative skills. the digital age demands that users develop a new thinking style and the ability to adapt to new literacies commanded by modern technologies (coiro et al., 2008). it applies to both students and teachers, and the formation of teachers’ digital skills, depending on the needs of the modern world, will inevitably rely on a highly digitally expert teacher. in this respect, “multifunctional, over subject and multidimensional key competencies must be developed” within any training areas’ frame (galkina, 2017). procuring these kinds of competencies definitely will help to solve problems in an individual’s professional and social lives and digital competence is one of them. per all the above issues and research findings, the researchers consider developing future teachers’ digital competence a very topical issue. since students live with the rapid advancement of technology, only digitally proficient teachers will be able to adapt to novel changes, self-develop and provide a high-quality education by taking advantage of all the opportunities that technology provides. that is why, it is critical issue to investigate effective methods of developing future teachers’ digital competence. the research specifies the concept of prospective teachers’ digital competence, determines the components, measuring levels and criteria. moreover, the effectiveness of the mooc will be tested and the results of the pedagogical experiment will be summarized. lastly, the research formulates the theory of developing future teachers’ digital competence. solving these problems contributes to research by addressing prospective teachers' digital competence from both theoretical and practical perspectives, as well as expanding knowledge of distance learning technologies such as moocs. research questions rq: whether the given mooc treatment can produce significant differences in the four structural components (motivation, technology, cognitive and ethical) digital competence of prospective teachers in the experimental pretest and posttest groups? hypothesis ha1: the mooc treatment given can produce significant differences in the four structural components (motivation, technology, cognitive and ethical) digital competence of prospective teachers in the pretest and posttest experimental groups. yelubay et al. 173 ha2: the mooc treatment given can produce significant differences in the four structural components (motivation, technology, cognitive and ethical) digital competence of prospective teachers in the pretest and posttest control groups. review of literature gilster (1997) defined the digital literacy concept as “the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide variety of sources when it is presented via computers”. he emphasized teaching and learning by articulating “how to assimilate the information, evaluate it then reintegrate it” (pool, 1997). thus, digital literacy requires several sophisticated competencies, including cognitive, social or emotional ones, which learners must possess to utilize digital technology properly, save for simple abilities involving software or digital tools use (gilster, 1997). “digital literacy involves interacting with information, interacting with information is about assessing its truth, credibility, reliability and so on” (lankshear & knobel, 2015). the relevance of information is accentuated in european union’s (eu) definition. digital competence includes using information technology critically for the job, recreation and communication. the description is “to retrieve, assess, store, produce, present and exchange information and to communicate and participate in collaborative networks via the internet.” (european parliament & the council, 2006). several studies have stressed the vitality of information and stated it as the ability to critically search (brečko et al., 2014) the responsibility to analyze, choose, critically evaluate (calvani et al., 2008; tsankov & damyanov, 2017) and manage (hernandez et al., 2015) information acquired by a computer. many digital competence definitions exist, including “the set of knowledge, skills, attitudes, abilities, strategies and awareness that are required when using ict [information and communication technologies] and digital media to perform tasks; solve problems; communicate; manage information; collaborate; create and share content; and build knowledge effectively, efficiently, appropriately, critically, creatively, autonomously, flexibly, ethically, reflectively for work, leisure, participation, learning and socializing.” (ferrari, 2012) the digital competence definitions have developed and adapted to the advancement of digital technologies and progressed with the latest innovations. in this regard, outdated applications formerly comprising digital proficiency will perish as technology advances, allowing new expectations to bloom (maderick, 2013). people must acquire new competencies with the ongoing development of novel technologies. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 many studies have explored the teachers’ digital competence concept. for example, norwegian researcher krumsvik (2011) delineates it as: “the teacher’s proficiency in using ict in a professional context with good pedagogic-didactic judgment and his or her awareness of its implications for learning strategies and the digital building of pupils”. from (2017) stresses the pedagogical digital competence and in his perspective, “the concept of pedagogical digital competence refers to the ability to consistently apply the attitudes, knowledge and skills required to plan and conduct and to evaluate, revise on an ongoing basis, ict-supported teaching, based on theory, current research and proven experience with a view to supporting students’ learning in the best possible way”. it is similar to the previous definition. however, a teacher's digital competence does not only include the ability to use ict efficiently. still, it involves the digital technologies’ complete mastery to address professional issues. nevertheless, ict and digital technologies have expedited digital skills by locating, conveying, using, and storing information that teachers are to improve (masrur, 2021; ozden, 2018). teachers differ from other technology consumers as they utilize technologies for didactic purposes and instruct students on specific learning objectives. then, a group of researchers specifies the components of digital competence. for instance, gapski (2007) posed digital literacy in two directions, including “instrumental-technological” and “normative media-educational” linking to its use or function and pedagogical goals. they consisted of three competencies: 1) interpreting, 2) choosing and 3) articulating messages. tornero (2004) indicated “digital literacy merges capabilities: purely technical aspects, intellectual competencies and competencies related to responsible citizenship. they all allow individuals to develop themselves completely in the information society”. an exceedingly similar conclusion was presented by other researchers (calvani et al., 2008). they noted that digital competence was the integration of technological, cognitive, and ethical components. the technological one included the ability to investigate digital contexts flexibly. yet, the cognitive one was related to the skills and abilities to assess digital content and data, their relevance or reliability, critically. the ethical component involved the ability to communicate responsibly using technology, covering protecting personal data, respecting others and understanding copyright rules. nonetheless, these components may not be adequate to be a digitally competent person. simultaneously, researchers concentrated on the individual’s motivation for using technologies in their daily and professional activities (soldatova & rasskazova, 2014). they disclosed that improvement in one’s self-management skills and an yelubay et al. 175 understanding of digital citizenship. this opinion seems reasonable and it is exceedingly critical to urge an individual to use digital technologies efficiently in society. digital competence as teachers’ professional capability was reflected in the digital competence framework for educators in europe (redecker & punie, 2017). this framework provides a complete set of competencies educators need to incorporate into their professional practice to help students achieve the curriculum objectives. the educators’ digital competence structure mirrors all aspects of their professional activity and specifies three core competencies in six areas. the first area involves teachers’ knowledge of using digital devices to enhance instruction, establish professional interaction with learners, parents and colleagues and develop reflective practice and professional growth in a collaborative environment. the pedagogic competence area discloses teachers’ ability and responsibility to handle digital resources comprehensively and adapt them to their teaching goals, learning and teaching strategies. also, it encompasses teachers’ ability to use digital devices in the design and plan teaching process, assessment strategies and methods for organizing and promoting students’ independent or group learning. the last competence area concentrates on their ability or responsibility in expediting learners’ competencies to deal with information, responsible use, digital content creation, interaction and problem-solving. this research’s initial objective is to develop a prospective teacher’s digital competence. therefore, a need to define the concept includes analyzing the literature. a prospective teacher’s digital competence includes: "the ability, knowledge and skills acquired in the learning experience through the integrated activities to solve professional issues using digital technologies responsibly”. competence development is described as “a multifactorial, hierarchical and time-consuming process to improve some skills and acquire new ones, increase personal qualities, gain confidence and the ability to act independently in new situations” (shubkina, 2016). therefore, digcompedu specifies the six levels to assess teachers’ digital competence. the research depends on this framework to describe the components and evaluate the prospective teachers’ digital competence. a1 and a2 (awareness/exploration) levels include learners’ understanding and exploring the digital technologies’ potential and application in pedagogical and professional activities through the collaborative exchange of experiences. b1 and b2 (integration/expertise) levels comprise the competencies to integrate technologies confidently, critically and creatively into professional activities’ several aspects in a collaborative environment and comprehend the digital strategies’ pros and cons. c1 and c2 (leadership/innovation) levels underline the competencies in using digital journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 technologies for specific goals, looking for further development, evaluate the digital pedagogical experiences’ advantages and disadvantages. these levels disclose digital competence’s motivational, cognitive and reflexive components. other research (calvani et al., 2008; gapski, 2007; soldatova & rasskazova, 2014; tornero, 2004) accentuates digital competence’s ethical evaluation is essential in keeping one and others safe in a digital world. researchers consider the digcompedu framework’s (redecker & punie, 2017) descriptions/dimensions in defining the digital competence’ components. it agrees with calvani et al.’s (2008) conceptual framework, emphasizing the effective use of technology, digital content or resources and responsible communication. scientists added the extra motivational component to calvani et al.’s digital competence (technological, cognitive and ethical) depending on previous studies. all these four components are exceedingly essential and should be mutually developed. then, the researchers identified the levels for developing a prospective teacher’s digital competence. they simplified the levels and specified “low,” “medium,” or “high” levels of prospective teachers’ digital competence based on the digcompedu framework. each component’s description and digital competence level are in tables 1 and 2. table 1 the prospective teachers’ digital competence structure motivational a prospective teacher’s activity and need to use digital technologies; acquire the necessary knowledge and skills to use digital technologies technological a prospective teacher’s ability, knowledge and skills to solve technical issues, and conceptually understand digital technologies cognitive a prospective teacher’s the knowledge, ability, skills to work with digital content and network resources, databases critically, creatively; and independently model the educational process using innovative digital technologies, the ability to consciously and individually exercise and regulate the control of one's level and development, personal achievements ethical protect one's and others' intellectual rights, personal opinions, views, communication, digital educational environment and protect the confidentiality, personal data all the components of digital competence are mutually interrelated. however, focusing on the motivational component is the most crucial. to form students' positive attitudes toward technologies, educators must demonstrate effective use of the model in the learning process. students should be taught how to use technology as creators instead of consumers, to display technological proficiency by identifying and using all possibilities for developing and disseminating knowledge. the cognitive component involves the knowledge or skills to evaluate digital content and the ability to identify the pertinence and reliability of the information. educators should teach students to compare and contrast digital data to make accurate decisions to develop cognitive competence. the last component of digital competence includes communicating yelubay et al. 177 responsibly with others while using technology. it covers teaching to recognize the value of respect and accountability, secure personal information, respect people’s viewpoints and follow copyright laws. table 2 the prospective teachers’ digital competence levels levels/structure low medium high motivational lack of knowledge and skills to communicate and work with information on the internet, network resources and digital technologies for professional activity insufficient need for using digital devices, ict and networks in professional areas and the need to acquire the necessary knowledge or skills the presence of motivation to achieve and master digital technologies consciously, ict, or networks on a daily and professional basis. the desire to constantly improve professional level using digital technologies technological lack of knowledge and skills to solve typical technological difficulties and understand technologies conceptually insufficient knowledge and skills, the need to acquire to recognize interfaces, solve typical technological difficulties and conceptually understand them knowledge, skills, abilities to face technologies flexibly, determining the benefits and drawbacks of technologies; knowledge, skills, abilities to solve complex technological difficulties and understand them conceptually cognitive has the necessary knowledge, ability and skills to select, create and modify digital content, exchange it with others; the ability to organize students work in digital spaces and learn in a self or collaborative environment has the skills to select information critically; creatively create and change digital content, share them; the ability to manage educational content, creatively use knowledge and skills to organize students’ self-study in digital spaces, learn in a collaborative environment freely selects the necessary information from open educational spaces, can create and modify digital content, can organize and manage, share content in a community with others; can organize students’ selfstudy/ group learning in digital space, learn in a collaborative environment; confident, creative, and critically use knowledge and skills to work with students using digital technologies, as well as develop ways to solve digital problems ethical lack of knowledge and skills to communicate and work with information on the internet; lack of critical assessment and protection of one’s digital space, and lack of the significance of one’s own and others' intellectual rights the presence of insufficient knowledge and skills to protect one’s own and others' intellectual rights, personal opinions, views, personal communication on the internet, digital educational space, understanding the competent use of information from the internet, acceptance, and understanding of critical assessments in exchange of information, know about the protection of the confidentiality and personal data knows the ways to protect one’s and others' intellectual rights, digital educational space, can verify the correctness of the information, communication, and always has a critical opinion, knows the ways to protect the privacy and personal data. massive open online courses (moocs) by defining the prospective teachers’ digital competence concept, its levels and criteria/indicators, researchers deliberate the methods for its development. a review of international research has journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 revealed that moocs develop citizens’ digital practice (mcauley et al., 2010). some empirical research considers moocs as a tool for developing teachers’ digital competence (bartoletti 2016; chan, 2018; koukis & jimoyiannis, 2017; rivera & ramírez, 2015; wambugu 2018). in addition, several research emphasize moocs as a tool for professional development (bonafini, 2018; gushina & mikheeva, 2017; kopytova, 2015; lebedeva, 2015; mozhayeva, 2015; zakharova & tanasenko, 2019). moocs are the emerging developments in distance education (lewin, 2013). moocs have changed from the open educational resources (oer)’s concept and open courseware (ocw). oer is described as: “digitized materials offered freely and openly for educators, students and self-learners to use and reuse for teaching, learning and research” (atiaja & proenza, 2016). moocs are specified as: “online courses designed for large numbers of participants, that can be accessed by anyone anywhere as long as they have an internet connection, are open to everyone without entry, qualifications, offer a full/complete course experience online for free” (ischinger, 2007). one of the ict revolution’s “dividends” includes the ability to scale learning and make it available everywhere, at any time (moore & diehl, 2019). according to moocs’ pedagogy, literature presents the broader two types: xmoocs and cmoocs (siemens, 2004). xmoocs have been developed from behaviorism and depend on information transmission. they focus on the course materials or instructors (chen, 2013). in the present study, researchers have focused on cmoocs. siemens and downes (2008) reported that technology had a remarkable influence on society and posed substantial changes in teaching and learning; the authors suggested connectivism as one of the alternative learning theories. precisely, the cmoocs (cconnectivist moocs) are acknowledged as a tool to enhance digital competence in the learning process. the attention is on students and knowledge in cmoocs. cmoocs’ structure depends on connectivism principles as “autonomy, diversity, openness and interactivity and the activities as aggregation, remixing, repurposing and feeding forward the materials and studying” (rodriguez, 2012). the connectivism theory confirms the possibilities of efficient learning in exchanging information among people and building communication using technology. moocs allow participants to reinforce their skills due to their massive scale, openness and flexibility distinguishing them from the traditional online course’s paradigm. they may be loaded and are expected to be in an uncertain, changeable environment (mcauley et al., 2010). cmoocs networks are where information is generated, shared and enhanced by participants. researchers believe that building knowledge through participation and interaction in moocs fosters the development of many competencies including yelubay et al. 179 digital, information, cultural and creative and technical skills. given the rapid information change, the authors deduce that if there is a need to rely on the correct theoretical foundation, the funds should be allocated to guiding, educating and interacting in the educational process instead of creating content (mcauley et al., 2010). furthermore, researchers (chan, 2018; hernandez et al., 2015; kop, 2011; koukis & jimoyiannis, 2017; rivera & ramírez, 2015; wambugu, 2018) justify that developing and participating in moocs enable teachers to utilize open educational resources in distance learning environments, collectively create content, exchange experiences and foster both their didactic skills and digital competencies. in this respect, connectivism can be a pedagogical tool to improve learning in moocs. it means that prospective teachers can interact through materials, communicate via networks and materials, create an online community, promote learning and share their experiences. connectivism, as a method, boosts a prospective teacher’s digital competence, demanding mooc participation, digital competence and developing skills in online learning and responsibility in an open educational space by self-managing, studying, sharing and contributing to others. furthermore, researchers can test the course’s effectiveness and possibilities in the designed experiment. next, the research sets several objectives such as defining the theoretical basis for formation of future teachers’ digital competencies through moocs, defining the concept of future teachers’ digital competence, the level and criteria for measuring the digital competence and developing the method and testing its effectiveness. this study begins with the hypothesis that mooc is critical for building digital competence (mcauley et al., 2010). therefore, this research aims to check the formulated hypothesis regarding the prospective teachers' digital competence formation, test the mooc’s effectiveness and possibilities in building motivational, technological, cognitive, and ethical components of digital competence. methods design an experimental design called the pre-posttest control group is used. before and after measurements are taken in a preand post-treatment experiment. in this design, there are two groups and only one of them receives the treatment. the other group's results are gathered after the treatment has been completed. in the same amount of time, members of the control group do not receive any treatment, but they are subjected to all of the same examinations. after that, statistical analysis can be used to determine whether or not the intervention had a meaningful journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 impact. the design allows you to see how a treatment affects a group of people. in this study, two groups are chosen at random and then given a pre-test to determine the initial state of the experimental and control groups to see if they differ. when comparing the experimental group's results to those of the control group, good treatment outcomes are defined as a difference between the pretest and posttest that is statistically significant (without treatment). sample according to the design of the experiment, students were purposefully selected from both pedagogical specialties with the same knowledge background and had to take the course. the control group received a set of practical assignments from the mooc to implement individually and the experimental students signed up for the mooc, totaling 147 students. the experiment included third-year students at the kazakh national pedagogical university named after abai, majoring in "pedagogy and psychology," "pedagogy and methodology of primary education" and occurred between 2020 and 2021. the “introduction to mooc” course was designed for six weeks (3 credits) and the researchers used open educational resources and developed explanatory brief video material sets, presentations, texts, quizzes and discussion forum topics depending on the mooc format. discussion forums were structured on the course platform (moodle) and network discussions were organized in google groups and twitter. the control (87 students) and experimental groups (60 students) were systematized. instrument a questionnaire with twenty different items served as the research tool for this investigation. the items were arranged as follows: 5 items pertaining to motivation, 7 items pertaining to technology, 5 items pertaining to cognition and 3 items pertaining to ethics. check out table 3 to see how the items are distributed as well as the statements that are included in the items. yelubay et al. 181 table 3. research instrument no the prospective teachers’ digital competence levels statement 1 motivational competence 1. the role of digital and network technology is very important, and they offer teachers huge opportunities to improve their professional development 2. digital technologies and collaborative networks are effective tools to exchange pedagogical experiences among colleagues 3. digital and network technologies offer the possibility of exchanging materials quickly 4. the effective use of digital and network technologies improves students’ motivation, digital knowledge and skills through digital content 5. digital and network technologies enable to create and organize student-centered, individual, group and collaborative learning activities 2 technological competence 6. i can effectively use digital devices and icts for the educational process 7. i can select and install the appropriate software for creating digital resources 8. i can manage my digital/internet /network / resources 9. i can share digital/internet /network / resources 10. i can create and manage individual/ group/collaborative digital learning environment 11. i can provide feedback in individual/ group learning digital environment 12. i can understand the concept of “cloud” and use it effectively 3 cognitive competence 13. i can critically evaluate and use digital resources 14. i can find and select, change the internet and network resources 15. i can create and change, use texts, types of assessment quizzes 16. i can create and use, change audio and video files 17. i can create and use, change various types of presentations 4 ethical competence 18. i can effectively protect my digital learning environment and digital resources 19. i understand copyright rules and responsively communicate with others 20. i can effectively cite to copyrighted resources in order to determine whether or not the questionnaire was valid and reliable, pilot testing was conducted using spearman rank correlation and cronbach alpha. because the data were ordinal and the statistical test was a non-parametric one, both formulas were employed. a validity test is a way of determining the degree to which a question's validity in relation to the entire item can be quantified. a spearman rank correlation is used because the scale used in this test is ordinal. if the spearman rank correlation value is greater than r table, then the question item is valid (ghozali, 2018). tests for reliability are used to determine how consistent respondents' answers are. the cronbach alpha value is used in the test. if the cronbach alpha value is greater than 0.7, the question item is considered reliable by the test criteria (ghozali, 2018). please refer to table 4 for the full analysis. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 table 4. validity and reliability test no item spearman rank correlation cronbach α 1 mc1 0,682 0,790 2 mc2 0,770 3 mc3 0,667 4 mc4 0,748 5 mc5 0,814 6 tc1 0,708 0,769 7 tc2 0,597 8 tc3 0,614 9 tc4 0,679 10 tc5 0,648 11 tc6 0,650 12 tc7 0,599 13 cc1 0,872 0,746 14 cc2 0,715 15 cc3 0,590 16 cc4 0,697 17 cc5 0,608 18 ec1 0,842 0,747 19 ec2 0,796 20 ec3 0,814 the results of the validity test above use (n) 30 respondents so that the value of r table = 0.349 (df = n-2 = 30-2 = 28 and = 0.05). furthermore, a comparison is made between the value of the spearman rank correlation (r count) with the value of r table. it can be seen that all the calculated r values are greater than r tables, so it can be said that all statement items are valid. in addition, the results of the reliability test were tested by comparing the calculated cronbach alpha value with the critical cronbach alpha value (0.7). we can conclude that all cronbach alpha values have been above 0.7 so it can be said that all items are reliable. research procedure students have their pedagogical experience in their third year and the experiment is organized in advance to be conducted at this time to assist students with their pedagogical practice. thus, it helps with their pedagogical practice. students learn how to build communication with their school groups, organize educational events, prepare digital resources and use a variety of software for yelubay et al. 183 didactic purposes during their pedagogical practice. the experiment was conducted as required and most students were eager to take the online course. the research aims to develop future teachers’ digital competence components. the purpose of the motivational component is to form a conscious and positive attitude toward doing professional activities. a digital learning environment (the mooc) was designed to achieve this. students can study at their own pace and are expected to master the materials autonomously based on the facilitator’s instructions. the learning process was organized by considering the four essential activities of connectivism as including aggregation, remixing, repurposing and distributing the material in feedforward (siemens & downes, 2008). the accessibility of moocs at any time, the flexibility of multimedia materials to master at their own pace and the possibility of discussing professional topics with their peers all contribute to forming positive motivation. although the course is asynchronous, the facilitator's support of discussions in the experimental group and the constant instructions and feedback help students interact closely and perform tasks systematically. commonly, students use social media more in their everyday lives than in professional areas and the model of using social networks for professional topic discussions will fit best for using technologies for educational purposes. the technological component aims to raise students’ awareness and conceptual understanding of using technologies to address educational challenges by establishing goals and objectives. after mastering the content of the course’s knowledge, students create google group or twitter discussions and practice sending invitations, registering participants and presenting a new topic for discussions. the next assignment involves students choosing and downloading one of the free internet software such as free cam, cam studio or screen-cast-o-matic and preparing material for didactic purposes. for instance, students practice preparing very brief video materials. it may include a video presentation or other videos and participants post them on social media discussions on the given professional topic. each week, students do specific assignments based on the content and have video instructions for creating video materials and participating in network discussions. participants engage in a series of activities to develop the cognitive component and notably, all aspects of digital competence are developed mutually. students gain access to the course information through aggregation, where they can review the course structure and watch instructional or explanatory videos. then, they do a series of quizzes to clarify the content. in turn, they are motivated by responding to each other’s opinions or asking questions in discussions journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 under the guidance of the course facilitator. in repurposing and feed-forward stage, they are tasked with searching for materials for discussion forum topics related to their professional sphere and processing information to understand if the content is appropriate to post. then they share it with others in social media discussions by citing the retrieved sources and expressing their agreement or disagreement with the posted material. thus, the complex development of digital competence is carried out through the process of studying the theoretical materials and implementing practical tasks, as well as the exchange of professional knowledge and experience that are based on methodical, professional assignments integrated with networks and digital technologies. by attending the course, students develop their digital competencies, theoretical knowledge and learn how to develop moocs. its successful implementation relied on the pedagogical, didactic and methodological prospects of organizing the learning process and a digital learning environment formation. the mooc’s brief content on developing digital competence is as follows: week 1digitalization of education: novel trends in education. the digital competence concept: digital competence framework for educators (digcompedu). week 2an mooc overview as a distance learning technology. the mooc phenomenon. week 3 moocs pedagogy. mooc’s types: xmooc and cmooc. week 4-5 designing moocs. texts and video lectures’ linguistic style. video recording and editing. discussion forums. network collaboration. quizzes. monitoring and evaluation. week 6 digital citizenship. copyright rules. the students implemented the following practical assignments and shared them in each week’s discussion forums per the suggested course topics. • identify false/ reliable information • create, share texts/blogs/posts; express agreement/disagreements • create a collaborative network learning environment and practice organizing online discussion forums (google groups, twitter) • find/select free audio and video recording software, and create audio/video resources • create an online quizzes and surveys • create various interactive presentations • share digital resources in various formats and comment on others/ evaluate etc. yelubay et al. 185 during the covid 19, online or distance education has become exceedingly engaging and our research has carried utmost relevance and has been conducted at a high time to enhance students’ digital knowledge and skills. digital competence can prepare students for their future endeavors and ongoing professional growth per the modern education and digital transformation needs. data collection the researcher utilized a questionnaire consisting of 20 different questions in order to collect data for this study. both the control group and the experimental group were given a copy of the questionnaire twice (once as a pretest and once as a posttest). the questionnaire was distributed to both sets of respondents at the same time. the data were transformed into three different scale ranges: low (code 1), medium (code 2) and high (code 3). the researcher then distributed the scores based on the experimental groups, analyzed the results of the classical assumption test and tested the hypothesis after they had finished scoring the questionnaire responses. data analysis the primary data analysis of this study was to test the hypothesis that independent variables have an effect on the dependent variable. accordingly, the general characteristics of data were reflected in the descriptive statistics before hypothesis testing was carried out. normality test the normality test is used to determine the data's normality level. the normality test was also employed as a determinant test in this investigation. the kolmogorov-smirnov test was used to determine whether or not this data was normal. if the kolmogorov-smirnov significance value is greater than 0.05, the data is considered normal (ghozali, 2018). homogeneity test homogeneity test was used to determine the level of similarity of variance between two groups of data (pretest and posttest). this test is carried out by levene's test. the criteria for testing the data are said to be homogeneous if levene's test produces a significance value above 0.05 (sugiyono, 2018). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 descriptive statistics descriptive statistics are used to find out the initial description of the research data, both demographic data and parameter data (ghozali, 2018). the analysis appeared in terms of central tendency, mean and rate percentage. hypothesis testing hypothesis testing refers to the assumption of normality and homogeneity being tested. the homogeneity of variance test is used if the two analyzed datasets are normally distributed. nonparametric statistical tests the mann-whitney test (u-test) was used to determine if the two sets of data being compared are not normally distributed (sugiyono, 2018). results normality and homogeneity test the results of the normality test using the kolmogorov-smirnov test and homogeneity using the levene's test can be seen in table 5: table 5. normality and homogeneity test level group kolmogorov-smirnov test levene’s test statistic df sig statistic sig motivational component experiment pretest 0.165 60 0.000 0.039 0.843 posttest 0.132 60 0.011 technological component pretest 0.231 60 0.000 0.941 0.334 posttest 0.176 60 0.000 cognitive component pretest 0.280 60 0.000 16.464 0.000 posttest 0.189 60 0.000 ethic component pretest 0.303 60 0.000 8.751 0.004 posttest 0.136 60 0.008 motivational component control pretest 0.199 87 0.000 0.163 0.687 posttest 0.183 87 0.000 technological component pretest 0.226 87 0.000 0.941 0.334 posttest 0.212 87 0.000 cognitive component pretest 0.303 87 0.000 16.464 0.000 posttest 0.262 87 0.000 ethic component pretest 0.294 87 0.000 8.751 0.004 posttest 0.317 87 0.000 yelubay et al. 187 based on the table above, it is known that all the data used in the study are not normal because they have a kolmogorov-smirnov significance value below 0.05. therefore, hypothesis testing can be continued by using the mann-whitney test even though there is a levene's test on several parameters indicating that the data is homogeneous which is marked with a significance value below 0.05. descriptive statistics descriptive statistics in this study were used to see the demographic description of the respondents used. the results of the descriptive statistics can be seen in table 6. table 6. descriptive statistics group demographics category frequencies percentages experiment gender male 18 31,67% female 42 68,33% age < 20 year 7 11,67% ≥ 20 year 53 88,33% experience using digital teaching methods inexperienced 34 56,67% 1 year 18 30,00% > 1 year 8 13,33% control gender male 29 35,63% female 58 64,37% age < 20 year 22 25,29% ≥ 20 year 65 74,71% experience using digital teaching methods inexperienced 45 51,72% 1 year 25 28,74% > 1 year 17 19,54% based on the table above, it can be seen that in the experimental group there was a dominance of the female gender as many as 41 people (68.33%) compared to the male gender which was only 19 people (31.67%). there is an age dominance in the experimental group where respondents aged 20 years are 53 people (88.33%) compared to respondents aged < 20 years which are only 7 people (11.67%). the experimental group is also dominated by respondents who are inexperienced in using digital teaching methods as many as 34 people (56.67%) than respondents with 1 year experience as many as 18 people (30%) and respondents with more than 1 year experience as many as 8 people (13 ,33%). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 in the control group there was also a dominance of the number of female genders as many as 58 people (64.37%) than the male gender which was only 29 people (35.63%). there is an age dominance in the control group where respondents aged 20 years are 65 people (74.71%) than respondents aged < 20 years which are only 22 people (25.29%). the control group is also dominated by respondents who are inexperienced in using digital teaching methods as many as 45 people (51.72%) than respondents with 1 year experience as many as 25 people (28.74%) and respondents with more than 1 year experience as many as 17 people (19,54%). hypothesis testing hypothesis testing was carried out in this study using table 7. table 7. hypothesis testing group statistics testing motivational component technological component cognitive component ethic component experiment mann-whitney u 1364.500 1195.000 722.500 1048.000 wilcoxon w 3194.500 3025.000 2552.500 2878.000 z -2.314 -3.264 -5.882 -4.073 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .021 .001 .000 .000 control mann-whitney u 3732.500 3617.000 3641.000 3649.500 wilcoxon w 7560.500 7445.000 7469.000 7477.500 z -.161 -.526 -.466 -.441 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .872 .599 .641 .659 based on the table 7, it is known that all the significance values in the experimental group resulted in a significance value below 0.05. the results show that the mooc treatment given can produce significant differences in the four structural components (motivation, technology, cognitive and ethical) digital competence of prospective teachers in the pretest and posttest experimental groups or ha1 accepted. as a comparison, the same statistical test was carried out in the control group, where this group was not given mooc treatment either in the pretest or posttest. the statistical test results in the table show that all parameters produce a significance value above 0.05. that is, the absence of the mooc treatment that was given could not produce significant differences in the four structural components (motivation, technology, cognitive and ethical) digital competence of prospective teachers in the pretest and posttest control groups or ha2 rejected. yelubay et al. 189 discussion this empirical research can be relevant as it aims to develop digital competence-specific components that have not been thoroughly investigated before. the differences between the initial and final experiments’ results between the components and the participating groups’ comparative analysis indicated the positive results in the development stage. researchers have reported that several factors, including content, interactivity and accessibility, substantially improve students’ motivation in moocs per the motivational component (deshpande & chukhlomin, 2017). these authors disclosed that concise video materials, resources and assistance tools, along with support instructions, enhanced students’ attention for better learning regarding the content. to that end, “introduction to mooc” provided the essential theoretical, brief video or text materials for prospective teachers for digital competence and the pertinent hypothetical materials needed to produce digital resources for moocs. the content’s logical organization was easy to navigate and the final research results verified the moocs’ accessibility at any time, thanks to the internet. the flexibility of multimedia materials, the possibility of discussing professional issues with peers, the high interaction and the course’s overall flexibility developed students’ positive motivation. moreover, they increased their technological awareness and cognitive skills. usually, the successful implementation of these factors can jointly develop the digital competencies of all the components. previous research has revealed that moocs are tools for continuous learning. yet, they do not develop digital skills (soyemi et al., 2018). also, other researchers disagree and state that moocs' participatory nature develops digital skills (rivera & ramírez, 2015; wambugu, 2018). moocs' participatory character allows accessing information or learning materials, the internet or collaborative tools develop human cognitive skills (mcauley et al., 2010). thus, this empirical study confirmed that it was beneficial for students to combine theoretical knowledge with experience throughout the course and the students were able to create various digital resources by sharing and exchanging fruitful professional experiences. but the situation in the control group was relatively different from that in the experimental group, as the group did not take part in the mooc, was not guided to complete assignments and implemented their practical assignments. however, universities do not agree that developing students' digital competencies result in critically effective ways to develop digital competence. thus, higher institutional organizations training prospective teachers should consider striking ways to develop general competencies, including digital competence, such as moocs. educational organizations and their leaders should exhibit an effective “digital journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 management” model to improve teachers' pedagogical competence in their everyday professional activities, affecting others' pedagogical competence (masur, 2021). conclusion to sum up, developing prospective teachers’ digital competence is an exceedingly crucial issue. the development of artificial intelligence will not cease and with novel technologies’ advances, one must acquire new skills or be ready to adapt to emerging changes. therefore, the following conclusions are formulated based on the research findings and data analysis. first, the teaching method via distance education technologies, such as moocs and education relying on various network types, can effectively develop digital competence’s all the components. then, the moocs’ development and implementation in the higher education system in kazakhstan, with prospective and current teachers improved digital competence, will pave the way for lifelong learning by launching an open educational space in the country. future research can provide an in-depth analysis of network discussions and their potential as a knowledge-building tool to overcome didactic challenges. references atiaja, l.n.a., proenza r.s.g. (2016). the moocs: origin, characterization, principal problems and challenges in higher education. journal of e-learning & knowledge society.12 (1), pp. 6567. available at: https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/1093 bartoletti, r. (2016). learning through design: mooc development as a method for exploring teaching methods. current issues in emerging elearning. 3 (1). issn: 23736089, available at: https://scholarworks.umb.edu/ciee/vol3/iss1/2 bonafini, f. c. (2018). characteristics of professional development and teacher interactions in a mooc designed for the teaching of statistics. a dissertation for the degree of doctor of philosophy. the graduate school, college of education, pennsylvania state university. brečko, b. n., ferrari a., punie y. (2014). digcomp: a framework for developing and understanding digital competence in europe. elearning papers. issn: 1887-1542. available at: www.openeducationeuropa.eu/en/elearning_papers bennett, s., marton, k. & kervin, l. (2008). the ‘digital natives’ debate: a critical review of the evidence, british journal of educational technology. 39 (5), pp. 775-786. calvani, a., cartelli, a., fini, a. (2008). models and instruments for assessing digital competence at school. journal of e-learning and knowledge society. 4 (3), pp.183-193. https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/1093 https://scholarworks.umb.edu/ciee/vol3/iss1/2 http://www.openeducationeuropa.eu/en/elearning_papers yelubay et al. 191 ciriza-mendívil c.d., lacambra a.m. and hernández de la cruz j.m. (2022). technological pedagogical content knowledge: implementation of a didactic proposal for preservice history teachers. front. educ. 7:852801. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.852801 coiro, j., knobel, m., lankshear, c., & leu, d. j. (2008). ‘central issues in new literacies and new literacies research’, handbook of research on new literacies. new york: lawrence. chan, m. m. (2018). moocs as a disruptive innovation to develop digital competence teaching: a micromasters program edx experience. european journal of open and distance and e learning. 21 (2). deshpande a., chukhlomin v. (2017). what makes a good mooc: afield study of factors impacting student motivation to learn. american journal of distance education, vol.13, no 4. 275-293. dube, b., makura, a., modise, a., & tarman, b. (2022). covid-19 and the quest for reconfiguration of disciplines: unpacking new directions. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), i-viii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2002.12 erbilgin, e., & şahin, b. (2021). the effects of a professional development program for technology integrated algebra teaching. research in educational policy and management, 3(2), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.4 european parliament & the council (2006). recommendation of the european parliament and of the council of 18 december 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. official journal of the european union, l394/310. ferrari, a. (2012). digital competence in practice: an analysis of frameworks jrc scientific and policy reports (pp. 95). seville: european commission joint research centre. institute for prospective technological studies. from, j., (2017). “pedagogical digital competence-between values, knowledge and skills”, higher education studies. vol.7. no 2. [online published]. available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1140642.pdf gapski, h. (2007). some reflections on digital literacy. proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on digital literacy (pp. 49-55). crete, greece: ceur-ws.org.: available at: http://ceur-ws.org/vol-310/paper05.pdf gallardo-echenique, e. e., marqués-molías, l., bullen, m., & strijbos, j. (2015). let’s talk about digital learners in the digital era. the international review of research in open and distributed learning, 16 (3), 156-187. galkina, l.s. (2017). methodology for developing future economists’ and managers’ ict competence using cloud technologies in training disciplines of information cycle: https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2002.12 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.4 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1140642.pdf http://ceur-ws.org/vol-310/paper05.pdf journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 specialty "theory and methodology of training and education": dissertation for a degree candidate in pedagogical sciences / galkina lyudmila sergeevna; permian state national research university. – perm, 177 p. gilster, p. (1997). digital literacy. new york: john wiley. https://www.worldcat.org/title/digital-literacy/oclc/35758248 ghozali, i. (2018). aplikasi analisis multivariate dengan program ibm spss 25. badan penerbit universitas diponegoro: semarang gurung, b., & rutledge, d. (2014). digital learners and the overlapping of their personal and educational digital engagement. computers & education, 77, 91–100. hernandez, c. e., romeo, c. s., ramirez, m.m. (2015). evaluation of digital didactic skills in massive open online courses: a contribution to the latin american movement media education research journal, 22 (44). ischinger, b. (2007). giving knowledge for free: the emergence of open educational resources. oecd. available at: http://www.oecd.org/document/41/0,3343,en_2649_201185_38659497_1_1_1_1,00. html kalimullina, o., tarman, b. & stepanova, i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher's role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226-238. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 kennedy, d. m., & fox, b. (2013). ‘digital natives’: an asian perspective for using learning technologies. international journal of education and development using information and communication technology, 9 (1), 64–79. koukis, n., jimoyiannis, a. (2017). designing moocs for teacher professional development: analysis of participants’ engagement and perceptions. in a. mesquita and p. peres (eds.), proceedings of the 16th european conference on e-learning, ecel, pp. 271280, porto: academic conferences and publishing international. kop, r. (2011). the challenges to connectivist learning on open online networks: learning experiences during a massive open online course. the international review of research in open and distributed learning, 12 (3), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v12i3.882 kopytova, n. ye. (2015). massive open online courses for teachers. gaudeamus. 2 (26), 37– 41. krumsvik, r. a. (2011). digital competence in norwegian teacher education and schools. högre utbildning, 1(1), 39-51. lankshear, c. knobel, m. (2015). digital literacy and digital literacies: policy, pedagogy and https://www.worldcat.org/title/digital-literacy/oclc/35758248 http://www.oecd.org/document/41/0,3343,en_2649_201185_38659497_1_1_1_1,00.%20html http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v12i3.882 yelubay et al. 193 research considerations for education. nordic journal of digital literacy . 2006–2016, p. 8–20 issn online: 1891-943x lea, m. r., jones, s. (2011). digital literacies in higher education: exploring textual and technological practice. studies in higher education, 36 (4) pp. 377–393. lebedeva, m. b. (2015). massive open online courses as a development trend of education. chelovek i obshhestvo human and society, 1 (42), 105–108. li, y., & ranieri, m. (2010). are ‘digital natives’ really digitally competent? —a study on chinese teenagers. british journal of educational technology, 41(6), 1029–1042. maderick, j. (2013). validity of subjective self-assessment of digital competence among undergraduate pre-service teachers. disser. for the degree of doctor of philosophy. curriculum and instruction. department of teaching and learning. university of nevada, las vegas. masrur, m. (2021). digital leadership to improve the pedagogical competence of university english lecturers in samarinda. journal of social studies education research. vol 12. no 4. available at: https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3688 moore, g. m., diehl c.w. (2019). handbook of distance education. fourth edition. new york: routledge. p. 373 morris, n.p., & lambe, j. (2014). studying a mooc: a guide. palgrave macmillan. available at: https://he.palgrave.com/resources/product-pagedownloads/m/morris-studying-amooc/studying-a-mooc-neil-morris-jameslambe.pdf mozhayeva, g. v. (2015). massive online courses: a new vector in the development of continuing education. otkrytoye i distantsionnoye obrazovaniye = open and distance education. 2 (58), 56–65. mcauley, a., stewart, b., siemens, g., & cormier, d. (2010). the mooc model for digital practice. university of prince edward island. available at: https://www.oerknowledgecloud.org/archive/mooc_final.pdf prensky, m. (2001). digital natives, digital immigrants, part 2: do they really think differently? on horizon, 9 (6), 1–9. prescott, d. b. (2018). teacher and student perceptions of digital skills: a qualitative case study. dissertation for the degree of doctor of education. concordia universityportland. ozden, m. (2018). digital literacy perceptions of the students in the department of computer technologies teaching and turkish language teaching. international journal of progressive education, 14(4), 26-36. doi: 10.29329/ijpe.2018.154.3 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3688 https://he.palgrave.com/resources/product-page-downloads/m/morris-studying-a-%20mooc/studying-a-mooc-neil-morris-james-lambe.pdf https://he.palgrave.com/resources/product-page-downloads/m/morris-studying-a-%20mooc/studying-a-mooc-neil-morris-james-lambe.pdf https://he.palgrave.com/resources/product-page-downloads/m/morris-studying-a-%20mooc/studying-a-mooc-neil-morris-james-lambe.pdf https://www.oerknowledgecloud.org/archive/mooc_final.pdf journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 170-195 rodriguez, c.o. (2012). moocs and the ai-standford like courses: two successful and distinct course formats for massive open online courses. european journal of open, distance and e-learning. available at: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej982976 redecker, c., punie, y. (2017). european framework for the digital competence of educators: digcompedu; european union: brussels, belgium; luxembourg publications rivera, n., ramírez, m. s. (2015). digital skills development: moocs as a tool for teacher training. iceri2015 proceedings, sevilla, españa. siemens, g. (2004). connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age. available at: http://www.elearnspace.org/articles/connectivism.htm siemens, g. and downes, s. (2008) connectivism & connected knowledge. available at: http://nsuworks.nova.edu/innovate/vol5/iss1/6 soldatova, g. u., rasskazova, e. i. (2014). psychological models of digital competence in russian adolescents and parents. national psychological journal, 2 (14), 27–35. soyemi, opeyemi, ojo, adebowale and abolarin, mobolude, (2018). digital literacy skills and mooc participation among lecturers in a private university in nigeria. library philosophy and practice (e-journal). 1851. available at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/1851 sugiyono, d. (2018). metode penelitian kuatintatif, kualitatif dan r & d / sugiyono. in bandung: alfabeta. shubkina, o. u. (2016). formation of communicative competence of students of technical areas of training: specialty 13.00.08. theory and methods of vocational education”: disser. for the degree of candidate of pedagogical sciences / krasnoyarsk state pedagogical university. named after v.p. astafieva krasnoyarsk, 2016. p. 266 tachie, s., & kariyana, i. (2022). time divested or time invested? freshmen’s perspectives and reflective experiences on interactive school learning. research in social sciences and technology, 7(1), 1-19. available at: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.2 tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. available at: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed tarman, b. (2020). editorial: reflecting in the shade of pandemic. research in social sciences and technology. 5 (2), i-iv. available at: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed tsankov, n., & damyanov, i. (2017). education majors’ preferences on the functionalities of elearning platforms in the context of blended learning. international journal of https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej982976 http://www.elearnspace.org/articles/connectivism.htm http://nsuworks.nova.edu/innovate/vol5/iss1/6 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.2 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed yelubay et al. 195 emerging technologies in learning. 12 (5), 202–209. available at: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v12i05.6971 tornero, j. m. p. (2004). promoting digital literacy. final report eac/76/03. available at: http://ec.europa.eu/education/archive/ elearning/doc/studies/dig_lit_en.pdf. zakharova, c.u., tanasenko, k.i. (2019). moocs in higher education. advantages and pitfals. educational studies (3). p.176. (in russ.) van deursen, a. j. (2010). internet skills: vital assets in an information society. enschede, netherlands: gildeprint. voogt, j., erstad, o., dede, c., & mishra, p. (2013). challenges to learning and schooling in the digital networked world of the 21st century. journal of computer assisted learning. 29, 403–413. wambugu, p.w. (2018). massive open online courses (moocs) for professional teacher and teacher educator development: a case of tessa mooc in kenya. universal journal of educational research 6 (6): 1153-1157, http://www.hrpub.org doi: 10.13189/ujer.2018.060604 https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v12i05.6971 http://ec.europa.eu/education/archive/ article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 217-236 the youth and the internet: the construction of doctrine, islam in practice, and political identity in indonesia sulkhan chakim1 abstract the role of young people in the virtual world tends to be an all-consuming one. indeed, they play a role as actors in various aspects of the digital age. this study therefore sought to analyze the construction of religious messages related to doctrine, religious practice, and identity politics. methodologically, this study implemented ethnomedia for young people who upload content to social media, specifically instagram. the practice of religious deconstruction was explored through a multimodal analysis of the content these people share on instagram. the findings of this study reveal how young people, as actors, produce items of content that are interrelated. the religious practices of these young people potentially trigger resistance to being moderate due to the seemingly infinite range of online religious sources. online-mediated religious understanding, however, cannot be fully understood through the reductionist lens of binary opposites, such as moderates and radicals or positive and negative attitudes. this article illustrates that young people’s experiences without guidance and emotional expression online are affected more than by their knowledge and abilities of the digital world, and that their attitudes and the interrelated complexities need to be considered. keywords: youth, internet, construction of doctrine, practice, and political identity introduction young people are considered consumers, but they have also become knowledge producers in the digital age. indeed, the space of social media has become filled with the various ideas and experiences of young people, including in the religious field. for example, the number of accounts managed by young people reflects the content they produce. as stated by park & jang (2014), the momentum for change in social networks is driven by digital information systems. to date, previous studies have tended to view young people as hedonistic or even abusive (hamzah et al., 2014; hemming & madge, 2018; kachingwe et al., 2020). the development of young people as actors and productive workers in professional fields has also been explained in various studies (eynon & geniets, 2016; hargittai & hinnant, 2008; kuss, et. al., 2021). other trends include sexuality, games, and pleasure-related behavior, as shown in several studies (cho et al., 2021; kuss et al., 2021; rahmawati, 2018). however, not much attention has been paid to the positions 1 dr. state islamic university (uin) prof. k.h. saifuddin zuhri purwokerto, indonesia, email: sulkhan@uinsaizu.ac.id mailto:sulkhan@uinsaizu.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 and roles of young people in the production of knowledge, especially religious knowledge. in addition, over the last ten years, young people mastered information and communication technology with a high degree of literacy (mota & cilento, 2020; shatunova et al., 2021). this paper aims to address some of the shortcomings of existing studies by examining in detail how young people are involved in the production of knowledge as part of the identity politics of youth. three questions can be formulated to examine the process and substance of the values constructed by young people: (1) what contents do young people produce on instagram accounts? (2) how do young people construct islam in practice? (3) how is identity politics constructed on instagram accounts? this study was based on the argument that young people’s mastery of technology has led to new ways of thinking and understanding in society. the situation of these young actors may emphasize digital inequality and require responses from various parties, such as religious institutions, islamic mass organizations, scholars, and the government (suntana & tresnawaty, 2021). furthermore, this is a challenge for policymakers, who are not only concerned with education, health, and social affairs but also religion. for example, it has increased the urgency for scholars, religious leaders, and religious activists to learn how to use the internet to carry out their duties. it is therefore necessary to study the complex knowledge, skills, and religious attitudes of young people. literature review the youth and the internet the era of digital technology has ushered into a new lifestyle that cannot be separated from electronic devices (sitompul, 2017). technology is a tool for helping to meet human needs, but it requires adaptation, and the youth more readily adapt to it (astuti, 2019). new forms of media, internet-based information, and communication technology also allow the youth to express their ideas and find innovative ways to participate in social, political, and cultural life, both locally and globally (tania et al., 2019). for young people, the internet is an essential part of their social life (amalia, 2015). social media—such as whatsapp, twitter, and instagram—play an important role in young people’s activities in cyberspace (irawan, 2018; waters & hensley, 2020; white, 2020). aside from communication, social media can also be used to exchange information (irawan, 2018; watson, 2020). the goals of adolescents when using social media are often to build friendships, escape from problems, form habits, support the learning process, spend free time, and relax (amalia, 2015; budiharso & tarman, 2020). chakim 219 on a social media platform, young people can often build relationships through collaborative methods like tagging, sharing, commenting, and liking (amalia, 2015). creativity, innovation, and new opportunities emerge alongside the various sophisticated applications (sitompul, 2017). on the other hand, the highly intense nature of young people’s virtual activity can have a negative impact. according to irawan (2018), cyberspace activities affect young people’s personality patterns, making them less confident and less able to communicate directly, preferring instead to play a role on social media or the internet. young people often prefer to spend their time at home with gadgets rather than socializing with others (prabawati, 2019). the negative impact of internet use is evidenced by the behaviors of some young people who access the internet, such as in the form of cyberbullying, fraud, and trolling (irawan, 2018). therefore, young people’s digital literacy needs to be complimented with the etiquette to use the internet properly (astuti, 2019). youth and religion youth is generally seen as a period for exploring religious identity, and young people begin to make their own decisions about their religious practices (young & shipley, 2015). studies of youth and religion generally deal with six themes: 1) tendencies toward religiosity and spirituality; 2) how religious identity or spirituality develops and changes; 3) how social networks, institutions, and contexts shape, and are shaped by, youth religiosity and spirituality; 4) how youths develop their religious and spiritual identities; 5) the extent to which religiosity or spirituality increases welfare and prevents risky behavior; and 6) the point at which religion has negative consequences for young people (pearce, 2015). studies of youth and religion in east and southeast asia, meanwhile, currently tend to focus on five areas: conversion, intensification, social involvement, political participation, and identity construction (cornelio, 2015). youths often negotiate their religious identities around media depictions and educational debates (young & shipley, 2015). at the same time, youths can also play a role as producers of religious knowledge, such as the activities of hanan attaki over youtube (syams, 2019). as a young preacher, attaki made a significant contribution to increasing religious knowledge, especially for fellow young people (syams, 2019). indeed, the strength of a young speaker like attaki lies in his ability to understand the needs of other young people. the theme of the study is the use of contemporary delivery styles, such as using social media as a channel for da’wah (syams, 2019). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 in addition to providing new islamic religious knowledge, young people also form spiritual groups, participate in a recitation like tabligh akbar, or similar activities to provide more content through instagram (sari, 2017). when discussing the proximity between young people and god from a psychological point of view, three aspects need to be considered: the purpose of life, the personal mastery of religion, and life satisfaction (culver, 2021). furthermore, hemming & madge (2018) examined young people as citizens. when young people identify their position as part of the state, they seek to establish relationships with the broader community, including in non-religious areas, morality and values, and relationships with other religious people (hemming & madge, 2018). the strongest religious beliefs are found in youths who 1) reject scientific knowledge that directly contradicts their religious beliefs or 2) accommodate scientific knowledge within their religious perspective (uecker & longest, 2017). beyond the scope of schooling, young people’s understandings of religion are also influenced by parental influences and religious services (krull, et. al., 2021; solikhah & budiharso, 2020). youth psychology in modern society sociologist kenneth kenniston defined the youth as individuals who struggle to build an independent and socially involved identity (puspitasari, 2016). they are not busy with themselves, but they start to participate and contribute (puspitasari, 2016). in other words, young people are trying to build their independence and ability. taufiq posited that there at least five roles for young people: 1) as dynamists; 2) as catalysts; 3) as motivators; 4) as evaluators, and 5) as innovators (suhendrik & dalimunthe, 2016). in psychology, youths have the characteristic of tending to think rationally and idealistically, leading to them often initiating reforms (suhendrik & dalimunthe, 2016). using what they have, they play an active role in their social environment and benefit others (puspitasari, 2016), but they may also experience a crisis in a transitional period (izzati, 2016). on examining the changing trends and behavioral patterns of the youth, kumar (2019) suggested considering sociocultural aspects and their preferences and practices, including lifestyle choices, consumption habits, and social customs, thus negotiating between tradition and modernity. modernization brings various phenomena, such as progress in science and technology, increasing materialism, and globalization and free competition (amin, 2014). the era of modernization is often associated with fading moral and religious values (komariah, 2018; marza, 2017). the modernization movement in all aspects of human life has also caused a shift in interaction patterns, chakim 221 causing people to have looser and fewer social contacts (hadad, 2021; hutahaean, 2020). therefore, according to marza (2017), the existence of alquran hafidz can act as a counterweight in the midst of modernization. furthermore, anxiety and insecurity, mental health, and the experiences of adolescent social discrimination during times of change also require attention (kumar, 2019). meanwhile, in postmodern studies, puspitasari (2016) suggested emphasizing aspects of democracy by requiring individuals to evaluate controversial matters critically while also tolerating different views. methods this study examined social actors on the instagram social network, which was launched over a decade ago, with it since helping to create a world without borders and enrich various ideas, especially for religious understanding. actors can have unlimited relationships with anyone, both dominant and isolated parties (garcia, et., al., 2009). this study was qualitative in nature, and primary data were sourced from social actors who played a role by posting messages and providing comments or feedback for the network’s followers (creswell, 2014). followers on other accounts, meanwhile, delivered the same ideas as secondary data. the data source comprised 17 selected instagram accounts that were related to the focus of this research, namely doctrinal construction, islam in practice, and identity politics. the stages of this research were as follows: 1) collect as much content as possible from the instagram accounts of the selected actors. 2) identify and sort conceptual tendencies. 3) based on the various groupings, analyze the constructions and the many comments of followers (hallett, 2014). the data analysis took the form of narrative analysis (harding, 2013) over several stages: 1) conduct thematic analysis, namely by creating codes and categories to identify similarities and differences in the data from the instagram accounts. 2) performing a structural analysis by taking a different form of data with a consistent focus on persuasive messages on the instagram account (garcia, et., al., 2009). there were four processes within this: (1) identifying thematic comments made by actors, both textually and contextually; (2) reading these comments carefully and determining the narrative presented by the instagram account; (3) showing how this narrative is presented so that the comments will be persuasive; (4) comparing the narrative structures of at least three instagram accounts; 5) performing interactional analysis by paying attention to the construction of messages through comments or dialogues with followers; and 6) conducting a journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 performative analysis by considering how a word in the message or picture (photo/image) explains the meaning of the message for followers and their comments (garcia, et., al., 2009; harding, 2013; hallett, 2014). results the religious understanding of young people in society on social media can be described through the following three themes: doctrinal construction, the construction of islam in practice, and the construction of identity politics and strategies. table 1 shows some expressions of these. table 1 expression of youth in social media account name message description/coding @cewehijrah rasulullah said, “the believers who feed the hungry believers, on the day of resurrection, allah will give them food from the fruits of heaven” (narrated by tirmidhi) do you know? friday is the best day for charity. rasulullah said, “the charity will be multiplied in reward on friday.” (hr. abi syaibah) the believers are charitable. @kumparan.com islamic prayers in church halls. some flood victims in tanjung karang village, jati subdistrict, kudus, central java, occupy churches and temples as places of refuge. the head of jati sub-district, andreas wahyu, said that the tolerance of residents was already good. it is because there have been many activities with religious communities. practices of religious tolerance @liantitori god, the news of death has often pierced my ears lately. if my turn has come, turn me off in a state of truly loving you. death @khawla_syifa i never once regretted my silence, but i repeatedly regretted my speech. (umar bin khattab) speaking error @antoniori i heard: in a family, there must be one person who can change his family’s fate, lift the degree of his parents, and make them happy. and i hope that person is the person who reads this. do good to your parents. @aninnovita if everything is not running as we expected, smile. humans design with a plan, but allah designs with love god’s authority over humans @menjadisantun just be the way you are don’t be humble, even if you don‘t have anything and don’t be ashamed, even though you lack many things because if you can appreciate it what you have is better rather than force yourself for a compliment self-ability chakim 223 @akademipranikah.id “looking for a partner does not have to be settled. the important thing is you know what his plans are for the future, and his profession does not need to be this and that. indeed, love needs food, but there is a feeling when you want to struggle together, it feels more enjoyable”. -buya hamka confidence @yusuffilsafa “if you miss someone, pray for him. pray for his health, pray for his safety, and let god take care of him.” yes, this is true romance. prayer of salvation @arifkazima shame on us think we are good people, for real? just a great sinner. but allah is kind, he covers our disgrace. positive thinking @kisah.para.muallaf the story of a woman who before converting to islam in 2007, was a hater of islam. alhamdulillah, allah subhanahu wa ta’ala shows his guidance to this woman. hidayah religious conversion @steven.indra.wibowo alhamdulillah rolf, a convert to islam from switzerland, took a shahadat after going through a six-month process to get to know islam and what islam is, starting with his stopover in dubai, then planning trips to bali, before finally ending up in jakarta to find the final goal of his life, which has been 58 years. allah is all good. god’s search catatanhijrah.id the hijab is the obligation of muslim women who have reached the age. if you find her bad, then don’t blame her scarf. maybe wearing a hijab is a process of getting closer to allah. it’s not easy to leave bad habits in the past. when you encounter something like that, don’t judge but advise him, guide him in kindness. obligation to wear hijab @diarty.tinta stay patient, even if your whole world feels like a mess. god knows how tired you are. order to be patient @tugumalangid. salawat at the temple practice religious tolerance @daeng_indonesia study of sunnah daily practice like prophet muhammad saw. @salafigarislucu i’m lucky to have neighbors who are all nu. even though i am muhammadiyah, every friday night i always get a shipment like this (food photos). of course, my neighbors feel lost, i never sent them anything. thank you, nu. practices of tolerance and flexibility in relationships among muslims doctrinal construction in doctrinal construction, religion is positioned as a doctrine that is practiced literally. the understandings tend to directly refer to the quran and hadith without considering muslim scholars’ opinions. the accounts contained eight examples of doctrinal concepts. as expressed by @cewehijrah, the concept of giving alms was part of his life. the upload directly quoted the hadith for the history of tirmidhi and abi syaibah in inviting followers to give alms. there was a post journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 about the black and white concept with the eerie shroud and the calming black kaaba fabric. another example by @khawla_syifa was about speech errors, with it referring to a quote of umar bin khattab. the post was intended to convince followers to not talk too much for fear of saying something wrong. another doctrinal example expressed how women’s religious identity was related to the obligation to wear the hijab, as posted by the @atathijrah.id account. in addition, the post of @menjadisantun related to self-confidence. construction of islam in practice (social relations with non-muslims) the construction of islam in practice was positioned as an experience to practice in everyday life. religious practice tends to be simple in the social sphere, both among muslims and non-muslims. the account of @cerita.para.muallaf talks about religious conversion, with it conveying a hatred for muslims before a long process of converting to islam. the @yusuffilsafa account, meanwhile, talked about the prayer of salvation, explaining that it was enough to pray for it as a remedy for longing when missing someone. the @diarty.tinta account mentioned the command to be patient, which reflects the need for patience and serious effort in life to fulfil individual and group interests. the @steven. indra.wibowo account talked about the search for god, explaining the long process for obtaining religious truth. the @academipranikah.id account, meanwhile, talked about being confident when getting married, portraying plans for marriage as a family commitment. construction of islam as identity politics and strategy religion for muslims as identity politics and strategies is positioned as thinking about and shaping ones’ representation continuously in life, with this tending to lead to a sort of power struggle. the @note-hijrah.id account’s post talks about the obligation to wear the hijab, explaining that a muslim woman is obliged to wear a hijab to maintain better behavior. other accounts, such as kumparan.com, talk about the preaching of young people, the members of a motorcycle gang, under the guidance of hanan attaki. in addition, the tirto.id account conveyed the message “being a muslim is not enough...” likewise, @salafigarislucu uploaded images of tolerance being practiced among muslims by presenting the tahlilan tradition as a religious relationship. the practice of diversity is used to produce identity in life, such as by the @daeng_indonesia account, with the content recommending daily practice like the prophet muhammad, peace be upon him. chakim 225 why are young people involved in the production of religious knowledge? in terms of religious affiliation, young people rarely participate in formal religious activities, which raises questions about faith and community involvement. although they may be less likely to become directly involved in organizing traditional religious activities, the spiritual dimension of life still touches the enthusiasm of young people at the crossroads of maturity, and this also affects their intellectual abilities and instinctual vitality (lefebvre, 2010). the involvement of young people in producing religious knowledge in the virtual world was influenced by three motives: individual interests, the interests of the youth community, and social media interests. individual interests individual interests and needs are determined based on stimuli in specific situations. an interest in, and need for, religious learning is usually met by a kyai or a quran teacher through guidance, but the digital age provides opportunities for young people to learn independently and produce useful and exciting religious content. in this modern era, young people have easy access to all the information they need, including religious information. the interest of young people in producing religious messages reflects their preferences, because these determine their enthusiasm for producing religious messages. in addition, young people feel a need to self-actualize and demonstrate their potential to the world (tania et al., 2019). the interests of the youth community on social media the youth community represents a limited interest group based on the aggregation and articulation of their interests. these tend to be underserved in the public space, however, so they have started publishing their ideas in the virtual space with their digital skills. this group of young people previously had no ties, but they now communicate and socially interact. they articulate themselves based on the relationships between the components of youth, both politically and culturally. to serve their interests, the youth community acts collectivity and socially to produce political and cultural capital. social media is considered a medium that can be useful for self-discovery and self-identification, and online communities often interact socially. however, there is a tendency for young people to have a great opportunity to produce guidelines independently and shape their own concepts, so social media acts as a space to experiment and freely explore the process of forming an identity. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 thus, young people use social media to explore various ideas and form a virtual identity, both for themselves individually and as a group. implications for young people involved in the production of religious knowledge the involvement of youth groups in producing religious knowledge for social media represents a new awareness of diversity. however, there has been a tendency to hastily understand the process of forming self-identities and group identities. indeed, the process of forming a self-identity involves young people developing an understanding of their tendencies. this process tends to involve two important aspects for the individual, namely exploration and commitment. the aspect of exploration is a special characteristic in the process of searching for an identity, and it comes with an attitude for questioning new and unique things. commitment, meanwhile, reflects how the aspirations of young people develop continuously. thus, young people build themselves up based on aspects of exploration and commitment to determine their identity. personal awareness personal awareness is people’s ability to recognize themselves and their emotional intelligence through self-discovery. it affects how young people perceive, communicate, and interact with the social environment, and there is a tendency for young people to engage with religious websites get information without the guidance of teachers, kyai, or mentors. thus, the personal awareness of young people is determined by their processes for perception, communication, and social interaction combined with virtual resources. radical understandings of young people radical understandings reflect attitudes that expect social reform in a much deeper way, with a focus on the root of the problem, but there is a strong tendency among young people to have a drastic attitude toward reform. the reflective ability of young people makes them curios about a problem based on its root causes. in addition, this is also motivated by a desire to develop themselves, in terms of both knowledge and skills, and bring changes to their environment. thus, the radical understandings of young people derive from a tendency toward self-development and self-verification, so they can find their identity in the public sphere. chakim 227 establishment of virtual collective identity politics the youth can basically be defined as a group with an inherent way of life and its own behavioral style, cultural norms, and values (abdiraiymova & bukhanova, 2016). under this understanding, youths basically develop their own values and norms to support their existence. the formation of collective identity politics is an effort to fight for the interests of the group due to similarities in ethnicity, race, gender, and religion, but there is also a tendency for a political articulation to attack other parties. thus, the formation of identity politics is a political articulation based on ethnicity, race, gender, and differences in religious understandings and perspectives on the world. discussion social media and doctrinal construction this research reveals the value of islamic teachings on social media as a way to explore and understand the content on the instagram network. this study assesses the doctrinal understandings and simplifications of social agents and illustrates how some young people use social networking through instagram accounts to form a self-identity and social groups. this happens based on interests, including individual interests, the community interests of young people, and interests in using social media, so identity politics are formed through different political articulations in the virtual world. social media creates dependence in young people, especially for the fulfillment of needs, the satisfaction of seekers, and the articulation of social agents, thus leading to the domination of social forces. at the network level, several findings reveal contextual insights that support the notion that social relationships allow for the initiation of radical thoughts for instagram account followers. it is very interesting that the messages conveyed through social networks spread without borders, indicating that social media networks are open and independent to many individuals as an unprotected mechanism. furthermore, movements and changes that are observed have an impact on these social networks. at the level of individual activity awareness for the core actors in the network, they in this case actively upload content to network accounts. the use of a mapping matrix shows that the strategic position of actors is very visible and influential. this approach can reveal people who play a central role. for example, @hannan_attaki is one of the young figures preaching to the famous “brigez” motorcycle gang, which used to disturb people and make them riotous. this gang later became journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 religious and renamed itself “brigez road to jannah.” hannan’s statements, such as “hanging out with genk and tarawih, praying and doing dhikr together, listening to knowledge together, laughing together, and the crowd’s atmosphere certainly makes worship feel more colossal” and “anyway, let’s go kemon…join the noble month with our kind of friendship & nationalism.” at the level of radical understanding, actors direct their efforts in their social networks more at the construction of religious messages as they relate to the life experiences of young people, and arguments are always based on the quran and hadith. this tendency is very strong, and it has become a new habit for young beginners according to their orientation and identities. this is exemplified by the salafi network group on the @daeng_indonesia account, with their studies being doctrinal and textual in nature, and any issues that have no basis in the quran and hadith are considered bid’ah and are ignored. still, there is an assumption that kaffah is not yet perfect. at the level of forming virtual group identity politics, this is based on a different understanding. religious symbols are unnecessary, as the @tugumalangid account exemplifies. the activities of the “gubuk tulis” community in wihara are considered excessively tolerant, crazy, and a sign of doomsday. it practices tolerance in islam, buy many do not agree with such tolerance. on the other hand, the @salafigarislucu account highlights social phenomena through comedy and the language of satire. for example, when discussing the diversity of people’s everyday ways of life, based on muslim community organizations like nu and muhammadiyah, they are relaxed and do not put people into boxes. this is also a practice of tolerance, because such differences are also a blessing. the delivery is also funny and relaxed, so various social groups, including young people, can easily digest such messages. aside from the “gubuk tulis,” other groups always use religious symbols in their socio-religious practices, such as ¾-length trousers, beards, large headscarves, hijabs, short hair, and black foreheads, like on the account @rumah peradaban. these two opposing groups seem to confront and criticize each other in the virtual world. the internet as a new social space in this era of digitalization, social media has become a part of most people’s lives, and the younger generations have grown up with the rapid development of media and technology (evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; subedi & subedi, 2020). indeed, digital social media has proliferated alongside the availability of communication devices like smartphones and other electronic devices. the growth in popularity among the community has also made it easier for people to buy smartphones chakim 229 and other devices from various brands at different levels of affordability. indeed, cellphone shops are everywhere, internet packages are becoming increasingly more affordable, and network access is slowly getting more consistent. all of these conditions have led to social media, which was originally intended as a medium for communication, slowly turning into a way of life. social media has also slowly transformed into a medium for actualizing and promoting the identities of individuals and groups. indeed, the virtual world has become a seemingly infinite space for individuals and social groups to express themselves freely, compared to in the real world where actualization is limited both geographically and socially. values and norms in the society of the “real world” have long been established, thus limiting each individual or group to established norms that cannot be violated, such as what is good and bad, acceptable and unacceptable, and so on. in contrast, social media is a virtual space where there are no agreed values and norms, so each individual and group is free to self-actualize without any restrictions. the internet, social media, and virtual spaces were initially foreign concepts to society, but they have slowly assumed an important role for many individuals and social groups. the various self-actualizations, both for individuals and groups, are also reflected in uploads to the instagram social media network. many of these uploads are informational, because it cannot be denied that instagram is a conveyer of information. in addition to information, however, many uploads serve to reconstruct an individual’s identity, such as the uploads of several accounts considered in this study. some uploads, for example, convey interpretations of texts from the quran or hadith, or possibly social facts, and this is used to legitimize the position or identity of an individual or group. it can therefore be said the position of a group can be understood from its social media uploads to instagram. on the other hand, some uploads adopt a serious tone and are full of warnings and urges for action. some accounts, in contrast, convey messages filled with humor and jokes, and this can also act as a marker for groups and individuals to build their image in a wider community. social media platforms, such as instagram, act as a means for actualizing and legitimizing the identities of both individuals and groups. in addition, instagram can also be used to promote religious understanding. in recent years, many accounts promoting islamic understandings have tended to get straight to the point or explain things clearly, although instagram is used as a medium by individuals and groups with various sorts of islamic understandings. of course, islamic ideas in society have always varied, but it was never so obvious due to the limitations of the traditional media. the existence of social media therefore makes it easy for people to actualize their identities. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 the sociopolitical conditions of indonesia have also affected various social and religious strata, but this does not imply that every user follows the flow of politics and islamic understanding, which tend to have a short axis. over the past few years, various accounts have started promoting the notions of moderation, pluralism, and multiculturalism. in the midst of tensions among various groups, this has helped strengthened groups with moderate islamic ideologies. media coverage is also very affected by this. for example, the instagram account @kumparancom promotes plurality practices in society, such as reporting about muslim flood victims praying in christian churches. practices like this would normally be taboo, but they are understandable in an emergency situation, and they help develop a stronger understanding of plurality. in addition, many accounts convey tolerant practices in society, such as the @salafigarislucu account, which posts about tolerance in several islamic views and organizations. social agents can also use social media to mobilize the masses through networks, so they can collect social knowledge and practices from various real-world communities. the internet can also be used by social agents to spread radical religious ideologies, which are normally outside the beliefs of mainstream indonesian society. religious thinking produced by social agents in a social space can comprise various points of views to actualize individual and group identities. on the other hand, instagram has also become a new medium for the delivery of religious da‘wah, which used to employ more conventional preaching methods like in-person sermons. experts have conducted various studies into the role of youth and religious groups, and they agree that young people in the internet world play a very advanced and dominant role in providing limitless content, especially for exploring religious identity and conveying the religious practices they believe in (young & shipley, 2015). for example, cornelio (2015) states that young people’s negotiations about religious identity are associated with media construction and education debates. through the hijrah.id account, for example, the uploaded content relates to the hijab, which this group believes in fighting for as a self-righteous symbol of female identity. the hijab as part of the formal identity of the muslim religion is therefore made the dominant construction by this group. in addition, most of the economic activity communications always use the term syar‘i. efforts to minimize common terms that are considered secular are avoided, and constructions in the world of education often use “pious” terminology, such as the following phrase: “comfortable gathering without cigarette smoke and music.” this group has entered into various social, economic, and cultural spheres in a gentle manner and continues to do so consistently. however, chakim 231 it is still unclear what kind of conditions might cause this socio-religious identity production mechanism to intensify. for this reason, various studies have been conducted, such as those of pearce (2015), cornelio (2015), young & shipley (2015), sari (2017), uecker & longest (2017), hemming & madge (2018), syams (2019), krull, et. al., (2021), and culver (2021). the study of uecker & longest (2017) showed that scientific knowledge that directly contradicted religious beliefs was rejected by some, while others accommodated scientific knowledge into their religious perspectives. this deviates from the strengthening of the religious-moderation movement over the last five years that has been led by the ministry of religion for the republic of indonesia. such efforts can be supported by the activities of young people, such as is the case with the account @kumparan.com posting, “prayers in church halls, and temples and churches are used as refugee camps for flood victims.” relationships between different religions are therefore transformed into a humanitarian construction of tolerance. in addition, the account @tugumalang.id uploaded content about “salawat wihara.” both of these accounts promote social practices in interreligious relations. as suhendrik & dalimunthe (2016) stated, young people are dynamists, motivators, catalysts, evaluators, and innovators. both accounts connected with socio-religious practices are influenced by the environment of religious education, which tends to moderate religious understandings and nurture open attitudes toward scientific development. the modalities and tendencies of young people as social agents therefore play an active and beneficial role for others (puspitasari, 2016). over the last ten years in indonesia, such cases have increased, especially for religious aspects, which have tended to increase as political identities became more exclusive. thus, this study has proposed a new perspective for the role of young people in the virtual world in terms of the phenomenon of identity politics that exists in indonesia. with this perspective, we can better understand the increase in identity politics within the context of young people’s relationships with society and religion. in this case, religious leaders and young people need to play roles as agents and guides for strengthening religious moderation and helping government interventions to eliminate content that could be considered intolerant. in addition, there is wide scope for young indonesians to rethink the concept of moderate diversity. this study has limitations, however, in that it does not pay attention to the relationships of subjects who upload their contents based on involvement in an existing religious organization. for a more comprehensive picture, further studies therefore need to pay attention to agents involved in religious organizations. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 conclusion the discussion in this article reveals that the knowledge of, and competence with, digital communication technology for young people in indonesia is very strong, and this openly influences religious thoughts, attitudes, and practices that tend to be radical, as shown by the more doctrinal instagram content. on the other hand, there also appears to be a small group of young people who tend to be more liberal and tolerant of other religious groups. both groups lie outside mainstream religious groups, perhaps because of a lack of attention by religious leaders and islamic religious thinkers in playing active roles in social media by guiding discussions and providing a source of religious literacy. acknowledgments the author would like to thank uin prof. k.h saifuddin zuhri puwokerto for financing this research, especially the institute for research and community service (lppm). references abdiraiymova, g. s., & bukhanova, d. k. (2016). sociology of youth. qazaq university. amalia, r. r. (2015). literasi digital pelajar sma: kemampuan berkomunikasi dan berpartisipasi pelajar sma negeri di daerah istimewa yogyakarta melalui internet, jurnal studipemuda,4(1), 224-240, https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/jurnalpemuda/index. amin, a. (2014). hubungan menonton sinetron percintaan dan membaca cerita percintaan dengan perilaku seks remaja, jurnal heritage, 2(4), 43–51. https://jurnal.yudharta.ac.id/v2/index.php/heritage/article/view/829 astuti, e. z. l. (2019). gerakan literasi digital: studi pemberdayaan pemuda melalui program sistem informasi potensi kreatif desa di kulonprogo. jurnal pemberdayaan masyarakat: media pemikiran dan dakwah pembangunan. doi: 10.14421/jpm.2019.032-05. budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 cho, y., dioguardi, s., nickell, t., & lee, w. (2021). indirect cyber violence and general strain theory: findings from the 2018 korean youth survey. children and youth services review, 121(105840). doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105840. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 chakim 233 cornelio, j. s. (2015). youth and religion in east and southeast asia. in handbook of children and youth studies. springer. creswell, j.w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). london: sage publications. culver, j. (2021). how consistency in closeness to god predicts psychological resources and life satisfaction: findings from the national study of youth and religion, journal of social and personal relationships, 38(1),103-123 doi: 10.1177/0265407520956710. eynon, r., & geniets, a. (2016). the digital skills paradox: how do digitally excluded youth develop skills to use the internet?” learning, media and technology, 41(3), 463–79. doi: 10.1080/17439884.2014.1002845. evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 garcia, a. c., standlee, a. i., bechkoff, j., & cui, y. (2009). ethnographic approaches to the internet and computer-mediated communication. journal of contemporary ethnography, 38(1), 52–84. hadad, e. r. (2021). the importance of the study of intercultural communication as a social science. dirasat, human and social sciences, 48(1), 431–442. hallett, r. e., & barber, k. (2014). ethnographic research in a cyber era. journal of contemporary ethnography, 43(3), 306–330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241613497749 hamzah, s. r. a., suandi, t., hamzah, a., & tamam, e. (2014). the influence of religiosity, parental and peer attachment on hedonistic behavior among malaysian youth. procediasocial and behavioral sciences, 122, 393-397. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1360. harding, j. (2013). qualitative data analysis from start to finish. sage. hargittai, e., & hinnant, a. (2008). digital inequality: differences in young adults’ use of the internet. communication research, 35(5), 602–21. doi: 10.1177/0093650208321782. hemming, p. j., & madge, n. (2018). young people, non-religion and citizenship: insights from the youth on religion study. young, 26(3), 197-214. doi: 10.1177/1103308817711534. hutahaean, s. f. (2020). regulasi emosi ditinjau dari perilaku prososial pada siswa sma raksana di medan. jurnal psikologi universitas hkbp nommensen, 6(2), 53-59 doi: 10.36655/psikologi.v6i2.135. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 irawan, a. (2018). aktivitas anak-anak dan pemuda dalam penggunaan internet. cyber security dan forensik digital, 1(2), 50-56. doi:https://doi.org/10.14421/csecurity.2018.1.2.1372 suhendrik, & dalimunthe, f.r. (2016). pengaruh motivasi dan peran pemuda terhadap pengembangan usaha kecil dan menengah (ukm) di kabupaten batubara. medias: manajemen, ekonomi, pendidikan, dan akuntansi, 5(2), 107-135. http://digilib.unimed.ac.id/21806/1/fulltext.pdf suntana, i. & tresnawaty, b. (2021). multidimensional social crisis and religious violence in southeast asia: regional strategic agenda, weak civilian government, triune crime, wealth gaps, and coopted journalism. journal of culture and values in education (jcve), 4(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2. kachingwe, o. n., salerno, j. p., boekeloo, b. o., fish, j. n., geddings-hayes, m., aden, f., & aparicio, e. m. (2020). “the internet is not private”: the role of social media in sexual health among youth in foster care. journal of adolescence, 82, 50-57. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.06.005. komariah, a. s. (2018). perilaku menyimpang remaja sebagai dampak dari terapan pornografi di desa bajo kcematan soromandi kabupaten bima. jurnal komunikasi dan kebudayaan. http://komunikasistisip.ejournal.web.id krull, l. m., pearce, l. d., & jennings, e. a. (2021). how religion, social class, and race intersect in the shaping of young women’s understandings of sex, reproduction, and contraception. religions, 12(1), 5. doi: 10.3390/rel12010005. kumar, s. (2019). youth in india: aspirations, attitudes, anxieties. taylor & francis. kuss, d. j., kristensen, a. m., & lopez-fernandez, o. (2021). internet addictions outside of europe: a systematic literature review. computers in human behavior, 115, 106621. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2020.106621. lefebvre, s. (2010). youth, spirituality, and religion in canada and quebec. in g. giordan (ed.), annual review of the sociology of religion: youth and religion. brill. marza, s. e. (2017). regulasi diri remaja penghafal al-qur’an di pondok pesantren al-qur’an jami’atul qurro’ sumatera selatan. intelektualita. 6(1),145-160 doi: 10.19109/intelektualita.v6i1.1306. mota, f. p. b., & cilento, i. (2020). competence for internet use: integrating knowledge, skills, and attitudes. computers and education open, 1, 100015. doi: 10.1016/j.caeo.2020.100015. rahmawati, n. a. i. (2018). internet addiction pada remaja pelaku substance abuse: penyebab atau akibat?. buletin psikologi, 26(1), 64–70. doi: 10.22146/buletinpsikologi.31164. https://doi.org/10.14421/csecurity.2018.1.2.1372 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2 chakim 235 park, y. j., & jang, s. m. (2014). understanding privacy knowledge and skill in mobile communication. computers in human behavior, 38, 296-303.. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.041. pearce, l. d. (2015). religion and youth. in international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences: second edition. prabawati, p. d. (2019). peran pemuda dalam pengembangan pariwisata di desa tibubeneng, kabupaten badung, bali. jurnal kepariwisataan indonesia, 13(1), 73–84. https://doi.org/10.47608/jki.v13i12019.73-84 puspitasari, r. (2016). kajian radikalisme agama dalam pembelajaran ips di smp assunah kota cirebon. jurnal eduesos, 5(1), 1-22, doi: 10.24235/edueksos.v5i1.546 sari, p. (2017). fenomena penggunaan media sosial instagram sebagai komunikasi pembelajaran agama islam oleh mahasiswa fisip universitas riau. fenomena penggunan media sosial instagram sebagai komunikasi pembelajaran agama islam oleh mahasiswa fisip universitas riau. sari, p. (2017). fenomena penggunaan media sosial instagram sebagai komunikasi pembelajaran agama islam oleh mahasiswa fisip universitas riau, jurnal online mahasiswa, 4(2),1-13. https://jom.unri.ac.id/index.php/jomfsip/article/view/16030/15562 shatunova, o., bozhkova, g., tarman, b. & shastina e. (2021). transforming the reading preferences of today’s youth in the digital age: intercultural dialog, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(3), 62-73. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 sitompul, r. p. (2017). pelayanan pemuda di era teknologi digital. jurnal antusias,5(1), https://sttintheos.ac.id/e-journal/index.php/antusias/article/download/153/129 solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. jsser: journal of social studies education research (jsser), 11(3), 177-197. www.jsser.org. subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid-19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 syams, s. (2019). pemaknaan hadis oleh hanan attaki dalam dakwahnya di youtube. jurnal living hadis., 4 (2), 1-17, doi: 10.14421/livinghadis.2019.1850. tania, s., widagdhaprasana, m., fandia, m. p., & purwaningtyas, m. n. (2019). pemuda, diaspora dan penggunaan media baru dalam gerakan sosial sabangmerauke. jurnal ilmu komunikasi [jika], 6(2), 69-82, doi: 10.31294/kom.v6i2.6408. http://dx.doi.org/10.24235/edueksos.v5i1.546 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 http://www.jsser.org/ https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 217-236 uecker, j. e., & longest, k. c. (2017). exposure to science, perspectives on science and religion, and religious commitment in young adulthood. social science research, 65, 145–162, doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2017.01.002. waters, s., & hensley, m. (2020). measuring rural p-12 teachers’ attitudes, perceptions, and utilizations of social media. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 25-54. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.2 watson, e. (2020). #education: the potential impact of social media and hashtag ideology on the classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 40-56. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 white, c. (2020). wielding social media in the cyber-arena: globalism, nationalism, and civic education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 young, p. d., and shipley, h. (2015). belief, not religion: youth negotiations of religious identity in canada. in handbook of children and youth studies. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (4), 424-446 digital leadership to improve the pedagogical competence of university english lecturers in samarinda masrur1 abstract this study investigates the impact of digital leadership on pedagogical competency. the research method employed was quantitative, with it employing a survey-based methodology. the study’s population comprised 162 participants, all of who were english lecturers in samarinda. proportional random sampling was used to select a sample of 130 people. a questionnaire was designed in order to collect data, with this passing the validity and reliability tests and meeting the necessary characteristics for a good instrument. smart pls 3.0 was then used to tabulate and evaluate the gathered data. according to the findings of this study, digital leadership does indeed have a substantial impact on lecturers’ pedagogical abilities. however, the provision of digital guidance and group activities are two aspects that need to be enhanced to increase the quality of digital leadership. some components to consider when attempting to increase lecturers’ pedagogic competencies include improving lecturers’ abilities in curriculum development and their understanding of student learning styles, as well as their capacity to understand the emotional aspects of students. this study also found that the pedagogic competence of lecturers also improves when leaders at various levels are able to offer good digital leadership models in their everyday management. keywords: digital leadership, pedagogic competence, lecturer, university. introduction academic institutions must meet strict criteria if they are to prepare human resources (hr) that are fit for the 21st-century workforce, and 21st-century professional lecturers are the people who can meet these requirements (jan & jrf, 2017; ovenden-hope et al., 2018; yue, 2019). much is expected of educators in the modern globalized society, and they must be able to implement a teaching approach that is built upon the unesco international commission on education’s four pillars of learning, namely knowledge, action, community, and being (zaragoza et al., 2021) teachers must be capable of taking on problems, academically qualified, and in possession of a wide range of competencies, including professional, pedagogic, personal, and social skills (alheet et al., 2021; budiharso & tarman, 2020; tütünis, 2020). academic demands, according to the literature, will be met by lecturers who have developed their pedagogic competencies over time (schempp, 2016). in the 21st century, lecturers face seven main 1dr. mulawarman university, samarinda, indonesia; email: masruryahyaalwi@gmail.com mailto:masruryahyaalwi@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 challenges: 1) teaching in a multicultural society; 2) teaching for the construction of meaning; 3) teaching for active learning; 4) teaching with technology; 5) teaching with a new perspective on abilities; 6) teaching with discretion; and 7) teaching with accountability (alheet et al., 2021). in order to meet this challenge, the researchers explored the effect of digital leadership on the pedagogic competencies of lecturers. most recent studies have investigated these two variables but from a leadership rather than digital leadership perspective. for example, the research of asmarani et al. (2021) found a positive and significant relationship between leadership and professional competence. in addition, several findings point to teacher’s pedagogic competencies being reliant on development policies (dandalt & brutus, 2020; haryanto et al., 2021; rahmadi et al., 2020), the monitoring and evaluation of teachers’ pedagogic competencies (dandalt & brutus, 2020; ibrahim & benson, 2020), teacher training for pedagogic competence (bone et al., 2021; mito et al., 2021; patrick et al., 2021), and teacher-performance management (waeyenberg, et al., 2020). other studies have investigated the effects of leadership in influencing individual creativity and pedagogic competence. in another study, leadership theory was used to investigate the effect on pedagogic competence (ibrahim & benson, 2020; meng et al., 2017). the literature shows that leadership is highly valued, because without it, any improvement in lecturers’ pedagogic competencies is likely to be impaired (goldhaber & brewer, 2000). lecturers of the english literature study program across universities in samarinda generally have limited pedagogic competence. in addition, most are not able to apply pedagogic theory or the applied approach (aa) when participating in the pekerti program, and there are even lecturers who have not attended the two compulsory programs (solikhah & budiharso, 2020). even though they have been certified as professional lecturers, their pedagogic competence does not meet the requirements to be considered professional lecturers with a sufficient level of pedagogic competence. most of the lecturers have also not been able to prepare syllabus, lecture plans, and semester learning plans (rps) properly (mutongoza et al., 2021). other evidence shows the limited pedagogic competence of the lecturers for the english study program across universities in samarinda, with them mostly using classical methods when teaching, such as lectures, questions and answers, and discussions. they are generally unable to practice innovative, creative, and enjoyable teaching methods. students are given assignments without any feedback from the lecturer. masrur 426 the effect of digital leadership from academic leaders on the pedagogic competence of lecturers remains unknown, which may be interesting considering that leadership practices do not directly impart pedagogic competencies to lecturers. examples of leadership in higher education activities, mostly at the general level, also do not directly teach technical pedagogic competencies. based on the abovementioned background to the problem, it seems appropriate to study the effect of digital leadership on the pedagogic competencies of english lecturers across universities in samarinda. research questions the research questions that were used to guide the research process in this study were as follows: 1) does digital leadership have any influence on the pedagogical competencies of english lecturers in samarinda? 2) which aspects of digital leadership do contribute most to improving english lecturers’ pedagogical competencies in samarinda? hypothesis h1: there is an influence of digital leadership on pedagogic competence. review of literature teacher competency defining competence is difficult, and indeed, there is no universally agreed-upon definition. it refers to one’s abilities and skills, and a unique competence is only part of it (bertrand & porcher, 2020; morales et al., 2020; mulder et al., 2005). for example, the term “pedagogic competency” refers specifically to an individual’s ability to teach (ellis, 2011). after investigating dozens of definitions for competence, it seemed that the most common definition was as follows: “competence is the ability of an individual or an organization to attain a specific level of performance.” parry (1996) went on to posit that an individual’s competence comprises an array of interconnected action skills, including cognitive, interpersonal, affective, and, if necessary, psychomotor abilities, as well as the attitudes and values needed to carry out tasks and solve problems. the ability to perform in a certain context (e.g., job role, organization, position, etc.) is more general. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 there are a few things to keep in mind when measuring dimensions of competency, because they cannot be observed directly, only in specific scenarios (spencer & spencer, 1993). there are also several levels of competency, such as beginner, intermediate, and expert. personal competency and system (or team) competency can exist at the same time according to (roelofs & beijaard, 2008). as a final note, competence can be transferred from one setting to another to various degrees (jansen et al., 2012). a comprehensive teaching concept must consider all the different elements of competence, such as the nature of an instructor and his or her knowledge and behavior, as well as the ability to think in any given situation, because learning activities result from lecturers’ decisions and actions (sanders & roelofs, 2002). as depicted in figure 1, this model’s starting point is that teacher competence is best expressed through student learning activities. professional activities, such as instructing students, providing feedback, and cultivating an inclusive classroom environment are all examples of “action” components. it is also important to note that every lecturer activity is framed within an established context, and this means that a teacher must make numerous judgments that can be both long term (i.e., planning ahead) and short term (i.e., in the classroom) in nature (doyle, 1983). third, instructors must draw from their professional knowledge base and leverage their personal traits when making judgments and carrying out tasks. interpretive inferences can be drawn about instructors when they are evaluated in several competence domains, such as classroom instruction and management (kane, 1992). using a full-competency model of performance, rather than a reductionist model that focuses on individual aspects of the teaching process, increases the likelihood of obtaining accurate results. according to the competency model shown in figure 1, performance standards begin with student activities and intended learning outcomes, which in turn result from a lecturer’s actions and judgments. the acceptance of a lecturer’s decision is contingent upon that lecturer’s professional knowledge base in relation to the specific teaching setting, and for this, kapoor et al., (2018, p. 12) used the term “functional criteria.” the dimensions and indicators used in this study to assess pedagogical competence are as follows: 1) an understanding of students’ physical, social, cultural, emotional, and intellectual characteristics; 2) an understanding of students’ family, community backgrounds, and learning needs in the context of cultural diversity; and 3) an understanding of students’ learning styles and any learning difficulties (sanders & roelofs, 2002). masrur 428 figure 1. the full-competence performance-interpretation model source: roelofs and sanders (2007) digital leadership through social media and other digital tools, leaders can mobilize their teams to better fulfill organizational goals. such leaders can be thought of as ambassadors, spokespersons, or influencers who wield authority and direct others in order to achieve the goals established by the organization (cupit, 2021). digital leadership is the practice of using digital resources to influence others in a way that will help meet an organization’s goals. when a person becomes a digital leader, he or she employs both traditional and innovative digital tools to guide the team toward a common goal (ubaidillah, 2021). leadership can be described as a person’s ability to encourage a group of individuals to work together to achieve a shared objective by leveraging their individual skills. one or more leadership styles may be employed by a leader to carry out his or her responsibilities. indeed, an organization’s leadership style is one of the most important determinants of success (alheet et al., 2021; martinezi & tadeu, 2018; öztürk, 2020). employee work behavior can be influenced by a variety of factors, but leadership is considered to be the most important situational aspect. indeed, leaders can inspire their subordinates to engage in new innovative work practices through a variety of existing methods, including digital technology (fitria et al., 2017). 1. base • knowledge • skills • conception-attitude • personal characteristics 2. decision making 3. action 4. consequences • learning process journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 to encourage employees to adopt difficult and potentially dangerous innovative work behaviors, a digital leadership style for innovative work practices must be present, because the reliance on digital data and facilities is what makes these new behaviors risky and complex (almatrooshi et al., 2020). by using various digital technologies, digital leaders can help their subordinates to create a sense of self-efficacy (kark et al., 2018), so while trying to accomplish their goals, they will look for creative digital, data-driven approaches. leaders can therefore inspire their subordinates to perform at a level beyond previous expectations, because they feel more enthused to be creative and come up with new ideas (fonseca & chi, 2011). employees are also inspired to follow in the footsteps of a digital leader and explore innovative ideas in cyberspace (hartinah et al., 2020). as a result, a positive association between digital leadership and innovation arises from a leaders’ ability to kindle their subordinates’ innate abilities to achieve creative and inventive outcomes (khaliq et al., 2021). according to the literature, there are links between digital leadership style, innovative work behavior, and staff competency. leaders define their goals to achieve their work requirements, and incorporating digital data can result in work innovation (noor, 2019). when employees become more focused on digital data than on promoting new and original activities, however, digital leadership can have a negative impact on employees’ innovative work behaviors (de klerk et al., 2021). the study of patiar & wang (2020), on the other hand, found that digital leaders inspire their staff to engage in innovative work behaviors with a mastery of digital data and other digital resources (rozi et al., 2020). methods design this study employed correlation that focuses on univariable linear regression design (ghozali, 2018). the purpose of this design is to see the linear relationship between digital leadership as the dependent variable y and pedagogical competence as the independent variable x. the digital leadership is examined to see the dimensions of pedagogical competence of english lecturers from four universities in samarinda, indonesia. sample there were 162 english lecturers in the samarinda area who could participate in this study. some 80% of this population was selected for investigation, resulting in a sample size of 130 people. masrur 430 due to the population being distributed over four colleges and four study programs, the sampling strategy employed the proportionate random sample method (hair et al., 2010). more specifically, 28% of participants came from the department of cultural sciences, english language at mulawarman university; some 30% came from english education, faculty of teacher training and education, mulawarman university; some 24% were english education lecturers at widya gama mahakam university; and 18% were english education lecturers at nahdlatul ulama university, as shown in table 1. table 1 total population and research sample no institution sample (%) 1 english language, faculty of cultural sciences, mulawarman university 28% 2 english education, faculty of teacher training and education, mulawarman university 30% 3 english education, widya gama mahakam university 24% 4 english education, nahdlatul ulama university 18% total 100% source: data processed research instruments the digital leadership instrument that was used measured four dimensions and 17 indicators, all of which are presented in table 2. table 2 digital leadership instrumental grid dimension indicator item number ability to influence others influence the minds of others 1 influence group activities 2 increase loyalty 3 increase commitment 4 improve discipline 5 leadership power as a front person 6 spokesperson 7 influencer 8 gives directions to others 9 gives directions digitally 10 digital-based innovative managerial functions achieves organizational goals 11 takes advantage of digital tools 12 creates a digital environment 13 generates innovative ideas 14 predicts future conditions based on digital data 15 motivates subordinates to produce superior products 16 evaluates the product 17 source: alise, 2021 the pedagogic competence research instrument was developed with reference to a theory that discusses the four dimensions and 16 indicators shown in table 3. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 table 3 pedagogical competency instrument grid dimension indicator item number understanding student characteristics understands the physical aspect 1 understands social aspects 2 understands the cultural aspect 3 understands emotional aspects 4 understands the intellectual aspect 5 understanding students’ background understands family background 6 understands students’ social environment (culture) 7 understanding students’ learning understands students’ learning styles 8 understands students’ learning difficulties 9 mastering learning principles facilitates the development of students’ potential 10 has mastered the theory and principles of learning 11 develops the curriculum 12 encourages student involvement in learning 13 designs educational learning 14 conducts educational learning 15 evaluates learning processes and outcomes 16 source: roelofs & sanders, 2007 validity and reliability test the validity and reliability test (see table 4) revealed that all items are valid, because they had r values greater than 0.7 with significance levels less than 0.05. table 4 validity and reliability test results x (digital leadership) y (pedagogic competence) no r sig. conclusion no r sig. conclusion x1 0.797 0.001 valid y1 0.791 0.003 valid x10 0.969 0.000 valid y10 0.860 0.002 valid x11 0.870 0.000 valid y11 0.768 0.000 valid x12 0.950 0.003 valid y12 0.913 0.000 valid x13 0.821 0.001 valid y13 0.826 0.000 valid x14 0.901 0.002 valid y14 0.788 0.000 valid x15 0.767 0.001 valid y15 0.799 0.000 valid x16 0.875 0.002 valid y16 0.724 0.000 valid x17 0.870 0.003 valid y2 0.801 0.002 valid x2 0.960 0.003 valid y3 0.860 0.003 valid x3 0.876 0.002 valid y4 0.871 0.000 valid x4 0.938 0.002 valid y5 0.787 0.003 valid x5 0.790 0.004 valid y6 0.856 0.003 valid x6 0.892 0.003 valid y7 0.776 0.002 valid x7 0.761 0.001 valid y8 0.871 0.000 valid x8 0.860 0.000 valid y9 0.773 0.002 valid x1 0.797 0.002 valid source: results of data analysis the reliability test (see table 5) was carried out using composite reliability and cronbach’s alpha. the decision criteria for reliability testing with composite reliability can be presented as follows: masrur 432 if the composite reliability value is > 0.7, then the questionnaire item is reliable, otherwise it is not reliable. table 5 reliability test results variable cronbach’s alpha rho_a composite reliability average variance extracted (ave) x (digital leadership) 0.979 0.981 0.981 0.752 y (pedagogic competence) 0.967 0.969 0.970 0.669 the composite reliability results presented in table 5 demonstrate that all composite reliability values for each construct are greater than 0.7, indicating that they are all reliable. similarly, referring to the values for the cronbach’s alpha, they are all greater than 0.7, indicating that all the constructs are dependable. data analysis data of this study were analyzed in two forms: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. descriptive analysis provides an overview or description of a data set (ghozali, 2018), in the form of the average value (mean), standard deviation (sd), variance (v), maximum (max), minimum (min), total (sum), range (range), and kurtosis. in order to give a clear picture of the characteristics of the respondents, the frequency for each answer on the questionnaire is also used for the descriptive statistics. second, a requirements analysis—such as testing for the normalcy of data, linearity, and homogeneity—is also important (ghazali & latan, 2015). smartpls 3.0 was used to test the research hypothesis. data to answer research question 1 was analyzed using descriptive statistics, and data to answer the hypothesis was processed usling linear regression analysis with the help of smartpls 3.0. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 results to present the results of this study, this section is divided into two parts: classical assumption of test and the hypothesis testing. classical assumption test include linearity test, normality test, multicollinearity test, heteroscedasticity test, and descriptive data analysis. additionally, hypothesis testing is addressed to answer the research questions. linearity test to determine whether or not the model definition was correct, a linearity test was applied. a linear relationship between the variables will be present in good data. if the significance value of the linearity test is less than 0.05, the data satisfies the criteria of having a linear connection (ghozali, 2018). normality test this test is important for determining whether or not the residual data is normal. the kolmogorov– smirnov test was used to make this determination. if the significance value for this test is greater than 0.05, the data meets the conditions for normality (ghozali et al., 2018). multicollinearity test in order to determine if there was any correlation between the two independent variables, the vif value was evaluated. if the vif number is less than 10, the data can be considered free from multicollinearity (ghozali, 2018). heteroscedasticity test the purpose of the glejser test is to determine if there is consistent variance in the data. if the significance value of the glejser test is greater than 0.05, the data is deemed to be free of heteroscedasticity (ghozali, 2018). table 6 results of the classic assumption tests no. classic assumption results remarks 1 linearity all sig. (0.000) < 0.05 linear data 2 normality sig. (0.200) > 0.05 residual normal 3 multicollinearity all vif < 10 free from multicollinearity 4 heteroscedasticity all sig > 0.05 free from heteroscedasticity table 6 shows that the linearity test yielded a significance value of 0.000, which is less than 0.05, thus indicating that the data is linear. the kolmogorov–smirnov normality test resulted in a significance value of 0.200, which is again less than 0.05, thus indicating that the regression residual in the model is normal. multicollinearity is not present, with all of the vif levels being masrur 434 below 10. the regression model is also free of heteroscedasticity, because the significance values for the independent variables are all greater than 0.05. descriptive data cross-loading analysis was employed to describe the data. the cross-loading value reveals the correlation between each construct’s indicator and the indicators of other block constructs. if a measurement model’s discriminant validity is higher than that of the other block constructs, it has good discriminant validity. table 7 shows the results produced by smartpls 3.0 on processing the data. table 7. cross-loading values no x y x1 0.797 x10 0.969 x11 0.870 x12 0.950 x13 0.821 x14 0.901 x15 0.767 x16 0.875 x17 0.870 x2 0.960 x3 0.876 x4 0.938 x5 0.790 x6 0.892 x7 0.761 x8 0.860 y1 0.791 y10 0.860 y11 0.768 y12 0.913 y13 0.826 y14 0.788 y15 0.799 y16 0.724 y2 0.801 y3 0.860 y4 0.871 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 y5 0.787 y6 0.856 y7 0.776 y8 0.871 y9 0.773 y1 0.791 there was a stronger association between the construct and its indicators than there was between the construct and other constructs, according to the cross-loading data. since the indicators in this block are superior to those in other blocks, we can conclude that they are better. hypothesis testing statistical hypothesis: h0 : digital leadership has no effect on the pedagogic competence of english lecturers at universities in samarinda. h1 : digital leadership has an effect on the pedagogic competence of english lecturers at universities in samarinda. an inner model (structural model) was used to test these hypotheses, and this resulted in values for r-squared output, parameter coefficients, and t-statistics. the significance of the t-statistics, pvalues, and relationships between constructs can help establish whether or not a hypothesis should be accepted or discarded. in this study, the smartpls (partial least squares) 3.0 program was used to test the hypotheses. the t-statistic was greater than 1.96 with a significance threshold for the p-value of 0.05 (i.e., 5%), while a positive beta coefficient was adopted as a rule of thumb in this investigation. table 7 illustrates the importance of evaluating the hypothesis of this research, and figure 2 depicts the findings of this research model. masrur 436 figure 2. hypothesis ui results based on the results of the hypothesis testing, the path coefficient was 0.867 with an r of 0.751 and an r2 of 0.564. the results of the complete analysis can be seen in table 8. table 8. results for the r2, t-test, and p value effect original sample (o)/r2 sample mean (m) standard deviation (stdev) t statistic (|o/stdev|) p value x -> y 0.564 0.346 0.062 3.850 0.000 the coefficient r derived from the hypothesis testing was 0.703 and the r square (r2) was 0.564 with a t-statistic of 3.850, which is greater than 1.96, and a p-value of 0.000, which is lower than 0.05. this indicated that we could reject h0 and accept h1. digital leadership therefore does have journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 a great impact (56.4%) on the pedagogic competency of lecturers at samarinda’s universities. the remaining 43.6% comes from other variables not included in our model. each dimension of the digital leadership variable can be viewed in figure 3 in terms of the size standardized loading factors (slfs). figure 3. digital leadership factor weight coefficient from the slfs for the 17 indicators, the largest (0.969) is for the tenth indicator (x10), which relates to giving digital direction to subordinates. this is followed by the second indicator (x2, 0.960), which relates to influencing group activities. furthermore, the lowest value is for the seventh dimension (x7, 0.761), which relates to leading as a spokesperson. from these results, it can be surmised that a good leader should be able to provide digital direction to subordinates. thus, with improved digital leadership, the head of a study program, department, or faculty can provide digital direction to subordinates, so their competencies will improve. the slfs for each dimension of the digital pedagogical competence variable can be viewed in figure 4. masrur 438 figure 4. slfs for the pedagogic competence factor figure 4 shows how each aspect of the digital pedagogical ability can be viewed in terms of the slfs. of the 17 slfs, the biggest (0.969) was found to be for the tenth indicator (x10), which measures the provision of digital guidance to subordinates. in addition, the seventh dimension (x7), which is associated with leading as a spokesperson, had the lowest value of 0.761. to summarize these findings, a strong leader can communicate digitally with his or her subordinates. thus, digital leadership, in the form of leaders providing subordinates with digital guidance, can improve pedagogic competence. in general, this study discovers the digital leadership does have a great impact (56.4%) on the pedagogic competency of lecturers at samarinda’s universities (p=0.05). digital leadership has a significant effect to increase the pedagogical competence of english lecturers. of 17 indicators, the largest (0.969) is derived from giving digital direction to subordinate as the tenth indicator (x10, 0.969) and influencing group activities (second indicator (x2, 0.960). in addition, the lowest contribution is leading to spokesperson in the seventh dimension (x7, 0.761). discussion the research questions of this study are answered that digital leadership is significant to improve english teacher competence. in addition, the most factors affecting the increase include giving journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 digital direction to the subordinates as the highest indicator and influencing the group communication as the lowest dimension to affect. from these results, it can be surmised that a good leader should be able to provide digital direction to subordinates. thus, with improved digital leadership, the head of a study program, department, or faculty can provide digital direction to subordinates, so their competencies will improve. it can be decisively concluded that digital leadership has an effect on the pedagogic competence of lecturers in the studied institutions. according to medley (1977), the more effective the leadership of educational leaders, the greater the improvement in the competency of lecturers will be. indeed, when the leaders of an educational institution can demonstrate effective leadership, the institution’s members will show a high level of competence. messick (2016) also discovered that the competence of lecturers is directly influenced by the quality of leadership. when leadership uses effective leadership models, the competency of lecturers inevitably increases as a result. the competencies of lecturers can be extensive, including content, theory, and process models, as well as more general ones. lecturers need to improve in terms of curriculum development, teaching style, and ability to understand students’ backgrounds and cultures in order to improve their overall professional competence. as stated by roelofs & sanders (2007), an empirical analysis of how lecturers’ competencies can be improved and the variables that contribute to pedagogic competence is needed to inform the development of lecturers’ competencies. various pedagogical competency descriptions for lecturers have been established in the united states and the netherlands as a result of this research. a lecturer’s professional responsibilities include pedagogical competency, according to ovando & ramirez (2007). it is possible to draw a distinction between this study’s findings and those of roelofs & sanders, 2007, which indicated that lecturers must always improve their competencies in the following areas: a) interpersonal competence (i.e., the ability to create friendly relationships and cooperative climates) and b) pedagogic competence (i.e., the ability to create a psychologically safe learning environment for students, thus contributing to their well-being). through a review of the literature, this study was able to distinguish personal qualities that help lecturers to succeed, be more professional, and have reliable pedagogic competencies (creemers, 1991; sanders & roelofs, 2002). indeed, lecturers need to be able to explain the content of a subject matter, as well as find ways to engage students (gunio, 2021; waychunas, 2020). to be a masrur 440 good teacher, one must also be able to explain how one’s own behavior influences success in the classroom (brophy & good, 2016). instead of describing teachers’ cognition and decision-making processes (kagan & kagan, 2009; verloop, 2012; simons, 2010), suggests that researchers should characterize teachers’ practical knowledge (i.e., their class and subject area) and the way they construct theories about situations (verloop et al., 2001). what is more, pedagogical knowledge includes things like how to teach, how to develop a curriculum, and how to classify students. educational research is increasingly providing such information (bellon et al., 2010; oguilve et al., 2021), and taking a standardized knowledge test is a common approach for testing knowledge (e.g., latham et al., 1999). this study finds the gaps that digital leadership has not yet investigated in the previous studies and factors affecting the effectiveness of digital leadership such as giving direction to subordinates, communication in groups and leading to spokesperson are the novelty of this research. digital leadership has its novelty leading to technologies include innovation in communication. conclusion to summarize the findings, when attempting to increase the pedagogic competencies of lecturers, it is important to consider the role of digital leadership. when heads of study programs, departments, and faculties are able to provide strong digital leadership models in their everyday management, it can help the pedagogic competencies of lecturers to improve. indeed, lecturers benefit from internalizing such digital leadership. in contrast, when a leader is unable to deliver dependable digital leadership, lecturers’ will be unable to capture a wide range of good techniques associated with pedagogic competence in the classroom. this study emphasizes its novelty in that digital leadership has new perspective in innovation of communication to strengthen the pedagogical competence of teachers. to ensure good digital leadership at the study program, department, or faculty level, it is important to provide directions to lecturers digitally while simultaneously paying attention to showing good manners and utilizing good digital communication tools (i.e., facilities and infrastructure), so lecturer competencies can improve significantly. in addition, to improve pedagogic competencies, lecturers must possess curriculum-development skills, be familiar with students’ learning styles, and be aware of the emotional aspects of students, so that they can refer to these aspects throughout the learning process, including for setting assignments and ensuring that students learn effectively. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 references alheet, a. f., adwan, a. al, areiqat, a. y., zamil, a. m. a., & saleh, m. a. (2021). the effect of leadership styles on employees’ innovative work behavior. management science letters, 11, 239–246. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.msl.2020.8.010 almatrooshi, m. j. a. a., khalifa, g. s. a., ameen, a., hossain, s., & morsy, m. a. (2020). the role of knowledge oriented leadership and knowledge sharing to manage the performance of ministry of interior in uae. international journal on recent trends in business and tourism, 4(2), 9–17. https://ejournal.lucp.net/index.php/ijrtbt/article/view/1007 asmarani, a., sukarno, & widdah, m. el. (2021). the relationship of professional competence with teacher work productivity in madrasah aliyah. nidhomul haq : jurnal manajemen pendidikan islam, 6(2), 220–235. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31538/ndh.v6i2.1365 beijaard, d. & verloop, n. (2016) assessing teachers' practical knowledge. studies in educational evaluation, 22(3), 2016, 275-286. bellon, j. j., bellon, e. c., & blanks, m. a. (2012). teaching from a research knowledge base. macmillan. bertrand, s., & porcher, k. (2020). teacher educators as disruptors redesigning courses in teacher preparation programs to prepare white preservice teachers. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 72-88. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.5 bone, a. a., rachman, a., & mashudi, i. (2021). the teacher performance appraisal system in improving teachers performance in limboto district. governance: jurnal ilmu administrasi publik., 4(1), 30–40. https://journals.ubmg.ac.id/index.php/jiap/article/view/189 brophy, j. & good, t. l. (2016). teacher behavior and student achievement. in wittrock, mc (ed.). handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.), p. 328375. macmillan. budiharso, t., & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 creemers, h. p. m. (1991). effectieve instructie: een empirische bijdrage aan de verbetering van het onderwijs in de klas. instituut voor onderzoek van het onderwijs (svo). cupit, i. n. (2021). life is but a digital memory: a review of remember me: memory and forgetting in the digital age by davide sisto.(trans. alice kirgariff). cambridge, uk: polity press, 2021. 160 pp.(isbn: 13: 978-1-509-54503-2). $64.95. reviewed by illene noppe cupit https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.5 masrur 442 dandalt, e., & brutus, s. (2020). teacher performance appraisal regulation: a policy case analysis. nassp bulletin, 104(1), 20–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192636520911197 de klerk, e. d., palmer, j. m., & alexander, g. (2021). covid-19 and technology: higher education’s responses to inclusive practices for pre-service teachers with disabilities. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.8 doyle, w. (1983). academic work. review of educational research, 53(2), 159–199. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543053002159 ellis, p. (2011). managing difficult people: competence. nursing management, 32(5), 89–92. https://doi.org/10.12968/jorn.2011.3.2.89 fitria, h., mukhtar, m., & akbar, m. (2017). the effect of organizational structure and leadership style on teacher performance in private secondary school. ijhcm (international journal of human capital management), 1(02), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.21009/ijhcm.012.12 fonseca, b. a., & chi, m. t. (2011). instruction based on self-explanation. in handbook of research on learning and instruction (pp. 310-335). routledge. ghozali, i. (2006). analisis multivariate lanjutan dengan program spss. semarang: badan penerbit universitas diponegoro. goldhaber, d. d., & brewer, d. j. (2000). does teacher certification matter? high school teacher certification status and student achievement. educational evaluation and policy analysis, 22(2), 129–145. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737022002129 gunio, m. (2021). determining the influences of a hidden curriculum on students’ character development using the illuminative evaluation model. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 194-206. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.11 hair, j. f., black, w. c., babin, b. j., & anderson, r. e. (2010). multivariate data analysis: a global perspective (7th ed.). pearson prentice hall. hartinah, s., suharso, p., umam, r., syazali, m., lestari, b. d., roslina, r., & jermsittiparsert, k. (2020). teacher’s performance management: the role of principal’s leadership, work environment and motivation in tegal city, indonesia. management science letters, 10(1), 235–246. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.msl.2019.7.038 haryanto, h., purwanto, p., & giyoto, g. (2021). exploring research-based learning management of madrasah (a case study at a state madrasah aliyah kudus indonesia ). psychology and education, 58(2), 7287–7296. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.17762/pae.v58i2.3307 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.11 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 ibrahim, k., & benson, m. (2020). monitoring & evaluation of teacher effectiveness, a case of teacher performance appraisal & development tool in public secondary schools in nyandarua south sub-county, kenya. advances in social sciences research journal, 7(1), 320-329. jan, h., & jrf, n. /. (2017). teacher of 21 st century: characteristics and development. research on humanities and social sciences, 7(9), 2225-0484. www.iiste.org jansen, p., paffen, p., & thunnissen, m. (2012). human resource development in veranderend perspectief. 37–58. kagan, s., & kagan, m. (2009). why do we need cooperative learning? in kagan cooperative learning. kane, m. t. (1992). an argument-based approach to validity. psychological bulletin, 112(3), 527–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.527 kapoor, r., ho, p. r., campbell, n., chang, i., deykin, a., forrestal, f., lucas, n., yu, b., arnold, d. l., freedman, m. s., goldman, m. d., hartung, h. p., havrdová, e. k., jeffery, d., miller, a., sellebjerg, f., cadavid, d., mikol, d., steiner, d., … zarelli, g. (2018). effect of natalizumab on disease progression in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (ascend): a phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with an openlabel extension. the lancet neurology, 17(5), 405–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/s14744422(18)30069-3 kark, r., van dijk, d., & vashdi, d. r. (2018). motivated or demotivated to be creative: the role of self-regulatory focus in transformational and transactional leadership processes. applied psychology, 67(1), 186–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12122 khaliq, m., usman, a., & ahmed, a. (2021). effect of leadership style on working culture and employees motivation. the journal of educational paradigms, 3(1), 166–170. https://doi.org/10.47609/0301052021 latham, a. s., gitomer, d., & ziomek, r. (1999). what the tests tell us about new teachers. educational leadership, latham, a. s., gitomer, d., & ziomek, r. 56(8), 23-26. martinezi., & tadeu, p. (2018). the impact of pedagogical leadership on pedagogical coordination in secondary schools. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.1 medley, d. (1977). teacher competence and teacher effectiveness. a review of processproduct research. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/recorddetail?accno=ed143629 meng, y., tan, j., & li, j. (2017). abusive supervision by academic supervisors and postgraduate research students’ creativity: the mediating role of leader–member exchange and intrinsic motivation. international journal of leadership in education, 20(5), 605–617. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.1 masrur 444 https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2017.1304576 messick, s. (2016). validity in performance assessments. in phillips, g. w. (ed.). technical issues in large-scale performance assessments. us department of education, office of educational research and improvement. mito, e. a., ajowi, j. o., & aloka, p. j. o. (2021). teacher training and implementation of teacher performance appraisal and development policy in public secondary schools in kenya. applied research journal, 3(1), 6–16. https://www.globalpresshub.com/index.php/abaarj/article/view/985 morales, d., ruggiano, c., carter, c., pfeifer, k., & green, k. (2020). disrupting to sustain: teacher preparation through innovative teaching and learning practices. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 mulder, m., wesselink, r., & lans, t. (2005). maatschappelijk verantwoord ondernemen vraagt competentieontwikkeling maatschappelijk verantwoord ondernemen is een innovatie die eisen stelt aan. 66–69. mutongoza, b. h., olawale, b. e., & mzilikazi, b. (2021). chronicling school principals’ experiences on school management in the context of covid -19 stringency. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 146–162. https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/566 noor, s. (2019). relationship principal leadership to work motivation, morale teacher and teacher performance of state junior high schools. journal of k6, education, and management, 2(1), 15–22. https://doi.org/10.11594/jk6em.02.01.03 oguilve, v., wen, w., bowen, e., abourehab, y., bermudez, a., gaxiola, e., & castek, j. (2021). community making: an expansive view of curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 69-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.8 ovando, m. n., & ramirez, a. (2007). principals’ instructional leadership within a teacher performance appraisal system: enhancing students’ academic success. journal of personnel evaluation in education, 20(1–2), 85–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-007-9048-1 ovenden-hope, t., blandford, s., cain, t., & maxwell, b. (2018). ‘retain’ early career teacher retention programme: evaluating the role of research informed continuing professional development for a high quality, sustainable 21st century teaching profession. journal of physical therapy science, 9(1), 1–11. https://marjon.repository.guildhe.ac.uk/id/eprint/17249/1/retain early career teacher_ovenden-hope.pdf öztürk, i. (2020). book review. educational leadership and management: developing insights and skills. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 133-137. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.8 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.8 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.8 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 424-446 parry, s. b. (1996). the quest for competencies. training, 33(7), 48. patiar, a., & wang, y. (2020). managers’ leadership, compensation and benefits, and departments’ performance: evidence from upscale hotels in australia: leadership, compensation and performance. journal of hospitality and tourism management, 42(november 2018), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2019.11.005 patrick, t., mwalw’a, s., & okemasisi, k. (2021). principals ’ implementation of teacher performance appraisal and development (tpad) tool and teachers ’ performance in public secondary schools in kikuyu. african journal of emerging issues (ajoei), 3(4), 1– 22. https://ajoeijournals.org/sys/index.php/ajoei/article/view/187 rahmadi, i., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113-133. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 roelofs, e. c., & beijaard, m. n. d. (2008). ontwikkeling van een zelfbeoordelingsinstrument voor docentcompetenties. 2008(85), 319–341. roelofs, e., & sanders, p. (2007). towards a framework for assessing teacher competence. european journal of vaocational training, 40(1), 123–139. rozi, a., agustin, f., hindriari, r., rostikawati, d., & akbar, i. r. (2020). the effect of leadership on employee performance at pt. stella satindo in jakarta. humanities,management and science proceedings, 1(1), 55–61. http://openjournal.unpam.ac.id/index.php/snh/article/view/7949 sanders, p. f., & roelofs, e. c. (2002). beoordeling van docentcompetenties. vor themaconferentie 2002, 1–13. schempp, p. g. (2016). constructing professional knowledge: a case study of an experienced high school teacher. journal of teaching in physical education, 13(1), 2–23. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.13.1.2 simons, pr (2010). competentiegerichte leeromgevingen in organizations en hoger beroepsonderwijs. in schlusmans, k. et al. (eds.). competentiegerichte leeromgevingen. lemma. solikhah, i., & budiharso, t. (2020). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177–197. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2658 spencer, l, m., & spencer, s, m. (1993). competence at work: models for superior performance. john wiley & sons, inc. tütünis, b. d. (2020). teacher education and foreign language teacher professionalism in the https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 masrur 446 21st century. international online journal of education and teaching, 7(3), 1168–1176. https://iojet.org/index.php/iojet/article/view/812 ubaidillah, u. (2021). interpreting ruh as an ecological spirituality in relation to islam and java mysticism. el-harakah (terakreditasi), 23(1), 139–156. https://doi.org/10.18860/eh.v23i1.10268 verloop, n. (2012). de leraar: reviewstudie uitgevoerd in opdracht van proo. nwo/proo.). de leraar: reviewstudie uitgevoerd in opdracht van proo. nwo/proo. verloop, n., van driel, j., & meijer, p. (2001). teacher knowledge and the knowledge base of teaching. international journal of educational research, 35(5), 441–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0883-0355(02)00003-4 waeyenberg, v. t., peccei, r., & decramer, a. (2020). performance management and teacher performance: the role of affective organizational commitment and exhaustion. the international journal of human resource management, 1-24. waychunas, w. (2020). where teachers thrive: a book review. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 129-132. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 yue, x. (2019). exploring effective methods of teacher professional development in university for 21st century education. international journal for innovation education and research, 7(5), 248–257. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31686/ijier.vol7.iss5.1506 zaragoza, m. c., díaz-gibson, j., caparrós, a. f., & solé, s. l. (2021). the teacher of the 21st century: professional competencies in catalonia today. educational studies, 47(2), 217– 237. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2019.1686697 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 295-318 295 tradition of value education implementation in indonesian primary schools kama abdul hakam1 abstract following indonesia’s 1998 reform, value education in the form of a specific subject is no longer applied. the results of the 2006 national discussion recommended new education programs loaded with values. therefore, the value education integration in learning activities has been carried out since 2007 and was updated in 2011, 2016, and 2017. the latest update of value education integration year 2017 emphasizes the implementation of character education in school activities. the aim of this study is to examine the implementation of value education in indonesian primary schools from the starting point of the reform until now. this study applied the historical method with a purposive random sampling using all reference primary schools (school models) in each province in indonesia. the results show that value education in indonesian primary school activities (intra-curricular, extra-curricular, development of school culture, and collaboration with the community) tend to use value transmission approaches through the methods of training, modeling, conditioning, and habituation, which foster moral behavior in the form of students’ discipline and adherence to rules and norms. indonesian primary school activities have an insufficient constructionist approach that contributes to the lack of student’s moral consideration. key words: value education implementation; value transmission; indonesian primary school introduction there is a broad agreement that schools must contribute to the formation and development of student values in the form of moral development and student character formation (nucci, et al, 2014). the role of schools always lies among the controversies between the sociological approach and the psychological approach. the followers of the sociological school are motivated by the view that the present era of social decay is taking place (bennet & spalding, 1992; putnam, 2013) and an ongoing teenage crisis (bennet, 1992; himmelfarb, 2001; wynne 1982) so that traditional moral values are required through a form of character education tradition (bennett, 1994; wynne & ryan, 1993). educators 1 associate professor, faculty of social science education, indonesia university of education, , indonesia, kama.hakam@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 of traditional character based on aristotle’s thought see the importance of the formation of virtues from the beginning and the influence of social groups. for instance, durkheim (2012) viewed the importance of group and community involvement in shaping the younger generations. this sociological school is influenced by the idea that every individual has the potential to accept social values; and each generation always produces values that are upheld as a result of the agreement of the community groups. the agreed values are feasible and must be passed on to the next young generation (hakam, 2000). the sociological school, in the form of character education, views the importance of educational activities by seeding and inheriting values. on that basis, the sociological school of value education recognizes the existence of objective values that are accepted by community groups or nations and even the world, both in the form of universal values and absolute values. thus, the adherents of this sociological school view the importance of value education activities in the following forms: (1) the delivery of value information enables students to understand correctly the rules of value; (2) modeling is needed to portray values in the form of behavior so that students are able to imitate value activities in their lives; (3) training is needed to train students to act in accordance with the rules of the values exemplified; (4) conditioning is required so that students are able to take roles to do the values in real actions; and (5) habituation is needed so that students continuously carry out the values in-order that such values become accustomed to their lives. such educational measures like that are expected to build a culture of social values that are upheld through school education. the nature of value education in the sociological school is more appropriately referred to as character education because it is more interested in inherited certain values to students that are subsequently to become their identity. character education, then, recognizes that the most important value education outcomes are moral behavior or moral conduct (nucci, et al, 2014). conversely, followers of the psychological approach are motivated by the idea that individuals are always in the midst of rapid social change due to the inheritance of social injustice such as gender racism and discrimination that are challenged by social movements reflecting moral improvement (killen, et al, 2002). individuals are always faced with dilemmatic decision making (kohlberg, 1976) among existing social values. therefore, moral maturity is needed behind the choice of values. these rational moral educators are based on the philosophy of socrates, which emphasizes the role of reason in drawing arguments from rational ethics. consequently, there is hakam autonomous truth in moral actions based on the principles of justice and honesty (rawls, 2001). the focus is on developing moral reasoning derived from piaget’s work (see piaget (1962)). followers of the psychological school hold the view that individuals are not only able to accept the values of society but actually have the potential of unique values; and education is obliged to facilitate the potential of these individual values to develop optimally. it can be concluded that value education is not to increase the treasury of a person (kohlberg, 1976). however, students are facilitated to use their judgment so that it can increase systematically. therefore, value education needs to expose individuals to choose values. they are given the opportunity to value their values and are given the opportunity to actualize their choice of values to become theirs (raths, et al, 1978; yigit, 2017). thus, the learning objective of education value is not to pass on social values but to construct and to develop the potential of individual values towards maturity. kohlberg (1976) called it maturity moral judgment; raths et al (1978) called it believing in personal value; and fraenkel (1977) called it having a principle of life. the most appropriate value education term is moral education. to measure the success of the values constructed, a number of developmentalist figures set out a range of stages. on the one hand, kohlberg (1976) divided it into three stages: pre-conventional; conventional; and postconventional, which can be measured by using the moral judgment instrument. on the other hand, rest (1979) measured it by using the defining issues test (see kohlberg (1976) for a detailed explanation regarding moral judgement instrument and rest (1979) for a detailed explanation regarding moral judgment instrument). hakam (2018) explained the results of his findings regarding the composition of transmission and construction of values in each stage of value education as explained in figure 1. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 figure 1. value transmission (hakam, 2018) the research question of this research is as follow: what is the tendency of the value education implementation in indonesian primary schools? based on the ideas regarding value education approach above, this research this study has an objective to examine the tendency of the value education tradition in indonesian primary schools between the transmission approach and the constructionist approach since the beginning of the reform era until now. this research focuses on the selected school activities, i.e. intra-curricular, extra-curricular, development of school culture, and school collaboration with the community. the main research contribution of this study is to provide coherent analysis regarding value education implementation in indonesian primary schools and assist education policy makers in indonesia in improving indonesia’s national education curriculum and program. this is the first research to our knowledge that provides the holistic overview regarding the value education policy since indonesia’s independence until present. while there has been a broad literature review of transmission and constructionist approach in value education, this is the first study to examine the tendency of value education approach in indonesian primary schools. this study used the historical method with a purposive random sample of primary schools in each province of indonesia (total 34 province in indonesia). hakam this paper is structured into five section as follows. section 1 provides an overview of value education approach, research question, research objective, research focus, research contribution and research structure. section 2 explores the essence of value and overview of value education in indonesian schools. section 3 provides the research methodology. section 4 displays the discussion of secondary and primary data collected by the author regarding the values education policy in indonesian schools since independence until now. the period of examination is divided into two periods: (1) from the indonesian independence day (august 17th, 1945) until the end of the new order (may 21st, 1998); and (2) since the reformation (began with the fall of suharto) until now. section 5 shows the conclusion of this study. essence of value and value education in indonesian schools value is the idea of someone or a group about something that is considered good, right, beautiful, and wise so that the idea is valuable and quality to be used as a guidance or guideline in acting and behaving (hakam, 2000). as discussed above, various types of value education place different emphasis on the deliverance to students, especially related to the types of objective and subjective values. objective value is a value agreed upon by a group or community both sourced from culture or religion (hemelt, 1929; coleman, 1974). this value is considered important by the community to be passed on to generations or groups of people. therefore, the value transmission approach such as training, modeling, conditioning, and habituation becomes a necessity in the practice of learning, because objective value is seen as a rule that is accepted universally or absolutely. therefore, value education views the importance of the “content or material” value that must be taught. this condition is in line with human nature to accept external values so that they become their values. in this process, education is expected to internalize values so that students are able to receive an inheritance of social values and are able to practice them in their daily lives. this is considered the root of the sociological approach to value education (hemelt, 1929; coleman, 1974). subjective value is an individual belief that drives her/him to behave and to do something (flanagan, et al, 1993; miller, 2014). this subjective value can be the same or different to others and can be separated or agreed with the values of others. a person should have a subjective value to be the principles in her/his life. therefore, she/he can be more confident and responsible for journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 her/his behavior and feel happy about the decisions and risks. consequently, the position of value education is not to increase or expand the treasury of the rules of value, but rather it is to increase the maturity and stage of value of the individual. in moral education, it is called increasing the stage of moral judgment. value education that facilitates the development of subjective values is in line with the nature of individuals who have potential value, namely the potential for good. this subjective value condition was developed by a psychological approach in constructionist and developmentalist value education (flanagan, et al, 1993; bryant, 1912; folsom, 1918; halpern, 2017; miller, 2014; proios & proios, 2017). of course, education must respond to human potentials as a provision to educate students. objective values and subjective values at the level of education have certain ways and strategies in their delivery. in intra-curricular conditions (learning activities in class), objective values can be delivered by means of value transmission, namely by training, modeling, conditioning, and habituation. education is obliged to internalize the values (carrel, 1907). subjective values can be delivered by constructing values using a certain learning model that increases the moral consideration of individual students and education is obliged to develop it (neumann, 1923). all of these processes have different allocation for students, especially primary school students, considering they (students) are still in the concrete operational stage (see (piaget, 2005)) and must pay attention to the stages of psychological and sociological development. therefore, education at every stage must carry out different strategies, although in each case all strategies are needed with different emphases (bakalar, 2017; callan, 1992). historically and constitutionally, value education in indonesian schools started in 1945 (the year of indonesia independence day). in the view of historical curricula, a number of subjects specifically carry out the moral values of the education mission. they are pancasila moral education, personality education, character education, and akhlaq education. sastraprateja (1993) stated that value education is the cultivation and development of values in a person. mardiatmadja (1986) defined value education as assistance for students to realize and experience values and to integrate them in their entire lives. although value education has various equal definitions with similar intentions, namely fostering knowledge, attitudes, and ethical behavior, the various terms can be distinguished from their sources and approaches. the different terms are explained as follows. 1. akhlaq education: religious approach and sourced from holy scriptures. hakam 2. budi pekerti (moral action) education: cultural approach and sourced from the community. 3. moral education: psychological approach and sourced from conscience. 4. character education: sociological approach and derived from social values. moral education, according to durkheim (2012), emphasized the aspect of the formation of individual morality in society so the individual can play a role in society. thus, moral education, according to durkheim aimed to form and create new creatures (elle cree dans i homme un etrenouveau) who have a sense of solidarity and high discipline for social goals (ritzer & goodman, 2004). alternatively, the notion of character education is an effort to enable children to judge right from wrong, to care for the truth, and do what they believe to be true, despite facing temptations from internal and external pressure (lickona, 2012). then again, akhlaq education is a term related to values from a religious point of view. akhlaq education aims to achieve a happy life in the world and the hereafter. the goal can be achieved through good behavior among fellow human beings based on religious guidance, as well as striving to achieve inner virtue. therefore, the goal of akhlaq education is to produce perfect humans who have good personalities, purity of soul, and to be closer to god almighty (alghazali, 2008). in akhlaq education, revelation is placed as the main or even the only inclination in ethical action and it strictly avoids the intervention of ratios in formulating universal basic principles about the quranic guidance for human life (abdullah, 2002). daulay (2014) defined budi pekerti (moral action) education as a conscious effort that is carried out in order to instill or to internalize moral values into the attitudes and the behavior of students to have noble attitudes and behavior in daily life, both in interacting with god, with fellow human beings, and with nature/environment. dewantara (1977) stated that budi pekerti education is an important part of education as a whole aimed at making students able to master themselves so that they can eliminate or defeat the inappropriate human nature. if budi pekerti education can be carried out properly and firmly to manifest personality and “character” (a soul that is based on the law of soul), then the students will always be able to overcome their original desires and habits, which are naturally inappropriate. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 methodology this study employed historical methods with perspective approach by studying past activities/agendas until now. what is meant by activities/agendas in this study are “the tradition of the implementation of value education in indonesian primary schools” since the beginning of the reform era until now that can be accounted for. the following are the stages of the historical method (renier, 1997) in relation with the fieldwork conducted by the author. 1. heuristic stage the first stage is heuristic to find or to obtain data. in this study, the meaning of the heuristic stage is to collect historical sources regarding value education from the time of independence (1945) to the present date, 2018. the data is obtained in writing and supplemented with interviews. 2. critical stage the second stage is the critical stage, involving criticizing the data that has been collected. this study sorted and selected the data according to the most credible research needs and the data is retrieved based on examination of school administration documents, observations, and interviews. the second phase is more focused on values education policy since the reform era (1998). 3. interpretation stage this third stage involves an interpretation of data to provide responses in the researcher’s perspective regarding the tradition of value education implementation in indonesian primary schools. 4. historiographical stage in the final stage (historiography), the researcher writes in the form of historical sequences that produce conclusions. the author is actively involved in each of the values education policy processes from the directorate of basic education of the ministry of education and culture and is actively involved in implementing and disseminating the policy. the research in this study was carried out by examining school administration documents, observation of actual activities for learning, extracurricular, development of school culture, and school collaboration with the community, and interviews with principals and teachers in the development of character education in schools. to see the implementation of value education in indonesian primary schools, field research was conducted in selected primary schools by using a purposive random sample. the populations hakam of this study are primary schools which are spread in 34 provinces in indonesia. the sample of this study are the reference primary schools (the model school) for each province in indonesia, i.e. the winner of the school quality culture competition year 2017 conducted by directorate of basic education. this school competition held yearly by directorate of basic education since year 2008, i.e. after the launch of the pnp (pembudayaan nilai pancasila/ pancasila value civilization) program in primary school year 2007. the reference schools are selected schools proposed by each regency/city in each province, which are then fostered at the national level and have a mission to disseminate the idea of value or character education to each impacted school in its environment. discussion this section provides discussion regarding secondary and primary data that are collected by the author. firstly, the data is about the history of values education policy since indonesian independence until now by dividing into two periods: (1) from the indonesian independence day until the end of the new order; and (2) since the reformation (began with the fall of suharto) until now. secondly, the data covers education value policy materials since the reform and its form of socialization. thirdly, the data includes the implementation of each value education policy in primary schools since the reform until now. fourthly, the analysis of value education tradition in indonesian primary schools. then, each of these stages is analyzed and described. history of value education policies in indonesia firstly, since indonesian independence day (17th august 1945), indonesian national education has shown that value education is the part of education, as evidenced by each formulated educational goal: • the proposed of bp knip dated december 29, 1945 stated that education and teaching must guide students to become citizens who have a sense of responsibility. • the ppk formulated that it is to educate genuine citizens willing to contribute energy and thought to the country and society (djojonegoro, 1996). • law number 4 of 1950, chapter ii, article 3, formulated that it aims to establish capable human beings who are able and citizens who are democratic and responsible for the welfare of the people and the homeland. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 • law number 12 of 1954, supplemented by presidential decree number 145 of 1965, stated that the aim of national education is to give birth to a socialist citizen, who is responsible for the implementation of an indonesian socialist society, just, and prosperous both spiritually and materially and having the spirit of pancasila. • law number 2 of 1989 concerning the national education system (sisdiknas), article 4, set out that the aim of national education is to educate the life of the nation and to develop a whole indonesian human being. the characteristics are detailed as believe in and fear of the god almighty and virtuous noble character, has knowledge and skills, physical and spiritual health, a strong and independent personality, as well as a sense of civic responsibility and nationality. the descriptions above show that although value education is not specifically mentioned at every stage of education policy, indonesian policy always contains the mission of noble values that must be conveyed to students, including for primary schools. the purpose of this education will be a reference for curriculum developers in formulating curriculum documents that are valid at that time. each school is obliged to implement the formulation of the objectives contained in the curriculum. thus, there are objective values that become the school’s mission for students (biordan, 1912; martin, 1912; purpel & ryan, 1976; benninga, 1991; and schwartz, 2001). this demand necessitates the importance of value transmission so that the students internalize the values (barni, et al, 2011; and schönpflug, 2001). in the last decade of this period, the new order period, there was a policy to socialize the pancasila guidance and practice (p4) to the public. this p4 policy affects the schooling curriculum, so that the subject of pmp (pendidikan moral pancasila/ pancasila moral education) is raised. the content of the pmp material further broadens and emphasizes 36 points of the p4. the 36 points of p4 are an elaboration of the precepts of pancasila, which is the ideology of the state. the implementation of value education in primary schools became more indoctrinating and transmitting (ramage, 1995). further, any opportunity to discuss it openly was virtually impossible. the new order period is better known as the doctrinal times, given that it influenced indoctrination in the implementation of value education in indonesian primary schools. the implementation of value education in primary schools is emphasized students to memorize the 36 points of the p4. at this time, there were several subjects that contained this value as stated by winataputra (2001). they are: civics (1957 to 1962 curriculum); community education, which is the integration of history, earth sciences, and citizenship (1964 curriculum); citizenship education, which is a combination of earth sciences, hakam indonesian history, and civics (1968 to 1969 curriculum); citizenship education and civics & law (1973); pancasila moral education (pmp, in 1975 to 1984 curriculum); pancasila education and citizenship (ppkn, in 1994 curriculum). secondly, since the end of the new order era, the purpose of education in law number 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system, chapter ii, article 3 states that national education functions to develop ability and to shape dignified national character and civilization in the framework of educating the life of the nation, aimed at developing the potential of students to become faithful and fearful human beings to god almighty, noble, healthy, knowledgeable, capable, creative, independent, and a democratic and responsible citizen. the mission of education value is included in these national goals but, in practice, they are influenced by political changes, namely that everything that “smells” of the new order following its end has been changed. subsequently, p4 has been abolished. subjects with p4 content were eliminated, even pancasila education, perceived as an ideological subject. this left a vacuum in value education in schools, including in primary schools. changes in politics from the new order era to the reform order that opened the climate of openness has had an impact on social life. many people felt free, including influences in adherence to law. the law no longer served as a reference and a measure for society, causing national unrest and panic (webber, 2006; king, 2003). this encouraged education experts to reiterate the importance of value education. in 2006, education experts and members of the education commission of the house of representatives gathered at the initiative of the directorate of kindergarten and primary schools of the ministry of national education to restore value education to the world of schooling. the results of the discussion recommended the need for new value education programs. the results of this decision were implemented in 2007-2008 in the form of the pnp program with two approaches, namely the practice of learning citizenship and the creation of school atmosphere. this policy only lasted for one year because there remained concern that this pnp program would re-establish new order values in education. the demands of the education community who saw the importance of value education were increasingly widespread, so in 2011-2015 the idea of character education emerged with four approaches, namely through pakem (active, creative, effective, and fun learning), extra-curricular activities, school culture development, and community participation. in 2016, budi pekerti education emerged with a more entrenched character education function at the national core. subsequently, in 2017, it emerged with journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 strengthening character education through extra-curricular, extra-curricular, school development, and school collaboration with the community. materials of policy and value education socialization since the reform until now firstly, the policy of the pnp program, the results of the 2006 national discussion initiated by the ministry of education and culture’s directorate of kindergarten and primary school in collaboration with commission x of the house of representatives, recommended the need for strict value education in schools. the ministry of education and culture responded to this recommendation in the form of the pnp program. the development of the pnp program was directed with two spearheads. the first is the pbk (praktik belajar kewarganegaraan/ citizenship learning practice), to implement the values of pancasila intra-curricular through civics education classes in the classroom. pbk is expected to enable students using problem-solving methods to recognize problems, to formulate problems, to collect data, to analyze and to propose alternative solutions, and to recommend problem solving to policy makers based on pancasila values. essentially, pbk was established to respond to constructionist approaches in value education. pbk implementation requires creative and dedicated teachers who are supported by conducive school leaders and persuasive parents. the second is the pss (penanaman suasana sekolah/ school atmosphere management). this pss is essentially to build a school culture to practice the values of pancasila in the school environment. implementation of pancasila values is carried out every day by creating a religious atmosphere, a humanity-based atmosphere, a national atmosphere, a democratic atmosphere, and a social justice atmosphere. schools create these atmospheres through: appropriate slogans; enriching the facilities so that these values can be implemented (such as places of worship, hygiene facilities, school parks, and supporting textbooks); and familiarizing teachers, education personnel, and students to implement the value of pancasila inside the school area every day (such as greeting, shaking hands, worshiping together, praying before and after learning, getting used to giving donations, cleaning the school environment, processing garbage, and creating an honesty canteen). the development of pss in primary schools essentially responds to the value transmission approach in schools. to socialize this program, the directorate of kindergarten and primary school took a number of actions: (1) a team of experts created a pbk and pss guidebook; (2) they published enrichment books containing the values of pancasila for primary schools; (3) they conducted a hakam piloting project at six provinces representing western (north and west sumatra), central (west and east java), and eastern parts of indonesia (east kalimantan and south sulawesi) ; (4) they appointed a team of advisory consultants for each province involving local education colleges; (5) they provided training to advisory consultant teams; (6) they provided training to principals and education service personnel in each province about pbk and pss; and (7) they conducted monitoring and evaluation. the seven programs were implemented in 2007 but the pnp budget to follow up on the program in 2008 did not qualify in the house of representatives. as such, it was implemented only in one fiscal year. secondly, in 2011-2015, the idea of character education emerged as a response to the invitation of president susilo bambang yudhoyono in 2010 to commemorate nyepi day (day of silence, fasting and meditation for the balinese) to build a good society rooted in human beings who possess akhlaq, budi pekerti (virtuous), and well-behaved. the ministry of national education responded to this invitation by the development of character education. the directorate of basic education specifically composed a team to develop character education. the team was tasked to create a guidebook. the results consisted of five series: (1) general character education handbook, containing background and policy for developing character education in primary schools; (2) character education through active, creative, effective and fun learning (pakem); (3) character education through extra-curricular activities; (4) character education through school culture; and (5) character education through community participation (psm). character education through pakem essentially integrated pancasila values and universal values through intra-curricular learning by integrating learning planning, implementing learning, and evaluations that are active and creative in a pleasant learning environment. character education through integration in each learning is expected to respond to value education with a constructionist approach. character education through extra-curricular activities essentially seeks to provide opportunities for primary school students to be able to actualize pancasila values and universal values by taking roles in activities outside the classroom in teacher-guided activities, such as scouts, sports, arts, religious activities, as well as developing talents and interests. character education activities through the development of school culture essentially creates a positive school atmosphere. schools were urged to create facilities for character development such as making slogans and the school’s vision and mission, organizing hygiene and health facilities, creating honesty canteens, school parks and charity boxes, and familiarizing students to do good journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 deeds in their daily lives at school – such as greeting, worship, social service, community service and so on. character education development through psm is essentially to familiarize students’ good behavior in school to be in line with the habits and to foster them in the family and community. it was expected that there is a continuity between the positive character-building activities of students in school and their activities in the family and community (etzioni, 1996; halstead & bacon, 2006). the community involved in the first character building is the school committee as an organization of parents. the next is the class community, which is the parent organization of students of a class. then, it also includes the community leaders, the business world and industry in the school, as well as government and private institutions. the implementation of character education through community participation requires the principal’s managerial abilities as a leader of an educational institution. to socialize character education program, the directorate of basic education formed a national team consisting of six education value experts from higher education institutions accompanied by a special team from the ministry of national education. the national team is tasked with developing guidelines and conducting socialization and training to the provincial team. each province is represented by elements of the provincial education office that are in charge of primary school education and the elements of education supervision selected by the respective provincial education offices. the provincial character education team is tasked with socializing and training district/city teams in their respective provinces that are accompanied by the national team. the regency/city character education team consists of elements from the district/city education office and selected education supervisors. each regency/city team must socialize the character education program to each core school in its area; and each core school must socialize the character education program to the impact schools that are under its guidance. third, in 2016, the idea of the budi pekerti development movement (gpbp –gerakan penumbuhan budi pekerti) emerged to enable character education to be more rooted in national personality. the gpbp is based on the idea that every student has a positive value. therefore, school education must create a planned program so that the potential positive value grows and develops well as autonomous or independent outer and independent behavior by creating the school as a fun learning park for students, teachers, and educational personnel. it can be implemented by building harmonious cooperation between school, family, and community. on hakam that basis, the gpbp: (1) is not a separate subject; (2) does not add a theme or subject matter; (3) is integrated into school activities; (4) involves all students, school residents, and the community; (5) make a positive approach in solving problems; (6) plans relevant activities so that students develop positive potential; (7) use every educational activity as a means of developing students’ budi pekerti; and (8) provides opportunities for each school to develop different initiatives according to their respective environmental conditions. the national team is tasked to develop guidelines and to conduct dissemination and training to the regency/city teams. the regency/city character education team consists of elements from the district/city education office, selected education supervisors, and model principals in each regency/city. the regency/city gpbp team must socialize the program to every core school in its area; and each core school must socialize the gpbp program to the impact schools. gpbp essentially strengthens the value transmission approach in school value education by building a school culture that can facilitate all school elements to be accustomed to carrying out positive values in accordance with the school’s potential and local ethics. fourth, in 2017, the idea of strengthening character education emerged through intracurricular and extra-curricular activities, school culture development, and school collaboration with the community. the strengthening character education program essentially continued the character education program implemented in 2011-2015 and gpbp in 2016 by way of integrating character education as a school quality culture. thus, quality schools are schools with characters, having educators and educational personnel with positive characters, and the leadership has a vision and mission of character education, attitudes, and managerial with positive characters. the schools also have a conducive school environment to develop positive characters, learning to develop positive characters, integrating extra-curricular activities in character education, the community school environment that supports the implementation of character education, and the capability of utilizing the community’s environment in developing the positive characters of their students. in this strengthening character education program, the socialization was carried out based on in-on-in, i.e. the program was carried out at the national level and, subsequently, the target schools conducted character education strengthening activities in their schools and spread it to other schools. the impact of each school’s experiences with various advantages and problems were raised again in a national workshop. to attract a productive dissemination, each province journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 chose the best school to represent it at the national level in a competition of character-school quality culture. in this competition, participants were divided to represent quality culture competitions with their respective concentration choices, namely intra-curricular activities, extracurricular activities, school culture, and school management. this competition essentially provided opportunities for each school to show their character and to learn from the excellence of other schools in building school quality and fostering students’ characters. the implementation of value education policies in primary schools since the reform era until now the policy of the directorate of kindergarten and elementary school in 2007 concerning the cultivation of pancasila values stated the importance of value education with two main activities. first, the pbk emphasized the importance of constructing students’ values in the form of problem solving so that the moral consideration of students increased, and they possessed rational basics when facing conflict value situations (clark, 1996; mackenzie, 1909). second, the creation of schools with pss atmosphere by facilitating schools with facilities and activities so that students are able to implement and to familiarize pancasila values in everyday life. the pbk activities essentially responded to the importance of developing students’ value potential so that they gradually moved towards maturity. this pbk used a constructionist approach to values, while the pss responded to students’ readiness to accept the noble values of pancasila so that the noble values are internalized in the students’ personalities and are able to be carried out in daily life. based on the results of monitoring in primary schools in six provinces (the pilot projects), they were ready and had implemented the pss approach in their schools. the schools were equipped with parks. there were also hygiene facilities such as adequate trash bins and toilets, worship facilities, an honesty canteen, and a school environment that was decorated with a slogan of positive value. likewise, there have been attempts to familiarize positive behavior, such as the teacher standing at the door of the gate to welcome students with a smile and greetings, starting learning with greetings and prayers, and ending learning with prayers as well. in contrast, pbk activities in the implementation of civic education learning are lacking. the schools still used traditional patterns such as delivering ordinary lessons and teachers were not ready to design and to involve students in problem solving situations. at this time, the cultivation of the pancasila values was very strong with pss and, in the following year, when the pbk program would be hakam increased, it was ended. finally, the primary school is more familiar with the value transmission approach. the policy of the directorate of basic education in 2011 to 2015 rolled out character education with four pillars of approach, namely: (1) character education through active, creative, effective, and fun learning (pakem); (2) character education through extra-curricular activities; (3) character education through school culture; and (4) character education through psm. character education through pakem, which was originally conceived to build the basis for developing a stage of moral consideration and developing the principles of rational value of students in practice, leads to more enjoyable learning through songs and games, so that more students get additional treasury scores without the opportunity to choose and be different with others in dealing value conflict situations. this condition above only directs students to moral information levels in the transmission of values. likewise, extracurricular activities, which were originally expected to strengthen positive value practices and provide rational grounds for dealing with moral dilemmas, place more emphasis on moral training, modeling, and habituation, so that the stages of moral consideration of students in dealing with conflict of values are not honed. similarly, school culture is more directed at the habituation of students to conduct good behavior in the form of courtesy and social attitudes and does not train students to disagree and to believe in the principle of their values. moreover, the psm, which is actually prepared to strengthen the positive behavior of students in the family and community, has not supported the development of students’ moral considerations. thus, in the present, value education in indonesian primary schools was very thick with the transmission approach, and little or almost no implementation of value education with a constructionist approach. the policy of the directorate of basic education, by rolling out the 2016 gpbp, in essence strengthened the value transmission approach in schools’ value education by building a school culture that facilitated all school residents to be accustomed to carrying out positive values in line with the school’s potential and local ethics. this program emphasized the practices of national values, universal values, and local values by training, modeling, conditioning, and habituation. thus, the gpbp further strengthened education values in the form of value transmission. the directorate of basic education issued the idea of strengthening character education through intra-curricular and extra-curricular activities, the development of school culture, and school collaboration with the community in essence continuing the character education program journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 that has been implemented within 2011-2015 and gpbp in 2016 by bringing together character education as school quality culture. thus, quality schools are schools of characters. however, in its implementation, headmasters, teachers, and extra-curricular coaches had a low ability to provide the basics of constructing values for students, both when integrating them into intracurricular and extra-curricular activities, especially in the development of school culture. this can be seen in the practice of education in schools, as well as when performing best practice, when principals and teachers take part in a quality culture competition at the national level. tradition of character education in indonesian primary schools all sample primary schools applied intra-curricular learning activities to implement student character building. the implementation of the school's discipline started when students were entering the classroom. students are told to line up and to check the neatness of their clothes, to clean their nails, to enter the class one by one, and to handshake the teacher. when learning begins, students are accustomed to greeting and praying led by one of the students. when the learning process takes place, students are required to study in an orderly manner, and for students who want to ask questions, they must raise their hands first. when the lesson ends, students are told to pray and say greeting led by one of the students. in this intra-curricular activity, the character values inculcated are discipline, religiosity, respect for the teacher, orderly, clean, diligent and cooperative. thus, intra-curricular activities transmit more values through training, modeling, and habituation. however, in the process of student activities, the basis of constructing values already exist such as giving the opportunity to ask questions and communicating student findings from learning outcomes. all sample primary schools applied extra-curricular activities to implement student character formation, beginning with the establishment of attendance discipline to be on time, dressed uniformly especially in scouting, sport and art activities. second, students are accustomed to greeting and handshaking when meeting with the teacher. third, students are accustomed to praying when starting the lesson and ending the class. fourth, students are accustomed to working together and helping each other with other students when doing work. fifth, students are accustomed to respecting older students, appreciating their friends, and loving their younger siblings. sixth, students begin to get used to leading their friends and accepting their friends as leaders. in this extra-curricular activity, the inculcated character values are discipline, religiosity, hakam respectful attitude to teachers and friends, orderly, neat, sportsmanship, competitive, aesthetic, cooperation, and leadership. thus, extra-curricular activities transmit more value through training, modeling, habituation, and taking role opportunities by the students. all sample primary schools placed the objective character values in the school's vision and mission. the school’s vision and mission were further developed into school objectives and programs established by the principal and teachers and school committees. furthermore, the school’s programs were socialized to parents and students through official meetings, school ceremonies, and symbols installation around the school. the implementation of the objective character values was carried out, as a model and habituation, in the daily teachers and administrative staff activities. the cultivation of character values of the students begins with the habituation to come to the school, to welcome students with smiles and greetings, to clean the school environment every day, to perform official flag ceremonies every monday, to perform dhuha (morning) prayers and congregations every day, to read the scriptures together, to commemorate the national holidays, to deliver social services, sports and arts performances, and to get used to clean living. all those activities above were carried out by the school in objective to train and familiarize all school residents to be positive. school collaboration with the community to stimulate student character began when the school accepted new students and the students agreed to the school’s rules. at the start of the academic period, the students were introduced to the school’s vision and missions and agreed to support each other in fostering the student’s character in the family and community. coaching to student’s parents was carried out during the class meeting, school committee meeting, report card distribution meeting each semester. the community organizations that were involved in fostering student characters are classrooms, school committees, community leaders, community institutions such as puskesmas (pusat kesehatan masyarakat/ community health center) and the police. the involvement of these community institutions in fostering student character is in the form of counseling, supervision, and strengthening the character values instilled by the school to students. the main implementation of character education carried out by the community is in the form of training, strengthening, modeling, and habituation. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 conclusion historically and constitutionally, value education in indonesian schools has existed since the start of the indonesian national education system. historically, a number of subjects carried out the value education mission. however, since the reform, there have been no more subjects of value education. the development of the value education program continues as pnp, character education, gpbp, and character education strengthening programs. since the existence of pnp policies to develop value education with value transmission and constructionist approaches, the value has been rolled out by the directorate of basic education of the ministry of education and culture. nevertheless, in practice, primary schools only recognize the transmission approach that can be implemented by schools through training, modeling, conditioning, and habituation techniques. the constructionist approach still requires special training for primary school teachers to be able to provide the basics for students in the development of moral considerations and lifeskills based on solid value beliefs. based on the results of observations and interviews in the field to the principals and teachers, they were well informed to implement value education through the value transmission approach, by moral training, modeling, conditioning, and habituation. however, most of them did not have the ability to develop value learning through moral dilemma (kohlberg’s model) which is in line with the local context and to familiarize students with the process of choosing, prizing, acting/behaving (the raths model), especially creating it in the form of intra-curricular and extracurricular learning. the value transmission approach is easier to replicate than other school activities, while the value constructionist approach requires special training and creative teachers to develop it (garcía-ramírez, 2018). based on observations in the socialization of each value education program conducted by the directorate of basic education, teachers or principals almost never prepare a special time to train teachers to approach value construction in primary schools. however, there are elementary school obligations to foster and to develop 30% of the potential value of students to improve the basics of the stage of moral consideration and to provide the basics so that students can live in line with the principles of values they believe in. hakam references abdullah, m. a. (2002). antara al-ghazali dan kant: filsafat etika islam. mizan. al-ghazali, i. (2008). ringkasan ihya'ulumuddin. akbar media. bakalar, b. (2017). understanding the whole student: holistic multicultural education [book review]. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 96-98. barni, d., ranieri, s., scabini, e., & rosnati, r. (2011). value transmission in the family: do adolescents accept the values their parents want to transmit? journal of moral education, 40(1), 105-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2011.553797 benninga, j. s. (1991). moral, character, and civic education in the elementary school. teachers college press, 1234 amsterdam ave., new york, ny 10027. bennett, c., & spalding, e. (1992). teaching the social studies: multiple approaches for multiple perspectives. theory & research in social education, 20(3), 263-292. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.1992.10505669 bennett, w. j. (1994). the de-valuing of america: the fight for our culture and our children. simon and schuster. bryant, s. (1912). the many-sideness of moral education. the international journal of ethics, 22(4), 383-399. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2377065.pdf biordan, r. (1912). school activities for moral development. religious education, 6(6), 511519. https://doi.org/10.1080/0034408120060604 carrel, f. (1907). has sociology a moral basis? the international journal of ethics, 17(4), 448454. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2376331.pdf clark, a. (1996). connectionism, moral cognition, and collaborative problem solving. mind and morals: essays on cognitive science and ethics, 109-27. coleman, j. s. (1974). inequality, sociology, and moral philosophy. american journal of sociology, 80(3), 739-764. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/225859?journalcode=ajs daulay, h. p (2014). pendidikan islam dalam sistem pendidikan nasional di indonesia. kencana. dewantara, k. h. (1977). bagian pertama pendidikan. yogyakarta: per-cetakan taman siswa. djojonegoro, w. (1996). lima puluh tahun perkembangan pendidikan indonesia. departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. durkheim, e. (2012). moral education. courier corporation. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 callan, e. (1992). tradition and integrity in moral education. american journal of education, 101(1), 1-28. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/444030 etzioni, a. (1996). new golden rule (pp. xix-15). harpercollins publishers. flanagan, o. j., rorty, a. o., & rorty, a. (eds.). (1993). identity, character, and morality: essays in moral psychology. mit press. folsom, j. k. (1918). the social psychology of morality and its bearing on moral education. american journal of sociology, 23(4), 433-490. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2763509.pdf fraenkel, j. r. (1977). how to teach about values: an analytic approach. prentice hall. hakam, k. a. (2000). pendidikan nilai. bandung: cv maulana. hakam, k. a. (2018). model of learning cognitive moral development in elementary school. international e-journal of advances in education, 4(10), 6-14. https://doi.org/10.18768/ijaedu.415391 halpern, c. (2017). book review: in search of understanding: the case for constructivist classrooms (2nd ed.). american journal of qualitative research, 1(1), 32-36. halstead, m., & bacon, m. (2006). citizenship and moral education: values in action. routledge. himmelfarb, g. (2001). one nation, two cultures. vintage. hemelt, t. m. (1929). final moral values in sociology. washington: the sulpician seminary press king, d. y. (2003). half-hearted reform: electoral institutions and the struggle for democracy in indonesia. greenwood publishing group. kohlberg, l. (1976). moral stages and moralization: the cognitive-development approach. moral development and behavior: theory research and social issues, 31-53. lickona, t. (2012). educating for character: mendidik untuk membentuk karakter. jakarta: bumi aksara. mackenzie, j. s. (1909). moral education: the task of the teacher. the international journal of ethics, 19(4), 399-418. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2377012.pdf mardiatmadja. 1986. hubungan nilai dengan kebaikan. jakarta: sinar harapan. martin, g. h. (1912). school activities for moral development. religious education, 6(6), 503510. https://doi.org/10.18768/ijaedu.415391 hakam miller, c. b. (2014). character and moral psychology. oup oxford. neumann, h. (1923). education for moral growth. d. appleton. nucci, l., krettenauer, t., & narváez, d. (eds.). (2014). handbook of moral and character education. routledge. piaget, j. (2005). the psychology of intelligence. routledge. piaget, j. (1962). the moral judgment of the child. new york: collier. proios, m., & proios, i. (2017). the influence of religiosity on moral judgment in sport. social sciences, 6(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6010005 purpel, d., & ryan, k. (1976). moral education... it comes with the territory. california: mccutchan publishing corp. putnam, r. (2013). the prosperous community: social capital and public life. the american prospect, 13. ramage, d. e. (1995). politics in indonesia. democracy, islam and the ideology of tolerance. london. garcía-ramírez, e. (2018). towards cognitive moral quasi-realism. philosophies, 3(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies3010005 raths, l. e., harmin, m., & simon, s. b. (1978). values and teaching: working with values in the classroom. merrill pub co. rawls, j. (2001). justice as fairness: a restatement. harvard university press. renier, g. j. (1997). history its purpose and method (terjemahan muin umar). yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. rest, j. r. (1979). revised manual for the defining issues test: an objective test of moral judgment development. minnesota moral research projects. ritzer, g., & goodman, d. j. (2004). agency-structure integration. sociological theory, 508537. sastrapratedja, m. (1993). pendidikan nilai memasuki tahun 2000. jakarta: gramedia widiasarana indonesia. schwartz, e. (2001). three stages of a school's moral development. religious education, 96(1), 106-118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344080119265 https://doi.org/10.1080/00344080119265 journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 295-318 schönpflug, u. (2001). intergenerational transmission of values: the role of transmission belts. journal of cross-cultural psychology, 32(2), 174-185. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022101032002005 killen, m., smetana, j. g., & smetana, j. (2006). thought, emotions, and social interactional processes in moral development. in handbook of moral development (pp. 25-54). psychology press. webber, d. (2006). a consolidated patrimonial democracy? democratization in post-suharto indonesia. democratization, 13(3), 396-420. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510340600579284 winataputra, u. s. (2001). jatidiri pendidikan kewarganegaraan sebagai wahana sistemik pendidikan demokrasi (suatu kajian konseptual dalam konteks pendidikan ips) (doctoral dissertation, universitas pendidikan indonesia). http://repository.ut.ac.id/2872/1/40115.pdf wynne, e. (ed.). (1982). character policy: an emerging issue. university press of america. wynne, e., & ryan, k. (1993). reclaiming our schools: a handbook on teaching character, academics, and discipline. simon & schuster children's publishing. yigit, m. (2017). value priorities of public and private university students. research in social sciences and technology, 2(1). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/38 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0022022101032002005 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (2), 1-25 higher education institutions and development: missions, models, and challenges daniela olo1, leonida correia2, & conceição rego3 abstract interest in higher education institutions (heis) as instruments for development has increased in recent years. the main objective of this paper is to address the contribution of heis to development through their missions, models, and challenges. with this purpose, we perform a historical analysis and characterise higher-education systems through the perspective of university models and missions, noticing relevant aspects regarding the evolution of this institution over time, as well as the transformations undergone. we also consider the main challenges that current higher education systems face in the 21st century. as methodological approaches, we carry out a literature review complemented by a comparative analysis based on data from the higher education systems of ten european countries. the findings show that heis can contribute to development through their missions, which are related to the models of higher education. their first mission (teaching) contributes to improving human capital and attracting highly qualified people to their regions; the second mission (research) improves scientific knowledge which can foster innovative activities; and the third mission (community service) acts as a link between research and business, including patents, business incubators, and collaboration agreements. we also conclude that the challenges of higher education in the 21st century can be categorised essentially in three main areas: (1) globalisation and massification of higher education, as well as the internationalisation of heis’ missions and diversification of the educational supply to attract new students; (2) new technologies related to the digitalisation of teaching and distance learning; and (3) higher education entrepreneurship, showing the importance of university-company relationships. this paper provides a global setting for a reflection on the role of heis in the 21st century, given their connection with society and the need for a more effective contribution to socio-economic development. key words: development, higher education systems, knowledge introduction interest in heis as instruments for development has increased since the mid-1980s, influenced by phenomena such as the globalisation of trade and the growth of intensive knowledge production (drucker, 2016; drucker & goldstein, 2007; rinaldi et al., 2018). these challenges coupled with government interference and financial constraints (van coller, 2016) have contributed to introducing this subject in the current debate, receiving great attention from researchers as well as 1 dr., universidade de trás-os-montes e alto douro, cetrad, danielaolo@utad.pt 2 prof. dr., universidade de trás-os-montes e alto douro, cetrad, lcorreia@utad.pt 3 prof. dr., universidade de évora, cefage, mcpr@uevora.pt mailto:lcorreia@utad.pt journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 from governments, regional development agencies, and funding agencies through national, regional and institutional policies aimed at strengthening development (fongwa & wangengeouma, 2015). the impact of heis on regions’ economic well-being and innovative potential has also been subject to intense scholarly and policy interest (uyarra, 2010). heis in the 21st century are being called upon to reflect on their current position in society, leading to substantial transformations, both in their structure and organisation and in redefining their social purposes (osborne, 2013), balancing academic tradition with social change (scott, 2006). many countries have responded positively to this challenge through a social transformation process, with an emphasis on higher education development, research, and innovative capacities (azman et al., 2014). nowadays, it is widely recognised that heis are agents for promoting knowledge and transmitting growth impulses to the economic and social context through their teaching, research, and public service missions. however, the present and future of higher education cannot be understood without understanding its past (byrd, 2001). knowing what social roles were attributed to it and seeing how it adapted to economic, political, technological, social, cultural, and religious changes throughout its history reveals the causes of the transformations in the university mission over the centuries, as well as its contribution to socio-economic development in each era (scott, 2006). in this context, the present study seeks to answer the following research question: how are heis contributing to development through the missions, models, and challenges of higher education systems? to answer the research question, namely to study the effects of heis missions on development, on the one hand, and the performance of higher education systems concerning current challenges on the other, we carry out a literature review involving a historical analysis, as well as a comparative analysis based on data from the higher education systems of ten european countries. following the literature about higher education models, the countries selected for this study are france, spain, portugal, italy, germany, austria, the netherlands, norway, finland, and the uk. to reach a comprehensive framework, we have considered a set of variables based on the most recent data, which allow us to associate heis missions and challenges with development. to carry out this analysis we start from the concept of ‘development’ presented by de seers (1969) and sen (1999), which can be understood as society’s ability to meet the needs of its population, allowing it to achieve an adequate level of well-being, people’s access to goods, services, and olo et al. 3 opportunities, which enable them to meet their basic needs, including employment and training, in addition to other goods and essential services such as basic health care, better working conditions, food, and housing. in this way, it appears that the concept of development is multidimensional and presupposes improvements, at both the economic and social level, for all members of society (nafziger, 2007). one way (perhaps the main one) to measure development is through the human development index (hdi). all ten european countries analysed belong to the group with very high human development, with only small differences. however, some differences are highlighted in the hdi rank, based on the different living conditions in each country. statistics for 2017 show that countries in northern europe (norway, finland, and the united kingdom) and central europe (france, netherlands, austria, and germany) had a higher gross domestic product (gdp) per capita4, above eu-28 indices, while countries in mediterranean europe (italy, spain, and portugal) had lower indices. this is in line with the hdi ranking5, since the countries of northern and central europe also occupy higher positions than those in mediterranean europe. inequalities between different regions of the european union (eu) can be associated with a variety of factors, including changes introduced by globalisation, the legacy of former economic systems, previous socio-economic development, geographic remoteness, and the availability of resources, including skilled human resources. these are revealed, for example, in the form of social deprivation, poor-quality housing, weak healthcare, and education or higher unemployment (eurostat, 2018). because balanced territorial development is a precondition for a state’s efficient performance, reducing differences in regional development is the correct way to achieve a higher level of global development (živanović & gatarić, 2017). the europe 2020 strategy aims to create more employment and ensure better living conditions. it is therefore necessary to improve the quality of education, strengthen research performance, promote innovation, and transfer knowledge throughout the union (european commission, 2010). 4source: statistics explained (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/) 5source: undp, 2018 (http://hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update) http://hdr.undp.org/en/2018-update journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 the evolution of heis’ missions and the university models a historical analysis is made of heis’ missions to understand their contribution to development over time. to analyse their current effects on development, some indicators are considered. the birth of the university and its first mission: teaching the institution that would be known as ‘university’ was born in the middle ages (caddick, 2008), although there were already older forms of advanced organised studies in the roman and byzantium empires, islam, and china (rüegg, 1996). according to donnelly (2002), rüegg (1996), and weik (2014), the medieval university meant a community, corporation or union of scholars with responsibility for higher education. according to these authors, this institution’s mission was to search for divine truth and learning, so neither research nor community service was seen as a formal mission. the emphasis was thus on teaching, that is, on the dissemination of knowledge and culture (shanwei, 2017). the medieval university made an important contribution to the institutionalisation of higher education. by gathering, creating, and disseminating knowledge, medieval universities marked the beginning of an intellectual revolution that would shape european society in the next millennium, by establishing the foundations of education (caddick, 2008). in fact, it is now widely recognised that education and training are key factors for the development of any country, contributing to accelerated economic growth (hanushek, 2013). when investing in education, individuals are expected to be equipped with a range of skills to improve their position in the labour market, as well as their income, notably through higher salaries associated with higher education (bowen & qian, 2017). heis are central players in promoting regional economic development, as they can promote human capital improvement through university graduates and attract highly qualified people to the region. the qualification of employees is the main predictor of regional productivity growth (pink-harper, 2015). olo et al. 5 n.d. – no data source: eurostat | unesco-uis | ocde | national entities| pordata in accordance with pink-harper (2015), the data presented in table 1 show that heis contribute to development by improving human capital through university graduates. the percentage of graduates in the population between 25 and 64 years old, in 2017, was higher in countries with higher gdp, such as finland, norway, and the uk, while italy and portugal presented the lowest figures. germany appears as an exception because this is a country with a high gdp per capita, one of the best in terms of hdi, but had a low percentage of graduates. germany’s economic growth and development could be associated with factors other than human capital (understood here as being associated with higher education graduates). according to data from eurostat6, tertiary education increases employment opportunities. the highest employment rates, in 2017, were recorded for those with tertiary education, while those with an upper-secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary education had lower employment rates. in 2017, all the countries analysed had a significant employment rate among recent graduates. however, in countries in mediterranean europe, such as spain and italy, the graduate employment rate is lower than in germany, norway, and the netherlands. of course, differences in terms of 6source : statistics explained (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/) table 1 qualification of population and employment, 2000 and 2017 graduates as a percentage of the population between 25 and 64 years old employment rates of recent graduates population, between 30 and 34 years, with higher education (isced 5-8) country 2000 (%) 2017 (%) growth rate 2000-2017 (%) 2000 (%) 2017 (%) growth rate 2000-2017 (%) 2000 (%) 2017 (%) growth rate 2000-2017 (%) france 21.6 35.2 63.0 78.7 82.9 5.3 27.4 44.3 61.7 spain 22.7 36.4 60.4 75.1 79.4 5.7 29.2 41.2 41.1 portugal 8.8 24.0 172.7 89.9 83.5 -7.1 11.1 33.5 201.8 italy 9.7 18.7 92.8 81.0 78.2 -3.5 11.6 26.9 131.9 germany 23.8 28.6 20.2 83.0 88.1 6.1 25.7 34.0 32.3 austria n.d. 32.4 n.d. 85.8 84.6 -1.4 n.d. 40.8 n.d. netherlands 24.0 37.2 55.0 86.2 87.8 1.9 26.5 47.9 80.8 norway 31.6 43.2 36.7 87.5 87.8 0.3 37.3 49.0 31.4 finland 32.3 43.7 35.3 84.0 84.4 0.5 40.3 44.6 10.7 uk 28.5 42.8 50.2 87.4 85.0 -2.7 29.0 48.3 66.6 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 employment rates depend on the structures and dynamics of the various economies. a high level of employment among graduates could be an incentive, encouraging the population to attend higher education. portugal, for example, with a high employment rate of recent graduates, is one of the least developed countries analysed, with a lower percentage of graduates in 2017, but with a great graduate growth rate between 2000 and 2017, the only country with a growth rate above 100%. also considering the population aged between 30 and 34 with higher education and taking into account that one of the objectives of the europe 2020 strategy for education is to increase to at least 40% the percentage of people in this age group who concluded higher studies, we can observe that countries in northern and central europe, with the exception of germany, had already reached this goal in 2017. southern european countries require further efforts to achieve this. the first university reform and its second mission: research during the renaissance, universities became institutions belonging to the state. a university reform emerged in order to ensure institutional autonomy and freedom from religious and political principles (moncada, 2008). in the nineteenth century, two classic models were born: the napoleonic model, which aimed to prepare professionals for the public sector, and the humboldtian model, aiming to promote research and respect for academic freedom (lacatus, 2013; moncada, 2008). the university devised by napoleon bonaparte, initially implemented in france and subsequently adopted by other mediterranean countries such as spain, portugal (dobbins et al., 2011), and italy (kickert, 2007), was a public service, aimed at training professionals and the development of technologies, to create better and more prepared public employees. this institution may have been the precursor of contemporary polytechnic higher education (lacatus, 2013; moulinier, 2017). the humboldtian model arose with the creation of the university of berlin, based on the von humboldt brothers’ report, in 1810, and on the premise that the basis of truth for teaching in colleges should be scientific research (bertilsson, 1992; brunner, 2014; yefimov, 2017). this initially appeared in germany and was subsequently extended to austria, central europe (dobbins et al., 2011), the netherlands, norway, and finland (sam & van der sijde, 2014). in the humboldtian university model, education and research were interconnected (harland, 2016; robertson & bond, 2005). this model advocated academic freedom, as knowledge needed a field olo et al. 7 of freedom because otherwise it would not be possible to make science. the humboldtian reform meant universities could be involved in producing science, since at that time, in many countries, the production of systematic knowledge was happening outside the universities (moncada, 2008). differently from the previous models, a third classic model was born at the same time – the anglosaxon model – of british origin (dobbins et al., 2011), which emerged in the nineteenth century at oxford and cambridge universities (lacatus, 2013). this model has the basic feature of personality development through ‘liberal education’, concentrating on developing a person’s personality or character, rather than technical knowledge, vocational skills, and preparing students for a specific profession after graduation (sam & van der sijde, 2014). nowadays, scientific research, alongside education, is an important element of economic and social development. at the highest levels of knowledge, research and education are inseparable and mutually reinforcing (adshead & quillinan, 2017). a country’s level of development is strongly related to the levels of education and research (r&d) it provides. in other words, developed countries usually present a higher level of education or spend relatively more on education and research. conversely, any weakness in this area represents an obstacle to development (cinnirella & streb, 2017). scientific research results in knowledge, which can foster innovative activities in companies or create knowledge spillovers within the regional environment, leading to an improvement in territorial economies (culkin, 2016). heis’ research mission can contribute to development through public expenditure on higher education and r&d expenditure in the higher education sector. according to sarrico et al. (2017), the expansion of higher education inevitably implies substantial investment in this level of education. however, spending varies greatly between countries, and the relationship between countries’ relative wealth and their level of expenditure also varies. r&d activities can account for a significant proportion of expenditure on higher education. table 2 shows the figures for public expenditure on higher education for the ten selected countries. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 n.d. – no data source: eurostat | unesco-uis | ocde | national entities| pordata central european countries, such as france, germany, and the united kingdom, had the highest expenditure on higher education in 2015. the united kingdom stands out with a growth rate of up to 300%. in absolute terms, these countries also have higher expenditure on r&d in the higher education sector. this is in line with cinnirella and streb (2017), as these countries also have a higher gdp per capita within the group of countries studied. they are also the three countries where the classical european models were born: napoleonic, humboldtian, and anglo-saxon, respectively. southern european countries such as portugal, spain, and italy are the least developed and also those with lower expenditure on higher education and r&d in the higher education sector. although they have a worse performance than northern and central european countries, it is interesting to highlight the cases of portugal and spain, which had significant growth rates − above 100% in these variables − in the period from 2000 to 2015, which reflects their effort to make improvements. this determination to increase public investment in higher education over time has consequences, both in increasing the number of graduates (contributing to development through increased human capital) and in growing investment in r&d. table 2 public expenditure on higher education, 2000 and 2015 public expenditure on higher education r&d expenditure in higher education sector country 2000 (pps-million) 2015 (pps-million) growth rate 2000-2015 (%) 2000 (pps-million) 2015 (pps-million) growth rate 2000-2015(%) france 16 254.2 31 117.4 91.4 5 466.0 9 207.8 68.5 spain 6 952.2 15 712.1 126.0 2 005.8 4 143.2 106.6 portugal 1 493.3 3 042.2 103.7 460.5 1 301.4 182.6 italy 10 266.7 15 959.4 55.4 4 204.9 5 803.3 38.0 germany 19 973.6 38 180.1 91.2 7 566.5 14 809.6 95.7 austria 2 577.3 5 688.3 120.7 n.d. 2 313.0 n.d. netherlands 5 646.3 11 386.6 101.7 2 541.1 4 069.4 60.1 norway 2 357.9 n.d. n.d. n.d. 1 442.6 n.d. finland 2 316.3 3 003.9 29.7 702.7 1 222.1 73.9 uk 10 050.0 40 271.1 300.7 4 536.0 8 685.8 91.5 olo et al. 9 it is interesting to highlight that more developed countries, such as finland, austria, and the netherlands, presented, in absolute terms, low expenditure on higher education and r&d, but when comparing this investment in proportion to each country’s gdp7, the percentage is higher in these countries than, for example, in spain or italy. the second university reform and its third mission: community service the contemporary university has faced different requests, bringing the need for further reform in order to rethink and redefine its role in search of a ‘model’ that takes into account its missions, as well as the expectations of society. this leads to the idea of a third mission (rinaldi et al., 2018). together with teaching (first mission) and research (second mission), the concept of the third mission was suggested to identify interactions between universities and society to contribute to socio-economic development (rinaldi et al., 2018). today, universities are involved in increasingly diverse tasks that go beyond teaching and research, including community service, cooperation with industry, technology transfer, and the creation of new companies. in this way, they try to achieve major interaction with society by building a link between research and business, including patents, business incubators, and collaboration agreements (kesting et al., 2018), licensing, and spin-out training based on the results of continuous professional research and development (sam & van der sijde, 2014). as higher education is increasingly associated with social evolution, and in particular, with the economy, r&d activities in universities can no longer be regarded as purely academic but should also be seen as strongly related to the business environment and society (miller et al., 2016). this context promoted the emergence of a new model of higher education – the anglo-american model – which arose in the united states of america, although originally derived from european models and later imported back into europe (sam & van der sijde, 2014). this can be referred to as a ‘hybrid model’, integrating elements of all three european models, but with its own unique features, such as market orientation. one way of analysing the community service mission’s contribution to development is through patent requests by the higher education sector (table 3). 7source: https://www.pordata.pt/europa/produto+interno+bruto+(pps)-1531 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 table 3 patent requests by the higher-education sector, 2000 and 2012 patent requests to the european patent organisation (epo) by the higher education sector country 2000 (n.º) 2012 (n.º) variation 2000-2012 (n.º) growth rate 2000-2012 (%) france 53.0 41.2 -11.8 -22.3 spain 23.7 18.6 -5.1 -21.5 portugal 1.5 1.3 -0.2 -13.3 italy 36.6 13.5 -23.1 -63.1 germany 78.4 176.0 97.6 124.5 austria 1.2 23.7 22.5 1 875.0 netherlands 78.0 24.6 -53.4 -68.5 norway 0.9 0.2 -0.7 -77.8 finland 4.3 0.5 -3.8 -88.4 uk 260.7 7.2 -253.5 -97.2 source: eurostat | unesco-uis | ocde | national entities| pordata the europe 2020 strategy set a target in relation to r&d intensity, namely that expenditure on r&d should be equivalent to at least 3% of the eu28’s gdp. the innovation union scoreboard tracks a broad range of innovation indicators, including educational standards, r&d expenditure, patent production, and business innovation (eurostat, 2018). germany has a good performance in the university−industry relationship, shown by the highest number of patent requests to the european patent organisation (epo) by the higher-education sector. other central european countries also present a significant number of patent requests, albeit lower than germany’s, such as france, the netherlands, and austria. southern european countries, such as portugal, italy, and spain, have a lower performance, but still higher than those of the nordic countries of norway and finland. except for austria and germany, all countries show a decrease in patents requested from 2000 to 2012. this negative behaviour could be associated with several causes, partly resulting from the 2008-2011 crisis, but it is not a good indicator of these countries’ development. a current view of the main challenges for higher education systems a general framework was formed with the purpose of understanding the environment in which all heis are currently working, i.e., the main challenges and potential tensions they face in the 21st olo et al. 11 century. statistical evidence related to these challenges is analysed through related performance indicators for higher education systems. entrepreneurship of higher education the 1980s brought neo-liberal transformation with the ideology of free markets and the idea that reduced state funding could be compensated for by creation of the university market (amirault, 2012). clark (1998) suggests that all universities should adapt and become more entrepreneurial, meaning that universities should become more financially independent. thus, universities are encouraged to act entrepreneurially, finding new sources of income through their activities. in fact, now, universities have to do more with less. the underlying, fundamental idea is the need for greater organisational and financial autonomy, better quality, improved strategic vision, more connection to society, and greater entrepreneurial dynamism, making teaching a commercial product like any other (hassan, 2017). in this context, the entrepreneurial university, as a multidimensional institution, has direct mechanisms to support the transfer of technology from academia to industry (etzkowitz et al., 2021; kesting et al., 2018). it is a promoter of regional economic and social development, mainly because it generates knowledge spillovers as business opportunities (culkin, 2016), as described by the triple helix model (etzkowitz & leydesdorff, 2000). the first reference to the concept of the ‘entrepreneurial university’ appears in etzkowitz (1983), where the university, once viewed by companies as a source of training, came to be seen as a factor of production, with the transfer of research to companies, allowing the creation of value at a lower cost than if it were done internally in the company itself. on the other hand, universities receive income from the companies they help with continuing research. this new way of thinking and acting by universities contributed to opening the doors to society, as well as to diversifying their sources of revenue, making them more independent of state funding (etzkowitz & klofsten, 2005). this challenge is related to the third mission, showing the importance of the university−industry relationship, marked by growing entrepreneurship in higher education, in order to provide a better service to the community, from the perspective of social entrepreneurship (roslan et al., 2020). there are several ways to analyse this relationship, including cooperation with industry, technology transfer, and the creation of new companies, patents, business incubators and collaboration agreements, licensing, and spin-out training, which are based on the results of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 continuous professional research and development. when analysing patent applications at the higher education level, this university−industry relationship appears to be more visible in central european countries, notably germany. this is one of the analysed countries with higher expenditure on higher education, which is reflected in the high expenditure on r&d, as stated before. in turn, this becomes a spillover of knowledge, with the transfer of technology to society reflected in a larger number of patent requests. globalisation and emergence of mass higher education the challenges faced by higher education in the new millennium cannot be understood without considering the phenomenon of globalisation. in this context, the university is challenged to incorporate modernity and to transcend its spatial borders more actively (scott, 2000). thus, the postmodern university tends to internationalise its teaching, research, and community service missions in the global “information age” (scott, 2006). internationalisation strategies contribute to the development of individuals, institutions, nations, and the world in general, bringing various benefits. their supporters see them as an opportunity to expand and diversify the education supply and the ways of transmitting it. this opportunity translates into increased mobility of students, teachers and programmes (bound et al., 2021; knight, 2013), such as the erasmus + programme. the globalisation of higher education is reflected in an increasing number of foreign students enrolled in higher education in the countries under review, particularly in germany, france, and the netherlands (table 4). another phenomenon observed, from the 1960s, was the emergence of mass higher education. the university was no longer considered an elite institution, open only to a minority of high-class students, and became open to all kinds of people (geuna, 1998; trow, 2000). sarrico et al. (2017) pointed out that higher education grew quickly from an elite to a mass system. due to the phenomenon of mass education, current students represent great diversity in terms of age, socioeconomic status, gender, and ethnicity. today’s higher-education students include older people returning to college and a growing number of individuals from diverse backgrounds, as well as a higher number of women. therefore, heis have to deal with a more diverse population, shown by a new generation of multicultural students, promoted by mobility in the context of globalisation and the dominance of new technologies. these students’ expectations in relation to higher education, teaching, and learning in the classroom are different from those of traditional students, olo et al. 13 so the heis of the twenty-first century should define strategies for teaching, research, and service to the community, in order to respond to these challenges (varnava-marouchou, 2004). table 4 foreign students enrolled in higher education, 2000 and 2012 foreign students enrolled in higher education country 2000 (n.º) 2012 (n.º) growth rate 2000-2012 (%) france 137 085 271 399 98.0 spain 25 502 97 825 283.6 portugal 11 177 28 656 156.4 italy 24 929 n.d. n.d. germany 187 033 296 989 58.8 austria 30 382 76 680 152.4 netherlands 14 012 168 520 1 102.7 norway 8 699 18 454 112.1 finland 5 570 17 636 216.6 uk 222 936 n.d. n.d. n.d. – no data source: eurostat | unesco-uis | ocde | national entities| pordata participation in higher education by people of active age (from 25 to 64 years) has increased over time generally in the countries under review, as shown in table 5. this variable is also related to another challenge − lifelong learning − implying that people of active age need to return to the education system to acquire new skills required by their employers. in all the countries analysed, it is young people (25−34 years) who attend higher education the most. with the exception of germany, women are the majority in higher education (table 5). in almost all oecd and partner countries, the proportion of younger adults (25−34 years) with tertiary qualifications is larger than that of older adults (55−64 years). in oecd countries on average, 54% of new entrants into tertiary education are women, and 82% are under the age of 25. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 table 5 higher education by sex and age, 2000 and 2016 students enrolled in tertiary education by sex population with higher education as a percentage of the population between 25 and 64 years old country males females 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 2000 (%) 2016 (%) 2000 (%) 2016 (%) 2000 (%) 2016 (%) 2000 (%) 2016 (%) 2000 (%) 2016 (%) 2000 (%) 2016 (%) france 45.8 45.6 54.2 54.4 31.4 44.0 21.1 43.5 18.0 29.3 12.9 22.1 spain 47.1 46.7 52.9 53.3 33.9 41.0 24.3 44.1 16.0 32.6 9.8 23.2 portugal 43.5 46.9 56.5 53.1 12.8 35.0 9.2 30.5 7.0 18.0 4.7 13.2 italy 44.5 44.0 55.5 56.0 10.6 25.6 11.0 20.5 10.1 14.0 6.0 12.4 germany 51.9 51.8 48.1 48.2 22.4 30.5 26.6 29.8 25.4 27.1 20.5 26.3 austria 49.0 47.0 51.0 53.0 n.d. 39.7 n.d. 35.1 n.d. 28.0 n.d. 22.9 netherlands 50.0 48.1 50.0 51.9 26.9 45.2 25.3 40.9 23.1 31.9 18.7 27.4 norway 41.6 41.8 58.4 58.2 38.6 49.2 32.6 48.8 29.6 40.4 21.9 33.0 finland 46.3 46.7 53.7 53.3 37.8 40.7 37.0 50.4 29.6 45.1 23.3 36.9 uk 46.1 43.6 53.9 56.4 31.5 47.2 29.2 48.1 28.2 39.2 21.9 34.3 n.d. – no data source: eurostat | unesco-uis | ocde | national entities| porda new technologies and higher education given that in the 21st century most countries’ economies are based on knowledge, information and communication technology (ict) is another significant challenge to consider (andresen, 2006; cabezas-gonzález et al., 2021; fernández-prados & lozano-díaz, 2021; sukmayadi & yahya, 2020). according to data from eurostat8, there will be increased demand for highly skilled people. driven by digital technology, jobs are becoming both more flexible and complex. this has resulted in a growing number of employers looking for employees who are able to manage complex information, think autonomously, be creative, use resources in a smart, efficient manner, and communicate effectively. the evolution to a knowledge society has become a challenge not only for science but also for education. traditional universities and colleges must address these changes to remain competitive 8 source: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/tertiary_education_statistics olo et al. 15 (etherington, 2019; solas & sutton, 2018). indeed, information technology is a new opportunity as it provides different approaches to the dissemination and application of knowledge. the mechanisms to obtain and translate knowledge are now conditioned by the digitalisation of education and the fourth industrial revolution. currently, the majority of european institutions offer combined online learning courses. less frequent, but also on the rise, are other forms of provision, such as joint inter-institutional collaborations and online undergraduate courses. the massive open online courses are also of major interest in european universities (gapsalamov et al., 2020). since 2020, in heis, many of the constraints to mobility related to the covid 19 pandemic have been partially overcome by incorporating digital tools into he activities that traditionally only worked on a face-to-face basis. higher education is becoming more accessible, with a tendency to move away from buildings and campuses (byrd, 2001). distance learning (e-learning systems) and the leaders of educational technology are in an excellent position to leverage this change and improve higher education, promoting self-apprenticeship (amirault, 2012). ict has also facilitated the creation of a network society, contributing to greater collaboration inside institutions and among organisations, overcoming the limits of traditional forms of cooperation. the network society encourages heis to strengthen relationships with core stakeholders and engage in interactions with partners, including other universities and industry partners. discussion although the previous models do not show an explicit role for heis, they give some clues that allow them to be associated with the development process. improvements in the quality of education and research, as well as the promotion of innovation and knowledge transfer are essential issues for countries’ development, in which universities play a central role (azman et al., 2014). heis emerge as a knowledge spillover channel through their missions and they transmit growth impulses to the economic and social context by training human resources, and through spreading knowledge, information and innovation. they are therefore key actors on which the new development process should be based (drucker & goldstein, 2007; goldstein & drucker, 2006; lendel & qian, 2017). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 the present study confirms this thesis, showing that heis have been central players in promoting development over time and answers the research question -, showing that heis have been influencing development through their three missions, which are related to the three classic models of higher education. table 6 synthesises this information theoretically, presenting the models of higher education that have emerged, their main characteristics and the higher education missions with which each one relates. additionally, table 6 shows the impacts of each mission (associated with higher education models) on development. summing up, the teaching mission promotes improved human capital, through university graduates and by attracting highly qualified people to the region. it influences, on the one hand, accelerated economic growth (hanushek, 2013), and on the other hand, a decrease in social inequalities (horowitz, 2018). the research mission enables improved scientific research that results in knowledge, often materialised in scientific publications, which can foster innovative activities in companies or create knowledge spillovers within the regional environment, leading to an improvement in regional economies. the community service mission identifies interactions between universities and society, including cooperation with industry, technology transfer, and the creation of new companies, patents, business incubators and collaboration agreements, licensing, and spin-out training based on the results of continuous professional research and development. in practical terms, based on analysis of the indicators, the study showed that countries in mediterranean europe (portugal, spain, and italy), with a lower gdp per capita, have lower public expenditure on higher education and therefore a smaller number of graduates, less expenditure on higher education r&d and a weak university−industry relationship, while countries in northern and central europe, with a higher gdp per capita, have better performance in these variables. olo et al. 17 table 6 higher education models, hei missions, basic characteristics and impacts on development heis model napoleonic model humboldtian model anglo-saxon model anglo-american model basic characteristics -high-level vocational training -professional education -centralised system of governance -vocational and technical training becoming crucial to prepare students for the rapidly changing labour markets -research-based learning -academic freedom, research and learning -centralised system of governance -research becoming a central area of study in modern higher education -personality development through liberal education -professionalism -institutional autonomy or self-governing institutions -soft skills being emphasised in modern higher education to enable students to act flexibly and intelligently in a changing and challenging environment -integrates all the basic features of the european models -decentralised system of governance -massification of higher education -research, technical training and professionalism being incorporated in contemporary higher education worldwide -entrepreneurialism model of higher education institutions becoming critical for the competitive academic marketplace heis mission teaching research + teaching teaching research + teaching + community service teaching mission research mission community service mission impacts on development its teaching mission allows the heis to contribute, through university graduates, to appreciation of regional human capital. that mission represents individuals’ level of knowledge, and has thus been used to measure the knowledge of both a country’s general population and its workforce. the research mission contributes to development through knowledge transfer. greater investment in higher education and r&d contributes to its further development. the community service mission contributes to the development of higher education through the university−industry and community service relationships, building a link between research and companies, including patents, business incubators and collaboration agreements, among others. source: own elaboration although the mediterranean countries have some weaknesses, it is interesting to highlight that they have shown a greater effort to improve, with higher growth rates, both in public expenditure in higher education and in the number of graduates, as well as in expenditure on r&d. this behaviour puts them on the right path, helping them to achieve the goals of the europe 2020 strategy. the country with the highest proportion of students attending higher education9 is germany, followed by france, and the uk, which are coincidentally the countries where the three 9 source: https://www.pordata.pt/db/europa/ambiente+de+consulta/tabela journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 classical models of higher education (humboldtian, napoleonic, and anglo-saxon, respectively) originated. this reflects an improvement in the population’s qualifications in these countries, thus creating the conditions to promote economic competitiveness as well as global well-being. heis need to reflect on their position in society, to become more effective, efficient, and autonomous. they have to deal with challenges, such as the globalisation of higher education, which imply the adoption of internationalisation strategies for teaching and research that can attract foreign students, as well as the mobility of members from the academic and scientific community to acquire new knowledge and experiences, faced with competition from heis worldwide. this is reflected in an increasing number of foreign students enrolled in higher education in the countries analysed, particularly in germany, france, and the netherlands. the massification of higher education has also meant that it is open to an increasingly broad range of people, with different expectations, which heis must seek to meet fully, diversifying their offerings of educational levels and curricula to attract new students. a greater proportion of younger adults than older ones have tertiary qualifications in all the countries analysed, and women outnumber men in higher education. the technological potential of the 21st century related to the fourth industrial revolution, the network society, and the digitalisation of teaching also challenges higher education, which needs to reinvent itself and adjust to such changes to take full advantage of that potential. this challenge is being exacerbated in the current context of the coronavirus pandemic, where higher education has sought to exploit to the fullest extent the advantages of digital distance learning. furthermore, financial constraints lead to the need for heis to have a market orientation and to promote higher education entrepreneurship. analysing this factor through patent requests at the higher education level, it appears that a university−industry relationship is more visible in central european countries, notably germany. conclusion based on theoretical references, this paper considers how higher education systems are contributing to development through their missions, as well as how they have been responding to current challenges in the 21st century. a succinct characterisation of the higher education systems olo et al. 19 of ten selected countries has been performed, with data based on statistics, reports and other publications from official institutions. the study showed that the countries with best results in the indicators relating higher education to development are those with the highest gdp and with better development indices. therefore, the study concluded that one of the ways to promote development is through greater investment in higher education. this is important information for policy-makers and reinforces a correlation already well documented in the literature, as was evident in this study. in fact, heis contribute to development through their teaching, research, and community service missions. these, in turn, have been developed in response to the specific needs of societies and territories throughout the centuries. the particular features of heis in each era can be associated with different models of higher education. the study showed that higher education systems today seek to respond to several challenges according to various demands from society. therefore, university missions must be discussed and redefined to meet these challenges, namely the globalisation and massification of higher education, the digitalisation of teaching and distance learning, and higher education entrepreneurship. acknowledgements: this work was funded by national funds through the foundation for science and technology (fct), through the project uidb/soc/04011/2020 and the project uidb/04007/2020. references adshead, m., & quillinan, b. (2017). having it all? transferring community-oriented research principles to teaching and learning to develop better university engagement. educational action research, 25(1), 35-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2015.1124044 amirault, r. j. (2012). distance learning in the 21st century university: key issues for leaders and faculty. quarterly review of distance education, 13(4), 253. andresen, b. b. (2006). impact of lifelong e-learning. in kumar d., turner j. (eds), education for the 21st century impact of ict and digital resources. ifip international federation for information processing (vol. 210, pp. 1-6). ma: springer. https://doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2015.1124044 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 azman, n., sirat, m., & ahmad, a. r. (2014). higher education, learning regions and the malaysian transformation policies. higher education policy, 27(3), 301-321. https://doi.org/10.1057/hep.2013.26 bertilsson, m. (1992). from university to comprehensive higher education: on the widening gap between ‘lehre und leben’. higher education, 24(3), 333-349. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00128450 bound, j., braga, b., khanna, g., & turner, s. (2021). the globalization of postsecondary education: the role of international students in the us higher education system. journal of economic perspectives, 35(1), 163-84. https://doi.org/ 10.1257/jep.35.1.163 bowen, w. m., & qian, h. (2017). state spending for higher education: does it improve economic performance? regional science policy & practice, 9(1), 7-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12086 brunner, j. (2014). the latin-american idea of the public university: narratives in divergent scenarios. educacion xx1, 17(2), 17-34. byrd, m. d. (2001). back to the future for higher education: medieval universities. the internet and higher education, 4(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1096-7516(01)00044-6 cabezas-gonzález, m., casillas-martín, s., & garcía-peñalvo, f. j. (2021). the digital competence of pre-service educators: the influence of personal variables. sustainability, 13(4), 2318. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042318 caddick, s. (2008). back to bologna: the long road to european higher education reform. embo reports, 9(1), 18-21. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.7401149 cinnirella, f., & streb, j. (2017). the role of human capital and innovation in economic development: evidence from post-malthusian prussia. journal of economic growth, 22(2), 193-227. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10887-017-9141-3 clark, b. r. (1998). creating entrepreneurial universities: organizational pathways of transformation. oxford: pergamon for ieu press. culkin, n. (2016). entrepreneurial universities in the region: the force awakens? international journal of entrepreneurial behaviour & research, 22(1), 4-16. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijebr-12-2015-0310 dobbins, m., knill, c., & vögtle, e. m. (2011). an analytical framework for the cross-country comparison of higher education governance. higher education, 62(5), 665-683. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10734-011-9412-4 donnelly, m. (2002). medieval u. christian history, 21(1), 19-22. https://doi.org/10.1057/hep.2013.26 https://doi.org/10.1111/rsp3.12086 olo et al. 21 drucker, j. (2016). reconsidering the regional economic development impacts of higher education institutions in the united states. regional studies, 50(7), 1185-1202. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2014.986083 drucker, j., & goldstein, h. (2007). assessing the regional economic development impacts of universities: a review of current approaches. international regional science review, 30(1), 20-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/0160017606296731 etherington, m. (2019). the challenge with educational transformation. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 96-112. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/210577/ etzkowitz, h. (1983). entrepreneurial scientists and entrepreneurial universities in american academic science. minerva, 21(2-3), 198-233. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/bf01097964.pdf etzkowitz, h., dzisah, j., & clouser, m. (2021). shaping the entrepreneurial university: two experiments and a proposal for innovation in higher education. industry and higher education, 0950422221993421. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950422221993421 etzkowitz, h., & klofsten, m. (2005). the innovating region: toward a theory of knowledge based regional development. r&d management, 35(3), 243-255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14679310.2005.00387.x etzkowitz, h., & leydesdorff, l. (2000). the dynamics of innovation: from national systems and “mode 2” to a triple helix of university–industry–government relations. research policy, 29(2), 109-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0048-7333(99)00055-4 european comission (2010). communication from the commission to the european parliament, the council, the european economic and social committee and the committee of the regions. europe 2020. eurostat (2018). eurostat regional yearbook 2018 edition. luxembourg: publications office of the european union. fernández-prados, j. s., & lozano-díaz, a. (2021). el reto de la ciudadanía digital activa en la educación superior europea: análisis del ciberactivismo entre los estudiantes universitarios. edmetic, 10(1), 118-134. https://doi.org/10.21071/edmetic.v10i1.12799 fongwa, s. n., & wangenge-ouma, g. (2015). university as regional development agent: a counterfactual analysis of an african university. africa education review, 12(4), 533– 551. https://doi.org/10.1080/1814 6627.2015.1112131 gapsalamov, a., bochkareva, t., vasilev, v., akhmetshin, e., & anisimova, t. (2020). comparative analysis of education quality and the level of competitiveness of leader countries under digitalization conditions. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 133-150. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/217549/ journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 geuna, a. (1998). the internationalisation of european universities: a return to medieval roots. minerva, 36(3), 253-270. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1023/a:1004391922122.pdf goldstein, h., & drucker, j. (2006). the economic development impacts of universities on regions: do size and distance matter?. economic development quarterly, 20(1), 22-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891242405283387 hanushek, e. a. (2013). economic growth in developing countries: the role of human capital. economics of education review, 37, 204-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2013.04.005 harland, t. (2016). teaching to enhance research. higher education research & development, 35(3), 461-472. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2015.1107876 hassan, r. (2017). the worldly space: the digital university in network time. british journal of sociology of education, 38(1), 72-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2016.1234364 horowitz, j. (2018). relative education and the advantage of a college degree. american sociological review, 83(4), 771-801. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/fnqv7 kesting, t., gerstlberger, w., & baaken, t. (2018). a benefit segmentation approach for innovation-oriented university-business collaboration. international journal of technology management, 76(1-2), 58-80. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijtm.2018.088702 kickert, w. (2007). public management reforms in countries with a napoleonic state model: france, italy and spain. in pollitt c., van thiel s., homburg v. (eds), new public management in europe (pp. 26-51). london: palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230625365_3 knight, j. (2013). the changing landscape of higher education internationalisation–for better or worse? perspectives: policy and practice in higher education, 17(3), 84-90. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603108.2012.753957 lacatus, m. l. (2013). organizational culture in contemporary university. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 76, 421-425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.139 lendel, i., & qian, h. (2017). inside the great recession: university products and regional economic development. growth and change, 48(1), 153-173. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12151 miller, k., mcadam, r., moffett, s., alexander, a., & puthusserry, p. (2016). knowledge transfer in university quadruple helix ecosystems: an absorptive capacity perspective. r&d management, 46(2), 383-399. https://doi.org/10.1111/radm.12182 https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/16929?origin=recordpage https://www.scopus.com/sourceid/16929?origin=recordpage https://doi.org/10.1080/13603108.2012.753957 olo et al. 23 moncada, j. s. (2008). the university: a historical-philosophical approach. ideas y valores, 57(137), 131. moulinier, p. (2017). a review of recent research on the history of universities and students in france. cian-revista de historia de las universidades, 20(1), 141-161. https://doi.org/10.20318/cian.2017.3731 nafziger, e. w. (2007). from seers to sen: the meaning of economic development. in advancing development (pp. 50-62). london: palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230801462_3 osborne, j. (2013). the 21st century challenge for science education: assessing scientific reasoning. thinking skills and creativity, 10, 265-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2013.07.006 pink-harper, s. a. (2015). educational attainment: an examination of its impact on regional economic growth. economic development quarterly, 29(2), 167-179. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891242414561495 rinaldi, c., cavicchi, a., spigarelli, f., lacchè, l., & rubens, a. (2018). universities and smart specialisation strategy: from third mission to sustainable development co-creation. international journal of sustainability in higher education, 19(1), 67-84. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijshe-04-2016-0070 robertson, j., & bond, c. (2005). the research/teaching relation: a view from the edge. higher education, 50(3), 509-535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-004-6365-x roslan, m. h. h., hamid, s., ijab, m. t., yusop, f. d., & norman, a. a. (2020). social entrepreneurship in higher education: challenges and opportunities. asia pacific journal of education, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2020.1859354 rüegg, w. (1996). prólogo. in ridder-symoens, h. & rüegg, w. (ed.) uma história da universidade na europa as universidades na idade média (vol. i, pp. xvii-xxiv). lisboa: imprensa nacional casa da moeda. sam, c., & van der sijde, p. (2014). understanding the concept of the entrepreneurial university from the perspective of higher education models. higher education, 68(6), 891-908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9750-0 sarrico, c., mcqueen, a., & samuelson, s. (2017). state of higher education 2015-16. ocde higher education programme (imhe). scott, j. c. (2006). the mission of the university: medieval to postmodern transformations. the journal of higher education, 77(1), 1-39. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00221546.2006.11778917 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (2), 1-25 scott, p. (2000). globalisation and higher education: challenges for the 21st century. journal of studies in international education, 4(1), 3-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/102831530000400102 seers, d. (1969). the meaning of development. international development review, 11(4), 3-4. sen, a. k. (1999). development as freedom. new york: alfred a. knopf. shanwei, x. (2017). study of the tuition and living expenses of medieval european university students. chinese studies in history, 50(1), 4-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094633.2015.1189288 solas, e., & sutton, f. (2018). incorporating digital technology in the general education classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 115. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/187537/ sukmayadi, v., & yahya, a. (2020). indonesian education landscape and the 21st century challenges. journal of social studies education research, 11(4), 219234. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/218538/ trow, m. (2000). from mass higher education to universal access: the american advantage. minerva, 37(4), 303-328. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1023/a:1004708520977.pdf uyarra, e. (2010). conceptualizing the regional roles of universities, implications and contradictions. european planning studies, 18(8), 1227–1246. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654311003791275 van coller, h. p. (2016). perspectives on afrikaans as a university language. tydskrif vir geesteswetenskappe, 56(4-1), 998-1015. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/22247912/2016/v56n4-1a8 varnava-marouchou, d. (2004). 21(st) century trends in education: implications for learning and teaching in higher education. in proceedings of the fifth international conference on information technology based higher education and training (ithet ’04), (pp. 443448). https://doi.org/10.1109/ithet.2004.1358213 weik, e. (2014). the market for academic knowledge: its historical emergence and inherent tensions. british journal of educational studies, 62(4), 431-447. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2014.935754 yefimov, v. (2017). comparative historical institutional analysis of german, english and american economics. montenegrin journal of economics, 13(2), 25-70. https://doi.org/10.14254/1800-5845/2017.13-2.2 https://doi.org/10.1109/ithet.2004.1358213 olo et al. 25 živanović, z., & gatarić, d. r. (2017). differences in regional development on the territory of the republic of serbia. bulletin of geography. socio-economic series, 35, 145-154. https://doi.org/10.1515/bog-2017-0010 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 198-213 198 model united nations and experiential learning: an assessment of changes in knowledge and attitudes david k. jesuit1 & brian endless2 abstract despite the popularity of model united nations, no effort has been made to directly assess student learning since 1984. accordingly, we developed and administered a preand post-conference survey to participants in the 2007 american model united nations (amun). we assessed whether participating in the simulation affected students’ general knowledge of the un; their attitudes towards the un and the most important member states; and their understanding of diplomatic strategies. we find that first-time participants increased their general knowledge, developed a more realist orientation towards international relations, and placed more emphasis on the importance of individual agency in world affairs. key words: international relations; model united nations; realism; simulations; student assessment; deep learning. introduction experiential learning is essentially ‘learning from experience or learning by doing’ that ‘encourages reflection about the experience to develop new skills, new attitudes, or new ways of thinking’ (lewis and williams, 1994, p.5). within the social sciences, one of the most popular methods of promoting experiential learning has historically been model united nations, as the latest estimates show that roughly 400,000 students at all educational levels participate in simulations of the united nations in more than 400 conferences held in 35 countries around the world (crossley-frolick, 2013, p. 187). despite the popularity of these academic competitions, little effort has been made to directly assess student learning through use of participant surveys since 1986 (hazleton and mahurin, 1986). see also hazelton and jacobs, 1982-1983). nonetheless, a good deal of research has been undertaken, including a focus beyond the model 1 professor and chairperson, department of political science & public administration, central michigan university, david.jesuit@cmich.edu 2 advanced lecturer & director, african studies and african diaspora program, loyola university chicago, bendels@luc.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 198-213 un to include other simulations and related types of active learning that have become much more common within international relations and political science curricula (see e.g., galatas, 2006; shellman and turan, 2006; wheeler, 2006; ambrosio, 2004; newmann and twigg, 2000; lantis, 1998). this more recent research, however, is often based on a small number of observations, consisting of a class or two of students in a particular college or university (see, for example, engel et al., 2017; pettenger et al., 2014; crossley-frollick, 2013). others offer a survey of course syllabi (haack, 2008) or an analysis of different categories of simulations, such as whether it is credit bearing or not (taylor, 2013). though limited in their generalizability, this research on simulations and experiential learning, including model un, has generated a number of important tentative findings that merit further examination. while we have no intention to review systematically this large body of pedagogical research, the essential question is the extent to which participation in simulations of the un promotes positive, measurable learning outcomes. review of the literature chief among the more recent findings within the scholarship of teaching and learning is the notion that while simulations such as model un promote ‘surface learning,’ they fail to impart ‘deep learning,’ thus raising questions about whether these exercises are worth the effort and, especially in cases where students attend conferences in other cities, expense (taylor, 2013, p. 136). as haack (2008, p. 398) concludes, ‘model un operates within a ‘standard’ curriculum that does not, or only weekly [sic] supports deep learning. at the heart of this weakness are the conventions and accepted practices of un teaching (and research), which support surface learning.’ using the solo (structure of the observed learning outcome) taxonomy, deep learning is defined as ‘an increased ability to connect, synthesize, and abstract knowledge, while surface learning is evident where students merely pick up one or two aspects of a task…in other words, surface learners learn by memorizing facts, while deep learners learn through understanding’ (haack, 2008, p. 396). put another way, deep learning is ‘premised on a belief that higher education is about students undergoing conceptual change’ while surface learning simply involves ‘reproduction of content’ (donnison and penn-edwards, 2012, p. 10). this rather negative conclusion of what many have interpreted as limited learning outcomes associated with model un participation is not new. in their early study, hazleton and mahurin noted that while simulations of the un generally led to positive learning outcomes, they could not ‘transmit large amounts of information, provide the depth of understanding necessary jesuit & endless to deal with the substantive issues and procedures involved, nor have a major affect [sic] on student attitudes’ (1986, p. 152. see also mcintosh, 2001). observing simulations of the un at various conferences around the world, muldoon (1995, p. 31) lamented the ‘command of process, but little substance’ displayed by the participants. in short, initial research on the results of participating in model un simulations for student learning suggested that the intense experience provided surface learning, but yielded little in the area of deeper learning. other recent scholarship, however, comes to somewhat more optimistic conclusions with respect to model un learning outcomes. taylor (2013, p.134), for example, suggests ‘active learning activities’ like model un ‘have great potential…to produce deeper learning of international affairs and ir theories.’ categorizing simulations into five different types, she asserts that ‘theoretical learning is most likely to occur in…credit-bearing mun and extended in-class simulations’ (taylor, 2013, p. 146). in a similar comparative case study of two classroom simulations she designed, crossley-frolick (2013, p. 195) found that the ‘simulation worked very well in clarifying the more abstract and theoretical components of the course.’ in another study that uses a preand post-test survey design, pettenger et al. (2014, p. 499) discovered that although ‘not statistically significant, detectable shifts in attitudes in several key values were observed,’ which indicates that students ‘demonstrated conceptual knowledge.’ furthermore, in their debriefing of students, they note that the majority of students observed that the simulation ‘involved ‘deeper learning’’ (pettenger et al., 2014, p. 502). these conclusions were based on classroom simulations of political science classes at two universities, one in the us and the other in canada. finally, in a recent study engel et al. (2017) directly test haack’s (2008) notion that participating in the model un fails to promote deep learning. to do so, they apply anderson and krathwohl’s (2001) four distinct areas of knowledge involved in deep learning: factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. they conclude that while ‘deep learning had occurred across all four levels of knowledge,’ two areas of learning were especially prominent: ‘conceptual knowledge around ir theories…and metacognitive knowledge around students’ learning journey’ (engel et al., 2017, p. 172). in short, they find that participants in model un ‘demonstrated deep learning in ir theories’ (2017, p. 181). as noted previously, the major weakness of all of these recent studies is that they do not base their conclusions on systematic quantitative efforts to assess student learning outcomes. the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 198-213 most recent published finding from a survey of model un participants that we were able to find was hazleton and mahurin’s contribution in 1986 (using data from 1984), which found, among other things, that such simulations have somewhat limited learning outcomes and are not associated with attitudinal changes among students. in order to address this limitation within this literature, this study follows their general research strategy. specifically, after describing our basic research design, we take advantage of the preand post-survey design to explore whether the simulation is associated with any changes in students’ knowledge and attitudes. we argue that the former questions assess surface learning. ‘deep learning,’ however, can be measured by questions gauging changes in attitudes, including changes in students’ theoretical orientation and increased understanding of diplomacy, including diplomatic strategies and procedures. method research design our survey questionnaire included questions measuring students’ interest, attitudes, experience and knowledge concerning the united nations, key member states, and issues on the agenda of the un in september 2007. this allowed us to capture their responses before they begin their preparations for the 2007 conference. after they participated in the american model united nations (amun) conference, held november 17-20, 2007, we asked students to complete a similar survey, including many of the same questions. the questions assessing general knowledge were drawn from test banks and the authors’ own exams used in introductory courses. their responses to the general knowledge questions capture surface or rote learning. attitudes were measured using a five-point likert scales, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. as has been described, attitudinal changes suggest that a process of deep learning has occurred. in addition to these substantive questions, we included questions assessing logistical and organizational aspects of model un preparation. this is especially important since we limit our analysis in this article to first-time participants, which enables us to isolate the effects of the simulation in an experimental design. data collection the survey was hosted on the internet using the software ‘survey monkey.’ faculty advisors and student leaders whose colleges or universities were registered to participate in the 2007 amun conference were asked to invite their students to complete the survey. after the jesuit & endless conference in november, we asked students to complete the post-conference survey. in order to encourage participation in the survey, we offered $25 gift certificates, determined by a raffle, to four respondents who participated in both surveys. a total of 236 students responded to the survey administered prior to the conference, while 125 participated in the one conducted after the conference. unfortunately, only 56 first-time model un participants completed both the preand post-simulation surveys.3 nonetheless, as we will see, this sample is of sufficient size to allow us to perform some basic statistical analyses, such as cross-tabulations and paired difference tests.4 findings table 1 reports changes in students’ knowledge and attitudes as a result of participating in the un simulation in chicago. there were a total of ten general un knowledge questions included in the preand post-surveys. as shown in the table, students had substantial knowledge of the un even prior to participating in the simulation. for example, on the pre-test knowledge questions a majority of students selected the correct response on all but two of the ten questions (46.4% answered correctly concerning the us share of the un budget while only 16 percent were aware of the procedure for creating a peacekeeping force). even given this rather substantial knowledge, when comparing preand post-simulation responses we can see that, with the exception of two questions, students’ general knowledge of the un increased after the model un conference. the most impressive gain was seen in their knowledge of un peacekeeping as an additional 14.3% of students correctly replied that the ‘un has no standing army.’ next, 10.7% more participants correctly stated the size of the security council and identified ban ki-moon as the then-current secretary-general while awareness that the world bank is not one of the principal organs of the un increased by 5.3%. small increases in percentages of correct 3 we repeated the survey again in 2014. unfortunately, only 14 students responded to both the preand postconference surveys in that year. thus, a comparison to the 2007 study is not possible. 4 a common rule of thumb based on the central limit theorem is that a sample of 30 is usually sufficient to ensure a normal distribution and representativeness of the underlying population (ott and longnecker, 2010, p. 189). journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 198-213 table 1 frequency table of preand post-simulation changes in un knowledge which of the following is not a principal organ of the united nations? pre post % freq. % freq. % change general assembly 1 1.8 1 1.8 0.0 economic and social council 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 international court of justice 4 7.1 1 1.8 -5.3 world bank 51 91.1 54 96.4 5.3 how many countries are represented on the un security council? 5 11 19.6 5 8.9 -10.7 10 6 10.7 5 8.9 -1.8 15 37 66.1 43 76.8 10.7 20 2 3.6 3 5.4 1.8 what can the permanent members of the un security council do that nonpermanent members cannot? abstain on resolutions. 1 1.8 0 0.0 -1.8 veto resolutions. 48 85.7 48 85.7 0.0 request a meeting of the security council. 6 10.7 7 12.5 1.8 ignore the content of a resolution. 1 1.8 1 1.8 0.0 the current secretary-general of the un is boutros boutros-ghali. 4 7.1 2 3.6 -3.5 ban ki-moon. 38 67.9 44 78.6 10.7 kofi annan. 12 21.4 9 16.1 -5.3 chan ho-park. 2 3.6 1 1.8 -1.8 what year was the united nations founded? 1918 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 1960 0 0.0 1 1.8 1.8 1945 56 100.0 55 98.2 -1.8 1896 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 which of the following is not a permanent member of the un security council? united states 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 russia 5 8.9 4 7.1 -1.8 japan 50 89.3 51 91.1 1.8 united kingdom 1 1.8 1 1.8 0.0 56 100 56 100.0 the united states' share of the un's regular budget is: 12% 7 12.5 7 12.5 0 16% 8 14.3 8 14.3 0 22% 26 46.4 23 41.1 -5.3 25% 15 26.8 18 32.1 5.3 jesuit & endless table 1 (continued) frequency table of preand post-simulation changes in un knowledge to assist in peace keeping operations, the un has a standing army of: 5,000 troops 1 1.8 1 1.8 0 12,000 troops 9 16.1 3 5.4 -10.7 25,000 troops 6 10.7 4 7.1 -3.6 the un has no standing army 40 71.4 48 85.7 14.3 un sponsored peace keeping operations are created and approved by: the general assembly 14 25.0 12 21.4 -3.6 the trusteeship council 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 the security council 33 58.9 33 58.9 0 created by the secretary-general & approved by the security council 9 16.1 11 19.6 3.5 about how many countries are currently members of the un? 125-150 4 7.1 4 7.1 0.0 150-175 11 19.6 14 25.0 5.4 175-200 33 58.9 35 62.5 3.6 200+ 8 14.3 3 5.4 -8.9 total 56 100 56 100 note. correct responses are shown in italics. responses (3.6%) were reported with respect to the procedures for creating a peacekeeping force and the number of countries belonging to the un while only an additional 1.8% (one respondent in this case) recognized that japan was not a permanent member of the security council. finally, there was no change in the number of correct responses concerning the veto powers of the p5 and there were two questions on which the number of incorrect responses increased: the year in which the un was founded and the usa’s share of the regular un budget. on the former question one student stated the wrong year (although 100% answered correctly in the preconference survey) while 5.3% more students incorrectly replied that the us share of the budget equals 25%. table 2 reports the results of wilcoxon signed ranks test on changes in attitudes toward the un in the pre-and post-conference surveys. these attitudinal changes imply ‘conceptual change,’ which is an aspect of deep learning. in other words, if students’ attitudes become more clearly aligned with theories of international relations such as realism, we can infer that some level of deep learning has been accomplished. as we can see, of these 21 pairs of questions, journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 198-213 there are five statistically significant changes in students’ attitudes.5 we report these questions in more detail in table 3. table 2 wilcoxon signed ranks test of preand post-simulation attitudes note. a. based on positive ranks, b. based on negative ranks. n=56 5 when we included all the survey respondents we found rather similar results. the main exception is that changes in attitudes were evident in eight of the 21 questions. this is most likely due to the larger sample size. z sig. (2-tailed) the un helps promote peace. -.962a 0.336 the un is necessary. -1.762a 0.078 the un is effective. -1.055a 0.291 the un should have more authority. -.430a 0.667 the un should have greater resources. -.235b 0.814 the usa should withdraw from the un. -1.000b 0.317 the usa should use the un more as a tool of foreign policy. -2.355a 0.019 a member state’s military power in the international system affects its ability to further its national objectives within the un. -.972a 0.331 a member state’s economic power in the international system affects its ability to further its national objectives within the un. -.016a 0.987 the un is more responsive to the concerns of less developed countries (ldcs) than to the concerns of the developed countries. -1.452b 0.146 most member states usually promote their own national interests above the mission and values of the un. -.393b 0.694 the five permanent members of the security council usually promote their own national interests above the mission and values of the un. -2.342b 0.019 the usa usually promotes its own national interests above the mission and values of the un. -2.675b 0.007 the un security council (unsc) should be reformed to include more permanent members. -.336a 0.737 the unsc should be reformed to remove the veto power of the permanent members. -1.288b 0.198 no significant reforms, such as those above, of the unsc will be undertaken in my lifetime. -2.559b 0.010 the un should become more involved in solving issues of poverty. -.198a 0.843 the un needs to be more effective when confronting poverty. -.688a 0.491 the un should become more involved in solving issues of global health care. -.434a 0.664 the un needs to be more effective when confronting global health care. -.809b 0.419 the un should be given more funding in order to accomplish its work. -1.110b 0.267 jesuit & endless the frequency tables reported in table 3 all tend to show that students have become more oriented toward political realism after participating in the un simulation. according to a table 3 frequency table of preand post-simulation attitudinal changes the un is necessary. pre post % change freq. percent freq. percent strongly disagree 2 3.6 8.9 1 1.8 10.7 1.8 disagree 3 5.4 5 8.9 neutral 8 14.3 14.3 10 17.9 17.9 3.6 agree 20 35.7 76.8 21 37.5 71.4 -5.4 strongly agree 23 41.1 19 33.9 the five permanent members of the security council usually promote their own national interests above the mission and values of the un. strongly disagree 1 1.8 14.3 0 0.0 1.8 -12.5 disagree 7 12.5 1 1.8 neutral 16 28.6 28.6 16 28.6 28.6 0.0 agree 22 39.3 57.1 26 46.4 69.6 12.5 strongly agree 10 17.9 13 23.2 the usa usually promotes its own national interests above the mission and values of the un. strongly disagree 1 1.8 17.9 0 0.0 5.4 -12.5 disagree 9 16.1 3 5.4 neutral 5 8.9 8.9 5 8.9 8.9 0.0 agree 21 37.5 73.2 23 41.1 85.7 12.5 strongly agree 20 35.7 25 44.6 the usa should use the un more as a tool of foreign policy. strongly disagree 5 8.9 19.6 8 14.3 33.9 14.3 disagree 6 10.7 11 19.6 neutral 16 28.6 28.6 13 23.2 22.0 -6.6 agree 16 28.6 51.8 18 32.1 42.9 -8.9 strongly agree 13 23.2 6 10.7 no significant reforms, such as those above, of the unsc will be undertaken in my lifetime. strongly disagree 1 1.8 30.4 0 0.0 17.9 -9.2 disagree 16 28.6 10 17.9 neutral 16 28.6 28.6 17 30.4 30.4 1.8 agree 19 33.9 41.1 20 35.7 51.8 8.3 strongly agree 4 7.1 9 16.1 total 56 100 56 100 note. only the statistically significant pairs identified in table 2 are included. mainstream textbook in our discipline of international relations, realists ‘tend to hold a rather pessimistic view, emphasizing the struggle for power and influence among political units acting journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 198-213 in a rational, unitary manner in pursuit of objectives grounded in their separate, often divergent interests’ (viotti and kauppi, 2001, p. 509). thus, the finding that an additional 12.5% of students ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ that the ‘permanent members of the security council usually promote their own national interests above the mission and values of the un’ and that the ‘usa usually promotes its own national interests above the mission and values of the un’ are both consistent with the concept of realism. moreover, students not only perceived that the great powers, especially the usa, act according to realist principles; their opinions changed such that the slight majority that advocated a liberal policy of engagement with the un prior to the conference was lost after participating in the simulation. more specifically, support for the statement that the ‘usa should use the un more as a tool of foreign policy’ fell to 42.9% from 51.8%. after the simulation one-third of students strongly disagreed or disagreed with this statement, which was an increase of 14.3%. finally, students became much more skeptical about the prospect of reforming the un during their lifetimes and even the necessity of the un at all. indeed, a slight majority (51.8%) believed that no ‘significant reforms’ such as including more permanent members on the security council or removing their veto powers ‘will be undertaken in my lifetime.’ this was an increase of 8.3%. those disagreeing with this statement fell by 9.2%. the percentage of students who ‘strongly agreed’ or ‘agreed’ that the un is ‘necessary’ fell slightly by 5.4%. (nonetheless, just over 70% of participants still believed that the organization is necessary). in sum, the evidence suggests that students gained more than surface knowledge by participating in model united nations. the simulation changed their attitudes about the motivations nation-states have in international relations. in particular, the more idealistic views held by students of the united nations and its role in international relations shifted, and more realist views were observed after participation in the simulation. while we recognize that this finding should be considered rather tentative, it is consistent with one of the main conclusions in a recent study completed by engel et al. (2017). one of their subjects wrote the following in their student reflective journal entry: ‘the theory and procedural aspects of the subject led me to question several of my assumptions and preconceived ideas of the united nations…i finish the semester with a far more realist understanding of current world politics (engel et al., 2017, p. 178). jesuit & endless tables 4 and 5 represent our final preand post-simulation analyses, focusing on diplomatic strategies. just as in the previous series of questions, we first report the results of wilcoxon signed ranks test. statistically significant changes in participant attitudes towards table 4 diplomatic strategies z sig. (2-tail) the rules and procedures of the un frequently hinder diplomatic compromises. -2.052a 0.040 the individual personalities of delegates play a large role in determining outcomes. -2.605b 0.009 regional blocs are more important in determining the positions of member states than they should be. -1.812b 0.070 effective public speaking during formal sessions is most important. -.958a 0.338 effective behind the scenes caucusing is most important. -1.857b 0.063 being the loudest and/or most forceful person in a caucus is important to diplomatic success. -.079b 0.937 a person must be forceful in presenting their country's perspectives on an issue in order to effectively represent that country. -.228b 0.820 passing a resolution is the ultimate mark of success at the un or a mun conference. -3.365a 0.001 diplomats spend significant amounts of time focusing on the points of agreement between their countries on most issues. -.635a 0.525 note. a. based on positive ranks, b. based on negative ranks. n=56 diplomatic strategies were evident in 5 of the 9 questions included in the survey. these changes are detailed in the frequency tables reported in table 5. in general, they once again support the notion that experiential learning such as the model un promotes some deeper learning, as it fosters a greater appreciation for the role that diplomacy and individuals play in shaping international relations. the most substantial shifts in preand post-participation attitudes were witnessed in this area, where it seems that students had the least amount of knowledge prior to the simulation. for example, the largest reported shift in attitudes has to do with the relevance of regional blocs. here it is most evident that students had little awareness of such coalitions since nearly twothirds were ‘neutral’ before the conference. after students experienced the simulation, this neutrality was reduced by 41.1%, with an additional 24.9% agreeing or strongly agreeing that regional blocs are ‘more important in determining the positions of member states than they should be’ and 16.0% adopting the opposite view. another interesting result concerns the role of journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 198-213 parliamentary procedures. a plurality of students (32.2%) agreed or strongly agreed that parliamentary rules and procedures ‘frequently hinder diplomatic compromises’ before the simulation while afterwards a larger plurality (41.1%), representing a change of 19.7%, disagreed or strongly disagreed with this statement. table 5 frequency table of preand post-simulation diplomatic strategies* the rules and procedures of the un frequently hinder diplomatic compromises. freq. % freq. % strongly disagree 0 0.0 21.4 1 1.8 41.1 19.7 disagree 12 21.4 22 39.3 neutral 26 46.4 46.4 19 33.9 33.9 -12.5 agree 15 26.8 32.2 11 19.6 25 -7.2 strongly agree 3 5.4 3 5.4 the individual personalities of delegates play a large role in determining outcomes. strongly disagree 1 1.8 5.4 0 0.0 3.6 -1.8 disagree 2 3.6 2 3.6 neutral 12 21.4 21.4 5 8.9 8.9 -12.5 agree 27 48.2 73.2 25 44.6 87.5 14.3 strongly agree 14 25 24 42.9 regional blocs are more important in determining the positions of member states than they should be. strongly disagree 0 0.0 5.4 0 0.0 21.4 16.0 disagree 3 5.4 12 21.4 neutral 36 64.3 64.3 13 23.2 23.2 -41.1 agree 15 26.8 30.4 20 35.7 55.3 24.9 strongly agree 2 3.6 11 19.6 effective behind the scenes caucusing is most important. strongly disagree 0 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 3.6 3.6 disagree 0 0.0 2 3.6 neutral 11 19.6 19.6 5 8.9 8.9 -10.7 agree 31 55.4 80.4 25 44.6 87.5 7.1 strongly agree 14 25 24 42.9 passing a resolution is the ultimate mark of success at the un or a mun conference. strongly disagree 4 7.1 46.4 13 23.2 62.5 16.1 disagree 22 39.3 22 39.3 neutral 10 17.9 17.9 12 21.4 21.4 3.5 agree 13 23.2 35.7 8 14.3 16.1 -19.6 strongly agree 7 12.5 1 1.8 total 56 100 56 100 note. only the statistically significant pairs identified in table 4 are included. jesuit & endless finally, there were substantial changes to the way in which students viewed individual actors in the simulation and how they defined success in the un. first, after the simulation an additional 14.3% of students, for a total equal to 87.5%, agreed or strongly agreed that ‘individual personalities of delegates play a large role in determining outcomes.’ nearly 20% more of these students strongly agreed with this statement post-simulation, indicating that this attitude intensified. this suggests that experiential learning increases students’ awareness of the importance of individuals in shaping policy outcomes, even on the world stage. it is likely that john rourke, author of one leading texts in international relations, international politics on the world stage, would applaud this finding, as it supports his emphasis on the importance of individual actors in shaping international outcomes in the ‘global drama’ (2008). our findings also address a frequent concern of model un instructors that students are only there to pass resolutions, and don’t really focus on negotiations and content. in this area, the percentage of students agreeing or strongly agreeing that passing resolutions ‘is the ultimate mark of success at the un or a mun conference’ decreased by nearly 20% and that an additional 7.1% agreed or strongly agreed that ‘effective behind the scenes caucusing is most important’ in determining outcomes after the simulation. these are aspects that suggest that students focus more on learning than on competing (often measured by passing resolutions), which is what many advisors emphasize. discussion, conclusion and implications despite the popularity of the model united nations, there has been a somewhat surprising lack of systematic assessment of the learning outcomes associated with these simulations within the growing literature on the scholarship of teaching and learning. our pre and post-simulation survey of student participants has, we hope, begun to overcome this deficiency. the more ambitious goal of this study was to address recent findings that simulations in general, and the model un in particular, do not contribute to what has been characterized as deep learning, which is what most agree higher education aspires to accomplish. while such evidence may be somewhat limited, there are some findings that suggest that students are engaged in deeper learning. we return to this point shortly. regardless, there is little doubt that the simulation does advance surface learning, as students’ performance on the un general knowledge questions increased on eight of the ten questions we included. this finding is consistent with earlier research and not inconsequential, especially since there is evidence to journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 198-213 suggest that such learning can be a ‘precursor to deeper learning’ (donnison and penn-edwards, 2012, p. 11). the un is a negotiating body and a place where the foreign policies of its members plays out. there are certainly some aspects of institutionalism in gathering to find solutions, and this is absolutely a part of the learning process. that being said, more often than not students experience frustration a number of times during their model un experience. this typically comes when they are negotiating with other states, and realize that the solution that is preferred by the state a student represents is not necessarily the one preferred by other nations. or more commonly, they realize that much of the world agrees on a solution, but a few states stand in the way. in practical terms, this may look like the united states taking the side of israel and blocking action when many other states take the side of palestine. alternately, it might look like the russian federation backing syria, or china backing north korea, while most states take the opposite side. thus, students often come to a deeper understanding of how the un works through the model un experience. institutionalism does work on some issues, but it often takes a great deal of time for the varied states of the world to come to agreement. and more often than not, a very realist sense of state power drives decision making, and leads some powerful states to block or demand actions that may not be popular with the rest of the international community. thus, our finding that students’ attitudes shifted toward political realism is not surprising and is indicative of conceptual change in those attitudes, countering the claim that model un provides only surface learning. additionally, students tend to adopt a more accurate perspective of international diplomacy through participating in these simulations, as they come to understand both the importance of regional blocs and individuals in shaping outcomes at the un. in sum, model united nations provides students with meaningful opportunities to engage in both surface and deep learning about international relations. as such, it is a learning activity that colleges and universities should continue to promote and enlarge. jesuit & endless references anderson, l. w., and krathwohl, d. r. (eds.). (2001). a taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. new york: longman. crossley-frolick, k. a. (2010). beyond model un: simulating multi-level, multi-actor diplomacy using the millennium development goals. international studies perspectives 11, 184-201. donnison, s. and penn-edwards, s. (2012). focusing on first year assessment: surface or deep approaches to learning? the international journal of the first year in higher education 3, 9-20. engel, s., pallas, j., and lambert, s. (2017). model united nations and deep learning: theoretical and professional learning. the journal of political science education, 13, 171-184. galatas, s. e. (2006). a simulation of the council of the european union: assessment of the impact on student learning. ps: political science and politics 39, 147-151. haack, k. (2008). un studies and the curriculum as active learning tool. international studies perspectives 9, 395-410. hazleton, w. a. and mahurin, r. p. (1986). external simulations as teaching devices: the model united nations. simulation & gaming: an international journal 17, 149-171. hazleton, w. a. and jacobs, j. e. (1982-1983). simulating international diplomacy: the national model united nations experience. teaching political science 10, 89-97. lantis, j. s. (1998). simulations and experiential learning in the international relations classroom. international negotiation 3, 39-57. mcintosh, d. (2001). the uses and limits of the model united nations in an international relations classroom. international studies perspectives 2, 269-280. muldoon, j. p. (1995). the model united nations revisited. simulation & gaming: an interdisciplinary journal 26, 27-35. national science foundation. (2016). political science degrees awarded, by degree level and sex of recipient: 1966–2010. retrieved from http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf13327/pdf/tab43.pdf. http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf13327/pdf/tab43.pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 198-213 newmann, w. w. and twigg, j. l. (2000). active engagement of the intro ir student: a simulation approach. ps: political science and politics 33, 835-842. ott, r. l. and longnecker, m. (2010). an introduction to statistical methods and data analysis, 6th edition, brooks/cole. pettenger, m., west, d., and young, n. (2014). assessing the impact of role play simulations on learning in canadian and us classrooms. international studies perspectives 15, 491-508. rourke, j. (2008). international politics on the world stage, 8th edition. pearson. shellman, s. and turan, k. (2006). do simulations enhance student learning? an empirical evaluation of an ir simulation. journal of political science education 2, 19-32. taylor, k. (2013). simulations inside and outside the ir classroom: a comparative analysis. international studies perspectives 14, 134-149. united nations association of the united states of america. (2018). model un: bridging the education gap and creating global citizens. retrieved from http://www.unausa.org/global-classrooms-model-un. us department of education, national center for education statistics. (2012). the condition of education 2012 (nces 2012-045), table 47-2. retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=72. viotti, p. r. and kauppi, m. v. (2001). international relations and world politics: security, economy, identity, 2nd edition. prentice-hall. wheeler, s. m. (2006). role-playing games and simulations for international issues courses. journal of political science education 2, 331-347. http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=72 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2),103-124 blind patriotism is out and constructive patriotism is in: critical thinking is the key to global citizenship mehmet melik kaya1 abstract the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between blind patriotism, constructive patriotism, global citizenship and critical thinking in pre-service teachers. the study group includes 372 teacher candidates studying at a state university in the central anatolian region of turkey. data collection tools used in the study were the patriotic attitude scale, the universal citizenship scale, and the critical thinking tendency scale. the research findings suggest that there are negative relationships between constructive patriotism and blind patriotism, between blind patriotism and critical thinking, and between universal citizenship and blind patriotism. in other words, as blind patriotism scores increase, the level of universal citizenship, critical thinking and constructive patriotism decreases. the research results also reveal that there is a positive and significant relationship between constructive patriotism, critical thinking and universal citizenship. that is, as the critical thinking tendencies of pre-service teachers increase, constructive patriotism and universal citizenship scores increase. a society having critical thinking tendencies would be more democratic, and more correct decisions could be made on political, social, economic and societal issues. it therefore distances people from blind patriotism and makes it easier for them to become constructive global citizens. keywords: patriotism, global citizenship, critical thinking, social studies, citizenship education introduction although the word ‘vatan’ [homeland] is of arabic origin, it came to the turkish language as ‘evtan’ from ottoman turkish. the word ‘evtan’, on the other hand, means a place where a person is born, grows up, loves and even gives his life for (develioğlu, 1970). the turkish language institution (tdk) (2021) defines the word ‘homeland’ as ‘yurt’, that is, a piece of land on which people live and create their culture. the concept of homeland differs from the concept of country in this respect, because while country is more like a geographical term, homeland emphasizes a sense of belonging more, which spiritually puts the concept of homeland before the concept of country. this means that the concept of homeland, or ‘vatan’ in turkish literature, is a kind of 1 dr., faculty in the department of social studies education, anadolu university, eskisehir, turkey kymelik@gmail.com mailto:kymelik@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 conservative discourse; however, it does not necessarily mean patriotism. therefore, people mostly prefer to use the concept of homeland rather than the concept of country, due to their spirituality. that is, it is often used by people who love their country. indeed, patriotism (vatanseverlik: homeland-loving) consists of two separate words, which in fact differ from patriotism, emphasizing one’s love for one’s country. therefore, in this study, the concept of patriotism does not mean exactly the same as in the west. instead, it is historically far from all political connotations, and is a concept that belongs to the people, and comes from within the people of anatolia. the use of the concept of patriot is due to its higher level of belonging and spirituality (beken, 2010). as elban (2015) puts it, the concept of patriotism is one of the primary concepts that states want to teach and instill in individuals or students at an early age. states try to create a citizenship role/model with the bond of patriotism. while citizenship constitutes the knowledge and official identity dimension of this desired bond, patriotism creates the emotional and belonging dimension (elban, 2015). therefore, keeping together different ethnic elements living in the country with a sense of belonging, that is, patriotism rather than identity, has been one of the main goals of countries. for instance, the emergence of the us social studies course seems to create a sense of belonging to the american land and culture, that is, to educate good american citizens, rather than being an official identity. patriotism therefore, the concept of ‘patriotism’ may have different meanings or implications in the international literature, and the meaning attributed to this concept may not necessarily overlap; therefore, it may seem contradictory. therefore, keeping in mind the nature of social sciences, one should leave some room for interpreting such highly-culturalized concepts as homeland, country, patriotism, love of country and so on, due to the different cultural lenses of the people. due to numerous global events, such as migration, poverty, technological developments, nongovernmental organizations, and democratization processes, the concept of patriotism has differentiated and developed, not only in turkey, but also in all other countries. while patriotism was limited to the borders of a country in the past, it has now become a global value. patriotism is the feeling of belonging to the piece of land on which one lives (zamir & horowitz, 2013). patriotism is the natural feeling of love that people have for their homeland, as citizens of a country kaya 105 and the common feeling of human society (wang & jia, 2015). patriotism is having a deep and emotional sense of belonging to one’s nation. patriots are people who openly express their feelings, and who do not question certain things under the influence of these feelings (huddy & khatip, 2010; kilinc & tarman, 2018). patriotism has benefits for the well-being of the nation and its citizens, such as increasing curiosity, civic engagement, and cohesion. on the other hand, many authors have emphasized that patriotism not only has positive aspects, but also negative aspects (bar-tal & staub, 1997; johnson, 1997; reykowski, 1997). schatz (1994) develops the concepts of blind patriotism and constructive patriotism to explain this disagreement. blind patriotism is the uncritical acceptance and support of government policies and practices, and the excessive segregation of people in one’s own nation and society, without morally evaluating the consequences of those policies and practices, or ignoring their impact on the well-being of people (minorities) outside the group or who are members of subgroups (staub, 1997). on the contrary, constructive patriotism is the need to balance the integrative aspect of being human with respect for the rights and well-being of all people, consideration for the well-being of one’s own community, and a sense of commitment to one’s community (staub, 1997). blind patriotism is when people are insensitive or blindly attached to political events in their own country. in blind patriotism, the person does not question the actions, but defends the actions with absolute loyalty, so these people have lost the ability to criticize. on the other hand, the constructive patriots have tendencies to question and criticize political action within their country. they do not blindly defend the policies carried out, but support good work and criticize bad practices by questioning them (kahne, ellen, 2006). westheimer (2006) describes patriotism in two categories as democratic and authoritarian patriotism, expressing the difference between these two patriotic ideas as indicated in the following table 1: journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 table 1 westheimer’s patriotic attitudes authoritarian democratic ideology * people who think their own country is superior to others. * they believe that absolute devotion is essential for them. * they do not see the social inequalities and deficiencies in their country. * conformist; opposition seen as dangerous and unstable. * people who respect the opinions of any nation. * they question and criticize. * they openly express the deficiencies in the country. * they respect the opposition in the country. slogans * right or wrong, it’s my country. love it or leave it. * to oppose; homeland is an element. you have the right not to remain silent. source: (westheimer, joel. 2006, p. 607) citizenship is the identity of a person attached to a sovereign state (kaya, 2021). in this context, unlike in the international literature or in western views, citizenship might be used interchangeably with the concept of patriotism, which here means country/homeland-loving. on the other hand, a new concept of citizenship, called global citizenship, has emerged in today’s era of globalization. this change was caused not only by economic or political factors, but also by psychological factors. in today’s world, the concept of globalization has emerged as a result of political, social, economic and technological changes. global citizenship with the great developments of science in the world, international communications have increased as well. the increase in communication technologies led to an opportunity to have instant conversations with people on the other side of the world by way of video conferencing. owing to transportation technology, it has become possible to come together with people from other cultures by organizing trips to the most extreme parts of the world in a short time. in addition, rail systems have transformed cities into neighborhoods and countries into cities. the concepts of time and space between cultures may therefore seem to have disappeared and the phenomenon of globalization has emerged (salzman, 2008). today’s concept of global citizenship has become more visible as the world has become holistic. burrows (2004) defines global citizenship as seeing the different cultures of the world and the differences between these cultures, examining and addressing the problems in the world in detail, kaya 107 advancing new ideas and innovation in the world. today, people are struggling with many problems. the leading ones include forced migration, uncontrolled population growth, lack of food, wars, terrorism, as well as others. the most effective way to combat these problems is to educate and train global citizens, who can take charge on an international scale (andrzejewski & alessio, 1999; rapaport, 2020; swarts, 2020). the most important and effective tool of this training is schools. schools may offer a helping hand in managing and directing societies. the existence of schools is extremely important, especially in keeping up with the rapidly developing era. the argument in most studies shows that the success of educational models are systems that can read the changes in the world and respond quickly to these changes and thereby adjust the education system accordingly (hattie, 2009). therefore, global citizenship education that could be given through schools would be able to eliminate many problems in the world before they arise. while such rapid developments as instagram, twitter, youtube and tik tok in technology appear to remove the concept of time and space in the world, it has also revealed changes that are a part of globalization, such as economic, political, social and cultural integration in the international arena (white, 2020). as a result of these global changes, people seem to have adopted the same lifestyles and have similar lifestyles regardless of the regions in which they live (lim, 2008; white, 2020). osler and starkey (2006) defined the global citizen as follows: global citizens are those people who can; look at the differences between individuals with the eyes of the world. think that all people have equal rights. act both nationally and universally. oppose every injustice in the world. take responsibility for a common future. global citizens are people who are prone to world problems, have open connections with the planet and who adopt universal values (leek, 2016). as a result, the global citizen is a role that we do not realize every day, but in which we affect many people on a global scale (burman et al., 2013; andrews & aydın, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 having critical thinking skills is extremely important in being a constructive patriot and a global citizen because, in order to carry these two important identities, it is necessary to have certain skills. the first one of these is critical thinking. critical thinking the basis of critical thinking dates back to ancient greece and socrates (ruggiero, 1988). critical thinking has become one of the important parts of education in line with the requirements of the twenty-first century. critical thinking would make it easier to make the right decisions on political, social, economic and societal issues in the world (miller, 2003). there are many definitions in the literature on critical thinking. for instance, it is expressed as the product of mental processes, such as reasoning, questioning, analysis and evaluation (paul et al., 1997). according to ennis (1987), critical thinking is linear thinking in which what to do and what to believe is decided. pirozzi (2003) states that critical thinking is a careful and thoughtful way of making appropriate decisions in the face of problems and events. judge, jones, and mccreery (2009) define critical thinking as an inquiry and a way of using the information obtained as a result of this inquiry. starting from all these definitions, critical thinking means questioning, reasoning, analyzing, looking at events from a different perspective, questioning what is not as it is, evaluating evidence, and making a decision after examining any behavior or discourse through all these processes. critical thinking is an integral part of educational systems and is one of the core values that people should gain in the twenty-first century (ajaps & obiagu, 2020; smith, 2020). brookfield (1997) expresses the importance of critical thinking as revealing the difference between how things should be and how they are in the current order. therefore, critical thinking is extremely important in terms of questioning what is happening, and then deciding. individuals with critical thinking skills have a high rate in making the right decision (dam & volman, 2004). critical thinking is an essential factor affecting being both a global and a democratic citizen (kaya, 2021). that is, individuals with critical thinking skills respect differences, which makes it easier for them to become global citizens. it also helps them to be constructive patriots rather than blind patriots, since they question what is going on. kaya 109 this study claims that critical thinking could lead to global citizenship or constructive patriotism. critical thinking enables individuals to make decisions on any subject with rational thought and detailed evidence (çelik et al., 2015). importance of the research schatz, staub, & lavine (1999) emphasize the concepts of blind patriotism and constructive patriotism and underline the importance of these concepts. blind patriotism may seem a dangerous point of view for certain societies because the necessity for the coexistence of different ethnic elements has emerged in today’s world. for example, this is currently a hot topic in turkey as the discussion of immigrants and refugees gets more difficult, which brings to mind the concept of constructive patriotism. therefore, it may only be possible through the constructive patriotism in society that these differences can coexist. blind patriots do not criticize, do not question and are blindly attached to the actions taken. their patriotism means ‘love it or leave it’. they see their own nation and state as superior to those of others. the high loyalty and devotion of blind patriots to their own country could be discriminatory and harmful to ethnic groups from different countries or cause them to act against human rights (bar-tal & staub, 1997). this poses a huge problem for differences. undoubtedly, this would pose a big problem for a country like turkey that has received large-scale immigration, which includes different ethnic groups. constructive patriots criticize, question, and support what is right and do not support what is wrong. constructive patriots respect differences and are respectful of different ethnic groups (kahne & ellen, 2006). the advancement of transportation and communication opportunities in the world has added a new meaning and dimension to citizenship by increasing intercultural communication and interaction. this is what we see as global citizenship. people often come across different ethnicities, religions and cultures. these encounters sometimes cause different problems to arise and result in people not understanding each other. therefore, it is extremely important to have critical thinking skills to address these problems. individuals with critical thinking skills are those who question, seek the truth, and are not blindly attached to what exists. that is, individuals with critical thinking skills could easily adapt to differences. hjerm, sevä, and werner (2018) claim that critical thinking skills reduce xenophobia and racist thoughts. in other words, the tendency to think critically would erode blind patriotism and be a component of constructive patriotism and, therefore, positively affect the perception of global citizenship. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 this study, firstly, aims to examine the possible relationships between blind patriotism, constructive patriotism, global citizenship and critical thinking. the second purpose of the study is to reveal the mediating role of critical thinking in the relationship between blind patriotism, constructive patriotism and global citizenship. method the correlational research method is used in this study. the purpose of correlational studies is to understand the measurement values of two or more statistically related variables (fraenkel & wallen, 2000). the relational survey method was seen as appropriate for the study, since the aim is to reveal the interaction between pre-service teachers’ critical thinking dispositions, global citizenship, blind patriotism and constructive patriotism in detail, without establishing a causeeffect relationship (çepni, 2012). data collection and the sample the research sample consisted of 372 pre-service teachers, including pedagogical formation students selected by random sampling, studying at a state university in the central anatolian region of turkey. the research subjects were determined on a voluntary basis during the lectures of the instructor for two semesters. before the measurement tool was distributed to the student teachers, it was declared both orally and in written form that participation in the study was voluntary. the measurement tool was administered to the research subjects during the instructor’s class. the subjects were given sufficient time to complete the instrument entirely. in addition, 5 points were added to the exam grades of the research subjects as an incentive for them to participate in the study. initially, the participants were targeted as 400 student teachers in total. however, 28 of them were eliminated because they did not mark all the items necessary. data collection tools the patriotism attitude scale (pas): this scale was developed by schatz, staub and lavine (1999) and adapted into turkish by yazıcı and yazıcı (2010). as a result of the explanatory factor analysis in the validity study, the factor loads ranged from .33 to .64 for blind patriotism and from .57 to .79 for constructive patriotism. in the confirmatory factor analysis, the statistical results of goodness of fit were calculated as rmsea= .078, rmr=.080, srmr=.071, gfi=.90, agfi=.87, kaya 111 and cfi=.81. the cronbach alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients were .76 for blind patriotism, .77 for constructive patriotism, and .75 for the entire scale. the global citizenship scale (gcs): the scale was developed by morais and ogden (2011), and adapted to turkish culture by akın, sarıçam et al. (2014). as a result of the confirmatory factor analysis, the fit index values of the 3-dimensional (global responsibility, global competence and global civic commitment) model of 30 items were found to be χ²=562.22, sd=395, rmsea=.038, nfi= .90, cfi=.90, ifi=.91, and srmr=.066. the cronbach alpha internal consistency reliability coefficient of the scale was found to be .60, .69, and .86, respectively. the corrected item-total correlation coefficients ranged from .16 to .65. the critical thinking disposition scale (ctds): the scale was developed by sosu (2013) and adapted into turkish by akın et al. (2013). as a result of confirmatory factor analysis, the goodness of fit values of 11 items and two-dimensional (openness to criticism and reflective skepticism) scale were calculated as nfi= .92, cfi= .93, ifi= .93, rfi= .89, and srmr= .026. there is a positive correlation of r= .29 between critical thinking dispositions and self-criticism. the cronbach alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients were .95 for openness to criticism, .96 for reflective skepticism, and .97 for the whole scale. analysis once the data collection procedure was completed, as described in detail above, the data obtained from the participants was analyzed through spss, statistical analysis software. a pearson productmoment correlation analysis was used to examine the relationships between variables, and stepwise (multiple) regression analysis was used to determine the mediating role of critical thinking in the relationship between blind patriotism, constructive patriotism, and global citizenship. the significance level was taken to be p <.01. findings in order to examine the relationship between the pre-service teachers’ patriotism attitude scale’s blind patriotism and constructive patriotism score dimensions, a pearson correlation analysis was performed, because the scale scores showed a normal distribution. the results are presented in table 2. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 table 2 the relationship between blind patriotism and constructive patriotism constructive patriotism blind patriotism r -0,506 p 0,000 as can be seen in table 2, there is a statistically significant negative correlation between blind patriotism and constructive patriotism (r = -0.506; p<0.05). in summary, there is a negative relationship between blind patriotism and constructive patriotism; that is, as blind patriotism increases, the constructive patriotism score decreases. since the scale scores showed a normal distribution, a pearson correlation analysis was carried out in order to examine the relationship between pre-service teachers’ patriot attitude scale scores and global citizenship scale scores. the results are displayed in table 3. table 3 the relationship between patriotic attitudes and global citizenship global civic commitment global competence global responsibility blind patriotism r -0,460 -0,452 -0,515 p 0,000 0,000 0,000 constructive patriotism r 0,464 0,511 0,483 p 0,000 0,000 0,000 table 3 indicates that there are negative and moderately statistically significant relationships between blind patriotism and global civic participation, global competence and global responsibility (respectively r = -0,460; -0,452; -0,515; p<0,05). it has been determined that there are positive and moderately statistically significant relationships between constructive patriotism and global civic participation, global competence and global responsibility (respectively r = 0,464; 0,511; 0,483; p<0,05). in brief, there are negative relationships between blind patriotism and global citizenship behavior; that is, as blind patriotism increases, the global citizenship score decreases. there are positive relationships between constructive patriotism and global citizenship behavior, which means that, as constructive patriotism increases, global citizenship increases. because the scale scores showed a normal distribution, a pearson correlation analysis was performed in order to examine the relationship between the patriotism attitude scale scores of kaya 113 pre-service teachers and their critical thinking disposition scale scores. the results are shown in table 4. table 4 the relationship between patriotism attitudes and critical thinking openness to criticism reflective skepticism blind patriotism r -0,480 -0,515 p 0,000 0,000 constructive patriotism r 0,611 0,604 p 0,000 0,000 as can be seen in table 4, there are negative and moderately statistically significant relationships between blind patriotism, openness to criticism and reflective skepticism (respectively r = -0,480; -0,515; p<0,05). it has been determined that there are positive and moderately statistically significant relationships between constructive patriotism, openness to criticism and reflective skepticism (respectively r = 0,611; 0,604; p<0,05). in summary, there is negative relationship between blind patriotism and critical thinking dispositions. this means that, as critical thinking tendency decreases, blind patriotism increases. there are positive relationships between constructive patriotism and critical thinking dispositions. as critical thinking tendency increases, constructive patriotism increases. the structural equation model was used to examine the mediating effect of critical thinking disposition on the relationship between blind patriotism and constructive patriotism. the mediating effects of openness to criticism (model 1) and reflective skepticism (model 2) dimensions of the critical thinking disposition scale were examined separately. the analysis results are presented in table 5 and the examined models are shown in figure 1. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 table 5 examining the mediating effect of critical thinking disposition in the relationship between blind patriotism and constructive patriotism paths path coefficient (β) std. path coefficient (β) p no mediating variable blind patriotism -> constructive patriotism -0,51 -0,51 <0,05 model 1 blind patriotism -> openness to criticism (direct effect) -0,40 -0,48 <0,05 openness to criticism -> constructive patriotism (direct effect) 0,59 0,48 <0,05 blind patriotism -> constructive patriotism (direct effect) -0,28 -0,28 <0,05 blind patriotism -> openness to criticism -> constructive patriotism (indirect effect) -0,23 -0,23 model 2 blind patriotism -> reflective skepticism (direct effect) -0,26 -0,52 <0,05 reflective skepticism -> constructive patriotism (direct effect) 0,93 0,47 <0,05 blind patriotism -> constructive patriotism (direct effect) -0,27 -0,27 <0,05 blind patriotism -> reflective skepticism -> constructive patriotism (indirect effect) -0,24 -0,24 table 5 indicates that the standardized path coefficient from blind patriotism to constructive patriotism is -0.51 when there is no mediating variable, and this effect is statistically significant (p<0.05). model 1 shows that the path coefficient from blind patriotism to openness to criticism (β= -0.48) and path coefficient from openness to criticism to constructive patriotism (β= 0.48) are statistically significant (p<0.05). when openness to criticism is included in the model, the path coefficient from blind patriotism to constructive patriotism is -0.28, which is statistically significant (p<0.05). the indirect effect from blind patriotism to constructive patriotism through openness to criticism was -0.23. the inclusion of openness to criticism in the model reduced the strength of the path coefficient from blind patriotism to constructive patriotism, but it remains statistically significant. therefore, openness to criticism has a partial mediating effect on the effect from blind patriotism to constructive patriotism. as can be seen in model 2, the path coefficient from blind patriotism to reflective skepticism (β= -0.52) and from reflective skepticism to constructive patriotism (β= 0.47) are statistically significant (p<0.05). when reflective skepticism is included in the model, the path coefficient from blind patriotism to constructive patriotism is 0.27, which is statistically significant (p<0.05). the indirect effect from blind patriotism to constructive patriotism through reflective skepticism was -0.24. the inclusion of reflective skepticism in the model reduced the strength of the path coefficient from blind patriotism to constructive patriotism, but it remains statistically significant. therefore, reflective skepticism has a partial mediating effect on the effect from blind patriotism to constructive patriotism. kaya 115 consequently, critical thinking has a mediating role in the relationship between blind patriotism and constructive patriotism. figure 1. a model examining the mediating effect of critical thinking disposition in the relationship between blind patriotism and constructive patriotism discussion, conclusion and implications the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between blind patriotism, constructive patriotism, global citizenship and critical thinking in pre-service teachers. the research findings suggest that there are negative relationships between constructive patriotism and blind patriotism, no mediating variable model 1 model 2 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 between blind patriotism and critical thinking, and between universal citizenship and blind patriotism. in other words, as blind patriotism scores increase, the level of universal citizenship, critical thinking and constructive patriotism decreases. similar to the findings of the current study, sumino (2021) reveals that the citizens of countries where non-democratic and authoritarian governments are dominant have lower ties to the world and, therefore, blind citizenship scores are significantly higher. in another research study, richey (2011) reveals that blind patriotism is more prominent in countries where civic participation is low. in the international literature, the low level of education of blind patriots, their lack of or low level of ability to question, and their close adherence to national values weaken their ties with the world. the fact that such people are more traditional and protective are seen as the biggest obstacles to them becoming world citizens. the research reveals that blind patriotism increased as the tendency to think critically decreased. for instance, williams, foster & krohn (2008) found in their study that there is a negative relationship between blind patriotism and critical thinking, and a significant positive difference between constructive patriotism and critical thinking. in a study on the effect of education on blind patriotism, sumino (2021) compares the individuals of democratic countries with the individuals of conservative countries and reveals that individuals living in democratic countries with a critical point of view differ negatively against blind patriotism. richey (2011) states that blind citizenship is more popular in places where the power of party identity, ideology and partisanship are at the forefront, and where there is no critical point of view. the present study demonstrates that as constructive patriotism increased, global citizenship increased. in a study comparing patriotism and global citizenship, altıkulaç (2016) reports that people who prefer global citizenship care about world citizenship and do not believe in the concept of nation. in this regard, it is thought that constructive patriots can become global citizens more easily, because constructive citizens are empathetic people and are not blindly attached to certain national values. in fact, they are people who want national values to be integrated with universal values. ben-porath (2007) states that it is necessary to teach patriotism in a way that expands and enriches its borders; for this, it is essential to teach more advanced perspectives and to support the urgent needs of society to come together. hjerm, sevä & werner (2018) acknowledge that critical thinking skills are an important factor for the success of multicultural education studies. multicultural personality is an important factor for global citizenship, as it is easier for an individual who grows up in a multicultural environment to interact and adapt to different cultures. kaya 117 akar (2017) concludes in a research study on classroom teachers that critical thinking disposition is an important predictor of multiculturalism. similarly, polat (2012), toprak (2008), anıl & yavuz (2010), and çoban et al. (2010) reach similar results with this finding of the present study in their studies. as a result, multiculturalism and critical thinking are crucial for the phenomenon of global citizenship. these three concepts are of great significance in complementing each other. ercan (2015) asserts that increasing the level of democratic culture, education and welfare would result in an increase of constructive patriotism. increasing constructive patriotism would naturally increase global citizenship. to illustrate, countries with high income and education levels (such as the usa and canada) are countries with a multinational identity, and these are advantageous in terms of world citizenship compared to countries with lower economic welfare and education levels. williams (2005) proclaims in a research study that critical thinking is an important predictor of global citizenship, as the use of critical thinking among the leaders of society increases and citizens will have better problem-solving skills at the social level. the research points out that as the tendency for critical thinking increases, constructive patriotism increases. in a research study on patriotism, altıkulaç (2016) argues that the new educational approach in the world raises young people with a critical perspective, making it easier for them to become constructive world citizens. yo, sudibjo, & santoso (2018) express in their research that critical thinking is an essential factor in preparation for global citizenship, and that the negative effects of globalization can only be minimized with critical thinking skills. schatz & staub (1997) emphasize that being blindly attached to a country’s politics and actions, and not having a critical perspective, undermines constructive citizenship. people who criticize, question and empathize are constructive patriots. unlike blind patriots, these are individuals with critical thinking dispositions; they do not accept things as they are. while accepting the reasonable, this criticizes the unreasonable in a democratic culture. in this respect, critical thinking is of great importance for constructive patriotism. research findings clearly support this as well. it has been revealed in the research that critical thinking has a mediating role in the relationship between blind patriotism and constructive patriotism. börü & yılmaz (2020) link the lowering of blind patriotism scores further to the fact that pre-service teachers have critical thinking skills. this evidently shows that critical thinking has a positive relationship with constructive patriotism and a negative relationship with blind patriotism. in this regard, it supports the results of the current research. other studies (elban, 2011; şahin, 2014; yazıcı et al., 2016) also provide the same journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 results. yo, sudibjo, & santoso (2018) underline in their research that critical thinking is a prominent tool for patriotism, and that the negative aspects of patriotism could be eliminated through critical thinking. in their study, yazıcı & yazıcı (2009) reveal that there is a significant negative relationship between pre-service teachers’ levels of blind patriotism and constructive patriotism. they conclude that the scores of blind citizenships were higher in the research findings. kabaklı & çimen (2017) find in their study on university students that the blind patriotism attitudes of university students were higher than constructive patriotism attitudes. altıkulaç (2016) concludes in a study on patriotism that the constructive patriotism attitudes of the participants were higher than the blind patriotism attitudes. börü & yılmaz (2020) find in their study on students of the faculty of education that constructive patriotism scores were high and blind patriotism scores were moderate. the reason why pre-service teachers’ blind patriotism scores were lower was related to their social justice levels, and it was determined that the reason for this was that teacher candidates with this skill could see the negative aspects of the system and object to them. moreover, many studies in the national and international literature support the current results. specifically, blind patriotism or the differentiation of constructive patriotism varies according to various factors, such as country of residence, education level, socio-economic status of their families, the environment they live in, democratic culture, and others, but not according to variables such as age and gender (ercan, 2015; sumino, 2021; westheimer, 2009). consequently, while a study conducted in a region of turkey found that there was a negative significant difference between blind and constructive patriotism, the current study indicates that critical thinking could be a significant tool for patriotism. this is because, while blind patriots in general seem object to critical thinking, constructive patriots, on the contrary, support the argument that having a critical point of view would make them better citizens. the current research findings, based on the measurement of the scale results, also support this. in a country like turkey in particular, where there is a large immigrant population, critical thinking skills may help people to grow into constructive patriots and make it easier for them to become citizens of the world. this is because turkey has been in a difficult situation, both socially and economically, due to increasing immigration pressure in recent years. this has triggered significant anti-immigrant sentiment. therefore, in order to prevent such problems, it has become an extremely important issue to train teachers with critical thinking dispositions. critical thinking is a need for thinking, kaya 119 and it is paranoia and delusion that it will raise anarchists by creating an atmosphere of chaos as claimed by certain others. by providing a democratic atmosphere through critical thinking, not only the inner peace of individuals, but also social welfare would increase. on the other hand, it would contribute positively to global citizenship awareness as well as to national citizenship. teachers who can think critically and who are constructive patriots can play a significant role in solving immigrant problems. westheimer (2009) argues that democratic patriotism education can only be given by teachers who adopt a constructive patriotic attitude. therefore, more emphasis should be placed on patriotism and critical thinking education in universities and other levels of education. considering that citizenship education especially is included in social studies, it is of great importance that such courses take place more often in the undergraduate programs of social studies teachers. the content of constructive citizenship education should be enriched in countries such as turkey that have serious problems with immigration. with such training, it is vital to raise individuals who criticize, question, and who do not blindly obey, because only individuals who can criticize and grow up in a democratic environment can easily become world citizens. references ajaps, s., & obiagu, a. (2020). increasing civic engagement through civic education: a critical consciousness theory perspective. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 akar, c. (2017). sınıf öğretmeni adaylarının eleştirel düşünme eğilimlerinin çokkültürlülük değerlerini yordama düzeyi. ahi evran üniversitesi kırşehir eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 18(1), 741-762. altikulaç, a. (2016). patriotism and global citizenship as values: a research on social studies teacher candidates. journal of education and practice, 7(36), 26-33. akın, a., sarıçam, h. akın, ü., yıldız, b., demir, t., & kaya, m. (2014, april). the validity and reliability of the turkish version of the global citizienship scale. 3rd international symposium on social studies education, ankara. akin, a., hamedoğlu, m. a., sariçam, h., akin, u., i̇lbay, a. b., civan, s., & demir, t. (2013, december). the validity and reliability of the turkish version of the critical thinking disposition scale. paper presented at the 2nd iccls 2013, december, 17-19, ankara, turkey. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.2 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 andrzejewski, j., & alessio, j. (1999). education for global citizenship and social responsibility. progressive perspectives, 1(2), 2-17. anıl, d. & yavuz, g. (2010). öğretmen adayları için çok kültürlü eğitime yönelik tutum ölçeği güvenirlik ve geçerlik çalışması. international conference on new trends in education and their implications. 1056-1062. andrews, k., & aydin, h. (2020). pre-service teachers' perceptions of global citizenship education in the social studies curriculum. journal of social studies education research, 11(4), 84-113. bar-tal & staub, e., chicago: nelson-hall. bar-tal, d. ve staub, e. (1997). introduction: patriotism: its scope and meaning, patriotism in the lives of individuals and nations (ed. bar-tal, d. ve staub, e.), chicago: nelsonhall publishers, 1-19. ben-porath, s. (2007). civic virtue out of necessity: patriotism and democratic education. theory and research in education, 5(1), 41-59. börü, n., & yılmaz, s. (2020). eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin vatanseverlik tutum düzeyi. journal of social and humanities sciences research, 7(56), 2119-2125. brookfield, s. d. (1997). developing critical thinkers: challenging adults to explor alternative ways of thinking and acting. england: open university press. burman, k., de castro, e., gonzalez, j., morton, c., thompson, b., kaufman, j. and macfadyen, l. (2013). what is global citizenship. yael harlap(ed), road to global citizenship, an educator's toolbook, centre for teaching and academic growth university of british columbia. burrows, d. (2004, october). world citizenship. paper presented at the american council on education regional conference on new directions in international education, beloit, wisconsin. beken, d. c., (2010). türkiye’de ulus devletin inşasında üniversite mezunlarının vatanseverlik olgularına katkıları. (yüksek lisans tezi). muğla üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü. muğla. çelik, i̇., sarıçam, h., sakız, h., & ilbay, a. i̇. (2015). the link between critical thinking dispositions and life satisfaction among university students: the mediating role of meaning in life. ozean journal of social science, 8(3), 121-138. çepni, s. (2012). araştırma ve proje çalışmalarına giriş, 5. bursa: celepler matbaacılık. çoban, a. e., karaman, n. g. ve doğan, t. (2010). öğretmen adaylarının kültürel farklılıklara yönelik bakış açılarının çeşitli demografik değişkenlere göre incelenmesi. abant i̇zzet baysal üniversitesi dergisi, (10), 1. kaya 121 dam, g. t. ve volman, m. (2004). critical thinking a citizenship competence: teaching strategies. learning and instruction, 14, 359-379. develioğlu, f. (1970). osmanlı-türkçe ansiklopedik lügat. ankara: doğuş matbaası. elban, m. (2011). ortaöğretim 11.sınıf öğrencilerinin tarih dersine yönelik tutumları ile vatanseverlik tutumları arasındaki i̇lişkilerin i̇ncelenmesi. (unpublished master’s thesis), gazi üniversitesi eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. ankara. elban, m. (2015). ortaöğretim öğrencilerinin tarih dersine i̇lişkin tutumları: ankara i̇li kazan i̇lçesi örneği. turkish journal of educational studies, 2(2), 103-118. ennis, r. h. (1987). a taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. in j. b. baron & r. j. sternberg (eds.), teaching thinking skills: theory and practice (pp. 9–26). w h freeman/times books/ henry holt & co. ercan, r. (2015). yetişkinlerde yurtseverlik tutumlarının çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi [an investigation into attitudes of patriotism in adults with respect to demographic variables]. turkish studies, 10(3), 409–426. https://doi.org/10.7827/ turkishstudies.7976. fraenkel, j. r., & wallen, n. (2000). how to design and evaluate research in education (4th ed.). ny: mcgraw-hill. hattie, j. (2009). the contributions from teaching approaches-part 1. j. hattie.(eds.), visible learning: a synthesis of over, 800, 161-199. hjerm, m., sevä, i. j., & werner, l. (2018). how critical thinking, multicultural education and teacher qualification affect antiimmigrant attitudes. international studies in sociology of education, 27(1), 42-59. doi:10.1080/09620214.2018.1425895. johnson, g. r. (1997). the evolutionary roots of patriotism. in d. bar-tal & e. staub (eds.), patriotism: in the lives of individuals and nations. chicago: nelson-hall. judge, b., jones, p., & mccreery, e. (2009). study skills in education. london: learning matters. kabaklı-çimen, l. (2017). üniversite öğrencilerinin vatanseverlik tutumları i̇le benlik kurguları arasındaki i̇lişkinin i̇ncelenmesi. i̇nsan ve toplum bilimleri araştırmaları dergisi, 6(3), 1950-1975. kahne, j. & ellen, m., (2006). is patriotism good for democracy? a study of high school seniors’ patriotic commitments. phi delta kappan, 87(8), 600-607. kaya, m. m. (2021). state, citizens and education in the ottoman empire: civic education curriculum in the early 20th century. research in educational policy and management, 3(2), 42-72. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 kaya, m.m. (2021). the relationships between global citizenship, multicultural personality and critical thinking. educational policy analysis and strategic research, 16(4), 274-292. doi: 10.29329/epasr.2021.383.15 huddy, l., & khatib, n., (2010) “american patriotism, national identity, and political involvement”, american journal of political science 51/1 (2010): 63-77. kilinc, e. & tarman, b. (2018). global citizenship vs. patriotism: the correlation between preservice teachers’ perception of patriotism and global citizenship. in a. rapoport (ed.), competing frameworks: global and national in citizenship education. charlotte, nc: information age publishing. lim, c. p. (2008). global citizenship education, school curriculum and games: learning mathematics, english and science as a global citizen. computers & education, 51(3), 1073-1093. leek, j. (2016). global citizenship education in school curricula. a polish perspective. journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 51-74. miller, a. s. (2003). the development of critical thinking in adult learners using multilogical problems and dialogical instruction. (doctoral dissertation), retrieved from walden university, proquest database on 10 january 2022. morais, b. d., & ogden c. a. (2011) initial development and validation of the global citizenship scale. journal of studies in international education, 15(5), 445-466. doi:10.1177/1028315310375308. osler, a., & starkey, h. (2006). education for democratic citizenship: a review of research, policy and practice 1995–2005. research papers in education, 21(4), 433-466. paul, r., elder, l. ve bartell, t. (1997). a brief history of the idea of critical thinking. california teacher preparation for instruction in critical thinking: research findings and policy recommendations: state of california, california commission on teacher credentialing, sacromento, c.a. pirozzi, r. (2003). critical reading, critical thinking. new york: longman. polat, s. (2012). okul müdürlerinin çok kültürlülüğe ilişkin tutumları. hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 42(42), 334-343. rapoport, a. (2020). editorial: technologization of global citizenship education as response to challenges of globalization. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), i-vii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.ed reykowski, j. (1997). patriotism and the collective system of meanings in d. bar-tal & e. staub (eds.), patriotism: in the lives of individuals and nations. chicago: nelson-hall. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.ed kaya 123 richey, s. (2011). civic engagement and patriotism. social science quarterly, 92(4), 1044-1056. ruggiero, v. r. (1988). teaching thinking across the curriculum. new york: harper & row salzman, m. b. (2008). globalization, religious fundamentalism and the need for meaning. international journal of intercultural relations, 32(8) 318-327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.04.006. schatz, r. t. (1994). on being a good american: blind versus constructive patriotism. (unpublished doctoral dissertation), university of massachusetts amherst. schatz, r. t., staub, e., & lavine, h. (1999). on the varieties of national attachment: blind versus constructive patriotism. political psychology, 20(1), 151–174. schatz, r. t., staub. e. (1997). manifestations of blind and constructive patriotism. in patriotism, ed. daniel bar-tal and erving staub. chicago: nelson-hall. smith, a. (2020). critical race theory: disruption in teacher education pedagogy. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 52-71. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.4 staub, e. (1997). blind versus constructive patriotism: moving from embeddedness in the group to critical loyalty and action. in d. bar-tal & e. staub (eds.), patriotism: in the lives of individuals and nations. chicago: nelson hall. sosu, e. m. (2013). the development and psychometric validation of a critical thinking disposition scale. thinking skills and creativity, 9(7) 107-119. sumino, t. (2021). my country, right or wrong: education, accumulated democratic experience, and political socialization of blind patriotism. political psychology. 42(6) 923-940. swarts, g. (2020). re/coding global citizenship: how information and communication technologies have altered humanity… and created new questions for global citizenship education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 70-85. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.4 şahin, ç. p. (2014). polis okulu öğrencilerinin adil dünya i̇nancı, otoriterlik, sistemi meşrulaştırma, vatanseverlik ve i̇nsan hakları tutumlarının i̇ncelenmesi, (unpblished masters thesis), ege ünüversitesi, sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, i̇zmir. toprak, g. (2008). öğretmenlerin çokkültürlü tutum ölçeğinin güvenirlik ve geçerlik çalışması (unpblished masters thesis). gazi osman paşa üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü, tokat. unesco (2014). global citizenship education: preparing learners for the challenges of the 21st century. paris, unesco. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.04.006 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.4 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 103-124 wang, j., & jia, s. (2015). the contemporary value of patriotism. advances in applied sociology, 5(6)161-166. weisband, e., & thomas, c. i. p. (2015). political culture and the making of modern nation-states. london and ny: routledge taylor & francis group. westheimer, j. (2006). politics and patriotism in education. phi delta kappan, 87(8), 608-620. westheimer, j. (2009). should social studies be patriotic?, social education, 73(7), 316-320. white, c. (2020). wielding social media in the cyber-arena: globalism, nationalism, and civic education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 williams, r. l. (2005). targeting critical thinking within teacher education: the potential impact on society. the teacher educator, 40(3), 163-187. williams, r. l., foster, l. n., & krohn, k. r. (2008). relationship of patriotism measures to critical thinking and emphasis on civil liberties versus national security. analyses of social issues and public policy, 8(1), 139-156. yazıcı, f, pamuk, a ve yıldırım, t. (2016). tarih öğretmen adaylarının çokkültürlülük ve yurtseverlik tutumları arasındaki i̇lişki. turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic, 11(9 spring): 947–64. yazıcı, s., & yazıcı, f. (2010). yurtseverlik tutum ölçeğinin geçerlilik ve güvenilirlik çalışması. uluslararası i̇nsan bilimleri dergisi, 7(2), 901-918. yo, r., sudibjo, n., & santoso, a. (2018). fostering students’ character of patriotism and critical thinking skills. in character education for 21st century global citizens (pp. 499-509). routledge. zamir, s. & horowitz, t. (2013). the manifestation of the value of patriotism among israeli trainee teachers natives and immigrants: how will they educate their pupils in the light of this value?. journal for critical education policy studies, journal for critical education policy studies, 11(4), 202-223. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 93-120 the effect of blended learning on the degree of students’ acquisition of geography skills for the eleventh level at the secondary stage in kuwait maadi mahdi alajmi1 abstract the present study aimed to investigate the effect of using a blended learning instructional strategy on the degree of acquisition of geography skills by eleventh-level students during the first semester of the 2021/2022 academic year. the study sample consisted of 65 eleventh grade students divided into two groups, an experimental group and a control group. for the purpose of this study, a sixweek teaching program was designed to cover the main task and geography objective. both groups completed a pre-test and post-test, which were analyzed statistically using the statistical package for the social sciences (spss) program. the result revealed the superiority of blended learning in terms of the high degree of learners’ acquisition of geography skills in favor of the experimental group. in addition, the effect size of using blended learning was large. furthermore, the findings showed that there were statistically significant differences between the mean post-test scores of the two groups in geography facts, concepts, and skills in favor of the experimental group. the study concludes with recommendations related to employing blended learning in geography teaching to increase student achievement. keywords: geography objectives, geography skills, traditional teaching method, blended learning, secondary education in kuwait introduction geography is a part of the composite science of human society. its purpose is to study the direct impact on many activities such as agriculture, marine navigation, humanity, and the phenomena of the earth (ambarwati et al., 2021). geography presents a comprehensive picture of the earth, the form of life, its characteristics, the changes that occur in it, and its relationship to the entire universe. it is concerned with studying the climatic conditions of the earth and its layers (mzinga & onyango, 2021). geography puts current events in perspective and helps us understand history (lambert, 2011). roberts (2013) states that geographical skills are part of teaching geographical content, concepts that enable geographical thinking, and geographical literacy. tasks that use maps or gis require students to have acquired specific skills. therefore, students need to develop these skills in their livings, occupations, and future (tarman & erkan, 2021; unlu, 2011). 1 dr. kuwait university, college of education, curriculum & instruction department, drmaadi1@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 geography lessons must be designed, planned, and structured according to the facts, concepts, and skills that allow learners to apply such knowledge to different economic activities within their locality to improve their lives (hoque, 2016). niyazi (2018) states that there are numerous obstacles in the way of geography teachers for providing a better geography education. an example of the problems encountered in geography education includes teaching methods based on explaining concepts instead of providing various learning aspects to achieve learning objectives (tureniyazova, 2019; utami, 2018). hence, the failure to do proper planning in geography lessons prevents teaching activities from being implemented in a productive way (ilhan & gülersoy, 2019). considering the above challenges, a blended strategy seems a viable means for overcoming the learning difficulties experienced by students and teachers in kuwait. it has been increasingly argued that blended learning is an instructional model that can support learning in many ways, enhance students’ learning outcomes, improve students’ motivation, and facilitate the learning process across the curriculum (e.g., al-madani, 2015; isti’anah, 2017; kiviniemi, 2014; utami, 2018). a study of the blended learning approach compared to the traditional learning approach on fifth-grade students’ achievement showed that using the blended approach is more effective than the conventional method in terms of achievement and the development of verbal creative thinking skills (al-madani, 2015). similarly, another study examined the effects of a blended learning environment on middle school students’ engagement and academic achievement. it has been concluded that blended learning is more effective than traditional face-to-face learning (matarirano & gqokonqana, 2021; sturm & quaynor, 2020). with traditional teaching methods, educational materials are only available during classroom hours (alsowat, 2016; kalimullina et al., 2021). however, the blended learning strategy allows students to stay engaged with their studies in their own time, at their own pace. grabinsk et al. (2015) observed that for blended learning to be successful in influencing learning outcomes, the learner must be independent with a high level of motivation. alnesafi (2018) observed that teachers resisted blended learning due to inadequate training and insufficient it skills to create content posted on the internet. lópez-pérez et al. (2011) defined blended learning as the integration of traditional classroom methods with online activities. blended learning aims to combine the advantages of face-to-face and e-learning environments that foster face-to-face instruction and digital forms of teaching so that instruction occurs both in the classroom and online (harahap et al., 2019). because it combines alajmi 95 the two advantages of instructional models, blended learning positively impacts the learning process (utami, 2018). it can improve pedagogy and easier access to information and facilitate an independent and collaborative learning experience (dinh, 2019; rafiola et al., 2020). while blended learning is well-received in western culture (grabinsk et al., 2015), in kuwait, where the researcher is conducting this study, few well-documented investigations in the literature show whether this pedagogical approach ensures the superiority of blended learning over the traditional education method in terms of the high degree of learners’ acquisition of geography facts, concepts, and skills. moreover, it has not previously been attempted in kuwaiti education, especially in the context of implementing the blended learning approach to the geography facts, concepts, and skills for the eleventh level at the secondary stage. given the very limited number of studies on the effectiveness of blended learning when implemented in education, this study aims to fill this informational gap by investigating the effect of blended learning among eleventh-level students at the secondary stage in kuwait. purpose of the study despite the widespread use of technology across educational disciplines in kuwait and its positive impact on learners, the amount and quality of research on the effect of this blended learning approach to teaching and learning in the education system in kuwait in general and for geography is still very poor compared with published literature in other disciplines. one of the main challenges geography teachers face in providing a more efficient geography education involves the solutions teachers come up with for these issues (niyazi, 2018). another challenge is the lack of teachers’ skills, knowledge, and professional development and training in implementing blended learning technology (aldhafiri, 2020; alnesafi, 2018). consequently, this situation leads to low proficiency in critical thinking and affects the high degree of learners’ acquisition of geography skills. therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of blended learning instruction on the degree of acquisition of geography skills by eleventh-grade students in kuwait. study questions the problem addressed in this study is represented in the following research questions: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 1) are there significant differences in the mean pre-test results for student achievement in geography skills between experimental and control students? 2) are there significant differences between the mean achievement scores of students taught geography skills using traditional instruction compared to the scores of students taught using a blended learning teaching model? null hypothesis in regard to the research questions above, this study attempts to verify the following null hypotheses. these null hypotheses suggest no relationship or difference between blended learning strategy (independent variable x1) and student academic achievement (dependent variable y). h01: there are no significant differences at the level α ≤ 0.05 in the mean pre-test results for student academic achievement in geography skills between students in the experimental and control groups. h02: there are no statistically significant indications at the level of α ≤ 0.05 between the mean achievement scores of students who are taught geography skills using traditional instruction compared to the scores of students who are taught using a blended learning model of instruction. significance of the study this study is significant because very little research has been conducted to investigate the effect of blended learning instruction on the degree of acquisition of geography skills by eleventh-grade students in kuwait. thus, the outcomes of this study are expected to provide deeper insight into the possible implementation of blended learning in the classrooms to equip students with better geography skills in a limited period. literature review geography objectives and skills teaching geography revolves around knowing and understanding information, facts, concepts, and generalizations that help one understand the local environment. it allows learners to apply such knowledge to different economic activities within their locality that assist in improving lives (hoque, 2016). krause et al. (2021) emphasize that geography is oriented to specific facts and the development of skills in observation, recording, and using information collected to solve problems. the objectives of geography focus on helping the learners to: 1. know the different cultures. alajmi 97 2. knowing which professions and work duties require geographical competence. 3. understanding how natural landscapes change and interpreting the structures and development using images, diagrams, photographs, and maps. 4. the ability to use geographical information system applications. 5. the ability to use communication technology in acquiring, analyzing, and presenting data. 6. analyzing the positive demographic development and settlement in different world regions. 7. considering potential solutions for economic problems and social inequality. 8. analyzing geographical problems and suggesting possible solutions. 9. understanding the meaning of human rights. 10. understanding phenomena arise from the planetary nature of the globe. 11. observing and describing natural and human phenomena related to the local and global environment. (collins, 2018; virranmäki et al., 2021) among the essential skills of geography are the following: 1. remember geographic facts and concepts. 2. recognize geographical symbols. 3. describe geographical phenomena. 4. interpretation of environment changes. 5. explain the causes of social problems. 6. give examples of environmental problems. 7. summarize the data and present it in various forms. 8. compare and classify geographical phenomena. 9. propose solutions to environmental problems such as pollution, desertification, and global warming. 10. criticize the local and global actions to confront climate change. 11. employ geographical information and laws in innovative life situations. 12. draw conclusions and judgments from given phenomena. (ayas, 2015; krause, 2021; virranmäki et al., 2021) according to ridha et al. (2019), spatial thinking is critical in teaching geography. it helps students with spatial understanding, interpretation of geographical phenomena, spatial distribution, and determination of locations and directions. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 blended learning the traditional teaching method depends on face-to-face instruction and requires students to attend school. this method is no longer appropriate in this era and with the generation of technological developments. in contrast, the distance learning method depends on the use of the internet in the teaching process (ma’arop & embi, 2016; saboowala et al., 2021). such a method has many negatives as it weakens the development of skills such as interaction, participation, collaboration, and field training. additionally, there is the difficulty of providing internet access in many places and for all students (powell et al., 2015; saboowala et al., 2021). the blended learning method is a compromise between the traditional method and the distance learning method, where blended learning combines the advantages of the two methods and avoids the negatives of each (alsarayreh, 2020; alshahrani & talaue, 2018; bower et al., 2015; diab & elgahsh, 2020; etom et al., 2021). one of the advantages of blended learning is that it reduces the burden on teachers and gives them enough time to manage teaching situations, guide students, consider the individual differences between them, and respond to their needs in a better way (suprabha & subramonian, 2015). blended learning is characterized by continuity, comprehensiveness, and flexibility. it balances student learning in the classroom and at home to solve homework and communicate with teachers and colleagues to implement projects and assignments. many studies have found that learners prefer blended learning because it mixes traditional and online methods. it is also characterized by flexibility and access to content and activities at any time with the possibility of field training on performance and applied skills in the classroom or laboratories (banditvilai, 2016; evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; tamim, 2018). there are six models of blended learning mentioned by ayob et al. (2020): face-to-face driver, online lab, flex, self-blend, rotation, and enriched virtual model. according to martanto et al. (2021), blended learning proved highly effective in providing students with social studies skills such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration, problem-solving, and creativity. mclaughlin et al. (2015) stated that the increase in students’ achievement from the blended learning method is because learners study the contents using the online form and using classroom activities that depend on student-centered learning. alajmi 99 there is a lack of agreement between the studies about the superiority of the blended learning method over the traditional method regarding students’ acquisition of skills or increasing students’ motivation to learn. in contrast, some studies confirmed the superiority of blended learning over the traditional method, such as the studies of rao (2019), kundu (2021), and lapitan jr. et al. (2021). however, some studies did not find any statistical differences between the two methods related to students’ acquisition of teaching skills or academic achievement, such as the studies of fuhrer (2021), law et al. (2019), saboowala et al. (2021). method research design this research aims to investigate the effect of blended learning instruction on the degree of acquisition of geography skills by eleventh-grade students in kuwait for the academic year of 2021-2022. in addition, this study examines whether the blended learning approach can improve students’ skills and determines whether the acquisition of geography facts, concepts, and skills presented in blended learning leads to more significant achievement gains than the traditional methods. to achieve reliability and validity of the research study, it was necessary to use an experimental design (cook & campbell, 1979; creswell & creswell, 2017). this design had two randomly assigned groups, classified as (a) the “traditional” teaching approach and (b) the blended learning approach. a pre-test in higher-order skills was administered to both groups to measure the degree of acquisition of geography skills before the intervention. the same test was administered as a post-test to both groups at the end of the study to measure the differences between the study groups. the mean scores were calculated for the post-test scores to ensure interrater reliability, and the same procedure as pre-test administration was followed. the design of the research is presented in table 1. table 1 experimental design pre-test, post-test study groups type of treatment the degree of acquisition of geography skills experimental group blended learning approach (6 weeks) the degree of acquisition of geography skills control group traditional method journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 participants and sample the target population for this study was 65 students in the eleventh-grade level, randomly selected from the sabah al-salem high school in kuwait for the academic year 2021-2022. both the experimental and control group students were homogenous and had similar educational backgrounds. the experimental group students (33) were required to join a blended learning approach, and students in the control group (32) studied using conventional methods. before the intervention started, all participants signed a consent form that briefly described the study. the distribution of the sample is presented in table 2. table 2 demographic characteristics of both assigned groups group experimental group control group total no (n=33) (n=32) 65 course design and procedure this section describes the implementation of the blended learning design before, during, and after class activities and assessments based on objectives using all levels of bloom’s taxonomy. the taxonomy can be simplified into its essential components for instructional design purposes based on what the task requires students to accomplish. the second chapter of the geography textbook for the eleventh grade and its title (principles of geography) was chosen. the title of this chapter is planet earth, and it contains three parts (man and universe solar system general characteristics of the earth) (moe, 2019). the researcher randomly selected two classes at the eleventh level at sabah al-salem high school. the first class, 11a, consisted of 32 students, and it became the control group that used the traditional method. the second class, 11b, consists of 33 students, and it became the experimental group using blended learning. a teacher with nine years of experience teaching geography and blended learning strategies was selected to lead the two classes (the control and experimental groups). the experiment was carried out at sabah al-salem high school during the first semester of 2021. the control group students were taught in the usual traditional way, which requires students to attend school and learn in a face-to-face manner based on the printed textbook. blended learning was used with the experimental group, where the students of this group attend a class at school, and the next class is online without attending school. the teacher used the face-to-face driver model with the alajmi 101 experimental group, where the content is delivered from the teacher to the student directly with the part of the material via the internet, which allowed students to study at home or in the class. in-school classes are devoted to practical skills and performing practices, while online classes are devoted to cognitive and theoretical skills. the total of the lessons studied by the students of the two groups amounted to 12 lessons for each group over a period of six weeks. the use of the microsoft teams application was relied upon by the experimental group in providing online lessons. the reason for choosing this application was due to the experience of students and teachers in using it, which they gained during the past two years when schools were forced to close due to the coronavirus pandemic. the researcher designed an achievement test to measure the degrees of students’ acquisition of geography concepts, facts, and skills at the eleventh level. the achievement test was applied to the students of the two groups after six weeks (12 lessons). first, the researcher collected the data and entered it into the spss program. then, one-way anova, means, standard deviations, t-test, and the significance level (.05) were used to analyze the results statistically. instrumentation the researcher developed and implemented the instrument used in this study using experimental design procedures based on an extensive review of related theory and research in the literature (cook & campbell, 1979; creswell & creswell, 2017). the researcher developed a written test to assess students’ composition before and after the treatment. the test contained 30 multiple-choice questions. a post-test was used to determine the effect of the blended learning strategy on the development of the students’ geography skills. to ensure the validity of the instrument, the instrument was drafted by the researcher and submitted to several content judges who were experts in the field of social studies, who reviewed and determined the face and content validity of the instrument. in the end, the researcher revised the test based on the reviewers’ comments. the achievement test is attached in the appendix. content validity an inter-item correlation test using kmo analysis was employed to validate the instrument’s content by identifying the correlation between the score of each of the test questions and the total instrument score and each of the statements and the category to which it belongs. in addition, a correlation test was conducted among the scores of the three axes of the questionnaire and the total instrument score. table 3 describes the inter-item correlations. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 table 3 achievement test inter-item correlations question index correlation question index correlation 1 0.739* 16 0.676* 2 0.755* 17 0.731* 3 0.746* 18 0.752* 4 0.698* 19 0.846* 5 0.747* 20 0.773* 6 0.799* 21 0.791* 7 0.693* 22 0.765* 8 0.784* 23 0.711* 9 0.801* 24 0.763* 10 0.833* 25 0.744* 11 0.667* 26 0.784* 12 0.741* 27 0.698* 13 0.683* 28 0.746* 14 0.726* 29 0.761* 15 0.632* 30 0.832* * significant at α=0.05 the previous table shows a high correlation between the questions, the total instrument score, and the relevant category items. this means that the tool used in this study is internally valid in addition to face validity. reliability test the researcher verified the reliability of the achievement test by applying it to an exploratory sample of 22 students and reapplying it to the same group after two weeks. the correlation coefficient was calculated using cronbach’s coefficient. a reliability test was conducted among the instruments and their categories using cronbach’s alpha measure with the sample of students. see table 4 for reliability test results. table 4 shows that reliability coefficients ranged from 0.788-0.846 for the two categories. therefore, the result for the total questionnaire equals 0.779, which means the overall high reliability of scales used in the test. alajmi 103 table 4 summary statistics of reliability test question no. cronbach’s alpha question no. cronbach’s alpha question no. cronbach’s alpha 1 .861 11 .785 21 .803 2 .798 12 .844 22 .744 3 .832 13 .753 23 .774 4 .778 14 .699 24 .781 5 .765 15 .737 25 .788 6 .824 16 .774 26 .757 7 .747 17 .780 27 .766 8 .853 18 .748 28 .738 9 .806 19 .791 29 .698 10 .796 20 .770 30 .759 total .779 data collection this study’s data were collected by applying a pre-test to the control and experimental group students before starting the experiment to ensure that the two groups were equal in acquiring geography skills for the eleventh grade. after six weeks, a post-test was also applied to the same two groups to compare the impact of blended learning and the traditional teaching method on the degrees of students’ acquisition of geography facts, concepts, and skills. the total number of students in the control group was 32, while the number of students in the experimental group was 33. data analysis data from the pre-test and the post-test assessments were collected and analyzed using a t-test to determine whether there was a significant difference in performance between the mean value of the pre-test scores of participants in the control group and participants in the experimental group. a one-way anova on the post-test total scores with the pre-test total scores as variance was used to determine whether there were differences in the degrees of students’ acquisition of geography journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 skills between the experimental and control groups before and after the intervention. the researcher analyzed the scores of students of the control and experimental groups in the achievement test (pre and post) using ssps software version 29. means, standard deviations, ttests, and significance levels (.05) were used to ascertain if there were statistically significant differences between the scores of the students of the control and experimental groups in the achievement test. results and discussion normality test normality testing uses the kolmogorov-smirnov statistical test. it aims to test the blended learning (experiment), traditional method (control), and students’ scores in the achievement tests. table 5 shows the normality test scores. table 5 normality test on blended learning, traditional method and students’ scores in the achievement test variables no variable factors score 1 blended learning (experiment) kolmogorov-smirnov z value probability 1,783 0.15 2 traditional method (control) kolmogorov-smirnov z value probability 1,678 0.09 3 students’ scores in the achievement tests kolmogorov-smirnov z value probability 1,659 0.17 table 5 indicates that the p-value = 0.15 > 0.05 shows that the blended learning (experiment) variable data is normally distributed, and the p-value = 0.09>0.05 shows that the traditional method (control) variable data meets the requirements of the normality test. also, the table indicates that the students’ scores in the achievement tests variable data p value = 0.17>0.05, which means that it is normally distributed. linearity test the linearity test determines the relationship between the independent and linear dependent variables. the criteria for linearity testing are that if the calculated f value < f table has a significant level of 0.05, then the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is linear. the results of the linearity test are presented in table 6. alajmi 105 table 6 linearity test variable df f count f table sig information x1 y 63 0.798 3.92 0.701 linear x2 y 63 0.776 3.79 0.762 linear the linearity test results for variables x1 (blended learning (experiment)) and y (students’ scores in the achievement tests) in table 6 show that the calculated f value is 0.798, and the f table value is 3.92 with a significance value of 0.701. these results indicate that the computed f value is 0.05, which means that the relationship between x1 and y is linear. the linearity test results for the variables x2 (traditional method (control)) and y (students’ scores in the achievement tests) in table 6 shows that the calculated f value is 0.776 and the f table value is 3.79 with a significance value of 0.762. these results indicate the calculated f value 0.05, which means that the relationship between x2 and y is linear. table 6 shows that the linearity test results show a straight line of the functional relationship equation between the variables so that these results can be used to test the hypothesis of this study. homogeneity test the variance homogeneity test of the blended learning (experiment) (x1) variable, the traditional method (control) (x2), and students’ scores in the achievement tests (y) were carried out using the f-test, provided that if f count > f table, the variance of the groups was homogeneous. table 7 indicates the results of the homogeneous test. table 7 test of homogeneity group levene statistic df1 df2 sig. blended learning (experiment) 2.996 31 63 .000 traditional method (control) 2.586 31 63 .000 table 7 shows that the elaborate phase’s r-value in blended learning (experiment) and traditional method (control) variables are smaller than the levels used, namely, 0.000 <0.05. thus, the scores on the blended learning (experiment) and traditional method (control) variables spread homogeneously. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 descriptive statistics before the hypothesis testing is conducted, the following descriptive data are presented, showing achievement of the experimental and control groups in pre-test and post-test. table 8 descriptive data of pre-test and post-test of the experimental and control groups no experimental group, n= 33 control group, n= 32 pre-test f % post-test f % pre-test f % post-test f % 1 90-100 8 24.2 90-100 16 48.5 90-100 6 18.8 90-100 10 31.3 2 76-89 12 33.4 76-89 14 42.4 76-89 10 31.3 76-89 12 37.5 3 66-75 10 30.3 66-75 3 9.1 66-75 8 25 66-75 6 18.8 4 60-66 3 9.1 60-66 60-66 5 15.6 60-66 4 12.5 5 40-99 40-99 40-99 3 9.3 40-99 6 mean 76 mean 82 100 mean 74 100 mean 78 100 as indicated in table 8, the score achieved by the experimental group on pre-test and post-test are as follows: mean score on pre-test is 76 and post-test 82. the control group achieved lower mean scores: pre-test = 74 and post-test = 78. simultaneously, the frequency of achievement in each category, a (90-100), b (76-89), c (66-75), d (60-66), also increases in pre-test and post-test both for the experimental group and the control group. an inferential statistic through hypothesis testing is delivered to see whether the mean score difference is statistically significant. hypothesis testing the study includes two null hypotheses, and the analysis of the following results is to verify the hypotheses. hypothesis 1: there are no significant differences between students in the experimental and control groups at the level α ≤ 0.05 in the mean pre-test results for student academic achievement in geography skills. the first hypothesis proposed that there would be no significant differences at the level α ≤ 0.05 in the mean pre-test results for student academic achievement in geography skills between students in the experimental and control groups. therefore, to test the first hypothesis, means and standard deviations of the scores of both groups in the pre-test were calculated. in addition, the statistical significance value and t-value were calculated. these results are listed in table 9. alajmi 107 table 9 the statistical analysis results for the scores of both groups in the pre-test sig. (2 tailed) t df s/d mean n group test 0.895 0.801 63 1.74 10.17 32 control pre-test 1.82 9.89 33 experiment * significant at α=0.05 according to the data in table 9, the control group’s mean was 10.17, while the experimental group’s mean was 9.89. the t-value equaled 0.801, and the statistical significance value was 0.895, which is greater than the statistical significance level a=0.05. these values indicate that there was no significant difference between the groups. this result shows that before the application, the prior knowledge of both the experimental and control groups was very close to each other; as a result, their prior knowledge and experience with geography skills seem to be similar. thus, the control and experimental groups had similar academic abilities as measured by this test. therefore, the hypothesis was considered valid due to this result. there were no significant differences between students in the experimental and control groups at the level α ≤ 0.05 in the mean pre-test results for student academic achievement in geography skills. hypothesis 2: there are no statistically significant indication at the level of α ≤ 0.05 between the mean achievement scores of students who are taught geography skills using traditional instruction compared to the scores of students who are taught using a blended learning model of instruction. it was predicted that there would be no statistically significant indication at the level of α ≤ 0.05 between the mean achievement scores of students who are taught geography skills using traditional classroom instruction compared to the scores of students who are taught using a blended learning model of instruction. to determine whether there was any statistical significance related to the post-test scores of the experimental and control groups, the means and standard deviations of the scores of both groups on the post-test were calculated. in addition, the statistical significance value and t-value were calculated. the results are specified in table 10. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 table 10 the statistical analysis results for the scores of both groups in the post-test sig. (2 tailed) t df s/d mean n group test 0.001* 8.474 63 1.83 20.21 32 control post-test 1.76 28.73 33 experiment * significant at α=0.05 as shown in table 10, there is a significant difference related to the post-test scores of the experimental and control groups. the experimental group shows a mean score of 28.73, whereas the control group shows a mean score of 20.21. the t-value is 8.474, and the statistical significance value (sig.) is 0.0001, which indicates that the post-test scores of the experimental group are higher than those of the control group. these results indicate that the blended learning model of instruction would help improve students’ geography skills. to verify this result, a one-way anova was conducted, and the results are presented in table 11. table 11 results of one-way anova source of variance sum of squares df mean squares f sig. between groups 26.478 1 26,478 9.076 0.001* within groups 157.385 63 2.026 total 183.863 64 * significant at α=0.05 the result of the one-way anova indicated significant differences between the means of the different groups based on the teaching method variable, 0.001, which is less than the significance level a=0.05. this result can be attributed to the learning method in favor of the blended learning model. accordingly, it can be concluded that using the blended learning model to learn geography skills had a significant effect on the increase in the level of achievements related to using the blended learning by the students in the experimental group. this can be demonstrated by the difference between the post-test means for the two groups, which were higher for the experimental group. to further explore and rule out which group performed better in the post-test, a bonferroni test for post hoc comparisons was conducted to identify the differentiated effect of satisfaction of alajmi 109 enhanced capabilities, which was calculated by applying post hoc tests. the results of the bonferroni test are presented in table 12. table 12 results of bonferroni test for post-test hoc comparisons for the students’ achievement level on the post-test group n 32 pre-test post-test df t sig. η 2 d mean s/d mean s/d experiment 33 9.82 1.82 28.73 1.76 32 8.474 0.0197 0.795 4.386 as shown in table 12, the results indicate that there is a statistically significant difference between the degree of acquisition of geography skills by eleventh-grade students in kuwait of those who studied using the traditional method and those who used the blended learning strategy. these results highlight an adequate degree of acceptance of the use of the blended learning model among the eleventh-grade students. it is worth mentioning that the ƞ2 score was 0.795 and the effect size was 4.386, which is a high value that indicates that there is a significant size effect in the use of the blended learning model to improve students’ geography skills in the experimental group. previous studies (e.g., al-madani, 2015; ilhan & gülersoy, 2019; isti’anah, 2017; kiviniemi, 2014; utami, 2018) have reported that using blended learning as an instructional method provides a dynamic, interactive learning environment, facilitates thinking skills, enhances students’ learning outcomes, improves students’ motivation, facilitates the learning process across the curriculum, and helps students learn and retain information better than traditional lectures. this study sought to investigate the effect of using a blended learning instructional strategy on acquiring geography skills among the eleventh-grade students in kuwait. of the two hypotheses, the second was significantly confirmed. the results obtained from the one-way anova indicated a significant effect on students’ geography skills learning class. this implies that the blended learning approach was more effective on students’ achievements. therefore, the second null hypothesis of the study was rejected. a possible explanation is a major difference between blended learning and traditional classrooms. blended learning combines the advantages of the two methods and avoids the negatives of each (alsarayreh, 2020; alshahrani & talaue, 2018). another explanation is the advantage of blended learning, which reduces the burden on teachers and gives them enough time to manage teaching situations, guide students, consider the individual differences between them, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 and respond to their needs in a better way (suprabha & subramonian, 2015). the findings of this study seem to support the findings of previous researchers. al-madani (2015), rao (2019), kundu (2021), and lapitan jr. et al. (2021) confirmed that the blended learning approach could be more effective than the traditional face-to-face learning approach. these findings can be attributed to the fact that using the blended learning strategy with the students in the experimental group raised their engagement, activity, and motivation to learn. in addition, the control group showed less interest during the learning process. these findings encourage teachers to apply blended learning in their teaching process to achieve the desired objectives. conclusions and recommendations based on the analysis of the data and the findings of this research, the following conclusions are drawn. first, the overall effectiveness of implementing the blended learning method as a teaching aid in secondary schools can effectively improve students’ geography skills. second, the positive effects of using the blended learning strategy became evident after the treatment. third, based on the present study's findings, the following recommendations can be formulated. new methods of instruction should be implemented in kuwait’s educational process to embrace advances in technology in improving learners’ acquisition of geography skills. concerning the limitations of this study, future studies should investigate the effect of a blended learning model of instruction on other curricula, such as science, mathematics, arabic, and english, in the context of secondary education. acknowledgment the author is very thankful to all the associated personnel who contributed to this research. references aldhafiri, m. d. (2020). the effectiveness of using interactive whiteboards in improving the arabic listening skills of undergraduates majoring in arabic language at kuwaiti universities. education and information technologies, 25(5), 3577–3591. al-madani, f. m. (2015). the effect of blended learning approach on fifth grade students’ academic achievement in my beautiful language textbook and the development of their verbal creative thinking in saudi arabia. journal of international education research (jier), 11(4), 253–260. alajmi 111 alnesafi, a. (2018). blended learning and accounting education in kuwait: an analysis of social construction of technology. academy of accounting and financial studies journal, 22(3), 1–19. alsarayreh, r. (2020). using blended learning during covid-19: the perceptions of school teachers in jordan. cypriot journal of educational sciences, 15(6), 1544–1556. alshahrani, f., & talaue, g. m. (2018). traditional versus blended learning method: a comparative study on its effectiveness in business communication course. international journal of advanced information technology (ijait), 8(6). alsowat, h. h. (2016). foreign language anxiety in higher education: a practical framework for reducing fla. european scientific journal, 12(7), 193–220. ambarwati, p. d., maryani, e., & yani, a. (2021). the quality of geography textbook of twelvegrade and their implications for the development of students geographic thinking skills. international conference on elementary education, 3(1), 342–348. ayas, c. (2015). the role of media in geography courses from the perspectives of pre-service social studies teachers. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 172–189. ayob, n. f. s., abd halim, n. d., zulkifli, n. n., zaid, n. m., & mokhtar, m. (2020). overview of blended learning: the effect of station rotation model on students’ achievement. journal of critical reviews, 7(6), 320–326. banditvilai, c. (2016). enhancing students’ language skills through blended learning. electronic journal of e-learning, 14(3), 223–232. bower, m., dalgarno, b., kennedy, g. e., lee, m. j., & kenney, j. (2015). design and implementation factors in blended synchronous learning environments: outcomes from a cross-case analysis. computers & education, 86, 1–17. collins, l. (2018). the impact of paper versus digital map technology on students’ spatial thinking skill acquisition. journal of geography, 117(4), 137–152. doi: 10.1080/00221341.2017.1374990 cook, t. d., & campbell, d. t. (1979). the design and conduct of true experiments and quasiexperiments in field settings. in research in organizations: issues and controversies. goodyear publishing company. creswell, j. w., & creswell, j. d. (2017). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. sage publications. diab, g. m. a. e. h., & elgahsh, n. f. (2020). e-learning during covid-19 pandemic: obstacles faced nursing students and its effect on their attitudes while applying it. american journal of nursing, 9(4), 300–314. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 dinh, h. (2019). towards a knowledge-rich curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 54-70. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.5 etom, r., pabatang jr, o., dapanas, k. m. m., consolacion, r., iniego, j. m., jumao-as, a. m., ... & tee, k. c. (2021). the use of e-learning tools in blended learning approach on students’ engagement and performance. journal of physics: conference series, 1835(1), 012075. iop publishing. evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 fuhrer, c. (2021). instructional strategies that foster high school students’ achievement in blended learning (doctoral dissertation, walden university). https://www.proquest.com/openview/57de7b4a2f256cf5d23dfa9112417f7a/1?pqorigsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y grabinsk, k., kedzior, m., & krasodomska, j. (2015). blended learning in tertiary accounting education in the cee region: a polish perspective. accounting and management information systems, 14(2), 378. harahap, f., nasution, n. e. a., & manurung, b. (2019). the effect of blended learning on student’s learning achievement and science process skills in plant tissue culture course. international journal of instruction, 12(1), 521–538. hoque, m. e. (2016). three domains of learning: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. the journal of efl education and research, 2(2), 45–52. ilhan, a., & gülersoy, a. e. (2019). discovery learning strategy in geographical education: a sample of lesson design. review of international geographical education online, 9(3), 523–541. isti’anah, a. (2017). the effect of blended learning to the students’ achievement in grammar class. ijee (indonesian journal of english education), 4(1), 16–30. kalimullina, o., tarman, b. & stepanova, i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher's role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226-238. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 kiviniemi, m. t. (2014). effects of a blended learning approach on student outcomes in a graduatelevel public health course. bmc medical education, 14(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-14-47 krause, u., béneker, t., & van tartwijk, j. (2021). geography textbook tasks fostering thinking skills for the acquisition of powerful knowledge. international research in geographical and environmental education, 1–16. https://www.proquest.com/openview/57de7b4a2f256cf5d23dfa9112417f7a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y https://www.proquest.com/openview/57de7b4a2f256cf5d23dfa9112417f7a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-14-47 alajmi 113 kundu, a., bej, t., & rice, m. (2021). time to engage: implementing math and literacy blended learning routines in an indian elementary classroom. education and information technologies, 26(1), 1201–1220. lambert, d. (2011). reframing school geography: a capability approach. continuum. lapitan jr., l. d., tiangco, c. e., sumalinog, d. a. g., sabarillo, n. s., & diaz, j. m. (2021). an effective blended online teaching and learning strategy during the covid-19 pandemic. education for chemical engineers, 35, 116–131. law, k. m., geng, s., & li, t. (2019). student enrollment, motivation and learning performance in a blended learning environment: the mediating effects of social, teaching, and cognitive presence. computers & education, 136, 1–12. lópez-pérez, m. v., pérez-lópez, m. c., & rodríguez-ariza, l. (2011). blended learning in higher education: students’ perceptions and their relation to outcomes. computers & education, 56(3), 818–826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.10.023 ma’arop, a. h., & embi, m. a. (2016). implementation of blended learning in higher learning institutions: a review of the literature. international education studies, 9(3), 41–52. martanto, s. d., pramono, s. e., & sanjoto, t. b. (2021). the implementation of blended learning in social studies learning for 21st century skills enhancement. journal of educational social studies, 9–18. matarirano, o., gqokonqana, o., & yeboah, a. (2021). students’ responses to multi-modal emergency remote learning during covid-19 in a south african higher institution. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 199-218. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.19 mclaughlin, j. e., gharkholonarehe, n., khanova, j., deyo, z. m., & rodgers, j. e. (2015). the impact of blended learning on student performance in a cardiovascular pharmacotherapy course. american journal of pharmaceutical education, 79(2). https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe79224 moe. (2019). principles of geography and economics textbook for the eleventh grade. the educational research and curricula sector, curriculum development department, kuwait. second edition. retrieved from https://www.sskuwait.net/ mzinga, w., & onyango, d. o. (2021). the role of instructional materials in learning geography among secondary schools in busega district, tanzania. east african journal of education and social sciences (eajess), 2(3), 29–36. niyazi, k. (2018). main challenges in front of the teachers to teach geography more effectively: a phenomenological research. review of international geographical education online, 8(2), 371–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.10.023 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.19 https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe79224 https://www.sskuwait.net/ journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 powell, a., watson, j., staley, p., patrick, s., horn, m., fetzer, l., hibbard, l., oglesby, j., & verma, s. (2015). blending learning: the evolution of online and face-to-face education from 2008-2015. promising practices in blended and online learning series. international association for k-12 online learning. retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed560788.pdf rafiola, r., setyosari, p., radjah, c., & ramli, m. (2020). the effect of learning motivation, selfefficacy, and blended learning on students’ achievement in the industrial revolution 4.0. international journal of emerging technologies in learning (ijet), 15(8), 71–82. rao, v. (2019). blended learning: a new hybrid teaching methodology. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed611486 ridha, s., utaya, s., bachri, s., & handoyo, b. (2019). students’ geographic skills in indonesia: evaluating learning material questions about gis using taxonomy of spatial thinking. journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 266–287. roberts, m. (2013). geography through enquiry: approaches to teaching and learning in the secondary school. sheffield: geographical association. saboowala, r., & manghirmalani mishra, p. (2021). readiness of in-service teachers toward a blended learning approach as a learning pedagogy in the post-covid-19 era. journal of educational technology systems, 50(1), 9–23. sturm, e., & quaynor, l. (2020). a window, mirror, and wall: how educators use twitter for professional learning. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 22-44. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.2 suprabha, k., & subramonian, g. (2015). blended learning approach for enhancing students’ learning experiences in a knowledge society. journal of educational technology, 11(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.26634/jet.11.4.3146 tarman, i. & erkan, n. s. (2021). a study on the development of map and globe reading and interpretation skills in early childhood education. international journal of education in mathematics, science, and technology (ijemst), 9(4), 668-683. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.2044 tamim, r. m. (2018). blended learning for learner empowerment: voices from the middle east. journal of research on technology in education, 50(1), 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2017.1405757 tureniyazova, a. (2019). using graphical organizers in the teaching process of ict. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 31-40. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.3 unlu, m. (2011). the level of realizing geographical skills in geography lessons. educational sciences: theory and practice, 11(4), 2166–2172. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed560788.pdf https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed611486 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.2 https://doi.org/10.26634/jet.11.4.3146 https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2017.1405757 alajmi 115 utami, i. s. (2018). the effect of blended learning model on senior high school students’ achievement. in shs web of conferences (vol. 42, p. 00027). edp sciences. virranmäki, e., valta-hulkkonen, k., & pellikka, a. (2021). geography curricula objectives and students’ performance: enhancing the student’s higher-order thinking skills? journal of geography, 1–33. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 appendix achievement test for the principles of geography for the eleventh grade a. complete the following statements: 1. the figure in front of you represents one of the types of projections called……….... 2. the largest planet in the solar system is called................................. 3. the most powerful water movements affecting the coasts are called.......................... b. write down the concepts indicating the following expressions: 4 ……………….. the science that deals with the study of the geographical distribution of natural and human phenomena on the surface of the earth. 5 ……………….. rocky bodies revolving around the sun are concentrated between mars and jupiter. c. underline the correct option from among the options that follow each statement: 6. the following figure represents one of the types of refractions: a. peaceful refraction b. reverse refraction c. groove refraction d. creeping refraction alajmi 117 d. complete the following sagittal diagram: 7. 8. e. note the corresponding figure and then answer the following questions: classification of maps by scale 3. large scale 1. small scale ز 1 2...................... ....... the earth’s natural mantles 1. the lithosphere 2………… ………… 4. biosphere 3………… ………… journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 9. define the solar system. ……………………………………………………………………..................................10. write the names of the inner rocky planets in order according to their proximity to the sun. 11. write the types of solar radiation. *………………………………………………………………………………………… *………………………………………………………………………………………… f. what are the consequences of: 12. the earth’s rotation around itself (axial)? *…………………………………………………………………………………………*.……… ………………………………………………………………………………... 13. disruptive effects resulting from earthquakes? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… g. calculate the time after reading the paragraph using the following steps: “if the hour in the city of mecca, located on the meridian (40) east, is nine in the morning, what is the hour in the moroccan city of fez, which is located on the meridian (5) west?” 14. number longitude between the two cities=........... 15. the time difference between them =.............. 16. since the city of mecca precedes the city of fez, the hour in the city of fez =......... alajmi 119 h. name the following: 17. the most important sources of information for researchers, especially geographers: *………………………………………………………………………………………… *………………………………………………………………………………………… 18. elements of the river system: *………………………………………………………………………………………… *………………………………………………………………………………………… 19. methods of transport by wind: *………………………………………………………………………………………… *………………………………………………………………………………………… i. compare sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks 20. compare sedimentary rocks igneous rocks features *………………………………. *………………………………. *………………………………… *………………………………… j. reasons for the following: 21. the importance of geography: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… 22. the importance of rocks: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… k. the number of manifestations resulting from the following: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 93-120 23. sculpture by waves: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… 24. deposition by wind: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… l. define the following concepts: 25. galaxies: …………………………………………………………………………….. 26. greenwich line: ……………………………………………………………………... 27. sprains: …………………………………………………………………………….... m. in front of you is the deaf map of the world. write the number that indicates the following statements: 28. the tribal wind is blowing over a country represented on the map by the number....... 29. hot tropical forests are represented on the map by the number....... 30. the short temperate grass areas (steppes) are represented on the map by the number...... www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(1), 1-25 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 social studies education and public art: the detroit billboard project julie anne taylor 1 & okezie iroha 2 abstract the aim of this action-research project was to evaluate the impact of high school students’ involvement in community-oriented, art-based work in the social studies. in detroit, high school students engaged in persuasive writing and design while exploring community issues. the project culminated in the installation of student artwork on a billboard in the city’s cultural center. mixed methods were employed to evaluate the project; forty-seven students completed surveys at its conclusion. the findings suggest that creative projects with real-world applications are motivational, and they promote civic education. the majority of the students reported that their awareness of community issues had increased. this study has implications for the implementation of projects for democratic education and service learning, arts integration in the social studies, and the use of authentic assessments in contextual, culturally responsive teaching. keywords: arts integration, civic education, service learning introduction in the complex field of social studies, interdisciplinary approaches to instruction are vital. this study is based on an action-research project that was designed to explore the effects of community-oriented arts integration. high school students engaged in persuasive writing and design while exploring community issues and considering how to effect change. the project culminated in a public art installation in downtown detroit. the findings of this study suggest that creative projects, with democratic objectives and procedures, motivate and inform students. democratic education and culturally responsive teaching are the interrelated theoretical frameworks within which this research on the detroit billboard project lies. a proponent of experiential, democratic education, john dewey emphasized social engagement and the development of students’ capacities for reflective problem-solving (dewey, 1916; rocheleau, 2004). in addressing community issues, students learn to communicate persuasively and to listen to the arguments of others. contextual instruction is both deweyan and culturally responsive; 1 assoc. prof., the university of michigan-dearborn, julietay@umich.edu 2 social studies teacher, douglass academy for young men in detroitmichigan, okezie.iroha@detroitk12.org journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 2 learners engage in the investigation of real-world problems and innovative solutions (hanley, 2013; gay, 2010). their prior knowledge and experiences are recognized and integrated. a problem-solving curriculum and a democratic culture that fosters opportunity have been recommended by scholars of democratic education such as art pearl and tony knight (pearl & knight, 1999). in democratic classrooms, students investigate and make decisions based on reason and evidence (terry & gallavan, 2005; pearl & knight, 1999; pearl, 2005; cf. national council for the social studies, 2013). they critique realities, and they consider transformations (beyer, 1996). in preparing to be active and informed citizens in a participatory political system, students consider the complexity of communication in societies that value and protect free speech (pearl & knight, 1999; rocheleau, 2004). in culturally responsive teaching, geneva gay argues that, to be effective, educators must address “ecological factors” that include community settings as well as students’ cultural backgrounds (2010, p. 22). she maintains that culturally responsive pedagogy raises social consciousness and empowers students. gay and other proponents of culturally responsive teaching support inquiry-based learning and the use of varied assessments, such as projects (villegas & lucas, 2002; ladson-billings, 2009; gay, 2010). in problem-solving, students develop critical thinking skills (eyler & giles, 1999). the detroit billboard project was designed to promote civic engagement and to foster each of the 4cs for learning and innovation that were established by the partnership for 21 st century skills: critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity. a coalition of educators, policymakers, and business leaders in the united states, the partnership for 21 st century skills asserts that students, if they are to be competitive in the workplace, must be able to evaluate and use information creatively in problem-solving. the authors of this study began this project with fundamental research questions: what impact would involvement in a community-oriented, art-based project in social studies have on high school students?; would the possibility of a public display of student artwork be motivational?; in the eyes of high school students in detroit, what are the most compelling community issues?; how important to high school students is having the opportunity to convey their views publicly?; and how do high school students think that they can address community issues? julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 3 the school and the students located in detroit, michigan, the site of this study was a public school that serves middle and high school students in sixth through twelfth grades. about 98.5% of the students were african american, and 100% were male. more than three-quarters of the students at the school participated in the free or reduced-price lunch program. the 62 youths, who were involved in the project, were high school students. instruction occurred in four social studies classes. the project was launched with the support of a veteran administrator whom had been appointed to the position of principal the previous year. the project the interdisciplinary detroit billboard project was carried out during the fall and winter semesters of the 2013-2014 academic year. the identification of community issues by the students was the first stage. they brainstormed and discussed a variety of topics. in a writing assignment that included a photograph of a blank billboard, each young man responded to the following prompts: in your opinion, what are the three most important issues facing the community of detroit today?; if you could publish a message on a billboard in detroit, what would it say?; and write a message on the billboard above. if you wish, add designs. in a second preliminary writing assignment, the students were given a graphic representation of a billboard. they asked to write messages that encouraged positive action. the messages were later compiled. a comprehensive list was distributed and read aloud by the students in each social studies class. the second stage of the project involved the students’ consideration of art’s potential to persuade and inform the public as well as the role of artists as agents of social and political change. during interactive lectures and discussions, the students reflected on how artistic designs have been and continue to be used to influence people’s thoughts and/or actions. they viewed images of billboards with public service as well as commercial messages (basten, 2007; littlefield, 2006; heon, diggs, & thompson, 1999). the students discussed how images render concepts and evoke emotions. studying new deal posters as well as iconic political art such as shepard fairey’s obama hope, the students considered historic and contemporary uses of art as soft propaganda. billboards that had been altered or appropriated by street artists inspired discussions about advertising, visual pollution, and social criticism. the students identified the journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 4 artists’ audiences and techniques of persuasion. they judged whether messages were subtle or overt, and they predicted emotional and cognitive reactions by viewers. figure 1. shepard fairey, barack obama, 2008; collage, stencil, and acrylic on paper, national portrait gallery, united states the third stage of the detroit billboard project required the application of knowledge through the creation of billboard designs. in addition to choosing an audience, each student had the option of utilizing his own message or one written by his peers. they created designs using colored pencils, pastels, and/or markers on paper of specific dimensions for reproduction on a billboard. while engaged in this process, the students considered how design choices catch the attention of the public. their aim was to influence. once the designs were finished, the students voted anonymously for their first, second, and third choices. they were asked to consider the importance and relevance of the messages, as well as the quality of the designs, when voting. on the ballots were color pictures of all the students’ designs. spaces were provided for written explanations of selections. only the julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 5 students voted; the teachers could cast votes. in sum, stage four was a democratic process to select the winning design. a local advertising company donated resources in order to display the most popular design on woodward avenue, a historic thoroughfare, in downtown detroit in april of 2014. the billboard was on view only 2.9 kilometers from the school. cultural mapping influenced the site’s selection (stevenson, 2014). the billboard was posted near prominent cultural institutions, such as the museum of contemporary art. at the school and at a local university, designs by many students were exhibited in color on posters. in addition to display and discussion, the fifth stage involved reflective writing. the students completed anonymous surveys which included reflective writing prompts. they had the opportunity to express their views of the project. figure 2. stay in school, 2014; detroit, michigan, united states journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 6 figure 3. stay in school, 2014; detroit, michigan, united states research methods the authors employed mixed methods to evaluate this action-research project. mixedmethods inquiry offers insights into complex social phenomena (greene, 2007). in order to answer related aspects of the essential research questions and to gain comprehensive understanding, the researchers posed questions that would yield both quantitative and qualitative results (creswell & clark, 2011; teddlie & tashakkori, 2009; efron & ravid, 2013). mixedmethods research captures different perspectives and yields contextual knowledge (greene, 2007). jennifer greene, in mixed methods in social inquiry, wrote, “a mixed methods way of thinking involves openness to multiple ways of seeing and hearing, multiple ways of making sense of the social world, and multiple standpoints…multiple approaches can generate more complete and meaningful understanding of complex human phenomena” (p. xii). to preserve the integrity of the sample, the researchers administered only one optional and anonymous survey to all classes on a single day. in light of the possibility that a student could be absent, the authors decided against the posing of quantitative and qualitative questions on separate data collection tools and days. forty-seven (n=47) of the 62 participants in the project chose to complete the surveys. the response rate was 75.8%. julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 7 distributed at the conclusion of the billboard project, the 13-item survey included both closedand open-ended questions to determine the students’ views of the project and its impact. on five-point likert scales, the students were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with these statements: the project raised my awareness of community issues; knowing that one of our designs would be displayed on a billboard in the community increased my interest in the project, and the project gave us the opportunity to express concerns about community issues. the ten open-ended questions were written to determine the students’ views of having a public voice, their audiences, their ideas about making a difference, their understandings of persuasive writing and design, and their views of artists as agents of change. the survey is in the appendix to this article. the researchers entered all responses to the structured and unstructured items into survey monkey. a cloud-based tool for survey analysis, survey monkey generates summaries of quantitative data that include percentages, basic statistics, graphs, and tables. the authors analyzed the results. rather than use survey monkey’s graphs to illustrate the quantitative findings in this article, though, they made bar graphs using the online graphing tool of the national center for education statistics (n.c.e.s.). when studying the qualitative data, the researchers employed the constant comparison data analysis strategy (mertens & wilson, 2012). they read all of the students’ responses to the unstructured items several times. engaged in open coding, they identified common concepts in the responses to the questions. from these concepts, some themes emerged. to validate their inferences, the authors repeatedly revisited the data. for this article, they selected representative responses to the unstructured items. collectively, the quantitative and qualitative data informed the conclusions of this research project. findings the findings of this study suggest that art-based, community-oriented projects in the social studies promote civic education and are motivational. a total of 46 students responded to the first likert-scale item. the majority (78.26%) agreed (50%) or strongly agreed (28.26%) that the project had raised their awareness of community issues. of the students, 21.74% were neutral. forty-seven students responded to the statement, “knowing that one of our designs would be displayed on a billboard in the community increased my interest in the project.” with journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 8 this statement, 87.23% either agreed (51.06%) or strongly agreed (36.17%). over 12% of the students indicated that they were neutral. figure 4. the project raised my awareness of community issues. julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 9 figure 5. knowing that one of our designs would be displayed on a billboard in the community increased my interest in the project. a high percentage (87.23%) of the 47 students, whom responded to the third likert-scale item, agreed (44.68%) or strongly agreed (42.55%) that the project had given them the opportunity to express their concerns about community issues. these findings have implications for the planning and orchestration of projects for democratic education and service learning, arts integration in the social studies, and the use of authentic assessments in contextual, culturally responsive teaching. the implications will be explored in the discussion section of this article. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 10 figure 6. the project gave us the opportunity to express our concerns about community issues. in response to the open-ended question, “do you think that the voices of high school students should be heard more often? please explain your answer,” 45 of 47 students responded in the affirmative, while one student had mixed views and another was opposed. three main themes were identified during the analysis of the responses to this question: the knowledge and experience of youths in the community should be valued, youth voices are valid but often unheard, and youths will play important roles in society in the future. a number of comments suggest that high school students wish to participate more actively and seriously in democratic processes. the following comments are representative: “…we are the ones who are mostly affected by community issues.” “…young people are the future, and their opinions should matter.” on the survey, the students were asked to explain why they had elected to write messages about certain issues. in their responses, they expressed concerns about education, drug use, julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 11 crime, and the environment. once a thriving metropolis, detroit has been dramatically affected by the contraction of the u.s. automotive industry (martelle, 2012). the decline of the city’s population has resulted in the closure of schools, the shuttering of businesses, and the abandonment of houses (martelle, 2012; binelli, 2012). the municipal government has had to curtail services because of its reduced tax base. the students were keenly aware of the city’s socioeconomic struggles. they wrote about the importance of detroit’s having a positive image and maintaining hope. the following comments convey the students’ concerns and objectives. “…i wanted to inspire teens to not drop out and to go onto college.” “i chose drugs because i feel people should stop using them.” “…we need more gardens in our community so we can have fresh food.” the students were asked to describe the audiences whom they had had in mind when creating their billboards. a number of the students wrote that they were directing their messages at everyone. only one young man stated that his message was directed exclusively to adults because “…they make more decisions than children.” the largest number of respondents indicated that they had had young people in mind. the students’ targeting of young audiences is indicative of their belief that young people are vital to the city’s future. “the audience i was trying to convince was the high school students that came from a poor, humble background,” wrote one student. “the audience is younger kids. it made me want to make it more exciting. have it really stand out,” explained another. an essential part of service learning is the exploration of ways to resolve community matters and to make a positive impact. on the survey, the students were asked to think about the various issues that they had raised during the project. they were invited to write about actions that they could take to make a difference. many wrote about organizing and meeting with others to work toward common goals. their ideas included volunteering, mentoring younger children, staying in school themselves, cleaning neighborhoods, and maintaining a positive outlook. some students had very specific actions in mind. written below are some of their ideas. “start a community center. offer services for young people.” “i could pick up trash around the community and start my own recycle company.” journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 12 the students were invited to focus on the issues raised by the student artists whose drawings had received the most votes. the drawings were entitled stay in school and keep detroit clean. the artists and their parents have given permission to publish these drawings with proper attributions. on the topic of staying in school, the students wrote about focusing on their studies and earning good grades. they also offered suggestions for adults, such as the provision of tutorial services to children. the students recommended motivational speakers, presentations on how and why to stay in school, service-learning projects, and scholarships. to keep the city clean, the students wrote about picking up trash around the community, recycling, forming block clubs, and not littering. one student suggested that more trash cans be made available in the city. figure 7. keep detroit clean, 2014; colored pencil on paper when the students were asked how they thought people might react to the billboard, stay in school, many (27 of 42 responses) anticipated positive reactions. they felt that the billboard captured the sentiments and hopes of the residents of detroit with regard to education. some anticipated that young people would feel encouraged by it. a number of the students (11) were unsure or skeptical that the billboard would have an impact, though. the following quotations are representative. “they will be happy because they want kids to stay in school and finish.” julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 13 “i feel they will think and focus on finishing school.” “most people will admire the artwork, but the choice is theirs to follow the advice.” the majority of the students recognized the billboard messages and designs as forms of persuasive writing, and they viewed artists as agents of change. when asked what they had learned about communication, most of the students conveyed an understanding of the power of images. through persuasive design, the students had taken informed action to influence others, thereby meeting an important objective of the college, career, and civic (c3) life framework for social studies state standards (national council for the social studies, 2013). the following quotations reflect the views of multiple students. “a simple but strong message with a good drawing could have a lot of influence on others.” “art has power if you can do it the right way.” according to the surveys, most of the students had positive views of the billboard project. they valued having had the opportunity to express their concerns and ideas. in addition to having found the process to be informative, they felt that they had made a difference through their involvement. the public display of the winning design had been motivational. in response to the question, “what are your feelings about the billboard project,” the following statements are representative. “i feel like the billboard was a good idea and a good experience for us to express our feelings about the community.” “i feel it should spread to other schools…” “it gives students the opportunity to make a difference.” discussion democratic education democratic education emphasizes interaction among students, the rights of youths to be heard, the common good, and civic responsibility (ligon, 2005). engaging students in journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 14 meaningful conversations about issues, including controversial issues, is critical (hess, 2009). through discussions, students engage in a process of shared inquiry (hess, 2009). they are exposed to diverse perspectives, and they construct knowledge (hess, 2009). productive discussions occur when students are part of the decision-making that impacts their lives (pearl & knight, 1999). the research on the detroit billboard project yielded significant findings. the vast majority of the students reported that their awareness of community issues had increased and that they had had the opportunity to express their concerns. nearly all of the students conveyed the opinion that the voices of high school students should be heard more often. “people demonstrate civic engagement when they address public problems individually and collaboratively and when they maintain, strengthen, and improve communities and societies,” states the college, career, and civic (c3) life framework (national council for the social studies, 2013, p. 31). democracy building at the local level may later lead to political involvement and policy development at higher levels (hollander & hartley, 2003). inclusiveness, equality, and participation are crucial (laguardia & pearl, 2005; hollander & hartley, 2003). with service-learning elements, the detroit billboard project was a manifestation of community engagement pedagogy. common goals for service learning include increasing students’ levels of activity in communities, enhancing their understanding and knowledge of local issues, and supporting school-community relationships (pritchard, 2002). service learning requires the establishment of academic learning goals and reflection (eyler & giles, 1999; warter & grossman, 2002). engaged in critical analysis and the exploration of ethical questions, students focus on social change (schensul, berg, & brase, 2002). on the surveys in the detroit billboard project, the students enumerated specific and viable actions which they could take individually and/or collectively. constructivist, culturally responsive teaching affirms and builds on students’ prior knowledge and experiences (villegas & lucas, 2002; ladson-billings, 2009; gay, 2010). a number of students, who were part of the detroit billboard project, commented that the authenticity and legitimacy of their voices on community matters derives from their first-hand experiences. “we see the struggle through the city as well,” wrote one student. service-learning projects ought to recognize students’ contextual knowledge (warter & grossman, 2002). “when important knowledge is conceived as something that is democratically determined, every student julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 15 is encouraged to evaluate, to weigh, to propose, to investigate, to debate,” wrote armando laguardia and pearl (laguardia and pearl (2005, p. 12). in her essay on environmental service learning by african american youth in philadelphia, nicole webster (2007) points out a significant deficiency in service-learning research: most studies focus on community engagement by affluent students from the suburbs. the experiences of urban youth have been ignored by many scholars. webster recognizes the long history of activism within the african american community and civic leadership by african american churches. she wrote, “well-designed service-learning in urban schools and communities could provide youth with opportunities for empowerment and involvement that would build on their community knowledge, experience, and contacts to work in a collaborative way on issues relevant to their own community” (webster, 2007, p. 164). art, persuasive communication, and social change despite dramatic losses in population and an unprecedented and highly publicized municipal bankruptcy, the city of detroit is in the midst of a renaissance, at the forefront of which are artists. galleries are opening, exhibits are drawing visitors, street art is flourishing, and collectives of artists have grown (balestier, 2013). art has long played a role in the revitalization of urban centers in the united states (graves, 2005; stevenson, 2014). the importance of art to the people of metropolitan detroit was evidenced by their support of a proposition to increase property taxes in 2012 in order to support the city’s art museum, the detroit institute of arts (cohen, 2012). the billboard project should be seen within the context of detroit’s regeneration as the high school students were living and working within this context. mary stone hanley (2013) posits that, through the arts, individuals clarify their internal voices, and they empower themselves through creative agency and expression. agency involves independent thinking when solving problems and making decisions. artists make choices about purpose, media, design, and audience in order to influence thought and action. hanley emphasizes arts’ transformative potential, arguing that imagination and creativity are fundamental to praxis. she (2013, p. 3) wrote, “…creativity is our hardwired capacity to change the world into what we imagine, whether for good or for ill.” most of the students, who were involved in the detroit billboard project, viewed artists as agents of change, and they recognized their designs as forms of persuasive communication. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 16 since the students’ drawings and stencils had persuasive purposes, they were forms of soft propaganda (welch, 2013). governments, non-profit agencies, and activists have long used posters, including those mounted on billboards, for social and political purposes. in creating propaganda, artists seek to disseminate messages and to evoke particular responses (welch, 2013). propaganda is associated with deceit and manipulation, but it may have benevolent aims (welch, 2013). during the great depression, under president franklin delano roosevelt, the works progress administration employed hundreds of graphic artists to create posters in support of new deal programs, health and safety, conservation, education, and cultural traditions (carter, 2008). in education for critical consciousness, paolo freire argues that the examination of commercial advertising develops the individual’s capacity to recognize deceptive ideological and political communication. the analysis of propaganda is “…the way to defend democracy, not to subvert it” (freire, 2007, p. 49). in this spirit, works by street and graffiti artists were viewed by the students in detroit. by adding to or obscuring messages on existing commercial billboards, writers worldwide have produced critical, ironic, and/or humorous results. “subvertising” is a form of political messaging (lewisohn, 2008). the students examined visual pollution by mobstr, a british street artist who uses satire to critique society and consumerism (saleme, 2013). visual pollution intrigued the students. after discussing the imposition of advertisements on the urban landscape, they concluded that billboards can indeed spoil visual experiences if they lack aesthetic appeal, are too numerous, and/or are not well maintained. julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 17 figure 8. mobstr, visual pollution, 2011; london, united kingdom, unurth street art: http://www.unurth.com/mobstr-visual-pollution-london billboards by artists often focus on community issues (heon, 1999). though not typically viewed as patrons of the arts, outdoor advertising agencies have sponsored the exhibition of innumerable works of ephemeral art, most of which have not been conserved. posters may be mounted alongside roads and freeways, on the sides of busses, on bus shelters, in subway stations, and on benches (heon, 1999). using digital images provided by the artist, most billboard art today is reproduced on vinyl or paper (heon, 1999). typically, the large-scale reproductions are destroyed after they have been dismantled. people normally see billboards only briefly, therefore economy in design is important. effective posters are simple and direct (heon, 1999). symbols may be used to convey values and concepts or to evoke feelings (moore, 2010). “occupying a space defined by – and therefore as – advertising, (billboards) must capture the viewer’s attention and ‘sell’ an idea rather than a product. in the time frame of a passing glance, they must create a visual stop, leaving the viewer with a thought to ponder rather than an image to buy,” observed harriet senie (1999, p. 22). the billboard for which the students in detroit voted became part of a larger discussion because it was installed in the public sphere. the appearance of the unexpected on billboards, such as artwork promoting community interests rather than selling products, may challenge http://www.unurth.com/mobstr-visual-pollution-london journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 18 people’s assumptions, provoke, and inspire conversations (diggs, 1999). within the high school, the response to the billboard and its message generated thoughtful discussions. “at its best, an artist’s billboard provides a space where citizens speak to citizens,” wrote peggy diggs (1999, p. 34). conclusion art-based social studies projects, such as the detroit billboard project, teach students about community and relationships, and they are exercises in self-determination. a democratic education requires meaning, ownership, and creativity (laguardia & pearl, 2005). bridging disciplines is necessary in order to have integrated knowledge and comprehensive understanding. the findings of this study show that the project raised awareness of community issues and afforded students the opportunity to express their views and ideas. creative and authentic projects with real-world applications, such as the detroit billboard project, are motivational. artbased, service-oriented projects that respect the contextual knowledge and experiences of students are worthy of consideration by social studies educators who seek to advance civic education and 21 st -century skills. references balestier, c. (2013, august 6). as detroit flounders, its art scene flourishes. the new york times. retrived from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/11/travel/as-detroit-floundersits-art-sceneflourishes.html?module=search&mabreward=relbias%3ar%2c[%22ri%3a5%22%2c %22ri%3a15%22]&_r=0. basten, f.e. (2007). great american billboards. berkeley: ten speed press. beyer, l.e. (1996). introduction. in l.e. beyer (ed.), creating democratic classrooms: the struggle to integrate theory and practice (pp. 1-26). new york: teachers college press. binelli, m. (2012). detroit city is the place to be: the afterlife of an american metropolis. new york: picador. bringle, r.g. & j.a. hatcher. (2011). international service learning. in r.g. bringle, j.a. hatcher, & s.g. jones (eds.). international service learning: conceptual frameworks and research (pp. 3-28). sterling: stylus publishing. julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 19 carter, e. (2008). posters for the people: art of the wpa. philadelphia: quirk books. carter, g.r. (1997). service learning in curriculum reform. in j. schine (ed.), service learning (pp. 69-78). chicago: university of chicago press. cohen, p. (2012, august 8). suburban taxpayers vote to support detroit museum. the new york times. retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/09/arts/design/detroitinstitute-of-arts-county-millage-taxapproved.html?module=search&mabreward=relbias%3as%2c[%22ri%3a5%22%2c %22ri%3a15%22]. creswell, j.w. & clark, v.l.p. (2011). designing and conducting mixed methods research (2 nd ed.). los angeles: sage publications. dewey, j. (1916). democracy and education. london: macmillan. diggs, p. (1999). causing conversations, taking positions. in l.s. heon, p. diggs, & j. thompson (eds.), billboard art on the road (pp. 32-34). north adams: mass moca. efron, s.e., & ravid, r. (2013). action research in education. new york: the guilford press. eyler, j. & giles, d.e. (1999). where’s the learning in service-learning? san francisco: jossey-bass publishers. freire, p. (2007). education for critical consciousness. london: continuum. (original work published 1974) gay, g. (2010). culturally responsive teaching: theory, research, and practice. new york: teachers college press. graves, j.b. (2005). cultural democracy: the arts, community, and the public purpose. chicago: university of illinois press, 2005. greene, j.c. (2007). mixed methods in social inquiry. san francisco: jossey-bass. hanley, mary stone. (2013). introduction. in m.s. hanley, g.w. noblit, g.l. sheppard, & t. barone (eds.), culturally relevant arts education for social justice (pp. 1-11). new york: routledge. heon, l.s., diggs, p., & thompson, j. (1999). billboard art on the road. north adams: mass moca. heon, l.s. (1999). putting the show on the road. in l.s. heon, p. diggs, & j. thompson (eds.), billboard art on the road (pp. 8-12). north adams: mass moca. hess, d. (2009). controversy in the classroom: the democratic power of discussion. new journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 20 york: routledge. hollander, e., & hartley, m. (2003). civic renewal: a powerful framework for advancing service-learning. in b. jacoby (ed.), building partnerships for service learning (pp. 289313). san francisco: jossey bass. ladson-billings, g. (2009). the dreamkeepers: successful teachers of african american children (2 nd ed.). san francisco: john wiley & sons, inc. laguardia, a. & pearl, a. (2005). democratic education: goals, principles, and requirements. in a. pearl & c.r. pryor (eds.), democratic practices in education: implications for teacher education (pp. 9-30). lanham: rowman and littlefield. lewisohn, c. (2008). street art: the graffiti revolution. new york: abrams. ligon, j.a. (2005). transforming schools into democratic sites. in a. pearl & c.r. pryor (eds.), democratic practices in education: implications for teacher education (pp. 1-8). lanham: rowman and littlefield. littlefield, r., & littlefield, s. (2006). billboards of the past. atglen: schiffer publishing ltd. martelle, s. (2014). detroit: a biography. chicago: chicago review press. mcmillan, j. (2002). the sacred and the profane: theorising knowledge reproduction processes in a service-learning curriculum. in s.h. billig & a. furco (eds.), service-learning through a multidisciplinary lens (55-70). greenwich: information age publishing. mertens, d.m., & wilson, a.t. (2012). program evaluation theory and practice. new york: the guilford press. moore, c. (2010). propaganda prints: a history of art in the service of social and political change. london: a & c black publishers limited. national council for the social studies (ncss). (2013). the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards. silver spring: ncss. retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org/system/files/c3/c3-framework-for-social-studies.pdf. partnership for 21 st century skills (2009). p21 framework definitions. retrieved from http://www.p21.org/storage/documents/p21_framework_definitions.pdf. pearl, a. (2005). introduction. in a. pearl & c.r. pryor (eds.), democratic practices in education: implications for teacher education (pp. xvii-xxii). lanham: rowman and littlefield. pearl, a. & knight, t. (1999). the democratic classroom: theory to inform practice. cresskill: julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 21 hampton press, inc. pritchard, i. (2002). community service and service-learning in america: the state of the art. in a. furco & s.h. billing (eds.), service-learning: the essence of pedagogy (pp. 3-21). greenwich: information age publishing. rocheleau, j. (2004). theoretical roots of service-learning: progressive education and the development of citizenship. in b.w. speck & s.l. hoppe (eds.), service learning: history, theory, and issues (pp. 3-21). westport: praeger. saleme, s. (2013, may 22). street artist spotlight: mobstr. visual news. retrieved from http://visualnews.com/2013/05/22/street-artist-spotlight-mobstr/. schensul, j.j., berg, m., & brase, m. (2002). theories guiding outcomes for action research for service-learning. in a. furco & s.h. billing (eds.), service-learning: the essence of pedagogy (pp. 125-143). greenwich: information age publishing. senie, h. (1999). disturbances in the fields of mammon: towards a history of artists’ billboards. in l.s. heon, p. diggs, & j. thompson (eds.), billboard art on the road (pp. 14-30). north adams: mass moca. stevenson, d. (2014). cities of culture: a global perspective. london: routledge. teddlie, c., & tashakkori, a. (2009). foundations of mixed methods research: integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. los angeles: sage. terry, k.w., & n.p. gallavan (2005). democratic practices in education and curriculum. in a. pearl & c.r. pryor (eds.), democratic practices in education: implications for teacher education (pp. 101-110). lanham: rowman and littlefield. thomsen, k. (2006). service learning in grades k-8: experiential learning that builds character and motivation. thousand oaks: corwin press. villegas, a.m., & lucas, t. (2002). educating culturally responsive teachers: a coherent approach. albany: state university of new york press. warter, e.h. & grossman, j.m. (2002). an application of developmental-contextualism to service-learning. in a. furco & s.h. billing (eds.), service-learning: the essence of pedagogy (pp. 83-102). greenwich: information age publishing. webster, nicole. (2007). enriching school connection and learning in african american youth: the impact of a service-learning feasibility project in inner-city philadelphia. in s.b. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 22 gelmon & s.h. billig (eds.), service-learning from passion to objectivity: international and cross-disciplinary perspectives on service-learning research (pp. 159-176). charlotte: information age publishing. welch, d. (2013). propaganda: power and persuasion. london: the british library. julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 23 appendix billboard project survey directions: please answer the following questions. 1. the project raised my awareness of community issues. strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 2. knowing that one of our designs would be displayed on a billboard in the community increased my interest in the project. strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 3. the project gave us the opportunity to express concerns about community issues. strongly agree agree neutral disagree strongly disagree 4. do you think that the voices of high school students should be heard more often? please explain your answer. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. think about the billboard design that you made. why did you choose the issue that you did? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 1-25 24 ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 6. describe the audience whom you had in mind when creating your project. how did the audience impact your message and design? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 7. think about the many community issues that were raised during the project. in addition to designing a billboard, what could you do to make a difference in the community? how might you accomplish your goal(s)? what resources would you need? ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 8. the first-place billboards for which you voted focused on two issues: 1.) the importance of staying in school, and 2.) the importance of keeping the city clean. what steps could you take to address these two issues? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 9. how do you think people reacted to the winning billboard, stay in school? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 10. what did you learn about influencing others through communication and design? julie anne taylor & okezie iroha 25 ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 11. what genre do you consider the billboard project to be? please select one and explain your answer. a.) persuasive why?_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ b.) narrative why?_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ c.) expository why?_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 12. do you think that artists may be agents of change? explain your answer. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 13. what are your feelings about the billboard project? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2),320-342 policy strategies to reduce the social impact of stunting during the covid-19 pandemic in indonesia didin muhafidin1 abstract the purpose of this study is to describe the policies of the west java regional government to overcome stunting, the factors that cause stunting in west java, and strategies that can be applied to overcome stunting in west java. a qualitative approach and literature review were used as the research method. data were gathered using interviews and from various relevant studies published between 2020 and 2022. west java, indonesia, was selected as the research location. data analysis shows that, first, indonesia remains committed to overcoming the stunting problem by mobilizing all assets or resources by forming a young family guidance group, integrated service post, community nutrition development, clean and healthy living behavior socialization and integrated service post empowerment, providing training to anti-stunting ambassadors. second, the causative factor is the lack of parental awareness of the importance of nutritious food for children. third, the strategy to overcome stunting is to make improvements in six dimensions, namely, education, nutrition, food, health, social protection, and housing. keywords: stunting, covid-19 pandemic, policy, strategy introduction in an effort to combat the covid-19 pandemic, which has adversely impacted the world since early 2020, the indonesian government remains committed to addressing the problem of stunting in the country. stunting is highly dangerous as it can inhibit body growth and increase diseases in children, as well as affect their intelligence and productivity in the future. the national strategy intends to mobilize all assets or resources to assist and fund the supply of quality nutrition in the first thousand homes from the first day of life to pregnant women and children under 24 months of age (satriawan, 2018). by 2024, the government hopes that stunting cases can drop to 14%. the government has begun to accelerate the growth of stunting prevention efforts through two main intervention frameworks, namely, sensitive nutrition interventions and specific nutrition interventions (rachmi et al. (2016). sensitive nutrition intervention is a stunting prevention activity outside the health sector carried out in the community through several activities that are generally macroscopic and carried out 1dr. university of pandjadjaran bandung, indonesia; email: didin_muhafidin@yahoo.co.id mailto:didin_muhafidin@yahoo.co.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 321 throughout the institution. these activities are performed in the form of increasing nutritious food, nutritional care for mothers and babies, and improving quality health services (satriawan, 2018). specific nutrition intervention is a stunting prevention program that is directly related to the health sector. it includes infectious diseases, maternal nutritional status, and food intake during infection. these interventions are usually short term, and the results of prevention are summarized within a short period of time (beal et al., 2018). the government’s commitment to overcoming stunting in indonesia is also reflected in the stipulation of stunting as the prime focus of the national development agenda as stated in the medium-term national development plan strategy for 2020–2024. stunting prevention activities began when indonesia joined the scaling up nutrition (sun) movement in 2011 (the ministry of health of the republic of indonesia, 2018). each individual has the right to access adequate food and nutrition since indonesia joined this movement (beal et al., 2018). indonesia's participation in this movement demonstrates the government’s longstanding commitment to prevent stunting. the government’s involvement was reaffirmed by establishing a national movement to accelerate nutrition improvement (gernas ppg) as stipulated in presidential regulation number 42 of 2013. though the national movement for the acceleration of nutrition improvement has been implemented in stunting prevention, it has not yet yielded the desired results. figure 1 shows data on child malnutrition in indonesia for 2016–2018. figure 1 data on handling malnutrition in indonesia 0-36 months old baby 0-59 months old baby muhafidin in the context of accelerating the reduction of stunting evenly in indonesia, both ministries/agencies and local governments have implemented monitoring and evaluation of various programs. one of the assessment tools is the special index for handling stunting (ikps). figure 2 illustrates an increase in the ikps from 2019 (66.1) to 2020 (67.3). the increase in the ikps from 2019 to 2020 is 1.2 points. figure 2 special index for handling stunting (ikps) figure 3 shows that the ikps is below the national figure in most provinces. most of the provinces with ikps performance above the national value are in the western part of indonesia, while others are in the central part of indonesia. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 323 figure 3 ikps performance figure 4 shows the handling/performance of the ikps in several provinces in eastern indonesia in 2020, and the ikps performance of west papua, papua, north maluku, and maluku cannot exceed the national ikps figure. the four provinces with the lowest ikps were able to increase the achievement of the dimensions of social protection (utilization of health insurance and the number of ikps recipients). the ikps performance of papua province as the province with the lowest ikps score in 2020 only reached 43.3 or 36.0 points, in contrast to di yogyakarta province as the province with the highest ikps score, i.e., 79.3. muhafidin figure 4 ikps by province source: ministry of health republic of indonesia (2021) there is a big difference between the highest and the lowest provincial ikps benefits, and the overall distribution of ikps benefits across provinces shows that there are still gaps in the management of stunting at the provincial level throughout indonesia. in addition to the task of local governments to improve the quality of life of the people in their respective regions, the design requires coordination from the central level so that all existing programs can be implemented together. thus, the goal of accelerating stunting prevention in indonesia can be realized immediately. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 325 the change in the ikps index for the composition dimensions of the province of west java in 2019–2020 is based on the fact that the province is one of the provinces whose ikps 2020 performance is above the national ikps. during the 2019–2020 period, the ikps value of west java province increased. the west java province ikps score in 2020 was 68.6, which is 2.4 points higher than the 2019 ikps score. figure 5 specific index for stunting treatment the six dimensions used in the ikps are education, nutrition, food, health, social protection, and housing. the west java province ikps performance in 2019–2020 is supported by index performance in almost all of its constituent dimensions. the nutrition dimension experienced an increase in the highest index value from 81.6 in 2019 to 92.3 in 2020, i.e., an increase of over 10 points. the increase in the index value from the nutrition dimension indicates an increase in the fulfillment of the indicators for the components of exclusive breastfeeding and complementary feeding. the food dimension is the only dimension that makes up the ikps, which experienced a decrease in index value in 2020 compared to 2019. previous research related to stunting, among others, was researched by mardahlia et al. (2020), who investigated the causes behind stunting in indonesia in children aged two to five years because of nutrition or low nutritional intake of children. beal et al. (2018) found that some children in social protection health nutrition housing food education muhafidin indonesia did not get vaccinated and thus had an increased risk of malnutrition and anemia, and had higher rates of morbidity from infectious diseases. rachmi et al. (2016) conducted a survey using data from the indonesian family life survey (ifls) in 1993, 1997, 2000, and 2007 with the unit of analysis for children aged 24.9 years in indonesia. this study shows that breastfeeding for six months or more, birth weight, short parents, and uneducated mothers are risk factors for chronic malnutrition and low body weight. another study on the importance of balanced child nutrition and access to sanitation was put forward by alfiah & setiyabudi (2020). in their study, they reported that some children aged 623 months who did not consume the recommended daily intake of drinks and foods were 1.63 times more likely to suffer from stunting, and low egg consumption was associated with twice the risk of stunting. in addition, there is an 88% risk of stunting for children who live at home but do not get adequate sanitation, and children born with low weight have a higher (2.5 times) risk of developing stunting. suryanis et al. (2021) found that stunting sufferers did not receive adequate parenting as that received by normal children. several indicators show that stunting handling is still not optimal, and health workers are more focused on education about stunting and counseling. pantaleon et al. (2016) noted a significant relationship between motor development and stunting in golden age children, and some children had growth disorders in yogyakarta. khoirunisa (2017) studied child growth and development and stunting in children aged one to five years in the yogyakarta area with 106 respondents from early childhood. young children with stunting were found to have growth and developmental delays that hinder and delay their motor and psychological development compared to children of the same age who did not suffer from stunting. research questions the following research questions were sought to be answered in this study: 1. what are the policies of the west java regional government to overcome stunting? 2. what are the factors that cause stunting in west java to be high? 3) what strategies can be applied to overcome stunting in west java? theory stunting theory the ministry of health of the republic of indonesia (2018) defined stunting as a condition in which children have a shorter height than normal children of their age measured according to journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 327 growth, and the child’s height has deviations of more than minus two (−2) as per the who’s child development standards. stunting is a very chronic nutritional problem in children under five years of age. factors causing stunting include childhood morbidity, inadequate nutritional intake for infants, maternal nutrition during pregnancy, and socioeconomic status. stunted children are likely to struggle tremendously to obtain good physical growth in the future. stunting is a condition in which infants aged 23 months and/or children aged less than five years experience less than optimal growth owing to malnutrition and persistent deficiency diseases and chronic infections in the first 1,000 days of birth. muslimah (2017) argued that chronic malnutrition is a condition that could lead to age-related short stature. the first survey conducted by the author revealed that 10 children were stunted – 80% of them were mildly stunted, and 20% were severely stunted. center of data and information of indonesian health ministry (2020) explained stunting as a condition where the child experiences stunted growth such that the upper body of the child is no longer appropriate for his/her age due to ongoing nutritional problems, let alone not eating for a long time. based on the regulation of the minister of health of the republic of indonesia number 2 of 2020 concerning anthropometric standards for assessment of child nutritional status, stunting is quantified in terms of nutritional intake based on an age index, namely, height divided by age equal to a value significantly less than 2. in addition to body atrophy disorders, stunting makes children fall prey to problems including disorders related to mental development and intelligence. therefore, stunting is a big danger to the quality of society in indonesia. until now, indonesia is still dealing with serious problems related to malnutrition which, if left unchecked, will affect the quality of life of country’s next generation and, in turn, affect the nation’s development and the economy (armayanti & darmayanti, 2022). the majority of people in indonesia believe that less than optimal growth occurs due to heredity. this perception is erroneous, and it is not easy for the government to convince the public about it (aryastami & tarigan, 2017). growth delay is the result of inadequate nutritional intake, poor body health, and improper maintenance. the government program through pis pk with healthy family indicators aims to reduce the incidence of chronic malnutrition (festilia & waliyo, 2021). factors that cause stunting infancy is a time when children experience very significant body development and growth. today’s children require adequate and quality nutritional intake in large quantities, because they muhafidin are mostly involved in rigorous physical activities. if the nutritional intake is inadequate, the growth and mental and physical development of children can be hampered, which may ultimately deteriorate the quality of life of the nation’s next generation. setiawan et al. (2021) affirmed that several factors influence the occurrence of stunting, for example, gestational age, birth length, birth weight, and maternal parenting. lack of energy or anemia during pregnancy can also cause babies to be born with a low body weight. one of the factors causing stunting is the low level of public awareness and parenting patterns that are still not well practiced (bukit et al., 2021). in addition, in this study, children who had a history of acute respiratory infections had a four-fold higher risk of developing growth retardation when compared to other children of their age who did not have such history. several other factors that cause stunting are low income, gender, inadequate health facilities, especially prenatal care, and poor knowledge of pregnant women about quality nutrition for children under five years of age. stunting has been reported to occur in children under five years of age as much as 36% in manado (halim et al., 2018). awaludin (2019) identified different factors that cause stunting, which are: (1) poor parenting: among others, children under the age of two years do not get adequate intake of breast milk substitutes; lack of knowledge among pregnant women about health and nutrition during pregnancy; children under six months of age do not receive adequate breastfeeding. (2) limited health services such as lack of vaccination information and services; low iron intake of pregnant women; child care reduction services at the posyandu. (3). access to nutritious food is not good, such as quality or nutritious food is expensive; anemia in pregnant women. (4). poor access to sanitation and clean water, for example, drinking water consumed is not safe; defecation facilities are outside the house. several factors that cause stunting, according to muliani et al. (2020), among others, are recurrent infections or illnesses, family financial conditions, environmental conditions, and non-health problems. sunanto and hamim (2019) noted that growth retardation occurs due to two factors: indirect factors and direct factors. (1) indirect factors include mother’s education, father’s education, mother's occupation, father’s occupation, breastfeeding, health services (vaccination), and family economic situation. (2) direct factors include infectious disease, poor nutritional intake, low body weight, and gender. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 329 strategies to overcome stunting indonesia continues to face the challenge of malnutrition, which has a severe impact on the quality of its human resources. the nutritional problem, which is a major concern in the current era, has given rise to a large number of stunted children. as stated earlier, stunting is an issue of malnutrition in children under five years of age that occurs due to inadequate food or nutrition intake for a long period of time as a result of consuming food and nutrition that does not meet the recommended amount, as well as lack of the implementation of the commitments of the ministry of health and the world bank. the president and vice president’s support in developing a national strategy to accelerate the prevention of chronic malnutrition was prepared as a direction to encourage collaboration between agencies to ensure the realization of all programs related to stunting prevention in indonesia. in this case, several related parties are involved in the elaboration of this national strategy, namely, ministries/agencies, academic and professional organizations, civil society organizations, the business world and are paying due attention to the success of other countries in preventing and ensuring growth retardation. there is a harmony with gender equality, disability, and vulnerable social groups (satriawan, 2018). overcoming the stunting problem also requires supporting prerequisites, including: implementation capability, political commitment and regulations in its implementation, and government’s involvement in all sectors (bps, 2021). nurjannah et al. (2021) listed several attempts to overcome the problem of growth delay by using various strategies such as: a) posyandu activities and the provision of healthy food. posyandu activities, which are held every month, are highly appropriate activities. up to 75% of respondents said that by visiting the posyandu regularly, the development of children, such as basic immunizations, weight gain, height, and malnutrition can be monitored properly so as to facilitate the handling of these cases; b) provide healthy foods such as porridge and biscuits with added vitamins to help maintain a young child’s metabolism. the supplementary recovery feeding program for young children with stunted growth is actively implemented; c) building a family planning village effort to reduce stunting rates. this program focuses on villages with a large number of stunting children. nurjannah et al. (2021) explain that there are two ways to deal with stunting, namely, sensitive and specific interventions. sensitive intervention is a long-term stunting prevention technique, muhafidin which can be completed through fitness counselors available in various fitness centers ranging from hospitals to health centers. the adverse effects of stunting stunting shows the failure of children’s growth and development in the long term. stunting that appears before a child is two years old can increase the risk of cognitive decline, because stunted children usually have a lower iq than ordinary children of the same age. the parenting style of the parents of stunted children is not as good as that of the parents of ordinary children. in terms of fitness services, 75% of medical expert positions place more emphasis on stunting counseling and training. stunting is also caused by parenting-related factors, and medical experts through the availability of data, education, training and empowerment of women, especially mothers, have an important role in reducing stunting (suryanis et al., 2021). sakti (2020) remarked that stunting results in impaired motor development of children, both fine and gross motors, making the mental development of children at golden age less than optimal. in addition, it is known that stunting in indonesia causes disturbances in the emotional and social development of children. stunting experienced in childhood causes growth disorders and failures that last until elementary school age, i.e., 6 to 12 years (ginting & pandiangan, 2019). stunting at school age has an adverse impact on intelligence, fine motor skills, psychomotor development, and sensorineural integration, and children become more susceptible to diseases, thereby reducing their productivity and leading to less-than-optimal levels of intellectual intelligence (arfines & puspitasari, 2017). chronic malnutrition is a nutritional problem in the world or around the world that affects the growth and development of children. it affects the intellectual intelligence of children, thus affecting the level of intelligence of children and can lead to a decrease in their productivity levels in the future (mulyana et al., 2020). methods research approach this study adopted a qualitative descriptive approach. descriptive research seeks to describe various aspects related to the research theme (cresswell, 2014; miles, et. al., 2014). the themes of this study include: 1) various policies used by the west java provincial government in overcoming stunting, 2) the causes of high stunting in west java province, 3) strategies to journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 331 overcome stunting in west java. this study used data from 2019–2022 with the research locus in west java province, indonesia. research informants research informants included officials in west java who are related to stunting, namely, the head of the population and civil registry office, head of the health service, head of the agriculture and food crops service, and parties related directly or indirectly to stunting prevention programs in west java. the informants were 12 people consisting of 6 females and 7 males. they were selected based on the purposive sampling techniques, allowing their authority and knowledge on the stunting program in the provincial office of west java. data and data collection strategies research data include primary data and secondary data. primary data were collected using a semistructured interview method in accordance with interview guidelines. interview was used by semistructures interview, the wuestions of which can be developed by the researcher during the interview process if new evidence arise. the interview took place 30-40 minutes each, and it was conducted in the office of the provincial. during the interview records were conducted by the member of the research; transcripts were developed verbatim, word by word, and field notes were developed after the whole interview was ended. secondary data were obtained using documented data from official news, annual report data, statistical data from official sources, and data from services that have been published online (basrowi & utami, 2020). data analysis the collected data were analyzed using four steps of qualitative data analysis from cresswell (2014) and interactive data analysis from miles, et. al., (2014). the qualitative data analysis started from concerting numeric and text into narrative data, determining themes based on the research questions, determining coding system, apllying coding to the whole data, and selecting the final data (cresswell, 2014), in addition, adapting miles, et al., (2014) the interactive data analysis included data collection, data classification according to the research theme, filtering or reducing valid and reliable data used to answer the problem formulation, and drawing conclusions (cresswell, 2014; basrowi & utami, 2019). muhafidin research results and discussion west java local government policies for overcoming stunting as a form of commitment to preventing and handling stunting cases, the west java provincial government intervened on 18 april. this was conveyed by the president of the handling cases of violence against women (pkktp) of west java province, atalia praratya, when providing training to stunt jamming ambassadors in assakinah, animal husbandry building, sawah gede, cianjur district, cyanjur regency. atalia hopes (data 1): (1) “this campaign will trigger west java's stunting for the next five years so that west java's stunting is not achieved. the stunting rate in west java alone reached 29.2% or 2.7 million children under five, and in eight districts/cities, stunting prevalence was still high. among them are garut regency (43.2%), sukabumi regency (37.6%), cianjur regency (35.7%), tasikmalaya regency (33.3%), west city center regency (34.2%), city tasikmalaya (33.2%), majalengka regency (30.2%) and purwakarta regency (30.1%).” nationally, the stunting rate is around 32%. in addition, atalia added (data 2): (2) “the west java provincial government has made various efforts to overcome growth retardation. and the state health department. west java provides support and guidance on maternal and newborn health to improve nutrition in the community. the west java national family planning coordinating board (bkkbn) did a stunt bar by streamlining the training of the first thousand days of life and the young family guidance group (bkb).” in addition, the village community empowerment service (dpmd) program in west java includes posyandu activities and scholarships for disadvantaged villagers in west java. the family welfare education (pkk) collectively conducts community nutrition development, phbs socialization, and posyandu empowerment. atalia further stated (data 3): (3) “so the biggest problem is that we tend to create synergies; we synergize with related agencies because it seems that many parties are involved. so it turns out that 3% of the 27 departments deal with atrophy. together with the west java provincial government, including the pkk, we are working to prevent stunting.” stunting can be eliminated in three ways, mainly by providing the young generation with adequate nutrition, educating them, and providing them with a healthy hygienic diet; half plate of vegetables and half plate of staple foods in the form of carbohydrates and animal supplements and vegetable protein are also needed to provide good sanitation to prevent children from intestinal worms, provide drinking water, safe and clean latrines, and washing hands with soap and running water. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 333 meanwhile, early breastfeeding can even help stop chronic malnutrition and improve child development. cianjur regency is the first room in west java to hold flying interference ambassador training. this training was commenced in november 2018 at the assakinah building, cianjur regency, with the theme (data 4): (4) “launching the planting of superior generation through character-based education. this training can be a form of government involvement in fighting stunting through the presidential office of manpower. together they attended a training session that was attended by around 500 posyandu cadres, village midwives, pkk cadres, health promotion officers, and nutrition officers from all areas of cianjur regency.” this year, cianjur is one of the 100 priority areas for preventing weed growth in indonesia. thus, there are 10 priority villages in cianjur regency that are handled by stunting. based on the description above, the strategy that has been taken by the west java provincial government is the strategy, namely: “1) providing support and guidance on maternal and newborn health to improve nutrition, 2) performing stunt bars by streamlining the first thousand days of life and group training. young family trustees, 3) posyandu activities and scholarships for disadvantaged villagers in west java, 4) pkk collectively conducts community nutrition development, socialization of phbs, and posyandu empowerment, 5) equipping the young generation with smart nutrition, educating them and equipping them with one hygienic healthy eating patterns, 6) providing good sanitation facilities to prevent children from worms, providing drinking water, safe and clean latrines, and washing hands with soap and running water.” what are the factors that cause stunting in west java to be high according to marion, head of the west java health office (data 5): (5) “stunting cases are caused by many factors. starting from poor parenting, limited health services, including prenatal care (anc) to lack of access to nutritious food. this situation implies that the management of chronic malnutrition must be multisectoral. the prevalence of stunting in west java reaches 29.2% or 2.7 million children under five years of age, including eight districts/cities where the prevalence of stunting is still high. according to the data from the tasikmalaya city health office in 2018, out of 21 tasikmalaya city health centers, the most disadvantaged people in the tamansari health center work area are 603 (profile of the tasikmalaya city health office tasikmalaya city, 2018). the number of underdeveloped patients at the tamansari health center in 2018 at the age of 2459 months became 467 underdeveloped babies from 3,191 babies treated at the puskesmas. stunting muhafidin occurred in mulyasari village from 2459 months to 65 babies, setiamulya village from 2459 months to 123 babies, setiawargi village from 2459 months to 165 babies and sukahurip village from 2459 months to 114 babies.” mulyanti et al. (2021) affirmed that one of the risk factors that influence the occurrence of chronic malnutrition in toddlers is a history of low birth weight (lbw). if poor nutrition, frequent infections, and poor medical care continue, the growth of babies with a low birth weight will be stunted, it can ultimately lead to growth delays. another factor associated with the onset of chronic malnutrition is exclusive breastfeeding. the risk of growth retardation is 3.7 times greater in infants who are not exclusively breastfed (for less than six months) than infants who are exclusively breastfed (for more than six months). immunization status is also a factor associated with growth retardation. vaccination is a routine procedure that keeps children healthy. most of these vaccines are designed to provide complete protection from dangerous diseases and are often given during the first few years of a child’s life. the inhibiting factors are parents’ education, parents’ occupations, and the family’s economic situation. the adverse effects of growth retardation show that the number, quality, and damage to cells, tissues, and organs of the body (impaired growth and development) have changed, some of these changes are severe or impossible to repair and increase the risk for obesity. the opinion above is in accordance with the findings of muliani et al. (2020). sutio (2017) noted that (data 6): (6) the nutritional status factor with birth weight and 2,500 grams has a significant impact on the occurrence of chronic malnutrition in children and is a 3.82 times greater risk for developing chronic malnutrition. mother’s school factor has a significant effect on the incidence of chronic malnutrition in children with a risk of up to 1.67 times suffering from chronic malnutrition. low family income has been identified as a significant predictor of stunting 2.1 times in children under five years of age. the opinion above is in accordance with the opinion of setiawan et al. (2021), who stated that, “several factors known to influence the occurrence of stunting are gestational age, birth length, birth weight and maternal parenting. lack of energy or anemia during pregnancy can also cause the baby to be born with a low birth weight.” the findings of this study are also in accordance with the opinion of bukit et al. (2021), who stated that, “one of the factors causing stunting is the low awareness of the community and parenting patterns that are still not well practiced by mothers.” journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 335 based on the description above, it can be concluded that stunting cases are caused by many factors: 1) poor parenting, 2) limited health services including prenatal care, 3) lack of access to nutritious food, 4) low public awareness and poor parenting styles still not well practiced by mothers, 5) low income, inadequate health facilities, especially pregnancy care, and poor knowledge of pregnant women about quality nutrition for children under five, 6) children under the age of two years do not get adequate intake of breast milk substitutes, 7) limited health services, 8) access to nutritious food is not good, 9) access to sanitation and clean water is not good and so on. strategies applied to tackle stunting in west java the province of west java is known as one of the 12 priority provinces with the highest prevalence of stunting in 2022 in indonesia. in 2024 it is projected to reach 14%. the covid-19 pandemic has the potential to affect the handling of stunting cases, especially in regard to the intake of nutritious food. if this is ignored, more and more adults will have cognitive abilities. pregnancy, women of childbearing age, and children under five are important investments in the future. overnutrition and stunting continue to be a problem facing the health sector. chairman of the west java tppkk (jabar) atalia praratya ridwan kamil said (data 7): (7) “although the government focuses on controlling covid-19, handling stunting cases must remain a priority. the reason is that improving maternal nutrition will reach the target of 14% in 2024. i fear the way we deal with the pandemic will change other important things. so, this needs to be more carefully prepared for stunting because it is related to the future of the nation’s generation. during the covid-19 pandemic, children’s health services have depended on the mobile posyandu. because according to atalia, many posyandu were closed for the fear of being exposed to the covid-19 virus. this condition makes posyandu services not optimal.” head of the west java health service (dinkes) nina susana dewi said (data 8): (8) “stunting treatment must still be carried out even in the covid-19 pandemic situation. stunning is one of the priority indicators in the sdgs that aims to be free of malnutrition by 2030. preventing stunting will increase indonesia’s human capital index.” the head of the west java health office, marion siagian, on a different occasion also said (data 9): (9) “the prevalence of stunting in west java is in children under five years of age, according to a nutritional status survey and 2019 is still relatively high at 26.2%. the zero stunting muhafidin strategy is to carry out a ‘massive move’ to reduce the prevalence of stunting below the who standard (stunting < 20%) by 2023.” regarding stunting in west java province, lina ruzhanul, vice president of the provincial family welfare empowerment motivation team, west java (jabar), stated: “according to 2017 data from the west java nutritionist association, cases of malnutrition occurred in west java province. java java by 29.2%. it still exceeds the who threshold of 22%. the causes of poor nutrition are lack of food intake, early marriage, and lack of parental knowledge or education. all three are influenced by economic or welfare factors.” lina also explained that poor nutrition does not only have an impact on children's physical growth. brain growth in children is also affected. to reduce the stunting rate in west java. the results of this study are in accordance with the opinion that to overcome stunting it is necessary to involve several relevant parties involved, namely ministries/institutions, academic and professional organizations, civil society organizations, the business world and pay attention to the success of other countries in preventing growth retardation (satriawan, 2018) the west java province pkk mobilization team is also aggressively campaigning for omaba, a program that was started six years ago by the head of the pkk mobilizing team in cisaranten kidul district, vita fatimah (data 10): (10) the initial concept was to spend the company’s csr funds in the form of formula milk for malnourished families. next, omaba becomes a direct meal. the goal is to make it more effective and deliver it to the homes of malnourished children by motorbike. currently there are up to 1.1 million underprivileged families in west java. this figure is equivalent to 8.87% of the 12.6 million families. omaba socialization can inspire other regions to be involved in its implementation in their respective regions to realize a growth-free west java (prasetya, 2019). according to the indonesia nutrition status survey (ssgi) 2021 data (data 11). (11) urban areas in west java also show high growth retardation, among others; cirebon city is known as a ‘red’ area because it has a stunting prevalence of above 30%. then, with a prevalence of 35.2%, garut ranks first in west java, which has the highest prevalence of stunting. together with the cities of cirebon, cianjur and bandung regency, garut is included in tanah merah. there are also 14 ‘yellow’ districts and cities with a prevalence of 20% to 30%, ranked from highest to lowest overall prevalence; west bandung, tasikmalaya city, bogor regency, cirebon regency, bandung city, tasikmalaya regency, sukabumi regency, banjar city majalengka pangandaran sumedang bekasi regency purwakarta, west bandung karawang are also almost in the red category with a prevalence of 29.6%. there are still nine areas that are classified as green, with prevalence ranging from 10% to 20%, ranked from highest to lowest prevalence, among others; journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 337 cimahi city, sukabumi city, kuningan city, subang, bogor city, ciamis, indramayu, bekasi city and depok city. cimahi city, with a prevalence of 19.9%, and sukabumi city with a prevalence of 19.1% are even “almost” close to red status. not a single district or city in west java has “blue” status, with a prevalence of less than 10%. only depok city has the lowest prevalence rate of 12.3%. deputy governor of west java, uu ruzhanul ulum, said (data 12): (12) “stunting is a chronic malnutrition problem characterized by short physique, susceptibility to disease, below average intelligence, and low productivity. to reduce stunting symptoms in west java, all aspects of society must contribute to improving health conditions, one of which is stunting.” in relation to the above, atalia praratya kamil, head of the west java pkk mobilization team, said (data 13): (13) “constraints are not only experienced by poor or underprivileged families but also rich families: five percent from wealthy families and 33% from urban areas. to ensure a shared commitment to the convergence of all stakeholders, bkkbn socializes the national action plan for the acceleration of stunting reduction (ran pasti) (gunawan, 2022). the ran pasti socialization explained the techniques for accelerating stunting reduction at the provincial, district, city, and rural levels (data 14): (14) “the stunting reduction acceleration team ‘must’ be completed by march 2022 so that the allocated funds can be used efficiently and on time. monitoring, reporting, and assessment are also considered in the socialization of ran pasti, as well as options for ‘financing’ atrophy in the regions, including those that are socialized. the indicator of decreasing malnutrition will be one of the benchmarks for the success of regional leaders in terms of the welfare of the population and the progress of regional development.” the regional economic transformation and recovery task force (satgas) of west java province explained that (data 15). (15) "the west java provincial government (pemda) has set priorities for economic recovery. according to the principle of survival, there are three possibilities that can be prioritized: food, energy and water.” sarwono kusumaatmadja, a prominent figure and observer of agriculture in west java, suggested that the west java provincial government must place more emphasis on food issues (data 16): muhafidin (16) "make food a top priority for the current economic recovery. the consequences of this food are diverse. all sectors will recover once food demand is met. don’t expect other industries to develop if there is no food." horticultural agriculture, according to sarwono, can be a long-term solution after the covid-19 pandemic. as a supplement to village horticultural agriculture, urban agriculture can be implemented. sarwono said (data 17): (17) “the indonesian horticulture program launched by the governor of west java ridwan kamil can be significantly increased so that people can meet their own needs and the needs of others around them. because the population is fluent in agriculture, west java has the potential to overcome food problems. so, if another country restricts its agricultural exports, we have the opportunity to meet our own needs and, if possible, export.” dadan hidayat, the current head of the horticulture and food crops office of west java province, stated (data 18): (18) “west java accounts for 16%–17% of national rice production, ranking third after east java and central java. numbers become one, and food becomes independent. the possibility exists.” according to bps statistics, rice production in west java in 2020 will be 9,172,700 tons of milled dry grain (gkg), or 5,880 tons, 618 tons of rice. while the population of west java consumes 128 kg per capita per year, it takes 6.4 million tons of rice to meet this need (data 19): (19) “this indicates that west java still lacks rice. in 2021, the government will experience a budget surplus. we have a scheme to expand open land belonging to the plantation and agriculture office. the target is to plant 2,091,404 hectares of rice with a yield of 6 tons per hectare. the goal is to make 11,126 units. next year we have 830 tons of gkg or the equivalent of 7,646,291 tons of rice, leaving west java with a surplus of 1.2 million tons.” according to jafar ismail, head of the west java animal husbandry and food safety service (data 20): (20) “the diet of the west java community is less diverse, especially in terms of filling carbohydrates. we need to shift the perception that satiety doesn't have to be rice, it can be cassava, sweet potatoes, and other carbohydrates. the west java provincial government intends to promote two main products, namely cassava and potatoes as a substitute for rice.” the results of this study are in accordance with the opinion of nurjannah et al. (2021) that the strategies to overcome stunting include: “posyandu activities and the provision of healthy food, providing healthy food, building a family planning village.” journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 339 based on the description above, strategies that can be taken to overcome stunting are: horticultural agriculture, prioritizing restoration, food, and water, involving all aspects of the community must contribute to improving the health condition of sensitive and specific interventions, posyandu activities and the provision of physically healthy foods, building a family planning village, providing healthy food and others. conclusion in an effort to combat the covid-19 pandemic, which has had adverse impacts since early 2020, the indonesian government remains committed to addressing the stunting problem in the country related to malnutrition and stunting. the national stunting strategy is developing with evidence and experience from indonesia and around the world in stunting prevention activities. the stunting national strategy intends to direct and mobilize all assets or resources to assist and fund important initiatives, along with growing insurance and quality nutrition offerings in the first thousand days of life for pregnant women and children under 24 months of age. the west java provincial government and the state health department have persistently endeavored to overcome stunting. west java provides support and guidance on maternal and newborn health to improve nutrition in the community, while the west java bkkbn performed a stunt bar by streamlining the first thousand days of life and youth family guidance group training. in addition, the dpmd program in west java includes posyandu activities and scholarships for villagers. left behind at no. west java pkk collectively carries out community nutrition development, socialization of phbs, and empowerment of posyandu. muhafidin references alfiah, s. n., & setiyabudi, r. (2020). hubungan pola asuh pemberian makan dan status ekonomi dengan kejadian balita pendek. human care journal, 5(3), 742. https://doi.org/10.32883/hcj.v5i3.767 arfines, p. p., & puspitasari, f. d. (2017). hubungan stunting dengan prestasi belajar anak sekolah dasar di daerah kumuh, kotamadya jakarta pusat. buletin penelitian kesehatan, 45(1), 45–52. https://doi.org/10.22435/bpk.v45i1.5798.45-52 armayanti, l. y., & darmayanti, p. a. r. (2022). perbedaan tumbuh kembang pada balita usia 2-5 tahun dengan stunting dan non-stunting. jurnal ilmu kesehatan makia, 12(1), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.37413/jmakia.v12i1.184 aryastami, n., & tarigan, i. (2017). kajian kebijakan dan penanggulangan masalah gizi stunting di indonesia policy analysis on stunting prevention in indonesia. buletin penelitian kesehatan, 45(4), 233–240. awaludin. (2019). analisis bagaimana mengatasi permasalahan stunting di indonesia. jurnal kedokteran, 35(4), 60. basrowi, & utami, p. (2020). building strategic planning models based on digital technology in the sharia capital market? journal of advanced research in law and economics, 11(3), 747–754. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.14505/jarle.v11.3(49).06 basrowi & utami, p. (2019) legal protection to consumers of financial technology in indonesia. journal of advanced research in law and economics, volume ix issue 4(43), summer 2019. http://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jarle/index beal, t., tumilowicz, a., sutrisna, a., izwardy, d., & neufeld, l. m. (2018). a review of child stunting determinants in indonesia. maternal and child nutrition, 14(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12617 bps. (2021). laporan indeks khusus penanganan stunting 2019-2020. in badan pusat statistik. bukit, d. s., keloko, a. b., & ashar, t. (2021). dukungan tenaga kesehatan dalam pencegahan stunting di desa tuntungan 2 kabupaten deli serdang support of health workers in stunting prevention in tuntungan village 2 deli serdang regency. trophico: tropical public health journal faculty of public health, 2017, 19–23. creswell, j.w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). london: sage publications. festilia, s., & waliyo, e. (2021). determinan kejadian stunting pada balita: asupan protein, zink, penyakit infeksi dan indikator keluarga sehat. 04, 75–78. https://doi.org/https:/doi.org/10.14505/jarle.v11.3(49).06 http://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jarle/index journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 320-342 341 ginting, k. p., & pandiangan, a. (2019). tingkat kecerdasan intelegensi anak stunting. jurnal penelitian perawat profesional, 1(1), 47–52. https://doi.org/10.37287/jppp.v1i1.25 gunawan, i. (2022). inilah strategi pemprov dan bkkbn jabar untuk cegah stunting. https://www.sonora.id/read/423181318/inilah-strategi-pemprov-dan-bkkbn-jabar-untukcegah-stunting halim, l. a., warouw, s. m., & manoppo, j. i. c. (2018). hubungan faktor-faktor risiko dengan stunting pada anak usia 3-5 tahun di tk/paud kecamatan tuminting. jurnal medik dan rehabilitasi, 1, 1–8. khoirunisa, n. (2017). gambaran perkembangan pada balita stunting di desa mulo wonosari gunung kidul yogyakarta. 111. mardahlia, d., ardan, m., haimin, f. g., & liling, k. (2020). pencegahan stunting dengan 1000 hari pertama kehidupan di kampung kb kota samarinda tahun 2019. 2(september 2019), 50–53. miles, mattew b.; huberman, michael, a & saldana, jhonny. (2014). qualitative data analysis a methods sourcebook. 3rd ed. eds. helen salmon, kaitlin perry, kalie koscielak, and laura barrent. los angeles: sage publication. muliani, s., supiana, n., & hidayati, n. (2020). kejadian dan penyebab stunting di desa mambalan kecamatan gunung sari kabupaten lombok barat tahun 2020. 8(2), 49–55. mulyana, h., hidayat, f. m., & hidayanti, r. (2020). dampak stunting terhadap kecerdasan intelektual. bhakti kencana university tasikmalaya, 102–110. mulyanti, s., setiawan, a., & zahara, f. (2021). faktor – faktor yang berhubungan dengan terjadinya stunting pada balita usia 24 – 59 bulan di kelurahan setiawargi kota tasikmalaya tahun 2020. jurnal ilmiah kesehatan pencerah, 10(1), 99–109. muslimah an. (2017). correlation of micronutrien intake and parenting among stunting childrens' parents in students of smp n 15 semarang city, year 2017. 0–1. nurjannah, s., syarifuddin, & yanuartati, b. y. e. (2021). critical assessment of household food security and stunting phenomenon: cases in two villages in gunungsari district, west lombok regency. 22(3), 149–162. pantaleon, m. g., hadi, h., & gamayanti, i. l. (2016). stunting berhubungan dengan perkembangan motorik anak di kecamatan sedayu, bantul, yogyakarta. jurnal gizi dan dietetik indonesia (indonesian journal of nutrition and dietetics), 3(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.21927/ijnd.2015.3(1).10-21 prasetya, a. w. (2019). jawa barat punya strategi jitu atasi stunting. https://regional.kompas.com/read/2019/10/24/16404421/jawa-barat-punya-strategi-jitu muhafidin atasi-stunting pusat data dan informasi kementerian kesehatan ri. (2020). situasi stunting di indonesia. jendela data dan informasi kesehatan, 208(5), 1–34. https://pusdatin.kemkes.go.id/download.php?file=download/pusdatin/buletin/buletinsituasi-stunting-di-indonesia_opt.pdf rachmi, c. n., agho, k. e., li, m., & baur, l. a. (2016). stunting coexisting with overweight in 2·0-4·9-year-old indonesian children: prevalence, trends and associated risk factors from repeated cross-sectional surveys. public health nutrition, 19(15), 2698–2707. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980016000926 sakti, s. a. (2020). pengaruh stunting pada tumbuh kembang anak periode golden age. 6(1), 169–175. satriawan, e. (2018). strategi nasional percepatan pencegahan stunting 2018-2024 (national strategy for accelerating stunting prevention 2018-2024). tim nasional percepatan penanggulangan kemiskinan (tnp2k) sekretariat wakil presiden republik indonesia, november, 1–32. http://tnp2k.go.id/filemanager/files/rakornis 2018/sesi 1_01_rakorstuntingtnp2k_stranas_22nov2018.pdf setiawan, d. a., suherman, yusuf, k., wahyuni, f., & g, a. v. (2021). faktor yang berhubungan dengan kejadian stunting pada balita di puskesmas ilwaki kabupatenmaluku barat daya tahun 2021. 02(september), 1–14. sunanto, & hamim, n. (2019). faktor penentu stunting pada anak di era pandemi covid 19. 45(45), 95–98. suryanis, i., pasalina, p. e., & novera, i. (2021). determinan stunting ditinjau dari pola asuh dan pelayanan kesehatan di kabupaten pasaman barat. jurnal doppler, 5(1), 93–97. sutio, d. (2017). analisis faktor-faktor risiko terhadap kejadian stunting pada balita. jurnal departemen gizi fakultas kesehatan masarakat, vol. 28 no, 247–256. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 365-383 the role of happiness in applying suggestopedia and fostering the language learning process ganka ivanova1, doroteya dimova-severinova2 abstract the article is devoted to the process of learning a foreign language, replete with emotions, that has not been sufficiently studied in the domain of fostering language acquisition; specifically, learning the process through the prism of the concept of "happiness" in applying suggestopedia. it also discusses the problem of humanistic approaches to the teaching of language and the entire learning process. lastly, but certainly just as critically, it also provides perspectives over theories of happiness and the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, suggesting that certain positive emotions such as interest, joy, contentment, and awe have the capacity to broaden an individual's thought-action repertoires. of significance to this theory is the role of suggestion as a communicative factor, which is expressed in the "offer" of the individual to make a choice from a wide range of opportunities and complex incentives. it looks at factors accelerating the harmonious development of personality, the disclosure of versatile reserve capacity memory, intellectual activity, and the creative abilities of the individual. key highlights of this theory also include faith in the promise of success for everyone, benevolence as the basis of the relationship between teacher and pupils, as well as between the pupils themselves. attention is given to the authority and creative role of the teacher, who provides education activities that are highly motivational and aimed at stimulating the individual student to strive not only to acquire the content of the lessons but to achieve academic excellence. keywords: suggestopedia, happiness, foreign language, language teaching approaches introduction emotions are a fundamental part of an individual's life and culture. one's appearance and expressions are often determined by the excepted community norms one belongs to. language and its usage highlight other aspects of the individual and shape possibilities ahead. learning and using a foreign language is a choice that determines future paths and expands horizons. this review paper gives perspectives on different theories linked to language learning and human emotions and raises questions of the effectiveness of traditional, conventional methods by comparing them to an alternative method called suggestopedia. it aims to highlight key points when it comes to the impact of happiness on the language learning process and draw conclusions that can be of practical 1 dr. ganka yordanova ivanova, al ain university, ganka.ivanova@aau.ac.ae 2 dr. doroteya m. dimova-severinova, university of ruse, ddimova@uni-ruse.bg journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 365-383 value to students and teachers, as it states that happiness is a vital element in learning, especially when suggestopedia is applied. it postulates whether alternative methods of language learning can indeed be more successful than conventional ones. at its end, it clarifies whether suggestopedia can be the most efficient method if used independently or if it best contributes to linguistic education when combined with other methods. prior to highlighting the role of happiness in the suggestopedia learning process and language learning theories, let us draw attention to the nature of human emotions overall. human emotions cover complex interactions of subjective feelings and different physiological and behavioral responses, specifically triggered by certain stimuli, subjectively perceived as important or not by each individual. three different approaches can be used to oversee changes in an individual`s emotional state: (1) subjective approach that assess subjective feelings and experiences; (2) facial expressions behavioral reading and investigation (jack & schyns, 2015), tone and vocal qualities expressions (russell et al., 2003), non-verbal , gestural changes (dael et al., 2012); and (3) objective approaches that include electrical and hemodynamic activities and physiological changes within the central nervous system (cns) in addition to autonomic nervous system (ans) responses such as heart rate, respiratory volume/rate, skin temperature, skin conductance, and blood volume pulse (amin & malik, 2013; chai et.al., 2017). when it comes to learning and a students' life, emotional experiences are ubiquitous in nature, very important, and perhaps even crucial in academic settings, for emotion modulates virtually every aspect of cognition and perceptions directly connected to it. educational assessments, assignments and deadlines are associated with different emotional states that may trigger frustration, anxiety, and boredom. subject matter preferences also influence emotions that one has and affect one's ability to learn and remember. moreover, emotion’s componentshave been linked to heightened learning and memory in a positive or negative way (panksepp, 2005; 2007; pekrun, 1992). dr. lozanov's suggestopedia theory is something different and, in a way, revolutionary. it gives a very different perspective on language learning and its connection to an individual's emotional world and existence. the usage of lozanov's suggestopedia system for mastering a foreign language produced consistent positive results and led to the creation of societies and training canters based on suggestopedia. but how does it work and what does it impact? suggestopedia is a method not only impacts the capabilities of the intellect (for which the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible) but also the emotional sphere of the personality (the functions of the right ivanova & dimova-severinova 367 hemisphere). activation is a process aimed at achieving the activity of the individual and maintaining this state. in its original meaning, the word "intensive" means tension, that is, activity per unit of time. in this case, the concept of "intensive learning" is interpreted as dynamism, activity in the interaction of the teacher and the study group as well as students with each other. it is this state of activity between the teacher and student that provides a high level of intensity (tension) to the educational process. this idea of learning is relevant since the problems of interaction between people are increasingly merging with the problems of teaching foreign languages. after all, the strategic goal of learning a foreign language today is, as with all language education, to master the language as a means of intercultural communication. the theory of communication convinces us that it is not enough to know the language, the language system, and the functioning rules of the language code. in order to communicate, one needs to know how to use the language in a specific context. the process of learning, using the activation method, is based on communication through a foreign language (in its oral and written forms), which is both the goal of learning, the main means, and the condition for achieving it. therefore, intensive training can be defined as "specially organized learning communication, in the process of which there is an accelerated mastery of the subject and active personal development" (kitaygorodskaya, 1986). can suggestopedia be used as a successful method on its own? let's discuss this, along with its points and advantages once we review other more conventional theories from recent times. overview of approaches to language teaching all approaches have a variety of aspects that they are involved in and impact: cognitive, social, psychological, and functional. starting our overview of the more conventional approaches, we shall focus first on some of the classical methods used in more recent times. kim (2008) states that the grammar-translation method, developed during the 18th and 19th centuries in germany, is a traditional and ancient teaching method used to teach greek and latin languages. generally, classical languages were taught by reading and translating texts extracted from classical literature, which was very much like the grammar-translation method. in the grammar-translation approach, instruction is given in the students' native language (celce-murcia, 1991; parker, 2019), but this cannot assure that students will be able to use the language for communication. the teacher in the context of this approach has the authority in the classroom and students usually follow automatically, while learning grammar rules deductively. (zhou & niu, 2015) having said that, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 365-383 the grammar-translation method is still popular in many parts of the world today, and although this method does underscore the importance of understanding the literary texts more than just speaking and listening in the target language, it ignores the personality differences and emotional element related to the process (bekteshi & xhaferi, 2020; pontier et al., 2020). in addition to that, the grammar-translation method does not require great skill from teachers (richards & rodgers 1986). vocabulary and grammar rules are typically taught in isolation from context. therefore, the context is more often treated as the source for doing grammatical analysis exercises. since structure analysis and vocabulary memorization are emphasized and are almost regarded as the language learning aim instead of its meanings. the latter results in problems later, especially when it comes to daily, modern, real-world communication, sharing a message within a specific context and understanding its potential recipient's interpretation and where it may also lead to in communication in specific (and even general) circumstances when used without enough understanding, essential when interacting and socializing with others (ebersole & kanahelemossman, 2020; honegger, 2020). critics of this method also state that this method does not allow the real educational objectives to be complete. it also does not do enough to address the ambiguity of language usage in different contexts and fails to ensure understanding of the required conformity to the language to achieve mastery (bernardo-hinesley, 2020; keefer & haj-broussard, 2020). language mastery necessitates that learning the linguistic forms and understanding their potential communicative functions and social meanings are treated as equally important. in other words, language learners should be competent enough to associate the linguistic forms with appropriate non-linguistic knowledge to account for the specific functional meaning intended by the speaker (littlewood, 1981). direct approach it had been noticed that the grammar-translation approach did not produce the intended results, as it had its failures, resulting in the creation and appearance of new approaches. in the end, the objective of each approach when it comes to language teaching is to allow learners to use the language in efficient and successful ways. the direct approach does offer a little more advanced usage of the language in the process of its acquisition by using conversations, anecdotes, and illustrations as part of the learning process and a more conversational style. in that way, grammar was learned inductively and not directly (celce-murcia, 1991). as part of this approach to teaching ivanova & dimova-severinova 369 literature, texts are read for pleasure and not actually analyzed grammatically. this made the approach really open for critics who were more traditional in their views of acquiring language with understanding and memorizing basic rules about the language. the direct approach crossed the atlantic in the beginning of the 20th century. of course, the appearance and existence of each approach is connected to deeper social-historical happenings and evolving human realities and the emerging demands of the time, along with human needs, dictated by human movements and communication requirements that drive and create the need to acquire a new language (başok & sayer, 2020). later but within the same broad period, another approach attempted to achieve language teaching and learning objectives: the reading approach. reading approach for historical context, around world war ii era, the u.s. army made it imperative for foreign learners to learn english, and they had to learn to write and read english very quickly and efficiently to meet operational support requirements. focus was given mainly to reading, with some grammar explanation given, when it was determined that it was part of, and would best enhance, the reading skill (although foreign language requires all four linguistics skills: reading, listening, writing, and speaking, united into a receptive and productive skillset for mastery, so the shortfalls of this approach brought warranted criticism). common practices here were related to learning useful vocabulary mainly for daily usage and adding new words and phrases when needed (arslan & tanis, 2018). actual translation was seen as more of a classroom activity. teachers using this approach were not expected to be native speakers. post-method era teaching approaches attention to the methods of teaching foreign languages became especially close in the 20th century. changes in the methodology of linguodidactics were caused by a change in the social demand for the nature of foreign language proficiency. it was during this century that there was a shift in interest from competence (skills) in reading and understanding written texts to the possession of an oral variety of foreign language speech, i.e., to communicative competence. of course, this reorientation of linguodidactics did not occur immediately; as with any newly required adaptations in the ability to communicate in a foreign language, it did not immediately crystallize, since it was closely related to social, economic, political, technological, cultural, and other journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 365-383 transformations and changes in human society. as the requirements for the quality of foreign language proficiency changed, linguodidactics continuously tested new approaches and methods throughout the 20th century, trying to find the optimal method of teaching foreign languages (pawlak, 2021; stacy et al., 2020; vural, 2019). some of them at various times received wide recognition and popularity, and then gradually "faded away," being replaced by newer and more attractive ideas and theories. this fate befell, for example, the direct method as well as audiolingual and situational-conditioned methods. others, such as the communicative method, have been recognized and accepted almost universally and have achieved the status of a kind of "law" in language teaching. the communicative approach assumes that the objective is to foster an individual's ability to communicate in and efficiently use a foreign language. part of the learning that takes place in the context of this approach, when applied correctly, is to have the students interact in small group or one-on-one discussion sessions with each other, where each student has a portion of the information that the other(s) doesn't have. all skills are integrated and used from the beginning and the teacher mainly facilitates discussions, activities etc. the audio-lingual method, on the other hand, is more traditional as it focuses mainly on spoken language and only the target language can be used in the classroom. this method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s. interestingly, when this approach appeared, the meaning of language started being taught with regards of specific context. at the same time, alternative approaches to the main direction in the methodology of linguodidactics have always existed and found their own (though not numerous) supporters, and traditional approaches continued to face criticism, as some were not efficient for all learners. the palette of methods was especially diverse in the 1970s. among them are the "silent" method (brown, 2008), according to which the teacher talks less in the classroom when teaching. it was also during the same time that the unique method of suggestopedia was born. suggestopedia so, what is suggestopedia and why can it be much more efficient than other, earlier methods for many learners of a second language? are there emotions involved and, if so, can they help foster the learning process? suggestopedia is an original teaching method developed by the bulgarian scholar professor georgi lozanov, a physician, neurologist, psychiatrist, brain physiologist, and educator. the term was coined and published for the first time in bulgarian in 1965 and in english ivanova & dimova-severinova 371 in 1967. suggestopedia, acknowledged in the late 1970s by an international group of unesco experts, is a generally superior teaching method that can be used for many subjects and for many types of students. the original form of suggestopedia presented by lozanov consisted of the use of extended dialogues, usually in the form of several pages, accompanied by vocabulary lists and observations on grammatical points. typically, these dialogues would be read aloud to the students to the accompaniment of music. the most formal of these readings, known as the "concert reading," would typically employ a memorable piece of classical music such as a beethoven symphony. this would not be in the form of background music but would be the focus of the reading, with the teacher's voice acting as a counterpoint to the music. in the light of that the "concert reading" could be seen as a kind of event, with the learners free to focus on the music, the text, or a combination of the two. after the readings of these long dialogues to the accompaniment of music, the teacher would then make use of the dialogues for more conventional language work. the theory states that large chunks of the dialogues can be acquired by students during the readings due to the relaxed and receptive state of the learners and to the positive suggestion ambience created by the music. it is understandable that the idea of a teacher reading dialogue aloud, with exaggerated rhythm and intonation, to the accompaniment of beethoven or mozart may be perceived with skepticism by many people, but it nonetheless proved to be successful when implemented in a correctly tailored instructional program. this is not to say, that certain elements of the approach cannot be taken and incorporated into the more efficient approach to language teaching widely in evidence today. attention to environmental factors such as décor, lighting, and furniture is surely important as well. in any modern creative linguistic instruction, the dialogues, too, will have their uses and positive effect. most importantly, creating conditions in which learners’ cognitive abilities are fostered and enhanced can only have a positive effect on motivation. suggestopedia is an effective comprehensible input-based method with a combination of "desuggestion" and "suggestion" to achieve "super learning." suggestion is at the core of suggestopedia. the main objective of suggestopedia is to motivate more of the students' mental potential to learn, which can be achieved by "suggestion." lozanov distinguishes his theory of suggestion from the "narrow clinical concept of hypnosis as a kind of static, sheeplike, altered state of consciousness" (lozanov, 1978). desuggestion includes unloading memory banks, reserves, of unwanted or blocking memories. suggestion on the other hand then means loading the memory journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 365-383 banks with desired and facilitating memories. the combination of "desuggestion" and "suggestion” aims to lower the "affective filter" and engage students towards accelerating learning where they can use the target language for communication to achieve "super learning," the final goal of suggestopedia. standards should be set up for the training, certification, and maintaining the standards of suggestopedic training so its effect can be prolonged. suggestopedic training of teachers of various competences should be started as soon as possible. an international association of suggestology and suggestopedia affiliated with unesco should be set up based on the late dr. lozanov's educational theories, teaching methods, and writings, as the foundational principles that the above recommended international association of suggestology and suggestopedia utilize for the initial training of educators and research programs. today, a critical factor that affects the duration of college courses and programs is the escalating cost of education and the methods of teaching. universities and colleges are striving to increase enrolment and decrease their expenditures whenever possible, hence the search for more costeffective instructional approaches. shorter, accelerated programs can be one of the solutions. students are looking for ways to complete their education at a minimal cost and in minimal time. raising the efficiency of education at all levels has become a critical goal because society needs more qualified specialists with advanced college degrees prepared in a short time. accelerated learning (al), as one of the perspective approaches, has been effectively integrated in many educational institutions; however, the rate of this progress is disproportionate to the challenge. al and other new, alternative methods and techniques may be a response to the currently growing demand for better education within a shorter time frame. suggestopedia might be a good answer to that as well. prior to linking suggestopedia and happiness, key happiness theories in psychology are provided below. happiness theories in psychology defining happiness in psychology can be done in few different ways. to begin with, happiness is an umbrella term for several theories of well-being. these theories cover intrinsically rewarding and valued experiences, positive beliefs about oneself and the world, or positive psychological functioning within the inner and outer world. secondly, happiness has been often considered a basic emotion by most theorists within the psychology of emotions. psychological theories of ivanova & dimova-severinova 373 happiness built upon philosophical concepts such as hedonia, eudaimonia, and meaning-in-life as well as philosophical traditions of utilitarianism or moral philosophy (tatarkiewicz, 1976). many authors use happiness as a psychological term within the well-being literature (czapiński & peeters, 1991; diener, 2000; kahneman, 1999), however, the occurrence of the term happiness has been increasing in the psychological literature, especially following the emergence of positive psychology (seligman et al., 2005). happiness is a term, defined depending on the context and professional setting where it is used. (psychologists, social workers, teachers). happiness theories can be sorted into hedonic, emphasizing immediate subjective experience (kahneman, 1999) and eudemonic, with an emphasis on the way to personal excellence (waterman et al., 2010). certain theories provide extensive lists of substantial components of happiness that are relatively independent of each other (ryff, 2013), whereas others propose specific working mechanisms in which the listed components of happiness interact (czapiński & peeters, 1991; dale & halgren, 2001; kim-prieto et al., 2005). there are several theories of happiness that attempt to identify the basic psychological elements that happiness consists of; these are briefly outlined below. -subjective well-being theorythis theory argues that a happy individual experiences an abundance of positive feelings and few negative feelings, a balance that serves as the basis for the evaluation of life as very satisfactory (diener, 2000). objective happiness theory this theory argues that broad cognitive evaluations of wellbeing ("am i a happy person?") are often biased; thus, only the intensity of immediate experience (in terms of good vs. bad) is a valid measure of well-being (kahneman, 1999). psychological well-being theory. this theory states that a happy individual is characterized by several positive psychological characteristics including autonomy, environmental mastery, or personal growth (ryff, 2013). -eudemonic well-being theory. this theory projects that a happy individual is seriously engaged in self-awareness, self-expression, and developing the best he is capable of being. all positive emotions are additional consequences or a product of these pursuits (waterman et al., 2010). -well-being theory (formally the authentic happiness theory). the happiness theories proposed by seligman et al. (2005) have distinguished components that constitute the full life: pleasure and positive emotions, engagement, or flow, and meaning. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 365-383 -onion theory of happiness. the onion theory of happiness (czapiński & peeters, 1991) is described with a three-layer structure, with the will to live as its core, the mid-layer of general subjective well-being, and the outer layer of current effective experiences and satisfaction with specific life domains that reflects objective life events and circumstances. after reviewing these happiness-related theories, one clearly sees the connection between happiness and self-awareness, happiness and life engagement, and accelerated self-development. therefore, creating a positive atmosphere is very important for the learner, as cognitive processes are enhanced when someone is happy. the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions the broaden-and-build theory describes the function and the form of positive emotions that include love, contentment, and happiness. a key proposition is that these positive emotions broaden an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire and the chain in between them: joy sparks the urge to play, interest leads to desire to explore, contentment invites the urge to integrate, and love sparks a recurring cycle of each of these urges within safe, close relationships. the mindsets arising from these positive emotions that are broadened contrasted with the narrowed mindsets that are surrounded by variety of negative emotions (i.e., attack or related flee actions).the next second key proposition concerns the consequences of these broadened mindsets: by broadening an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire—whether through play, selfawareness, or other activities—positive emotions promote discovery of novel and creative actions, social bonds, which in turn build that individual's personal resources ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources (panksepp, 2005; 2007). importantly, these resources serve as reserves that can be drawn on later to improve the odds of successful coping and survival (fredrickson, 2004). this outline is only intended as a brief overview to provide context, background information, and create a general understanding of the subject matter to facilitate the discussion regarding the suggestopedia method and happiness, which is the focus of this article. the latest empirical evidence supporting the same theory and its broad-based implications that the theory holds for optimizing health and well-being is beyond the intended scope and purpose of this paper. that said, it might appear that positive emotions are important to the science of well-being simply ivanova & dimova-severinova 375 because positive emotions are markers of optimal well-being. different moments in people's lives are characterized by level of experiences of positive emotions—joy, love, contentment, interest, etc.—these are moments in which they are not plagued by negative emotions such as anxiety, sadness, and anger. the overall balance of peoples' negative to positive emotions has been shown to contribute to their subjective well-being (diener et al., 2010). in this sense, positive emotions signal optimal functioning, but this is far from their whole story. it is not clear that positive emotions also produce optimal functioning, not just within the present, pleasant moment but over the long-term as well. people should understand the power of placing positive emotions in themselves and those around them to achieve psychological growth and improve mental and physical well-being over time. such experience is undoubtedly linked to learning, as learning takes place faster in a positive emotional context. now, in contrast to the oppositive, negative or unpleasant emotions, which carry direct and immediate adaptive benefits in situations that threaten survival, positive emotions are beneficial in other ways, and they lead to specific actions. specifically, broadened mindsets carry indirect and long-term adaptive benefits because broadening builds enduring personal resources. taking a play as an example and its different forms that becomes more evident (dolhinow, 1987). role of emotions in the learning process emotions have huge impact on human`s cognitive processes and all their aspects, including perception, attention, learning, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving. emotion has a strong impact on attention, particularly over attention`s selectivity and motivating certain behavior afterwards (panksepp, 2005; 2007). this attentional and action-oriented control is directly linked to the learning process, as intrinsically limited attentional capacities are always better focused on relevant and important for the individual information. emotion also facilitates encoding and helps in the retrieval of information process efficiently. emotion`s impact on memory and learning might be very subjective, as studies have reported that emotion may impair or enhance learning and longterm memory (ltm) retention depending on a range of factors (simons & spiers, 2003). we have also summarized the current state of knowledge on the impact of emotion on memory and mapping implications for educational settings. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 365-383 discussion in the field of psychology, integral components of affect are emotions, feelings, and moods (forgas, 2001). in most of the literature sources, feelings and emotions are perceived as very close in meaning (scherer, 2005). the close interrelationship between feelings and emotions makes it very difficult to differentiate the two concepts. foreign language learners are predisposed to experience a range of emotions and feelings during this complex process due to internal and external factors. we should always focus our attention on feelings and emotions originated during foreign language learning instruction since emotional reactions are part of an experience in interpersonal communication and relationships that are developed between teachers and students as part of the process. educators are often expected to understand and consider students` emotions and create a positive learning environment. human emotions can be influenced by many external factors as well, that are part of the learning process or surrounding it. music on its own, can have a great impact on one's mood (sachs et al., 2015). research (fox et. al., 2015) even states relationship between sad music and pleasant mood. students often experience diverse emotions during learning activities, and this can cause different affective reactions for different individuals. some situations might be perceived as difficult or bring anxiety. as an example, if students perceive that a task is difficult but also experience feelings of joy, relief, or pride while doing it, they tend to adjust their perceptions and become willing to try new activities in the future. thus, the emotions that are part of this evaluation process provide students with the motivational energy to direct their actions and shape their thinking. this process of assessment and appraisal is a critical part of any learning process as its impact its continuity or ending. emotional status overall affects the cognitive abilities. (eysenck, et.al, 2007). thus, motivation is powerfully influenced by different learners' personalities and by differing personal experiences, cognitive abilities, and individuals` social context. the latter impacts emotions and feelings arousal and its expressions seen in interpersonal interactions. all this complex interaction of numerous student and situational characteristics determines a foreign language learners' motivation. (lopez, 2011) considering that language learning process is a socially constructed process, the diversity of emotions experienced is a crucial aspect impacting the motivational behavior of foreign language learners. according to different research findings in the field of general education and in foreign language acquisition, the learning environment plays ivanova & dimova-severinova 377 powerful influence on students' emotional arousal and, consequently, on the effort exercised in classroom activities (meyer & turner, 2006; yan & horwitz, 2008). the success of a learning and teaching process depends on the cooperation between teacher and learner. it also happens in the second language learning and teaching process. we will examine this from the aspect of (and with focus on) the teacher's role in this interaction and what methods they bring with them when they come to the class. for this discussion, we will use the cooperative language learning (cll) and suggestopedia methods as examples. although cll and suggestopedia have similarities, they also have differences in terms of approach, design, and procedure. there are some differences between cll and suggestopedia methods. first, cll and suggestopedia are different in terms of approach. the cll approach is based on an alternative theory of language and how this method correlates with an alternative theory of language, is referred to as language as social process (hymes, 1972). in this social process, the student may assume roles of an advisor, assistant, or supporter in dealing with a problem. it can be called a counselling process. also, the theory of language education based on the cll method is designed to reduce the learner's insecurity, feeling of threat, or anxiety; this reduction in anxiety should be facilitated by how the counsellor or teacher structures the education program. in contrast, according to the suggestopedia method, the theory of language is to emphasizes the memorization of vocabulary. in addition, the theory of learning based on the suggestopedia method is a suggestion. it means suggestopedia involves loading the memory banks with desired and facilitated memories. second, cll and suggestopedia are different in terms of design. in cll methodology, the objectives are not defined in the literature of cll. the assumption is that the teacher can successfully transfer the knowledge through the method. also, the cll method has a conventional language syllabus. the syllabus develops due to the interaction between the learner's demonstrated communicative intentions and the counsellor’s reformulation of these into suitable l2 utterances. on the other hand, the objective of the suggestopedia method is in delivering advanced conventional proficiency quickly. the students are drilled to understand and give solutions, which are graded by lexis and grammar. third, cll and suggestopedia are different in terms of procedure. procedures relate to specific classroom techniques. in the cll method, one class consists of 6-12 students who sit in a circle, and the teacher stands outside the circle. a student pronounces a message in l1 in the class, and the teacher whispers the message in l2. the message is repeated by the student loudly while the other students listen to that message, and it is journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 365-383 recorded and played at the end of the class. however, the procedure of the suggestopedia method is different. this method uses music in the class. the teacher reads the text along with music, and the students act as listeners. although cll and suggestopedia have some differences, they are the same in terms of skill focus. both cll and suggestopedia focus on speaking, reading, and listening skills. it does not state that these methods are lacking in writing skills. for example, when a student acts as a speaker, the other students act as listeners. when the teacher reads some material, the students will be the listeners. although cll and suggestopedia have similarities and differences, these methods can be combined when a teacher applies them in a complementary way in the class. suggestopedia can be used on its own, especially when a positive emotional atmosphere is fostered and created, but it can be used very successfully as an edition to other methods as well. as the literature review indicates, positive emotions play a tremendous role in learning. suggestopedia is one of the new, modern methods and comes with its own unique circumstances, requirements, and demands. the need for a better way to deliver language education is self-evident. the latter has given rise to such a method as suggestopedia itself, which shows in its own way the lack of success and decay of the more traditional, conventional methods, which may leave unfulfilled the needs of a variety of diverse audiences. learners deserve inclusion and the creation of a positive educational atmosphere that will better serve and involve them, with consideration given to the individual's specific cognitive acquisition abilities and grasping speed. the use of the suggestopedia as an additional method in the classroom can certainly improve learning and deliver success. conclusion this paper suggests that suggestopedia can be used as a successful method solely on its own but can be just as effective and perhaps more so when combined with other methods. this is because when teaching in a foreign language, it is very easy to confuse students, and overuse of the same method will easily make students bored and inattentive in learning. however, combining suggestopedia with other methods such as the grammar-translation or content-based instruction methods will be more effective and helpful. research suggests that all learning experiences, regardless of the processes and methods themselves, as indicated by this review paper, will be much more efficient if conducted in a positive atmosphere in which learners experience joy, happiness, and positive emotions as part of the learning process. in teaching for real-world ivanova & dimova-severinova 379 applications, using only one method or approach to teach is rare, even impossible. although suggestopedia does not necessarily contribute to theoretical approaches and methods in language teaching, and sceptics have questioned the feasibility and effectiveness of its methodologies from the day of its existence, the positive impact and enlightenment in suggestopedia teaching practices cannot be denied. language learning is a process surrounded with negative and positive emotions, so constant monitoring of students' emotions as part of the process is necessary for language teachers to enable their students to understand themselves and their emotional world more so that fosters their learning process in a supportive way. attitude towards creating a positive classroom atmosphere where students feel secure and willing to take the risks fosters foreign language learning is very important. teachers can develop strategies to make the learning environment a supportive one in which students feel confident and are welcome to participate. establishing respectful and positive human relations, and productive classroom environment is important for teachers to be able to enforce effective strategies that will lead to the establishment and maintenance of positive interpersonal relations in any instructional context. the learning process and the learning of language is more challenging than ever as our attention spans shorten. in these times, when the learner is using a variety of supporting media tools, the role of alternative methods is important, especially when combined with traditional methods in a positive atmosphere. suggestopedia's proven, unique, and impactful methods add value to the learning process and should be widely used as both an alternative option and as an additional solution to improve the effectiveness of language learning educational programs. references amin, h., and malik, a. s. (2013). human memory retention and recall processes. neurosciences, 18, 330–344. arslan, c., & tanis, b. m. (2018). building english vocabulary schema retention using review value calculation for esl students. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 116-134. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.7 başok, e., & sayer, p. (2020). language ideologies, language policies and their translation into fiscal policies in the u.s. perspectives of language education community stakeholders. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 54-80. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.13 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.03.7 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.13 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 365-383 bekteshi, e., & xhaferi, b. (2020). learning about sustainable development goals through english language teaching. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 78-94. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.4 bernardo-hinesley, s. (2020). linguistic landscape in educational spaces. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 13-23. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.10 brown, t. (2008). design thinking. harvard business review, 86(6), 84–92. chai m. tyng, hafeez u. amin, mohamad n. m. saad, aamir s. malik (2017). the influences of emotion on learning and memory front. psychol., 24 august 2017 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01454 celce-murcia, m. (1991). teaching english as a second or foreign language. boston: heinle & heinle publishers. czapiński, j., & peeters, g. (1991). the onion theory of happiness: basic concepts and crosscultural test. in n. bleichrodt & p. j. d. drenth (eds.), contemporary issues in crosscultural psychology (pp. 196–206). amsterdam: swets & zeitlinger. dael, n., mortillaro, m., & scherer, k. r. (2012). emotion expression in body action and posture. emotion, 12(5), 1085–1101. dale, a. m., & halgren, e. (2001). spatiotemporal mapping of brain activity by integration of multiple imaging modalities. current opinion in neurobiology, 11(2), 202–208. doi: 10.1016/s0959-4388(00)00197-5 diener, e. (2000). subjective well-being: the science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. american psychologist, 55(1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.34 diener, e., wirtz, d., tov, w., kim-prieto, c., choi, d. w., oishi, s., & biswas-diener, r. (2010). new well-being measures: short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. social indicators research, 97, 143–156. dolhinow, p. j. (1987). at play in the fields. in h. top off (ed.), the natural history reader in animal behavior (pp. 229–237). columbia university press. ebersole, m., & kanahele-mossman, h. (2020). broadening understandings of the cultural value of aloha in a teacher educator program. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 81-99. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.14 eysenck, m. w., derakshan, n., santos, r., and calvo, m. g. (2007). anxiety and cognitive performance: attentional control theory. emotion 7, 336–353. doi: 10.1037/15283542.7.2.336 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.10 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.14 ivanova & dimova-severinova 381 fox g.r.; kaplan j.; damasio h.; damasio a. (2015). "neural correlates of gratitude". frontiers in psychology. 6 (1491): 1491. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01491 forgas, j. p. (2001). handbook of affect and social cognition. london: erlbaum. fredrickson, b. l. (2004). the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. philosophical transactions: biological sciences, 359(1449), 1367–1377 honegger, m. (2020). what does “education” mean: cultural values in educational language. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 42-53. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12 hymes, d. (1972). models of the interactions of language and social life. in j. j. gumperz, & d. hymes (eds.), directions in sociolinguistics (pp. 35-71). new york: holt, rinehart & winston jack, r. e., & schyns, p. g. (2015). the human face as a dynamic tool for social communication. current biology, 25(14), r621–r634. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.052 keefer, n., & haj-broussard, m. (2020). language in educational contexts. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.9 kim-prieto, c., diener, e., tamir, m., scollon, c., & diener, m. (2005). integrating the diverse definitions of happiness: a time-sequential framework of subjective well-being. journal of happiness studies, 6, 261–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-7226-8 kim, h.j (2008). grammar-translation method. in josué m. gonzález (ed), encyclopedia of bilingual education, vol. 1. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. pp. 330-332. kitaygorodskaya, g. a. (1986). basic methods in teaching foreign language. guest lectures, higher education institute, moskow larsen-freeman, d., & anderson, m. (2011). techniques and principles in language teaching (3rd ed.). new york, ny: oxford university press littlewood, w. (1981). communicative language teaching. cambridge university press. lopez, m (2011) the motivational properties of emotions in foreign language learning, colombian. applied. linguistic journal ,13.2,113-129 lozanov, g. (1978). suggestology and outlines of suggestopedia. new york: gordon and breach. meyer, d. k., & turner, j. c. (2006). re-conceptualizing emotion and motivation to learn in classroom contexts. educational psychology review, 18(14), 377–390. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.12 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.9 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 365-383 nikolaeva, y. s., & pak, n. i. (2017). newest web technologies for studying and diagnosing individual abilities of learners. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), 130– 144. doi:10.17499/jsser.1569 ochsner, k. n., & gross, j. j. (2008). cognitive emotion regulation: insights from social cognitive and affective neuroscience. current directions in psychological science, 17(2), 153–158. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00566.x panksepp, j. (2005). affective consciousness: core feelings in animals and humans. consciousness and cognition, 14(1), 30–80. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2004.10.004 panksepp, j. (2007). criteria for basic emotions: is disgust a primary "emotion"? cognition and emotion, 21(8), 1819–1828. doi: 10.1080/02699930701334302 parker, j. (2019). second language learning and cultural identity. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 33-42. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.3 pawlak, m. (2021). review of complexity perspectives on researching language learner and teacher psychology. studies in second language learning and teaching, 11(1), 165– 170. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7448-355x pekrun, r. (1992). the impact of emotions on learning and achievement: towards a theory of cognitive/motivational mediators. applied psychology, 41(4), 359–376. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.1992.tb00712.x pontier, r., destro boruchowski, i., & olivo, l. (2020). dynamic language use in bi/multilingual early childhood education contexts. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 158-178. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.18 richards, j.c. & rodgers, t.s. (1986). approaches and methods in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press russell, j. a., bachorowski, j.-a., & fernández-dols j.-m. (2003). facial and vocal expressions of emotion. annual review of psychology, 54, 329–349. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145102 ryff, c. d. (2013). psychological well-being revisited: advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. psychotherapy and psychosomatics, 83, 10–28. sachs m.; damasio a.; habibi a. (2015). the pleasures of sad music: a systematic review. frontiers in human neuroscience. 9 (404): 112. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00404 scherer, k. r. (2005). what are emotions? and how can they be measured? social science information, 44(4), 695–729. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.18 ivanova & dimova-severinova 383 simons, j. s., and spiers, h. j. (2003). prefrontal and medial temporal lobe interactions in longterm memory. nat. rev. neurosis. 4, 637–648. doi: 10.1038/nrn1178 seligman, m. e., steen, t. a., park, n., & peterson, c. (2005). positive psychology progress: empirical validation of interventions. american psychologist, 60, 410–421. stacy, j., fernández, y., & reyes mcgovern, e. (2020). el instituto: centering language, culture, and power in bilingual teacher professional development. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 120-137. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.16 tarman, b. (2012). prospective teachers' beliefs and perceptions about teaching as a profession. educational sciences: theory & practice, 12(3), 1964–1973. tatarkiewicz, w. (1976). analysis of happiness. the hague: martinus nijhoff. vural, h. (2019). the relationship of personality traits with english speaking anxiety. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 55-74. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.5 waterman, a. s., schwartz, s. j., zamboanga, b. l., ravert, r. d., williams, m. k., agocha, v. b., kim, s. y., & donnellan, m. b. (2010). the questionnaire for eudaimonic well-being: psychometric properties, demographic comparisons, and evidence of validity. the journal of positive psychology, 5(1), 41–61. doi: 10.1080/17439760903435208 yan, j. x., & horwitz, e. k. (2008). learners' perceptions of how anxiety interacts with personal and instructional factors to influence their achievement in english: a qualitative analysis of efl learners in china. language learning, 58(1), 151–183. yeldham, m. (2019). developing a framework for investigating l2 listeners' longitudinal development. international review of applied linguistics in english teaching, 57(2), 235–263. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2017-0004 zhou, g., niu, x. (2015). approaches to language teaching and learning, journal of language teaching and research, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 798-802, july 2015 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0604.11 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.16 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.5 https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2017-0004 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 301-322 using action learning, concept-mapping, and value clarification to improve students' attainment in ict concepts in social studies: the case of rural learning ecologies olugbenga ige1 abstract robust teaching strategies are needed in rural learning ecologies to deepen students’ attainment of information and communication technology concepts in social studies due to the demands of the information age. accordingly, this study utilized a quasi-experimental design to compare the effects of three instructional strategies on conventional lecture method. 170 students participated in the study for ten weeks. results affirmed that concept-mapping instructional strategy is the most appropriate strategy to teach ict concepts in social studies rural learning ecologies. it was also observed that the treatment in this study was sensitive to gender and academic abilities. key words: action learning, concept-mapping, value clarification, secondary school students', academic attainment, ict concepts, social studies, rural learning ecologies. introduction social studies has evolved as a global discipline that not only studies man in his immediate environment, but also studies his complementary relationship with his environment. amosun, ige and choo (2015) affirmed that social studies has emerged as the punctilious elixir that is potent to correct immoral behaviours and inculcate in students a sense of decent behaviour. krutka and carano (2016) remarked that the primary raison d'etre of social studies is to assist students emerge as global citizens. it should be noted that these scholars pointed out that this mission is an uphill task for teachers as this demands that they use a variety of teaching and learning methods to help students understand the big ideas in social studies. the national council for social studies (ncss 2010; ige and hlalele, 2017) emphasized that an adequate definition of social studies should have two marked features namely the promotion of civic competence and integration of varied academic areas. it is consequent on these that ige and hlalele (2017) argued that any definition of social studies should holistically describe the 1 postdoctoral research fellow, university of the free state, bloemfontein campus, south africa, igeoa@ufs.ac.za mailto:igeoa@ufs.ac.za journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 mission of the subject in the school system as well as highlight the benefits of social studies to young learners whose training has great potentials for different nations of the world. in this experiment, i tried out three instructional teaching strategies, namely action learning, conceptmapping, and value clarification, on conventional lecture method to determine the impact on selected secondary school students' in social studies concepts. instructional strategies and students' attainment in social studies concepts scholars have affirmed the benefits of students' learning cooperation via collaborative activities to achieve curricular goals (chung & park, 2015; jang, 2011). these collaborative activities, designed to solve educational or civic problems of common interest, are at the heart of action learning. action learning has become applicable in different fields of learning consequent on its ubiquity in solving nagging social problems. researchers remarked that action learning has become more effective in developing leaders and practitioners than conservative teaching strategies (anderson & coleman, 2014; scott, 2017). o'neil and marsick (2014) emphasized that experiential programmes, case study, simulation and outdoor adventure aerobics are not action learning strategies, even though these activities involve action. the views of these scholars might not be unconnected with the nucleus of experiential programmes, case study, simulation and outdoor adventure exercises being non-factual work in actual time, which was corroborated by o'neil & marsick (2007, 2014). researchers interested in action learning should note that evidences from the works of previous scholars show that di-elemental features are key markers of action learning; these are: collaboration by students on social problems to which solutions seem elusive, and discussion among students on the difficulties encountered in solving the nagging social issues, and reporting progress made (see coghlan and coughlan, 2014; o'neil & marsick, 2007). at present, action learning has been applied in the different continents of the world, and it appeared in education, commercial, public, and non-profit sectors. the action learning inquiry strategy deployed in this study is based on these two core elements. concept-mapping and students' attainment in social studies concepts miller et al. (2009) noted that concept mapping, otherwise called ' semantic networking' or ' frame network' is used in varied milieu to aid learning and instruction. the global acceptance enjoyed by concept mapping showed in the findings of nesbit and adesope (2006) that five ige 303 hundred research articles made appreciable reference to the scholarly application of concept mapping strategy from 1997 to 2006. burkhardt (2006) stated that novak and his group presented concept maps as diagrammatic representations to visually document knowledge or visualize connections among concepts. burkhardt (2006) went on to further provide information that concept mapping originated from constructivism which emphasized that previous knowledge is requisite to learners' acquisition of new concepts. research has shown that concept mapping is built expressly on ausubelian (see ausubel, 2000) assimilation theory of meaningful learning and consistent with constructivist pedagogical principles. on the other hand, farrell (2001) argued that concept maps originally evolved from cognitive psychologists who applied it to scaffold how humans store and utilize their knowledge to execute various tasks. the explanation of farrell (2001) implies that concept maps are used by learners to construct knowledge or put their opinions on problematic societal issues into interwoven frames. despite the advantages inherent in the use of concept maps for teaching and learning, some scholars have argued that its use is too complex and time consuming (farrell, 2001; kagan, 1990). this study adopted kane and trochim's (2007) definition of concept mapping as an innovative structured conceptualization technique that provides lenses to describe how learners' view a social issue of mutual interest. value clarification and students' attainment in social studies concepts manning (2017) stated that value clarification is an opinion-gap quest which necessitates that learners reach consensus which must be convergent. oliha and audu (2015) defined value clarification as the process of determining the outcome of an action which emanated from humanistic psychology. goetz (2014:24) affirmed that value clarification is used to increase performance in different spheres of life. despite the strengths of value clarification, goetz (2014:24) warned researchers that value clarification comprises a series of strategies which are not tailored to forcing a set of good values on students. this study utilized metcalf (1971) and salawu (2000)'s model of rational analysis. the current study identified appropriate teaching strategies to improve students' attainment in social studies concepts. this is consequent on growing demands for innovative teaching strategies that can project the value-laden nature of social studies and solve the societal challenges that are peculiar to the information age. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 variation theory the novel instructional strategies tried out in this study are closely related to variation theory, despite claims by cheng (2016) that the theory was not generally applicable to teaching improvements. regarding variation theory, kullberg, kempe, and marton (2017) posited that the theory is founded on the strategies that helped learners to handle novel situations in sturdy manners. it could be inferred from the assertion of kullberg et al. (2017) that variation theory is underpinned by collaborative principles. bussey, orgill and crippen (2012) went further to state that variation theory provided a framework that accounted for how a student would experience a fact or occurrence in a certain way, and how two students in a common class would understand a concept at different levels. hsu and wang (2014) stated that variation theory, which emanated from ‘phenomenography’ is founded on a learning that requires students to find out the salient aspects of an occurrence on which they hitherto did not focus, and to concomitantly infer those salient aspects into their focal awareness. despite fraser, pillay, tjatindi, and case (2007)’s assertion that variation theory is more relevant to learning than teaching methods, the systematic variation of the contents of the instructional strategies such as action learning, concept-mapping, and value clarification evaluated in this study are closely aligned to the principles underlying variation theory of learning. kullberg et al. (2017) pointed out that marton and booth (1997) theory of variation in relation to learning emphasized that variation is a necessary component in teaching to enable students observe what is to be learnt. for instance, in this study, teaching strategies such as value clarification involved the assessment of civic issues and problems by the students drawing on real life situations. in line with the position of marton and booth (1997), the selected students presented tentative value decisions on the concept learnt, and advanced reasons for collectively arriving at such a decision, while the facilitator asked value-embedded questions to assess the value assumptions in the position taken by each group of students on the concepts presented. a recent study conducted by durden (2018) affirmed that variation theory highlighted the differences between the conceptions of a phenomenon in order to activate conceptual change. the concept-mapping and action learning instructional strategies that were experimented with in this study fulfilled the assertion of durden (2018). this is consequent on the clarification of the ige 305 objectives of the group by the students that participated in the experimental activities. the participants analysed the selected ict concepts in social studies using action activities, and drawn concept-maps to make inferences from the selected ict concepts. the students analysed these concepts using interaction and reflection before implementing the solutions suggested to each problem. these actions were repeated until new directions of acquiring knowledge about the selected ict concepts are found. ting, tarmizi, bakar, and aralas (2018) stated that crucial aspects of learning refer to those important features that demanded students’ attention in order to see the object of learning appropriately. the experimental strategies in this study enabled the selected students who are of varying academic abilities to analyse the salient features of the ict concepts which they would not observe during regular school lessons taught using conventional lecture methods by teachers in the selected learning ecologies. research hypotheses 1. there is no significant main effect of treatment on students' attainment in ict concepts in social studies. 2. there is no significant main effect of gender on students' attainment in ict concepts in social studies. 3. there is no significant main effect of academic ability on students' attainment in ict concepts in social studies. research objectives this study determined the most effective method of teaching social studies concepts of ict type among action learning, concept-mapping, value clarification instructional strategies and conventional lecture method. it also verified the nuisance effects of gender and academic ability on students' attainment in social studies concepts. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 method research design the study adopted a quasi-experimental design of pre-test, post-test, control group type to determine the effect of the instructional strategies on students' attainment in social studies concepts. the schematic representation of the design is presented below: a1 x1 b4 __________ rural learning ecology i a2 x2 b5 ___________ rural learning ecology ii a3 x 3 b6 ___________ rural learning ecology iii a4 x4 b7 ____________ control group where a1, a2, a3, a4 are pre-test measures of experimental groups 1, 2, 3 and the control group. a1 action learning instructional strategy a2 value clarification instructional strategy a3 conceptmapping instructional strategy a4 conventional lecture method the study further utilized a 4x2x3 factorial matrix which comprised instructional strategy at four rungs of treatment namely action learning, value clarification, concept-mapping, and conventional lecture method, confounding variables of gender at two rungs i.e. male and female; and academic ability at three rungs, namely low, average, and high. the three hypotheses tested in this study were done at 0.05 alpha level. ancova (analysis of covariance) was utilized to process the data gathered in this study consequent on its higher power which enables it to filter out the initial differences in the covariates (ige, 2012; ige, 2013; ige, 2018; ige and hlalele, 2017; piwowar, thiel & ophardt, 2013). the magnitude of performance across the four groups was determined using estimated marginal mean aspect of analysis of covariance. participants the primary population of this study consisted of students at the secondary stage of education in ige 307 four rural learning ecologies in akoko, nigeria. 170 students’ subjects were purposefully selected from eight intact classes in secondary schools situated in these four rural learning ecologies. these subjects were interested in participating in the study, and their schools offered social studies at the junior secondary school level. the researcher took written informed consent from the school governing bodies of the selected secondary schools in the four rural learning ecologies. the researcher in company of research assistants and teachers provided adequate information on the study to the students and clarified their queries. students that showed interest in the study were assured they could disengage at any time they so desired. data collection tools the instruments listed below were used for data collection. 1. action learning teaching guide 2. concept-mapping teaching guide 3. value clarification teaching guide 4. conventional lecture guide 5. social studies test for rural ecologies 6. academic ability test 7. research assistants evaluation sheet data collection the action learning teaching guide emanated from afolabi and iroegbu (2012) and marquardt's (2004) outlines on action learning. the contents of the guide included clarification of the objective of the action learning team, grouping subjects to reflect gender and academic ability distribution of the students, assembling weekly to discuss the selected social studies concepts, and how to learn them using action activities, determining the goal, and developing peculiar action activities through discussion and reflection on novel academic activities to solve the identified civic problems. repetition of the cycles of action activities is required until new paths are found, and transfer of learning occurs. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 the value clarification teaching guide was designed using metcalf (1971) and salawu's (2000) model of rational analysis. the teaching guide contained identification and clarification of civic values, collection and organization of civic facts, group evaluation of civic issues, and problems using tangible personal experiences, presentation of tentative value decisions, and evaluation of the value principles in group decisions by the teacher. the concept-mapping instructional guide was developed from previous studies carried out by ige (1998) and miller, koury, fitzgerald, hollingsead, mitchem, tsai and park (2009). the teacher brainstorms to make a list of facts or important ideas related to the concept. these ideas are organized by the teacher and coded into groups to construct a concept map. the teacher lays out the ideas with the integral ideas closest to the main node in groups and sub-groups. the teacher draws lines to connect nodes to show relationships among the groups and sub-groups. the teacher evaluates by asking oral questions about the maps, scores the steps used in solving problems, and gives assignment. the conventional lecture module was used by the teachers for the control group. the information and communication technology concepts are introduced by the teacher. the teacher subsequently goes on to discuss the concepts one after the other and give notes to the students on the concepts. the teacher asks questions from the students, summarizes the lesson, and gives assignment. the academic ability test (aat) taken from ige (2001) was used to measure the students’ ability to perceive and process a given set of information. the test was a modified version of the sigels cognitive style test. it consisted of twenty cards of pictorial representations. the first picture on each card is coded ‘a’, the second ‘b’, and the third ‘c’ for easy identification. the students are expected to identify two of the three pictures that have common characteristics, choose any two pictures from the three in each group that they feel are complementary, and give reasons for such a choice. the test was first administered on sixty students and re-administered after a two-week interval on the same group of students. the correlation coefficient of the two sets of responses was computed using pearson product moment correlation, and the stability coefficients of r= 0.60 to 0.72 was obtained. ige 309 the ict concepts in the social studies test (ictcsst) which was taken from ige (2013) was used to evaluate students’ attainment of ict concepts in social studies. the achievement test has 23 multiple choice items with a correct option from answers with options a-d. five questions were generated at knowledge level, eight questions on comprehension domain, and ten questions on application domain. the reliability of the questions using kr-20 was 0.78. the research assistants’ evaluation sheet was used to evaluate the adherence of the teachers to the outlined procedures for the experimental and the control groups. in this study, ict concepts that were selected in social studies are information and communication technologies, problems of information and communication technologies, and social issues and problems. ict were evaluated with questions such as: one of the ills information communication technology (ict) is (a) browsing anti-social sites on the internet (b) downloading scholarly articles (c) chatting with friends (d) sending electronic mails; accessing websites which depict children engaging in sexual conduct with prohibition as child sexual abuse in most countries is called? (a) children fraud (b) child pornography (c) scam (d) none of options a-c. examples of questions that assessed problems of information and communication technologies are: a social problem that arose due to the evolution of internet in nigeria is called (a) drug abuse (b) computer crime (c) prostitution (d) corruption; the use of information technology by terrorist groups and individual to further their agenda is known as (a) al quada (b) osama bin laden (c) spam (d) cyber terrorism; the website where individuals can file complaints of internet fraud globally is called (a) www.ic3.gov (b) www.naijapals.com (c) www.npfnigeria.org (d) www.google.com. social issues and problems were evaluated with questions such as: one effect of crimes committed using ict on the corporate image of a country is? (a) loss of foreign investors (b) economic melt down (c) economic development (d) economic harassment; which of these cannot be used to solve contemporary social problems in nigeria? (a) government policies (a) civil society participation (c) personal discipline (d) lack of parental care. these test items were constructed at knowledge, comprehension, and application levels (see dees, 2009; ige, 2013). http://www.ic3.gov/ http://www.naijapals.com/ http://www.npfnigeria.org/ http://www.google.com/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 data analysis the data were analysed using ibm spss 25.0. analysis of covariance (ancova) and estimated marginal means aspect of ancova were used to analyse the data. in employing ancova to compare the mean for improvement brought about by the teaching strategies on students achievement, the pretests were used as a covariate. the underlying assumptions for conducting ancova were observed. the only exception was academic ability which was systematically varied at low, average, and high, and activelycontrolled during the experimental activities. the level of significance was set at .05, while the effect size was shown using partial eta squared (η 2). scholars asserted that an effect size is small at .01, moderate at .06, and large at .14 (cohen, 1998; piwowar, thiel, & ophardt, 2012; richardson, 2011; ige, 2018). the estimated marginal means was used to indicate the magnitude of academic achievement in the experimental and control groups. descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation were utilized to show the performance in the experimental groups across gender and academic ability. findings there is no significant main effect of the treatment on students' attainment in ict concepts in social studies. table 1 effect of treatment on students' attainment in social studies concepts dependent variable: post_student_attainment source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial eta squared corrected model 12952.715a 22 588.950 17.393 intercept 3307.954 1 3307.954 97.689 students_achievement 307.775 1 307.775 9.089 treatment 4121.294 3 1373.765 40.570 gender 173.214 1 1 73.214 5.115 academic_ability 26.121 2 13.061 .386 treatment * gender 25.211 3 8.404 .248 treatment * academic_ability 235.060 5 47.012 1.388 gender* academic_ability 37.085 2 18.543 .548 treatment * gender* academic 33.127 5 6.625 .196 _ability error 4977.714 147 33.862 total 87706.000 170 corrected total 17934.612 169 .000 .000 .003 .000 .025 .681 .863 .232 .580 .964 .722 .399 .058 .453 .034 .005 .005 .045 .007 .007 a. r squared = .722 (adjusted r squared = .681) table 1 shows that there is a significant effect of the treatment on students' attainment in social ige 311 studies education concepts (f (3,147) =40.570; p> 0.05; η 2=.453). the first hypothesis is therefore rejected. the ancova output shows there is a significant difference in the attainment of subjects taught using action learning, concept-mapping, value clarification and conventional lecture method. there is no significant main effect of gender on students' attainment in social studies concepts. table 1 reveals that there is a significant main effect of gender on students' attainment in social studies education concepts (f (1, 147) =5.115; p>0.05; η 2=.034). hypothesis two is therefore rejected. there is no significant main effect of academic ability on students' attainment in social studies education concepts (f (2, 147) =1.388; p<0.05; η 2=.045). table 2 magnitude of performance across groups treatment n mean std.error intercept pre-achievement score 170 14.753 post achievement score 170 23.085 .723 treatment experimental i (action learning strategy) 24 16.724 a,b 1.271 experimental ii (value clarification strategy) 93 15.571a .891 experimental iii (concept mapping strategy) 24 38.682a 1.846 control (conventional lecture method) 29 19.244 a 1.649 a. covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: students_achievement = 14.7529. b. based on modified population marginal mean. table 2 shows that subjects exposed to concept-mapping instructional strategy (exp. group 3) had the highest change in attainment in social studies concepts (38.68), followed by conventional lecture method (19.244), followed by action learning instructional strategy (16.724), and value clarification instructional strategy (15.571). the output of the estimated marginal mean shows that male subjects (24.655) performed better than female subjects (21.516). subjects with high academic ability (23.727) benefitted most from the treatment, followed by average academic ability (23.088) and students with low academic ability subjects (22.601). effects of treatment on students’ attainment in ict concepts in social studies the repeated measures of ancova shows a significant change in the academic attainment of ict concepts over time, f(1,169) = 69.840, p=.000, η 2=.292. the descriptive statistics showed a journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 significant change in the academic achievement of the experimental groups over time than the control groups, f (3,166) = 129.580, p=.000, η 2=.438. the efficacy of the teaching strategies in the experimental groups could be summarised as follow: the pretest scores showed that conceptmapping strategy (x=23.33, sd=10.21), had the highest mean score, followed by action learning strategy (x=14.25, sd=4.63), followed by conventional lecture method (x=13.44, sd=3.60), and value clarification strategy (x=13.08, sd=3.52). however, the post-test mean score revealed that concept-mapping strategy (x=23.33, sd=10.21) emerged the most effective strategy for teaching ict concepts in social studies. posttest performance across groups concept-mapping instructional strategy the descriptive statistics shows that male students with high academic ability had the highest posttest achievement (x=44.40), followed by male students with low academic ability (x=44.00), and students with average academic ability (x=40.60). female students in this group with low academic ability (x=40.00) had the most change in knowledge of ict concepts in social studies, followed by average academic ability students (x=39.67), whilst students with high academic ability had the least posttest attainment (x=38.89). action learning instructional strategy female students with low academic ability (x=15.33) exposed to action learning had a higher posttest attainment score in ict concepts in social studies than students with average academic ability (x=14.14). male students with low academic ability (x=20.86) also benefitted more from this treatment than their counterparts with average ability (x=16.00). it should be noted that the output of the spss excluded the male and students that were in the high academic ability group. conventional lecture method males with low academic ability (x=23.00) in the control group had the highest posttest mean, followed by males with average academic ability (x=20.18), and male participants with high academic ability (x=16.00) had the least achievement in ict concepts in social studies. females with average academic ability (x=18.40) had the highest mean score, followed by the low ige 313 academic ability group (x= 18.00), and females with high academic ability (16.67). value clarification strategy male participants in the high academic ability group had the most considerable attainment in ict concepts in social studies (x=18.00), followed by males with average academic ability (x=17.31), and males with low academic ability had the least attainment (x=13.33) in this treatment group. on the other hand, females with average academic ability (x=15.67) benefitted most in this treatment group, followed by females with high academic ability (x=14.89), while female participants with low academic ability had the least attainment (x=10.50). discussion in this study, i experimented if teaching strategies (action learning, concept-mapping, value clarification) would improve students' attainment in ict concepts in social studies compared to conventional lecture method. the first thread of analysis was the effect of the instructional strategies on the attainment of students that took part in the study on the ict concepts selected from the social studies syllabus (hypothesis one). the attainment of the selected students in ict concepts improved after exposure to the treatments provided in the experimental groups. the participants exposed to the concept-mapping instructional strategy experienced the greatest change in their knowledge of ict concepts. this outcome illustrated the effectiveness of concept-mapping instructional strategy on the attainment of students in non-urban learning ecologies in social studies. during the experimental activities, concept maps were constructed and used as an instructional tool during the lessons because of the rural geographical locale of the students. the current outcome of this study concurs with the findings of morfidi, mikropoulos, and rogdaki (2017) who detected that concept-mapping approaches provoked noteworthy changes in poor readers’ scores in expository text. nesbit and adesope (2006) attributed the efficacy inherent in the concept-mapping instructional strategy in this study to the adventitious (extrinsic) cognitive load in ordering nodes in a bi-dimensional space to clarify relatedness with a single symbol, to integrate the connected concepts and categorically labelling links to establish relationship. the emergence of concept-mapping instructional strategy as an appropriate teaching mode for ict in education confirmed molinari's (2017:300) assertion that concept-maps enable learners to be journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 aware of the gaps and inconsistencies in their knowledge of a subject-matter which help them to adjust, modify, and reorganize such knowledge. this study has provided empirical proofs that teachers in rural learning ecologies can kindle students’ attainment in social studies concepts utilizing concept maps in their lessons. the advantages are evident in this study, which demand that teachers should methodically use concept-maps in teaching global concepts in the social studies curriculum. morfidi et al. (2007) however warned that indiscriminate use of mapping to acquire content curricula information might lead children over-dependence on this instructional strategy. these researchers suggested further enquiries to verify the phase and modalities to use when adopting concept mapping instructional strategy to deepen the learning of difficult concepts. in the current study, it is not unlikely that the two previous teaching practice programmes the research assistants underwent at the selected schools might have contributed to the result. the maps on the selected concept in social studies were constructed by the researchers, the outcomes of this study might be different if the students had been allowed to construct the maps themselves. consequently, caution should be exercised when using the variant of concept maps that proved effective in this study. the conventional lecture method emerged as the second most effective strategy in teaching ict concepts in this research. the conventional lecture method that was used in this study was not modified, it is synonymous with the type used by ige (2013), and ige (2018:159) in which the instructor introduced the concepts to be learnt, discussed facts in sequence, gave notes to the students on the selected concepts, asked stimulating questions, and gave take-home assignments to the students. however, the efficacy of conventional lecture method in this study was contradictory to the outcome of a study conducted by ige (2018:92) that found that the conventional lecture method promoted the negative attitude of students to civic education concepts in mountain learning ecologies. this finding is also antithetical to the discovery of ige and hlalele (2017:2702) that the conventional lecture method is the least effective strategy of improving students’ learning outcome in civic education concepts. ige and hlalele (2017:2704) hinged this assertion not only on the results of their experiment but affirmed that the conventional lecture method became inferior whenever it is paired with experimental teaching strategies. ige 315 the efficacy of the conventional lecture method in this research could also be attributed to the composition of students in this group. in this group, there are four students with low academic ability, twenty-one students with average academic ability, and four students with high academic ability. the composition of this group implies that students with low and average academic abilities learnt ict concepts best when the conventional lecture method is used, while this strategy is the least preferred mode of acquiring knowledge of ict concepts by the high academic ability group. the post student-achievement mean output obtained in the results of this study attested to this inference. contrary to the declaration of ige (2018) on the benefits inherent in action learning instructional strategy, this strategy proved inconsequential on students’ attainment in ict concepts in social studies. this finding corroborated vince, abbey and langenhan (2018:94)’s discovery that action learning could potentially present scholars with an assortment of personal and organizational dynamics that weakened the efficacy of this strategy to question organized thoughts, works, and interactions (see appendix i). value clarification instructional strategy turned out to be the least effective mode of teaching ict concepts in social studies. this finding contradicted ige (2018)’s finding which affirmed that value clarification instructional strategy was more effective than the ‘chalk and talk’ method used by instructors in schools in mountainous settlements. despite the ineffectiveness of value clarification strategy in this experiment, twenty-eight students in the average academic ability group, and fifty-eight subjects with high academic ability benefitted most from this treatment group, while the outcome was unfavourable to seven students in this group that were of low academic ability. considering the second hypothesis, it was hypothesized that gender would not significantly affect the attainment of the participants in ict concepts in social studies. the outcomes of the data analysed in this study showed that male participants gained more from the treatment groups more than their female colleagues. the descriptive statistics showed that male participants with high academic ability benefitted the most from concept-mapping instructional strategy. males of low academic ability had the best attainment in the group that used conventional lecture method and action learning, while male participants of high academic ability had the highest attainment mean score. this finding contradicted the outcome of a research conducted by ige and hlalele (2017:2702) which affirmed that gender had no influence on students’ academic attainment in journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 civic education concepts. the influence of gender on the academic attainment of students in ict concepts in social studies observed in this study implies that the instructional strategy i.e. concept-mapping is only beneficial for teaching male students in non-urban learning ecologies. academic ability had no significant influence on students’ attainment in ict concepts in social studies. this implies that the teaching strategies that are found worthy to teach ict concepts in this study are not academic ability specific. it could be inferred from the findings that the concept-mapping instructional strategy used in this study is open to students of any ability level. this outcome confirms earlier findings by ige and hlalele (2017:2702) that academic ability was inconsequential on the achievement of learners in civic education. a plausible explanation for the non-sensitivity of academic ability on students’ attainment in this study might be attributed to the teaching practice the research assistants had at the selected learning ecologies. the research assistants who were pre-service teachers had familiarised with the subjects during their teaching practices in these learning ecologies, which might have enabled students of varied abilities in this research to adapt to the teaching environment created in the treatment groups. conclusion in this disquisition on students’ attainment in ict concepts in social studies, the connections between concept-mapping, action learning, value clarification, conventional lecture method and students’ attainment in ict concepts in social studies were demonstrated. these analyses had led me to suggest that concept-mapping instructional strategy and conventional lecture method are potentially effective in teaching ict concepts in social studies in rural learning ecologies. these two strategies of teaching are underpinned by different principles and assumptions which are useful in different learning ecologies to teach ict concepts. the emergence of conventional lecture method as a suitable strategy to teach ict concepts in social studies have implications for the retention and use of this strategy and conventional lecture method to teach ict concepts in social studies. the blend could be made up of topics randomly allocated to each of these strategies on a weekly basis. it is suggested that teachers identify the concepts that students have found difficult from their experiences teaching social studies and civic education concepts in rural schools and allocate such to concept-mapping instructional strategy. ige 317 acknowledgements the author is highly indebted to mrs. oluwaseun amusa (nee akinbola) who performed the language editing tasks of this article at no cost. i sincerely appreciate gezeania at drd-ufs and jeanne at international office-ufs for their benevolence which has helped me to further my postdoctoral research at university of the free state, south africa. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 references afolabi, f., & iroegbu, t.o. (2012). action learning and inquiry-based instructional strategy. lambert academic publishing, germany. isbn 978-3-659-29496-9. amosun, p.a., ige, o.a., & choo, k.k.r. (2015). impact of a participatory cyber crime prevention programme on secondary school students' attainment in crime prevention concepts in civic education and social studies, education and information technologies, 20(3), 505-518. anderson, l. & coleman, c. (2015). action learning: approaches, applications, and outcomes. in k. kraiger, j. passmore, n.r. dos santos & s. malvezzi (eds.), the wiley blackwell handbook of the psychology of training, development, and performance improvement, chichester, uk: john wiley. ausubel, d.p. (2000). the acquisition and retention of knowledge: a cognitive view, boston: kluwer. burkhardt, r.a. (2006). learning from architects: complementary and concept mapping approaches. information visualization, 5, 225-234. bussey, t.j., orgill, m., & crippen, k.j. (2013). variation theory: a theory of learning and a useful theoretical framework for chemical education research. chem. educ. res. pract., 14, 9-22. cheng, e.w.l. (2016). learning through the variation theory: a case study. international journal of teaching and learning in higher education, 28(2), 283-292. coghlan, d. & coughlan, p. (2014). effecting change and learning in networks action learning, the journal of applied behavioral science, 51(3), 375-400. cohen, j. (1988). statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). hillsdale, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. chung, k.h. & park, s.g. (2015). the effect of action learning-based teaching and learning strategies on metacognitive, problem solving, interpersonal relationship, and team efficacy of nursing students, international journal of u-and e-service, science and technology, 8(11),65-74. dees, j. (2009). using bloom’s taxonomy to create lesson objective. retrieved mar. 26, 2011 from www.thereligionteacher.com/using-bloom’s-taxonomy-to-create-lesson-objectives. ige 319 durden, g. (2018). accounting for the context in phenomenographyvariation theory: evidence of english graduates’ conceptions of price. international journal of educational research, 87, 12-21. farrell, t.s.c. (2001). concept maps to trace conceptual change in pre service english teachers, relc journal, 32 (2), 27-44. fraser, d.m., pillay, r., tjatindi, l., & case, j.m. (2007). enhancing the learning of fluid mechanics using computer simulations. journal of engineering education, 96, 381-388. goetz, d. (2014). the effects of an academic performance of college students, honors theses, theses, paper 2427. hsu, c. & wang, t. (2014). enhancing concept comprehension in a web-based course using a framework integrating the learning cycle with variation theory. asia pacific education review, 15(2), 211-222. ige, o.a. (2012). action cyber-crime prevention programme in civics and social studies: the nigeria experience. lambert academic publishing, germany. isbn 978-3-659-14758. see https://www.amazon.com/action-prevention-programme-civicsstudies/dp/3659147583 ige, o.a. (2013). impact of an action cyber crime prevention programme on secondary school students’ learning outcomes in civic education and social studies concepts. unpublished ph.d. thesis, university of ibadan, nigeria. ige, o.a.& hlalele, d.j. (2017). effects of computer-aided and blended teaching strategies on students’ achievement in civic education concepts in mountain learning ecologies. education and information technologies, 22 (6), 2693–2709. ige, o.a. (2018). effects of gender and technological fluency on learners’ attitude to cyber crime prevention in urban learning ecologies. international journal of cyber criminology, 12(1), 143-163. http://www.cybercrimejournal.com/igevol12issue1ijcc2018.pdf ige, t.a (2001). concept of mapping and problem-solving teaching strategies as determinants of achievement in secondary school ecology. ibadan journal of educational studies, 1(1), 290-301. ige, t.a, (1998). concept mapping and problem solving teaching strategies as determination https://www.amazon.com/action-prevention-programme-civics-studies/dp/3659147583 https://www.amazon.com/action-prevention-programme-civics-studies/dp/3659147583 http://www.cybercrimejournal.com/igevol12issue1ijcc2018.pdf journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 of learning in secondary biology in nigeria: unpublished ph.d thesis university of ibadan. jang, s.h. (2011). search on morality that korean society require: focused on the case of teaching-learning in elementary moral education applying action learning, elementary moral education, 36, 11-142. kagan, d.m. (1990). ways of evaluating teacher cognition: inferences concerning the goldilocks principle. review of educational research, 60, 419-469. kane, m. & trochim, w.m.k. (2007). concept mapping for planning and evaluation, thousand oaks, ca: sage. krutka, g.k.& carano, k.t. (2016). videoconferencing for global citizenship education: wise practices for social studies educators, journal of social studies education research, 7(2), 109-136. kullberg, a., kempe, u.r., & marton, f. (2017). what is made possible to learn when using variation theory of learning teaching in mathematics. zdm-international journal on mathematics education, 49, 559-569. manning, s.j. (2017). supporting state-approved materials with the values clarification task, relc journal: innovations in practice, 1-8. marton, f., & booth, s. (1997). learning and awareness. mahwah n.j.: lawrence erlbaum. marquardt, m. j. (2004). optimizing the power of action learning. palo alto, ca, davies-black publishing. metcalf, l. c. (1971). values education: rationale, strategies, and procedure. washington, b.c.: national council for social studies. miller, k.j., koury, k.a., fitzgerald, g.e., hollingsead, c. mitchem, k.j., tsai, h., & park, m.k. (2009). concept mapping as a research tool to evaluate conceptual change related to instructional methods. teacher education and special education, 32(4), 365-378. molinari, g. (2017). from learners’ concept maps of their similar or complementary prior knowledge to collaborative concept map: dual eye-tracking and concept map analyses. psychologie française, 62(3), 293-311. morfidi, e., mikropoulos, a., & rogdaki, a. (2018). using concept mapping to improve poor readers’ understanding of expository text. education and information technologies, 23(1), 271-286. ige 321 nesbit, j. &. adesope, o. (2006). learning with concept and knowledge maps: a meta analysis. review of educational research, 76,413-440. nesbit, j., & adesope, o. (2006). learning with concept and knowledge maps: a meta analysis. review of educational research, 76(3), 413–448. o’neil, j. & marsick, v.j. (2014). action learning coaching, advances in developing human resources, 16(2), 202-221. o’neil, j. & marsick, v.j. (2007). understanding action learning. new york, ny: amacom. oliha, j & audu, v.i. (2015). effectiveness of value clarification and self-management techniques in reducing dropout tendency among secondary school students in edo state, european journal of educational and development psychology, 3(1), 1-13. piwowar, v., thiel, f., & ophardt, d. (2013). training inservice teachers’ competencies in classroom management: a quasi-experimental study with teachers of secondary schools. teaching and teacher education, 30, 1-12. richardson, j. (2011). eta squared and partial eta squared as measures of effect size in educational research. educational research review, 6(2), 135e147. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2010.12.001. salawu, k.a. (2000). language of instruction and pupils’ learning outcomes in selected aspects of primary social studies in ogun state, nigeria. unpublished ph.d thesis, department of teacher education, university of ibadan, ibadan. scott, k.s. (2017). an integrative framework for problem-based learning and action learning: promoting evidence-based design and evaluation in leadership development, human resources development review, 16(1), 3-34. shallcross, d.c. (2016). concept maps for evaluating learning for sustainable development. journal of education for sustainable development, 10(1), 160-177. shallcross, d.c., buskes, g., & dagastine, r.r. (2011). teaching first year engineering design and design criteria-the thames barrier. international journal of engineering education, 27(1), 114–127. the national council for social studies. (2010). national curriculum standards for social studies: introduction, md. silver spring, retrieved 15 july 2017 from http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/introduction. http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/introduction journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 301-322 ting, j.j., tarmizi, r.a., bakar, k.a., & aralas, d. (2018). effects of variation theory approach in teaching and learning of algebra on urban and rural students’ algebraic achievement and motivation. international journal of mathematical education in science and technology, 49(7), 986-1002, doi: 10.1080/0020739x.2018.1435915. vince, r., abbey, g., & langenhan, m., & bell, d. (2018). finding critical action learning through paradox: the role of action learning in the suppression and stimulation of critical reflection. management learning, 49(1), 86-106. wilson, j., mandich, a., & magalhães, l. (2015). concept mapping: a dynamic, individualized and qualitative method of eliciting meaning. qualitative health research, 26(8), 11511161. http://journals.sagepub.com/author/magalh%c3%a3es%2c+lilian www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 188-203 188 democratic pedagogy in south africa: a rethinking viewpoint for knowledge construction bunmi isaiah omodan1 abstract this study critically examines teaching-learning as a means of actualising the tenet of the infusion of democracy and human rights in the subject life orientation in the classroom in all levels of education (primary, secondary and tertiary) in south africa. the study focuses on three established approaches namely teaching and learning as collaborative knowledge construction, teaching and learning as a critical reasoning process, and teaching and learning as a disruptive caring pedagogy in a bid to exterminate the old or traditional ways of teaching and learning, which were perceived as anti-democratic education. experiential and dialogical teaching methods as one of the effective ways in which the infusion of democracy and human rights could be implemented in the life orientation curriculum are also examined in a bid to fulfil the objectives of life orientation, transform schooling and the school system, and develop the society through education. this study further recommends the use of teaching-learning, which is known as a disruptive caring pedagogy, as the most inclusive approach. likewise the use of both experiential problem based learning and dialogical teaching methods are recommended. key words: teaching-learning, democracy, human rights, life orientation, experiential learning, dialogical learning. introduction drawing from a nostalgia reminiscent of radical version of people’s education, popularised against the template of apartheid in south africa, is an indication that the south african education system has been under oppression and domination from both colonial and apartheid systems. this seems to have negatively influenced the teaching and learning process in classrooms. at the very least it affected learners who were exposed to bantu education (reddy, 2004). in 1953, during the time of bantu education there were drastic differences between the black and white schools, as generally white schools received more financial resources than black schools (villette, 2016). even though there are claims that south africa has transcended this type of oppression and domination, it seems that the education system in south africa and its policies still wallowing in 1 lecturer, school of education studies, university of the free state, south africa, omodanbi@ufs.ac.za mailto:omodanbi@ufs.ac.za omodan the lingering aftermath left behind by apartheid, though various concerted efforts were made to rectify the situation (odhav, 2009). nevertheless, the government and various notable education agencies have attempted to liberate the south african education system through various transformation agendas in an attempt to provide south african learners with education that fits their contextual needs. this is evidenced in a number of documents showing a high commitment to sustainable education for all in the republic of south africa. these documents include but not limited to: the national conference report: saamtrek: values, education and democracy in the 21st century (held on february 2001); the manifesto on values, education and democracy (held in august 2001 presented by the department of education (doe) on strategies and how to infusing the culture of human right in classroom); and the research report on values, education and democracy (held in april 2002). this document emphasises certain issues concerning the philosophy of human rights within the context of curriculum (botha & du preez, 2018). a paradigm shift is taking place. traditionally teaching methods focused on the teacher as the only source of information in the classroom. it embraces the idea of a teacher-centered method involving face-to-face interaction, mainly from the teacher to the student, in classroom, focusing exclusively on students knowing the content of their textbooks and notes (dimitrios, labros, nikolaos, maria & athanasios, 2013; wei li, 2016). the movement is towards a system that requires and recommends critical thinking as well as the enhancement of higher order competencies and skills. life orientation as a subjects in the south african curriculum was introduced to address issues such as these and to make learners aware of these controversies, based on the outcome of research conducted by researchers from south africa, the united states, the united kingdom and europe. this research focuses on the importance and the necessity of life orientation programmes for learner preparedness to be able to cope with the inevitable complexity and dynamism of life (prinsloo, 2007). the south african department of education (2003) defines the life orientation (lo) as the study of the self in relation to others in the society which is concerned with the intellectual, spiritual, social, personal, emotional, motor and physical development and growth of learners, and to be able to respond positively to societal demands, issues and contingencies associated with life. the aim of the subject is predominately to develop self-efficacy and self-esteem, and to encourage the development of balanced and confident learners to be able to contribute positively to the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203 nation’s economy, improved quality of life for all and a just and democratic society (wasserman, 2014; prinsloo, 2007). therefore, the explorative aim of this paper is to critically expatiate and examine teaching-learning for democracy and human rights in life orientation. the focus is on various teaching and learning approaches coupled with experiential and dialogical teaching methods as an effective way in which this could be implemented at all levels of education. this exploration is discussed under the headings teaching-learning experience, and methodologies for democratic pedagogy. teaching-learning experience teaching and learning has been understood in various ways over a long period of time as an important aspect of curriculum that must be considered when aiming at infusing a culture of human rights and democracy in a diverse education setting. initially, it was explained as a process of transmitting information to a learner with an empty mind. this was conceptualised by piaget (1977) as a tabula rasa. this idea was corroborated by (goddard, 2012), who referred to john locke who stated that children were born blank (tabula rasa), and that what they became solely depended on their learning and environmental experiences. this type of teaching and learning is definitely teacher-centered, where teacher is seen as a purveyor of information at the fount of all knowledge (andrews, 2017; sequeira, 2017). this picture of teaching and learning depicts that students sit in the four walls of the classroom and listen passively to their teachers talking and disseminating holistic knowledge to them, either with or without the use of teaching aids, materials and consultation to general knowledge construction in this approach, teachers are regarded as all-knowing the learners/students are just empty slates which are waiting to be spoon-fed by their teachers. in recent times this traditional method has generated a lot criticism from scholars, teachers and other educational stakeholders due to its undemocratic nature and because it does not allow learners to think critically and outside the box and to develop their own problem solving skills. as a result of this criticism, the idea of teaching and learning as a collaborative knowledge construction, teaching and learning as a critical reasoning process and teaching-learning known as a disruptive caring pedagogy were introduced and conceptualised (du preez & botha, 2018). these approaches are undoubtedly supportive of education for human rights and democracy, because it allows both teachers and learners to construct and share knowledge around real-life scenarios and to solve complex issues in classroom. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780702033971000045#! omodan teaching and learning as a collaborative knowledge construction this concept becomes very important and necessarily relevant to the teaching and learning process, especially in the 21st century vygotsky’s constructivism buttresses this approach by stressing the importance of discussion and interaction between learners and teachers, and their environment (vygotsky, 1986). this in turn is a panacea for learners’ level of achievement as well as their academic performance, because potential could be grasped in a process that encourages interaction with each other and support from the human environment (rimor & rosen, 2010). this why hmelo-silver (2012) suggests that to create an enabling environment that supports collaborative knowledge construction, opportunities for must be provided constructive discourse. that is, knowledge to find solutions to problems if generated through collaboration, the exchange of ideas through discourse and the sharing of relative thought from an individual point of view. to further show the importance of the collaborative teaching and learning process as a knowledge construction parameter, rimor and rosen (2010) further express that collaborative parameters and the social context of a meaningful teaching and learning process are based on group discussions and prior knowledge, which in turn allow the development of thinking abilities among learners. a number of researchers in the field of social construction concluded that individual interpersonal views serve as personal-cognitive functions, with the further group sharing of knowledge (akpan, 2018; arvaja, 2005; amineh & asl, 2015; suhendi & purwarno, 2018). this is absolutely in accord with rimor & rosen (2010) who concluded that knowledge is constructed when people interact with one another, which means that knowledge and reality are grounded on social interaction and agreement. no wonder solomon (2002) in his work also toes the same line, namely that intelligence is not a matter of (individual) ownership, but maturity that emanated out of intrapersonal negotiation. it is described as being supportive of education in and for human rights and democracy simply because it focuses on how teachers and learners become partners in in the process of sharing knowledge, which practically enables learners to construct knowledge in real-life scenarios. knowledge and the act of teaching and learning is therefore a social relation and an acknowledgement of the context in which this social relationship develops (nel, 2014). this approach therefore gives learners an opportunity to explore education on their own without journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203 having to rely on what teachers present to them. in my opinion, this allows critical thinking, reasoning as well as the development of independent logical reasoning. teaching and learning as a critical reasoning process in an attempt to address and enhance the effectiveness of the teaching and learning in the classroom, the idea of teaching as a critical reasoning process becomes necessary. this type of teaching-learning, according to qureshi (2004), situates education in human rights and democracy due to its emphasis on addressing complex social matters in relation to the context in which they occur. according to carbogim, oliveira, mendonça, marques, friedrich & püschel (2017) these engender knowledge, skills, attitudes, capacity for criticism and reflection, clear communication, knowledge application to professional practice, understanding people’s diversity, ability to work in teams, and a moral and humanistic consciousness, which in unison are essential to the current pedagogical system. i therefore argue that teaching and learning as a critical reasoning tool builds the spirit of analysis and evaluation in learners. these include individual personality traits and the development of intellectual traits. it also enables learners to think on their own, with recognition of other people’s thinking, and logically draw a justifiable conclusion to issues. so in using this approach, learners are presented with real-life matters that concern them as well as the societies in which they live. they are made aware of life and social issues, and get the opportunity to reflect on those issues, consider and provide tentative solutions based on their independent thinking. gutek’s argument (2009) corroborates this by justifying that the main focus of teaching and learning as a critical reasoning approach is to develop learners to be competent, critical and wide thinking citizens. meanwhile, it is not only a matter of thinking critically in accordance with the rules of logic and probability, but it is elevated to the idea of the application of theory or a frame of thinking to real-life matters (karakoç, 2016). in addition, this has to do with the analysis and the evaluation of complex social issues such as teenage pregnancy, crime and other issues. according to waghid (2003), this encourages teachers to address the issues that will help in the transformation and development of society though education. this fulfills the objectives of life orientation by addressing learners holistically. learners are exposed to various disciplines that affect them and that are significant for lifelong learning. these include psychology, sociology, religious studies, human movement, political science, labour and industrial studies, omodan civic education and social studies, among others. this activates learners’ knowledge and awareness, and has a significant impact on their health, physical fitness, thinking patterns, personalities and their relationships with their families, schools and society. this impact may even be felt in their personal economy and the nation’s economy. it can therefore be argued that this approach provides guidance for leaners to make informed decisions about their lives holistically and become responsible citizens in a democratic society. it also addresses the issues of human rights and democracy, where learning becomes applicable to real-life situations, encounters and experiences. it further teaches leaners to be accountable for their ideas. in other words, it gives them a chance to make informed choices and select actions that may be substantiated in a reasonable manner. teaching and learning as a disruptive caring pedagogy the term “disruptive” was initially conceptualised in related with technologies and later rephrased to “disruptive innovation” (christensen & raynor, 2003). this was probably done in order to encapsulate the term in a broader context to embrace both technology and its application, because innovation becomes disruptive when it replaces old practices, the old way of doing things. in relation to teaching and learning, the relationship between new technology and ways of learning and teaching makes pedagogy disruptive (hedberg, 2010; kagema, 2018). the criticism meted out to the above-mentioned approaches (teaching and learning as collaborative knowledge construction and teaching and learning as a critical reasoning process) led to the production of teaching-learning known as disruptive caring pedagogy. this approach diverted from the earlier discussed approaches in its assertion that reasoning alone is not enough, since it does not give learners the opportunity to interact with one another and show empathy towards each other, and it does not always encourage dissonance. teachers must make room for dissonance in the teaching-learning context as it allows learners to learn from each other’s experiences and acknowledge one another’s differences. this means that the process of teaching and learning should structure the content in such a manner that learners have room for disagreements which, according to freire (2008), allow them to learn, accept and internalise tolerance. this does not only enhance the aspect of tolerance but it also gives learners an opportunity to learn from the varied experiences of others. in my own perspective, the idea of education as a disruptive caring pedagogy can be explained as a teaching-learning process journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203 that allows learning beyond learning. i further argue, based on these premises, that learners move from their comfort zones and learn to acknowledge other people’s thoughts and ideas which may, in one way or the other, teach them some of the important lessons in life. in addition, when one takes a closer look at this teaching and learning method, it can be argued that it promotes diversity as it promotes the acceptance and acknowledgment of differences among people. it undoubtedly teaches diplomacy through the use of arguments and disagreements as a way of building and enhancing each other’s basic knowledge. in a classroom that consists of learners from different cultural and racial backgrounds, the teacher is expected to create an environment conducive to both sides to enhance empathic listening. meanwhile, to be able to create an environment for teaching and learning based on the principle of difference and respect for others, requires a culture of human rights and democracy. it is therefore of great importance that teachers promote critical thinking, socratic dialogue and autobiographical learning forms of learning, as these are of great significance in this type of learning (slattery, 2006). this form of teaching-learning gives both teachers and learners a chance to deal with human rights and democracy in every sphere of learning, and make it more important to learners. this basically means that when learners are exposed to a pedagogical environment that imposes the recognition of humanity with regards to the past, they get to unmask their pain, fears and anxiety so as to address issues of racism and are able to move forward and enjoy the benefits of living in a democratic society. the approach of teaching-learning as a disruptive caring pedagogy by nature is democratic and creates learners who are accountable for their actions and ideas while upholding the human rights of others in their societies. with this said, teachers should create an atmosphere that promotes learners’ worth, dignity and human rights. in doing so, learners are able to develop skills, attitudes and values that improve relationships, groups and society, and are also able to demonstrate respect for human rights and democracy. this form of expression of disagreement provides prospects for learners to gather the courage to disagree and develop skills on how to argue constructively. this approach allows learners to express their views on topics that are presented to them in the classroom. their opinions on teenage pregnancy, for example, may vary depending on their cultural backgrounds which may in turn lead to disagreements. these disagreements are not to create conflict but will help learners to learn to acknowledge the views of others. omodan in the case of all of these features of teaching and learning, it is important for teachers to recognise various approaches to teaching which will cater for learners from different cultures, world views, languages and religions, which make schools diverse places for teaching and learning. this is specifically crucial in the case of teachers of life orientation, as they are the ones who deal with these issues in a detailed manner. they should be aware of the teaching methods they use, and contemplate whether it provides learners with opportunities to think critically and independently. the approaches used by life orientation teachers should be structured in a manner that facilitates teaching and learning for human rights and democracy. the content for life orientation includes sections that directly address the issues of democracy, human rights, and other real-life and social issues that affect the learners’ being. it is also important for teachers to promote diversity and to be sensitive to the diverse needs of their learners in order to create a space for effective pedagogical dialogue. this will empower teachers as effective mediators and decision-makers who show respect and acknowledgement for diverse cultures, languages and needs. methodologies for democratic pedagogy in order to achieve the above proposition of teaching-learning as a collaborative knowledge construction, as a critical reasoning process and as a disruptive caring pedagogy in classroom, appropriate methods need to be adopted. one of the most important aspects to be considered in the teaching and learning processes of life orientation teachers when teaching for democracy is to make use of relevant strategies, methodologies and resources. it therefore becomes essential to note that the type of methodology or teaching style adopted by a teacher will go a long way to develop learners’ respect for human rights and their democratic functioning. teachers should endeavor to use methods that will promote democratic instruction and respect for human rights in classroom. these methodologies include, amongst others, experiential and dialogical learning (botha & du preez, 2014). experiential learning methodology experiential learning, which is generally regarded as learning through experience, has gained more support from educational scholars in recent times, especially from those who focus on classroom transformation. carl rogers, john dewey and david kolb are regarded as the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203 trailblazers in the development of this teaching-learning method focusing on “learning through experience” or “learning by doing.” (schwartz, 2012). the concept of experiential pedagogy as propounded by dewey dwelled more on problem-solving and critical thinking skills than on memorisation and rote learning (yoon, 2000; kolb, 2000). this is probably drawn from an argument of piaget (1977) that intelligence does not necessarily exist inherently at birth, but could also be as a result of the interaction between the individual and his/her immediate environment. this is why alkan (2016) concluded that concrete experiences are turned into abstract concepts within this process, and these concepts are used in attaining new experiences, and which is eventually considered as an effective teaching-learning method. experiential learning denotes a shift from a teacher-centred teaching-learning system, where knowledge is solely transmitted to students, to an inclusive approach that requires learners to cooperate with one another and learn through direct experiences of real-life happenings. this means that learners become active participants though shaping, directing and controlling the pace at which the content is delivered. adams (2006) describes it as a way of educating through personal experience where knowledge, skills and experience are learnt outside of the normal classroom setting. this may include studies abroad, field research, internships, field trips and servicelearning projects. this kind of teaching method is described by gutek (2009) as the best methodology based on the premise that experiencing something is much better that theorising about it. this is why learners have to be exposed to the practical and experiential terms of learning. a good practice of this would be to give learners projects and assignments which would require them to be fully engaged in certain experiences and encounters. this may include research about health issues that would compel them to go to healthcare institutions to better experience and observe the situation instead of merry-go-rounding theoretical information from textbooks. an emphasis is placed on problem based learning (pbl) to further buttress the usefulness of experiential learning in teaching-learning for democracy and human rights. freire (2008) argues that problem based learning (pbl) is one of the key sub-methodologies of experiential learning. according to phungsuk, viriyavejakul and ratanaolarn (2017) experiential learning is an active way for students to learn basic problem-solving skills and acquire knowledge through interaction with others in or outside the classroom. this approach, as one of the various approaches of experiential learning, compliment the assumptions of experiential learning because it also places emphasis on inquiry and discovery, which usually encourages learners to participate in the omodan academic domain (botha & du preez, 2018). this method can reinforce students’ ability to gain knowledge from various situations (ismail, harun, zakaria & salleh, 2018). therefore, pbl is an instructional system that is learner-centered which empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to developing a viable solution to a defined problem. in addition, the implementation of this in the classroom will not only reduce teacher-centredness, but will also give learners a chance for solo learning. in constructing learning within a particular context, be it social, political, economic or other, problem-based learning makes the curriculum relevant and specifies and narrows down learning to the core information, which prevents work overload. motivation is also witnessed within the learners as their learning stems from and can be applied to real-life issues. problem based learning also ensures the transfer of lifelong valuable skills such as communication, teamwork, leadership, problem-solving etc. it further ensures that learners control and facilitate their own learning. this can have long-term benefits such as inquisitiveness, planning and effective time management. i therefore argue in line with the conclusion of hmelo-silver (2004) and ding & zhang (2018) that pbl is a constructional technique through which learners construct new learning around existing knowledge as they attempt to solve the problem at hand. dialogical learning methodology dialogical learning can also be used as a way of promoting teaching-learning for human rights and democracy in a classroom context. the concept “dialogical” emanates from the word dialogue, which promotes the teaching and learning that focuses on deep engagement of learners with and about the content at hand. this according to renshaw (2004) is traceable to socrates and a contemporary exemplification of sociocultural theories derived from a variety of influences in psychology, linguistics, anthropology, and above all education, which includes the use of debates and dialogue to infringe the culture of communication among learners (callander, 2013:2). dialogical teaching and learning is embedded with four principles that enable interaction in classroom as opposed to the transmissive teaching-learning process most common in classrooms today. according to gillies (2016) these principles are: (a) collective transmission, where the teacher and students work together to achieve a learning task; (b) student-teacher reciprocity, where teachers and students attend to each other by sharing ideas for better alternatives; (c) supportive spirit between and among students, including teachers, where students assist each journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203 other’s learning with the teacher’s guidance; and (d) the fact that every discursive activity must be purposeful, where teachers are expected to ensure that discussions are designed to achieve specific educational goals. from the above, dialogical learning is closely linked to the communicative approach which asserts that conversation and communication is the best way of administering learning content to learners. this is simply because communication is a natural occurrence in our everyday lives, so as a result it is easy to implement it in the teaching and learning environment. it is said to be the best way to trigger learners’ prior knowledge based on their everyday experiences (lehesvuori, 2013). in addition, teachers should ensure that the issues they discuss in the classroom are those that are related to and applicable to learners’ real-life experiences. this gives learners a chance to infuse different teaching–learning spaces with a culture of human rights. it is also significant to fully engage learners in all types of conversations taking place in the classroom, asking them about their personal views and criticism of a specific issue. this allows fairness as well as a balance between the content, the teacher and the learners, and thereafter promotes a learner-centered approach. adams (2006) insists that this makes learning meaningful and allows collaborative knowledge construction and critical reasoning. it also breaks the convention of a teacher as an all-knowing entity, transferring subject information to a tabula rasa. it offers learners the opportunity to democratically participate in the construction of knowledge. conclusion and recommendations in conclusion, the success of the life orientation curriculum depends largely on teachers’ readiness to implement the intention of the curriculum, especially the infusion of human rights and the development of democracy. so how teachers present themselves and the content of their instruction goes a long way in ensuring the accommodation of teaching-learning for democracy in the classroom. teachers should therefore be encouraged to use creative means of delivering the content. it is also crucial for the overall curriculum to consider the issue if human rights and democracy by acknowledging some teaching-learning methods that will enhance the infusion of human rights and democracy, which could engage learners in interactive and reflective opportunities conductive to presenting human rights and democratic practices. it is however not only life orientation teachers who should address these significant issues, but all teachers. omodan teachers should try to integrate this aspect of democracy where learners are given a chance to reflect, think critically, reason logically and interpret independently. it is therefore important for life orientation teachers and teachers in general to consider the idea of democracy and human rights in their teaching strategies and methodologies. hence, experiential and dialogical teaching and learning could be helpful to instill classroom cultural practices, participation and engagement of students with real-life issues and other critical matters. based on the above explorative premises ranging from the pedagogical background, to the importance and features of teaching-learning in the form of approaches and methodologies to implement democracy and human rights in classroom, it is therefore recommend that:  teachers in all levels of education should endeavor to practice teaching-learning as disruptive caring pedagogy as one of the modern teaching-learning approaches that has the potential to meet the expectations of learners for better societal preparedness. this approach is will be appropriate because it is based on the premise that reasoning alone is not enough. it will ensure that learners interact with one another and show empathy towards each other without any negative dissonance. teachers will however have to create an environment for learners to safely disagree with one another to enable learners to learn from the experiences of others and acknowledge one another’s differences.  teachers at all levels of education should internalise the principles of experiential learning to be able to equip learners with problem solving and critical thinking skills. this method is necessary because it is an all-inclusive method that requires the cooperation of learners through direct experiences of real-life happenings. this will enable learners become active participants in the learning content as a result of what they have experienced. therefore, learners are expected to be exposed to practical experience in terms of learning, which would require them to be fully engaged in necessary experiences and encounters for the sake of knowledge.  teachers are also encouraged to make use of problem based learning as appropriate, as this is one of the active ways for learners to acquire basic problem-solving skills. this method according ismail, harun, zakaria and salleh (2018) can reinforce students’ ability to acquire values, and to gain knowledge from various situations. the implementation of this will in turn empower learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to issues with little or no supervision from their teachers. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203  finally, teachers should encourage dialogical teaching-learning processes since communication and conversation have been linked empirically to the effective delivery of learning content to learners in class. when teachers initiate relevant conversations about real life, it gives learners a chance to infuse learning spaces with a culture of human rights. this will also give learners a sense of belonging, and they will be willing to fully engage in the classroom. references adams, n. (2006). habermas and theology. united kingdom & new york: cambridge university press. akpan, l. (2018). the political undertone in the development of nomadic education in africa: lessons from nigeria. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 1-21. alkan, f. (2016). experiential learning: its effects on achievement and scientific process skills. journal of turkish science education, 13(2):15-26. amineh, r.j and asl, h.d. (2015). review of constructivism and social constructivism. journal of social sciences, literature and languages. 1(1): 9-16, 30. andrews, k. (2017). culture, curriculum, and identity in education. [book review]. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 99-101. arvaja, m. (2005). collaborative knowledge construction in authentic school contexts. institute for educational research, university of jyväskylä: university printing house. https://jyx.jyu.fi/handle/123456789/44295 botha, j. & du preez, p. (2014). teaching-learning for democracy and human right in the life orientation curriculum: experiential and dialogical learning methodologies. in m. nel (ed.), life orientation for south african teachers. pretoria: van schaik. chapter 5. 39-53. botha, j. & du preez, p. (2018). introduction to the history and nature of human rights and democracy in the south african curriculum in m. nel (ed.), life orientation for south african teachers. pretoria: van schaik. chapter 3. page 15-21. callander, d. (2013). dialogic approaches to teaching and learning in the primary grades. master’s thesis, university of victoria. https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/handle/1828/5017. carbogim, f.c, oliveira, l.b., mendonça, e.t., marques, d.a., friedrich, d.v.c. & püschel, d.a.a. (2017). teaching critical thinking skills through problem based learning. texto & contexto enfermagem, 26(4):1-10. https://jyx.jyu.fi/handle/123456789/44295 https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/handle/1828/5017 omodan christensen, c.m. & raynor, m.e. 2003. the innovator's solution: creating and sustaining successful growth. boston, mass.: harvard business review press. department of education. (2003). national curriculum statement grades 10-12 (general): life orientation. pretoria: south africa. dimitrios, b., labros, s., nikolaos, k., maria, k. & athanasios, k. (2013).traditional teaching methods vs. teaching through the application of information and communication technologies in the accounting field: quo vadis? european scientific journal, 9(28):73-101. ding, y. & zhang, p. (2018). practice and effectiveness of web-based problem-based learning approach in a large class-size system: a comparative study. nurse education in practice, 31:161-164. du preez, p. & botha, j. (2018). teaching-learning for democracy and human right in the life orientation curriculum. in m. nel (ed.), life orientation for south african teachers. pretoria: van schaik. chapter 4. page 27-35. freire, p. (2008). problem-solving models of education. in curren, r. (ed.), philosophy of education: an anthology. australia: blackwell publishing, 4010-416. gillies, r. m. (2016). dialogic interactions in the cooperative classroom. international journal of educational research, 76:178-189. goddard, n. (2012). human personality development. core psychiatry (third edition). 55 61. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780702033971000045. gutek, g.l. (2009). new perspective on philosophy and education. columbus: pearson. hedberg, j.g. (2010). towards a disruptive pedagogy: changing classroom practice with technologies and digital content. educational media international 48(1):1-16. hmelo-silver c. e. (2004). problem-based learning: what and how do students learn? educational psychology review, 16(3):135-166. hmelo-silver c. e. (2012). facilitating collaborative knowledge construction. proceedings of the 36th hawaii international conference on system sciences (hicss’03), 2012. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.102.7465&rep=rep1&type =pdf retrieved on 31/07/2018. ismail, n. s., harun, j., zakaria, m. a. z. m., salleh, s. m. 2018. the effect of mobile problem based learning application dicscience pbl on students’ critical thinking. thinking skills and creativity, 28:177-195. kagema, j. (2018). the school curriculum and its influence on teacher motivation in https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780702033971000045#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780702033971 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780702033971000045 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.102.7465&rep=rep1&type%09=pdf http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.102.7465&rep=rep1&type%09=pdf journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 188-203 curriculum implementation in kenya. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 9-25. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/3 karakoç, m. (2016). the significance of critical thinking ability in terms of education. international journal of humanities and social science, 6(7):81-84. kolb, d. a. (2000). facilitator’s guide to learning. boston, ma.: hay group. lehesvuori, s. (2013). towards dialogic teaching in science challenging classroom realities through teacher education. academic dissertation, faculty of education of the university of jyväskylä. https://jyx.jyu.fi/handle/123456789/41268. nel, m. (2014). pedagogy of life orientation/life skills. in m. nel (ed.), life orientation for south african teachers. pretoria: van schaik. chapter 1. page 7-11. odhav, k. (2009). south african post-apartheid higher education policy and its marginalisations: 19942002. sa-educ journal, 6(1):33-57. piaget, j. (1977). the essential piaget new york: basic books. prinsloo, e. (2007). implementation of life orientation programmes in the new curriculum in south african schools: perceptions of principals and life orientation teachers. south african journal of education, 27(1):155–170. phungsuk, r., viriyavejakul, c. & ratanaolarn, t. 2017. development of a problem-based learning model via a virtual learning environment. kasetsart journal of social sciences, 38(3):297-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2017.01.001 qureshi, m. (2004). education and human rights. new delhi: anmol publications. reddy, t. (2004). higher education and social transformation south africa case study. council on higher education, 1-69. renshaw p.d. (2004) dialogic learning teaching and instruction. in: van der linden j., renshaw p. (eds.). dordrecht: springer. rimor, r. & rosen, y. (2010). collaborative knowledge construction: why to promote and how to investigate? in s. mukerji, p. tripathi (eds.). cases on technological adaptability and transnational learning: issues and challenges. igi global. salomon, g. (2002). technology and pedagogy: why don’t we see the promised revolution? educational technology, 42(2):71-75. schwartz, m. (2012). best practices in experiential learning. learning and teaching office, ryerson university. https://www.ryerson.ca/content/dam/lt/resources/handouts/experie ntiallearningreport.pdf. http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/3 https://jyx.jyu.fi/handle/123456789/41268 omodan sequeira, a.h. (2017). introduction to concepts of teaching and learning. page 1-5. available on http://ssrn.com/abstract=2150166. accessed on 31/07/2018. slattery, p. (2006). curriculum development in the post-modern era. new york: francis group. solomon, r. c. (2002). back to basics: on the very idea of “basic emotions. malden: lackwell publishers. suhendi, a. & purwarno a. (2018). constructivist learning theory: the contribution to foreign language learning and teaching. paper presented at the 1st annual international conference on language and literature, april 2018. villette, r. (2016). the effects of apartheid’s unequal education system can still be felt today. https://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/news/the-effects-of-apartheids-unequal education-system-can-still-be-felt-today-2035295. accessed on 29/07/2018. vygotsky, l. (1986). thought and language. cambridge, ma.: mit press. waghid, y. (2003). education as virtue: a cultivating practical and reasoning compassion. stellenbosch: stellenbosch university printers. wasserman, j. (2014). life orientation teachers’ experience of context in the implementation of the curriculum. master thesis in educational psychology (m.ed.psych.), stellenbosch university, south africa. http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/96109 wei li, y. (2016). transforming conventional teaching classroom to learner-centred teaching classroom using multimedia-mediated learning module. international journal of information and education technology, 6(2):105-112. yoon, s. h. (2000). using learning style and goal accomplishment style to predict academic achievement in middle school geography students in korea. ph.d. thesis, university of pittsburgh. http://ssrn.com/abstract=2150166 https://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/news/the-effects-of-apartheids-unequal-%09education-system-can-still-be-felt-today-2035295 https://www.iol.co.za/capetimes/news/the-effects-of-apartheids-unequal-%09education-system-can-still-be-felt-today-2035295 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (3), 294311 religious education curriculum in indonesian islamic university in the digital age: incepting thematic alquran of fadlur rahman sa’dullah assa’idi1 abstract this study aims to present the views of muslim scholar fadlur rahman in the religious education curriculum at the islamic university of indonesia in the digital age. the research design used is a qualitative approach. the main data collection techniques are through observation, interviews, and literature related to the research theme, namely fazlur rahman's thoughts on islamic education, islamic education curriculum, and islamic university. the findings show that fazlur rahman's bringing leads to a positive goal, namely developing defensive moral standards and integrating islamization (islamic ideology) into the modernization of the existing curriculum to strengthen students' moral standards. more deeply, it aims to prevent negative thoughts and ideas. the religious education curriculum at the islamic university of indonesia began to lead to a modern view through the adaptation of digital technology and filling the void of spiritual values with various scientific discourses. this indicates that the islamic university of indonesia accepts the modernization changes as stated by fazlur rahman. the expected implication is that through the development and change of islamic religious education curriculum in educational institutions and specifically in higher education in the digital era, it is not only about digital-based learning methods but must have islamic characteristics to give birth to a younger generation of muslims who have a positive perspective and behavior. against islamic modernization. the views of muslim scholars essentially offer changes to the curriculum with noble goals, it just depends on the policy of the educational institution whether to accept it or not. keyword: muslim scholars, curriculum, islamic education introduction utilization of information and communication technology (ict) has entered a new chapter in human civilization. the digital era is a challenge and a new paradigm that requires the world of education to be able to adapt (peace, 2021). in the field of religious education, this is implemented in educational institutions by constructing a religious education curriculum (brömssen & nixon, 2020; karakostantaki & stavrianos, 2021). not without reason, in providing knowledge and understanding of religious teachings, of course, requires an education system. without a qualified education system, science is not able to be absorbed properly by the community, especially the 1dr. nahdlatul ulama islamic university (unisnu) jepara indonesia, email: sadullahassaidi01@gmail.com mailto:sadullahassaidi01@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 294-311 295 younger generation who continues to develop. the younger generation has great potential to build the nation's economy, with religious education that is able to encourage noble character behavior, this potential can be beneficial for themselves, others, and the environment. the existence of adjustments in the islamic religious education curriculum in the digital era is very important in order to improve muslim intellectuals (roqib, 2021). especially for educational institutions such as the islamic university as a place to prepare human resources who have high morality (taufik, 2020). so it is not only about learning methods and technology, but also must pay attention to the standards of religious values that are included in the islamic religious education curriculum. the standard in question can be obtained through various views of muslim scholars. because in essence, personality in the world of education is certainly different, especially in religious education at islamic religious university which requires high standards of islamic religious curriculum. in this case, the various thoughts of muslim scholars became one of the supporting factors for adjusting the religious curriculum (silalahi & yuwono, 2018; nasir, 2020). the literature states that islamic religious education has found its prime because of the contributions of muslim scholars around the world (widiyanto, 2016). muslim scholars have changed the form, content, and goals of science, education and the arts into scientific disciplines by integrating intellectual and cultural development in the islamic worldview (esposito, 1995). the education curriculum in indonesia continues to change along with the development of the digitalization era. there have been at least 11 changes to the education curriculum (zuhdi, 2006). this indicates that the education system in indonesia is open to change (lafrarchi, 2020). recent studies reveal that educational curriculum adjustments can affect changes to subjects, psychological development, and student behavior (amirullah & hamami, 2020; liagkis, 2015; nurpratiwi et al., 2021). in this case, the views of muslim scholars are able to give birth to religious, socio-economic, political, and cultural discourses for human civilization, especially in the world of education in the country (bhat, 2019). this study presents the views of muslim scholars in the religious education curriculum at the islamic university of indonesia in the digital age. the novelty of the research is shown in the view of the muslim scholar fadlur rahman in islamic education in the digital era through the development of an educational curriculum. previous literature has mostly studied the views of muslim scholars on aspects and terms of islamic education as well as thematic studies of the qur'an. one of them is the kitab al-tajrid by nashiruddin al-thusi on theology so that students assa’idi can more easily understand grammatically and memorize arabic (rahman, 2000a). not many have been found that focus on curriculum development at educational institutions at the islamic university level. this discourse is expected to be able to provide a new perspective on the intellectual and morality of the younger generation and the progress of human civilization through the religious education curriculum. research questions drawing the major themes of alquran from fadlur rahman, this study sought two research questions to answer: 1) how is the major themes of alquran included in the islamic university curriculum in indonesia in the digital age? 2) how is the implementation of the inclusion of thematic alquran in the islamic university curriculum in indonesia in the digital age? review of literature muslim scholar fazlur rahman's thoughts on islamic education muslim scholars are understood as ideas and works that become a source of reference for other muslim scientists. muslim scholar fazlur rahman talks about various fundamental aspects of education (fahmi, 2014). his rationale on islamic education includes a defensive islamic education strategy that is only saving the minds of muslims from the pollution and distress caused by western ideas through scientific disciplines that threaten islamic moral standards (sutrisno, 2006). according to rahman (1982), islamic education is defined as studying the koran and developing a system of validity. the renewal of islamic education is carried out by receiving modern secular education, then carrying out islamization which can be done by; 1) awakening the ideology of muslims about the importance of participating in learning and developing knowledge; 2) trying to erode the dualism of the muslim education system, in this case, there is an effort to integrate modern education and traditional education; 3) realizing the importance of language in education and as a tool for expressing original opinions; and 4) renewal of the method of islamic education with the method of understanding and analysis. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 294-311 297 islamic educational institutions organized by the curriculum are divided into four types. first, elementary schools that emphasize aspects of teaching religion, reading, writing, and simple arithmetic which aim to develop basic intellectual abilities. second, palace school education for princes with the aim of guiding them to become government leaders in the future. this education includes religious education that focuses on the fields of speech, literature, and the values of chivalry and leadership. third, adult education emphasizes understanding of the qur'an, not reading and writing skills. fourth, high-level schools. the instrument of religious culture for educational groups in high schools is a collection of theological legal and moral thought generated over centuries (rahman, 1982). rahman (1982), explained that islamic education does not only include physical equipment and equipment in the form of teaching books that are taught or the external structure of education but also about the essence of islamic higher education which focuses on islamic intellectualism. islamic intellectualism is the growth of a pure and adequate islamic thought, which must provide criteria in assessing the success and failure of an islamic education system including using the right method to interpret the qur'an. the method he proposes is a dual movement, which is by looking at the present situation to the time the qur'an was revealed and back to the present or known as socio-historical. islamic religious education curriculum curriculum is a set of plans and arrangements regarding education that contains learning materials and learning experiences that are organized, planned and arranged systematically based on applicable norms. then it is used as a guide in the teaching and learning process for educators and students in order to achieve educational goals (egan, 1978). the curriculum is basically dynamic, this is because at a certain time it is able to adapt to changes and human needs. the curriculum is divided into three categories namely; 1) curriculum as a student learning plan; 2) curriculum as a lesson plan; and 3) curriculum as a learning experience gained by students (walker & soltis, 1997). the religious education curriculum is an activity in providing religious teachings that are developed based on the fundamental values contained in the holy book of the qur'an and hadith. in a conservative and pious perspective, the educational principles of islam aim to become views and attitudes of life for human behavior (bhat, 2019; saada & magadlah, 2020). the scope of islamic education includes aqidah, sharia and morals. aqidah is everything related to belief or assa’idi more specifically about faith (such as tawheed science, ushuluddin, or kalam science). sharia is everything that regulates the rules of relations between humans and god, fellow humans, and with nature (such as matters of worship in the pillars of islam, and muamalah or buying and selling) (abidin et al., 2020; basrowi & utami, 2020). morals are teachings related to character, behavior, and deeds with the foundation of religious norms (such as morality to god, prophets, and apostles, oneself, family and environment) (hashim, 2008). the competencies that must exist in the basic curriculum in islamic religious education include moral development in the dimensions of attitudes, knowledge, and skills (benavot & braslavsky, 2007). the attitude dimension is focused on the behavior of students who reflect faith and piety to god almighty, have character, are honest, responsible, and care about fellow human beings. the knowledge dimension focuses on factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge at the basic, technical, specific, detailed and complex levels including science, technology, arts, culture, and humanities. dimensions of skills include creative, productive, critical, independent, collaborative and communicative thinking and acting skills (lafrarchi, 2020). methods design the study used a qualitative research design. according to patton (2005), the research design emphasizes the use of data whose main sources come from informants supported by observations and literature related to the research theme. the research theme consists of three sub-themes, namely the thoughts of muslim scholar fazlur rahman about islamic education, educational curriculum, islamic religious education at islamic universities in the digital era. qualitative analysis is used to guide research, namely research data collection, data reduction, and data presentation to draw conclusions and suggestions (bowen, 2009). the research subject is the religious education curriculum at the islamic university of indonesia. the research location was chosen considering that the islamic university of indonesia is one of the oldest islamic colleges established in indonesia so that from a historical aspect it is relevant to the study to be investigated, namely fazlur rahman's views regarding modern islamic education in the curriculum of religious education at islamic universities in indonesia. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 294-311 299 participant participants are people who participate in answering research questions through interviews. this study used 15 participants. the criteria used by researchers to determine participants are; 1) permanent and non-permanent lecturers (extraordinary lecturers) from the department of islamic education who teach at s1, s2, and s3; 2) more than 1 year teaching experience; 3) have a syllabus or semester learning plan for islamic education courses, fiqh rules, moral principles, islamic ethics, interpretation of the qur'an and hadith; and 4) is a lecturer from the islamic university of indonesia. participant descriptions are summarized in table 1. table 1 respondent identity respondent information education s2, s3, and professor 15 participants gender female and male 11 girls and 4 boys respondent age aged between 30 years-65 years 30< years 16 participants; <51 years 14 participants teaching experience >1 year > 1 year 5 participants; >10 years 10 participants instrument the form of the main instrument in this study is an interview supported by observations and relevant literature studies with the aim of obtaining information objectively. in its implementation, the instrument was carried out in a semi-structured manner following interview guidelines. the data collection guidelines focus on two aspects, namely: fazlur rahman's views on modern islamic education and the educational curriculum at islamic universities in the digital era. the instrument is designed with question items that represent each theme so that it is easy to process. table 2. interview and observation instruments what is bringing of the muslim scholar fadlur rahman on the religious education curriculum at the indonesian islamic university in the digital era fazlur rahman's view knowledge of fazlur rahman's views on modern islamic education islamic education curriculum knowledge of islamic education curriculum development in the digital era the instrument is structured in a concrete and systematic manner by considering the background and willingness of the respondents. the feasibility of the instrument has gone through construct testing, where the instrument used is said to be valid if the research question items have met the standards that have been set. standard setting is carried out by experts who understand scientific assa’idi concepts according to the research theme. after meeting the standards, the instrument is directly used without going through instrument testing. data collection data were collected by interview method containing questions to reveal information across time regarding fazlur rahman's views on islamic education and islamic education curriculum at islamic university. the data generated from the interviews are open-ended so as to form complete and comprehensive information in accordance with the research objectives. during the interview process, recording tools and notebooks were used to assist in gathering information. researchers observed the activities of research participants through the google meet application. schedules are given to participants so that each participant has about 30 minutes in turn. interviews were conducted for 1 day divided into 2 sessions, namely the morning session (8am-11.30 wib and 13.00-16.00 wib). during the interview process, participants were asked to share their views on fazlur rahman's views and the islamic education curriculum at the participant's campus. the data that has been collected using a coding system is then evaluated to obtain valid results. participatory observation and literature study aims to dig deeper into the data. observations were made by looking at the behavior and reactions of participants. the limitations of observations made online cause observations to only focus on participant activities. while the literature study focuses on previous studies that reveal the views of fazlur rahmad and several other muslim scholars about islamic education and the development of islamic education curriculum in indonesia. data analysis inductive qualitative data analysis technique consists of three stages, namely reducing data by focusing on themes, presenting data in narrative form, and drawing credible conclusions (miles, huberman, & saldaña, 2013). the first activity is to reduce the raw data from the results of semistructured interviews, participant observations, and literature studies that are summarized so that they are easy to understand. the second activity is the presentation of data in the form of narratives arranged systematically. the presentation of good data makes it easier for researchers to understand fazlur rahman's views on modern islamic education and what is happening to the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 294-311 301 islamic education curriculum at the indonesian islamic university. the third activity is to verify the findings to draw conclusions using the analytical descriptive method. results and discussion inclusion of major themes of alquran the findings on the bringing of muslim scholar fadlur rahman in the religious education curriculum in the digital age lead to a study of the content of the holy book al quran. the approach to reforming the islamic religious education curriculum at the islamic university of indonesia is to accept a modern secular education curriculum and try to 'apply the concept of islam (islamization of science)' and fill it with the values contained in the qur'an and hadith. he explained that the qur'an is neither a mysterious work nor a difficult work that requires trained humans to understand and interpret its commands. therefore, it is very important to build awareness among muslims of their historical responsibilities, both normativity and historicity sholihun likulli zaman wa makan, with a strong moral foundation, understanding the historical background of thought from the past aims to create a qualified islamic religious education curriculum. because a qualified religious education curriculum can only be created if the qur'an as a moral source can be understood in its entirety and coherently. a correct and complete understanding must be carried out through methods that can be accounted for in terms of religion and science. without an accurate and correct method, understanding the koran can be misleading (hakim, 2019 ; lubis, 2015). god, prophets, humanity, divine scriptures, and sin are some of the major themes of the holy quran. this in order to gain a comprehensive comprehension of the concepts, it is necessary to investigate various quran suras and verses in detail. the sura of mary, the sura of the prophets, and the sura of counsel have all been used to develop the five themes in this work. the incorporation of the major themes in an islamic university curriculum will place a strong emphasis on tafsir (interpretation of the appropriate meaning of the deeds) and the proper interpretation of the deeds. because of this, it is necessary to add contemporary approaches of interpretation. in addition, the curriculum should take into consideration the need of a balanced arrangement of themes. fadlur rahman's view is committed to the 'truth' rooted in history (the development of past thought) which combines modernization and traditionalism (rahman, 2000b). this indicates that assa’idi if examined more deeply, the islamic religious education curriculum must be relevant to the development of society, which means that modernization through digital technology can be used as long as the benefits outweigh the disadvantages. if there is no effort to color the educational curriculum with an islamic orientation, it is likely that students will throw away any islamic orientation they have ever had (hasyim, 2005). according to fazlur rahman's thought, because if the development of islamic thought does not see continuity with the past, then it will lose its authenticity which results in losing its internal dynamic ability. considering data 1, (1) “fazlur rahman is a muslim scholar who is very firm in upholding his principles. one of his well-known principles is to keep the old good, and take the new which is better. according to his view that modernization is not something that should be rejected, but modernization does not mean that traditionalism must be ruled out.” the islamic religious education curriculum in the digital era is not only focused on the learning paradigm by using technology in learning methods. so not only focusing on student-centered learning (scl) learning methods but also looking at the histories dimension. examining fazlur rahman's view, islamic education faces four major problems, namely ideology, the dualism of the education system, discussion, and learning methods. it is very important to strengthen the four basic competencies in the education curriculum while still focusing on solving existing problems. problems on the curriculum implementation language problem. first, the first problem is of language, so the focus is on the development of aspects of the arabic language and arabic idioms in the thematic study courses of the quran and arabic. with his expertise in reading classical texts, this neomodernist figure views that islamic scholarship, such as thematic al quran texts in indonesia, in particular, is still very ancient (madjid, 2000). therefore, it is necessary to use an analytical method that emphasizes reading comprehension by examining its socio-historical background so that students can open their horizons and stimulate them to express their opinions. without an adequate understanding of the micro and macro background, it is likely that students will misunderstand. in addition, language skills make students understand information and knowledge more deeply. the ability to understand foreign languages encourages the advancement of science and knowledge. ideological problem. second, related to ideological problems, the focus is on developing moral aspects in moral education courses so that strong ethics are embedded in student behavior so that journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 294-311 303 socio-economic independence is created in responding to changes and developments of the times. considering data 2, (2) “the term education in the context of islam, especially in the subject of moral rules and fiqh rules, refers to the terms al-tarbiyah, al-ta'dih, and al-ta'lim. all of which aim to develop positive potentials in students, and ideally for other human beings. we as lecturers are required to provide inspiration, good understanding, and practice it so that students are inspired to become role models. ” the urgency of the values of islamic education as stated by the participants revealed that lecturers are required to be able to guide students through the subjects being taught. the literature states that the three terms, namely al-tarbiyah, al-ta'dih, and al-ta'lim have different meanings textually and contextually (tafsir, 2001). as in essence, al-tarbiyah contains basic understanding in different contexts but focuses on growth, development, and improvement in every human being who already has the seeds of virtue (hill, 1928). the growth and improvement of positive potentials in humans are expected to be useful throughout life and ideally for the life of the hereafter (madjid, 2000). meanwhile, the term al-ta'dib means knowledge that prevents humans from making mistakes. adab in question is the discipline of body, soul, and spirit. discipline that emphasizes the recognition and acknowledgment of the right place in a relationship by relying on physical, intellectual and spiritual abilities and potential. because adab reflects the values of justice and wisdom (hikmah) which is defined as the science of god's gift (al-attas, 1988). while al-ta'lim is not only limited to scientific knowledge, but includes self-improvement, theoretical knowledge, verbal repetition, skills, and orders to carry out life guidelines according to islamic values (tafsir, 2001). in this course, there is a rote practice that aims to make the material understandable in the heart so that it can fortify itself with moral beliefs. at the islamic university of indonesia, this course has not deeply touched the ideology and social and cultural values of islam. although there has been progressing with changes in the curriculum and syllabus, modern humanities still need to be developed creatively and innovatively and become patents. in addition, it seems that many students have not been inspired by noble ideals. this is illustrated by the social communities formed at the university which are still classified as minority communities. according to rahman (1982), instilling islamic morals in muslim students will not succeed if the fields of science at a higher level are left completely secular or aimless. teaching morals is a process of building self-identity assa’idi and creating the nation's next-generation capable of facing the challenges of globalization (lukensbull, 1970). learning methods problem. third, the problem of learning methods by developing muamalah aspects in muamalah practice courses. in this course, the lecturer uses an experimental method where students prove and experience what they learn for themselves so that students are able to think positively and avoid negative behavior because they understand the problems of muamalah practice and islamic law in economic activities. in the digital era, the methods used in learning will change drastically. students can study anytime and anywhere via the internet (bogdanova & zharkova, 2018). based on the results of interviews and observations that have been made, the islamic university of indonesia is currently using learning platforms that are much more innovative and efficient. for example, discovery learning, contextual learning, and project-based learning. considering data 3, (3) “lecturers are required to be able to adapt to technology. various educational applications are used to guide students. we strive to be more innovative in providing learning methods that can be understood by students. we also adjust the semester learning plan with the religious education curriculum and current pandemic conditions so that teaching and learning activities can be more efficient.” jurisprudence aspects. fourth, the aspect of jurisprudence in the subject of fiqh rules so that students understand the rules and norms that are good and right so that they can be realized in life to achieve prosperity. the literature explains that learning in islamic education contributes to student learning outcomes by helping teachers consider various perspectives of students about a religious phenomenon. this increases students' awareness of the ontological and epistemological beliefs of faith and enables them to make appropriate assessments of religious phenomena (ucan & wright, 2018). the adjustment of the educational curriculum in both digital-based learning methods and basic competencies is expected that learning activities are no longer passive. studentcentered education will encourage the active role of students to improve their learning achievement. the paradigm in the islamic religious education curriculum at the islamic university of indonesia towards the development of digitalization faces two things, namely pragmatic and preventive. on the one hand, technological progress is a solution and provides convenience for optimizing journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 294-311 305 teaching and learning activities, but on the other hand, it has the potential to have positive and negative impacts on the world of education. as mentioned in the national education goals. considering data 4, (4) islamic religious education at islamic religious university has the aim of developing the potential of students not only having knowledge, being independent, capable, creative, physically and mentally healthy but also so that they become human beings who believe and fear god almighty, have good morals. noble, as well as being a democratic citizen and responsible for all his actions and actions in the community. this is in line with the goals of national education and the pancasila philosophy.” if examined from the view of fazlur rahman, the purpose of national education has the same meaning but with a slightly different orientation to what this muslim scholar put forward. according to him, the purpose of education is to develop humans in such a way that all the knowledge they acquire becomes an organ in the creative personality of the whole and enables humans to utilize natural resources for the good of mankind, to create justice and peace, and to be oriented towards the afterlife. according to the th eory of tyler (1957), curriculum development must pay attention to four aspects. the first is about the educational goals to be achieved. the objectives to be achieved must be clear, targeted, and able to identify other important aspects contained in the education curriculum. the second is the content of the material in the form of learning experiences that can achieve educational goals. the content of the material must be proportional, relevant, and systematic. proportion means that the material used is neither excessive nor lacking in basic competence. relevant means that the material being taught has a scientific aspect and focuses on the objectives to be achieved. systematic means that the content of the material must be in a sequential manner without overlapping scientific chronology. in this case, the content of the material is not only a collection of experience and knowledge but must also be adapted to the students and their environment. third, the strategy for implementing the curriculum is a learning experience that is effectively organized based on certain considerations and criteria. fourth, evaluate by determining the right way so that the goals can be achieved (munjiat, 2020). through evaluation activities, it can be seen what factors are able to support success and obstacles. considering data 5, assa’idi (5) the islamic religious education curriculum contains a series of courses in the study of the koran and the science of hadith, the history of islamic culture, muamalah, the rules of fiqh, moral creed, and the arabic language.” the islamic religious education curriculum is closely related to the value of maintaining (hifzun) therefore the materials taught must be able to provide an understanding of how students think, behave, and behave in accordance with religious values. daulay (2009) developed five principles of educational curriculum development. first, the principle of relevance where the material needs to be adapted to environmental conditions and situations. the first principle can be done by utilizing digital technology such as blended learning and the internet of things (setiawan, 2019). second, the principle of flexibility, which means that the material is developed in accordance with the development of existing religious education. third, the principle of continuity means that the material must be continuously developed by taking into account the dynamics of changes in the social environment, levels, and needs of students. fourth, the principle of efficiency by involving every stakeholder. in this case, the involvement of the islamic university of indonesia, students, and lecturers as well as the government through their respective authorities. fifth, practical principles by which materials can be combined with future technological advances. in the end, it can be understood that various literature studies regarding the views of muslim scholar fadlur rahman in the islamic religious education curriculum in the digital age are really directed at positive goals that focus on moral standards but are more likely to be defensive in nature, namely to save the minds of muslims from pollution or damage. resulting from the impact of western ideas or thoughts that come through scientific disciplines. in this context, it returns to the purpose of the establishment of the university and the policy of the leaders of the islamic university, whether to accept or reject the new offer of this view on modern sciences. based on the findings obtained by the researchers, the islamic university of indonesia began to lead to a modern view through adapting digital technology and filling the void of spiritual values with various scientific discourses to support the development of the islamic education curriculum. this indicates that the islamic university of indonesia accepts modern changes but still holds islamic intellectual traditions and values. because not a few educational institutions actually reject modernization and continue to use the traditional system (wajdi & nur aulia, 2019). the literature states that fazlur rahman's view understands that islamic renewal begins with education. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 294-311 307 although the orientation is islamist, it is still integrated into modern intellectualism (zaprulkhan, 2014). based on the views of this muslim scholar, rahman wanted to emphasize that islamic education is not only a discourse about belief, worship, and religion but also about natural sciences, social discourse, and humanities. in this discourse, the role of islamic education becomes important in multicultural education (moore, 2009). thus, fazlur rahman's view offers an update on the islamic religious education curriculum at the islamic university of indonesia which must emphasize these discourses on basic competency standards. focusing no longer on sectoral areas with a limited vision and mission but relevant to the development of science, local, national, and international development. the islamic religious education curriculum at islamic universities in the digital era is not only about digital-based learning methods but must be systemic-integrative in order to give birth to a younger generation of muslims who have an integrative point of view as well. so what is understood as modern science is not only inclined to technology and materialism which has the possibility of damaging human values but must be able to build moral values. this is of course by continuing to comply with government laws, rules and norms that apply in society. the novelty of the research is shown from the importance of aligning the islamic religious education curriculum at the islamic university of indonesia with the development of society through three aspects, namely cognitive aspects, affective aspects, and psychomotor aspects. in addition, it is important carrying out a defensive strategy by integrating islamization (islamic ideology) into the modernization of the existing curriculum to strengthen students' moral standards and prevent negative thoughts and ideas from their environment. this study therefore brings a novelty in that thematic alquran porposed by fadlur rahman will have new ideas and paradigms in the development of islamic curriculum for university level in indonesia. the themes and contents can be the guidance of curriculum loads and scopes to include in the curriculum design. conclusion the conclusion obtained about the bringing of muslim scholar fadlur rahman in the religious education curriculum at the islamic university of indonesia in the digital era leads to a positive goal, namely integrating islamization (islamic ideology) into the modernization of the existing curriculum to strengthen students' moral standards and prevent negative thoughts and ideas. assa’idi originating from the environment. fazlur rahman's view focuses on moral standards but tends to be more defensive. in this context, the islamic university of indonesia began to lead to a modern view through the adaptation of digital technology and filling the void of spiritual values with various scientific discourses to support the development of islamic education curriculum. this indicates that the islamic university of indonesia accepts modern changes but still holds islamic intellectual traditions and values. it is important to note that this study is limited to one view of muslim scholars without being supported by various previous literatures. future research can add various views of muslim scholars with the aim of comparing and providing the best offer for changes to the islamic education curriculum in modern educational institutions. the islamic religious education curriculum at islamic universities in the digital era is not only about digital-based learning methods but must be systemic-integrative in order to give birth to a younger generation of muslims who have an integrative point of view. it is hoped that modern educational institutions will no longer be in sectoral areas with a limited vision and mission but will accept changes to be relevant to the development of science, local, national and international development. references abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. al-attas, s. m. a.-n. (1988). konsep pendidikan dalam islam, terj. haidar bagir. bandung: mizan pustaka. amirullah, y. a., & hamami, t. (2020). organization and design of development of islamic religious education in indonesia. at-ta’dib, 15(1), 103–124. basrowi, & utami, p. (2020). building strategic planning models based on digital technology in the sharia capital market ? journal of advanced research in law and economics, 11(3), 747–754. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.14505/jarle.v11.3(49).06 benavot, a., & braslavsky, c. (2007). school knowledge in comparative and historical perspective cerc studies in comparative education. (m. bray, ed.). pokfulam road, hong kong, china: comparative education research centre. bhat, a. (2019). islamic philosophy of education. journal of culture and values in journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 294-311 309 education, 2(2), 73-76. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 bogdanova, y. z., & zharkova, m. a. (2018). on the digitalization of a university education and the possibility of distance foreign language teaching of students of agrarian university. modern journal of language teaching methods, 8(12), 186–443. bowen, g. a. (2009). document analysis as a qualitative research method. qualitative research journal, 9(2), 27–40. https://doi.org/10.3316/qrj0902027 brömssen, k. von, & nixon, g. (2020). religious education curriculum constructions in northern and western europe : a three country analysis. religious education in a postsecular age. palgrave macmillan, cham.: springer international publishing. daulay, h. p. (2009). sejarah pertumbuhan dan pembaruan pendidikan islam di indonesia. jakarta: kencana prenada. egan, k. (1978). what is curriculum? (vol. 1). hoboken, new jersey: blackwell publishers. esposito, j. l. (1995). the oxford encyclopedia of the modern islamic world. oxford univ press: england. fahmi, m. (2014). pendidikan islam perspektif fazlur rahman. jurnal pendidikan agama islam, 2(2), 274–298. hakim, r. (2019). the improvement of students’ competence in islamic education programme through tahsin al-quran activities. khalifa journal of islamic education, 3(1), 35–55. retrieved from http://kjie.ppj.unp.ac.id/index.php/kjie/article/view/21 hashim, che noraini. (2008). islamic religious curriculum in muslim countries : the experiences of indonesia and malaysia. bulletin of education & research, 30(1), 1–19. hill, n. (1928). the law of success. united state america: ralston university press. karakostantaki, e., & stavrianos, k. (2021). the use of ict in teaching religious education in primary school. education and information technologies, 26(january), 3231–3250. lafrarchi, n. (2020). assessing islamic religious education curriculum in flemish public secondary schools. religions, 11(3), 110. liagkis, m. k. (2015). british journal of religious education religious education in greece : a new curriculum , an old issue, (march), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2014.944093 lubis, m. a. (2015). effective implementation of the integrated islamic education. global journal al-thaqafah, 5(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.7187/gjat792015.05.01 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 assa’idi lukens-bull, r. a. (1970). teaching morality: javanese islamic education in a globalizing era. journal of arabic and islamic studies, 3, 26–47. https://doi.org/10.5617/jais.4554 madjid, n. (2000). masyarakat religius. jakarta: paramadina. miles, m., huberman, m., & saldaña, j. (2013). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook: an expanded sourcebook, 408. retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/43491723/miles___huberman_data_a nalysis.pdf?awsaccesskeyid=akiaiwowyygz2y53ul3a&expires=1554078814&si gnature=c9k75fdt6sjvo4egpjsp2ftcib8%3d&response-content-disposition=inline%3b filename%3dmiles_huberman_da moore, j. r. (2009). why religious education matters: the role of islam in multicultural education. multicultural perspectives, 11(3), 139–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/15210960903116563 munjiat, s. m. (2020). implementation of islamic religious education learning in higher eduacion on pandemic period. nazhruna: jurnal pendidikan islam, 3(2), 285–295. nasir, m. (2020). curriculum development and accreditation standards in the traditional islamic schools in indonesia. journal of curriculum studies research. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 nurpratiwi, s., effendi, m. r., & amaliyah. (2021). improving religious literacy through islamic religious education course based on the flipped classroom. istawa: jurnal pendidikan islam (ijpi), 6(1), 16–29. https://doi.org/10.24269/ijpi.v6i1.3107 patton, m. q. (2005). qualitative research. (b. s. everitt & d. c. howell, eds.), encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science (vol. 3). john wiley & sons, ltd, chichester. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13931 peace, t. a. (2021). 21stcentury educational changes in higher educational institutions in aligning religious education learning environment and pedagogies to 21 st century educational changes in higher educational institutions in uganda. journal of emerging trends in educational research and policy studies (jeteraps), 12(2), 39–54. rahman, f. (1982). islam & modernity. cheltenham: the university of chicago press. rahman, f. (2000a). islam dan modernitas terj. ahsin mohammad. bandung: pustaka. rahman, f. (2000b). revival and reform in islam. oxford: reworld publications. roqib, moh. (2021). increasing social class through islamic boarding schools in indonesia. journal of social studies education research (jsser), 12(2), 305-329. saada, n., & magadlah, h. (2020). the meanings and possible implications of critical islamic https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(3), 294-311 311 religious education. british journal of religious education, 00(00), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2020.1785844 setiawan, a. (2019). conceptual of blended learning as islamic education study program learning reform action in digital era 4.0. syamil, 7(2), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.21093/sy.v7i2.1827 silalahi, r., & yuwono, u. (2018). the sustainability of pancasila in indonesian education system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(2), 58-78. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 sutrisno. (2006). fazlur rahman. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. tafsir, a. (2001). ilmu pendidikan islam dalam perspektif islam. bandung: rosda karya. taufik, m. (2020). strategic role of islamic religious education in strengthening character education in the era of industrial revolution 4.0. jurnal ilmiah islam futura, 20(1), 86–104. tyler, r. w. (1957). the curriculum-then and now. the elementary school journal, 57(7), 364– 374. ucan, a. d., & wright, a. (2018). improving the pedagogy of islamic religious education through an application of critical religious education , variation theory and the learning study model. british journal of religious education. routledge. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2018.1484695 wajdi, f., & nur aulia, r. (2019). ma‘had ’aly and the challenge of modernizing islamic education in indonesia. hayula: indonesian journal of multidisciplinary islamic studies, 3(2), 173–190. https://doi.org/10.21009/hayula.003.2.04 walker, d. f., & soltis, j. f. publisher: (1997). curriculum and aims hinking about education series. united states: teachers college press. widiyanto, a. (2016). religious authority and the prospects for religious pluralism in indonesia: the role of traditionalist muslim scholars (vol. 17). germany: lit verlag münster. zaprulkhan. (2014). filsafat pendidikan islam studi pemikiran pendidikan islam fazlur rahman. episteme, 9(2), 308–346. zuhdi, m. (2006). modernization of indonesian islamic schools’ curricula, 1945-2003. international journal of inclusive education, 10(4–5), 415–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110500430765 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.02.4 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 405-423 spatial planning for indigenous law communities to solve social conflict resolution in west papua indonesia roberth kurniawan ruslak hammar*1,christina samangun2, yosep malik3&agustinus luturmas4 abstract the purpose of this research is to investigate the spatial planning based on wisdom in the context of resolving social conflicts as a form of learning about the recognition and protection of indigenous peoples in law. the main data sources are obtained from primary legal materials in the form of laws and regulations, regional regulations, and literature studies that focus on spatial planning, local wisdom, and social conflict resolution. the research methodology uses a juridical-normative approach. content analysis was conducted in order to obtain relevant research results. the findings reveal that local government regulations on spatial planning of the west papua customary law community are in synergy with central government regulations as regulated in law no. 27 of 2007 on spatial planning. the two laws contribute to the resolution of social conflicts because of the recognition and protection of the sustainability of natural resources which are the living space (lebensraum) of the indigenous peoples of west papua. an important lesson that can be learned is that spatial planning based on local wisdom is centered on harmony, balance, and sustainability in order to overcome social conflicts between the spatial planning of customary law communities and the spatial planning stipulated by national law, namely by preparing and determining spatial planning through the top down of the central government, then the village, district, district governments are bottom up, and meet in the discussion, preparation and determination of spatial planning in the province. the expected implication is that the central government and local governments pay special attention to policy practices in spatial planning that are more socially just and in accordance with the needs of indigenous and tribal peoples. the aim is to create harmonization between customary law and national law so that they do not overlap each other, which in turn can lead to greater social conflicts in the future. keywords: learning spatial planning, law communities, local wisdom, social conflict introduction the implementation of spatial planning has a central role in the community's economy. the realization of a spatial arrangement that is in accordance with the function of space can create harmony, improve public health and welfare and prevent negative impacts on the environment due 1 *corresponding author, lecturer, sekolah tinggi ilmu hukum (stih) caritas papua manokwari, indonesia, roberthstih43@gmail.com 2 lecturer, sekolah tinggi ilmu hukum (stih) caritas papua manokwari,indonesia,christinasamangun@gmail.com 3 lecturer, sekolah tinggi ilmu hukum (stih) caritas papua manokwari, indonesia, yosephmaliklein@gmail.com 4 lecturer, sekolah tinggi ilmu hukum ( stih) caritas papua manokwar, indonesia, luturmasgues410@gmail.com mailto:roberthstih43@gmail.com mailto:christinasamangun@gmail.com mailto:yosephmaliklein@gmail.com mailto:luturmasgues410@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 405-423 to space utilization (solly, 2021). the failure to organize spatial planning has led to various conflicts in various countries in the world. during the 1980s, greece became one of the countries with a record of serious land-use conflicts that damaged natural ecosystems and social cohesion as a result of ineffective spatial planning systems on a national and regional scale (kourliouros et al., 2015). the country of poland has a controversial history because of the failure of marine spatial planning that has triggered negative perceptions and tensions in the country (tafon, 2019). in the early 2000s, south africa experienced chaos because of spatial planning policies that were considered problematic (horn, 2020). this is why previous studies explain why the success of spatial planning relies heavily on the effective participation of the community, supporting guidelines, a set of tools and data for land-use decisions, and the extent to which spatial planning can resolve conflicts that occur (gómezballesteros et al., 2021; rega, 2020). generally, densely populated areas in developing countries experience irregularity in spatial planning, limited natural resources, and government regulations which are the main factors in spatial planning problems. as a result, the condition of the region and local communities is getting worse day by day. the increasing number of people has an impact on the narrower space for economic movement (liu & zhou, 2021). indonesia has several times experienced tensions in agrarian conflicts between local governments and indigenous peoples. the literature states that the trigger is the failure of defense policies, both in terms of land administration and land use spatial planning (nulhaqim et al., 2020). long before there was a national law on spatial planning, indigenous peoples already had the principles of traditional spatial planning or can be understood as customary law based on local wisdom which contains practical knowledge about regulation, environmental management, and how to regulate the pattern of life in a society that has survived to this day (gunawan, 2021). empirical studies show that the harmonization of the application of positive law, customary law, and local wisdom is able to overcome various forms of inequality in the administration of local government (suryawati & syaputri, 2021). local wisdom has proven its existence in natural resource ecosystems. this is why indonesia is a developing country that is democratic and upholds local cultural wisdom by acknowledging the existence of customary law as long as it does not conflict with national law and this has been guaranteed in the explanation of the basic agrarian law (uupa) number 5 of 1960 which states hammar et al. 407 that customary law was the basis for the formation of agrarian law and this has persisted for nearly six decades. referring to the spatial issue of various conflicts, especially agrarian conflicts in the implementation of spatial planning, the regional government of west papua province is one of the regions of indonesia where indigenous people are vulnerable to social conflict issues and legal pluralism due to spatial planning policies in managing natural resources (jackson, 2021). according to korbéogo (2021), legal pluralism can exacerbate land use competition. the literature mentions that the papuan local government regulations regarding the distribution of ulayat rights for the prevention of social conflicts with indigenous peoples have in fact not shown their contribution to agrarian conflicts between indigenous peoples and migrants (reumi & katjong, 2021). in the case of the papuan customary law community, the existence of the company has triggered prolonged social conflict and hampered development (sagrim et al., 2020). previous research mostly conducted empirical studies of spatial planning and local wisdom, but it is rare to find legal studies related to spatial planning based on local wisdom in the context of preventing social conflicts in indigenous peoples. almeida et al. (2017) conducted an analysis of the sources of conflict and land use policies in developing appropriate strategies for the management of natural values. the findings reveal that conflicts are categorized in the form of institutional organization, policies and laws, power and other structural constraints related to time and resources, information and conflicts of interest as well as stakeholder relations. research by högström (2021) explain that in order to create conditions for effective interaction in spatial planning, it can be done by synergizing the temporal, location, and procedural dimensions of knowledge. this study examines more deeply the problem of integrated, adaptive, and participatory spatial planning through normative legal studies. while previous research conducted by nadin (2021) has conducted the same study in europe. trkulja & dabović (2021) identified regional development problems by creating a supranational framework for better spatial planning. these two studies examine spatial planning but not within the scope of local wisdom. conflicts that often occur in the implementation of spatial planning are also caused by a lack of information or incorrect information received by indigenous peoples regarding government policies on areas and natural resources (nuhidayah et al., 2020). this study aims to show the importance of learning about positive law in order to support local wisdom for dealing with social journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 405-423 conflicts that occur in indonesia, especially the eastern part of indonesia as the first region prone to social conflict. research questions drawing the theme of learning about the role of positive law-based, local wisdom, and social conflict, the the following research questions are sought to answer: 1. what kinds of spatial planning customary law community are used for social conflict resolution in the province of west papua? 2. how is spatial planning customary law community implemented to solve social conflict resoluation in the province of west papua? literature review spatial planning the definition of spatial planning is defined as a form of the structure of space and the pattern of space. meanwhile, space can include ground space, ocean space, and air space as a unitary area where living things live in order to maintain their survival. spatial planning is understood as a system of a process of spatial planning, space utilization, and space utilization control (tewdwr-jones, 2012). spatial planning orientation aims to create a safe, comfortable, productive, and sustainable regional space for the community (kunzmann, 2004). spatial planning is a key tool in developing a strong environmental management strategy. in this case, the development of the spatial plan into action in the field requires an appropriate spatial planning process at various scales. one of them is by carrying out institutional adaptations and spatial planning reforms for different socio-economic and environmental goals (adams et al., 2017). studies reveal that spatial planning must 'handed over, this means that the results of planned actions must be appropriate in order to be more effective. the government agency responsible for making spatial planning must be able to control and exercise good control over the 'other actors' referring to the regional government or other similar institutions or called horizontal and vertical coordination. it is very important to place spatial planning at a strategic and even level, especially for the government. this is because spatial planning within the scope of government is to facilitate learning (faludi, 2000). spatial planning also requires innovation as a social process and conflict resolution. the phase carried out is the phase of incubating environmental development, producing, formatting or regenerating, stabilizing, and adjusting spatial planning (christmann et al., 2020). understanding spatial diversity in social use and conflict in spatial planning hammar et al. 409 is a way to support social resilience. studying social dynamics and conflicts in certain areas can form patterns of utilization of spatial planning that are beneficial for protecting biological ecosystems (noble et al., 2019). local wisdom local wisdom means a harmonious relationship between humans, nature, and the built environment in an area that is formed in an integrated system as a manifestation of traditional or cultural knowledge that is understood by certain communities in order to manage natural resources (dahliani, 2015; fernández et al., 2019). local wisdom is referred to as the treasure of the community because it is able to represent wealth and has a positive value to the social environment. in addition, by studying the problems in it can find solutions and become strong again (mungmachon, 2012). local wisdom is divided into two parts, namely social wisdom, and ecological wisdom. social wisdom emphasizes the process of forming social beings to become wiser and wiser. therefore, the role of local wisdom is often a tool for resolving various conflicts in the community (eko & putranto, 2021). meanwhile, ecological wisdom is a guide for humans to be wise in interacting in managing the surrounding natural environment, both biophysical and supernatural. ecological-based local wisdom has a close relationship with indigenous peoples' territory or land management policies where they are seen as part of nature (nugroho, 2021). method research design this study uses a normative juridical approach. normative juridical research basically investigates legal principles to answer certain legal issues (llewellyn, 1940). this research is guided by secondary data which is carried out by reviewing literature studies on legal and non-legal materials related to the research objectives. the purpose of the study was to investigate the positive legal principles of spatial planning based on local wisdom in the context of social conflict resolution as a form of learning about the recognition and protection of indigenous peoples in law. the research is focused in the context of central government regulations on spatial planning based on local wisdom and local government spatial planning regulations related to preventing social conflicts with the indigenous peoples of west papua in papua province. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 405-423 data and sources data this study uses secondary data as the main data source. secondary data sources come from primary legal materials, namely the applicable laws and regulations related to the principles of spatial planning and community participation, “namely: (1) law number 26 of 2007 concerning spatial planning; (2) the 1945 constitution article 18 b paragraph (2) concerning customary law communities; (3) law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional governments; (4) law number 68 of 2010 concerning forms and procedures for community roles in spatial planning; (5) papua province regional regulation number 23 of 2013 concerning spatial planning of the papua province of 2013-2023; (6) special regional government regulation of papua province number 23 of 2008 concerning individual rights of indigenous peoples to land. table 1 document type theme the secondary data destination spatial planning regulation 1. law number 26 of 2007 concerning spatial planning 2. law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government 3. papua province regional regulation number 23 of 2013 concerning spatial planning of the papua province of 2013-2023 4. special regional government regulation of papua province number 23 of 2008 concerning individual rights of indigenous peoples to land the data evaluation aims to find out positive laws regarding spatial planning that contribute to resolving social conflicts between indigenous and tribal peoples local wisdom 1. the 1945 constitution article 18 b paragraph (2) concerning customary law communities 2. law number 68 year 2010 concerning forms and procedures for community roles in spatial planning the data evaluation aims to find out positive laws that contain the values of local wisdom of indigenous and tribal peoples that contribute to resolving social conflicts data collection tools this research uses the documentation method with primary legal data guidelines that have been prepared, then deepened. researchers collect data by reviewing the rules of positive law by referring to the research theme. in conducting data collection to answer the rq, identification is done by selecting the articles contained in the primary legal data and ensuring that the data can describe clearly and accurately the problem of spatial planning based on local wisdom and the resolution of social conflicts, especially the prevention of agrarian conflicts in papuan customary law communities. (see table 2) hammar et al. 411 table 2 the data collection process topic primary legal data sources code data rq spatial planning 1. law number 26 of 2007 concerning spatial planning 2. law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government 3. papua province regional regulation number 23 of 2013 concerning spatial planning of the papua province of 2013-2023 4. special regional government regulation of papua province number 23 of 2008 concerning individual rights of indigenous peoples to land 2 4 4 7 local wisdom 1. the 1945 constitution article 18 b paragraph (2) concerning customary law communities 2. law number 68 year 2010 concerning forms and procedures for community roles in spatial planning article 9 paragraph (3) and paragraph (4) 1 3,5,6 data collection techniques primary legal material data collection aims to ensure that the data collected by researchers accurately includes research data on laws and regulations relating to legal principles related to research objectives on the topic of spatial planning and local wisdom, especially papuan local government regulations. research data collection is carried out by examining the rules of positive law and regulations relating to the principles of spatial planning. positive law consists of, “(a) law number 26 of 2007 concerning spatial planning; (b) law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government; (c) the 1945 constitution article 18 b paragraph (2) concerning customary law communities; (4) law number 68 year 2010 concerning forms and procedures for community roles in spatial planning article 9 paragraph (3) and paragraph (4).” and local government regulations relating to the principles of spatial planning are, “papua province regional regulation number 23 of 2013 concerning spatial planning of the papua province of 2013-2023 and special regional government regulation of papua province number 23 of 2008 concerning individual rights of indigenous people to land.” rq1 is a positive legal study of customary law communities in spatial planning used for conflict resolution in west papua province. while rq 2 is about the implementation of government regulations on indigenous peoples, including the principles of customary law. the coding system is carried out by considering the number 1 for the data code {1}, and so on, where rq1 consists of data codes {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6} while r2 consists of data codes {7 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 405-423 and 8}. the data that has been coded is then sorted in the analysis to find out what kind of spatial planning and implementation can be used to resolve social conflicts between indigenous peoples in west papua. data analysis this study uses the content analysis processing technique proposed by krippendorff (2018). the researcher uses content analysis because this research technique is able to make valid inferences and describe the characteristics of the message specifically according to the research objectives by taking into account the context contained in the primary legal data. the eight stages carried out began with the first stage, namely formulating the purpose of the analysis in revealing positive legal studies based on local wisdom related to resolving social conflicts of indigenous peoples. the second stage is to formulate the concept of conceptualization and operationalization of the data. the third stage is to reduce the operationalization to data that has been coded sheet based on the research topic, namely spatial planning and local wisdom. the fourth stage is testing the data instrument. the data collection instrument in the form of documents that the researcher uses is the primary legal material for spatial planning and papua regional government regulations relating to the principles of customary law regarding land tenure. the fifth stage is the coding process. the coding system considers the r1 data code for primary legal data 1, considers r2 data code for primary legal data 2, and so on. rq presents both themes in one analysis unit consisting of 8 data codes, namely r1, r2, r3, r4, r5, r6, & r7. the sixth stage refers to an objective and systematic study. the seventh stage is to search for data by interpreting the meaning of the data that has been processed. finally, the researcher grouped and analyzed the data that met the originality requirements through data mapping and supported by previous research and then arranged systematically to answer the two research problem formulations. the last stage draws conclusions about the causes of research problems related to social conflict and suggestions addressed to the central government, local governments, and further research. result and discussion rq 1: kinds of spatial planning customary law community the research has examined spatial planning based on local wisdom that contributes to the resolution of social conflicts as a form of learning about legal recognition and protection of indigenous peoples. hammar et al. 413 the first finding shows that positive law and the principles of customary law of indigenous papuans can be used to resolve social conflicts. the law referred to in the study consists of eight sources of law, namely, “(a) law number 26 of 2007 concerning spatial planning; (b) law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government, (c) papua province regional regulation number 23 of 2013 concerning spatial planning of the papua province of 2013-2023; (d) special regional government regulation of papua province number 23 of 2008 concerning individual rights of indigenous peoples to land; (e) the 1945 constitution article 18 b paragraph (2) concerning customary law communities; (f) law number 68 year 2010 concerning forms and procedures for community roles in spatial planning article 9 paragraph (3) and paragraph (4).” the first finding also explains that inlaws' local wisdom and regulations related to spatial planning include legal knowledge and sustainable natural resource management models, including how to maintain a relationship with nature through wise and responsible use of spatial planning. the literature explains that local wisdom is a system that integrates knowledge, culture, and institutions as well as the practice of managing natural resources (nugroho, 2021; dahliani, 2015; mungmachon, 2012). so it is not wrong if local wisdom itself is referred to as the 'treasure of indigenous peoples' because it is able to represent the wealth of noble, wise, and wise values in the area of land management. in other words, spatial planning based on local wisdom in indonesia is essentially a manifestation of the implementation of articulation and embodiment as well as knowledge of national law and customary law that is understood by humans or communities interacting with their natural surroundings. spatial planning based on local wisdom is closely related to the enforcement of human rights for indigenous peoples as mandated in the 1945 constitution article 18 b paragraph (2). corresponding data 1. (1) “the state recognizes and respects units, customary law communities, and their traditional rights as long as they are still alive and in accordance with the development of society and the principles of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia, which are regulated by law.” based on the law, spatial planning is the implementation of the state's right to control which is regulated in article 33 paragraph (3) of the 1945 constitution which states, "earth, water and natural resources contained therein are controlled by the state and used as much as possible for prosperity. people." the follow-up to this constitutional provision is contained in article 2 paragraph (2) of law number 5 of 1960 concerning basic regulations on agrarian principles, which is abbreviated as journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 405-423 uupa, which states that "with the right to control the state as regulated in article 33 paragraph (3) of the 1945 constitution, then the uupa regulates the right of the state to determine and regulate the allocation of earth, water, and space, determine and regulate the legal relationship between people and the earth, water, and space, determine and regulate legal actions between people and the earth, water, and space. ” thus, it is clear that the process of establishing spatial planning law cannot be separated from the 'legal way' and the role of community participation. the study explains that the government has the responsibility to make effective regional spatial planning by controlling, controlling, and coordinating well with stakeholders(faludi, 2000). for example, by carrying out institutional adaptations and spatial planning reforms for different socio-economic and environmental goals (adams et al., 2017). in this context, it is contained in law no. 26 of 2007 chapter vii concerning rights, obligations, and roles of the community. corresponding data 2. (2) “in spatial planning, everyone has the right to; 1) know the spatial plan; 2) enjoy the added value of space as a result of spatial planning; 3) obtain appropriate compensation; 4) submit an objection to the competent authority against development that is not in accordance with the spatial plan in its territory; 5) file a request for cancellation of permits and termination of development that is not in accordance with the spatial plan to the authorized official; and 6) file a claim for compensation to the government and/or permit holder if development activities that are not in accordance with the spatial plan cause losses. then in the implementation of spatial planning, community participation is needed through; 1) participation in the preparation of spatial plans; 2) participation in space utilization; and 3) participation in spatial control in order to realize spatial order.” based on the laws and regulations as explained in chapter vii regarding the rights, obligations, and roles of the community, it is very clear that there is legal recognition and protection of indigenous peoples in terms of spatial planning. even indigenous peoples have the right to file a claim for compensation to the government if the spatial planning policies carried out cause harm to indigenous peoples. indigenous peoples have the right to implement customary law as long as it does not conflict with positive law. in addition, indigenous peoples also have an obligation to participate in the wise use of space which can be realized through local wisdom. in more detail, the participation of indigenous peoples can be seen in the regulation of law number 68 of 2010 concerning forms and procedures for community roles in spatial planning. corresponding data 3. (3) “the role of the community in spatial planning is carried out in three stages, namely spatial planning, space utilization, and controlling space utilization. the forms of the role of indigenous peoples in spatial planning can be in the form of; 1) provide input regarding the preparation of spatial planning plans, identification of regional or regional development potentials and problems, formulation of spatial planning conceptions and/or determination of hammar et al. 415 spatial plans; 2) through cooperation with the government, regional government, and/or fellow elements of society in spatial planning.” in this regulation, both the central and regional governments for spatial planning are required to involve indigenous peoples. the reason is because customary law communities are directly affected by spatial planning practices carried out by the government and this is the right for customary law communities as indonesian citizens to obtain customary rights. corresponding data 4. (4) “law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government explains that government affairs must be carried out by all regions, namely to protect, serve, empower, and improve the welfare of their people. in the papua province regional regulation number 23 of 2013 concerning spatial planning of the papua province of 2013-2023 chapter i general provisions article 1 explains that indigenous peoples are indigenous papuan people who come from certain clans and regions and are bound and subject to customary law. with a high sense of solidarity among its members. in the spatial planning of the papua region, there are customary rights including the right to use land, forest, and water and their contents in certain areas which are the living environment for customary law communities.” based on these government regulations, it is clear that local governments have set regulations related to customary rights not to improve the economy but also to provide legal protection and avoid social conflicts related to spatial planning of natural resource areas between local governments, the private sector, and customary law communities. regulation of law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government and regional regulation of papua province number 23 of 2013 concerning spatial planning of the province of papua in 2013-2023 is a manifestation of the government in carrying out the responsibility to carry out government related to the economy and social life public. unfortunately, the literature finds that the existing regulations are not in accordance with the practice in the field (jackson, 2021). even the implementation of spatial planning triggers prolonged social conflicts and hinders development (sagrim et al., 2020). compensation is often unfair for the use of ulayat land. the assessment of compensation for ulayat land should not be equated with non-ulayat land because the perspective of the adat law community towards their ulayat land is different from the perspective of the community in general towards the land. they highly uphold customary law whose purpose is to maintain the balance of nature (hammar, 2018). meanwhile, regarding spatial planning based on local wisdom, it is explicitly contained in law number 68 of 2010 concerning forms and procedures for community roles in spatial planning article 9 paragraph (3) and paragraph (4) as many as 6 criteria. corresponding data 5. (5) “in the use of spatial planning, the role of the community is in the form of; 1) input on space utilization policies; 2) cooperation with the government, regional government, and/or fellow journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 405-423 elements of society in the use of space; 3) activities to utilize space in accordance with local wisdom and a predetermined spatial plan; 4) increasing efficiency, effectiveness, and stability in the utilization of land space, sea space, air space, and space within the earth by taking into account local wisdom and in accordance with the provisions of laws and regulations; 5) activities to protect the interests of defense and security as well as to maintain and improve the preservation of the function of the environment and natural resources; and 6) investment activities in utilization.” the core underlying customary rights are the benefits of natural resources for the public interest; because it involves the interests of all parties and the contribution of the results of the exploitation of natural resources is obtained/enjoyed by all members of the customary law community fairly. based on paragraph (3) which states "in accordance with local wisdom and spatial planning", explains that the existence of local wisdom is an important part of spatial planning in national law which aims to provide a sense of social justice for all indonesian people. corresponding data 6. (6) “the spatial arrangement of the territory of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia, which is an archipelagic country with the characteristics of an archipelago, both as a unitary container that includes land space, sea space, and air money, including space within the earth, as well as as a resource, needs to be managed wisely. efficient, effective by referring to the rules of spatial planning so that the quality of the national territory space can be maintained for the sake of realizing welfare and social justice in accordance with the constitutional basis of the 1945 constitution of the republic of indonesia. the implementation of spatial planning aims to create a safe national territory space , comfortable, productive, and sustainable based on the archipelago insight and national resilience by, “1) the realization of harmony between the natural environment and the artificial environment; 2) the realization of integration in the use of natural resources and artificial resources by taking into account human resources; and 3) the realization of the protection of the function of space and the prevention of negative impacts on the environment due to the use of space." rq 2: spatial planning customary law community implemented to solve social conflict resoluation the second finding reveals that in essence, positive law aims to create a safe, comfortable, productive, and sustainable regional space as described in law no. 26 of 2007 concerning the arrangement of raung, while the principles of customary law of the indigenous peoples of papua are to provide guidelines for the community in behaving and acting in society and the natural environment. positive law also explains other goals, namely avoiding over-criminalizing, social conflicts, and providing legal certainty over the existing spatial planning. in spatial planning law, there are administrative sanctions, civil sanctions, and criminal sanctions in case of spatial planning violations. customary law communities recognize spatial planning in customary law principles regarding land tenure (hak hammar et al. 417 petuanan) and natural resource management (sasi). a previous study conducted by suhartini & jones (2019) explained that the principles of customary law on petuanan rights contained customary offense sanctions from the customary institution of kainkain karkara mnu or other terms para-para adat carried out by three furnaces (three pillars) involving adat (traditional leaders or elders), local government (to the village/lurah/district), and respected figures (religious figures). the customary law of one of the customary law communities of papua also recognizes a territorial principle called the enggros tobati customary law, namely, “providing severe punishments for perpetrators of crimes or violators of territorial principles. dader (perpetrator), doenpleger (coordinator), participating medader/medepleger (performing), uitlokke (coaxer/instigator), and medeplichtige (helper) receive the punishment issued by the tribal chief (charsori).” based on law no. 26 of 2007 article 2 states that “within the framework of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia, spatial planning is carried out based on the principles of integration, harmony, harmony and balance; sustainability, usability and usability; openness; togetherness and partnership; protection of the public interest, legal certainty and justice.” the use of space that is not based on the principles of spatial planning can lead to various conflicts of interest. corresponding data 7. (7) “in order to avoid conflicts of interest, the special regional government regulation of papua province number 23 of 2008 concerning individual rights of indigenous peoples to land explains that the management of ulayat rights may not conflict with the provisions of laws and regulations. if a dispute occurs, the settlement can be carried out through customary law or through a court or outside the court based on the voluntary choice of the disputing parties.” in realizing the principle of spatial planning, stakeholders consisting of the government, local governments, and the community need to work together in the preparation of indicators of harmony both in terms of spatial patterns, urban planning, and building plans as contained in the regional spatial plan (rtrw) which is used as a reference for the region. in realizing good spatial planning goals in accordance with the mandate of the 1945 constitution in order to achieve harmony and balance in society and the state. good integration between indigenous peoples and local governments who are jointly responsible for their respective roles can be the best practice of implementing existing regulations (malik, 2018). in the customary law community of west papua, which has ethnic diversity in various regions, there are six principles related to the principle of spatial planning based on local wisdom or in the terms of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 405-423 the sentani indigenous people, papua is called puyakhabhu (wise management of natural resources). "first, the principle of forest, land, and water as 'mama' means that natural resources must be protected because they provide milk, food (life) to their children (humans) (hijjang et al., 2018). second, the principle of maintaining territorial boundaries as a form of warning to members of the alliance to maintain boundaries with other parties when carrying out hunting, gardening, and harvesting forest products activities. in customary law communities, it is known as bolaang mongondow which means forbidden land for other people who do not have rights (hammar, 2018). third, the principle of land being worked out well is for people to use the land (space) wisely. fourth, the principle of gardening/farming does not damage, meaning that the land is allowed to be used for gardening/farming but these activities must not cause damage to the soil.” the fifth principle is the principle of compensation for natural resources which is based on the aspect of strength that applies to the outside and to the customary rights. the sixth principle is the principle of accessibility to natural resources (reumi & katjong, 2021). the principle of compensation is in synergy with the principle of togetherness as regulated in law number 26 of 2007. the principle of togetherness means that spatial planning is carried out by involving all stakeholders. the form of this togetherness is deliberation in planning, utilization, and supervision of spatial planning implementation, as well as providing compensation for natural resources as a form of acknowledgment of the existence and authority of indigenous peoples. the six principles of the papuan customary law community are in synergy with the principles of empowerment and effectiveness in law number 26 of 2007 which states that spatial planning is carried out by optimizing the benefits of space and the resources contained therein and ensuring the realization of quality spatial planning. a previous study conducted by högström (2021) explained that in order to create effective interaction conditions in spatial planning, it can be done by synergizing the temporal, location, and procedural dimensions of knowledge. this is a must for the government as the main actor to make a strategic spatial plan in order to achieve the use of space according to the purpose of its utilization. with regard to the synergy of customary law community principles with the principles of national spatial planning, mungmachon (2012) states that the values of local wisdom embodied in the principles of spatial planning among the indigenous law communities in west papua can actually be transformed into principles. the principle of spatial planning according to positive law, either explicitly or implicitly. everything that is "local" in many hammar et al. 419 ways can contribute to something that is "national". for example, the national agrarian legal framework, especially related to the land sector, is built on the foundation of customary law. it can be understood that basically, the spatial planning orientation based on local wisdom aims to create a safe, comfortable, productive, and sustainable national space-based on national law and customary law communities. the law requires the protection of the function of space and the prevention of social conflict against the community due to the use of space. this study reveals a novelty regarding the importance of legal learning about spatial planning based on local wisdom in indigenous peoples in order to support the government's efforts to overcome social conflicts. previous studies were limited to legal studies without revealing their implications for preventing social conflict (trkulja & dabović, 2021). thus, this research provides new insights on the procedures for the role of indigenous peoples and spatial planning based on local wisdom to support national development. this research has revealed the importance of studying positive law and community customary law regarding spatial planning. this research has concretely provided legal knowledge and explained the relationship between the two and the resolution of social conflicts from the point of view of local wisdom. previous research has focused more on empirical studies on issues of social conflict and pluralism as described by jackson (2021) and sagrim et al., (2020)in their research. the study explains that there are still weak government regulations regarding conflicts that occur in papua. in contrast to this research, the findings reveal that positive law and customary law have clearly and in detail regulated spatial planning and sanctions for social conflicts. customary law has a guarantee of recognition and respect for customary law as long as the law meets realistic and idealistic requirements. however, back to the empirical study, it was found that government regulations and data laws did not work as they should. indigenous peoples have not been legally protected against customary land ownership rights as a source of livelihood and have religious values. the government should pay more attention to and closely monitor the implementation of spatial planning regulations on social conflict issues in papua. conclusion this research has provided lessons about positive law in order to support local wisdom for the resolution of social conflicts in customary law communities that occurred in eastern indonesia, precisely in papua province. based on the data that has been interpreted, it can be concluded that journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 405-423 spatial planning based on local wisdom of the indigenous law community is able to become a living space (lebensraun) for the sustainable development of conflict-prone areas. the ideal form of avoiding conflict is the procedure for the preparation and determination of spatial planning through the top down of the central government, then the village, district, district governments on a bottom up basis, and meet in the discussion, arrangement and determination of spatial planning in the province. the expected implication is that the central government and the regional government of papua province should practice spatial planning policies in accordance with the mandate of the spatial planning law, namely that customary law communities have the right to obtain information on spatial planning policies for their customary areas, carry out deliberation to reach consensus using a restoration justice approach, and given the opportunity and access to express thoughts, opinions and even objections for later discussion in a democratic manner. the results are for the common good. if this condition is ignored by the authorities, it can lead to conflicts between sectors and regions, environmental degradation, and suboptimal support for regional development. researchers suggest future research by adding empirical studies to find out the impact of law on indigenous and tribal peoples and their implications in resolving social conflicts not only in indonesia but also in conflictprone countries. references adams, v. m., álvarez-romero, j. g., capon, s. j., crowley, g. m., dale, a. p., kennard, m. j., … pressey, r. l. (2017). making time for space: the critical role of spatial planning in adapting natural resource management to climate change. environmental science and policy, 74(january), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.05.003 almeida, j., costa, c., & nunes da silva, f. (2017). a framework for conflict analysis in spatial planning for tourism. tourism management perspectives, 24(july), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.07.021 christmann, g. b., ibert, o., jessen, j., & walther, u. j. (2020). innovations in spatial planning as a social process–phases, actors, conflicts. european planning studies, 28(3), 496–520. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2019.1639399 dahliani, d. (2015). local wisdom in built environment in globalization era. international journal of education and research, 3(6), 157–166. eko, b. s., & putranto, h. (2021). face negotiation strategy based on local wisdom and intercultural competence to promote inter-ethnic conflict resolution: case study of hammar et al. 421 balinuraga, lampung. journal of intercultural communication research, 50(5), 506–540. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2021.1898450 faludi, a. (2000). the performance of spatial planning. planning practice and research, 15(4), 299– 318. https://doi.org/10.1080/713691907 fernández, a., camargo, c., & do nascimento, m. s. (2019). technologies and environmental education: a beneficial relationship. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 13-30. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.2 gómez-ballesteros, m., cervera núñez, c., campillos-llanos, m., quintela, a., sousa, l., marques, m., … dilasser, j. (2021). transboundary cooperation and mechanisms for maritime spatial planning implementation. simnorat project. marine policy, 127(january). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104434 gunawan, a. (2021). conflict mediation based on local wisdom : study on customary dispute resolution in pelompek village , gunung tujuh , kerinci, 4(02), 237–254. https://doi.org/10.37680/muharrik.v4i02.996 hammar, r. k. r. (2018). the existence of customary rights of customary law community and its regulation in the era of special autonomy of papua. journal of social studies education research, 9(1), 201–213. hijjang, p., ismail, a., marhadi, a., abdi, s., frank, k., sokoy, f., & idris, u. (2018). puyakhabhu: local wisdom values in environmental management at sentani indigenous community in jayapura regency, papua. international journal of arts & sciences, 11(1), 59–66. högström, j., brokking, p., balfors, b., & hammer, m. (2021). approaching sustainability in local spatial planning processes: a case study in the stockholm region, sweden. sustainability (switzerland), 13(5), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052601 horn, a. (2020). the darker side of muddling through: an analysis of spatial planning policy decision-making and policy termination in cape town, south africa. urban forum, 31(4), 573–598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-020-09390-9 jackson, g. (2021). critical junctures, agrarian change, and the (re)production of vulnerability in a marginalised indigenous society. world development, 145, 105538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105538 korbéogo, g. (2021). traditional authorities and spatial planning in urban burkina faso: exploring the roles and land value capture by moose chieftaincies in ouagadougou. african studies, 80(2), 190–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/00020184.2021.1920365 kourliouros, e., korres, g. m., & kokkinou, a. (2015). spatial planning deficiencies in greece during the 1980s: what went wrong and why? international journal of sustainable agricultural management and informatics, 1(3), 216–234. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijsami.2015.074614 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.2 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 405-423 krippendorff, k. (2018). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. london: ltd. kunzmann, k. r. (2004). culture, creativity and spatial planning. town planning review, 75(4), 383–404. https://doi.org/10.3828/tpr.75.4.2 liu, y., & zhou, y. (2021). territory spatial planning and national governance system in china. land use policy, 102(january), 105288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105288 llewellyn, k. n. (1940). the normative, the legal, and the law-jobs: the problem of juristic method. the yale law journal, 49(8), 1355–1400. mungmachon, m. r. (2012). knowledge and local wisdom : community treasure. international journal of humanities and social science, 2(13), 174–181. nadin, v., stead, d., dąbrowski, m., & fernandez-maldonado, a. m. (2021). integrated, adaptive and participatory spatial planning: trends across europe. regional studies, 55(5), 791–803. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2020.1817363 noble, m. m., harasti, d., pittock, j., & doran, b. (2019). understanding the spatial diversity of social uses, dynamics, and conflicts in marine spatial planning. journal of environmental management, 246(june), 929–940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.06.048 nugroho, w. (2021). relationship between environmental management policy and the local wisdom of indigenous peoples in the handling of covid-19 in indonesia. oñati socio-legal series, 11(3), 860–882. nuhidayah, l., davies, p. j., & alam, s. (2020). resolving land-use conflicts over indonesia’s customary forests: one map, power contestations and social justice. contemporary southeast asia, 42(3), 372–397. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs42-3c nulhaqim, s. a., fedryansyah, m., hidayat, e. n., & nurhayati, d. a. w. (2020). contemporary social problem: agrarian conflict. humanities & social sciences reviews, 8(3), 1189–1195. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2020.83121 rega, c. (2020). ecological rationality in spatial planning: concepts and tools for sustainable landuse decisions. switzerland, ag: springer nature. reumi, f., & katjong, k. (2021). international journal of multicultural and multireligious understanding the legal standing of ulayat rights and communal rights of a land based on knowledge and kindship of community system of the sentani customary law in jayapura regency , papua, 244–271. sagrim, m., sumule, a. i., & iyai, d. a. (2020). (the presence of sago company and the potential of agrarian conflict in the natural sago consesion of imekko at sorong selatan regency, west papua indonesia. jurnal manusia dan lingkungan, 26(2), 62. https://doi.org/10.22146/jml.27147 hammar et al. 423 solly, a. (2021). land use challenges, sustainability and the spatial planning balancing act: insights from sweden and switzerland. european planning studies, 29(4), 637–653. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2020.1765992 suhartini, n., & jones, p. (2019). an introduction to jayapura, papua, indonesia. in urban governance and informal settlements (pp. 43–73). london (u.k): springer international publishing ag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06094-7_3 suryawati, n., & syaputri, m. d. (2021). harmonization of the application of customary law and positive law in village communities of malang regency. international journal of applied business and international management, 6(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.32535/ijabim.v6i2.993 tafon, r. v. (2019). small-scale fishers as allies or opponents? unlocking looming tensions and potential exclusions in poland’s marine spatial planning. journal of environmental policy and planning, 21(6), 637–648. https://doi.org/10.1080/1523908x.2019.1661235 tewdwr-jones, m. (2012). spatial planning and governance: understanding uk planning. london: macmillan international higher education. trkulja, s., & dabović, t. (2021). supranational frameworks for territorial governance and spatial planning in the western balkans. advances in spatial science. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72124-4_13 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (3),174-204 the role of cultural literacy and peace education in harmonization of religious communities idrus ruslan1, muhammad aqil irham2 abstract this study investigated the role of cultural literacy and peace education in religious harmonization of different communities in kepaksian sekala brak, an islamic-style kingdom in the province of lampung, indonesia, that followed hinduism from the third century until it adopted islam in the 16th century. a qualitative research approach was used with an ethnographic approach to determine the socio-cultural meaning of a particular community group. data collection techniques included observation methods, open interviews, and documentation studies. the findings revealed that traditional leaders play an important role in sekala brak’s cultural literacy and peace education. indigenous leaders assist the state government system, build local politics, and harmonize religious communities, as evidenced by the concepts and objectives of the traditional leadership of kepaksian sekala brak. indigenous community kepaksian sekala brak,lampung, was formed from the concept of cultural acculturation, which gave rise to new cultural assimilation. this new culture, called muakhi culture, is a form of brotherhood. in the harmonization of religious communities, suttan saibatin instills the piil pesenggiri principle, which contains human values, including mutual cooperation, mutual friendship, openness to the environment, and acceptance of immigrants. in conclusion, culture and peace education in indigenous communities can facilitate harmonization of religious communities that do not highlight one of their religious values. the government must support cultural literacy and peace education for indigenous communities to enable harmonization of religious communities throughout the archipelago. keywords: cultural literacy, peace education, harmonization, religious people. introduction indonesia has customs, belief backgrounds, historical traditions, and charismatic figures that form an inherent concept in which there is customary governance. the concept of customary government emerged as an answer to the objective conditions of traditional society naturally because of the issues in social life. a close relationship between a leader and followers influences both sides to achieve a common goal (yusup, 2022). as per historical records, the indonesian people, in forming the customary government already, have a norm of individual/group behavior in the layers of society as social control. the customary government has automatically formed a 1lecturer at universitas islam negeri (uin) raden intan lampung, email: idrus.ruslan@radenintan.ac.id 2lecturer at universitas islam negeri (uin) raden intan lampung, email: muhammadaqilirham@radenintan.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 rule of life for the community as individual or group equity capital (seftyono et al., 2016). indigenous leaders have a charismatic personality that is deeply rooted in the hearts of the people. they are highly respected and become role models for their followers. therefore, under the charismatic and responsible customary leadership, indigenous people significantly contribute, both physically and non-physically, to building a better region. leaders have the authority to regulate the government’s sustainability system (ndraha, 2003). another study presented a contrasting finding that traditional leadership can trigger conflict resolution over ethnicity. even cultural factors can worsen the resolution of conflicts that occur. in other words, traditional leadership has a significant influence on resolving inter-ethnic conflicts (county et al., 2021). lampung, a province in indonesia, has a variety of ethnicities, tribes, cultures, languages, and religions that form an integrated concept of local wisdom or customs. this concept is formed from customary laws, religious laws, and the life norm system of lampung’s indigenous communities used as social control (salim & ruslan, 2021). the people of lampung have adopted the concept of autonomy and leadership in accordance with local customary laws. heretofore, the concept of autonomy and traditional leadership still functions naturally, which is maintained in accordance with the indonesian culture and traditions (suwaryo, 2010). indigenous communities in lampung still maintain a cultural heritage of their ancestors, which is formed from customary law that lives, grows, and develops in the same customary government. a highly popular community that has been able to survive to this day is constituted of the indigenous people who came from the paksi pak sekala brak kingdom in west lampung regency (daud, 2012). indigenous people have customary powers derived from structural strength with unique characteristics when dealing with state and religious powers. their uniqueness is evidenced from the role of customary leaders who have built local politics to administer social regulations. such a scenario involves the formulation of local wisdom-based public policies for improving regional progress (wolf, 1999). the people of lampung have cultural traditions, values, and customs that are regulated by customary laws to enable harmonious social life. people are also subject to religious laws and carry out various religious traditions in their social environment. however, in the last decade, lampung has spawned bloody conflicts approximately 21 times the horizontal conflicts. this indicates that the system of customs in lampung has not been running effectively. idrus ruslan investigated the dimensions of local wisdom of the lampung people as a media for conflict resolution (ruslan, 2018). the results of this study are concerned with local wisdom as ruslan & irham 176 the value of information and social capital to avoid horizontal conflicts. another study has shown that muakhi culture encourages conflict resolution in a multicultural society in lampung (salim, 2021). not all regions in indonesia emphasize the influence of customs and traditional life on the local wisdom of each region. local identity suffers from the influence of globalization, which tries to take root in government systems and social communities. this can be seen in the statistical data on the distribution of the population of west lampung by ethnicity: lampung (11.92%), java (61.88%), bengkulu-batak-bugis-minang (11.35%), sunda-banten (11.27%), semendopalembang (3.55%) (pusat statistik, 2019). west lampung is an area of diverse ethnicities, which forms the base of regional development but can be a source of social vulnerability in the form of potential and real conflicts. case studies of ethnic riots in lampung, such as south lampung, gunung sugih, mesuji, tanggamus, and central lampung have shown that religion is the cause of conflict (dasrun et al., 2017). another problem arose from the conflicts in lampung due to the economic gap between the indigenous people and migrants, where migrants got a better life than the natives, which caused social jealousy and resulted in bloody conflicts, for example, between the people of lampungbalinuraga, who were resolved from local wisdom (nurdin, 2019). the conflict resolution process cannot be separated from the role of saibatin kepaksian pernong, namely, suttan edward syah pernong, because during the settlement, he invited various traditional heads in lampung to make peace in a brotherly manner despite having different religions (hartoyo, 2019). this situation led to the emergence of regional autonomy, and resistance to ethnic identity reappeared. the most recent studies investigated culture and peace education in the scope of formal education in schools, legal studies, and conflict resolution based on local wisdom, for example, studies on peace and different cultures among students and teachers to teach a culture of tolerance, moral values, antiethnocentrism, and anti-racism (nziadam, 2022; zainal et al., 2021; majda et al., 2021; wang & wang, 2018); peace education that teaches about respecting human rights for a more socially just society (kester et al., 2021; turan, 2020); peace education in handling social conflicts with local wisdom (winarwati, 2021; bajaj, 2019; ratu et al., 2019); cultural literacy for indigenous communities who have lost their native language due to cultural and structural assimilation factors (jan & lomeli, 2022); the impact of cultural literacy on the development of national culture (adjei et al., 2022); peace education in the culture of indigenous peoples as a form of moral quality to seek virtue (sanderan et al., 2022). previous studies have not discussed in depth the role of cultural journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 and religious literacy in indigenous communities in facilitating harmonization of religious communities. thus, the novelty of the current study lies in the in-depth examination of the social and cultural structure of the indigenous people of west lampung to build the harmonization of religious communities. there is a paucity of research on the culture of indigenous communities. this study supports efforts toward preserving the culture of indigenous people, the national literacy movement of the ministry of education and culture, as well as maintaining peace between religious communities in indonesia. research questions in light of the literature reviewed above, two research questions were formulated in this study: 1. what are the characteristics of indigenous cultural literacy of the kepaksian sekala brak community in regard to the harmonization of religious communities? 2. what are the characteristics of indigenous peace education in the kepaksian sekala brak community in regard to the harmonization of religious communities? 3. what are the roles of cultural literacy and peace education in the kepaksian sekala brak indigenous community for harmonizing religious communities? literature review cultural literacy cultural literacy is essentially the ability of individuals and communities to behave in a particular way in their social environment as part of a culture and nation. this attitude stems from the values derived from the view of life or ideology of a nation. cultural literacy serves three different purposes, namely: (1) instilling good behavior that reflects the nation’s culture and character; (2) improving function to strengthen national literacy, and developing an attitude of respecting differences; 3) filtering out the cultures of one’s own nation and the other nations that are not in accordance with the cultural values and dignified character of the nation (kaplan, 1966). a previous study revealed that cultural literacy is supported by various factors including a good learning environment, support for government regulations, good management, student interest, learning media, and the availability of expert instructors (sawitri et al., 2021). the study found that individuals and communities that acquire cultural literacy and value acculturation have better ruslan & irham 178 levels of academic achievement than the ones that adopt dominant cultural values and styles and are less likely to preserve their own culture (lee, 2002). cultural literacy is not only obtained through formal education but also through informal education that occurs in everyday life, especially in the environment of indigenous people who have certain norms so that their culture continues to survive and is beneficial for social life. multicultural societies include rituals, expectations, relationships, demographics, social activities, decisionmaking processes, rules or norms, and social interactions between communities. leadership, friendliness, tolerance, hard work, discipline, social care, environmental care, a sense of nationality, and responsibility are values developed via cultural literacy (bekerman & kopelowitz, 2008). according to broekhuizen & david (2000), cultural literacy helps understand and appropriately behave towards culture as the identity of a nation. the low cultural literacy awareness can cause conflicts between groups of a multicultural society. furthermore, broekhuizen & david (2000) also suggested investigating the causes of low cultural literacy awareness in multicultural societies. other studies showed that the coexistence of multicultural societies is often tricky, resulting in frequent social conflicts. therefore, cultural literacy skills can create a stable multicultural society and achieve religious tolerance through local wisdom. future research needs to investigate the role of cultural literacy in indigenous religiously diverse people(dewi, 2020). previous findings revealed that cultural literacy skills build superior human resources. unfortunately, in developing countries like indonesia, supporting media is still very limited. one of them is the media for harmonization of religious communities, which essentially neutralizes and neutralizes 'cultural' tensions. the role of cultural literacy on social harmonization needs further investigation to gauge the extent of the media’s ability to create superior human resources (qasim et al., 2019). other studies revealed varied opinions about cultural literacy. the fundamental differences regarding the development of cultural literacy through formal and nonformal education exist for future muslim intellectuals. formal education provides a cultural system with environmental support and adequate facilities. however, non-formal education heavily depends on religious family education. therefore, it is very important for the world of education to have the right guidelines so that the process of cultural literacy can be the key to the harmonization in diversity (choirul, 2022). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 peace education theory peace education is directed toward the development of human personality, respect for human rights, the existence of fundamental freedoms, mutual understanding, tolerance, and friendship with all races and between groups that ultimately lead to peace and harmony (harris, 2004). a previous study described the four prerequisites for effective peace education, namely, a worldview based on unity, a culture of healing, a culture of peace, and a peace-oriented curriculum (danesh, 2006). according to huaman (2011), critical peace education and indigenous community education involve indigenous communities, educators, and stakeholders to encourage collaboration to achieve social transformation goals. peace education seeks to empower a community to overcome conflicts or problems themselves creatively and without violence by prioritizing three implementation pillars, namely, children, parents, and educators. these three pillars are active actors in the process of inculcating values and knowledge. children, as students, are involved in the continuity of the nation and are expected to play a role in the socialization of cultural values of peace and non-violence. parents and educators play a role in encouraging and supporting the actualization of a culture of peace without violence (dewey, 1904). a previous study remarked that peace education is a learning effort that is able to contribute to creating a peace-loving society(bajaj, 2008). many countries recognize that peace education is a tool for conflict prevention and supporting post-conflict community reconstruction efforts. this is because peace education teaches individuals to handle conflict without violence, teaches individuals/societies to appreciate cross-cultural diversity, respects all aspects of life, and makes individuals very enthusiastic about engaging in social activities. peace education is able to promote knowledge, skills, and attitudes to help others. both are prevention of conflict, peaceful conflict resolution, as well as the creation of social conditions conducive to peace.for example, the conflict that occurred in temotu nendo, solomon islands. the peace education aim of studying the nature of knowledge and skills of the indigenous people needs broader investigation. in particular, the theme involves implementing the principles of peace in indigenous people vulnerable to social and religious conflicts (maebuta, 2010). previous reports showed the relationship between peace education and indigenous or american indian communities from the perspective of comparative education. however, peace education is not widely discussed in indigenous education. we propose an empirical study of the indigenous peoples and peace education to encourage their collaboration towards the goal of social transformation (huaman, 2011). as a multicultural society is often prone ruslan & irham 180 to various conflicts, they must have the ability to build the peace. in this case, inter-religious harmonization can facilitate and effectively realize peace. however, further research needs to investigate methods that can prevent conflict and create inter-faith peace (adila et al., 2022). the study of moyo-nyoni (2022) investigates the indigenous knowledge systems to improve peace education programs. their findings revealed that the lusulu indigenous people of zimbabwe have an indigenous system of non-violent techniques like negotiation and mediation. therefore, these findings suggest further studies on non-violent peace education programs are needed to support the country's social, economic, and political stability. religious harmonization harmonization of religious communities can be understood as a process of alignment or adjustment that begins with efforts to achieve or realize a system of harmony between religious communities in accordance with the principles and regulations that apply in a society(kharima et al., 2021). religious harmonization of communities is achieved by adaptations to differences and changes according to the times and is not accomplished easily (leskova, 2019; suntana & tresnawaty, 2021). previous studies have explained the strategies that can be adopted for realizing the harmonization of religious communities, including extracting local wisdom that can support harmonization, empowering the religious harmony forum (fkub), and adherence to radical and liberal understanding, and interfaith dialogue (anriani, 2018). a multicultural society must accept the existence of religious differences in its social environment and be willing to allow everyone to follow their religion and foster tolerance among others. such a society can then realize togetherness in the harmony of religious life (sukarini, 2022). harmonization of religious communities is an important pillar in maintaining the unity and integrity of a country. a nation can thrive by harmony between different religions, ethnicities, cultures, and races. without this harmonization, there will be conflicts and divisions between communities (aras & gunawan, 2019). a previous study found that social harmonization in the cultural diversity of indigenous communities is realized through a culture of mutual cooperation, neighborhood harmony, and compliance with legal provisions. therefore, its implementation requires supervision from the government (seregig & herlianto, 2020). indigenous peoples have social capital in maintaining the harmonization of religious communities. social capital is in the form of trust, norms, and sanctions for indigenous peoples. the research suggests further investigation regarding the role of social capital in the process of creating religious harmony that occurs in indigenous peoples journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 (nurcahyono, 2019). the literature examines the harmonization of culture and religion in the baduy indigenous people. the findings reveal that culture and religion harmoniously support each other. baduy and nadhatul ulama teachings uphold a harmonious balance between humans and god. this finding proposes further studies on guidelines for indigenous peoples' activities based on cultural and religious teachings to determine the extent to which harmonization of religious communities can be accepted and developed (said et al., 2020). method design this study uses a descriptive research design. a descriptive research design refers to a plan aimed at answering research questions. the descriptive research design describes how researchers investigate the main research problem, namely cultural literacy and peace education for indigenous peoples and their role in the harmonization of religious communities. the researcher uses qualitative research methods with an ethnographic type of approach that is used to describe life experiences and provide a deep understanding of the social realities of individuals, groups, and cultures as close as possible to those felt by research participants. this approach suits this study because it describes, analyzes, and interprets the detailed patterns displayed by a cultural group in terms of behavior, beliefs, and language from the perspective of people who have been naturally raisedfrom their experiences(spradley, 1979). this study has two main themes, each with indicators as its variable domain. the first is the theme of cultural literacy on the harmonization of religious communities, which consists of five indicators: the spirit of nationalism, love for the homeland and peace, care for the social environment, independence, and responsibility. the second is the theme of peace education, which consists of six indicators: religion, honesty, tolerance, discipline, hard work, creativity, and democracy. the research location is west lampung, lampung province, indonesia. participants research participants were recruited as per the criteria determined by the researchers, described as follows: 1) participants were willing to provide information about the role of brak’s scale leader; 2) participants mastered the topic of the role of leaders in building harmonization of religious communities and regional development; 3) participants are actively involved in building harmonious relationships and in regional development. based on these criteria, the researchers ruslan & irham 182 selected 20 informants, including the prime minister of kepaksian sekala brak (1), the sultan of kepaksian belungupenunjangh (1), participants representing the west lampung fkub (12), and participants from the indigenous community (6). the prime minister of kepaksian sekala brak and the sultan of kepaksian belungupenunjangh were selected as key participants because the participants are traditional leaders who are respected by indigenous people and have a responsibility to maintain law and harmony in social life. fkub and indigenous people were selected as participants because participants have the responsibility to implement the philosophy of life and norms in society. the age range of participants was between 30–60 years, with four aged 30–35 years, nine aged 36–40 years, five aged 41–50 years, and two aged over 51 years (see table 1) table 1 participant characteristics variable characteristics number of participants gender male female 16 4 age group (years) 30–35 36–40 41–50 50 years and above 4 9 5 2 participant the prime minister of kepaksian sekala brak, the sultan of kepaksian belungupenunjangh, fkub, indigenous peoples 1 1 12 6 instrument the instrument used in the study for data collection was in the form of observation sheets and interviews guide observation guide observation guidelines lead to the examination of the physical and non-physical conditions of social behavior about the application of cultural literacy, peace education, and harmonization of religious communities. the type of observation used is participatory observation which is carried out by being actively involved. researchers directly to the process being observed to get a clear picture. the observation sheet aims to observe the life of the kepaksian sekala brak indigenous people. the researchers observed the following: 1) location of the research object, 2) the participants involved, 3) the participant’s activities for carrying out their religious teachings, 4) certain behaviors like tolerance and religious harmony, 5) relevant events, 6) the time sequence of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 events, 7) the purpose of the participants taking the observed actions, and 8) the participant’s emotions. interview guide the semi-structured interview guide was used to verbally obtain information from the participants and also serve as a checklist of whether the relevant aspects had been asked. there are six types of question topics in this interview, including: (1) behaviors of the participants or what they are currently doing; (2) opinions/values about what participants think about the research theme; (3) participants' feelings when responding to questions; (4) knowledge to get facts about the research theme; (5) sensory information about what the participants see and hear; (6) questions about their background or demographics like age, gender, and religion. the first step in developing an interview guide grid is to develop appropriate indicators developed based on previous studies based on the same research theme. furthermore, the researchers compiled a grid as a guide for preparing questions. the instrument grid is divided into three parts according to the subject matter and 13 problem-associated details, namely: (a) cultural literacy comprises six indicators (honesty, discipline, national spirit, environmental care, responsibility, and hard work); (b) peace education comprises four indicators (tolerance, moral belief, democracy, and non-violence); (c) harmonization of religious communities comprises three indicators (religioustolerance, and religious ethics). the second step is to prepare questions based on different indicators (details of the problem) to obtain the required information. the number of questions corresponds to the number of indicators present for each research theme. the final step is to enlist the help of a professional colleague or expert to assess the validity of the instrument. in this study, the grid instrument was examined by experts under the customary law and culture at one of the leading private universities in indonesia. validation is performed by assessing indicators, questions, and theory development to suit the material being used. experts check the suitability of the material through relevant sources using validation sheets, where it was concluded that the experts stated that all grids could be used. however, researchers just made revisions to the language on several question items on the validation sheet according to the advice of experts. the purpose of the language revision is to effectively convey the researcher's intentions to the participants, after which the instrument was used as an interview guide. (see table 2). ruslan & irham 184 table 2 the interview questions semi-structured interview guidelines i. interview schedule 1. date, day : 2. start and finish times : ii. participant 1. gender : 2. age : 3. religion : 4. social status : iii. interview questions cultural literacy 1. what is the concept of cultural literacy in the sekala brak indigenous people? 2. what activities constitute the cultural characteristics of the sekala brak indigenous people? 3. what has been done to maintain the cultural identity of the kepaksian sekala brak community? 4. why does the ability to understand and appropriately behave towards culture need to be implemented in the kepaksian sekala brak community? 5. what has been done to preserve the culture of the kepaksian sekala brak community? 6. why is it necessary to develop cultural literacy among the indigenous people of sekala brak? peace education 1. what do you know about the concept of peace education in piil pesenggiri's view of life and the social values of sakai sambayan in the kepaksian sekala brak community? 2. what is the support capacity of stakeholders in peace education in the kepaksian sekala brak environment? 3. what activities have helped create an atmosphere or culture of peace in the kepaksian sekala brak community? 4. how do you avoid violent conflict in the kepaksian sekala brak community? harmonization of religious communities 1. what is the concept of religious harmony in the life of the kepaksian sekala brak community? 2. what is the role of stakeholders in respecting differences in religion, ethnicity, ethnicity, opinions, attitudes, and actions of people who are different from you? 3. why are cultural literacy and peace education important in creating harmonization of religious communities in the kepaksian sekala brak community? data collection technique the study data were obtained from observations and semi-structured interviews. observation for the former, the researchers conducted direct observation activities using an observation sheet that lists types of observation activities including social activities carried out by fkub, celebrations of religious holidays, and environmental conditions of indigenous people and their culture. the observations were carried out for three months from the initial observation as the researchers were waiting for the celebration of religious holidays and required time to observe social activities and environmental conditions of the community for several weeks. the observations were then summarized in a notebook and recorded in a video recorder for further processing. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 interview semi-structured interviews, in general, aim to obtain data from participants by asking questions that do not have to be in the order of the interview but must remain within the overall context of the interview. such interviews are flexible and still utilize interview questions, which are grouped into research themes. the interviews were based on three principles of the ethnographic method, that is: (1) the researchers observed the character of participants naturally and obtained through direct contact, not through intervention or experimental engineering; (2) the researchers interviewed participants from more familiar cultural backgrounds to avoid the risk of a cultural misunderstanding; (3) the researchers interviewed the participants based on the actual findings. interviews were conducted in a room that is generally used by the indigenous people of sekala brak to conduct deliberations, also known as balai adat. with the help of an fkub member, the researchers were able to gather and interview participants at the venue. interviews with the prime minister of the kingdom of sekala brak and the sultan of belungu were conducted on the second day at their respective homes. interviews were conducted for approximately 30 to 60 minutes. the researchers used a recorder and made notes on the results of the interviews in a notebook. the results of semi-structured interviews were transcribed and categorized according to the answers given. to arrive at a conclusion, the researchers analyzed the interview data in light of previous studies and the theories studied. after the results of observations and interviews were collected, the documentation analysis was used to examine a phenomenon that originated from public documents belonging to the local government of west lampung province, documents from the sekala brak kingdom, and private documents from indigenous people of the west lampung community, sekala brak site. data analysis we used an ethnographic thematic analysis as proposed by spradley (1979) to thoroughly describe the cultural characteristics that influence individual social behavior. the analytical technique proposed by spradley (1979) is most suitable for our study as it raises phenomenological thinking about the characteristics of indigenous peoples in a socio-cultural context, which aims to build detailed findings about their social and cultural life based on direct observations. there are four sets of ethnographic qualitative research data analyses being used, namely domain analysis, taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, and cultural theme analysis. first, domain analysis helps obtain a general and comprehensive picture of the research object or social situation under ruslan & irham 186 study. through a number of detailed questions, the researcher found several domains to answer the research focus. domains are obtained by thoroughly reading the data script, which presents a general description of the role of cultural literacy and peace education as well as a manifestation of the harmonization of religious communities to indigenous peoples. although in-depth information was not obtained in this analysis, we found the domains of the social situation under study and made a side note. second, at the taxonomic analysis stage, the researcher describes the selected domains in more detail after focusing on the research problem. thus the domain that has been set becomes the cover term. then the researchers using library materials described them in more detail to gain a deeper understanding. the taxonomic analysis results are presented in an outline form. third, the compensatory analysis stage looks for specific characteristics in each domain by contrasting the elements in the obtained domain. in compensatory analysis, researchers select data post expert validation so that specific dimensions for each theme are found. fourth, the cultural theme analysis looks for the relationship between the domains, and how it relates to the whole picture. this analysis is carried out by collecting three themes in each domain — cultural focus, values, and cultural symbols. then typology is composed and literature related to the problem and research context is read. based on the cultural analysis, an ethnography can then be compiled in the form of descriptions, narratives, and arguments. the researcher then noted down the relevant conclusions and suggestions. the conclusions are in accordance with the formulated and answered problems, research objectives and benefits, research results, and discussion. results and discussion characteristics of cultural literacy in indigenous community kepaksian sekala brak, west lampung the findings of the first set discuss the cultural literacy characteristics’ theme of the indigenous people of sekala brak. the findings reveal that kepaksian sekala brak was formerly a kingdom that experienced both the hindu-buddhist era (era of keratuan) and the islam era (era of the sultanate), which caused the cultural characteristics of the people to be strongly influenced by the hindu, buddhist, and islamic cultures. the cultural literacy of the sekala brak indigenous people is perceived as an indigenous community with a cultural identity and customary law of the lampung region, who can understand and behave towards culture as their identity. cultural literacy characteristics of indigenous peoples can be seen from the community’s attitude twoard journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 maintaining religious harmony based on customary norms. religious harmony is a relationship state between religious people based on tolerance, environmental care, and mutual respect in the practice of religious teachings and cooperation in social life. cultural literacy makes most people aware of the diversity of their social environment. this is consistent with the motto of the indonesian people, namely the bhineka tunggal ika, which is different but one. the values that appear in the behavior of the community include mutual cooperation, taking care of each other in the village, coordinating with each other within the management, and continuing to use customary law even though they still consider state law as local wisdom. according to the results of data collection, sekala brak’s kepaksian was formed by four nobles descended from sultan iskandar zulkarnain who came to sekala brak. according to daud (2012), the tumi tribe did not want to change their belief in worshiping the belasa kepapppang tree, which made the four nobles growl, which was followed by a great battle that ended in the defeat of the tumi tribe (belasa kepapppang). after the tumi tribe was conquered by the four nobles, they bound each other to separate their respective areas in sekala brak and have absolute power in each; this was the first alliance in islam in kepaksian sekala brak. sekala brak was ruled by four paksi (kingdom), using the name paksi pak sekala brak. the four axes were buay nyerupa, buay belunguh, buay pernong, and buay bejalan di. these are the ancestors of the paksi pak sekala brak kingdom, which is believed to be puyang lampung. of these four prophecies, none feels superior. the attitude and behavior of mutual respect are evident in the culture of the people who work together without feeling superior to one another. this illustrates that justice is a part of the culture of their society. in line with what was conveyed by dang ike edwin as prime minister of the indigenous kingdom of sekala brak: (1) “ulun lampung (lampung people) came from mount pesagi, originated from the tumi tribe; the sekala defeated people who lived in the hills, according to hiching, a person who studied science in palembang, china, and then studied in lampung (as evidence of sriwijaya's fall). he discussed the hoah (hockey) pattern of people who live in the hills. lampung people are often said to be hanjak lambung (originating from lampung); this does not align with the opinion of a historian hilman hadikusuma, who said that the hoah pattern came from tulang bawang/menggala, while tulang bawang means water area.” according to data (1), kepaksian sekala brak is led by a sultan who comes from among the nobility, as the holder of the throne of the royal and customary families, as well as his people. the ruslan & irham 188 status of the sultan as the head of government has been passed down from generation to generation, to lead a government assisted by pemapah dalom (a kind of prime minister), who is awarded the title of king. however, in its development, paksian no longer has political authority. pemapah dalom is usually appointed by the sultan’s uncle or the sultan’s sister. as stated by mr. nazrin, a traditional leader in the village of kenali, west lampung: (2) “the traditional kingdom of sekala brak has a monarchy system so that the king comes from generation to generation, different from the papadum people.” data (2) explains the social order in the saibatin tribe, where there is one king in one government, which is called aristocratic because the king’s position is inherited from the lineage, so there is only one saibatin (if translated, saibatin means “your majesty”). one of the informal leaders is a traditional leader called saibatin in the customary kingdom of paksi pak sekala brak, which is rich in customs and noble culture. a saibatin has full power to govern the people in his power. the sekala brak kepaksian government system is essentially the same among all kepaksians and has a fairly high national spirit. as per the results of the interview, it was revealed that there are five goals of the kepaksian sekala brak community. (3) “first, develop the potential of the heart/conscience/affective of the community as human beings and citizens who have cultural values and national character. second, develop commendable community habits and behaviors that are in line with universal values and religious cultural traditions of the community. third, instill the spirit of leadership and responsibility to the next generation of cultural values. fourth, develop the community’s ability to become independent, honest, creative, and tolerant human beings. fifth, develop a living environment as a safe place for learning, friendship, along with a sense of nationality that is high and full of dignity.” from data (3), it can be understood that traditional leadership has a spirit that is deeply rooted in the community, which has an impact on regional development, including government and political affairs because the leaders of kepaksian sekala brak are appointed based on direct descent from the king so that the former can be a role model for the community each leader aims to influence other either individuals or groups of people to achieve a common goal. this is like the traditional belunguh kepaksian that the leadership program or punyimbang cooperates with the local government apparatus. programs for pos yandu activities, or road repairs, are carried out by the community in mutual cooperation when traditional leaders mobilize their members. this is a form of leader’s responsibility for regional development or public health. participants expressed the values of cultural literacy they received from leaders as role models. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 (4) “indigenous people’s lives still adhere to the value of mutual cooperation, look after each other's villages, coordinate with the local caretakers, of course, always listen to aspirations from below and of course continue to use customary law even though they still carry out state law as local wisdom.” data (4) explains that the procedure for using the customary system aims to influence the community and indirectly provide informal education to them about cultural values, because, in essence, the village government always goes hand in hand with the customary system to create effective and efficient management of villagers. for example, someone who has violated adat (violate customary law) will be subject to sanctions in the form of moral sanctions that can provide a deterrent effect. it is nothing more than a common interest that enables people to behave in an orderly and comfortable manner in everyday life. the king has the responsibility to lead and manage indigenous people and make decisions resulting from deliberation. his authority and fatwa are internally complied with legal norms that can regulate and protect the stability of social relations among citizens, including the harmony of community relations with the natural surroundings. in its development, saibatin’s indigenous characteristics emphasize more on consensus in an effort to harmonize the various interests of society and the demands of the times. as expressed by sultan kepaksian belunguh pun yanuar firmansyah about cultural values that have been taught from generation to generation, as follows: (5) “a sultan holds fast to existing traditional traditions and beliefs, and as a traditional leader, he must be able to protect parts of the community and be participative in accepting complaints from indigenous peoples. he must always coordinate with local traditional leaders, especially in the implementation of traditional activities. the majority of the kepaksian sekala brak community are muslim, and some have other religions. however, they can coexist. leaders and the community try to uphold the values of piil pesenggiri, which means the grip of life.” data (5) reveals that, in essence, the traditional leader of saibatin must be able to create an atmosphere for people who are obedient to their leaders and educate them by setting a good example as a role model. this leadership style makes people preserve their cultural values well. the local community gathers to develop the area with mutual cooperation, which is one of the social elements of the local government. all components of society work together to develop a region with full responsibility and hard work. saibatin directs broad policies by always taking into account the views of the lampung people, namely, piil pesenggiri, customary deliberations, and ruslan & irham 190 carrying out customary law and sincere leadership, so good things will happen if integrity is maintained. participants reveal the leadership of kepaksian. (6) “customary leadership is hereditary; the holder of the throne, a traditional leader, always cares for the community. he must be wise in carrying out customary law and customary government so that it runs smoothly. in the traditional rules of saibatin in kepaksian belunguh, carrying out a way of life in accordance with piil pesenggiri as a continuation of the traditional system of the lampung piil people means that self-esteem contains four elements, namely, juluk adek (behaving with a common name), nemui nyimah (loyalty toward relatives, social care, tolerance), nengah nyappur (consulting, responsible), and sakai sambaiyan (willingness to help and mutual cooperation).” from data(6), it can be understood that the values of local wisdom described above are an inseparable part of the real form of harmonization of religious communities in kepaksian sekala brak. based on the first findings, it can be understood that the characteristics of indigenous culture of the this community are reflected in the intrinsic values of piil pesenggiri. interestingly, the indigenous kepaksian sekala brak community respects indigenous ethnic, cultural, and linguistic ties, and thus, discriminatory actions are rarely found. this is in contrast to the indigenous areas in urban areas, which sometimes ignore cultural literacy. the literature shows that urban education fails to respond critically to cultural heritage. as a result, a disharmonious relationship is formed between indigenous and non-indigenous communities in urban areas (nesterova & jackson, 2022). indigenous communities’ contacts with non-indigenous people have triggered cultural deviations and a decline in traditional knowledge about natural resources such as handicrafts (campos et al., 2019). therefore, cultural literacy is very important in its contribution to the maintenance of knowledge, especially knowledge about natural resources that must be preserved. previous studies have revealed that the development of a community’s cultural knowledge is carried out by increasing cultural sensitivity (majda et al., 2021). cultural literacy is not only obtained from educational institutions but also from traditional leadership. this finding corroborates the findings of burgess et al. (2022) regarding the practice of cultural literacy where educators from indigenous communities are able to provide cultural assistance that supports indigenous knowledge compared to those from outside the region and helps people to build a harmonious relationship in the social environment. this is reflected in the piil pesenggiri values of education, which are passed on to members of the community. kepaksian sekala brak is able to support the realization of harmonization of religious communities. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 characteristics of peace education in indigenous community kepaksian sekala brak, west lampung the second collection of findings discussed the theme of the peace education characteristics for the indigenous people of sekala brak. the findings revealed that peace education will transform the indigenous kepaksian sekala brak community. peace education is intended to cultivate knowledge, skills, and values to change the way of thinking, acting, and behavior of the indigenous peoples so as to prevent violent conflict. peace education for indigenous peoples is influenced by the sekala brak kepaksian leader. the leaders influence the community to continue to cultivate customs to pass them on to descendants for the preservation of their customs and culture. kepaksian leaders generally understand the importance of peace education because it can prevent violent conflict. therefore, on various occasions, leaders try to guide the actions and ways of thinking of their people so that they can implement the values of peace in their social environment. this characteristic of peace education is reflected in the life view of "piil pesenggiri” and the value of local wisdom "sakai sembayan." the characteristics of peace education in this region are also supported by regional developmental patterns by giving the regions freedom to organize, selfmanage, and exercise autonomy. furthermore, those who have a direct relationship with the community better know, understand, and fulfill the aspirations of being part of the community. conceptually, regional autonomy gives broad authority to the regional heads to explore existing potentials and empower the communities in their respective regions. policymaking in the local government involves the participation of the community, traditional leaders, and local elite groups. however, the final development is more concentrated and lacks the guidance from the central government; as the paksian leaders are role models who educate their people to live in peace and prosperity. traditional leaders are involved in the peace education process. both government and political processes in autonomous regions involve people who are actors and objects of the government itself. seeing this, the provisions for talking about community decisions at the local level are no longer a monopoly of the government, but still, goverment pay attention to taking inputs from the community. as stated by one of the participants as saibatin kepaksian buay belunguh. (7) “in kepaksian belunguh, there are notable figures who are involved in politics, such as mr. suryadi as a member of the council, erwin suhendra as a dpr, and bahrin ayup as a dprd, meaning that paksi bellunguh indirectly participates in progress and provides input aligned with the aspirations of the indigenous community or under the auspices of the kepaksian ruslan & irham 192 sekala brak. even in daily life, punyimbang cooperates with local government officials such as posyandu program activities, or road repairs because the indigenous community will immediately move if the traditional leader mobilizes its members as a form of responsibility and belief in morality as traditional leaders.” data (7) explains the value of peace education in terms of democratic political life. sekala brak’s statement does not contain practical politics and has no relation to politics, according to the advisor’s statement: (8) “there is no interest or connection with sekala brak’s kepaksian in practical politics when providing input related to aspirations for regional progress. in kepaksian benlunguh itself, there are figures who act as politicians, for example, mr. zulfikli hasan better known as zulhas is an politician who currently serves as minister of trade in the advanced indonesian cabinet under president joko widodo and vice president ma'ruf amin since june 2022. mr. mukhlis basri is an politician who currently serves as a member of the house of representatives of the republic of indonesia representing the lampung i electoral district since 2019. mr. parosil mabsus is the regent of west lampung who was elected in the 2017 simultaneous regional head elections for the 2017-2022 period from the indonesian democratic party of struggle (pdip). and all of that does not affect the belunguh kepaksian because adat does not mix customs and politics.” according to data (8) the role of adat in peace education is dynamic in the flow of the existing government system in indonesia. as per the west lampung regency regional regulation number 1 of 2012 concerning spatial planning, especially for west lampung regency in 2010– 2030, the government seeks to work together with the paksi pak sekala brak customary kingdom to help develop policies for culture-conscious public in west lampung regency. it is natural for pak sekala brak’s paksi to participate through his saibatin because the latter, as a traditional leader, believes that he has the ability to fulfill the wishes of the indigenous community in guiding the spirit of democracy, non-violence, and religious ethics. the customary law fulfills the noble values and local wisdom of the area. the policy and concept of peace education promoted by kepaksian refer to development policies that prioritize strengthening human dignity in the process, stages, and stages of national and environmental development. development is essentially a constant search for new forms of modern society that are more in line with ethics and morals, such as building a culture based on faith, morals, and good deeds, becoming more enlightened, and more balanced. as stated by one of the participants, who is currently serving as a prime minister: journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 (9) “indegenious communities always follow traditional leaders and even saibatin as the highest leader in the activities of the traditional hippun, the traditional kingdom of paksipak sekala brak and other traditional activities, bekebakh adok, which is a traditional meeting that collects and discusses suggestions from each kepaksian through saibatin, the highest customary leader, to recommend culturally minded political candidates in west lampung regency. saibatin is involved in the formulation of this cultural awareness policy since 2014, coinciding with the sekala brak festival. if a resident of kenali village, belalau district, west lampung regency, commits an immoral crime, which is considered a violation of religious rules and customary rules, the leader or punyimbang has the right to make wise, fair, and ethical decisions in accordance with the customary rules. this can be seen from the steps taken by the leader by giving sanctions to the violator, for example, being set aside in traditional activities or excluded from various traditional activities before the violator formally apologizes to the traditional leader, customary council, and the indigenous community. also, if the traditional leaders who are in the belunguh kepaksian violate customary or religious rules, the sanctions received are in the form of revoking their rights as traditional administrators, such as being temporarily demoted within a specified time.” data (9) explains that the leaders of kepaksian and the community work together to build the values of peace education in their community by setting an example for complying with customary rules. therefore, the possibility of conflict is very low. between the majority muslim communities and other religious minorities, it is illustrated that paksian is able to maintain the harmonization of religious communities as seen from the majority of participants’ answers leading to such statements. when the norms and values of their religion are respected by followers of other religions, conflicts between followers of different religions can be avoided. when tolerance between religious communities is well maintained, conflicts are unlikely to take place. agreements between religious leaders to live in harmony with their respective religions and mutual respect and understanding are essential to avoid continuous inter-religious conflicts in the indigenous kepaksian community of sekala brak. such harmony is a kind of social order, which can be interpreted as a social system, relationship patterns, and habits that run smoothly to achieve the goals of citizens. the following table describes a summary of the results of the analysis of the domain, taxonomy, components, and thematic research. ruslan & irham 194 table 3 domain summary, taxonomy, componential and thematic domain taxonomy componential thematic the characteristics of indigenous cultural literacy of the kepaksian sekala brak community in regard based on data collection, various terms related to cultural literacy were obtained, including juluk adek, nemui nyimah, nengah nyappur, and sakai sambaiyan. the life of inter-religious people in the life of the kepaksian sekala brak community is always associated with the philosophy of life of piil pesenggiri (high moral behavior, big spirit, selfawareness, knowing rights and obligations). piil pesenggiri's philosophy shows the semantic relationship of 'function' that is used to shape the characteristics of cultural literacy. based on the development of the domain, it is obtained an overview of the process of forming the cultural characteristics of the community against the background of the history of kepaksian sekala brak. kepaksian sekala brak used to be a hindubuddhist kingdom and experienced the islamic era. in its development, the characteristics of community cultural literacy are more dominated by the style of the islamic kingdom which then forms the philosophy of life and social values of the community. the domain of the characteristic phase of community cultural literacy as part of creating harmonization between religious communities. this process is described through the stages of forming the characteristics of cultural literacy until it ends with social behavior between religious communities in everyday life. the results of the analysis show that the categories of social behavior characteristics of religious harmony include mutual cooperation, taking care of each other in the village, coordinating with each other within the management. from the previous analysis, the theme of the cultural literacy characteristics of the kepaksian sekala brak community is based on religious norms – cultural. the characteristics of indigenous peace education in the kepaksian sekala brak community the characteristics of peace education are associated with the term sakaisambayan (attitudes of helping and cooperation in togetherness). several other terms included include saibatin, hippun, bekebakh adok, and punyimbang. sakai sambayan shows the semantic relationship of 'function', which is used to shape the characteristics of peace education. based on the development of the domain, it is obtained an overview of the process of forming peace education that occurs in social life. the habit of sakai sambayan continuously supported by traditional leaders ultimately fosters knowledge and ways of thinking and acting to prevent violent conflicts from occurring. the domain of the characteristic phase of peace education as part of the creation of harmonization between religious communities. this process is described starting from the formation of the characteristics of peace education which is passed down from generation to generation to ending with preventing conflict to create religious harmony. the results of the analysis show that the category of way used by the community is to preserve customary norms and implement piil pesenggiri's from the previous analysis, the theme of the educational characteristics of the kepaksian sekala brak community is based on the view of life – the social behavior of the community. the roles of cultural literacy and peace education in the kepaksian sekala brak indigenous community the related terms – piil pesenggiri, and sakai sambayan are based on the fact that most of the people's behavior in their social environment is related to cultural norms which have an impact on the realization of harmonization of religious communities. cultural literacy and peace education demonstrate the 'way to the achieve' semantic relationship that shapes the way to achieve social harmonization based on the development of the domain, it is obtained an overview of the process of the sakai sambayan habit that occurs in the social life of the community created by the piil pesenggiri philosophy. these terms are evident from the pattern of customary law which prioritizes its function to maintain common interests and kinship which in the end can realize harmonization between religious communities. the realm of the role of cultural literacy and peace education created harmonization between religious communities. this process is described starting from the formation of the role of cultural literacy and peace education to ending with the growing awareness of the diversity of religious communities. the results of the analysis show that the category of methods used by the community are indigenous peoples together with traditional leaders to preserve customs and carry out social philosophies. from the previous analysis, the theme of the role of cultural literacy and peace education in the kepaksian sekala brak community is based on the philosophy of life cultural norms. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 based on table 3, the people of lampung are able to realize that they have the characteristics of peace education with their own traditions. values in everyday life have created an atmosphere of harmony, for example, the piil pesenggiri philosophy contains four elements. first, the nickname of adek (behaving according to the customary title he bears) bears the name of the greatness of adat is self-respect and dignity, not by imposing respect on others, but by showing good behavior and avoiding harmful behavior. thus, adok/adek maintains honor and dignity. at the same time, it means prohibiting people from doing shameful acts, causing chaos in society, and lowering selfesteem. in other words, a person, on behalf of a great person, must take the position of guarding social stability by interfering with his/her own behavior and by interfering with the behavior of others. principals who hold traditional names must spread kindness and maintain the dignity of honor. the second value of peace education is nemui nyimah (faithfulness to relatives, social care, tolerance), which is a standard greeting for the lampung tribe. lampung province aims to realize the transmigration program carried out by the new order government, which intends to transform the area into a diverse ethnic group in which the intercultural dialectic process can go well. in almost all areas of lampung province, especially west lampung regency, there are ethnic groups such as balinese, javanese, sundanese, and bugis. in principle, the people of lampung accept immigrants based on the principle of piil pesenggiri, which in this case is related to nemu nyimah, namely accepting everyone with kindness (nurdin, 2017). third, nengah nyappur (consulting, responsible) requires lampung to have outstanding social skills in terms of ethnicity, social status, and class. according to pun yanuar firmansyah (suttan kepaksian belunguh), the value of peace education is an incentive for lampung to treat all ethnic groups, religions, and the welfare state in the same place without choosing people or their association groups and without discriminating against others. usually, the values above serve as guidelines for lampung to interact in unlimited social space and treat all social groups fairly and without solutions. fourth, sakai sambaiyan means willing to help and practicing mutual cooperation. this was expressed by one of the participants as follows: (10) “the community still carries out the values of wisdom, even the local government there continues to practice mutual cooperation for self-sufficiency in the community. indigenous people always carry out the value of sakai sambayan as a symbol of harmony for both immigrants and fellow tribesmen.” ruslan & irham 196 according to data (10), the values that can strengthen community harmony are those born from the community itself related to local wisdom that is continuously carried out by the community, for example, obeying customary laws and becoming a social community that upholds principles to create a peaceful life. in practice, the people of lampung treat people who are positioned as siblings (puakhi), including through the mechanism of the adoption process (angkonan) because of the close relationship between the descendants of the father and mother. family relationships can also arise from marriage with family members or relatives. furthermore, kinship also occurs through the mechanism of child adoption (angkonan). a person from another ethnic tribe, for certain reasons, is designated as a relative or part of a relative (puakhi) through official lampung procedures so that his/her status is not accepted by the lampung tribe before being appointed/determined as part of the family by the lampung native tribe, especially for the lampung pepadun tribe. naming (pengangkonan) also applies to intimacy (friendship), which is agreed upon by both parties in the form of a formal brotherhood created through the traditional mechanism of lampung. the lampung community people will fully position themselves as part of the lampung community, and personally they will be required to position themselves as part of the lampung community (customarily) and bear all the consequences. kemuakhian relations will prioritize the intimacy of social relations, not social relations based on time and actual interests. thus, the realization of harmonization of inter-religious harmony in west lampung, especially under the auspices of the saibatin indigenous community with the existence of the sengkonan culture, forms a positive image for lampung culture itself as a media for resolving conflicts on the surface or between tribes, even in the name of religion. principal suttan, who holds a traditional image, must maintain the dignity of honor and spread kindness, thereby reflecting the values of bejuluk beadek, prioritizing deliberation, especially regarding conflict and good communication as fundamental values of local wisdom. muakhi culture is a form of brotherhood that embodies a sense of security, even though different ethnic groups can get a position in the frame of muakhian. efforts to realize peace can stimulate the emergence of new knowledge that is useful for the development of harmonization of religious communities (riyani et al., 2021). indigenous communities have knowledge of local wisdom that is centered on harmony, balance of resources, and sustainability, which can overcome social conflicts (hammar et al., 2021). previous studies have discussed peace education and coexistence of multiple cultures among students and teachers (nziadam, 2022; zainal et al., 2021; majda et al., 2021; wang & wang, 2018). under the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 leadership of kepaksian, peace education has gradually brought benefits to the government and the indigenous community. peace education values from various paksian cultural heritages lead to the harmonization of religious communities as a national cultural subsystem and are an important part of regional cultural development policies. the role of cultural literacy and peace education in the harmonization of religious communities among the kepaksian sekala brak indigenous community the third finding discussed the theme of the role of cultural literacy and peace education in realizing the harmonization of religious communities in the sekala brak indigenous people. the findings revealed that the characteristics of cultural literacy and peace education have created harmonization of the society’s community members. religious harmony manifests in indigenous peoples through their philosophy of life, cultural symbols, tolerant behavior, mutual cooperation, and living in harmony in their social environment. it is understood that the majority of indigenous peoples, under the leadership of traditional leaders, who understand the importance of cultural literacy and peace education, will create the appropriate behavior and public awareness of the diversity of religious communities and carry out their socio-religious philosophy and cultural life. indigenous peoples, together with traditional leaders, can cultivate customs to be passed on to future generations for their preservation. in the end, the cultural literacy of indigenous peoples under wise leadership, along with the implications of cultural values and peace education, are vital in avoiding generally occurring inter-religious conflicts in people with diverse backgrounds. indigenous communities make their charismatic and authoritative leaders role models, and such practices lead to efforts to avoid social conflicts between religious communities. these findings is in contrast with a previous study that revealed that the reality of the diversity of the lampung people, apart from having the potential for regional development, can also cause social vulnerability in the form of potential and concrete conflicts and disputes (nurdin & damayanti, 2018). one of the criticisms of the harmonization of religious communities is the inadequaterole of indigenous peoples in building peace. so it is very important to promote social factors like cultural literacy and peace education to support the country's social, economic, and political stability (moyo-nyoni, 2022). meanwhile, our finding complements the characteristics of cultural literacy and peace education that strengthen the role of indigenous peoples in building peace. in other ruslan & irham 198 words, the involvement of indigenous peoples in conflict issues directly affects them and creates harmonization of religious communities. initially, hartoyo et al. (2020) showed the insufficient role of indigenous peoples in the development of social harmonization, which triggered ethnic violence. however, its development immediately improved in the post-peace period when sociocultural factors were reconstructed to strengthen the social coherence and social capital by involving stakeholders. the findings of hartoyo et al. (2020) raised several points of view that support the importance of the role of cultural literacy and peace education as social capital in the process of creating religious harmony. for example, nurcahyono (2019) explained that indigenous peoples have social capital in the form of beliefs, norms, and sanctions, which they used to maintain the harmonization of religious communities. in this case, said et al. (2020) explained that the culture and religion will harmoniously support each other. furthermore, adila et al. (2022) revealed that inter-religious harmonization could effectively facilitate the realization of peace. our study is unique in so far as it provides insight into the role of cultural literacy and peace education in creating harmonization of religious communities among indigenous peoples. our findings explore the ways in which the harmonization of religious communities is being framed by the characteristics of cultural literacy and peace education of certain groups. they also illustrated the extent to which cultural literacy and peace education can facilitate the development of harmonization of religious communities in indigenous peoples. our findings are also relevant to the national literacy movement and peace education policies as part of the de-radicalization program being carried out by the ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia. conclusion according to our findings, the cultural literacy characteristics of the indigenous people of kepaksian sekala brak can be seen in their ability to behave in a social environment that upholds their ancestral cultural values. the second finding revealed the characteristics of indigenous people’s peace education in carrying out religious harmony via the basic philosophy of the lampung people, namely piil pesenggiri,which contains human values. indigenous peoples also have a symbol of harmonization in society, namely the sakai sambayan. it refers to the attitude of helping each other as a symbol of harmony between immigrants and different tribes. the role of cultural literacy and peace education in indigenous peoples has been demonstrated by their efforts in building and developing their good cultural identity through social relations between residents, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 including harmonious relationships between the communities and their natural surroundings. the role of the leader of the sekala brak traditional kingdom in building local politics and the harmonization of religious communities is very strong. their authority and fatwa are internally adhered to as legal norms that can support the realization of harmonization of religious communities. therefore, we can conclude that the socio-cultural characteristics of the indigenous people of kepaksian sekala brak west lampung have created harmonization between religious communities and, in the end, were crucial in preventing social conflict in the community. the findings of this study are novel as they discuss the theory of peace education and cultural literacy in building harmonization of religious communities in a social environment of indigenous people deeply. the research scope is, however, limited to one indigenous community. future empirical studies can broaden the scope of the study and add relevant socio-cultural theories. the government needs to support the preservation of the values of the socio-cultural characteristics of indigenous communities to realize world peace through harmonization of religious communities. references adila, a., santoso, p., & hidayat, e. r. (2022). contribution indonesian conference on religion and peace in realizing peace inter-religious. international journal of arts and social science, 5(6), 7–11. chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.ijassjournal.com/2022/v5i6/41 4665647.pdf adjei, k., oppong, r. a., & kquofi, s. (2022). a qualitative assessment of the impact of cultural education and consciousness on architecture in ghana. journal of science and technology, 40(1), 102–112. anriani, h. b. (2018). integration and harmonization strategy in multicultural society at palu city. jurnal ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik, 21(3), 246. https://doi.org/10.22146/jsp.27391 aras, m., & gunawan, a. a. s. (2019). traditional and conventional social communication processes for increasing tolerance and harmonization of inter-religious communities in indonesia. humaniora, 10(3), 227. https://doi.org/10.21512/humaniora.v10i3.6021 bajaj, m. (2008). encyclopedia of peace education. ebsco publishing. bajaj, m. (2019). conceptualising critical peace education for conflict settings. education and conflict review, 2(1), 65–69. ruslan & irham 200 bekerman, z., & kopelowitz, e. (eds. . (2008). cultural education-cultural sustainability: minority, diaspora, indigenous and ethno-religious groups in multicultural societies. routledge, taylor & francis group. broekhuizen, v., & david, l. (2000). literacy in indigenous communities. research series. in pacific resouces for education and learning. eric clearinghouse. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed450582 burgess, c., bishop, m., & lowe, k. (2022). decolonising indigenous education: the case for cultural mentoring in supporting indigenous knowledge reproduction. discourse, 43(1), 1– 14. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2020.1774513 campos, j. l. a., de lima araújo, e., gaoue, o. g., & albuquerque, u. p. (2019). socioeconomic factors and cultural changes explain the knowledge and use of ouricuri palm (syagrus coronata) by the fulni–ô indigenous people of northeast brazil. economic botany, 73(2), 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-019-09457-0 choirul, c. muna. (2022). the urgency of embedding religion-based literacy for future moslem’s intellectuals. edusoshum: journal of islamic education and social humanities, 1(3), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.52366/edusoshum.v1i3.35 county, m., ejere, b., & karanionyiko, k. (2021). role of traditional leadership structures in enhancing inter-ethnic conflict resolution in laisamis sub-county ,. iosr journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss), 26(9), 34–39. https://doi.org/10.9790/08372609013439 danesh, h. b. (2006). towards an integrative theory of peace education. journal of peace education, 3(1), 55–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400200500532151 dasrun, h., kuswarno, e., zubair, f., & hafiar, h. (2017). negosiasi citra budaya masyarakat multikultural. jurnal aspikom, 3(2), 157–172. daud, s. (2012). sejarah kesultanan paksi pak sekala brak. puslitbang lektur dan khazanah keagamaan, badan litbang dan diklat, kementerian agama. dewey, j. (1904). the relation of theory to practice in education. the relation of theory to practice in the education of teachers (third yearbook of the national society for the scientific study of education, part i), 9–30. dewi, k. p. (2020). indigenous knowledge: develop cross-cultural literacy and character of indonesia in multicultural society. 2nd international conference on social science and character educations (icossce 2019) indigenous, 398, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200130.041 hammar, r. k. r., samangun, c., malik, y., & luturmas, a. (2021). spatial planning for indigenous law communities to solve social conflict resolution in west papua indonesia. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 journal of social studies education research, 12(4), 405–423. harris, i. m. (2004). peace education theory. journal of peace education, 1(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/1740020032000178276 hartoyo. (2019). muakhi (brotherhood) and its practices related to preventing communal conflict in multicultural societies. masyarakat, kebudayaan dan politik, 32(3), 227–239. hartoyo, h., sindung, h., teuku, f., & sunarto, s. (2020). the role of local communities in peacebuilding in post-ethnic conflict in a multi-cultural society. journal of aggression, conflict and peace research, 12(1), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1108/jacpr-06-2019-0419 huaman, s. e. (2011). transforming education, transforming society: the co-construction of critical peace education and indigenous education. journal of peace education, 8(3), 243– 258. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400201.2011.621374 jan, j. s., & lomeli, a. (2022). ethnic context, education policy, and language assimilation of indigenous peoples in taiwan. international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, 25(1), 355–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1688246 kaplan, r. b. (1966). cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education. language learning, xvi(1 & 2), 1–21. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/60922741/kaplan196620191016-31874-1v544qwwith-cover-pagev2.pdf?expires=1654781752&signature=j8wobdcurlfdm1yxczcfsn90tqdrq1369ca0h ersonmgfbwhw2xynk78z4ooy8veuvv8vwodp4xcqfy8cdl4lqrc-tto2cvj1tp4dkvevleq~afm8mra20rb~r kester, k., zembylas, m., sweeney, l., lee, k. h., kwon, s., & kwon, j. (2021). reflections on decolonizing peace education in korea: a critique and some decolonial pedagogic strategies. teaching in higher education, 26(2), 145–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2019.1644618 kharima, n., tazkianida, r. f., & yulianti. (2021). religious harmonization as deradicalisation efforts through interfaith communities – a case study of the religious communication forum (fkub) in pekalongan city. islamic studies journal for social transformation, 5(2), 109–122. lee, s. k. (2002). the significance of language and cultural education on secondary achievement: a survey of chinese-american and korean-american students. bilingual research journal, 26(2), 327–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2002.10668714 leskova, i. v. (2019). social mechanisms of harmonization of the rela tions between muslim and christian culture 1 družbeni mehanizmi harmonizacije odnosov med muslimansko in krščansko kulturo. theological quarterly, 79(4), 1053–1061. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.34291/bv2019/04/leskova ruslan & irham 202 maebuta, j. (2010). understanding the indigenous context for peace education in temotu nendo , solomon islands. educate, 10(1), 2–5. http://www.educatejournal.org/index.php/educate/article/view/231 majda, a., zalewska-puchała, j., bodys-cupak, i., kurowska, a., & barzykowski, k. (2021). evaluating the effectiveness of cultural education training: cultural competence and cultural intelligence development among nursing students. international journal of environmental research and public health, 18(8), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084002 moyo-nyoni, n. (2022). adopting indigenous knowledge systems to enhance peace education programs for climate change and adaptation in zimbabwe. in sustainable development goals series book (pp. 27–38). springer international publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99411-2_3 ndraha, t. (2003). kibernology (ilmu pemerintahan baru). rineka cipta. nesterova, y., & jackson, l. (2022). introduction to the special issue . indigenous education in urban settings : critical examinations and meaningful responses. diaspora, indigenous, and minority education, 16(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2021.2008348 nurcahyono, o. h. (2019). social capital of indigenous village communities in maintaining social harmony (case study of the tenggerese indigenous community, tosari, pasuruan, east java). international conference on rural studies in asia (icorsia 2018), 313, 159– 163. https://doi.org/10.2991/icorsia-18.2019.38 nurdin, a. f. (2019). integralisme islam dan kontribusi budaya muakhi bagi peradaban masyarakat serta relevansi nilai-nilai filosofis budaya lokal dan pembangunan masyarakat lampung. al-adyan, 14(1), 35–50. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.24042/ajsla.v14i1.4481 nurdin, b. v. & damayanti, d. (2018). land of hope and land of the lost: study of power relations and local wisdom ethnic lampung, sumatra, indonesia. international journal of multicultural and multireligious understanding, 5(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.18415/ijmmu.v5i1.154 nurdin, b. v. (2017). nemui nyimah: kearifan lokal untuk pembangunan toleransi yang berkualitas (vol. 1, issue 1, pp. 81–90). aura. nziadam, l. (2022). education in a democratic and multi-cultural nigerian state: an assessment. afro eurasian studies, 9(2), 102–112. https://doi.org/10.33722/afes.1099684 pusat statistik, b. (2019). statistik indonesia 2019. qasim, m., sewang, a. m., yaumi, m., & siraj, a. (2019). building cultural literacy through the pattingalloang boat library. khizanah al-hikmah : jurnal ilmu perpustakaan, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),174-204 informasi, dan kearsipan, 7(2), 122. https://doi.org/10.24252/kah.v7i2a3 ratu, b., misnah, m., & amirullah, m. (2019). peace education based on local wisdom nosarara nosabatutu. jomsign: journal of multicultural studies in guidance and counseling, 3(2), 106–118. https://doi.org/10.17509/jomsign.v3i2.20958 riyani, m., wasino, suyahmo, brata, n. t., & abstract, f. a. s. (2021). making peace with the past: peace education in post-conflict aceh societies through the application of cognitive behavioral therap. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 330–376. ruslan, i. (2018). dimensi kearifan lokal masyarakat lampung sebagai media resolusi konflik. kalam, 12(1), 105. https://doi.org/10.24042/klm.v12i1.2347 said, h.a., sobariyah, l., & madina, s. (2020). harmonization of culture and religion: comparison of baduy and nahdlatul ulama traditions. al-ulum, 20(2), 387–406. https://doi.org/10.30603/au.v20i2.2034 salim, l. (2021). muakhi sebagai resolusi konflik masyarakat multikultural di lampung (vol. 4, issue 1). universitas airlangga. salim, l., & ruslan, i. (2021). muakhi culture as ethnic conflict management in lampung. jurnal sosiologi dialektika, 16(2), 117. https://doi.org/10.20473/jsd.v16i2.2021.117-128 sanderan, r., ronda, d., panggarra, r., & buchanan, a. (2022). unnale melo’s theology and peace study on the concept and reality of peace in toraja culture. jurnal jaffray, 20(1), 38–57. https://doi.org/10.25278/jj.v20i1.641 sawitri, s., rahayu, n. t., fatmawati, e., zaelani, m., elihami, e., & arif, m. (2021). implementation of cultural education in elementary school. linguistics and culture review, 5(3), 1285–1298. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5ns3.1905 implementation seftyono, arumsari, c., arditama, e., & lutfi, m. (2016). kepemimpinan desa dan pengelolaan sumber dayaalam aras lokal di tiga desa lereng gunung ungaran, jawa tengah. jurnal ilmu pemerintahan, 2(6), 60–70. seregig, i. k., & herlianto, k. (2020). state legal function in realizing the harmonization of tradition, customs, and cultural diversity. journal of critical reviews, 7(13), 2543–2550. https://jdihn.go.id/files/878/197-1597914906 state legal function.pdf spradley, j. p. 1979. (1979). the ethnographic interview. holt, rinehart and winston. sukarini, n. w. (2022). harmonization in multicultural community life. international journal of current science research and review, 05(01), 100–108. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijcsrr/v5-i1-12 ruslan & irham 204 suntana, i., & tresnawaty, b. (2021). multidimensional social crisis and religious violence in southeast asia: regional strategic agenda, weak civilian government, triune crime, wealth gaps, and coopted journalism. journal of culture and values in education, 4(2), 113. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2 suwaryo, u. (2010). mengembalikan otonomi untuk desa. jurnal pascasarjana : governance, 1(1). turan, e. z. (2020). human rights education in religious culture and ethics courses. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 61–83. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1257/447 wang, x., & wang, t. (2018). discourse on nationalism in china’s traditional cultural education: teachers’ perspectives. educational philosophy and theory, 50(12), 1089–1100. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2018.1434074 winarwati, i. (2021). peace education and learning on marine law in social conflict handling. journal of social studies education research, 12(4), 344–364. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3618/543 yusup, m. (2022). the concept of leadership in traditional and modern. indonesian journal of education (injoe), 2(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.54443/injoe.v2i1.9 zainal, s., yunus, s., jalil, f., & khair, a. (2021). the policy of local government to implement peace education at secondary school post armed conflict in aceh indonesia suadi zainal 1 , saifuddin yunus 2 , fadli jalil 3 , aizat khairi 4. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 377–409. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3215/510 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 156-177 156 the role of parents’ interests and attitudes in motivating them to homeschool their children baidi1 abstract this study attempts to determine how interests and attitudes of parents in motivating them to homeschool their children. the study was conducted in surakarta indonesia in 2017. this research used correlational design assigning 100 respondents in non-probability sampling. data were collected using a questionnaire to record the interest, attitude and motivation of parents to homeschool their children. data were processed using multiple linear regression analysis. results show that interests and attitudes can foster parents' motivation to send their children to homeschooling by 42.2%. interest variables can improve motivation by 0.165 and attitude variables increase motivation by 0.099. factors affecting parents' interest in sending children to homeschooling are: the influence of the surrounding environment, family support, better learning methods and an active role in children's education, higher trust in tutors in homeschooling, and healthy competition in pursuit of achievement. in addition, factors affecting attitude of parents to send their children to homeschooling, include safer child security, special needs of children, disagree with the curriculum applied by the government in formal schools, work demands, family values, and lack of quality education provided by formal schools. keywords: interest, attitude, motivation, homeschooling, achievement. introduction homeschooling practices have been claimed unsuccessful to respond its relevancy and effectiveness, though it has become a growing education phenomenon across the globe. in the teaching and learning of homeschooling, the academic inputs and outcomes are ‘tangible’ for parents in tailoring their children’s needs in learning (jamaludin, alias & dewitt, 2015:111). korkmaz and duman (2014) emphazise homeschooling parents play an important role in educating and structuring their children’s learning at home, the practices of which were typically being associated with mothers. the fathers function as helpmate, spiritual leader, disciplinarian and manager of learning and relationship quality (vigilant et al., 2014). 1dr. state islamic institute (iain) of surakarta, indonesia; email: baidi.iain@gmail.com mailto:baidi.iain@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 according to the indonesian directorate of equality education (2006), homeschooling is a process of education services consciously, regularly and directed by parents or families at home or other places where the learning process can take place in a conducive atmosphere with the aim that every potential child can develop maximally (ratih, 2013:2). the developments in the number of homeschooling participants each year achieves 83.3% in terms of plural homeschooling and community participants, and of 16.7% for a single homeschooling (mulyadi, 2007:36). in recent years the accessibility and involvement of children with the natural environment has experienced a significant decline (yatiman, aziz, & said, 2012:395). children are more exposed to entertainment on social media. television, games, mobile phones, computers have become a number of technologies that greatly affect the life patterns of children. children included in the class of students in the school will have limited direct experience in the natural environment. this situation can certainly affect children's physical, cognitive and social performance. various studies have found that the natural environment is a significant place to develop various academic potentials and art possessed by children (yatiman et al., 2012:395), suggesting that children engage in daily life in three important places: homes, schools, and recreational areas (around amusement parks). some children seemed to spend more time at school then the rest of their time was spent traveling from home to school every day. the present study has indicated current literature of homeschooling practices. positive outcomes to support homeschooling were witnessed. the parental involvement children’s learning has been associated as a catalyst to success, because of the inability of traditional schooling to support the learners’ needs (kraftl, 2012; jolly, et al., 2012; vigilant et al., 2014). there were three dimensions on how homeschooling works in improving learning; a) to provide one-to-one support to learning, b) to create a safe and healthy learning environment, and c) to provide adequate and appropriate learning supports for special-needs and gifted children. primarily, the researchers agreed that space and learning experiences at home have fabricated meaningful learning experiences. for instance, kraftl (2013) found that learning at home does not restrict to textbook learning and standardized curriculum. learning happens inside and outside the house and thus, the dimension of learning in homeschooling covers academic and practical knowledge (kraftl, 2013). similarly, ice and hoover-dempsey (2011) elucidated baidi that homeschooling parents have stronger efficacy in designing and fabricating effective learning. this may attribute to the academic success of the children. secondly, a safe and healthy learning environment seems to be neglected in public schooling (mazama & lundy, 2012). the issues such as racism and racial prejudices in the public school have affected the african-american children, even with the racial protectionism being practiced in the public schools (mazama & lundy, 2012). hence, homeschooling is an alternative to provide a safer and healthy learning environment for the affected children. also, vigilant et al. (2014) has mapped how the role of father is important to structure and balance the learning at home. the elements of spiritual beliefs and discipline in learning have been given a strong emphasis in achieving a well-balanced education, which also agrees with charlotte mason’s ideal learning belief (simply charlotte mason.com, 2011). lastly, the incompetency of traditional schools in catering the needs for the gifted and specialneeds children has also shifted the space of learning to be conducted at home (hurlbutt, 2011; jolly et al., 2012). the parents believe that a sense of order and empowerment in deciding their children’s learning pace and experiences has made them to de-school their children (jolly et al., 2012) and to provide better learning opportunities for their children. green-hennessy (2014) and van schalkwyk and bouwer (2011) have discovered that homeschooling practices have several drawbacks. in a larger study, it is found that, the homeschooling adolescents were reported to fall behind in academic performance and faced more social difficulties compared to traditional schoolers (green-hennessy, 2014). in addition, van schalkwyk and bouwer (2011) have appointed that the homeschooling children might face difficulties in social interactions due to the strong attachment to parental supervision. also, they noted that many homeschoolers suffer as their development and interest have to compromise with their parents’ established visions and goals. in short, there are several limitations that should be considered when conducting the home-education, especially the one concerning on the direction of homeschooling practices and its structure. nevertheless, the previous studies have proven that structured and flexible homeschooling learning was effective to overcome the above conditions (cogan, 2010; harding, 2013; rudner, 1999). in line with the findings above spinney & millward (2011) added that rural areas can be identified as environments that can provide the best arrangements because rural areas consist of natural elements that are able to encourage various types of intelligence possessed by children journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 (yatiman et al. , 2012:396). especially for children who are more often engaged in walking, playing bicycles, chatting with peers proven to have higher abilities. child travel with peers is considered an explorative game that can self-test, stimulate physical, cognitive, and social performance in children. one example of a private school that is booming in the community is homeschooling. homeschooling has several main advantages, namely creating students who are able to have high independence (yaacob et al., 2014:245). many parents are motivated to make homeschooling the right choice for their children. parents have the assumption that homeschooling can be a means that can mentally prepare children to face further education. homeschooling is applied in several forms namely single homeschooling, compound homeschooling, and community homeschooling. the application of homeschooling depends on the needs of each homeschooler and is adapted to the abilities of parents and children's interests. from the flexibility of applying the homeschooling, parents get a lot of convenience in carrying out the educational process for their sons and daughters (kembara, 2007:30). homeschooling education helps develop children's potential optimally both in knowledge, attitude, and personality by emphasizing the mastery of the development of an independent attitude that can later be useful for all aspects of his life (mulyadi, 2007:20). thematic and conceptual learning methods as well as applicable become several points of excellence in homeschooling. homeschooling gives a lot of flexibility for students to enjoy the learning process without having to feel pressured by the burdens that are conditioned by the curriculum target. every homeschooling student is given the opportunity to go directly to study the material provided, not only to discuss theory. they were also invited to evaluate directly about the material being discussed. some other advantages of homeschooling as alternative education, namely because this system provides moral or religious education, a social environment and a better learning atmosphere, provides more flexible learning time. it also provides warmth and protection in learning, especially for children who are sick or disabled, avoiding social illnesses that parents consider can occur in schools such as brawls, juvenile delinquency (bullying), drugs and abuse (hartati, 2014:44). baidi research questions drawn the above background, the following research questions are directed to guide this research: 1). does predictive motivation of parents give a positive influence of parents motivation to send their children to homeschooling? 2). does predicted attitude have a positive influence in fostering the motivation of parents to send their children to homeschooling? 3). do simultaneous interests and attitudes have an influence in fostering the motivation of parents to send their children to homeschooling? literature review homeschooling homeschooling can be defined with the word “home” and “schooling”, which gives the meaning education or schooling that occurs at home. it is also a circumstance where parents make a conscious decision to provide an education for their child or children in place of that provided by schools, and where the parents are the main teachers or facilitators in the program of education (broadhurst, 1999). the term homeschooling refers to parents who teach their education to their children at home (korkmaz & duman, 2014:3890). homeschooling in terms of quality and quantity is often compared to formal schools in general. homeschooling and public schools are two backgrounds that can be very different. homeschooling is a form of education teaching carried out at home by parents and experts in their fields. while public schools are a form of teaching that is in a special institution of education carried out by teachers who are competent in their fields. nevertheless, it is not a replication of school in a home environment, but a holistic lifestyle that strips the trappings of institutional schooling to focus on fundamental (david, 2004). since home-schooling is a form of private education that is parent led and home based, therefore, homeschooling does not rely on either state-run public schooling or institutional private schooling for a child’s education (ray, 2013). the decision by parents to home school is based on several factors. some parents home school because they have a child who is unwell or has specific learning difficulties. dembitzer (1990:40) states that, traditionally, parents have chosen to home school journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 because they have little or no access to conventional education. in areas such as the australian outback, parents home school until their children are old enough to attend boarding school or travel the considerable distances to their closest school (white, 1995:37). van oostrum and van oostrum (1997:2) also refer to pedagogic reasons, social reasons and other fundamental rights. pedagogic reasons are where a family feels that it is able to provide a superior caliber of education to that offered by traditional schools, either academically or in terms of providing an environment which offers more advents learning conditions. social reasons are those where parents wish to protect their children from negative peer pressure and social influences or simply wish to strengthen the family bond. lines (2000:79) parcels reasons for home schooling largely into two major categories: religious and progressive; nevertheless, lines (2000:79) also states that many families have indicated a change in attitude towards home schooling because of dissatisfaction with the standard of education offered by conventional schools. over the past few decades homeschooling has been generally applied to several states in america and europe. in the united states, in 1993 homeshchooling was officially approved in 50 states under the auspices of the homeschooling policy set by bauman. in some european states children who find it difficult to get public schools are allowed to get an education at home. homeschooling in europe seems to provide some very significant effects, including parents making children as people unknown to others. it is inversely proportional to the findings above, (korkmaz & duman, 2014:3891) adding that homeschooling is a phenomenon that continues to develop in the western states. but in turkey, almost no children do education at home. under turkish education law, children are required to receive education in public schools. the local government believes that homeschooling is considered dangerous for the development of children by some authoritarian people. in the past few years, it seems that there are no more types of homeschooling in turkey. suryadi (2006:12) reveals that homeschooling is a process of education services that are consciously, regularly and directed by parents or family at home and in other places with full responsibility. the teaching and learning process can take place in a conducive atmosphere with the aim that every unique potential of children can develop optimally. in line with what was stated by douglas (2005:274), that homeschooling both a means of educating children according to parental standards and an alternative social movement embraces a unique set of cultural norms baidi and values. roslin (2010:2) explains that homeschooling is the education of school-age children at home. in addition, christa & kathleen (2011) mean that homeschooling is a process of educational services that is consciously and directed by parents or families with a conducive teaching and learning process. another opinion was put forward by mulyadi (2007:38) that homeschooling is a home learning activity designed so that students feel happy to learn, not burdened so that they can achieve maximum learning outcomes. homeschooling aims to develop creativity, thinking skills and personality of students in accordance with the unique strengths of individual students. based on some of the opinions above, it can be concluded that homeschooling is a learning activity carried out at home and outside the home independently and in the community. parents play an important role as instructors (teachers) or bring in instructors from outside (tutors) that are designed in such a way that children feel happy, comfortable, and do not feel burdened in learning. homeschooling can achieve optimal learning outcomes to develop creativity, talents, interests, thinking abilities and personality of students in accordance with the individual characteristics of students by not ignoring the needs of their age. homeschooling is a learning process that involves families as the main role, especially parents who are responsible for the development of their children's education (mulyadi, rahardjo, & basuki, 2016:603). in other words homeschooling is interpreted as parents who teach education to their children at home. in addition to teaching education at home, parents sometimes bring in experts (tutors) to be able to provide additional material in certain lessons. homeschooling education system tailored to the needs of each different child. homeschooling uses an open and flexible curriculum system but is still adapted to agreements between children, parents, and tutors. several recent studies have mentioned the importance of the role of parents in providing support to their children in the teaching and learning process during homeschooling (collom, 2005; green & hoover-dempsey in mulyadi et al., 2016:604). parents are the main factor that can provide support to children during the learning process. naturally it can be understood that the learning process that occurs in the home between family members must be actively involved in providing the support needed by the child to obtain maximum educational outcomes. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 homeschooling objectives suryadi (2006:13) states that every learning carried out must have the right goals, so that they can achieve maximum learning outcomes. likewise, homeschooling has several objectives below. 1) ensure the completion of quality primary and secondary education for students from families who determine their children's education through homeschooling. 2) ensure the fulfillment of learning needs for all young people and adults through equitable access to learning and life skills programs. 3) removing gender disparities in primary and secondary education. 4) serving students who need academic education and life skills in a flexible manner to improve their quality of life. mulyadi (2007:40) also revealed that there are 8 goals of homeschooling: 1) creating a conducive, fun and challenging learning environment for students in accordance with their personality, learning style, strengths and limitations. 2) learning subject matter directly in the context of real life so that it is more meaningful and useful in the lives of students. 3) increase creativity, thinking ability, and attitude and develop the personality of students. 4) fostering and developing good relations between parents and students so as to create a harmonious family. 5) overcoming the limitations, weaknesses, and emotional barriers of students so that students succeed in learning optimally. 6) developing talents, potential, and learning habits of students naturally. 7) preparing students' abilities in aspects of knowledge, skills and attitudes to continue their studies at a higher level. 8) equip students with the ability to solve environmental problems according to their level of development for the sake of their future graduation. motivation motivation is an internal condition that evokes, directs, and maintains behavior (woolfolk, 2009:186). motivation is an implication that arises because of a biological or psychological disorder in him (thomas, 2016). motivation is a change of energy in humans which is baidi characterized by affective and reactionary impulses in an effort to achieve goals (malik, 2011:94). this definition contains three dimensions: 1) motivation begins with a change of energy in a person; 2) motivation is characterized by affective encouragement; and 3) motivation is characterized by reactions reaching the goal. motivation is a process that gives enthusiasm, direction, and persistence of behavior. this means that motivated behavior is behavior that is full of energy, directed and long-lasting (santrock, 2008:510). ormrod (2009:58) explains that motivation is something that energizes, directs and maintains behavior, motivation makes a person move and puts someone in a certain direction and keeps them moving. motivation has several influences on a person's behavior, including: 1. motivation directs behavior to specific goals 2. motivation increases effort and energy 3. motivation enhances initiative and persistence in various activities 4. motivation affects cognitive processes 5. motivation determines which consequences give reinforcement and punishment 6. motivation improves performance interest interest is the main and important subject in the education process (pehmer, seidel, kiemer, & gr, 2015:94). the concept of interest is a related element in the lifelong learning process as the core of community skills. development of interest in certain subjects also determines the willingness of adolescents to choose the next level of education. development of student interest must be the goal of school education and for individual teachers. interest is a function of the soul to be able to achieve something, interest is power from within and appears from the outside as gestures. in carrying out its functions interest is closely related to thoughts and feelings (suryadi, 2002). ormrod (2009:101) explains that interest is a form of intrinsic motivation, meaning if someone has an interest on a particular topic or activity. psychologists distinguish two types of interests: situational interest, triggered by something in the environment; and personal interests, interests that are relatively stable over time and produce consistent patterns in the choices made. interest is a feeling of being more like and feeling attached to a thing or activity, without being told. interest is basically the acceptance of a relationship between yourself and something outside journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 of ourselves. the stronger or nearer the relationship, the greater the interest. slametto (2010:57) explains that interest is a fixed tendency to pay attention and remember some activities. activities that are of interest to a person, attention is constantly accompanied by pleasure. indra (2012:3) states that interest means a tendency and high enthusiasm or a great desire for something. suryabrata (2002:68) defines interest as a feeling of being more like and feeling interested in something or activity without being told. interest basically is the acceptance of a relationship between yourself and something outside of him. the stronger or nearer the relationship the greater the interest. interest can be interpreted as a high tendency towards something, interested, attention, passion and desire. another notion of interest by sardiman (2006:32) states that interest is the awareness of someone that an object, a person, a problem or a situation that is related to him. therefore, interest is a psychological aspect that is owned by someone who raises feelings of interest or interest in something and is able to influence the actions of that person. interest has a close relationship with encouragement in the individual who then raises the desire to participate or be involved in something that interests him. someone who is interested in an object will tend to feel happy when working in the object so that they tend to pay attention to the great attention to the object. the attention given can be realized with curiosity and study of the object. attitude praharesti & afustina (2013) define attitude as an expression of values or views of life that are owned by someone, formed into desired behaviors or actions. hasbiansyah (2003:307) summarizes notions of attitudes as follows: 1) mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting, a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations to which it is related (allport in roucek, 1951). 2) attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular degree of favor or preference (eagly and chaiken, 1993). 3) attitude is a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction to ward something or someone, exhibited in one's belief; feelings or intended behavior (myers, 1996). baidi 4) an attitude is a disposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to an object, person, institution or event (azjen, 1988). methods design and setting this study was conducted on parents who sent their children to surakarta, indonesia homeschooling in july to september 2017. this study used experimental design that tested the hypotheses. as figure 1 indicates, there are three variables in this study: interest (x1), attitude (x2), and motivation (y). figure 1. research design dependent variable in this study is motivation. operationally, motivation is defined an internal condition that evokes, directs, and maintains behavior (woolfolk, 2009:186). motivational indicators according to goeritno (2014:118), include: a) desires; b) expectations: c) plans; d) goals; e) intention; f) purpose. the independent variables of this study include interest and attitude. interest is a tendency to give attention and act to people, activities, or situations that are objects of interest by being accompanied by feelings of pleasure (abdurraman, 2004:262). indicators of interest variables, include: (1) social status; (2) encouragement; (3) opportunities; (4) resources; (5) activities; (6) competition. in addition, the attitude is basically the result of the process of socialization and interaction of a person with his environment, which is the embodiment of the mind, one's feelings and assessment of objects, which are based on knowledge, understanding, opinions and beliefs and ideas towards an object (yayat, 2009:5). attitude variable indicators include: (1) economic opportunities; (2) security; (3) selfawareness; (4) workload; (5) participation; (6) social environment; (7) responsibility; (8) trust. interest (x1) motivation (y) attitude (x2) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 sample a number of 100 parents were recruited as the sample of this study. parents were selected from 10 community of homeschooling areas in five districts in surakarta city, each of which involved 10 parents. of the 10 communities, 3 operated secondary school homeschooling with 30 parents, and 7 elementary home schooling for 70 parents. instrument the instrument used in this study is questionnaire, asking the interest, motivation and perception on homeschooling. supriyanto (2009:135) explains the questionnaire is a technique of collecting data that is used to obtain information directly from the source, containing a series of statements compiled to capture data information about a matter needed in research. sekaran & bougie (2013:147) revealed, a questionnaire is formulated in a written set of questions to which respondents record their answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives. in this study, the questionnaire used was a closed questionnaire that is a model statement where the statement has been provided the answer, so that respondents only choose from alternative answers that are in accordance with their opinions or choices. the instrument consisted of three parts: questions to ask interest 25 items, motivation 25 items, and perception on homeschooling 25 items. prior to collect the data, the instrument was piloted to 20 parents outside the sample to find its validity and reliability evidences. the validity test was 0.1956 and the reliability was 2.1870, stating that both validity and reliability were significant. data analysis technique the technical analysis of this data uses multiple linear regression analysis. the steps to test the hypothesis as a whole in this study are as follows: descriptive statistics test; classical assumption test with stages: normality test; multicollinearity test; heteroscedasticity test, and hypothesis test with the equation: y = α + β1.x1 + β2.x2 + e (y = parental motivation; x1 = interest; x2 = attitude). regression analysis is done to find out how much reinforcement between independent variables on the dependent variable. statistical tests that need to be done are: accuracy test estimated model / coefficient of determination (r2); simultaneous significance test (test f); and individual parameter significance test (t test). baidi findings and discussion to ensure that the parameters in the model have accuracy in estimation, not biased, and consistent, it is necessary to test the classical assumptions of regression models, thus there is no deviation from the assumption of normality, multicollinearity and heteroscedasticity. to test the existence of classic assumption deviations, statistical package with the spss 21 program was used in this study. normality test result of calculation using kolmogorov-smirnov indicates z-value of 0.913 and asymp. significance of 0.375. it shows the data is normally distributed because 0.375> 0.05. the results of normally distributed data mean there is no extreme value from the data taken or there is no data that deviates too high or too low as well as there was no error in sampling and there were no errors in data input. multicollinearity test the multicolonity test results obtained the value of variance inflation factors (vif) of 1.159 which is smaller than 10 and the tolerance value of 0.862 is greater than 0.10. there is no multicolonity between the independent variables. this means that there is no strong (almost perfect) correlation between variables of interest and attitude. so that there is no linear relationship between independent variables and independent variables only affect the dependent variable. heteroscedasticity test the test results on the probability of 5% indicate the significance value of the variable of interest of 0.755 and the significance of the attitude variable of 0.061. it indicates that interest variables and attitudes have no problem with heteroscedasticity. this shows that the variance of each independent variable is the same and has a certain constant number. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 hypothesis testing table 1. results of linear multiple regression variable coef. reg t value sig. constant 66,424 9,617 0,000 interest 0,165 2,153 0,034 attitude 0,099 2,686 0,009 the results of multiple linear regression data processing using the spss program in the table 1 show multiple linear regression equations as follows: y = 66,424 + 0,165 x1 + 0,099 x2 + e information: y = parent motivation x1 = interest x2 = attitude the linear equation of the multiple regressions above can be described as follows: a. constant value is 66,424 with a positive value. this shows that if the interest variable and attitude equal zero, then the motivation of parents to send their children to homeschooling is 66,424. b. interest variable regression coefficient (β1) is 0.165. this shows that every increase in interest of 1 unit will have an impact on the increase in motivation of parents sending their homeschooling children to 0.165 assuming other variables are constant. c. the attitude variable regression coefficient (β2) is 0.099. this shows that every increase in attitude by 1 unit will have an impact on the increase in motivation of parents sending homeschooling children by 0.099 assuming other variables are constant. f test this test obtained the significance value of 0,000 <0,05, meaning that the fit regression model so that simultaneous interest and attitude together foster the motivation of parents to send their children to homeschooling. see table 2. baidi table 2. results of t-test variable tvalue ttable sig. conclusion interest 2,153 1,983 0,034 significant attitude 2,686 1,983 0,009 significant as table 2 suggests the interest variable has a t-count of 2.153 greater than t-table 1.983 and obtained a significance value of 0.034 smaller than the significance level of 0.05 (0.034 <0.05). therefore, the interest significantly fosters the motivation of parents to send their children to homeschooling, then h1 is accepted. the calculation shows that the attitude variable has a level of 2.686 greater than the table of 1.983 and obtained a significance value of 0.009 smaller than the significance level of 0.05 (0.009 <0.05). it can be concluded that the attitude positively and significantly fosters the motivation of parents to send their children to homeschooling, then h2 is accepted. coefficient of determination (r2) the coefficient of determination (r2) essentially measures how far the model's ability to explain the variation of the dependent variable. the results of the coefficient of determination (r2) are shown in table 3. table 3. results of determinant coefficient (r2) r r-square adj r-square std eror of the estimate 0,502 0,422 0,344 5,363 from the table above, r-square is 0.422 which means that 42.2% of the motivation of parents to send their children to homeschooling can be explained by the composition of the independent variables, namely interests and attitudes. while 57.8% is explained by variables outside of this research model. f test shows that the independent variables which consist of interests and attitudes simultaneously have a statistically positive influence on the motivation of parents to send their journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 children to homeschooling. the partial test both independent variables can influence the growth of the dependent variable. interest variables will have an effect of 0.165 on each increase, and the attitude variable will have an effect of 0.099 on the motivation of parents to send their children to homeschooling. the above findings bring this study into some discussion points. according to goeritno (2014:118), there are several factors that influence motivation, including the interests, attitudes, needs, values and aspirations. interest is a tendency to give attention and act to people, activities, or situations that are objects of interest by being accompanied by feelings of pleasure (abdurraman, 2004:262). interest contains elements consisting of cognition (knowing), emotions (feelings), and will. elements of cognition, in the sense that interest is preceded by knowledge and information about the object intended by that interest. emotional elements because in participation or experience are accompanied by certain feelings (feelings of pleasure) while the element of konasi is a continuation of the two elements which are manifested in the form of willingness and desire to do an activity. things that affect parents' interest in sending children to homeschooling include: 1) the influence of the surrounding environment, 2) family support, 3) parents have better learning methods and always want to play an active role in children's education, 4) trust in tutors in homeschooling is higher than for teachers in formal schools and 5) parents want healthy competition in pursuit of achievement. thomas (2010) reveals that parents refer to contemporary problems with the environment and practice of education in school and that they formulate pedagogical beliefs about homeschooling to be better learning places than schools. in addition, he emphasized the role of family, school and parents' learning experiences during their childhood. he found that they referred to negative school experiences that they did not want to be replicated in the lives of their own children and that many parents' childhoods were influenced by a dysfunctional and disturbed family environment. the attitude is basically the result of the process of socialization and interaction of a person with his environment, which is the embodiment of the mind, one's feelings and assessment of objects, which are based on knowledge, understanding, opinions and beliefs and ideas towards an object (yayat, 2009:5). attitudes produce a tendency to act on an object, so attitudes play an important role in influencing parents' motivation in sending their children to homeschooling. baidi factors affecting the attitude of parents to send their children to homeschooling, include: 1) safer child security, 2) special needs of children, 3) disagree with the curriculum applied by the government in formal schools, 4) work demands, 5) family values and 6) lack of quality education provided by formal schools. asmani (2012) states that there are several reasons for parents to send their children to school at home, among others; (a) parents are not satisfied with education in regular schools; (b) through homeschooling parents expect to strengthen the relationship between parents and children, because time with children increases; (c) parents feel that the education system in formal schools does not support family values. this is driven by a lack of religious education, moral values and character in formal schools; (d) parents do not agree with the curriculum in formal schools. lessons and curriculum systems that are considered too burdensome to children and the pressure that teachers create on children in pursuing curriculum targets make many parents exclude children from formal schools. homeschooling provides non-colloquical direct, thematic learning that is not bound by the limits of science. this view provides a broad understanding of the understanding of how to obtain knowledge, that in studying not only can be obtained through school, anywhere whenever we can get knowledge (wijayarto, 2015:27). arai (2000) asserts that parents' motivation was influenced by attitudes that considered individual teaching to be better, family duties to find shared methods, curriculum enrichment, objections to school organizations and social education, children's choices or better enrichment in houses, inappropriate socialization in schools and long separation from home, the task of conveying certain religious or moral orientations, negative school experiences and finally special needs for children. rothermel (2003) also added that attitudes that affect parents choosing homeschooling education are: disappointment with education and school (31%), parents who say they always intend to educate at home (30%), intimidate (25%), depression, fatigue or illness in children (24%), the belief that education is the responsibility of parents (20%), mismanagement of children with special educational needs or gifted children (20%) and to enable situations where children work accordingly their own potential (19%). in general, rothermel found that his motives consisted of two groups, one related to experience in school and the second related to family ideology. conclusion and implications journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 this study has examined the impact of interest and attitude to motivate parents to send their children to homeschooling in surakarta indonesia. in general, the results can be summarized that both interest and attitude significantly affect parents motivation to send their children in homesachooling. simultaneously, interest and attitude contrubutes 42.2% of parents motivations to send children to homeschooling. in particular, the finding indicates that homeschooling in surakarta has been perceived as equal to formal schooling and a more wide range of welcome has been addressed to conduct the homeschooling. the most reason that appears in the perspective is himeschooling is considered more secure to protect from morality and relegions. this study, however, has limitation in that explorations of how homeschooling are conducted and how values of morality and religios are attached are not well specififed. theoretically, the study implies that homeschooling practices should indicate program and curriculum that fit to the attached areas and studens. practically, operators of homeschooling develop programs that are explored from the actions the community has implemented. references anita woolfork. (2009). educational psychology: active learning edition. yogyakarta: pustaka pelajar. alex roslin. (2010). the new homeschooling. todays parent: toronto 27.5 (may 2010): 8586,88,91. arai, a. b. (2000). reasons for home schooling in canada. canadian journal of education, 25(2), 204-217. bektaş-çetinkaya, y., & oruç, n. (2010). turkish students ` motivation to learn english at public and private universities. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 2, 4662–4666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.746 bellini, l. (2005). homeschool families, public schools and the superintendent: an analysis of interactions in new jersey and pennsylvania. dissertation abstracts international, 66/03, pp.833. (umi no. 3166560). blok, h., & karsten, s. (2011). inspection of home education in european countries. european journal of education, 40(1), pp.138-152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.746 baidi budi wijayarto. (2015). perbandingan kompetensi sosial siswa komunitas homeschooling dengan siswa reguler sd muhammadiyah 1 surakarta. jurnal prima edukasia, 3(1), 4358. christa l. ice & kathleen v. hoover. (2011). linking parental motivations for involvement and student proximal achievement outcomes in homeschooling and public schooling settings. educational and urban society, 43(3), 339-369. cogan, m. (2010). exploring academic outcomes of homeschooled students. journal of college admission, 208, pp.19-25. douglas e. mitchell. (2014). home scooling as a social movement: indentifying the determinants of homeschoolers’ perceptions. sosiological spectrum, 25(2), 273-305. green-hennessy, s. (2014). homeschooled adolescents in the united states: developmental outcomes. journal of adolescence, 37, pp.441-449. hanna, l. g. (2012). homeschooling education: longitudinal study of methods, materials, and curricula. education and urban society, 44(5), pp. 609-631. harding, t. a. (2003). a submission for the home schooling review. brisbane: australian christian academy. hurlbutt, k. s. (2011). experiences of parents who homeschool their children with autism spectrum disorders. focus on autism and other developmental disabilities, 26(4), pp.239-249. hartati dyah w. (2014). pengaruh metode homeschooling terhadap minat belajar anak di kecamatan jaten kabupaten karanganyar. jurnal ilmiah go infotech, 20(1), 126-140. hasbiansyah. (2003). psikologi umum. bandung: pustaka setia. ice, c. l., & hoover-dempsey, k. v. (2011). linking parental motivations for involvement and student proximal achievement outcomes in homeschooling and public schooling settings. education and urban society, 43(3), pp.339-369. imam malik. (2011). pengantar psikologi umum. yogyakarta: sukses offset. indra sakti, yuniar mega & eko risdianto. (2012). pengaruh model pembelajaran langsung (direct instruction) melalui media animasi berbasis macromedia flash terhadap minat belajar dan pemahaman konsep fisika siswa di sma plus negeri 7 kota bengkulu. jurnal exacta, 10(1), 36-52. ivan illich. (1970). deschooling society. new york: harper & row journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 jamaludin, ak; alias n & dewitt, d. (2015). research and trends in the studies of homeschooling practices: a review on selected journal. tojet: the turkish online journal of educational technology, 14(3), 111-119. jamal abdurrahman. (2005). tahapan mendidik anak teladan rasulullah. bandung: isyad baitus salam. jamal ma’mur asmani. (2012). buku pintar homeschooling. yogyakarta: flashbooks. jeanne ellis ormrod. (2009). psikologi pendidikan: membantu siswa tumbuh dan berkembang. jakarta: erlangga. jese tomas. (2016). instructional motivations: what can we learn from homeschooling families?. the quality report, 21(11), 2073-2086. jolly, j. l., matthews, m. s., & nester, j. (2012). homeschooling the gifted: a parent’s perspective. gifted child quarterly 57(2), pp.121–134. john w santrock. (2008). psikologi pendidikan, edisi kedua. jakarta: kencana. kraftl, p. (2013). towards geographies of ‘alternative’ education: a case study of uk homeschooling families. transactions of the institute of british geographers, 38, pp.436-450. korkmaz, h., & duman, g. (2014). public understanding about homeschooling: a preliminary study. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 116, 3891–3897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.861 kovas, y., garon-carrier, g., boivin, m., petrill, s. a., plomin, r., malykh, s. b., … vitaro, f. (2015). why children differ in motivation to learn : insights from over 13 , 000 twins from 6 countries. personality and individual differences, 80, 51–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.006 lois, j. (2013). home is where the school is: the logic of homeschooling and the emotional labor of mothering. new york: new york university press. maulia kembara. (2007). panduan lengkap homeschooling. bandung: progressio. mazama, a., & lundy, g. (2012). african american homeschooling as racial protectionism. journal of black studies, 43(7), pp.723-748. mulyadi, s., rahardjo, w., & basuki, a. m. h. (2016). the role of parent-child relationship, self-esteem, academic self-efficacy to academic stress. journal of psychology, 21(7), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.02.063 baidi murphy, j. (2014). the social and educational outcomes of homeschooling. sociological spectrum, 34, pp.244272. norlidah alias, mohd nazri abdul rahman & saedah siraj (2014). homeschooling: pendidikan alternatif di malaysia (homeschooling: an alternative education in malaysia). kuala lumpur, malaysia: pearson malaysia sdn bhd pehmer, a., seidel, t., kiemer, k., & gr, a. (2015). effects of a classroom discourse intervention on teachers ’ practice and students ’ motivation to learn mathematics and science. journal of mathematics, 35(1), 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.10.003 praharesti eriany & agustina jaya. (2013). faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi motivasi ibu menyekolahkan anak di homeschooling kak seto semarang. jurnal psikodimensia, 12(1), 47-62. ratih herfinaly & linda aryani. (2013). interaksi sosial remaja yang bersekolah di homeschooling dengan menggunakan metode distance learning. jurnal psikologi, 9(1), 16-29. ray, b. d. (2002). customization through homeschooling. educational leadership, 59(7), pp. 50-54. rothermel, p. (2003). can we classify motives for home education? evaluation and research in education 17, 74-89. rudner, l. m. (1999). scholastic achievement and demographic characteristics of home school students in 1998. educational policy analysis archives, 7(8), pp.1068-2341. sardiman a.m. (2006). interaksi dan motivasi belajar mengajar. jakarta: pt raja grafindo. seto mulyadi. (2007). homeschooling keluarga kak seto: mudah, meriah dan direstui pemerintah. bandung: kaifa pt mizan pustaka. simply cahrlotte mason.com (2010). what is the charlotte mason method?. retreived https://simplycharlottemason.com/what-is-the-charlotte-mason-method/. 12 january 2018. slameto. (2010). belajar dan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya. jakarta: rineka cipta. sugiyono. 2010. statistika untuk penelitian. bandung: alfabeta. supriyanto. 2009. metodologi riset bisnis. jakarta: pt indeks. suryadi suryabrata. (2002). psikologi pendidikan. jakarta: fajar interpratama offset. https://simplycharlottemason.com/what-is-the-charlotte-mason-method/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 156-177 thomas spiegler. (2010). parents’ motives for home education: the influence of methodological design and social context. international electronic journal of elementary education, 3(1), 21-38. van schalkwyk, l., & bouwer, c. (2011). homeschooling: heeding the voices of learners. education as change, 15(2), pp.179-190. vigilant, l. g., anderson, t. c., & trefethren, l. w. (2014). ‘‘i’m sorry you had a bad day, but tomorrow will be better’’: stratagems of interpersonal emotional management in narratives of fathers in christian homeschooling households. sociological spectrum, 34, pp. 293–313. wilhelm, g., & firman, m. (2009). historical and contemporary development in home school education. journal of research on christian education, 18, pp. 303-315. yaacob, n. a., osman, m. m., & bachok, s. (2014). factors influencing parents’ decision in choosing private schools. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 153, 242–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.10.058 yatiman, n. a., aziz, n. f., & said, i. (2012). affordances of homeschool journey in rural environment for children ’ s performances. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 68, 395–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.236 yayat suharyat. (2009). hubungan antara sikap, minat dan perilaku manusia. region, 1(2), 6782. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),250-264 digital storybook to transform character education of local wisdom figures for elementary school students veronika unun pratiwi1, andayani2. retno winarni3, atikah anindyarini4 abstract this study addresses teachers' and students' needs for digital picture storybooks based on punokawan puppet characters in elementary schools in sukoharjo regency. the wayang punokawan storybook media was developed based on a needs analysis in sukoharjo regency elementary schools implementing the 2013 curriculum. this qualitative study indicated sukoharjo elementary schools' needs. during the covid-19 pandemic, learning occurred online via google meet and with strict health protocols offline. field study data were obtained through interviews and observations at several elementary schools in sukoharjo regency. fourth graders and their teachers were studied. technical and data triangulation were used to validate data, and data reduction, presentation, and conclusion drawing were used to analyze it. the results showed that the initial condition of storybooks at elementary schools in sukoharjo regency was good, but it was inadequate to satisfy all parties, including students and class teachers teaching indonesian language subjects. the textbooks also lacked local material. teachers and students need digital picture books to improve their writing skills because they will enrich students' knowledge and boost their writing skills. keywords: digital picture storybook, wayang punokawan, writing skills introduction students' academic success in any field is bolstered by their ability to communicate effectively in multiple languages. therefore, learning a second language is essential to students' intellectual, social, and emotional development. learning a new language is an excellent way to connect with others, broaden their horizons, gain insight, and develop their minds and vocabulary (strickland & riley-ayers, 2006). receptive language abilities comprise the ability to understand what is being read or heard, while productive language abilities cover the ability to express oneself verbally or in writing (faridah, 2022). the goal of teaching indonesian is the same as teaching 1doctorate candidate, universitas sebelas maret surakarta & universitas veteran bangun nusantara, sukoharjo, indonesia, email: veronikaup@gmail.com 2prof. dr., universitas sebelas maret surakarta, indonesia, email: andayani@staff.uns.ac.id 3prof. dr, universitas sebelas maret surakarta, indonesia, email: retnowinarni@staff.uns.ac.id 4prof. dr, universitas sebelas maret surakarta, indonesia, email: atikahanindyarini@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:veronikaup@gmail.com mailto:andayani@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:jokonurkamto@gmail.com mailto:atikahanindyarini@staff.uns.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 250-264 251 any other language: to make the learner a more proficient user of the language and incorporate indonesian language instruction into classrooms to raise comprehension and fluency levels. strong writing skills are crucial in all aspects of life, not just academia (huy, 2015). at school, students learn and practice fundamental skills, including the art of writing. in this situation, it serves as a medium for education and interaction (graham, 2019). the term "learning" refers to any endeavor with the explicit goal of fostering the healthy growth of children. this definition claims that everyone should be literate and able to communicate effectively in writing. they argue that writing skills cannot be learned hastily but require early and consistent instruction. students entering elementary school are expected to have the skills necessary to write effectively and imaginatively. cooperation among individuals is required to successfully address poor writing skills. lack of exposure to writing in early childhood has been linked to learning difficulties in later years. literacy issues in children can effectively be tackled by first understanding children's early writing skills (solikhah, et. al., 2022). almost half of the elementary school students having trouble reading also have trouble writing, and these students are typically quiet and unsure of themselves in class (genlott & grönlund, 2013). nonetheless, the teacher often fails to emphasize the importance of communicating the lesson's central message to the class. furthermore, apperception is not done first, even though it should be done first to ensure that children can follow the development of the theme being taught (budiharso, et. al., 2022; gunio, 2021). additionally, the instructor does not have the students participate in a postlesson evaluation of their learning. the lkpd (lembar kerja peserta didik) and student worksheets are the only acceptable forms of assessment for the teacher to record student progress. the study found that textbooks, typically including student worksheets, were widely used by the teachers observed. the instructor routinely employs such techniques as talking to the class, delegating work, giving examples, and even singing to convey information. various media, including picture books, children's toys, and real or found objects, are used by the teacher in the classroom. no writing assignments or exercises were provided to evaluate students' writing abilities. the bulk of the responsibility is on students' creative writing skills. the results we have mentioned match what trismanto (2017) said about this group's writing skills. he said several problems existed, such as 1) a lack of vocabulary because they did not pratiwi, et al. like reading and writing. (2) not learning enough about punctuation, writing rules, word groups, making well-structured clauses and sentences, and putting together paragraphs. (3) it is hard to teach kids how to write in a way fitting their needs and abilities, and (4) many effective ways to teach them how to write are not present. accordingly, many students still say that writing is monotonous and boring. based on the preceding, the researcher conducted the study and development in state elementary schools in the sukoharjo regency, focusing on fourth graders as a possible consideration for upper-elementary students. specifically, the fourth theme of kd 3.5 and 4.5 was this research’s focus. teachers in elementary schools in sukoharjo regency, indonesia, provided the first glimpse into the reality that books used in learning skills applied by teachers to improve students' linguistic competence are primarily regarded as inappropriate. researchers interviewed several elementary school teachers. their findings showed that teachers made mistakes when using tools, facilities, or books because they had so much to cover and did not know which books to use. they taught students outside of required thematic textbooks for the 2013 school year. before proceeding, it is important to note that the 2013 curriculum is the most up-to-date curriculum accentuating the scientific method, authentic assessment, and integrative theme. this curriculum is intended to train the next generation of indonesians to think critically and creatively, meeting the needs of the modern economy. according to trismanto (2017) a scientific approach to teaching can give students a head start in their understanding of and enthusiasm for the sciences. based on interviews and observations, the textbooks used in classrooms appear to be of high quality and align with the goals of the 2013 curriculum in terms of presentation, language, and graphics. because of this problem, a book with pictures and a story based on the wayang punokawan figures was formed to help fourth graders in sukoharjo regency learn how to write in indonesian. the researcher uses the picture story book based on the characters of the wayang punokawan figures because it can get students in many elementary schools in sukoharjo regency interested in learning indonesian and entertaining writing skills. students feel comfortable learning the language with fun writing skills and can easily remember and learn what the teacher tells them. teachers are also encouraged to use this method to make their own teaching materials, based on the teaching theme as the innovation in social education movement (tarman, 2017). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 250-264 253 much research has already been done on how media can help improve writing skills. wayang educational media was made by dwistyawan & setiawan in 2017 as a way for people, especially elementary school students, to learn about the culture of indonesia's indigenous people. rosmiati et al. (2020) found that the visual design of media communication through digital animation is vital to helping elementary school children learn. these media also help children develop their senses and motor skills at a young age. raihani (2007) clarified the issue by showing how digital "story telling" can help students improve their writing. the results show a link between the digital storytelling tools in the treatment area and how well the students wrote on the post-test. all these digital stories have crucial effects on how well students write (donohue, 2021; kim, et al., 2021). in 2017, dayu & anggrasari conducted a study with "big book writing media," with ample text, pictures, and volume. this implementation showed that sd n 1 pilangbango madiun 5th graders can improve their writing skills by writing essays about pictures in "big book writing" after being given "big book writing." in mobile-assisted language learning (mall), mobapps like whatsapp, u-dictionary, and email have been used (haerazi & irawan, 2020). thanks to this study, teachers can now write complete descriptive texts. moreover, the mall model is better than non-mobile learning in helping teachers improve their writing and critical thinking skills, which will affect how they teach their students. if one wants to improve their writing, one should not forget about traditional learning. the radec learning model (read, answer, discuss, explain, and create) was used with 38 students (setiawan et al., 2020). based on the t-test results, the study found a significant effect of the radec model in how well students could write texts that explain something. then, chaparro-moreno et al. (2017) assessed writing skills from the teachers' and students' points of view. the results showed that children's language use improved when they read picture books without words. the teacher's job then is to help with the teaching. one possibility is that the children's work was affected by the fact that teachers helped them more with the wordless picture books. how the teacher talks, affects how the kids talk, or vice versa, unexplored parts of the book affect how the kids act themselves. this result fits with what koster et al. (2015) found when they looked at the effects of teaching explicit text structure elements in three different texts: pratiwi, et al. narrative, persuasive, and contrast-compare. in all studies in this category, students' writing skills improved substantially when they were taught explicitly about text structure. according to the findings of previous research on writing skills and the application of various media in the classroom to instruct students about writing, they can help students improve their writing skills. however, no research was conducted in the past on the development research related to picture books, wayang punokawan, or learning how to write. the current study was influenced by many other developments and studies before it. the research methods used differ; each study does not discuss the keywords used in the current research; the only similarities are in the keywords used, such as picture storybooks, wayang, and writing skills, studied independently rather than concurrently. the legend of the birth of punakawan (four-disciples) that the oneness sang syang has a glowing egg, which is then broken by the oneness sang hyang, the egg white is named ismaya, the shell is named antaga, while the yolk is named manikmaya. the two figures are at loggerheads because they want to be heirs to the throne of heaven, the two people hold a competition, antaga tries to devour the mountain but gets into an accident, while ismaya succeeds little by little. the oneness sang hyang knew this and cursed both of them and was sent to come down to earth. both of them were then sent to come down to earth, after that semar asked a companion to be a friend when he became a guardian of the knights, the oneness hyang agreed and the character was named bagong who was created from semar's shadow, after that the meeting with petruk and gareng, starting from the two people respectively named bambang saki and bambang sukodadi who were performing austerities to prove their supernatural powers, during the fight, semar came who broke up the fight, then semar cursed the two of them to be ugly, because they had done bad things from here gareng and petruk were made his adopted sons. the philosophy of the semar figure semar, often also called ki lurah semar he is often said to be a god because he has so much knowledge, white hair means that every human being will be confronted with the divine, his left hand holding back means that semar does not like to bring bad things or ugliness, his right hand points out that there is only one god in the world. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 250-264 255 the philosophy of the gareng figure gareng, punakawan's most disabled character, crossed eyes symbolize not liking to see bad things, limping legs indicate that walking or stepping must be careful, his left hand is tight which means he doesn't like to take things that don't belong to him. the philosophy of petruk figure petruk is the most cheerful punakawan character, his tall body means he has a lot of knowledge, his belly is distended which is often called a hollow bag, which means he has a lot of knowledge but cannot share his knowledge life the philosophy of the bagong figure bagong, is a child born from the shadow of semar who was created by the oneness sang hyang to accompany semar's journey, so that his nature and characteristics are almost the same, wide bagong’s eyes which signify thirst for knowledge which shows alertness and curiosity, wide mouth is an expression of admiration for a success, his broad forehead is a symbol of an intelligent person. methods this study suggests a qualitative methodology, meaning that rather than numerical data, it draws its information from interview transcripts, field notes, personal documents, memoranda, and other official documents (sugiyono, 2016). qualitative research is the right choice if one has a research problem but does not know the variables (creswell, 2012). the literature may not tell you much about one’s study. therefore, they will have to rely on exploration to learn more about it from the people experiencing it. therefore, qualitative methods can be used to discover both substantive and procedural aspects of this research. researchers are interested in the state of classroom textbooks and the demand for digital picture storybooks from teachers and students because they believe these will positively impact students' ability to express themselves in writing. the social event inside and out information for peculiarities emerging during the exploration time frame can be aided by a behavioral shift known as perception. primary school teachers in sukoharjo regency were among the witnesses selected through a purposeful testing cycle. the scientist relied on perception and records to compile data. in the context of the 2013 curriculum educational program, documentation interaction entails instructors researching the learning pratiwi, et al. system through chronicles, reports, photographs, and records/portfolios. the researcher used the source and method triangulation, described each step of the research process, and documented thoroughly before beginning data transcription to ensure the accuracy of the data in this study. on top of that, we double-checked all our notes, activities, and interview transcripts to ensure that we had accurate and reliable information to report. in addition to the data analysis of this study refers to miles & huberman (1994) that uses data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. data reduction is a form of analysis that sharpens and addresses important things, classifies, directs, discards what is unnecessary, and organizes data to be more systematic so that meaningful conclusions can be drawn. the reduced data can provide a sharper picture of what needs to be pursued. drawing conclusions from words, writings, and social behavior of the actors relate to the needs analysis. this activity includes lesson planning, learning implementation, and evaluation of implementation results. results and discussion conditions of the storybooks fourth graders in sukoharjo regency were observed. during the covid-19 pandemic, learning was observed on february 2, 2022, online via google meet or offline with strict health protocols. during learning, students studied the storybook. some students focused on reading, and some on writing. many students studied the book's pictures. therefore, the teacher repeatedly reminded students to follow instructions. some students followed the teacher's instructions and finished on time. some students focused less on reading books and complained that the text was too long, so the teacher asked them to finish reading. based on preliminary research in elementary schools in sukoharjo regency, teachers and students say the initial condition of storybooks for learning writing skills is good because the existing storybooks are part of the thematic book as a textbook and a teacher and student handbook (ernawati, 2014). this storybook is integral to students. in addition, the elementary school, the textbooks used as teacher handbooks in fourth grade are thematic books from one to nine. teachers use one lks and reference source to assist in implementing learning activities in the classroom. these findings were based on the outcomes of observations and interviews with resource persons on wednesday, january 5, 2022. in addition, several fourth-grade students had difficulty learning how to write. this situation was discovered based on the findings of an journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 250-264 257 investigation. similarly, saputro & wijayanti (2021) stated that this difficulty must be confronted in "textbook centered" learning, and avoiding the difficulties that arise is impossible. only a few teachers use storybooks as literacy because, at the end of each thematic book, folk tales and fairy tales are present from several regions used for literacy, usually after sub-theme three before changing to another theme. folklore from this region teaches elementary-aged children’s attitudes and moral values (igba et al., 2019). cohen (2017) uses various museums collecting wayang to learn about the virtue and unfavorable of humans and human relationships from these wayang collections. according to afriyanti & somadayo (2020), folklore can increase children's creativity. they developed wayang beber media based on local wisdom to teach third-grade students story writing. based on the explanation above, folklore or local wisdom can improve students' cognitive, affective, and writing skills. however, not many picture books are present on each actually presented theme, and even fewer with pictures on one page (the other page is reading text and enrichment for the main text). students we spoke with are more likely to read and write if they can access visuals in their textbooks. meanwhile, a minimum of six requirements exists to render a textbook available in teacher training manuals. competency standards, basic competencies, indicators, learning materials, learning activities, and assessments are the six pillars upon which a quality storybook rests. this table displays the results of a feasibility study conducted on thematic textbooks for the fourth grade. see table 1. table 1 the feasibility analysis of grade 4 thematic textbooks no rated components score description 1 2 3 4 5 1 core competencies (sk) √ it is in accordance with the curriculum 2013 because it has brought up sk and kd (but still needs improvement) 2 basic competencies (kd) √ it is in accordance with the curriculum 2013 has brought sk and kd 3 indicator (display subchapter) √ it is in accordance with the curriculum 2013 has brought sk and kd 4 learning materials √ it's good enough and quite interesting 5 learning activities √ pretty good but still presents material quite a lot of learning. 6 evaluation √ not arranged sequentially by using the task form group and independent. pratiwi, et al. the public needs quality textbooks, including students, teachers, and the institution's manager and person in charge of the learning process. a useful textbook cannot be separated from the manufacturing process with basic standards, such as 1) general instructional objectives, now called competency standards/core competencies, 2) specific instructional goals (basic competencies), 3) indicators, 4) learning materials, 5) learning activities described through learning strategies, and 6) evaluation testing the skills. table 2 shows an assessment tool for writing textbooks. table 2 example of assessment toolkit for thematic textbooks for indonesian language subjects learning writing skills no rated components score description 1 2 3 4 5 1 content √ enough 2 organization √ enough 3 grammar √ enough 4 vocabulary √ enough 5 mechanicals √ good from the table above, we can see that the researcher gives a score of 3 for the content component, meaning that it is already focused on the topic. however, some topics are not detailed and can be understood by students. then the organizational component has a value of 3, meaning it is enough. it implies that ideas are expressed clearly, logically, and wellorganized. furthermore, the grammar part has a score of 3, suggesting that it is comparatively good and interesting. the vocabulary part has a score of 3, indicating good words or idioms used. in contrast, the mechanics part has a score of 3, suggesting correct writing. moreover, the table below shows thematic books 1–9 and student worksheets for each theme, which can be used to evaluate the content from an academic point of view and see its possible use. the researcher's content assessment of 4 aligns with the requirements of the 2013 curriculum. the theme's adaptability to the times is thus relatively high, with a value of 3, indicating that the theme has been successfully updated. in addition, the component on methodology receives a 4, indicating that it is very good and interesting; the readability receives a 3, implying that it is relatively good. moreover, the graphic receives a 4, suggesting that it has used writing correctly. contrarily, the motivation receives a 4, indicating that it has provided good encouragement and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 250-264 259 powerful motivation. then, the presentational aspect receives a 3 because it succeeds only on the book's exterior and lacks on the interior. the information above shows that fourth graders require explicit directions and a topic reflecting contemporary trends to benefit from enrichment materials and practice questions. the researcher's content is rated 3 according to the 2013 curriculum. the theme's adaptability is 3, making it comparatively modern. the methodological component has a score of 3, suggesting that it is good and interesting. the readability score is also 3, showing that it is good but not necessarily easy to understand; some students may need help. the graphic component scores 4 because it uses correct writing. however, the motivation component scores 4 because it provides strong encouragement and motivation. nonetheless, the display component scores 3 because it is only good on the book cover but contains too much material. the student worksheets, even though thematic books provide more content but less practice. students' knowledge and outlooks tend to improve after reading contemporary picture books. according to alpiyah et al. (2021), children's picture books encourage creative thinking. according to mitchell (1997), picture books are a hybrid of visuals and text. pictures are worthless as narrative devices unless accompanied by words. the pictures and text in picture books work well together to tell a story. pictures and words are two kinds of media, as suggested by lukens (1998). together, they will comprise a whole in the illustrated book. the above discussion leads one to conclude that the textbooks the teacher employs are comparatively suitable for presentation, language, and graphics. nevertheless, they could not satisfy all parties, according to the findings from the resource persons, both from the perspectives of students and class teachers teaching subjects in indonesian. it was true from the theme's perspective, the content's appropriateness, the provision of motivation, and the appearance. transforming characters of four disciple the figures of the four-disciple: semar, gareng, petruk and bagong are popular for indonesian students especially who reside in java island. the moral value of each figure is used for the live philosophy for the javanese. based on the characters of each figure, students are encouraged to write a paragraph based on the character of the figures. in the complex passages students are asked to write a longer text more than one paragraph. the story's characters serve as a teaching pratiwi, et al. tool for students in this interactive digital book. after learning from the characters, students also think they want to follow or imitate what the characters in the story do. from the text of writing, students expose characters adopted from the four-disciple. the characters include: (1) patient, (2) responsible, (3) diligent, (4) hard work, (5) respecting parents (6) pious, (7) cheerful, and (8) get along well with the family. the characters have been adapted in the students’ writing and they are expressed in the flow of ideas in the paragraph level. the context of the characters may appear because semar is the father. gareng, petruk and bagong are brothers that are cheerful, responsible and diligent. specific characters that this study implies are they are religious and respect much to parents or older brothers. in context of teaching the digital book story is essential for enhancing the elementary school learning environment focusing on developing students' writing abilities. previous studies have also confirmed these findings, stating the necessity of digital storybooks to improve elementary school students writing abilities. many studies have found the need for picture storybooks to improve writing skills, such as writing deficiencies in various sectors. munirah et al. (2019) reported that third graders at sd negeri 37 pa'rasangang beru, bantaeng regency had low writing ability. none of the 35 students scored 85 on the writing test. eliyanti et al. (2020) found that students' writing skills are low because minimal teaching materials are present and not all curricula are covered. thirtythree of the students studied lacked the qualifications to write very good scientific articles. nearly 50% of elementary school children struggling with reading also struggle with writing, causing learning loss (thomas et al., 2020). researchers see learning loss as an educational setback (engzell & verhagen, 2021). teachers can use digital media to bring lessons to life to solve the problems described above. multimedia can make the past seem alive and tangible, according to bulter & clouse (1994). matthews (2012) say textbooks promote appropriate learning. they can highly impact children's lives with a developmentally and maturely appropriate learning environment to achieve learning goals. furthermore, elementary schools need thematic teaching materials. digital teaching materials strengthen students' character to allow them to withstand globalization. digital picture storybook is one such resource. the findings show that students required picture storybooks. the book is a resource that educators can use to encourage students to develop their reading interest and their social skills. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 250-264 261 students' immediate surroundings can inspire both the characters and settings in the story they are writing. students may find it helpful to use reflective question sheets to participate in selfassessment activities. therefore, it is essential to create a digital picture book based on character education for the character of wayang punokawan. this study has a novelty that teaching writing using model of local figures can be innovated using digital textbook. as the book becomes interesting for students, the contents can be well written by students. additionally, characters education that adopt the figures are easily imitated through writing. conclusion this study’s findings indicate that the presentation of data, language, and graphics in the textbooks utilized by the instructor has high quality. it is valid from both students’ and class teachers’ perspectives who teach indonesian language subjects. however, according to the findings of the resource persons, the appearance, the provision of motivation, the theme, and the appropriateness of the content are not sufficient to satisfy all parties. the findings also show that the initial condition of the storybooks used in elementary schools in the sukoharjo regency is good. however, more local material is needed in those schools. in addition, an immediate demand exists for digital picture storybooks that can help teachers and students improve their writing skills. this demand extends to both students and teachers because educators can use the book to assist students in developing their reading interests and social skills. the students' surroundings could inspire the story's protagonists and settings. students may find that the addition of reflective question sheets is helpful when conducting a self-assessment of their learning. accordingly, it is necessary to create a digital picture book based on the concept of character education inspired by the character of wayang punokawan. this study has its limitation in that the study subjects are elementary students. it may produce paucity in developing the writing products and the characters the student will adopt. future research is suggested to assign research subjects involving high school students though independent study. the scope of writing can also be developed in terms of argumentative essay or scientific writing. pratiwi, et al. references afriyanti, i., & somadayo, s. (2020). pemanfaatan media cerita rakyat sebagai upaya membangun kreativitas anak. pedagogik, 7(2). alpiyah, a., ambarita, a., & pargito, p. (2021). the development of environment-based picture storybooks to increase the fourth-grade students’ reading interest. international journal of educational studies in social sciences (ijesss), 1(3), 118-120. arvaja, m., rasku-puttonen, h., häkkinen, p., & eteläpelto, a. (2003). constructing knowledge through a role-play in a web-based learning environment. journal of educational computing research, 28(4), 319–341. budiharso, t, makruf, i, mujahid, i. (2022). porter’s five forces: evaluating education management practices for the postgraduate program of uin rm said surakarta, indonesia. journal of social studies education research. 13(1), 164-192, https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4035 bulter, j. d., & clouse, r. w. (1994). educational technology and the teaching of history: promise. practice. chaparro-moreno, l. j., reali, f., & maldonado-carreño, c. (2017). wordless picture books boost preschoolers’ language production during shared reading. early childhood research quarterly, 40, 52–62. cohen, m. i. (2017). wayang in museums: the reverse repatriation of javanese puppets. theatre journal, 69(3), 361–381. creswell, j, w (2012). research design: pendekatan kualitatif, kuantitatif, dan mix method. pustaka pelajar. dayu, d. p. k., & anggrasari, l. a. (2017). pengaruh penggunaan media big book writing terhadap keterampilan menulis bahasa indonesia siswa kelas 5 sd negeri 1 pilangbango madiun. al-bidayah: jurnal pendidikan dasar islam, 9(1), 21–32. donohue, d. (2020). culture, cognition, and college: how do cultural values and theories of intelligence predict students’ intrinsic value for learning?. journal of culture and values in education, 4(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 dwistyawan, d. m. t., & setiawan, t. a. (2017). pengenalan tokoh wayang dalam cerita ramayana dengan menggunakan media board game untuk masyarakat. nirmana, 17(2), 102–109. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4035 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.3 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 250-264 263 eliyanti, e., taufina, t., & hakim, r. (2020). pengembangan bahan ajar keterampilan menulis narasi dengan menggunakan mind mapping dalam pembelajaran tematik di sekolah dasar. jurnal basicedu, 4(4), 838–849. engzell, p., frey, a., & verhagen, m. d. (2021). learning loss due to school closures during the covid-19 pandemic. proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 118 (17). ernawati, y. (2018). telaah buku teks tematik terpadu kelas iv sd kurikulum 2013. jurnal ilmiah bina edukasi, 11(2), 109-123. faridah, e. (2022). the need of english for indonesian young learners: student’s perspective and learning difficulties. uicell conference proceeding, 235–257. genlott, a. a., & grönlund, å. (2013). improving literacy skills through learning reading by writing: the iwtr method presented and tested. computers & education, 67, 98–104. graham, s. (2019). changing how writing is taught. review of research in education, 43(1), 277–303. gunio, m. (2021). determining the influences of a hidden curriculum on students’ character development using the illuminative evaluation model. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 194-206. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.11 haerazi, h., & irawan, l. (2020). the effectiveness of ecola technique to improve reading comprehension in relation to motivation and self-efficacy. international journal of emerging technologies in learning (ijet), 15(1), 61–76. huy, n. t. (2015). problems affecting learning writing skill of grade 11 at thong linh high school. asian journal of educational research, 3(2). igba, d. i., nwajiuba, c. a., nwafor, c. e., elom, c., & obianika, e. c. (2019). using folklores for inculcating values in adolescents in secondary schools. international journal of applied environmental sciences, 14(2), 129-144. kim, d., coenraad, m., & park, h. r. (2021). digital storytelling as a tool for reflection in virtual reality projects. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 101-121. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.9 koster, m. p., tribushinina, e., de jong, p., & van den bergh, h. h. (2015). teaching children to write: a meta-analysis of writing intervention research. journal of writing research, 7(2), 299–324. lukens, r. j. (1998). a critical handbook of children's literature. diane publishing. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.11 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.9 pratiwi, et al. matthews, robert. (2012). constructivism philosophical educationally examined. international educational journal, 6, 386–399. mitchell, t. m. (1997). machine learning. mcgraw-hill. 154-200. munirah, m., bahri, a., & fatmawati, f. (2019). pengaruh penggunaan media gambar seri terhadap keterampilan menulis cerita dongeng siswa kelas iii sd. jkpd (jurnal kajian pendidikan dasar), 4(2), 731-740. raihani, r. (2007). education reforms in indonesia in the twenty-first century. international education journal, 8(1), 172–183. rosmiati, a., kurniawan, r. a., prilosadoso, b. h., & panindias, a. n. (2020). aspects of visual communication design in animated learning media for early childhood and kindergarten. international journal of social sciences, 3(1), 122–126. setiawan, d., sopandi, w., & hartati, t. (2020). the influence of read, answer, discuss, explain, and create (radec) learning model on the concept mastery of elementary school students on the water cycle topic. journal of physics: conference series, 1521(4), 042113. strickland, d. s., & riley-ayers, s. (2006). early literacy: policy and practice in the preschool years. preschool policy brief, 10(4), 1–12. solikhah, i., tarman, b., budiharso, t. (2022). improving argumentative writing through imrad to indonesian efl learners. eurasian journal of applied linguistics, 8(1), 241253. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.32601/ejal.911533 sugiyono, s. (2016). metode penelitian kuantitatif, kualitatif, dan r & d. alfabeta. tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.02.02.ed thomas, l. j. g., gerde, h. k., piasta, s. b., logan, j. a. r., bailet, l. l., & zettler-greeley, c. m. (2020). the early writing skills of children identified as at-risk for literacy difficulties. early childhood research quarterly, 51, 392–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.01.003 trismanto, t. (2017). keterampilan menulis dan permasalahannya. bangun rekaprima: majalah ilmiah pengembangan rekayasa, sosial dan humaniora, 3(1, april), 62–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.32601/ejal.911533 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.02.02.ed article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (1),38-60 38 pragmatic forces in the speech acts of efl speakers at kampung inggris, indonesia muhamd mukhroji1, joko nurkamto2, h.d. edi subroto3 & sri samiati tarjana4 abstract this study examines the kinds of speech acts that are performed by efl learners at kampung inggris, kediri, indonesia and the reasons behind them. the speech act theory put forward by austin (1962) and searle (1969) emphasizes locutionary acts, where five categories of speech acts (i.e. directive, expressive, declarative, assertive, and commissive) are the focus of investigation. this study selected 75 students and 12 teachers for its sample. advanced-level proficiency students were observed in four settings: a classroom, a café, in the temple, and an english base camp. the results show how pragmatic forces manifest in directives (e.g. commands, requests, advice) at 35.3%, expressives (e.g. greetings, thanks, and congratulations) at 25.9%, declaratives (e.g. baptising someone, pronouncing someone guilty) at 13.9%, assertives (e.g. statements, explanations) at 12.9%, and commissives (e.g. promises, threats, and agreements) at 12%. the problems students experienced with speech acts concerned the modeling of speech acts, a lack of competence with performing various speech acts, poor strategies for selecting and using a certain speech act, and less exposure to, and awareness of, using pragmatic competence. keywords: pragmatic force, speech act theory, kampung inggris, origin, searle. introduction the notion of a speech act forms the central premise of this study. austin’s theory argues that all utterances, together with their meanings, perform specific actions through particular forces (amakali, 2016). levinson (1983) indicates that austin’s notion of doing through words is guided by three simultaneously performed acts: locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. the meaning of a speech act is derived through a dynamic process that involves units, such as the form, context, and function of the utterance (kaburise, 2004). the linguistic term that is used to refer to the intention or force of an utterance can vary, and example terms include speech act, illocutionary act, dialogue act, discourse act, and speech function (schiffrin, 2005). this study investigates a pragmatic area concerning the use of speech acts by a particular group of speakers 1doctor candidate in linguistcs, sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: adjie_chadel@yahoo.com 2 prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: jokonurkamto@gmail.com 3 prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; 4prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; mailto:adjie_chadel@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 of english as a foreign language (efl). one argument posits that speech acts involve manipulating the form, function, and context of a language. speech act theory (sat) represents an utteranceanalysis tool for establishing a connection between grammatical forms and language functions in specific contexts (sotillo, 2017). searle (1969, p. 7) states that “the theory of speech act starts with the assumption that the minimal unit of human communication is not a sentence or other expression but rather the performance of certain kinds of acts, such as making statements, asking questions, giving orders, describing, explaining, apologizing, thanking, congratulating.” this study, however, excludes politeness from its focus. the objective of this study is to describe the pragmatic forces embedded in the illocutionary acts performed by students learning english as a foreign language (efl) in pare, kediri, indonesia. kampung inggris is located in tulungrejo and pelem village, pare, kediri, indonesia. it is a center for informal english teaching serving 180 institutions with around 300 students each. a total of 54,000 students come from indonesia and various other countries, such as malaysia, thailand, korea, vietnam, jordan, south africa, japan, and iran. the term kampung inggris was first coined by mr. kalend, an inspired local man, in 1976 to label his english course, which has now been legally registered as kampung inggris kalend. performatives are utterances that do not just say something—they actively change the reality they describe (levinson, 1983). a performative is therefore essentially a sentence spoken to achieve something other than convey content that could be either true or false (nuccetelli & seay, 2008). in this study, sat is used to analyze the corpus resulting from analysing the conversations between learners in four distinctive contexts: a classroom, a café, an english camp, and in the temple. based on the study of sotillo (2017), this research applies sat in the context of conversational analysis. sat attempts to explain how speakers apply language in order to achieve their goals or actions and how the recipients of a message infer the speaker’s intended meaning (sotillo, 2017). sat also allows researchers to explain the intended meaning of a discourse by identifying and coding it as illocutionary acts, whereas conversation analysis focuses on the coconstruction and negotiation of meaning during direct interactions or recorded conversations (sotillo, 2017). mukhroji, et. al. research into sat (e.g. sotillo, 2017; schriffin, 2005; kaburise, 2004) suggests that sat analysis is based on the premise that utterances are performed for specific functions, and a certain structural arrangement of constituents needs to be articulated. there is also agreement that pragmatics represents a system of rules that defines the relationship between meaning and context, and this occurs when matching functions within a certain language choice in a specific context. a pragmatic investigation is therefore a combination of a syntactic/semantic examination and the study of meaning in relation to speech situations, so pragmatic analysis deals with the meaning of an utterance rather than the meaning of a sentence (kaburise, 2004). sotillo (2017) outlines in his study that in sat, functional units of communication have locutionary or propositional meaning (i.e. the literal meaning of what is said), illocutionary meaning (i.e., the intended meaning of what is said), and a perlocutionary force (i.e., the effect of what is said on the message’s recipient). in analyzing an utterance, austin (1962, 1976) introduces three constituent elements, namely the locutionary act (the act of speaking something), the illocutionary act (the act in speaking something), and t h e perlocutionary act (the act performed by speaking something). speech act analysis mainly deals with the latter two acts. an illocutionary act represents an utterance with an illocutionary force, such as asserting, arguing, advising, or promising something. a perlocutionary act, meanwhile, should be limited “to the intentional production of effects on (or in) the hearer. our reason is that only reference to intended effects is necessary to explain the overall rationale of a given speech act” (bach & harnish, 1979, p. 17). brown (2000, p. 223) indicates that “illocutionary competence consists of the ability to manipulate the functions of the language.” thus, the functions o f linguistic forms should b e taught in an efl language classroom, so learners can both understand and produce functional language that will be effective f o r communication. according to brown (2000, p. 223), “second language learners need to understand the purpose of communication, developing an awareness of what the purpose of a communication act is and how to achieve that purpose through linguistic form.” the types of illocutionary acts employed vary according to the speaker’s perspective, thus emphasizing the most common and comprehensive principles of searle’s (1979) speech act taxonomy. some previous studies are reviewed here to consider their findings. ali, kristina and sumarlam (2017) conducted research on assertive speech acts in relation to politeness principles. journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 they identified assertive speech acts as including admitting, assuring, informing, reporting, arguing, and affirming. azhari, priono and nuriadi (2018), meanwhile, investigated the speech acts of classroom interaction. their results indicate four types of speech acts: directives (imperative), assertives, expressions, and commissives, with imperatives being the most frequently performed, indicating a lack of pragmatic competence among students. searle (1985) indicates that expressive speech acts can be divided into apologizing, thanking, condoling, congratulating, complaining, lamenting, protesting, deploring, boasting, complimenting, greeting, and welcoming. tauchid and rukmini (2016) investigated the expressive acts appearing on wayne rooney’s facebook page. they revealed that expressive speech acts appear in terms of congratulating, complimenting, thanking, and boasting. most utterances were dominated by expressive speech acts of boasting. saddhono and fatma (2016), meanwhile, examined the use of local language in social interactions in south sulawesi. their results revealed that local language was used in imperative, interrogative, and declarative acts, with it serving prohibitive, suggestive, requestive, and permissive functions. the current study is concerned with speech acts in the context of efl, where pragmatism is pivotal to achieving discourses where speech acts act as inputs to language learning. scholars, as summarized by azhari, priono and nuriadi (2018) agree that in the context of efl learning, studies into speech acts pay attention to the units and categories of speech acts (searle, 1976), the ways of performing speech acts (searle, 1965, 1975; grice, 1975), the meaning, and the deep and surface structures related to analyzing performatives in a conversational context (sadock, 1970). this study takes an efl context where an english-learning community is developed based on the basic principle that learning can take place in the most natural settings. this community involves around 54,000 students. it has established new, strong rules for english-language teaching in general, and it specifies pragmatic models that enhance and contribute to pragmatic practices and pragmatic teaching. cultural interactions among the students—which come from not just the diverse regions of indonesia but also from other countries, such as vietnam, malaysia, cambodia, jordan, and africa—provide opportunities for improving our knowledge of pragmatic analysis. speech acts that deliver directives, assertives, commissive, declaratives, and expressives, along with their intended functions, vary considerably in this community, providing new evidence to improve the body of literature for pragmatic competence. mukhroji, et. al. by reviewing accounts of these speech acts and events, our analysis also focuses on the contribution of speech act theory to language acquisition, leading us to the belief that speech acts classification is a crucial aspect of learning a language and achieving communicative competence. with this background in mind, the following research questions guide this research: 1) what types of speech act are found in the interactions among the efl community of kampung inggris? 2) what kinds of speech act manifest the most among the efl community of kampung inggris and why? literature review pragmatics pragmatics is defined as “the societally necessary and consciously interactive dimension of the study of language” (mey, 1993, p. 315). crystal (1997, p. 301), meanwhile, defines pragmatics as “the study of language from the point of view of users, especially of the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction and the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication.” these definitions emphasize pragmatics as a “social interaction,” t h u s underscoring pragmatics not just as the action of communication (speaking, writing), because the action also has an effect on its recipients. pragmatics is the study of applying language within particular circumstances and communicative situations (schiffrin, 2005; sotillo, 2017). in pragmatics, speech acts are the underlying actions we perform when we speak to convey various purposes, such as informing, commanding, promising, refusing, and so on. these speech acts therefore tell us what a speaker intends us to do within the propositional content of what he or she says (schiffrin, 2005). according to sotillo (2017), understanding speech acts requires recognizing how messages vary, such as in the following aspects: what is being communicated or the particular speech act being enacted (leech, 1983); the people taking part, as well as their intentions and knowledge of the world and what impact these have on their interactions; the context; any deductions made within that context; and what can be implied from what is said (watson & hill, 1993; thomas, 1995). journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 schiffrin (2005) argues that a speech act is identified by the production of an utterance that provides appropriate constraints for our responses. after each utterance, conversational expectations are implicitly or explicitly formed, thus serving as an understanding for a later conversation, producing a relevant and appropriate response, and giving an ability to identify if and when an interaction goes awry. schiffrin (2005) indicates that a speech act can generally be inferred from three properties: (1) the content of the utterance, which is the proposition expressed by it; (2) the force or mood of the utterance expressed through descriptive, prescriptive, and requestive markers, which roughly correspond to the traditional declarative, imperative and interrogative mood types; and (3) the position of the utterance within a conversation. schiffrin (2005) further states that in a normal conversation, for a natural language utterance, it is not enough to know the grammatical category of all the words in the utterance, the conventional meaning associated with each word, and how such meanings combine to form an overall meaning. furthermore, schiffrin (2005) clarifies that before a specific meaning (i.e. the one intended by the speaker) is perceived, the listener must have a clear understanding of the context in which the utterance occurred, and this understanding relies upon “on our assumption that a reason is being expressed for an action performed in speaking” (brown & yule, 1983). both the action and the reason for it are made known by the speakers through their location within a conventional structure of spoken interaction (schiffrin, 2005). in addition, hymes (1972) proposes a schema for what he calls speech events to break down the constituents of a context into units of analysis that he identifies as a speaking grid, as shown in table 1. table 1. the speaking grid of dell hymes (1972) s setting, scene the temporal and physical circumstances and the subjective definition of an occasion p participants the speaker, sender, addressor, hearer, receiver, audience, and/or addressee e ends the purposes, goals, or outcomes a act sequence the message form and content k key the tone or manner i instrumentalities the channel (e.g. verbal, non-verbal, physical forms of speech drawn from a community repertoire) n norm of interpretation and the interpretation specific properties attached to speaking and interpretation norms within cultural belief systems g genre textual categories mukhroji, et. al. sat the creators of sat, austin (1962) and his student searle (1969), indicate that a particular act takes place when utterances are made (dylgjeri, 2017). austin (1962) suggests speech acts as the theory of “how to do things with words.” austin (1962) further divides speech acts into three categories: (1) the locutionary act, which is the act of saying something (the act of producing an utterance); (2) the illocutionary act, which has an intended meaning; and (3) the perculotionary act, which, unlike locutionary acts, influences the feelings, thoughts, or actions of the listener. for example, perlocutionary acts could be inspiring, comforting, persuading, promising, encouraging, and so on. they can affect the beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours of the addressee. levinson (1981) describes a perlocutionary act as an utterance’s consequences, whether intended or unintended. prior to austin’ (1962) and searle’ (1969) works, a classification of speech functions was proposed by malinowski (1923) for two broad areas (pragmatic and magical) that focus on religious activity in the language of a culture. in addition, karl buhler (1934) applied a concept from plato in categorizing the functions of utterances into the expressive function (language oriented toward the self, the speaker); the conative function (language orientated toward the listener); and t h e representational function (language oriented toward anything other than the speaker and listener). in the era that followed, scholars such as bach and harnish (1969), vendler (1972), and allan (1986) proposed their own perspectives, as summarized in table 2. table 2. a comparison of the five classifications of illocutionary types austin (1962) searle (1969) vendler (1972) bach & harnish (1969) allan (1986) expositives assertives expositives assertives statements commissives commissives commissives commissives behabitives expressives behabitives acknowledgement expressives exercitives directives interrogatives directives invitationals exercitives authoritatives verdictives declaratives verdictives verdictives operatives effective although there are differences in the above classifications, they all seek ways of constructing a conceptual framework for language functions, much like what austin (1962) and searle (1969) engaged in when austin wrote his book how to do things with words. according to austin (1962), utterances comprise the performative and constative, each performing a kind of journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 action, rather than merely stating something that could be true or false. utterances containing verbs like declare, promise, object, pronounce, and name (among others) are performatives, while all “ordinary” declaratives that describe, report, or state can be assessed in terms of truth and falsity (e.g. “it is raining.”) and are therefore constatives (schiffrin, 2005). austin’s (1962) work on five classes of illocutionary acts (schiffrin, 2005) was later improved by his student searle (sotillo, 2017), as set out in table 3. table 3. summary of the speech acts models of austin (1962) and searle (1969) no austin’s (1962) model fo speech acts searle’s (1969) revised model 1 expositives make clear how one’s utterances fit into a general argument or discussion, such as “i assume,” as well as with verbs like postulate, state, deny, remark, inform, ask, testify, accept, correct, deduce, interpret, illustrate, and so on. assertives/representatives are statements to describe a state of affairs under the assumption that the utterance has a truthful proposition. the speaker tries to form words that match the world, as is seen in assertions, statements, claims, and suggestions. 2 exercitives are “...an assertion of influence or exercising of power,” such as to order, warn, bequeath, advise, nominate, and so on. directives are statements to compel or encourage another person’s actions to comply with the propositional element, and they are intended to get the listener to carry out an action (e.g. command, request, invite, dare, or challenge). it aims to cause the listener to take a particular action, such as through a request, command, or a piece of advice. 3 commissives promise or give an undertaking, so the speaker commits to performing a certain action. this includes declarations and intentions, such as to undertake, promise, sign a covenant or contract, swear, bet, or plan. commissives are statements t h a t commit the speaker to a certain future action. the speaker floats some particular future course of action, such as in the form of a promise, offer, threat, or vow. 4 verdictives—such as the giving of verdicts, by a jury, referee, arbitrator, for example— may not be final, because they may be an estimate, reckoning, appraisal, clarification, o r argument, for example. they are exercises of judgment, such as to acquit, convict, rule, estimate, value, calculate, or analyse. expressives are statements to express the sincerity of a speech act, such as through sympathy or excuses. 5 behabitives is a miscellaneous group that relates to attitudes and social behaviours (e.g., apologies, thanks, sympathies, resentment, welcomes, blessings, and so on.) declaratives are statements that say something, such as pronouncing someone guilty or declaring a war. searle’s approach (1969) differs from that of austin (1962) in that he was unhappy with the distinction austin drew between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. he especially disliked, and indeed rejected altogether, the distinction between the first two. he saw locutionary acts as being constitutive of illocutionary acts, so he therefore advocated a rigorous and systematic investigation of the third type alone (schiffrin, 2005). mukhroji, et. al. searle (1969) initially considered the opportunity for classifying speech acts according to their felicity conditions (i.e. the necessary conditions for the successful performance of a particular speech act). such conditions include the essential conditions (the kind of illocutionary act that the utterance represents), the propositional content conditions (the kind of propositional content the speech act will have), the preparatory conditions (the contextual requirements, such as the speaker’s or listener’s ability or willingness to act), and the sincerity conditions (the speaker’s psychological state being expressed in the speech act) (schiffrin, 2005; sotillo, 2017; kaburise, 2004). according to searle (1969), each speech act must meet four felicity conditions before it is a successful act, namely asht, where a=act; s=speaker; h=hearer; t=utterance (kaburise, 2004). (1) propositional content: a must be a future act of s. (2) preparatory conditions: the promise must be something h wishes to be done, or at least would rather have done than not, where in a normal course of events, s would not perform the act. (3) sincerity condition: s aims to do a. (4) essential condition: s expects utterance (t) to oblige him to do a. this brief summary of speech acts illustrates how the “discovery” of speech acts has brought new insights into the use of natural language. it shows a deeper understanding of wh y language study should not just deal with linguistic form per se but also analyse how linguistic choice meets the demands of a specific context to realize effective communication (kaburise, 2004). there are functions of language (e.g., ordering, requesting, and apologizing), and each function is characterized through a specific linguistic feature. effective communication therefore means making an appropriate linguistic choice (schiffrin, 2005; sotillo, 2017; kaburise, 2004). methods design and setting this study is qualitative in nature in that it uses a corpus of speech acts as its data. located in pare district, kediri regency, kampung inggris engages approximately 54,000 students from some 180 institutions, with these students coming from all over indonesia as well as many other countries. the settings for this study included classrooms, cafes in the surrounding campus, a temple as a learning setting, and an english camp. the main goal was to observe informal speaking activities, thus allowing learners to make errors, speak unacceptable utterances, and hit linguistic journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 and psychological barriers (mukhroji, 2018). activities in the camp started between 5:00-6:30 am and ended at 7:00-9:00 pm. all students were involved in the camp for speaking activities. cafes were other settings for engaging in speaking practices, with ten cafes being available in the surrounding campus. the researcher conducted the research over a five-month period from june to october 2018. participants the 237 participants for this study (as shown in table 4) comprised 225 students and 12 teachers. four institutions were selected as research subjects, thus representing the elementary, intermediate, and advanced levels. the 12 teachers taught the classes that the researcher observed in the research settings. students’ levels of achievement were distributed as follows: elementary (32.1%), intermediate (31.2%), and advanced (31.6%). the institutions, students, and teachers were selected based on purposive sampling techniques. they were available for the investigation as recommended by the course managers with the agreement of the classroom teachers and camp authority. table 4. subjects for the study no course/institution le tm dv teacher total pelem site 1 basic english course (bec) 20 18 20 3 61 2 mahesa institute (mi) 18 20 18 3 59 subtotal 38 38 38 6 120 tulungrejo site 3 global english course (gec) 20 18 20 3 61 4 oxford english course (oec) 18 18 17 3 56 subtotal 38 36 37 6 117 grand total 76 74 75 12 237 rate percentage 2.1 31.2 31.6 5.1 100 of the 237 students, the 75 advanced-level students were involved more in this study. these advanced-level students engaged with questionnaires, observations, and interviews throughout the entire research process. these 75 students were considered appropriate for collecting data about speech acts, with them having adequate proficiency in english for their pragmatic competence to be considered sufficient when using speech acts. in the classroom observations, elementary and intermediate students were also observed to enrich the survey data. no records were taken in the classrooms other than field notes about speech act attainments and strategies for how the students accomplished pragmatic competence. mukhroji, et. al. data collection techniques this study focused on illocutionary meaning and the functional orientation of the discourse (sotillo, 2017). searle’s (1969, 1979) basic taxonomy of five types of illocutionary acts was used to identify, classify, code, and subsequently tag the speech acts. the discourse originated from the context of conversations when an illocutionary act is defined as a propositional unit. linguistic elements such as greetings and taking leave; expressive, phatic, and conative interjections; and onomatopoeic speech act verbs (a subset of interjections) were also categorized as speech acts (tsai & huang, 2003). greetings and farewells that comprised more than one word (e.g. “hi, how are you?”), common acronyms, initialisms, and abbreviations were coded depending on the context of the exchange as being expressive, assertive, or some other category (sotillo, 2017). the data for this study were collected using four techniques: questionnaire, observation, interview, and documentation. the questionnaire was used to collect demographic data and survey general information. other data obtained from the questionnaire included students and teachers stating which speech acts were easiest to perform, their problems in performing speech acts, and their strategies to develop speech acts. observation was used to collect data from the verbal interactions taking place in the english camp, cafes, and fgd (focus group discussion). a video camera was used in the observation process to record data. observations took place three times for each class, and a semi-structured approach was used to guide an in-depth interview with teachers and students. each interview was recorded by video camera and took about 15 minutes. data from video recordings were transcribed verbatim to identify speech acts in terms of sentences and conversation corpuses. complimentary to the observations, field notes were prepared to aid the researcher in locating the focus of the study and highlighting identification points for pragmatic competence. documents—including teaching materials and students’ notes, work, and biodata—were collected to support the results. with this in mind, primary data for speech acts were identified from the corpus resulting from the video recording transcripts and field notes. in addition, the transcripts of interview data were used in triangulation, with the secondary data obtained from the documents being used as a complement. data analysis techniques qualitative content analysis was used to analyse the data. more specifically, the data were sorted using thematic analysis to form the domain and taxonomy (spradley, 1985; miles & http://www.helsinki.fi/varieng/series/volumes/12/sotillo/#searle_1969 http://www.helsinki.fi/varieng/series/volumes/12/sotillo/#searle_1979 http://www.helsinki.fi/varieng/series/volumes/12/sotillo/#tsai_huang journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 hubermen, 1994; santosa, 2017) of the speech acts. four steps of analysis were then applied, namely domain, taxonomy, thematic, and componential analysis (spradley, 1985; santosa, 2017). the process of analysis referred to miles and huberman’s (1994) suggestion of data collection, data reduction, data display, and verification-conclusion drawing within a circular model. the analysis format adapted the approaches of ngoc minh vu (2017), bayat (2013), and dylgjeri (2017). first, the performative acts were analysed to identify locutionary acts and their intended meanings. second, five classifications of perlocutionary acts were defined and interpreted. to make sense of the descriptions, numerical features for the types of speech acts, the kinds of utterances, and the reasons behind a typical speech act were illustrated. findings kinds of speech acts frequency of occurrences the first analysis results involved the kinds of speech acts identified from the contexts described in table 5. the analysis revealed the proportion of speech acts in terms of the five taxonomies of austin (1962) and searle (1969), namely directives, assertives, expressives, commissives, and declaratives. table 5. frequency of speech act tokens no kind of speech act functions token % n=108 1 directives 7 subtypes: question, request, suggest, hope, instruct, invite, and order 38 35.3 2 assertives 5 subtypes: inform, conclude, assume, confirm, and accept 14 12.9 3 expressives 3 subtypes: greet, thank, and compliment 28 25.9 4 commissives 3 subtypes: promise, suggest, and agree 13 12.0 5 declaratives 4 subtypes: thank, apologize, welcome, and congratulate 15 13.9 108 100 based on table 5, the frequency of occurrences for speech acts are ranked as follows:  directives 35.3% mukhroji, et. al.  expressives 25.9%  declaratives 13.9%  assertives 12.9%  commissives 12% utterances in speech acts directives directives are used to give orders and lead the listener to take a particular action, such as by requesting, commanding, or advising. some examples are given below:  what is your reason for studying in global english? (question)  next, i invite mr. adin to present his speech. (request)  i think you can send me the information over whatsapp. (suggestion)  i hope we will meet again here next friday. (hope)  okay guys, please raise your voices because we want to record them. (instruction)  we have a meeting tomorrow, and i invite mr. aji to attend. (invitation)  please argue why speaking skills must precede other skills when studying english. (order) assertiveness assertives are statements used to describe a state of affairs, and while ensuring the truthfulness of the propositional content, the speaker tries to make his or her words match reality. this is seen in assertions, statements, claims, and suggestions. examples of this are given below:  our focus is to discuss whether grammar and vocabulary are important when studying english. (inform)  according to me, if a student has a larger vocabulary, he can speak more in english, while grammar forms the rules to control how you speak english. (conclude)  some students listen to english sounds from recordings or from other people, while others read newspapers to enrich their vocabularies. (assume)  is it okay if i choose the topic based on my own interest? (confirm)  you speak different english with my teachers, but now i understand why it is different. (accept) journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 expressives expressives are statements to express t h e sincerity of speech acts through notions like sympathy and excuses. such expressions include greetings, thanks, and compliments.  assalamu alaikum. hello everybody! (greeting)  ms. nidya is very kind. words cannot represent my grateful. (thank)  oh my god! that’s such a surprise! (compliment) commissives commissives are statements that oblige a speaker to take a certain future action, such as through a promise, offer, threat, or vow. three functions are given below:  if you can come, i will give you an oxford english dictionary. (promise)  you should not eat too much rice because you may end up suffering from diabetes. (suggest)  i agree with totok. his argument is perfect. (agree) declaratives declaratives are statements that say something, such as pronouncing someone’s guilt or innocence or declaring a war. example functions include:  mr. ardin has helped us so much. i am grateful for his kindness. (thank)  i think everybody makes mistakes. my apologies. (apologise)  we have a new friend from vietnam. she wants to learn english with us, so i say, “welcome to kampung inggris.” (welcome)  wonderful. i think zulkifli has given a great speech. (congratulate) locutionary analysis the following analysed propositions were taken from various settings to perform the locutionary analysis. 1. locution: “do you want to join the nine-month program? i think it is the best choice, so you can achieve a mastery in english.” illocutionary act: directive (offering and suggesting) mukhroji, et. al. perlocutionary act: encouragement and hopefulness 2. locution: “please look at the examples. three graduates passed from this program and now they have been studying in australia. you have to work like these guys. study how to achieve success.” illocutionary act: directive (appeal) perlocutionary effect: inspiration 3. locution: “everybody should meet a foreigner in borobudur and talk to him in english for about 10 minutes.” illocutionary act: assertive (report). expected perlocutionary effect: hopefulness. 4. locution: “it is hard to do the ielts test, but we must do our best.” illocutionary act: assertive (state). perlocutionary effect: confidence. 5. locution: “i know that mr. kalend is the founder of kampung inggris, and in the digital era, we can do a better job to learn english.” illocutionary act: assertive (state). perlocutionary act: confidence and aspiration. 6. locution: “please remember academic english has a different style. we can learn from the models in the exercises.” illocutionary act: commissive (promise). perlocutionary effect: encouragement and hopefulness. 7. locution: “we will start working hard together to prove to ourselves that we can pass the ielts and study in a top australian university.” illocutionary act: commissive (promise). perlocutionary act: happiness and hopefulness. 8. locution: “i don’t believe it! so great. i just write my ideas following the example, and i correct the grammar by myself. i didn’t know that i received the highest score in the test.” illocutionary act: declarative (surprise) perlocutionary effect: inspiration and suggestion journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 9. locution: “thank you for giving me a second opportunity to comment. the presentation of tomy was good, while the presentation of wiwik was, well, not so bad. i appreciate that you worked very well.” illocutionary act: declarative (thank and criticize) perlocutionary effect: motivation reasons for selecting speech acts the reasons for employing various kinds of speech acts were explored through interviews. learners said that each speech act involves a certain degree of difficulty, and they tend to prefer the easiest option. as we can see from table 6, the order of difficulty for a performing speech act mirrors its frequency of occurrence. table 6. levels of difficulty for speech acts no speech act functions advanced level n=75 teacher n=12 f % f % 1 directives question, request, suggest, hope, instruct, invite, and order 18 24 4 33.3 2 expressives greet, thank, and compliment 16 21.3 3 25 3 declaratives thank, apologize, welcome, and congratulate 15 20 2 16.7 4 assertives inform, conclude, assume, confirm, and accept 14 18.7 2 16.7 5 commissives promise, suggest, and agree 12 16 1 8.3 75 100 12 100 as table 6 suggests, directive speech acts comprise general acts that are common in communication practices. various communication manifests through directive acts, so it is reasonable for this study’s english speakers to reflect this. in addition, the functions of this act can be replicated in other speech acts. for example, this study identifies a “suggestion” appearing in both directive and declarative acts. the level of difficulty in performing a certain speech act is associated with informal exposures and patterns that the teacher exemplifies throughout the teaching process. a model is then adopted based on the teacher’s performance, and this exposure encourages students to apply speech acts in various circumstances. the evidence for all types of implemented speech indicates that the learners are aware of applying pragmatic competence when communicating with others. the interview results also indicate that there are five conditions where learners cite barriers to performing well in communication, namely:  models for speech acts; mukhroji, et. al.  lack of competence in performing various speech acts;  strategies for selecting and performing certain speech acts;  less exposure to classroom and social interactions; and  awareness of using pragmatic competence. models for speech acts are patterns that teachers exemplify in the classroom or during communication. such models are initially adopted by students and then modified to result in an adapted performance. edi testified, “however, models are not enough. we need competency to perform. if our vocabulary or knowledge of grammar are not matched, we are difficult to perform.” according to ms. nidya, a teacher of global english, a lack of competence in performing speech acts occurs in various interactions in the classroom and within social settings. gradually, this lack of competence is overcome as students encounter new experiences during their study. mr. muhtar, a teacher specialized in ielts and toefl preparation, asserts , “lack of competence indicates proficiency of english the students acquire. the impact is somewhat the entire teachers should pay attention. students are failed to perform academic success.” evidently, this study indicates that the five handicaps to performing a speech act complement each other. a student needs a model, but he or she performs speech acts inadequately because he or she lacks competence and finds it difficult to select strategies. students’ exposures are limited, so it is hard for them to imitate ideas when expressing speech acts. in addition, an awareness of applying pragmatic competence in communication does not emerge. “we are not aware of teaching the pragmatic competence. we do not know this exactly,” commented ms. nidya. when teaching in the classroom, “our focus is how to encourage students to speak. when writing, how to make them write. we don’t know what materials are taught in what is called as pragmatic competence,” explained mr. ardin, another teacher. “exposures are present. we create forums for various expressions, such as speech, lectures, debates, interviews, and discussion. we provide exposures for many different topics and purposes. however, we have a non-standardized academic english if compared to the university english”, claimed mr. zali. journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 there is an insufficient awareness of using pragmatic competence, and this affects the performance of speech acts according to most teachers, who agree that they do not teach pragmatic competence, nor do they provide models or exemplars for pragmatic acts. discussion, conclusion, and implications this study seeks to identify the kinds of speech acts that manifest in communication among the learners striving to achieve english competency at kampung inggris, kediri, indonesia, as well as learn which speech acts are most frequently applied. the reasons for why such speech acts are typically demonstrated will be discussed in this section. three types of speech acts from austin (1962)—namely locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary—were analysed under the notion that all utterances with their meanings perform actions through certain forces. the speech acts discussed in this study, however, follow searle’s (1969) speech act classifications: assertives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declaratives. our findings revealed a tendency among the efl learners at kampung inggris to use directive speech acts to verbally express their opinions. we discovered that learners demonstrated directive acts most frequently, accounting for 35.3% of the total 108 tokens. directive acts take place through a question, request, suggestion, hope, instruction, invitation, or order. regardless of the directive act, the learners were also capable of using a variety of speech acts, although the functions were limited. the learners also performed expressive speech acts 25.9% of the time, with greeting, thanking, and complimenting being typical of these expressive acts. next came declarative acts at 13.9% through thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and congratulating. in addition, assertives were encountered at 12.9% in terms of informing, concluding, assuming, confirming, and accepting. finally, commissive acts were least prevalent at 12%, and they expressed promise, suggestion, and agreement. our findings evidently contribute to theories for pragmatics and speech acts in two areas. first, speech acts indicate a practice of language that is not focused merely on grammatical form but rather deals with interaction units, namely locution. second, for a learner, performing a speech act is a language-proficiency matter that needs pragmatic competence. in addition, the way that speech acts are performed confirms austin’s (1962) and searle’s (1969) theories about general proficiency with speech acts. mukhroji, et. al. kaburise (2004) admits that language competence is not just about mastering the forms of a language but also its communicative functions, such as to apologize, greet, disagree, accuse, warn, and so on. a mastery of the structural regularities of a language remains a very passive asset if speakers do not exploit it for the purpose of exchanging thoughts, ideas, and feelings between speaker and hearer, writer and reader. while forms are expressions of language, functions are their fruition. in addition, brown (1987) elucidates how communication can be thought of as an arrangement of “acts” with an underlying purpose and intent. it is therefore not just something that occurs: it is functional with a purpose, and it was designed to effect some kind of change in the environment, however subtle or unobservable it may be. according to langton (1993), the ability to perform various speech acts can be a sign of language mastery. langton (1993) further states that such powerful people can do and say more than others can and therefore be more dominant in their speech. in language learning, speech acts indicate the pragmatic competence that a learner is mastering. students who perform various speech acts are indicating their attainment of language proficiency, and they attain greater mastery in using them. ebadi and seidi (2015) indicate that proficiency level is apparent in learners’ strategies for using speech acts. high-proficiency learners adopt indirect strategies in their production, indicating that linguistic development is effective in selecting strategies. house and kasper (1987), meanwhile, revealed that learners used many more direct-request acts than native english speakers, who mostly used indirect forms. a study by bardovi, harlig and harford (1991) revealed, however, that the grammatical ability or general language proficiency assured by standardized tests like toefl does not necessarily guarantee learners’ pragmatic ability, although proficiency clearly does influence pragmatic competence. more exposure to the target language can help learners achieve pragmatic competence. for example, exposing efl learners to authentic target language materials in the classroom and social contexts helps them to become acquainted with the sociocultural differences that exist between languages (ebadi & seigi, 2015). in addition, searle (1969, p. 7) indicates that “the theory of speech act starts with the assumption that the minimal unit of human communication is not a sentence or other expression, but rather the performance of certain kinds of acts, such as making statements, asking questions, giving orders, describing, explaining, apologizing, thanking, congratulating, etc.” this implies that the acquisition of one type of speech act will guide a learner in becoming more skilled with other speech acts. journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 what learners therefore need are models, exposure, and an awareness of performing contextual speech acts. this research has provided evidence for the types of speech act that students perform and the reasons for why they develop such patterns. in short, this study reveals all five kinds of speech act that were defined by austin (1962) and searle (1969). in general, directive speech acts are performed most frequently, because many sorts of directive acts are common in interactions. in order of occurrence, the speech acts and their categories, as observed in this study, were as follows: directives (question, request, suggest, hope, instruct, invite, and order), expressive (greet, thank, and compliment), declarative (thank, apologize, welcome, and congratulate), assertive (inform, conclude, assume, confirm, and accept), and commissive (promise, suggest, and agree). further evidence shows that speech act performance is affected by five conditions: the model for speech acts, the degree of competence with various speech acts, the strategy used to select and use certain speech acts, the degree of exposure in the classroom and social interactions, and the level of awareness of using pragmatic competence. all of these determine the confidence of students and their performance strategies, which in turn reflect on their pragmatic competence and language proficiency. this study is limited in terms of the restricted classroom observation, especially since the complementary data and students’ on-the-ground activities in using english could benefit from more depth and breadth. this implies that future research should combine observations from the classroom with those from social settings, while more in-depth interviews could help uncover greater insights for each type of speech act. in addition, this study reveals strong evidence for a variety of pragmatic practices, so an exploration of the pragmatic competence of efl students in original contexts and their use of the rich variations of pragmatic functions could provide strong evidence to add to pragmatic-based theories. mukhroji, et. al. references ali, s. kristina, d. & sumarlam. (2017). the politeness of assertive speech acts: synergizing the linguistic politeness devices in conflict resolution communication. lingua didaktika, 110(1), 22–35. amakali, l. m. j. (2016). persuasive speech acts in the namibian national assembly. journal of advances in linguistics, 7(2), 1205–1219. arif, z. a. & mugableh, i. a. (2013). speech acts of promising among jordanians. international journal of humanities and social science, 3(13), 248–264. azhari, a., priono & nuriadi. (2018). speech acts of classroom interaction. international journal of linguistics, literature and culture, 4(2), 24–45. austin, j. l. (1962). how to do things with words. oxford: oxford university press. austin, j. l. (1971). performative-constative. in searle, j. r. (ed.). austin, j. l. (1975). how to do things with words: the wiliam james lectures delivered at harvard university in 1955. urmson, j. o. & sbisa, m. (eds.). oxford: clarendon press. bach, k. & harnish, r. (1979). linguistic communication and speech acts. cambridge: mit press. bayat, n. (2012). a study on the use of speech acts. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 70(2013), 213–221. brown, h. d. (2000). principles of language learning and teaching. new york: pearson education. brown, d. (1987). principles of language learning and teaching. new york: prentice hall. brown, g. & yule, g. (1983). discourse analysis. cambridge: cambridge university press. crystal, d. (1997). a dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. oxford: basil blackwell. dylgjeri, a. (2017). analysis of speech acts in political speeches. european journal of social sciences studies. 2(2), 18–26. ebadi, s. & seidi, n. (2015). iranian efl learners request strategies preferences across proficiency levels and gender. journal of applied linguistics and language research, 2(4), 65–73. grice, h. p. (1957). meaning. the philosophical review, 66(3), 377–388. house, j., & kasper, g. (1987). interlanguage pragmatics: requesting in a foreign language. perspectives on language in performance, 2, 1250–1288. journal of social studies education research 2019:10(1), 38-60 hymes, d. (1972). models of the interaction of language and social life in gumperz, j. and hymes, d. (eds.), 35-71. juhi, k. (2016). development of pragmatic awareness of nonnative korean speakers. international journal of language and linguistics, 3(3), 1-20. kaburise, koryoo phyllis. (2004). speech acts theory and communication: an uneven study. (unpublished doctoral dissertation). pretoria: faculty of humanities, university of pretoria. kasper, g., & rose, k. r. (2001). pragmatics in language teaching. cambridge: cambridge university press. langton, r. (1993). speech acts and unspeakable acts. philosophy & public affairs, 22(4), 293330. leech, g. n. (1983). principles of pragmatics. london: longman. levinson, s. c. (1983). pragmatics. cambridge: cambridge university press. malinowski, b. (1923). the problem of meaning. in: halliday, m. (ed.). language context, and text: aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective (3–5). oxford: oxford university press. mey, j.l. (1993). pragmatics. oxford: blackwell. mukhroji, m., nurkamto, j., subroto, e. & tarjana, s. sri. (2018). speech acts in social interactions among efl learners community in kampung inggris kediri. international proceeding, december 2018, conaplin, universitas pendidikan indonesia. bandung. nuccetelli, s. & seay, g. (2008). philosophy of language: the central topics. united kingdom: rowman & littlefield publishers, inc. ngoc minh vu. (2017). teaching pragmatic in english as a foreign language at a vietnamese university: teachers’ perceptions, curricular content, and classroom practices. (unpublished doctoral dissertation). sydney: faculty of educational and social work, university of sydney. rinnert, c., & kobayashi, h. (1999). requestive hints in japanese and english. journal of pragmatics, 31, 1173-1201. saddhono, kundaru & fatma. (2016). the form and function of local language in directive speech act at a university in central sulawesi. lingua cultura, 10(1), 37-42. sadock, j. m. (1974). toward a linguistic theory of speech acts. new york: academic press. mukhroji, et. al. santosa, riyadi. (2017). metode penelitian kualitatif kebahasaan. surakarta: uns press. searle, j. r. (1969). speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. london: cambridge university press. searle, j. r. (ed.) (1971). the philosophy of language. london: oxford university press. searle, j. r. (1975). indirect speech acts in cole, p. & morgan, j. l. (eds.). searle, j. r. (1979). expression and meaning: studies in the theory of speech acts. cambridge: cambridge university press. searle, j. r. (1983). intentionality: an essay in the philosophy of mind. cambridge: cambridge university press. searle, j. r. (1985). expression and meaning: studies in the theory of speech acts. cambridge university press. sotillo m., s. (2017). illocutionary acts and functional orientations of sms texting in sms social networks. montclair state university. accessed on november 14, 2018. schiffrin, a. (2005). modelling speech acts in conversational discourse. (doctoral dissertation). the university of leeds school of computing, leeds. tauchid, a. & rukmini, d.. (2016). the performance of expressive speech acts as found on wayne rooney’s facebook. english education journal, 6(1), 1–10. tsai, i-ni & huang, chu ren. (2003). the semantics of onomatopoeic speech act verbs. institute of linguistics, academia sinica. language, information and computation: proceedings of the 17th pacific asia conference, 1–3 october, 2003, sentosa, singapore: colips publications. thomas, j. (1995) meaning in interaction: an introduction to pragmatics. london: longman. vendler, z. (1967). linguistics in philosophy. ithaca: cornell university press. yule, g. (1996). pragmatics. oxford: oxford university press. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2023:14 (2),195-216 enhancing the student entrepreneurship education model using design thinking and lean canvas approaches muhammad fikry aransyah1, finnah fourqoniah2 lilia pasca riani3 abstract the aim of this study was to develop a student entrepreneurship education model that integrates the design thinking model into the creative problem-solving process and finds solutions to problems through lean canvas. the solutions generated can be translated into a unique value proposition substantiated by ownership of a competitive advantage that is difficult to be imitated by competitors. according to the lean canvas model, merely being a pioneer in a new market cannot be perceived as a competition. further activities for developing entrepreneurial competencies include expanding knowledge, changing the existing mindset, motivating, skills, and the ability to develop businesses through training and mentoring in entrepreneurship, and national virtual entrepreneurship competitions. study participants were recruited from the university of mulawarman, including heads of faculty (n=2), study program coordinators (n=3), lecturers teaching entrepreneurship subjects (n=4), and students (n=76). data were collected and analyzed using observation, interview, and documentation techniques. the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education based on design thinking and lean canvas methodologies was also explored. a successful implementation of these methodologies required integration and synergy between entrepreneurship activities and leveraging the entrepreneurship ecosystem collaboration model. this included a range of activities such as lectures, training, coaching, and business plan competitions. lectures were designed to foster entrepreneurial development based on the local region and strengthen collaborations among associations, businesses, communities, governments, and media ecosystems. the entrepreneurship education program introduced entrepreneurial thinking patterns and business planning through design thinking. business coaching was used to cultivate advanced entrepreneurship competencies and guide business development. the lean canvas method largely focused on validating the compatibility between the problem, the solution, and the market. keywords: abcgm, business coaching, design thinking, entrepreneurship education, lean canvas introduction according to the 2018 global entrepreneurship index (gei) data, indonesia experienced a significant decrease in its gei score compared to the previous year. gei score evaluation is based 1corresponding author: mulawarman university, samarinda, indonesia, email: fikryaransyah@fisip.unmul.ac.id 2dr., mulawarman university, samarinda, indonesia, email: ffourqoniah@fisip.unmul.ac.id 3dr., universitas negeri yogyakarta, samarinda, indonesia email: lilia.pasca.riani@uny.ac.id mailto:fikryaransyah@fisip.unmul.ac.id mailto:ffourqoniah@fisip.unmul.ac.id mailto:lilia.pasca.riani@uny.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 on 14 pillars grouped into three sub-indexes: entrepreneurial attitude, entrepreneurial ability, and entrepreneurial idea. indonesia’s scores were particularly low in pillars such as capturing opportunities, starting ability, product innovation, and process innovation. compared with other asean countries, indonesia ranked 94th and was behind singapore, malaysia, thailand, philippines, and vietnam (ács et al., 2018). to improve the quality of human resources and boost productivity, the indonesian government has adopted relevant measures to promote entrepreneurship education. the national education system law no. 20 of 2003 aims to prepare individuals to be creative, innovative, and productive, contributing to societal, national, and global civilization. entrepreneurship education programs are intended to equip students with an in-depth understanding of entrepreneurial concepts, mindset, and behavior, hands-on experience, and the ability to capitalize on opportunities. however, the success of these programs is impeded by a number of obstacles, such as universities not being prepared to implement them, underutilizing local potential, and focusing too much on products. the decline in indonesia’s gei score underscores the pressing need for a comprehensive approach to promote entrepreneurship and develop the necessary skills and mindset for entrepreneurs. the government’s efforts to incorporate entrepreneurship education in the national curriculum are a step in the right direction. however, universities and the private sector must collaborate to provide students with practical entrepreneurial experience and support to help them realize their full potential. if successful, these efforts can help indonesia create a thriving entrepreneurial ecosystem and improve its ranking in the gei index. entrepreneurship is a field of study that explores an individual’s values, skills, and behaviors in coping with life’s challenges and identifying opportunities while managing concomitant risk factors. as a discipline, entrepreneurship involves a systematic and disciplined process of applying creativity and innovation in accordance with market needs and opportunities. this definition of entrepreneurship includes two important aspects of entrepreneurship education: first, the ability to identify market needs and opportunities, and second, the capability to develop creativity and innovation to meet these market needs and opportunities. entrepreneurship education is an integral aspect of building a sustainable economy and society. it is a process that involves providing individuals with the requisite knowledge and skills that would help them identify opportunities that others may overlook. according to handrimurtjahjo (2013), entrepreneurship education aims to equip students with the insight, self-confidence, and expertise aransyah et al. 197 to act on their ideas and take risks that ultimately lead to success. fayolle (2009) further elaborated on entrepreneurship education by defining it as activities that support the entrepreneurial process. this process begins with developing entrepreneurial mindset, attitude, and skills to generate innovative business ideas that can contribute to economic growth and development. in other words, entrepreneurship education helps individuals acquire the essential skills and knowledge to build, launch, and grow successful businesses. entrepreneurship education encompasses the content, methods, and activities aimed at developing the necessary motivation, competence, and experience that participants require to manage and participate in the process of value creation (rasmussen et al., 2015). in essence, entrepreneurship education is designed to equip individuals with the mindset, attitude, knowledge, skills, and experience necessary to recognize and capitalize on opportunities, start and grow businesses, and create value for themselves and others. entrepreneurship education involves a wide range of content, methods, and activities that are intended to cultivate the entrepreneurial spirit within individuals. it aims to develop the skills and knowledge necessary for creating innovative business ideas and implementing them successfully. this education helps individuals to develop the entrepreneurial mindset and attitude required to take risks, persist through challenges, and recognize and capitalize on opportunities. ultimately, entrepreneurship education aims to develop individuals who are capable of creating and managing successful businesses that contribute to economic growth and social progress. handrimurtjahjo (2013) noted that in certain higher education institutions, entrepreneurship education is implemented in four stages: a creativity program in the first year, a foundation program in the second year, an establishing entrepreneurship program in the third year, and a hatchery program in the fourth year. the first two years of the program are designed for all students in management or business administration programs. on the other hand, the third and fourth years are targeted at selected students with high entrepreneurial character and motivation to establish new start-ups. by providing a structured program that gradually builds entrepreneurial knowledge and skills, students can develop the necessary mindset, knowledge, and expertise required to start and grow successful businesses. the selective nature of the third and fourth years also helps ensure that only the most committed and motivated students pursue the entrepreneurship program, increasing the likelihood of their success in the field. entrepreneurship education in higher journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 education institutions can be tailored to meet local market needs and opportunities while providing a structured program that gradually builds entrepreneurial capacity among students. kodrat and christina (2015) pointed out the process of creating entrepreneurs through education in the faculty of economics at universitas ciputra. the entrepreneurship education process is implemented in two stages, namely: 1) awakening students’ inspiration to cultivate a mindset during the first semester; and (2) building the ability to see opportunities, creativity, and calculating risks, leadership skills, and developing a students’ business network, which is done during the first to the seventh semester. training and/or developing creativity can be accomplished through 4p, which stands for: 1) creative personal formation, 2) motivational driver of creativity, 3) creativity process, and 4) creative product. gasse and tremblay (2006) remarked that promoting entrepreneurship and enhancing the use of creative capacities that have become part of the canadian university environment can be accomplished through actions such as developing a positive attitude toward entrepreneurship, expressing university program and media agreement, presenting entrepreneurship as a lifestyle, promoting entrepreneurial success through social recognition and honor, strengthening talents, monitoring exits for opportunities, and including discovery, invention, and risk-taking in pedagogical content. according to suryana (2013), creativity entails the ability to develop new ideas and approaches for problem-solving and discovering opportunities. innovation, on the other hand, refers to the ability to apply creativity to solve problems and find opportunities. entrepreneurs can create something new and different, such as processes, methods, goods, and services, which adds value and provides an advantage. regional universities can identify market needs and opportunities by understanding the needs of buyers in the local area. creativity and innovation in such universities can take the form of improving existing products, packaging, or creating new products that are not yet available in the area or borrowed from other regions. this approach to entrepreneurship in regional universities focuses on developing solutions that cater to local demands and opportunities. by fostering creativity and innovation among students, regional universities can develop entrepreneurs capable of identifying local market needs and opportunities and devising innovative solutions that satisfy those needs. this approach to entrepreneurship education can help build a sustainable local economy and contribute to social progress. advantage is competitiveness, and competitiveness is the opportunity for success. with creativity, entrepreneurs can see something old and think of something new and different. thus, the true aransyah et al. 199 secret of entrepreneurship lies in creativity and innovation to create something new and different. entrepreneurial success is achieved when someone thinks creatively and innovatively to create something new or reform something old. however, novelty alone is not enough to define a creative product. for a product, including goods or services, to be deemed “creative,” it must also be able to solve a problem or meet a need and aesthetically integrate different elements through continuous improvement (riyanti, 2019). thus, in the development of a creative product, or what is also called “innovation,” understanding the problems of potential consumers is paramount. this is seen in the problem-solving approaches that are based on alex osborn’s technique, such as the cps version 6.1 (treffinger & issaksen, 2005) and the application of design principles in the development of new products as known as the design thinking model (kimbell, 2009). design thinking has demonstrated compatibility with other modern approaches to innovation and entrepreneurial development, including the lean startup methodology (lewrick et al., 2018; mueller & thoring, 2012), the design sprint (knapp, zeratsky, & kowitz, 2016), and business model tools such as the business model canvas (osterwalder & pigneur, 2010) and lean canvas (maurya & mishra, 2012). the broad adoption of the design thinking model can be partly ascribed to its adaptability and ease of integration with other methodologies. academic articles on entrepreneurship education only present general concepts of entrepreneurship education but have not yet revealed its educational design model. the same holds true for articles on design thinking and lean canvas, which are somewhat unfamiliar in indonesia. this study attempted to design an entrepreneurship education model based on design thinking and lean canvas. the primary aim of this study was to create an effective entrepreneurial education program that fosters students’ entrepreneurial competencies at various levels (beginner, intermediate, and advanced) by integrating and synergizing academic-based creative knowledge and skills with entrepreneurship courses. the program focuses on strengthening collaboration between pentahelix stakeholders (academia, business sector, community, government, and media) through the 3c phases of connect, collaborate, and commerce. the study also sought to establish a supportive student entrepreneurship association at the faculty level and evaluate the comprehensive outcomes of the program, including the preparation, implementation, outputs, and achievement of targets. altogether, the study aimed to promote a successful entrepreneurial education ecosystem journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 that encourages collaboration and student– industry partnerships, leading to the sale of products and the growth of student-run businesses. literature review the development of entrepreneurship education based on the design thinking model the design thinking model is a design-based approach methodology that presents a solutionoriented approach to problem-solving (leavy, 2010). the design thinking process is more effective when carried out in a group with a diversity of disciplines and high-thinking tendencies, resulting in a comprehensive understanding. it is worth noting that customer needs are a common criterion to serve as a starting point in the development of solutions, as indicated in the design scope. the process of identifying customer preferences is the first step in which customer understanding is obtained. next, the perspective used in problem-solving and the limitations of the problem are formulated clearly. finally, the process of collecting ideas using brainstorming is carried out to develop various alternative perspectives. to see how these potential ideas or solutions are implemented, making prototypes and testing them plays a crucial role in the continuous improvement process (razzouk & shute, 2012). one form of testing solutions is to ask potential customers to complete a task using the prototype in a realworld environment to identify the various difficulties they may encounter. the results of the testing are then used as the basis for deciding what improvements need to be made. if the gap found is significant and more insights are needed to close it, the design thinking process allows us to repeat the steps undertaken. which stage to repeat depends on the size and type of gap found. the users’ desire to understand their needs and identify problems as well as to determine what has value for them is illustrated in figure 1 of the entrepreneurial ecosystem collaboration model. users aim to find solutions or market fit through validation processes to uncover sustainable and growing business opportunities. users also seek to identify problems or solutions through validation processes by measuring their technological resources. validation processes require matching tools such as design thinking and lean business models. business opportunities and technological feasibility are required and aligned with the entrepreneurial ecosystem collaboration model (sumarno et al., 2018). aransyah et al. 201 figure 1. entrepreneurial ecosystem collaboration model at every stage, the development of creative products or any innovations always originates from understanding and defining customer or user problems. even these approaches are triggered as a result of the emergence of problems that are not well defined or are extremely complex. it can be concluded that solving problems creatively, including design thinking, is present to answer the needs of entrepreneurs who usually operate in uncertain conditions with minimal guidelines (ries, 2011). as one of the creative problem-solving approaches, design thinking seems to have attracted the attention of academics and practitioners since 2007. this is evidenced by the surge in the number of scientific publications, with a total of 23 book-form, journal articles, and other written works that examine or use this approach in the span of one year (johanssonsköldberg et al, 2013). the popularity of design thinking, also referred to as user-centered design by some experts, is supported by the success of ideo, one of the most influential design companies in the world, in developing new products and innovative solutions to tackle social problems (brown et al., 2019). this shows that design thinking is flexible enough to be used in solving a wide range of problems. under the guidance of ideo, studies also indicate that design thinking has been widely used in solving educational problems. the design thinking process is iterative and flexible and focuses on collaboration between the user and the producer of the product or service (liedtka, 2018). its prime emphasis is on how ideas are generated based on the thinking, feeling, and behavior of the consumer. the implementation steps journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 begin with the attraction of empathy, followed by defining the problem, summarizing ideas, creating prototypes, and testing. the initial step in design thinking is to gain an empathetic understanding of the problem at hand. this process involves observing, asking questions, and experiencing the customer or subject’s experience. empathy is critical in this process as it allows the planner to make assumptions based on the user/customer’s needs. in this stage, information is gathered to form the basis for the next stage to produce a comprehensive understanding of the user/customer’s needs and problems. in the define stage, the information obtained in the empathize stage is analyzed according to the observation to identify the main problem faced by the user or customer (barsalou, 2017). for example, writing a problem statement in the define stage is from the user’s perspective. for example, young women require nutritious food for growth. it will be different if defined from the company’s perspective such as: it is necessary to increase the sale of healthy food to young women by 5%. in this stage, the planning team will find ideas that are solutions to the problems faced by customers or users. at this point, the ideation stage has already begun by asking the main questions to find solutions to problems such as: how to motivate young women to do something that will benefit both young women and the healthy food provider company? in the stage of synthesizing ideas, the planner has begun to generate concepts centered on consumer or user needs (luka, 2020). the main guide for the planner is to start thinking creatively to identify new solutions to address the problems previously identified and to employ new alternative perspectives to look at the problem. techniques that can be used in collecting ideas include brainstorming, writing down opinions, and worst-case scenario forecasting. brainstorming and worst-case scenario forecasting are often used to stimulate free-thinking and broaden the understanding of the problem. it is crucial to identify as many solutions as possible in the early stages of ideation, followed by selecting one or several ideas to undergo testing to determine the best solution that satisfies the consumer’s needs. after synthesizing ideas, the next stage is to create prototypes. creating prototypes from ideas is a way to test the product or service that will be sold. prototypes can be tested with people outside of the planning team (dam & siang, 2020). this stage is an experimental phase with the goal of finding the best solution for each problem that has been identified. testing can be in the form of product use or behavioral testing in service sales. this is an iterative process wherein testing results aransyah et al. 203 are frequently used to redefined the problem to once again discover what the user or consumer needs, how they will use it, and how they think, feel, and behave. the creative entrepreneurship approach based on the lean canvas business model in creating new entrepreneurs, besides the skills necessary to effectively solve problems, a framework is needed to describe how a business can create and capture value. business models offer a convenient tool for new entrepreneurs to develop and test new business concepts (geissdoerfer et al., 2018). from this perspective, a business model can be viewed as a prototype of a yet-to-exist or undeveloped business. during the early stages of developing a new business, the business model is often filled with assumptions or hypotheses that are yet to be proven and are a part of the new entrepreneurs’ mental model. new entrepreneurs are tasked with gradually identifying and testing the validity of these hypotheses in their business model. the two most popular business models or tools used in the development of new businesses are the business model canvas and the lean canvas. both of these models have similarities, and each has its own strengths. the business model canvas, designed by alexander osterwalder, is able to provide a more comprehensive description of how a business operates. essentially, the business model canvas consists of nine building blocks that can be grouped into four main categories: value proposition, customer interfaces, company infrastructure, and financial aspects (link, 2016). thus, it is well suited to be used as an operationalization method for strategy, as the relationship between the nine building blocks of the business model canvas provides a clear and holistic view of the key elements that are essential for the success of a business. an adaptation of the business model canvas that is widely used in developing new businesses is the lean canvas, developed by ash maurya (maurya, 2022). the latter emphasizes the importance of creating a business model based on creatively solving customer problems. the solution must be translated into a unique value proposition substantiated by a competitive advantage that is difficult to be imitated by competitors. in lean canvas, simply being a pioneer in a new market is not considered a competitive advantage. however, competitors can be gradually built and do not always have to be owned from the start of a new business development. lean canvas also places a strong emphasis on validation of the compatibility between the problem and the solution as well as the compatibility between the problem and the market. lean canvas itself was adapted by ash maurya from the bmc created by alexander osterwalder (maurya, 2022). journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 figure 2. lean canvas (source: maurya, 2022) the results of prototypes that have undergone testing in the design thinking model are incorporated into the lean canvas business model. the problems that have been solved through design thinking are re-mapped through the lean canvas. the first step in this process is to describe the problem experienced by the user or consumer that needs to be solved. in design thinking, this is the empathy stage, where students learn to empathize and experience the problems faced by the user or consumer. without any user or consumer problems, there will be no product or service to offer. the next step is to determine the problem and the target market, which are interrelated. without specifying the target market, it is not possible to map the problems that will be solved through the product or service offered. this determination of the target market is very important because the business cannot serve all consumers or buyers in the market. there are too many buyers with very diverse needs and wants, so it is necessary to identify which part of the market will be the main target. aransyah et al. 205 in the middle of the canvas is the unique value offered to the customer. what the customer expects so that he/she is willing to buy the product or service. unique value is essentially a message that states that the product or service that has been designed and tested is worth buying. finding a solution to the problem is the key to the lean canvas. conducting surveys of the solutions offered to the customer segment is one way to validate the idea. the cycle in the lean model is the build, measure, and learn cycle, similar to the testing process in design thinking. channels or media are a way to reach customers through media. the selection of media can be done through digital technology and informatics. this is the main way to reach customers. these channels can also act as a brand communication tool. thus, these channels can be described as a business modelling mechanism or a mode for a company to communicate and provide value proposition to its customer segment. return or revenue is a crucial part of the lean canvas model. the price of a product or service depends on the type of model. implementing a pricing strategy for a product or service is more recommended in this model. the revenue component includes the money generated by the company for each customer segment previously identified. however, this does not mean profit but rather the revenue stream involved. this is because the core of the business model is the customer. financial structure needs to be planned in all activities, including entrepreneurial activities. entrepreneurs must make a list of operational costs for their business to reach the expected breakeven point. it includes mapping costs to operate the business according to the value proposition. a key matrix is used to monitor business performance and can use dave mcclure’s pirate metrics model. key metrics are the steps a customer must take when using a product. the steps provided must be more efficient than the problems in the first segment. the worst-case scenario is essentially finding something that cannot be imitated or bought. it can be in the form of information, the desires of the team, expert reinforcement, and owned customers. an unfair advantage refers to an advantage possessed by the product or service created. the advantage possessed cannot be imitated. this advantage can also be achieved by working with other institutions. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 method research design this study employed a qualitative descriptive approach aimed at investigating the current state of entrepreneurship education activities at the university of mulawarman. the primary goal was to understand the existing structure and processes, and then propose a revised model to enhance student entrepreneurship competencies. to achieve this, we utilized a multi-method approach including non-participant observations, semi-structured interviews, and documentation review. the design was selected due to its capacity to deeply explore and describe the real-world context of entrepreneurship education at the university. this approach allowed us to develop a revised, more effective model for entrepreneurship education, integrating design thinking and lean canvas approaches, which are known for fostering a user-centered and innovative mindset and efficiently outlining business concepts. participants the study group comprised 85 participants, purposely chosen for their direct involvement in entrepreneurship education at the university of mulawarman. this group encompassed heads of faculty (n=2), study program coordinators (n=3), lecturers teaching entrepreneurship subjects (n=4), and students (n=76) in their 4th or 6th semester, each offering unique perspectives on entrepreneurship education. this purposeful selection allowed us to gather rich, diverse insights into the current state and impact of entrepreneurship education at the university, ultimately enabling a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. data collection tools our research employed three primary data collection tools. non-participant observations provided firsthand, real-time data on the implementation of lectures and supportive entrepreneurship activities. semi-structured interviews, offering flexibility and adaptability, provided in-depth data on participants' experiences and perspectives. we ensured their validity and reliability through careful design and execution, and consistent application of the interview protocol. finally, we reviewed documentation, including reports and other relevant documents, as a complementary method, allowing us to verify and enhance the data obtained from observations and interviews. aransyah et al. 207 data collection data collection occurred from february to october 2021. we began with non-participant observations of lectures and entrepreneurship-related activities, with detailed field notes taken throughout. following this, we conducted semi-structured interviews focusing on participants’ experiences and perspectives on entrepreneurship education and activities at the university. lastly, we reviewed documents related to entrepreneurship activities, adding another dimension to our data pool. data analysis our data analysis employed qualitative descriptive analysis techniques. we started by reviewing all collected data, including observation notes, interview transcripts, and documents. open coding was conducted to assign codes to relevant data segments, which were then organized into broader categories and themes. we employed constant comparison and memo-writing techniques throughout the analysis to ensure the consistency and validity of the identified themes. this comprehensive analysis allowed us to distill the data into meaningful findings, leading to an enhanced model for entrepreneurship education. findings entrepreneurial education activities and methods as stated above, during data analysis, a process of open coding was carried out, in which relevant data segments were assigned codes based on their content. these codes were then organized into broader categories and themes, which structured the findings. the findings were categorized into three educational activities, namely, beginner, intermediate, and advanced entrepreneurial education activities, and injected with the design thinking model and lean canvas. the data were collected over 10 months using non-participant observations, semi-structured interviews, and documentation review. these methods allowed researchers to gather information on lecture implementation, supportive entrepreneurship activities, and the results of entrepreneurship education activities. to achieve the optimal entrepreneurial education goal, the entrepreneurial development process is based on the region and strengthening collaboration between the association, business, community, government, and media (abcgm) ecosystem. furthermore, the entrepreneurship program journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 education introduces entrepreneurial thinking patterns and business planning. the entrepreneurship development process is based on strengthening the potential of the surrounding environment and requires collaboration between entrepreneurship ecosystem stakeholders, also known as penta-helix stakeholders’ academia, business sector, community, government, and media (abcgm) + 3c phases of connect, collaborate, and commerce, as depicted in figure 3. from the relationships established, the next step is a joint venture between students and the abcgm ecosystem elements. finally, as the final step, students make efforts to promote the sales of the results of collaboration between students and the abcgm elements. figure 3. penta-helix stakeholders’ academia, business sector, community, government, and media (abcgm) + 3c phases of connect, collaborate, and commerce. entrepreneurial education activities and methods for cultivating beginner entrepreneurship competence, such as planting awareness, mindset, motivation, knowledge, skills, and beginner entrepreneurship practices, consist of lectures conducted at the department level (monge-agüero et al., 2022). lectures are conducted conceptually and apply practical methods that include both theoretical and practical lectures through design thinking approaches. practical activities can be carried out both onand off-campus. entrepreneurial education activities and methods for cultivating beginner entrepreneurship competencies, such as awareness, mindset, motivation, knowledge, skills, and entrepreneurship aransyah et al. 209 practices, consist of lectures conducted at the departmental level. lectures are integrated with design thinking methods, which help students develop a user-centered and innovative mindset. the five stages of design thinking (empathize, define, ideate, prototype, and test) are incorporated into the curriculum to teach students how to identify problems, generate creative solutions, and iterate their ideas. practical activities are carried out both onand off-campus and include the application of the lean canvas approach. the lean canvas model is a simplified version of a business plan that focuses on nine essential components, which enables students to efficiently outline their business concepts, identify risks and assumptions, and develop a data-driven and customer-oriented approach to entrepreneurship. by combining design thinking and lean canvas approaches, the revised entrepreneurial education model offers a more comprehensive and practical framework for students to develop and refine their entrepreneurial skills, paving the way for successful ventures in the future. entrepreneurship lectures integrate and synergize the content of entrepreneurship courses and the content of department courses to develop students’ academic-based creative knowledge and skills and entrepreneurial experience practices. integration and synergy are carried out both in theoretical and practical lectures. this aligns with the findings of aldianto et al. (2018), who stated that entrepreneurship development programs are anticipated to become a means of integrating the mastery of science and technology with the spirit of entrepreneurship. lectures are comprehensively evaluated, including their preparation, implementation, outputs, and achievement of targets. the preparation is evaluated through the course materials that include syllabi, course contracts, semester course plans, and assessment instruments. the implementation of the lectures is evaluated by supervising lecture delivery. the outputs of the lecture are evaluated based on the business plan proposal produced by the students. the achievement of the lecture’s targets is integrated and synergized with the student creativity program in the field of entrepreneurship (pkm-k) or the merdeka campus free learning entrepreneurship program. the achievement of the lecture’s targets is evaluated through the businesses run and developed by the students or graduates. the achievement of targets is integrated and synergized with the indonesian student business competition (kbmi) or the merdeka campus free learning entrepreneurship program. the government, through the directorate of learning and student affairs, regularly holds competitions such as pkm-k and kbmi. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 at the program level, beginner-level entrepreneurship education activities can take the form of a creative program event. the results of such activities are integrated and synergized with the student organizations in the entrepreneurship field at the program level. this integration and synergy at this level form the student entrepreneurship association or community at the faculty level. this association or community accommodates students who run pkm-k and kbmi along with other independent entrepreneurship education activities. activities to cultivate intermediate entrepreneurship competencies include expanding awareness, thinking patterns, motivation, knowledge, skills, and the ability to establish or start a business, such as training, competitions, and entrepreneurship mentoring. these activities are carried out by the faculty or the university’s entrepreneurship unit or the synergy between them. the faculty or the university’s entrepreneurship unit can cooperate with entrepreneurship practitioners at the regional level. students begin to involve themselves with the elements of the abcgm ecosystem. the training is carried out in the form of workshops that emphasize practical or demonstration of entrepreneurial knowledge and technical skills through the lean canvas business model approach. educational activities can be carried out both onand off-campus. entrepreneurship competitions are held to cultivate entrepreneurship competencies at the faculty level, with representatives from each program participating. mentoring is carried out in the form of guidance and/or technical entrepreneurship consultancy from practitioners in accordance with the needs of the students, both before and after the virtual entrepreneurial competition, which can be evaluated by regional level entrepreneurship practitioners. training and mentoring integrate and synergize the training content with the academic knowledge of the program to develop creative education activities and practical entrepreneurial experiences for students based on their academic knowledge. integration and synergy are carried out in both the creative process and practical experience. the training and mentoring are comprehensively evaluated, including the preparation, implementation, outputs, and achievement of the targets. the preparation is evaluated through the content, the trainers, and the assessment tools. the training and mentoring process is evaluated through monitoring the implementation of the training and mentoring. the outcomes of the said training and mentoring are evaluated from the business plan proposals produced by students for the kbmi program or for other business plan competitions at the regional level or from the results of preand post-training or mentoring tests. aransyah et al. 211 entrepreneurship competitions are held to consolidate and evaluate the results of the training and mentoring process. the results of the regional entrepreneurship competition or the development of medium entrepreneurship competencies at the faculty level are integrated and synergized with the entrepreneurship student organizations at the faculty level. this integration and synergy at this level form the student entrepreneurship association or community of the faculty. this association or community accommodates students who carry out kbmi and other entrepreneurial education activities. further activities for the advanced entrepreneurship competencies include expanding knowledge, changing the existing mindset, motivating, improving skills, and the ability to develop businesses through training and mentoring in entrepreneurship and national virtual entrepreneurship competitions. these activities are managed and carried out by the university’s entrepreneurship unit. training is conducted in the form of workshops that focus on practical or demonstrationbased knowledge and technical entrepreneurial skills for business development. the training or mentoring practice involves the participant’s business. mentoring, on the other hand, is carried out in the form of guidance and/or technical entrepreneurial consultation as needed by the participants and/or the initiative of the mentor. business incubation is carried out in the form of facilitation by the university’s entrepreneurship unit, covering business location, management, production, marketing, or funding. national or international entrepreneurship competitions are held in the form of a virtual entrepreneurial competition for managing and developing businesses, including products, production processes, markets and marketing, or organizational business management. training, coaching, incubation, and virtual entrepreneurial competition must integrate and synergize their content with the academic disciplines of the program or department to develop students’ entrepreneurial endeavors and practical experiences based on their academic disciplines. integration and synergy are carried out in the training, coaching, and incubation processes. efforts should be made to encourage the sale of products resulting from student–industry collaborations. comprehensive evaluations are conducted for the preparation, implementation, outcomes, and achievement of the training, coaching, and incubation programs. the preparation is evaluated through its content, speakers, evaluation instruments, and available incubation facilities. the training, coaching, and incubation processes are evaluated by monitoring the implementation of the training, coaching, and incubation programs. the outcomes of the training, coaching, and incubation programs are evaluated based on the students’ business development proposals journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 submitted for the indonesian student entrepreneurship expo (expo kmi) or through preand posttest results of the training or coaching programs. the outcomes of the incubation are evaluated through sales revenue and business profit before and after the incubation process. the achievement of the development goals is evaluated through the number of students who won awards in the expo kmi or other national entrepreneurship competitions. data on the results of entrepreneurship education activities, such as reports, business plan proposals, and competition results, were collected and analyzed to assess the outcomes of the entrepreneurship education programs. entrepreneurship education needs to be designed clearly to achieve the objectives of entrepreneurship education, which consist of the entrepreneurship competencies of students, including beginner, intermediate, and advanced entrepreneurship competencies, through a collaborative ecosystem of entrepreneurship that includes academics, business, community, government, and media (see figure 4). further activities for the development of entrepreneurial competencies include expanding knowledge, changing the mindset, motivating, improving skills, and the ability to develop businesses through training and mentoring in entrepreneurship, business incubation, and national virtual entrepreneurship competitions. figure 4. beginner, intermediate, and advance entrepreneurial education activitie aransyah et al. 213 discussion, conclusion and implications the results of this study revealed that entrepreneurial education activities and methods for cultivating beginner entrepreneurship competencies include lectures conducted at the departmental level that are integrated with design thinking methods. practical activities are carried out both on and off-campus and include the application of the lean canvas approach. these findings align with those of monge-agüero et al. (2022), who found that lectures at the departmental level are essential for entrepreneurial education. the study also reveals the importance of integrating and synergizing entrepreneurship education with academic knowledge and experiences, which is consistent with the results of aldianto et al. (2018), who emphasized the importance of integrating science and technology with the spirit of entrepreneurship. the integration of design thinking and lean canvas approaches in the proposed framework offers a comprehensive and practical model for students to develop and refine their entrepreneurial skills, addressing the gaps identified in prior studies. based on the results of the research and discussion, as well as the entrepreneurship education design, the following conclusion can be drawn: entrepreneurship education based on design thinking model is defined as the integration and synergy of content, activities, and methods to develop insights, thinking patterns, attitudes, motivation, knowledge, skills, and entrepreneurship experiences, so that individuals can find entrepreneurial ideas and solutions to solve problems. the creative entrepreneurship approach based on the lean canvas business model helps students hone their skills to produce effective solutions to a problem, through a thinking framework to describe how a business can create value and capture some of the value it creates. entrepreneurship education needs to be designed clearly to achieve the objectives of entrepreneurship education, which consist of the entrepreneurship competencies of students, including beginner, intermediate, and advanced entrepreneurship competencies, through a collaborative ecosystem of entrepreneurship that includes academics, business, community, government, and media. further activities for the development of entrepreneurial competencies include expanding knowledge, changing the mindset, motivating, enhancing skills, and the ability to develop businesses through training and mentoring in entrepreneurship, business incubation, and national virtual entrepreneurship competitions. the study demonstrates the need for continuously evaluating entrepreneurial education and integration with students’ academic knowledge and experiences. despite providing valuable journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 insights, this study has a few limitations, which include the need for longitudinal research, exploration of alternative approaches, and applicability in different cultural and educational contexts. in conclusion, the study offers critical insights for enhancing entrepreneurial education and encourages practitioners and educators to develop comprehensive, integrative, and collaborative programs. future research should focus on validating the proposed model, exploring alternative approaches, and examining its applicability under various settings to ensure model effectiveness and generalizability. references ács, z. j., szerb, l., lafuente, e., & lloyd, a. (2018). the entrepreneurial ecosystem and global prosperity. in global entrepreneurship and development index 2018 (pp. 11-19). springer, cham. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-03279-1_2. aldianto, l., anggadwita, g., & umbara, a. n. (2018). entrepreneurship education program as value creation: empirical findings of universities in bandung, indonesia. journal of science and technology policy management, 9(3), 296-309. doi: 10.1108/jstpm-032018-0024. barsalou, l. w. (2017). define design thinking. she ji: the journal of design, economics, and innovation, 3(2), 102-105. doi: 10.1016/j.sheji.2017.10.007. faghih, n., bonyadi, e., & sarreshtehdari, l. (2019). global entrepreneurship capacity and entrepreneurial attitude indexing based on the global entrepreneurship monitor (gem) dataset. contributions to management science, 13–55. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-117665_2. brown, t., kātzb., & nicolaïeffl. (2019). l’esprit design: comment le design thinking transforme l’entreprise et inspire l’innovation. pearson. copyright. dam, r. f., & siang, t. y. (2020). design thinking: get started with prototyping. interaction design foundation. fayolle, a. (2009). entrepreneurship education in europe: trends and challenges. oecd leed programme. gasse, y., & tremblay, m. (2006). entrepreneurship education among students at a canadian university: an extensive empirical study of students' entrepreneurial preferences and intentions. in a. fayolle & h. klandt (eds.), international handbook of entrepreneurship education, 199-220. edward elgar publishing. doi: doi: 10.4337/9781847201652.00021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sheji.2017.10.007 https://doi.org/10.4337/9781847201652.00021 https://doi.org/10.4337/9781847201652.00021 aransyah et al. 215 geissdoerfer, m., vladimirova, d., & evans, s. (2018). sustainable business model innovation: a review. journal of cleaner production, 198, 401-416. doi: 10.1016/j.promfg.2018.02.107 handrimurtjahjo, a. d. (2013). model pembelajaran kewirausahaan di perguruan tinggi. jurnal universitas paramadina, 10(2), 729–755. johansson‐sköldberg, u., woodilla, j., & çetinkaya, m. (2013). design thinking: past, present and possible futures. creativity and innovation management, 22(2), 121-146. doi: 10.1111/caim.12023 kimbell, l. (2011). rethinking design thinking: part i. design and culture, 3(3), 285-306. knapp, j., zeratsky, j., & kowitz, b. (2016). sprint: how to solve big problems and test new ideas in just five days. simon and schuster. kodrat, d. s., & christina, w. (2015). entrepreneurship sebuah ilmu. in o. m. dwiasri & n. i. sallama (eds.), pajarinen (4th ed.). erlangga. leavy, b. (2010). design thinking–a new mental model of value innovation. strategy & leadership, 38(5), 5-14. doi: 10.1108/10878571011042050 lewrick, m., link, p., & leifer, l. (2018). the design thinking playbook: mindful digital transformation of teams, products, services, businesses and ecosystems. john wiley & sons. liedtka, j. (2018). innovation, strategy, and design: design thinking as a dynamic capability. academy of management proceedings, 2018(1), 13004. doi: 10.5465/ambpp.2018.13004abstract link, p. (2016). how to become a lean entrepreneur by applying lean start-up and lean canvas?. in innovation and entrepreneurship in education (pp. 69-87). emerald group publishing limited. luka, i. (2020). design thinking in pedagogy. the journal of education, culture, and society, 5(2), 63-74. https://doi.org/10.15503/jecs20142.63.74 maurya, a. (2022). running lean. o'reilly media, inc. maurya, u. k., & mishra, p. (2012). what is a brand? a perspective on brand meaning. european journal of business and management, 4(3), 122-133. monge-agüero, m., baena-luna, p., & garcía-río, e. (2022). the relevant motivator elements to be an academic entrepreneur. journal of social studies education research, 13(2), 1-23. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3997/560 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3997/560 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 195-216 müller, r. m., & thoring, k. (2012). design thinking vs. lean startup: a comparison of two userdriven innovation strategies. leading through design, 151, 91-106. rasmussen, a., moberg, k., & revsbech, c. (2015). a taxonomy of entrepreneurship education perspectives on goals, teaching and evaluation. the danish foundation for entrepreneurship. razzouk, r., & shute, v. (2012). what is design thinking and why is it important? review of educational research, 82(3), 330-348. doi: 10.3102/0034654312457429 ries, e. (2011). the lean startup: how today's entrepreneurs use continuous innovation to create radically successful businesses. currency. riyanti, b. p. d. (2019). kreativitas dan inovasi di tempat kerja. penerbit unika atma jaya jakarta. sumarno, s., gimin, g., haryana, g., & saryono, s. (2018). desain pendidikan kewirausahaan mahasiswa berbasis technopreneurship. jurnal ekonomi pendidikan dan kewirausahaan, 6(2), 171–186. doi: 10.26740/jepk.v6n2.p171-186 suryana. (2013). kewirausahaan: kiat dan proses menuju sukses (4th ed.). salemba empat. taatila, v. p. (2010). learning entrepreneurship in higher education. education+training, 52(1), 48–61. doi: 10.1108/00400911011017672 treffinger, d. j., & isaksen, s. g. (2005). creative problem solving: the history, development, and implications for gifted education and talent development. gifted child quarterly, 49(4), 342-353. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 123-139 123 implementation of specific purpose grant policy of education in pandeglang regency, banten province sari kurniawati1, asep sumaryana2, j.b. kristiadi3, herijanto bekti4 abstract this study aims to identify the influence of the implementation of the specific purpose grant (spg) policy in achieving the national priorities in banten province. this study was conducted on the basis of a descriptive qualitative design by using interviews and observations for data collection. findings indicate that the implementation of the spg in primary education has provided maximum expected results. the factors that hinder the implementation of spg activities in primary education are unrelated to technical factors but to financial policies at school. the objectives of spg implementation in primary education have been realized, and the efforts made from the input, process, and output indicators are all satisfactory. therefore, the expected influence is comparable to the efforts done. for secondary education, the implementation of spg has not fully provided the expected results. the objective has only realized 50% of the target. the input, process, and output are satisfactory, and the graduation rates are close to 100%. the expected influence is comparable to the efforts done. results suggest improvements on the education office through infrastructure, performance, inventory, and scope of spg distribution. keywords: special allocation funds, pandeglang regency, primary education, secondary education introduction in the context of welfare state, the government is a state organ with the obligation to realize general welfare (bestuurzorg). the government needs to be actively involved in the economic and social life of the community as a step to realize public welfare in addition to maintaining order and security. one of the policies implemented by the government in the framework of realizing the tasks and objectives of the state is the policy of allocating specific purpose grants (spgs). the white paper on spg published by the national development planning agency (bps, 2004) states that spg is one of the central government’s financial transfer mechanisms to regions that aims to 1 post graduate student in public administration, faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, sari16002@mail.unpad.ac.id 2 faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, asep.sumaryana@unpad.ac.id 3 faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, kristiadijb@gmail.com 4 faculty of social and political sciences, universitas padjadjaran, herijanto.bekti@unpad.ac.id mailto:sari16002@mail.unpad.ac.id mailto:asep.sumaryana@unpad.ac.id mailto:kristiadijb@gmail.com mailto:herijanto.bekti@unpad.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 123-139 fund special activities for regional affairs in accordance with national priorities. spg is part of the balancing fund that is closely related to the national development strategy. the provisions regarding the activities that can be funded from spg are a form of activity that is a subject of local government (qibthiyyah, 2018). thus, spg activities in the form of service programs for the community are expected not only to be a development priority for the central government but also to gain support from the local government. therefore, the spg policy is primarily designed to accelerate regional economic growth. spg is allocated primarily to help finance the needs of primary community service facilities and infrastructure or accelerate regional development. article 1, number 23, law number 33 of 2004 central and regional financial balance law, which concerns the balance between central and regional finance, states that: “specific purpose grants, hereinafter referred to as spg, are funds sourced from the seb allocated to certain regions with the aim of helping fund special activities that are the regional authority and in accordance with national priorities.” the spg allocation is intended to assist the region in realizing governmental tasks in certain fields, especially in the effort to fulfill the primary community service facilities and infrastructure that are in line with national priorities. generally, the main directions and policies of spg from year to year are aimed at helping regions with low financial capacity in financing public services to encourage the achievement of minimum service standard through the provision of physical facilities and infrastructure for primary community services and improving the effectiveness of regional shopping (putra & ulupui, 2015). primary services, which are the target of the spg policy, are the focus of the education sector. focusing on education is important given the low quality of education services, especially primary education services. this phenomenon is evident in the inadequate condition of facilities and infrastructure that are required to develop a comfortable and effective atmosphere and learning nuance. when the spg policy was implemented in 2003–2016, the education sector received the largest budget allocation on average. the government only provided a budget of rp 625 billion in 2003, whereas the budget was raised to rp 119.9 trillion in 2016. over the past 13 years, the increase in the spg budget allocation for education has reached such a large number. this situation is in line with the mandate of article 31, paragraph (4) of the 1945 constitution of the republic kurniawati et al. of indonesia, which states that education funds should be allocated 20% of the state expenditure budget (seb) posture (statistik, 2014). although the terms of the benefits of spg policies have had an important influence on improving the quality of public services, especially in education, in some cases, the implementation of spg policies still leaves a problem. first, the spg allocation process does not simultaneously involve all stakeholders, or is fragmented, thereby making the coordination process between stakeholders difficult. second, at the same time, the discussion on the determination of the spg budget allocation for the education sector in dpr are often not based on clear allocation criteria, which results in multiple changes. the lack of clear criteria results in allocation that depends solely on negotiations with the government. third, the spg and seb allocation are performed simultaneously without the certainty of spg allocation. consequently, problems are experienced during implementation at the regional level. the problems are related to the determination of the amount of seb in the education sector. as a consequence, the administrative mechanism often contradicts the different interpretation of norms, especially for law enforcement. the aforementioned problems affect the implementation of spg policies in the field of education in the region, especially in pandeglang regency, banten province. the low absorption of spg is caused by the weak performance of regional device organizations, which are cannot absorb the spg budget to the fullest. budget absorption is important because it involves the benefits that will be received by the community. if budget absorption fails, development is not achieved, thereby affecting the community. communities that should be able to benefit from spg fund allocation cannot enjoy the results of development. this situation is where the regional heads are needed to regulate the regional financial management and achieve budget realization targets. the various aforementioned descriptions show that the policy of spg allocation at the implementation level still leaves the problem unresolved and requires policy improvement. this phenomenon is the motivation behind the present study, which focuses on the spg policy implementation in education in pandeglang regency, banten province; this policy has not affected the achievement of national priorities. specifically, this study aims to 1) identify and describe the spg policy implementation in banten province and 2) identify and describe the effect of the implementation of the allocation fund policy on achieving national priorities in banten province. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 123-139 literature review several studies on policy implementation have been conducted by several researchers (ahmad, 2016; carcolini, 2017; kilinc, 2017). jumadi (2014) conducted a study in pmistanjungpura university pontianak on the implementation of education policy in kayong utara district. the study shows the benefits of improving the quality of education in the district, such as increasing school enrollment rates and decreasing dropout rates because all students are exempted from tuition. however, while implementing the free education policy, weaknesses were still encountered, which caused the policy to be distorted. on the basis of an analysis of policy objectives; measures, resources, communication between implementing organizations; characteristics of the implementing agency; social, economic, and political conditions; and the attitude of the implementing agency, these factors have not fully supported the implementation of free education policies. social, economic, and political factors are exempted because the knowledge and understanding of the people in kayong utara district are still minimal. consequently, most people wrongly assess the free education policy, in which all educational activities at every level of education are free of charge. as a result, the community is a priori in participating in supporting school activities. meanwhile, school-based management emphasizes the importance of community involvement in supporting school activities, including the contribution to school operational costs through school committees. usman, mawardi, poesoro, suryahadi, and sampford (2008) from the smeru research team with sampford from griffith university in the indonesia–australia partnership studied on the mechanism and use of spg funds. their results show that policies actually require national uniformity but still provide space for non-uniformity. by contrast, although some policies should provide space for differences caused by inter-regional conditions, they impose national uniformity. many parties in the region consider that spg regulations issued by the central government are often late and do not match the planning schedule in the regions. when the contents of the issued central decision appeared late to be different from what was predicted by the regions when preparing the regional expenditure income budget (reib), several items in the reib would be forced to be change and be discussed again by the regional legislative council. this process, in addition to confiscating the time of the government apparatus, also involves a considerable amount of funds, although regional financial capacity is limited. in practice, regional governments are kurniawati et al. passive recipients of spg grants even though legislation truly allows regions to submit proposals actively. the aforementioned studies discuss several sectors. however, spg policy implementation is limited to the field of education, particularly policies relating to their influence on achieving national priorities. concept of policy implementation william and elmore (bambang, 1994) stated that policy implementation is formulated as “the whole of activities related to the implementation of policy.” pasolong (2007) interpreted policy implementation as “a summary of various activities in which human resources use other resources to achieve strategic goals.” the success of public policy implementation is largely determined by the activities performed to achieve the objectives of public policies. to support the success of public policy implementation, certain elements must be fulfilled. hoogwood and gunn (solichin, 1997) suggested several requirements for perfectly implementing policies, as enumerated as follows: 1. the circumstances external to the implementing agency do not impose constraints. 2. adequate time and sufficient resources should be made available to the program. 3. the required combination of resources is actually available. 4. the policy to be implemented is based upon a valid theory of cause and effect. 5. the relationship between cause and effect is direct, with only few intervening links if any. 6. the dependency relationship is minimal. 7. objectives are understood and agreed upon. 8. tasks are fully specified in the correct sequence. 9. communications and coordination are perfect. 10. those in authority can demand and obtain effect compliance. meter and horn (sulaeman, 1998) suggested that certain standards and targets must be achieved by policy implementers to measure policy implementation performance. policy performance is primarily an assessment of the level of achievement of these standards and targets. rue and byars and keban (sulaeman, 1998) suggested that a simple performance is the level of achievement of results or the degree of accomplishment. on the basis of the two views, the implementation of wisdom is not only concerned with the behavior of administrative bodies responsible for implementing the program and causing adherence to the target group but also related to political, economic, social, and direct or indirect journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 123-139 networks that can influence the behavior of all parties involved and ultimately affect the expected good influence. edwards iii in winarno, 2012) identified crucial factors or variables in public policy implementation, namely, communication, resources, disposition, and bureaucratic structures, which are described as follows. first, the basic requirement for effective policy implementation is the understanding from the policy implementer. second, resources are another requirement for effective policy implementation. policy implementation will not be effective if implementers lack the resources required to implement the policy. edwards iii (rusli, 2013) indicated that lack of resources would result in the ineffectiveness of policy implementation. the resources in question include the adequate number of people and their clear understanding, infrastructure and facilities, and authority. third, the tendency or disposition of implementers are required for effective policy implementation. solichin (1997) described disposition as the set of characteristics possessed by implementers, such as commitment, honesty, and democratic nature. if implementers have a good disposition, then they will conduct the policy, as well as what is desired by the policymakers. fourth, bureaucratic structures, which cover two important factors, namely, (i) the mechanism and (ii) the implementing organizational structure are requirements for policy implementation. the policy implementation mechanism is usually established through a standard operating procedure (sop), which is included in the policy guide. a good sop includes a clear, systematic, and nonconvoluted framework that is easily understood by anyone because it will be a reference in the implementation. the four important criteria are a source of problems, as well as the preconditions for the success of policy implementation. edward iii in winarno, 2007) indicated that the four factors that influence policy implementation work simultaneously and interact with one another to help and hinder policy implementation; hence, the ideal approach is to reflect this complexity by discussing all factors at once. the implementation of each policy is a dynamic process that includes many interactions of many variables. spg policy in education the spg policy in education is part of the national development policy that is intended to achieve the country’s goals in education. the government is keen on the development of education kurniawati et al. to form intelligent human resources as the nation’s assets. human assets face national and global competition, especially in shaping civil society that is needed in democratic life. the spg policy in education is a manifestation of law no. 23 of 2018 and law no. 33 of 2004. at the implementation level, the policy still leaves a problem in the achievement of national priorities. from the rp 10.41 trillion spg budget for education in 2016 proposed by the ministry of education, the amount was reduced to only rp 2.6 trillion. the ministry of education proposes a budget on the basis of proposals from the regions; however, the final allocation changes considerably. thus, some national priority programs for the 12-year compulsory education infrastructure facilities may not be fulfilled. furthermore, what hinders the achievement of spg policy implementation in education stems from the spg allocation process. the spg allocation process: (i) does not involve all stakeholders simultaneously (fragmented), thereby making the coordination process between stakeholders difficult. this phenomenon can be observed in situations where bappenas determines the fields that receive spg, the technical ministry determines the subfields that receive spg, and the ministry of finance has its own process in determining the regions that receive spg. thus, the spg allocation process by the ministry of finance can change its utilization principle. in addition, (ii) spg allocation is performed simultaneously with determining the reib allocation, without the certainty of spg allocation. as previously explained, spg policy implementation involves at least three ministries: bappenas who determines the fields who receive spg, the technical ministry who determines the subfields who receive spg, and the ministry of finance who determines the regions that receive spg. research method research design this study applies qualitative research design with descriptive methods. bogdan and taylor (moleong, 2009) stated that qualitative methodology produces descriptive data in the form of written or verbal words from people and observable behavior. nawawi (2003) mentioned that “descriptive method can be interpreted as a problem-solving procedure that is investigated by describing the state of the subject/object of research (person, institution, community and others), at the present time based on the facts that appear or as it is.” therefore, the descriptive method journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 123-139 describes the characteristics of an individual, a particular symptom, or phenomenon in the present and then analyzes and interprets the relationships between the phenomena investigated. in this study, the phenomena that are examined and disclosed are the those of spg policy implementation and its influence on achieving national priorities. selection of informants and research locations the informants in this study were chosen using purposive sampling technique, namely, data source sampling techniques with specific considerations and objectives (sugiyono, 2013). purposive sampling was used to understand certain selected cases without needing or desiring to generalize the results to all cases. therefore, the results of this study would not be generalized to other populations because the sampling was not taken randomly. purposive sampling was applied to increase the usefulness of the information obtained from a small sample. eleven informants in this study were believed to be able to provide the best information; they were informants from the directorate general of primary and secondary education of the ministry of education and culture, and sub directorate for facilitation of spg ministry of home affairs; and regional informants, namely, the banten province national education office, pandeglang district national education office, head of the primary education unit of pandeglang district, and head of the secondary education unit of pandeglang district. table 1 lists the informants. table 1 list of research informants no. informants 1 director of the ministry of education and culture’s primary school development 2 director of development of junior high schools, ministry of education and culture 3 head of sub directorate for facilitation of spg ministry of home affairs 4 head of banten province national education agency 5 head of bpkad pandeglang regency 6 head of the national education agency of pandeglang regency 7 head of elementary school upt (3 people) 8 head of middle school upt (3 people) kurniawati et al. this study was conducted in pandeglang regency, banten province, which was selected on the basis of some considerations as follows. first, banten province has an apk that is consistently below the national average from 2004 to 2016 and is ranked at the bottom 11 of 34 provinces in indonesia. second, in 2016, the population of banten province aged 25 and above and had studied for only approximately 8.37 years, still lags behind the dki jakarta school year’s expectations of 12.73 years (jakarta, 2015) despite having increased by 0.1% from the previous year (statistik, 2015). meanwhile, the budget allocation for education from reib is only 3.69%. thus, the development of the education sector depends heavily on seb funds, including spg. third, from the geographical aspect, the location of banten province can be accessed easily by the researcher. furthermore, from the eight regencies in banten province, pandeglang was selected as a deliberate research locus on the basis of two considerations. first, pandeglang is a disadvantaged district in terms of education based on the hdi figure and apk data. the hdi figure for pandeglang regency in 2016 was 66.80, whereas its apk of 83.85 was the lowest in banten province. second, this district has a number of middle-level schools (neither the highest nor the lowest) in banten province. research focus the focus of this study is the spg policy implementation in education and its influence on the achievement of national priorities in elementary, middle, and high school or vocational high schools in banten province. the researchers acted as the main instrument, as an active participant, and engaged in reality trans-subjectively (relating to reality outside the scope of direct experience or direct knowledge). in addition to being the main instrument, researchers, as well as the planners, implementers, data collectors, analysts, data interpreters, and reporters of research results, were involved in the study. data collection technique data collection techniques are the most strategic step in this study because the main purpose was to obtain data. sugiyono (2006) indicated that data collection could be performed in various (i) settings, (ii) sources, and (iii) various approaches. sugiyono further explained: “when viewed from the settings, the data can be collected in natural settings, in laboratories with experimental methods, at home with various respondents, at seminars, discussions, on journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 123-139 the road and others. when viewed from the data source, data collection can use primary sources and secondary sources… when viewed in terms of ways or techniques of data collection, the data collection techniques can be done by observation, interview, questionnaire, documentation, and the combination of the four.” in this study, the collected data in natural settings related the implementation of spg policy in education and its influence on achieving national priorities. focus group discussions were also performed. with the two data collection settings, comprehensive data were expected to be obtained to answer the research problems in this study. related to the sources of data, primary and secondary data were obtained. the primary data were obtained from in-depth interviews from various informants and documentation, whereas secondary data were obtained from various literature and pertinent documents. data triangulation was conducted by cross-checking the data sources and methods with other data. this technique was performed continuously until valid data were achieved. data analysis data analysis is an attempt or method for processing data into information that can be understood and useful for problem solving, especially in problems related to research. in this study, the researchers used the qualitative analysis of miles and huberman (1994), which comprises three stages as follows. 1. data codification: this is the data processing stage, where the researchers provided the name or naming of the research results. the collected data were classified on the basis of themes of the research. afterwards, the researchers provided special attention to the important themes in accordance with the issues to be answered. the researchers then interpreted these themes. 2. data presentation: this stage of analysis is where the researchers presented their research findings in the form of categories or groupings. 3. conclusion: this stage is the withdrawal or verification, where the researchers drew conclusions from the data findings. this stage is the researchers’ interpretation of the findings. after the conclusions were drawn, the researchers then checked the validity of the interpretation by re-checking the data coding and presentation process to ensure that no errors were made. kurniawati et al. result (findings) 1. primary education (elementary and middle school) the realization of the 2017 spg implementation in primary education has 18 activities. of these 18 activities, 11 activities have been achieved 100%. the remaining 7 activities have not reached 100%. therefore, primary education spg activities reached 11/18 or 61%, whereas 39% is still not realized because of several problems. first, 242 implementing schools are in elementary school classrooms, but only 240 schools are reached because 2 elementary schools are private. second, in the construction of a junior library (2017 matching fund), the realization is 3 out of 4 recipient schools. the problem is due to the one private school. third, in the construction of science/language (smp) laboratories (2017 matching fund), only 3 out of 5 schools are realized. fourth, in the procurement of science/social science/mathematics/language/sports laboratory equipment for junior high school (2017 matching fund), only 11 out of 26 implementing schools are realized. fifth, in the provision of elementary education equipment (with 2017 companion), mathematics, science, social studies, language, health-education institutions, arts and culture skills have also been achieved 100% because all are public schools. then, for the construction of an elementary library, rehabilitation of classrooms (junior high school; matching funds 2017), and construction of new classrooms (smp) (2017 matching fund), each realization has been achieved 100%. in conclusion, the difference used is the status of public or private schools. public schools enter the dpa account code for direct shopping, whereas private schools in the dpa include grant spending. in spg activities, the private school dpa account code must be changed into grant expenditure and will be realized the following year. 2. secondary education (sma and smk) the secondary education sector has six spg activities, among which three have been achieved 100%. therefore, secondary education spg activities has reached 3/6 or 50%. the remaining 50% is still not realized because of several problems. first, in classroom rehabilitation activities, 25 high schools and 44 out of 46 vocational schools have achieved 100%. the remaining two vocational schools have light damages, which do not need fixing and thus do not require spg funds. second, in the laboratory construction activities, 10 high schools and 38 out of 40 vocational schools have achieved 100%. the remaining two vocational schools do not have journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 123-139 a vacant land for the construction. third, in library construction activities, procurement of high school laboratory equipment and vocational laboratory equipment have achieved 100%. meanwhile, the realization of textbooks/reference books is still 0%, because new books have been auctioned in 2018. discussion the effectiveness of evaluation results the theory of finance (badjuri, 2011) indicates that four primary evaluations are typically made to achieve the objectives of a study. the four types are appropriateness, effectiveness, and efficiency, and meta-evaluations. in this study, effectiveness evaluation was performed. the policy used as a guideline is the decree of the regent of pandeglang nos. 425/428/14 of 2017 concerning the establishment of educational institutions for spgs for education in 2017 fiscal year. 1. elementary and middle school (primary education) the spg activities in primary education provided maximum expected results. the targets and realization of primary education spg are detailed in table 3.1. a total 18 activities were obtained. of the 18 activities, only 11 activities were realized. thus, the achievement of primary education spg activities was 61%. however, only one factor hindered the implementation of primary education spg activities. this factor was related to fiscal policy and the recipient school. the financial policy concerns the differences in the procedures for public and private schools when receiving funds. the results in public schools could be achieved in the same year, whereas those in private schools materialize the following year. this phenomenon relates to other policies; thus, it cannot be considered a problem in spg activity implementation. the solution to the problem is insufficient to involve only one agency. hence, the influence of a policy is implicated by other policies. regarding the expected influence (benefit) of the policy, the spg activities for primary education have had a positive influence. teaching and learning activities become comfortable and smooth. the results of elementary school graduation have increased (tables 3.3 and 3.4). elementary school graduation in the school year of 2012/2017 achieved 99.98%, whereas 100% was kurniawati et al. achieved in the 2017/2018. junior high school graduation from the schoolyears of 2012/2017 to 2017/2018 have also increased. the purpose of spg activities in primary education has been realized but has yet to achieve maximum results. the purpose was written in the decree of the regent of pandeglang nos. 425/428/14 of 2017 concerning the establishment of educational institutions for spg for education in 2017. with the descriptions of the indicators of input, process, and output, the researchers found that all the elements were satisfactory. the efforts made by the education office and the recipient school were maximized. thus, the expected influence was proportional to the effort that had been done. graduation rates were high, and the number of non-graduates in primary education was extremely small. although the achievement of primary education spg activities in this study was 61%, graduation rate remained high for at least 95%–100%. the education office claimed that the graduation rate was indirectly influenced by spg but the ability of students to accomplish the national examination because all students receive the same learning facilities. 2. high school and vocational school (secondary education) the spg activities in the secondary education sector did not fully provide the expected results. as shown in table 3.2, 3 out of 6 activities or 50% was realized. the factors that hindered the implementation of secondary education spg activities included no damage to recipient schools, no land to construct on, and a delay in the auction of spg product shopping in the form of textbooks. thus, spg activities could only be realized in the following year. regarding the influence of the policy, this spg activity had a positive influence; that is, 100% graduation rate or close to 100% with various majors in high school (some increasing, some decreasing). although the graduation rate for the school year of 2012/2017 was higher than that for 2017/2018, their graduation rates were extremely small. the purpose of the secondary education spg activities, as written in the decree of the pandeglang regent nos. 425/428/14 of 2017 concerning the establishment of education institutions for spg for education in 2017 fiscal year has not been fully realized. given the journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 123-139 target in table 3.2, the realization was 50%. the objective of this activity was only 50%; hence, the objective was partially materialized. on the basis of the efforts made by the education office and recipient schools from the indicators of input, process, and output, the expected influence was proportional to the efforts done. the graduation rates were high and never lower than 95%. the number of non-graduates in secondary education was extremely small. student graduation is not an spg problem because every student is given the same facilities. the same obligation is also in the implementation of the national examination. conclusion the spg activities in the field of primary education have provided maximum expected results. the factors that hinder the implementation of such activities are related to fiscal policy and not technical factors at schools. fiscal policy is related to other policies; thus, it cannot be considered a problem in spg activity implementation. here, the influence of a policy is implicated by other policies. regarding the expected influence (benefit) of the policy, the primary education spg activities have had a positive influence. teaching and learning activities become comfortable and are run well. the results of elementary school graduation showed an increase. junior high school graduation, or its equivalent, also increased. meanwhile, spg activities in the secondary education sector have not fully provided the expected results. the factors that hinder the implementation of secondary education spg activities include recipient schools that are undamaged, schools without infrastructure in the form of land to build, and a delay in the auction of spg product shopping in the form of textbooks; hence, such activities could only be realized in the following year. regarding the influence of the policy, this spg activity has had a positive influence. from the results of this study, the authors suggest several things the following. the education agency should prepare lands as an infrastructure for spg implementation. in addition, the performance of the auction process (shopping), especially shopping for reference or textbooks, which has previously caused delays, must be improved. in determining the target, the budget recipient list should be written with caution, such that no duplication of kurniawati et al. data occurs in this list. finally, the spg policy in the education sector should be expanded because it works well, and the negative influence is relatively small. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 123-139 references ahmad, i. (2016). the early years of american political science: traditionalist paradigm and its critics. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/17 badjuri, a. (2011). faktor-faktor fundamental, mekanisme coorporate governance, pengungkapan coorporate social responsibility (csr) perusahaan manufaktur dan sumber daya alam di indonesia. dinamika keuangan dan perbankan, 3(1). bambang, s. (1994). hukum dan kebijakan publik. sinar grafika, jakarta. bps, b. (2004). undp. 2004. indonesia laporan pembangunan manusia. carcolini, p. j. (2017). curricula for sustainability in higher education. [book review]. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 102-104. jakarta, b. p. s. p. d. k. i. (2015). statistik daerah provinsi dki jakarta 2015. jakarta: bidang neraca wilayah dan analisis-bps provonsi dki jakarta. jumadi. (2014). implementasi kebijakan pendidikan gratis di kabupaten kayong utara. jurnal tesis pmis-untan-psian, 1. kilinc, e. (2017). review of modernising school governance: corporate planning and expert handling in state education. new york, ny: routledge. 172 pp., isbn9781138787476. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/327 miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. sage. moleong, m. p. k., & kualitatif, j. m.-m. p. (2009). remaja rosdakarya. bandung. nawawi, h. (2003). perencanaan sumber daya manusia. gadjah mada university. pasolong, h. (2007). teori administrasi publik. bandung: alfabeta. putra, p. g. m., & ulupui, i. g. k. a. (2015). pendapatan asli daerah, dana alokasi umum, dana alokasi khusus, untuk meningkatkan indeks pembangunan manusia. e-jurnal akuntansi, 863–877. qibthiyyah, r. m. (2018). provinces and local government revenues structures and intraprovince economic disparity. economics and finance in indonesia, 63(1), 81–96. rusli, h. b. (2013). kebijakan publik membangun pelayanan publik yang responsif. abstrak. solichin, a. w. (1997). analisis kebijaksanaan dari formulasi ke implementasi negara, edisi kurniawati et al. kedua. jakarta: bumi aksara. statistik, b. p. (2014). laporan bulanan data sosial ekonomi. jakarta (id): badan pusat statistik. statistik, b. p. (2015). banten dalam angka. bps provinsi banten. banten. sugiyono, d. (2006). statistika untuk penelitian. bandung: cv. alfabeta. sugiyono, p. d. (2013). metode penelitian manajemen. bandung: alfabeta, cv. sulaeman, a. (1998). public policy-kebijakan pemerintah. bandung: bku ilmu pemerintahan program magister ilmu-ilmu sosial pada institut ilmu pemerintahan kerjasama unpadiip. usman, s., mawardi, m. s., poesoro, a., suryahadi, a., & sampford, c. (2008). mekanisme dan penggunaan dana alokasi khusus. journal. winarno, b. (2007). kebijakan publik: teori dan proses. yogyakarta: media pressindo. winarno, b. (2012). kebijakan publik: teori, proses, dan studi kasus: edisi dan revisi terbaru. center for academic publishing service. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2018:9 (4), 247-273 247 the present and future state of blended learning at workplace-learning settings in adult education: a systematic review haifa bin mubayrik 1 abstract the main objective of this study is to examine the present and future state of blended learning (bl) for adults in workplace-learning settings. data were collected in numerous areas from various databases and sources from 1990 to june 2018. this topic was found mainly in the fields of education and business. the data collected were thoroughly analyzed and evaluated, and a quality assessment of the literature was carried out. major findings of the studies were analyzed. eighteen peer-reviewed articles were selected, as were 10 surveys, five qualitative studies, two case studies, and one randomized control trial, which included studies carried out in different parts of the world. the sample size of the studies under analysis ranged from 16 to 674 participants, and the aggregate sample size was 3,250. the length of the investigations ranged from 4 weeks to 7 months. conclusions: the findings showed that bl is expected to be more prevalent in workplace environments due to the use of authentic and collaborative learning approaches. key words: blended learning, hybrid learning, workplace training, on-the-job training, adult education, workplace learning. introduction workplace learning has become a topic of increased research interest, and the workplace-learning processes of numerous professional groups, including teachers, hr professionals, nurses, engineers, instructors, and accountants, have been investigated. large changes in organizational environments require people in every workplace to continually learn. in fact, learning is considered a major aspect of individual and organizational growth and innovation (collis et al., 2005), whereas others view it as providing a key competitive advantage (bonk et al., 2007). recently, the emergence of technological evolution and a “knowledge-driven economy” meant that economic growth opportunities arose due to technological advancement. this emergence led to the widespread use of non-traditional learning opportunities in adult academic and work settings (schildermans & schreurs, 2010), signaling a shift from the industrial age to the information age 1 educational policies department, college of education ,king saud university, riyadh, saudi arabia, halmobeeriek@ksu.edu.sa mailto:halmobeeriek@ksu.edu.sa journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 (david et al., 2012). in many instances, blended learning (bl), or “hybrid learning,” is one innovative method that has been successfully utilized in higher education and workplaces (bonk et al., 2006a). the term “hybrid course” was used prior to “blended learning”; both are now used interchangeably in higher education (graham, 2009). two more terms for blended leaning, used in arabic, are “integrated learning” and “multi-learning methods” (al-shahwan, 2015). because there are many unknowns concerning bl in the training program area, bl in adult work settings and workplaces faces particular challenges, including large training class sizes, inadequate facilities, and effective implementation in organizations (chang et al., 2014). according to kim et al. (2008), bl represents a major trend in adult workplace settings. bl integrates opposing training approaches—online and face-to-face experiences, collegial connections and digital references— to attain individual and organizational goals. graham (2006) specifies and categorizes three definitions of bl widely used in current research. bl is defined by its delivery media or instructional modalities, its combination of instructional methods, or its combination of face-toface and online instruction. bl has become an important factor in corporate, government, military, and nonprofit organization workplace growth (teng et al., 2007). graham (2006) also reports that bl can be delivered at four levels: the institutional level, the activity level, the course level, and the program level. at the institutional level, organizations decide how to implement bl. by contrast, activity-level blends have instructors and stakeholders, and bl occurs during the process of training. course-level blends should be pre-planned by the instructor. a program-level blend assumes the student will be involved in courses that include both online and face-to-face communication (graham, 2006; graham, 2009). workplace learning involves people who use different formal and informal learning strategies. although bl is recognized by many organizations, various issues should be addressed in terms of delivering this kind of learning in workplace-learning settings (kim et al., 2008). bl involves multiple technologies and delivery methods, though there is insufficient knowledge about the relationship between predictors of success and actual success, learners' satisfaction, and the learners’ ability to transfer knowledge in online learning (gunawardena et al., 2010). moreover, bl is asynchronous learning: this is a student-centered teaching approach that uses educational technologies to deliver the information to the adult students; the teacher merely facilitates the learning process. the learners can access materials anywhere and at any time, and can work at their own pace. numerous bl applications and models can be useful in adult mubayrik workplace learning, such as a synchronous chat or videoconferencing (bonk et al., 2006a; graham, 2006). the variety of possible bl techniques and technologies may create confusion among practitioners concerning the decision about which bl techniques are optimal and how to evaluate bl programs or tools. considering the numerous knowledge gaps concerning bl in the workplace, guidelines should be developed so that human resources development (hrd) professionals are aware of the optimal bl techniques for delivering training to adults in their organizations (kim et al., 2008). the future of bl and its consequences for the design delivery of job training should be studied to allow bl practitioners to respond to rapid changes in their field and enhance organizational performance. after examining survey results over the past several years, kim et al. (2008) reported that most respondents admitted that the use of bl approaches in the workplace improved their job satisfaction, job performance, and productivity levels. governmental and societal needs require bl applications in adult workplaces. because of its effectiveness, most respondents thought that policymakers should consider bl training in the workplace (bonk et al., 2006b). bl will be used increasingly until it becomes the standard in adult workplace settings (schildermans & schreurs, 2010; mohanty, 1988). moreover, analysts recommend that bl be put into practice during training and development planning in their organizations (bonk et al., 2006 a&b). most organizations and trainees perceive bl to be faster and more effective, low-cost, flexible, and scalable for workplace training. therefore, organizations and trainees support the use of bl learning for the following reasons: extending the reach to a broader group of employees; cost and time optimization; and greater effectiveness over traditional forms of instruction. pennsylvania state university, the american society for training and development, stanford university, and the university of tennessee have provided detailed mechanisms that illustrate how bl is more effective than traditional and individual forms of online teaching (singh, 2003). employees expect that bl will be increasingly implemented as a more authentic, personalized, and student-centered learning approach in the digital age workplace. because bl has been found to be the most efficient and widely used approach to teaching in education, businesses, and organizations, researchers recommend that it has become a core component of workplace training environments. for example, smartphones can be used in training to allow convenient and flexible learning for the busy professional because they can access journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 learning materials from their location (boitshwarelo, 2009; macdonald & chiu, 2011; dzakiria et al., 2012). overall, the online environment plays a crucial role in bl, and its quality remains a major concern when considering bl in organizational workplace settings because it has replaced “on-the-job training” in a knowledge-based economy (mata-domingo, 2018; lee & bonk, 2014; peters, 2007; ruey, 2010). therefore, the implementation of bl approaches introduces the major benefits of e-learning, which deliver “just-in-time” training to busy professionals (bielawski & metcalf, 2003). the aim of this paper is to examine the present and future state of bl for adults in workplace learning settings. this study provides review of theoretical and conceptual frameworks and an analysis of the primary research findings of recent studies to determine major current trends in bl and future trends in workplace-learning settings. the different types of studies reviewed for this research paper allow for the generation of a particular perspective and evidence concerning the issue under analysis. accordingly, this research paper aims to identify future directions of bl in workplace settings based on the research findings of other studies. blended learning theory carman (2002) points out that many theories could apply to bl in different workplace situations. he emphasis is on the relationship between the nature of the learning task in educational or training environments and its characteristics when situated in real use. the five key elements of bl processes stem from the learning theories are: (1) live events: synchronous, instructor-led learning events in which all learners participate at the same time, such as in a live “virtual classroom.” (2) online content: learning experiences that the learner completes individually, at his own speed and on his own time, such as interactive internet-based or cd-rom training. (3) collaboration: environments in which learners communicate with each other, such as email, threaded discussions, and online chat. (4) assessment: a measure of learners’ knowledge. pre-assessments can come before live or self-paced events to determine prior knowledge, and post-assessments can occur following scheduled or online learning events to measure learning transfer. (5) reference materials: on-the-job reference materials that enhance learning retention and transfer, including pda downloads and pdfs (carman, 2002, p. 2). mubayrik purpose of the study the purpose of this paper is to investigate the present and future trends of bl in workplace settings. more specifically, this paper seeks to:  provide a comprehensive view of how employees perceive the practice of bl in the workplace.  present the benefits and challenges of current and future bl approaches.  review the role of new technologies in current bl programs on bl and determine their future importance.  achieve an understanding of bl that can be used in the next few years as an effective mechanism for organizational training.  review existing literature on the investigation of bl effectiveness in workplace-learning settings. research questions the following questions guide the study:  how do employees perceive the practice of bl in the workplace?  what are the benefits and challenges of current and future bl approaches?  what is the role of new technologies in bl programs, and what will their importance be in the near future?  will bl become widely used in the next few years as a mechanism for organizational training? significance of the study findings from this paper will contribute to the fields of blended adult pre-service training and inservice training; adult education, including adult basic education for illiterate adults and homeless or unemployed adults; and bl research in both adult education and workplaces. this paper will recommend how adult educational institutions and the business sector can best prepare, practice, and support a bl environment. this paper is written for specialists in the field of online learning more generally, and bl more specifically. therefore, it attempts to research bl in greater depth. in addition, while a few studies have attempted to describe the structure of bl, few have attempted to detail the present and future of bl in the workplace. journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 finally, the study findings will provide an overview of bl in the workplace to provide key information for further research in both adult education and workplace training. furthermore, the findings may provide guidelines for policymakers. method search methods four methods were used in this research paper to search the relevant literature for collecting the necessary information about the issue under analysis:  conventional subject searching: a systematic search was made in all peerreviewed publications in english-language journals for inclusion in this paper. the reference lists of relevant primary and review articles were also searched. data were collected from a variety of databases, academic journals, and sources, including ebscohost, proquest, lexisnexis, eric, jstor, oaister, emerald, business source complete, psycinfo, and google scholar. keywords used were “blended learning,” “adult education,” “workplace earning,” and “future trends in blended learning.” the timeframe chosen for the literature was from 1990 through june 2018. the search was aimed at the identification of full-text, peer-reviewed articles, but abstracts were also reviewed to determine any references concerning the topic. additional references were located through a review of the bibliographies of valuable studies.  reference list checking: reference list checking was used to identify relevant and valuable studies.  contact with experts: in this study, collaboration with experts was a major research method used to search the relevant literature. bl experts with a solid knowledge base and expertise in adult education were engaged to determine the most valuable research papers. these experts aided in the process of determining and analyzing relevant and important studies.  citation searching (cs): the citation search was carried out through the use of multiple databases, such as google scholar and getcited. inclusion and exclusion criteria the search and selection of papers was based on a standardized evaluation process. for papers to be selected for final review, the following five criteria had to be met: mubayrik  studies that focused on bl in workplace-learning settings only.  articles published in academic, peer-reviewed journals.  articles published in the period 1990–2018.  papers from the following study settings and populations: post-graduate students, adult students, and employees of various organizations.  papers of a specific study type and design: three criteria that played a crucial role in the search for relevant and necessary studies—objectivity, quality, and currency—were analyzed for the articles identified. review process the articles were analyzed, and the most valuable and relevant ones were selected. full-text articles were selected for the review. those studies that corresponded to the inclusion criteria were indicated as relevant for data extraction and quality assessment. objectivity and the lack of bias were the two main criteria for the analysis of each article. the resulting studies were selected on the basis of data extraction and quality evaluation. data extraction initially, the search of the literature was carried out by use of the following keywords: “blended learning,” “learner satisfaction of blended learning,” and “workplace learning techniques.” data were collected on the basis of the following criteria: the author, the year of publication, country of origin, the type of research paper, characteristics of participants, sample size of participants involved, method of gathering the primary information, time period of obtaining the results, and the findings. eighteen articles were selected: ten surveys, five qualitative studies, two case studies, and one randomized control trial. these types of studies were not randomly selected: they provided the most verified and relevant primary data due to the research methods used. quality assessment recognizing that numerous investigations would be incorporated, studies were qualitatively assessed through standardized checklists with appropriate criteria. in this research paper, the critical checklists for qualitative studies designed by spencer et. al. 2003 was used. furthermore, the assessment of study quality was carried using the evidence weights evidence by pawson et al., 2003 and gough 2007. it consists of seven major dimensions by which to evaluate journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 a research paper: accuracy, purposively, utility, propriety, accessibility, and specificity (pawson et al., 2003; gough, 2007). table 1 illustrates the quality and characteristics of each study identified. table 1 the quality and characteristics of each study study type of study number of participants assessed weight of evidence a weight of evidence b weight of evidence c weight of evidence d kim, bonk & zeng, 2005 survey 239 high high high high collis et all., 2005 case study 130 medium high medium high bonk & kim, 2006b survey 202 high high high high kim & bonk, 2006 survey 562 high high high high lewis & orton, 2005 qualitative study 660 high high high high kim et al., 2007 survey 674 high high high high peters, 2007 survey 29 medium medium high medium kim et al., 2008 survey 118 medium high high high teng et al., 2009 survey 112 high medium high high gunawardena et al., 2010 a mixed-methods design, selecting both quantitative methods and qualitative methods 37 high high high high ruey, 2010 case study 25 high medium medium high schildermans & schreurs, 2010 an explorative survey. 54 high high high high macdonald & chiu, 2011 qualitative research project 30 high medium medium high dzakiria et al., 2012 qualitative case study 39 high high medium medium van dam, 2012 qualitative study 200 high high high high lee & bonk, 2014 survey + discussion group 97 (survey) 30 (discussion) high medium high high mubayrik chang et al., 2014 randomized control trial 65 (experimental= 33, control= 32) medium medium medium medium de brito neto et al., 2014 survey 47 medium high medium high findings search results the literature search found 495 abstracts, and 54 studies were identified from the citations (a total of 549 papers). of this number, 301 abstracts were excluded on the basis of the abstract review, 86 articles were non-english, and 144 articles did not correspond to the subject under analysis, considering the inclusion criteria. eighteen relevant peer-reviewed articles were selected on the basis of the inclusion criteria and were evaluated for suitability. figure 1 illustrates the data selection process. figure 1. flow chart diagram of the search and selection of studies 549 articles identified from database searching (495 from database + 54 citations) 301 articles screened excluded, not related to subject under investigation 86 articles were non-english 18 relevant, peer-reviewed articles (10 surveys, 5 qualitative studies, 2 case studies, and 1 rct 144 articles did not meet inclusion criteria/ duplicate/data were insufficient journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 characteristics of the studies out of the eighteen articles, ten surveys, five qualitative studies, two case studies, and one randomized control trial were selected. the articles mentioned in table 1 were selected to identify the present and future state of bl in workplace-learning settings in adult education. ten surveys selected for this review used interviews and questionnaires as a major tool to obtain primary data. these studies were published between 2005 and 2014. all the studies are peer-reviewed, scholarly articles. the sample size of the studies ranged from 16 to 674 participants, and the aggregate sample size was 3,250. these studies were carried out in different regions worldwide: china, korea, taiwan, united states, and the united kingdom: (kim et al., 2007, kim et al., 2009); the united states (bonk and kim, 2006a; kim et al., 2005; lee and bonk, 2014; kim and bonk, 2006); australia (peters, 2007); taiwan (teng et al., 2009); and belgium and holland (schildermans and schreurs, 2010). the sample size of the five qualitative studies ranged from 16 to 39 participants, with an aggregate sample size of 106 participants. the studies were conducted in malaysia (dzakiria et al., 2012), the united states (graham, 2006; gunawardena et al., 2010; van dam, 2012), and canada (macdonald & chiu, 2011). the two case studies were conducted in the netherlands (collis et al., 2005) and the united states (ruey, 2010). the sample size of the studies included 130 and 21 participants, respectively. a randomized control trial (chang at al., 2014) involved 65 participants and was conducted in taiwan. the length of intervention ranged from 4 weeks to 7 months. all the studies under analysis investigated the present and future state of bl in workplace-learning settings. the inclusion and exclusion criteria allowed for the identification of those articles that focused primarily on bl in workplace-learning settings. the major contribution of the studies is the primary data gathered by the researchers during their own designed interviews and questionnaires, with the use of different tools to collect the necessary information. tools used in the studies the instruments used in the studies include surveyshare (an internet-based survey tool), questionnaires, an achievement test, a self-assessment questionnaire, interviews, an instrumental qualitative case study approach, survey research, online surveys, in-class observations, and online observations. surveyshare is used to assess teaching and learning, to conduct survey research, and mubayrik to evaluate the attitudes of survey participants toward the use and effectiveness of bl in organizations. all research instruments used by the researchers in the analyzed studies aimed at identifying major present and future trends in bl in adult education by using the answers, ideas, perspectives, and opinions of respondents. the instruments used are summarized in table 2. table 2 instruments used, participants’ characteristics, and main outcome of the 18 studies study instrument participants assessed positive no difference negative duration kim, bonk, & zeng, 2005 surveyshare (a web-based survey tool) government, business & nonprofit organizations active in e learning bl is commonly used and expected to experience a dramatic rise in the coming years 2 months collis et al., 2005 web-based questionnaire 12 blended courses bl is perceived as highly positive and is on demand 3 months bonk & kim, 2006b surveyshare (a web-based survey tool) various workplace sittings (government or public administration, it, education, most of them engaged in training development) vital for training planning approximately 3 months kim & bonk, 2006 surveyshare (a web-based survey tool) mainly online teachers, professors, lecturers, & 1/4th are administrators/ instructional designers bl is crucial in the development and strategic planning in their organizations and online approximately 4 months journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 learning partnerships lewis & orton, 2005 an instrumental qualitative case study approach − bl will be a widely used learning approach in the future 26 weeks kim et al., 2007 surveyshare (a web-based survey tool) respondents were from various organizations in 5 countries bl is important and will gain more popularity in the future approximately 2 months peters, 2007 interview manufacturers of mobile devices, businesses and education providers mobile devices will help in promoting bl 3 months kim et al., 2008 questionnaire, surveyshare hrd professionals bl is a popular delivery mode within workplace learning settings 5 months teng et al., 2009 online survey belong to various types of organizations and industries involved in e learning in 5 countries many workers are not aware of the term blended learning 2 months gunawardena et al., 2010 questionnaire, face-to-face and phone interviews, survey research engineers, in 3 engineering courses in a multinational corporation online learning are the strongest predictors of learners’ satisfaction and collegial support. it, also, impacted the education program in a 3 months mubayrik corporate setting ruey, 2010 online questionnaires, interviews, inclass observations, and online observations graduate-level students in 18-week course a constructivist learning approach is helpful in workplace settings 18 weeks schildermans & schreurs, 2010 online, webbased questionnaire employees from companies involved in e learning the popularity of bl will increase in work place settings 1 month macdonald & chiu, 2011 a pilot e-learning course in professional training program for workplace learners 200 hours e learning course for employees in the wood products manufacturing industry the use of smartphones will help increase convenience and flexibility of e-learning programs 6 weeks (200 hour) 2 months dzakiria et al., 2012 interview business student taking business communication course in uum high satisfaction with bl compared to other learning and teaching methods 2 months van dam, 2012 an instrumental qualitative case study approach various profit large organizations with on-job e learning & training bl will definitely become popular in the future to have best practice in workplace 1 month lee & bonk, 2014 online survey multinational participants located in north america, canada, australia, japan, saudi, bl represents an important tool to improve the transfer of knowledge and 2 months journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 switzerland & sweden involved in training & learning the overall learning experience chang at al., 2014 achievement test, self-assessment questionnaire 11th graders students, majoring in electrical engineering at a vocational high school bl results in more positive cognition and skills 5 weeks de brito neto et al., 2014 multiple-choice questionnaire (surveymonkey) adult flight attendants relevant to their performance e-learning courses during employment at international airlines outcome seventeen studies were cross-sectional and one investigation was longitudinal (kim & bonk, 2006). all studies used a single-group cross-sectional design, whereas one study employed a twogroup randomized controlled design. the effect of blended learning was positive, indicating that e-learning improves the knowledge and skills more than conventional learning, in addition to other advantages. only one study (bonk & kim, 2006b) addressed the challenges and the technology. the challenges, in descending order, were as follows: lack of understanding; insufficient management support; organization or cultural resistance; boring or low-quality content; fastchanging technology; learners lacking self-regulated learning skills; learner resistance. as regards technology, the following were used: knowledge management tools, digital libraries, online simulations, cell phones and other mobile and handheld technologies, webcasting and video streaming, wireless technologies, podcasting, intelligent agents, blogs and online journals, wikis, massive multiplayer online gaming, and e-books. tables 2, 3 & figure 2 displays the main outcome of the eighteen studies. table 3 summary of the main outcomes of the reviewed studies authors intervention main outcome kim, bonk, & zeng, 2005 survey questionnaires to various professionals & organizations in usa  positive business impact resulted in more implementation & promising future mubayrik collis et al., 2005 survey questionnaires from 12 courses + 6 courses leaders + 6 researchers & designers  learners’ satisfaction  appropriate learning method, fulfilled learner’s objectives  immediate application to work  accessible  lower cost  positive impact on business bonk & kim, 2006 survey questionnaires in various work sittings  appropriate learning method kim & bonk 2006 survey questionnaires college instructors & administrators in merlot & wcet or those with online syllabi in wlh  important in higher education using various pedagogical methods  skills & knowledge development graham, 2006 review e learning models  positive impact on business  practical for workplace learning  accessibility  rich learning environment kim et al., 2007 five countries survey  accessibility & availability  lower cost peters, 2007 three survey instruments were developed: manufacturer/ software developer, business, and educational provider  positive impact on business, manufacturer, & educators, thus increased implementation kim et al., 2008 international study of the future of blended learning in corporate training settings in which participants from china, korea, taiwan, the united kingdom, and the united states  accessibility  improved learning experience  lower cost & cost-effectiveness  rich learning environment  appropriate learning method teng et al., 2009 different organizations type & size including education  rich learning environment  appropriate learning method  lower cost  acceptability gunawardena et al., 2010 learners, instructors, and instructional designers from the united states and international sites  practical for busy professionals  skills & knowledge development (problem-solving)  immediate application to work  global ruey, 2010 survey, multicourse docs, observation, & interview  high technology exposure  immediate application to work & interaction with others schildermans & schreurs, 2010 survey was sent to 700 organizations  rich learning environment  learners’ satisfaction journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273  lower cost  appropriate learning method  global macdonald & chiu, 2011 10 companies & two interventions  web  web + mobile  appropriate learning method  high technology exposure: quizzes user-friendly, less anxiety, and immediate results  practical for busy professionals  e learning is correlated with smart phones features knowledge among learners dzakiria et al., 2012 heterogeneous adult learner  encourage lifelong learning  rich learning environment  high technology exposure van dam, 2008 case study interview on 29 organizations  reduces administration time and time off from work  global  lower cost  accessibility  rich learning environment & knowledge transfer lee & bonk, 2014 questionnaires, sticky notes, & group discussion  knowledge and skills development  immediate application to work chang et al., 2014 pretest & post test experimental group: e learning & control group traditional learning  positive effects on cognition and skill de brito neto et al., 2014 various e courses at international airlines  improved job performance figure 2. graphical representation of main studies outcomes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 positive business impact immediate work application accessibility lower cost rich learning environment appropriate learning method skills & knowledge development. global practical for busy professionals high technology exposure mubayrik discussion, conclusion and implications bl is a combination of online and face-to-face instruction that allows a mixture of scheduled and unscheduled learning modules, structured and unstructured learning experiences, and natural achievement differences among learners. several factors encouraged instructors, learners, and trainers to prefer bl over other learning options: pedagogical richness, social interaction, cost effectiveness, access to knowledge, ease of revision, and personal agency (graham, 2006). the current literature strongly supports the tendency of educational establishments and workplaces to implement bl approaches. all the studies under analysis admitted the evident advantages of bl as a mechanism for organizational training, but most studies also mentioned obstacles and challenges to successfully implementing blended learning in workplace settings. one major obstacle is the lack of understanding of the “blended learning” concept (teng et al., 2009), which significantly affects the survey participants’ perception of bl and its effectiveness, even if this approach is used by their organization. rossett et al. (2003) state that there are six main challenges related to the development of bl systems: content stability, implementation and development time of the program, human interaction important to the learning process, budget, learning resources, and the nature of learning activities as individual or social. one major concern associated with the use of bl in corporate settings is that although numerous frameworks and models of bl are available in theory, their practical use by hrd professionals is not adequately observed and verified (kim et al., 2008). despite the challenges and obstacles reported by both researchers and participants, bl is expected to grow significantly in workplace-learning settings (bonk & kim, 2006a; kim et al., 2008; teng et al., 2009; schildermans & schreurs, 2010). the literature review showed that organizations currently use bl to train their employees, and this tendency is expected to dramatically increase in the future. since the bl approach improves the quality of the learning experience, contributes to a better transfer of knowledge, promotes collaboration and interaction, results in cost reduction, and offers new strategic directions in the organization, it is predicted to become a popular and dominant delivery mode in the future. moreover, bl will be provided through technologies that allow learners to get involved in performance support or just-in-time training. as the twenty-first century unfolds, most learning and training organizations focus on employee professional development techniques (more skills, knowledge, learning, and re-learning) (berge, 2007) using bl approaches (foley, 2007). blended learning technologies have been highly used journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 in diverse fields and in both public and private sectors. recently, leading public and private companies and universities use bl technologies and approaches to train and re-train employees, especially for multi-site and international organizations (gunawardena et al., 2010). kim and bonk (2006b) assessed the present state of bl and the attitude of respondents, such as professors, instructors, lecturers, administrators, instructional designers, and students who held teaching positions. based on these findings, kim and bonk (2006b) predict considerable changes in teaching and learning methods, emphasizing the widespread use of bl as a major learning approach within workplace-learning settings. moreover, bl is predicted to grow significantly in the future and play a more essential role than online learning. supporting the ideas expressed by bonk and kim (2006 a&b), kim et al. (2005) confirm the positive attitude of students, training professionals, and workers toward the inclusion of bl practices in workplace-learning settings. more than half of the participants predicted that their organization will likely use bl more intensively in the coming decade. researchers also found that e-learning was widely used in organizations due to the possible vibrancy of bl in the future. though bl may be facing challenges due to a lack of understanding about this learning approach, it is widely used by organizations (kim et al., 2008). obviously, hrd professionals need training and guidance concerning the meaning of bl and the ways to implement it in their organizations. since most respondents of the eighteen articles under analysis admitted the importance of using authentic approaches to learning, the use of technologies to provide just-in-time and authentic learning for employees is predicted by both students and workers. whereas recent research indicates a considerably positive effect of bl on student achievement and improved work performance, chang et al. (2014) show that it is students’ self-assessment scores that are more affected by bl, not their achievement test scores. the leaders of nearly any organization will admit that bl is effective as a new mechanism for workplace settings (collis et al., 2005). this learning approach is recognized as highly relevant to business because it can be used to identify and address immediate business issues, which results in more effective business processes by promoting collaboration and changes in work practices. bl is assumed to aid company development as a competence-based building block in which work-based operations allow the immediate use of theory in the reality of the workplace setting. bl is emphasized in many organizations because much attention is paid to learning in the workplace through work-based activities that engage other workers as learning partners and use mubayrik business resources, which are frequently created by the employees themselves. dzakiria et al. (2012) found that the popularity of bl techniques was determined by the advancement of technology, which provided new tools and avenues for teaching and learning, and the combination of different technologies with andragogy (adult education) or pedagogy (academic education). an important study (graham, 2006) verified that participants were highly satisfied with bl compared to other learning and teaching methods. bl provides a comfortable middle ground, representing a pedagogical alternative, which may encourage lifelong learning initiatives worldwide. while bl is predicted to be widely used in the future, it is important to continue determining effective models of bl that may be implemented in work settings at the program, course, activity, and institutional levels, which may be implemented in the work settings. bl can help adult learners to complete courses or training while they are in their workplace, whether to update their skills, apply for a new position or job, or pursue education as a part of their lifelong learning. learners also specify that they expect to have their budgetary spending invested into implementing bl within their organizations in the next few years. however, they admit that several issues should be addressed to effectively provide bl in their organizations. though learners show great optimism concerning an increased use of bl in their organizations, a lack of understanding concerning the meaning of bl remains the most pressing issue (bonk & kim, 2006b). the lack of commitment and support on the part of management and the organizational culture are considerable barriers to bl’s successful introduction and implementation of bl. bonk et al. (2006a) also share this assumption and believe that despite the effective use of course management systems and the tendency to emphasize the use of online learning enrollments, these systems are still used to simply “manage” learners through the focus made on administrative tasks specifically, instead of encouraging rich interactive learning experiences. this factor can significantly impede the development and implementation of bl approaches. bonk et al. (2006a) report the use of bl in some organizations, but they expect more extensive use in the future. currently, bl is a prevalent delivery method within workplace settings, which implies that bl is a continuing trend in workplace-learning settings, rather than a passing fad. future studies should focus on the technology and pedagogy used within bl in workplace settings. today, bl is predominately used to replace or extend face-to-face environments—e.g., to promote learning communities, access guest experts, provide follow-up resources, provide supplemental journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 materials, extend training events, offer timely coaching, and provide online simulation activities (van dam, 2012). through their own investigation of bl in the workplace, macdonald and chiu (2011) and peters (2007) noted that smartphones will have positively affect the convenience, affordability, social interactivity, and flexibility of participating in internet-based e-learning programs. through a social constructivist approach, the case study carried out by ruey (2010) revealed that smartphones beneficially affected adult learners by increasing their sense of responsibility and their ability to collaborate effectively. in addition, bl facilitates their learning. two studies (lee & bonk, 2014; schildermans & schreurs, 2010) examine the use of the internet and bl as collaborative tools in the workplace to encourage learning, collaboration, and innovation among employees. bl is considered an excellent way to promote workplace skill development and knowledge. however, lee and bonk (2014) contend that there are concerns about the implementation of collaborative technologies in organizations due individual learning preferences and generational differences in the workplace. schildermans and schreurs (2010) state that their survey respondents predicted bl would increase in popularity, which is determined by highly individualized learning. nevertheless, respondents also indicated several serious challenges in the near future, such as the high cost of delivery, rapidly changing technology, and inadequate information communication technology (ict) infrastructure. kim, teng, oh, and cheng (2008) confirm that bl will be a prominent learning approach in western countries, the uk, the united states, and asian countries (china, taiwan, and korea). this research also revealed barriers to implementing bl in workplace settings, regardless of hrd professionals’ satisfaction with the results of current bl practices. the lack of understanding of the blended learning concept was the most significant obstacle (teng et al., 2009), which implies that hrd professionals and practitioners should be aware of bl frameworks and models to be able to adapt them to their needs. practitioners should also be competent in emerging technologies and instructional methods that can be applied to bl. bonk et al. (2006a) identified ten major trends and predictions regarding bl: mobile-blended learning; self-determined blended learning; increased on-demand and authenticity learning; greater individualization, hands-on, and visualization learning; linking work and learning; changed instructor roles: increased collaboration, connectedness, and community; changed calendaring, the emergence of specialists in blended learning; and blended learning course designations. these mubayrik future trends will allow adult learners to refine their skills in the workplace instead of leaving for new positions. undoubtedly, adult learners will have more learning opportunities and options in the next few years. practical implications the results of this study demonstrate that guidelines should be created for hrd professionals on how to implement bl in their organizations. furthermore, the results of this study, which are based on the primary data of the most relevant research, should help practitioners be more aware of the most appropriate and effective ways of developing, providing, and assessing bl approaches used within workplace-learning settings. the findings of this systematic review on the current state of bl point to the most important issues and challenges faced by hrd professionals in their attempts to implement bl in workplace-learning settings. additionally, the results of this study offer some direction for researchers to help managers and hrd professionals cope with the issues they face. ultimately, the lack of adequate research on bl and its future trends makes this research extremely important. this study is significant for its predictions concerning bl in workplace settings. also, this study’s findings regarding the major barriers and challenges to implementing bl suggests those areas researchers should examine more thoroughly. because there is much confusion and many unknowns concerning bl, training, and human performance management, and because of its growing importance to workplace learning, human resource professionals should keep abreast of bl research. future aspects the findings of the present study provide some starting points for individuals interested in pursuing research in bl. since the study identified several current challenges in bl, these issues should be further explored to indicate whether any changes are taking place and what steps or strategies are being developed to adequately address existing problems. furthermore, research studies may focus on creating a framework for efficient and effective professional development for hrd, hrt, and training professionals, particularly on emerging technologies and how they can be utilized in bl. considering that the lack of commitment and support on the part of management for bl is one of the main obstacles for its implementation, future research should focus on the development of “best practice” cases and organizational theories to provide practitioners with the necessary methodological knowledge and awareness to gain support and commitment from managers for journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 bl. future studies may research aspects of bl, such as types of activities and types of bl, which may lead to effective implementation of this approach in workplace-learning settings. limitations of the study one major limitation of this study is the lack of research on the present and, in particular, the future state of bl in adult education. since this study is a systematic review, its initial objective was to collect as many surveys, qualitative studies, randomized control trials, and case studies as possible, but these types of studies are often limited, unavailable, or inaccessible. further, the participants’ opinions and perspectives may be biased when answering the questions. another limitation of the study is the currency of the articles. since the current study focuses on the investigation of future trends in bl, studies published in the last 5–10 years would be acceptable. however, most of the studies retrieved are dated 2005–2009, and the predictions made in the studies relate to a period of 7–10 years, which implies that the projections are taking place now. therefore, more current research is needed to make predictions for the next 5–10 years. bl training barriers in the workplace some e-learning barriers that could apply to bl training in the workplace: 1. the high cost of new, upgrading, or developing training programs or systems. 2. employee resistance to change to new trends in training or management, or lack of organizational bl training culture in the workplace. 3. technical problems and/or lack of technical support (guiney, 2015). conclusion this systematic review examined the present and future state of bl in workplace-learning settings. in recent years, this learning approach has gained popularity in both educational and workplace settings due to its benefits. the effects and direction of blended learning in workplace settings is well established and increasing due to its benefits when compared to conventional learning. it is likely that it is substantially improves the job outcomes. based on the present findings, it is suggested that in the future, studies should move beyond effectiveness to dealing with obstacles, barriers, and technologies, since all of the studies revealed it is effective despite the variation in business sizes and samples. moreover, it might be necessary to perform separate analyses on the influence and impact of blended learning on business from different aspects, including knowledge and skills. therefore, no strong generalizations concerning mubayrik the technologies and challenges of blended learning in education can be drawn on the basis of the present results. acknowledgments the author would like to express deepest thanks & acknowledgment for the support of dr. frank di silvestro and professor curtis j. bonk at indiana university. this research project was supported by a grant from the research center for humanities, deanship of scientific research, king saud university journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 references al-shahwan, a. (2015). the effect of blended learning in the direct achievement and the reflecting thinking for the first secondary student in subject matter of management information systems. (master’s thesis). middle east university, amman, jordan. berge, z. (2013). distance training and education in the corporate sector. in m. moore, handbook of distance education (3rd ed., p. 609). new york: routledge. bielawski, l., & metcalf, d. (2005). blended elearning: integrating knowledge, performance support, and online learning. amherst, mass.: hrd press. boitshwarelo, b. (2009). exploring blended learning for science teacher professional development in an african context. the international review of research in open and distributed learning, 10(4). doi: 10.19173/irrodl.v10i4.687. bonk, c. j., kim, k. j., & zeng, t. (2006a). future directions of blended learning in higher education and workplace learning settings. in edmedia: world conference on educational media and technology (pp. 3644-3649). association for the advancement of computing in education (aace). bonk, c., & kim, k. (2006b). a survey of the present and future state of blended learning in corporate and other training settings—uk respondents. the british learning association. retrieved from http://www.publicationshare.com/pdfs/ukdata.pdf. carman, j. (2005). blended learning design: five key ingredients. retrieved from https://www.it.iitb.ac.in/~s1000brains/rswork/dokuwiki/media/5_ingredientsofblended_le arning_design.pdf. chang, c., shu, k., liang, c., tseng, j., & hsu, y. (2014). is blended e-learning as measured by an achievement test and self-assessment better than traditional classroom learning for vocational high school students? the international review of research in open and distributed learning, 15(2) doi:10.19173/irrodl.v15i2.1708. collis, b., margaryan, a., & amory, m. (2005). multiple perspectives on blended learning design. journal of learning design, 1(1). doi: 10.5204/jld.v1i1.3. van dam, n. (2012). designing learning for a 21st century workforce. t + d, 66(4), 49-53,6. david, o., salleh, m., & iahad, n. (2012). the impact of e-learning in workplace: focus on organizations and healthcare environments. int. arab j. e-technol., 2(4), 203-209. http://www.publicationshare.com/pdfs/ukdata.pdf https://www.it.iitb.ac.in/~s1000brains/rswork/dokuwiki/media/5_ingredientsofblended_learning_design.pdf https://www.it.iitb.ac.in/~s1000brains/rswork/dokuwiki/media/5_ingredientsofblended_learning_design.pdf mubayrik de brito neto, j., smith, m., & pedersen, d. (2014). e-learning in multicultural environments: an analysis of online flight attendant training. british journal of educational technology, 45(6), 1060-1068. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12180. dzakiria, h. (2012). blended learning (bl) as pedagogical alternative to teach business communication course: case study of uum executive diploma program. turkish online journal of distance education, 13(3), 297-315. foley, m. (2007). the global development learning network: a world bank initiative in distance learning for development. in m. moore, handbook of distance education (2nd ed., p. 829). aufl. mahwah, n.j.: l. erlbaum associates. gough, d. (2007). weight of evidence: a framework for the appraisal of the quality and relevance of evidence. research papers in education, 22(2), 213-228. doi: 10.1080/02671520701296189. graham, c. (2006). blended learning systems: definition, current trends, and future directions. in c. bonk & c. graham, the handbook of blended learning: global perspectives, local designs (pp. 3–21). san francisco, ca: pfeiffer publishing. graham, c. r. (2009). blended learning models. in encyclopedia of information science and technology, second edition (pp. 375-382). igi global. gunawardena, c., linder-vanberschot, j., lapointe, d., & rao, l. (2010). predictors of learner satisfaction and transfer of learning in a corporate online education program. american journal of distance education, 24(4), 207-226. doi: 10.1080/08923647.2010.522919. kim, k., bonk, c., & oh, e. (2008). the present and future state of blended learning in workplace learning settings in the united states. performance improvement, 47(8), 5-16. doi: 10.1002/pfi.20018. kim, k. j., & bonk, c. j. (2006). the future of online teaching and learning in higher education. educause quarterly, 29(4), 22–30. http://faculty.weber.edu/eamsel/research%20groups/on-line%20learning/bonk%20(2006).pdf. kim, k. j., teng, y. t., son, s., oh, e., cheng, j., & bonk, c. j. (2007). blended learning trends in workplace learning settings: a multi-national study. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.606.6350&rep=rep1&type=pdf http://faculty.weber.edu/eamsel/research%20groups/on-line%20learning/bonk%20(2006).pdf http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.606.6350&rep=rep1&type=pdf journal of social studies education research 2018: 9 (4), 247-273 kim, k., bonk, c., & teng, y. (2009). the present state and future trends of blended learning in workplace learning settings across five countries. asia pacific education review, 10(3), 299-308. doi: 10.1007/s12564-009-9031-2. lee, h., & bonk, c. (2014). collaborative learning in the workplace: practical issues and concerns. international journal of advanced corporate learning (ijac), 7(2), 10. doi: 10.3991/ijac.v7i2.3850. lewis, n., & orton, p. (2006). blending learning for business impact. in c. bonk & c. graham, the handbook of blended learning: global perspectives, local designs. san francisco, ca: pfeiffer publishing. macdonald, i., & chiu, j. (2011). evaluating the viability of mobile learning to enhance management training. canadian journal of learning and technology / la revue canadienne de l’apprentissage et de la technologie, 37(1). doi: 10.21432/t2ww2s. mata-domingo, s. (2018). evaluation on the effectiveness and usability of the developed collaborative interaction management system. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 122-133. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/347 mohanty, s. (1988). lifelong and adult education. new delhi: ashish publishing house. pawson, r., boaz, a., grayson, l., long, a., & barnes, c. (2003). types and quality of social care knowledge. stage two: towards the quality assessment of social care knowledge. esrc uk center for evidence based policy and practice: working paper, 18. https://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/politicaleconomy/research/cep/pubs/papers/asset s/wp18.pdf peters, k. (2007). m-learning: positioning educators for a mobile, connected future. the international review of research in open and distributed learning, 8(2). doi: 10.19173/irrodl.v8i2.350. rossett, a., douglis, f., & frazee, r. v. (2003). strategies for building blended learning. learning circuits, 4(7), 1-8. ruey, s. (2010). a case study of constructivist instructional strategies for adult online learning. british journal of educational technology, 41(5), 706-720. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/347 https://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/politicaleconomy/research/cep/pubs/papers/assets/wp18.pdf https://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/politicaleconomy/research/cep/pubs/papers/assets/wp18.pdf mubayrik schildermans, s., & schreurs, j. (2010). blended learning in professional learning practice: an explorative study in a belgian-dutch context. international association of online engineering. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279831351_blended_learning_in_professional_ learning_practice_an_explorative_study_in_a_belgian-dutch_context. singh, h. (2003). building effective blended learning programs. educational technology, 43(6), 51–54. spencer, l., ritchie, j., lewis, j., & dillon, l. (2003). quality in qualitative evaluation: a framework for assessing research evidence. http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/21069/2/a-qualityframework-tcm6-38740.pdf. teng, y. t., bonk, c. j., & kim, k. j. (2007). the future of blended learning and the emerging competencies of human resource development professionals in taiwan. in international research conference in the americas of the academy of human resource development. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed504558.pdf. teng, y., bonk, c., & kim, k. (2009). the trend of blended learning in taiwan: perceptions of hrd practitioners and implications for emerging competencies. human resource development international, 12(1), 69–84. doi: 10.1080/13678860802638842. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279831351_blended_learning_in_professional_learning_practice_an_explorative_study_in_a_belgian-dutch_context https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279831351_blended_learning_in_professional_learning_practice_an_explorative_study_in_a_belgian-dutch_context http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/21069/2/a-quality-framework-tcm6-38740.pdf http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/21069/2/a-quality-framework-tcm6-38740.pdf https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed504558.pdf www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),346-363 346 reconfiguring localization quality assessment for video games agung prasetyo wibowo1, m.r nababan2, riyadi santosa3 & diah kristina4 abstract studies conducted on localization quality assessment (lqa) on video games from interdisciplinary perspectives, dominantly employ studies on media, demarcating it from their derivative concerns like environmental issues. we argue that lqa on video games requires reconstruction from eco-criticism perspectives, because electronic waste (e-waste) of video games has been a serious concern since the legalization of european union 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment. analysing the uplift in file size and extra power consumption exposed from purposively selected twenty game titles, this article proposes the possibilities to construct eco-criticism based lqa. video game localization scholars and practitioners could benefit from the proposed lqa to appraise possible environmental issues emerging from the localization process. key words: localization, video game translation, e-waste, video games introduction e-waste has been a serious concern in the video game industry. moore (2009) emphasises that ewaste results from physical game items such as disc-based formats and paraphernalia items like guitar controllers from ‘guitar heroes’. besides physical e-waste, the video game industry also exposes potential e-waste on digital aspects in terms of file size (mayers, koomey, hall, bauer, france, and webb, 2015), wherein localization process might play a significant role in file size growth. linguistics, cultural and legal problems revealed in the localization process might contribute to increasing file sizes. this localization-driven file size emerges due to the absence of what chang (2013) terms as ecological localization, which concerns on linguistics and translation studies in localization as a misnomer. this ecology integrated localization practice further signifies the importance of constructing a localization quality assessment (lqa) with similar perspectives on the environment. in arc system works blazblue: calamity trigger portable for playstation 1 s.s., m.hum., sebelas maret university, agungpwpw@gmail.com 2 prof., drs.,m.ed., phd. amantaradja@yahoo.com 3 prof., drs.,m.a., m.ed., phd., riyadisantosa1960@gmail.com 4 dra., m.a., phd. kristina_diah@yahoo.com mailto:agungpwpw@gmail.com mailto:amantaradja@yahoo.com mailto:riyadisantosa1960@gmail.com mailto:kristina_diah@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),346-363 portable (psp), a porting version of blazblue calamity trigger for arcade and console, for instance, suffers a data shift nearly doubling in size from the japanese version, with 585 mb, to 862 mb in the north american version. since psp provides digital distribution, it implies that the downloading time for the us version is longer than that of the japanese version. because more downloading time indicates more energy consumption, the case of blazblue localization pinpoints that environmental concerns are not yet considered. in ecological localization perspectives, the 277 mb gap revealed from the japanese and north american versions ushers a deficient quality of localization. similar cases include multidisc games like square’s final fantasy vii and viii for playstation, media vision and contrail’s wild arms 2nd ignition and square enix’s final fantasy xiii for xbox 360. these games indicate that the possible presence of future disc and plastic waste is high. in relation to environmental concerns, the mentioned possibility of disc and plastic waste contributes in the piling of e-waste. regarding video games, e-waste resulting from video games, based on european union 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (weee), is classified into toys, leisure and sport equipment and is furthermore, ranked seventh in the ewaste category (wath, dutt, chakrabarti, 2011). this categorization strengthens the necessity for video game quality assessment including its localization to incorporate environmental and ecological perspectives. research questions 1. how is eco-lqa implemented to qualitatively analyse video game localization quality? 2. how is eco-lqa combined with a metric to quantitatively analyse video game localization quality? literature review localization quality assessment for video games and eco-criticism video games, due to their media status as software, are primarily treated the same as other software types in their lqa. thereby, the assessment components revolve around linguistic, functional/operational and cosmetic elements of the software as proposed by esselink (2000) and translation and grammatical errors as perceived from the quality assurance metric from lisa (localization industry software association), as the most widely utilized model of lqa wibowo, et al (costales, 2009). the problems with sole concerns with linguistic, functional/operational and cosmetic components are the possible negligence of file size increase after certain corrections are applied. in video games with cultural issues like capcom’s final fight for snes (super nintendo entertainment system), where several visuals like nude statues, liquor references and blood depictions are altered, the possibility for the game to suffer a file size shift is plausible, since this alteration requires a careful treatment to preserve the nuances of the original games. at the same time, it should but conform to the rule, norm and culture of the target market. the above case indicates that corrections on linguistic and cultural errors trigger the emergence of environment-related issues. if this case is viewed from eco-criticism perspectives, it will show a deficiency in the product quality since an increase on data shift is a part of e-waste. the increase in file size also signifies that the roles of the localization team have not yet encompassed ecological concerns, knowing that these concerns are a significant part in electronic based product localization. furthermore, localization, as a part of globalization, as implied by retallack (2001), has to conform to the umbrella issues the global community faces with environmental issues being one of the issues. in the case of video games, the errors should not be covering only linguistic, cultural and legal matters, but also environmental matters. the errors these types of lqa concern are intertwined and linked to the mediality of the software, video games in this case, and thus, the corrections are mechanically accommodated. this concern on the mechanics as one of the possible causes of errors further suggests that the process of assessing the localization quality is executed in a proceduralist manner (anastasiou and schaler, 2010; jimenez-crespo, 2011; dietz, 2007; honeywood, 2007). this proceduralism on lqa implies that interdisciplinary components are open for a slot in the assessment if the components conform to the proceduralist nature of video games. to accommodate environmental concerns in lqa, the slot is allotted for eco-criticism. gilt, eco-translatology and textonomy the word ‘eco’ in gilt (globalization, internationalization, localization and translation) perspectives might be related to (a) what gengshen (2008; 2009), gengshen and tao (2016) term as eco-translatology, where they treat translation as a living being tested for survival in the textual world; (b) what chang (2013) labels as ecological localization, where linguistic and environmental significances should be incorporated in any phases of the localization process and (c) what valero-garces (2011) calls as eco-criticism for translation studies, emphasizing on the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),346-363 significance of bioregional culture and landscape in the process of translating a text. these three articles, though seemingly displaying different views on the incorporation and integration of environmental concerns in translation studies, share a derivative implication, namely corresponding quality assessment toward eco-translatology, ecological localization and ecocriticism-based translation studies. this implication is what this article attempts to fulfil, an ecocriticism based lqa focusing on file size shift and extra power consumption. furthermore, the assumption is that the proposed eco-criticism perspectives should be articulated in structuralist and proceduralist manners. aarseth’s theory of textonomy is employed to structurise and proceduralise clark’s eco-criticism, the theory selected as the basis for the localization quality design. textonomy is the study of how texts are accessed by the users through their reciprocal functions with the users, namely interpretive, explorative, configurative and textonic (aarseth, 1997; eskelinen, 2012). in interpretive functions, users attempt to interpret the texts they access, while in explorative, users not only interpret the texts, but also explore them through links found, for instance, in html text. in configurative, users could influence the text through technical configuration as found from video games. in textonic functions, users could modify the already existent text as found from modded video games. textonomy is selected for theoretical basis since it not only treats texts on the content mechanism, but also text from mechanics and users as parts of the mechanics. thereby, in relation to video game (lqa), this mechanics-oriented nature of textonomy displays a linear mechanistic paradigm from which structuralist and proceduralist natures of video game lqa roots. applying these functions to clark’s ecocriticism and anthropocene theories, a structuralist and proceduralist lqa is designed. clark heavily discusses eco-criticism in a linkage with anthropocene theories, emphasizing on the mechanistic natures of the environment and its derivative elements (2015). this concern on the mechanism of nature indicates the corresponding paradigm on textonomy and video game lqa and, thereby, implies that the three lqa constructing design elements share connective perspectives. method the research approach this qualitative research employs formal approach for game studies by lankoski and björk (2015) to reveal and recognize the influence of localization on the structural assets of the wibowo, et al selected game titles. the titles are purposively selected based on one of the following criteria namely (1) games with multiple discs (2) games with file size difference between the original and the localized versions (3) games with digital distributions (4) games designed in an open world (5) games with extra peripherals to play them. departing from the formal approach and these game titles, the research is conducted through five procedures. first, localized game assets indicating differences on file size are revealed. second, the differences on file size are examined to reveal their increase and decrease. third, the localized game assets are connected to the file size differences to recognize the textual and visual states of the localized assets. fourth, the reasons behind the applications of localization like cultural, legal or mechanical issues, of which their importance in localization, as suggested by di marco (2007) and edwards (2011), are prominent, are examined to perceive their relations with file size increase. fifth, the user’s functions of the game asset localization are revealed in regard to the emergence of differences in the file size of source and target games. data and sources of data the data of this research are localized game assets which usher file size differences between the source games and the target ones. the titles analyzed were square and square enix’s final fantasy iv, square’s vii, square’s viii, square enix’s xiii, square enix’s final fantasy x/x-2 hd remaster, media vision and contrail’s wild arms 2nd ignition, monolith soft’s xenosaga iii: also sprach zarathustra, arc system works’ blazblue: calamity trigger portable, capcom’s breath of fire iv, nintendo’s legend of zelda: ocarina of time, capcom’s super street fighter ii turbo, capcom’s street fighter v, technos’ super dodge ball, bandai namco’s dragon ball xenoverse, sega’s sonic the hedgehog, bethesda softworks’ elder scrolls v: skyrim, multiple ds game cartridge, capcom’s final fight, polyphony digital’s grand turismo 6, and rockstar’s gta san andreas. departing from the findings on this classification to which the textonomy is combined with the adapted theory of clark’s theories of ecocriticism and anthropocene, video game lqa with environmental concerns was constructed. data collection techniques to reveal the presence of file shift, the data in .bin format were extracted from the selected games to provide an initial recognition on the file size between the original and translated games. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),346-363 .bin data were then read by utilizing binary file reader to check textual shifts in the form of additions and subtractions. while performing the checking, the games were played to reveal shifts on visual, which might contribute to the file size shifts. data analysis techniques this research employs domain, taxonomy, and componential analyses by spradley (1980). in domain analysis, the collected data are classified based on their assets and the degree of their contribution to the file size increase. by classifying the data as such, the relationship between diegetic and non-diegetic elements realized into texts and visuals, from which file size increase might be possibly begotten. exercising this classification, the structural and proceduralist analysis domain are laid to compose a taxonomic analysis. in the analysis of taxonomy, the contribution of game asset localization is intertwined with possible cultural, legal, or mechanical issues to reveal a connectivity between the file size increase with these possible issues. componentially this connectionist perspective is structurally constructed to yield what we term as layers of assessment, with which the assessors will use to assess video game localization in regard to ecocriticism perspectives. following sub-headings should be used in this section. research design research model and the reason why a specific model is chosen should be specified in this section. research model should be explained with relevant literature. also, research design should be explained in detail. result and discussion the implementation of eco-lqa the user’s function-based design, borrowing aarseth’s terms, consists of four layers of assessment, namely interpretive, explorative, configurative and textonic layers. these layers are designed in a spheric anthropocenic form to indicate the characteristics and the connectivity of the layers. wibowo, et al figure 1 layers of localization quality assessment in eco-lqa each layer is connected to other layers; therefore, in assessing the video game localization, environmental concerns revealed on each layer are assessed considering other layers. in capcom’s breath of fire iv, for example, the localization aimed from japanese to the u.s. and european markets underwent significant impact on the file size. the original japanese version of the title, breath of fire iv utsurowazaru mono, for playstation console is 136 mb in size, but shifts to 155 mb for the u.s. the reasons for this shift are (a) different characters between pictographic scripts, the kana in japanese, with latin scripts of english language; (b) the necessity to select certain language styles to characterise and distinguish certain characters; and (c) several censorship and additional features that require audio-visual adjustments. conforming these adjustments to the target culture and market require a revisualization process, which might contribute to the file size uplift. cultural, normal and legal problems emerging from breath of fire iv are located in the interpretive layer since such discussions are of interpretation domains. in this layer, the tasks of the assessors are to reveal the relationship between cultural, normal and legal contents of video games with potential environmental and ecological issues emerging from video game localization as perceived from file size shift. as the environmental and ecological issues are revealed, the assessors are required to assess the explorative layer of the localization. in the explorative layer, the revealed issues from the interpretive layer are classified based on their triggering causes. the triggering causes of file size shift are classified into a narrativetriggered and mechanics-triggered file size shift. in narrative-triggered, the file size shift occurs due to the narrative content ranging from extensive addition to the game narratives and censorship related contents. the localisation of final fight experiences this trigger. here, the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),346-363 story is extended due to the localization for different game platforms. a different example is perceivable from xenosaga iii: also sprach zarathustra. when the game is localised for the u.s. market, the localization team removes blood related scenes, but unlike final fight, the absence of re-visualization does not affect the file size uplift. in mechanics-triggered, the file size uplift results from the game mechanics spanning from game distribution methods, game distribution media and additional game peripherals. game distribution methods consist of physical (cartridges, floppy disks and optical media) and digital (download) distributions. one of the examples is the existence of multiple nintendo ds game cartridges. in this type of distribution, tens of games are compiled into a single cartridge. this illegal compilation forces the ds to perform a work that causes a bigger power consumption; thereby in eco-criticism perspectives, this condition is not that eco-friendly. this case does not imply that digital distribution serves better in ecological and environmental perspectives since downloading a large file is also power consuming. thereby, an in-depth qualitative assessment through a comparison between physical and digital distribution is required by analysing the file size and e-waste possibilities. an indepth analysis is also required concerning the sub classification of game distribution methods, game distribution media. physical distribution in video games covers cartridge, floppy disks and optical media, with each medium having its own ecological and environmental issues. meanwhile, digital distribution primarily focuses on the media from which the data is downloaded, namely consoles, arcades, mobiles and pcs. in the case of localization, normal cases involve physically distributed games being localised into physical and vice versa. the case of localizing physical into digital and vice versa is a case not yet to be found. dragon ball xenoverse and street fighter v for example were released in a simultaneous shipment (sim-ship) localization model for both physical and digital distributions. the presence of this sim-ship model, in eco-criticism perspectives, indicates that multi-platform game releases actually open a chance for the gamers to select what is best for them in terms of their ecological and environmental concerns, thus, strengthening the selfdefinition and one’s position in environmental issues. this option to select what serves best for the gamers, in terms of eco-criticism is also perceivable from the presence of game peripherals. game peripherals are additional equipment required to achieve a total experience in playing certain games. simulation racing games like grand turismo series require a wheel controller to experience a real driving experience; dancing games like dance dance revolution series need a wibowo, et al dancing mat to function realistically; and guitar heroes series ask the gamers to plug in a guitar like controller to immerse them as a guitarist. these game peripherals, mostly dominated by controller like peripherals, require extra power; thereby, energy consumption comes as the issue. in the localization context, these peripherals are also of concern, since button function and pressing, as shown from the case of affirming an action, mechanically interacted from o button in japanese and x in the u.s., are different across cultures. in relation to eco-criticism, this localization case is not yet proven as a contributor to eco problems, but the power consumption of the peripherals is of concern, as noted in the aforementioned examples from breath of fire iv and final fight. this game does not require additional a gaming peripheral to immerse the players onto the narrative driven game world. meanwhile, final fight, due to its status as a ported game from the arcade version, the arcade atmosphere will never be felt by the gamers if their controllers are those of home consoles, snes in this case. therefore, they are required to replace the controllers with arcade-like controllers to immerse the players into the game. a similar case is also found from blazblue calamity trigger. this fighting game was originally designed for an arcade, but its fame brought the title to consoles and handhelds. in the console, to emit an arcade nuance, the gamers have to purchase controllers specifically designed for fighting games, implying that power consumption might be an issue. in relation to eco-criticism, the latter opens a greater chance for extra power consumption due to the status of final fight being an arcade game. after the assessors qualitatively assessed the triggering causes, they move to the configurative layer. in the configurative layer, the assessors assess the possibility of modding the games through sdk (self-development kits), a tool allowing the players to modify or add new contents to the games, as well as dlc (downloadable content) features. these include additional contents from game developers aimed at adding extra gaming experiences for the players through the availability of new characters, quests or mechanics. the additive characteristics of these two features open a possibility for an uplift on the game file size; therefore, this uplift requires an environmental and ecological concern on the design. in the context of localization, sdk is contributing to localization when the modded contents reflect that of a certain target culture. elder scrolls v: skyrim and gta san andreas are examples of how modding is vastly utilised to simply add characters, abilities and equipment to include the fans’ own story and localization. meanwhile, dlcs require localization, as they function like a short journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),346-363 complete sequel for the original title. in relation to eco-criticism and localization, an in-depth qualitative analysis onto the two features is required to provide a connective link with the previous explorative and interpretive layers. in the case of breath of fire iv and final fight, as they do not have any sdk or dlc, the quality analysis from eco-criticism does not touch the configurative layer, but in the case of blazblue calamity trigger for console version, the game requires an analysis in the configurative layer since the title has dlcs. the analysis of sdk and dlcs revolves around whether the localization contributes to the file size uplift and extra power consumption or not. possible severe level of file size uplift and extra power consumption occur more in the sdk-ed games than in dlcs due to the modding nature of sdk with vast possibilities to alter and convert any elements of the original games. the findings are related to whether the localization of the original games, coming from re-visualization (interpretive layer), contribute to file size uplift and extra power consumption. this tripartit relationship will contribute to a thorough assessment with file size shift and extra power consumption as the centre. this tripartit relationship, to obtain a qualified result, should be connected to the last layer, the textonic layer. in the textonic layer, the assessment concerns platform porting, game reformatting to adjust the game with target platform, and game remaster and remake. final fantasy iv, final fantasy x/x2 hd remaster, legend of zelda: ocarina of time, super street fighter ii turbo, super dodge ball and sonic the hedgehog are examples how games underwent a remake for a different platform and a different generation of users. the necessity to adjust the games to different platforms and players requires the games to not only be remastered on visuals, but also on the game mechanics and narratives. these necessities are compensated with file size uplift, extra power consumption and extra plastic cases and physical distribution paraphernalia. in regards to localization, the remake games require additional localization for some additional game sections; this condition opens the possibility for file size uplift and extra power consumption. super dodge ball, for instance, was originally released for arcade in 1987 in japan under the title nekketsu kōkō dodgeball bu; since 1989 to 2015, it has been remade and remastered for various platforms that require more advanced visuals and mechanics for each generation. for 28 years, physical and digital distributions of the title have been disseminated. in the perspectives of eco-criticism under textonic layer, an assessor is first required to describe each platform. a game is remastered for and second, to analyse the potential ecological and environmental issues for wibowo, et al each platform. performing the analysis, an assessor might reveal a remake pattern of the assessed games, to which a pattern of ecological and environmental issues is able to be located. breath of fire iv and final fight, due positive receptions, received a ported version. the former was ported to pc while the latter was ported to sega cd, sharp x68000, game boy advance (gba), playstation 2 and the xbox. breath of fire iv displays several differences between console and pc ports, primarily regarding with resolutions, controls and in game features. meanwhile, in final fight, you not only experience mechanical adjustments, but also the narratives like changing the title into final fight guy, final fight one and final fight double impact. these adjustments are to address different platforms, different generations and fan demands. the application of eco-lqa as discussed above should be integrated with metric assessments to achieve an in-depth quality assessment toward video games. if the assessors plan to employ a quantitative assessment on the lqa, they are advised to focus on the minor and major damage in terms of environmental concerns, with the combination of quantitative based assessments like that of esselink’s, lisa or sae. combining metric assessment with eco-lqa eco-lqa should be integrated with metric assessment to achieve a comprehensive result on the assessment. we propose a classification of severity in relation to file size shift and extra power consumption. the following table will illustrate the classification: table 1 classification of severity in relation to file size shift and extra power consumption severity grades points parameters file size shift extra power consumption localization model localization level 3d-iv x4 < 500mb in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution post gold partial 3d-iii x3.75 in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution post gold full 3d-ii x3.5 in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution sim-ship partial 3d-i x3.25 in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution sim-ship full journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),346-363 3c-iv x3 < 500mb in-game elements and paraphernalia post gold partial 3c-iii x2.75 in-game elements and paraphernalia post gold full 3c-ii x2.5 in-game elements and paraphernalia sim-ship partial 3c-i x2.25 in-game elements and paraphernalia sim-ship full 3b-iv x2 < 500mb in-game elements and digital distribution post gold partial 3b-iii x1.75 in-game elements and digital distribution post gold full 3b-ii x1.5 in-game elements and digital distribution sim-ship partial 3b-i x1.25 in-game elements and digital distribution sim-ship full 3a-iv x1 < 500mb in-game elements post gold partial 3a-iii x0.75 in-game elements post gold full 3a-ii x0.5 in-game elements sim-ship partial 3a-i x0.25 in-game elements sim-ship full 2d-iv x4 100-500mb in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution post gold partial 2d-iii x3.75 in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution post gold full 2d-ii x3.5 in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution sim-ship partial 2d-i x3.25 in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution sim-ship full 2c-iv x3 100-500mb in-game elements and paraphernalia post gold partial 2c-iii x2.75 in-game elements and paraphernalia post gold full 2c-ii x2.5 in-game elements and paraphernalia sim-ship partial 2c-i x2.25 in-game elements and paraphernalia sim-ship full 2b-iv x2 100-500mb in-game elements and digital distribution post gold partial 2b-iii x1.75 in-game elements and digital distribution post gold full 2b-ii x1.5 in-game elements and digital distribution sim-ship partial 2b-i x1.25 in-game elements and digital distribution sim-ship full 2a-iv x1 100-500mb in-game elements post gold partial 2a-iii x0.75 in-game elements post gold full 2a-ii x0.5 in-game elements sim-ship partial 2a-i x0.25 in-game elements sim-ship full 1d-iv x4 > 100mb in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution post gold partial 1d-iii x3.75 in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution post gold full 1d-ii x3.5 in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution sim-ship partial 1d-i x3.25 in-game elements, paraphernalia and digital distribution sim-ship full wibowo, et al 1c-iv x3 > 100mb in-game elements and paraphernalia post gold partial 1c-iii x2.75 in-game elements and paraphernalia post gold full 1c-ii x2.5 in-game elements and paraphernalia sim-ship partial 1c-i x2.25 in-game elements and paraphernalia sim-ship full 1b-iv x2 > 100mb in-game elements and digital distribution post gold partial 1b-iii x1.75 in-game elements and digital distribution post gold full 1b-ii x1.5 in-game elements and digital distribution sim-ship partial 1b-i x1.25 in-game elements and digital distribution sim-ship full 1a-iv x1 > 100mb in-game elements post gold partial 1a-iii x0.75 in-game elements post gold full 1a-ii x0.5 in-game elements sim-ship partial 1a-i x0.25 in-game elements sim-ship full severity is graded into a numerical manner 1-3 with sub grading in alphabetical manner a-d and roman numbers i-iv. the higher the number and alphabetical order, the higher the severity. since the severity has a different level of grading, the points allotted to the grading are also different, depending on the level of severity. the severity grade of 1a-i and point x0.25 means that the point for severity level grade is 0.25, resulting from 1x0.25. the parameters utilised to yield the score, which indicates the level of severity in eco-lqa perspectives, are file size shift, extra power consumption, localisation model and localisation level. first parameter, file size shift ranges from under 100 mb to over 500 mb. this range is selected since the additional file size after a game is localised is approximately on the range of the mentioned number for non-porting games. for porting games, the file size shift could be sporadically diverse, especially in games involving pc porting. as such, 100-500 mb are set as the axis to bridge porting and non-porting games. second parameter, extra power consumption, focuses on game assets, which are possible to suffer additional power consumption after the games are localised. the game assets are ingame elements, digital distribution and paraphernalia. in-game elements, to which most of the localization process is applied, are considered to be the asset which contributes the most in the possible emergence of file size shift and extra power consumption and thereby, in-game elements are the primary consideration in this parameter. third parameter, localization model concerns on whether the localization process is post gold, where the localization is exercised after the source game is launched or simultaneous shipment (sim-ship); where the localization process takes place at the same time where the game is designed (arno, 2011; mangiron and o’hagan, 2006; 2013). post gold model is assumed to have a freer hand in localizing a game than sim-ship and, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),346-363 thus, if environmental issues emerge from this model, it implies that the localization team is not thorough in spotting and solving the issues. fourth parameter, localization level concerns on whether the localization encompasses only texts, voices or both of them. partial localization, which focuses on texts, is considered to trigger the least problem in environmental issues. if it is revealed that this consideration works vice versa, then, it is assumed that the localization team narratively or mechanically performs a poor process of localization. to better illustrate the use of this metric, an example is given as follows. in square’s final fantasy x-2, the north american version has a 600 mb difference from the source japanese version. assessing this game with the above eco-lqa metric shows that the severity grade is 3aiii. this grade is perceptible from the findings that (a) the localised target game is more than 100 mb bigger in file size than that of the source, (b) there is graphical adjustment on the game cutscene where the main character performs a song, (c) post gold localization iss exercised after the japanese version is launched, and (d) full localization, covering both text and voice. departing from this grading, the scoring comes after. based on the explanation above, the localization of final fantasy x-2 has a severity grading 3a-iii, implying that 3 on 3a-iii has to be multiplied by 0.75, as indicated from the point column. 2.25 is the result obtained from the multiplication. after the score is revealed, a qualitative rating and review should be presented to address the environmental issues in relation to file size shift and extra power consumption. in the final fantasy x-2 localization case, the cutscene adjustment indicates a file size shift, since a cutscene is produced through high-end graphics to mimic a nuance of realism to the characters. adjusting it for a localization purpose contributes to the file size shift; it is further assumed that a bigger file size contributes to the emergence of extra power consumption from the consoles, utilised to play the game. though the environmental aspects of the game are graded 3a-iii, which is high in severity, the fact that a 600 mb increase is still covered on the dvd data capacity for a playstation 2 console implies that the file size shift remains at a tolerable level. a similar case is found in square’s final fantasy viii, which has four discs totalling around 1.7gb with approximately 400 mb in the north american version and 1.4gb overall, approximately 350mb per disc in the original japanese version. the compact disc (cd) used by the game for the first generation of the playstation has up to 700mb data capacity; thereby, in relation to the presence of quadruple discs for the game, the game could have actually been stored on three discs only. in wibowo, et al eco-lqa perspectives, limiting the potential emergence of e-waste is encouraged though mechanical and narrative concerns might be of loss in consideration. discussion the proposed eco-lqa exposes four weaknesses, which future studies could patch, namely energy consumption testing exclusion, commodified nostalgia, target gaming culture and dlc downloading time and storage. though implied that more file size means more energy consumption, eco-lqa excludes empirical calculation testing on the influence of file size uplift toward energy consumption with heat production as the focus. thereby, to yield a maximum assessment with this eco-lqa, it is encouraged to have a tandem with empirical testing on energy consumption. the second weakness is commodified nostalgia, an engagement over a past product with present recontextualization (cuff and terry, 2017). remake and remasters contribute to the file size uplift as found from thw final fantasy x/x-2 hd case, but their remakes and remasters are of necessity since they need to be recontextualised. this recontextualization is aimed at garnering new players while pertaining the same nostalgic nuances for veteran players. this eco-lqa excludes this consideration and only perceives whether a file size uplift takes place or not. the third weakness is the target gaming culture. games sold to the target market not only consider cultural issues in general, but also the gaming culture. buff knight, for instance, has to be adjusted for the indonesian gaming culture by adding an extra interface menu called lottery, from which gamers could draw a lottery, which might grant them specific useful in-game items. this feature is absent on the original game. the addition of this specific target gaming culture might disclose opportunities for a file size uplift. eco-lqa addresses this cultural issue in general and leaves the assessment in a qualitative domain. the fourth weakness is dlc downloading time and storage. empiric, specific and systemic methods or techniques to reveal a stratum or a scale of e-waste in the context of carbon consumption. the result of eco-lqa will be optimum if the methods or techniques have quantitative calculation with a particular stratum or scale on carbon e-waste. dlc storage might also indicate a weakness in eco-lqa since this lqa excludes the possibilities for dlc storage in contributing to the energy consumption. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),346-363 conclusion game developers and their localization team could benefit eco-lqa in tandem with other lqa models to minimise potential environmental issues that might occur from the localization process. eco-lqa for video games consists of four layers, namely interpretive, explorative, configurative and textonic layers. the focus of eco-lqa is to qualitatively and descriptively reveal whether certain games suffer from file size uplift and extra power consumption with localization as the trigger. in applying the lqa on video games, first, the assessors, in the interpretive layer, are required to analyse the cultural, normal and legal issues of the games, from which the localization might contribute to the emergence of file size increase and extra power consumption. after assessing the interpretive layer, the assessors are required to conduct an assessment on the explorative layer. in this layer, the assessors have to analyse the triggering causes of file size uplift and extra power consumption as revealed from the interpretive layer. these causes are then classified into narrative and mechanics triggers. narrative triggers refer to any narrative game elements contributing to the increase on the file size, in while mechanics triggers focus on how game distribution methods, game distribution media and game peripherals contribute to the file size uplift and extra power consumption. after revealing the triggering causes, the assessors move to the configurative layer. in this layer, the assessment is conducted to unveil whether the assessed games have sdk and dlc and whether or not their localization significantly contributes to file size uplift and extra power consumption. to close the assessment, the assessors will subsequently have to move to the textonic layer and determine whether or not the games have undergone remake, remaster and platform porting. after the status of remake and remaster of the assessed video games is revealed, the assessors have to find the pattern of remake and remaster from the assessed video game vitae, spanning from their first release to the latest. the purpose of this remake and remaster vitae is to comprehend the pattern of localization, which might contribute to the file size uplift and extra power consumption. wibowo, et al references aarseth, e.1(997). cybertext: perspectives on ergodic literature. baltimore: the john hopkins university press. anastasiou, d., & schäler, r.(2010). translating vital information: localisation, internationalisation, and globalisation. syn-thèses journal, 3, 11-25. arno, c. (2011). video game localization: a tricky game. gamedev.net. bernal-merino, m. á.(2015). translation and localisation in video games: making entertainment software global. routledge. bogost, i.(2008). unit operations: an approach to videogame criticism. mit press. chandler, h. m., & deming, s. o. m. (2011). the game localization handbook. jones & bartlett publishers. chang, a. y. (2013). playing nature: the virtual ecology of game environments. university of california, berkeley. clark, t.(2015). ecocriticism on the edge: the anthropocene as a threshold concept. bloomsbury publishing. costales, a. f.(2009). translation 2.0. the localization of institutional websites under the scope of functionalist approaches. in selected proceedings of the cetra research seminar in translation studies. cuff, s., & terry, c. (2017). commodified nostalgia and the virtual console. the evolution and social impact of video game economics, 15. dietz, f.(2007). " how difficult can that be?"-the work of computer and video game localization. tradumàtica: traducció i tecnologies de la informació i la comunicació, (5). di marco, f.(2007). cultural localization: orientation and disorientation in japanese video games. traduccio i technologies de la informacio i la comunicacio numero 5. edwards, k.(2011). culturalization: the geopolitical and cultural dimension of game content. trans, (15), 19-28. eskelinen, m. (2012). cybertext poetics: the critical landscape of new media literary theory. bloomsbury publishing usa. esselink, b.(2000). a practical guide to localization. philadelphia: john benjamins publishing. feder, h. m.(2014). ecocriticism and the idea of culture: biology and the bildungsroman. ashgate publishing, ltd.. gengshen, h.(2008). eeo-translatology: a primer [j]. chinese translators journal, 6, 004. gengshen, h.(2009). on fu lei’s translation philosophies: an eco-translatological perspective [j]. journal of foreign languages, 2, 010. gengshen, h. & tao, y.(2016). eco-translatology: a new paradigm of eco translation*–a comparative study on approaches to translation studies. t & i review, 6, 115-132. honeywood, r.(2007). the square-enix approach to localization. inpresentation at the game developers conference. san francisco, march (pp. 5-7). jiménez-crespo, m. a.(2011). to adapt or not to adapt in web localization: a contrastive genre-based study of original and localized legal sections in corporate websites. jostrans: the journal of specialised translation, 15, 2-27. mandiberg, s.(2015). responsible localization: game translation between japan and the united states. university of california, san diego. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),346-363 mangiron, c. and minako, o. (2006). game localisation: unleashing imagination with ‘restricted’ translation. journal of specialised translation issue 6-july 2006 p.10-21. mangiron, c. and minako, o. (2013). game localization: translating for the global digital entertainment industry. philadelphia: john benjamins publishing. mayers, k., koomey, j., hall, r., bauer, m., france, c., & webb, a. (2015). the carbon footprint of games distribution. journal of industrial ecology, 19(3), moore, c. l.(2009). digital games distribution: the presence of the past and the future of obsolescence. m/c journal, 12(3). retallack, s.(2001). the environmental cost of economic globalization. the case against the global economy. and for a turn towards localization. valero-garces, c.(2011). foreign language education and the environment. considerations from the perspective of translation studies. wath, s. b., dutt, p. s., & chakrabarti, t.(2011). e-waste scenario in india, its management and implications. environmental monitoring and assessment, 172(1-4), 249-262. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),336-352 digital literature and independent learning in covid-19 pandemic: a correlation study ni wayan karmini1 abstract the purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between digital literacy and self-regulated learning during the covid-19 pandemic for hindu indonesia university denpasar students. the study used correlational quantitative method as the research method. the population of the study consists of all active students at the hindu indonesia university denpasar. the study sample was selected employing probability sampling method. the proportional method of layered random sampling was used to select the study sample. a questionnaire method was used to collect the study data. the data analysis of this research used a correlation test and a simple regression test. the study findings revealed a significant positive relationship between digital literacy and independent learning during the pandemic. this is evidenced by: (1) the results of a simple correlation test show (rcount = 0, 478 > rtable = 0.1603), and the significance value is less than 0.05 (0.000 < 0.05). (2) the equation model y= 22.414 + 0.425x is statistically significant with tcount = 6.582 > ttable = 1.976, and the significance value = 0.000 <0.05. (3) the coefficient of determination (r2) is 22.9%, meaning that digital literacy variables affect 22.9% of self-regulated learning variables during the covid-19 pandemic for students at the hindu indonesia university denpasar. keywords: digital literacy, self-regulated learning, covid-19 pandemic introduction since the end of december 2019, countries worldwide have been profoundly affected by the emergence of coronavirus disease-2019 (covid-19). all countries, including indonesia, have been trying to overcome the situation that is not controlled due to this outbreak, which has hampered all lines of life due to various policies to prevent the rapid spread of covid-19, among others, by imposing social and physical restrictions, as well as remote working. there is a recommendation to work remotely based on the provisions of article 86 paragraph (1) of law number 1 of 2003 concerning manpower which states that every worker/labor has the right to protection of occupational safety and health, which requires everyone to survive with the help of technology and the internet. 1 dr. indonesian hindu university denpasar, bali, indonesia; email: karmini@unhi.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),336-352 337 controlling the situation during the covid-19 pandemic by utilizing technology and the internet in accordance with the characteristics of the fourth industrial revolution (4ir), one of which is the internet of things (iot) that can control almost all jobs connected through an internet connection (risdianto, 2019). the hallmark of education during the 4ir is the use of the internet (tachie & kariyana, 2022). according to risdianto (2019), one of the provisions in implementing education during the 4ir is the existence of connectivity or access to the internet network. this is in line with the emergence of a digitalization education system through digital learning with the help of the internet that can provide a more meaningful learning experience, grow various strategies, methods, learning resources, and patterns of educator-student relationships to create innovative learning opportunities (statti & torres, 2020). this transformational change is also in accordance with adaptation to conditions during the pandemic, which requires all institutions or educational institutions to implement distance learning (mahlomaholo & mahlomaholo, 2022; omodan, 2022). institutional education will be left behind if it does not quickly adapt to changes in digitalbased education transformation during 4irand the current pandemic (sobri et al., 2020). in accordance with the new policy involving the government, it is recommended to stay and work at home during the pandemic. the educational paradigm has shifted from face-to-face learning to online learning. this is based on the circular letter of the minister of education and culture number 4 of 2020 concerning the implementation of education policies in the emergency period for the spread of covid-19, which contains six important things related to changes in the implementation of education in indonesia, one of which is the process of learning from home through online learning. online learning is considered the most appropriate solution for learning during the current pandemic (wijaya et al., 2020) conveying the idea that the use of online learning has increased during the covid-19 pandemic. this is based on the circular letter of the minister of education and culture number 4 of 2020 concerning the implementation of education policies in the emergency period for the spread of covid-19, which contains six important things related to changes in the implementation of education in indonesia, one of which is the process of learning from home through online learning. online learning during a pandemic can be carried out with the support of advanced technology and various platforms such as applications, websites, social networks, and learning management karmini systems (dube et al., 2022; gqokonqana et al., 2022; latip, 2020; mpu et al., 2022). online learning uses the internet, and it can be done either synchronously or asynchronously. the emergence of online learning as part of digital literacy can be used as an alternative to using technology in learning and to improve the quality of learning (isidro & teichert, 2021; shatunova et al., 2021; solikhah, et. al., 2022). cultivating self-regulated learning (srl) is necessary to face learning difficulties during the covid-19 pandemic. srl is an active and constructive process for students to determine their learning goals, then monitor, regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behavior based on their learning goals and environment (pintrich, 2000). srl is one of the basic characteristics of the learning process, and this is in accordance with the presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 87 of 2017. it was reported that students do not yet have self-regulated learning, which has become a habit (suaramerdeka.com, june 22, 2020). this has become one of the complex problems that emerged as a challenge for the world of education during the pandemic. acehtrend.com reported that low self-regulation while studying was characterized by low selfdiscipline and motivation. bernasnews.com mentioned the lack of self-regulated learning because most still feel dependent on face-to-face learning/traditional methods. badjeber (2020) claimed more than 60% of the students relatively lack the awareness to design, implement, monitor, and supervise their own learning needs, including utilizing various resources, and determining and practicing learning strategies during the pandemic. sulisworo et al. (2020) showed that students in indonesia need to improve srl during the pandemic to remain responsible for the learning process and be successful in implementing online learning. the achievement of each student’s srl indicator in padang city is still lower than 60%, which is relatively low. yasdar & muliyadi (2018) reported that 75% of students' srl in south sulawesi is low. rohaeti & suwardi (2013) concluded that about 50% of srl students in yogyakarta are included in the low category because they rarely set and evaluate learning strategies, lack discipline in learning which causes irregular study schedules, and rarely use spare time to study material. this shows that the students' srl is relatively low. self-regulated learning has various benefits for students because srl is a supporter of success in everyday life, including in learning, such as improving academic achievement, the key to discipline behavior, improving multitasking abilities, increasing rationality in decision making, and increasing efficiency in learning new knowledge. if journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),336-352 339 students do not have self-regulated learning, students will find it challenging to plan learning activities. internal and external factors can influence the development of srl levels in students. internal factors consist of epistemological beliefs, beliefs about learning, emotions, personal agency beliefs, and age and personality factors, while external factors that affect the development of srl, such as family factors including parenting and parental involvement, school factors, including teacher-student relationships, support for teacher autonomy, the teaching model provided by the teacher and peer factors. srl is also caused by personal, behavioral, and environmental factors. personal factors consist of knowledge, thoughts, beliefs or self-efficacy, and goals. behavioral factors consist of acts of observation, judgment, and self-reaction, while environmental factors are physical and social environments while studying (schunk & zimmerman, 1998). another factor that affects self-regulated learning is digital literacy. digital literacy is a competency that individuals must have in using digital technology effectively to support academic needs, such as when accessing information digitally through the internet. digital technology is also similar to distraction which causes users to be unable to concentrate on completing their tasks and obligations so that digital devices that can increase productivity turn into performance barriers. digital content and information widely distributed on the internet can facilitate srl. current learning resources can be obtained via the internet (rohmah, 2019). it is undeniable that students need literature when doing assignments. every individual needs to have digital literacy to limit things that can distract students' activities when accessing the internet so that students' opportunities to achieve learning goals are greater. digital competence can also be called digital literacy. according to risdianto (2019), digital literacy aims to improve the ability to read, analyze, and use information digitally. in other words, digital literacy encourages the use of digital technology devices to be more effective and healthier because today's digital natives, including students, feel less wise in using the internet to find information. what is done is not based on particular interests and is not appropriate for age, as well as excessive use of social media. the 2015 world economic forum agreement requires all components of society, including students, to master six very important literacy basics, one of which is digital literacy. digital literacy needs to be embedded in the education system because it positively affects student skills that are important for successful learning (techataweewan & prasertsin, 2018). karmini mastering digital literacy in learning can facilitate and strengthen the learning process and educational outcomes, including student srl achievements, because students can obtain information in a broader and deeper context, thereby increasing student insight and helping students complete their assignments (elpira, 2018). students are also able to survive various obstacles in learning and can solve problems that are being faced if they have digital literacy (eshet, 2004). according to the proposed framework by beetham et al. (2009), digitally literate students can better organize their learning activities through technology than their less digitally literate counterparts. the literacy skills students have when accessing information from various digital sources are one of the important markers for self-regulated learning. the rapid progress of science and technology can contribute to the growth of independent learning, as evidenced by the research results (subedi & subedi, 2020; yot-domínguez & marcelo, 2017), which show that everyday interactions with technology positively impact students' self-regulated learning. several relevant previous studies, such as yang & kim (2014), showed a positive and significant correlation between digital literacy and self-regulated learning in university e-learning environments. research by muthupoltotage & gardner (2018) also found a positive relationship between digital literacy and self-regulated learning in the context of technology-based learning. likewise, research results from previously, et al. (2016) showed that digital literacy can have a much deeper relationship with self-regulated learning. in line with the connectivism learning theory, the explains the role of internet network technology in creating opportunities for individuals to learn and share information and skills learned. research methods the study adopted a quantitative method and aimed to examine the relationship between digital literacy and self-regulated learning during the covid-19 pandemic. the study has the following two variables: the independent variable (x) is digital literacy, while the dependent variable (y) is self-regulated learning. the population is all research subjects with certain characteristics to study and draw general conclusions (kurniawan, 2012). the study population consists of 233 hindu indonesia university denpasar students from the 2017–2019 class. seventy-nine students were in 2017, 74 students in 2018, and 80 students in 2019. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),336-352 341 respondents in this study were selected using a probability sampling technique with a proportional stratified random sampling method. the probability sampling technique treats all members of the population who are the research sample with a chance. a questionnaire was used to collect the study data. the questionnaire has a likert scale close ended questions with items about digital literacy and self-regulated learning variables. the questionnaire is structured as a checklist and uses four alternatives: answers because it eliminates the neutral answer with the assumption that it is a little "ambiguous" (sarjono & julianita, 2011). the validity test was conducted using the correlation coefficient technique through the product moment formula by employing the spss 23. sarjono & julianita (2011) state an instrument is called reliable if a person's answer to the statement tends to be stable or consistent from time to time. the instrument was tested with alpha cronbach through the help of the spss version 23 program, and the significance level was 5%. a questionnaire can be reliable if the results show a critical value of cronbach's alpha > 0.70. the criterion test is if the ri value > 0.70 means the questionnaire is reliable, and vice versa. the validity test in this study uses the correlation coefficient technique using the product moment formula through the help of spss version 23 program. an instrument is called reliable if a person's answer to the statement tends to be stable or consistent from time to time. the instrument was tested through a cronbach alpha by utilizing the spss 23. the significance level was found to be 5%. the first data analysis technique, with descriptive statistics, is useful for describing data samples through data categorization without determining conclusions for the population (sugiyono, 2010). in the prerequisite test analysis, two analytical prerequisite tests were conducted in several stages, namely 1) employing a normality test, conducted using the kolmogorov-smirnov technique. the criteria for the fulfillment of the normality test are seen from the significance value > 0.05, while the significance value < 0.05 means the data is not normally distributed. 2) the linearity test aims to see whether the two variables studied (independent and dependent variables) are linearly related. the linearity criteria can be seen through the deviation from the linearity value, which must be greater than 0.05 (prayitno, 2016). the linearity of the study data was tested at a significance level of 0.05 using spss 23. 3) the heteroscedasticity test is used to identify the occurrence of inequality variance from one observation residual to another observation in the regression model (ghozali, 2016). karmini by looking at the pattern of the scatterplot image, it can be seen that the fulfillment of the heteroscedasticity test criteria, namely if the data points are spread either above, below, or around the number 0, the spread of the points is not patterned, then it would be safe to say that there is no heteroscedasticity. two stages are needed in testing the hypothesis: using a correlation test and simple regression analysis. correlation test correlation coefficient test is used to determine the strength of the relationship between the two variables. the purpose of correlation test is to measure the degree of relationship between the two variables, namely between the x variable (digital literacy) and the y variable (self-regulated learning) (sunarto, 2007). in this study, we learned to use the pearson product moment technique; therefore, the data were collected in the form of interval data with a likert scale. simple regression is useful for detecting the direction of the positive or negative relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, as well as predicting how much change occurs in the value of the dependent variable if the independent variable changes either up or down. results data description the study data were obtained through google form questionnaires containing expression items representing each indicator both independently of the variable, namely digital literacy, and the dependent variable, namely self-regulated learning. the data obtained from the research subjects of 148 students at the hindu indonesia university denpasar were analyzed using the spss 23. table 1 shows the descriptive analysis results of the study data. table 1 descriptive analysis results n range min max sum mean std. dev variance digital literacy 148 29 58 87 11068 74.78 5,949 35,395 selfregulated learning 148 26 41 67 8025 54.22 5,290 27,984 valid n 148 (source: processed primary data, 2021) digital literacy variable (x) data on digital literacy variables were obtained from distributing questionnaires with as many as 23 statement items using a four-point likert scale. the highest total score for the sample of 148 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),336-352 343 respondents was 13,616. the results of descriptive statistical processing with the help of the spss 23 are presented in table 1. as it is shown by the table, the digital literacy variable collects a total score of 11,068 from the summation value. the maximum value that students get from this variable is 92. it is known that the maximum score for the digital literacy variable is 87, meaning that most students score three or four in each indicator. the minimum score is 58, meaning that most students score two or three on each available indicator. the standard deviation value explains the heterogeneity of a group to the average, which can be said to be good if the data is heterogeneous and the value is far from 0. the standard deviation value is 5.949, which is considered heterogeneous. the average score of 74.78 indicates that the average student scores three in each indicator. the distribution of digital literacy data with the highest frequency ranges between 70–73 and 74– 77 interval classes, with as many as 35 students. the tendency of students can be classified into high, medium, and low. the results of the category of digital literacy are central tendencies. the digital literacy of the hindu university siswa indonesia denpasar is at a moderate level, equivalent to 66.22%. the percentage of digital literacy achievement for students at hindu indonesia university denpasar is 81.28% obtained by dividing the total score collected by the highest total score. digital literacy is measured through three indicators as seen in table 2. table 2 digital literacy indicator achievement no indicators achievements indicator 1 technical literacy 86.49% 2 cognitive literacy 80% 3 socio-emotional literacy 81.44% (source: processed primary data, 2021) table 2 shows that the role of each indicator has different magnitudes of influence. the most dominant indicator in achieving student digital literacy lies in the technical literacy indicator, with an indicator achievement of 86.49%. this technical literacy indicator contains basic operational mastery of digital technology, showing that most students have mastered the basic skills to use digital tools. independent learning variables data on the self-regulated learning was obtained from the distribution of a questionnaire with 18 items using a four-point likert scale. the highest total score for a sample of 148 respondents was 10,656. the results of processing descriptive statistics with the help of the spss 23 are presented karmini in table 1. the findings revealed that self-regulated learning variable collects a total score of 8025 from that total score. the maximum score of this variable is 72. it is known that the maximum value for the self-regulated learning variable is 67, meaning most students give a score of three or four on each indicator. the minimum score is 41. this means that most students score two or three on each available indicator. the standard deviation value explains the heterogeneity of a group concerning the mean. this value is considered good if the data are heterogeneous and the value is far from 0 the deviation value is 5.290. thus, it can be said to be heterogeneous. the average score of 54.22 indicates that the average student scores three on each indicator. see table 3. table 3 self-regulated learning indicator achievement no indicators achievement indicator 1 memory strategy 70.44% 2 goal setting 71.79% 3 self evaluation 74.66% 4 seeking help 81.93% 5 environmental arrangements 78.04% 6 learning responsibilities 72.41% 7 planning and organizing 77.42% (source: processed primary data, 2021) table 3 shows that the role of each indicator has different magnitudes of influence. the most dominant indicator of the achievement of students' self-regulated learning lies in the indicator of seeking assistance, with an indicator achievement of 81.93%. this indicator of seeking help contains various efforts that students can make to seek help when they do not understand the material or assignments given by the lecturer, either through the social environment, namely all people involved in the learning process, including lecturers and friends, as well as non-social environments including learning facilities, and facilities. hypothesis testing table 4 simple correlation test results correlations self-regulated learning (y) digital literacy pearson ,478 (x) correlation sig. (2-tailed) ,000 n 148 (source: processed primary data, 2021) journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),336-352 345 based on table 4 shows that the correlation coefficient (r-count) between digital literacy and learning independence is 0.478 > r-table (0.1603). to see the level of relationship between the two variables, the correlation coefficient interval should be checked. a value of 0.478 is included in the moderate relationship level. the correlation coefficient value shows a positive relationship. the significance value is 0.000 <0.05, which means the relationship is significant. based on these results, it can be concluded that h0 is rejected, and h1 is accepted. thus, it would be safe to say that the digital literacy variable has a positive and significant relationship with self-regulated learning during the covid-19 pandemic for the denpasar university of hindu indonesia students. table 5 simple regression test results unstandardized coefficients standardized coefficients t sig. b std. error beta (constant) 22.414 4,848 4,623 ,000 digital literacy ,425 ,065 ,478 6.582 ,000 dependent variable: self-regulated learning (source: processed primary data, 2021) based on table 5, the following regression model equation is developed: y= 22.414 + 0.425x this equation can be interpreted as a constant of 22,414 which means that if digital literacy (x) is 0, then the amount of self-regulated learning (y) is 22.414. the digital literacy regression coefficient (x) of 0.425 means that for every 1% addition of digital literacy value, the self-study (y) value also increases by 0.425. the regression coefficient is positive, so it can be said that the direction of the influence of the digital literacy variable (x) on the self-regulated learning variable (y) is positive. table 4.9 shows that the significance value is 0.000 <0.05 and it means that the digital literacy variable (x) affects the self-regulated learning variable (y). the t-count value is 6.582 > t-table 1.976, so it can be concluded that the digital literacy variable (x) affects the selfregulated learning variable (y). discussion and conclusion the results of hypothesis testing show a positive and significant relationship between digital literacy and independent learning during the covid-19 pandemic for students at the hindu indonesia university denpasar. this is in accordance with the value indicated by the correlation coefficient (r-count) of 0.478 and a mean value of 0.000. the correlation coefficient value is 0.478. karmini when consulted with the correlation coefficient interval table, it is included in the moderate level of relationship. it can be seen that the r-count is positive, which means that when students' digital literacy increases, their independent learning will also increase. this is also in accordance with the results shown in the simple regression analysis results, namely the regression value of digital literacy coefficient (x) of 0.425. the hypothesis testing results align with the findings of yang & kim (2014) reporting a positive and significant correlation between digital literacy and self-regulated learning in the university's e-learning environment. some studies such as atkins et al. (2013), greene et al. (2014), muthupoltotage & gardner (2018) and steiner et al. (2013) support these findings. they reported a positive and significant relationship between digital literacy and independent learning. independent learning is one of the important characteristics that students must have when carrying out the learning process. this is in accordance with presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia no. 87 of 2017 concerning strengthening character development. students are said to have self-regulated learning if they can complete various tasks given by the lecturer based on their efforts and abilities. the current pandemic condition shows the real urgency of srl, one of the important markers that students must have to achieve self-regulated learning is digital literacy skills. digital literacy is a form of business manifested in the ability to access, browse, analyze, and use information digitally. the habit of reading learning resources both offline and online from the internet in the form of digital books, articles, and national and international journals that affect knowledge, increase understanding, open insight, and further develop mindset skills, thus forming and facilitating the achievement of srl so that the decisions taken are right on target, to solve problems being faced and to meet their learning needs. students have a lot of information that can be managed in such a way as to support success both in academics and in everyday life. in other words, digital literacy is a way or form of self-ability in finding information to achieve selfregulation while learning. students have a lot of information that can be managed to support success in both academic and daily life. in other words, digital literacy is a way or form of self-ability to find information to achieve self-regulation while learning. digital literacy also helps students to know the limits of internet use according to their needs and interests, for example, preventing excessive use of social media. literacy is the primary basis for increasing knowledge. digital literacy is one of the efforts that can foster self-regulated learning. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),336-352 347 the agreement by the 2015 world economic forum also obliges everyone, including students, to master six basic literacy skills that are very important in life, one of which is digital literacy (techataweewan & prasertsin, 2018). digital literacy positively affects skills that are important to support successful student learning (techataweewan & prasertsin, 2018). students with self-regulated learning can manage their learning patterns optimally, supported by their ability to use digital technology to find learning resources and literature digitally supplement the material needed for certain courses due to pandemic conditions requiring online learning. it is possible for students to re-read the material obtained so that there are no misconceptions, reconfirm for the lecturer or his friends by discussing to reach an understanding, and be able to support the work given by the lecturer. the level of digital literacy and self-regulated learning at hindu indonesia university denpasar students are in the medium category. that means students can quite regulate the learning process relevant to the current development of science and technology. there are seven indicators to measure self-regulated learning. of the seven indicators, seeking assistance indicator has the highest achievement with a rate of 81.93%. the indicator of seeking help relates to the various efforts that students make to seek help when they feel they do not understand the material or assignments given by the lecturer, both through the social environment, namely all people involved in the learning process, including lecturers and friends, and non-social environments including facility or learning tool. the lowest achievement indicator is the memory strategy indicator of 70.44%. the indicator of memory strategy is related to the memory ability shown by students toward the lecture material. with low achievement on the memory strategy indicator, among other indicators, reflecting that students have not been able to get used to reading back notes or lecture material before starting class, students sometimes feel lazy to summarize themselves and tend to rely on their friends' notes, the level of self-regulated learning is also caused by each student's digital literacy level. digital literacy measurement uses three indicators. of the three indicators, the highest achievement indicator is the technical literacy indicator with a rate of 86.49%. technical literacy indicators are related to basic operational mastery of digital technology. this is also associated with the high level of seeking help in self-regulated learning indicators. if students can demonstrate their basic skills when using digital tools, this can make it easier when seeking help to find suitable karmini alternatives for satisfaction with their learning achievements, for example, through the use of laptops, gadgets, the internet, browsers, and others. then, the digital literacy indicator with the lowest achievement is cognitive literacy at a level of 80%. this is related to the low memory strategy because cognitive literacy is related to students' ability to find and process information. weak memory can be caused because students lack the initiative to seek information first. usually, students tend to like instant things. one of the behaviors that reflect a lack of memory is that students are not accustomed to rereading notes or lecture material, even though students should be able to analyze in depth first any information obtained so that it is embedded in long-term memory. students need to enrich their digital literacy to enhance their independent learning. the results of this study have supported the theory of connectivism, which explains the role of internet network technology in creating opportunities for individuals to learn and share information and learning skills. according to sekarini (2019), digital literacy is included in environmental factors that can increase self-regulated learning. according to beetham et al. (2009), digitally literate students are better at managing their learning activities through technology. digital literacy is an important provision to achieve student srl because it is facilitated by the availability of technology (latifah, 2020). digital literacy positively affects learner skills that are essential for successful learning (techataweewan & prasertsin, 2018). utilization of technology can develop srl. daily interactions with technology have a positive impact on srl. this shows the positive contribution made by the development of science and technology to the improvement of srl (yot-dominguez & marcelo, 2017). this study implies that digital literature serves independent learning for students especially when a face-to-face teaching is not possible to conduct. additionally, when covid-19 pandemic is over, digital literature is considered crucial for general learning courses and improvement of learning model. to conclude, this study has proved that digital literature significantly relates to independent learning in the teaching learning process during pandemic-19. digital literature provides ease for students to find learning sources that are available online, chief or almost free of cost, and easy to find. the way students browse the teaching materials are dependent on students’ experience. however, as the way to obtain the materials are on the students’ own wish, the students are equipped with independent learning. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),336-352 349 this study has limitation in that the research procedures conducted during covid-19 pandemic is not perfect. some restrictions because of pandemic protocols make the research process is not freely conducted. future research is suggested to replicate the research in the post-pandemic when protocols are not set. additionally, specific research design such as an experimental study is recommended to observe small number of students to see the effect of the digital literature to independent learning more effective. references atkins, l., fraser, j., & hall, r. (2013). digilit leicester: survey results 2013.leicester: leicester city council (cc by-nc 3.0). badjeber, r. (2020). independent learning of tadris mathematics students, ftik iain palu, survived a brave learning period. coordinates of journal of mathematics and science learning, 1(1), 1–9. beetham, h., mcgill, l., & littlejohn, a. (2009). evolving in the 21st century: report of the conclusions and recommendations of the llida (literacy for the digital age) project. glasgow caledonian university. dube, b., makura, a., modise, a., & tarman, b. (2022). covid-19 and the quest for reconfiguration of disciplines: unpacking new directions. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), i-viii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2002.12 eshet, y. (2004). digital literacy: a conceptual framework for survival skills in a digital world era. journal of educational multimedia and hypermedia, 13(1), 93–106. ghozali, i. (2016). multivariate analysis application with ibm spss program for windows. bp undip. gqokonqana, o., olarewaju, o., & cloete, m. (2022). blended learning challenges during covid-19: a case of cost accounting 2 students at a selected south african higher education institution. research in social sciences and technology, 7(2), 87-107. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.11 greene, j. a, seung, b.y., & copeland, d. z. (2014). measuring critical components of digital literacy and its relation to learning. computer & education, 76, 55–69. isidro, e., & teichert, l. (2021). towards socially just literacy teaching in virtual spaces. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 21-41. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2002.12 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.11 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.6 karmini kurniawan,b. (2012). research methodology. explore nusa. south tangerang. latifah, k. (2020). digital literacy and self-directed learning in learning studentpbi iain surakarta. academica: journal of multidisciplinary studies,2(1), 159–167. latip, a. (2020). the role of information and communication technology literacy in distance learning during the covid-19 pandemic. eduteach: journal of education and learning technology, 1(2), 108–116. mahlomaholo, m., & mahlomaholo, s. (2022). assessment in sustainable remote teaching and learning environments during emergency situations. journal of culture and values in education, 5(2), 16-31. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.17 mpu, y., hackmack, k., & roy, i. (2022). teacher educator reflections on preparing first year pre-service teachers for school-based work integrated learning in an online learning environment. research in social sciences and technology, 7(3), 18-35. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.15 muthupoltotage, u. p. & gardner, l. (2018). analyzing the relationship between digital literacy and student self-study-preliminary investigation. in progress in the development of information systems (pp. 1–16). jumper. omodan, b. (2022). virtual management of students’ unrest during the covid-19 new normal: the need for an innovative approach. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.2 pintrich, p. r. (2000). the role of goal orientation in independent learning. in the handbook of self-regulation (p. 451–502). prayitno, d. (2016). spss handbook: data analysis, data processing, and settlement of statistical cases. yogyakarta: mediakom. previously, d. d, mazanov, j., meacheam, d., heaslip, g., & hanson, j. (2016). attitudes, digital literacy, and self-efficacy: flow-on effects for online learning behavior. the internet and higher education, 29, 91–97. risdianto, e. (2019). analysis of indonesian education in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0. bengkulu: bengkulu university. rohaeti, e., & suwardi, j., i., (2013). improving student achievement and independent learning through reciprocal teaching and cooperative learning approaches. journal of education cakrawala, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.17 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.15 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.2 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),336-352 351 rohmah, n. (2019). digital literacy to improve teacher competence in the revolutionary era industry4.0. awwaliyah: journal of madrasah ibtidaiyah teacher education, 2(2), 128– 134. sarjono, h., & julianita, w. (2011). spss vs. lisrel: an introduction, application to research. salemba empat, 5(2), 23–34. schunk, d. h, & zimmerman, b.j. (1998). independent learning: from teaching to being independent practice reflective. guilford press. shatunova, o., bozhkova, g., tarman, b. & shastina e. (2021). transforming the reading preferences of today’s youth in the digital age: intercultural dialog, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(3), 62-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 sobri, m., nursaptini, n., & novitasari, s. (2020). realizing independent learning through courage-based learning in higher education in the industrial era 4.0. glasser education journal, 4(1), 64–71. solikhah, i., tarman, b., budiharso, t. (2022). improving argumentative writing through imrad to indonesian efl learners. eurasian journal of applied linguistics, 8(1), 241253. http://dx.doi.org/10.32601/ejal.911533 statti, a., & torres, k. m. (2020). digital literacy: the need for technology integration and its impact on learning and engagement in community school settings. peabody journal of education, 95(1), 90–100. steiner,cm, wesiak, g., moore, a., conlan, o., dagger, d., donohoe, g., & albert, d. (2013). investigation of successful independent learning in a technology-enhanced learning environment. proceedings of the 2013 aied workshop 10(19). subedi, d., & subedi, r. (2020). practicing self learning of ict for resilience amidst the covid-19 outbreak: experiences from kathmandu valley. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 sugiyono, d. (2010). quantitative research methods and r&d. alfabeta. sulisworo, d., fatimah, n., & sunaryati, ss (2020). a brief study of the srl profile of online learning participants in the anticipation period for the spread of covid-19. journal international evaluation and research in education, 9(3), 723–730. sunarto, r. (2007). introduction to statistics. for educational, social, economic, communication, and business research. alfabeta. tachie, s. a. & kariyana, i. (2022). time divested or time invested? freshmen’s perspectives and reflective experiences on interactive school learning. research in social sciences and technology, 7(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.2 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 http://dx.doi.org/10.32601/ejal.911533 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.2 karmini techataweewan, w., & prasertsin, u., (2018). development of digital literacy indicators for thai undergraduate students use mixed methods research. journal social sciences kasetsart, 39(2), 215–221. wijaya, r., lukman, m., & yadewani, d. (2020). the impact of the covid19 pandemic on utilization learning. journal of dimensions, 9(2), 307–322. yang, m., & kim, j. (2014). correlation between digital literacy and self-learning skills of learners in university e-learning environments. advanced science and technology letters, 71, 80–83. yasdar, m. & muliyadi, m. (2018). application of self-regulatory techniques for improvement of student learning independence program study guidance and counseling stkip muhammadiyah enrekang. edumaspul: journal of education, 2(2), 50–60. yot-dominguez, c., & marcelo, c. (2017). self-study of university students using digital technology. international journal educational technology in higher education, 14(1), 1–18. www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2015: 6(1), 84-122 © 2015 journal of social studies education research, issn: 1309-9108 the effectiveness of multiple intelligence applications on academic achievement: a meta-analysis eyüp yurt 1 & seyat polat 2 abstract the purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of multiple intelligence applications on academic achievement in turkey. accordingly, findings of independent research studies aimed to find out effectiveness of multiple intelligence applications are gathered in a meta-analysis. total of 71 studies, 66 dissertations and 7 articles were included in the meta-analysis meeting the inclusion criteria. meta-analysis calculations resulted that the multiple intelligence applications have a large and positive effect on academic achievement. it was also revealed that the effect of multiple intelligence applications vary by application period. thus, as the application period increases, the effect of multiple intelligence application also increases. on the other side, effectiveness of the applications does not vary by; the type of the course, level of the class and the type of the research. some suggestions made according to the research findings. keywords: multiple intelligence, academic achievement, meta-analysis introduction as the school education in turkey redesigned to align with the constructive approach, individual differences gained further importance. possessed by everyone; learning styles (dunn & dunn, 1992; gregorc, 1985; kolb, 1984), learning strategies (arends, 1997; pintrich, smith, garcia & mckeachie, 1993; weinstein & mayer, 1986), affective and cognitive traits (bloom, 1979), creates the individual differences in education. mental development, which is especially under influence of the environment, is very effective on the learning levels of individuals. individuals with higher level of mental development are quicker to learn and comprehend (senemoğlu, 2013). one of the main factors influencing mental development is intelligence (eberle, 2011; gracıous & shyla, 2012). in order to explain intelligence, scientists conducted numerous researches (armstrong, 2010; gardner, 1993; hoerr, 2000). until early 80ies, standard intelligence tests were developed by various studies to determine the intelligence levels of 1 assoc. prof. dr., gaziantep university, eyupyurt@gmail.com 2 assoc. prof. dr., mevlana (rumi) university, seyatpolat@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 85 individuals. predominating view in this era was that intelligence could be measured objectively and could be stated with a single number called iq (hoerr, 2000). in 1983, gardner proposed the “multiple intelligence theory” and brought a new perspective to the intelligence issue. according to gardner (1993), intelligence accommodates many abilities and that it has a multifaceted nature that cannot be stated with a single number. gardner defined abilities that are found in different amounts in each individual as intelligence areas or “modalities”. he named those intelligence modalities as follows; verbal–linguistic intelligence, logical–mathematical intelligence, visual–spatial intelligence, musical– rhythmic and harmonic intelligence, bodily–kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence and naturalistic intelligence. although gardner (1993) defined these eight intelligence areas, he notified that those eight areas of intelligence are not sufficient to define individuals’ abilities and more areas of intelligence could be discovered. gardner (1993) explained those eight intelligence modalities defined in the multiple intelligence theory as follows;  verbal–linguistic intelligence: the capacity of an individual to use words effectively like a politician, writer and a journalist.  logical–mathematical intelligence: the capacity of an individual to use numbers effectively like a mathematician or a statistician and make reasoning to incidents like a scientist or a computer programmer.  visual–spatial intelligence: the capacity of an individual to visualize the world correctly like an architect or a painter or perceive the world correctly like a hunter or a guide.  bodily–kinesthetic intelligence: the capacity of an individual to use his/her body to express feelings like a athlete or a dancer and use manipulative skills like sculptor a surgeon.  musical–rhythmic and harmonic intelligence: the capacity of an individual to perceive like a musician, distinguish like a musical critic and express feeling like a composer.  interpersonal intelligence: the capacity of an individual to understand and distinguish the feelings, wishes and needs of other people.  intrapersonal intelligence: the capacity of an individual on the mobility of his/her selfknowledge.  naturalistic intelligence: the capacity of an individual to recognize, classify and distinguish between living creatures or, be aware of the natural events or environmental consciousness. eyüp yurt & seyat polat 86 according to the multiple intelligence approach, every individual has different potentials of each of the intelligence areas. this gives prominence to the individual differences in the teaching/learning process. teaching environments taking individual differences into consideration are known to be more effective and productive (gözütok, 2001). in this regard, proper settings can be created to develop individuals’ strong and poor sides with multiple intelligence approach. besides, with multiple intelligence approach, by creating learning environments appealing to different sensory areas of children, they can be more active and willing in the learning process. in this way, individuals can participate in the learning process more and take more responsibility of the learning. since 2005 in turkey, with radical changes in the school curriculums, curriculums originated from the constructivist philosophy came into force. considering the structure of the curriculums, it can witnessed that the activities in the curriculum are supported with the multiple intelligence theory (koç & şahin, 2014; şahin, 2007; bümen, 2005). on the other hand, many empirical researches can be found based on the multiple intelligence theory in the literature conducted on and after 2005. in these researches, effects of the teaching activities based on the multiple intelligence theory were examined (akçin, 2009; akman, 2007; elmacı, 2010; gürbüzoğlu, 2009). increasing number of studies on multiple intelligence theory complicates the examination of those studies. in such cases, meta-analysis method which is a more detailed research method is recommended to comment on the general effect of the findings of the researches (borenstein, hedges, higgins & rothstein, 2009; hartung, knapp & sinha, 2008; hedges & olkin, 1985). there are various meta-analysis studies in our country examining the effectiveness of various teaching methods on the academic achievement. these studies examining various teaching methods’ effectiveness with metaanalysis include: the effect of concept maps teaching strategy on the students’ academic achievement (okursoy, 2009); the effectiveness of cooperative learning on the mathematic achievement (özdemirli, 2011); the effectiveness of conceptual change texts on academic achievement (armağan, 2011); the effect of brain based learning on academic achievement (gözüyeşil, 2012); the effect of strategy learning on the achievement (kaşarcı, aydın, yurt & sünbül, 2012); the effect of the drama method on the achievement (aydın, kaşarcı & yurt, 2012); the effectiveness of project based learning on students’ academic achievements (kaşarcı, 2013) and the effectiveness of the in-class material use on the students’ academic achievement. in this study, the effectiveness of the multiple intelligence applications on the academic achievement was aimed to be determined with meta-analysis. in this direction, this research seeks answer to the question; “do multiple intelligence teaching activities effect journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 87 students’ academic achievement?” moreover, whether or not the effectiveness level of the multiple intelligence applications vary on the academic achievement by application periods, course types and class levels was also examined. method meta-analysis, one of the systematic synthesizing methods, was used in this study. meta-analysis is analysis and interpretation of quantitative findings with statistical techniques by combining them that are obtained from various studies which are carried out on the same subject but in different places and time (cumming, 2012; petitti, 2000; petticrew & roberts, 2006). data collection scientific articles, master’s and doctoral thesis in turkey between 2000 and 2014 that are accessible and examine the effect of multiple intelligence based instructional practices on success are basic data sources of this study. council of higher education thesis center, dergi park, akademia social sciences and araştirmax scientific publication index were reviewed by using “multiple intelligence” as the key word in order to access the related research. as a result of the review, 181 thesis and 23 articles studying multiple intelligence were found. following criteria were used in the selection of the studies to include in this research; criterion 1: time interval: the studies which were carried out between 2000 and 2014. criterion 2: published or unpublished study: master’s and doctoral thesis, articles that were published in scientific refereed journals. criterion 3: research method: the studies those were carryout out according to pre-test post-test with control group experimental design. criterion 4: sufficient numeric data: the studies that report quantitative data such as the number of participants in experimental and control groups, mean and standard deviation. taking these criteria into account, 72 thesis, as they were not experimental studies, and 14 articles, as they were generated from thesis, were not included in this research. there were 109 thesis and nine articles after the first elimination. secondly, 43 thesis and two articles which did not report the number of participants, mean and standard deviation were not included in this research. as a result, it was concluded that there were 66 thesis and seven articles fit for the criteria and aim to determine the effect of multiple intelligence based eyüp yurt & seyat polat 88 instructional practices on success (appendix 1). furthermore, when there were more than one measurements, all of these measurements were used in the analysis process. consequently, meta-analysis was carried out by using the data of 73 (81 comparison) studies (figure 1). reliability of the research: in order to ensure the reliability of the research, a coding protocol was formed which include the identity, content and data of the studies. for the reliability between the coders, coding protocol’s “second part consisting data of the studies” were filled by also the second researcher. then, the percentage of the consistence between coders was calculated and it was found as 85%. this result shows almost a perfect consistence between the coders. figure 1. selection process of studies included in the research descriptive statistics of the studies 65,8 % of the studies were carried out in elementary, 27,4 % in secondary and 6,8 % of them were carried out in university level (table 1). the implementation period of the studies varies between two and 14 weeks. in order to compare the effect levels of these studies on success according to their implementation period, they were classified under three groups such as “3 weeks and less”, “4-6 weeks” and “7 weeks and more”. when the studies were examined according to their type, it was found out that 11 % of them were doctoral thesis, 79,5 % were master’s thesis and 9,6 % were articles. in these studies, practices were -number of open access thesis 181 -number of accessible articles 23 -number of thesis which do not use experimental design 72 -number of articles which were generated from thesis 14 -studies which do not consist data that are not appropriate for the coding protocol; -thesis 43 -articles 2 -the studies included in this research; thesis 66, articles 7, total 73 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 89 carryout out during following courses: biology, religious education, english, turkish, science, physics, chemistry, music, art, math, life sciences, social studies, geography, and revolution history. these courses were also classified and music and art were grouped under fine arts; turkish and english were grouped under language education; life sciences, geography and revolution history were grouped under social sciences; physics and chemistry were grouped under physics-chemistry. table 1. frequency and percentage of the studies according to level, type, period and course variables moderator frequency (f) percentage (%) level elementary 48 65,8 secondary 20 27,4 university 5 6,8 period 3 weeks and less 14 19,2 4-6 weeks 46 63,0 7 weeks and more 21 28,8 type doctoral thesis 8 11,0 master’s thesis 58 79,5 article 7 9,6 course biology 10 13,7 religious education 3 4,1 english 7 9,6 turkish 1 1,4 science 23 31,5 physics 4 5,5 chemistry 2 2,7 music 2 2,7 art 1 1,4 math 10 13,7 life sciences 2 2,7 social sciences 5 6,8 geography 2 2,7 revolution history 1 1,4 data analysis cma 2.0 [comprehensive meta-analysis] statistical packet program was used in this research in order to compare the effect sizes, variances and groups. the groups in which multiple intelligence practices were carried out were coded as experimental group and the eyüp yurt & seyat polat 90 others in which traditional instructional practices were carried out were coded as control group. therefore, positive effect size is interpreted on behalf of multiple intelligence practices and negative effect size is interpreted on behalf of traditional instructional practices. spss 18.0 was used for the reliability of the coders. because the significance level of the studies is 0,05, significance level of the statistical analysis in this research was determined as 0,05. effect size values were interpreted based on cohen’s (1988) effect size value intervals. according to this, 0,20-0,49 shows little effect, 0,50-0,79 shows medium effect and 0,80 and higher shows large effect. findings publication bias the fact that the possibility for articles that find positive or statistically significant results to be published is higher than the articles that find negative or insignificant results cause a bias on behalf of the studies that find positive results. this directly effects the metaanalysis research based on the literature (rothstein, sutton & borenstein, 2005). publication bias over a certain level may show the calculated value higher than real one by effecting the calculated average effect size (borenstein et al., 2009). therefore, it is rather important to determine the publication bias, if there is any, before meta-analysis. there are various methods in the literature to determine the publication bias. in this process, especially funnel scatter plot, clip and fill, rosenthal and orwin’s fail-safe n methods are commonly used in the studies (üstün & eryılmaz, 2014). each of these methods were used to examine whether there is a publication bias about the subject of this research. funnel scatter plot and clip and fill methods x axis shows effect size values and y axis shows standard error values in funnel scatter plot (figure 2). in the graph, while the results of the studies that have small samples scatter in a large area in the bottom layer, the results of the studies with large samples scatter in a smaller area in the upper layer. in the funnel scatter plots in figure 2, effect sizes of the studies shows a relatively symmetrical distribution around the main effect size. on the other hand, according to results of clip and fill, it is seen that 15 dummy studies should be added to funnel scatter plot in order to eliminate the publication bias. then, effect size value of the studies increase to 1,408 from 1,117. according to cohen’s (1988) effect size classification, both values show a large effect. therefore, findings show that in case of publication bias, the studies which were not obtained will not change the calculated effect size for success. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 91 figure 2. funnel scatter plot fail-safe n method the number of the studies that should be added into meta-analysis in order to reset the obtained effect in meta-analysis can be calculated with a method suggested by rosenthal (rothstein et al., 2005). as a result of the calculation, if the fail-safe n value is rather big compared to the number of observed studies, it is concluded that the obtained results are resistant to publication bias. the method suggested by orwin allow to determine the number of deficient studies needed to have the main effect size other than zero (rothstein et al., 2005). rosenthal’s fail-safe n value was calculated as 4186 in this study. according to orwin’s fail-safe n method, 765 additional studies that have zero effect were needed in order for the main effect size decrease the 0,1 level which was determined as “insignificant” (table 2). the high values obtained from the two methods show that results are quite resistant to publication bias. table 2. the results of rosenthal ve orwin’s fail-safe n method rosenthal fail-safe n method orwin fail-safe n method z-value for observed studies 37,37 hedge's g of observed studies 1,14 p-value for observed studies 0,00 criterion for “insignificant” hedge g 0,1 alpha 0,05 average hedge g for missing studies 0,00 direction 2 n value 848 z value for alpha 1,96 number of the observed studies 81 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 s ta n d a rd e rr o r std diff in means funnel plot of standard error by std diff in means eyüp yurt & seyat polat 92 n value 9368 combined findings homogeneous distribution values, average effect size and confidence intervals of studies observed in this research are given in table 3 according to statistical models. the effect value of multiple intelligence based instructional practices on success was calculated as 1,146 according to fixed effects model and as 1,287 according to random effects model. on the other hand, q value which was calculated with homogeneity test showed that distributions of the success data have a heterogeneous structure (q=518,665, p<0,001). in accordance with this result, it was aimed to eliminate the facades that derive from the heterogeneous structure of the sample by carrying out analysis appropriate for random effects model (yıldız, 2002). by using random effects model, thus, the effects of multiple intelligence based practices and traditional ones on success were compared. as a result of the calculations, the average effect size of 81 studies included in meta-analysis in order to determine the effect of multiple intelligence based instruction on success was found to be 1,287. this value shows a large effect according to cohen’s (1988) classification. table 3. effect models values of studies included in meta-analysis, homogeneous distribution value, average effect size and confidence intervals model effect size and 95% confidence interval absence hypothesis heterogeneity n u m b e r o f st u d ie s e ff e c t si z e s ta n d a rd e rr o r v a ri a n c e l o w e r li m it u p p e r li m it z -v a lu e p -v a lu e q -v a lu e d f (q ) i2 fixed effects 81 1,146 0,032 0,001 1,083 1,209 35,678 0,00 518,665 80 84,576 random effects 81 1,287 0,083 0,007 1,125 1,450 15,531 0,00 besides, that i 2 values are bigger than 75 % in table 3 show that the distribution of the effect values of studies on success are highly heterogeneous (borenstein et al., 2009). in order to reveal the reasons of heterogeneous distribution; instructional level, course, implementation period and research type were used as moderator variables. moderators are variables that are thought to effect the results of meta-analysis and are used in meta-analysis to determine the journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 93 level of this effect (kış & konan, 2014). sub-group analysis was carried out to test the moderator variables of this research. the results of sub-group analysis in order to examine whether the effect levels of multiple intelligence based instructional practices on success differentiate according to instructional level, the studies included in this research were classified under three groups as elementary, secondary and university level. because the number of studies (4 studies) that were carried out in university level was not enough to make a comparison, these studies were not included in analysis. according to results of the analysis, average effect size of the studies calculated according to elementary and secondary levels were found to be 1,194 and 1,564 respectively. on the other hand, the result of the homogeneity test showed that there was not a significant difference between the calculated effect size values of studies according to instructional level (qb=3,767; p=0,052). it was found that multiple intelligence practices in the studies were carried out during different periods. in order to determine whether the effect of these practices on success differentiate according to implementation period, the studies were classified under three groups according to their implementation period as “3 weeks and less”, 4-6 weeks” and “7 weeks and more”. according to results of the analysis, average effect size of these studies was calculated as 0,868; 1,274 and 1,606 respectively. the result of the homogeneity test showed that there was a significant difference between these effect size values according to their implementation process (qb=8,303; p=0,016). therefore, when the implementation period becomes longer, the effect of multiple intelligence based practices on success increases. table 4. the examination of the effects of multiple intelligence based practices on success according to moderator variables moderators k d se %95 ci qbetween p instructional level 77 3,767 0,052 elementary 54 1,194 0,103 0,992; 1,395 secondary 23 1,564 0,161 1,249; 1,880 implementation period 81 8,303 0,016 3 weeks and less 14 0,868 0,197 0,482; 1,254 4-6 weeks 46 1,274 0,110 1,059; 1,489 7 weeks and more 21 1,606 0,164 1,284; 1,927 eyüp yurt & seyat polat 94 type of the studies 81 0,079 0,961 doctoral thesis 11 1,339 0,223 0,903; 1,775 master’s thesis 63 1,276 0,096 1,089; 1,463 article 7 1,317 0,284 0,760; 1,873 course 81 11,354 0,124 biology 10 1,497 0,237 1,032; 1,962 religious education 6 0,934 0,305 0,335;1,532 language education 9 1,516 0,250 1,026; 2,006 science 23 1,309 0,156 1,003; 1,614 physics-chemistry 8 0,893 0,263 0,379; 1,408 fine arts 5 1,289 0,327 0,648; 1,929 math 10 0,928 0,230 0,477; 1,378 social sciences 10 1,748 0,240 1,277; 2,218 in order to determine whether the effect of these practices on success differentiate according to type of the studies, the studies were classified under three groups according to their type as articles, master’s thesis and doctoral thesis. as a result of the analysis, average effect size of practices in articles, master’s thesis and doctoral thesis were calculated as 1,317; 1,276 and 1,317 respectively. the result of the homogeneity test showed that there was not a significant difference between the effect size values of studies according to their type (qb=0,079; p=0,961). the effect of multiple intelligence based practices on success was examined during various courses such as biology, religious education, turkish, english, science, physics, chemistry, art, music, math and social sciences. as a result of the analysis according to course, the highest effect size value (1,748) was calculated for social sciences and the lowest effect size value (0,893) was calculated for physics-chemistry. the result of the homogeneity test showed that there was not a significant difference between the effect size values of studies according to course type (qb=11,354; p=0,124). discussion, conclusion and suggestions the aim of this study is to evaluate the experimental studies based on multiple intelligence theory by using meta-analysis method. within this framework, 73 of 118 experimental studies in turkey were included in analysis because they were appropriate for the inclusion criteria of this research. when these 73 studies were examined, it was found that journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 95 more than half of the studies were carried out in elementary level, in science course, during 46 weeks and as master’s thesis. it is rather important to calculate the publication bias and effect size values of studies that are included in meta-analysis (üstün & eryılmaz, 2014). different methods were used in this study to determine the publication bias. according to the results of funnel scatter plot and clip and fill methods, the studies that were not accessed would not change the calculated effect level in case of publication bias about the subject of this research. according to the results of rosenthal and orwin’s fail-safe n methods, it was found that the studies investigating the effect of multiple intelligence practices on success were rather resistant to publication bias. in this meta-analysis research, it was concluded that multiple intelligence practices have a positive effect on success. according to cohen’s (1988) classification, effect size value calculated for academic achievement is in “large effect size” interval. therefore, it can be said that the effectiveness of multiple intelligence practices are quite high in terms of academic achievement. this result is supported by international studies in the literature (harms & credé, 2010; mills, 2009). in this research, it was examined that whether the effect size of multiple intelligence based instructional practices on success differentiate according to instructional level. the studies included in meta-analysis were classified under three groups as elementary, secondary and university level. because the number of the studies that were carried out in university level was not enough to make a comparison, they were not included in the analysis. effect size of the studies according to instructional level were positive; the highest value was in secondary level and the lowest value was in elementary level. effectiveness level of multiple intelligence based practices according to instructional level is “large” for cohen’s (1988) classification. however, the results of the homogeneity test showed that there was not a significant difference between the calculated effect size values of studies according to instructional level. therefore, it was found out that the effect of multiple intelligence practices on success do not change in different instructional levels. this result shows a consistency with the results of different meta-analysis studies that examine the effect of various instructional methods on success (armağan, 2011; camnalbur & erdoğan, 2008; ginns, martin & marsh; 2013; kablan, topan & erkan, 2013; okursoy, 2009; şahin; 2005; williams & greenwood, 2013). on the other hand, there are also some studies that state the effect of various eyüp yurt & seyat polat 96 instructional methods on success differentiate according to instructional level (abrami et al., 2008; darabi et al., 2013; özdemirli, 2011). in these studies, the effect of critical thinking approach on success (abrami et al., 2008), the effect of online discussion strategies on success (darabi et al., 2013) and the effect of cooperative learning method on maths success (özdemirli, 2011) differentiate according to instructional level. in this research, whether the effects of multiple intelilgence on success differentiate according to implementation period was examined. the studies were classified by considering their implementation period under three groups as “3 weeks and less”, “4-6 weeks” and “7 weeks and more”. the effect size of these groups had positive values; the highest value was found for “7 weeks and more” and the lowest value was found for “3 weeks and less”. besides, the results of homogeneity test showed a significant difference between the calculated effect size values of the studies according to implementation period. accordingly, the effect of multiple intelligence practices on success increase as the implementation period becomes longer. there are some studies in the literature that examine the effect of various instructional practices on success according to implementation period. the effect of concrete materials on maths success (ginns, martin and marsh, 2013) and the effect of the instruction based on speaking styles on success differentiate significantly. on the other hand, the effect of conceptual change texts on success (armağan, 2013) and the effect of cooperative learning method on success (özdemirli, 2011) do not differentiate significantly according to implementation period. it was also examined whether the effect level of multiple intelligence based instructional practices on success differentiate according to type of the studies. within this framework, the studies included in meta-analysis in this research were classified under three groups as article, master’s thesis and doctoral thesis. as a result of the analysis, average effect size of these groups had quite approximate values and homogeneity test results showed that there was not a significant difference between the calculated effect size values according to the type of studies. the results of the studies carried out in different fields (armağan, 2011; özdemirli, 2011; şahin, 2005) support this finding. for instance, in özdemirli (2011) the effectiveness of cooperative learning method on maths success do not differentiate according to type of study. in this research, the effect of multiple intelligence practices on success according to course was also examined. therefore, effect size of many different courses such as biology, journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 97 religious education, turkish, english, science, physics, chemistry, art, music, maths and social sciences were investigated. according to the results of analysis, the highest effect value was found in social sciences and the lowest effect value was found in physicschemistry. homogeneity test results showed that there was not a significant difference between the calculated effect size values of the studies according to course. the results of the meta-analysis studies (ginns, martin and marsh, 2013; kablan et al., 2013; şahin, 2005) carried out in different fields support this finding. for instance, kablan et al. (2013) state that the effect of use of material on success does not differentiate according to course. however, camnalbur and erdoğan (2008) state that the effect of computer-assisted instruction on success differentiate according to learning areas. academic achievement in studies that were carried out in ability field is higher than other fields. with the results of this research, the effect size of experimental studies, published in turkey based on multiple intelligence, on success were revealed in terms of different variables. it is believed that the results of this research will be directive for new studies. accordingly, following suggestions were presented for similar or related studies that can be carried out in this subject;  according to the results of descriptive analysis, it was found that many of the studies that handle multiple intelligence in turkey are master’s thesis. therefore, more articles and doctoral thesis that study multiple intelligence are needed.  according to the results of descriptive analysis, the number of studies that were carried out in university level are too few. therefore, more experimental studies aiming to increase success by using multiple intelligence are needed in university level. because, multiple intelligence practices that consider individual differences in instruction are necessary for university students as well as elementary and secondary students.  as a result of meta-analysis, it was found out that the effect of multiple intelligence practices on success change according to implementation period. when the implementation period becomes longer, the effect of the practices on success also increase. especially, the effect of the studies that were carried out during “7 weeks or more” on success was found to be higher. it should be considered that the effect of multiple intelligence practices on success may increase when the implementation period becomes longer. eyüp yurt & seyat polat 98 finally, the effect of multiple intelligence practices retention, attitude and other affective features may be examined with meta-analysis method. references abrami, p.c., bernard, r.m., borokhovski, e, a., wade, m., surkes a., zhang, d. & tamim, r. (2009). instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: a stage 1 meta-analysis, review of educational research, 78 (4), 1102-1134. akçin, s. (2009). the effects of usıng actıvıtıes based on multıple ıntellıgence theory on 11th grade students’ learnıng and retentıon of englısh vocabulary. unpublished mater dissertation, dokuz eylül university, i̇zmir. akman, n. (2007). ortaöğretimde insanda destek ve hareket sistemi konusunun çoklu zeka temelli işlenmesinin öğrenci başarısı üzerine etkisi. unpublished mater dissertation, gazi university, ankara. arends, r. (1997). classroom instruction and management. new york: mcgraw-hill. armağan, f.ö. (2011). kavramsal değişim metinlerinin etkililiği: meta analiz çalışması. unpublished doctorate dissertation, gazi university, ankara. armstrong, t. (2010). multiple intelligences in the classroom (3 rd edition). alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. aydın, m., kaşarcı, i̇., yurt e. (2012, october). drama yönteminin başarıya etkisi: bir meta analiz çalışması. presented at meeting of ii. ulusal eğitim programları ve öğretim kongresi, bolu, turkey. bloom, b. s. (1979). i̇nsan nitelikleri ve okulda öğrenme (trans. durmuş ali özçelik) ankara: milli eğitim basımevi. borenstein, m., hedges, l. v., higgins, j. p. t., & rothstein, h. (2009). introduction to meta-analysis. oboken, nj: wiley. bümen, n.t. (2005). öğretmenlerin yeni ilköğretim 1-5. sınıf programıyla ilgili görüşleri ve program uygulamaya hazırlayıcı bir hizmetiçi eğitim çalışması örneği, ege eğitim dergisi,6 (2), 21-57. camnalbur, m., & erdoğan, y. (2008). bilgisayar destekli öğretimin etkililiği üzerine bir meta analiz çalışması: türkiye örneği, kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri, 8, 497-505. cohen, j. (1988). statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). hillsdale, nj: lawrence earlbaum associates. cumming, g. (2012). understanding the new statistics. new york: routledge, taylor and francis group. http://scholar.google.ca/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=kxy95m0aaaaj&citation_for_view=kxy95m0aaaaj:5nxa0vek-isc http://scholar.google.ca/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=kxy95m0aaaaj&citation_for_view=kxy95m0aaaaj:5nxa0vek-isc journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 99 darabi, a., liang, x., suryavanshi, r. & yurekli, h. (2013). effectiveness of online discussion strategies: a meta-analysis, american journal of distance education, 27(4), 228241. dunn, r., & dunn, k. (1978). teaching students through their individual learning styles. reston, va: reston publishing. eberle, s. g. (2011), playing with the multiple ıntelligences, american journal of play, 4 (1), 19-51. elmacı, t. (2010). çoklu zekâ kuramına dayalı öğretimin ortaöğretim 9. sınıf biyoloji dersi canlıların temel bileşenleri konusunda öğrencilerin akademik başarısına etkisi, unpublished mater dissertation, gazi university, ankara. gardner, h. (1993). frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences (2nd edition). new york, ny: basic books. ginns, p., martin, a. j., & marsh, h. w. (2013). designing instructional text in a conversational style: a meta-analysis. educational psychology review, 25(4), 445-472. gözütok, d. (2001). başkent üniversitesi koleji ayşeabla okullarında çoklu zekâ kuramı uygulaması. ankara: siyasal yayıncılık. gracıous, a. & shyla, a. j. (2012). multıple ıntellıgence and dıgıtal learnıng awareness of prospectıve teachers, turkish online journal of distance education-tojde, 11(3), 112-118. gregorc, a. f. (1985). inside styles: beyond the basics. maynard, ma: gabriel systems. gözüyeşil, e. (2012). beyin temelli öğrenmenin akademik başarıya etkisi: bir meta analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, niğde university, niğde. gürbüzoğlu, s. (2009). çoklu zekâ kuramına dayalı işlenen protein sentezi konusunun öğrencilerin başarısına,bilgilerindeki kalıcılığına ve öğrenci görüşlerine etkisi. unpublished doctorate dissertation. atatürk university, erzurum. harms, p. d., & credé, m. (2010). emotional intelligence and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis. journal of leadership & organizational studies, 17(1), 5-17. hartung, j., knapp, g., & sinha, b. k. (2008). statistical meta-analysis with applications. hoboken, nj, usa: john wiley & sons, nc. hedges, l. v., & olkin, i. (1985). statistical methods for meta-analysis. new york: academic press. hoerr, t. (2000). becoming a multiple intelligences school. washington dc: association of school curriculum development. kablan, z., topan, b., & erkan, b. (2013). sınıf içi öğretimde materyal kullanımının etkililik düzeyi: bir meta-analiz çalışması. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri, 13(3), 1629-1644. eyüp yurt & seyat polat 100 kaşarcı, i̇. (2013). proje tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarı ve tutumlarına etkisi: bir meta-analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, osmangazi university, eskişehir. kaşarcı, i̇., aydın, m., yurt e., & sünbül, a. m. (2012). strateji öğretiminin başarıya etkisi: bir meta analiz çalışması. presented at meeting of ii. ulusal eğitim programları ve öğretim kongresi, bolu, turkey. kış, a., & konan, n. (2014). okul müdürlerinin öğretimsel liderlik davranışlarını gösterme düzeylerine ilişkin sınıf ve branş öğretmenlerinin görüşleri: bir meta-analiz. eğitim ve öğretim araştırmaları dergisi, 3(1), 359-374. koç, e. s. & şahin, a.e. (2014). çoklu zekâ kuramı ile desteklenmiş olan basamaklı öğretim programının öğrenci erişisine ve kalıcılığa etkisi, eğitim ve bilim, 39(174), 286-296. kolb, d. a. (1984). experiential learning: experiences as the source of learning and development. englewood cliffs, n. j: prentice hall inc. mills, l.b. (2009). a meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional ıntelligence and effective leadership, journal of curriculum and ınstruction, 3(2), 22-38. okursoy, f. g. (2009). kavram haritaları öğretim stratejisinin öğrenci başarısına etkisi: bir meta analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, marmara university, i̇stanbul. özdemirli, g. (2011). i̇şbirlikli öğrenme yönteminin öğrencinin matematik başarısı ve matematiğe ilişkin tutumuüzerindeki etkililiği: bir meta-analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, çukurova university, adana. petticrew, m., & roberts, h. (2006). systematic reviews in the social sciences. ma-usa: blackwell publishers ltd. petitti, d. b. (2000). meta-analysis, decision analysis, and cost-effectiveness analysis: methods for quantitative synthesis in medicine. newyork: oxford university press. pintrich, p. r., smith, d. a. f., garcia, t., & mckeachie, w. j. (1993). reliability and predictive validity of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (mslq). educational and psychological measurement, 53(3), 801-814. rothstein, h. r., sutton, a. j., & borenstein, m. (eds.). (2005). publication bias in metaanalysis: prevention, assessment and adjustments. hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons. senemoğlu, n. (2013). gelişim öğrenme ve öğretim kuramdan uygulamaya, ankara: yargı yayınevi. şahin, i̇. (2007). yeni ilköğretim 1. kademe türkçe programının değerlendirilmesi, i̇lköğretim online, 6(2), 284-304. şahin, m. c. (2005). i̇nternet tabanlı uzaktan eğitimin etkililiği: bir meta-analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, çukurova university, adana. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 101 üstün, u., & eryılmaz, a. (2014). etkili araştırma sentezleri yapabilmek için bir araştırma yöntemi: meta-analiz. education and science, (39)174, 1-32. weinstein, c. e., & mayer, r. e. (1986). the teaching of learning strategies. in m. c. wittrock (ed.), handbook on research in teaching (3rd ed.). (pp. 315-327) new york: macmillan. williams, l. williams, c. & parker, r. (2013). academic benefits of peer tutoring: a metaanalytic review of single-case research, school psychology review, 42(1), 39-55. yıldız, n. ç. (2002). verilerin değerlendirilmesinde meta-analizi. unpublished mater dissertation, marmara university, i̇stanbul. appendix -1. the studies included in meta-analysis studies effect size and 95% confidence interval absence hypothesis effect size (hedges's g) standard error variance lower limit upper limit z p akçin, 2009 2,943 0,413 0,170 2,134 3,752 7,131 0,000 akman, 2007 0,744 0,298 0,089 0,159 1,329 2,493 0,013 altınsoy, 2011 0,978 0,299 0,090 0,391 1,564 3,267 0,001 altıntaş, 2013 0,817 0,252 0,064 0,322 1,312 3,235 0,001 altun, 2006 1,763 0,304 0,093 1,167 2,360 5,795 0,000 altunkaya, 2008 1,968 0,320 0,102 1,341 2,595 6,152 0,000 altuntaş, 2007 0,577 0,253 0,064 0,081 1,073 2,279 0,023 ateş, 2007 2,200 0,391 0,153 1,433 2,967 5,623 0,000 aydoğan, 2006 0,487 0,202 0,041 0,092 0,882 2,416 0,016 azar, presley & balkaya, 2006 1,452 0,318 0,101 0,829 2,075 4,567 0,000 babacan, 2006 1,655 0,300 0,090 1,067 2,242 5,522 0,000 bak, 2004 0,787 0,260 0,067 0,278 1,296 3,032 0,002 baş, 2009 1,425 0,317 0,100 0,804 2,046 4,500 0,000 başli, 2006 4,916 0,669 0,448 3,604 6,228 7,343 0,000 bozdeveci, 2005 1,383 0,348 0,121 0,702 2,065 3,978 0,000 boztepe, 2010 0,747 0,277 0,077 0,205 1,289 2,700 0,007 cihan, 2013_1 0,153 0,302 0,091 -0,439 0,745 0,507 0,612 cihan, 2013_2 0,649 0,333 0,111 -0,003 1,302 1,951 0,051 cihan, 2013_3 0,623 0,316 0,100 0,003 1,242 1,971 0,049 çakan, 2006 0,483 0,321 0,103 -0,146 1,112 1,506 0,132 çepni, 2010 1,004 0,306 0,094 0,404 1,605 3,279 0,001 değirmenci, 2009 0,978 0,299 0,090 0,391 1,564 3,267 0,001 demirel, 2008 1,165 0,330 0,109 0,518 1,812 3,531 0,000 dilek, 2006 0,505 0,262 0,069 -0,009 1,019 1,924 0,054 dincer çengeloğlu, 2005 0,381 0,305 0,093 -0,216 0,978 1,252 0,211 doğan temur, 2001 0,705 0,298 0,089 0,122 1,288 2,369 0,018 durmuş hepyaşar, 2006 0,026 0,373 0,139 -0,706 0,758 0,070 0,944 elmacı, 2010 2,090 0,454 0,206 1,200 2,980 4,603 0,000 erdem, 2003 1,464 0,286 0,082 0,903 2,024 5,118 0,000 erkaçan, 2006 0,513 0,243 0,059 0,037 0,989 2,111 0,035 etli, 2007 0,942 0,248 0,062 0,456 1,429 3,794 0,000 gazioğlu, 2006 0,977 0,335 0,112 0,321 1,632 2,919 0,004 gözüm, 2011 1,002 0,274 0,075 0,465 1,539 3,659 0,000 güler karadeniz, 2006 1,009 0,294 0,087 0,432 1,586 3,427 0,001 eyüp yurt & seyat polat 102 güneş, 2006 0,639 0,319 0,102 0,013 1,265 2,002 0,045 gürbüzoğlu, 2009 0,887 0,262 0,069 0,372 1,401 3,378 0,001 i̇flazoğlu, 2003 0,084 0,224 0,050 -0,354 0,523 0,376 0,707 i̇naltekin, 2008 1,140 0,270 0,073 0,612 1,668 4,229 0,000 i̇şik,2006 0,626 0,279 0,078 0,079 1,172 2,244 0,025 kanat, 2008 1,056 0,276 0,076 0,516 1,596 3,832 0,000 kara, 2006 0,348 0,260 0,068 -0,162 0,858 1,337 0,181 karakoç, 2006 1,425 0,294 0,086 0,849 2,001 4,846 0,000 karatekin,2006 2,690 0,309 0,095 2,085 3,294 8,717 0,000 kılıç demirkaya, 2006 1,135 0,258 0,066 0,630 1,640 4,406 0,000 korkmaz, 2010 1,320 0,306 0,094 0,720 1,920 4,310 0,000 köksal, 2005 0,335 0,285 0,081 -0,223 0,894 1,178 0,239 kuloğlu, 2005 0,951 0,254 0,065 0,453 1,449 3,745 0,000 kurt, 2006 1,712 0,331 0,109 1,064 2,360 5,178 0,000 kurt, 2009 2,007 0,274 0,075 1,469 2,544 7,319 0,000 kurtcuoğlu, 2007 4,242 0,465 0,217 3,330 5,154 9,114 0,000 nacakcı, 2006_1 1,807 0,284 0,081 1,250 2,364 6,363 0,000 nacakcı, 2006_2 0,679 0,259 0,067 0,171 1,187 2,620 0,009 nacakcı, 2006_3 1,792 0,291 0,085 1,221 2,363 6,148 0,000 oral, 2006-1 1,056 0,269 0,072 0,529 1,584 3,927 0,000 oral, 2006-2 2,076 0,370 0,137 1,351 2,801 5,612 0,000 oral, 2006-3 0,800 0,278 0,077 0,255 1,344 2,879 0,004 öngören, 2007 0,808 0,269 0,072 0,281 1,334 3,007 0,003 öz, 2005 0,630 0,245 0,060 0,150 1,110 2,574 0,010 özyılmaz akamca, 2003 0,659 0,249 0,062 0,171 1,147 2,646 0,008 sarar, 2008 1,172 0,342 0,117 0,501 1,843 3,424 0,001 saydam, 2005 2,159 0,310 0,096 1,550 2,767 6,952 0,000 servi, 2004 1,208 0,344 0,118 0,534 1,882 3,514 0,000 sezer, 2008 1,875 0,379 0,144 1,132 2,619 4,943 0,000 susar kırmızı, 2006_1 0,512 0,216 0,046 0,089 0,934 2,374 0,018 susar kırmızı, 2006_2 0,674 0,218 0,048 0,247 1,101 3,091 0,002 şakir, 2013 1,379 0,290 0,084 0,811 1,946 4,759 0,000 şengül, 2007 1,202 0,301 0,091 0,611 1,793 3,989 0,000 tabuk, 2009 1,373 0,227 0,051 0,928 1,818 6,051 0,000 taşezen, 2005 5,103 0,583 0,340 3,960 6,247 8,747 0,000 turhan, 2006 1,586 0,372 0,138 0,857 2,315 4,265 0,000 turhan,2006 1,320 0,358 0,128 0,618 2,021 3,686 0,000 türkmen, 2005 1,845 0,155 0,024 1,542 2,148 11,918 0,000 uzunöz, 2008 2,230 0,310 0,096 1,622 2,838 7,192 0,000 yağcı, 2006 4,557 0,531 0,282 3,516 5,598 8,577 0,000 yavuz, 2010 3,268 0,408 0,167 2,467 4,068 8,002 0,000 yekrek, 2006 1,843 0,276 0,076 1,302 2,383 6,685 0,000 yıldırım, 2006a 0,449 0,239 0,057 -0,019 0,917 1,882 0,060 yıldırım, 2006b 1,305 0,326 0,106 0,666 1,943 4,005 0,000 yörük, 2007 0,750 0,293 0,086 0,176 1,324 2,563 0,010 yörük, 2007-1 1,659 0,328 0,108 1,016 2,301 5,058 0,000 yörük, 2007-2 1,809 0,336 0,113 1,151 2,467 5,387 0,000 fixed 1,146 0,032 0,001 1,083 1,209 35,678 0,000 random 1,287 0,083 0,007 1,125 1,450 15,531 0,000 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 103 çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının akademik başarı üzerindeki etkisi: bir meta-analiz çalışması eyüp yurt 1 & seyat polat 2 özet bu çalışmada çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının akademik başarı üzerindeki etkisinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. bu doğrultuda çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının akademik başarı üzerindeki etkililiğini incelemeyi amaçlayan birbirinden bağımsız araştırmaların sonuçları meta analiz yöntemiyle birleştirilmiştir. belirlenen ölçütlere göre meta analize 66 tez ve 7 makale olmak üzere toplam 71 çalışma dâhil edilmiştir. meta analiz hesaplaması sonucunda, çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının akademik başarı üzerinde geniş düzeyde ve olumlu yönde bir etkisinin bulunduğu anlaşılmıştır. çoklu zekâ yaklaşıma göre uygulanan öğretim uygulamalarının etkililik düzeylerinin uygulama süresine göre farklılaştığı anlaşılmıştır. buna göre, uygulama süresi arttıkça çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etkililiği de artmaktadır. diğer yandan yapılan uygulamaların etkililik düzeylerinin; ders türüne, öğretim kademesine ve araştırma türüne göre farklılaşmadığı tespit edilmiştir. elde edilen bulgular doğrultusunda bir takım öneriler sunulmuştur. anahtar kelimeler: sosyal bilgiler, bi̇t, başarı, tu çoklu zekâ, akademik başarı, meta analiz giriş türkiye’de eğitim programlarının yapılandırmacı anlayışa göre yeniden düzenlenmesiyle öğretim sürecinde bireysel farklılıklar daha da önem kazanmıştır. her bireyin sahip olduğu; öğrenme stili (dunn & dunn, 1992; gregorc, 1985; kolb, 1984), öğrenme stratejileri (arends, 1997; pintrich, smith, garcia ve mckeachie, 1993; weinstein ve mayer, 1986), duyuşsal ve bilişsel özellikleri (bloom, 1979), öğretimde bireysel farklıkları oluşturmaktadır. özellikle kalıtım ve çevreninin etkisi altında bulunan zihinsel gelişim, bireylerin öğrenme düzeyleri üzerinde oldukça etkilidir. zihinsel gelişimi üst düzeyde bulunan bireyler akranlarına göre daha hızlı öğrenir, kavrar ve anlarlar (senemoğlu, 2013). zihinsel gelişimi doğrudan etkileyen en önemli faktörlerden biri zekâdır (eberle, 2011; gracıous ve shyla, 2012). zekâyı tanımlamak ve açıklamak için birçok bilim adamı sayısız çalışma gerçekleştirmiştir (armstrong, 2010; gardner, 1993; hoerr, 2000). 1980’li yılların 1 yrd. doç. dr., gaziantep üniversitesi, eyupyurt@gmail.com 2 yrd. doç. dr., mevlana (rumi) üniversitesi, seyatpolat@gmail.com eyüp yurt & seyat polat 104 başına kadar yapılan çalışmalarla bireylerin zekâ düzeylerini belirlemek için standart zekâ testlerinin geliştirildiği görülmektedir. bu dönemde zekâ ile ilgili hâkim olan anlayış; zekâsının objektif olarak ölçülebileceği ve iq puanı olarak bilinen tek bir sayıyla temsil edilebileceğidir (hoerr, 2000). 1983’e gelindiğinde, gardner’in geliştirmiş olduğu “çoklu zekâ teorisi” ile zekâ konusuna farklı bir bakış açısı kazandırdığı görülmektedir. gardner’a (1993) göre zekâ, birçok yeteneği barındırır ve zekânın tek bir sayıyla açıklanamayacak kadar çok yönlü bir yapısı vardır. gardner (1993), her bireyde farklı düzeylerde bulunan yetenekleri “zekâ alanları” olarak tanımlamıştır. bu zekâ alanlarını şu şekilde isimlendirilmiştir; sözeldilsel zekâ, mantıksal-matematiksel zekâ, görsel-uzaysal zekâ, müziksel-ritmik zekâ, bedensel-kinestetik zekâ, sosyal zekâ, içsel zekâ ve doğacı zekâ (garder, 1993). garder (1993), sekiz zekâ alanı tanımlamasına rağmen bu sekiz zekâ alanın insan yeteneklerini tanımlamada yeterli olmadığını ve daha fazla zekâ alanın bulunabileceğini belirtmiştir. gardener’in çoklu zekâ kuramında tanımladığı sekiz zekâ alanını şu şekilde açıklamıştır (armstrong, 2010);  sözel-dilsel zekâ: bireyin sözcükleri bir politikacı, yazar ve gazeteci gibi etkili kullanabilme kapasitesidir.  mantıksal-matematiksel zekâ: bireyin sayıları bir matematikçi veya istatistikçi gibi etkili kullanabilmesi ve bir bilim adamı veya bilgisayar programcısı gibi olaylar arasında mantık yürütebilmesi kapasitesidir.  görsel-uzaysal zekâ: bireyin tıpkı bir avcı veya bir rehber gibi dünyayı doğru algılaması ve bir mimar veya ressam gibi dünyayı doğru bir şekilde görselleştirme kapasitesidir.  bedensel-kinestetik zekâ: bireyin bir atlet veya dansçı gibi duygularını ifade etmek için vücudunu etkili bir şekilde kullanabilmesi ve bir heykeltıraş veya cerrah gibi el becerilerini etkili kullanabilmesi kapasitesidir.  müziksel-ritmik zekâ: bireyin müzisyen gibi algılayabilmesi, bir müzik eleştirmeni gibi ayırt edebilmesi ve bir besteci gibi ifade edebilmesi kapasitesidir.  sosyal zekâ: bireyin diğer insanların duygularını, isteklerini veya ihtiyaçlarını anlama ve ayırt etme kapasitesidir.  i̇çsel zekâ: bireyin öz bilgisi üzerindeki hareket kabiliyetinin kapasitesidir.  doğacı zekâ: bireyin canlıları tanıyabilmesi, sınıflandırabilmesi ve ayırt edebilmesi veya doğa olaylarının ve çevre bilincinin farkında olabilmesi kapasitesidir. çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına göre, her birey tüm zekâ alanlarında farklı düzeyde potansiyele sahiptir. bu durum öğretim sürecinde bireysel farklıkları ön plana çıkarmaktadır. bireysel journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 105 farklılıkların dikkate alınarak oluşturulduğu öğretim ortamlarının daha etkili ve verimli olduğu bilinmektedir (gözütok, 2001). çoklu zekâ yaklaşımıyla öğrencilerin güçlü ve zayıf yönlerini geliştirmesi için uygun ortamlar sağlanabilir. ayrıca, çoklu zekâ yaklaşımıyla öğrencilerin tüm duyularına hitap eden öğrenme ortamları oluşturularak öğretim sürecinde daha istekli ve daha aktif olmaları sağlanabilir. böylece her bireyin öğrenme sürecine daha etkin katılmaları ve daha fazla sorumluluk almaları sağlanmış olur. türkiye’de 2005 yılından itibaren eğitim programlarında yapılan köklü değişiklikler sonucunda yapılandırmacı felsefenin kaynaklık ettiği öğretim programları uygulanmaya başlanmıştır. öğretim programlarının yapısı göz önüne alındığında, öğretim programlarında yer alan etkinliklerin çoklu zekâ kuramı ile desteklendiği (koç ve şahin, 2014; şahin, 2007 ve bümen, 2005) görülmektedir. diğer yandan ilgili alan yazında 2005 yılından sonra çoklu zekâ yaklaşımını temel alan birçok deneysel araştırmanın yapıldığı da görülmektedir. bu araştırmalarda çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına göre geliştirilen öğretim etkinliklerinin başarı üzerindeki etkisi incelenmiştir (akçin, 2009; akman, 2007; elmacı, 2010; gürbüzoğlu, 2009). eğitim alanında çoklu zekâ yaklaşımını temel alan araştırmaların sayısının her geçen gün artması, yapılan araştırmaların incelenmesini oldukça zorlaştırmaktadır. bu durumda, yapılan araştırmaların ulaştıkları sonuçları yorumlamak ve genel etkiyi ortaya koymak için daha detaylı bir araştırma yaklaşımı olan meta-analiz yönteminin kullanılması önerilmektedir (borenstein, hedges, higgins ve rothstein, 2009; hartung, knapp ve sinha, 2008; hedges ve olkin, 1985). ülkemizde farklı öğretim yaklaşımlarının akademik başarı üzerindeki etkisini inceleyen meta-analiz çalışmaları bulunmaktadır. bu çalışmalarda: kavram haritaları öğretim stratejisinin öğrenci başarısına etkisi (okursoy, 2009); işbirlikli öğrenme yönteminin matematik başarısı üzerindeki etkililiği (özdemirli, 2011); kavramsal değişim metinlerinin akademik başarı üzerindeki etkililiği (armağan, 2011); beyin temelli öğrenmenin akademik başarıya etkisi (gözüyeşil, 2012); strateji öğretiminin başarıya etkisi (kaşarcı, aydın, yurt ve sünbül, 2012); drama yönteminin başarıya etkisi (aydın, kaşarcı ve yurt, 2012); proje tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının akademik başarıya etkisi (kaşarcı, 2013) ve sınıf içi öğretimde materyal kullanımının akademik başarı üzerindeki etkililik düzeyi (kablan, topan ve erkan, 2013) meta-analiz yöntemiyle incelenmiştir. bu çalışmada ise meta-analiz yöntemi kullanılarak çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının akademik başarı üzerindeki etkisinin belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. bu doğrultuda bu araştırmayla “çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına göre geliştirilen öğretim uygulamaları, öğrencilerin akademik başarısını etkilemekte midir?” sorusuna cevap eyüp yurt & seyat polat 106 aranmıştır. araştırmada, akademik başarı açısından etkililik düzeylerinin; uygulama süresine, ders türüne ve öğretim kademesine göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığı da incelenmiştir. yöntem bu araştırmada sistematik sentezleme yöntemlerinden biri olan meta-analiz yöntemi kullanılmıştır. meta-analiz, bir konuyla ilgili farklı yer ve zamanlarda yapılan bağımsız çalışmalardan elde edilen nicel bulguların birleştirilerek, istatistiksel tekniklerle analiz edilmesi ve yorumlanmasıdır. (cumming, 2012; petitti, 2000; petticrew ve roberts, 2006). verilerin toplanması 2000 ve 2014 yılları arasında çoklu zekâ öğrenme yaklaşımına göre düzenlenmiş öğretim uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etkisini inceleyen türkiye’deki erişilebilir bilimsel makaleler, yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri bu araştırmanın temel veri kaynağını oluşturmaktadır. i̇lgili araştırmalara ulaşmak için yök ulusal tez arşivi, dergi park, akademia sosyal bilimler ve arastirmax bilimsel yayın i̇ndekslerinde “çoklu zekâ” anahtar sözcüğü kullanılarak tarama yapılmıştır. yapılan tarama sonucunda çoklu zekâya yönelik yapılan 181 tez ve 23 makalenin bulunduğu belirlenmiştir. araştırmaya dâhil edilen çalışmaların seçiminde; ölçüt 1: zaman aralığı:2000-2014 yılları arasında yapılmış olması, ölçüt 2:yayınlanmış veya yayınlanmamış çalışma: yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri, bilimsel hakemli dergilerde yayınlanmış olması, ölçüt 3: araştırma yöntemi: çalışmaların kontrol gruplu ön test ve son test deneme modeline göre yürütülmüş olması, ölçüt 4: yeterli sayısal veri: deney ve kontrol gruplarına ait katılımcı sayısı, aritmetik ortalama ve standart sapma gibi nicel verilerin raporlanmış olması dikkate alınmıştır. yukarıda sayılan ölçütler dikkate alınarak ilk olarak, 181 tez çalışmasının 72’si deneysel çalışma olmadığından, 23 makalenin ise 14’ü tezden üretildiğinden araştırmaya dâhil edilmemiştir. i̇lk elemeden sonra 109 tez ve 9 makale kalmıştır. i̇kinci olarak, meta-analizde istatistiksel hesaplamalar için gerekli olan; örneklem sayısı, aritmetik ortalama ve standart sapma gibi nicel verilerin raporlanmadığı 43 tez ve 2 makale araştırmaya dâhil edilememiştir. bu aşamadan sonra, çoklu zekâ yaklaşıma göre düzenlenmiş öğretim uygulamalarının başarıya etkisini belirlemeyi amaçlamış ve dâhil edilme kriterlerine uygun 66 tez ve 7 journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 107 makalenin bulunduğu anlaşılmıştır (ek 1). ayrıca bir çalışmada başarıya ilişkin birden fazla ölçüm yapılmış ise bu ölçümlerin hepsi meta analiz çalışmasına dâhil edilmiştir. sonuç olarak 73 çalışmanın (81 karşılaştırma) verisi kullanılarak meta-analiz gerçekleştirilmiştir (şekil 1). araştırmanın güvenirliği: araştırmanın güvenirliğini sağlamak için çalışmaların; kimliğini, içeriğini ve verilerini içeren bir kodlama protokolü oluşturulmuştur. kodlayıcılar arası güvenirliği sağlanması için, kodlama protokolünün “çalışmanın verilerini içeren bölümü” ikinci araştırmacı tarafından da doldurulmuştur. daha sonra kodlayıcılar arası uyumun yüzdesi hesaplanmış ve uyum yüzdesi %85 olarak bulunmuştur. bu sonuç, kodlayıcılar arasında neredeyse mükemmel bir uyuşmayı göstermektedir. şekil 2. araştırmaya dâhil edilen çalışmaların seçim süreci araştırmaya dâhil edilen çalışmalara ait betimsel i̇statistikler araştırmada ele alınan çalışmaların %65,8’i ilköğretim, %27,4’ü ortaöğretim ve %6,8, lisans kademesinde gerçekleştirilmiştir (tablo 1). ele alınan çalışmalarda gerçekleştirilen uygulamaların süresi ise 2 ile 14 hafta arası değişmektedir. araştırmada ele alınan çalışmaların uygulama sürelerine göre başarı üzerindeki etki düzeylerini karşılaştırabilmek için yapılan çalışmalar; “3 hafta ve daha az”, “4-6 hafta” ve “7 hafta ve üzeri” uygulama süresi kategorileri altında üç gruba ayrılmıştır. ele alınan çalışmalar türlerine göre incelendiğinde, çalışmaların; % 11’inin doktora, %79,5’inin yüksek lisans ve %9,6’sının makale türünde olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. yapılan çalışmalarda uygulamalar; biyoloji, din -erişime açık tez sayısı 181 -ulaşılabilir makale sayısı 23 -deneysel desenlerin kullanılmadığı tez sayısı 72 -tezden üretilmiş makale sayısı 14 -kodlama protokolüne uygun veri i̇çermeyen; -tez sayısı 43 -makale sayısı 2 -araştırmaya dâhil edilen tez çalışması 66, makale çalışması 7, toplam 73 çalışma eyüp yurt & seyat polat 108 eğitimi, i̇ngilizce, türkçe, fen bilgisi, fizik, kimya, müzik, resim, matematik, hayat bilgisi, sosyal bilgiler, coğrafya ve i̇nkılap tarihi derslerinde yürütülmüştür. müzik ve resim dersleri güzel sanatlar; türkçe ve i̇ngilizce dersleri dil eğitimi; hayat bilgisi, coğrafya ve inkılap tarihi dersleri sosyal bilgiler; fizik ve kimya dersleri ise fizik-kimya kategorisinde kodlanmıştır. tablo 1. çalışmaların öğretim kademesi, çalışma türü, uygulama süresi ve ders türü değişkenlerine göre frekans ve yüzdeleri moderatör frekans (f) yüzde (%) öğretim kademesi i̇lköğretim 48 65,8 ortaöğretim 20 27,4 lisans 5 6,8 uygulama süresi 3 hafta ve daha az 14 19,2 4-6 hafta 46 63,0 7 hafta ve üzeri 21 28,8 çalışma türü doktora 8 11,0 yüksek lisans 58 79,5 makale 7 9,6 ders türü biyoloji 10 13,7 din eğitimi 3 4,1 i̇ngilizce 7 9,6 türkçe 1 1,4 fen bilgisi 23 31,5 fizik 4 5,5 kimya 2 2,7 müzik 2 2,7 resim 1 1,4 matematik 10 13,7 hayat bilgisi 2 2,7 sosyal bilgiler 5 6,8 coğrafya 2 2,7 i̇nkılap tarihi 1 1,4 verilerin analizi bu çalışmada, bağımsız çalışmalara ait etki büyüklükleri, varyansları ve grupların karşılaştırmaları için cma 2.0 [comprehensive meta analysis] istatistiksel paket programı journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 109 kullanılmıştır. çalışmada çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının yapıldığı gruplar deney grubu olarak, geleneksel öğretim faaliyetlerinin yapıldığı gruplar ise kontrol grubu olarak alınmıştır. dolayısıyla hesaplanan etki büyüklüğünün pozitif olması çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının lehine, negatif olması ise geleneksel öğretim faaliyetlerinin lehine yorumlanmaktadır. araştırmada kodlayıcı güvenirliği testi için spss 18.0’den faydalanılmıştır. dâhil edilen çalışmalarda anlamlılık düzeyi 0,05 alındığı için bu araştırmada da istatistiksel analizlerin anlamlılık düzeyi 0,05 olarak belirlenmiştir. etki büyüklüğü değerleri yorumlanırken cohen’in (1988) önerdiği etki büyüklüğü değer aralıkları referans alınmıştır buna göre; 0,20 ile 0,49 arası küçük düzeyde bir etkiyi, 0,50 ile 0,79 arası ise orta düzeyde bir etkiyi ve 0,80’den daha büyük değerler ise geniş düzeyde bir etki göstermektedir. bulgular yayın yanlılığı pozitif veya istatistiksel olarak anlamlı sonuçlara ulaşan çalışmaların, negatif veya istatistiksel olarak anlamsız sonuçlara ulaşan çalışmalara göre bilimsel dergilere kabul edilme olasılığının daha yüksek olması, literatürde pozitif sonuçlara ulaşan çalışmaların lehine bir yanlılığa sebep olmaktadır. bu durum, literatüre dayalı meta-analiz çalışmalarını doğrudan etkilemektedir (rothstein, sutton ve borenstein, 2005). belirli bir düzeyin üzerindeki yayın yanlılığı hesaplanan ortalama etki büyüklüğünü etkileyerek, hesaplanan değeri olması gerekenden daha yüksek gösterebilmektedir (borenstein, hedges, higgins ve rothstein, 2009). dolayısıyla meta-analiz hesaplamaları öncesi, eğer varsa, yayın yanlılığının tespit edilmesi oldukça önemlidir. literatürde yayın yanlılığını tespit etmek için birçok yöntem önerilmiştir. özellikle yayın yanlılığının tespit edilmesinde; huni saçılım grafiği, kırp ve doldur, rosenthal ve orwin’in güvenli n yöntemleri yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır (üstün ve eryılmaz, 2014). önerilen bu yöntemlerin her biri kullanılarak bu araştırmanın konusuyla ilgili yayın yanlılığının bulunup bulunmadığı incelenmiştir. huni saçılım grafiği ve kırp ve doldur yöntemi huni grafiğinde x ekseni etki büyüklüğü değerlerini, y ekseni ise standart hata değerlerini göstermektedir (şekil 2). grafikte küçük örnekleme sahip çalışmaların sonuçları alt tabakada geniş bir alanda saçılırken büyük örneklemli çalışmaların sonuçları üst tabakada daha küçük bir alanda saçılım göstermektedir. şekil 1’deki huni grafiklerinde çalışmaların etki büyüklükleri ana etki büyüklüğü çevresinde ve nispeten simetrik bir dağılım göstermektedir. diğer yandan kırp ve doldur yöntemi sonuçlarına göre, yayın yanlılığının eyüp yurt & seyat polat 110 giderilmesi için huni grafiğine 15 dummy çalışmanın eklenmesi gerektiği görülmektedir. bu durumda çalışmalara ait etki büyüklüğü değeri 1,117’ den 1,408’e çıkmaktadır. cohen’in (1988) etki büyüklüğü sınıflamasına göre her iki değer de geniş düzeyde bir etkiyi göstermektedir. elde edilen sonuçlara göre, yayın yanlılığının bulunması durumunda elde edilemeyen çalışmaların başarı için hesaplanan etki düzeyini değiştirmeyeceği anlaşılmaktadır. şekil 3. huni grafiği güvenli n yöntemi rosenthal tarafından önerilen yöntemle bir meta-analizde elde edilen etkiyi sıfırlamak için meta-analize eklenmesi gereken yeni çalışma sayısı hesaplanabilmektedir (rothstein, sutton ve borenstein, 2005). hesaplama sonucunda güvenli n değeri gözlenen çalışmaların sayısına kıyasla oldukça büyükse, elde edilen sonuçların yayın yanlılığına karşı dirençli olduğunun varsayılabileceği sonucu ortaya çıkmaktadır. orwin tarafından önerilen yöntemde ise genel etki değerini sıfırdan başka bir düzeye getirmek için kaç eksik çalışmaya ihtiyaç duyulacağını belirleme olanağı vermektedir (rothstein, sutton ve borenstein, 2005). bu çalışmada rosenthal’ın güvenli n değeri 4186 olarak hesaplanmıştır. orwin’in güvenli n yöntemine göre ise hesaplanan genel etki büyüklüğünün “önemsiz” olarak seçilen 0,1 değerine inmesi için sıfır etkiye sahip 765 ek çalışmaya ihtiyaç olduğu belirlenmiştir (tablo -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 s ta n d a rd e rr o r std diff in means funnel plot of standard error by std diff in means journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 111 2). her iki yöntemden elde edilen değerlerin yüksek olması elde edilen sonuçların yayın yanlılığına karşı oldukça dirençli olduğunu göstermektedir. tablo 2. rosenthal ve orwin’in güvenli n yöntemi sonuçları rosenthal güvenli n yöntemi orwin güvenli n yöntemi gözlenen çalışmalar için zdeğeri 37,37 gözlenen çalışmalara ait hedge's g 1,14 gözlenen çalışmalar için pdeğeri 0,00 "önemsiz" hedge g için ölçüt 0,1 alfa 0,05 kayıp çalışmalar için ortalama hedge g 0,00 yön 2 n değeri 848 alfa için z değeri 1,96 gözlenen çalışma sayısı 81 n değeri 9368 birleştirilmiş bulgular meta-analize dâhil edilen çalışmaların istatistiksel modellere göre; homojen dağılım değerleri, ortalama etki büyüklüğü ve güven aralıkları tablo 2’de yer almaktadır. çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına göre düzenlenen öğretim uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etki değeri sabit etkiler modeline göre 1,146; rastgele etkiler modeline göre ise 1,287 olarak hesaplanmıştır. diğer yandan homojenlik testiyle hesaplanan q değeri, başarı verilerine ait dağılımların heterojen bir yapıya sahip olduğunu göstermiştir (q=518,665, p<0,001). bu sonuç doğrultusunda rasgele etkiler modeline uygun analizler yapılarak, örneklemin heterojen olmasından kaynaklanan yanılsamaların ortadan kaldırılması amaçlanmıştır (yıldız, 2002). böylece rastgele etkiler modeli kullanılarak çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına göre gerçekleştirilen öğretim ile geleneksel öğretimin başarı üzerindeki etkililikleri karşılaştırılmıştır. hesaplamalar sonucunda, çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına göre gerçekleştirilen öğretimin başarı üzerindeki etkisini belirlemek için meta-analize dâhil edilen 81 çalışmanın ortalama etki büyüklüğü değeri 1,287 olarak hesaplanmıştır. hesaplanan bu değer, cohen’in (1988) sınıflamasına göre geniş düzeyde bir etkiyi göstermektedir. tablo 3. meta-analize dâhil edilen çalışmaların etki modelleri değerleri, homojen dağılım değeri, ortalama etki büyüklüğü ve güven aralıkları model etki büyüklüğü ve 95% güven aralığı yokluk hipotezi heterojenlik eyüp yurt & seyat polat 112 ç a lı şm a sa y ıs ı e tk i b ü y ü k lü ğ ü s ta n d a rt h a ta v a ry a n s a lt s ın ır ü st s ın ır z -d e ğ e ri p q -d e ğ e ri d f (q ) i2 sabit etkiler 81 1,146 0,032 0,00 1 1,08 3 1,20 9 35,67 8 0,00 0 518,66 5 80 84,57 6 rastgel e etkiler 81 1,287 0,083 0,00 7 1,12 5 1,45 0 15,53 1 0,00 0 diğer yandan, tablo 2’de yer alan i 2 değerlerinin %75’den büyük olması araştırmaya dâhil edilen çalışmaların başarı üzerindeki etki değerlerinin dağılımının yüksek düzeyde heterojen olduğunu göstermektedir (borenstein ve diğerleri, 2009). heterojen dağılımın nedenlerini ortaya koymak için araştırmaya dâhil edilen çalışmalarda belirtilen; öğretim kademesi, ders türü, uygulama süresi ve araştırma türü moderetör değişken olarak kullanılmıştır. moderatörler, meta-analiz çalışmalarında elde edilen sonuçlara etki ettiği düşünülen ve bu etkinin düzeyini belirlemek amacıyla meta-analiz çözümlemelerinde kullanılan bağımsız değişkenlerdir (kış ve konan, 2014). araştırmada belirlenen moderatör değişkenleri test etmek için alt grup analizleri gerçekleştirilmiştir. alt gurup analiz sonuçları çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına uygun olarak gerçekleştirilen öğretim uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etki düzeylerinin öğretim kademesine göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığını incelemek için araştırmaya dâhil edilen çalışmalar, öğretim kademeleri dikkate alınarak; ilköğretim, ortaöğretim ve lisans olmak üzere üç guruba ayrılmıştır. lisans düzeyinde yapılan çalışmaların sayısı, karşılaştırma yapabilmek için yeterli sayıda (4 adet) olmadığından bu çalışmalar analize dâhil edilmemiştir. analiz sonuçlarına göre, başarıyı artırmayı amaçlayan çalışmaların ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim kademelerine göre hesaplanan ortalama etki büyüklüğü değerleri sırasıyla 1,194 ve 1,564 olarak hesaplanmıştır. diğer yandan homojenlik testi sonucuna göre, yapılan çalışmaların öğretim kademesine göre hesaplanan etki büyüklük değerleri arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmamaktadır (qb=3,767; p=0,052). bu araştırmada ele alınan çalışmalarda gerçekleştirilen çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının farklı sürelerle uygulandığı anlaşılmıştır. yapılan uygulamaların başarı üzerindeki etkilerinin uygulama süresine göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığını belirlemek için, uygulama süreleri dikkate alınarak yapılan çalışmalar; “3 hafta ve daha az”, “4-6 hafta” ve “7 hafta ve üzeri” journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 113 olmak üzere üç guruba ayrılmıştır. analiz sonuçlarına göre, başarıyı artırmayı amaçlayan çalışmaların “3 hafta ve daha az”, “4-6 hafta” ve “7 hafta ve üzeri” sürelerine göre hesaplanan ortalama etki büyüklüğü değerleri sırasıyla 0,868; 1,274 ve 1,606 olarak hesaplanmıştır. homojenlik testi sonucuna göre, yapılan çalışmaların uygulama süresine göre hesaplanan etki büyüklük değerleri arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmaktadır (qb=8,303; p=0,016). buna göre, uygulama süresi arttıkça çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına göre gerçekleştirilen uygulamaların başarı üzerindeki etkililiği de artmaktadır. tablo 4. çoklu zekâ yaklaşıma göre düzenlenen etkinliklerin başarı üzerindeki etkilerinin moderatör değişkenlere göre i̇ncelenmesi moderatör k d se %95 ci qbetween p öğretim kademesi 77 3,767 0,052 i̇lköğretim 54 1,194 0,103 0,992; 1,395 ortaöğretim 23 1,564 0,161 1,249; 1,880 uygulama süresi 81 8,303 0,016 3 hafta ve daha az 14 0,868 0,197 0,482; 1,254 4-6 hafta 46 1,274 0,110 1,059; 1,489 7 hafta ve üzeri 21 1,606 0,164 1,284; 1,927 çalışma türü 81 0,079 0,961 doktora 11 1,339 0,223 0,903; 1,775 yüksek lisans 63 1,276 0,096 1,089; 1,463 makale 7 1,317 0,284 0,760; 1,873 uygulama yapılan ders 81 11,354 0,124 biyoloji 10 1,497 0,237 1,032; 1,962 din eğitimi 6 0,934 0,305 0,335; 1,532 dil eğitimi 9 1,516 0,250 1,026; 2,006 fen bilgisi 23 1,309 0,156 1,003; 1,614 fizik-kimya 8 0,893 0,263 0,379; 1,408 güzel sanatlar 5 1,289 0,327 0,648; 1,929 matematik 10 0,928 0,230 0,477; 1,378 sosyal bilgiler 10 1,748 0,240 1,277; 2,218 çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına uygun olarak gerçekleştirilen öğretim uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etki düzeylerinin araştırmanın türüne göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığını incelemek için araştırmaya dâhil edilen çalışmalar; makale, yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri olmak üzere üç guruba ayrılmıştır. yapılan hesaplamalar sonucunda; makale, yüksek lisans ve doktora çalışmalarında yapılan uygulamaların ortalama etki büyüklüğü değerleri sırasıyla 1,317, 1,276 eyüp yurt & seyat polat 114 ve 1,317 olarak hesaplanmıştır. diğer yandan, homojenlik testi sonucuna göre, yapılan çalışmaların araştırma türüne göre hesaplanan etki büyüklük değerleri arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmamaktadır (qb=0,079; p=0,961). çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına uygun olarak gerçekleştirilen öğretim uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etkisi biyoloji, din, türkçe, i̇ngilizce, fen bilgisi, fizik, kimya, resim, müzik, matematik ve sosyal bilgiler olmak üzere birçok farklı derslerle incelenmiştir. ders türü dikkate alınarak yapılan analiz sonucunda, 1,748 değeri ile en yüksek etki büyüklüğü değeri sosyal bilgiler, 0,893 değeri ile en düşük etki büyüklüğü değeri ise fizik-kimya dersleri için hesaplanmıştır. homojenlik testi sonucuna göre ise, yapılan çalışmaların ders türüne göre hesaplanan etki büyüklük değerleri arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmamaktadır (qb=11,354; p=0,124). tartışma, sonuç ve öneriler bu çalışmada, türkiye’de çoklu zekâ yaklaşımını temel alan deneysel araştırmaların meta-analiz yöntemiyle değerlendirilmesi amaçlanmıştır. böylece türkiye’de çoklu zekâ yaklaşımını temel alan 118 deneysel çalışmadan araştırmanın dâhil edilme kriterlerine uygun 73 tanesi analize dâhil edilmiştir. meta-analize tabi tutulan bu 73 çalışma incelendiğinde; çalışmaların yarıdan fazlasının ilköğretim kademesinde, fen alanında, 4-6 hafta süren uygulamalar ile yüksek lisans tezi olarak yapıldığı saptanmıştır. meta-analize dâhil edilen çalışmaların, yayın yanlılığı ve etki büyüklüğü değerlerin hesaplanması büyük önem taşımaktadır (üstün ve eryılmaz, 2014). bu çalışmada yayın yanlılığını tespit etmek için farklı yöntemler kullanılmıştır. huni saçılım grafiği ve kırp ve doldur yöntemi sonuçlarına göre, araştırmada ele alınan konuyla ilgili yayın yanlılığının bulunması durumunda elde edilemeyen çalışmaların hesaplanan etki düzeyini değiştirmeyeceği anlaşılmaktadır. rosenthal ve orwin’in güvenli n yöntemleri sonuçlarına göre ise çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etkisini inceleyen araştırmaların yayın yanlılığına karşı oldukça dirençli olduğu anlaşılmıştır. yapılan bu meta-analiz çalışmasında, çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının akademik başarı üzerinde olumlu bir etkisinin bulunduğu anlaşılmıştır. cohen’in (1988) sınıflamasına göre, akademik başarı için hesaplanan etki büyüklüğü değeri “geniş etki büyüklüğü” aralığında bulunmaktadır. buna göre, çoklu zekâ öğretim uygulamalarının etkililiği akademik başarı açısından yüksek düzeyde olduğu söylenebilir. çalışmada elde edilen bu sonuç journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 115 alanyazında yapılan uluslararası çalışmalarca desteklenmektedir (harms ve credé, 2010; mills, 2009). çalışmada, çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına uygun olarak gerçekleştirilen öğretim uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etki düzeylerinin öğretim kademesine göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığı incelenmiştir. öğretim kademeleri dikkate alınarak yapılan çalışmalar; ilköğretim, ortaöğretim ve lisans olmak üzere üç guruba ayrılmıştır. lisans düzeyinde yapılan çalışmaların sayısı, karşılaştırma yapabilmek için yeterli olmadığından analize dâhil edilmemiştir. öğretim kademelerine göre, ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim düzeyinde hesaplanan etki büyüklükleri pozitif değerler almış; en yüksek değer ortaöğretim, en düşük değer ise ilköğretim kademesinde gözlemlenmiştir. öğretim kademeleri açısından çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının etkililik düzeyi cohen’in (1988) sınıflamasına göre geniş düzeydedir. buna karşın homojenlik testi sonucuna göre, yapılan çalışmaların öğretim kademesine göre hesaplanan etki büyüklük değerleri arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmadığı, dolayısıyla çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının akademik başarı açısından etkisinin öğretim kademelerine göre değişmediği saptanmıştır. elde edilen bu sonuç, farklı öğretim uygulamalarının akademik başarı üzerindeki etkisini inceleyen meta-analiz çalışmalarının ulaştıkları sonuçlarla tutarlılık göstermektedir (armağan, 2011; camnalbur ve erdoğan, 2008; ginns, martin ve marsh; 2013; kablan, topan ve erkan, 2013; okursoy, 2009; şahin; 2005; williams ve greenwood, 2013). bununla birlikte yapılan farklı uygulamaların başarı üzerindeki etkisinin öğretim kademesine göre farklılaştığını belirten çalışmalar da bulunmaktadır (abrami ve arkadaşları, 2008; darabi ve arkadaşları, 2013; özdemirli, 2011). bu çalışmalarda; eleştirel düşünme yaklaşımının başarı üzerindeki etkisi (abrami ve arkadaşları, 2013), çevrimiçi tartışma stratejilerinin başarı üzerindeki etkililiği (darabi ve arkadaşları, 2013) ve işbirlikli öğrenme yönteminin matematik başarısı üzerindeki etkililiği (özdemirli, 2011) öğretim kademesine göre farklılık göstermiştir. araştırmada, çoklu zekâ yaklaşımının başarı üzerindeki etkilerinin uygulama sürelerine göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığı da incelenmiştir. uygulama süreleri dikkate alınarak yapılan çalışmalar; “3 hafta ve daha az”, “4-6 hafta” ve “7 hafta ve üzeri” olmak üzere üç guruba ayrılmıştır. uygulama sürelerine göre, “3 hafta ve daha az”, “4-6 hafta” ve “7 hafta ve üzeri” sürelerin etki büyüklükleri pozitif değerler almış; en yüksek değer “7 hafta ve üzeri” ve en düşük değer ise “3 hafta ve daha az” uygulama süresinde gözlenmiştir. diğer yandan, homojenlik testi sonucuna göre, çalışmaların uygulama süresine göre hesaplanan etki büyüklük değerleri arasında anlamlı bir farklılık saptanmıştır. buna göre, uygulama süresi eyüp yurt & seyat polat 116 arttıkça çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etkililiğinin de arttığı gözlenmiştir. literatürde farklı öğretim uygulamalarının uygulama süresine göre başarı üzerindeki etkisini inceleyen çalışmalar bulunmaktadır. buna göre, somut materyallerin matematik başarısına etkisi (ginns, martin ve marsh’ın, 2013) ve konuşma stillerine yönelik hazırlanan öğretim tasarımlarının başarı üzerindeki etkisi uygulama süresine göre farklılaştığı belirtilmiştir. diğer yandan, kavramsal değişim metinlerinin başarı üzerindeki etkisi (armağan, 2013) ve işbirlikli öğrenme yönteminin matematik başarısı üzerindeki etkililiği (özdemirli, 2011) uygulama süresine göre farklılaşmamaktadır. çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına uygun olarak gerçekleştirilen öğretim uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etki düzeyinin yapılan araştırmanın türüne göre farklılaşıp farklılaşmadığı da araştırılmıştır. bu kapsamda araştırmaya dâhil edilen çalışmalar, makale, yüksek lisans ve doktora tezleri olmak üzere üç guruba ayrılmıştır. yapılan analizler sonucunda; makale, yüksek lisans ve doktora tezlerinde yapılan uygulamaların ortalama etki büyüklükleri birbirine oldukça yakın değerler almıştır. yapılan homojenlik testi sonucunda ise araştırma türüne göre hesaplanan etki büyüklük değerleri arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmamıştır. farklı alanlarda yapılan bazı meta-analiz çalışmalarının sonuçları araştırmanın bu bulgusunu destekler niteliktedir (armağan, 2011; özdemirli, 2011; şahin, 2005). örneğin, özdemirli (2011), işbirlikli öğrenme yönteminin matematik başarısı üzerindeki etkililiği araştırma türüne göre farklılaşmamaktadır. çalışmada, ayrıca çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının ders türüne göre akademik başarı üzerindeki etkisi de incelenmiştir. buna göre; biyoloji, din kültürü, türkçe, i̇ngilizce, fen bilgisi, fizik, kimya, resim, müzik, matematik ve sosyal bilgiler olmak üzere birçok farklı derslerin etki büyüklükleri incelenmiştir. ders türü dikkate alınarak yapılan analiz sonucunda, en yüksek etki büyüklük değeri sosyal bilgiler ve en düşük etki büyüklüğü değeri ise fizikkimya derslerinde gözlenmiştir. homojenlik testi sonucuna göre ise, yapılan çalışmaların ders türüne göre hesaplanan etki büyüklük değerleri arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmamıştır. literatürde farklı alanlarda yapılan meta-analiz çalışmalarının sonuçları (ginns, martin ve marsh, 2013; kablan ve arkadaşları 2013; şahin, 2005;) araştırmanın bu bulgusunu destekler niteliktedir. örneğin, kablan ve arkadaşları (2013) materyal kullanımının başarıya etkisinin ders türüne göre farklılaşmadığını bildirmiştir. buna karşın camnalbur ve erdoğan (2008), bilgisayar destekli öğretimin başarı üzerindeki etkisinin öğrenme alanlarına göre farklılaştığını belirtmiştir. buna göre, yetenek alanında yapılan çalışmalarda akademik başarının diğer alanlara göre daha yüksek olduğu tespit edilmiştir. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 117 çalışmadan elde edilen sonuçlarla türkiye’de çoklu zekâ alanında yayımlanan deneysel araştırmaların akademik başarı üzerindeki etki büyüklükleri çeşitli değişkenler açısından ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. bu çalışmanın sonuçlarının yeni araştırmalar için yol gösterici olacağına inanılmaktadır. bu doğrultuda, konuyla ilgili yapılabilecek benzer veya ilişkili çalışmalar için şu öneriler sunulmuştur;  betimsel analiz sonuçlarına göre, türkiye’de çoklu zekâ yaklaşımını temel alan çalışmaların büyük çoğunluğunun yüksek lisans tez çalışması olduğu tespit edilmiştir. buna göre, çoklu zekâ yaklaşımını temel alan daha fazla makale ve doktora tezinin yapılmasına ihtiyaç varıdır.  betimsel analiz sonuçlarına göre, lisans kademesinde çoklu zekâ yaklaşımına göre gerçekleştirilen uygulamaların sayısı oldukça azdır. buna göre, lisans düzeyinde çoklu zekâ yaklaşımını kullanarak başarıyı artırmayı amaçlayan daha fazla deneysel çalışmanın yapılmasına ihtiyaç vardır. çünkü öğrenmede bireysel farklılıkları dikkate alan çoklu zekâ uygulamaları, ilköğretim ve ortaöğretim öğrencileri kadar lisans öğrencileri içinde gereklidir.  meta analiz sonucunda, gerçekleştirilen çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etkisi uygulama süresine bağlı olarak değiştiği belirlenmiştir. buna göre uygulama süresi arttıkça yapılan uygulamaların başarı üzerindeki etkisi de artmaktadır. özellikle “7 hafta ve üzeri” uygulama süresine sahip çalışmaların başarı üzerindeki etkisi daha yüksek bulunmuştur. uygulama süresinin artırılmasıyla, çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının başarı üzerindeki etkisinin artabileceği göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır.  son olarak, çoklu zekâ uygulamalarının; kalıcılık, tutum ve diğer duyuşsal özellikler üzerindeki etkisi de meta-analiz yöntemi ile incelenebilir. references abrami, p.c., bernard, r.m., borokhovski, e, a., wade, m., surkes a., zhang, d. & tamim, r. (2009). instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: a stage 1 meta-analysis, review of educational research, 78 (4), 1102-1134. akçin, s. (2009). the effects of usıng actıvıtıes based on multıple ıntellıgence theory on 11th grade students’ learnıng and retentıon of englısh vocabulary. unpublished mater dissertation, dokuz eylül university, i̇zmir. akman, n. (2007). ortaöğretimde insanda destek ve hareket sistemi konusunun çoklu zeka temelli işlenmesinin öğrenci başarısı üzerine etkisi. unpublished mater dissertation, gazi university, ankara. http://scholar.google.ca/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=kxy95m0aaaaj&citation_for_view=kxy95m0aaaaj:5nxa0vek-isc http://scholar.google.ca/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=kxy95m0aaaaj&citation_for_view=kxy95m0aaaaj:5nxa0vek-isc eyüp yurt & seyat polat 118 arends, r. (1997). classroom instruction and management. new york: mcgraw-hill. armağan, f.ö. (2011). kavramsal değişim metinlerinin etkililiği: meta analiz çalışması. unpublished doctorate dissertation, gazi university, ankara. armstrong, t. (2010). multiple intelligences in the classroom (3 rd edition). alexandria, va: association for supervision and curriculum development. aydın, m., kaşarcı, i̇., yurt e. (2012, october). drama yönteminin başarıya etkisi: bir meta analiz çalışması. presented at meeting of ii. ulusal eğitim programları ve öğretim kongresi, bolu, turkey. bloom, b. s. (1979). i̇nsan nitelikleri ve okulda öğrenme (trans. durmuş ali özçelik) ankara: milli eğitim basımevi. borenstein, m., hedges, l. v., higgins, j. p. t., & rothstein, h. (2009). introduction to meta-analysis. oboken, nj: wiley. bümen, n.t. (2005). öğretmenlerin yeni ilköğretim 1-5. sınıf programıyla ilgili görüşleri ve program uygulamaya hazırlayıcı bir hizmetiçi eğitim çalışması örneği, ege eğitim dergisi,6 (2), 21-57. camnalbur, m., & erdoğan, y. (2008). bilgisayar destekli öğretimin etkililiği üzerine bir meta analiz çalışması: türkiye örneği, kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri, 8, 497-505. cohen, j. (1988). statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). hillsdale, nj: lawrence earlbaum associates. cumming, g. (2012). understanding the new statistics. new york: routledge, taylor and francis group. darabi, a., liang, x., suryavanshi, r. & yurekli, h. (2013). effectiveness of online discussion strategies: a meta-analysis, american journal of distance education, 27(4), 228241. dunn, r., & dunn, k. (1978). teaching students through their individual learning styles. reston, va: reston publishing. eberle, s. g. (2011), playing with the multiple ıntelligences, american journal of play, 4 (1), 19-51. elmacı, t. (2010). çoklu zekâ kuramına dayalı öğretimin ortaöğretim 9. sınıf biyoloji dersi canlıların temel bileşenleri konusunda öğrencilerin akademik başarısına etkisi, unpublished mater dissertation, gazi university, ankara. gardner, h. (1993). frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences (2nd edition). new york, ny: basic books. ginns, p., martin, a. j., & marsh, h. w. (2013). designing instructional text in a conversational style: a meta-analysis. educational psychology review, 25(4), 445-472. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 119 gözütok, d. (2001). başkent üniversitesi koleji ayşeabla okullarında çoklu zekâ kuramı uygulaması. ankara: siyasal yayıncılık. gracıous, a. & shyla, a. j. (2012). multıple ıntellıgence and dıgıtal learnıng awareness of prospectıve teachers, turkish online journal of distance education-tojde, 11(3), 112-118. gregorc, a. f. (1985). inside styles: beyond the basics. maynard, ma: gabriel systems. gözüyeşil, e. (2012). beyin temelli öğrenmenin akademik başarıya etkisi: bir meta analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, niğde university, niğde. gürbüzoğlu, s. (2009). çoklu zekâ kuramına dayalı işlenen protein sentezi konusunun öğrencilerin başarısına,bilgilerindeki kalıcılığına ve öğrenci görüşlerine etkisi. unpublished doctorate dissertation. atatürk university, erzurum. harms, p. d., & credé, m. (2010). emotional intelligence and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis. journal of leadership & organizational studies, 17(1), 5-17. hartung, j., knapp, g., & sinha, b. k. (2008). statistical meta-analysis with applications. hoboken, nj, usa: john wiley & sons, nc. hedges, l. v., & olkin, i. (1985). statistical methods for meta-analysis. new york: academic press. hoerr, t. (2000). becoming a multiple intelligences school. washington dc: association of school curriculum development. kablan, z., topan, b., & erkan, b. (2013). sınıf içi öğretimde materyal kullanımının etkililik düzeyi: bir meta-analiz çalışması. kuram ve uygulamada eğitim bilimleri, 13(3), 1629-1644. kaşarcı, i̇. (2013). proje tabanlı öğrenme yaklaşımının öğrencilerin akademik başarı ve tutumlarına etkisi: bir meta-analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, osmangazi university, eskişehir. kaşarcı, i̇., aydın, m., yurt e., & sünbül, a. m. (2012). strateji öğretiminin başarıya etkisi: bir meta analiz çalışması. presented at meeting of ii. ulusal eğitim programları ve öğretim kongresi, bolu, turkey. kış, a., & konan, n. (2014). okul müdürlerinin öğretimsel liderlik davranışlarını gösterme düzeylerine ilişkin sınıf ve branş öğretmenlerinin görüşleri: bir meta-analiz. eğitim ve öğretim araştırmaları dergisi, 3(1), 359-374. koç, e. s. & şahin, a.e. (2014). çoklu zekâ kuramı ile desteklenmiş olan basamaklı öğretim programının öğrenci erişisine ve kalıcılığa etkisi, eğitim ve bilim, 39(174), 286-296. kolb, d. a. (1984). experiential learning: experiences as the source of learning and development. englewood cliffs, n. j: prentice hall inc. eyüp yurt & seyat polat 120 mills, l.b. (2009). a meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional ıntelligence and effective leadership, journal of curriculum and ınstruction, 3(2), 22-38. okursoy, f. g. (2009). kavram haritaları öğretim stratejisinin öğrenci başarısına etkisi: bir meta analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, marmara university, i̇stanbul. özdemirli, g. (2011). i̇şbirlikli öğrenme yönteminin öğrencinin matematik başarısı ve matematiğe ilişkin tutumuüzerindeki etkililiği: bir meta-analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, çukurova university, adana. petticrew, m., & roberts, h. (2006). systematic reviews in the social sciences. ma-usa: blackwell publishers ltd. petitti, d. b. (2000). meta-analysis, decision analysis, and cost-effectiveness analysis: methods for quantitative synthesis in medicine. newyork: oxford university press. pintrich, p. r., smith, d. a. f., garcia, t., & mckeachie, w. j. (1993). reliability and predictive validity of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (mslq). educational and psychological measurement, 53(3), 801-814. rothstein, h. r., sutton, a. j., & borenstein, m. (eds.). (2005). publication bias in metaanalysis: prevention, assessment and adjustments. hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons. senemoğlu, n. (2013). gelişim öğrenme ve öğretim kuramdan uygulamaya, ankara: yargı yayınevi. şahin, i̇. (2007). yeni ilköğretim 1. kademe türkçe programının değerlendirilmesi, i̇lköğretim online, 6(2), 284-304. şahin, m. c. (2005). i̇nternet tabanlı uzaktan eğitimin etkililiği: bir meta-analiz çalışması. unpublished mater dissertation, çukurova university, adana. üstün, u., & eryılmaz, a. (2014). etkili araştırma sentezleri yapabilmek için bir araştırma yöntemi: meta-analiz. education and science, (39)174, 1-32. weinstein, c. e., & mayer, r. e. (1986). the teaching of learning strategies. in m. c. wittrock (ed.), handbook on research in teaching (3rd ed.). (pp. 315-327) new york: macmillan. williams, l. williams, c. & parker, r. (2013). academic benefits of peer tutoring: a metaanalytic review of single-case research, school psychology review, 42(1), 39-55. yıldız, n. ç. (2002). verilerin değerlendirilmesinde meta-analizi. unpublished mater dissertation, marmara university, i̇stanbul. journal of social studies education research 2015: 6(1), 84-122 121 ek -1. meta-analize dâhil edilen çalışmalar çalışmalar etki düzeyi ve %95 güven aralığı yokluk hipotezi etki düzeyi (hedges's g) standart hata varyans alt sınır üst sınır z p akçin, 2009 2,943 0,413 0,170 2,134 3,752 7,131 0,000 akman, 2007 0,744 0,298 0,089 0,159 1,329 2,493 0,013 altınsoy, 2011 0,978 0,299 0,090 0,391 1,564 3,267 0,001 altıntaş, 2013 0,817 0,252 0,064 0,322 1,312 3,235 0,001 altun, 2006 1,763 0,304 0,093 1,167 2,360 5,795 0,000 altunkaya, 2008 1,968 0,320 0,102 1,341 2,595 6,152 0,000 altuntaş, 2007 0,577 0,253 0,064 0,081 1,073 2,279 0,023 ateş, 2007 2,200 0,391 0,153 1,433 2,967 5,623 0,000 aydoğan, 2006 0,487 0,202 0,041 0,092 0,882 2,416 0,016 azar, presley & balkaya, 2006 1,452 0,318 0,101 0,829 2,075 4,567 0,000 babacan, 2006 1,655 0,300 0,090 1,067 2,242 5,522 0,000 bak, 2004 0,787 0,260 0,067 0,278 1,296 3,032 0,002 baş, 2009 1,425 0,317 0,100 0,804 2,046 4,500 0,000 başli, 2006 4,916 0,669 0,448 3,604 6,228 7,343 0,000 bozdeveci, 2005 1,383 0,348 0,121 0,702 2,065 3,978 0,000 boztepe, 2010 0,747 0,277 0,077 0,205 1,289 2,700 0,007 cihan, 2013_1 0,153 0,302 0,091 -0,439 0,745 0,507 0,612 cihan, 2013_2 0,649 0,333 0,111 -0,003 1,302 1,951 0,051 cihan, 2013_3 0,623 0,316 0,100 0,003 1,242 1,971 0,049 çakan, 2006 0,483 0,321 0,103 -0,146 1,112 1,506 0,132 çepni, 2010 1,004 0,306 0,094 0,404 1,605 3,279 0,001 değirmenci, 2009 0,978 0,299 0,090 0,391 1,564 3,267 0,001 demirel, 2008 1,165 0,330 0,109 0,518 1,812 3,531 0,000 dilek, 2006 0,505 0,262 0,069 -0,009 1,019 1,924 0,054 dincer çengeloğlu, 2005 0,381 0,305 0,093 -0,216 0,978 1,252 0,211 doğan temur, 2001 0,705 0,298 0,089 0,122 1,288 2,369 0,018 durmuş hepyaşar, 2006 0,026 0,373 0,139 -0,706 0,758 0,070 0,944 elmacı, 2010 2,090 0,454 0,206 1,200 2,980 4,603 0,000 erdem, 2003 1,464 0,286 0,082 0,903 2,024 5,118 0,000 erkaçan, 2006 0,513 0,243 0,059 0,037 0,989 2,111 0,035 etli, 2007 0,942 0,248 0,062 0,456 1,429 3,794 0,000 gazioğlu, 2006 0,977 0,335 0,112 0,321 1,632 2,919 0,004 gözüm, 2011 1,002 0,274 0,075 0,465 1,539 3,659 0,000 güler karadeniz, 2006 1,009 0,294 0,087 0,432 1,586 3,427 0,001 güneş, 2006 0,639 0,319 0,102 0,013 1,265 2,002 0,045 gürbüzoğlu, 2009 0,887 0,262 0,069 0,372 1,401 3,378 0,001 i̇flazoğlu, 2003 0,084 0,224 0,050 -0,354 0,523 0,376 0,707 i̇naltekin, 2008 1,140 0,270 0,073 0,612 1,668 4,229 0,000 i̇şik,2006 0,626 0,279 0,078 0,079 1,172 2,244 0,025 kanat, 2008 1,056 0,276 0,076 0,516 1,596 3,832 0,000 kara, 2006 0,348 0,260 0,068 -0,162 0,858 1,337 0,181 karakoç, 2006 1,425 0,294 0,086 0,849 2,001 4,846 0,000 karatekin,2006 2,690 0,309 0,095 2,085 3,294 8,717 0,000 kılıç demirkaya, 2006 1,135 0,258 0,066 0,630 1,640 4,406 0,000 korkmaz, 2010 1,320 0,306 0,094 0,720 1,920 4,310 0,000 köksal, 2005 0,335 0,285 0,081 -0,223 0,894 1,178 0,239 kuloğlu, 2005 0,951 0,254 0,065 0,453 1,449 3,745 0,000 kurt, 2006 1,712 0,331 0,109 1,064 2,360 5,178 0,000 kurt, 2009 2,007 0,274 0,075 1,469 2,544 7,319 0,000 kurtcuoğlu, 2007 4,242 0,465 0,217 3,330 5,154 9,114 0,000 nacakcı, 2006_1 1,807 0,284 0,081 1,250 2,364 6,363 0,000 nacakcı, 2006_2 0,679 0,259 0,067 0,171 1,187 2,620 0,009 nacakcı, 2006_3 1,792 0,291 0,085 1,221 2,363 6,148 0,000 eyüp yurt & seyat polat 122 oral, 2006-1 1,056 0,269 0,072 0,529 1,584 3,927 0,000 oral, 2006-2 2,076 0,370 0,137 1,351 2,801 5,612 0,000 oral, 2006-3 0,800 0,278 0,077 0,255 1,344 2,879 0,004 öngören, 2007 0,808 0,269 0,072 0,281 1,334 3,007 0,003 öz, 2005 0,630 0,245 0,060 0,150 1,110 2,574 0,010 özyılmaz akamca, 2003 0,659 0,249 0,062 0,171 1,147 2,646 0,008 sarar, 2008 1,172 0,342 0,117 0,501 1,843 3,424 0,001 saydam, 2005 2,159 0,310 0,096 1,550 2,767 6,952 0,000 servi, 2004 1,208 0,344 0,118 0,534 1,882 3,514 0,000 sezer, 2008 1,875 0,379 0,144 1,132 2,619 4,943 0,000 susar kırmızı, 2006_1 0,512 0,216 0,046 0,089 0,934 2,374 0,018 susar kırmızı, 2006_2 0,674 0,218 0,048 0,247 1,101 3,091 0,002 şakir, 2013 1,379 0,290 0,084 0,811 1,946 4,759 0,000 şengül, 2007 1,202 0,301 0,091 0,611 1,793 3,989 0,000 tabuk, 2009 1,373 0,227 0,051 0,928 1,818 6,051 0,000 taşezen, 2005 5,103 0,583 0,340 3,960 6,247 8,747 0,000 turhan, 2006 1,586 0,372 0,138 0,857 2,315 4,265 0,000 turhan,2006 1,320 0,358 0,128 0,618 2,021 3,686 0,000 türkmen, 2005 1,845 0,155 0,024 1,542 2,148 11,918 0,000 uzunöz, 2008 2,230 0,310 0,096 1,622 2,838 7,192 0,000 yağcı, 2006 4,557 0,531 0,282 3,516 5,598 8,577 0,000 yavuz, 2010 3,268 0,408 0,167 2,467 4,068 8,002 0,000 yekrek, 2006 1,843 0,276 0,076 1,302 2,383 6,685 0,000 yıldırım, 2006a 0,449 0,239 0,057 -0,019 0,917 1,882 0,060 yıldırım, 2006b 1,305 0,326 0,106 0,666 1,943 4,005 0,000 yörük, 2007 0,750 0,293 0,086 0,176 1,324 2,563 0,010 yörük, 2007-1 1,659 0,328 0,108 1,016 2,301 5,058 0,000 yörük, 2007-2 1,809 0,336 0,113 1,151 2,467 5,387 0,000 sabit 1,146 0,032 0,001 1,083 1,209 35,678 0,000 rastgele 1,287 0,083 0,007 1,125 1,450 15,531 0,000 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 231-256 the significant of e-assessment for indonesian literacy with character education in pandemic era tutuk ningsih1, dwi margo yuwono2, m. sugeng sholehuddin3, abdul wachid bambang suharto 4 abstract learning at home not only provides written assignments that are changed in electronic form but must also reflect student learning outcomes at home. likewise, researchers use literary reading to avoid students getting bored with learning indonesian language literacy and character education. however, improving literacy skills is not just reading literature for pleasure but also increasing students' critical power and character education by using an e-assessment model in their assessment. this research used the quasi-experiments approach. the object of study is 178 students at three different high schools in sleman, indonesia, with different characteristics. data analysis uses a simple regression test to see a significant relationship between e-assessment reading literacy 'and reading fiction literacy skills towards character education. it describes the significance of using eassessment in learning fiction literacy reading indonesian for senior high school in pandemic era. the e-assessment model can be applied and effective to indonesian subjects, especially on literacy reading. the e-assessment and reading literary skill is a practical activity for character education in high school students. the activity uses information technology to provide an experience for students to use their social media positively as part of the learning process at home. besides that, they have to find and apply the moral values from the text they learned as character education. keywords: e-assessment, reading literacy, character education introduction language and literary works are two sides of the same coin. they both create a mutualistic and complementary relationship. language is the content in this relationship, while literary work is the form. the content (language) can teach through its form (literary work). literary works serve as a real-world example of how language works. to work with literary texts, a teacher must exhibit specific pedagogical and personal skills. knowledge and take a political stance a setting that prioritizes the acquisition of literacy skills as a key learning assessment (cremin et al., 2014). the 1 dr. m.pd, faculty of tarbiyah and teacher training, state islamic university (uin) prof. saifuddin zuhri purwokerto, indonesia, tutuk@uinsaizu.ac.id 2 m.hum, english department, faculty of adab and cultural science, islamic state university sunan kalijaga, yogyakarta, indonesia, dwi.yuwono@uin-suka.ac.id 3 dr. m.ag, faculty of tarbiyah and teacher training, iain pekalongan, m.sugeng.s@iainpekalongan.ac.id 4 dr, m.hum. faculty of dakwah, state islamic university (uin) prof. saifuddin zuhri purwokerto, indonesia, abdulwachidbs@gmail.com mailto:tutuk@uinsaizu.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 use of challenging literary texts in reading and writing ensures that students develop skilled reading practices and more dynamic responses to text, which has the added benefit of improving reading test scores. quality literature and good pedagogy go hand in hand for increasing the literacy skills of our students (anand & hsu, 2020; brownell & rashid, 2020; gibson & ewing, 2011), so teachers must have professional confidence to plan lessons from literary texts (isidro & teichert, 2021; jenkinson, 2012). reading is one of the most critical elements of culture in the modern world and a tool for increasing an individual's intellectual and creative potential. various academic specialists have studied the problem of reading over the past decades: there is a clear trend in the change of reading practices associated with capturing literature text on the global internet (shabalina & bikov, 2021). reading is not fair to understand the meaning of content. there are two vital comprehension aptitudes for understanding the explicit meaning of writings. education abilities for the 21st century, reading classrooms require students to consider real-world circumstances and the changing identity of the writings they ought to socialize and peruse (shaimardanova et al., 2020; jose, 2021). however, improving literacy skills is not just by reading literature for pleasure but also by increasing the students' critical power and character education with their collaboration, reflection, and presentation emphasized on their reading text using assessment (almerico, 2014; mullis & martin, 2019). in indonesia, many schools use literacy programs to improve their reading skills and integrate them with character education (ahmadi & yulianto, 2017; pantiwati et al., 2020; zurqoni et al., 2018). one of them is the senior high school in sleman. they use a literacy program to immerse character education for their students, but since pandemic covid-19 the program has a problem doing it. one of them is how to assess the improvement of students' literacy skills in online ways. a better assessment procedure will depend on some factors, including the purpose of the assessment, the quality of the assessment tool, the skills of the person using it, and the educational decisions that must make. disagreements arise when the richness of literacy is oversimplified by assessments that are not multidimensional or authentic, such as the overuse of multiple-choice questions. assessments that truly measure growth are required to track a student's literacy progress. progress-monitoring assessments give a baseline of a student's success, and periodic reassessment as the student progresses toward learning outcomes, rather than simply taking a snapshot of the student's achievement at a single moment in time. to reflect the assessment's goal of simulating ningsih et al. 233 an authentic reading experience, the reading passages, whether presented digitally or in printed formats, as well as the simulated online materials, must be typical of those read by students in their everyday experiences and reflect students' authentic reading experiences, both in and out of school (mullis & martin, 2019). as a result, a new model of e-assessment of student literacy skills is required. one alternative asses students' achievement of reading literacy is using ict (mullis & martin, 2019; putri et al., 2021). the use of information technology provides experiences for the students as part of the learning process al. home. technology development has started innovations that might play an essential part in restructuring learning technology development10; simon and garcia-belmar, 2016). according to these explanations, it is expected that students will be able to read more and be excited to understand the reading text related to human values for their character in life (mullis & martin, 2019). the description above becomes found of the researchers to raise the topic of the use of the e-assessment in learning indonesian literacy for senior high school. it is used in the learning process, and it is expected to increase student motivation in literacy programs and improve the students' critical reasoning capacity, especially in character education. objective of study this paper aims to describe the significance and effectiveness of e-assessment for indonesian literacy that was integrated with character education in senior high school, as well as define the adequacy of e-assessment, in order to respond to the question of how the respondents' preand post-experiment state of attitude scores compared with the use of an e-assessment in the high school students toward their indonesian literacy skill achievements. research questions the authors' main research question is how implementation e-assessment indonesian literacy integrated with character education for high school students. this threshold issue elaborates the following research sub-questions: 1. is there any significant influence of the e-assessment toward character education on senior high school students? 2. is there a significant influence of the reading fiction literacy skill toward character education on senior high school students? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 3. is there any interaction of the e-assessment and reading literacy skill toward character education on senior high school students? hypothesis based on the theoretical study and research questions above, the following hypotheses can be formulated: h1: there is a significant influence of e-assessment literacy (x1) toward character education (y) on senior high school students. h2: there is a significant influence of the reading fiction literacy skill (x2) toward character education (y) on senior high school students. h3: there is an interaction between the e-assessment literacy and reading literacy skill toward character education (y) on senior high school students. literature review e-assessment assessment is how to monitor or analyze the student's progress during the learning process; utilizing erroneous responses as clues to adapt the learning process is essential for the teacher's role. the term "assessment" was appropriately introduced into the concept of constructivist education and so became a different pedagogical aspect. assessment is a method of determining the extent and degree of learning within or outside of the classroom (bittman & russell, 2016). a subject module or qualification's skills, knowledge, and attitudes can be measured against a predetermined standard set by the tutor or examining body. assessment serves a variety of functions (idowu et al., 2020). it can be used to assess learners' progress, select candidates for jobs or courses, demonstrate the effectiveness of a course's content and tutors' abilities, and provide learners with a long-term goal (ukessays, 2018). the assessment also provides an opportunity to adjust teaching to ensure that all targets or criteria are met. however, some argue that assessment is an unreliable, inaccurate, and poor predictor of a student's future performance. furthermore, the electronic resources may perform a variety of tasks in pedagogical tasks. for example, a computer or the web can operate as a basis from which diverse educational aspects are accessed and assist or aid in executing certain pedagogical elements like assessment (hench, ningsih et al. 235 2015). while research has increased dramatically in recent years around the world, generating new models and assessment objects, there is still more that can be done to boost creativity in eassessment, given that, as bevitt (2015) points out, there remains a significant literacy gap. incorporating online assessment into the education system is a significant technological advancement. in today's world, testing should not be a challenging experience because technology has revolutionized. assessments can now be completed online without the need for paper and pencil. computerized tests save time, and the most valuable product is paper (hettiarachchi et al., 2015). these are why every educational institution with a computer and an internet connection accepts these online method elements associated with education and the environmental context. assessments are the most important aspect of the education system since they provide students with a clear image of where they are concerned, encouraging the learner to do better. they function as a motivator and positive. because of this, quality assessment is crucial because it pinpoints an area with total precision. qualitative evaluations must include the following characteristics: to make it easy for the candidates to understand the text, it should be straightforward whenever possible. it should be done under the syllabus and the specific learning topic. it means that there should be no defects in the content. as well as being 100 percent correct, it should also be the test should pique the students' interest, which is why it should always be objective, interesting, and engaging (hench, 2015). weschke and canipe (2010) propose an interactive assessment technique that incorporates indications such as course evaluations, self-assessment, presentations, and rubric achievement, acknowledging the importance of cooperative assessment for professional development in this way. lejk and wyvill (2010), in a similar spirit, stress the relevance of self-and peer-assessment in online learning. portfolios, which are collections of assigned projects that demonstrate individual triumphs, encourage self-evaluation, and provide a different focus on the assessment process, will begin to emerge as alternative strategies. an e-rubric is an effective means of certifying evaluation in which the student serves as the primary evaluator. simultaneously, new technology has arisen that allows for synchronous communication with students while maintaining the nonsituational elements of e-learning. videoconferencing can be used for initial (of prior knowledge), processive (monitoring of student engagement), and final (e.g., oral presentations and assessments) evaluation (serrano & cebrian, 2011). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 in this study, researchers propose an e-assessment that uses the e-rubric model and synchronous communication using g-meet for the e-assessment of indonesian literacy integrated with character education. character education can benefit from e-assessment because it is possible to determine what has been learned and assist pupils in retaining and reproducing the material. by providing students with opportunities to analyze their learning process through feedback, the deployment of an appropriate e-assessment model is essential for enhancing their overall learning experience. the e-assessment model was chosen as the starting point because it demonstrates the relationship between e-assessment and practical learning (mullis & martin, 2019; putri et al., 2021). literacy and literature over time, people's perceptions of what it means to be literate have shifted. 'being literate' used to be described as having two distinct abilities: the ability to read and the ability to write (freebody, 2007; johnson, 2020; mills & unsworth, 2016; doyle et al., 2017). however, literacy is now commonly recognized as a complex and sophisticated construct that includes multiliteracies and is multimodal and multifunctional. these characteristics interact, intertwine, and integrate as a complicated mechanism for generating meaning. literacy defines as the ability to decode and produce text in order to make sense. literacy is a science as well as a skill. it refers to the mechanics of reading and writing. it is responsible for the engineering structures and patterns that allow literature to exist (cremin et al., 2014; cronin, 2014). literacy is the cornerstone of all verbal communication. students today are expected to master literacy skills. teaching children to read and write is one of the most challenging tasks a teacher will face. an effective literacy program assists teachers in completing that difficult task effectively. there are numerous types of literacy programs available. each with its own set of components. everything from personal teaching experience to popular educational theory can impact the components used in a literacy program. phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, and writing are the six basic components of an effective literacy program (jones, 2016). the art of reading and writing, on the other hand, is referred to as literature. it is both cerebral and visceral. it feeds off of ambiguity and nuance. it necessitates that both the reader and the writer have a profound understanding of the human condition and comprehend and convey those ideas with skill and imagination. literature, both its production and interpretation, necessitates excellent literacy skills for both the writer and the reader to access and produce text. teachers can designate ningsih et al. 237 literature texts because they are immersive of humankind's life and allow students to use top-down strategies to learn the language and develop their thinking skills (cremin et al., 2014; shatunova et al., 2021; simpson, 2016). teachers can scaffold their students' literacy skills by understanding how a reader responds to a text and makes a transaction with a text in order for them to acquire language skills, particularly reading skills. according to literacy studies, the emergence of the literate ecosystem represents the expansion of the values of lifelong learning in all learning elements involved. this integration is taught inside the context of reading text, and students realize tendencies that include character and value are essential and interesting aspects of the natural world around them (almerico, 2014; gunning, 2012). however, improving literacy skills is not just by reading literature for pleasure but also by increasing the students' critical power and character education with their collaboration, reflection, and presentation emphasized on their reading text using assessment (almerico, 2014; mullis & martin, 2019). character education through literature firstly, the term character was indicated by several experts. according to lickona (1991), a character is a person's natural trait in responding to situations morally, which shows real action, namely good, honest, responsible behavior, respecting others, and other noble characters. in addition, a character is associated with temperament, which gives him a definition that emphasizes the psychosocial elements associated with education and environmental context. to conclude, a character is a way of thinking, behaving, and acting, which becomes the characteristic of a person who becomes a habit and is displayed in community life (ningsih, 2020). inculcating values to school members means that character education will only be effective if students, teachers, school principals, and non-educators are involved in character education practices. finally, character education can be interpreted as value education, moral education, and personality education, aiming to develop student's abilities to make good or bad decisions. hoge (2002) defined character education as any overt or deliberate endeavor to influence the development of appealing personal attributes or qualities. even though the writing contains some definitions and explanations of character education, the content of programs usually adapts to the standards and values of liberality, benevolence, trustworthiness, resistance, belief, judgment, devotion, decency, opportunity, correspondence, and regard for different qualities (bohlin et al., journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 2001; brooks, 2001). character education is the modern term for the growth of character values in education. it is defined as an organized and efficient method to being a great citizen in terms of self-respect, obligation, authenticity (çubukçu, 2012), as well as a unique educational module that should be developed to teach understudies about the qualities and characteristics of great characters (almerico, 2014). the educational part of character development is important. character education aims to improve pupils' ability to comprehend moral principles and use that understanding to take "good and best" acts and comprehend their genuine life goals (battistich, 2005). furthermore, character education improves the quality of educational implementation results in schools, resulting in the establishment of students' character and nobility in an overall, integrated, and balanced manner following the standard governing competencies (nurhasanah & nida, 2016). in practice, there are some obstacles to overcome while conducting character education. according to lee (2009), the approach of character education has at least four major flaws: (1) few teachers have the professional capacity in the domain of morale and character education; (2) several parents object to participating in the character education process; (3) students face many academic pressures and, as a result, they focus only on grade achievement. as a result, they concentrate solely on getting good grades. furthermore, multiple teaching techniques such as role-playing, drama, simulation, educational games, debate, discussion, project, group work, educational visitation, interview, and brainstorming may be used to improve morale and character values (chowdhury, 2016). consistent habituation may be achieved through the execution of school laws, and reinforcement could be achieved through religious and national holidays, social service, and the creation of synergy with society and parents. many ways character education methods have done. one of them is using literature reading (almerico 2014; novianti, 2017). literature integration is a viable way to educate children with almost positive character characteristics. excellent writing with character improvement subjects has the power to create, shape, and fortify miens fundamental for ingraining in understudies vital center moral values. as character education concepts are instructed inside the literature setting, understudies realize that characteristics such as regard, genuineness, boldness, and benevolence are genuine and curiously angles of the world around them (almerico, 2014). as more researchers and educational experts have emphasized the importance of character education in college, the number of studies on literature for character education in college has gradually increased. "good literature tackles the profound themes of humanity and gives us insight into human nature: growth ningsih et al. 239 and initiation, relationships and love, alienation and death," sweeney (2008:7) say literature gives a fun way to integrate academics and character development. on the other hand, the definition of "excellent literature" continues to be a matter of debate to the point where it is no longer relevant. as a result, rather than choosing books based on subjective conceptions of what constitutes good novels or literary works, books for character education that are relevant to student life are preferred in this scenario. besides that, it needs teachers to give tasks or assessments that give students the ability to find moral value or character-building from literature for their lives. that is why the researchers propose an e-assessment of indonesian literacy integrated with character education for senior high school students. method design the study employed a quasi-experimental research design to examine how the use of indonesian literacy e-assessment and reading literacy skills influenced students' character education. in this study, the causal associative approach was used to generate a systematic description of the data (stevens & de bruycker, 2020). the study employed two types of variables: independent and dependent variables. the e-assessment and other aspects of the independent variables were examined. this study was conducted at three different senior high schools from november 2020 to december 2020. in sleman, indonesia, they are the islamic state high school, the state high school, and the private senior high schools. sample the research focuses on the islamic state high school, which has 251 students in grades 10 and 11, the state high school, which has 271 students in grades 10 and 11, and the private senior high schools in sleman, which have 121 students in classes 10 and 11. the proportional random sample strategy was utilized in this study. sortition was used to sort the entire six courses, or 25% of each class, in three schools (pitard, 2019). the researchers discovered 178 students across three high schools. in sleman, special district yogyakarta, indonesia, they are 66 students from islamic state high school, 70 students from state high school, and 42 students journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 from a private high school. they have different characteristic that describe in table 1. table 1. characteristics of the sample islamic state high school state high school private high school gender men 28 (42%) 30 (42,8%) 10 (38,4%) women 38 (58%) 40 (57,2%) 32 (61.6%) grade 10 th 33 (50%) 36(54%) 21 (50%) 11 th 33 (50%) 34 (46%) 21(50%) department physics 33 (50%) 35(50%) 21 (50%) social 33 (50%) 35 (50%) 21(50%) a. n : 178 b. n1 : 66, n2 : 70, n3 : 42 instrument data collection in this study, the instrument is a questionnaire. a likert scale questionnaire was used to assess the components in this study (retief, potgieter, & lutz, 2013). the questionnaire comprises three indications for the variable e-assessment. they are cognitive, affective, and conative assessments that involve use of information and communication technology (ict). table 2 provides more information, and reading literacy skills employ indicators 5 w and h questions to determine the structure of the reading text and the student's comprehension. table 3 summarizes them. as a dependent variable, character education provides valuable indicators such as impact, value, and response from the e-novel hikayat bayan budiman. table 4 summarizes them. table 2. questionnaire e-assessment of reading literacy aspect indicator sub indicator number of items e-assessment of reading literacy cognitive 1. knowledge about the element of the story in enovel using e-rubric 2. knowledge of the technique of reading fiction in e-rubric 1,2,3,4, 5, 6.7,8,9.10 affective 1. express the feeling of the story in synchronous online meeting 2. feedback and critical thinking from the story in wag online discussion conative doing the good value of the story in social media. ningsih et al. 241 table 3. questionnaire the reading fiction literacy aspect indicator sub indicator number of items reading fiction literacy skill who 1. character of e-novel hikayat bayan budiman 2. find main and supporting character e-novel hikayat bayan budiman 3. describe the characterization enovel hikayat bayan budiman 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22. where 1. the setting of place e-novel hikayat bayan budiman 2. describe the places in the e-novel hikayat bayan budiman when 1. the setting of time story e-novel hikayat bayan budiman 2. describe when the story happens and how the author description enovel hikayat bayan budiman what 1. the theme of the story e-novel hikayat bayan budiman 2. finds the central idea of e-novel hikayat bayan budiman. why 1. describe the order of e-novel hikayat bayan budiman 2. describe cause-effect of e-novel hikayat bayan budiman how describe the message of e-novel hikayat bayan budiman table 4. questionnaire the character education aspect indicator sub indicator number of items character education useful the function of e-novel hikayat bayan budiman in character education 23, 24, 25, 26 impact the senses of human life in enovel hikayat bayan budiman value find and describe the good values of e-novel hikayat bayan budiman response the lesson learned for human life from the e-novel hikayat bayan budiman. based on the kmo and alfa cronbach, the validity of the e-assessment questionaire is 0.353. these results were then consulted with rtable at a significance level of 0.05, and a result of 0.148 was obtained, because r 12 > rtable or 0.353 > 0.148, the question item in the questionnaire was reliable. the reading literacy competence questionnaire provided a calculation result of 0.252. because r12 > rtabel or 0.252> 0.148, the question item in the questionnaire was dependable, the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 results were verified with the r table at a significance level of 0.05, and a result of 0.148 was reached. the character education questionnaire has a high level of reliability. this is determined by the calculation results generated by the reliability of 0.383. the results are then examined with rtabel at the 5% significance level. the result is 0.148 because r12 > rtabel or 0.383> 0.148, indicating that the questionnaire question items are trustworthy. data collection this study was conducted at three different senior high schools from november 2020 to december 2020 in sleman, indonesia, they are the islamic state high school, the state high school, and the private senior high schools. the data was gathered using an offline and online questionnaire. the data collection in private high school is used offline with 42 students as samples. beside that, the researcher get the data from 136 students of two senior high schools, they are used online with gform. through the questionnaire, the students were asked to answer the questions regarding the strategy and the obstacles to implementing e-assessment reading fiction literacy toward character education. data analysis a simple regression test was used to see a significant relationship between e-assessment reading literacy 'and reading literary literacy skills towards character education. the mean t-test hypothesis is a statistical test that determines whether a particular value (provided as a comparison) departs considerably from the sample's average (chaudhuri, 2019). the data utilized to run the average difference test with the t-test were quantitative. the paired t-test is a hypothesis testing procedure that uses non-independent data (paired). individuals are the most common features seen in paired cases. findings the research data consisted of independent variables, namely the e-assessment reading literacy (x1), the reading fiction literacy (x2), and the dependent variable, namely character education (y). to describe and test the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in this study, we tested the analysis prerequisites before analyzing the data as follows: ningsih et al. 243 normality test statistical tests such as kolmogorov-smirnov are used in the normality test. below are descriptions of the normality test to estimate the e-assessment of reading literacy, reading literacy skills, and character education samples that have the equivalency of setting the mean and variance of the reference distribution equal. table 5. normalized gain normality test on e-assessment reading literacy, reading literacy skill, character education variable factors score 1 e-assessment reading literacy kolmogorov-smirnov z value 1,233 probability 0,07 2 reading literacy skill kolmogorov-smirnov z value 1,451 probability 0,09 3 character education kolmogorov-smirnov z value 1,312 probability 0,08 table 5 reveals that the e-assessment reading literacy score was 1.233 with a probability of 0.07 (asymp. sig. (2-tailed)). if the probability or p>0.05 in the kolmogorov smirnov test, the data requirements are said to be normal. table 5 reveals that the e-assessment reading literacy variable data is normally distributed or passes the normality test with a p value > 0.05. for the reading literacy skill variable results, the value was obtained kolmogorov smirnov = 1.451 with probability 0.09 (asymp. sig. (2-tailed)). the data requirement is called normal if the probability or p> 0.05 on the test kolmogorov smirnov. table 5 shows that the p value> 0.05, then it is known that the reading literacy skill variable data is normally distributed or meets the normality test's requirements. the character education variable results obtained the kolmogorov smirnov value = 1.312 with the probability of 0.08 (asymp. sig. (2tailed)). data requirements are called normal if the probability or p> 0.05 in the kolmogorov smirnov test. table 5 indicates that the p value> 0.05 shows that the variable data attitudes are normally distributed or meet the normality test requirements. its mean variable e-assessment reading literacy, reading literacy skill, and character education is equivalent to setting the mean and variance of the reference distribution equal to the sample estimate. linearity test the purpose of the linearity test is to establish a link between the independent and linear dependent variables. if the estimated f value is less than the f table and the significance threshold is 0.05, the journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 relationship between the independent and dependent variables is linear. the following are the findings of the linearity test: table 6. linear test variabel x1, x2, y in table 6, the linearity test results for variables x1 and y show that the calculated f value is 0.871, and the f table value is 3.86, with a significance value of 0.632. these findings suggest that the calculated f value is 0.05), implying that the relationship between x1 and y is linear. in table 6, the linearity test results for variables x2 and y show that the calculated f value is 0.677, and the f table value is 3.86, with a significance value of 0.867. these findings show that the calculated f value is 0.05), indicating that the relationship between x2 and y is linear. the linearity test is used to determine whether the data distribution is centered on the straight line of the equation. the functional relationship between the variables x and y is linear if it is centered on the straight line of the equation. table 6 shows that the linearity test results show a straight line of the functional relationship equation between the variables, implying that these findings can be used to test the study's hypothesis. homogeneity test the f-test was used to test the variance homogeneity of the sample in the reading literacy skill (x1) variable, the character education (x2) variable, and the e-assessment reading literacy (y), provided that f count f table, the variance of the group of sample was homogeneous. the following results were obtained based on the homogeneity test results: table 7 homogeneity test levene statistic df1 df2 sig. reading literacy skill 3.990 115 270 .000 character education 2.987 115 270 .000 table 7 shows that the r-value of the group of sample in the reading literacy skill and character variable df f count f table sig information x1 y yy 385 0,871 3,86 0,632 linear x2 y y 385 0, 677 3,86 0,867 linear ningsih et al. 245 education variables is less than the levels used, namely 0.000 < 0.05 and 0.000 < 0.05. as a result, the scores on the group of sample reading literacy skill and character education variable were equally distributed or homogeneous. descriptive statistic result a simple regression test was used to determine whether or not there was a significant relationship between e-assessment reading literacy and reading literary literacy skills in relation to character education. the mean t-test hypothesis is a statistical test that determines whether a specific value (provided as a comparison) deviates significantly from the sample's mean. the data used to run the average difference test in conjunction with the t-test were quantitative. the paired t-test is a hypothesis testing procedure that employs data that is not independent (paired). individuals are the most frequently observed features in paired cases. hypothesis testing h1: there is a significant influence of the e-assessment literacy on character education of senior high school students’ the first hypothesis tested in this study was “there is a significant influence of the e-assessment literacy on character education of senior high school students” table 8 regression equations test of x1 y coefficients (a) model unstandardized standardized t sig. coofeciients coefficients b std. error beta e-assessment 31,273 234,1 11.315 .00 0,58 0.21 .385 1.113 .00 based on table 8 the regression direction coefficient is 0.58, and the regression equation is y = 31.273 + 0.58x1. the criterion used is that the value of r is greater than a certain value, then h0 is accepted. conversely, if the value of r is less than a certain value, then h0 is rejected. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 table 9 correlation of simple regression test on reading literacy skill with e-assessment reading literacy anova (b) model sum of squares df1 mean squaae f sig. regression 2210.047 1 2210.047 43571 .000 (a) .322 270 residual 987.011 .215 .000 total 3197.058 a. predictors : e-assessment b. dependent variable: character education based on table 9, because the p-value is less than the level used, 0.000 0.05, h0 is rejected. as a result, the regression equation is 31.273 + 0.58x1; the e-assessment has a positive influence with character education, with a score of 43.571. hypothesis 2 h2: there is a significant influence of the reading fiction literacy on character education of senior high school students’ the second hypothesis tested in this study was "there is a significant influence of reading fiction literacy skill on high school students character education." table 10 regression equations test of x2 y coefficients (a) model unstandardized standardized t sig. coofeciients coefficients b std. error beta reading fiction literacy skill 9,273 214,1 8.315 .00 0,52 0.21 .385 1.011 .00 the regression direction coefficient is 0.52, and the regression equation is y =9.273 + 0.52x2. the criterion is that if the value of r exceeds a certain threshold, then h0 is accepted. in the opposite case, if the value of r is less than a certain value of a, h0 is rejected. ningsih et al. 247 table 11 correlation of simple regression test on reading fiction literacy with character education anova (b) model sum of squares df1 mean square f sig. regression 2210.047 1 2210.047 43571 .000 (a) .322 270 residual 987.011 .215 .000 total 3197.058 a. predictors: reading fiction literacy skill b. dependent variable: character education because the p-value is less than the level used, 0.000 0.05, h0 is rejected. as a result of the regression equation 9273 + 0.52x2, reading fiction literacy significantly influences character education of high school students. hypothesis 3 h3: there is a significant influence of the e-assessment and reading literacy on character education of senior high school students’ the first hypothesis tested in this study was “an interaction between e-assessment and reading fiction literacy on character education in high school students. multiple regression analysis is used to test the third hypothesis, which predicts that two independent variables influence the value of one dependent variable. table 12 multiple regression tests of x1, x2 y coefficients (a) model unstandardized standardized t sig. coofeciients coefficients b std. error beta one constant 7,273 2142,1 .515 .342 e-assessment 0,441 0.131 .239 .511 .234 reading fiction literacy skill 0,532 0.321 .381 .311 .056 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 according to table 12, the multiple regression direction coefficients of the e-assessment (b1) are 0.441, and the coefficient of multiple regression of the reading fiction literacy skill (b2) is 0.532, with a constant (a) of 7,273. y = 7.273 + 0.441x1 + 0.532x2 is the regression equation. the following are the findings of the multiple regression significance analysis: table 13 correlation of simple regression test on character education with e-assessment reading literacy anova (b) model sum of squares df1 mean square f sig. regression 2344.194 2 1581.082 18.509 .000 (a) .322 370.34 residual 820.876 .370 .000 total 3165.07 a. predictors: e-assessment b. predictors: reading fiction literacy skill c. dependent variable: character education according to table 13, the value of r was less than the level of 0.05, so h0 was rejected. eassessment and reading literacy skills have a significant impact on character education high school students. the positive correlation can be explained by the regression equation y = 7,273 + 0.441x1 + 0.532x2, which yields the multiple regression value y: 18.509. if the interaction between e-assessment and reading literacy scores improves, so will the interaction between eassessment and reading fiction literacy skills on character education of high school students. thus, it can be explained that increasing the e_assessment and reading fiction literacy skill by 2344.94 will increase character education. according to statistic descriptive above, the constant value is 31.273, and the value b is 0.58. the simple regression equation for y over x1 is then: y = 31.273 + 0.58x1. according to table 11, the constant value is 9.273, and the value b is 0.52. then y = 9.273 + 0.27x2 is the simple regression equation y over x1. the table above shows that fcount> ftable, indicating a significance value of 0.000 0.05. it implies the e-assessment (x1) and reading fiction literacy skill (x2) in high school, both with character education. the proposed hypothesis in this study accepts h1, h2, h3 and rejects h0. the conclusion of hipothesis describe on figure 1: ningsih et al. 249 figure 1. significant of e-assessment and reading literacy skill toward caharacter education in high school discussion we conducted an analysis using this study regression test after identifying the appropriate indicators related to the indonesian literacy e-assessment and reading fiction literacy skill literacy significantly can improve character education of high school students. based on the findings, using e-assessment indonesian literacy skills and reading fiction literacy skills correlate with character education give moral and ethical personalities development. besides that, it will help teachers implement e-assessment in indonesian reading literacy, giving significant critical skills toward character education for high school students. based on the significant e-assessment for character education, the process of e-assessment is an educational process that uses the capabilities of digital technologies to create content, assess student ability, and improve student-teacher engagement. the indonesian literacy e-assessment has made students interested with their assessment activities, notably in employing e-rubric and synchronous online meetings for the assessment process, based on their questionnaire answers. they like the e-assessment since it allows them to use social media to discuss the literary text via video chats and present their thoughts via whatsapp. these findings were related to the indonesian high school integrated literacy movement. the literacy movement is a habit that is actively promoted by schools. to foster students' reading interests, most schools can adopt this initiative by offering 15 minutes of reading time before the first online lesson. schools customize reading journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 time with an e-book to improve their interests and give feedback for the character education based on their reading activities. the indonesian literacy e-assessment has made students interested with their assessment activities, notably in employing e-rubric and synchronous online meetings for the assessment process, based on their questionnaire answers. relate with (elodie, et al 2020; erbay çetinkaya, 2020) in this research find that students like the e-assessment since it allows them to use social media to discuss the literary text via video chats and present their thoughts via whatsapp. these findings were related to the indonesian high school integrated literacy movement. the literacy movement is a habit that is actively promoted by schools. in second hypothesis, using fiction as reading literacy give more impact for student to understand human life value. for example, of the 20 students in private senior high school, between 11-17 of them are capable to retell and analyze the tale of bayan budiman. these students are not only able to find out the intrinsic and extrinsic elements of the text, but also able to create a vlog in which they tell the story with their words. this program has become a central part of literature education at the senior high school, and the students can internalize the desirable values and character traits presented through the literary work. it is related with (almerico 2014; novianti, 2017; ismakova et al, 2020) that conclude literature integration is a viable way to educate children with almost positive character characteristics. the e-book story with character improvement subjects has the power to create, shape, and fortify mind fundamental for ingraining in understudies vital center moral values. on the other hand, this study provides an alternative for teachers to improve student character value education. however, (basal & eryilmaz, 2020; putri et al., 2021) explain that the effectiveness of online learning must be supported by a system that includes audiovisual material. however, this study adds something new by requiring an e-assessment literacy and reading fiction literacy skill when implementing online learning in covid 19. as a result, students can also seek information about actions to counteract moral degradation. even though not all online education can support learning during the covid 19 pandemic for rural high school students. the third hypothesis results show that depending on the learning pattern used, and students can adapt and become comfortable with ict learning. the e-assessment reading literacy cannot be performed alone during the learning process because students require information related to the character education to do online learning. this study contrasts with kuhfeld's et al (2020) explanation of why project-based learning is the best to take in the online learning process. ningsih et al. 251 however, an inquiry approach was not always possible during the covid-19 transition to online learning. the teacher's role is changing dramatically, and it is now necessary to provide students with learning materials and innovate and provide real-life examples for online learning to be successful. as a result, basal and eryilmaz (2020) explain that online learning effectiveness must be supported by a system that has audiovisual material. this study demonstrates the impact of eassessment literacy and reading fiction literacy skills on high school students' character education as effective system during the pandemic era. conclusions and implication based on the finding and discussion, it can conclude that e-assessment indonesian literacy and reading fiction literacy skills have effectively increased the character education in high school students in sleman. in summary, the regression analysis results show that the first hypothesis of this study has a significant influence on character education high school students' e-assessment literacy. the second hypothesis, with a correlation test of 0.52, demonstrates a significant influence of reading fiction literacy skills on character education of high school students. the third hypothesis finds an interaction between e-assessment literacy and reading fiction literacy skills in high school students concerning character education. they have a new experience using their social media and give more critical thinking for their reading literature with character education integration. as a result of research, it can be suggested for schools or teachers to use learning management services for the integrated online class and e-assessment system in the indonesian literacy program that is integrated with character education. they can develop more literature books with different genres that give more experience in reading literacy and improve students' critical thinking in a fun way. limitations and future research prospects despite meeting its objectives, this study has several limitations like the place and the number of students of e-assessment used, and the factor e-assessment only on the cognitive, affective, and cognitive aspects that could be addressed in future reviews and studies. first, the study should be replicated with specific variables included. second, the data for this study were gathered through a self-assessment survey, which limits the study's generalizability. the use of a detailed mixedmethods approach is thus encouraged in order to validate the current study's findings. future journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 research could also take one of two paths: the first step would be to create facilities for lms service development. this should include software advancements and their incorporation into elearning and assessment. a framework for involving volunteers in ethical evaluations of participants, such as friends, families, peers, and general volunteers, should also be developed. on the other hand, future work could be based on an empirical examination of the model. such studies could be conducted on the internalization of individual ethical values. references almerico, g.m. (2014). building character through literacy with children’s literature. research in higher education journal volume 26 –october, 1-13. ahmadi, a., & yulianto, b. (2017). descriptive-analytical studies of literacy movement in indonesia, 2003-2017. international journal of humanities and cultural studies, 4(3), 16-24. anand, d., & hsu, l. (2020). think outside the book: transformative justice using children’s literature in educational settings. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 122-143. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.13 basal, a., & eryılmaz, a. (2020). engagement and affection of pre-service teachers in online learning in the context of covid 19: engagement-based instruction with web 2.0 technologies vs direct transmission instruction. journal of education for teaching, 47:1, 131133, doi: 10.1080/02607476.2020.1841555 battistich, v. (2005). character education, prevention and youth development [electronic version]. retrieved october 15, 2016 from http://www.character.org/atf/cf{77b36ac35057-4795-8a8f-9b2fcb86f3eb}battistich_paper.pdf.web. bevitt, s. (2015). assessment innovation and student experience: a new assessment challenge and call for a multi-perspective approach to assessment research. assessment & evaluation in higher education, 40(1), 103–119, doi:10.1080/02602938.2014.890170 bittman, b., & russell, w. (2016). civic education in united states: a multiple regression of civic education scores from the national assessment of educational progress. research in social sciences and technology, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.01.02.1 bohlin, k.d., farmer, & ryan, k. (2001). building character in schools resource guide. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. brooks, d. (2001). reading activities for character education: a resource guide for teachers and students. peterborough, nh: cobblestone publishing. brownell, c., & rashid, a. (2020). building bridges instead of walls: engaging young children in critical literacy read alouds. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 76-94. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.13 https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1841555 http://www.character.org/atf/cf%7b77b36ac3-5057-4795-8a8f-9b2fcb86f3eb%7dbattistich_paper.pdf.web http://www.character.org/atf/cf%7b77b36ac3-5057-4795-8a8f-9b2fcb86f3eb%7dbattistich_paper.pdf.web https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.01.02.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.5 ningsih et al. 253 cremin, t. mottram, m., collins, f., powell, s. & safford, k. (2014), building communities of engaged readers: reading for pleasure, routledge, london. chowdhury, m. (2016). emphasizing morals, values, ethics, and character education in science education and science teaching. the malaysian online journal of educational science, 4(2), 1–16. cronin, m. k. (2014) the common core literature and literacy. english journal 105 issue 4, 46-52 çubukçu, z. (2012). the effect of hidden curriculum on character education process of primary school students. educational sciences: theory & practice, 12(2) [supplementary special issue], 1526–1534. doyle, k., te riele, k., stratford, e. & stewart, s. (2017). teaching literacy: review of literature. hobart: peter underwood centre. elodie, g, chen, r., & yang, z. (2020). development of theory of mind on online social networks: evidence from facebook, twitter, instagram, and snapchat. journal of business research. 10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.03.001. erbay çetinkaya, ş. (2020). bringing classroom and outside world together: mobile instant messaging via whatsapp© for extracurricular writing. the qualitative report, 25(12), 4319-4351. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2020.4326 freebody, p. (2007). literacy education in school: research perspectives from the past, for the future. victoria: acer press gibson, r. & ewing, r. (2011). transforming the curriculum through the arts, palgrave macmillan, melbourne. gunning, t. (2012). building literacy in secondary content area classrooms. boston: pearson. hench, t. (2015). e-assessment: past, present, and future. international journal of e-assessment. 4. hettiarachchi, enosha & huertas, maria & mor, enric. (2015). e-assessment system for skill and knowledge assessment in computer engineering education. international journal of engineering education. 31. 529–540. hoge, j. (2002). character education, citizenship education, and the social studies. social studies, 93(3), 103-108. idowu, s., ifedayo, t., & idowu, e. (2020). assessing the career conflict options of senior secondary school students of ado-odo ota local government, ogun state, nigeria. research in social sciences and technology, 5(3), 55-77. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.3 isidro, e., & teichert, l. (2021). towards socially just literacy teaching in virtual spaces. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 21-41. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.6 https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2020.4326 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.03.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.6 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 ismakova, a., pirali, g., begmanova, b., kozhekeyeva, b, & oisylba, a., (2020). the role of classical literature in the formation of a personality’s worldview. journal of research in applied linguistics, 11 (special issue) proceedings of the 7thinternational conference on applied linguistics issues (ali 2020), saint petersburg. jenkinson, a. (2012). 'a second golden age of canadian children's literature, booknews, summer 2012, vol. 5, no. 3, pp.4–5. johnson, m. (2020). serious with the wordplay: battle rap as a critical literacy site and model. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 24-41. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.11 jones, e. (2016). six component of an effective literacy program. https://dataworksed.com/blog/2016/02/six-components-of-an-effective-literacy-program/ retrieved 12 october 2021. jose, k. (2021). “google and me together can read anything.” online reading strategies to build independent readers in the esl classroom. journal of language and linguistic studies, 17(2), 896-914. doi: 10.52462/jlls.62 kuhfeld, m., soland, j., tarasawa, b., johnson, a., ruzek, e., & liu, j. (2020). projecting the potential impact of covid-19 school closures on academic achievement. educational researcher, 49(8), 549–565. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x20965918 lee (angela), chi-ming. (2009). the planning, implementation and evaluation of a character based school culture project in taiwan, journal of moral education, 38(2), 165-184. lejk, m., & wyvill, m. (2010). the effect of the inclusion of self-assessment with peer assessment of contributions to a group project: a quantitative study of secret and agreed assessments. assessment & evaluation in higher education, 26(6), 616–636. lickona, t. (1991). educating for character: how our schools can teach respect and responsibility. new york: bantam books. mardapi, d. (2012). pengukuran penilaian dan evaluasi pendidikan (education measurements, assessment and evaluation). yogyakarta, indonesia: nuha medika mills, k., & unsworth, (2016). the sage handbook of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment. ed. wyse, d., hayward, l., pendya, j. united kingdom: sage publication inc. ministry of national education. (2010). developing cultural education and national charactersschool guidelines. jakarta: department of research and development. mullis, i. v. s., & martin, m. o. (eds.). (2019). pirls 2021 assessment frameworks. retrieved from boston college, timss & pirls international study center website: https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2021/frameworks/ nadeem, s. (2020). coronavırus covıd-19: avaılable free lıterature provıded by varıous companıes, journals and organızatıons around the world journal of ongoıng chemıcal research, 5(1), 7-13. ningsih, t. (2020). mental revolution education strategy in realizing child-friendly schools based on character education strengthening strategi pendidikan revolusi mental dalam https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.11 https://dataworks-ed.com/blog/2016/02/six-components-of-an-effective-literacy-program/ https://dataworks-ed.com/blog/2016/02/six-components-of-an-effective-literacy-program/ https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2021/frameworks/ ningsih et al. 255 sekolah mesra keluarga berdasarkan pengukuhan pendidikan karakter.s akademika 90(1), april 2020: 113-122 novianti, n. (2017). bildungsroman for character education in higher education: an indonesian context. international journal of education, 9(2), 126-132 doi: dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v9i2.5474 nurhasanah, n. & nida, q. (2016). character building of students by guidance and counseling teachers through guidance and counseling services. jurnal ilmiah peuradeun, 4(1), 65-76. doi: 10.13140/r.g.2.1.3085.4160 pantiwati, y., permana, f. h., kusniarti, t., miharja f., m., ( 2020). the characteristics of literacy management in school literacy movement (slm) at junior high school in malang – indonesia. asian social science 16, (4) 15-24. pitard, f. f. (2019). theory of sampling and sampling practice. retrieved from http://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/245180/245180.pdf%0ahttps://hdl.handl e.net/20.500.12380/245180%0ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2011.03.003%0ahttps:// doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2017.08.001%0ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2014.12 plangsorn, b., poopan, s., (2017). development of producing and using e-books competencies of teachers in chachoengsao, thailand. world j. educ. technol. 9 (2):112–117. putri. k. y.s., fathurahman, h., safitri, d., sugiyanta, l., (2021). the use the elaboration phase in ict and social studies to educate junior high school students about the covid 19 pandemic. journal of social studies education research 12 (2), 100-125. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3043 ravitz, j. (2010). assessing the impact of online technologies on pbl use in u.s. high schools. draft of paper to appear in proceedings of the association for educational communications and technology. anaheim, ca. http://www.bie.org/research/study/online_supports_for_pbl_use retief, l., potgieter, m., & lutz, m. (2013). the usefulness of the rasch model for the refinement of likert scale questionnaires. african journal of research in mathematics, science and technology education, 17(1–2), 126–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/10288457.2013.828407 shabalina, n. bikov, a. (2021). problem of forming a literate reader in the digital age based on the material of modern children’s and youth prose journal of social studies education research 12 (3), 175-203. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3356 shaimardanova. m., akhmetova, l. & nikishina, s (2020). socialization of foreign university students through the formation of reading literacy. journal of social studies education research 11 (1), 42-63. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1133 shatunova, o., bozhkova, g., tarman, b. & shastina e. (2021). transforming the reading preferences of today’s youth in the digital age: intercultural dialog, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(3), 62-73. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 simon, j., garcia-belmar, a., (2016). education and textbooks. technol. cult. 57 (4):940–950. simpson, a. (2016). choosing to teach with quality literature: from reading (through talk) to writing. scan volume 35, issue 4 26-38 http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v9i2.5474 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3043 http://www.bie.org/research/study/online_supports_for_pbl_use https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3356 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1133 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/347 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 231-256 schleicher, a., & echazarra, a. (2016). country note program for international student assessment (pisa) result from pisa 2015. retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa2015-indonesia.pdf serrano, j., & cebrian, m. (2011). study of the impact on student learning using the e-rubric tool and peer assessment. in a. mendez-vilas (ed.), various: education in a technological world: communicating current and emerging research and technological efforts (pp. 421–427). badajoz, spain: formatex research center. sweeney, l. (2008). the case for character education. shawnee mission, ks: marsh media syarif. (2020). building plurality and unity for various religions in the digital era: establishing islamic values for indonesian students. journal of social studies education research 11 (2), 111-119. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2295 ukessays. (november 2018). principle and practice of assessment theory. retrieved from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/principle-and-practice-of-assessment-theoryeducation-essay.php?vref=1 weschke, b., & canipe, s. (2010). the faculty evaluation process: the first step in fostering professional development in an online university. journal of college teaching & learning, 7(1), 45–58. wurdinger, s., haar, j., hugg, r., & bezon, j. (2007). a qualitative study using project-based learning in a mainstream middle school. improving schools, 10(2), 150-161. young-jones, a. d., burt, t. d., dixon, s., & hawthorne, m. j. (2013). academic advising: does it really impact student success? quality assurance in education, 21(1), 7-19. https://doi.org/10.1108/09684881311293034 zurqoni, retnawati, h., arlinwibowo, j., apino, e., (2018). strategy and implementation of character education in senior high schools and vocational high schools. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 370-397. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/294 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2295 https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/principle-and-practice-of-assessment-theory-education-essay.php?vref=1 https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/principle-and-practice-of-assessment-theory-education-essay.php?vref=1 https://doi.org/10.1108/09684881311293034 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/294 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 241-258 241 state-based curriculum making in a post colonial zimbabwe: making sense of family, religious and moral education in a global context bekithemba dube1 & cias tsotetsi 2 abstract the teaching and learning of religion in most post-colonial states take place on an ambivalent and contested terrain, which has resulted in the amputation of religion from some schools and contexts. the new curriculum in zimbabwe, as a state-making project that is arguably devoid of, or has covert policy networks, has resulted in religious curriculum resistance. in this paper, we juxtapose two questions: what are the challenges of the new religious curriculum, and how can the international practice of teaching religion be infused in the curriculum to address the contested terrain and to improve the policy network among religious players? the paper is couched in decoloniality theory, of which one of the agendas is to shift the geography of knowledge. policy networks in religious circles can exorcise coloniality, which centred religion on a contested terrain within the mainstream curriculum practice. the paper argues that the teaching and learning of religion cannot be left to the state to control; instead, there should endeavours for the policy network among religious players to be contextualised in relations that have respect for difference. there is a need to reconfigure religions, so that they face the lived realities of communities. key words: state making curriculum, decoloniality, accomodation resistance, best practices, religious education “[s]ince we are all heirs of the story of conflict. then we have to leave aside tired generalisations and seek to know one another, through this we can become the architects of a truly new order of cooperation” (funk & said, 2014, p. 25-26). introduction the post 9/11 era ushered in new thinking about the teaching of religion in public schools; this thinking emphasises religious pluralism (moulin, 2012:158). this event lead to religion entering a contested terrain in most post-colonial states in africa, with some states raising questions about religious pluralism in the curriculum. zimbabwe, in an attempt to move from a christocentred curriculum, in 2015 introduced a new subject, called family, religious and moral education 1 dr. bekithemba dube, university of the free state, qwaqwa campus email dubeb@ufs.ac.za 2 dr. cias tsotetsi, university of the free state, qwaqwa campus email tsotetsict@ufs.ac.za journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 241-258 (fareme). as a state project, the assumptions motivating the introduction of this subject were that religious players would buy into the curriculum, as it represented a move from a christocentred, to a multi-religion orientation. contextual complexities, such as the existence of various religions, forced states to confront and accommodate (moyo & modiba, 2013, p. 371) religious diversity. however, even though the idea is noble, the new curriculum introduced new trajectories, making religion cause for concern. in searching for an answer to the question of the role of religion in the curriculum, we acknowledge that external pressures and internal demands – of competition between global needs and local identities for religious hegemony – complicate policy formulation (moyo & modiba, 2013). we agree with sumner (2008), that religious education has always been subject to external pressures that seek to subordinate its practice. the paper reconstructs the contestation of religion in schools, with the aim of determining how religions can coexist in the school curriculum. in doing so we contribute, as suggested by motalvo and querol (2000, p. 4), to the mitigation of “ethnic conflict [which] strains the bonds that sustain social fabric and are cited as the root of violence evident in looting, deaths, and other social pathologies”. the following sections give details on the new subject, fareme. the new curriculum in zimbabwe: family, religious and moral education in 2017 zimbabwe rolled out a new curriculum, which made changes to the study of religion, and infuses islam, hinduism, african and other religions. the new curriculum of religion improves the way the subject, called religious studies, used to be presented, which was christocentric. policy makers and curriculum planners attempted to limit the exclusionary approach of religious studies, and there was hope that the new curriculum would be neutral, non-hierarchical, and acceptable to religious organisations. thus the philosophic underpinning of the fareme is development of moral responsibility and behaviour, capacity for discipline, a sense of sound ethical norms, values and goals derived from multi religious perspective (ministry of primary and secondary education, 2015) however, brilliant as the idea may have appeared, the change elicited mixed reactions. some religious players consider it to be a curriculum that reproduces “hierarchies, exclusions and inequalities” (davies, 2011, p. 6) and is insensitive to the christian faith, which has a huge following in zimbabwe. the then minister of education dokora was accused of introducing an anti-christian curriculum, aiding the muslim religion, and banning christian activities in the schools such as scripture union (katongomara, 2016), thus the new curriculum came against the dube & tsotetsi background of suspicion and a feeling of betrayal by the minister of education, which led people to demonstrate and consequently his removal as a minister. by feeling betrayed by the new curriculum, the christian church exhibits what we can refer to as accommodation resistance, which is a failure to accept someone with a different religious view. the introduction of fareme has seen many mission schools, such as those of the london mission society, withdrawing the curriculum from mainstream learning, because the curriculum is perceived as being anti-christ. the perceived anti-christ curriculum meant the need to configure new teaching methods, and eliminate confessional teaching styles and preacher like teachers. it further meant an appreciation of other religions as legitimate and deserve to be transmitted through the mainstream curriculum practices. this approach (multi-religious) lead to the withdrawal of fareme in some schools. the withdrawal indicates the unpreparedness of some christian churches to share the curriculum space with other religions in their own resources, including schools. it is this withdrawal, or accommodation resistance, that propels this paper to find alternatives that do not deprive learners of the right to learn about the religions of the other. to respond to this and other challenges, we refer to certain international practices that have reduced resistance to the teaching and learning of religion in schools. the following section discusses the theoretical framing of the paper, which is decoloniality. theoretical framing: decoloniality the paper is couched in decoloniality theory, which “offers a rich theoretical toolbox for exploring contemporary junctions of gender, religion, race and the question of representation” (giraldo, 2016). huerfano, caballero and rojas (2016, p. 78) state that decoloniality “challenges and reformulates the communicational scientific discourse by criticising the mediating power of anglo-american hegemonic thinking, to obtain a native cultural paradigm”. the centre of decoloniality is the idea of “remaking the world such that enslaved, colonised and exploited peoples can regain their ontological density, voice, land, history, knowledge and power” (ndlovugatsheni, 2015, p. 23). it is a theory that re-emerges within a context of crisis of imagination, to offer liberation, freedom, development and a better future for all. the crisis is mainly “manifesting itself at the ideological, theoretical and epistemological levels” (ndlovu-gatsheni, 2015, p. 21). through decoloniality, people engage in a search for better ways of theorising and explaining the meaning of religious liberation and freedom, as well as taking the struggles forward in journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 241-258 contemporary surmising (ndlovu-gatsheni, 2015, p. 23). furthermore, it is a “philosophy of liberation that entails the rehumanisation of the dehumanised and the courage to care and to love, to set afoot a new planetary human citizenship” (mpofu, 2017, p. 3). the struggle facing decolonial scholars is eliminating coloniality. coloniality is the residue of colonisation, which manifests through structures that seek to exclude, marginalise and dominate people of difference. it is evident in the organisation of power, of identity or humanity and humanism, and in the structures of knowledge; hence, the idea of coloniality of power, identity and knowledge (zondi, 2015, p. 20). coloniality, “emerges from the contact points or the colonial encounter that articulates the modes of operation and appropriation of restructuring the world to give the same effect as colonialism did, and make way for modernity to be strengthened” (sithole, 2014, p. 95). decoloniality, then, engages in a struggle to unmask coloniality wherever it is hidden, also in the teaching of religion. the major aims of decoloniality are to render coloniality visible by exposing both its rhetoric and reality (sithole, 2014, p. 36). the struggle against coloniality is premised because, as suggested by walsh (2002, p. 79), coloniality strives, “[t]hrough manipulation, cooptation, division, and control. in addition, coloniality is a key constraint and a site of struggle, because it hinders political progress towards authentic african humanity, social transformation and economic development (kaunda, 2015, p. 76-77). in short, this theory is pertinent to this paper, because it enables religious scholars to re-emerge within a context of crisis (problems relating to religion education) of imagination, of liberation, freedom, development and the future (ndlovugatsheni, 2015, p. 4), by creating policy networks that will champion inclusivity that will benefit all. trajectories of family, religious and moral education this section addresses various trajectories that have characterised the teaching and learning of fareme in the new curriculum. accommodation resistance zimbabwe has emerged from colonialism as a predominantly christian society. since 1980, christians have enjoyed the lion’s share of the curriculum for the study of religion. the new dube & tsotetsi curriculum brought changes caused by incorporating religions such as islam, hinduism, african and other religions into the curriculum. the idea of religious education presents few difficulties when a society is unambiguous about its religion, or where the majority of the population claims formal allegiance to a particular religion (singh, 1986, p. 231). consequently, in zimbabwe, the christian population seems to have a say in what is taught and excluded from the curriculum for religion. the exclusion of some religions from the curriculum of fareme is explained by amoah and bennett (2008, p. 8): “since colonial times, there have been perceptions that african religions are reduced to animism and ancestor worship”, an attitude, which, as argued by ndlovu-gatsheni (2003, p. 182), has led to “contestation and compliance, fascination and repulsion”. after christianity had enjoyed the lion’s share of the old curriculum, the inclusion of other religions in the subject led to what we term accommodation resistance: christians fail to accept that other religions have right to be part of curriculum space. accommodation resistance often results in withdrawal from curriculum practices in protest of inclusion of other religions, which are perceived to pose a threat. the removal of religion from london mission society schools, such as inyathi mission, tennyson hlabangani high and dombodema high school, represent signs of accommodation resistance. however, it should be noted that this is not peculiar to zimbabwe, many countries especially in the islamic countries, where arguable tolerance of other religions (bustamam-ahmad & jory, 2011). to this end, there is need to create an environment of religious co-existence without a treat of withdrawal or causing violence against the religious other. in the view of decoloniality scholars, such withdrawal recreates coloniality, which draws a line between the privileged and the dispossessed (sithole, 2014, p. 64). this problem, of exclusion of the other and resistance to cooperation, is “historically connected to colonisation, to subordinate and negate ‘other’ frames, ‘other’ knowledge, ‘other’ subjects and thinkers” (walsh 2007, p. 224). once other religions fight for space, tension and withdrawal become the order of the day. in essence, the christian religion wants to occupy the curriculum space undisturbed, despite the fact that some learners subscribe to other religions. as lander (2002) points out, accommodation resistance amounts to “knowledges of abyssal epistemology of others being reduced to myths and superstition”. decolonial thinking, which does not call for monolithic thinking or demand encapsulation in particularity – to the contrary – calls for universal thinking (kaunda, 2015, p. 77). thus, we agree with sithole (2014), that decoloniality journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 241-258 takes the stance of dismantling social injustices, and pushes for radical transformation and the construction of a new society. in short, we problematise resistance to and association with other religions, because decoloniality, as suggested by grosfoguel (2007, p. 21), is “opposed any form of fundamentalist epistemic project but argues for pluriversality of epistemologies”. lack of qualified teachers one of the trajectories that continues to haunt postcolonial states is their reluctance to invest in the education of teachers of religion. commenting on this challenge, matemba (2011, p. 85) argues that the “law says religion must be taught but the very same law does not give any provision for the training of teacher specialists in the subject”. in the case of zimbabwe, there is only one institution training secondary-level teachers that offers religion as a major subject, mutare teachers’ college the other colleges that trains secondary-level teachers, such as hillside teachers college and belvedere teachers college, have extricated the religious curriculum, for reasons that are not clear. thus, few teachers can obtain the necessary training, even though the majority of school learners are supposed to do the subject. consequently, as a means to bridge the gap, some schools have sourced the services of committed believers whom they entrust with the teaching and learning of religion. in such a milieu, it is very difficult, or even impossible, for teachers to avoid emphasising their own religion, (mis)presenting other religions, and creating stereotypes (cush, 2007: 220). furthermore, teachers who perform poorly in teaching other subjects have been relieved of their duties, and reassigned to focus on religion, which is considered less rigorous and demanding than other subjects in the secondary school curriculum. this strategy has reduced the value of the study of religion, and has created the impression that it is a field that is not taken seriously. commenting on the lack of teacher education, schwartz (2006, p. 450) states that, “curriculum writers, with all good intentions, have compiled volumes of well-conceived educational action plans, choosing specific materials and activities for their pre-conceived target, curriculum receivers, students, only to find that the curriculum users, teachers, are not prepared for the innovations”. the lack of training of teachers of religion indicates what the zimbabwean government values as valid knowledge for transmission, and supports bernstein’s (1970, p. 47) observation that, “how a dube & tsotetsi society selects, clarifies, distributes, transmits and evaluates the educational knowledge it considers to be public, reflects both the distribution of power and the principle of social control”. this approach by the government clearly shows the multitude of forces involved in subjection and exclusion in so far as knowledge is concerned (sithole, 2014, p. 69). the argument here is that religious knowledge has been rendered unimportant by the state; thus, there is no need to invest in the education of teachers who are to teach religion. this conclusion brings about not only questions about the legitimacy of knowledge and knowledge production; it also shows that subalternised subjects are regarded as incapable of conceptualising their own realities (grosfoguel, 2007, p. 13). countries, such as the united states of america, who ignored or undermined the need for religious knowledge, have come to regret it, because the consequences of failing to invest in religion are far reaching – more serious than the consequences of investing in religion. after experiencing the detrimental effects of ignoring religion, in the years following 9/11 there was an unprecedented interest in and commitment to religious education in the school curriculum of the united states (moulin, 2012, p. 158). it will be unfortunate if zimbabwe, and other countries facing a similar conundrum, wait to invest in religion until traumas caused by religion, including loss of life or other misfortune, become visible. we argue this way, because we are cognisant that religion as social institution can produce both good and evil; thus, channelling energy to teacher education will result in competent teachers who can help learners refine their religious commitment in light of human rights, respect for the constitution, and love for a religion. the continued use of unqualified teachers for religion compromises the quality of the subject, and means teachers concentrate on what they are interested in, thereby, creating religious hegemony manifested in coloniality. in short, by using a decoloniality lens, we question the control of knowledge in teacher education, and challenge the very foundation of the rules of the game, which is the training of educators (sithole, 2014). failure to accept diversity the challenge that still exists among religious players is a failure to accept the religious other, whether intra-religion or inter-religion, making it difficult for religious players to map the best curriculum. febbe (2014, p. 437), buttressing the foregoing argument, believes that the “situation is worsened by religious leaders who teach that compromise between religions is forbidden”, thus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 241-258 making issues of religious and pluralism sensitive focal points in contemporary debates. often, religious rhetoric attempts to, “caricature and trivialise the religious beliefs and practices of our fellow citizens, especially if they happen to be from a religious, racial, or ethnic community that is different from their own” (garelle, 2002, p. 52). considering the curriculum space in a multi-religion society, such a view may be “misleading thinking [which is] more dangerous in the world of ordinary life because it may result in fundamentalism and religious conflicts” (gwaravanda, masitera, &muzambi, 2013, p. 243). thus, we argue for decoloniality, because it is against a fundamentalist mentality, which can create a rewesternised mentality of dominance (mignolo, 2011). some religious personnel have rejected the new curriculum, which includes references to all religions, as anti-god. their attitude implies that many post-colonial states, including zimbabwe, continue to struggle to accept people of different religions and this lack of acceptance can be extended to race, tribe, nationality and other characteristics. in relation to religion, this trajectory emanates from the “claim [that some religions] possess knowledge of the absolute truth concerning matters of morality and perceive dissenting perspectives as threats to eternal salvation” (powell & clarke, 2012, p. 15). while this attitude may be valid for religious discourses conducted within churches, shrines, or mosques, it may not be true within a classroom space, where the goal is not conversion, but religious literacy, which has the intention to provide learners with knowledge of the religions of others. this knowledge could contribute to peaceful resolution of differences, and coexistence, and could reduce prejudice. a curriculum that reflects various religions represents a major step towards learning about the religious other, where all religious players, through the lens of decoloniality, can have a fair share of curriculum packages, in addition to promoting unity in diversity. however, not everyone holds this view. we are of the view that, for zimbabwe to succeed in promoting unity in diversity, teacher education is crucial for producing impartial teachers who have an adequate understanding of their role in the curriculum space. having cited the challenges facing fareme in the curriculum space in zimbabwe, we turn our attention to the international arena, to determine how the problem of religion in a multi-religion society is addressed by the curriculum. this will enable us to argue that some international dube & tsotetsi practices can be incorporated to the zimbabwe religious curriculum conundrum to address the above-mentioned trajectories. situating family, religious and moral education in a global space: britain and malawi in this section, we focus on two international practices that have shaped the teaching of religion. the main aim of this section is to provide information about the best practices of teaching religion, so as to avoid the withdrawal of other religious players in protest of the curriculum. the first case relates to the united kingdom, and the other to malawi. the case of the united kingdom britain is one of the nations that has experienced an influx of people with a variety of religious orientations, making it a cosmopolitan society. to cater for multiracial and religious orientation, the study of religion had to change, in light of the multi-religious and multicultural needs of society. to regulate the teaching and learning of religion, a body was formed at the local level, “composed of professional bodies, for example, representing teachers or advisers; faith communities varying from the anglicans to the zoroastrians; new religious movements such as the pagan federation and non-religious organisations such as the british humanist association; and several interfaith networks and centres” (chatter, fuller & routledge, 2014, p. 257). “[the] breadth of the re[religious education] council’s membership (over 60 national bodies of various religions and faiths), representing professional religious educators and national organisations of religion and belief, gives rs [give explanation for rs] wide currency. the extensive consultation about draft versions of this framework means the document provides a widely supported platform for re which can encourage a coherent range of re syllabus” (religious education council of england and wales, 2013, p. 9). the networking of religious players forms a hybridity of religious ideas, through consensus, with the intention of improving learning and teaching of religion in schools. as a strategy to eliminate religious contestation, britain decentralised the religious curriculum. every city has a locally agreed-upon syllabus, to which religious leaders give their input on what journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 241-258 should be taught in their area. as a result, the syllabus differs from one city to another, depending on what has been agreed upon locally. jackson (2013, p. 5) states that, “syllabuses for re in community schools in england are drafted at a local level by an agreed syllabus conference (asc) which includes four committees: representatives of teachers; the church of england; other denominations and religions; and local authority representatives. in such cases, re dilutes the power of one religion through the involvement of various religious groups throughout the curriculum process”. the case of malawi malawi is one of the countries that emerged as a british colonial victim. just like other british colonies, malawi’s religious curriculum remained christocentric until 2001. this christocentric curriculum was contested by the religious other, and as compromise for a difficult situation, the government resolved to offer both multi‐faith religious education and historical bible knowledge on the school curriculum (matemba, 2011). the dual-mode religious education curriculum policy change was introduced in malawi in 2001 to replace a multi-faith religious education curriculum (o’dala, 2001; salanjira, 2003). given the nature of the dual curriculum, religious instruction is mandatory in public primary schools and is available as an elective in public secondary schools (international religious freedom report, 2015). to implement this, it means that some schools, the religious curriculum is a christian-oriented ‘bible knowledge’ course, while in others, it is an interfaith ‘moral and religious education’ course drawing from the christian, islamic, hindu, and bahai faiths. in addition to introducing a dual curriculum to mitigate the pressure of the christocentric curriculum, the malawian government went further, to establish an interfaith public affairs committee, composed of leaders of the principal religious groups, to mediate a discussion between representatives of different faiths (international religious freedom report, 2015, p. 4). this committee, comprised of various religious representatives, addresses religion-related challenges as they arise, and enhances the policy network among various players to ensure effective policy planning and execution devoid of coloniality. this approach helps to limit state control of religious matters. in short, malawi’s solution offers two aspects that could aid the ambivalence of the dube & tsotetsi situation in zimbabwe, which are, the need for a dual curriculum, and formulation of a committee that represents the interests of various religious players. what can be done with fareme? learning from best practices to respond to this question, we focus on three aspects that can mitigate ambivalence about religion in the zimbabwean curriculum space. the first solution is a multi-religion syllabus. multi religion syllabus a multi-religion syllabus means that the curriculum at the level of the secondary school should not have only one religious subject, but several, and that learners should be at liberty to choose which religion to study – as in the cases of britain and malawi, where the problems caused by multiple religions was addressed by offering various curricula. the role of the state is to develop insight into ways the clusters of actors, each with different interests and stakes, can contribute to shaping policy (moyo & modiba, 2013, p. 382) that ensures everyone’s religious needs are met. if the christian community, or other religions, need a religious curriculum that is exclusively applicable to them, then, in the spirit of responding to their social and religious needs, a curriculum must cater for their needs. this could mean different subjects, such as christian religion, islam religion and hindu religion. while several syllabuses can go a long way to redress religious conflict in the curriculum, we are of the view that such an approach can have detrimental effects in the long run. learners could be deprived of religious knowledge of the other, which is essential for coexistence and acceptance of difference. decoloniality claims this separation will create religious hegemony and coloniality, and that teachers and school administrators will influence the syllabus according to their religious convictions. we submit that it is essential that learners acquire knowledge of the religious other. feinberg (2014, p. 403-404) concurs, saying that, “religion can be seen as a part of the human experience and as a way for students to understand their own traditions and those of others with intention of cultivating coexistence”. under this pretext, we agree with yusuf (2013, p. 229), journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 241-258 “seeds of peaceful co-existence and religious tolerance should be planted early in the hearts of children at the basic level of education in order to raise a new generation of peace loving citizens of this great country”. informed by decoloniality theory, learning about various religions “is a good weapon of promoting national unity, development and socio-cultural integration” (awojobi, 2015, p. 10). in short, ambivalence in relation to religion in the curriculum space can be addressed through a multireligion syllabus in the secondary school. we express reservations about this solution, especially because it can impede learners and deprive them of understanding the religious other, which is needed for coexistence. decoloniality confirms our suggestion, because, as suggested by mignolo (2011), it presents itself as an option and opens up a way of thinking that delinks from the chronologies of new epistemologies and religious paradigms. training of teachers of religion any success regarding curriculum implementation is dependent on the preparedness of teachers to execute the packages. over the years, zimbabwe has reduced its investment in the training of teachers of religion, leaving the subject in the hands of personnel who, though committed, are not always qualified to be teachers of religion. given the sensitive nature of religion in contemporary society, it is inevitable that the government would decide not to invest in teacher education. the necessity of religious teacher education is echoed by schwartz (2006, p. 449), who states that, “teachers are the filters through which the mandated curriculum passes. their understanding of it, and their enthusiasm, or boredom, with various aspects of it, colours its nature”. professional training and professional development of teachers is key to achieving satisfaction relating to the quality of teaching and competency of students (boudersa, 2016). in short, we agree that effective teachers require appropriate support and training (burns &shadoian-gersing, 2010), which will make the teaching and learning of religion in zimbabwean schools and elsewhere more effective. dube & tsotetsi religious boards to oversee the curriculum religious boards, such as those of britain and malawi, will serve as points of consensus, where various actors can agree to disagree and can help communities to make their voices heard (nicolai, 2009). polinska (2011, p. 398) suggests that dialogue is guided by, “open-mindedness, curiosity, and cognitive complexity which are valuable experiences that promote non-judgmental attitudes towards practitioners of other religions which make transformative learning possible”. the religious board, according to kasomo (2010, p. 24), “eliminates any suspicions and misunderstanding” and “unreasonable prejudices” (gwaravandaet al., 2014: 243). to achieve this, kooiman (1993, p. 1) believes that government’s role should shift, “towards a sharing of tasks and responsibilities; towards doing things together instead of doing them alone”. consequently, through a decoloniality lens, religious body players move beyond the love of wisdom and their religion, to promoting approaches that encourage love under impossible conditions (mpofu, 2017) and, in this sense, we find a way of thinking, doing and imagining a better future [together](ndlovu-gatsheni, 2015, p. 46). as walsh (2008, p. 61) argues, the use of boards to govern religious matters on behalf of the state creates “epistemologically spaces that offer a possibility where other religions are acknowledged”. conclusion this paper discusses the trajectories of religion in the mainstream curriculum. we point out that zimbabwe’s new curriculum, while attempting to replace a christocentric religious studies subject, created new challenges, which has led to some schools deciding to cease offering the subject. the paper also explores the way international practices in the teaching and learning of religion can assist to circumvent the challenge of religion in a post-colonial state, such as zimbabwe. we argue that, to promote effective teaching of multiple religions, it is essential to train teachers of religion. we state that policy networking by players in the field of religion is crucial for creating an atmosphere that promotes peace and accepts people of different religions. in conclusion, religious issues cannot be left to the state to solve; instead, a network of players in religion is critical for proposing a curriculum that will benefit all religions, learners, and society at large journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 241-258 references amoah, j., & bennett t. (2008). the freedoms of religions and culture under the south african constitution. do traditional african religions enjoy equal traditional african religions enjoy treatment? journal of law and religion, 2(1), 1-20. awojobi, p.o. (2015). conflict between christians and muslims with reference to northern nigeria. the american journal of biblical theology, 16(10), 1-8. bernstein, b. (1970). coding and framing in education. london, england: routledge boudersa, n. (2016). the importance of teachers' training programs and professional development in the algerian educational context: toward informed and effective teaching practices. expériences pédagogiques, 01. retrieved februrary, 2, 2018, from www.researchgate.net/publication/309430087_ burns, t., & shadoian-gersing, v. (2010). educating teachers for diversity: meeting the challenge. paris: oecd publishing. bustamam, k., & jory, p. (2011). islamic studies and islamic education in contemporary south eastern asia. kaula lampur: yayasan iimuwan. chatterton, p., fuller, d., & routledge, p. (2007). relating action to activism. theoretical and methodological reflections. international journal of social sciences,5(1), 19-29. cush, d. (2007). should religious studies be part of the compulsory state curriculum? british journal of religious education, 29(3), 217-227. davies, j.s. (2011). challenging governance theory: from network to hegemony. bristol: the policy press. febbe, k. (2013). historical legacies, modern conflicts: state consolidation and religious pluralism in greece and turkey. southern european and black sea studies, 13(3), 435453. feinberg, w. (2014). an assessment of arguments for teaching religion in the united to respond to the united nations decade of education for sustainable development. interchange, 39(1), 77–94. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/309430087_ dube & tsotetsi funk, n.c.,& said, a.a. (2004). islam and the west. narratives of conflict and conflict transformation. international journal of peace studies, 9(1), 1-28. garellle, b. (2002). learning to live with difference. teaching about religion in public schools in the united states. new york, united states of america: harper. giraldo, i. (2016). coloniality at work. decolonial critique and the post-feminist regime. feminist theory, 17(2), 157-173. katongomara, a. (2016). dokora reveals religious learning. retrieved february, 10, 2018 from www.chronicle.co.zw-dokora-reveals-religiouslearning/ moyo, n.,& maropeng, m. (2013). government and educational reform: policy networks in policy-making in zimbabwe, 1980-2008. journal of education policy, 28(3), 371-385. grosfoguel, r. (2007). the epistemic decolonial turn: beyond political-economy paradigms. cultural studies, 21(2-3), 211-223. gwaravanda, e.t., masitera, e.,&muzambi, p. (2013). religious studies and globalisation: a critique of zimbabwe’s current ordinary level syllabus. alternation (special edition), 10(2013), 218-248. huerfano, h.e., caballero, f.s. & rojas, c.d. (2016). towards an epistemology of the south. decoloniality of informative knowledge-power and the latin-american communicology. chasqui: revista latioamerican. international religious freedom report. (2015). malawi 2015 international religious freedom report. retrieved february, 12, 2018 from https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/256255.pdf [accessed 12/02/ 2018]. jackson, r. (2013). rethinking religious education and plurality. issues in diversity and pedagogy. london, england: routledge. http://www.chronicle.co.zw-dokora-reveals-religious-learning/ http://www.chronicle.co.zw-dokora-reveals-religious-learning/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 241-258 kasomo, d. (2010). the position of african traditional religion in conflict prevention. international journal of sociology and anthropology, 2(2), 23-28. kaunda, c.j. (2015). the denial of african agency. a decolonial theological turn. black theology, 13(1), 73-92. kooiman, j. (ed.) (1993). modern governance: new government-society interactions. london: lessons from nigeria, cote d’ivoire and tanzania. studies in conflict and terrorism, 36(3), 857879. lander, e. (2002). eurocentrism, modern knowledges, and the “natural” order of global capital. nepantla, 3(2), 245-268. matemba, y.h. (2011). a comparative study of religious education in scotland and malawi with special reference to developments in secondary school sector 1970-2000. phd thesis. university of glasgow, germany. ministry of primary and secondary education. (2015). family, religious and moral education. grade 3-7. harare: curriculum development unit. mignolo, w.d. (2013). epistemic disobedience, independent thought and decolonial freedom. theory, culture, and society 26(7-8), 1-23. motalvo, j.g. & querol, m.r. (2001). the effect of ethnic and religious conflict on growth. harvard university, weatherhead center for international affairs. moulin, d. (2012). religious education in england after 9/11. religious education, 107(2), 158-173. mpofu, w. (2017). decoloniality or travelling theory: or what decoloniality is not. presentation at a seminar of wits institute of social and economic research, university of the witwatersrand, 7 august. retrieved february, 22, 2018 fromhttps://wiser.wits.ac.za/content/decoloniality-travelling-theory-or-whatdecoloniality-not-12918. https://wiser.wits.ac.za/content/decoloniality-travelling-theory-or-what-decoloniality-not-12918 https://wiser.wits.ac.za/content/decoloniality-travelling-theory-or-what-decoloniality-not-12918 dube & tsotetsi ndlovu-gatsheni. s.j. (2003). dynamics of the zimbabwe crisis in the 21st century. african centre for the resolution of disputes, 25 june. retrieved february, 2, 2018 fromhttp://www.accord.org.za/ajcr-issues/dynamics-of-the-zimbabwe-crisis-in-the-21stcentury. ndlovu-gatsheni, s.j. (2015). decoloniality in africa. a continuing search for a new world order. australian review of african studies, 36(2), 22-50. nicolai, s. (2009). muslim inbreeding: impact on intelligence, sanity, health and society. website: australian islamist monitor: islam under scrutiny. retrieved january, 12, 2018 fromhttp://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=art icle&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-andsociety&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19. o'dala, t.r. (2001). junior secondary school religious and moral education and bible knowledge. circular letter. lilongwe, malawi: ministry of education. polinska, w. (2011). engaging religious diversity: towards a pedagogy of mindful states. religious education, 109(4), 394-405. powell, r.,& clarke, s. (2013), religion, tolerance and intolerance: views from across the across the disciplines. in s. clarke, r. powell & j. savulescu (eds), religion, intolerance and conflict: ascientific and conceptual investigation, pp. 2-36. oxford, united state of america: oxford university press. religious education council of england and wales. (2013). a curriculum framework for religious education in england. october.religious education council of england and wales. retrieved january, 15, 2018 from resubjectreview.recouncil.org.uk/.../re_review_summary.pdf. salanjira, m.f. (2003). an assessment of the introduction and reception of religious and moral education syllabus in malawi secondary schools. ma thesis. university of malawi, zomba. schwartz, m. (2006). for whom do we write the curriculum? http://www.accord.org.za/ajcr-issues/dynamics-of-the-zimbabwe-crisis-in-the-21st-century/ http://www.accord.org.za/ajcr-issues/dynamics-of-the-zimbabwe-crisis-in-the-21st-century/ http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 http://www.australianislamistmonitor.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3910:muslim-inbreeding-impacts-on-intelligence-sanity-health-and-society&catid=294:social-practices-interactions&itemid=19 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 241-258 the journal of curriculum studies, 38(4), 449-457. singh, b.r. (1986). the phenomenological approach to religious education for the multi-faith society. churchman, 100(3), 231-248. retrieved february, 24, 2018 from https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/churchman/100-03_231.pdf231-248 [accessed, 24/2/2018]. sithole, t. (2014). achillembembe: subject, subjection and subjectivity. phd thesis submitted at the university of south africa, pretoria. sumner, j. (2008). from academic imperialism to the civil commons: institutional possibilities for responding to the united nations decade of education for sustainable development. interchange, 39(1), 77-94. https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/churchman/100-03_231.pdf231-248 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 35-51 understanding change of practices in the homework implementation process in primary schools: kosovo case lirika bërdynaj syla1 & blerim saqipi2 abstract the objective of this research study is to explore the teachers and parents’ perspectives on implementing homework in primary education. the research depends on the system activity theory playing a crucial role in education. this study used qualitative methodology and data from 20 teachers and 20 parents. data collected with semi-structured interviews were analysed using the thematic approach. previous research reveals that setting a standard for homework in schools is highly critical and lacking a standard poses various challenges for teachers in assigning homework. thus, teachers and parents emphasise the need to set a standard for homework assignments by the education policymakers. moreover, the research has contributed to raising teachers' awareness for using the feedback despite the factors complicating this process. the present study’s findings have also shown the relevance of cooperation with parents in implementing the homework. in the end, the study resolves that education policymakers collaborating with schools should urgently set a standard for homework assignments and professional teacher development by providing specific homework training. this study proposes a comprehensive approach by challenging students’ traditional perception of homework, examining the teacher background and work context. furthermore, it suggests a broader policy context to determine a manageable policy and practice for proper homework integration in teaching and learning processes. keywords: homework, teachers, students, lack of standard in homework assignments, activity theory introduction homework is an integral part of school practice and the daily family life in kosovo, as in most regions worldwide. moreover, it is part of students' daily routine, yet no consensus among teachers, parents, and students exist on implementing it. the extensive literature on homework suggests that when planning homework assignments, adequate consideration should be given to the purpose of the task, its practical implementation; 1 phd candidate at faculty of education, university of prishtina“hasan prishtina”, prishtina, kosovo, lirika.berdyna@gmail.com 2 assoc. prof., faculty of education, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, prishtina, kosovo, blerim.saqipi@uni-pr.edu mailto:lirika.berdyna@gmail.com mailto:blerim.saqipi@uni-pr.edu journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 35-51 36 proper feedback to students, the elapsed time by students and the parents’ involvement (cooper, 2006; fawzy, 2012; stogner, 2014; huisman, 2016; hoeke, 2017; minke, 2017). how teachers approach homework has been an internationally discussed topic. thus, applying it to the kosovo school context is relevant and should include several variables. these variables should address how teachers understand and approach them to provide new insights into the education system and the teaching profession regarding the proper implementation of the homework. there is an evident lack of a standard or a plan at the macro-level where teachers can base homework assignments. thus, individual needs should focus on the students’ needs. nevertheless, parental involvement may develop into parental intervention. for instance, parents may misguide their children if the teaching techniques they use differ from those used by the teachers (cooper et al., 2006; ozer & keskin, 2015). the parenting approach sometimes may not be adequate. due to the parents’ workload or educational background, they cannot help their children with their homework assignments leading to additional stress and burden. this study discerns the teachers’ dimensions in handling the homework assignment activity, including the planning phase, homework feedback, time spent on homework, and parents’ involvement in homework. this research uses as starting point the concerns over lack of teacher feedback on student homework. recent studies have revealed that students do their homework more frequently when teachers provide feedback (núñez et al., 2015). moreover, finding the opportunity to increase the students’ learning potential requires homework assignments as a tool, allowing them to apply the theoretical knowledge to practice. to this end, understanding the variables and contextual factors affecting the existing teacher practices in homework management is critical. literature review as various authors and researchers have divergent opinions about homework, these homework studies need further elaborations. researchers stress the crucial role homework environment because homework assignment is one of the most widespread pedagogical practices in the world (fitzmaurice et al., 2020; holte, 2016). consequently, reviewing homework literature urges scientists to further their work to cover various professional aspects of teachers in implementing homework as a practical tool. many authors suggest that well-planned homework tasks can benefit bërdynaj – syla & saqipi many students (cooper, 2006; fawzy, 2012; epstein & voorhis, 2001; hoeke, 2017; stogner, 2014; voorhis, 2004; wallfolk, 2011). cooper et al. (2006) reported that homework served many purposes, including academic and nonacademic, while kohn (2006) addressed the burden of a homework assignment and its negative repercussions in the family. he suggested a reduced number of tasks and increased quality. only can students benefit from homework if they understand it. teachers should also control homework assignments, allowing students to correct their mistakes or improve their tasks (hoeke, 2017; woolfolk, 2011). it is crucial to involve the family and get its support, forming a stimulating environment at home for the learning process. parental support refers to the care, engendering an enabling learning environment, and encouraging learning (dangol & shrestha, 2021). indeed, when parents support the homework and the children simultaneously receive feedback from the teacher and notice the appreciation of their efforts, they feel motivated to do their homework. feedback is most beneficial when teachers give suggestions to improve the homework assignment and discuss issues with students individually or the whole class. skaggs (2007) noted that feedback could differ among teachers, as they might depict differences in evaluating the homework. these differences may be traceable back to the divergent approaches taken by teachers while collecting homework, giving feedback, and checking the homework before or after it is completed. if teachers cannot provide feedback, they should review the number of homework tasks assigned to students. reducing the amount of homework may increase the chances of delivering feedback. mcnulty (2018) stressed that although most children did not like to do homework, they valued it as a beneficial tool to enhance learning and personal development. homework completion involves the dynamics of family and peers and influences the nature of teaching in community organisations and schools (benbenutty, 2009). a highly critical role affecting the practicality of homework is the collaboration among teachers, students, and parent. hong and milgram (2000) opined that after the teacher assigned the task, parents should provide the appropriate environment for its completion, enabling students to do it the way suited them the most. cooperation among all three shareholders is essential to achieve desired results. the teachers and parents’ roles, the homework amount and duration, the suitability for student development, the guidance and feedback for students should be considered assessing the effects of homework in academic terms (baş & ciğerci, 2017). according to sylaj and sylaj (2020, p.8): journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 35-51 38 ‘communication is the most appropriate area through which the parents want to establish contacts with the school. parents' positive communication almost always gives positive results to the parents and the teachers. negative, superficial or insufficient communication almost always leads to problems throughout the school year. researchers consider that the way we have the parentparent conversation is definitely important in the communication between the school and the family to prevent violence among the students. in order for this communication to be effective, it must be positive’. parents mcnulty (2018) stressed regard homework as required and essential to support learning and acquiring knowledge, playing a vital role in building trust and responsibility. parents often believe the amount of homework is overwhelming; however, they do not challenge the utility and necessity of homework (kukk et al., 2015). homework is deservedly a unique educational practice because each child has a varied experience with homework. therefore, homework is highly challenging and complicated given the marginal differences between school and the home milieu (vatterott, 2018). what most affects the practicality of homework is the students’ time on a specific one. time should carefully be monitored to ensure that it is appropriate to the grade level and not too demanding for the family (marzano, 2003). observing the rule of ‘10 minutes’ for a grade may favour students and parents as children will not be excessively busy with homework (marzano, 2003; cooper et al., 2006). this study uses the activity systems theory as a theoretical framework for analysing and interpreting data. this theory is an excellent framework for understanding the pedagogical practice development leading to modifying the present reality towards the desired outcome. according to engeström (2012), lev vygotski (1978) initiated the activity somewhere between 1920 and 1930. subsequently, leont’ev (1978, 1981) developed it. engestrom (1987) devised the activity systems theory as a framework depending on proximal development zone concept (saqipi, 2020). as can be seen in figure 1, the activity system’s fundamental components are subjects, objects, tools and instruments (mediating artefacts), rules, community, and division of tasks. bërdynaj – syla & saqipi figure 1 activity system model. source: engenstrom (1987, 2001) the subject represents the activity participants working on achieving the object that represents the activity’s overall objective. the object is the primary purpose for the subject to operate and transform. tools are the processes the subject may use to obtain the object. rules depict standards assisting the subject in achieving the overall goal. the community works with all stakeholders to achieve the overall goal. the last element forming the activity system is the division of tasks posing the responsibilities of all participants in this activity system, including the community. all these elements of this activity system were employed in this study to identify the factors affecting homework efficiency. methodology purpose of the present study this study aims to identify modalities for enhancing the current practices of teachers and parents in managing homework in primary schools. it includes analysing teacher experiences concerning the students’ time on homework assignments and providing feedback on these tasks. it also elaborates the role of collaboration between parents and teachers about homework. the essential research question is: how can teachers’ professional practice in homework assignments be modified to make it a more effective tool for student learning? the sub-questions this study aims to address are: what are the current teacher approaches to student homework? how do parents view the role of homework and their role in this process? what are the essential factors affecting the change of current teacher practices? journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 35-51 40 design the study has a qualitative design using semi-structured interviews as data collection tools to analyse the teachers, students, and parents’ perceptions on homework. interviews were recorded and transcribed to serve the purpose of the study. qualitative research is the choice when less is known about a topic or phenomenon, and a researcher wants to discover or learn more about it. it is a standard technique to understand people's experiences and express their perspectives (johnson & christensen, 2017). research setting the research was performed in kosovo, a small country where the education system has critically been challenged throughout history regarding teaching and learning development. after the war in kosovo (1999), the education system was in a constant cycle of reforms and innovations, forming quality and inclusive approach. after 1999, many major fundamental problems were identified, accentuating the need to change the country’s education system. continued efforts focussed on retreating away from the traditional teaching and getting the school to have a student-centred philosophy (saqipi, 2014). kosovo schools lack written and agreed-upon strategies and standards for applying homework in schools. when analysing many documents from the ministry of education, finding any specific instructions or documents about the homework planning instructions is improbable. moreover, the current debate on education reform in kosovo addresses the need to increase teacher professionalism resulting in enhanced student learning. while homework assignment is not a specific education issue, a broad agreement on students spending less time in schools exists because schools operate at least two shifts. thus, there is ample room for homework improvement, emphasising the relevance of this study for overall teacher professional practice and student learning. participants a total of 20 teachers and 20 parents across four municipalities participated in this study. the participants’ background data are in table 1. bërdynaj – syla & saqipi table 1 the participants’ background participants gender age location teachers 18 f 2 m 26 – 28 years (5 teachers) 34 – 36 years (6 teachers) 38 – 42 years (9 teachers) 13 urban 7 rural parents 16 f 4 m 35 – 39 years (13 parents) 40 – 44 years (3 parents) 45 – 47 years (7 parents) 11 urban 9 rural data collection methods data collection was between june and july 2020. the interview process was performed through the "zoom" platform due to the covid-19 pandemic restrictions in place at that time. before starting the interview, participants were assured of their anonymity. participants recorded the interview and were guaranteed that the interview would only be used for research purposes. the interviews lasted 20-30 minutes. thematic analysis was used to analyse the interviews. it provided accessible and systematic procedures for extracting codes and themes from qualitative data (clarke & braun, 2017). semistructured interviews were designed and conducted by the researcher. the researcher focussed on the interview and rationale behind participant reflection (matthews & ross, 2010). after transcribing the interviews, the data were coded, associating with the research purpose. the codes were then grouped into topics to allow conclusions about student perceptions. findings and discussion the data collected from the interviews were divided into two groups: interviews with teachers and interviews with parents. the analysis of data are presented in sections below with the view of answering the research questions determined for this study. teacher views on homework assignments table 2 summarises the topics emerging from the interviews with teachers about doing homework and constantly referring to the research’s purpose and questions. this research has identified four intriguing and highly challenging topics in doing homework: lack of a standard in school planning, lack of training, homework overload, inability to provide timely feedback. teachers have responded that their schools do not have any documents, plans, standards or regulations on homework assignments. they have further reported that they assign homework as journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 35-51 42 they wish because the school does not oblige them to give homework. homework is the teacher’s responsibility as it is. teachers can also specify the time the student should have for homework, the types of homework, how to use the feedback, and the involvement of parents in the homework process. here are some of the teachers' thoughts: ‘there is no written rule for assigning homework, so we are the ones who define homework’ (teacher, 4). ‘we have no obligation from school; we are free to act as we wish’ (teacher, 7). table 2 codes and themes derived from the thematic analysis of interview data with teachers codes themes the school does not oblige us to give homework there are no written rules for assigning homework the teacher is a determining factor for the amount and type of homework each teacher assigns their homework to their class the director does not oblige us about homework homework is the teacher’s independent decision it is up to teachers to give homework the school has no standard for homework lack of a standard to guide homework planning we have not attended training for homework critical thinking training ‘mix training’ curriculum training discussion during master lectures about homework lack of training on student homework homework overload excessive stress stressed children. i am not a pro homework less homework i do not want to overload my children with homework homework for the weekend is overload for students tasks as overload if you do not enjoy doing them homework overload more oral information frontal control check them at home not adequate time in class return them the next day after checking them home the overwhelming number of students in the class inability to provide feedback on time no written plan or rules are available in any documents specifying how teachers assign homework. nor does a person encounter anything specific in the national curriculum framework on how teachers should practice homework instead of formative assessment used in the homework assignment. therefore, most teachers are reluctant to assign tasks as they have no standard from the school on giving homework and specifically the time students should have it. bërdynaj – syla & saqipi many studies suggest that each school should have a policy for homework assignments (cooper, 1994; epstein & voorhis, 2001; skaggs, 2007). homework policy in schools revealed that while many schools have explicit homework policies, some lack them (merritt et al., 2015). the findings of another study agreed well with our research’s as schools lacked homework policy and had misleading information from parents and teachers about homework policies (holland et al., 2021). however, volley (2017) emphasised that the challenge of doing homework should not necessarily be addressed to teachers and be first addressed by education policymakers such as the ministry of education and school management. lack of professional development is the second topic emerging from the present study. even though teachers have received extensive training to improve classroom teaching practices, they have not received adequate training for homework assignments. consequently, teachers often have dilemmas concerning assigning homework, adapting homework to the whole class, arranging the time students spend on homework, giving feedback, and collaborating with parents. some thoughts from teachers on this topic follow: unfortunately, i have never had the opportunity to attend training specifically for homework, nor was there any other training during which homework was mainly mentioned; how and why i formulate it. i think it would be a very good idea to have such training where the main focus would be homework (teacher, 12). i have not attended any specific homework training, nor any training that has helped me with homework (teacher, 8). another study suggested that teachers needed to get training on communicating with parents on the help they should provide to their children while doing homework (merritt et al., 2015). professional development enables teachers to be more committed to developing and improving professional skills in the required field. it makes teachers more successful, providing them with the best possible job (nyamai, 2021). hoeke (2017) also championed the teachers’ professional development. she further suggested that schools, besides their homework policy, should offer teachers the opportunity for professional development related to homework. as there is a lack of a standard in schools and professional development regarding homework, teachers, students, and parents face many challenges and dilemmas on homework assignments. the third and most exasperating issue emerging from the interviews with teachers is homework overload. most teachers stated that students were excessively busy with homework. this overload journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 35-51 44 of tasks deprives students of their free time. moreover, many teachers give homework on weekends and holidays, causing additional stress for students. this topic is not surprising because there exists no standard in schools on when students should be assigned homework. teachers also lack professional development about homework assignments, evidently leading students to be overloaded. epstein and voorhis (2010), noted that school policy should be interactive with parents supplying them with the opportunity to help their children with homework. some schools assign homework only on weekdays, decreasing opportunities for parent-child interaction. the fourth issue was the inability to provide timely feedback. although teachers gave homework, most suggested that they could not give feedback. due to the overwhelming number of students in the class and the tight schedule, they had to give oral feedback or take homework to check. some of the teachers' thoughts on giving feedback follow: however, if i do not have time, i tell my students to leave it on my desk, and i take it home or i check them during breaks (teacher, 8). however, the large number of students inside the class makes it difficult to fulfil each student’s needs. normally, we were told that every child is special and learns differently does the tasks differently. but it is quite difficult in those circumstances to strengthen each child’s weak points. this is the worst (teacher, 19). students learn even more and feel more influential when they receive constructive feedback. therefore, teachers should find the time and opportunity to give oral or written feedback while giving homework. according to costa et al. (2017), homework assignments should always be evaluated, strengthening the relevance and usefulness of task perceived by students. parental views on homework management table 3 summarises the topics deriving from interviews with parents regarding their views on the homework their children do. from the interview, three essential issues have emerged from the data focussing on (i) parents agreeing that their children should have homework, but without being overloaded, (ii) parents assessing the teacher-parent-student collaboration as highly necessary, and (iii) parents suggesting ways teacher feedback can be used. bërdynaj – syla & saqipi table 3 codes and themes derived from the thematic analysis of interview data with parents codes topics continuous conversations with the teacher about homework when the child has stagnation, i discuss the issue we discuss any ambiguities with the teacher perfect triangle technology enables us to be closer to the teacher quite often, we discuss homework the need for teacher-parent-student cooperation teachers give a lot of homework three-to-four hours of tasks causing fatigue and overload the unnecessary task, repeating the same things kids have to be free at the weekends extremely busy with tasks constantly having homework very busy with homework even on weekends, there is homework homework overload checking them by adding a signature there cannot be any feedback as there are 40 students in the class evaluation by grade or smile limited time concerning the number of students in the class there is no comment but only underlining of wrong parts lack of written feedback the first issue from the research was the need for teacher-parent-student collaboration. collaboration with parents was much more pressing than necessary, depending on parental responses. most parents claimed they constantly communicated with their teachers about their children’s homework. for any ambiguities and delays of their children in homework, parents discuss with their children's teachers. we discuss them quite often, and she is always ready to give us answers about the children's tasks; where she has difficulty, she gives us explanations. parent, teacher, and child can cooperate and achieve something good with lessons (parent, 17). likewise, sylaj and sylaj (2020) founded their research on collaborating between parents and teachers, suggesting a positive correlation between these factors. teachers can also benefit from family involvement. thus, they promote positive feelings about teaching in their schools when there is more parental involvement (epstein & dauber, 1991; hoover-dempsey, bassler & brissie, 1987, as cited in epstein & voorhis, 2010). teachers communicating with parents tend to increase expectations and appreciation for all parents and ‘continue to increase family involvement activities’ (epstein & voorhis, 2010, p.5). the second issue materialising from parents and in line with teachers’ views was student overload. like teachers, most parents accentuate that their children are too busy with homework. although they favour homework, they disagree that children should do a lot of homework assignments. children have homework seven days a week plus weekends but also on holidays. according to them, children are overwhelmingly busy with tasks. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 35-51 46 eight of the twenty parents interviewed noted that their children did three to four hours of homework, causing them to be overwhelmed and tired. moreover, some tasks were unnecessary as the same functions were repetitive. what follow are some thoughts from parents on their children's overload: i have three children, one in high school. children are given a lot of homework. sometimes it is not very necessary, according to me, because they have a lot of obligations at school, and then at home, they need 3-4 hours of work again and this causes fatigue and workload (parent, 11). it is a big burden for young students to be assigned homework seven days a week. even working adults should have a break, let alone children of this age. but today, everyone has their own criteria, so we have to apply them (parent, 20). parents assisting their children with homework felt that the volume of homework assignments was too exhausting, and children could not find adequate time for leisure activities. most authors and parents thought that homework was beneficial and necessary (kukk et al., 2015). even though homework assignments can present educational benefits, they can take from children's free and family time. therefore, children may spend less time with their families due to too much homework assigned (garcia, 2021). the third issue correlating with teachers' opinions was the inability to provide timely feedback emphasised by both parties. despite teachers providing feedback, depending on the answers of most teachers, written feedback is lacking. one of the reasons suggested by almost all teachers is the limited time due to many students in the class. when students have discernible feedback, their work is respected as long as they receive advice and reduce gaps where needed (hattie, 2011; fawzy, 2012). the factors relevant to effective homework management the findings led to establishing a broader framework, using activity systems theory as a framework. it meant understanding that the systems connected to the development of practices relied on the effective management of homework assignments. the figure below presents an overview of the critical factors to understand the transition model needing adoption to transform the present realities of unduly focusing students on homework management. bërdynaj – syla & saqipi figure 2 understanding the development of homework activity as seen in figure 2, one should discuss the impact of the change and which variables can best steer the difference in the right direction to understand the development of teacher practices on student homework. they are the processes related to homework implementation, the teachers’ background, and the division of roles changing the student homework implementation. teachers need to develop the standard and policy as part of their professional identity, applicable within the school context broader scope. then, they can incorporate their work, while such an orientation needs to empower conducive cooperation between parents, students, and teachers. it can coherently contribute to planning and implementing homework beyond meaningful student learning. this study has confirmed the findings of past research on important variables that need to be addressed when talking about effective student homework in pre-university education. however, the innovation of this research indicates that the weight assigned to specific variables is dependant on the educational context. this study has emphasized the need to pay attention to the factors of teacher professional background and preparation as well as class size and time available for feedback. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 35-51 48 conclusions this study addressed the factors affecting homework efficiency in primary education and aimed to provide insights into how teachers and parents should approach the student homework assignments. how current practices managing homework assignments should be assessed from a broader perspective of the educational system context is a critical issue, including several crucial variables. it is not easy to project a single unified standard for school homework assignments for two reasons. firstly, different teachers face varied challenges in assigning homework to students and managing it effectively and is oriented towards the students’ homework activity. secondly, while some standard conclusions can be drawn from the present study and previous research concerning the effective homework paradigm, the contextual variables are relevant to the point. these include teacher approaches and more extensive homework management system dynamics covering variables such as parental involvement and available time for feedback. therefore, education policymakers should note the role that standard for homework would play, benefit schools, teachers, parents, and all students. setting such a standard should consist of the following elements: the purpose of assigning homework, homework design, the time available to students, the responsibilities of the teachers and students, and the role of parents or other family members supporting the children in their homework assignments. it should not interfere with imposing uniformity and prescribed actions for teachers to pursue in managing student homework. instead, it is a guide for developing teacher professional practice theory and thinking aligned with the need to transition from present reality to the desired situation. integrating homework as part of the teaching and learning process demands a comprehensive view of teachers’ professional preparation and practices to determine the policies and applications. it can best be managed within the relevant education context. after all, building professional identity of teachers that can influence affects other variables such as homework related processes and the standard developing into a school policy. only then can meaningful changes occur. bërdynaj – syla & saqipi references bas, g., senturk, c., & cigerci, f. m. (2017). homework and academic achievement: a metaanalytic review of research. issues in educational research, 27(1), 31–50. https://iier.org.au/iier27/bas.pdf bembenutty, h. (2009). the last word: an interview with lyn corno the ingredients for making a self-regulated scholar. journal of advanced academics, 21(1), 142–156. https://doi: 10.1177/1932202x0902100107 clarke, v., & braun, v. (2017). thematic analysis. the journal of positive psychology, 12(3), 297–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262613 cooper, h. (1994). homework research and policy: a review of the literature. research/practice, 2(2), 1-10. cooper, h., robinson, j. c., & patall, e. a. (2006). does homework improve academic achievement? a synthesis of research, 1987–2003. review of educational research, 76(1), 1–62. https://doi: 10.3102/00346543076001001 costa, m., cardoso, a. p., lacerda, c., lopes, a., & gomes, c. (2017). homework in primary education from the perspective of teachers and pupils. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 217, 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.02.047 dangol, r., & shrestha, m. (2021). contribution of gender on learning readiness among school students of nepal. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 19–36. https://doi.org/ 10.46303/jcsr.2020.2 epstein, j. l., & voorhis, f. l. (2001). more than minutes: teachers' roles in designing. educational psychologist, 36(3), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532698ep3603_4 fawzy, n. (2012). school teachers' perspectives on homework: a comparative study [unpublished med thesis]. the american university in cairo. fitzmaurice, h., flynn, m., & hanafin, j. (2020). primary teachers' homework practices: identity, expectations, policies, and cultural values. issues in educational research, 30(3), 897– 919. http://www.iier.org.au/iier30/fitzmaurice.pdf garcia, r. e. (2021). factors that influence students’ learning progress in the science spiral progression curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 79–99. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.5 hattie, j., & timperley, h. (2007). the power of feedback. review of educational research, 77(1), 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487 https://iier.org.au/iier27/bas.pdf https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262613 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.02.047 https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532698ep3603_4 http://www.iier.org.au/iier30/fitzmaurice.pdf https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.5 https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (1), 35-51 50 hoeke, ch. (2017). homework practices: teacher and parent perceptions of efficacy and purpose. east tennessee state university. electronic theses and dissertations. paper 3283. http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/3283 holland, m., courtney, m., vergara, j., mcintyre, d., nix, s., marion, a., & shergill, g. (2021). homework and children in grades 3-6: purpose, policy and non-academic impact. child & youth care forum, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09602-8 holte, k. l. (2016). homework in primary school: could it be made more child-friendly? studia paedagogica, 21(4), 13–33. https://doi.org/10.5817/sp2016-4-1 hong, e., & milgram, r. m. (2000). homework: motivation and learning preference. greenwood publishing group. huisman, c. (2016). perceptions of the effects of homework on student achievement at a suburban middle school: a program evaluation. [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. national louis university. johnson, b., & christensen, l. (2019). educational research. quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches (6th ed). thousand oaks, california. sage. https://ismailsunny.files.wordpress.com/2017/07/educational-research_-quantitat-rrobert-burke-johnson.pdf kohn, a. (2006). the truth about homework. education week, 26(2), 52. https://www.vidyaonline.org/readings/pr41.pdf kukk, a., rajalane, r., rei, m., & piht, s. (2015). parents opinions on homework in the ii stage of primary school. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 171, 134–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.099 marzano, r. (2003). what works in schools: translating research into action. ascd. matthews, b., & ross, l. (2010). metodat e hulumtimit. qendra për arsim demokratik. (cde) mcnulty, k. (2018). the impact of homework on a child's motivation to learn in primary education [doctoral dissertation]. letterkenny institute of technology. merritt, d., glenn, l., jones, j., & sartain, c. (2015). a policy analysis of district homework policies [doctoral dissertation]. saint louis university. minke, a. (2017). types of homework and their effect on student achievement. culminating projects in teacher development. https://repository.stcloudstate.edu/ed_etds/24 núñez, j. c., suárez, n., rosário, p., vallejo, g., cerezo, r., & valle, a. (2015). teachers’ feedback on homework, homework-related behaviours, and academic achievement. the http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/3283 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09602-8 https://doi.org/10.5817/sp2016-4-1 https://ismailsunny.files.wordpress.com/2017/07/educational-research_-quantitat-r-robert-burke-johnson.pdf https://ismailsunny.files.wordpress.com/2017/07/educational-research_-quantitat-r-robert-burke-johnson.pdf https://www.vidyaonline.org/readings/pr41.pdf https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.099 https://repository.stcloudstate.edu/ed_etds/24 bërdynaj – syla & saqipi journal of educational research, 108(3), 204–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2013.878298 nyamai, d. k. (2021). the secreted curriculum and youth education to become the professionals the world craves for. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 169–193. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.10 ozer, u., & keskin, s. c. (2015). evaluating the difficulties faced by primary school students in doing homework/research from parents’ point of view. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 197, 933–938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.276 saqipi, b. (2014). developing teacher professionalism and identity in the midst of large-scale education reform: the case of kosovo. https://jyx.jyu.fi/handle/123456789/78034 saqipi, b. (2020). using activity systems theory to understand change process in developing teacher as a researcher at master level studies. international journal of learning and change, 12(1), 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijlc.2020.105968 skaggs, a. m. n. (2007). homework: a nightly ritual beginning in the elementary grades. [ma thesis]. the dominican university of california. stogner, e. y. (2014). the dog ate my homework: a qualitative study. lsu doctoral dissertations. http://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/422 sylaj, v., & sylaj, a. (2020). parents and teachers’ attitudes toward written communication and its impact in the collaboration between them: problem of social study education. journal of social studies education research, 11(1), 104–126. vatterott, c. (2018). rethinking homework: best practices that support diverse needs. ascd. volley, s. (2017). homework: based on tradition or research? a qualitative study on teachers’ considerations when assigning homework in english [master’s thesis]. uit norges arktiske universitet. https://hdl.handle.net/10037/11553 voorhis, v. f. l. (2004). reflecting on the homework ritual: assignments and design. theory into practice, 43(3), 205–212. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4303_6 vygotsky, l. s., & cole, m. (1978). mind in society: development of higher psychological processes. harvard university press. woolfolk, a. (2011). psikologji edukimi. qendra për arsim demokratik (cde). https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2013.878298 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.10 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.276 https://jyx.jyu.fi/handle/123456789/78034 http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijlc.2020.105968 http://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_dissertations/422 https://hdl.handle.net/10037/11553 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4303_6 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (4), 257-285 sufferance within a cultural framework as the preaching strategy of sunan gunungjati in forming a civil society hajam1 abstract this study explores preaching strategies of forming civil society used by syarif hidayatullah or sunan gunungjati, was one of the most influential wali (holy people) on the island of java. relying upon historical research design, this study described how sunan gunungjati devoted his entire life to his religion and the state through a culturally framed sufism-based approach. results show sunan gunungjati helped propagate islam, especially in western java, cirebon, and surrounding areas, something that was not easy at the time. the community’s cultural traditions, religious rituals, social systems, and insights were already strongly rooted in animism, and this presented a real barrier. such beliefs had been reinforced by the previous hindu and buddhist religions. this prompted sunan gunungjati to find many ways to win over the hearts of people and encourage them to embrace islam. sunan gunungjati successfully spread islamic teachings by establishing a civil society. this was demonstrated by the many relics of that time in sociocultural, artistic, architectural, educational, moral, and even political aspects. sunan gunungjati approached almost all aspects of life as a means for spreading islam, and islam spread rapidly as a result. these islamic teachings did not merely convey religious material and textual—they harmonized islamic values with community life at the time. sunan gununjati’s success in spreading islam is therefore a benchmark for forming a civil society based on local wisdom. keywords: sunan gunungjati, sufism, culture, civil society introduction sufism never dies in the world, and ontologically and historically, sufism has experienced extraordinary developments since its establishment. the sufis have passed down their teachings and tariqat doctrines from one generation to the next in various parts of the islamic world. indeed, sufism has spread not just in the middle east but also in various western regions, as well as asia, africa, and indonesia. jamilah (2021) stated indonesia is a muslim-majority country, and historians have noted that indonesia is the most prolific muslim country in developing sufism, both through natives of the archipelago and immigrants from the middle east. even the establishment of islam in indonesia can be equated with sufism, because those early teachers were sufism (roqib, 2021). sufism arrived on the indonesian archipelago with the teachings of al 1dr. state institute of islamic studies (iain) syekh nurjati cirebon, indonesia; email: hajam@syekhnurjati.ac.id mailto:hajam@syekhnurjati.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 wahdtul wujud brought by ‘abdullah arif (d.1214 ad) from arabia after he arrived in sumatra (perulak, pasai) in 1177 ad with his book bahr al-lahut (the sea of god) (azra, 2005). sufism entered cirebon through early figures such as sheikh nurjati and sheikh sunan gunungjati. these two figures played a major role in developing islam and sufism in cirebon. it later spread to kuningan, majalengka, indramayu, kerawang banten, tegal, brebes, and other areas. cirebon sufism, or javanese sufism in general, has its own style that differs from sufism in other areas, such as west sumatra, kalimantan, and sulawesi. cirebon sufism is very close to the previous religion, namely hindu buddhism, and it reflects the cirebon people, who are diverse in terms of culture, language, and ethnicity (effendi, 1994) . an iconic cirebon sufism teaching developed by sunan gunungjati is the pepatah-petitih, which is full of positive educational value for strengthening local wisdom and meaningful philosophy. pepatah-petitih’s teachings act as a guide for family, community, and national life, and it is still studied and practiced by the people of cirebon, at least in their culture of politeness and hospitality for fellow human beings. this is why cirebon is known as the guardian city. the stewardship of sheikh sunan gunungjati has acted as a magnet for the development of islam and cirebon culture to this day, but the aura of the city’s religious and cultural attitudes seemed to diminish when the currents of modernization affected the cirebon area. as a result, the notion of cirebon as the guardian city has given way to the notion of a city with a thousand malls. sufistic values in cirebon have diminished in society due to effects of modernization and metropolitanism. sufism is no longer grounded in cirebon’s culture, and it continues only in islamic boarding schools with the murshids passing on sufistic teachings to their students. this contrasts with the early history of cirebon’s religious and cultural development, which had always been colored by sufism (hasbullah, 2014). various arts and cultural traditions of cirebon are strongly influenced by the teachings of sufism. for example, art, masks, wayang, and sintren were used as a means for da’wah and the development of sufism teachings. the packaging of sufism in cirebon differs from that of classical sufism, which is more about sticking to the doctrines of sufism without touching the culture and traditions of the community. indeed, sufism in cirebon was primarily developed through the culture and traditions of its people (hasbullah, 2014). the development of sufism movements and traditions in cirebon had strong roots in the cultural need to preserve cirebon traditions and culture based on the values of sufism. the authors of this paper therefore became interested in scientifically revealing the movement and tradition of sufism hajam 259 in cirebon from the classical era to the present one. the researchers wanted to respond to the swift modernization that has affected the people of cirebon and eroded cirebon’s ancestral heritage of sufistic teachings. jamilah (2021) and roqib (2021) state that the emergence of radical religious movements, as embraced by some of cirebon’s muslims, has further accelerated the elimination of sufism movements and traditions in cirebon. religious radicalism views that islam is sufficient and final in the area of normative sharia, so the adherents of radicalism feel no need to synergize it with tradition, because this will dilute sharia. mixing religion with tradition is considered an aspect of acculturation, however, and if a religion is related only to the mystical realm, it will be considered a form of superstition. the two phenomena of religious attitudes with mystical values and traditional values based on local wisdom can oppose each other, so the continuity of local traditions and culture may be jeopardized (suntana & tresnawaty, 2021). the noble values of cirebon’s traditions and culture act as a medium for religious and social development. local government therefore needs to pay serious attention to establishing programs to preserve the local culture and traditions and promote educational materials based on local wisdom for all educational settings (bhat, 2019; budiharso & tarman, 2020; nasir, 2021). it should also tighten licensing restrictions for various business activities that undermine cultural values, traditions, and local wisdom (roqib, 2021; suntana & tresnawaty, 2021). the values of sufism in cirebon were the initial pillars for founding islam as a social movement. sufism was therefore the channel for developing islam in cirebon, with this “form” of islam having a style that fitted with the thoughts of cirebon’s natives. indeed, before islam’s arrival, hinduism and buddhism were popular in cirebon, so sufism could be more easily understood and accepted. the sufis who delivered teachings that were adapted to the native minds of the archipelago’s people include examples such as hamzah fansuri in aceh, sheikh lemah abang, and sunan panggung in java, among others (amin & ananda, 2019). however, the values of sufism in the modern era have become almost extinct and receive less serious attention from the government and cirebon’s people (solikhah & budiharso, 2020). consequently, the people of cirebon have experienced shifts in religious values, culture, and traditions. it is feared that cirebon’s authenticity will be lost and replaced by foreign cultural values. petata-petitih is a form of value education that has been inherited from sunan gunungjati, but it is becoming increasingly unheard of in some cirebon people, being generally only mentioned journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 in research studies. petitih is deemed a legacy concept, an old story that is considered no longer relevant. this is very unfortunate, so the researcher set out to review the teachings of sunan gunungjati’s sufism, so that cirebon’s people may be inspired and motivated to consider the noble values of sunan gunungjati’s sufism in their daily religious and social life. it was therefore necessary to rediscover the role and contribution of sunan gunungjati’s sufism to religion, society, culture, politics, economics, law, and institutions, both in terms of islamic boarding schools and government. research questions to guide the research process in this study, the following three research questions were sought to answer: 1) how are sufism and the pattern of islamization before the wali songo developed in cirebon? 2) how is the oole of sunan gunungjati in the spread of islam in java especially in cirebon? 3) what is the association between sufism and culture in the da’wah strategy of sunan gunungjati applied in cirebon? methods this study examines the historical aspect of the role of pesantren in indonesian history and the transformation of islamic boarding school values from the royal era to the modern era. this study takes the form of historical research on sufism in the contextual frame of the da’wah movement of sunan gunungjati in cirebon, so historical theory is used as the theoretical framework. the history in question does not concern events but rather the movements and traditions related to sufism in cirebon, from the classical era to the present day. this study uses content analysis (garcia et al., 2009; wildemuth, 2009,) and historical research based on a qualitative approach (creswell, 2009; yin, 2017). historical research is a method for studying historical facts with the stages of heuristics, source criticism, interpretation, and historiography (brundage, 2014; mccaffrey et al., 2012). historical research was carried out through 5 stages, namely: topic selection, heuristics (source collection), verification (source criticism), interpretation, and historiography (writing) (brundage, 2014; mccaffrey et al., 2012). the qualitative approach is a data analysis process that is based on data in the form of words, sentences, arguments, narrative logic and researchers express meaning based on the intent of the source (creswell, 2009). hajam 261 data of this study are one manuscript of the sunan gunungjati, one on the development of pesantren available on keraton cirebon, two dissertations on the development of pesantren in cirebon and 10 journal articles regarding pesantren in cirebon. data were analyzed using five steps of historical research (mccaffrey et al., 2012) content analysis by (wildemuth, 2009) and qualitative approach from yin (2017) and creswell (2009). findings and discussion sufism and the pattern of islamization: before the wali songo the history of sufism in indonesia is also the history of islamization in the archipelago. the sufism approach was neatly wrapped in a da’wah container that suited the local culture. people believe that the 6th century bc was the beginning of the world’s civilizations, the century that saw the emergence of philosophy in greece, zoroastrianism in the middle east, buddhism in hindustan, and the reformers lao tse and confucius in the far east. this century saw the meeting of two patterns of thought, two sources of truth, a mixing of revelation and reason. alternatively, as hossein nasr put it, it saw two niches of truth: misykat al-hikmah and misykat al-nubuwwah (nasr, 2006). later on, the 15th 16th centuries saw religious conversion, as pointed out by anthony reid and quoted by geoff wade: “between about 1400 and 1700, universalist faiths based on sacred scripture took hold throughout the region. eventually, they created profound divisions in islam in the south, a confucian political orthodoxy in vietnam, a theravada buddhist bastion in the rest of the mainland, and a christian outrider in the philippines” (helland, 2002). the people of southeast asia at the time witnessed a religious revolution in which more than half of people changed religions, especially to islam and christianity. the atmosphere of that century was very lively with a sense of economic revival, especially in western countries due to the industrial revolution. this affected all aspects of human civilization (adam, 2011). in the 14th to 16th centuries, southeast asia was at its peak for international trade and prosperity before the arrival of the european colonials. the people of southeast asia, especially seafarers and traders, played a major role in the market dynamics and world trade with their highly-valued products, such as spices, textiles, and sandalwood. this made various regions in southeast asia prime destinations for international traders from around the world, especially china, japan, india, persia, arabia, and even europe (adam, 2011). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 the general atmosphere of southeast asia and the archipelago before and after islamization, was perhaps one of the most prevalent phenomena for forming a new civilization in southeast asia. prior to this, the islamic world had suffered a setback with the defeat of the caliphate of bani abbas by the mongols in 1258 ad. there was no longer a chain of command directing islamic civilization, with various elements running independently. the incident had shattered the da’wah strategy, which had been pursued alongside the development of political power. indeed, the spread of islam was no longer commanded by the power of a state or dynasty but rather by an order or organization later referred to as tariqa. hitti (1970) stated that the condition of the muslim rulers began to waver from the 10th century ad. indeed, both the west and the east experienced almost the same conditions due to protracted conflicts, both internally and externally. for example, the umayyad caliphate in the west was threatened by the emergence of the idrisiah, thulun, iksidiah, and hamdaniah dynasties, while in the east, the abbasid dynasty was threatened by the rise of the tahiriah, saffariah, samanian, and ghaznawi dynasties. these small dynasties—which historians, including hitti, call “muluk al-thawa’if” (the petty states)—were one of the factors that led to the collapse of the hegemony of the abbasid and umayyad dynasties. afterwards, in 1258, this culminated in the destruction of the abbasid dynasty by hulagu khan following the fall of baghdad (burke, 1979). amid this backdrop, the spread of islam to the east occurred in parallel with the emergence of preachers from the sufi circles, followers of the tariqa. in the pre-islamic period of the archipelago, including for the aceh area, hinduism was quite strongly rooted, especially in coastal areas (said, 2004). following the fall of baghdad, the task of maintaining the unity of islam and spreading it to distant places fell to the sufis, including for indonesia (azra, 1999). as a continuation of previous sufis’ activities, the 13th century saw the appearance of various tariqa, which connected its adherents with foundational sufi figures of the time. each tariqa has a sheikh (shaikh) or kaifiyat dhikr and ritual ceremonies. usually, the sheikh or murshid teaches his students in a dormitory for spiritual practice referred to as a suluk or ribath house. the first tariqa to appear was the qadiriyah order, which was established by sheikh abdul qadir al-jilani in tibristan, central asia. from tibristan, it spread to iraq, turkey, saudi arabia, india, and eventually to indonesia, malaysia, singapore, thailand, and china. next came the rifaiyah order of morocco and algeria followed by the suhrawardiyah order of north and central africa. the orders hajam 263 developed rapidly as its students were appointed as caliphs or badals to spread their teachings to islamic lands (mulyati, 2006). when the ottoman empire was established, the bakhtesyi order played a very large role in both political and military fields. the same was true of the sanusiyah order in north africa, especially in algeria and tunisia, while the syadziliyah order was the most influential in sudan. as for indonesia, the development of islam in the 15th and 16th centuries and beyond was largely due to the efforts of sufis, so it is unsurprising that the spiritual leaders of islam in indonesia at the time were not sharia experts but rather tariqa sheikhs (ali, 2003). when the natives of the archipelago began to embrace an islam that was colored by sufism, the thoughts of the great sufis, such as ibn al-’arabi and abu hamid al-ghazali, were very influential on the practices of the early muslims. however, it is precisely because of this sufistic influence that the people of the archipelago so easily embraced islam, especially since the first generation of ulama also followed one or more tariqa. the 13th century ad was indeed a revival for the tariqa in the sense that islamic thought under the influence of sufism later developed into a tariqa in itself. it was then that the people of the archipelago began to embrace islam, and islamic thought was at its peak with this tariqa’s glory (mulyati, 2006). the history of islamization for the archipelago has many versions, and there is no agreement about when islamization began, with there being versions from western and non-western scholars. snouck hurgronje and clifford geertz are considered representative of the first group, having researched the archipelago geographically and produced theories in the form of classifications and categorizations for the indonesian people. hurgronje divided aspects of islam into three forms: private worship, public worship, and politics. clifford geertz, meanwhile, mixed the classification and socio-religious stratification of javanese society into islamic santri, abangan, and priyayi. hurgronje clearly showed his feudal-imperialistic motives, while geertz worked under the pretext of eidetic study (wasitaatmadja & susetio, 2020). in the eyes of the west, nusantara literature contained stories, fairy tales, chronicles, history, and so on, but it was not enough to explain the archipelago. indeed, the majority of nusantara historiography was deemed to contain more “myths” than actual history, so researchers usually preferred to refer to western sources written by europeans who came to the archipelago as travelers, journalists, missionaries, and imperialists, but these turned out to be biased. such research in turn led to distortions and misconceptions in viewing nusantara islam. however, not journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 all orientalists did this, with them researching more objectively by digging into local sources, as de graff and pigeaud did (wasitaatmadja & susetio, 2020). the history of the archipelago can be traced earlier through the writings of other foreigners, including their quotes. the chinese mention in detail the arrival of their envoys to pay tribute, as well as simple reports in arabic stories about incidents. archaeological and epigraphic discoveries have also changed perceptions and restored the objectivity of documentation. because these documents are based on external testimonies, for a long time, southeast asia was considered a meeting place for colonization, resulting in the introduction of islam to the archipelago being based on estimates only. there is even speculation that from the 7th and 8th centuries ad, there was contact with arab traders in china through the ceylon route (robinson, 1975). van niel seemed to adopt this opinion. according to him, in the 7th century ad, arab traders were among other groups, such as persian, jewish, and catholic traders (van niel, 1956). this opinion was corroborated by robinson, who stated that at that time, the maritime trade of the arabs was more advanced than that of the western (european) people. the arabs controlled the sea route through the indian ocean, which they called the persian ocean, because since pre-islamic times, the persian gulf with its ports in siraf and basra was the center of trade between asia, africa, and the middle east. on their way to the far east and japan, arabs established trade relations with a country called zabag or srivijaya. the middle east and the archipelago also had many diplomatic relations (robinson, 1975). azyumardi azra supports this view, saying that since the time of the umayyads (7th and 8th centuries), muslim traders had traded as far as the far east. this was the furthest regular shipping lane, as hourani put it, before the european revival in the 16th century ad (azra, 1999). based on these opinions, it seems that islamization in the nusantara region could have been possible before the 13th century ad. in turn, coastal muslim cities could have emerged, starting with pasai, aceh, malacca, demak, banten, cirebon, ternate, tidore, tallo cave, banjar, kutai, and mataram (azra, 1999). for islamization in the archipelago, historians, researchers, orientalists, and indonesian scholars agree that sufism was the most important factor in the widespread adoption of islam in southeast asia. however, there was a difference of opinion regarding the arrival of the tariqa, specifically as to whether it coincided with the arrival of islam or came later (hooker, 2003). there are also differences of opinion about philosophical sufism, which is assumed to be a source of inspiration for the da’wah method that was adopted by the walisongo for the spread of islam. hajam 265 the period of islamization for the archipelago can be divided in the pre-walisongo, the walisongo, and the post-walisongo periods. with a cultural approach, it becomes possible to simulate a dialogue between one culture and the next, the old and new thoughts and religions. in such a dialogical approach, the transfer of ideas is based on the notion that such things touch everyday life, so people notice their existence. everyday life therefore emphasizes the similarities rather than the differences. it can be compared to a bottle and its contents: the bottles were retained, but the contents were gradually replaced with fresh contents. in this dialogical approach, a continuation of culture is prioritized in the experiences of religion. people want goodness, beauty, peace, and most importantly, the promise of something better in future. when something new seems better and more suitable, it is more likely to be adopted. islamization can be likened to offering something new like this. the preachers of islam therefore looked for the most suitable formula for their da’wah, and they came up with a cultural approach where the values of mysticism met with traditional ones. the people of the archipelago therefore did not feel it was something alien to them (anshori et al., 2021; arifin, 2013). the difference between the islamization of the pre-walisongo and walisongo periods lay in that during the latter period, da’wah was carried out by individuals with no institutionalized direction. there were also some state institutions that supported it, especially following the formation of the demak sultanate, which acted as indonesia’s first center of islamic da’wah in addition to being an islamic government. the propagators of islam before the walisongo included syekh nurjati, a teacher for the cirebon and west java regions and syekh quro for the karawang and west java regions. during the walisongo period, religious cultural ties between the guardians spreading islam were tied to the existence of the demak sultanate, but after this collapsed and the sultanate moved from the coastal area to the interior, pajang and then to mataram, the walisongo were no longer effective as an institution. it seems they disbanded, and the subsequent da’wah process returned to more individual guardians. pajang himself slowly returned to the old traditions in java, which related more to mysticism outside of islam than islamic mysticism or sufism (achmad et al., 2020). here, kejawen islam began to develop its own color alongside the subsequent islamization process that took place in other areas of java, especially in the cirebon area of west java. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 the role of sunan gunungjati in the spread of islam in java when talking about cirebon, we cannot overlook the “wali,” because sunan gunungjati was one of the prominent propagators of islam in the archipelago and one of the walisongo in java. some even call him the “polar guardian.” he was both a religious leader and a ruler as the first king of the cirebon sultanate. under him, cirebon became a center of islamization in the archipelago, a place for guardians to gather and organize their plans, steps, strategies, and practical actions to solve the problems faced by both the ulama and umara. even today, the city of cirebon is referred to as the “city of the guardians.” cirebon occupied a strategic location, and in the 15th and 16th centuries ad, it became an important stop for shipping lanes and inter-island trade. cirebon also acted as a bridge between central java and west java, between the javanese and sundanese cultures and traditions. as a coastal city on the eastern end of west java’s north coast, cirebon became a port city for trade traffic. initially, though, this place was just a fishing village known as lemah wungkuk, and it was not even on the historical maps of the time. this area was then called hamlet pasambangan and located approximately five kilometers north of the modern city of cirebon. dukuh lemah wungkuk was built by ki gedheng alang-alang as a residential area for muslims (fauziyah, 2015), and this small hamlet later became the forerunner of the center for the islamic da’wah in the surrounding area. over time, lemah wungkuk developed into a bustling port city that was visited by foreign traders, both coming from the archipelago and places beyond it, such as china, arabia, persia, egypt, and india. it’s evolution as a port city was also supported by various facilities, especially the construction of a lighthouse to guide foreign ships wanting to dock. several rivers from the hinterland also flowed in the area, making it easier to bring agricultural products like rice from the interior for export to destinations like malacca (zuhdi, 2002). in pre-islamic times, lemah wungkuk, which later became nagari caruban larang and eventually cirebon, was initially unknown. its name gathered some recognition when islam established itself there, especially through the reports made by tome pires, who described cirebon as a port city led by a muslim. in his report of 1513, he stated that islam was present in the area around 1470–1475. furthermore, according to hj de graaf, cirebon was the first area in west java where the population had embraced islam (ambary, 1988). the cirebon sultanate was the first islamic kingdom in west java, having been founded by syarif hidayatulah, who bore the title sunan gunungjati. he was a scholar (wali) who was agile and hajam 267 skilled in governmental affairs. his grave remains a popular destination for pilgrims wishing to gain the blessing of the guardian who contributed so much to the spread of islam in java. initially, cirebon was a small area under the rule of pakuan pajajaran, and the king of pajajaran appointed a blood relative named prince wadirectsang as administrator for this region. when he succeeded in advancing cirebon, he had already embraced islam. as mentioned by tome pires, there were already muslims in cirebon at the time. however, the person who finally succeeded in developing cirebon into a kingdom was syarif hidayatullah, who bore the title sunan gunungjati and was the nephew and successor of prince wadirectsang. thus, he was the founder of the dynasty for cirebon and later banten (kholil, 2008). as the nephew of prince wadirectsang, sunan gunungjati was also a blood relation of prabu siliwangi, the sundanese king of pajajaran who was domiciled in pakuan pajajaran and married to nyai subang larang since 1422. from this marriage three sons were born: raden wadirectsang, nyai lara santang, and the future king of sengara. sunan gunungjati was the son of nyai lara santang from his marriage to maulana sultan mahmud, also known as syarif abdullah of bani hasyim, during pilgrimage. sunan gunungjati was born in 1448 ad, and he died in 1568 ad at the ripe age of 120. as one of the walisongo, he received respect from the rulers of java, such as those of demak and pajang. once cirebon was officially established as an islamic kingdom free from pajajaran rule, sunan gunungjati tried to overthrow the parts of the pajajaran kingdom that had not yet embraced islam. once pajajaran collapsed, the steps toward islamization intensified, not just in west java but further afield in collaboration with the da’wah activities of other guardians. in west java, from cirebon sunan gunungjati began to develop islamic da’wah to other areas: majalengka, kuningan, kawali (galuh), sunda kelapa, and banten. the foundations for the development of islam and the trade of the muslims in banten were laid by sunan gunungjati in 1524 or 1525 ad. when he returned to cirebon, banten was handed over to his son, sultan hasanuddin. it was this sultan who brought down the kings of banten, finally completely conquering the kingdom of pajajaran. on the initiative of sunan gunungjati, an attack on sunda kelapa was also launched (1527 ad). this attack went smoothly with the help of soldiers from the kingdom of demak (kistoro, 2021). as a port city, cirebon was very strategic at the time, supported by four jujung and approximately 10 lancanas that made cirebon an accessible port from various regions. it could even be reached journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 by river using a junk. in addition, there was a market as an economic center close to the palace. in the city, there were several powerful merchants, and one of them was pate quedir. he was a prominent nobleman in malacca and had served as the head of a javanese village in malacca. however, due to his political stance in favor of demak, he was expelled from malacca by the portuguese. this was most demonstrated when he conspired with demak forces who came to expel the portuguese from malacca (kistoro, 2021). according to tome pires’ report, at that time, cirebon was ruled by a muslim named lebe uca. it is possible that he was really referring to pate quedir, who in cirebon manuscripts is referred to as syekh datuk kahfi or syekh nurjati, because he was the first to spread islam there before moving to the hills of amparan jati, where he founded a boarding school known as pondok qura amparan jati. as previously explained, raden wadirectsang and his younger brother were students of the sheikh (kasdi, 2017). as the center for the spread of islam in west java, cirebon began to show its existence when prince cakrabuana (or raden wadirectsang), who had returned from mecca with the title of haji abdullah iman, led nagari caruban larang, which previously only functioned as pangraksa bumi. even after returning from the holy land of mecca, he was increasingly active in developing islamic da’wah by building various public facilities, such as villages, ports, and roads (erwantoro, 2012). the cirebon sultanate reached the peak of its glory as a center for the spread of islam in west java when prince cakrabuana handed power over nagari caruban larang to his nephew, syarif hidayatullah. this appointment received the blessing and support of the guardians in java, as was marked by his inauguration as panetap panatagama. after assuming power, he made nagari caruban larang an independent kingdom separate from pajajaran. this was demonstrated by no longer sending tribute to pajajaran, even though the ruler at the time was his own grandfather, prabu siliwangi (erwantoro, 2012) the succession and transformation of power was still linked to the lineage of its rulers with the previous kings in the land of sunda, and this helped maintain the continuity of the previous power, namely the hindu kingdom. this assumption is clearly evident in the chronicle of cirebon, which emphasizes the genealogy of the founder of the cirebon kingdom as a direct descendant of prabu siliwangi. a similar thing happened to raden patah in demak, because the babad tanah jawa explains that he was a descendant of majapahit (ambary, 1988). the existence of such legitimacy hajam 269 is no small thing, because genealogy and lineage were very important in the javanese tradition for legitimizing power. mustofa (2015) explained that two styles of islam developed in cirebon, namely sunni and shia. shia aspects can be seen in works of art and traditional religious ceremonies, although the sunni nuances seem more intense. in addition, the first spreaders of islam in cirebon were traders, travelers, craftspeople, and artists, some of whom were tariqa students. this was marked by the emergence of various tariqa schools in cirebon. one of the most prominent of these was the syatariyah order, which later gave birth to literary works that embodied the teachings of the dignity of seven. the influence of the suluk tradition even spread beyond cirebon to surakarta. with islam present as a political force in the cirebon sultanate, a new civilization emerged, a contribution of islamic civilization itself. this was demonstrated with the emergence of cirebon’s cultural diversity under the pattern of port city life. it had the nuances of a religious and egalitarian society in line with the concept of ummah in islam, which regulates people’s relationships with fellow people and the creator. the cirebon community’s world view was theocentric with an emphasis on divinity. this differed from the western world where an anthropocentric world view emphasized human existence, thus giving birth to existentialism, which removed god from human life. islamic civilization in cirebon and banten turned two fishing villages into two metropolises. the atmosphere in cirebon at that time, as reported by foreign observers, was one of a very busy city, with it even being described as busier than the city of amsterdam (mustofa, 2015). like other regions in the archipelago, cirebon developed in close connection with the longdistance international network of trade routes known as the “silk road,” which included both land and sea. in addition, the growth of various settlements in the cirebon area further accelerated the development of cirebon into one of the main ports on java’s north coast, with banten and jayakarta (now jakarta) to the west and demak, jepara, tuban, gresik, to the east. the geopolitical atmosphere in the archipelago also supported the important role of cirebon, such as the fall of malacca to the portuguese, which directly affected trade routes around the malacca strait. likewise, there was a waning of hindu power in the archipelago and the emergence of port cities with independent economies. this development started in tuban, which played a role in trade routes from the west (malacca) to the east (maluku). the existence of tuban, and later gresik, as a port city at the time was supported by advances in shipbuilding technology centered around lasem and rembang. this triggered the emergence of journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 new islamic territories in the 16th century ad, such as cirebon, jepara, sunda kelapa, and banten (kartodirdjo, 1975). the sultanate of demak also played a very large role in accelerating the islamization process of cirebon and other regions. although demak’s place in the history of islam on the archipelago is often overlooked, this is where the hegemony, which would be later continued by pajang and mataram, began. in fact, islamization efforts in the west cannot be separated from demak. community development service in yogyakarta, indonesia the alliance between demak and cirebon ushered in the spread of islam to touch the heart of pajajaran’s power, culminating in the fall of pajajaran to islam (ambary, 1988). cirebon’s role as the center of islamization in west java not only helped destroy pakuan pajajaran but also broke the embryonic influence of the portuguese, who were allied with pakuan pajajaran to control sunda kelapa. the influence of cirebon’s islamic teachings on the west was also demonstrated by the inauguration of prince/sultan hasanuddin, the son of sunan gunungjati, as the ruler of banten (kartodirdjo, 1975). a saying goes that life comes in pairs: there is day and night, there are rises and falls, there are triumphs and collapses, there are ups and downs, and so on. over time, the cirebon sultanate played its role in islamization, and when sunan gunungjati died, he was replaced by his greatgrandson, who was famous for his title panageran ratu or panembahan ratu. panembahan ratu died in 1650 and was succeeded by his son, who took the title panembahan girilaya. the integrity of cirebon as a single kingdom only lasted until the end of the reign of prince girilaya. following the death of girilaya, according to his own will, cirebon was ruled by his two sons: martawijaya or panembahan sepuh and kartawijaya or panembahan anom. panembahan sepuh led the kasepuhan sultanate as its first king with the title syamsuddin (fauziyah, 2015). the entry of sufism into the cirebon region cannot be separated from the entry of sufism into the archipelago. historians have various opinions about how sufism came to the archipelago, and some posit that it happened at the same time as islam’s entry. however, there are three accounts for when islam came to the archipelago: the first claims it arrived in the 7th century ad (hamka) through arab trade relations with the east. the second posits that it entered in the 10th century, while the third puts this in the 13th century from gujarat and persia (ali, 2015). according to azra (2005), the debate about the process, time, origin, and perpetrators of islamization of the archipelago is still ongoing alongside an increasing number of research studies being carried out (azra, 2005). the number of studies carried out using different cases actually hajam 271 adds to the variety of conclusions that can be drawn, demonstrating how complex the islamization process is. rushing to conclusions can be not only misleading—it also makes us ahistorical. one of the many issues that have long been debated is the origin of the first islamic preachers on the archipelago. scholars have suggest various theses ranging from positing that islam came directly from arab lands to stating that islam first passed through several other regions of the world—such as persia, india, and china—before reaching the archipelago (yakub, 2017). more specifically for islamization on the island of java, the most dominant theory posits that the ulama belonging to the walisongo were the earliest preachers in the region, although some recent studies seriously dispute this thesis by stating that there had been an islamization movement before the walisongo (mas’udi, 2014). indeed, the saints are believed to have been around in the consolidation stage rather than the introduction stage of the islamization process, which had been previously conducted by early preachers who had come gradually and separately from one group or another. such figures include fatimah bint maimun, sheikh jamaludin al-kubra or al-kabir, sheikh hasanudin (syekh qubro), and sheikh nurjati, among others (erwantoro, 2012). beyond this debate, of course, islam entered the archipelago for the service of the sufis, because it occurred through the sufism channel. indeed, it is not an exaggeration to say that the spread of islam through the archipelago was largely due to the work of the sufis (ismail, 2012). according to (yakub, 2017), islam developed in the archipelago through six routes, namely trade, marriage, sufism, islamic education, politics, and arts, such as wayang. it is said that sunan kali jaga was very proficient at staging wayang theatrical performances. he never asked for a performance fee, only that the audience followed him in reciting the creed. most of the wayang stories are still taken from the mahabharata and ramayana stories, but the teachings and names of islamic heroes are inserted in the stories. other arts were also used as tools for islamization, such as literature (e.g., sagas, chronicles, and so on), building art, and carvings. of the six abovementioned channels of development for islam on the archipelago, sufism stands out because islam’s journey to the archipelago was related to carriers of islam with sufism teachings. these sufis originated in aceh, and some (not all) nusantara sufis who had a major influence in spreading sufism teachings to various part of the archipelago included hamzah fansuri, syamsuddin al-sumartani, abdur rauf al-sinkili, and abdul samad al-palimbangi, among others. some sufis and their various sufism doctrines originated in west sumatra, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 especially aceh, and these influenced the subsequent spread of sufism to various other regions of the archipelago, such as kalimantan, sulawesi, and java. cirebon was quite a significant area for the influence and spread of sufism from the sumatra sufis. indeed, cirebon was viewed as a regional center for the spread and development of islam and sufism because of cirebon’s strategic location, both geographically and as a maritime port. it could even be said that cirebon was a global center for the spread and development of islam and sufism (jumani & siddiqui, 2012). the first sufi scholar to be influential in the spread of islam and sufism was sheikh nurjati of cirebon. ali (2015) explained that syekh nurjati was believed to have founded the first islamic educational institution, a kind of pesantren, in bukit amparan jati. one of the important arguments about this preacher is how he can help explain the process of early islamization on the archipelago. compared to other figures, such as haji purwa and pangeran cakrabuana, syekh nurjati represented the cosmopolitanism islamic movement, which was very dominant in the middle ages in the context of the international trade economic movement. sheikh nurjati did not come from the west java region, like the two figures name above, but rather malacca. he travelled to mecca and baghdad before landing at muara jati harbor. a study of sheikh nurjati can help to trace back the origins of islam, the time of its arrival, and the carriers of islam that arrived, especially for the people of cirebon and its surrounding area. another figure who introduced islam to cirebon and its surrounding areas is mentioned in zaenal masduki’s research, namely the younger brother of sheikh nurjati himself, known as sheikh bayanullah or sheikh maulana akbar. he spread islam in the kuningan area, south of cirebon. according to zaenal masduki, it is of course very possible to surmise that sunan gunungjati played more of a consolidation role in the islamization movement, which had been already established by his predecessors. however, he massively amplified this movement and founded the first islamic kingdom in cirebon, one that was independent from pajajaran kingdom, which was then ruled by his grandfather, sri baduga maharaja prabu siliwangi (dewi et al., 2017). the next figure to develop islam and sufism in cirebon was sheikh syarif hidayatullah or sunan gunungjati. sunan gunungjati was an islamic propagator in west java, and he traveled to preach islam to the inhabitants of the western part of the island, starting with cirebon and its surrounding area (ali, 2015). hajam 273 syarif hidayatullah (sunan gunungjati) had a degree of guardianship, because he had reached the status of maqam ma’rifah, so the other guardians on java confirmed him as wali qutb (the axis or center of the walis). after achieving perfection at the ma’rifah stage, he gained the position of an-nubuwat al-warisah (prophetic inheritance of the prophet). he later succeeded prince cakrabuana and gained the title “ingkang sinuhun kanjeng susuhunan jati purba panetep panatagama aulia allah kutubizaman kholifatur rosulullah shallollahu alaihi wassalam.” the relationship between sufism and culture in the da’wah strategy of sunan gunungjati sunan gunungjati was the founder of javanese sufism, which has its own unique style that differs from that of the eastern sufis. the sufism teachings of sunan gunungjati involved the media of javanese culture and traditions, and the entry of sufism into cirebon began with early cirebon figures like syek nurjati and sunan gunungjati. indeed, these two figures played a major role in developing islam and sufism in cirebon. cirebon sufism was very in touch with the previously dominant religions, namely hinduism and buddhism, and the various cultures and languages of the cirebon people (luthfi, 2016). the islamization in cirebon by sheikh nurjati and sunan gunungjati (a student of sheikh nurjati) was therefore adapted to the local cultures without directly introducing sentences or verses from the qur’an or applying philosophical sufism terms— it instead mostly used terms from the regional language of cirebon. one of the methods applied by sheikh syarif hidayatullah was to use the proverb–petitih teaching approach. proverbs pe is a reflection of sunan gunungjati’s sufism teachings, which contain local wisdom that is full of philosophical meanings, and this can be used to guide daily life in the family, community, and nation, something that still persists in cirebon society. from here on in, cirebon was known as the “city of the guardians,” and the guardianship of sunan gunungjati became a magnet for the development of islamic and cirebon culture. however, the aura and echoes of the city of the wali have now become quiet and lost, because in cirebon, religious and cultural attitudes have been overtaken by the swift currents of modernization. consequently, cirebon is now more like a “city with a thousand malls.” sufistic values in cirebon have changed and faded due to modernization and metropolitanization, and some people are less in touch with the noble values put forward by sunan gunungjati. the researcher therefore felt it necessary to maintain and support these noble values by conducting a journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 review of them. this study was intended, among other things, to add to the treasures of sufism being researched by various groups, so this discussion could be used as material for further studies aimed at examining the role of art and culture in the spread of a religion. indeed, it could make sufism valuable as knowledge for forming spiritual, transcendental, and spiritual attitudes, as well as developing a noble character. further studies could also examine how sufism embodied in culture and traditions could contribute to strengthening local wisdom and resisting invasive cultures, which are sometimes more glamorous than educational (fauziyah, 2015) sheikh syarif hidayatullah, better known as sunan gunungjati, is considered a figure who spread islam in west java and acted as the first islamic ruler in cirebon. he is a holy figure (i.e., a wali, a saint) and a role model for muslims, who recognize him as having brought down the sultans of cirebon and banten. he is respected, and the pilgrims who visit his grave each day often pray for him, honor him, and even ask for his sacred blessing (fauziyah, 2015). as a member of the walisongo, he was a very active preacher. according to fox (1989), the walisongo were a da’wah or missionary council of holy people (saints, walis) who taught and preached islam in java. moreover, the word “nine” referred to the coordinating function of the missionary council, with the stipulation that should one of the guardians die, he would be replaced with another, so that there would always be nine (isbah, 2020). the da’wah model developed by sunan gunungjati combined sufism teachings with local cultural frames that are still felt today. likewise, during his leadership, sunan gunungjati combined structural (political) and cultural strategies. the main da’wah strategies developed by sunan gunungjati for forming a civil society are discussed below. preaching methods for preaching, sunan gunungjati followed the steps used by the prophet muhammad, such as through marriage, uniting influential leaders, political diplomacy, military strategy, and so on. he put emphasis on “dakwah bil hal,” which emphasizes direct practice together in the community and prioritizes uswah hasanah and good role models for the general public. one of his most famous expressions was that he aspired to create a program that is still being preserved. “i entrust the mosque, surau, and also the poor,” he said. the point is that as a leader, he did not inherit wealth and throne, but rather a tajug (i.e., mushalla, mosque, surau) and the poor. a tajug is a symbol of transcendence between the values of the world and the hereafter. there are vertical and horizontal hajam 275 relationships in transcending god’s self and establishing harmonious relationships with the fellow servants of god, including the welfare of the poor, because abandoning the poor means betraying god (samsudin, 2017). islamic boarding schools the pesantren were the earliest islamic educational institution established by islamic propagators in the archipelago. their teaching systems were brought from arabia, persia, and egypt. there are many explanations for the terms “pesantren” and “santri.” the islamic boarding school, or ma’had, in cirebon was first built by sheikh datuk kahfi from baghdad, who was better known as sheikh nurjati, a propagator of islam who also taught sunan gunungjati. responsibility for the pesantren was transferred to sheikh somadullah or raden wadirectsang when sheikh nurjati grew too old. it was later continued by his nephew, sunan gunungjati, after returning from study from various places, from mecca to the last ampel denta islamic boarding school, where he studied with sunan ampel. at the amparan jati islamic boarding school, sunan gunungjati became the kyai there. he taught religious sciences, namely the quran, hadith, aqidah, morality (sufism), and fiqh. the science of fiqh taught to students was that of the shafi’i school, while the science of monotheism (aqidah) was based on the ash’ari school of thought. for several years, syarif hidayatullah taught at the pesantren before he returned to palestine to pick up his mother, who still lived with his sister because he had left her a long time ago. he and his mother then returned to cirebon, but his mother did not want to stay in the pakungwati palace, so she lived with syarif hidayatullah at the amparan jati islamic boarding school (kertawibawa, 2007). because nurturing students in islamic boarding schools did not produce optimal results, on the advice of prince wadirectsang, sunan gunungjati preached from place to place, having left the amparan jati islamic boarding school, which he handed over to senior students. for two years, sunan gunungjati preached to various people and converted community leaders, with his methods yielding encouraging results (hayat, universitas islam malang, 2013; kholil 2008; putriana, 2020). on returning from preaching, sunan gunungjati was crowned the first sultan of the islamic kingdom of cirebon. sunan gunungjati sat in the palace next to the sang cipta rasa mosque, and the mosque and the palace both served as centers for the spread and study of islam for cirebon journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 and the surrounding area. following the death of sunan gunungjati, the sultanate was continued by his descendants until it was divided into two due to a family dispute. then the dutch colonialists arrived and interfered in the political affairs of the cirebon sultanate. finally, in the 18th century, there was a royal mufti, sheikh muqayyim, who felt uncomfortable watching the behavior of the dutch colonialists in the palace, so he left the palace and went to sindang laut to build a boarding school. this boarding school was located in the village of bulak close to where the pesantren is now. sheikh muqaayyim turned out to be a descendant of sunan gunungjati, and his islamic boarding school, called the buntet pesantren, is currently located in two villages, namely mertapada kulon village and bulak village. the buntet pesantren has developed into a reliable and advanced islamic educational institution. its education system combines the salaf (traditional) system and the khalaf (modern) system. the current caretaker of the school is actually a descendant of sunan gunungjati, starting with sheikh muqayyim and going through kh. muta’ad, kh. abdul jamil, kh. abbas, kh. mustahdi abbas, kh. mustamid abbas, kh. abdullah abbas, and kh. nahduddin abbas (until now) (kertawibawa, 2007). another old islamic boarding school in cirebon is the benda kerep islamic boarding school, which is managed by kyai sholeh, a scholar who is qualified and knowledgeable in religion and “sakti.” he is the ninth descendant of sunan gunungjati, and he fosters the benda kerep pesantren by prioritizing noble moral values, namely through the values of sufism. to this day, the benda kerep islamic boarding school and the kyai descendants of sheikh sholeh still maintain their sufi traditions, one of which being to not use a television or radio. the benda kerep islamic boarding school is located in approximately three hectares in the argasunya area, a highland area under harjamukti district, cirebon city. benda kerep is located in the middle of the forest, which is the land of the kanoman palace. furthermore, salaf islamic boarding schools have sprung up in various parts of cirebon, with them following the steps passed down by sunan gunungjati. at the start of the 19th century ad, there were the babakan ciwaringin, cirebon, kempek, gedongan, and arjawinangun boarding schools, among others. the learning systems and methods applied in the pesantren are almost the same, and the books that are used as references are all the same. nowadays, there are hundreds of islamic boarding schools in cirebon and the surrounding area. hajam 277 islamizing javanese cultural traditions sunan gunungjati tirelessly spread islam in western java. the success of his da’wah resulted in islam flourishing in various areas of west java, from the tip of the western part of the island of java to the eastern border. more than 90% of the population of west java is now muslim. islamization was not limited to the aspect of ritual (worship) alone, however—it also reached out to aspects of the existing local cultural traditions. in the economic system, he islamized the problems of purchasing transactions, renting, profit-sharing (e.g., mudharabah and musharaka), and so on. the kendurian custom for when someone dies was originally a legacy of the hindu–buddhist tradition, but it was islamized by sunan gunungjati by reading dhikr, tahlil, tahmid, tasbih, the quran, and shalawat to the prophet muhammad. in the artistic aspect, shadow puppets, mask dances, plays, and so on were islamized for their existence rather than as symbols. this was done, for example, when the opening began with greetings and basmalah, shalawat to the prophet, while the contents of the story contained the history of human civilization and how it relates to the values of aqidah, worship, and morals, so that people could easily accept islamic teachings with joy without the need for coercion or war. furthermore, sunan gunungjati applied islamic traditions to the people of west java by cultivating the celebration of the birthday of the prophet muhammad (muludan), nuzulul qur’an, isra mi’raj (rajaban), the islamic new year (one suranan), and so on. these splendid practices of islamic traditions did not just involve the people of cirebon but also all levels of society in remote areas of the island. the art of mosque building and layout following his coronation as sultan, sunan gunungjati wanted to build the great mosque of pakungwati. this desire was quickly realized, because his uncle had already collected building materials, such as bricks, wood, nails, and so on. sunan gunungjati then asked sheikh datuk kahfi to write a letter to his brother syarif nurullah requesting that he send teak wood from egypt. after donations were collected and other materials were procured, the construction of the mosque began with approximately one hundred workers (wahyu, 2005). other guardians also contributed. sunan bonang donated a mat, which was held in the north, while syekh benthong donated a mat from medina, which was held in the mihrab in the north. sunan jati donated a mat from majeti island journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 and installed it in the middle of the mosque. sunan kalijaga donated another mat that was held to the north of sunan purba’s mat (wahyu, 2005). the great mosque of pakungwati still stands strong, and the architectural art of the building has been maintained since the mosque was built in sunan gunungjati’s time. sunan gunungjati not only built mosques around the cirebon area but also in the various places where he had spread islam. he built the al-alam cilincing mosque of north jakarta in 1662, which still stands, with the art of the building still maintaining its original authenticity (wahyu, 2005). regarding the spatial layout of settlements, sunan gunungjati directed community leaders to arrange the spatial layout of each village such that it would have a golden triangle pattern that was interrelated. more specifically, when building the spatial layout, first there was the mosque and then the village’s official buildings, followed by the market. the same applied for higher level officials. the development of a city or part of it, such as for a sub-district, had to go hand in hand with mosques and markets. therefore, sunan gunungjati’s contribution still looks sustainable, because even though the architecture and building arrangements have changed considerably, the spatial layout remains the same. even the indonesian government officials want to preserve the city’s spatial layout, such as having a mosque beside the presidential palace (wahyu, 2005). this has deep philosophical meaning, as described in the qur’an surah al-jumu’ah and applied by the messenger of allah in the construction of the prophet’s mosque (madinah al-munawwarah). advancing the economy cirebon has long been an important port on the north coast of java, both for shipping and trading activities within the archipelago and with other parts of the world. from this, islam slowly began to grow and develop in cirebon. meanwhile, farmers in the interior of cirebon produced rice and other food items that were transported to the port by either river or road. by ensuring the security and tranquility of the people of cirebon and its surrounding area, the sultanate of cirebon became a trading center with an increasing level of income for cirebon’s people. in addition, the port of cirebon was busy with foreign merchants from places like india, persia, arabia, china, and so on. commercial transactions were carried out at the port through the barter system, so goods from india or china were exchanged for the products of the cirebon people, such as shrimp paste, agricultural products, and so on. thus, the economy of the cirebon hajam 279 community became more advanced and the community grew more prosperous. in addition, the port of cirebon welcomed merchants and traders from the port of jepara (wahyu, 2005). establishing royal politics as the first sultan in the history of the cirebon sultanate, sunan gunungjati emerged as both a religious and political leader, someone who had shifted the system and state structure toward the notion of religious power. his leadership was characterized by greatness and wisdom. in running his government, he defended the integrity of the law, controlled the sources of power (heirlooms and sacred places), and fought wars to expand his territory and spread islam. the conquest of sunda kelapa, rajagaluh, and talaga occurred during the time of sunan gunungjati. this period of expansion for the cirebon sultanate was followed by a period of stabilization filled with mental–spiritual development efforts among the people of cirebon. in addition, the evolution of the duchy of banten into the independent banten sultanate narrowed the scope of the pakuan pajajaran kingdom and increased the effectiveness of monitoring the wider kingdom’s territory (wahyu, 2005). the cooperation between the kingdoms of cirebon and demak was intended to accelerate the spread of islam beyond the island of java to the rest of the archipelago. such cooperation was seen, for example, when the cirebon kingdom was attacked by a small kingdom that was subordinate to the pajajaran kingdom. conversely, when the demak kingdom expanded its territory and brought down the majapahit kingdom, syarif hidayatullah helped it in its battle with majapahit. in that battle, the guardians participated in helping the troops by issuing their various karamahs. in the siege of majapahit, sunan gunungjati issued his karomah, namely from his crown, and out came thousands of rats that panicked majapahit’s royal troops (kertawibawa, 2007). building a sociocultural society under the control of sunan gunungjati, cirebon became one of the first centers for spreading islamic teachings in java while also becoming a center for political power and sociocultural development. on inheriting the potential of the pajajaran kingdom, sunan gunungjati did not seek to erase the cultural heritage of the pajajaran kingdom. instead, he preserved it and even adapted it for the teaching of islam, thus making it more acceptable to the pasundan people. this way, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 when the pasundan community embraced islam, they felt joyous about it, because it did not involve any coercion from muslim leaders. the islamic civilization established by sunan gunungjati made a very large contribution to forming a world view that emphasized theocentric aspects (i.e., always relating things to god), while western civilizations emphasized anthropocentric aspects (i.e., always relating things to humans). the existence of islamic civilization in cirebon and banten, as mentioned in the cirebon traditional texts, transformed two fishing villages that were all but meaningless into two developed metropolises, with the main pioneer being sunan gunungjati. by adopting islamic da’wah into political policy, the islamic sultanate of cirebon rapidly became a large empire. in 1530 ad, the islamic sultanate of cirebon covered the entire western part of java from cirebon in the east to the lands of pasundan and banten. the population at the time is estimated to have been 600,000 people. cirebon became the center for islamic civilization and its spread in west java. the islamic kingdom of cirebon experienced its heyday in those times, such that it was able to defeat the strength of the portuguese army in sunda kelapa. conclusion to sum up, islamization in indonesia cannot be separated from the development of sufism, because sufism had a close relationship with the inner atmosphere of the people of the indonesian archipelago, such that there was a contract between the propagators of islam and the indigenous people. familiarity facilitates the acceptance of a new religion like islam, and the walisongo applied this when preaching so that they would make an impression on the hearts of the people through islam nusantara, which is a model of islam that is peaceful, tolerant, open, and accommodating of local culture. in short, the propagators of islam kept the bottle and only replaced its contents. sunan gunungjati was one of the walisongo. his da’wah pattern had similarities with those of the other saints, but he was unique in that he was also a ruler in addition to being a religious figure, one deserving of the title of “ulama-umara.” he was even called “qutb al-awliya.” he became a reference for the da’wah strategies implemented by the walisongo. sheikh syarif hidayatullah’s sufism teachings, which are framed in culture, succeeded in building a civil society in java, especially in cirebon and its surrounding area. for this reason, teaching sufism through a cultural frame can still be considered important for responding to the dynamics of the world community, parts of which seem to have lost their identity due to advances in science hajam 281 and technology and the progressive development of sophisticated communication tools. some have therefore forgotten the basic, essential things, like intuitive and metaphysical issues. in this situation, it may help to revive the sufism teachings of sunan gunungjati, which have prophetic values and morals characterized by earnest obedience and devotion to allah and his messenger. the ways that sheikh syarif hidayatullah spread the teachings of islam and sufism went not just through normative doctrines—he was very respectful of cultural traditions, even though they were rooted in buddhism and hinduism. these traditions therefore continued to be maintained and preserved by the cirebon people until modern times. references achmad, a., layyinah, r., & rahman, f. (2020). generasi insan maju berbasis dalam perspektif tafsir penyucian jiwa al-mizan thabataba’i. hanifiya: jurnal studi agamaagama, 2(2), 113–128. https://doi.org/10.15575/hanifiya.v2i2.7312 adam, aswi marwan (2011), pengantar merisis sejarah total asia tenggara. in anthony reid (ed.), asia tenggarara dalam kurun niaga 1450-1680 jld. ii: jaringan perdagangan global. yayasan obor indonesia ali, m. (2015). sejarah cirebon: eksperimen pribumisasi islam-sufistik syekh nurjati. manuskripta, 5(2), 349–378. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.33656/manuskripta.v5i2.48 ali, t. (2003). the clash of fundamentalisms: crusades, jihads and modernity. verso. shorturl.at/fpgk2 ambary, h. m. (1988) menemukan peradaban jejak arkeologis dan historis islam indonesia, jakarta: logos amin, f., & ananda, r. a. (2019). kedatangan dan penyebaran islam di asia tenggara: telaah teoritik tentang proses islamisasi nusantara. analisis: jurnal studi keislaman, 18(2), 67– 100. https://doi.org/10.24042/ajsk.v18i2.3069 anshori, m. a., prasojo, z. h., & muhtifah, l. (2021). contribution of sufism to the development of moderate islam in nusantara. international journal of islamic thought, 19(1), 40–48. https://doi.org/10.24035/ijit.19.2021.194 arifin, m. (2013). sufi nusantara, sleman: ar-ruz media. azra, a. (1999). the transmission of al-manar’s reformism to the malay-indonesian world: the cases of al-imam and al-munir. studia islamika, 6(3), 75–100. https://doi.org/10.15408/sdi.v6i3.723 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 azra, a. (2005). islam in southeast asia: tolerance and radicalism. miegunyah public lecture, 1–19. https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/1547790/briefingpaper1azyumardiazra2.pdf bhat, a. (2019). islamic philosophy of education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 73-76. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 brundage, a. (2014). going to the sources: a guide to historical research and writing. 5th edition. kindle edition. essex: wiley and blackwell. shorturl.at/bcok5 budiharso, t., & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 burke, e. (1979). islamic history as world history: marshall hodgson, ‘the venture of islam.’ international journal of middle east studies, 10(2), 241–264. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020743800034796 creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. in v. knight, j. young, & b. bauhaus (eds.), muqarnas (3rd ed.). sage publications, inc. https://doi.org/10.2307/1523157 dewi, t., masruhim, m. a., & sulistiarini, r. (2017). ulama pasca sunan gunung jati: jaringan intelektual islam cirebon abad ke-16 sampai dengan abad ke-18. jurnal sosiologi walisongo, 1(2), 77–194. http://repository.syekhnurjati.ac.id/id/eprint/3074%0a effendi, k. (1994). petata-petitih sunan gunungjati, bandung: cv indra prahasta. erwantoro, h. (2012). a brief history of the kingdom of cirebon. patanjala, 4(1), 170–183. https://doi.org/https://www.neliti.com/publications/291812/sejarah-singkat-kerajaan-cirebon fauziyah, s. (2015). kiprah sunan gunung jati dalam membangun kekuatan politik islam di jawa barat. jurnal agama dan budaya tsaqofah, 13(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.32678/tsaqofah.v13i1.3404 garcia, a. c., standlee, a. i., bechkoff, j., & cui, y. (2009). ethnographic approaches to the internet and computer-mediated communication. journal of contemporary ethnography, 38(1), 52–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241607310839 hasbullah. (2014). islam dalam bingkai budaya lokal (kajian tentang integrasi islam dalam budaya melayu riau). toleransi: media komunikasi umat beragama, 6(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.24014/trs.v6i1.893 hayat (universitas islam malang). (2013). pendidikan islam dalam konsep prophetic intelligence. jurnal pendidikan islam, ii(2), 379–400. http://journal.uinsuka.ac.id/jurnal/artikel/217/pendidikan-islam-dalam-konsep-prophetic-intelligence https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 hajam 283 helland, c. (2002). surfing for salvation. religion, 32(4), 293–302. https://doi.org/10.1006/reli.2002.0406 hitti, p. k. (1970). the umayyad caliphate: mu ‘āwiyah establishes a dynasty. in history of the arabs (pp. 189-198). palgrave, london. shorturl.at/eqyly hooker, m. b. (2003). indonesian islam: social change through contemporary fatawa. the american journal of islamic social sciences, 24(1), 167–168. shorturl.at/didtw isbah, m. f. (2020). pesantren in the changing indonesian context: history and current developments. qudus international journal of islamic studies, 8(1), 65–106. https://doi.org/10.21043/qijis.v8i1.5629 ismail, a. u. (2012). integrasi syariah dengan tasawuf. ahkam : jurnal ilmu syariah, 12(1), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.15408/ajis.v12i1.987 jamilah, s. (2021). moderate islamic education to enhance nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0. journal of social studies education research, 12(3), 79–100. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3506 jumani, a. z., & siddiqui, k. (2012). bases of islamic branding in pakistan: perceptions or believes. interdisciplinary journal of contemporary research in business, 3(9), 840–847. kertawibawa, b.b. (2007). dinasti raja petapa i pangeran cakrabuana sang perintis kerajaan cirebon. bandung: kiblat. kartodirdjo, s. (1975). community development service in yogyakarta, indonesia (m. campbell (ed.); vol. 3, issue 59). international development research centre. https://idl-bncidrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/17003/idl-17003.pdf?sequence=1 kasdi, a. (2017). the role of walisongo in developing the islam nusantara civilization. addin, 11(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.21043/addin.v11i1.1973 kholil, a. (2008). islam jawa: sufisme dalam etika & tradisi jawa, uin maliki press. http://repository.uin-malang.ac.id/1189/ kistoro, h. c. a. (2021). model of the cultural da’wah of the sunan gunung jati and its relevance with the current da’wah of islam. jurnal ilmu-ilmu keiskaman, 118, 100–118. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.28918/religia.v24i1. 4192 luthfi, k. m. (2016). islam nusantara: relasi islam dan budaya lokal. shahih : journal of islamicate multidisciplinary, 1(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.22515/shahih.v1i1.53 mccaffrey, g., raffin-bouchal, s., & moules, n. j. (2012). hermeneutics as research approach: a reappraisal. international journal of qualitative methods, 11(3), 214–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940691201100303 http://repository.uin-malang.ac.id/1189/ journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 257-285 mulyati, s. (2006). tasawuf nusantara rangkaian mutiara sufi terkemuka. kencana. shorturl.at/dkouu mustofa, s. (2015). meneguhkan islam nusantara untuk islam berkemajuan. epistemé: jurnal pengembangan ilmu keislaman, 10(2), 405–434. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.21274/epis.2015.10.2.405-434 nasir, m. (2021). curriculum development and accreditation standards in the traditional islamic schools in indonesia. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 37-56. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 putriana, s. (2020). eksistensi kesenian sebagai revitalisasi dialog budaya jawa dan islam oleh sunan kalijaga. prosiding konferensi ilmiah mahasiswa unissula …, 2, 1281–1290. http://lppm-unissula.com/jurnal.unissula.ac.id/index.php/kimuhum/article/view/8258 robinson, d. (1975). the legacy of islam by joseph schacht; c.e. bosworth. the international journal of african historical studies, 8(3), 516–518. https://doi.org/10.2307/217179 roqib, m. (2021). increasing social class through islamic boarding schools in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 305–329. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3291 said, e. w. (2004). covering islam: how the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world a critical review (revised ed). vintage books, random house inc. samsudin, l. w. (2017). peran sunan gunung jati dalam islamisasi di cirebon. 12. solikhah, i., & budiharso, t. (2020). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177–197. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2658 suntana, i., & tresnawaty, b. (2021). multidimensional social crisis and religious violence in southeast asia: regional strategic agenda, weak civilian government, triune crime, wealth gaps, and coopted journalism. journal of culture and values in education, 4(2), 113. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2 van niel, r. (1956). indonesian trade and society. essays in asian social and economic history. the journal of asian studies, 1, 440–441. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0363691700010230 wasitaatmadja, f. f., & susetio, w. (2020). philosophical sufism and legal culture in nusantara: an epistemological review. al-risalah, 20(1), 75. https://doi.org/10.30631/alrisalah.v20i1.558 wildemuth, b. m. (2009). applications of social research methods to questions in information https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 hajam 285 and library science. in reseña de “applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science” de barbara m. wildemuth (vol. 29, issue 57). libraries unlimited. 2009. yakub, m. (2017). perkembangan islam indonesia. kalam, 7(1), 135. https://doi.org/10.24042/klm.v7i1.446 yin, r. k. (2017). designing case studies. in case study research and applications: design and methods. zuhdi, s. (2002). cilacap (1830-1942): bangkit dan runtuhnya suatu pelabuhan di jawa. jakarta: gramedia. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),97-119 motivational factors influencing learners’ academic success in an australian enabling education setting tanya weiler1 & md. wahid murad2 abstract the main objective of this study is to identify and discuss the motivational factors that significantly influence learners' academic success in an australian enabling education setting. the logistic regression technique has been employed to identify the motivational factors using data collected through online surveys with 331 learners enrolled in foundation studies and diploma programs at a south australian university. empirical results showed that there are some dominant motivational factors that can be used to predict how and why they are important in influencing learners’ academic success in these programs. the motivational factors that were found to significantly influence learners’ academic success include the time available to study, work status, living with a disability, and childcare arrangements. individual study habits and interest in the materials were also found to be significant. additionally, several other motivational factors were found to not significantly influence learners’ academic success within the same environment. overall, these results showed that learners with higher intrinsic motivation drivers are more likely to succeed in enabling education. therefore, appropriate teaching and learning approaches and environments, including diversified supports and mechanisms that can assist students to encourage motivation, are vital for learners to succeed in enabling programs. keywords: motivation, enabling education, academic success, pathway programs, learners introduction motivation has long been recognized as a distinct characteristic of strong student practice. more specifically, motivation within the academic environment is recognized for its strong influence on achievement and learner behavior (liu et al., 2012; lynch, 2006). while research on motivational factors affecting learners’ academic success at the undergraduate level is plentiful (see abouserie, 1995; archer et al., 1999; bartimote-aufflick et al., 2016; breen & lindsay, 2002; daniel & johnstone, 2017; levy & campbell, 2008; shin et al., 2017; wiseman et al., 1988), empirical research on motivational factors that influence learners’ academic success in the setting of enabling university pathway programs is comparatively limited. 1 ms. university of south australia, education futures tanya.weiler@unisa.edu.au 2 dr. university of south australia, education futures wahid.murad@unisa.edu.au mailto:tanya.weiler@unisa.edu.au mailto:wahid.murad@unisa.edu.au journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. an earlier study on enabling university pathway programs reported that developing intrinsic motivation was a desired skill identified by learners (stokes, 2014). also, archer et al. (1999: 50) reported graduates of enabling programs enrolled in undergraduate study were more likely to be motivated by mastery of the materials they were learning. despite this finding, research that specifically identifies motivational factors of enabling students as they study in enabling programs is an identified gap. this study aims to identify and analyze the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that could influence learner success in enabling university pathway programs. enabling university pathway programs seek to provide learners who have experienced educational disadvantage or interruption with a pathway into higher education. while they differ in duration, mode of study, and number of courses, they have been designed to support the widening participation agenda by ‘‘providing opportunities for all capable people to participate to their full potential” (bradley et al., 2008, p. 10). key to this policy is the drive to reach the target set in the same review that ‘20% of undergraduate enrollments in higher education should be students from low socio-economic backgrounds,’’ informing a larger target, in which “40% of 25to 34-yearolds will have attained at least a bachelor-level qualification by 2020” (bradley et al., 2008, p. xiv). unisa college at the university of south australia is an established provider of enabling foundation studies, streamed diplomas, and the aboriginal pathway program, which serve to both prepare students for a successful transition into undergraduate programs and broaden university participation from recognized equity groups within the south australian community. frequently, learners in enabling university pathway programs identify with multiple australian government equity categories3, have experienced educational disadvantage or interruption and are frequently the first in their families to attend university (cantwell et al., 2001). university participation rates are considerably lower in low ses areas in australia (vernon et al., 2019), with enabling programs seeking to shift from this deficit discourse to instead focusing attention on reducing exclusion and inequality within higher education (burke et al., 2016; gale & parker, 2013). 3 australian government higher education equity groups include students that are from a non-english speaking background (nesb); have a disability; are women in non-traditional areas; identify as indigenous; are from low ses (socio-economic status) locations based on postcode of permanent home residence; and are from regional and remote locations. weiler & murad 99 this research aims to identify the potential relationship between key factors associated with learner motivation and success in a core academic literacy course in a large australian enabling education program comprising approximately 1500 students. it specifically seeks to identify the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors influencing learner success in enabling education programs. intrinsic and extrinsic drivers of motivation have been of considerable interest to researchers to explain individual motivation (e.g., bénabou & tirole, 2003; deci, 1975; ryan & deci, 2000; vallerand, 1997), despite arguments surrounding the problematic dualism inherent in this binary (reiss, 2012) and a shift instead toward a hierarchal and multifaceted approach (vallerand & ratelle, 2000). despite this, ryan and deci stated (2000: 55), “over three decades of research has shown that the quality of experience and performance can be very different when one is behaving for intrinsic versus extrinsic reasons”. intrinsic motivators are those which satisfy the person themselves and bring inherent joy and reward. conversely, extrinsic motivation is associated with satisfying external goals, for example, receiving a reward or recognition from others. in the case of learners, intrinsically motivated students view learning as an opportunity to satisfy their curiosity, whereas extrinsically motivated learners are driven by rewards or goals external to themselves, usually in the form of praise or grades (lynch, 2006). lynch (2006) recognized a relationship between the likelihood of learners new to university to follow previously established learning routines and extrinsic motivation factors and examined how this differs from students who are further advanced in their studies within a higher education context. existing empirical research on intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors influencing learner success in enabling education programs is limited. this study, therefore, aims to address this research gap and contribute to the existing literature on enabling higher education by addressing the following research questions: 1) what are the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that considerably influence learners’ academic success in an australian-enabling education setting? a) are these factors predominantly intrinsic or extrinsic? 2) how do these factors influence academic success of learners? 3) what are the motivational factors that insignificantly influence academic success of learners? in addressing these research questions, this study identifies and critically analyzes the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that considerably influence learner success within an enabling journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. education program. empirical outcomes from this study are expected to help predict the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors and learner success in other australian enabling education programs to support educators to further understand diverse student cohorts and enhance teaching environments. depending on the similarity in context and characteristics of education programs and learner cohorts, these empirical findings are expected to have wider applicability in other higher education institutions elsewhere in the world. the rest of the study is structured as follows: research methodology followed by empirical results and discussion, and finally, conclusions and implications. methodology data collection using a structured questionnaire following pintrich and degroot’s (1990) motivational and selfregulated learning components of classroom academic performance, data for this study were collected through an online survey development tool: surveymonkey. no criteria were used to differentiate between pre-university diploma and foundation studies students for gender or other socio-economic and demographic backgrounds. this study targeted all learners enrolled in diploma and foundation studies enabling programs for sampling. a survey link was then sent to all students enrolled in the core unit for both programs with a request to participate in the survey. participation in this survey was voluntary; however, prior to conducting the survey with the targeted sample respondents, human research ethics approval from the authors’ institution was obtained. of the 1483 students invited to participate in the survey, 331 students successfully completed the survey questionnaire, with a participation rate of 22.31%. in this study, the validity and reliability of data collection tools have been carefully utilized. upon running the data validation tool of spss, all variables and data values passed the requested check. also, the whole data set has been checked for reliability, and hence, the reliability analysis of spss has generated a cronbach alpha value of 0.21 for 62 items and 331 sample cases. as the validity of data collection is mainly about ensuring the accuracy and quality of data, we have conducted several procedures in ensuring it. firstly, we made sure that only learners enrolled in foundation studies and diploma programs were sent the online questionnaire survey link and that only those learners participated in the survey. all incomplete questionnaires and questionnaires with any weiler & murad 101 missing values/entries were excluded from the analysis. each fully completed questionnaire was checked for expected variable range, such as age, gender, study mode, work status, etc. as well as being checked for clarity and consistency. finally, we conducted a data validity check in excel and found that the refined data set passed the validity test. the sample size used in the study is also well supported and no missing values were reported in any single questionnaire completed by the respondents. to justify this sample size, the following formula for sample size determination was employed: 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = ((𝑍2 × 𝑝(1 − 𝑝))/𝑒2) / (1 + ((𝑍2 × 𝑝(1 − 𝑝))/(𝑒2𝑁))) ………………(1) where n = population size, which is 1483, e =margin of error and z = z-score, confidence level of 95%, and margin of error of 5%. solving the above equation determines the minimum sample size of 306, but the sample size in this study is 331. as claimed by podsakoff et al. (2003, p. 899), “the key point to remember is that the procedural and statistical remedies selected should be tailored to fit the specific research question at hand. there is no single best method for handling the problem of common method variance because it depends on what the sources of method variance are in the study and the feasibility of the remedies that are available.” therefore, they suggest researchers to use one of the statistical remedies, even though none of the procedural remedies will minimize the detrimental effects of method biases. following kock (2015) we conducted a collinearity test as the appropriate statistical remedy to identify the common method bias of multiple logistic regression model. to check whether any multicollinearity problems exist in the estimated model due to it having very high or unusual correlations (i.e., >0.8) between predictors, we conducted the collinearity test on all the predictors and found that none of them is having such a high collinearity problem. data analysis learner success in this study was determined based on the final mark students obtained in a core academic literacy course which is completed as part of both the diploma and foundation studies journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. programs. course grades were obtained with permission. as the key objective is to predict and analyze the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that considerably influence learners’ academic success, a logistic regression technique is employed to achieve that objective. the logistic regression model involves a dichotomous dependent variable against several independent variables, which can be interval, binary and categorical in nature, and are regressed. in our effort to fit a dichotomous dependent variable, which comprises a value of 1 for yes and 0 for no, in the logistic regression model, we transformed all participated learners’ obtained marks into two dichotomous values. we specifically considered it learners’ academic success when the participant obtained a minimum grade of 50 out of 100 in the course, which was coded as 1. we considered it learners’ academic unsuccess when the participant obtained a grade of less than 50 out of 100 in the course, which was coded as 0. the estimation procedures for multiple logistic regression model to predict the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors influencing learners’ academic success can be portrayed in the following equation form: 𝐼𝑛 ( 𝑝 (1−𝑝 ) = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑋1 + 𝛽2𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝛽𝑘 𝑋𝑘………. (2) where �̂� is the probability of an academically successful learner, 𝑝 (1−𝑝)̂ is the odds ratio, i.e., the probability for a learner who is not academically successful, 𝛽0 is intercept, and 𝛽1 → 𝛽𝑘 are the coefficients for k explanatory variables 𝑋1 → 𝑋𝑘. while the equation for probability of successful learners is well known, if we want to know the probabilities of learners who are not successful, the following logistic regression equation can be employed: �̂� = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝛽0+𝛽1𝑋1+𝛽2𝑋2+⋯+𝛽𝑘𝑋𝑘) 1+𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝛽0+𝛽1𝑋1+𝛽2𝑋2+⋯+𝛽𝑘𝑋𝑘) ………. (3) where 0<�̂�<1 and a positive value of the coefficients implies that the odds of success of learners increase with a positive change in the respective explanatory variable. also, a negative value of the coefficients implies otherwise. that means the odds of success of learners decrease with a negative change in the respective variable. spss was used to compute descriptive statistics and estimate the multiple logistic regression model. it is important to elucidate how the measurements fit all assumptions of the multiple logistic regression technique used in this study. this can be traced from the logistic regression model’s sensitivity analysis. in this case, the model appears to be able to correctly classify 97.8% of the weiler & murad 103 learners who have achieved “success” and 28.3% of the learners who have achieved “otherwise” (i.e., “unsuccess”). of the learners who are predicted to have achieved “success” the model accurately picked 87.74% of them. also, of the learners predicted to have achieved “otherwise,” i.e., those who were unsuccessful, the model accurately picked 71% of them. the hosmer and lemeshow (2000) goodness of fit test also supports the estimated logistic regression model as being useful. in this study, this test produced a chi-square value of 7.40 with a significance value of 0.50. as the significance value is greater than 0.05, it would be safe to say that the estimated logistic regression model is well supported. findings descriptive statistics of the 331 respondents, 278 (84%) were determined to have achieved academic success in this unit within their pre-undergraduate program, while 53 respondents (16%) were deemed academically unsuccessful. this demonstrates a significant difference between the proportions of learners who have achieved academic success and those who have not achieved so in the enabling university pathway programs. appendix 1 contains descriptive statistics for each independent variable. table 1 frequency of learners who achieved academic success and who have not achieved it frequency percentage valid percentage cumulative percentage valid academic success not achieved 53 16.0 16.0 16.0 academic success achieved 278 84.0 84.0 100.0 total 331 100.0 100.0 estimated logistic regression model for predicting learner’s academic success before presenting and discussing the key empirical findings that we obtained through the logistic regression model, it is important to report the model test result and classification table. according to the model’s classification table, 84% of cases were correctly classified. based on the model journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. assumption, all the learners would not have achieved “success” with their enabling education, as at least 53 learners had been unsuccessful. the model test results provide information about the model’s strength and usefulness. the cox and snell (1989) r2 and the nagelkerke (1991) r2 values indicate the amount of variation in the dependent variable explained by the model (from a minimum value of 0 to a maximum of approximately 1). in this case, the two values, 0.20 and 0.35, suggest that between 20% and 35% of the variability is explained by this set of variables. another strength of the model can be traced from the refined classification table that indicates how well the estimated model can predict the correct category (i.e., a learner’s academic “success” or “otherwise”) for each observation. upon comparing the output of the refined classification table with the one discussed earlier, an improvement has been observed in the overall model prediction while the predictor variables have been included in the model. the refined model now accurately classifies 87.6% of observations overall, which is an improvement over 84% in the initial classification table. of all the independent variables which were regressed against the dependent variable in the logistic regression model, only eight of them were found to significantly influence learners’ academic success in enabling education programs (table 2). the independent variables that were not found to significantly influence learners’ academic success are listed in table 3. the estimated multiple logistic regression model comprising eight significant independent variables can now be used for predicting learners’ academic success in this enabling education program. however, the refined multiple logistic regression model takes the following equation form, where figures in parentheses are t-values of the regression coefficients: 𝐼𝑛 ( 𝑝 (1−𝑝 ) = 5.30⏟ (0.93) + 2.31⏟ (3.08) 𝑋1 + 3.17⏟ (1.71) 𝑋2 + 2.40⏟ (2.45) 𝑋3 − 3.01⏟ (−2.92) 𝑋4 + 0.72⏟ (1.64) 𝑋5 + 0.77⏟ (1.64) 𝑋6 + 3.20⏟ 2.13 𝑋7 + 2.99⏟ (1.56) 𝑋8…. (4) weiler & murad 105 table 2 motivational factors that significantly affect learners’ academic success in an australian enabling education setting note: *** indicates significance at the 1% level (p≤0.01) ** indicates significance at the 5% level (p≤0.05) * indicates significance at the 10% level (p≤0.10) the multiple logistic regression outputs in table 2 reveal eight independent variables, which are significantly influencing learners’ academic success within the examined enabling education program. of these eight, two motivational factors, whether the learner is studying full-time (x1) and whether the learner with a child/children has made any changes to childcare to study (x4), are found to be highly significant (p≤0.01) in influencing academic success with their enabling education programs. the variable of x1 produced a positive coefficient, which implies that 4 wald statistics: wald test in multiple logistic regression analysis helps to determine whether an independent predictor variable is statistically significant. it null hypothesises that the value of coefficient of an independent predictor is zero. the wald statistic is basically t2, which is the ratio of the square of the regression coefficient of an independent predictor variable to the square of the standard error of that coefficient [i.e., (β/se)2] and is chi-square distributed with one degree of freedom. although it has been reported in logistic regression analysis to assess the significance of an independent predictor variable the probability value (i.e., significance level) of each predictor variable provided by the model serves the same purpose here. independent variables β s.e. wald 4 sig. x1 = studying full-time? (coded 1 for full-time study; 0 for otherwise) 2.31 0.75 5.45 0.00*** x2 = learner’s work status (coded 1 for full-time working; 0 for otherwise) 3.17 1.85 2.95 0.10* x3 = learner has a disability (coded 1 for having a disability; 0 for otherwise) 2.40 0.98 5.83 0.02** x4 = learner with child/children made changes to childcare to study (coded 1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) -3.01 1.13 7.10 0.01*** x5 = learner maintains a diary and/or study plans to study (coded 1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.72 0.44 2.74 0.10* x6 = it is the learner’s idea to study at the university (coded 1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.77 0.47 2.76 0.10* x7 = learner likes the subject matter of the course (coded 1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 3.20 1.50 4.75 0.03** x8 = learner devises questions to help focus on reading while reading the learning materials (coded 1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 2.99 1.92 2.43 0.10* constant (=β0) 5.30 5.70 0.87 0.35 cox & snell r2 0.20 nagelkerke r2 0.35 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. students studying their enabling program full-time have higher odds of success than their part-time peers. the rationale for this finding is arguably straightforward as full-time learners may have fewer temporal demands than part-time students, allowing for more focused time commitment to their studies, translating into academic success. in contrast, part-time learners have comparatively less time to spend on studies, which may logically be interrupted by other temporal demands or obligations that may negatively influence their academic success. maccann et al. (2011) observed that part-time learners in similar programs are more likely to have work and childcare commitments, which detract from the time available to study and thereby impact their achievement. we, therefore, suggest that intrinsic motivation of learners to learn full-time results in academic success in the enabling education programs. based on a large, massive open online courses (mooc) case study, samuelsen and khalil (2020) suggested a curvilinear relationship between effort over time and a learner’s academic success. also, carbonaro (2005) reported that learners who achieved higher grades utilize substantially more effort than those who achieved lower grades. the variable of x4 produced a negative but highly significant (p≤0.01) coefficient in the multiple logistic regression model, which suggests that the odds are higher for learners to succeed in the enabling education program if they do not arrange childcare for their children. it would be possible to interpret this finding in multiple ways. firstly, it is possible that students’ children were not at an age that required childcare, allowing them to undertake study during school hours. alternatively, this may imply that learners who care for their dependent children themselves while undertaking studies tend to demonstrate a higher academic success rate than those who arrange professional childcare services for their dependent children. this interpretation of students who are parents as successful learners aligns with wainwright and marandet’s (2010) findings that reported over 67.4% of undergraduate learners who were parents cited their primary drive for further education being a desire to be a role model for their children. as outlined by craft (2019), mature-age learners in the category of learners with children can perform much better academically than their younger counterparts, despite the potential barriers they face. this intrinsic motivation to succeed is compounded by the desire to build financial and family stability (see wainwright & marandet, 2010). an equally important consideration is the expense and availability of childcare in australia. considering the large numbers of learners from low ses backgrounds who participate weiler & murad 107 in enabling education programs, it is logical that childcare expenses and availability are prohibitive, or the practicalities of managing timetables with irregular hours are problematic. two motivational factors considering “whether the learner has a disability” (x3) and “whether the learner likes the subject matters of the course” (x7) were also found to positively and significantly (p≤0.05) influence learners’ academic success in the examined program. this finding of a learner’s disability positively influencing academic success contrasts with findings obtained by abbottchapman et al. (1995) in an australian context where disabilities were found to be unrelated to student academic performance. this finding also runs counter to those of kilpatrick et al. (2017), who found that learners with a disability consistently demonstrated lower success rates than those of the total learner population in australian higher education. additionally, while success ratios of students with a disability are high, australian disability clearinghouse on education and training (adcet, 2019) reported that undergraduate students with a disability are less successful than undergraduates studying without a disability. however, our empirical finding strongly supports that a learner with a disability studying within enabling programs at the university of south australia does not experience this similar impact on their “success”. the justification for this finding emphasizes the requirement and responsibility of universities to ensure that support services and responsible adjustments are provided so that learners with a disability can access and participate in education on the same terms as clearly legislated in the australian disability standards for education 2005. further support for this rare empirical finding could be due to the pedagogical approach adopted by unisa college, which fosters an environment of support for all students and their individual needs, underpinned by an ethos of care and a commitment to social justice (hattam & weiler, 2021). this is in addition to the highly collaborative relationship established between academics within the enabling programs and the university’s centralized supports for ongoing assistance provided to learners with a disability. for instance, at our university learners with a disability receive individualized and tailored support and flexibility from both areas, which contributes positively to their learning outcomes and help them achieve academic success. this is fostered through close engagement between academic staff teaching students and colleagues who work in access and inclusion who provide support and advice for both students and staff. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. we also examined whether learners’ success in a course is affected by how much they enjoy the course’s subject matter. as mentioned earlier, this intrinsic motivational factor (x7) generated a positive and significant (p≤0.05) coefficient in the multiple logistic regression model. this implies that if a learner finds the subject matter of a course interesting, the odds of them succeeding in the course are significantly higher. this empirical finding is consistent with an earlier study by ngai et al. (2018), reporting a positive relationship between learners’ interest in the subject materials and their academic success. in addition, quinlan (2019) reported that learners’ interest in subject materials considered useful to them personally or for their future is particularly relevant, given that the course examined provides learners with the required knowledge to navigate their future undergraduate degrees. as these findings suggest, learners’ genuine interest in subject matter keeps them highly engaged with the learning materials making them more likely to achieve subject learning outcomes and academic success in their pathway program. in addition, while this subject is a core subject and challenging in nature, it aims at providing learners with acculturation to university norms. in keeping with critical enabling pedagogy, this course utilizes challenging tasks supported by strong scaffolding to build student confidence and agency (hattam et al., in press). in line with findings from lynch (2006), learners’ effort has been found to diminish with increased subject difficulty, with learners reporting these difficult subjects to be less meaningful or interesting. our empirical findings revealed that a suitable balance between learner’s liking of the subject matter and difficulty level of the subject matter should be struck to help learners achieve academic success in enabling education. professional development in critical enabling pedagogy supports educators in embedding these approaches (hattam & weiler, 2022). it was found that four other motivational factors positively and significantly (p≤0.10) influence learners’ academic success in enabling education programs. these independent motivational factors are “whether the learner is working full-time” (x2), “whether the learner has maintained a diary and/or study plans to study” (x5), “whether it is the learner’s idea to study at the university” (x6), and “whether the learner devises questions to help focus on reading while reading the learning materials” (x8). the multiple logistic regression model results showed that the odds for academic success in enabling education programs are higher for full-time working learners. while unusual, this finding is consistent with an earlier study by polidano and zakirova (2011). they reported that for both fulland part-time learners in the australian tertiary education context, the longer they weiler & murad 109 have been working, the more likely they are to complete the course. as full-time working learners often enroll in programs part-time, serious dedication to studies, better time management skills, and aspiration to obtain an undergraduate degree by first completing an enabling pathway could be the likely rationales for this unusual finding. also, for full-time working learners, the skills acquired through a foundation studies certificate or diploma can assist within existing workplaces, potentially accelerating career progression. this contextual relevance of the skills learned within higher education applicable within an existing workplace could, therefore, contribute to these students achieving the desired academic success in their studies. the finding runs counter to that explained earlier for full-time enrolled learners, who are found to have a higher likelihood of succeeding in their studies. as full-time students are not full-time employees, the findings from the multiple logistic regression model on the two learner cohorts should be examined carefully. in the multiple logistic regression model, both the coefficient value and odds ratio for an independent variable are estimated autonomously of each other. the multiple logistic regression model analysis results show that the intrinsic motivational factor of x5, which considers whether learners’ academic success in enabling education programs is influenced by their regular maintenance of a diary and/or study plans is positive and significant (p≤0.10). this implies that there is a significantly higher likelihood for academic success in the enabling education programs for learners who regularly maintain a diary and/or study plans. this strategy can be associated with goal-setting theory (see locke & latham, 1990), suggesting that people with specific, challenging, and achievable goals perform better and demonstrate higher levels of self-efficacy (bandura & locke, 2003). learners with a regular study plan who perform better or achieve academic success have adopted and implemented a clear strategy to achieve their goals. the rationale for this could be that maintenance of a diary and/or study plans by learners demonstrates their commitment, regular engagement, and timely action with studies that ultimately result in academic success. this is further supported by a positive relationship between a learner’s academic success and “resource management factors,” including time and study environment, as emphasized by lynch (2006). the estimated multiple logistic regression model provides evidence for the fact that in enabling education programs, learners’ probability of academic success is significantly (p≤0.10) higher if it is their intrinsic motivation that drives them to study at university. this means that learners who journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. are intrinsically motivated to study in enabling education programs outperform those who are extrinsically motivated, particularly by their parents, friends, and close relatives. froiland et al. (2012) examined united states’ k-12 learners and found similar results. they claimed that intrinsic motivation to learn could lead to academic success. additionally, scott et al. (1998:222) stated, “intuitively, strength of motivation for attending university should predict strength of commitment to study, and thus likelihood of leaving before completion.” the empirical finding from this study suggests that being intrinsically motivated by identifying that it was the individual’s idea to enroll in university study plays a considerable role in their academic achievement in their enabling program. this study also aimed to examine whether the learner’s academic success in enabling education programs is predictable, depending on whether they have developed questions to help focus on reading while reading learning materials (intrinsic motivational factor x8). the multiple logistic regression model generated a positive and significant (p≤0.10) coefficient for this variable, suggesting a higher likelihood of enabling learners to succeed if they possess the intrinsic motivation to devise questions to help focus on reading while reading learning materials. this is consistent with vansteenkiste et al.’s (2006) finding, which reveals that intrinsic goal framing leads to enhanced engagement, better conceptual understanding, and persistence in learning activities. it would be safe to claim that learners who develop questions to help focus on reading while engaging with learning materials consider their studies seriously and are dedicated to their learning. therefore, logically, the likelihood of their academic success in enabling education programs were found to be significantly higher than that of others. this finding matches with bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy beliefs, which reveal that performance accomplishment, where learners achieving previous academic success with this type of activity are more likely to have increased efficacy expectations. this aligns with research suggesting that competence enhances intrinsic motivation the most when the individual receives feedback on performance (firestone, 2014). as bartimote-aufflick et al. (2016) stated, such performance accomplishments have often been the most powerful sources of efficacy beliefs for university learners. seemingly, the dominant motivational factors identified and analyzed in this study are mostly intrinsic in nature. therefore, learners’ academic success in enabling education programs is largely influenced by their intrinsic motivational factors. weiler & murad 111 table 3 motivational factors that do not significantly influence learners’ academic success in an australian enabling education setting independent variables β s.e. wald sig. age (in years) -0.05 0.06 0.63 0.43 gender (1 for male; 0 for female) 0.67 0.44 2.31 0.13 english as a first language (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) -0.12 0.41 0.08 0.78 studying for better jobs (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.17 0.48 0.13 0.72 studying for skills and knowledge (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) -0.17 0.43 0.15 0.70 studying for thinking critically about the world (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.06 0.49 0.12 0.90 feel your heart beating fast when taking an exam (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) -0.19 0.35 0.31 0.58 feel certain about mastering skills taught in course (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.41 0.61 0.46 0.50 during class, we often miss important points because of other thinking (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) -0.13 0.24 0.27 0.60 often try explaining materials to classmates and friends (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.31 0.30 1.08 0.30 practice saying materials to myself over and over (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.04 0.37 0.01 0.92 even after having trouble learning materials, i do work without help (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.10 0.50 0.04 0.85 when i become confused about learning materials, i try to figure it out (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.32 0.38 0.69 0.41 if learning materials are challenging to understand, i change the way i read them through (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.13 0.20 0.44 0.51 read through class notes and course materials over and over (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) 0.38 0.45 0.70 0.40 work hard to do well even if i do not like what i am doing (1 for yes; 0 for otherwise) -0.46 0.45 1.02 0.31 table 3 shows the motivational factors that do not significantly influence learners’ academic success studying in the enabling programs. though these independent factors are found insignificant in the multiple logistic regression estimations, the coefficient signs (positive/negative) imply relationships that exist with the dependent variable. while insignificant effects of these independent variables on the dependent variable are considered not important to explain learners' academic success, they provide clues to the relationship between them within an australian enabling education setting. importantly, this finding can contribute to countering discourses that may come from anecdotal sources or misrecognition of particular student groups being potentially more successful than others based on such factors. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. discussion, conclusion and implications in an australian enabling education setting, this study identified and critically analyzed the motivational factors that have a major impact on learners’ academic success. it also documented the factors that have no significant impact on learners’ academic success. predictably, intrinsic motivation is a strong predictor of academic success. this can be seen in learners with high levels of self-motivation. importantly, this recognizes the opportunity to pair intrinsic motivation with extrinsic rewards and provides scope to consider the value of extrinsic rewards provided to learners in enabling education programs. learners who prepare themselves for studies with time management strategies are more successful, highlighting the importance of embedding teaching around these strategies within programs. the learners’ who achieve academic success without having formal child-care support to help them is highlighted as a strength, specifically their ability to manage the temporal demands of parenting with their studies. further support for intrinsic motivation was found in full-time learners, potentially aligned with their aspiration to achieve their future career goals as a motivating factor. indeed, the effect of being a full-time learner on academic success can be considered a “reinforcing loop” where learners’ who study full-time, committing regular efforts to learn new content, and are motivated by new learning outcomes augments the likelihood of achieving academic success in an enabling education setting. based on the study findings, further specific strategies can be embedded into the curriculum to enhance the learner experience and improve retention. we believe enabling education programs do more than just fulfill the anticipated goal of widening participation in universities. they help learners build self-efficacy, belief, and confidence to succeed in whatever future undergraduate pathway they choose. through a better understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors, which have been identified as potentially influencing learners’ academic success in enabling education programs, we are better placed to provide enhanced and diversified support mechanisms and structures so that they can achieve academic success now and in the future. these findings will have wider applicability depending on the similarity of characteristics to the academic programs, learner cohorts, and learning environment at the university of south australia with those at other higher education institutions. it must be recognized that this study was conducted within one core course within a 12-month enabling program at a south australian university. weiler & murad 113 limitations include the voluntary nature of participation with no honorarium or benefit for contribution, which may dictate that students who were likely more motivated intrinsically participated. additionally, the data were collected early in the semester of a core course, which may contribute to the interest in the subject material as students have not selected this themselves. further research with a possibly larger sample size can be undertaken to investigate how the predictive multiple logistic regression model of motivational factors influencing learners’ academic success in enabling education programs works at other levels of academic programs and in other learning modes or environments. acknowledgements the authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of jennifer stokes in early discussions and developments of this research. references abbott-chapman, j., easthope, g. & o’connor, p. (1995). post-compulsory participation of students with disabilities: the importance of perceived personal control. australian educational researcher, 22, 67–83. abouserie, r. (1995). self-esteem and achievement motivation as determinants of students' approaches to studying. studies in higher education, 20(1), 19–26. adcet (2019, july 9). higher education statistics. australian disability clearinghouse on education and training (adcet), university of tasmania, launceston, tasmania, australia, https://www.adcet.edu.au/inclusive-teaching/understanding-disability/higher-educationstatistics/#ref adcet (2019, july 9). higher education statistics. australian disability clearinghouse on education and training (adcet), university of tasmania, launceston, tasmania, australia, https://www.adcet.edu.au/inclusive-teaching/understanding-disability/highereducation-statistics/#ref archer, j., cantwell, r. & bourke, s. (1999). coping at university: a examination of achievement, motivation, self‐regulation, confidence, and method of entry. higher education research & development, 18(1), 31–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/0729436990180104 bandura, a. (1997). self-efficacy: the exercise of control. w.h. freeman. https://www.adcet.edu.au/inclusive-teaching/understanding-disability/higher-education-statistics/#ref https://www.adcet.edu.au/inclusive-teaching/understanding-disability/higher-education-statistics/#ref https://www.adcet.edu.au/inclusive-teaching/understanding-disability/higher-education-statistics/#ref https://www.adcet.edu.au/inclusive-teaching/understanding-disability/higher-education-statistics/#ref https://doi.org/10.1080/0729436990180104 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. bandura, a. & locke, e. a. (2003). negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited. journal of applied psychology, 88(1), 87–99. bartimote-aufflick, k., bridgeman, a., walker, r., sharma, m. & smith, l. (2016). the study, evaluation, and improvement of university student self-efficacy. studies in higher education, 41(11), 1918–1942. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.999319 bénabou, r. & tirole, j. (2003). intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. the review of economic studies, 70(3), 489–520. bradley, denise, peter noonan, helen nugent, and bill scales. 2008. review of australian higher education: final report. canberra city: act: department of education, employment and workplace relations. breen, r. & lindsay, r. (2002). different disciplines require different motivations for student success. research in higher education, 43, 693–725. burke, p. j., crozier, g., & misiaszek, l. (2016). changing pedagogical spaces in higher education: diversity, inequalities, and misrecognition. routledge. cantwell, r., archer, j. & bourke, s. (2001). a comparison of the academic experiences and achievement of university students entering by traditional and non-traditional means. assessment & evaluation in higher education, 26(3), 221–234. carbonaro, w. (2005). tracking students’ effort and academic achievement. sociology of education, 78(1), 27–49. cox, d. r. & snell, e. j. (1989). analysis of binary data, 2nd edition. chapman & hall. craft, j. a. (2019). academic performance of low ses students at an australian university satellite campus. studies in higher education, 44(8), 1372–1385. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1440382 daniel, r. & johnstone, r. (2017). becoming an artist: exploring the motivations of undergraduate students at a regional australian university. studies in higher education, 42(6), 1015– 1032. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1075196 deci, e. l. (1975). intrinsic motivation. plenum. firestone, w. a. (2014). teacher evaluation policy and conflicting theories of motivation. educational researcher, 43(2), 100–107. froiland, j., oros, e., smith, l. & hirchert, t. (2012). intrinsic motivation to learn: the nexus between psychological health and academic success. contemporary school psychology, 16(2012): 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.999319 https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1440382 https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1075196 weiler & murad 115 gale, t. & parker, s. (2013). widening participation in australian higher education. report to the higher education funding council of england (hefce) and the office of fair access (offa). cfe (research and consulting) ltd and edge hill university. hattam, s. k. & weiler, t. (2021). “every single student counts: leadership of professional development underpinned by social justice for sessional staff in a south australian university,” professional development in education, 47(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2020.1814388 hattam, s. k. & weiler, t. (2022). reframing the “illegitimate” academic: the critical role of professional development for sessional staff. teaching in higher education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2022.2049743 hosmer, d. w. & lemeshow, s. (2000). applied logistic regression, 2nd edition, wiley series in probability and statistics. wiley & sons, inc. kilpatrick, s., johns, s., barnes, r., fischer, s., mclennan, d. & magnussen, k. (2017). exploring the retention and success of students with disability in australian higher education. international journal of inclusive education, 21(7), 747–762. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2016.1251980 kock, n. (2015). common method bias in pls-sem: a full collinearity assessment approach. international journal of e-collaboration, 11(4), 1-10. levy, s. & campbell, h. (2008). student motivation: premise, effective practice and policy. australian journal of teacher education, 33(5), 14–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2008v33n5.2 liu, o. l., bridgeman, b. & adler, r.m. (2012). measuring learning outcomes in higher education: motivation matters. educational researcher, 41(9), 352–362. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x12459679 locke, e. a. & latham, g. p. (2013). goal setting theory, 1990. in new developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 3–15), edited by e. a. locke and g. p. latham. routledge. lynch, d. (2006). motivational factors, learning strategies and resource management as predictors of course grades. college student journal, 40(2), 423–428. maccann, c., fogarty, g. j. & roberts, r. d. (2012). strategies for success in education: time management is more important for part-time than full-time community college students. learning and individual differences, 22(2012), 618–623. nagelkerke, n. j. d. (1991). a note on a general definition of the coefficient of determination. biometrika, 78(3), 691–692. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2020.1814388 https://protect-au.mimecast.com/s/6hmkcd1v9jt1oydrfwe_mh?domain=doi.org https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2016.1251980 http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2008v33n5.2 https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x12459679 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. ngai, g., chan, s. c. f. & kwan, k. (2018). challenge, meaning, interest, and preparation: critical success factors influencing student learning outcomes from service-learning. journal of higher education outreach and engagement, 22(4), 55–80. podsakoff, p. m., mackenzie, s. b., lee, j.-y. & podsakoff, n. p. (2003). common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. journal of applied psychology, 88(5), 879–903. polidano, c. & zakirova, r. (2011). outcomes from combining work and tertiary study. a national vocational education and training research and evaluation program report. adelaide: national centre for vocational education research ltd, south australia, australia. pintrich, p. r. & degroot, e. (1990). motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. journal of educational psychology, 82(1), 33–40. quinlan, k. m. (2019). what triggers students’ interest during higher education lectures? personal and situational variables associated with situational interest. studies in higher education, 44(10), 1781–1792. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1665325 reiss, s. (2012). intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. teaching of psychology, 39(2), 152–156. ryan, r. m. & deci, e. l. (2000). intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 54–67. samuelsen, j. & khalil, m. (2020) study effort and student success: a mooc case study. in: auer m., tsiatsos t. (eds) the challenges of the digital transformation in education. icl 2018. advances in intelligent systems and computing, vol. 916. springer, cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11932-4_22. scott, c., burns, a. & cooney, g. (1998). motivation for return to study as a predictor of completion of degree amongst female mature students with children. higher education, 35(2), 221–239. shin, t. s., ranellucci, j. & roseth, c. j. (2017). effects of peer and instructor rationales on online students’ motivation and achievement. international journal of educational research, 82(2017), 184–199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2017.02.001 stokes, j. (2014). student perspectives on transitioning to university in south australia: exploring skill needs identified by commencing enabling program students. the international journal of learning in higher education, 20(4), 1–8. vallerand, r. j. (1997). toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. in advances in experimental social psychology 29(1), 71–360. academic press. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1665325 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11932-4_22 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2017.02.001 weiler & murad 117 vansteenkiste, m., lens, w. & deci, e. (2006). intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in selfdetermination theory: another look at the quality of academic motivation. educational psychologist, 41(1), 19–31. vernon, l., watson, s.j., moore, w. & seddon, s. (2019). university enabling programs while still at school: supporting the transition of low-ses students from high school to university. australian educational researcher, 46, 489–509. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4101_4 wainwright, e. & marandet, e. (2010). parents in higher education: impacts of university learning on the self and the family. educational review, 62(4), 449–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2010.487643 wigfield, a. & eccles, j. (2002). defining motivation and its development. in development of achievement motivation (pp. 1-3), edited by a. wigfield & j. s. eccles. academic press, inc. wiseman, r. l., emry, r. a. & morgan, d. (1988). predicting academic success for disabled students in higher education. research in higher education, 28, 255–269. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4101_4 https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2010.487643 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),97-119. appendix descriptive statistics motivational factors n minimum maximum mean std. deviation age 331 17 49 22.46 7.15 gender 331 .00 1.00 .45 .50 studying full time 331 .00 1.00 .89 .32 work status 331 .00 1.00 .06 .23 english as the first language 331 .00 1.00 .50 .50 has a disability 331 .00 1.00 .09 .28 studying for better jobs 331 .00 1.00 .66 .47 studying for skills and knowledge 331 .00 1.00 .62 .49 studying for thinking critically about the world 331 .00 1.00 .34 .47 learner with child/children made changes to childcare in order to study 331 .00 1.00 .073 .26 learner maintains a diary and/or study plans in order to study 331 .00 1.00 .63 .48 it the learner’s own idea to study at the university 331 .00 1.00 .77 .42 learner likes the subject matter of the course 331 1.00 5.00 4.74 .67 feel heart beating fast when taking an exam 331 1.00 5.00 4.76 .65 feel certain about mastering skills taught in course 331 .00 5.00 4.91 .43 during class often miss important points because of other thinking 331 1.00 5.00 4.35 1.05 often try explaining materials to classmates and friends 331 1.00 5.00 4.21 1.06 learner devises questions to help focus on reading while reading the learning materials 331 1.00 5.00 4.6 .70 weiler & murad 119 practice saying materials to myself over and over 331 1.00 5.00 4.39 .90 even having trouble in learning materials, i do work without help 331 1.00 5.00 4.63 .73 when i become confused about learning materials, i try to figure it out 331 2.00 5.00 4.77 .55 if learning materials are difficult to understand i change the way i read them through 331 1.00 5.00 4.15 1.12 read through class notes and course materials over and over 331 1.00 5.00 4.82 .53 work hard to do well even if i do not like what i am doing 331 1.00 5.00 4.60 .73 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (3), 396-431 employers’ contribution to law students’ multilingual communication skills training in remote mode due to pandemic emergency: pilot study anastasia atabekova1 abstract the research aims to consider the impact that industry representatives as potential employers might produce on law students’ multilingual communication skills training in the remote mode due the unexpected global emergencies. the study explores those multilingual communication skills that can be improved through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to pandemic emergency. the research also investigates those features within the multilingual communication skills training that student might consider relevant through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to emergency. the study uses tests in reading, listening, writing, speaking skills, error-based evaluation of translation and interpreting skills at the start and end of training period, and a questionnaire as research instruments. the investigation rests on mixed methods approach, and integrates a number of methods, including a theoretical analysis of the relevant literature, students’ pilot training, descriptive statistics, and interpretation, content-based, cluster and factor analysis for data processing and discussion. the pilot studies results confirm that the consistent and systemic inclusion of industry representatives’ live contributions into the multilingual communication skills training in the remote on-line mode can improve law students’ skills in reading, listening, writing, speaking, translation and interpreting. further, the study has proved that students evaluate the employers’ regular live inclusion in the on-line remote training positively. they appreciate not only the opportunity to improve their legal language skills but their legal mindset and knowledge within multilingual context, as well. further the study reveals that the emergency shift to remoted lsp, t&i training with the employers’ regular involvement requires managerial solutions tailored for the respective activities. keywords: multilingual communication, non-language students, language for specific purposes, translation and interpreting, remote training, employer’s inclusion. introduction the third millennium has set forth new contexts and requirements for global development. within the increasingly multicultural nature of the contemporary world representatives of various industries across the globe are expected to master professional competencies within the multilingual (at least bilingual) framework (stavans & lindgren, 2021), possess the skills in the multilingual (bilingual) communication, and knowledge processing for a concrete professional 1 prof., dr., peoples’ friendship university of russia – rudn university, aaatabekova@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 397 domain-related specific purpose (tönsing & soto, 2020). this need explains the importance of multilingual education for which scholars and educational policymakers across the world argue (chen et al., 2020; razfar, 2021), with particular reference to training multilingual/ bilingual professionals in non-linguistic areas (tlowane & foncha, 2020). this stems from the generalized understanding of the fact that multicultural and multilingual individuals form the global social capital (augustin & pudelko, 2020). moreover, scholars point out the positive aspects of the multilingual workplace as it supports creative spirit in the work team (sun et al., 2021), argue for the multilingual and multicultural philosophy as a strategic tool for organizational competitiveness (mazhazhate & mudondo, 2020). within the mentioned contexts, researchers underline the importance of real learning employers’ inclusion in the design and development of the educational programs (vuorinen & mereuta, 2020). scholars set forth the idea of co-curricular (martinez et al., 2020) that means employers’ participation in the learning curriculum design (skills identification and subject contents) to increase graduate employability (karim, 2021). meanwhile, it might seem not sufficient; lately both academia and industry focus on pathways to ensure employers’ direct interventions in students’ training (david et al., 2021). a specific focus is laid on the teaching of a foreign language tailored to a contextualized domain-specific graduate course (medriano & bautista, 2020). scholars assume that employers’ talks in foreign languages can enhance students’ communicative competence for employability (singh, 2021). however, the unprecedented pandemic of covid 19 has changed the overall way of human lives (tarman, 2020), led to disruption within accepted forms of collaboration between academia and industry, broke the established interactive channels of partnerships due to lockdown, quarantine, isolation and other restrictive measures. meanwhile universities go on working and supplying graduates to the international multilingual job market. therefore, the industry inclusion in the multilingual curricula is still a vital issue that becomes even more critical within the pandemicdue disruptions. regular direct, live contacts with employers are especially crucial for students of those professions that suppose context-tailored solutions, individual approach to clients. legal professions belong to this field. scholars argue that during the covid-19 the digitalization might help to bridge the gap between academia and industry in terms of more comprehensive tools for the learning content delivery and faster communication and networking (márquez-ramos, 2021). moreover, the role of technology atabekova has been consistently advocated by scholars with regard to different training areas (tarman et al., 2019). however, we have found no systemic research publications on the ways to consistently include legal industry representatives in the remote training of university students in multilingual communication for specific purposes. meanwhile we consider it relevant for the universities in general, and for graduate law schools in particular, to focus on ways for employers to contribute to university non-language students’ multilingual communication skills development within the current pandemic-due hybrid (on-site and remote) training. therefore, the purpose of the present research is to explore the impact that industry representatives as potential employers might produce on law students’ multilingual communication skills training in the remote mode due the unexpected global emergencies. the choice of law students relates to the author’s academic affiliation. research questions the present research amas to explore the following research questions: rq1: what multilingual communication skills can be improved through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to pandemic emergency? this research question includes the investigation of reading, listening, speaking, writing, translation, and interpreting skills as multilingual communication variables. rq 2: what within the multilingual communication skills training do students indicate as relevant through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to pandemic emergency? this research question implies the analysis of the themes that students mention in their answers to the questionnaire on the respective issues. theoretical framework multilingual communication skills the concept of multilingual communication skills has been developed and defined within the common european framework of reference for languages, that first version appeared in 2001 (cefr, 2001) and specified areas and descriptors for four communicative skills related to reception (reading and listening) and production (writing and speaking) activities in a foreign language. the cefr updated version (cefr, 2020) also specified the concept of mediation as a journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 399 phenomenon of cross language interaction (cefr, 2020, p.35, p.90). however, the present research does not use the concept of mediation activities and strategies. such a limitation stems from the need of for further investigation and clarification of scales to measure the level of students’ competence in mediation (kiddle, 2019). some practitioners and researchers indicate that “some dimensions of can only be understood in context and they cannot be easily rated on any exonormative scale” (leung & jenkins, 2020). the present research follows the critical approach to the concept of mediation descriptors (schneider, 2020), though the present study fully supports the social importance of the cefr-based concept of mediation as a skill that learners of foreign languages possess as intermediaries among various interlocutors (north, 2016). meanwhile the academic tradition consistently enhances a longstanding theory and practice of translation quality assessment (house, 1997; house, 2015). the present research considered the concept due to a number of reasons. first, the respective theory and practice provide grounds for an explicit and standardized evaluation of the translation assignment from the angle of language use (vocabulary, syntax, morphology, orthography), communicative style and genre (text layout, stylistic devices), and the text processing (facts interpretation, cultural/functional adaptation) (lommel, 2018; ronderos et al., 2021; turner et al., 2010). second, regarding oral interpreting, the criterion of the appropriate level of information omission was also considered as it is mentioned as a critical one for various formats of interpreting activities (defrancq & fantinuoli, 2021; hale et al., 2021; wang, 2021). such an approach was used in the experiment to check the law students in translation and interpreting. the latter activities are considered as part of the legal activities in the multilingual professional settings. therefore, the reading, listening, writing, speaking, translation and interpreting skills are subject to consistent training and assessment of law students’ learning activities at rudn university in general, and have been assessed and evaluated as variables in the course of the present research. employers’ inclusion in the university curriculum as far as the academic background for the employers’ intervention in the academic curriculum is concerned, the current research acknowledges the negative impact of the pandemic on education in general, and on higher education, in particular, within the overall global socio-economic landscape (rai et al., 2021). there is a fast-growing number of publications on the covid-19 impact on higher education target audiences and stakeholders’ perceptions and activities, lessons atabekova learned, and solutions offered for recovery and further development. scholars argue for the importance of collaboration between academia and industry during the pandemic through digital tools, use them for research and teaching activities (márquez-ramos, 2021). regarding legal industry, scholars acknowledge that lawyers are usually are neutral or even resistant to technology; however, the legal industry accepted the digital turn in profession during the pandemic (suarez, 2020) to provide access to justice and legal service (swift et al., 2020). regarding the educational framework, the task of using simulations instead of real-time activities in clinical legal education is mentioned (howells, 2020). we also consider it relevant to rely on the publications that explore angles of cooperation between academic and industry. respective topics are systemically considered in the relevant academic literature and cover a number of fields. first, scholars underline the need for cooperation between academia and industry in curriculum development (parrone & roaring, 2020). second, researchers mention the importance of developing the curricula in line with the job market requirements (köpsén, 2020; ma et al., 2020), skills, and competences specified by employers (hernandez, 2021). next, educators argue for the employers’ inclusion in the discipline’s syllabus design and planning (denning-smith, 2020; hahn & pedersen, 2020). finally, the academic research also explores the general potential of employers’ workshops for university students (ghare & umarani, 2020; srivastav et al., 2020). regarding the didactic approaches to training, the present study follows those scholars who argue that even the shift to remote mode training due to the health emergency still requires the didactic approaches that center on learners (butler et al., 2021; yu & nadtochiy, 2021), and their needs (alhadiah, 2021). however, the current publications explore the issues of education equity (baran & alzoubi, 2020), content delivery pathways in terms of the learning items, their sequence, presentation mode (karakaya, 2021), the role of the teacher in the remote training (rapanta et al., 2020). a particular attention is paid to the issues of foreign language, translation and interpreting training during remote education due to covid-19 (mahyoob, 2020). furthermore, scholars across countries and continents explore the pedagogy and technology applications to multilingual communication skills (radić et al., 2021). attention is also paid to changes in multilingual communication training in the corporate sector (szabó, 2020). meanwhile, the google scholar engine search with the keywords industry/employer’s inclusion/cooperation with academia during covdi19/ pandemic/ employers’ inclusion in language training in covid19/ did not produce journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 401 any relevant results. neither publications on legal industry and academia cooperation nor papers on legal employers’ engagement in students’ multilingual communication for specific purposes training during the current pandemic were found. thus, it leads to the preliminary conclusion that the present research topic has not been subject for consistent investigation so far. methodology research design the study implemented a descriptive research design for data collection and interpretation at separate stages. scholars confirm it is a proper choice when the study strives to identify characteristics, features, and trends while no systemic conceptual background exists (sarka, 2021). we have chosen this approach as it allows us to describe individuals and their variables as they are in nature (siedlecki, 2020). the literature analysis laid grounds for pilot multilingual communication skills training. the research design included the university students’ training with and without the employers’ live contribution in the remote mode. it was organized in two learning streams that were equal in terms of their start level of english mastery and different in terms of employers’ consistent live inclusion/not their inclusion in the remote on-line learning. the pilot training covered the period of two years, namely between 2020 and 2021. the pilot training had two rounds. it started in february 2020, when the covid -19 pandemic broke down. the first training cycle lasted one term from february to june 2020 (spring term). the second training cycle covered the full schooling year (2020-2021, autumn of 2020 and spring term of 2021), to explore the phenomenon under study within a more expended period of time. each cycle included ma 1st year students. the study explored multiple variables (reading, listening, writing, speaking, translation and interpreting skills). with regards to the research questions the distribution of the data were checked through the application of descriptive statistics. it should be underlined that the study was comparative in nature. first, it resulted from the analysis of the students’ respective skills which took place within two student learning streams (with and without employers’ regular participation). the percentages of the variables characterizing the sample in relation to the features that distinguish two learning streams were counted. second, the comparative approach was used to analyze the data on variables regarding these streams at the beginning and the end of the training period were compared. atabekova the questionnaire was offered to students who were part of the learning stream that included the systemic inclusion of the employers’ live interventions in the course. their replies were subject to statistical processing, additional comments were subject to coding-based thematic content analysis. sample the pilot training covered the period of two years, namely between 2020 and 2021. totally 231 students were part of the research sample. the research was conducted at the rudn university law institute for the students who started their first year of master course in law. the teachers held the university degrees in english language teaching and completed cpd courses in law. each year the students were divided into two learning streams. in each stream there were four learning groups. there were 14-15 students in each group with a similar gender distribution, and age (2124 years old). during the first cycle of experimental (2020 spring term) 58 students of the 1st year ma course in law formed four groups of pilot training and other 53 students were members of the traditional training without the employers’ consistent live inclusion. during the second cycle of the experiment (autumn term of 2020 and spring term of 2021) 64 students took part in the pilot raining with the employers’ live intervention in the remote training, and 56 students were subject to the traditional training without employers’ during the academic year of 20202021. totally, 122 students were subject to pilot training, and 109 students followed the traditional remote learning without employers’ engagement. regarding the above-mentioned total number of the research sample (231), the students had either previous learning experience from a moscow-based university (49%), or came from different russian regions (31%), as well as from asian (16%) and european countries (4%). the regional component was taken into account as scholars agree that it might affect students’ perception (filipova et al., 2021; hawley et al., 2021). the leaners also varied in terms of their language mastery level, and work experience 66%) / no work experience (34%). the participants completed a ba course in jurisprudence. among other subjects, it included general english during their first year of studies (average class work workload amounts to 144 hours) and background legal english during their second year at university (average class work workload amounts to 144 hours). it should be mentioned that at previous stages of secondary education students do not have journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 403 mandatory exams in english for their general certificate. therefore, their start level of english when they enroll in the university law school is not high. the groups in both streams were organized in such a way that at the experiment training start in each stream there was the same distribution of the students in terms of their language mastery level. it should be mentioned that that the at the start of the first cycle student of both streams have already passed the first (autumn) semester of the 2019-2020 schooling year, therefore, their placement profile indicates higher scores in general and legal english skills, in comparison with the level of students who started the ma course next september of 2020 and concluded in june 2021 (see table 1). table 1 the placement profile of english level of 1th year ma non-language students who were subject to traditional and experimental training during the spring term (february-june) of 2020 and academic year of 2020-2021 (author’s data) cefr level percentage of students (111 students in total) in each stream (58 in pilot and 53 in traditional training) at the start of the second term (februaryjune 2020) of 2019-2020 schooling year percentage of students (120 students in total) in each stream (64 in pilot and 56 in traditional training) at the start of the schooling year (2020-21) b2 14% 10% b1+ 14% 10% b1 45% 50% a2+ 20% 30% training materials the first stream of four learning groups used a traditional textbook of legal english and, therefore, is called a traditional learning stream in this paper. the second stream combined this traditional material with the on-line webinars held by legal industry representatives and subsequent addition assignments and therefore, is called an experimental training stream that was subject to the pilot training with employers’ live contribution to the remote on-line training. the traditional training used the traditional textbook professional english in use: law by gillian d. brown and sally rice from cambridge university press atabekova https://www.cambridge.org/sv/cambridgeenglish/catalog/business-professional-andvocational/professional-english-use-law/resources) the course comprises the units in line with the major branches of law, includes the following items: -reading and comprehension assignment (the text data was also used for and translation and interpreting tasks), -language exercises (complete the definitions, match the concepts and descriptions, complete the sentences, etc.), -writing assignment to simulate lawyers’ professional activities, namely compiling a letter to a client, claim, etc.), creative speaking/writing/discussion assignment based on some on-line legal source. each module accounted on four academic contact hours and the same time for learners’ selfpreparation. the pilot training rested on the same teaching toolkit. however, each textbook unit was supported by 20-40 minutes of on-line oral contribution of the english-speaking professionals from the field of law. they represented either rudn law institute alumni who worked in a multilingual internationally oriented legal companies/departments or were speakers of open access free webinars delivered by english-speaking legal professionals through the platform eventbrite (https://www.eventbrite.com/d/online/law/). the representatives from the legal industry were invited/on-line webinars were offered to students for registration and attendance in line with both speakers’ professional expertise and the topic of the learning toolkit module. regarding the pilot training with employers’ regular live inclusion students of the respective learning stream had additional tasks to sum up in english the information, provided by the speaker, to create a dossier of the case/ situation/ legal area that was subject to consideration in the webinar. the dossier was supposed to include the list of background legislation and relevant legal documents, affiliated personalities, precedents if any, comparative commentary of legal solutions within eu/uk/russian legal environment, translation of the most relevant pieces of information (limit to 2000 characters), and english-russian bilingual glossary of relevant terminology. the students of each pilot training group were supposed to work in mini project groups to fulfill the above assignments and submit them to the teacher for evaluation prior to the following on-line journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 405 lesson at which brief 5-minute presentations were made by students in each group of the experimental learning stream. both learning stream had the same learning workload. instruments the study used the tests for multilingual communication skills (reading, listening, writing, speaking in legal english), error-based assessment of legal translation and interpreting activities, and a close-ended questionnaire. the mentioned instruments are traditionally applied in the research in teaching foreign languages (atmowardoyo, 2018), translation and interpreting skills (laviosa, 2008). the tests have a solid long-standing reputation as a standardized reliable research tool for the functional approach to language skills assessment (lado, 1961) and have been systemically used in the dynamic assessment in contexts of foreign language skills training (gilani et al., 2021). the tests and error-based assessment procedures grounded on the scoring system thought the coordination of assessment grades, adopted at rudn university, see table 2. table 2 coordination of assessment grades (officially adopted at rudn university, in line with international and international standards) traditional mark scores under 100-score system european transfer credit system mark (etcs) excellent 95-100 a excellent 86-94 b good 69-85 c satisfactory 61-68 d satisfactory 51-60 e bad 0-51 f the present research tested reading and listening skills in the multiple-choice format to consider and evaluate the exactness of the information comprehension by the learners. the separate testing procedures in each kind of activities as variables characterizing multilingual communication were conducted. the materials for the test were in line with the legal content and language materials that students learnt at the moment of testing. the tests in reading offered students a legal text of atabekova about 5400 characters. the test included 25 items with four statements in each one, only one statement went in line with the text content. the tests on listening provided a 5-minute monologue of an english-speaking lawyer. the test included 25 items with four statements in each one, only one statement went in line with the text content. the evaluation of writing and speaking activities was based on rubrics and considered lexical, syntactical, morphological, stylistic errors, the text coherence, logic structure, reasoning, conclusion, and layout (for written production). the test in writing included the assignment to write an explanatory essay with 500-600 words on the suggested question related to the theme of the course under study. the test in speaking included the task for the student to arrange a monologue on the specifics of the legal theme under consideration. the monologue length was limited to 5 minutes. depending on the number of the correct replies (four scores for each correct answer) the assessment in reading and listening tests followed the following criteria (see table 3): table 3 criteria for the assessment of the tests in reading and listening (officially adopted by the law institute academic board by the author’s initiative as of the head of the law institute foreign language department for the course on multilingual communication for law students in line with the rudnadopted coordination of traditional, etcs, and score-counted grades) traditional and european transfer credit system mark scores under 100-score system quantity of items with the admitted number of incorrect choices of 4-option statements in each item excellent (a) 95-100 one item out of 25 with incorrect choice of the statement excellent (b) 86-94 up to three items out of 25 with incorrect choice of the statement good (c) 69-85 up to five items out of 25 with incorrect choice of the statement satisfactory (d) 61-68 up to seven items out of 25 with incorrect choice of the statement satisfactory (e) 51-60 up to ten items out of 25 with incorrect choice of the statement bad (f) 0-51 over ten items out of 25 with incorrect choice of the statement journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 407 the tests in writing (analytical essay, 500-600 words) and in speaking (student’s monologue some five minutes) were based on the evaluation of errors and their quantity, supposed the following marks and their criteria (see table 4): table 4 criteria for the assessment of the tests in reading and listening (officially adopted by the law institute academic board by the author’s initiative as of the head of the law institute foreign language department for the course on multilingual communication for law students in line with the rudnadopted coordination of traditional, etcs, and score-counted grades) traditional and european transfer credit system mark scores under 100-score system types and quantity of errors in the written/spoken assignment excellent (a) 95-100 no lexical, syntactical, morphological errors, maximum two stylistic/layout errors (for written task only)/ the text coherence, logic, and reasoning, explicitly expressed in the language structures) excellent (b) 86-94 no lexical, syntactical, morphological errors, maximum four stylistic/ layout errors (for written task only)/ the text coherence, logic, and reasoning, explicitly expressed in the language structures) good (c) 69-85 possibly two vocabulary/one grammar and no more than four errors in style layout errors (for written task only)/ the text coherence, logic, and reasoning, explicitly expressed in the language structures) satisfactory (d) 61-68 possibly two vocabulary/two grammar and no more than four errors in style layout errors (for written task only)/ the text coherence, logic, and reasoning, explicitly expressed in the language structures) satisfactory (e) 51-60 over ten errors of different types in total (in total, see the description of possible combinations above). bad (f) 0-51 over twelve errors of different types in total (in total, see the description of possible combinations above). the students got their marks as the consolidated scores for the above-mentioned skills performance. error-based assessment in translation and interpreting (t&i) products testing is accepted by professionals as an explicit form of quality assessment (lado, 1961; akki, & larouz, 2021). the present research follows those scholars who confirm the importance to identify the information, lexical, syntactical, morphological, stylistic errors, the requirement to evaluate the skills in arranging the text layout in line with the target language genre and communicative culture, atabekova the critical need to assess the scope and factual fidelity in the information rendering (fredholm, 2020). the students’ translation skills assessment supposed the following marks and their criteria (see table 5): table 5 criteria for translation skills assessment (officially adopted by the law institute academic board by the author’s initiative as of the head of the law institute foreign language department for the course on multilingual communication for law students in line with the rudnadopted coordination of traditional, etcs, and score-counted grades) traditional and european transfer credit system mark scores under 100-score system types and quantity of errors in the translation assignment excellent (a) 95-100 no information errors, no vocabulary, grammar errors; possible errors in style, text coherence and layout (totally no more than two errors) excellent (b) 86-94 the same as above regarding the types of errors, however, some errors in style, text coherence and layout (totally no more than four errors). good (c) 69-85 possibly two vocabulary/one grammar and no more than four errors in style, the text coherence and layout satisfactory (d) 61-68 one error regarding the information, no more than six errors of other types satisfactory (e) 51-60 two errors regarding the information, no more than six errors of other type bad (f) 0-51 two or more errors regarding the information, over six errors of other type. the students’ interpreting skills assessment supposed the following marks and their criteria (see table 6): journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 409 table 6 criteria for interpreting skills assessment (officially adopted by the law institute academic board by the author’s initiative as of the head of the law institute foreign language department for the course on multilingual communication for law students in line with the rudnadopted coordination of traditional, etcs, and score-counted grades) traditional and european transfer credit system mark scores under 100-score system types and quantity of errors in the interpreting assignment excellent (a) 95-100 90% of information scope reproduction achieved; no vocabulary and grammar errors; possible errors in style, text coherence and layout (totally no more than two errors) excellent (b) 86-94 90% of information scope reproduction achieved; no vocabulary and grammar errors; possible errors in style, text coherence and layout (totally no more than four errors). good (c) 69-85 80% of information scope reproduction achieved; possibly two vocabulary/one grammar and no more than four errors in style, the text coherence and layout satisfactory (d) 61-68 70% of information scope reproduction achieved; no more than six errors of other types satisfactory (e) 51-60 60% of information scope reproduction achieved; no more than six errors of other type bad (f) 0-51 60% of information or less reproduced; over six errors of other type the students’ skills in translation and interpreting were evaluated within the above-mentioned performance items, and the scores for each item were summarized for the total assessment rating for the respective learning activity. the study also used a close-ended questionnaire to identify students’ perceptions regarding those features of multilingual communication skills that students indicate as relevant through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to pandemic emergency. scholars indicate a specific potential of such a format of the questionnaire for the pilot studies to measure attitudes and identify major topics modelling and clustering tendencies (baburajan et al., 2020). therefore, a questionnaire was offered to the students of the pilot training. fist they were asked to reply to yes/ no questions, and further to provide their why? comments on the following items: -did the inclusion of the employers’ contributions were useful (yes/no, why?) -why these contributions were useful? -why these contributions were not useful? -would you prefer to have such contributions in the curriculum in the future (yes/no, why?) -was your knowledge of jurisprudence enough to understand the speaker(s)? (yes/no, why?) was your level of english enough to understand the speaker(s)? (yes/no, why?). atabekova as the list shows, the close-ended questionnaire left room for the respondents to express their personal comments through free comments to why? subpart that was arranged separately. data collection the data collection included the aggregation of the results of the assessment based on tests and error analysis within assessment of each student’s performance in the traditional and pilot training streams, regarding the students’ skills in reading, listening, writing speaking, translation and interpreting. the data were collected and analyzed separately at the commencement and the end of the training term. therefore, the students of both streams were subject to comparative testing, on the grounds of their passing the materials of the first and last modules of the background textbook that was identical for both learning streams. the students of both streams were tested on the same materials on reading, listening, writing, speaking, translation and interpreting. the testing procedure at the start and end of the schooling semester is a mandatory activity within all the course syllabi at the law institute foreign languages department. the testing is implemented in each learning group of 14-15 students by the teacher who delivers the course in the respective group. the testing and scoring procedure are implemented through the university digital learning management system (rudn lms “tуис”, https://esystem.rudn.ru/) that allows each teacher to upload the multiple-choice tests, and each student, to upload his/her written assignments. the system automatically provides the details of each student’ scores and aggregates them in a digital form. for the writing and translation activities the system allows the tester to upload the testing material to obtain the material from each student, to score the works and mirror these scores in the digital forms for academic progress sheets. regarding the oral activities the video recording tool of the microsoft teams was used as it was officially established at the university as the learning platform during remote on-line learning. regarding the oral testing in speaking and interpreting the teacher of each group conducts the assessment according to the abovedescribed evaluation criteria, and fills in the digital forms with the scores and respective marks for each testing assignment in the university lms “туис” connected with the university use of microsoft tools (teams, forms, excel, one drive, etc.). the data identify students’ academic progress in this system by their student identity card numbers. the staff of each department has the access only to the data on students who are trained by the respective department. the author aggregated the data journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 411 about each student’s academic progress into the spss. the data provided the link between each student identity (student card number, no visible names and surnames) and his/her multilingual communication skills mastery regarding the six skills under study. further the questionnaire was offered to the students of the pilot training stream at their end of their training period after they passed the assessment procedure. the students were allowed to keep their replies anonymous. although they did not use this permission, and agreed for the purpose of the research to mention their region origin, gender, work experience. they just asked not to reveal their data beyond the analysis within the department. the mentioned items of the personal data points were considered as distinctive features for factors that could form the theme and respective clusters of students’ perceptions of employers’ live inclusion in the training. due to the little (age) or no difference (the same law education level), the respective characteristics were not considered as distinctive features for the mentioned factors. first, the students replied to closed yes/no questions in a separate questionnaire form uploaded through the mt forms that automatically calculated the replies. further the respondents were asked to provide their comments to why? subpart through a link to a separate electronic form for textual comments within mt one drive tool. the author aggregated the data of students yes/no replies through the university lms and the microsoft tools into the spss, and the data of students’ textual comments into the qda miner lite (https://qda-miner-lite.software.informer.com). due to the above-underlined coordination of the tools the systems allowed to match the replies and students’ socially distinctive features and multilingual communication skills levels. data analysis the data analysis rested on the interpretative description approach that scholars use to specify emerging tendencies and perceptions within new developing contexts (gariepy, 2021).the first stage included the literature analysis to shape the conceptual research framework that revealed the major concepts, approaches to their nature understanding, and current gaps in the academic studies in relation to the research topic. the next stage included the aggregation by the author of the data filed up by the teachers in the course of the officially adopted in the university procedure regarding the documentation about students’ academic performance, and their scores for learning activities at the start and the end of the training period under observation. at the end of each training period the author provided the processing of the above data through the descriptive statistics and atabekova descriptive interpretation of the aggregated data. further, at the end of each training round the author conducted the questionnaire. the percentage of yes/no questions was counted. next the data from the questionnaire with why? subpart were analyzed through the content-based analysis. these replies were subject to the coding within the conventional content analysis. it is traditionally used by the inducive pilot studies in an educational phenomenon when the literature data is limited (hsieh & shannon, 2005). this analysis has proved its efficiency in the period of studies during the covid-19 emergency (lovrić et al., 2020) when new trends in perceptions, behavior and activities appear. it should be mentioned that the both manual and computer-based thematic content analysis has been traditionally used as the analysis based on word co-occurrence and frequency across the texts makes it possible to build the hierarchy that reveal emerging trends within a particular phenomenon or field of studies. this stage of analysis rested on the thematic codes that derived from the data and were crosschecked during manual and computer-based coding conducted by the author during the period of july-august 2020 and julymid august 2021. the coded data were used for further cluster and factor analysis to unite similar responses into clusters. scholars underline that the cluster analysis is useful valuable in the studies of the human population opinions and perceptions, their grouping into major domains of research knowledge (tao et al., 2020), and acknowledge that cluster analysis is increasingly useful helpful to reveal groups’ specifics through the identification of those particular features (factors) that characterize such groups (crowther et al., 2021). the author bears in mind the accepted academic statement that factor and cluster analyses represent different multivariate procedures, though, in a complementary fashion use, they can mutually enhance the interpretation of results (gorman & primavera, 1983). statistical significance of the student groups with different opinions was scrutinized, and the correlation coefficient was taken into account to measure the association between students’ features and factors that formed the clusters of the sample opinions. results this section introduces the data in line with the research questions. first, the section starts with the data on the analysis of students’ multilingual communication skills that can be improved through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to pandemic emergency. further, the section focuses on the features of multilingual communication skills training that journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 413 students indicate as relevant through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to pandemic emergency multilingual communication skills that can be improved through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to pandemic emergency as it was mentioned earlier in the article, the multilingual communicative skills were considered as an integrated phenomenon whose construct is represented and materialized through a number of variables, namely reading, listening, speaking, writing, translation and interpreting skills. the development of these variables (identified in line with cefr 2020 and t&i theory) of the law students’ multilingual communicative competency was subject to assessment during each academic year. to this end, the scores that students got for each type of communicative activity within each module of the course were documented and compared. figure 1 provides comparative data of the experimental stream members’ average scores for the first module (dark blue) and the final module (light blue). figure 1. experimental stream members’ average scores for the first and the final module of the yearlong legal english course (author’s data for the period of two academic years) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 reading listening writing speakinginterpretingtranslation 60 57 57 58 53 54 87 83 83 84 78 79 average scores for the 1st module in the experimental groups stream average scores for the last module in the experimental groups stream atabekova the data shows that the average figures for the students’ progress cover all the components of the training in the language and multilingual communication (translation and interpreting) competency and increase on average by 25,8% during an academic year. it should be underlined that since the start of the pilot training the reading skills got the highest scores both at the beginning and at the end of training (6087). the skills in listening, writing, and speaking take the second turn both at the start and end of training in terms of the awarded scores (57/58 83/84). the skills in interpreting and translation take the third position in terms of the competence (53/5478/79). these figures show more progress in a “pure” legal english language that in multilingual communication (interpreting and translation). the result of the statistical processing of the tests data reveals that the situation with the academic progress differs as far as the traditional learning stream is concerned. figure 2. traditional stream members’ average scores for the first and the final module of the yearlong legal english course (author’s data for the period of two academic years). as it was mentioned earlier, at the start of the training students of both learning streams had similar language background. the data the traditional learning stream students’ academic performance 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 reading listening writing speakinginterpretingtranslation 60 57 57 58 53 54 72 68 68 69 64 67 average scores for the 1st module in the traditional groups stream journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 415 shows that the average figures for the students’ progress also cover all the components of the training in the language, translation and interpreting competency. however, the skills development is less fast, scores for the communication activities and increase on average by 11.2% during an academic year. so, the dynamics of the communicative skills development in the traditional learning stream is roughly 50% slower than in the pilot training group (25,8%). it should be underlined that the data reveals a similar tendency in terms of the difference among the features of the progress in development of various speech skills. since the start of the traditional training the reading skills got the highest scores both at the beginning and at the end of training (6072). the skills in listening, writing, and speaking take the second turn both at the start and end of training in terms of the awarded scores (57/5868/69). the skills in interpreting and translation take the third position in terms of the competence (53/5464/67). these figures show more progress in a “pure” legal english language that in multilingual communication (interpreting and translation). in general, the statistical data shows that the students of experimental groups’ stream showed a higher level of academic progress in the course of their studies that differed from the traditional stream by the inclusion of the live contributions provided by legal industry representatives within the on-line class format. we also conducted a general english test (pet general, n/d) to explore the percentage of students with cefr levels in every stream. the data is aggregated in table 3. the figures lead to the conclusion that the inclusion in the curriculum of the live contributions from the legal industry representatives helps to improve general english skills, as well. earlier in the sample section we mentioned that the start level of students who were subject to comparative analysis of the communication skills development. thus, table 3. shows the data on the english placement test at the start of the experiment in the mid of the schooling year when the pandemic started (february 2020, second spring term) in the table second column. the differences in the students’ academic progress regarding the traditional and experimental training streams regarding one term period are shown in columns three and four of table 7. atabekova table 7 percentage of students with different cefr levels in traditional and experimental groups streams at the end of pilot training (author’s data for the period of february-june 2020 academic years) cefr level percentage of students in each stream (58 in pilot and 53 in traditional training) at the start of the second term (februaryjune 2020) of 2019-2020 schooling year percentage of students in traditional groups stream (totally 58 students of the 1st year ma course in law) at the end of the second term (februaryjune 2020) of 2019-2020 schooling year percentage of students in experimental groups stream (totally 53 students of the 1st year ma course in law) at the end of the second term (februaryjune 2020) of 2019-2020 schooling year b2 14% 19% 26% b1+ 14% 27% 49% b1 45% 40% 25% a2+ 20% 14% further, table 8 shows the data on the english placement test at the start of the experiment at the beginning of the 2020-2021 schooling year (when the pandemic and remote training went on) in the table second column. the differences in the students’ academic progress regarding the traditional and experimental training streams are shown in columns three and four of table 8. table 8 percentage of students with different cefr levels in traditional and experimental groups streams at the end of pilot training (author’s data for the period of 2020-2021 academic year) cefr level percentage of students in each stream (64 in pilot and 56 in traditional training) at the start of the schooling year (2020-21) percentage of students in traditional groups stream ((totally 64 students of the 1st year ma course in law) at the end of the schooling year (2020-2021) percentage of students in experimental groups stream (totally 56 students of the 1st year ma course in law) at the end of the schooling year (2020-2021) b2 10% 19% 28% b1+ 10% 29% 62% b1 50% 42% 10% a2+ 30% 10% however, if to compare the figures in columns three and four of table 3 and table 4, similar tendency becomes obvious. the experimental learning steams have more students with b2 (26 % in 2020 and 28 % in 2021), b1+ (49% in 2020 and 62% in 2021), few students with b1 level (25% in 2020 and 10 % in 2021), and do not have any students with a2+ level at the end of the experimental training. meanwhile, the traditional learning steams have fewer students with b2 (19 % in 2020 and 2021), b1+ (29% in 2020 and 29% in 2021), twice as more students with b1 level (40% in 2020 and 42 % in 2021), and have any students with a2+ level (14% in 2020 and 10% journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 417 in 2021) at the end of the experimental training. therefore, the data reveals that experimental training made it possible to reach a more balanced and homogenous composition of learning groups in terms of their students’ language mastery levels features of multilingual communication skills training those students indicate as relevant through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to pandemic emergency it was mentioned earlier that the students of the of the pilot training stream were subject to the questionnaire at the end of the pilot course with the employers’ regular inclusion in the academic course implementation. the students expressed their opinions on the experience of training with the employers’ live inclusion and commented on their own ability to understand the speakers from the angles of legal and language knowledge. table 9 shows the percentage of the respondents replies to yes/no questions, table 10 specifies the major themes which emerged in the course of students’ replies to thematic content analysis. table 9 percentage of the respondents’ replies to the questionnaire items (author’s data for the period of two academic years) question % of the respondents’ replies (totally 122 respondents) did the inclusion of the employers’ contributions were useful? 100% of respondents replied positively and provided free style comments, their themes were specified in the course of the content analysis, the results are shown in table 10 would you prefer to have such contributions in the curriculum in the future 100% of respondents replied positively was your knowledge of jurisprudence enough to understand the speaker(s)? 34% of the respondents mentioned it was not enough and provided free style comments, their themes were specified in the course of the content analysis, the results are shown in table 10 was your level of english enough to understand the speaker(s)? 29% the respondents mentioned it was not enough and provided free style comments, their themes were specified in the course of the content analysis, the results are shown in table 10 the above data confirms that 100% of students from the pilot groups’ stream evaluated the employers’ live contributions in a positive way. however, about 30% of the students mentioned the lack in legal knowledge (34%) or the lack of the english language mastery (29%). moreover, the subpart of the questionnaire procedure included students’ comments on the employers’ regular atabekova inclusion in the remote online training of multilingual communication skills. students’ free style comments shed additional light on their perceptions’ specifics, as the answers’ content-based analysis made it possible to identify the major themes that indicate as relevant through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training on multilingual communication skills training, see table 10. table 10 themes of students’ opinions (author’s data for the period of two academic years) index theme n of respondents who mentioned the theme (total n=122) % of those whose opinions mentioned these theme 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 improvement of legal knowledge structuring and processing improvement of legal knowledge within international framework improvement of legal knowledge with reference to a particular branch support in future career orientation and choice improvement of legal english development of skills in written english-russian communication in legal field development of skills in oral english-russian communication in legal field difficulties to understand the speaker due to lack of legal knowledge difficulties to understand the speaker due to lack of legal english mastery 120 118 116 113 122 107 93 42 35 98,4% 96,7% 95,1% 92,6% 100% 86,8% 76% 34,4% 28,6% the thematic analysis revealed that the 120 (98,4%) respondents mentioned a number of factors regarding the first theme. the first factor referred to target audiences’ deeper and coordinated understanding of the legal system (0,984), mentioned by 98% of the respondents. 2nd factor concerned students’ enhanced awareness of legal systems across the world (0, 984), mentioned by 98% of the experimental stream members. the second theme introduced the s vision of 118 students (96,7%) legal knowledge within an international framework. first factor identified the importance for students to be able to use the comparative approach (0,967), mentioned in 96,7% of replies). 2nd focused on the opportunity to identify national legal culture specifics of other countries with reference to russian jurisprudence (0, 964), mentioned in 96 % of replies. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 419 the third theme specified target audiences for whom the data in a foreign language (english) on a particular legal branch specifically mattered. 1st factor referred to different legal branches’ specifics (0, 951), cited by 95,1 % of respondents (n=116). 2nd factor covered legal procedures specifics with reference to a particular branch (0, 949), cited by 95% of respondents (n=115). the fourth theme revealed students’ interest in the choice of the field of law as a future profession. 1st factor identified students’ aspiration to decide on this before graduation, students mentioned that the employers’ contributions helped them to choose/ think of a particular legal field (0, 926) mentioned by 92,6 % of the participants (n-113). the fifth theme confirmed that the students themselves realized their progress in legal english.1st factor mentioned students’ improvement in legal vocabulary (0, 997), in legal text understanding (0,997), writing (0,996), structuring and producing (0,995), with overall mentions of these points in 100% of the replies (n=122). the sixth theme concerned the development of students’ (n=107) skills in written english-russian communication. 1st factor referred to the students’ improved capacity in building correct sentences (0,865), reported in 86% of the replies. 2nd factor covered students’ improved capacity providing correct text layout (0, 874), reported in 87% of the replies. the seventh theme concerned the development of students’ skills in oral english-russian communication. 1st factor referred to the students’ enhanced ability to arrange grammatically correct sentences (grammatically correct, with no essential information omissions) within twolanguage oral communication (0,759), reported in 76% of the replies. 2nd factor referred to students’ progress in structuring sentences with no essential information omissions (0, 758), reported in 76% of the replies. the clusters that formed the above-mentioned themes percentage were not sensitive to any features characterizing students’ sample (p>0, 01). the eighth theme covered the replies of those students(n=42) who complained about the lack of required legal knowledge. they mentioned they had not studied the topics of the speakers’ live contributions before in the ba course on jurisprudence (0, 343). the respective cluster percentage was sensitive to the students’ professional experience (p<0,0001), the students who did not have work experience (34%) mentioned the point. the ninth theme was formed by the replies of those respondents (n=35) who lacked the required level of legal english. 1st factor referred to the lack of legal terminology mastery (0,294), 2nd atabekova factor was mentioned with regard to the ability to understand an oral speech in english (0,292). the respective cluster percentage was sensitive to the students’ level of language mastery (p<0,0001). students with b1 level (at the end of the training period) mentioned the factor. students’ replies to the open-ended questionnaire reveal that the academic discipline on multilingual communication for legal purposes traditionally considered as part of module on foreign language in the curriculum for non-language (legal) degree program can contribute to both language and non-language degree-related knowledge in line with the major academic specialty. discussion the above data confirms that employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to emergency issues contributes to improving all the multilingual communication skills, namely reading, listening, writing, speaking, translation and interpreting. the clear difference in scores of students from traditional and pilot training speaks for itself. moreover, the study reveals that there is a balanced development of all the skills in the course of training. however, the reading skills are improved most intensively. we consider that it happens due to the student’s need to faster search for and read additional information (to understand the invited speakers’ ideas and facts). the listening, writing, and speaking skills take the second position in the skills development scale as skills for foreign language production activities develop not so fast. it should be noted that such findings do not contradict previous studies that underline on the importance of the employers’ inclusion in the academic curriculum and the need of to design the university curricula from the angle of employability (pereira et al., 2020). however, traditionally scholars focus on generic employability skills (sarkar et al., 2020) and underline the need to consider the formation of particular professional competencies through the employers’ involvement (weston et al., 2020). the novel character of the present research is related to the fact that present research reveals the employers’ live contributions in a foreign language with the focus on legal topics support the professional competencies multilingual development in the emergency shift to remote training format. to our mind it takes place due to the following features. the invited speakers directly tell and reply to the questions on the industry’s particular requirements in line with particular professional settings while using the professional legal patterns of communicative behavior that students perceive and further reproduce. thus, the present research data enhances the earlier journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 421 statement on english as an additional employees’ perspectives (hu & gonzales, 2020) with regard to lawyers-tobe bilingual training on a remote course due to global health emergency. moreover, the data confirm that a course on multilingual training enhances degree related knowledge outside the language mastery itself. researchers publish extensively on co-curricular and extra-curricular learning (jackson & bridgstock, 2021). the present research brings new light to the idea of cocurricular activities. the course in bilingual communication for professional purposes with employers’ live inclusion in the syllabus of the course that runs in the remote mode shows a concrete way for co-curricular techniques implementation in terms of employers’ engagement in the academic process during the global pandemic and respective isolation measures. the research findings have made it possible to identify those features of multilingual communication skills training those students consider relevant through employers’ live inclusion in the remote mode training due to pandemic emergency. the data confirms that a regular inclusion of the employer industry representatives in the syllabus of the course on multilingual communication for legal purposes contributes to students’ understanding of the english-speaking legal community mindset. moreover, such a systemic inclusion helps students to master cognitive schemes for knowledge processing, and legal reasoning in english, and enhances students’ abilities to implement required cognitive-communicative shifts with reference to information provision and processing in another (native) language. in the context of the remote learning due to the covid19 pandemic and related isolation and limitation live contributions from potential employers help to fill in the face-to-face collaboration gap. the current academic publications underline the need for educators and administrators to beer in mind students ‘needs help learners understand their aspirations (steele et al., 2020). the present research results reveal that students positively evaluate the regular live multilingual communication with potential employers. according to the students’ data, employers’ contributions within the remote learning due to the pandemic help students shape their preferences regarding the field of their professional activities. it becomes possible due to regular communication with representatives of different branches and fields of the legal industry. students realize that they learn in a broad multifaceted professional environment. such a landscape helps them pave their individual career pathway. the remote format of such live meetings helps overcome the restrictions that the pandemic imposes in terms of face-to-face meetings and activities. atabekova the research results also enhance and add new information for the background to coordinate academia and industry activities in emergency settings. when considering the importance of bridging academia and industry within the university curriculum, researchers, policymakers, and administrators underline the importance for students to visit the sites of their future professional activities, highlight the need to include in the curricula hours/credits/ workload for respective activities (carbone et al., 2020). furthermore, the live and systemic inclusions of industry representatives’ reports/presentations in the syllabus of the remote course helps to make students aware of the professional settings details and specifics within the bilingual context which enhances students’ professional knowledge, skills, and maturity in the situations when are not allowed to physically visit the sites of their future professional activities. the research findings lay grounds for the development of the didactic model for the course syllabus development with the regular inclusion of employer community representatives. earlier studies have argued for the work-based learning models (ismail et al., 2015) on the grounds of employers’ recommendations (kennington, 2021). however, academia should learn lessons from the lockdowns and restrictive measures due to the global health emergency and adjust the industryoriented needs within the curricula disciplines to new conditions. the present research findings lead to the preliminary conclusion on the relevance of developing a didactic model for employers’ live and regular inclusion in the implementation of the remote course syllabus on multilingual communication for specific purposes. conclusion the present research introduces the pilot investigation of the issue of pilot training with the consistent and regular inclusion of the legal industry representatives’ live contributions into the standard course syllabus on multilingual legal communication during the remote training due to the pandemic and isolation measures the pilot studies results confirm that the consistent and systemic inclusion of industry representatives’ live contributions into the multilingual communication skills training in the remote on-line mode can improve law students’ respective skills in reading, listening, writing, speaking, translation and interpreting. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 423 the novel research findings show the ways for legal industry representatives as potential employers to produce a positive impact on law students’ multilingual communication skills training in the remote mode due to the unexpected global emergencies. further, the study has proved that students evaluate the employers’ regular live inclusion in the on-line remote training positively. they appreciate not only the opportunity to improve their legal language skills but their legal knowledge within multilingual context, as well. further research is required as multilingual remote training of students who specialize in engineering, medicine, and other science-related degrees require not just personal contact with industry representatives but assume the representation of technology, infrastructure, and production process representation, design, and use of the relevant equipment visualization, etc. therefore, vr technologies are to be consistently integrated in the course syllabus, in line with the industry representatives’ personal live contributions. moreover, the opinions and recommendations from teachers and employers as speakers at the webinars are really critical and should be explored. to our mind the results and their discussion make it possible to assume that that the emergency shift to remote lsp, t&i training with the employers’ regular involvement requires respective managerial solutions for the respective activities. they include the following steps: -formation of the list of industry representatives in line with the syllabus modules and specify tentative dates for their live contributions -explicit inclusion of the respective live contributions in the course syllabus for students’ awareness of the respective requirements in terms of the events attendance, assignments performance and their assessment -arrangement of some didactic support to ensure learners’ preliminary awareness of the event topics, in terms of the legal content and language issues. the above leads to the conclusion on the timeliness to develop a didactic model of the employers’ regular involvement in the university course syllabus design and implementation within the remote training of lsp, t&i skills for particular professional purposes. such a model rests on the competences the academia and industry, coordinate and agree on with regard to a particular degree programmed and subjects in its curriculum. the model is supposed to identify learning modules within each discipline in line with the areas of the graduate’s work context and professional settings, ensure learning toolkit as a co-production of academic faculty and industry atabekova representatives, and specify topics and tentative dates (for each academic term) of employers’ direct contributions to the remote classes. such a model can help consistently develop students’ multilingual mindset within professional settings. acknowledgments the paper has been prepared with the support of the rudn program “priority 2030/program for comprehensive development 2025”. references akki, f., & larouz, m. (2021). a comparative study of english-arabic-english translation constraints among efl students, international journal of linguistics and translation studies, 2(3), 33-45. doi: 10.36892/ijlts.v2i3.163 alhadiah, a. (2021). communicative needs of saudi efl engineering students in an eap context: task-based needs analysis, tesol international, 16(1), 9-33. askari, m. i., satariyan, a., & ranjbar, m. (2021). investigating covert and overt errors using machine translation according to house’s (2015) tqa model within academic context, journal of language and translation, 11(3), 57-73. atmowardoyo, h. (2018). research methods in tefl studies: descriptive research, case study, error analysis, and r & d, journal of language teaching and research, 9(1), 197-204. doi: 10.17507/jltr.0901.25 augustin, t. j., & pudelko, m. (2020). multicultural and multilingual individuals forming social capital. in academy of management proceedings, 1, 12052. ny: academy of management. doi: 10.5465/ambpp.2020.121 baburajan, v., e silva, j. d. a., & pereira, f. c. (2020). open-ended versus closed-ended responses: a comparison study using topic modeling and factor analysis, ieee transactions on intelligent transportation systems, 22(4), 2123-2132. doi: 10.1177/0265532221992274 baran, e., & alzoubi, d. (2020). human-centered design as a frame for transition to remote teaching during the covid-19 pandemic, journal of technology and teacher education, 28(2), 365-372. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 425 butler, y. g., peng, x., & lee, j. (2021). young learners’ voices: towards a learner-centered approach to understanding language assessment literacy, language testing, 38(3), 429455. doi: 10.1177/0265532221992274 carbone, a., rayner, g. m., ye, j., & durandet, y. (2020). connecting curricula content with career context: the value of engineering industry site visits to students, academics and industry, european journal of engineering education, 45(6), 971-984. doi: 10.1080/03043797.2020.1806787 cefr (2001). common european framework of references. council of europe publishing. retrieved august 10, 2021 from https://rm.coe.int/1680459f97 cefr (2020). common european framework of references. companion volume. council of europe publishing. retrieved august 10, 2021 from https://rm.coe.int/common-europeanframework-of-reference-for-languages-learning-teaching/16809ea0d4 chen, x., dervin, f., tao, j., & zhao, k. (2020). towards a multilayered and multidimensional analysis of multilingual education: ideologies of multilingualism and language planning in chinese higher education, current issues in language planning, 21(3), 320-343. doi: 10.1080/14664208.2019.1706336 crowther, d., kim, s., lee, j., lim, j., & loewen, s. (2021). methodological synthesis of cluster analysis in second language research, language learning, 71(1), 99-130. doi: 10.1111/lang.12428 david, m. e., david, f. r., & david, f. r. (2021). closing the gap between graduates’ skills and employers’ requirements: a focus on the strategic management capstone business course, administrative sciences, 11(1), 10. doi: 10.3390/admsci11010010 defrancq, b., & fantinuoli, c. (2021). automatic speech recognition in the booth: assessment of system performance, interpreters’ performances and interactions in the context of numbers, target, 33(1), 73-102. doi: 10.1075/target.19166.def denning-smith, j. (2020). design thinking as a common language between higher education and employers. [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. dissertations. paper 193. retrieved august 10, 2021 from https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/diss/193 faryad, w., aziz, a., bibi, t., & abdul-rahaman, m. (2021). the application of house’model of translation quality assessment on pakistani fictionist saadat hasan manto’s short story, ilkogretim online, 20(5). doi: 10.17051/ilkonline.2021.05.146 filipova, a. g., inzartsev, a. v., & vysockaya, a. v. (2021). educational inequality in russian regions: mathematical modeling. in current problems and ways of industry development: equipment and technologies (pp. 948-958). springer, cham. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-69421-0_105 https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532221992274 https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2020.1806787 https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2020.1806787 https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2019.1706336 https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci11010010 https://doi.org/10.1075/target.19166.def https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/diss/193 https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2021.05.146 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69421-0_105 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69421-0_105 atabekova fredholm, k. (2020). estrategias de búsqueda en el traductor de google usadas por estudiantes de español l3: una compleja trama léxico-morfo-sintáctica de prueba y error, estudios de lingüística aplicada, 72, 9-48. doi: 10.22201/enallt.01852647p.2021.72.926 gariepy, l. w. (2021). acceptable and unacceptable uses of academic library search data: an interpretive description of undergraduate student perspectives, evidence based library and information practice, 16(2), 22-44. doi: 10.18438/eblip29923 ghare, m. m. g., & umarani, n. s. (2020). industry-academia interaction-need of the hour, journal nx, 75-84. gilani, s. a., ismail, n. f. b. m., kassim, r. r. b. m., yawen, j., & dan, m. (2021). a comprehensive analysis of research on dynamic assessment in efl speaking context, ajelp: asian journal of english language and pedagogy, 9(1), 65-79. doi: 10.37134/ajelp.vol9.1.6.2021 gorman, b. s., & primavera, l. h. (1983). the complementary use of cluster and factor analysis methods, journal of experimental education, 51(4), 165–168. doi: 10.1080/00220973.1983.11011856 hahn, s. e., & pedersen, j. (2020). library instruction versus employers needs: do recent graduates have the critical thinking skills and soft skills needed for success? practical academic librarianship: the international journal of the sla academic division, 10(1), 38-53. hale, s., goodman-delahunty, j., martschuk, n., & doherty, s. (2021). the effects of mode on interpreting performance in a simulated police interview. translation and interpreting studies,16 (2). doi: 10.1075/tis.19081.hal hawley, s. r., thrivikraman, j. k., noveck, n., romain, t. s., ludy, m. j., barnhart, l., ... & tucker, r. m. (2021). concerns of college students during the covid-19 pandemic: thematic perspectives from the united states, asia, and europe, journal of applied learning and teaching, 4(1), 11-20. doi: 10.37074/jalt.2021.4.1.10 hernandez, p. s. (2021). employers' perceptions of employability skills needed by recent high school graduates. [unpublished doctorate dissertation]. edgewood college. retrieved august 10, 2021 from https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/employersperceptions-employability-skills-needed/docview/2515601196/se-2?accountid=30408 house, j. (1997). translation quality assessment: a model re-visited. tubingen: narr. house, j. (2015). translation quality assessment: past and present. england: routledge. howells, k. (2020). simulated and real-world experience-the challenge of adapting practice in clinical legal education in unprecedented and challenging times, international journal of public legal education, 4(2), 196-213. https://doi.org/10.18438/eblip29923 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/00220973.1983.11011856 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/00220973.1983.11011856 https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2021.4.1.10 https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/employers-perceptions-employability-skills-needed/docview/2515601196/se-2?accountid=30408 https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/employers-perceptions-employability-skills-needed/docview/2515601196/se-2?accountid=30408 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 427 hu, j., & gonzales, l. (2020). english-as-an-additional-language employees’ perspectives on writing in the workplace. bc teal journal, 5(1), 91-108. doi: 10.14288/bctj.v5i1.343 ismail, s., mohamad, m. m., omar, n., heong, y. m., & kiong, t. t. (2015). a comparison of the work-based learning models and implementation in training institutions, procediasocial and behavioral sciences, 204, 282-289. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.153 jackson, d., & bridgstock, r. (2021). what actually works to enhance graduate employability? the relative value of curricular, co-curricular, and extra-curricular learning and paid work, higher education, 81(4), 723-739. doi: 10.1007/s10734-020-00570-x jakobovits, l. a. (1969). a functional approach to the assessment of language skills, journal of english as second language, 4 (2), 63-76 karakaya, k. (2021). design considerations in emergency remote teaching during the covid19 pandemic: a human-centered approach, educational technology research and development, 69(1), 295-299. doi: 10.1007/s11423-020-09884-0 karim, k. (2021). role of co-curricular activities (ccas) in academic success and increasing graduate employability, international journal of learning and development, 11(1), 121130. doi: 10.5296/ijld.v11i1.18300 kennington, j. (2021). how academic administrators shape experiential learning curriculum based on employer feedback. [unpublished doctoral dissertation]. capella university. retrieved august 10, 2021 from https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/howacademic-administrators-shape-experiential/docview/2509013488/se-2?accountid=30408 kiddle. t. (2019). advancing learning: teaching mediation. macmillan education. retrieved august 10, 2021 from https://www.macmillanenglish.com/us/blogresources/article/advancing-learning-teaching-mediation köpsén, j. (2020). demands-based and employer-driven curricula: defining knowledge in higher vocational education and training. studies in continuing education, 42(3), 349-364. doi: 10.1080/0158037x.2019.1661238 lado, r. (1961). language testing: the construction and use of foreign language tests. a teacher's book. bristol: mcgraw-hill book company. laviosa, s. (2008). description in the translation classroom. in a. pym, m. schlesinger, d. simeoni (eds.), beyond descriptive translation studies: investigation in homage gideon toury (pp. 119-132). amsterdam: john benjamins. leung, c., & jenkins, j. (2020). mediating communication – elf and flexible multilingualism perspectives on the common european framework of reference for languages, australian journal of applied linguistics, 3(1), 26-41. doi: 10.29140/ajal.v3n1.285 https://doi.org/10.14288/bctj.v5i1.343 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.153 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00570-x https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09884-0 https://doi.org/10.5296/ijld.v11i1.18300 https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/how-academic-administrators-shape-experiential/docview/2509013488/se-2?accountid=30408 https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/how-academic-administrators-shape-experiential/docview/2509013488/se-2?accountid=30408 https://www.macmillanenglish.com/us/blog-resources/article/advancing-learning-teaching-mediation https://www.macmillanenglish.com/us/blog-resources/article/advancing-learning-teaching-mediation https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037x.2019.1661238 https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037x.2019.1661238 https://doi.org/10.29140/ajal.v3n1.285 atabekova lipnevich, a. a., panadero, e., gjicali, k., & fraile, j. (2021). what’s on the syllabus? an analysis of assessment criteria in first year courses across us and spanish universities, educational assessment, evaluation and accountability, 1-25. doi: 10.1007/s11092-02109357-9 lommel, a. (2018). metrics for translation quality assessment: a case for standardising error typologies. in translation quality assessment (pp. 109-127). springer, cham. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-91241-7_6 lovrić, r., farčić, n., mikšić, š., & včev, a. (2020). studying during the covid-19 pandemic: a qualitative inductive content analysis of nursing students’ perceptions and experiences, education sciences, 10(7), 188. doi: 10.3390/educsci10070188 ma, j., stahl, l., & price, c. (2020). developing specialized graduate curricula for health information professionals: integrated findings of a scoping review and an employer survey, journal of education for library and information science, 61(1), 64-86. doi: 10.3138/jelis.61.1.2018-0066 mahyoob, m. (2020). challenges of e-learning during the covid-19 pandemic experienced by efl learners, arab world english journal (awej), 11(4), 351-362. doi: 10.24093/awej/vol11no4.23 márquez-ramos, l. (2021). does digitalization in higher education help to bridge the gap between academia and industry? an application to covid-19, industry and higher education, online first article, 0950422221989190. doi: 10.1177/0950422221989190 martinez, n., sowcik, m. j., & bunch, j. c. (2020). the impact of leadership education and cocurricular involvement on the development of socially responsible leadership outcomes in undergraduate students: an exploratory study, journal of leadership education, 19(3), 3243. doi: 10.12806/v19/i3/r3 mazhazhate, c., & mudondo, t. (2020). multilingual and multiculturalism philosophy as a strategic tool for organizational competitiveness, international journal of social and humanities sciences, 4(2), 103-114. medriano, jr, r. s., & bautista, a. s. (2020). integrating business english communication in the contextualized teaching of an esl graduate course, the asian esp journal, 16(2.1), 7088. north, b. (2016). developing cefr illustrative descriptors of aspects of mediation, international online journal of education and teaching (iojet), 3(2), 132-140. parrone, j. m., & roaring, f. f. p. b. f. (2020). analyzing employers’ feedback using text analytics: an associative based approach, international journal, 9(5), 7100-7108. doi: 10.30534/ijatcse/2020/32952020 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-021-09357-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-021-09357-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91241-7_6 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91241-7_6 https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10070188 https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.1.2018-0066 https://doi.org/10.3138/jelis.61.1.2018-0066 https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no4.23 https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no4.23 https://doi.org/10.1177/0950422221989190 https://doi.org/10.30534/ijatcse/2020/32952020 https://doi.org/10.30534/ijatcse/2020/32952020 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 429 pereira, e. t., vilas-boas, m., & rebelo, c. f. (2020). university curricula and employability: the stakeholders’ views for a future agenda, industry and higher education, 34(5), 321329. doi: 10.1177/0950422220901676 pet general (n/d). retrieved august 1, 2021, from https://www.examenglish.com/pte/pte_general.htm radić, n., atabekova, a., freddi, m., & schmied, j. (2021). the world universities’ response to covid-19: remote online language teaching. retrieved august 10, 2021 from https://blog.research-publishing.net/the-world-universities-response-to-covid-19-remoteonline-language-teaching-2b95eb5aeb76 rai, s. s., rai, s., & singh, n. k. (2021). organizational resilience and social-economic sustainability: covid-19 perspective, environment, development and sustainability, 118. doi: 10.1007/s10668-020-01154-6 rapanta, c., botturi, l., goodyear, p., guàrdia, l., & koole, m. (2020). online university teaching during and after the covid-19 crisis: refocusing teacher presence and learning activity, postdigital science and education, 2(3), 923-945. doi: 10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y razfar, a. (2021). bilingual education. in oxford research encyclopedia of education. oxford: oxford university press. doi: 10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1059 reinhard, d., stafford, m. c., & payne, t. c. (2021). covid-19 and academia: considering the future of academic conferencing, journal of criminal justice education, 32(2), 171-185. doi: /10.1080/10511253.2020.1871047 ronderos, n., shavelson, r. j., holtsch, d., zlatkin-troitschanskaia, o., & solano-flores, g. (2021). international performance assessment of critical thinking: framework for translation and adaptation, journal of supranational policies of education (jospoe), 13, 62-87. doi: 10.15366/jospoe2021.13.003 sarka, d. (2021). descriptive statistics. in: advanced analytics with transact-sql. berkeley: apress. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4842-7173-5_1 sarkar, m., overton, t., thompson, c. d., & rayner, g. (2020). academics’ perspectives of the teaching and development of generic employability skills in science curricula, higher education research & development, 39(2), 346-361. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2019.1664998 schneider, s. (2020). a critical analysis of the role of intercultural communication in the common european framework of reference for languages (cefr) companion volume (2020). journal of spanish language teaching, 7(2), 193-199. doi: 10.1080/23247797.2020.1864112 https://doi.org/10.1177/0950422220901676 https://www.examenglish.com/pte/pte_general.htm https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-01154-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1059 https://doi.org/10.1080/10511253.2020.1871047 https://doi.org/10.15366/jospoe2021.13.003 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7173-5_1 https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2019.1664998 https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2019.1664998 https://doi.org/10.1080/23247797.2020.1864112 https://doi.org/10.1080/23247797.2020.1864112 atabekova siedlecki, s. (2020). understanding descriptive research designs and methods, clinical nurse specialist, 34(1), 8-12. doi: 10.1097/nur.0000000000000493 singh, m. k. m. (2021). english language communicative competence of university interns for employability, e-bangi, 18(3), 67-81. srivastav, s., garg, v., & gupta, a. (2020). bridging the perceived gap between industry and academia, international journal of supply chain and operations resilience, 4(2), 202216. doi: 10.1504/ijscor.2020.109174 stavans, a., & lindgren, e. (2021). 12 building the multilingual literacy bridge. in multilingual literacy (pp. 260-286). multilingual matters. berlin: walter de gruyter. doi: 10.21832/9781800410701-013 steele, k. j., vanryn, v. s., stanescu, c. i., rogers, j., & wehrwein, e. a. (2020). start with the end in mind: using student career aspirations and employment data to inform curriculum design for physiology undergraduate degree programs, advances in psychological education, 44 (4), 697-701. doi: 10.1152/advan.00167.2020 suarez, c. a. (2020). disruptive legal technology, covid-19, and resilience in the profession, south carolina law review, 72, 393-444. sun, w., qiu, y., & zheng, y. (2021). translanguaging practices in local employees' negotiation to create linguistic space in a multilingual workplace, círculo de lingüistica aplicada a la comunicación, 86, 31-42. doi: 10.5209/clac.75493. swift, l., gardiakos, p., & cartledge, t. (2020). access to justice: closing or widening the gap?: the impact of covid-19 on access to legal services, bulletin (law society of south australia), 42(7), 18-20. szabó, r. (2020). no going back: the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on corporate language and communication training robert szabó, horizon, 2, 23-30. tao, j., zheng, c., lu, z., liang, j. c., & tsai, c. c. (2020). cluster analysis on chinese university students’ conceptions of english language learning and their online selfregulation, australasian journal of educational technology, 36(2), 105-119. doi: 10.14742/ajet.4844 tarman, b. (2020). reflecting in the shade of pandemic, research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), i-iv. doi: 10.46303/ressat.05.02.ed tarman, b., kilinc, e. & aydin, h. (2019). barriers to the effective use of technology integration in social studies education, contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 19(4), 736-753. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijscor.2020.109174 https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800410701-013 https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800410701-013 https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00167.2020 https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.4844 https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.4844 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (3), 396-431 431 tlowane, m., & foncha, j. w. (2020). the multilingual practices of the ba cems (bilingual programme) graduates at the workplace: theoretical applied perspective, english scholarship beyond borders, 6(1), 74-92. tönsing, k. m., & soto, g. (2020). multilingualism and augmentative and alternative communication: examining language ideology and resulting practices, augmentative and alternative communication, 36(3), 190-201. doi: 10.1080/07434618.2020.1811761 turner, b., lai, m., & huang, n. (2010). error deduction and descriptors-a comparison of two methods of translation test assessment, translation & interpreting, 2(1), 11-23. doi: 10.3316/informit.361014799741645 vuorinen, p., & mereuta, c. (2020). skills for smart specialisation: fostering sme innovation through new training and learning pathways, technological transfer, and skills upgrading. in the importance of smes as innovators of sustainable inclusive employment (pp. 231-246). munich: rainer hampp verlag. wang, w. (2021). introducing china’s standards of english language ability (cse)— interpreting competence scales. in j. chen, c. han (eds.), testing and assessment of interpreting: recent developments in china (pp.15-44). basingstoke: springer nature. weston, e., benlloch‐tinoco, m., mossop, l., mccullough, f., & foster, t. (2020). curriculum mapping food science programs: an approach to quantification of professional competencies, journal of food science education, 19(2), 97-108. doi: 10.1111/15414329.12182 yu b, n., & nadtochiy, y. b. (2021). learner-centered approach to students, journal of contemporary issues in business and government, 27(1), 1441-1453. https://doi.org/10.1080/07434618.2020.1811761 https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4329.12182 https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4329.12182 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (2),323-343 323 translating javanese culture expressions in a novel: techniques and quality dyah nugrahani1, m.r. nababan2, riyadi santosa3 & djatmika4 abstract translating cultural terms from javanese is an area of interest because this language has numerous various cultural fixed expressions that challenge the translator in conveying the intended message to target readers. this study investigates the javanese fixed expressions, as well as the translation techniques employed to translate them, for three novels: burung-burung manyar (the weaverbirds), pengakuan pariyem (pariyem’s confession), and para priyayi (javanese gentry). relying on content analysis design and a qualitative approach, this study analyzed 32 javanese expressions obtained from the above three novels. the data was analyzed using domain, taxonomy, componential, and thematic analysis, as well as through an evaluation by experts in a focus group discussion. the results reveal that seven types of javanese fixed expressions are used in the studied novels. when translating these expressions, translators tend to employ the description and deletion techniques, while the use of modulation, adaptation, established equivalent, and explicitation techniques tend to produce the best translations. keywords: translation techniques; fixed expressions; burung-burung manyar; pengakuan pariyem; para priyayi introduction this paper looks at how translation techniques are used to transfer the nuances of cultural javanese novels into english and evaluate how this cultural transfer is appropriately defined in the target language (tl). three novels—namely burung-burung manyar (the weaverbirds), pengakuan pariyem (pariyem’s confession), and para priyayi (javanese gentry)—are examined for their translation quality to demonstrate the problems that exists in translating certain javanese source language (sl) contexts of the original novels into the tl (english) versions of the novels. the three novels studied here date back to when dutch colonial activities shaped javanese culture, and literature was the dominant media for figuring out community portraits throughout indonesia. three famous novelists—namely umar kayam (author of javanese gentry), y. b. mangunwijaya (the weaverbirds), and linus suryadi (pariyem’s confession)—successfully translated the 1doctor candidate, sebelas maret university, surakarta indonesia;email: nugrahanidiyah@yahoo.co.id 2prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: amantaradja@yahoo.com 3prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: riyadisantosa@staff.uns.ac.id 4prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:riyadisantosa@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 javanese culture into their novels. each novel describes up to approximately 10% of the javanese culture, so the novels have been considered largely successful at representing javanese culture and its social interactions, and translations of the novels from the sl of bahasa indonesia into english as the tl have been popular. a problem has emerged, however, from the perspective of translation studies, namely the translation of culture-specific elements in literary works. the problem of culturally specific text in a translation is known to be challenging for a translator, because they need to transfer the true intention contained in the sl into the tl. nababan (2008) states that a translator’s cultural knowledge plays an important role in producing an appropriate translation text. the translator can transfer the original message from the sl into the tl and represent the culture of the source text. this can be problematic, however, because cultural terms do not always have a direct equivalent in other cultures, so translators sometimes fail to formulate corresponding cultural terms in the target language. in one novel being investigated, for instance, the javanese-specific expression of “tanpa tedeng aling-aling (open fully and frankly)” was translated into “outside the shelter of the garden wall,” which refers to a place outside of the wall, a completely different meaning from the message in the source text. due to this cultural handicap, the translation is misleading, because the nuance of the expression refers to an extroverted expression or a willingness to say anything without fear. similarly, the phrase “mbok-mboken (mother-sickness)” is translated as “suckling at their mother’s breasts” (mangunwijaya, 2014), which again is not accurate. in reality, this term refers to a spoiled person who cannot live away from home and needs to be close to his or her relatives, while “suckling at their mother’s breasts” refers to the physical act of breastfeeding. from this initial observation, it seems it would be significant and interesting to identify various types of javanese fixed expressions in the three novels and see which techniques were used by the translators to convey the meaning of those expressions in the target language. a culture-dependent translation needs the translator to understand the culture of the text being translated, and some techniques may not be viable if the nuances of the text are not well understood. studies into translating cultural terms have been carried out by several researchers. wilson-broyles (2013) studied the translation of swedish cultural terms into english. he focused on comparing the use of an internet-based translation tool and a conventional tool. li, zhang, and liu (2011), meanwhile, studied the implementation of a translation strategy to solve the english-chinese nugrahani, et al. untranslatability problem. in the local language of indonesia, lubis (2013) tried to find english equivalents to the cultural terms found in the mangupa text in the mandailing language. the terms related to local cultural ceremonies, such as birthdays, weddings, and moving to a new home. the accuracy of meaning becomes important when translating the cultural context. if the translators are not able to find an accurate translation, they will fail to produce good target text. furthermore, there will be a shift in meaning, and this is a very significant problem (durdureanu, 2011; hibaturrahmah, 2012). the translation of javanese cultural terms has not yet been explored in any previous studies. the translation of cultural terms cannot be separated from the technique used to transfer the message from the source text to target text. the technique chosen will influence the necessary qualities of a good translation text, which are accuracy, acceptability, and readability (harun, 2017; honarvar & rahimi, 2011; isaksen, schryver, & onkelinx, 2010; khoirunnisa, 2015; zhou, 2007). in other words, the translation text can be called good if the message is conveyed accurately in the target text, the structure is natural and acceptable in the target language, and target readers can easily understand the translated text. such qualities cannot be achieved using machine translation (nitta, 1986). drawing on the abovementioned cultural translation problems, this study intends to identify how the translators of three novels solved the problem of translating fixed expressions from javanese culture into english. this study asks the following research questions to guide the research process: 1) what kinds of javanese fixed expressions do translators take from the novels burung-burung manyar, pengakuan pariyem, and para priyayi to perform cultural meaning translation? 2) what techniques are used by the translators of the novels burung-burung manyar, pengakuan pariyem, and para priyayi to translate javanese fixed expressions with culture-specific meanings? literature review translation techniques molina and albir (2002) define a translation technique as a procedure to analyze and classify how translation equivalence works. it refers to the steps taken by the translator when reproducing a text. they also mention that a translation technique actually points to the actual steps taken by journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 translators in each textual micro-unit. this means that a translation technique is the way in which the message in the source language is transferred to the target language. they propose five characteristics of a technique: 1) it affects the translation text, 2) it is classified by comparing the source and target texts, 3) it influences the micro-unit of a text, 4) it is discursive and contextual, and 5) it is functional. machali (2009) states that there are two important things when dealing with the term technique: 1) techniques are practical, and 2) they are applied for a particular task. a technique covers all the practical tasks and can be developed through some training. translation techniques mostly encompass practical steps and problem solving. mathieu (2016) differentiates between a translation method and a technique. a translation method is applied to the entire text being translated, while a translation technique can vary within the same text according to the context and depending on the specific verbal elements being translated. according to mathieu (2016), the classical taxonomy of translation procedures dates back to 1958 with the work of vinay and darbelnet (1958), which comprises seven categories: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalent or reformulation, and adaptation. mathieu (2016) summarizes these definitions as follows. first, borrowing involves using the same word or expression in the original text in the target text, thus reproducing the expression from the original text “as is.” the word or expression being borrowed is usually written in italics. in this sense, this translation technique does not actually translate. second, when using the calque technique, a translator creates or uses a neologism in the target language by adopting the structure of the source language. third, a literal translation, or metaphrase, isa word-for-word translation, thus achieving text in the target language that is technically correct but may not be idiomatic. vinay and darbelnet (1958) state that a literal translation is only suitable when the two languages are extremely close in cultural terms. it is acceptable only if the translated text retains the same syntax, the same meaning, and the same style as the original text. the fourth translation technique is transposition. this technique moves from one grammatical category to another without altering the meaning of the text, and it introduces changes in the grammatical structure. with the modulation technique, the translator changes the form of the text by introducing semantic changes or new perspectives. the next translation technique, according to vinay and darbelnet (1958), is equivalent or reformulation. this technique uses a completely different expression to transmit the same underlying reality, thus allowing the names of institutions, interjections, idioms, and proverbs to be translated. the seventh translation technique nugrahani, et al. is adaptation, cultural substitution, or cultural equivalent. it replaces a cultural element in the original text with one that is better suited to the culture of the target language to achieve a more familiar and comprehensive text. according to mathiue (2016), adaptation is also referred to as explicitation (introducing specific details in the target language text), collocation (using a sequence of words that usually go together in the target language), and compensation (where an allusion or reference does not appear in the same part of the text as in the source version but rather later on). translation and culture translation is a form of communication that bridges between cultures. it is done both orally and through writing. this is no easy task, because every nation has its own culture. venuti (2012) describes how the aims of the translation process is to actually transmit the culture of the source text to the target text. the message must therefore be recognizable and familiar to the target readers. the process always involves risk, so a translator has to find the best solutions to the problems that arise. this explanation indicates that translators will face problems when transferring a cultural element from a source text to a target text. bassnett (2002) emphasizes that no language is exactly the same in social reality, so translating cultural terms will always be difficult, because the translator must give an accurate meaning. nida (1945) states that translators are permanently faced with problems in how to handle the implicit cultural aspects in an sl and find the most appropriate technique for successfully conveying such aspects in the tl. this statement suggests that a translator will frequently, if not always, come across the cultural problem, so appropriate techniques must be developed. pedersen (2007) refers to cultural problems as extralinguistic cultural references (ecrs). ecrs are expressions that refer to entities outside a language, such as the names of people, places, institutions, food, customs, and so on. they are references that a non-native person may not understand, even if he or she has learned the language in question. this theory complements what soemarno (2001) expresses about the cultural problem. he mentions how some cultural terms can present a serious problem to be solved by the translator. the terms can refer to stereotypical expressions, cultural events, traditional buildings, traditional costumes, kinship, the translation of pronouns, speech levels, idioms, and fixed expressions. he stresses that translating idioms and culture-specific expressions is a difficult task. the translators must consider the idioms and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 culture-specific expressions in the source text. baker (2011) clarifies that an idiom is an expression that functions as a single unit, and its meaning cannot be deduced from its component words. the first challenge that a translator faces is being able to recognize when he or she is dealing with an idiomatic expression, because it is not always so obvious. next, the translator needs to accurately reflect an idiom’s meaning in the target text. the reader of the target text should feel the “beauty” of the original text. nida and taber (1982) define idioms as combinations of words that have both a literal and literal semantic structure, but the connection between the two cannot be described as representing an additive process. tarjana (2006) affirms that generally speaking, idioms are fixed expressions that belong to a language-specific phenomena. based on the above explanation, it can be concluded that culture-specific expressions, including idioms, are grouped in a phenomenon that characterizes the culture of a particular society. what is more, there is usually no equivalent term in the target language when translating an idiom. this imposes problems when translating idiomatic expressions from one language to another, particularly because certain idioms are not easily recognizable. javanese fixed expressions idioms are treated as figures of speech, which are defined in the collins cobuild english dictionary (1988) as expressions, such as similes, in which words do not represent their literal meaning but are rather categorized as multi-word expressions that act as indivisible units in the text. the longman idioms dictionary (2017) defines them as a sequence of words that take on a different meaning as a group when compared to what someone would understand if he or she read each word separately. they cannot be broken up into their elements, so they are sometimes referred to as fixed expressions (cowie & mackin in shojaei, 2012). newmark (1988) states that an idiom has two main functions: pragmatic and referential. the pragmatic function is to appeal to the senses, to interest, to surprise, and to delight. he says that the first function is cognitive while the other is aesthetic. the referential function is to describe a mental process or state, a concept, a person, an object, a quality, or an action more comprehensively and concisely than would be possible with literal language. it can be said that an idiom is a series of words that when taken together mean something different from the individual words of the idiom (mcmordiew in shojaei, 2012). moreover, carter (1998) proposes the idiom nugrahani, et al. as a type of fixed expression that includes proverbs, stock phrases, catchphrases, allusions, idiomatic similes, and discoursed expressions. baker (2011) mentions that idioms and fixed expressions are at the extreme end of the scale from collocations in one or both of these areas: flexibility of patterning and transparency of meaning. they are frozen language patterns that allow little or no variation in form, and in the case of idioms, they often carry a meaning that cannot be deduced from their individual components. she then explains that some idioms do not even allow variation in form under normal circumstances, and a translator cannot do any of the following with an idiom: a) change the order of the words in it; b) delete a word from it; c) add a word to it; d) replace a word with another; ore) change its grammatical structure. idioms and fixed expressions are an undeniable part of each language, and they are found in large numbers in most languages. since the meaning of these collocations cannot be understood from an interpretation of the individual words, many people have problems in both understanding and translating them. there are seven kinds of fixed expressions in javanese: 1) wangsalan, 2) parikan, 3) sanepa, 4) tembung entar, 5) paribasan, 6) bebasan, and 7) saloka. a wangsalan is a word or expression that is like a quiz wherethe answers are disguised syllables in the phrase. in the expression pindhang lulang krecek (cooked cowhide), apa aku karo kowe (am i with you), the key to the wangsalan is the syllable cek in the word krecek (cowhide),which is an alternative name for pindhang lulang (cowhide). the sound of syllable then cek must then occur in the second phrase as the answer of the quiz, apa aku karo kowe. in short, the syllable we is meant to be paralleled with cek. another example is the expression njanur gunung (mountainous young coconut leaves), kadingaren (coincidently). it differs slightly from the previous example in that the reader or listener must understand the first phrase if she or she is to guess what the expression means. njanur comes from the javanese word janur (young coconut leaves), and coconut trees are easily found in coastal areas, being a natural habitat for the palm (aren in javanese) tree family. however, it would be strange to find such a tree in an alpine environment. such unusual behavior is called kadingaren in javanese. based on this, the javanese use the specific expression janur gunung, kadingaren to refer to an extraordinary event. table 1 gives some more wangsalan expressions: table 1 javanese wangsalan expressions no wangsalan key 1 jenang gula (sugar porridge), kowe aja lali (pleasedon’t forget) jenang gula : gulali = lali journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 2 sekar aren (palm flower), rawuhipun sampun dangudangu (the arrival is long-awaited) sekar aren : dangu = dangu 3 njanur gunung (mountainous young coconut leaves), kadingaren (unusual) janur gunung : aren = kadingaren 4 mbalung klapa (coconut shell), geleme mung ethok – ethokan (pretending to want to) mbalung klapa : batok = ethok – ethok 5 mbalung janur (branch of coconut leaves), paring usada nggonku nandhang wuyung (support me, i am in love) balung janur : sada = usada 6 reca kayu (wood statue), goleka kaweruh rahayu (looking for safety) reca kayu : golekan = goleka 7 ngembang garut (flower of garut, namely gremeng grumble) nggremeng ora karuwan (grumbling) kembang garut = gremeng = nggremeng 8 ngembang kacang (pea flower, namely besengut sullen), mbesengut ora kalegan. kembang kacang : besengut =mbesengut 9 roning mlinjo (melinjo leaves) namely so, sampun sayah nyuwun ngaso (already tired, resting) roning mlinjo : so = ngaso 10 kembang gembili (flower of gembili namely seneng) seneng-seneng(happy) oleh rejeki (getting advantage) kembang gembili : seneng = senengseneng a parikan consists of a sampiran and content. a sampiran is made as an introduction proceeding the main intention of the message on the third and fourth line. it is therefore the first half of the parikan. often, the first and second lines are sentences that provide a certain sound of words, which is then followed by one or two lines with the same sound. there is no relational meaning between the sampiran and the content other than in their sounds. in javanese, the beauty of sounds is called purwakanthi. one example is iwak bandeng (bandeng fish) karo (together with) yuyu (crab), priya ganteng (handsome man) ning ra payu (not sold). the first phrase is the sampiran, while the second is the content or main message of the parikan. the example below is a parikan with four lines: lunga bengkulu tuku perkutut (went to bengkulu to buy a turtledove.) sing ngati-ati dalane gawat (be careful of dangerous roads.) dhawuhe guru kudu diturut (the teacher’s order must be obeyed.) supaya ngelmune bisa manfaat (so that knowledge is useful.) a sanepa is an expression thatis used to describe that someone or something sounds bigger, better, more plentiful, and so on than it actually is. an example of such an expression is the use of arang (sparse) and wulu kucing (cat fur) in the sentence utange arang wulu kucing (his debt is as sparse as cat fur). cat fur is generally plentiful, however, so it implies that someone has a lot of debt. tembung entar is an expression used to refer to someone’s behavior and character, like a figurative. an example expression is abang kupinge (red ears). abang is red in english, while kuping is ear. it means to say that someone is very angry. other expressions appear in table 2. nugrahani, et al. table 2 tembung entar phrases no tembung entar in javanese meaning in english 1 adus luh(bathed in sweat )= nemen anggone nangis (burst into tears) cries hard 2 bening atine (his heart is clean) = sumeh (friendly) always smiles 3 tipis lambene (thin lips)= criwis (talks too much), seneng nggunem liyan (loves talking about other people) talks too much the paribasan is not a figurative, however. its function is to portray a condition, behavior, and/or someone’s will. the expression agama (religion) ageming aji (life guide), for example, refers to religion as guidance in life and identity. the word agama means religion in english, while ageing comes from the word ageman (literally meaning something to wear), and aji means meaningful. another expression bibit (ancestry), bebet (treasure), bobot (social status) comprises three words with different meanings. bibit means ancestry, bebet means treasure, and bobot means of a high class. for javanese parents, the expression represents the requirements of one who wants to marry a daughter or son. such a person must have good ancestry, plenty of wealth, and come from a high social class. a bebasan expression focuses on revealing someone’s condition, as well as sometimes his or her behavior. it is figurative and permanent. the javanese will say mikul dhuwur (bear highly) mendhem jero (hoard deeply) to suggest that we have to uphold our parents’ dignity. the last type of expression is saloka, and it describes someone’s behavior and condition figuratively. it uses animals and other things to analogize the one being described. when talking about when someone learns from a younger person, the javanese use the expression kebo (buffalo) nyusu (suckle) gudel (young buffalo). in other words, the older buffalo is said to suckle from the younger one. the above expressions contain constructive criticisms. they are delivered vaguely in a way that does not offend others. such expressions are created to establish peace and accord between people and make things seem right or suitable together. methods design and setting a corpus of javanese expressions, as obtained from the three novels, was analyzed in this study using a content analysis design and a qualitative approach. the javanese expressions in the original novels in bahasa indonesia were matched with the equivalent words, phrases, or sentences in the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 english translations. content analysis was used because the object of investigation was a corpus of javanese expressions taken from novels (krippendorf, 1985). in addition, this study was qualitative in nature because the data involved words, phrases, and sentences together with identified relationships among them that infer meaning (spradley, 1980). specifically, this study examined how a good-quality translation was achieved in terms of conveying the meaning from the original bahasa indonesia text to the english text where the cultural transfer was the ultimate goal of the equivalence. it focused on the translation of javanese-specific expressions into english. the entity is holistic, complex, and meaningful. the qualitative research into translation is also product-oriented research, because it considers the final result of translators’ decisions without delving into the translators’ cognitive processes while performing the task. this study investigated three novels—namely burung-burung manyar (the weaverbirds) by y. b. manguwijaya (1981), pengakuan pariyem (pariyem’s confession) by linus suryadi (1981), and para priyayi (javanese gentry) by umar kayam (1991)—all of which have been translated into english several times. the degree of javanese culture defined in each novel ranges from about 10%, and they illustrate the specific javanese culture. the popularity of the novels makes them attractive for investigating the translation techniques that have been applied to them. data and their sources the primary data for this study comprised a corpus of javanese-specific expressions taken from three novels written in bahasa indonesia, as well as the equivalent expressions in the novels’ english translations. the linguistic data of this study therefore came from the javanese expressions in the original novels written in bahasa indonesia and the english translations. the data were therefore in the form of words, phrases, and sentences, with the original being dependent on the javanese culture. the techniques used in the english translations therefore would have relied mostly upon cultural translation. accordingly, the source of data for this study was three novels written in bahasa indonesia and the translated novels in english. these were burung-burung manyar (the weaverbirds) by y. b. manguwijaya (1981), pengakuan pariyem (pariyem’s confession) by linus suryadi (1981), and para priyayi (javanese gentry) by umar kayam (1991).brief synopses of these novels are given below. burung-burung manyar (the weaverbirds) by y.b. mangunwijaya is divided over three long chapters: the late occupation (1934–1944), the national revolution (1945–1950), and the nugrahani, et al. early new order regime (1968–1978). written in 1981, it went on to become a classic in indonesian literature. the book uses many javanese and dutch terms that are explained in the footnotes. romo mangun (the popular name of y.b. mangunwijaya) successfully brought the historical settings to life. the story centers around the keraton mangkunegaran, which describes feudalistic javanese royal society’s way of living, where women must show their deep submission to their husbands. pengakuan pariyem (pariyem’s confession) by linus suryadi is a long poem written in the voice of a woman. it tells the story of a young woman from a rural area who comes to the city of yogyakarta and works as a maid for an aristocratic family. she becomes pregnant by the family’s son, has his child, and then returns to work for them. pariyem muses on eroticism, javanese customs, and social change, revealing a search for contentment in her life journey to learn the secrets to fulfillment. para priyayi (javanese gentry) was written by umar kayam and first published in 1991.in the novel, umar kayam tells the life story of sastrodarsono, who is a priyayi, a gentry who came from a farming family. thanks to the help from assistant wedana ndoro seten, he was able to get an education and even become a teacher, enabling sastrodarsono to become a priyayi. sastrodarsono marries siti aisyah and has three children and subsequent grandchildren. sastrodarsono’s family grows up in time to become spoiled bureaucrats rather than the good priyayi expected by sastrodarsono. participants the participants in this study comprised 15 people involved in a focus group discussion (fgd) to analyze the translation quality of the javanese expressions in the novels. each novel was evaluated by five members focused on assessing the quality of the english translation of the novels. the participants were selected using purposive sampling techniques (santosa, 2017), the criteria of which relied on the expertise and authority of the participants. in each group of five members evaluating each novel, three were experts in english translation and two were experts in literature education, having a total of 15 members over the three groups. they were invited to participate in the fgd process in order to derive a consensus for the assessment of the english translations of the corpuses of original expressions. of the 15 participants, nine held doctorate degrees, while the remaining six had master’s degrees. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mangkunegaran_palace journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 data-collection procedures the data for this research were collected from three novels written in bahasa indonesia and three english translations of those novels. javanese expressions containing culture-specific meanings were first identified in the indonesian novels. the data were recorded in terms of the words, phrases, and sentences in the original bahasa indonesia versions and their equivalents in the english versions. having matched the javanese expressions with the english ones, the teams evaluated the quality of the translations through an fgd. in the fgd, two groups each discussed 10 javanese expressions containing cultural-specific meanings, while the remaining group discussed 12 such expressions. each group evaluated the readability, accuracy, and acceptability of each translated expression, allowing the entire data set of 32 javanese expressions to be judged for their translation quality. the researcher and the members of fgd took up roles as raters evaluating the javanese-specific expression in the novels and determining the technique that had been used to convey the meaning of the javanese-specific expression into the english version. data analysis techniques as qualitative research, this study used the analysis model of spradley (1980), who applied domain analysis, taxonomy analysis, componential analysis, and thematic analysis. prior to the analysis, the javanese expressions were coded as words, phrases, and sentences in adherence to the title of each novel. in the domain analysis, all data were classified in general categories whose domains were similar. in the taxonomy analysis, each domain was supplied with indicators from which the relevant translation techniques were identified. the componential analysis was used to link and infer each taxonomy in the domain with how a translation technique was applied. finally, thematic analysis was used to determine each translation technique being analyzed, the sample of evidence of for the corpus the translator used, and the quality of the translation product. each corpus of the fixed javanese expression in this study was first evaluated its equivalence in sl and tl in three levels: word, phrase and sentence. the cultural-specific translation that representing a fixed javanese expression obtained in the original novels was matched to the fixed javanese expression in the english translation novels. this way, the meaning equivalence was compared from both novels and the nuance of javanese expressions. each feature of the meaning equivalence was identified to see the problems that occurred; e.g. does the translator transfer the nugrahani, et al. meaning the full proper expression?, are the javanese expression being translated adopted or adapted?; does the cultural meaning in the sl change its message? in addition, each corpus was identified the translation technique being used by the translator. this way, each original sentence in bahasa indonesia was identified and elaboration into words, phrase and sentence level was conducted. in each level of translation, we analyzed what techniques were applied to transfer the meaning. in this section, evaluation of the meaning equivalence was also confirmed with its accuracy, readability and acceptability. the decision to administer the translation techniques was also termed with the quality of the translation. along with the assessment, results of evaluation from the experts in the fgd were arranged to confirm the results of analysis. findings javanese fixed expressions in the novels this study identified 32 javanese cultural expressions in three novels: burung-burung manyar, pengakuan pariyem, and para priyayi. it then classified the expressions into four kinds of javanese expressions: sanepa, paribasan, bebasan, and saloka. a sanepa indicates the use of phrases like arang kranjang and rubuh-rubuh gedang, as exemplified below: st: dan luka kadhung arang kranjang tt: wounded, tattered and mangled st: bercerita pula sudah boleh ikut salat rubuh-rubuh gedang, artinya ikut menirukan gerakan orang besembahyang tt: how they intended to follow the five daily prays, with their fully comment of bending and bowing the paribasan describes the meanings of sangkan paraning dumadi, the start and end of the life, or where and to whom the soul will arrive. the use of sak madya and tanpa tedeng aling-aling are exemplified below: st: tentang sangkan paraning dumadi, darimana kita datang dan hendak kemana kita sedang menuju. apakah dan dimanakah batas-batas keinginan manusia? tidak terbatas, tanpa batas cukup sakmadya, cukup sedang-sedang saja tt: so we often mulled over various matters at the table, such as the question of the origin and goals of life, the limits, if any, to our human desires, whether we ought to pursue journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 them to those limits, and beyond, …or restrain ourselves and practice sakmadya: temperance and moderation. st: ia dulu meminta sendiri dari atasannya agar boleh masuk garnisun di surabaya, karena orang-orang sungai brantas sana tidak pernah suka berbahasa kromo; apa adanya tanpa tedeng aling-aling tt: learning this, i knew why he had once begged his superior to transfer him to the garrison in surabaya, that city on the banks of the great river brantas where people never use the deferential form of javanese, preferring to say whatever they feel, outside the shelter of the garden wall, as the saying goes the bebasan includes mikul dhuwur mendhem jero, cilaka segori, sungsang buwana sungsang balik, and empan papan. the following excerpt exemplifies the use of mikul duwur mendem jero. st: mikul duwur mendhem jero, menjunjung tinggi-tinggi keharuman nama keluarga, menanam dalam-dalam aib keluarga tt: i would uphold the name of sastrodarsono and strive to inter any dishonor to it the expression of saloka covers mbok mboken and mata yuyu. the expression mbok mboken is used below: st: sinyo-sinyo muda yang berkalung saputangan merah dan berbaret coklat, dengan wajah-wajah putih mulus, dengan bahasa belanda mereka yang totok tanpa ke-indoindoan sedikit pn (lain dari verbruggen misalnya, yang sing berlogat “lho, ya toh?”), makhluk-makhluk priyayi anak saudagar dan petani-petani daar bij dieouwe molen negeri kabut itu sebetulnya masih mbok-mboken menetek, kata orang jawa tt : they were nothing but whining kids, still sucking at their mother’s breasts and homesick for brabant or gelderland or wherever else they may have come from the translation techniques used for javanese expressions this study identified 10 different techniques used by the translators. the techniques were description, literal translation, modulation, adaptation, explicit, discursive creation, generalization, deletion, established equivalent, and borrowing. the descriptive technique is used twice to translate two expressions of paribasan. the source text is given below: atau lebih tepat, yang dirasakan ialah kemanunggalan dua garwo alias sigaran nyowo, belahan jiwa yang saling menemukan diri sebagai pengejawentahan kemanunggalan para dewata. nugrahani, et al. the javanese fixed expression garwo…sigaran nyowo is translated as: more precisely, what one experiences is the unification of the two halves of a single soul, a manifestation of the unity of the twin deities. the other expression occurs in the sentence apabila bicara sembrana pari kena, (talking for things with clever allusions). the two expressions were given scores of 2.5 for accuracy, 3 for acceptability, and 3 for readability. it can be said that the translations are natural in the target language, and moreover, the reader of the target text will not have any difficulties in understanding the expressions. however, the message is not conveyed entirely accurately. when calculating the accuracy, acceptability, and readability, the assessors adopted the instrument developed by nababan (2012). the rating ranges from 1 to 3, with 3 being the best scoredan1 the worst score. the results of this study are presented in table 3. table 3 fixed expressions, translation techniques, and translation quality technique javanese fixed expression quality sanepa paribasan bebasan saloka ac ap rd descriptive 2 2.5 3 3 literal 1 2 1 1 1.5 2.75 modulation 1 3 3 3 adaptation 2 1 3 3 3 explicitation 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 discursive creation 4 1.25 2.25 2.5 generalization 1 2 3 3 deletion 1 8 2 1.1 1.1 1.1 established equivalent 1 3 3 3 borrowing 1 3 2 1 note: ac = accuracy, ap = acceptability, rd = readability from the table above, it can be seen that the highest scores were obtained through the translation of fixed expressions using the modulation, adaptation, and explicitation techniques. in these cases, the message is delivered accurately, and the text is acceptable and readable to the target reader. for example, the modulation technique is used when translating the expression ibarat idu geni, kata-kata masah, bagaikan wisa ular weling di sungai. it is modulated into his words have weight, his words settle as an eel settles in the depth of the river (2015). three javanese cultural fixed expressions were also adapted for the target culture. the expressions were celaka segori (2001); karsa, kerja, dan karya (2015); and titis, tatas, dan tetes (2015). their translation were damn it (2014); drive, dreed, delivery (2015); and astute, resolute, absolute (2015), respectively. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 this study found that the novels’ translators had deleted 11 javanese cultural fixed expressions, thus affecting the quality of the translated texts, as reflected in the low scores for all aspects. their accuracy, acceptability, and readability were all assessed as 1.1, which is a very low score indeed. take the text below for the example, mikul duwur mendhem jero, menjunjung tinggi-tinggi keharuman nama keluarga, menanam dalam-dalam aib keluarga...(1992) the phrase in bold above is omitted from the translated text: i would uphold the name of sastrodarsono and strive to inter any dishonor to it (2013) discussion it was mentioned above that the identified javanese-specific expressions are classified into three forms: the word, clause, and phrase levels. nida (1949) states that idioms are a combination of words that have both a literal and literal semantic structure, but the connection between the two cannot be described as being representative of an additive process. it can therefore be said that when translating a fixed expression, the translator has to treat the clauses or phrases as a whole, because the true intention of the expression cannot be conveyed by treating words individually. to transmit the meaning accurately, expressions cannot be separated from the context, both situational and cultural. tarjana (2006) states truthfully that generally speaking, idioms are fixed expressions that belong to language-specific phenomena. a specific expression is an idiom that is grouped into the phenomenon that characterizes the culture of a particular society, and there is usually no equivalent term for an idiom translation. this can cause problems when translating idiomatic expressions from one language to another, particularly because certain idioms are not easily recognizable. when dealing with the problem of translating the javanese-specific expressions found in the novels, the translators applied many different techniques. the most commonly applied technique was the deletion of javanese-specific expressions like gedhong sasana hinggil, ongkang-ongkang, criwis cawis, air mata yuyu, empan papan, kencana wingko, rubuh gedhang, mikul dhuwur mendhem jero, and so on. it was likely judged that these expressions would not be recognized by the target reader, with there also being no equivalent for them. nababan (2008) emphasizes that a nugrahani, et al. translator must have cultural competence in both the source and target languages, otherwise the translator will not be sensitive to considering cultural fixed expressions. the assumption agrees with what ali (2016) found in his research in that the problem in understanding and translating culturally bound terms presents a serious challenge for translators. translators therefore often fail to accurately represent javanese fixed expressions. pym (2004) stresses that omission often presents a high-risk of missing the true intension of the source message. evidence of this failure is represented in the scores for the deletion technique in the translation quality assessment. it scored the lowest for accuracy, acceptability, and readability. a well-qualified translation contains the whole message from the source text. it should also be acceptable in the target language and be easy for the reader to understand. a maximum score was given for the fixed expressions that were translated using the established equivalent technique. the expression agama ageming ati, found in novel pengakuan pariyem, was translated into religion clothes the soul, while memayu hayuning bawana, was translated into spiritual power to do good in this world. in such cases, the translator can transfer the expression to the target reader. the results of this research resemble those of yuliasri (2016), who examined the correlation between translation techniques and pragmatic equivalence when translating humorous utterances from english into indonesian. she found that for pragmatically equivalent translations, 96.87% resulted from the use of firstly, generalization and secondly, established equivalent. a literal translation was applied to the expression below: bukankah hidup di persada bumi ini hanyalah mampir ngombe, singgah sebentar untuk minum seregukan, lalu harus berjalan terus?(2001) the translated text is: and wasn’t one’s life on this earth a little bit like a drop-in at a friend’s house for a quick drink of tea before moving on again?(2014). mangunwijaya used the javanese-specific expression mampir ngombe to illustrate how short our life is in the world. in everyday life, mampir ngombe does indeed refer to calling at a friend’s house for a cup of tea, but it becomes a mundane expression that does not reflect the original meaning. as we know, the use of literal translation is generally only appropriate when the two journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 languages are very close to each other. what molina and albir (2002) suggested is shown to be reasonable, because this study found low scores for text translated this way. the borrowing technique is classified as an “as is” translation. in a particular culture, many words or expressions will present difficulties for the translator. the javanese expression sakmadya, as found in para priyayi, seems to have caused problems for the translator. he could not find an equivalent to the word in the target language, so the word was simply borrowed and presented to target reader. it could be summarized either that the translator did not know the expression well enough or that she/he wanted to introduce the javanese expression to the target readers, so the message could be conveyed accurately. haroon and daud (2017) stress that a translator needs to prioritize faithfulness to the source text. conclusion and implication this study sought to answer two research questions about javanese fixed expressions, as well as the techniques used to translate them, in three novels: burung-burung manyar, pengakuan pariyem, and para priyayi. in summary, this study concludes that it is imperative for translators to understand the fixed expressions of a particular culture when translating literary works. four common types of javanese fixed expressions are sanepa, paribasan, bebasan, and saloka. more specifically, translators need to apply modulation, adaptation, explicitation, and established equivalent techniques when translating a work with culture-specific meanings. based on this study, it could be suggested that the established equivalent technique is the best for transferring javanese cultural fixed expressions. this helps the translator convey the message accurately, compose an acceptable sentence, and create translated text that is readable. moreover, borrowing can bean effective technique when the translator wants to promote the javanese culture to english readers, although they must also make some additions to elaborate on the meaning of the expression. however, we are sorry to say that the borrowing technique has a negative impact on the readability of the translated text. this study also concludes that if the deletion technique is applied, the accuracy will be poor, but target readers will accept the text as a whole as being readable. nugrahani, et al. references ag, l. s. (2015). pariyem’s confession inner musings of a javanese woman. (j. lindsay, trans.). jakarta: lontar. ag, l. s. (2015). pengakuan pariyem dunia batin seorang wanita jawa (2nd ed.). jakarta: gramedia. ali, c. n. (2016). indonesian students’ problem in translation. in m. r. nababan, r. santosa, a. h. wibowo, & a. d. priyanto (eds.), international conference on linguistics & translation studies (pp. 57–69). surakarta. baker, m. (2011). in other words: a coursebook on translation, second edition. in other words: a coursebook on translation. retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/abdullahktk2/monabaker-in-other-words-a-coursebook-on-translationroutledge-2011 bassnett, s. (2002). translation studies. vasa (3rd ed.). new york: routledge. by, e., & venuti, l. (2012). the translation studies reader. routledge. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2 durdureanu, i. i. (2011). translation of cultural terms: possible or impossible? the journal of linguistic and intercultural education jolie, 4, 51–63. retrieved from http://www.uab.ro/jolie/2011/4_durdureanu_irina.pdf haroon, h., & daud, n. s. (2017). the translation of foreign words in an english novel into malay. gema online journal of language studies, 17(1), 163–181. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema2017-1701-10 harun, b. (2017). strategi dan teknik terjemahan novel arab dalam kalangan pelajar universiti arabic novel translation strategies and techniques used among university students. gema online journal of language studies, 17(november), 225–243. hibaturrahmah, a. (2012). pergeseran terjemahan teks bermuatan budaya dalam cergam le petit spirou karya tome dan janry. bandung: universitas padjajaran. honarvar, h., & rahimi, a. (2011). surveying techniques for cultural problems of children comic strips translation. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 28, 1076–1078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.194 isaksen, s. g., schryver, l. de, & onkelinx, j. (2010). a cross cultural examination of creative problem solving style: the dutch translation of view. the journal of creative behavior, 44(1), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.2010.tb01323.x kayam, u. (1992). para priyayi (3rd ed.). jakarta: pustaka utama grafiti. kayam, u. (2013). javanese gentry. (v. zhukov, trans.). jakarta: lontar. khoirunnisa, r. (2015). kajian terjemahan istilah budaya dalam novel. surakarta: pascasarjana. li, d., zhang, c., & liu, k. (2011). translation style and ideology: a corpus-assisted analysis of two english translations of hongloumeng. literary and linguistic computing, 26(2), 153– 166. https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqr001 longman. (2017). longman dictionary. https://doi.org/10.1177/003368828001100111 lubis, s. (2013). collocation as source of translation unacceptabilty: indonesian students’ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 323-343 experiences. international journal of english linguistics, 3(5). https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v3n5p20 machali, r. (2009). pedoman bagi penerjemah. jakarta: gramedia. mangunwijaya, y. (2014). the weaverbirds. (t. m. hunter, trans.). jakarta: lontar. mangunwiya, y. b. (2001). burung-burung manyar (11th ed.). jakarta: djambatan. molina, l., & albir, a. h. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functionalist approach. meta, 47(4), 498–512. nababan, m. (2012). pengembangan model penilaian kualitas terjemahan. kajian linguistik dan sastra, 24(1), 39–57. retrieved from https://publikasiilmiah.ums.ac.id/bitstream/handle/11617/2220/4. mangatur nababan.pdf;sequence=1 nababan, m. r. (2008). kompetensi penerjemahan dan dampaknya pada kualitas terjemahan. surakarta: uns press. nababan, m. r. (2008). penerjemahan dan budaya. retrieved november 8, 2015, from https://www.proz.com/translation-articles/articles/2074/1/penerjemahan-dan-budaya newmark, p. (1988). a textbook of translation. text. london: prentice hall. nida, e. (1949). morphology the descriptive analys of words. nida, e., & taber, c. (1982). helps for translators. the theory and practice of translation. nitta, y. (1986). problems of machine translation systems: effect of cultural differences on sentence structure. future generation computer systems, 2(2), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-739x(86)90004-x pedersen, j. (2007). cultural interchangeability: the effects of substituting cultural references in subtitling. perspectives: studies in translatology, 15(1), 30–48. https://doi.org/10.2167/pst003.0 pym, a. (2004). the moving text: localization, translation, and distribution. america, 245. shojaei, a. (2012). translation of idioms and fixed expressions: strategies and difficulties. theory and practice in language studies, 2(6), 1220–1229. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.2.6.12201229 soemarno, t. (2001). the problems of culture in translation. yogyakarta: universitas sanata dharma. standop, e. (1988). collins cobuild english language dictionary. system, 16(3), 384–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251x(88)90082-6 tarjana, m. s. s. (2006). penggunaan bahasa dalam perspektif pragmatik dan impilkasinya bagi peningkatan kualitas generasi muda di indonesia. surakarta: uns press. wilson-broyles, r. m. (2013). cultural untranslatability in swedish_english literary translation in the age of internet. proquest llc. yuliasri, i. (2016). translation techniques and pragmatik equivalence in indonesian translation of humorous utterances in the walt disney’s donald duck comics. in djatmika, sumarlam, & r. nugrahani, et al. santosa (eds.), international seminar prassati iii currecn research in linguistics (pp. 409– 414). surakarta. zhou, m. (2007). translatability and untranslatability of a cultural artifac: difficulties of building a chinese garden at huntington city. california. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 204-223 the response of pesantren community toward the ideology of islamism: a study of pesantren teachers’ perception in north sumatra m. jamil1, iman jauhari2, & dahlan3 this study is a qualitative research aimed to see the response of pesantren teachers in north sumatra, indonesia toward islamist ideology. specifically, this study attempted to find out the perception of pesantren teachers toward the ideas of islamic country, jihad, non-muslim leaders and women as leaders. the teachers interviewed are those who teach qur’an, hadith, and fiqh classes. the data were analyzed by using the data analysis model proposed by miles and huberman. the results indicate that the majority of pesantren teachers consider that the establishment of an islamic country and the implementation of islamic law are important, but they oppose women and non-muslims as leaders of muslim communities or a country. according to bassam tibi’s theory of islamism, the response of these pesantren teachers can be categorized as moderate islamism, not radical because they support the establishment of islamic state and islamic law, yet object to violence to achieve the goals. key words: islamism, islamic state, jihad, non-muslim, pesantren, women introduction pesantren or pondok pesantren are islamic boarding schools in indonesia. pesantren have been studied by national and international researchers. they have also been researched from different perspectives; from education to sociology. in the modern era, pesantren continue to be a serious concern for government and international community since they are associated with radicalism. they also are often accused as the source of terrorism in indonesia. some researchers conducted studies on this topic found that pesantren are not necessarily linked to the issues of radicalism and terrorism occurred in indonesia, southeast asia and international world. pesantren have a central role in the provision of traditional islamic teachings, particularly in java, and the kiai (islamic scholars) are the ones who maintain and develop them. pesantren provide islamic knowledge which covers fiqh (islamic jurisprudence), hadith (the record of the words, 1 dr., ma, universitas islam negeri sumatera utara medan, e-mail: mjamil.uinsu@gmail.com 2 dr., sh., m.hum, syiah kuala university, e-mail: imanjauhari@unsyiah.ac.id 3 dr., sh., m.hum, syiah kuala university, e-mail: dahlan_ali@unsyiah.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 actions, and silent approval of the prophet muhammad), tafsir (exegesis of the qur'an), tawheed (the indivisible oneness concept of monotheism in islam), and tasawuf (sufism). the works of scholars who lived in the 7th century to the 13th century are also still taught in pesantren nowadays (salamuddin, 2014; wekke, 2013 & 2012). although pesantren are considered as traditional educational institution, some of them have been successful in modernizing their national institutions, implementing modern education systems, yet preserving the classical islamic teachings (mujab, 2013). in pesantren, the figure of a kiai is very crucial as a role model for the students as his knowledge and personality might lead to destructive cult (huda, 2011; solichin, 2018). the facts show that some pesantren are not only successful in preserving islamic traditions and sciences such as; tawheed, fiqh, and tawawuf, but also in bringing up the religious leaders in indonesia. recently, pesantren have been accused as the source of radicalism and terrorism. they have been accused of being traditional education institutions that accommodate radical thoughts and terrorists in indonesia (turmudi & sihbudi, 2005). darmadji (2011) argued that some pesantren have radical understanding and are associated to terrorism in indonesia, however this fact should be placed in the context of transnational movement in the world. susanto (2017) stated that radicalism in pesantren is a polemic, political, and over-generalized issue (susanto, 2017). however, according to saifullah (2014), some pesantren play their roles in blocking radicalism and terrorism for the sake of religion in indonesia which is accomplished by teaching multiculturalism to their students (saifullah, 2014; kholis, 2017). the findings of the research conducted by kusmano, fauzi and jamil (2015) indicate that pesantren reject and oppose radicalism and build an anti-radicalism. a number of researchers have carried out studies related to islamism in indonesia by penetrating the issue of deradicalization movements (e.g. burhani & al rasyidin, 2018; carnegie, 2013; hilmy, 2013; ikhwan, 2018; ja’far 2017; jamil & ja’far, 2018; mietzner, 2018; nurlinah, 2018; and osman & waikar, 2018). some others have discussed islamism in pesantren (atmari, 2018; fawaid, 2018; hasan, 2012; hamdi, 2015; ma’arif, 2018; masroer, 2018; mukaffa. 2018; and sahri, 2018). however, studies on pesantren and islamism that have been carried out so far have not discussed the issue of how pesantren teachers respond to the ideology of islamism in order to see whether they reject or support it. thus, this study was conducted to fill this gap with the aim to find out whether islamist ideology is disseminated through pesantren or not. jamil, jauhari & dahlan 206 the view stating that pesantren are not the source of radicalism was specifically credited to the institutions in java only since the research was conducted in java. meanwhile the study focusing on pesantren outside java island has not been widely discussed, especially those which are related to radicalism and islamist ideology. for this reason, this study was also aimed to investigate the response of pesantren community in north sumatra towards islamist ideology. to be more specific, this study explored the perception of pesantren teachers towards islamist ideology. specifically, this study tried to discuss four fundamental issues as follows; (1) how pesantren teachers respond to the establishment of islamic country; (2) how they respond to the concept of jihad in islam and its association with terrorism; (3) how they respond to the idea of women as leaders; and (4) how they respond to the idea of non-muslim as a leader for muslims. literature review indonesia is a country with a majority of muslim population. however, indonesia is neither an islamic country nor using islam as its basis. this country proudly claims pancasila as its official, foundational philosophical theory. in the field of education, there are at least three middle-level educational institutions that are developing in this country, namely; schools, madrasas (islamic day schools), and pesantren (islamic boarding schools) (noor, et.al, 2007; hefner & zaman, 2007). most muslim children get religious education from madrasa or pesantren. the curriculum in madrasah is incorporated religious studies with science and humanities while the pesantren curriculum focuses more on religious studies even though science is also studied by the students (tan, 2015). after september 11, 2001, many researchers have investigated the radical islamism, islamist and salafist movements. in indonesia, pesantren have become a concern because they are considered as educational institutions that contribute to radicalism and islamism (malik, 2017) even though several studies have rejected these allegations (haryani, 2018; lukens-bull, 2005; ma’arif, 2018; salamuddin, 2019; suryadi & mansur, 2017). radicalism refers to the beliefs or actions of people who advocate thorough or complete political or social reform, while islamism refers to groups of militancy or fundamentalism who believe that islam and politics are one unit. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 islam and islamism keep receiving attention from the world. experts mention that there are two types of islamist groups, namely; moderate islamists and radical islamists. moderate islamists reject violence and accept democracy. meanwhile radical islamists use violence and rejects democracy and the west influence. hilmy (2014) divides islamist radicalism into two, jihadist radicalism and non-jihadist radicalism. hasan (2011) mentions there are three forms of salafism, namely; jihadists, islamists, and salafi sunni-politicians. the terms islamism, radicalism and salafism are often considered to be the same, so islamic groups, radicals, and salafists are divided into two. first, jihadists islamist who reject democracy and the western influence, and justify violence and terrorism. secondly, non-jihadist islamist groups or islamic institutions that accept democracy and reject violence and terrorism. however, both accept the idea of islamic country and islamic sharia (law). according to tibi (2016), there are six indications of someone who accept islamism. first, hakimiyyat allah (government of god). this group considers that god is the one that has the right to rule the world. this idea of course contradicts to democracy since democracy is considered from human and should be rejected. second, din and daulah (the unity of religion and country). based on this idea, this group wants the establishment of a state based on islamic law. the believe that the law stipulated in a country should be based on religion. they also reject jews and reinterpret the meaning of jihad. they change the interpretation of jihad from what has been understood by classical scholars into a modern one. as a result, islamism has become the main factor of rebellion against the west, which is reinterpreted as the concept of jihad. the concept of modern jihadism aims to restore the islamic dominance. islamic figures, such as; hasan al-banna and sayyid qutb laid the foundations not only to legitimize violence, but also to change the format of classical jihad from wars carried out by islamic states to terrors carried out by non-state islamic actors. third, this group interprets islam as a nizham al-islami (islamic system) and carries a new world order based on the concept of daulah islamiyyah, a sharia-based state, and based on hakimiyyat (god’s government). fourth, the ummah (the society) which is defined as a political movement where all of the members support the implementation of sharia law stipulated by a country. fifth, siyyadatul islam (islamic leadership) refers the group’s idea that world should be led by muslims in order to achieve world peace. sixth, the purity of islam. this group rejects secularism and westernism through a purification movement. jamil, jauhari & dahlan 208 based on the analysis of tibi’s (2016) theory above, it can be concluded that the main goal of islamists is to fight for islam as the foundation of a country, including to fight for islamic law as a state constitutional law. meanwhile the second indicator leads to the problem of reducing the meaning of jihad as a war so that the meaning of jihad is no longer in accordance with the classical fiqh concept. method research design this study is a field qualitative research where the researchers play the role as the key instrument. this research was carried out in north sumatra, a province in indonesia which consists of various tribes and religions. the eastern region of this province is dominated by muslims and the western one by non-muslims (protestant and catholic). the number of non-muslims is also quite large in this area even though the number of muslims is still a bit higher. participants there were three pesantren taking part in this study, namely; darul mursyid in the south of tapanuli, ulumul qur’an in stabat, and al raudlatul hasanah in medan. these pesantren were selected based on the area where they were established and developed. pesantern darul mursyid in south tapanuli represents pesantren that was established in mandailing. it was established in 1992 in simanosor julu village, saipar dolok hole, south tapanuli. pesantren ulumul qur’an in stabat represents the malay region. this islamic boarding school was established on april 12, 1986. meanwhile, pesantren al raudlatul hasanah in medan represents a modern and ethnically diverse region. it was established in medan on october 18, 1982. since the focus of the problems in this study is the response of pesantren community toward islamist ideology, not all teachers in those three pesantren were selected as the informants in this study. only those teaching qur’an, hadith, and fiqh classes were invited to give information for the data in this study. the reason is certainly based on their interpretations of qur’an and hadith as the primary sources of islamic teachings, especially those which are related to doctrine, jihad, women and non-muslim leaders. meanwhile, the fiqh teachers were included as they teach the views of scholars about these issues. these teachers were assumed as the persons responsible for journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 their students’ learning process. there were 15 people who were selected as the informants for this study, five from each pesantren (three teachers of qur’an and hadith and two of fiqh). instruments of data collection four instruments of data collection were used in this study, namely; questionnaires, in-depth interviews, observation and document studies. questionnaires are one of the methods commonly used by researchers to collect data by spreading a number of sheets of paper containing questions and designed in accordance with the objectives of the study. the questionnaires were used to find out how the pesantren teachers responded to islamist ideology. in addition to this instrument, the researchers used in-depth interview technique to further understand the basis and the argument why the teachers chose a particular answer provided in the questionnaire. to complete the data, the researchers used observation and document study techniques. observation is an activity using the five senses to obtain information in order to answer the problem stated. observations were necessary to conduct to obtain an overview of the pesantren activities that were studied in order to find linkages with what was discussed. finally, the researchers searched and reviewed the written documents owned by the pesantren which were discussed and assessed directly related to the research objectives. types of data collected the researchers employed two models of data collection tools. first, the data collection tool commonly used in quantitative research, namely questionnaires. however, it served as a supporting instrument. second, the data collection tool commonly used in qualitative research, namely in-depth interviews, observation and document study. all three are the main instruments in obtaining the data for this study. to obtain the preliminary data, surveys were made for the pesantren teachers to find out their responses toward the ideology of islamism. the questionnaires became the first instrument used to get the initial data. the questionnaires consisted of a number of questions related to islamist ideology to obtain the teachers’ responses toward this ideology. the quantitative data were used to find the initial mapping of pesantren teachers’ responses. from this questionnaire, the percentage of teachers who support or reject the ideology could be seen. the interviews were focused on the themes discussed; thus, structured interviews were conducted. the observations were also made in the learning process conducted in the three pesantren. jamil, jauhari & dahlan 210 data analysis the data obtained from the interview were analyzed using the data analysis model proposed by miles and huberman (1984) consisting of four steps; data collection, data reduction, data exposure, and conclusion drawing. the data were collected through questionnaires, in-depth interviews, observation and document studies. next, the data obtained were reduced through which the researchers sharpened, classified, directed, and discarded unnecessary one. then, the data were organized in such a way that the final conclusion could be drawn and verified. the next step was the presentation of the reduced data through a series of information organizations that allow conclusions for research to be carried out. finally, the researchers drew a conclusion which is the answer to the problem statement. to ensure the trustworthiness of the data analysis, the triangulation technique was used. findings in accordance with tibi's (2016) view that islamist groups carry the concept of god's government and unity between religion and state, thus they want the establishment of an islamic state. experts add that islamic groups in the world want the establishment of an islamic state and the enforcement of islamic law. in indonesia, several social and political organizations have been struggling to establish a state and a law based on islam. this is a result of their beliefs about god's government and the unity between religion and state (tibi, 2016). as a derivative of this belief, islamists reject non-muslim leadership and muslim women (harmakaputra, 2015; shehadeh, 2003) and consider the importance of jihad and even suicide bombings in fighting for the ideals of islam for the benefit of the world (rusli, 2014). indeed, there are many indicators of islamist ideology. based on the theoretical framework of tibi’s (2016), the views of the pesantren teachers studied in this research lead to three main issues, namely the islamic state, jihad and leadership in islam. pesantren and islamic state the empirical data shows that a small proportion (20%) of pesantren ulumul qur’an teachers do not agree with the idea of establishing an islamic state, or the islamic-based country even though the majority of them (80%) have the opposite opinion. for those who do not agree, they argue that indonesia is a pluralistic country. even though the majority of the population in this country is islam, some people are the adherents of other religions. as for those who agree with the islamic journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 state, they provide several arguments. first, the qur’an and hadith ordered muslims to establish an islamic state. secondly, the establishment of islamic state is the right of the majority adherents (islam) in indonesia, and perceived to have the ability to provide justice for the people. third, the establishment of an islamic state allows the application of islamic law in indonesia, and the enforcement of islamic law will be able to bring blessings to indonesian people. unlike the first pesantren, the majority of teachers in pesantren raudhatul hasanah (four people) reject the idea of an islamic state while the rest (one person) accept it. the majority of them do not agree because of several reasons. first, the founders of indonesia had agreed to make pancasila as the basis of indonesia and the first principle guarantees that religious people are able to practice their religious practices based on their own religion. second, indonesia is a pluralistic country consisting of people of different religions, cultures, ethnicities and race. thus, the establishment of an islamic state in indonesia is impossible. in addition, there is no need to change the foundation of indonesia. islamic law can be applied in indonesia without having to change the ideology of the country. meanwhile, the one who agrees argues that if indonesia becomes an islamic state, islamic values can be applied in religious as well as national life of the people in the country. in addition, s/he argues that history has shown that indonesian leaders have not accommodated the interests of muslims so far, and the leadership emerged from a non-islamic system. in pesantren darul mursyid, three out of five teachers agree if indonesia becomes an islamic state, while two others reject the idea. those who support the argument consider that if an islamic state is established, islamic sharia can be applied so that the administration of the state will be in accordance with the instruction of the qur’an and hadith. furthermore, muslims should have the same leader, not only at the national level, but also at the international level. if an islamic state can be established on an international level, muslims will return to their golden age. in addition, they believe that the idea of establishing an islamic state originate from the commands of the qur’an and hadith while the ideas of non-islamic state came from human’s limited thought. therefore, islamic countries are more important than secular ones as they are the products of god that is absolute while the secular ones are the products of human. on the contrary, those who reject the idea of establishing an islamic state propose the following two arguments; first, the population of indonesia is pluralistic, adhering not only to islam but also to other religions, such as; christian, jamil, jauhari & dahlan 212 hinduism, buddhism and confucianism. second, there is no need for indonesia to be an islamic state because it is more important to encourage muslims to truly practice their religious teachings. thus, changing the pattern of people’ life into islamic way is more important than changing the foundation of the country. pesantren, jihad, and terrorism there are four topics to discuss regarding the response of pesantren teachers toward jihad and terrorism. first, jihad is associated with terrorism. second, the response to the meaning of jihad in fighting the disbelievers and idolaters. third, the status of suicide bombers in islam. fourth, the relevance of teaching fiqh jihad. these four topics are the central issues in the discussion of jihad. the nature of jihad principally, according to the teachers in pesantren ulumul qur’an, jihad is more than just fighting the infidels and polytheists. they mention that jihad is a form of sincerity in doing a job. however, one of the definition of jihad is fighting the infidels and polytheists who fight the muslims. in a political context, establishing policies that bring benefits to others can be categorized as jihad. if a group of unbelievers and idolaters do not oppress muslims, then they should not be fought, but should be the target of islamic da’wah (preachings). all teachers in pesantren raudhatul hasanah agree that jihad does not only mean as fighting the infidels and polytheists. they argue that the meaning of jihad is very broad, and people need to see the meaning of the word jihad in a verse according to the science of interpretation. however, infidels and polytheists should indeed be fought if they destroy the religion of islam and fight the muslims. in addition, there are those who claim that the meaning of jihad is the effort of a muslim to fight for the implementation of islamic law, but in a good way. they believe that one of the meanings of jihad is to fight the infidels and polytheists, but not to fight in an offensive sense, instead in a defensive sense, that is, muslims defend themselves from their attacks. the teachers in darul mursyid point out that jihad is not merely a means of fighting the disbelievers and idolaters. the meaning of jihad is more than just a war. they provide some arguments. first, the meaning of jihad is vast, not just a war as what has been misunderstood by journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 some people. jihad means demanding and practicing knowledge, fighting, preaching, fighting one’s desires, and worshiping. second, not all infidels and idols can be fought. they can be fought when they first fight against the muslims. thus, muslims are defending themselves and defending their rights from the attacks of the disbelievers and the idolaters. the infamous opponents are the disbelievers who are hostile to muslims. thirdly, jihad defined as fighting does not mean killing them, but calling them to kindness. the relation between jihad and terrorism according to the teachers in pesantren ulumul qur’an, there is a difference between jihad and terrorism. they believe that terrorism is an act of terror that is not legitimized by islam while jihad is the guidance of the qur’an and hadith. terrorism has the dimension of violence and injustice while jihad is based on love. the victims of terrorism are muslims while those who called the enemy do not become the victims. islam has arranged jihad, and killing can only be done if there are provisions in the sharia (islamic law). in the concept of jihad, it is forbidden to kill humans unless someone is truly hostile to muslims. the behavior of terrorists carrying out suicide bombing is not in accordance with the objectives of islamic law. the teachers in pesantren raudhatul hasanah agree that jihad is not synonymous with terrorism as what is alleged by a number of parties. they provide several arguments as follows. first, the association of terrorism with jihad is an incomplete understanding about jihad in islam, and it is a sight that this understanding comes from a narrow interpretation of people about jihad written in the qur’an. second, the association of the two terms is intended to corner muslims because terrorism that is identical to violence is directed more towards violence perpetrated by muslims while violence is also committed by any religious group. third, there is no order from the qur’an and hadith to carry out act of terrorism. the command of jihad is intended to defend the rights for muslims, not an order to attack any religious groups. the teachers in pesantren darul mursyid also reject the association between jihad and terrorism. according to them, jihad does not have to be done by means of violence while terrorism uses violence as the only way to achieve goals. in addition, jihad is properly able to bring the world to peace and prosperity while terrorism hurts many parties. there are those who specify that jihad jamil, jauhari & dahlan 214 has many forms, one of which is jihad as a war. however, islam regulates the procedures and ethics of war. meanwhile terrorism does not pay attention to the procedures and ethics. in fact, terrorists attack innocent civils and claim that their behavior is justified by the religion and is the hadith of rasulullah (prophet muhammad). in fact, islam teaches it is not permissible to kill civilians in a war, for example; children, women, weak people, and houses of worship. some of the teachers also assert that jihad brings the culprit to faith and peace while terrorism brings the culprit to disbelief. the suicide bombers the teachers in pesantren ulumul qur’an agree that if suicide bombings are carried out in areas that are not included in dar al-harb (the house or of war) as in indonesia, then the perpetrators will not gain martyrdom and heaven. however, if it is done in dar al-harb like in palestine, then the perpetrators will get martyrdom and heaven. some teachers consider that suicide bombings to destroy the enemy forces must be avoided and sought to use a wiser way. there are many other ways of jihad, and suicide bombings are actually detrimental and injuring muslims. most suicide bombers are not the enemies of muslims but are part of muslims or innocent people. the teachers of pesantren raudhatul hasanah agree that suicide bombers will not achieve martyrdom and heaven. they argue that islam has never taught anyone to kill themselves or others, except in the battlefield and conditions allowing suicide as a way to destroy the enemies on the battlefield. some of them add that martyrdom is the way to die in the path that allah agrees while suicide bombing is the act of judging others who are considered against the sharia law without being punished by a religious court, but in their own way. however, there are those who believe that suicide bombings can be carried out on the battlefield, not in public places. suicide bombings, for example, can be done to destroy israeli zionist forces. suicide bombing will not be justified if it aims to destroy themselves and society without rights. others assert that if suicide bombings are carried out in indonesia, the action is prohibited because indonesia is not dar al-harb. thus, suicide bombing may be carried out after it is believed that there is no other way to destroy the enemy forces in the area of dar al-harb, such as; in palestine and israel. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 the teachers in pesantren darul mursyid agree that suicide bombers would not get martyrdom and heaven for several reasons. first, if a muslim dies in a battlefield, his death is not the best of him. meanwhile, a suicide bomber commits suicide by himself, and although he has the intention of martyrdom, he has been wrong in choosing to proclaim martyrdom. second, the act of suicide bombing is a mistaken jihad, let alone the victim is not an enemy of muslims, but innocent society. jihad should be done correctly according to islamic teachings to achieve the martyrdom and paradise. third, even if the suicide bomber on behalf of jihad, the law is the same as the suicide law. the suicide law is illegal, and the perpetrator will not go to heaven. in islam, a muslim will seize martyrdom when he attacks the disbelieving harbi (war-related) who against muslims. the relevance of fiqh jihad the majority of teachers in pesantren ulumul qur’an consider that fiqh jihad is still relevant to be taught in islamic education institutions provided the teachers teach the meaning of jihad according to salaf scholars such as imam syafi’i. in addition, by teaching jihad, muslims will understand that a justified war will fight the infidels who first fight islam and muslims. however, some others consider that jihad does not need to be taught because it will cause many problems if it is applied in the modern era. in addition, many teachers are too extreme in interpreting the text of the verses related to jihad, then they will cause chaos within students’ mind. the teachers in pesantren raudhatul hasanah agree that the topic of jihad still needs to be taught in islamic education institutions. however, the jihad that should be taught is moderate jihad, not jihad in the sense of a terrorist group. in addition, it is still relevant to be taught to provide a correct understanding of the meaning of jihad in islam. muslim will not understand the meaning of jihad correctly without being given good understanding about it. according to the teachers in pesantren darul mursyid, fiqh jihad is a part of islamic teachings, and there is no islamic teaching that is not in accordance with the era. second, jihad which is very relevant to be taught today is jihad for the sake of knowledge, preaching and worship, not jihad in the meaning of war. third, the teaching of jihad must be studied by muslims so that they do not misunderstand its meaning according to islamic teachings. fourth, jihad should be taught because jamil, jauhari & dahlan 216 it is the highest worship in islam and its application is able to uphold islam and to safe guard the right of muslims. pesantren and the problems of leadership in islam the law for choosing non-muslim leaders like the teachers in the other two pesantren, the teachers in pesantren ulumul qur’an also reject non-muslims as the leader for muslim community in a country. they also provide several arguments related to their objection. first, non-muslim leaders will be against muslim and their policies will tend to support their religion, not islam and muslims. second, non-muslim leaders can disturb the foundation of islam. third, in addition to contradicting the texts of the qur’an and hadith which instruct muslims to choose a true leader, non-muslim leaders tend not to defend the rights of muslims, and leadership is the right for the majority to choose. in case of indonesia, nonmuslims may not be appointed as leaders because the majority of indonesia’s population adheres to islam. fourth, there was no non-muslim who was appointed as a leader in the period of the prophet muhammad and his companions. similar to the teachers in pesantren darul mursyid, all teachers in pesantren raudlatul hasanah also oppose non-muslim as leader for muslims in indonesia. they provide several arguments regarding to this issue. first, islam is a religion adopted by the majority of indonesia’s population. thus, the minority of religious community should provide the right of leadership to muslims. however, in the areas with non-muslim populations, people whose religions other than islam have the right to be a leader. however, it is inappropriate for minority groups to lead the majority group. second, non-muslims will not be able to maximize the needs of muslims. moreover, they may not side with the interests of islam. all teachers in this pesantren agree that leadership is a majority right, not a minority right. based on the result of interviews with the teachers in pesantren darul mursyid, it can be concluded that they disagree if non-muslims become leaders in islamic countries or leaders for muslims. they even use illicit terminology that is unlawful for muslims to choose non-muslims as their leaders. they also provide several reasons regarding this prohibition. first, surah ali ‘imran verse 28 prohibits muslims from choosing non-muslims as muslim leaders. second, leaders are role journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 models and the persons to determine the progress of a country, so they must be trustworthy, fair and honest. these qualities will not be found in a non-muslim leader. third, if muslims choose non-muslims leaders, non-muslim groups will be more likely to carry out christianization activities in the muslim community. fourth, if non-muslims become the leaders, muslims will not be able to practice islamic law. the law of choosing a female leader all teachers in pesantren ulumul qur’an reject the opinion of women as a leader of a country. they provide several arguments related to this issue. first, islamic teachings as mentioned in the qur’an and hadith forbid women to be leaders because women have many weaknesses than men do. second, the duty of women is not to become a leader of a country, but to take care of the household. third, women are less strict and wise which are the characteristics needed for leaders. in addition, if women become the head of a country, their children’s education will be neglected. of the five teachers in pesantren raudlatul hasanah, all of them refuse the idea of women as leaders. first, women are incompetent and incapable, even tend to damage as they have different roles and responsibilities from what men have. second, the islamic teachings have outlined that men are prioritized as leaders. third, the limitations of women make it difficult for them to bear enormous responsibilities as a leader of a country. fourth, women can become leaders of a country if there are no more men in the community. the result of interviews with the teachers in pesantren darul mursyid indicates that they oppose the idea of women as leaders. they use a variety of terms to reject the idea; haram, forbidden, and not good to choose a woman as a leader of a country. first, women are only allowed to be leaders for themselves and lead their children. second, women should be led by men, not vice versa, as written in the qur’an, al-nisa, 4: 34. third, women do not have natural disposition because being a leader is a nature in men. fourth, the female brain created by god is not to be a leader, but to be a follower. women use their sense more than their minds. fifth, women can become leaders if men no longer exist. it means as long as there are men, women should not be leaders. jamil, jauhari & dahlan 218 discussion, conclusion and implications pesantren are islamic educational institutions that have been existing since before indonesia’s independence. up to this moment, pesantren have become educational institutions where muslim children inherit and develop islamic knowledge and sciences. in this educational institution, the works of classical scholars from the asy’ariyah and shafi’iyah schools were studied and accepted by the students. during the 21st century, the world of pesantrens began to be suspected and accused of spreading radicalism and islamism. some believe that some pesantren directly involve in terrorism cases even though several recent studies reject this allegation. related to the previous statement, there are four points of discussion in this study. first, pesantren teachers do not share the same opinion about the law of establishing an islamic state, but the majority accept the idea of the establishment of an islamic state. this finding indicates that they have the view of islamists who accept the concept of an islamic state. second, the majority of them agree that the meaning of jihad is not only fighting the infidels and polytheists. they believe that jihad is different from terrorism, and suicide bombers do not achieve martyrdom and heaven. furthermore, they argue that fiqh jihad is still relevant to be taught. the opposing idea of terrorism shows that they are an anti-violence group. this is evidence that they are not part of a jihadist group that uses methods of violence and terrorism in fighting for goals. third, all teachers reject non-muslims as muslim leaders in a country by proposing historical, theological and sociological reasons. fourth, they oppose the idea of women as leaders of a country with the main reason that women are weak creatures and unable to carry out leadership tasks. these findings show that pesantren teachers who teach qur’an, hadith, and fiqh lessons are moderate and non-jihadist supporters of islamism. the majority of them accept the idea of establishing an islamic state, but they reject the notion and movement of terrorists in fighting for the ideals of an islamic state. their resistance to non-muslim leaders show that they are antipluralism while the rejection of women as state leaders show that pesantren have gender-biased thoughts. these two forms of rejection indicate that they are still classified as islamic groups. the findings showing their rejection are contradictive to those stating that pesantren teach pluralist and accommodative attitudes. likewise, the research findings confirm that pesantren are educational institutions that develop radicalism and not terrorism. the findings show that the views of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 pesantren teachers are different about islamic countries. the majority still consider the idea of an islamic state as important matter. however, they refuse to equate between jihad and terrorism. they reject terrorism, and they affirm that the acts of terror are not justified in fighting for islamic ideals. in the context of indonesia, the views of the majority of the pesantren teachers in this study do not support democracy. indonesia is neither a religious nor a secular country. the views of the majority of the teachers who agree with the establishment of an islamic state and reject violence can be called a moderate radical view but considered as understandings that do not support the concept of a unitary state and dismiss the principle of tolerance in the life of the country as indonesians adhere to diverse religions. these teachers may instill their views on their students, and finally this kind of thinking will continue to develop in indonesia. similar to this, the teachers' ideas about the prohibition of choosing non-muslim leaders and women will continue to develop a discourse on religious and gender pluralism. pesantren as educational institutions will contribute ideas for antipluralism and gender. however, apart from those two negative views, pesantren reject the way of violence in fighting for islamist ideology, and this will be a breath of fresh air for emerging future leaders who are friendly to differences. references atmari, a. (2018). islamisme dan post-islamisme kyai: memantapkan nalar dan sikap islamisme ala intelektual pesantren. proceedings of annual conference for muslim scholars, (series 1), 26-38. burhani, a. n. (2018). pluralism, liberalism, and islamism: religious outlook of muhammadiyah. studia islamika, 35(3), 433-470. carnegie, p. (2013). is militant islamism a busted flush in indonesia?. journal of terrorism research, 4 (2), 14-25. darmadji, a. (2011). pondok pesantren dan deradikalisasi islam di indonesia. millah: jurnal studi agama, 11(1), 235-251. dhofier, z. (1982). tradisi pesantren: studi tentang pandangan hidup kyai. jakarta: lp3es. fawaid, a. (2018). survei bibliografi kajian tafsir dan fikih di pondok pesantren: kajian atas materi radikalisme dalam literatur pesantren dan respon kiai terhadapnya. proceedings of jamil, jauhari & dahlan 220 annual conference for muslim scholars, (series 1), 161-172. retrieved from http://proceedings.kopertais4.or.id/index.php/ancoms/article/view/118. hakimul i. (2018). palatable sharia: killing two birds with one stone. al jami’ah: journal of islamic studies, 56(1), 1-28. hamdi, s., carnegie, p. j., & smith, b. j. (2015). the recovery of a non-violent identity for an islamist pesantren in age of terror. australian journal of international affairs, 69(6), 692710. harmakaputra h. a. (2015). islamism and post-islamism: “non-muslim” in socio-political discourses of pakistan, the united states, and indonesia, in al jami’ah: journal of islamic studies, 53(1), 179-204. haryani, t. n., amin, m. i., arifah, n. h., & husna, a. m. (2018). islamic education in supporting de-radicalization: a review of islamic education in pondok pesantren, nadwa: jurnal pendidikan islam, 12(2), 259-272. hasan, n. (2011). mendiskusikan radikalisme islam: definisi dan strategi wacana, in amelia fauzia (ed.). masjid dan pembangunan perdamaian: studi kasus poso, ambon, ternate, dan jayapura. jakarta: csrs uin syarif hidayatullah. hasan, n. (2012). education, young islamists and integrated islamic schools in indonesia. studia islamika, 19(1), 77-118. hefner, r. w. & zaman, m. q. (2007). schooling islam. princeton: princeton university press. hilmy, m. (2013). the politics of retaliation: the backlash of radical islamist to the deradicalization project in indonesia. al-jami’ah: journal of islamic studies, 51(1), 130158. hilmy, m. (2014). the configuration of radical islamism in indonesia: some contemporary assessments and trajectories, al-tahrir, 14(1), 1-21. huda, m. s. (2011). kultus kiai: sketsa tradisi pesantren. teosofi: jurnal tasawuf dan pemikiran islam, 1(1), 113-130. ja’far (2017a). respons al-jam’iyatul washliyah terhadap terorisme. akademika: jurnal pemikiran islam, 22(1), 1-26. ja’far. (2017b). al-jam’iyatul washliyah dan problem kepemimpinan non-muslim dan perempuan. ahkam: jurnal ilmu syariah, 17(2), 413-434. http://proceedings.kopertais4.or.id/index.php/ancoms/article/view/118 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 jamil, m., & ja’far, (2018). pemimpin perempuan dan non-muslim: perspektif ulama tiga serangkai. teosofi: jurnal tasawuf dan pemikiran islam, 8(1), 144-167. https://doi.org/10.15642/teosofi.2018.8.1.31-54. kholis, n, (2017). pondok pesantren salaf sebagai model pendidikan deradikalisasi terorisme. akademika: jurnal pemikiran islam, 22(1), 153-172. kusmanto, t. y., fauzi, m., & jamil, m. m. (2015). dialektika radikalisme dan anti radikalisme di pesantren. walisongo: jurnal penelitian sosial keagamaan, 23(1), 27-50. lukens-bull, r. (2005). a peaceful jihad: negotiating identity and modernity in muslim java. new york: palgrave macmillan. lukens-bull, r. (2007). the traditions of pluralism, accommodation, and anti-radicalism in the pesantren community. journal of indonesian islam, 2(2), 1-12. ma’arif, s. (2018). education as a foundation of humanity: learning from pedagogy of pesantren in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), pp. 104-123. malik, a. (2017). stigmatization of islamic school: pesantren, radicalism and terrorism in bima. ulumuna, 21(1), 173-210. https://doi.org/10.20414/ujis.v21i1.1159 masroer. (2018). religious inclusivism in indonesia: study of pesantren an-nida and edi mancoro, salatiga, central java. esensia, 19(1), pp. 1-24. mietzner, m. (2018). fighting illiberalism with illiberalism: islamist populism and democratic deconsolidation in indonesia. pacific affairs, 91(2), 261-282. miles, m. b., huberman, a. m., & saldaña, j. (1984). qualitative data analysis. usa: sage. mujab, m. (2013). the role of pesantren in the development islamic science in indonesia. miqot: jurnal ilmu-ilmu keislaman, 37(2), 415-437. mukaffa, z. (2018). madrasah diniyah sebagai pola diseminasi islam moderat di pesantren mahasiswa darussalam keputih surabaya. jurnal pendidikan agama islam (journal of islamic education studies), 6(1), 127-156. https://doi.org/10.15642/jpai.2018.6.1.127-156 nasution, h. & rasyidin, a. (2018). respons al-ittihadiyah di sumatera utara terhadap radikalisme. journal of contemporary islam and muslim societies, 3(1), 1-35. noor, f. a., yoginder, s. & van bruinessen, m (eds.). 2008). the madrasa in asia: political activism and transnational linkages. amsterdam: amsterdam university press. nurlinah, darwin, r. l., & haryanto. (2018). after shari‘ah: islamism and electoral dynamics at local level in indonesia. global journal al-thaqafah, 8(2), 17-29. https://doi.org/10.15642/teosofi.2018.8.1.31-54 https://doi.org/10.20414/ujis.v21i1.1159 https://doi.org/10.15642/jpai.2018.6.1.127-156 jamil, jauhari & dahlan 222 osman, m. n. m., & waikar, p. (2018). fear and loathing: uncivil islamism and indonesia's antiahok movement. indonesia, 106, 89-109. rasyidin, a., & nasution, h. (2018). kearifan muhammadiyah di sumatera utara dalam merespons isu radikalisme. teosofi: jurnal tasawuf dan pemikiran islam, 8(2), 457-484. https://doi.org/10.15642/teosofi.2018.8.2.315-342. rusli (2014). indonesian salafism on jihad and suicide bombings, journal of indonesian islam, 8(1), 91-111. sahri, i. (2018). ideologi damai kaum pesantren: studi atas narasi kurikulum pesantren salaf. jurnal pendidikan agama islam (journal of islamic education studies), 6(1), 85-105. retrieved from http://jurnalpai.uinsby.ac.id/index.php/jurnalpai/article/view/135 saifullah, s. (2014). dakwah multikultural pesantren ngalah dalam meredam radikalisme agama. islamica: jurnal studi keislaman, 8(2), 421-446. salamuddin, s. (2014). teologi rasional pada pesantren tradisional: telaah konsep teologi pada buku teologi di pesantren musthafawiyah. miqot: jurnal ilmu-ilmu keislaman, 38(1), 4562. salamuddin, s. (2019). meneguhkan islam nusantara: nahdlatul ulama dan falsafah pendidikan pesantren musthafawiyah, journal of contemporary islam and muslim societies, 3(1), pp. 36-67. shehadeh, lamia rustum (2003). the idea women in fundamentalist islam. gainesville, fl: university press of florida. solichin, m. m. (2018). interrelation kiai authorities, curriculum, and learning culture in pesantren, tarbiya, 5(1). suryadi & mansur, m. (2017). the role of traditional islamic boarding school-based islamic studies as radicalism and intolerance flow’s blocking agent. esensia: jurnal ilmu-ilmu ushuludin, 18(2). susanto, e. kemungkinan munculnya paham islam radikal di pondok pesantren. tadris: jurnal pendidikan islam, 2(1), 1-19. tan, c. (ed.). (2015). reforms in islamic education. london: bloomsbury. tibi, b. (2016). islam dan islamisme, translated by alfathri adlin. bandung: mizan. turmudi, e. & sihbudi, r. (eds.). (2005). islam dan radikalisme di indonesia. jakarta: lipi press. https://doi.org/10.15642/teosofi.2018.8.2.315-342 http://jurnalpai.uinsby.ac.id/index.php/jurnalpai/article/view/135 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2) 204-223 wekke, i. s. (2012). pesantren dan pengembangan kurikulum kewirausahaan: kajian pesantren roudahtul khuffadz sorong papua barat. inferensi, 6(2), 205-226. wekke, i. s. (2013). religious education and empowerment: study on pesantren in muslim minority west papua. miqot: jurnal ilmu-ilmu keislaman, 37(2), 374-395. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2020:11 (4), 219-234 indonesian education landscape and the 21st century challenges vidi sukmayadi1 & azizul halim yahya2 abstract as one of the most extensive education systems in the world, indonesia has achieved significant progress to improve the educational outcomes in the last two decades. the government has managed to increase school access, funding, and a high rate of school enrollment that in line with the government's policy on 12 years of compulsory education. like many other developing countries, indonesia has to deal with a significant challenge to move beyond improving access to education and move towards achieving a high-quality education. the indonesian government has enacted a series of reforms for the sake of improving the nation's education quality, but managing such a massive education system is not an easy task. despite the rapid progress in many areas fulfilled in recent decades, the challenges are still there. keywords: education landscape, educational policy, education system, indonesia, media literacy. introduction the future belongs to those who prepare for it, and education serves as the passport to achieve that brighter future. as the backbone of every society, education heavily influences multiple parts of a country's politics, economy, and welfare (bigagli, 2019; etherington, 2019; suresh & kumaravelu, 2017). in today's society, a significant emphasis is addressed on education since a good quality of education will guarantee well-prepared human resources to strive in the brave new world of digitalization (solas & sutton, 2018). however, due to the problems in the education sector, many developing countries still face challenges in their economic growth (adams, 2019; bakalar, 2018; lee, chai, & hong, 2019; sukasni & efendy, 2017). similarly, as the top emerging and developing country in southeast asia, indonesia has also been facing similar challenges. with more than 260 million as the total population and ranked as the fourth most populous country and the third-largest democracy all across the globe, education is incredibly essential to indonesia. this large population puts indonesia's educational system as one of the largest globally, with more 1 lecturer, communications department, universitas pendidikan indonesia, vsukmayadi@upi.edu 2 prof., faculty of communication and media studies,universiti teknologi mara, malaysia, azizul928@salam.uitm.edu.my journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 219-234 than 52 million students and 218,000 schools in 2017 (kemdikbud ri, 2018; kemristekdikti, 2018). hence with these large numbers, indonesia's most significant challenge for education is not only to improve access but also to improve the education quality to face the fast-paced world we live in. based on the rationale above, the paper depicts an overview of the indonesian education landscape with a focus on its education system as well as the various challenges. this commentary paper is structured around the past histories of education development in the country, the policies, and the current education landscape in indonesia. the paper also discusses the challenges that the government faces in developing the education system toward the vision of a 'world-class' education system by 2025. early developments of indonesian education system as the paper's starting point, we will begin by reviewing the indonesian education system in its early developments. it focuses on the intentional system to guide students' learning process from the pre-colonial era, the dutch and japanese occupation, until the end of the indonesian new order regime in 1998. indonesia's education system had been developed since the heyday of indonesian kingdoms back in the 8th century. during these times, education was delivered through traditional apprenticeship within family and community settings throughout the archipelago (suratno, 2011). religious or traditional principles have influenced the evolution of education in indonesia, the ruling powers' interests, multicultural notion and acculturation, and the spirit of unity as a nation (bhat, 2019; djojonegoro, 1996; harits, chudy, juvova, & andrysova, 2016; mestoko, 1985). in the dutch occupation era (the 1600s–1942), only a particular group of people had access to education. the dutch established a school classification system based on parentage and social status. the main problem with the education system in this era was the incorporation of the dutch administration's selective stratification to generate elite classes and obedient educated human resources for the colonial benefit. as a result, this discrimination raised the indonesian people's awareness of nationalism (suratno, 2011). in 1907, van heuzz (dutch governor-general) proposed the procurement of public schools or village schools and curriculum that was managed systematically by the central government. at that time, the netherlands indies' administration sukmayadi & yahya. 221 approved the proposal, and it can be said that it was the first contribution from the dutch colonial to the indonesian education system (nugrahanto, 2016). however, indonesian scholars initiated various movements underlying the independent design of a national education system. one of the most critical steps for indonesian education was the establishment of the taman siswa school and education system by ki hajar dewantara in 1922. despite the colonial oppression, he expressly declared the school as "the first national education institution." at that time, nationalism in taman siswa was marked by the recruitment of teachers from independence movement activists, and the school financing was managed autonomously based on regional self-reliance and passed on to local cultural values (supardan, 2008). with respect to ki hajar dewantara's contribution, every 2nd of may is commemorated as indonesian national education day. after more than 350 years of dutch occupation, the dutch left indonesia due to the japanese invasion (1942–1945). during the japanese occupation in indonesia, discrimination in education was eliminated, and bahasa indonesia started to be used as the medium of instruction. however, this strategy was used as propaganda to win the indonesian people's hearts in supporting the japanese on their world war campaign. schools were also utilized as a training facility for military and unskilled laborers recruitment during world war ii (suratno, 2011; susanto, 1994). when indonesia proclaimed its independence on friday, the 17th of august, 1945, a universal education system was conducted to develop a sense of nationality. in the early independence years, the political atmosphere was still overwhelmed by military aggression and physical revolution. it was only since the 1950s that the indonesian government began to be able to improve its education in a more peaceful situation. subsequently, the government made rapid development in building educational infrastructure nationally by involving a private-sector contribution to establishing educational institutions. indonesian education went to another level during the "new order" era from 1966 to 1998. during this era, the central government led the improvements in education by expanding education access and restructuring the education system. as reported by duflo (2001), indonesia managed one of the fastest documented school-building initiatives at the international level. from 1973 to 1978, the indonesian government had doubled the number of schools and constructed over 61,000 school buildings. enrolment rates dramatically increased among children aged seven to 12, from 69% in 1973 to 83% by 1985 (tobias, wales, & syamsulhakim, 2014). journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 219-234 the unique thing about the indonesian education system is the integration of islamic education. religious education was integrated into the state school system from 1975 until today to build equality between religious and secular educational institutions. in 1984 the government established a six-year compulsory education policy, and in the following decade, raised the length of the compulsory study to nine years (supardan, 2008). the government realized that education is an essential part of the human capital investment. thus since the 1990s, the indonesian government has continuously improved the education quality, access to education, and up-scaled the role of education in promoting the nation's economic development. the new order administration was considered to be the era of inducing a more progressive national development. in the field of education, there was very significant progress because of the enactment of presidential instruction (inpres) that focused on the accelerated development of indonesian basic education (primary education and lower secondary education). however, the "inpres" implementation caused a dilemmatic problem since it was only concentrated on producing as many schools' graduates as possible with less regard to the quality of the education. moreover, at that time, education was directed at developing militant and nationalist human resources to cope with the demands of living in a cold war era, so the education system was rigid and operated by the authoritarian government system (hariansah, 2019). the "new order" government fell in 1998 and moved on to a new democracy and decentralization period known as the reformation era. for the country, this transition was associated with changes in the balance of power. the reformation allows middle class and low-income groups to mobilize more unrestrainedly and create incentives for policymakers and political actors to make significant contributions to reform in areas such as education. moreover, two of the most prominent policies on the national education system in the reformation and the current era are a minimum of 20 percent of national budgets for education and regional autonomy (ali, 2017; supardi, 2012; suratno, 2011). current indonesian education structure: an overview the current indonesian education structure is referred to as the structure that has been used from the enactment of the indonesian law on the national education system number 20, the year 2003. sukmayadi & yahya. 223 according to that law, education is defined as a conscious and well-prepared endeavor to create both the learning atmosphere and its process so that students can actively develop their potential to have a religious-based attitude, self-control, personality, intelligence, noble character, and skills needed by themselves, the society, nation, and the country. the enactment of the law reflects the government's position in considering the vital role of education for the country and its people's well-being. despite the socio-political changes, there have always been two regulating bodies for the indonesian national education system, namely, the ministry of education and culture and the ministry of religious affairs (responsible for religious schools). however, in 2014 there was a slight change when the government established another regulating body for higher education to fall under the purview of the ministry of research, technology, and higher education (budiharso & tarman). then, at the end of 2019, the government decided to merge the ministry of higher education and the ministry of education and culture under one ministry. the government wants to reunite the ministries in charge of education from the elementary level to the high level so it can establish a tiered and unified education system under one coordination. a consistent education structure of the 6-3-3 model is applied in the indonesian education system. six grade levels of primary school and in secondary education, indonesia, impose junior high school and high school level. each of them consists of three grade levels. students are expected to complete in one year for each grade level for a total of twelve years of national compulsory education structure. the 12-year education structure was confirmed as mandatory education in 2013, replacing the previous nine-year program (indonesian act no.20, 2003; anastasia, 2018). the 12-year program phases out of the previous nine-year compulsory education program launched in 1994. however, since the indonesian law number 20, the year 2003 on the national education system did not specifically recognize a 12-year compulsory education system, the ministry adopted a universal secondary education program as the nomenclature instead (natahadibrata, 2013). aside from the 12-year general academic track, students in indonesia are also allowed to take vocational programs when they reach upper secondary education or high school. the 12-year compulsory education system and indonesia's higher education structure can be described in the following table. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 219-234 table 1. education structure in indonesia study level grades requirement ages regulatory body primary education the ministry of education and culture (the ministry of religious affairs supervises religious schools in indonesia) early childhood education (pendidikan anak usia dini) non-grades non-compulsory 2-5 y/o primary school (sekolah dasar) 1-6 compulsory 6-11 y/o secondary education junior high school /junior secondary (sekolah menengah pertama) 7-9 compulsory 12-14 y/o high school/vocational school senior secondary 10-12 compulsory 15-17 y/o higher education (vocational program) the ministry of research, technology, and higher education. diploma 1 (one year) diploma 2 (two years) diploma 3 (three years) varying associate's degrees non-compulsory avg 1721 y/o diploma 4 (four years) bachelor of applied science non-compulsory avg 1721 y/o higher education ( general academic program) sarjana 1 (four years) bachelor's degree non-compulsory avg 1721 y/o sarjana 2 (one-two years) master's degree non-compulsory all ages sarjana 3 (three five years) doctoral degree non-compulsory all ages students in indonesia can enroll in public or private sector schools. students are also allowed to attend primary and secondary education in religious schools or widely known as islamic schools. these religious schools are superintended and financed by the indonesian ministry of religious affairs. students in islamic schools may complete 12 years of education in madrasah ibtidaiyah (elementary school), madrasah tsanawiyah (junior high school), and madrasah aliyah (high school). the structure is equivalent to 12-year compulsory education in public schools (anastasia, 2018; harits et al., 2016; nasir, m. (2020). the ministry of education and culture also opens the opportunity for students with special needs; there are special needs education units and inclusion programs at both the primary and secondary education levels. furthermore, students who want to join the workforce directly can enroll in vocational schools (sekolah menengah kejuruan or smk) in their senior secondary education. compared to an indonesian general school, a vocational school is designed to give learners intensive training in their interest subjects. after graduating, the students can pursue a related diploma program to enhance their skills or continue their bachelor's degree program studies. sukmayadi & yahya. 225 in order to usher and guide the quality of the education system, the government enacted an act on national education system in 2003. it is stated in the act that "the government of indonesia has been fully conscious of the need for creating equality of opportunity in education and ensuring that primary education is made available to all, including those belonging to economically disadvantaged or socially marginalized groups, and those living in remote areas" ( act on national education system no.20, the year 2003). accordingly, since the enactment of the constitution, indonesia has shown progress toward the notion of equitable enrolment, which means that indonesian children and teens should have uniform access to education. access to primary education is nearly universal. as reported in almost 97 percent of children between 6 and 12 years old attend primary school, and 82% of indonesian children attend secondary school (kemdikbud ri, 2018). both results have ranked up above the average for the region. based on the data, it can be summarized that the act reflects a particular fundamental proposition, especially universal access to rudimentary education without discrimination, the bias of gender, equality of opportunity, and equity in education. current challenges indonesia comprises more than 17.000 islands, the fourth largest country in the world, with a staggering population of more than 250 million. the archipelago also has the 16th largest economy in the world, the largest economy in the association of southeast asian nations (asean), and a member of the g20 group of major economies (oecd/adb, 2015). based on the facts and figures, it can be assumed that since indonesia is considered as one of the globe's significant emerging market economies, the indonesian education sector is predicted to be also well developed. the development of the education world in indonesia is not always sunshine and rainbows. the country needs to strive to actualize the ideal values of national education as written on the act and the constitution. one of the country's education system's classical challenges is the heterogeneous nature of the country's education system. the main circumstances that lead to the indonesian education system's heterogeneous nature are influenced by the vast archipelagic locations, a wide variety of ethnic groups, gaps in rural and urban development, and differences in the social backgrounds of each individual. due to the implementation of the national education system act journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 219-234 year 2003 and the increase of budget allocation for education, indonesia has gradually able to cope with the heterogeneous nature (rosser, 2018). however, more challenges are emerging along with the new era of globalization and the internet of things. hence, in this part of the paper, the authors would like to bring up two other significant challenges that the government and other education stakeholders need to deal with. education access vs education quality in the post-reformation era (after 1998), indonesia has made significant efforts to improve access to education. indonesian children start school earlier, graduate from school on time, and are motivated to pursue their higher education studies. on the contrary, the educational quality and learning outcomes were not making significant progress in the country. as reported by rosser (2018), indonesia's most significant challenge toward education is no longer improving access but improving education quality. the indonesian government expects to develop a 'world-class' education system by 2025. however, numerous international assessments of indonesia's education performance imply that the country has a long way to go before achieving the desired goal in 2025. although enrolment in indonesian schools is progressing well, numerous studies show that indonesian students are ranked behind their international peers. as an illustration, a triennial study conducted by the oecd's program for international student assessment (pisa) showed that indonesia's education performance is among the bottom 10 percent of countries worldwide. as an illustration, in the 2015 oecd's ranking, between 55 and 69 percent of indonesian students performed below the minimum standards across subjects. their performance level in reading had decreased since 2009 (see table 2.) table 2. pisa underperformance rate proficiency type assessment year oecd pisa underperformance (percent of students performing below minimum) oecd average singapore malaysia thailand indonesia mathematics 2009 1.4% -2.3 % -21.8% 1,3% -8% 2015 23 % 8% 38% 54% 69% reading 2009 1.5% -1.3% -6.7% 7.1% 2% 2015 20% 11% 37% 50% 55% science 2009 3.4% -1.9 % -9.3% 3.9% -9.6% 2015 21% 10% 34% 47% 56% source: oecd pisa report (2010, 2015) sukmayadi & yahya. 227 the table above describes that more than 50% of indonesian students perform below the minimum levels on international exams. moreover, indonesia scored below 500 in the pisa standard. indonesia's ranking is 63 out of the 69 pisa member countries (sakinah, 2018). the teachers' quality also drives the low performance of indonesian students. in supporting the quality of teachers and reforming the system, the indonesian government has enacted the teacher law in the year 2005 aimed at raising the economic status and quality of the teachers. however, assuring teachers' quality still remains as a challenge for the country. averagely, 10 percent of indonesian teachers are frequently absent from schools, and 13 percent of teachers are at the school but not staying and teaching classes. the absenteeism rate even reaches as high as 19 percent in remote areas (australian council for educational research, 2014). the teaching quality of teachers is also unsatisfactory. averagely, indonesian teachers only scored 53 percent on a national aptitude test for teachers in 2015 (jjpn, 2016). a study by the world bank in 2014 also found no evidence that the teacher certification reforms in indonesia could improve the learning outcomes of the students (mae chu chang et al., 2014). it seems that the output of the certification program benefited more from the teachers financially rather than to their teaching quality. when state imperative and systemic certification tests become the teachers' primary concern, they cannot succeed in enabling autonomous and independent thinkers (long et al., 2017), and the continued use of unqualified teachers will compromise the quality of the subjects taught in schools (fomunyam, 2018). in line with this, mahmud (2018) argued that the 90-hour training program is not sufficient enough, and a revision of this program is imminent since the program outcome does have a significant impact on improving the national education quality. aside from the unsatisfactory outputs of teachers' teaching quality, another challenge that also needs to be highlighted is the rapid change of curriculum in the country. in indonesia, the education curriculum has been changing ten times since the country's independence. the curriculum has changed in 1947, 1952, 1964, 1968, 1975, 1984, 1994, 2004, 2006, 2013 (kemdikbud ri, 2018), and today the ministry of education is developing a new curriculum for 2020. keeping the curriculum responsive to a changing era's demands is crucial to any country's education system. however, rapid changes in a system can result in complex problems and often trigger the possibilities of education structure inconsistencies (bahzar, 2019; bee, 2008; ismanto, 2019) journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 219-234 political reasons often cause the problem with indonesian curriculum changes. the changes in the indonesian curriculum happened not because of the result of a rigorously implemented evaluation program. in other words, different regime causes a different curriculum (ismanto, 2019; sakinah, 2018). a curriculum change or transition should be designed based on strong rationales that can justify why the change is necessary in the first place and what outcomes are targeted for the sake of the nation's future education. what the country can do about the curriculum changes is by starting to focus on one sector first rather than an overhaul changes of the whole educational structure. for instance, the curriculum transition can be started and focused on primary education. the policymakers then carefully evaluate the implementation in that level of education before continuing to evaluate the next level of education structure to keep up with the global needs and get rid of obsolete points in the curriculum. the rise of information-saturated era and the need for a new literacy the advancement of technology and information is unavoidable. today we live in an informationsaturated era where information and knowledge are penetrating massively through multiple mass and cultural media, including the internet (potter, 2014, 2019). education stakeholders and policymakers need to focus on the future to predict what is coming and to take the necessary steps so teachers and students will be ready for the rapid changes as the interface between the digital world and humankind become much closer than ever. the "internet of things" is the next challenge that cannot be taken lightly. the education sector needs to adjust to the development. students can access multiple information online to extend their range of learning, and teachers could not rely on only one source for teaching. the internet has revolutionized the game for education, and the education quality can be improved by using the internet in many ways. the rise of the digital era opens doorways to a wealth of information, educational and knowledge resources, expanding opportunities for the learning process in and beyond the classroom. "with great power comes great responsibility" the often-quoted phrase from a spider-man movie can be seen as the way we have to deal with the internet. regardless of the many great opportunities the digital world gives, it also creates increasingly complex challenges. a new and particular sukmayadi & yahya. 229 literacy is needed so the "power" can be used responsibly, including in the education sector. according to kartadinata (2018), both students and teachers must have the relevant skills and literacy in entering the 21st century and digital era. he added that the way they are thinking needs to be creative, innovative, critical, and problem solving-based. in terms of working ethos, they need to communicate, collaborate, and adjust to contemporary information technology. as part of the global citizen, the education stakeholders should be able to interact globally, have responsibilities, and cultural awareness. these skills are needed to support the education system in this particular era. however, the new literacy still poses as one of the main challenges. as previously mentioned, indonesian academic performance is unsatisfactory, and one of the significant underperformance areas is information literacy. the definition of literacy, in this case, is not merely the ability to read but also to comprehend messages and produce them accordingly. literacy is not only about reading and writing but also to help people grasp the complexity of life and the world as a whole. to improve the way people think, act, and communicate, to make us a better, wiser, and smarter human being (oecd, 2010; pinantoan, 2013). in indonesia, the hype for accessing and employing digital media is not yet balanced by the suitable literacy of the users. numerous tests and studies have indicated that the country has a shallow level of literate behavior. progress in international reading literacy study (pirls) reported that in terms of reading comprehension, indonesia ranked at number 41 out of 45 participants (pirls, 2012). in 2017, only 17,66 % of the indonesian population had a high level of literate behavior (badan pusat statistik, 2017). on top of that, a study from central connecticut state university in 2016 showed a startling fact that indonesia was ranked 60 out of the world's 61 most literate and digital literate nations (fadhillah, 2018; miller, 2016). in reference to those facts, the data indicate that indonesia's level of media literacy is in a critical stage, and this is threatening since the level of digital participation in indonesia is exceptionally high. as a matter of fact, miller (2016) pointed out that societies that do not practice literate behavior are often squalid, undernourished in mind and body, repressive of human rights and dignity, brutal, and harsh (miller & mckenna, 2016). although the government has much improved the education' budget, the quality of education based on international education assessments such as pisa, pirls, and acer is far from satisfactory when compared with other neighboring countries. therefore, in coping with the face-paced era, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 219-234 media and digital literacy are highly recommended to be embedded in the education system. policy to guide digital participation in an education setting is also imminent. so far, there were no clear incorporated policy or media education at schools. at the time of this writing, there are no precise initiatives regarding the issue. nevertheless, the ministry of education and culture agreed and supported that digital and media literacy should be part of the education system (chabibie, 2017). thus it is expected that the government will rise to the challenge and imposed the digital literacy education and curriculum as a part of education quality development. adaptation to technological advancement is a must. it is vital to understand that the education curriculum should be intertwined with the cultural, political, social, and historical contexts of the education system and the world and era in which they operate (fomunyam, 2018; potter, 2014). conclusion to sum up, the paper provides a brief overview of the indonesian education landscape, sociopolitical changes, and their efforts to improve the quality of education and seek to understand the challenges they have to face. despite the country's achievement in opening equal access to education and student learning, certain issues such as the side-effect of rapid curriculum changes, unsatisfactory outputs of the teacher training program, and the low level of media literacy in the society need to be solved in order to achieve the goal of world-class education in 2025. indonesia's most formidable challenge is no longer improving the access but enhancing the quality of both the learners and educators. therefore, the paper recommends that prioritizing the teaching skills upgrading, along with curriculum and pedagogy reforms, are the focal points to improve teaching quality and student learning. improved teaching performance is not determined by the teachers' salary increase alone. the government needs to transcend the teachers' training program into an upgraded and more righton-target competency program to ensure that students are protected from the risk of less competent teachers gaining entry into the education system. secondly, the digital age is not a matter of being ready or not. it is not an option, but it is a consequence of progress. qualified literacy and imposed digital media education as part of the education curriculum can serve as the solution in preparing the national education system to embrace the 21stcentury challenges. finally, the indonesian education system's challenges imply sukmayadi & yahya. 231 that educational reform cannot be carried by the government alone. collaborations with scholars' communities, higher education institutions, and public engagement will contribute to the national education system's constructive development. references act no.20, y. 2003. act of the republic of indonesia on national education system, system § (2003). government of the republic of indonesia. adams, b. (2019). the far reaching impact of transformative curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.2 ali, m. (2017). kebijakan pendidikan menengah dalam perspektif governance di indonesia. universitas brawijaya press. anastasia, d. (2018). educational system of indonesia. retrieved march 26, 2019, from https://www.nafsa.org australian council for educational research. (2014). study on teacher absenteeism. jakarta. badan pusat statistik. (2017). potret pendidikan indonesia: statistik pendidikan 2017. bahzar, m . (2019). authentic leadership in madrassas: asserting islamic values in teacher performance. journal of social studies education research , 10 (1) , 259-284 . retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/432/363 bakalar, b. (2018). book review: justice on both sides: transforming education through restorative justice. american journal of qualitative research, 2(2), 145-149. bee, b. s. (2008). surface or deep change? how is a curriculum change implemented at ground level? international journal of educational management, 22(1), 90–106. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540810844585 bhat, a. (2019). islamic philosophy of education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(2), 73-76. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.02.5 bigagli, f. (2019). school, ethnicity and nation-building in post-colonial myanmar. research in educational policy and management, 1(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.01.01.1 budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 chabibie, h. (2017). literasi digital sebagai tulang punggung pendidikan. retrieved march 30, journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 219-234 2019, from http://pustekkom.kemdikbud.go.id/literasi-digital-sebagai-tulang-punggungpendidikan/ djojonegoro, w. (1996). lima puluh tahun perkembangan pendidikan indonesia. jakarta: departemen pendidikan dan kebudayaan. duflo, e. (2001). schooling and labor market consequences of school construction in indonesia: evidence from an unusual policy experiment. american economic review. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.91.4.795 etherington, m. (2019). the challenge with educational transformation. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 96-112. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.02.01.8 fadhillah, a. (2018, april 27). literasi digital masyarakat indonesia dianggap masih buruk. kumparan. retrieved from https://kumparan.com/banjarhits/ugm-literasi-digital-dimasyarakat-indonesia-masih-buruk fomunyam, k. g. (2018). decolonising the future in the untransformed present in south african higher education. perspectives in education, 35(2), 168–180. https://doi.org/10.18820/2519593x/pie.v35i2.13 hariansah, e. (2019). pendidikan di indonesia pada masa orde baru. retrieved march 7, 2020, from https://www.attoriolong.com/2019/03/pendidikan-di-indonesia-pada-masa-orde.html harits, i. w., chudy, s., juvova, a., & andrysova, p. (2016). indonesia education today: dating back its history of islam and imparting european education system. asian social science, 12(5), 179–184. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v12n5p179 ismanto, h. (2019). ketika lisan menjadi (tu)lisan: kumpulan artikel pendidikan. (d. anggraini, ed.) (1st editio). surabaya: cipta media edukasi. jjpn. (2016, january 7). hanya 7 provinsi yang raih nilai ukg baik. jawa pos national network. retrieved from https://www.jpnn.com/news/hanya-7-provinsi-yang-raih-nilai-ukgbaik kartadinata, s. (2018, january 12). tantangan pendidikan dalam era digital. jabar express. retrieved from http://jabarekspres.com/2018/tantangan-pendidikan-dalam-era-digital/ kemdikbud ri. (2018). statistik pendidikan. jakarta. retrieved from http://statistik.data.kemdikbud.go.id/index.php/ kemristekdikti. (2018). buku statistik pendidikan tinggi 2017. jakarta. lee, m. h., chai, c. s., & hong, h. y. (2019). stem education in asia pacific: challenges and development. asia-pacific education researcher. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-0180424-z sukmayadi & yahya. 233 long, c., graven, m., sayed, y., & lampen, e. (2017). enabling and constraining conditions of professional teacher agency: the south african context. contemporary education dialogue, 14(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973184916678681 mae chu chang, sheldon shaeffer, samer al-samarrai, andrew b. ragatz, joppe de ree, and r. s. (2014). teacher reform in indonesia world bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/9780821398296;10.1596/978-0-8213-9829-6; mahmud, a. (2018). guru tak boleh sejahtera catatan dan refleksi seorang pendidik. deepublish. retrieved from https://books.google.com.my/books?id=nibsdwaaqbaj mestoko, s. (1985). pendidikan di indonesia dari jaman ke jaman. jakarta: balai pustaka. retrieved from https://books.google.com.my/books?id=tzycaaaamaaj miller, w. j., & mckenna, m. c. (2016). world literacy: how countries rank and why it matters (1st ed.). new york: routledge. retrieved from https://www.routledge.com/world-literacyhow-countries-rank-and-why-it-matters/miller-mckenna/p/book/9781138909564 nasir, m. (2020). curriculum development and accreditation standards in the traditional islamic schools in indonesia. journal of curriculum studies research. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.3 natahadibrata, n. (2013, june). ri kicks off 12-year compulsory education program. the jakarta post. retrieved from https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/06/26/ri-kicks-12-yearcompulsory-education-program.html nugrahanto, a. (2016). bapak pendidikan kita: daendels atau ki hadjar dewantara? retrieved from https://www.kompasiana.com/anton_djakarta/55103119813311d334bc6398/bapakpendidikan-kita-daendels-atau-ki-hadjar-dewantara?page=all oecd/adb. (2015). education in indonesia. asian development bank. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264230750-en oecd. (2010). pisa 2009 results: executive summary. oecd. https://doi.org/10.1787/888932343342 pinantoan, a. (2013). adult literacy: better reading comprehension, how to speed-read, and some life-changing literature to improve your life. retrieved the 30th of march, 2019, from https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/adult-literacy/ pirls. (2012). pirls 2011 international results in reading. timss & pirls international study center. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000399132.51747.71 potter, w. j. (2014). guidelines for media literacy interventions in the digital age. media research. journal of social studies education research 2020: 11 (4), 219-234 potter, w. j. (2019). media literacy. (l. norton, ed.) (9th ed.). los angeles: sage publications. rosser, a. (2018). beyond access: making indonesia's education system work. lowy institute. sydney. retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1815945 sakinah, k. (2018, january 12). potret dan tantangan pendidikan zaman now. republika. retrieved from https://www.republika.co.id/berita/pendidikan/eduaction/18/01/12/p2f21y440-potret-dantantangan-pendidikan-zaman-now solas, e., & sutton, f. (2018). incorporating digital technology in the general education classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.03.01.1 sukasni, a., & efendy, h. (2017). the problematic of education system in indonesia and reform agenda. international journal of education, 9(3), 183. https://doi.org/10.5296/ije.v9i3.11705 supardan, d. (2008). menyingkap perkembangan pendidikan sejak masa kolonial hingga sekarang : perspektif pendidikan kritis. generasi kampus, 1(september), 96–106. supardi. (2012). arah pendidikan di indonesia dalam tataran kebijakan dan implementasi. jurnal formatif, 2(2), 111–121. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.30998/formatif.v2i2.92 suratno, t. (2011). the education system in indonesia at a time of significant changes. revue internationale d’éducation de sèvres, 58 (december, 2011), 12–15. retrieved from http://ries.revues.org/2131 suresh, e. s. m., & kumaravelu, a. (2017). the quality of education and its challenges in developing countries. in the 2017 asee international forum. columbus: american society for engineering education. susanto, a. b. (1994). politik penguasa dan siasat pemo̲e̲da: nasionalisme dan pendudukan jepang di indonesia. penerbit kanisius. retrieved from https://books.google.com.my/books?id=houeaaaamaaj tobias, j., wales, j., & syamsulhakim, e. (2014). towards better education indonesia's promising path, (july). http://ries.revues.org/2131 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2022:13 (3),282-301 strategic policy to improve professional madrasah-based management practices sulistyorini1, imam junaris2, asrof syafi’i3 & elfi mu’awanah4 abstract strategic choices are critical and are essential to the future success of any organization. strategic decisions made by the leaders are significant because they contribute to the implementation of the programs of the madrasah. this study examines school-based management strategies related to decision-making policy, decision-making model, participatory decision-making practice, and decision-making policy implementation. this study recruited 32 participants to participate in this study. using record analysis, observation and interview data were obtained. the results show (1) that the principal needs a school-based approach that emphasizes aspects of spirituality and religion and maintains the importance of peace to enhance the performance of the madrasah, (2) that the principal frequently monitors teaching staff in their daily work, and (3) that the principal should make decisions on the basis of the mutual decision-making process. participatory democracy is emphasized by the strategic decision-making process, such that all members of society have a say in what decisions are made and how they are enforced. keywords: strategic policy, madrasah development introduction strategic choices are critical determinants of organizational success. such decisions are also decisive factors that distinguish between an organization’s success or failure. given the significance of these decisions, it is assumed that optimal decisions would be made by decisionmakers, who are always key in simple decision-making processes (aronson al., 2020; weiterbildung, 2018). due to the limited ability of the organizational information-processing capacity, decision-makers adopt simplistic approaches using mental methods or heuristics to solve the complex problems that arise (effendi et al., 2020). this study is intended to assess the strategic decision policy process at the public senior islamic school (henceforth, man). formally, the 1 dr. state islamic university (uin) sayyid ali rahmatullah tulungagung, indonesia; corresponding author: sulistyorini@iain-tulungagung.ac.id 2 prof. dr. state islamic university (uin) sayyid ali rahmatullah tulungagung, indonesia; email: im02juna@gmail.com 3 dr. state islamic university (uin) sayyid ali rahmatullah tulungagung, indonesia; email: asrop.stainta@gmail.com 4 prof. dr. state islamic university (uin) sayyid ali rahmatullah tulungagung, indonesia; email: elfi_muawanah@yahoo.co.id mailto:sulistyorini@iain-tulungagung.ac.id mailto:im02juna@gmail.com mailto:asrop.stainta@gmail.com mailto:elfi_muawanah@yahoo.co.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 283 organization is considered a madrasah but for practical reasons, the researcher will refer to the madrasah as a school. this phenomenon also occurs during strategic decision-making. strategic decision-making is one of the main responsibilities of every school principal. such decisions must be made by the head of the madrasa. the quality of decisions made by a madrasa principal plays a key role in the institution in two ways: first, the quality of the principal's decisions directly affects career opportunities, rewards, and job satisfaction; and second, managerial decisions contribute to the success (ghasemy et al., 2020) or failure of an organization. because it use is now broadly applicable to almost all aspects of system management, managers must always be ready to face evaluation and criticism of any decisions they make (adriana, 2020; salinas-vasquez et al., 2020). the quality of leaders is directly correlated with producing quality educational institutions because in the context of this rapid transformation, the quality of human resources is vital (cassoni et al., 2021). indeed, human resources require good management to reach their long-term goals. developing human resources in the educational sphere will give universities a competitive advantage over peer institutions (kumar et al., 2021). to be competitive, higher education institutions must recruit at least the same quality of human resources as their competitors (cassoni et al., 2021). this definition of modern management of education underscores that the effectiveness of school management is primarily dependent on a manager's capacity to make strategic decisions by structural measures (gabriella et al., 2021). according to modern education management, strategic policies must be developed, thoroughly researched, clearly communicated, and efficiently and effectively enforced. the most appropriate teacher to cooperate in decision-making at the organization level is the head of the school, while teachers and members of school committees are the most worthy of collaborating in decision-making at the organization level. it is necessary to ensure that the decision-making process is not carried out in isolation but that all relevant parties are critically involved (polat, 2020). the results of the research on 150 cases of strategic decisions (i.e., one decision per patient observed for three years) show that, on average, one strategic decision is made every 12 months (i.e., the year from when there is an urge to act to the year when the decision is passed). strategic decisions present both a high risk of failure and an equally high chance of being rewarded with positive results (effendi et al., 2020). once a decision is made, it will have far-reaching sulistyorini, et. al. implications, some for the organization itself. a study conducted by the american association of higher education research center found that the main source of lecturers' dissatisfaction was the desire to determine policies that affect their professional status and the desire to determine the national education system. in this example, researchers have presented a model of who has ultimate decision-making authority. considering the importance of strategic decision-making by madrasah principals, this research was conducted with the objective of analyzing the influence of strategic policies on the development of superior madrasas in east java. research questions based on the background information, the research questions are as follows: rq1: what strategic policies are used by the leading madrasas in east java to improve school performance? rq2: how are decision-making models developed by leading madrasas in east java? rq3: how do members of the leading madrasas in east java develop participatory decisionmaking in the schools? rq4: how are strategic decisions implemented in leading madrasas in east java to achieve highquality schools? literature review strategic decision-making decision-making is a management practice that decides between various courses of action to solve problems, conflicts, and doubts arising through cooperation (murad, 2020). decision-making is the process of prioritizing competing options (srikanth & jomon, 2020). three opinions illustrate that strategic decision-making is the process of selecting the best alternative from several of the best alternatives for the purpose of solving a problem. communication and participation are essential components of decision-making in an organization. conclusions are sought to meet certain objectives or to accomplish certain tasks. strategic decision-making has been integral for optimal improvement of academic institutions (budiharso & tarman, 2020; effendi et al., 2020). there are four key components to decision-making. first, decisions is not random; second, a decision cannot be made without carefully thinking about the decision; third, to make a good decision, it must be based on the facts that are collected systematically, are well obtained and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 285 stored regularly so that the facts or data are reliable and up to date; and fourth, a good decision is one that has been chosen from various alternatives that exist after the alternative, and the alternative was carefully analyzed (oruh et al., 2020). it is a strategic choice of options from several strategic alternatives. the choice is between a realistic strategic aspiration and a desire that is not realistic. strategic decisions are major decisions that can determine the future of an organization, especially in the face of an ever-changing environment (shulhan, 2018). however, some researchers are more likely to focus on routine decisions, not strategic decisions. because strategic decisions are always related to the main problems or issues of the organization, top management should be able to decide them. strategic decisions are different from routine decisions. many decision indicators are included in the strategic decision area. as a strategic decision, the central goal is to consider the mission of the target group. important decisions are made by top management to achieve certain goals and objectives. also, choices are based on several choices and have high competitiveness (budiharso & tarman, 2020). models of decision-making in schools we need to take into consideration strategic decision-making. there are some basic guidelines that need to be followed in making critical strategic decisions. three leading models of decisionmaking are behavior, information, and norm models (phinaitrup, 2020). this course consists of four stages, which include initial ideation, designing, implementing, and evaluating. an organization needs to diagnose, identify, plan, choose, implement, and evaluate different strategies (oruh et al., 2020; yoon & scopelliti, 2021). the decision-making model can be developed into three stages, namely (1) identification, (2) development, and (3) selection. at the diagnosis stage, the organization will understand the difficulties and value of the problem (drucker, 2016). in the early stages of development, decisionmakers are often more concerned with standard procedural or problem-solving techniques. sometimes, this step involves experiencing something for the first time. in political decisionmaking, parties will select options such as consideration, logical analysis, and bargaining. based on drucker (2016), yusuf et al. (2020) describe six steps in the decision-making process: (1) definition of the problem, (2) analysis of the problem, (3) development of alternative solutions, (4) selecting the best solution, (5) organizing the action, and (6) evaluation of the results. regarding sulistyorini, et. al. the inclusion of social values, decision-making also includes the inclusion of culture and attitudes in the improvement of the curriculum and instructional design (effendi et al., 2020; solikhah & budiharso, 2020). according to these model decisions (phinaitrup, 2020), the rational decision-making model can be divided into two types, namely programmed (structured) and not programmed (unstructured). programmed decisions are decisions that are repeated, for example, student graduation decisions, appointment decisions, decisions on new employees' salaries, and retirement decisions. programmed decisions are those taken to deal with new or complex situations, for example, decisions on new institutions, decisions on fire, floods, and school collapse. in addition, there is a classic decision-making model (yoon & scopelliti, 2021) that assumes there is a rational process through which decisions are made from as the best alternatives. several models of the strategic decision-making process have been presented, each with similarities and differences. the models mentioned above are essentiall choices that can be used in school decision-making (yusuf et al., 2020). development of madrasah of excellence to improve organization effectiveness, school organization (roberts, 2020) can be achieved by introducing new concepts, models, processes, and methods. new ideas may come from results of the organization's own analysis, or from adapting a model or approach that was developed externally (egan, 2020). it is based on the consideration that by adopting new ideas, an organization’s output quality will improve. organization development efforts are generally directed at two final goals, namely, increasing effectiveness and increasing member satisfaction (reio, 2020). in the context of educational institutions or schools, adapting theories of reio (2020), egan (2020), and roberts (2020), the term superior can be attached to a madrasah, which leads to a new interest and passion in an educational organization such as a madrasah. madrasas need to have desires and hopes, but they also must continue to seek excellence to achieve their goals in all their aspects. it is truly an extraordinary advantage if the madrasah is able to have a selective admissions process. those with high levels of intelligence will be nurtured, guided, and educated, and the school will produce great graduates (egan, 2020; reio, 2020; roberts, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 287 methods design this research used a multi-site case study framework (yin, 2011) and applied a qualitative approach as the basis for data analysis (cresswell & wisdom, 2013). the emphasis of this study was the implementation of school-based leadership involving strategic decision-making policies, the creation of models of decision-making, the engagement of school participants in participatory decision-making, and the implementation of school strategic decision-making. as a qualitative method, the data were analyzed by cresswel & wisdom (2013) in reference to model analysis involving four steps: (i) translating numerical and narrative data into texts, (ii) deciding the unit of analysis in line with the research questions, (iii) defining coding system rules and their extracts, and (iv) applying the coding to the entire text data if the coding was insufficient or incorrect furthermore, the management platform was introduced to see the strengths, limitations, opportunities, and threats (swot) method using the report. setting and participants four excellent madrasas in tulungagung, east java, indonesia were the research subjects of this report; they all have the status of the leading islamic schools. man, which was equivalent to sman, was the madrasas. in order to reflect the standard of the schools, they were classified as 1 = very good, 2 = good, 3 = decent, and 4 = acceptable as the leading islamic school, corresponding to the madrasas m1, m2, m3, and m4. the researchers engaged participants in each school to participate in the research project. principals, vice principals, teachers, and staff were the research participants. tables 1 and 2 indicate the number of participants. sulistyorini, et. al. table 1 study participants no madrasah role f % 1 m1 principal 1 3.2 vice principal 2 6.3 teachers 3 9.4 staff 2 6.3 2 m2 principal 1 3.2 vice principal 2 6.3 teachers 3 9.4 staff 2 6.3 3 m3 principal 1 3.2 vice principal 2 6.3 teachers 3 9.4 staff 2 6.3 4 m4 principal 1 3.2 vice principal 2 6.3 teachers 3 9.4 staff 2 6.3 32 100 table 1 indicates that there are four research settings classified as the madrasahs m1, m2, m3, and m4. there are eight respondents assigned as the participants in each madrasah. overall, the number of respondents was 32, chosen by purposeful sampling. considering the authority of individuals and the availability during the testing process, purposeful sampling was applied in this analysis. in table 2, the distribution of respondents showed four principals (12.5%), eight vice principals (25%), 12 teachers (37.5%), and eight employees (25%). table 2. total participants in the whole madrasa no role f % 1 principal 4 12.5 2 vice principal 8 25 3 teachers 12 37,5 4 staff 8 25 total 32 100 data and data collection techniques the results of the observation and the results of the interviews were the primary data sources of this research. the secondary data were documents obtained from each madrasah on strategic management (sherma, 2005). the primary data include themes, texts and statements related to the execution of strategic management. in the unit review applicable to the four research questions journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 289 from this report, the themes were presented. the secondary data were documents that showed how the principals made strategic decisions and how the strategies were used in the daily activity of school management (cresswell & wisdom, 2013). the following data from this analysis were gathered from adapted shulhan (2018). the first information to be collected was data from the records. documents of strategic policy implementation have been checked, and the topics relating to the research questions have been recorded in terms of unit analysis. as the guides, the photographs of problems in the documents were used to uncover more data information through observation and interviews. in this way, the focus of the observation and interviews was driven by the features of the problems extracted from the documents. the next procedure for observing the issue was field observation. before visiting the madrasahs, the researchers surveyed the principals of the schools in detail. the subjects visited the environment relating to the policymaking process. these findings are important to be included in the interviews for making the patterns of thinking deeper and more expansive. a week after the observation, the interview was held. each person was invited to come to participate in the interview at each school. in planning the interview, the researcher received assistance from two members of this study: one took the role of documenting the entire interview session of each participant, and the other helped compose the interview questions and answers and prepared the administration of the interview. for the interview, each participant required between 20 and 30 minutes. to prepare for the data analysis, the data collection ended by preparing visual and verbal data. data analysis techniques this research was qualitative, with the data analysis done on a descriptive qualitative model suggested by yin (2011) and cresswell & wisdom (2013). to make the data more text-based, we used text analysis that figured out the visual data from the chronological observations and identified the global themes. based on the relevant notes, we compiled them together in a more comprehensive way to examine all the questions. the original document was analyzed for the components relevant to the research questions and classified into types of input. second, the team used themes to match their research questions. themes that were not appropriate to the topic were dropped. researchers developed a code consisting of the number of data points, the theme sulistyorini, et. al. categories, and examples of excerpts. fourth, the coders coded all data and provided an example of excerpts. if any code excerpt was incorrect, researchers made the correction or revision. lastly, they looked at all of the variables in each research question and evaluated them for units of analysis (cresswell & wisdom, 2013; yin, 2011). the final phase of the study was to include the analysis, observations and interviews of the outcome documents in the swot analysis to analyze the management process. both information from the primary and secondary data was analyzed to provide data on each research question that emphasized (1) the type of strategic decision-making in school activity management, (2) whether the schools used decision models, (3) the participatory decision-making, and (4) the decisionmaking process implementation. results and discussion strategic policies in improving madrasah performance strategic policy topics used by principals in four madrasas include (1) administration, (2) preparation and enhanced teacher and staff education, (3) enhancement of academic and nonacademic issues, and (4) school infrastructure growth. overall, the objectives in the annual budget and preparation are developed through considerable planning. the methods with the full disciplines and duties take place frequently in the daily service. testimony that emphasizes the future of the madrasahs appears in an extract (1). (1) “in the future, as the head of a new madrasah, i will try to arrange all positions according to the main duties of each individual position with the principle of the right man on the right place, for the smooth running of my duties at the madrasah. often in official meetings say coordination to carry out tasks. all of them got 75% assignments, i as the head of the madrasah got 25%. so that for the next year we have said that we have socialized it to the areas of the deputy head who must trust himself as the deputy head ... i want to open that transparency, i ask for a commitment to sign so that i can support my performance during my tenure” (s-1-k-1). as data (1) shows, the planning of the principal to expand professional management is through planning that also includes commitment, discipline, and the improvement of the main factors. in agreement, data (2) explains: journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 291 (2) "commitment to improving quality is automatic, my commitment will continue as long as the boss's funds are sufficient and manageable, i will continue to carry out quality improvements. i want the funds that go to school from the government to be clear to all parties. i challenge all relevant officials to propose activities complete with activity. then we choose the reason for the realization of this activity and why the realization of other activities should be postponed”. furthermore, school administration needs to be strongly dedicated to upgrading the technology. educational organizations can continue to adopt attractive strategies by developing innovations for institutional growth. a strong imagination will undoubtedly produce good quality. this finding confirms a study by adriana (2020) that schools pursuing an innovation strategy will attempt to be the first to produce and sell new products, while those that follow an imitation strategy will attempt to launch similar products more or less the same as those launched by the pioneer. for the next 20 years, madrasas, which are research sites, will have developed master plans and innovations in different fields, including management, the development of teaching and training staff, academic and non-academic fields, infrastructure, and public relations (aronson et al., 2020; weiterbildung, 2018). along these lines, all vice principals of madrasahs already have programs related to the development of this madrasah. all of the programs refer to the vision of the madrasa (egan, 2020; reio, 2020; roberts, 2020; shulhan, 2018). the main strategy is to establish important madrasas policies that can be used as benchmarks in program development and assessment. the principal of the school should fully understand the vision of his institution. the principal must be able to cultivate quality work and be in a position to empower all existing areas and staff to support the expected level of quality (budiharso & tarman, 2020; danim, 2005; shukhan, 2018; yoon & scopelliti, 2021). as the nature of this monitoring helps to enhance the execution of instruction, the head of the madrasah conducts the supervisory program, in which case the instructor provides feedback for changes in learning. the importance of the above results can be interpreted as that the madrasa leader often opens contact with both teachers and training employees. the leader is an instructor (supervisor) and administrative guide, manager, leader, and assistant. in line with suparlan (2008), the supervision provided by the principal is intended to establish a better teaching and learning environment by coaching and developing careers. when the principal assesses the students, the sulistyorini, et. al. principal must not only be a good teacher but also be able to evaluate performance (cassoni et al., 2021; ebersole & kanahele-mossman, 2020; salinas-vasquez et al., 2020). the principle of the madrasahs is to develop human resources for teaching by holding workshops and/or involving educators and educators in training, upgrades, and training within and outside the madrasah in increasing professionalism and including mgmp teachers in their fields, holding it training, and providing an opportunity to continue to study at a higher level (budiharso & tarman, 2020; polat, 2020; weiterbildung, 2018) according to effendi et al. (2020), a teacher can only be as effective as his personal confidence in addition to being competent in teaching subjects. thus, teacher performance should be considered and accomplished. the study findings showed that the madrasah principal wants to motivate all current possibilities for jointly advancing the madrasah. both civil servants and noncivil employees are the same in terms of enhancing the discipline of teachers and staff, namely the procurement of fingerprints/attendance lists, a statement letter if one is late, a statement letter when it is returned quickly and an alibi book (adriana, 2020; effendi et al., 2020; salinas-vasquez et al., 2020). the themes are also consistent with the view that training teaching and educational staff is important in islamic education institutions, while callahan & clark (1998) posit that the head must also be able to achieve the following in discipline training: 1) help staff strengthen their behavioral habits; and 2) help educational staff enhance their behavioral standards as also suggested by weiterbildung (2018) and aronson et al. (2020). in this report, several factors support quality improvement in the academic field, including competent and skilled school principals, qualified madrasah committees, good and competent human resources for teachers and staff, high levels of spiritual discipline, strong encouragement and the spirit of morality and spirituality, adequate human resources for teachers and education, and teaching faculty (adriana, 2020; shulhan, 2018). all services are seeded, which is more difficult to say since all lines shift in order to achieve excellence (murad, 2020; oruh et al., 2020; srikanth & jomon, 2020). the results of this study are consistent with others that emphasize the importance of input consistency from several quarters: first, whether the input of human resources is sound like the heads of schools, teachers, lab workers, educational staff and students; second, whether the requirements for content input is provided in the form of advisories, books, instruction, school facilities and so forth are met; third, whether input requirements such as laws, organizational journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 293 structure and details of employees are met in the form of software; and fourth, the standard of feedback is identified in the form of needs and goals, such as vision, inspiration, sustainability and ambitions (egan, 2020; reio, 2020; roberts, 2020; yoon & scopelliti, 2021). likewise, all students engage in extracurricular activities on this platform, with each student being limited to two extracurricular activities. nearly all teachers from this madrasa are in charge of nonacademic activities, including: (1) extracurricular activities; sports, arts and scouts; (2) osis student organization, mpk, (3) religious organizations, and (4) informational organizations (ict). this way, students achieved milestones both locally, regionally, and nationally in the study sites (adriana, 2020; effendi et al., 2020; shulhan, 2018). the subjects also reflect the view that the aspirations of institutions and educators in implementing various quality support programs are likely to be an ongoing step toward achieving an intelligent, islamic student performance that is innovative both in today’s and in the future (yoon & scopelliti, 2021; yusuf et al., 2020). in extracurricular activities, students are not only taught, but are also given full freedom to work to develop their talents. the head of the madrasah hopes that all madrasah teachers will be able to maximize their role in extracurricular activities to improve the quality of education (adriana, 2020; effendi et al., 2020; ghasemy et al., 2020; shulhan, 2018). great efforts are made by the head of the madrasah and the deputy head of curriculum affairs, in collaboration with the department of curriculum affairs, to improve the learning process and the quality of education (budiharso & tarman, 2020; cassoni et al., 2021; yoon & scopelliti, 2021). the classrooms and offices of classes and colleges are set up in a comfortable manner for teachers and students so they can better fulfill their duties. prestigious programs such as the acceleration class program (acp) and the excellence classrooms class program have extra facilities such as air conditioning, comfortable desks and chairs, and a new madrasah school website. the new facilities are expected to improve the educational experience for students (ebersole & kanahele-mossman, 2020; ghasemy et al., 2020; shulhan, 2018). decision-making models process the decision model in this study indicates seven conducts the principals and staff are committed to handle. in some cases, principals routinely engage in training of teachers and staff and lead attainments as the target. the themes of the decision-making models include: (1) discussing the sulistyorini, et. al. school vision, (2) developing a swot analysis, (3) daily, weekly, and monthly problem identification, (4) coordination, (5) deal process, (6) togetherness, and (7) high commitment. of the decision-making process, testimony on the evaluation process in data (3) and how swot analysis is applied as per data (4) are exemplified. (3) “we evaluate this vision periodically, if it needs to be revised, we revise it or we also evaluate it, but the one evaluating is the team. the newest program is an accelerated class, with the principal involved almost 100% of the time, the madrasah teachers, the committee, and the parents of the students. this is because this program requires a lot of financial support and thought assistance from the committee and parents, especially for their students who participate in the accelerated program”. data (3) indicates how program planning is implemented. the program planning involves all units that work together in solid and rigorous actions. as shown in data (4), to run the program, a swot analysis is conducted for the official steps before and after the planning program is developed. the purpose is to properly identify the problems for which solutions are being sought so that an acceleration of problem-solving can meet all aspects. (4) the acceleration program appeared from the desire of parents for the academic standard of students. finally, the head of the madrasah proposed an acceleration program, invited deliberations, and tried to evaluate swot, and the results of the study turned out to the acceleration program. that my friends at mtsn jabung miss new academic challenges, national independent adiwiyata has been accomplished, after all, they are already stuck in the competition, they want to have competitions, particularly if the uks has been a national pilot, so my friends have a separate desire, and i am the head. the madrasah has a goal to create a culture of academic excellence that is ultimately compatible with the wishes of the parents. this study confirms that the external and internal environments are analyzed with a swot analysis. in the external analysis, the needs of the community are assessed, in particular, the parents of students in madrasas; and in the internal analysis, what students and teachers desire in academic and non-academic development is identified (roberts, 2020; gabriella et al., 2021; shulhan, 2018). the decision-making model on the three research sites in the deliberation system is as follows: at the start, the problem is identified; second, coordination is undertaken; and next, official meetings (large meetings) are held. if the program requires support from the committee and student journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 295 guardians, a madrasah is always involved in the decision-making (adriana, 2020; cassoni et al., 2021; salinas-vasquez et al., 2020). the fact that an improvement process with a decision-making system is more prominent leads to the finding that it should be improved. it is important to note that the administration must make determinations about problems (school principal). the purpose of the function is to explain and describe problems. the accuracy of the following steps is determined by the first activity. situation analysis includes information about the existing school situation and a comparison of the existing school situation with how well it is known. this should contain statements about the values that are normally present and describe how they later impact our actions. many tools can help administrators (principals) in carrying out this activity, including analytical tools in the areas of accounting, research operations, and surveys (adriana, 2020; aronson et al., 2020; effendi et al., 2020; ghasemy et al., 2020). through agreement, the identification of solutions to solve the predetermined problem is required. for this, the administrator is asked for the ability to find many possible alternatives. he can draw from past experiences or from what others have done in similar circumstances. when problems have been faced before, that may be used as an indication of what can be produced in the future (gabriella et al., 2021; murad, 2020; polat, 2020; srikanth & jomon, 2020). however, a problem can occur when the answer given diverges from the usual or previously learned solution. this is a nonroutine problem, which requires creative alternative solutions (callahan & clark, 1998). the best one to choose after the options have been considered is selected. it calls for similar skills to the first step, namely good judgment. the administrator has to consider all the alternatives and then choose the most preferred option from the principal (drucker, 2016; oruh et al., 2020; phinaitrup, 2020; yoon & scopelliti, 2021; yusuf et al., 2020) involving madrasah members' participation in making strategic decisions involvement of the members of schools in the participatory decision-making is made through several steps, namely (1) instruction from the principals, (2) instruction of the vice principals, (3) school committee, (4) gentleman’s commitment, (5) socialization team, and (6) solid and rigorous team. this study reveals that the decisions by the principal are made based on their deliberations. in community-based education, the head of the madrasah implements a “bottom up” process sulistyorini, et. al. democratically, so that all the parties have the responsibility for the implementation of the decisions. all madrasah members share a unity of mind in achieving high academic quality. a successful program would come together through solid thinking. once the concept is well-defined, an implementation program can be organized. these school members have pledged their compliance and commitment and have no hesitation in implementing each program as they have been decided (adriana, 2020; effendi et al., 2020; ghasemy et al., 2020; shulhan, 2018). likewise, the principle for the development of superior madrasas through deliberations is that it is possible to do so through a participatory decision-making process. because of participation, the process should consider the knowledge and opinions of all involved. it is an activity, process, or decision-making system. the purpose of the discussion is to gather ideas for deciding without keeping the fact that the final decision is important. participation in decision-making increases the likelihood of multiple benefits. for the organization, the second advantage is for the parties who participate. for the organization, this decision will be more effective, more specific, more desirable, and more competitive in the market (drucker, 2016; roberts, 2020; yoon & scopelliti, 2021; yusuf et al., 2020). a "bottom-up" mechanism is enforced in a democratic manner by participatory decision-making, such that both parties have responsibility for the decisions taken and their execution. this method is identical to the research results presented by robbin (1984): “......there is a clear conviction held by certain individuals actively interested in that improvements are more likely to be adopted by people who have been given a voice in deciding the content and mechanism of the shift. it does not only include, but the principal uses teacher feedback and viewpoints as the basis for decisionmaking on organizational growth” (oruh et al., 2020; robbin, 1984; weiterbildung, 2018; yoon & scopelliti, 2021). the importance of the participation of the stakeholders in decision-making is that they have the capacity to control the decisions (salusu, 1996). this connection relates to the importance of school governing committees and teachers in making school policies. by involving the school committee, the school will have a sense of ownership and responsibility for the decisions made (adriana, 2020; effendi et al., 2020; shulhan, 2018). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 297 implementation of strategic decisions the initial activities carried out in the context of implementing strategic decisions/policies were trying to understand the concepts, ideas, and forms of these policies. stronger efforts at school are implemented by strengthening the existing institution. the outcomes obtained by the implementation of policy include (1) the results of meetings and purposes of improvement are understandable by all school members at all levels, (2) intensive regular socialization, (3) information sharing, (4) prospective communication in the policy, (5) inserting the program into the school system, and (6) teamwork. the implementation starts from the principal’s decree as the legal foundation to apply the policy. data (5) exemplifies the testimony. (5) "decisions are made based on deliberation, in the decision-making process the head of madrasah implements a" bottom-up "process democratically so that all parties have responsibility for the decisions taken and their implementation." the policy is shared in the implementation action by the vice principal as the authorized person to conduct the policy at the lower level, as exemplified in data (6). (6) "my strategy is in making decisions in the accelerated class program, so in the end my friends can understand and equate, finally, their involvement, both the committee, the students and all of that, we participate in so that we goooling the acceleration, i invite more than 300 guardians not only once but more than one time a year. three times with the committee more than two times, with the elements of the waka leadership almost eight. i invite the coordination to continue, because i also don't want this extended family to see it as pressure from the principal, i want them to feel this idea came from us together, wishing for academic achievement that i proposed .... and this is not me who said, it was my friends who said so they started from a mutual longing, a feeling that we also want to move forward like other schools". data (6) indicates the testimony to serve internal policy. externally, the school involves the school committee. the head of the school committee in m1 describes that “the roles of the school committee and student guardian are very important to accelerate the acceleration program”. in addition, a senior teacher at m2 explains that “in this madrasah a program can run, if all of the teachers are involved. therefore, all teachers can engage in an effective program so that our team can remain strong and efficient in creating new and creative curry-level initiatives from all levels and components. anything that is achieved in this madrasah, as a team, can communicate policies that can benefit teachers.’’ sulistyorini, et. al. this study finds that by sharing information, explaining why certain things are being done, and establishing expectations that are understood by everyone, the policy will be accepted by everyone. it has been understood that the policy/decision was developed, and then various activities will be carried out. the socialization is carried out in various formats, often involving a lot of publicity and including all organizations in the community. the principal and support staff carried out this effort. the material disseminated is sourced from the results of meetings held by the principal. the support of both teachers and staff to support our strategic decisions is key (effendi et al., 2020; ghasemy et al., 2020; murad, 2020; reio, 2020) the underlying sense can be interpreted on the basis of the subthemes above, namely in the context of enforcing strategic decisions/policies through trying to understand the policies' ideas and types. this initiative is achieved by reinforcing the institution's presence through continuous socialization. putting the strategy into operation" making what was abstract more concrete and real is a significant element in this execution (adriana, 2020; aronson et, al., 2020; bates & eldredge, 1980; effendi et al., 2020; ghasemy et al., 2020; shulhan, 2018; weiterbildung, 2018). activities and acts require the execution of strategic decisions. the implementation policy phases are as follows: (a) decision legalization, (b) action plan, (c) socialization and communication, (d) action, (e) oversight, and (f) analysis and assessment. in addition, mazmanian and sabatier (1980) clarify the importance of policy implementation by stating that knowing what actually occurs after a program is considered legitimate or formulated is the object of attention in the implementation of strategic decisions, namely policies and activities that occur after the legalization of state policy guidelines that involve efforts to both enforce it and to develop it (bates, 1980; shulhan, 2018; yoon & scopelliti, 2021). the process of implementing strategic decisions involves actions by public or private individuals (or groups) that are aimed at achieving the goals set out in previous policy decisions and are actions taken by either individuals/officials or public or private organizations to achieve the objectives outlined in policy decisions. before addressing what should be changed or achieved, it is first necessary to address what has been going well in meetings that are quite efficient, as all representatives of the group must collaborate and understand new norms (adriana, 2020; kast & rosenzweig, 1990; meter, 1975; meter & horn, 1975; shulhan, 2018). the findings of this study suggest that there should be a sort of integrated framework for collective decision-making. this study shows that the decision-making system for teachers is distinct from journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 299 the system that does not involve teachers and school management members in a policymaking role. in this study, the authors argue that there should be good governance by involving both internal and external parties in decision-making. conclusion this study answered the four research questions posed and found that decision-making policy relied on four conditions: the identification of the type of strategic decision-making, the definition of the decision-making model, the use of the participatory decision-making process, and the management of the decision-making process. technology and the participation of internal and external parties should contribute to the whole process. this suggests that the strategy of decisionmaking that is not in conflict with this finding should be altered. however, due to the restricted access to the school system and the limited time to work, this research is not without its limitations. future research should open up further access to schools as the operator of man under the authorization of the ministry of religious affairs. future studies should formulate longitudinal research so that research areas and scopes can be largely planned. references annabelle r. roberts, a. f. (2020). designing in-app messages to nudge behavior change: lessons learned from a weight management app for young adults. orgnisedal behavior and human decision processes, 162, 95–101. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.10.004 aronson, b., banda, r., johnson, a., kelly, m. radina, r., reyes, g., sander, s., & wronowski, m. (2020). the social justice teaching collaborative: a critical turn towards critical teacher education. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 21-39. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.8 budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic ınstitutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 cassoni, a.; pucci, r.; mangini, n.; fadda, m.t.; battisti, a.; giovannetti, f.; terenzi, v.; della monaca, m.; priore, p.; raponi, i.; valentini, v. (2021). head and neck cancer treatment during covid-19 pandemic: a central experience in rome. emergency management, infection prevention and control. cancers, 13(33), 1–8. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers13010033 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.8 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 sulistyorini, et. al. creswell j. and wisdom jw. (2013). mixed methods: integrating quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis while studying patient-centered medical home models. ahrq publication no. 13-0028-ef ebersole, m. & kanahele-mossman, h. (2020). broadening understandings of the cultural value of aloha in a teacher education program. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 81-99. doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.14. effendi, y.r., ibrahim bafadal , i nyoman sudana degeng, i. a. (2020). transformational leadership approach based on local wisdom in strengthening the character of students. mojem: malaysian online journal of educational management, 8(4), 24–42. egan, m. a. & t. (2020). transformational leadership and human resource development: linking employee learning, job satisfaction, and orgnisedal performance. 31(4), 371–392. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21404 gabriella, m.; tamar, k.; idan, s.; daniella, m.; marco, f.; michal, s. (2021). effect of weed management on the parasitoid community in mediterranean vineyards. biology, 10(7), 1–16. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10010007 haewon yoon, irene scopelliti, c. k. m. (2021). decision making can be improved through observational learning. orgnisedal behavior and human decision processes, 162(xx), 155– 188. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.10.011 kumar, s.; yadav, d.; gupta, h.; verma, o.p.; ansari, i.a.; ahn, c. w. (2021). a novel yolov3 algorithm-based deep learning approach for waste segregation: towards smart waste management. electronics, 10(14), 1–20. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10010014 majid ghasemy, ahmad firdaus ahmad shabudin, noraini mohamad yusof, o. p. l. (2020). academic change-oriented leadership capability: the application of satorra-bentler robust method in a scale validation study. mojem: malaysian online journal of educational management, 8(4), 1–23. murad a. mithani, j. p. o. (2020). so what exactly is a “coalition” within an orgnised? a review and organizing framework. journal of management, 47(1), 171–206. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206320950433 oruh, emeka smart; nwagbara, uzoechi; mordi, chima; mushfiqur, r. (2020). legitimisation strategies and managerial capture: a critical discourse analysis of employment relations in nigeria. international journal of human resource management, 31(22), 698–716. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2018.1474940 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3), 282-301 301 phinaitrup, s. w. b.-a. (2020). mediating effects of relationship quality on the correlations between instructional leadership and loyalty. mojem: malaysian online journal of educational management, 8(2), 1–18. polat, s. (2020). multidimensional analysis of the teaching process of the critical thinking skills. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 134-157. doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 salinas-vasquez, l., varela, d. g., martinez, m.e. & jones, d. (2020). a comparative study of the 21st century afterschool center on education in elementary schools in south texas. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 19–37. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.2 sherman, r. r. & w. b. . (2005). qualitative research in education: focus and methods. roudledge falmer. solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177–197. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2658/465 srikanth, p. b.; jomon, m. g. (2020). developing managerial competencies: integrating work design characteristics and developmental challenge. international journal of human resource management, 31(22), 2808–2839. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2018.1474937 thomas g. reio jr. (2020). uncertainty and fear of the unknown: what can human resource development do? human resource development quarterly, 31(2), 147–148. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21394 toušek, p.; kocka, v.; masek, p.; tuma, p.; neuberg, m.; novackova, m.; kroupa, j.; bauer, d.; motovska, z.; widimsky, p. (2021). modified strategies for invasive management of acute coronary syndrome during the covid-19 pandemic. j. clin. med, 10(24), 1–10. https://doi.org/j. clin. med weiterbildung, e.-. (2018). policy making in adult education : a comparative approach across 21 european regions. international review of education, (0123456789), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-018-9750-x yusuf, habibat abubakar; amzat, ismail hussein; saidin, k. b. (2020). the mediating effect of school-based management on school climate, bureaucracy and effectiveness in secondary school. mojem: malaysian online journal of educational management, 7(3), 19–42. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.2 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2),125-146 the interconnection between technological, pedagogical and content knowledge in primary school lesson planning arjana zhubi1 & hatixhe ismajli2 abstract the technological, pedagogical and content knowledge model (tpack) explains how these knowledge components interact to foster more innovative teaching and learning processes. the purpose of this research is to analyse the relationship between technological, pedagogical and content knowledge in primary school lesson planning. furthermore, this study also intends to determine which of the tpack model constructs are used by teachers in lesson planning. a quantitative research approach was conducted in 11 primary schools in the four largest cities of kosovo. a total of 363 teachers participated in this study. this sample size was determined based on a sample size determination table that follows a probability method (95% confidence interval and 5% error). the standardised questionnaire for teachers, ‘‘survey of pre-service teachers’ knowledge of teaching and technology’’ was used to collect quantitative data. the results indicated that lesson planning was mostly organised in terms of content and pedagogy, without integrating technology into teaching strategies. the findings of this research showed that the use of technology in the teaching process belongs to the technological knowledge context and requires the development of a deeper understanding of the complex network of relationships that exist between pedagogy and teaching content. these data will contribute at the local and central levels to the formulation of educational policies, curriculum revisions and the design of training programs focused on technological, pedagogical and content knowledge constructs. keywords: content knowledge, lesson planning, pedagogical knowledge, technological knowledge introduction educational reforms in the last decade in kosovo have encouraged teachers to use technology in the classroom because one of the goals of pre-university education is to develop ideas, skills, attitudes and values using technology (ministry of education, science and technology [mest], 2016). the early stages of technological advances in education, the so-called digital divide, were 1 phd candidate at faculty of education, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, prishtina, kosovo, ariazhubi@hotmail.com 2 assoc. prof., faculty of education, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, prishtina, kosovo, hatixhe.ismajli@uni-pr.edu (corresponding author). mailto:ariazhubi@hotmail.com mailto:hatixhe.ismajli@uni-pr.edu journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 126 more associated to access to technology and equipment (williams et al., 2021). accessing and using a wider range of online resources will prevent students’ routine and memorising learning, change the lesson planning process and provide other opportunities to apply technology in the classroom (voithofer & nelson, 2020). the use of technology in the teaching process is not determined only by the technological knowledge of the teacher (baturay et al., 2017) and should be related to the pedagogical aspect of the field/subject and to the teaching contents therein (krauskopf et al., 2012). thus, technologyrelated teaching planning depends on the teacher’s technological skills and knowledge of the field/subject (jang, 2010). in this context, technology planning in primary schools raises many issues for kosovar teachers. the way teachers make plans and the extent of technology used by teachers in the teaching process are usually described in a generalised form. many planning models are recorded on paper, only for purposes of school documentation and argument, being rarely implemented in practice or discussed when analysing the pedagogical and content knowledge, which are the points of connection between them. however, having prior pedagogical and content knowledge using technology in the classroom, applied by modifying different methods and strategies throughout the units, is a prerequisite for effective teaching (schmid et al., 2021). studies have shown that to expand the use of technological activities, intentional emphasis should be placed on transferring teachers’ knowledge from theory to practice (gjelaj et al., 2020; kalimullina et al., 2021). however, for most teachers, the link between technology, pedagogy and content is complex and difficult to plan, especially when confronted with technology (voogt & mckenney, 2016). researchers evaluated in which field of knowledge teachers need to develop more and change the teaching approach, and analysed the connections, interactions, opportunities and existing limitations between content, pedagogy and technology. they emphasise the importance of beginning with the development of technological knowledge, to then making the connection with the pedagogical and content approaches, therefore reaching the main goal of learning development (voogt & mckenney, 2016). in the context of kosovo, education policies are not yet oriented to implement the technological, pedagogical and content knowledge (tpack) framework as part of the kosovo curriculum. therefore, efforts have been made in this study to analyse and verify the correlations between these three knowledge components (content, pedagogy and technology) so that they become zhubi & ismajli integrated for an effective teaching outcome in addition to the reports in educational documents. in addition, this study made it possible to determine which aspects of the knowledge in the catalogue of programs accredited by the ministry of education, science and technology (mest) should be developed, so that their practices increase the teaching quality. literature review teachers who fail to incorporate pedagogical and content knowledge into their teaching will not achieve effective teaching (harvey & caro, 2017). based on this fact, shulman (1987) managed to combine pedagogical and content knowledge arguing that proper planning of the learning process carried out accurately through content and pedagogical approach creates confidence, professionalism and yields the right results. koehler et al. (2013) pointed out that in addition to pedagogical content and knowledge, technological knowledge should be included as a third essential teaching component and be considered a tool to assess the impact of technology on lesson planning. however, many studies (koehler et al., 2013; mishra & koehler, 2006; rahmadi et al., 2020) have identified connections, interactions, opportunities and limitations between content, pedagogy and technology based on the tpack framework. we chose the tpack model because it allows us to specifically identify teachers’ knowledge and actions during teaching. technological knowledge (tk) corresponds to the technological skills of teachers and the resources available used in their planning. pedagogical knowledge (pk) refers to the way teaching and learning takes place, including didactics, learning assessment and classroom management. content knowledge (ck) refers to the knowledge of the subject defined in the school curriculum. the interaction between technological knowledge (tk), pedagogy (pk) and content (ck) is essential for the development of innovative teaching. individual profiles for tpack fields were created for three professors in a study conducted with midwestern university professors through interviews and observations (benson & ward, 2013). the profiles illustrate how content, technology and pedagogical knowledge levels interact, such that when one aspect is less advanced, teaching does not progress properly. when knowledge of technology is defined only as their ability to use many technological tools, a profile balanced and integrated with the other two areas of knowledge is unlikely to be accomplished (benson & ward, 2013). in contrast, professors who can explicitly articulate the meaning and application of pedagogical knowledge (pk) are are more likely to demonstrate tpack integration (benson & journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 128 ward, 2013). in another perspective, sylvestre et al. (2018) studied 144 teachers of 8 primary schools and reported that the level of technology use was very low because teachers were focused only on technological knowledge (tk) and the teaching process resulted in poor student achievement. the authors recommend that the government not only equip all schools with technological tools, but also foment the pedagogical side (pk) and revision of textbooks (ck) to reach an efficient teaching process (sylvestre et al., 2018). a study conducted with elementary school teachers from singapore analysed the relevance and validity of pedagogical knowledge (pk) through a 12-week course on the tpack framework and identified five of the seven constructs of the tpack model, which were more appropriate than other existing tpack survey studies (koh & chai, 2016). pedagogical knowledge (pk) showed a direct impact on the development of the tpack model according to the questionnaire data, leading to the conclusion that pk comprises the purpose and goal of the entire learning process because the topics and lesson planning become adapted to the interests and abilities of students (koh & chai, 2016). pedagogical knowledge (pk) must be a primary concern, followed by the integration of technology (koh & chai, 2016). hence, technology is used not only to demonstrate and present facts, experiments, concepts, figures, figures, etc., but also as a process of building new knowledge between pedagogy and content (murphy, 2019). in a comprehensive study of 24 different schools in 16 states, students performed better when content and instruction knowledge (pck) were integrated among curricular areas through technology than when the content of the book material was elaborated only when teaching related pedagogical knowledge and content (voithofer et al., 2019; martin, 2018). shapley et al. (2011), deepening in this field, identified through a multi-factor rubric analysis several issues that influenced the use of technology. they defined four pillars with key elements: technological knowledge, pedagogical content, planning and training. based on this model, grainger (2021) who is known as the developer of the teaching framework currently adopted by 33 countries, argued the importance of these elements quite simply by stating that ‘’one person cannot teach the other person if he/she does not have the basic skills and knowledge in technology’. as the knowledge base in each area grows, many other issues involved in technology integration will be resolved (lim & chai, 2008). moreover, as the level of technological knowledge and skills (tk) increase day by day, the demand for the classroom application of technology will increase as well (spiteri & rundgren, 2018). if the teacher has knowledge in each of these areas (technology, zhubi & ismajli pedagogy and content), the evidence directly indicates that effective teaching and high student outcomes are expected (russell, 2011). in addition, other studies have reported that training and professional development positively affect the coherent interconnection among the three areas of knowledge (tk, pk and ck; alhashem, 2021; oda et al., 2019; alqurashi et al., 2016; blau et al., 2014). teachers need to stay up to date with the new technological developments in the collection, selection, planning and integration of teaching content, and with the implementation of innovative applied ideas (onuyi, 2021). teachers have an important role in designing and delivering lessons that use technology accordingly (erbilgin & şahin, 2021; evans-amalu, & claravall, 2021). these elements are important given that the primary purpose of school learning is for the teacher to transform the learning process, and not merely to increase the use of technology in the classroom (al-abdullatif, 2019). the need for a study that aims to combine three complex areas of knowledge in lesson planning from primary school forward has been shown as necessary and important given the review of the literature and other scientific articles. methodology purpose and research questions the purpose of this research is to analyse the relationship between technological, pedagogical and content knowledge in lesson planning. the study also intended to determine which of the constructs of the tpack model teachers use in primary school. the study addresses the following questions: 1. what is the relationship between technological, pedagogical and content knowledge in primary school lesson planning? 2. are there significant differences between teachers in achieving technological, pedagogical and content knowledge? 3. which construct of the tpack model is used by teachers in lesson planning? research design the quantitative method was used to conduct this study. this method is defined as a database that can help explain and analyse different types of questions even when they are not appropriate for a sample or population and is known as a process which creates and analytically exploits a particular relationship between research groups (creswell & creswell, 2018). the design applied was journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 130 phenomenological (creswell & clark, 2017) because the technological, pedagogical and content knowledge of kosovar teachers in their planning is considered a current phenomenon in primary school. the authors emphasised that the phenomenological design aims to systematically, critically and comprehensively examine the approach by describing the participants involved in a phenomenon. researchers use the phenomenological design to examine the perspective of participants concerning a phenomenon by assessing their experiences, opinions, attitudes and beliefs related to technological, pedagogical and substantive knowledge. participants a total of 363 teachers from 11 primary schools in the four largest cities of kosovo (prishtina, prizren, mitrovica and gjakova) participated in this research study. we selected these cities to make our research results more general. according to brand (2010), generalisation refers to a phenomenon that has been previously identified, but can be re-identified elsewhere provided that the population, environment and context are similar. the sample was determined following the probability method (mohajan, 2018) and its size was calculated according to the 95% confidence interval equation, with an error margin of 5% (cohen et al., 2017). the data from education statistics in kosovo (mest, 2020) were used for sampling. descriptive data from the four largest cities of kosovo and 11 schools were obtained to accurately identify the age of teachers, gender, qualification and experience in teaching (see table 1). table 1 descriptive statistics related to the sample (n = 363) variables frequency percentage (%) schools mustafa bakija 45 12.4 kelmend rizvanolli 25 6.9 ibrahim fehmiu 30 8.3 abyl frashëri 51 14.0 emin duraku 31 8.5 naim frashëri 30 8.3 meto bajraktari 45 12.4 xhemajl mustafa 25 6.9 nazmi gafurri 26 7.2 ismail qemali 25 6.9 musa hoti 30 8.3 town gjakova 70 19.3 prizren 112 30.9 prishtina 126 34.7 mitrovica 55 15.2 gender male 23 6.3 female 340 93.7 age 23–30 years 58 16.0 zhubi & ismajli 31–40 years 97 26.7 41–50 years 117 32.2 over 50 years 91 25.1 qualification bachelor 3 40 11.0 bachelor 4 217 59.8 master 102 28.1 phd 4 1.1 experience 1–5 years 71 19.3 6–10 years 59 16.3 11–15 years 81 22.3 16–20 years 40 11.0 over 20 years 112 30.9 a total of 45 from the 363 participant teachers are from the school mustafa bakija, 25 from kelmend rizvanolli, 30 from ibrahim fehmiu, 51 from abdyl frashëri, 31 from emin duraku, 30 from naim frashëri, 45 from meto bajraktari, 25 from xhemajl mustafa, 26 from nazmi gafurri, 25 from ismail qemali and 30 from musa hoti (table 1). one hundred and twenty-six teachers were interviewed from schools in prishtina, 112 from schools in prizren, 70 from schools in gjakova and 55 from schools in mitrovica (table 1). most of the teachers interviewed (340) are female, and only 23 teachers are male. most teachers (117) were aged 41–50, most (217) have completed their bachelor studies within a 4-year period and another significant part (102) hold master degrees. the frequencies of experience in education are differently distributed; however, the largest number of teachers (112) has over 20 years of experience in education. instruments instrument tool form ‘’service teachers knowledge survey on teaching and technology tpack’’, proposed by schmidt et al. (2009) was used to analyse the study questions. the tpack questionnaire comprises 58 questions divided into eight sections, based on 5 points of the likert scale (1not at all, 2little, 3uncertain, 4medium and 5very). the first section contains questions that provide demographic information: school, city, gender, age, qualification, technology training and work experience. the ‘’tk (technological knowledge)’’ scale comprised seven statements and was used to identify the technological knowledge of the teachers, consisting of the second section of the questionnaire. in the third section, the four-factor ‘‘ck (content knowledge)’’ scale is used, and includes the curricular areas of the primary level, with 16 statements. in the fourth and fifth sections, the ‘’pk (pedagogy knowledge)’’ and ‘’pck (pedagogical content knowledge)’’ scales were used, drafted with seven statements each. in the sixth and seventh parts of the questionnaire, the ‘’tck (technological content knowledge)’’ scale consisting of seven statements, and ‘’tpk (technological pedagogical knowledge)’’ scale journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 132 with nine statements were used. in the eighth section, the ‘‘tpack (technological pedagogical content knowledge)’’ scale was used, consisting of 5 statements related to the interrelationship between knowledge of technology, pedagogy and content. the reliability of the questionnaire (cronbach’s alpha) ranged from 0.78 to 0.93. reliability values for each construct were greater than 0.7, indicating that they are all reliable. similarly, all cronbach’s alpha values were also greater than 0.7, indicating that all the constructs are dependable. data collection the researchers adapted the questionnaire to the context of the kosovo education system, before finalising and distributing it to the target group of respondents. also, after translation and adaptation, a pilot questionnaire was distributed to 50 teachers to ensure it was valid, reliable, clear and appropriate to proceed further. the questionnaire was distributed in physical form to the participants of nine schools (cities of prishtina, gjakova, prizren), and in the online form (google forms) to the other two schools (city of mitrovica) due to the closure of schools consequent of the covid-19 pandemic. the researchers initially sought permission from the school principals by e-mail presenting the title, purpose and requirements of the research questionnaire. after confirmation by the principals of each school, we set the date to distribute the questionnaires. at the same time, the researchers became acquainted with the teachers in person to provide explanations concerning the questionnaire such as title, purpose and time of submission. one week later, all completed questionnaires were collected for data analysis by the researcher to obtain the result and findings of the research. the questionnaire on google forms was distributed to the two remaining schools within a period of 10 days. participating schools in physical and online form are described in table 2. zhubi & ismajli table 2 participating towns and schools in physical and online forms town school number of teachers physical form google forms gjakova mustafa bakija 45 √ kelmend rizvanolli 25 √ emin duraku 31 √ prizren ibrahim fehmiu 30 √ abdyl frasheri 51 √ xhemajl mustafa 25 √ prishtina nazmi gafurri 26 √ meto bajraktari 45 √ naim frasheri 30 √ mitrovica ismail qemali 25 √ musa hoti 30 √ data analysis the design of this study is based on the tpack model, a framework originally developed by shulman (1987b), who combined pedagogical and content knowledge. koehler and mishra (2009) proposed extending this model to include technological knowledge as a third component essential to teaching and as a tool to assess the impact of technology on lesson planning. the extended framework highlights the connections, interactions, opportunities and limitations of content, pedagogy and technology knowledge (koehler & mishra, 2009). in this model, the interaction between technological knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and content are essential to develop innovative teaching. in this regard, we identified the interconnectedness of these three knowledge in the kosovar context, significant differences among teachers in achieving technological, pedagogical and content knowledge, and in which field our teachers are more prepared. furthermore, the data were analysed following the current phenomenological process to analyse the interrelationship between technological, pedagogical and content knowledge of the primary school teachers who plan their teaching. the collected data were analysed using the statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 22. the researchers used descriptive analyses to evaluate the demographic background (percentage of the total population). mean, standard deviation and regression analyses were also used to identify the relationship with descriptive variables. paired-samples t-tests were used to test the differences between technological, content and pedagogical knowledge of primary school teachers. we created knowledge pairs to extract the most accurate differences between teachers in achieving technological, pedagogical and content knowledge and to answer the question of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 134 whether there are significant differences. a paired sample t-test was used to test the differences between three knowledge. in this paper, data normality was evaluated with technological knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge to test the relationship between a normality phenomenon and population size. to evaluate whether the baseline population is normally distributed, the kolmogorovsmirnov and shapiro-wilk statistics were used. these tests have been shown to be robust and informative. the data were interpreted by the researcher by describing the meaning of the participants' experiences and organising the data to respond to the research problem. researchers critically analysed the data and linked them to previous research theories and studies that are relevant to the problems faced by this process of interconnection between technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge. findings the relationship between technological, pedagogical and content knowledge based on the teachers’ data, we have detected a strong significant relationship between pedagogical knowledge (pk) and content (ck), and research variables (age, gender, qualification and experience). the data presented are described in table 3. table 3 descriptive statistics and correlation analysis related to research variables no. items mean std 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. tk 3.63 0.68 1 2. ck 3.96 0.46 .54** 1 3. pk 4.5 0.52 .42** .62** 1 4. schools 5.66 3.11 -.10 -.09 -.04 1 5. town 2.46 0.96 -.07 -.08 -.06 .96** 1 6. gender 1.94 0.244 .09 .16** .11* .09 .08 1 7. age 2.66 1.02 -.46** -.17** -.14** .04 .04 -.09 1 8. qualification 2.19 0.63 .54** .37** .38** -.12* -.13* .06 -.31** 1 8. experience 3.17 1.50 -.41** -.15** -.09 .07 .08 -.08 .80** -.29** 1 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 significance level (2-tailed). *. correlation is significant at the 0.05 significance level (2-tailed). table 3 summarizes the mean, standard deviation, and regression analyses conducted with the descriptive variables. there was a significant and average correlation between tk, and ck (r = .54, p < .01), pk (r = .42, p < .01) and qualification (r = .54, p < .01). tk was negatively correlated with age (r = .46, p < .01) and experience (r = .41, p < .01). ck was positively correlated with zhubi & ismajli pk (r = .62, p < .01), gender (r = .16, p < .01) and qualification (r = .37, p < .01), and negatively with age (r = .17, p < .01) and experience (r = -.15, p < .01). pk was positively correlated with gender (r = .11, p < .05) and qualification (r = .38, p < .01), and negatively with age (r = -.14, p < .01). normality test results the results of the normality test using the kolmogorov-smirnov and shapiro-wilk tests are shown in table 4. the kolmogorov test (.36, p = .130 > .05) and shapiro-wilk results (.998, p = .749> .05) show that our data follow a normal distribution after obtaining the mean of the three variables. for normally distributed data, the observed data are statistically equal to the expected data. table 4 normality test results kolmogorov-smirnov shapiro-wilk statistic df sig. statistic df sig. tk_ck_pk_mean .036 520 .130 .998 520 .749 a. lilliefors significance correction testing the differences between technological, content and pedagogical knowledge we verified the statements of teachers to assess which aspect of knowledge kosovar teachers are better prepared to plan the learning process. from the summary of the pairs of knowledge we identified that pedagogical knowledge is much more developed than technological and content knowledge (table 5). table 5 t-test results regarding the differences between technological, content and pedagogical knowledge mean std t-test sig. (2-tailed) pair 1 tk 3.6302 0.68264 -11.033 .000 ck 3.9656 0.46465 pair 2 tk 3.6302 0.68264 -25.616 .000 pk 4.5207 0.52291 pair 3 ck 3.9656 0.46465 -24.455 .000 pk 4.5207 0.52291 notes: tk-technological knowledge, ck-content knowledge, pk-pedagogical knowledge journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 136 table 5 summarises the results of the t-test in relation to the differences between technological, content and pedagogical knowledge. technological knowledge was first compared with content knowledge. the average technological knowledge of primary school teachers (3.6302) is significantly different from the average content knowledge (3.9656; t = -11.033 and p < .01; see table 5). according to this difference, teachers have higher content than technology knowledge. the technological and pedagogical knowledge of the teachers were also compared. the average of the pedagogical knowledge (4.5207) is significantly higher than the average technological knowledge (3.6302; t = -25.616, p < .01; see table 5). finally, we compared the content and pedagogical knowledge of teachers and recorded a higher pedagogical than content knowledge (t = 24.455, p <.01). three averages are high (above 3). nonetheless, we can say that teachers, in general, have higher pedagogical, lower technological, and average content knowledge. discussion this research has focused on three areas of knowledge (tk, pk and ck), the impact of interconnection and the differences that exist between the research variables. other researchers (voogt & mckenney, 2017; arcueno et al., 2021) have evaluated the interaction among other subcomponents (pck, tck, tpk and tpack). however, such in-depth and very specific approach to knowledge has not yet been implemented in kosovo. the results of this study show a correlation between the pedagogical and content knowledge, and an unsatisfactory level of technological knowledge during teachers’ planning. this is due to the professional training that is focused only on the subject content, pedagogical aspect and existing programs. pedagogical knowledge was significantly higher than content and technology knowledge. this situation reflects their qualification, once the most teachers have bachelor’s degree, which prioritise pedagogical knowledge. these results are consistent with the findings of other authors who report that pedagogical subjects are the primary concern in their study programmes (crawford, 2000; mohamad, 2021; li, 2022). content knowledge was average (to some extent), which reflects a low knowledge of the subject being taught, the teaching process, concepts, theories and of the chapters being taught. therefore, intervention in this direction is required in the education system of kosovo. in contrast, other authors have recorded a higher level of content knowledge due to a variety of training in this field (shulman, 1987; mishra & koehler, 2006). zhubi & ismajli technological knowledge was very low among kosovar teachers, which may be due to many factors, for example, a lack of technological equipment, computer cabinets and internet network, teachers being overloaded with pedagogical documentation, lack of training in technology, etc. technology was not planned at all by teachers but was implemented in the classroom in an unplanned approach. this approach to technological knowledge was observed for both highly qualified teachers (master) and those with normal qualification (bachelor). these results contrast with than the others researchers, where increasing the level of technological knowledge is primary in the education system (ifinedo et al., 2020). technological knowledge was very low among teachers over the age of 40 and with over 20 years of work experience, indicating that older teachers, with more experience in education, fail to develop and change their approach to technology however, other research studies recommend that age and experience are the factors that most cause teachers not to plan their teaching approaches using technology (roussinos & jimoyiannis, 2019; lavidas et al., 2021). younger (up to 30 years old) and inexperienced teachers (up to five years) had very little preparation in terms of content and pedagogy knowledge, and were more technology-oriented. similarly, other authors have claimed that young and less experienced teachers could fill the gap in development of pedagogical knowledge and content through professional courses and training (nazari et al., 2019). this research showed significant differences between pairs of technological, content and pedagogical knowledge among primary school teachers (tk and ck, tk and pk, ck and pk). teachers reported having higher knowledge of subject content than on technology, and should treat the content of the course from a didactic and epistemological point of view. in this perspective, tzavara and komis (2015) investigated the peculiarities of subject area teaching and its underlying epistemological dimension and suggested changing the ‘p’ in the tpack model to a ‘d’ (tdack), including didactics as part of pedagogy. therefore, a promising path for future research would be to explore the didactic dimension proposed by lefebvre et al., (2016) along with the tpack model. these authors believe that content knowledge depends on the subject matter being taught as well as on the nature of the content. for example, a biology teacher does not apply subject knowledge in the same way as a physics teacher. similarly, a first grader does not use the same subject knowledge as a fifth grader. therefore, consideration of specific subjects journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 138 and class levels can shed more light on the interrelationship between the three areas of knowledge in the learning process planning. the research also highlights the differences between the second pair (tk and pk), where teachers apply more pedagogical and traditional approaches in their classrooms than technological ones. the differences between the pedagogical and the content knowledge were higher because the teachers stated that they are more proficient in teaching methods and strategies. however, the pedagogical models followed by teachers vary depending on their learning decisions, which in turn are influenced by individual preferences, different subject cultures and individual school environments (szeto et al., 2017). the research of technological, pedagogical and content knowledge in the education system of kosovo is a priority issue and a common challenge that is discussed every day. investments in the infrastructure of schools providing educational technology equipment, required didactic tools, and strong institutional support are more than necessary (ismajli & krasniqi, 2022). this research has analyzed the significance of the relationship between technological, pedagogical and content knowledge which must be intertwined while the lesson is planned by the teacher. whereas, educational policies in kosovo are mostly focused on the pedagogical and substantive approach, without taking into account the interconnection of technology in the teachers' training programs and professional development. correspondingly, the current study presents a methodological innovation as it uses a phenomenological design to investigate the strong link between technology, pedagogy and teaching content. this paper adds a theoretical framework as a novelty in the context of kosovo that identifies which of the variables have an impact on the development of technological, pedagogical and content knowledge of teachers. therefore, the research brings new data to show that the three areas of knowledge which have been studied separately so far, should be an integral part of lesson planning as such compound indicates a high impact on improving learning outcomes. conclusions and recommendations the results of this research study provided answers to the research questions. the research identified significant average correlations between technological, pedagogical and content knowledge in primary school lesson planning. however, lesson planning was mostly organised in zhubi & ismajli terms of content and pedagogy and did not integrate technology into their teaching. however, we have analysed which of the existing variables represent the highest interrelationship in the three areas of knowledge for more precise verification of this interrelationship. kosovar teachers have completed many training on technology. still, statistical data showed that age and work experience play a key role in the development of technological knowledge. however, in practice, the results were satisfactory for the application of technology in teaching. the content knowledge of teachers from 4 schools in kosovo, were higher than expected. from the data extracted, we concluded that teachers plan their teaching approach according to the content knowledge depending on age and work experience. furthermore, it can be concluded that teachers have sufficient knowledge of each curricular area and are better acquainted with the concepts of the subjects than with the technology approach. the pedagogical knowledge was more developed than the other two (technological and content), regardless of the gender and qualification of the teachers. however, our data showed that primary school teachers were able to meet curriculum learning goals, and implement teaching methods and strategies, regardless of their age. these data show that educational policies are mostly focused on the pedagogical approach. the researchers first analysed the knowledge pairs to obtain more accurate statistical data. teachers expressed a much higher knowledge of the content of the subject, curricular area, and of theories and concepts, than technological skills. in addition, teachers have much higher knowledge in pedagogy than in technology, which may be because teaching practices are planned giving greater importance to methods, strategies and classroom management. the differences between pedagogical knowledge and content showed that traditional teaching based on the realisation of the purpose of the curriculum continues. pedagogical knowledge was higher because teachers focused more on applying learning methods, techniques and strategies. furthermore, it can be concluded that teachers have higher pedagogical knowledge and lower technological knowledge, while average knowledge of the content being taught. the recommendations presented below were formulated to address the issue supported by participants' responses to primary school lesson planning that technological, pedagogical and content knowledge is not (but should be) an integral part of the education system. therefore, it is recommended: journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 140 1. to review the existing programs in the faculty of education that prepare future teachers and to be developed in accordance with the accreditation programs of the ministry of education, including in each document the digital competence (which does not exist) to prepare teachers for the skills of the 21st century. curricular reform through the development of the tpack model in teaching, will not only develop innovative teaching, but also prepare students to face global technological challenges. 2. to design training programs focused on the three areas of tpack knowledge, without such extensive separation between technology, pedagogy and content. it would be very necessary to verify the findings between the factors affecting the three areas of knowledge for policymakers to take the necessary steps in the areas where our results are lower and to urgently influence the design of training programs for teachers. thus, to restructure advanced training to improve teaching methods and approaches, to promote effective learning and to meet the requirements of teaching skills for integration in the digital age is of utmost importance. 3. to equip schools with technological tools that will facilitate the development of practices according to the tpack model. the connection between technological knowledge, pedagogy and content in teaching cannot be reached within a short period of time. this means that cooperation and the adoption of effective practices of other countries are necessary. teaching based on the three areas of knowledge, requires the cooperation and commitment of all educational factors at the school, municipality, region levels. limitations of the study and suggestions for future research due to pandemic-related constraints, data collection was limited to distributing the questionnaire online. in two schools, we continued in the online form, while in the other nine schools the questionnaire was completed in physical form. future research could be extended to each school, to specifically identify tpack knowledge for each teacher and address issues at the local and central levels. therefore, policymakers will be able to take the necessary steps in the areas where our scores are lower and urgently influence the design of teacher training programs. zhubi & ismajli references abebe, f. f., gaskill, m., hansen, t., & liu, x. (2022). investigating k-12 pre-service teacher tpack in instructional technology learning. international journal of teacher education and professional development, 5(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijtepd.2022010104 al-abdullatif, a. m. (2019). auditing the tpack confidence of pre-service teachers: the case of saudi arabia. education and information technologies, 24(6), 3393–3413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09924-0 alhashem, f. (2021). analyzing plans of localizing professional development of the ministry of education in kuwait based on tpack model for the rolling out competency-based curriculum. education quarterly reviews, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.31014/aior.1993.04.01.178 alqurashi, e., gokbel, e. n., & carbonara, d. (2016). teachers’ knowledge in content, pedagogy and technology integration: a comparative analysis between teachers in saudi arabia and united states. british journal of educational technology, 48(6), 1414–1426. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12514 batyray, m. h., gokcearslan, a., & şahin, e. (2017). associations among teachers’ attitudes towards computer-assisted education and tpack competencies. informatics in education, 16(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.15388/infedu.2017.01 benson, s. n. k., & ward, c. l. (2013). teaching with technology: using tpack to understand teaching expertise in online higher education. journal of educational computing research, 48(2), 153–172. https://doi.org/10.2190/ec.48.2.c bibi, s., & khan, s. h. (2016). tpack in action: a study of a teacher educator’s thoughts when planning to use ict. australasian journal of educational technology. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3071 blau, i., peled, y., & nusan, a. (2014). technological, pedagogical and content knowledge in one-to-one classroom: teachers developing “digital wisdom.” interactive learning environments, 24(6), 1215–1230. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2014.978792 brand, j. e. (2010). book review: morgan, stephen l. and christopher winship. 2007. counterfactuals and causal inference: methods and principles for social research. new york: ny: cambridge university press. sociological methods & research, 39(1), 109– 112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124110371325 cohen, l., manion, l., & morrison, k. (2017). research methods in education (8th ed.). routledge. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijtepd.2022010104 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09924-0 https://doi.org/10.31014/aior.1993.04.01.178 https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12514 https://doi.org/10.15388/infedu.2017.01 https://doi.org/10.2190/ec.48.2.c https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3071 https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2014.978792 https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124110371325 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 142 crawford, r. (2000). information technology in secondary schools and its impact on training information technology teachers. journal of information technology for teacher education, 9(2), 183–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/14759390000200082 creswell, j. w., & clark, v. p. l. (2017). designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). sage publications, inc. creswell, j. w., & creswell, d. j. (2018). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). sage publications, inc. erbilgin, e., & şahin, b. (2021). the effects of a professional development program for technology integrated algebra teaching. research in educational policy and management, 3(2), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.4 evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 gjelaj, m., kaçaniku, f., & saqipi, b. (2020). understanding mentoring role as a step towards improving quality of teacher education: kosovo experience. international journal of education economics and development, 11(2), 188. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijeed.2020.106586 grainger, p. (2021). enhancing assessment literacies through development of quality rubrics using a triad based peer-review process. journal of university teaching and learning practice, 18(4), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.53761/1.18.4.4 harvey, d. m., & caro, r. a. (2017). herring, m.c., koehler, m.j., & mishra, p. (eds.) (2016). handbook of technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) for educators. (2nd edition). new york: routledge. techtrends, 61(4), 404–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-017-0176-2 ifinedo, e., rikala, j., & hämäläinen, t. (2020). factors affecting nigerian teacher educators’ technology integration: considering characteristics, knowledge constructs, ict practices and beliefs. computers & education, 146, 103760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103760 ismajli, h., & krasniqi, b. (2022). constructivist instruction practices in kosovo primary education: the field of languages and communication curriculum. journal of social studies education research, 13(1), 259-281. jang, s. j. (2010). integrating the interactive whiteboard and peer coaching to develop the tpack of secondary science teachers. computers & education, 55(4), 1744–1751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.07.020 https://doi.org/10.1080/14759390000200082 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 https://doi.org/10.1504/ijeed.2020.106586 https://doi.org/10.53761/1.18.4.4 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-017-0176-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103760 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.07.020 zhubi & ismajli kalimullina, o., tarman, b. & stepanova, i. (2021). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher's role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226-238. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 kaplon-schilis, a., & lyublinskaya, i. (2019). analysis of relationship between five domains of tpack framework: tk, pk, ck math, ck science, and tpack of pre-service special education teachers. technology, knowledge and learning, 25(1), 25–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-019-09404-x koehler, m. j., mishra, p., & cain, w. (2013). what is technological pedagogical content knowledge? journal of education, 193(3), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741319300303 koh, j. h. l., & chai, c. s. (2016a). seven design frames that teachers use when considering technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack). computers & education, 102, 244–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.09.003 koh, j. h. l., & chai, c. s. (2016b). seven design frames that teachers use when considering technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack). computers & education, 102, 244–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.09.003 krauskopf, k., zahn, c., & hesse, f. w. (2012). leveraging the affordances of youtube: the role of pedagogical knowledge and mental models of technology functions for lesson planning with technology. computers & education, 58(4), 1194–1206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.010 lavidas, k., katsidima, m. a., theodoratou, s., komis, v., & nikolopoulou, k. (2021). preschool teachers’ perceptions about tpack in greek educational context. journal of computers in education, 8(3), 395–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-021-00184-x lee, c. j., & kim, c. (2017). a technological pedagogical content knowledge based instructional design model: a third version implementation study in a technology integration course. educational technology research and development, 65(6), 1627–1654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-017-9544-z lefebvre, s., samson, g., gareau, a., & brouillette, n. (2017). tpack in elementary and high school teachers’ self-reported classroom practices with the interactive whiteboard (iwb) | canadian journal of learning and technology / la revue canadienne de l’apprentissage et de la technologie, 42(5). https://doi.org/10.21432/t2jk63 lim, c. p., & chai, c. s. (2008). rethinking classroom-oriented instructional development models to mediate instructional planning in technology-enhanced learning environments. teaching and teacher education, 24(8), 2002–2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2008.05.004 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-019-09404-x https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741319300303 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.09.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.09.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.010 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-021-00184-x https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-017-9544-z https://doi.org/10.21432/t2jk63 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2008.05.004 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 144 martin, b. (2018). faculty technology beliefs and practices in teacher preparation through a tpack lens. education and information technologies, 23(5), 1775–1788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9680-4 mest (2016). curricular framework of pre-university education of the republic of kosovo. https://masht.rks-gov.net/uploads/2017/03/korniza-kurrikulare-finale.pdf mest (2020). education statistics in kosovo (2020). https://masht.rksgov.net/uploads/2021/08/statistikat-e-arsimit-ne-kosove-2020-21.pdf mishra, p., & koehler, m. j. (2006). technological pedagogical content knowledge: a framework for teacher knowledge. teachers college record: the voice of scholarship in education, 108(6), 1017–1054. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810610800610 mohajan, h. k. (2018). qualitative research methodology in social sciences and related subjects. journal of economic development, environment and people, 7(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.26458/jedep.v7i1.571 mohamad, f. s. (2021). technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) and the teaching of science: determiners for professional development. studies of applied economics, 39(1). https://doi.org/10.25115/eea.v39i1.4272 murphy, s. (2019). participation and achievement in technology education: the impact of school location and socioeconomic status on senior secondary technology studies. international journal of technology and design education, 30(2), 349–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-019-09499-4 nazari, n., nafissi, z., estaji, m., & marandi, s. s. (2019). evaluating novice and experienced efl teachers’ perceived tpack for their professional development. cogent education, 6(1), 1632010. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2019.1632010 oda, k., herman, t., & hasan, a. (2019). properties and impacts of tpack-based gis professional development for in-service teachers. international research in geographical and environmental education, 29(1), 40–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2019.1657675 onuyi, a. a. (2021). self-assessment of information and communication technology (ict) competence needs among student-teachers using unesco ict-cft in colleges of education in north central, nigeria (vol. 5, issue 1). cari journals limited. https://doi.org/10.47941/jep.561 rahmadi, i., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113-133. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9680-4 https://masht.rks-gov.net/uploads/2017/03/korniza-kurrikulare-finale.pdf https://masht.rks-gov.net/uploads/2021/08/statistikat-e-arsimit-ne-kosove-2020-21.pdf https://masht.rks-gov.net/uploads/2021/08/statistikat-e-arsimit-ne-kosove-2020-21.pdf https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810610800610 https://doi.org/10.26458/jedep.v7i1.571 https://doi.org/10.25115/eea.v39i1.4272 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-019-09499-4 https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2019.1632010 https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2019.1657675 https://doi.org/10.47941/jep.561 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 zhubi & ismajli roussinos, d., & jimoyiannis, a. (2019). examining primary education teachers’ perceptions of tpack and the related educational context factors. journal of research on technology in education, 51(4), 377–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2019.1666323 russell, t. (2011). what expert teachers do: enhancing professional knowledge for classroom practice. teaching education, 105–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2011.546704 schmid, m., brianza, e., & petko, d. (2021). self-reported technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack) of pre-service teachers in relation to digital technology use in lesson plans. computers in human behavior, 115, 106586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106586 schmidt, d. a., baran, e., thompson, a. d., mishra, p., koehler, m. j., & shin, t. s. (2009). technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpack). journal of research on technology in education, 42(2), 123–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2009.10782544 shapley, k., sheehan, d., maloney, c., & caranikas-walker, f. (2011). effects of technology immersion on middle school students’ learning opportunities and achievement. the journal of educational research, 104(5), 299–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671003767615 shulman, l. (1987a). knowledge and teaching: foundations of the new reform. harvard educational review, 57(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 shulman, l. (1987b). knowledge and teaching: foundations of the new reform. harvard educational review, 57(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 spiteri, m., & chang rundgren, s. n. (2018). literature review on the factors affecting primary teachers’ use of digital technology. technology, knowledge and learning, 25(1), 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-018-9376-x sylvestre, m., haiyan, h., & yiyi, z. (2018). information communication technology policy and public primary schools’ efficiency in rwanda. south african journal of education, 38(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v38n1a1445 szeto, e., & cheng, a. y. n. (2016). pedagogies across subjects. journal of educational computing research, 55(3), 346–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633116667370 voithofer, r., & nelson, m. j. (2020). teacher educator technology integration preparation practices around tpack in the united states. journal of teacher education, 72(3), 314– 328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487120949842 voithofer, r., nelson, m. j., han, g., & caines, a. (2019). factors that influence tpack adoption by teacher educators in the us. educational technology research and development, 67(6), 1427–1453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09652-9 https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2019.1666323 https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2011.546704 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106586 https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2009.10782544 https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671003767615 https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-018-9376-x https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v38n1a1445 https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633116667370 https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487120949842 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09652-9 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 125-146 146 voogt, j., & mckenney, s. (2016). tpack in teacher education: are we preparing teachers to use technology for early literacy? technology, pedagogy and education, 26(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939x.2016.1174730 wang, m., shen, r., novak, d., & pan, x. (2009). the impact of mobile learning on students’ learning behaviours and performance: report from a large blended classroom. british journal of educational technology, 40(4), 673–695. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14678535.2008.00846.x wiesner, t. f., & lan, w. (2004). comparison of student learning in physical and simulated unit operations experiments. journal of engineering education, 93(3), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2004.tb00806.x williams, t. k., mclntosh, r. w., & rusell, w. b. (2021). equity in distance education during covid-19. research in social sciences and technology, 6(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.1 yeh, y. f., chan, k. k. h., & hsu, y. s. (2021). toward a framework that connects individual tpack and collective tpack: a systematic review of tpack studies investigating teacher collaborative discourse in the learning by design process. computers & education, 171, 104238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104238 https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939x.2016.1174730 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00846.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00846.x https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2004.tb00806.x https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.1 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104238 the implications of learning management system on education quality in the new normal era: evidence studyon islamic higher education www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2),288-319 the relationship between different social factors and the intensity of student radicalism hertanto1, handi mulyaningsih2, suripto3 & sudarman4 abstract the act of terrorism stimulated by the notion of radicalism in indonesia is not a new phenomenon. it has indeed existed since the beginning of indonesia’s independence; the forms, actors, motives, and movements radicalism are, however, different. recently, there has been a growing discourse on radicalism among young indonesians. this study investigated the relationship between four social factors, namely, religiosity, religious tolerance, relative deprivation, and social capital (independent variables) and the intensity of radicalism among school students (dependent variable) in lampung, indonesia. three public schools and three madrasas were taken as research samples. data were collected using a questionnaire based on the extant literature and analyzed using chi-square and correspondence analysis. each variable was found to have a relationship pattern with the intensity of student radicalism. the analysis revealed that two social factors, namely, religiosity and religious tolerance, had the strongest relationship with the intensity of radicalism. to reduce the impact of the intensity of radicalism, it is very important for the world of education to exercise social control over the relative backwardness of high school/madrasah aliyah students and provide social capital through an effective understanding of socialization process in schools. the expected implication is that the government, especially stakeholders in the education sector, must pay attention to the concerns of students as victims of radicalism and focus on the social factors and drivers of the intensity of radicalism so that students do not fall prey to radicalism. keywords: social factors, intensity, student radicalism introduction the threat of acts of terrorism against indonesia has existed since the beginning of indonesia’s independence. these acts of terrorism always exist in the form of different motives and movements and with different coping strategies. terrorism in indonesia has been inseparable from the history of political developments in indonesia since the proclamation of independence on august 17, 1945. the literature reveals that acts of terrorism in indonesia are increasingly varied in terms of motives, modes, and patterns. the emergence of radical acts of terrorism 1lecturer, faculty of ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik (fisip), universitas lampung, indonesia, email; hertanto.1960@fisip.unila.ac.id ( corresponding author) 2 lecturer, faculty of ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik (fisip), universitas lampung, indonesia, email: handi.mulyaningsih@fisp.unila.ac.id 3 lecturer, faculty of ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik (fisip), universitas lampung, indonesia, email: suripto.1969@fisif.unila.ac.id 4 lecturer, faculty of ushuluddin dan studi agama, universitas islam negeri (uin) raden intan lampung, indonesia, email: sudarman@radenintan.ac.id mailto:hertanto.1960@fisip.unila.ac.id mailto:handi.mulyaningsih@fisp.unila.ac.id mailto:suripto.1969@fisif.unila.ac.id mailto:sudarman@radenintan.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 occurred since the early formation of the darul islam/indonesian islamic army (di/tii) organization, which was founded by sekarmadji maridjan kartosuwirjo on august 7, 1949, in tasikmalaya, west java. di/tii’s primary mission is to establish the islamic state of indonesia (hamid, 2018; thamrin et al., 2022). in the next era, the leadership of this movement was held by the young people of darul islam, central java (formichi, 2015). after that, abdullah sungkar chose to separate and establish jama’ah islamiyah, which eventually became a terrorist organization to turn the unitary state of the republic of indonesia into an islamic state and subsequently create pan-islamists in the southeast asia region (ilyas, 2021). during the reformation period (1999–2016), 69 terrorist acts were reported. the threat of terrorism not only endangers the sovereignty of the republic of indonesia but also takes a lot of victims and causes material losses. the most frequent targets of terrorism are vital objects, public places, similar to western countries such as houses of worship, offices of banks/financial institutions, and industrial areas. currently, there is a tendency to increase the understanding of radicalization among young people. the development of radicalism among students has the potential to trigger future terrorist behavior, which is extremely dangerous. lynch (2013) asserted that the increasing radicalization among young muslims is inspired by the violence against islamic population reported in western countries. campelo et al. (2018) noticed similarities between psychopathic manifestations among adolescents during the radicalization process. paul and bagchi (2018) concluded that youth unemployment is positively correlated with domestic and transnational terrorism. other variables related to terrorism include the quality of democracy, political stability, quality of regulation, freedom of the press and religious fractionation, language, and territory of the country. natural resources such as agricultural spices, soil (fertility), and animals tend to be negatively correlated with domestic terrorism but positively correlated with international terrorism (esen, 2022). according to wong et al. (2019), there are three distinct concepts of increasing youth political activism, namely, liberal education thesis, critical network analysis, and value system explanation. banerjee (2016) distinguished radicalism at the systematic and interactional levels. at the former level, a radical wants a total change in the exploitative and social system, whereas at the latter, a radical destroys social norms that are considered illegal and obsolete. previous studies have shown that acts of terrorism in indonesia involve teenagers as the perpetrators. this underscores the fact that radicalism has penetrated the younger generation in indonesia. hertanto et al. 290 most of the studies on radicalism among students investigated approaches to overcome radicalism, political attitudes, and actions that underlie the processes that encourage youngsters to take radical actions. rootes (1980) averred that radical movements perpetrated by students can be triggered by social, economic, and political conditions. rink and sharma (2018) found evidence that radicalization was not predicted by political and economic grievances. their findings further explain that the radicalization model as an individual-level process is not largely influenced by macro-level influences using a structural approach but is more of a relational framework. a few studies have also investigated social factors that have the potential to increase the intensity of radicalism among students. a number of social factors have been cited for student radicalism, including, inter alia, poverty, government policies, cultural identity, religious involvement, depressive symptoms, and unemployment ( al-badayneh et al., 2016; morgadesbamba et al., 2020; rais, 2005; snow & cross, 2011). a large number of studies on student radicalism have been conducted by researchers from varied disciplines, for example, legal, sociopsychological, and humanities, with a special focus on policies and approaches to contain the adverse impacts of radicalism. recently, religiosity was found to encourage students to avoid radical behavior (aryani, 2020; susilo & dalimunthe, 2019; tambak, 2021). however, the findings of wong et al. (2019) show that religiosity and social harmony are the driving factors that play a role in shaping youth radicalism. social factors must thus be comprehensively investigated because they act like two sides of a knife where on the one hand, under certain conditions, they can prevent radical behavior, but on the other hand, they can increase the intensity of student radicalism. therefore, educational institutions need to provide students with knowledge about the dangers of radicalism. empirical studies show that students are easy to deradicalize if their respective institutions support de-radicalization efforts implemented without referring to certain types of religiosity or religious understanding promoted by the state (sirry, 2020). students must practice religious tolerance and inclusiveness because such practices can counteract radicalism and persuade them to live in a harmonious and peaceful society (giorda, 2018; muhid, 2020; tabroni et al., 2022). in many cases, students become the primary target of radicalism, and then they accept the transmission of radicalism and regenerate these values. a few studies have shown that students’ negative mindsets and relative deprivation are social factors that drive young people toward radicalism, which causes the intensity of radicalism to journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 become higher (gambetta & hertog, 2009; lardeux, 2020; yusar, 2016). empowerment of social capital through school communities persuades students to support de-radicalism and foster mutual trust in positive and harmonious social relationships (ahmed, 2016; rokhmanm et al., 2021; salim, 2020). according to arifin and baharun (2022), social capital is the glue in the social order and is able to influence the mental health of the community. various possible social causes of student radicalism have been reported; while some are strongly related to the intensity of radicalism, some have no discernible correlation with it. so far, no previous study has investigated the relationship between four social causes, namely, religiosity, religious tolerance, relative deprivation, social capital, and student radicalism. this is a research gap that requires to be filled as understanding the role of causal factors in student radicalism is very important for building social relations and providing a useful platform for activities intended to prevent student radicalism through educational institutions. research questions four primary research questions were formulated as follows: 1. what is the relationship between religiosity and the intensity of radicalism among high school students in indonesia? 2. what is the relationship between and the intensity of radicalism among high school students in indonesia? 3. what is the relationship between social capital and the intensity of radicalism among high school students in indonesia? 4. what is the relationship between religious tolerance and the intensity of radicalism among high school students in indonesia? literature review radicalism and school strategies in its prevention radicalism refers to the belief that extreme social and political change must be introduced (crook, 1990). the surprising finding is that intolerance and the seeds of radicalism have pervaded numerous schools. radicalism has been reported to enter schools through various channels, including (1) learning activities in the classroom by teachers, (2) textbooks and online media suspected of containing intolerance content, (3) the influence and intervention of alumni hertanto et al. 292 in student activities at school, (4) weak policies toward schools/foundations (mujtahid et al., 2021; muazza et al., 2018; soldatenko, 2001). teachers, as the spearhead of education, have a strategic role in preventing student radicalism. with school support, teachers can design character education and contextual learning about the adverse and deleterious impacts of radicalism, intolerance, and terrorism that inspire students’ reasoning through critical and problem-based learning (purwasih & widianto, 2020; supratno et al., 2018). the absence of space for student activity and creativity can make students depressed and trigger an attitude of accepting radicalism. therefore, coaching and mapping school principals and teachers for ideological understanding must be conducted on an ongoing basis (rahmanto et al., 2020). social causes impacting the intensity of radicalism a cross-country study of radicalism conducted by minkenberg (2003) found that the opportunity structure of the state, including institutional, cultural, and party competition structures can be predictors of radicalism. in countries with established democracies, militancy and extremist ideological activity tend to decline. several causes influence people at the individual level to engage in violent activism. these causes include current economic opportunities (caruso & schneider, 2011), political activism (decker & pyrooz, 2019), misinterpretation of religious doctrines, strong opposition to the teachings of their chosen religion (featherstone et al., 2010), exposure to islamic media, extremism (loza, 2007), and religiosity and crime (stankov, 2018). the role of religious causes in radicalism was also emphasized by adamczyk and lafree (2015), but these religious causes were mediated by conservatism. research has shown that the issue of terrorism in society is driven by a range of factors. for example, bravo and dias (2006) showed the relationship between terrorism and mineral reserves in certain places, undemocratic political regimes, and participation in international organizations. the authors, however, did not find any relationship between terrorism and the intensity of development behavior, literacy level, and ethnic fractionalization. according to kfir (2008), repressive political regimes and socioeconomic problems have contributed to the increase in islamic radicalism in east africa. liow (2006) showed that the increase in terrorism in southern thailand is ascribable to the resistance to state law and the failure of the government regime to issue policies that act in the interests of muslims. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 according to al-badayneh et al. (2016), the wide range of social causes can lead to radicalism are very diverse, for example, unemployment, poverty, corruption, human development, low selfcontrol, and religiosity. the findings of a study revealed that relative deprivation encourages students to become radical because of the tension between expectations and the inadequacy of economic, social, cultural, and academic resources to fulfill them (dubé et al., 1986). failure to meet expectations, coupled with situations of social comparison with other people can influence students to rebel and cause some young people to follow certain forms of radicalism (lardeux, 2020). in a study, another social cause, namely, social capital is articulated as a type of social action required to build deeper cross-social relationships or structures of feelings. therefore, the components of social capital can prevent student radicalism because it supports the resilience of educational institutions and affects the mindset of students to act in accordance with the rules and norms that apply in society (arifin & baharun, 2022). madrasas fight against radicalism by empowering social capital through social construction consisting of externalities, objectification, and internalization. religious tolerance can be defined as having mutual respect for the beliefs of others. the attitude of religious tolerance of madrasah students supports anti-radicalism through human activities such as kenduri (a form of traditional ceremony by gathering together to say a prayer to the creator) and community service (salim, 2020). a study found that radical understanding is often associated with a person’s religiosity, i.e., their devotion to god or piety. the religiosity gained through multicultural education is important in reducing religious radicalism. this is because religiosity causes students to have a high commitment to good religious values and have an attitude of tolerance toward other religions (asroni, 2022). religiosity can lead to the possibility of preventing radicalization. any student radicalism prevention program must prioritize reducing the intensity of radicalism in educational institutions and providing psychological support for students who are depressed because of social difficulties (rousseau et al., 2019). a contrasting finding was put forward by rink and sharma (2018), who found that extreme religiosity increased the intensity of radicalism. this is because radicalization is strongly associated with psychological trauma, identification of religiosity, and exposure to radical networks hertanto et al. 294 method research design this study used a correlation quantitative research design proposed by creswell (2009). such a design emphasizes objective phenomena and is studied quantitatively in the form of numbers, statistical processing, structure and helps ascertain the relationship that exists between two or more variables. this study investigated the relationship between four social factors, namely, religiosity, religious tolerance, relative deprivation, and social capital (independent variables) and the intensity of radicalism among school students (dependent variable). this study used the statistical package for social science (spss) version 26 to analyze the statistical data. population and sample the study population included 1,187 high school/madrasah aliyah students in lampung, indonesia. the purposive sampling method was adopted as the sampling technique in this study. the criteria for respondents who were selected as research samples were class xii students, muslims, and student council. a sample comprising 10% of the total population was selected from six schools – three public schools and three religious schools (madrasah) – and the names of each school will be kept confidential. a total of 119 muslim students from high schools (57) and madrasah (62) fulfilled the said criteria. the mean age of participants in this study was 15– 18 years. with regard to gender, there were 46 (38%) male respondents and 73 (62%) female respondents. table 1 study sample sample 57 high school students 62madrasahstudents school 3 high schools 3 madrasah aliyah gender 46 (38%) male 73 (62%) female research instrument in this study, a questionnaire was used as the primary instrument to collect data. a total of 73 questions were used to measure the impact of the said social causes on the intensity of student radicalism. religiosity consists of three components, namely, religious experience, religious knowledge, and orthopraxis. the dimension of religious experience consists of four aspects to measure personal religious experience about god. the dimension of religious knowledge included three aspects in measuring one’s understanding of religion, while the orthopraxis journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 dimension consists of four aspects that measure the consequences of individual diversity. religiosity was measured using 15 questions, consisting of six questions to measure religious experience, three questions to assess religious knowledge, and six questions to measure orthopraxis. in this study, relative deprivation was measured in terms of three dimensions, namely, personal, cognitive collective, and affective collective. according to callan et al. (2015), personal relative deprivation refers to feelings of hatred stemming from the belief that one’s right to achieve something has been taken away, and they can be contested with others. cognitive collective relative deprivation can be defined as the end of any kind of feelings on a concept (thought), while effective collective relative deprivation refers to attitudes that influence one’s behavior. twenty questions were framed to measure relative deprivation, with 11 questions to measure personal, five to measure cognitive collective, and four to measure affective collective relative deprivation. social capital was measured in terms of three indicators, namely, trust, norms, and networks. eight questions were used to measure social capital: two questions to measure trust, three to measure norms, and three to measure network. trust-related questions consisted of questions about the frequency with which an individual performs social actions that reflect trust in others. the total sub-items of this question included 10 types of social actions. the second question of trust relates to the level of trust in people such as parents, siblings, and teachers. norm-related questions enquired about reciprocity norms and adherence to social norms in society, whereas the questions about the network enquired about the quantitative aspects of social networks. religious tolerance was measured in terms of 20 questions consisting of four indicators, namely, interfaith social reciprocity (ten questions), interfaith social support (seven questions), willingness to help build places of worship of other religions (one question), and willingness to accept advice from other religious leaders (two questions). the intensity of radicalism was measured by 10 questions consisting of three indicators, namely, discourse on radicalism (three questions), the use of violence as a means to achieve goals (three questions), and participation in radical activities or organizations (four questions). the first indicator of radicalism discourse is the cognitive dimension of radicalism. the second indicator is the attitude toward the use of violence as a way to achieve goals because it is an affective dimension or attitude that psychologically influences behavior. meanwhile, the indicator of participation in radical hertanto et al. 296 activities or organizations is the psychomotor dimension of radicalism. this means that at this stage, radicalism is manifested in the real actions of an individual. in this study, the kaiser–meyer–olkin (kmo) test was used to assess the item validity, while cronbach’s alpha was used to assess sample reliability. the basis for the decision of the validity test was that the value of r count item_x > r table (comparison table to determine the significance level of the pearson product moment correlation test) of.195 significance of 5 percent and n (total sample) = 119 significance (two-tailed) < .05. this means that if the calculated r value is greater than the r table, then the questionnaire item test is declared reliable as a data collection tool and vice versa. from the results of the validity test data analysis, the r-value of the overall analysis for the research variables was found valid because it is more than r table (comparison table to determine the level of significance of the test pearson product moment correlation coefficient).the data reliability test yielded cronbach’s alpha value greater than 0.60 and cronbach’s alpha value > 0.195 (r table), and thus, the questionnaire for the 73 question items was declared reliable and consistent. kmo values above 0.5 indicate that the sample is sufficient. then bartlett's test of sphericity with a p-value of 0.000 < 0.05 indicates a correlation between variables. therefore, factor analysis is considered feasible (see table 2). table 2 summary of the instrument kind of questionnaire indicator kmo cronbach’s alpha close-ended questions (x1) religious experience religious knowledge orthopraxis .887 .954 .848 .754 close-ended questions (x2) personal cognitive collective affective collective .618 .765 .886 .688 close-ended questions (x3) trust norms network .674 .608 .603 .568 close-ended questions (x4) interfaith social reciprocity interfaith social support willingness to help build places of worship of other religions willingness to accept advice from other religious leaders .792 .724 .679 .635 .690 close-ended questions (y) discourse on radicalism the use of violence as a means to achieve goals participation in radical activities or organizations .586 .804 .606 .788 **bartlett's test of sphericity with significant-value 0.000 < 0.05 *religiosity = 15 items; relative shortage = 20 items; social capital = 8 items; religious tolerance = 20 items points; radicalism intensity = 10 items journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 data collection the study questionnaire was distributed to each class group using a google form. the responses collected from the questionnaire were used to measure the impact of the said social causes on the intensity of student radicalism. the researcher was assisted by six homeroom teachers from each school to share the google form link, which contained five kinds of close-ended questions and ensured that each student filled the same properly. the questionnaire used a 5-point likert scale with the ideal maximum score of 5 and minimum score of 1. the student response questionnaire scores included the categories: strongly agree (ss) = 5, agree (s) = 4, doubtful (r) = 3, disagree (ts) = 2, and strongly disagree (sts) = 1. from the results of the distribution of the questionnaire, a total of .119 respondents fully answered each question in the questionnaire. this is because the homeroom teacher guided students while filling out the questionnaire, without interfering with the latter’s responses. the homeroom teacher was only helping students understand the meaning of each question and clarifying their doubts. after the responses were received, the data were checked again to ensure data consistency, suitability of answers, uniformity of units used, and that no questions were left unanswered to avoid errors in data processing. the results of the respondent’s answers were then compiled and classified according to the number of items in each research variable. all the important data were tabulated using the spss software. each of the five kinds of questionnaire was assigned a code on the item set in the spss view variable menu and adjusted according to name, type, width, decimals, values, and measure. the collected questionnaire data were then entered through view data from 119 respondents who have been collected. the data that were fed as input were then ready for further analysis. the average score was then converted into the scoring interval. the response criteria intervals for the intensity of radicalism in the category with an index (%) 72% are as follows: index 0%–39.99% = low (73–120), index 40%–79.99% = moderate (121–-243), index 80%– 100% = high (244–365). subsequent to that, analysis was performed using descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests using chi-square. data analysis correlation analysis method, which aims to study the strength of the relationship between two continuous variables, was used for statistical data analysis. this method, analyzed the relationship between the social factors and the intensity of student radicalism measured numerically. to hertanto et al. 298 evaluate the strength of the evidence from the sample to provide a basis for “meaningful” results, a hypothesis test was conducted. it was assumed that the results of non-parametric statistical data analysis using chi-square have a correlation. in that case, changes that occur in one of the social factors will result in changes in the variable intensity of radicalism. there are four social factors that were tested for the hypothesis, namely, religiosity, relative deprivation, social capital, and religious tolerance. the null hypothesis (h0) is accepted if there is no relationship between social factors and the intensity of radicalism; on the contrary, h0 is rejected if there is a relationship between the two continuous variables. prior to the chi-square test, the classical assumptions were tested first, using normality test, linearity test, homogeneity test, and hypothesis testing. the classical assumption test was performed to satisfy the conditions required for statistical techniques before testing the hypothesis. each test entailed four research hypotheses with a total sample of 119 respondents. the normality test of the data was conducted to determine the shape of the distribution of the research data that was normally or not normally distributed. data are said to be normally distributed if the probability (significance) of each null hypothesis is greater than 0.05. for data having a normal distribution, a parametric test is required to be performed, and when the data are not normally distributed, the parametric test cannot be performed. the type of data normality test used is the kolmogorov–smirnov test. the linearity test of the data is used to determine whether the data pattern is linear or not. the tested data must not have multicollinearity, that is, a variable is strongly related to other variables in the model. if multicollinearity occurs, the significance value will be invalid or decreased, and the predictive power will be unreliable and unstable. the requirement for correlation analysis is that the two variables tested must have a linear relationship. this test uses linear regression; if the p-value is greater than 0.05, then the null hypothesis or the independent variable regression equation on the dependent variable is linear or in the form of a linear line and vice versa. the homogeneity test of the data is used to determine whether the variance in the population is the same or not. the tested data must be homogeneous, and there should be no heteroscedasticity such that the measurement results are valid and accurate. for this purpose, mann–whitney u test was used in this study. if the significance value is greater than 0.05, then the null hypothesis is accepted or homogeneous. hypothesis testing is carried out to produce a decision to accept or reject the research hypothesis. if the value of asymptotic significance (two-tailed) is less than 0.05, then the null hypothesis is accepted, i.e., there is a correlation relationship. if the value of asymptotic journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 significance (two-tailed) is greater than 0.05, then the null hypothesis is rejected, i.e., there is no correlation. the results of the questionnaire were entered into the spss worksheet. correspondence analysis was used to examine the significance of the relationship of different social causes with the intensity of student radicalism. furthermore, a non-parametric chi-square test was used, and the homogeneity test was performed with spss to determine whether the data in variables x and y were homogeneous. results and discussion the results of the data normality test are presented in table 3. table 3 output data normality test variables asymptotic significance two-tailed religiosity .566 relative deprivation .642 social capital .503 religious tolerance .573 the intensity of radicalism .308 extraction method: principal component analysis * n = number of respondents = 119, asymp. sig. (two-tailed) = asymptotic significance two-tailed is the benchmark for testing the undirected hypothesis according to the results of the normality test of the data shown in table 4, the value of two-tailed > 0.05, i.e., the null hypothesis (hypothesis in the form of a statement stating that there is no relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variable under study) can be accepted, meaning that the data belong to a normally distributed population. as stated earlier, a total of 119 respondents constituted the study sample. two-tailed is used because the researcher tested the undirected hypothesis where the position of rejection is on both sides and each rejection area has a limit of 25%. normally distributed data minimize the possibility of bias in the data collected through the questionnaire. the results of the linearity test of the regression line can be seen in the appendix and are summarized in table 4. hertanto et al. 300 table 4 output linearity test variables collinearity statistics tolerance variance inflation factor religiosity (x1) .674 3.904 relative deprivation (x2) .732 2.896 social capital (x3) .728 6.898 religious tolerance (x4) .796 1.890 intensity of radicalism .685 1.904 *n = number of respondents = 119, dependent variable: intensity of radicalism (y) based on the table, it can be seen that the variance inflation factor (vif) value of each variable is less than 10. thus, it can be concluded that there is no multicollinearity in the data for all variables. thus, the intensity of radicalism, which is strongly correlated with the religiosity, relative deprivation, social capital, and religious tolerance in the research model, the predictive power is reliable and stable. table 5 output homogeneity test variables p-value religiosity .775 relative deprivation .510 social capital .630 religious tolerance .837 intensity of radicalism .747 * n = number of respondents = 119 table 5 shows that the p-value of each variable is more than .05. therefore, the data for all variables did not experience heteroscedasticity. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 descriptive statistic results the descriptive statistical analysis results provide a concise description of the object under study through sample data. in statistical analysis, the number of samples used is 119 respondents with five kinds of questionnaire. this analysis involves the minimum value, maximum value, average (mean), and standard deviation of each independent variable and dependent variable. thus, it is useful in providing information about the data collected by researchers in the form of the size of the data concentration, the size of the spread, and the tendency of a data cluster. table 6 shows that the p-value obtained using pearson’s chi-square test for hypothesis testing is .00 < .05. the minimum expected count is 395.7, which means that the assumption of using the chi-square test has met the requirements, because there are no cells that have an expected frequency below 5, and the lowest expected frequency is 395.7. table 6 output hypothesis test test statistics religiosity relative deprivation social capital religious tolerance intensity of radicalism chi-square 1965.338a 1933.614a 1978.420a 1185.707a 612.800a df 2 2 2 2 2 asymptotic significance .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 a. 0 cells (0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. the minimum expected cell frequency is 395.7. * n = number of respondents = 119 as per the results of pearson's chi-square test for hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis can be rejected, while the alternative hypothesis can be accepted. the alternative hypothesis means that there is a relationship between the religiosity, relative deprivation, social capital, and religious tolerance that correlate with the intensity of radicalism. the results of data analysis using the chisquare test to determine the relationship between the factors that correlate with the intensity of radicalism are presented in figure 1. hertanto et al. 302 bar chart 1 relationship between intensity of student radicalism and religiosity bar chart 1 shows that the correlation coefficient of the closeness of the relationship between the intensity of radicalism and student religiosity using the categories of a high, medium, and low relationships. a total of 112 respondents (93.9%) had a high intensity of religiosity, out of which, 55.5% had a moderate intensity of radicalism, 36.8% had a high intensity of radicalism, while 1.6% had a low intensity of radicalism. a total of 5.3% of respondents were found to have a moderate level of religiosity, and only 0.8% had a high level of religiosity. the chi-square correlation was noted to be 9.471, with a p-value of .05, significant at the .05 level. in conclusion, there is a relationship between religiosity and the intensity of radicalism. bar chart 2 relationship between intensity of student radicalism and relative deprivation bar chart 2 shows the correlation coefficient of the closeness of the relationship between the intensity of radicalism and relative deprivation using the categories of a high, medium, and low relationships. in terms of relative deprivation, 111 respondents (93.4%) had a moderate intensity of radicalism, out of which, 57.3% had a moderate intensity of radicalism, 34.6% had a high journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 intensity of radicalism, and finally, 1.5% had a low intensity of radicalism. respondents in the high-intensity category were 5.8%, and respondents in the low-intensity category were 0.8%. statistics of respondents with mean and standard deviation were obtained from item number on a scale of 0–5 with the lowest category value (xmin) obtained is 0 and the highest category value obtained (xmax) is 25. a total of 5.8% of respondents had a relatively high level of deprivation, with 3.5% having a high intensity of radicalism, 2% having moderate intensity, and 0.3% having a low intensity. the chi-square correlation coefficient was estimated to be 26.288 with a p-value of .000 at a significance level of .01. in conclusion, a relationship was found between the relative deprivation variable and the intensity of radicalism. bar chart 3 relationship between intensity of student radicalism and social capital bar chart 3 shows the correlation coefficient of the closeness of the relationship between the intensity of radicalism and social capital using the categories of a high, medium, and low relationships. most of the respondents (113, 94.1%) had a high level of social capital, out of which, 55.9% had a high intensity of radicalism, 36.7% had a moderate intensity of radicalism, and 1.5% had a low intensity of radicalism. meanwhile, 5.8% of respondents had a moderate social capital with 4% having a moderate intensity of radicalism, 1.5% with high intensity of radicalism, and only 0.3% with a low intensity of radicalism. only 0.1% of the respondents had a low level of social capital, and all of them had a low intensity of radicalism. hertanto et al. 304 bar chart 4 relationship between intensity of student radicalism and religious tolerance bar chart 4 shows that the correlation coefficient of the closeness of the relationship between the intensity of radicalism and religious tolerance using the categories of a high, medium, and low relationships. the level of religious tolerance was at a moderate level for 94 respondents (79.4%), where 50.9% of respondents had a moderate intensity of radicalism, 27.7% had a high intensity of radicalism, and only 0.8% had a low intensity of radicalism. among all the respondents, 19% had a moderate level of religious tolerance, of which 10.4% had a high intensity of radicalism, and 8.6% had a moderate intensity. only 1.6% of respondents had a low level of religious tolerance. hypothesis testing the data hypothesis test aims to decide whether to accept or reject the hypothesis with sample data based on data analysis that tests the relationship or correlation between the independent variable and the dependent variable. this hypothesis test provides a description of the direction and strength of the relationship between the variables of religiosity, relative deficiency, social capital, and intensity of radicalism, as shown in the following four hypotheses. h1: there is a relationship between religiosity and the intensity of radicalism among high school students in indonesia. h2: there is a relationship between relative deficiency and the intensity of radicalism among high school students in indonesia h3: there is a relationship between social capital and the intensity of radicalism among high school students in indonesia h4: there is a relationship between religious tolerance and the intensity of radicalism among high school students in indonesia journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 to test the hypothesis h1-h4, the researcher compared the calculated chi-square with the chisquare table at degrees of freedom (df) 2, and the significance level was 95% with the chi-square table value of 5.991. if the chi-square counts greater than or equal to chi-square table, then the difference is significant, meaning that null hypothesis can be rejected and alternative hypothesis (h1-h4) can be accepted. the chi-square correlation coefficient values are as follows: religiosity (9.471), relative deprivation (26.288), social capital (59.603), and religious tolerance (501.599); all the values are greater than 5.991. in conclusion, there is a correlation between the four independent variables and the intensity of radicalism. table 7 chi-square test between psychosocial factors and the intensity of radicalism psychosocial variables chi-square values p-value symmetric measures phi cramer v religiosity 9.471* .050 .089 .063 relative deprivation 26.288** .000 .149 .105 social capital 59.603** .000 .224 .158 religious tolerance 501.599** .000 .650 .460 ** n = number of respondents = 119, it is significant at 1% level * it is significant at 5% level the relationship between religiosity and the intensity of student radicalism the first finding shows that religiosity is correlated with the intensity of radicalism, except for political beliefs and media exposure. the type of media literacy that is most widely used by respondents that can affect the level of religiosity, in this case, is social media, which is currently growing rapidly in the contemporary society, especially among young population. the current situation shows how powerful the influence of information developed by social media is and how it shapes people’s perceptions, attitudes, and behavior. information through social media can range from true information to false information or hoaxes, and from information that supports unity and threatens national unity. however, the results of this study are not congruent with previous studies that revealed the potential of mass media both in shaping public opinion and mobilizing social movements. hertanto et al. 306 the value of inertia between religiosity and intensity of radicalism shows that the first and second inertia dimensions account for 90.6% and 9.4%, respectively. this confirms a highly significant relationship between religiosity and the intensity of radicalism. the value of inertia between religiosity and the intensity of radicalism shows that the correspondence analysis plot generated from the association can explain the entire data. correspondence analysis between religiosity and the intensity of radicalism is illustrated in figure 5. figure 1 correspondence analysis plot between religiosity and the intensity of radicalism the two clusters in figure 5 illustrate a close relationship between religiosity and the intensity of radicalism among the study population. first, students with moderate levels of religiosity were found to have an affinity with moderate levels of radicalism intensity. second, students with high religiosity were noted to have a close relationship with the intensity of radicalism in the high and medium categories. social media in indonesia is relatively censorship-free, which indeed benefits extremists in propagating their ideologies (richey & binz, 2015). on the other hand, social media and the internet can be a venue for millennials to hone their sensitivity to social and religious issues (epafras, 2016). bräuchler (2002) argued that the internet is instrumental in broadcasting political information concerning radical muslim groups. other potentials of social media include removing communication barriers and decentralizing communication channels, forming and disseminating resistance identities, generating various forms of tribal nationalism, helping to broaden the foundations, and accelerating radicalization and recruitment of members of terrorists journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 and the emergence of wolf radicalization (lim, 2017; zeman et al., 2017). afrianty (2012) provided evidence that various acts of violence in indonesia are inspired by reporting on violence in the middle east through the mass media. it can be understood that the notion of radicalism among high school students is no longer just an assumption or a myth but has become a reality that must be watched out for. this is because radicalism has been internalized among young people, which can ultimately culminate in radical actions. radical ideology no longer stops at the discourse stage but has moved to the stage of attitude and even concrete actions such as propagating the news that can jeopardize the integrity of a nation. it can also be in the form of actions such as being willing to join an organization that may even resort to violence as a way to achieve group goals. indonesia’s official ideology, pancasila, is a result of the agreement of the founding fathers of the nation. however, it is no longer regarded as the only ideology that is immune to change. nationally, pancasila is a sacred ideology. however, this view is no longer fully applicable in the context of the younger generation. several respondents disagreed with the statement that pancasila is the best ideology in the context of pluralism in indonesian society. on the other hand, there is also a statement that pancasila, as the nation’s ideology, cannot be changed at any time. the relationship between relative deprivation and the intensity of student radicalism the second finding shows that the use of violence to achieve goals is considered normal by young population. they are even willing to sacrifice anything to achieve their goals, even through violent means. this can be seen from the respondents’ answers to the question “for the sake of peace and prosperity, any ideology can achieve it by any means, including violence.” in total, 17 respondents (13.65%) found this statement “very suitable,” 35 respondents (29.57%) found it “appropriate,” and 36 respondents (30.41%) in the medium category. also, 88respondents (73.63%) agreed with the use of violent means for achieving goals. other evidence can be seen from the respondents’ answers to the question “i feel the need to join a group that fights for religion and truth, even though violence.” among all the respondents, 10(8.76%) found the statement “very appropriate,” 16 respondents (14.07%) had “insufficient conformity,” and 22 respondents (18.70%) found it quite appropriate. overall, 49 respondents (41.53%) agreed with the use of violence. previous studies revealed that students can be very critical in assessing a hertanto et al. 308 situation of crisis and are ready to play an active role in social work. this helps them fulfill their patriotic and nationalistic impulse without resorting to violence (jamilah, 2021). the value of inertia between relative deprivation and intensity of radicalism shows that the first and second inertia dimensions account for 77.6% and 22.4%, respectively. this confirms a significant relationship between relative deprivation and the intensity of radicalism (figure 6). figure 2 correspondence analysis plot between relative deprivation and the intensity of radicalism the three clusters in figure 6 illustrate a close relationship between relative deprivation and the intensity of radicalism among the study population. first, students with relatively low levels of deprivation had low intensity of radicalism. second, students with relatively moderate deprivation had a moderate intensity of radicalism. third, students with relatively high levels of deprivation had high intensity of radicalism. the relationship between social capital and the intensity of student radicalism the third finding reveals that social capital is very important in preventing student radicalism. mahmuddin (2017) found that there are at least three characteristics of social capital that function to anticipate the symptoms of radicalism, namely: 1) respecting diversity, 2) inclusive understanding and interpretation, and 3) preserving the siri tradition as local wisdom. this study is in line with haryani et al. (2018), who showed that the role of social capital in preventing new radicalism is limited to the bonding level, while at the level of bridging and linking (bridges and relationships), it is still weak owing to the limited openness of schools to outsiders. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 the inertia value between social capital and the intensity of radicalism shows that the first and second intertia dimensions account for 93.7% and 6.3%, respectively. this confirms a significant relationship between social capital and the intensity of radicalism (figure 7). figure 3 correspondence analysis plot between social capital and the intensity of radicalism the two clusters in figure 7 illustrate a close relationship between social capital and the intensity of radicalism. first, the study participants with moderate and high levels of social capital had high intensity of radicalism. second, the study participants with low levels of social capital had a low intensity of radicalism. the relationship between religious tolerance and the intensity of student radicalism the fourth finding shows a relationship between religious tolerance and the intensity of radicalism. the religious tolerance variable correlates with the intensity of radicalism among young people. radicalism, which is close to acts of violence or terrorism, is an act that can be committed by individuals who experience relative deprivation. the inertia value between religious tolerance and the intensity of religious tolerance shows that the first and second intertia dimensions account for 94.1% and 5.9%, respectively. this shows a significant relationship between religious tolerance and the intensity of radicalism, as depicted in figure 8. hertanto et al. 310 figure 4 correspondence analysis plot between religious tolerance and the intensity of radicalism the three clusters in figure 8 illustrate the close relationship between religious tolerance and the intensity of radicalism. first, the participants with a low level of religious tolerance had a low intensity of radicalism. second, the participants with moderate religious tolerance had a moderate intensity of radicalism. third, the participants with high religious tolerance had a high intensity of radicalism. this is in consonance with the findings of previous studies reporting that religious tolerance often has a negative impact in terms of the intensity of radicalism manifested in the form of aggressive and compensatory actions (sutowo & wibisono, 2013), collective action (soeharso, 2009), or “withdrawal” such as gambling (callan et al., 2015), depressive symptoms (campos et al., 2014), poor health behavior (elgar et al., 2017), or family conflict (dai et al., 2016). thus, radicalism can be committed by individuals who have religious tolerance. this finding is different from a previous study conducted by mashuri et al. (2022). radicalism is a complex phenomenon that involves a number of variables including public trust in the government. tolerance has a special meaning. in islamic theology, tolerance is limited to social relations related to world affairs or muamalah. as for the issue of aqidah or divine belief, there is no tolerance, even though it does not mean justifying violence (jamilah, 2021). islam teaches cooperation to others in daily needs, in the context of interaction in society, nation, and state. the variable of religious tolerance is highly influential on the intensity of radicalism. this finding is different from other studies that show that radicalism is caused by religious intolerance. this finding corroborates the study by woodward et al. (2013), where theological orientation cannot be used as a predictor of both violent and non-violent behaviors. in the end, the findings of this journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 study show that the intensity of radicalism is not significantly different between students in public high school/madrasas. thus, the findings are different from fautanu’s (2022) study, where students entering the world of education are vulnerable to radicalism discourse. the idea of radicalism tends to be stronger among middle school students in rural areas than in urban areas. this can be explained as follows. first, there is no influence or correlation between the form and mode of education and the development of radicalism among young people. the ideas of radicalism are more widely spread through the media, especially social media. second, geographical factors influence the spread of radicalism. this study shows novelty by finding that there are four factors that influence muslim high school students’ political attitudes, namely, religiosity, religious tolerance, relative deprivation, and social capital. differences in residence in rural and urban areas also have a significant impact on differences in student perceptions and behavior in the two areas, where radicalism is more common in high school/madrasas students in rural areas. it is different from previous studies that showed factors outside of these findings, namely, civil liberties and socialist forces (marks et al., 2009), economic deprivation (lamprianou & ellinas, 2017; ulyana, 2021), and failure to communicate with the islamic world (leuprecht et al., 2009). islamic fanaticism was identified as a threat to western liberal democracy, and the categorization of muslims as alleged perpetrators led to national turmoil (pantazis & pemberton, 2009). the anti-radicalism education program needs to be revitalized with a communicative approach that is in line with the millennial generation. previous studies have found social causes of student radicalism arising because of macro social causes including poverty, government policies, cultural identity, religious involvement, symptoms of depression, and unemployment (al-badayneh et al., 2016; morgades-bamba et al., 2020; rais, 2005; snow & cross, 2011). there are differences of opinion regarding the impact of social causes where on the one hand, there is a very strong hope to establish a strong relationship, but on the other hand, it triggers a negative influence or a weak relationship. for example, religiosity can encourage students to avoid radicalization behavior (aryani, 2020; susilo & dalimunthe, 2019; tambak, 2021). however, other findings by wong et al. (2019) explain that religiosity is a social cause that encourages the formation of youth radicalism. this is the first study to report that four social causes namely religiosity, religious tolerance, relative backwardness, and social capital are interrelated with the intensity of radicalism among hertanto et al. 312 students in schools. this study found that two social causes, namely, religiosity and religious tolerance, had the strongest correlation with the intensity of radicalism. that is, social causes are not only a driving factor for radicalism but can also provide good problem solving to attract radicalism from students. the study of this relationship is novel because it can provide direction for further research for experimental and comparative studies on social factors that lead to radicalism among students. the implication of the research shows that the social causes related to youth radicalism can help students establish social relations and build a forum for useful activities in preventing radicalism. therefore, it is necessary to make efforts to form positive religious attitudes and good religious tolerance with the support from educational institutions. the relative attitude of feeling that they have failed to meet the expectations of parents and teachers, coupled with situations of social comparison with others, can cause some students to follow certain forms of radicalism. therefore, it is extremely important for parents and teachers to provide a sense of justice and a sense of security so that students can form a healthy personality and prevent the emergence and prevalence of radicalism. social capital has a direct effect on strengthening a harmonious social order to prevent the radicalization of students in the future. therefore, students require effective educational policies and strategies to build security and social order as well as efforts to prevent radicalism in schools. conclusion the conclusion of the research findings mentioned is that of the four social causes of the intensity of extremist radicalism in schools as a source of terrorism, religious tolerance has the strongest correlation. relative deprivation and religiosity are also relevant to the intensity of student radicalism. the results of the observations show that the social causes of radicalism have unwittingly entered the students’ mindset. religiosity, tolerance, and social capital shown by students have prevented radicalism. meanwhile, relative deprivation of students has led to other forms of radicalism, namely violence. this is the first study to identify four social causes associated with student radicalism, thus supporting previous studies investigating the social causes of radicalism among young people. schools need to strengthen and revitalize understanding through the practice of character education and contextual learning because character education plays a major role in cultivating “civil culture” and “civilization,” which are very important to strengthen democracy and prevent radicalism. the government also needs to journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 support prevention strategies through education curriculum policies. increased socialization of understanding and practice also needs to be improved at every level of education. this study has a few limitations. the results of this study cannot be generalized because the findings are only related to students in schools, not covering all levels of education. even though it provides information about the strength of the variables studied, the considerations in this correlational study need further research because it does not show a causal relationship and does not determine what variables have the most influence. future studies need to investigate other social causes that influence student radicalism with a wider scope and more complex research methods with existing scientific disciplines. references adamczyk, a., & lafree, g. (2015). religiosity and reactions to terrorism. social science research, 51, 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.12.006 afrianty, d. (2012). islamic education and youth extremism in indonesia. journal of policing, intelligence and counter terrorism, 7(2), 134–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2012.719095 ahmed, k. (2016). radicalism leading to violent extremism in canada: a multi-level analysis of muslim community and university based student leaders’ perceptions and experiences. journal for deradicalization, 6, 231–271. arifin, s., & baharun, m. (2022). harmony of social order in preventing radicalism. proceedings of the international symposium on religious literature and heritage (islage 2021), 644(islage 2021), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.220206.001 aryani, s. a. (2020). orientation of religiosity and radicalism: the dynamic of an ex-terrorist’s religiosity. indonesian journal of islam and muslim societies, 10(2), 297–321. https://doi.org/10.18326/ijims.v10i2.297-321 asroni, a. (2022). religious education amid the challenges of religious radicalism. khulasah : islamic studies journal, 3(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.55656/kisj.v3i1.44 banerjee, a. (2016). student radicalism in contemporary bengal. society today, 8(4). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/anirban-banerjee2/publication/322297763_student_radicalismpost_left_bengal/links/5a51 7d5caca2725638c5974c/student-radicalismpost-left-bengal.pdf bräuchler, b. (2002). islamic radicalism online: the moluccan mission of the laskar jihad in cyberspace. studi storici, 43(4), 267–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1835 hertanto et al. 314 9310.2004.tb00258.x bravo, a. b. s., & dias, c. m. m. (2006). an empirical analysis of terrorism: deprivation, islamism and geopolitical factors. defence and peace economics, 17(4), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242690500526509 callan, m. j., will shead, n., & olson, j. m. (2015). the relation between personal relative deprivation and the urge to gamble among gamblers is moderated by problem gambling severity: a meta-analysis. addictive behaviors, 45, 146–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.01.031 campelo, n., oppetit, a., neau, f., cohen, d., & bronsard, g. (2018). who are the european youths willing to engage in radicalisation? a multidisciplinary review of their psychological and social profiles. european psychiatry, 52, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.03.001 campos, a. c., vaz, g. n., saito, v. m., & teixeira, a. l. (2014). further evidence for the role of interferon-gamma on anxietyand depressive-like behaviors: involvement of hippocampal neurogenesis and ngf production. neuroscience letters, 578, 100–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2014.06.039 caruso, r., & schneider, f. (2011). the socio-economic determinants of terrorism and political violence in western europe (1994-2007). european journal of political economy, 27(suppl. 1), s37–s49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2011.02.003 creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. in sage publications (vol. 8). sage publication, inc. crook, s. (1990). the end of radical social theory? radicalism, modernism and postmodernism. postmodernism and society, 46–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-34920843-2_2 dai, y. de, chen, k. y., & zhuang, w. l. (2016). moderating effect of work-family conflict on the relationship between leader-member exchange and relative deprivation: links to behavioral outcomes. tourism management, 54, 369–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.12.005 decker, s. h., & pyrooz, d. c. (2019). activism and radicalism in prison: measurement and correlates in a large sample of inmates in texas. justice quarterly, 36(5), 787–815. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1462396 diab m. al-badayneh, rami a. al-assasfeh, & nisreen a. al-bhri. (2016). social causes of arab youth radicalizing. journalism and mass communication, 6(12). https://doi.org/10.17265/2160-6579/2016.12.004 dubé, l., guimond, s., olson, j. m., herman, c. p., & zanna, m. p. (1986). relative deprivation journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 and social protest: the personal-group issue. relative deprivation and social comparison. lawrence erlbaum associates, inc. elgar, f. j., gariépy, g., torsheim, t., & currie, c. (2017). early-life income inequality and adolescent health and well-being. social science and medicine, 174, 197–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.10.014 epafras, l. (2016). religious e-xpression among the youths in the indonesian cyberspace. jurnal ilmu komunikasi, 13(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.24002/jik.v13i1.596 esen, b. (2022). terrorism risk during the coronavirus (covid-19) outbreak period. siyasal: journal of political sciences, 31(1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.26650/siyasal.2022.31.1028742 featherstone, m., holohan, s., & poole, e. (2010). discourses of the war on terror: constructions of the islamic other after 7/7. international journal of media & cultural politics, 6(2), 169–186. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/96586659.pdf formichi, c. (2015). (re) writing the history of political islam in indonesia. sojourn: journal of social issues in southeast asia, 30(1), 105–140. http://apjbet.com/index.php/apjbet/article/view/39/24 gambetta, d., & hertog, s. (2009). why are there so many engineers among islamic radicals? archives europeennes de sociologie, 50(2), 201–230. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003975609990129 giorda, m. c. (2018). religious education between radicalism and tolerance. in religious education (issue june, pp. 115–130). springer international publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-21677-1_8 hamid, m. z. m. & a. f. a. (2018). the rise of radicalism and terrorism in indonesia and malaysia. review of islam in southeast asia, 53(9), 1689–1699. haryani, t. n., amin, m. i., arifah, n. h., & husna, a. m. (2018). islamic education in supporting deradicalization: a review of islamic education in pondok pesantren. nadwa: jurnal pendidikan islam, 12(2), 259–272. http://content.ebscohost.com/contentserver.asp?ebscocontent=dgjymnle80sep7q4y9f 3olcmr1gep7jssky4sa6wxwxs&contentcustomer=dgjympgptk%2b3rljnuepfgey x43zx1%2b6b&t=p&p=an&s=r&d=buh&k=134748798%0ahttp://amg.um.dk/~/med ia/amg/documents/policies and strategies/s ilyas, m. (2021). decolonising the terrorism industry: indonesia. social sciences, 10(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10020053 jamilah, s. (2021). moderate islamic education to enhance nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0. journal of social studies education hertanto et al. 316 research, 12(3), 79–100. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3506/514 kfir, i. (2008). islamic radicalism in east africa: is there a cause for concern? studies in conflict and terrorism, 31(9), 829–855. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100802291584 lamprianou, i., & ellinas, a. (2017). why greeks rebel : re examining conventional and radical political action. acta politica, 52(1), 85–109. lardeux, l. (2020). deprivation , discrimination and radicalism radical thought among the young : a survey of french lycée students. in radical thought among the young: a survey of french lycée students (pp. 126–152). brill. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004432369_006 login leuprecht, c., hataley, t., moskalenko, s., & mccauley, c. (2009). winning the battle but losing the war? narrative and counter narratives strategy. perspectives on terrorism, 3(2), 1–7. lim, m. (2017). freedom to hate: social media, algorithmic enclaves, and the rise of tribal nationalism in indonesia. critical asian studies, 49(3), 411–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2017.1341188 liow, j. c. (2006). international jihad and muslim radicalism in thailand?: toward an alternative interpretation. asia policy, 2(1), 89–108. https://doi.org/10.1353/asp.2006.0004 loza, w. (2007). the psychology of extremism and terrorism: a middle-eastern perspective. aggression and violent behavior, 12(2), 141–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2006.09.001 lynch, o. (2013). british muslim youth: radicalisation, terrorism and the construction of the “other.” critical studies on terrorism, 6(2), 241–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2013.788863 mahmuddin, m. (2017). religion, radicalism and national character: in perspective of south sulawesi local wisdom. esensia: jurnal ilmu-ilmu ushuluddin, 18(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.14421/esensia.v18i2.1481 marks, g., mbaye, h. a. d., & kim, h. m. (2009). radicalism or reformism? socialist parties before world war i. american sociological review, 74(4), 615–635. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400406 minkenberg, m. (2003). the west european radical right as a collective actor: modeling the impact of cultural and structural variables on party formation and movement mobilization. comparative european politics, 1(2), 149–170. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.cep.6110017 morgades-bamba, c. i., raynal, p., & chabrol, h. (2020). exploring the radicalization process journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 in young women. terrorism and political violence, 32(7), 1439–1457. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2018.1481051 muazza, m., mukminin, a., habibi, a., hidayat, m., & abidin, a. (2018). education in indonesian islamic boarding schools: voices on curriculum and radicalism, teacher, and facilities. islamic quarterly, 62(4), 507–536. muhid, a. (2020). religious tolerance among college students: how it’s influenced by religious orientation and personality traits? humanitas: indonesian psychological journal, 17(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.26555/humanitas.v17i1.12222 mujtahid, i. m., vebrianto, r., thahir, m., & yusro, n. (2021). the influence of online media on muslim radicalism among senior high school students. afkaruna: indonesian interdisciplinary journal of islamic studies, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.18196/afkaruna.v17i1.10747 pantazis, c., & pemberton, s. (2009). from the ‘old’to the ‘new’suspect community: examining the impacts of recent uk counterterrorist legislation.’ british journal of criminology, 49(2), 646. paul, j. a., & bagchi, a. (2018). does terrorism increase after a natural disaster? an analysis based upon property damage. defence and peace economics, 29(4), 407–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2016.1204169 purwasih, j. h. g., & widianto, a. a. (2020). school resilience and religious radicalism in senior high schools. in emerging trends in psychology, law, communication studies, culture, religion, and literature in the global digital revolution (issue may). taylor & francis group. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429322259-22 rahmanto, d. n., meliala, a. e., & lolo, f. a. (2020). reducing radicalism as a form of intervention through the role of school and education curriculum. jpi (jurnal pendidikan indonesia), 9(3), 347. https://doi.org/10.23887/jpi-undiksha.v9i3.22601 rais, r. b. (2005). islamic radicalism and minorities in pakistan. in religious radicalism and security in south asia. macmillan press. http://www.apcss.org/publications/edited volumes/religiousradicalism/pagesfromreligiousradicalismandsecurityinsouthasiach1 9.pdf richey, m. k., & binz, m. (2015). open source collection methods for identifying radical extremists using social media. international journal of intelligence and counterintelligence, 28(2), 347–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/08850607.2014.962374 rink, a., & sharma, k. (2018). the determinants of religious radicalization: evidence from kenya. journal of conflict resolution, 62(6), 1229–1261. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002716678986 hertanto et al. 318 rokhmanm, m., wahidin, s., & suharnoko, d. (2021). prevention of radicalism at islamic boarding college. european journal of humanities and social sciences, 1(4), 33–37. https://doi.org/10.24018/ejsocial.2021.1.4.92 rootes, c. a. (1980). student radicalism: politics of moral protest and legitimation problems of the modern capitalist state. theory and society, 9(3), 473–502. http://www.jstor.org/stable/656878 rousseau, c., hassan, g., miconi, d., lecompte, v., mekki-berrada, a., el hage, h., & oulhote, y. (2019). from social adversity to sympathy for violent radicalization: the role of depression, religiosity and social support. archives of public health, 77(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-019-0372-y salim, a. (2020). the madrasa resistance against radicalism. nadwa: jurnal pendidikan islam, 13(2), 315–336. https://doi.org/10.21580/nw.2019.13.2.5173 sirry, m. (2020). muslim student radicalism and self-deradicalization in indonesia. islam and christian-muslim relations, 31(2), 241–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2020.1770665 snow, d., & cross, r. (2011). radicalism within the context of social movements: processes and types. journal of strategic security, 4(4), 115–130. https://doi.org/10.5038/19440472.4.4.5 soeharso, s. y. (2009). integrative approach of causing factors of labor intention to participate in collective action. makara hubs-asia, 13(2), 77–84. soldatenko, m. (2001). radicalism in higher education. in the hidden curriculum in higher education (pp. 193–212). routledge/taylor & francis group. stankov, l. (2018). psychological processes common to social conservatism and terrorism. personality and individual differences, 120(august 2017), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.08.029 supratno, h., subandiyah, h., & permata raharjo, r. (2018). character education in islamic boarding school as a medium to prevent student radicalism. 2nd social sciences, humanities, and education conference (soshec), 222, 405–410. https://doi.org/10.2991/soshec-18.2018.86 susilo, s., & dalimunthe, r. p. (2019). moderate southeast asian islamic education as a parent culture in deradicalization: urgencies, strategies, and challenges. religions, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10010045 sutowo, i., & wibisono, s. (2013). perilaku agresif anggota organisasi emasyarakatan (ormas)“x” di provinsi di yogyakarta. humanitas: jurnal psikologi indonesia, 10(2), 31– 44. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 288-319 tabroni, i., abdillah, d. m., nurjanah, s., & fakhrunnisa, s. (2022). the role of the pai teacher in implementing the values of inter-religious tolerance in students. jurnal multidisiplin madani, 2(2), 779–786. https://doi.org/10.54259/mudima.v2i2.438 tambak, s. (2021). the method of counteracting radicalism in schools: tracing the role of islamic religious education teachers in learning. miqot: jurnal ilmu-ilmu keislaman, 45(1), 104. https://doi.org/10.30821/miqot.v45i1.761 thamrin, d., hutahaean, e. s. h., & anggita, t. (2022). study on policing management for terrorism crimes in indonesia of the decade 2000-2020. asia pacific journal of business economics and technology, 02(02), 21–32. http://apjbet.com/index.php/apjbet/article/view/39/24 ulyana, y. a. (2021). the theories of transnational terrorism, relative deprivation and fundamentalism in terrorism act: the case study in indonesia. international journal of business, economics, and social development, 2(3), 127–134. https://doi.org/10.46336/ijbesd.v2i3.146 wong, m. y. h., khiatani, p. v., & chui, w. h. (2019). understanding youth activism and radicalism: chinese values and socialization. social science journal, 56(2), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.08.006 yusar. (2016). the youth, the sciences students, and religious radicalism. jurnal al-ulum, 16(2), 330–347. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.30603/au.v16i2.154 zeman, t., břeň, j., & urban, r. (2017). role of internet in lone wolf terrorism. journal of security and sustanaibility issues, 7(2), 1–8. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.9770/jssi.2017.7.2(1) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),209-224 1bakytgul moldagali, abai kazakh national pedagogical university, bahados_@mail.ru 2bibigul sultanova, kazakh national women's pedagogical university, bibigul-sultanova@mail.ru 3nagima akhtayeva pavlodar pedagogical university, nagibek78kz@gmail.com 4assem suleimenova, pavlodar pedagogical university, suleimenova1978@bk.ru 5* shyryn akimbekova abai kazakh national pedagogical university,akimbekova.shyryn@gmail.com innovative technologies: digitalization of education bakytgul moldagali1, bibigul sultanova2, nagima akhtayeva3, assem suleimenova4, shyryn akimbekova5* abstract this study addresses the issue of integrating cutting-edge technologies into the educational process in order to enable the development of a new digital type of educational service in schools. to that end, it establishes a framework for integrating cutting-edge technology into digital learning in classrooms. the method involves diagnosing motivational induction, created by j. nuttin. this method aims to identify the visibility of a personal perspective within a coming day, week, month, or year, enabling one to understand motivational aspirations, goals, desires, and dreams. the study includes structuring a model of cutting-edge technologies in learning. it promotes intellectual growth, fosters cultural and aesthetic qualities, boosts selfesteem, creates a model of cultural behavior, and aids in developing creative and respectful socialization skills in the classroom. it also helps increase interest and motivation in the educational process. therefore, the study addresses the help of innovative technologies models related to aesthetic behavior in different places and aspects of changing personal image during the interactive dressing of clothing models. these models are superimposed on photos by fitting accessories and changing hairstyles against the background to fulfill personal goals. these goals depend on the aspirations of visiting different social objects and achieving a certain social status at the theoretical and virtual levels. this paradigm for digital education allows for the recognition of one's best attributes and the development of strong self-esteem by emphasizing the possibility of achieving one's highest ambitions. this movement creates a cultural and aesthetic model of individual perception and the evolution of cultural behavior in diverse public settings, which has practical implications for the entire educational system and the well-being of society. keywords: educational system, value creation, educational landscape, digital literacy, teacher education, innovative technologies in language education. introduction in modern society, substantial technical progress exists to implement itself in many areas. one of the most important is education, because an organization with a high degree of intellectual growth will offer a child with the chance for self-fulfillment in the modern world. acquiring professional qualities encourages a person to make a career in their interest area. therefore, the developed technologies should improve the educational process at the implementation level starting from school and contribute to more exciting and informative classes within the relevant and mandatory health-saving conditions (adom, emad & adu-agyem, 2018). furthermore, the existing distance education involving digital technologies presents an official form of obtaining knowledge. it offers vast expertise in many subjects thanks to innovative journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 209-224 210 developments (adu et al., 2022; dube et al., 2022). other benefits include successfully supplementing the full-time educational process and allowing for a smooth transition due to children not attending full-time courses at school for a period of time. nonattendance is due to chronic illnesses, disabilities, temporary departures, moving to a remote area from school, or other situations (ambetsa, 2016). hence, this distance from using digital education will enable well-being conditions at the psycho-emotional and social levels for the student to follow the current logical situation in their life. this circumstance improves student success, and the student can simultaneously continue to study according to the school curriculum remotely. after this period, they return to the atmosphere of full-time school, having the same level of knowledge as their classmates (sekiwu, ssempala& naluwemba, 2020). the technological development trends should be considered and implemented while observing health-saving conditions to expand education’s quality and service. following these trends will result in increased reputation and image around the world due to numerous opportunities. quality education that is targeted to specific requirements and well-being at the emotional and family levels helps students maintain their life quality (morgan, 2019). accordingly, innovative technologies substantially contribute to specific education digitalization, improving the educational process (baytak, 2022; konyana & motalenyane, 2022; moshkalov et. al., 2018). new technologies should be used to implement the primary purposes of academic training providing individuals with high self-esteem and decent values. concurrently, these technologies depend on the versatility of the situation, rendering it necessary to choose the most appropriate adaptive forms (mosia & matabane, 2022; shava, 2022; tshelane, 2022). this adaptation allows reproducing creative communications with others, forming a noble and worthy personality at the high social life level (evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; omodan et al., 2021). it manifests and develops cultural and aesthetic qualities, helping students fulfill their talents and bringing them to a stable motivational level of dedication in the classroom. moreover, it reinforces their aspirations for socio-cultural and better-quality lives, which benefits society’s development (mallik, 2020). method this study addresses the issue of integrating cutting-edge technologies into the educational process in order to enable the development of a new digital type of educational service in schools. to that end, it establishes a framework for integrating cutting-edge technology into digital learning in classrooms. moldagali et al. research design the study's design is non-experimental. a mixed methodology was utilized (mixed methods research, mmr; johnson and onwuegbuzie, 2004; denscombe, 2008). the data was gathered using a survey and open-ended questions, allowing qualitative analysis. triangulation was used in the study's design, implying that both qualitative and quantitative research can be used "to be mutually corroborated" (creswell & clark, 2007, p. 62). data collection tools the diagnostic testing procedure devised by j. nuttin was used to look into how perception functions in relation to one's desires and goals (kalyani, 2020). these objectives and aspirations include imagining the ideal future over various periods, including a day, week, month, and year. they provide insight into a person's motivational goals and reveal the extent of their dreams and aspirations because they require a solid emotional foundation, securing psycho-emotional stability. additionally, evaluating the identified aspirations will enable the creation of implementation-friendly conditions for the educational process and the assessment of value motivations. this circumstance will boost students' interest and drive to learn, which will significantly impact education by enabling them to fulfill their aspirations and play an essential role in their lives. the motivational induction test consists of 40 questions that aim to direct mental activity in the format required to make clear the target prospects developed at the level of individual desires and perceptions. it has a motivating perspective on each student's future, shifting the situation toward development and self-awareness. it also demonstrates their self-fulfillment, desired accomplishments, and self-purification components that impact their self-esteem. the students were asked to complete 40 questions without pre-prepared keys, and the subjects presented short or complete answers in the free conversational form. while taking into account the responses, the desired aspirations are assessed from the past, present, and future perspectives in relation to social and personal fulfillment. this evaluation enables the development of some characteristics to produce more ideal conditions for implementing imaginative attitudes and objectives in their lives. data analysis we compared the results to the answers and identified the key elements and moments when analyzing the results of testing responses that made it possible to evaluate each person's interest journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 209-224 212 in imagining themselves in critical circumstances and achieving their goals. to identify and organize all common elements of the participants' responses, when calculating the overall results, we used the conventional mathematical calculation procedure and graphical representation that constituted the quantitative part of the study. due to the study's use of triangulation, the timing was concurrent. triangulation, as creswell and clark (2007) said, seeks "convergence, corroboration, and correspondence of results from the different methods" (p. 62). although the study's analysis of the two methods was done separately, the data collection phase for both took place simultaneously. while the qualitative method involved document analysis and the quantitative approach used a survey, they were carried out simultaneously. participants and procedure purposive sampling was used in the study since this was necessary because we needed to select participants who met specific criteria. for the pedagogical experiment, a study was conducted based on secondary schools-gymnasiums no. 8, no. 21, and no. 4. in almaty, the republic of kazakhstan. the survey included 127 students of grades 6–9 aged 12–15 years. our study was divided into three stages, the first of which involved a theoretical analysis of the literature on the application of cutting-edge technologies in digital education at schools. the purpose of the study, its research methodology, and any current issues in the field were all included in the first stage. the second stage involved testing the respondents while establishing the criteria above for utilizing cutting-edge technologies to raise the standard of instruction at the school. given the students' prior knowledge of health savings, experimental work was carried out by reviewing the findings and drawing a conclusion. in the third stage, we systematized the results and clarified the conclusions. table 1 participants grades and schools total grade secondary schools-gymnasiums no age 12 6 8 28 13 7 21 32 14 8 4 35 15 9 4 32 total 4 4 127 moldagali et al. findings and discussion diagnostic testing results, detailed semantic clarification, and pedagogical observation identified aspects reflecting indicators of personal motivation for the future among schoolchildren within time boundaries. these boundaries are the coming days and distant years, indicating the schoolchildren’s inner dreams and aspirations. it is essential to understand the factors causing interest in learning and application. moreover, it is critical to provide cognitive assistance for acquiring skills necessary for their implementation in a student’s future. the successful development of their personality at a high intellectual level and selfesteem and formed indicators of the cultural and aesthetic level require further creative fulfillment of their dreams and social needs at a favorable level improving the quality of personal and social life. the school age is critical for the personal establishment and gaining inner confidence in one's attractiveness, knowledge, intelligence, and talent. it is expressed at the behavioral level in the future, manifesting an intelligent approach to solving many problems of different orders in all spheres. maintaining inner balance and self-esteem and acquiring a deeper motivation for selffulfillment improves the quality of one's own life within the framework of health preservation and provides a favorable attitude to the surrounding world of nature (kalyani, 2020). the agerelated interest in learning new things presents a more careful selection of the educational format of classes. it can occur within the framework of high interest of students for further intellectual development and acquiring special knowledge and skills necessary for their future personal and professional success. in this area, studying schoolchildren’s interests, aspirations, and hobbies is vital for the better and more effective construction of classes. within the framework of digital education, using innovative technologies allows for expanding the boundaries for reproducing the ideal prospects and considering the identified needs. then, integrating these technologies into the educational process will enable realization and create a substantial potential for educational activities. the result will be the development of an intelligent, cultural personality with creative behavior toward others with early and distant prerequisites for practical self-realization. it is because necessary skills will be obtained during training. we are confident that achieving the desired result in health-saving conditions will be accomplished, forming a prosperous sphere for life due to the implementation of plans (rakhimov et.al.,2019). consequently, we considered all the parameters and features above and analyzed the effective components separately. this move entirely helps form an organizational model using journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 209-224 214 innovative technologies within the framework of learning digitalization in school education. the study develops the model implementation by incorporating innovative technologies in the digital education process in practical school education. accordingly, in several stages, we created a model to apply new technological tools in the scientific and technical educational process. these stages included establishing the initial level of attitudes in students’ future lives within the framework of dreams and aspirations. this framework arouses interest in life and has personal relevance. furthermore, introducing these indicators at the methodological level of the lesson would increase students’ motivation to study because the selected testing method provided results satisfying the above parameters, clarified and deepened with pedagogical supervision and feedback from the respondents. we ran statistical analyses on the obtained data. the development and implementation of a model incorporating innovative technologies based on the criteria above for their subsequent implementation in practical school education offered a meaningful solution to intellectual development. on top of that, personality improvement depicting respectful behavior in society and a developed sense of self-esteem were observed during school education. our study covered 127 schoolchildren. the diagnostic testing analysis revealed that most students have substantial moral dreams within the framework of visiting cultural places and events, learning exciting and beautiful aspects of life, and acquiring a status of a cultural and intelligent person. socially important people surrounded students with excellent and successful prospects, and opportunities existed to allow students to express themselves creatively and aesthetically for career advancement. thanks to these expected results, students would acquire a decent standard of living with the opportunity to travel and realize their life goals within the framework of cognitive function worldwide. hence, detailed analysis allowed for identifying the students' internal aspirations, primary points, and criteria. students’ goals, aspirations, desires, and dreams were shaped when summarizing the data. the factors included are necessary for students to live a happy life at the personal perception level. therefore, all (100%) students noted the ability to travel, attend theatres, movies, and concerts, do easy homework, and be kind to teachers. they also followed exciting lessons at school, had more resting time and did their hobbies, ate tasty food with the opportunity to go to a cafe, and could buy necessary and beautiful things to have good health. the other critical issues were as follows: studying successfully at school (94%), taking creative courses or sports orientation (97%), attending public holidays, fairs, and festivals (93%), and having the opportunity to transform their appearance by changing their image and clothing (78%), meeting friends and visiting moldagali et al. them (96%), receiving a good education in the future (81%), acquiring english at a reasonable conversational level (72%), meeting a loved one and starting a family (84%), finding a decent job (94%). several answers addressed everyday issues, such as the desire to have a separate room or not to perform household duties (figure 1). figure 1. distribution of students by levels of personal aspirations and the presence of life goals after the analysis the data analysis presented that most students have clear and appropriate goals and desires, demonstrating the health of personality on the emotional level. concurrently, these goals provide the typical level of intellectual development and, at this stage, require specific conditions for implementation. they also deliver the necessary skills to help understand how to implement the desired successful requirements for the further development of schoolchildren. to that end, the primary indices demonstrate the dreams at a high social interaction level implying reasonable communication assumptions. however, they also require processing at the learning ability level to depict and maintain in the desired areas given a respectful, constructive behavior to express cultural and positive background of interaction with others. this interaction is assessed within the framework of etiquette, intelligent behavior to create the image in the cultural boundaries of social behavior, and self-fulfillment of the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 209-224 216 internal potential of a decent person with respectful treatment. this image is based on communication skills and behavioral reactions in various situations associated with the appearance of unforeseen circumstances during collective events or visits to places with other traditions. the travel will lead to the development of the student at a decent cultural and aesthetic level, and they will be able to express themselves with an intelligent and wellmannered manifestation of their behaviors and rhetoric emotional reactions. all these parameters will positively affect society and create vital achievements for successful social and personal life. thereupon, the trend and parameters for implementing research conditions in developing a model using innovative digital education technologies were identified and based on a detailed analysis of the results. the primary components of the model development process depended on essential indicators of the educational process, covering the development of interests, aspirations, and goals. given educational activities, the model would increase interest and motivation to study at school and induce more cognitive interest in the subject’s learning process. it would manifest an impact in the lesson for the necessary cultural and aesthetic development delivering increased self-esteem and strengthening mental and intellectual activity if a successful expression of interest in the study existed (black et al.,2017). the selected assessment factors provided resource capabilities and predisposition to education, selfstudy, and self-cognition to acquire value motivation and form a stable socially developed attitude on many occasions. any person in the modern world must connect with the trend of world hospitality and participation in social life. they should manifest themselves on an intelligent, culturally respectful background with highly developed cognition levels and acquire behavioral reactions demonstrated in emotional responses. this act would be accepted in a social-cultural society according to acknowledged etiquette rules, presenting a person’s upbringing and education level. accordingly, incorporating digitalization into education would improve the school’s image and value in society and boost its ranking in educational institutions worldwide. the higher-ranked school would produce highly cultured and educated young people helping them acquire the culture of etiquette and intelligent behavior (yildiz & kilic cakmak, 2021). consequently, given the above parameters, we developed an organizational model applying innovative technologies in the educational process at the school. we aimed to study interactive play situations associated with aesthetic behavior in various cultural and public places and countries. we considered the changing aspects of the individual image for an interactive moldagali et al. dressing superimposed on photos of models’ clothes with the possibility of fitting accessories and changing hairstyles. this modification was applied to the make-up of female students, raising self-esteem and awareness of the appearance in the image. it would also improve the sense of self, increasing self-confidence and the image conciliatory knowledge factor. it also considered social society and public places with a specific designation, and proper learning behavior, creating the conditions for acquiring practical skills for successful implementation in life. this move included adapting to different situations and improving confidence and selfesteem, contributing to inner dignity. this inner dignity manifested itself on the validemotional level in the future, positively impacting its occurrence and development. what was strengthened in the practical part of the lesson was using forms of employment, including theoretical and virtual cognitive-practical experiences. these experiences led to the introduction of education digital technology innovative procedures based on the motivationalvalue, cognitive-communicative, cultural and aesthetic criteria concerning the preservation of the educational process. as a result, after testing the implemented system's implementation at the control stage of the study, a survey was conducted on its influence on essential indicators related to personality development and attitude to the educational process. it confirmed the functional efficiency of the developed innovative technologies model in teaching at school to improve academic, cognitive, cultural, communicative, and motivational achievements (figure 2). figure 2. distribution of schoolchildren according to the formed levels of psychological and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 209-224 218 pedagogical aspects at the final stage of the study based on the data obtained, the authors can refer to the success of the created organizational model of introducing new technologies with a high level of interactivity into the educational process at the school level. the model depicted the successful implementation of all the above tasks and the development of the above parameters; it allowed for increasing interest in learning at school. it also addressed the motivation of the presence and schoolchildren’s active behavior in the classroom within the specified lesson framework. we confirmed the model by the data obtained concerning these formats of the educational organization’s regular activities, as illustrated in figure 3. figure 3. distribution of schoolchildren according to the formed parameters within the framework of the application of the developed model at the final stage of the study analyzing the research results suggested that the developed model of the innovative digital education technologies’ application considerably improves the effectiveness of the educational process with successful personal achievements in internal aspirations and goals. the study was validated because the questionnaire’s characteristics, parameters, and the developed criteria were comparable. the level of innovative technologies’ development at the present stage of education makes it possible to create conditions for successfully conducting classes at a high level with effective pedagogical methods. moreover, it presents knowledge in the created conditions close to the optimum factual situations manifested in students’ behavior in the classroom. these behaviors agree with the formed model of the skills manifestation and behavioral and emotional reactions with increased self-esteem and intellectual, cultural, and aesthetic development (choi et.al.,2019). the developed model is oriented to the trends of the modern world, where international-level communications are prioritized to behave within the framework of many cultural and aesthetic social behaviors, manifesting a creative and moldagali et al. respectful level of communication. it dictates the need to create conditions for learning within school education predominantly because these parameters were determined based on the schoolchildren’s motivations. this direction increases its value as the primary and necessary self-realization and self-perception as worthy members of society at a high intellectual level of development, applied in all spheres of their lives (maruthavanan, 2020). therefore, the developed model has a socio-cultural value and contributes to developing students' high selfesteem and a sense of self-worth as future full-fledged members of society. it presents high dedication at the operational self-manifestation level and participation in public and social life's creative and cultural levels (baikulova et.al.,2017). teaching these skills using the newly developed digital education technologies and considering compliance with the health-saving standards during educational activities will create optimum conditions. these circumstances will provide comfortable conditions at the emotional, technical, and aesthetic levels, emphasizing the educational process’s high achievements and raising educational organizations’ prestige (widayati et al., 2020). the considered unique model covers the development of cultural and aesthetic parameters’ knowledge and the knowledge acquisition necessary in this field. it distinctly presents data being interested in the teaching knowledge itself and allows all students to participate in classes actively and manifest themselves in various forms. furthermore, the students may perform in presented situations with possible correction by the teacher, forming deeper foundations of etiquette behavior and manifestations of emotional reactions. as a result, this situation develops a worthy cultural personality with advanced intelligence and cognitive accents from various social elements of the life principles’ manifestation (iqbal, 2016). this form of presenting knowledge makes it possible to see the value motivations inherent in the student, helping a highly qualified teacher intelligently correct each student on the path of acquiring universal and cultural values. each lesson includes different formats for obtaining information about the competent behavior of an intelligent and educated person by creating an active approach and a favorable external image of a highly cultured person with an appropriate appearance. it depends on being in a particular area and sphere of social importance, equipping students with the cognitive, theoretical, and virtual levels, and considering using innovative technologies. this action fulfills students’ deep aspirations and dreams identified during the study. it is comparable with the developed form of training in digital education at school in the form under consideration (harsismanto et.al.,2021). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 209-224 220 consequently, the theory and practice of knowledge at the current level are combined in technical, innovative developments, methodological and subject materials, interactive technologies, creative and respectful discussions, and master classes. it uses various means necessary to create an environment and acquire skills within a given lesson topic. moreover, it involves multiple games from plot-role-playing to intellectual and cognitive, with a training and evaluation character having a system of incentives and securing a positive emotional, health-saving background creating conditions for the development of increased interest in mental activity and motivation. then, students can stay at school to study many more exciting topics in the declared field and form (abdigapbarova et.al.,2016). the internal aspirations, dreams, and goals of schoolchildren covered during the study will create innovative technologies within the developed model using many topics in the identified area. it will contribute to the versatile development of schoolchildren with an increase in their intellectual development and help them acquire the art of communication in a favorable educational atmosphere. it will happen with literate and cultural behavioral reactions at a high mental and analytical level (ezati et.al., 2018). the model under consideration develops intelligence and creative potential, which is critical for the age category of schoolchildren for the personal development of their talents and the identification of individual predispositions. moreover, this form of training makes it possible to educate the etiquette of communication of non-verbal and speech forms required for an active and cultural, prosperous social life. it will also contribute to better assimilation of humanitarian subjects based on school education in the future, activates independent activity, and contribute to the development of interest in self-education and reading with particular relevance as a task prerequisite for solving at the present education stage (sawant & sankpal, 2021). the proposed model will also create conditions for learning to form thoughts, express them competently, and establish and maintain a conversation with an interlocutor at a high cultural level in various life situations (johnson & onwuegbuzie, 2004). all will teach students to think, analyze, learn, and determine the general connections of life and, at the same time, deepen their knowledge about life in the world in all its interesting and beautiful manifestations. it will help the development of moral values and mental activity and acquire much necessary knowledge to acquire as successful and cultured individuals (denscombe,2008). this knowledge in the lesson uses virtual technologies and interactive models to change one's image, research, and understand various factors that influence the image. a model of spending one's ideal day or month by visiting the theatre, cinema, restaurant, and step-by-step virtual travel moldagali et al. will teach them the basic concepts and criteria necessary for a prosperous life. it will indirectly impact their self-perceptions with an increase in self-esteem and form a high intellectual, cultural, and aesthetic personality (creswell & clark, 2007). hence, the developed model of introducing innovative digital education technologies within the school educational process has proved effective and can be used in school education, considerably improving the quality. conclusion scientific and technical developments in digital education using innovative technologies can considerably improve the educational environment by introducing many parameters and opportunities for building an interesting and productive lesson. therefore, the developed model of organizing educational activities using new technologies with many possibilities enables a sphere within which essential knowledge for students will be presented. this presentation means the development of students’ personalities with high intelligence and cultural and aesthetic qualities, contributing to developing creative and respectful socialization skills within the educational process at school lessons. the developed model permits studying the necessary and relevant information using innovative technologies in playing situations related to aesthetic behavior in different places. it includes aspects of changing personal image when interactively changing clothes superimposed on photos with the possibility of fitting accessories and changing hairstyles against the background of personal goals based on the target dreams. furthermore, the aspirations of schoolchildren to visit different cultural objects and places of social importance will increase their self-determination of social status and self-esteem. it will also deepen their understanding of behavior at the social level with an intelligent and cultural approach to solving various situations. accordingly, students will learn how to form their thoughts, converse on different topics, acquire communication skills, and understand the importance of creating the image of the cultural person. additionally, they will maintain a good reputation, develop the skills of selfcontrol, attention, and perseverance, and learn to analyze the cause of disputes and conflict. therefore, they will choose a peaceful level of conversation, acquire the skills of friendly intercourse with the people around them and realize the importance of a person's moral values. to that end, the model develops the student’s value-semantic, emotional-volitional, motivational, intellectual, and aesthetic characteristics. our results will be helpful for school teachers, methodologists, and other workers in education and can also be applied in practical education to improve effectiveness and quality. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 209-224 222 references abdigapbarova, u.m., ibrayeva, k.e., baikulova, a.m., ibrayeva, m.k., shalabayeva, l.i., zhundybayeva, t.n. (2016). communication through dialogue between preschool children with leadership skills. mathematics education, 11(5), 1343–1350. adom, d., emad, k.h., adu-agyem, j. (2018). theoretical and conceptual framework: mandatory ingredients of a quality research. international journal of scientific research, 7(1), 438–441. adu, k., badaru, k., duku, n., & adu, e. (2022). innovation and technology: a panacea to teaching and learning challenges during the covid-19 lockdown in south africa. research in social sciences and technology, 7(1), 69-89. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.5 ambetsa, e.k. (2016). the level of involvement of 6-8 year old children in housework in urban areas and its effect on academic performance in early childhood at city primary school nairobi, kenya. international journal of early childhood education and care, 5, 28– 39. baikulova, a.m., ibrayeva, m.k., shalabayeva, l.i., abdigapbarova, u.m., mynbayeva, a.p. (2017). the system of development programmes on pre-school and school education in the republic of kazakhstan. interchange, 48(2), 167–182. baytak, a. (2022). the health students’ perception of online education amid the pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 7(2), 49-65. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.9 black, m.m., walker, s.p., fernald, l.c.h., andersen, c.t., digirolamo, a.m., lu, c., mccoy, d.c., fink, g., shawar, y.r., shiffman, j., devercelli, a.e., wodon, q.t., vargas-baron, e., grantham-mcgregor, s. (2017). early childhood development coming of age: science through the life course. the lancet, 389(10064), 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31389-7 choi, n., kang, s., cho, h. j., sheo, j.( 2019). promoting young children’s interest in learning english in efl context: the role of mothers. education sciences, 9(1). creswell, j. w., & clark, v. l. p. (2007). designing and conducting mixed methods research. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. denscombe, m. (2008). a research paradigm for the mixed methods approach. j. mix. methods res. 2, 270–283. doi: 10.1177/1558689808316807 dube, b., makura, a., modise, a., & tarman, b. (2022). covid-19 and the quest for reconfiguration of disciplines: unpacking new directions. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), i-viii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2002.12 evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.9 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31389-7 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2002.12 moldagali et al. lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 ezati, b.a., madanda, a., ahikire, j. (2018). improving learning in rural lower primary school through provision of informal ecd: lessons from an ngo model in uganda. journal of education and e-learning research, 5(1), 51–59.jha, p., parvati, p. 2020. long on rhetoric and short on substance national education policy, 2020. governance at banks, 55(34), 14–17. harsismanto, j., fredrika, l., wati, n., padila, suryani, d., yandriza. (2021). effectiveness of playing origami intervention on improvement of fine motor development preschool children. indian journal of forensic medicine and toxicology, 15(1), 1107–1112. iqbal, s. (2016). perception of parents about early childhood education. the explorer islamabad: journal of social sciences, 2(2), 46–48.aithal, p.s., aithal, s. 2019. analysis of higher education in indian national education policy proposal 2019 and its implementation challenges. international journal of applied engineering and management letters, 3(2), 1–35. johnson, r. b., and onwuegbuzie, a. j. (2004). mixed methods research: a research paradigm whose time has come. educ. res. 33, 14–26. doi: 10.3102/0013189x033007014 kalyani, p. (2020). an empirical study on nep 2020 [national education policy] with special reference to the future of indian education system and its effects on the stakeholders. journal of management engineering and information technology, 7(5), 1–17. konyana, s., & motalenyane, m. (2022). a changing world and a changing teaching practice model for zimbabwe in a post covid-19 context. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), 43-58. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.5 mallik, s. (2020). national education policy 2020 and its comparative analysis with rte. american research journal of humanities and social sciences, 7(1), 1–7. maruthavanan, m. (2020). a study on the awareness on new education policy (2019) among the secondary school teachers in madurai district. international journal of educational research, 8(3), 67–71. morgan, h. (2019). does high-quality preschool benefit children? what the research shows. education sciences, 9(1), 19–28. moshkalov, a.k., baimukhanbetov, b.m., baikulova, a.m., anarbayev, a.k., ibrayev, a.z., mynbayeva, a.p. (2018). the content-structure model of students artistic selfdevelopment through the use of information and communications technology. astra salvensis, 6(12), 363–383. mosia, m., & matabane, m. (2022). exploring factors that serve as predictors for mathematics and sciences pre-service teachers to use ict in teaching. research in educational policy and management, 4(1), 80-91. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2022.10 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2022.10 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 209-224 224 omodan, b., tsotetsi, c., & ige, o. (2021). managing the culture of covid-19 "new normal&quot; as a motivation for university students in south africa. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 37-51. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.10 rakhimov, b., uteyeva, k., abdigapbarova, u., baikulova, a., sadirbekova, d. (2019). formation of civil activity at schoolchildren teenagers in the process of out-of-class activity. opcion, 35(89), 773–792. sawant, r.g., sankpal, u.b. (2021). national education policy 2020 and higher education: a brief review. international journal of creative research thoughts, 9(1), 3456–3460. sekiwu, d., ssempala, f., naluwemba, f. (2020). investigating the relationship between school attendance and academic performance in universal primary education: the case of uganda. african educational research journal, 8(2), 152–160. shava, e. (2022). reinforcing the role of ict in enhancing teaching and learning postcovid-19 in tertiary institutions in south africa. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.7 tshelane, m. (2022). reimagining responsible research innovations regarding professional teaching standards for curriculum practice. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), 92-105. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.8 widayati, s., simatupang, d.n., sari, p.p. (2020). the impact of adduction of folding paper stages for children’s fine motor skills. advances in social science, education and humanities research, 387(1), 62–65.aldemir, c., avsar, m.n. 2020. applications of digital citizenship in the pandemic era. eurasian journal of social and economic research, 7(5), 148– yildiz, g., kilic cakmak, e. (2021). investigating the distance education process according to the demographic characteristics of the notary and the notary employee. contemporary educational technology, 13(2), article number ep293. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.10 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.7 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.8 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),353-380 the influence of digital literacy on administration efficacy for supervisor teachers in cirebon city in the post-pandemic farihin 1 abstract the purpose of this study was to address the effect of digital literacy mastery on post-pandemic supervision teacher education administration: empirical evidence from high schools in cirebon city, west java province. in this study, we adopted a survey design and applied a quantitative approach when analyzing the data. the dependent variable in this study is the mastery of supervising teacher education administration; the interactive variable is the mastery of digital literacy. the population included supervisory teachers at the senior high school level under the auspices of the education and culture office of cirebon city, west java province, and involved 25 supervisory teachers. the research sample was taken from the entire study population, 25 supervisory teachers at public and private high schools in cirebon city who had been appointed for at least one year. they all had applied methods in mastering digital literacy and the administration of education, supervising teachers in their duties. we used a survey questionnaire to collect data, divided into two parts: digital literacy mastery and supervising teacher education administration mastery. all instruments were developed by researchers concerning the theories, dimensions, and indicators previously suggested by experts and researchers. keywords: mastery of digital literacy, administrative mastery, supervising teacher introduction the use of information and communication technologies (ict) in the workplace, school, and home is pervasive and comprises an integral part of people's daily lives. ict has changed daily activities. communities need to know how to use ict, such as computers and the internet, and develop their digital literacy in this digital era. digital literacy represents a person's knowledge and skills in ict and the ability to perform complex tasks effectively and efficiently in a digital environment (joneskavalier & flannigan, 2008). lack of skills and knowledge of operating and using ict is an important barrier to increased digital literacy. the gap in using ict for various activities has raised concerns about the digital literacy gap, which could widen the gap between the information-rich and the information-poor rich (seale, 2009; selwyn, 2006; van dijk, 2006). many people presume knowledge of computers and the 1 dr. state islamic institute (iain) of syekh nurjati cirebon indonesia email: farihin@syekhnurjati.ac.id mailto:farihin@syekhnurjati.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 internet and perform basic tasks using them. however, individuals who are still digitally illiterate or lack digital literacy have been excluded from the digital world (orrick, 2011; seale, 2009; van dijk, 2006). becoming digitally literate also includes developing cognitive, creative, critical, and social abilities beyond the basic functional skills for using icts, which are increasingly spreading into everyday contexts, such as in personal and social life and the workplace (junge & hadjivassiliou, 2007; tshelane, 2022). rene (2010) suggests that the digital literacy gap is one of the most critical social justice issues facing the digital society (seale, 2009). those living in marginalized circumstances display low levels of digital literacy, contributing to the digital literacy gap (hadjerrouit, 2010; junge & hadjivassiliou, 2007). the digital literacy gap is important because people with less digital literacy may be further marginalized, given that information, communication, business, and the prevailing social functions are increasingly structured on the internet. digital literacy education (dle) is essential, especially for those who lack digital literacy (hohlfeld et al., 2008; seale, 2009), to reduce the digital literacy gap. digital literacy education aims to support constructing students' knowledge and skills through education and practice to improve their digital literacy (brownell & rashid, 2020; isidro & teichert, 2021). a significant aspect of developing digital literacy is that digital literacy has practical value in solving broader tasks, for example, accessing health, government, and public service information online and benefiting opportunities for online business, education, and learning. in addition, the development of digital literacy allows people to participate in community activities and perform social actions online (renee, 2010). thus, digital literacy is a social, political, economic, and cultural product and has vital implications for education, culture, society, and community development today in the digital era (bruce, 2003; nawaz & ghulam, 2010). this perspective highlights the need to develop personal digital literacy and the importance of being a digital citizen to participate in a digital society (junge & hadjivassiliou, 2007; marais, 2021; shabalina & bykov, 2021). becoming digitally literate also includes developing cognitive, creative, critical, and social abilities beyond the basic functional skills for using icts (kilinc & tarman, 2022). these skills are increasingly spreading into everyday contexts, such as personal and social life and the workplace (evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; junge & hadjivassiliou, 2007). rene (2010) suggests farihin 355 five essential skills necessary for digital and media literacy: to be able to access, analyze and evaluate, create, reflect, and act. using ict depends on the perceptions of developers and users about the nature of the technology and its role in different ways of life (aviram & eshet-alkalai, 2006). sasseville (2004) found that ict-related changes “are not perceived as a collective experience or a social change, but rather a personal challenge.” an analysis of the literature shows that two broader theories, according to which icts can play an "instrumental" or "substantive" role in the learning process, are discussed repeatedly (macleod, 2005). ezer (2006) classifies this issue into the “instrumental” and “liberal” concepts of e-learning. the instrumental view argues that icts are just technologies, and their role depends on their use. in contrast, the substantive view argues that these technologies can transform society and their existence can make a difference (mehra & mital, 2007). courses are offered to gain knowledge and develop skills in various tools. tinio (2003) suggested three roles for ict and digital literacy. 1) learn about ict, where digital literacy is the end goal, 2) learn with ict, where technology facilitates learning; and 3) learn through technology to integrate it into the curriculum. sahay (2004) identified four dimensions of computer literacy. 1) ict as an object: learning about the technology. it prepares students for using ict in education, future work, and social life, 2) tools: ict is used for learning, for example, preparing lectures or assignments, collecting data and documentation, communicating, and conducting research. ict is applied independently of the subject matter. 3) media for teaching and learning: it refers to ict as a tool for teaching and learning itself, a medium through which teachers can teach, and students can learn. technology-based instructional delivery has many forms, including drills and drills, simulations, and educational networks. 4) ict for education management: the most common and broader application of ict is in the organizational and logistical functions of higher education institutions in transaction processing systems (tps) and management information systems (mis). the school literacy movement (gls) was launched by the ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia in 2015. the school literacy movement (gls) is a comprehensive and sustainable effort to make schools a learning organization whose citizens are literate for life through public involvement. gls is the ability to access, understand, and use something intelligently through various activities, including reading, viewing, listening, writing, and/or speaking. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 education must provide provisions to students regarding what they will face in society and their environment (ardiansyah & saputri, 2020). changing times lead to changes in educational demands. therefore, a need exists for education reform along with the changing times in the 21st century. based on the 2015 world economic forum, literacy skills are one of the pillars of 21stcentury education that should be emphasized in its development (ibda & rahmadi, 2018). the definition of literacy, in general, is often interpreted as the ability to read (ariani & sukarno, 2020), although various types of literacy are possible. someone with literacy skills will interact, communicate, and actualize themselves, both orally and in writing, to support other competencies. thus, literacy becomes a determining aspect of progress in a nation (budiharso & tarman, 2020; irianto & febrianti, 2017; permatasari, 2015). in particular, literacy skills deserving further attention for their development are digital literacy. digital literacy refers to the ability to move and participate actively in a digital environment through operating digital devices involving complex cognitive, motoric, and socio-emotional skills (eshet, 2004; jin et al., 2020). digital literacy is a 21st-century survival skill because mastery of digital literacy is a medium for implementing other competencies in the 21st century, now entering the digital age (eshet, 2004). it is because digital literacy is beyond the ability to operate hardware and software and involves the ability to support activities in the digital world (jin et al., 2020). even though most people in the 21st century use digital technology daily, it does not guarantee that they are digitally literate (murray & pérez, 2014). the urgency of mastering digital literacy is strengthened by online learning policies based on the ministry of education and culture circular letter number 15 of 2020. this transition is filled with various problems from education stakeholders and the media used (ihwanah, 2020). due to the covid-19 pandemic, this policy demands mastery of digital literacy by education stakeholders so that learning can run smoothly, especially teachers. teachers must adapt to this situation and adjust to technology, ensuring they can handle the situations that occur (mahfud et al., 2019). moreover, regarding the integration of digital technology in learning, the teacher is a key factor in its success (jannah et al., 2020). teachers also play a role in developing students' digital literacy, especially those related to socio-emotional and cognitive aspects (güneş & bahçivan, 2018). farihin 357 the teacher's mastery of digital literacy can influence other stakeholders, especially students and parents interact with teachers during the learning process. despite the importance of the teacher's role, some teachers have difficulty implementing ict in learning (sumardi et al., 2020); or are less ready to participate in developing students' digital literacy (sadaf & gezer, 2020). therefore, a need is present for the continuous development of teachers' digital literacy skills. before taking further steps related to the development of teacher digital literacy, knowing the teacher’s level of digital literacy is critical. the lack of linearity in previous research implies that in different regions with different access to technology, differences in teachers' digital literacy levels can occur (al khateeb, 2017; kharisma, 2017). this study focuses on the literacy of public and private high school teachers because high school is the last formal education level underlying higher education or university. hence, the introduction and development of digital literacy in high school are crucial (irwandi et al., 2016). this study also compares the digital literacy between public high school teachers and private high school teachers, where no research has compared the digital literacy of teachers of the two school types. the description above suggests that the purpose of this study is to observe the comparison of the digital literacy levels of public high school and private high school teachers and their implementation in competency areas based on the digital literacy global framework (dglf) developed by unesco in 2018 (unesco, 2018). dglf is an update of digcom 2.0. the research has limitations because only four of the seven competency areas were considered research subvariables: device and software operation, data and information literacy, communication and collaboration, and digital content creation. digital content in text, images, sound, animation, and video (multimedia) facilitates teaching and learning (surjono, 2020). teachers are required to master digital literacy competencies to lead students to face today's challenges through 21st-century learning. these digital literacy competencies include searching, evaluating, creating, and communicating digital content. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 in the 4.0 era, marked by the rapid development of such sophisticated technology, teachers should be familiar with mastery of technology, especially information technology. mastery of this technology will improve the quality of learning in the classroom because those who are already literate in technology will optimize all the latest learning media and tools at this time. however, many teachers are technology stutterers. based on survey data from gogot suharwoto, head of the education and culture information and communication technology center of the ministry of cultural education (kapustekkom), 40% of non-ict teachers are technology ready. it means that 60% are not ready for technology (maharani, 2018). the world of education is one line unavoidably touched by technology. many teachers are still shackled to this change; they are in their comfort zone, only doing iteration. facing the 4.0 revolution era is challenging, especially for the world of education, including changing learning methods that were previously conducted conventionally, delivering material through lectures, and changing children's mindsets and nature. in the learning process, building more innovative learning is necessary to improve the quality of educators. teachers are currently required to have competency standards aligned with educational development. every individual needs to understand the importance of digital literacy, including school supervisors, which is needed in this modern era. digital literacy is as vital as reading, writing, and other disciplines. literacy in modern times is beyond the context of how a nation frees itself from illiteracy and determines how a nation can compete with other nations. the digital era makes education easier and more efficient. the virus outbreak has paralyzed various aspects of life, one of which is education, requiring distance learning. during the covid-19 pandemic, teachers had to utilize technology in the learning process (tsakeni, 2021). teaching and learning activities were performed remotely (mbhiza, 2021; williams et al, 2021). the use of smartphones and computers is currently needed to support the learning process (alzubi, 2019). teachers must facilitate and begin to develop the ability to structure the demands of the 4.0 era in the learning process, including the assessment process. educators need to improve their abilities and competencies to ensure that the information conveyed to students is correct. in addition, accessing information/learning resources and obtaining and utilizing learning media is critical. it is necessary to improve learning quality and face the modern era. the regulation of the minister of state for empowerment of state apparatuses and bureaucratic reform no. 21 of 2010 on the functional position of educational supervisors and their credit score farihin 359 (article 5) states that the main task of educational supervisors is to execute academic and managerial oversight tasks in education units. they include the preparation of supervisory programs, implementation, coaching, and monitoring the implementation of 8 (eight) national education standards for assessment, mentoring, and professional teacher training. moreover, they cover the evaluation of supervision programs' implementation and supervisory duties in particular areas. the performance of an educational supervisor is related to the results achieved and can be seen from the quality and quantity possessed by an educational supervisor. according to mangkunegara (2016), performance results from quality and quantity achieved by someone conducting their duties per the responsibilities given. the rapid development of science and technology at this time requires that supervisors have an optimistic attitude in tackling all problems that will occur continuously and must find solutions to each. at this time of rapid development, educational supervisors must continually develop and improve their performance and have a solid optimistic attitude toward the work conducted. thus, their performance will be improved. it is hoped that the presence of a supervisor with high optimism and literacy skills in finding solutions to various obstacles and problems in every activity will improve the quality of education. the regulation of the minister of administrative reform and bureaucratic reform number 21 of 2010 suggests that education supervisors are civil servants (pns) with complete duties, responsibilities, and authority by authorized officials to perform academic and managerial supervision in educational units. educational supervisors are only civil servants referring to this applicable regulation. the supervision domain is divided into two categories: academic and managerial. based on the guidelines for evaluating the performance of educational supervisors (2012), the aspects of evaluating the performance of educational supervisors include 1) preparation of the supervision program, 2) implementation of the supervision program, 3) evaluation of the results of the supervision program implementation, and 4) guidance and professional training of teachers and or school principals. the optimistic attitude of a supervisor will substantially assist in performance. an optimistic supervisor will always consider failures in their performance to be the outside factors spurring them to overcome and correct these failures. according to nurtjahjanti and ratnaningsih (2011), high optimism will highly affect one's efforts to create a better future. the smooth running of the supervisor's performance cannot be done casually; strong self-confidence is needed to complete the task or the various problems faced in journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 the job or task. in the current digital era, supervisors unavoidably need high digital literacy skills. with digital literacy, acquiring all information will be comparatively easy. permadi et al. (2018) reported that digital literacy is a person's ability to use information and communication technology to find, evaluate, utilize, create and communicate information with cognitive skills, ethics, social, emotional, and technological aspects. accordingly, an educational supervisor should have competent digital literacy skills. digital literacy is imperative in the performance of an educational supervisor because, in the current era of development, information is presented and exchanged digitally, requiring the digital literacy ability of an educational supervisor. unsatisfactory supervisory competence does not only occur in indonesia and is a solemn issue in many other countries. the research conducted by ünal (2010) revealed that education supervisors in turkey stated that school supervisors could not provide the optimum service for school principals and teachers. the findings indicated that supervisors rated themselves as knowledgeable, helpful to principals and teachers in education, and people who could facilitate the work of teachers and principals. some inspectors also opine that their work is based on authority and reporting. the supervisor's positive self-perception is inversely proportional to the perception of the principal and teacher. principal teachers regard supervisors as people who frequently find fault, are arrogant, try to use their competence instead of providing a positive influence, and do not help improve their abilities. furthermore, they see supervisors as people who think their sole job is following the rules. therefore, a difference exists between the supervisor's perception and that of the principal and teacher. research question based on the research background and the theoretical gaps identified in several previous studies, the research question for this research is as follows. after the pandemic, “does mastery of digital literacy significantly affect mastery of education administration for high school supervising teachers in cirebon city?” hypothesis the following hypotheses were developed based on the above research question. farihin 361 ha1: mastery of digital literacy significantly affects mastery of high school supervisor teacher education administration in post-pandemic cirebon city. literature review digital literacy the concept of digital literacy has emerged since 1990. according to gilster (1997), digital literacy is understanding and using the information in various formats. gilster explained that literacy covers the ability to read but involves reading with meaning and understanding. digital literacy includes mastery of ideas, not keystrokes. hence, gilster accentuates critical thinking processes when dealing with digital media than technical competence as a core skill in digital literacy and emphasizes the critical evaluation of what is found through digital media rather than the technical skills required to access these digital media. gilster (1997) explained that in addition to the art of critical thinking, the competencies needed are learning how to organize knowledge and collecting reliable information from several different sources. someone who is digitally literate needs to develop the ability to search and develop a strategy in using search engines to find existing information and how to find information suiting their information needs. gilster (1997) reported four core competencies that a person needs to have to be digitally literate, including 1) internet searching, 2) guiding the direction of hypertext (hypertextual navigation), 3) evaluation of information content (content evaluation), and 4) knowledge assembly. daugles aj belshaw (in the ministry of education and culture, 2017) lists eight essential elements for developing digital literacy because digital literacy skills are still low. 1) cultural understanding of the various contexts of digital world users. 2) cognitive thinking power in assessing content. 3) constructive, the creativity of something expert and actual. 4) communicative, understanding the performance of networking and communication in the digital world. 5) responsible selfconfidence. 6) creative, creating ideas, and doing new things. 7) critical in addressing various issues. 8) socially responsible. the school literacy movement is a social movement with collaborative support from various elements. efforts are made to make it happen through students' reading habits. this habituation is conducted with a 15-minute reading activity (the teacher reads a book and the school members read silently, which is adjusted to the context or school's target). when the reading habit is formed, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 it will then be directed to the development and learning stages (accompanied by a bill based on the 2013 curriculum). variations in activities can combine receptive and productive skills development. clay (2001) and ferguson (2012) describe that information literacy comprises early, basic, library, media, technology, and visual literacy. in the indonesian context, early literacy is needed as a basis for acquiring later stages of literacy. the dimensions and indicators according to hague and payton (2011)in nationalita and nugroho (2020) appear in table 1. table 1 digital literacy dimensions and indicators draft dimensions indicator digital literacy 1. beyond functional skills 1. ict skills 2. creativity 2. product creation or output in various formats and models by utilizing digital technology 3. ability to think creatively and imaginatively in planning, content, and exploring ideas 3. collaboration 4. the ability to participate in the digital space 5. able to explain and negotiate the ideas of others 4. communications 6. able to communicate through digital technology media 7. able to understand and understand the audience 5. ability to find and select the information 8. ability to search and investigate information 6. critical thinking and evaluation 9. able to contribute, analyze, and sharpen critical thinking skills when dealing with information 7. cultural and social understanding 10. in line with the context of socio-cultural understanding 8. e-safety 11. ensure security when users explore, create, and collaborate with digital technology supervisor teacher supervision is a medieval roman concept, meaning deviation from the original text or scanning process and reviewing errors (smyth, 2001 in sullivan & glanz, 2005). historically, the first educational, supervisory function was inspection; this function has substantially changed over time. it includes periodic visits paid to teachers by figures of authority and control over teacher behavior regarding rules. these visits and control were once considered the primary goal of supervision. however, educational supervision was later aimed at leadership, interpersonal relations, program development, and instructional development (glickman et al., 2001; memduhoğlu et al., 2007; sullivan & glanz, 2005). as a consequence of these developments, supervision is currently identified as guiding and leading people in their studies to implement organizational goals (daresh & playko, 1995). farihin 363 nonetheless, the purpose of teaching supervision is to develop teaching and school success to provide student success, teacher development, and educational equity by working with educators (glickman et al., 2001). this mentality sees supervision as a social process promoting teacher development, training, and evaluation. the starting point is the individual, who is able to change their behavior. the change in question depends on the supervision efforts by the teacher's level of vocational development (markides, 2022; matabane et al., 2022). assessing the general competence of teachers is not crucial, but elevating them to a level they can reach by starting at whatever level they are at and encouraging them to improve their current performance are critical (markides, 2022; nolan & hoover, 2008). a supervisor can also work on changing the perceptions of the teacher and the manager. they can develop managers’ views by providing them with more contemporary information about management and making them understand the positive consequences of a democratic work environment. moreover, if necessary, a supervisor can communicate with them about the success stories of other schools and suggest the positive places they will get in the external environment and at school (ünal, 2010). the main objectives of educational supervision include determining defects and inappropriate practices by controlling the work of education staff and taking steps to prevent them. they also include providing staff with coordination, motivating staff through professional guidance and assistance, increasing job satisfaction, and contributing to integrating all educational institutions with the environment (memduhoğlu et al., 2007). sudjana (2012) states that the school or education unit supervisor conducts supervisory duties. school supervisors are educators/teachers with the status of civil servants appointed and assigned to the responsibility and authority to execute academic and managerial supervision in their educational units or schools. supervision means professional or expert assistance from a supervisor to a person or a group of people being supervised. to that end, the school supervisor in this paper is hereinafter referred to as the education supervisor, responsible for coaching, not inspecting or controlling. the scope includes academic and managerial supervision. academic and managerial supervision comprises the following activities. (1) preparation of the supervisory program, (2) implementation of the supervision program, (3) evaluation of supervision program implementation, and (4) guiding and training professional teachers and/or school principals. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 academic supervision is a supervisory function concerning aspects of conducting the teachers’ fostering, monitoring, evaluating, and professional training. these aspects include (1) planning learning, (2) implementing learning, (3) assessing learning outcomes, (4) guiding and training students, and (5) executing additional tasks attached to the implementation of the main activities per the teacher's workload (government regulation number: 74 of 2008 concerning teachers) managerial supervision. managerial supervision is a supervisory function regarding school management aspects. they directly relate to increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of schools with planning, coordination, implementation, assessment, development of teaching competence, and educational staff resources. fathurrohman and suryana (2020) stated that the primary duties of school supervisors cover six dimensions: supervising, advising, monitoring, reporting, coordinating, and performing leadership. in this regard, an educational supervisor at school must be a professional, and this duty cannot be conducted randomly. the definition of a professional supervisor refers to supervisors with specific academic qualifications and competencies. they must meet the requirements of work experience and other experiences that can support the supervisory activities to be executed. decree of the state minister for administrative reform no. 21 of 2010 specifies that school supervisors are civil servants whose authorized officials give full duties, responsibilities, and authority to conduct academic and managerial supervision in academic units (ri, 2011). furthermore, the supervisor is the person who supervises. that person is an education supervisor or a school principal who, because of the leadership role, has responsibility for the quality of the teaching program in the school or a special officer who is appointed to lead the improvement of a particular field of teaching (suhardan, 2010). supervision is an academic activity conducted by people with more knowledge than the person being supervised. the primary purpose of academic supervision is to provide services to teachers to improve learning quality, foster teachers to be more creative in learning, facilitate teachers to teach more effectively and pleasantly, collaborate with teachers to develop curricula, and conduct coaching. based on the above understanding, every supervisor is given the task, responsibility, and authority to conduct professional services, and assess and develop technical education and administration in each educational unit. accordingly, supervision implements educative techniques in schools or madrasas by preparing learning programs, implementing learning activities, and evaluating them to improve learning quality. the farihin 365 supervisors’ duties, functions, and powers to gain a deeper understanding of supervision are presented in table 2. table 2 school supervisor dimensions and indicators aspect dimensions indicator supervisory teacher education administration inspecting/ surveillance 1. implementation of the subject curriculum 2. the process of learning/ practicum/field studies 3. extracurricular activities 4. use of media, tools, and learning resources 5. student learning progress 6. learning environment advising/ advise 7. advise teachers in effective learning/guidance 8. teachers in improving professional competence 9. teachers in carrying out the assessment of the process and learning outcomes 10. teachers in carrying out classroom action research 11. teachers in improving personal, social, and pedagogic competence monitoring/ monitor 12. learning resilience 13. implementation of subject exams 14. quality standards of student learning outcomes 15. teacher professional development 16. procurement and utilization of learning resources coordinating/ coordinate 17. implementation of learning innovations 18. procurement of learning resources 19. teacher professional capacity-building activities reporting/ report 20. teacher performance in carrying out learning 21. student learning progress 22. implementation of academic supervisory duties methods research design this research addresses whether the mastery of digital literacy impacts the mastery of the education administration of supervising teachers directly. in this study, phenomena was analyzed using survey methodology and quantitative techniques (creswell, 2009). the dependent variable is mastery of supervisory teacher education administration, and the independent variable is mastery of digital literacy. this study used spss (version 26) to analyze the data. i used a simple regression journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 technique to show the direction of the independent variable's influence on the dependent variable. this research was conducted in cirebon city, west java province, indonesia. population and sample the population comprised all 25 school supervisors at public and private high schools under the auspices of the cirebon city education office. the samples in this study were taken from the entire study population from 25 school supervisor teachers with at least one year of work. therefore, the researcher recruited the 25 sample as the respondents of this study. see table 3 to see the distribution of sample. table 3 supervisor teachers in high school in cirebon city no subdistrict public high school private high schools amount 1 kesambi 4 13 17 2 harjamukti 2 0 2 3 weak bow 1 2 3 4 prosecutor 2 4 6 5 pekalian 0 0 0 total number 9 19 28 as table 3 suggests, we can see that there are 5 subdistricts in cirebon city where the research was conducted. of the 5 districts, one subdistrict has no supervisor teacher, so that the total number of the supervisor teachers was 28. however, the total sample that participated in this research were 25 as 3 of them were absent when the data collection was conducted. instrument this study used a survey questionnaire to collect data. the questionnaire was divided into two sections related to mastery of digital literacy and mastery of the supervising teacher's education administration. eleven items on digital literacy and twenty-two items for supervisory teacher education administration provided a total of 33 items. the items were developed by researchers based on the theories, dimensions, and indicators previously suggested by experts and researchers. the product-moment correlation test was used to correlate the item scores with the total score to determine the validity of the instrument items. all items had correlation coefficients above 0.6 and a significance level below 0.05. therefore, the 33 items were feasible to use in research. instrument reliability was tested using cronbach's alpha value. the results for all variables showed a good farihin 367 level of reliability above 0.7, making the instrument suitable for our study. descriptions of item dimensions and its validity and reliability appear in table 4 and table 5. table 4 research instruments variable dimensions indicator total digital literacy beyond functional skills 1 11 creativity 2 collaboration 2 communications 2 ability to find and select information 1 critical thinking and evaluation 1 cultural and social understanding 1 e-safety 1 supervisory teacher education administration inspecting/ surveillance 6 22 advising/ advise 5 monitoring/ monitor 5 coordinating/ coordinate 3 reporting/ report 3 table 5 reliability test results variable cronbach's alpha n of items digital literacy .793 11 supervision teacher education administration .879 22 table 6 shows that for the digital literacy variable, cronbach's alpha value is 0.793, which is greater than 0.60. therefore, this 11-item instrument is reliable. for the supervisory teacher education administration variable, cronbach's alpha value is 0.879, which is also greater than 0.60. hence, the 33-item instrument is reliable, implying that both variables meet the reliability test criteria. data collection data collection from the respondents was conducted using a designed and structured questionnaire to reveal the digital literacy and education administration of 25 supervisor teachers. the questionnaire was distributed in one day to achieve 5 sub-districts where the supervisor teachers worked. the researcher gave a three-day time for supervisor teachers to answer the questionnaire. the three-day time was given to anticipate that some teachers were not present at the time the questionnaire was distributed. after three days, the researchers collected the answer of the questionnaire from across each sub-district in cirebon city, west java province. of 28 supervisor teachers available in the 5 sub-district, the complete answer of the questionnaire was 25. the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 complete answers of the questionnaire were identified and the results tallied to proceed for data analysis. data analysis data analysis was executed in three steps. first, the normality test was conducted to ensure that the sample followed a normal distribution. then, descriptive statistics were retrieved to show the central tendency of the results. finally, hypothesis testing was conducted to explore whether the independent variable affects the dependent variable. table 8 depicts kolmogorov-smirnov test results for normality and shows that the sample is normally distributed (p >.05). all analyses were performed using spss version 26. quantitative descriptive analysis is intended to present data in the form of a central measure and a measure of the spread of each indicator, namely through the average, median, mode, minimum, maximum, range, and sum. spread is represented by variance and standard deviation. our research hypothesis was tested using a linear regression approach, allowing a two-tailed t-test to show the direction of influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. the two-tailed test was used because the independent variables, either positively or negatively, affect the dependent variable (helm et al., 2010). descriptive statistics data the data sourced from samples in the field of digital literacy and education administration for supervising teachers were used. they were analyzed using simple linear regression modeling with spss 26 software because the analysis involved both native and exogenous variables. the correlation test looks at the coefficient of r between variables and the t-test results to test the hypothesis. if the t-test results have p-values below 0.05, the correlation results become significant. therefore, the null hypothesis can be rejected, favoring the research hypothesis. farihin 369 results demographic analysis table 6 high school data in cirebon city no subdistrict number of public high schools number of private high schools amount 1 kesambi 4 13 17 2 harjamukti 2 0 2 3 weak bow 1 2 3 4 prosecutor 2 4 6 5 pekalian 0 0 0 total number 9 19 28 source: cirebon city senior high school education data (2022 data) table 6 above illustrates 28 public and private high schools across five sub-districts in cirebon city. of these, more than half are private (9 or 32%), while the rest are public (19 or 68%) normality test kolmogorov-smirnov test (z-distribution) was used to test the normality of the three research variables. table 7 depicts the results. table 7 normality data test results (one-sample kolmogorov-smirnov test) unstandardized residuals n 25 normal parameters, b means 0e-7 std. deviation 1.97100856 most extreme differences absolute .068 positive .053 negative -.068 kolmogorov-smirnov z .823 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .793 a. test distribution is normal. b. calculated from data. based on the normality test table above, the kolmogorov smirnov test values include 1) in equation 1 is 0.823 with a probability of 0.793. the p-value above the constant value α = 0.05 indicates that the data is normally distributed. hypothesis testing ha1: mastery of digital literacy significantly affects mastery of education administration for high school supervising teachers in cirebon city after the pandemic. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 table 8 partial test of digital literacy → education administration for supervising teachers variable betas q sig t information digital literacy → education administration teacher supervisor 0.673 5.434 0.000 significant t-table = 1.70814 adjusted r square = 0.781 r square = 0.702 table 8 shows the significant (p<.05) effect of digital literacy individually/partially on the supervisory teacher education administration. the relationship is stated to have a positive and significant effect if the t-count value is greater than the t-table, and the significant t-value is less than 0.05. based on the table above, the t-count for digital literacy was as big as 5.434 on the administration of supervising teacher education, meaning that it is greater than the t-table value (tcount=5.434 > t-table =1.70814 with a sig value of 0.000 <0.05). thus, a positive and significant effect of digital literacy exists on the administration of supervisory teacher education. the results of the regression calculation revealed that the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) was 0.781, meaning that the dependent variable explained 78.1% of the variation in the independent variable. accordingly, the digital literacy variable explained 78.1% variation in the administration of education teacher supervisors. however, the remaining 21.9% could be attributed to other variables not included in this research model. discussion this study addresses the effect of mastering digital literacy on the mastery of educational administration for high school supervisors in cirebon city post-pandemic. the following are the results of the analysis and discussion to interpret the research results. data analysis shows that mastery of literacy positively and significantly affects mastery of education administration for supervising teachers at high schools in cirebon city, west java province. it means that the higher the implementation of digital literacy in schools, the higher the administrative mastery of supervisory teacher education is at senior high schools in cirebon city, west java province. digital literacy is a critical aspect, and its application in educational institutions/schools is crucial, considering the current era of globalization requires everything to be digital in implementing learning and administration in schools. it should also be used to adapt to current developments, farihin 371 especially after the covid-19 pandemic, where almost all learning or school administration is conducted online. digital literacy must be implemented for the challenges of today's era demanding every aspect towards digitization, making it possible that if one still uses conventional methods of doing work will be hampered. hence, both schools and supervisors can contribute to today's challenges. becoming digitally literate also includes cognitive, creative, critical, and social abilities beyond the basic functional skills for using icts, which are increasingly spreading into everyday contexts, such as in personal and social life, and the workplace (junge & hadjivassiliou, 2007). rene (2010) suggests that the digital literacy gap is one of the most important social justice issues facing the digital society (seale, 2009). those living in marginalized circumstances continue to display low levels of digital literacy, adversely contributing to the digital literacy gap (hadjerrouit, 2010; junge & hadjivassiliou, 2007). developing digital literacy is crucial because digital literacy has practical value in solving various tasks, including accessing health, government, and public service information online and utilizing opportunities for online business, education, and learning. in addition, developing digital literacy allows people to participate in community activities and conduct social actions online (renee, 2010). thus, digital literacy is a social, political, economic, and cultural product and has significant implications for education, culture, society, and community development today in the digital era (bruce, 2003; nawaz & ghulam, 2010). this perspective highlights the need to develop personal digital literacy and the importance of being a digital citizen to participate in a digital society (junge & hadjivassiliou, 2007). the gls is a comprehensive and sustainable effort to make schools a learning organization whose citizens are literate for life through public involvement. changing times lead to changes in educational demands. it aligns with the school literacy movement (gls) launched by the ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia in 2015. in the context of gls, the ability to access, understand, and use something intelligently through various activities, including reading, viewing, listening, writing, and/or speaking, are critical. education must provide provisions to students regarding what they will confront in society and their environment (roy ardiansyah & saputri, 2020). thus, a need exists for educational reform along with the changing times in the 21st century. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 based on the 2015 world economic forum, literacy skills are one of the pillars of 21-st century education that should be emphasized in its development (ibda & rahmadi, 2018). the definition of literacy, in general, is often interpreted as the ability to read (ariani & sukarno, 2020), although various types of literacy exist. someone with literacy skills can interact, communicate, and actualize themselves, orally and in writing. therefore, this situation will support other competencies that a person has so that literacy becomes a determining aspect of progress in a nation (irianto & febrianti, 2017; permatasari, 2015). in particular, literacy skills deserving further attention for their development are digital literacy. digital literacy is a 21st century survival skill because mastery of digital literacy is a medium for implementing other competencies in the 21st century, now entering the digital age (eshet, 2004). even though most people in the 21st century use digital technology daily, it does not guarantee that they are digitally literate (murray & pérez, 2014). it is because digital literacy is more than the ability to operate hardware and software and extends to support activities in the digital world (jin et al., 2020). digital literacy is the ability to move and participate actively in a digital environment through digital devices involving complex cognitive, motoric, and socio-emotional skills (eshet, 2004; jin et al., 2020). the urgency of mastering digital literacy is strengthened by online learning policies based on the ministry of education and culture circular letter number 15 of 2020. this transition is filled with various problems from education stakeholders and the media used (ihwanah, 2020). due to the covid-19 pandemic, this policy requires mastery of digital literacy by education stakeholders so that learning can run smoothly, especially for teachers. teachers must adapt to this situation and adjust to the technology, ensuring that they are not isolated or cannot handle the situations that occur (mahfud et al., 2019). furthermore, per the integration of digital technology in learning, the teacher is a critical factor in its success (jannah et al., 2020). teachers also play a role in developing students' digital literacy, especially those related to socio-emotional and cognitive aspects (güneş & bahçivan, 2018). farihin 373 hopefully, the teacher's mastery of digital literacy can influence other stakeholders, especially students and parents, who interact with teachers during the learning process. despite the importance of the teacher's role, some teachers still have difficulty implementing ict in learning (sumardi et al., 2020); or are not ready to participate in developing students' digital literacy (sadaf & gezer, 2020). therefore, a need is present for the continuous development of teachers' digital literacy skills. before taking further steps on the development of teacher digital literacy, knowing the teachers’ digital literacy level is critical. the lack of linearity in previous research suggests that various regions with different access levels to technology may be responsible for the differences in teachers' digital literacy levels (al khateeb, 2017; kharisma, 2017). this study implies that the world of education is unavoidably affected by technology. many teachers are struggling with this change because they do not move out of their comfort zone. facing the 4.0 revolution era is challenging, especially for the world of education. it is manifested in modified learning methods previously conducted conventionally, delivering material through lectures. it also changes the mindset and nature of children. in the learning process, establishing more innovative learning upgrades the quality of educators. teachers must meet competency standards aligned with educational development. every individual must comprehend the vitality of digital literacy, including school supervisors, because it is indispensable in this modern era. digital literacy is crucial and more notable than reading, writing, and other disciplines. literacy in modern times cannot be confined to its traditional definition. it should be a measurement defining how a nation can compete with others. the digital era renders education readier and more practical. to that end, it is necessary to optimize its role and accessibility worldwide from varied aspects. conclusion the results showed that mastery of literacy positively and significantly impacted mastery of education administration for supervising teachers at senior high schools in cirebon city, west java province. as the implementation of digital literacy in schools increases, the administrative mastery of supervisory teacher education at senior high schools in cirebon city, west java province, becomes better. this study emphasizes its novelty in that supervisor teachers should be literate in digital technology for optimum role to supervise teachers. this study, however, has limitation in the data coverage that was collected through questionnaire so that quantitative journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 analysis is emphasized. future research is suggested to implement qualitative approach where indepth data collection and data analysis through ethnography approach is elaborated. references al khateeb, a. a. m. (2017). measuring digital competence and ict literacy: an exploratory study of in-service english language teachers in the context of saudi arabia. international education studies, 10(12), 38–51. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v10n12p38 alzubi, a. (2019). teachers’ perceptions on using smartphones in english as a foreign language context. research in social sciences and technology, 4(1), 92-104. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.01.5 ariani, s. e. m., & sukarno, s. (2020). implementasi gerakan literasi sekolah (gls) di sd negeri bumi 1 kota surakarta. didaktika dwija indria, 8(4), 1–6. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.20961/ddi.v8i04.43674 aviram, a., & eshet-alkalai, y. (2006). towards a theory of digital literacy: three scenarios for the next steps. european journal of open, distance and e-learning, 9(1). https://old.eurodl.org/?p=archives&year=2006&halfyear=1&article=223 brownell, c., & rashid, a. (2020). building bridges instead of walls: engaging young children in critical literacy read alouds. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(1), 76-94. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.02.01.5 bruce, b. c. (2003). literacy in the information age: inquiries into meaning making with new technologies. eric. budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 clay, m. m. (2001). change over time in children’s literacy development. heinemann. creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. in sage publications (vol. 8). sage publication, inc. daresh, j. c., & playko, m. a. (1995). supervision as a proactive process: concepts and cases. eric. eshet, y. (2004). digital literacy: a conceptual framework for survival skills in the digital era. journal of educational multimedia and hypermedia, 13(1), 93–106. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/4793/ https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.01.5 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 farihin 375 evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), i-iii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 ezer, j. (2006). india and the usa: a comparison through the lens of model it curricula. journal of information technology education: research, 5(1), 429–440. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/111555/ fathurrohman, f., & suryana, a. a. (2020). supervisi pendidikan dalam pengembangan proses pengajaran. ubrefiko aditama. ferguson, l. a. (2012). implementing a video education program to improve health literacy. the journal for nurse practitioners, 8(8), e17–e22. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nurpra.2012.07.025 gilster, p. (1997). digital literacy. wiley computer pub. glickman, c. d., gordon, s. p., & ross-gordon, j. m. (2001). supervision and instructional leadership: a developmental approach. eric. güneş, e., & bahçivan, e. (2018). a mixed research-based model for pre-service science teachers’ digital literacy: responses to “which beliefs” and “how and why they interact” questions. computers & education, 118, 96–106. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.11.012 hadjerrouit, s. (2010). a theoretical framework to foster digital literacy: the case of digital learning resources bt key competencies in the knowledge society (n. reynolds & m. turcsányi-szabó (eds.); pp. 144–154). springer berlin heidelberg. hague, c., & payton, s. (2011). digital literacy across the curriculum. curriculum leadership, 9(10). http://www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/default.asp?id=33211&issueid=12380 helm, s., eggert, a., & garnefeld, i. (2010). modeling the impact of corporate reputation on customer satisfaction and loyalty using partial least squares. in handbook of partial least squares (pp. 515–534). springer. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-328278_23 hohlfeld, t. n., ritzhaupt, a. d., barron, a. e., & kemker, k. (2008). examining the digital divide in k-12 public schools: four-year trends for supporting ict literacy in florida. computers & education, 51(4), 1648–1663. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.04.002 ibda, h., & rahmadi, e. (2018). penguatan literasi baru pada guru madrasah ibtidaiyah dalam menjawab tantangan era revolusi industri 4.0. jrtie: journal of research and thought of islamic education, 1(1), 1–21. http://jurnaliainpontianak.or.id/index.php/jrtie/article/view/1064 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 ihwanah, a. (2020). problematika pembelajaran daring di sekolah dasar pada era pandemi covid-19. jiees: journal of islamic education at elementary school, 1(2), 44–51. http://jiees.alkhoziny.ac.id/index.php/jiees/article/view/15 irianto, p. o., & febrianti, l. y. (2017). pentingnya penguasaan literasi bagi generasi muda dalam menghadapi mea. proceedings education and language international conference, 1(1). http://lppm-unissula.com/jurnal.unissula.ac.id/index.php/elic/article/view/1282 irwandi, s., ufatin, n., & sultoni, s. (2016). peran sekolah dalam menumbuhkembangkan perilaku hidup sehat pada siswa sekolah dasar (studi multi situs di sd negeri 6 mataram dan sd negeri 41 mataram kota mataram nusa tenggara barat). jurnal pendidikan: teori, penelitian, dan pengembangan, 1(3), 492–498. http://journal.um.ac.id/index.php/jptpp/article/view/6178 isidro, e., & teichert, l. (2021). towards socially just literacy teaching in virtual spaces. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 21-41. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.6 jannah, m., prasojo, l. d., & jerusalem, m. a. (2020). elementary school teachers’ perceptions of digital technology based learning in the 21st century: promoting digital technology as the proponent learning tools. al ibtida: jurnal pendidikan guru mi, 7(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.24235/al.ibtida.snj.v7i1.6088 jin, k.-y., reichert, f., cagasan, l. p., de la torre, j., & law, n. (2020). measuring digital literacy across three age cohorts: exploring test dimensionality and performance differences. computers & education, 157, 103968. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103968 jones-kavalier, b. r., & flannigan, s. l. (2008). connecting the digital dots: literacy of the 21st century. teacher librarian-seattle-, 35(3), 13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252911513_connecting_the_digital_dots_litera cy_of_the_21_century junge, k., & hadjivassiliou, k. (2007). what are the eu and member states doing to address digital literacy? elearning papers, 6, 1. http://agora.edu.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2480740 kharisma, h. v. (2017). literasi digital di kalangan guru sma di kota surabaya. libri-net, 6(4), 31–32. http://journal.unair.ac.id/ln@literasi-digital-di-kalangan-guru-sma-di-kotasurabaya-article-11748-media-136-category-.html kilinc, e. & tarman, b. (2022). citizenship types, social media use, and speaking foreign language as predictors of global competence, citizenship teaching & learning, 17:1, pp. 49–62, https://doi.org/10.1386/ctl_00081_1 https://doi.org/10.1386/ctl_00081_1 farihin 377 macleod, h. (2005). what role can educational multimedia play in narrowing the digital divide? international journal of education and development using ict, 1(4), 42–53. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/42316/ maharani, e. (2018). kemendikbud: hanya 40 persen guru siap dengan teknologi. republika.co.id. https://www.republika.co.id/berita/pendidikan/eduaction/18/12/03/pj60ej335kemendikbud-hanya-40-persen-guru-siap-dengan-teknologi mahfud, h., adi, f. p., atmojo, i. r. w., & ardiansyah, r. (2019). peningkatan kompetensi evaluasi pembelajaran berbasis teknologi pada guru sd di kota surakarta. jurnal pendidikan dasar, 7(2), 1–5. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.20961/jpd.v7i2.35104 mangkunegara, a. a. a. p. (2016). manajemen sumber daya manusia perusahaan. pt. remaja rosdakarya. marais, e. (2021). a journey through digital storytelling during covid-19 students preparedness to use technology for learning in the language classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 169-182. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.17 markides, d. (2022). revisioning educational leadership through love and the ancillary: a critical self-study. research in educational policy and management, 4(2), 18-36. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2022.5 matabane, m., matabane, r., moloi, t., & sibaya, k. (2022). the exploring factors that teachers view as hindering quality in teaching and learning at a tvet college. research in educational policy and management, 4(1), 51-64. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2022.9 mbhiza, h. (2021). shifting paradigms: rethinking education during and post-covid-19 pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 279-289. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.31 mehra, p., & mital, m. (2007). integrating technology into the teaching-learning transaction: pedagogical and technological perceptions of management faculty. international journal of education and development using ict, 3(1). https://www.learntechlib.org/p/188072/ memduhoğlu, h. b., aydin, i., yilmaz, k., güngör, s., & oğuz, e. (2007). the process of supervision in the turkish educational system: purpose, structure, operation. asia pacific education review, 8(1), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03025833 murray, m. c., & pérez, j. (2014). unraveling the digital literacy paradox: how higher education fails at the fourth literacy. issues in informing science and information technology, 11, 85. https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/facpubs/3438/ nasionalita, k., & nugroho, c. (2020). indeks literasi digital generasi milenial di kabupaten bandung. jurnal ilmu komunikasi, 18(1), 32–47. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.17 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.31 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 http://jurnal.upnyk.ac.id/index.php/komunikasi/article/viewfile/3075/2834 nawaz, a., & ghulam, m. k. (2010). digital literacy: an analysis of the contemporary paradigms. international journal of science and technology education research, 1(2), 19–29. https://academicjournals.org/journal/ijster/article-full-text-pdf/68579321822 nolan, j., & hoover, l. (2008). teacher supervision evaluation: theory into practice, 2nd, translation bijan abdollahi., 2010. tehran, contemporary works. nurtjahjanti, h., & ratnaningsih, i. z. (2011). hubungan kepribadian hardiness dengan optimisme pada calon tenaga kerja indonesia (ctki) wanita di blkln disnakertrans jawa tengah. jurnal psikologi undip, 10(2), 126–132. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.14710/jpu.10.2.126-132 orrick, r. (2011). envisioning an internet center for homeless individuals: one group’s quest to reduce the digital divide. permadi, d., shabrina, f., & rahyaputra, v. (2018). menyongsong kewirausahaan digital indonesia. ugm press. permatasari, a. (2015). membangun kualitas bangsa dengan budaya literasi. prosiding seminar nasional bulan bahasa 2015. http://repository.unib.ac.id/11120/1/15-ane permatasari.pdf renee, h. (2010). digital and media literacy: a plan of action. new york: the aspen institute. ri, p. n. (2011). buku kerja pengawas sekolah. jakarta: dirjen pusat pengembangan kependidikan badan pengembangan sumber daya manusia, pendidikan dan penjaminan mutu pendidikan. roy ardiansyah, i. r. w. a., & saputri, d. y. (2020). peningkatan kompetensi profesional guru dalam melaksanakan pembelajaran digital melalui workshop terintegrasi. jurnal pendidikan dasar, 8(2), 1–6. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.20961/jpd.v8i2.44346 sadaf, a., & gezer, t. (2020). exploring factors that influence teachers’ intentions to integrate digital literacy using the decomposed theory of planned behavior. journal of digital learning in teacher education, 36(2), 124–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/21532974.2020.1719244 sahay, s. (2004). beyond utopian and nostalgic views of information technology and education: implications for research and practice. journal of the association for information systems, 5(7), 1. https://aisel.aisnet.org/jais/vol5/iss7/1/ sasseville, b. (2004). integrating information and communication technology in the classroom. canadian journal of learning and technology/la revue canadienne de l’apprentissage et de la technologie, 30(2). https://www.learntechlib.org/p/43067/ farihin 379 seale, j. (2009). digital inclusion beta: a research briefing. the teaching and learning research programme (tlrp), 1–52. selwyn, n. (2006). digital division or digital decision? a study of non-users and low-users of computers. poetics, 34(4), 273–292. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2006.05.003 shabalina, n., & bykov, a. (2021). problem of forming a literate reader in the digital age based on the material of modern children’s and youth prose. journal of social studies education research, 12(3), 175-203. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3356/518 sudjana, n. (2012). pengawas dan kepengawasan. binamitra publishing. suhardan, d. (2010). supervisi profesional layanan dalam meningkatkan mutu pembelajaran di era otonomi daerah. alfabeta. sullivan, s., & glanz, j. (2005). supervision that improves teaching: strategies and techniques. corwin press. sumardi, l., rohman, a., & wahyudiati, d. (2020). does the teaching and learning process in primary schools correspond to the characteristics of the 21st century learning?international journal of instruction, 13(3), 357–370. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13325a surjono, h. d. (2020). kemampuan literasi digital bagi guru sma. workshop literasi digital yang diselenggarakan oleh direktorat sma. http://blog.uny.ac.id/hermansurjono/kemampuan-literasi-digital-bagi-guru-sma/ tinio, v. l. (2003). ict in education . e-asean task force. https://elearning.tsu.ge/pluginfile.php/183/mod_resource/content/0/ict_docs/ict_in_education.pdf tsakeni, m. (2021). transition to online learning by a teacher education program with limited 4ir affordances. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 129-147. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.15 tshelane, m. (2022). reimagining responsible research innovations regarding professional teaching standards for curriculum practice. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), 92-105. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.8 ünal, a. (2010). analysis of perception on supervisors in primary education. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 2(2), 5028–5033. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.815 unesco. (2018). a global framework of reference on digital literacy. the united nations educational scientific and cultural organization (unesco). https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.15 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4), 353-380 van dijk, j. a. g. m. (2006). digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. poetics, 34(4), 221–235. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2006.05.004 williams, t., mcintosh, r., & russell, w. (2021). equity in distance education during covid19. research in social sciences and technology, 6(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.1 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4), 24-55 technophobia and technophilia among undergraduates: cross-national research in jordan, qatar, and egypt aseel ajlouni1 & saleh rawadieh2 abstract the rising growth of integrating technology into education affects the psychological structure of students, especially their technophobia and technophilia levels, playing a vital role in their adaptation to new technology, bridging the digital divide, and achieving sustainable development goals. despite such influence, research lacks diagnostic theses among arabian undergraduates. this study is the first to assess technophobia and technophilia levels according to countries among jordanian, egyptian, and qatari undergraduates. the quantitative research approach and a crossnational research design, with a web-based questionnaire, are adopted to explore the technophobia and technophilia levels of arabian undergraduates and investigate them concerning the country. additionally, a stratified multistage clustered random sampling is recruited. the study sample comprised 1081 undergraduates; from egypt (400), jordan (375), and qatar (301). the data were collected in september of the academic year 2021–2022 using the technophobia and technophilia questionnaire. the results demonstrated a moderate level of technophilia among arabian undergraduates. moreover, according to country, the ancova test confirmed a non-significant (p>.05) difference in technophilia levels. notably, a significant (p<.05) difference exists in technophobia levels according to country. the results of the scheffe test demonstrated that qatari undergraduates were less technophobic than jordanian and egyptian undergraduates. this study’s implications can inform the government, especially policy-makers in education and sustainable development planners, to pay attention to undergraduates’ technophilia and technophobia concerns and plan strategies and policies for encouraging technology adaptation and managing technophobia and technophilia constructs. keywords: technophobia, technophilia, technology, arab countries, jordan, qatar, egypt, psychological consequences. introduction digital transformation (dt) and revolution characterize this era, where all sectors, such as commercial, educational, entertainment, military, and medical, rely on digital technologies and their generated data. modern technologies are ubiquitous and have entered most areas of our lives and environments. they are in schools, homes, work, streets, and places of entertainment, affecting how we learn, work, play, think, and make decisions. this dependence on technology has increased 1 dr.aseel o. ajlouni, al-ahliyya amman university, a.ajlouni@ammanu.edu.jo 2 prof. saleh m. rawadieh, qatar university, srawadieh@qu.edu.qa journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 25 with the social distancing imposed by the covid-19 pandemic, forcing people around the globe to use technology as a primary tool not just for communication or improving performance but for survival (o'leary & armfield, 2020). the rapid development of technology has transformed the global economy where the dt process has become a competition among countries due to its benefits, such as ensuring the quality of products and services, achieving creativity and innovation, opening up new job opportunities, achieving sustainable development goals, and improving management (elmassah & mohieldin, 2020; holzinger et al., 2021; kutnjak et al., 2019; maroufkhani et al., 2022; o'leary & armfield, 2020; vial, 2021). to achieve these advantages and effectively transform into a digital world, individuals should possess digital skills, competencies, and a digital mindset or beliefs; otherwise, they might refuse new technology. the abuse of this technology or the failure to adapt to it can have psychological consequences, negatively impacting individuals, society, and the economy (cetindamar et al., 2021; morandini et al., 2020; solberg et al., 2020; trenerry et al., 2021; shawaqfeh & almahaireh, 2019). in light of technology integration’s benefits and accelerated development, researchers have investigated its impact on variables such as economic creativity and productivity (tokareva et al., 2018; tofan & aivaz, 2022; yang, 2022). however, only a few researchers have investigated its psychological influences. most of them have addressed specific technologies (i.e., computer anxiety, internet addiction, and attitude toward robots) and generally not the recent ones. it highlights an urgent need to study the effects of the modern technologies in broader concepts such as technophilia rather than the effect of specific technology. in other hand, the recent generation of technology have been penetrating all sectors and fields. for instance, increased technology integration has been exclusively witnessed in the education sector, especially after the covid-19 pandemic, where face-to-face learning methods have been replaced by online learning by integrating several digital technologies into learning environments (ajlouni et al., 2022; baytak, 2022; gqokonqana, olarewaju & cloete, 2022; abu-talib et al., 2021; jaradat & ajlouni, 2021; bada & jita, 2021). in addition, iste (2022) suggested standards for teachers, leaders, coaches, and students to integrate technology with teaching and learning processes providing competencies for learning, teaching, and leading in the digital age. therefore, many recent technologies have been employed at schools across all academic levels such as virtual reality, augmented reality ajlouni & rawadieh books, 3d printing technology, and holograms (hsiao et al., 2022; morimoto et al., 2022; raja & priya, 2022). employing a new technology in an environment can cause an innate sensation interpreted as a physiological or psychological response. however, limited studies relate to users’ reactions to recent technologies, such as attitudes toward computers, technophobia, and technophilia (khasawneh, 2018). moreover, no recent study has investigated the impacts of technophobia and technophilia in the arabian context. technophobia is a psychological orientation or attitude toward technology leading to its limited use or fear of using it, while technophilia is an over-enthusiasm for technology and a strong attraction toward it (khasawneh, 2018; martínez-córcoles et al., 2017, ronit, 2011). even though technophobia and technophilia steadily grow in today’s society and are considered the foremost factors to be studied, the related literature is limited (di giacomo et al., 2020; khasawneh, 2018; martínez-córcoles et al., 2017). a few studies have assessed the technophobia and technophilia levels among older adults, workers, farmers, secondary-school students, and older internet users (di giacomo et al., 2019; khasawneh, 2018). it highlights the need to conduct a similar study in this dt era among youth categories, playing a vital role in developing the economy and community. dt competition has increased among countries to achieve sustainable development goals. therefore, technology has accelerated in this era; technology reliance is expanding in all industries, as covid-19 has forced technology usage as a survival tool. despite this technology expansion, limited literature exists on its psychological consequences, especially those considering technophobia and technophilia. moreover, no previous study has yet assessed technophobia and technophilia levels in the arabian context. based on the preceding, the current study aims to fill the gap in technophobia and technophilia literature by investigating the levels of these constructs among undergraduates from three arab countries: jordan, egypt, and qatar. it explores whether these levels differ substantially according to the country. the relevance of this study lies in accepting the new technology and adapting to it in the dt era to achieve sustainable development goals. the study results are expected to offer insights into the exact psychological consequences of technology expansion among arabian undergraduates, helping policy-makers plan strategies to enhance psychological constructs among undergraduates. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 27 research questions − q1. what are the levels of technophilia and technophobia among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt? − q2. is there any statistically significant difference in the levels of technophilia among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt? − q3. is there any statistically significant difference in the levels of technophobia among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt? research hypothesis two alternative hypotheses were formulated based on the second and third research questions. − ha1. there exist statistically significant differences at α = 0.05 significance level in technophilia levels among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt. − ha2. there exist statistically significant differences at α = 0.05 significance level in technophobia levels among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt. literature review technophobia technophobia is a psychological orientation or attitude toward technology; it is an irrational fear or anxiety in persons about using technology (martínez-córcoles et al., 2017; osiceanu, 2015). technophobia constrains the ability of people to use technology and hinders them from realizing its benefits. technophobic people dislike technology and avoid or refuse to adapt to it. individuals develop technophobia as a response to technology stimuli due to their fear of technology (ahmad & daud, 2011; faloye et al., 2022; khasawneh, 2015). technophobia constructs comprise technoparanoia, techno-fear, techno-anxiety, cybernetic revolt, and technology avoidance. it contains cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components (faloye et al., 2022). many factors influence technophobia formation: a) personal factors, such as self-efficacy, fear, experience, and emotion; b) interpersonal factors, such as communication with others on the subject of technology; c) group factors, such as conflicts of interest with various related groups regarding the emergence of modern technologies and group stereotypes related to a given technology; and d) social factors, such as ajlouni & rawadieh mass media and culture and the country’s technological and economic development levels (nestik et al., 2018). technophobia closely relates to computer anxiety, but it is distinct from it. computer anxiety is associated with interacting with computers, while technophobia is a broader concept related to modern or new technologies, not just computers (martínez-córcoles et al., 2017). so far, several measures have been developed to evaluate specific technology influences, such as computer anxiety and negative attitude toward robots (nomura et al., 2006). nevertheless, few technophobia measures have been developed. some are based on the etymology of technophobia (martínezcórcoles et al., 2017), while others focus on computerphobia and regard it as a multi-dimensional construct comprising three scales to assess computer anxiety, computer thoughts, and the general attitude toward computers (rosen et al., 1992). approximately 30% of people globally experience technophobia (subero-navarro, pelegrínborondo, reinares-lara, & olarte-pascual, 2022), and this percentage is expected to rise with the rapid continuous development of technology. it hinders technology integration across all industries; for example, it prevents academic staff from effectively employing information and communication technology (ict) in the instructional process (ahmad et al., 2014) and influences employees’ usage of new technology, playing a vital role in an organization’s success (show-hui & wen-kai, 2010). it means that it influences the success of an organization and creates a digital divide regarding its impact on individuals’ technology adaptation (faloye et al., 2022; nimrod, 2018). previous studies investigating technophobia have been conducted in countries such as south africa, spain, britain, nigeria, poland, estonia, italy, latvia, and the united states. some aimed to assess technophobia—such as zarina et al.’s (2018) study, reporting that latvia participants had a moderate level of technophobia. others studied technophobia’s impact on and relation to other variables and found that it affects digital divide access and skills (faloye et al., 2022), influences social robot acceptance (subero-navarro et al., 2022), and predicts the acceptance and intention to use smart-home products (daruwala et al., 2022). it also predicts attitude toward e-marketing (adiukwu, 2022) and is negatively correlated with technology acceptance (khasawneh, 2018) and positively correlated with technology experience (hou et al., 2017). martínez-córcoles et al. (2017) revealed that technophobia is negatively associated with technophilia and is an independent construct from technophilia. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0747563218303297?casa_token=-kzure_xq7qaaaaa:3y0ed9zxjsfilng40ihpkyed7htszigbtl6t63xgrfbqdklhtct5tnjgznat6u9stghmp_pahmw#bib59 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0747563218303297?casa_token=-kzure_xq7qaaaaa:3y0ed9zxjsfilng40ihpkyed7htszigbtl6t63xgrfbqdklhtct5tnjgznat6u9stghmp_pahmw#bib59 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 29 in arabian countries, no study has yet assessed technophobia using technophobia measures. two studies investigated the perceptions of the challenges students faced in their online learning during covid-19 and assessed technophobia using a one-item technophobia questionnaire for the challenge of online learning. jaradat and ajlouni (2021) conducted a study in jordan, where 29.2% of the participants reported being technophobic. the second study by rajab et al. (2020) in saudi arabia found that 17% of the respondents had technophobia. because of the lack of these studies in the arabian context, researchers have referred to related studies on technophobia, such as the study by abdullah and fakieh (2020), reporting that 3.11 of 4 saudi participants had artificial intelligence fear, and gabr et al.’s (2021) study, finding moderate to high levels of technostress among egyptian academic staff members. technophilia technophilia is another form of psychological implication caused by technology; it is similar to technophobia, implying an extreme association between humans and technology. however, technophilia is an attraction toward technology instead of its avoidance (osiceanu, 2015). it is defined as an innovation obsession, a positive orientation toward technology, and a strong enthusiasm for it (abbasi & tabatabaee-yazd, 2021). technophilic people take pleasure in using technology and exhibit a positive attitude toward adopting it; they focus on its egocentric profits (barrientos-gutierrez et al., 2019; martínez-córcoles et al., 2017; osiceanu, 2015). the literature on technophilia is inadequate, and only a few measures have been developed to evaluate it. some researchers have considered it to cover behavioral, emotional, and cognitive factors (seebauer et al., 2015), while others have deemed it as a three-factor structure: a) enthusiasm, referring to a positive attitude toward technology use; b) dependency, a repetitive behavior referring to the frequent use of technology; and c) techno-reputation, a need to update; it is a negative emotion, such as having a fear of falling behind in having the latest product versions. individuals with a high level of techno-reputation could spend considerable money owning the latest version of recent technologies (martínez-córcoles et al., 2017). technophilia is subject to general technology-related values and internet of things (iot) skills (jahan et al., 2021). therefore a high level of technophilia should be avoided because it could harm individual life quality (martínez-córcoles et al., 2017). to sum up technophilia it is not just a positive attitude towards technology but also includes dependency and technoreputation, where a high level of technology https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0160791x17301793?casa_token=syddfkuwkmiaaaaa:nscjbc1eabjlj7vyd-pctdwlzq6nuoyzxuad0w5lrxl7f57ng9-8zxot-3ljvitjfg24xeoojj8#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0160791x17301793?casa_token=syddfkuwkmiaaaaa:nscjbc1eabjlj7vyd-pctdwlzq6nuoyzxuad0w5lrxl7f57ng9-8zxot-3ljvitjfg24xeoojj8#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0160791x17301793?casa_token=syddfkuwkmiaaaaa:nscjbc1eabjlj7vyd-pctdwlzq6nuoyzxuad0w5lrxl7f57ng9-8zxot-3ljvitjfg24xeoojj8#! ajlouni & rawadieh dependency could lead to addiction, obsession issues, and anxiety when individuals cannot reach them, further high level of technoreputation could lead to money wasting of having unneeded technology just to have the pleasure of owning latest technology products in the market. only a few researchers across the globe, such as those in iran, bangladesh, lombardy, india, and mexico, have investigated technophilia and its relation to other variables. they found that it has a significant positive relationship with teachers’ personality traits (abbasi & tabatabaee-yazdi, 2021) and a significant negative relationship with academic achievement (minikutty & thomas, 2019). moreover, it is influenced by iot skills and general technology-related value play (jahan et al., 2021), associated with trials of e-cigarettes where students with the highest levels of technophilia were more exposed to such products (barrientos-gutierrez et al., 2019). no study has yet assessed technophilia in the arabian context; thus, researchers have investigated related studies. for example, in jordan, hamad et al. (2021) found a significant relationship between the level of digital skills and technology acceptance, as librarians reported high levels of technology acceptance and digital skills. in addition, ta'an et al. (2021) disclosed that jordanian nurses were comfortably using computer technology in healthcare. almaiah (2018) reported that jordanian undergraduates had a positive impression of mobile information system services in the education field. furthermore, saeed and al-zayed (2018) revealed that jordanian undergraduates had a positive attitude toward computer-assisted language learning. similarly, alnasraween et al. (2021) demonstrated that students at amman arab university had a positive, moderate attitude toward distance learning. al bataineh (2014) suggested that social studies teachers had a positive attitude toward implementing technology in their classrooms. in qatar, al-abdulghani (2021) conducted a study comprising 105 qataris and revealed an increased adoption of online shopping and banking services under covid-19 lockdown. additionally, hendawi and nosair (2020) found that students at qatar university (qu) had high levels of emotional and cognitive fields of technological awareness and moderate levels of awareness skills. alkhateeb (2019) revealed that qatari undergraduates had a moderate level of technology self-efficacy. moreover, alshaboul et al. (2022) reported that middle-and high-school qatari students had a moderate attitude toward distance learning and did not find distance learning exciting. in egypt, gawish et al. (2021) discovered that egyptian dental students had a positive attitude toward online learning and were familiar with online education. in addition, hassan and wood journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 31 (2020) investigated 132 egyptians and indicated that 58.8% of them used m-banking services either monthly, weekly, or daily, whereas 48.5% did not use them at all. zaky et al. (2020) revealed that egyptians had behavioral intentions to adopt the iot. badran (2019) also disclosed that egyptians with college education or above were willing to embrace new healthcare technologies. furthermore, el alfy et al. (2017) found that instructors in egypt and the uae had positive technology readiness and a strong positive attitude toward e-learning technologies. cross-national research in the technology context cross-national research regarding technology has revealed mixed results; however, all these studies have considered technology and dt to be vital components in achieving sustainable development goals, as they vary between developed and developing countries (elmassah & mohieldin, 2020; pandey et al., 2022). researchers have used several indicators to determine the success and extent of the digital economy, transformation, and adaptation, such as the digital economic index, e-government development index, and arab digital economy index (adei), focusing on the arab digital economy (adeo, 2022; elmassah & mohieldin, 2020). the findings of adei’s report for 2022 revealed a digital divide across arabian countries, as depicted in table 1, presenting some statistical data for jordan, egypt, and qatar. further studies revealed that the economic growth effect of ict differs across incomes (papaioannou & dimelis, 2007; yousefi, 2011), a significant relationship between gross national income and ict adoption (fong, 2009), and a massive digital divide within almost all countries, becoming a form of social exclusion (chen & wellman, 2004; fong, 2009; tomczyk et al., 2019). table 1 statistical data for qatar, jordan, and egypt. egypt jordan qatar value 3,569.2 4,282.8 50,124.40 avg per capita income in dollars low high-moderate high level of national income 10.4 18.5 3.5 unemployment rate 52.36 57.67 56.05 total arab digital economy index 66.56 81.56 90.44 financial market development pillars’s index 55.27 53.09 71.73 digital government pillars’s index 48.67 49.93 61.21 innovation pillars ’s index 39.25 36.48 65.51 infrastructure pillars’s index 20.66 19.90 23.67 technological readiness pillars’s index 43.10 50.40 72.10 it services usage’ index 58.80 45.90 79.80 it services access’s index * data compiled from adeo (2022) report. ajlouni & rawadieh however, technology-related psychological consequences could be linked to social and individual factors (brosnan, 2002), contributing to the formation of a digital divide, economic losses, and delays in achieving sustainable development (faloye et al., 2022). several cross-national studies have found that technology acceptance varies among countries, and cultural factors influence it. for example, khushman et al. (2009) disclosed that arabs have less interest in e-business website usage than britons. similarly, taufik et al. (2021) revealed a high level of public acceptance regarding bioenergy technology in bosnia, herzegovina, germany, spain, and sweden and found that it substantially differs across countries. in addition, alam et al. (2020) found that adapting mhealth services in bangladesh and china had a crucial social influence. vu and lim (2021) revealed that individual factors, such as digital technology efficacy, predict public acceptance of artificial intelligence and robotics technologies, but no substantial effects on the country, such as economic development and innovation, were found. weil and rosen (1995) conducted a cross-country study, suggesting that cultural factors such as value technology, availability, integration into the educational system, political climate, literacy, and poverty could influence technophobia. nevertheless, no cross-country studies have considered technophilia, but some have considered internet or social media addiction, such as usman et al.’s (2014) study, with no significant (p>.05) differences in internet addiction among students according to country. however, ünal (2020) reported significant (p<.05) differences regarding the same where korean students were more addicted than turkish students. in addition, el-masri and tarhini (2017) found that social influence and facilitating conditions enhanced students’ adoption of e-learning systems in developing countries and revealed that qatari and american undergraduates are willing to adopt e-learning systems supporting their learning. method research design we undertook the methodological and data collection considerations affecting the reliability and quality of cross-national comparative research (gharawi et al., 2009). this study adopted a quantitative research method and the cross-national research (cnr) design to compare the technophobia and technophilia constructs within three contexts: jordan, qatar, and egypt. cnr is an appropriate research design for investigating a specific phenomenon across countries (andre et journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 33 al., 2019). therefore, the data for all three countries were collected using the same instrument during the same period by three members, each from one of the selected universities. the data were collected using a survey method through a web-based questionnaire, considered the best method available for large audiences and cross-country studies (marshall, 2005). the questionnaire comprised demographic data and the ttq. the study was conducted in three public arab universities in jordan, qatar, and egypt, representing the levant, arabian peninsula, and north africa. a stratified multistage clustered random sampling was conducted. in addition, a parametric one-way analysis of variance (anova) test was conducted to examine the countries’ differences in technophobia and technophilia levels. the anova test is the most appropriate test for comparing the differences between the levels of independent variables when the assumptions of independence, normality, and homogeneous variance are met (kim & cribbie, 2018; larson, 2008; yigit & mendes, 2018). next, the scheffe test was used as a post hoc test; it is considered the most appropriate response to a significant anova and recognizes which groups are significantly different (ruxton & beauchamp, 2008). participants the sample comprised undergraduate students (1081) from three arabian public universities in the levant (jordan), arabian peninsula (qatar), and north africa (egypt), registered in the academic year 2020–2021 at the school of educational sciences. the representative survey based on random samples (stratified multistage clustered random sampling) was applied among the jordanian, egyptian, and qatari populations to achieve the study’s aims. the appropriate required size for each stratum was confirmed using thompson’s (2012) equation at a .05 error of margin and a .95 level of confidence. all participants were registered for the summer term of the academic year 2020–2021 at the school of educational sciences. the study sample came from three arab countries, egypt (n=400), jordan (n=375), and qatar (n=306), with 28% of participants from qatar, 35% from jordan, and 37% from egypt. among participants, 13.5% were male, and 86.5% were female. the smaller number of male participants was due to the low ratio of male undergraduates enrolled in the faculty of educational sciences (foes) at the studied universities. for example, male undergraduates registered in foes at the university of jordan were about 6%. approximately 28% of the participants were first-year students, 25% were sophomores, 31% were juniors, and 16% were seniors. additionally, 18% of ajlouni & rawadieh the undergraduates had an excellent gpa, 51% had a very good gpa, and the remaining 31% had a good or lower gpa. furthermore, 19% of the undergraduates had excellent digital skills, 33% had very good digital skills, 43% had good digital skills, and just 5% had poor digital skills. it was an appropriate sample, encompassing all undergraduates willing to join the study. table 2 demonstrates the demographic characteristics of the participants according to country. table 2 demographic characteristics of the participants according to country (n = 1081). f: frequency, p: percentage. data collection tool the study instrument is a web-based questionnaire comprising 35 items distributed over two parts: a) demographic data with five items (i.e., nationality, gender, accumulative average, academic level, and level of digital skills), and b) the ttq, a self-report questionnaire developed and validated by martínez-córcoles et al. (2017). it contains 30 items distributed over two subscales: the technophilia subscale (18 items) and the technophobia subscale (12 items). the ttq was designed on a 6-point likert scale with responses ranging from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 6 (very strongly agree). the technophobia scores ranged between 12 and 72, indicating the individuals’ level of technophobia. a higher score reflected a higher level of technophobia among individuals. furthermore, the technophilia scores ranged from 18 to 108, indicating the individuals’ level of technophilia. a higher score reflects higher levels of technophilia. the psychometric properties of the ttq subscales were ensured by administering them to a pilot sample comprising 35 undergraduate students from the study population and outside the sample. total egypt jordan qatar value variable no. p f p f p f p f 100% 1081 37% 400 35% 375 28% 306 sample size nationality 1 13.5% 149 20.3% 81 4.8% 18 16.3% 50 male gender 2 86.5% 932 79.8% 319 95.2% 357 83.7% 256 female 28% 303 20.8% 171 22.7% 85 15.4% 47 freshman academic level 3 25% 272 24.8% 83 26.1% 98 29.7% 91 sophomore 31% 339 11.8% 99 37.9% 142 32% 98 junior 16% 167 7.8% 47 13.3% 50 22.9% 70 senior 18% 191 4.8% 19 24.3% 91 26.6% 81 excellent gpa 4 51% 551 49.5% 198 56.8% 213 45.8% 140 very good 31% 339 35.9% 183 18.9% 71 27.7% 85 good or less 19% 202 7.8% 31 13.3% 50 39.5% 121 excellent level of digital skills 5 33% 357 26.5% 106 37.9% 142 35.5% 109 very good 43% 461 56.5% 226 44% 165 22.9% 70 good 5% 61 9.3% 37 4.8% 18 2% 6 poor journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 35 the cronbach’s alpha for the technophilia subscale was 0.94, and the pearson’s correlation coefficient for each item of the technophilia subscale and the total technophobia score were statistically significant (p<.05) and ranged from 0.40 to 0.91. similarly, the pearson’s correlation coefficient for each item of the technophilia subscale and the total technophilia score were statistically significant (p<.05) and ranged from 0.51 to 0.84; the cronbach’s alpha for the technophilia subscale was 0.89. this indicates that the ttq is a valid and reliable instrument. data collection data were collected in september 2021 using a web-based questionnaire containing 35 items: 30 items for the technophobia and technophilia measures and five items for the demographic data. the web-based questionnaire was built using google forms. it took approximately 25 min to respond to the questionnaire. researchers distributed the questionnaire’s url to three faculty members from the studied universities, they posted it on the undergraduates’ e-learning platforms and social media groups. all undergraduates registered in the summer term of the academic year 2020–2021 from the three targeted universities had a chance to participate in the study. the undergraduates willing to participate in the study anonymously responded to the questionnaire after filling out the consent form. data analysis the statistical package for the social sciences version 26.0 was used to analyze the collected data. the descriptive statistics (i.e., means and standard deviations for technophobia and technophilia subscales of the ttq) were extracted to answer the first research question. hypotheses ha1 and ha2 have been formulated to answer the second and third questions. one-way anova was employed to test the first and second hypotheses and examine the significant differences between the mean levels of technophobia and technophilia among the undergraduates in the three countries. the initial assumptions of the one-way anova were ensured before conducting the analysis. next, the scheffe test was conducted as a post hoc test to identify significantly different groups. findings anova assumptions the first anova assumption is sample independency, implying that the groups contain different subjects and the value of one observation is not interrelated to another observation (connelly, ajlouni & rawadieh 2021). it was ensured because the observations related to different respondents were drawn from one country group (egypt, jordan, or qatar) and did not belong to more than one group. it means that the study observations were independently drawn. moreover, normality and homogeneity assumptions were ensured as follows. normality test normality implies that the data variables follow a normal distribution (kim, 2014). the degree of normality was examined by conducting the shapiro–wilk test. as illustrated in table 3, the samples satisfied the normality condition with p > .05. table 3 shapiro–wilk test. scale country statistic df sig. technophilia jordan .986 306 .077 egypt .977 375 .088 qatar .973 400 .065 technophobia jordan .883 306 .081 egypt .948 375 .097 qatar .940 400 .071 homogeneity of variance test levene’s test examined the equality of variance for technophobia and technophilia. the findings presented in table 4 depicted p >.05; therefore, the assumption of equal variance was met. the homogeneity of variance assumption or variance equality indicates that the data for the dependent variable are similar in different groups (connelly, 2021; hoekstra et al., 2012). table 4 levene’s test. variable levene statistic df1 df2 sig. technophilia based on m 3.388 2 1078 .094 based on med 3.504 2 1078 .130 based on med & with adjusted df 3.504 2 1075.481 .130 based on trimmed mean 3.460 2 1078 .132 technophobia based on m 1.249 2 1078 .287 based on med 1.992 2 1078 .137 based on med & with adjusted df 1.992 2 1067.501 .137 based on trimmed mean 1.683 2 1078 .186 m: mean, med: median. these results satisfied the essential assumptions for executing the one-way anova test. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/v/variance.asp https://www.investopedia.com/terms/v/variance.asp journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 37 what are the levels of technophilia among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt? descriptive statistics for technophilia were extracted, and the mean and standard deviation were calculated. the undergraduates’ technophilia was measured on a 6-point likert scale. the mean values ranged from 1.0 to 2.66, demonstrating a low level; 2.67 to 4.33, demonstrating a moderate level; and 4.34 to 6.0, demonstrating a high level. table 5 presents the descriptive statistics for technophilia according to country. table 5 descriptive statistics for undergraduate technophilia scores according to country. item qatar jordan egypt m±sd level m±sd level m±sd level 1 3.73±1.79 moderate 4.19±1.61 moderate 3.93±1.71 moderate 2 3.65±1.87 moderate 3.41±1.71 moderate 3.55±1.72 moderate 3 3.95±1.76 moderate 4.25±1.55 moderate 4.14±1.70 moderate 4 3.85±1.86 moderate 3.63±1.66 moderate 3.69±1.72 moderate 5 4.35±1.70 high 4.48±1.50 high 4.22±1.64 moderate 6 3.84±1.60 moderate 4.09±1.54 moderate 3.95±1.60 moderate 7 3.34±1.87 moderate 2.94±1.61 moderate 3.16±1.66 moderate 8 3.55±1.80 moderate 3.25±1.62 moderate 3.36±1.73 moderate 9 4.25±1.69 moderate 4.25±1.59 moderate 4.13±1.65 moderate 10 3.70±1.74 moderate 3.42±1.66 moderate 3.63±1.69 moderate 11 4.35±1.64 high 4.46±1.62 high 4.27±1.66 moderate 12 3.67±1.86 moderate 3.27±1.70 moderate 3.47±1.70 moderate 13 4.42±1.67 high 4.35±1.61 high 4.29±1.74 moderate 14 3.89±1.66 moderate 3.99±1.62 moderate 3.79±1.70 moderate 15 3.78±1.78 moderate 3.37±1.66 moderate 3.44±1.77 moderate 16 4.00±1.72 moderate 4.07±1.64 moderate 3.83±1.71 moderate 17 3.66±1.77 moderate 3.21±1.69 moderate 3.38±1.68 moderate 18 3.77±1.84 moderate 3.51±1.60 moderate 3.69±1.61 moderate total 3.87±1.12 moderate 3.79±1.13 moderate 3.77±1.23 moderate m: mean, sd: standard deviation. table 5 shows that the mean scores of the qatari undergraduates’ technophilia (m = 3.87) were higher than jordanian (m = 3.79) and egyptian (m = 3.77) undergraduates’ technophilia. the higher mean scores reveal that they had higher technophilia levels, although all countries' mean scores fell within a moderate range. the participants’ responses to the technophilia scale items were all averaged moderately, except for items 5 (“i think that new technology has many benefits”), 11 (“i believe that new technology improves life”), and 13 (“lastly, i have used new equipment or technology too frequently”); they were averaged high for both jordanian and qatari undergraduates. further, participants’ responses to items 7, 10, 15 and 16 indicate that arabian ajlouni & rawadieh undergraduates moderately feel enthusiasm when a new technology is launched, loss of control and worried if they can't use the latest technology, and their personal feelings are moderately influenced by using new technology. these results indicate that arabian undergraduates were moderately technophilia, illustrating that no differences exist in undergraduates’ technophilia levels according to country. what are the levels of technophobia among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt? we assessed the undergraduates’ technophobia levels by extracting descriptive statistics for the technophobia subscale. the undergraduates’ technophobia was measured on a 6-point likert scale. the mean values ranged from 1.0 to 2.66, demonstrating a low level; 2.67 to 4.33, demonstrating a moderate level; and 4.34 to 6.0, demonstrating a high level. table 6 presents the descriptive statistics for technophobia according to country. table 6 descriptive statistics for undergraduates’ technophobia scores according to country. item qatar jordan egypt m±sd level m±sd level m±sd level 1 2.56±1.57 low 2.85±1.51 moderate 3.01±1.77 moderate 2 2.30±1.41 low 2.66±1.49 low 2.59±1.68 low 3 2.37±1.55 low 2.70±1.49 moderate 2.65±1.69 low 4 2.37±1.49 low 2.91±1.56 moderate 3.02±1.67 moderate 5 2.26±1.50 low 2.70±1.51 moderate 2.78±1.72 moderate 6 2.13±1.50 low 2.61±1.48 low 2.66±1.71 low 7 2.26±1.55 low 2.55±1.55 low 2.40±1.71 low 8 2.34±1.55 low 2.83±1.54 moderate 2.83±1.67 moderate 9 1.88±1.36 low 2.38±1.50 low 2.24±1.61 low 10 2.13±1.53 low 2.35±1.54 low 2.31±1.63 low 11 2.21±1.55 low 2.44±1.53 low 2.57±1.73 low 12 2.66±1.68 low 2.91±1.72 moderate 3.32±1.90 moderate total 2.29±1.20 low 2.66±1.23 low 2.70±1.28 moderate m: mean, sd: standard deviation. the results in table 6 indicate that the mean scores of technophobia varied by country; none fell into the high level of technophobia range. for instance, the lowest mean scores were for qatari undergraduates (2.29), followed by jordanian (2.66) and egyptian (2.70) undergraduates. in addition, all mean scores, except those of egyptian undergraduates, were above the range of low levels of technophobia. according to these findings, the technophobia levels of the undergraduates were not substantially high, and those students from both jordan and qatar cultures were classified as low. in contrast, the technophobia levels of the students from egyptian culture were within a moderate range. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 39 in particular, the results indicated that the qatari undergraduates’ responses to all technophobia subscale items were average low, while the egyptian and jordanian undergraduates’ responses were average and varied between low and moderate. furthermore, the same highest-scoring item (“i feel forced to change my way of working because of new equipment or technology”) was reported by qatari, jordanian, and egyptian undergraduates with mean values of 2.66, 2.91, and 3.32, respectively. these results indicate differences in undergraduates’ technophobia levels according to the country. hypothesis testing ha1: statistically significant differences exist at significance level α = 0.05 in the technophilia levels among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt. a one-way anova test was conducted to investigate any statistically significant differences among the undergraduates’ technophilia levels according to the country to answer the first research hypothesis. table 7 presents the results. table 7 one-way anova test results for undergraduates’ technophilia levels according to country. source of variance sum of squares df mean squar f p between groups 2.023 2 1.012 .749 0.473 within groups 1455.773 1078 1.350 total 1457.796 1080 *: significance value at level .05.; df: degree of freedom table 7 depicts that the anova results reported the return of a non-significant value of f (f =.749, p = . 473). the testing did not confirm the first hypothesis, indicating that no significant difference existed in the level of technophilia according to the country. ha2: statistically significant differences exist at significance level α = 0.05 in the technophobia levels among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt. a one-way anova test was conducted to investigate any statistically significant differences among the undergraduates’ technophobia levels according to country, answering the second research hypothesis. table 8 presents the results. ajlouni & rawadieh table 8 one-way anova test results regarding undergraduates’ technophobia levels according to country source of variance sum of squares df mean squar f p between groups 33.608 2 16.804 10.907 0.000* within groups 1660.878 1078 1.541 total 1694.485 1080 *: significance value at level .05.; df: degree of freedom. according to the anova results for differences in technophobia levels based on country, a significant value of f existed (f = 10.907, p = . 000). this anova testing confirmed the second hypothesis, indicating the presence of a significant difference in the levels of technophobia according to country. the scheffe post hoc test between technophobia means was conducted to investigate the differences in the countries’ technophobia levels. the mean scores related to the technophobia level for each country were compared, and table 9 illustrates the results. table 9 scheffe post hoc results for multiple comparisons between technophobia levels according to country groups (countries) mean difference (i-j) sig i j qatar jordan -.3690* 0.001 qatar egypt -.4089* 0.000 jordan egypt -0.0399 0.905 *: significance value at level .05. the scheffe post hoc results depicted significant differences in the technophobia levels for qatar and jordan. the qatari undergraduates were significantly less technophobic (p<.05) than the jordanian undergraduates. moreover, significant differences existed in the technophobia levels concerning qatar and egypt, where the qatari undergraduates were less technophobic (p<.05) than the egyptian undergraduates. discussion this study’s results revealed that the technophobia levels among arabian undergraduates varied from low to moderate. the qatari and jordanian undergraduates reported a low level, whereas the egyptians reported a moderate level, and the technophobia levels were significantly different (p<.05) among the countries. the qataris were less technophobic (p<.05) than the egyptians and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 41 jordanians. furthermore, the arabian undergraduates in qatar, egypt, and jordan reported a moderate level of technophilia, with no significant differences (p>.05) according to the country. in research on technology-related psychological consequences, researchers found that technophilia constructs were influenced by technology experiences, technology tendencies, and emotional, behavioral, and cognitive issues. moreover, technophobia was influenced by individuals, cultures, and socioeconomic factors such as a country’s economy, technological development, the public attitude toward technology, political climate, and the availability of technological innovations. researchers discussed the results in light of the empirical studies' findings, technophobia and technophilia literature, country profile, adei reports, and the gathered data. levels of technophilia among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt this study’s findings revealed that the arabian undergraduates from qatar, jordan, and egypt were moderately technophilia; the qatari undergraduates reported the highest technophilia level, followed by jordanians and egyptians. the moderate level of technophilia among the arabian undergraduates indicates that they are moderately attracted to new technology, not entirely enthusiastic about it, moderately passionate about innovation, moderately enjoy technology usage, and exhibit a moderately positive attitude toward adopting technology, moderately dependent on technology and had a moderate level of technoruptation (abbasi & tabatabaee-yazd, 2021; barrientos-gutierrez et al., 2019; martínezcórcoles et al., 2017; osiceanu, 2015). the moderate feeling of enthusiasm is the reason behind their response to item 11 and 5, having the highest mean score. they highly agreed that new technology has several profits and believed that it improves their life. it could have contributed to their digital literacy and technology awareness; this belief in technology advantages is attributable to covid-19, forcing all students to use technology as a survival tool beyond continuing learning online. this experience forced them to take advantage of the technology, influencing their attitudes and feelings toward it. in addition, their dependency on technology can explain the moderate level of technophilia because they reported high mean scores and agreement with statements 13. it depicts their frequently use of the new technology which could be attributable to covid-19, imposing undergraduates to use technology, this is also ascribed to the dt and the advantages of using technology to improve life. they also reported that using technology moderately affects their https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0160791x17301793?casa_token=syddfkuwkmiaaaaa:nscjbc1eabjlj7vyd-pctdwlzq6nuoyzxuad0w5lrxl7f57ng9-8zxot-3ljvitjfg24xeoojj8#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0160791x17301793?casa_token=syddfkuwkmiaaaaa:nscjbc1eabjlj7vyd-pctdwlzq6nuoyzxuad0w5lrxl7f57ng9-8zxot-3ljvitjfg24xeoojj8#! ajlouni & rawadieh intimacy and their personal feelings. however, this result discloses that they need more awareness of technology and counseling program to prevent technophilia consequences. moreover, undergraduates moderately have techoreputation as they reported moderate mean scores on statements 2, 8, 10 and 17 which they indicate that they moderately felt fear, loss of control, afraid of being left behind and falling if they cannot access technology. this means that they are enjoying having the latest technology versions which could lead undergraduates to spend a lot of money on technology that they do not need (martínez-córcoles, teichmann, murdvee, 2017). the instructors and decision makers should help undergraduates foster technology awareness and literacy and afford a program and policies to avoid high levels of technophilia which could be negatively impacting on the undergraduate’s life. nevertheless, no previous study assessed technophilia in jordan, egypt, or qatar to compare our findings. however, some related studies involving individuals’ attitudes toward adopting specific technology exist. first, the result that the jordanian undergraduates had a moderate level of technophilia agrees with some previous studies (al bataineh, 2014; almaiah, 2018; alnasraween et al., 2021; hamad et al., 2021; saeed & al-zayed, 2018), as well as ta'an et al. (2021), reporting that jordanian nurses comfortably use computer technology in healthcare. second, the study results of qatari undergraduates with a moderate level of technophilia align with those discovering that qatari students had a positive attitude and willingness to adopt specific technology (al-abdulghani, 2021; alshaboul et al., 2022; el-masri & tarhini, 2017). these results also align with those with moderate technology awareness and skill levels among qatari undergraduates (alkhateeb, 2019; hendawi & nosair, 2020). finally, the result of moderate technophilia levels among egyptian undergraduates is in line with those of the studies finding that egyptians had positive attitudes and were willing to adapt to a specific technology, such as e-banking, e-learning, e-health, and iot (badran, 2019; el alfy et al., 2017; gawish et al., 2021; hassan & wood, 2020; zaky et al., 2020). levels of technophobia among undergraduates in qatar, jordan, and egypt this study’s findings revealed that the arabian undergraduates from qatar, jordan, and egypt had varying levels of technophobia. for instance, qatari undergraduates reported the minimum technophobia level, followed by jordanians and egyptians. students from jordan and qatar cultures reported a low level, whereas those from egypt reported a moderate level. the results indicated that qatari and jordanian undergraduates had little irrational fear or anxiety about using, rejecting, or avoiding different forms of technology (martínez-córcoles et al., 2017; journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 43 osiceanu, 2015). more than 70% of qataris and jordanians strongly disagreed that they disliked technology and were incompetent in using new technology. it is attributable to their cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components; in particular, they had good self-efficacy experience, as approximately 70% of qatari and 50% of jordanian undergraduates reported very good or excellent digital skills. the lockdowns imposed under covid-19 restrictions could also have played a role in the interpersonal factors influencing their technophobia level; for instance, they forced them to communicate with others over technologies, making them more familiar with them and enhancing their skills. this result aligns with that of jaradat and ajlouni (2021), reporting that 29.2% of jordanian undergraduate respondents had technophobia, as well as that alkhawaja et al. (2021) found low technology anxiety among 70% of jordanian university respondents. furthermore, the egyptian undergraduates’ reported moderate technophobia levels, indicating a moderate irrational fear or anxiety about using and adapting to technology. it causes dislikes, little use, rejection, or avoidance of technology’s several forms (martínez-córcoles et al., 2017; osiceanu, 2015). they respond to technology stimuli due to their mental fear of technology (ahmad & daud, 2011; faloye et al., 2022; khasawneh, 2015). more than 25% of the egyptian respondents reported avoiding using new technology. it is attributable to their digital skills, as they reported that more than half had poor or good digital skills, making them uncomfortable using new technologies. this technophobia might have constrained their ability to use technology and refuse to adapt to it, thus hindering them from using it (ahmad & daud, 2011; faloye et al., 2022). this result is in line with that by gabr et al. (2021), who reported a moderate to a high level of technostress among egyptian academic staff members. differences in the levels of technophilia according to country the results revealed no significant (p>.05) differences among arabian undergraduates according to country, where jordanian, qatari, and egyptian undergraduates reported a moderate level of technophilia. it means that all shared similar emotional, behavioral, and cognitive issues forming technophilia constructs. it is attributable to the lockdowns imposed under the covid-19 pandemic, forcing technology use. this pandemic depicted the importance of technology to undergraduates. these experiences indicate that they have close beliefs about the benefits and importance of technology. it also suggests that they all had technology dependency and exhibited repetitive behaviors and frequent use, for example, to communicate, learn, and shop online during the pandemic. ajlouni & rawadieh furthermore, the social distancing imposed under the lockdown provided undergraduates in all three countries equal opportunities to experience technology and rely on it in various areas of life. these beliefs, focusing on technology egocentric profits and the positive attitude required to adopt them, as well as technology dependency, construct technophilia (osiceanu, 2015; martínezcórcoles et al., 2017; barrientos-gutierre). this result aligns with that obtained by a previous cross-country study by usman et al. (2014), who found no significant (p>.05) differences in internet addiction among students according to country. however, it is inconsistent with the result by ünal (2020), who found significant (p<0.05) differences in social media addiction among students according to country. differences in the level of technophobia according to country this study’s findings indicated significant (p<.05) differences in arabian undergraduates’ technophobia according to country; qatari undergraduates had significantly (p<.05) lower technophobia than jordanian undergraduates. in addition, qatari undergraduates had significantly (p<.05) lower technophobia than egyptian undergraduates. a possible reason for these circumstances could relate to cultures and socioeconomic issues because many factors could influence technophobia levels. they include social factors, the level of technological and economic development of a country, the public attitude toward technology, cultural characteristics, political climate, computer use in the educational system, and the general availability of technological innovations (nestik et al., 2018; weil & rosen, 1995; wang & kong, 2020; zakour, 2007). the country’s differences in technophobia levels in this study are attributable to three factors. first is the technological development of the country. data on the availability of the technological and digital index (depicted in table 1) reveal that qatar scored higher in all index values (digital government, innovation, technological readiness, information technology service usage, and access index) than in jordan and egypt. therefore, students in qatar, with more technological propagation and adoption, are more familiar with the technology. thus, they have less fear and anxiety than in countries with little technology availability and dependency, such as jordan and egypt, where students have fewer opportunities to interact with technology. it aligns with tekinarslan’s (2007) findings, indicating that culture can decrease computer anxiety levels by increasing their computer experience. the second is the economic development of the country. as illustrated in table 1, qataris have a higher level of national income than jordanians and egyptians; the average per capita income for https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0160791x17301793?casa_token=syddfkuwkmiaaaaa:nscjbc1eabjlj7vyd-pctdwlzq6nuoyzxuad0w5lrxl7f57ng9-8zxot-3ljvitjfg24xeoojj8#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0160791x17301793?casa_token=syddfkuwkmiaaaaa:nscjbc1eabjlj7vyd-pctdwlzq6nuoyzxuad0w5lrxl7f57ng9-8zxot-3ljvitjfg24xeoojj8#! journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 45 qataris is more than 10 and 14 times higher than for jordanians and egyptians, exacerbating the socioeconomic divisions in these populations. moreover, qatar has a lower unemployment rate with a higher adei. qatar is considered “the leading country” in group a, according to the adei report for 2022. it indicates that qatar has a sustainable strategic investment in digital transformation to support its socioeconomic development plans, whereas jordan and egypt are considered “digitally promising countries” in group b. it demonstrates that they have appropriate resources and infrastructure but require a more comprehensive and inclusive socioeconomic development plan. thus, qatari undergraduates in wealthy countries are more likely to own and use modern technologies than those in less wealthy countries. thus, qatari undergraduates have fewer technophobic undergraduates. the third factor is digital literacy. the qatari undergraduates reported that they had a higher level of digital skills, as table 2 depicts. it indicates that they had more digital skills and knowledge, facilitating their technology use and making them aware of the benefits of technology adaptation. this result is consistent with weil and rosen’s (1995) findings that cultural factors influence technophobia (i.e., the value of technology, technology availability, political climate, literacy, and poverty). tekinarslan (2008) found that computer anxiety levels differ significantly (p<.05) according to country and culture, socioeconomic levels, and computer penetration rates influence them. in addition, they align with cross-national studies reporting that technology acceptance significantly (p<.05)differs according to country )khushman et al., 2009; taufik et al., 2021) . they are also supported by alam et al.’s (2020) study, which found that the adoption of mhealth services significantly (p<.05) differs according to country and is influenced by social factors. this result contradicts vu and lim’s (2021) results, revealing that public acceptance of artificial intelligence and robotics technologies did not significantly (p<.05) differ according to country. this study fills the gaps of the little previous cross-national studies that investigated the psychological consequences of technology (technophilia and technophobia). this study is novel because it is the first cross-national study considering technophilia and technophilia in arabian countries. it could afford a path for further research and fill the gap by adding a theoretical framework as a novelty in technophobia and technophilia. therefore, our study provides new data to illustrate that the technophobia and technophilia constructs should be addressed in arabian countries. ajlouni & rawadieh conclusion and implications this research is the first arabian cross-national study assessing technophobia and technophilia levels among undergraduates in egypt, qatar, and jordan. the results revealed that arabian undergraduates had moderate levels of technophilia, with no significant differences according to country. in addition, qatari and jordanian undergraduates had a low level of technophobia, while egyptians had a moderate level. it also revealed a significant difference in technophobia levels according to country, where qatari undergraduates had less technophobia than egyptians and jordanians, attributable to cultural and socioeconomic factors. based on these results, more attention should be paid to undergraduates in egypt, qatar, and jordan to enhance their technophilia construct, such as developing programs and policies to enhance their level and avoid high levels. in particular, undergraduates in egypt need more digital skill training to decrease their technophobia level, and decision-makers in jordan and egypt should take a serious step to minimize this level among their undergraduates, helping the country achieve its sustainability goals and minimizing the digital divide. our results provide an interesting view of technology’s psychological influences in the arab world. despite the limitations concerning the sample size and number of countries involved in the study sample, our research can assist policy-makers in education and strategic planners of sustainable development in qatar, egypt, and jordan. it addresses the psychological constructs (technophilia and technophobia) among undergraduates that hinder achieving learning outcomes, future employability skills, and sustainable development goals. this study is recommended to be replicated by including more countries and participants. the expected implications of this study are to encourage decision-makers to plan strategies, policies and program to enhance technophilia and technophobia constructs among arabian undergraduates in qatar, egypt, and jordan. to sustains it within a healthy level avoiding negative consequences, like stress, anxiety, or severe addiction. thus, digital skill development training should be conducted for technophobes. this recommendation is based on the finding that 16 % of participants reported lack in digital skills. in addition, we recommend psychological interventions, such as coaching and counseling, to address technophobia and technophilia constructs, sustain them with appropriate levels and avoid high levels of them, and foster technology awareness to boost undergraduates’ technology acceptance, attitude, reliance, and belief in their benefits. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 47 references abbasi, f., & tabatabaee-yazdi, m. (2021). efl teachers’ personality traits and their sense of technophobia and technophilia. journal of research in techno-based language education, 1(2). abdullah, r., & fakieh, b. (2020). health care employees’ perceptions of the use of artificial intelligence applications: survey study. journal of medical internet research, 22(5). doi: 10.2196/17620 abu-talib, m., bettayeb, a. m., & omer, r. i. (2021). analytical study on the impact of technology in higher education during the age of covid-19: systematic literature review. education and i̇nformation technologies, 26(6), 6719-6746. doi:10.1007/s10639-021-10507-1 adeo, “arab digital economy index 2022”, arab digital economy orgnization, accessed 1 july 2022. https://arab-digital-economy.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/ -الرقمي-االقتصاد-مؤشر -2022-لعربيا -.pdf adiukwu, s. o. (2022). effect of technophobıa on attıtude towards e-marketıng among undergraduates in enugu state, nıgerıa. journal of advance research in business management and accounting, 8(3), 39-45. doi: 10.53555/nnbma.v8i3.1247 ahmad, j. i., & daud, m. s. (2011). technophobia phenomenon in higher educational institution: a case study. in 2011 ieee colloquium on humanities, science and engineering. 111-116. doi: 10.1109/chuser.2011.6163697 ahmad, s. a., kamba, m. a., & usman, m. (2014). technophobia versus ict acceptance and use in teaching and learning among academic staff of universities in northern nigeria. in british educational research association annual conference, university of manchester. 4-6 ajlouni, a., rawadieh, s., almahaireh, a., & awwad, f. a. (2022). gender differences in the motivational profile of undergraduate students in light of self-determination theory: the case of online learning setting. journal of social studies education research, 13(1), 75-103. al bataineh, m., t. (2014). the ƌelatioŷship ďetǁeeŷ sođial studies teađheƌs͛ attitudes towards technology and their perceptions of competency needed for implementing technology in their classrooms in jordan. world journal on educational technology, 6(2), 226-237. al-abdulghani, y. (2021). exploring digital resilience in qatar: a socio-technical perspective. pennsylvania: carnegie mellon university. alam, m. z., hu, w., hoque, m. r., & kaium, m. a. (2020). adoption intention and usage behavior of mhealth services in bangladesh and china: a cross-country https://doi.org/10.2196/17620 https://arab-digital-economy.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/مؤشر https://doi.org/10.1109/chuser.2011.6163697 ajlouni & rawadieh analysis. international journal of pharmaceutical and healthcare marketing.14(1), doi:10.1108/ijphm-03-2019-0023 alkhateeb, b. (2019). educational technology self-efficacy beliefs of student teachers at qatar university and its relation to their program preparedness for technology integration, master's thesis. almaiah, m. a. (2018). acceptance and usage of a mobile information system services in university of jordan. education and information technologies, 23(5), 1873-1895. doi:10.1007/s10639-018-9694-6 alnasraween, mss, ammari, rmg, alsoudi, sa, alkursheh, to, & almahameed, yz (2021). constructing a scale of students’ attitudes towards distance learning at jordanian private universities. international journal of humanities, arts and social sciences, 7(1), 1-13. doi:20469/ijhss.7.20001-1 alshaboul, y. m., abu-shawish, r. k., & alazaizeh, m. a. (2022). middle and high school students’ attitudes toward distance education: the case of qatar. journal of positive school psychology, 6138-6153. bada, a. a., & jita, l. c. (2021). e-learning facilitiesfor teaching secondary school physics: awareness, availability and utilization. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3),227-241. doi:10.46303/ressat.2021.40 badran, m. f. (2019). ehealth in egypt: the demand-side perspective of implementing electronic health records. telecommunications policy, 43(6), 576-594. doi:10.1016/j.telpol.2019.01.003 barrientos-gutierrez, i., lozano, p., arillo-santillan, e., morello, p., mejia, r., & thrasher, j. f. (2019). “technophilia”: a new risk factor for electronic cigarette use among early adolescents?. addictive behaviors, 91, 193-200. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.09.004 baytak, a. (2022). the health students’ perception of online education amid the pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 7(2), 49-65. brosnan, m. j. (2002). technophobia: the psychological impact of information technology. routledge. cetindamar, d., abedin, b., & shirahada, k. (2021). the role of employees in digital transformation: a preliminary study on how employees’ digital literacy impacts use of digital technologies. ieee transactions on engineering management.doi: 10.1109/tem.2021.3087724. chen, w., & wellman, b. (2004). the global digital divide–within and between countries. it & society, 1(7), 39-45. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijphm-03-2019-0023 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijphm-03-2019-0023 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2019.01.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2019.01.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.09.004 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 49 connelly, l. m. (2021). introduction to analysis of variance (anova). medsurg nursing, 30(3), 218-158. daruwala, neil anthony and oberst, ursula, (2022) individuals’ intentions to use smart home technology: the role of needs satisfaction and frustration, technology acceptance and technophobia. doi:10.2139/ssrn.4061510 di giacomo, d., guerra, f., perilli, e., & ranieri, j. (2020). technophobia as emerging risk factor in aging: investigation on computer anxiety dimension. health psychology research, 8(1). doi:10.4081/hpr.2020.8207 di giacomo, d., ranieri, j., d’amico, m., guerra, f., & passafiume, d. (2019). psychological barriers to digital living in older adults: computer anxiety as predictive mechanism for technophobia. behavioral sciences, 9(9), 96. doi: 10.3390/bs9090096 el alfy, s., gómez, j. m., & ivanov, d. (2017). exploring instructors’ technology readiness, attitudes and behavioral intentions towards e-learning technologies in egypt and united arab emirates. education and information technologies, 22(5), 2605-2627. doi:10.1007/s10639-016-9562-1 el-masri, m., & tarhini, a. (2017). factors affecting the adoption of e-learning systems in qatar and usa: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology 2 . educational technology research and development, 65(3), 743-763. doi:10.1007/s11423-016-9508-8 elmassah, s., & mohieldin, m. (2020). digital transformation and localizing the sustainable development goals. ecological economics, 169, 106490. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106490 faloye, s. t., ranjeeth, s., & ako-naı, s. m. (2022). impact of technophobia on the digital divide. a preliminary case study in the eastern cape province of south africa. gabr, h. m., soliman, s. s., allam, h. k., & raouf, s. y. a. (2021). effects of remote virtual work environment during covid-19 pandemic on technostress among menoufia university staff, egypt: a cross-sectional study. environmental science and pollution research, 28(38), 53746-53753. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-14588-w gawish, a., saleh, w., & radwan, k. (2021). attitude and perception of egyptian undergraduate dental students to e-learning during covid 19 at north sinai egypt. genesis, 2(2), 1-15. gqokonqana, o., olarewaju, o. m.,&cloete, m. b. (2022). blended learning challenges during covid-19: a case of cost accounting 2 students at a selected south african higher education institution. research in social sciences and technology, 7(2), 87-107. doi:10.46303/ressat.2022.11 https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4061510 https://doi.org/10.4081%2fhpr.2020.8207 https://doi.org/10.3390/bs9090096 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106490 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106490 ajlouni & rawadieh hamad, f., al-fadel, m., & fakhouri, h. (2021). the effect of librarians’ digital skills on technology acceptance in academic libraries in jordan. journal of librarianship and information science, 53(4), 589-600. doi:10.1177/0961000620966644 hassan, h. e., & wood, v. r. (2020). does country culture influence consumers' perceptions toward mobile banking? a comparison between egypt and the united states. telematics and informatics, 46, 101312. doi:10.1016/j.tele.2019.101312 hendawi, m. & nosair, m. r., (2020). students’ technological awareness at the college of education. cypriot journal of educational sciences. 15(4), 749 765. doi: 10.18844/cjes.v%vi%i.5057 hoekstra, r., kiers, h. a., & johnson, a. (2012). are assumptions of well-known statistical techniques checked, and why (not)?. frontiers in psychology, 3, 137. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00137 holzinger, a., weippl, e., tjoa, a. m., & kieseberg, p. (2021, august). digital transformation for sustainable development goals (sdgs)-a security, safety and privacy perspective on ai. in international cross-domain conference for machine learning and knowledge extraction .1-20. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-84060-0_1 hou, j., wu, y., & harrell, e. (2017). reading on paper and screen among senior adults: cognitive map and technophobia. frontiers in psychology, 8, 2225. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02225 hsiao, c. f., lee, c. h., chen, c. y., & chang, t. w. (2022). an approach of holographic technology for the practical distance education. in international conference on humancomputer interaction. 61-70. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-05675-8_6 jahan, n., shawon, m. a. h., sadia, f., nitu, d. k., ribon, m. e. k., & mahmud, i. (2021). modelling consumer’s intention to use iot devices: role of technophilia. indonesian journal of electrical engineering and computer science, 23(1), 612-620. doi: 10.11591/ijeecs.v23.i1.pp612-620 jaradat, s., & ajlouni, a. (2021). undergraduates’ perspectives and challenges of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic: a case from the university of jordan. journal of social studies education research, 12(1), 149-173. khasawneh, o. (2015) "the impact of technophobia on technology acceptance and the moderating influence of transformational leadership, organizational climate, and emotional intelligence", phd thesis, eastern michigan university, usa. khasawneh, o. y. (2018), b. technophobia without boarders: the influence of technophobia and emotional intelligence on technology acceptance and the moderating influence of organizational climate. computers in human behavior, 88, 210-218. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.07.007 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0961000620966644 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2019.101312 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00137 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02225 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.07.007 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 51 khasawneh, o. y. (2018). technophobia: examining its hidden factors and defining it. technology in society, 54(1), 93-100. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2018.03.008 khushman, s., todman, a., & amin, s. (2009). the relationship between culture and e-business acceptance in arab countries. in second international conference on developments in esystems engineering. 454-459. doi 10.1109/dese.2009.70 kim, h. y. (2014). analysis of variance (anova) comparing means of more than two groups. restorative dentistry & endodontics, 39(1), 74-77. doi: https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2014.39.1.74 kim, y. j., & cribbie, r. a. (2018). anova and the variance homogeneity assumption: exploring a better gatekeeper. british journal of mathematical and statistical psychology, 71(1), 1-12. doi: 10.1111/bmsp.12103 kutnjak, a., pihiri, i., & furjan, m. t. (2019). digital transformation case studies across industries–literature review. international convention on information and communication technology, electronics and microelectronics. 1293-1298. larson, m. g. (2008). analysis of variance. circulation, 117(1), 115-121. doi:10.1161/circulationaha.107.654335 maroufkhani, p., desouza, k. c., perrons, r. k., & iranmanesh, m. (2022). digital transformation in the resource and energy sectors: a systematic review. resources policy, 76, 102622. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102622 martínez-córcoles, m., teichmann, m., & murdvee, m. (2017). assessing technophobia and technophilia: development and validation of a questionnaire. technology in society, 51, 183-188. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2017.09.007 minikutty, a., & thomas, s. p. influence of technophılıa on academıc achıevement of hıgher secondary school students. international journal of creative and innovative research in all studies. 2(6). morandini, m. c., thum-thysen, a., & vandeplas, a. (2020). facing the digital transformation: are digital skills enough? (no. 054). directorate general economic and financial affairs (dg ecfin), european commission. morimoto, t., hirata, h., ueno, m., fukumori, n., sakai, t., sugimoto, m., ... & mawatari, m. (2022). digital transformation will change medical education and rehabilitation in spine surgery. medicina, 58(4), 508. doi:10.3390/medicina58040508 nestik, t., zhuravlev, a., eduard, p., marianna, s. c., lioudmila, b., piurcosky, f. p., & ferreira, j. v. (2018). technophobia as a cultural and psychological phenomenon: theoretical analysis. interação-revista de ensino, pesquisa e extensão, 20(1), 266-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2018.03.008 https://doi.org/10.5395/rde.2014.39.1.74 https://doi.org/10.1111/bmsp.12103 https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.107.654335 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102622 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2017.09.007 https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina58040508 ajlouni & rawadieh nimrod, g. (2018) technophobia among older internet users, educational gerontology, 44:2-3, 148-162, doi: 10.1080/03601277.2018.1428145 nomura, kanda, suzuki, (2006). experimental investigation into influence of negative attitudes toward robots on human–robot interaction, ai soc. 20 (2). 138–150. doi:10.1007/s00146005-0012-7 o'leary, t., & armfield, t. (2020). adapting to the digital transformation. alta. l. rev., 58, 249. osiceanu, m.-e. (2015). psychological implications of modern technologies:“technofobia” versus “technophilia”. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 180, 1137-1144. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.229 pandey, n., de coninck, h., & sagar, a. d. (2022). beyond technology transfer: innovation cooperation to advance sustainable development in developing countries. wiley interdisciplinary reviews: energy and environment, 11(2), e422. doi:10.1002/wene.422 papaioannou, s. k., & dimelis, s. p. (2007). information technology as a factor of economic development: evidence from developed and developing countries. economics of innovation and new technology, 16(3), 179-194. : doi:10.1080/10438590600661889 raja, m., & priya, g. g. (2022). using virtual reality and augmented reality with ict tools for enhancing quality in the changing academic environment in covid-19 pandemic: an empirical study. in technologies, artificial intelligence and the future of learning postcovid-19. 467-482. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-93921-2_26 rajab m h, gazal a m, alkattan k (2020). challenges to online medical education during the covid-19 pandemic. cureus 12(7): e8966. doi:10.7759/cureus.8966 ronit p. (2011)technophilia: a new model for technology adoption. in: proceedings of the uk academy for information systems conference. 41. rosen ld, sears dc, weil mm. (1992). measuring technophobia. a manual for the administration and scoring of three instruments: computer anxiety rating scale (form c), general attitudes toward computers scale (form c) and computer thoughts survey (form c). california state university, dominguez hills, computerphobia reduction program. ruxton, g. d., & beauchamp, g. (2008). time for some a priori thinking about post hoc testing. behavioral ecology, 19(3), 690-693. doi:10.1093/beheco/arn020 saeed, f. j. a. a., & al-zayed, n. n. (2018). attitudes of jordanian undergraduate students towards using computer assisted language learning (call). international journal of education and literacy studies, 6(1), 12-16. doi:10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.6n.1p.12 https://doi.org/10.1002/wene.422 https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arn020 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 53 seebauer, s., stolz, r., & berger, m. (2015). technophilia as a driver for using advanced traveler information systems. transportation research part c: emerging technologies, 60, 498510. doi:10.1016/j.trc.2015.10.009 shawaqfeh, b., & almahaireh, a. (2019). technowellness and its relationship with happiness and optimism among university of jordan students. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 145-167. show-hui, wen-kai, the acceptance of workplace users for a new it with mandatory use, asia pacific management review, 15 (4) (2010), pp. 549-565 solberg, e., traavik, l. e., & wong, s. i. (2020). digital mindsets: recognizing and leveraging individual beliefs for digital transformation. california management review, 62(4), 105124. doi:10.1177%2f0008125620931839 subero-navarro, á., pelegrín-borondo, j., reinares-lara, e., & olarte-pascual, c. (2022). proposal for modeling social robot acceptance by retail customers: can model+ technophobia. journal of retailing and consumer services, 64, 102813. doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102813 ta'an, w. a. f., al‐hammouri, m. m., aldalaykeh, m. k., suliman, m. m., & almutti, r. (2021). the role of structural empowerment in predicting computer use among jordanian nurses: a cross‐sectional study. journal of nursing management, 29(4), 759766. doi:10.1111/jonm.13216 taufik, d., dagevos, h., reinders, m. j., sijtsema, s. j., & meeusen, m. j. g. (2021). deliverable 5.2 public acceptance of technologies enabling bioenergy production in four european countries: insights from bosnia and herzegovina, germany, spain, and sweden. wageningen university & research. tekinarslan, e. (2008). computer anxiety: a cross-cultural comparative study of dutch and turkish university students. computers in human behavior, 24(4), 1572-1584. doi: tofan, i., & aivaz, k. a. (2022). the use of computers and the internet-effects on employee productivity in romania. technium social sciences journal, 32, 418-429. doi: doi:10.47577/tssj.v32i1.6760 tokareva, m. s., vishnevskiy, k. o., & chikhun, l. p. (2018). the impact of the internet of things technologies on economy. бизнес-информатика, (3 (45) eng), 62-78. tomczyk, ł., eliseo, m. a., costas, v., sánchez, g., silveira, i. f., barros, m. j., ... & oyelere, s. s. (2019). digital divide in latin america and europe: main characteristics in selected countries. iberian conference on information systems and technologies.1-6. doi: 10.23919/cisti.2019.8760821 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2015.10.009 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2021.102813 https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13216 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2007.05.011 https://doi.org/10.23919/cisti.2019.8760821 ajlouni & rawadieh trenerry, b., chng, s., wang, y., suhaila, z. s., lim, s. s., lu, h. y., & oh, p. h. (2021). preparing workplaces for digital transformation: an integrative review and framework of multi-level factors. frontiers in psychology, 12, 620766. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.620766 usman, n. h., alavi, m., & shafeq, s. m. (2014). relationship between internet addiction and academic performance among foreign undergraduate students. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 114, 845-851. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.795 ünal, a. t. (2020). a comparative study of social media addiction among turkish and korean university students. journal of economy culture and society, (62), 307-322. doi:10.26650/jecs2020-0064 vial, g. (2021). understanding digital transformation: a review and a research agenda. managing digital transformation, 13-66. vu, h. t., & lim, j. (2021). effects of country and individual factors on public acceptance of artificial intelligence and robotics technologies: a multilevel sem analysis of 28-country survey data. behaviour & information technology, 1-14. doi:10.1080/0144929x.2021.1884288 wang, b., & kong, y. (2020). on the chinese cultural psychology of technophobia. journal of northeastern university, social science, 22(4), 1. doi: 10.15936/j.cnki.10083758.2020.04.001 weil, m. m., & rosen, l. d. (1995). the psychological impact of technology from a global perspective: a study of technological sophistication and technophobia in university students from twenty-three countries. computers in human behavior, 11(1), 95– 133. doi:10.1016/0747-5632(94)00026-e . yang, c. h. (2022). how artificial intelligence technology affects productivity and employment: firm-level evidence from taiwan. research policy, 51(6), 104536. doi:/10.1016/j.respol.2022.104536 ye, l., & yang, h. (2020). from digital divide to social inclusion: a tale of mobile platform empowerment in rural areas. sustainability, 12(6), 2424. doi:10.3390/su12062424 yigit, s., & mendes, m. (2018). which effect size measure is appropriate for one-way and twoway anova models?: a monte carlo simulation study. revstat-statistical journal, 16(3), 295-313. doi:10.57805/revstat.v16i3.244 yousefi, a. (2011). the impact of information and communication technology on economic growth: evidence from developed and developing countries. economics of innovation and new technology, 20(6), 581-596. doi: 10.1080/10438599.2010.544470 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.620766 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.620766 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.795 https://doi.org/10.26650/jecs2020-0064 https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929x.2021.1884288 https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929x.2021.1884288 https://doi.org/10.15936/j.cnki.1008-3758.2020.04.001 https://doi.org/10.15936/j.cnki.1008-3758.2020.04.001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2022.104536 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2022.104536 https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062424 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 24-55 55 zakour a.b. (2007) information technology acceptance across cultures // information resources management: global challenges. w. k. law (ed.). hershey, pa: idea. p. 25-53. doi: 10.4018/978-1-59904-102-5.ch002 zaky, g., shawky, a., & ragheb, m. a. (2020). investigating the factors affecting the internet of things (iot) adoption model-an exploratory study in egypt. the business & management review, 11(2), 97-108. zarina, i., circenis, k., & erts, r. (2018). measuring the technophobia among middle-aged and older adults in latvia: a pilot study. in shs web of conferences. 51,02003. doi:10.1051/shsconf/20185102 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 1-37 1 preparing urban youth to live-up to their civic promise? evaluating youth positionality of civic engagement using an arts-based instrument brad m. maguth1 & kristin l. k. koskey2 abstract additional research is needed on ways in which urban youth report their civic engagement. existing research indicates that federal legislation has resulted in reduced instructional time and resources in social studies and civic education in many states, which has led to a civic education opportunity gap that resonates through many urban communities (kahne, 2008; maguire, 2007). this intrinsic case study explored how third through seventh-grade urban youth (n=544) positioned civic engagement in a constructed “significant circle,” an employed arts-based data collection instrument. findings indicated that 3% of the students included at least one idea related to civic engagement and responsibility in their circle, and less than 1% of the students demonstrated balance across three program goals that included civic engagement, academic success, and leading a healthy lifestyle. key words: arts-based instrument, methodology, civic education, identity, urban, culturally relevant introduction at the heart of social studies research is gaining new knowledge into policies, curricular and instructional strategies, and practices that advance civic competence in a culturally diverse, democratic society. while disciplinary literacy in the traditional content areas of history, geography, economics, civics, and other areas of social science are important, social studies prioritizes the fostering of engaged social and civic attitudes, informed decision making, and opportunities for citizens to act to improve our communities and world. social studies professionals often share the progressive ideal that a public school, most notably the social studies classroom, serves as a “hub, indeed engine, of democratic life” (pearlstein, 1996, p. 634). in many of our urban communities and schools, serving mostly students of color, research indicates the existence of a “civics education opportunity gap” resulting from misguided federal 1 associate professor of social studies education, lebron james family foundation college of education, the university of akron, bmaguth@uakron.edu 2 associate professor, lebron james family foundation college of education, koskey@uakron.edu mailto:bmaguth@uakron.edu mailto:koskey@uakron.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 policy and legislation that decreased instructional time and resources allocated in social studies (kahne, 2008; maguire, 2007). tested and required subjects in the areas of math, language arts, and science often lessen the priority of social studies. the ripple effects of this civic education opportunity gap resonate through our urban communities, in the majors and careers urban youth select, in the voting booths and attitudes residents hold towards politics and government, and in the overall quality of civic dialogue and engagement. in this study, we explored how third through seventh-grade urban youth constructed their “sense of self,” and the extent to which these constructions prioritized the area of “civic engagement.” social studies researchers often struggle to locate culturally relevant methods and assessments that provide for participant voice in the investigation of “self” and identity (ladson-billings, 1995). to this end, we outlined a methodological illustration of the significant circle drawing method, an arts-based research instrument, in setting a baseline assessment of “sense of self.” literature review two conceptual underpinnings were prioritized in this study. the first area included scholarship in civic education. in particular, we explored how urban youth, mostly students of color, positioned civic engagement when formulating their identities within their significant circles. the second area included scholarship in the area of arts-based research and culturally relevant methodological practices and perspectives when exploring youth’s sense of self and identity. civic education and engagement the civic mission, namely the preparation of informed and active citizens, is at the center of the social studies (ncss, 2013a). preparing youth to undertake our nation’s most important office, the “office of citizen,” is paramount to the health and vibrancy of our nation’s democracy. the civic mission of schools includes preparing learners to analyze, evaluate, judge, and defend positions on both contemporary and historical civic issues. the college, career, and civic life (c3) framework for social studies state standards (national council for the social studies, 2013b) describes how a strong social studies experience provides youth with meaningful civic learning opportunities that includes collaborating with others, evaluating the reliability and validity of sources, using evidence to build an argument, and gaining valuable experience in taking informed civic action. in this study, we explored youth reported civic engagement. knowing that this term is ambiguous and at times contested (adler & goggin, 2005), we drew from the following maguth & koskey definition of civic engagement: the ways in which youth take individual or collection action to improve perceived issues in their classroom, school, or community (mitra & serriere, 2015). a meaningful civic education affords youth knowledge of “opportunities for participation and engagement in both civic and civil society” (schulz, ainley, fraillon, kerr, & losito, 2010, p. 14). adolescent civic participation is related to lower rates of teenage pregnancy and higher levels of achievement later in life (davila & mora, 2007; kirby, 2001; potts, 2000). as a result of a meaningful civic education, citizens are able to think critically (nussbaum, 2010), are committed to creating a better future for themselves, and work to create a more robust and inclusive democracy (banks, 2006; landsman & gorski, 2007; schulz, ainley, fraillon, kerr, & losito, 2010). however, enacted legislation, namely no child left behind [nclb] (2002), has often been disastrous for the social studies and civic education. nclb requires states to only assess elementary students in the areas of math, reading, and science. as a result of this focus, instructional time and resources in social studies have been significantly reduced in most states (fitchett & heafner, 2012). huge pressures for elementary schools to equip their students to score well in tested areas (usually not inclusive of social studies) have led many schools to substantially reduce instructional time and offerings for the subject most at the center of civic education; the social studies (baily, shaw, & hollifield, 2006; o’connor, heafner, & groce, 2007; vanfossen, 2005). in a 2004 study by the council on basic education and the carnegie corporation of new york, 956 elementary and high school principals from four different states were interviewed. one finding from this study was that almost half of all elementary principals acknowledged the time devoted to the social studies had moderately or greatly decreased (von zastow & janc, 2004). dwindling resources and priority have resulted in student lackluster performance in the area of civics, as reflected in the 2014 naep civic test scores. scores from the last test administered to a nationally representative sample of 29,000 eighth graders at more than 1,300 schools, indicated less than 1/3 of students scored proficient or better, and only 3% scored at the advanced level (national center for education statistics, 2014). some research indicates lower socioeconomic status groups, made-up predominantly of black and hispanic citizens, have high levels of civic apathy and distrust towards government (gimpel & pearson-merkowitz, 2009). this civic apathy is compounded by a “civic education opportunity gap” that exists in classrooms with a high percentage of students of color, mostly in journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 urban communities (kahne, 2008; maguire, 2007). students of lower socioeconomic status and academic achievement are often afforded fewer opportunities to practice civic engagement in classrooms (kahne & middaugh, 2008). research documents the troubling side effect of nclb in that elementary schools in high minority areas were most likely to decrease instructional time for civics (council on basic education, 2004). it must be noted some researchers believe findings reporting civic apathy and disengagement of lower socioeconomic status people, mainly amongst black and hispanics, could be the result of faulty evaluations and instruments that are culturally biased by narrowly defining civic engagement (akom, cammarota, & ginwright, 2009; ginwright & cammarota, 2006; smetana & metzger, 2005; watts & flanagan, 2007). it is essential all our nation’s youth receive a high-quality civic education to sustain and strengthen the health of our democracy. this effort calls for researchers to enact stronger, more culturally relevant approaches to present a stronger more inclusive assessment of minority students’ civic mindedness and engagement. ethnographic research: arts-based methods the use of ethnographic research methods continues to grow in social studies research (barton, 2006). these methods prioritize the voice and lived experiences of participants, and focus on studying collected cultural descriptions and scenes. fundamental to ethnographic research is the idea of culturea system of shared beliefs, values, practices, languages, perspectives, language, norms, rituals, subjects, and objects members of a group use to understand their world and in relating to others (johnson & christensen, 2008). over time, members of a group become accustomed to a culture through a socialization process. this study investigated specifically the socio-constructed identities and “sense of self” urban youth participants constructed. for instance, the researchers sought to better understand what shared values, beliefs, symbols, objects, and norms do urban youth participants put at the center or their identity? and, how do urban youth participants prioritize these? arts-based research, a form of ethnography, allows researchers to use art-based research methods (e.g., music, dance, painting, fashion, photography) to learn about culture and people’s connection to one another and the physical world (baron & eisner, 1997). in her study on childcentered creative visual methodology, lomax (2012) noted the benefits and limited use of artsbased research methods in social studies; in particular, in an art-based methodology allowing maguth & koskey researchers to pay attention to how youth voices are different (and unequally heard) in the research process. visual art-based methods and their adjoining instruments can give voice to youth that increasingly learn from and are exposed to visual media. barton (2015) commented how social studies researchers can greatly benefit from the integration of arts-based research techniques that use visual, verbal, or written stimuli to elicit and encourage participants to talk about their ideas. barton discussed how these “elicitation techniques” (many of which are arts-based) can be effective vehicles for exploring topics that might be difficult or sensitive to discuss in formal interviews. barton notes such methods can also reduce power imbalances between interviewers and respondents, and help researchers become better familiar with how insiders make sense of their world. while the use of arts-based and visual arts-based research methods are increasing, it must be noted their use as a pk-12 social studies research technique has been limited. the vast array of social studies scholarship found by the authors focused on pedagogical implementation of artsbased methods (see bickford, 2011; rule & montgomery, 2011; serriere, 2010; thomasbrown, 2010), and not on using arts-based research techniques in an empirical process to formulate findings and generate theory. for instance, taylor, brundand, and iroha (2015) described an action research study involving predominantly african american youth in a detroit public school where middle and high school students viewed, reflected on, and created portraits in the social studies classroom. although this study centered on the advantages of an arts-based pedagogy in promoting student reflection and learning in social studies, far less detail was provided on how student generated portraits were analyzed, coded, and classified by researchers during the research process. swan and hofer (2013) offered one of the few examples located where researchers not only described the implementation of an arts-based unit in the social studies (i.e., middle school students creating digital documentaries), but also thoroughly analyzed student work as a pivotal data source to generate findings and theory. one could assume that in a field as interdisciplinary as the social studies its researchers would be at the forefront of employing arts-based research methodologies and ethnographic research methods. however, a review of published research indicated a deficit in this area within social studies research. the current study adds insights into these two under theorized areas: namely, how urban youth, mostly students of color, positioned “civic engagement” and by contributing an arts-based journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 research method in exploring youth’s sense of self and identity. the visual art-based method employed in this study drew heavily from esteban-guitart and moll’s (2014) funds of identity approach. the funds of identity framework has been used by educational researchers to better understand how youth and their families construct their cultural identity (gonzalez, moll, & amanti, 2005; mcintyre, kyle, & rightmyer, 2005). this framework draws from socio-cultural theory which highlights the role of societal interaction on individual human development and cognition (vygotsky, 1926/1997). the theory of funds of identity looks specifically at those historically accumulated and culturally developed bodies of knowledge, skills, and practices that individuals report as essential to their homes, communities, and self (mcintyre, roseberry, & gonzalez, 2001). educators and researchers are encouraged to look at these culturally developed practices and understandings as cultural resources and assets for teaching and learning. paramount in the conversation of funds of identity is how should educators and researchers best detect these funds in students? outside of using ethnographic techniques that explore student surroundings like traditional interviews and field observations, esteban-guitart and moll (2014) developed an artsbased instrument where students construct self-portraits and an accompanying relational map coined a significant circle (esteban-guitart & moll, 2014). the significant circle drawing is a technique used “to generate information on the lived experiences in relation to the participant’s identity in order to collect his/her funds of identity” (esteban-guitart & moll, 2014, p. 43). this arts-based method is similar to a self-portrait drawing that provides an alternative medium to surveys and interviewing for participants to express their perceptions. visual methods are an alternative for younger participants (clark, 1999; croghan, griffin, hunter, & phoenix, 2008) or those who might have under developed written or verbal skills. method research design this intrinsic case study (creswell, 2007; stake, 1995) was part of a larger evaluation of a program (i.e., defined as the case) targeted ultimately at increasing high school graduation rates. one program goal was for the students to develop a balanced sense of self. this study reports on this particular program goal. the student sense of self was disaggregated by the researchers into maguth & koskey three over-arching analytical categories to compare the degree of balance and performance across these categories. the categories were:  academic success. this category included a focus on academic achievement, the acquisition of desired, knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and participation in academic networks that helped promote attainment of outcomes and strategies aimed at academic achievement.  positive lifestyle and wellbeing. this category included a focus on participating in or creating social and physical environments that promote healthy development and healthy behaviors aimed at allowing youth to realize their full potential, keep a positive attitude, and cope with stressors.  civic engagement. this category included expressions of civic pride, and learning or operationalizing civic knowledge, skills, or values to engage in individual or collective efforts to improve their classroom, school, house, neighborhood, community, or world. gaining an understanding of how the students viewed themselves and their lives was necessary to identify gaps between current perceived self and the program goal of developing a balanced sense of self. the significant circle drawing was identified as a method that could meet this need and that could be administered at key points (e.g., when entering high school, upon graduation). two research questions were addressed: 1. what is the positionality of the students’ levels of civic engagement in relation to the other two program goals (academic success and leading a healthy lifestyle)? 2. is the significant circle a feasible and informative arts-based method for assessing urban youth identity in civic education research? methodology context program participants included third through seventh graders in an urban school district, as identified by the state department of education. the program was a collaboration between a nonprofit foundation (founded in 2004) in the mid-western u.s. and a local school district to provide wrap-around services to students identified by the district as at-risk based on their state standardized reading scores. students with reading scores in the lower 20th percentile in the district at the end of second grade were invited to participate in the program through high school. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 a new cohort of third graders are invited to participate in the program each year to expand the reach and impact. once enrolled in the program, students are never dismissed unless they move out of the district or their guardians opt out. the foundation sponsoring the program is built on the mission to impact youth in the surrounding community. they collaborate with the district to provide co-curricular programming for each cohort through high school with the ultimate goal to increase the graduate rate in the community. the foundation supports enrichments and wrap-around programming focused exclusively on advancing the program goals. population and sample/ study group/participants a combination of purposeful and convenience sampling was used in this study given that the population of interest were program participants. all of the students enrolled in the program were invited to participate in this study. student assent and guardian consent forms were distributed to all program participants. a month prior to the start of the 2015-16 academic year, the teachers involved with foundation programming were provided with an envelope to return parental consent and student assent forms during a summer orientation. the teachers then distributed and collected these forms from guardians and students interested in participating in the study. the guardians and students also received copies mailed from the foundation using a mailer service for those that were not in attendance at the summer orientation. sample one-hundred percent of the students in the district where the program was implemented qualify for free or reduced lunch, and a majority of students in the district are students of color. as reported on the state department of education report card (2017), 75% of the students graduate in four years or less. an estimated 14% of the students will not finish at the school in which they started by the end of the academic year, either moving schools within the district or leaving the district entirely. a total of 550 students submitted the required documentation, and completed the circle drawing, out of a total of 912 possible participants (60% response rate). however, only 544 of the drawings were legible and thus included in this study. the students ranged from third-grade to seventh-grade. seventy-two percent of the students (n = 393) were third through fifth-graders, yielding a response rate of 56% for the elementary school student participants in the program. maguth & koskey twenty-seven percent of the students (n = 151) were sixth through seventh-graders, yielding a response rate of 44% for the middle school student participants in the program. of those who reported their gender, 54% were boys and 43% of the sample identified as black/african american, followed by 22% identified as white. the remaining students identified as asian or pacific islander, bi/multi-racial, american indian, or other. data collection & collection tools prior to administering the significant circle assessment, we piloted the assessment with two students (one entering grade 3 and one entering grade 6) to determine if any modifications were needed with directions and developmental appropriateness of the task. the teachers contracted to lead the summer orientation for the program were trained on how to administer the significant circle drawing. a written script was also provided to the teachers to standardize the administration across classrooms. the teachers read the instructions aloud and projected two example drawings for no more than 20 seconds. the examples were removed so not to prime the students’ responses. the students were given a blank circle on an 8” x 11” piece of paper to complete their drawing (see figure 1). they were instructed to include activities they like to do, and places, people, or objects that they considered important. the students were further instructed to draw their most important place, person, activity, or object in the middle of the circle, following the method outlined by esteban-guitart and moll (2014). finally, the students were asked to label and list their drawings by elaborating on three most important things they drew in their circle and why those were most important to them. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 figure 1. significant circle prompt administered to the students. an alternative procedure to asking students to label and list, following completing their drawing, is to directly follow-up with an interview for explanation of the drawing, allowing for probing to gain further insight into the meaning of the drawings and symbols used. the use of labeling and listing the three most important things was necessary in this case because individual interviews were not feasible with over 500 student participants. data analysis the resultant data consisted of a black and white or colored, single to multiple-word labeled drawings, and a list of the three most important things in the drawing for each student. the first task was to determine how to code these types of data for which we considered four factors. first, the resultant analysis needed to address the evaluation purposes of reporting any gaps between the program goals and tracking changes over time in balance of how a student defined oneself. second, the resultant categories that emerge needed to be easily communicated maguth & koskey and understood by the program developers to increase the utilization of the findings in programming (yarbrough, shulha, hopson, & caruthers, 2011). as such, the coding scheme applied had to link closely to the program goals. third, the coding process needed to be systematically detailed to achieve high degree of credibility and trustworthiness (hesse-biber & leavy, 2011). the coding process also needed to be replicable. finally, the coding process adopted had to be feasible given that there were over 500 significant circle drawings to code and two researchers coding the data. we engaged in three phases of coding using the funds of identity as a foundation for initial coding. briefly, phase 1 consisted of establishing inter-rater agreement in coding which fund(s) of identity were represented in the drawings. this process involved developing descriptors and sub-codes for each fund of identity and identifying if any new funds emerged that were not included by esteban-guitart (2012). phase 2 consisted of generating a crosswalk between the established funds of identity and program goals to allow for analysis of gaps between the funds of identity represented in the students’ drawings and funds targeted by the program. the final phase 3 involved coding the students’ drawings for balance across the funds of identity targeted by the program. within phase 3, what we refer to as a balance index was developed to report on the students’ current degree of balance in sense of self. phase 1 funds of identity coding up to three codes were assigned to each student’s response to represent the three most important things they felt defined their identity. sub-codes were developed for each fund of identity. each student’s response also was assigned a code to reflect what the student felt was the most important part of his/her identity as indicated by what he or she drew in the center of his or her circle. finally, whether or not the program was included in each student’s circle or list of important things was coded as “yes” or “no.” two raters were engaged in three rounds of coding during phase 1. in the first round, the two raters reviewed the student drawings independently to assign an appropriate code for 30 randomly selected student responses: 15 ranging from third-grade to fifth-grade and 15 ranging from sixth-grade to seventh-grade (the two highest grade levels of participants in the program at the time). percentage of agreement for the first three codes assigned ranged between 80% to 83% for the “what is at the center code.” for the program inclusion code, 93% of agreement was computed. the two raters discussed disagreements in codes and adjusted the code descriptors as journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 necessary. modifications included adding two additional funds that emerged in the first round of coding that were not part of esteban-guitart’s (2012) original theory of funds of identity. we refer to these emergent funds as “internal funds” and “material funds” of identity. during the second round of coding in phase 1, another 30 student responses from across grade levels were randomly selected and coded in the second round. inter-rater agreement improved to yield 100% for the first three codes assigned, 93% for the “what is at the center of my circle” code, and 97% for the final code assigned. the final refined coding scheme during phase 1 is provided in table 1. table 1 final coding scheme during phase 1 applying the theory of funds of identity fund of identity description1 sub-codes cultural any artifacts such as religious symbols, national flags, or any social category (ethnic group, gender, sexuality, nationality, etc.)  religion  ethnic group/heritage/nationality  class  disability  gender  age  sexuality  other geographic any area or territory that become a source of self-identification  general geographic  city name – geographic specific to city live in institutional any social institution such as the family unit, church, the program, sport team, club, school (as institution) with a focus on belongingness to the social institution.  family  church  school  program name or associated personnel with the program  sport team or club  other (e.g., other organization) internal reference to self  “me”  feeling not tied to other fund (“love,” “peace”) material objects (food, money, clothes, technology)  food generally referred to (e.g., “cupcakes are good”)  food (specifies to eat healthy or for survival)  money  clothes  technology (focus on possession of, not playing)  house/roof over head maguth & koskey  other practical any activity such as work, sports, music, schoolwork, community service, etc. student must specify engaging in the activity of doing.  engaging in sport or exercise  engaging in school academics  engaging in the arts  engaging in activities to maintain positive attitude  engaging in community service activities  engaging in a game that is not specified as a sport (computer game)  program goals – must specify an activity related to the program goal  other social significant others such as relatives, friends/peers, teachers, coaches, mentors, tutors, neighbors, school staff, foster parent, or guardian. if states entire family unit, then institutional.  relatives (sub-codes for each relative)  pet  peers/friends  mentor  neighbor  teacher, coach, principal, school staff, etc.  other note. 1descriptors were adapted from esteban-guitart (2012). given that no new funds of identity emerged in the second round of coding, the two raters progressed to code a portion of the drawings independently during the third round of coding in phase one. one rater coded 320 student responses and the second rater coded 230 student responses with 40% crossover to further establish percentage of agreement (see table 2). table 2 significant circle drawing coding percentage of agreement by code assigned and coding round coding round f what is important to me? what is at the center of my circle code program inclusion code2 code 1 code 2 code 3 1 (pilot) 30 83.33 80.00 80.00 80.00 93.33 2 (pilot) 30 100.00 100.00 100.00 93.33 96.67 3 (final) 2211 98.58 98.58 96.68 93.84 100.00 note. 1 represents 40% of the 550 who completed the drawing. 2the program inclusion code was composed of a specific list of symbols or names that qualified as referring to the program. to protect the confidentiality, descriptors of this code are not provided. phase 2 – linking funds of identity to program goals journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 applying evaluation coding (saldaña, 2013), the assigned funds of identity were then recoded into one of three overarching analytical categories developed to align to the program goals being evaluated. findings from the second and third method of analysis were the focus of this study. the purpose of this phase 2 re-code was to present the data in a second way to decipher the positionality of the students’ levels of civic engagement in relation to the other two program goalsacademic success and leading a healthy lifestyle. a student’s response assigned any fund of identity sub-code listed in table 3, under “special fund of identity included in circle” was recoded into one of three overarching categories aligning to program goals: academic success, positive lifestyle & wellbeing, and civic engagement. for example, a student’s circle drawing that included a drawing and listed a factor that was assigned institutional fund of identity – “engaging in school academics” as being important to that student was then re-coded to “academic success” as part of his defined “self.” table 3 coding crosswalk aligning codes to the program goals developed in phase 2 broad category representing the program goals general fund of identity1 (main code) specific fund of identity included in circle (sub-code) academic success institutional  name of program as it represents goal of graduating from high school practical  engaging in school academics positive lifestyle & well-being cultural  all cultural funds institutional  church, school, other institutional internal  “me”, feeling not tied to other fund (“peace”, “love”) material  food –specified to eat healthy or survival to meet basic needs, house/roof over head practical  engaging in sport/exercise, engaging in the arts, engaging in activities to maintain positive attitude, specified engaging in the goals of the program social  all social funds civic engagement geographic  city name – geographic fund specific to city reside in institutional  name or symbols associated with the program, sport team or club, other practical  engaging in community service activities note. 1funds of identities that did not directly align to the goals of the program were not included in the crosswalk for the purpose of this phase in the analysis. maguth & koskey phase 3 – balance score coding in phase 3, a mixed-methods data transformation technique called quantitizing data (miles & huberman, 2004; teddlie & tashakkori, 2009) was used compute what the researchers refer to as a balance index. this index was developed to report how many and what percentage of the students’ sense of self (as indicated by their circle drawings), included one or more of the three overarching categories representing program goals. since program goals focus on youth developing a balanced sense of self across all three analytical categories (academic success, positive lifestyle & wellbeing, and civic engagement), these scores can then be tracked over time and statistically analyzed to test for balance over time. results can help inform programming design and implementation to promote a balanced sense of self amongst urban youth. each student could receive up to three points, as outlined in table 4. table 4 balance index developed in phase 3 points level of balance descriptor of balance index 0 points no evidence of goals reflected in circle no categories coded as included in the student’s circle. 1 point little balance evident one of the categories coded as included in the student’s circle. 2 points some balance evident two of the categories coded as included in the student’s circle. 3 points strong balance evident all three categories coded as included in the student’s circle. findings the students’ responses were initially coded based upon the theory of “funds of identify” (esteban-guitart, 2012; esteban-guitart & moll, 2014). the students’ drawings and lists were reviewed to assign an appropriate code. the initial coding scheme, and popularity of each fund reported, is included in the appendix. after the students’ responses were initially coded for “funds of identity,” these codes were grouped into broad analytical categories (round 2). these three categories were selected as they aligned directly with foundation goals. the crosswalk journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 constructed that aligned codes and program goals is available in the appendix. the three categories used in round 2 coding were: 1. academic success 2. positive lifestyle & wellbeing 3. civic engagement findings related to this round of coding significant circle data are reported below: academic success  26% (143/544) of the students listed something in their circle related to their “academic success” as important to their identity. when disaggregating results between 3rd-5th and 6th-7th graders, 6th-7th graders were more likely to draw something in their circle designated in the academic success category, at 39% (59/151), versus 21% (84/391) for 3rd-5th graders. positive lifestyle & wellbeing  97% (531/544) of children listed something related to their leading a healthy lifestyle as important to their identity. when disaggregating results between 3rd-5th and 6th-7th graders, 3rd-5th graders were slightly more likely to draw something in their circle designated in the positive lifestyle & wellbeing category, at 97% (385/393), versus 96% (146/151) for 6th-7th graders. civic engagement  3% (19/544) of the students listed something related to civic engagement and responsibility as important to their identity. when disaggregating results between 3rd-5th and 6th-7th graders, 3rd-5th graders were slightly more likely to draw something in their circle designated in the civic engagement category, at 2% (8/393), versus less than 1% (11/151) for 6th and 7th graders. maguth & koskey figure 2. comparison of analytical categories by grade band range. balance index score to report and monitor youth performance on balance across the three analytical categories, as reported on the students’ significant circles, a balance index score was calculated for 3-5th and 6-7th graders. the balance index score indicated the degree of performance and balance for each student across the three analytical categories. there were four possible assigned balance scores, and each score is described along with an exemplar for each possibility below.  0 = no balance evident: this score was assigned when a student’s response was blank, or, when no category or fund of identity was evident (see figure 3). 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 academic success positive lifestyle & wellbeing civic engagement overall % 6 & 7th gr. (%) 3 & 5 gr. (%) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 exemplar figure 3. example of drawing with no balance. maguth & koskey  1 = little balance evident: this score entailed a student’s significant circle drawing being mostly dominated by one category. this score reflected poor child balance across all three analytical categories. as illustrated in figure 4, students who focused solely on engaging in sports or playing only satisfied the “positive lifestyle & wellbeing” category. 3rd-5th grade exemplar 6th-7th grade exemplar figure 4. exemplar of significant circles with a balance score of 1 (little balance evident). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37  2 = some balance evident: this score entailed a student’s significant circle drawing being inclusive of two different categories. some balance across all three analytical categories that are aligned to the foundation goals were reflected in a student’s drawing to be assigned this score. for an example of a balance score of 2, see figure 5. for instance, a third-grade student who focused on engaging in sports satisfied the “positive lifestyle & wellbeing” category. this student also listed “going to school” as important, and thus fulfilled the “academic success” category. as another example, a seventhgrade student listed “grades” and “school” as important, as well as named and drew the foundation as an important part of his or her circle. this student’s circle was thus coded as reflecting the “academic success” category and “civic engagement.” 3rd-5th grade exemplar 6th-7th grade exemplar figure 5. exemplar significant circles with a balance score of 2 (some balance evident). maguth & koskey  3 = strong balance evident: this score entailed a student’s significant circle drawing including evidence of their meeting all three analytical categories. this score reflected an ideal and optimum balance. for instance, in the grade third-grade to fifth-grade example in figure 6, a student listed his or her family as important, which satisfied the “positive lifestyle & wellbeing” category. he or she also indicated grades and school as important, which fulfilled the “academic success” category. finally, a seventh-grade student indicated a sense of belongingness to his or her community, which satisfied the third category “civic engagement.” 3-5th grade exemplar 6-7th grade exemplar figure 6. exemplar significant circles with a balance score of 3 (strong balance evident). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 balance index score of students the balance index score by grade band is reported in table 5. table 5 total sample and balance score sample academic success positive lifestyle & wellbeing civic engagement balance index score 0 1 2 3 f f % f % f % f % f % f % f % total 544 143 26 531 97 19 3 7 1 387 71 144 26 6 1 3rd-5th grade 393 84 21 385 97 8 2 5 1 302 76 83 21 3 < 1 6th-7th grade 151 59 39 146 96 11 < 1 2 < 1 85 56 61 43 3 1 our findings indicated that less than 1% (6/544) of all students demonstrated evidence across all three categories in their circles. 71% (387/544) of students scored a 1, while only 27% percent scored at a 2 or better (150/544). when results were disaggregated, sixth and seventhgraders demonstrated more balance across the categories than third through fifth-graders, as 42% (64/151) of them scored a 2 or above versus only 22% (86/393) for third through fifth-graders. sixth and seventh graders were also slightly more likely to score a 3 (1%) than third through fifth-graders (less than 1%). overall, only 3% (19/544) of the students included a drawing or label related to “civic engagement” in their circle. the students in general across both grade bands were least likely to reference civic engagement in their circle when compared to the two other analytical categories (academic success = 26%; positive lifestyle = 97%). sixth through seventh-graders performed slightly worse than third through fifth-graders (less than 1% versus 2%) in the “civic maguth & koskey engagement” category. findings suggest that the vast majority of students failed to reference civic engagement content in their significant circle, and this lack of visibility (gap) negatively influenced students’ overall balance index score. discussion, conclusion and implications related to the first research question, the results in this study contribute insights into how urban youth reported their levels of civic engagement (kahne, 2008; smetana & metzger, 2005) as it pertained to program goals. the students scored most poorly in the “civic engagement” category (only 3% included this in their circle). while both groups of students scored poorly in this category, 6-7th graders performed worse than 3-5th graders (less than 1% versus 2%). this finding is in-line with current research in social studies and civic education that identifies a crisis in pk-12 civic education; especially, at the early and middle grades (american council of trustees and alumni, 2016; fitchett & heafner, 2012; levinson, 2012). the large gap found between civic engagement content and content from the other two analytical categories within students’ significant circles in this study mirrors research findings in social studies education that documents a civic education opportunity gap in classrooms that often serve a high percentage of students of color, mostly in urban communities (kahne, 2008; maguire, 2007). the effects of this civic education opportunity gap may have rippled through students’ reported identities, as captured in this study’s data. the students in this study, most of whom are students of color, even when provided a more open and culturally relevant assessment of civic engagement (akom et al., 2009), reported lower levels of civic engagement as part of their significant circle versus other program goals (positive lifestyle & wellbeing and academic success). these results were communicated to the foundation and district to use for informing future programming related to this program goal. the lack of prioritizing civic engagement might relate to the troubling side effects reported in existing research of nclb in schools, especially, in high minority areas, that are most likely to decrease instructional time for civics (council on basic education, 2004). such failures in providing all of our nation’s youth with a high-quality civic education weakens our democracy and exacerbates divisions in our nation. with a long history of institutionalized discrimination and inequality in our nation it is essential citizens of color have meaningful opportunities to learn about and engage in the civic process. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 further scholarship is needed that captures and illustrates additional culturally relevant approaches in researching minority students’ civic engagement. this research adds insights into the connection between minority students’ reported civic engagement but additional research questions related to their civic mindedness, typologies, and habits need further study. for instance, in students’ significant circles, what types of civic engagement were excluded? why were they excluded? were “good citizen” depiction more in-line with the personally responsible, participatory, or justice-oriented citizen (westheimer & kahne, 2004)? future iterations of this study would benefit significantly by comparing students’ positionality of civic engagement in their significant circle, their civic typology, and contrasting that with learning opportunities in their social studies class; in particular, with a focus on taking individual or collection action to improve perceived issues in their classroom, school, community, and/or world. discussion of the significant circle drawing as a method related to the second research question, this study provides insights into an under theorized, yet, significant area of inquiry for researchers in social studies education in the area of arts-based, particularly visual arts-based, methodologies (barton, 2006; lomax, 2012). we presented an illustration of one-such arts-based method, the significant circle instrument, implemented as a cultural relevant tool to engage urban youth, in a non-threating and developmentally appropriate way, to draw, label, and portray their “sense of self” and identity (ladson-billings, 1995). in-line with barton’s research (2015), the use of the significant circle, might serve to reduce power imbalances between researcher and respondents and helped urban youth, most of whom are students of color, communicate their “insider” perspective as researchers attempted to make sense of their worlds (mitra, 2014). we engaged in discussion of our reflections on the method, its analysis, and utilization of the results. this reflection called for reflexivity to raise questions about “one’s place and power relations within the research process” (hesse-biber & leavy, 2011, p. 13). ongoing reflection provided us with the opportunity to highlight the successes and challenges for others interested in applying this technique. also, for determining whether we would continue to adopt this method in the evaluation plan. six successes identified were: maguth & koskey 1. although the analysis process was time intensive during the first pilot coding round in phase 1, it was feasible after that point with coding averaging 5 minutes or less per drawing. 2. the theory of funds of identity adequately served as a foundational core to code how students represented their sense of self. 3. the development of a crosswalk (phase 2) and balance index (phase 3) helped to identify areas of strength and gaps linking back to the program goals. 4. the students’ drawings were clear overall with only 1% coded as illegible. 5. the students were engaged with the significant circle drawing as evidenced by the detail of the drawings and use of color (when available). this assessment thus might be viewed less as a test or assessment and considered a more engaging alternative to surveys for younger samples. 6. the program developers requested the continued use of the assessment, indicating they found value-added in the data. we identified three challenges during our reflection that related specifically to the coding and interpretation process: 1. the initial pilot round of coding during phase 1 was time intensive and raised questions regarding the feasibility in coding and interpreting significant circle drawings for larger samples. 2. because there was no verbal interaction with the students such as a one-one follow-up interview, the raters needed to be current in terms of the lingo and interests of the age group being coded. 3. also, because there was no follow-up interview to inquire on the meaning of the drawings, there is a degree of subjectivity involved in interpreting the drawings at times. the labeling and prompt to list the three most important things in their drawing assisted in minimizing this limitation. despite this fact, verbalizations accompanying the drawings would increase the degree of validity of the interpretations. regarding the latter challenge, future research should consider testing whether the coding across the three phases differs when additional verbalization data is available to inform coding and interpretation of the drawings. also, future research should also be conducted on applying multiple ways of analyzing the resultant drawings. there are multiple ways data could be journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 analyzed depending on the research or evaluation purpose and question. for instance, applying a developmental framework comparing students across the grade levels. another example is use of spatial data analysis whereby geographical mapping documenting and categorizing spatial components (e.g., neighborhood) of socio-spatial processes (e.g., social-cultural experiences like social-institutional relationships) (rucks-ahidiana & bierbaum, 2015). evaluation work tends to prioritize youth academic success and general well-being over measuring civic engagement and attitudes (beaumont, 2012). the foundation and district partner are deeply committed to advancing all three goals and categories, and findings from this study will be used to better support and advocate for deeper investment in civic learning experiences to offset the underperformance of this goal as depicted in the findings of this study. it is also our hope this manuscript advances greater efforts by researchers in social studies education to empirically investigate urban youth civic engagement and attitudes in reporting on the civic education opportunity gap. such in-demand research can benefit greatly by employing art-based methods and instruments that prioritize student voice and experiences. maguth & koskey references adler, r. p., & goggins, j. (2005). what do we mean by “civic engagement”? journal of transformative education, 3(3), 236-253. akom, a. a., cammarota, j., & ginwright, s. (2008). youthtopias: towards a new paradigm of critical youth studies. youth media reporter, 2(1-6), 108-129. american council of trustees and alumni. (2016). a crisis in civic education. retrieved from http://www.goacta.org/images/download/a_crisis_in_civic_education.pdf bailey, g., shaw, e. l., & hollifield, d. (2006). the devaluation of social studies in the elementary grades. journal of social studies research, 30(2), 18-29. banks, j. (2006). diversity and citizenship education: global perspectives. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. barone, t., & eisner, e. (1997). arts-based educational research. complementary methods for research in education, 2, 75-116. barton, k. (2006). research methods in social studies education: contemporary issues and perspectives. charlotte, nc: information age press. barton, k. (2015). elicitation techniques: getting people to talk about ideas they don’t usually talk about. theory & research in social education, 43(2), 179-205. beaumont, e. (2012). what does recent research suggest about civic learning & civic action in young adults 18-30?: some insights and foundations for further work. chicago, il: spencer foundation. retrieved from http://www.spencer.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/elizabethbeaumont.pdf bickford, iii, j. h. (2011). students’ original political cartoons as teaching and learning tools. social studies research & practice, 6, 47–59. branson, m. s. (1998). the role of civic education. washington d.c.: center for civic education. retrieved from http://www.civiced.org/papers/articles_role.html clark, c. d. (1999). the autodriven interview: a photographic viewfinder into children’s experience. visual studies, 14, 39-50. creswell, j. w. (2004). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage. http://www.goacta.org/images/download/a_crisis_in_civic_education.pdf http://www.spencer.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/elizabethbeaumont.pdf http://www.civiced.org/papers/articles_role.html journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 croghan r., griffin c., hunter j., & phoenix a. (2008). young people’s constructions of self: notes on the use and analysis of the photo-elicitation method. international journal of social research methodology, 11, 1-12. davila, a., & mora, m. (2007). civic engagement and high school academic progress: an analysis using nels data. college park, md: the center for information & research on civic learning & engagement. esteban-guitart, m. (2012). towards a multi-methodological approach to identification of funds of identity, small stories and master narratives. narrative inquiry, 22(1), 173-180. doi:10.1075/ni.22.1.12est esteban-guitart, m., & moll, l. c. (2014). funds of identity: a new concept based on the funds of knowledge approach. culture & psychology, 20(1), 31-48. doi:10.1177/1354067x13515934 fitchett, p., & heafner, t. (2012). a national perspective on the effects of high-stakes testing and standardization on elementary social studies marginalization. theory and research in social education, 30(1), 114-130. gimpel, j. g., & pearson-merkowitz, s. (2009). policies for civic engagement beyond the schoolyard. in j. youniss & p. levin (eds.), engaging young people in civic life (pp. 81101). nashville, tn: vanderbilt university press. ginwright, s., & cammarota, j. (2007). youth activism in the urban community: learning critical civic praxis within community organizations. international journal of qualitative studies in education, 20(6), 693-710. gonzalez, n., moll, l. c., amanti, c. (2005). fund of knowledge: theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. new york: routledge. hesse-biber, s. n., & leavy, p. (2011) the practice of qualitative research (2nd ed.) los angeles, ca: sage. johnson, b., & christensen, l. (2008). educational research: quantitative, qualitative, and mix approaches. london: sage. kahne, j. (2008). high quality civic education: what is it and who gets it? social education, 72(1), 34-39. maguth & koskey kahne, j., & middaugh, e. (2008). democracy for some: the civic opportunity gap in high school. circle working paper 59. baltimore, md: center for information and research on civic learning and engagement (circle). kirby, d. (2001). emerging answers: research findings on programs to reduce teen pregnancy. washington dc: national campaign to prevent teen pregnancy. ladson-billings, g. (1995). toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. american educational research journal, 32(3), 465-491. landsman, j., & gorski, p. (2007). countering standardization. educational leadership, 64(8), 40-44. levinson, m. (2012). no citizen left behind. cambridge, ma & london, england: harvard university press. lomax, h. (2012). contested voices? methodological tensions in creative visual research with children. international journal of social research methodology, 15(2), 105-117. mcintyre, e., roseberry, a., & gonzalez, n. (2001). classroom diversity: connecting curriculum to students' lives. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. mcintyre, e., kyle, d. w., & rightmyer, e. c. (2005). families’ funds of knowledge to mediate teaching in rural schools. cultura y educación, 17(2), 175-195. doi:10.1174/113560054192856 maguire, m. (2007). what happened to social studies? the disappearing curriculum. phi delta kappan, 88, 620-624. miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (2004). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. mitra, d. l. (2004). the significance of students: can increasing “student voice” in schools lead to gains in youth development? teachers college record, 106(4), 651-688. mitra, d. l., & serriere, s., (2015). civic education in the elementary grades: promoting student engagement in an era of accountability. new york, ny: teachers college press. national center for education statistics (2014). the nation’s report card: a first look: 2014 civics. institute of education sciences, u.s. department of education, washington, d.c. retrieved from http://nationsreportcard.gov/hgc_2014/#civics http://nationsreportcard.gov/hgc_2014/#civics journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 national council for the social studies [ncss]. (2013a). revitalizing civic learning. position statements. retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/revitalizing_civic_learning national council for the social studies [ncss]. (2013b). the college, career, and civic life framework for social studies state standards: guidance for enhancing the rigor of k-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. silver spring, md: ncss. nussbaum, m. c. (2010). not for profit: why democracy needs the humanities? princeton, nj: princeton university press. o’connor, k., heafner, t., & groce, e. (2007). advocating for social studies: documenting the decline and doing something about it. social education, 71(5), 259-264. pearlstein, d. (1996). community and democracy in american schools: arthurdale and the fate of progressive education. teachers college record, 97(4), 625-650. potts, s. (2000). fostering resiliency through service-learning: evaluation summary. madison, wi: wisconsin department of public instruction. rucks-ahidiana, z., & bierbaum, a. h. (2015). qualitative spaces: integrating spatial analysis for a mixed methods approach. international journal of qualitative methods, 14(2), 92103. doi:10.1177/160940691501400208 rule, a. c., & montgomery, s. e. (2011). reflections of pre-service elementary teachers after learning about an african culture through mask-making. social studies research & practice, 6, 58–74. saldaña, j. (2013). the coding manual for qualitative researchers (2nd ed.). los angeles, ca: sage. schulz, w., ainley, j. fraillon, j., kerr, d., & losito, b. (2010). iccs 2009 international report: civic knowledge, attitudes, and engagement among lower-secondary school students in 38 countries. amsterdam: international association for the evaluation of educational achievement (iea). retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed520018.pdf smetana, j. g., & metzger, a. (2005). family and religious antecedents of civic involvement in middle class african american late adolescents. journal of research on adolescence, 15(3), 325-352. http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/revitalizing_civic_learning http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed520018.pdf maguth & koskey serriere, s. c. (2010). carpet-time democracy: digital photography and social consciousness in the early childhood classroom. the social studies, 101, 60–68. soussloff, c. m. (2006). the subject in art: portraiture and the birth of the modern. durham: duke university press. stake, r. e. (1995). the art of case study research. thousand oaks, ca: sage. swan, k. k., & hofer, m. m. (2013). examining student-created documentaries as a mechanism for engaging students in authentic intellectual work. theory & research in social education, 41, 133–175. taylor, j., brunvand, s., & iroha, o. (2015). portraiture in the social studies: interdisciplinary and technological approaches to instruction. international journal of academic research in education, 1(2), 1-25. teddlie, c., & tashakkori, a. (2009). foundations of mixed methods research: integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. thousand oaks, ca: sage. thomas-brown, k. (2010). using “when the levees broke/teaching the levees” to teach middle school students about empathy and social justice. social studies research & practice, 5, 76–90. u.s. department of education, institute of education sciences, national center for education statistics. (2014). naep civic test scores. retrieved from http://www.nationsreportcard.gov/hgc_2014/#civics/scores vanfossen, p. j. (2005). “reading and math take so much of the time…”: an overview of social studies instruction in elementary classrooms in indiana. theory and research in social education, 33(3), 376-403 vygotsky, l. s. (1926/1997). educational psychology. boca raton, fl: st. lucie press. watts, r. j., & flanagan, c. (2007). pushing the envelope on youth civic engagement: a developmental and liberation psychology perspective. journal of community psychology, 35(6), 779-792. westheimer, j., & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2), 1-30. von zastrow, claus, & janc, h. (2004). academic atrophy: the condition of the liberal arts in america’s public schools. washington dc: council for basic education. http://www.nationsreportcard.gov/hgc_2014/#civics/scores journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 yarbrough, d. b., shulha, l. m, hopson, r. k., & caruthers, f. a. (2011) joint committee on standards for educational evaluation – the program evaluation standards: a guide for evaluators and evaluation users (3rd ed.) los angeles, ca: sage. maguth & koskey appendix a crosswalk: program goals to significant circle funds of identity domain program goals funds of identity academic success go to school and arrive on time  institutional funds of identity 37 accept the challenge to finish school  practical funds of identity: 5 positive lifestyle & wellbeing live a healthy lifestyle  practical funds of identity: 3, 4, 6  cultural funds of identity: 12 to 18, 19  social funds of identity: 20-33, 34  institutional funds of identity: 35, 36, 39  material funds of identity: 44 try new things  practical funds of identity: 7, 10 keep a positive attitude  internal funds of identity: 41, 42  materialistic funds of identity: 48 civic engagement give back to my community  practical funds of identity: 8  geographic funds of identity: 2 be kind and respectful to others be a role model to my peers and the wheels for education students  institutional funds of identity: 38, 40 be a leader funds/categories not used geographic fund 1: practical fund: 9, 11 material funds: 43, 45, 46, 47, 49 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 appendix b revised significant circle coding scheme geographic funds of identity: any area or territory, such as a river, a country, a village or a mountain that become a source of self-identification. examples: city, america/u.s., landmarks or historical marks in the city, etc. 1 general geographic fund of identity 2 city specific – geographical fund of identity specific practical funds of identity: any activity such as work, sports, music, schoolwork, community service work, exercise, etc. for instance, i can say that psychology is very important to me. it is part of my identity. must be engaging in the activity. 3 general practical funds of identity 4 engaging in sport or exercise 5 engaging in school academics (schoolwork, homework, specify a subject matter) 6 engaging in the arts (music, drama, etc.) 7 engaging in activities to maintain positive attitude 8 engaging in community service activities 9 “city reside in” (protect confidentiality) 10 other cultural funds of identity: any artifacts such as religious symbols, national flags, national anthems or any social category such as age, ethnic group, gender, sexuality, nationality, etc. 11 religion 12 ethnic group, heritage, nationality 13 class 14 disability 15 gender 16 age 17 sexuality 18 other social funds of identity: significant others such as relatives, friends/peers, teachers, coaches, mentors, tutors, neighbors, school staff, foster parent, etc. if states entire “family” unit, then institutional fund of identity. 19 mom and dad 20 mom 21 dad 22 sister or brother 23 grandparent 24 aunt or uncle 25 cousin 26 other relative maguth & koskey 27 pet 28 peers/friends 29 removed (protect confidentiality) 30 mentor 31 neighbor 32 teacher, coach, principal, school staff, etc. 33 other institutional funds of identity: any social institution, such as family church, sport team, club. 34 family 35 church 36 school (indicates affiliation or belongingness to school) 37 removed (protect confidentiality) 38 sport team or club (must focus on the team/club unit) 39 other internal funds of identity: refers to self 40 “me” materialistic funds of identity: objects (e.g., food, money, house, clothes, games, technology) 41 food 42 money 43 clothes 44 technology 45 house/roof over head 46 other journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 1-37 appendix c round 1 analysis findings: funds of identity frequency and percentage of the students’ responses coded by fund of identity (overall sample)1 fund of identity what is important to you? first most important (n = 542) second most important (n = 529) third most important (n = 517) f % f % f % institutional 187 34 89 16 57 11 social 171 31 191 36 172 33 practical 115 21 169 31 179 34 material 38 7 47 8 68 13 cultural 13 2 11 2 14 2 internal 13 2 15 2 19 3 geographical 5 .90 7 1 8 1 missing2 8 1 21 3 33 6 note. 1 percentages rounded down to the nearest whole. percentages were computed out of those who provided a legible response. 2students responses’ were illegible. third, fourth, and fifth-graders overall fund of identity category across codes1 fund of identity what is important to you? first most important (n = 391) second most important (n = 380) third most important (n = 371) f % f % f % maguth & koskey institutional 142 36 48 12 32 8 social 141 36 154 40 133 35 practical 61 15 115 30 118 31 material 27 6 38 10 59 15 cultural 12 3 11 2 14 3 internal 7 1 9 2 11 3 geographical 1 .30 5 1 4 1 missing2 5 1 16 4 25 6 note. 1 percentages rounded down to the nearest whole. percentages are computed out of those who provided a response. 2students did not provide a response or the response was illegible. sixth and seventh graders overall fund of identity category across codes1 fund of identity what is important to you? first most important (n = 151) second most important (n = 149) third most important (n =146) f % f % f % institutional 45 29 41 27 25 17 social 30 19 37 24 39 26 practical 54 35 54 36 61 41 material 11 7 9 6 9 6 cultural 1 .70 0 0 0 0 internal 6 3 6 4 8 5 geographical 4 2 2 1 4 2 missing2 3 1 5 3 8 5 note. 1 percentages rounded down to the nearest whole. percentages are computed out of those who provided a response. 2students did not provide a response or the response was illegible. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (4), 64-92 viewing pancasila in the eyes of nationalists in indonesian new order era zainal a. rahawarin1 abstract indonesian political thinking is divided in two: political islam and secular politics. soekarno and mohammad natsir were dominant political figures in indonesia, with the former being a secular nationalist, and the latter being an islamist. both these leaders inherited ideological disparities, and these distinctions separate political islam from secular nationalism. this presents an academic opportunity, because such a phenomenon can act as material for research to invent and develop new ideas. this study took a qualitative approach and used both primary and secondary data sources, and a collection of publications and documents were examined to inform this research. the primary and secondary data were therefore analyzed qualitatively to construct a theory. due to the national arguments during the early years of independence, both islamic and secular nationalist ideologies emerged. soekarno and muhammad yamin’s version of pancasila (the five basic principles) was advocated as the national principle by the nationalist circle. this ideological issue has been debated since the presidential decree legalized the jakarta charter, which established an ideal constitutional vision for the country and state. as a result, the jakarta charter was implemented in law as part of the 1945 constitution. keywords: thought identity, secular politics, islamic politics, pancasila, religion introduction in terms of demographics, the indonesian nation is an amalgamation of several ethnic groups. the distinctiveness of indonesian political philosophy is framed by a political and cultural divide into two camps, namely the islamists and nationalists, with the latter having little regard for religious beliefs (anshari, 1986), and this national issue that has not been resolved to date. for various reasons, islam, as the most-common faith, appears to have been hampered in implementing a political structure based on islamic doctrine. at the very least, multiculturalism, on the one hand, and the strong history of islam on the archipelago, on the other hand, mark the meeting point of political thoughts, giving rise to islamist and secular nationalist movements (i.e., islamic ideology versus pancasila) (aswar, 2021). political islam and secular politics are the two main aspects that have emerged in indonesian political thinking (jamilah, 2021). soekarno and muhammad natsir emerged as pivotal figures in indonesian political philosophy. soekarno represented secular nationalism, while natsir 1dr. state institute of islamic studies (iain) ambon, indonesia; email: za.rahawarin20@gmail.com mailto:za.rahawarin20@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 represented political islamism. these ideological differences have been passed down to subsequent generations, thus dividing political thought into two camps. on march 1, 1945, the bpupki committee, presided over by mr. radjiman wediodiningrat, was created to address this ideological dispute (christenson, 1971; natsir, 2004). this committee’s primary responsibility was to develop a constitution, and their discussions were flavored by arguments about national ideas. it was unable to establish a national principle, so a small committee was established called the ppki (the preparatory committee for indonesian independence). its mission was to find a proper solution to the national principle. as a result, on june 22, 1945, a compromise was struck in agreeing the “preamble” wording of the constitution, which became known as the jakarta charter (anshari, 1986; platzdasch, 2009). the jakarta charter was therefore a political settlement between secular and islamic nationalists. the meeting of the indonesian constitutional assembly on november 12, 1957 was a high point in the political discussion over the national principle. natsir spoke on behalf of the islamic group (manik et al., 2021) and rejected pancasila as the national philosophy because it is secular, so he kept supporting islam as the national principle. two islamic political groups, masyumi (the council of indonesian muslim associations) and nu (the ulema council), both rejected pancasila at the meeting. kyai wahab abdullah, a prominent nu figure, was a little more moderate in stating that islam provided ideals that bolstered the nation’s principles. research questions taking into consideration the general development of political thought in indonesia, and particularly since indonesia gained independence, the pertinent question about the politics of islamists and nationalists can be defined into the main research questions: “what are the positions of islam and pancasila as national principles in the views of political islam and secular nationalism, and how can these ideological differences be addressed?” rahawarin 66 sub-research questions to explore the research into in-depth study, the main research questions were elaborated into the following five sub-research questions below: 1) what is the political perspective of islam in indonesia is a vise to pancasila as the state ideology? 2) how is the implementation of islamic politics during the indonesian revolution period? 3) how is the perception of political islamic ideology with regards to pancasila as the state ideology of indonesia? 4) how is pancasila vis a vis islamic thoughts about state ideology is applied in the state practices in indonesia? 5) how is the polemic between natsir and soekarno during the process of self-dependence? literature review some books closely related to the current study were reviewed to reveal how islamic political thinking and secular nationalism tend to contradict each other. these books served as the foundation for reviewing literature about islamic political thought in indonesia and how it fits with secular philosophy (ka’bah, 2005). the book pemikiran politik islam tematik was published in 2013 and dedicated to issues such as the rule of law, justice, human rights, freedom, democracy, violence, and corruption. a work this like cannot capture the entirety of islamic political thinking, but this theme is prevalent throughout political science (mahfud, 1998). in addition, it does not provide precise opinions about islamic sharia, so it is not considered authoritative (black, 2006; khomeini, 2002). abdullah (1987) wrote a book titled pemikiran politik islam indonesia that focuses on two major subjects, namely the political challenges in indonesia and the nexus of the state, the caliphate, civil society, and democracy (pemikiran politik islam indonesia). the themes presented pertain to political movements that shed some light on historical features of islamic political movements in indonesia, with little emphasis being placed on the formation of political beliefs. however, the focus of its arguments seems to be based on the conflict between symbolic and substantive politics. the various debates about the national principle, which led to the jakarta charter, were described in depth by anshari (1986) in his book piagam indonesia 22 juni 1945. here, pancasila was first journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 presented by the ppki as the national principle, with this being a compromise between the islamist and secular nationalist advocates. indonesian political thinking can be explained through ideology, because this best describes how notions of political thought have developed in the country, especially within the purview of islamic political institutions (khaled, 2004). there are different schools of islamic political thought, such as the formal ideas that advocate the concept of an islamic state or islam din ad daulah. there is another school of thought that sees a symbiotic relationship between islam and politics, resulting in the birth of an islamic society. the theory of ideology first manifested in the aftermath of the french revolution. destutt de tracy was the first to apply this phrase in a specific context, namely for the science of ideas (mandan, 2009). in another sense, ideologies can be defined as a collection of perspectives and ideals, and such fundamental values and beliefs serve as normative guidelines in the social life of a state or nation, as well as the system that governs it (abidin, 2012; mahyuddin, 2009). the ideology of islamic political and social movements reflects islam’s religious teachings. the concept of struggle is common among islamic movements like egypt’s ikhwanul muslimin, pakistan’s jamaat el-islami, and indonesia’s masyumi (al-chaidar. 2002; maududi, 1990). therefore, all islamic groups, whether they are social or semi-political like hizb ut tahrir or highly political like hamas and hezbollah, adopt ideology as a form of self-identification. due to the quran and hadiths being the major pillars of islamic philosophy, the phrase “islamic ideology” has come to be accepted in everyday language (efriza, 2008; firmanzah, 2008). methods this study applied a historical research as the research design (brundage, 2014), a method for studying historical facts with the stages of heuristics, source criticism, interpretation, and historiography (brundage, 2014; mccaffrey et al., 2012). historical research was carried out through 5 stages, namely: topic selection, heuristics (source collection), verification (source criticism), interpretation, and historiography (writing) (brundage, 2014; gunn & faire, 2016; mccaffrey et al., 2012;). this study was qualitative because it has data in the form of words, sentences, arguments, narrative logic and researchers express meaning based on the intent of the source (creswell et al., 2011). this study examines the historical aspect of the role of islam in developing pancasila in the political dynamic of indonesia during the independence (garcia, et al., rahawarin 68 2009). qualitative research aims to investigate or describe an unquantifiable event or social manifestation. such research focuses on theory development, whereby the data gathered about a phenomenon are used by researchers to identify and generate new hypotheses (satori & komariah, 2010). data were collected from documents in the form of books, journals, papers, theses, dissertations, and research reports that were systematized as references to increase this research’s pool of available data. qualitatively, data were collected in the form of selected themes from historical documents, published articles and dissertations. after that, the data were analyzed using five stages of historical research, namely: choosing a topic, collecting sources (heuristics), verification, interpretation and historical rewriting (historiography) (brundage, 2014; gunn & faire, 2016; mccaffrey et al., 2012). results and discussion political perspective of islam in indonesia it is important to note that three powerful elements played roles in the history of the indonesian people, namely colonialism, the ummah of islam (the islamic community), and the majapahit empire. islam existed in indonesia before the colonial occupations of the portuguese, spanish, dutch, japanese, and their allies, such that it was the dominant religion in the archipelago. indeed, the history of the indonesian muslim community dates back to the beginning of the 14th century, somewhat before the arrival of the portuguese and dutch in 1596 (anshari, 1986). the formation of several islamic kingdoms across the archipelago sparked the indonesian national political movement. according to anshari, after the decline of majapahit and the development of malaka (1389–1950), islamic kingdoms emerged beginning with perlak and samudera pasai, followed by governance under sultan alauddin syah (1477–1488), the demak sultanate (1500– 1546), sultan baab ulah’s ternate (1570–1587), and the kingdom of aceh (ansari, 2004). since the decline of hinduism, islam has grown into the national religion of indonesia. slamet muljana wrote in his book runtuhnya kerajaan hindu—jawa dan timbulnya negara-negara islam di nusantara that islamic power was demonstrated by the kingdom of perlak, which was the first islamic kingdom to exist in 1186 a.d., and later by the kingdom of samudera pasai, which was established in 1297 a.d. as far as islamic political institutions or islamic governments are concerned, these two kingdoms can be considered as examples of them. they acted as forerunners journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 to the establishment of other islamic kingdoms throughout the archipelago, which in turn served as the foundation for developing modern indonesian nationalism (santoso, 2004; taimiyah, 1999). islam spread, leading to more islamic government institutions being built throughout the archipelago, including on java, kalimantan, sulawesi, maluku, and irian. in terms of geopolitics, the conversion of this archipelago into the nation of indonesia represents the most visible manifestation of islam’s role in indonesia’s inception (rahardjo, 2001; ritzer, 1992). islam continued to grow on java until it eventually became strong enough to overthrow the majapahit empire. the demak sultanate was java’s first islamic political institution. king raden patah ruled from 1500 to 1518 b.c.e. his son pati unus launched an attack against the portuguese colony in malaka during his reign (anshari, 1986). pati unus later took raden patah’s place following his death. the demak sultanate (1500–1550), banten (1524–1813), cirebon (1552– 1677), pajang (1568–1618), and mataram (1568–1618) were among the islamic states that controlled java, having inherited the greatness of the majapahit empire, while resisting imperialism and colonialism (1596–1755). some islamic kingdoms existed on sulawesi, such as in south and southeast sulawesi, including the sultanate of gowa (1593–1669), bone (17th century), the kingdom of banggai (16th century), and the sultanate of buton (1332–1911). in sulawesi, the strategic position of these islamic kingdoms played a significant role in the expansion of islam into the eastern section of the archipelago. karaeng matoaya, the king of gowa, was the first king of makassar to convert to islam, and he was helped by daeng manrabia, the king of tallo, as well as the mangkubumi (high administrator) with the title of sultan abdullah. around 1593–1639 a.d., he controlled makassar, and this kingdom quickly grew into a maritime power under the reign of king malekul said (1639–1653). small and large islamic kingdoms in kalimantan, including the sultanates of pasir (1516) and banjar (1526–1905); korawaringin with the kingdom of pagatan (1750); and the sultanates of sambas (1671), kutai kartanegara (1400), sambaliung (1810), gunung tabur (1820), pontianak (1771), and bulungan (1771) spread across the entire kalimantan region (731), making kalimantan an islamic stronghold. the smaller kingdoms in kalimantan paid homage to banjar, which was the most powerful of the island’s islamic kingdoms, which in turn gave kalimantan enormous influence. rahawarin 70 from 1526 to 1905 a.d., the kingdom of south kalimantan existed. the hindu kingdom of negara daha was an ancestor of the banjar dynasty. sultan samudera, commonly known as sunan batu habang, was the sultanate of banjar’s first ruler. he was also the grandson of maharaja sukarama of the hindu negara daha dynasty. sultan samudera converted to islam and received the title suryanullah or suriansyah. the sultanate of demak had charge of this procedure for islamizing the sultanate of banjar (lapidus, 2000). islam ruled maluku and irian from sabang to merauke, with sultanates being established in tidore, jailolo, bacan, and the kingdom of tanah hitu in ambon, as well as the kingdoms of misol and patipi in irian. ternate’s kingdom had a significant impact on maluku and irian, as well as the entire archipelago. according to nanulaitta’s writings, ternate was one of the archipelago’s four major kingdoms, along with aceh, mataram, and makassar (nashir, 2007). sultan hairun and his son sultan babullah reigned in ternate, ushering in a golden age for the sultanate. the establishment of islamic kingdoms in the archipelago, as well as the wars led by the ulema, such as the diponegara and paderi wars, were precursors to the notion of the nationalism that would ultimately lead to the republic of indonesia in the 20th century. according to shobron (2003), the engagement of the ulema in politics can be traced back to the beginnings of islamic civilization itself. in the context of indonesia, the ulema’s participation in the politics of the islamic kingdoms, most notably as advisors to rulers, was strategic enough to warrant their inclusion in this section. the ulema later stepped in to fill the void left when the islamic kingdoms collapsed in the face of european colonialism, rallying the muslim community to stand firm against the invaders. to reaffirm the ummah’s commitment to fighting the interlopers, the fatwa of jihad and martyrdom gained power. this political lesson was noted in the diponegoro war (1825–1830) and the later kiai mojo war (1873–1904), where the mobilization of islam stoked nationalist and anti-colonial sentiments. the ulema’s jihad fatwa and the sabil war laid the groundwork for building a powerful ummah for fighting the colonizers until indonesian sovereignty could be achieved (lapidus, 2000). islamic politics during the indonesian revolution period the colonial period before independence before and after independence, during colonial and foreign assaults and domestic rebellions, the indonesian revolution can be divided into two periods as follows: the first phase of the revolution was a revolt in response to the oppression from colonizing powers (the portuguese, dutch, and journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 japanese). it was carried out using the strength of the islamic kingdoms throughout the archipelago, and it subsequently evolved into a spirit of national revolution, which ultimately culminated in independence for the republic of indonesia. in order to deal with the power of the islamic sultanates in the archipelago from sabang to merauke, the dutch began to use imperial tactics by establishing a commercial organization called the east india company (dutch: vereenigde oostindische compagnie or voc) on march 20, 1620. it was the first trade organization in the world (nanulaitta, 1966). the islamic kingdoms in the archipelago, together with the ummah, began to rise in opposition to the dutch due to the voc’s trade monopoly and desire for territorial expansion through the use of military force (ricklefs, 2005). the preponderance of the islamic ummah in the archipelago, according to aqib suminto, is something the dutch encountered. the conflicts against the dutch—particularly the paderi (1821– 1827), diponegoro (1825–1830), and aceh (1873–1903) wars—were another hindrance according to suminto (1996). anshari went on to describe the aforementioned reality in further detail while disputing clifford gertz’s assertion that the paderi and diponegoro conflicts, the fight in the java sea, and the battle in aceh were all essentially just student insurgencies against dutch imperialism. as a result, geertz accidentally, or even intentionally, politically localized these conflicts by claiming that they were sectarian actions carried out by a few muslims who felt antipathy to the dutch monopoly, a crusade of sorts, so they lacked national legitimacy. anshari asserted that the first war in west sumatera (1821–1828), which gertz referred to as a “student revolt,” was in fact the paderi war rather than a student insurrection. the war came to a conclusion in 1837. the second conflict took place in central java (1926–1830). geertz simply stated that mahdi’s movement was responsible for the student revolt, because it was fighting the war against infidel dutch imperialism and its allies at the time. this fight, which was led by pangeran diponegoro, is unquestionably referred to as the diponegoro war. a third conflict took place in northwest java (1840 and 1880). geertz did not clarify the location or the figures involved in the rebellion, but it was carried out by the ummah in banten, who burned european homes and civil administration buildings. aceh was the site of the fourth conflict (1837–1903). geertz again did not identify any of the leading figures of the insurrection, instead just stating that the movement was successful in beating dutch imperialism, which had been in control in aceh for thirty years at the time. rahawarin 72 various points of view are offered to support the justification of the islamic kingdoms’ resistance against the colonizers and islam’s status as a symbol of national unity in the archipelago. for example, in his book islam and the rise of nationalism in indonesia, fred r. von der mehden asserted: whether it is to foster a sense of national unity or to distinguish the indonesian people from the dutch colonialists, islam is the most obvious means of accomplishing these goals. the islands, which included the dutch east indies, did not exist as a linguistic, cultural, or historical entity until very recently. until the beginning of the twentieth century, the final places under the control of dutch power were never completely surrendered. as a result, because it is made up of a diverse range of traditions, histories, languages, cultures, and geographical shapes, islam is the only global tie that can be found outside of the colonial power structure (effendy, 1998). islam, according to madjid (1987) and amir (2003), is one of the most prominent symbols of national unity. in the fight against the colonialists, islam became a symbol of the nation’s awakening. in their fight against the dutch, the indonesians positioned islam as their shared identity and ideology for struggle. throughout history, islam has always intersected with power. even at the time, the dutch government attempted to separate islam from politics through hurgronje’s teaching. his doctrine divided islam into two categories, namely “worship islam” and “political islam.” the goal was to limit this arena for the muslim ummah, so that it could never evolve a political institution. however, islam came to serve as a political concept for national identity (effendy, 1998; suminto, 1996). it served as a thesis upon which to build a movement for the ummah, led by the archipelago’s kingdoms, to resist colonialism. thus, a sense of indonesian nationality among the archipelago was created, with a view toward achieving indonesian independence. we discuss below some of the hypotheses that are debated: as a religion capable of freeing people from slavery, islamic teachings are inherently autonomous. as such, islam was a politically independent religion free from colonial control and its political institutions. initially, the islamic sultanate that had ruled indonesia for centuries acted as a historical basis for the current unitary state of indonesia. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 moreover, it also served as a starting point for building the foundations upon which to develop the indonesian state, because the islamic kingdoms wielded considerable power in the archipelago. according to kahin (1996), the diponegoro war was the catalyst for indonesian nationalism, not the other way around. revolution after independence the second stage was the revolution that occurred after independence. it could be said that this occurred due to the military aggression carried out by the dutch and nica, as well as domestic uprisings. as an example, consider the following explanation for the second stage of revolution. the military aggression of the nica. indonesia was not immediately acknowledged by the international community following its proclamation of independence on august 17, 1945, particularly by western countries and especially the dutch. “the state of indonesia is a unitary state in the form of a republic, and its territory is the entire former dutch indies region,” stated article 1, verse 1 of the 1945 constitution (halim, 2005). the dutch, however, did not respect the boundaries established in the 1945 constitution because they still wanted to retain some territory in the east. the dutch then invaded indonesia with the help of the allies. on september 29, 1945, the nica and its allies attacked indonesia under the command of admiral peterson. the dutch occupied most of indonesia from 1945 to 1949 and totally dominated eastern indonesia. on july 15, 1946, in ujung pandang, the allied army commander handed over responsibility for kalimantan, timur besar, bangka, and belitong to h. j. van mook, a dutch government agent (halim, 2005). on december 19, 1948, the dutch and knil took control of yogyakarta and detained some revolutionary leaders. soekarno, hatta, sjahrir, mr. assaat, mr. abdul gafar pringgodogdo, mr. ali sastroamidjojo, and air commodore suriadarma were held up on bangka island. on december 19, 1948, at 10:00 a.m., soekarno and hatta met with their cabinet, and syafruddin prawiranegara was chosen to form an emergency administration for the republic of indonesia. syafruddin fulfilled this objective by relocating the indonesian capital to sumatera, along with ministers of finance and social affairs including colonel hidayat, colonel kawilarang, lieutenant commander oetarjo, colonel soejono, and colonel subiakto (hilmy, 2010). guerrilla warfare tactics and strategies finally compelled the dutch to engage in negotiations. in this case, the islamic leaders who chaired the negotiations played significant roles. kh. agus rahawarin 74 salim led the indonesian delegation in the round table conference in the hague, and the name muhammad roem is immortalized in the name of one of the dutch–indonesian negotiations, namely the roem-royen negotiation. linggarjati, renville, and roem-royen were just two of the netherlands–indonesia agreements. by implementing a federal government system that divided indonesia into states, the dutch employed divide-and-conquer politics. the dutch, however, acknowledged the republic of indonesia’s full sovereignty as a united country, with the exception of west irian, as a result of the round table conference in the hague on august 23 to november 2, 1949. the netherlands therefore formed the republic of indonesia as comprising east indonesia country, pasundan (including jakarta), east java, madura, east sumatera, and autonomous state units, such as central java, bangka belitung, riau, west kalimantan, bayak, banjar, central kalimantan, and east kalimantan (hilmi, 2010). on october 22, 1945, in response to the dutch invasion, the ulemma of nu gathered in surabaya to pass the “djihad fi sabilillah” resolution, which declared a state of war against both the dutch and allied forces. kyai hasyim asy’ari was a direct contributor to the financing of the hizbullah and sabillilah forces (feillard, 1999). to demonstrate to the nation that they were not waiting for a call from indonesian leaders or any other group to defend the state from colonialism, islamic figures marched in the streets of jakarta. in the first or maybe the second year following independence, soekarno issued what was essentially an official statement of his intention to fight the dutch and the allies. his address at the celebrations of the first and second years of independence reflected the call he made in the previous year. he stated the following: “what a huge challenge we're up against!” after we wrested power from japan’s hands, the challenge will not reduce, but rather intensify. allied forces have landed thousands of troops, including dutch troops…our entire nation—rich, poor, old, young, men, women, educated, illiterate—rises, moves, and struggles to justify and materialize the proclamation of august 17 with one steely desire to become one (soekarno, 1965 in soyomukti 2012). domestic rebellions. the internal uprisings were instigated by various factions in national society. the problem was unusually intricate, and it came dangerously close to bringing down the newly independent government body. indonesia’s government was confronted with international journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 power in the form of the dutch/nica and the allies, domestic political tensions in terms of ideology and geography, and other obstacles. three domestic revolts took place in indonesia during the leadership of soekarno and hatta. two of these were ideological revolutions by the di (darul islam)/tii (indonesian islamic army) and the pki (indonesian communist party), while the third was a pragmatic regional revolution, also involving the pki (indonesian communist party). these are explained below. the first was the di/tii ideological revolution, which was the most significant conflict in indonesia’s sociopolitical field and government system throughout the history of the ummah’s struggle for independence, both before and after independence. it was also the most persistent ideological conflict. the armed classes associated with the di/tii due to this ideological war. kartosoewirjo proclaimed the foundation of the indonesian islamic state by reading the “nii proclamation text” on august 7, 1949 after soekarno and hatta had proclaimed indonesia’s independence (kartosoewirjo, 1949 in al-chaidar, 2002). central java, south sulawesi, south kalimantan, and aceh were among the places where the di/tii movement was strongest. kartosoewirjo, a native of west java, was a pivotal figure in the di/tii movement (rahawarin, 2003). the intellectual fight between secular nationalists, islamists, and marxists that occurred prior to the japanese and dutch occupations had a great influence on kartosoewirjo's determination to build an islamic state. his islamic political thinking was both radical and coherent, which made him a formidable opponent. he was unaware of any political compromise between the ideology of a secular state and the ideology of a religious state (e.g., pancasila). the following are some pieces that were originally published by fajar asia, a publication where he served as editor, as well as vice president and general manager: darmo kondo thinks we're strange because of our nationality. don't believe that since we are muslims, we don't want indonesia to be independent. in darmo kondo, our colleagues do not have a monopoly on the ideal. also, don’t assume that as muslims, we don't strive to achieve our vision, so that we can have control over our own country. but the difference between our colleagues in darmo kondo and us is that for nationalists, the indonesian national independence of the indonesian people, as stated by darmo kondo’s editor, is the highest peak, whereas for us, the independence of our homeland is merely one condition, one bridge that we must rahawarin 76 cross. instead of enacting islam in its true and broadest sense in our birthplace indonesia, we must achieve independence to achieve our greater and nobler ideal. “for us, there is only one criteria,” says the editor of darmo kondo. “for the editor of darmo kondo, it is the lofty purpose and objective” (al-chaidar, 2002). this scathing condemnation was aimed at the secular nationalists and intended to be taken literally. kartosoewirjo developed a dislike for secular nationalists due to their reactions to his actions. the concept of darul islam, on the other hand, was still being fought over. the following shows how the concept of darul islam was expressed: ....the indonesian national community directs its movements and acts toward the big indonesia in order to commit to its country, to its mother-indonesia, but muslims in the islamic community, or daroel-islam, “do not desire to devote to indonesia or anyone, but only to almighty god.” their goal is to create the most perfect daroelislam, where every muslim can experience allah’s laws (islam) as widely as possible, whether they are dealing with sjahsiah or idjtima'iyah (al-chaidar, 2002). the second revolt was the pki’s ideological revolution, which took place in 1989. this political group had a marxist–socialist ideology, and its name translates as the indonesian communist party. it was initially founded in may 1914 under the name isdv (indische sosial demokratische vereniging) by three dutchmen, namely sneevelit, bransterder, and bergsma. it transformed into the pki on may 23, 1920. semaun, darsono, alimin, muso, and d.n. aidit were some of the most notable pki members. as the left-wing communist tan malaka was not included in this organization, he was disqualified from participating in it. the pki progressed rapidly and successfully in a short period of time. the pki brought a political ideological mission to the table as a marxist organization. its constitutional purpose was to construct a communist-dominated indonesian state. there were at least four major examples of the pki’s efforts to accomplish this aim. the first was the madiun affair, which took place on september 18, 1948. the g.30.s/pki revolt of 1965 was the second. the third was the general election of 1955, and their manifesto of political ideology was the fourth. the pki, with the support of the soviet union, staged a coup against the indonesian government and established madiun as its state capital. the political rivalry between musso and soekarno over journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 the madiun affair was reflected in their respective speeches on the subject. on september 19, soekarno delivered the following address, which was broadcast on radio at 10 p.m.: his communist party took over madiun yesterday morning and installed a sovietstyle administration led by musso. they see this as a prelude to seizing power throughout the republic of indonesia. from this, it is apparent that the events in solo (surakarta) and madiun are interconnected and are part of a larger plan to overthrow the indonesian government. to do this, the rebels used units of the 29th brigade, led by lieutenant colonel dahlan. dahlan has betrayed the state and the soldier’s oath, so i dismiss dahlan from the army. ladies and gentlemen, musso's communist party is seeking to capture the republic of indonesia, which we adore. in the name of the indonesian independence struggle, i visit you at a critical time, when you and i must choose between joining musso and his communist party, who will hinder the establishment of an independent indonesia, or soekarno–hatta, who will, with allah swt’s help, make the republic of indonesia an independent indonesian nation free from foreign colonization…support your government, help the government battle the rebels and restore the rightful government in the troubled regions. madiun should be returned to our hands immediately (kahin, 1966). musso responded to soekarno’s speech at 11.30 p.m. with the following speech: when the citizens of madiun regained control of the city on september 18, 1948, they did so fast and with their own hands. as a result, they have completed their mission in the national revolution, which should be led by the people rather than by any other groups or individuals. our revolution has lasted three years under the leadership of a national bourgeois class full of misgivings and ambiguous attitudes toward imperialist countries, particularly the united states of america. it is one of the reasons why the republic’s political and economic situation continues to deteriorate. this is why the general public, particularly the labor movement, has been unable to distinguish between the current situation and that which existed under the dutch or japanese regimes. in fact, people in power have enriched themselves by taking advantage of our movement. people became quislings, traitors, romusha (forced labor) dealers, and rahawarin 78 heiho (working body) propagandists during the japanese occupation. since their spouses were forced to join romusha, there are more than two million widows. now, the same people will sell indonesia and its people to imperialist america once more. soekarno accused fdr and musso’s pki of being rebels, and he backed up his claims with bogus evidence. are the traitors and disciples of trotsky, which he employed in solo (surakarta) to terrorize and kidnap all communists, something soekarno seems to have completely forgotten? he seems to have forgotten about the fact that he increased and supported the crimes committed by the siliwangi division and by the terrorists in the area. is it really his intention, as a former ramusha merchant, to free tan malaka, a criminal who is plotting to oust him from his position as president? clearly, three years ago, soekarno–hatta and two ramusha businessmen, the vile traitors, engaged in a capitulation policy with the dutch and english, knowing well that they were about to sell indonesia and its people to imperialist america, as evidenced by their actions. is it possible for people of this caliber to claim that they have legitimate rights to run our republic? indonesians are not deaf or blind. they see that these romusha dealers are unfit to be in charge of this country’s affairs. it is the people of madiun and other areas who are attempting to break away from their ties with the imperialist satellite states. it is not soekarno or hatta who is against the netherlands, england, and now america but the indonesian people themselves. therefore, the incidents in madiun, and in other places, are the sign for all indonesian people to seize the state’s power with their own hands. it is one of the guarantees that the republic will be sovereign and able to face all attacks in the domestic region and free themselves from the satellites of the imperialist. the indonesian people are being asked by soekarno to choose “soekarno or musso!” the people should answer “soekarno–hatta, the slaves of japan and america! the traitors should die!” we are sure that the people will say: “musso is always devoted to the indonesian people!” according to a radio report in moscow, which was triggered by musso’s announcement and supported the madiun regime, a people’s government had been journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 established in madiun and people’s commissions were being formed in other prominent cities. it was the people’s rebellion against the quisling (betrayer) of the government of japanese fascists, soekarno and hatta (kahin, 1966). musso’s speech was aimed at soekarno and hatta, claiming the two were romusha traders and the traitorous minions of japan and america. musso tried to use his words to convince the indonesian people, especially the residents of madiun, as much as possible to support the pki’s revolution (soekarno, 1965). the madiun affair was ultimately unsuccessful, but it was not buried. a more systematic revolutionary movement was orchestrated by the pki in the form of a generals’ coup known as the g.30.s/pki incident. before this incident broke out, the nation was in a precarious situation. according to the pki, “the motherland is in an old pregnant state.” the pki tried to oust soekarno and hatta by presenting a negative political image of them to the indonesian national army, pointing to how the nation was a state of chaos (maa’rif, 1988; suhelmi, 1999). the national indonesian army was suspected of plotting to hold a coup against the government and form a military junta. the army’s generals were accused by the pki of forming a “general council” with the mission of deposing the president. according to the pki’s interpretation of the gilchrist document (named after a british ambassador in indonesia), it related to a confrontation with malaysia, but it was really about limited attacks on indonesia by our “local army partners” orchestrated by america and england. the pki interpreted “local army friends” as referring to the “general council.” the general council's principal goal, however, was to remove the pki from the political scene. the pki formed a revolutionary council in response with the goal of sabotaging the council’s agenda. the second type of revolution was politically motivated rioting. through a variety of incitements and provocations, the pki was able to break the peace of the indonesian people during these political protests. the pki attempted to recruit farmers to its ranks in addition to its already large base of supporters. its initiative to free and distribute land to farmers was referred to as the land reform movement, and the goal of this was to delegitimize islam and its adherents, because islam and the army were the pki’s primary adversaries. the pki launched an open attack on the islamic ummah, referring to muslim landowners as “village evils” or “bourgeois” in order to denigrate them. the pki’s revolution triggered widespread mobilization of the muslim community to wage jihad against the organization, however. islamist youths set fire to the pki’s headquarters in rahawarin 80 jakarta on october 8 and demanded that the organization be dismantled throughout java and the rest of indonesia (feilard, 1999). political islamic ideology with regards to pancasila islam and pancasila as the state ideology in terms of politics, islam and pancasila represent two distinct ideas. it is not uncommon for these two to be at odds, yet some people manage to bring them together. at the very least, the two come from different sources: pancasila is based on logic, while islam is based on revelation. since the 1920s, there have been ideological and political clashes between indonesia’s islamic and secular elites. in the arguments about ideology, the national principle, and the 1945 constitution that resulted from the ppki (preparatory committee for indonesian independence), particularly the jakarta charter, history would repeatedly replicate the indonesian situation. below, we explain how the historical cycle occurred for the debate in question. first and foremost, islam is a political ideology. as defined by qardhawy (2008), siyasah islamiyah is a political entity that is descended from sharia, such that the concepts, aims, and methods of implementation are all dictated by sharia law. qardhawy held the viewpoint described above, and this was used to explain a political point of view held in indonesian islamic circles around the time of independence. such people wanted islam to become the national principle of indonesia. this was reflected in two debates about the national principle, namely the negotiations conducted by the ppki following the failure of the bpupki (investigating committee for preparatory work for independence) session in 1945 and the session of the constitutional assembly held following the 1955 general election. pancasila, which had been continuously debated as a national principle prior to the islamic faction’s efforts to make islam the state ideology, was legitimized by the islamic circle at two significant events, namely the work of the ppki resulting in the jakarta charter and the debates in the constitutional assembly following the election results of 1955, which gave rise to presidential decree no. 5 of july 5, 1959. pancasila could be accepted by both parties because it is consistent with a typical understanding of islam’s teachings and objectives. however, this does not mean that pancasila supplanted islam as a political doctrine. pancasila is an ideology that was created within the context of islamic thought, so it just possesses a symbiotic relationship with islam. it accords with amien rais’s journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 point of view about when an assumption is made about the relationship between democracy and islam. pancasila and islam could be compared in terms of democracy and islam. amien rais said in this regard, “i believe in democracy 100 percent.” indeed, democracy and fundamental islamic teachings are inextricably linked. this statement does not legitimize siyasah islamiyah, but it does demonstrate the symbiotic link that exists between democracy and islam, as evidenced by pancasila’s position in siyasah islamiyah (afandi, 1999). islamic ideology—which was proposed as a national concept in the bpupki and ppki meetings, the constitutional assembly, and other forums throughout indonesia’s history—will never ignore the substance of islam and politics. due to geopolitical and diversity constraints, the islamic circle’s adoption of pancasila is conditional on political considerations. furthermore, pancasila is not a final and binding state ideology, both legally and historically, but rather a result of two formulations in the 1945 constitution that are still in effect. although the 1945 constitution was a temporary political compromise, it was a necessary one because the country’s situation was precarious due to domestic unrest and the ideological struggle between the islamists and the secular nationalists. as a result, the debates on the national principle were temporarily put on hold. in light of the provisional nature of the 1945 constitution, from a legal and legislative perspective, should it no longer be consistent with spirit of the jakarta charter, pancasila as the national principle would become naive and vulnerable. what follows are natsir’s and soepomo’s reactions to the presidential decree. according to soepomo, its views and dicta could be viewed as lofty aspirations and the moral foundation of islam (anshari, 1986). meanwhile, according to natsir, the jakarta charter ensouls the 1945 constitution, implying that pancasila, as formulated by the ppki, can be adopted as long as its interpretation does not contradict islamic principles, notably tawhid. although pancasila incorporates islamic ideals, this does not mean that it is equal or superior to islamic doctrine. indeed, its five principles were constructed so as to not contradict quranic doctrine (natsir, 2008b). pancasila was established as a state concept only after a long and difficult process of discussion and argument. history notes that the outcomes of these debates, which included islamists and secular nationalists, about indonesia’s national principle resulted in pancasila being revised and reinterpreted as a result. when considering the various reinterpretations that pancasila has undergone throughout its history, there are five kinds of official formulations for pancasila that rahawarin 82 may be identified in indonesian history. these five official formulations were developed by government agencies rather than proposed individually. only one of the five formulations will be presented in this article, however, namely the pancasila of the 1945 constitution, which was legitimized by presidential decree on july 5, 1959, thus recognizing the jakarta charter as an integral part of the constitution of the republic of indonesia, both legally and constitutionally. the results of the debate in the constitutional assembly after the 1955 general election are reflected in the fifth formulation. the argument raged between the islamists, who wanted islam to be the national principle, and the secular nationalists, who wanted pancasila to be the national principle. as a result, the constitutional assembly was at an impasse, so a presidential decree was issued on july 5, 1959 to end the process. the decree’s text mandated, among other things, the dissolution of the constitutional assembly and the reinstatement of the 1945 constitution as “ensouled by the jakarta charter.” the following five goals were based on the presidential decree of july 5, 1959 and specified in the 1945 constitution: • one and only god • a just and civilized humanity • the unity of indonesia • a democratic life guided by wisdom in deliberation and representation, • social justice for all the people of indonesia (ensouled by the jakarta charter on june 22, 1945) (text of decrit) according to the decree, which includes the words “ensouled by the jakarta charter on june 22, 1945,” it served as a compromise of legal legitimacy that was acceptable to the entire indonesian people, including both the islamists and secular nationalists. it essentially restored the jakarta charter’s legal status, and political activities received official state approval once again. according to endang syaifuddin ansyhari, as referenced by haedar nashir: why could the “jakarta charter” formulations, which had been hotly debated and consumed much intellect and power for days by significant representatives of our nation, be revised in minutes at the “ppki” conference on august 18, 1945? why, why, why? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 what power pushed from behind to make the change? the author is unsure if the question can still be answered correctly. why did ir. soekarno, who was present at the bpupki meetings, call the committee to amend the jakarta charter? the author is unsure (nashir, 2008b). thoughts about state ideology soekarno’s thoughts state ideology in the form of pancasila is officially enforced, and it is thought to be a mirror of pancasila as presented by soekarno and muhammad yamin, as stated in the section on islam and pancasila. however, to separate muhammad natsir’s thesis of state political thought from soekarno’s, the following text discusses the notions behind each’s thoughts and arguments. in terms of characteristics and identities, soekarno’s beliefs on state politics can be explored through three pillars of ideological politics: pancasila, marhaenism, and nasakom. soekarno’s pancasila was a basic formulation of the state, and it differs from the one officially used as the national principle now, as mentioned above. pancasila proposed by soekarno goes as follows: “indonesian nationality, internationalism and humanity, consensus and democracy, social welfare, and divinity” (down, 1957; thomson, 2003). to paraphrase soekarno, the five pillars of indonesian culture are manifestations of the country’s individuality. it follows that the five pillars were derived from the high levels of trust and confidence that were held by the indonesian people for a long period of time. if these five pillars are a manifestation of the three pillars—namely divinity, sociationalism, and sociodemocracy— and the three pillars are a manifestation of the one pillar, namely mutual cooperation, then the five pillars must also be a manifestation of the one pillar (soekarno, 1965). thus, on june 1, 1945, soekarno delivered his version of pancasila, and this day is regarded as pancasila’s birthday and celebrated as pancasila day. the question of who was the real creator of pancasila, soekarno or yamin, continues to be debated, however. a disagreement arose, because on may 29, 1944, before soekarno delivered his address on june 1, 1945, yamin proposed the concept of five pillars of national principles to the bpupki, thus sparking a debate. according to the text, nationality, humanity, divinity, democracy, and the welfare of the people are all important (anshari, 1986). according to roem, the five principles offered by yamin and soekarno are essentially no different. boland (1971) stated that the similarities between the two lead to the conclusion that “the pancasila rahawarin 84 was in fact a product of yamin and not soekarno.” it is entirely possible that yamin’s philosophy inspired the five national principles, and soekarno created pancasila by altering the language. soekano's next line of thinking was marhaenism. marhaenism is a political ideology that he found, being motivated by a farmer’s beliefs. soekarno took the name marhaen from a farmer named marhaen in the 1920s, and he used it from that point on. another variant of the word “marhaen” derives from the name of a farmer from bandung, west java, who went by the given name “aen.” the political turmoil resulting from ideological and political conflicts—particularly among the islamists, nationalists, and communists—prompted the birth of a political ideology. this came in the form of nasakom, with the goal of accommodating and consolidating the various ideological differences (ranuwiharja, 2001). nasakom, as a political ideology, combines religion, nationalism-secularism, and communism in a single package. religious figures that saw communism subjectively reacted strongly to nasakom and opposed it. what is more, soekarno undoubtedly argued against the anti-communist stance, as demonstrated below: those whose soul is negative will suffer from a disease “being afraid of being called left,” namely communist. leftand communist-phobias make them become conservative and reactionary in matters of politics and socioeconomic development (soekarno, 1965). when one considers the political philosophies of pancasila, marhaenism, and nasakom, it does not seem inappropriate to label him a genuine secularist-nationalist, based on his respective philosophy. this idea is based on soekarno himself, who referred to the divine circle in the nasakom as a “religious group,” something that is synonymous with islamists, regardless of whether they were nationalists or communists at the time. soekarno also referred to the divine circle as those who adhered to islamic doctrine, a statement that hints at his status as someone who did not adhere to islamic ideology (sadzali, 1993). the notions of pancasila, marhaenism, and nasakom are considered to be very problematic as an ideology, because they blend a wide range of ideas and thoughts, life experiences, and opinions in a highly controversial manner. soekarno presented the nasakom ideology in his autobiography penyambung lidah rakjat. this was reported by nurani soyomukti in her book soekarno dan nasakom as follows: journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 my politics is not the same as others. it is because my background is not the same as any others. my grandfather gave javanese culture and mysticism. from my father, theosufism and islamism came. from my mother, hinduism and buddhism. sarinah gave me humanism. from pak cokro, socialism came. from my friends, nationalism. i add reflections from karl marx and thomas jefferson. i learn economy from sun yat sen. i learn goodness from gandhi. i can synthesize education in a modern way with ancient animist culture, and i take from its product to make messages of life hope that may be inhaled in line with the understanding of the villagers. the results of all these are called “soekarnoism” by ordinary people (soyomukti, 2012). muhammad natsir’s thought some of natsir’s political thoughts can be traced back to “agama dan negara,” “islam dan demokrasi,” “agama dan politik,” “qur'an dan negara,” and “ideologi islam.” below are some possible explanations for natsir’s thoughts on various topics: religion and government. each religion, including islam and christianity, has a philosophy for life and an ideology. according to natsir, islamic philosophy is defined by the surah addzariyat, verse 56 of the quran: “i created the jinn and humanity solely for the purpose of worshiping me” (departemen agama ri, 1995). the verse therefore cannot be taken to mean that the goal of a muslim’s life on earth is to achieve happiness in both the present and the hereafter (natsir, 2008a). islam cannot be explained in terms of the one and only hereafter because it is based on devotion. muamalat (social society) is covered by islam, including all applicable norms and hududs (legal punishments). the quran and hadiths largely outline such rules, but because they contain orders and prohibitions, it is difficult for these two major works to be used as references. consequently, an entity with authority is needed to carry out such functions, namely the state (natsir, 2008b; noer, 1988). islam and ideology are two terms that often come to mind. to initiate the conversation in islam dan ideologi, natsir offered the following statement from h. a. r. gibb, an orientalist: “islam is much more than a religious system. it is a complete civilization” (natsir, 2008a). rahawarin 86 according to natsir, islam is a single life philosophy, ideology, and way of life for humanity in this world and the next. politics was part of his life as a muslim, and islamic philosophy presents a democratic theistic ideology that is neither secular nor theocratic. islam is not understood in the same way that democracy is understood, however, because islam is islam with its own nature (natsir, 2008b). as a result, preserving islam is something that is inextricably linked to the state. natsir remained committed to his political position, namely to fight to establish islam as the national principle, as expressed in the following statement: it is no use for us to spend time with angry and annoyed feelings when we meet resistance in terms of ideology. with a cool head and big soul, a muslim should always be able to place oneself with definite stances and attitudes. qul i’malu ‘ala makanatikum inni ‘amil—“work according to your position; [for] indeed, i am working” (the qur’an surah al-an’am verse 135). several counterarguments were raised in response to natsir’s viewpoint, thus calling into question the link between islam and state. for example, one person asked, “how can islam dominate the country when there are so many intricate issues?” natsir responded to the hesitancy by stating that islam had established fundamental ideals for the state, and anything that seems outdated can be modified to meet the needs and advancements of modern times. the polemic between natsir and soekarno natsir and soekarno were indonesian nationalist theorists with opposing views on nationalism. due to their differences, they were forced to confront each other, not just in terms of ideas and practical politics but also in terms of physical intimidation, which ultimately led to natsir being jailed. the collapse of the masyumi party and the psi (indonesian socialist party), together with the arrest of islamic officials, marked the height of political animosity between natsir and soekarno. this inevitably affected political islam, because soekarno viewed it as a dangerous ideology (soekarno, 1965). to distinguish muhammad natsir’s islam from soekarno’s secular pancasila, the following arguments are offered. natsir positioned islam as a set of principles and an ideology and opposed pancasila as a national principle (santosa, 2004). the first commission put forward three national principles: pancasila, islam, and the social-economy. when natsir and his friends were asked to address the plenary session, natsir claimed that history provided a definitive conclusion for a state journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 ideology, namely that there were only two options for a state’s base: secularism (la-diniyah) and religiosity (diniyah). he questioned what pancasila’s position was in la-diniyah and diniyah and labelled it secularism. this presumption came from soekarno’s explanation of pancasila’s first pillar (one and only one god). on june 17, 1954, before the pancasila defenders movement, soekarno said: the divinity (divinity i use here means religiosity) has lived in the indonesian nation’s heart for tens, hundreds, and even thousands of years. i dug it from the land of the indonesian people, and the first thing i saw is religiosity. why? it is because indonesian people are a nation that lives above the agrarian level, the agricultural level. all nations live above the agrarian level, certainly, because they are religious. i have not used one and only one god, but i just use the word religiosity, or a belief in something unseen that rules all of our lives…people who are still farming feel that all of their efforts to look for something to eat is greatly dependent upon something magical…such a nation that still lives above the agrarian level must be religious. on the other hand, in a nation that is hard to live in, industrialism mostly leaves religiosity…but why? since it faces a lot of certainty. it needs electricity, not, “oh supernatural! oh supernatural!” press the button, and…bright light! according to natsir, soekarno’s point of view was unsuitable, because it is inappropriate to speak about the hearts of believers in allah swt, regardless of whether they are farmers or industrialists. natsir’s sole intention was to demonstrate that his speech was merely a manifestation of the secularism that had been created. the existence of god had been relativized in accordance with the development of a community from one level to another. santosa (2004) defined this formally. natsir came to the conclusion that according to secularism, a person who lives at the agrarian level requires god, but if he rises to become an industrialist, he will no longer require him. thus, what is the role of revelation as a source of belief and faith in god, and where does it fit in? a secularist believes that the existence of one and only one god has nothing to do with revelation; instead, he believes that divinity is constructed by humans and subject to change (mahendra, 1999; haq, 2001). rahawarin 88 second, pancasila is agnostic. religion is a manner of living that moves the soul. most indonesians follow islam, so natsir believed islam must become the national principle rather than an ideology. soekarno’s idea of pancasila is plainly secular, because the other pillars do not allude to the one and only god. indeed, it can be interpreted according to the reader’s inclinations. it is therefore regarded as a compromise or gemene-deler (lowest common denominator), borrowing words after considerable engineering. soekarno, the founder of pancasila, defined it as five pillars that covered many indonesian factions, including the communists (ranuwiharja et al., 2001). natsir criticized pancasilah as follows: in addition, because pancasila is neutral and will not stray from its neutral posture, it will not be willing to absorb any of the positive ingredients. it will not be considered a “pure concept” in and of itself. as a “pure concept,” it is not a reality in the positive sense, and as a result, it has no effect on anything. the tragedy of the secular (la-diniyah) and neutral pancasila can be summarized as follows: thus, it is possible to apply pancasila as a national principle in this manner. so pancasila as the state philosophy for us is hazy and can say nothing about the spirit of islam’s ummah, which has always had a clear and comprehensive ideology that exists in the minds of indonesian people as their life guide and the source of inner and outer strength, namely islam. for the ummah of islam, the transition from islamic doctrine to pancasila is analogous to jumping from the ground on which they are standing to a vacuum, an empty space devoid of air. that is the story told in the parable (natsir, 2008b). conclusion in summary, debates about the national principle, from the bpupki meetings through to the constitutional assembly, gave rise to two main schools of thought: islamism and secular nationalism. soekarno’s, or muhammad yamin’s, version of pancasila and its five basic principles were not accepted as the national principle by the islamists. as a result of a political compromise, the ppki made the following decision: soekarno or yamin may have offered pancasila as a national principle, but the meanings and substance should be applicable to islam. in addition, the ppki version of pancasila is contained in the jakarta charter, which incorporates the islamic journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 worldview into the constitutional framework, especially with the seven words: “with the commitment to implement islamic sharia for its believers. its purpose was to respond to how ideological matters had been polemicized up to that point, particularly following the decree that legalized the jakarta charter, in order to build an ideal constitutional vision of the country and state. it provided a constitutional settlement for the implementation of the jakarta charter as part of the 1945 constitution, because it was a key demand of many indonesians who believed in islam. references abdullah, t. (1987). islam dan masyarakat pantulan sejarah indonesia. lp3es. abidin r. z. (2012). partai politik islam era reformasi studi tentang politik pragmatis ppp, pkb dan pks, (dissertation), uin yogyakarta. afandi, (1999). islam demokrasi atas bawah polemik strategi perjuangan umat model gus dur dan amin rais. pustaka pelajar. al-chaidar. (2002). pemikiran politik proklamator negara islam indonesia, s.m. kartosoewirjo. darul falah amir, z. a. (2003). peta islam politik pasca soeharto, cet.i. pustaka lp3es. anshari, e. s. (1986). piagam jakarta 22 juni 1945. cv. rajawali. aswar, h. (2021). secular perspective on the islamic political discourse in indonesia: a critical analysis. jurnal kajian peradaban islam, 4(2), 35-41. www.jkpis.com. black, a. (2006). pemikiran politik islam dari masa nabi hingga masa kini, (penerjmh) abdullah ali. pt. serambi ilmu semesta. boland b. j. (1971). the struggle of islam in modern indonesia. martinus nijhoff. brundage, a. (2014). going to the sources: a guide to historical research and writing. 5th edition. kindle edition. essex: wiley and blackwell. christenson, r. m. (1971). ideologies and modern politics. dodd, mead & company, inc. creswell, john. w. & clark, vicki l. plano. (2011). designing and conducting mixedmethods research. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. departemen agama ri. (1995). alquran dan terjemahannya, semarang: karya toha putra rahawarin 90 down, a. (1957). an economic theory of democracy. harper. effendy, b. (1998). islam dan negara: transformasi pemikiran dan praktik politik islam di indonesia. paramadina. efriza, (2008). ilmu politik: dari ilmu politik sampai sistem pemerintahan. alfabet. feillard, a. (1999). nu vis-à-vis negara: mencari isi, bentuk dan makna, terj. lesmana. lkis. firmanzah. (2008). mengelola partai politik komunikasi dan positioning ideologi politik di era demokrasi. yayasan obor indonesia. garcia, a. c., standlee, a. i., bechkoff, j., & cui, y. (2009). ethnographic approaches to the internet and computer-mediated communication. journal of contemporary ethnography, 38(1), 52–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241607310839 gunn, simon & faire, lucy. (2016). research methods in history. edinburgh: edinburgh university press. halim, a. (2005). politik hukum islam di indonesia. ciputat prees. haq, h. (2001). mengabdi bangsa bersama presiden megawati. bamusi press. hilmy, m. (2010). islamism and democracy in indonesia piety and pragmatism. institute of southeast asian studies. jamilah, s. (2021). moderate islamic education to enhance nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0, journal of social studies education research, 12(3), 79-100. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3506 ka’bah, r. (2005). politik dan hukum dalam al-qur’an. jakarta: khairul bayan. kahin, g. m. (1966). nationalism and revolution in indonesia. new york: cornell university press. khaled, a. m. abou el fadadl, (2004). atas nama tuhan dari fikih otoriter ke fikih otoritatif, (penerjemah, r. cecep lukman yasin). jakarta: serambi ilmu semesta. khomeini, i. (2002). sistem pemerintahan islam, (trans. muhammad anis maulachela). jakarta: pustaka zahra lapidus, i. m. (2000). sejarah sosial umat islam, bagian kesatu dan dua. jakarta: raja grafindo persada. maa’rif, a. (1988). islam dan politik di indonesia pada masa demokrasi terpimpin (1959-1965). iain sunan kalijaga prees. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0891241607310839 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3506 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 64-92 madjid, n. (1987). islam kemoderenan dan keindonesiaan. jakarta: mizan. mahendra, y. i. (1999). modernisme dan fundamentalisme dalam politik islam, perbandingan partai masyumi (indonesia) dan partai jama’at-i-islami (pakistan). cet.i, jakarta paramadina. mahfud, moh. md, (1998). politik hukum di indonesia. jakarta: lp3es. mahyuddin, m. a., (2009). menjadi pemimpin politik perbincangan kepemimpinan dan kekuasaan. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. mandan a. m. (2009). krisis ideologi catatan tentang ideologi politik kaum santri studi kasus penerapan ideologi islam ppp. jakarta: pustaka indonesia satu. manik, s. t., murdiono, m. & andhika, m. (2021). islam and pancasila: perspective of indonesian moslem postgraduate students. sospol: jurnal sosial politik, 7(1), 18-28. doi https://doi.org/10.22219/sospol.v7i1.13511. maududi, a. a., (1990). hukum dan konstitusi sistem politik islam, (penerjemah) asei hikmat. jakarta: mizan. mccaffrey, graham; raffin-bouchal, shelley & moules, j. nancy. (2012). hermeneutics as research approach: a reappraisal. international journal of qualitative methods, 11(3), 214-229. nashir h. (2007). gerakan islam syariat reproduksi salafiah ideologi di indonesia. ciamis: psap muhammadiyah. natsir m. (2004). islam sebagai dasar negara pidato di depan sidang majelis konstituante untuk menentukan dasar negara ri (1957-1959), kholid o. santosa (ed.). sega arsi. natsir m. (2008a), capita selekta i, cet. keempat, jakarta, yayasan bulan bintang abadi. natsir m. (2008b), capita selekta ii, second edition, jakarta: pt. abadi dan yayasan capita selecta. noer, d. (1988). gerakan modern islam di indonesia 1900-1942. jakarta: lp3es. platzdasch, b. (2009). islamimsm in indonesia politics in the emerging democracy. iseas. https://scholars.cityu.edu.hk/en/publications/publication(9623b7e5-db46-44b7-87c81413549fa731).html qardhawy, y. (2008). legalitas politik dinamika perspektif nash dan asy-syariah. bandung: pustaka setia. https://doi.org/10.22219/sospol.v7i1.13511 rahawarin 92 rahardjo, i. t. k. (ed). (2001). bung karno dab partai politik kenagan 100 tahun bung karno. jakarta: pt. grasindo. ranuwiharja, d. (2001). bung karno dan wacana islam. jakarta: pt. grasindo. ricklefs m. c., (2005). sejarah indonesia modern, (penerjemah, dharmono hardjowidjono). yogyakarta: gajah mada university prees, cet, 8. ritzer, g. (1992). sociological theory. new york: mcgraw-hill inc. sadzali, m. (1993). islam realita baru dan orientasi masa depan bangsa, jakarta, uip. santoso, l. (2004). teologi politik gus dur. yogyakarta: ar-ruzz media. satori, d. & komariah, a. (2010). metodologi penelitian kualitatif. bandung: alfabeta. shobron, s. (2003). muhammadiyah dan nahdlatul ulama dalam pentas politik nasional. surakarta: muhammadiyah university press. soekarno, (1965). di bawah bendera revolusi, djilid kedua, cet. ii, jakarta: dibawah bendera revolusi. soekarno. (1960). pantjasila dasar filsafat negara. jajasan emputantuar. soyomukti, n. (2012). soekarno dan nasakom. jakarta: garasi. suhelmi, a. (1999). soekarno versus natsir kemenangan barisan magawati reinkarnasi nasionalis sekuler. jakarta: darul falah. suminto, h. a. (1996). politik islam hindia belanda. cet iii. jakarta: lp3es, taimiyah, i. (1999). siyasah syar’iyah etika politik islam (penerjemah), rofi munawwar. surabaya: gusti risalah. thomson, j. b. (2003). analisis ideologi: kritik wacana ideologi-ideologi dunia. jakarta: ircisco. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (2),243-269 243 the implementation of tariqa naqshbandiyah's sufism values in south celebes hadarah hadarah1& a. gani2 abstract for muslims, particularly those interested in sufism, the existence of the naqshbandiyah sufi order has a peculiar position. it is because of, among others, the considerable effect of sufi order's tenet on the islamic world, particularly in indonesia, india, china, and middle east countries. in indonesia, the impact of sufi order tenet has been distributed to nearly entire areas, including in south celebes area. even for south celebes people, the existence of naqshbandiyah sufi order plays an important part because its existence is attributed with the great teacher in this area, sheikh yusuf al-makassari. sheikh yusuf was believed as the first one to introduce naqshbandiyah sufi order in indonesia. this research aims at studying how the method to obtain fundamental values is developed in the naqshbandiyah sufi order. mainly, this research would like to explore the tenets practiced by south celebes people. also, to be discovered in this research are its actual plot in south celebes, and the practical benefits it has that affect the social life of south celebes people, particularly from their ibadah and muamalah aspects. key words: naqshbandiyah sufi order, sheikh yusuf al-makassari, spiritual street, ihsan, essence, and ma'rifat. introduction all the naqshabandiyah order took its name from baha'is-din naqsyaband, who died in 1389. it is recognized that these saints systematized the teachings and methods of this tarekat, and several rites and practices were explicitly linked to the "founders" of the tarekat. but these trustees are not seen as creators of their congregations, but only processing the teachings which had been revealed to them through a line of teacher continued to reach the prophet himself. (amin, 1996). al-rifarif billah ash-shaykh muhammad ibn muhammad bahauddin shah (sheikh) naqsyaband al-uwaisi al-bukhari radi allahu ‘anhu (717-865 h). 1faculty of tarbiyah, institut agama islam negeri syekh abdurrahman siddik (iain sas) bangkabelitung, hhadarah.rajab@yahoo.com 2faculty of tarbiyah, uin raden intan lampung, a.gani@radenintan.ac.id mailto:hhadarah.rajab@yahoo.com mailto:a.gani@radenintan.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 the tendency of the emergence of sufism by the sufis had existed at the end of the days of the umayyad sovereignty under the care of hasan al-bashir in the city of bazhrah (iraq). in the abbasid era sufism emerged under the supervision of jabir bin al-hayyan al-kimyaiyya, adherents of the mazhasb syi'ah, and abu al-thathiyyah in kufa. these groups then joined and organized halaqah (majelis ta'lim) in baghdad. they were led by al-muhasibiy who was born in basrah and then settled in baghdad. among the people, there was a clash between fiqhi experts and sufism. at that time fiqhi still exaggerated the outward aspect of worship, did not touch his soul, so fiqhi prioritized "skin" rather than "content" as sufism exaggerated the psychological element, carried out ritual ceremonies with musical accompaniment, danced and performed dhikr. they have a significant influence on a society that is being hit by decadence. as a result, the sharp opposition between fiqhi experts and the sultans served by their interests; many sufism figures were thrown into prison, such as muhyiddin bin al-abiarabiy, there were also several other people killed such as al-hallaj and suhrawardiy. (amin, 1996) factors that encourage the emergence and spread of zuhud, namely: 1). the koran encourages muslims to behave zuhud in seeing the world (but not hating it), equipping themselves with piety, worship, evening prayer, and warm '. all this practice causes the culprit to get the reward and deliver someone to heaven. rasulullah saw. and the companions are zahid human figures who rule the world, while the world is not able to master it. they take zuhud when conditions allow them to live luxuriously, not because they cannot live a luxurious life. they work in the world to get food. they did not make the world their authority so that the world would not turn them away from obedience to god. 2). the tendency towards material luxury and political power is also expanding. while muslims mingle with living amid a diverse civilization and during a vibrant society. besides that, political life at that time was very chaotic. the civil war lasted a long time in the era of friends, the period of the umayyad dynasty. the difference stems from the problem of the position of caliph. this difference subsequently led to the war between ali and muawiyah in tiffin, the issue of tahkim in daumatul jandal, ali's murder which was preceded by uthman's death, the inauguration of hasan bin ali as caliph, and the spread of the mandate as caliph from hasan to muawiyah. rebellion for the sake of resistance occurs from time to time. the uprising triggered by the qaramites included the most significant strength that took place during the era of the caliphalmu'adhid's rule, giving rise to new turmoil in the islamic world. a man named hamdan qurmuth hadarah & gani led the armed movement. the word qurmuth comes from aramaic (including the smit language family, such as arabic and hebrew: "secret science teacher." hamdan qurmuth built a base for his followers near wash, which was later named darul hijrah (amin, 1996). following the hasysysyin movement (assassin, in history known as a gang that uses opium as a political tool) which is a disaster over calamity. they emerged after the people of buwaih (the rulers of persian descent) caused much damage and each other kill each other. the hasysysyins have been proven to be able to shake the joints of the abbasids. the collapse of the seljuk power, in addition to the strength of the hasysysyin, was also caused by their despotism and the constant warfare between one family. (amin, 1996) the seljuk era was marked by the emergence of two great scientists who both had different influences, but both met at one point. the two scientists were al-ghazali and ‘umar khayyam. al-ghazali was a scientist who drew a dividing line between religion and reason; then he was attracted by sufism. for 11 years he lived in isolation, mostly in sham, and spent some of his time writing a book entitled ihya ‘ulumuddin. he succeeded in attracting the sympathy of many people to the sufis who had long been pursued. he is a capable person who speaks, and his words are imposing, which is why he succeeded in making many people like and attracted to sufism and encouraged them to form sufi groups which were not small in number. (amin, 1993: 146-8). according to abdul fatta sayyid ahmad in a book entitled tasawuf between al-ghazali and ibn taimiyah; in its development, sufism passes three phases, namely: the first phase is the phase of zuhud. this phase took place in the first and second centuries of the hijrah. in these two centuries, the seeds of sufism emerged first. the seed was in the form of a strong tendency towards zuhud who ruled the islamic world at that time, and at that time zuhud still breathed pure islam, far from the influence of teachings outside islam. according to them, the shari'a is to improve the practices of birth, congregations to improve the methods of the heart (heart), the essence of practicing all the secrets of god, both substance, nature, and deeds. (darling, mau, blattner, & perna, 2004) second phase: sufism in the third and fourth centuries the zahid people lead zuhud lives in their two centuries of birth without being guided by the basis and specific principles that unite them. in the third century hijri, there began to be significant developments in the practice of zuhud. zuhud in this century was no longer a secret rite, but turned into a precise movement in which the participants were referred to as "sufis." these journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 sufis began to discuss, among others, the condition of the soul, suluk, maqamat, and ahwal. besides that, moral issues are also discussed. begin the zuhud turn into a way of educating students. third phase: sufism in the sixth century and vii hijriyah. in this phase, philosophical sufism reappeared clearly and developed rapidly. philosophical sufism is colored by many elements from outside islam, both greek, persian, indian and christian. in this phase, the school of revelation appeared in its complete form in the hands of an andalusian philosopher, muhyiddin ibn arabi (died 628 hijri). the school of wahdatul beings spread from west to east by ibn arabi himself and ibn sab'in. annemarie schemmel, in the book mystical dimension of islam translated with the title of mystical dimension in islam, says the following: "european scholars have responded to the mysticism of islam in various ways, as in the following statements. europe's first contact with sufi ideas could be traced back to the middle ages: the work of the catalonian mystic and scholar ramon lull (d. 1316) shows a significant influence from sufi writings. the first figure in the history of sufism introduced in european essays was rabi'ah al-adawiya, the great holy woman of the 8th century; estimated to have been born around 95-99 h (717m) in basrah, the legend was brought to europe by joinville, ambassador of louis ix in the 13th century. this rabi'ah figure was used in a 17th-century treatise in france about pure love; rabi'ah is a model of divine love ".(schimmel, 1975) the development of individual sufism into tarekat, which is a community in an organization is the result of the rapid growth of sufism. changes occurred in around the 6th century h. or xii m. at that time sufism began to be taught openly in baghdad to remote villages in iraq. more specifically, the development of sufism towards the tarekat is inseparable from the role of sunni sufism developed by imam al-ghazali, where sufi students sought to preserve the teachings of his teacher. (nur, 2003). abû bakr al-siddîq (the first caliph), as the path of lineage scholar (wasilah) in tariqa naqshbandiyah, received his spiritual lesson on hijra eve when he and the messenger pbuh were hiding in a cave not far from mecca. since many enemies were around, they could not speak loudly, and the messenger taught him to recite zikir inside his heart, and such an act was called dzikr khâfî. it is this silent zikir and other spiritual attitudes that the naqshbandiyah community currently practice. abû bakr al-siddîq had taught such deed to his disciples, and finally, it was made a sufi order (tariqa) system by bahâ' al-dîn naqshbandî. it is true that bahâ‟ al-dîn and some others made innovations in the law and introduced new hadarah & gani techniques. however, the members of naqshbandiyah believed that those innovations were based on and in line with what abû bakr al-siddîq taught. for a novelty to be deemed as a heretic (bid' ah), a fundamental change had to be made. nevertheless, the adherents of tariqa naqshbandiyah viewed that what must be maintained was the lineage; thus, it was not a bid' ah(van bruinessen, 1992). the author's investigation shows that the implementer of tariqa naqshbandiyah had existed in indonesia since two centuries before the dutch introduced it, despite its different form. the first indonesian islamic scholar and sufi to mention this sufi order in his writing were sheikh yûsûf al-makassarî (1626-1699) and his contemporary figure, abd al-ra'uf singkel introducing tariqa syattariyah to indonesia (van bruinessen, 1992). sheikh yûsûf al-makassarî wrote about tariqa naqshbandiyah under the title al-risâlah al-naqshbandiyah. this risalah (treatise) implies that sheikh yûsûf al-makassarî taught this tariqa. this script, among others, contains meditation techniques and provisions of zikir, leading to this sufi order being the first widely-known one(mulyati, 2004). the naqshbandiyah sufi order spread throughout indonesian archipelago derived from mecca which was brought in by indonesian students studying there and indonesian hajj congregation. they then expanded and spread it throughout the archipelago (mulyati, 2004). muhammad yusuf almakassar was entitled yang dipertuan muda in riau islands who did hajj to mecca. he had been taken for his bai'at (oath) to join naqshbandiyah sufi order by sheikh muhammad shâlih al-zawâwî. after sulaiman badrul alam syah died in 1883, he took over his position as sultan. he ran the supreme power through his wife, the daughter of a previous sultan and in 1885 appointed his son to be the sultan. muhammad yusuf (the name of sheikh yûsûf al – makassarî when he was young) could do this because his leadership in naqshbandiyah sufi order had confirmed his position adequately in lingga, the island where sultan lived. in 1894, muhammad yusuf developed a printing machine for the government, and it was also used to print books, treatises including the ones regarding cultures in general. among the papers published, there was a treatise by sheikh muhammad shâlih al-zawâwî, the teacher of sheikh yûsûf almakassarî in naqshbandiyah sufi order. the intellectual activators behind the publisher were a group of the talented bourgeoisie in the mental field and art, who established a rusydiah club group discussion and they were highly likely the adherents of naqshbandiyah. some of them were then famous as writers (mulyati, 2004). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 south celebes people had been well-known as sailors and merchants since the 15th century, and their activities got even more intensive at the beginning of the 16th century. tome pires in his trip from malacca to the java sea in 1513 found makassar people, superior sailors. pires' information on makassar is considered as the oldest written western source that could be found. he suggested that "makassar people have traded to malacca, java, borneo, thailand, and all of the places in between pahang and thailand (sewang, 2013). although muslim merchants had existed in south celebes since the end of the 15th century, no specific information, from either local or foreign source on the conversion of a local king into islam at that time like what happened in catholics. ahmad m. sewing stated that "one of the factors is presumably the malayan traders' initiative to invite three muballigs from koto tangah minangkabau to come to makasar to islamize the elites of gowa and tallo kingdoms. another motivation encouraging the malayan merchants to decide on incurring muballigs to makassar was to compete with catholics mission. the missionaries had attempted to spread their influence to gowa kingdom palace". the competition between catholic missionaries and muslim traders had run for a long time as recognized by antonio de payva, a catholic missionary, who visited south celebes in 1542. payva considered that islamic malayan new entrants from santana (ujungtanah), pao (pahang), and patane (patani) had attempted to persuade the king to change his intention (to receive catholic religion) because they had come to trade in that place for over 50 years (sewang, 2013). antonio de paiva's admission was also found in lontara wajo (patmawati & wahida, 2018) telling about malayan people's less contentment to see some makassar and bugis people (mangkasara ugi) who had been influenced by catholic christian (sarani) religion brought by portuguese missionaries (parietal lompona). the initiative to invite special muballig to makassar had been taken since anakkoda bonang existed in gowa in the mid 16th century, yet it just came to fruition at the beginning of the 17th century in the presence of three datuks from minangkabau (contained in lontara). the presence of three datuk due to the competition between missionaries and muslim traders as mentioned earlier had been confirmed by schiele's thesis considering that the intensity of islam distribution had been the rival of aggressive christian mission (azra, 1994). the purpose of writing about the influence of the naqshabandiyah tarekat values in south sulawesi is in addition to describing the historical process of the entry of islam by scholars from outside the south sulawesi region, also revealing the ritual system and values for practical hadarah & gani practices that influence the lifestyle and social culture of the congregation the naqshabandiyah order. method this type of research is a case study (case study), with a qualitative approach that relies on anthropological studies. the researcher focuses on general principles that form the basis for the realization of the symptom units that exist in social life. research design the documentation study was conducted to find out: (a) a description and explanation of the notions of culture, dhikr and khataman tawajjuh, tarekat, and tasawuf in various literature. (b) the first history of entry and development, as well as the study of ancient manuscripts or manuscripts related to the views of takarekat naqsyabandiyah worshipers in understanding and interpreting sufism values. (c) records of the activities of the naqshabandiyah congregation. population and sample/ study group/participants the data is obtained by the method of self-involvement, namely the researcher participates in the field and acts as jama'ah (participant observation), participates and becomes an official member and goes through the stages according to the applicable regulations in the proximity organization. routine and active performing wirid rituals, dhikr, and berhatam tawajjuh. data collection tools besides interviewing the core informants in a structured and tiered manner to jamaah and leaders of the naqshbandiyah order, came to several andre gurutta (ag-meaning the title of kiyai), caliphs and community leaders as top figures in the naqshabandiyah order in south sulawesi. in addition to in-depth interviews also conducted observations, with this participant observation researchers can be more sensitive and responsive to situations that arise. (lexy, 2002) comments were made on the ritual implementation of the naqshabandiyah order which is held twice every week, namely on monday nights and thursday nights. observations were made to understand in depth about the ritual process, and deeds of thought carried out by the congregation of the naqshabandiyah order, their views on cultural and mystical values, and to find relevance to the results of interviews collection tools that are utilized for the study should be stated in this section. data analysis journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 data analysis used is a symbolic interpretive technique with verstehen analysis or emotional analysis, which relies on an understanding of the culture of an entity in the perspective of cultural actors or research subjects. (abdullah, 2003) in this study, the theory used is interpretive symbolic. the symbolic perspective is indeed a new discourse during various pre-existing streams and is felt to be experiencing saturation. (muhadjir, 1996) however, as a continuation indirectly from the phenomenological-interpretative perspective in religious studies, this symbolic perspective has something in common, namely both wanting to understand what's behind the phenomenon. he it does not stop at aspects alone but increases studying more in-depth into the world of noumena (spiritual dimension) which is often conceived as interpretive understanding. (syam, 2007) the manifestation becomes a framework of relationships as a natural and illuminative form. therefore, this study not only observed the existence of religious and cultural communication behind the social phenomena of the naqshabandiyah order through wirid, dhikr and khataman tawajjuh of the naqshabandiyah order carried out by the people in sulawesiselatan, but more deeply to the observation of the meaning value system and motivational variants behind the ritual of dhikr the tarekat in the naqshabandiyah order. because it uses an anthropological perspective, it is necessary to emphasize that the ceremony of the tarekat thought is part of religious elements which are not seen as doctrines, but as part of the spiritual culture by certain groups. in this case, it refers to the definition of clifford geertz which states that religion is a system of symbols that acts as a strengthening of ideas and behavior in the face of life, with logos that abstract concepts are translated into more concrete. (spradley, 2007a) therefore, geertz makes symbols something that allows humans to capture the dynamic relationship between the world of values and the world of knowledge. the limitation of religion as this culture is in the context of the interests of social analysis, because if religion is seen solely as a tool of orthodox doctrine (belief), then the possibility of social commentary becomes closed. even according to clifford geertz, religion is not only part of a culture, but also is the core of civilization as the heart of the literature (center) of worship is a life guide, determinant of direction, and the accuracy of life that is considered good and evil. in other words, religion structures people's minds. in symbolic anthropology, culture is defined as the overall knowledge possessed by humans as social beings, whose contents are devices, models of experience that can be selectively hadarah & gani used to understand and interpret the environment faced, and to encourage and create the actions needed. in geertz's view, culture in this conception contains two main elements, namely as a pattern for work, and a pattern of movement. (geertz & banton, 1966) the design for operation (model for) is a representation of the value system, while the profile of (model of) is a representation of the cognitive system and system of meaning. related to this research, the ritual or practice of the khataman dhikr qadiriyah naqshabandiyah in the composition of the sebelles which is practiced by the people of the village of bluto can be said as a pattern of action (model of) or cognitive system while the values of spiritual belief in the privileges of the tarekat culture naqsyabandiyah is a pattern for work (model for) or a value system. as the essence of anthropological understanding, this research cannot depart from the mind of the researcher himself, but must be based on what is known, felt, and experienced by cultural actors or research subjects in this case the south sulawesi people who practice wirid rituals, think khataman tawajjuh in the naqshbandiyah order. thus, this research is more directed at geertz's theory that sees reality from the perpetrator. (zuhri & hadji, 1979) this is also what anthropologists often consider as verstehen or emik analysis, which relies on an understanding of the culture of an entity in their viewpoint as a cultural actor or subject of research which in this case is the people of south sulawesi who are members of the naqshabandiyah congregation who conduct wiridan, thinking and having a tawajjuh marriage. the lineage of tariqa naqshbandiyah in south celebes lontara wajo (patmawati & wahida, 2018) mentioned that those three datuks came at the beginning of the 17th century from kota tengah minangkabau. they were called datuk tellue (bugis) or datuk tallua (makassar): abdul makmur, khatib tunggal (single preacher) known better as datuk ri bandang; sulaiman, khatib sulung (first-born preacher) known better as datuk patimang and abdul jawa, khatib bungsu (last-born preacher) better known as datuk ri tiro. another source mentioned that those three datuks were aceh kingdom's delegations. they were delegated as requested by karaeng matoaya (matoa king), the king of tallo who also assumed the position of tomabbicara butta or mangkubumi of gowa kingdom. those two sources were not in contradiction because although those three datuks came from minangkabau, they were likely aceh's delegations, considering that minangkabau was under aceh kingdom's hegemony in the beginning of the 17th century (sewang, 2013). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 in lontara, it is mentioned by ahmad sewang that after those three datuks arrived at makassar, they did not do their mission immediately; instead, they first formulated a proselytizing strategy. then, they continued their trip to luwu regency to islamize datuk e ri luwu (sewang, 2013). hence, it can be concluded that the first elite of the kingdom to convert into islam was luwu king. then datuk luwu was given the title of sultan muhammad waliy muzahir al-din (ma'tsaroh, hashida, & rokhman, 2016). in developing the proselytizing strategy further, the three datuks asked sultan muhammad for help regarding the way of accelerating the islamization process in this area. sultan muhammad as luwu king who was respected by kings in south celebes recommended them to see gowa king, because he had military and political powers in this area, as suggested by an old expression, "allebbiremmami engka ri-luwu‟, awatangeng engkae ri gowa" (only magnificence exists in luwu regency, and the power lies in gowa regency), matullada in (below matullada) (sewang, 2013). abu hamid (an anthropologist) said that after they had islamized datuk luwu successfully, they developed a new strategy by prioritizing certain areas to spread islam subsequently, by dividing proselytizing personnel and targeted area based on their expertise and condition of the individualfocused regions (hamid, 1994). datuk ri bandang who mastered fiqh science was in charge of dealing with gowa and tallo regencies' community who still held tightly on old traditions: gambling, arrack or tuak (liquor) (ballo) and cockfighting. in dealing with the district, the proselytizing method used by datuk ri bandang emphasized more on the problem of islamic law (sharia) implementation. datuk patimang was in charge of the luwu kingdom, whose people still held tightly on old beliefs, such as dewata seuwae. datuk patimang introduced simple tauhid tenet by disclosing god's characteristics such as compulsory characteristics, impossible characteristics, and jâ'iz characteristics for god. the emphasis on this tauhid tenet was intended to substitute tauhid faith (allah the one and only) for dewata seuwwae faith. datuk ri tiro was in charge of tiro of bulukumba regency (including bantaeng regency) by emphasizing more on "tasawuf" sufi order, corresponding to the condition of society he dealt with, the one who still held tightly on esoteric matters, black magic, and its various magic formulas. ri tiro community loved using supernatural power (doti) to eradicate the enemy. datuk ri tiro (kingdom ruler) said that it was better for it to be based on tasawuf approach. hadarah & gani the islamization in south celebes had been brought in by three datuks from minangkabau as mentioned earlier, showing that since the beginning of south celebes people's islamism, it had been divided into three aspects: fiqh, tauhid, and tasawuf. each of its instructors had divided areas and places where they would teach their knowledge. for example, datuk ri bandang taught fiqh knowledge in gowa regency, the dominant region with a poor understanding of islamic law. meanwhile, datuk patimang was in charge of luwu kingdom, luwu regency, where its community still held tightly on idol worship. finally, datuk ri tiro was in charge of bulukumba regency area in which its community still held on spiritual power or spiritual knowledge to get winning such as santet (doti). the name datuk ri tiro is also well-known, particularly in bantaeng (bontaeng) area, and his grave was there (zuhri & hadji, 1979). the tenets of naqshbandiyah sufi order developing south celebes (sulawesi selatan) instruct its members to hold on tightly al-sunnah and keep themselves away from heresy (bid' ah), from disgraceful characters and to dress with noble characters (nur, 2003). to facilitate the sufi order's disciples in achieving a degree of perfection in the inner-dimensioned spiritual aspect, its tenets have a straightforward pattern, routine recitation of qur'an (pengajian) on each of certain eves called the repeated passage of qur'an (wirid berulang). spiritual teacher's guidance (after that called mursyid) becomes a must because every student should always improve in the degree of knowledge called ma'rifat as the highest maqam (station) in knowledge experience and implementation of naqshbandiyah sufi order. although the definition of tariqa (sufi order) "is difficult to find" in al qur;an and hadist, in more practical dimension, the tasawuf (mysticism) values are inherent to islam tenet itself, at least as moral tenet thus, as abû al-wafâ al-ghanîmî al-taftazânî suggests that tasawuf is not a sublimation form of life problems frequently accused by western orientalist (al-taftazani & alwafa'al, 1997). finding and discussion the relationship of tasawuf to sharia, tariqa, hakekat, and ma'rifat. tasawuf and sharia.sharia is a collection of allah swt's laws sent down to prophet muhammad pbuh, successfully conceived by scholars by exploring al-qur' an and al-sunnah both textually and contextually as legal studies' products. aminal-kurdi defines it as a collection journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 of laws (amin, 1996). to study the relationship between sharia (islamic law) and hakekat (essence), salat (prayer) can serve as a good example. doing that movements and physical works, complying with its essential principles (rukun) and terms, and other matters mentioned by fiqh scholars, are the aspects of sharia, a body of that. meanwhile, the presence of heart along with allah swt within that is the aspect of hakekat (essence), the soul of that. thus, movements of that with body members are a body of shalat and being devout (khusyuk) is its soul. this then leads to a question, what is the benefit of authority without a soul? just like the soul needing the organization as its standing place, the body needs the soul by which it can stand (amin, 1996). in the absence of body and soul, nothing can be established. for that reason, allah swt does not say, "holding shalat" as his commandment in al-baqarah (2): 110 stating: "establish shalat and issue tithe (zakat)" from this, we can see the close relationship between "sharia and hakekat" just like the relationship between soul and body. a perfect mukmin is the one that can combine "sharia" and hakekat. and it has been the direction of sufis for all of the human beings, based on rasulullah pbuh's and his lofty companions' ways. to achieve loftier maqâm (level) and absolute faith, an individual should pass through the way (tariqa), jihad (fight) against their desires, improve their imperfect characters into the better (perfect) ones, and walking on maqâms of perfection under a mursyid's supervision. it is the bridge that is called tariqa that will deliver an individual from sharia toward hakekat. the relationship between tasawuf and tariqa. it has been mentioned earlier that tasawuf emphasizes on the third pillar of (islam) religion, i.e., ihsân, the implementation of which is through tasawuf dan tariqa method being the primary motto of sufis. tasawuf aims to approach the self of allah as close as possible through akidah (faith), the implementation of islamic law (sharia) and noble characters. sayyid in ta‟rîfah al-sayyid edited by abdul qadir isa suggested that: "tariqa is the special way for those going toward allah, from one level to another." ahmad zarûq in qawâ‟ id a-tashawwuf also edited by abdul qodir isa stated that "there is no tasawuf, except with fiqh, because allah's zahir law will not be known unless with it. there is no fiqh except with tasawuf because there is no good deed but with sincerity and concentration on allah. the presence of both will not be valid without faith. all of them are must, because they are all interlinked, just like the relationship hadarah & gani between body and soul. there is no soul but within the body, and no life for the body but with soul. so, please understand (this) (amin, 1996). malik in syarh „ayn al-„ilm zayn al-hilm stated that "whoever having tasawuf without fiqh has been zindik. everyone with fiqh without tasawuf has been fasik. and everyone collecting both of them will come to hakekat" (amin, 1996). firstly, one is called zindik when he/she considers hakekat without implementing sharia. it is as if this individual arrogantly states that human being has no choice in any affairs. secondly, one is called fasik because piety light, sincerity secret, awareness of allah's overseeing, and muhasabah have not entered yet into his heart so that he has not evaded wickedness and held on sunnah tightly. thirdly, someone is stated as having achieved hakekat because he/she has combined all principles: faith, islam, and ihsan. (amin, 1996). just like zahir scholars maintain sharia borders, tasawuf scholars also maintain adab (culture) and soul of sharia. just like zahir scholars allowed to make ijtihad in concluding propositions and enacting the law, makrifat scholars are permitted to terminate adab and method to educating disciples and sâlik. tariqa is the implementation of sharia, of the matters defined in sharia, and keeping far away from underestimating something that should not be so. one may even argue that tariqa is keeping oneself far away from what is prohibited either in zahir (extrinsic) or intrinsic terms and fulfilling everything commanded by allah swt, to the best of what one is capable of. also, one can define it as the attitude of keeping oneself far away from the proscribed things, from everything considered as makruh, be cautious with the excess of mubah things, and doing sunnah things under a teacher's overseeing who has achieved the makrifat maqam (knowledge on mysticism) peak".(amin, 1996) the relationship between tasawuf and hakekat hakekat is testifying the divinity with heart. it is stated that it is the interrelated meaning secret. it is because the way to allah has zahir (material) and arcane (spiritual) aspects to it. the zahir aspect includes sharia and tariqa.meanwhile, the arcane one is hakekat. the concealment of hakekat into sharia and tariqa is just like cheese in milk. cheese cannot be taken from milk except by squeezing its extract. the intention of those three matters (sharia, tariqa, and hakekat) is to implement of slaving as a slave wants. (isa, 2016). sheikh abd allâh al-yâfî stated that "hakekat is to witness divine secret. and it has a way (tariqa), by implementing sharia." everyone passing through tariqa will come to the hakekat level. hakekat is the end of sharia implementation. and it journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 is the end of anything not in contradiction with it. thus, sharia is the basis, tariqa is the means, and hakekat is the fruit (outcome). these three elements are overlapping and interrelated. everyone that has held on tightly the first one (sharia) will pass through the second (tariqa), and eventually come to the third (hakekat) one. there is no contradiction and resistance between them. for that reason, sufis state in their well-known norm that "every hakekat breaking sharia is zandaqa." and how can hakekat break sharia while it is the outcome of its implementation? furthermore, amin al-kurdi explained that hakekat was divided into three levels. the first was the fine partition between anything pertaining to what he believed from allah's character, his greatness, essence of prophecy, perfection of prophet muhammad pbuh, and all of what prophet muhammad pbuh had said about enjoyment and grave torture, doomsday crisis, anything about hell and any form of exercise in heaven, and so on. for an individual on this level, everything he believed in seemed to be real as if they were before his eyes. after that, it was followed by some conditions emerging suddenly before his eyes, such as zuhud towards the world and its glamour, secular forgetfulness, and hereafter intoxication (amin, 1996). the relationship between sharia and ma'rifat ma'rifat linguistically means ilahi (god's) knowledge. ma'rifat is the light beamed to the heart of everyone as he wishes to. it is an essential knowledge coming through disclosure (kasyaf), "testimony" (musyahadah), and "feeling" (dzauq). this knowledge comes from allah swt. "ma'rifat" is the proximity (qurb), the one dominating heart and influencing it with everything affecting the parts of the body. a good analogy between science and ma'rifat would be as follows: science is like seeing fire, while ma'rifat is just like feeling it (armstrong, 2001). hence, ma'rifat means a science with no doubt. terminologically, ma'rifat is the science preceding with ignorance. in sufi term, ma'rifat means science with no uncertainty when the object is dzat (substance) and characteristics of allah swt. if there is a question, what is the ma'rifat of dzat and the ma'rifat of aspects? the answer is, ma'rifat of dzat is to find out that allah swt is existing, the one, single, the supreme dzat, standing alone and no one resembling him; ma'rifat of characteristics is that one recognizes that allah swt is the alive, the knowing, the powerful, the listening, the seeing, and other his features. most human beings have damaged their fitrah, and remedy is required to correct such the fitrah. they need guidance which reminds them of recognition of allah swt (ma'rifatullah), and that is the fitrah. some authors have misperception, considering that ma'rifat is the result of hadarah & gani observation and effort. since ma'rifat is present by itself without effort, the human being is exempted from obligation (taklif) (taimiyah, 1976), this opinion is incorrect because liability is incurred through rasul's (the messenger) intermediary. the knowledge of the creator is obtained as fitrah and naturally. all of the human beings, either faithful or infidel, are born in the condition of recognizing their god through their fitrah. similarly, even the devil and pharaoh in their hearts also knew their god. however, they deny him due to their zalim characteristics (taimiyah, 1976). al-ghazali devoted all of his efforts to come to a degree of ma'rifatullah. an individual will not be able to go to this degree of ma'rifatullah before he identifies himself. thus, the human ability to achieve ma'rifatullah degree is dependent on his ability to identifying himself". if an individual identifies himself, he has identified his god. if he is ignorant about himself, it means that he is ignorant about his god (al-taftazani & al-wafa'al, 1997). human magnificence, according to alghazâlî (ahmad & anasy, 2005), is not defined by his readiness to identify god, preferably by his willingness to determine his own heart. when a human being has identified his heart, he has identified himself. if he has distinguished himself, he has recognized his god. the human being will never achieve ma'rifatullah unless he had completed the balance of mind and body free from wickedness. the advantages of being mystical and holding on sufi order amin al-kurdi suggested that the theme to be studied in tasawuf is the heart and sensory behaviors viewed from its purification and cleaning aspects. the outcome to be achieved in tasawuf is heart purity, familiarity with allah swt, being safe in the hereafter, feeling happy with allah swt's will, getting everlasting happiness, and understanding heart glow. besides, through tasawuf, heart clearness will be acquired as well, characterized by the disclosure of some problems clearly and the capability of seeing anything beyond what the mind can comprehend. one can also see something invisible to others' sense. tasawuf is the most sublime science because it is closely related to the recognition of allah swt (ma'rifatullah) and loving him occupies the supreme level in religion. this discipline becomes the required source of other subjects. since science and good deed will have no value except to look for allah swt's ridho (will), the position of tasawuf is between other sciences just like that of a soul concerning body (amin, 1996). there are five basic principles of tasawuf. the first one is pious to allah swt, either implicitly or explicitly before the public. it can be manifested into wara' and consistency. the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 second one is following the prophet's sunnah in both his speeches and actions (deeds). it can be brought into reality by maintaining and keeping improving one's noble characters. the third one is turning away from creatures regardless of being liked or disliked. it can be brought into reality, employing patience and tawakkul (trusting in god's plan). the fourth one is ridha (being pleased) with what allah swt has given, either much or less. it can be realized through qanâ‟ah attitude and by submitting everything to allah swt. the fifth one is returning to allah swt, in either comfortable or hard condition. it can be realized employing gratitude to allah swt in a natural state and asking him for protection in a difficult time (amin, 1996). as we know, the foundation of tasawuf is al-quran and al-sunnah, and the sayings of selected human beings. meanwhile, it is compulsory to learn about tasawuf. it is because no one but a prophet is free from disgrace or sins. some people who have reached makrifat stage stated, "any individual not knowing even a little about this science (tasawuf) worryingly will die in "soul khatimah" condition. if he does not know much about this science, he should at least justifies this science and recognizes the existence of those preoccupied with it". learning tasawuf, according to imam al-ghazali, is more comfortable than implementing it. therefore, learning and listening methods are required. specialized knowledge (khawwas) is unlikely to be acquired through learning only; instead, it should be achieved through feeling, spiritual condition stages, and our moral characters alternation. for example, a physician in sick condition, of course, knows the margin of good health, cause, and medicine, while he is in an unhealthy state. similarly, one should be able to distinguish the essence of zuhd, preconditions, and causes of it, and your situation as a zuhd individual isolated yourself from secular matters (herwibowo, 2009), therefore one will know that in fact, they are those with spiritual behavior, rather than those with speaking fluency. i have acquired any possibilities i can reach through the scientific method. however, to buy sufi knowledge, no other way through learning and listening than feeling and suluk (herwibowo, 2009).for that reason, according to imâm ghazâlî, there is no longer a wish to achieve happiness in the hereafter, but through loyalty and control of desire. meanwhile, the base of that is to decide on heart dependence from secular matters, by keeping away from deceit house (the world), toward an everlasting home (afterlife), submitting everything to allah swt, and unless one turning away from throne and property and escaping from various preoccupation and secular dependence, all of those will not be achieved perfectly. hadarah & gani the essence of tasawuf in naqshbandiyah sufi order is the implementation and the attempt of imitating prophet muhammad pbuh ("may allah's peace and blessings be upon him"), worship practice, and aims to achieve real knowledge (ma'rifah) on islam central message, allah swt's singleness (tauhid). meanwhile, in south celebes people's life, the effect of naqsabandiyah sufi order's tenet is manifested into amaliyah approach and tauhid (unity of god) and morality values. besides, the naqshbandiyah sufiorder has an islam proselytizing system different from other islam proselytizing systems, particularly in the way of improving worship and mu'amalah. for that reason, the naqshbandiyah sufi order becomes one of an essential mysticism order in south celebes. the development of naqsabandiyah sufi order can be positively attributed firmly with the great name of sheikh yusuf al-makassari as the high figure, warrior and islam teacher in south celebes, also called sufism pattern carrier consistent with the tenet of naqshbandiyah sufi order. this description means that sufi order's tasawuf values, particularly those related to naqshbandiyah sufi order in south celebes, can be assessed not only partially but also in-depth and holistically. included into the tasawuf study are any effort and initiative to have noble characters, to do proper worship, through mujahadah (struggling) continuously in a certain way or method, so that the spiritual self becomes clean, can be close to allah swt, to get his ridlâ and nûr ulûhiyyah. tariqa as the way to go on spiritual level.content of sharia instructed to human beings can be divided into two. the first one is laws related to physical (material) deeds. the second one is laws related to mental (spiritual) acts. in other words, some deeds are related to human physique and some others to the human heart. the deeds related to the frame are divided into two. the first one includes instructions such as shalat, zakat, hajj, etc. and the second one contains prohibitions from such things as killing, extra-marital sexual intercourse, stealing, drinking khamer (liquor), etc. (sopu, 2016). the deeds related to the heart are divided into two as well: commands and prohibitions. the authorities include believing in allah, his angels, holy books, and rasul (messengers). also included in this are the powers to be sincere, ridla, honest, khusyu, tawakkal, etc. meanwhile, the prohibition includes infidelity, hypocrisy, arrogance, "ujub, riya' (showing off), deceiving, revenge, envy, etc. the second category of deeds related to the heart is more essential and predominant than the first one in allah's perspective, despite the equal importance of both. it is journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 because spiritual deeds are the starting point of real ones. when religious acts are damaged, it will result in damaged material deeds (sopu, 2016). rasulullah pbuh motivated his companions to focus on the problem of repairing their hearts. in a hadist, it was explained that a reasonable individual is dependent on their good spirit and their recovery from spiritual sins: "remember, within a human body, there is a clump of blood; if it is good, his entire body would be good. and if it is damaged, his entire body would be damaged. this clump of blood is called heart" (isa, 2016). prophet muhammad saw also taught his companions that allah swt would see his slaves' heart. rasulullah pbuh said: "actually allah will neither see your body nor your physical form. rather, he will see your heart" (taimiyah, 1976). when the barometer of an individual's goodness is dependent on his heart kindness constituting the source of his material deeds, he is required to repair his heart by liberating himself from disgraceful characteristics prohibited by allah swt, and dressing it with noble characters as he instructs. as such, his heart will be healthy, clean, and he will belong to winning, safe, and lucky groups in the afterlife. in his hâsyiyah, ibn âbidîn stated that it is compulsory to know what sincere, ujub, envy and showing-off characters are. similarly, it is also a must to know other sins such as arrogance, greed, revenge, anger, hostility, resentment, covetous, stingy, careless, conceit, betrayal, partiality, reluctance to accept the truth, deceiving, cruelty, delusions, etc. (i.sa, 2016), it is also compulsory to remove mental sins. and it is impossible to do it unless through finding out its border, cause, signs, and treatment method. anyone not recognizing a crime will be entrapped into it (isa, 2016). in al-hadiyyah al-'alaiyyah, allaudin abidin stated that sharia texts and consensus of scholars reinforce each other to proscribe envy, insult, crime, arrogance, ujub, show-off, hypocrisy, and other disgraceful spiritual deeds. ears, eyes, and heart will be accountable for their acts under the human will in the afterlife (isa, 2016). it is these mental sins that make an individual far from allah and his eternal heaven (isa, 2016). in this case, rasul pbuh said, one will not enter into heaven if they have even a little arrogance within his heart (isa, 2016). most of the time, people do not see their shame and mental sins. they think they have been perfect, while actually, they are far from perfection. what method is used to find out one's spiritual sins, and is there any practical way to treat and to free themselves from them? the answer is through tasawuf (tariqa). hadarah & gani tasawuf (tariqa) is a discipline focusing its study specifically on finding out heart shame and the way of curing it. in tasawuf science, all of the mental obstacles can be trimmed, and all disgraceful characteristic can be removed, so that a sufi can free his heart from everything other than allah swt, and dress it with dzikir to him (isa, 2016). dressing the soul with perfect characteristics such as taubat (repentance), taqwa (pity), istiqamah (consistency), honesty, sincere, zuhud (abandoning worldliness), tawakkal (submitting everything to allah swt), ridla (accepting every allah's decision), providing fate to allah swt, affection, dzikir, muraqabah and other noble characteristics, are the objective of tasawuf. sufis is exceptionally meritorious in transforming this prophecy inheritance, both theoretically and practically. scholars and mursyid invite human being to join and to learn continuously along with sufi group, to help them harmonize their body and soul, feeling the meaning of heart cleanliness and noble characters and achieving ma'rifatullah as positively as possible, so that their heart is dressed with love, muraqabah, and zikir to him. having examined the truth of tariqa tasawuf observed values and felt its fruits, al-ghazâlî stated that, "joining sufi is fardl 'ain. it is because no one but prophets can be free from shame and mistake (sopu, 2016). abû hasan al-syadzîlî said, "everyone not plunging into tariqa tasawuf science in islamic way; he will die in the condition of doing big sins, while he does not realize it." commenting on this statement, ibn allân al-shiddîqî said "abû hasan al-syadzîlî's opinion is correct. it is because: is there individual fasting, while he does not admire his fast? is there an individual doing shalat, while he does not admire his shalat? so are other deeds". because walking on this tariqa is very difficult for those with a weak heart. therefore human being should walk on it with determination, patience, and sincerity, to be safe from allah's curse and anger. (isa, 2016). fudhail bin iyâdh r.a. stated, "walk on the way of truth and never feeling lonely because of the limited number of people walking on it. keeping yourself far away from bathil (evil) way and never being deceived by many deluded people. if you feel lonely because of your loneliness, see your ancestors and be determined to join them. close your eyes from others, because they will not be able to evade you from allah's torture. if they scream calling you when you walk, never turn to them. it is because, when you turn to them, they will take and hamper you (ahmad & anasy, 2005). sayyid in ta‟rîfât al-sayyid edited by abdul qodir isa said that "tariqa is the special way for those going toward allah, from one level to another" (isa, 2016). ahmad zarûq in qawâ‟ id atashawwuf, edited by abdul qodir isa said that "there is no tasawuf but with fiqh because allah's journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 zahir law will not be known but with it. there is no fiqh but with tasawuf, because there is no good deed but with sincerity and concentration on allah. the presence of both will not be valid without faith. all of them are must, because they are all interlinked, just like the relationship between body and soul. there is no soul but within the body, and no life for the body but with soul. so, please understand (this) (isa, 2016). malik in syarh 'ayn al-'m zayn al-hilm stated that "anyone having tasawuf without fiqh has been zindik. everyone with fiqh without tasawuf has been fasik. and everyone collecting both of them will come to hakekat" (isa, 2016). firstly, one is called zindik when he/she considers hakekat without implementing sharia. it is as if this individual arrogantly states that human being has no choice in any affairs. he is like what a poet says (al-taftazani & al-wafa'al, 1997). secondly, he is called fasik because piety light, sincerity secret, awareness of allah's overseeing, and muhasabah have not entered yet into his heart so that he has not evaded wickedness and held on sunnah tightly. thirdly, someone is stated as having achieved hakekat because he/she has combined all of the religion principles: faith, islam, and ihsan, collected in hadist jibril a.s mentioned earlier. thus, tariqa is the implementation of sharia, of the matters defined in sharia, and keeping oneself far away from underestimating something that should not be so. one may even argue that tariqa is keeping oneself far away from what is prohibited, either in zahir (extrinsic) or intrinsic manner, and fulfilling everything commanded by allah swt, to the best of what one is capable of. or one can also define it as the attitude of keeping oneself far away from the proscribed things, from everything considered as makruh, be cautious with the excess of mubah things, and doing sunnah things under a teacher's overseeing who has achieved makrifat maqam (knowledge on mysticism) peak".(hamid, 1994) meanwhile, tariqa naqshbandiyah (naqshbandiyah sufi order) serves as a method or way by which an individual begins to walk on the spiritual approach to achieve the quality of tauhid (the singling of allah) on a high degree. when an adherent of tariqa accepts this tauhid tenet feels less competent and ready to achieve this high degree, the teacher will devote any spiritual help and love to his disciples. for that reasons, the basis of tariqa is devotion and giving one interest in allah swt (jadzb) when walking on suluk process under the guidance of a mursyid (spiritual consultant) (al-taftazani & al-wafa'al, 1997). just like zahir scholars maintain sharia borders, tasawuf scholars also maintain adab (culture) and soul of sharia. just like zahir scholars allowed hadarah & gani to make ijtihad in concluding propositions and enacting the law, makrifat scholars are permitted to terminate adab and method to educating disciples and sâlik. ihsân as the primary element of tariqa the goal of ihsân is the spiritual heart. the spiritual center of a worshiping individual should be clean to result in "sincere ubûdiyyah and noble characters. the science discussing it is tasawuf and tariqa. in a hadist, ihsân means "worshiping to allah as if one is seeing allah in front of him" or feeling and convincing himself that allah always sees and paying his attention." sheikh kadirun yahya said, "ihsân itself is tabitha by referring to rasulullah pbuh's saying when jibril asked his third question to prophet muhammad pbuh." at that time, jibril asked, "what does ihsân means?" and the prophet pbuh answered, "you worship allah swt as if you see him. although you do not see him, actually he sees you".(al-bukhârî, n.d.) thus, ihsân is a maqâm, in which individual implement sharia-inspired with the essence (hakekat) of sharia so that he obtains ma'rifat on allah swt. in other section, tasawuf scholars said that ihsân is murâqabah (feeling as always being overseen by allah), takhallî (emptying the heart/spirit from evil), and tajallî (achieving magnificence behind allah swt). there are eleven places where allah mentions word ihsan in al-qur' an in a variety of contexts and forty sites using the word as performer of ihsân, i.e., muhsin. he commands: "actually allah swt asks you to acts justly and to do better" (ali, 2011). sheikh sulaiman zuhdi is as a sufi leader from tariqa naqshbandiyah community interpreting this verse in the context of hadist jibril told by bukhari muslim above, that in the implementation of ihsân, allah should be present spiritually (meaningfully) during worshipping. the presence of allah within the heart when an individual does worship is impossible unless two conditions are met: pure conscience and sincerity in doing worship. genuine and sincere are unlikely to be achieved, unless in a particular method or way developed in tariqa. most islam scholars argue that holding on tariqa is the first obligation after an individual (either male or female) has been faithful. this argument is confirmed by some hadist shahih, including some hadist qudsi explained broadly in his treatise (nur, 2003). ihsân, in its implementation through tasawuf and tariqatullah, is made as islam scholar's motto by sufis. tasawuf aims to approach the self of allah as close as possible through akidah (faith), the implementation of islamic law (sharia) and noble characters. abd al-karîm al-jillî, one of the sufi leaders, included ihsân into one ahwal or maqâm the sufis should pass through to achieve insân kâmil.with the better mental condition, because of the blemish of thought for doing journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 evil deeds, it is explained in al-qur' an that: "o soul at peace! return to your lord, pleased, pleasing" (ali, 2011). sa'id hawwa in pendidikan spiritual considered that the verse above showed the mental condition, the excellent mental health because composure and conviction have been felt. it is nafs muthmainnah or soul at peace that was told by al-quran to "return to your lord, pleased, pleasing." this verse shows that the soul at peace is the one which is ridla (accepting) to allah and allah will be ridla to him. thus, the soul at peace is the supreme health condition for the soul (hawwa, 2006). the ways to be a soul at peace, according to sheikh der moga are to return to allah swt, being faithful, and increasing zikir, while an individual is required to do all of that. it is a representation of mental and soul health, and the way to achieve it. sufis talk about something called hâl (sufistic spiritual condition) and about something called maqâm (position, state, status in the sufistic trip). they consider hâl as the means to achieve maqâm, taking what said hawwa said as the example (hawwa, 2006). syekh der moga found that the first thing an individual explains when he is preoccupied with zikir is temporary composure within the heart that can be vanished; it is called hâl. then, when he is doing zikir (reciting zikir, remembering and calling the name and the greatness of allah repeatedly) continuously, he will come to an eternal heart composure; it is called maqâm. an individual is required to make his activities to get a healthy heart and soul to stay on the maqâm. however, many people do not understand the essence of healthy maqâms as they do not understand the deeds becoming the means of achieving the maqâm. syekh der moga, as a very famous teacher of mursyid for his ability, has cured a variety of deathly disease and even a variety of diseases that has been refused by hospital management, such as cervical cancer, breast cancer, hiv aids, malignant tumor, and other various conditions, based on "tariqatullah" that he implements, leading this sheikh to be believed by the public and to be known as spiritual trainer and healer of any diseases, even the malignant one. for syekh der moga with allah swt's permission, all of the disorders but "death" can be healed; that is the perfect faith in the greatness of allah swt to his slaves who he gives guidance to (rajab, 2010). to achieve this superior level (maqâm) and absolute faith, an individual should pass through away (tariqa). how an individual walk as they fight against their desires, to improve the poor characteristics into the better (perfect) ones and to walk on maqâms of perfection with a mursyid's supervision.the meaning of holding on tariqa for south celebes community the south hadarah & gani celebes community generally consider that naqshbandiyah sufi order plays a role in their attempt to pay attention to heart and soul aspects. however, without overriding the physical and material elements of worshiping, this sufi order has formulated a practical method that can deliver a muslim to the perfection of faith and noble characters. holding on tariqa (sufi order) is not only about reciting wirid and zikir, as most people consider so far. there is something lost from many people's mind, i.e., sufi order is a practical and perfect method that can change an individual from misled and deviating personality into the straight, ideal, and perfect one. and the change includes the aspects of making the straight, sincere worship, good mu'amalah, and noble character. some of south celebes accept naqshbandiyah sufi order as a life belief and a way of life. they have a strong ideology that to achieve lofty level (maqâm) and perfect faith, an individual should pass through away (tariqa), the way in which an individual walk as they fight against their desire, to improve their poor characteristics into the better (perfect) ones, and to walk on maqâms of perfection with a mursyid's supervision. it is the bridge that will deliver an individual from sharia toward hakekat, to reach the peak of piety (taqwa). south celebes people, according to abu hamid, have firm characters and tend to act bravely, significantly affected by the power of science they believe in as the supreme science, naqshbandiyah sufi order in particular and other sufi orders developing as well in this area. as naqshbandiyah sufi order flourished, people increasingly grow their likeness to it over times because it is considered as a lofty way to deal with all of the problems, particularly mental sins. (hamid, 1994) for an individual on this level, everything he believes in seems to be real as if they are there before his eyes. after that, it is followed by some conditions emerging suddenly before his eyes, such as zuhud toward the world and its glamour, secular forgetfulness, and afterlife intoxication (amin, 1996). the "stringent" character for some of south celebes people is not merely due to behavioral factor, somewhat beyond that, there are large pearls of wisdom and ma'rifat. the effect of achieving ma'rifat' on nafs is the way to have knowledge on allah swt when an individual observes himself; his weakness, his infidelity (need), and his helplessness, he would understand that he cannot generate a benefit and cannot prevent any evil from occurring, human being would realize that nafs must have god and creator. the self-imaging of the community in this area mostly belongs to the spiritual community. it represents that ma'rifat is to introduce human being to divine elements through any form of limitation and ability he has so that the more profound the individual journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 illuminates his weakness, the deeper his understanding would be on allah swt's powerfulness and other characteristics (al-asmâ‟ al-husnâ). for south celebes people, particularly the implementer of naqsabandiyah sufi order, it helps them assess their ability to identify his essence and guiding him to know his creator and guard. the one identifying himself and his god knows well that his presence is nothing compared with dzat of allah swt. the manifestation of himself, his manifestation eternality and perfection are from, to and for the sake of allah swt. conclusion and implications the naqshabandiyah order has a vital role in the dynamics of the life of the people of south sulawesi. socially and culturally reflected the pattern of religious and cultural communication in it. the combination of spiritual teachings and cultural rituals in the naqshabandiyah order became a single unit with multiple impacts. the real impact is the religious perspective and pattern and how to socialize religious teachings with the social environment. likewise, the important thing is the influence on the mindset and behavior patterns of the people of south sulawesi colored by the values of islamic teachings that nuanced the tarekat, especially the naqshabandiyah order. as islamic da'wah was first developed by three mubballig from minangkabau in this area, the three muballig from minangkabau west sumatra started their preaching with sufism values in the science of proximity. also, the presence and influence of shaykh yûsûf al-makassarî as a figure, sufi bearer of the teachings of the naqshabandiyah order brought a holy spirit that was in line with the fundamental beliefs of the community so that it further strengthened the development of the naqshabandiyah order which ensured the new people in south sulawesi. this naqshabandiyah order is a religious ritual group combined with cultural practices. this tarekat was not only a gathering place but also became a means of strengthening the ukhuwwah islamiyyah which became more actual when it was connected with the problem of social solidarity because in essence humans were social beings. in addition, the communication pattern of south sulawesi religion and culture can also be seen when it coincides with religious custom events, besides that in the naqshabandiyah tarekat institution it becomes a place to cure diseases; from minor illnesses to severe illnesses that doctors and hospitals cannot cure; like hiv aids, santet disease and mental disorders or stress. hadarah & gani another thing and belief by the people of south sulawesi that the practice of the naqshabandiyah order can bring blessings in the cultural rituals it carries out. also, through routine practice in wirid, dhikr and khatam tawajjuh are the basis of the formation of patterns of action (model of) or cognitive systems whereas the values of spiritual belief in the features of the naqshabandiyah order culture are as a model for work or a value system. the impact of the practice of the naqshabandiyah order, the culprit, can feel a positive energy that brings calm and happiness. to get the blessings of sufistic values, they usually use water as a medium by only being stored in a container and placed in a particular place that has been provided during the wirid, dhikr and khatam tawajjuh rituals, which are useful for relatives, relatives, and people who require by only drinking like drinking plain water, the benefits are as a manifestation of sacrality in profanity (hierophany). this shows that in the naqshabandiyah order, it contains sufistic values that are so transcendent and intertwined in the cultural value system that they can enhance the integrity of the sulawesi-selatan community as a religious-culturalist society. thus the existence of the naqshabandiyah congregation is always maintained as a means of mediation and meditation to get closer to god through sufistic values that are internalized in cultural values. the south sulawesi community, in the context of contemporary life (the modern era), was influenced by the teachings of the naqshabandiyah order, and this was evident in its tendency to carry out the "modern" sufi lifestyle. they believe that true tarekat is the one who stands on the right shari'a. the point as a "safe mode" is to carry out the teachings of islam sincerely and always avoid things that are forbidden by allah, as outlined by islamic law whose values are inherently embedded in sufism through the tarekat as the teachings of the naqsyabandiyah order in south sulawesi. references abdullah, m. a. (2003). pengembangan metode studi islam dalam perspektif hermeneutika sosial dan budaya. tarjih: jurnal tarjih dan pengembangan pemikiran islam, 6(1), (pp. 1–19). abu hamid. (1994). hamid, abu, syekh yusuf makassar: seorang ulama, sufi dan pejuang (yayasan obor indonesia, 1994). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 243-269 ahmad, a. al-f. m. s. anasy, muhamad muchson. (2005). tasawuf antara al-ghazali and ibnu taimiyah. al-bukhârî, a. m. bin.(n.d.).ismâ ‘îl.al-jâmi ‘al-shahîh. kairo: maktabah al-salafiyah, 1400. al-taftazani, a. w. g., & al-wafa'al, a. (1997).sufi dari zaman ke zaman.terj. ahmad rofi'usmani. bandung: pustaka. amin, n. al-k. (1996). beirut: dar al-fikr, tt. tanwirul qulub, juz ii, surabaya: risalah gusti. armstrong, a., (2001). sufi terminology (al-qamus al-sufi): the mystical language of islam. ferozsons. azra, a. (1994). jaringan ulama: timur tengah dan kepulauan nusantara abad xvii dan xviii: melacak akar-akar pembaruan pemikiran islam di indonesia. mizan. darling, a. c. e., mau, b., blattner, f. r., & perna, n. t. (2004). mauve: multiple alignments of conserved genomic sequence with rearrangements. genome research, 14(7), (pp. 1394– 1403), hawwa, s. (2006). pendidikan spiritual. yogyakarta: mitra pustaka, cet i. herwibowo, u. b. (2009). the power of akhlak; menjadi kesayangan allah. qultum media. isa, a. q. (2005). hakikat tasawuf, terj. khairul amru. jakarta: qisthi press. lexy, j. m. (2002).metode penelitian kualitatif. bandung rosda karya muhadjir, n. (1996). metodologi penelitian kualitatif: pendekatan positivistik, rasionalistik, phenomenologik, dan realisme metaphisik telaah studi teks dan penelitian agama. rake sarasin. mulyati.(2004). mengenal and memahami tarekat tarekat muktabarah di indonesia, pp.152-179, volume. 1. kairo: maktabah al-salafiyah, jakarta: kencana, ed. nur, a. (2003). pergolakan muhammadiyah menuju sufi. yogyakarta: hikam press. patmawati, p., & wahida, b., (2018). the concept of tawheed of buginese people in the ancient manuscript lontara attorioloang ri wajo of west kalimantan. al-albab, 7(2), (pp. 177– 186). rajab, h., (2012). tareqah naqsyabandiyah and its impact on character refinement in south sulawesi. jicsa; journal of islamic civilization in southeast asia), 1(2). schimmel, a. (1975). mystical dimensions of islam.univ of north carolina press. sewang, a. m. (2013). peranan orang melayu dalam perkembangan islam di sulawesi selatan. makassar: alauddin university pres. hadarah & gani sopu, s. (2016). misykât al-anwâr karya al-ghazali: sekelumit catatan kontroversi dan teologi pencerahan sufistiknya. madania: jurnal kajian keislaman, 20 (2), (pp. 151– 160). taimiyah, i. (1976). al siyasah al syar'iyyah. al-qâhirah: dâr al-fiqr al-‘arabi. van bruinessen, m. (1992).tarekat naqsyabandiyah di indonesia. zuhri, s., & hadji, k. (1979).sejarah kebangkitan islam dan perkembangannya di indonesia.almaʼarif. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),212-235 212 inclusion as a modern cultural universal: reflection and conceptualization natalia e. sudakova1 & olga n. astafyeva2 abstract this paper ıs relevant due to the need to find the mechanisms of overcomıng social destruction caused by people’s current personal alienation of the ‘other’, as well as alıenatıon of oneself as ‘another’. the problem is considered in the context of the modern society’s growing need for the creation of a community that adheres to diversity and inclusive values as integral conditions of individual existence. the concept of the evolution of inclusion as a modern culture unıversal, presented in the paper, expands the ideas about it and its addressees. the author emphasızes that the subject of inclusion is absolutely every human in need of self-realization in the society, a career of unique features and precious for the progress of human civilization. the authors emphasize that every born human is the subject of inclusion with the need for social realization, as the career of unique individual features which are the highest value for the social progress of human civilization. the authors urge to draw the attention of the scientific community to the lack of systematic reflection of this phenomenon, which manifests itself today in all areas of activity in the global format. this approach allows us to trace the formation of inclusion as a modern cultural universal, which this work is devoted to. the main instrument of the formation of inclusion is the creativity that actualizes its new perception as the process of getting the creative joy from the joint co-creative artistic activities that contribute to the ongoing personal development. key words: inclusion, cultural unıversal, creativity, culture, people with disabilities, unlımıted possibilities of a human. introduction the dynamics of value orientations, contributing to the establishment of tolerance ideas in the modern society, makes society comprehend the mechanisms of inclusive existence creation. inclusion gradually acquires the features of the universal category of modern culture, bringing to the fore the importance of the uniqueness of each person and his/her self-realization for the development of the whole community (sudakova, 2018b). at the same time there is a noticeable lack of reflection of inclusive practices both from the point of view of systemic analysis, revealing 1 assoc. prof., dr., russian presidential academy of national economy and public administration, sovetnik.imtp@mail.ru 2 professor, dr., russian presidential academy of national economy and public administration, on.astafyeva@migsu.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 the universality of its sociocultural deployment, and in terms of understanding the mechanisms of its formation. despite the relevance of the holistic understanding of inclusion and the tools of its formation in the global format, the basis of the author's reflection is the sociocultural space of russia with its sociocultural specificity, which is not universal, but it makes it possible to vividly illustrate the stable lopsidedness of understanding the problem in the society. the authors insist that these trends are relevant to all mankind, as the manifestation of inclusive trends has its own specificity in all countries of the world, in one way or another focusing on the problems that are the most relevant to each particular community, which is also intended to be revealed in this work. the emphasis does not allow us to see the problem entirely, even in the countries where inclusive practices are most advanced, as evidenced, for example, by their high inclusive development index (the inclusive development index 2018 rankings: norway 1st place, ireland – 8th place, new zealand 13th place, etc.). the author's vision of inclusion is based on the understanding that all of us, born human, have the right to unfettered sociocultural self-realization. and, therefore, the subject of inclusion today becomes each person as a carrier of the uniqueness / of personality, which is the highest value of human life. thus, the subjects of inclusion today are not only people with hia, but also everyone else, including others / "abnormal" for one reason or another, rejected by the society (not carrying any social threat, i.e. not seeking immoral behavior), including gifted, hard-to-fit into the usual social stereotypes. this approach seriously changes the strategic vector of social development towards the humanization of the modern society, which aspires to the ideas of inclusion. the focus is not on any isolation, but on the idea of social responsibility of each person in the quest to create a common social good. the authors set themselves the task to justify the position that the main tool for the formation of inclusion is creativity as a process of affirming the value of personal origin, helping to overcome the crisis of being (in the terms of j. deleuze (1997)), both individual and generally human. the author's position is that the mystery of creativity, becoming the basis of harmonization of sociocultural communication, allows each member of the modern society, including people with hia, gifted people and all others, being in this context "the healer of himself and the world" (p. sudakova & astafyeva 18), not only to cultivate its uniqueness as the highest value, but also to bring to the world the ideas of truth, good, harmony, beauty, freedom and harmony. the authors see the followıng goals ın thıs work: the first one is to reveal the nature of inclusion as a modern cultural unıversal; the second is to draw the attention of the scientific community to the importance of the existing gaps, which in itself is urgent and relevant for the modern society and should launch a mechanism to overcome this problem in the global format, because there is no doubt that the sociocultural specificity of each country requires its own researcher; the third is to identify the main tool for the formation of inclusion culture is creativity. updating the problem of inclusion perceptions in the modern world the modern understanding of inclusion does not have any unambiguous idea, which greatly interferes with its adequate perception. however, the main problem, in our opinion, is that most people still understand inclusion only as a process of incorporating people with different disabilities into the educational space, heaping on this approach with serious criticism. traditional approaches to education are described by many authors (dessel, 2010; hoyles, 2010; corbett, 1999). this approach is taking place in many countries of the modern world, where even the united states, which has been broadcasting inclusive practices for almost seventy years, is no exception. educational inclusion, primarily complete, constantly finds its opponents who do not take into account the importance of leading a full social life by each person, as evidenced by the conclusions of m. a. winzer (1993). in the united states and canada, however, it is a major challenge to educate the children of migrants who enter the country every year for whom english is not native, which also rests with the inclusive education system. these facts are evidenced by the works of j. wolff (2017, 2015), d. allman (2013), r. munck (2009), g. köhler (2009). social inclusion becomes ideological in nature, changing the environment in which a person exists. political, economic and sociocultural transformations are gradually shaping a new inclusive community, where postcolonial development trends of the society play a role as well. reducing inequality through inclusive growth, where economic growth is an integral part of treating every member of the society fairly, is represented in the works of r. ranieri, r. a. ramos (2013), who assert that the country development is directly related to the inequality reduction journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 among its citizens. according to the authors’ opinion mentioned earlier, the beginning of this development was initiated in the second half of the twentieth century. obviously, this stage is associated with the postcolonial period of the society`s development, when not only many countries declare their independence, where citizens require equal treatment for their traditions and needs, but the united nations is developing, boosting the “viral” of inclusive practices spread all over the world. the work of the prime minister of malta, j. muscat (2017), is devoted to the study of the inclusive labour market, he insists that the basis of the economic development of the community is a social dialogue, striving for social justice. this approach conveys the view of the european union, formulated in brussels in march 2017 at the tripartite social summit "the future of europe: charting a course for growth, employment and justice" (2017). reflecting on social inclusion, our priority is to reduce poverty, as well as to ensure a decent minimum income for all citizens, where society primarily cares about the most vulnerable. this approach is at the heart of the national action plan for social inclusion in ireland (social inclusion policy in ireland, 2018), which the world economic forum considers to be a country with a high index of inclusive development (2018). this is very valuable, as ireland is entering the phase of incorporating children with health deficits into a single educational space at the same time as russia (rose & shevlin & winter & o'raw, 2010). at the heart of social inclusion policy is a person as an unconditional value of the society. the approach is now supported by many countries, including the uk (2001), canada (2013), norway (2019) and australia (2018), where social inclusion is understood as society's desire to create the environment where everyone feels valued so that they can live without losing their dignity. gender aspects of inclusion are revealed by p. paoloni, r. lombardi (2018), m. maksimović, j. ostrouch-kamińska, k. popović, a. bulajić (2016), k. jenkins (2016). gender is a major issue in asia, where women are significantly disadvantaged in their right to hold leadership positions, what is more characteristic for japan and singapore (human resources, 2016; tan, 2014). t. supriyadi, j. julia and e. firdaus (2019) reflect on the problem of gender equality in the perspective of the islamic sociocultural tradition, convincing the scientific community of the importance of reassessing female leadership "that the traditional interpretations are no longer suitable in this changing times" (p. 91). sudakova & astafyeva maori ındigenous people’s problem as a result of the postcolonial politics victory is the center of new zealand’s inclusive policy (anderson & averill & maro & taiwhati & higgins, 2010), that predetermines the mechanisms for the formation of both sociocultural and educational inclusion in this country. migration issues, being a part of inclusive politics, are at the heart of research which emphasizes that the main tool for the positive inclusion of migrants in the host society is a common language (chan et al., 2016). however, recent works address the problems of people with mental disorders in brazil, hong kong, poland and the uk, which again bring back to the understanding that inclusion is the research subject of the problems concerning social implementation of people with health deficits (chan et al., 2019). this also demonstrates the emphasis on certain inclusion problems at the expense of their systemic holistic understanding. at the same time, the problems of interethnic interaction from the standpoint of universal values and their implementation in education got into focus of researchers “in this regard, even though the values to be taught in schools might vary, there are universal values that are accepted by majority throughout the world” (yiğit & tarman, 2016, p. 341). thus, inclusion measures these or other problems that are relevant to a particular community, however, it forces the modern researcher to consider this problem not only in the identified contexts, but also from the standpoint of its deployment universalism, where its ideological aspect acquires particular significance. we should note here that today, inclusion almost incessantly finds the point of its impact, invariably returning to the existing problem of human depreciation, which forms many interpretations of its definition. the kaleidoscope of existing interpretations is referred to by the researchers all over the world (miles & kaplan, 2005; mitchell, 2005; pearson, 2001; horby & kidd, 2001; shemanov, 2017). all the more relevant today is the conclusion that inclusion is gradually becoming the basis of the modern man`s worldview acquiring the features of universal culture. these findings are consistent with ideas about the need for world-view transformations by (liasidou, 2012a, 2012b; trussler & robinson, 2015). the universality of inclusion is borne out by the research of d. melé and c. sánchez-runde (2013) as well as j. ruggie (2013), who draw attention to the problems of cultural diversity manifested by the system of values, gender, race, ethnicity and a serious complication of the specifics of the relationship, including the workers, where the hybridity and blurring of borders assert themselves with a renewed vigor. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 reflecting on the inclusive experience of norway, recognized by the world economic forum as the country with the highest index of inclusive development, let us note that the main goal of its government is to reduce all forms of inequality, where every citizen is a full participant of the development. norway highlights the value of sociocultural development in the society where every member can participate in any event. however, even in this country, the reports show that many migrants, like the disabled, do not participate in the cultural life of the society, which literally brings the problem of inclusion back to where they started. is this a fact proving the haphazard approach to inclusion? where the value factor is overshadowed, the very idea of inclusion becomes weak and incapable of its full development. however, while changing the value of each individual's importance to the development of the society is not a straightforward and rapid process, even for the countries with a high index of inclusive development, a new understanding of inclusion is gradually emerging as a world-wide universality of modern culture, affirming the value of every human being in the world where diversity is cultivated. this trend is evident in the works of varying orientations, including the study of the prospects for the development of multicultural business models (vita, 2001; mujtaba, 2013; pless & maak, 2004; ferguson, 2004). financial problems of inclusion are actively reconsidered in different countries, including turkey, according to the research by yorulmaz (2013, 2018), which examines these problems both in the context of domestic and global inclusive policy. recognizing the diversity not only as a universal value category (etherington, 2019; melé & sánchez-runde, 2013; donaldson, 1996; jhingran, 2001; vendemiati, 2008; johnson & hinton, 2019) and a predetermined natural given, but also as a significant tool for the survival of modern society, one can summarize the entry of the mankind into the age of inclusion, where the society invariably strives to provide everyone from birth with all signs of the human species, unlimited opportunities to meet unique/special sociocultural needs as an integral part of harmonizing interpersonal interaction. the epoch of ınclusion as a time of ınclusion in social creation for everybody wıthout an exception is a period that goes in line with the so-called sustaınable development goals set out by unesco in education 2030 incheon declaration towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all (2015). the term "inclusion" is quite fully presented in many of them, as it affects the development of the society as a whole in many areas of human life (hinzen & robak, 2017). sudakova & astafyeva consequently, inclusion as a concept "pretending to be an ideological model of the future transformations of human civilization" (sudakova et al., 2016, p. 11) is undoubtedly relevant today from all research positions in the global context. awarded since 1996, the madanjit singh prize for the promotion of tolerance and nonviolence, aimed at "strengthening unesco's humanist mission to support peoples in today's rapidly changing and increasingly interdependent world in acceptance and understanding the rich diversity of the cultures of our world, our forms of selfexpression and the various ways of displaying the human person in order to "live together, in peace with each other, as good neighbors" (unesco, 2013), illustrates the aspiration of the world community to promote truly inclusive ideas: «people are naturally diverse; only tolerance can ensure the survival of mixed communities in every region of the globe (unesco, 2018). although the ideas of inclusion are constantly updated, spread and rethought (alur & hegarty, 2002; abawi & oliver, 2013; dev, 2018; jacob & olisaemeka, 2016; kaur & arora, 2014; loreman & deppler, 2001; patankar & patil, 2016), it is obvious that today there is still a situation where the emphasis on a particular problem of inclusion automatically limits the perception of it, thereby distorting its essential meaning due to the complex but universal nature that allows us to accumulate the experience and build a renewed one, taking into account the modern sociocultural reality, the prospect of "humanization" of a man. taking into account the fact that today we aspire to a society where every its member, including people of different ages with disabilities, as well as people rejected by the society because of any distinctive features, have the right to both merciful, tolerant attitude, and the recognition and realization of their special needs in all areas of our lives, we note that everything mentioned above is relevant not only for the self-realization of the individual, but also for the harmonization of social relations in general. the statements presented fit into the classic concept of i. kant (1994) that "a person is not a thing, he is not to eat something that can only be used as a means; he should always and for all his actions be seen as a goal in itself" (p. 205). inclusive approaches challenge the society to identify the best tools for incorporating each participant into a single sociocultural space. the fact that these tools are universal and can be used in all areas of our lives significantly increases their importance in the modern world. inclusion is gradually revealing its potential as a modern cultural universal, capable of accumulating the humanistic experience of the mankind, helping to overcome human depreciation and transmit it to the next generations. gradual deployment of inclusion both horizontally and vertically forms journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 macroand micro-levels of its formation, where all kinds of human activity become the objects of inclusive practices. russia on its way to inclusion considering the problem of inclusion formation as a modern cultural universal, let us turn to the reflection of its development in russia. raising research interest in understanding the humanization of modern russian society by spreading the idea of tolerance to the other by incorporating children and adults with disabilities into a single educational and sociocultural space correlates with current global trends, where unesco's ideas about enabling every member of the modern society to learn how to create and use the products of own creativity to build a just inclusive community (unesco, 2018). in modern russia, there is a growing interest in inclusive educational approaches, which is devoted to a sufficient number of scientific papers released in the last two decades (malofeev, 2018; alyohina, 2016; akhmetova, 2013 and among others). it can be stated that this issue is considered today by domestic researchers quite closely, but rather questionable is the lopsided approach to this problem, which emphasizes only the pedagogical aspects of the inclusion of children with health disability into a single general education space. the retreat from educational approaches was the research of several authors, including a. yu. shemanov (2018) and e. a. yakovleva (2015), dealing with the cultural and philosophical justification of the social existence of inclusive practices in modern russian society, as well as v. n. yarskaya (2016), which explores various aspects of social inclusion. thus, it is obvious that the study of the phenomenon of inclusion in the national sociocultural space requires a serious systemic approach, overcoming the limitations of the existing ones. the authors of this paper emphasize the importance of the systemic cultural and philosophical reflection of inclusion as an ideological universality of modern culture, where creativity is an instrument for the formation of inclusive culture in the context of each person's awareness of the special sociocultural needs and unique individual abilities to realize them. modern society faces a global challenge to create the best conditions to meet these needs as a necessary condition for the creation of social good. the growing relevance of this issue is characterized by the strengthening of the position of the un convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. russia's support for these trends is sudakova & astafyeva confirmed by the ratification of this document in 2012, as well as addıng an inclusive approach to the strategy of public policy in education and culture. despite understanding the importance of inclusive practices for russia's social development and inclusion into strategic life-management documents (the state program of the russian federation "affordable environment" for 2011-2015; the law "on education" 2012), note that the works devoted to the systemic reflection of this problem in the field of meaning-forming grounds for the inclusion of inclusive practices into the modern sociocultural field, in the domestic research field is clearly not enough today. at present, the semantic contours of this problem are only being drawn today. modern trends in the formation of culture of inclusion in russia are associated with a lot of sociocultural, sports, economic initiatives that have become widespread in russian society, which in general repeats the global trends. in 2017, the national training fund, with the support of the fishermen's foundation for the acceleration of economic development, launched the equality of opportunity program, which aims to develop social inclusion in russia as a tool (‘equality of opportunitıes’ program, 2018). at the same time, the institution of non-commercial partnerships is actively developing in modern russian society, which has picked up the idea of sociocultural inclusion and is actively developing it. among the most famous non-commercial partnerships of the ano "center for socio-cultural animation “oduhotvorenie”. their most significant project is the international charity dance festival inclusive dance (2017) (in total, during its existence, more than 3000 participants from 20 countries took part in it). the social movement “belaya trost” (white cane, 2017) is gaining momentum, developing the philosophy of extrability as the idea of the superpower of people with health deficiencies. this organization initiated the first world congress of people with disabilities in yekaterinburg, held in september 2017. there are quite a lot of projects like this in russia today, but their systemic comprehension was represented for the first time by one of the authors of this work n. e. sudakova (2018a) in the monograph "man in the age of inclusion. the birth of a co-sympathetic being". the sporting aspect of inclusion was supported wıthın kazan action plan adopted in july 2017. thıs plan was the result of the 6th international conference of ministers and senior officials responsible for physical education and sports. the facts show that "we are opening the way to a new principle of social order, free from prejudice and social discrimination, based on harmony and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 rejection, first of all, of our own sociocultural uniqueness" (sudakova et al., 2016, p. 41), where "inclusion is thus seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of the needs of all children, youth and through adults increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing and eliminating exclusion within and from education" (unesco, 2009). despite the fact that the russian community has all the sociocultural grounds for fully implementing these principles, the holistic systemic reflection of inclusion is an urgent task in russian society. "limitless opportunities": creativity as a path to a new reality of inclusion arguing the importance of inclusion as modern cultural universal, it is necessary to reveal the tools of its formation. in this context, the focus of attention is the creative activity of a person. the ability to create a world of culture, different from the natural, the ability to create, acting as the main characteristic of a man, has a limitless potential for the development, both of the individual and society as a whole. despite the obviousness of this statement, it is the capacity for creativity that must be harnessed by the modern society in order to give a man the maximum opportunities for self-fulfillment in the process of creating the social good, where creativity forms «the search, practice, and experience through which the subject carries out the necessary transformations on himself in order to have access to the truth» (foucault, 2005, p. 15), directing a man to the spiritual exaltation: «what is gained in the tension of sentiments (quality of fidelity, way of being-for-theother, etc.) is gained in terms of elevation; for values, as we know, mount scale wise, and the good is most high» (derrida, 2001, p. 20). analyzing the state of the modern education system, it is obvious that the prevailing rationality does not develop the ability to promote the uniqueness of the personality's thinking. the most serious gap from the point of view of becoming a person is that this approach completely negates the procedural nature of creative activity, leading a person away from the feeling: «it’s being on a trip. it’s being subject to it as well as controlling it», the importance of which was demonstrated in the interview by the british playwright and director d. potter (1994, p. 26). makıng the learner find the ways to get the quickest end result, where both its quality and satisfaction from the process are receding into the background, modern educational paradigms replace true values of human beings with a surrogate. sudakova & astafyeva altogether, the actual task of modern education is to form a person able to express his/her own thoughts, respect the thoughts of others, have a culture of living together in the world, be sensitive to the society and act for its benefit (tarman & kuran, 2014, p. 294). in this context, we are certainly meaning every person, including the one with health deficits as a full member of the society. an even more serious problem is the gradual, but noticeable today, replacement of a man with a machine (harari, 2017). what can counter a person to this process and is it possible to resist the replacement of a person with a machine? the answer is obvious. the development of creativity puts people into a winning position. it is the ability to create that distinguishes a man not only from the animal, but also from the machine. the development of this ability in the modern world is an undeniable condition that a person will not be in the service of artificial intelligence like leviathan, that the society in the future will attach serious importance to the uniqueness, authorship, creative products created by a man. among actual sociocultural risks in this context, we can say that any representative of the world of people, including the severe disabled, is capable of creative activities, committed to the involvement with others through the process of co-creation that updates and enriches the personality with meaningforming coordinates. creativity acts as a tool transforming self-existence, deterministic intersubject and polyphonic procedurality. in these circumstances, it is important not only to increase social resources, but also to stimulate personal creativity to solve inclusive problems. what secrets does the human brain hide when it comes to people with so-called disabilities, and in fact, with "limitless possibilities"? it is limitless, because unlike healthy ones, who involve all the senses and have no restrictions in functioning, only these people need to maximize the development of compensatory capabilities. we see a situation where working organs and brains are forced to adapt to the world in which they function, and it means that their development always outpaces the development of these organs in healthy people. the miracles of brain functioning shown to us by people with disabilities, including in the field of vision or hearing, indicate that we know very little about human nature. the case of a blind programmer from finland tuukka ojala (2017), processing sound information at a rate of 450 words per minute (which is three times faster than the average person), causes amazement even among high-class professionals in the field programming (not only by the way he works, but also by the degree of his professionalism) and demonstrates to us the fact that a person who has an untapped visual analyzer had to literally force his brain to "see" which allowed him to engage in journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 real creativity in the field of programming. until now, the possibility of programming by a completely blind man seemed an unattainable idea, but the case of tuukka ojala (2017) proves otherwise. it is almost impossible to learn not only about the theoretical, but also about the practical ability of a person to process sound information at such a speed outside tuukka ojala’s situation. and is it worth talking about any restrictions in this case? it is obvious that the limitations that we see in people with "limited health opportunities" are stereotypes formed in the human community. the creative act in this case is unique in its purity, because it had neither any basis from which the creator could start, nor the existing pedagogical technologies or anyone’s experience. by constructing a completely new knowledge as a response to the frantic desire to engage in this type of activity, the personality literally creates his unique inner "vision" allowing to create in the area where previously only sighted people could work. the modern understanding of musicality, overcoming the framework of the presence of physical hearing as an integral factor in the development of musical abilities of the individual, is based today on the understanding that musicality is an innate property of the psyche of any person (toropova, 2010). it is confirmed today by the successful work of some teachers-musicians with disabled children. one of these russian teachers i. s. belik (2000) described music classes with deaf children. a unique example of the unexplored possibilities of a man is a deaf performer percussionist evelyn glennie (2017), the winner of three grammy awards, officer and cavalry lady of the order of the british empire, honorary doctor of several british universitıes, completely lost hearing at the age of 11, but not only did not give up music, but reached its considerable heights and sees its purpose quite specifically: "our mission is to improve communication and social cohesion by encouraging everyone to discover new ways of listening. we want to inspire, to create, to engage and to empower" (glennie, 2017). today, thanks to evelyn glennie (2017), the royal academy of music trains deaf musicians. a blind-deaf-dumb poet and writer, wıth a phd in pedagogical sciences, a researcher at the institute of defectology of the ussr, o. i. skorokhodova, (1972) opened us the world of "deafblind aliens" in her work (suvorov, 2018). her virtual universe, filled with the symbols and meanings, which has been given the opportunity to be read/heard/seen by other people, has left a mark of itself, which subsequent generations of people invariably join. is there a more serious sudakova & astafyeva recognition of the importance of individual contribution to the social than recognition of the merit by the descendants? on the road to recognition of the value of being the other, the question of the importance of one's own life is invariably raised, the answer to which in the context of an inclusive approach is shaped by the process of "retrospectively-promising analysis of self-existence" (sudakova, 2012, p. 158), where "continuously reflecting, identifying ourselves with our ancestors and descendants, we find our own unique place in the spiral of human development" (sudakova, 2012, p. 160). turning to the symbols and meanings of self-existence, we remind that it is the ability to create a world of symbols to encode and recognize, to divide the world is one of the basic skills of a man to be a person, otherwise defined as the ability to creativity. summarizing the above, we will highlight another characteristic of creativity, significant in the context of the problem under the study; it is about creativity as an instrument of socialization / "humanization" using which it is possible to awaken previously unexplored forces to the self-actualization of the individual. today, the number of these cases is constantly increasing, we learn about them from different fields of art and technical creativity. people with disabilities manifest themselves in different areas of life. the world, accepting their achievements, is moving towards recognizing the value of diversity and tolerance, opening the way to a host society. a society where the basis of harmonious coexistence is the process of creative interaction a mutually enriching dialogue between me and you in the context of recognition of the uniqueness of the other, where the value of each participant in this dialogue is beyond doubt, where dialogue is not only "a way of organizing people's lives together on our planet" (astafyeva, 2015, p. 52), but also an instrument of creating the space of shared being (astafyeva et al., 2017). people with disabilities, forced to adapt to the world of people without restrictions, create their own virtual space, as if reading the call of the information age, giving a birth to virtual worlds and attracting them into the ‘unknown’. creativity is the culmination of human activity, expressing man`s ability to spiritualize and create, where a man is a vessel filled with unique content, the integrity and in value of which is undeniable, but the realization of which is possible only in the process of immersion in oligochronios mania (short-term madness, k. galen) (inge, 1918, p. 208) or divine enlightenment. obviously, the true act of creativity is the process of incrementing social and cultural experience, that is, the expansion of the semantic space of culture. this approach to journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 creative activity, as to the creation of the uniqueness of co-participation, co-experience and coexistence, is the basis of the formation of an inclusive culture of coexistence in modern society. from the point of view of dialogue ınteractıon this approach ıs explored by b. i. omodan (2019), who examines the problems of educational democratization in the south africa and links them with the remnants of colonial politics, that certainly exacerbates the post-colonial discourse, growing new aspects of inclusion. he points out that there is a paradigm shift that leads to the devaluation of the teacher's position as the only source of value orientation and knowledge, which is being replaced by a student self-development model that improves the life for all and leads to a fair community (p.190). this model is based on a mutually enriching dialogue, which we believe is the basis of co-creation, where passive participation is replaced by the active complicity of all participants in the creative act, which is also understood in the pedagogical process as a process of active knowledge design. it is the integrity of the creative process aimed at the birth of the co-ordinated genesis that forms the basis of the inclusive university. it is a step to the one's own through the microcosm of the other, a moment of inclusive mutual enrichment, a reflection of the deep meaning of human coexistence, and immersion of the meanings of inclusion in the universe. all of the above requires from researchers a deep philosophical, cultural, as well as pedagogical reflection. it is possible to note the emergence of new knowledge about how limitless human possibilities are, how they will change the world in the future, how to stimulate the study and replication of this experience in the context of human entry into the space of the culture of inclusion. «it begins with the eyes. there is a saying that the eyes are mirrors into our soul. i think the eyes are the entrance portal to human life. we all want and need to be seen. seen and accepted as we are. we humans are a social species. the fact that we still exist on this planet is largely due to our social skills. collaboration, not competition, has brought us where we are today. and yet we are good at dividing ourselves. into us and them. me and you» (larjanko, 2017). the future of humanity depends directly on the need of modern society to look at the world of all people, including people with disabilities and all other others wıth "widely open eyes". conclusion in respect to our claim, this paper argues that there is every reason to argue that inclusion is gradually becoming a modern cultural universal, testifying to the unconditional social importance sudakova & astafyeva of all people, including people with disabilities, gifted, holders of other ethnic markers, as well as all others rejected by the society for whatever reason. today's sociocultural changes in the society, due to the recognition of the importance of inclusive approaches to harmonization of social development and their rapid penetration into all areas of our lives, require a systemic philosophical and sociocultural reflection, because they have a significant impact on the system of society values, acting as a resource to stimulate the unification of people in the recognition of the value of each person as the basis of the existence of mankind. incorporating an inclusive approach into social development strategies, understanding the tools of its application, including in russian society, not only contributes to building a future world in accordance with unesco's humanist goals, but also creates new opportunities for personal self-realization aimed at creating a social good. the most significant is the understanding that in the conditions of multiculturalism, overstepping borders, hybridity, but at the same time the individualization of modern society, the concept of "inclusion" actively expands the perception of itself in both horizontal and vertical ways of sociocultural interaction, overcoming the framework of understanding that inclusive approaches are aimed at incorporating people with disabilities into the educational process. we understand that the subject of inclusion is each person as a "goal in itself" (kant, 1994), as a carrier of unique personality traits that are of value to the social progress of all mankind. the changes that are taking place determine the importance of the search for the tools of inclusive culture, where understanding of the creative potential of the individual as a distinctive ability of the human species is actualized. it is obvious that the purposeful concern about the development of the creative abilities of the person, turned to co-creation, contributes to the harmonization of all social processes, returning the world's aspiration to the creation of the uniqueness of being as the main value of human existence. the inclusive approach to being creative reinforces the importance of individualizing a person's unique needs in the context of recognizing social responsibility for the creation of the social good, which is most relevant in the situation caused by the mass devaluation of traditional values and the alienation of a man. the analysis of the perceptions about the role of people with health deficits in the creation of social goods and the social significance of the products of their creativity allows us to speak about the stereotypes that are present in the society. the inclusive approach to this problem, based on the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 study of the creativity of people with disabilities through "retrospective and forward analysis" reveals their "limitless" opportunities for social realization. references abawi, l., & oliver, m. (2013). shared pedagogical understandings: schoolwide inclusion practices supporting learner needs. improving school, 16(2), 159-174. allman, d. (2013). the sociology of social inclusion. sage open. january-march. 1–16. alyokhina, s. v. (2016). inclusive education: from politics to practice. psychological science and education, 21(1), 137. alur, m., & hegarty, s. (eds.) (2002). education & children with special needs: from segregation to inclusion. us: thousand oaks: sage publications inc. anderson, d., averill, r., maro, p.t., taiwhati, m., & higgins, j. (2010). knowing each other as learners: māori students learning mathematics. delving into diversity: an international exploration of issues of diversity in education. pp. 45–56. nova science publishers, inc. new york. ano "center for socio-cultural animation “oduhotvorenie”. (2019). retrieved may 8, 2019, from http://oduhotvorenie.com/ astafyeva, o. n. (2015). modelling of intercultural dialogue space in cultural policy: opportunities and limits. global scientific potential important issues of history, psychology and sociology, 54(9), 49-58. astafyeva, o. n., belyakova, i. g., & sudakova, n. e. (2017). theoretical studies of mass culture as a self-developing system in the context of the tasks of russia’s cultural policy. eurasian journal of analytical chemistry, 12 (interdisciplinary perspective on sciences 7b), 1475-1481. belik, i. s. (2000). music against deafness: experience of individual music lessons with deaf children according to the music school program. moscow: vlados. chan, k., huxley, p. j., chiu, m. y.-l., evans, sh., & ma y. (2016). social inclusion and health conditions among chinese immigrants in hong kong and the united kingdom: an exploratory study. social indicators research. march, 126(2), 657–672. sudakova & astafyeva chan, k., huxley, p. j., chiu, m. y.-l., balwicki, l., & jussara carvalho dos santos j. (2019). identifying factors that predict the experience of social inclusion: a four country study. in: union for health promotion and education 2019 conference. convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. united nation. (2007). retrieved may 8, 2019, from https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/resources/generalassembly/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities-ares61106.html corbett, j. (1999). inclusive education and school culture. international journal of inclusive education, 3(1), 53-61. deleuze, g. (1997). essays critical and clinical. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. derrida, j. (2001). force and signification. writing and difference. n.y.: routledge classics. dessel, a. (2010). prejudice in schools: promotion of an inclusive culture and climate. education and urban society, 42(4),407429. dev, s. (2018). effects of procrastination behavior, stress tolerance and study habits on academic achievements of indian students residing in india (kerala) and uae. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 16-31. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/365 donaldson, t. (1996). values in tension: ethics away from home. harvard business review,74(5), 48-57. education 2030 incheon declaration and framework for action towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all (2015). retrieved may 1, 2019, from http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/multimedia/hq/ed/ed/pdf/ffa_complet_we w-eng.pdf education and psychology of inclusive education: educational manual (2013). d. s. akhmetova, e.l. yakovleva, s. g. nigmatov, t. a. chelnokova, i. g. morozova, v. s. gorynina, g. v. yusupova, g. f. shakirova, a. f. zainullin, n. a. paranına, edited by d. s. akhmetova. kazan: edıtıng house: "cognition". equality and social inclusion. government.no. (2019). retrieved may 1, 2019, from https://www.regjeringen.no/en/topics/equality-and-social-inclusion/id922/ equality of opportunitıes is a federal program aimed at building an inclusive society in russia. fishermen's foundation initiative. (2018). retrieved may 2, 2019, from https://www.ravniy.com/ http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/365 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 etherington, m. (2019). the challenge with educational transformation. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 96-112. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/33 european commission – statement. joint statement following the tripartite social summit. joseph muscat. (2017). retrieved may 10, 2019, from http://europa.eu/rapid/pressrelease_statement-17-502_en.htm ferguson, d. (2004). learning disability research: a discussion paper. learning disability practice, 7(6), 17-19. foucault, m. (2005). the hermeneutics of the subject lectures at the college de france, 19811982. palgrave macmillan publ. glennie, e. (2017). teach the world to listen. retrieved may 7, 2019, from https://www.evelyn.co.uk/mission-statement harari, y. n. (2017). the meaning of life in a world without work. technology/the guardian. retrieved may 9, 2019, from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/08/virtual-reality-religion-robotssapiens-book hinzen, h., & robak, s. (2017). inclusion and diversity: setting the agenda /adult education and development. inclusion and diversity, 84, 4-15. horby, h., & kidd, r. (2001). inclusion and the transition: transfer from special to mainstream–ten years later. british journal of special education, 28(1), 10-17. hoyles, c. (2010). creating an inclusive culture in mathematics through subject-specific teacher professional development: a case study from england. the journal of mathematics and culture, 5(1), pp. 43-61. human resources. 2016’s top trends in diversity and inclusion across asia (2016). retrieved may 1, 2019, from https://www.humanresourcesonline.net/2016s-top-trends-diversityinclusion-across-asia/ inclusive dance. international charity inclusive dance festival. (2013-2017). retrieved february 1, 2019, from http://inclusive-dance.ru/en/ in from the margins, part ii: reducing barriers to social inclusion and social cohesion. senate canada. (2013). retrieved may 1, 2019, from https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/411/soci/rep/rep26jun13-e.pdf http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/33 sudakova & astafyeva inge, w. r. christian mysticism. (1918). fellow and tutor of hertford college, oxford. (bampton lectures, 1899.) london: methuen & co. jacob, u.s., & olisaemeka, a.n. (2016). inclusive education in the 21st century: parameters and opportunities for learners with special needs. european scientific journal,12(10), 188196. jenkins к. (2016). amelioration and inclusion: gender identity and the concept of woman. ethics 126(2), 394. jhingran, s. (2001). ethical relativism and universalism. new delhi: motilal banarsidass publishers. johnson, c., & hinton, h. (2019). toward a brillant diversity. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 56-70. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/27 kant, i. (1994). prolegomena to any future metaphysics that will be able to come forward as science. collected works, 4. compositions. moscow: choro publishing house. kaur, j., & arora, b. (2014). inclusive education – an integrated approach. international journal of research in humanities, arts and literature, 2(2), 59-64. kazan action plan. the ministers meeting at the sixth international conference of ministers and senior officials responsible for physical education and sport (2017). retrieved may 1, 2019, from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000252725 köhler, g. (2009). policies toward social inclusion: a south asian perspective. global social policy, 9(1), 24–29. larjanko, j. (2017). i see you – do you? inclusion and diversity: setting the agenda. adult education and development: inclusion and diversity, 84, 3. liasidou, a. (2012a). inclusive education and critical pedagogy at the intersections of disability, race, gender and class. journal for critical education policy studies, 10 (1), 168–184. liasidou, a. (2012b). inclusive education, politics and policymaking. perspectives on inclusion: discourses, politics and educational practice. london: continuum. retrieved from https://media.bloomsbury.com/rep/files/9781441157393-_combined.pdf loreman, t., & deppler, j.m. (2001). working towards full inclusion in education in access. the national issues journal for people with a disability, 36(6),5-8. http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/27 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 maksimović, m., ostrouch-kamińska, j., popović, k., & bulajić, a. (2016). contemporary issues and perspectives on gender research in adult education. institute for pedagogy and andragogy, faculty of philosophy, university of belgrade, serbia. malofeev, n. n. (2018). from equal rights to equal opportunities, from special school to inclusion. izvestia rgpu named after a. i. herzen, 190, 8-15. melé, d., & sánchez-runde, c. (2013). cultural diversity and universal ethics in a global world. journal of business ethics, 116(4),681-687. miles, s., kaplan, i. (2005). using images to promote reflection: an action research study in zambia and tanzania. journal of research on special educational needs (in press), 5(2), 77–83. mitchell, d. (2005) introduction: sixteen propositions on the contexts of inclusive education. in d. mitchell. (ed), contextualizing inclusive education: evaluating old and new international perspectives. pp. 1–21. abingdon, oxfordshire: routledge. mujtaba, b. g. (2013). ethnic diversity, distrust and corruption in afghanistan: reflections on the creation of an inclusive culture. equality, diversity and inclusion: an international journal,32(3), 245-261. munck, r. (2009). social integration. global social policy, 9(1), 16–18. omodan, b. i. (2019). democratic pedagogy in south africa: a rethinking viewpoint for knowledge construction. journal of social studies education research, 10 (2), 188-203. ojala, t. (2017). software development 450 words per minute. retrieved may 1, 2019, from https://www.vincit.fi/en/blog/software-development-450-words-per-minute paoloni, p., lombardi, r. (2018). gender issues in business and economics: selections from the 2017 ipazia workshop on gender. springer, cham, january. patankar, p.s., & patil, s.p. (2016). inculcating universal human values through inclusive education: a study. the compass. special issue, 10(1), 2,80-86. retrieved april 29, 2019, from http://www.bahaiacademy.org/bahaiacademy/admincontent/file/bahai5858128591ab3.pdf pearson, s. (2001). «inclusion: a developmental perspective», in o'brien, t. (ed.). enabling inclusion: blue skies… dark clouds? pp. 143–157. london: the stationery office. pless, n. m., & maak, t. (2004). building an inclusive diversity culture: principles, processes and practice. journal of business ethics, 54(2), 129-147. sudakova & astafyeva policy guidelines on inclusion in education. unesco (2009). retrieved may 4, 2019, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0017/001778/177849e.pdf policy paper. the promotion of social inclusion. gov. uk. (2001). retrieved may 4, 2019, from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-promotion-of-social-inclusion. potter, d. (1994). potter on potter. in: g. fuller (ed.). london: faber and faber. ranieri, r., & ramos, r. a. (2013). inclusive growth: building up a concept. international policy centre for inclusive growth (ipc-ig). retrieved april 24, 2019, from http://www.ipc-undp.org/pub/ipcworkingpaper104.pdf.) rose, r., shevlin, m., winter, e., & o'raw, p. (2010). special and inclusive education in the republic of ireland: reviewing the literature from 2000 to 2009. european journal of special needs education, 25(4), 357-371. ruggie, j. (2013). just business: multinational corporations and human rights. london: ww norton & company. shemanov, a. ju. (2017). the importance of understanding culture for setting the problems of inclusion. in: s. v. alyokhina (ed.), inclusive education: continuity of inclusive culture and practice: a collection of materials of the iv international scientific and practical conference(pp.70-75). moscow: msppu. shemanov, a. ju. (2018). inclusion policy and ethnic identity in the context of the problem of openness to another. in: target guidelines of the state national policy: renewal of human resource and national cultures: the problem of the other. e.s. baksheev [and others]; by ed. o. k. rumyantseva, a. yu. shemanova. p. 161. spb.: aletheia. skorokhodova, o. i. (1972). how i perceive, represent and understand the world around me. moscow: pedagogika. social inclusion policy in ireland. department of employment affairs and social protection. (2018). retrieved april 16, 2019, from http://www.welfare.ie/en/pages/irish-socialinclusion-policy_holder.aspx social inclusion policy overview. moreton bay. regional council. (2013). retrieved april 20, 2019, from https://www.rdamoretonbay.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/socialinclusion-policy-cssr-document.pdf journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 sudakova, n. e. (2012). philosophy of inclusion: ways to the receiving society. in: music in the information space of the culture of the third millennium: problems, opinions, perspectives: col. art. is. vii (pp.160-164). moscow: rssu. sudakova, n. e., & sapelnikov, d. s., & popova, m. v. (2016). creativity in the context of cultural philosophical reflection and pedagogical modeling of the worldview personality: monograph. moscow: buki vedi. sudakova, n. e. (2018a). man in the age of inclusion. the birth of a co-sympathetic being: monograph. moscow: buki vedi. sudakova, n. e. (2018b). inclusion in the system of culture universals: the intrinsic value of another in the involved existence formation. human. society. inclusion. 3(35), 32-38. summary of the executive board on the renewal of the statutes of the unesco-madanjeet singh prize for the promotion of tolerance and non-violence (2013). paris. retrieved may 5, 2019, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002234/223458e.pdf supriyadi, t., julia j., & firdaus e. (2019). the problems of gender equality: a reconstruction of islamic doctrine. journal of social studies education research, 10 (2), 91-110. suvorov, a.v. (2018). the meeting of the universes, or the deaf blind aliens in the world of the sightless. moscow: eksmo. tan, m. (2014). gender diversity on boards. a business imperative. managing director, ernst & young advisory pte ltd chairperson, diversity task force regarding women on boards. retrieved may 1, 2019, from http://www.boardagender.org/files/genderdiversityon-boards-a-business-imperative_dtf.pdf tarman, b., & kuran, b. (2014). teachers' perceptions about the relationship between learning levels of values in citizenship and human rights course and the environment. gefad / gujgef 34(2), 293-319. the inclusive development index 2018 rankings. world economic forum. retrieved may 1, 2019, from https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-inclusive-development-index-2018 the law of the russian federation "on education"(2012). retrieved may 6, 2019, from http://zakon-ob-obrazovanii.ru/ the state program of the russian federation "affordable environment" for 2011-2015. retrieved may 6, 2019, from http://static.government.ru/media/files/6kkpqjtegr1bmijjyqi6gwqpaoc6omnc.pdf sudakova & astafyeva the tripartite social summit "the future of europe: charting a course for growth, employment and justice". (2017). retrieved may 1, 2019, from https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/23579/background-social-summit-en.pdf toropova, a.v. (2010). musical psychology and psychology of musical education. moscow: graf-press publ. trussler, s., & robinson, d. (2015). inclusive practice in the primary school: a guide for teachers. london: sage publications. unesco seeks nominations for the unesco-madanjeet singh prize for the promotion of tolerance and non-violence (2018). retrieved may 6, 2019, from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/singleview/news/unesco_seeks_nominations_for_the_unesco_madanjeet_singh_priz-3/ vendemiati, a. (2008). universalismo e relativismo nell’etica contemporanea. milano: marietti. vita, g. v. (2001). learning styles, culture and inclusive instruction in the multicultural classroom: a business and management perspective. innovations in education and teaching international, 38(2),165-174. white cane. the first world congress for persons with disabilities. (2017). retrieved may 2, 2019, from https://extrability.org/en/ winzer, m. a. (1993). from integration to in inclusion: a history of special education in the 20th century. washington: gallaudet university press. wolff, j. (2015). social equality and social inequality. in: social equality: on what it means to be equals, ed. fourie, carina, schuppert, fabian, and wallimann-helmer, ivo (oxford: oxford university press), 209–225. wolff, j. (2017). forms of differential social inclusion. social philosophy and policy. 34 (1), summer, 164–185. world economic forum. the inclusive development index 2018. retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-inclusive-development-index-2018 yakovleva, e. a. (2015). penetrating into the worlds of inclusion. kazan: poznanie publishing house of the institute of economics, management and law. yarskaya, v. n. (2016). principles of inclusive culture in working with young people: a comparative analysis of the youth policy of the russian federation and the republic of belarus. saratov: sgtu ed. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),212-235 yiğit, m. f., & tarman, b. (2016). how do different ethnicities approach to the education system and differences in turkey? italian sociological review, 6 (3), 339-353. yorulmaz, r. (2013). construction of a regional financial inclusion index in turkey. bddk bankacılık ve finansal piyasalar. cilt:7, say:1, 79-101. retrieved may 8, 2019, from http://www.bddk.org.tr/contentbddk/bddkdergi/dergi_0013_06.pdf yorulmaz, r. (2018). an analysis of constructing global financial inclusion indices. borsa istanbul review, 18(3), 248-258. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2023:14 (2), 1-20 evaporative economics: a truth-telling metaphor to displace the trickle-down lie that just won’t die cory wright-maley1, delandrea hall2 & shakealia y. finley3 abstract trickle-down economics is a fallacious metaphor that hurts working people and the civic commons. in this paper, we discuss the role and impact metaphors have in economics education. we explore the stickiness of “truthy” but ultimately false metaphors and offer economics educators alternative metaphors to displace this problematic metaphorical language. in its place, we propose a restorying of this fiction to tell a more truthful story in economics classrooms using the dual metaphors of evaporative economics and economic desertification. we end by identifying the limitations of metaphorical language in teaching complex economic concepts, even while we recognize the power of these tools to elicit engagement in and with economics content that has real and lasting impacts on individuals and communities. keywords: critical economics education, metaphor, economic language, trickle-down economics, supply-side economics. introduction the use of metaphor in economics is ubiquitous (adams, 2021; adams & koch, 2020; goatly, 2007; mccloskey, 1983, 1990, 1998). some of these metaphorical uses may be innocuous or insidious—like referring to the economy as a machine, whether well-oiled or otherwise (e.g., borders, 2011); others can be beneficial for illustrating how economic ideas work, such as the doughnut metaphor of sustainable development (see raworth, 2017), and some thoughtprovoking, like neil shanks’ (2022) use of the term crash. still, metaphors can also be deleterious to our understanding of economic principles, actively insulating the powerful from making concessions that would contribute to the making of a more just economy. commonly, we hear metaphorical language like the rising tide lifts all boats, pull yourself up by the bootstraps, and wealth trickles down. each of these metaphors evokes imagery that justifies the use of economic 1 associate professor, st. mary’s university, canada, cory.wrightmaley@stmu.ca 2 assistant professor, georgia southern university, usa, dhall@georgiasouthern.edu 3 graduate assistant and phd. student, north carolina state university, usa, syfinley@ncsu.edu mailto:cory.wrightmaley@stmu.ca mailto:dhall@georgiasouthern.edu mailto:syfinley@ncsu.edu journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 policy to shelter the rich from those that would target help toward those who are otherwise just expected to pull themselves up regardless of whatever privations they may be experiencing. these metaphors, ubiquitous in american life, are meaning-making tools in the service of the powerful (goatly, 2007). they serve as rhetorical devices used to convince their audience of a particular economic narrative (adams, 2021), especially construing the rich and powerful as job creators and engineers of healthy economies while often underpaid, exploited, and underemployed workers are viewed as takers, as drags against the same economy. the problem is not the use of metaphor, per se, but rather that these metaphors paint a compelling picture of economic life that is empirically false (see hope & limberg, 2020; krugman, 1994; picketty, 2018; saez, 2018; stiglitz, 2015a). this is to say, such metaphorical language, used in the service of the powerful, often resembles the peddling of snake oil for self-interested ends (mccloskey, 1990). truthiness and the use of economic language the metaphors described above make up just some of the metaphorical language used to justify supply-side economics—more colloquially known as trickle-down economics. adversaries derisively gave supply-side economics this name because its proponents suggested that tax cuts for “job creators” would create prosperity that trickles down to others in the form of economic growth. this claim, once a point of debate among economists, is now known to be empirically false (hope & limberg, 2020). yet, trickle-down economics remains widely embraced by policymakers and economists to the right of the political center. the earnest belief of some advocates in trickle-down tax policy has ignored current and historical evidence in favor of what is referred to colloquially as truthiness. truthiness is defined in the oxford english dictionary as “the quality of seeming or being felt to be true, even if not necessarily true;” it is the lexicographic creation of stephen colbert during his tenure on the colbert report (see oupblog, 2010). this term has come to describe axiomatic ideas, those that seem true on their face or even make intuitive sense but are neither required to be true nor are they necessarily subject to public scrutiny or skepticism (e.g., tax cuts for the wealthy leading to job creation). because of its truthy nature, ideologues continue to breathe life into trickle-down ideology. or, as paul krugman (2017) put it, “supply-side economics is a classic example of a zombie doctrine: a view that should have been killed by the evidence long ago, but just keeps shambling along, eating politicians’ brains” (para. wright-maley et al. 3 12). in the next section we contradict the critique that supply-side policies are expanding economic freedom. what about economic freedom? supply-side economics often uses the framing of economic freedom to justify the implementation of trickle-down policies. we do not take issue with the concept of economic freedom, per se, although we acknowledge that critics may construe our work this way. indeed, economic freedom is associated with a range of socially beneficial impacts that contribute to the life satisfaction of individuals (graafland, 2020). we should not, however, be content to believe that unfettered capitalism has brought about these benefits; research into global economic history and extreme poverty reveals quite a different story (sullivan & hickel, 2023). on the contrary, in economically unequal societies, whether those belonging to the period of colonial subjugation or in an era governed by supply-side economics, these benefits are inequitably enjoyed and scarce for most people living within them (stiglitz, 2015b; piketty, 2021). further, they have led to slowing overall growth rates with more frequent fits of economic instability— which disproportionately hurt working people—in contrast to more equitable periods4 (onaran, 2016; piketty, 2018). thus, it is essential to call into question the framing of economic freedom, specifically naming who is freed or constrained within the systems of inequality. this is an essential distinction insofar as we contend that supply-side economics prioritizes the freedom of those who already maintain access to the instruments of economic power—the wealthy—while further burdening communities and individuals who lack such access. in the following section, we use economic data to illustrate the extent to which supply-side economic policies have unevenly distributed economic growth and economic freedom. the trickle-down tragedy of supply-side economics the implementation of supply-side economic policies has had an outsized impact on the economic well-being of working people. although overall economic growth has continued apace, the wealthy, not working people have benefited disproportionately. between 1989-2019 u.s. households observed negligible increases in real wages and wealth (reich, 2022). between 1980 4 although the variegated forms of discrimination in different societies including race, sex, gender, etc. that have systematically blocked the advancement of people, and have thus made economic fairness a fictitious and disingenuous aim in practice. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 and 2014, the wealthiest 1% saw their average real income increase by 169% compared to only 11% for the median household, with lower socioeconomic households experiencing real declines that continue today (stiglitz, 2015a). according to the u.s. census bureau, the bottom 10% of households were experiencing significant declines in income relative to the rest of the american public. in 2021 alone, they suffered a 4.4% decline in real income (semega & koller, 2022). most working people’s income growth from 1980 to the present occurred during the 1980s before many supply-side policies began to impact real incomes (stiglitz, 2015a). according to the congressional budget office’s 2022 report, the growth of real wealth over the past three decades was not uniform: family wealth increased more in the top half of the distribution than in the bottom half. families in the top 10 percent and the top 1 percent of the distribution, in particular, saw their share of total wealth rise over the period. in 2019, families in the top 10 percent of the distribution held 72 percent of total wealth, and families in the top 1 percent of the distribution held more than one-third; families in the bottom half of the distribution held only 2 percent of total wealth (karamcheva, 2022, para. 3). by the time the covid-19 pandemic arrived, income inequality had reached its highest level in 50 years (u.s. census, 2019). one measure of inequality is called the gini index. this coefficient, which scales income inequality between scores of 0 (perfect equality) and 1 (perfect inequality), grew from 0.430-0.494 between 1989-2021 (statistica, n.d.). remarkably, before the implementation of supply-side policies in the early 1980s, inequality had declined consistently since the late 1920s (roser & ortiz-ospina, 2016). even if we ignore the moral justifications advocating for greater economic equity, it is impossible to ignore that supply-side economics erodes the economic foundations the nation depends upon to grow the economy. in addition to the widening of economic inequality, the results of trickle-down tax policies include but are not limited to, the slowing of economic growth, underinvestment in public goods, asset bubbles, and economic instability (see onaran, 2016; piketty, 2018; stiglitz, 2015a). although thomas piketty’s (2018) work provides a clear picture of the impact economic inequality has on hastening a nation’s economic decline, mehmet destek and bilge koksel (2019) found a predictive link between high-income inequality and boom-bust crises—including the 1929 and 2007 market implosions in the united states—in countries whose policies facilitate “minimum income-redistribution and regulatory policies in the labor market” (p. 23). these boom-bust cycles wright-maley et al. 5 further exacerbate wealth inequality (see chancellor, 2018; sharma, 2021) and thus further destabilize the economies in which they happen. in many ways, these impacts are not news; they have been well documented. however, efforts to talk back to the dominant economic metaphor of our time have yet to successfully counter the trickle-down narrative. in the next section, we discuss how others have attempted to push back against trickle-down economics through metaphor and the limits of their effectiveness. talking back to trickle-down the metaphorical language of supply-side economics is not without its sources of resistance. recently, bridgitte nerlich (2022) documented social media critiques of the policy recommendations of the short-lived truss government in the uk. in her post, she refers to john kenneth galbraith’s use of metaphor to describe trickle-down economics as akin to overfeeding a horse so that there would be oats enough left in its droppings to feed the sparrows. alternatively, india stronach (2017) used the wine glass pyramid as a metaphor: “the wine glass on top fills, and fills, and fills, and only when the rich have had their absolute fill—so much that they can’t take another drop, do the poor get a splash of success” (para. 5). humorously, some metaphorical rejoinders have emerged on social media, such as the viral dungeons & dragons-themed tweet: dm [dungeon master]: “the dragon rests on a hoard of gold.” pc [player character]: “we gather the town’s wealth and add it in. the dragon will surely create jobs now.” (ehlers, 2017). although these are effective critiques, they do not offer a compelling metaphorical replacement that might displace trickle-down as the predominant metaphor. eric liu and nick hanauer (2022), however, attempted to offer a more robust alternative—a gardening metaphor—to the trickle-down metaphor: a well-designed tax system — in which everyone contributes and benefits — ensures that nutrients are circulated widely to fertilize and foster growth. reducing taxes on the very wealthiest on the idea that they are “job creators” is folly. jobs are the consequence of an organic feedback loop between consumers and businesses, and it’s the demand from a thriving middle class that truly creates jobs. the problem with today’s severe concentration of wealth, then, isn’t that it’s unfair, though it might be; it’s that it kills middle-class demand. lasting growth doesn’t trickle down; it emerges from the middle out (para. 10). journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 their effort to offer a different metaphorical stance to trickle-down economics is compelling. however, we view the replacement as having two fatal weaknesses. first, it is primarily a metaphor for a healthy, functioning economy and only secondarily about the mechanisms of wealth distribution. their garden metaphor contradicts a metaphor in which the economy is viewed as a machine. additionally, their metaphor attempts to address the trickle-down metaphor by proxy, moving it to another playing field (the economy as a garden vs. machine) rather than undermining the quality of the original metaphor within the same domain (the distribution of wealth as part of a water cycle). in this paper, we propose a metaphor that focuses on the (un)natural course of wealth distribution, which does so within the same metaphorical domain. economic language and the shaping of public discourse the role of truthiness should not be underestimated in teaching economics, particularly given the use of metaphorical language throughout the discipline to make complex ideas simpler to understand. the public has limited economic knowledge, which hinders their ability to participate meaningfully in policy discussions that impact them (rogers & westheimer, 2017). because of their limited understanding of economic issues, citizens rely on those who communicate economic ideas in simplified, and unfortunately often jingoistic, ways. (earle, moran, & ward-perkins, 2016). it does not help that the economic education students receive rarely provides them with opportunities to think critically about how economic concepts are communicated (de muijnck & tieleman, 2022). economic educators have pointed out that economics is taught in ways that emphasize “technical neoclassical, and positivist approach[es]” (sober, 2017, p. 81; see also shanks, 2018; adams, 2022), and to “think about economists and economics as a value-neutral, non-rhetorical discipline,” (adams, 2021, p. 216), a notion reinforced by economics curricula and textbooks (see delgado, 2022). such thinking and teaching continue to promote learning about economics that negates the intersectional experiences of economic dispossession in favor of the status quo that disproportionately benefits rich white men (de muijnck & tieleman, 2022; dill & zambrana, 2009). this typical approach to economics education is the ideological and mythological milieu into which students and teachers are thrust. this approach profoundly influences how adults in society consider—or fail to consider—economic issues. economist paul samuelson (1990) famously wrote: “i don’t care who writes a nation’s laws – or crafts its advanced treaties – if i can write its wright-maley et al. 7 economics textbooks” (p. ix). schools are institutions devised to prepare children for their role as productive members of a capitalist society (bowles & gintis, 1976/2011). thus, the teaching of economics centered on a dominant ideology that emphasizes a narrow bandwidth of human concern in which “the economic market is that natural state of affairs for human life” (nichols, 2017, p. 25) is troublesome; it shapes our “notions of how best to be a human being” (donald, 2019, p. 113), which is today governed by the concerns of the rich and powerful. economically literate citizens prepared to understand economics critically would be better positioned to recognize the differences between policies and sloganeering. many social studies teachers, however, are not sufficiently prepared nor appropriately armed with a rich understanding of economics to either teach diverse economics viewpoints or challenge the official—and exclusively neoclassical—economics curriculum (adams, 2019, 2021; ayers, 2016). suffice it to say that teachers are susceptible to uncritically passing these highly problematic and erroneous precepts on to their students (miller, 1993). thus, changing the ideological landscape, the economics training of preservice and in-service teachers, and revising the official curricula are all monumental albeit worthy challenges; it may be helpful for economics educators to make more modest changes by reimagining the metaphors we use in the meantime. here we begin by offering that we can displace trickle-down economics with a more truthful metaphor: evaporative economics. we argue that by utilizing this new metaphor, teachers offer a more truthful account/reckoning/narrative about how an economic policy maintains power and economically dispossesses communities and citizens. this is not a passive pedagogical act because economics is not a passive endeavor. the role of metaphors in economics communication the common-sense perspective regarding metaphors is that they are literary devices used to add contours to the imaginative consumption of literature in ways that both engage readers and solidify their comprehension of the author’s intended meanings. on the contrary, scholars point out that metaphorical language is ubiquitous in the construction of meaning across all domains of communication (goatly, 1997). economics is no exception (mccloskey, 1998). erin adams and kelly koch (2020) drew upon deirdre mccloskey’s (1983, 1998) works on economic metaphors to point out that “economists rely heavily on metaphors to make their arguments,” so much so that journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 they may not even recognize their uses are metaphorical; and because “they are repeated so often, they become real” (para. 7). mccloskey (1990) argued that because economists tend to think of themselves as mathematicians and social scientists, they discount how much of the explication of their ideas is rooted in storytelling, making heavy use of metaphor and story in addition to fact and logic. unfortunately, so much of this storytelling is viewed by economists as simply a telling of facts and logic that eschews a story or metaphor. because “they do not know they are telling stories and therefore cannot distinguish good stories from bad” they may end up perpetuating “economic snake oil” that can be harmful even while they may make the recipients of the story feel better (p. 3). social studies teachers, like economists, utilize storytelling to engage their students (see shuyi, 2017). these stories range from moral, personal, provocative, and analytical and are meant to promote empathy, ethics, analysis, and critical thinking (shuyi, 2017). shanks (2017) demonstrated the power of storytelling to humanize economics in k-12 spaces by using personal narrative experiences to critique structural systems of power. thus, we must rethink our stories to provide a more accurate depiction of what happens when policies work only to benefit a small few. metaphors serve as an organizing narrative structure through which we construct our economic realities. in the following section, we reveal the provenance of the trickle-down economics narrative. the evolution of a bad idea the tenets of supply-side economics were incorporated to reduce taxation and promote free trade and deregulation. proponents of this theory believed that its implementation would reduce inflation and increase investment by wealthy individuals and corporations, thus driving economic growth that would trickle down to middleand working-class people (stevens, 1980). the trickle-down moniker, however, was born of a literal joke. legendary satirist, will rogers (1932), wrote critically of president herbert hoover’s economic policies following franklin delano roosevelt’s first election victory. he opined that: this election was lost four and six years ago, not this year. they [republicans] didn’t start thinking of the old common fellow…. the money was all appropriated for the top in the hopes that it would trickle down to the needy. mr. hoover was an engineer. he knew that wright-maley et al. 9 water trickles down. put it uphill and let it go and it will reach the driest little spot. but he didn’t know that money trickled up (p. 4). sadly, the punchline seems lost on modern proponents of trickle-down economics who have implemented the policies associated with this theory based on their conviction—earnest or otherwise—that cutting taxes for wealthy individuals and corporations would create a trickling down of wealth that would result in an economic tide to lift all boats. trickle-down ideology gained popularity in the 1970s, largely thanks to economist arthur laffer’s erroneous conjecture that cutting taxes would result in no net loss in tax revenue (see rattner, 2019). championed by george gilder (crittenden, 1981), supply-side economics was embraced and incorporated into policy in the united states, britain, and canada in the 1980s by the regan, thatcher, and mulroney administrations, respectively, and in other nations subsequently. increasingly viewed by economists as the economic equivalent of snake oil, these policies have led to explosive inequality and declining public investment, social immobility, and economic bubbles that disproportionately benefit the rich and burden the poor and middle classes when they pop (see krugman 1994; piketty, 2018; saez, 2018; stiglitz, 2015). in his book capital and ideology, thomas piketty (2021) described how the reforms of the reagan administration, meant to boost growth and economic productivity, have led to no meaningful growth in income for the bottom fifty percent of americans—more than 165 million people—in the nearly 40 years since they were implemented. in short, supply-side ideology has been devastating for most people under regimes who have adopted its policies; the focus on cutting taxes for the rich and corporations is not only inequitable but is demonstrably destabilizing for society (piketty, 2018). nevertheless, despite its repeated empirical repudiations, this destructive policy prescription remains a popular doctrine among most right-of-center politicians and many of their supporters (see lichtblau, 2019). why do these policies continue to be popular among a significant segment of the population? philosopher carl schmitt (1932) articulated that the same arrangement of american capitalism disparaged by rogers (1932) could be described as a demagogic plutocracy. a governing principle that benefited the wealthy while appealing to the worst instincts of those hoping wealth would come their way. the notional ideal of the american dream, in which any hardworking person can make it, and its counterpart that poverty results from a lack of effort on the part of the economically disadvantaged—and therefore deserved—is but one such example. the gospels of wealth have reinforced this belief—whether carnegie’s (1906) or those propounded by modern evangelist journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 christianity (see dubisch, 1987)—that wealth is accrued to those who are worthy, whether by the qualities of their hard work and ingenuity (mcnamee & miller, 2009) or their piety and cultivation god’s favor (gutterman, 2010). that people in capitalist societies worship the rich and fantasize about becoming one of them is neither new nor uniquely american. adam smith (2010 [1759]) discussed this tendency explicitly in his theory of moral sentiments at the very dawn of the capitalist age. conveniently, any economic insights drawn from smith’s works tend to ignore his strikingly communitarian—and if it were not anachronistic to say so—even socialist—tendencies to advocate for the development of institutions and laws to helped to ensure the moral imperatives of society were upheld (see wight, 2007). nevertheless, the ideologically ingrained tendency among americans to laud the rich and spurn the poor has enabled supporters of supply-side economics and its bedfellow neoliberalism—an ideology that holds that the primacy of economic liberty and free market logic is an unalloyed good in all domains of life—to capitalize on this division of interests which uphold anti-taxation policies that benefit the wealthy at the expense of the rest of society (lichtblau, 2019). why, after all, would you want the rich and powerful to be taxed more heavily if you aspire to be one of them? an alternative set of metaphors in this section, we play with the metaphor of water to offer a series of metaphors that more helpfully and truthfully illustrate how supply-side—or trickle-down economics—undermines the economic well-being of the commons. evaporative economics some observers have discussed how the actual impacts of supply-side economics more accurately resemble a trickling-up of economic wealth in which the rich slowly (or not so slowly) accrue ever greater wealth upon the backs of increasingly squeezed middle and working classes (e.g., putland, n.d.; seip & harper, 2016). this description is fitting insofar as this moniker calls back to rogers’ (1932) commentary: “but [hoover] didn’t know that money trickled up” (p. 4). at the same time, it fails to accurately describe an exploitative system in which wealth moves both upwards from below, away from individuals as well as the public coffers and into the hands of wealthy wright-maley et al. 11 individuals and corporations, and away from the communities and countries in which the wealth was created. within a supply-side economy—which has reduced the tax rates of wealthy individuals and corporations sizeably—once wealth has been created within and across geographies and demographies, it ceases to be available for redistribution to the working and middle classes or commons. on the contrary, wealth is carried away to be showered onto offshore tax havens or economies sited either on far distant shores or into communities with no connection to the one in which the wealth originated. regardless, that wealth ends far removed from those who helped to create it and who might hope to benefit from its creation. to add insult to injury, localities must compensate for the diminution of tax revenue by reducing social services, education, health care, transportation, and other public goods, thereby further burdening the working and middle classes, who are increasingly asked to pay more for fewer services. this process cannot but lay economic waste to local, state, and federal jurisdictions where people live and work. thus, wealth does not trickle up so much as it evaporates. the term evaporative economics more accurately describes how personal and social wealth moves upwards away from lower socioeconomic classes and the commons. in other words, the money we are told will trickle down through the redistributed wealth at the top never makes back down. wealth appears to evaporate to those at the bottom of the economic strata, as if into thin air, never (seeming) to have existed in the first place. in the lived experiences of those who reside in these communities, the wealth does, in effect, disappear from the local commons in a henceforth inaccessible way. economic desertification once evaporated and moved offshore or into other communities or countries, the evaporated wealth is unlikely to return. the effect of this ongoing process is nothing less than a process of economic desertification of the commons from which its riches have been evaporated. to live in these desert commons is to suffer many other burdens. wilkinson and pickett (2010) found in their extensive analysis of international data that unequal societies were much more likely to share the following problems, all of which intensified as inequality increased: ● worsening health outcomes (leading to higher healthcare costs), including higher infant mortality, higher incidences of mental illness, higher rates of obesity, and lower overall life-expectancy journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 ● decreased child well-being ● increased rates of imprisonment ● lower levels of trust in social institutions ● higher rates of drug use (and subsequent drug-related deaths) ● higher rates of teen pregnancy ● higher rates of murder and other social violence ● higher rates of childhood conflict (i.e., bullying, fighting, etc.) ● lower educational test scores these afflictions are disproportionately suffered by those least equipped to avoid or escape them. wilkinson and pickett’s (2010) analysis further revealed that these ills are at once individual and social. damningly, they are all likely preventable by economic policy interventions. it is essential to recognize that they found it did not matter what the average wealth of a country was but rather how pronounced the inequality was within any single country. you are better off (concerning these measures) being poor in a poor but more equal society than being poor in a prosperous and unequal society because of the near-universal phenomenon of social comparison to those we view as peers, other citizens of your country (gugushvili, 2021). a community drained of its economic wealth over time is much like an aquifer that has been drawn too heavily from. it becomes more difficult and costly to draw from its reserves until it can no longer support the community that depends upon it. we do not believe it to be hyperbolic to suggest that when the wells run dry, whether literally or metaphorically, communities begin to fall apart as city councils are forced to cut funding for education, social programs, transportation, parks, as well as basic infrastructure like water treatment, refuse, and roads—those who can afford to leave these communities often do so and avoid moving into crumbling metros and suburbs. without pouring wealth back into these communities, their prognoses for being or becoming thriving communities are bleak. an economic model predicated upon evaporating wealth away from working communities will not turn them around. the reality is that trickle-down economics is a lie in the service of the rich and powerful whose interests are elided. indeed, they are often the same people. so long as politicians are permitted to sell this lie as the “cure for what ails you,” our societies will continue to permit the rich and powerful to suck our communities dry (mccloskey, 1990, p.3). wright-maley et al. 13 limitations we recognize there are limits to the evaporative and desertification metaphors to describe discourse about economics. evaporation and desertification are natural processes. undisturbed, both processes result in a cyclical renewal of an environment. we assert that within historically marginalized communities, these processes that would otherwise result in cyclical renewal are instead depleted of resources by intentional economic policies. intentional economic actors divert those resources and prevent them from being rained back down upon the communities from which they were evaporated. given the limitations that metaphorical language poses for revealing or obfuscating the truth, we wish to be clear that our use of evaporation and desertification metaphors represent more accurate descriptions of the outcomes of bad faith economic actions. so, we offer again here a truth-telling metaphor that seeks to move us forward in the conversation about how we discuss the plunder of economically marginalized communities and the process by which economically vibrant communities come under threat from intentional policies coupled with metaphorical misdirection. using these metaphors as a two-dimensional entry point toward an engagement with a threedimensional problem so that we can move away from distortion and closer to reality. critical economics scholars and practitioners must continue to unpack the language we and others use to describe and depict complex economic phenomena. we must continue to see it, walk around it, and engage with it. conclusion three decades ago, raymond c. miller (1993) wrote, “we need to stop teaching economics in its present form! we need to recognize that the world has never worked as the pure market model says, nor should it” (p. 46). nevertheless, until we recognize the stickiness of truthy economic metaphors, we will likely struggle to change how students, teachers, and the broader public think about economic policies and their impacts on people’s daily lives. the challenge remains that some teachers may struggle to believe they can confront trickle-down economics, as we have articulated here, because it has become a sacrosanct policy of the political right. doing so could appear to them to be expressly biased. although we sympathize with the impulse to remain politically neutral, neutrality, in this case, means embracing an established lie. instead, we would journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 encourage economics educators to follow the data and to use it with their students to test and critique these metaphors, trickle-down, evaporative, and economic desertification alike. utilizing evaporative economics and economic desertification as metaphors offers a reorienting visualization that can help teachers to dismantle the false narrative created using metaphors like trickle-down economics and enables teachers to reveal the true nature of extractive economic policies. once this analytical metaphor is offered to students, teachers can more reasonably ask students to examine how trickle-down economics paints a mythical picture of the effects of supplyside economic policies. displacing this false metaphorical language with a more truthful one using evaporative economics and economic desertification may enable students to engage with a conceptual framing that allows them to evaluate the intersecting consequences of supply-side policies more effectively as they are made manifest in the lived realities of people and communities. further, students may be better able to speak back to truthy, but ultimately false, economic constructs in a visually evocative manner that sticks. to be sure, rebranding a metaphor is unlikely to fundamentally alter the landscape of economic ideology in the absence of other changes. nevertheless, words matter. they matter in communicating about and advocating for policies that can reshape that landscape. we hope that by offering this metaphor, even with its limitations, economics educators may be encouraged to engage bravely in truth-telling in economic teaching and learning spaces, will recognize the role language plays in telling this economic story, and help their students to navigate beyond the economic talking points that justify the worst impulses of a certain kind of capitalism toward a more fulsome and honest economic discourse. to that end, we have that economic metaphors are common and that they can occlude or reveal the truth. it is time to kill trickle-down once and for all. it is time to replace a truthy claim with a more truthful illustration of the realities of an outmoded and dishonest economic ideology. wright-maley et al. 15 references adams, e. c. (2022). seeking new stories: introduction to the special issue on rethinking economics after the crash. annals of social studies education research for teachers, 3(1), 1-6. doi: 10.29173/assert53 adams, e. c. (2021). economics is what economists do: an inquiry into an open letter. social education, 85(4), 216-222. retrieved from https://www.socialstudies.org/socialeducation/85/4/economics-what-economists-do-inquiry-openletter?nocache=true&check_logged_in=1 adams, e. c. (2019). economics and the civic mission of social studies education: two critiques of neoclassicism. citizenship, social and economics education, 18(1), 16-32. doi: 10.1177/2047173419841915 adams, e. c., & koch, k. (2020, november 3). unpacking human capital narratives in social studies and society. erin on econ. retrieved october 1, 2022, from https://erinonecon.net/2020/11/03/unpacking-human-capital-narratives-in-social-studiesand-society/ akinci, m. (2018). inequality and economic growth: trickle‐down effect revisited. development policy review, 36(s1), o1–o24. doi: 10.1111/dpr.12214 ayers, c. a. (2016). developing preservice and inservice teachers' pedagogical content knowledge in economics. social studies research & practice, 11(1), 73-92. doi: 10.1108/ssrp-01-2016-b0005 borders, m. (2011, august 1). the economy: metaphors we (shouldn’t) live by. library of economics and liberty. retrieved october 1, 2022, from https://www.econlib.org/library/columns/y2011/borderseconomy.html bowles, s., & gintis, h. (2011). schooling in capitalist america: educational reform and the contradictions of economic life. haymarket books [original 1976]. carnegie, a. (1906). the gospel of wealth. the north american review, 183(599), 526-537. retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/i25105633 chancellor, e. (2018, september 13). the lives of the wealthy were enriched most after lehman’s bust. new york times. retrieved september 29, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/13/business/dealbook/lehman-wealth-inequality.html crittenden, a. (1981, april 26). george gilder’s hymn to getting rich. new york times. retrieved february 3, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/26/business/george-gilder-shymn-to-getting-rich.html https://doi.org/10.29173/assert53 https://www.socialstudies.org/social-education/85/4/economics-what-economists-do-inquiry-open-letter?nocache=true&check_logged_in=1 https://www.socialstudies.org/social-education/85/4/economics-what-economists-do-inquiry-open-letter?nocache=true&check_logged_in=1 https://www.socialstudies.org/social-education/85/4/economics-what-economists-do-inquiry-open-letter?nocache=true&check_logged_in=1 https://doi.org/10.1177/2047173419841915 https://erinonecon.net/2020/11/03/unpacking-human-capital-narratives-in-social-studies-and-society/ https://erinonecon.net/2020/11/03/unpacking-human-capital-narratives-in-social-studies-and-society/ https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12214 https://doi.org/10.1108/ssrp-01-2016-b0005 https://www.econlib.org/library/columns/y2011/borderseconomy.html https://www.jstor.org/stable/i25105633 https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/13/business/dealbook/lehman-wealth-inequality.html https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/26/business/george-gilder-s-hymn-to-getting-rich.html https://www.nytimes.com/1981/04/26/business/george-gilder-s-hymn-to-getting-rich.html journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 de muijnck, s., & tieleman, j. (2022). economy studies: a guide to rethinking economics education. amsterdam university press. delgado, s. (2022). students struggle toward curriculum change in economics education. annals of social studies education research for teachers (assert), 3(1), 22-30. doi: 10.29173/assert40 destek, m. a., & koksel, b. (2019). income inequality and financial crises: evidence from the bootstrap rolling window. financial innovation, 5(21), 1-23. doi: 10.1186/s40854-0190136-2 dill, b. t. & zambrana, r. e. (2009). emerging intersections: race, class, and gender in theory, policy, and practice. rutgers university press. dubisch, j. (1987). blessed are the rich: the new gospel of wealth in contemporary evangelism. in m. fishwick & r. b. browne. (eds.), the god pumpers: religion in the electronic age (pp. 33-45). bowling green state university popular press. donald, d. (2019). homo economicus and forgetful curriculum. h. tomlins-jahnke, s. styres, s. lilley, & d. zinga. (eds.), indigenous education: new directions in theory and practice (pp. 103-125). university of alberta press. dyck, j. h., rowe, p. s., & zimmermann, j. (eds.), (2010). politics and the religious imagination. routledge. earle, j., moran, c., & ward-perkins, z. (2016). the econocracy: the perils of leaving economics to the experts. manchester university press. ehlers, n. [@existentialnick] (2017, march 17). dm: “the dragon rests on a hoard of gold.” pc: “we gather the town’s wealth and add it in [tweet]. twitter. retrieved april 5, 2023 https://twitter.com/existentialnick/status/842842012722388994 gilder, g. (1981). wealth and poverty. basic books. glass, m. (2019). the return of deregulation and trickle-down economics in the age of trump: why the efficient market hypothesis refuses to die and the implications for us economic policy at large. john marshall global markets law journal, 5(summer), 1-26. goatly, a. (1997). the language of metaphors. routledge. goatly, a. (2007). metaphor and ideology. ilha do desterro: a journal of english language, literatures in english and cultural studies, (53), 63-94. retrieved from https://periodicos.ufsc.br/index.php/desterro/article/view/13485 https://doi.org/10.29173/assert40 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40854-019-0136-2 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40854-019-0136-2 https://twitter.com/existentialnick/status/842842012722388994 https://periodicos.ufsc.br/index.php/desterro/article/view/13485 wright-maley et al. 17 graafland, j. (2020). when does economic freedom promote well being? on the moderating role of long-term orientation. social indicators research, 149(1), 127-153. doi: 10.1007/s11205-019-02230-9 gugushvili, a. (2021). which socio-economic comparison groups do individuals choose and why? european societies, 23(4), 437-463. doi: 10.1080/14616696.2020.1793214 gutterman, d. (2010). narrating desire: the gospel of wealth in christian america. in j. h. a. dyck, p. s. rowe, p.s. and j. zimmermann. (2010). politics and the religious imagination, (pp. 82-99). routledge. hope, d., & limberg, j. (2022). the economic consequences of major tax cuts for the rich. socioeconomic review, 20(2), 539-559. hope, d., & limberg, j. (2020). the economic consequences of major tax cuts for the rich. international inequalities institute working papers, 55. london school of economics and political science. retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/ser/article/20/2/539/6500315 karamcheva, n. (2022, september). trends in the distribution of family wealth, 19892019.congressional budget office. retrieved april 7, 2023 https://www.cbo.gov/publication/58533#:~:text=the%20share%20of%20total%20wealth,t he%20same%20period%2c%20cbo%20estimates. krugman, p. r.. (1994). peddling prosperity: economic sense and nonsense in the age of diminished expectations. ww norton & company. krugman, p. (2017, april 24). zombies of voodoo economics. new york times. retrieved february 4, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/24/opinion/zombies-of-voodooeconomics.html lichtblau, m. (2019, november 15). the fallacy and persistence of ‘trickle-down economics.’. brown political review. retrieved february 5, 2022, from https://brownpoliticalreview.org/2019/11/the-fallacy-and-persistence-of-trickle-downeconomics/ liu, e. & hanauer, n. (2012, july 10). the machine and the garden. new york times. retrieved april 6, 2023. from https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/11/opinion/our-gardenbraineconomy.html?_r=0 mcnamee, s. j., & miller, r. k. (2009). the meritocracy myth. rowman & littlefield. miller, r. c. (1993). in order to save the world for human habitation, we must stop teaching economics! theory & research in social education, 21(1), 25-48. doi: 10.1080/00933104.1993.10505689 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-019-02230-9 https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1793214 https://academic.oup.com/ser/article/20/2/539/6500315 https://www.cbo.gov/publication/58533#:~:text=the%20share%20of%20total%20wealth,the%20same%20period%2c%20cbo%20estimates https://www.cbo.gov/publication/58533#:~:text=the%20share%20of%20total%20wealth,the%20same%20period%2c%20cbo%20estimates https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/24/opinion/zombies-of-voodoo-economics.html https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/24/opinion/zombies-of-voodoo-economics.html https://brownpoliticalreview.org/2019/11/the-fallacy-and-persistence-of-trickle-down-economics/ https://brownpoliticalreview.org/2019/11/the-fallacy-and-persistence-of-trickle-down-economics/ https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/11/opinion/our-gardenbrain-economy.html?_r=0 https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/11/opinion/our-gardenbrain-economy.html?_r=0 https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.1993.10505689 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 mccloskey, d. n. (1983). the rhetoric of economics. journal of economic literature, 21(2), 481–517. retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2724987 mccloskey, d. n. (1990). if you're so smart: the narrative of economic expertise. university of chicago press. mccloskey, d. n. (1998). the rhetoric of economics. univ of wisconsin press. nerlich, b. (2022, october 3). resisting metaphors: the case of trickle-down economics. making science public. retrieved april 5, 2023, from https://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/makingsciencepublic/2022/10/03/resisting-metaphors-thecase-of-trickle-down-economics/ onaran, ö. (2016). secular stagnation and progressive economic policy alternatives. european journal of economics and economic policies: intervention, 13(2), 229-240. doi: 10.4337/ejeep.2016.02.07 oupblog (2010, september 16). my bff just told me “ttyl” is in the dictionary. lmao. oxford university press’s academic insights for the thinking world. retrieved october 15, 2022, from https://blog.oup.com/2010/09/noad3/ piketty, t. (2018). capital in the twenty-first century. harvard university press. piketty, t. (2021). capital and ideology. in capital and ideology. harvard university press. putland, g. r. (n.d.). trickle-up economics: assessing the impact of privatized land rent on economic growth (report). prosper australia research institute. retrieved september 27, 2022, from https://www.prosper.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trickleup22.pdf rattner, s. (2019, june 25). the dangerous folly of lafferism. the new york times. retrieved february 3, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/25/opinion/the-dangerous-follyof-lafferism.html raworth, k. (2017). doughnut economics: seven ways to think like a 21st-century economist. chelsea green publishing. reich, r. (2022, october 9). why is trickle-down economics still with us? the guardian. retrieved october 17, 2022, from https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/oct/09/why-is-trickle-down-economicsstill-with-us rogers, j. & westheimer, j. (2017). teaching about economic inequality: lessons from california. in c. wright-maley & t. davis. (eds.). teaching for democracy in an age of economic disparity (pp. 61-78). routledge. rogers, w. (1932, november 27). and here’s how it happened, 518. st. petersburg times. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2724987 https://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/makingsciencepublic/2022/10/03/resisting-metaphors-the-case-of-trickle-down-economics/ https://blogs.nottingham.ac.uk/makingsciencepublic/2022/10/03/resisting-metaphors-the-case-of-trickle-down-economics/ https://doi.org/10.4337/ejeep.2016.02.07 https://blog.oup.com/2010/09/noad3/ https://www.prosper.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/trickleup22.pdf https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/25/opinion/the-dangerous-folly-of-lafferism.html https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/25/opinion/the-dangerous-folly-of-lafferism.html https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/oct/09/why-is-trickle-down-economics-still-with-us https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/oct/09/why-is-trickle-down-economics-still-with-us wright-maley et al. 19 roser, m. & ortiz-ospina, e. (2016). income inequality. our world in data. retrieved april 7, 2023, from https://ourworldindata.org/income-inequality saez, e. (2018). striking it richer: the evolution of top incomes in the united states. in d. b. grusky, & j. hill (eds.). inequality in the 21st century (pp. 39-42). routledge. samuelson, p. a. (1990). foreword. in. p. saunders & w. b. walstad (eds.). (1990). the principles of economics course: a handbook for instructors (pp. ix-x). mcgraw-hill. semega, j. & koller, m. (2022). increase in income inequality driven by real declines in income at the bottom. u.s. census bureau. retrieved april 7, 2023, from https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2022/09/income-inequality-increased.html seip, j., & harper, d. w. (2016). the trickle-down delusion: how republican upward redistribution of economic and political power undermines our economy, democracy, institutions and health—and a liberal response. rowman & littlefield. shanks, n. (2017). we shall see: critical theory and structural inequality in economics. the councilor: a journal of the social studies, 78(1), 1-23. retrieved from http://thekeep.eiu.edu/the_councilor/vol78/iss1/5 shanks, n. g. (2018). a dominant narrative in economics? preservice teachers and pluralism in a social studies methods class. jsse-journal of social science education, 17(3), 19-33. doi: 10.4119/jsse-880 shanks, n. g. (2022). what does a crash sound like? how we should teach crashing economies. annals of social studies education research for teachers (assert), 3(1), 7-9. doi: 10.29173/assert52 sharma, r. (2021, may 13). the billionaire boom: how the super-rich soaked up covid cash. financial times. retrieved september 29, 2022 from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/13/business/dealbook/lehman-wealth-inequality.html shuyi, c. (2017). storytelling in the social studies classroom. hsse online, 6(2), 79-87. retrieved from https://hsseonline.nie.edu.sg/storytelling-in-the-social-studies-classroom/ smith, a. (2010). the theory of moral sentiments. penguin. [original publication, 1759]. statistica. (n.d.). household income distribution according to the gini index of income inequality in the united states from 1990 to 2021. retrieved april 8, 2023, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/219643/gini-coefficient-for-us-individuals-families-andhouseholds/ stevens, r. r. (1980). supply-side economics: the trickle-down theory revisited. antitrust law & economics review, 12, 19-38. retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/income-inequality https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2022/09/income-inequality-increased.html http://thekeep.eiu.edu/the_councilor/vol78/iss1/5 https://doi.org/10.4119/jsse-880 https://doi.org/10.29173/assert52 https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/13/business/dealbook/lehman-wealth-inequality.html https://hsseonline.nie.edu.sg/storytelling-in-the-social-studies-classroom/ https://www.statista.com/statistics/219643/gini-coefficient-for-us-individuals-families-and-households/ https://www.statista.com/statistics/219643/gini-coefficient-for-us-individuals-families-and-households/ journal of social studies education research 2023: 14 (2), 1-20 https://heinonline.org/hol/landingpage?handle=hein.journals/ antlervi12&div=5&id=&page= stiglitz, j. e. (2015a). inequality and economic growth. the political quarterly, 86, 134-155. doi: 10.7916/d8-gjpw-1v31 stiglitz, j. e. (2015b). rewriting the rules of the american economy: an agenda for growth and shared prosperity. ww norton & company. stronach, i. (2017, december 17). wealth doesn’t ‘trickle down’ – even in theory. varsity. retrieved september 29, 2022, from https://www.varsity.co.uk/features/14162 sullivan, d., & hickel, j. (2023). capitalism and extreme poverty: a global analysis of real wages, human height, and mortality since the long 16th century. world development, 161, 1-18. doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106026 wight, j. b. (2007). the treatment of smith's invisible hand. the journal of economic education, 38(3), 341-358. doi: 10.3200/jece.38.3.341-358 wilkinson, r., & pickett, k. (2010). the spirit level: why equality is better for everyone. penguin uk. https://heinonline.org/hol/landingpage?handle=hein.journals/antlervi12&div=5&id=&page= https://heinonline.org/hol/landingpage?handle=hein.journals/antlervi12&div=5&id=&page= https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-gjpw-1v31 https://www.varsity.co.uk/features/14162 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106026 https://doi.org/10.3200/jece.38.3.341-358 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2022:13 (3),205-228 the effect of green policy implementation on green entrepreneurship: evidence from indonesia’s micro, small, and medium enterprises yuwono kartiko1, suwarto2, sapja anantanyu3 & kusnandar4 abstract this study investigated the impact of implementing ngawi hijau, a regional spatial planning policy adopted by the ngawi regency government, on green entrepreneurship behavior of micro, small, and medium enterprise (msme) actors engaged in the wood processing industry subsector in ngawi regency, indonesia. using 150 msme actors as the research sample and the ordinary least squares estimation technique, this study found that green policy, which includes policy targets, msme group abilities, msme resources, incentives, and security, has a positive and significant impact on green entrepreneurship in ngawi regency. this study proves that clear and relevant public policy objectives are a prerequisite for effective policy implementation. clear policy targets make the target group of the policy understand the policy implications, thereby lowering the resistance to the policy. therefore, in contrast to the top-down model, which emphasizes the role of authority institutions, this research empowerment model proves that, as one of the parties most responsible for policy, aspects related to msme actors have a pivotal role in realizing effective policy implementation. among the five factors under consideration, the ability and resources of msmes and incentives have a relatively more significant contribution than the other factors in encouraging green entrepreneurial behavior in the wood industry business in ngawi regency. thus, to strengthen the readiness of the wood industry msme actors in implementing the green policy, the ngawi regency government needs to pay more attention to the condition of msme resources, which include hr, financial, and technical aspects. incentives in terms of financial and nonfinancial assistance can be an instrument for strengthening msme resources. keywords: green entrepreneurship, public policy, msme introduction after witnessing a period of high economic growth for several decades, the indonesian economy finally had to confront the harsh realities (tambunan, 2016). the asian financial crisis, which began with a drastic decline in the exchange rate and then peaked in 1998, destroyed the previous feats achieved by economic growth. at the end of 1998, the indonesian economy contracted by a negative economic growth rate, even reaching double digits, that is, 13.8%. despite experiencing an intense contraction, indonesia recovered its economic condition fairly rapidly. one year after 1dr. candudate sebelas maret university, surakarta indonesia; corresponding author: yuwono.king@yahoo.co.id; 2 prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta indonesia; email: suwar_uns@yahoo.co.id; 3 prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta indonesia; email: suwar_uns@yahoo.co.id; 4 prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta indonesia; email: kusnan_dar@yahoo.com mailto:yuwono.king@yahoo.co.id mailto:suwar_uns@yahoo.co.id mailto:suwar_uns@yahoo.co.id mailto:kusnan_dar@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 206 the crisis, indonesia was able to record positive economic growth of 0.8%. even in 2000, the economic growth rate reached 4.7%. one of the factors driving this noticeably fast recovery of the indonesian economy is the emergence of strong micro, small, and medium enterprises (world bank, 2005). the importance of the role of msmes as the locomotive of economic growth can be found in all regions in indonesia, including ngawi regency. owing to their large number, msmes play an essential role in ngawi regency’s economic development, especially in terms of poverty alleviation because of the large number of workers absorbed by this sector, that is, around 310 thousand workers. one of the business fields in the msme sector that continues to grow and contributes significantly to the economy of ngawi regency is the processing industry, especially the wood goods industry and the like. in the long term, the wood processing industry in ngawi regency has good prospects for development to provide more significant economic benefits for the region. this is because ngawi regency has sufficient availability of forest resources, that is, 45,428, 60 ha. although the activities of the wood processing industry in ngawi regency provide a sizeable economic contribution, they also have negative impacts, especially in terms of environmental sustainability. logging activities in the forest are often carried out irresponsibly, which results in a reduced availability of wood. ngawi regency is one of the areas with a relatively high level of illegal cutting in indonesia. the high level of illegal cutting is supported by the geographical factor of ngawi regency, which is directly traversed by bengawan solo, which is often used as one of the traffic lanes for transporting wood. in addition, forest utilization activities that are not environmentally sound have resulted in the condition of the forest becoming barren and critical. another consequence of forest destruction is reducing water catchment areas, making some areas in ngawi regency more vulnerable to flooding. the area of land in a critical situation reaches 55.5 thousand ha or about 66% of the total land in ngawi regency. in light of the above issues, this study aimed to investigate the impact of implementing ngawi hijau, a regional spatial planning policy adopted by the ngawi regency government, on green entrepreneurship behavior of msme actors engaged in the wood processing industry subsector in ngawi regency. the purpose of implementing this policy is to restore the quality of the environment, including forest areas, through conservation efforts and the use of an environment that is more environmentally sound (pro-environment) for the long-term interest. kartiko, et. al. literature review green entrepreneurship green economy and green entrepreneurship campaigns have started to echo in the last few decades, especially after economic development became the prime focus of countries in the world in the 1960s. this campaign arises because, although the era of economic growth has proven to improve the welfare of the world’s population, it also leaves many severe problems, mainly related to environmental sustainability. studies in the early periods have found that the rampant natural resource extraction activities increased the accumulation of waste and pollution, which made the carrying capacity of the environment degraded massively. as a result, environmental quality and welfare conditions are lower, even though income levels are nominally increasing (daly, 1977). in more recent studies, the analysis of the impact of economic growth on the environment is discussed with an emphasis on certain aspects of the environment, such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide emissions (jenkins et al., 2010; roberts et al., 1997), urban air quality (esty et al., 2005), deforestation (jenkins et al., 2002), and heavy metal contamination (grossman et al., 1995). grossman et al. (1995) have described three channels through which economic growth can affect the environment. first, the channel effect scale (scale effect). through this channel, it is explained that increased economic activity will encourage environmental damage due to the need for more excellent resources, including natural resources, which are required for production activities. second, channel structural effects (structural effect). through this channel, it is explained that the structural changes that occur in the development of countries have different environmental impacts. the first phase, from agriculture to manufacturing, is marked by increasing environmental degradation. when there is a shift in economic activity from manufacturing to services, environmental damage will be lessened. third, the technological channel affects economic development that will lead to more environment-friendly technologies (pilotti & almubarak. 2021). as a result of economic development, the increasing number of the middle class will encourage policy reforms to ensure the realization of a healthy environmental condition after basic economic needs such as clothing, food, and housing can be met. the different effects of economic development on the environment for each phase indicate a nonlinear relationship between the two. this gave rise to the environmental kuznets curve (ekc) journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 208 hypothesis. the ekc hypothesis explains that the negative scale effect channel impact will appear in the early phase of economic growth. however, after a certain threshold level of economic development is passed, the negative impact of the scale effect channel will be exceeded by the positive impact of the structural and technological effect channel. although the predictions of the ekc hypothesis seem convincing, namely, that in the long term, the impact of environmental damage due to economic growth can be reduced, scholars have expressed doubts about the validity of the arguments of this hypothesis. ozler et al. (2009), for example, have doubted the generalizability of the ekc hypothesis because, according to them, the decreasing trend of environmental degradation that occurs in rich countries can easily be offset by an increase in environmental damage in poor (developing) countries. thus, if calculated in aggregate, there is no significant reduction in environmental damage. this side effect of economic growth then encourages alternative development approaches that emphasize environmental sustainability. this has led to a new approach known as ecological economics, wherein economic growth and environmental sustainability experience convergence, which is then operationalized into the concept of green entrepreneurship. in recent years, the literature on green entrepreneurship has been growing. green entrepreneurship refers to individuals (entities) who combine environmental awareness with entrepreneurial activity, which is the key to creating a green economy. even so, green entrepreneurship is not only meant to do a green business (zulham, 2022). this is because green entrepreneurship is oriented toward ecological sustainability and changes in economic, ecological, and community relations based on a sustainable approach. therefore, in the concept of green entrepreneurship, sustainability is meant not only in the context of the environment but also in economic welfare and justice. being an essential element in the sustainability of society, we require an innovative approach to find solutions that can synergize the interests of the three. green entrepreneurship, in this case, has the potential to become a significant force in the transition process toward an era of sustainable business paradigms and social transformation (schaper, 2002; isaak, 1998). green entrepreneurs combine the interests of environmental, economic, and social sustainability more holistically when compared to conventional entrepreneurial models (dorji, 2021; tilley & parrish, 2006). green entrepreneurship actors use business (business activities) not only to pursue economic benefits but as a means to conserve resources by involving an overall business design that focuses on sustainable growth (parrish, 2006). kartiko, et. al. green entrepreneurship is a driving force for forming a sustainable and holistic social, environmental, and economic system. wilis et al. (2007), based on the study of christensen (1997), call green entrepreneurship “disruptive innovators.” this concept transforms the established business models, encouraging a radical change in perspective from the previous view that economic development is antithetical to environmental interests. green entrepreneurship activities, therefore, are believed to play an essential role in determining future market success. the paradigm breakthrough offered by green entrepreneurship is in line with the spirit of entrepreneurialism and the schumpeterian vision, which defines entrepreneurial activity as a process of creative destruction. in a sense, an entrepreneur creates new products, processes, and ways of working challenge and even correct the established methods. innovation is the essence of entrepreneurship. green entrepreneurial innovation deconstructs conventional production methods, products, market structures, and consumption patterns with products and services that are more environment-friendly, creating market dynamics that lead to environmental development. this contradicts kirznerian’s (1973) classical view regarding entrepreneurship, which beliefs in prices, inputs, outputs, and resource allocation as the main driving factors. business actors only aim to maximize their profit (self-interested profit-seeking). on the other hand, green entrepreneurs not only aim to maximize profits, but as social activists, they also wish to rebuild corporate culture and social relations in their business activities through a business strategy that is proactive toward environmental sustainability (gibbs, 2015). for green entrepreneurs, the primary goal of their business activities is contributing to improving ecological conditions and general welfare. the search for income is seen more as a means of achieving the ultimate goal, namely, environmental sustainability, rather than being an end in itself (perrish, 2010). public policy because the government is faced with limited resources on the one hand and increasingly complex public problems on the other, the government cannot solve these problems simultaneously. in this case, the government must determine the priority options for solving these public problems. thus, public policy can be interpreted as a formal statement about the best choice of various alternative solutions to public problems. friedrich (2007) has explained public policy as a series of actions with specific goals from an individual, a group, or a government in certain situations with obstacles journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 210 and opportunities. public policy, in this case, is set to overcome obstacles and optimize existing opportunities to achieve goals. alternatively, realize the desired goal. public policymaking cannot be separated from environmental influences. dunn (2017) has mentioned three policy elements, policy actors/actors, policy environment, and public policy. public policy is determined because the demands of the environment are transformed into a political system. at the same time, there are limitations and constraints from the environment that will influence policymakers. these environmental factors include, among others, socio-economic characteristics, natural resources, climate, topography, demography, and culture. the most critical stage after a public policy is established is how the decision is implemented. policy implementation, in principle, is a way for a policy to achieve its goals. according to dunn (2017), implementing a public policy is a process inherent in the public policy itself. that is, the implementation of public policy is a process designed in conjunction with the design of the relevant public policy. in the context of policy implementation, the key terms that must be considered are the “emphasis on actions” and “achieving the goals that have been set in the policy.” this action plan is transformed into operational patterns to achieve the expected results and impacts (van meter & van horn, 1975). in the same framework, sabatier and mazmanian (1980) have also explained that policy implementation means understanding what should happen after a program is declared valid or formulated. based on the description above, it can be stated that policy implementation is intended to achieve policy objectives that bring direct consequences to the people affected by the policy. it is worth noting that the success of a policy is determined by the quality of the policy itself and how the policy is implemented. furthermore, the latter factor is closely related to the quality of human resources, institutions, availability of funds, technical capabilities of policy implementers, and so on. as not all formulated policies always end up optimally, in the sense that the overall policy objectives designed can be conveyed to the public, it is necessary to identify further factors that influence the effectiveness of the implementation of public policies from a theoretical perspective. kartiko, et. al. sme, green policy, and green entrepreneurship as one of the essential components of economic activities, msmes cannot avoid the environmental discourse that has strengthened in recent decades (szabo, 2017). msmes with a considerable number also contribute to the negative impact on the environment. this argument is strengthened by the results of a study by miller et al. (2012) for the european union, which shows that around 64% of industrial pollution in europe is contributed by msmes. a study conducted by heras and arama (2010) found that msmes are responsible for 60–70% of industrial pollution, 40–45% of air emissions, energy, and water consumption, and 70% of industrial production waste in the european region. according to szabo (2013), the relative neglect of environmental sustainability aspects by msme business actors is caused by three internal obstacles, namely, resources, organizational attitudes and culture, and awareness. msmes in indonesia also show a state of neglect of the environment identical to those in the european region (and several countries) above. for example, a study conducted by rodhiyah (2015) on convection msme activities in semarang found that, despite its existence, it opened up job opportunities, especially for women. however, at the same time, cloth waste from msmes is scattered on the streets, thus damaging the environmental cleanliness. this condition disturbs the comfort of the people around the msme operating area. helmi et al.’s (2012) study on the behavior of small-scale fishers found massive ecological damage in the fishing area analyzed, i.e., pulau panjang village, due to various forms of exploitative use of coastal resources. the ecological change in question is the destruction of mangrove forests and coral reefs, which makes the life of the fishing community there increasingly difficult. the negative impact of msme economic activity on the environment was also found by yudhistira et al. (2011), who discussed the impact of environmental damage due to sand mining activities in keningar village, mount merapi region. sand mining activities carried out by msmes in the mount merapi area resulted in environmental damage in the form of high erosion rates in the area around mining, with hillsides becoming more prone to landslides, reduced surface water discharge, and worsening air pollution. anticipating the increasingly widespread negative environmental impact, the indonesian government has implemented a pro-environment economic management policy. in this regard, one of the green economy policies in indonesia to have garnered attention is prohibiting the use of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 212 cantrang and trawling fishing gear in all water areas in indonesia, as it has resulted in massive damage to the marine environment (helmi et al., 2012). the implementation of this policy has proven to positively impact the condition of the marine environment, such as by restoring the condition of coral reefs (satria, 2015), controlling fish production (zamroni, 2015), and reducing conflicts between fishers, especially conflicts caused by differences in production methods (annisa et al., 2009). however, its application was rejected, especially from msme actors engaged in the marine and fisheries sector. it is because the green economy policy is considered to have negative consequences for their business activities. the catch of fish and the income of cantrang fishers decreased (zamroni, 2015). as a result, the welfare of fishermen decreases, which impacts increasing crime cases in fishing settlements. studies discussing the impact of implementing a policy that emphasizes environmental conservation aspects on economic activities are relevant in this context. some issues need to be reconsidered, especially those related to the trade-off between environmental sustainability on the one hand and the sustainability of business activities on the other. unfortunately, in indonesia, studies that discuss the impact of implementing green policies on economic activities, especially msmes, are still relatively minimal. in contrast to indonesia, studies discussing the impact of implementing green policies on msmes have become subjects studied quite extensively in some countries. a study conducted by saezmartinez et al. (2016) discusses applying green policies to msmes in 38 countries. the researchers found that only 20% of msmes “out of a total sample of 3,647 companies” have a level of corporate environmental responsibility that is better than the minimum conditions required by regulations. even so, in general, the observed msmes have complied with the green policies implemented. the researchers also found that only 3% of msmes did not comply with the green policies because they believed that implementing the green policies made their business activities difficult. furthermore, saez-martinez et al. (2016) also attempted to identify what factors encourage msmes to adopt green policies. several variables have been shown to influence the green behavior of msme actors, among others, first, the size of msmes. the larger the size of msmes, the greater their tendency to behave in green. second, the values adopted by msmes. third, the reasons related to the image of msmes. fourth, business opportunities can be obtained when kartiko, et. al. offering green products. interestingly, the researchers found that regulatory aspects, tax incentives, and subsidies did not affect the green behavior of msme actors. meanwhile, in their research, armas-cruz et al. (2017) mapped the msme groups that are the sample into categories based on their adherence to green policies. using a sample of 459 msmes spread across the canary islands (spain), the researchers divided the samples into three categories. in their empirical test, the researchers found a positive relationship between the size of msmes and green entrepreneurial behavior. this is because the majority of business units that implement environmental management are medium-scale businesses. malesios et al. (2018) analyzed the implementation of green entrepreneurship on msmes’ performance and economic growth. the researchers sought to build an empirical model connecting the application of green entrepreneurship with the financial performance of msmes. using 119 msmes and bayesian regression, the researchers found that applying green entrepreneurial behavior can improve msmes’ financial performance, characterized by faster business growth. this is because msmes that implement green policies get positive exposure from the public. therefore, they can create a positive msme image. research framework based on the top-down theory, the clarity of policy objectives is essential in encouraging the successful implementation of public policies. according to van meter and van horn (1975), a clear and relevant public policy target is necessary for effective policy implementation. clarity of policy objectives is vital so that policy implementers can understand the policy better so that the expected outcome can be achieved. in addition to being transparent, public policy objectives must be relevant because they follow the root of the problem under consideration. concerning the policies analyzed in this study, the ngawi hijau green policy must have clear and appropriate policy objectives, or contextual, with the actual problems faced. as one of the parties most responsible for policy implementation, the ability of the msme group has an important role to be considered in realizing effective policy implementation. the better the ability of the msme group, the greater the possibility that policy implementation can run effectively. van meter and van horn (1975) found that factors related to the attitude of the implementers, such as personal values, beliefs, and interests, directly influence the results achieved from policy implementation. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 214 it should be realized that no matter how clear the policy objectives are formulated if the implementer lacks the resources needed to carry out the policy, the implementation of the policy will not be effective. concerning the ngawi hijau policy, the availability of resources that support the implementation of the policy must be sufficient. implementing organizations need to obtain financial support to carry out activities so that policy objectives can be achieved. in addition, for supervisory activities to run well, implementing organizations also require hr support considering the vast area that must be monitored. the importance of the role of resources in the implementation of public policy can be found in the study of riyanto (2010), which concludes that the availability of sufficient resources has a positive effect on increasing the effectiveness of public policy implementation. the same conclusion was drawn by sabatier and mazmanian (1980) and van meter and van horn (1975), who noted that resources are an absolute requirement for implementing any policy. thus, it can be said that resources have a vital role in policy implementation. incentives are usually the most effective means of encouraging policy implementers to be more enthusiastic about achieving satisfactory standards of enforcement and compliance. the availability of an adequate incentives will make policy implementers more willing to comply with policy achievements. many studies, including ibrahim et al. (2013) and siburian (2013), have shown that incentives positively affect organizational commitment. msme actors who have a high commitment will tend to display positive and beneficial work behaviors for the organization, such as low absenteeism, high work productivity, loyalty, and making the values and ideals of the organization a part of themselves. the emergence of positive work behavior like this ultimately makes the possibility of achieving policy goals more significant. the incentives in question can be monetary or non-monetary. in this study, the safety factor of policy implementers may influence policy implementation. in the context of policy implementation, msme actors often receive many threats who accept change (supportive groups) from groups of msme actors who are not willing to accept change (resistant groups). for this reason, the safety factor in implementing policies needs to be considered to increase the effectiveness of public policy implementation. in a stable and conducive situation, policy implementers can implement policies more efficiently. on the other hand, in an unstable situation, where policy implementers face many threats, the likelihood of policy implementation being effective is less. kartiko, et. al. based on the relationship between variables that have been discussed previously, the conceptual framework of this study can be seen in figure 1. figure 1 green entrepreneurship based on the conceptual framework created in this study, five research hypotheses were developed and tested. these hypotheses are enumerated as follows: 1. clear and relevant policy targets positively influence the green entrepreneurial behavior of msme actors in ngawi regency. 2. the ability of a good msme group positively influences the green entrepreneurial behavior of msme actors in ngawi regency. 3. the availability of sufficient msme resources has a positive and significant influence on the green entrepreneurial behavior of msme actors in ngawi regency. 4. sufficient incentives have a positive and significant influence on the green entrepreneurial behavior of msme actors in ngawi regency. h1 policy targets msme’s ability msme’s resources green entrepreneurship h2 h3 incentives security h4 h5 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 216 5. the security factor has a positive influence on the green entrepreneurial behavior of msme actors in ngawi regency. methods design this quantitative research design with a survey approach was adopted in this study. the purpose of this such a research design, in general, study is to explain the tendencies, attitudes, or opinions of a particular population through quantitative or numerical descriptions or explanations. this type of research includes cross-sectional studies that use questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection, with the aim of generalizing attitudes and tendencies to the sample as a representative of the population (fowler, 2008). the purpose of using this type of survey research in this study was to explain the influence of the ngawi hijau policy on the green entrepreneurial behavior of wood craft msme actors in ngawi regency as well as the relationship between green entrepreneurial behavior and the availability of wood. sample the research population of this study is 186 wood craftsmen of wood industry msmes operating in ngawi regency, east java, indonesia. the researchers divided the sample into two sample groups. first, the sample for the purpose of testing the research instrument amounted to 30 respondents. second, the sample for the purpose of estimating the research model was 150 respondents, of which 82 (54.7%) are female, while 68 (45.3%) are male. research instruments in this study, two kinds of questionnaires were used to collect the data. the first questionnaire is a policy objective that was developed based on the synthesis of the policy implementation model of van meter and van horn (1975) and sabatier and mazmanian (1980). the second questionnaire is the ability of the msme group, which was developed by referring to van meter and van horn (1975) and champucot (2011). the questionnaire to measure msme’s resources, incentives, and security was developed in accordance with the studies of sabatier and mazmanian (1980) and chandrasorn (2009). kartiko, et. al. before collecting data, the instrument that was developed was tested on 30 respondents. the aim was to determine the conditions of validity and reliability of the research instrument. the pearson correlation (validity) and cronbach’s alpha (reliability) tests showed that all research instruments had met the validity and reliability qualifications to proceed to the stage of collecting research data on 150 msme actors who were respondents. validity and reliability test the statistical analysis used to test the validity is the pearson product moment correlation value at a significance level of 5%, also called the r-table value. the value of r-table for n as many as 30 respondents the number of respondents at the trial stage, at a significance level of 5%, is .360. in general, if the calculated r-value on the item is greater than r-table, then the item can be said to be valid. on the other hand, if the calculated r value is less than r-table, then the item is considered invalid and will be deleted. meanwhile, the cronbach’s alpha value was used as a measure of the reliability of the instrument. high reliability measurement becomes the basis for researchers to believe that each indicator is consistent in measurement. according to maholtra, a good reliability value for research indicators is .60 or cronbach’s alpha value is greater than .60. in its operation, the validity and reliability test of this research instrument involved 30 msme actors who were deliberately separated specifically for the purposes of testing research instruments. msme actors who are respondents in this validity and reliability test were not included in the research data collection. this analysis was performed to anticipate the potential for bias and false responses from the respondents of the instrument trial if it is included again as a test sample for the empirical research model. table 1 summarizes the validity and reliability of the research instrument. table 1 summary of validity and reliability tests no variable total number number of items cronbach’s alpha indicator initial after calculation 1 availability of wood 7 10 9 .823 2 green entrepreneurial behavior 10 15 13 .741 3 policy goals 6 18 14 .718 4 group ability 15 20 17 .765 5 msme resources 10 18 15 .762 6 incentive 8 16 14 .761 7 security 4 13 11 .735 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 218 data collection the research population includes all wood industry msmes operating in ngawi regency. the department of cooperatives, msme, and industry of ngawi regency noted that 186 wood craftsmen had business permits. these wood craftsmen were taken as the study sample. these wood craftsmen were divided into two sample groups. first, the sample for testing the research instrument amounted to 30 people. second, the sample to estimate the research model amounted to 156 people. data were collected using a questionnaire instrument. the questionnaire is an efficient and fast data collection method if the researcher already knows the variables to be measured and the respondents’ expectations. in this study, the researchers used a closed-form questionnaire. to measure the closed questionnaire in this study, the likert scale, a scale that contains a periodic statement to measure the attitude of respondents to the statement, was used. data analysis for data analysis, the researchers used multivariate analysis to determine the relationship between research variables. this is because, theoretically, the construction of relationships between variables in the analysis of effective public policy implementation is complex. often, the independent variables (constructed as variables) do not have a direct effect, but through intermediate variables, or are preceded by variables that appear before the independent variables (purwanto et al., 2015). the complexity of the relationship between these variables must be considered in analyzing the effectiveness of public policy implementation. to accommodate the complexity of the relationship between these variables, this study applied a path analysis method with indirect-only mediation variants. by using the system method in conditions where there is more than one endogenous variable due to the complex construction of relationships between variables, the model estimation results will be more reliable and more accurate (gujarati, 2009). findings descriptive statistics after obtaining the data, the first step involved a descriptive statistical analysis to see the overall characteristics of the research respondents, the details of which can be seen in table 2. kartiko, et. al. table 2 descriptive statistics no variable category number of respondents percentage (%) 1 gender male 111 74 female 39 26 2 age (in years) 21–30 8 5.3 31–40 35 23.3 41–50 59 39.4 51–60 36 24 > 60 12 8 3 education elementary school 12 8 junior high school 41 27.3 senior high school 65 43.3 vocational 9 6 university 23 15.4 4 business period (in years) < 1 years 1–10 6 8 11–20 37 27 21–30 68 43.7 31–40 39 15.4 source: data processed (2021) in the beginning, all wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency who had business licenses (186 people) were assigned to be research respondents. many of them were not in place, moved business locations, and even closed when the survey was conducted. in total, 150 msme actors were successfully surveyed. even though they failed in getting all business actors, 150 msme actors (about 80.6%) sufficiently represent a picture of the population of licensed wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency. table 2 shows that most of the total respondents, i.e., about 74%, are male, while only 26% are female. this condition is reasonable considering that some jobs in the wood industry are “rough” and require much energy to cut and carve wood raw materials. estimation results to get an estimate using an ordinary least squares, several conditions must be met, including (1) the error has a normal distribution; (2) the error variance is constant, and (3) there are no symptoms of multicollinearity among the research variables. the results of the ordinary least squares estimation requirements test are summarized in table 3. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 220 table 3 normality, heteroscedasticity, and multicollinearity test results normality test value sig kolmogorov–smirnov z 0.86 0.447 heteroscedasticity test chi-square sig breusch–pagan/cook–weisberg 0.34 0.562 multicollinearity test vif 1/vif policy targets 3.54 0.282 msme’s ability 4.18 0.239 msme’s resources 3.65 0.274 incentives 3.47 0.288 security 2.77 0.361 mean vif 3.52 source: data processed (2021) the use of parametric statistics assumes that the residuals from the analyzed model form a normal distribution. the process of testing the analysis requirements in a study is a requirement that must be met so that the regression techniques, which are included in the parametric statistical group, can be used. from the normality test results, the kolmogorov–smirnov significance level is 0.447, so it can be concluded that the standardized residual value usually spreads. another parametric statistical prerequisite that must be met is that the research sample must come from a population with homogeneous variance. this study used the breusch–pagan test. the test results show a chi-square value of 0.34 and a significance level of 0.562, which means that the data variance is homogeneous or there is no heteroscedasticity constraint. the multicollinearity test aims to test whether there is a high or perfect correlation between the independent variables in the regression model that is formed. from the multicollinearity test, it was found that the vif value for each variable and the average value were less than 10. it indicated that there were no symptoms of multicollinearity among the research variables. table 4 regression estimation results hypothesis variable std coefficient std. error sig decision 1 policy targets 0.201 0.101 0.047 supported 2 msme’s ability 0.253 0.089 0.005 supported 3 msme’s resources 0.216 0.081 0.010 supported 4 incentives 0.223 0.079 0.007 supported 5 security 0.172 0.070 0.019 supported f-stat 76.56 r-square 0.727 source: data processed (2021) kartiko, et. al. the results of the first hypothesis test show that the policy objectives have a positive and significant effect on the realization of green entrepreneurial behavior of the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency with a coefficient of 0.201 and a significance value less than 0.05. the second hypothesis test results show that the msme group’s ability has a positive and significant effect on green entrepreneurial behavior of the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency with a coefficient of 0.253 and a significance less than 0.01. the results of the third hypothesis test show that msme resources, including financial, human, and technical resources, have a positive and significant impact on green entrepreneurial behavior of the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency with a coefficient value of 0.216 and a significance less than 0.01. the results of the fourth hypothesis test show that incentive factors, including monetary and nonmonetary, have a positive and significant effect on green entrepreneurial behavior of the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency with a coefficient value of 0.222 and a significance less than 0.01. the results of the fifth hypothesis test show that the security factor has a positive and significant influence on green entrepreneurial behavior of the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency with a coefficient value of 0.172 and a significance less than 0.05. the results of the sixth hypothesis test show that the green entrepreneurial behavior of msme actors has a positive and significant influence on the availability of wood resources in ngawi regency, with a value of 0.687 and a significance less than 0.01. overall, the empirical model developed in this study is reasonably fit. it is proven by the r-square value of .727. it means that the five selected variables, namely, policy targets, msme group abilities, msme resources, incentives, and security, are fairly good at explaining variations in green entrepreneurship. discussion the study findings prove that clear and relevant public policy objectives are a prerequisite for effective policy implementation. it is because clear policy targets make the target group of the policy understand the policy implications and accept them so that resistance to the policy will be journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 222 lower. the target group’s approval of the content and relevance of public policies is the key to effective public policy implementation. many cases show that the ineffectiveness of implementing public policies is due to high resistance from groups that target the policy. in this regard, one of the green economy policies in indonesia that attracted attention is prohibiting the use of cantrang and trawling fishing gear in all water areas in indonesia. even though the implementation of this policy has proven to have a positive impact on the restoration of the condition of the marine environment, its application has been rejected, especially from small business actors, namely, msmes engaged in the marine and fishery sector. the second hypothesis test shows that the ability of the msme group has a positive and significant influence on green entrepreneurial behavior in the wood industry msme actors in ngawi rgency. among other independent variables tested, the ability of the msme group has the most significant influence in encouraging green entrepreneurial behavior of the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency. to strengthen the readiness of the wood industry msme actors in implementing the green ngawi hijau policy, the ngawi regency government needs to pay more attention to the condition of msme resources, which include hr, financial, and technical aspects. the third hypothesis test shows that msme resources positively and significantly influence green entrepreneurial behavior of the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency. the findings of this study prove that msme resources are significant for the implementation of effective public policies. no matter how clear the policy objectives are, policy implementation will be ineffective if the implementers lack the necessary resources. concerning the ngawi hijau policy, the availability of resources that support the implementation of the policy must be sufficient. msmes need to obtain financial support to carry out activities so that policy objectives can be achieved. the importance of the role of resources in the implementation of public policy can be found in the study of riyanto (2010), which concludes that the availability of resources has a positive effect on increasing the effectiveness of public policy implementation. thus, it can be said that resources have a vital role in policy implementation. the fourth hypothesis test shows that the incentive factor positively influences green entrepreneurial behavior of the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency. the findings of this study prove that incentives for msme actors can increase the effectiveness of the implementation of ngawi hijau’s public policies. incentives are usually the most effective means of encouraging policy implementers to be more enthusiastic about achieving satisfactory standards kartiko, et. al. of enforcement and compliance (champucot, 2011). the emergence of positive work behavior like this ultimately makes the possibility of achieving policy goals more significant. in the context of public policy implementation, a study by durst et al. (2006) found that incentives play an important role at the initiation stage, which can increase awareness and speed of adaptation of business actors to plant plantations to increase supply for the growing processing sector in indonesia. providing adequate incentives will encourage msme actors to work better and comply with existing regulations. thus, cumulatively, this will have an impact on the achievement of policy objectives. the fifth hypothesis test shows that the security factor positively influences green entrepreneurial behavior of the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency. the findings of this study prove that security guarantees for msme actors in carrying out the ngawi hijau policy will increase the effectiveness of their achievements in encouraging the formation of green entrepreneurship patterns. according to chompucot (2011), safety is the main factor influencing the performance of policy implementation. in a stable and conducive situation, policies can be implemented more quickly because no conflicts or threats can cancel policies. under these conditions, the possibility of implementing the policy to be effective is greater. on the other hand, in an unstable situation, where there are many threats that policy implementers receive in carrying out policies, the possibility of policy implementation being effective is less. for this reason, security factors in implementing policies need to be considered to increase the effectiveness of public policy implementation. implications based on the findings of this study, several implications are offered. first, for the ngawi hijau policy to be effective, the local government of ngawi regency as the regulator and implementer of the policy must ensure that this policy has clear and relevant targets. second, wood industry entrepreneurs in ngawi regency have different levels of ability in adapting green entrepreneurship practices. therefore, it is necessary to ensure that all business actors fully understand the ngawi hijau policy. efforts to empower group capabilities through training and mentoring, especially those related to green entrepreneurship practices, must be carried out systematically and sustainably. it is vital to consider that the influence of the ability of the msme group on the implementation of green entrepreneurship is the largest when compared to other variables. third, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 224 to further strengthen the readiness of the wood industry msme actors in implementing the ngawi hijau policy, the ngawi regency government needs to pay more attention to the condition of msme resources, which include hr, financial, and technical aspects. the provision of incentives in financial and non-financial assistance can be instrumental in strengthening msme resources. fourth, the adaptation of green entrepreneurship practices will be more effective in the security aspect. therefore, it is necessary to ensure that msme actors who accept changes by implementing policies do not get threats, even criminalization from other msme actors who are unwilling to change (resistant groups). for this reason, the security aspect of implementing the policy needs to be maintained so that the implementation of the policy can run effectively. fifth, the wood industry msme actors in ngawi regency who are trying to implement green entrepreneurship practices need to receive appreciation in the form of incentives, both fiscal and non-fiscal, in the form of relief from regional tax/retribution payments and ease of licensing in order further to strengthen the formation of environmentally sound business behavior, so that the target conservation and improvement of environmental conditions – as policy outcomes – can be realized. conclusion this study discusses implementing a green policy on green entrepreneurship among msmes in the wood processing industry in ngawi regency. ngawi regency was chosen because it is currently implementing the ngawi hijau policy to overcome the severe environmental damage caused by irresponsible wood industry business practices. using 150 msme actors as the research sample and the ordinary least squares estimation technique, this study found that green policy, which includes policy targets, msme group abilities, msme resources, incentives, and security, has a positive and significant impact on green entrepreneurship behavior of msme actors in ngawi regency. of the five factors, the ability and resources of msmes and the provision of incentives relatively have a more significant contribution than the other two factors. this study has several limitations. first, this study only focuses on five determinant variables: policy objectives, msme groups’ ability, resources, incentives, and security in discussing green entrepreneurship. because the issues under consideration are complex, green entrepreneurship behavior is very likely to be influenced by other factors, such as law enforcement, bureaucratic kartiko, et. al. performance, which have not been included in this study. second, the data collected are sourced only from the questionnaire. this study did not conduct fgds or direct interviews, which could further enrich the information for analysis needs. third, msme actors who were selected as respondents only come from the wood processing industry. therefore, information on green entrepreneurship and its relationship with other research variables has not explained other industrial activity sectors. therefore, in contrast to the top-down model, which emphasizes the role of authority institutions, this research empowerment model proves that, as one of the parties most responsible for policy, aspects related to msme actors have an essential role in paying attention to realizing effective policy implementation. references allen, j. c., & malin, s. (2008). green entrepreneurship: a method for managing natural resources? society and natural resources, 21(9), 828–844. annisa, l., satria, a., kinseng, r. a. (2009). konflik nelayan di jawa timur: studi kasus peruabahan struktur agraria dan diferensiasi kesejahteraan komunitas pekebun di lebak, banten. jurnal transdisiplin sosiologi, komunikasi, dan ekologi manusia, 3(1), 113–124. armas-cruz, y., gil-soto, e., & oreja-rodríguez, j. r. (2017). environmental management in smes: organizational and sectoral determinants in the context of an outermost european region. journal of business economics and management, 18(5), 935–953. chandrasorn, w. (2009). an integrated theory of the public policy implementation. 4th ed. tura. chompucot, m. c. (2011). major factors affecting educational policy implementation effectiveness for the three southernmost provinces of thailand as perceived by school directors. christensen, c. (1997). the innovator’s dilemma: when new technologies cause great firms to fail. harvard business school press. daly, h. e. (1991). steady-state economics: with new essays. island press. dorji, t. (2021). content analysis of entrepreneurship education in primary and secondary school textbooks. research in educational policy and management, 3(1), 42-59. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.3 dunn, w. n. (2017). public policy analysis: an integrated approach. routledge. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.3 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 226 durst, p., mckenzie, p., brown, c., appanah, s., (2006). challenges facing certification and ecolabelling of forest products in developing countries. int. for. rev. 8 (2), 193–200. ehrhardt‐martinez, k., crenshaw, e. m., & jenkins, j. c. (2002). deforestation and the environmental kuznets curve: a cross‐national investigation of intervening mechanisms. social science quarterly, 83(1), 226–243. esty, d. c., & porter, m. e. (2005). national environmental performance: an empirical analysis of policy results and determinants. environment and development economics, 10(4), 391–434. friedrich, c. j. (2007). public policy and the nature. combating corruption, encouraging ethics: a practical guide to management ethics, 35. gibbs, d., & o’neill, k. (2015). building a green economy? sustainability transitions in the uk building sector. geoforum, 59, 133–141. grossman, g. m., & krueger, a. b. (1995). economic growth and the environment. the quarterly journal of economics, 110(2), 353–377. helmi, a., & satria, a. (2013). strategi adaptasi nelayan terhadap perubahan ekologis. hubsasia, 10(1). heras, i. and arama, g. (2010), “alternative models for environmental management in smes: the case of ekoscan vs iso 14001,” journal of cleaner production, 18 (8), pp. 726–35. hogwood, b. w., gunn, l. a., & archibald, s. (1984). policy analysis for the real world (vol. 69). oxford university press. ibrahim, m. a., & aslinda, a. (2013). relationship between organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) at government-owned corporation companies. journal of public administration and governance, 3(3), 35–42. isaak, r. (1998). green logic: ecopreneurship, theory and ethics. greenleaf. jenkıns, h. p., & katırcıoglu, s. t. (2010). the bounds test approach for cointegration and causality between financial development, international trade and economic growth: the case of cyprus. applied economics, 42(13), 1699–1707. kaplan, a. m., & haenlein, m. (2010). users of the world, unite! the challenges and opportunities of social media. business horizons, 53(1), 59–68. kirzner, j. m. (1973). competition and entrepreneurship. university of chicago press. malesios, c., skouloudis, a., dey, p. k., abdelaziz, f. b., kantartzis, a., & evangelinos, k. (2018). the impact of sme sustainability practices and performance on economic growth from a managerial perspective: some modeling considerations and empirical analysis results. business strategy and the environment, 27(7), 960–972. kartiko, et. al. miller, k., a. neubauer, a. varma and e. williams (2012), “first assessment of the environmental compliance assistance programme for smes (ecap),” report prepared for the european commission, dg environment and climate action. ozler, s. ilgu, obach, brian, (2009). capitalism, state economic policy, and ecological footprint: an international comparative analysis. global environmental politics, 9, 79–108. parrish, b. d. (2010). sustainability-driven entrepreneurship: principles of organization design. journal of business venturing, 25, 510–523. pilotti, m. & almubarak. h. a. m. (2021). systematic versus informal application of culturally relevant pedagogy: are performance outcomes different? a study of college students. journal of culture and values in education, 4(2), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.1 riyanto, e. s. (2010). faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi implementasi kebijakan penyebaran informasi publik melalui forum tatap muka di badan informasi publik kemkominfo. universitas indonesia. roberts, m., & setterfield, m. (2010). endogenous regional growth: a critical survey. handbook of alternative theories of economic growth, 431–450. rodhiyah, r. (2015). dampak sosial ekonomi keberadaan usaha kecil menengah (ukm) konveksi di kota semarang. jurnal ilmu sosial, 14(1), 1–14. sabatier, p., & mazmanian, d. (1980). the implementation of public policy: a framework of analysis. policy studies journal, 8(4), 538–560. sáez-martínez, f. j., díaz-garcía, c., & gonzález-moreno, á. (2016). factors promoting environmental responsibility in european smes: the effect on performance. sustainability, 8(9), 898. satria, a. (2015). pengantar sosiologi masyarakat pesisir. jakarta: yayasan pustaka obor schaper, m. (2002). introduction: the essence of ecopreneurship. greener management international, (38), 26–30. siburian, t. a. (2013). the effect of interpersonal communication, organizational culture, job satisfaction, and achievement motivation to organizational commitment of state high school teacher in the district humbang hasundutan, north sumatera, indonesia. international journal of humanities and social science, 3(12). steininger, d. m., lorch, m., & veit, d. j. (2014). the bandwagon effect in digital environments: an experimental study on kickstarter. com. multikonferenz birtschaftsinformatik 2014, 546–556. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),205-228 228 stern, d. i. (2004). the rise and fall of the environmental kuznets curve. world development, 32(8), 1419–1439.szabó, a. (2017). green smes in the european union. management, enterprise and benchmarking in the 21st century, 413. tambunan, t. (2016). pembangunan ekonomi inklusif: sudah sejauh mana indonesia? pustaka lp3es. tilley, f., & parrish, b. d. (2006). from poles to wholes: facilitating an integrated approach to sustainable entrepreneurship. world review of entrepreneurship, management and sustainable development, 2(4), 281–294. trainor, k.j.; andzulis, j.m.; rapp, a.; agnihotri, r. (2014). social media technology usage and customer relationship performance: a capabilities-based examination of social crm. j. bus. res., 67, 1201–1208. van meter, d. s., & van horn, c. e. (1975). the policy implementation process: a conceptual framework. administration & society, 6(4), 445–488. walley, e. e., & taylor, d. w. (2002). opportunists, champions, mavericks…? a typology of green entrepreneurs. greener management international, (38), 31–43. willis, r., webb, m., & wilsdon, j. (2007). the disrupters: lessons for low-carbon innovation from the new wave of environmental pioneers. nesta. world bank (2005). world development report 2005: a better investment climate for everyone (english). world development report washington, d.c.: world bank group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/554071468182337250/world-developmentreport-2005-a-better-investment-climate-for-everyone yudhistira, y., hidayat, w. k., & hadiyarto, a. (2011). kajian dampak kerusakan lingkungan akibat kegiatan penambangan pasir di desa keningar daerah kawasan gunung merapi. jurnal ilmu lingkungan, 9(2), 76–84. zamroni, a. (2015). socioeconomics status and adaptation of purse seine fisherman in bali coastal village, indonesia. international journal of marine science, 5(20), hal 1–16. zulham. (2022). the public behavior and the social role of national legal business education. journal of social studies education research, 13(2), 83-102. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4120/563 http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/554071468182337250/world-development-report-2005-a-better-investment-climate-for-everyone http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/554071468182337250/world-development-report-2005-a-better-investment-climate-for-everyone www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 337-356 337 activities and projects aimed to promote reading in yelabuga (the republic of tatarstan) and pilsen (the czech republic) galina frolova1 , galina bozhkova2 & anton bykov3 abstract the democratic society of the 21st century requires a person to possess advanced communication standards. the article sets tendencies to develop reading culture among teenagers by means of events and projects aimed to support reading. the yelabuga institute of kazan (volga region) federal university hosts the following projects: “the festival of school teachers”, “books for hospitals”, “university parnassus”, “yelabuga parnassus”, “biblionight”, “living book”, the literature club “the planet of the writer”, “university for children”, “intel summer”, the festival of schools of russia, “i am a poet, they say”, “sunday quests”, “one book museums” and others. the issue of reading is also relevant in pilsen, the czech republic. the following projects aim to develop a literate reader: “bibliotherapy”, “mutual reading”, “train reading”, “books fair”, “reading before hollywood” and others. a survey among teenagers aimed to determine readers’ preferences was conducted both in the czech republic and the republic of tatarstan. the survey involved 900 respondents. it can be argued that modern schoolchildren tend to read; however, the generation of the late 20th and early 21st centuries fails to read enough. thus, currently, parents of 11-15-year-olds have little authority with them, while teachers lack time and motivation to follow current works of literature, due to the educational crisis. in such a way, schoolchildren acquire works of literature, which are not high-quality ones, through peers and the internet. the article outlines some ways to solve the issue. key words: dialogue, the change of the civilization paradigm, culture of reading, creative clubs, activities and projects to promote reading. introduction currently, a teenager implements a variety of communicative patterns within dialogues: “teacher – teenager”, “teenager – an author of a work of literature”, “teenager – peer”, etc. (lvova, 2013). this makes it more essential to develop and improve the communicative competence of teenagers, make them realize the value of reading and studying literature required for their further personal development, to form the need for systematic reading as a means to get to know the world and their place in it (mamadaliev, 2015; grakhova et al., 2019; magsumov, 2018; vu, 2019). 1 assoc. prof. kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, galinchi@gmail.com 2 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, bozhkova.galina@mail.ru 3 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, anton-77-@mail.ru mailto:galinchi@gmail.com https://e.mail.ru/compose?to=bozhkova.galina@mail.ru mailto:anton-77-@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 unfortunately, it is quite common for a book to stay out of modern teenagers’ life. this happens due to a shift in civilizational paradigms associated with the rapid development of information technology (alajmi, 2019; arribas et al., 2019; popova et al., 2019; voronkova et al., 2019; polyakova et al., 2019; makulov et al., 2017; mueller et al., 2019; ohlin, 2019; tadeu at al., 2019). according to romanicheva, schoolchildren lose interest in reading, in part due to the introduction of the current russian federal state educational standard. this official paper limits literature classes in middle and high school to pragmatic sense (romanicheva, 2015). no value is given to reading arrangements and analysis of literary works performed by schoolchildren. the issues of developing reading culture have always been a subject researched by many scholars: teachers, psychologists, methodologists, and linguists (bakhtin, bibler, lotman, kagan, gorshkova, kryukova, kurganova, kuchinsky, lavlinskii, melentieva, ryabuhina, and others). however, there are no studies covering the work of scientists from different republics on solving the problem of reading, highlighting international activities and projects that can increase interest in reading books. research objective: to analyze the effectiveness of projects and activities carried out in the republic of tatarstan and the czech republic, thereby demonstrating the experience of the joint work of the yelabuga institute of kfu and the west czech university to stimulate interest in reading among modern teenagers. to achieve this goal, it seems necessary to solve the following tasks: • to study the causes of falling interest in reading among modern teenagers; • to identify modern teenagers’ reading preferences; • to consider the peculiarities and patterns of interest in reading among yelabuga and pilsen teenagers; • to highlight reading support events and projects held in the republic of tatarstan and the czech republic. method research design the study is based on the methodological principles of interdisciplinarity and consistency, described in modern socio-humanitarian sciences. contrastive and comparative methods make it possible to reveal the features and patterns of interest in reading among teenagers in yelabuga and frolova et al. pilsen. the socio-cultural and typological approaches are used to state the typological common features in readers’ preferences and problems of teenagers of the czech republic and the republic of tatarstan. participants the questionnaire survey among teenagers (900 people) of the czech republic and the republic of tatarstan was aimed to identify their preferences in reading. in connection with the stated problem of adolescent reading, a survey was conducted among teenagers aged 11-15. addressing this category of schoolchildren (adolescents) is not accidental. adolescence is a very complicated and simultaneously important stage in the formation of personality. it is during the transitional age that teenagers actively seek for themselves and for the answers to a number of questions concerning their peers (friends, classmates) and adults (parents, teachers), personal development, the experience of first strong feelings (love, jealousy, and hatred). for this purpose, they can turn to literature. however, it is common for teenagers to refuse books (or even reading in general), when they do not understand the meaning of what they read, do not see in it the connection with the modern time and their personal life experience. as a result, adolescents who need to build up their intellectual and moral potential begin to lose touch with books as a source of knowledge and spiritual experience. over the years, this connection can break completely (vasilev et al., 2018; rajović and bulatović, 2017; boutelier, 2019; kireev et al., 2019; laužikas and miliūtė, 2019; nechaev et al., 2018; safiullin et al., 2019). the result is an adult who is not used to reading, with a narrow outlook and perverted moral guidelines. that is why it is so important, in the authors' opinion, to maintain and consolidate adolescents' interest in reading (sibgaeva et al., 2018). at the first stage, the authors identified schoolchildren's preferences regarding reading using questionnaires, the reasons for their interest/lack of interest in reading, and then during the experiment identified the impact of various activities and projects on the reading activity of teenagers. in the republic of tatarstan, 400 schoolchildren of the 7th, 8th, and 9th grades studying at schools no. 3, no. 8 and no. 9 of yelabuga and rural schools of the yelabuga district answered the questionnaire. in the czech republic, 500 schoolchildren from pilsen were involved in the survey. the choice of respondents for the survey was related to the beginning of cooperation between the west czech university and the yelabuga institute of the kazan federal university in 2018 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 (https://tve24.ru/2536-elabugu-posetili-gosti-iz-chehii.html). on september 19, 2019, a joint international conference “educational potential of family reading in the era of digitalization and globalization” is scheduled, the purpose of which is to discuss the results of research on topical reading issues, compile and transmit the world experience on preserving the traditions of family reading. data collection the following methods based in general on the principles of various branches of science are used: theoretical research methods: analysis of psychological, sociological, and pedagogical literature on the research topic; synthesis for the study of advanced psycho-pedagogical and social experience for obtaining a complete picture of the process under study; abstraction when studying events and projects aimed at supporting reading in tatarstan and the czech republic, expanding and systematizing scientific facts, explaining and predicting phenomena, increasing the reliability of the empirical results, moving from abstract knowledge to specific; empirical methods: specially designed questionnaires, content analysis, analytical conversation, experiment. research stages: 1) the study of psychological, sociological, and pedagogical literature, trends in the theory and practice of the formation of reading culture; 2) experimental work (conducting a survey); 3) experimental verification of the developed theoretical positions; systematization and generalization of the results. the classical technology was used to collect experimental data: the data obtained were formulated and recorded in a short form; the information was grouped; data within each group were arranged in a row by ascending characteristic; variation series were ranked; statistical processing of the received information was carried out; visual materials were drawn up. data analysis in order to obtain more reliable results, the authors of the study decided to combine the possibilities of quantitative (questioning) and qualitative methods. the qualitative approach in this case is the analysis and interpretation of the data obtained during the observation of students and schoolchildren who were involved in the implementation of a number of activities: creative https://tve24.ru/2536-elabugu-posetili-gosti-iz-chehii.html frolova et al. conferences and projects, literary contests and actions, works of the literary club “the planet of the writer”, etc. findings a questionnaire survey was aimed to research the issue of reading among teenagers. it involved 500 teenagers (11-15-year-olds) in pilsen. it revealed that 99% of them read books. the most favorite authors were the following: john ronald reuel tolkien with his famous masterpiece the lord of the rings; susanna collins the hunger games; joe nessa, john green – paper cities, the stars are to blame and search in alaska; stefan chevsky one in the corner, the books by the sisters austin and lewis carol. the first question of the questionnaire was focused on the frequency of reading. forty percent of the eighth-grade students answered that they read yesterday, 32% of students – a week ago, and 21% read a month ago. only 7% of the students read a year ago (figure 1). figure 1. pilsen adolescents' reading frequency fifty-eight percent of students chose to read fiction and adventure stories; 25% – detectives; 17% – romance (figure 2). 40% 32% 21% 7% pilsen adolescents' reading frequency read yesterday read a week ago read a month ago read a year ago journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 figure 2. genres of books read by pilsen adolescents when asked about the reasons for reading, 57% of respondents answered “because i like it”; 25% – “the teacher asks me to read”; 18% – “to get new information” (figure 3). figure 3. reasons for reading of pilsen adolescents learners support the abovementioned information by considering the following factors when selecting a book: 40% of respondents follow the internet reviews; 39% focus on the bright book cover, and 18% follow their friends’ recommendations (figure 4). 58%25% 17% genres of books read by pilsen adolescents fantastic fiction, adventure fiction detective fiction romantic fiction 57%25% 18% reasons for reading of pilsen adolescents because i like it the teacher asks me to read to get new information 40% 39% 18% 3% factors influencing adolescents' choice of books internet reviews bright book cover friends' recommendations refused to answer frolova et al. figure 4. factors influencing adolescents' choice of books people to discuss a book with fall into the following groups: 50% discuss books with friends; 25% talk to parents; 21% did not answer the question; 4% talk to teachers (figure 5). figure 5. with whom pilsen adolescents discuss books? up to 89% of teenagers sometimes go to the library; only 11% have never been to the city library. moreover, the respondents answered the question “does the school collaborate with the local library and participate in projects aimed to develop reading literacy?” according to the vast majority of the eighthand ninth-grade schoolchildren, their school was not involved in the projects. as for the development of reading literacy, in most cases, schoolchildren were not aware whether their school was involved or not. on the other hand, many respondents named such projects as “reading helps”, “train reading” and others. a similar questionnaire survey was conducted in yelabuga and involved 400 students of the 7th, 8th, and 9th grades; 80% of students belong to secondary schools of yelabuga, 20% of students are from rural schools of the yelabuga district. the questionnaire survey results are as follows: 98% of teenage schoolchildren read, 77% have a library (bookshelf) in their houses. 50% of respondents follow teachers’ recommendations when choosing a book, 21% rely on parents’ opinions, and 16% follow their peers (figure 6). 50% 25% 4% 21% with whom pilsen adolescents discuss books? with friends with parents with teachers another answer journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 figure 6. question to yelabuga adolescents: "whose recommendations do you most often follow when choosing books?" reading is characterized as random; many teenagers lack the sufficient level to comprehend texts studied in the 5th – 8th grades; 71% of learners prefer to read classic works of literature (taras bulba by gogol; the prisoner of the caucasus, the poor people by leo tolstoy, dubrovsky by alexander pushkin; mumu by turgenev); there is a significant increase in the internet influence in reading culture among teenagers; 39% of respondents read for personal awareness, 37% read for pleasure, and 22% read for school homework (figure 7). figure 7. yelabuga adolescents' purpose of reading thirty percent of respondents prefer fiction, 28% opt for adventure literature, and 22% like to read fantasy (figure 8). 50% 21% 16% 13% question to yelabuga adolescents: "whose recommendations do you most often follow when choosing books?" teachers parents peers no answer 39% 37% 22% 2% yelabuga adolescents' purpose of reading broadening one's outlook for one's own pleasure doing one's homework other frolova et al. figure 8. genres preferred by yelabuga adolescents the next question was focused on the types of books that schoolchildren preferred to read. seventy-eight percent of respondents prefer to read a paper book, 14% choose electronic books, and 8% of school children prefer neither (figure 9). figure 9. book format/carrier preferred by adolescents (the czech republic, the republic of tatarstan) both schoolchildren from yelabuga and pilsen identically responded to the question whether their school was involved in library projects. the survey conducted in yelabuga and pilsen after classes dedicated to the year of leo tolstoy confirmed the efficiency of organized events. it was attended by 40 yelabuga schoolchildren and students, as well as 12 czech students. one hundred percent of respondents answered in the affirmative to the question “would you like to read (reread) books of leo tolstoy having attended the literature club ‘the planet of the writer’?” the question “what works by leo tolstoy had you read before you participating in the literature club?” showed the 30% 22% 28% 20% genres preferred by yelabuga adolescents fantastic fiction fantasy adventure fiction other 78% 14% 8% book format/carrier preferred by adolescents (the czech republic, the republic of tatarstan ) paper book electronic book audio book journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 following statistics among schoolchildren: anna karenina – 20% of learners; war and peace – 40%; childhood – 25%; 15% of students did not answer this question. the efficiency of club activities is monitored through the answers to the following question: “what works of literature would you like to read or reread having visited the literary club?” the number of answers was unlimited. 100% of respondents stated diaries of the writer; 60% – the novel anna karenina; 86% – abc; 12% reported that they were planning to read all the volumes of works by leo tolstoy in the nearest future; 21% – were interested in the final work resurrection; 70% – childhood, adolescence, youth; 50% – war and peace; 64% – sevastopol stories; 81% of respondents would read kreutzer sonata; 54% – father sergius, 32% – the strider as mature works were not specified when introducing the works of tolstoy, but were discussed in the documentary films during the curatorial hours, which proves considerate watching. luckily, no respondents refused to answer this question. the crucial advantages of the club, according to the respondents, are “literary contests” – (95%), “teamwork” – (74%), “everything was for the benefit” – 87%, “games” – 78%, “friendly environment” – 100%, “meeting interesting people” – 98%; “informative value” – 100%. discussion “the national program to support and promote reading in the russian federation for 2007-2020” was introduced in 2007 to eliminate the reading crisis and its consequences in russia. this is the first program aimed to change attitude to reading culture within social and governmental bodies. the program was the first step to consistently form and implement an effective national policy to support and develop reading. grigorieva in the article “children's libraries of the chuvash republic in 2010” (grigorieva, 2011) reflects on the fact that it is possible to develop the reading culture both in the classwork and extracurricular time by means of creative activities within a library, i.e. reading clubs. czech researchers also focus on the issue of reading. manguel studies the issues of reading among children and assures that adults should gradually develop love for reading in their children by reading to them simple literature works and then progress towards more complex ones (cherkasov et al., 2019). the teacher encourages primary school children to attend preschool classes and read aloud for preschool children; teenagers can read to primary school children and students – to high school children (manguel, 2012). frolova et al. lidmila vašová in her monograph “bibliopedagogics...” assures that the method of bibliotherapy (which implies treatment by word, emotional “training” by means of literature works) seeks to positively influence the psychosomatic state of the patient and strengthen mental balance. the researcher proposes to develop imagination, creativity, and critical thinking or communication skills through bibliotherapy (vašová, 1989). in the early 21st century, libraries began to study bibliotherapy, working closely with psychologists and readers. librarians arrange classes for children, parents, and teachers (kavanová, 2009), recommend books to read, help to choose them and even write a book of one’s own. manguel, a czech researcher of reading, argues that it is impossible to solve the issue of reading alone, it is necessary to unite the efforts worldwide and solve these problems together, to implement global projects to promote reading (manguel, 2012). the project “train reading” is supported by the czech railway. many passengers listen to books read by the author himself broadcasted by alert systems in trains (langmeier and krejčirová, 2006). both in the czech republic and in russia, there are websites for teenagers and groups in social networks, where students can communicate and look through the books their peers read. the sites are run by educators and psychologists (homolová, 2007). guests from pilsen not only held similar events in the czech republic, but also confirmed the effectiveness of informal literary meetings bringing together representatives from different countries. the czech republic pays particular attention to a book cover as it can either attract or discourage the reader (bubeničková, 2011). the communities carry out social questionnaires among teenagers and encourage them to illustrate and create book covers. readers contest in book illustrations and thus promote reading culture since cover ideas can be introduced after a teenager has read a book. participants are prized for the best cover illustration. the price is also relevant when choosing a book: as an upcoming reader would rather read a book online for free, teenage books manifest a dramatic decrease in prices (dolezalová, 2005). at the same time, in russia lack of demand for paper books causes increased prices. so, the authors are convinced that the issue of reading is a global one; there is a correlation of responses from the schoolchildren of the republic of tatarstan and the czech republic. the questionnaire confirmed the students’ interest both in literature and the illustrative value of books, but there are still some problems to consider. teachers and parents lose authority, despite the fact that numerous events are held in yelabuga and pilsen to support reading, they involve only certain schools and libraries, there is a lack of data on projects and activities, which undoubtedly result journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 in a decrease in readers’ literacy, teenagers’ preference for periodicals (marketing magazines, newspapers, etc.). in general, it is clear that readers of all generations prefer modern literature to classical, but they do not know which authors to give preference to, therefore, are guided by the internet data (chitsaz et al., 2019; yemelyanov et al., 2018; plaskova et al., 2017; shaitura et al., 2018). for the same reason, many respondents read only literature according to the school curriculum. however, there are also commercial issues. the czech republic exhibits falling prices for children’s and teenagers’ works of literature. in russia, however, this tendency is not revealed. the authors rarely communicate with young readers which, if implemented, could have encouraged even the most unmotivated learner (shatunova et al., 2019). both the republic of tatarstan and the czech republic lack collaboration among libraries, schools and higher educational institutions, republics. therefore, today it is necessary to proceed from the fact that the problem of reading has gone beyond the educational, cultural-moral development of an individual. it is supposed that as a result of coordinated state structures, public associations, the increase in the intellectual potential, preservation and development of world culture, maintenance and growth of cultural riches will be provided. however, not only effective socially-oriented government policies and powerful financial injections are needed to support and cultivate reading, but also scientists’ desire to learn from the experience of other countries. currently, the following activities aimed to develop reading culture are quite relevant: contests, training sessions, and festivals. these are considered as the most productive methods to reproduce reading culture, which imply the development of creativity among children and teenagers and reveal the creativity potential (korableva et al., 2019; bozhkova et al., 2019). there are many projects and events organized in russia and worldwide, namely, “children's book week”, “world day of reading aloud”, “biblionight” (grigorieva, 2011), the reading championship “open your mouth” (homolová, 2007), “worldwide harry potter night”, the international campaign “read to children about the war”, the oratory contest “living classics”, theatrical performances “entertaining classics”, the project “literary seasons” (homolová, 2007). internet portals form a cultural fund, the so-called multifunctional platform with a variety of interactive services, which includes extensive features and services, by referring users to other sites. the following sites are of particular interest: livelib, fiction laboratory, litlife, abc of literature, reading hut!, library.ru, reading center of the russian national library, biblioguide and others. internet portals increase literacy in works of literature among teenagers frolova et al. and offer a wide range of genre and thematic works, provide teenagers with e-books, offer creative contests for readers. yelabuga hosts numerous events aimed to develop reading culture among teenagers. the creative conference “yelabuga parnassus” is of particular interest (bozhkova, 2017). teenagers, who are constantly engaged in creative self-development, seek to publish their papers and to speak to their peers and guests of the event. thus, a separate section “creativity without borders”, which involves creative projects in literature, physics, chemistry, and mathematics, was established. the conference promotes and develops interest in reading among young people. teachers of yelabuga organize sunday literary quests for children and their parents. teenagers and parents exchange their views, learn to negotiate, consider each other's points of view on certain phenomena, and learn to analyze works of literature. the literary competition of creative works “i am a poet, they say”, held since 2013 at the yelabuga institute of kfu at the department of russian language and literature, manifests the following preliminary results: its participants succeed in international and all-russian literary competitions and projects (shabalina, 2017). the competition is held in two stages: at the distant stage, teenagers upload their works of literature (created by them) into a social network. afterwards, the jury studies the works and during the face-to-face stage, participants receive a competent assessment of their works and strive to improve their quality. during the second (faceto-face) stage, participants are also supposed to submit their works to the expert group (who evaluate both the quality of the works of literature and the ability to present themselves). public organizations based at the yelabuga institute of kfu host the following all-russian and international campaigns: “donate a book to the library”, “biblionight”, “book for the journey”. street libraries are organized and replenished due to the free exchange of books by residents of the city. there are the projects “living book”, “time to read”, “war and peace. read together”, “festival of school teachers”. the experience shared among teachers assists in implementing effective pedagogical projects. the “school – university” integration implements projects and contests which promote reading culture among students and schoolchildren (shabalina, 2017; kamaeva, 2014). the president of the republic of tatarstan minnekhanov declared the year 2018 to be the year of leo tolstoy since the “kazan period” was the most crucial in the life and work of the classic. the yelabuga institute of kazan (volga region) federal university organized a number of events journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 dedicated to the 190th anniversary of the great classic. this showed the dynamics of readers’ literacy at schools and universities. the students of yelabuga institute are monitors who promote the projects among teenagers and students. the main task is to upload the contest information onto the internet by creating and developing public groups in social networks. students receive contest works, contact participants, inform them about the details of the contest, answer their questions, and send diplomas and certificates. these are social networks that primarily inform the participants from other regions and republics about the contests. twice every month students of the faculty of philology and history organized workshops in the literary club “the planet of the writer” and arranged curatorial hours, i.e. watching documentaries and films about the life and work of leo tolstoy, organized contests (“one book”, book trailers, illustrations, writings on the works of the classic). the work was performed in several stages: to form a group in social networks; to advertise the event on the websites of the institute and schools of the city; to receive applications; to meet with participants face-to-face; to attend lectures, debates; to organize face-to-face and distant competitions; to watch movies; to present closing remarks, to reward the most active participants; to upload review articles onto the website of the institute. meanwhile, a certain underestimation of social aspects can be traced in the works of some of the aforementioned researchers: there is not a single study demonstrating the joint efforts of scientists from different republics, although, in the authors’ opinion, this could be a rather effective method of solving the world problem related to a decline in interest in reading. conclusion thus, the authors have demonstrated the most interesting projects and activities aimed at reviving interest in reading, which are held both in the republic of tatarstan (yelabuga) and the czech republic (pilsen). thus, it has been proved that the loss of interest in reading by teenagers is a global problem and requires joint efforts. it has been also confirmed that teenagers do not refuse to read, they simply cannot always find the book they need or understand the work without an intermediary. based on this, scientists from the yelabuga institute of kazan (volga region) federal university invited guests from pilsen to attend events to improve the reading culture of schoolchildren and students (https://kpfu.ru/elabuga/laboratoriya-filosofii-tolstogo-334998.html). thirty students who attended the first lesson of the literary club (“pedagogical work of leo tolstoy”) were interviewed about the life and work of leo tolstoy in order to determine the level https://kpfu.ru/elabuga/laboratoriya-filosofii-tolstogo-334998.html frolova et al. of their knowledge. schoolchildren and students were asked to imagine and visualize the perfect educational institution. the schoolchildren were happy to imagine their dream school as a cozy one, supplying delicious breakfasts, provides conversations, interesting teachers, putting no pressure, and requesting no home assignments and neutral school uniform. members of the club were surprised to learn that the school of their dreams existed, and was opened by leo tolstoy, who was both a writer and a wonderful, sensitive teacher. peasant children studied grammar, history, drawing, the law of god, drawing, reading, writing and other subjects at this school. they studied under no pressure. after the lecture, participants could act as writers and create intertext of quotations from fairy tales and stories for children included in the abc of leo tolstoy. the club participants got acquainted with each other while creating a “new work of literature”. they performed elaborate creative work: to join quotations from fairy tales, fables and stories of leo tolstoy into their individual works of literature and come up with a title. next, during the classes “the diaries of leo tolstoy”, the participants studied the writer’s diary written for future generations. the club members analyzed the set of rules “to develop will, activity, memory and mental abilities” created by leo tolstoy for himself. like tolstoy, learners came up with 10 rules for each day. every team introduced relevant and modern guidelines. in the workshop (“nutrition in the life of leo tolstoy and the characters of the novel anna karenina”), speakers defined nutrition science for the students and explained balanced nutrition followed by the author of the ninety-volume collection of works. sophia andreevna treasured recipes of favorite dishes of tolstoy. the recipes were included in the book lunch for leo. cookbook of sophia andreevna tolstaya (tolstaya, 2016). by the end of an entertaining lecture, the participants had to calculate calories in the food of the two main characters of the novel anna karenina of tolstoy (levin and oblonsky). to do this, the speakers gave the participants a list of dishes that the characters ate per day. this confirmed the autobiographic nature of the konstantin levin character and motivated participants to read the novel again. the “curatorial hours” was a popular event among participants as they could discuss the documentaries about the personality of leo tolstoy. the literary club “the planet of the writer” is recognized worldwide as guests and participants involved teachers and the master of the west czech university (pilsen). the teachers organized similar events among the students of their university and discussed the projects aimed to promote reading culture and be carried out in the czech republic. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 as a result of generalization and systematization of the study results, the authors have drawn the following conclusions: 1. it has been confirmed that the problem of reading is global. however, the problem is not that adolescents do not read, but that there is no propaganda of useful literature; therefore, schoolchildren do not know which book to choose. in both the czech republic and tatarstan, fantastic fiction is becoming the preferred genre, and a paper book remains the favorite; 2. according to the set goal, effective activities and projects carried out in the czech republic and tatarstan to promote reading that will be useful for the interested audience have been determined; 3. problems in the field of reading and functional literacy can be solved more effectively by using the experience of activities and projects aimed at increasing the interest in books of scientists from different countries; 4. the authors have experimentally tested and proven the need to involve specialists from different countries (tatarstan's experience of holding events in the czech republic showed students' interest in events of this kind and their desire to read tolstoy's books); 5. it is obvious that the opportunities of reading in the process of determining the value guidelines of the educational process are underestimated. the results of the survey show that adolescents' choice of books is mostly influenced by parents and teachers. the teacher in the process of literary education should consistently develop different forms of children's and adolescents' creativity and know the specifics of modern literature. in this regard, further research has a wide range of problems to deal with, such as the problem of “family reading” and parents’ role in shaping a thoughtful reader; enhancing the teacher’s role in the organization of educational activities and educational co-operation in achieving students’ personal and social development through reading. references alajmi, m. a. (2019). the impact of e-portfolio use on the development of professional standards and life skills of students in the faculty of education at princess nourabint abdul rahman university. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 6(4) 1714-1735. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) frolova et al. arribas, i., espinós-vañó, m. d., garcía, f., & tamosiuniene, r. (2019). negative screening and sustainable portfolio diversification. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 6(4): 1566-1586. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(2) bozhkova, g, shabalina n. & fayzullina, o. (2017). the role of a teacher in encouraging secondary school children to read, p. 109-116. boutelier, s. (2019). limiting learning environments through domestication. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 45-55. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 bozhkova g.n., shastina e.m., kalimullina o.v., & shatunova o.v. (2019). study of literary images of gifted characters in optional activities as a means to develop capable and talented youth. space and culture, india, vol. 7:1, pp. 264-273. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 bubeničková, p. (2011). kontexty čtenářství a čtenářské gramotnosti. hradec králové: gaudeamus, č. 78-96. cherkasov, a.a., bratanovskii, s.n., koroleva, l.a., & zimovets, l.g. (2019). development of school education in the vologda governorate (1725-1917). part 1. european journal of contemporary education, 8(1), 208-214. chitsaz, e., tajpour, m., hosseini, e., khorram, h., & zorrieh, s. (2019). the effect of human and social capital on entrepreneurial activities: a case study of iran and implications. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 6(3): 1193-1203. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(24) dolezalová, j. (2005). funkčnígramotnost – proměny a faktorygramotnostivevztazích a souvislostech. hradec králové: gaudeamus. grigorieva, t.r. (2011). children's libraries of the chuvash republic in 2010. cheboksary. grakhova, s., fayzrakhmanov, i., zhundibayeva, a., yakutina, m., sharipov, r., & stepykin, n. (2019). information, pedagogical and facilitation technologies in teaching a special philology class at non-specialized faculties of higher education institutions. international journal of innovative technology and exploring engineering, 8(12), 1613-1620. doi:10.35940/ijitee.l3154.1081219 homolová, k. (2007). čtenářstvípubescenta v jehosubjektivnímpohledu.světvýchovy a vzdělávání v reflexipedagogickéhovýzkumu. českébudějovice. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(2) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(24) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 kavanová, o. (2009). současnostliteratury pro děti a mládež. inflow: informatik journal, roč. 2, č. 4. kamaeva, r. b. (2014). national cultural specifics of representing dialecticisms in the fiction work translation. life science journal, 11(10), 95, 653-656. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). studying user satisfaction with the mooc platform interfaces using the example of coursera and open education platforms. paper presented at the acm international conference proceeding series, 26-30. doi:10.1145/3322134.3322139 kireev, b., zhundibayeva, a., & aktanova, a. (2019). distance learning at higher education institutions: results of an experiment. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 387-403. langmeier, j., & krejčirová, d. (2006). vývojovápsychologie, aktualiz. vyd. praha: grada publishing, č. 18-23. laužikas, m., & miliūtė, a. (2019). transformational communication via evolving ethical and moral norms of lithuanian civil service organizations. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 6(4): 1750-1761. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(14) lvova, a.s. (2013). dialogization of the educational process is a means of forming the communicative competence of a teacher. primary school, № 6, p.98-102. magsumov, t. a. (2018). vocational school and studying youth in the russian revolution of 1905. terra sebus, 10, 289-313. mamadaliev, a. m. (2015). the everyday activity of rural schools in the early 1920s (through the example of schools in the village of aibga). bylye gody, 36(2), 388-393. manguel, a. (2012). dějiny čtení. brno: host. makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. mueller, j. e., chikunov, s. o., fedchenko, e. a., & pronskaya, o. n. (2019). innovative technologies in entrepreneurship education: the case of european and asian countries. journal of entrepreneurship education, 22(1) nechaev, v., mikhailushkin, p., & presnyakov, d. (2018). priorities of social and economic safety. paper presented at the matec web of conferences, 212 doi:10.1051/matecconf/201821204015 frolova et al. ohlin, c. (2019). information and communication technology in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 41-57. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/409 popova, l. i., demina, i. d., stepanenko, y. s., tran, q. n., meshkova, g. v., & afonasova, m. a. (2019). regional aspects of sectoral digitalization: problems and prospects. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 176-188. polyakova, a.g., loginov, m.p., serebrennikova, a.i. & thalassinos, e.i. (2019). design of a socioeconomic processes monitoring system based on network analysis and big data. international journal of economics & business administration, 7(1), 130-139. plaskova, n. s., prodanova, n. a., zatsarinnaya, e. i., korshunova, l. n., & chumakova, n. v. (2017). methodological support of organizations implementing innovative activities investment attractiveness estimation. journal of advanced research in law and economics, 8(8), 2533-2539. doi:10.14505/jarle.v8.8(30).25 rajović, g., & bulatović, j. (2017). geography education research in serbia: a teacher's perspective. european journal of contemporary education, 6(1), 100-125. romanicheva, e.s. (2015). reading in school literary education: negative changes and possible ways to overcome them. literature at school, no. 4, p.27-29. safiullin, m. r., akhmetshin, e. m., & vasilev, v. l. (2019). production of indicators for evaluation of digital transformation of modern university. international journal of engineering and advanced technology, 9(1), 7399-7402. doi:10.35940/ijeat.a3100.109119 shabalina, n., fayzullina o. & bozhkova g. (2017). development of adolescent school children and students’ giftedness by means of creative competitions at elabuga institute of kazan federal. national academy of managerial staff of culture and arts herald, no. 4, p. 127130. shatunova o., anisimova t., sabirova f., & kalimullina o. (2019). steam as an innovative educational technology. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 (2), 131144. shaitura, s. v., ordov, k. v., lesnichaya, i. g., romanova, y. d., & khachaturova, s. s. (2018). services and mechanisms of competitive intelligence on the internet. [servicios y mecanismos de inteligencia competitiva en internet] espacios, 39(45). https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/409 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 337-356 sibgaeva, f. r., husnutdinov, d. h., sagdieva, r. k., sayfulina, f. s., gareeva, r. r., & galiullin, r. r. (2018). forward motion verbs: issues of studying verbal semantics in multistructural languages. international journal of mechanical engineering and technology, 9(9), 14901498. tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. retrieved from https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 tolstaya, s.a. (2016). culinary book of sofia andreevna tolstoy. dinner for leo. moscow: centropoligraph. yemelyanov, v., yemelyanova, n., & nedelkin, a. (2018). diagnostic system to determine lining condition. paper presented at the matec web of conferences, 172 doi:10.1051/matecconf/201817204001 vasilev, v. l., murtazina, d. a., aleynikova, o. s., averianova, t. a., & aleksiuk, i. o. (2018). problems of digitalization of higher education in a small town. paper presented at the proceedings of the 32nd international business information management association conference, ibima 2018 – vision 2020: sustainable economic development and application of innovation management from regional expansion to global growth, 17101716. vašová, l., & černá, m. (1989). bibliopedagogika: vysokoškolskáučebnice pro studentyfilozofickýchfakultstudijníchoborů 72-36-8. 2. vyd. praha: státnípedagogickénakladatelství. voronkova, o. y., iakimova, l. a., frolova, i. i., shafranskaya, c. i., kamolov, s. g., & prodanova, n. a. (2019). sustainable development of territories based on the integrated use of industry, resource and environmental potential. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 151-163. vu, t. (2019). theoretical constructs and practical strategies for intercultural communication. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 43-53. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/3 https://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/431 https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/3 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2), 31-55 the effect of iso and leadership quality on the sustainable development of academic competence and student performance sugeng listyo prabowo1 abstract this study seeks to analyze the influence of the international organization for standardization’s (iso) quality standards and leadership quality on the sustainable development of academic competence for lecturers and the implications for the academic performance of islamic religious college students (ptki). data were collected through observation, questionnaires, and documentation and analyzed using multiple regression. the population for this study were all ptki lecturers and students at the maulana malik ibrahim state islamic university, malang, with a sample being selected by proportional random sampling stratification. the findings reveal that 1) iso and leadership has a positive, significant influence on the sustainable development of ptki lecturers’ academic competence, with the combined effect being much greater than the individual effects; 2) iso, leadership, and sustainable academic competence development has a positive and significant influence on the academic performance of students, again with the combined influence being greater than the individual influences; 3) iso has a significant indirect effect on student academic performance through the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence; and 4) iso has an indirect effect on student academic performance through the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence. keywords: iso, leadership quality, sustainable development, academic competence introduction universities that already have good education systems are, of course, a combination of various components, such as lecturers, students, education-support staff, curricula, faculties, departments, study programs, facilities and infrastructure, finance, and so on. a university system can be divided into two subsystems, namely the hardware and the software (bargh et al., 2000). the hardware includes various tangible components, such as facilities, infrastructure, funding, and so on, while the software includes various abstract components like curricula, lecturer competence, courses (tachie & kariyana, 2022). many companies and organizations strive to meet internationally qualified quality standards, like those set by the international organization for standardization (iso). the widespread adoption of 1 dr. uin maulana malik ibrahim malang, indonesia, sugengsulistyo@uin-malang.ac.id mailto:sugengsulistyo@uin-malang.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 iso 9000 standards by various business and non-business organizations has attracted great interest from researchers looking to learn more about the benefits of implementing them (boiral, 2003; briscoe et al., 2005; gingele et al., 2002). according to feng et al. (2006), quality management with iso standards can be seen from three perspectives: i) planning for iso certification, ii) making an organizational commitment to quality, and iii) implementing standard operating procedures. the success or failure of implementing a quality management system (qms) is largely influenced by organizational culture (kekale, 1999; parncharoen et al., 2005; kujala & ullarank, 2004), because it is essentially a program for organizational change that requires transformations in organizational culture, processes, and beliefs (parncharoen et al., 2005). the relationship between the application of an iso-based qms and a quality culture was indicated by goetsch & davis (1994). in the case of a university, lecturers are the most critical component in the education system. indeed, the ability to face various future challenges lies in the hands of lecturers, so the support for lecturer development becomes a determining factor in the efficiency of higher education (west & bollington, 1990). therefore, to achieve this capacity, it is necessary to improve the curricula and infrastructure and better manage the institution. leadership is suspected to influence the professionalism of lecturers, which has the following characteristics: (1) a desire to pursue everbetter results, so lecturers always seek to improve their performance; (2) a seriousness and thoroughness that can only be achieved through experience and effort; (3) perseverance and persistence in chasing good results; and (4) an integrity that is not compromised by coercion or temptation. according to soedijarto (1993), lecturers’ professionalism requires them to be able to analyze, diagnose, and program educational situations. professional lecturers need to master (1) scientific disciplines as a source of learning materials; (2) teaching materials; (3) their knowledge of student characteristics; (4) their knowledge of philosophical and educational goals; (5) teaching methods and models; (6) the principles of educational technology; and (7) assessment and the ability to plan, lead, and facilitate the educational process. lecturers’ main competency is teaching students, but this does not stand alone separate from other abilities, because effective teaching requires basic skills in a range of areas. according to surya (2004), there are nine characteristics for an ideal lecturer, namely (1) having a fighting spirit accompanied by faith and piety; (2) being able to adapt to environmental demands and the progress prabowo 33 of science and technology; (3) being able to learn from, and cooperate with, other professions; (4) having a strong work ethic; (5) seeing clarity and certainty in the career-development path; (6) possessing a high level of professionalism; (7) having physical and spiritual well-being; (8) having insight into the future; and (9) being able to carry out functions and roles in an integrated manner. good lecturers must meet seven criteria: (1) by nature, lecturers must be enthusiastic, stimulating, encouraging, warm, task-oriented, hardworking, tolerant and polite, wise, trustworthy, flexible, and adaptable. they must be full of hope for their students rather than looking for personal advancement, able to overcome stereotypes, and capable of conveying their feelings and listening to others. (2) they must have adequate knowledge about the subjects they teach and always follow developments in them. (3) they must be able to ensure that the material they deliver covers all the elements that are expected by students. (4) their teaching methods must explaining various concepts clearly and succinctly, serve a variety of services, and encourage all students to participate. (5) they must be able to inspire hope in students, make students accountable, and encourage parental participation in advancing their children’s academic abilities. (6) they must accept various inputs, risks, and challenges and always support their students consistently. (7) lecturers must be able to demonstrate management expertise in planning and managing classes from the first day on the job and quickly gain the ability to handle two or more classes and activities at once. leadership tries to direct and influence subordinates to achieve desirable collective goals. good leadership therefore has three important qualities: (1) it involves other people who are willing to accept direction from the leader; (2) it includes asymmetrical distribution of power between the leader and subordinates, although the latter should still be able to influence the process; and (3) it uses various mechanisms to influence the behavior of subordinates in several ways (stoner et al., 2017). furthermore, donnelly et al. (2017) stated that leadership is the ability to influence other people, so they enthusiastically work to achieve goals. leadership involves two functions for a group to run effectively, namely problem solving and maintaining social cohesion. the first function involves providing suggestions, solutions, information, and opinions for achieving objectives, while the second concerns everything that will help the group work more effectively, such as mediating differences of opinion and so on (hani, 1998). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 in his or her efforts to influence, inspire, and direct others, a leader needs certain abilities, skills, and qualities to be successful. according to tead (2010), a leader must possess several basic abilities and qualities, including physical and mental energy, awareness of purpose and direction, enthusiasm, friendliness and love, integrity, technical mastery, decisiveness, intelligence, teaching skills, and beliefs. nawawi (1995) mentioned five main functions of leadership in the areas of instruction, consultation, participation, delegation, and control. a professional person, meanwhile, is someone who is loyal and possesses the expertise or skills to complete his or her work (sergiovanni, 1992). this loyalty to the job means that this person works for the job rather than a particular person, and even after leadership changes, such a person continues his or her duties regardless due to the loyalty attributed to the work. research questions based on the background to the problem, this research focuses on the influence of iso, as in the iso 21001:2018 standard, leadership quality on the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence and the implications this has for the academic performance of ptki students. the researchers therefore formulated the following research questions: 1) how does iso influence the sustainable development of ptki lecturers’ academic competence? 2) how does leadership influence the sustainable development of ptki lecturers’ academic competence? 3) how does the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence influence students’ academic performance? 4) how do iso, leadership, and the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence together influence students’ academic performance? 5) how does leadership influence student academic performance through the sustainable development of ptki lecturers’ academic competence? literature review iso and the sustainable development of competency the iso 21001:2018 standard is a quality management system for educational organizations, having been adapted from iso 9001:2015. thus, it was developed specifically for the education sector and its goal of providing high-quality education. the iso 21001 standard embodies prabowo 35 principles that encourage educational institutions to become more socially responsible and provide accessible and equitable educational services for students. it also helps educational institutions to increase the satisfaction of students, educators, education-support staff, and other stakeholders. according to brown, et. al., (1998), mears & voehl (1995), meyer & allen (1997), and zink (1994) in feng et al. (2006), an iso qms can be view from three perspectives, namely (1) planning for iso certification, (2) making an organizational commitment to quality, and (3) applying established standards procedures. the requirements of the iso 21001:2018 standard are general enough to be applicable to all curriculum-based institutions, both formal and informal, from kindergarten to university, from courses with face-to-face teaching to distance learning (elearning). the application of iso standards can improve employee performance very significantly. callista (2016), umiyati (2015), juana et al. (2016), and irawati (2013) have suggested that it has a positive and significant influence on employee performance, and this is of course very closely related to competence. many organizations strive to implement a qms with international qualifications, such as iso 9000, and the widespread adoption of iso by various businesses and non-profit organizations has led to researchers trying to find out more about the benefits of implementing an iso-based qms (boiral, 2003; briscoe et al., 2005; gingele et al., 2002). the success or failure of implementing an iso-based qms is largely influenced by factors in the organizational culture (kekale, 1999; parncharoen et al., 2005; kujala & ullarank, 2004), because iso is essentially a program for organizational change that necessitates transformations in organizational culture, processes, and beliefs (parncharoen et al., 2005). the relevance of an isobased qms to a culture of quality was pointed out by goetsch & davis (1994). this inevitably interacts with the academic competence of ptki lecturers. leadership quality’s effect on the sustainable development of competence the quality and commitment of educational staff is key to the success of any educational institution (burki, 1999). miller, et. a., (2001) stated that there are initially only two types of competencies that develop rapidly. these include 1) technical or functional competence, which could also be referred to as hard skills, representing the basic abilities a person needs to do his or her job well. in addition, there is 2) behavioral competence, which could also be called soft skills, and this represents behavioral aspects that help someone perform their role more effectively. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 lecturers of course need to be fully competent to perform well in their work, and this is also the basis for recruitment, performance evaluation, human resource development, career planning, and succession (mclagan, 1989). several studies have found that competence is significantly related to job performance. studies including those of liang et al. (2013); cruz, et. al., (2007); mathieu & schulze (2006); and moreland & myaskovsky (2000) have found that lecturer competence is a positive and significant predictor of lecturer performance, because it represents their ability to carry out their duties and responsibilities. this was supported by the research of rusydi (2017), which found that leadership has a positive and significant effect on lecturer competence. effect of iso on student performance as explained earlier, iso 21001:2018 is a qms that was specifically designed for educational organizations. with a good implementation in a school, it has a positive impact on the quality of student outcomes, so when a school can properly satisfy the various iso demands, it will almost certainly enhance student performance. the iso standard, when applied to educational institutions, can yield great benefits for students and schools (brown, et. al., 1998; mears & voehl, 1995). with iso standards, student performance in all aspects will increase, because the iso standards require students, teachers, and principals to take various actions according to the quality standards that have been set (meyer & allen, 1997). thus, with a thorough implementation of quality standards, the hope is that student performance will improve. when schools avoid applying quality standards, in contrast, this will of course have a negative impact on student performance (feng et al., 2006). thus, it can be concluded that applying the various iso standards will have a positive impact on student performance. the influence of leadership on student performance leadership has a significant direct effect on student performance, so the better the quality of leadership shown by principals and teachers, the better that student performance will be (burki, 1999). when university leaders are able to demonstrate good leadership to students, student performance will of course improve (miller, et. al., 2001). indeed, leadership plays a very big role in determining student competence and performance (mclagan, 1989), and universities that provide good examples to students have a positive impact on student performance (liang et al., prabowo 37 2013). a university must offer various forms of good leadership, so students can benefit from all of them and improve their performance (perez, & ramos, 2007). mathieu and schulze (2006) showed that the better that the leadership model practiced on campus is, the more positive the impact it will have on student performance (moreland & myaskovsky, 2000). this means that students experience decreased competence when higher education leadership is unable to set a good example for their students. students need leaders who make good choices, and when a better leadership model is presented to students, they perform better both academically and non-academically (rusydi, 2017). the effect of sustainable competence development on student performance the process of developing students’ academic competencies must be a continuous process in order to improve student performance. likewise, the more sustainable that academic competency is developed, the better that overall student performance will be. conversely, when lecturers’ academic development is unsustainable, it will cause student performance to also decrease. thus, when lecturers have the necessary competence to teach according to the planned curriculum, their students will perform better (bargh et al., 2000). in other words, student performance improves when their teachers’ academic competence is sustainably developed (boiral, 2003). striving for sustainable development of academic competencies requires non-trivial efforts, because it involves all institutional aspects, such as the learning process, resources, teaching methods, learning planning, assessment, extracurricular activities, and various student competitions (briscoe et al., 2005). these aspects comprise the atmosphere of an educational institution and affect student performance (gingele et al., 2002). the above leads us to speculate that the more sustainable the development of lecturers’ academic competence is, the better their students will perform. conversely, if the development of academic competence is sporadic or non-existent, students will perform worse academically. thus, to improve student academic performance, one step that could be taken is to enhance the sustainable development of academic competence. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 the influence of iso and leadership quality on the sustainable development of academic competence universities that already have a good education system are, of course, an amalgamation of various interrelated components, such as lecturers, students, education-support staff, curricula, faculties, departments, study programs, facilities and infrastructure, finance, and so on. as mentioned earlier, this system can be conceptually divided into two sub-systems, namely the hardware and software (bargh et al., 2000). many organizations strive to implement internationally qualified quality standards like iso 9000, and the widespread acceptance of iso 9000 has attracted great interest from researchers (boiral, 2003; briscoe et al., 2005; gingele et al., 2002). in the case of universities, lecturers are the most critical components in the education system. indeed, the ability of universities to face future challenges lies in the hands of their lecturers, so the pattern of support for developing these lecturers professionally becomes a determining factor in an institution’s efficiency (west & bollington, 1990). therefore, to improve the overall quality of higher education, developing lecturers must be high on the agenda. of course, this should not be seen as denigrating efforts to improve the curricula, infrastructure, and management practices of higher education institutions, but without qualified, professional, and motivated lecturers, everything else becomes meaningless. according to soedijarto (1993), professional lecturers need to be able to analyze, diagnose, and program educational situations. they need to master (1) scientific disciplines as a source of learning materials; (2) the teaching materials being taught; (3) their knowledge of student characteristics; (4) their philosophical and educational goals; (5) teaching methods and models; (6) the principles of educational technology; and (7) assessment and the ability to plan, lead, and facilitate the educational process. the main competency that must be mastered by lecturers is teaching, but this does not stand alone in isolation from other abilities, because classroom teaching requires some essential skills. according to surya (2004), an ideal lecturer has nine characteristics, namely (1) a fighting spirit accompanied by faith and piety; (2) the ability to adapt to environmental demands and progress in science and technology; (3) the ability to learn from, and cooperate with, other professionals; (4) a strong work ethic; (5) clarity and certainty in the development of a career path; (6) a professional attitude; (7) physical and spiritual wellbeing; (8) insight into the future; and (9) the ability to carry out his or her functions and roles in an integrated manner. the research conducted by callista prabowo 39 (2016), umiyati (2015), juana et al. (2016), and irawati (2013) suggests that competence has a positive and significant influence on employee performance. method research design this research adopted a quantitative approach with a correlational design (creswell, 2014). a correlational research design investigates relationships between variables without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them. a correlation reflects the strength and/or direction of the relationship between two (or more) variables. the direction of a correlation can be either positive or negative approach, which was chosen because the researcher wanted to establish the effect of exogenous variables on endogenous variables, either directly or indirectly through intervening variables (creswell, 2009). four variables were correlated in this study, namely: iso (x1) and leadership quality (x2) as independent variables, sustainable academic competence of lecturers (y1) and student performance (y2) as the dependent variables. in relation to the research hypothesis testing, this study is a form of verification research, because it intends to verify the results of data analysis from the field with results from relevant previous studies through hypothesis testing (creswell, 2009; 2014). sample the population for this study were the lecturers and students at ptki colleges in indonesia, more specifically at the maulana malik ibrahim state islamic university in malang. the total population was therefore 303 lecturers, with a sample of 150 lecturers being selected using proportional random sampling stratification (see table 1). the total student population comprised 9,217 students, with stratified random sampling again being used to obtain a sample of 150 students (see table 2). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 table 1 population and sample of lecturers position population sample professor 19 9 associate professor 64 30 lecturer 163 81 expert assistant 67 30 total 303 150 the student sample was classified into four-year groups (see table 2). table 2 student population and sample student level (year) population sample i 22,505 41 ii 2,470 40 iii 2.126 35 iv 2.116 34 amount 9,217 150 instrument the instrument of this study is a questionnaire consisting of 24 items. ad seen in table 3, the questionnaire consisted of (1) iso 4 items, (2) leadership quality 8 items, (3) sustainable competence development 6 items, and (4) student performance 6 items. the questionnaire was devised by the researcher himself. prior to the application to collect data, validity and reliability test were applied the results of which were described in table 3 and table 4. table 3 validity test results for iso (x1), leadership quality (x2), the sustainable development of competence (y), and student performance (z) variable rcount rtable sig description iso (x1) 0.818 0.1339 0.000 valid 0.815 0.1339 0.000 0.786 0.1339 0.000 0.463 0.1339 0.000 leadership quality (x2) 0.624 0.1339 0.000 valid 0.755 0.1339 0.000 0.467 0.1339 0.000 0.672 0.1339 0.000 0.593 0.1339 0.000 0.545 0.1339 0.000 0.707 0.1339 0.000 prabowo 41 0.39 0.1339 0.000 sustainable competence development (y1) 0.288 0.1339 0.000 valid 0.603 0.1339 0.000 0.631 0.1339 0.000 0.452 0.1339 0.000 0.5 0.1339 0.000 0.485 0.1339 0.000 student performance (y2) 0.254 0.1339 0.000 valid 0.653 0.1339 0.000 0.623 0.1339 0.000 0.454 0.1339 0.000 0.523 0.1339 0.000 0.443 0.1339 0.000 from table 3 above, it can be seen that each statement item has an rcount > rtable and is positive with a value of sig < 0.05, so all statement items can be declared valid. table 4 reliability test results for iso (x1), leadership quality (x2), sustainable competence development (y), and student performance (y2) variable cronbach's alpha critical value description iso (x1) 0.677 0.6 reliable leadership quality (x2) 0.731 0.6 reliable sustainable competency development (y1) 0.699 0.6 reliable student performance (y2) 0.759 0.6 reliable from table 3 and table 4 above, the results of the analysis above reveal that the cronbach’s alpha value for the x1 variable is 0.677, while it is 0.731 for x2 and 0.699 for y. it can therefore be concluded that the items of the research instrument are reliable, because these values are all greater than 0.6. data collection the data for this study comprised primary and secondary data. primary data were obtained directly from the distribution of questionnaires to the respondents, so the data-collection methods used in this study include questionnaire distribution and documentation. table 5 indicates how indicators were embedded in the questionnaire. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 table 5 questionnaire grid variable dimension indicator scale iso (x1) accountability 1. organizing education, producing graduate products interval alignment curriculum 2. ensuring that the materials taught are in accordance with the standards and assessments expected by the state or society evaluation 3. identifying individual and collective needs and outcomes student satisfaction 4. making available faculty study/remediation and special services leadership quality (x2) innovator 1. innovation ability interval 2. conceptual ability communicator 3. ability to convey the meaning and purpose of communication 4. the ability to understand and grasp the essence of a conversation motivator 5. the ability to encourage employees to work more effectively 6. the ability to contribute to the successful achievement of organizational goals controller 7. the ability to effectively supervise 8. the ability to use resources effectively sustainable competency development (y1) knowledge 1. awareness in the cognitive field interval understanding 2. the cognitive and affective depth of the individual ability/skills (skills) 3. the ability of employees to choose work methods that are more effective and efficient value (value) 4. standards of behavior for employees when carrying out their duties attitude 5. reactions to economic crises, feelings toward salary increases, and so on interest 6. interest in tasks and activities student performance (y2) daily value improved daily value increase interval mid-semester grades improved mid-semester exam scores individual assignment score enhanced value in individual assignments group assignment scores enhanced value in group assignments semester final exam score improved final semester exam scores extracurricular value enhanced extracurricular value data analysis statistical software called spss version 25.0 was used to look at the data. in this study, cressweell's (2014) strategies for testing regression are used to look at the data. there are two types of data analysis: testing the classic assumptions with the normality test and the linearity test, and testing the regression to see how the variables are related. validity and reliability tests were prabowo 43 also used to look at the data from the instrument tests. after making sure that all of the instrument items and variables were valid and accurate, the researchers went out into the field. in order to determine whether or not it was possible to use the data obtained from the distributed questionnaire for hypothesis testing, which took the form of simple regression and multiple regression, the data were first put through the traditional assumption test, which established whether or not it was possible to use the data. the ability to determine whether or not a sample was taken from a non-normal distribution is referred to as "power," and it is the most common way to measure the value of a test for normality. because the assumption of normal data is implicit in parametric testing, many statistical tests require that it first be determined whether or not the data in question are normally distributed. normality tests are utilized in the field of statistics for the purpose of determining whether or not a data set can be adequately modeled by a normal distribution and computing the likelihood that a random variable underlying the data set will be normally distributed. linearity is the ability of a test to give results that are directly related to the amount of the measurand (the thing being measured) in the test sample. testing for linearity is important because many statistical methods depend on the assumption that data are linear (i.e. the data was sampled from a population that relates the variables of interest in a linear fashion). the linearity test has a significance value less than 0.05, which means that there is a straight line between how old you are and how much you smoke. the test for deviation from linearity also has a small significance value, which means that there is a nonlinear component to the relationship in addition to the linear one. as it does not compare two groups the homogeneity test is not required. this study is based on 5 main hypotheses, which were broken down into 10 sub-hypotheses. spss package software was used to look at all of the data. results classic assumption test the results of the normality test (table 6) using kolmogorov-smirnov test and the linearity test are presented in the classical assumption test (table 7). one of the most common ways to evaluate the usefulness of a test for normality is by looking at its power, which is defined as the ability to determine whether or not a sample was taken from a non-normal distribution. because table 6 reveals that every variable possesses significant values that are greater than 0.05, indicating that journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 the data from this investigation is normally distributed, the subsequent statistical process can be carried out successfully. table 6 kolmogorov-smirnov test — one-sample normality test results variable significance description variables x1 0.078 normal variable x2 0.085 normal variable y 0.455 normal variable z 0.435 normal in the normality assumption test table above, it can be seen that all the significance values for the normality model are greater than 0.05, so it can be concluded that the normality assumption is met. in addition, table 7 that shows the linearity test. table 7 linearity test results variable f significance description x1 against y1 12,231 0.002 linear x2 against y1 43,541 0.001 linear x1 against y2 32,345 0.000 linear x2 against y2 12,342 0.003 linear y against z 56,349 0.000 linear from table 7, we can be seen that all the significance values for the linear model are less than 0.05, so it can be said that the assumption of linearity for the structural model has been fulfilled. figure 1. heteroscedasticity test results in the graph in figure 1 above, the dots are spread randomly, do not form a clear pattern, and are spread both above and below 0 (zero) on the y axis, so there is no heteroscedasticity. prabowo 45 hypothesis testing this study's five primary hypotheses are further developed into a total of ten hypotheses in this section. the results of the testing for the first to the fifth hypotheses are shown in table 8 below. table 8 direct partial effects effect of r r2 t p sign. x1-y 0.277 0.077 10.209 0.000 x2-y 0.192 0.037 7.223 0.000 x1-z 0.438 0.192 5.922 0.000 x2-z 0.261 0.068 3.292 0.001 yz 0.645 0.417 10.280 0.000 source: results of primary data analysis 2021 (summarized) h1: iso has a positive and significant effect on the sustainable development of academic competency for ptki lecturers. based on the results of the hypothesis testing summarized in table 8, the effect of the iso variable on the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence has an r of 0.277 and an r2 of 0.077 with a t of 10.209 and a significance of 0.000 (<0.05), so it can be concluded that this effect is positive and significant, thus confirming h1. the coefficient of determination (i.e., the adjusted r square) of 0.077 means that variation in the iso variable explains 7.7% of the variation in the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence, with the remaining 92.3% being determined by other factors. h2: leadership quality has a positive and significant effect on the sustainable development of academic competency for ptki lecturers. the regression results yielded an r of 0.192 and an r2 of 0.037 with a t of 7.223 and a significance of 0.000 (<0.05), showing that leadership has a positive and significant effect on the sustainable development of academic competence for ptki lecturers, thus confirming h2. the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) of 0.037 means that variation in the leadership variable explains 3.7% of the variation in the sustainable development of academic competence for lecturers, with the remaining 96.3% being due to other factors. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 h3: iso has a positive and significant effect on the academic performance of ptki students based on the results of hypothesis testing shown in table 8, the effect of the iso variable (x1) on student performance (z) has an r of 0.438 and an r2 of 0.192 with a t of 5.922 and a significance of (0.000 <0.05), so it can be concluded that the effect is positive and significant and that h3 can be accepted. the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) of 0.192 means that variation in the iso variable can explain 19.2% of the variation in the academic performance of students, with the remaining 80.8% being due to other factors. h4: leadership quality has a positive and significant effect on the academic performance of ptki students. the regression results yielded an r of 0.261 and an r2 of 0.068 with a t of 3.292 and a significance of 0.001 (<0.05), so leadership has a positive and significant effect on the academic performance of ptki students and h4 can be accepted. the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) of 0.068 means that variation in the leadership variable can explain 6.8% of the variation in student academic performance, with the remaining 93.2% being due to other factors. h5: the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence has a positive and significant effect on the academic performance of ptki students. the regression results yielded an r of 0.645 and an r2 of 0.417 with a t of 10.280 and a significance of 0.000 (<0.05), so the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence has a positive and significant effect on the academic performance of ptki students and h5 can be accepted. the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) of 0.417 means that variation in the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence can explain 41.7% of the academic performance of students, with the remaining 58.3% being due to other factors. the testing results for the sixth, seventh, and eighth hypotheses can be seen in table 9 below. prabowo 47 table 9 combined influences effect of r r2 f f table t p sig. x1,x2-y 0.283 0.080 6.388 3.057 6.644 0.001 x1,x2-z 0.439 0.193 17.564 3.057 9.055 0.000 x1,x2,yz 0.699 0.489 46.584 2.666 5.525 0.000 source: results of primary data analysis 2021 (summarized) h6: iso and leadership quality have a positive and significant combined effect on the sustainable development of ptki lecturers’ academic competence. based on the regression results, the combined effect of iso and leadership on academic competence has an r of 0.283 and an r2 of 0.080 with an fcount of 6.388, which is greater than the ftable of 3.057, with a significance value of 0.001 (< 0.05), so it is positive and significant and h6 can be accepted. the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) of 0.080 means that variation in iso and leadership together can explain 8.0% of the variation in the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence, with the remaining 92.0% being due to other factors not included in this research model. h7: iso and leadership quality have a positive and significant combined effect on the academic performance of ptki students. based on the regression results, the combined effect of iso and leadership on student academic performance has an r of 0.438 and an r2 of 0.193 with an fcount of 17.564, which is greater than the ftable of 3.057, with a significance value of 0.001 (<0.05), so the effect is positive and significant and h7 can be accepted. the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) of 0.193 means that variation in iso and leadership together explain 19.3% of the variation in academic performance, with the remaining 80.7% being due to other factors. h8. iso, leadership quality, and the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence have a positive and significant combined effect on the academic performance of ptki students. based on the regression results, it was found that the combined effect of iso, leadership, and the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence on student academic performance has an r of 0.699 with an r2 of 0.489 with an fcount of 46.584, which is greater than the ftable of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 2.666, with a significance value of 0.000 (<0.05), so the effect is positive and significant and h8 can be accepted. the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) of 0.489 means that variation in iso, leadership, and the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence together can explain 48.9% of the variation in the academic performance, with the remaining 51.1% being due to other factors that are not included in this research model. the testing results for the ninth and tenth hypotheses tests are shown in table 10 below. table 10 indirect influence effect of r calculate r2 r table x1-yz 0.178 0.031 0.1603 x2-yz 0.123 0.015 0.1603 source: results of primary data analysis 2021 (summarized) h9. iso has a significant indirect effect on student academic performance through the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence. the testing results yielded an r of 0.178, which is greater than the r table of 0.1603, so iso has a significant indirect effect on student academic performance through the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence. the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) is 0.031 meaning that the iso variable explains the academic performance of students through the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence by 3.1%, with the remaining 96.9% being due to other factors. h10. leadership has a significant indirect effect on students’ academic performance through the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence. the testing results yielded an r of 0.123, which is greater than the r table of 0.1603, so leadership has a significant indirect effect on student academic performance through the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence. the coefficient of determination (adjusted r square) of 0.015 means that variation in the leadership variable indirectly explains 1.5% of the variance in academic performance through the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence, with the remaining 98.5% being due to other factors. prabowo 49 the above analysis results, when the research model is compiled, are summarized in figure 2. figure 2. path analysis description: : immediate influence : indirect influence discussion the effect of iso on the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence this study proves that iso has a positive and significant effect on academic competence, as can be seen from the results of the t-test, with a tcount of 3.553 being greater than the ttable of 1.65508 at a significance level of 0.047, which is less than 0.05. the coefficient value of 0.280 means that iso explains the academic competence of lecturers by 2.8%. this finding agrees with research conducted by callista (2016), umiyati (2015), juana et al. (2016), and irawati (2013), who all suggested a positive and significant influence on employee performance, which is of course very closely related to competence. in addition, many organizations strive to implement internationally qualified quality standards, such as the iso standards, and this has attracted great interest from researchers (boiral, 2003; briscoe et al., 2005; gingele et al., 2002). the success or failure of implementing iso is largely down to factors in the organizational culture (kekale, 1999; parncharoen et al., 2005; kujala & ullarank, 2004), because iso is essentially a program for organizational change (parncharoen et al., 2005). the relevance of the iso standard sustainabilit y improvement of lecturer performance iso leadership student academic performa nce (z) 0.27 7 0.19 2 0.43 8 0.26 1 0.64 5 0.28 3 0.43 9 0.69 9 0.17 8 0.12 3 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 qms to a culture of quality was indicated by goetsch and davis (1994), and this is of course highly relevant to the academic competence possessed by ptki lecturers. influence of leadership on the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence leadership also has a positive and significant effect on academic competence, as can be seen from the t-test results obtained, with the tcount of 3.551 being greater than the ttable of 1.65508 with a significance level of 0.048, which is less than 0.05. furthermore, the leadership coefficient value of 0.280 means that the influence of leadership on academic competence is 2.8%. in other words, the better the leadership given to lecturers, the better their development of academic competence will be. higher education leaders are central figures who determine direction and policy for an organization, so the two dimensions of leadership, namely transactional leadership and transformational leadership, must be practiced in tandem with an emphasis on transformational leadership. this finding agrees with research conducted by rusydi (2017) and west & bollington (1990). the effect of iso on student academic performance iso clearly has a significant effect on student academic performance, so when universities wish to improve student academic performance, they could apply the various quality standards suggested by the iso. when standard operating procedures (sops) have been prepared to gain recognition from iso, they should all be applied to students to improve student performance. on the other hand, when universities are unable to implement the sops required by iso, the academic performance of students is unlikely to improve. indeed, the level of student academic competence is highly dependent on the level of application for iso quality standards. the effect of leadership on student academic performance the results of the hypothesis testing revealed that leadership positively affects student academic performance, so the better the leadership that is served to the academic community, the greater the performance of students will be in terms of academic achievement, non-academic achievements, and other achievements that will enhance the good name of a university. prabowo 51 a better leadership model leads to a better academic climate, and this has a significant direct influence on student academic performance. therefore, when universities want to improve student academic performance, steps need to be taken to improve the quality of leadership for lecturers, department heads, deans, and other leading players. the findings of this study provide a complete picture for improving student academic performance in terms of academic achievement and non-academic achievement in various campus activities. it would be preferable of course to have a good example of an applied leadership model. when applied in higher education, democratic leadership models tend to work much better than more authoritarian leadership models, especially considering that the students are much more mature than when they were in secondary or elementary school. the effect of the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence on student academic performance the analysis results show that the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence has a positive effect on student academic performance. this means that to improve students’ academic performance, universities should take action to sustainably develop their lecturers’ academic competence. on the other hand, if the lecturers’ academic competence is allowed to decline, the students’ academic performance will also decline. it is therefore vital for campus leaders to support the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competencies to achieve optimal student academic performance. the combined effect of iso and leadership on the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence this study proves that iso and leadership have a combined effect on competence, with them together explaining 9.1% of the variation in the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence. in a university, lecturers are a vital component in the education system, and the ability of universities to face future challenges lies in their hands. thus, the pattern of support for lecturer development is a determining factor for a university’s efficiency (west & bollington, 1990; soedijarto, 1993). the combined influence of iso and leadership on student academic performance iso and leadership have a combined effect on student academic performance. what is more, this combined effect of 0.283 is more powerful than the individual effects of 0.277 and 0.192, respectively. to achieve greater improvement in student academic performance, iso and better journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 leadership practices should be applied in tandem, because there is strong empirical evidence to suggest this will achieve better results than applying them individually. the combined influence of iso, leadership, and the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence on student academic performance the combined influence of iso, leadership, and the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence on student academic performance was found to be positive and significant. therefore, to improve student academic performance, it is necessary to consider improving all these three factors together rather than in isolation. this is intuitively rational given that all three factors will make unique but complementary contributions to improving student performance. this finding should inform campus leaders, from the chancellor to the lecturers, in developing interventions to improve student academic performance, both on and off campus, by implementing iso quality standards, providing good leadership, and supporting the continuous development of lecturers’ academic competence. conclusion based on the results of the data analysis and discussions in this study, some conclusions can be reached: first, both iso and leadership individually have a positive and significant influence on the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence and the academic performance of ptki students. second, the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence has a positive and significant influence on the academic performance of students. third, iso and leadership together have a significant combined influence on both the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence and the academic performance of ptki students. fourth, iso, leadership, and the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence have a significant combined influence on the academic performance of ptki students. in addition, there is also a significant indirect effect, with iso influencing student academic performance through the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence. the implementation of the iso quality standards has a greater effect on improving the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence than improved leadership does. the managerial implication of this is that when higher education leaders want to improve the sustainable development of their lecturers’ academic competence, they should first prioritize implementing the iso standards consistently. that said, the combined effect of iso and leadership is much prabowo 53 greater than the individual effects, so this process will achieve even better results when combined with enhanced leadership practices. this will also have a greater effect in terms of improving student performance, which can be further enhanced by other efforts to enhance the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence. indeed, iso, leadership, and the sustainable development of lecturers’ academic competence work in a complementary manner to improve student performance, more so than if they were pursued separately. future researchers could continue this line of research in other areas, such as for factors like quality of learning, the adequacy of facilities and infrastructure, and various other aspects, either in a similar or different scope. references bargh, c., bargh, & scott, p. (2000). university leadership: the role of the chief executive. open university press. boiral, o. (2003). iso 9000: outside the iron cage. organization science, 14(6), 720-737. briscoe, j. a., fawcett, s. e. & todd, r. h. (2005). the implementation and impact of iso 9000 among small manufacturing enterprises. journal of small business management, 43(3), 309-330. brown, a., van der wiele, t., & loughton, k. (1998). smaller enterprises' experiences with iso 9000. international journal of quality & reliability management. burki, s. j., perry, g., & dillinger, w. r. (eds.). (1999). beyond the center: decentralizing the state. world bank publications. https://doi.org/10.1596/0-8213-4521-4 callista, n. (2016). the influence of hr competence on employee performance at pt. tresnamuda sejati surabaya branch. agora, 4(2), 45-50. creswell, j. w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. approaches: fourth edition. sage publications creswell, j. w. (2009). research design qualitative, quantitavie, and mixed methods approaches. eds. vicki knight, sean connelly, sarah k. quesenberry, and marilyn power scott. los angeles: sage publication. cruz, n. m., perez, v. m., & ramos, y. f. (2007). transactive memory processes that lead to better team results. team performance management: an international journal. https://doi.org/10.1596/0-8213-4521-4 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 31-55 donnelly, j., gibson, j., & ivancevich, j. (2017). fundamentals of management. richard d. irwin. gingele, j., childe, s. j. & miles, m. e. (2002). a modeling technique for reengineering business processes controlled by iso 9001. computers in industry, 49(3), 236-251. goetsch, d. l. & davis, s. m. (1994). introduction to total quality: quality, productivity, competitiveness (merrill's international series in engineering technology). prentice hall international inc. irawati, d. (2013). characteristics factors influencing the implementation of clean and healthy life behavior in tangunan village, puri district, mojokerto regency. hospital majapahit journal of health sciences, health polytechnic of majapahit mojokerto, 5(2). iso 21001. (2018). educational organizations-management systems for educational organizations-requirements with guidance for use. iso. juana, n. p. p., sudibya, i. g. a., & sintaasih, d. k. (2016). effect of quality management system implementation iso 9001:2008 on employee performance by mediation of job satisfaction. journal of the bulletin of economic studies, 21(1), 91-101. kekale, t. (1999). the effects of organizational culture on successes and failures implementation of some total quality management approach. bristol business school teaching and research review, 1(1), 1-15. kujala, j., & ullrank, p. (2004). total quality management as a cultural phenomenon. quality management journal, 11(4), 43-55. liang, c. j., lin, y. l., & huang, h. f. (2013). effect of core competence on organizational performance in an airport shopping center. journal of air transport management, 31, 2326. mathieu, j. e., & schulze, w. (2006). the influence of team knowledge and formal plans on episodic team process-performance relationships. academy of management journal, 49(3), 605-619. mclagan, p. (1989). models for hrd practice. the american society for training and development. mears, p., & voehl, f. (1995). the executive guide to implementing quality systems. crc press. mei feng, t., terziovski, m. & samson, d. (2006). relationship of iso 9001:200 quality system certification with operational and business performance. journal of manufacturing technology management, 19(1), 22-37. prabowo 55 meyer, j. p., & allen, n. j. (1997). commitment in the workplace: theory, research, and application. sage publications. miller, e., rankin, n., & neathey, f. (2001). competency frameworks in uk organizations. cipd. moreland, r. l., & myaskovsky, l. (2000). exploring the performance benefits of group training: transactive memory or improved communication? organizational behavior and human decision processes, 82(1), 117-133. nawawi, h. (1995). social research methods. gajah mada university press. parncharoen, c., girardi, a. & entrekin, l. (2005). the impact of cultural values on the successful implementation of total quality management: a comparison between the australian and thai models. total quality management, 5(1), 597– 609. rusydi, m. (2017). the role of leadership in supporting the competence and achievements of lecturers kopertis region ix city of makassar. rev. eur. stud., 9, 170. sergiovanni, t. (1992). moral leadership: getting to the heart of school improvement. joseybass. stoner, j., freeman, r., & gilbert, d. (2017). management (6th ed.). pearson. surya, m. (2004). psychology of learning and teaching. bani quraysh library. tachie, s. a. & kariyana, i. (2022). time divested or time invested? freshmen’s perspectives and reflective experiences on interactive school learning. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 7(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.2 tead, o. (2010). human nature and management. literary licensing. umiyati, u. (2015). effect of quality management system iso 9001:2008 and participation in budgeting on managerial performance. ethics, 14(1), 194846. west, m., & bollington, r. (1990). teacher appraisal: a practical guide for schools. david fulton publishers. 3 november 2021 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2021:12 (4), 344-364 peace education and learning on marine law in social conflict handling indien winarwati1 abstract the purpose of this research is to learn about the division of authority in the management of marine resources and the handling of social conflicts that occur between fishermen in terms of peace education in national law. this study uses a normative juridical research methodology by conducting a comprehensive study of theoretical aspects, legal rules and legal principles that focus on the authority of sea management and handling social conflicts through peace education on madura island, east java province, indonesia. the main data sources are secondary data obtained from primary legal materials, documentation, and relevant research studies. the data analysis technique uses content analysis which is intended to describe the characteristics and draw inferences from the research conducted. the results showed two main points. first, since the enactment of law number 23 of 2014, the authority for marine management by the district government has been abolished and taken over by the provincial government. as a result, the district government can only receive reports from the community about conflicts between fishermen and no longer have the authority to manage the sea. on the positive side, it minimizes the abuse of power, but from the negative side, the community is getting further away from the district/city authorities who are supposed to handle conflicts between fishermen in their area. more deeply, the provincial government streamlines the formation and development of community supervisory groups (pokmaswas) as a form of cooperation in the supervision of marine and fishery resources by security forces and law enforcement as well as the community. second, the law related to handling social conflicts is an effort to implement peace education because it is carried out in the context of dealing with conflicts without violence for the sake of harmony, unity, and peace by involving all parties involved in conflicts between fishermen. the conclusion is that the formation of pokmaswas and laws and regulations are not sufficient for handling conflicts between fishermen, they need to be supported by district/city regional policies as owners of management places/areas for equitable distribution of welfare and justice. local governments need to instill peace values as mandated in the national law, pancasila, and the preamble to the 1945 constitution in various peace education and training programs by focusing on anti-violance training. keywords: peace education, learning, marine law, social conflict handling introduction maritime countries around the world face global challenges in managing coastal areas. one of the contributing factors is the increasing conflict and political pressure as well as extreme climate change (saul et al., 2016). the study found that there are non-traditional threats to maritime security due to the problem of scarcity of marine resources in the territory of a country. poorly regulated maritime authorities can pose the worst threat to maritime security and lead to conflict. 1lecturer, universitas trunojoyo madura, indonesia,indientrunojoyo@gmail.com mailto:indientrunojoyo@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 345 it is very important to strengthen governance, address root causes and build political capacity and power to prevent a cycle of 'fish wars' in the world's countries (pomeroy et al., 2016). along with the increasing need for stakeholder involvement to understand the various threats and handling of fisheries, conflicts require a comprehensive study not only from the empirical aspect but also legal studies as a 'shield' in protecting rights and carrying out obligations as citizens. not without reason, from 1974 until now, international maritime conflicts over marine resources have increased every year, especially between the americas and europe (souhail, 2021). fishery conflicts have involved a very large degree of severity, especially for asian countries because they have caused crises that threaten maritime security, natural ecosystems, and the livelihoods of local communities (spijkers et al., 2019). indonesia as a maritime country is also inseparable from the dynamics of fisheries conflicts. the waters that reach 5.8 million km2 with potential marine fish resources are estimated at 6.26 million tons per year and the productivity of fishermen is estimated at an average of 1.35 tons/person/year. interests with the sea. therefore, it is not surprising that conflict is very common (daris et al., 2019). as a maritime country, the indonesian state cannot be separated from the debate over the authority to manage the sea and the conflicts that occur between fishermen. one of the national laws that divide the authority of marine management is law no. 23 of 2014 concerning local government. after the enactment of the law, this division of authority has created a polemic because it has removed the authority over the sea from the regency/city government. the previous study found that there was a negative impact caused by law no. 32 of 2014 concerning regional government because the authority of the district/city local government was weak regarding the handling of social conflicts that occurred between local fishermen (iskandar et al., 2017). this raises problems related to the handling of conflicts between fishermen that occur in coastal areas, especially the madura strait, east java province.. based on data from the central statistics agency of east java province, the madura strait has a marine fishery potential of 128,854 tons/year, which is quite high compared to other areas so that it becomes a fishing location for fishermen from cities and districts (primyastanto et al., 2014). this shows that some of the madurese fishing communities depend on the sea for their lives by catching fish in the sea. winarwati the utilization of fishery resources in the madura strait has created conflicts among its users. the fishermen often do an unfair competition to get increasingly limited resources. the literature states that this kind of condition encourages conflicts between users of fisheries resources, such as fishing conflicts (saavedra-díaz et al., 2015) and triggers future maritime conflicts (spijkers et al., 2018). according to dahrendorf (1958) theory, social conflict can arise because of the gap between goals, objectives, plans, and functions between the various parties involved. the root cause of this conflict is often associated with social, economic, cultural, and biophysical factors that affect the condition of the coastal environment. previous studies found that fisheries conflicts in indonesia occur when fishermen are faced with the problem of decreasing the number of fishery resources and overfishing sea conditions, while on the other hand, they will face migrant fishermen from other areas (yamazaki et al., 2018). fisheries resources are essentially regulated by authorities through law, governance, and granting access to fishery business actors who already have a permit (enright & boteler., 2020). coastal communities as fishery actors are fishermen who in some communities apply the principles of fisheries resource management as common property. in this case, it is very important to study peace education as a form of handling fisheries conflicts that occur in the community. previous studies have explained that peace education affects intergovernmental relations, conflict resolution, and competing societies (deardorff, 2018; lee, 2020; olayinka, 2021). the findings of rafols & mitra (2018) state that peace education in maritime conflict areas must be integrated into a qualified education system, promote interactive dialogue between stakeholders, mediation and apply conflict resolution methods that lead to mental changes and respond to behavior from the perspective of peace values. peace education on maritime management authority in the realm of conflict resolution through the study of national law is a novelty in this research because most of the previous studies focused on investigating conflicts between fishermen. previous research has also revealed the importance of legal learning because of its impact on society and the environment(situmorang et al., 2021; seregig, 2018).based on the background of the problem presented by the researcher, this research focuses on the authority to manage marine resources and handle conflicts between fishermen through peace education in terms of national law. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 347 research questions based on this background, the research problem is formulated as follows: 1. what are the lessons learned from the marine resources management authority on the madura government in the national law? 2. what are the lessons learned from the marine resources management authority on handling conflicts between fishermen through peace education in national law? literature review peace education peace education is education that seeks to transform a person in an essential way. peace education is carried out by cultivating skills, knowledge, actions, and values to change a person's way of thinking, acting, and behavior that has the potential to cause violent conflict with individuals/community groups. this theory appears to warn fellow citizens about the importance of social care as a form of concern for the threat of interpersonal violence and environmental problems such as ecocide, war, ethnic hatred, and racism (harris, 2004). the study states that peace education is very important as an effort to educate for global responsibility. this is because peace education includes activities that can promote knowledge, skills, and attitudes to help others (reardon, 1988). although the nature of peace education is a little difficult to understand because it is related to the values of freedom, equality, and justice, its nature as prevention of conflict, peaceful conflict resolution, and being able to create more harmonious, peaceful, and peaceful social conditions (bar-tal, 2002). the literature reveals that peace education should take place in an atmosphere of peace and mutual respect with the involvement of all parties. with the involvement of all parties in conflict resolution/prevention or violence both on a local and personal scale, this education is able to create a better and sustainable future for the wider community. to be able to make it happen, it must include the values of peace both separately and integrated with all lines and types of education (danesh, 2006). peace education is an important concept in a society that describes the values of peace. the determinants of individual peace for peace education include respect for race, gender, religion, culture, physical appearance, one's age, unity, good cooperation, and fairness. knowledge of these personality determinants can provide a foundation for creating, identifying, and improving peace winarwati education programs (nelson, 2021). the findings state that peace education aims to teach individuals/groups to handle conflict without conflict, teach to appreciate cross-cultural diversity, to respond to aspects of life, and increase enthusiasm in social activities (bajaj, 2008). some of the universal obstacles in realizing the achievement of peace, namely; 1) distrust of the peace process; 2) stereotyped expression, demonization, and de-humanization of the enemy; 3) changing its function into political education; and 4) consider war as a culture (souhail, 2021). marine management authority authority is the ability or right and formal power granted by law to cause legal consequences. authority consists of power over a certain group or group of people and power over a certain area of government (ginsburg, 2017) . the power in question is that there is one party who rules and the other party is ruled (metzger, 2008). marine management authority is understood as the authority to manage marine natural resources including exploitation, exploration, conservation, and management of marine wealth outside of oil and natural gas (vierros et al., 2010). maritime authority is exercised by legal authorities in the context of coastal and marine development by empowering communities, managing and establishing institutions (enright & boteler., 2020). governance and increased involvement of users of coastal resources in the short, medium, and long term are generally carried out to maintain marine ecosystems (dahuri & dutton, 2000). new south wales (nsw) marine management authority principles in order to address the unintended consequences of various threats from human activities and climate change. first, effective community involvement to identify and prioritize benefits and threats. second, identification of priority actions based on threat and risk assessment. third, providing the best information and setting values that enable trade-off decisions between alternative uses in marine areas. fourth, consider the welfare of generations and access arrangements by implementing the precautionary principle. fifth, implement efficient, transparent, and cost-effective management to achieve results for society and fill knowledge gaps (brooks et al., 2020). conflict handling conflict handling is a series of activities carried out in a systematic and well-planned manner in situations and events both before, during, and after the incident. the mode of handling interpersonal conflict is carried out in five ways, namely competing, collaborating, compromising, journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 349 avoiding, and making accommodations (kilmann & thomas, 1977). according to cosier & ruble (1981), conflict-handling behavior needs to pay attention to the tendency to choose the mode of handling, examine the strategies adopted, and differences in one's ability to influence the choice of conflict-handling modes. cultural values and individual emotional intelligence are the main determinants of conflict-handling styles. in this regard, collectivism has a direct negative effect on preferences in conflict management (gunkel et al., 2016). the impact of conflict is of various types, namely 1) personal conflict that results in the emergence of hypocritical or hypocritical behavior; 2) conflict in the family results in a broken home; 3) inter-tribal conflicts result in intertribal wars, and 4) conflicts between sects within the same religion resulted in the division of the ummah (garnier, 1982). previous research found that the culture of violence from conflict and post-conflict can be minimized through peace education (riyani et al., 2021; hove, 2019). conflict handling is done by instilling patriotism, handling emotions, empathy and cooperation, problemsolving, negotiation, and resolution (harber, 2018). method research design this study uses a normative juridical research design or doctrinal law. juridical-normative research design is a research design that examines aspects of theories, concepts, legal principles, and written legislation related to research. this legal research uses documents, such as law as the secondary data, which is then followed by general explanations and the strength to bind data in the field or to the community with government regulation. a data collection tool is a documentary study (llewellyn, 1940). the normative juridical research design is shown to the legal language by looking at the application of the law to the laws and regulations concerning local governments, especially the authority to manage marine resources. this study is specifically directed at the laws and regulations concerning the handling of social conflicts through the provision of peace education and agrarian law. researchers chose this type of legal research because previous studies saw a gap between the desired legal rules (das sollen) and the reality (das sein) related to conflicts between fishermen and the authority of marine management by local governments. therefore, this study uses a content analysis design to investigate more deeply the legal gaps and realities contained in the law on the regulation of agrarian law and its relationship to the problems of social conflicts that occur in society. social conflicts in this study are conflicts between fishermen related to the use of natural resources that tend to be increasingly scarce or less (fishery resource winarwati conflicts). the research design steps refer to the content analysis proposed by krippendorff (2018). the research location is madura island which is located in the northeast of east java province, indonesia. data and sources of data the source of the data in the study is the subject from which the research data was obtained by the researcher. secondary data sources are obtained indirectly. secondary data consists of three categories, namely literature/documentation study techniques, observation, and media analysis. the first category is the study of documentation in the form of documents originating from primary legal materials. these documents represent research needs to identify data relevant to the research theme. primary legal documents are divided into two criteria. primary legal materials consist of: a) basic agrarian regulations (uupa) no. 5 of 1960; b) law no. 23 of 2014 concerning regional government, c) law no. 7 of 2021 concerning handling of social conflicts; d) government regulation no. 2 of 2015 concerning handling of social conflicts; e) government regulation number 38 of 2007 concerning the division of government affairs between the government, provincial governments, and regency/city regional governments; f) government regulation no. 54 of 2002 concerning fisheries business. the second category is the observation of the explanation of legal materials, opinions of experts, legal practitioners, and relevant previous research. the third category is the analysis of media information obtained from the marine and fisheries service pokmaswas (mfsp), non-governmental organizations (ngos), marine air police unit (polairut) documents, and marine security public documents (kamla). (see table 1). table 1 document type theme the secondary data destination marine management authority 1. basic agrarian regulations (uupa) no. 5 the year 1960 2. law no. 23 of 2014 concerning regional government 3. government regulation number 38 of 2007 concerning the division of government affairs between the government, provincial governments, and regency/city regional governments 4. government regulation no. 54 of 2002 concerning fishery business this data evaluation aims to determine the rule of law regarding the authority to manage marine resources carried out by the provincial and district/city governments. handling conflict through peace education 1. law no. 7 of 2021 on handling social conflict 2. government regulation no. 2 of 2015 concerning handling social conflict this data evaluation aims to find out the legal rules for handling conflict through peace education carried out by the government journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 351 data collection data collection aims to ensure the completeness of research information data carried out by the research analysis unit in the form of a document of national legal regulations concerning the authority of marine management and conflict resolution through peace education. data collection is carried out by reviewing national legal rules using data collection criteria. in conducting data collection, researchers studied and established identification criteria to select relevant laws and regulations, namely those related to agrarian law. the criteria for data collection are divided into two types, namely criteria for reviewing the rule of law regarding marine management authorities and the rule of law in dealing with conflict through peace education. the researcher selects data from each derived data source by identifying the two types of data criteria for the rule of law that have been grouped according to the research topic and linking them to the source of observational data and analysis of information media. the organization of national laws that have been identified and collected into a comprehensive system in a conceptual framework for further formulation of questions. rq1 is a statutory regulation that examines the authority of marine management by local governments. rq2 is a statutory regulation that examines the handling of conflicts between fishermen through peace education. the coding system (data coding) is carried out by considering 1 for the data code [r1], considering 2 for the data code [r2] and so on. rq one presents theme 1 in several units of analysis consisting of 7 data codes [1,2,3, 4, 5, 6, & 7]. and rq2 displays theme 2 in 2 data codes [8 & 9]. the data collection process is needed to ensure that the data that has been collected can clearly and accurately describe the content of national laws. (see table 2). table 2 the data collection process topic primary legal data sources indication rq code data marine management authority 1. basic agrarian regulations (uupa) no. 5 the year 1960 2. law no. 23 of 2014 concerning regional government 3. government regulation number 38 of 2007 concerning the division of government affairs between the government, provincial governments, and regency/city regional governments 4. government regulation no. 54 of 2002 concerning fishery business rq 1 7 1,2,3,4 5 6 handling conflict through peace education 1. law no. 7 of 2021 on handling social conflict 2. government regulation no. 2 of 2015 concerning handling social conflict rq 2 8 9 based on table 2, it is explained that there are two research topics that were raised to answer the problem formulation [rq1 & rq2], namely the authority of sea management and conflict winarwati management through peace education. the data is then sorted in the results of research and discussion to obtain lessons about the authority for management of marine resources and handling conflicts between fishermen through peace education in national law. analysis data this study uses content analysis to investigate the gaps in agrarian law and its relationship to fisheries resource conflicts. content analysis has the breadth of interpretation and authenticity as its advantages so that it is able to describe and understand the phenomena that occur through documentary sources that focus on answering the formulation of the problem. data analysis refers to the content analysis proposed by krippendorff (2018)which is carried out in eight stages. content analysis is a data analysis technique that aims to describe the characteristics of the content and draw inferences from the content. the first stage is to formulate the analysis objectives regarding the authority for management of marine resources and conflict management among fishermen through peace education in national law. second, conceptualization and operationalization so that the concept can be measured. third, lowering the operationalization into a coding sheet by entering the research focus based on the topic and method of measurement. fourth, coder training and data instrument testing. the researcher gave coder, namely two experts/experts on agrarian law and social conflict handling who would read and assess the contents. data analysis was carried out by researchers assisted by these experts to assist in the assessment so that the data instruments could validly collect information in accordance with the research objectives. fifth, carry out the coding process that has been compiled and checked for consistency by finding the relevant legal code at least from several legal references and previous research to guide the initial research code. sixth, referencing the study of character values objectively and systematically. the seventh is interpreting the data. eighth is to draw conclusions and suggestions in accordance with the formulation of the problem. researchers analyzed the data to answer rq1 and rq2 by identifying and studying in depth the sources of data that had been obtained. researchers conducted data processing by giving legal meaning and learning about peace education. in this case, the researcher organizes the data and presents it systematically according to the research questions so that the research can be read and interpreted and finds relevant conclusions. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 353 findings and discussion rq1: lessons learned about the authority of the management of marine resources in the madura government in national law the purpose of this part is to study agrarian law that focuses on the management of marine resources and their relationship to fisheries resource conflicts that occur between fishermen in terms of peace education in national law. the theme that the researcher uses to answer the formulation of the first problem is the authority of marine management in the local government of madura province.the first findingsabout lessons learned from the national law consist of basic agrarian regulations (uupa) no. 5 of 1960; law no. 23 of 2014 concerning regional government; government regulation number 38 of 2007 concerning the division of government affairs between the government, provincial governments, and regency/city regional governments; and government regulation no. 54 of 2002 concerning fisheries business. on the basis of the national law related to the marine management authority, it is explained that the granting of the widest possible autonomy to the regions is essentially directed at accelerating the realization of community welfare through service improvement, empowerment, and community participation. it's just that the granting of authority must be done carefully and monitored by the central government to avoid the worst possible abuse of authority. on the other hand, through broad autonomy and in the strategic environment of globalization. the difference lies in how to utilize local wisdom, potential, innovation, competitiveness, and creativity of the regional community to achieve these national goals at the local level which in turn will support the achievement of overall national goals. (consider data 1) (1) “in-law number 23 of 2014 it is explained that the region as a legal community unit that has autonomy has the authority to regulate and manage its region according to the aspirations and interests of its people as long as it does not conflict with the national legal order and the public interest. to provide a wider space for the regions to regulate and manage the lives of their citizens, the central government in forming policies must pay attention to local wisdom and vice versa, the regions when forming regional policies in the form of regional regulations and other policies should also pay attention to national interests.” in-law number 23 of the year concerning regional government, regions as autonomous regions are given the broadest authority to regulate their own government affairs and the interests of local communities in the system of the unitary state of the republic of indonesia, and regarding government affairs are regulated in article 9 paragraph (1) (consider data 2) winarwati (2) “the regional government affairs consist of absolute government affairs, concurrent government affairs, and general government affairs. absolute government affairs are government affairs which are fully under the authority of the central government. meanwhile, concurrent government affairs are government affairs that are divided between the central government and provincial and district/city regions.” with regard to regional authority over marine management, it is based on the regulation of law number 23 of 2014 concerning regional government in article 18 paragraph (1) (consider data 3) (3) “regional governments owning sea areas are given the authority to manage resources in the sea area, while in paragraph (4) it is stated that the authority to manage resources in the sea area is a maximum of 12 (twelve) nautical miles measured from the coastline towards the high seas. and/or towards the archipelagic waters for the province and 1/3 (one third) of the provincial authority area for the regency/city.” based on considering data 1,2, and 3, it can be understood that legally, the madura regional government has the authority to manage fishery resources covering an area of 12 nautical miles measured from the coastline towards the high seas or in the territorial sea. meanwhile, the central government has the authority to manage resources in the sea area minus the sea area that has been decentralized to the provincial government and regency/city government, namely the sea area outside the waters of 12 (twelve) nautical miles to include the sea area that has been authorized by legal provisions. international sea (law of the sea convention 1982/unclos 1982). the marine management authority obtained by the regional government is expected to be able to increase competitiveness by taking into account the principles of democracy, equity, justice, privilege and specificity as well as potential and diversity, where one of the potentials in the madura strait is marine resources. as explained in a previous study that maritime authority is exercised by legal authorities in the context of coastal and marine development by empowering communities, managing and establishing institutions(enright & boteler., 2020). furthermore, law no. 23 of 2014 on article 27 paragraph (1) (consider data 4) (4) “in this article, it is explained that the provincial government is given the authority by the central government to manage natural resources in the sea in its territory. paragraph (2) the authority of the province to manage natural resources in the sea includes: a. exploration, exploitation, conservation, and management of marine wealth other than oil and gas; b. administrative arrangements; c. spatial arrangement; d. participate in maintaining security at sea; and e. participate in defending state sovereignty. the authority of the province to manage natural resources in the sea is a maximum of 12 (twelve) nautical miles measured from the coastline towards the high seas and/or towards the archipelagic waters.” journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 355 the authorities which are the affairs of the regional government in the sea area are further described in the implementing regulations in government regulation number 38 of 2007 concerning the division of government affairs between the government, provincial government, and regency/city regional government. in article 2 paragraph (1) (consider data 3) (5) “government affairs consist of government affairs which are fully under the authority of the government and government affairs that are shared between levels and/or composition of government. in relation to the division of government affairs, article 6 paragraph (1) states that the provincial government and district/city regional governments regulate and manage government affairs based on the criteria for the division of government affairs, while the government affairs consist of mandatory and optional affairs. article 7 paragraph (3) states that the marine and fishery sector is an optional government affair, that is, those that actually exist and have the potential to improve the welfare of the community in accordance with the conditions, characteristics, and superior potential of the area concerned.” the basis for the division of authority in the maritime sector is regulated in article 14 paragraph (1) which states that the implementation of government affairs in the maritime sector is divided between the central government and the provinces. the authority in the maritime sector up to 12 (twelve) miles is in the provincial region. in law no. 23 of 2014, which relates to the authority over marine areas as stated in article 27, that the district/city government no longer has the authority, but in the case of fishery business the district/city government has the authority as regulated in government regulation no. 54 of 2002 concerning fisheries business, in article 13 paragraph (1) (consider data 3) (6) “the regent/mayor or the appointed official grants a fishery business license to indonesian fishery companies that catch and/or transport fish that are domiciled in their administrative areas, using non-motorized fishing vessels, external motorized fishing vessels, and motorized fishing vessels measuring no more than of 10 gross tonnage (gt.10) and/or whose engine power is not more than 30 horsepower, and is based in its administrative area and does not use foreign capital and/or foreign manpower.” from considering data 4,5, and 6, it can be explained that the division of maritime affairs which is the district's regional affairs is in the field of capture fisheries, the regency/city government only has the authority regarding the empowerment of small fishermen, namely traditional indonesian fishermen who use fishing materials and tools. traditionally, and is not subject to a business license and is free from taxes, and is free to catch fish in all fisheries management within the territory of the republic of indonesia. another district authority is the management and operation of fish auction places. thus, the authority of the district/city government to fishermen in their territory only concerns the empowerment of small fishermen, the management and operation of fish auction winarwati places. in the district/city government law, there are no provisions governing the authority to resolve conflicts between fishermen. previous studies found that since law no. 32 of 2014 concerning regional government, the authority of district/city local governments has become weak regarding the handling of social conflicts that occur between local fishermen (iskandar et al., 2017). although there are reasons behind the implementation of the new marine management authority. mao & qiao (2020)state that the existence of political power interests and the negative potential of controlling regional assets or regional autonomy can be the cause of the revoking of the authority of local governments. the literature explains that the reason for the revoked authority can be due to failure to prevent abuse of power which has resulted in severe environmental damage due to excessive exploitation of local governments with the excuse of increasing their local income (sadat, 2020). although on the other hand, prior to the amendment of the new regional government law, if there is a fisherman conflict, the district/city government will resolve it by resolving it in a community meeting involving village officials, community leaders, and the marine and fisheries service. it is necessary to know the root causes of fisheries conflicts that occur between fishermen. the study found that fisheries conflicts in indonesia occur when fishermen are faced with the problem of decreasing the number of fishery resources and overfishing sea conditions, there are migrant fishermen from other regions (yamazaki et al., 2018). since the enactment of law number 23, the district/city government in the fishermen empowerment program only provides guidance to fishermen such as the use of environmentally friendly fishing gear and carries out counseling related to the correct use of the sea and provides an understanding to fishermen that the sea is open to anyone. as long as the sea is used without breaking the law, then everyone can use the sea and catch fish. in order for marine ecosystems to be well maintained in accordance with the provisions of national law, it is very important to understand the agrarian law or law number 5 of 1960. this is closely related to efforts to handle conflicts of interest in the community, especially fishermen and ensure legal certainty for the community. (consider data 7) (7) the agrarian law emphasizes that the earth, air, and air contained therein are controlled by the state and used for the benefit of the people. the right of state control here means the management of the legal aspect to bridge between personal interests and public interests so that it runs harmoniously.” journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 357 learning like this is done to prevent conflicts between fishermen, but if there is a conflict between fishermen, the efforts made by the district/city government will hand over the solution to the provincial government and act as a bridging party between the conflicting parties and the province. previous studies have explained that poorly regulated government authorities can pose the worst threat to maritime security and lead to conflict (pomeroy et al., 2016). it should be noted that fisheries conflicts have involved a very large degree of severity in various parts of the world causing crises of maritime security, natural ecosystems, and local people's livelihoods (spijkers et al., 2019). thus it is clear that the national law related to the authority of marine management carried out by the regional government is an effort to maintain harmony and provide legal certainty so as to minimize the occurrence of social conflicts in the future. q2: learning about the authority of marine resources management on handling conflicts between fishermen through peace education in national law the theme that the researcher uses to answer the second problem formulation is the authority of agrarian law on handling fishery resource conflicts through peace education. the second finding explains the learning about the authority of marine resources management on the handling of conflicts between fishermen through peace education in national law. judging from the aspect of legal theory as a foundation for practical life, there is a new paradigm in the 2014 regional government law which "eliminates district/city regional autonomy" over marine areas, fearing the loss of regional attention to fishermen conflicts in their territory, because it is considered that it is not their authority and it is the authority of the province, and that concern is not proven, because currently the resolution of the fishermen's conflict is getting resolved faster. the study states that the conflict management efforts carried out by the provincial government are by forming community monitoring groups (pokmaswas) (wiseli, 2020). the establishment of pokmaswas in each sub-district is based on the decree of the minister of maritime affairs and fisheries number 58 of 2001 concerning procedures for implementing a community supervision system in the management and utilization of marine and fishery resources. the establishment of this pokmaswas is in the context of optimal, responsible, and sustainable utilization of marine and fishery resources. pokmaswas is an implementer of supervision at the field level consisting of elements of community leaders, religious leaders, traditional leaders, non-governmental organizations, fishermen, fish farmers, and other maritime communities(saputri & muchtar, winarwati 2019). pokmaswas was formed at the initiative of the community which was facilitated by elements of the local government and coordinated by a member of the community in the pokmaswas who also functioned as a mediator between the community and the government. the pokmaswas management is elected by the community and registered as members. if examined more deeply, it is clear that the existence of pokmaswas is part of the implementation of law no. 7 of 2012 concerning handling social conflicts. the close connection with peace education is found in article 9, the fourth part. (consider data 8) (8) the government and local governments are obliged to reduce the potential for conflict in the community. one of them is to carry out peace programs in areas of potential conflict and enforce the law without discrimination. and in article 37, the second part on reconciliation, it is explained that the interested parties must carry out the law peacefully.” there are at least 25 words 'peace' in the regulation of law number 7 of 2012 both which explain the strengthening of public policies, improvement and development of the community environment, as well as elements of peace activists. this indicates the importance of peace education in handling social conflicts, especially in this study directed at efforts to maintain the credibility of the maritime management authority carried out by local governments. in essence, peace education is a concept that describes the values of peace. the government is responsible for providing peace values as a guarantee of the right to live in society because education is the foundation of humanity that can build a democratic society (ma’arif, 2018). previous research explained that as an effort to maintain peace and provide a peaceful atmosphere, the provincial government through pokmaswas provides conflict resolution efforts by receiving information about alleged violations in the management and utilization of marine and fishery resources to the closest supervisory apparatus such as the coordinator of civil servant investigators. , head of fishery port, head of marine and fishery service, air and water police unit, indonesian national army-navy, nearest police force, or quarantine officer at port. the supervisory community can also report suspected fisheries crimes by indonesian fishing vessels or foreign fishing vessels as well as other illegal acts in the utilization of marine and fishery resources. furthermore, the officer who receives the report from the pokmaswas continues the information to the civil servant investigator and/or tni-al and/or air and water police unit and/or head of fisheries inspection. in government regulation no. 2 of 2015 concerning handling social conflicts, it is explained about the government's obligation to be able to protect and provide a sense journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 359 of security for the community optimally and to handle social conflicts in a comprehensive manner, coordinated with stakeholders, and well integrated. (considerdata 9) (9) “in the government regulation on implementing regulations for social conflict, it stipulates provisions regarding conflict prevention, emergency actions to rescue and protect victims, assistance in the use and force of the tni, post-conflict recovery, community participation, funding for conflict management, and monitoring and evaluation.” from the explanation of government regulation no. 2 of 2015, it is clearly stated the importance of supervising in preventing social conflict as has been done by the madura local government through pokmaswas. it is further explained that through this regulation, the government and local governments are given the authority to carry out conflict prevention through the implementation of peace education and training activities as carried out by pokmaswas, namely optimizing peaceful dispute resolution through consensus deliberation involving community leaders and community elements involved in it. this has been explained in previous research conducted by nelson (2021) that the determinants of individual peace for peace education include respect for race, gender, religion, culture, physical appearance, one's age, unity, good cooperation, and fairness. based on the supporting documents that have been collected, it is known that in four districts in madura, pokmaswas have been formed as a form of cooperation in monitoring marine and fishery resources by security forces and law enforcement as well as the community. in bangkalan, pokmaswas have been formed in 3 (three) sub-districts, namely bangkalan sub-district, kwanyar sub-district, and klampis sub-district. in sampang, out of 8 coastal sub-districts, pokmaswas have been formed in 6 (six) sub-districts, namely camplong, sampang, sukobanah, ketapang, banyuates, and mandangin sub-districts. meanwhile, currently active only pokmaswas mandangin and camplong subdistricts. in pamekasan regency, 7 pokmaswas have been formed to help protect their marine areas and avoid conflicts between fishermen. in sumenep regency, of the 20 existing coastal sub-districts, 11 pokmas have been formed. in the sumenep area, from the guidance and guidance from the east java provincial government, there are regulations based on local wisdom that were developed by pokmaswas so that they were upgraded to village regulations. there are at least 3 local wisdoms from pokmasmas in sumenep regency related to handling conflicts between fishermen which are then realized in village regulations including, “(i) gili genting kalianget subdistrict there is local wisdom, the legal awareness of the community, if there is a violation at sea then it must be submitted to the local police and must not winarwati take the law into their own hands; (ii) telango sub-district has local wisdom; planting mangroves is kept intact so that fish production will grow and develop; (iii) nunggunung district has local wisdom prohibition to fish by diving.” from the national legal rules and documents that have been explained by the researchers, it can be understood that there has been a gap between the agrarian law rules regarding the management authority of marine resources management and the problem of fishery resource conflicts between fishermen that have occurred since the enactment of law number 23 of 2014, where the authority for sea management by the district government has been abolished and taken over by the provincial government. as a result, the district government can only receive reports from the community about conflicts between fishermen and no longer have the authority to manage the sea. the novelty of the research is shown from the study of national law and an overview of peace education in handling fisheries conflicts and the authority of local governments in handling fisherman conflicts, namely by empowering pokmaswas and increasing pokmaswas capabilities. the potential and monitoring resources in the community are quite large and have become cultural customs as a form of community responsibility for their livelihoods. in the context of empowering existing supervisory resources and instilling the values of peace education in the community, the expected implication is that the east java provincial government provides guidance, guidance and training for pokmaswas in order to prevent conflicts between fishermen and in the context of preserving marine and fishery resources in its territory. conclusion from the results of the research and discussion that investigates learning about the authority of marine management and conflict management among fishermen through peace education in national law, two important things can be concluded. the first theme is about the authority for managing marine resources, it can be concluded that learning about the authority for management of marine resources in the madurese government is in national law. in essence, the national law concerning the authority for management of marine resources in the madura government is directed at accelerating the realization of community welfare through service improvement, empowerment, and community participation. in addition, the authority for marine management exercised by local governments is an effort to maintain harmony and provide legal certainty so as to minimize the occurrence of larger social conflicts in the future. the limitation of authority since journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 361 the enactment of law no. 23 of 2014 concerning regional government is to minimize the abuse of power. more deeply, the provincial government streamlines the formation and development of pokmaswas as a form of cooperation in the supervision of marine and fishery resources by security forces and law enforcement as well as the community. the second theme regarding the authority of agrarian law on handling fisheries resource conflicts through peace education with reference to national law can be concluded that local governments establish pokmaswas. pokmaswas also has a hand in handling social conflicts and is an effort to implement peace education because it is carried out in order to handle conflicts without violence for the sake of harmony, unity, and peace by involving all parties involved in conflicts between fishermen. future research is expected to expand the research area to include other maritime countries and international law related to fisheries conflict management and peace education. for the government, it is very important to strengthen the existence of peace education and training programs in areas with potential fisheries conflicts. the district/city government as the owner of the management area/area needs to instill peace values that focus on anti-violance training and provide legal certainty to minimize the occurrence of social conflicts in the future. references bajaj, m. (2008). encyclopedia of peace education. san francisco, ca: ebsco publishing. bar-tal, d. (2002). the elusive nature of peace education. in peace education: the concept, principles, and practices around the world (pp. 27–36). israel: tel aviv university. brooks, k., barclay, k., grafton, r. q., & gollan, n. (2020). transforming coastal and marine management: deliberative democracy and integrated management in new south wales, australia. marine policy, (xxxx), 104053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104053 cosier, r. a., & ruble, t. l. (1981). research on conflict-handling behavior: an experimental approach. academy of management journal, 24(4), 816–831. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5465/256179 dahrendorf, r. (1958). toward a theory of social conflict author(s): the journal of conflict resolution, 2(2), 170–183. retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/172974 dahuri, r., & dutton, i. m. (2000). integrated coastal and ocean management enters a new era in indonesia. integrated coastal zone management, 1(1), 1–16. retrieved from http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/2000_dahuri_cp_integrated_coastal_marine.pdf winarwati danesh, h. b. (2006). towards an integrative theory of peace education. journal of peace education, 3(1), 55–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400200500532151 daris, l., wahyuti, & yusuf, m. (2019). conflict dynamics of fishery resources utilization in maros district, south sulawesi province, indonesia. aacl bioflux, 12(3), 786–791. deardorff, d. k. (2018). theories of cultural and educational exchange, intercultural competence, conflict resolution, and peace education. in cultural and educational exchanges between rival societies (pp. 23–38). singapore: springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1547-3_2 enright, s. r., & boteler., b. (2020). the ecosystem approach in international marine environmental law and governance. in t. h. d. editors (ed.), ecosystem-based management , ecosystem services and aquatic. newport, oregon, usa isbn: springer international publishing. garnier, b. (1982). the impact of conflict-handling modes of academic deans on their perceived managerial effectiveness: an empirical study in selected canadian universities. canada: the university of western ontario. ginsburg, t. (2017). written constitutions and the administrative state: on the constitutional character of administrative law. comparative administrative law: second edition, (331), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781784718671.00011 gunkel, m., schlaegel, c., & taras, v. (2016). cultural values , emotional intelligence , and conflict handling styles : a global study. journal of world business, 51(4), 568–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2016.02.001 harber, c. (2018). building back better ? peace education in post-conflict africa. asian journal of peacebuilding, 6(1), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.18588/201805.00a045 harris, i. m. (2004). peace education theory. journal of peace education, 1(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/1740020032000178276 hove, m. (2019). the necessity of peace education in. infrastructures for peace in sub-saharan africa pp. singapore: springer international publishing. iskandar, joni, g. a., & risnain, m. (2017). legal review of transfer of authority of government affairs on energy and mineral resources under law 23 year 2014 on regional government. ournal of humanities, religion and social science, 3(3), 69–70. kilmann, r. h., & thomas, k. w. (1977). developing a forced-choice measure of conflicthandling behavior : the " mode " instrument developing a forced-choice measure of. educational and psychological measurement, 37(2), 309–325. krippendorff, k. (2018). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. london: ltd. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12 (4), 344-364 363 lee, t. (2020). political orders and peace-building: ending the aceh conflict. conflict, security and development, 20(1), 115–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678802.2019.1705071 llewellyn, k. n. (1940). the normative, the legal, and the law-jobs: the problem of juristic method. the yale law journal, 49(8), 1355–1400. ma’arif, s. (2018). education as a foundation of humanity: learning from the pedagogy of pesantren in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 104–123. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.58854 mao, w., & qiao, s. (2020). legal doctrine and judicial review of eminent domain in china. ssrn electronic journal, 00(00), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3679448 metzger, g. e. (2008). administrative law as the new federalism. duke law journal, 57(7), 2024–2108. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1095327 nelson, l. l. (2021). (2021). identifying determinants of individual peacefulness: a psychological foundation for peace education. peace and conflict: journal of peace psychology, 27(2), 109–119. olayinka, a. s. (2021). the yoruba’s peacefulness enhanced by an informal peace education. authorea, 10(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.22541/au.161488582.21809731/v2 pomeroy, r., parks, j., mrakovcich, k. l., & lamonica, c. (2016). drivers and impacts of fisheries scarcity, competition, and conflict on maritime security. marine policy, 67, 94– 104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.01.005 primyastanto, m., muhammad, s., soemarno, s., efani, a., & abidin, z. (2014). study on entrepreneurship spirit and production factors affecting sail income of madura strait fishermen. international journal of civil & environmental engineering, 14(1), 1–7. rafols, p. i. c., & mitra, s. f. s. (. (2018). the ongoing after effects of the u . s . navy occupation in vieques , puerto rico. puerto rico. reardon, b. a. (1988). comprehensive peace education: educating for global responsibility. amsterdam avenue, new york, ny: teachers college press. riyani, m., wasino, suyahmo, brata, n. t., & abstract, f. a. s. (2021). making peace with the past: peace education in post-conflict aceh societies through the application of cognitive behavioral therap. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 330–376. saavedra-díaz, l. m., rosenberg, a. a., & martín-lópez, b. (2015). social perceptions of colombian small-scale marine fisheries conflicts: insights for management. marine policy, 56, 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2014.11.026 sadat, a. (2020). discretion and accountability of local government in administering winarwati governance. journal of governance, 5(2), 237–248. https://doi.org/10.31506/jog.v5i2.9283 saputri, r., & muchtar, h. (2019). peran pokmaswas laskar pemuda peduli lingkungan dalam pengelolaan wilayah pesisir pantai di ampiang parak pesisir selatan, 2(5), 324–335. saul, r., barnes, r., & elliott, m. (2016). is climate change an unforeseen, irresistible and external factor–a force majeure in marine environmental law? marine pollution bulletin, 113(1–2), 25–35. seregig, i. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., rivai, e., & prasetyawati, e. (2018). preventing the acts of corruption through legal community education. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 138–159. https://doi.org/10.17499/jsser.65190 situmorang, j., sahman, a., suryanto, t., & gani, z. (2021). literation of land rights law in (tola gumi) protection of indigenous peoples and its impact on community welfare. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 180–209. souhail, n. (2021). conflict over territory and maritime routes in the arctic. the case of potential conflict between the us and russia over resources in the arctic ocean. university of gothenburg. retrieved from https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/67698/1/gupea_2077_67698_1.pdf spijkers, j., morrison, t. h., blasiak, r., cumming, g. s., osborne, m., watson, j., & österblom, h. (2018). marine fisheries and future ocean conflict. fish and fisheries, 19(5), 798–806. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12291 spijkers, j., singh, g., blasiak, r., morrison, t. h., le billon, p., & österblom, h. (2019). global patterns of fisheries conflict: forty years of data. global environmental change, 57(may), 2–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.05.005 vierros, m., hickey, f., bebe, r., harp, i., hay, r., hickey, f., … wright, e. (2010). traditional marine management areas of the pacific in the context of national and international law and policy. darwin, nt australia: unu-ias traditional knowledge initiative. wiseli, r. (2020). strategi pengembangan kapasitas kelembagaan pokmaswas di provinsi bangka belitung. akuatik jurnal sumberdaya peraira, 14(2), 1–8. retrieved from https://www.journal.ubb.ac.id/index.php/akuatik/article/view/1971 yamazaki, s., resosudarmo, b. p., girsang, w., & hoshino, e. (2018). intra-village and intervillage resource use conflict in indonesia: the case of the kei islands. ocean and coastal management, 155(february 2017), 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.01.022 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (4), 320-343 understanding the teaching of religious moderation from a sufistic perspective and its implications for student performance syarif1 abstract this study set out with the aim of understanding the teaching of religious moderation from a sufistic perspective and its implications for increasing student competencies. the participants for the study comprised 100 students and 40 lecturers involved in al-quran and tafsir science at the ushuluddin faculty at iain pontianak, west kalimantan, indonesia. the research adopted a qualitative approach, with data being collected through observation, interviews, and documentary studies that focused on the research themes of religious moderation, the sufistic perspective, and student competencies. the findings revealed that according to some sufistic commentators, religious moderation comprises the moderate values of 1) maintaining brotherly relations with other people, 2) appreciating people’s differences, 3) showing tolerance and dismissing fanaticism, and 4) thinking ahead. this has implications for students’ competencies, because teaching religious moderation encourages them to gain a better-quality interpretation of the quran, so they can develop better reasoning, understanding, and professional skills. students are therefore guided to become superior muslim scholars who are professional and qualified to respond to the challenges of the times. these findings are expected to reinforce the importance of the quranic values in moderate islamic education, especially those related to the role of religious moderation in increasing student competence in terms their morality and religious spirituality. islamic universities therefore need to consider various studies of interpretative science as a reference for transforming islamic religious education in an era of technological disruption and radicalism. keywords: religious moderation, sufism, student competencies introduction the current era of technological disruption means that higher education institutions (e.g., colleges and universities) need to transform and innovate, so they will be able to produce graduates with the ability to adapt, endure, and integrate in this new era with relevant competencies (suntana & tresnawaty, 2021). in addition, university graduates must be highly motivated, have foresight, be able to adapt to changes in the industrial environment, and be generally resilient (winiasri et al., 2020). on the other hand, colleges also face serious problems in terms of the radicalism that has infiltrated a number of academic campuses around the world (kriviņš et al., 2021; islam et al., 2020). universities must therefore not only adapt their teaching methods but also promote religious 1dr. state institute of islamic studies (iain) pontianak, indonesia; email: syarif@iainptk.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 321 moderation in the form of moderate islamic education, so that in addition to developing the skills needed in the world of work, graduates will also be tolerant of human diversity and live a serene life in harmony and peace. it is undoubted that diversity in terms of tribes, nations, customs, religions, and cultures often leads to radicalism, especially in the higher education environment (budiharso & tarman, 2020). according to some studies, the occurrence of radical movements can be minimized by teaching religious moderation (ishaq, 2021; jamilah, 2021; syatar et al., 2020); arifinsyah et al., 2020; arifianto, 2019). in response, islamic colleges have begun to adopt moderate islamic education, which teaches religious moderation. indeed, moderate religious values emphasize aspects of morality and religious spirituality, and they are not radical (tatharuff) (ali, 2018), so they can improve the competencies of students, both academically and in their social environments. one study posits that college environments have become a space for the development of exclusivism, which in turn often leads to radicalism (marbun & pin, 2017). it is therefore hoped that religious moderation can become the glue that holds all people of various religions together. indeed, this perspective can give birth to balanced religious attitudes and respect for different religious practices and beliefs (roqib, 2021). the findings of previous studies suggest that religious moderation, when instilled in students, can help to foster and strengthen harmonious relationships between teachers, students, society, and the environment (haryani & lufaefi, 2021). religious education therefore needs to integrate an awareness of different religious and cultural contexts and respond to the challenges of the times (abidin et al., 2020; sutrisno, 2019). in this case, religious education needs to teach critical knowledge about religion in society. such religious insight can help students to open up their horizons and embrace ethics and tolerance toward followers of other religions. the teaching of religious moderation implicitly acts as a spiritual renewal and positions faith as the bridge between religious communities in social life (janarbekovna, 2021). at islamic universities, the teaching of religious moderation must accord with the teachings of the holy quran, whose contents apply throughout the ages (abdullah & nento, 2021; mahrus et al., 2020). the quran requires careful and deep interpretation, however, in order to glean the meaning implied in its holy verses, and without a proper understanding, it can be misleading for the reader and used to misguide others (anshori et al., 2021). in addition, presenting the thoughts of sufistic commentators on religious moderation aims to convey the value of the holy verses of the quran syarif as a strengthening of a nation. therefore, a study of sufistic interpretation (tafsir isyari’) conducted by isyari’i experts is very important as a science to support the understandings and meanings implied in each verse of the quran. according to asfar (2020), to understand the contents of a verse in the quran, it is not enough to just grasp its contextual meaning—there must be a deeper understanding of its implicit meaning by applying a sufistic approach. the novelty of this research lies in understanding the teaching of religious moderation in islamic education from the perspective of sufistic commentators and its implications for developing muslim students in indonesia. sufistic commentators reflect the spiritual seriousness of people who are clean, sincere, and pure in their hearts, so they can interpret and reflect on the meaning of the words of allah swt (roqib, 2021). their thoughts can subsequently be used as a means for teaching the values of religious moderation, which are beneficial for developing students’ competencies. the literature posits that a moderate muslim millennial identity can be formed through moderation in islam (farisi et al., 2021). the paradigm of religious moderation in a campus environment can help raise students’ academic competencies, and moderate religious thoughts and practices can help moderate the relations between the increasingly diverse range of movements in indonesia (roqib, 2021). in practice, it uses values as both a form of understanding and an approach for contextualization (bustomi, 2020). thus, it is hoped that a study of these sufistic commentators can open up new knowledge and interpretations, thus providing another perspective for deeply understanding the verses of the quran through the teaching of religious moderation. in this way, colleges, especially in islamic religious education study programs, will be able to maximally support the adoption of religious moderation in indonesia. research questions based on the background described above, this research focused on two themes, namely religious moderation from the perspective of sufistic commentators and its implications for student competencies. the researcher therefore formulated the following two research questions: 1) how is religious moderation taught from the perspective of sufistic commentators? 2) what are the implications of teaching religious moderation for enhancing student competencies? journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 323 literature review religious moderation according to fahri & zainuri (2019), religious moderation can manifest through the attitudes of tawazun and i’tidal, tolerance (tasamuh), egalitarianism (musawah), deliberation (syura), and dynamism and innovativeness (tathawwur wa ibtikar). moderation reflects attitudes and views that are not excessive, extreme, or radical (tatharurruf), so it offers a synergy between justice and kindness. following a religion generally implies spreading peace and love to everyone at all times with wisdom. the literature explains that religious moderation refers to holding moderate attitudes and perspectives in religion, so religious teachings are not practiced in an extreme manner. in other words, religious moderation is needed to prevent people’s interpretations going beyond acceptable limits (mahrus et al., 2020). this study posits that the moderating principles of islam are justice, balance, tolerance, diversity, and exemplariness, and religious moderation discourse is an important part of creating religious cohesion (kawangung, 2019) and fighting violent extremism and radicalism (ibrahim et al., 2019; mandaville & nozell, 2017). there are three benchmarks for religious moderation: first, how strong is the commitment of religious adherents to the core teachings, namely human values? second, how much mutual agreement and cooperation is shown among various peoples? third, does the public order encourage the following of a moderate religion (haidar, 2009)? sufistic interpretation sufistic interpretation (tafsir isyari’ — أشار – يشير – إشارة) is a way of interpreting nash al quran, a sort of interpretative science that is used to understand and explore the meanings implied in the holy verses of the quran. in sufistic interpretation, the interpretations of verses of the quran differ from the literal meaning of the zahir verse, because there are implied instructions (ta'wil). behind the meaning of the zahir text, commentators (e.g., ulama/ulu al-'ilm or people who are al-'arif billah) perceive symbols that according to their beliefs, can be considered as complimenting the meaning of the zahir text, so the isyarah meaning is elevated. according to their language and terms (amir, 2021), sufism scholars follow a ascetic but practical way of life in acting in obedience to allah swt (anwar, 2000). the requirements for a sufistic interpretation that must serve as the guidelines for a mufassir (sufistic commentator) are as follows: 1) it must not deny the meaning of the zahir text. 2) there must be another verse or text to confirm it. 3) it must not conflict with syarif reason or sharia. 4) it must begin by interpreting of the meaning of the text and allow for meaning other than the zahir meaning to arise (rakhmat, 1999). this interpretative science is included within the category of ladunni science, which means it is a direct gift from allah swt as a result of piety, istiqamah, and good morals of the people who study the quran, as explained by al surah al kahf (18) in verse 65: “then they met a slave of our slaves and bestowed upon him mercy from our side, and we taught him knowledge from our side.” abu nasr al-sarraj al-tusi revealed in the book al-luma that the sufis argue that the science of interpretation is the knowledge contained in the quran in secret, which can be realized through the deeds of charity in it. sufistic interpretation from a historical perspective manifests through the spiritual seriousness of people who are clean, sincere, and pure in their hearts, so they are able to interpret and reflect on the meaning of the words of allah swt (razak et al., 2019). student competencies student competencies reflect the ability of students to fulfill necessary obligations at the university level based on their knowledge, skills, and attitudes (cassidy, 2009). student competencies can take three forms: first there is academic competence, which is the ability to achieve academic success, and this reflects in the final score for a course of study. second, there are soft skills that relate to a student’s ability to manage relationships and interactions with other people in the community. third, there are hard skills in the form of functional abilities that are needed to perform a particular job in accordance with educational specifications (burke & biklen, 2006). to gain these competencies, students must be able to maintain synergy between their cognitive, affective, and psychomotor sides in order to be able to give birth to creative and positive ideas. indeed, graduates with such competencies are able to find creative and constructive solutions to solve problems in society. in other words, the better the competencies, the greater the chances of addressing various environmental challenges and problems based on thinking skills, both individual and organizational management skills, and communication skills (lincoln & kearney, 2015). at islamic universities, a moderate islamic education is expected to promote good islamic skills (rahmah & fadhli, 2021). one study suggested that there are ten main skills for improving student competencies through moderate islamic education, namely the ability to: 1) synthesize ideas and solutions for each problem; 2) think critically; 3) demonstrate creative thinking; 4) show leadership skills; 5) coordinate with others; 6) employ emotional skills; 7) make decisions; 8) be servicejournal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 325 oriented; 9) negotiate effectively; and 10) to adapt based on cognitive processes and deal with new phenomena and social environments (puspitasari et al., 2021). methods research design this study aims to explore religious moderation through the perspective of the sufistic commentators and the implications this has for improving student competencies. to this end, this study adopted a case study research design (yin, 2014; patton, 1985). qualitative research is a descriptive way to describe complex phenomena, and it tends to emphasize data collection through observations and interviews (miles et al., 2013). the research location was the state islamic institute (iain) pontianak, which is the only state islamic university in west kalimantan, indonesia. the research was conducted for one semester, namely the even semester of the 2020– 2021 school year. participants the number of participants in this study was 140 consisting of 100 students and 40 lecturers at the ushuluddin faculty involved in al-quran and tafsir sciences at iain pontianak. stratified random sampling was used to pick a sample from these populations. students in semesters 5–7 were chosen because they had picked courses according to their expertise, namely tafsir manuscript studies and thematic tafsir i-v, and they were intensively studying the sources and foundations of islamic knowledge, both classical and contemporary, based on applied islamic science. the ushuluddin faculty lecturers, meanwhile, were chosen as participants because they had areas of expertise that were relevant to the research, including skill in interpreting and understanding moderate islamic education. see table 1. table 1 description of participants semester students gender total number of students age of students lecturer gender total number of teachers age of teachers female male female male semester 5 15 16 31 20-22 8 5 13 28-40 semester 6 14 22 36 21-23 13 13 28-50 semester 7 20 13 33 22-25 14 14 50-65 total 49 51 100 15-18 8 32 40 28-55 syarif data and sources of data the data for this study consisted of primary and secondary data. the primary data were obtained directly through a closed questionnaire, an open-ended questionnaire, and focus group discussions (fgds). secondary data were obtained indirectly from scientific articles and documents from the faculty of ushuluddin at iain pontianak in the form of data for semester 5–7 students and faculty lecturers, as well as documents about its vision, mission, and goals. thus, the data collection methods in this study comprised 1) questionnaire distribution, 2) fgds, and 3) documentary analysis. questionnaire the research questionnaires comprised two themes or dimensions. the first dimension related to religious moderation from the perspective of sufistic commentators, thus representing sufistic thinking and interpretative understandings. the second dimension related to the implications of religious moderation for developing student competencies. this second dimension looked for indicators like a strong national commitment, tolerant attitudes, peaceful principles, and respect for local cultures and traditions (see table 2). this instrument was examined by experts in the fields of quranic and tafsir science to ensure it would collect in-depth knowledge about religious moderation in moderate islamic education. the distribution of the closed and open-ended questionnaires was done through google forms, which was chosen because the covid-19 pandemic prevented physical questionnaires from being distributed. the questionnaires were therefore distributed to 100 students and 40 lecturers. all questionnaires were filled out completely, so all of them could be included in the data analysis. table 2 instrument grid dimension indicator no. items religious moderation from the perspective of sufistic commentators sufism thoughts 1 understanding interpretations 2 the implications of religious moderation for student competencies strong national commitment 3 tolerant attitudes 4 non-violent principles 5 respect for local cultures and traditions 6 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 327 fgd fgd was held to complement the data collected through the open-ended questionnaire. the fgds were conducted online over google meet with two sessions per day, and these took a week to complete. the first fgd session was conducted with lecturers, while the second was conducted with students. the duration of the fgds was around 15–20 minutes. in collecting fgd data, researchers used the recording mode on google meet and notebooks. both focus on the theme as shown in table 3. table 3 fgd guidelines by online meeting themes observation guideline interview guidelines documentation guidelines religious moderation from the perspective of sufistic commentators teaching about religious moderation 1. what do you know about religious moderation? 2. what do you know about religious moderation according to sufistic commentators? documented teaching activities and preliminary studies that are in accordance with the teaching of religious moderation from the perspective of sufistic commentators the implications of religious moderation for student competencies observation of the competencies of participants (students) 1. what impact did you feel/receive while receiving education in the science of the quranic interpretation? (student) 2. what are the advantages for the ushuluddin faculty in improving student competencies? documents in the form of notes related to sufistic interpretation and lesson plans for the semester of al-quran and tafsir study documentary analysis documentary data were collected through literature review. this involved reviewing documents and literature that were relevant to the research theme, with them being sourced from campus documents, classical islamic books or manuscripts (turas), contemporary islamic books (mu’asirah), or articles and related scientific works. when collecting data related to the perspectives of sufistic commentators and scholars of religious moderation, the researchers referred to the book of sufism al-muntakhabat by kh. ahmad asrori al-ishaqi, the interpretation book al-muharrat al-wajiz by ibn ‘athiyyah, and the book kulliyyat rasail al-nur by bediuzzaman said nursi. the researchers also used the tool al-maktabah al-syamilah on a computer device. the researchers also used arabic to latin transliteration letters that were adapted to the mention of vowels and diphthongs. interpretation techniques were also used to understand syarif the study of sufistic interpretation as it relates to what is contained in the book of interpretation methodology. data analysis data analysis attempts to organize and sort data to identify patterns and synthesize them into meaningful units (miles, huberman & saldaña, 2013; patton, 1985). first, the quantitative data from the questionnaire were analyzed, thus yielding results in the form of means, frequencies, and percentages. in addition, a picture of the perceptions of students and lecturers was obtained from the questionnaire. second, the qualitative data from the open-ended questionnaires and fgds were analyzed. this took place over four stages: first, data were collected through observation, interviews, and documentary methods. the collected data were then adjusted to the research theme, namely religious moderation, the thoughts of sufistic commentators, and student competencies. second, the data that had been collected was then reduced, summarized, sorted, and then examined based on the main research problem. this was expected to paint a clearer picture and make it easier for the researchers to interpret the data. third, the reduced data were arranged into a relationship pattern, so that it could be better described and understood. fourth, the data was verified and some conclusions drawn. when drawing conclusions, the researchers provided detailed explanations, so they would be relevant to the research objectives. checking the validity of the data was done by triangulating the data by comparing and checking the degree of confidence for the information that had been obtained from each informant to ensure its validity. the researchers also compared the findings with a review of the existing literature, so that the degree of confidence in the data’s validity could be established. results and discussion respondents’ perceptions of religious moderation presented below are the averages, frequencies, and percentages, as well as a summary of the perceptions of students and lecturers that were revealed by the questionnaire, with responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 329 table 4. students’ perceptions of religious moderation dimension indicator no. of item strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree total religious moderation from the perspective of sufistic commentators sufism thoughts 1 69 21 8 2 100 understanding interpretation 2 72 13 10 5 100 the implications of religious moderation for student competencies strong national commitment 3 78 20 2 0 100 tolerant attitudes 4 65 25 7 3 100 non-violent principles 5 69 24 5 2 100 respect for local cultures and traditions 6 78 12 9 1 100 source: the results of the closed questionnaire table 4 above shows that for questionnaire item number 1, which related to students’ perceptions of tasawuh thinking, 69 students strongly agreed with it, 21 agreed, 8 disagreed, and only 2 disagreed. thus, an overwhelming majority of the students agreed about the importance of sufistic thinking for dealing with life in society. questionnaire item number 2 related to the students’ perceptions of the need to understand interpretations. some 72 students said they strongly agreed, 13 agreed, 10 disagreed, and 5 strongly disagreed. again, a strong majority of students agreed with the need to understand interpretations of the quran and hadith. questionnaire item number 3 related to students’ opinions about whether they had a strong national commitment. some 78 students said they strongly agreed, 20 agreed, 2 disagreed, and none strongly disagreed. thus, almost all the students thought they were strongly committed to indonesia. questionnaire item number 4 related to students’ views about tolerant attitudes. some 65 students said they strongly agreed, 25 agreed, 7 disagreed, and 3 people strongly disagreed. most students therefore said they uphold tolerant attitudes toward the followers of other religions. questionnaire item number 5 related to students’ perceptions of having non-violent attitudes. some 69 students strongly agreed, 24 agreed, 5 disagreed, and 2 strongly disagreed. thus, the majority of students agreed with rejecting violence in society. questionnaire item number 6 related to students’ opinions about having respect for local traditions and cultures. some 78 students said they strongly agreed, 12 agreed, 9 disagreed, and 1 strongly syarif disagreed. thus, most students agreed with always respecting local traditions and cultures despite living in modern times. table 5 results of the descriptive analysis of student perceptions descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean std. deviation no1 100 1.00 4.00 3.5700 .72829 no2 100 1.00 4.00 3.5200 .87016 no3 100 2.00 4.00 3.7600 .47397 no4 100 1.00 4.00 3.5200 .75852 no5 100 1.00 4.00 3.6000 .68165 no6 100 1.00 4.00 3.6700 .68246 valid n (listwise) 100 source: the results of the closed questionnaire based on the results of the descriptive analysis, we found that questionnaire item number 1 had an average score of 3.55 out of 4, so the students’ regard for tasawuh thinking was very high. item number 2 has an average score 3.52 out of 4, so the students’ understanding of interpretation was also very good. item number 3 had an average score of 3.76 out of 4, so the students’ overall commitment to the indonesian nation was at a very high level indeed. item number 4 averaged a score of 3.52 out of 4, so students’ understood very well the importance of tolerant attitudes. item number 5 averaged a score of 3.60 out of 4, so the students’ appreciation of non-violent attitudes was at a very high level. questionnaire number 6 had an average score of 3.67 out of 4, so students’ generally showed strong respect for local traditions and cultures. the results of the questionnaires that were distributed to the 40 lecturers can be seen in tables 6 and 7. table 6 lecturer’s perceptions of religious moderation dimension indicator no item strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree total religious moderation from the perspective of sufistic commentators sufism thoughts 1 29 8 2 1 40 understanding interpretation 2 30 6 3 1 40 the implications of religious moderation for student competencies strong national commitment 3 27 9 3 1 40 attitudes of tolerance 4 33 5 2 0 40 non-violent principles 5 29 7 4 0 40 respect for local culture and traditions 6 29 6 4 1 40 source: the results of the closed questionnaire journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 331 table 6 above shows the results of the questionnaire for lecturers. item number 1 related to lecturers’ views about tasawuh thinking, with 29 lecturers strongly agreeing with it, 8 agreeing, 2 disagreeing, and 1 strongly disagreeing. like with the students, the majority of lecturers agreed in some way about the importance of sufistic thinking for dealing with life in society. item number 2 related to the lecturers’ perceptions of understanding interpretations, with 30 lecturers strongly agreeing with this, 6 agreeing, 3 disagreeing, and 1 strongly disagreeing. thus, most lecturers agreed about the need to understand interpretations of the quran and hadith. item number 3 related to the lecturers’ beliefs about their strong national commitment, and 27 lecturers said they strongly agree, 9 agreed, 3 disagree, and 1 strongly disagreed. thus, most lecturers agreed in some way about their continued commitment to the indonesian nation. item number 4 related to lecturers’ views about tolerance in attitudes, with 33 lecturers stating they strongly agreed, 5 agreed, 2 disagreed, and strongly disagree. again, the vast majority of lecturers agreed about always upholding tolerant attitudes toward followers of other religions. item number 5 related to lecturers’ perceptions of non-violent attitudes, with 29 lecturers strongly agreeing, 7 agreeing, 4 disagreeing, and none strongly disagreeing. thus, most lecturers agree about the need to reject violence in society. item number 6 related to lecturers’ views about their respect for local traditions and culture, with 29 lecturers saying they strongly agreed, 6 agreed, 4 disagreed, and 1 person strongly disagreed. most of the lecturers therefore agreed about always respecting local traditions and cultures, even though they were living in a modern era. table 7 results of the descriptive analysis of lecturers’ perceptions descriptive statistics n minimum maximum mean std. deviation no1 40 1.00 4.00 3.6250 .70484 no2 40 1.00 4.00 3.6250 .74032 no3 40 1.00 4.00 3.5500 .74936 no4 40 2.00 4.00 3.7750 .53048 no5 40 2.00 4.00 3.6250 .66747 no6 40 1.00 4.00 3.5750 .78078 valid n (listwise) 40 source: the results of the closed questionnaire based on the results of the descriptive analysis, item number 1 had an average score of 3.62 out of 4, so the opinions of the lecturers about tasawuh thinking were generally very good. item number 2 averaged a score of 3.62 out of 4, so the lecturers’ understanding of interpretation was also very syarif good. item number 3 averaged a score of 3.55 out of 4, so the lecturers’ sense of having a strong national commitment was also at a high level. item number 4 averaged a score of 3.77 out of 4, so the lecturers’ understanding of the importance of tolerance was very good. item number 5 averaged a score of 3.62 out of 4, so the lecturers’ appreciation of non-violent attitudes was also very good. finally, item number 6 averaged a score of 3.57 out of 4, so the lecturers’ respect for local traditions and cultures was again very good. views of sufistic commentators about religious moderation this study sought to identify what sufistic commentators thought about religious moderation through observations and interviews with the participants. it was revealed that religious moderation assumes a moderate religious perspective, so it is not radical, and it avoids hate speech that could cause fractures in inter-faith relations. it was further explained that religious moderation embraces the values of justice and kindness, such that justice is balanced and impartial in managing society based on law and certainty (fahri & zainuri, 2019). however, according to the participants, in its implementation, the existence of justice as a black-and-white series of formal laws is not enough because it needs to be accompanied by kindness to underlie the principle of justice. indeed, justice is a legal dimension, while kindness is an ethical dimension, so the two must be balanced and mutually supportive of each other. qs al baqarah (2) verse 143 says the following: and so [also] we have made you [muslims], a just and chosen people so that you become witnesses of human [deeds] and that the apostle (muhammad) be witnesses of [deeds] you. and we have not set the qibla to be your qibla [now] but so that you may know so that it may be evident who follows the messenger and who disobeys. and indeed [the change of qibla] is very heavy, except for those who have been guided by allah; and allah will not waste your faith. verily, allah is most gracious, most merciful to mankind. as explained by asfar (2020), for the content of a verse in the quran, it is not enough to just translate it or take the prima facie zahir meaning—a deeper knowledge of the implicit meaning of the verse must be derived through a sufistic approach. in this way, the prophet’s thoughts can be used as an exemplary source for teaching about the values of religious moderation. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 333 according to the participating lecturers, when interpreting the ummatan wasathan verse, it refers to udulan (just people) and khiyar (choice), or simply al-khiyar wa al-ajwad. thus, the chosen people in question are people who act justly: the ideas of kiai asrori and ibn 'athiyah contributed to strengthening religious moderation. it is explained that ummatan wasatan in qs al baqarah (2) verse 143 is a moderate people ['adl] who have moderate attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors [al-tawassut] and are fair and proportional [al-i'tidal] between material interests and spirituality, divinity and humanity, past and future, reason and revelation, realism and idealism, as well as worldly and hereafter orientations. meanwhile, exaggeration [al-mubalaghah], embellishment [altazayyud], carelessness [al-ifrat], and excessiveness [al-tafrit] are not part of the moderate attitude. the commentator ibn ‘athiyaah examined four verses of the quran that are relevant to religious moderation (‘athiyyah, n.d.). according to the lecturers, in addition to al-quran surah al baqarah (2) verse 143, there are other verses related to religious moderation, namely surah al baqarah (2) verse 256, surah hud (11) verses 118–119, and surah an -nisa (4) verse 135: q.s al baqarah verse 256 explains that with the guidance and the presence of the apostle, it has become a light that allah swt shows to his servants. with that, there really is no compulsion in entering the religion [islam]. then q.s hud verses 118-119 explain that allah swt created his creatures for happiness, but on the other hand there is also evil. disputes are evidence of ugliness, so allah has the right to punish those who disagree. qs an nisa verse 135 explains that whoever does justice and upholds justice and is a good witness, namely who gives someone’s statement with honest words and does not do wrong by following his lust, then allah swt will give him the reward of the world and whatever he deserves and wants in the hereafter. if you look at this explanation given by ibn ‘athiyyah, it is clear that he thinks that freedom for humans is allowed by allah swt. his interpretation explains that a person must be fair and honest, however, as was explained by the participating lecturers: syarif the attitude of religious moderation is evidence of the ability to believe in god, which is basically human conscience in understanding religious texts. in the book sufism al-muntakhabat, the teaching of religious moderation includes moderate values, namely 1) maintaining brotherly human relations, 2) appreciating differences, 3) showing tolerance and shunning fanaticism, and 4) thinking ahead (al-ishaqi, 2009). the participating lecturers mentioned what the ulama said about the recommendation to establish brotherhood: the scholars said: it is recommended to strengthen brotherhood between people, even to non-muslims in the hope of growing faith, guidance, and goodness for them. therefore, the sunnah prayer is to ask for guidance for him, namely by prioritizing actions that can bring love and doing something that gives birth to love in the heart of your brother, because the nature of love has no measure, so we can only work on it. this recommendation not only aims to encourage good relations between humans but also emphasize etiquette (adab) and good inter-faith behavior because of the nature of all humans as creations of allah swt. it is stated in al-muntakhabat that customs are the key to opening the door to allah swt. the lecturers mentioned that the idea of the essence of adab can be seen through expressions of the scholars for this essence (al-muhaqqiqun): scholars of nature explain that the essence of adab is to despise oneself and see others as nobler. the understanding taught by kiai asrori is to create a harmonious relationship between social life and spiritual–religious life, and this is represented in the teaching of religious moderation. lebi explained that if you encounter someone who is older, then you should honor and respect that person because he or she has more experience, obedience, and participation in carrying out the sunnah of the prophet saw. previous findings have stated that religious moderation has a direct relationship with religiosity and spirituality. such attitudes reflect a relationship with more adaptive psychological functioning (ghorbani et al., 2019). meanwhile, if you see people who are younger, then you should love and cherish them by assuming that any mistakes they have made are less than your own. likewise, if you meet people of different religions, you should be gentle with them and acknowledge that their faith is the will of allah swt and that it remains unclear journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 335 whether you will die with a good ending (husn al-khatimah) or a bad one (su al-khatimah). appreciating differences is part of accepting that human life has different levels. kiai asrori revealed the following: human understanding of this [religion] varies. their position with allah swt is in accordance with their level of understanding. the perfection of their understanding shows the superiority of their understanding of allah swt. people who know and understand more about allah swt as their lord are the most perfect people in their understanding of life. thus, this is the most exalted person, high and great in rank with him, and closer to him. also the opposite is true. if his understanding is lacking, then his share is lacking, his closeness, little charity and his wisdom is weak. tolerance is the decision of each individual and not a necessity, even though it has a beneficial impact. kiai asrori reflects tolerance in his attitudes about someone who has studied more than one mursyid. he quotes the statement of al-haddad (1132 h) in the risalah al-murid: so habib abdullah replied: yes, you can, on the condition that there is no dispute or difference between one tarekat and another. also the disciples are people who have pure sincerity and purpose. however, studying at one mursyid can be used as a guide that applies in general. one lecturer explained that forward-thinking in islamic sufism is interpreted as a basic principle for realizing concrete progress in the development of islamic society. for example, consistent introspection can be an asset for improving human quality and perfecting the soul. this is also reflected in the forming of self-development toward a balanced life between this world and the hereafter. sufism is not a goal but rather a means of living life (suntana & tresnawaty, 2021). according to abu al-wafia ‘al-taftazani’s views about the substantive elements of sufism, “the goal of developing the morality of the human soul is a philosophical view that can be realized by doing practical exercises, so that it can produce feelings that dissolve in transcendental nature” (bancin, 2017). it is clear that islamic sufism also has benefits for the development of human morality and spirituality, as shown by the benefits of teaching religious moderation. kiai asrori collected statements from scholars to describe sufism in madkhal ila al-tasawuf al-islami: syarif sufism is not an escape from the reality of life as the haters have accused it, but sufism is an effort to arm oneself with new spiritual values to face an essential and eternal life by realizing mental stability as a means of dealing with objections and mental difficulties. the notion of religious moderation in the thoughts of some sufistic commentators can be seen in the values of human brotherhood, respect for differences, tolerance, not being fanatical, and thinking ahead. this book contains sufistic and religious beliefs that accord with moderate principles of the time. previous research has posited that any introduction of moderate religious teaching into the realm of education must be in accordance with the guidelines of the holy quran (abdullah & nento, 2021; mahrus et al., 2020). the quran requires careful interpretation and a deeper understanding of the meaning implied in its verses (anshori et al., 2021). in this case, islamic universities needs to provide knowledge and critical learning about religious moderation from the perspective of the commentators of the quran. the goal is to achieve religious insight that is able to open up to new horizons and ethics and improve the acceptance of followers of other religions (budiharso & tarman, 2020; roqib, 2021). this study posits that the teaching of religious moderation is a form of spiritual renewal, and it uses faith as a bridge in encounters between religious communities in social life (janarbekovna, 2021). the study of interpretation is part of the wealth of islamic knowledge, which holds the wisdom that needs to be studied and practiced, especially in social aspects. implications of religious moderation for student competencies a second finding relates to the implications of moderate religious values for improving student competencies. in this study, an improvement in the competencies of students majoring in al quran and tafsir sciences at the ushuluddin faculty was revealed as a result of the teaching that had been carried out by the lecturers and the thoughts and attitudes expressed by students during the research. the participating lecturers explained that they had academically implemented a moderate islamic education curriculum in an effort to improve student competencies. they further explained the vision, mission, and goals of pt islam, especially at the ushuluddin faculty: in an academic context, the ushuluddin faculty examines the sources and basics of religion related to belief, worship, muamalah, and so on. ushuluddin is also journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 337 a forum for studying the basis of religion, one that is oriented towards activities like research, teaching, and service for the development of islamic scholarship in order to build society. the participating students more deeply explained their understanding of the ushuluddin faculty: the term ushuluddin refers to the science of monotheism, the science of aqidah or the science of kalam, which is relevant to the teaching of religious moderation. because in this faculty, we are guided to become muslim scholars who believe and have a noble character and mastery of the sources of religious teachings by thinking critically and methodologically based on the structure of applied islamic sciences and the ability to provide answers conceptually by opening ourselves up from the times according to our abilities and expertise. in terms of student competencies, it is clear that the abilities that students need at the university level are based on knowledge, skills, and attitudes. this study posits that to achieve competence, students must be able to maintain synergy between their cognitive, affective, and psychomotor side in order to become capable of coming up with creative and positive ideas (lincoln & kearney, 2015; roqib, 2021). in this case, the participating lecturers explained the following: to improve the competencies of students, since the beginning of the semester, they have been equipped with basic islamic knowledge, nationalism, analytical methods, and language strengthening. when entering the second year, students get knowledge that is in accordance with their expertise, so that students can equip themselves when they return to society. ushuluddin faculty students are taught about the science of morals and sufism, as well as the science of the quran and interpretation, so that their competence in the field of islamic studies, especially the ability to transform and empower islamic scholarship to solve people’s problems. observations revealed that at the faculty of ushuluddin, students benefitted from a good quality study and interpretation program for the quran, so that they could develop good reasoning and professional skills. thus, this program indirectly improves student competencies. students are syarif guided and directed through religious moderation to become muslim scholars who will be professional and qualified to respond to the challenges of the times: we are provided with soft skills training and practical skills that support academic and non-academic abilities. so, hopefully we will be able to take part in society and work. one aspect is community service, where we are taught that when mingling with the community, we must be tolerant and respectful and have islamic ethics. indeed, learning religious moderation can help develop good islamic competencies (rahmah & fadhli, 2021). in order to improve student competencies through moderate islamic education, it seems that the teaching of religious moderation at the ushuluddin faculty emphasizes skills in aspects like critical thinking, creative thinking, leadership, and emotional prowess, as well as being able to adapt cognitive processes to deal with new phenomena and social environments (budiharso & tarman, 2020). the students also enthusiastically expressed what they have learned from being taught about religious moderation. both their attitudes and behaviors when expressing their opinions showed sufficient seriousness in understanding religious moderation. even though this alone may not be enough to significantly increase student competencies, it can encourage good attitudes and behaviors when muslims understand the importance of moderate religious values in life. this is why previous studies have stated that it has academic potential, because moderate religious values represent a form of understanding and an approach for contextualizing, knowing, and practicing morality and spirituality (addai-mununkum, 2019; bustomi, 2020; roqib, 2021). the findings are novel in two ways, namely they reflect the views of participants about the thoughts of sufistic commentators on religious moderation and the implications they have for developing the competencies of students studying the quran and tafsir. the thoughts of the sufistic commentators represent the spiritual reflection of clean, sincere, and pure hearts considering the meaning of the words of allah swt. not just anyone can become an expert on sufistic interpretation, so in our view, these muslim scholars are very special. this science of interpretation is included in the category of ladunni science, so it is a direct gift from allah swt as a result of piety, istiqamah, and good morals. it is expected that such study will improve our understanding of the deeper meaning of the verses in the quran, and this reflects on the teaching journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 339 of religious moderation as a way for islamic colleges to support the realization of bhineka tunggal ika and pancasila values. conclusion based on the results of the research and discussions conducted as part of this study, we can conclude that sufistic commentators understand religious moderation as embodying attitudes that maintain brotherly human relations, respect the differences of others, tolerate religious difference without being fanatical, and encourage thinking ahead. such religious moderation can improve student competencies, because teaching about it encourages students to develop better reasoning, understanding, and professional skills. when teaching religious moderation, colleges must develop learning programs that develop and strengthen multiple aspects of literacy with the aim of broadening students’ perspectives. in the context of colleges, students must be guided to accept other religions intellectually and academically. students should be given basic knowledge about religious differences and human aspects in order to better appreciate this diversity. this research was based on observations, interviews, and documentation studies under the limited scope of understanding the thoughts of sufistic commentators about religious moderation and its implications for student competencies. future research is therefore highly recommended to expand upon this limited scope to include the contents of the quran and hadith in detail. in addition, it is very important to thoroughly examine the effect of religious moderation on student competence in higher education and quantitatively determine it. references ‘athiyyah, i. (n.d.). al-muharrat al-wajiz fi tafsir al-kitab al-‘aziz jili i. ( tahqiq a. al-s. a. als. muhammad, ed.). bairud: lubnan dar al-kutub al-ilmiyyah. abdullah, a. h., & nento, s. (2021). constructing religious moderation in islamic higher education. al-ulum, 21(1), 166–186. https://doi.org/10.30603/au.v21i1.2084 abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2355 addai-mununkum, r. (2019). students’ representation of “other” religions. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.01.01.1 syarif al-ishaqi, a. a. (2009). al-muntakhabāt fī rābiṭat al-qalbiyyah wa ṣilat al-rūḥiyyah. surabaya: al wava. ali, f. (2018). incorporating values of moderate islam for the 21st century learners in an english as a foreign language class. edukasia islamika, 3(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.28918/jei.v3i1.1676 amir, a. n. (2021). kitab al-tafsir wal mufassirun dan pengaruhnya dalam kajian tafsir. jurnal iman dan spiritualitas, (july). https://doi.org/10.15575/jis.v1i3.12570 anshori, m. a., prasojo, z. h., & muhtifah, l. (2021). contribution of sufism to the development of moderate islam in nusantara. international journal of islamic thought, 19(1), 40–48. https://doi.org/10.24035/ijit.19.2021.194 anwar, r. (2000). ilmu tafsir. bandung: pustaka setia. arifianto, a. r. (2019). islamic campus preaching organizations in indonesia: promoters of moderation or radicalism? asian security, 15(3), 323–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2018.1461086 arifinsyah, a., andy, s., & damanik, a. (2020). the urgency of religious moderation in preventing radicalism in indonesia. esensia: jurnal ilmu-ilmu ushuluddin, 21(1), 91– 108. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104743%0ahttps://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-019-00222y asfar, k. (2020). tafsir sufistik (al-isyari) perspektif teoretis. al-wajid: jurnal ilmu al-quran dan tafsir, 1(1), 1–20. bancin, a. b. (2017). abu al-wafa al-taftazani. universitas islam negeri sultan syarif kasim riau. budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 burke, j., & biklen, d. (2006). presuming competence. equity and excellence in education, 39(2), 166–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680500540376 bustomi, a. a. (2020). reaktivasi paradigma islam wasathiyah masyarakat kampus melalui sinergi potensial pendidikan tinggi & pesantren. al-ifkar, 14(2), 47–63. cassidy, s. (2009). interpretation of competence in student assessment. nursing standard, 23(18), 39–46. fahri, m., & zainuri, a. (2019). moderasi beragama di indonesia. intizar, 25(2), 95–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 341 farisi, l. al, muhid, a., & fattah, a. a. (2021). the making of muslim millennial moderate identities through sufistic multicultural da’wah. muharrik: jurnal dakwah dan sosial, 4(01), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.37680/muharrik.v4i01.461 ghorbani, n., chen, z. j., rabiee, f., & watson, p. j. (2019). religious fundamentalism in iran: religious and psychological adjustment within a muslim cultural context. archive for the psychology of religion, 41(2), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/0084672419878832 haidar, h. h. (2009). the qur’anic principle of peace. journal of shi’a islamic studies, 2(2), 159–180. haryani, e., & lufaefi, l. (2021). teaching of religious moderation in the tarekat for millennials. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.11-11-2020.2308303 ibrahim, i., prasojo, z. h., & sulaiman, s. (2019). preventing radicalism: islamic moderation and revitalization in the border. wawasan: jurnal ilmiah agama dan sosial budaya, 4(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.15575/jw.v4i1.4400 ishaq, r. el. (2021). media in the midst of religion moderation. inject (interdisciplinary journal of communication), 6(1), 41–56. https://doi.org/10.18326/inject.v6i1.41-56 islam, z., adnan, m., & talpur, m. a. (2020). pakistan ’ s counter -terrorism strategy with viable recommendations. progressive research journal of arts and humanities (prjah), 2(2), 156–167. jamilah, s. (2021). moderate islamic education to enhance nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0 sitti. journal of social studies education research, 12(3), 79–100. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3506 janarbekovna, k. k. (2021). religion as an institution of spiritual renewal of the kazakh society (sociological analysis). web of scientist: international scientific research journal, 2(5), 562–566. kawangung, y. (2019). religious moderation discourse in plurality of social harmony in indonesia. international journal of social sciences and humanities, 3(1), 160–170. https://doi.org/10.29332/ijssh.v3n1.277 kriviņš, a., teivāns-treinovskis, j., & tumalavičius, v. (2021). issues of state and national security: religiously inspired terrorism in the baltic states: internal and external factors. insights into regional development, 3(1), 65–79. https://doi.org/http://doi.org/10.9770/ird.2021.3.1 lincoln, d., & kearney, m. l. (2015). competence assessment in higher education. studies in higher education (vol. 40). https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1005334 mahrus, e., prasojo, z. h., & busro, b. (2020). messages of religious moderation education in syarif sambas islamic manuscripts. madania: jurnal kajian keislaman, 24(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.29300/madania.v24i1.3283 mandaville, p., & nozell, m. (2017). engaging religion and religious actors in countering violent extremism. retrieved from https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/sr413engaging-religion-and-religious-actors-in-countering-violent-extremism.pdf marbun, d. s., & pin, p. (2017). indonesian islamic higher education institutions against radicalism. in asirpa: iproceeding of ndonesia focus (pp. 1–4). jakarta: asirpa. miles, m., huberman, m., & saldaña, j. (2013). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook: an expanded sourcebook, 408. retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/43491723/miles___huberman_data_a nalysis.pdf?awsaccesskeyid=akiaiwowyygz2y53ul3a&expires=1554078814&si gnature=c9k75fdt6sjvo4egpjsp2ftcib8%3d&response-content-disposition=inline%3b filename%3dmiles_huberman_da patton, m. q. (2005). qualitative research. (b. s. everitt & d. c. howell, eds.), encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science (vol. 3). john wiley & sons, ltd, chichester. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13931 puspitasari, d., yuliani, b., & huda, m. (2021). the transformation of islamic education in a disruptive era: is it a necessity? https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.27-10-2020.2304162 rahmah, s., & fadhli, m. (2021). character education in islamic education institutions : a study on the impact of lecturer competence at iain lhokseumawe. miqot: jurnal ilmuilmu keislaman volume, 45(1), 87–103. https://doi.org/10.30821/miqot.v45i1.771 rakhmat, j. (1999). tafsir sufi surat al-fatihah (i). bandung: remaja rosda karya. razak, safiah binti abd, zarrina, c., & hilmi, s. m. (2019). latar belakang dan pemikiran tasawuf abu nasr al-sarrój dalam karyanya al-luma’: satu analisis. al-sirat, 18(1), 33–46. roqib, moh. (2021). increasing social class through islamic boarding schools in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 305-329. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3291 suntana, i. & tresnawaty, b. (2021). multidimensional social crisis and religious violence in southeast asia: regional strategic agenda, weak civilian government, triune crime, wealth gaps, and coopted journalism. journal of culture and values in education (jcve), 4(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2. sutrisno, e. (2019). actualization of religion moderation in education institutions. jurnal bimas islam, 12(2), 323–348. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 320-343 343 syatar, a., amiruddin, m. m., & rahman, a. (2020). strengthening religious moderation in university: initiation to universitas islam negeri alauddin makassar. kuriositas:media komunikasi sosial dan keagamaan, 13(2), 236–248. winiasri, l., nurlaela, l., & sumbawati, m. s. (2020). vocational campus readiness in the disruption era : a case study in aviation polytechnic of surabaya. international journal for educational and vocational studies, 2(6), 407–411. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.29103/ijevs.v2i6.2570 yin, robert k. (2014). case study research design and methods. 5 edition. california: sage publication inc. sonuç bi̇ldi̇ri̇si̇ www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi i hello we, jsser/sbead family, are thrilled to meet with you once again with this latest issue of jsser. every issue released boosts our confidence that our future-targets are even closer to reach; our hopes climb higher that in the years to come we shall eventually be able to build a world where peace, freedom and welfare are the only ruling power. while i am writing these lines, there is a civil war breaking out in our close neighbor syria. hundreds of thousands of syrians are facing death every second. they are losing their beloved ones. they are forced to flee their homeland in mass numbers and stuck in refugee camps in southeastern cities of turkey and jordan desperately waiting for the days that peace shall prevail in their homeland again. an infinite number of children are dead out of hunger in so many different countries. and yet we should not fall into the dark wells of despair, though we should be fully aware of these brutal facts. that is because next to all these negations there are also so many joyful things taking place in this ever-dwarfing world. for instance, advancement in information and communication technologies made people global citizens. the children of today’s world, the generation next, are not only aware of the fact that children dying of thirst in the 21st century africa but they feel responsible to help them in any way they can. turkish children, for example, donated their pocket monies and initiated charity events to raise funds for the children in need in african. indeed, turkish children have acted as mediators in opening hundreds of wells for the recent years in kenya, just one example, to meet hundreds of people in need of drinking water. besides, children of modern ages shall no longer take that is taught to them by their future-builders as the only fact because their critical thinking skills and merhaba jsser/sbead ailesi olarak en son sayımızla sizlerle birlikte olmanın mutluluğu içindeyiz. yayınladığımız her sayı bizi, geleceğe dair hedeflerimizin gerçekleşeceğine olan inancımızı daha da güçlendiriyor; önümüzdeki yıllarda barış, özgürlük ve refahın hakim olduğu bir dünyanın inşa edilebileceğine ilişkin umudumuzu artırıyor. bu satırları yazarken ülkemin yanı başında, suriye’de bir iç savaş yaşanmakta; her an ölümle burun buruna gelen ve çok sayıda yakınını bu savaşta kaybeden yüzbinlerce suriyeli, ülkelerini terk edip güney doğudaki illerimizde bulunan mülteci kamplarında, yakın zamanda barış ve istikrarın tesis edileceği ülkesine dönmeyi beklemektedir; farklı ülkelerde sayısız çocuk açlıktan ölmektedir. i̇şte tam da bu gerçeklerin farkında olarak, geleceğe dair karamsarlık içine düşmemeliyiz. çünkü bu olumsuzlukların yanında, bizi ümitvar kılacak çok iyi şeyler de olmakta, giderek küçülen dünyamızda. mesela, iletişim devriminin sunduğu imkanlar, yarının yetişkinleri olan günümüzün çocuklarında, küresel vatandaşlık bilinci oluşumunu hızlandırdı; öyle ki 21. yüzyılda afrika’da susuzluktan ölen çocuklar, türkiye’deki kardeşlerini üzmekle kalmıyor, başka çocuklar ölmesin diye, semt pazarlarında ve kendi düzenledikleri kermeslerde satış yaparak kazandıkları paralarla söz konusu ülkelerde su kuyuları açmaya sevk ediyor. nitekim türk çocukları geçtiğimiz birkaç yılda yalnızca kenya’da her biri yüzlerce insanı içme suyuna kavuşturan çok sayıda kuyu açtırdı. bunun yanı sıra artık dünya çocukları, geleceklerini inşa eden yöneticiler hakkında kendilerine öğretilenleri tek doğru kabul etmeyecekler; çünkü eleştirel düşünme becerileri ve farklı bilgi kaynaklarını kullanma olanakları arttı. bu nesil, gelecekte, bugünkünden daha yaşanabilir bir dünya kuracak; yeter ki journal of social studies education research 2013: 4(1) ii means to use a variety of information sources have escalated so much. the next generation shall manage to build a world better than today if only we as educators and scientists strive harder to train them for this journey. we, jsser/sbead family are in an attempt to take action with this awareness. education and science are our two indispensable tools; our actions are geared towards this aim. the most applauded action we organized recently has been april 2013, 2nd international symposium on social studies education. the symposium has been the joint action of the publisher of this magazine, association of social sciences educators and aksaray university (turkey). in the breathtaking campus privileged to experience the magnificent view of hasan mountain rising in the center of anatolian plateau and still covered with snow on its summit, the social studies educators have indeed taken the best advantage of this feast of science. in the symposium themed “social inclusion of disadvantaged groups” around three hundred papers have been presented. murry r. nelson proved to be a real role model with his high modesty and humanity despite the fact that he is a doyen in this field. it has been agreed to hold the next symposium at uludağ university in city of bursa, neighboring i̇stanbul. the idea to organize the event in different countries in the upcoming years was also met with enthusiasm. in that time the book containing unabridged texts of the papers presented in the first symposium titled ‘democracy education’ and organized in i̇stanbul has been published under the financial support of european council. to sum up, the new social studies movement is keeping its progress in a variety of ways in turkey: organization, training of academicians, increasing the quantity and quality of publications... in this issue too, we shall present you six works: (i) sara winstead fry, adil bentahar onları bu yolcuğa hazırlamak için biz eğitimciler ve bilim adamları daha çok çalışalım. biz, jsser/sbead ailesi olarak bu bilinçle hareket etme gayreti içindeyiz. eğitim ve bilim, bizim iki vazgeçilmez aracımız; çalışmalarımız bu alanlarda devam ediyor. son olarak yaptığımız en önemli çalışma nisan 2013’te gerçekleştirdiğimiz ii. uluslararası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu oldu. sempozyum elinizdeki dergiyi yayınlayan sivil toplum kuruluşu olan sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği ile aksaray üniversitesi (türkiye) ortaklığında gerçekleştirildi. anadolu platosunun ortasında yükselen, zirvesi hâlâ karla kaplı hasandağı’nın büyüleyici manzarasını her an terennüm etme ayrıcalığına sahip bir yerleşkede, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında çalışan bilim insanları tam anlamıyla bir bilim şöleni yaşadı. “dezavantajlı grupların sosyal katılımı” temalı sempozyumda üç yüze yakın bildiri sunuldu. murry r. nelson alanın yaşayan duayenlerinden biri olmasına rağmen yüksek tevazuu ve insancıllığı ile gerçek bir rol model oldu. sempozyumun üçüncüsü gelecek yıl i̇stanbul’un komşusu bursa ilinde bulunan uludağ üniversitesi’nin ev sahipliğinde yapılması kararlaştırıldı. sempozyumun gelecek yıllarda başka ülkelerde yapılabilmesi fikri de benimsendi. bu arada, i̇stanbul’da yapılan demokrasi eğitimi ana temalı birinci sempozyumun bildiri tam metinleri kitabı, avrupa konseyi’nin maddî katkılarıyla basıldı. kıssaca türkiye yeni sosyal bilgiler eğitimi hareketi daha pek çok konuda kaydedilen ilerlemelerle gelişmeye devam ediyor: örgütlenme, akademisyen yetiştirme, yayınların sayı ve kalitesini arttırma... bu sayıda da altı çalışmayı sizlerle buluşturuyoruz: (i) sara winstead fry, adil bentahar “student attitudes towards and impressions of project citizen öğrencilerin vatandaşlık projesine yönelik tutum ve i̇zlenimleri”; (ii) arife figen http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/89� http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/89� http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/89� http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/89� cemil öztürk iii “student attitudes towards and impressions of project citizen öğrencilerin vatandaşlık projesine yönelik tutum ve i̇zlenimleri”; (ii) arife figen ersoy “sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenler factors affecting the participation of social studies teacher candidates in discussions on controversial issues”; (iii) nihat şimşek “as an instructional technology the contribution of geography information systems (gis) to social studies education and teacher’s attitudes related to gis”; (iv) özlem yiğit, tuba çengelci, hıdır karaduman “teknolojinin değerlere yansıması konusunda sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri pre-service social studies teachers’ views about reflection of technology on values”; (v) sevgi coşkun keskin, deniz yüceer “danimarka’da vatandaşlık eğitimi civic education in denmark”; (vi) tekin çelikkaya, sema filoğlu, nur sema öktem “sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimi uygulamalarının öğretmenler tarafından uygulanma düzeyleri the application levels of practices of values education in social studies course by teachers.” all of them are worthy of contributing to social studies education field in the areas of citizenship training, literature on program, teaching and technology. i would like to extend my gratitude to all people contributing to this jsser/sbead issue. hope to meet you in the next release, till then... very truly yours prof. dr. cemil öztürk editor in chief ersoy “sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının tartışmalı konulara katılımını etkileyen etmenler factors affecting the participation of social studies teacher candidates in discussions on controversial issues”; (iii) nihat şimşek “as an instructional technology the contribution of geography information systems (gis) to social studies education and teacher’s attitudes related to gis”; (iv) özlem yiğit, tuba çengelci, hıdır karaduman “teknolojinin değerlere yansıması konusunda sosyal bilgiler öğretmen adaylarının görüşleri pre-service social studies teachers’ views about reflection of technology on values”; (v) sevgi coşkun keskin, deniz yüceer “danimarka’da vatandaşlık eğitimi civic education in denmark”; (vi) tekin çelikkaya, sema filoğlu, nur sema öktem “sosyal bilgiler dersinde değerler eğitimi uygulamalarının öğretmenler tarafından uygulanma düzeyleri the application levels of practices of values education in social studies course by teachers.” bu çalışmalar sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanına ilişkin vatandaşlık eğitimi, program ve öğretim, teknoloji konularına ait literatüre katkı yapacak niteliktedir. jsser/sbead’nin bu sayısının sizlerle buluşmasında emeği geçen herkese teşekkür ederim. bir sonraki sayımızda buluşmak ümidiyle... en derin saygılarımla. prof. dr. cemil öztürk baş editör http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/89� http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/89� http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/89� http://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/89� www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),118-135 118 inclusive education as a basis for sustainable development of society inna fedulova1, valentina ivanova2, olga atyukova3 and vladimir nosov4 abstract according to statistics, currently, approximately 4% of individuals with disabilities or incapacity for work are enrolled in higher education institutions of the russian federation. thus, according to this figure, it is clear that higher education in the russian federation is available to a limited number of individuals with disabilities or incapacity for work. to involve more people with disabilities in the higher education system, it is necessary to create special conditions that make training possible and attractive for these individuals. the growing disparity between healthy and physically disabled people has recently created more and more contradictions and crisis situations, due to which the world community is faced with global questions concerning the possibilities of the future existence of human civilization. these dangers to society have become particularly acute in recent decades; this is evidenced by the awareness of the need to develop a concept of sustainable development. the meaning of the original english concept is self-sustained development, i.e. the development of the society that is kind of consistent with the state of all its components, as a result of which society should be considered as a single holistic system. the aim of this study is to determine the role and place of inclusive education in developing the concept of sustainable development of society as a whole. to achieve this, the authors propose to identify the problems that both ordinary students and students with disabilities may face when studying at a university and to outline ways to solve them in order to ensure that the interests and needs of all participants are taken into account and balanced, as it is impossible to ensure the sustainable development of society in a socially unfair world. key words: inclusive education, society, respect for rights, educational environment, sustainable development. introduction the essence of sustainable development, in the authors’ opinion, is that the development of the current generation does not contradict the interests of future generations. according to the classical definition, the balance between generations is understood as a balance of needs. 1altai state agricultural university, barnaul, russia, fedulova_innavl@mail.ru 2 k.g. razumovsky moscow state university of technologies and management (the first cossack university) (razumovsky msutm (fсu)) 3 k.g. razumovsky moscow state university of technologies and management (the first cossack university) (razumovsky msutm (fсu)) 4 k.g. razumovsky moscow state university of technologies and management (the first cossack university) (razumovsky msutm (fсu)) mailto:fedulova_innavl@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 118-135 the existing approach to the concept of sustainable development has been developed during several decades; this approach is based on the experience in the field of development gained during this time. important steps towards the concept of sustainable development were the concept of dynamic growth, the concept of organic growth, and the concept of dynamic equilibrium discussed in the works of the club of rome. the common feature of all these approaches is the comparison of the global economic system with a living organism, which is particularly evident in the concept of organic growth. quantitative growth is of no importance for the evolution of living organisms or biological systems. the main part is played by the vitality and ability to survive, i.e. qualitative improvement and adaptation to the environment. organic growth leads to dynamic equilibrium since a living, mature organism is constantly renewed. a society that has achieved a state of dynamic or sustainable equilibrium is a society that, in response to changes in internal and external conditions, is able to establish a new equilibrium corresponding to these changes, both within itself and within its environment. in recent years, the tolerance of our society has been growing. this is related to the rethinking by society of its attitude towards people with disabilities, with the recognition of not only the equality of their rights, but also the awareness of society of their duty to provide equal opportunities for such people. the steps taken by the russian society in the direction of provision of equal opportunities for all categories of citizens to get higher education lead our society to the idea of the need for inclusive education in universities (alajmi, 2019; korableva et al., 2019; miftakhov et al., 2019; rupeika-apoga et al., 2019;). the issue of availability of higher education for the individuals with disabilities (hereinafter “iwd”) and incapacity for work or isolation from it shows the degree of maturity of our society, as well as the readiness of our society to accept, integrate and socially adapt people with disabilities and incapacity for work (adamczyk et al., 2019; bochkareva et al., 2017; dev, 2018; kuznetsova et al., 2019; shatunova et al., 2019). the term “inclusion” in english means “inclusiveness”. inclusive education (fr. inclusif – including, lat. include-conclude, include) – the process of development of general education, which implies accessibility of education for all categories of children, in terms of adapting to the various needs of these children by finding the optimal way of their education. the restriction of the access of children with disabilities to higher education does not meet certain minimum public perceptions and expectations (essary & szecsi, 2018; korepanova, 2011). fedulova et al. counteraction to such discrimination, as well as provisions on inclusive education, are laid down in the text of the un convention on the rights of persons with disabilities, approved by the un general assembly on december 13, 2006. in 2008, russia ratified the un convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. as indicated in the convention, persons with disabilities include persons with persistent physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments who, when interacting with various barriers, may interfere with their full and effective participation in the life of society on an equal basis with others. however, there remain quite a few problems for people with disabilities in access to education: lack of specialists, poor accessible environment, unpreparedness of the majority of the population for contacts with “special” people, etc. in our opinion, the only tool that can change people's behavior so that they can evaluate their actions and make decisions taking into account the requirements of sustainable development is education and enlightenment in all its forms and manifestations. it should be aimed at the formation of skills and behaviors, at changing the value and ethical attitudes of society in the direction of more rational activities in environmental issues, economic and social development (batkovskiy et al., 2019; popova et al., 2019; sharafutdinov et al., 2019; thalassinos et al., 2011; voronkova et al., 2019). currently, inclusive education is reduced to the acquisition and application of certain knowledge and skills that provide only a passive adaptation of a person to the environment. we believe that training systems aimed at the sustainable development of society should be dynamically rebuilt in accordance with the problems and difficulties in the development of mankind, thereby allowing them to begin their active solution. our study seeks to prove the thesis that inclusive education for sustainable development is education that enables the social transformations necessary to create more socially equitable societies and achieve sustainable development. method research design our study is theoretical. it is based on a comparative analysis of existing teaching practices for students with disabilities in russia and abroad, and an author's assessment of the degree of influence of inclusive education on the sustainable development of society. the theoretical and methodological basis of the study are the works of domestic and foreign scientists on the problems journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 118-135 of ensuring the sustainable development of society based on the formation of an accessible environment; problems of inclusive education; scientific studies on accessibility of higher education for people with disabilities and incapacity for work, the un convention on the rights of persons with disabilities, the laws of the russian federation, the decrees of the president and decrees of the government of the russian federation, regulatory acts of the federal subjects. the development of inclusive education in russia is the imperative of the present time and the responsibility of a social welfare state that has made a number of commitments concerning students with disabilities as a member of the un (dobrovolskienė et al., 2017; senan, 2018; monni et al., 2017). the successful implementation of these commitments depends not only on the state but also on the attitude of society towards individuals with disabilities in general and their education in particular. the idea of co-education of physically disabled and healthy students is faced with the opposition under the pretext of the lack of conditions for its implementation: material, organizational, financial conditions, the mentality of the population and teachers (bozhkova et al., 2019; dalevska et al., 2019; limba and šidlauskas, 2018; oganisjana et al., 2017; strunc, 2019). the degree of scientific development of the problem. despite the interest of teachers, psychologists, and sociologists (n.n. malofeev, n.i. skok, e.r. yarskaya-smirnova, t.a. dobrovolskaya and n.b. shabalina, v.p. gudonis, n.d. shmatko, etc.) in the issues of integrating individuals with various developmental disabilities into the social environment, this problem remains insufficiently developed in theoretical and practical terms, as evidenced by the small amount of fundamental works, the conflicting views on the qualitative assessment of the integration process, and the fragmentary nature of its practical implementation in modern russia. the problem of the study is the contradiction between the declared equality of students with disabilities with healthy students in russia in terms of their equal rights to receive higher education and the actual discrimination of this group of population, which hinders their social integration into the society and leads to the deprivation of a large part of russian disabled people and their social exclusion, which significantly slows down the sustainable development of society as a whole. the object of the study is the process of training students with disabilities in higher school as the basis of sustainable development of society. the subject of the study is the relationships arising as a result of inclusive education of students with disabilities as a factor of their social integration. fedulova et al. the aim is to study the development of the practice of inclusive education of students with disabilities in russia as the basis for the sustainable development of society. objectives of the study: 1. based on an analysis of normative legal documents, to determine the degree of readiness of higher school for the practice of inclusive education. 2. to carry out a comparative analysis of international and russian studies and practices related to the application of integration processes in the education of physically disabled students. 3. to examine the public opinion on inclusive education in modern russia. the theoretical and methodological basis of the study includes fundamental theoretical provisions, which consider the development of personality as a consequence of specific relationships between people that are formed in the space of social bonds (g. simmel, g.h. mead, c. cooley); concepts dedicated to the development of the personality with disabilities (l.s. vygotsky, v.i. lubovsky, e.r. yarskaya-smirnova, n.n. malofeev); basic provisions related to human rights enshrined in international documents and the constitution of the russian federation. the empirical basis of the study is the data obtained as a result of the analysis of international and domestic regulations on the issues of human rights, education of persons with disabilities, and data of state statistics. data analysis the systematic approach serves as the methodological basis, which ensures the comprehensiveness and purposefulness. the analytical, abstract-logical, economic-statistical, monographic and experimental research methods are also used herein. findings since 2012, inclusion has been included in the federal educational standards of the russian federation. environment, adapted for individuals with disabilities (iwd) and inability for work, retraining of the higher-education teaching personnel (hetp) for inclusive education are now mandatory requirements for all universities in the country. what should the inclusion begin in high school? who is the subject of inclusion? why is it necessary to learn inclusive interaction? let's try to understand using particular examples and facts. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 118-135 the un convention on the rights of persons with disabilities, ratified by russia, is still perceived as something exotic and irrelevant, including in universities in the country. an inclusive society based on respect for differences is discussed as a fashion trend, the concept of post-humanism. everything seems quite simple. devices convenient for movement in wheelchairs appear in the streets, individuals with disabilities attend classes in universities along with the rest of the "ordinary" students. however, ramps on the stairs of institutions and tolerant attitude towards “unordinary students” in universities are far from being an inclusion. when people with disabilities are admitted to schools only formally, the opposite phenomenon occurs, which is antagonistic to the concept of inclusion itself (fayzrakhmanova, 2014). figure 1. current state of the problem according to current research conducted by the public chamber of the russian federation with the support of the commission under the president of the russian federation for the disabled, universities are not ready for such students, either morally, or methodologically, or technically. (figure 1) in the country, up to 70% of enrolled individuals with disabilities – visually impaired, hearing impaired, with motor limitations – do not complete their education, and most of the the population of russia is 145.5 million people including about 14 million people with disabilities about 1.6 million children with special educational needs at the age of 7 to 18 there are 620,300 children with disabilities under the age of 18 in russia education is not available to more than 100,000 children fedulova et al. applicants with disabilities do not even try to enter the university. this is due to the whole complex of problems characteristic to russia at all levels of social life support for people with disabilities, including the lack of a clear understanding of the concept of inclusive education (figure 2). paradoxically, despite the many years of successful experience of defectology institutions oriented to higher education, the educational process interrupts particularly at the level of universities, and as a result, an insignificant percentage of graduates with disabilities acquire the relevant diploma competencies and employment. figure 2. the concept of inclusive education focused on the sustainable development of society let us consider in detail what constitutes an inclusive interaction, what needs to be learned, what changes are required. an adapted educational program in higher education institutions is the entire set of conditions that reflect an adapted environment for disabled students. but the adaptation of the conditions is not equal to the adaptation of the content. students shouldn’t get "curtailed" knowledge, they must have a complete retrospective of education in the specialty. that is why inclusive interaction on the part of the university implies not only an architectural, technical and educational basis, but also self-confidence inclusive education full education communication with peers fostering responsiveness and understanding to children with disabilities and people with inabilities for work understanding of disability issues by society adaptation and integration into society journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 118-135 such items as the development of an individual educational route, tutoring support, selection of methods corresponding to a disability, rehabilitation and wellness practices, monitoring and much more. an individual itinerary begins before admission with the applicant's vocational guidance. this includes vocational guidance, provision of complete and accessible information, counseling psychologist and expert assistance in preparation for admission. tutoring lasts not only throughout the entire course of study, employment assistance is part of the program (artemyeva, 2015). experience in the field shows that even with a technically equipped audience, teachers who do not have the skill of working with disabled students prefer to give the material in the old manner, ignoring the student’s educational needs. often, the teacher is satisfied just with the attendance of the lectures by a disabled student, instead of an adequate presentation of the material, he tries to buy his freedom with good marks in the record book. or, on the contrary, frequently a student with disabilities is confronted with impracticable requirements for examinations. that is why the acquisition of hetp competencies in the methods of inclusive education is a prerequisite in high school of the 21st century (ponomareva et al., 2019; yemelyanov et al., 2018, 2019; prodanova et al., 2019). no less significant psychological and communicative aspects of the hetp. the mental acceptance by teachers of persons with disabilities as full-fledged students is one of the most difficult and necessary conditions. but only a holistic approach will give students with disabilities the opportunity to integrate into society. by law, a student with disabilities is entitled to be qualified for an adapted educational environment. by enrollment of such a student, a university assumes the responsibility to provide a student with the environment which complies with the disabilities. in turn, the student must be equally responsible for the quality of study and academic performance. inclusive interaction takes place when a student with disabilities is highly motivated, claims the full knowledge and strives for self-realization. under such circumstances, common behavioral strategies, such as dependency and speculativeness, are excluded. “give me “satisfactory”, because i'm disabled” – this is not an inclusion. in fact, the state, by building an inclusive society and creating the rehabilitation conditions for higher education for individuals with disabilities, makes an economic investment. according to the swedish model of “pragmatic humanism”, the practice of inclusion is the provision of the opportunity for people with disabilities to be independent and able to work, and, therefore, less costly for the budget as dependents. according to the swedish model, the payback period for an investment in inclusive education is 7 years. the fedulova et al. principle strategy – “fishing rod, not a fish” – in relation to disabled students gives a good start to a quality independent life. the third party of inclusion is the “ordinary students”. according to the results of surveys in universities, ordinary students treat students with disabilities "reservedly-positively". on the one hand, they “have nothing against” the very fact of the presence of such students, on the other hand, without having experience of inclusion, they do not know how to join, interact, communicate and help. often a person with disabilities, having studied for the whole term, remains an outcast, aside from student life. for example, if it comes to coexistence in a room in a dormitory, students with disabilities most often refuse such a neighborhood. experience shows that it is easiest to achieve inclusive interaction with students from non-disabled students, involving them in volunteer programs, to help with tutoring support for applicants, students with disabilities. not the last role is played by common student events and joint volunteer projects. thus, at herzen university blind students along with other students participate in volunteer studios for the preparation of adapted books and textbooks for the blind. it is necessary to teach students to accept people with disabilities inside the community according to the principle “differences are a reason to unite”. discussion let's try to understand the problems that hetp may face when working with students with disabilities and inabilities for work. the first thing to know is that inclusive education is the education that is organized in a special way. if without any substantive changes, the university accepts people with disabilities as students, then the university can be immediately suspected of corruption. for the university becomes inclusive only after changes and the creation of special educational conditions: investments in infrastructure are required, serious investments in the retraining of personnel, costs for additional specialists (tutors, teaching assistants, supervisors), contribution to the change of didactics and pedagogical approaches. if a student is accepted with a disability (the type – musculoskeletal, sensory, behavioral, mental – does not matter) and the university does not change anything in equipment and in the modeling of the educational process, then this is not an inclusion. let us not forget that the main essential characteristic of inclusive education is flexibility. a huge number of talented children is not motivated, studies satisfactorily and shows their abilities after journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 118-135 graduation. inclusion requires pedagogical creativity, a departure from the uniformity of teaching directives, maximum individualization of learning. this is a basic condition for students with disabilities. but in the end, all this applies to ordinary students. didactic arsenal is increasing incredibly. as a result, research shows that the use of graphic organizers, visual schedules, textbooks and computer programs leads to a significant improvement in the results of tests and quizzes for both groups of students: with disabilities and without them. (horton, lovitt, & berglund, the underground students in content area classes. 1990). the likelihood that a student with mental disability lags behind in mastering an educational program is very high. does this mean that inclusion is impossible for him? of course not. higher education, as interpreted by its law on education of the russian federation, is training and education. higher education is not only an educational program. intellectual goals certainly belong to the goals of higher education. but still the goals are social and the goals are legal. and inclusion is, first of all, a right. any student comes to university to study. and the university created for this, it is an educational institution. however, it is impossible to say with what certificate he will graduate from a university about even the most capable student at 16, and it is impossible to predict about a student with a disability what achievements he will receive in the general educational environment. any assumptions on this topic cannot be scientifically predictable. the level of education before any student must be overstated – only this way development is stimulated. in segregation education, however, it is always underestimated. therefore, we will never be able to find out what real achievement graduates of soviet correctional schools were capable of. inclusion is, first of all, the openness and transparency of the community and all relationships in it. it is precise because an inclusive university is the safest, because there, in the face of “special” students, is a lot of markers and signals, even barely involved in pathological processes. and the inclusive environment will not allow to hide these markers, to make them invisible, to bring them beyond the boundaries of attention and critical perception of hetp. the fact is that the value of inclusion is that in a truly inclusive group there are no worse and better ones. the inclusive group assumes no longer a competitive type of training, but a team one. fedulova et al. in an inclusive group, there is less declarative learning and more project and participatory (complicity) work. explaining the rejection of inclusion as a danger to children with disabilities is the same myth-creating trap. under the formal care of the weak, there is a departure from reality (nigmatullina, 2015). you need to think not about what might offend a disabled person, but about the fact that any child, including a student, can be persecuted. if there is a buller in this team, then, whether a student is disabled or not, the victim will be found. and it can be your healthiest and smartest child. therefore, attention should be paid not to the hypothetical disabled trigger, but to the very problem of harassment. and we must fight it, and not with students with disabilities assigned to mandatory sacrifices only by our imagination. the fact is that special children really are not like everyone else. to insist that they are no different is ridiculous. but, oddly enough, in general, all children are different, and so conceived by nature and god. however, one or another perception of the difference is connected with only one thing – the experience of interaction with this difference. even if a completely typical student comes for the first time to an already formed team, the group focuses on it particular attention, looks at it, highlights it and keeps it apart for some time, without immediately recognizing the equality of the newcomer in its ranks. over time, acquaintance, which, in turn, forms the habit. the point is not that students with disabilities have no differences. the point is how this difference is perceived. if ordinary children have a classmate with a disability from the first class, the difference of the latter becomes a routine. and children really stop seeing this difference. there is no hypocrisy, no slyness – just the difference between a classmate goes beyond the limits of awareness. none of the white american schoolchildren perceives the black skin of an african american classmate as a feature (although it was once on this basis that schoolchildren in america segregated). today, skin color does not refer to features that require children's attention and some kind of awareness. and this does not mean, firstly, that black children are perceived as white, and secondly, those children who do not attach any importance to the skin color of their classmates are lying and cunning. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 118-135 this means only one thing: the singularity is “terrible” only if it is not used to it, the singularity acquires a negative meaning only in the absence of experience and practice of interaction. as soon as such experience is available from early childhood, the peculiarity of a classmate, and later – a group mate, becomes a property as neutral as someone's height, someone's hair color or someone's freckles. but here there is comforting research. in one of them, the level of comfort of children without disabilities was studied with children who have special needs. studies of students of middle and high school students without features showed a reduction in the fear of people with disabilities and simplification of interaction with them. but an interesting side effect was also noted: parents reported that they also feel more comfortable with people with special needs due to the experience of their children (fayzrakhmanova, 2014). inclusion is a social concept. first of all, the concept of inclusion should not be limited only to the educational sense. inclusive education is a channel, it is a means of achieving social inclusion. it is not an end in itself. it’s just that without inclusive education it is impossible to build social inclusion – one where anyone weakened due to various circumstances (sick, ruined, lost family, just aged) can maintain his social role and have his place among people, without which sustainable development of modern society is impossible (mikhailushkin et al., 2018; leonteva et al., 2018). inclusion is a right, and to say that inclusion is suitable for the smart, but not mentally retarded is as absurd as to say that oxygen is not suitable for everyone for breathing. conclusion the conducted research made it possible to reveal the extremely low degree of readiness of state and educational institutions for the practice of inclusive education of students with disabilities, which is indicative of problems in the development of society. a comparative analysis of russian and international norms showed the insufficient development of russian legislation in the field concerning the integration of students with disabilities into society: they are focused mainly on social protection rather than on positive social integration of individuals with disabilities. in fact, students with disabilities can obtain the opportunity to study in russian higher school only through a court decision. successful approaches to the implementation of inclusive education of students with disabilities abroad may include: the availability of legal documents regulating the common practice of fedulova et al. education; actively involvement of students with disabilities in building an inclusive space; using the accumulated potential of remedial schools to form support centers for inclusive learning on their basis, etc. all this suggests that the development of inclusion in russia is planned, but there is always the risk that a great idea can easily turn into opportunistic formality – with the calculation of reporting figures for students with disabilities, while behind each statistical unit is a specific person, which is often forgotten. in fact, such a large-scale social project as an inclusive education in russia can be implemented only if there is an act of goodwill of all participants in the higher educational process. references adamczyk, m.; betlej, a.; gondek, j.; ohotina, a. (2019). technology and sustainable development: towards the future?, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 2003-2016. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(32) artemyeva t.v. (2015). psychological support of students in the inclusive space of the university. inclusive vocational education. chelyabinsk: publishing house of chelyabinsk university. p. 161–164. alajmi, m. a. (2019). the impact of e-portfolio use on the development of professional standards and life skills of students in the faculty of education at princess nourabint abdul rahman university, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4) 1714-1735. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) batkovskiy, a.m.; leonov, a.v.; pronin, a.yu.; semenova, e.g.; fomina, a.v.; balashov, v.m. (2019). sustainable development of industry 4.0: the case of high-tech products system design, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 1823-1838. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(20) berus e.i., dulepova n.v. (2013). the model of inclusive education in the novosibirsk state university. proceedings of the international educational forum “international dialogue: inclusion through life”, november 28-29, 2013, rostov-on-don. m .: the vuzv book, p. 13–19. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(32) http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(20) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 118-135 bochkareva, t. n., akhmetshin, e. m., korotkova, a. l., lyitkina, n. l., nasipov, i. s., & khaliullina, a. g. (2017). research of students' cognitive activity. espacios, 38(60) bozhkova g.n., shastina e.m., kalimullina o.v., shatunova o.v. (2019). study of literary images of gifted characters in optional activities as a means to develop capable and talented youth. space and culture, india. vol. 7:1, pp. 264273. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. adopted by general assembly resolution 61/106 of december 13, 2006. url: http://www.un.org/ru/documents/decl_conv/conventions/disability.shtml 1 dalevska, n.; khobta, v.; kwilinski, a.; kravchenko, s. (2019). a model for estimating social and economic indicators of sustainable development, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 1839-1860. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(21) dev, s. (2018). effects of procrastination behavior, stress tolerance and study habits on academic achievements of indian students residing in india (kerala) and uae. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 16-31. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/365 dobrovolskienė, n.; tvaronavičienė, m.; tamošiūnienė, r. (2017). tackling projects on sustainability: a lithuanian case study, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 4(4): 477-488. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.4.4(6) essary, j. n. & szecsi, t. (2018). friendships overcome ignorance and misconceptions: teacher candidates’ exposure to a foreign culture in an online cross-national e-pals project. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 41-57. fayzrakhmanova, a.t. (2014). tolerant attitude towards students with disabilities as one of the conditions of inclusive education in higher education institutions // inclusive education affordable education barrier-free environment: materials of the second international scientific and practical conference, yakutsk, june 2014 yakutsk: nefu publishing house, 2014. p. 214–217. federal law “on ratification of the un convention on the rights of persons with disabilities” on april 25, 2012 url: http://www.komitet8.km.duma.gov.ru/site.xp/051057051.html https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 http://www.un.org/ru/documents/decl_conv/conventions/disability.shtml%201 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(21) http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/365 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.4.4(6) http://www.komitet8.km.duma.gov.ru/site.xp/051057051.html fedulova et al. federal law of december 29, 2012 no. 273-fe “on education in the russian federation” // collection of legislation of the russian federation, december 31, 2012, no. 53 (part 1), art. 7598. federal law of the russian federation of may 3, 2012 no. 46fz “on ratification of the convention on the rights of persons with disabilities”. url: http://www.rg.ru/2012/05/05/invalidi-dok/html goncharova v.g., didenko l.a. (2013). individually oriented educational programs as a means of improving the quality of vocational education of persons with disabilities. special education. № 3. p. 32–41. kondratyeva, s.i. (2010). mechanism of innovative project management for the implementation of an inclusive education model in the university: author. diss. ... cand. economy sciences. m. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). usability testing of mooc: identifying user interface problems. paper presented at the iceis 2019 proceedings of the 21st international conference on enterprise information systems, 2 468-475. korepanova i.a. (2011) communication and activity two bases for designing integrative (inclusive) spaces. psychological science and education. № 3. p. 12–18. kurbanov a.t. (2015) inclusive practice in higher education an educational project for students and undergraduates. inclusive vocational education. chelyabinsk: publishing house of chelyabinsk university, 2015. p. 34–38. kuznetsova, i. g., bulyga, r. p., rakhmatullina, l. v., titova, s. v., shichiyakh, r. a., & zakirov, r. a. (2019). problems and prospects of human capital development in modern russia. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 164-175. law 273-federal law “on education in the russian federation” 2015 new 273-фз.рф. url: http://www.assessor.ru/zakon/273-fz-zakon-ob-obrazovanii-2013. leonteva, l. s., maximov, d. a., kurbanov, s. a., afanasyev, i. v., melnikova, t. e., & rezakov, r. g. (2018). information services and development of effective urban management. international journal of civil engineering and technology, 9(11), 25182525. http://www.rg.ru/2012/05/05/invalidi-dok/html http://www.assessor.ru/zakon/273-fz-zakon-ob-obrazovanii-2013 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 118-135 limba, t.; šidlauskas, a. (2018). secure personal data administration in the social networks: the case of voluntary sharing of personal data on the facebook, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 5(3): 528-541. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.5.3(9) malofeev n.n. (2003). western europe: the evolution of the attitude of society and the state towards people with developmental disabilities. m .: exam publishing house, 256 p. mikhailushkin, p. v., lubkova, e. m., shilova, a. e., zhuravlev, p. v., karpenko, e. z., & nikiforov, s. a. (2018). possibilities of agriculture competitiveness increasing. international journal of mechanical engineering and technology, 9(11), 1401-1412. miftakhov, a. f., murtazina, d. a., sofronov, r. p., solovieva, n. m., & blinov, v. a. (2019). effectiveness of using football basics in physical education and organizing arts and cultural events for promoting harmonious development of orphan children. international journal of instruction, 12(1), 539-554. http://doi:10.29333/iji.2019.12135a monni, s.; palumbo, tvaronavičienė, m. (2017). cluster performance: an attempt to evaluate the lithuanian case, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 5(1): 43-57. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.5.1(4) nigmatullina, i.a. (2015). inclusive psychology an innovative direction of training masters (future special psychologists). inclusive vocational education. chelyabinsk: publishing house of chelyabinsk university, p. 17–21. oganisjana, k.; svirina, a.; surikova, s.; grīnberga-zālīte, g.; kozlovskis. k. (2017). engaging universities in social innovation research for understanding sustainability issues, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 5(1): 9-22. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.5.1(1) peters, s. j. (2010). inclusive education: efa strategies for all children. stavropol: state educational institution of higher professional education “north caucasus state technical university”,124 p. ponomareva, n., zvereva, a., golubtsova, e., novikova, e., & maximov, d. (2019). approaches to the improvement of tax auditing for operations with intellectual property in the russian federation. espacios, 40(10) popova, l. i., demina, i. d., stepanenko, y. s., tran, q. n., meshkova, g. v., & afonasova, m. a. (2019). regional aspects of sectoral digitalization: problems and prospects. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 176-188. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.5.3(9) http://doi:10.29333/iji.2019.12135a http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.5.1(4) http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.5.1(1) fedulova et al. presidential decree of june 1, 2012 no. 761 “on the national action strategy for children for 2012–2017”. url: http://base.garant.ru/70183566/ prodanova, n. a., plaskova, n. s., bochkareva, n. g., babalykova, i. a., gazizyanova, y. y., & zherelina, o. n. (2019). integrated corporate reporting as an innovative business reporting model. international journal of engineering and advanced technology, 8(5), 2075-2078. resolution of the government of the russian federation dated march 17, 2011 no. 175 “on the state program of the russian federation“ accessible environment ”for 2011-2015”. url: http://www.garant.ru/products/ipo/prime/doc/12084011/#ixzz3aj42jnbg] requirements for the organization of the educational process for the education of persons with disabilities and persons with disabilities in educational institutions of higher education, including the equipment of the educational process. –url: http://fdomgppu.ru/sites/default/files/2%20(1).pdf/ rupeika-apoga, r., romanova, i., bule, l. & thalassinos, y. (2019). the impact of population ageing and social stratification: the case of latvia. international journal of economics & business administration, 7(1), 49-63. senan, n.a.m. (2018). developmental review program impact on enhancing the effectiveness of "teaching and learning" in accounting program: a case study in a saudi university, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(2): 1001-1017. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.6.2(35) shatunova o., anisimova t., sabirova f., kalimullina o. (2019). steam as an innovative educational technology. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 (2), 131-144. sharafutdinov, r. i., akhmetshin, e. m., polyakova, a. g., gerasimov, v. o., shpakova, r. n., & mikhailova, m. v. (2019). inclusive growth: a dataset on key and institutional foundations for inclusive development of russian regions. data in brief, 23. doi:10.1016/j.dib.2019.103864 strunc, a. (2019). the politics of culture. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 7180. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/26 http://base.garant.ru/70183566/ http://fdomgppu.ru/sites/default/files/2%20(1).pdf/ http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.6.2(35) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/26 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 118-135 thalassinos, i.e., stamatopoulos, v.t. and arvanitis, e.s. (2011). gender wage gap: evidence from the hellenic maritime sector 1995-2002. european research studies journal, 14(1), 91-101. voronkova, o. y., iakimova, l. a., frolova, i. i., shafranskaya, c. i., kamolov, s. g., & prodanova, n. a. (2019). sustainable development of territories based on the integrated use of industry, resource and environmental potential. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 151-163. yemelyanov, v., tochilkina, t., nedelkin, a., & shved, e. (2018). automation of monitoring and diagnosing the technical condition of torpedo ladle cars. paper presented at the matec web of conferences, , 239 doi:10.1051/matecconf/201823904003 yemelyanov, v. a., fatkulin, a. r., nedelkin, a. a., titov, v. a., & degtyarev, a. v. (2019). software for weight estimation of the transported liquid iron. paper presented at the proceedings of the 2019 ieee conference of russian young researchers in electrical and electronic engineering, elconrus 2019, 381-384. doi:10.1109/eiconrus.2019.8657011 zhavoronkov r.n. technology of higher inclusive education for persons with disabilities, used in the united states of america. url: http://www.vash-psiholog.info/psih/20317texnologiya-vysshego-inklyuzivnogoobrazovaniya-invalidov-primenyaemaya-vsoedinennyx-shtatax-ameriki.html/ article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2021:12 (4), 144-169 digital communication and social media interaction to improve the academic quality of islamic higher education lecturers ahmad sultra rustan1 abstract this study aims to examine the role of communication technology, as well as social media, by lecturers and students alike, in improving the quality of learning. to achieve this goal, 250 students and 65 professors from religious colleges in parepare, indonesia were recruited to participate in the study. proportional random sampling was used to select the sample, and google forms was used to distribute surveys to students and lecturers using the whatsapp communication application. smart pls 3.0 was later used for data analysis. we concluded that both in-class and online learning can be improved through the use of communication technologies, such as videoconferencing and teleconferencing. what is more, social media is more useful than communication technology when it comes to improving the quality of learning. in addition, this research found that these technologies worked better when used together rather than in isolation. as a result, it seems it is possible to better improve the quality of learning by increasing the use of communication technology and social media in tandem rather than just focusing on one or the other. keywords: digital communication, literacy, academic quality, social media introduction the academic quality of professors must be maintained and improved on a daily basis to prevent it from deteriorating over the course of time. after completing their phd studies, many professors feel satisfied with their careers, having mastered the art of scientific inquiry. however, as technology and knowledge improve, the skills of professors must improve as well (hung & yuen, 2010). following rapid technological advancements and several developments in science, professors should be enhanced through a development process (putri et al., 2019; sugiyanta, 2021). it is suggested that it may be possible to improve the academic quality of professors by using digital communication tools such as email and facebook, as well as educational media that can enhance the technological literacy of professors (hung & yuen, 2010). professors who are interested in developing academic competencies can use social media to connect with colleagues, 1dr. state institute of islamic studies (iain) parepare, indonesia; email: ahmadsultrarustan@iainpare.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 145 experts, and undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral students, among others (nur’aini, 2021). what is more, the academic competency of lecturers must be constantly be improved through participation in a variety of academic activities, and it is possible to learn a diverse range of academic knowledge through relevant social media groups (hung & yuen, 2010; watson, 2020; white, 2020). additionally, numerous joint research activities, seminars, symposiums, workshops, certifications, courses, and various other academic activities can be made more effective through the use of communication technology (budiharso & tarman, 2020). a hallmark of humanity’s 21st-century development is how technology and information has revolutionized numerous fields of human understanding. even in the domain of higher education, where technology has always played an enormous role, there has been a revolution in human life. our communication technology is becoming increasingly sophisticated, and this can be leveraged to improve the academic quality of professors while also boosting the speed of communication (alhumaid, 2020). as a result of these technology breakthroughs, social networks have evolved from their rudimentary beginnings to the complex ones that exist today. as a result of these advancements, social networks have become an integral part of our everyday lives. indeed, a little cosmic town has been created on our planet, one where civilization, culture, and various ways of life are flourishing at a breakneck pace (solikhah & budiharso, 2020). multiple social media platforms are available today, with them bringing people from all over the world together in one virtual place. technology and social media have infiltrated every aspect of daily life and all areas of the modern world’s cultural, social, political, and economic existence (alhumaid, 2020). changes in communication technology and social media, particularly through the use of social networking sites, have been particularly noticeable in the education sector. the rising use of social networking sites like facebook, twitter, whatsapp, and so on is considered to be representative of how technology is being used and applied in the educational process (hung & yuen, 2010). the virtual environment provided by social media platforms can be both flexible and customizable. everyone involved in school can benefit from the use of communication technology and social media in the educational process, including students and teachers (alhumaid, 2020). indeed, instructors can convey information, knowledge, and concepts to students through such platforms based on models that help their students to learn. students and instructors also benefit from the use of technology and social media in terms of better quality learning processes and rustan outcomes (brown, 2012). according to a number of studies, teachers utilize information technology to improve their students’ academic performance (brown, 2012; dermentzi et al., 2017). lecturers can also gain knowledge about a wide range of things that are important to their field of study by using modern information technologies (hung & yuen, 2010). when it comes to providing classes, professors can leverage information technology to the greatest extent possible (lim et al., 2015). learning technology has evolved significantly in recent years (dyson et al., 2015), because the use of technology can help optimize the educational process (manca, 2020). furthermore, technology can facilitate academics who are engaged in collaborative research activities (aldaihani et al., 2018). indeed, research sharing is one way of bringing together researchers from different countries (gu & widén-wulff, 2011). as a result, the use of information technology by lecturers can help them to become more professional. most indonesian institutions have acquired modern technology and offered it to their teachers, yet it has not been properly exploited by all academics (alexander et al., 2019). another issue is that instructors use technology for nonacademic purposes (manca, 2020). according to the literature, there is a considerable relationship between the use of technology and the educational ability of lecturers (veletsianos & kimmons, 2013). other studies have emphasized the need to use educational innovations in order to improve lecturers’ educational competence (goldsmith et al., 1995). information technology can be used by lecturers in the form of social media, artificial intelligence tools, the internet of things, robotics, and digital badges, among other things, to create new experiences (aldahdouh et al., 2017). when these new ideas are implemented, they may overcome many of the challenges that lecturers often face (goldsmith et al., 1995). previous studies of the use of technology and social media by lecturers for increasing their academic competency have led to a research gap in this area. according to some experts, these three variables have a significant impact on one another and the overall outcome (arts et al., 2011; bartels & reinders, 2011; jin, 2013; van-rijnsoever & donders, 2013). however, others have turned their backs on them, pointing out that there is no noticeable impact on teachers’ academic skills as a result of using technology or social media (roehrich, 2004). according to some studies, however, educators can reap benefits from using web-based technology in their lessons, both within and beyond the classroom (greenhow & robelia, 2009). indeed, students’ academic journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 147 performance has been found to improve when teachers integrate technology into their lessons (baytak et al., 2011; rahmadi et al., 2020). only a few studies have shown that teachers who use social media improve their academic performance and become more effective teachers (eynon & malmberg, 2011). the social media model developed by lecturers has been unable to promote academic quality because social media does not promote academic communication (ito et al., 2018). it has therefore not been easy for professors to enhance their academic prowess by using communication technologies more effectively (bartels & reinders, 2011), for example, tracked 79 relevant empirical research studies and concluded that the use of communication technology has not consistently influenced the academic quality of instructors. the current study has three main goals: the first goal of this research is to investigate the use of communication technologies for improving the quality of learning provided by lecturers. the communication technology devices possessed by lecturers and students have the potential to improve academic quality, as evidenced by an increasing number of pupils who have mastered their subjects. the second goal is to examine the role of social media in improving the quality of learning, something that is characterized by an increase in knowledge, the academic service from lecturers to students, lecture preparation, and preparation for final assignments, such as theses and dissertations. the third goal is to investigate whether using communication technologies and social media together can further improve the quality of the education process. research questions the research questions to be answered by this research were: 1) can communication technology, when used by lecturers and students, improve the quality of learning in higher education? 2) can social media, when used by lecturers and students, improve the quality of learning in higher education? 3) can the simultaneous use of communication technology and social media better improve the quality of learning in higher education? rustan hypothesis first statistical hypothesis h01 :1 = 0 : the use of communication technology has no influence on the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. ha1 : γ1 ≠ 0 : the use of communication technology influences the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. second hypothesis test h02 : γ2 = 0 : the use of social media does not influence the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. ha2 : γ2 ≠ 0 : the use of social media influences the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. third hypothesis test h03 : γ3 = 0 : the simultaneous use of communication technology and social media does not influence the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. ha3 : γ3 ≠ 0 : the simultaneous use of communication technology and social media does influence the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. literature review communication technology learning management systems, blogging tools, discussion forums, bookmarking sites, wikis, social networking sites (sns), devices, cloud computing services, augmented reality, virtual reality, and so on are just a few examples of the diverse range of communication technologies that can be utilized in universities. however, this research focused on social networking, technological gadgets, and cloud computing services. according to research (moran et al., 2011), technological advancements in communication can enhance student achievement. communication technology that requires the navigation of complex, professional networks has the potential to promote learning, according to koltay et al., (2015). for example, mendeley, a reference management system and academic social network (gunn & fisk, 2013), has helped scholars to assess the metrics and impact of their studies. a professional profile on linkedin can also be created, and this is frequently said to be used during job searching. in addition, the sharing journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 149 of research materials has been made easier thanks to researchgate and academia.edu (manca, 2020). cloud computing is a new paradigm for providing real-time, on-demand computing resources, such as networks, servers, storage, applications, and services (mell & grance, 2011), and this can offer great benefits for improving the quality of learning (alharthi et al., 2015) when adopted in the field of higher education (low et al., 2011). social media one recent communication technology innovation can foster communication and collaboration on a global scale, and this is social media. such services make it easier for humans to connect and communicate, so they can quickly increase the number of users they engage with on a daily basis. people that are well-versed in technology often use such services on a daily basis for both personal and professional reasons (chugh & ruhi, 2018). the term “social media” actually refers to a collection of various web-based apps that have been created by it pioneers without considering the potential benefits and drawbacks of what they have created (kaplan & haenlein, 2010). blogs, forums, bookmarks, wikis, and other social media tools also fall under the umbrella term of “social media,” because it encompasses a wide range of services (chugh & ruhi, 2018). the quality of learning can be improved when students use social media (al-rahmi et al., 2015) (dumpit & fernandez, 2017; dyson et al., 2015; hamid et al., 2015; hung & yuen, 2010; uusiautti & määttä, 2014; valenzuela et al., 2009). unfortunately, there is still some disagreement about this in the literature. according to a recent study, social media is less effective than other forms of communication for enhancing the quality of learning (al-daihani et al., 2018; khan & ali, 2010; dermentzi et al., 2017). according to the findings of gu & widén-wulff (2011), twitter has a significant impact on the overall quality of learning and learning outcomes. the use of social media can also help to improve the professionalism of academics. according to the research of (gruzd et al., 2012), social media can help companies to keep workers up to speed with their careers, promote jobs, and maintain a favorable public perception. there are certain obstacles to overcome when using social media, however, such as privacy concerns (gruzd et al., 2012), copyright concerns like plagiarism and content monetization, and rustan other concerns such as government regulation (lupton, 2014). according to (menzies & newson, 2007), the use of social media can divert attention from knowledge creation to knowledge production. they posited that being constantly connected to social media limits people’s ability to think deeply about their work, and as a result, this decreases their creativity. according to chugh & ruhi, (2018), social media can be used in the classroom for a variety of reasons. one of the main purposes is to help both educators and students to learn and grow throughout their lives by promoting fairness and inclusion, thus raising the bar for educational institutions everywhere. teachers and students alike can benefit from greater access to usergenerated resources, something that is made possible by social media, and it offers a more engaged, self-directed approach to education. with the use of social media, students and teachers can share knowledge while also enjoying access to specialized, targeted information for a particular field of study. student–teacher collaboration on specific projects and activities is also made possible through social networking, which allows a team of individuals working toward a common goal to share resources and knowledge. several further arguments for using social media in the classroom were discussed by corcoran & duane (2018), which includes the following. student stories from both within and outside the classroom can be shared on social media, and students can also learn about stories from outside their school through social media. thus, social media provides a platform for students to share their stories and helps them to recognize the importance of having their own distinctive voice. the effectiveness of communication technology and social media in education the integration of social media into learning and teaching environments may lead to new kinds of inquiry, as well as communication, cooperation, and identity work. it may also positively influence cognitive, social, and emotional states. greenhow & robelia (2009) described the formalized impact. according to the findings of gu & widén-wulff (2011), social media platforms like facebook act as perfect venues for students to interact, share information and resources, and engage with their peers. ajjan & hartshorne (2008) found that social networking sites encourage participation and critical thinking. other studies have found them to encourage peer support and communication about course content and evaluation (divall & kirwin, 2012); intercultural language learning (mills, 2011); and the expression of identity and digital literacy, particularly for marginalized students (amin et al., 2019; manca, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 151 some educators therefore make use of social media platforms. two of the many educational applications for them is to publish research findings and set school assignments, among other things (kenna & hensley, 2019). on creating a facebook page or group and inviting instructors and/or students to participate, one can encourage them to exchange information about educational issues and share links to resources. to help exchange ideas and information between teachers and students, instructional images and videos can also be shared and discussed (madge et al., 2009; deschryver et al., 2009). for example, livingstone (2008) held conferences and follow-up seminars on twitter. students and teachers can also collaborate on a project for a course using twitter. in addition, instagram began life as a photo-sharing app, but as new features like video, sms, and stories were introduced, the app’s popularity skyrocketed (ellison, 2017). when using instagram as a tool for language learning, (handayani, 2016) claimed that students can engage in digital storytelling, grammar drills through images, role-playing, reading, and speaking drills through videos on the app. furthermore, it is clear from the findings of cetinkaya (2017) research that students develop good attitudes toward the use of whatsapp in their educational endeavors. methods design this study used correlation design (christensen & waraczynski, 1998) and linear correlational analysis as the research approach to analyze data (riadi, 2016; christensen & waraczynski, 1998). variables of this study were communication in social media perceived from three dimensions: communication technology, social media and teaching quality. data were collected from these through a survey methodology, which is considered to be one of the best methods available because of its high accuracy for predicting phenomena. a descriptive research design was also employed in the study in order to describe the characteristics of the respondents and gather information (mohajan, 2018). this study took place in parepare south sulawesi, indonesia providing 5 islamic universities in parepare. sample as inducated in table 1, in total there are 315 sample for this study comprised 250 sophomore and 65 professors selected from 5 religious universities in parepare, indonesia. all of the 12,564 students enrolled in the 2020/2021 academic year were included in this study’s subject population. rustan a random stratification of the sample was applied in order to achieve the research’s aims. ultimately, some 65 lecturers and 250 students who used communication technologies, websites, and social media tools took part in the study. the universities were identified as uni-1, uni-2, uni-3, uni-4, and uni-5 for ethical purposes. table 1 sample of the study no university n=315 students, professor f % f % 1 uni-1 50 15.9 13 4.13 2 uni-2 50 15.9 13 4.13 3 uni-3 50 15.9 13 4.13 4 uni-4 50 15.9 13 4.13 5 uni-5 50 15.9 13 4.13 total 250 79,5 65 20,5 research instruments this research used a 18-item questionnaire devised as a likert scale option to gather data. the questionnaire was divided into two parts, with the first being for the professors, and the second being for the students. each part was divided into two sections: the first section sought information about the respondents, while the second section contained items that were distributed among three variables: communication technology 4 items, social media 8 items, teaching quality 6 items as indicated in table 2. table 2 research instrument grid variable dimension indicator no. items communication technology (ct) technology device computer/laptop ct1 smartphone ct2 communication service communication in the form of assignments ct3 communication in problemsolving for course material ct4 social media (sm) attitudes towards the use of social media in education use fully sm1 use partially sm2 benefits of using social media in education individual benefits sm3 shared benefits sm4 the role of social media in education doing assignments with friends sm5 collect assignments to the lecturer sm6 challenges of using social media in education data confidentiality sm7 hoax sm8 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 153 teaching quality (tq) preparation quality learning program socialization tq1 college contract socialization tq2 quality of execution quality of learning process tq3 quality of coursework tq4 quality evaluation mid-semester exam quality tq6 end-semester exam quality tq6 the students and professors were invited to complete the questionnaire during the 2020/2021 academic year in order to measure all the research variables, with google forms being used to distribute the questionnaire. it used a five-point likert scale with the following scores: highly agree (5), agree (4), undecided (3), disagree (2), highly disagree (1). thus, the instrument was designed to measure how strongly people agreed or disagreed with a particular statement. validity of the research instrument the validity and reliability of the data were examined. table 3 shows the results of a validity test using the smart pls software to analyze the outer loads: table 3 the outer loadings variable communication technology (x1) social media (x2) teaching quality (communication technology) (x1) 0.982 0.769 0.982 0.983 (social media) (x2) 0.886 0.768 0.876 0.858 0.758 0.750 0.869 0.789 (teaching quality) (y) 0.883 0.931 0.890 0.963 0.899 0.893 it could therefore be concluded that all of the questionnaire items were valid based on the results of the validity test, with all r values being greater than 0.7 for all of the questionnaire items. in addition, the validity test revealed that the measure had high psychometric properties and could be used as a valid measure. rustan reliability of the research instrument the cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability were both used in this study to determine reliability. the reliability testing with composite reliability used the following decision criteria: a questionnaire item was considered reliable if its overall reliability score was greater than or equal to 0.7, otherwise it was considered unreliable. the calculations yielded the results shown in table 4. table 4 reliability test results variable cronbach’s alpha rho_a composite reliability average variance extracted (ave) communication technology (x1) 0.948 0.965 0.964 0.871 social media (x2) 0.930 0.974 0.943 0.674 teaching quality (y) 0.959 0.962 0.967 0.829 these results show that the composite reliability values for each construct all have a value greater than 0.7, indicating that all the constructs are reliable. similarly, when referring to the cronbach’s alpha, the values for all constructions are greater than 0.7, further indicating that they are all dependable. data analysis spss was used to perform descriptive analysis, while excel was used to study spider diagrams. the smart pls program was used for the loading factor analysis in order to establish how each indicator contributed to the variables (linting & van der kooij, 2012). indicator variables with a loading factor greater than 0.6 were analyzed in accordance with the criteria of linting and van der kooij (2012). the correlation matrix r2 was used to determine the extent to which the independent variable contributed to the dependent variable, either in whole or in part. thus, based on (bishara & hittner, 2012) ecommendation, the r2 strategy was selected. the predicted model was tested with smart pls 3.0 using structural equation modeling, which provides a significant advantage in terms of comprehensive analysis (green, 2016). indeed, statistical tests on interval data made smart pls 3.0 ideal for data analysis in this study. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 155 results this section presents results of the study in three parts: results of descriptive statistics analysis, classic assumption test that include normality test, homogeneity test, and linearity test. the hypothesis testing is displayed at the end of the results section. the characteristics of the respondents are summarized in table 5. table 5 description of respondents characteristic description students professors other types man 102 29 woman 148 36 total 250 65 age < 21 years old 41 21-30 209 3 31-40 15 41-50 34 >50 13 total 250 65 type of communication technology used 1 28 5 2 215 60 >2 7 0 total 250 65 type of social media used < 3 70 30 3 – 5 110 35 > 5 85 0 265 65 source: data analyzed, 2021 there was a significantly higher number of female student respondents (148) than male respondents (102), as seen in the table above. in contrast, when it comes to the professors, the female academics (36 persons) only slightly outnumbered the male ones (29). most students (209) were aged between 21 and 30 years old, with the remaining 41 students being younger than 21. for the professors, only three were aged 21–30, 15 were aged 31–40, 34 were aged 41–50, and 13 were aged over 50. most (215) students used two different types of communication technology, with 28 using one type and seven students using three or more types. similarly, most professors (60) also used two types of communication technology, with only five of them using only one type and none using more than two. when it comes to the types of social media used by students, many (110) used 3– rustan 5 different types of social media, while 85 of them used more than five different types of social media. just 70 students used less than three different types of social media. description of data figure 1. average indicators of communication technology utilization based on the radar diagram above, it can be seen that the average use of communication technology for ct2 (communication in the form of assignments) has the highest value at 4.57, followed by ct2 (communication using smartphones), ct1 (using computer/laptop communication technology) at 4.51, and finally ct4 (communication in problem-solving related to lecture material) at 4.51. for the variables for social media, the radar diagram is shown in figure 2. diagram 2. the use of social media journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 157 based on the radar diagram above, it can be seen that the highest average use of social media was for the sm5 indicator (doing assignments with friends) at 4.44, followed by sm1 (using fully) at 4.416 and sm4 at 4.416. the indicator with the smallest average use was sm7 (data confidentiality) at 4.36. table 6 indicators of each variable and the average score description indicators and mean indicator tc1 tc2 tc3 tc4 mean 4.516 4.572 4.532 4.524 indicator sm1 sm2 sm3 sm4 sm5 sm6 sm7 sm8 mean 4.416 4.392 4.408 4.416 4.444 4.4 4.36 4.368 indicator tq1 tq2 tq3 tq4 tq5 tq6 mean 4.524 4.452 4.532 4.476 4.404 4.476 source: 2021 data analysis results for the learning quality variable, the radar diagram is presented in figure 3. diagram 3. quality of learning according to the above radar diagram, the indicator tq3 (quality of the learning process) had the highest average value for quality of learning at 4.53, followed by tq1 (socialization of learning programs) at 4.52, while the indicator with the lowest average quality of learning value was tq5 (quality of the mid-semester exam) at 4.40. rustan normality test the results of the data normality test are presented in table 7. table 7 normality test x1 x2 y n 250 250 250 normal parameters, b mean 36.21 35.1840 17.89 std. deviation 3.944 3.65013 1,911 most extreme differences absolute .168 .204 .274 positive .168 .204 .274 negative -.160 -.168 -.250 kolmogorov-smirnov z 12.659 13,233 14,340 asymp. sig. (2-tailed) .065 .078 .087 a. test distribution is normal. b. calculated from data. based on the results of the normality test, it can be seen that the variables x1, x2, and y are all normally distributed because they all have a significance level greater than 0.05. linearity test the linearity test was performed twice, once to establish the linearity of x1 to y and once to do the same for x2 to y. the results are shown in tables 8 and 9. table 8 test for linearity of x1 against y model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 246.861 1 246.861 92.479 .000b residual 662.003 248 2.669 total 908.864 249 a. dependent variable: y b. predictors: (constant), x1 based on the above results, the f coefficient was 92.479 with a significance of 0.000, which is lower than 0.05, so the x1 data against y was linear. table 9 test for linearity of x2 against y model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 628.652 1 628.652 556.384 .000b residual 280.212 248 1.130 total 908.864 249 a. dependent variable: y b. predictors: (constant), x2 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 159 based on the results shown in table 8, the f coefficient was 556.384 with a significance of 0.000, which is lower than 0.05, so the x2 data against y was linear. homogeneity test table 10 homogeneity test sum of squares df mean square f sig. between groups 52985.216 2 26492.608 2443.333 .063 within groups 8099.584 747 10.843 total 61084.800 749 based on the results for the homogeneity test shown in table 10, the f coefficient was 2443.333 with a significance of 0.063, which is greater than 0.000, so there was no difference in homogeneity between variables, meaning that the data were homogeneous. hypotheses testing based on the results of the data analysis, as well as several theories that have been put forward by experts, the results of this study were used to test a number of hypotheses. first statistical hypothesis h01 :1 = 0 : the use of communication technology has no influence on the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. ha1 : γ1 ≠ 0 : the use of communication technology influences the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. the findings of the inner model (structural model) test—which comprises the r-square output, parameter coefficients, and t-statistics—were used to test the above hypothesis. paying attention to these significant values can help determine whether or not to accept or reject a hypothesis. the smartpls (partial least square) 3.0 software was used to conduct hypothesis testing in this study. the bootstrapping results revealed a t-statistic greater than 1.96 with a p-value of 0.05 (5%) and a positive beta coefficient should be used as a guideline in this investigation. table 5 shows the importance of evaluating this research hypothesis, while figure 4 below shows how the outcomes of this research model can be described. rustan figure 4. hypothesis test analysis results based on the results of the hypothesis testing, the path coefficient was 0.066 with an r of 0.821 and an r2 of 0.674. the results of the complete analysis can be seen in table 11. table 11 calculation results for r2, t-test, and p value effect r original sample (o)/r2 sample mean (m) standard deviation (stdev) t-statistic (|o/stdev|) p value x1→y 0.821 0.674 0.346 0.062 3.850 0.000 x2→y 0.894 0.799 0.346 0.062 3.850 0.000 x1,x2→y 0.899 0.800 0.346 0.062 3.850 0.000 the hypothesis test revealed that the r square (r2) was 0.674 with a t-statistic of 3.850 (> 1.96) (p-value=0.000 < 0.05). as a result, the null hypothesis was rejected and ha1 was accepted. the usage of communication technology apparently does have an impact on the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare, thus supporting what has been found in previous research. when the coefficient of determination was calculated, the r square value was 0.674, so the use of communication technology is responsible for 67.4% of the variation in quality of learning, which is a significant proportion. the remaining 32.6% is due to other factors that are not accounted for in this study, although they are likely significant nonetheless. journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 161 second hypothesis test h02 : γ2 = 0 : the use of social media does not influence the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. ha2 : γ2 ≠ 0 : the use of social media influences the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. the route coefficient was 0.932, the r was 0.894, the r square (r2) was 0.799, the t-statistics was 3.850 (> 1.96), and the p-value was 0.000 (< 0.05), so the null hypothesis was rejected and ha2 was accepted based on these results. the use of social media by islamic college students indeed has a notable impact on academic performance, because the r2 of 0.799 indicates that 79% of the variation in learning quality is determined by a person’s capacity for using social media. the remaining 20.1% is due to other issues outside the scope of this investigation. third hypothesis test h03 : γ3 = 0 : the simultaneous use of communication technology and social media does not influence the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. ha3 : γ3 ≠ 0 : the simultaneous use of communication technology and social media does influence the quality of learning for islamic college students in parepare. 0.802 0.800 the hypothesis testing results indicated that the null hypothesis should be rejected, so ha3 was accepted. therefore, according to this study, islamic college students in parepare can benefit greatly from simultaneously using both communication technologies and social media. based on the r2 value of 0.800, we can surmise that 80% of the variation in learning quality is due to an individual’s ability to employ communication technology and social media at the same time. however, even though the remaining 20% is due to factors outside the scope of this study, they may still be important. such factors could include, for example, learning techniques, average student aptitude, learning motivation, classroom atmosphere, educational culture, and the professionalism of the instructor. the recent finding reveals that social media (i.e., the x2 variable) has a greater impact than communication technology (i.e., the x1 variable). thus, any educators rustan looking to improve the quality of learning should focus on using social media first and reinforce it with communication technology. discussion this study’s findings indicate that a suitable use of communication technology can increase the quality of the learning process and improve the learning experience. however, when the communication facilities of a campus are inadequate, the quality of learning may suffer as a result of poor infrastructure. consequently, all colleges should provide suitable communication infrastructure, such as internet access and wireless networks, because substandard technology will not support student learning, instead weakening students’ interest and enthusiasm in learning. in contrast, students’ motivation to learn will increase thanks to a well-designed communication network that is supported by appropriate technology. should network connectivity go down when students are studying, their concentration will be broken, and their excitement for learning will be reduced as a result of the interruption. a study by manca (2020) found that students who used social and digital media were more motivated to attend classes. assigning and collecting tasks, as well as other learning activities, through social media also proved to be quite beneficial. indeed, students and lecturers alike can benefit from using social media in the classroom, thus creating a sense of uniformity (manca, 2020). using social media to collaborate on group projects and discuss assignments also seems to be a great idea. it is possible to create cooperative spaces with social media, such as social networks, for students to communicate with professors and other students. students’ abilities to compose texts, research subjects, present viewpoints, and engage in debates can all be improved by leveraging social media platforms. when working on academic tasks, social media can also be used to facilitate dialogue. in addition, social media can be effective for research, because it encourages students to be creative while also making it easier to access relevant materials and engage in various activities to learn more about a subject. social media can also be a powerful instrument for spreading the required culture of technology, thus allowing students’ creative powers to be awakened and unleashed. student’s comprehension of lecture material can also be improved through the use of social communication techniques, as identified in a study by sahar & ahmad (2019). furthermore, participatory digital culture can bridge formal and informal learning gaps according to (greenhow journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 163 & robelia, 2009). in addition, mckinney & rill (2009) examined students’ opinions and discussions in depth and found that students could use youtube to spark debates, thus representing an effective teaching tool. adolescents’ use of social networking sites for intimacy, privacy, and self-expression was also examined by livingstone (2008). when it comes to the use of social media by students and teachers, (akyuz et al., 2012) sought to find out what kinds of social and educational activities they engaged in on these networks. the findings indicated that compared to other forms of communication technology, the use of social media can increase the overall quality of the learning experience. thus, when a campus wishes to increase the quality of learning for its students, it should provide adequate network infrastructure, so students can communicate through social media to support their learning from lectures and other activities. thereby, this research finds a novelty in the research methods in that the use of social media can increase teaching values, communication and interaction providing networking sites for intimacy, privacy, and self-expression. conclusion this study found a strong correlation between the use of communication technologies and the quality of learning for students. indeed, students become more engaged in the learning process when using suitable communication technologies. in addition, the quality of learning can be considerably improved by the use of social media by both professors and students. indeed, students and professors alike can benefit from greater use of social media in the classroom, because it helps break down the barriers between the two groups and allows students and lecturers to spend more time communicating (i.e., outside of class hours). what is more, when communication technology and social media are used simultaneously, it improves the quality of learning further, because the combined impact of these two technologies is more significant than when using either of them in isolation. however, when looking at these technologies individually, social media appears to be more effective than communication technology for improving the quality of learning. nevertheless, they should be deployed in tandem whenever possible, heir learning from lectures and other activities. this research emphasizes its novelty in that networking sites for intimacy, privacy, and self-expression can increase teaching values, communication and interaction. this study, however has its limitation on the number of sample to generate the results. conclusion of this study should be defined in caution. in addition, future studies could also investigate the rustan influence of these technologies at the postgraduate level, as well as for vocational and nonvocational tertiary institutions. references ajjan, h., & hartshorne, r. (2008). investigating faculty decisions to adopt web 2.0 technologies: theory and empirical tests. internet and higher education, 11(2), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2008.05.002 akyuz, h. i., yetik, s. s., bardakci, s., alakurt, t., numanoglu, g., & keser, h. (2012). teacher candidates’ social network usage tendencies: a qualitative investigation. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 46, 5402–5408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.447 al-daihani, s. m., al-qallaf, j. s., & alsaheeb, s. a. (2018). use of social media by social science academics for scholarly communication. global knowledge, memory and communication, 67(6–7), 412–424. https://doi.org/10.1108/gkmc-11-2017-0091 al-rahmi, w. m., othman, m. s., yusof, l. m., & musa, m. a. (2015). using social media as a tool for improving academic performance through collaborative learning in malaysian higher education. review of european studies, 7(3), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.5539/res.v7n3p265 aldahdouh, t. z., korhonen, v., & nokelainen, p. (2017). how does an organisation’s culture relate to professional growth? 19, 9–30. https://journal.fi/akakk/article/view/84806 alexander, b., ashford-rowe, k., barajas-murphy, n., dobbin, g., knott, j., mccormack, m., pomerantz, j., seilhamer, r., & weber, n. (2019). educause horizon report: 2019 higher education edition. educause. https://www.educause.edu/horizonreport alharthi, a., yahya, f., walters, r. j., & wills, g. b. (2015). an overview of cloud services adoption challenges in higher education institutions. proceedings of esaasa 2015 2nd international workshop on emerging software as a service and analytics, in conjuction with the 5th international conference on cloud computing and services science closer 2015, 102–109. https://doi.org/10.5220/0005529701020109 alhumaid, k. f. (2020). qualitative evaluation: effectiveness of utilizing digital and social media in education. utopia y praxis latinoamericana, 25(extra 6), 466–476. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3987663 amin, n. a. h. n., hasnan, a. s., besar, n. n., & almunawar, m. n. (2019). knowledge sharing using web 2.0: preferences, benefits and barriers in brunei darussalam’s tertiary education. information diffusion management and knowledge sharing, 1(june), 623–641. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-0417-8.ch030 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 165 arts, j. w. c., frambach, r. t., & bijmolt, t. h. a. (2011). generalizations on consumer innovation adoption: a meta-analysis on drivers of intention and behavior. international journal of research in marketing, 28(2), 134–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2010.11.002 bartels, j., & reinders, m. j. (2011). consumer innovativeness and its correlates: a propositional inventory for future research. journal of business research, 64(6), 601–609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2010.05.002 baytak, a., tarman, b., & ayas, c. (2011). experiencing technology integration in education: children's perceptions. international electronic journal of elementary education, 3(2), 139-151. bishara, a. j., & hittner, j. b. (2012). testing the significance of a correlation with nonnormal data: comparison of pearson, spearman, transformation, and resampling approaches. psychological methods, 17(3), 399–417. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028087 brown, s. a. (2012). seeing web 2.0 in context: a study of academic perceptions. internet and higher education, 15(1), 50–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.04.003 budiharso, t., & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 cetinkaya, l. (2017). the impact of whatsapp use on success in education process. international review of research in open and distance learning, 18(7), 59–74. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v18i7.3279 christensen, l. b., & waraczynski, m. a. (1988). experimental methodology. boston: allyn and bacon. chugh, r., & ruhi, u. (2018). social media in higher education: a literature review of facebook. education and information technologies, 23(2), 605–616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9621-2 corcoran, n., & duane, a. (2018). using social media to enable staff knowledge sharing in higher education institutions. australasian journal of information systems, 22(2015), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3127/ajis.v22i0.1647 deschryver, m., mishra, p., koehleer, m., & francis, a. (2009, march). moodle vs. facebook: does using facebook for discussions in an online course enhance perceived social presence and student interaction?. in society for information technology & teacher education international conference (pp. 329-336). association for the advancement of computing in education (aace). divall, m. v., & kirwin, j. l. (2012). using facebook to facilitate course-related discussion rustan between students and faculty members. american journal of pharmaceutical education, 76(2), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe76232 dumpit, d. z., & fernandez, c. j. (2017). analysis of the use of social media in higher education institutions (heis) using the technology acceptance model. international journal of educational technology in higher education, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0045-2 dyson, b., vickers, k., turtle, j., cowan, s., & tassone, a. (2015). evaluating the use of facebook to increase student engagement and understanding in lecture-based classes. higher education, 69(2), 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9776-3 ellison, e. (2017). the #australianbeachspace project: examining opportunities for research dissemination using instagram. m/c journal, 20(4). https://doi.org/10.5204/mcj.1251 eynon, r., & malmberg, l. e. (2011). a typology of young people’s internet use: implications for education. computers and education, 56(3), 585–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.09.020 goldsmith, r. e., freiden, j. b., & eastman, j. k. (1995). the generality/specificity issue in consumer innovativeness research. technovation, 15(10), 601–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-4972(95)99328-d green, t. (2016). a methodological review of structural equation modelling in higher education research. studies in higher education, 41(12), 2125–2155. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1021670 greenhow, c., & robelia, b. (2009). old communication, new literacies: social network sites as social learning resources. journal of computer-mediated communication, 14(4), 1130– 1161. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01484.x gruzd, a., staves, k., & wilk, a. (2012). connected scholars: examining the role of social media in research practices of faculty using the utaut model. computers in human behavior, 28(6), 2340–2350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.07.004 gu, f., & widén-wulff, g. (2011). scholarly communication and possible changes in the context of social media: a finnish case study. electronic library, 29(6), 762–776. https://doi.org/10.1108/02640471111187999 gunn, v., & fisk, a. (2013). considering teaching excellence in higher education: 2007-2013: a literature review since the cheri report 2007. higher education academy, february, 2007–2013. http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/87987/ hamid, s., waycott, j., kurnia, s., & chang, s. (2015). understanding students’ perceptions of the benefits of online social networking use for teaching and learning. internet and higher education, 26, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.02.004 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 167 handayani, f. (2016). instagram as a teaching tool? really? proceedings of the fourth international seminar on english language and teaching (iselt-4), 4(1), 320–327. http://ejournal.unp.ac.id/index.php/selt/article/view/6942 hung, h. t., & yuen, s. c. y. (2010). educational use of social networking technology in higher education. teaching in higher education, 15(6), 703–714. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2010.507307 ito, m., baumer, s., bittanti, m., boyd, d., cody, r., herr stephenson, b., horst, h. a., lange, p. g., mahendran, d., martínez, k. z., pascoe, c. j., perkel, d., robinson, l., sims, c., & tripp, l. (2018). hanging out, messing around, and geeking out. in hanging out, messing around, and geeking out. the mit press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/8402.001.0001 jin, c. h. (2013). the effects of individual innovativeness on users’ adoption of internet content filtering software and attitudes toward children’s internet use. computers in human behavior, 29(5), 1904–1916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.03.009 kenna, j. l., & hensley, m. a. (2019). utilizing social media to promote civic engagement in the social studies classroom. the social studies, 110(2), 86–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377996.2018.1524360 khan, n., & ali, a. (2010). improving the speaking ability in english : the students ’ perspective. 2(2), 3575–3579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.554 koltay, t., špiranec, s., & karvalics, l. z. (2015). the shift of information literacy towards research 2.0. journal of academic librarianship, 41(1), 87–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2014.11.001 lim, n., grönlund, å., & andersson, a. (2015). cloud computing: the beliefs and perceptions of swedish school principals. computers and education, 84, 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.01.009 linting, m., & van der kooij, a. (2012). nonlinear principal components analysis with catpca: a tutorial. journal of personality assessment, 94(1), 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.627965 livingstone, s. (2008). taking risky opportunities in youthful content creation: teenagers’ use of social networking sites for intimacy, privacy and self-expression. new media and society, 10(3), 393–411. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444808089415 low, c., chen, y., & wu, m. (2011). understanding the determinants of cloud computing adoption. industrial management and data systems, 111(7), 1006–1023. https://doi.org/10.1108/02635571111161262 lupton, d. (2014). ‘feeling better connected’: academics’ use of social media. news & media rustan research centre, june, 36. http://www.canberra.edu.au/research/faculty-researchcentres/nmrc/publications/documents/feeling-better-connected-report-final.pdf madge, c., meek, j., wellens, j., & hooley, t. (2009). facebook, social integration and informal learning at university: “it is more for socialising and talking to friends about work than for actually doing work.” learning, media and technology, 34(2), 141–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439880902923606 manca, s. (2020). snapping, pinning, liking or texting: investigating social media in higher education beyond facebook. internet and higher education, 44, 100707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.100707 mckinney, m. s., & rill, l. a. (2009). not your parents’ presidential debates: examining the effects of the cnn/youtube debates on young citizens’ civic engagement. communication studies, 60(4), 392–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510970903110001 mell, p., & grance, t. (2011). the nist-national institute of standars and technology definition of cloud computing. nist special publication 800-145, 7. menzies, h., & newson, j. (2007). no time to think: academics’ life in the globally wired university. time & society, 16(1), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463x07074103 mills, n. (2011). situated learning through social networking communities: the development of joint enterprise, mutual engagement, and a shared repertoire. calico journal, 28(2), 345– 368. https://doi.org/10.11139/cj.28.2.345-368 mohajan, h. (2018). munich personal repec archive qualitative research methodology in social sciences and related subjects qualitative research methodology in social sciences and related subjects. journal of economic development, environment and people, 7(85654), 23–48. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=640546 moran, m., seaman, j., & tinti-kane, h. (2011). teaching, learning, and sharing: how today’s higher education faculty use social media. april. www.pearsonlearningsolutions.com nur’aini, s. (2021). university students’ learning disruption and affordance in a contested learning environment. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 25–44. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.23 putri, k. y. s., fathurahman, h., safitri, d., & sugiyanta, l. (2019). the use the elaboration phase in ict and social studies to educate junior high school students about the covid 19 pandemic journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 364–386. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3043 journal of social studies education research 2021: 12(4), 144-169 169 rahmadi, i., hayati, e., & nursyifa, a. (2020). comparing pre-service civic education teachers’ tpack confidence across course modes. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 113-133. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.7 riadi, e. (2016). statistika penelitian (analisis manual dan ibm spss). yogyakarta: cv. andi offset. roehrich, g. (2004). consumer innovativeness-concepts and measurements. journal of business research, 57(6), 671–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0148-2963(02)00311-9 sahar, & ahmad, i. (2019). waste management analysis from economic-environment sustainability perspective. international journal of scientific and technology research, 8(12), 1540–1543. solikhah, i., & budiharso, t. (2020). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177–197. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2658 uusiautti, s., & määttä, k. (2014). i am no longer alone how do university students perceive the possibilities of social media? international journal of adolescence and youth, 19(3), 293–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2014.919600 valenzuela, s., park, n., & kee, k. f. (2009). is there social capital in a social network site?: facebook use and college student’s life satisfaction, trust, and participation1. journal of computer-mediated communication, 14(4), 875–901. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.10836101.2009.01474.x van-rijnsoever, f. j., & donders, a. r. t. (2013). the effect of innovativeness on different levels of technology adoption. journal of the american society for information science and technology, 64(july), 1852–1863. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi veletsianos, g., & kimmons, r. (2013). scholars and faculty members’ lived experiences in online social networks. internet and higher education, 16(1), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.01.004 watson, e. (2020). #education: the potential impact of social media and hashtag ideology on the classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 40-56. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 white, c. (2020). wielding social media in the cyber-arena: globalism, nationalism, and civic education. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.3 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.1 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (1),219-240 219 mistranslation and maltranslation in a medical website: evidences from dorland’s medical dictionary ruben dharmawan1, mr. nababan2, m. sri samiati tarjana3 & djatmika4 abstract this study examines the quality of entry translation in dorland’s medical dictionary (dmd) containing mistranslation and maltranslation. this embedded-case study used dmd human-based and website mistranslation leading to maltranslation. the purposively selected data were 111 tropical medicine related the entries and its definition inserted in the kamus kedokteran dorland edisi 31 and the website translated by google translate. the translation techniques and assessment of the quality were processed in a focus group discussion. the rational how a mistranslation raised maltranslation was based on the basic medical science when a doctor examined, diagnosed, treated, promoted and prevented diseases for the benefit of patients. findings show that 111 entries made up of 158 human-based translated sentences are composed of 2816 units of translation, and the 162 google translate sentences for 3054 units. there are 18 translation techniques in human-based translation, 16 in google translation, 80 mistranslations leading to 57 maltranslations causing incorrect diagnosis, mistreatments, and misdirection of health promotion and prevention of disease. of 40 tokens, maltranslation occurs 32 times and human-based translation 25 times, implying low quality of the translation that requires improvement of the definition, word entries, and sentences in the website. keywords ̶ mistranslation, maltranslation, medical dictionary, human-based and google translate. introduction this study concerns with translation studies specifying the translation process from english language into indonesian language viewed from linguistics. specifically, this study examines evidences of text features that describe mistranslation and mistranslation as a result of interpreting improper description in the dorland’s medical dictionary (dmd). mistranslation does occur in medical practices as a result of insufficient transfer of equivalent meaning in the source language (sl) into indonesian language as the target language (tl) of translation. at the higher level, mistranslation contributes a maltranslation evidence as a result of insufficient, improper and failure to 1 doctoral candidate, sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: rubendharmawan@yahoo.com 2 prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: amantaradja@gmail.com 3 prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia. 4 prof. dr. sebelas maret university, surakarta, indonesia; email: djatmika@staff.uns.ac.id mailto:rubendharmawan@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 transfer meaning to severe distinction of the substance in the sl into tl. evidences from human-based translation techniques and google translation techniques are served to evaluate in this study. in the past the translation of medical texts was considered not difficult because it was one of the oldest and universal fields of scientific translation, and human anatomy and physiology around the world were almost the same (fischbach, 1961:1; fischbach, 1986:1). however, now the translation of medicine is often considered more difficult than the translation of other scientific and technical texts because the translator is required to have a basic knowledge that is up to date about the mechanism of the body's work and the development of disease and as well as related matters (moraes, 2010:30). dmd or kamus kedokteran dorland (kkd) edisi 31 in indonesian version is central in indonesian medical dictionary. a medical dictionary is a specialized dictionary covering terms used in the health professions by doctors, nurses, and others involved in allied health care services. the dictionary with authoritative spellings and definitions is a particularly crucial resource in medicine, where a misspelling or misunderstanding can have unfortunate consequences for people undercare (dictionary.com. 2018). unfortunate consequences can also occur due to mistranslation of definitions in the medical dictionary, though translation techniques are not good or bad or wrong in themselves, they effect the result of the translation (molina and albir, 2002:509). for the mistranslation of medical terms that contain unfortunate clinical consequences, researchers propose a term of maltranslation. the mal prefix comes from the latin word malus which means bad or abnormal (dorland, 2007:1112). maltranslation is a combined word of mal and translation denoting wrong translation that put patient’s heal that risk. translation techniques are not good or bad or wrong in themselves, however they affect the result of the translation (molina and albir, 2002:509). the maltranslation term necessitates that medical science is unforgiving about errors, sensitive and high risk (taylor, 2011:123; nababan et al., 2012:43; budiharso, 2018), hence identification of maltranslation requires specific knowledge, skills and competence of the assessor. the translation of medical texts has a high risk because of errors or distortions of meaning or taxa of translation have the potential to instill wrong knowledge and understanding to readers or interested persons or medical personnels and doctors. wrong understanding can harm patients in terms of diagnosis, treatment, management, prevention and health promotion (flores et al., 2003; kelly, 2010:1; foden-vencil, 2014:1; karwacka, 2014:20). in particular, the translation of dharmawan, et al. wrong medical texts can be fatal in terms of health, law and economics (pym, 2010:27; pym, 2015:18). for example, the mistake of translating just one word, namely intoxicado to be intoxicated, has fatal consequences and caused a large loss. regarding this, kelly (2010:1) wrote: if a picture is worth a thousand words, then what is a word worth? ... the miscommunication led to a misdiagnosis, the wrong course of treatment and eventually, to his quadriplegia. it also resulted in a malpractice settlement of $71m. excerpt below cited from an entry of chloroquine in dorland’s medical illustrated dictionary 31st edition page 352 exemplifies how sl is translated into tl in bahasa indonesia that indicate how mistranslation occurs: sl (english language) a 4-aminoquinoline compound with antiinflammatory and antiprotozoal properties, used for the suppression and treatment of malaria, and for the treatment of giardiasis and extraintestinal amebiasis, for suppression of lupus erythematosus, and as antiinflamatory in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, administered orally. tl (indonesian language) chloroquine senyawa 4-aminokuinolindengan sifat antiinflamasi dan antiprotozoa yang digunakanuntuk supresi dan terapi malaria, giardiasis serta amebiasisekstraintestinal dan untuk supresi lupus eritematosus di samping dipakai sebagai preparat antiinflamasi pada terapi artritis reumatoid; chloroquine diberikan per oral (kamus kedokteran dorland edisi 31 page 407). an omission in human-based translation of the above excerpt occurs in the phrase: for the treatment of (giardiasis and extraintestinal amebiasis). this omission potentially produces a mistranslation leading to a maltranslation, since chloroquine cannot suppress or stop the clinical course of giardiasis (kusmartisnawati in hadidjaja and margono, 2011:61-62; solikhah, 2018). if it is administered it is a mistherapy, it will endanger the health of a patient. pym (2010:3) wrote “omission is a common enough strategy, especially in low-risk situations. however, it might give a high-risk rendition, …” vázquez ayora (1977, in molina and albir, 2002:504) defined omission as to omit redundancy and repetition that is characteristic of the source language. in the source sentence, redundancy and repetition were not so frequent that the words should be omitted. the translators might have been in a rush. this happening gave web translation positive value over human translation. thus, the term maltranslation indicates that accuracy in medical dictionary translations requires specific knowledge, skills and competence of the assessor. mistranslation and maltranslation are not only related to accuracy but also acceptability and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 readability of a sentence because medical science is unforgiving about errors, sensitive and high risk (taylor, 2011:123; nababan et al., 2012:43; pym, 2015:73; anggororeni, et.al, 2018). the translation process should comprehensively cover the unit of translation. vinay and dalbernet (1995:21-22) define the unit of translation as the smallest segment of the utterance whose signs are linked in such a way that they should not be translated individually. according to the particular role they play in the message, several types of units of translation can be recognised, e.g. semantic units, i.e. units of meaning. huang and wu (2009:111) claims that studying translation without knowing the unit of translation is no different from studying medicine without knowledge of the human cell. they further define unit of translation as a target text segment instead of the commonly accepted source text segment, as follows: (1) the unit of translation creates an interval in the translating process, (2) it is into which the translators render s from the source text, (3) it has distinct and consistent grammar features, and (4) it possesses presence of meaning which is identifiable, and accuracy which is measurable through standardized assessment. brodovich (2015:218) states because the unit of translation was defined as a portion of the original text, it would seem that the text as a whole cannot serve as a unit of translation. not all translation errors are fatal, however, for instance, fakler and colleagues (2007:1) report a translation error in an artificial knee replacement device. the instructions for use in written english non-modular cemented have been translated into german as non-cemented or without cement. as a result of 47 non-cement (adhesive) knee replacement operations carried out from may 2006 to march 2007 at the hospital in germany, 34 patients had to undergo surgical revisions. fortunately the remaining 13 patients did not complain of interference. flores et al. in 2003 conducted a research in a children's hospital, and found 5 types of translation techniques i.e. omission, addition, substitution, editorialization and false fluency used by interpreter that producing mistranslation leading to maltranslation. flores et al. (2003:1,2) explained that omission happened when the interpreter did not interpret a word/phrase uttered by the clinician, parent, or child. addition was the interpreter added a word/phrase to the interpretation that was not uttered by the clinician, parent, or child. substitution: the interpreter substituted a word/phrase for a different word/phrase uttered by the clinician, parent, or child. editorialization: the interpreter provided his or her own personal views as the interpretation of a word/phrase uttered by the clinician, parent, or child. false fluency: the interpreter used an dharmawan, et al. incorrect word/phrase, or word/phrase that does not exist in that particular language. seventy three percent (73%) is a false fluency error, namely the mistake of translating medical terms into words or phrases that are not contained in the target language. of all the translation errors, 63% of them contain 13 types of clinical consequences (flores et al., 2003:1,2). in indonesia, mistranslation practices do happen for some instances. once, dosage and direction for use of a b (trademark) gargle have been mistranslated. the original patient package insert reads: gargle undiluted 15 ml (3 tsp) followed by mouth rinsing for min of 30 sec. repeat 2-4 times daily or as required. the indonesian translation is: digunakan dengan dikumur langsung sebanyak 15 ml sebanyak 3-5 kali sehari. the translation techniques used are modulation from 2-4 times daily to 3-5 kali sehari (3-5 times daily) and reduction of (3 tsp) and for min of 30 sec. another indonesian leaflet advices 10 ml of b obat kumur. wrong dosage and direction for use in a short time course will develop side effects, among others: anaphylaxis reaction, anaphylatoid, anaphylaxis shock, burns, mucosal irritation, and hypersensitivity reaction. silalahi (2009:i) found that the accuracy of human-based translation from english to indonesian reached 64.75%. the evidences of maltranslation in the above illustration, strongly indicate that linguistically translation approach does not suffice to translate a medical text. medical translations applies accuracy in medical knowledge that requires analysis involving medical science, thus linguistic text error (mistranslation) alone is not sufficient as the basis for analysis (pym, 2004:27; pym, 2015:18). taylor (2011:123) insists: "for the medical writer, being "right" is paramount. more than probably any other discipline, medical science is unforgiving about errors”. the experience of patil and davies (2014:1) in the children's emergency unit, nottingham, england, was an example of using website translation. at that time patil and davies had difficulty communicating with parents of pediatric patients who could not speak english. the child was treated in the emergency room because the suffering was very severe. hesitantly, patil and davies tried internet translation on the google translate website to obtain translations from english into the mother tongue of the patient's parents and use the results to explain the child's situation. luckily the patient recovered and when the hospital translator later came, stated that the information conveyed to the patient's parents was accurate. this event, in addition to showing the advantages of website translation in emergency situations, also illustrated the added value of the ability to synchronize medical text translations with the professionalism of doctors. this synchronization capability was most likely useful for producing better medical translations. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 patil & davies (2014:1) examined the accuracy of the translation of google translate on ten commonly used medical phrases and found that the accuracy level was only 57.7%.this condition shows that the translation of medical texts must inevitably follow the development of information technology or the rapid internet era in the present, although there are still deficiencies in terms of accuracy. the internet provides higher translation speeds and is more economical than human-based translation and can be accessed much faster, almost every time, in any place, freely and widely. van der meer (2016:1) worried that the future does not need translators. ... but we certainly need a future. đorđević (2017:45) believed that translation techniques depend on specific language pair, the area of expertise and the specific issue the translator is facing when translating. she also stated that since recent approaches to the study of translation imply a strong focus on the target text as a product, the existing translation techniques for non-literary translation e.g. adaptation, amplification, borrowing, economy, transposition, modulation and compensation are still applicable (2017:39-44). grounded the above background in mind, this study is guided by the following research questions: 1. how do medical terms coined in the dmd, kkd and google translate translation affect mistranslation and maltranslation? 2. how do mistranslation techniques used in the dmd, kkd and google translate affect translation quality that distorts sl proper meaning? methods research design the present study used a case study applying qualitative approach on translation study focusing on translation product. the study tried to describe how the original english version of dmd 31st edition translated by indonesian medical doctors into kkd edisi 31 and by google translate website, and to find translation techniques applied, whether the result was accurate or not, and if there was mistranslation leading to maltranslation, and evaluated the quality of translation. this study used multiple sources as the sites including dorland’s medical illustrated dictionary (dmd) 31st edition, the indonesian human-based translation of kamus kedokteran dorland (kkd) edisi 31 and google translate website translation of dmd (spradley, 1980; dharmawan, et al. santosa, 2017). this study, used qualitative approach as the dominant approach in the analysis of data. however, for the purpose of triangulation was also used to enhance the objectivity of the findings (ngoc minh vu, 2017:91). triangulation refers to the use of different data sources and different methods of data collection in the examination of the phenomenon (freeman, 1998; ngoc minh vu, 2017). three types of triangulation are applied: source or document, method, and investigator triangulation. source triangulation covers the original text of the dmd 31st edition; kkd edisi 31; and google translate translation. methodological triangulation consists of content analysis, focus group discussion and key review informant technique. investigator triangulation constitutes a tropical medical doctor, professor of linguistics specialized in translation and experts in translation technique. data and sources of data data of this study derived from dmd 31st edition, the indonesian human-based translation of kkd edisi 31 and google translate website translation. dmd is a preeminent medical dictionary published in 1890. the research materials are dmd 31st edition publishedin 2007 by elsevier/saunders, usa, consisting of 2208 pages, with 11 consultants; kkd edisi 31 was converted into indonesian by 14 medical doctors, and edited by 16 medical doctors, printed and published by egc medical publisher, jakarta, indonesia in 2012, covering 2531 pages. kkd 31st edition (2012) was selected because of its typical features that kkd has its incomplete translated title indicating carelessness making a good reason to investigate the way of translating texts inside. the purposively selected data consisted of 111 tropical medicine related entries of the 31st dmd because the first author has an additional education in tropical medicine. the other researchers are professors in linguistics. data collection and analysis the data were cropped in a focus group discussion (fgd) involving 4 participants, headed by a professor in linguistics specializing in translation, the first author and experts in translation. the entries and its explanation are human-based translated in the kkk edisi 31 and website translated by google translate. table 1 shows an example of wandering entry and its definition. the mechanism of maltranslation development is in table 1 and sample of scoring techniques is in table 2. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 table 1. wandering entry and its definition in dmd, kkd and google translate original text human-based translation and translation techniques mistranslation/ maltranslation wandering abnormally movable; too loosely attached. original text wandering dapat bergerak mistranslation: pb ee trans secara abnormal; yang ee nb ee melekat terlalu kendor. ee ee ee bergerak (move) should be dapat digerakkan (movable) google translateand translation techniques mistranslation/ maltranslation wandering abnormally pengembaraan bergerak mistranslation movable; too loosely attached. ee ee secara tidak normal;terlalu ee ee nb ee longgar melekat. ee ee 1. pengembaraan means travelling around, then it does not fit wandering. 2.bergerak (move) should be dapat digerakkan (movable) translation techniques are positioned below underlines. words of interest are printed in bold. translation techniques: pb: pure borrowing; ee: established equivalent; trans: transposition; nb: naturalized borrowing. types of translation techniques are taken from newmark, 1988; hervey and higgins, 1992; vinay and dalbernet, 1995; molina and albir, 2002; and đorđević, 2017. mistranslations of the indonesian versions are detected after application of translation techniques, and then maltranslations determined. the explanation on how mistranslation raise maltranslation is based on the way of a medical doctor examines, diagnoses, treats, promotes and prevents diseases for the benefit of patients. the data were analyzed using content analysis (spradley 1980, santosa, 2017:83-84) focusing on shaping meaning especially through relationships among translation technique, mistranslation, maltranslation and translation assessment. sentences containing mistranslation or maltranslation are scored according to the model for translation quality assessment by nababan et al. (2012:50-51) based on the principle that a quality translation must be accurate, acceptable and easily understood (readable) by the target reader. this model is selected because it is based on the indonesian translator perception of translation quality assessment on english-indonesian language pair product. the model is simple, practical and holistic. the condensed guide marks of the model consists of two steps: 1) applying dharmawan, et al. instruments for assessing accuracy, acceptability and readability, and 2) weighting and calculating the accuracy, acceptability and readability quality scores. each of the translation quality assessment instruments consists of three parts. the first part shows an assessment of the translation category: good, fair and bad; or high, medium and low. the second is scoring the categories with a scale of 1 to 3, which is sorted according to the reverse pyramid, the higher the quality of a translation, the higher the score obtained and vice versa. the third part is the qualitative parameters of each translation category. each of the three aspects has a different value weight. the aspect of accuracy has the highest weight, namely 3. the aspect of acceptance of translation ranks second, namely 2. the readability aspect has the lowest weight, namely 1. for example, the translation quality assessment of cutaneous anthrax entry and its explanation (dmd, 2012, pp. 100 and kkd 31, 2012, page 100). as table 2 suggests, there were no mistranslation and maltranslation in the first sentence as results of pure borrowing technique of cutaneous anthrax and established equivalent and structure transposition of inoculation of bacillus anthracis into superficial wounds or abrasions. good results of the translation techniques deserved a good value (3) for accuracy. table 2. translation quality assessment of cutaneous anthrax entry and its explanation. no. source sentence target sentence score accuracy acceptability readability 1 cutaneous anthrax the most common type of anthrax in humans, due to inoculation of bacillus anthracis into superficial wounds or abrasions. cutaneous anthrax jenis antraks yang paling umum pada manusia, disebabkan oleh inokulasi bacillus anthracis ke dalam luka atau abrasi. superficial 3 3 3 2 it begins with a small, dimulai dengan lesi papular 1 3 3 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 painless, pruritic papular lesion that may have satellite lesions and enlarges, ulcerates, and becomes crusted with a black eschar; this is surrounded by spreading edema. (malignant edema) and induration berukuran kecil, tidak nyeri, gatal, dan dapat disertai dengan lesi satelit yang membesar, berulserasi, dan menjadi krusta dengan keropeng hitam yang tebal dan melekat (eschar); lesi ini dikelilingi edema yang menyebar (malignant edema) dan indurasi. 3 the eschar may either eschar dapat sembuh secara 2 3 3 heal or progress to a spontan, tetapi juga dapat systemic condition, berkembang menjadi kondisi sometimes involving sistemik, kadang mengenai the meninges, selaput otak, disertai dengan accompanied by high demam tinggi dan toksemia fever and severe toxemia. berat. total 6 9 9 average score 2 3 3 weighted score 2x3=6 3x2=6 3x1=3 final weighted average score (6+6+3)/6=2.5 overall qualitative assessment of the entry translation fair accuracy, fair acceptability, fair readability words of interest are printed in bold. a clause of the second sentence: papular lesion that may have satellite lesions and enlarges, was translated using literal and structure transposition techniques into: lesi papular … dan dapat disertai dengan lesi satelit yang membesar, and yielded a distortion of meaning. the indonesian translation meant that the satellite lesions enlarge, not the popular lesion. therefore, the result deserved a bad value (1) for accuracy. the word heal in the third sentence was translated with an amplification or an addition of secara spontan (spontaneously) to become sembuh secara spontan. this translation brought about a distortion of meaning, since in obstetrics spontaneous delivery is not a normal delivery. so it would be more accurate to translate into sembuh instead of sembuh secara spontan. the amplification or addition produces medium accuracy with the value of 2. dharmawan, et al. the amplification or addition could also be stated as a modulation translation technique since it involves a change in cognitive category. molina and albir (2002:510) states that amplification is to introduce details that are not formulated in the source text: information and/or explicative paraphrasing. this includes vinay and dalbernet’s explicitation, and newmark’s explicative paraphrase. footnotes are a type of amplification. đorđević (2017:41) also says that by means of this technique, the translator adds details that are not present or expressed in the source text but are necessary in the target text so that the recipients of the target text may understand what it is about. nida (1964 in molina and albir, 2002:502) listed several circumstances that might oblige a translator to make an addition: to clarify an elliptic expression, to avoid ambiguity in the target language, to change a grammatical category (this corresponds to vinay and dalbernet’s transposition), to amplify implicit elements, and to add connectors. modulation is to change the point of view, focus or cognitive category in relation to the source text; it can be lexical or structural. this coincides with vinay and dalbernet’s acceptation (vinay and dalbernet, 1995:36; molina and albir, 2002:510; đorđević, 2017:43). nababan et al. (2012:50-51) stated that the highest weighted score of accuracy is adjusted accordingly the basic concept of the translation process as a message transfer process (accuracy) from the source language text to the target language. the medium weighted score of acceptability determination is based on the idea that the aspect of accept-abilities directly related to the suitability of the translation with the rules, norms and culture that apply in the target language. in certain cases, the aspect of acceptability affects the aspect of accuracy, since a translation that is not acceptable will also not accurate. the lowest weighted score given to the readability aspect is related to the notion that the translation problem is not directly related to the problem whether the translation is easily understood or not by the target reader. however, because the target readers generally do not have access to the source language text, they really hope that they can understand the translation easily. several examples describing the relationship of mistranslation, translation techniques applied, maltranslation and scores of translation quality assessment are presented in the results. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 findings general translation maltranslation from mistranslation in human-based translation is an initial effort to diagnose a mass or tumor, a medical doctor will try to move it to know if the mass or tumor actively move or it can be moved. mistranslation is the result of unit transposition translation technique of movable is bergerak (actively move). the correct meaning is could be moved, which is passive. here, mistranslation becomes maltranslation because it causes misdiagnosis, and further will result in mistherapy and endanger patient’s health. maltranslation from mistranslation of google translate website translation indicates result of established equivalent translation technique of wandering to pengembaraan (trajectory), and a mistranslation with a connotation of actively and aimlessly travelling around. in medicine, something in the body will wander, not pengembaraan, to favourable parts of the body after monitoring if the condition and situation are suitable for its habitat and functions. it never moves without aims. evidently, this mistranslation becomes maltranslation as a result of distorting the natural character of a healthy human. using the word pengembaraan will cause misdiagnosis as a healthy man is diagnosed ill. another maltranslation, as happened in human-based translation above, appeared as result of unit transposition unit from adjective to verb, that is movable to bergerak (which actually dapat digerakkan), and creates misdiagnosis that cause mistherapy that is detrimental to patient’s health. the translation techniques used are: pure borrowing that is taking a word or expression straight from another language without any change. pure borrowing corresponds to vinay and dalbernet’s borrowing (vinay and dalbernet, 1995:31; đorđević, 2017:42). and established equivalent technique that is defined as the use of a term or expression recognized by dictionaries or language in use, as an equivalent in the target language. this technique corresponds to vinay and dalbernet’s equivalence and literal translation (vinay and dalbernet, 1995:33,38; molina and albir, 2002:510). transposition is most often used to substitute a certain class of word with another one in the target language. for instance, a verb may be translated by means of a noun, or an adjective may be used instead of a noun. in addition, transposition may also be used to resolve the lack of correspondence occurring at the level of grammar, syntax and morphemes. in short, isto change a grammatical category, structure and unit. it basically concerns with word’s form and position (newmark, 1988:85; molina and albir, 2002:511; đorđević, 2017:43). naturalized dharmawan, et al. borrowing technique is taking a word or expression straight from another language to fit the spelling rules in the target language. naturalized borrowing corresponds to newmark’s naturalization technique (newmark, 1988:82; đorđević, 2017:42). translating unit of translation the first segment to present in the results is the unit of translation. the units of translation in purposely selected data are words, terms, phrases, clauses and sentences. the total number in human-based is 2,816 and 3,054 in google translate translation. it is noted that the number of words, terms, clauses and sentences of human-based translation are practically the same as of google translate translation. however, this does not mean both modes of translations use the same numbers of translation techniques nor produce the same mistranslations and maltranslations. the rational reason might be that they are translated into the same english-indonesian language pairs. there were 18 translation techniques applied, and all were covered by the techniques mentioned in scholars (newmark, 1988; hervey and higgins, 1992; vinay and dalbernet, 1995; molina and albir, 2002; and đorđević, 2017). all were included in the existing non-literary translation techniques (đorđević, 2017:35). the three most used translation techniques in human translation are established equivalent, pure borrowing and combination as well as in web translation. the data support that the existing non-literary, scientific and specialized translation techniques are applicable for the medical dictionary. however, the quality of translations should be further assessed. it is also observed that the frequency of literal translation in web translation (78) is much higher than in human translation (2). this condition matches the observation of hariyanto (2015:150) and sigalingging (2017:107) that literal translation frequently used in web translation. one of the reasons might be the neglected requirement of using literal translation. according to molina and albir (2002:499): “literal translation occurs when there is an exact structural, lexical, even morphological equivalence between two languages, and this is only possible when the two languages are very close to each other and also when form coincides with function and meaning.” this requirement was strictly applied by human translator but not by machine translator. the human translators knew that english belonged to the indo-european language family and indonesian belonged to the austronesian language family but google translate did not. only 40 out of the 111 entries and explanations contained mistranslation and/or maltranslation. translation techniques used in the 40 entries are in table 3. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 table 3. frequency distribution of 40 entries and its explanation human-based and google translate website translation. units of translation human-based translation google translate translation human-based google translate mistranslation maltranslation mistranslation maltranslation 414 words 594 30 25 35 30 81 terms 105 8 4 11 6 103 phrases 134 7 3 10 6 35 clauses 43 5 1 8 3 57 sentences 59 57 25 59 32 translation techniques used in 40 entries and its explanation of the dmd 31st edition human-based and google translate website translations are in table 4. table 4. frequency of translation techniques used in 40 entries of dmd translation techniques human translation web translation 01. established equivalent 330 332 02. pure borrowing 84 65 03. combination 64 45 04. naturalized borrowing 21 21 05. explicitation 12 3 06. modulation 7 1 07. discursive creation 4 12 08. reduction 2 2 09. transposition 2 1 10. particularization 2 1 11. ommission 2 1 12. addition 1 1 13. literal 1 28 14. amplification 1 0 it is noted that the frequency of mistranslation and maltranslation in google translate is higher than inhuman-based translation. it is still not known whether the translation quality of human-based better than google translate translation. translation quality assessment does not depend only on the number of mistranslations and maltranslations, but also on accuracy, acceptability and readability of a sentence. although translation techniques are not good or bad or wrong in themselves, they affect the result (molina and albir, 2002:509) and interpretation of the translation. it is obvious that mistranslation is very close to semantics as it is a matter of meaning. furthermore, meaning influences the quality of translation especially in communicative translation e.g. medical dictionary. the quality of translation should be quantitatively measured in accuracy, acceptability and readability aspects as in the translation quality assessment proposed by nababan et al., dharmawan, et al. (2012:50-53). relationships between mistranslation and translation techniques are described in table 5. table 5. an example on adjuvant entry in dmd and kkd and google translate original text in english indonesian human-based mistranslation translation and techniques the back translation (google adjuvant [l. adjuvans adjuvant [l. adjuvans translate) of stimulator aiding] in immunology, a pb pb pb respons imun nonspesifik is nonspecific stimulator of the membantu] dalam stimulator of nonspecific immune response, such as ee ee immune responses. bcg vaccine. imunologi, stimulator comment: word by word nb pb translation showed no responsimun nonspesifik mistranslation nb nb nb misalnya vaksin bcg ee nb pb indonesian google translate mistranslation translation and techniques adjuvant [l.adjuvan established equivalent of the word of is dari and pb pb nb it creates a distortion of membantu] dalam meaning since the phrase of ee ee stimulator nonspesifik dari imunologi,stimulator respon imun may also mean nb pb stimulator nonspesifik nonspesifik dari respon berasal dari (originates nb ee nb from) respon imun. the imun,seperti vaksin bcg accurate meaning is the nb ee nb pb nonspecific stimulator is the bcg vaccine, not the response immune. translation techniques are attached below the underlines. however, their definitions already mentioned under table 1. ee: established equivalent; nb: naturalized borrowing; pb: pure borrowing. the next step for evaluating an entry is combining original sentence, human-based and google translate website translations, mistranslation and maltranslation, and translation quality assessment. an example of google translate translation is presented below for the quality of translation reaches the lowest grades. see table 6. table 6. anaphrodisiac entry in the 31st dmd and its google translate translation. original text in english google translate website tqa translation a a r anaphrodisiac a drug or anafrodisiak obat atau obat 1 1 1 medicine that allays sexual itu memenuhi hasrat seksual. bad accuracy desire. bad acceptability bad readability journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 tqa: translation quality assessment; a: accuracy; a: acceptability; r: readability. translation techniques used are: ee: established equivalent, and nb: naturalized borrowing; their definitions already mentioned under table 1. mistranslation and maltranslation are typed in bold. mistranslation appears as allays is translated into memenuhi. the appropriate translation of allays is mengurangi, and the translation of memenuhi into english is to fulfill or to meet. so, if anaphrodisiac is capable of fulfilling sexual desire, it is a maltranslation leading to mistherapy. the translation of medicine into obat itu using established equivalent and addition is not acceptable nor readable in an indonesian sentence. therefore, the translation is rated 1/1/1 or least accurate, least acceptable and least readable. additional information is about the proportion or frequency distribution of medical practices in relation to maltranslation. it is noted that the most medical practice related to maltranslation is diagnosis, 60% in human-based entries and 56% in google translate; then therapy, 28% and 31%; and the least is promotion and prevention, 12% and 12%. these findings correspond to characteristics of medical practice that the main role or concern of a medical doctor is diagnosis. the last step in evaluating the effect of mistranslation leading to maltranslation in humanbased and google translate website translations is calculating and comparing their translation quality assessment scores. the weighted scores are accumulation of translation quality assessment (accuracy, acceptability, and readability) scores of 111 entries. seventy one entries contain no mistranslation nor maltranslation, and forty entries contain mistranslation and or maltranslation. final weighted average scores in table 7 are calculated according to the rules of nababan et al. (2012:53). table 7. comparison of final weighted average scores of 40 entries of human-based and google translate website translation. group human-based translation google translate translation ns ws fws ns ws fws mistranslation (-) maltranslation (-) 111 5.8/5.5/3.6 2.5 111 5.4/4.8/4.0 2.4 mistranslation (+) maltranslation (-) 15 5.7/5.4/3.2 2.4 8 4.7/4.2/3.0 2.0 mistranslation (+) maltranslation (+) 25 5.5/5.1/3.1 2.3 32 4.5/3.9/2.6 1.8 tqa: translation quality assessment.mistranslation (-) means there is no mistranslation in the sentences evaluated. maltranslation (+) means there is maltranslation in the sentences evaluated. ns is numbers of entries; ws is weighted scores. 5.8/5.5/3.6 means accuracy score is 5.8/acceptability score is 5.5/readability score is 3.6. fws is final weighted scores. dharmawan, et al. overall weighted scores showed that accuracy, acceptability, and readability of humanbased translations were better than google translate website translation. the overall weighted score of the human-based translation accuracy was 5.5, higher than the google translate website translation accuracy that was 4.1. these scores indicated that sentences of human-based translation were more accurate than sentences produced by google translate. scores of the acceptability, and readability showed the same tendency. further, the final weighted average scores also supported better human-based translation than google translate, although both modes of translations yielded less accurate, less acceptable and less readable sentences for the readers. discussion our findings in this study confirm that the idea to coin the term of maltranslation started when notifying that there was a need for further clarification of mechanism which connected between mistranslation and unfortunate clinical conquences for people undercare. an interpreter with good bilingual competence may help without guaranty (flores et al., (2003:1,2). one of the basic solutions is improving interpreter by providing a bilingual pocket medical dictionary or an excellent medical dictionary and its translation or a practical handy facility capable of reading medical dictionaries and its translation in several languages in need by way of internet. even a medical doctor needs it (patil and davies, 2014:1). in indonesia, an effort was done in translating the 31st dorland’s illustrated medical dictionary into kkd edisi 31. however, the cover of the kamus showed a mistranslation by omitting the word illustrated. this omission still made the kamus title acceptable and readable, though in fact it was not accurate. the researchers tried to look inside and found many mistranslations. deeper analysis found that 40 entries out of 111 entries contained 30 words and 57 sentences mistranslated leading to 25words (83%)and 25 sentences (44%) maltranslated in human-based translation. thirty five words and 59 sentences mistranslated leading to 30 words (86%) and 32 sentences (54%) maltranslated in google translation. these data proved that mistranslation and maltranslation happened inhuman-based and google translation of medical dictionary in high percentage, ranging from 44% to 86%. patil and davies (2014:2) found google translate had only 57.7% accuracy when used for medical phrase translations, but still believed google translate could be a useful adjunct to human translation services when human translators were not available. for indonesia, this condition gives bad indication in noble intention. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 on the other hand, this situation is still far from what van der meer (2016:1) worries about that the future does not need translators. ... but we certainly need a future. inserting maltranslation term in translation study should be based on sound basis and proofs as several terms related to maltranslation, i.e. unit of translation, translation technique, mistranslation, and translation quality assessment have to be consulted. the first segment to understand is the unit of translation. huang and wu (2009:111) claims that studying translation without knowing the unit of translation is no different from studying medicine without knowledge of the human cell. vinay and dalbernet (1995:21-22) define the unit of translation as the smallest segment of the utterance whose signs are linked in such a way that they should not be translated individually. according to the particular role they play in the message, several types of units of translation can be recognised, e.g. semantic units, i.e. units of meaning. the unit number of translation as the basis of this article is 2816 in human-based and 3054 of google translate translation consisting of words, medical terms, phrases, clauses and sentences cropped in a fgd of qualified personnels. these numbers are adequate enough for an analysis, moreover this study is a qualitative study. when purposively source data are reliable and valid, its results are worthy of trust. types of unit of translation have fulfilled the requirement of the qualitative parameters of the translation quality assessments of nababan et al. (2012:50-51). the data were translated using translation techniques primarily proposed by molina and albir (2002:509-511). they mentioned about 59 translation techniques, methods, procedures, strategies, and adjustments (nida, 1964; vázquez-ayora, 1977, margot, 1979; newmark, 1988; hervey and higgins, 1992; delisle, 1993; vinay and dalbernet, 1995). they classified them into 18 translation techniques and stated though translation techniques are not good or bad or wrong in themselves, they affect the result of the translation. this study does not differentiate methods from procedures or from techniques or from strategies, and uses them interchangeable and names them as techniques. the numbers of translation techniques appeared in human-based translation are 18 and in google translate translation is 16 with established equivalents, pure borrowings and combinations the most applied. it is observed that the frequency of literal translation in web translation (78) is much higher than in human translation (2). this condition matches the observation of hariyanto (2015:150) and sigalingging (2017:107) that literal translation is frequently used in web translation. the data also support that the existing-non-literary, scientific and specialised dharmawan, et al. translation techniques are applicable for the medical dictionary. the translation technique follows the characteristics of a non-literary text that is of a given scientific community or professional group with certain features of vocabulary, form and style, which are wholly function-specific and conventional in nature and which are meant to inform, educate, announce, entertain, illustrate, instruct, present, argue, explain, teach, refer, denote, communicate, etc (đorđević,2017:37). however, the quality of translations should be further assessed. translation techniques are not good or bad or wrong in themselves, however they affect the result of the translation (molina and albir, 2002:509), including mistranslation as mistranslation is interpretation of translation technique result. when mistranslation is considered leading to maltranslation in a translated sentence, the quality of the sentence should be assessed. it is believed that mistranslation and maltranslation influence the quality of translation especially in communicative translation e.g. medical dictionary. the quality of translation should be qualitatively defined and quantitatively measured in accuracy, acceptability and readability aspects as in the translation quality assessment model proposed by nababan and coleagues, (2012:5053). the translation quality assessment model consists of two steps: 1) applying instruments for assessing accuracy, acceptability and readability, and 2) weighting and calculating the accuracy, acceptability and readability quality scores. instruments applied consist of three parts. the first part is assessment of the translation category: good, fair and bad; or high, medium and low. the second is scoring the categories with a scale of 1 to 3, the higher the quality of a translation, the higher the score obtained and vice versa. the third part is the qualitative parameters. weighting and calculating the three aspects are expressed in a different value weight. the aspect of accuracy has the highest weight, namely 3. the aspect of acceptance of translation ranks second, namely 2. the readability aspect has the lowest weight, namely 1. as there were 111 entries, the weighted scores were accumulated from translation quality assessment (accuracy, acceptability, and readability) of 158 human-based and 162 google translate sentences. seventy one entries contained no mistranslation nor maltranslation, and forty entries contained mistranslation and or maltranslation. then, the final weighted average scores were calculated from the weighted scores. complete calculation was presented in table 7. overall weighted scores indicate that sentences of human-based are more accurate, more acceptable and more readable than sentences produced by google translate translation (5.5/5.1/3.1 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 compared to 4.5/3.9/2.6). the final weighted average scores also support that human-based is better than google translate translation (2.3 compared to 1.8), although both modes of translations yield less accurate, less acceptable and less readable sentences for the readers. conclusion, limitation and implication this article has tried to fulfill the requirements of qualitative research, so that results are worthy trusted. in summary, maltranslation term is a specific issue worth mentioned in a translation study of medical dictionary translated in english-indonesian language pair, in the area study of tropical medicine. mistranslation and maltranslation happen in human-based and google translation medical dictionary in high percentage, ranging from 44% to 86%. maltranslation is related to the existing non-literary, scientific translation techniques. in all of the purposively selected 111 entries,18 techniques used in human-based translation and 16 in google translate. literal translation is used more frequently in google translate, 78 compared to 2. in the 40 entries containing mistranslation and/or maltranslation out of 111 entries, 14 techniques are used in human-based and 13 in google translate. overall weighted scores indicate that sentences of human-based are more accurate, more acceptable and more readable than of google translate translation. the final weighted average scores support that human-based translates better than google translate. however, both modes of translations yield less accurate, less acceptable and less readable sentences for the readers. this study has its restrictions in that evaluation is more focused on fgd and confirmation involving the translators and readers are not included. in addition, due to the this study gives more significances on medical concerns, analysis on linguistic aspects such as syntax and grammatical features are not emphasized more, contending that the affects of mistranslation and maltranslation in dmd, kkd and the website are more as the results of the language matters. therefore, implications should be made in adherence to the contents of research findings and areas of the future research. the features of kkm and website describing kkm entries and definitions should have been received with care until improvement that provides proper descriptions that meaning in the dmd, kkm and the website is enacted. in addition, future research of the same field is suggested to improve its methodology by involving authors or translators, readers from variety of social background, and focus on medical concerns. kkm has been declared to translate and edit by some qualified medical doctors and professors in linguistics as the quality assurance that the dharmawan, et al. product should have attained full fidelity. however, maltranslation that jeopardize patients are still the most concerns in this study. references anggororeni, pramesty; santosa, riyadi & wiratni, tri. (2018). analisis terjemahan makna interpersonal dalam dubbing film thomas and friend: blue mountain mistery. lingua (2018), 15(1):7-18. doi:10.30957/lingua.v151.426. brodovich, olga i.(2015). once more on the notion of the unit of translation. humanities & social sciences, 2(2015 8) 218-228. doi: 10.17516/1997-1370-2015-8-2-218-228. budiharso, teguh. (2018). pembelajaran menulis esai dalam disertasi: kajian metakognitif. cendekia (2018), 12(2), 141-152. doi: 10.30957/cendekia.v12i2.535 dictionary.com (2018). unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary, © random house, inc. retrieved on january 12, 2018. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/medical-dictionary đorđević, jasmina p. (2017). translation techniques revisited: the applicability of existing solutions in non-literary translation. facta universitatis. series: linguistics and literature, 15(1), 35-47.doi: 10.22190/full1702035d. foden-vencil, kristian. (2014). in the hospital, a bad translation can destroy a life. shots health news from npr. pp. 2.south florida, usa. hariyanto, sugeng. (2015). website translation (with special reference to english-indonesian language pair). revised and enriched second edition. malang: penerbit inspira. huang, h. and wu, c. (2009). the unit of translation: statistics speak. meta, 54(1), 110–130. doi:10.7202/029796ar. kely, nataly. (2010). the value of a single word. the bmj. bmj publishing group limited. pp. 1-3. https://blogs.bmj.com/.../nataly-kelly-the-value-of-a-single-word. kementerian pendidikan dan kebudayaan. (2016). pedoman umum ejaan bahasa indonesia (puebi). panitia pengembang pedoman bahasa indonesia. jakarta: badan pengembangan dan pembinaan bahasa. kusmartisnawati. (2011). giardiasis. dalam hadidjaja, p dan sri s. margono (editor): dasar parasitologiklinik. badan penerbit fakultas kedokteran universitas indonesia. edisi pertama. pp. 61-62. molina, lucía and amparo hurtado albir. (2002). translation techniques revisited: a dynamic and functionalist approach. meta, xlvii(4), pp. 498-512. nababan, m.r., nuraeni, a., dan sumardiono. (2012). pengembangan model penilaian kualitas terjemahan. kajian linguistik dan sastra, 24(1), 39-57. newmark, peter. (1988). a textbook of translation. new jerseay: prentice hall international ltd. xii + 296 halaman. nida, eugene albert. (2001). contexts in translating. benjamins translations library, issn 09297316. patil, sumant & patrick davies. (2014). use of google translate in medical communication: evaluation of accuracy. bmj. 349:g7392. pym, anthony. (2010). text and risk in translation. in sidiropoulou, maria, papaconstantinou, anastasia (eds). athens: the national and kapodostrian university of athens: choice and http://dx.doi.org/10.17516/1997-1370-2015-8-2-218-228 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 219-240 difference in translation: the specifics of transfer. 27-42.usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/online/translation/risk_analysis.pdf. pym, anthony. (2015). translating as risk management. journal of pragmatics, 85, 67—80. sigalingging, bob m. (2017). realization of decision making in the translation process ofthe web content of www.ayodya.com. journal of language and literature, 5(2), 71-83. silalahi, roswita. (2009). dampak teknik, metode, dan ideologi penerjemahan pada kualitas terjemahan teks medical-surgical nursing dalam bahasa indonesia. disertasi. program studi doktor linguistik, sekolah pascasarjana universitas sumatera utara. medan: sumatra utara. solikhah, imroatus. (2018). insufficient preparation of teaching reading: what should teachers challenge? ijotl-tl (2018), 3(3), 71-84. doi:10.30957/ijotl-tl.v3i3.499. taylor, robert b. (2011). medical writing: a guide for clinicians, educators and researchers. springer science+business media llc. xiv + 372 pages. van der meer, jaap. (2016). the future does not need translators. retrieved from https://www.taus.net/. 24 feb. 2016. vázquez-ayora, g. (1977). introducción a la traductología, washington: georgetown university press. vinay, jean paul and jean darbelnet. (1995). stylistique comparée du français et de l'anglais. english. comparative stylistics of french and english: a methodology for translation.xxi+385 pages. translated and edited by juan c. sager, m.-j. hamel. benjamins translation library. http://www.ayodya.com/ https://www.taus.net/ the implications of learning management system on education quality in the new normal era: evidence studyon islamic higher education www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2), 147-169 the implications of learning management system on education quality in the new normal era: evidence from islamic higher education umi yawisah1, akla2, agusman khotibul umam3, mahrus asad4, wahyudin5 abstract the implementation of the learning management system (lms) in the new normal period was investigated in this study. a qualitative research design with a descriptive approach was used to explore two main themes: the advantages of using lms applications and the disadvantages of using lms applications. the data collection technique used was a written interview method with 10 lecturers and 50 students analyzed using content analysis techniques. this study was conducted at the islamic state institute of metro (iain), metro city, lampung province. the advantages of using lms applications in education were indicated by the suitability of the lms applications with the needs of lectures in creating, distributing, and managing learning content anytime and anywhere. students showed weakness in using the lms application mainly because of poor signal problems, lack of interaction in learning, and the impossibility of uploading videos and photos for practical assignments. it is concluded from these findings that using the lms requires strong network support throughout the region. the lms application is required to update its capacity to send lecture assignments in the form of videos and photos so that learning is maximized. interactive learning between lecturers and students is needed to support learning. the expected implication is that the government needs to consider supporting policies related to cooperation with the private sector to build internet access throughout indonesia. additionally, stakeholders must focus on the availability of lms support facilities, providing alternative offline classroom software, and the merdeka learning-independent campus (mbkm) program based on digital technology to reach better higher education. keywords: education quality, islamic higher education, learning management system introduction the covid-19 pandemic, which has been ongoing since early march 2020, appears to be far from ending, yet life must continue. the new normal refers to how industrialized countries have eased their regulations on citizen mobility (berwick, 2020). not just were the economy and social development affected by the pandemic, but also education. understanding the concept of a new lifestyle, often known as ‘‘forced innovation,’’ is crucial since it involves adjusting behavior to 1lecturer of institute agama islam negeri (iain) metro, umiymetrouniv@gmail.com (corresponding author)* 2lecturer of institute agama islam negeri (iain) metro, akla@metrouniv.ac.id 3lecturer of institute agama islam negeri (iain) metro ,agusman.kh.umam@metro.ac.id 4lecturer of institute agama islam negeri (iain) metro, mahrus.asad@metrouniv.ac.id 5lecturer of institute agama islam negeri (iain) metro, wahyudin@metrouniv.ac.id mailto:umiymetrouniv@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 continue doing regular things while also applying health precautions to minimize covid-19 transmission. in terms of social, economic, and educational life and other equally vital areas of human life. unfortunately, behind the success of the new normal, several problems that benefit more people living in the lampung province but risk exacerbating inequality arise (abidin et al., 2020; adu et al., 2022; bonacini et al., 2021; gagnon et al., 2021; subur, 2021). according to the literature, the application of technology-based remote work practices needs to be more reflective, referring to the normalization process theory (npt) and its underlying components, such as cohesion, cognitive participation, collective action, and reflexivity (carroll & conboy, 2020). thus, the community must adapt not to make physical contact with other people, avoid crowds, perform activities, and work from home. as shown in previous studies, a new normal in global education was created by the covid-19 pandemic. various technical platforms for educational information that have flexibility, accessibility of information, global reach, equality, and efficient innovation have been provided by several advances in information technology. however, behind its advantages, several shortcomings are also found in using technology in education. for example, there is low motivation and lack of student independence (xie et al., 2020). efforts to recommend national strategies and investigate in depth the advantages and disadvantages of online learning methods to achieve the fundamental goals of higher education were supported by previous research (emanuel et al., 2022). karim (2022) explained that the advantages and disadvantages of implementing online learning methods have been reported in several countries globally. different platforms have different advantages and disadvantages. generally, educators and students are satisfied with online interactions related to their learning needs. online education in the new normal was also carried out at state islamic religious universities (ptkin), carried out from home. still, staff and lecturers continued to work from campus by implementing work from home (wfh) and work from office (wfo) systems alternately, conducted in areas considered safe or green zones. the application of information and communication technology (ict) is something new in the world of education in indonesia, where not everyone can accept and apply it. this also applies to the islamic state institute (iain) of the metro. not all iain metro students believe they can adapt to current technology, such as webbased learning. some students can study remotely using ict, such as google classroom, but others want face-to-face learning (deiniatur, 2021). meanwhile, a website-based platform called the yawisah et al. 149 learning management system (lms) was shown to be supported by iain metro in another study. this platform is utilized to serve learning media needs. unfortunately, several barriers, such as a poor internet network connection, lack of student focus in learning, and lack of creative and original instructors, necessitate additional research into the efficiency of using the lms. particularly in creating video learning, written text materials, and online learning (bustomi et al., 2021). learning at iain metro was an lms-based e-learning system during the pandemic. the webbased learning media used were google meet and zoom, but lms was most widely used by teaching lecturers in 2021–2022. although other web-based learning media, such as google meet and zoom, can be employed, the lms will continue to dominate in 2021–2022. students believe that offline lectures or, at the very least, hybrid learning can be implemented to maximize learning (ningtyas, 2022).this study aims to answer how to apply lms in lectures at iain metro. it is known from previous research that iain metro lecturers and students primarily use the lms application compared with other online learning applications. additionally, there were differences in the findings of earlier studies regarding the use of lms applications in terms of their advantages and disadvantages. iain metro is the only state islamic institution in lampung province. based on the higher education database (pddikti) data, the university was established on august 1, 2016. it has 219 lecturers, consisting of 111 male lecturers and 108 female lecturers. the number of registered students reached 7,434, consisting of 2,094 male students and 5,340 female students (pddikti, 2020). from initial observations, it was revealed that since the odd semester of september 2020, iain metro has carried out learning through the lms application initiated by the information technology and database unit (tipd). however, it was discovered that both students and lecturers from all existing faculties faced several challenges and problems during lms use. this is also explained in a previous study in which it was revealed that the learning process is facilitated by lms, becoming more creative and independent and increasing the understanding of students of the subject matter. however, several cases of lms deficiencies in the form of unstable signal coverage in certain areas have been detected(ningtyas, 2022). learning technology is used by universities to build better infrastructure. the system infrastructure in question is a computer network and software infrastructure designed to connect all campuses as a single system, simplifying and accelerating academic processes and accessing teaching material journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 resources. the advantages of online teaching systems do not depend on learning modalities, the relevance of suggested content and expected value but rather on decision rules about how students evaluate their educational experience (dziuban et al., 2018). the same theme was investigated using the google classroom quantitative-descriptive research method used at iain metro. this has been made especially in learning english, which has a positive effect on the teaching and learning process (hildayanti & machrizzandi, 2021). the iain metro is currently focusing on developing local wisdom based on islamic values and online learning methods (kesuma et al., 2020). the novelty of the research that researchers have submitted has not been investigated in previous studies. in previous research, it was explained that even though it is said to be a ‘panacea’ in the new normal era because it is more flexible and effective, not all lecturers and students can immediately adapt to the implementation of an online learning system. they experienced various challenges, low interest, and specific problems that hampered the learning process (ferri et al., 2020; dhawan, 2020; gilbert, 2015; peterson, 2001). according to the findings by ningtyas (2022), lms was the most widely used online application at iain metro during the pandemic because it was considered effective in helping students during the distance-learning process. meanwhile, it was stated in another study that lms enabled them to learn independently in completing tasks given by the lecturer (deiniatur, 2021). bustomi et al. (2021)explained in their findings that the lms was used to support the needs of learning media at iain metro. still, they experienced several obstacles: poor internet network connections, low student learning focus, and low lecturer competence. thus, further research related to the phenomenon of using lms was demanded. the novelty of the study is shown in an in-depth investigation of the phenomenon of using the lms application at iain metro from the point of view of lecturers and students using qualitative methods. therefore, this research is fundamental in contributing to the development of online learning applications to support the learning process at ptkin in indonesia. research question based on the research focus that the researcher has explained, the problem can be formulated as follows: 1. what are the roles of lms in education quality in the new normal era: evidence study on islamic higher education? yawisah et al. 151 2. how are the implications of the learning management system on education quality in the new normal era: evidence study on islamic higher education? literature review learning management system in education lms is software designed to distribute and manage learning content delivery. learning how to use an lms offers the advantages obtained through various solutions. each module of the learning system has different possibilities. therefore, an evaluation of the usefulness of the standard module for effective learning is needed (kakasevski et al., 2008). teachers may be helped by lms to plan and manage learning materials and other needs related to the teaching and learning process, for example, articles, e-books, animated videos, sounds, and exciting learning videos to make the learning process funnier and innovative. according to alias & zainuddin (2005), it is essential for teachers who teach online classes to know about technology or use new technologies that can be delivered in online learning effectively and efficiently. every skill in using technology that the teacher has learned is undoubtedly related to the positive development of his teaching: face-toface and online classes. there are six lms features to support the online learning process, including: (1) a user interface that is easy to use and attractive, (2) online registration with various payment methods according to the ability of the user, (3) virtual classes in which distance learning processes are presented without having to make physical contact and provide video conferencing features, (4) online quizzes and exams in which the need to create questions and distribute them to students online is supported,(5) a discussion room regarding the subject matter that has been studied by students independently, and (6) a report feature with which it is easier for teachers to track the progress of their students (conde et al., 2014). technology is considered necessary not only as a background, but also as a teaching context because this is where the teaching and learning process takes place in online teaching. the role of online learning applications is very diverse (dube et al.,2022; tsakeni, 2021). for example, facebook is a content carrier, practical communication tool, and learning management tool. nonetheless, it still has limitations regarding privacy that may be revealed (wang et al., 2012). as a communication tool, students are allowed by the internet to learn many things about relating and communicating with teachers and friends. thus, the internet has become commercialization for obtaining information and has become a paradigm in the teaching and learning process as an journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 interactive tool (forsyth, 2003). online education refers to e-learning. this usually leads to distance education that does not involve traditional classroom settings in which both teachers and students are taught. the study explains that lms has a significant role in facilitating and improving the teaching and learning process in the current pandemic situation. the delivery of learning is not only enhanced by lms through electronic devices to improve student learning outcomes in a collaborative environment, but teachers are allowed to focus on designing all meaningful pedagogical activities (kattoua et al., 2016). new normal in education education is a conscious effort to prepare students through guidance, teaching, and training activities for their role in the future (pacheco, 2021). toward the new normal means preparing oneself for the provision of education and emphasizing effective learning, motivating, and building morality. in the new normal era, higher education costs increase, and efforts are being made to adapt to online learning methods, develop learning curricula, reduce physical contact, avoid crowds, and adopt a healthy lifestyle (doyle & delaney, 2009). according to the literature, there are various paradigms of the new normal in education. on the one hand, a new spirit in education is instilled in the new normal, encouraging more innovative learning. on the other hand, the rejection of educational institutions owing to health and safety concerns is encouraged. the meaning of education in an administrative context, namely, the implementation of traditional schools, tends to be reduced by these two paradigms (walunj, 2020). in the new normal era, digital technology-based learning is being implemented by only a few educational institutions because they do not have sufficient support in terms of costs, facilities, and teacher competence. the new normal in education changes the paradigm of parents, who initially entrusted most of the educational responsibilities of their children to educational institutions, especially teachers, who now accept them back. they realize that education in the new normal era is quite difficult to pass without support and shared responsibility (motala & menon, 2002). methods research design this research is qualitative, and reality and social life are described. qualitative data were chosen because they have the advantage of telling stories from the point of view of the participants. yawisah et al. 153 moleong (2013)explained that qualitative research is a procedure with a holistic-contextual background in a natural state. this type of research is a centralized interview to obtain information using face-to-face questions and answers between the researcher and the participants as the subject under study. thus, this study aims to investigate what, how, and why the implications of learning management systems have a role in the quality of education at iain metro in the new normal era. the research location is iain metro, located in metro city, lampung province. the research was conducted during the odd semester of 2021, from june to december 2021. the implications of lms on education quality in the new normal era of islamic higher education were investigated in this study. specifically, the study was designed to determine the advantages and disadvantages of lms, considering the point of view of lecturers and students. the research focus consisted of (1) the use of lms in education and (2) the lms practice. after the data were collected, the qualitative analyses proposed by miles et al. (1994) were used to express answers to the research objectives. such expressing answers included data reduction to provide a clear picture of the research, display data in descriptions and relationships between research themes, and draw credible conclusions. participants the participants were people who participated in and answered the questions in this study. the research participants consisted of 50 third-semester students from the faculty of tarbiyah and teacher training for the tadris english department and 10 lecturers from iain metro for the same major. there were no specific criteria for participating because online learning using lms had been carried out from semester i to semester iii for the strata 1 level. the third-semester english education department was chosen because participants in this faculty had the first and longest use of the lms application compared to other majors in the new normal era. regarding the lecturers, they had to meet some criteria to be included in the research. such criteria were that they had attended training on using lms and had taught for more than one year or at least two semesters using lms (see table 1). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 table 1 participant description variable characteristics frequency percentage (%) gender male female 38 22 63.33 36.67 age group 20–30 years old 31–50 years old 51 years old or older 23 24 13 38.33 40.00 21.67 participant lecturer college students 10 50 16.67 99.83 data and sources of data the data source was the material from which the authors collected ideas and the data used in this study. the primary data source in this study was obtained directly from the participants. therefore, the researchers could see and write straight from the research object. secondary data were obtained from notebooks, official letters, and relevant previous articles (see table 2). instrument the data collection instrument was used to measure the research data collection. the researchers were actively involved in obtaining data relevant to the research objectives. the instrument used was an interview guide containing a list of questions. the researchers had 11 lists of questions divided into two sub-sections: five-question items for lecturer participants and six-question items for student participants. the interview guidelines were direct interviews through limited face-toface interviews with lecturers and interviews via whatsapp groups for students. the feasibility test of the instrument was assessed by colleagues who had professional expertise in lms practice at ptkin. the researcher distributed instrument validation sheets for each research question item to participants, including: (1) user interfaces, (2) online registration that varied according to the abilities of students and lecturers, (3) online classes in which distance teaching and learning processes were provided, (4) online quizzes and exams, (5) online discussion rooms regarding the subject matter, and (6) report features, such as learning materials, teaching journals of the lecturers, yawisah et al. 155 and assignments. these six dimensions were chosen by peer review results because they were considered appropriate in representing the use of lms in education in the new normal era. the guidelines for participant interview instruments are shown in table 3. table 2 types of data based on research themes theme data focus primary data secondary data use of lms applications in education advantages and disadvantages of lms in education interview about the use of lms applications in education in college 1. document in the form of a guidebook for using lms applications in educational institutions 2. reputable books, official news, and scientific journals the use of the lms application by lecturers in the new normal era the advantages and disadvantages of lms in the practice of thelearning subjects taught in the english department interviews by listening to the opinion, knowledge, and experience of lecturers related to lms practice 1. documents in the form of lecturer notes related to the practice of using lms in subjects in the english education department 2. books, official news, and reputable scientific journals the use of lms by students in the new normal era the advantages and disadvantages of lms in the practice of thelearning english majors interviews by listening to the opinions, knowledge, and experiences of studentsregarding lms practice 1. documents in the form of student notes about the practice of using lms in courses in the english education department 2. reputable books, official news, and scientific journals journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 table 3 instrument questions. rq1: what are the implications of learning management system on education quality in the new normal era: evidence study on islamic higher education? rq2: how are the roles of the learning management system ineducation quality in the new normal era: evidence study on islamic higher education? questions for lecturers the use of lms applications in education in the new normal era 1. what do you know about using lms applications in education? 2. what do you know about the new normal era and its impact on education and the development of science and technology? the use of the lms application by lecturers in the subjects taught 1. what advantages do you feel while using the lms application in existing courses during the new normal era? 2. what are the shortcomings that you feel while using the lms application in existing courses during the new normal era? 3. what solutions and suggestions do you offer for the use of the lms application? questions for students the use of lms applications in education in the new normal era 1. what do you know about using lms applications in education? 2. what do you know about the new normal era 3. does it have anything to do with the teaching and learning process using the lms application in higher education? the use of the lms application by students in the english department 1. what advantages do you feel when using the lms application during the learning process in the new normal era? 2. what shortcomings do you feel while using the lms application during the learning process in the new normal era? 3. what solutions and suggestions do you offer for the use of the lms application? data collection procedures the main considerations in the data collection process are outlined in this section. the main consideration was to ensure that any information that the researcher collected was carried out in a consistent manner and purpose. explorations of the culture of iain metro were made. the point of view of education and technology, including the vision, mission, goals, and history of the founding of the organization, along with programs for using lms applications, and how decisions yawisah et al. 157 were considered. data collection techniques consist of observation, interviews, and document studies. a. observation during the observation process, the value of the external context was considered from aspects of obstacles occurring during the use of the lms application, the demographics of students, lectures where the application was used, and related issues of use. then, the researcher examined the representation by comparing the practice and theory of lms in education to find the required information and record it. b. interview the researcher went to state islamic institute of metro (iain metro) to conduct face-to-face interviews. the oral interviews were carried out one month after the lms application was conducted in the english education department, tarbiyah faculty, and teacher training. the interviews with lecturers were conducted directly with health protocols. a teaching lecturer assisted the researcher in collecting lecturers in a faculty room. the researcher received official permission from the rector of iain metro to conduct the research in the university in person. the researchers contacted students through the whatsapp (wa) group. the time required to collect interview data was seven days, with a duration of 30–45 minutes for each interview. the researcher used google meet and a research notebook to record the meetings during the interview process. before entering the core question, the researcher first explained the research objectives and each instrument point. c. document analysis the documentation technique was carried out by checking the lms application manual, academic information systems, and other public access links (https://elearning.metrouniv.ac.id/ftik and elarning@metrouniv.ac.id). lecturer notes regarding the use of the lms application in the courses taught were also considered. data analysis the researcher used the qualitative analysis technique proposed by miles et al. (1994). this analysis technique was used in the following steps. the first step was to prepare for data reduction. as an initial observation in the field, researchers looked at the condition of the iain metro campus to find the proper volunteers. the primary sources of information for the researcher were interview mailto:elarning@metrouniv.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 transcripts and documentation. for ease of coding, irrelevant data were eliminated. this foundational information was gathered to construct the instrument, pick the essential points, and narrow in the study theme. the second stage involved showing the data to answer the research question by assigning a code based on six aspects to each research subject. the user interface, online registration, online classes, online quizzes and exams, online discussion forums, and report features were among the six characteristics of the instrument that were determined. the researcher manually coded the data according to the serial numbers of the participants, i.e., participant one(student) = participant student number one (pm 1), participant student number two (p m2), and so on, until there were 50 students. similarly, the serial number of participants (lecturers)isparticipant lecturer number one (d p1) = one professor, participant lecturer number two (d p2) = two lecturers, and up to 10 lecturers. by analyzing data from interviews and documents acquired, the researcher used the data sources to determine the implications of using lms software during the learning process in the new normal era. the information was then compared to a literature review, including past relevant research on the benefits and drawbacks of utilizing an lms application. the data were then combined, processed, and evaluated using descriptive methods. after the data were compared, the study outcomes were obtained to conform to the research objectives. third, data processing aims to arrive at trustworthy and understandable conclusions for readers. the conclusion contains answers to the questions posed in the problem formulation section obtained from a brief statement about the results of the analysis and discussion. results and discussion the roles of the learning management system in the education quality of the iain metro in the new normal era the role of lms on the quality of education at iain metro during the new normal was revealed. the role of the lms system is significant for the quality of education through interactive features and effective learning management, as explained in the results. this is shown by the role of the lms system in helping lecturers plan and create a syllabus, manage learning materials, manage distance lecture activities, and recapitulate student grades and attendance. lms was considered an effort to optimize teaching and learning activities at iain metro by providing convenience for lecturers and students to interact online when viewed from the way it works. the majority of yawisah et al. 159 participants agreed that lms was able to create a more effective and efficient way of learning in the new normal era. materials were distributed efficiently, interactive features in learning were reliable, and support management in the teaching and learning process. lecturers most widely use lms because of its essential role as a supporting facility for practicum guidance, assisting, planning, and implementing learning. lms makes the role of lecturers as teachers more time-efficient, saves on transportation costs, and makes it easier to monitor students participating in the distance learning process. this was a campus regulation for conducting the online learning period in the 2021/2022 academic year. in practice, academic materials needed by students are provided by lms. for these materials to be well received, the lms owned by iain metro was designed to be easy for lecturers and students to use. from the results of the interviews, it was stated that the lecturers acknowledged the perceived benefits. lms help the teaching and learning process be more systematic, especially in organizing learning materials and preparing lecturer reports. the difficulty lies in the initial use, where the lecturer must enter learning materials and arrange them according to student needs and semester learning plans. for lecturers majoring in english education, it is easier for students to learn independently by accessing lms features in that language. in contrast to the period before the new normal era, online learning was still relatively new, but lecturers realized that the lms application was beneficial because it could be done anytime and anywhere as long as the internet network was stable. consider data one. ‘lms application development at iain metro is e-learning, but another alternative is to use google classroom, edlink, and zoom cloud meeting. the lms was used by lecturers during the new normal period because it can be operated remotely, anytime, and anywhere as long as the internet network is stable. initially, using lms other than e-learning was easier, downloaded for free, and saved quotas during its use. it is just that some of them are not supported by video conferencing. the evaluation results during the previous semester, now the e-learning features, are easier for lecturers to understand. the evaluation results during the previous semester conducted by iain metro regarding perceptions of the use of e-learning revealed that the e-learning features are easier for lecturers to understand. adapting and updating applications makes the teaching and learning process better in the new normal period’. it can be understood that before the new normal, lecturers had problems using the lms application. however, they began to adapt to the various features provided over time. the views of lecturers who initially complained that online learning methods were difficult to understand. they experienced multiple advantages compared with traditional learning methods in the new normal period. the covid 19 pandemic has created a new normal in worldwide education that has the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 benefits of flexibility, accessibility of information, broad reach and equality, and innovation, as revealed by the literature(xie et al., 2020). the lack of online learning methods to achieve the real goals of higher education has been supported by previous research (emanuel et al., 2022). karim (2022) explains that various platforms have different advantages and disadvantages. educators and students are generally satisfied with online interactions, considering their learning needs. researchers have identified the difficulties faced by users (lecturers) and an inventory of the advantages and disadvantages of lms applications. consider data two. ‘lecturers are having difficulties with the lms application. this application forces us to learn first in the middle of other obligations that must be completed simultaneously, such as drafting semester learning goals, thesis guidance, and community service. the most common issue is that campus servers frequently have issues—particularly early in the morning—making it difficult to use the lms program. as a result, there is a disruption in the teaching and learning processes. we must also learn a variety of apps used on campus, such as applications for filling out attendance lists, field experience practice (ppl), community partnership program (pkm), and others. we believe that it is challenging for older lecturers to adjust to new applications. before the application is installed, it is vital to conduct socialization and direct practice so that lecturers are not inconvenienced. although there are video tutorials, they are not comprehensive. as a result, some lecturers are still perplexed and contact the lms administrator with questions’. in general, lms provides benefits. however, each module of the learning system has distinct capabilities, necessitating a usability assessment for effective online learning (kakasevski et al., 2008). of course, each lms has its constraints (wang et al., 2012). as a result, after assessing the decision-making processes and campus policies of the authorities, this challenge can eventually be overcome. the following is the response to the question about the benefits of utilizing lms apps found in data three. ‘the benefits of lms apps are numerous. learning time was significantly reduced. those with busy schedules can still access the lms at any time and from any location, as long as the network is steady. we also do not have to pay for transportation to and from university to study rooms because we can learn from home or at a suitable location. there are also interactive discussion forums, quizzes, tasks, and the ability to upload resources. the features available are more than capable of assisting students in understanding the subjects they teach. what is evident is that we are in the midst of a new normal recovery process. we still need time to adjust to new technologies, particularly the lms, and to return to typical campus activities during this transition period. because the new normal era is also unpredictably unpredictable in terms of when it will become normal’. based on the findings of interviews with lecturers regarding the benefits of the lms application, it is clear that lecturers are aware of the benefits of the lms application. access is available yawisah et al. 161 anytime and from any location, and transit costs are reduced. through the capabilities provided by the lms, they become more focused on designing more effective learning for students. it is only that some roadblocks need to be removed right away to allow learning to go as smoothly as possible. they must reinvent themselves as learners, adapting to modern technology and adjusting their learning perspectives in the new normal era. they must be able to blend traditional and online learning approaches. lecturers must be imaginative and innovative to take advantage of limited face-to-face time because face-to-face hours are not as busy as they formerly were. learning delivery through electronic devices is allowed by lms, improving student learning outcomes in a collaborative environment and teachers focusing on designing all meaningful pedagogical activities (kattoua et al., 2016). therefore, lecturers may learn more about the material and complete tasks through the lms. the implications of the learning management system on the education quality of the iain metro in the new normal era it was revealed by the second findings how the implications of lms are on the quality of education at iain metro. it was shown in the findings that the lms system in distance learning was proven to have implications for the quality of education at iain metro because it was suitable for learning in the new normal era. the feasibility of the lms system was shown by the positive responses given by lecturers and students, although some participants complained about obstacles in using lms. in its development, these obstacles can be overcome properly because of the significant adaptability of participants to technological developments. lecturers focus on planning and implementing learning using lms to improve the quality of learning. meanwhile, students are the main object and subject of teaching and learning activities. more profoundly, it was revealed in the findings that the strong lms implications could support the involvement of every educational material. thus, lecturers and students have been quite successful in the teaching and learning process using lms in the new normal era because they are aware of the consequences of using lms, both in terms of its advantages and disadvantages. based on the data analysis, it can be seen that the majority of lecturers had difficulties using the lms application before the new normal period. this happens because there are several applications that they must understand and master, such as attendance-filling applications, ppl applications, and pkm. therefore, they were doubtful and unsure about being able to master the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 lms application. after the initial evaluation was conducted, the e-learning application was updated, and the lecturers realized the advantages they could gain by using it. bozkurt and sharma (2020) have explained the purpose of education: to create a person who has the quality and character to have a broad view of the future to achieve goals and adapt to the surrounding environment. this is one of the reasons why lecturers adapt to new learning methods, even though the time required is not short. the views of the students on the use of lms applications during the teaching and learning process in the new normal period are reviewed by the findings. from the study results, it was revealed that students felt some shortcomings while using the lms application. however, this deficiency is not due to the features used but to weak internet access and additional costs to purchase internet quotas because learning is done online during the new normal period. even though, in the beginning, many students had difficulties sending assignments due to internet signal problems, they realized the advantages that were also found in this online learning system. the spirit of independent learning is enhanced with lms due to the demands of assignments and tadris majors in english, where all e-learning features are made in english. what is unique is that students are given the option to use lms applications and e-learning for religious practice assignments. because there are compulsory practical courses that must be conducted at iain metro, namely the practice of worship, the answers of the students to questions about the difficulties of using the lms application varied widely. consider data four. ‘at the beginning of using the lms application, precisely in the new normal period, we experienced various difficulties, such as applications that often an error, difficulties in logging in and using lms because of its many features. also, we faced unstable internet problems in our area, making it difficult to submit assignments and absences via e-learning. however, along with the evaluation conducted by the campus, we have found many advantages of the application, especially in time management, which has become more flexible. it is just that it requires additional costs because it uploads the task of practicing worship in the form of videos’. it is explained by this finding that students experience various obstacles while using the lms application. still, this deficiency does not lie in the application but in external factors, namely the internet network and lecturer competencies, which still have to be improved so that students do not feel bored, lack interaction, and boredom. according to jaradat and ajlouni (2021), students prefer an online learning environment to face-to-face learning and consider lms to be more reliable, except when the internet network is unstable, lack lms skills and has poor time yawisah et al. 163 management. the importance of using counseling, training, and technical support services to enhance a better online learning experience is recommended in this study. it is shown by the findings that the researchers have provided that there are new findings related to the implications of the lms system for the quality of education. the lms system can improve the quality of education optimally supported by the good adaptation of lecturers and students. this adaptation refers to the five principles of assessing student learning processes and outcomes, as stipulated in the regulation of the minister of research, technology, and higher education (pemenritekdikti) no. 44 of 2015 concerning national standards for higher education, fifth part, article 20. it is shown by the findings that the researchers have provided show that there are new findings related to the implications of the lms system on the quality of education. the lms system can improve the quality of education optimally supported by the good adaptation of lecturers and students. these five principles have led to better integration since the use of lms in iain metro. this means that the quality of education supported by lms, which can be seen from its implications for learning assessment, can be the minimum standard for all lecturers. this study contributes to previous findings. it was revealed by previous findings that there was student dissatisfaction with the assessment of learning performance that the lecturer had given (arthur, 2020; long et al., 2014; peckham & sutherland, 2000).a lousy problem with online learning evaluation is the possibility of technology facilitating unethical student behaviors and the possibility that it will continue after the covid-19 pandemic (amzalag et al., 2021). it has been revealed in other research that a new approach to preparing assessments to measure student performance by exploring student dissatisfaction with the evaluations of lecturers is required (rozli et al., 2022). it has been revealed in previous studies that lecturers have a low ability to use learning assessment model applications and need tools to monitor student learning performance (feldhammer-kahr et al., 2021; khalid et al., 2019; quesada-serra et al., 2016).in this finding, this alarming possibility can be minimized by using lms with advanced features to make teaching and learning management more effective. this finding explains that lecturers and students must understand the role of lms in the teaching and learning process correctly and adequately. this was demonstrated in previous research that the advantages of online teaching systems do not depend on learning modalities, the relevance of suggested content, and expected value but rather on decision rules about how students evaluate their educational experience (dziuban et al., 2018). previous findings journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 on the importance of learning from experience and considering it for better use are supported by this study. according to the level of satisfaction with the help of the lms application, the paradigm may change over time. hildayanti and machrizzandi (2021) have found that the most frequently used lms application is google classroom. a new finding in the new normal period is shown in this study: lecturers and students use e-learning more than google classroom. previous studies revealed that the iain metro developed local wisdom based on islamic values and used online learning methods (kesuma et al., 2020). it is stated in various studies that higher education is currently experiencing multiple challenges, low interest, and specific problems with which the learning process is hampered (ferri et al., 2020; dhawan, 2020; gilbert, 2015; peterson, 2001). based on previous studies suggested by researchers, a research gap from earlier studies on the effect of using lms on student academic performance in higher education has been found. kakasevski et al. (2008)explained that lms could be used for online teaching and learning activities. a phenomenon that was not the focus of attention was found in this study. this phenomenon involved the limitations of explaining the results of previous studies concerning the fact that lecturers and students had various perceptions in describing the role and implications of learning methods using the lms application. nonetheless, overall, the perception between lecturers and students has the same direction, and they can adapt over time. empirically, lms is a learning method that has a vital role in the quality of education because it is more time-efficient and well organized in an online system. researching the implications for overcoming various obstacles in lms practice is to continue to carry the values of local wisdom and moderate islam. conclusion and suggestions it was revealed in this study how the implication of lms in the new normal period at iain metro, as one of the islamic religious institutions, had implemented an online learning method that was quite capable and easy to use. it can be seen from the results and discussion that lecturers are aware of the many advantages of using lms in education that are made from lms applications with lecture needs. lecture needs described in this study are the need to manage courses, learning materials, ppl, and pkm. students monitor more about the weaknesses of using lms applications from external aspects where poor constraints and lecturer competencies are lacking. thus, the lms application requires consideration of the paradigm of lecturers and students as users. lecturers need training to improve their competence in online learning processes that become funnier and yawisah et al. 165 innovative instead of monotonous. the findings are novel because they succeeded in identifying the implications of lms on the quality of education. the way it works is based on the application of the lms system through the performance of lecturers and students. lms is used as a teaching and learning tool for lecturers to become more creative and innovative in finding methods, materials, and demonstration methods using the available lms features. lecturers are motivated to adapt to and start leaving conventional learning methods. the quality of education improves with lms because students gain new learning experiences and optimized knowledge. this is different from previous findings, in which it was explained that the implications of technology on the quality of education could negatively impact the dissatisfaction of lecturers and students with the learning technology used. thus, the quality of education may be supported by the implications of lms if lecturers and students understand the role of lms well. the government needs to collaborate with the private sector to build internet access in all indonesian regions. there will be no similar complaints indicating a reduction in the effectiveness of online learning methods in the new normal period with that infrastructure. also, iain metro and other ptkin need to focus on the availability of lms support facilities and provide alternative software for offline classes to reach national education goals. future studies need to consider broader external factors to obtain findings with a better research model. references abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. adu, k., badaru, k., duku, n., & adu, e. (2022). innovation and technology: a panacea to teaching and learning challenges during the covid-19 lockdown in south africa. research in social sciences and technology, 7(1), 69-89. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.5 alias, n., & zainuddin, a. (2005). innovation for better teaching and learning: adopting the learning management system. malaysian online journal of instructional technology, 2(2), 27–40. amzalag, m., shapira, n., & dolev, n. (2021). two sides of the coin: lack of academic integrity in exams during the corona pandemic, students’ and lecturers’ perceptions. journal of academic ethics, 0123456789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-021-09413-5 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 arthur, l. (2020). evaluating student satisfaction restricting lecturer professionalism: outcomes of using the uk national student survey questionnaire for internal student evaluation of teaching. assessment and evaluation in higher education, 45(3), 331–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2019.1640863 berwick, d. m. (2020). choices for the “new normal.”.jama, 323(21), 2125–2126. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.6949 bonacini, l., gallo, g., & scicchitano, s. (2021). working from home and income inequality: risks of a ‘new normal’ with covid-19.journal of population economics, 34, 303–360. bozkurt, a., & sharma, r. c. (2020). education in normal, new normal, and next normal: observations from the past, insights from the present and projections for the future aras. asian journal of distance education, 15(2), 1–10. http://www.asianjde.com/ojs/index.php/asianjde/article/view/512 bustomi, a., zuhairi, z., & ilmudinulloh, r. (2021). the problems of learning media at university amid covid-19 post new normal in indonesia. jurnal aplikasi teknologi pangan, 15(2), 129–140. http://www.ejurnal.its.ac.id/index.php/sains_seni/article/view/10544%0ahttps://scholar.goo gle.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2c5&q=tawuran+antar+pelajar&btng=%0ahttps://doi. org/10.1016/j.jfca.2019.103237 carroll, n., & conboy, k. (2020). normalising the “new normal:'' changing tech-driven work practices under pandemic time pressure. international journal of information management, 55(june), 102186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102186 conde, m. á., garcía-peñalvo, f. j., rodríguez-conde, m. j., alier, m., casany, m. j., & piguillem, j. (2014). an evolving learning management system for new educational environments using 2.0 tools. interactive learning environments, 22(2), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2012.745433 deiniatur, m. (2021). students perception on the use of google classroom in essay writing class. incare, international journal of educational resources, 1(6), 1–12. http://ejournal.ijshs.org/index.php/incare/article/view/101 dhawan, s. (2020). online learning: a panacea in the time of covid-19 crisis. journal of educational technology systems, 49(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520934018 doyle, w. r., & delaney, j. a. (2009). higher education funding: the new normal. change: the magazine of higher learning, 41(4), 60–62. https://doi.org/10.3200/chng.41.4.60-62 dube, b., makura, a., modise, a., & tarman, b. (2022). covid-19 and the quest for reconfiguration of disciplines: unpacking new directions. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), i-viii. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2002.12 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2002.12 yawisah et al. 167 dziuban, c., graham, c. r., moskal, p. d., norberg, a., & sicilia, n. (2018). blended learning: the new normal and emerging technologies.international journal of educational technology in higher education, 15,article 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-017-0087-5 emanuel, e. j., osterholm, m., & gounder, c. r. (2022). a national strategy for the “new normal” of life with covid. jama, 327(3), 211– 212.https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.24282 feldhammer-kahr, m., tulis, m., leen-thomele, e., dreisiebner, s., macher, d., arendasy, m., & paechter, m. (2021). it’s a challenge, not a threat: lecturers’ satisfaction during the covid-19 summer semester of 2020. frontiers in psychology, 12(july), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.638898 ferri, f., grifoni, p., & guzzo, t. (2020). online learning and emergency remote teaching: opportunities and challenges in emergency situations. societies, 10(4), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc10040086 forsyth, r. (2003). supporting e-learning: an overview of the needs of users. new review of academic librarianship, 9(1), 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/13614530410001692086 gagnon, e., johannsen, b. k., gagnon, e., johannsen, b. k., & david, l. (2021). understanding the new normal: the role of demographics. imf economic review, 69(2), 357–390. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/feds.2016.080 gilbert, b. (2015). online learning revealing the benefits and challenges how has open access to fisher digital publications benefited you ? [st. john fisher college]. https://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1304&context=education_etd_mast ers hildayanti, a., & machrizzandi, m. s. (2021). preferensi learning management system di masa pandemi covid. jurnal ilmiah ilmu komputer, 7(1), 26–31. http://jurnal.fkip.unila.ac.id/index.php/aksara/article/view/20700/14471 jaradat, s., & ajlouni, a. (2021). undergraduates’ perspectives and challenges of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic: a case from the university of jordan. journal of social studies education research, 12(1), 149–173. kakasevski, g., mihajlov, m., arsenovski, s., & chungurski, s. (2008). evaluating usability in learning management system moodle. proceedings of the international conference on information technology interfaces, iti, 613–618. https://doi.org/10.1109/iti.2008.4588480 karim, s. a. a. (2022). engineering and sciences teaching and learning activities: new systems throughout covid-19 pandemics (vol. 381). springer nature. kattoua, t., al-lozi, m., & alrowwad, a. (2016). a review of literature on knowledge management using ict in higher education. international journal of business management journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 147-169 and economic research, 7(5), 754–762. http://www.ijbmer.com/docs/volumes/vol7issue5/ijbmer2016070504.pdf kesuma, t. a. r. p., sujarwo, ciciria, d., & purwasih, a. (2020). the development of local wisdom and islamic values-based democratic material in iain metro. proceedings of the international conference on social studies, globalisation and technology (icssgt 2019),458, 58–66. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.200803.008 khalid, s. m., ali, k. a. m., & makhbul, z. k. b. m. (2019). assessing the effect of higher education service quality on job satisfaction among lecturers in premier polytechnics using hedperf model. logforum, 15(3), 425–436. https://doi.org/10.17270/j.log.2019.356 long, c. s., ibrahim, z., & kowang, t. o. (2014). an analysis on the relationship between lecturers competencies and students satisfaction. international education studies, 7(1), 37– 46. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v7n1p37 miles, m. b., huberman, a. m., & saldaña, j. (1994). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook. in 3 (ed.), arizona state university. sage. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315701134-11 moleong, l. j. (2013). qualitative research methodology revised edition. pt remaja rosdakarya offset publisher. motala, s., & menon, k. (2002). in search of the “new normal:” reflections on teaching and learning during covid-19 in a south african university higher education in the brics countries view project teaching and learning in higher education view project. southern african review of education, 26(august), 80–99. ningtyas, d. t. (2022). persepsi mahasiswa terhadap program e-learning berbasis learning management system (lms) pada materi akidah akhlak pembelajaran e-learning berbasis lms (learning management system) adalah salah satu upaya dalam meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran sekal. tarbawiyah: jurnal ilmiah pendidikan, 5(2), 210–222. https://doi.org/10.32332/tarbawiyah.v5i2.3600 pacheco, j. a. (2021). the “new normal” in education. prospects, 51(1–3), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-020-09521-x pddikti. (2020). profil perguruan tinggi institut agama islam negeri metro. kemendikbud.go.id. https://pddikti.kemdikbud.go.id/data_pt/qki0mdi4ntatmjezns00rem4ltk2q0qtoun c qjy5qju0qtnf peckham, g., & sutherland, l. (2000). the role of self-assessment in moderating students’ expectations. south african journal of higher education, 14(1), 75–78. peterson, p. w. (2001). the debate about online learning: key issues for writing teachers. yawisah et al. 169 computers and composition, 18(4), 359–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/s87554615(01)00068-8 quesada-serra, v., rodríguez-gómez, g., & ibarra-sáiz, m. s. (2016). what are we missing? spanish lecturers’ perceptions of their assessment practices. innovations in education and teaching international, 53(1), 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2014.930353 rozli, m. i. f., rohim, r., & min, y. h. (2022). a new approach in preparing assessment to gauge students performance. borneo international journal, 5(1), 30–37. https://radar.brookes.ac.uk/radar/file/5e5cae84-3a2d-46d2-aa15-5d9e042b12a4/1/student satisfaction lecturer professionalism-2019-arthur.pdf subur, s. (2021). online learning on the covid-19 pandemic to create educational access inequality. journal of social studies education research, 12(4), 170–196. tsakeni, m. (2021). transition to online learning by a teacher education program with limited 4ir affordances. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 129-147. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.15 walunj, r. e. (2020). changing scenario in teaching pedagogy. empyreal publishing house. http://www.editedbook.in/pdf/changing-scenario-in-teaching-pedagogy-by-dr-renukaekanath-walunj.pdf#page=26 wang, q., woo, h. l., quek, c. l., yang, y., & liu, m. (2012). using the facebook group as a learning management system: an exploratory study. british journal of educational technology, 43(3), 428–438. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2011.01195.x xie, x., siau, k., & nah, f. f. h. (2020). covid-19 pandemic–online education in the new normal and the next normal. journal of information technology case and application research, 22(3), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228053.2020.1824884 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.15 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13(2),243-264 revisiting the efl curriculum in the outcome-based education framework and freedom to learn program imroatus solikhah1 abstract in this study, three dimensions were evaluated: the process of developing the curriculum, course distribution to serve quality assurance, and development of courses for merdeka belajar (freedom to learn) program. curriculum documents and papers presented in the focus group discussion were used as data sources. content analysis design and qualitative data analysis were used for analyzing the data. a total of 42 participants from indonesian public and islamic universities were included in this study. the data were thematically analyzed. the study resulted in three key findings. first, initial curriculum development focused on competency-based curriculum and outcome-based education. not all learning outcomes and course mapping match the curriculum based on backward design. second, the national qualification framework should be built on the skill and knowledge cluster to adequately assess course learning outcomes. also, the 144-credit-course distribution should allow the undergraduate program to be completed in seven semesters. third, curriculum developers can divide 40 semester credits for merdeka belajar courses and 104 credits for regular courses. conversion of credits can be achieved by assigning equal courses in the same semester, combining undergraduate research with fieldwork, or publication in a journal. keywords: learning outcomes, outcome-based education, competence-based curriculum, freedom to learn, backward design approach. introduction the purpose of this study is to revisit the english curriculum in the context of indonesian national qualification framework (kerangka kualifikasi nasional indonesia; henceforth, kkni) in indonesian higher education, with a particular emphasis on four erroneous perceptions about the curriculum. first, kkni has been positioned as a new curriculum model that is aligned with outcome-based education (obe) (hejazi, 2011); however, its implementation falls short of the obe concept (spady, 1994). second, kkni was developed using a backward design curriculum model (mendikbud, 2020b; richards, 2013) and has since lost its roots as a result of adaptation to an unestablished curriculum development theory (kaya, 2021; solikhah & budiharso, 2020). 1 dr. uin raden mas said surakarra, indonesia; email: iimqueenoslo@gmail.com mailto:iimqueenoslo@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 third, kkni, as a curriculum model, has placed a greater emphasis on outcome formulation (depdiknas, 2010), referred to as learning outcomes, resulting in an inadequate and incorrect handling of its curriculum dimension (bonk & graham, 2006; budiharso & tarman, 2020; driscoll, 2002). fourth, while kkni policy, as a curriculum, has entered the realm of public policy (depdiknas, 2003; dye, 2017), which is inextricably linked to policy analysis (dunn, 2018), its implementation is more closely tied to political policy (oecd, 2006; satoshi et al., 2021; solikhah, 2015a). analysis on kkni-curriculum content and organization conducted by the indonesian study program through the group discussion indicates features in table 1. it shows the more on the policy theories and law application of kkni’s functions in terms of quality control, course distribution, and cooperation patterns (depdiknas, 2010). table 1 redesign of course distribution for merdeka belajar no type of courses semester credit unit 1 university obligatory course 31 2 university optional course choose 2 out of 6 3 faculty obligatory course 4 4 faculty optional course choose 2 out of 6 5 study program obligatory course 44 6 study program optional course choose 4 or 6 of 10 7 merdeka belajar (in campus) 20 8 merdeka belajar (via e-learning) 9 9 merdeka belajar (out of campus) 23 10 merdeka belajar (out of campus) choose 4 of 16 145 depdiknas (2008) asserted that reconstructing the curriculum of the courses distribution amounts to 145 semester credit units for undergraduate (s1) program. however, the proposal shows that kkni study is limited to theories and norms. backward design, obe, and curriculum dimension are not adequately discussed. there is a regional perspective in the terms “university,” “faculty,” and “optional.” kkni as a curriculum should have global reach and standards. courses for merdeka belajar off-campus with 23 semester credit units should also be highlighted. the merdeka belajar guide suggests taking 20–40 semester credit units out of campus (mendikbud, 2020a, 2020b). the ontological basis of 23 semester credit units should be re-examined. most importantly, 30.4% of the study program credits for 44 semester credit units are science courses, solikhah 245 i.e., only 30% of graduate science competencies. the above-mentioned studies show that the proposed curriculum engineering is not feasible. administrative aspects have been emphasized when teaching kkni in an applied context. in the view of richards (2013), carvalho, et. al., (2022). and spady (1994), the attainment of the curriculum dimension is not adequately addressed. inconsistencies in curriculum development have been found by depdiknas (2010). for developing an adequate curriculum for higher education, kkni is used as a model, and the curriculum is referred to as the higher education curriculum (depdiknas, 2010). learning outcomes are used to develop the curriculum in higher education, and the course group and teaching materials studied are set in a matrix used to determine the curriculum (depdiknas, 2003). backward design (richards, 2013) refers to this pattern, but the government does not indicate that kkni, as a curriculum, is actually developed on the basis of this model (william et al., 2021; richards, 2013; solikhah, 2015b). furthermore, a number of countries around the world have incorporated obe into their national qualifications framework. by including obe as a basis for curriculum development, mendikbud (2020a) issued an updated curriculum guideline. according to the government’s condition, kkni as a curriculum refers to obe and curriculum based on backward design. the kkni curriculum has lost its theoretical roots in the development of the curriculum (carvalho, et. al., 2022). kkni is not a curriculum model (solikhah, 2020). it is rather a competency qualification framework that can juxtapose, equalize, and integrate education and work training and experience to recognize work competency in various sectors (depdiknas, 2010; solikhah, 2015a; 2015b spady, 1994). it is governed by presidential regulation no. 8 year 2021 and ministerial regulation no. 49 year 2014 regarding national standards for higher education. mendikbud (2020a) stated that kkni is a reference for curriculum development, not a model. the kkni covers formal or informal learning outcomes with internationally recognized standards. the kkni curriculum has been examined in terms of content and implementation in different courses. four research findings are reviewed herein to highlight research gaps and novelties. idris et al. (2020) conducted a study at education college (lptk) uin sunan kalijaga yogyakarta. they described the kkni curriculum and its application and emphasized investigating the curriculum document. their findings are based on a review of kkni curriculum theories, not on a critical analysis of curriculum content. none of the kkni curriculum’s applications to obe were critically evaluated by the researchers. over 5,000 indonesian students journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 participated in a study conducted by muhammad & ariani (2020), which took place at five state islamic universities. the study results highlighted kkni aspects in terms of implementation, learning outcome formulation, and program suitability with the graduate learning outcomes (glo). glo and course distribution were not examined critically in the development of the kkni curriculum. furthermore, kkni, competency-based curriculum (cbc), and obe are not defined in this study. the findings of neliwati et al.’s (2020) study, conducted in medan, describe kkni in curriculum theories. the authors, however, did not critically analyze kkni’s curriculum and learning theories. in another study, solikhah & budiharso (2019) investigated the learning outcomes of an inqf-based english language teaching curriculum in indonesia. they essentially examined the kkni curriculum on the basis of cbc theories and studied the course distribution in the kkni curriculum. this study has discussed the cbc kkni, but it has not explored the kkni curriculum viewed from the obe perspective (tachie & kariyana, 2022). the lack of a theoretical basis for curriculum formulation was highlighted by the four research groups that examined the kkni curriculum. to address the shortcomings of previous studies, the existing research gaps are considered the prime focus of this study (kaya, 2021). as a result, the theories developed in this study, namely, backward design curriculum development and obebased curriculum development, are novel. with regard to methodology, this study is novel as it uses focus group discussion (fgd) and content analysis to collect data (tachie & kariyana, 2022). a novel approach for merdeka belajar curriculum development is proposed herein. there has been some deviation and misinterpretation of the kkni curriculum as it relates to backward design curriculum theory and the obe education model. this has been exacerbated by the merdeka belajar curriculum, whose reference is also obe, and which draws more attention to the kkni-based curriculum and the merdeka belajar curriculum. this study shows a theoretical gap between backward design curriculum, obe, and kkni. in terms of policy, researchers and educators have placed more emphasis on normative aspects based on regulations than on masteryof-field-based practices. research questions on the basis of the previous research studies and identification of existing research gaps, three research questions were sought to be answered. solikhah 247 1) what are the main issues encountered by the teacher study programs in indonesia while incorporating cbc kkni into the obe kkni ? 2) how does the course distribution in the kkni guarantee the graduates’ graduation period and science quality? 3) how are the curriculum materials for merdeka belajar incorporated into the obe kkni curriculum by the teacher study programs in indonesia? conceptual framework kkni a qualification framework is a part of a country’s greatest education and training system. in a qualification system, all structures and activities leading to qualification are included (cedefop, 2013). a qualification framework encompasses a set of learning outcomes agreed upon by countries in a region. a national qualification framework compares a country’s qualification to other countries (cedefop, 2017; the european center for the development of vocational training [cedefop]). tuck (2007) defined a qualification framework as a tool for developing and classifying qualifications based on learning levels. it is either implicit in qualification descriptors or explicit in level descriptors. in a country, or internationally, a qualification framework is meant to improve transparency, quality, accessibility, relationship, and public recognition or labor market (carvalho, et. al., (2022). the qualification framework is developed globally. in indonesia, it is known as kerangka kualifikasi nasional indonesia, i.e., kkni. it is a concept of mapping the competency qualification of indonesian workers based on presidential regulation no. 8 of 2012. this concept creates equal labor ability in indonesia. the ability can be acquired through education, selfeducation, industry, or profession (depdiknas, 2010). kkni is a general reference to how one’s qualifications are recognized in their workplace. depdiknas (2010) stated that indonesia urgently needs kkni because global challenges and competitions in the national or international labor markets are more open. protective regulations can no longer stop labor migration to and from indonesia. to juxtapose, equalize, and integrate the fields of education and job training in accordance with job structures in various sectors presidential regulation no. 8 year 2012 article 1 verse (1) enumerates nine levels of kkni, namely: journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 • levels 1–3, which include operators who graduated from elementary school, junior high school, and senior high schools; • levels 4–6, which include technicians or analysts who graduated from d1, d2, d3, d4, and s1 programs; • level 7, which includes graduate experts with a professional education; • level 8, which includes experts with masteror specialist-1-level education; • level 9, which includes experts with doctoralor specialist-2-level education. conceptually, kkni divides each level of qualification into four categories: (1) work skills; (2) scope of science (knowledge); (3) methods and levels of application of science; and (4) managerial ability (depdiknas, 2003). learning outcomes refer to the internalization and accumulation of the four parameters that should be achieved through a structured education process or through employment (depdiknas, 2010). brief overview of the development of education college curriculum solikhah (2015) classified national curriculum in indonesia into six broad categories, which include the pre-1970s materials covering (1) nationalism, (2) pedagogy, (3) general psychology, (4) didactic-methodical method, (5) fields of study taught, and (6) teaching practices. the lptk curriculum adopted an integrated system between academic education and the teaching profession during the 1970s and 1990s. each course was assigned a number, (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4) according to its level of difficulty. there was also a course on the teaching–learning process. furthermore, the cbc era spanned from 1994 to 2000. courses were divided into two categories: the main expertise course and the minor expertise course (post-secondary subject matter). general basic courses, specific basic courses, expertise courses i and ii, and expertise courses iii and iv made up the course distribution. between 2000 and 2005, cbc was improved. cbc was developed in 2000 following the ministry of education’s decision letters 232/u/2000 and 045/u/2002. these include main competencies, supporting competencies, and other competencies. the courses were divided into five categories: personal development, science and skills, work behavior, work expertise, and social life. the kkni-based curriculum was adopted in 2013, and this era is also known as the “obe era,” wherein curriculum development followed a backward design approach. thematic curriculum with a solikhah 249 scientific approach was used in the elementary, junior high, and high schools. the higher education curriculum refers to work competencies accepted by national and international markets. a curriculum referring to the kkni is one that refers to this qualification. the ministry of education and culture’s kkni-based curriculum shows major differences between the 2019 and 2020 versions. the kkni curriculum prior to 2019 used cbc, while the 2020 version used obe. for simplicity, this research refers to the 2019 curriculum as cbc kkni and the 2020 curriculum as obe kkni or the new kkni curriculum. outcome-based education spady (1984), an academician, educational psychologist, sociologist, educational planner, and the father of obe, introduced obe in 1984. as of 2017, obe has been signed by a number of countries, as listed in table 2 (washington accord, 2012; gleason, 2018). table 2 countries that have implemented obe no year country 1 1984 the first issue of obe by prof. william g. spady 2 1989 australia, canada, ireland, new zealand, england, usa 3 1995 china 4 1999 south africa 5 2005 japan 6 2006 singapore 7 2007 south korea 8 2009 malaysia 9 2011 turkey 10 2012 russia 11 2021 indonesia obe is a teaching method that focuses on what students can do after they complete their education (spady, 1994). it differs from traditional education with regard to educational theories, educational structure, and instructional approaches (killen, 2007). the terms “competency,” “standard,” and “benchmark” are interchangeable in this model (uys et al., 2005; bonk & graham, 2006). obe focuses on life skills, basic skills, professional and vocational skills, intellectual skills, and personal skills (mendikbud, 2020a). the outcomes of obe should be evident from students' learning outcomes that reflect: (1) what students know, (2) what they can do with their knowledge, and (3) their confidence and motivation in demonstrating their knowledge (guskey, 1994). mendikbud (2020a) explained that obe-based curriculum is developed in three steps: outcomebased curriculum (obc), oblt, and outcome-based assessment and evaluation (obae). obe is journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 based on glo and profiles. to develop learning materials, assessment and evaluation tools based on glo are derived (mendikbud, 2020a; birney & mcnamara, 2021). obtl involves the interaction of lecturers, students, and learning sources. one of the key principles of oblt is that students should choose learning forms and methods that align with the glo. obae refers to the method of assessing and evaluating glo to enhance learning quality. learning process and the glo results are assessed. obae is also used in curriculum evaluation to achieve glo of study programs (mendikbud, 2020b). merdeka belajar (freedom to learn) to modify the educational literacy paradigm in this digital age, indonesian minister of education and culture, nadiem makarim, has implemented merdeka belajar (freedom to learn) (mendikbud, 2019). mendikbud (2020b) defined digital age literacy as the mastery of (1) data literacy, or the ability to read, analyze, and use data (big data), (2) technology literacy, understanding coding, ai, and engineering principles, and (3) strengthening humanity, communication, and design. students and teachers can conduct various literacy activities (gleason, 2018). merdeka belajar focuses on developing students’ cognitive abilities. students are challenged to think critically and analyze well to solve problems (yamin & syahrir, 2020). according to mendikbud (2019), educational institutions require not only traditional literacy skills like reading, writing, and counting, but also digital literacy. this viewpoint is in line with autonomous learning and blended learning. according to gleason (2018), digital literacy should be encouraged in the era of industrial revolution 4.0. teachers, principals, and educational institutions direct, lead, and dig out students’ potential and critical power in the era of industrial revolution 4.0 (siobhan, 2021). an educational ecosystem is created to foster students’ reasoning, character, creativity, independence, comfort, and expertise (bonk & graham, 2006; driscoll, 2002). merdeka belajar moves from elementary to high school (yamin & syahrir, 2020). mendikbud (2020a) emphasized that merdeka belajar in higher education promotes students to master various scientific skills useful in the workplace. students can opt for courses from eight different types of programs: (1) industrial practices or internships, (2) village projects, (3) student exchange, (4) research, (5) entrepreneurship, (6) humanitarian, (7) projects, and (8) school teaching. solikhah 251 merdeka belajar is in line with the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia's regulation no. 3 year 2020 regarding national education standards, verse 18. students have “three semesters to study off-campus” rights. for three semesters, undergraduate (s1) students can participate in non-course learning activities. the term “learning hour” is replaced by “activity hour.” all activities in kampus merdeka must be lectured. activities outside higher education (like apprenticeships or village projects) can be taken for two semesters or 40 semester credit units. for two semesters, students can take semester credit units elsewhere (equivalent to 40 semester credit units). in the same higher education, they may take semesters credit units in other study programs (equivalent to 20 semester credit units). methods design this study used a content analysis design (zhang & wildemuth, 2009; hsieh & shannon, 2005) and a qualitative approach (creswell, 2014). the research areas investigated were as follows: (1) the process of designing glo, learning outcomes, and course distribution in the curriculum, (2) differences between cbc kkni and obe kkni in terms of content and implementation of curriculum formulation, and (3) designing the merdeka belajar curriculum and problems in preparing proper courses. with a content analysis design, this study focused on documents in the form of fgd results containing discussion of problems in the kkni-based curriculum and the kkni curriculum document. because the data analyzed were information, argumentation, facts, and narration on the content of the kkni curriculum, a qualitative approach was used (creswell, 2014; yin, 2014). this study was conducted using zoom, which was hosted by the university of bandar lampung, designated as the merdeka belajar’s implementing university. data and data source in this study, the most important data came from curriculum documents obtained from an fgd about the merdeka belajar curriculum that took place in the fall. the fgd was held with people from all over the country who were studying teacher training. fgd results were used to show how people view the kkni-based curriculum, how to write glo, distribute courses in study programs, write lo, develop courses matrix, implement merdeka belajar on and off-campus, and write kkni in merdeka belajar. a report on the results of the fgd, a recording, and field notes all journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 talked about how the fgd data came from. documents in the form of articles about the merdeka belajar curriculum written by people who were knowledgeable about the subject were used in this study. they also included the course distribution for merdeka belajar, the transcripts of the fgd, the guide to making a curriculum for higher education, and the course distribution in english language education and indonesian-language curriculum. participants the fgd participants included 42 lecturers from all over indonesia. there were two resource persons (4.8%) and 40 participants. the participants consisted of 14 men (33.3%) and 26 women (61.9%). the participants were chosen using a purposive sampling technique based on their availability during the virtual fgd. all participants were lecturers from the following universities: (1) islamic state institute surakarta, (2) university of lampung, (3) university of mulawarman samarinda, (4) pontianak islamic state institute, (5) palembang islamic state institute, (6) parepare islamic state institute, (7) cirebon islamic state institute, (8) bandarlampung university, (9) university of lambung mangkurat, (10) university of jendral soedirman, (11) university of sanata dharma, (12) university of jambi, (13) islamic university raden intan, (15) islamic university nu jepara, and (16) university of veteran bangun nusantara sukoharjo. the main speaker came from the islamic state institute surakarta, and the university of sanata dharma yogyakarta. research instrument the instrument to collect data in this study was a list of questions developed by the researchers in the form of eight items of the open-ended questions. these eight items were: (1) understanding the cbc kkni and obe kkni, (2) the process and obstacles in formulating glo and learning outcomes, (3) the course distribution in the curriculum document, (4) grouping the fields of science in the courses, (5) the stages in developing the curriculum using the obe kkni, (6) the problems in preparing the curriculum for merdeka belajar, (7) the problems encountered while preparing the courses for merdeka belajar out of campus, and (8) problems encountered while converting courses when students join lectures out of campus. before the questions were prepared, the researchers first discussed them with the manager of the merdeka belajar program in the university of bandar lampung, the director of the merdeka belajar program, and the lecturers in solikhah 253 general higher education and islamic religious higher education. the list of questions was then limitedly tried out through interviews with three lecturers at islamic state institute surakarta. the results of the trial were used to improve the items in three aspects. the questions dealing with cbc kkni and obe kkni were sharpened, the scope of the question was developed further, and the problems identified were made more specific. moreover, the researchers also wrote the transcripts of interviews and analyzed the results of the interviews using a content analysis technique in accordance with the theories proposed by zhang & wildemuth (2009) and hsieh & shannon (2005). the researchers also adapted the qualitative research theory presented by creswell (2014) and yin (2014). data collection technique the fgd and an in-depth interview technique were used to gather the primary data. there were 40 participants in total, divided into eight groups of five participants each. the fgd committee and virtual it helped the researchers ask open-ended questions to each group. two minutes were allotted to each group to discuss the answers to the questions they were given. other groups were able to see the answers and respond openly. the committee team took notes on every discussion and response. each group took 15–20 minutes to adapt to this new method. verbatim transcriptions were made at the end of the session of all recordings containing verbal dialogs between one group and the others (zhang & wildemuth, 2009; hsieh & shannon, 2005), and the transcription results were recapitulated and treated as documents to be analyzed (creswell, 2014). the secondary data from curriculum texts, the higher education curriculum arrangement, and kkni curriculum documents were analyzed in three stages. first, the researchers scanned each document for kkni-related themes. second, the researchers identified themes and units of analysis in each document that aligned with the prime focus of this study. third, the researchers inventoried the themes and units of analysis in each document and summarized them to present them in accordance with the research questions. data analysis technique for this study, a content analysis approach was used, as was a qualitative method of data analysis. based on zhang & wildemuth’s (2009) content analysis theory, the researchers used transcripts of fgd results to identify themes and units of analysis. following creswell (2014), the qualitative journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 data analysis went through five stages: (1) converting numerical and textual information into narrative data; (2) creating an analysis-specific coding system guide; (3) implementing the coding system; (4) verifying its accuracy and correctness, and (5) selecting the final data (zhang & wildemuth, 2009; hsieh & shannon, 2005; creswell, 2014; yin, 2014). there were three categories of themes that emerged from the analysis, namely: (1) the themes and units of analysis on the processes of preparing glo and the learning outcomes, and the distribution of courses in the curriculum; (2) the differences between the obe and kkni in terms of curriculum formulation; and (3) preparation for merdeka belaja, which was based on the findings of the analysis of research problems. furthermore, the first research question determined the process of preparing the glo, lo, and course distribution in terms of themes and the units of analysis from which the answers were obtained. the second theme group was used to answer the second research question, which focused on the differences between the kkni and the obe. the third research question, which concerned the merdeka belajar curriculum, was addressed using the third theme group (creswell, 2014; yin, 2014). results and discussion curriculum arrangement process the first finding of this study was the process of obe curriculum arrangement. the answer to the first research question involves the following nine themes of kkni curriculum arrangement: 1) the kkni-based curriculum had diametral changes between the cbc kkni and the 2020 obe kkni owing to the orientation of the educational theory. 2) as the change in the 2013 curriculum occurred, the designation of kkni also changed into cbc kkni and 2020 obe kkni. 3) the cbc kkni refers to the faculty learning outcomes, but special learning outcome courses were formulated. 4) the general and special graduate learning outcomes in the cbc kkni were incoherent as the course distribution was diametrically different. 5) the course learning outcomes and the cbc kkni were difficult to be formulated in an integrated way as the matrix of the type and the goal of the courses were categorically different. solikhah 255 6) the 2020 obe kkni determines the glo and the learning outcomes on the basis of the stages of the curriculum development (obc), the success in the outcomes (oblt), and the assessment results (obaei). 7) the 2020 obe kkni specifies the stages of the curriculum development (obc) on the basis of the learning outcomes and the glo. 8) the 2020 obe kkni made some curriculum improvement (oblt) based on the learning outcomes and the glo that had been reached. 9) the 2020 obe kkni determines the quality assurance (obaei) through assessments and evaluation of the learning outcomes and the glo. the above findings indicate that participants were unaware of the changes in the orientation and scientific foundation of the old kkni and the 2020 kkni versions. the distinctions were discovered in the theoretical foundations upon which the curriculum was developed. the previous kkni curriculum was based on the cbc model, and the 2020 kkni curriculum is based on the obe model. as a result, participants proposed that the kkni curriculum be classified as cbc kkni for the old kkni and 2020 obe kkni for the new kkni curriculum version. the year 2020 refers to the designation of the 2013 curriculum as the year of curriculum change. according to the head of the mathematics education study program. (data 1): (1) “we are not aware of the change in the orientation from the cbc into the obe. we just see the curriculum format and its development. what we emphasize is the preparation of the graduate learning outcomes and the learning outcomes” (dd-26-r-20-t-1). the change had no impact on the study program’s formulation of learning outcomes. learning outcomes according to the cbc and obe kkni changed fundamentally. the cbc kkni learning outcomes focused on institutional learning outcomes. the learning outcomes should be based on knowledge distribution and should refer to the course learning outcomes. a participant in the fgd confirmed a head of islamic religion study program (2). (2) “what i know is that there are three learning outcomes: institutional learning outcomes to assert the university goal; faculty learning outcomes to show the outcomes that would be reached by the faculty; and course learning outcomes to show the scientific target. the problem is that the guide for the cbc kkni merely leads to the faculty learning outcomes” (d-13r-34-t-1). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 the problem in developing the kkni curriculum, according to the participants, was threefold: (1) the learning outcomes developed were directed toward the faculty learning outcomes, (2) the discourse learning outcomes were not developed, and (3) the approach to preparing matrix-based courses made the glo incoherent with the faculty learning outcomes. the emergence of the obe kkni curriculum paradigm results in different categories that, in turn, result in document reconstruction. one of the fgd participants expressed his opinion in data (3). (3) “clearly, the curriculum structure should be completely changed. in the obe kkni, there is an obligation to prepare a curriculum based on graduate learning outcomes, graduate learning outcomes, and the evaluation results of the graduate learning outcomes. indeed, the ob kkni is rather flexible in preparing the course distribution, but we have seen how it was practiced. many higher education institutes have applied this curriculum for tens of years, and it is successful, for example, state university of malang (um). although there is a new curriculum, it is impossible for us to change the course structure into new courses. what we might do is to merely reorganize it by adding or reducing its contents” (d-12-r4-t1) until now, the kkni curriculum has been prepared only when a study program has been accredited. “well-planned changes based on curriculum evaluation are not implemented” (d-4-r2-t1). moreover, the curriculum revision process is not accompanied by a theoretical workshop. “we were asked to review the curriculum. in the field, we fill out a check list and present our findings” (d-31-r-5-t-1). the theoretical basis for the cbc kkni and the obe kkni has been oriented as described above. neither program directors nor lecturers in higher education institutes were aware of the change. the change included the glo, learning outcomes, and courses distribution based on the difficult matrix. theme 2: science courses as quality insurance the second finding of the substance of the cbc kkni and obe kkni is used to answer the second research question. the themes found in the fgd included: 1) the cbc kkni and the 2020 obe kkni did not determine the course matrix based on the study program knowledge cluster. 2) the formulation of the study of teaching materials to become courses among the same study programs substantially and categorically is different. solikhah 257 3) the number of semesters for 144 semester credit units has not been explicitly formulated so that it can be completed in seven semesters or eight semesters on an average. 4) a grouping of university, faculty, and study program occurs diametrically due to understanding of concepts and authorities. 5) the course cluster does not refer to the clear fields of science and responsibility, so that the weight of study contents is difficult to meet quality assurance. 6) the course cluster proposed for the english education study program is as follows: nationalism course, basic english skills, linguistics, teaching, curriculum, and scientific development. 7) the guarantee of success for the english knowledge cluster of at least 60% is poured into basic english skills, language knowledge, and english teaching. with this in mind, it can be concluded that kkni curriculum content development has been hindered by the lack of knowledge clusters in the courses. as an example, the english language education program has a knowledge cluster that includes: (1) nationalism development courses such as indonesian, citizenship, and religion; (2) basic english skills; (3) language teaching; (4) curriculum development and research; and (5) linguistics, among others. knowledge cluster development is expected to make it easier to formulate course learning outcomes and thus glos according to participants of the fgd. in accordance with the previous findings, 144 semester credit units must be the minimum number of credits required for the undergraduate program. students must complete their undergraduate degree in at least seven semesters, if the curriculum documents legally permit it. consequently, a clear hierarchy and set of rules should be established for distributing courses and organizing knowledge clusters. participants in the focus group, including the director of the english language education program, all agreed: (4) “the regulation of the minister of the national education of the republic of indonesia allows smart students to complete their undergraduate program in seven semesters. however, the course distribution in our curriculum still requires eight semesters to complete the final task. thus, no legal foundation exists that could allow students to complete their undergraduate program in seven semesters. if there are students who graduate in seven semesters, the graduation is considered incidental” (d-19-r-16-t-2). according to this study, the distribution of courses that support the final task, such as research method and data analysis, proposal writing, and science courses like curriculum and teaching journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 material development should be set early in the semester. “a research course usually hinders the writing of a skripsi. these courses should be scheduled earlier, like in the fourth semester. early fifth semester data on student skripsi candidate allowed the study program to determine advisors” (d-32-r-23-t-2). the findings in this theme confirmed the importance of science courses as quality assurance. the kkni curriculum credit weight is 33–40 semester credit units or 30.30%. this does not guarantee that the graduates will be competent in their chosen science field. “the weight of science courses is a real issue. it usually reaches 33%. how can we be sure of their knowledge if we just give them so much weight?” (d-2-r-10-t-2). “i totally agree,” said one supporter. the issue is that the kkni curriculum does not specify the weight of each field of expertise. this was stated in the old curriculum. science courses range from 40%–80%” (d-13-r27-t-2). theme 3: material development for merdeka belajar in the obe kkni the answer to the third research question regarding the process of the merdeka belajar material development in the obe kkni consists of seven themes, namely: 1) in general, the number of credits in the obe kkni was divided into two, 40 semester credit units for merdeka belajar courses and 104 credits for regular courses. 2) the merdeka belajar materials among study programs in a university were developed together with the study programs in a faculty or other faculties so that the contents of the materials may be matched. 3) the merdeka belajar course materials outside a university are converted according to the contents, fields of science, and the number of credits. 4) the merdeka belajar course materials studied out of campus with the weight of 20–40 semester credit units were converted into obligatory courses at that time. 5) a final task in the form of skripsi may be done together with the merdeka belajar out of campus with the weight of 20 or 40 semester credit units. 6) the final task (skripsi, undergraduate thesis) is written with a theme in accordance with the field of expertise of the study program with the number of credit equivalent to skripsi. 7) the skripsi may be equalized with an article published in sinta 2 journals or indexed international journals. solikhah 259 this third finding revealed issues with the number of semester credit units, equivalence of offcampus courses, writing of skripsi, and equivalence of skripsi and scientific articles published in journals. the first stage divided the 144 semester credit units into two categories: 40 credits for merdeka belajar and 104 credits for the regular campus courses. the issue is that the 40 semester credit units should match the course type, credit amount, and scientific field specified in the curriculum. the fgd participants said it was difficult to convert regular courses and apprenticeships or teaching assistance. the issue is how the guidance process is done if students taking merdeka belajar courses intend to finish their skripsies off-campus. if they are in higher education, they can ask the lecturers on campus to help them if they require guidance. then another thought is required. students write reports, which are then turned into articles for publication in sinta 2 scientific journals or non-scopus-indexed international journals. the reports should be on topics related to the study program’s science field. this study found that the kkni curriculum development process is constrained by educational theory, curriculum development theory, and course distribution that is not based on knowledge cluster. it is thus difficult to develop the glo and learning outcome formulas. another issue is that the cbc kkni has become the obe kkni. adding 20–40 semester credit units to merdeka belajar courses also limits their conversion to regular courses. the issue sparked debate on three sides. the first finding showed that changing the scientific orientation from cbc to obe causes problems in curriculum formulation. consequently, the curriculum document’s glo, learning outcomes, and course distribution are limited. this finding supports spady (1984) and uys et al. (2005). by bridging the gaps between the cbc theory and the obe theory, this study addressed the shortcomings of previous studies by explaining the obe and its integration process in curriculum development (satoshi et al., 2021; spady, 1984). the backward design curriculum theory can be included as a problem-solving approach based on the curriculum development theory (richards, 2012; birney & mcnamara, 2021). as a result, the obe kkni should be developed using both the backward design curriculum development theory and the obe educational theory (budiharso & tarman, 2020; killen, 2007; meyer et al., 2008; siobhan, 2021; solikhah & budiharso, 2020). the second finding revealed that the scientific field of study is given a proportion of 60%–80%, and the knowledge cluster is set in line with the study program’s field of expertise, in agreement journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 with the findings of solikhah & budiharso (2020) on quality standards in kkni, budiharso & tarman (2020) on curriculum implementation, and dye (2017) and dunn (2018) on accountable, transparent, and quality-oriented public policy implementation. from the policy aspect, this finding corroborates the studies on (1) public policy strategies (dunn, 2018; satoshi et al., 2021), (2) quality assurance (tuck, 2007), and (3) curriculum evaluation (richards, 2013). convincingly, the obe kkni public policy courses distribution (dunn, 2018; dye, 2017) and the demand to meet a legal foundation in terms of policy formulation are novelties in this part (mendikbud, 2020a; tuck, 2007; oecd, 2006; satoshi & takuya, 2021; spady, 1984). there were 40 semester credit units of merdeka belajar coursework and 104 semester credit units of merdeka belajar coursework in the obe kkni, according to the third discovery. merdeka belajar course development is hampered by course conversion, semester credit units, and scientific field. however, courses for the merdeka belajar program off-campus are equivalent to 20–40 semester credit units, and thus, it is not mutually exclusive. obe theory (spady, 1984), blended learning (bonk & graham, 2006; driscoll & niekerk, 2008), and performance qualifications framework (meyer et al., 2008) are all supported by this finding (cedefop, 2013; 2017; gleason, 2018). as theories of the obe, blended learning, and self-directed learning had not been previously explored, the inclusion of obe and its analysis in the kkni curriculum under study is a novel aspect of this study. conclusion and suggestions restating this study’s novelty, the findings highlight how the new kkni curriculum incorporates obe theory and show how obe changed the kkni curriculum and how merdeka belajar should be developed. the backward design curriculum, the obe, and the public policy-based curriculum reformation theories are all used in this study in a novel way. the obe kkni uses blended learning theory in the construction of its courses and analyzes the distribution of courses based on knowledge clusters. to sum up, the change of cbc kkni curriculum into obe kkni curriculum resulted in confusion. the obe kkni preparation has its constraints by the understanding of glo, learning outcomes, and course distribution. obe kkni has not properly set the course distribution of 144 semester credit units for the guidelines; determining glo and learning outcome formulation; solikhah 261 determining course distribution in curriculum evaluation materials. to create the merdeka belajar courses, the obe kkni can simply divide the 144 semester credit units into 40 merdeka belajar and 104 regular courses. however, the equivalence of merdeka belajar courses (20–40 semester credit units) with regular courses remain a big issue to solve. it is recognized that this research has some weaknesses in the form of data collection method through virtual fgd that we could not control. it is suggested that future researchers change the data collection technique via direct observations and interviews. the pandemic era has certainly introduced numerous constraints for implementing face-to-face studies, and thus, a covid-19appropriate protocol should be carefully programmed. references birney, lauren & mcnamara, m. denise. (2021). tackling problem-solving through the curriculum and community enterprise for environmental restoration project, journal of curriculum and teaching, 10(3), 1-10. url: https://doi.org/10.5430/jct.v10n3p1. bonk, j. c. & graham, r. c. (2006). the handbook of blended learning. pfeiffer. budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 carvalho, m, cabral, i, verdasca, j, alves, m. j. (2022). strategic action plans for school improvement: an exploratory study about quality indicators for school improvement plan evaluation. journal of social studies education research, 13(1), 143-163. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3910/554 cedefop. (2013). analysis and overview of nqf level descriptors in european countries. working paper. https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/6119_en.pdf cedefop. (2017). ‘defining, writing and applying learning outcomes – a european handbook’. https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/sl/news-and-press/news/new-european-handbook-learningoutcomes# creswell, j.w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). sage publications. depdiknas. (2010). buku pedoman kerangka kualifikasi nasional indonesia. jakarta: direktorat jendral pendidikan tinggi. https://doi.org/10.5430/jct.v10n3p1 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3910/554 https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/6119_en.pdf https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/sl/news-and-press/news/new-european-handbook-learning-outcomes https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/sl/news-and-press/news/new-european-handbook-learning-outcomes journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 depdiknas. (2008). pengembangan kurikulum pada pendidikan kesetaraan. jakarta: balai pengembangan pendidikan non-formal dan informal. depdiknas, (2003). undang-undang nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang sistem pendidikan nasional. jakarta: direktorat jendral pendidikan tinggi. dunn, n. william. (2018). public policy analysis: an integrated approach. new york and london: routledge. dye, r, thomas. (2017). understanding public policy. fifteenth edition. pearson education, inc. driscoll, m. (2002). blended learning: let’s get beyond the hype. ibm global services. gleason, w. nancy. (2018). higher education in the era of the fourth industrial revolution. palgrave macmillan. guskey, t. (1994). defining the differences between outcome -based education and mastery learning. the school administrator, 51, 34-37. hejasi, mousavi, bahar. (2011). outcome-based education (obe): a transformational perspective on quality and mobility in higher education. porland university, community college leadership program. hsieh, h.-f., & shannon, s.e. (2005). three approaches to qualitative content analysis. qualitative health research, 15(9), 1277-1288. idris, s.; tabrani; sulaiman, fikri & murziqin, r. (2020). the role of kkni curriculum in supporting the development of education at the lptk uin sunan kalijaga yogyakarta, international journal of advanced science and technology, 29(6), 4011-4024. kaya, m. m. (2021). state, citizens and education in the ottoman empire: civic education curriculum in the early 20th century. research in educational policy and management (repam), 3(2), 42-72. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.6 killen, roy (2007). teaching strategies for outcomes-based education, second edition. juta and company ltd. p. 48. isbn 978-0-7021-7680-7. mendikbud, (2019). pedoman pengembangan kurikulum perguruan tinggi berbasis kkni. jakarta: direktorat jendral pendidikan tinggi. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2021.6 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/isbn_(identifier) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/978-0-7021-7680-7 solikhah 263 mendikbud. (2020a). panduan penyusunan kurikulum pendidikan tinggi di era industri 4.0 untuk mendukung merdeka belajar-kampus merdeka. jakarta: direktorat jendral pendidikan tinggi. mendikbud. (2020b). panduan merdeka belajar-kampus merdeka. jakarta: direktorat jendral pendidikan tinggi. muhammad, i., & ariani, s. (2020). the development of kkni-based curriculum at the arabic language education programs in indonesian higher education. jurnal ilmiah peuradeun, 8(3), 451-474. doi:10.26811/peuradeun.v8i3.543 neliwati; marbun, derliana; mahariah. (2019). the implementation of curriculum based indonesian national qualification framework (kkni) in islamic education study program at the islamic higher education in medan. ijlres: international journal on language, research and education studies, 3(1), 71-84. doi: 10.30575/2017/ijlres-2019010406. oecd (organisation for economic cooperation and development). (2006). qualifications systems: bridges to lifelong learning. oecd. http://www.oecd.org/education/innovation education/qualificationssystemsbridgestolifelonglearning.htm richards, c. jack. (2013). curriculum approach in language teaching: forward, central and backward design. relc journal, 44(1), 5-33. doi: 10.1177/0033688212473293. satoshi k., ismael c. n. & takuya b. (2021). analysis of the intended mathematics curriculum revision process in mozambique from the perspective of relevance, journal of curriculum studies, 53:5, 642-658, doi: 10.1080/00220272.2020.1855256 siobhan d. (2021). intentional, tacit, contingent: knowledge recontextualization in the official history curriculum a critical discourse analysis, journal of curriculum studies, 53:5, 692710, doi: 10.1080/00220272.2021.1904007 solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2019). investigating the learning outcomes of an inqf-based english language teaching curriculum in indonesia, journal of social studies education research, 10(4), 153-175. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1090/412 solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020a). standardizing bipa as an international program of a language policy. asian esp journal, 16(5.2), 181-205. https://www.elejournals.com/asianesp-journal/volume-16-issue-5-2-october-2020/ solikhah, i. & budiharso, t. (2020b). exploring cultural inclusion in the curriculum and practices for teaching bahasa indonesia to speakers of other languages, journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 177-197. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2658/465 http://www.oecd.org/education/innovation-education/qualificationssystemsbridgestolifelonglearning.htm http://www.oecd.org/education/innovation-education/qualificationssystemsbridgestolifelonglearning.htm https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2020.1855256 https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2021.1904007 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/1090/412 https://www.elejournals.com/asian-esp-journal/volume-16-issue-5-2-october-2020/ https://www.elejournals.com/asian-esp-journal/volume-16-issue-5-2-october-2020/ https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2658/465 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 243-264 solikhah, i. (2015a). designing academic literacy framework of eap program for indonesian learners, journal of language and literature, 6(2), 34-38. solikhah, i. (2015b). learning outcomes berbasis kkni dalam kurikulum pendidikan bahasa inggris. surabaya: jenggala pustaka utama. spady, w. (1984). outcome-based education: critical issues and answers (pdf). american association of school administrators. isbn 0876521839. retrieved 31 october 2014. tachie, s. a. & kariyana, i. (2022). time divested or time invested? freshmen’s perspectives and reflective experiences on interactive school learning. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 7(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.2 tuck, r. (2007). an introductory guide to national qualifications frameworks. conceptual and practical issues for policy makers. ilo. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/-- ifp_skills/documents/instructionalmaterial/wcms_103623.pdf uys, l. & gwele, n. (2005). curriculum development in nursing: process and innovation. routledge. p. 194. isbn 0415346290. washington accord. (2012, august 20). international engineering alliance. archived from the original on 26 january 2012. william h. schmidt, siwen guo & richard t. houang (2021). the role of opportunity to learn in ethnic inequality in mathematics, journal of curriculum studies, 53:5, 579-600, doi: 10.1080/00220272.2020.1863475 yamin, muhammad & syahrir. (2020). pembangunan pendidikan merdeka belajar: telaah metode pembalajaran. jurnal ilmiah mandala education, 6(1), 124-136. yin, robert k. (2014). case study research design and methods. 5th edition. sage publication inc zhang, y & wildemuth, b. m. (2009). qualitative analysis of content, in: b. m. wildemuth, ed., applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science, libraries unlimited, 2009. pp. 1-12. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ed380910.pdf https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/isbn_(identifier) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/0876521839 https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---ifp_skills/documents/instructionalmaterial/wcms_103623.pdf https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---ifp_skills/documents/instructionalmaterial/wcms_103623.pdf https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/isbn_(identifier) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/special:booksources/0415346290 http://www.washingtonaccord.org/washington-accord/signatories.cfm http://www.washingtonaccord.org/washington-accord/signatories.cfm https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2020.1863475 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),249-275 249 acculturation and its effects on the religious and ethnic values of bali’s catur village community i wayan winaja1, i wayan sukma winarya prabawa2, & putu ratih pertiwi3 abstract the primary aim of this paper is to identify the best practices for multicultural communities looking to co-exist in the same territory, using catur village as a case study. society brings together people of different cultures, and, for people to stay in harmony concerning each other’s culture, there must be crucial practices that make such harmonious living possible. this research, therefore, explored the concept of acculturation and its effect on the balinese and chinese communities living in catur village in the kintamani district of bali, indonesia. data were collected using pre-prepared unstructured questionnaires administered verbally to five different groups of respondents involved in the study. the researcher also observed the values and practices of both communities during the interview period. the data collected were analysed using the thematic analysis method. the study revealed religious, cultural, language and local administration acculturation effects on the balinese and chinese communities living in catur village. the chinese community has adapted to the practices and values of the balinese community, whose members are indigenous to the region, such as adopting the balinese naming system for their children. this study’s findings provide a foundation for the government authorities to promote harmonious relationships in the diverse community within their jurisdictions. keywords: acculturation, culture, community, ethnic diversity, religious diversity. introduction the primary research questions this paper aims to answer is how both religion and ethical values support multicultural communities in co-existing in the same territory. acculturation is defined as the process of change in cultural identities, values, behaviours, and attitudes through contact with foreign cultures. the aim of the acculturation process is for diverse groups to live harmoniously with each other (arizona et al., 2016). generally, human beings seek harmony within their environment as individuals or groups pursuing peaceful co-existence (ngin, 2018). 1 universitas hindu indonesia, jl. sangalangit, tembau, penatih, denpasar, bali 80238, indoneseia, dr.i.wayan.winaja@gmail.com 2 sekolah tinggi pariwisata, nusa dua bali, jl. dharmawangsa, kampial, kuta selatan, bali, indonesia, sukmawinarya@stpbali.ac.id 3 universitas udayana, jl. dr. goris no. 7, dangin puri kelod, denpasar bali 80114, indonesia, ratihpertiwi@unud.ac.id mailto:dr.i.wayan.winaja@gmail.com mailto:sukmawinarya@stpbali.ac.id mailto:ratihpertiwi@unud.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 according to jorge and muñoz (2016), cultural harmony encourages a state of peace and tranquillity among communities. according to mesoudi (2018), the migration of people from and to diverse cultures has influenced cultural change in most communities throughout history. indonesia, a southeast asian country with a population of approximately 264 million people, has experienced significant cultural fusion due to its location along historic trading routes (world health organization, 2015). indonesia’s proximity to such trade routes resulted in strong multicultural practices in most of its major towns, influenced by the diversity of trader religions, including buddhism, islam, hinduism, christianity and confucianism (rodgers, 2017). some of the cultural fusion between the different religions that emerged include the javanese abangan religion, which resulted from the blending of islam and hinduism, and kaharingan, which reflects a fusion of animism and hinduism (paramore, 2016). catur village is in the kintamani district of indonesia’s bali province. indigenous balinese hindus and chinese buddhists inhabit the village. the two ethnic groups are united by a harmonious social-religious activity in which both groups converge on the pura panyagjagan temple (sumarniasih, 2017). this temple has meru tumpang solas (eleven roof tiers), places to worship ida batara chatur muka—one of the manifestations of the balinese god—as well as konco stana queen syahbandar (subandar), the manifestation of the chinese god (arnyana, 2017). the chinese community in catur village believes that their purusa ancestors (i.e., male ancestors) were from china and their perdana ancestors (i.e., women) were from bali (arnyana, 2017). in-depth interviews conducted in catur village suggest that acculturation processes have had a unique effect on the chinese people who live there. for example, while members of the chinese community in the village are registered as buddhists on their identity cards, they follow balinese hindu religious practices. moreover, the acculturation of the chinese community to the balinese hindu culture and religion is demonstrated by the existence of a balinese hindu shrine (sanggah) in chinese houses (suija, 2018). the chinese have balinese-hindu shrines as well as typical chinese ones—the sin-chi shrines—to worship god and their ancestors (suija, 2018). furthermore, over time, the chinese community has mastered how to woo both balinese and chinese followers as they vie for village leadership (arnyana, 2017). while past studies suggest that ethnic pluralism in catur village has resulted in harmonious co-existence between the balinese and chinese communities, the theoretical winaja et al. perspectives on the phenomenon have not been studied. moreover, the effect of ethnic pluralism on the balinese and chinese communities has hardly been studied. this research evaluates the theoretical rationale for acculturation in catur village, bali province. the study also seeks to evaluate the effect of acculturation on two communities living in the village. the paper begins with an introduction to the study, followed by the methodology applied and the results of the study, and ends with a conclusion regarding chinese acculturation in catur village. research objectives the objectives of the current study included:  identifying the process of cultural acculturation in people of different religions and ethnicities by exploring the history of catur village and the process of acculturation there  evidencing the form of acculturation in cultures of different religions and the ethnic chinese in catur village  describing the effects of acculturation on cultures of different religions and ethnicities and on the life of the catur village community. theoretical review the focus on harmonious living among multicultural communities has inspired discussions among scholars. as such, it is worth focusing on the scholars’ various arguments as well as their theories and views on acculturation and harmonious living. as stated by nilsen (2015), the theoretical framework assists a researcher in understanding, explaining and predicting the predominant elements of a phenomenon, a process which helps identify areas for further study. as such, this study will rely on four theoretical frameworks—the previous work— in their analysis of the acculturation processes in catur village: assimilation theory, the local wisdom paradigm, the theory of communicative acts and multicultural theory. assimilation theory acculturation has affected traditional and religious activities in several ways. as stated, acculturation involves the transfer or spread of social values from one community to another. it is, therefore, important to analyse such effects about assimilation theory with a focus on catur journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 village. the term ‘assimilation’ comes from the word assimilate, which means to change things or people to look or behave the same. the assimilation theory suggests that when a society’s culture is subject to elements of a foreign culture, a gradual process of accommodation and integration of the new culture occurs without the native culture losing its core elements, a process referred to as acculturation (mesoudi, 2018). as such, according to assimilation theory, members of the society may adopt new religious practices and abandon their original culture during acculturation. on such occasions, mesoudi (2018) argues, the new common religion may bring people together. from mesoudi’s argument and support for assimilation theory it is evident that acculturation changes the religious practices of people in a society and hence has a huge social effect. a classic illustration of such effects in catur village is the adoption of balinese-hindu shrines by the chinese, who otherwise worship god and their ancestors. additionally, the chinese community in catur village has experienced huge effects of acculturation on its religion—the adoption of new religious practices and the decline of the original culture. acculturation is affected by numerous societal factors (cleveland & xu, 2019). one element that slows acculturation is the strength of the covert culture as described by the anthropologist linton (1936) in his book the study of man. linton (1936) argued that culture comprises two distinct parts: a covert culture, which is the core of a culture, and an overt culture, which is the external embodiment of culture. other anthropologists, such as white (2016), have similarly argued that covert culture is resistant to change. grzymala-kazlowska & phillimore (2018), in their support of assimilation theory, suggest that socio-cultural diversity in terms of race, religion, language, sexual orientation, age and gender pose a challenge to the acculturation process. this is a crucial theory which has shaped the entire research goal. stivala et al. (2016) say that larger societies are made up of vertical and horizontal cleavages, where vertical cleavages refer to different social classes and tastes, while horizontal cleavages refer to differences in ethnicity, class, religion and race. in this study, assimilation theory is used to identify challenges to the cultural acculturation of balinese and chinese people living in catur village. local wisdom paradigm the local wisdom paradigm is a modern concept that applies systems theory to understanding the elements of a culture. the paradigm assumes that human societies are winaja et al. organisms that operate like a system (pesurnay, 2018). in the study of acculturation, the local wisdom paradigm helps explain the harmonious, peaceful co-existence of diverse cultures in light of its systemic characteristics (fedi et al., 2018). according to this perspective, some values contribute not only to anticipating violence committed in the name of religion but also creating harmony among people (amin et al., 2015). the local wisdom paradigm is used here to help understand the peaceful and harmonious co-existence of the balinese and chinese communities in catur village. the local wisdom paradigm entails vital concepts useful in this study. it is a crucial theory which brings to light the co-operation of individuals in a system of society (amin et al., 2015). communicative acts theory the fact that society comprises people from different cultural origins leads to a question about how much people communicate. importantly, how would diverse cultural elements influence the communication of people in a society like catur? according to the communicative acts theory, coordinated action from different social elements leads to the need for effective communication (fong, 2017). as such, the theory provides a framework for understanding how the social order may be maintained despite social diversity (gunderson, 2017). in a real sense, the place of study for this research is communities with diverse social norms and beliefs. the chinese have social norms, like the natives of catur. the theory holds that a parasitic relationship exists in the pursuit of harmony among different social groups, whereby the elements of each group are dependent on one another (huttunen, 2015). as such, huttmen (2015) states that for the cultural elements to exist harmoniously, societies must communicate as they find a common and sustainable way of co-existing. multicultural theory catur is a village of different cultures whose inhabitants view their respective cultures as precious and would, at all times, try to be identified by them. the multicultural theory states that various cultures have diverse weaknesses and strengths. as such, societies have an inherent tendency to embrace elements of foreign cultures that complement the native culture’s weaknesses (bakalar, 2017; lafer &tarman, 2019; miller & collette, 2019). this theory helps structure a local view of how the difference in religious practices of the chinese and the catur journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 natives shaped their way of life. according to tomasi (2017), respecting cultural minorities results in harmonious co-existence among diverse cultures. conversely, turner (2017) stated that a lack of respect for cultural diversity among diverse communities living together often leads to ethnic tension. this study relies on the multicultural theory to assist in identifying the degree of acceptance of foreign cultural elements in the balinese and chinese communities living in catur village. local wisdom through the local wisdom of tri kaya parisudha, the two communities seek to co-exist in harmony. here, parhyangan denotes the values of tri hita karana, which refer to harmonious co-existence and a balanced relationship among humans, god and the spiritual environment (madya & ishartiwi, 2018). based on an interview conducted with the head and chief of catur village, the ethnic communities of the village have always sought to exist in harmony in their thoughts, words and deeds (divayana, 2018). other local wisdom patterns observed during the chinese acculturation in catur village include tri hirta karana and the tat twan asi. according to an interview with a group of balinese and chinese leaders, tri hirta karana—interpreted as the three causes of happiness—is a concept of harmony consisting of parhyangan, palemahan and pawongan. pawongan refers to a harmonious relationship between humans and society (roth & sedana, 2015). the harmonious and peaceful effect of the tri hirta karana concept on the communities in the village affirms peterson’s (2017) assertion that the application of local wisdom within a community helps maintain peace amid cultural diversity. methods research design the study used a descriptive qualitative research design. the research design entails gathering qualitative data from the participants, coding the data and finding common themes in the responses. thus, in this context, the researchers began by asking about the necessity for conducting the culture study on harmonious living. a simple descriptive qualitative research design was used to find all the cultural elements—religion and ethnic values—among the chinese and natives of catur village. the catur village formed the region case study, where winaja et al. first-hand information was collected from the inhabitants. this method allowed the researchers to study changes in religion and societal or ethnic values from an acculturation perspective. in addition to obtaining data through interviews with research respondents, detailed notes relating to the meaning of values and the authors’ understanding of the variable were taken. unstructured questionnaires were used to collect qualitative data from the respondents. the collected data were coded to identify the common themes in the responses, and then each theme was analysed relative to the literature review outcomes to enable a clear description of the population culture. participants there were 20 research participants in this study: the leaders and citizens of catur village of both balinese and chinese origin. they comprised one head of catur village, one chief of catur village, two balinese community leaders, two chinese community leaders, six balinese community citizens, six chinese community citizens and two village pecalang figures (pecalang are officers in charge of security in catur village) with the characteristics shown in table 1. table 1 characteristics of participants participants sum initial age (years old) head of catur village 1 hcv 82 balinese community leaders 2 bcl_1 46 bcl_2 51 chinese community leaders 2 ccl_1 82 ccl_2 78 balinese community citizens 6 bcc_1 65 bcc_2 49 bcc_3 59 bcc_4 52 bcc_5 63 bcc_6 43 village pecalang figures 2 vpf_1 74 vpf_2 68 purposive random sampling was used to select participants with a snowball technique that allowed the researcher to select participants for inclusion in a sample based on given journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 characteristics (hoeber et al., 2017). purposive sampling was used in this study due to the compatibility with the present research objectives and in accordance with other participant characteristics. the selected participants mentioned in the table above, namely the leaders and citizens of catur village of both balinese and chinese origin, were persons born and raised in catur village and, thus, who know the real situation and conditions of catur village. in this case, participants were selected based on their role in the community as well as location convenience, considering the available resources and time limitations. the snowball technique was used to select the next participant on the recommendations of previous participants. data and sources of data primary and secondary research data was used in the research study. the primary research data stemmed from the qualitative research study, in which the respondents expressed opinions, feelings and perceptions about ethics and religious information. the themes identified in the study formed the basis for the primary data about the catur population. the secondary research data stemmed from the studies already conducted on the population. the secondary data augmented the findings of the primary research and provided supportive details to enable multifaceted perspectives on the subject. thus, the primary data was obtained directly from research sources (informants)—20 participants, as shown in table 1 above—while secondary data was obtained indirectly or through the observation of supporting and related documents in the literature or previous studies. data collection and analysis data collected through the interviews were analysed using a thematic model. this analytical technique involves establishing consistent meanings within a dataset (palinkas et al., 2015). the responses got coded in terms of statements and words commonly appearing in the responses, and the words used to formulate common themes. prominent themes within the collected data were coded to provide deeper insights into theoretical perspectives of chinese acculturation in catur village and the acculturation effects on the balinese and chinese communities living there. the procedure for qualitative data analysis involved multiple steps: gathering the feedback, coding the respondents’ comments, running the research questions and reporting. the winaja et al. first step in gathering feedback involved bringing together the comments from both the structured and unstructured interviews. this set the stage for the next step, which involved coding the comments and statements from the interview for each question. the penultimate step involved running the research questions through restatements to ensure alignment of the themes and formulation of answers addressing the research questions. the final step of the analysis was reporting, where the major themes observed in the research were presented in an address to the research questions. results the results are presented based on a robust research plan. the essential results stemmed from the research conducted in the study area, which answered the research questions and objectives of this study. from the results, it is evident that the theoretical themes, such as local wisdom paradigm, communicative acts theory and multicultural theory, comfortably explain acculturation in catur village and its effects on both traditional and religious practices. this section provides an in-depth perspective of the study results through the lens of cultural acculturation, forms of cultural acculturation and the effects of cultural acculturation in catur village. identifying the process of cultural acculturation in people of different religions and ethnicities by exploring the history of catur village and its acculturation process. catur village is located between the writing mountains, batur mountains, catur mountains and mangu mountains in the northwest of bali. catur village is located precisely to the northwest of the kintamani subdistrict, 15 km away. based on the results of interviews with the head of catur village, it was explained that the name of the village was taken from that of the catur mountain to the west of the village, approximately 5 km from banjar mungsengan, one of the official banjars in catur village. it was also explained that catur village shares a border with two different districts: badung regency and buleleng regency. the existence of catur village cannot be separated from the kingdom of bangli. it is said that in around 1860, several royal retainers were assigned to guard the bangli kingdom area, which borders two different kingdoms (now districts), badung and buleleng, assisted by chinese citizens who were believed to have journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 great martial-arts abilities. of course, the existence of the chinese in the kingdom of bangli cannot be separated from the history of the pura dalem balingkang, the history of the name and location of catur village, kintamani district, bangli regency. at present, catur village has three regional banjar offices: banjar dinas catur, banjar dinas mungsengan and banjar dinas lampu. the process of acculturation in catur village cannot be separated from the village’s history. catur village, kintamani district, bangli regency, is located in the border area of badung regency and buleleng regency. the village has three banjar dinas: banjar dinas catur, banjar dinas lampu and banjar dines mungsengan. administratively, catur village is led by the village head, or perbekel, who is assisted by the kelian-kelian banjar dinas, the head of the hamlet. the village head is assisted in non-official, traditional activities by the kelian desa (pemucuk desa), bendesa village pekraman. catur village is inhabited by indigenous hindus and chinese citizens who embrace buddhism, uniting in social-religious activities in harmony. in fact, hindu and buddhist worship are united in a temple called the panyagjagan temple. this temple has meru tumpang solas (eleven places of worship) for ida batara catur muka and a konco astana ratu syahbandar (subandar). according to various sources, chinese ancestors settled in catur village, specifically banjar lampu, upon being assigned to guard the bangli border with buleleng and badung by the king of bangli in around 1860. this belief prevailed because the chinese were said to have expert martial-arts skills, such as kung fu. when guarding the border area, the chinese lit lanterns throughout the village in order to observe the enemy. enemy soldiers thought the points of light were a sign of the numerous opponents to be fought. in the end, the expansion into catur village area was cancelled. thus, the name banjar lampu is believed to have originated from the word lampion (lantern). over time, some chinese soldiers settled in catur village and married the village girls. from these marriages arose the acceptance by the two existing communities of each other’s traditions, customs, culture and religion; there was a process of acculturation between the local community of catur village and the chinese. the chinese community believes that its purus ancestors were from china and its predecessor ancestors were from bali. winaja et al. characteristic of the formation of a ‘new culture’ as a result of acculturation, there is a temple sheltered by hindus and buddhists called penyungsung and pengemponnya. another characteristic is the existence of two shrines in each chinese family: siu tji, believed to be the ancestral shrine of purusa (male), and sanggah, believed to be a place of ancestor worship for perdana (female). according to catur head village, the penyagjagan temple in catur village has its roots in the word ‘jagjag’, which means ‘coming closer’. as the end of the day approaches, the person becomes a teacher, ‘active’ in that he or she comes close to the place for activities. the aim is to ‘get closer’ to the idea of sang hyang widhi wasa, the almighty god, in all his manifestations in hinduism and (chinese) buddhism. this is where hindus and (chinese) buddhists unite in one goal, even though they have different beliefs other than in the existence of one god almighty. the panyagjagan temple is thought to have existed in the ancient balinese kingdom, while its forerunner was unearthed by the discovery of several pertima or statues at the temple, which was thought to have been built in the 19th century. the panyagjagan temple underwent restoration in 1947 and 2002. it is the oldest temple in pakraman catur village; there are several other old temples in the village, such as pebini temple, padang nguah temple, and bukit sari temple. the acculturation process in catur village conforms to the acculturation theory, which states that social processes occur when humans with a particular culture are influenced by elements of a foreign culture that are different in nature, so that the elements of the foreign culture are gradually accommodated and integrated into the culture itself without losing the character of their own culture. this is called the symptom of acculturation. in his book the study of man, linton (1936) proposed that culture has two different parts: its core (covert culture) and the manifestation of the birth of a culture (overt culture). the core includes (1) a system of cultural values; (2) religious beliefs considered sacred; (3) some customs studied very early in the process of individual socialisation of community members and (4) some customs with functions that are widely used in the community. conversely, the birth of culture is physical culture, including useful tools and objects but also knowledge, procedures, lifestyle and reactions that are useful and comforting. the covert culture comprises the pertinent part of culture considered difficult to replace with foreign elements. the anthropologists parsons (1936) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 and boas (1938) stated that culture that is slow to change and difficult to replace with foreign elements is covert culture, as described above. in analysing an acculturation process, there are also problems regarding various sociocultures that are always present in society. therefore, in rather broad society, there is usually a vertical and horizontal diversity. vertical diversity concerns social class and caste differences. horizontal diversity concerns ethnic, class, religious and racial differences (ager & ager, 2010). first, from interviews with village citizens, it became clear that the chinese buddhist community had accepted and adopted the customs and traditions of the local hindu community. one of the traditional customs adopted is communal child discipline (divayana, 2018). the research results showed that acculturation could drastically change the traditional activities of a community. pecalang figures in the community displayed enough knowledge about tri kaya parisudha since good behaviour is associated with good security in the region. moreover, by observing the behaviour of the catur village community, it became clear that the concept of selfcontrol has been profoundly integrated into the lives of the two communities. for example, during the interview with the citizens, i observed that parents allowed communal child discipline by adult members irrespective of community origin. under the local wisdom of tat twam asi, the balinese and chinese communities co-exist with high regard for one another in light of the belief that one god created them. an interview with a group of catur village community citizens found that the chinese community recognises tat twam asi even though the concept is derived from hindu teachings, namely the brahmanatman aikyam. interviewees reported that under hinduism, brahman is ida sang hyang widhi wasa, god almighty and the source of everything in the world. the concept of tat twam asi assumes that since everything on earth is derived from brahman, including humans, then all humans are equal before ida sang hyang widhi wasa. local leaders also reported that the local wisdom of ancestral heritage, such as tat twam asi, sagilik saguluk salunglung sabayantaka, was preserved for the sake of harmony in religious life and the community. buddhist and hindu communities have similar religious practices. for example, in their spiritual life, most hindus in catur village have parahyangan in their backyard called sanggah or merajan. these religious practices enable both communities to live harmoniously despite the differences in their traditions (chotimah et al., 2018). in general, the values rooted in local wisdom are firmly held by both the village’s communities (widana, 2017). winaja et al. evidencing the form of acculturation in cultures of different religions and the ethnic chinese in catur village. in an effort to strengthen inter-religious harmony, the balinese people in general and the catur village community in particular cultivate local wisdom that lives and develops in the community. these beautiful pearls of local wisdom can help anticipate religious violence and create harmony between religious groups. the balinese people possess vibrant local wisdom that has the potential to maintain harmony and peace between religious communities. local wisdom includes tri hita karana, tri kaya parisudha, law of karma phala, village of kala patra, tat twanasi, and rwa bhineda. tri hirta karana, the three causes of happiness, is a concept of harmony consisting of parhyangan, palemahan and pawongan. the values of tri hita karana that express a harmonious and balanced relationship patterns between humans, god and the spiritual environment are called parhyangan. the harmonious relationship between humans and the social environment is called pawongan. the harmonious relationship between humans and the natural environment, in order to achieve life and inner well-being, is called palemahan. the concept of tri hita karana is not only applied in traditional villages but has also institutionalised the units of life and other livelihoods, including maintaining diversity, as in catur village. the chinese people and local communities, the balinese people in particular, lived harmoniously. the catur village community in particular always seeks a harmonious relationship among thoughts, words and deeds. this concept is known as tri kaya parisudha, three actions that must be purified. these actions are manacika (thinking holy or good thoughts), wacika (right words), and kayika (correct behaviour). tri kaya parisudha teaches us to think, speak and behave correctly. with a good mind, good words will emerge so as to bring about good deeds or behaviours. from the tri kaya parisudha arises self-control, a value of wisdom in maintaining harmony in relations between human beings, including among various children, as in the kintamani village. hinduism also contains karma phala, the law of cause and effect. every action or karma must produce a result of action or phala. if the action is carried out with good intentions, the result will be good; if the action is based on bad intentions, the result will be bad. this wisdom also has the potential to maintain harmony within indonesia, which comprises various ethnicities and religions. this concept was well implemented in catur village. each community activity, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 according to the source, was carried out with full sincerity, in a spirit of cooperation. in addition, one concept of wisdom underlying the structure of balinese culture is kala patra village. desa kala patra identifies the process of adjustment according to place, time and situation, like accepting a state of diversity in uniformity or a difference in unity. this concept provides flexible reasons for outer and inner communication by accepting differences and variations according to factors of place, time and circumstance. the concept of desa kala patra shows an acceptance of life’s reality that in diversity, there is diversity, and in unity, there must be differences. this conception gives the communication form and direction, flexibility, and tolerance among the children of bali. they accept diversity, differences and reality, according to the village, time and patra (state). this concept is deeply embedded in the lives of the people of kintamani bangli village. the chinese ethnic society is buddhist and accepts and adopts the customs and traditions maintained by the local hindus in catur village. in addition, balinese people or hindus know the concept of tat twam asi, which comes from the teachings of hinduism, namely brahman-atman aikyam. brahman is ida sang hyang widhi wasa, god almighty, the source of everything in the world. because all that is on the earth (mercapada) comes from brahman, including humans, humans become the same before ida sang hyang widhi wasa, god almighty. being a human being with another human being is the same as ‘i am you’. the difference is only outward because the quality of each body lived by the atman is different. tat twam asi is a reflection of universal love between people. it means ‘he is me too’. this expression also means that hurting others means hurting oneself and helping others means helping oneself; there is a high value of solidarity. the most important value of tat twam asi is the value of social solidarity, because the function reflected in the past, present and future is as a guide, stylist and coach of humanity helping us to act, behave and respect each other. this can be actualised in the life of the balinese community, especially the association of life between human names in community life. therefore, the balinese community has a motto, ‘sagilik saguluk, salunglung sabayantaka’, which reflects the ideals and desire to always live together in a state of joy and sorrow, facing all the challenges of life. the concept of tat twam asi is still held firmly by the balinese people as a guide in maintaining their diversity. the values of this local wisdom remain held firmly by the people in catur village. the spirit of religious and racial diversity in this village is well-maintained. hindus and buddhists live harmoniously and peacefully and uphold the customs inherited from their ancestors, as local winaja et al. wisdom strengthens their unity and togetherness. this village is a national role model of diversity because its people, who are of different ethnicities and beliefs, can co-exist harmoniously. the village’s population is mostly hindu, and around sixty families are buddhists. the buddhist chinese catur community lives in banjar lampu, mingling with hindus. hindus, in addition to banjar lampu, mostly live in banjar mungsengan and banjar catur. local ancestral wisdom, such as tat wam asi, sagilik saguluk salunglung sabayantaka, is still preserved in the order of religious and social life. these two different religious communities have similarities in carrying out their religious teachings. in their spiritual life, like most hindus in bali, each hindu community in catur village has a parahyangan in his or her yard called sanggah or merajan. likewise, buddhists in catur village, in addition to having sanggah in their yards, have a place of worship for their ancestors called siu tji, which is built alongside the sanggah (a place of family worship in bali), as shown in figures 1 and 2. this shows that there is a spirit of harmonious co-existence despite following different traditions. even konco buddhists stood alongside palinggih meru tumpang sebelas in the penyagjagan temple, an area with puseh pura in catur village. palinggih meru tumpang solas is the place of worship for ida batara catur muka, while the buddhist konco was the place of worship of queen syahbandar. figure 1. chinese citizens’ ancestral place of worship (siu tji) figure 2. ancestral worship place the catur village head said that in this village alone, there were meru tumpang solas (eleven). this is highly unusual to have alongside konco. according to the village head, in living a religious life, buddhists in this village remain in unity with hindus, who are in the kahyangan tiga, pura puseh, pura dalem and pura baleagung. in each yard there are objects; journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 both objects in the karma house (community) are hindu and of chinese descent. the chinese, however, have a place of worship for their ancestors built alongside the sanggah, called sui tji. stated the village head: the lives of our citizens, despite being ethnically different, remain harmonious and peaceful. this has happened a long time ago. maintaining the harmony of togetherness in diversity has been recognised nationally, with the evidence that catur village won first place at the national level in togetherness among religious believers. hindu ritual traditions are also adopted in the village. for example, when a chinese resident of catur village dies or kelayu sekar, the funeral rites begin with a hindu ritual procession, followed by burial in the buddhist way. thus, in this ritual, they must be nunas tirtha in pura dalem. according to the communicative action theory, coordinated action by people of different religions and ethnicities in catur village generates communication needs within the community, which must be met if there is a possibility of coordinating actions effectively to meet needs. the need here is for two religious and ethnic groups to live harmoniously. therefore, the acculturation in catur village is very much in accordance with the analytical philosophy of the communicative action theory, which offers an initial foothold for communicative action, the media in coordinating actions. this theory departs from the structure of symbolic expressions but still has to focus on the matter of how several actors’ actions related to each other achieve an understanding of these actions interwoven in social space and historical time, as happened in catur village. a similar theory is the theory of multiculturalism, which aims to celebrate differences. for example, multi-religious education, ritual performances and the promotion of ethnic food are aspects of educational policy. multiculturalism opposes the practice of ideology and the structure that forms a racist society. multiculturalism has numerous advantages based on the perspective of the marker. as hall comments in baker (2008), identity is not an essentialist category but something that must be learned, as must the pursuit of intention to live with differences. multiculturalism unifies the diversity of values and the world within the framework of democracy. identity can be the only similarity, but the commitment to democratic procedures and the rights and obligations recognised inter-subjectively is held by various groups. the winaja et al. social, civil and political domains advance democracy and provide the conditions for a distinctive identity project, as is the case in catur village. effect of acculturation on cultures of different religions and ethnicities in the life of the catur village community. people of chinese descent inhabiting catur village are said to have been around for a long time, since the era of the kingdom. according to one of catur village’s chinese leaders, around the 1860s, ethnic chinese were placed by king bangli in catur village, an area bordering badung regency and buleleng. these people were considered strong guards for the border region because they possessed martial-arts skills. those from various clans, such as lee, poo, ang or tywa, were assigned to the village reef in banjar lampu for shelter. currently, there are 40 families of chinese descent in catur village. over time, some family members migrated to major cities, such as denpasar and surabaya. chinese citizens in catur village have the same rights and obligations as hindus according to the chinese leaders of the banjar lampu community. they have also inherited obligations in onboarding (turun mekrama or mebanjar), cooperation and fellowship or pepeson for the ceremony at the temple. they also celebrate hindu holy days, such as galungan and kuningan. balinese and chinese citizens in catur village have the same rights and obligations, as explained by the chair of pecalang and danton hansip banjar lampu and chair of the chinese catur village association. according to the head of catur village, there are no terms ‘golden child’ and ‘silver child’, they are the same both chinese and hindus, therefore they have same right be pecalang leader. in fact, kelian banjar adat lampu was also held by a chinese resident. this indicates that there is no racial and religious discrimination in this village. chinese residents are given the same opportunities as hindus to become leaders and build villages. the description above shows that the social effect of the acculturation in catur village provides equality in rights and obligations to the people, both chinese ethnic buddhists and balinese ethnic hindus. acculturation has an effect on the socio-religious values of the local community, such as the establishment of the same service to residents of different ethnicities and religions. they jointly worship at the kahyangan tiga temple and maintain their ancestral beliefs and traditions. both sets of beliefs are preserved with sincerity and devotion, without burden and coercion, as journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 they have, essentially, the same goal: achieving inner and outer happiness. both sets of beliefs are inseparable from the history of their ancestors who first inhabited this region and married indigenous women. purusa (male) chinese and predana (female) balinese are considered hindu. to honour both, sanggah and siu tji were established in the yards of the houses. refuse or rampant is a place to worship hindu ancestors, while siu tji is a place to worship chinese ancestors. consequently, every yard in a chinese catur house has a sanggah alongside a siu tji. there is a piodalan ceremony in the sanggah and worship at siu tji with offerings in the form of drinks and cakes. some, however, also place the siu tji in a special room, as in the house of the respondent family. siu tji is used as a place of worship according to the chinese tradition, venerating and praying for departed ancestors. they also come for turun mekrama or mebanjar (ceremonial traditions), cooperation and fellowship or pepeson for the ceremony. the chinese mingle with hindu religious worshippers at the temple in addition to praying at konco. likewise, they attend the majenukan (mourning) and pitra yad ceremonies for those who have died. hindu rituals related to manusa yadnya, such as kepus pungsed, telu bulanin and otonan are also carried out by the chinese residents of catur village. when a child becomes an adult, or before marriage, a chinese ritual is held: ‘praying god’. wedding ceremonies generally adopt chinese customs but begin with the biyakawonan (hindu) ceremony. hindu holy days, such as galungan and kuningan, are also celebrated. chinese people in this village also recognise the hindu ngaben ceremony for family members who have died. forty days after burial, the co kong tik ritual is carried out. after this procession, the spirits of the ancestors are worshipped at siu tji. in fact, the butha yad ceremony is also held: pecaruan in the temple and at home, after three days of burial ceremonies. upakara, the update, is jointly conducted and fostered by pura dalem. the chinese residents are also advised by nunas tirtha at pura dalem for this ceremony. the chinese cemetery contains sacred places, such as pura praja pati and a hindu palinggih. every year, on cing ming (april 5), they pray at the cemetery for their deceased ancestors. the research conducted answered the question: how do religion and ethical values support multicultural communities in co-existing in the same territory? another vital question, the effect of acculturation on traditional and religious activities, was also answered. from the study, it was evident that acculturation practices have had an effect on the religious beliefs of the winaja et al. balinese and chinese communities in catur village. the first effect, as identified from the study, is that through acculturation, the two communities have embraced the other’s religion, even though the balinese community originally practiced hinduism while the chinese community practiced buddhism. according to the interviews and general observations, the chinese community has, over time, embraced the pura kahyangan tiga, the three main temples in the village of balinese hindu origins. therefore, the chinese community has mingled with hindu worshippers at the hindu temple. second, the two communities observe the traditions and beliefs of their respective ancestors based on a sincere devotion to their culture, even though the two communities celebrate together during the hindu holidays. for example, the chinese community has embraced the balinese naming system. based on interview data, some chinese individuals have adopted balinese hindu family names, such as wayan, made, nyoman and ketut. during hindu holy days, such as galungan and kuningan, the two communities celebrate together. similarly, the balinese community joins the chinese community as they observe co kong tik, held 40 days after a chinese person is buried. during this ritual, there is a procession, followed by the worship of the chinese ancestral spirits in the siu tji. it is evident that the two communities have adopted mutual communication strategies. this shows that communication is a vital tool for harmonious living. during the interviews, i observed that people from the two communities had synchronised their symbolic language. for example, although the balinese and chinese traditionally have different language signs for the phrase ‘i love you’ (wafa & wijayanti, 2018), the chinese descendants used the balinese sign. based on the interviews with the community’s citizens, the need for the two communities to live harmoniously with different religious and ethnic origins necessitated the synchronisation of communication methods. thus, acculturation in the village of catur closely matches the analytical philosophy of the communicative action theory. it is evident from the research that balinese and chinese communities in catur village respect each other’s rights and define their obligations, which allows for the harmonious coexistence of the two communities. during the interviews, two community leaders from the village explained that chinese citizens have the same rights and duties as hindu citizens. the duties included mekrama/mebanjar (patrolling), community service, kena peturunan (sharing costs) and person (contributions needed for various ceremonies at the temple). thus, the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 balinese and chinese people all had the right to be named head of the pecalang. in fact, at the time of the interview, the position of kelian banjar adat lampu, the chief of a sub-village in catur village, was held by a person of chinese descent. lastly, the presence of multi-religious education, cultural ritual performances, and the promotion of ethnic foods was evident in the area of study, which relates to the concept of multicultural theory (baker, 2008). discussion the research results prove that acculturation’s effects on religious and traditional practices may lead to harmonious living in society. there is always a need for human beings to live in harmonious environments, either as individuals or as groups, in pursuit of peaceful coexistence amid multicultural environments. catur village, where the influence of acculturation on both religion and traditional practices is displayed, proves to be a good research area. historically, indonesia’s location along historical trading routes has resulted in strong multiculturalism and diverse religious traditions, such as those of buddhism, islam, hinduism, christianity and confucianism (rodgers, 2017). the first part of this paper focused on the cultural acculturation process through the lens of catur village. the responses reveal a close association between catur village and its surroundings in terms of the name origin relative to the neighbouring villages. based on the outcomes, catur village comprised people from different religious and ethnic settings, such as hindus and buddhists, whose worship largely influenced the cultural integration of the people. the establishment of temples demonstrates the acculturation process that had commenced because of the acculturation. in addition, the arrival of the chinese soldiers led to intermarriage with catur women, which strongly cemented the association. cultural arts, such as chinese kung fu, also spread among the ethnic groups, leading to acculturation among the groups. the process of cultural assimilation between the different ethnic groups led to the creation of the traditions, customs, culture and religion witnessed in the present-day catur village. the cultural characteristics, such as the establishment of shrines and temples for both the hindu and buddhist groups, symbolise the amalgamation of different cultures among the communities living in catur. based on the above observations, the acculturation process in catur seems consistent with the acculturation theory, which postulates that social processes occur when people from a given culture experience the influence of another foreign culture. notably, certain cultural elements, winaja et al. such as the shrines and the temples, remain uninfluenced due to the strong beliefs among the people; such elements comprise the covert culture, which cannot be easily replaced by foreign elements. the theory of local wisdom also seems strongly supported by the virtue of the chinese community consenting to have their dead undergo the balinese rituals, which conform to buddhist customs. the acculturation in cultures of different religions and the ethnic chinese in catur village are equally evidenced through different forms. the first form of acculturation is shown through the local wisdom, which enabled the groups to solve different issues that occurred between the balinese and the chinese. the communities equally established harmonious relationship with the environment, palemahan, an element mainly propagated by the forces of modernity. the proliferation of such ideas and thoughts among the catur groups symbolise the various forms of acculturation among them. the values mainly propagated through local wisdom remain strongly embedded in the village fabric as the groups attempt to establish harmony and minimise any conflict that could arise as a result of disagreements between cultural beliefs and values. in addition, the communicative action theory defines the association between the distinct groups within the community. the theory postulates that a coordinated action among people of distinct ethnicities or religions leads to communication needs that must be met. the groups of people in catur seem to dwell in harmony since their active interaction has inspired the establishment of various needs that must be met through proper communication. multicultural practices are also evidence of acculturation, with both hindus and buddhists engaging in different practices within the same social setting. this reveals that the groups accept and embrace their strong diversity. the effects of acculturation are also clearly seen among the religious and ethnic groups in catur village. the research forms a starting point for more debates regarding acculturation and its effects on both traditional and religious practices. this constitutes a field of research that many scholars have long wanted to explore. as covered in the four theoretical approaches, debates and more research on acculturation can proceed in the years to come supported by the basic principles and evidence obtained from this catur research. government institutions should, therefore, enhance practices that bring people together for harmonious relationships in any society. as such, it is worth mentioning that the adoption of religious practices within society should be appreciated. communities where people remain at peace are more likely to develop, unlike those with constant conflicts (ward & geeraert, 2016). bringing together communities journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 with diverse cultural practices, however, has long been difficult. thus, if the influence of acculturation on religious and traditional practices can be a primary way to find common ground among various cultures in a society, then acculturation should be viewed as a positive thing. conclusion and limitations the study’s objectives span the identification of cultural acculturation among the distinct religious and ethnic groups, documenting the forms of acculturation and describing the effects of acculturation in catur and have been evidenced in the above outcomes. in terms of cultural acculturation, the evidence suggests that the process was mainly precipitated by the historical relationship between the bangli kingdom and the ethnic chinese, who were given the task of guarding the bangli royal territory along the border of the badung and buleleng kingdoms. through that historical journey, a process of acceptance and mutual understanding began between the two communities in catur village, giving rise to a new culture by absorbing the culture and traditions of each ethnic group in catur village. among the forms of cultural acculturation exhibited in catur village is the harmonisation of life that fosters mutual care, sagilik saguluk salunglung sabiantaka, which is the application of hindu local wisdom concepts, such as tri hita karana, tri kaya parisudha, karma phala, kala village patra, tat twan asi and rwa bhineda. in addition, acculturation exists in the form of a temple in which the main mandala is the hindu community’s pelinggih, pelinggih meru tumpang solas as a place of worship for ida betara catur muka, which is adjacent to the buddhist konco as a place of worship for ratu subandar. the temple is the penyangjagan temple. similarly, in every chinese citizen’s house is a sanggah as a place of worship of predana ancestors and siu tji for purusa ancestors. finally, on the effects of acculturation, the social lives of the catur community form distinct patterns. for instance, it provides equal rights and obligations to chinese ethnic buddhists and balinese ethnic hindus. in addition, it affects the social and religious life of the catur village community, namely through the establishment of multicultural srdha bhakti, such as the presence of hindu rituals in chinese communities and temples jointly held by local hindus and chinese buddhists. the above findings demonstrate the distinct effects on the religious and ethnic values among the communities. this study provides evidence that harmonious life in any multicultural society can be achieved primarily through acculturation. using catur village as a case study, we identify the winaja et al. best practices for multicultural communities looking to co-exist in the same territory. this is a resourceful and educative scholarly study that forms a foundation for future research on acculturation and its effects on harmonious living. the findings of this research can be used by government authorities as a groundwork for pursuing harmonious relationships among diverse people within their jurisdictions. due to the limited time of and limited participants within this study, it involved interviews with only a small number of participants from catur village’s citizens. as such, it could not evaluate the full extent of acculturation processes and their effect on the balinese and chinese communities. future studies should further explore acculturation patterns and effects within larger samples using the validated research instrument. references amin, k. f., tang, m. r., parawansa, p., & salam, s. (2015). the ideology of buginese in indonesia (the study of culture and local wisdom). journal of language teaching and research, 6(4), 758–765. doi:10.17507/jltr.0604.07 arizona, y., ormaza, m. v. c., cahyadi, e., göcke, k., grumblies, a. t., hauser-schäublin, b., & steinebach, s. (2016). adat and indigeneity in indonesia: culture and entitlements between heteronomy and self-ascription. göttingen university press. retrieved from https://docplayer.net/54626483-adat-and-indigeneity-in-indonesia-culture-andentitlements-between-heteronomy-and-self-ascription.html arnyana, i. g. m. (2017). harmony between chinese and balinese ethnics in bali. proceedings of the 2nd international conference on innovative research across disciplines (icirad 2017). doi:10.2991/icirad-17.2017.32. ager, a., & ager, w. (2010). the psychology of enforced mobility. in s. c. carr (ed.) the psychology of global mobility (pp. 151-171). new york: springler. bakalar, b. (2017). understanding the whole student: holistic multicultural education [book review]. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 96-98. baker, b. (2008). multi-choice policing. stockholm: elandersgotab, ab. boas, f. (1938). the mind of primitive man (rev. ed.). new york: macmillan. blumer, h. (2017). methodological principles of empirical science. in sociological methods: a sourcebook (pp. 20–39). new york: mcgraw-hill. doi:10.4324/9781315129945-4. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 chotimah, u., alfiandra, a., faisal, e. e., sulkipani, s., & camellia, c. (2018). the existence of local wisdom values of south sumatra community in strengthening national integration. proceedings of the annual civic education conference (acec, 2018). doi:10.2991/acec-18.2018.49 cleveland, m., & xu, c. (2019). multifaceted acculturation in multiethnic settings. journal of business research. divayana, d. g. h. (2018). development of aneka-weighted product evaluation model based on tri kaya parisudha in computer learning in vocational schools. cogent engineering, 5(1). doi:10.1080/23311916.2018.1542577 erten, e.y., van den berg, p., & weissing, f.j. (2018). acculturation orientations affect the evolution of a multicultural society. nature comunication, 9(58), 1-8 doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-02513-0 fedi, a., mannarini, t., brodsky, a., rochira, a., buckingham, s., emery, l., godsay, s., gattino, s. (2019). acculturation in the discourse of immigrants and receiving community members: results from a cross-national qualitative study. the american journal of orthopsychiatry, 89(1), 1–15. fong, j. (2017). the death café movement exploring the horizons of mortality. cham: springer nature. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54256-0_3 grzymala-kazlowska, a., & phillimore, j. (2018). introduction: rethinking integration. new perspectives on adaptation and settlement in the era of super-diversity. journal of ethnic and migration studies, 44(2), 179–196. doi: 10.1080/1369183x.2017.1341706 gunawan, i. g. d. (2017). character education through education media of dayak and balinese local culture. dafis proceeding, darma acarya faculty international seminar october 2016. 293–295. gunderson, r. (2017). sympathy regulated by communicative reason: horkheimer, habermas, and animals. in g.r. ricci (ed.) the persistence of critical theory (pp. 187–203). new york: routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315133782-10 hoeber, o., hoeber, l., snelgrove, r., & wood, l. (2017). interactively producing purposive samples for qualitative research using exploratory search. in scst@ chiir (pp. 18–20). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-02513-0 winaja et al. huttunen, r. (2015). derrida’s deconstruction contra huberman’s communicative reason. encyclopedia of educational philosophy and theory, 1–11. doi:10.1007/978-981-287532-7_305-1 jorge, m. e., & muñoz, f. a. (2016). uncovering the virtues of peace within the visual culture: the case for nonviolence and imperfect peace in the western tradition. peace & change, 41(3), 329–353. doi:10.1111/pech.12161. lafer, s., & tarman, b. (2019). editorial 2019: (2)1, special issue. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), i-v. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 linton, r. (1936). the study of man: an introduction. oxford: appleton-century. madya, s., & ishartiwi, i. (2018). instilling character values through a local wisdom-based school culture: an indonesian case study. character education for 21st century global citizens, 3, 371–380. doi:10.1201/9781315104188-47. mesoudi, a. (2018). migration, acculturation, and the maintenance of between-group cultural variation. plos one, 13(10), e0205573. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0205573. miller, r. l., & collette, t. (2019). multicultural identity development. in k.d. keith (ed.) cross-cultural psychology: contemporary themes and perspectives (pp. 614–631). hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons, ltd. doi:10.1002/9781119519348.ch30. ngin, c. (2018). proving “race” identity of chinese indonesian asylum seekers. in a. sarat and l. rodriguez (eds.) special issue: cultural expert witnessing studies in law, politics, and society, (pp. 133–164). emerald publishing limited. doi:10.1108/s1059433720180000074007 nilsen, p. (2015). making sense of implementation theories, models and frameworks. implementation science, 10, 53. doi:10.1186/s13012-015-0242-0 palinkas, l. a., horwitz, s. m., green, c. a., wisdom, j. p., duan, n., & hoagwood, k. (2015). purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. administration and policy in mental health and mental health services research,42(5), 533–544. doi:10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y paramore, k. (ed.). (2016). religion and orientalism in asian studies. bloomsbury publishing. doi: 10.5040/9781474289764.0017 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),249-275 parsons, e. c. (1936). early relations between hopi and keres. american anthropologist, 38(4), 554–560. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1936.38.4.02a00040 pesurnay, a. j. (2018). local wisdom in a new paradigm: applying system theory to the study of local culture in indonesia. iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 175, 012037. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/01203 peterson, j. v. (2017). tri hita karana. the international encyclopedia of primatology, 1–2. doi:10.1002/9781119179313.wbprim0302 phillippi, j., & lauderdale, j. (2018). a guide to field notes for qualitative research: context and conversation. qualitative health research, m28(3), 381–388. doi:10.4135/9781412983204.n2 quick, j., & hall, s. (2015). part two: qualitative research. journal of perioperative practice, 25(7–8), 129–133. doi:10.1177/1750458915025007-803. rodgers, s. (2017). batak heritage and the indonesian state: print literacy and the construction of ethnic cultures in indonesia. in j.d. toland (ed.) ethnicity and the state, (pp. 147–176.) new york: routledge. doi:10.4324/9781351294607-7. rosalina, p. d. (2017). the implementation of hindu philosophy “tri kaya parisudha” for sustainable tourism in munduk village, north bali. journal master pariwisata (jumpa), 3(2), 223–237. doi:10.24843/jumpa.2017.v03.i02.p02 roth, d., & sedana, g. (2015). reframing tri hita karana: from “balinese culture” to politics. the asia pacific journal of anthropology, 16(2), 157–175. doi:10.1080/14442213.2014.994674 stivala, a., robins, g., kashima, y., & kirley, m. (2016). diversity and community can coexist. american journal of community psychology, 57(1–2), 243–254. doi:10.1002/ajcp.12021 suija, i. w. (2018). imlek tradition of the hindu community in gunungsari village, seririt, buleleng regency, bali. proceeding book: international seminar, bali hinduism, tradition and interreligious studies, hindu university of indonesia, denpasar, bali, 2018. retrieved from https://press.unhi.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/215-220.pdf sumarniasih, m. s. (2017). mapping of planning land use based gis in sub-district kintamani, bali. international journal of environment, agriculture and biotechnology, 2(1), 525– 528. doi:10.22161/ijeab/2.1.65 https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/dosearch?contribauthorstored=parsons%2c+elsie+clews https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1936.38.4.02a00040 winaja et al. tomasi, j. (2017). kymlicka, liberalism, and respect for cultural minorities. indigenous rights, 123–146. doi:10.4324/9781315252391-4 turner, s. (2017). ethnic minorities, indigenous groups, and development tensions. in a. mcgregor, l. lawq, & f. miller (eds.) routledge handbook of southeast asian development (pp. 224–237). london: routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315726106-20 wafa, a. & wijayanti, s. (2018). signs of multilingualism at religious places in surabaya: a linguistic landscape study. in international conference on language phenomena in multimodal communication (klua 2018). atlantis press. ward, c., & geeraert, n. (2016). advancing acculturation theory and research: the acculturation process in its ecological context. current opinion in psychology, 8, 98–104. white, l. a. (2016). the evolution of culture. abingdon: routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315418575 widana, i. g. k. (2017). understanding the truth of the eternal truth of god (between paradogma and paradigm). in international seminar proceeding. world health organization. (2015). world health statistics 2015. retrieved from: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/170250/9789240694439_eng.pdf;jsessio nid=37bc91c0abd76f55d86f5a1d481fbaa0?sequence=1 on february 12, 2019. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/170250/9789240694439_eng.pdf;jsessionid=37bc91c0abd76f55d86f5a1d481fbaa0?sequence=1 https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/170250/9789240694439_eng.pdf;jsessionid=37bc91c0abd76f55d86f5a1d481fbaa0?sequence=1 www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2010: 1(1), 124-151 © 2010 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 tarih şeridi aracılığıyla öğretmen adaylarının tarihsel zaman algılarının i̇ncelenmesi∗ an investigation of candidate teachers’ perception of historical time through the timelines ahmet şimşek1 ve mehmet suat bal2 özet: tarihsel zaman algısı, bireylerin gelişim süreçleri içinde yapılanmaktadır. bireyin zaman algısı onun tarihe bakışını ve yorumlamasını doğrudan etkilemektedir. öğretmen adaylarının özellikle de tarih derslerini genel bir bakış açısıyla bütün olarak ele alan ve anlatan sınıf öğretmenlerinin, tarihsel zaman algılarının bilinmesi önemlidir. bu araştırmada eğitim fakültesi birinci sınıfta okuyan öğretmen adaylarının tarihsel zaman algıları, onlara yaptırılan tarih şeritleri üzerinden bir okuma ile incelenmiştir. bu amaçla, gaziantep üniversitesi i̇lköğretim sınıf öğretmenliği 1. sınıf öğrencilerinden (54 kişi) bir çalışma grubu oluşturulmuştur. bu gruptan her bir öğrenciye; tarihte önemli buldukları olayları içeren bir zaman şeridi yapmaları istenmiştir. belli bir süre sonunda tarih şeritlerini yapan öğrencilere bireysel olarak konu hakkında açık uçlu sorulardan oluşan bir de anket uygulanmıştır. çalışma grubunun ürünleri olan tarih şeritleri, uygulanan anketle paralel bir okuma ile analiz edilmiş ve değerlendirilmiştir. bulgulara göre; modernizmin lineer-metrik zaman algısına karşın öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerinde farklı zaman formlarından yararlandıkları görülmüştür. çizgisel, döngüsel ve inişli-çıkışlı ana formalar yanında ara formları da kullandıkları fark edilmiştir. öğretmen adaylarının tarihsel süreçleri kendi düşünceleri doğrultusunda ifade etme eğiliminde olmalarından dolayı tarih şeritlerini yaparken farklı yöntem ve ifadeler kullandıkları tespit edilmiştir. anahtar kelimeler: tarihsel zaman, tarih şeridi, tarih öğretimi ∗ bu makale 1. uluslararası tarih eğitimi kongresi’nde bir kısmı sunulan ve özeti basılan çalışmanın tamamını içermektedir. 1 doç. dr., marmara üniversitesi, ahmet.simsek@marmara.edu.tr 2 yrd. doç. dr., kahramanmaraş sütçü i̇mam üniversitesi, suatbal@hotmail.com mailto:ahmet.simsek@marmara.edu.tr� mailto:suatbal@hotmail.com� ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 extended abstract introduction history investigates the meaningful true events experienced in the past within a historical process. this investigation is carried out within a particular historical period. therefore, to many historians, historical time or chronology is the backbone of history (diem, 1982). however, this mental schema or perception does not emerge or takes shape spontaneously (şimşek, 2006). it is crucial to begin to teach the concept of historical time in the primary school, which means that it requires a fundamental educational planning. the competency of primary teachers who will plan and implement the instruction of the concept is also of high importance for this education. therefore, in this study, a primary teacher’s perception of historical time was investigated. in this study, first year pre-service teachers’ perceptions of historical time were investigated through the readings of “timelines” prepared by these teacher candidates. within this framework, answers for the following questions are sought through the timelines students prepared: 1. in what form was the term historical time? 2. why were these forms chosen? 3. how was their perception of the birth date of christ? 4. how did they divide history into periods? 5. which events marked the ending point of an age? 6. what were the points they took into consideration? 7. what kind of images and symbols did they use to narrate events? methodology this study adopts a descriptive analysis technique. the pre-service primary teachers’ perception of historical time is to be described through the timeline they prepared. the obtained data is analyzed through the method of content analysis. the study group consisted of a cluster of 54 in first year pre-service primary teachers from the university of gaziantep. the group was made up of 37 women and 17 men. all of the products by students were analyzed. the group was asked to prepare timeline through which they would teach students the historical time within the context of history of civilization. the teacher candidates were also asked to touch on events they thought were important in history when they prepared these timelines. there was no other limitation or direction. the investigators analyzed the timelines developed by each candidate and the forms of time the candidates chose in accordance with the three forms of time (linear, circular and chaotic forms of time). two investigators compared and discussed the contradictory findings obtained through separate analyses. then, they tabulated the obtained data after an analytical evaluation. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 126 data, discussion and conclusion this study analyzes the candidate teachers’ perception of historical time and their understanding of periodization, division of ages and turning point in history which are important elements for a timeline to be developed. apart from the three main forms of time (linear metric, circular and chaotic lines), intermediate forms were also developed. as a result of the modern-enlightened education, this case was found interesting. modern education and historiography imprint on our memory a progressive perception of time itemized along a linear line from primary to university education. although structuralize criticize that this process is based on western ideology (fabian, 1999: 53), it manifests itself as a necessity to meet the vital needs in modern life. however, 37% of the teacher candidates developed their timelines in accordance with linear-metric perception of time, which is an important finding to be regarded as an indication of incompetency in modern life. another important finding was that the remaining 63% of the group had 10 different intermediate forms of perception of time rather than a single block of this perception. this data is important because it manifests the various time perceptions of each individual despite the formal perception. the variety of images used by the candidate teachers to show time along the timelines was another important datum. it is meaningful that the candidates used analogies of snake, train, stair, pyramid, flower, two arms of the human being, etc. to prepare these timelines for teaching. this case is sort of an objection against the boredom and monotony of the timelines hanging on the walls of classrooms for years. the variety of these analogies can be analyzed as an effort to get rid of the sulky face of history teaching. the higher portion of the candidates used the concept of turning point on the timelines correctly. moreover, the reason why they placed the concept of turning point in the middle of the timelines can be a result of the standard style of the timelines in schools. although this was a widely accepted fact, it was not adopted by one fourth of the candidate teachers. this can be associated with the non-comprehensive approach of the candidates in the preparation of the timelines which did not include time from past to present. actually, only ten of the candidates could reach out the timelines up to the present. the remaining majority ended the course of history either with the ottoman period, the ancient ages or the french revolution. this is thoughtprovoking. then, such a question comes to one’s mind: do the majority of the candidates perceive time “as a past disconnected from present?” it is clear that this argument requires a comprehensive and in-depth investigation. another interesting datum obtained through the analysis of the timelines prepared by students was that more than half of them (55.6%) did not make use of the concept of period (era) on their timelines. however, the first image that comes to one’s mind since primary school is a course of time divided into periods. it is interesting that more than half of the candidate teachers did not divide the history stripes despite such a dominant periodization of time. this is a point that should definitely be questioned. at this point, the question that comes to mind is whether the candidate teachers have an unconscious objection against the approach they have been taught for years or the almost standardized periodization. ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 the data obtained through the analysis of priorities the candidate teachers had when they prepared the timelines also attract attention. it is important that they defined their priorities as sequencing (22), importance (15), information (15), visual quality (9) and contribution (9). however, it is interesting that while the main items of the timeline should have been ages ( first, middle, new and modern), the turning point (0), the beginning of ages (for example, the middle ages begin with the migration of tribes), chronology, visuality, and sequency, what were attached primary importance were only the concepts of sequence and visuality. for example, the turning point (b.c-a.d) was expressed by four candidate teachers while chronology was expressed by 6 of them. when the images and symbols used in history stripes produced by the candidate teachers were analyzed, it was seen that the earliest invented items such as money (10), writing (6) and possessions (6) were frequently described. moreover, the images and symbols of writing, which marks the beginning of historical ages (6), and the conquest of istanbul, which marks the beginning of modern age (3), were used. however, the events dividing history into periods should have been described through more images and symbols. in conclusion, this study has revealed that various perceptions of historical time exist despite the formal form of historical time taught students for years. this means that the history teaching and the concept of historical time presented within this framework have certain deficits. therefore, it can be suggested that the concept of historical time and the related concepts taught in the curriculum of social sciences as a learning domain and a basic skill should be incorporated into the curriculum of history courses in high school. keywords: historical time, timeline, history teaching giriş tarih bilimi geçmişe ilişkin yaşanmış gerçeklerden anlamlı bulduklarımızı konu edinir ve inceler. bunu yaparken yaşanmış önemli olayları, yaşamış önemli kişileri, oluşturulmuş önemli organizasyonları (devletleri) vs. belli bir zamansal süreç içinde ele alır. tarih disiplininde “konu edilenleri” çalışmanın zamansal yapısını göz ardı ederek anlamlı bir biçimde ele almak mümkün değildir. bu, en azından geçmişe ait olanları kendi dönemsel özgüllükleri içinde değerlendirmek için gereklidir. bu yüzden pek çok tarihçiye göre tarihsel zaman (kronoloji) tarih biliminin çatısı, omurgasıdır (diem, 1982). onsuz tarih çalışılamaz. tarihsel zaman; tarih yazıcılarınca seçilmiş olan, toplumu derinden etkileyerek iz bırakmış tarihsel olay ve olguların tanımlanmasında kullanılan ve bu yönüyle tarihe ait olan, geçmiş zamanın bir öğesidir (şimşek, 2006: 10). en genel anlamıyla; geçmişin değerli journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 128 bulunan gerçekliklerini şimdiki zamanda inşa etme çabasında başvurduğumuz/ kullandığımız birimsel bir süreçtir. süreçtir, çünkü geçmişe ilişkin hayali bir başlangıçla icat edilmişse de şimdinin bilinirliğinde son bulan bir yapıyı içerir. bu haliyle, geçmiş kadar şimdi’yi de ilgilendirir. çünkü şimdiki zamanda inşa edilir. tarihsel zaman, şimdi (hâl-present) ve geçmiş (mazî-past) zamandan oluşmuştur ve onların bir bileşimidir (hocaoğlu, 2002: 9). tarihsel zaman daha çok kronoloji kavramı ile anlaşılır. geçmişten-bugüne kadar bir zamansal sıra dizimi anlamına gelen kronoloji, tarihsel olayların arasındaki ilişkilerin çözümlenmesine yardım eder (garvey, 1975-1976: 291). zamanda şeylerin meydana geldiğini veya var olduğunu, bu olayların veya kesinliği değişen derecelerinde zamanın ardışıklığının ve devamlılığının parçası olarak saptanabileceğini ya da tanımlanabileceğini söyler (saxe, 1992: 189). davis, kronolojinin tarihin en açık çatısı olduğunu ve mutlaka uygulanmaması gerektiğini belirtmiştir. çünkü kronoloji, devamlılığın ana karakteri olduğundan vurgulanan değişim, gerçekte kamufle edilen değişmezliğin görüntüsü ile düzenli ilkeleri içeren kronolojik taslak, olaylar arasında var olmayan ilişkileri kapsayabilir (diem, 1982: 191). tarihsel zaman kavramı sadece tarihçilerin kullandığı teknik bir kavram değildir. geçmişin gerçekliğini şimdiki zamanda inşa etme kaygısını taşıyan herkesle ilgilidir. hatta bu tespiti daha ileri götürmek mümkündür: tarihsel zaman anlayışından kimse kaçınamaz. çünkü zaman algısı tüm bireylerde farklı biçimlerde olsa da vardır. kültürlerin ve buna bağlı olarak verilen eğitimin bir sonucu olarak zamanla her bireyde geçmişe ilişkin bir algı gelişir. böylece bir anlamda tarihle ve dahası geçmişle ilgilenen herkes, profesyonelce olmasa da tarihsel zamanla ilgilenmek zorunda kalır. bu yüzden tarihsel zaman kavramı ve kronoloji becerileri, formal eğitim dizgesinde yerini almıştır. tarihsel zaman ve kronoloji becerilerinin dünya’da ve türkiye’de öğretim programlarındaki yerlerine bakıldığında bunların önemli beceriler arasında yer aldığı görülmüştür. örneğin abd’de tarih öğretiminden beklenen standartlar içinde ilk sırada “kronolojik düşünme” yer almıştır (saunders, 1996). yine abd’de kronolojik düşünmenin unsurları olarak; amerikan tarihine ilişkin temel kronolojik bilgi gelişimini göstermek, ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 zaman şeridi, tablo, kart ve diyagramları okuma, yorumlama ve tamamlama, olayları doğru kronolojik sırada organize etme, sebep sonuç ilişkisini tanıma, tarihleri yüzyıllara çevirebilme şeklindedir (web 1). abd’de, okullarda tarih i̇çin ulusal merkez (national center for history in the school) adlı kuruluş, çocukların kronolojik düşünmelerinde şunları yapmalarını belirlemiştir (web 2): 1. geçmiş, şimdi ve gelecek zamanı ayırt etmek. 2. tarihsel anlatı ya da hikâyelerde zamansal yapıyı tanımak. 3. öğrencilerin oluşturacakları kendi tarihsel anlatılarında (kısa otobiyografi) zamansal sırayı kurmak. 4. takvimsel zamanda gün, hafta, ay, yıl, onyıl ve yüzyılları ölçmek ve hesaplamak. 5. zamansal açıdan sıralı olayların zamanlarını eşit aralıklarla tasarlayabileceği bir tarih şeridi oluşturmak. 6. zaman içinde meydana gelen değişim ve sürekliliği açıklayabilmek. i̇ngiltere’de de durum benzerdir. i̇lköğretimin ilk yılından itibaren başlayan i̇ngiliz ulusal tarih programına göre, tarih öğretiminin beş temel amacından ilki kronoloji becerisidir (web 3). türkiye’de ise 2005’ten itibaren sosyal bilgiler programında benzer bir durum söz konusudur. türkiye’deki sosyal bilgiler öğrenme alanlarından biri “zaman, süreklilik, değişim” olarak belirlenmişken, iki önemli tarihsel beceri ise “zaman ve kronolojiyi algılama” ile “değişim ve sürekliliği algılama” olarak belirlenmiştir. bu durumda tarihsel zaman kavramının doğasının nasıl olduğunun ve bireylerde nasıl yer aldığının kavranmasının önemi ortaya çıkmaktadır. tarihsel zaman, tarih yazım sürecinde ortaya çıkan zihni bir tasarımdır (safran & şimşek, 2009: 10). tarihsel zamanın zihni bir tasarım olması onun yaşanılan zamana bağlı, dönemsel olarak farklı kurgulanmasını beraberinde getirmiştir. yani diğer bir ifade ile journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 130 tarihsel zaman tarih boyunca farklı ifade edilmiştir. her dönemin farklılaşan beklenti ve değerlerine göre biçimlenen formlarda ele alınmıştır. tarih boyunca tarihsel zaman algıları yazıya ilk kez tesadüf edilen mezopotamya medeniyetlerinden eski sümer ve daha sonrasında babil’de genel anlamıyla “geçmiş” kavramı; insanla değil, bir mitos olarak, tanrılarla ve onların eylemleriyle ilişkilendirilmiştir. üstelik bu, geçmişin ne zaman olduğunun bilinemezliğini ortaya çıkarmıştır. yani geçmiş, dün de olmuş olabilirdi, belki hâlâ oluyor da olabilirdi. o bitmiş bir olay değildir. bu yüzden sümer ve babil’de tarih yazıcılığından bahsedilmez. o döneme ilişkin bilgiler ve bugün tarih bilimi açısından önemli bulunan levhaların3 bir diğer antik kültür çevresi musevilikte ise zaman çizgisel bir biçimde tanımlanmıştır. hıristiyanlık tevrat’tan bu mirası devralmış; geçmiş, şimdi, gelecek, insanın affına doğru ilerlemek zorunda olduğu bir çizgi hâline gelmiştir. böylelikle, tevrat’tan aydınlanma düşüncesine, oradan marksist tarih anlayışına kadar egemen tarih anlayışının ana ekseni ortaya çıkmıştır (çamuroğlu, 1993: 13-15, 20). tarih yazım kaygısıyla ele alınmadığı kabul edilir. eski mısır ve antik yunan’da da benzer bir durumdan kaynaklı olarak zaman, tanrısal hareketten dolayı çizgisel değil, dairesel olarak tasavvur edilmiştir (çamuroğlu, 1993: 11-12). bu medeniyetlerde insanın toplumsal yaşamı da kozmosta olduğu gibi döngüsel bir düzene sahiptir. doğadaki döngüselliğin insan ve toplum yaşamı içinde uygulanabilir olduğu düşüncesiyle, insanın anlamlandırmaya çalıştığı, bu bağlamda biçimlendirme eğilimde olduğu tarihin de döngüsel olabileceği, (tekerrürden ibaret bir tarih) kabul edilmiştir. daha sonradan antik yunan’da insanî geçmiş keşfedilerek, edebî bir tür olarak tarih yazıcılığı aracılığıyla hakkında bilgi edinilen bir zaman parçası olarak algılanmıştır. ancak bu geçmişin, şimdi ve gelecek ile sürekli ve nedensel bir ilişkisinin olmadığı düşünülmüştür (özlem, 1996: 20). antik yunan’da geçmiş zamana ilişkin fiillerin insani bir anlam taşımasıyla tarihsel zamanın varlığından bahsedilebilir. tarihin babası olarak tanımlanan herodot’u bu bağlamda değerlendirmek mümkündür. 3 konuyla ilgili olarak bakınız: s. n. kramer. (1998). tarih sümerde başlar, (çev. muazzez i̇lmiye çığ), ankara: türk tarih kurumu. ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 tarihsel zaman terimini literatüre kazandıran kişi st. augustinus olmuştur. augustinus, zamanı bugün de alışık olduğumuz üzere ‘geçmiş’, ‘hâl’ ve ‘gelecek’ şeklinde üç ayrı parçaya ayırmıştır (hocaoğlu, 2002: 10). bunun anlamı augustinus’un o zamana kadar tarih düşüncesini şekillendiren döngüsel tarih yerine çizgisel olan ve sürekli ilerleyen bir anlayışı yerleştirmiş olmasıdır (özlem, 1996: 23). i̇slamiyet de, musevîlik ve hıristiyanlıktaki zaman anlayışını benimsemiştir. bu bakımdan, doğrudan musevî-hıristiyan geleneğinin bir mirasçısı olarak kıyameti, yeniden dirilişi ve son yargıyı, sonsuz mutluluk ya da cezayı kesin bir biçimde öne sürmüştür (david & diğerleri, 2001: 65). bazı doğu dinleri ya da felsefeleri için ise zaman; neden-sonuç bağıntısı, sonsuz çevrim ya da sonsuz geri dönüş metafiziği ile hiçbir ilgisi olmayan yüzeysel olaylar olarak anlaşılmıştır (david & diğerleri, 2001: 208). bu yüzden, budizm ve hinduizm’de tarihsel zaman anlayışına rastlanmamıştır. çamuroğlu (1993: 56-57), doğu dinlerinde olduğu gibi tüm i̇slam heterodoks anlayışlarında da zamanın döngüsel olduğunu, insanın zamanla ‘zaman olmayan’ arasında bir yerde durduğunu belirtmiştir. zamanın döngüsel olmasının anlamı, dünyanın yaratıcının elinden çıktığında sahip olduğu kökensel ‘kutsallığa’ her yıl ya da periyodik olarak yeniden kavuşmasıdır. böylece, zamanın sahip olduğu bu nitelikler aracılığıyla insan, dünyanın sonuna ve yaratılışına ayinsel olarak katılarak kökende gerçekleşen olayların çağdaşı olma hakkını elde etmiş olur (eliade’dan aktaran bıçak, 2004b: 116). çizgisel zamanın zaferi ve dönemleştirme çizgisel zamanın batı medeniyetinin ana zaman algısını oluşturmasından sonra onun çağlara ayrılması konusu gündeme gelmiştir. bu konuda ilk fikir sahibi st. augustinus olmuştur. augustinus, dünyanın altı günde yaratılmasından hareket etmek suretiyle tarihi altı döneme ayırmıştır (alkan, 2009: 29). bugün tüm dünyada aşağı-yukarı benzer bir biçimde kullanılan tarihsel dönemleri fransız düşünür jean bodin (1530-1597) belirlemiş, tarihi üç ana döneme (antik çağ, orta çağ ve yeni çağ) ayırmıştır (özlem, 1996: journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 132 37). bu, zaman içinde ve dolayısıyla belirli bir aşamalar dizisiyle gelişmiş bir plânla, her biri çağ açan bir olayla başlayan tarihsel çağlar anlayışıyla yapılmıştır (collingwood, 1996: 87). batıda dinsel reformla birlikte hızlanan bilimdeki büyük gelişmeler göz önüne alınarak tarihte bir ilerlemenin olup olmadığı sorgulanmıştır. toplumların belirli bir durumdan daha iyi bir duruma yükselmiş olmaları, onları toplum olarak gelişmekte ve belirli bir yöne doğru ilerlemekte oldukları inancına itmiştir. ‘tarihte ilerleme’ ifadesiyle anlatılmak istenen şey, tarihsel “her olayın yalnızca bir kez” meydana gelişi ve bu olaylar sürekliliğinin birbiri ardı sıra çizgisel olarak geleceğe doğru akıyormuş gibi düşünülmesi olmuştur (aysevener & barutca, 2003: 31). 18. yüzyılın aydınlanmacı filozofları, ilerleme idesinin etkisine girmişler ve tarihi de ‘genel olarak ilerleyen bir süreç’ olarak görmüşlerdir. ancak bu genel düşünüşün ve kabul edişin dışına çıkanlar da olmuştur. bunlardan biri herder’dir. herder, tarihi, tek çizgili bir akış, üstelik hep ilerleyen bir süreç olarak görmemiştir. o, tarihte inişler ve çıkışlar olduğunu düşünmüştür (özlem, 1996: 51,54). modern zamanlarda ilerlemeci tarih eleştirisiyle ortaya çıkan yapısalcı tarih anlayışı ise, çizgisel tarih anlayışından uzak durarak büyük ölçüde antik çağın döngüsel tarih anlayışına dayanmıştır. bu anlayış, tarihi ‘insanlığın sürekli ilerleyen bir gelişim süreci’ olarak gören çizgisel tarih anlayışının, nedenselci düşüncenin bir ütopyası olduğunu belirtmiştir (özlem, 1996: 171). bugün hâkim inanış, modernizmin temellerini oluşturan aydınlanma düşüncesinin bir mirası olarak zamanın geçmişten geleceğe doğru akan bir çizgi biçiminde olduğudur. ancak tarih, antik yunan’dan bu yana zamanı biçimsel olarak tanımlama eğiliminin dönemsel olarak değiştiğini göstermektedir. bunda kültürel farklar kadar dünya algılarının da etkili olduğu bilinmektedir. bütün bu malumattan sonra özetle tarih yazımında üç temel tarihsel zaman formundan yararlanıldığı söylenebilir. bunlar; antik döneme ilişkin döngüsel zaman, tevrat’la başlayan ve modern zamanlarla durumunu pekiştiren çizgisel/doğrusal metrik ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 zaman ve herder gibi bazı filozofların öngördükleri biçimde tarihte inişler ve çıkışların olduğunu vurgulayan inişli çıkışlı hat zaman anlayışıdır. bu çalışmada öğrencilerin tarihsel şeritlerinin kategorize edilmesinde bu üç zaman formu dikkate alınmıştır. araştırmanın problemi araştırma; sınıf öğretmenliği lisans programı 1. sınıf öğrencilerinin çizdikleri zaman şeritlerine yansıyan biçimiyle tarihsel zaman algılarının nasıl olduğunu anlamaya dönük bir amaca sahiptir. bu çerçevede öğrencilerin çizdikleri tarih şeritlerinde şu sorulara cevap aranmıştır: 1. tarihsel zaman hangi formda belirlenmiştir? 2. bu formları neden tercih etmişlerdir? 3. milat algıları nasıldır? 4. çağ ayırımı nasıldır? 5. bitiş hangi olayla gerçekleştirilmiştir? 6. önemsedikleri noktalar neler olmuştur? 7. olayları anlatmak için kullandıkları resim ve semboller nelerdir? yöntem araştırma betimsel analiz türündedir. öğretmen adaylarının lisans öğrenimlerinin ilk yıllarında var olan tarihsel zaman algılarının yaptıkları tarih şeridi aracılığıyla betimlenmesi amaçlamıştır. araştırmada öğrencilerin kendi tercihleri doğrultusunda birer tarih şeridi çizmeleri istenmiş, öğrencilerin neden bu şekli tercih ettikleri ve öğrencilerin bu tarih şeritlerini yaparken nelere dikkat ettikleri sorularının cevabı yazılı olarak alınmıştır. araştırmamızda içerik analizi tekniği kullanılmıştır. araştırmanın çalışma grubunu; gaziantep üniversitesi i̇lköğretim sınıf öğretmenliği 1. sınıf öğrencilerinden 54 kişi oluşturmuştur. araştırma sürecinde 54 öğrencinin ürünü de incelenmiştir. çalışma grubunun 37’si bayan, 17’si erkektir. verilerin toplanması journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 134 çalışma grubundan, uygarlık tarihi dersi kapsamında, öğretmen oldukları zaman öğrencilere tarihsel zamanı anlatacakları bir şerit yapmaları istenmiştir. tarih şeridini yaparken tarihte önemli buldukları olaylara yer vermeleri vurgulanmış, başka bir sınırlama veya yönlendirme yapılmamıştır. tarih şeridinin çizilmesi uygarlık tarihi dersinin bir gereği bir ödev olarak ele alınmış, öğrencilerin çizdikleri tarih şeritlerinden aldıkları notların yılsonu notlarına %10 katkısı sağlanmıştır. verilerin analizi ve değerlendirilmesi öğrencilerden elde edilen tarih şeritleri araştırmacılarca ayrı ayrı incelenerek, lineer, döngüsel ve inişli-çıkışlı zaman formlarına göre tercih ettikleri zamansal formlar analiz edildi. i̇ki araştırmacının ayrı ayrı incelemeleri sonucunda elde ettikleri veriler karşılaştırılarak çelişen bulgular tartışıldı. sonra elde edilen bu veriler analitik olarak değerlendirilerek tablolaştırıldı. anlamlı hale getirilmeye çalışıldı. bulgular araştırmanın bulguları, alt problemlere bağlı olarak şu şekilde düzenlenmiştir: bulgu 1. öğrencilerin tercih ettikleri zamansal formlar öğrencilerin gerçekleştirdikleri tarih şeritleri yukarıda belirtildiği gibi üç temel zaman kategorisi (çizgisel-doğrusal metrik zaman, döngüsel zaman ve inişli-çıkışlı hat zaman) çerçevesinde incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. ancak öğrenci ürünlerinde bu üç kategorinin alt kategorileri de ortaya çıkmıştır. öğrenci ürünü tarih şeritlerinin yapısal betimlemesi aşağıdaki tablo 1. de verilmiştir. tablo 1. öğrenci ürünü tarih şeritlerinin yapısal durumu tarih şeritlerinin yapısal durumu frekans yüzde 1 lineer (çizgisel-doğrusal) metrik: birimlendirilmiş düz bir çizgi halindeki olayların sıralanması 20 37,0 2 ana hat uygarlık havzaları: ana hatlarıyla uygarlıkların zamansal olarak bölümler halinde anlatılması 9 16,7 3 sadece hat: düz bir çizgi olmaksızın bir başlangıçtan sona doğru bir hat üzerinde anlatılması 9 16,7 4 sadece lineer: düz çizgi olma hali 6 11,1 ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 yukarıdaki tablo 1’e bakıldığında %37 ile yüksek oranında lineer metrik yapının, bunu %16 oranı ile uygarlık havzalarının ana hatlarıyla gösterimi ve yine %16 ile uygarlıkların bir hat üzerinde gösteriminin takip ettiği görülmüştür. bu belirlenen kategorilerin her birinin neden bunları tercih ettikleri ise bulgu 2. de ele alınmıştır. bulgu 2. öğrencilerin çizdikleri tarih şeritlerinde tercih ettikleri formları tercih nedenleri 1. lineer (çizgisel-doğrusal) metrik bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenciler cetvel, kalem vb. şekiller kullanmışlardır (örnek olarak şekil 1). şekil 1. lineer (çizgisel-doğrusal) metrik tercihe örnek öğrencilerin % 37’sinin (20 öğrenci) lineer (çizgisel-doğrusal) metrik bir tarih anlayışını benimsedikleri görülmüştür. bu tarih şeridi çizerken diğer zamansal formlar arasında en çok tercih edileni olmuştur. bu sonuç, oranın düşüklüğü bakımından şaşırtıcı sayılabilir. çünkü modern zamanlar ve ilerleme düşüncesi sonucu eğitim sisteminde de 5 i̇nişli-çıkışlı hat metrik: birimlendirilmiş düz olmayan bir hat üzerinde olayların işlenmesi 4 7,4 6 diğer 2 3,7 7 sadece metrik: şeridin bölümlere ayrılama durumu birimlendirilmiş 1 1,9 8 döngüsel metrik: döngüsel bir zaman ifadesinde olayların dönemsel olarak bölümlere ayrılma durumu 1 1,9 9 lineer ana hat: bir çizgi üzerinde uygarlıkların sıralanması 1 1,9 10 senkronik(döngüsel): farklı yerlerde aynı zamanda gerçekleşmiş olayları içeren döngüsel tarih şeridi 1 1,9 toplam 54 100,0 journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 136 yaygın olarak benimsenen ve kabul gören çizgisel zaman formunun öğrencilerde daha yaygın olması beklenebilirdi. öğrencilere bu şekli neden kullandıkları sorulduğunda aşağıdaki cevaplar alınmıştır: • tren, “tarihin akışını göstermek için bir vagondan diğerine geçiş zamanını geçtiğini anımsatsın diye..” (öğrenci no.54) • ok, “okun başlangıcı vardır ama belirli bir süreye kadar bitişi yoktur.” (öğrenci no.4) • kalp atış şeridi, “çünkü tarih şeridi insanoğlunun nabzını tutar.” (öğrenci no.11) • tren, “zaman kaçırılmaması gereken bir trendir.” (öğrenci no.48) • cetvel ve üzerinde gece gündüz, “karanlık çağlar gece aydınlık çağlar gündüz.” (öğrenci no.22) • kalem, “kalemin arkası ilk çağlar ucu ilerlemenin timsali günümüz.” (öğrenci no.33) 2.ana hat uygarlık havzaları i̇kinci tercihin % 16.7 ile (9 öğrenci) ana hat uygarlık havzaları yapısında tarih şeridi çizen öğrenciler olduğu görülmüştür. bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenciler çiçek, dinozor vs. şekiller kullanmışlardır (örnek olarak şekil 2). ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 şekil 2. ana hat uygarlık havzaları bu şekli neden kullandıkları sorulduğunda öğrenciler aşağıdaki cevapları vermişlerdir: • çiçek, “çiçeğin bir yaprağı giderse yaşayamaz. uygarlıklarda özellikleri giderse önemini kaybeder” (öğrenci no.13). • dinozor, “tarih dönem içinde yaşandığı için..” (dinozorun ağzından çıkan alev günümüze doğru ilerleme yönündedir) (öğrenci no.21). 3. hat hat yapısında tarih şeridi çizen öğrenci sayımız 9 dur. bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenciler sarmaşık, tren, yılan, piramit vb. şekiller kullanmışlardır (örnek olarak şekil 3). şekil 3. hat bu şekli neden kullandıkları sorulduğunda öğrenciler aşağıdaki cevapları vermişlerdir. • sarmaşık, “çünkü sarmaşık her yere uzanan bir bitki, tarihi olaylarında kendi içinde birbiriyle ilişkisi olduğu için tarih her yere uzanabilir” (öğrenci no.31). • tren, “trenin devamlı hareket ettiğini düşündüm” (öğrenci no.23). • yılan, “insanın yaşadığı tarihler yılanın yiyeceği olsun ilk yedikleri kuyruğuna gider, son yediği yakın zamandır. böyle sıraladım” (öğrenci no.27). journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 138 • piramit, “uygarlıkların birbirlerine ilerlemede bir piramit şeklinde katkı sağladıkları için..” (öğrenci no.36). 4. sadece lineer sadece lineer yapıda tarih şeridi çizen öğrenci sayımız 6’dır. bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenciler cetvel, ok vs. şekiller kullanmışlardır (örnek olarak şekil 4). şekil 4 lineer bu şekli neden kullandıkları sorulduğunda öğrenciler aşağıdaki cevapları vermişlerdir. • cetvel, “akıcılık olduğu için..”(öğrenci no.39) • doğrusal ok, “akışı gösterme adına..”(öğrenci no.43) 5. hat-metrik hat-metrik yapıda tarih şeridi çizen öğrenci sayımız 4 dür. bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenciler film şeridi vb. şekiller kullanmışlardır. (örnek olarak şekil 5) ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 şekil 5. hat metrik bu şekli neden kullandıkları sorulduğunda öğrenciler aşağıdaki cevapları vermişlerdir: • film şeridi, tarihin film şeridi gibi araka arakaya bağlantılı şekilde oluştuğunu göstermek için (öğrenci no 12). 6. diğer tasnif dışı yapıda tarih şeridi çizen öğrenci sayımız 2’dir. bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenciler piramit, vb. şekiller kullanmışlardır (örnek olarak şekil 6). journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 140 şekil 6. diğer bu şekli neden kullandıkları sorulduğunda öğrenciler aşağıdaki cevapları vermişlerdir. • merdiven, yukarı doğru yükseliş var, tarihte de günümüze doğru yükseliş var (öğrenci no 14). 7. sadece metrik sadece metrik yapıda tarih şeridi çizen öğrenci sayımız 1 dir. bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenci piramit şekli kullanmıştır (örnek olarak şekil 7). ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 şekil 7. metrik bu şekli neden kullandığı sorulduğunda öğrenci aşağıdaki cevabı vermiştir: • piramit, “zaman akışı daha iyi gösterilsin diye..” (öğrenci no.1). 8. döngüsel metrik döngüsel metrik yapıda tarih şeridi çizen öğrenci sayımız 1’dir. bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenciler dünya şeklini kullanmıştır (örnek olarak şekil 8). journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 142 şekil 8 döngüsel metrik 9. lineer ana hat lineer ana hat yapıda tarih şeridi çizen öğrenci sayımız 1 dir. bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenci ellerini açmış insan, şekli kullanmıştır (örnek olarak şekil 9). ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 şekil 9. lineer ana hat bu şekli neden kullandığı sorulduğunda öğrenci aşağıdaki cevabı vermiştir: • ellerini açmış insan; mö, ms simetrik yapısının anlaşılması için, insan figürü de tarihin içinde insan olduğunun anlaşılması için (öğrenci no.8). 10. senkronik (döngüsel) senkronik(döngüsel) yapıda tarih şeridi çizen öğrenci sayımız 1’dir. bu yapıda şerit çizen öğrenci dünya, şekli kullanmıştır (örnek olarak şekil 10). şekil 10. senkronik (döngüsel) bu şekli neden kullandığı sorulduğunda öğrenci aşağıdaki cevabı vermiştir: “dünya, kâğıt sınırlaması olduğu için ve uygarlıkların birçoğu yakın zamanda yaşadığı için düz şeritte karışık olur diye, yuvarlak yapıp dilimlere ayırdım. mö, ms ayırımına ve medeniyetlerin alt alta gelmesine dikkat ettim” (öğrenci no.47). bulgu 3. öğrencilerin milat algıları öğrencilerin yapmış oldukları tarih şeritlerinden hareketle tespit edilen diğer bir konuda milat kavramına yer verip-vermedikleri, vermişlerse şeridin neresinde yer verdikleri ve doğru bir biçimde kullanıp-kullanmadıklarıdır. buna göre durum tablo 2’de gösterilmiştir. tablo 2. öğrenci ürünü tarih şeritlerinde miladın ortada olup-olmama durumu journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 144 frekans yüzde milat ortada 41 75,9 milat ortada değil 13 24,1 toplam 54 100,0 bu algı normal olarak değerlendirilebilir. çünkü türkiye’deki tarih şeritlerinde “milat” genelde şeridin ortasında yer alır. daha da önemlisi inceleme sonunda öğrencilerin milat kavramını yerli yerinde ve amacına uygun kullandıkları tespit edilmiştir. öğrenci ürünlerinin biri dışında tamamında maddelerin zamansal diziminde milat belirleyici olmuştur. yapmış olduğu tarih şeridinde merdiven analojisini kullanan sadece öğrenci 14, milat kavramına yer vermemiş olduğu görülmüştür. bu durum üniversite çağına gelmiş yetişkin bireyler için hiç de şaşırtıcı sayılmamakla birlikte olumlu sayılabilir. bulgu 4. öğrencilerin yaptıkları tarih şeritlerinde çağ ayrımlaması tarih şeridi denince ilk akıllara gelecek olgunun tarih çağları olacağı söylenebilir. bu yüzden öğrenci ürünleri üzerinden yapılacak bir değerlendirmede bunun sorgulanması önemlidir. öğrencilerin tarih çağlarına verdikleri önemi tablo 3’te görmek mümkündür. tablo 3. öğrenci ürünü tarih şeritlerinde çağ sınıflamasının olup olmama durumu bulgu 5. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerini bitirdikleri tarihsel olayın dönemi tarih şeritleri insanlığın ilk faaliyetleri olarak karanlık çağ şeklinde adlandırılan zamandan başlar, günümüze kadar zamanın nasıl süreklilik gösterdiğini, hangi önemli olayların olduğunu gösterir. bu sebepten öğrencilerin ürünlerinde zamanın günümüze kadar getirilmesi önemlidir. tablo 4’de bu durum belirtilmiştir. frekans yüzde çağ sınıflaması yok 30 55,6 çağ sınıflaması var 24 44,4 toplam 54 100,0 ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 tablo 4. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerini bitirdikleri tarihsel olayın dönemi şeridin bitiği tarihi dönem frekans günümüz 10 fransız ihtilalı 9 osmanlı 8 timur 4 pers 3 abd 3 türkiye cumhuriyeti 2 i̇nka uygarlığı 2 aztek uygarlığı 2 selçuklular 2 ii. dünya savaşı 2 roma 2 çin uygarlığı 1 avrupa uygarlığı 1 i̇lkçağ 1 uygurlar 1 yakınçağ 1 öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerinden çok azının günümüze kadar getirmesi ilginçtir. tarih şeritleri geçmişten bugüne doru akan bir zamansal düzlemde tasarlanır. bu durum aslında ilköğretimden itibaren sürekli vurgulanır. geçmişin ne zaman başladığı bilinmezdir. ama tarih şeridi zamanın diğer ucunu şimdiye kadar getirilerek bilinen bir zamana yaslanırlar. bununla zamanın geçmişten geleceğe doğru aktığı, sıralanmış maddelerin (olayların) ise tarihi oluşturduğu imajı yaratılır. ancak bu durum araştırmaya konu olan öğrenci ürünlerinin sadece 10’unda görülmüştür. bunun çeşitli nedenleri olabilir. ancak tarih şeritlerini geçmiş bir zamanda bitirmelerine dair iki tahmin olabilir. birincisi öğrencilerin tarih olarak şeritlerinde göstermeye değer buldukları olaylar eski çağ ya da osmanlı dönemlerinde kesilmiş olabilir. yani bu öğrenciler için tarih, gerçek anlamda bu dönemlerde aranabilir. i̇kincisi ise tarihi; şimdi ile ilişkisi kesilmiş, bir anlamda izole edilmiş bir zaman süreci olarak kabul etme eğilimidir. her ne sebepten olursa olsun journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 146 öğretmen adayı olan bu gençlerin tarih şeritlerini uzak geçmiş zamanda bitirmeleri ilginç kabul edilmelidir. bulgu 6. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerini çizerken önemsedikleri diğer önemli bir bulgu öğrencilerin bu tarih şeritlerini yaparken nelere dikkat ettikleri ve neleri öncelikli olarak göz önünde bulundurdukları sorusuna verdikleri cevaplardır. tablo 5’de bu durum betimlenmiştir. tablo 5. “tarih şeridini çizerken neler dikkat ettiniz?” açık uçlu sorusuna verilen öğrenci cevaplarının dağılımı görüldüğü üzere tarih şeridi çizerken öğrencilerin en çok önemsedikleri şeyler, sıralama (22), önemli olaylar (15), bilgiye yer verilmesi (9), görselden yararlanılması (9), okuyana katkı yapması (9) ve dönemlerin ya da olayların özelliklerinin (9) vurgulanması olmuştur. bunların aksine, başlangıç (2) ve gelişim (2) gibi noktalara az sayıda öğrencinin dikkat ettiği belirlenmiştir. keza daha çok dikkat edilmesi gerektiği düşünülen kronoloji (6) ve çağ sınıflamasına (7) da yetersiz denilebilecek sayıda öğrenci itibar etmiştir. bulgu 7. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerini çizerken kullandıkları resim ve semboller öğrencilerin tarih şeridini çizerken kaç farklı resim ve sembol kullandıkları ve bunların ne sıklıkla kullanıldığı incelenmiştir. öğrencilerin kullandıkları resim ve sembollerin çoğunluğu farklı bir kaynaktan alınan resmin uygun boyutlarda kesilerek resme yerleştirilmesi şeklinde oluşturulmuştur. bazı öğrenciler ise bu resim ve sembolleri bizzat elleri ile çizmişlerdir. kullanılan resim ve sembollere bakıldığında çoğunlukla para (10), sıra dikkat edilen konu frekans sıra dikkat edilen konu frekans 1 sıralama 22 12 devletler 4 2 önem 15 13 mö ms ayrımı 4 3 bilgi 9 14 i̇lginç 3 4 görsel 9 15 neden sonuç 3 5 katkı 9 16 aralıklara 2 6 özellikler 9 17 başlangıç 2 7 çağ 7 18 gelişim 2 8 tarih 7 19 kullanışlılık 2 9 düzen 6 20 netlik 2 10 kronoloji 6 21 kitaptaki sırasına 1 11 uygarlıklara 5 22 süreklilik 1 toplam 22 ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 heykel (7), yazı (6) ve eşya (6) gibi insanlığın ilk icatlarının sıklığı dikkat çekmektedir. ayrıca tarihi çağların başlangıcına işaret eden yazı (6) ve yeniçağın başlangıcı olan i̇stanbul’un fethi’nin (3) kullanımı da önemlidir. tablo 6’da kullanılan resim ve sembollere ait frekanslar verilmiştir. tablo 6. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerini çizerken kullandıkları resim ve semboller sıra sayısı kullanılan sembol frekans sıra sayısı kullanılan sembol frekans 1 para 10 17 büyük i̇skender 2 2 heykel 7 18 tuğra 2 3 yazı 6 19 haçlı askeri 2 4 eşya 6 20 saray 2 5 orhun kitabeleri 5 21 harf inkılâbı 1 6 i̇lk insan figürü 4 22 saat 1 7 hitit güneşi 4 23 roma hukuku 1 8 roma arenası 4 24 osmanlı tören 1 9 piramit 3 25 sfenks 1 10 i̇stanbul’un fethi 3 26 ateş 1 11 asker 3 27 pankuş 1 12 kümbet 3 28 maden 1 13 bayrak 3 29 dinazor 1 14 hitit geyiği 2 30 ziggurat 1 15 osmanlı bayrağı 2 31 kervansaray 1 16 pusula 2 32 babil asmaları 1 toplam 32 tablo 6’ya göre öğrencilerin yaptıkları tarih şeritlerinde toplamda 32 farklı imge kullanılmıştır. tartışma ve sonuç sınıf öğretmenliği lisans programı eğitiminin ilk yılında görmüş oldukları uygarlık tarihi dersi çerçevesinde öğrencilere yaptırılan tarih şeritlerinden hareketle pek çok bulguya ulaşılmıştır. bu araştırma onların tarihsel zaman algıları başta olma üzere bir tarih şeridi oluştururken dikkat edilen dönemlendirme, çağlara ayırma, milat konularındaki algılarını tespit etmeyi amaçlamıştır. öğrencilerin yaptıkları tarih şeritlerinde tarihsel süreçte ortaya çıkan ve tarihsel zaman formları olarak üç ana başlıkta özetlediğimiz çizgisel-doğrusal metrik, döngüsel ve journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 148 inişli-çıkışlı hat formalarının yanı sıra ara formların da işe koşulduğu görülmüştür. bu durum, yıllarca modern-aydınlanmacı bir eğitimin sonucu olarak şaşırtıcı bulunmuştur. çünkü modern eğitim ve tarih yazımı; bir lineer hat üzerinde birimlendirilmiş (metrik), ilerlemeci bir zaman algısını ilköğretimden üniversiteye kadar kayıtsız şartsız adeta zihinlere kazımaktadır. bu, yapısalcıların eleştirdiği biçimiyle batıya ilişkin ideolojik bir öz taşısa (fabian, 1999: 53) da bir anlamda bugün modern hayatın da yaşamsal zorunluluğu olarak kendini göstermektedir. ama buna rağmen öğrencilerin yaptıkları ürünlerin sadece % 37’sinin lineer-metrik zaman algısına göre tasarlanması modern dünya açısından bir yetersizlik göstergesi olarak önemli bir bulgudur. geriye kalan % 63’lük oranın ise yine tek bir blok algı olarak değil de toplam 10 farklı ara formda kendini göstermiş olması da ayrı kayda değer bir bulgu sayılabilir. bu grubun içinde yukarıda bahsedilen üç ana formun yanında sadece hat, sadece lineer, döngüsel senkronik gibi ara formların yer alması da aslında her bireyin tarihsel zaman algısının formel algıya rağmen nasıl çeşitlilik gösterdiğini betimlemesi açısından önemli kabul edilebilir. öğrencilerin yaptıkları tarih şeritlerinde zamanı göstermek için kullandıkları şekillerin (imgelerin) çeşitliliği de kayda değer diğer bulgudur. öğrencilerin “öğretmek amaçlı” hazırladıkları bu tarih şeritlerinde yılan, tren, merdiven, piramit, çiçek, insanın iki kolu vs. gibi analojiler kullanmaları anlamlıdır. bu durum, yıllarca sınıflarının duvarlarında asılı olarak duran tarih şeritlerinin tek bir çizgi üzerindeki sıkıcılığı ve tekdüzeliğine bir itiraz gibidir. bu analojideki çeşitlilik asık suratlı bir tarih eğitiminden kurtulma çabaları olarak da değerlendirilebilir. öğrencilerin yaptıkları tarih şeritlerinde milat kavramını doğru kullanmaları olumlu anlamda yüksek bir orandadır. ayrıca milat kavramına şeritlerinin ortasında yer vermeleri de okullardaki standart tarih şeritlerindeki durumdan kaynaklanmaktadır. bu durum büyük çoğunlukça benimsenmiş bir doğru olsa da yaklaşık ¼ oranı tarafından benimsenmemiştir. bunun sebebinin öğrencilerin yaptıkları tarih şeritlerinin zamansal olarak geçmişten bugüne kadar kapsayıcı olmaması ile ilişkili olmalıdır. çünkü öğrencilerden sadece 10’u tarih şeridini günümüze kadar getirmiştir. geri kalan büyük çoğunluk ya osmanlı döneminde ya ilkçağlarda ya da fransız i̇htilali ile zaman gelişimini sonlandırmıştır. bu durum ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 düşündürücüdür. burada akla şöyle bir soru gelmektedir: acaba öğrencilerin büyük bir çoğunluğu “tarihin, günümüzden zamansal olarak kopuk bir geçmiş olduğu” şeklinde bir algıya mı sahiptir? bununla ilgili kapsamlı ve derinlemesine bir çalışmanın yapılması gerektiği açıktır. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerinden hareketle yapılan çözümlemelerde dikkat çeken diğer bir bulgu ise tarih şeritlerinde çağ (dönem, periyot) olgusundan yarıdan fazlasının (% 55.6) yararlanmamış olmasıdır. oysa ilköğretimden itibaren tarih şeridi deyince akla gelen ilk imge çağlara ayrılmış birimlendirilmiş bir zaman akışıdır. bu kadar baskın bir dönemlendirme/çağlara ayırmaya rağmen öğrencilerin yarısından fazlasının geliştirdiği tarih şeritlerinde çağ ayrımına gidilmemesi ilginç bulunmuştur. bu durum mutlaka sorgulanması gereken öneme sahiptir. burada öğrencilerin yıllarca gördükleri yaklaşıma ve neredeyse standartlaşmış birimlendirmeye bir anlamda farkında olmaksızın bir itirazları mı vardır sorusu akla gelmektedir. öğrencilerin tarih şeridi yaparken önceliklerinin neler olduğunun sorgulanması sonucunda ulaşılan bulgular da dikkate değerdir. öğrenciler önceliklerini; sıralama (22), önem (15), bilgi (9), görsellik (9) ve katkı (9) bağlamında belirtmeleri önemlidir. çünkü tarih şeridi deyince akla gelen ilk imgeler; çağlar (ilk-orta-yeni-yakın), milat (0), çağ başlangıçları (örn. ortaçağın kavimler göçü ile başlaması vs.), kronoloji, görsellik, ardışıklık olması gerekirken bunlardan sadece sıralama (ardışıklık) ve görselliğin ilklerde önemsenmesi ilginç bulunmuştur. örneğin milat (mö-ms) 4 öğrenci, kronoloji 6 öğrenci tarafından dile getirilmiştir. öğrenci ürünü tarih şeritlerinde kullanılan resim ve semboller incelendiğinde ilk icatlara işaret eden para (10), yazı (6) ve eşyaların (6) çoğunlukla betimlendiği görülmüştür. ayrıca tarih çağlarının başlangıcı olan yazının (6) ve yeniçağın başlangıcı olan i̇stanbul’un fethinin (3) resim ve sembolleri kullanılmıştır. oysaki tarih çağlarını ayıran olayların tarih şeridinde daha fazla sayıda resim ve sembollerle gösterilmesi beklenirdi. bu araştırma sonunda yıllardır verilen formel eğitimin öngördüğü tarihsel zaman formuna rağmen çok çeşitli zaman algılamalarının varlığını sürdürdüğü fark edilmiştir. bu durum verilen tarih öğretiminin ve bu çerçevede sunulan tarihsel zaman kavramına ilişkin journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1), 124-151 150 bazı eksikliklerin olduğunu göstermiştir. araştırma sonucunda elde edilen bazı bulguların nedenlerinin başka araştırmalarla desteklenmesi yanında ilköğretimde büyük ölçüde düzenlenerek sosyal bilgiler öğretim programında bir öğrenme alanı ve temel beceri olarak yer alan tarihsel zaman ve bunla ilişkili kavram ve becerilerin lise tarih öğretim programında da gerçek anlamda yerini alması tavsiye edilebilir. kaynakça / references alkan, n. (2009). tarihin çağlara ayrılmasında “üç”lü sistem ve “avrupa merkezci” tarih kurgusu. uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, 2( 9), 23-42. aysevener, k., barutca, e. m. (2003). tarih felsefesi. i̇stanbul: cem yayınevi. büyüköztürk, ş. (2002). sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. (2. baskı). ankara: pegema yayınları. bıçak, a. (2004). tarih düşüncesi 1. tarih düşüncesinin oluşumu. i̇stanbul: dergah yayınları. çamuroğlu, r. (1999). tarih, heterodoksi ve babailer. i̇stanbul: om yayınları. david, c., lenoir, f. & de tonnac, j. p. (2001). zamanların sonu üstüne söyleşiler. i̇stanbul: yapı kredi yayınları. diem, richard a. (1982). developing chronological skills in a world history course. social education, 46(3): 191-194 fabian, j. (1999). zaman ve öteki, antropoloji nesnesini nasıl oluşturur, (çev. selçuk budak), ankara: bilim ve sanat yayınları. garvey, b. (1975-1976). time and history teaching. teaching history, 4, 290-295. hocaoğlu, d. (2002). ‘i̇lerleme’ üzerine bir tahlil denemesi. köprü, sayı, 78. kramer, s. n. (1998). tarih sümerde başlar, (çev. muazzez i̇lmiye çığ), ankara: türk tarih kurumu. özlem, d. (1996). tarih felsefesi. i̇stanbul: anahtar yayınları. ahmet şi̇mşek & mehmet suat bal 125 safran, m., şimşek, a. (2009). tarih yazımında bir sorun: tarih ve zaman ilişkisi. tarihin peşinde (uluslararası tarih ve sosyal araştırmalar dergisi), 1 (1), 9-26. saxe, david warren. (september/octomber-1992). resolving students confusion about ındefinite time expressions. the social studies, pg. 188-192. saunders, r. m. (1996). national standards for united states history, the social studies. 87 ( 2), 63-67. şimşek, a. (2006). i̇lköğretim öğrencilerinde tarihsel zaman kavramının gelişimi ve öğretimi. (yayınlanmamış doktora tezi). ankara: g.ü. eğitim bilimleri enstitüsü. web 1. basic skills in social studies. http://www.savannah.chathome.k12.ga.us.03.10.2004 tarihinde alınmıştır. web 2. national center for history in the school, national history standards, chronological thiking. http://nchs.ucla.edu/standards/chronologicalthiking512.html. 17. 01. 2005 tarihinde alınmıştır. web 3. research, writing and ideas about children’s understanding of time. http://www. uea.ac.uk. 22.10.2004 tarihinde alınmıştır. javascript:void(0);� in this study, first year pre-service teachers’ perceptions of historical time were investigated through the readings of “timelines” prepared by these teacher candidates. within this framework, answers for the following questions are sought through t... methodology data, discussion and conclusion in conclusion, this study has revealed that various perceptions of historical time exist despite the formal form of historical time taught students for years. this means that the history teaching and the concept of historical time presented within thi... giriş araştırmanın problemi yöntem verilerin toplanması verilerin analizi ve değerlendirilmesi bulgular bulgu 1. öğrencilerin tercih ettikleri zamansal formlar tablo 1. öğrenci ürünü tarih şeritlerinin yapısal durumu 1. lineer (çizgisel-doğrusal) metrik şekil 1. lineer (çizgisel-doğrusal) metrik tercihe örnek şekil 2. ana hat uygarlık havzaları şekil 3. hat şekil 4 lineer şekil 5. hat metrik şekil 6. diğer şekil 7. metrik şekil 8 döngüsel metrik şekil 10. senkronik (döngüsel) bulgu 3. öğrencilerin milat algıları tablo 2. öğrenci ürünü tarih şeritlerinde miladın ortada olup-olmama durumu bu algı normal olarak değerlendirilebilir. çünkü türkiye’deki tarih şeritlerinde “milat” genelde şeridin ortasında yer alır. daha da önemlisi inceleme sonunda öğrencilerin milat kavramını yerli yerinde ve amacına uygun kullandıkları tespit edilmiştir.... bulgu 4. öğrencilerin yaptıkları tarih şeritlerinde çağ ayrımlaması tablo 3. öğrenci ürünü tarih şeritlerinde çağ sınıflamasının olup olmama durumu bulgu 5. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerini bitirdikleri tarihsel olayın dönemi tablo 4. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerini bitirdikleri tarihsel olayın dönemi bulgu 6. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerini çizerken önemsedikleri bulgu 7. öğrencilerin tarih şeritlerini çizerken kullandıkları resim ve semboller tartışma ve sonuç kaynakça / references saunders, r. m. (1996). national standards for united states history, the social studies. 87 ( 2), 63-67. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 168-187 168 personality, grit and organizational citizenship behavior at vocational higher education: the mediating role of job involvement m.arifin1, herri2, harif amali3, elfindri4, hesi eka puteri5 abstract the purpose of this paper is to investigate the influence of personality and grit on the organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) of lecturer, and if this relationship is valid whether this relationship is mediated by job involvement or not. a case study research with quantitative approach was used in this study. the sample size consists of 132 of lecturers at the industrial vocational higher education of the ministry of industry in indonesia were selected by using multi-stage sampling procedure. data were collected by using questionnaire at a single point in time and analyzed with sem-pls. the findings revealed personality and grit were the predictors for the organizational citizenship behavior of lecturers and job involvement mediated partially the causal relationship between personality and grit to ocb, although it was in the indirect effect with enough strength. the finding had contributed for ensuring the position of job involvement as a mediating variable in the relationship between personality and grit on ocb, which in the previous studies were not explicitly placed as a mediating variable. key words: organizational citizenship behavior, personality, grit, job involvement, higher education. introduction theoretically, the concept of extra-role behavior is reflected in what is called the organizational citizenship behavior (ocb). schnake, cochran, & dumler (1995) described ocb as functional, extra-role, pro-social behavior, directed at individuals, group and organization. the issue of extra-role behavior of the lecturers in higher education is interesting because university is a non-profit organization that requires the extra-role for ensuring its sustainability. although regulations have clearly regulated the lecturer performance, these rules were only limited to the 1 doctor in economics,polytechnic of ati padang-indonesia, alexarifin63@gmail.com 2 professor in management, andalas university padang indonesia, herriherri88@gmail.com 3 doctor in management, andalas university padang indonesia, harifamali@gmail.com 4 professor in economics, andalas university padang indonesia, elfindribana@gmail.com 5 doctor in economics, state institute of islamic studies bukittinggi indonesia, hesiekaputeri@gmail.com mailto:alexarifin63@gmail.com mailto:harifamali@gmail.com mailto:hesiekaputeri@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 in-role behavior. there was no reward or punishment for the lecturers who do not apply this extrarole, even though ocb contributed in creating the sustainability of organization. there are several potential factors that determine ocb achievement. personality, grit and job involvement were some factors originating from within the individual itself that affected ocb. organ (1994) concluded that personality was not the best predictor of ocb, but studies afterwards found a direct influence of personality on ocb of employees (neuman & kickul, 1998; barrick, parks and mount, 2005; elanain, 2007; patki & abhyankar, 2016). although very limited, mahdiuon, ghahramani and sharif (2010) and leephaijaroen (2016) had elaborated the relationship between personality and ocb in higher education and recommended a challenge to test more further. furthermore, one non-cognitive construct that received widespread attention over the past decade, which is thought to be the important predictors of academic performance and affect the achievement of the extra role, is grit. duckworth and gross (2014) stated that grit was a key to success in various aspects of life and zhou (2016) revealed grit as the non-cognitive aspects that influenced the outcome of a person's job. datu, valdez, & ronnel b. king (2015) also found that the perseverance of effort was positively predicted towards behavioral. the debate over the grit, whether as a dimension of personality or a new approach in positive psychology (rimfeld et al., 2016; ferrell, 2017), provided a space to elaborate more further. although in previous studies, the concept about grit was more popular applied to the case of students (duckworth & quinn, 2009; karakus, 2018; von culin, tsukayama and duckworth, 2014), grit was also predicted according to the lecturers in higher education. although empirically, the direct relationship between personality and grit to ocb has been examined in a number of previous studies, but it still needs further elaboration especially for cases of lecturers in higher education. the direct relationship between personality and grit to ocb was also problematic because of the consideration of the role of job involvement in this relationship, which in the previous study had not been clearly quantified. the personality and grit were predicted to be able to influence ocb, but the effect was reflected earlier in job involvement, which then affected the performance of ocb. the position of job involvement as a mediating variable was built with based on the relationship between personality and the job involvement (liao and lee, 2009; eswaran, islam and yusuf, 2011), the relationship between grit and job involvement (suzuki, tamesue, asahi, & ishikawa, 2015), the relationship between grit and ocb (zhou, 2016; arifin et al. datu et al., 2015) and also the relationship between the job involvement and ocb (nwibere, 2014;ueda, 2014). the purpose of this paper was to investigate the influence of personality and grit on ocb and to examine the position of job involvement as a mediating variable in the relationship between personality and grit to ocb. this study tried to test the implementation of this causal relationship for lecturers in universities, as a unit of analysis that required an extra role in the development of internal processes in universities. the choice of unit of analysis on vocational higher education lecturers was an interesting case to be analyzed further because vocational higher education was identical to the learning process that prioritizes practical expertise. the work demands of the lecturer with the learning process that prioritizes practice rather than theory, requires the extra role and high job involvement. although most of the previous empirical studies analyzed ocb in business, the decision to choose vocational higher education lecturers as an unit of analysis remained supported by theories and previous empirical studies.thus, this study offered a critical model of the causal relationship between personality and grit to ocb with job involvement as a mediating variable for lecturers in vocational higher education. to analyze the role of job involvement in a causal relationship between personality and grit to ocb of lecturers, the following research questions were raised to guide the study: 1. what is the direct influence between personality and grit to ocb? 2. how much the effect of job involvement as mediating variable in the relationship between personality and grit to ocb of lecturers. literature review organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) katz (1964) in his study of the motivational basis of organizational behavior, discussed about the types of behavior required for effective organizational functioning if an organization wants to survive and function effectively. it must requires not one, but several different types of behavior from most of its members, and the motivation for these types of behavior may also be different. based on this, then it was known about the existence of "in role behavior" which were formally rewarded by organizational reward systems and "extra role behavior" which were not rewarded by the official reward system but had implications for enhancing the organizational effectiveness. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 extra-role behavior or popular as ocb is defined as anything that employees choose to do, spontaneously and of their own accord, which often lies outside of their specified contractual obligations (organ, 1997). schnake et al., (1995) also described ocb as functional, extra-role, pro-social behavior, directed at individuals, group and organization. ocb is implemented in the aspects of altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue. the empirical previous studies of ocb were more popular in business institution than universities. although initially ocb was considered to help to maximize organizational performance of firms, but the key factor of ocb was achieving productivity and performance in any organization. ocb has been described as necessary for growth, success, effectiveness and productivity of any organization. the success of an educational system depends on the involvement, the effort and also the contribution of academic staff (fauziah & kamaruzaman, 2009). eyupoglu (2016) concluded that ocb did exist in academic staff and it was important for the university to be knowledgeable of the factors that will affect academic staff extra roles because higher educational institutions are organizations where ocb is an important factor for institutions if they want to survive. personality and ocb as an important determinant, personality had been examined in several previous studies as predictors of ocb in higher education (mahdiuon et al., 2010; leephaijaroen, 2016). personality is considered as a determining factor responsible for explaining people's behavior across different situations, because the personality traits refer to enduring patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior that are not likely to change over time (funder, 2001). personality refers to the way of thinking, the way of feeling and a different way of acting, which lasts a long time, and characterizes a person's response to a life situation (mckenna, 2006; passer and smith, 2007; constantine, 2017). greenberg and baron (2008) stated that personality consisting of conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability and openness to experience. organ (1994) which intensely examined ocb in institutions concluded that personality was not the best predictor for ocb, but several studies afterwards found a direct influence of personality on ocb of employees (neuman and kickul, 1998; elanain, 2007; ilies, fulmer, spitzmuller, & johnson, 2009; patki and abhyankar, 2016). barrick, parks and mount (2005) had also described emotional stability as a key dispositional determinant of social behavior. arifin et al. although the studies of ocb at universities were very limited, mahdiuon, ghahramani and sharif (2010) concluded that tehran university staff showed a positive relationship between ocb and personality which included attitudes of agreeableness, consciousness, openness, and extraversion, but the relationship between neuroticism and ocb was negative. leephaijaroen (2016) had also elaborated the relationship between personality and ocb on staff and employees in universities and the findings revealed that the components of the big-five personality traits which significantly affected ocb were agreeable personality, conscientious personality and emotionally-stable personality. grit and ocb one of non-cognitive construct that received widespread attention over the past decade, which is thought to be the important predictors of academic performance or job performance is grit. culin, tsukayama and duckworth (2014) defined grit as a psychological variable based on a positive psychology, which prioritized the persistence as an indicator of long-term success. duckworth, peterson, matthews and kelly (2007) introduced the grit as a consistency of interest and perseverance of effort. consistency of interest refers to the ability to maintain an interest in a goal in the long term and perseverance of effort refers to the ability to complete a work or business that is being done without fear in facing challenges and obstruction.some researchers concluded that the construct of grit was similar to personality (ferrell, 2017; rimfeld et al., 2016), but the initiator claimed that grit was different of the personality, although related to self control and conscientiousness. people with higher grit levels tend to have better performance than those with lower grit (duckworth, peterson, matthews, & kelly, 2007). although peleașă (2018) and ion, mindu & gorbănescu (2017) concluded that it was difficult to consider grit as an independent self-constructed concept in predicting ocb, but zhou (2016) revealed grit as the non cognitive aspect that influenced the outcome of person’s job. datu et al., (2015) also found that the perseverance of effort was positively predicted towards behavioral and emotional engagement for students in college. inconsistent findings between grit and ocb provide a space for researchers in organizational psychology to elaborate on the relationship between these two variables. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 job involvement, personality, grit and ocb in its development, organizational psychology continues to look for personality traits that affect individual performance in organizations both in business and non-profit organizations. one of the intermediary variables in the relationship between personality and organizational behavior is job involvement. it is expected that staff who are high in dimensions of personality would be high in job involvement and may be more multi-tasking in carrying out their responsibilities as lecturers. job involvement was considered to be a key factor influencing the organizational outcomes (lawler, 1986), and over the past few decades has become the major construct in the field of psychology and management (lodahl and kejner, 1965; lawler, 1986; kanungo, 1982; kahn, 1990; pisheh, 2011; carmeli, 2005). job involvement defined as the degree to which a person is identified as psychologically with his work, or the importance of work in his total selfimage (lodahl and kejner, 1965) or commitment to his work (kanungo, 1982). furthermore, robbins and judge (2008) interpreted job involvement as the degree to which people are known from their jobs, actively participate in them, and consider their achievements important for selfesteem. actually, some researchers have analyzed the relationship between job involvement and ocb in business organizations (cappelli & rogovsky, 1998; gheisari, sheikhy and derakhshan, 2014). several other researchers have also tried to elaborate the relationship between job involvement and ocb in internal processes in universities. ueda (2014) concluded job involvement had a positive effect on the ocb for professors and clerical workers at private universities in japan. nwibere (2014) had also examined the relationship between job involvement and ocb of academic staff in universities. academic staffs who are involved in their jobs, for example, are likely to be satisfied with their jobs, become committed to their organization then show more ocb in their work. job involvement as an attitude initiated naturally from within an individual. if it is there then someone will give the best performance and contribution on their job (paullay, alliger, & stone-romero, 1994). based on this concept, personality and grit are two important things that affect the job involvement of employees in the organization. liao and lee (2009) found that extroversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were related positively to job involvement, whereas the neuroticism was negatively related to employee's job involvement. arifin et al. eswaran, islam, and yusuf (2011) found a relationship between the big five personality and job involvement, although they were not very strong. since grit is still a newly developed measure, there are only several previous researches that are still in the investigation phase which can be used as a reference in looking at the relationship of grit with job involvement. suzuki et al., (2015) concluded that the gritty people were likely to engage positively in their work. this study identified grit as a strong predictor for work performance and the openness to experience was confirmed as having a positive association with grit. datu et al., (2015) also concluded that although the concept of grit consists of two dimensions which include perseverance of effort and consistency of interests, only the perseverance of effort that affected positively both behavioral and emotional engagement. based on the search for this literature, there was an opportunity to elaborate further about the role of job involvement as a mediating variable in the relationship between personality, grit and ocb. method research design this study used a quantitative approach with causal design and it was conducted through a survey of lecturer in higher education. the study examined the influence of personality and grit on ocb and to test the position of job involvement as a mediating variable in the relationship between personality and grit to ocb. the study adopted a causality model of structural equation modeling partial least squares (sem-pls) with a single mediator. population, sample and sampling techniques the target population in this study was 475 lecturers at eight polytechnics of the ministry of industry in indonesia, consisting of polytechnic of ptki medan, polytechnic of ati padang, polytechnic of app jakarta, polytechnic of stmi jakarta, polytechnic of aka bogor, polytechnic of sttt bandung, polytechnic of atk yogyakarta and polytechnic of ati makassar. the sample size for study comprise of 132 of lecturers selected using multi-stage sampling procedure. for the first stage, eight polytechnics were chosen purposively according to the research needs. these polytechnics selected were pilot polytechnics in the development of vocational higher education in indonesia. for the second stage, the lecturers were selected with the criteria of lecturers without additional assignments in structural positions and at this stage there journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 were 132 lecturers. in the third stage, the determination of the number of samples for each polytechnic was carried out proportionally. there were 14 participants from polytechnic of ptki medan, 15 participants from polytechnic of ati padang, 17 participants from polytechnic of app jakarta, 19 participants from polytechnic of stmi jakarta, 16 participants from polytechnic of aka bogor, 17 participants from polytechnic of sttt bandung, 16 participants from polytechnic of atk yogyakarta and 17 participants from polytechnic of ati makassar. variables and measurements the endogenous variable in this research was ocb and the exogenous variables were personality and grit. job involvement was placed as a mediating variable in the model. to measure these variables, to respondents were asked about their level of agreement using a five-point likert-type scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. there were thirty instruments to measure ocb, with the dimension consisting of altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, civic virtue (podsakoff, ahearne, & mackenzie, 1997; dyne, graham & dienesch, 1994), twenty two questions to measure the personality with the dimensions consisting of conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability and openness to experience (hogan & holland, 2003), twelve questions of instrument for grit with dimensions consisting of consistency of interest and perseverance of effort (duckworth et al., 2007; duckworth and quinn, 2009) and seventeen instruments for measuring the job involvement (kanungo, 1982). to validate the instrument items on the questionnaire, a measurement model was implemented in order to evaluate the relationships between indicators and constructs, by assessing reliability and validity. indicator reliability was measured by referring to loading factor with a minimum limit of 0.4, considering that instrument items were the development of standard indicators. internal consistency reliability was assessed by composite reliability and cronbach alpha, with a minimum limit of 0.7. furthermore, to measure the convergence validity can be guided by the average variance extracted (ave) with a minimum limit of 0.5 and for discriminant validity determined by using the square root of ave and correlation between constructs. model and data analysis based on literature review and related theories, this study estimated the causality relationship between personality and grit to ocb with job involvement as single-mediator. this empirical arifin et al. model analyzed by using causality model of structural equation modeling – partial least squares (sem-pls) with warppls 5.0. figure 1. causality model of sem-pls there were three steps in analyzing the causality relationship between exogenous variables to endogenous variables. first, direct effect estimation between personality, grit and job involvement to the ocb. second, direct effect estimation between personality and grit to the job involvement. third, indirect effect estimation between personality and grit on the ocb mediated by job involvement. hypotheses based on the research questions and the empirical model purposed, the hypotheses are built: h1. personality of lecturer will be positively related to level of ocb h2. grit of lecturer will be positively related to level of ocb h3. job involvement of lecturer will be positively related to level of ocb h4. job involvement mediated the relationship between personality and ocb h5. job involvement mediated the relationship between grit and ocb. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 findings to test the hypotheses, a structural equation modeling with partial least squares (pls) approach was employed because of this model able to handle multiple dependent and independent variables simultaneously. pls was also considered suitable because it can handle relatively small sample sizes and multicollinearity among independent variables. the objective of the structural model using a pls approach is to maximize the variance explained by variables in the model using r-square as the goodness-of-fit measure (chin & newsted, 1999). model fit this study focused on testing the relationship between latent variables through a causality model with a single mediator. because this study was strictly confirmatory, the indicators on the model fit did not become so important. however, table 1 showed some indicators that supported the purpose of the study, that was investigating the influence of personality and grit on ocb and testing job involvement as a mediating variable in the relationship between personality and grit to ocb. table 1 model fit and quality indices indicators value, p-value, category average path coefficient (apc) average r-squared (ars) average adjusted r-squared (aars) average block vif (avif) average full collinearity vif (afvif) tenenhaus gof (gof) 0.360, p value < 0.001 0.417, p value < 0.001 0.405, p value < 0.001 1.353, acceptable if <= 5, ideally <= 3.3 1.560, acceptable if <= 5, ideally <= 3.3 0.498, small >= 0.1, medium >= 0.25, large >= 0.36 source: primary data processed, 2018 based on the model fit, it can be seen that the model was quite good and fulfilled the criteria statistically. average path coefficient (apc) which showed the average value of the estimated coefficient for each path, categorized as low, equal to 0.360 (p value < 0.001). even though it was in the low category, this apc can be accepted because this study did not focus on the size of the contribution but on testing the hypothesis of the relationship between latent variables. it can be seen that the average r-squared (ars) was 0.417 (p value < 0.001) and the average adjusted r-squared (aars) was 0.405 (p value < 0.001). although this indicator was in the moderate category, it can be concluded that the predictor of the model was able to explain the arifin et al. variance. based on the average block vif (avif) of 1,353 and the average full collinearity vif (afvif) of 1.560, it can be concluded that the model was free from the problem of collinearity. the results also showed that the model had a large prediction level with the tenenhaus gof of 0.498. furthermore, the result for this study was statistically presented below, with stages covering measurement model analysis for testing validity and reliability and then structural model analysis to test all the hypotheses. measurement model analysis the measurement model analysis was used to evaluate the relationship between indicators and constructs by assessing reliability and validity. to measure indicators reliability can be guided by loading factors while internal consistency reliability was measured by composite reliability and cronbach’s alpha. to measure convergence validity can be guided by average variance extracted (ave), while for discriminant validity can be used squared root of ave and correlation between constructs. the results of calculating the loading factor for the indicators were shown in table 2. to get a fit model, the loading factors were smaller than 0.4 have been removed and the impact of removal was the increasing for the ave and composite reliability above the threshold. hair and sarstedt (2011) suggested the solution for the loading conditions above 0.70 cannot be achieved, especially for newly developed questionnaires, the loading between 0.4 0.7 must still be considered. table 2 loading factor ocb loading factor personality loading factor grit loading factor job involvement loading factor ocb1 0.923 per1 0.701 gr1 0.938 ji1 0.612 ocb2 0.828 per2 0.641 gr2 0.945 ji2 0.745 ocb3 0.710 per3 0.894 gr3 0.929 ji3 0.636 ocb4 0.827 per4 0.837 gr4 0.470 ji4 0.725 ocb7 0.717 per5 0.698 gr5 0.932 ji5 0.566 ocb8 0.666 per6 0.745 gr7 0.890 ji6 0.718 ocb9 0.765 per8 0.700 gr8 0.824 ji7 0.733 ocb10 0.610 per9 0.733 ji8 0.791 ocb11 0.690 per10 0.664 ji9 0.773 ocb15 0.926 per11 0.543 ji10 0.718 ocb16 0.848 per14 0.881 ji11 0.797 ocb17 0.902 per15 0.678 ji12 0.748 ocb18 0.895 per16 0.703 ji13 0.703 ocb19 0.847 per17 0.721 ji14 0.738 ocb20 0.685 per18 0.748 ji15 0.700 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 ocb21 0.637 per19 0.708 ji16 0.789 ocb22 0.601 per20 0.670 ocb24 0.720 per22 0.800 ocb25 0.635 ocb26 0.816 ocb28 0.857 ocb29 0.753 ocb30 0.916 based on table 3, it can be seen that the composite reliability for all of variables were above 0.9, the cronbach's alpha for all the variables were greater than 0.9 and the average variance extracted (ave) were also greater than 0.5 for all the variables. the criteria of composite reliability, cronbach’s alpha and ave achieved statistically. fornell and larcker (1981) required the composite reliability and cronbach's alpha must be above 0.7 for reliability and ave must have criteria above 0.5. furthermore, the criteria of the discriminant validity has been achieved statistically with the square root of ave was 0.776 for the ocb, 0.721 for job involvement, 0.727 for personality and 0.849 for grit. there were no redundant or offending indicators for all these variables. table 3 composite reliability, cronbach’s alpha and ave latent variable composite reliability cronbach's alpha ave organizational citizenship behavior 0.971 0.968 0.602 job involvement 0.945 0.938 0.521 personality 0.953 0.948 0.545 grit 0.972 0.966 0.775 testing of hypotheses the direct effects of personality, grit and job involvement to ocb were 0.384 (p<0.01), 0.315 (p<0.01) and 0.387 (p <0.01). thus, the hypothesis h1.personality of lecturer will be positively related to level of ocb, h2.grit of lecturer will be positively related to level of ocb and h3.job involvement of lecturer will be positively related to level of ocb, all were supported by the model. r-square was 0.330 and it can be concluded that 33% of the variance can be explained by predictors. the results showed the direct effect model had a moderate categorized predictive level. for the path of personality job involvement ocb, there was a positive influence of personality on job involvement (coefficient = 0.467; p<0.01) and job involvement also had a positive influence on the ocb (coefficient = 0.428; p<0.01). although the direct relationship arifin et al. between personality and the ocb remained significant (coefficient = 0.164; p<0.01), this path coefficient decreased from 0.384 to 0.164. thus, job involvement only partially mediated the relationship between personality and the ocb. furthermore, for the path of grit job involvement ocb, there was a positive influence of grit on job involvement (coefficient = 0.184; p<0.01) and also the positive influence of job involvement on the ocb (coefficient = 0.428; p<0.01). the direct relationship between grit and the ocb was also observed to be significant (coefficient = 0.249 ; p<0.01). thus, job involvement also mediated partially the relationship between grit and the ocb. table 4 pls results for direct effect and the mediating effect model direct effect variables path to ocb personality 0.384*** grit 0.315*** job involvement 0.387*** r2 0.330 mediating effect variable path to job involvement ocb personality 0.467*** 0.164*** grit 0.184*** 0.249*** job involvement 0.428*** r2 0.330 0.470 ***significant at p<0.01 **significant at p<0.05 *significant at p<0.10. to ensure further the effect of the partial mediation, it was necessary to do calculations using the variance accounted for (vaf). hair and sarstedt (2011) recommended the categories of the vaf which above 80% as full mediation, in the range of 20% 80% as partial mediation and for vaf less than 20% as no mediating effect. table 5 calculations of the variance accounted for (vaf) path of personality job involvement – ocb indirect effect personality  job involvement  ocb 0.200 direct effect personality  ocb 0.384 total effect 0.584 vaf = indirect effect/total effect 0.342 path of grit job involvement ocb indirect effect grit  job involvement  ocb 0.079 direct effect grit  ocb 0.315 total effect 0.394 vaf = indirect effect/total effect 0.201 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 based on the calculation of the vaf in table 5, it can be observed that the vaf for the path of personality – job involvement – ocb was 0.342 (p<0.01), which meant the job involvement was a partial mediator for the relationship between personality with ocb. then, the vaf was 0.201 (p< 0.01) for the path of grit – job involvement – ocb, which also meant that the job involvement partially mediated the relationship between grit and ocb. this finding reinforced the previous calculation on table 4 which concluded that job involvement only mediated partially the personality and grit to ocb. thus, hypotheses h4.job involvement mediated the relationship between personality and ocb, and h5.job involvement mediated the relationship between grit and ocb, both supported by findings. discussion, conclusion and implications discussion empirically, this research proved the influence of personality and grit on ocb of lecturers, and job involvement was a partial mediator for the relationship between personality and grit to ocb. this study had analyzed the studies about ocb which in the past were more popular in business institution. this study had elaborated the mahdiuon, ghahramani and sharif (2010) and leephaijaroen (2016) which recommended a challenge to test more further about personality as a predictor of ocb in the college. this finding also examined the grit as a predictor of the ocb, which in the previous studies predicted to be similar to personality (rimfeld et al., 2016; ferrell, 2017) and affected someone's extra role (datu and king, 2015; zhou, 2016). however, the placement of grit as a predictor of ocb still required more the empirical testing in future research, especially for cases in non-profit organizations such as universities. in a theoretical perspective, the finding had analyzed the position of job involvement as a mediating variable in the relationship between personality and grit on ocb, which in the previous studies was not explicitly placed as a mediating variable. the position of job involvement as a partial mediator was elaborated from previous findings that have examined the relationship of personality on ocb (mahdiuon, ghahramani and sharif, 2010; leephaijaroen, 2016), the relationship of grit and ocb (datu and king, 2015; zhou, 2016), the influence of job involvement on ocb (nwibere, 2014; ueda, 2014), the relationship of personality on job involvement (liao and lee, 2009; eswaran, islam and yusuf, 2011) and also suzuki et al., (2015) which identified arifin et al. grit as a strong predictor for work performance. although the indirect effect of job involvement was not large enough, job involvement was significantly proven as a mediating variable in the relationship between personality and grit to ocb. in a practical perspective, this finding was really useful in the development of internal processes in universities which for various reasons were very difficult in increasing the extra role of their lecturers. this study has elaborated eyupoglu (2016) which recommended the importance of a university to be knowledgeable of factors that affected the academic staff extra roles of higher educational institutions, because ocb was an important factor for institutions if they want to survive. personality and grit had a direct effect on ocb, but the influence of these two variables was also mediated by job involvement. the enhancement in the potential of personality and grit will increase the job involvement, which will be reflected in the form of attitudes such as active participation in work, showing a work as something valuable and regarding a job as important thing. furthermore, the increase in job involvement will lead to an increase in the extra roles of lecturers. thus, this finding recommended the importance of controlling of job involvement in efforts to improve ocb through enhancing the personality and grit of lecturers. by elaborating more further on the indicators in each construct, there were several indicators that were dominant in each construct in the model. based on its urgency, personality was a stronger predictor than grit. the policy of increasing lecturers' extra-roles in universities that pay attention to this urgency, which was accompanied by efforts to increase job involvement, was the best strategy to improve ocb. furthermore, this result recommended "awareness" as a part of the personality that was very dominant in determining the extra role. grit, as a variable that was originally considered an extension of personality, was a unique factor. although the direct effect of grit on ocb was not as large as personality, grit remained a predictor of ocb, directly or through job involvement. the dominant instrument in the grit variable was " perseverance of effort ". to create a "gritty lecturer" is not easy, because grit will only be created in the long term. if the university's internal process are able to maintain the continuity of grit for each lecturer, then it does not become an obstacle for universities to create extra roles of their lecturers. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 conclusion, limitation and implications based on the development of theory and the conclusions of the research findings, it can be stated that personality and grit were two strong predictors of ocb. further testing of the role of job involvement as a mediator in the causal relationship between personality and grit to ocb proved that job involvement was a partial mediator for the relationship between personality and grit to ocb. in a theoretical perspective, this finding proved the argument about the relationship between personality, grit and ocb and extended the theoretical model about the mediating effects of job involvement in this causal relationship. the increase in lecturers' ocb was not necessarily directly determined by the personality and grit of lecturers, but it was mediated by job involvement. there was a role of job involvement affecting the effectiveness of personality and grit in determining the achievement of ocb lecturers. apart from efforts to optimize personality and grit, the higher education manager must ensured efforts to increase the job involvement of lecturers in internal processes. one limitation of the study was the relatively small sample size of 132 lecturers at eight units of polytechnic of the ministry of industry in indonesia. considering the large number of lecturers at universities in indonesia and the sample which was only limited to vocational higher education, of course it was very small. in relation to the position to generalize the research findings, there needs to be a larger sample in future studies. based on the above empirical findings, it can be recommended several efforts to enhance the extra role of lecturers in universities and these recommendations are of course not limited to the indonesian context. first, because of the stronger direct influence between personality and grit on ocb, this finding can be a reference in improving the lecturer performance evaluation model in higher education. all policy efforts aimed at increasing the ocb in higher education must be directed at strengthening the personality and grit dimensions. strengthening the aspects of conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability, openness to experience, consistency of interest and perseverance of effort on all lecturers' development policies are key elements to increase the extra role of lecturers. second,although job involvement only partially mediated the relationship of personality and grit to ocb, intensive efforts must still be made by leaders in universities to improve the job involvement. many lecturers without structural positions at universities, are often only oriented to fulfill the minimum standards of performance achievement and ignore the more potential they can create. personality and grit are two things that arifin et al. have the potential to increase ocb, but this will be reflected first in job involvement of lecturer such as being active in work, prioritizing work from other things and consider their work as a lecturer as important thing. references barrick, m. r., parks, l., & mount, m. k. (2005). self-monitoring as a moderator of the relationships between personality traits and performance. personnel psychology, 58, 745– 767. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00716.x cappelli, p., & rogovsky, n. (1998). employee involvement and organizational citizenship: implications for labor law reform and “lean production, 51(4), 633–653. https://doi.org/10.1177%2f001979399805100405. carmeli, a. (2005). exploring determinants of job involvement: an empirical test among senior executives. international journal of manpower, 26(5), 457–472. https://doi.org/ 10.1108/01437720510615143. chin, w. w., & newsted, p. r. (1999). structural equation modeling analysis with small samples using partial least squares. in r. h. hoyle (ed.), statistical strategies for small sample research. thousand oak: sage publication. constantine, g. r. (2017). the biological basis of performativity of identity-linking scientific evidence to social theory. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 88-95. culin, k. r. von, tsukayama, e., & duckworth, a. l. (2014). unpacking grit : motivational correlates of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. the journal of positive psychology, (2008), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.898320 datu, j. a. d., valdez, j. p. m., & ronnel b. king. (2015). perseverance counts but consistency does not ! validating the short grit scale in a collectivist setting.current psychology, 35(1), 121–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-015-9374-2 duckworth, angela l., christopher peterson., m. d. m. and d. r. k. (2007). grit : perseverance and passion for long-term goals,92(6), 1087–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/00223514.92.6.1087 duckworth, a., & gross, j. j. (2014). self-control and grit: related but separable determinants of success. current directions in psychological science, 23(5), 319–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414541462 duckworth, angela l, peterson, c., matthews, m. d., & kelly, d. r. (2007). grit: perseverance and passion for long-term goals. journal of personality and social psychology, 92(6), 1087– 1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087 duckworth, angela lee, & quinn, p. d. (2009). development and validation of the short grit scale ( grit – s ) development and validation of the short grit scale ( grit – s ). journal ofpersonality assessment, 91(2), 166–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290 dyne, l. van, graham, j. w., dienesch, r. m., graham, j. w., & dienesch, r. m. (1994). organizational citizenship behavior : construct redefinition , measurement , and validation.the academy of management journal, 37(4), 765–802. https://doi.org/10.2307/256600 elanain, h. a. (2007). relationship between personality and organizational citizenship behavior : journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 does personality influence employee citizenship ? international review of business research papers, 3(4), 31–43. eswaran, s, islam, m. a., & yusuf, d. h. m. (2011). a study of the relationship between the big five personality dimensions and job involvement in a foreign based financial institution in penang. international business research, 4(4), 164–175. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v4n4p164 eyupoglu, s. z. (2016). the organizational citizenship behaviour of academic staff in north cyprus.procedia economics and finance, 39(november 2015), 701–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(16)30280-5 fauziah, n., & kamaruzaman, j. (2009). levels of job satisfaction amongst malaysian academic staff. asian social science, 5(5), 122–128. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v5n5p122 ferrell, b. (2017). identifying grit in existing personality and other individual differences taxonomies. in paper presented at presented at the 2017 siop conference. hogan assessment systems, inc. fornell, c., & larcker, d. f. (1981). evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. journal of marketing research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312 funder, d. c. (2001). personality. annual review psychology, 52(1), 197–221. gheisari, f., sheikhy, a., & derakhshan, r. (2014). explaining the relationship between organizational climate, organizational commitment, job involvement and organizational citizenship behavior among employees of khuzestan gas company. mediterranean journal of social sciences, 5(20), 2986–2996. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n20p2986 greenberg, j., & robert a baron. (2008). behavior in organizations: understanding and managing the human side of work (8th edition). prentice hall international: new jersey. hair, j. f. r., c.m., & sarstedt, m. (2011). “pls-sem: indeed a silver bullet.” journal of marketing theory and practice, 19(2), 139–151. hogan, j., & holland, b. (2003). using theory to evaluate personality and job performance relations: a socioanalytic perspective. journal of applied psychology, 88(1), 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.1.100 ilies, r., fulmer, i. s., spitzmuller, m., & johnson, m. d. (2009). personality and citizenship behavior : the mediating role of job satisfaction ilies, 94(4), pp. 945–959. https:/doi.org/10.1037/a0013329. ion, a., mindu, a., & gorbănescu, a. (2017). grit in the workplace: hype or ripe? personality and individual differences, 111, 163–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.012 kahn, w. a. (1990). psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work.academy of management journal, 33(4), 692–724. https://doi.org/10.2307/256287 kanungo, r. n. (1982). measurement of job and work involvement”. journal of applied psychology, 67(3), 341–349. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0021-9010.67.3.341 karakus, m. (2018). the moderating effect of gender on the relationships between age, ethical leadership, and organizational commitment. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(1), 74-84. katz, d. (1964). the motivational basis of organizational behavior. behavioral science, 9(2), 131– 146. https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830090206 arifin et al. lawler, e. e. (1986). high involvement management: participative strategies for improving organizational performance. san francisco: jossey-bass. leephaijaroen, s. (2016). effects of the big-five personality traits and organizational commitments on organizational citizenship behavior of support staff at ubon ratchathani rajabhat university, thailand. kasetsart journal of social sciences, 37(2), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2015.03.002 liao, c., & lee, c. (2009). an empirical study of employee job involvement and personality traits : the case of taiwan. international journal of economics and management, 3(1), 22–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.346 lodahl, m. t., & kejner, m. (1965). the defenition and measurement of job involvement.journal of apllied psychology, 49(1), 24–33. mahdiuon, r., ghahramani, m., & sharif, a. r. (2010). explanation of organizational citizenship behavior with personality. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 5(2), 178–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.069 mckenna, e. (2006). business psychology and organisational behaviour (4th edition). new york: psychology press. neuman, g. a., & kickul, j. r. (1998). organizational citizenship behaviors: achievement orientation and personality.journal of business and psychology, 13(2), 263–279. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1022963108025 nwibere, b. m. (2014). interactive relationship between job involvement, job satisfaction, organisational citizenship behaviour, and organizational commitment in nigerian universities. international journal of management and sustainability, 3(6), 321–340. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.11/2014.3.6/11.6.321.340 organ, d. w. (1994). personality and organizational citizenship behavior.journal of management, 20(2), 465–478. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0149-2063(94)90023-x organ, d. w. (1997). organizational citizenship behavior: it’s construct cleanup time. human performance, 10(2), 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327043hup1002_2 passer, m. w., & and ronald e. smith. (2007). psychology: the science of mind and behavior. new york: mcgraw-hill. patki, s. m., & abhyankar, s. c. (2016). big five personality factors as predictors of organizational citizenship behavior : a complex interplay.the international journal of indian psychology, 3(2), 136–146. https://doi.org/10.25215/0302.168 paullay, i. m., alliger, g. m., & stone-romero, e. f. (1994). construct validation of two instruments designed to measure job involvement and work centrality.journal of applied psychology, 79(2), 224–228. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.79.2.224 peleașă, s. (2018). grit utility in explaining job and contextual performance. studia doctoralia. psychology and educational science, 9(15), 54–64. pisheh, m. h. m. (2011). a study of the relationship between locus of control and job involvement in iran public employees. african journal of business management, 5(34), 13217–13226. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5897/ajbm11.1482 podsakoff, p. m., ahearne, m., & mackenzie, s. b. (1997). organizational citizenship behavior and the quantity and quality of work group performance. the journal of applied psychology, 82(2), 262–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.82.2.262 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 168-187 rashidi, r. p., gheisari, f., & farokhian, a. (2014). explaining the relationship between organizational commitment, job involvement and organizational citizenship behavior among employees of khuzestan gas company”.indian journal of fundamental and applied life sciences, 4(4), 150–158. rimfeld, k., kovas, y., dale, p. s., & plomin, r. (2016). true grit and genetics: predicting academic achievement from personality. j pers soc psychol., 111(5), 780–789. https://doi.org/doi:10.1037/pspp0000089 robbins, s. p., & judge, t. a. (2008). organizational behavior (13th ed.). new york: pearson education, inc., publishing as prentice hall. schnake, m., cochran, d., & dumler, m. (1995). encouraging organizational citizenship: the effect of job satisfaction, perceived equity and leadership. journal of managerial issues, 7(2), 209–221. suzuki, y., tamesue, d., asahi, k., & ishikawa, y. (2015). grit and work engagement: a crosssectional study. plos one, 10(9), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137501 ueda, y. (2014). organizational citizenship behavior in a japanese organization : the effects of job involvement , organizational commitment, and collectivism. journal of behavioral studies in business, 1–14. zhou, k. (2016). non-cognitive skills: definitions, measurement and malleability. in background paper prepared for the 2016 global education monitoring report to unesco. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 111-130 111 investigating critical thinking in prospective teachers: metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy i̇shak kozikoğlu1 abstract the aim of this study is to determine the extent to which prospective teachers' metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy explain their critical thinking tendencies. this study, designed as correlational survey method, was conducted with 229 prospective teachers studying at van yüzüncü yıl university, faculty of education. “critical thinking disposition scale”, “metacognitive skills scale”, “problem solving inventory” and “academic self-efficacy scale” were used for data collection. data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, pearson product-moment correlation coefficient and stepwise regression analysis. as a result of the study, a positive, moderate level and significant relationship was found between prospective teachers’ critical thinking tendencies and metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, academic self-efficacy perceptions. this study concluded that prospective teachers' metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy perceptions together can explain about half of the variance (39.5%) in their critical thinking tendencies. however, this study revealed that problem solving skills doesn't make a meaningful contribution to the total variance and cannot explain prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies to a significant extent. key words: teacher critical thinking tendencies, teacher metacognitive skills, teacher problem solving skills, teacher academic self-efficacy introduction individual differences in today's learning environments are quite distinctive and affect students' learning to a great extent. individual differences have shown that the skills needed to be an effective learner, and thinker, are in fact self-regulatory, specifically cognitive regulatory. in this respect, the students should control and manage his/her own learning processes and strategies (modrek, kuhn, conway & arvidsson, 2018). in the age of information and technology, the speed and amount of information is changing day by day and the current information become insufficient to keep up with the age. therefore, in today's education systems, it is aimed to educate individuals who can construct knowledge by passing through their own cognitive filters rather than just 1 assist. prof. dr., van yüzüncü yıl university, faculty of education, division of curriculum and instruction, van/turkey, ishakkozikoglu@yyu.edu.tr journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 memorizing existing knowledge. in this case, individuals are expected to have higher order thinking skills such as self-regulation strategies, critical thinking, problem solving and metacognitive thinking, etc. among these skills, critical thinking is a key skill in terms of being used in most of thinking processes. in the process of learning, self-regulation does not comprise all contributing factors pointing to its effectiveness. still, the effects of self-regulation extend more largely, particularly to the critical skills of learning, at least in children and adolescents (modrek & kuhn, 2017). when understanding learning in teachers, then, it is noteworthy to understand what individual differences in teachers may explain their own learning processes. the need for critical thinking skills for prospective teachers arises day by day because professional and life challenges increase by the developments in information and technology. the initial teacher education should equip the prospective teachers not only with critical literacy but also develop their critical thinking skills (varga, 2011). as prospective teachers are expected to have critical thinking skills, it is important to determine their critical thinking tendencies and the factors related to their critical thinking tendencies. concerning educational life, critical thinking enhances meaningful learning (uzuntiryakikondakçı & çapa-aydın, 2013) and it is viewed as student's using existing knowledge to solve a problem and make judgments (linn, 2000). in other words, critical thinking is a process in which the student uses his/her prior knowledge to understand the problem in a clear way and make decisions about the problem accordingly (akın et al, 2015). so, it can be concluded that an individual uses critical thinking during problem solving process and problem solving activities increase the use of critical thinking. as a matter of fact, there are some studies in the literature (friede et al, 2008; kim & choi, 2014; memduhoğlu & keleş, 2016; tümkaya, aybek & aldağ, 2009) concluding that problem solving skills are related to critical thinking. problem solving is a process including lots of mental operations used for moving from existing situations to the target goal (mayer, 1983). in addition, krulik and rudnick (1987) defined problem solving as the process in which the individual uses his/her background knowledge, skills and abilities to solve an unfamiliar problem. each individual should have problem solving skills in order to achieve his/her objectives in life (chaudhry & rasool, 2012). problem solving is a basic skill required for today's learners. due to changing professional standards, new demands and changes in learning theories and education, educators revise educational curricula by including kozikoğlu learning environments that provide learners to use higher order thinking skills, especially problem solving skills (foshay & kirkley, 2003). problem solving is critical for a student's success in the educational life and the community (agran, blanchard, wehmeyer, & hughes, 2002). therefore, prospective teachers should have problem solving skills so that they can lead their students in teaching-learning process and develop their problem solving skills. for example, in the study conducted by sandoval, kwako, modrek & kawasaki (2018), a teacher development effort was made to change teacher thinking and learning, and observe student outcomes as a consequence. this study suggested that teacher thinking and learning has great importance in stimulating students' thinking processes, respectively. critical thinking possesses similar characteristics with problem solving skills. similar to problem solving, critical thinking is a thinking process that includes cognitive processes such as reasoning, analyzing, evaluating, etc. critical thinking is an intellectual skill that plays a pivotal role in both individual's educational and social life (akın, hamedoğlu, arslan, akın, çelik, kaya, & arslan, 2015). critical thinking process can be considered as a method of problem analysis (mcpeck, 1983). although there are various definitions of critical thinking, most of the definitions include common elements such as making decisions and problem solving (halpern, 1998). problem solving has the potential to develop one's critical thinking skills (buku, corebima, & rohman, 2016). therefore, it is hypothesized in this study that critical thinking and problem solving skills are related concepts and prospective teachers' problem solving skills influence their critical thinking tendencies. critical thinking also relates to metacognition (kuhn, 1999; lai, 2011). the metacognition is defined by scientists in different ways. flavell (1979) defines metacognition as "the knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena and monitoring the individual's own cognitive processes", anderson et al (2001) define as "the knowledge about cognition and one's awareness of his/her own cognition", senemoğlu (2013) defines as "the individual's knowledge of his or her cognition system, in other words, the individual's being aware of his/her cognitive structure and learning characteristics, and being able to monitor and organize his/her cognitive processes". in this case, metacognition can be defined as the individuals' being aware of, monitoring and organizing their own cognition and cognitive processes. in order to ensure the learning to be achieved at the desired level, it is important to develop metacognitive skills that enable the individual to control his/her own learning processes. an journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 individual with advanced metacognitive skills draws attention to the learning unit, distinguishes between important and unimportant information, knows which strategies should be used for keeping information in short-term memory, storing it in long-term memory and retrieving it when it is needed and evaluates whether he/she has learned or not (altındağ, 2008). as metacognition is used to monitor and organize cognitive processes such as understanding, reasoning, problem solving and analyzing, it is thought that metacognition plays an important role in these processes. so, metacognition and higher order thinking skills such as problem solving and critical thinking are considered as closely related concepts in theory (karakelle, 2012). as critical thinking requires “awareness of the individual's own thinking and reflection on the thinking of himself/herself and others” (kuhn & dean, 2004), metacognition that is necessary to use higher order thinking skills is related to the development of critical thinking (lockwood, 2003). in critical thinking process, the individual need to utilize certain metacognitive skills and metacognition facilitates the development of critical thinking skills. this implies that critical thinking is somewhat a product of metacognitive processes (magno, 2010). furthermore, there are some studies in the literature (buku, corebima, & rohman, 2016; magno, 2010; sadeghi, hassani, & rahmatkhah, 2014; semerci & elaldı, 2014; tabrizi & erfani, 2014) concluding that metacognitive skills are related to critical thinking. therefore, it is hypothesized in this study that critical thinking and metacognition are related concepts and prospective teachers' metacognitive skills influence their critical thinking tendencies. another related concept with critical thinking, metacogniton and problem solving is academic selfefficacy. the concept of self-efficacy is based on social cognitive theory developed by bandura (pajares & schunck, 2002) and it is one's beliefs about his/her organizing and managing capacity of the activities that are necessary to deal with possible problems (bandura, 1997). teachers' academic self-efficacy perceptions, implying beliefs about their professional competences as teachers, can be defined as their perceptions in the ability to gain the target products (tschannenmoran & woolfolk-hoy, 1998). self-efficacy plays a crucial role in problem solving (aurah, cassady, & mcconnell, 2014). it is stated that students with high self-efficacy use problem solving strategies more efficiently and put more effort to solve a problem (pajares, 2005), are more likely to use critical thinking to handle a problem (phan, 2009) and are more likely to use metacognitive strategies to get better solutions kozikoğlu (kitsantas, 2000). therefore, it can be concluded that academic self-efficacy is associated with critical thinking, metacognition and problem solving. self-efficacy as a motivational incentive has a critical role in the development of critical thinking skills (dehghani, jafari-sani, pakmehr, & malekzadeh, 2011). it is emphasized that the individual's self-efficacy beliefs can influence and predict critical thinking skills (sang, valcke, van braak, & tondeur, 2010; wang & wu, 2008). therefore, it is hypothesized in this study that critical thinking skills and academic self-efficacy are related concepts and prospective teachers' academic self-efficacy perceptions influence their critical thinking tendencies. based on literature, it seems possible to state that critical thinking, metacognition, problem solving and self-efficacy are theoretically interrelated concepts. there are empirical studies in the literature revealing the relationships between these concepts. many researchers have found a positive relationship between critical thinking and cognitive/metacognitive processes such as metacognition (buku, corebima, & rohman, 2016; magno, 2010; sadeghi, hassani, & rahmatkhah, 2014; semerci & elaldı, 2014; tabrizi & erfani, 2014), self-efficacy (basereh & pishkar, 2016; dehghani et al, 2011; orujlu & hemmati-maslakpak, 2017; phan, 2009), and problem solving (friede, irani, rhoades, fuhrman, & gallo, 2008; kim & choi, 2014; tümkaya, aybek, & aldağ, 2009). in addition to these studies, aurah, cassady, & mcconnell (2014) investigated the predictive power of self-efficacy and metacognition on problem solving ability among high school students in kenya and concluded that metacognition and self-efficacy significantly predicted problem-solving ability. similarly, sümen & çalışıcı (2016) analyzed the effects of prospective teachers' metacognitive awareness, mathematical literacy and self-efficacy beliefs on problem solving skills and determined that metacognitive skills have positive effects on prospective teachers' problem solving processes. on the other hand, uzuntiryaki-kondakçı & çapa-aydın (2013) investigated the predictive power of university students' metacognitive selfregulation and chemistry self-efficacy on critical thinking and found that metacognitive selfregulation and chemistry self-efficacy explained 68.5% of the variance in critical thinking. when the studies in the literature are examined, it is seen that most of the studies examined the relationship between the two concepts discussed in this study and concluded that these concepts are related with each other. while two studies (aurah, cassady, & mcconnell, 2014; sümen & çalışıcı, 2016) investigated the predictive power of these concepts on problem-solving, a study (uzuntiryaki-kondakçı & çapa-aydın, 2013) investigated the predictive power of metacognitive journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 self-regulation and chemistry self-efficacy on critical thinking. in this case, it is seen that there is a need for describing a theoretical framework that bridge critical thinking and metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, academic self-efficacy perceptions and determining the extent to which these concepts facilitate to attain critical thinking. in this study, it is aimed to determine the extent to which prospective teachers' metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, and academic self-efficacy explain their critical thinking tendencies by testing the following model: figure 1: model used to explain critical thinking tendencies via metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy critical thinking is one of the main aims of the education. then, it is important to determine cognitive factors that facilitate critical thinking of the students (magno, 2010). furthermore, it has some basic characteristics such as being related to metacognitive skills as well as cognitive ones (uzuntiryaki-kondakçı & çapa-aydın, 2013). firsly, students control their own thinking, evaluate their efforts, conclusions and decisions in critical thinking process which are indicators of metacognition (halpern, 1998). secondly, it is emphasized that problem solving processes facilitate the development one's critical thinking skills (buku, corebima, & rohman, 2016). thirdly, self-efficacy has importance in critical thinking processes in terms of being a motivational incentive (dehghani, jafari-sani, pakmehr, & malekzadeh, 2011). accordingly, this study considers metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy as variables playing role in critical thinking skills. this study is important in terms of determining the variables that affect prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies and the predictive power of these variables on their critical thinking tendencies. in this study, dependent variable was determined as metacognitive skills academic selfefficacy problem solving skills critical thinking skills kozikoğlu critical thinking tendencies of prospective teachers because of the fact that predictive variables, that are prospective teachers' metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic selfefficacy, are considered to facilitate critical thinking process as stated in the literature. in this respect, it is thought that this research will contribute to the related literature. the present study highlights certain theoretical and practical implications. first of all, one of the expected theoretical contribution of the study is describing a theoretical framework that bridge critical thinking and metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, academic self-efficacy perceptions. secondly, another expected theoretical contribution of the study is describing the relationship of metacognition with higher order thinking skills such as critical thinking. this study will contribute to the body of knowledge in the field of education in terms of revealing the relationships between the concepts of metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, academic selfefficacy and critical thinking tendencies based on the data obtained from prospective teachers. this study differs from the similar studies in this field in terms of investigating critical thinking tendencies of prospective teachers with metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and selfefficacy perceptions altogether. in addition, it is thought that the data obtained from this research will shed light on the preparation of initial teacher education curricula and academic studies in this field. method research design this study was designed as correlational survey model. correlational studies do not establish cause and effect, but aim to determine the existence and degree of relationship between two or more variables (karasar, 2013, p.81). as this study aims to determine the relationship among critical thinking tendencies, metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy, correlational design is considered to be appropriate for the aim of this study. population and sample the population of this study consists of 2.920 prospective teachers studying at van yüzüncü yıl university, faculty of education in 2016-2017 academic year. the sample of this study consists of 229 prospective teachers determined by purposive sampling as one of the non-probability sampling approaches. in purposive sampling, the researcher selects the participants based on his/her own judgment taking aim of the study into consideration. one of the major limitations of the non-probability sampling is that the results of this study cannot be generalized to a larger journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 population on statistical grounds (tongco, 2007). in this study, prospective teachers’ grade level and branch (department) were taken into consideration and almost equal number of students was sampled from each grade level and department. of these prospective teachers, 137 (59.8%) are female, 92 (40.2%) are male; 54 (23.6%) are first grade, 68 (29.7%) are second grade, 56 (24.5%) are third grade and 51 (22.2%) are fourth grade students from various departments such as basic education (42; 18.3%) , social sciences and turkish language (44; 19.2%), foreign languages (36, 15.7%), computer and instructional technologies (24; 10.5%), mathematics and science education (36; 15.7%), fine arts (47; 20.6%) departments. data collection tools for data collection, four scales were used in this study. the information about the scales is presented below: critical thinking disposition scale: this five point likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was developed by sosu (2013) and adapted into turkish by akın et al. (2015). it consists of 11 items and two sub-dimensions that are “critical openness” and “reflective skepticism”. cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of the total scale was calculated as 0.78; and in the sub-dimensions as 0.75. and 0.78., respectively. in this study, the scale’s cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was found as 0.82. these values show that the scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool. metacognitive skills scale: this five point likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was developed by altındağ and senemoğlu (2013). it is one-dimensional consisting of 30 items. cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as 0.94. in this study, the scale’s cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was found as 0.95. these values show that the scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool. problem solving inventory: this six point likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always) was developed by heppner & peterson (1982) and adapted into turkish by şahin, şahin and heppner (1993). it consists of 35 items and six sub-dimensions that are “impulsive style”, “reflective style”, “problem-solving confidence”, “avoidant style”, “monitoring” and “planfulness”. in scoring, three items are excluded, so the highest point obtained from the inventory is 192 and 32 to the lowest. higher score is interpreted as the individual is insufficient in problem solving skills; lower score is interpreted as the individual is sufficient in problem solving skills. cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of the total scale was calculated as 0.88; and in the sub-dimensions as 0.78, 0.76, 0.64, kozikoğlu 0.74, 0.69, and 0.59., respectively. in this study, the total scale’s cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was found as 0.90. these values show that the inventory is a valid and reliable measurement tool. academic self-efficacy scale: this five point likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was developed by jerusalem & schwarzer (1981) and adapted into turkish by yılmaz, gürçay, & ekici (2007). it is one-dimensional consisting of 7 items. cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as 0.79. in this study, the scale’s cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was found as 0.85. these values show that the scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool. data collection data were collected at van yüzüncü yıl university, faculty of education in 2016-2017 academic year. prior to the data collection, formal permission was taken from the dean of education faculty. participants were determined according to their departments and grade levels. general information and guidelines on scale application were explained by the researcher himself and all scales were administered to the students at the same time. data collection process lasted approximately 4 weeks. data analysis in this study, the relationships between prospective teachers’ critical thinking tendencies, metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy were analyzed with pearson product moments correlation coefficient (r). furthermore, stepwise regression analysis was used to determine whether prospective teachers’ metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy significantly explained their critical thinking tendencies significantly. in stepwise regression analysis, independent variables that make a significant contribution to the dependent variable are included in the analysis and independent variables that do not make a significant contribution to the dependent variable are excluded from the regression model (büyüköztürk, 2012; cohen, cohen, west & aiken, 2003). prior to the analysis, the assumptions of stepwise regression analysis such as multivariate normality and linearity, multicollinearity were examined. it was concluded that research data show multivariate normality and linearity. concerning multicollinearity, in order to detect the presence of one or more strong bivariate correlations, the commonly used cutoffs are 0.70 and above (yoo et al, 2014). in this study, intercorrelations among the predictor variables vary from 0.345 to 0.617. based on correlations journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 among variables and the variance inflation factor (vif), it can be concluded that there is not multicollinearity problem. findings the pearson product moments correlation coefficients calculated for analyzing the relationships between the variables included in this study are presented in table 1. table 1 pearson product moments correlation coefficients concerning all variables included in this study variables (1) (2) (3) (4) 1. metacognitive skills 1.00 2. problem solving skills .468** 1.00 3. academic self-efficacy .529** .399** .1.00 4. critical thinking tendencies .617** .345** .428** .1.00 p<.05 *, p<.01** according to the data in table 1; a positive, moderate level and significant relationship was found between prospective teachers’ critical thinking tendencies and metacognitive skills (r=.617; p<.01), problem solving skills (r=.345; p<.01), academic self-efficacy perceptions (r=.428; p<.01). stepwise regression analysis results concerning the prediction of prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies with metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy perceptions are presented in table 2. table 2 stepwise regression analysis concerning the prediction of prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies steps predictive variables β predictive power (r) variance explained (r2) 1 metacognitive skills .617 .617 .380 2 academic self-efficacy .142 .628 .395 according to the data in table 2, it was found that the variables of metacognitive skills and academic self-efficacy perceptions can explain %39.5 of the variance in prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies. the results of variance analysis concerning stepwise regression analysis in table 2 are presented in table 3. table 3 kozikoğlu the results of variance analysis concerning the prediction of prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies model sum of squares sd mean square f p regression residual 28.818 44.216 2 226 14.409 0.196 73.649 .000 according to data in table 3, it is seen that the predictive power obtained in the stepwise regression analysis given in table 2 is significant (f (2, 226) = 73.649, p <.001). the stepwise regression analysis took place in two steps. accordingly, it is seen that two variables (metacognitive skills, academic self-efficacy perceptions) are important predictors in terms of their contribution to the variance in prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies. however, it is seen that the variables included in the analysis differ in their contribution to the variance explained in prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies. in the first step of the analysis, the variable "metacognitive skills" explaining 38% of the variance was included. in the second step, the variable "academic self-efficacy" explaining 1.5% of the variance was included in the analysis. in terms of their contribution to the variance, two important predictors of prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies are ordered as metacognitive skills and academic self-efficacy perceptions, respectively. these analysis results show that these two variables together can explain about half (39.5%) of the variance in prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies. however, it was found that problem solving skills don't make a meaningful contribution to the total variance and cannot explain prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies significantly. discussion, conclusion and implications individual differences in today's learning environments are quite distinctive and affect learning to a great extent, yet little is known about individual differences in teachers’ learning skills. while vast literature on individual differences have shown that the skills needed to be an effective learner are, for example, in fact cognitive regulatory and not purely behavioral. (modrek, kuhn, conway & arvidsson, 2018; modrek & kuhn, 2017), it is worth understanding how this extends not only to adult populations such as teachers, but also other underlying cognitive mechanisms that may explain variation in teachers’ thinking and learning. this study differs from the similar studies in this field in terms of investigating critical thinking tendencies in prospective teachers with metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and self-efficacy perceptions altogether. therefore, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 this study has importance in terms of determining predictive power of these variables on students’ critical thinking tendencies. furthermore, this study has importance in terms of describing a theoretical framework that bridge critical thinking and metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, academic self-efficacy perceptions; and describing the relationship of metacognition with higher order thinking skills such as critical thinking. this study revealed a positive association between prospective teachers’ critical thinking skills, metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, and perceptions of academic self-efficacy. this result supports the findings of similar studies in the literature. many researchers have found a positive relationship between metacognition/metacognitive skills and cognitive processes such as problem solving (anandaraj & ramesh, 2014; kapa, 2001; karakelle, 2012; özçakır-sümen & çalışıcı, 2016), self-efficacy (tavakolizadeh, tabari & akbari, 2015; uzuntiryaki-kondakçı & çapaaydın, 2013) and critical thinking (buku, corebima, & rohman, 2016; magno, 2010; sadeghi, hassani, & rahmatkhah, 2014; semerci & elaldı, 2014; tabrizi & erfani, 2014). similarly, many researchers have found a positive relationship between self-efficacy and cognitive processes such as problem solving (behjoo, 2013; erözkan, 2014; özçakır-sümen & çalışıcı, 2016) and critical thinking (basereh & pishkar, 2016; dehghani et al, 2011; orujlu & hemmati-maslakpak, 2017; phan, 2009). these results show consistency with the findings of similar studies (an & cao, 2014; özçakır-sümen & çalışıcı, 2016; rozencwajg, 2003; safari & meskini, 2016; zare & mohammadi, 2011) which found that metacognitive skills have positive effects on students’ problem solving processes. furthermore, some studies (friede et al, 2008; kim & choi, 2014; memduhoğlu & keleş, 2016; tümkaya, aybek & aldağ, 2009) concluded that problem solving skills are related to critical thinking dispositions. on the other hand, aurah, cassady, & mcconnell (2014) found that metacognition and self-efficacy significantly explained problem solving ability. in this respect, it can be concluded that critical thinking tendencies, metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy perceptions are interrelated concepts. the results of this study determined that prospective teachers' metacognitive skills and academic self-efficacy perceptions together can explain about half (39.5%) of the variance in their critical thinking tendencies. furthermore, in terms of their contribution to the variance, two important predictors of prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies is ordered as metacognitive skills (38%) and academic self-efficacy perceptions (1.5%), respectively. this results show consistency kozikoğlu with the studies and views in the target literature. in defining the term of critical thinking, many researchers associated critical thinking with many twenty-first century skills such as metacognition, problem solving skills, creative thinking etc. (lai, 2011). in education, various studies were conducted on metacognition as a crucial term and some of these studies analyzed the effect of metacognition on other skills (safari & meskini, 2016). metacognition can be considered as a supportive element for critical thinking because monitoring one's own cognitive processes makes it more possible that one will use higher order thinking skills (lai, 2011). in the study conducted by magno (2010), the influence of metacognition on critical thinking skills were analyzed and it was found that metacognition is a significant predictor of critical thinking. similarly, in the study conducted by uzuntiryaki-kondakçı & çapa-aydın (2013), it was concluded that metacognitive self-regulation and chemistry self-efficacy explained 68.5% of the variance in critical thinking and metacognitive self-regulation plays a pivotal role in critical thinking skills. in the literature, many researchers have drawn the relationship between metacognition and critical thinking (brown, 2004; buku, corebima, & rohman, 2016; halpern, 1998; magno, 2010; sadeghi, hassani, & rahmatkhah, 2014; schoen, 1983; semerci & elaldı, 2014; tabrizi & erfani, 2014). it is believed that the individual begins to use multiple skills to reach an end when higher order thinking skills are targeted (magno, 2010). in accordance with the results of this study and similar studies in the literature, it can be said that one of facilitating skill of critical thinking is metacognitive skills. it can be concluded that the individuals using more metacognitive skills use critical thinking more or more easily. as willingham (2007) states, it can be inferred that metacognitive skills make critical thinking more possible. it can be thought that the individual's ability to monitor and organize his/her cognitive processes increases or makes it more possible his/her higher order thinking processes such as critical thinking, making judgments or reaching a decision. according to the results of this study, another variable that has positive effect on critical thinking is prospective teachers' academic self-efficacy as it explains 1.5% of the variance in prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies. this result shows consistency with the findings of similar studies (basereh & pishkar, 2016; dehghani et al, 2011; orujlu & hemmati-maslakpak, 2017; phan, 2009) in which a positive and significant relationship was found between self-efficacy and critical thinking. students with high self-efficacy perceptions are expected to be better in critical thinking (bandura, 1997, cited by uzuntiryaki-kondakçı & çapa-aydın, 2013). it can be journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 concluded that the students who believe in their academic knowledge and skills are higher in critical thinking tendencies. as critical thinking requires basic knowledge and skills to question and compare ideas, make judgments or make conclusions, it is an expected outcome. however, this study concluded that prospective teachers' problem solving skills don't make a meaningful contribution to the total variance and cannot explain prospective teachers' critical thinking tendencies significantly. considering the positive relationship between prospective teachers' problem solving skills and critical thinking tendencies, this is an unexpected and remarkable result. in this respect, it can be said that prospective teachers' problem solving skill is not a significant variable in explaining their critical thinking tendencies. the present study highlights certain theoretical and practical implications. first of all, one of the theoretical contribution of the study is that this study describes a theoretical framework that bridge critical thinking and metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, academic self-efficacy perceptions. this theoretical framework shows that certain higher order thing skills or processes such as metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, and academic self-efficacy facilitate to attain critical thinking. when the prospective teachers are able to control their cognitive processes, develop problem solving skills and have self-confidence in academic issues, the more likely they think critically to the issues presented to them. secondly, another theoretical contribution of the study describes the relationship of metacognition with higher order thinking skills such as critical thinking. the results of the present study reveal that metacognition is beyond the knowledge and regulation of cognition. it rather functions as specific skills that are used in order to attain higher order thinking such as critical thinking. concerning practical implications, it is suggested to conduct experimental studies on several diverse samples across different age groups and compare to see their cognitive skills and determine cause-effect relationships. the utilization of a similar methodology is also possible with other data sources (observation, interview etc.) or a different population. furthermore, longitudinal studies can be conducted in order to observe the influence of metacognitive skills, problem solving skills, academic self-efficacy perceptions on critical thinking. kozikoğlu references agran, m., blanchard, c., wehmeyer, m. & hughes, c. (2002). increasing the problem-solving skills of students with developmental disabilities participating in general education, remedial and special education, 23(5), 279-288. akin, a., hamedoğlu, m. a., arslan, s., akin, u., çelik, u., kaya, ç. & arslan, n. (2015). the adaptation and validation of the turkish version of the critical thinking disposition scale, the international journal of educational researchers, 6(1), 31-35. altındağ, m. (2008). hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi öğrencilerinin yürütücü biliş becerileri. unpublished master’s thesis, hacettepe university, social sciences institute, ankara, turkey. altındağ, m. & senemoğlu, n. (2013). metacognitive skills scale, hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 28(1), 15-26. an, y. j. & cao, l. (2014). examining the effects of metacognitive scaffolding on students' design problem solving and metacognitive skills in an online environment, journal of online learning and teaching, 10(4), 552-568. anandaraj, s. & ramesh, c. (2014). a study on the relationship between metacognition and problem solving ability of physics major students, indian journal of applied research, 4(5), 191-199. anderson, l. w., krathwohl, d. r., airaisan, p. w., cruikshank, k. a., mayer, r. e., pintrich, p.r., raths, j. & wittrock, m. c. (2001). a taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. addison wesley longman, inc. aurah, c. m., cassady, j. c. & mcconnell, t. j. (2014). predicting problem solving ability from metacognition and self-efficacy beliefs on a cross validated sample, british journal of education, 2(1), 49-72. bandura, a. (1997). self-efficacy in changing societies. new york: cambridge university press. basereh, n. & pishkar, k. (2016). the relationship among self-efficacy beliefs, self-directed learning, and critical thinking: a case of advanced efl learners, journal of applied linguistics and language research, 3(2), 19-27. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 behjoo, b. m. (2013). the relationship among self-efficacy, academic self-efficacy, problem solving skills and foreign language achievement. unpublished master’s thesis, hacettepe university, social sciences institute, ankara, turkey. borkowski, j. g., estrada, m. t., milstead, m. & hale, c. a. (1989). general problem-solving skills: relations between metacognition and strategic processing, learning disability quarterly, 12(1), 57-70. brown, t. (2004). critical thinking and learning: an encyclopedia for parents and teachers: bloom’s taxonomy and critical thinking. westport: greenwood press. büyüköztürk, ş. (2012). sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. ankara: pegem akademi yayınları. chaudhry, n. & rasool, g. (2012). a case study on improving problem solving skills of undergraduate computer science students, world applied sciences journal, 20(1), 34-39. cohen, j., cohen, p., west, s. g. & aiken, l. s. (2003). applied multiple regression/ correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. london: lawrence erlbaum. dehghani, m., jafari-sani, h., pakmehr, h. & malekzadeh, a. (2011). relationship between students critical thinking and self-efficacy beliefs in ferdowsi university of mashhad, iran, procedia social and behavioral sciences, 15, 2952–2955. erözkan, a. (2014). analysis of social problem solving and social self-efficacy in prospective teachers, educational sciences: theory and practice, 14(2), 447-455. flavell, j. h. (1979). metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of cognitive developmental inquiry, american psychologist, 34(10), 906-911. foshay, r. & kirkley, j. (2003). principles for teaching problem solving. usa: plato learning inc. friede, c. r., irani, t. a., rhoades, e. b., fuhrman, n. e. & gallo, m. (2008). it's in the genes: exploring relationships between critical thinking and problem solving in undergraduate agriscience students' solutions to problems in mendelian genetics, journal of agricultural education, 49(4), 25-37. halpern, d. f. (1998). teaching critical thinking across domains: dispositions, skills, structure training, and metacognitive monitoring, american psychologist, 53(4), 449-455. heppner, p. p. & peterson, c. h. (1982). the development and implications of a personalproblem solving inventory, journal of counseling psychology, 29, 66–75. kozikoğlu hunt, c. w. (2011). relationships among self-efficacy, social support, social problem-solving, and self-management behaviors of people living with type 2 diabetes in rural alabama. unpublished doctoral dissertation, birmingham: the university of alabama. jerusalem, m. & schwarzer, r. (1981). fragebogen zur erfassung von "selbstwirksamkeit. skalen zur befindlichkeit und persoenlichkeit in r. schwarzer (hrsg.). berlin: freie universitaet, institut fuer psychologie. kapa, e. (2001). a metacognitive support during the process of problem solving in a computerized environment, educational studies in mathematics, 47, 317-336. karakelle, s. (2012). üst bilişsel farkındalık, zeka, problem çözme algısı ve düşünme ihtiyacı arasındaki bağlantılar, eğitim ve bilim, 37(164), 237-250. karasar, n. (2013). bilimsel araştırma yöntemi. ankara: nobel yayıncılık. kim, k. s. & choi, j. h. (2014). the relationship between problem solving ability, professional self concept, and critical thinking disposition of nursing students, international journal of bio-science and bio-technology, 6(5), 131-142. kitsantas, a. (2000). the role of self-regulation strategies and self-efficacy perceptions in successful weight loss maintenance, psychology and health, 15, 811–820. krulik, s. & rudnick, j. a. (1987). problem solving: a handbook for teachers. boston: allyn and bacon. kuhn, d. (1999). a developmental model of critical thinking, educational researcher, 28(1), 16–26. kuhn, d. & dean, d. (2004). metacognition: a bridge between cognitive psychology and educational practice, theory into practice, 43(4), 268-273. kwang, t. s. (2000). the effect of metacognitive training on the mathematical word problem solving of singapore 11-12 year olds in a computer environment. unpublished doctoral dissertation, usa: the university of leeds. lai, e. r. (2011). critical thinking: a literature review, pearson's research reports, 6, 40-41. linn, m. c. (2000). designing the knowledge integration environment, international journal of science education, 22, 781-796. lockwood, f. (2003). metacognition and critical thinking for effective learning. retrieved september 27, 2018, from http://members.shaw.ca/donlockwood/critical.htm. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 magno, c. (2010). the role of metacognitive skills in developing critical thinking, metacognition and learning, 5(2), 137-156. mayer, r. e. (1983). implications of cognitive psychology for instruction in mathematical problem solving. conference of instructional implications of research on mathematical problem solving. usa: san diego state university. mcpeck, j. e (1983). critical thinking and education, teachers college record, 85(1), 154-157. memduhoğlu, h. b. & keleş, e. (2016). evaluation of the relation between critical-thinking tendency and problem-solving skills of pre-service teachers, journal of educational sciences research, 6(2), 75-94. modrek, a. & kuhn, d. (2017). a cognitive cost of the need to achieve?, cognitive development, 44, 12-20. modrek, a. s., kuhn, d., conway, a. & arvidsson, t. (2018). cognitive regulation, not behavior regulation, predicts learning, learning and instruction, 60, 237-244. orujlu, s. & hemmati-maslakpak, m. (2017). assessing the relationship between critical thinking and self-efficacy of nursing student, journal of nursing education, 5(6), 11-16. özçakır-sümen, ö. & çalışıcı, h. (2016). the relationships between preservice teachers’ mathematical literacy self efficacy beliefs, metacognitive awareness and problem solving skills, participatory educational research (per), special issue 2016-ii, 11-19. pajares, f. & schunk, d. h. (2002). self and self-belief in psychology and education: a historical perspective. in j. aronson (eds.), improving academic achievement: impact of psychological factors on education (pp. 5-25). new york: academic press. pajares, f. (2005). gender differences in mathematics self-efficacy beliefs. in a. gallagher & j. kaufman (eds.), mind gap: gender differences in mathematics (pp. 294-315). boston: cambridge university press. phan, h. p. (2009). relations between goals, self-efficacy, critical thinking, and deep processing strategies: a path analysis, educational psychology, 29, 777-799. rozencwajg, p. (2003). metacognitive factors in scientific problem solving strategies, european journal of psychology of education, 18(3), 281-294. kozikoğlu sadeghi, b., hassani, m. t. & rahmatkhah, m. (2014). the relationship between efl learners' metacognitive strategies, and their critical thinking, journal of language teaching & research, 5(5), 1167-1175. safari, y. & meskini, h. (2016). the effect of metacognitive instruction on problem solving skills in iranian students of health sciences, global journal of health science, 8(1), 150. sandoval, w. a., kwako, a., modrek, a. s. & kawasaki, j. (2018) patterns of classroom talk through participation in discourse-focused teacher professional development. proceedings of the 13th international conference of the learning sciences, 2 (pp. 760-767). sang, g., valcke, m., van braak, j. & tondeur, j. (2010). student teachers’ thinking processes and ict integration: predictors of prospective teaching behaviors with educational technology, computers & education, 54(1), 103-112. schoen, d. (1983). the reflective practitioner. san francisco: jossey-bass. schoenfeld, a. h. (1992). learning to think mathematically: problem solving, metacognition, and sense-making in mathematics. in d. grouws (eds.), handbook for research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 334-370). new york: macmillan. semerci, ç. & elaldı, ş. (2014). the roles of metacognitive beliefs in developing critical thinking skills, bartın üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 3(2), 317-333. senemoğlu, n. (2013). gelişim, öğrenme ve öğretim: kuramdan uygulamaya. ankara: yargı yayınevi. sosu, e. m. (2013). the development and psychometric validation of a critical thinking disposition scale. thinking skills and creativity, 9, 107-119. sümen, ö. ö. & çalışıcı, h. (2016). the relationships between preservice teachers’ mathematical literacy self efficacy beliefs, metacognitive awareness and problem solving skills. participatory educational research (per), special issue 2016-ii, 11-19. swanson, h. l. (1992). the relationship between metacognition and problem solving in gifted children, roeper review, 15(1), 43-48. şahin, n., şahin, n. h. & heppner, p. p. (1993). the psychometric properties of the problem solving inventory, cognitive therapy and research, 17(4), 379-396. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 111-130 tabrizi, a. r. n. & erfani, l. (2014). the relationship between critical thinking and cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies among iranian efl learners, international journal of language learning and applied linguistics world, 7(1), 265-277. tavakolizadeh, j., tabari, j. & akbari, a. (2015). academic self-efficacy: predictive role of attachment styles and meta-cognitive skills. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 171, 113-120. tongco, m. d. c. (2007). purposeful sampling as a tool for informant selection, ethnobotany research & applications, 5, 147-158. uzuntiryaki-kondakçı, e. & çapa-aydın, y. (2013). predicting critical thinking skills of university students through metacognitive self-regulation skills and chemistry selfefficacy, educational sciences: theory and practice, 13(1), 666-670. tschannen-moran, m. & hoy, w. k. (1998). teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct, teaching and teacher education, 17(2001), 783-805. tümkaya, s., aybek, b. & aldağ, h. (2009). an investigation of university students’ critical thinking disposition and perceived problem solving skills, eurasian journal of educational research, 36, 57-74. varga, r. (2011). the importance of enhancing critical thinking skill of pre-service teachers, training and practice, 9(1-2), 97-106. wang, s. l. & wu, p. y. (2008). the role of feedback and self-efficacy on web-based learning: the social cognitive perspective, computers & education, 51(4), 1589-1598. willingham, d. t. (2007). critical thinking: why is it so hard to teach?, arts education policy review, 109(4), 21-32. yılmaz, m., gürçay, d. & ekici, g. (2007). akademik özyeterlik ölçeğinin türkçe’ye uyarlanması, hacettepe üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi dergisi, 33(33), 253-259. yoo, w., mayberry, r., bae, s., singh, k., he, q. p. & lillard jr, j. w. (2014). a study of effects of multicollinearity in the multivariable analysis, international journal of applied science and technology, 4(5), 9-19. zare, h. & mohammadi, n. (2011). effect of metacognitive training on mathematical problems solving in students, journal of new approaches in educational, 2, 161-76. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (3), 1-30 the relationship between beliefs in free markets, nationalism, and immigration: implications for social studies educators william mccorkle1 & jessie montezuma2 abstract the ideas of free markets and less government regulation were associated at the turn of the 20th century with a more internationalist approach and, at times, even more openness to immigration. some of these dynamics have shifted particularly with the rise of a more populist economic message with leaders like donald trump. this study examines the relationship between free markets and immigration as well as examining the role of nationalism in this relationship. the findings show that there is a negative relationship between more free-market ideas and more inclusive ideas towards immigration though the relationship was not statistically significant when controlling for other variables. the implications of this incongruence in beliefs about the idea of free markets and the role of government are discussed with particular attention to the changing political dynamics within the united states. furthermore, attention is given to the implications of this relationship for social studies teachers as they discuss issues related to immigration. keywords: immigration, free markets, populism, nationalism, protectionism introduction this paper focuses on the nexus of beliefs about free markets/less government intervention and views about inclusive immigration policies and more open borders. from a philosophical or ideological perspective based on the role of government, these ideas should be compatible as they are grounded in ideas of less government intervention and individual freedom. however, political allegiances and nationalism often means that philosophies and ideologies are less than consistent. this nationwide quantitative correlation study (n=307) is focused on the intersection between the ideas of free markets and immigration as well as levels of nationalism. we believe this study is important in understanding the conceptual foundations that should link beliefs like less government intervention and more inclusive immigration policies. this link is especially important for those advocating more for inclusive immigration policies in a conservative environment like the american southeast (where both authors reside) where many claim to believe in less government intervention while simultaneously supporting some of the most restrictive 1 assist. prof. of education, college of charleston, south carolina, usa; mccorklewd@cofc.edu 2 graduate student, college of charleston, south carolina, usa; montezum@musc.edu mailto:mccorklewd@cofc.edu mailto:montezum@musc.edu journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 immigration policies. some of the examples of these restrictive policies include barring undocumented individuals from state higher education institutions and prohibiting deferred action for childhood arrivals (daca) students from obtaining licensure in many areas of employments (mccorkle & bailey, 2016). this relationship is particularly relevant for social studies educators in the united states but particularly in conservative regions of the country as they seek to both teach about immigration and advocate for their immigrant students. this study is centered on three research questions: 1. what were the descriptive statistics related to the broader constructs and individual survey items related to beliefs in free markets, immigration, and nationalism? 2. what free market beliefs are positively correlated among respondents? 3. what is the relationship between beliefs in free markets, immigration, and nationalism and much do other demographic characteristics factor into this relationship? theoretical framework laako (2016) and parker and vaughan-williams (2012) among others have looked at the issue of immigration from a critical migration perspective and believe this focus on immigration through the lens of social justice is helpful, particularly in spaces that may claim to uphold progressive values but are still entrenched in normative thinking in regard to immigration. in more popular culture, discussion around more inclusive immigration policies often center on ideas of compassion or justice depending on the political ideology and role of those making the arguments. though the authors would concur that both of these ideas are valid perspectives for having a more open immigrant system, they are not as likely to obtain as much support in a society like the united states where there may be less motivation to create a more inclusive system based on compassion alone as it is seen as optional and where many may not see or refuse to acknowledge more open immigration being a way to battle past and current injustices (mccorkle, 2019). instead, this paper centers the discussion of immigration primarily in terms of freedom and liberty (kukathas, 2021; napolitano, 2013). carens (1987) analogy of restrictive immigration as similar to serfdom is particularly poignant in shaping this perspective. this framework is particularly relevant in understanding the intersection with beliefs about more open markets and less government intervention. mccorkle & montezuma 3 fears (2007) contends that the us founding is unique from many other nations since it does not revolve primarily around ethnicity but more on specific ideals, particularly the idea of freedom. these ideals of course were never fully implemented, and there was certainly a strong racial exclusionary element in the founding of the nation. nevertheless, it could be crucial to appeal to these broader ideas of liberty and freedom in order to promote a more inclusive immigration system. founding fathers and proponents of the new nation like jefferson, washington, and thomas paine all give some credence to the idea of individuals being able to leave their place of birth and find refuge in a new land. this idea of immigration as one of freedom has caused some more libertarian leaders and scholars to call for more open immigration policies. though at least in the modern u.s. system, a more open immigration system is associated more with the political left, the ideas of greater freedom and less government intervention could theoretically lead those with more conservative and/or libertarian leanings towards more inclusive immigration policies. as napolitano (2013) argues, “if the government can restrain the freedom to travel on the basis of an immutable characteristic of birth, there is no limit to the restraints it can impose.” kukathas (2021) makes a similar argument on the lack of freedom that immigration controls can bring, the loss of freedom is more significant than has been appreciated, and that the restrictions that make for that loss are not warranted. the gains, if they are in fact gains, are negligible, but the price is high. immigration controls, more than many other instruments of governance, encourage the regulation of private and commercial life, the monitoring of social institutions— from schools and universities to professional organizations—and, at worst, the militarization of parts of society (p.6). he particularly highlights how immigration restrictions can restrict certain relationships, related to family connections and business (for example, restricting who you are allowed to hire). this gives great power to the government and should be of strong concern for those who appeal to the broader ideals of freedom. tabbarok (2015), a libertarian economist, take the argument further and advocates for open borders based on both an ethical and economic rationale. he argues that the economic benefits would be substantial for both the countries that people are leaving and the countries that they are entering. he further argues that we should see the restrictions of entrance to countries with the same disdain that we have towards individuals not being able to leave their place of birth. if we believe in the ideas of freedom at least as espoused in the enlightenment and the u.s. founding, restrictive journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 immigration based on place of birth is not only incompatible, but a very threat to those ideas (mccorkle, 2019). it is through this framework that we analyze the data that examines the intersection of beliefs on free markets and immigration as both of these ideas relate significantly to the idea of freedom. literature review attitudes towards immigration there has been substantial national polling on issues related to immigration particularly in wake of the more controversial policies under the trump administration. in a 2019 poll, 62% of respondents said “immigrants strengthen the country because of their hard work and talents” while only 25% said they are a “burden on the country because they take jobs, housing, and health care.” however, there is a large partisan divide. 83% democrats say immigrants are a strength to the country, while 49% of republicans say they burden it (jones, 2019). there are also more positive attitudes toward undocumented immigrants with 67% stating it is important to create a path for more undocumented immigrants to remain in the country (82% of democrats compared to 48% republicans). 68% of americans say it is somewhat or very important to increase security along the border, and 73% say it is important accept refugees fleeing violence and war. 54% state that it is important to increase the deportation of unauthorized immigrants with 45 stating it is not important (daniller, 2019). despite the more anti-immigrant policies of the trump administration, in 2020 there was the highest support for immigration since 1965, with 34% of americans wanting to see immigration increased and 77% stating immigration is a good thing for the country. in this broader sense “public support for immigration shows far less of a partisan divide, and both parties express a more generally positive view of immigration.” (younis, 2020). there is even greater support for dreamers or daca recipients. in 2018, 83% of americans favored or strongly favored a proposal to allow "immigrants, who were brought to the u.s. illegally as children, the chance to become u.s. citizens if they meet certain requirements over a period of time," while only 15% opposed it (newport, 2018). on previous work with teachers, mccorkle (2018a) found that there were overall more inclusive attitudes for undocumented immigrants with even greater support for dreamers. females, https://news.gallup.com/poll/235775/americans-oppose-border-walls-favor-dealing-daca.aspx mccorkle & montezuma 5 younger teachers, political liberals, and those living in the west and northeast tended to have more pro-immigrant beliefs. beliefs on free markets/capitalism in the united states there is also recent research on beliefs on free markets, inequality, and capitalism in the united states. the majority of americans believe inequality is too great in the u.s. and that our current economic system unfairly favors powerful interests – around one-third find it generally fair (igielnik, 2020). there is a partisan divide on this topic with republicans being evenly split and the vast majority (86%) of democrats saying the system is unfair. a large majority of democrats (82%) and republicans (86%) agree that politicians have too much power and influence on the economy, but disagree in regards to the power of labor unions, large corporations, financial institutions, and wealthy individuals. some in-group differences were identified as well with lower-income republicans (79%) being more likely to say that wealthy people have too much power compared to middle-income (68%) and upper-income republicans (58%). according to a 2019 poll, those who identify more closely with the republican party tend to view socialism and capitalism in “zero-sum terms'' where they view capitalism positively and socialism negatively. conversely, most democrats (38%) endorsed positive views on both socialism and capitalism (pew research, 2019). overall, a greater percentage of americans have a positive view of capitalism at 65% compared to socialism at 42%. interestingly, one of the main reasons individuals have a positive view of socialism is because it “builds upon and improves capitalism” underscoring the desire of some for a middle ground between the two ideologies. there is a wide gap in belief between economic issues in general between economists and the public. caplan’s (2009) analysis on the differences between economists’ and the public’s view on the economy not only reinforces this idea, but seeks to quantify and explain these differences. they found that neither self-serving nor ideological bias can account for the disagreements between the two groups. yet, when controlling for these factors as well as education, economic training accounted for around 25% of economists' belief patterns. another significant finding was that minimal education was associated with a cluster of extreme beliefs. in respect to foreign aid, excessive profits, and trade agreements, low-educated, non-economists often see ‘major’ problems where the economist sees no problem at all. even when controlling for education, there are large gaps between laypersons and experts in regards to topics related to foreigners, such as foreign aid, immigration, overseas competition, and trade agreements. caplan offers an explanation for this journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 effect, suggesting that topics that elicit more emotional rather than analytic responses may account for some differences between economists and lay public beliefs about the economy. beliefs on trade policy and tariffs though beliefs in free markets should theoretically entail beliefs in more free trade, this trend does not always hold due to other political realities. baker (2005) analysis on trade attitudes of highskill and low-skill countries revealed that consumer interests are significant for explaining trade attitudes, and labor markets are a determining factor for citizens’ reactions to globalization. citizens in high-skilled, wealthy countries tend to view free trade as the solution to high prices. however, when controlling for nationalism, distance to markets, and higher prices, skill has a negative correlation with greater support for free trade. countries with high degrees of nationalism tend to lean more protectionist and anti-trade, yet once nationalism is controlled for, citizens from less-developed countries tend to be more supportive of free trade. this demonstrates the conflict between nationalism and ideas of free markets, which are often both characteristics of right leaning political movements but are in contrast to one another in many areas. an intriguing finding from this work is the correlation between support for free trade and individual skills increases consistently as a nation’s skill level increases. it is important to note that this correlation is only statistically negative for the lowest skill-endowed country and that for a handful of the unskilled-labor powerhouses, the slope between skill and support for free trade is flat. on average, women, the elderly, and nationalists were more protectionist in their views. the current beliefs on trade in the u.s. are mixed. a gallup poll (sadd, 2019) found that most americans believed that trade was an opportunity for economic growth (79% of democrats and 70% of republicans). however, those views varied widely on the specific policy of nafta with 67% democrats believing it has been good for the u.s. compared to only 22% of republicans. relation between beliefs and free markets and other constructs relevant to this current study is the relationship between beliefs on free markets and views on other societal issues. heath and gifford (2006) examine how beliefs on markets may predict beliefs and actions regarding climate change, specifically its existence, the impact of humans, and the level of its detrimental impact. results demonstrate the support for free-market ideology was negatively associated with all three beliefs about climate change and behavioral intention. while the negative correlations between the beliefs about global climate change and support for freemarkets were significant in this study, the regression analysis including all factor revealed that mccorkle & montezuma 7 support for free markets was no longer significant in predicting beliefs in climate change. they also identified an underlying relationship between support for free-markets and indifference to the environment. the authors suggest that apathetic attitudes toward climate change may stem from the belief that the free market system will lead to greater positive outcomes overall. a study from dutt and kohfeldt (2019) directly examining the relationship between beliefs in neoliberal ideas and efforts to support asylum seekers in the u.s. found a strong connection between neoliberal beliefs and exclusionary beliefs and practices. a number of group differences were also identified including gender, age, and political ideology. women not only reported lower levels of moral exclusion, neoliberal ideology, and ethnocentrism but also demonstrated greater willingness to take action in support of asylum seekers. of these four items, increased age was associated with less willingness to engage in activism and higher levels of ethnocentrism. across the board, democrats endorsed the most inclusive beliefs while republicans had the most exclusive beliefs, suggesting a strong partisan divide. beliefs on nationalism as this study intersects with the issues of nationalism, attention needs to be given to the broader beliefs about nationalism, particularly as it relates to views on immigration. in their study on nationalism, bonikowski and dimaggio (2016) found four primary groups in relation to nationalism. 24% were ardent nationalists. they tended to lean strongly republican, older, white male, and evangelical or protestant. they tended to have little formal education and lived in the south. another 38% were considered restrictive nationalists. they had moderate levels of national pride and held to an exclusionary definition for being “truly american” with many strong conditions including three fourths stress being born in the country. the majority expressed pride in u.s. armed forces and history while only 13% reported pride in american democracy. they are more likely to be, low in education and income, hispanic or african-american, female, and born in the u.s. 22% were labeled as creedal nationalists. they had high levels of national pride, but were reluctant to qualify “truly american” with strong conditions. they were defined by a type of “liberal universalism”. they were the group most likely to have gone onto higher education, had the highest mean income by a wide margin, and were disproportionately republican. they were most likely to be foreign born and classify themselves as racially “other”. republicans from the creedal nationalist group were more similar to democrats, in that they were more diverse, less https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/bonikowski/files/bonikowski_and_dimaggio_-_varieties_of_american_popular_nationalism.pdf journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 contentiously religious, and less likely to be from the south than other republicans. finally, 17% were defined as disengaged with the lowest levels of nationalist beliefs and national pride. they were the youngest of any of the groups (mean age 38), highly-educated, less religious, and democrat. they contained a higher percentage of african-american, “other” races, and foreignborn individuals compared to the sample. the majority live in the northeast or pacific west. for the disengaged, this could explain their rejection of nationalism. of all the groups, the disengaged were the most supportive of multiculturalism and related positions. restrictive and ardent nationalists were more likely to harbor negative beliefs about immigrants and support more restrictive immigration and border policies compared to the creedal nationalists and disengaged respondents. an australian study (pedersen et al., 2005) on beliefs on nationalism and attitudes towards asylum seekers evaluated how self-esteem, nationalism, false beliefs, and social demographics may relate to attitudes toward asylum seekers. their findings reveal a strong, positive correlation between the attitudes towards asylum seekers (atas) scale and the false belief scale. negative attitudes towards asylum seekers were highly related to false beliefs about them, and approximately 66% of participants endorsed one or more false beliefs about asylum seekers. additionally, high-levels of nationalism, being male, lack of formal education, and right-wing political ideology predicted negative attitudes towards asylum seekers. the results from this study highlight the importance of educating the public and directly addressing misconceptions about asylum seekers and their experience requesting sanctuary. mccorkle’s (2018a) study of teachers views on immigration also examined their views on nationalism. the teachers leaned towards nationalism as a whole but had a stronger proclivity towards patriotism and rejected chauvinistic nationalism as a whole. the analysis also revealed that there was a strong positive correlation between levels of nationalism and more exclusive beliefs towards immigration as a whole including educational rights for immigrant students. the role of nationalism is particularly relevant in wake of the shifting policies that occurred during the covid-19 epidemic. it is undeniable there has been a rise in nationalist policies across the globe in response to the covid-19 pandemic. su and shen (2021) explore to what extent individual citizens support these policy changes and whether they have become more nationalistic themselves since the outbreak. they found that conservative ideology is associated with greater support for nationalist policies, such as international travel bans, with the inverse holding true for https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11366-020-09696-2.pdf mccorkle & montezuma 9 those with more liberal ideologies. these findings suggest that the pandemic did not make individuals more nationalistic, but rather made them gravitate closer towards their original ideology. immigration and the social studies classroom there has been growing scholarship on the issues related to teaching about immigration in the social studies classroom. mccorkle (2018b) argues that teachers in the united states setting should have students investigate the history of immigration to demonstrate how policies on immigration have become more restrictive over time. likewise, mccorkle (2018c) argues that teachers, particularly those in the field of social studies, are vital in helping to undermine xenophobia within the classroom. moore (2020) contends that it is essential for teachers to discuss controversial issues despite the possible pressures not to engage with this topic. to refuse to would lead students to be “be woefully unprepared for civic participation”. (p. 56). however, dabach et al. (2018) argue that immigration should be reframed in terms of justice and away from the idea of always being controversial. it could be argued that when teachers frame immigration as controversy, it actually allows more anti-immigrant views to be normalized. journell (2009) highlights how state history standards can be part of the issue as they often end discussion of immigration in the 19th century while also tending to portray immigrants as a burden to the society. in a time, when it appears much of the curriculum and the broader society is either apathetic to or embracing of more restrictive immigration policies, social studies teachers can offer a unique lens (mccorkle, 2019c). more broadly for teachers overall, aydin et al. (2017) argue that it is important for teachers to be engaged in professional development related to immigration. this type of training will “not only help teachers eliminate their personal biases and harmful language, it will also increase their ability to accept and welcome students with different beliefs and values” (p. 87). methodology this study is based in a quantitative correlation design where the goal is to understand the relationship between variables rather than seeking to posit cause and effect between the differing constructs and variables (joinson, 2001; price et al., 2015). the aim is to both understand the relationship between the constructs (free markets, immigration, and nationalism) as well as the variance in belief between different demographic factors such as gender, race, age, and political journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 ideology. since it does not actually have an intervention, this study is more based in seeking to “provoke the ‘why’ questions of analytic research” (baker, 2018, p. 157). this study is based in a public survey approach. this was used in order to obtain a more nationwide sample. it also avoids some of the possible limitations that occur when only applying the study to a singular location and the unique environment that may be present in that location. since this survey does cover three separate issues and thus is a form of “pooling,” the length of the survey could naturally cause issues with response rates (adams & gale, 1982; raghunathan & grizzle, 1995). since the respondents were compensated for taking the survey, it did remove some of these barriers, but care was also taken to keep the survey length relatively short and make the questions as straightforward as possible. instrument the items on free markets were taken primarily from the libertarian think-tank, advocates for self-government (2020) as well as an instrument from klein and perry (2013). additional consultation was made with an economics professor at the university. feedback was also received from those who completed the initial pilot study. this feedback helped to establish a level of content validity on these specific questions related to the ideas of free markets. the internal reliability of these items were examined using both a factor analysis (see tables 2-3) and the cronbach alpha score. this was of particular necessity with this construct given its nascent nature. the questions on immigration were largely self-generated by the first author from a previous study. the items on immigration were divided into two categories: (1) beliefs on immigration on the more conceptual level rather than current issues related to immigration (2) beliefs on current, controversial immigration issues, particularly issues that arose during the trump administration. the questions related to the theoretical beliefs on immigration had been tested for reliability in a previous study (mccorkle, 2018a) and had gone through a process of content validity as they were analyzed by educational scholars, specifically those with a focus on immigration. some of the modern immigration questions were more nascent and original to this study but were examined for reliability as well using a cronbach alpha test. the items related to nationalism (and several of the immigration questions) came originally from the issp (1995) international survey. specific items regarding nationalism were used that had been previously analyzed and examined for reliability by coenders and scheepers (2003). they used structural equation modeling to delineate items related to nationalism versus those associated with mccorkle & montezuma 11 ethnic exclusionism. this distinction is important when seeking to understand the differences between the idea of levels of nationalism and broader attitudes towards immigration. all items used a seven-point likert-type scale. table 1 survey items for all constructs free market questions what are you beliefs on... 1.rent control 2. decriminalization of drugs 3. owning, accumulating, and selling property with minimal to no government interference 4. government should require occupational licensing for professionals. 5. government should impose tariffs. 6. government should protect domestic industries from foreign competition. 7. minimum wage laws 8. using monetary policy to tune the economy 9. using fiscal policy to tune the economy 10. tighter rather than looser controls on immigration 11. government should not censor speech, press, media or internet. 12. government should extend unemployment benefits due to covid. 13. let people control their own retirement; privatize social security. 14. it is the role of government to create jobs. 15. government should not be responsible for providing healthcare. 16. immigrants should assimilate into american cultures and values 17. immigrants should be required to learn english to move to america theoretical immigration and border questions 1. migration between nations is a basic human right. 2. governments have an absolute right to control who immigrates into their countries, including immigrants who do not pose a security risk. 3. breaking immigration laws is an immoral act. 4. entering a country illegally to provide for one’s family is morally justified. 5. border restrictions are a form of unjustified discrimination. 6. our ultimate goal should be an open border (with security checks) system where people are able to freely immigrate. 7. where would you fall on the scale between countries having the absolute authority to restrict who moves to their country and the absolute right of immigrants to freely move to another country? nationalism questions 1. i would rather be a citizen of the united states than of any other country in the world. 2. the world would be a better place if people from other countries were more like americans. 3. people should support their country even if their country is in the wrong. modern immigration questions 1. the number of immigrants to the united states today should be increased. 2. refugees who have suffered political repression in their own country should be allowed to enter in the united states. 3. what are your feelings on policies which propose the deportation of the majority of the undocumented/illegal immigrants in the nation? 4. what are your feelings on policies that seek to create a legal path to citizenship for a significant portion of the undocumented/illegal immigrant population? 5. undocumented/illegal immigrants who came to the country as children should be allowed to stay. 6. how supportive are you of trump's administration family separation policy for immigrants? 7. how supportive are you of trump's plans to shut down the asylum at the us border? journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 pilot study a pilot study was conducted with a group of students at the university of both authors, which is a medium sized public institution in the american southeast. approximately 100 participants were part of the pilot study, which examined these areas of free markets, immigration, and nationalism. after the study was conducted, the authors ran a factor analysis with the free market items since this was the area that needed the greatest examination of reliability. after conducting the analysis and also receiving feedback from the students in the study, the wording on a few of the questions were changed for the sake of clarity, a few questions were removed, and one was added. some items were included even though they did not remain in the final construct of free markets. this was helpful for both understanding individual items and also helping to more deeply examine what items are included in this variable of free market beliefs (research question 2). nationwide study after analyzing the pilot study, a nationwide (united states) study was conducted in january of 2021. the sample was obtained through the prolific, which is a company that obtains respondents for research studies. this choice allowed us to obtain a broader sample that would be more expansive and diverse than a study conducted at one university or institution. it also permitted responses from individuals from a greater variety of career interests, educational levels, and economic backgrounds. though it did not completely eliminate selection bias in who was interested in completing the survey, since the respondents are compensated for their responses, it was more likely to draw in a more diverse group of respondents. it may have avoided only having respondents with specific interests or strong beliefs in free markets or immigration, which would have been more likely if the survey would have been conducted without compensation. even with this added advantage, the descriptive statistics cannot necessarily be generalizable to the larger population. however, the primary interest of this study-the inferential statistics-are more generalizable (nestor & schutt, 2014). the survey took about 7-8 minutes to complete and was primarily likert-type questions with two opened ended questions related to the role of government and the idea of immigration as a natural right. the study was completed in january of 2021, and the initial analysis of the data began in the spring of 2021. analysis plan the first research question analyzed the descriptive statistics (both the broader constructs and some of the individual items). this question was important in establishing the broader context of mccorkle & montezuma 13 individuals beliefs on immigration, nationalism, and free markets and the variance, consistency, and incongruity between certain items. the means, standard deviations, and percentage frequencies were used to analyze many of the individual items. the second research question related to what defines a belief in free markets was examined by conducting a factor analysis in order to understand the relationship between items, particularly the relationship between free markets ideas that align with more republican/conservative ideals (less government intervention, opposition to government healthcare, rent control, creation of jobs, etc.) and free markets ideals that might not be as aligned with the ideas of the current republican party (opposition to tariffs, more inclusive immigration policies, drug legalization). items were removed from the analysis until all the factors had an extraction value of at least .5. for the third question, there were initial correlation analyses run between the areas of nationalism, beliefs on abstract views on immigration, beliefs on modern immigration issues, and beliefs on free markets. additionally, two ols linear regression analyses were run. for one the dependent variable was beliefs on the more abstract ideas of borders and migration. the second regression examined beliefs on modern immigration issues. in addition to the construct of free markets, levels of nationalism, political ideology, and political party were analyzed. in addition, the demographic factors of race, religion, gender, and number of friends were also included in the analyses. demographics participants (n=307) age ranged from 18 to 70 years old (m=33.64). the median age was 30 years. 49.2% of participants identified as female, and 49.2% identified as male. five participants identified as transgender or other. the vast majority of participants described their race/ethnicity as white at 74.9%, followed by 14% asian, 9.4% hispanic/latino, 8.8% black, 3% american indian or alaska native, 0.3% native hawaiian or pacific islander, and 1% “other” which included individuals from caribbean, french canadian, and multiracial backgrounds. in regards to political affiliation, 56% of participants aligned most closely to the democratic party. the next highest groups were “other” at 17.3% and republican at 16.3%. although over half of participants identified as democrats, definitions of political views were more diverse, with 27.4% describing their views as progressive and 24.8% as moderate. 16.7% described themselves as conservative leaning. the more liberal political ideology may have partially been due to the younger demographic of the sample. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 findings descriptive statistics (research question 1) individual questions were combined to form a scale for each of the following constructs: free market ideology, theoretical beliefs on borders and migration, modern immigration beliefs, and nationalism. free markets. ten items regarding free markets that had been previously validated and were examined for reliability using a factor analysis were combined to form a scale (cronbach’s alpha of .810) where a score of 10 indicates no support for free market ideology and 70 demonstrates complete support for free markets. when the construct was analyzed as a whole, participants had a mean of 28.14 (sd=9.16), leaning slightly towards less support for free market ideology. theoretical beliefs. seven questions related to theoretical beliefs on borders and migration were combined to form a scale of 7 (most supportive of open border policies) to 47 (least supportive of open border policies) with a cronbach’s alpha of .891. participants had a mean of 27.05 (sd=9.49), indicating a more supportive stance of open border policies. modern immigration. seven questions were combined to form a scale on beliefs about modern immigration, with the lowest number being 7 (most supportive of modern immigration) and 49 (least supportive of modern immigration issues) with a cronbach’s alpha of .912. participants had a mean of 19.26 (sd=9.52), leaning significantly in a more supportive direction towards issues related to modern immigration. nationalism. three questions in the survey touched on the ideas of nationalism and were combined to form a scale in which 3 would be the most nationalistic ideals and 21 would be the least nationalistic with a cronbach alpha of .686. participants had a mean of 14.04 (sd=3.92) on this scale, indicating lower levels of nationalism. individual items. in addition to the broader constructs, an analysis was conducted on some of the individual items related to specific issues related to free market, immigration, and nationalism. overall, there tended to be strong support for certain government economic intervention. for example, 83.4% of respondents supported minimal wage laws with only 9.1% in opposition (m=2.16, sd=1.55). in regard to healthcare, 75.2% were in favor of the government of having a responsibility to provide healthcare as opposed to only 14% who were against (m=2.46, sd=1.77). there was a little less support on the idea of it being the responsibility of the government to create mccorkle & montezuma 15 jobs, but it was still relatively high at 58.6% in favor, 21.8% neutral, and 19.5% against (m=3.35, sd=1.55). on the item of tariffs (which was not included in the larger free market construct), only 34.9% were in support with 21.5% opposed and 43.6% neutral (m=3.82, sd=1.4). while the majority of participants, 38.4%, took a neutral stance on increasing the number of immigrants in the united states, there was overwhelming support for the idea of refugees being able to enter the u.s. with 75.9% in support with a mean of 2.62 (sd=1.37). similar support was found for the idea of undocumented individuals who came as children being allowed to stay with a mean of 2.3 (sd=1.62) with 77.9% of participants in support, of which 45.6% were in strong support. the most inclusive response in regard to modern immigration issues was a pathway to citizenship for the majority of undocumented immigrants with a mean of 2.37 (sd=1.59) and 80.1% in support compared to 9.8% in opposition. some of the items were specific to the trump administration. regarding the family separation policy for immigrants, 59.6% strongly opposed this policy while only 2.3% strongly support it. this item had a mean of 5.89 (sd=1.66). on the item about trump’s policy of shutting down the asylum at the u.s. border there was a mean of 5.36. this item had the largest variance with a standard deviation of 1.95. 64.8% of participants oppose this plan, with 46.9% strongly opposing. the next largest group was neutral on this policy with 17.6% of participants and 17.6% endorsed support for this plan. in regard to internal immigration policies, 61.3% oppose policies which propose deporting most of the undocumented population (m=4.73, sd=1.93). finally, in the area of nationalism, the majority of respondents, 51.8% supported the idea that they would rather be an american than a citizen of any other nation with 27.3% opposing the idea (m=3.48, sd=1.81). on the idea of whether the world would be a better place if more people acted like americans only 16.6% were in agreement with 62.2% in opposition to the statement (m=4.97, sd=1.72). free market construct (research question 2) specific focus was placed on the items that aligned with the construct of free markets. this factor analysis (in addition to determining reliability) is positioned in the findings section due to its relationship to research question 1. a factor analysis was conducted to find the items that most aligned with the idea of free markets. on certain items like drug legalization and more open immigration policies, there were negative correlations with the other items related to free markets. this is relevant as it an aberration from traditional free market/less government ideas. on other journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 items such as opposition to tariffs, there was a positive correlation but not at a strong enough level to be included in the construct. this is also relevant as it signals a shift away from free market ideas perhaps specifically related to the more populist form of capitalism, which is explored in more depth in the discussion section. the original items from both free-market construct as well as the items from the other constructs are in table 1 in the appendix. the factor analysis for the items were included in the final construct for free markets (tables 2-3). perhaps of greater interest than the items included were those excluded-showing the inconsistency in belief in free markets particularly as it relates to issues like tariffs and immigration (which was strongly negatively correlated with the other free market/smaller government items). the remaining items had a cronbach alpha level of .810. specifically the factor analysis showed that for research question 2 the items that were consistently part of the broader idea of free markets were opposition to rent control, the belief that property transactions rights should have minimal government interference, opposition to minimum wage laws, hesitancy toward the government tuning the economy with momentary and fiscal policy, rejection of the idea of extending unemployment benefits during covid, a willingness to privatize social security, and an opposition to the idea that the government should provide healthcare and create jobs. table 2 factor analysis of final free market construct initial extraction rent control 1.000 .569 owning, accumulating, and selling property with minimal to no government interference 1.000 .617 minimum wage laws 1.000 .610 using monetary policy to tune the economy 1.000 .838 using fiscal policy to tune the economy 1.000 .845 government should extend unemployment benefits due to covid. 1.000 .627 let people control their own retirement; privatize social security. 1.000 .758 mccorkle & montezuma 17 it is the role of government to create jobs. 1.000 .604 government should not be responsible for providing healthcare. 1.000 .581 table 3 component matrix of free market construct component 1 2 3 rent control .719 -.193 .123 owning, accumulating, and selling property with minimal to no government interference -.597 .168 .482 minimum wage laws .771 -.109 .061 using monetary policy to tune the economy .560 .719 .093 using fiscal policy to tune the economy .509 .759 -.096 government should extend unemployment benefits due to covid. .711 -.160 .309 let people control their own retirement; privatize social security. -.528 .106 .684 it is the role of government to create jobs. .619 -.138 .450 government should not be responsible for providing healthcare. -.700 .302 -.017 a. extraction method: principal component analysis.a b. 3 components extracted. component 1 has an eigenvalue of 3.698 that accounts for 41.094% of the variance journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 relationship between free markets, immigration, and nationalism (research question 3) correlational analyses. in order to answer the third research question, a pearson’s r correlation analysis was conducted between the views of free markets, nationalism, and immigration. perhaps not surprisingly, there was a positive correlation between more inclusive modern immigration beliefs and inclusive theoretical migration beliefs (r=.805, p=<.01). there was a significant negative correlation between nationalism and inclusive attitudes toward modern immigration and theoretical migration beliefs (r=-.640, p=<.01; r=-.588, p=<.01). additionally, there was a negative correlation between beliefs in free market ideology and both inclusive modern immigration and theoretical beliefs (r=-.563, p=<.01; r=-.414, p=<.01). when just the items related to protectionism were analyzed in regard to immigration, there was a significant negative correlation with more inclusive theoretical immigration beliefs (r=-.162, p=<.01), however, there was no significant correlation between levels of protectionism and beliefs on modern immigration issues. there was also a significant positive relationship between nationalism and beliefs in free market ideology (r=.433, p=<.01). regression analyses. to understand the relationship between these immigration, demographic characteristics, and the constructs of free markets, two ols regression analyses (tables 6 and 9) were employed that examined the areas of age, race, gender, religion, number of immigrant friends, number of undocumented friends, political ideology, political party, nationalism, free markets, and protectionism. on the first analysis on the theoretical beliefs about borders and migration, the only factors that were significant in the analysis in regard to more inclusive beliefs on these theoretical beliefs were gender (females), less nationalistic beliefs, less protectionist views, and more liberal ideology. interestingly, the belief in free markets was not a significant factor in this broader analysis. on the modern immigration beliefs, females, political liberals, democrats, and those with more undocumented friends were associated with more inclusive beliefs while levels of protectionism, nationalism, and beliefs in free markets were associated with more exclusive beliefs. the possible reasons for why there is this distinction between the first analyses and second analyses in regard to free markets will be explored in more depth in the discussion section. in this analysis, when controlling for other factors, african-american were associated with more restrictive beliefs. this may be due to the fact of african americans align more with the democratic party while have mccorkle & montezuma 19 more conservative views on immigration. given the small number of african-american participants in the study, this finding should be viewed with some caution. thus, the results indicate that there is a consistent negative relationship between levels of nationalism and beliefs in free markets in both the correlation and regression analyses. there is a similar negative relationship in regard to beliefs in free markets and more inclusive immigration beliefs though it is only significant in the regression analysis in relation to modern immigration ideas as opposed to the more hypothetical beliefs on borders and migration. table 4 ols linear regression for theoretical migration beliefs model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .715a .511 .481 6.74200 table 5 anova analysis for theoretical immigration issues model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 12624.242 16 789.015 17.358 .000 b residual 12090.917 266 45.455 total 24715.159 282 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 table 6 coefficients for ols regression of theoretical immigration issues b std. error beta t sig. (constant) 22.895 4.028 5.684 .000 nationalism .733 .137 .310 5.359 .000 evangelical 2.376 1.972 .088 1.205 .229 mainline 1.938 2.133 .058 .908 .365 catholic 2.190 1.878 .088 1.166 .245 non_religious 2.051 1.680 .109 1.221 .223 female 1.791 .842 .096 2.126 .034 republican -1.852 1.409 -.072 -1.314 .190 white .936 1.726 .043 .542 .588 african_american -.504 2.020 -.015 -.250 .803 hispanic 1.069 1.725 .034 .620 .536 asian 1.679 1.898 .063 .885 .377 democrat .304 1.014 .016 .300 .764 political ideology (conservative) -2.497 .407 -.413 -6.142 .000 number of undoc/daca friends 1.046 .550 .095 1.903 .058 number of immigrant friends -.559 .336 -.083 -1.664 .097 beliefs in free markets -.005 .061 -.005 -.084 .933 a. dependent variable: abstract views on borders and migration mccorkle & montezuma 21 table 7 ols linear regression for modern immigration issues model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .807a .651 .630 5. 71939 table 8 anova analysis for ols regression for modern immigration issues model sum of squares df mean square f sig. 1 regression 16216.373 16 1013.523 30.984 .000b residual 8701.238 266 32.711 total 24917.611 282 table 9 coefficients for ols regression for modern immigration issues b standard error beta t sig. (constant) 37.920 3.417 11.097 .000 nationalism .661 .116 .278 5.701 .000 evangelical 2.423 1.673 .089 1.448 .149 mainline 1.544 1.810 .046 .853 .394 catholic .676 1.593 .027 .424 .672 non-religious 1.207 1.425 .064 .847 .398 female 1.249 .715 .066 1.748 .082 republican -1.709 1.195 -.067 -1.430 .154 white -2.028 1.464 -.093 -1.385 .167 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 african-american -3.737 1.714 -.111 -2.180 .030 hispanic -.892 1.463 -.028 -.609 .543 asian -.885 1.610 -.033 -.550 .583 democrat 1.814 .861 .096 2.108 .036 political ideology (conservative) -2.561 .345 -.421 -7.427 .000 number of undocumented friends 1.037 .466 .094 2.225 .027 number of immigrant friends -.255 .285 -.038 -.897 .371 free market ideology -.137 .051 -.133 -2.669 .008 a. dependent variable: attitudes towards modern immigration issues discussion the broader attitudes of the participants (research question 1) in regard to the descriptive data, the most substantial data is the variance between the items in regard to immigration. one of the most intriguing aspects, which has been also seen in previous research from the mccorkle (2022), is the idea that support for refugees is significantly more robust than it is for immigration overall. it should be noted that this was survey was taken in the midst of 2021 where refugees numbers were relatively low and was thus not a central political issue at the time. another intriguing aspect of this descriptive data were the overall rejection of the trump administration’s ideas in regard to immigration. part of this is certainly due to the more liberal respondents, but it is also mirrors the more inclusive beliefs on immigration that were referenced in the literature review. it was also just weeks after january 6th, so the anti-immigrant policies of trump may have been specifically eschewed. nature of beliefs in free markets (research question 2) the results revealed that there was a true incongruence as it related to beliefs in free markets in the factor analysis. though some areas like beliefs in government sponsored health care, minimum wage laws, and rent control correlated with one another, other areas had a lower correlation, particularly related to the area of governmental tariffs. likewise, there was actually a negative correlation between the ideas of free markets and lack of government interference in immigration and the legalization of drugs. this represents an incongruence in a more consistent view of free markets and represents more of a type of a populist free market ideology that stresses less mccorkle & montezuma 23 government as a whole, but has less faith in free trade and is very supportive of strong government intervention in areas such as the war on drugs and a greater restriction on immigration. though some of these trends, particularly related to the drug war, could be seen earlier in the 20th century under administrations such as nixon and reagan, the level of this more populist free market ideology grew under trump (johnson, 2019). relationship between beliefs in free markets, immigration and nationalism (research question 3) there was also a strong correlation between nationalism and free market ideas. in one sense this is understandable-those who have a strong support for the ideas of the united states may also hold strong to some of the traditional ideals of free markets and capitalism. however, it also shows a disconnect to true ideals of free markets and the globalism that were more defining characteristics at least in the 1990s and early 2000s. the new free market ideology might be characterized as having a greater distrust for globalism, especially the aspects of globalism that integrate ideas of cultural diversity and inclusion. it is also important to note how the covid-19 pandemic may also have contributed to some of these anti-globalization ideas. with many right-wing americans and europeans already questioning open borders, the coronavirus only reinforced fears about globalization while the trump administration also leveraged the pandemic to perpetuate antichinese rhetoric (goodman, 2020). it should be noted that the relationship between immigration and free markets, when controlling for other variables, was only significant when examining modern immigration issues and not when it applied to the more abstract beliefs about borders and migration. there are different possible explanations for this difference. however, the one that seems to possibly have the greatest merit is that the strong tie between those who scored highly on the area of free markets and conservative political ideology. on one hand, these individuals may have been able to hold these more conservative beliefs at a distance when it came to more abstract rights of migration. however, given their ties to more conservative politicians, particularly former president donald trump, they may have been more likely to support the more explicit restrictive policies many of which were associated with his administration. libertarianism and immigration it should be noted that when factors such as political beliefs and other demographic factors were controlled for, there was no significant relationship between beliefs in free markets and beliefs in journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 immigration. this seems to indicate that political or partisan ideology is the greater driver of beliefs. there are still some in the nation that do hold to more consistent libertarian beliefs that have not been overridden by the republican or democratic party platforms. on the national level the 2016 and 2020 libertarian candidates, gary johnson and jo jorgenson, had more inclusive and open immigration policies than their democratic or republican opponents. in an op-ed, johnson argues for an immigration reform plan with no caps, quotas, or categories, just a simple background check and “a reliable system to know who is coming and who is going” (bier, 2016). jorgenson ran on a “pro-immigration” platform and similarly wants “free and open” immigration policies, as well as to ending tariffs and trade barriers (jorgenson, 2020). however, it could be questioned if many who hold to the label libertarian actually believe in consistent ideals related to government and freedom or are more driven by aspects of white identity politics that have often been present in the movement than the more open immigration policies of some of the political leadership. economist brad delong theorizes that the libertarian movement against big government was sparked by motivations to maintain white supremacy and the freedom to discriminate. in theory, libertarians should want to limit the role of the government, however, pew research found that few hold consistent libertarian views on the role of government (fenwick, 2019). it would be the contention of the authors that libertarian leaders should stress open immigration more in their discourse and not let it play a secondary role to other ideas of libertarianism such as less taxes, opposition to the federal reserve, etc. number of immigrant friends another issue that was raised in the analysis was the relationship between the number of immigrant friends and beliefs on immigration. though in the regression analyses neither the number of immigrant friends nor the number of undocumented/daca friends were statistically significant in the beliefs on immigration, there was a slight contrast between the two. the number of undocumented/daca friends had a positive correlation with more inclusive immigration beliefs, which would be expected. the aspect that was not as expected was that there was a slightly negative correlation between the number of immigrant friends and more inclusive views on broader beliefs on borders and migration. given the fact that this correlation was not statistically significant, we want to be careful in how much we draw from these numbers. however, there does seem to be an element among some participants that the number of immigrant friends does not lead to more inclusive views on immigration overall, but perhaps even more exclusive beliefs. part mccorkle & montezuma 25 of this may be due to the fact that those with legal immigrant friends may have a tendency to downplay the difficulties other immigrants face. likewise, these legal immigrant friends may come from more privileged backgrounds and be more resistant to broader ideas of open immigration or immigration that applies to poor and/or undocumented communities. in a 2012 study examining anti-immigrant nativism among latin americans, benjamin knoll found that the more latin americans came into contact with fellow native latin americans, the less positive they were in their evaluations of immigrants’ impact on the society. increased levels of american assimilation were also found to be a strong predictor of anti-immigrant attitudes. relationship to social studies classroom this study demonstrates that there is a level of complexity in regard to the ideological connection behind more open immigration policies that social studies educators should be willing to engage with and help critique. part of the reason for the incongruence between an individual stating that they believe in less government intervention but supporting highly militarized borders may be because their actual ideological and political assumptions have never truly been considered fully. the social studies classroom can be a perfect place where this type of self-analysis can be truly implemented. social studies teachers can also employ the implications of this study to help broaden the discussion of more open immigration policies beyond the right-left political divide and demonstrate how more open immigration policies have been embraced by many on both sides of the political spectrum. in doing so, this may open certain conversations with students who may be more conservative socially or economically to perhaps consider the merits of a more inclusive immigration system and the societal benefits that not only could come to the individuals migrating but also to the larger society. particularly in the u.s. context, teachers can also help show how these ideas of immigration relate to the larger ideas of freedom (mccorkle, 2019) and are thus not just optional or controversial discussions (dabach, merchant, and fones, 2018). rather, they are at the very heart of the ideals of the american society, which at least at its best is not defined by ethnicity but rather by an ideal particularly related to liberty (fears, 2007), which carens (1987) argue cannot be compatible with a more restrictive immigration system. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 conclusion the results from this study seem to indicate that most individuals operate outside of the ideological constructs of more governmental control vs. less governmental control. instead, most individuals align more with the current political landscape with those with more inclusive views on immigration being more in favor of more socialized programs while those who are favor a heavier government hand on immigration being less inclined to support governmental involvement in the economy, outside of the issues related to tariffs. the study also indicates that the more populist form of capitalism that has been described under the trump administration is a growing reality. this shift begins to blur some of the traditional economic lines with some progressives like bernie sanders and conservatives like josh haley or tucker carlson agreeing on issues of protectionism or perhaps support for more direct government aid. in this study, among a population that was more politically liberal, the support for tariffs was not strong with many respondents reporting to be neutral on the topic. furthermore, the idea of nationalism cannot be separated from this discussion as this may influence the often disconnect between beliefs in free markets and more inclusive immigration policies. this nationalism may also explain much of the support for tariffs and protectionist policies. in this study the support for immigration was high overall in this study, mirroring trends seen in the literature at the end of the trump presidency. however, it is likely that these attitudes may not hold with a new administration and greater immigration at the southern border in the biden presidency. the authors contention is that as the pendulum may swing back to more anti-immigrant attitudes nationwide, it is important to stress the link between more free markets/less government control and more inclusive immigration systems. unless this idea of freedom is integrated in the current immigration debate, it may be likely that anti-immigrant attitudes will gain in strength with the change in the political debate and policy dynamics within the nation. this study seeks to add to the current academic and policy discussion by examining the actual relationship between the variables of free markets and immigration and how this may attest to the more populist and even xenophobic trends in both the united states and around the world. the scholarship on this intersection in attitudes between economic policies and beliefs on immigration is relatively scarce, but it should be examined more fully especially in understanding antiimmigrant trends and perhaps how to counter these. it could also help to illuminate the pull that populist leaders may have in even overriding previous established political doctrine and ideology. mccorkle & montezuma 27 this initial study seeks to examine what the trends are in regard to immigrant attitudes in the current environment and possible rationales for the disconnect in economic and immigration doctrine. subsequent work on this area will explore qualitative data to possibly give more context to the ideas introduced in this article. acknowledgement this project was funded with assistance from the center for public policy and market analysis, school of business, college of charleston. references adams, l. l. m., & gale, d. (1982). solving the quandary between questionnaire length and response rate in educational research. research in higher education, 17(3), 231-240. advocates for self government (2020). the world’s smallest political quiz. https://www.theadvocates.org/quiz/ aydin, h., ozfidan, b., & carothers, d. (2017). meeting the challenges of curriculum and instruction in school settings in the united states. journal of social studies education research, 8(3), 76-92. baker, a. (2005). who wants to globalize? consumer tastes and labor markets in a theory of trade policy beliefs. american journal of political science, 49(4). 924-938. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2005.00164.x baker, c. (2018). quantitative research designs: experimental, quasi-experimental, and descriptive. in k.e. drummond and a. murphy reyes (eds.) nutrition research: concepts and applications (pp. 155-183). jones and bartlett learning. bier, d. j. (2016, august 20). libertarian candidate gary johnson’s proposal would end illegal immigration. cato institute. https://www.cato.org/blog/libertarian-candidategary johnsons-proposal-would-end-illegal-immigration bonikowski, b., & dimaggio, p. (2016). varieties of american popular nationalism. american sociological review, 81(5), 949-980. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416663683 caplan, b. (2009). systematically biased beliefs about economics: robust evidence of judgemental anomalies from the survey of americans and economists on the economy. the economic journal, 112(479), 433-458. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00041 carens, j. h. (1987). aliens and citizens: the case for open borders. the review of politics, 49(2), 251-273. https://www.theadvocates.org/quiz/ https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2005.00164.x https://www.cato.org/blog/libertarian-candidate-%09gary-%09johnsons-proposal-would-end-illegal-immigration https://www.cato.org/blog/libertarian-candidate-%09gary-%09johnsons-proposal-would-end-illegal-immigration https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416663683 https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00041 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 coenders, m., & scheepers, p. (2003). the effect of education on nationalism and ethnic exclusionism: an international comparison. political psychology, 24(2), 313-343. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895x.00330 dabach, d. b., merchant, n. h., & fones, a. k. (2018). rethinking immigration as a controversy. social education, 82(6), 307-314. daniller, a. (2019, november 12). americans’ immigration policy priorities: divisions between – and within – the two parties. pew research center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact tank/2019/11/12/americans-immigration-policy-priorities-divisions-between-and-within the-two-parties/ dutt, a., & kohfeldt, d. (2019). assessing the relationship between neoliberal ideology and reactions to central american asylum seekers in the united states. journal of social issues, 75(1), 134-152. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12312 fears, j. r. (2007, june 6). freedom: the history of an idea. foreign policy research institute. https://www.fpri.org/article/2007/06/freedom-the-history-of-an-idea/ fenwick, c. (2019, january 4). here’s why economist brad delong believes libertarianism is essentially a form of white supremacy. salon. https://www.salon.com/2019/01/04/heres-why-this-economist-believes-libertarianism-is essentially-a-form-of-white-supremacy_partner/ goodman, p. s. (2020, march 5). a global outbreak is fueling the backlash to globalization. the new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/05/business/coronavirus globalism.html heath, y., & gifford, r. (2006). free-market ideology and environmental degradation: the case of belief in global climate change. environment and behavior, 38(1), 48-71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916505277998 igielnik, r. (2020, january 9). 70% of americans say u.s. economic system unfairly favors the powerful. pew research center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/01/09/70 of-americans-say-u-s-economic-system-unfairly-favors-the-powerful/ issp research group (1995). international social survey programme: national identity 1 issp 1995. gesis data archive, cologne. za. https://www.gesis.org/en/issp/modules/issp modules-by-topic/national-identity/1995 joinson, b. (2001). toward a new classification of nonexperimental quantitative research. educational researcher, 30(2), 3-13. https://doi.org/10.3102%2f0013189x030002003 johnson, k. (2019, april 5). in trump’s economy, the invisible hand belongs to the government. foreign policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/05/in-trumps-economy-the-invisible hand-belongs-to-the-government/ https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895x.00330 https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-%09tank/2019/11/12/americans-immigration-policy-priorities-divisions-between-and-within-%09the-two-parties/ https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-%09tank/2019/11/12/americans-immigration-policy-priorities-divisions-between-and-within-%09the-two-parties/ https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-%09tank/2019/11/12/americans-immigration-policy-priorities-divisions-between-and-within-%09the-two-parties/ https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12312 https://www.fpri.org/article/2007/06/freedom-the-history-of-an-idea/ https://www.salon.com/2019/01/04/heres-why-this-economist-believes-libertarianism-is-essentially-a-form-of-white-supremacy_partner/ https://www.salon.com/2019/01/04/heres-why-this-economist-believes-libertarianism-is-essentially-a-form-of-white-supremacy_partner/ https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/05/business/coronavirus-%09globalism.html https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/05/business/coronavirus-%09globalism.html https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916505277998 https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/01/09/70-of-americans-say-u-s-economic-system-unfairly-favors-the-powerful/ https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/01/09/70-of-americans-say-u-s-economic-system-unfairly-favors-the-powerful/ https://www.gesis.org/en/issp/modules/issp-modules-by-topic/national-identity/1995 https://www.gesis.org/en/issp/modules/issp-modules-by-topic/national-identity/1995 https://doi.org/10.3102%2f0013189x030002003 https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/05/in-trumps-economy-the-invisible-hand-belongs-to-the-government/ https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/04/05/in-trumps-economy-the-invisible-hand-belongs-to-the-government/ mccorkle & montezuma 29 jones, b. (2019, january 31). majority of americans continue to say immigrants strengthen the u.s. pew research center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/31/majority of-americans-continue-to-say-immigrants-strengthen-the-u-s/ jorgenson, j. (2020). trade and immigration. jo20. retrieved january 202a from https://jo20.com/issues/trade-immigration/ journell, w. (2009). setting out the (un) welcome mat: a portrayal of immigration in state standards for american history. the social studies, 100(4), 160-168. klein, d., & perry, d. (2013). survey project: policy views of academics. george mason university. https://econfaculty.gmu.edu/klein/survey.htm knoll, b. (2012). ¿compañero o extranjero? anti-immigrant nativism among latino americans. social science quarterly, 93(4), 911-931. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540 6237.2012.00872.x kukathas, c. (2021). immigration and freedom. princeton university press. laako, h. (2016). decolonizing vision on borderlands: the mexican southern borderlands in critical review. globalizations, 13(2), 173-187. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2015.1076986 mccorkle, w. (2022). teachers' views on deportations, daca, and a pathway to citizenship. critical questions in education, 13(1). mccorkle, w. d. (2019). reframing immigration as an issue of freedom within the us classroom. journal of international social studies, 9(2), 107-123. https://iajiss.org/index.php/iajiss/article/view/451 mccorkle, w. d. (2018a). the awareness and attitudes of teachers towards educational restrictions for immigrant students (doctoral dissertation, clemson university). mccorkle, w. d. (2018). using history to inform the modern immigration debate in the united states. journal of international social studies, 8(1), 149-167. https://www.iajiss.org/index.php/iajiss/article/view/336 mccorkle, w. (2018). the rationale and strategies for undermining xenophobia in the classroom. the social studies, 109(3), 151-166. mccorkle, w. d., & bailey, b. (2016). un human rights violations here at home? the plight of undocumented and daca students in south carolina, usa. journal of international social studies, 6(1), 161-167. http://www.iajiss.org/index.php/iajiss/article/download/244/231 https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/31/majority-of-americans-continue-to-say-immigrants-strengthen-the-u-s/ https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/31/majority-of-americans-continue-to-say-immigrants-strengthen-the-u-s/ https://jo20.com/issues/trade-immigration/ https://econfaculty.gmu.edu/klein/survey.htm https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-%096237.2012.00872.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-%096237.2012.00872.x https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2015.1076986 https://iajiss.org/index.php/iajiss/article/view/451 https://www.iajiss.org/index.php/iajiss/article/view/336 http://www.iajiss.org/index.php/iajiss/article/download/244/231 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 1-30 moore, j. (2020). and justice for all! teaching the reparations debate. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 27-60. napolitano, a. (2013, january 31). immigration is a natural right. reason. https://reason.com/2013/01/31/immigration-and-freedom/ [accessed august 5, 2022]. nestor, p. g., & schutt, r. k. (2014). research methods in psychology: investigating human behavior. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications (book preview). newport, f. (2018, june 20). americans oppose border walls, favor dealing with daca. gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/235775/americans-oppose-border-walls-favor-dealing daca.aspx parker, n., & vaughan-williams, n. (2012). critical border studies: broadening and deepening the ‘lines in the sand'agenda. geopolitics, 17(4), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2012.706111 pedersen, a., attwell, j., & heveli, d. (2005). prediction of negative attitudes toward australian asylum seekers: false beliefs, nationalism, and self-esteem. australian journal of psychology, 57(3), 148-160. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530500125157 pew research center (2019, october 7). in their own words: behind americans’ views of ‘socialism’ and ‘capitalism’. pew research center. https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/10/07/in-their-own-words-behind-americans views-of-socialism-and-capitalism/ price, p. c., chiang, i. c. a., & jhangiani, r. (2015). research methods in psychology. bccampus: bc open textbook project. https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/ raghunathan, t. e., & grizzle, j. e. (1995). a split questionnaire survey design. journal of the american statistical association, 90(429), 54-63. https://doi.org/10.2307/2291129 sadd, l. (2019, october 25). americans view on trade in the trump era. gallup. https://news.gallup.com/opinion/gallup/267770/americans-views-trade-trump-era.aspx su, r., & shen, w. (2021). is nationalism rising in times of the covid-19 pandemic? individual-level evidence from the united states. journal of chinese political science, 26, 169-187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-020-09696-2 tabbarok, a. (2015, october 10). the case for getting rid of borders—completely. the atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/10/get-rid-borders completely/409501/ younis, m. (2020, july 1). americans want more, not less, immigration for the first time. gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/313106/americans-not-less-immigration-first-time.aspx https://reason.com/2013/01/31/immigration-and-freedom/ https://news.gallup.com/poll/235775/americans-oppose-border-walls-favor-dealing-%09daca.aspx https://news.gallup.com/poll/235775/americans-oppose-border-walls-favor-dealing-%09daca.aspx https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2012.706111 https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530500125157 https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/10/07/in-their-own-words-behind-americans-views-of-socialism-and-capitalism/ https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/10/07/in-their-own-words-behind-americans-views-of-socialism-and-capitalism/ https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/ https://doi.org/10.2307/2291129 https://news.gallup.com/opinion/gallup/267770/americans-views-trade-trump-era.aspx https://doi.org/10.1007/s11366-020-09696-2 https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/10/get-rid-borders-completely/409501/ https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/10/get-rid-borders-completely/409501/ https://news.gallup.com/poll/313106/americans-not-less-immigration-first-time.aspx article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (1),259-284 259 authentic leadership in madrassas: asserting islamic values in teacher performance moh. bahzar1 abstract this study examines the authentic leadership practices in islamic secondary schools in east kalimantan, indonesia and elaborates on leadership styles for teacher performance. a survey method using quantitative approach was applied in this study. descriptive statistics and t-test were used to analyze data. this study assigned 30 principals and 60 teachers as the respondents. in addition, 5 kinds of questionnaire were used to collect data. the results show that the authentic leadership and its components —including self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, relational transparency, and balanced processing—have been practiced by the principals and teachers in islamic secondary schools. authentic leadership applied in ma is better than those in mts. the authentic leadership has been internalized in the teaching of prophet muhammad in terms of sidiq (truthful), tabligh (advocacy), amanah (trustworthy), and fatonah (wisdom) as the core values in the daily school community practices. teacher performance evidently improves with involvement in decision-making, communication processes, and the delegation of authority. differences appear in practice, that mts principals demonstrate less competency than senior counterparts because of their relative educational backgrounds and experiences. this study is limited in that it used non-probability sampling implying that the results cannot generate any context. this study originates in islamic schools in indonesian context that school reform is now in the process of change. keywords: authentic leadership, islamic teaching, core values, internalization. introduction the central tenet of this study is the leadership and performance achievements of madrassas [english spelling and it would be used throughout], which are islamic religious schools for primary and secondary level education. focusing on how the principals and teachers of madrassas perceive leadership styles, this study elaborates on how principals behave as leaders and how teachers perform their duties to achieve the desired academic achievement for schools and students. the flow of this study starts with how authentic leadership is managed and finishes with how teachers prepare themselves to perform. the new concept of authentic leadership, which is based upon the prophet muhammad’s core leadership values, is introduced in this study. 1 dr., mulawarman university, samarinda, indonesia; email: m.bahzar@yahoo.com mailto:rubendharmawan@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 the claim that madrassas perform poorly because of a lack of leadership attainment (asian development bank--adb, 2015) was the motivation for this study. historically speaking, the term madrassa refers to an islamic religious school that offers a dual system combining secular education and islamic religious learning. the madrassa system comprises three levels: primary education at a madrassa ibtida’iyah (mi), junior-secondary education at a madrassa tsanawiyah (mt), and a senior-secondary education at a madrassa aliyah (ma). for indonesia, the organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd, 2015) states that madrassas have formed the backbone of the education system and helped the country’s impressive progress since gaining independence in 1945. indonesia’s education system stipulates a general school education under the auspices of the ministry of education and culture (moec) and a madrassa education under the ministry of religious affairs (mora). moec and mora supervise both public and private schools and madrassas across the country. the law on national education (no. 20/2003) formally integrated all madrassas into the national education system, and they are required to follow the national curriculum and education standards set by the government. madrassas represent approximately 18% of all indonesian schools (both primary and secondary), with 90% being privately run and only 10% being run by the state. in 2013, 87% of the 50 million or so students in the primary and junior-secondary education systems were enrolled in moec schools, while the remaining 13% were enrolled in madrassas (adb, 2015:1). research into madrassas (adb, 2015) explains a madrassa as an education system where islamic values play a role. islamic moral values are therefore aligned in the school community. unfortunately, many madrassas, particularly private ones, are said to offer a low-quality education. many do not meet the minimum standards for learning outcomes, nor do they provide an adequate teaching and learning environment (adb, 2015:2). the oecd (2015) asserts that when seeking to improve teaching and learning, the role of leadership should be emphasized. leadership is associated with achieving desired performance and how leaders focus on the effectiveness of teaching and curriculums. various studies refer to such leadership as being instructional, learning-centered, or pedagogical, with the aim of improving student achievement and well-being (pont, nusche & moorman, 2008). in addition, unesco (2015) describes three major issues in the indonesian education system: unequal access to education, low quality and relevance in education, and poor management and bahzar leadership in education as a core problem. danim (2007:7), meanwhile, emphasizes five problems with education in indonesia: the leadership of headmasters/principals, students, teachers, curriculums, and networking. headmasters/principals must work professionally, clearly understand the vision, be willing to work hard, have a good work attitude, be perseverant and steadfast in their work to provide the best service, and have a strong work ethic. leadership in this area has recently shifted from the common theory to a more specific model rooted in islamic values, which is labeled as authentic leadership. northouse (2013) believes that the concept of authentic leadership is related to ethical and transformational leadership. shamir & eilam (2005) claim that authentic leaders develop in the school of life and are originals rather than copies. authenticity therefore cannot be learned or transferred to other leaders. eagly (2005), meanwhile, claims that authentic leadership develops together with a leader’s followers, and it has no value without them. as authentic leadership relies upon the characteristics of prophet muhammad, initiatives have been developed in line with policy reforms for madrassa management that propose the 4cs approach (nurzamah, 2017; komariah & deddy, 2018), which stands for casing/performance, communication, competencies, contribution, and sample. staf+b, meanwhile, stands for sidiq (truthful), tabligh (advocacy), amanah (trustworthy), and fatonah (wisdom). the values of authentic leadership are now widely referred to in leadership practices to improve madrassas in indonesia. results of the study in authentic leadership contributes evidences on the theories in authentic leaderships in school reforms particularly islamic school reforms rely most on the authenticity of leadership styles. in practice, school reforms in indonesia whose values are built on the teaching of muhammad prophet benefit the best practices emerging from the results of this study. building on the above background, this study sheds light on leadership styles of the principals of mas and mts in east kalimantan. in addition to general leadership styles, leadership styles that are rooted in islam are included. the following research questions therefore guide this study: “ 1) which aspects of authentic leadership are implemented by madrassa principals in east kalimantan to improve teacher performance? 2) how is authentic leadership perceived by madrassa principals in east kalimantan to involve teachers in decision-making, communication, and delegation of authority? journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 literature review authentic leadership authentic leadership is a process that encourages positive development and leads to greater self-awareness. authentic leaders perform according to their values and beliefs while focusing on their followers’ development and creating a positive organizational environment based on trust (luthans & avolio, 2003; walumbwa et al., 2008). gardner et al. (2011) add that authentic leaders use open communication and collaboration with their followers, leading to positive performance outcomes. authentic leadership is also associated with ethical transformation (wang et al., 2014), charismatic leadership approaches (walumbwa et al., 2008), and positive leadership (gardner et al., 2005). according to ilies et al. (2005), authentic leadership comprises self-awareness, unbiased decision-making, authentic behavior, and a genuine relational orientation. walumbwa et al. (2008), meanwhile, supply relational transparency, balanced processing, self-awareness, and an internalized moral perspective as components of authentic leadership. in islam, authentic leadership relates to the deeds of the prophet mohammed. when we think of anything authentic in islam, we naturally think about the prophet muhammad, the truest example of humanity. he naturally models qualities that are common in leadership best practices (jamil, 2017). beekun & badawi (1999) assert that most successful leaders in america have four characteristics—honest, competent, forward-looking, and inspiring—which is suggestive of the leadership style of the prophet mohammad. indeed, it should come as no surprise that even his enemies described him as sadiq (truthful) and amin (trustworthy). he helped his companions to envision the future success of islam and prepare for the last day. he inspired love in those that followed his way without ever meeting him. he is truly authentic in every way (jamil, 2017). the example set by the prophet muhammad acts as a cornerstone in authentic school leaders as they lead the trueness of a school’s mission and vision (jamil, 2017). school leaders understand their responsibility as a sacred trust that affects every child, staff member, family, and community member, as well as society as a whole. the value they hold asserts their authentic profession as a school’s organizational leader. the mindset, limitations, and worldview can affect the effectiveness of their leadership approach, however (jamil, 2017). effective school leaders have an inner ability to see who they are and understand their own identities. good school leaders are keen to learn and accept their limitations, both professionally and spiritually, because bahzar these limitations do not necessarily negatively affect their responsibilities. instead, they seek spiritual and professional guidance for these problems, as suggested in the quran: “oh allah, just as you have made my physical form beautiful, make my character beautiful as well” (annasai). madrassa management changes have been initiated through plcs (professional learning community) using the 4cs approach, whose values originate from the prophet muhammad’s teaching (nurzamah, 2017; komariah & deddy, 2018). the term 4cs stands for casing/performance, communication, competencies, contribution, and sample. it aids the collaboration between the head of a madrassa, the teachers, supervisors, and researchers (komariah & deddy, 2018). shamir & eilam (2005) point out that authentic leadership development should advocate that a leader’s intelligence be measurable through actual actions, feedback, and a reflection on behaviors’ effects. the development of authentic leadership responds to a growing demand from society for greater transparency, integrity, and ethical behavior within organizations (gardner et al., 2011). islamic-style authentic leadership (nurzamah, 2016) also has roots in the staf+b (shiddiq, tabligh, amanah, fathonah, and brave). shidiq means truthful, implying that the head of a madrassa, supervisors, and teachers are truly bonded in their commitment as personal figures embedded in the madrassa culture. tabligh denotes advocacy, conveying the content and substance of their commitment to plc development as something complete, clear, and useful. amanah means trustworthy, implying a dedication to consistent, sustainable, and responsible programs. fatonah asserts wisdom and represents smartness, intelligence, and sustainability concerns. the letter b, meanwhile, refers to bravery, an obviously desirable characteristic for any leader who decides to accept a plc contract (komariah & deddy, 2018; nurzamah, 2016). leadership leadership is conceived as the capacity to inspire and encourage people to work toward some common goal (sulhan, 2018). it manifests in someone’s talent and eagerness to encourage, influence, invite, and, if necessary, coerce others to accept an argument and then act to serve a particular aim (magee, 2012). accordingly, a leadership style represents the techniques that a leader uses to motivate, drive, support, and encourage his or her staff in decision-making and point them toward achieving organizational goals (chandan, 1987). leadership has a substantial journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 and direct influence on the achievements of students. what is more, how teachers perceive a principal significantly influences their outlooks toward their schools and the resulting student performance (jay, 2014). as a leader, the principal establishes a school’s mission and vision. his or her leadership style must be a positive influence, and it can be seen in their behavior and how they communicate with teachers, students, parents, and other school staff. a principal with an effective leadership style can create a positive climate in a school, thus making teachers, students, staff, and parents feel more comfortable and satisfied with the children’s educational experience. if a principal is ineffective, however, the opposite effect will occur (bauman & krskova, 2016; fevre & robinson, 2015). aacha (2010) indicates that school leadership is a process of enlisting and guiding the talents and energies of teachers, students, and parents toward achieving common educational aims. schools with higher levels of pupil achievement demand greater professional leadership to further improve school performance, emphasizing a need for accountability at the school level. maintaining the status quo is no longer considered acceptable. hoadley (2007) adds that the principal is commonly a school’s leader, but overall school leadership may include other members of the team. a principal’s leadership style, as well as his or her actions as an instructional leader, has a significant effect on developing schools that will be more effective at cultivating student achievement (cotton, 2003; gold et al., 2003). indeed, certain leadership styles can have positive implications for learning environments, teaching, and other processes, consequently improving student performance and academic achievement (day, 2004). leadership determines teaching effectiveness, because the leadership style affects the orientation of a school’s culture toward teaching and learning (carpenter, 2014). in this study, leadership styles are defined in terms of three constituent elements: the way a principal brings teachers into the decision-making process, the methods he or she communicates through, and how duties are delegated to teachers. teacher performance teacher performance relates to the duties performed by a teacher in the school system in order to achieve organizational goals (obilade, 1999). teacher performance may be monitored through their involvement in decision-making, the communication process, and the delegation of authority bahzar (koluba, 2010). principals can encourage the effective performance of teachers by identifying their needs and trying to satisfy them. research reveals that many principals do not consider their leadership styles as being crucial to teacher performance, and some experience difficulties in effectively administering their schools (adeyemi, 2004). effective leadership has a positive influence on teacher performance (charlton, 2000), yet some principals are not effective because they do not involve the teachers when making major decisions (bush & oduro, 2006). the principal plays a prominent role in cultivating skilled teachers by providing encouragement, directing, motivating, coaching, and supervising in order to ultimately enhance their performance (bauman and krskova, 2016; magee, 2012). as a manager, a principal should devote him or herself to motivating teachers to perform well and empowering the madrassa’s educators (shulhan, 2018). leadership practices include establishing and communicating academic goals; making the necessary resources available; co-coordinating, planning, and evaluating the quality of a curriculum and its teaching; engaging with and promoting teacher development; and ensuring a safe and supportive school environment for both staff and students (fevre & robinson, 2015). in addition, successful teaching depends upon various factors, including how a principal leads the teachers. bell (1992) notes that effective leadership equips a school with a vision, explicit consultation philosophies, and an atmosphere of teamwork, leading to success in attaining good results in national examinations. incompetent principals, in contrast, represent a substantial problem for the overall management and administration of any country’s education. involvement in decision-making this refers to a practice where superiors and subordinates jointly discuss how to operate an organization (okumbe, 1998). it is typically characteristic of a participatory style of leadership. chandan (1987) defines the democratic leadership style as one where subordinates are consulted, so their feedback can be incorporated into the decision-making process. not allowing any involvement in decision-making portrays an autocratic leadership style, and a laissez-faire approach is indicated when leaders only reluctantly involve their subordinates in the decisionmaking process. when goals are set together, however, subordinates become more committed, self-confident, and knowledgeable about those goals, thus helping them to perform better (koluba, 2010). love (1993) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 identified teacher performance as being negatively affected by a lack of participation in decisionmaking. some principals handle their staff badly, such as by not considering teachers’ opinions when staff meetings are organized and undermining them in whatever they do. this causes teachers to lose morale, perform poorly, and possibly even leave the teaching profession. the communication process oxford (2005) defines communication as a process of passing information from one person to another. in addition, hannagan (2002) maintains communication is a way of transmitting information about the effectiveness of particular work behaviors to perform several functions. communication can lead to higher levels of performance by allowing someone to track a goal and make adjustments accordingly. armstrong & baron (1998) argue that information is usually communicated to employees in the form of memos, meetings, and telephone calls with the intention of enhancing their performance. handy (1996) claims that in order to achieve effective performance, it is important to communicate what to do and how to do it, whether directly or indirectly, to individuals. through such communication, errors are identified and corrected, allowing us to learn how good or bad someone is performing a given task. communication in the leadership process provides advantages in that individuals gain a perspective of how they are perceived. communication also increases the awareness of relevant competencies, gives people a more rounded view of performance, and clarifies critical performance aspects to employees (armstrong, 2003). when communication is truly practiced, leadership tends to be democratic. when it is shunned, however, the leadership style becomes autocratic. it is a laissez-faire form of leadership when leaders regard communication as a free choice (okumbe 1998). the delegation of authority delegation is defined as the process of assigning rights, authority, and duties to people of lower rank (oxford, 2005), thus dividing up the total work and giving parts of it to each subordinate (chandan, 1987). in this way, a leader transfers power, responsibility, authority, and decision-making procedures to subordinates working within a given organization (hannagan 2002). delegation is a management skill that underpins a leadership style where staff are allowed to use and develop their skills, knowledge, and dynamic tools for motivating and bahzar developing the team (blair, 2002). effective delegation is efficient and motivational, thus improving work performance (maicibi, 2005). house (1968) stipulates that for subordinates to perform properly and achieve goals, a leader has to distribute different tasks to subordinates according to their various skills, abilities, knowledge, interests, talents, and experience. if a subordinate becomes confused about something, the leader has to direct them to trigger a better performance. a leader who does not delegate duties to subordinates is autocratic in nature, while one who delegates duties as part and parcel of his or her job is a democratic leader. in laissez-faire leadership, leaders assume delegation as a free choice for whoever may or may not like it. okumu (2006) maintains that effective delegation positively impacts the management of secondary schools in terms of soliciting motivation, commitment, satisfaction, discipline, and general improvements in teacher performance and school management. mumbe (1995), however, admits that delegating authority will only be successful when subordinates have sufficient skill, information, and knowledge for the task and are willing to undertake it and make decisions. good delegation saves time and develops teachers’ confidence, thus motivating them to perform well (ruremire, 1999). however, delegating authority will only achieve its aims when subordinates have the capability and inclination to perform a task or make a decision. for successful delegation, the leader must establish its objectives by specifying the tasks to accomplish and who is to accomplish them (cole, 2004). methods research design this study used a survey applying quantitative approach. the design comprised a survey implementing a cross-sectional study. for the survey, the study collected data from a large number of respondents to elaborate on the nature of leadership and teacher performance. as it is a cross-sectional study, the researcher involved different types of respondents simultaneously (enon, 1998; kuloba, 2010). basically, this study applied descriptive statistics. in addition, tetest was used to see the different implementation of authentic leadership in ma and mts levels. this way, authentic leadership was evaluated in how the principals of mts and ma implement in their leadership. following the implementation four indicators that were embedded in the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 leadership practices were observed, including: teacher perception on leadership practices, decision making process, communication process and delegation of authority. the study took place within the project for teacher profession improvement in samarinda, indonesia between march and june 2017. respondents tables 1 and 2 summarize the 90 respondents that were recruited for this study using purposive sampling. these comprised 30 principals and 60 teachers from mts and mas in east kalimantan, all of who were engages in training for professional teacher improvement . the respondents came from all six regencies of east kalimantan. the respondents were evenly divided in terms of gender and school type. of the 30 principals, 15 came from mts and 15 came from mas, while 15 were male and 15 were female. of the 60 teachers, 30 came from mts and 30 came from mas, with 30 being male and 30 being female. table 1. principal respondents no regency mts ma total male female male female 1 samarinda 1 2 1 1 5 2 kutai kartanegara 2 1 1 1 5 3 balikpapan 1 2 1 1 5 4 paser 1 2 1 1 5 5 penajam 2 1 1 1 5 6 kutai barat 2 1 1 1 5 9 9 6 6 30 table 2. teacher respondents no regency mts ma total male female male female 1 samarinda 2 3 2 3 10 2 kutai kartanegara 2 3 2 3 10 3 balikpapan 2 3 2 3 10 4 paser 3 2 3 2 10 5 penajam 3 2 3 2 10 6 kutai barat 3 2 2 3 10 15 15 15 15 60 research instruments this study used two kinds of questionnaire to collect data: a standardized authentic leadership self-assessment (salsa) and questionnaire developed by the researcher himself. the questionnaires included: bahzar  authentic leadership: 16 items  perception on the practice of the authentic leadership: 10 items  involvement in decision-making: 10 items  communication process: 10 items  delegation of authority: 10 items the salsa consisted of 16 items aimed at perceiving authentic leadership styles, with the instrument being made available online. salsa was used to map the principals’ potentials for authentic leadership, specifically self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency. the scoring system for the salsa appears in table 3. table 3. scoring system for the salsa other questionnaires developed by the researcher were developed to see teachers’ perception on the practices of the authentic leadership by principals. perception was seen from general perception, involvement of teachers in decision making process, communication process between teachers and principals, and delegation of authority the principals provide for teachers. the questionnaire was used to solicit responses from the principals and teachers. it was used because it helped the researcher to cover a large population quickly at a reasonably low cost (koluba, 2010). validity of the questionnaire validity is an index number that shows how far the question instrument in the questionnaire is to measure the variable under study. validity testing is done through the product moment, which correlates the score of each question item with its total score. the testing criteria, if r count> r table, then the question item is valid (ghozali, 2011). test the validity of the questionnaires was piloted to 10 respondents before being distributed to actual respondents. the results of the validity test appear in table 4. component of authentic leadership no. of item scoring 1. self-awareness 1, 5, 9, 13 16–20=high 2. internalized moral perspective 2, 6, 10, 14 less or 15=low 3. balanced processing 3, 7, 11, 15 4. relational transparency 4, 8, 12, 16 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 as table 4 suggests the results of the calculation of validity test indicated the value of r count of each indicator as being more than 0.632. it implies that that the indicators of all variables in this study, i.e. authentic leadership, teacher perception on authentic leadership practices, involvement in decision making, communication processes, dan delegation of authority, are valid. table 4. valitidity testing of variables of authentic leadership variable r count r table result authentic leadership al1 (0,771); al2 (0,820); al3 (0,800); al4 (0,700); al5 (0,859); al6 (0,724); al7 (0,768); al8 (0,820); al9 (0,637); al10 (0,822); al11 (0,675); al12 (0,790); al13 (0,726); al14(0,753); al15 (0,735); al16 (0,711) 0,632 valid teacher perception on authentic leadership practices tp1 (0,670); tp2 (0,692); tp3 (0,677); tp4 (0,763); tp5 (0,827); tp6 (0,742); tp7 (0,635); tp8 (0,923); tp9 (0,659); tp 10 (0,909) 0,632 valid involvement in decision making dm1 (0,921); dm2 (0,784); dm3 (0,765); dm4 (0,750); dm 5 (0,750); dm6 (0,814); dm7 (0,914); dm8 (0,650); dm9 (0,817); dm10 (0,776) 0,632 valid communication processes cp1 (0,645); cp2 (0,712); cp3 (0,789); cp4 (0,686); cp5 (0,967); cp6 (0,772); cp7 (0,675); cp8 (0,712); cp9 (0,855); cp 10 (0,919) 0,632 valid delegation of authority da1 (0,822); da2 (0,811); da3 (0,738); da4 (0,746); da5 (0,847); da6 (0,883); da7 (0,958); da8 (0,758); da9 (0,737); da10 (0,914) 0,632 valid reliability of instrument reliability test is intended to see the consistency of respondents in answering questions. to test it the technique used is cronbach alpha. the test criteria is if cronbach alpha > 0.70, the items are said to be reliable (ghozali, 2011). (table 5). table 5 results of reliability test variable cronbach alpha reliable (alpha >0,7) authentic leadership 0,942 reliable teacher perception 0,911 reliable involvement in decision making 0,927 reliable communication processes 0,918 reliable delegation of authority 0,938 reliable bahzar data collection techniques this study used quantitative data obtained through the questionnaires. the salsa was distributed to principals to map their potential for authentic leadership, while the questionnaires were distributed to solicit perceptions about leadership styles and practices in schools. the respondents were asked to share their opinions about the performance they attained in relation to leadership practices (wachira et al., 2017). data analysis techniques the data analysis in this study applied descriptive statistics and t-test to see the different effect of the authentic leadership in the mts and ma. data from the questionnaire were sorted according to their trends and analyzed using descriptive statistics, emphasizing the mean and percentage rate. tables and figures were used to represent the results in terms of frequency and percentage rate. teacher performance was rated according to three constituents: involvement in decision making, communication processes, and the delegation of authority. prior to the analysis, normality test was conducted using the kolmogorov smirnov test and homogeneity test using the levene test. with the criteria, the data is said to follow a normal distribution if the significance value in the kolmogorov smirnov test is above 0.05 and the data is said to be homogeneous if the significance value in the kolmogorov smirnov test is above 0.05. this study uses independent tests to see the difference in the average of the study samples. with the independent t-test criteria, the data has a difference if the significance value in the t test is below 0.05. results normality and homogenity test the results of the normality test and homogeneity tests appear in table 6. as table 6 suggests, results of the normality test with the kolmogorov smirnov test and the homogeneity test with levene test produce a significance value above 0.05, showing that the data used in this study followed a normal distribution and homogeneous. table 6. results of normality and homogeneity test variable normality test (kolmogorov smirnov test) homogenity test (levene test) authentic leadership 0,082 0,289 teacher perception 0,117 0,156 involvement in decision making 0,070 0,241 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 communication processes 0,090 0,069 delegation of authority 0,200 0,599 authentic leadership practices the characteristics of authentic leadership for all 30 principals were classified into two categories based on the salsa and questionnaire. (table 7). table 7. authentic leadership description of trait mts ma f % f % 1. i can list my three greatest weaknesses 24 80,00 25 83,33 2. my actions reflect my core values 22 73,33 29 96,67 3. i seek others' opinions before making up my own mind 24 80,00 30 100,00 4. i openly share my feelings with others 28 93,33 30 100,00 5. i can list my three greatest strengths 21 70,00 29 96,67 6. i do not allow group pressure to control me 25 83,33 24 80,00 7. i listen closely to the ideas of those who disagree with me 23 76,67 30 100,00 8. i let others know who i truly am as a person 24 80,00 30 100,00 9. i seek feedback as a way of understanding who i really am as a person 20 66,67 30 100,00 10. other people know where i stand on controversial issues 22 73,33 29 96,67 11. i do not emphasize my own point of view at the expense of others 20 66,67 29 96,67 12. i rarely present a "false" front to others 19 63,33 28 93,33 13. i accept the feelings i have about myself 27 90,00 30 100,00 14. my morals guide what i do as a leader 18 60,00 25 83,33 15. i listen very carefully to the ideas of others before making decisions 19 63,33 27 90,00 16. i admit my mistakes to others 25 83,33 24 80,00 average 1203,33 75,21 1496,67 93,54 as table 7 suggests, four attributes of authentic leadership were commonly found in both mt and ma principals. the strongest aspects in mt principals were self-awareness (86%), balanced processing (86%), and relational transparency (86%). in addition, ma principals achieved balanced processing and relational transparency at 93% respectively, implying that mt and ma principals combined perform at 84.5%. the findings for authentic leadership were confirmed with data about personal perceptions, as demonstrated in diagram 1. the diagram suggests two basic categories of leadership model. first, ma principals show a greater leadership competence, as is evident from both the salsa and questionnaire. second, the islamic values indicated in the questionnaire are perceived well by mt and ma principals, but they are practiced more by ma principals. on average, mt and ma principals achieved them at 86.7% and 96%, respectively, suggesting that ma principals are bahzar more inclined to practice islamic values in leadership and integrate such values into a school’s culture and academic atmosphere. diagram 1. profiles of principals’ competency in authentic leadership a closer examination of the questionnaire as in table 8 indicates that mt principals practice islamic values (66.7%) less than their ma counterparts (80%). one of the highest scores for mt principals (100%) is indicated by their discipline in practicing worship, such as reading the quran and other islamic teachings. other traits with the same score include demonstrating islamic devotion and applying transparency in school management. for ma principals, the five categories of islamic deeds that are 100% fulfilled include providing advocacy, adhering to obligatory islamic worship, cooperating, showing sincere respect, and demonstrating transparency. this finding implies that the higher level institutions have more ability in practicing islamic values in their leadership styles. the characteristics of prophet muhammad being applied include sidiq (truthful), amanah (trustworthy), tabligh (advocacy), and fatonah (wisdom), and these are practiced in leadership and daily interactions of a school’s culture and academic atmosphere. table 8. teachers’ perceptions of the islamic leadership of their principals description of trait mts ma f % f % 1. principal asserts sincerity in work devoted to the school’s culture and academic atmosphere 28 93,33 24 80,00 2. principal provides advocacy in any concern that teachers and the school community face 23 76,67 27 90,00 3. principal shows discipline and consistency in islamic teachings, such as five-times prayer, fasting, reading of the holy quran, charity, and humanities 21 70,00 30 100,00 4. principal shows warm cooperation to any school community members and provides solutions to problems 20 66,67 30 100,00 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 5. principal shows fast response, sensitivity, intelligence, and wisdom when facing critical problems 27 90,00 29 96,67 6. principal finds solutions to any problems the teachers, students, parents, and other school community members face 25 83,33 28 93,33 7. principal performs any job with a patient, friendly, and professional nature 23 76,67 29 96,67 8. principal shows sincere respect to teachers, administrators, students, and other school community members 24 80,00 30 100,00 9. principal demonstrates transparency and is open to questions about school finances 21 70,00 30 100,00 10. principal shows wisdom in resolving problems, whether official or individual, in any school community encounters 18 60,00 29 96,67 average 766,67 76,67 953,33 95,33 the summary presented in table 9 indicates the distributions of the principals’ performances. sorted into two categories of 15 principals, 12 (80%) of the mt principals are categorized as proficient in leadership, while 13 (86.7%) of the ma principals are classed as equally qualified. for very high performance, only 1 (6.7%) of the mt principals achieve this level of leadership, compared with 4 (26.7%) for the ma principals. table 9. summary of the principals’ leadership style traits in leadership practices rating (%) mt, n=15 ma, n=15 f % f % low performance 0-50 3 20 2 13.3 moderate performance 51-75 6 40 4 26.7 high performance 76-89 5 33.3 5 33.3 very high performance 90-100 1 6.7 4 26.7 total 15 100 15 100 teacher performance practices involvement of teachers in decision-making the results of the analysis for the involvement of teachers in school decision-making are shown in table 10, suggesting three typical features. first, the mt principals degree of including teachers in decision-making is 69% (moderate), while it is 77% (high) for ma principals. second, some mt principals are unhappy with the decisions teachers make in meetings (43.3%), but this is lower in mas (20%). third, the highest degree of involvement for mt principals comes when he or she shares policies with teachers prior to making decisions (93.3%), and this was the same (93.3%) for ma principals. in addition, ma principals also assert a 93.3% involvement in the meeting process, encouraging teachers to present innovative ideas. it is bahzar evident that the decision-making processes for both mts and mas are very inclusive, indicating that their principals have internalized authentic leadership. table 10. involvement in decision-making descriptions mts ma f=30 % f=30 % 1. i participate in decision-making in meetings organized by the school administration 25 83,33 28 93,33 2. my views in meetings are considered in the final decision made by the school administration 20 66,67 25 83,33 3. my principal consults me whenever he or she wants to pass final resolutions in school meetings. 20 66,67 26 86,67 4. my principal encourages me to demonstrate innovativeness and creativity during the decision-making process of the school 22 73,33 28 93,33 5. my principal encourages co-operation among the teaching staff during the decision-making process of the school 26 86,67 20 66,67 6. my principal is uncomfortable with the decisions i make in staff meetings 13 43,33 26 86,67 7. my principal asks me to review and compare opinions on the policy he or she is going to disseminate 15 50,00 23 76,67 8. my principal invites me to have an initial talk concerning a policy 19 63,33 20 66,67 9. my principal engages the teaching community in discussing school community outreach and lets teachers make plans to do 28 93,33 28 93,33 10. my principal assigns teachers to coordinate respective teachers meeting and school programs 19 63,33 26 86,67 average 690,00 69,00 833,33 83,33 communication processes communication processes in this study indicate how leadership affects teachers’ involvement and thus improves their performance. as table 11 shows, on average, communication processes are used at 75% by mt principals and at 79% by ma principals. mt principals communicate moderately highly, while ma principals communicate highly. mt principals are characterized by fewer informal talks prior to making decisions (50%), but they all inform teachers if a meeting is needed. in addition, ma principals less actively (53.3%) use media to communicate, but they organize meetings, talk in friendly native language, and encourage adherence to the school culture (all at 100%). the ma principals are clearly more active in communicating, thus encouraging teachers to improve their performance. table 11. communication processes description mts ma f=30 % f=30 % 1. my principal sends memos and smss or calls when he wants to communicate with me 20 66,67 26 86,67 2. my principal organizes meetings when he or she wants to talk to me 30 100,0 30 100,0 3. my principal writes a note on the staff notice board when he wants to talk to me 20 66,67 26 86,67 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 4. my principal approaches teachers for informal talks during breaks 10 33,33 28 93,33 5. my principal discusses informal or family concerns informally 15 50,00 20 66,67 6. my principal shares his or her experiences with the community in colloquial breaks 23 76,67 26 86,67 7. my principal talks about his or her hobbies with the teachers 25 83,33 23 76,67 8. my principal talks using native language that hearers perceive as friendly 25 83,33 30 100,0 9. my principal advises teachers to have respect for islamic conducts 28 93,33 28 93,33 10. my principal informally reminds teachers to maintain school culture and academic atmosphere 29 96,67 30 100,00 average 750,0 75,00 890,0 89,00 delegation of authority the delegation of authority has been well implemented by the average mt principal at 66% and very well implemented by the average ma principal at 84% (see table 12). table 12. delegation of authority descriptions mts ma f=30 % f=30 % 1. i am delegated various duties by my principal 16 53,33 20 66,67 2. i am delegated work as i am deemed qualified 25 83,33 28 93,33 3. i am guided by the principal on how to perform delegated duties 25 83,33 26 86,67 4. i am supervised by the principal on duties delegated to me 20 66,67 28 93,33 5. i am rewarded by my principal for duties delegated to me 18 60,00 24 80,00 6. my principal delegates me duties that i am knowledgeable in 20 66,67 30 100,00 7. my principal delegates me duties that i am skilled at 25 83,33 23 76,67 8. my principal delegates me duties that i am talented at 15 50,00 20 66,67 9. my principal delegates me duties that i have no idea about 15 50,00 28 93,33 10. my principal delegates me duties in which i have no experience at all 18 60,00 26 86,67 average 656,67 65,67 843,33 84,33 mt principals tend to not delegate authority if teachers have no idea about a duty (50%) or experience with it (50%). mt principals, however, will delegate duties when teachers are skilled, when they are seen as qualified, and when they can be guided on how to perform better (all 83.3%). ma principals, on the other hand, delegate duties at 66.7%, indicating a moderate degree. full delegation is conducted when teachers are knowledgeable (100%) or qualified (93.3%). the principals also tend to supervise (93.3%) the teachers being delegated to. surprisingly, ma principals seem to encourage teachers to learn, because 93.3% of teachers said they are assigned duties they have no idea about. evidently, the leadership of mt principals tends to limit delegation, while ma principals apply a more open conduct. this indicates that mt principals tend to show a more authoritative style of leadership, while a more democratic leadership, which has values attached to authentic leadership, is preferred by the ma principals. bahzar difference impact of authentic leadership in mts and ma the difference between the implementation of authentic leadership in mts and ma levels was tested using t-tes at α =5% (0,05) the results of which appear in table 13. the data indicate that authentic leadership, teacher perception on authentic leadership practices, involvement in decision making, and delegation of authority have a significance value below 0.05. as table 13 suggests, authentic leadership basically has a significant difference in that practices of authentic leadership in ma is better than those applied in mts. this indicates that implementation of authentic leadership in the higher level of school is better than the lower schools. three aspects of the authentic leadership that receive no difference impacts are: perception on authentic leadership practices, involvement in decision making and communication process. in this regard, teachers believe that both mts and ma principals apply the same leadership style in a way that authentic leadership has been well implemented. in addition, the delegation of authority at mts and ma levels show signifiucant different in that delegation in ma level is better than in mts level. in short, table 13 suggests that teacher performance has a closed relationship with a principal’s leadership. in islamic institutions especially, the role of authentic leadership, whose core values (sidiq, tabligh, amanah, and fatonah) are embedded in the teachings of the prophet muhammad, authentic leadership is influential. table 13. reults of t-test on the implementation of authentic leadership traits in leadership practices average sig. (2tailed) result mts ma authentic leadership 25,94 28,25 0,033 different teacher perception 27,10 28,90 0,160 not different components of performance  involvement in decision making 20,70 23,00 0,386 not different  communication processes 22,50 26,70 0,080 not different  delegation of authority 19,70 25,30 0,004 different discussion, conclusion and implication this study delineates the results of an analysis of authentic leadership and its impact on teacher performance using quantitative data. our findings indicate that authentic leadership is generally well implemented by mt and ma principals. the four attributes of self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency are used well in leadership practices. basically, implementation of authentic leadership in ma level is better than journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 those in mts, particularly in the application of delegation of authority. the implementation of leadership practices, involvement on decision making and communication process indicate equal. this result confirms the findings of jamil (2017) and komariyah & deddy (2017), who stated that islamic core values are important in implementing authentic leadership in islamic institutions. the teachings of the prophet muhammad provide the roots for staf+b (sidiq— truthful, tabligh—advocacy, amanah—trustworthy, fatonah—wisdom), and these core values are generally present in the principals. according to jamil (2017), “if we look at authenticity in islam, we refer to prophet muhammad who dedicates the authentic teachings; he is the truly authentic in many ways.” when asked what matters to their work as school heads, the principals assert the example of the prophet muhammad as the role model they adopt, thus dedicating themselves to incorporating sidiq, tabligh, amanah, and fatonah into their leadership practices. the principals strive to perform honestly and truthfully, providing advocacy in islamic values and sharing opinions, and being trustworthy and transparent, as well as showing intelligence and wisdom in leading teachers, students, and the wider school community. consequently, principals show sincere dedication and open management (nurzamah, 2016). for professional management, our findings show that leadership styles vary between authoritative, democratic, and laissez-faire to a certain degree. mt principals represent the lower level of proficiency, while the ma principals represent the higher level in the school system. a probable reason for this is that most ma principals have masters’ and even doctorate degrees, while mt principals tend to only have undergraduate degrees. kuloba (2010), however, posits that the level of education and number of years of experience do not necessarily affect the leadership competency in secondary schools. although the principals of mt and ma indicate equal performances for academic knowledge and practices, principals with a higher formal education perform better (khan, 2010). the internalization of islamic values and professional leadership is also better demonstrated by the ma principals. as suggested in kuloba’s (2010) study, this research proposes that the leadership style has direct impacts on the involvement process in decision-making, the communication processes between the principal and teachers, and the delegation of authority. involving teachers in decision-making comes from the leadership style, and this in turn improves teachers’ performances. in addition, good communication processes encourage teachers’ participation, and the delegation of authority bahzar by principals will motivate teachers to increase their knowledge and dedication. shulhan (2018) asserts that leadership styles in madrassas are embedded in the values of the pesantren tradition that is patronized as instructional leadership. openness appears in terms of informal interactions between leaders and their subordinates, as well as in the informal sharing of organization goals. marinakou & nikolic (2016) admit that professionalism in leadership is not enough without an internalization of moral values. authenticity and ethical behavior have become critically important in contemporary organizations (gardner et al., 2011). in addition, there is an increasing need to better understand cultural influences on leadership and organizational practices (marinakou & nikolic, 2016). this study confirms authentic leadership as considered by luthans & avolio (2003) in that authentic leadership regards a leader as self-effective, resilient, hopeful, and optimistic. authentic leadership is characterized by good moral character, virtuousness, and altruism (avolio & gardner, 2005). an authentic leader has the capacity to analyze ethical dilemmas and make decisions (avolio & gardner, 2005). in turn, authentic leadership promotes a climate for ethical work and the development of teachers’ mental capacities (walumbwa et al., 2008). thus far, our findings show that many aspects of authentic leadership have been implemented by the principals of mts and mas in this study, and teachers’ perceptions of their leadership styles are generally positive. in general, we can summarize that authentic leadership’s four components comprise self-awareness, an internalization of moral perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency. these have been well developed by the principals, and they have embraced the principals in the authentic teaching of prophet muhammad, as represented by the four characteristics of being sidiq, tablig, amanah, and fatonah. this internalization becomes easy to implement in a school’s culture, because a sincere attitude is the foundation of moral practices. more specifically, the leadership must be fairly conducted to improve teacher performance, as can be evidenced in the involvement of teachers in decision-making, communication processes prior to decision-making, and the delegation of authority. although mt principals show lower levels of management when compared to their ma counterparts, and they show less competence because of more limited educational backgrounds and experiences, they achieve almost as much as the ma principals, demonstrating the robust advantages that the core values of the prophet muhammad’s teachings have for leadership practices. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 this study is limited in that the study used non-probability sampling the results of which do not apply for the generalization. this implies that the derived results are limited to the perception emerging from the schools and contexts being investigated. future research could explore the general results assigning probability sampling and involve the qualitative evidence more thoroughly with a view toward possibly conducting observations and free interviews. . references adeyemi, t. (2010). principals‟ leadership styles and teachers‟ job performance in senior secondary schools in ondo state, nigeria. current research journal of economic theory, 3(3): 84-92. amin, m.e. (2005). social science research conception, methodology and analysis. kampala, makerere university printery. armstrong, m. (2003). term rewards. london: london chartered institute of personnel and development. armstrong, m. and baron, a. (1998). performance management. london, institute of personnel and development. avolio, b., & gardner, w. (2005). authentic leadership development: getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. the leadership quarterly, 16, 315–338. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.001. aacha, m. (2010). motivation and the performance of primary school teachers in uganda: a case of kimaanya-kyabakuza division, masaka district. kampala: makerere university. british journal of education vol.3, no.3, pp.1-5, march 2015. blair, m. j. (2002). management and employee performance. london: pitman. brech, e. f. l. (1969). management: its nature and significance. london: pitman. baumann, c. & krskova, h. (2016). school discipline, school uniforms and academic performance. international journal of educational management, vol. 30 issue: 6, pp. 1003-1029, doi: 10.1108/ijem-09-2015-0118. bush, t, & oduro, g.k.t. (2006). new principals in africa: preparation induction and practice. journal of educational administration. 44(4),359-375. carpenter, d. (2014). leadership for school success: lessons from effective principals. international journal of education management. vol. 28 issue 7, pp. 798-811. doi: 10.1108/ijem-08.2013-0125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.001 bahzar chandan, j. s. (1987). management theory and practice. new york; vikas publishing house. charlton,g. (2000). human habits of highly effective organisations. pretorial: van schaik publishers. cole, g. a. (2004). management: theory and practice. essex, spotwood balantune ltd cotton, k. (2003). principals and student achievement. melbourne, australia: hawker brownlow education. day, c. (2004). the passion of successful leadership. school leadership and management, 24(4), 425-437. danim, s. (2007). visi baru manajemen sekolah. jakarta: bumi aksara. eagly, a. h. (2005). achieving relational authenticity in leadership: does gender matter? leadership quarterly, 16, 459–474. enon, j. c. (1998). educational research, statistics and measurement. department of distance education, iace. kampala: makerere university printery. education development index (edi). (2015). efa global monitoring report. dalam e. f. 20002015, & a. a. challenges. paris: unesco publishing. fevre le, m. deidre & robinson, mj vuviane. (2015). the interpersonal challenge of instructional leadership: principals’ effectiveness in conversation about performance issue. educational administration quarterly, 51(1), pp. 58-95. doi: 10.1177/0013161x13518216. gardner, w.l., cogliser, c.c., davis, k.m. and dickens, m.p. 2011. authentic leadership: a review of the literature and research agenda, the leadership quarterly, 22(6), 112045. george, b. (2014). authentic leadership: rediscovering the secrets to creating lasting value. journal of the american college of radiology: jacr 11. gold, a., evans, j., earley, j., earley, p., halpin, d., & collarbone, p. (2003). principled principals: values-driven leadership: evidence from ten case studies of “outstanding” school leaders. educational management and administration, vol. 311 no. 2. pp. 127138. ghozali, imam, 2011. aplikasi analisis multivariate dengan program spss. semarang: bp universitas diponegoro. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 handy (1996). job performance. wall street journal, vol. 12, pp b1, b2. hannagan t. (2002). management: concepts and practice. london: pitman publishing pearson education limited. hoadley, u. (2007). managing curriculum and instruction in south african secondary schools. kopanong, gauteng: human sciences research council.. house, r. j. & terrence, r. m. (1974). path-goal theory of leadership, journal of contemporary business, 5, pp.81-97. ilies, r., fulmer, i.s., spitzmuller, m. and johnson, m.d. 2009. personality and citizenship behavior: the mediating role of job satisfaction, journal of applied psychology, 94(4), 945-59. jamil, kathy. (2017). characteristics of authentic islamic school leaders. available on www.isna.net/.../authentic_school_leadership_-_west_coast_conference_-_kj_2106.pd... retrieved on december 2, 2018. jay, a. (2014). the principals’ leadership style and teachers performance in secondary schools of gambella regional state. ph.d. dissertation. jimma, ethiopia: institute of education and professional development studies. komariah, aan & kurniady, a. dedy. (2018). authentic leadership: strategy of the implementation of madrassa management of change. jurnal pendidikan islam, vol. 6 no. 2, pp. 293-310. doi: 10.14421/jpi.2017.62.293-310 krippendorff, k. (2004). content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. thousand oaks, ca: sage publication. kuloba, paul nanson. (2010). leadership styles and teacher performance in secondary schools in nakaseke district. master’s thesis. kampala, uganda: educational management of makerere university. love, j. (1993). a systematic approach to getting results. london gower publishers. luthans, f., & avolio, b. j. (2003). authentic leadership development. in k. s. cameron, j. dutton, & r. e. quinn (eds.), positive organizational scholarship (pp. 241–261). san francisco, ca: berrett-koehler. maicibi, n. a. (2005). pertinent issues in management human resource and educational management. kampala: net media publishers ltd. http://www.isna.net/.../authentic_school_leadership_-_west_coast_conference_-_kj_2106.pd...%20retrieved%20on%20december%202 http://www.isna.net/.../authentic_school_leadership_-_west_coast_conference_-_kj_2106.pd...%20retrieved%20on%20december%202 http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.165 bahzar magee, i. d. (2012). leadership styles and school performance: is there a gender difference in expectations for teachers? dissertations. 804. http://aquila.usm.edu/dissertations/804. marinakou, evangelia & nikolic, brad. (2016). dimensions of authentic leadership in the middle eastern context: are these leaders really authentic? researchgate: conference paper february, 2016. available on https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294428264. retrieved on december 2, 2018. mumbe, o. (1995). leadership style and teacher satisfaction in primary schools in busia district–uganda. unpublished masters (educ. mgt) dissertation, makerere university. kampala-uganda. northouse, p. (2013). leadership-theory and practice, sixt edition. uk: sage publications ltd. nurzamah. (2016). the analysis of determinants factors in improving the quality of madrassa. international journal of scientific & technology research. 5(1), pp. 1-4. oecd/asian development bank. (2015). education in indonesia: rising to the challenges. paris: oecd publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/97892642.30750-en. okumu, f. m. (2006). an investigation into delegation and its effects on management of secondary schools in kampala district, uganda. unpublished masters (educ. mgt) dissertation, makerere university, kampala, uganda. oxford. (2005). advanced learner‟s dictionary. oxford: oxford university press. pont, b., nusche, d. & moorman, h. (2008). .improving school leadership, volume 1: policy and practice. paris: oecd. ruremire, b.g. (1999). instructional leadership and academic standards in secondary schools in kabale district. unpublished masters (educ. mgt) dissertation. kampala: makerere university, kampala, uganda. shamir, b., & eilam, g. (2005). what‟s your story? a life-stories approach to authentic leadership development. leadership quarterly, 16, 395–417. shulhan, muwahid. (2018). leadership style in the madrassa in tulungagung: how principals enhance teacher’s performance. international journal of educational management, 32(4), pp. 641-651. doi: 10.1108/ijem-8-2017-0218. http://aquila.usm.edu/dissertations/804?utm_source=aquila.usm.edu%2fdissertations%2f804&utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294428264_dimensions_of_authentic_leadership_in_the_middle_eastern_context_are_these_leaders_really_authentic?enrichid=rgreq-60db0002179dac29acf0c74630832ea3-xxx&enrichsource=y292zxjqywdlozi5ndqyodi2ndtbuzozmjkxmzu4mzu2mze2mtzamtq1ntq4mzuwnjm1oa%3d%3d&el=1_x_2&_esc=publicationcoverpdf http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/97892642.30750-en journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 259-284 spradly, j.p. (1980). participant observations. new york: holt, rinehart and winston. walumbwa, f. o., avolio, b. j., gardner, w. l., wernsing, t. s., & peterson, s. j. (2008). authentic leadership: development and validation of a theory-based measure. journal of management, 34, 89–126. wang, h., sui, y., luthans, f., wang, d. and wu, y. (2014). impact of authentic leadership on performance: role of followers' positive psychological capital and relational processes, journal of organizational behavior, 35(1), 5-21. wachira, m. felista, giutumu, margaret & mbugua, zachary. (2017). effect of principal’s leadership style on teachers’ job performance in public secondary schools in kieni west sub-country. international journal of humanities and social science. 6(8), pp. 72-86. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2), 24-54 public administration undergraduate education during the covid-19 ferruh tuzcuoğlu1 & elvettin akman2 & çiğdem akman3 & duygu aksu4 abstract in this study, the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on public administration education was analyzed through undergraduate students. the aim of the study is to determine the possible effects of coronavirus on digital education by conducting a quantitative analysis through undergraduate students of the departments of political science and public administration, and to evaluate the findings and make suggestions and recommendations. the research covers undergraduate students of süleyman demirel university, department of political science and public administration. within the scope of the aim, twenty-one questions were asked to undergraduate students by applying the questionnaire technique. 734 undergraduate students participated in the survey and the questionnaire was prepared digitally over google forms. the survey data were analyzed with the maxqda 2020 analytics pro program. the findings were evaluated by visualizing them with the help of tables, figures and graphics. keywords: coronavirus, covid-19, public administration, education, digital education, turkey. introduction in the last days of 2019, covid-19 virus was found in wuhan, china, and with a rapid spread within three months, it was declared as a covid-19 pandemic by the world health organization on march 11, 2020 (report, 2020). as of march 12, 2020, covid-19 has spread to the world and has become a deadly and rapidly spreading virus (mcauley et al., 2020). its rapid impact on the world and its announcement as a pandemic caused a global crisis to arise. sectoral covid-19 action plans were prepared for a comprehensive response to the crisis in important areas such as 1 prof., sakarya university, faculty of political sciences, department of political sciences and public administration, tuzcuoglu@sakarya.edu.tr 2 assoc. prof., süleyman demirel university, faculty of economics and administrative sciences, department of political sciences and public administration, elvettinakman@sdu.edu.tr 3 assoc. prof., süleyman demirel university, faculty of economics and administrative sciences, department of political sciences and public administration, cigdemakman@sdu.edu.tr 4 phd student., süleyman demirel university, graduate school of social sciences, department of political sciences and public administration, duygaksu@gmail.com mailto:tuzcuoglu@sakarya.edu.tr mailto:elvettinakman@sdu.edu.tr mailto:cigdemakman@sdu.edu.tr mailto:duygaksu@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 education, especially in the field of health, which is a key area in combating covid-19 (griffin et al., 2020). in turkey, the first cases to be seen in the covid-19 outbreak took place on march 11, 2020. the first death due to covid-19 occurred six days after the first case was announced and the number of cases continued to increase exponentially (memikoğlu & genç, 2020). the first case to be seen in turkey and the increasing number of cases have brought in restrictions in health, education, economics and many other fields and new concepts have been used. some of the new concepts that entered daily life with covid-19 have been the concepts of "social distance" and "isolation" (bbc news, 2020). with the introduction of new concepts in daily life, it has been implemented in some practices called mandatory and prohibited. mandatory wearing of masks, partial and full-time curfews, travel restrictions, prohibition of entering and exiting some cities, and the widespread use of disinfectants have been among the practices that determine new life as of april 3, 2020 (karata, 2020). the wide-ranging implementation decisions taken on april 3, 2020 have affected every area completely (ince & evcil, 2020). the higher education board, which is the authorized institution to combat the covid-19 epidemic in the field of higher education, first sent the measures to be taken about covid-19 to universities on march 6, 2020. with the announcement of a pandemic by the world health organization on march 11, it was decided to suspend education at universities on march 13, 2020. after a two-week break, universities started digital education. afterwards, various decisions were taken regarding higher education and implementation was introduced. with the emergence of the covid-19 epidemic, the termination of formal training at universities and the closure of countries to combat the virus had a serious impact on higher education (schleicher, 2020). although the universities, caught unprepared for distance education, take important steps to start education in a short time, the lack of infrastructure of most universities has emerged with significant problems in distance education. in addition, it has been observed that the adaptation process of some of the lecturers to the digital environment takes a long time due to many reasons. furthermore, it has been revealed by various studies that student participation and effectiveness in distance education is generally low and that the diversity of education such as online conversation and auxiliary applications is not at a sufficient level. however, despite all these, the distance education improvement and development activities of universities continue. tuzcuoğlu et al. 26 in this study it was aimed to analyze the impact of covid-19 outbreak, based on the current situation in turkey at the undergraduate level department of political science and public administration, on graduate students. in this context, an online survey was conducted with 734 out of 1058 students studying at süleyman demirel university, faculty of economics and administrative sciences, department of political science and public administration and analyzed with the maxqda 2020 analytics pro program. thus, it was aimed to determine the effects of the covid-19 epidemic on digital education and to put forward general recommendations and policies. review of literature covid-19 and higher education the covid-19 outbreak has had a universal impact on students and teachers all over the world, from preschool to universities, by causing the largest education disruption in history. by mid-april 2020, 94% of students, i.e., 1.58 billion students, from preschool education to higher education in 200 countries around the world, were affected by the epidemic (united nations, 2020). this epidemic, affecting the education of almost all students, urgently created the need for a new policy. formal education was suspended during the pandemic period to ensure that education can continue without interruption and at the same time, considering the reality of the global epidemic. as a result of the covid-19 epidemic, the most important consequence regarding higher education is undoubtedly that education is done through distance education tools. universities in different countries of the world have opted to extend the distance education infrastructure used in limited areas to all programs or to create a new distance education infrastructure (çalıkoğlu & gümüş, 2020). distance education has started a process that is seen as a necessity rather than a choice in the global epidemic and caught unprepared. being caught unprepared for the distance education system has also imposed new duties and responsibilities on universities. new roles and responsibilities have naturally become important both in terms of social and educational responsibility in all decisions taken by universities in the global epidemic (neupane et al., 2020). reference to the covid-19 information note published on march 13, 2020 by the press and public relations consultancy of the higher education council, education was suspended for three weeks as of march 16, 2020, education, training, academic and social activities were suspended, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 and it was decided to receive requests from universities to continue the courses digitally (council of higher education, 2020). ten days after the announcement of the decisions taken, in his press release, president of the higher education council saraç said, “this year, we decided to continue the spring term education process with only distance education, open education and digital education opportunities. in other words, face-to-face education will not be held in the spring term” (higher education council, 2020, p. 1-3). making the necessary explanations has provided the roadmap needed in education for both students and universities. termination of formal education prevented the continuity of education and its continuation without being affected. the new education system needed in this process is a system where students and academicians are united without being together for universities (lall & singh, 2020). education, called distance education or digital education, is a pandemic-era education policy practice that prevents students from coexisting and the spread of the epidemic (telli yamamoto & altun, 2020). this practice ensured the continuity of the training and at the same time, the risks that could be caused by face-to-face training were prevented. the absence of face-to-face training during the pandemic has led universities to online education and digital platforms. universities with their own special infrastructure for digital education were caught prepared for this situation, while universities without infrastructure turned towards applications that allow multiple interviews (erkut, 2020). the digital education system, which is the ideal education for students to continue their education, to increase their stay at home, to adapt to social distance and to minimize face-to-face interaction, is seen as the right decision for education in this process. being caught unprepared for digital education and being in the global epidemic negatively affected students, universities and academics in various ways. online learning has difficulties as well as its ease. the inability of students and academicians to keep up with technology, learning and concentration problems in the online environment, internet and connection problems, the problem of not being able to access the internet at all, lack of technical support and low participation in online classes are among the problems of digital education (bao, 2020). bulgaria, georgia, ukraine, and uzbekistan, where many countries such as turkey, including especially countries have experienced difficulties in the full implementation of distance education. global challenges are related to online infrastructure, apart from the reasons mentioned above (arnhold et al., 2020). tuzcuoğlu et al. 28 moreover, it is required to mention some of other factors related with these challenges as (arnhold et al., 2020): • weak internet connection and internet speed in many countries, • high prices for a good internet connection, • the absence of computers/ laptops /tablets /smartphones that support online education and training, • many online tools, platforms and websites crash due to high number of contributors. the fact that some countries have online difficulties, some countries do not have online facilities and the high costs show how unprepared the world is for digital education in the global epidemic. since the economic conditions of each country are not the same, the problems experienced in higher education have affected the education and training life of students the most. questions about when the covid-19 pandemic will end and when to start formal education are still uncertain. the need for digital education will increase every semester until formal education starts. this process, which was caught unprepared, revealed the current deficiencies and needs. it is necessary to identify the deficiencies required for digital education, to make technical and structural improvement and repair work, and to be digitally prepared for new training periods. as a result of the pandemic, universities will have to rediscover their learning environments and need to rearrange them. (schleicher, 2020). universities around the world unexpectedly turned to online teaching and had to enlarge this field. it is predicted that the transition to online learning and the reinvention of learning environments will continue until a successful vaccine for covid-19 is released (burki, 2020). distance education and online learning enabled education to continue without interruption. at the same time, this situation has revealed the importance of formal education. in the global epidemic, the possible effects of the distance education and online learning process on the departments and areas differ, but to evaluate this situation, the effect of the covid-19 global epidemic on public administration education has been investigated in the title below. covid-19 and public administration training universities and students expected answers from the related institutions in response to the questions about how and in what way higher education would continue. the responses of higher education providers have been directed entirely to online teaching and distance learning (crawford journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 et al., 2020). upon the responses, universities quickly entered the digitalization process in education by ending face-to-face education. students who were used to providing face-to-face education in classrooms throughout their education life moved away from formal education altogether in the pandemic (lall & singh, 2020). the disconnection of the communication provided by formal education, the decrease in the rate of interaction and the presence of students who cannot access digital education have negatively influenced the education life to a great extent. it is predicted that this crisis in higher education and student life will continue throughout the global epidemic. these problems should have been predictable and preventable by educational institutions. the distance education system is a system where students and educators are together without being together, but some students are completely excluded from this system. when the surveys applied to students studying at higher education level on global epidemic and distance education are examined and the literature is scanned, the number of students who do not have internet access, who do not have an intermediary to participate in online lessons even if they have internet access, and who live in villages are revealed more precisely. in the survey conducted by avşar and büyükdoğan (2020) for the students of the faculty of economics and administrative sciences and the faculty of social and human sciences, the answer to the question of how often you follow the online courses and the question of which tool you use to participate in online courses, someone else's phone, tablet and the fact that there are students answering their computer shows the effect of the global epidemic on students. this situation is valid for public administration students too. the research on distance education and accounting education conducted by kurnaz and serçemeli (2020, p. 285) concluded that "academicians' viewpoints towards conducting accounting courses through distance education are negative." regardless of the practical or theoretical distinction of the field of education, it has been observed that the global epidemic negatively affects every part and reduces the learning process compared to formal education. in addition to being an academic discipline with historical roots, public administration improves itself by updating it in the face of today's developing conditions. public administration training has become mandatory for a better understanding of the public administration mission. the increase in governance partners, the assignment of various new tasks to the public administration, the globalization process, digitization and the presence of participatory elements increased the need tuzcuoğlu et al. 30 for public administration training (cepiku, 2012). today, what is important in public administration and public administration education is to move away from the classical understanding and respond quickly to innovations according to the needs of the age and to implement it. what is needed in public administration education is to increase the use of technology and digitalization in the operation of the courses. to ensure and increase the interaction in the classroom in lectures, lecture presentations should be prepared by supporting technology (akman & kocaoğlu, 2019). to provide an interactive course flow, the necessary importance should be given to digitalization. in this way, students who are intertwined with technology will increase their interest in the lesson and at the same time, ease of learning will be provided. the education system, which is generally based on face-to-face education, has begun to be called online education, distance education and digital education (can, 2020). with the end of formal education, public administration education was also affected by this change and had to switch to digital education. during the covid-19 global epidemic, it is particularly significant that the training is carried out digitally in terms of not interrupting the education. the fact that some universities were caught unprepared and without infrastructure in this process decreased the quality of education and brought some disadvantages. in order to analyze the benefits and disadvantages of transitioning to digital education during the global epidemic process, a survey was conducted on undergraduate students and the other section included information and findings of the research. method purpose of the research this study was carried out to examine the phenomenon of distance education during the global epidemic, analyzing the dynamics of education, the preparation of universities for distance education, and the effect of distance education on students. the aim of the research is to investigate the impact of the covid-19 global pandemic on public administration education. in this context, it was aimed to determine the possible effects of the covid-19 global epidemic on public administration education by making a quantitative analysis through undergraduate students and to make suggestions and recommendations by evaluating the findings. in line with the purpose of the study, it was targeted to evaluate students' opinions and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 attitudes about the global epidemic and digital education issues in the analysis conducted on undergraduate students. research design a quantitative study was conducted to analyze the impact of the covid-19 global epidemic on public administration education. the questionnaire technique was preferred to collect detailed information about the demographic characteristics of the students receiving public administration education, their preferences on distance education, their views on distance education, the difficulties they encountered in the process, their satisfaction, and complaints. the universe and sample of the research the population of the study is public administration undergraduate students and the sample is undergraduate students of süleyman demirel university, department of political science and public administration. necessary permissions were obtained from the social and human sciences ethics committee of süleyman demirel university to apply the questionnaire to undergraduate students. the research covers undergraduate students of süleyman demirel university, department of political science and public administration. the total number of students in the department was 1058 and the research was limited to 734 people participating in the study. the limitation of the study was that some students had internet and connection problems and could not participate in the survey, although the survey prepared on google forms was tried to reach all students. table 1 the participants’ background no variable value frequency percentage 1 2 3 gender age location female male 18 19 20 21 21 and over urban rural 384 350 17 70 118 163 366 364 370 52,32% 47,68% 2,32 9,54 16,08 22,21 49,86 49,59 50,41 tuzcuoğlu et al. 32 research instrument the data required for quantitative research were obtained with the survey data collection tool. questionnaire method was used in the study and the scale of the questionnaire was developed by scholars. the preferred questionnaire for collecting and analyzing data was digitally created with google forms. in order to collect data, the questionnaire was opened to access on 24.07.2020 and accepting answers to the questionnaire was ended on 07.08.2020. in the questionnaire created with google forms, the questions were formed using multiple choice, linear scale, multiple choice table, confirmation tables and options called paragraphs. a total of 21 questions were included in the questionnaire. the first four questions were prepared for the demographic information of undergraduate students. other questions in the questionnaire were designed for internet use during the global epidemic, students' satisfaction with online education and digital public administration education. before collecting data, the checklist was controlled to see its validity employing the kmo test and its reliability using the cronbach alpha test. the coefficient of kmo was 0.819 and cronbach alpha 0.830, proving that the checklist was usable and dependable. data collection it was used the online sampling method to apply the questionnaire, and the students accessed and answered the questions via the questionnaire link created by google forms. süleyman demirel university department of political science and public administration has a total capacity of 1058 students at the undergraduate level, 549 in the first education and 509 in the second education. out of 1058 students, 734 students answered the questionnaire. although the rate of participating in the survey and reaching students is 69.37% in the study, almost 70% of the students have been reached and a large participation has been achieved. each question was marked as necessary in the questionnaire prepared on google forms so that each student who was reached could answer the questions in full, thus ensuring that each question was answered. data analysis the answers obtained from the survey were analyzed with the maxqda 2020 analytics pro program. the survey responses were uploaded to the program via the survey data tab and each question was analyzed with the maxqda 2020 analytics pro program. students were coded journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 between k1-k734, based on the principle of protecting personal data, and their answers were analyzed and evaluated without including the personal information of the students in the study. findings under this heading, the analysis of the answers given by the undergraduate students to the 21 questions in the questionnaire is evaluated. primarily, the analysis of questions 1-4, which includes the demographic information of the students, and then the analysis and evaluation of questions 521 about public administration education during the global epidemic process were made. maxqda 2020 analytics pro program was used to analyze the survey questions. the pro version of the program allows both qualitative and quantitative analysis. for the quantitative analysis of the survey questions, the survey data option in the import tab of the program was used. the answers to the survey questions were uploaded to the program via the "import data from excel table" tab via the survey data option and analyzes were made. in the program, a total of 31139 codes were coded for 734 students and 21 questions participating in the survey. as a result of the analysis obtained, the findings are presented in tables, figures and graphics. first, gender data of the participants were included. rq 1: how is the figure of academic interactions in the undergraduate public administration during pandemic? table 2 document-based frequency table regarding the gender of the students participating in the study documents % % (valid) female 384 52,32 52,32 male 350 47,68 47,68 codded documents 734 100,00 100,00 table 2 includes the distribution of undergraduate students participating in the study by gender. the analyzed documents and coded documents correspond to the total number of students participating in the survey. it is seen that 52.32% of 734 students are female and the remaining 47.68 are male. as can be seen from the table, the number of women participating in the study tuzcuoğlu et al. 34 showed a distribution more than the number of men. moreover, the age distribution of the students participating in the study is given in table 3. age table 3 document-based frequency table regarding the age of the students participating in the study documents % % (valid) 21 and over 366 49,86 49,86 21 163 22,21 22,21 20 118 16,08 16,08 19 70 9,54 9,54 18 17 2,32 2,32 coded documents 734 100,00 100,00 table 3 includes the data regarding the distribution of the students participating in the study according to their ages. the most surveyed age range among students is the age group of 21 and over and its rate is 49.86%. the age group with the lowest level of participation in the study is 18 and has a distribution of 2.32%. the next table contains information on where the students live. residence table 4 document-based frequency table regarding where the students participating in the study live documents % % (valid) city center 364 49,59 49,59 district center 250 34,06 34,06 village 64 8,72 8,72 neighborhood 56 7,63 7,63 coded documents 734 100,00 100,00 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 table 4 includes the place of residence data, which is critical for online education in the global epidemic. it is seen that 49.59% of the students live in the city center. in the neighborhoods called old village settlements within the boundaries of the village and metropolitan areas, the population corresponding to the distribution of 16.35% of the students in total lives. according to the data obtained, almost half of the students do not live in the city center. the number of students living in the villages is higher than the students living in the neighborhood, and this has brought various problems in terms of online education. the fact that there are villages where the internet network cannot reach, the problems of connection and the economic lack of communication tools left students at a disadvantage in their education life. before taking the decision to switch to distance education, it is of great importance for higher education institutions to do the necessary studies to determine the number of students who do not have internet access and to make the necessary studies by higher education institutions to benefit from online education. in the graphic 1 below, the grade levels of the students participating in the research are shown. perception on academic implementation student participation graph 1 frequency graph showing the educational status of the students participating in the study according to the graph, participation in the research was provided by undergraduate / 4 students mostly at a rate of 31.1%. the information in the document-based frequency table regarding the age of the students participating in the research is that the highest participation is aged 21 and over, and the data in this table that the highest participation is provided by undergraduate / 4 students are meaningful and valid. the lowest participation rates were provided as 15.5% for undergraduate / 2 students and 6.8% for undergraduate / 4 + students. however, the scarcity of the undergraduate tuzcuoğlu et al. 36 / 4 + section is parallel to the small number of their total number. the data on the duration of internet usage of the students participating in the survey with different percentage distribution is given in figure 1. figure 1. the hierarchical code-subcode model of students' internet usage times during the global epidemic process in figure 1, the fifth question in the survey, “your internet usage period in the global epidemic process?” it is included the representation of the answers given to the question with the hierarchical code-subcode model. the hierarchical code-subcode model offers models that allow it to be seen together as a subcode in the answers at the same time as the research question (aksu, 2019). according to the figure, the highest response was the duration of internet usage in the range of 5-7 hours, which was answered by 248 students, corresponding to a distribution of 33.8%. the fact that students use the internet for 5-7 hours also shows that students spend about 30% of their days on the internet during the global epidemic. the least internet usage time was 0-3 hours, which corresponds to the answer of 112 students, 15.3%. in the next graphic, students' methods of connecting to the internet to watch lectures are discussed. graph 2 frequency graph showing the methods of connecting students to the internet to watch online courses during the global epidemic process journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 the graphic above is the sixth question of the survey, “which one did you connect to the internet to watch online course during the global pandemic process?” shows the answers to the question. graph 2 includes a frequency graph showing the methods of connecting students to the internet to watch online lessons. according to the graph, 75.5% of the students connect to the internet via wi-fi to watch online lessons. the remaining 24.5% cannot fully connect to the internet and have problems. among the managements of connecting to the internet to watch online courses, the lowest rate is yök internet package with 1.9%. the rate of students without internet access is 2%. furthermore, graph 3 below shows with which tool students follow the lessons. graph 3 frequency graph showing the instrument by which students watch the lessons during the global epidemic process the seventh question of the graphic survey above, “which vehicle did you watch the lectures with during the global pandemic?” shows the answers to the question. according to the chart, 47.4% of the students watched the lessons with a laptop computer. the device with the lowest rate of watching online courses was the tablet. only 1.5% of the students followed the lessons through the tablet. a similar result has been obtained in the study conducted by karadağ and yücel (2020, tuzcuoğlu et al. 38 p. 186) and "64% of the students do their distance education from computers or tablets; 32% of them continue from their smart phones; 23% of them stated that they could not continue their distance education”. students who are partners in both studies mostly prefer laptop computers for online classes and students who have no internet access. when it comes to education, it becomes necessary to protect the right to education of every student, from the city center to the village living, by responsible persons and to complete the necessary infrastructure deficiencies. figure 2 shows the level of participation of the students, who constitute one of the most important questions of the research. figure 2. code relationships scanner showing the level of online participation of students in classes during the global epidemic process the figure above is the eighth question of the survey, “what is your online attendance level in the global pandemic process?” shows the answers to the question. figure 2 includes the code relationships scanner, which shows the online attendance levels of students in the global epidemic. the code relations scanner assigns a shape weighting according to the ratio of the responses to the questions and is arranged in descending order, preferably circular or square, according to the ratio of the responses. in figure 2, the use of a visual square is preferred. students were asked to choose a grade between 0-5 in order to determine their level of online attendance. according to the figure, the level of online participation of students in classes is the three (3) options most marked by 201 students. 201 people, corresponding to 27.4% of the students, determined their level of attending classes online as three. if the lowest participation level is five, it was chosen by 27 students and corresponds to 3.7%. since it is predicted that there are various reasons for not attending the courses online, the students were asked what these reasons were in the other question. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 figure 3. the hierarchical code-subcode model showing the reasons why students do not attend classes online during the global epidemic process the ninth question of the survey, “if you didn't attend classes online during the global epidemic process, the reason for this what is it?” shows the answers to the question. figure 3 includes the hierarchical code-subcode model that shows the reasons why students cannot attend classes online during the global epidemic process. according to the figure, 332 people, corresponding to 45.2% of the students, stated that they did not attend the classes online because they can be watched online. 39 people, equivalent to 5.3% of the students, answered that i fully participated in the least preferred online courses. 265 students, corresponding to 36.1% of the students, stated that they could not attend the classes due to the internet and connection problems, and the internet connection problem was also included in the question of the most common problems students had in online classes. to analyze other students' evaluations about the application they use to connect to online courses, the other question included adobe connect application. rq 2: how is the perception of students and teachers in the academic implementation for the undergraduate students of public administration during pandemic? tuzcuoğlu et al. 40 graph 4 frequency graph showing students' evaluations of adobe connect application during the global epidemic process the tenth question of the graphic survey above, “adobe used by your university for online courses during the global pandemic how did you find the connect application?” shows the answers to the question. graph 4 includes the frequency graph showing the evaluation of the students regarding the adobe connect application preferred by süleyman demirel university for online education during the global epidemic process. while the good and incredibly good answers given by the students correspond to the rate of 57.7%, it is seen that the rate of students who did not respond well to the application was 42.3% in total. in another question, during the global epidemic process, the most common answer given to the application that students deemed incomplete and inadequate in public administration education was the adobe connect application. the students' evaluations about the application are as follows; • k109 "adobe connect connection problems must be resolved", • k143 “adobe connect access error needs to be improved”. the application is an application that needs to be developed according to the students and is suitable for technical problems in terms of infrastructure. at this point, universities should receive feedback from students about the applications they use for online education and the necessary technical support should be given for education. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 graph 5 frequency graph showing the most common problems experienced by students in online courses during the global epidemic process the eleventh question of the graphic survey above, "which problem did you experience most in online classes during the global pandemic process?" shows the answers to the question. in graph 5, the frequency chart showing the most common problems experienced by students in online courses during the global epidemic is included. while 43.1% of the students had internet and connection problems, the lowest rate, 3.8%, had the problem of not asking questions in online lessons. in a similar study, the findings obtained in the study by kurnaz and serçemeli (2020, p. 281) stated, "not everyone has internet access, it is a big disadvantage that incomprehensible issues are not questioned immediately, and issues such as questions, answers and the student's understanding of the lesson cannot be fully understood because there is no interaction." the negative aspects of the online education listed have reached the same conclusion with the analysis of the most frequently experienced problems. the student coded k191 listed the most common problems as "connection problem, not being able to ask questions and focusing problem". k364 coded student said, “the communication aspect of education remained incomplete. while the lack of face-to-face training causes problems such as focusing, concentration, situations such as not being able to ask questions are the factors that prevent learning, and he expressed the problems he experienced in online lessons. in the next graphic, students' opinions about online exams are given. tuzcuoğlu et al. 42 graph 6 frequency graph showing students' thoughts about online exams during the global epidemic process the twelfth question of the graphic survey above, "your opinion about online exams during the global pandemic process what is it?" shows the answers to the question. graphic 6 includes the frequency graph showing the thoughts of the students about the online exams entering the education life with the global epidemic. students had the most focus problems in online exams and thought that the rate of cheating increased. 27.8% of the students stated that they were satisfied with the online exam application and had no problems. the third problem in this study, which 18% of students experienced, was the internet-related problem. the answer to the most frequent focus problem was repeated by the student coded k74, and the expression "i think the main problems are focus and internet" was stated. the student coded k578 stated the problem he was experiencing and said, "i could not get efficiency in my lessons, i could not focus and i had problems in online exams." when evaluated generally, the students emphasized that they experienced problems related to focus and internet. the student with the code k454 drew attention to the inequality of opportunity in online education with the answer “homework, lessons and exams are given with the thought that everyone has equal opportunities” with a different perspective. graph 7, on the other hand, reflects students' views on practices that contribute to educational diversity such as online interviews and assistive applications. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 graph 7 frequency graph showing students' participation in extracurricular conversations during the global the thirteenth question of the graphic survey above, "did you follow and participate in extracurricular talks during the global pandemic process?" shows the answers to the question. graph 7 includes a graphic showing the students' participation in and following the extracurricular interviews. some faculty members from the department of political science and public administration at süleyman demirel university also held online career interviews and attended the lectures by faculty members from different universities. according to the graph, 43.6% of the students stated that they followed the interviews but did not participate. the rate of students who do not follow and never attend the extracurricular interviews is 24.5%. the rate of students who follow and participate in online interviews is 31.9%. in the answers to the question of what is missing in public administration education in the global epidemic, those related to the interviews are as follows; • k350 "i am in favor of broadcasting interviews and some lessons live on youtube, if we do it this way, it will be an efficient initiative that will increase participation and benefit many people." • k355 “identifying students living in villages with internet problems and applying separate treatment. separate treatment does not mean privilege, because they fall behind from online lessons and interviews, a different examination system can be applied or additional document support can be provided to those students”. when students' opinions about online interviews are evaluated, it is understood that they want to benefit more from the conversation. the answers to this question are given in figure 4 below. tuzcuoğlu et al. 44 figure 4. the hierarchical code-subcode model of the platforms that students benefit most in public administration education during the global epidemic process in figure 4, which one did you benefit the most for your public administration education during the global epidemic process? the hierarchical code-subcode model of the answers to the question is included. students, equivalent to 52.2% for public administration trainings in the global epidemic, were most frequently referred to as dergipark, academia, researchgate, etc. they stated that they benefited from sites. the reason for this is that the assignments that replace the exam are requested in article format. the platform the students made the least use of was skype connections with the answer given by 4 people corresponding to a 0.5% distribution. the opinions of the students regarding the participation of academicians from different universities to enrich the courses are given in table 4. students opinion table 5 document-based frequency table of students' opinions on the participation of academicians from different universities in public administration courses during the global epidemic process documents % % (valid) i found it useful and necessary 512 69,75 69,75 irresolute 194 26,43 26,43 i found it useless and unnecessary 28 3,81 3,81 coded documents 734 100,00 100,00 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 the table above, which is the fifteenth question of the survey, "public administration courses in the global pandemic process from different universities how do you evaluate academics' participation?" shows the answers to the question. table 5 includes a document-based frequency table showing the opinions of students regarding the participation of academicians from different universities as guests in public administration courses during the global epidemic process. students found the participation of academicians from different universities useful and necessary at a rate of 69.75% as guests. the number of students who find it useless and unnecessary is 28, which corresponds to 3.81%. the level of satisfaction with public administration education in the covid-19 process is as follows. figure 5. code relationships scanner showing students' satisfaction with public administration education during the global epidemic process the figure above is the sixteenth question of the survey, "what is your satisfaction level with your public administration education during the global epidemic process?" shows the answers to the question. figure 5 includes the code relationships scanner, which shows the satisfaction levels of students from public administration education in the global epidemic. students were asked to indicate their level of satisfaction with a value between 0-5. two satisfaction levels were specified by 185 people. the least answer was zero, and the level of satisfaction was indicated by 45 students. it is observed that students are generally not satisfied with the online education they have encountered for the first time and their level of satisfaction is not extremely high. tuzcuoğlu et al. 46 graph 8 frequency chart showing the most satisfied practice of students in public administration education during the global epidemic process the graphic above shows the answers to the seventeenth question of the survey, "which application are you most satisfied with in public administration education during the global pandemic?" graph 8 includes a frequency chart showing the most satisfied practices of students in public administration education during the global epidemic process. 47.5% of the students were satisfied with the homework given instead of the exam. the least satisfaction came from the 14.7% students who answered online exams. regarding the assignments given instead of the exam, the student coded k484 stated that "the homework given by the teachers were more effective than the lessons he taught". the most satisfied practice in public administration education was that the assigned assignments were directed to research and students learned new information in the global epidemic. table 6 document-based display of word frequency and degrees related to the practice that students deem deficient and inadequate in public administration education during the global epidemic process word frequency % deficiency 12 0,3 score 12 0,3 efficiency 10 0,8 program 8 0,2 insufficient 8 0,2 difficulty 8 0,2 heavy 6 0,7 research 6 0,7 interactive 6 0,7 career 6 0,7 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 deductions 6 0,7 i wish 6 0,7 students 6 0,7 points 6 0,7 i had difficulty 6 0,17 table 6 includes the document-based presentation of the research findings of word frequency and degrees. in the global epidemic process, which is the 18th question of the survey, “what is incomplete and inadequate practice in public administration education and what would you like to do for it?” the answers to the question were accepted with the paragraph tab and the answers were transferred to the maxqda analytics pro program on a document basis. in the table, the order of the frequency values of the most frequently repeated words in descending order is given. it is seen that the word with the highest frequency value is deficiency (12 times) and the one with the lowest frequency value is forced (6 times). some of the sentences that the students made with the word deficiency that they most frequently repeat in the 18th question are as follows; • k538 "the training is ideal for this period, but there are still deficiencies", • k677 “lack of technological infrastructure and lack of opportunity for students having difficulty in finding opportunities is a great deficiency”. when looking at the sentences established with deficiencies and the answers to other questions, it is seen that students who have the necessary opportunities for digital education are very sensitive to students who experience impossibilities and express their problems at the first opportunity. graph 9 frequency chart showing how students want public administration education to continue when the global epidemic process ends tuzcuoğlu et al. 48 the twentieth question of the graphic survey above, "how do you want your public administration education to continue when the global pandemic process ends?" shows the answers to the question. graph 9 includes the frequency graph showing how students want their education to continue when the global epidemic ends. most students want 74.2% to continue their education in a formal way. as can be understood from the results of other analysis, the problems experienced and the determination of the level of satisfaction as three (medium level) indicate that they do not want online education when the global epidemic is over. 25.8% of the students are satisfied with online education and want to continue their education digitally when the global epidemic is over. contrary to the result obtained in this study, in the study conducted by afşar and büyükdoğan (2020, p. 173), it was found that “approximately half of the students (46%) stated that they would prefer distance education for certain courses after the pandemic process is over”. the result obtained in this study is that more than half of the students wanted to continue their education life as before. discussion the findings of this study show that education life was adversely affected during the covid-19 global epidemic, students had difficulties in adapting at the beginning of the distance education process, universities were caught unprepared in the transition from formal education to distance education, and students wanted to continue their education life face to face after the pandemic. there are various reasons students want to continue their education face to face. one of these reasons is the internet access problem. according to the findings obtained in the study, some students had difficulties accessing the internet. some students could not access the internet. experiencing an internet access problem means not accessing education and being deprived of education during the global epidemic process. in a study conducted by marangoz and kırlı özen (2021), it was stated that 43% of the total number of students worldwide do not have internet access at home. this rate shows that most students are deprived of education. similarly, 15% of the students who make up the sample of this study use the internet only between 0-3 hours during the global epidemic, and 2% of them do not have internet access points to the problem of internet access. as in the rest of the world, the issue of students' internet access needs to be resolved in the case of turkey. if we live in the digital age, there should not be a single student who cannot access the internet. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 during the global epidemic, many problems have been identified in the students who have internet access and attend the classes. at the beginning of these problems is the internet and connection problem arising from the infrastructure of universities. according to the findings obtained in the study, 42.3% of the students stated that they were not satisfied with the application used to conduct the lessons during the global epidemic process of the university and that they had problems. internet and connection problems caused the most learning and focusing issues. the fact that the lessons could not be held due to technical difficulties and internet-related disconnections affected the students. in a study conducted by mahyoob (2020), the problems students faced in the english language teaching department during the global epidemic were investigated. it has been determined that students have learning and interaction problems in distance education. most of their students missed communication with academicians during the distance education process. similarly, in this study, it was concluded that 12.3% of the department of public administration students had communication problems in online courses. it has been observed that students have similar issues regardless of the countries they live in or the departments they study. the global epidemic has caused the same problems around the world. students, on the other hand, faced similar problems in education. elimination of these problems will increase students' success and improve the quality of education at the same rate. as discussed above, distance education brought various problems and dragged some students to a disadvantageous position. however, it should not be evaluated only negatively. there are multiple advantages and positive aspects of distance education. online exams are one of these advantages. according to the findings obtained in the study, the students were generally satisfied with the online exams. the fact that extracurricular online conversations, events, conferences, and publications have entered our lives with the global epidemic has pleased the students. despite the health problems experienced in the worldwide epidemic, anxiety about the future, and difficulties in education, the students evaluated their satisfaction level as 3 (moderate). if the global epidemic ends, 74.2% of the students want to continue their education face to face. in a study conducted by alam (2022), the degree of satisfaction of students towards distance education was measured with a questionnaire technique during the pandemic period. it was concluded that the students were generally satisfied with the distance education applications. the most important factor affecting the satisfaction level of the students is their good communication tuzcuoğlu et al. 50 with their classmates and faculty members. two problems that students experienced were dissatisfaction. as in this study, learning difficulty and effectiveness in distance education decreased satisfaction. another problem with which students are dissatisfied is that they are bored with the online assignments given by the lecturers. studies in the literature and the findings obtained from this study have shown that students mostly face internet connection and access, lack of communication, learning, and focusing problems in the global epidemic. conclusion a research survey was created with google forms to analyze the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on public administration education. the questionnaire consists of 21 questions and includes questions that address digital education in all dimensions. the high rate of participation gave the questions an opportunity to be evaluated in all aspects. for the analysis of the survey questions, maxqda 2020 analytics pro program was used and the answers were imported with the help of excel table via the survey data tab. the findings showed that students living in villages who do not have internet access in the global epidemic are distant from education in distance education. some of the students could not access the internet at all, and the students who could access had mostly internet and connection problems. the students' problems related to internet access and internet connection also affected their online participation levels and students stated that they were able to attend classes at the level three (intermediate) level coded 0-5 online. when the reason for not attending the courses online was wanted to be investigated, the most responses were to be able to watch online courses from the record and the internet and connection problem was answered. the application used by the university to teach courses online is an application where almost half of the students have problems and they want technical problems to be solved. due to the technical problems occurrence, students mostly experienced internet and connection problems during online lessons. connection problems experienced in online lessons and the presence of students who could not find the opportunity to participate in online lessons also affected online exams. students experienced the most focus and time problems in online exams. when the advantages and disadvantages of digital education are evaluated together, students' level of satisfaction with public administration education in the global epidemic is analyzed as three journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 (medium level). during this process, the students were most satisfied with the homework application given instead of the exam. the participation of academicians from different universities in the courses and online interviews are among the practices that students describe as efficient and useful in the global epidemic. the global epidemic and pandemic process has affected education and students negatively as well as affecting the whole world. problems were encountered in education due to the transition to an unaccustomed education system, the unprepared start of this process, and the lack of the same opportunities for every student. students mostly experienced the lack of communication and formal education in online education. for this reason, when the global epidemic ends, approximately 75% of the students want to continue their education formally. the covid-19 epidemic, which threatened human life at a fatal point, impressed the education of students as well as their moods. during this process, students defined themselves as hopeless, unhappy, bored, anxious and anxious. for students who cannot attend the classes online, the variety and number of information and lecture notes should be increased and shared with students. likewise, the records of online conversations that students want to participate but cannot attend due to internet-based questions should be defined in student information systems and allowed to watch later. for future studies, it is recommended to conduct qualitative and quantitative studies on what the students experience in this process, in which subjects are advantageous and disadvantageous. references afşar, b., & büyükdoğan, b. (2020). covid-19 pandemisi döneminde i̇i̇bf ve sbbf öğrencilerinin uzaktan eğitim hakkındaki değerlendirmeleri, karatay sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, (5), 161–182. akman, e. & kocaoğlu, m. (2019). kamu yönetimi lisans eğitiminde teknoloji kullanımı: ahi evran, çankırı karatekin ve karamanoğlu mehmet bey üniversiteleri örneği. uluslararası yönetim i̇ktisat ve i̇şletme dergisi, 15(1), 118–142. doi:10.17130/ijmeb.2019149862 aksu, d. (2019). kurumsal politikanın işe yabancılaşma üzerindeki etkisi: isparta ili ptt çalışanları üzerinden nitel bir analiz, [master's thesis, süleyman demirel university]. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezdetay.jsp?id=gt7u0dgldidloihjo0alqq& no=dvi8kkvfm3td_tejmow9yg https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezdetay.jsp?id=gt7u0dgldidloihjo0alqq&no=dvi8kkvfm3td_tejmow9yg https://tez.yok.gov.tr/ulusaltezmerkezi/tezdetay.jsp?id=gt7u0dgldidloihjo0alqq&no=dvi8kkvfm3td_tejmow9yg tuzcuoğlu et al. 52 alam, f. a. (2022). the survey on students’satisfactiondegreetowardsonline learningduring covid-19 pandemic condition, jelita: journal of english language teaching and literature, 3(1), 44-56. arnhold, n., brajkovic, l., nikolaev, d. and zavalina, p. (2020). tertiary education and covıd19covid-19: iımpact and mitigation strategies in eeurope and ccentral aasia. world bank’s education global practice. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/783451590702592897/covid-19-impacton-tertiary-education-in-europe-and-central-asia.pdf bao, w. (2020). covid-19 and online teaching in higher education: a case study of peking university. hum behav & emerg tech, 2, 113–115. doi:10.1002/hbe2.191 bbc news, t. (2020). koronavirüs: sosyal mesafe ve kendini izole etmek ne demek? bbc news turkish. https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-52012336 burki, t. k. (2020, 21 mayıs). covid-19: consequences for higher education. lancet oncology, 758. us: elsevier. ltd. doi:10.1016/s1470-2045(20)30287-4 can, e. (2020). coronavirüs (covid-19) pandemisi ve pedagojik yansımaları: türkiye’de açık ve uzaktan eğitim uygulamaları. açıköğretim uygulamaları ve araştırmaları dergisi, 6(2), 11–53. cepiku, d. (2012). embracing disciplinary diversity: public administration education in italy. international political science association, 1–30. crawford, j., butler-henderson, k., rudolph, j., malkaw, b., glowatz, m., burton, r., … lam, s. (2020). covid-19: 20 countries’ higher education intra-period digital pedagogy responses. journal of applied learning & teaching, 3(1), 9–28. doi: https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2020.3.1.7. çalıkoğlu, a., & gümüş, s. (2020). yükseköğretimin geleceği: covid-19’un öğretim, araştırma ve uluslararasılaşma konularındaki etkileri. yükseköğretim dergisi. doi:10.2399/yod.20.005000. duraku, z. h., & hoxha, l. (2020). the impact of covid-19 on higher education: a study of interaction among students' mental health, attitudes toward online learning, study skills, and changes in students' life, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341599684_the_impact_of_covid19_on_higher_education_a_study_of_interaction_among_kosovar_students%27_mental _health_attitudes_toward_online_learning_study_skills_and_lifestyle_changes erkut, e. (2020). covid-19 sonrası yükseköğretim. yükseköğretim dergisi, 10, 1–9. doi:10.2399/yod.20.002 https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/783451590702592897/covid-19-impact-on-tertiary-education-in-europe-and-central-asia.pdf https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/783451590702592897/covid-19-impact-on-tertiary-education-in-europe-and-central-asia.pdf https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-dunya-52012336 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341599684_the_impact_of_covid-19_on_higher_education_a_study_of_interaction_among_kosovar_students%27_mental_health_attitudes_toward_online_learning_study_skills_and_lifestyle_changes https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341599684_the_impact_of_covid-19_on_higher_education_a_study_of_interaction_among_kosovar_students%27_mental_health_attitudes_toward_online_learning_study_skills_and_lifestyle_changes https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341599684_the_impact_of_covid-19_on_higher_education_a_study_of_interaction_among_kosovar_students%27_mental_health_attitudes_toward_online_learning_study_skills_and_lifestyle_changes journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 24-54 griffin, m., al-jabir, a., kerwan, a., nicola, m., alsafi, z., khan, m., … agha, r. (2020). impact of the coronavirus (covid-19) pandemic on surgical practicepart 1. international journal of surgery, 79, 168–179. doi: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.05.022 ince, f. & evcil, f. y. (2020). covid-19’un türkiye’ deki ilk üç haftası. süleyman demirel üniversitesi sağlık bilimleri enstitüsü dergisi, 11(2), 236–241. doi:10.22312/sdusbed.719168 karadağ, e., & yücel, c. (2020). yeni tip koronavirüs pandemisi döneminde üniversitelerde uzaktan eğitim: lisans öğrencileri kapsamında bir değerlendirme çalışması. yükseköğretim dergisi, 10, 1–12. doi:10.2399/yod.20.730688 karata, z. (2020). covid-19 pandemisinin toplumsal etkileri, değişim ve güçlenme. türkiye sosyal hizmet araştırmaları dergisi, 4(1), 3–17. kurnaz, e., & serçemeli, m. (2020). covid-19 pandemi döneminde akademisyenlerin uzaktan eğitim ve uzaktan muhasebe eğitimine yönelik bakış açıları üzerine bir araştırma. uluslararası sosyal bilimler akademi dergisi, 2(3), 262–288. lall, s., & singh, n. (2020). covid-19: unmasking the new face of education. international journal of research in pharmaceutical sciences, 11(1), 48–53. doi: https://doi.org/10.26452/ijrps.v11ispl1.2122 mahyoob, m., (2020). challenges of e-learning during the covid-19 pandemic experienced by efl learners, arab world english journal (awej), 11(4), 351-362. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no4.23 marangoz, m., & kırlı özen, e. (2021). covid-19 pandemi sürecinin farklı alanlarda dijitalleşmeye etkileri: kavramsal bir değerlendirme, hitit ekonomi ve politika dergisi, 1(1), 54-68. mcauley, d. f., mehta, p., brown, m., sanchez, e., tattersall, r. s. & manson, j. j. (2020). covid-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. the lancet, 395(10229), 1033–1034. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30628-0 memikoğlu, o., & genç, v. (ed.). (2020). covid-19. ankara: ankara üniversitesi basımevi. neupane, d., foundation, r. h., maharjan, m. r. & bhuju, d. (2020). academic institutions at the time of covid-19 pandemic. international journal of science and research, 9(5), 91– 93. doi:10.21275/sr20419121922 report, m. w. (2020). severe outcomes among patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) — united states, february 12–march 16, 2020. morbidity and mortality weekly report (c. 69). doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6912e2 https://doi.org/10.26452/ijrps.v11ispl1.2122 https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol11no4.23 tuzcuoğlu et al. 54 schleicher, a. (2020), the impact of covid-19 on educationi̇ınsights from education at a glance 2020, oecd, https://www.oecd.org/education/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-educationinsights-education-at-a-glance-2020.pdf united nations, (2020), policy brief: education during covid-19 and beyond, https://unsdg.un.org/resources/policy-brief-education-during-covid-19-and-beyond telli yamamoto, g., & altun, d. (2020). coronavirüs ve çevrimiçi (online) eğitimin önlenemeyen yükselişi. üniversite araştırmaları dergisi, 3(1), 25–34. doi:10.32329/uad.711110 yükseköğretim bilgi yönetim sistemi. (2020). tablo 1. öğrencı̇ sayıları i özet tablosu. https://istatistik.yok.gov.tr/ yükseköğretim kurulu. (2020). basın açıklaması. https://basin.yok.gov.tr/aciklamabelgeleri/2020/04-uzaktan-egitim-ve-yksertelenmesine-iliskin.pdf yükseköğretim kurulu. (2020). koronavirüs (covid-19) bilgilendirme notu: 1. yükseköğretim kurulu basın ve halkla i̇lişkiler müşavirliği. https://basin.yok.gov.tr/aciklamabelgeleri/2020/02-coronavirus-bilgilendirme-notu-1.pdf https://www.oecd.org/education/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-education-insights-education-at-a-glance-2020.pdf https://www.oecd.org/education/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-education-insights-education-at-a-glance-2020.pdf https://unsdg.un.org/resources/policy-brief-education-during-covid-19-and-beyond https://istatistik.yok.gov.tr/ https://basin.yok.gov.tr/aciklamabelgeleri/2020/04-uzaktan-egitim-ve-yks-ertelenmesine-iliskin.pdf https://basin.yok.gov.tr/aciklamabelgeleri/2020/04-uzaktan-egitim-ve-yks-ertelenmesine-iliskin.pdf https://basin.yok.gov.tr/aciklamabelgeleri/2020/02-coronavirus-bilgilendirme-notu-1.pdf article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (1),133-155 133 examining the relevance of indonesian vocational high school career outcomes to the labor market im hambali1 abstract when coping with the tight competition in the asian economic community, career guidance from educators can be very beneficial to students. this research looks at vocational high schools in pasuruan, east java, indonesia and aims to: see the attainments of vocational school graduates in labor markets, analyze guidance-counseling program to bridge students’ student’s outcome and labor market, and the partnership systems for connecting with their stakeholders as users of labor. this research employed mixed qualitative and quantitative methods with an explorative survey. the findings reveal that graduates achieve successful attainment in labor market in three areas: variety of jobs, satisfied standard competence in job market, and satisfied income. however, in preparing production markets, most schools lack: loyal customer bases for production outputs, marketing networks, and show rooms; adequate promotional efforts for their production outputs; personnel for quality assurance activities, resulting in graduates being un prepared for employment; and adequate industry support for production, such as by outsourcing production to schools’ production units. half of schools have employed liaison officers to seek orders from industrial partners or companies for joint production, and such staff have been key in empowering school committees to enlarge their partnership networks. keywords: relevance, vocational schools graduates, labor market introduction this study primarily concerns with guidance and counseling on the career development of vocational school students in pasuruan, indonesia. the main focus is to see how graduates of the vocational schools in pasuruan prepare to compete in the labor markets, performing quality of workforce and entrepreneurship skills. to achieve the goal, the vocational schools in pasuruan work professionally with career-guidance managed by the department of guidance and counseling in the schools, considering the significance of counseling for young people to discover their skills, inclinations and to outline a future. in practice in the vocational school policy in pasuruan, career-guidance services have been primary elements of vocational schools in terms of basic guidance services, responsive services, 1dr. state university of malang, indonesia; email: jeerpepe_17@yahoo.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 individual planning services, and system-support services. the partnerships formed by vocational schools have also systematically influenced the development of their students’ understanding and readiness to undertake careers. educators, as integral parts of the school system, must be able to cater for all conditions, and schools’ partnership policies should result in students that are mentally prepared to join the workforce. the global advancement of technology, management, and workforce quality has forced all elements of education and industry to enhance their levels of quality and competitiveness. gardner (2006) describes five minds for the future that must be developed, one of which is creative thinking, and a mastery of working skills and entrepreneurship needs a high level of creative ability. entrepreneurship and education plays a vital role in the enhancement and development of a country (bakar, islam & lee, 2015). the fast-moving pace of industry requires educators to adapt if their graduates are to be accepted into the industry workforce. a suitable curriculum, qualified teachers and other educators, and instructional processes that ensure the desired outcomes must all be developed. teachers make a great contribution to the formation of an entrepreneurship profile from the middle to the high level. indeed, a good knowledge of entrepreneurial education can be a great asset in developing an entrepreneurial attitude (stettiner et al., 2015). these can work effectively if all educational components can expand their networks in order for their graduates to satisfy the expectations of industry. entrepreneurship instruction can happen through joint instruction with business planning to establish new economic activities (stettiner et al., 2015). vocational high schools, in particular, educate their students in order to prepare them for working in various business sectors. in addition, graduates still have the opportunity to pursue their studies in higher education. the government is continuously developing regulations that enable vocational high schools to improve and to meet the expectations of their graduates. one such support has been an effort to create a conducive environment to enhance the attainment of graduates of vocational high schools by achieving a 70 to 30 proportion in 2014. entrepreneurship education is not only geared toward developing new businesses—it also covers many different ways of building up new businesses. entrepreneurship education plays important roles in developing skills, abilities, and attitudes that will help students looking to engage in entrepreneurial processes (stettiner et al., 2015) hambali. the government also enhances the quality of vocational high schools’ graduates by supporting adequate facilities, so the educational melieu will suit industry. on the micro-level, vocational high schools also enhance industrial work practices with strategies to develop relevant new labor skills while meeting the existing industrial needs. psychologically, vocational high schools also create quality brand images for their students, such as by using the slogan of the so-called smk bisa (vocational high school can). in terms of refining their access, quality, and relevance, vocational high schools need to conduct thorough studies in order to find solutions that enable them to provide the quality and relevance in their educational programs that industry expects. moreover, the development of new working opportunities through business practices and entrepreneurship is very important. the concept of entrepreneurship covers entrepreneurship education, education for entrepreneurs and the community, entrepreneurial promotion to the community, and entrepreneurship activities (stettiner et al., 2015). entrepreneurship education is applied in educational curriculum through technical level and vocational training. this aims to develop and enhance students’ core competencies for starting their own businesses. entrepreneurship and businesses can be sources for new working opportunities, and a dynamic economy backed up by the state can enhance the quality of life, as well as the economy as a whole, for the younger generation (ibrahimet al., 2015). to find solutions to the aforementioned problems, this study aims to enhance the quality and relevance of vocational high schools’ education to labor markets and achieve quality graduates by networking with relevant industries. this study also especially analyzes important aspects related to the quality of vocational high schools. the following research questions guide this research: 1) what attainments are achieved by vocational schools graduates in pasuruan, indonesia to chain students’ learning outcomes and labor market? 2) how is quality as entrepreneurs developed to bridge students’ career-development at schools and the labor market needs? 3) what partnership systems and strategies are designed by the career-guidance program at schools to bridge students’ learning outcomes and labor market? journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 review of literature career guidance career-guidance was first coined by frank parsons so as he is known as the father of vocational guidance movement. by 1908 parsons established the vocation bureau in boston, promoting the concept of careers guidance. career-guidance was primarily required to help a clear understanding of the individual’s skills, interests and limitations. to parson, requirements and conditions for various types of jobs was essential, and successful guidance was required to accommodate the characteristics (gothard, mignot, offer & ruff, 2001:10). career-guidance has its content as the guidance and counseling. in schools, guidance refers to a range of learning experiences provided in the development students’ self-managements skills which will lead to effective choices and decisions about their lives. it consists of three areas: personal and social development, educational guidance and career guidance. in addition, counseling aims to achieve the empowerment of students so that they can make decisions, solve problems, address behavioral issues, develop coping strategies and resolve difficulties they may be experiencing. counseling in schools may include personal counseling, educational counseling, career counseling or combinations of these (st fergal’s college, 2018). a career guidance is defined as a process to help understand individuals a clearer of themselves and their potential for future career development. particularly careers guidance helps people to clarify their goals for the future, assess their career development needs at different points in their life, to understand the actual process of choosing a career, and take appropriate measures to implement these objectives (ali & graham, 1996:1-2). through the guidance, individuals are helped to explore their complex needs, “to make greater sense of their current situation and to build confidence in their ability to complete the review process and move forward from the point at which they seek help” (ali & graham, 1996:5). career counseling explores the students’ interests and guide them to choose their professional career. students need professional career counselors to guide them to develop selfawareness in personal interests, skills, knowledge, potentials, weaknesses and assess occupational opportunities such as employment trends, competencies in the field, requirement of employment and job description (kok & low, 2017). they also need to prepare a career plan related to their career search, goal setting, the ways to realize goals, and cultivate job-searching skills. this includes identifying potential employers, preparing resumes, preparing for interviews (getachew hambali. et al., 2016). the role of career counseling and vocational guidance services is precious in empowering students to select the best fit with their ability, interest, personality and in the long run a satisfied life (santilli et al., 2017). according to van esbroeck (20028:36) guidance are divided into three kinds: (1) vocational (career) guidance, (2) personal guidance, and (3) learner support. vocational guidance is used to support in relation to development, choice and placement in educational options and occupations or work roles. the objective of personal guidance is to support in relation to personal and social development and well being, and (3) learner support. in addition, learner support has its objective to support to maximize the effect of the learning process. it includes support to acquire appropriate learning skills and methods, attitudes and motivation” (van esbroeck, 2008:37). career counseling includes all counseling activities related to career choice on a lifetime. in the career counseling process, all matters regarding the individual needs (including work, family and personal preoccupations), are recognized as an integral part of career decision making and planning. it includes also activities related to the inadequacy of employment, mental health issues, stress reduction and development programs that improve work skills, interpersonal relations, flexibility, adaptability, and other development programs leading to selfagent (zunker, 2006:9). careers guidance operates ”at the interface between the individual and society, between self and opportunity, between aspiration and realism. it facilitates the allocation of life chances” (watts, 1996:351). career counseling and vocational guidance is interlinked with the employability of pass outs. to gain the competitive advantage, the employers are joining hands with universities and training institutes in the developed countries. these developed countries are arranging seminars, workshops and industrial tours of the students to gain awareness about the working place (seung, 2014). according to lemm, (2006) the age of 18-25 years old is a new stage of life. the transition period between adolescence and early adulthood is the time an individual gets difficulty to make decisions. the difficulties of the career decision-making process include the lack of information, such as individual own self, work, and information, and information inconsistencies, including internal and external conflicts (gati, kraus, & osipow, 1996; monika, 2018). making a career decision is a complex matter, involving what an individual deems the most appropriate from career possibilities, comparison and evaluation of career journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 alternatives, professional program and the individual character (gati, krausz, and osipow, 1996). in career decision-making, the individual's ability impacts on whether the individual is accepted for the training or work he or she wants, while the ability of the individual also plays an important role in career decision-making (gati, 2013; monika, 2018). in addition, problems of individual is taken into account in terms of lack of motivation, general indecisiveness, and dysfunctional beliefs (monika, 2018). vocational education training vocational education training (vet) constitutes an educational option that can be chosen by adults who want to change career. it enables to learn an occupation in a quick and direct way, which confines the costs—in terms of time and money—of a career change projects (juntunen & baley, 2014). vet consists in the combination of theoretical and practical courses, often associated with direct learning in real companies through internships or a dual education system (organization for economic co-operation and development [oecd], 2014). vet plays a key role in the social development of societies and communities in a context of market globalization and conscious technological innovations. vet helps promote the socioprofessional integration of young people and adults in many countries. vet orientation, roles and learning models are based on public and educational policies and different social actors involved, such as government, training institutions, employers, union, collaborate or not. (masdonati, fournier & pineault, 2015). australia’s vet sector is based on a partnership between governments and industry. vet qualifications are provided by government institutions, called technical and further education (tafe) institutions, as well as private institutions. australian governments (federal and state) provide funding, develop policies, and contribute to regulation and quality assurance of the sector. industry and employer groups contribute to training policies and priorities, and in developing qualifications that deliver skills to the workforce. researches show in norway, denmark, switzerland and germany, vet is offered, through dual and holistic models that encompass alteration of learning experiences within academic institutions and work organizations. in canada, united states, england, france, vet respond to a linear model of academic experience complemented by internships within work organizations (bosch & charest (2008); brockmann et al., ( 2008); and eichhorst et hambali. al. (2012). two models of vet include e joint acquisition of general knowledge transferable to several professional activities and a trade (brockmann et al., 2008). vet success is thus based on a sustainable alternation of learning between the school and work organization environments and the different social actors concerned, i.e. governments, employers, schools). vet is an interesting training option for individuals looking to find, in a relatively short period, better working conditions and employment outlooks, as well as for employers looking for skilled and productive workers able to adapt to labor market and technological transformations (soenarto, et al, 2017). in many countries, vet suffers from a lower status and negative social value attributions compared to higher education (billett, 2014; virolainen & stenstrom, 2014). however, vet receives more positive perception among young people and adults who voluntarily choose to engage in it (cournoyer et al., 2016; ashar, 2018). vet offers very interesting conditions and perspectives for people wishing to quickly acquire qualifying training to enter a new career (masdonati, fournier & pineault, 2015). in the career-guidance, attention in competencies in soft skills is important. soft skills should the focus of teaching and learning process in training institutions and in the career counseling and vocational guidance. soft skills help the graduates to be competitive and valuable in the labor market (anindo et al., 2016). the job market now expects that the trainees should have know-how about the skills before taking proper admission in the institute (tsitskari et al., 2017). workforce should be provided with the necessary requisite soft skills. the trainees / students who are formally guided to recognize their personal interest can exploit their potential in better way (mobley et al., 2017). survey by association of graduate recruiters (agr, 2007) discovers that shortcomings related to employability skills include: softer’s skills such as teamworking, leadership and project management, awareness of their chosen industry sector; commercial awareness and business/organization understanding. these deficiencies can be improved by formal set up of career counseling and vocational guidance system at the training institutes. marilyn (2008) asserts that employability is all about being capable of getting and keeping work done as per requirement. employability is the capacity to deploy self-sufficiently within the labor market sustainable employment. employability consists of three: (1) person’s journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 employability assets (i.e. knowledge, skills and attitudes, deployment; which includes career management skills, and job search skills), (2) presentation (e.g. job getting skills, for example cv writing, work experience and interview techniques, (3) ability to make the most of his employability assets, e.g. family responsibilities, current level of opportunity within the labor market. employability of competencies such as ability, aptitude and qualities developed useful to an occupation or career (mihaela & cristina, 2015). methods design and setting this study took the form of a survey research using mixed qualitative and quantitative methods with an explorative survey. these approaches and methods were used with the aim of describing the relevance and suitability of the competencies taught in vocational high schools and comparing them with the needs of industry. programs, curriculum, apprenticeship activities, and attainments were evaluated. competency gaps (chain conversion) need to be met by vocational high school graduates working in manufacturing industries and potentially technological groups to create teaching factories. this study was conducted in pasuruan regency and involved 12 vocational schools, 10 career-guidance centers and three industrial centers where students dedicated for their apprenticeship as the research sites. participants a total of 120 participants were involved in this study. the participants consisted of alumni already got jobs in various sectors who regularly reported to the career-guidance centers in their schools. the participants came from 10 centers of career-guidance in vocational schools in pasuruan. of 120 participants, 46 (38,33%) were male and 74 (63,67%) female, aged between 19-23 years. they were selected purposively based on their availability of being observed and interviewed. intentionally, the participants were administered in the career-guidance centers the teachers allowed to investigate. instrumentations and data collection instruments of this study included checklist and interview guide. open checklist instruments consisting of 12 items were used to see the demographic information of the programs and hambali. development of labor markets. in addition, interview guides were used as guidelines for interviewing students and teachers to define in-depth information on the programs of careerguidance, entrepreneurship as well as the relevance between vocational programs and labor market the students obtained in industrial sectors. the interview guide was tested with three adults having experienced a career change, and adjusted according to their feedback. pursuing to the research instruments, data of this study were collected through an observation, interview and document analysis. primary data were obtained by asking respondents to fill out questionnaires and through observation, as well as by collecting documentation in vocational high schools, manufacturing industries, and entrepreneurial workshops. respondents from the vocational high schools were principals, while the participants from industry were chief officers, and those from entrepreneurial businesses were business owners. observation was conducted to see students and teachers in the career-guidance process, in the workshop and in the apprenticeship sites. all students and teachers involved in those programs were observed. semi-structured 15 to 20 minutes were carried out individually with participants. interviews were structured into six themes: (1) sociodemographic information; (2) life path; (3) reasons for career change; (4) systemic influences on career change; (5) relationship to work and occupational identity; (6) articulation of students and adult roles. the interview was conducted in a face-to-face basis. results of the interview were recorded verbatim. in addition, documents were examined their content thoroughly in accordance with the results of interview and written responses of the questionnaire. data analysis techniques data obtained from questionnaire were analyzed using descriptive statistics allowing table and diagram to display the results. data from questionnaire were analyzed to see sociodemography of graduates, kinds of attainments, career-achievement, level of graduate competence, level of satisfaction and perception of graduates in career-guidance. data obtained from document were used as the complement of the questionnaire. in addition, data from the interview were transcribed verbatim and each theme and information regarding the attainment of the program were sorted. basically, both data were analyzed using contents analysis from which quantitative and qualitative approaches were allowed to do. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, figuring out the rate percentage and diagram. in analyzing the qualitative data, this study adapted data analysis from masdonati, fournier & lahrizi (2017, p. 150) that applied domains identification, categories definition, and coding. the domain analysis corresponds to developing a domain list and identifying core ideas. the category identification and coding system indicated cross-analysis stage. to identify the domain, we shared with the team and went through the interview transcriptions to identify and define the domains: life and vocational path; reasons for the career change; process of career; meaning of career, future plans, and representations of vet; we coded the domains of four common transcriptions, compared their coding and reached consensus in a team meeting; and we summarized each participant, summing up what characterized them in each domain. in characterizing the definition of categories, we undertook all the summary sheets and the interviews sections to read thoroughly, and identified a common preliminary categorization of reasons. following the step, we provided the adjustment of each definition and wrote down a definition and a detailed description, allowing a final version of the categories definition, description, and illustration. finally, to give the coding, we selected meaning units and coded each according to the categories; explained possible different reasons, and identified frequencies of the reasons and most recurrent co-occurrences (masdonati, fournier & lahrizi, 2017, p. 151-52). findings and discussion attainment of smk graduates in preparing graduates for work, schools equip students to find a job or start a business. based on figure 1, we found 120 alumni achieving jobs in various contexts. figure 1. gender of the alumni hambali. record of the alumni shows how they achieve level of competence of vocational education training (vet) as the minimum standard of competence that measures 11 aspects of competence with the minimum achievement 80%. the standard includes: (1) collaboration, (2) discipline, (3) ethic, (4) tenacity, (5) theoretical knowledge, (6) practical skills, (7) feeling confidence, (8) carefulness, (9) creativity, (10) sense of responsibility, and (11) leadership. attainment in the standard competence appears in figure 2. figure 2. achievement of alumni in the standard of competence as figure 2 suggests three levels of achievement on the minimum competence are achieved by 120 persons: average (43 or 35,83%), high (54 or 45%), and very high (23 or 19,17%). two levels of competence: low and very low are not identified. this figure implies that the minimum standard has been achieved by 77 (64, 17%) alumni. alumni administered their job attainments and we record 21 jobs have been identified as seen in figure 3. figure 3. variation of job reported by alumni. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 figure 4. job satisfaction figure 5. perception on career-counseling the quality as entrepreneurs martin (2015) explains that schools should provide facilities and create a conducive environment for learning, so graduates will be able to identify and exploit new business opportunities. to enable graduates to become entrepreneurs, schools can make serious efforts in terms of providing facilities and support to cultivate new entrepreneurs. indicators to measure the extent of these facilities and supports are proposed below. the production-orientation of vocational high schools a production-orientation represents an effort to give the students the opportunity to directly experience, observe, and understand the creation of products that can become commodities for hambali. supporting a business. schools often ask students to manage production units and the subsequent marketing, and this has impacted attitudes and self-motivation, as well as increased the awareness that vocational high schools graduates do not necessarily become employees. support from the community affects the industrial practices through which products can be sold. vocational high schools, for their part, cultivate entrepreneurship skills in their students. this can be a first step in which students can experience producing their own products, which could be saleable and have economic values. this can then motivate students to produce new and better version of these products. instructional programs that result in final products as saleable commodities has therefore become a way to create new entrepreneurs. schools can also provide entrepreneurial coaching through workshops, maintenance services, and repair. entrepreneurship is the science and arts of managing human resources and natural resources in order to create added value as a benefit. therefore, such coaching is a first step in students acknowledging and improving their own management skills. students are then expected to change their attitudes, going from believing they cannot become entrepreneurs to embracing the possibility. this process is taught to students from the first year, it and supports the habits of the students. facilities need to be adequate for production activities, so they are important tools in the entrepreneurial-learning process. loyal customers and marketing networks and showrooms also bring attention to the schools. again, these are considered integral parts of entrepreneurship education and its efforts to create new entrepreneurs. students’ experiences in performing transactions with customers are not replicated in the employees of a company. to students, the experience is two-fold: being an employee and being the owner of a production unit. their experiences as employees are valuable for developing skills in their relevant working fields, while their experiences as owners of a production unit can teach them competencies like undertaking a cost & benefit analysis. the ability to predict profits and losses can be learned through such rich experiences, but it is difficult to teach in classes. production units therefore offer this experience to ensure the opportunity is not lost. this study showed that most of the vocational high schools in pasuruan had not yet acquired loyal customers, sustainable networks, and product showrooms yet. marketing, business legalities, and production unit management determine the success of a business. marketing is part of a company’s management, so it is taught by vocational high journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 schools as part of the learning process to prepare graduates for entrepreneurial competency. in this case, entrepreneurs need both easy and difficult experiences. schools also need to provide special staff to promote their goods and services to customers. this study reveals that promotional efforts and marketing activities for the products of production units have not been adequate. schools only conduct this limitedly in the form of exhibitions and special events, and even this is not done continuously. promotional efforts have been integrated into efforts to teach children to experience the real world through suitable experiences. there tends to be insufficient exposure of students to promotional activities and customer relations, and this is an indicator of ineffective entrepreneurial learning. in other words, the entrepreneurial education is sub-optimal. schools efforts to ensure product quality through a quality assurance process in offering students experience, schools can involve students in working for real businesses managed by the school itself. directing students to certain business practices is therefore very important. to develop entrepreneurial character and the ability to work according to their skills, entrepreneurs with social sensitivity need to motivate students through their education (toch & phi, 2015). product quality is one consideration that determines the success of marketing and promotional efforts. the need to maintain and assure quality is met by consciously developing a quality assurance system as a part of professional management. schools encouraging students to experience entrepreneurial learning therefore need to teach about quality assurance. research data shows that from the sampled schools, only 20% performed quality assurance, and even then, it was only done for a handful of products. this is the backdrop for graduates who are expected to be industry-ready. quality management must be introduced to students at school, especially with regard to processes and techniques for quality management, because quality matters to consumers. graduate quality that is relevant to the current market needs schools’ curriculums play a central role in developing entrepreneurial skills. this can steer students toward starting businesses and give them the skills to succeed in their future lives (hebert & bass, 2015). being qualified should mean being better than others (smarter, more skilled, more competent, stronger, determined, etc.) with 2) a winning attitude. programs and offerings developed for vocational high school education in pasuruan, east java, indonesia were hambali. considered qualified if they were superior to others. the creation of graduates that are relevant to the industrial needs was measured according to the following indicators:  a curriculum oriented toward the interests of industry;  the relevance of a vocational high school curriculum to the workforce needs of industry;  human resource management, including for the teachers and technicians of vocational high schools, that is relevant to industry’s interests;  the development of vocational high school facilities that are relevant to industry’s interests;  the commitment of school principals to production units that support industry;  policy support for production units that are relevant to industry;  support from industry for the products of vocational high schools, such as by outsourcing to school production units; and  an instructional syllabus that is up to date and aligned with the needs of industries. the research data reveals that school’s actions do not suit these indicators, so the delivery of their offerings needs to be done more optimally. in general, the support for the vision and mission and the schools’ objectives toward the growth of the manufacturing industry has been adequate. most of the sample schools have genuinely supported the growth of the manufacturing industry. it turns out that the orientation of the vocational high schools’ curriculums toward industry, the relevance of these curriculums to industry’s workforce needs, and the development of teachers and technician that are relevant to industry needs have all been adequate. some sample schools expressed that their curriculums accommodated industry’s needs and were relevant to industry’s workforce requirements, as well as that they developed teacher and technicians suitable for industry’s needs. most of the sample schools also revealed that their facilities were relevant to industry needs, but the school principals’ commitment to production units that are relevant to industry’s needs have not been oriented towards products. looking at vocational fields, the schools need to focus their attention toward product and services. most schools felt that policy support for production units was relevant to industry’s needs, while industry support for production units (e.g., outsourcing to school production units) has not been adequate and limitedly implemented. however, the instructional syllabus was always kept up to date was delivered in line with the needs of industry. half of the sample schools said they had journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 identified graduates working in informal sectors, such as working in small workshops or working independently to develop a business in their spare time. this statistical survey and subsequent identification has been considered very important. partnership systems and strategies to connect with workforce stakeholders to implement a curriculum to help students to become entrepreneurs, schools need to design it to foster success in more than just business (hebert& bass, 2015). a partnership system is one way to profit from a suitable and responsible commitment. this has been developed with the aim of developing new, qualified human resources with suitable competencies to meet the needs of industry. vocational high schools must therefore strive to produce suitably qualified graduates. such partnerships include: (1) partnerships for learning needed skills, (2) partnerships involving special personnel from both schools and industry, (3) partnerships in providing products, goods, and services made by schools for industry, and (4) mutual partnerships for experiential learning. these partnerships include several indicators: (a) the availability of special staff in vocational high schools to solicit orders from industries and communities,(b) the school’s efforts to work with industrial partners, and (c) the collection of data for vocational high school graduates working in industrial sectors. half of the sample schools did have special staff to seek orders from industry and communities. they engaged in partnerships with companies to produce parts for industrial work. the other half had not yet done this, however. when looking at the importance of such special staff, schools can involve school committee members. some 70% of the schools had not yet been successful in forming industrial partnerships to work for several industrial tasks. only 30% of them had successfully formed such partnerships, despite its great importance (mihaela & cristina, 2015). the research data revealed that most of the sample schools had not developed loyal customers for their production outputs, networks for selling production units, and showrooms in which to promote and sell their products and services. this implies that these schools have not considered production units as a major part of the school system and an organic element that is just as important as other instructional components. the schools formed policies by providing non-teaching staff to form industrial unit groups; identifying the relevance and regional potency, as well as areas of expertise owned by the schools for formulating relevant production units; and following up this identification with an hambali. organizational development of production unit management and wider management practices under the responsibility and supervision of the principal. the promotional efforts of the schools for production output have not been adequate. schools conducted promotion incidentally through exhibitions and other one-off events that did not allow continuous marketing. promotion is another integral skill that can be learned through suitable experience. unfortunately, the lack of learning opportunities for product promotion shows that the entrepreneurial learning process is suboptimal. policies that could be developed by the schools could include delegating a vice-principal and teachers from guidance and counselling to focus more on promotional management for the schools’ goods and services in order to foster adequate skills and competences. this can be determined in official policy by asking the government’s education department to force schools to formulate special organic units for promotion activities. parents can also be invited to become involved in school promotion programs (yusoff, zainol & ibrahim (2015). most of the sample schools expressed that their policy support for production units that are relevant to industry, as well as industry’s support for their production units (e.g., outsourcing to school production units),has not been adequate. as mentioned earlier, only half of the schools collected data on their graduates who were working in both formal and informal sectors. vocational high schools therefore need strategy for data collection through an ongoing relationship with graduates and their parents. the status of graduates is sometimes difficult to trace through formal industry channels, but it can be monitored through direct links to graduates and their parents. this means that schools should create networks with parents as the source of the graduates. based on the previous analysis, 70% of schools have not yet engaged in partnerships with industry to manage their production and services. the government’s trade and industry and employments departments should therefore formulate policies to encourage industry and vocational high schools to form mutually beneficial relations. conclusion, limitation and implications our study has identified three areas of findings: attainments of vocational school graduates in labor market, quality of entrepreneurs and partnership system and strategies designed by careerguidance programs to bridge students’ outcomes and labor market. our findings confirm that students’ attainment in labor market is categorized as successful indicated by three indicators. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 students have worked in 12 different sectors, no low standard competence is identified, and most of their salary is satisfied, all indicate the successful program of the school and career-guidance. in terms of school endeavors on product sale, however, the results has not been fulfilled. we can conclude that most of the sample schools have not built up loyal customer bases for its production outputs, created marketing networks for their products, or set up showrooms in which to sell their products. the promotional efforts undertaken by schools for their production outputs have also been inadequate, with them conducting only limited promotion through exhibitions and other time-limited events, so there is no continuous effort. only 20% of schools conducted quality assurance, with some only focusing this on selected products. this is unsuitable for schools trying to create graduates that are equipped to join the workforce. the efforts made by the schools to develop entrepreneurial skills have suited the expected indicators, however. in their implementations, it was discovered that there were many factors influencing the effectiveness of a school’s efforts. in general, the support of the schools’ vision, mission, and objectives for the growth of manufacturing industries already exists. indeed, most of the schools supported growth in the manufacturing industry. they also keep their curriculums aligned with industrial interests. most of the sample schools have not gained sufficient support from industry for production, such as by outsourcing to the production units of vocational high schools. however, they have provided up-to-date instructional syllabuses that cater to industrial needs. half of the sample schools also had specialized staff to seek orders from industry and communities and develop partnerships with industry for elements of industrial work. the presence of such specialized staff is very important, and to achieve this, schools can involve their committees in enlarging their partnership programs. this study has limitation in terms that exploration on the career-guidance has is limited to focus on its program. schools should provide specialized staff to seek orders from industry and communities, including offering them their production outputs. these schools are also advised to recruit industry technicians to work as school instructors, as well as be agents for building networks and partnerships between their schools and industry. schools should continue to seek industrial partnerships oriented to both products and services. it is suggested that the government develop minimum criteria, through laws or regulations, for how schools manage their production aspects, especially for physical products, because most schools focus more on services. the government could also look at providing standard hambali. operating procedures for schools to conduct graduate-tracking studies. in line with this, industries could look at providing data for tracking graduates whom they have recruited. schools are advised to provide opportunities for graduates to independently engage in their own entrepreneurial ventures, and they should also develop their teachers to enhance the relevancy of their competencies. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 references agr, association of graduate recruiters. (2007). graduate recruitment survey. wikipedia. ali, lynda, and graham, barbara. (1996). the counselling approach to careers guidance, new york: routledge. anindo, i., mugambi, m., & matula, d. (2016). training equipment and acquisition of employable skills by trainees in public technical and vocational education and training institutions in nairobi county, kenya. training, 3(4), 103-110. arshad, muhammad. (2018). impact of career counseling & vocational guidance on employment in tvet sector. international journal of human resource studies, 8(1), 274-289. doi:10.5296/ijhrs.v8i1.12554 bakar, r., islam, m. a., lee, j. (2015). entrepreneurship education: experiences in selected countries. international education studies, 8(1), 88–99. billett, s. (2014). the standing of vocational education: sources of its societal esteem and implications for its enactment. journal of vocational education & training, 66 (1), 1–21. bosch, g., & charest, j. (2008). vocational training and the labour market in liberal and coordinated economies. industrial relations journal, 39 (5), 428–447. brockmann, m., clarke, l., & winch, c. (2008). knowledge, skills, competence: euro pean divergences in vocational education and training (vet)—the english, german and dutch cases. oxford review of education, 34 (5), 547–567. cournoyer, louis; fournier, geneviève; masdonati, jonas. (2017). going back-to-school in vocational education and training: introduction. international journal for research in vocational education and training. 4(3),196-205. urn: urn:nbn:de:0111-pedocs151290. eichhorst, w., rodŕıguez-planas, n., schmidl, r., & zimmermann, k. f. (2012). a roadmap to vocational education and training systems around the world. bonn, germany: institute of labor economics (iza). gardner., h. (2006). five minds for the future. boston, ma: harvard business school press. gati, i. (2013). advances in career decision making. in walsh, w. b. (ed.), hambali. savickas, m. l. (ed.), & hartung, p (ed.), handbook of vocational psychology: theory, research, and practice. london: routledge. retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1136500006. gati, i., krausz, m., & osipow, s. h. (1996). a taxonomy of difficulties in career decision-making. journal of counseling psychology, 43, 510-526. getachew, a., & gobena, d. (2016). "career development among undergraduate students of madda walabu university, south east ethiopia". journal of student affairs in africa, 4(2), 25-37. gysbers, norman. (2008). career guidance and counseling in primary and secondary educational settings in athanasou, james a., van esbroeck, raoul, international handbook of career guidance, new york: springer, gothard, bill, mignot, phil, offer, marcus, and ruff, melvyn. (2001). careers guidance in context, london: sage publications. hebert, f.j., bass, k. e. (2015). personality types of entrepreneurs and business students: implications for management education. international education studies, 8(1), 121-132. ibrahim, w.n.a., ab. bakar, r., asimiran, s., mohamed, s. & zakaria, n. s. (2015). impact of entrepreneurship education on the entrepreneurial intentions of students in technical and vocational education and training institutions (tvet) in malaysia. international education studies, 8 (12), 141–156. kok, j. k., & low, s. k. (2017). proposing a collaborative approach for school counseling. international journal of school & educational psychology, 5(4), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2016.1234986 lemme, b.h. (2006). development in adulthood (4 th ed). boston: pearson education, inc. juntunen, c. l., & bailey, t.-k. m. (2014). training and employment services for adult workers. in d. l. blustein (ed.), the oxford handbook of the psychology of working (pp. 292–310). new york, ny: oxford university press. marilyn, c. (2008). understanding and managing employability in changing career contexts. journal of european industrial training, 32(1), 258-284. martin, r.a. (2015). ten steps to career development education success: using community resources. international education studies, 1(8). https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1136500006 https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2016.1234986 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 133-155 masdonati, jinas; fournier, geneviewe & lahrizi, z. imane. (2017). the reasons behind a career change through vocational education and training. international journal for research in vocational education and training (jrrvet). 4(3), 249-269. mihaela, a. nita & cristina, g. ilie. (2015). a research on the educational counseling and career guidance in romarnia. european scientific journal. 2(special issue), 28-36. mobley, c., sharp, j. l., hammond, c., withington, c., & stipanovic, n. (2017). the influence of career-focused education on student career planning and development: comparison of cte and non-cte students. career and technical education research, 42(1), 57-75. https://doi.org/10.5328/cter42.1.57 monika. (2018). the effectiveness of career guidance program for psychology students. international journal of indonesian education and teaching. 2(2), 195-202. doi: https://doi.org/10.24071/ijiet.2018.020212 oecd (2014). skills beyond school: synthesis report. paris, france: oecd publishing. doi:10.1787/9789264214682-en santilli, s., marcionetti, j., rochat, s., rossier, j., & nota, l. (2017). career adaptability, hope, optimism, and life satisfaction in italian and swiss adolescents. journal of career development, 44(1), 62-76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845316633793 seung, n. (2014). relationship between tvet system and employment. new frontiers of educational research, 9(1), 109-125. soenarto, s., amin, m., & kumaidi, k. (2017). an evaluation of vocational high schools in indonesia: a comparison between four-year and three-year programs. reid (research and evaluation in education), 3(2), 106-113. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.21831/reid.v3i2.17077 st’ fergal college. (2018). career guidance. available online on http://www.stfergalscollege.com/school-information/career-gudance/. retrieved on 4 january, 2019. stettiner. c.f., formigoni. a., filho. m.p.r, de camargo. m.o. & moia. r.p. (2015). teachers’ entrepreneurial profile: case study. international education studies, 8 (12), 1–12. toch, t. & phi d. k.. (2015). education entrepreneurs on the potomac. international education studies,(1)8, 121-132. https://doi.org/10.5328/cter42.1.57 http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264214682-en https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845316633793 http://dx.doi.org/10.21831/reid.v3i2.17077 http://dx.doi.org/10.21831/reid.v3i2.17077 http://www.stfergalscollege.com/school-information/career-gudance/ hambali. tsitskari, e., goudas, m., tsalouchou, e., & michalopoulou, m. (2017). employers‟ expectations of the employability skills needed in the sport and recreation environment. journal of hospitality, leisure, sport & tourism education, 20(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2016.11.002 van esbroeck, raoul. (2008). career guidance in a global world athanasou, james a., van esbroeck, raoul, international handbook of carrer guidance, new york: springer. virolainen, m., & stenstrom, m. l. (2014). finnish vocational education and training in comparison: strengths and weaknesses. international journal for research in vocational education and training, 1(2), 81–106. watts, a.g.. (1996). careers guidance and public policy, in watts, a.g., law, bill, killeen, john, kidd, jennifer, and hawthorn, ruth. rethinking careers education and guidance: theory, policy and practice. london: routledge. yusoff, m.n. h. b.; zainol, f. anwar; ibrahim, & m.d. (2015). entrepreneurship education in malaysia's public institutions of higher learning-a review of the current practices. international education studies, 8(8), 188-196. zunker, vernon. (2006). career counseling. a hollistic approach. belmont: thomson brooks/cole. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2016.11.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2016.11.002 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 259-281 constructivist instruction practices in kosovo primary education: the field of languages and communication curriculum hatixhe ismajli1 & beslinda krasniqi2 abstract the constructivist approach aims to change the traditional instruction paradigms in the primary education curriculum of kosovo. nonetheless, constructivist practices that aim to ensure success in teaching have not been fully understood by instructors. this study intended to examine how primary school instructors practice constructivist instruction in the field of languages and communication curriculum. the study also aimed to ascertain the differences between instructors who teach at the second curricular stage (grades three, four and five) following the constructivist and traditional instruction and the teaching activities that they develop in this curricular area. in addition, the research aimed to identify and compare practices that determine the constructivist instruction in the subjects albanian and english languages. a mixed research methodology was used in this research. the content analysis was followed by a descriptive statistical analysis of the data obtained through a questionnaire and observation. the results indicate that the constructivist teaching practices were partially applied due to difficulties faced by instructors in understanding and implementing the constructivist philosophy in the languages and communication curriculum area. the creation of a handbook with guidelines that focus on constructivist instruction and interactive activities, training of in-service teachers in professional development and the provision of technological resources are recommended to enhance the quality of constructivist practices, and are considered key overcoming the present obstacles. keywords: constructivist practices, teaching activities, languages and communication field, instructor, primary education. introduction after the war in kosovo ended in 1999 and the legal base was created, several reforms were undertaken by international and local organisations, bringing significant progress in the design of new curricula following the principles of the european union. the kosovo curriculum 1 assoc. prof., university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, faculty of education, prishtina, kosovo, hatixhe.ismajli@uni-pr.edu (corresponding author). 2 msc. of teaching and curriculum, “international maarif school of kosovo”, kosovo, beslinda.krasniqii@gmail.com mailto:hatixhe.ismajli@uni-pr.edu mailto:beslinda.krasniqii@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 framework for pre-university education (ministry of education, science and technology [mest], 2011) is expected to fully transform approaches to teaching and learning. the education system now requires strategies focused on including students in the learning process, whereby the focus is on building knowledge rather than on reproducing it (shah, 2019). accordingly, the philosophy of the new curriculum is based on the constructivist approach, i.e., on ‘learning by doing’. adequate conditions and opportunities for the construction of new knowledge are created through the actualisation of students’ skills and knowledge in real-life situations (mest, 2016). constructivism, as a new educational approach, emphasises that students are more capable of comprehending information that they constructed themselves (muhammad, 2021). the curriculum needs to be organised in a spiral for the students to continuously build upon the already acquired knowledge (bruner, 1966). constructivist learning is a social advancement that includes language, real-life situations, interaction and collaboration among students (bransford et al., 2000). the field of languages and communication is one of seven curricular fields that involve the albanian language and english as a foreign language. recent curricular trends in multiculturalism and conceptualism have surpassed the traditional approach, especially for english language learners, providing transformative and pragmatic models for 21st-century learners (adams, 2019). students’ perceptions concerning the native language and foreign language acquisition are influenced by the general principles of the theories on overall human cognitive development. the approaches and practices in instruction and learning of these two subjects are valuable for the entire community. the albanian language is taught at all key curricular stages, from the preparatory until the 12th grade. the english language is the first foreign language taught, being optional in the first and the second grades and a compulsory subject from the third grade forward (gundara & peffers, 2006). however, based on the kosovo curriculum framework, english is taught ‘from key stage one until the final grade of the upper high school. in key stage one, this language is taught through games, drawings and songs, to be continued with reading and writing in other key stages of the curriculum’ (mest, 2011, p. 38). bruner (1960) began curricular changes based on the idea that learning is an active social process through which students constructs new ideas or concepts based on real-life knowledge. instructors using the constructivist approach will detach students from the mechanical memorisation of facts and encourage them to obtain knowledge by exploring information individually through ismajli & krasniqi 261 interaction in the classroom (patil & kudte, 2017). moreover, constructivist teaching practices are becoming more prevalent in teacher education programs, showing significant success in promoting student learning. teacher education programs should include reflection in their curricula to ensure practices that foster an increased self-efficacy in teaching (evans-amalu et al., 2021). literature review instruction involves more than just the transmission of information. teaching theories have increasingly focused on the learning process, and the constructivist instruction has more to offer. several authors, have detailed the importance of the theory, prospects and practices of constructivist instruction (e.g., beck & kosnik, 2006; bell, 1993; fosnot, 2013; fox, 2001; marlowe & page, 2005; richardson, 1997; stupiansky, 1997; tobias & duffy, 2009). meanwhile, others have explained the application of the constructivist learning theory in classroom settings (basturk, 2016; beck et al., 2000; brook & brooks, 1999; forman, 1996; fosnot & perry, 1999; schifter, 1996). constructivist teaching and learning advocate students’ active participation in the process of obtaining knowledge (sjøberg, 2007). knowledge is not passively received but actively built by the cognising subject (von glasersfeld, 1991). this statement challenged the traditional knowledge concept. students do not come into a classroom with empty heads. students have knowledge and experiences that were formed by their past experiences and studies, thus having their own ideas (wang, 2014). naylor and keogh (1999) point out that the core of constructivism is that students actively build knowledge and understanding from their knowledge and experience, and thus learn new concepts and explore their application through tasks. the roots of constructivism lie in piaget’s cognitive theory, vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, and on the integration of the two theories (aljohani, 2017). piaget (1976) states in his book that the growth of knowledge is the result of individual constructions made by the student's understanding. piaget’s theories (1972), are the basis of constructivist learning. according to piaget, children are born with a basic (inherited and evolved) mental structure upon which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based (plowden, 1967). the cognitive structure (the scheme, the mental models) provides the understanding and organisation of experiences and allows the individual to move beyond the given information (bruner, 1986). all human beings are capable of optimally using the abilities provided by the brain and the nervous system. language is the main means by which this is made possible. the use of language as a tool journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 to think loudly with others is a step towards the ability of inner-thinking and thinking in privacy (bernardo-hinesley, 2020; keefer & haj-broussard, 2020). on the one hand, speech serves the intellect as thoughts are spoken. on the other, experience is also important for constructivism (hartman, 2001). hence, teaching and learning processes should be linked with the real world. lev vygotsky (1978), in his mind in society outlined how thought and language are independent and develop separately, although through similar processes. vygotsky points out that reflective and rational thinking do not develop accidentally, or as a consequence of a student’s genetic richness. the social environment is important for children's development as it can foster or hinder development (kim, 2005). vygotsky’s theory supports the premise that all students are able to learn, and refers to two levels of development (current and potential) and to the zone of proximal development, highlighting the role of adult intervention in learning (bermejo et al., 2021). many researchers have conducted research studies on constructivist instruction practices concerning native and foreign language curricula (ahmad et al., 2021; bo, 2015; jiang, 2020; kaufman, 2004; yang & wilson, 2006). some have identified and examined the strategies and activities that are used in constructivist instruction (baviskaret al., 2009; henry, 2003), while others have examined the perceptions of instructors on constructivist practices (çolak, 2017; kaymakamoglu, 2018; yildirim & kasapoglu, 2015). a constructivist instructor, provides adequate tasks and opportunities for dialogue, and thus directs the students’ attention. the instructor should also use several activities that develop the critical thinking process in the classroom. in a constructivist classroom, instructors and students consider knowledge a dynamic landscape, constantly seeking exert positive changes to our world and to our ability to explore it successfully – not as a factual landscape to be memorised (berger et al., 1967). following the constructivist paradigm, knowledge is obtained through a recursive process where new concepts are built on previous ones (gallardo-alba et al., 2021). moreover, classes are designed and formed so that students pose questions, share ideas and experiences, and interactively exchange knowledge (shaughnessy et al., 2008). given the aforementioned context, this study focuses on the constructivist practices applied by the instructors in the primary school, their attitude towards the constructivist approach and the demonstration of learning activities in the field of languages and communication. the purpose of this research was to examine how primary school instructors practice constructivist instruction in ismajli & krasniqi 263 the field of languages and communication. the study also aimed to ascertain the differences related to constructivist instruction and teaching activities developed among instructors who teach the second curricular stage (third, fourth and fifth grades). the research targeted the identification and comparison of practices that are aligned with the constructivist instruction in the subjects of the albanian and the english languages. research questions the research questions used to guide the research process in this study were: 1. how do primary school instructors apply constructivist instruction in the communication and languages subjects? 2. what are the differences between instructors regarding the constructivist instruction practices in the second curriculum stage? 3. which teaching activities demonstrate the constructivist instruction practices in the subjects of the albanian and the english languages? method research design a mixed research methodology and descriptive statistics were used in this study. according to creswell (2009), this method produces qualitative and quantitative data. however, johnson and onwuegbuzie (2004) emphasise that the mixed methodology aims to maximally benefit obtained from the strong points and minimise the weak points. the content analysis was followed by a descriptive statistical analysis of the questionnaire and the collection of observation data associated with situations occurring in natural environments (creswell et al., 2003). participants the participants consisted of instructors and students of two urban schools in kosovo. the participants were selected randomly since, according to creswell (2014), the probability sampling approaches most used by researchers is random sampling, which allows representatives (teachers and students) an equal chance of getting selected. the research was conducted in the city of prizren, in the public primary school ‘lekë dukagjini’ and the private ‘international maarif school of kosova’ (ims of kosova). a total of 31 instructors from two schools participated in the research journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 (table 1), being 26 female and five male instructors (table 2). most instructors were between 2030 and 41-50 years of age, and most instructors were engaged in teaching the third graders (table 2). table 1 number of participating instructors school total number of instructors percentage (%) lekë dukagjini 20 65% ims of kosova 11 35% total 31 100% table 2 distribution of instructors by gender, age and the class where they work class n (n=31) percentage (%) gender female 26 83.87% male 5 16.13% age 20–30 10 32.25% 31–40 7 22.28% 41–50 10 32.25% 51–60 4 12.90% grade three 12 38.71% four 10 32.26% five 9 29.03% a total of 62 students participated in the research, comprising students from the third, fourth and fifth grades (table 3). two classes from each grade from both schools were included in the sampling procedure (table 3). table 3 the number of student participants schools class n (n=62) frequency lekë dukagjini third 19 31% lekë dukagjini third 16 26% ims of kosova fourth 17 27% ims of kosova fourth 10 16% data collection instruments the data for this study were collected using the researcher-created instrument. the instruments used in the research were a questionnaire for the instructors and the control list in the classroom. the questionnaire for instructors included two parts, where one had demographic questions ismajli & krasniqi 265 followed by three closed type questions, and another had teacher’s constructivist instruction (ci) and constructivist activities (ca). the questionnaire contained 14 items divided into two subdimensions: constructivist instruction (items 1-7) and constructivist activities (items 8-14). the questionnaire for the instructors was closed and designed based on a 5-point likert scale (1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = frequently, 5 = very frequently). the control list was used in the subjects of the albanian and english languages. initially, the control list data was coded for nine items related to constructivist practices that the students showed in the classroom. the coding system used was comprised the items: student-centred activity (sca), review of the previous topic (rpt), instructions and encouragement for work (iew), free expression of opinion (feo), group work (gw), individual work (iw), student cooperation (sc), peer evaluation (pe) and technology usage (tu). the aforementioned items were observed during the three lesson stages: prediction (p), knowledge building (knb) and reinforcement (r). during the observation, the number of constructivist practices shown in the third and the fourth grades were recorded, following the determined intervals: rarely=0–10 times; partially=11–21 times; fully=22–32 times. validity of the instrument the validity of the content obtained was examined by researchers in constructivist theory and following the literature review. the ci and ca were the first to be validated. a confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) was conducted to examine construct validity. according to the metacognitive and constructivist theory, the instruments were designed to measure four hypothetical constructs associated with the constructivist practices and constructivist teaching activities. to confirm the construct validity measured by ci and ca, a confirmatory factor analysis was used including seven items (x) identified by the literature as part of instruction (constructivist instruction) and seven items (y) as part of activities (constructivist activities). all items were validated through the validity test (see table 4), once they had r values greater than 0.7 with significance levels lower than 0.05. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 table 4 validity test results x (constructivist instruction) y (constructivist activities) no. r significance conclusion no. r significance conclusion x1 .737 .000 valid y1 .721 .000 valid x2 .859 .000 valid y2 .870 .000 valid x3 .830 .000 valid y3 .952 .000 valid x4 .954 .001 valid y4 .856 .000 valid x5 .723 .001 valid y5 .812 .000 valid x6 .804 .002 valid y6 .786 .001 valid x7 .974 .000 valid y7 .832 .000 valid data collection procedure the research data were collected in two primary schools located in the city of prizren that have been involved in the piloting process and implementing the new kosovo curriculum. initially, the permission was obtained from the municipal directorate of education in prizren. research ethics was respected in the schools in which the research was conducted. survey with instructors pilot questionnaires were applied to third, fourth and fifth-grade instructors. then, the required and necessary corrections were made. the data collection process commenced subsequently through a survey with the instructors. classroom observation the instructors were initially informed regarding the classroom observation. a total of 16 hours of observation was conducted. the observation was carried out in the third and fourth grades throughout for four weeks for one hour per week (i.e., four hours in the third, four hours in the fourth grade in the subject of the albanian language, and four hours in the third grade and four hours in the fourth grade in the english language classes). the syllabus of the albanian language for the third grade included: thematic areas (language system) and topics (proper and common nouns, forms of nouns and adjectives). the syllabus for the fourth grade covered: thematic areas (linguistic knowledge), topics (conjunctions, adverb, and adverbials of place, time and manner). the english language syllabus of the third grade comprised: concept (literary and nonliterary texts) and topics (who are we?), including introduction, describing appearances, characters and imaginary friends, and numbers 11 – 20), whereas the fourth-grade syllabus ismajli & krasniqi 267 included the thematic area: making connections with topics (number games, role play and matching activities). the data collected were recorded in the control list. data analysis the quantitative data were collected from the likert scale of the questionnaires. the data were processed using the ibm spss statistics software version 26.0. a likert scale was used once it was deemed important to calculate and report cronbach’s alpha coefficient. items on the rational level were described using descriptive statistics [frequency %, arithmetic mean (m), standard deviation (sd)]. chi-square tests (t-test and p-values) and the analysis of variance (anova) were also performed. this study used a structural equation modelling (sem) with quantitative measurement to assess the relationship between the variables examined. according to the theory and qualitative analysis results, the hypothetical structure equation model was built to examine both constructivist instruction and constructivist activities. the qualitative research model for teaching and learning (onwuegbuzie et al., 2009) allows students to progress through major phases of practice and learning. the qualitative data involves the use of a control list for the nine items related to the constructivist practices that the students displayed in the classroom. the reliability of the questionnaire for primary instructors was checked using cronbach’s alpha coefficient. the reliabilities of the subscales were acceptable (see table 5). table 5 reliability test results variable cronbach’s alpha rho_a composite reliability standardized items constructivist instruction .766 .775 .775 .872 constructivist activities .774 .780 .781 .863 the composite reliability results show composite reliability values for each construct greater than 0.7, indicating that they are all reliable (table 5). similarly, all cronbach’s alpha values are also greater than 0.7, indicating that all the constructs are dependable. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 findings the data from the survey among instructors descriptive statistics were used to ascertain the average differences between the items included in the research. the descriptive statistics relating to dependent variables included in the regression model are presented in the table below (table 6). table 6 constructivist instruction and activities in languages and communication curriculum item mean sd t-test p-value i organise student-centred instruction 4.81 0.402 2.346 .017 i focus instruction on what students do not know rather than on what they know 3.39 1.116 6.286 .043 i use meta cognition to increase students’ awareness concerning their knowledge 4.52 0.508 -1.531 .301 during my work with students, i am more of a facilitator than a leader 4.81 0.477 6.005 .000 i rely on the principle ‘what a student can do’ 4.61 0.715 7.963 .000 i support the development of the curricular competencies 4.52 0.508 4.631 .001 i support cross-curricular integration in teaching content 4.32 0.748 0.964 .035 i use technology for an interactive teaching 4.61 0.715 6.429 .011 i engage students in projects on different topics 3.87 1.231 5.294 .021 i encourage students to comment on the text they have read 4.90 0.301 -1.027 .301 i discuss and evaluate students’ written works 4.94 0.250 7.069 .132 i use formative assessment in the classroom 4.52 0.508 2.493 .013 i use teaching techniques while working in groups 4.94 0.250 3.106 .212 before introducing a new topic, i review the previous topic with the students 4.87 0.341 16.795 .003 notes: p<0.05 the responses to the statement ‘i focus instruction on what students do not know rather than on what they know ‘were on average 3.39, which is lower compared to the value of the variables ‘i organise student-centred instruction’ (mean=4.81), and ‘i encourage students to comment on the texts they have read’ (mean=4.90), ‘i rely on the principle “what students can do”’ (mean= 4.61) (see table 6). the variables ‘i focus teaching on what students do not know’ (sd=1.116), ‘i use technology for interactive teaching’ (sd=1.231) had a higher standard deviation, showing a considerable variance compared to other descriptive variables included in the research (table 6). apart from the above-presented statistics on the items of the questionnaire which were analysed through cross-tabulation. the data obtained on the relationship between variables were also tested using a t-test. a total of five out of seven items (except items 3 and 6), concerning the constructivist instruction, were statistically significant (table 6). in addition, six out of seven items (except item 10), concerning learning activities, were statistically significant. the results have shown a high difference between the instructors concerning the items ‘before introducing a new topic i review the previous topic with the students’ (t= 6.795, p = .003), ‘use of ismajli & krasniqi 269 technology for interactive teaching’ (t=6.429, p = .011), ‘focus of instruction on what students do not know’ (t=6.286, p=.43) and ‘i engage students in projects on different topics’ (t=5.294, p=.021) (table 6). furthermore, strong relation or statistical significance between the variable of instructors and the items was observed in the following: i discuss and evaluate students’ written work (t-test is 7.069, p = .132 and i use teaching techniques while working in groups (t-test 3.106, p = .212). the results regarding the constructivist instruction indicate that most third-grade instructors (83.3%) focus their teaching on what students do not know rather than on what they do know (table 7). this impacts students’ ability to use previously obtained knowledge which, at the same time, hinders the development of critical thinking. in turn, 80% of the fourth-grade instructors considered that they very frequently act more as facilitators than as leaders, while 40% of them frequently support cross-curricular integration in the teaching content. the fourth-grade instructors very frequently rely on the principle of what the student can do. in addition, 22.2% of the fifthgrade instructors frequently focus their instruction on what students do not know rather than on what they know. the results concerning the encouragement of students to think about thinking (meta-cognition) are not satisfactory. a total of 66.7% of the third-grade instructors use meta-cognition, which could have been begun by the implementation of the new curriculum, which increased awareness of its importance. table 7 descriptive statistics for grades three, four, and five constructivist instruction item third grade fourth grade fifth grade total i organise student-centred instruction frequently 8.3% 30.0% 22.2% 19.4% very frequently 91.7% 70.0% 77.8% 80.6% i focus instruction on what students do not know rather than on what they know rarely 41.7% 20.0% 11.1% 25.8% sometimes 25.0% 30.0% 44.4% 32.3% frequently 25.0% 10.0% 22.2% 19.4% very frequently 8.3% 40.0% 22.2% 22.6% i use meta cognition as a form of increasing students’ awareness about their knowledge sometimes 33.3% 50.0% 66.7% 48.4% very frequently 66.7% 50.0% 33.3% 51.6% journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 during my work with students, i am more of a facilitator than a leader sometimes 22.0% 0.0% 11.1% 3.2% frequently 8.1.0% 20.0% 22.2% 12.9% very frequently 69.9% 80.0% 66.7% 83.9% i rely on the principle ‘what a student can do’ never 0.0% 0.0% 11.1% 3.2% rarely 0.0% 0.0% 11.1% 3.2% sometimes 16.7% 30.0% 22.2% 22.6% very frequently 83.3% 70.0% 55.6% 71.0% i support the development of the curricular competences in teaching frequently 41.7% 50.0% 55.6% 48.4% very frequently 58.3% 50.0% 44.4% 51.6% i support cross-curricular integration in teaching content sometimes 25.0% 10.0% 11.1% 16.1% frequently 33.3% 40.0% 33.3% 35.5% very frequently 41.7% 50.0% 55.6% 48.4% the results pertaining the constructivist activities of the third-grade instructors indicate that 50% of the instructors use technologies in interactive teaching while over 90% of the respondents claim that they encourage students to comment on the text students have read and that they evaluate students’ written work (table 8). furthermore, 90% of the fourth-grade instructors claim that they review the previous topic very frequently, while 30% of them engage students in projects on different topics. a total of 95% of the fifth-grade instructors very frequently encourage students to comment on the text they have read. table 8 descriptive statistics for grades three, four, and five – constructivist activities item third grade fourth grade fifth grade total i use technology in interactive teaching never 8.3% 0.0% 0.0% 3.2% rarely 8.3% 10.0% 22.2% 12.9% sometimes 25.0% 20.0% 22.2% 22.6% frequently 8.3% 20.0% 22.2% 16.1% very frequently 50.0% 50.0% 33.3% 45.2% i engage students in projects on different topics rarely 0.0% 0.0% 11.1% 3.2% sometimes 25.0% 30.0% 55.6% 35.5% frequently 41.7% 20.0% 11.1% 25.8% very frequently 33.3% 50.0% 22.2% 35.5% i encourage students to comment on the text they have read frequently 8.3% 20.0% 5.0% 9.7% very frequently 91.7% 80.0% 95.0% 90.3% i discuss and evaluate students’ written works frequently 8.3% 15.0% 11.1% 6.5% ismajli & krasniqi 271 very frequently 91.7% 85.0% 88.9% 93.5% i use formative assessment in the classroom frequently 25.0% 30.0% 33.3% 29.0% very frequently 75.0% 70.0% 66.7% 71.0% i use teaching techniques while working in groups frequently 41.7% 45.3.0% 55.6% 48.4% very frequently 58.3% 57.4% 44.4% 51.6% before introducing a new topic, i review the previous topic with the students frequently 16.7% 10.0% 11.1% 12.9% very frequently 83.3% 90.0% 88.9% 87.1% the data from classroom observation third and fourth-grade classes (two classes in each of the participating schools) were observed. the data was collected from the observation of albanian and the english language classes using a checklist (see table 9). table 9 the data from observation in the albanian language and the english language classes albanian language english language code third grade (no. of times) lesson stage fourth grade (no. of times) lesson stage code third grades (no. of times) lesson stage fourth grade (no. of times) lesson stage 1 sci 8 knb 8 knb sci 10 knb 12 knb 2 rpt 7 p 8 p rpt 7 p 7 p 3 iew 9 knb 9 knb iew 13 knb 12 knb 4 feo 9 p 8 p feo 11 p 10 p 5 gw 7 knb 5 knb gw 15 knb 13 knb 6 iw 8 r 7 r iw 10 r 10 r 7 sc 7 knb 8 knb sc 12 knb 10 knb 8 pe 3 r 3 p pe 8 r 8 r 9 tu 4 r 4 r tu 4 r 14 r notes: code: student centred instruction [sci], review of the previous topic [rpt], instructions and encouragement for work [iew], free expression of opinion [feo], group work [gw], individual work [iw], student cooperation [sc], peer evaluation [pe], technology usage [tu]. lesson stage: p=prediction; knb= knowledge building; r= reinforcement for the albanian language classes, student-centred instruction was recorded 16 times, mostly in the knowledge building stage, in both third and fourth grades. at the beginning of the lesson, in the prediction stage, the instructor reviewed the previous unit with the students in the form of a dialogue. previous knowledge plays an important role in the active construction of knowledge journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 (boghossian, 2006). in both grades, repetition was observed 15 times in the prediction stage. the instructions were brief and accurate; hence, rare were the occasions of students asking for clarification. group work forms of teaching were practised 15 times in both classes altogether, mainly in the knowledge building stage. it is noteworthy that during the observation period, the instructors barely used technology or peer evaluation (3 times in each of the classes) during the reinforcement stage. for the english language classes, the instructor provided student centred instruction through games and songs as teaching activities, which were frequently of competitive character (22 times) in the stage of knowledge building in the fourth-grade class. technological tools used in the class were: laptop, powerpoint and video recordings. students viewed videos, and sang and danced alongside the instructor (18 times) in the knowledge building stage. the summary of the teaching activities in the subjects of the albanian language and english are presented below (figure 1). notes: rarely=0–10 times; partially =11–21 times; fully=22–32 times. figure 1. teaching activities in the albanian and the english language most activities, apart from the activities 3, 7 and 9, were partially demonstrated by the instructors, and were conducted by the english language instructors, despite the small difference between the classes. the teaching activities were conducted more frequently in the knowledge building stage and less in the prediction stage. 22 14 25 21 28 20 22 16 18 16 15 18 17 12 15 15 6 8 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 student centered teaching revision of previous topic instructions and encouragement for work freedom of expression of opinion group work individual work student collaboration peer evaluation technology use albanian language english language ismajli & krasniqi 273 discussion the constructivist approach as a concept and instruction was not very clear for the instructors. primary school instructors perceive constructivist instruction mainly as an approach that the new kosovo curriculum aims to apply in the teaching program, solely in the theoretical context and lacking the knowledge to connect to the practice. constructivist practices are characterised by having many obstacles associated with the instructors’ limited professional preparation that hinders the transformation of traditional instruction. these results are similar to the findings of other studies that report the effectiveness of constructivist over the traditional instruction regarding academic achievement (kim, 2005). in addition to best perform constructivist practices instructors must abandon the classic teaching approach and move towards constructing the holistic outlook implied in the constructivist approach and adapting the instruction to real-life situations (pitsoe & maila, 2012). instructors demonstrate student centred instruction. however, the issue of the instruction studentcentred instruction is the fact that many instructors alleged to have been practicing it, while they were not (krahenbuhl, 2016). the results related to instructors as leaders, or facilitators are encouraging since the data show that they are making efforts to overcome the authoritative role in the classroom. instruction is accomplished through self-directed learning while the instructor’s task is to facilitate students’ learning and act as a guide (ültanır, 2012). student centred instruction activities used by the instructors were relatively efficient in encouraging students to freely express their opinions, to give instructions for work and to collaborate in group. the fact that the instructors reviewed the previous topic to form a basis to build new knowledge upon are noteworthy. constructivist instruction assumes that learning occurs when students are actively engaged in a meaningful process of construction of knowledge as compared to passive receiving of knowledge (selley, 2013). students need to be involved in processes such as questioning, informing, supposing, predicting, controlling and reasoning, being aware of what they are doing (fisher, 2013). the researchers engaged in the field of cognitive psychology define meta-cognition as ‘information and control that children have on their thinking and learning’ (cross & paris, 1988, p. 131). in constructivist instruction practices the use of meta-cognition is also important. however, this requirement was not clearly understood by the instructors. english language teachers gave instructions to encourage students, to evaluate each other and integrated technology journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 to develop effective constructivist practices. however, the previous topic was reviewed in the albanian language classes more frequently to show that previous knowledge has an impact on the learning process (treagust et al., 1996). the application of this principle helps instructors work towards the change between what students know and what they can do (gravois et al., 2007). technology was more frequently used in english language classes. technology is used in the classroom environment not only to instruct students to operate computers, but also to help instructors use technology as a learning tool (sheingold, 1990). nevertheless, to successfully implement constructivist practices, appropriate professional training, continuous professional development of instructors (in-service training), investments in the physical infrastructure of schools providing equipment with educational technology and required didactic tools in general, and strong institutional support are more than necessary. the findings of this study are similar to those of other studies of similar nature that ascertain that in such constructivist-oriented training, instructors are advised to view students as creators of meaning, challenging the concepts of the subject (tanase et al., 2012) and enhancing their experience through professional development (rout & behera, 2014). constructivist instruction helps the instructor act more in the role of a mentor and learning facilitator than as a dominant expert of the content (hogan & pressley, 1997). we believe that the instructors’ interest in accomplishing this is in constant increase, although there is much to be done in this respect. conclusion and recommendations the results of this research study provided answers to the research questions. the research revealed how instructors deliver their instruction in languages and communication, and the differences between the second curriculum stage instructors regarding constructivist practices. moreover, activities associated with constructivist instruction in the subjects of the albanian and the english language were identified and compared. primary education instructors in kosovo are seeking to link traditional teaching with student centred instruction. the constructivist instruction practices have been only partially identified in the organisation of the student-centred instruction, and in focusing instruction on what students do not know rather than on what they know. in turn, the instructors encouraged students to comment on the texts they had read and in the revision of the previous topic at the beginning of the lesson, ismajli & krasniqi 275 during the teaching activities. still, constructivist practices were carried out at a slightly higher frequency in the third grade, while the project-based tasks and students’ works were carried out more often in the fourth and the fifth grades. these data indicate that instructors create the learning process and not the learning product. however, in practice, the results were not satisfactory. the instruction of the albanian language was aligned with the constructivist instruction approach and principles, whereas the teaching activities that support constructivist instruction were practised at a slightly higher level in the english language subject. the english language teachers carried out slightly more constructivist practices with respect to applying group work and peer collaboration than the albanian language teachers. the use of ict for interactive instruction was not present and technological resources in schools were limited. furthermore, it can be concluded that the constructivist instruction practices were partially applied in the languages and communication curricula since primary school instructors face difficulties in understanding the constructivist philosophy. they claim to have been practising it, when, in fact, they have shown difficulties in understanding the approach. they lack the necessary knowledge on good constructivist approaches, and, consequently, their activities are somehow limited and not sufficiently compatible with the constructivist approach. the recommendations presented below are formulated to address the problem that, based on the responses of the participants concerning the practices and activities in the languages and communication curricula faced by instructors, hinder the creation of a genuinely constructivist environment. accordingly, it is recommended: (1) to provide opportunities for instructors, particularly of those of the albanian language, to enhance their understanding of constructivist principles and activities in the teaching process by providing a general guidebook focused on constructivist instruction. (2) to organise training for in-service instructors supported by the government or by nongovernmental organisations that are active in kosovo, to provide clear information related to comprehending and conducting good constructivist practices. (3) to motivate instructors to enhance their instruction by using meta-cognition, not simply by transmitting it. instruction should be related to experiences and contents that enable students to reflect on the knowledge gained. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 (4) to provide schools with technological tools and teaching materials that will facilitate the development of constructivist practices. constructivist instruction as a new approach in the primary school curriculum in kosovo, requires the readiness and engagement of all relevant educational factors. building the capacity of a constructivist instructor in an adequate environment cannot be accomplished within a short period of time. this means that cooperating and adopting the efficient practices of other countries is necessary. the curricular reform of primary education through the development of constructivist practices in instruction will not only strengthen the education system but can also ensure continuous development of the society. limitations of the study and suggestions for future research this research study had two limitations that can be addressed in future research. first, it was limited to two primary schools in the second curriculum stage, and exclusively to one curriculum area in primary education. future research could be extended to other schools and to other curriculum stages. constructivist practices in teaching are expected to be applied by all instructors at all curriculum stages of primary education. secondly, instructors have frequently misinterpreted constructivist instruction, which resulted in learning practices that neither challenge nor they address the needs of the students. future research could focus on examples that illustrate the effective use of constructivist instruction in curriculum implementation to meet students’ needs. references adams, b. l. (2019). the far reaching impact of transformative curriculum: a narrative critical ethnographic case study. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 17-32. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.12 ahmad, a., khan, i., ali, a., islam, t., & saeed, n. (2021). implementation of constructivist approaching teaching english grammar in primary schools. ilkogretim online, 20(5), 2803-2813. https://www.ilkogretim-online.org/fulltext/218-1615798561.pdf aljohani, m. (2017). principles of “constructivism” in foreign language teaching. journal of literature and art studies, 7(1), 97-107. https://doi.org/10.17265/21595836%2f2017.01.013 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.12 https://www.ilkogretim-online.org/fulltext/218-1615798561.pdf https://doi.org/10.17265/2159-5836%2f2017.01.013 https://doi.org/10.17265/2159-5836%2f2017.01.013 ismajli & krasniqi 277 basturk, s. (2016). primary pre-service teachers’ perspectives on constructivism and its implementation in the schools. universal journal of educational research,4(4), 904-912. http://dx.doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2016.040428 baviskar, s. n., hartle, r. t.& whitney, t. (2009). essential criteria to characterize constructivist teaching: derived from a review of the literature and applied to five constructivist teaching method articles. international journal of science education,31(4), 541-550. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690701731121 beck, c., & kosnik, c. (2006). innovations in teacher education: a social constructivist approach. suny press. beck, j., czerniak, c. m. & lumpe, a. t. (2000). an exploratory study of teachers’ beliefs regarding the implementation of constructivism in their classrooms. journal of science teacher education,11(4), 323-343. https://doi.org:10.1023/a:1009481115135 bell, b. f. (1993).children's science, constructivism and learning in science. deakin university. bernardo-hinesley, s. (2020). linguistic landscape in educational spaces. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 13-23. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.10 bo, c. (2015). social constructivism of language and meaning. croatian journal of philosophy,15(43), 87-113. https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/246512 boghossian, p. (2006). behaviorism, constructivism, and socratic pedagogy. educational philosophy and theory, 38(6), 713-722. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14695812.2006.00226.x bransford, j. d., brown, a. l., & cocking, r. r. (2000). how people learn (vol. 11). national academy press. https://doi.org/10.17226/9853 berger, p. l., luckmann, t., & zifonun, d. (1967). the social construction of reality. penguin books. bermejo, ester & morales. (2021). a constructivist intervention program for the improvement of mathematical performance based on empiric developmental results (peim). frontiers in psychology, 11(582805). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.582805 brooks, m. g., & brooks, j. g. (1999). the courage to be constructivist. belmont, ca. bruner, j. s. (1960). the process of education. cambridge (massachusetts). bruner, j. s. (1966). toward a theory of instruction (vol. 59). harvard university press. bruner, j. s. (1986). actual minds, possible worlds. harvard university press. http://dx.doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2016.040428 https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690701731121 https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1023%2fa%3a1009481115135 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.10 https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/246512 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2006.00226.x https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2006.00226.x https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.582805 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 çolak, e. (2017). teachers ‘experiences in a professional learning community on the constructivist lesson planning: a case study among primary school teachers. education & science/egitim ve bilim, 42(190), 189-209. https://doi.org/10.15390/eb.2017.6911 creswell. j. m. (2014). a concise introduction to mixed methods research. sage publications, inc. creswell, j. w. (2009). research designs: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. sage publications, inc. creswell, j. w., clark, v. l., gutmann, m. l., & hanson, w. e. (2003). advanced mixed methods research. in handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 209-240). sage. cross, d. r., & paris, s. g. (1988). developmental and instructional analyses of children's metacognition and reading comprehension. journal of educational psychology,80(2), 131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.2.131 evans-amalu, k. l., lucey t.a. & lin, m. (2021). spirituality and mindfulness practices of early childhood and elementary pre-service teachers: a snapshot. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 207-221. http://dx.doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.12 fisher, r. (2013). teaching thinking: philosophical enquiry in the classroom. a&c black. forman, g. (1996). the project approach in reggio emilia. in constructivism: theory, perspectives, and practice (pp. 172-181). fosnot, c. t., & perry, r. s. (1996). constructivism: a psychological theory of learning. in constructivism: theory, perspectives, and practice (pp. 8-33). fosnot, c. t. (2013). constructivism: theory, perspectives, and practice. teachers college press. fox, r. (2001). constructivism examined. oxford review of education,27(1), 23-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054980125310 gallardo-alba, c.,grüning, b., & serrano-solano, b. (2021). a constructivist-based proposal for bioinformatics teaching practices during lockdown. plos computational biology, 17 (5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008922 gordon, m. (2009). the misuses and effective uses of constructivist teaching. teachers and teaching: theory and practice,15(6), 737-746. doi: 10.1080/13540600903357058 gravois, t. a., gickling, e. e., & rosenfield, s. (2007). training in instructional consultation, assessment and teaming. icat publishing. gundara, p. j., & peffers, j. (2006). quality education for all in kosovo. unicef. hartman, h. j. (2001). metacognition in learning and instruction: theory, research and practice (vol. 19). springer science & business media. https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.15390%2feb.2017.6911 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.2.131 http://dx.doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.12 https://doi.org/10.1080/03054980125310 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008922 https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1080%2f13540600903357058 ismajli & krasniqi 279 henry, b. b. (2003). frequency of use of constructivist teaching strategies: effect on academic performance, student social behaviour and relationship to class size. [doctoral dissertation, university of central florida]. hogan, k. e., & pressley, m. e. (1997). scaffolding student learning: instructional approaches and issues. brookline books. jiang, y. (2020). teacher classroom questioning practice and assessment literacy: case studies of four english language teachers in chinese universities. basic education college, guangdong teachers college of foreign language and arts (gtcfla), 5(23). https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.00023 johnson, r. b. & onwuegbuzie, a. j. (2004). mixed method research: a research paradigm whose time has come. journal of educational research, 33(7), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.3102%2f0013189x033007014 kaufman, d. (2004). constructivist issues in language learning and teaching. annual review of applied linguistics, 24, 303-319. https://doi.org/10.1017%2fs0267190504000121 kaymakamoglu, s. e. (2018). teachers' beliefs, perceived practice and actual classroom practice in relation to traditional (teacher-centered) and constructivist (student-centered) teaching (note 1). journal of education and learning, 7(1), 29-37. http://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v7n1p29 keefer, n., & haj-broussard, m. (2020). language in educational contexts. journal of culture and values in education, 3(2), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.9 kim, j. s. (2005). the effects of a constructivist teaching approach on student academic achievement, self-concept, and learning strategies. asia pacific education review,6(1), 719. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03024963 krahenbuhl, k. s. (2016). student-centered education and constructivism: challenges, concerns, and clarity for teachers. the clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues and ideas,89(3), 97-105. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2016.1191311 marlowe, b. a., & page, m. l. (2005). creating and sustaining the constructivist classroom. corwin press. ministry of education, science and technology. (2011, august). curriculum framework for preuniversity education in the republic of kosovo. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/curricula/kosovo/kv_alfw_20 11_eng.pdf ministry of education, science and technology. (revised 2016, september). the pre-university education curricula framework. https://masht.rks-gov.net/korniza-e-kurrikules-earsimit-parauniversitar https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.00023 https://doi.org/10.3102%2f0013189x033007014 https://doi.org/10.1017%2fs0267190504000121 http://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v7n1p29 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.9 https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03024963 https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2016.1191311 http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/curricula/kosovo/kv_alfw_2011_eng.pdf http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/curricula/kosovo/kv_alfw_2011_eng.pdf https://masht.rks-gov.net/korniza-e-kurrikules-e-arsimit-parauniversitar https://masht.rks-gov.net/korniza-e-kurrikules-e-arsimit-parauniversitar journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 259-281 muhammad, a. (2021). social constructivist approach: opinions of history teachers at intermediate secondary schools. european journal of educational research, 10(3), 1423-1436. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.10.3.1423 naylor, s. & keogh, b. (1999). constructivism in classroom: theory into practice. journal of science teacher education, 10(2), 93-106. onwuegbuzie, a.j., slate, j.r., leech, n. l., & collins, k.m. (2009). mixed data analysis: advanced integration techniques. international journal of multiple research approaches,3, 13-33.https://doi.org/10.5172/mra.455.3.1.13 patil, a. m., & kudte, s. s. (2017). teaching learning with constructivist approach. iejdr, 5(4), 308-312. piaget, j. (1972). the psychology of child. basic books. piaget, j. (1976). to understand is to invent: the future of education. penguin books. plowden, b. h. (1967). children and their primary schools: a report (research and surveys). hm stationery office. pitsoe, v. j., & maila, w. m. (2012). towards constructivist teacher professional development. journal of social sciences, 8 (5), 318-324.https://doi.org/10.3844/jssp.2012.318.324 richardson, v. (1997). constructivist teaching and teacher education: theory and practice. constructivist teacher education building a world of new understandings, 314. rout, s. & behera, s. k. (2014). constructivist approach in teacher professional development: an overview. american journal of educational research, 2 (12 a), 8-12. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3488896 schifter, d. (1996). a constructivist perspective. phi delta kappan, 1. selley, n. (2013). art of constructivist teaching in the primary school: a guide for students and teachers. routledge. shah, r. k. (2019). effective constructivist teaching learning in the classroom. education, 7(4), 13. https://doi.org/10.34293/ shaughnessy, m. f., veenman, m.,& kennedy, c. k. (2008). meta-cognition: a recent review of research, theory, and perspectives. nova publishers. sheingold, k. (1990). restructuring for learning with technology. the potential for synergy. center for technology in education. sjøberg, s. (2007). constructivism and learning. international encyclopedia of education,3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-044894-7.00467-x https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.10.3.1423 https://doi.org/10.5172/mra.455.3.1.13 https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3488896 https://doi.org/10.34293/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-044894-7.00467-x ismajli & krasniqi 281 tanase, m., leavitt, t., sowder, m., & smith, t. (2012). constructivist practices in a teacher education program. the constructivist, 21 (1). 67-105. tobias, s., & duffy, t. m. (2009). constructivist instruction: success or failure? routledge. treagust, d. f., duit, r., & fraser, b. j. (1996). improving teaching and learning in science and mathematics. teachers college press. ultanir, e. (2012). an epistemological glance at the constructivist approach: constructivist learning in dewey, piaget and montessori. international journal of instruction, 5 (2), 1308-1470. von glasersfeld, e. (1991). knowing without metaphysics: aspects of the radical constructivist position. in f. steier (ed.), research and reflexivity. 12–29. sage publications, inc. vygotsky, l. s. (1978). mind in society. harvard university press. waite-stupiansky, s. (1997). building understanding together: a constructivist approach to early childhood education. cengage learning. wang, h. (2014). student autonomy based on constructivism learning theory. international journal of social, behavioral, educational, economic, business and industrial engineering, 8(5), 1552-54.https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1337231 yang, l., & wilson, k. (2006). second language classroom reading: a social constructivist approach. the reading matrix, 6(3). yildirim, a., & kasapoglu, k. (2015). teachers’ perceptions of constructivist curriculum change as a predictor of their perceptions of the implementation of constructivist teaching– learning activities. asia pacific education review, 16(4), 565-577. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12564-015-9394-5 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1337231 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12564-015-9394-5 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2023:14 (2),75-96 tripartite interconnection to serve high quality and competitiveness of vocational school students in industry suryaman1, achmad zaki2, suharyanto3, suhadi winoto4 abstract most vocational high school (smk) graduates do not have high financial competitiveness and are still unemployed, even contributing to the highest unemployment rate compared to graduates from other schools. this study aims to identify resource sharing between schools, vocational training agencies, and industry in preparing vocational high school graduates to be ready to work and highly competitive. the research design adopted by the study is qualitative research combined with percentage descriptive research. the study was conducted in malang. the study subjects consisted of students, teachers, school principals, heads and staff of vocational training centers, and industrial managers who were used as places for industrial work practices. the study results show that vocational high schools cannot produce highly competitive graduates without job training institutions and large industries’ support. resource sharing in the form of laboratories, workshops, internships, and human resources should be made between vocational high schools, vocational training centers, and industry. keywords: resource sharing, competitiveness, schools, industry, and job training centers introduction currently, the competence and competitiveness of vocational high school graduates are very low (allen, 2007). the slogan "smk can" (vocational school can) could not make vocational high school graduates highly competitive. data in east java show that the number of vocational high school graduates currently unemployed is 87.2% of the total graduates (prabowo, 2022). this means that the business and industry world employ 12.8% of smk graduates only. many experts say that graduates of vocational high schools do not yet have the abilities expected by the industry (adelman & taylor, 2015). vocational high school graduates are not ready to work but are only prepared to be trained for work. vocational high school graduates still need 150–200 hours of training before they are truly prepared to work (capasso et al., 2005). the low quality of the curriculum shows the low competency of vocational high school graduates. the developed 1prof. dr. universitas pgri adi buana, surabaya, indonesia, email: suryaman@unipasby.ac.id 2 dr. universitas nahdhotul ulama sidoarjo, indonesia, email: zaki400.mnj@unusida.ac.id 3dr. universitas pgri adi buana, surabaya, indonesia, email: suharyanto@unipasby.ac.id 4prof. dr. uin khas, jember, indonesia, email: s.winoto57@gmail.com mailto:suryaman@unipasby.ac.id mailto:zaki400.mnj@unusida.ac.id mailto:suharyanto@unipasby.ac.id mailto:s.winoto57@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 curriculum does not include the world of work (nevhudoli & olive netshandama, 2023; istiningsih, 2021). blueprint for smart and competitive indonesian people explained that all indonesians, as of 2025, including vocational high school graduates, must have high competitiveness, which must be equipped with high competence with long work experience, which can be obtained through internships in the industry. this is also in accordance with the joint decree of the ministry of education and culture and the ministry of trade and industry number 0217/u/1994 & 044/skep/ku/viii/1994 concerning the role of the vocational education council in indonesia with the primary task being to increase the competency of vocational high school graduates in a better direction. this needs to be pursued to meet the link and match the master plan for research, training, and the world of work (prabowo, 2022). likewise, there are no practitioners from the business world who are actively involved in teaching at vocational high schools during the learning process in the classroom. there is no resource sharing for industrial human resources to be actively engaged in teaching in vocational high schools. teachers with no industrial background have also never had internships in the industrial world (matabane et al, 2022; nwosu et al., 2023). as a result, they teach more theoretically than experience-based in the business world. as a result, graduates of vocational high schools do not have the expected qualifications in the business world (chong & quek, 2022; kapitzke & hay, 2008; turgumbayeva et al., 2023). another expert (lvina, 2015) mentioned the cause of the low quality of vocational high school graduates, namely, the absence of cooperation between smks and regional work training centers that could enter mous and cooperation agreements to share resources. vocational teachers and students can practice work at the vocational training center (in indonesian term blk). vocational high school teachers can also teach at vocational training centers according to their competence (mulyasa, 2013). meanwhile, the vocational training center can prepare all available resources, such as machines, workshops, for workshops and training for vocational high school students. vocational training center can also prepare reliable tutors who can facilitate teachers and vocational high school students to practice their skills well (murniati & usman, 2009). table 1 shows the employment statistics in malang. table 1 shows that the working-age population (15 years and over) is divided into the labor force and the non-labor force. the total workforce and non-workforce numbers in malang in 2022 are 424,229249,229, respectively. the labor force participation rate, which is the percentage of the suryaman, et al. 77 total workforce to the working age population, e in 2022 is 62.96%. the portion of unemployment to the total workforce is illustrated by the 2022 open unemployment rate of 6.78%. table 1 employment statistics in malang description 2021 2022 working-age population 666.374 673.836 workforce 428.395 424.229 not the labor force 237.979 249.607 labor force participation rate (%) 64.29 62.96 male 78.84 78.54 female 49.12 46.79 open unemployment rate (%) 8.16 6.78 male 8.61 5.20 female 7.40 9.52 source: central bureau of statistics, city of malang the number of unemployed people in malang, east java, is 45,686, which means that open unemployment in east java has reached 6.78% of the total workforce of 424,229 people. the details about the number of unemployment figures in malang are shown in table 2. table 2 number of unemployed in malang city level of education unemployment number % primary school 2.165 4,74 junior high school 7.931 7,18 senior high school 9.402 7,58 vocational high school 21.878 10.20 bachelor 4.308 8,43 amount 45.686 100 source: east java in figures 2022 table 2 shows that vocational high school graduates have the highest unemployment rate, with 21,878 people and with a rate of 10.20%. the results of previous research (sagala, 2011) show that the absence of industry in vocational high schools causes the competitiveness of vocational high school graduates to be low. the low number of graduates from vocational high schools is due to a curriculum that does not match the world of work (murniati & usman, 2009). in the process of preparing the vocational high school curriculum, it is not fully in line with the curriculum outlined by the industrial world. vocational high schools do not have a budget to pay teaching practitioners at vocational high schools. many practitioners do not have the time and are not allowed by the company to work part-time teaching at vocational high schools in the context of transmitting their practical knowledge. vocational high schools have not cooperated with vocational training centers to improve student skills (pillay et al., 2013). journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 this research's novelty is evident in resource sharing, involving three parties: vocational high schools, vocational training centers, and large industries. most previous studies, including anggraeni (2016) and dardiri (2016), only involved vocational high schools and vocational training centers. other studies, such as ginanjar (2017) and rahayu et al. (2020), only examined vocational high schools and the industrial world, which have not been studied by previous researchers. likewise, the resource sharing involved is human resources and supporting resources such as machines, workshops, workshops, laboratories, and others. research questions 1. what is the form of resource sharing between vocational high schools and vocational training centers, and large companies in increasing the competitiveness of vocational high school graduates? 2. what is the form of resource sharing between vocational high schools and large companies in increasing the competitiveness of vocational high school graduates? 3. what is the form of resource sharing between vocational high schools, vocational training centers, and large companies in increasing the competitiveness of vocational high school graduates? review of literature competitiveness competitiveness is the ability possessed by resources to compete with competitors in perfect competition (sulaiman, 2015). human resources which have high competence will win the competition. competitiveness is affected by several aspects such as competency, work experience, network, experience of opening an independent business, owned capital, dedication, and innovation. human resources with high innovation and commitment can improve one's scientific power (brown, 2008). skills appropriate to the field of work to be addressed are also a determining factor for competitiveness (wahjosumidjo, 2011). high skills will impact the level of competition. they will win the competition because, from the start, the level of competition will only be filled by those who are tenacious, diligent, serious, focused, and highly committed (carey & hanley, 2008). the competitiveness of vocational high school graduates today is still inferior to people who have work experience because current vocational high school graduates have poor experience, do suryaman, et al. 79 not have high dedication to progress, and do not have a reliable competitive spirit. they are still childish. they still like to play online games, and they still like to have fun, so their persistence in a job, based on their skill program, is very low (geser, 2007). the low competitiveness of vocational high school alums is because they do not match the expertise programs studied at school with their apprenticeship programs. the place for the internship chosen is not in accordance with the area of expertise occupied. the final impact is that smk graduates do not master the expected competencies because they do not have practical experience in the field (boyle, 2003). to increase competitiveness, it is necessary to reorganize the apprentice program implemented while still prioritizing the suitability of the field of expertise with the field of the chosen internship (koper & tattersall, 2005). it is also essential to carry out tripartite cooperation that can link smks, vocational training centers, and industry. high competitiveness is also possessed by human resources who consistently maintain quality, innovation, and commitment. those who are inconsistent with themselves will be swallowed up by the times because they are not ready to compete with their competitors. high competitiveness will provide certainty to the sustainability of the resources owned (baraniuk, 2008). reading the theoretical description above, it can be concluded that competitiveness is the ability of resources to compete with their competitors and will always try to win the competition while maintaining competence, quality, creativity, and innovation in actors who want to maintain consistency toward true sustainability. resource sharing resource sharing is a cooperative activity in utilizing resources owned by both hr and other nonhr resources owned by two or more parties (krämer & zobel, 2008). sharing human resources is in the form of exchanging experiences, benchmarking, and exchanging work locations to provide challenging work experience for increasing hr competencies (murthy, 2002). resource sharing in machine and equipment resources owned by two or more parties can be realized in the form of shared use by mutually maintaining the integrity of existing equipment (yonus, 1989). schools that have sophisticated laboratories can share resources with work training centers for testing. vocational high schools with sophisticated laboratories can also share resources with companies requiring product testing or other tests (kaul, 1999). journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 company human resources with high experience can teach at vocational high schools for several meetings in the form of teaching practitioners so that students get knowledge and skills directly from practitioners who work in that field every day (wiley, 2001). teachers without practical experience in the industry can also participate in a special teacher apprenticeship program guided by tutors at the company so that a teacher grows practical experience of working in the industry which will be taught directly to vocational high school students. resource sharing can be done when there is already a cooperation agreement between two or more parties. this mou will become the umbrella for implementing resource sharing of resources owned by each party. the implications of financing that both parties must bear can be included in the contents of the cooperation agreement. likewise, income or profits can be shared between two or more parties so that each party can guarantee mutual benefits. resource sharing provides an important meaning for the parties. if it is practiced in vocational high schools and companies, both parties must also get mutual benefits, both material and immaterial. resource sharing will end if it is not mutually beneficial and harms one party. at a practical level, resource sharing can be temporary and multi-year. in essence, when resource sharing does not harm either party, the activity can be performed until the end of the mou. the mou relating to resource sharing can be terminated by each party when no more resources are shared. presidential regulation no. 8/2012 explains the indonesian national qualification framework that graduates of vocational high schools must have national competencies per the needs of the business and industrial worlds. accordingly, graduates of vocational high schools must take a competency test according to their field. reading the description above, it can be understood that resource sharing is a very good step to improve the quality of the resources of the two parties who entered an mou in the framework of resource sharing. methods research design the study used ethnography design with qualitative approach (creswell, 2009). this study focuses on the exploration of a tripartite partnership in vocational high schools, vocational training centers, and industry to increase the competitiveness and performance of vocational high school graduates. when depicted in the form of a diagram, it looks as follows. suryaman, et al. 81 figure 1 tripartite relationship between vocational high schools, vocational training center, industrial world source: 2021–2022 research results diagram 1 illustrates that graduates of vocational high schools are required to have superior competence and high competitiveness, which can win the competition for job search, or the opportunity to open up employment opportunities by establishing a new place of business. research subjects the subjects of this study included vocational high school students (40), both currently studying (20) and those who had just graduated (20), vocational high school teachers (10), the world of industry (10), and staff at vocational training centers (10), in total .70. the subjects were selected in purposive sampling. they are the ones who will provide primary data that will be used in answering the research questions. vocational high school students who are still studying and have just graduated from the schools are selected because they already understand the various advantages and disadvantages of the 1:1 learning process (theory: practice) and their competencies and competitiveness when they seek or create jobs. research location the research location of the study is malang, east java, indonesia. the choice of location was motivated by the fact that malang city is a large city in east java with a large number of vocational high schools and relatively large and medium and large industries, but the number of unemployed is quite high. therefore, the researcher chose east java as the only research location. vocational school indust ry vocat ional vocation al school graduate job training competito rs from high competitors from diploma/pol journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 data collection the study data were collected using participatory observation and in-depth interviews with newly graduated vocational high school students, management of medium and large companies, leaders, and staff of the east java vocational training center. the research instrument is the researchers themselves (singh & nath 2007), who were equipped with an interview and observation guide (twumasi 2001) as a guide in conducting research so that it does not depart from the research theme included in the research questions. in order to focus the interview process according to the research theme compiled in the research problem formulation, the interview guide used for the research appears in the appendix 1. during the research process, the researchers used this interview guide. likewise, when interview, the researchers first selected key informants (twumasi, 2001), supporting informants and forming a snowball. the more key informants and supporters were interviewed, the broader and more profound the data that could be extracted (herdiansyah, 2010). finally, data were complete and makes it possible to conclude validly, free of bias, and answer the research question properly. observation guide to collect data in this study appears in appendix 2. research data were also collected through the documentation method by observing and gathering sources of information directly related to the research theme (dunne & akyeapong, 2007; kamal et al., 2005). data analysis after the data were collected from observations, interview transcripts, and related documents, they were double-checked and cross-checked (moleong, 2005) so that the data at hand are credible. to increase credibility, researchers also try to stay longer in the field to hope that the data obtained will be deeper and that the observations recorded will be more valid. data analysis started when the researchers received various data in the field but has not yet reached a conclusion. researchers continue to conduct analyses in the field as there is more incoming data. the classification process based on research themes and data reduction to sort and select truly accurate data were carried out while the researcher was in the field (miles & huberman, 1992). after saturating the data are at hand (denzin & lincoln. 2009), conclusions are drawn based on the themes. to avoid mistakes in concluding, the research results that have been neatly arranged suryaman, et al. 83 are read out to several key informants with adequate education and literacy; thereby, feedback emerges that can be used to refine research findings. results and discussion resource sharing for vocational high schools and the industry table 3 shows that the various strategies implemented to improve the competence and competitiveness of smk graduates are most impressed when compiling a joint curriculum, conducting industrial internships, and receiving job offers as employees at student apprentices. table 3 strategy to improve the quality of resource sharing between smk and industry number strategy yes (%) no (%) abstain (%) 1 develop curriculum jointly between vocational high schools and industry 98,4 1,4 0,2 2 facilitating work apprenticeships for vocational high school graduates 96,2 3,4 0,4 3 placing apprentice students according to the chosen expertise program 85,6 11,8 2,6 4 providing reliable tutors or trainers to train apprentice students 89,3 10,1 0,6 5 provide opportunities for students to practice operating modern machines that are not out of date 84,1 14.7 1,2 6 providing opportunities for graduates of vocational high schools to work in the industry where apprentices are held 98,6 1,3 0,1 7 open industry-specific classes that receive scholarships from industry and, after graduation, are recruited by industry 91,4 6,3 2,3 8 provide opportunities for teachers to visit similar companies abroad 90,6 9,3 0,1 9 through csr funds, it provides venture capital for vocational high school graduates to become stone entrepreneurs. 91,4 8,3 0,3 average 91,7 5,7 0,8 source: data analysis 2022 based on the results of interviews and observations, various methods can be applied in resource sharing between vocational high schools and medium and large industries, namely: 1) developing a curriculum jointly between vocational high schools and industry, 2) facilitating work apprenticeships for vocational high school graduates, 3 ) placing apprentices according to the chosen expertise program, 4) providing reliable tutors or trainers to train apprentice students, 5) providing opportunities for students to practice operating modern machines that are not out of date, 6) providing opportunities for vocational high school graduates to work in industry place for internships, 7) open industry-specific classes that receive scholarships from industry and after journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 graduation are recruited by industry, 8) provide opportunities for teachers to visit similar companies abroad, 9) through csr funds provide business capital to vocational high school graduates to become stone entrepreneurs, and other productive activities. the results of interviews with the heads of vocational high schools in malang regarding resource sharing between vocational high schools and industry are as follows: "vocational high schools that build partnerships with industry and send their students for industrial internships will make students have no more difficulties implementing link and match. when a school chooses an internship location, it will usually match the study program and skills needed, but when students choose their own industry, sometimes it doesn't match, the important thing is to have a location for industrial work practice." the results of interviews with one vocational high school teacher in malang also as follows: "many vocational high schools collaborate with the business and industrial worlds but are not used for industrial work practices. students search for industrial work practice locations themselves, as a result, they do not match the skills program being pursued at school. in the future, industries that have collaborated with vocational high schools should be used as industrial work practice locations to achieve the initial goal of industrial work practice.” interviews were also conducted with the manager of industry in east java, which also happened to be the location for industrial work practices, who stated that: "many vocational high school students do not work in accordance with their expertise program, many accounting students are not in the finance department, and many marketing students work practices in offices. also, many children with computer network expertise programs do not practice industrial work in the computer department. this is what causes industrial work practices not to provide significant benefits." the results of an in-depth interview with one of the marketing managers related to industry work practices detailing as follows: “industry work practice is very profitable for schools and students. various theories taught in schools can be applied directly when they work in the industry. resource sharing between vocational high schools and industry can increase its role through various activities that are mutually beneficial to both parties. companies where industrial work practices will benefit from preparing labor cheaply, without having to train prospective workers, it is enough to recruit vocational high school students who have had internships at their companies.” the results of the research above are in accordance with the findings (rahayu et al., 2020), which state that industrial work practices can increase the link and match of vocational high school graduates with industry needs. another study (priambudi et al., 2020) concluded that the apprenticeship program reduced the unemployment rate because alums of vocational high schools suryaman, et al. 85 who already had high competence would have high competitiveness when they had to compete with other job seekers. the results of this study are also in line with previous research by mahmudah & santosa (2021), reporting that resource sharing gives the meaning of mutually utilizing the resources owned and mutually benefits collaborative activities in the form of preparing quality human resources. resource sharing for vocational high schools and vocational training center the results of interviews and participation observations found various forms of resource sharing between vocational high schools and vocational training center vocational high school improve the competence and competitiveness of vocational high school students, including: 1) conduct training for vocational high school students for certain skills for which tutors and tools are available at vocational training center, 2) provide opportunities for vocational high school teachers to participate in training at vocational training center in special sessions for vocational high school teachers, 3) provide opportunities for smk teachers who have rare skills to teach at vocational training center, 4) provide opportunities for vocational training center tutors to teach in vocational high school, 5) conduct work placements for graduates of vocational high school who have high competence, 6) provide opportunities for outstanding students to become technicians at workshops in vocational training center, 7) assign vocational training center tutors to be the assessment team during tests certification or competency test, and other activities m benefit both parties. data in table 4 show that the enthusiasm of students and teachers in implementing cooperation between vocational high school and vocational training center is very visible. the aspect that impressed me the most was during skills training at vocational training center when i was trained by upper-level students who had successfully worked in established industries and became trainers at vocational training center, and when they were recruited to become technical employees at vocational training center and were assisted in being placed in vocational training center partner industries. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 table 4 types of resource sharing between vocational high schools and blk number strategy yes (%) no (%) abstain (%) 1 conduct training for vocational high school students for certain skills for which tutors and tools are available at vocational training center, 96,1 3,3 0,6 2 providing opportunities for smk teachers to participate in training at the vocational training center in a special session for vocational high school teachers, 85,7 11,9 2,4 3 provide opportunities for vocational high school teachers who have rare skills to teach at vocational training center 89,2 10,1 0,7 4 provide opportunities for vocational training center tutors to teach at vocational high schools 84,1 14.7 1,2 5 conduct work placements for smk graduates who have high competence in vocational training center partner companies 98,2 1,7 0,1 6 providing opportunities for outstanding students to become technicians at workshops at vocational training center. 98.3 1,6 0,1 7 assign vocational training center tutors to be the assessment team during the certification test or competency test 90.8 9,2 0,0 8 bringing together vocational high school students and alums who are already working and ready to become volunteer volunteers at vocational training center 91,2 8,6 0,2 average 91,2 8,6 0,2 source: research results during the period 2021–2022 based on the results of interviews with the heads of vocational high schools regarding resource sharing between vocational high schools and vocational training center, it can be explained as follows. "vocational high schools must build partnerships with all stakeholders so that vocational high schools can have a great opportunity to improve the competence of their graduates. vocational high schools can work together with vocational training center because vocational training center has many resources, both human resources and infrastructure, that can be used to improve the competency of vocational high schools graduates.” a similar opinion was also expressed by another head of vocational high schools who also stated that: "it's time for vocational high schools have various resources so they can share them with partners. call it the vocational training center. they have sufficient resources and facilities for training students and graduates of smk to improve their competence. vocational training center also has reliable human resources, which can be invited to training center to become practitioners who teach at vocational high schools.’’ suryaman, et al. 87 the results of the interview with the head of the vocational training center relating to cooperation and follow-up of the collaboration between vocational high schools and blk can be described as follows. "many vocational high schools have built mous with vocational training center, and we are wide open as long as it is for the common good. we are welcome, we even pick up the ball by visiting vocational high schools, lest we have resources but are not put to good use to increase the competence and competitiveness of human resources." observations show that, from 2021 to 2022, the skills training process for children in vocational high school uniforms is extensive, and even the vocational training center is also conducting training for vocational high school graduates who wish to work at home and abroad. according to observations, the vocational training center also conducts various education and training programs to improve the performance of vocational school teachers. many vocational training center tutors also offer to become vocational high school teachers. the results of this study are in line with research conducted by arfandi & sampebua (2016), reporting that vocational schools can work with institutions that have resources to improve student competence (dardiri, 2016), vocational training center to have various programs to improve skills and will be more meaningful when it can reduce the unemployment rate through increasing the skills of the unemployed, including graduates of vocational high schools (estriyanto, 2021). another study (mohr et al. 2013) concluded that when vocational high schools can work with vocational training center and perform various training programs, graduates of vocational high schools will have high work skills (ginanjar, 2017). and have high competitiveness. to improve the ability of vocational high school graduates to be highly competent (hartanto et al., 2019), the head of the vocational school can be to collaborate with the vocational training center (anggraeni, 2016). resource sharing in a tripartite between vocational high schools, vocational training center, and industry the form of tripartite cooperation between vocational high schools, vocational training center, and industry provides mutual benefits that all parties can feel. as explained, resource sharing will work well when all parties can contribute and reap the results obtained after the activity. there is a symbiosis mutualism that mutually benefits all parties. journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 for vocational high schools, resource sharing has advantages such as being able to graduate students with high competence and competitiveness. vocational high schools also have partners ready to accept graduates with standard competencies per the expected competencies. for vocational training center, resource sharing provides input for prospective trainees who already have basic competencies, so they are easy to train and have a high chance of success. thus, the target can be achieved at a lower cost. this is in accordance with the results of an interview with the head of the vocational training center which stated that: "vocational high schools can enter an mou with vocational training center to provide opportunities for vocational high school students to jointly practice various skills at vocational training centers because only vocational high schools that have entered into an mou with vocational training center can practice together at vocational training center. unskilled vocational high school teachers can also practice at vocational training center, vocational high school teachers who are highly competent can also become tutors at vocational training center. conversely, vocational training center tutors can also be visiting or practicing teachers at vocational high schools. vocational training center can also distribute vocational high school graduates to work in vocational training center partner industries." regarding resource sharing with the industry, the results of an interview with one of the human resource managers explained that: "the apprenticeship program for vocational high school students in industry, followed by opening special industry classes, practicing teachers from the industry teaching at vocational high schools, and industrial work apprenticeships for teachers, can be said to be resource sharing. in this resource sharing, company-owned resources are used jointly, and vocational high schools with good laps can be used together with industry and vocational training center." the results of the interview with the head of the vocational high school regarding resource sharing can be explained as follows: "resource sharing between vocational high schools, vocational training center, and industry can occur when vocational high school students practice skills at vocational training center, followed by apprenticeships in industry, forming a good triangle. the cooperation triangle will be more effective when it is filled with positive activities aimed at increasing the competence and competitiveness of vocational high school students.” figure 2 shows the meaning that resource sharing involving vocational high schools, vocational training center, and industry provides enormous power for improving the quality of vocational high school graduates. the side effect is that graduates have high competitiveness, which can suryaman, et al. 89 reduce unemployment because apart from working in companies, they can also open their businesses. figure 2 resource sharing the findings above are not much different from the findings of king & palmer (2010), which state that when vocational high schools can build a network of collaboration with industry, they will be able to increase the competency of vocational high school graduates (trilling & fadel, 2010). it is still rare for vocational high schools to collaborate with vocational training center, even though this institution has great resources for training and improving the competence of students and graduates of vocational high schools. this finding also supports previous research (trilling & fadel, 2010), stating that vocational high school graduates with good industrial work experience will not have difficulty in getting a job. vocational high school graduates who received job training from vocational training center will have a higher level of competitiveness in finding a job or opening an independent workplace, as they will have skills above their peers. definitely, interconnection between vocational trainings for secondary school students and industrial immersion programs offers awareness on improving competitiveness for students as indicated as the novelty of this research. the interconnections that appear as the gaps of previous studies include soft skills, critical thinking, and standard demands on the creative skills of industry vocational high school vocational training centre resource sharing increasing competence and day power of smk graduates the decline in the unemployment rate is because students are ready to work and ready to open independent jobs journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 technology and competence on the online job scopes. as schools commonly are not aware of using resources to apply in the collaboration with industrial training centers, it implies that tripartite resources be made optimal at the vocational schools. the novelty of this study is in that the dare of vocational high schools to collaborate with industrial training center has been initiated in this research by implementing tripartite resources. conclusion based on the results of the research and discussion above, the resource sharing between vocational schools and industry varies widely, but what is perceived to be the most impressive is the problem during the process of compiling the curriculum when training vocational high school students in industry, and when students who graduate from vocational high schools are placed in industries where they are apprentices. another strategy that is no less effective is the opportunity for vocational high school teachers to do internships in industry and provide opportunities for industrial practitioners to teach in vocational high schools. through these activities, resource sharing can occur. the forms of resource sharing between vocational high schools and vocational training center are very varied, it's just that what is perceived as the most important, according to informants, is when vocational high school students are allowed to practice directly at vocational training center workshops, meet seniors who are already working in the industry and part-time becoming a tutor at vocational training center and the process of channeling work for vocational high school alums to vocational training center partner companies that need vocational high school graduates. in sharing resources in a tripartite form between vocational high schools, vocational training center, and industry, everything can be said to be mutually beneficial. vocational high schools can get graduates with high competitiveness, vocational training center gets input that already has provisions, so it's easy to provide training, the industry gets reliable resources without having to provide extra training for a long time. the novelty of this study lays that this research initiates to use the tripartite resources of vocational schools to collaborate with industrial training center to prepare graduates to work in the industry. this study, however, has drawbacks in that indicators to show digital era resources and online skills to serve the industry are not explored. future research is suggested to elaborate indicators suryaman, et al. 91 that are proper to describe the competence of the digital era into its research instruments and focus of results to be investigated. references adelman, h, & taylor, l. (2015). school community partnership: a guide. los angeles. school mental health project, dept. psychology, ucla. allen, t. (2007). building successful partnerships: lesson from the specialist schools achievement program (ssap). school leadership and management journal, 27(3), 301–312. anggraeni, r. (2016). the effect of implementing industrial work practices on the work readiness of class xi students in the department tphp di smkn 4 garut (doctoral dissertation, universitas pendidikan indonesia). arfandi, a., & sampebua, o. (2016). readiness to implement industrial work practices in the building engineering study program in makassar city. jurnal cakrawala pendidikan, 35(1). baraniuk, r. g. (2008). challenges and opportunities for the open education movement: a connexions case study in t. iiyoshi, m. s. v. kumar & j. s. brown (eds.), opening up education: the collective advancement of education through open technology, open content, and open knowledge (pp. 229–246). the mit press. boyle, t. (2003). design principles for authoring dynamic, reusable learning objects. australian journal of educational technology, 1(19). from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/boyle.html brown, j. s. (2008). growing up digital: how the web changes work, education, and the ways people learn. in p. f. murphy & k. hall (eds.), learning and practice: agency and identities (pp. 193–201). sage publications ltd. capasso, a., dagnino, g. b., & a. lanza. (2005). strategic capabilities and knowledge transfer within and between organizations. edward elgar. carey t., hanley g.l. (2008). extending the impact of open education resources through alignment with pedagogical content knowledge and institutional strategy: lessons learned from the merlot community experience. in iiyoshi t. & vijay kumar m.s. (eds) opening up education through open technology, open content and open knowledge. the carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching, massachusetts institute of technology chong, y. s., & quek, a. h. (2022). navigating the contemporary rites of passage: a typology of stem professional identity transition. research in social sciences and technology, 7(3), 86-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.19 http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/boyle.html https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.19 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 creswell, w. j., (2009). research design. qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches sage publications. dardiri, a. (2016). optimization of industrial internship collaboration to improve school image and competitiveness of vocational high school graduates. jurnal pendidikan dan pembelajaran (jpp), 22(2), 162168. denzin, n k., & lincoln, y.s. (2009). handbook of qualitative research. sage publications. dunne, m. & akyeampong, k. (2007). school processes, local governance and community participation; understanding access, centre for international education sussex school of education. united kingdom estriyanto, y., sutrisno, v. l. p., & saputra, t. w. (2021). cnc/cam learning harmony study at lptk, vocational high school, and industry welcoming the industrial revolution era 4.0 in the manufacturing sector. jurnal pendidikan teknologi dan kejuruan, 18(1), 111–120. geser, g. (ed.). (2007). open educational practices and resources: olcos roadmap 2012. open learning content observatory services. ginanjar, p. a. (2017). influence of industrial work practices (prakerin), self-efficacy and expertise competence on job readiness of class xii vocational school students in the semarang city accounting expertise program in the academic year 2016–2017 (doctoral dissertation, universitas negeri semarang). hartanto, c. f. b., rusdarti, r., & abdurrahman, a. (2019). the challenges of vocational education in the era of the industrial revolution 4.0 in preparing excellent human resources. in prosiding seminar nasional pascasarjana (prosnampas) 2(1), 163–171. herdiansyah, h. (2010). qualitative research methodology for the social sciences. salemba empat istiningsih. (2021). an among-based mentoring model for vocational schools in yogyakarta and its social impact. journal of social studies education research, 12(3), 248-269. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3505/521 kamal, a. j., devarajan., s. khemani s., and shah, s., (2005) decentralisation and service delivery,” policy research working paper 3603 washington dc, world bank. kapitzke, c., & hay, s. (2008). gateways to the global; governing school industry partnerships. paper presented at the american educational research on schools, neighborhoods, and communities: toward civic responsibility, new york. kaul (1999). library resource sharing and networks. virgo publication. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3505/521 suryaman, et al. 93 king, k. & palmer, r. (2010). planning for technical and vocational skills development. unesco. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000189530 koper, r., & tattersall, c. (eds.). (2005). learning design. a handbook on modelling and delivering networked education and training. springer. krämer, b., & zobel, a. (2008). rollout of campus content. dfg-competence centre for elearning. e-learning and education (eleed) urn: nbn:de:0009-5-14173 lvina, e. (2015). the role of cross-cultural communication competence: effective transformational leadership across cultures. jurnal ilmiah peuradeun, 3(1), 1–18. mahmudah, f.n., santosa, b. (2021). vocational school alignment based on industry needs. journal of vocational education studies (joves). 4(1),36–45. issn 2614-7483. matabane, m., matabane, r., moloi, t., & sibaya, k. (2022). the exploring factors that teachers view as hindering quality in teaching and learning at a tvet college. research in educational policy and management, 4(1), 51-64. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2022.9 miles, m.b. dan huberman, a.m. 1992, qualitative data analysis, ui pers. mohr d, (2013). the road to 2020 and beyond: what is driving the global automotive industry? mckinsey & company inc moleong, l. j. (2005). qualitative research methodology. remaja rosdyakarya. mulyasa, e. (2013). the development and implementation of curriculum 2013. remaja rosdakarya. murniati, ar & usman, n. (2009). the implementation of the strategic management: in the empowerment of vocational schools. citapustaka pioneering media. murthy (2002). resource sharing and consortia for india. proceeding, iit seminar, kharagpur, feb. 2002:14–15. nevhudoli, n., & olive netshandama, v. (2023). what do bachelor of indigenous knowledge systems graduates say about their curriculum? a qualitative tracer study at the university of venda. journal of curriculum studies research, 5(1), 141158. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2023.11 nwosu, l., bereng, m., segotso, t., & enebe, n. (2023). fourth industrial revolution tools to enhance the growth and development of teaching and learning in higher education institutions: a systematic literature review in south africa. research in social sciences and technology, 8(1), 51-62. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.4 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000189530 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2022.9 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2023.11 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2023.4 journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 pillay, h., watters, j.j., &hoff, l. (2013). critical attributes of publicprivate partnerships: a case study in vocational education and technology. international journal of adult vocational education and technology (ijavet), igi global, 4(1), 31-45. prabowo, ls. (2022). the effect of iso and leadership quality on the sustainable development of academic competence and student performance. journal of social studies education research, 13(3), 31-55. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4232/575 priambudi, p., mahmudah, f. n., & susatya, e. (2020). management of industrial classes in vocational high schools. jurnal pendidikan teknologi kejuruan, 3(2), 87–97. rahayu, a., wibowo, l. a., & sulastri, s. (2020). analysis of link and match policies in improving work readiness of vocational student in west java. 3rd global conference on business and management. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/gcbme-18/125933693 sagala, s. (2011). strategic management in increasing the educational system: empowering the creativity, innovation, and school potential in autonomy persepective. cv.alfabeta. singh and nath (2007) research methodology. s.b nangia aph publishing corperation ansari road darya ganj. sulaiman, s. (2015). classroom management and the implications to quality of learning. jurnal ilmiah peuradeun, 3(3), 431–440. https://journal.scadindependent.org/index.php/jipeuradeun/article/view/78 trilling, b. & fadel, c. (2010). 21st century skills: learning for life in our times. john wiley & sons, inc. turgumbayeva, a., sangilbaye, o., kirichok, o., kassymzhanova, a. &tarman, b. (2023). the motivation of students to pursue business education: case of kazakhstan, the open psychology journal, vol. 16, e187435012304180. twumasi. p.a., (2001). social research in rural communities. second edition, ghana university press. wahjosumidjo. (2011). principal leadership: theoretical perspective and problems. rajawali pers. wiley, d. a. (2001). connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: a definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy. in d. a. wiley (ed.), the instructional use of learning objects. bloomington, ind.: agency for instructional technology https://homepages.uc.edu/~santosff/learning_communities/digital_learning_objects/extdocs/co nnecting%20learning%20objects%20to%20instructional%20design%20technology.pdf yonus (1989). resource sharing networks in developing countries. in kent allen, (ed.). encyclopedia of library and information science. mared decker, new york, 41, 304–320 https://ideas.repec.org/s/igg/javet0.html https://ideas.repec.org/s/igg/javet0.html https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4232/575 https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/gcbme-18/125933693 https://journal.scadindependent.org/index.php/jipeuradeun/article/view/78 https://openpsychologyjournal.com/volume/16/elocator/e187435012304180/fulltext/ https://homepages.uc.edu/~santosff/learning_communities/digital_learning_objects/extdocs/connecting%20learning%20objects%20to%20instructional%20design%20technology.pdf https://homepages.uc.edu/~santosff/learning_communities/digital_learning_objects/extdocs/connecting%20learning%20objects%20to%20instructional%20design%20technology.pdf suryaman, et al. 95 appendix 1 interview guidelines number teacher/principal of vocational high school vocational training center tutors industry partner 1 what is the process of compiling the curriculum in vocational high schools? why do vocational high school children need to be given additional training at vocational training center? how is the involvement of the industry in the preparation of the curriculum? 2 does the curriculum development involve industry? what are the basic competencies of vocational high school children before being given training at vocational training center? what is the initial ability of smk students before industrial work practices? 3 how is the practical learning process in the workshop conducted by the teacher? what is the skills training process for vocational high school children at vocational training center how is the learning program carried out by the company when there are apprentice students? 4 what competencies are given to smk students, so they are ready to work? what skills are possible to be trained for vocational high school students? what skills are trained by the company when students are apprentices 5 what are the strategies to improve the competence of vocational high school students? what is the method used to improve the skills of vocational high school students who practice at vocational training center? how do work assistants in the company apply the method? 6 is industrial work practice capable of significantly increasing student competence? can training at the vocational training center improve students' skills? is the apprenticeship program able to improve students' skills? 7 can apprenticeships at vocational training center improve the competence of vocational high school students? can training at vocational training center increase the competitiveness of vocational high school graduates? to what extent can the apprenticeship program increase the competitiveness of vocational high school graduates? source: results of reading theories about industrial apprenticeship journal of social studies education research 2023: 14(2), 75-96 appendix 2 observation guidelines number vocational high school vocational training center industry 1 observe the process of learning theory of vocational high school students at school observe the form of cooperation between vocational high school and vocational training center observe the practice environment while students are in the industry 2 observe as students learn to practice in the workshop observe the form of training provided by vocational training center to students observe the form of training that the industry provides 3 observe the various student assignments given by the teacher to improve student competence observe the competence of vocational training center tutors teaching vocational high school students observe the competence of student assistants who are currently practicing in the industry 4 observe the various competencies students have while studying at school observe the various competencies taught to students observe the various competencies that students have after completing industrial internships 5 observe teachers teaching productive subjects observe the teaching methods used by vocational training center tutors observe the training methods provided by the companion 6 observe the completeness and quality of workshop facilities and infrastructure owned by the vocational high school observe the completeness and quality of vocational training center workshop facilities and infrastructure observe the completeness of the production site owned by the company 7 observe the form of cooperation between vocational high schools and vocational training centers or the business world and the industrial world observe other forms of follow-up that have been carried out between vocational high school and vocational training center observe other forms of follow-up that have been carried out by companies and vocational high school source: results of reading various industrial internship theories article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),265-290 synergy empowerment and social transformation: developing entrepreneurship independence in a business school joko suryono1, mahendra wijaya 2, heru irianto3, mohamad harisudin4 abstract forming and developing a synergy of empowering actors is needed to create jobs, change the economy, and build a microlens, and institutional logic perspective. the synergy of interest actors is the synergistic relationship built by interest actors. collective resource capabilities can address community problems and expand community opportunities, supporting individual and community empowerment. they form descriptive qualitative research using a single case study approach. the data collection technique was conducted using an observation participative partition, in-depth interview. validation with the triangulation method involves sources, methods, and objects from field observations. results show that sbs is a non-formal entrepreneurship school with a vision of creating young entrepreneurs and developing their potential through a culture of synergy. strategic implementation of collaborative, action group partnerships in sbs occurs through communication activities. the communication model developed is interpersonal and group communication. interpersonal communication uses local language messages, while polite language is able to touch and respect individual and group self-esteem. group communication is one of the concepts in understanding behavior. the leadership developed at sbs leads to visionary leadership. synergy, leadership, and entrepreneurial orientation impact the independence of alumni students in the form of self-confidence, acting freely in running their business. keywords: synergy culture, communication, leadership, entrepreneurial orientation, independence introduction poverty, joblessness, and slow economic growth adversely impact national and global economies and can only be alleviated through a philosophy of empowerment. as defined by pererson et al. (2005), empowerment is "a process of social action that involves individuals, organizations, and communities to work together, support each other so that each obtains his own life, controls himself confidently in a fair environment." included are collective assets with the role of emancipatory actors by providing training and empowerment to the individuals and communities standing to gain the most. entrepreneurial empowerment can decrease reliance on government 1doctorate candidate, university of sebelas maret surakarta & universitas veteran bangun nusantara, sukoharjo, indonesia, email: jokowignyo@gmail.com 2prof. dr. university of sebelas maret surakarta, indonesia, email: mahendrawijaya@staff.uns.ac.id 3prof. dr. university of sebelas maret surakarta, indonesia, email: mohamad_h@staff.uns.ac.id 4prof. dr. university of sebelas maret surakarta, indonesia, email: heruirianto@staff.uns.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 funding by increasing the number of people engaged in productive economic activity, the number of people lifting themselves out of poverty, and the incomes of both individuals and communities (omeje et al., 2020). an empowering actor takes deliberate, purposeful action believing that the recipient will respond accordingly. when individuals and groups are empowered by empowering actors, they are better able to create designs, create good work program plans, be more realistic, and generate local resource potential, strengthen resources (budiharso, et. al.,2022). moreover, they empower the social, economic, and political life of the community, and increase individual, member, and group participation, cultivate companions, enhance capacity for continuous organization and construction (wikantiyoso et al., 2021). in order to effect change, empowering actors must be equipped to do their jobs, adopting a proactive and critical stance toward digital technology. this action simplifies solving problems across all sectors, fostering the growth of interpersonal relationships and organizational structures, bolstering individual and group capacities, and enhancing educational practices based on digital tools (iivari, 2020; dodds et al., 2016). actors who seek to empower others have an ongoing responsibility to build stronger bonds with the people they are trying to help. this responsibility, among other things, includes mobilizing the community, increasing participation, and informing beneficiaries about the value of continuing their education throughout their lives (sibanda & marongwe, 2022; sung & choi, 2022). it also involves establishing social justice in their neighborhoods, facing and overcoming obstacles, acknowledging their identities as activists, and learning to think critically about the world. they are socially responsible (luguetti et al., 2019), free oppressed communities (iivari, 2020), and critically examine, consider, seek, and evaluate individuals and organizations to better themselves and the world around them in knowledge, care, psychological empowerment, and self-confidence (reilly & rees, 2018). actors are able to comprehend development evaluation principles, avoid placing undue emphasis on beneficiary behavior, support institutions, and establish learningcentered organizational principles (report et al., 2021). a process is required to form and develop a synergy of empowering actors and collaboration among smes in institutional logic to create jobs, alter the economy, and build a microlens and perspective on institutional logic (zhang, 2022). interest actor synergy is a mutually beneficial partnership between parties with shared interests. each group member must work together to suryono, et al. 267 realize the organization's vision (budiharso & tarman, 2020). synergy between environmental, social, and local economic resources is fostered through the efforts of social entrepreneurs empowering local communities by mobilizing local resource groups, policy and practice perspectives, and raising needs through development strategies (sonnino & griggs-trevarthen, 2013). people's outlooks, actions, and mentalities can be shifted through the coordinated efforts of multiple agencies through care and mentoring programs run by regional work units or social organizations (regency et al., 2021). three facets to bolstering community empowerment exist: community resources, community action, and the ability of collective resources to solve problems and expand opportunities in the community. more authority occurs in highly engaged communities, offering various services, having effective leadership, and cultivating external partnerships. the success of community efforts depends on the degree to which the community works together effectively. positive social transformation will result from synergies in all facets of society (george et al., 2016; omodan & addam, 2022). building stronger communities is integral to fostering community cohesion and collective impact. leadership is the value of an effective community. we can increase our success chances by cooperating with a shared commitment to independence and a cooperative spirit. establishing and maintaining secure, productive, and self-assured connections with others depends critically on one's ability to express clearly and confidently. transcultural communication can be aided by many factors, including a well-developed communication culture, various languages and linguistic resources, and an understanding of cultural norms (larsen, 2021; weston, 2020). the state of the environment is highly impacted by the ways people communicate. a positive feedback loop is present between social media and face-to-face interaction, yielding a more vibrant community and stronger interpersonal bonds (han, 2020). improvement, social change, and good behavior all result from interpersonal communication employing multiple delivery platforms (kim, 2019). the positive correlation between information use and emotional well-being is strengthened by sharing information lowering stress, and increasing happiness (coman & panchenko, 2021). the power of human interaction is to generate understanding and insight. interpersonal communication can raise awareness among the populace (berges puyo, 2020; ezeah, 2020). motives like altruism, self-interest, and duty are all amenable to investigation via the social network method. the conversation is driven by interpersonal qualities. adoption and compliance can be improved through network interventions spreading information, and fostering social journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 support (felsher, 2021). the impact of media such as television, radio, and online banners on people's awareness, knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and actions is magnified when those people engage in meaningful conversation. located at sragen business school (sbs) this study explores its evidences. strengthening community initiatives increases community cohesion and efficacy. community action requires strong local leadership. this commitment and spirit of synergy is based on equality, transparency, and accountability to achieve independence. good communication helps build safe, effective, and confident relationships. transcultural communication uses language resources, language tools, and cultural knowledge (larsen, 2021). communication influences environmental conditions. social media and interpersonal communication create active environments and strong social bonds (han, 2020). interpersonal communication using multiple platforms leads to improvement, social change, and decent behavior (kim, 2019). information use reduces anxiety and social distance, fostering a comfortable mood (coman & panchenko, 2021) and accentuating interpersonal communication's impact on awareness and knowledge. interpersonal communication raises people's awareness (ezeah, 2020). social network analysis can explore motivations to help others, help oneself, and fulfill obligations. thus, interpersonal traits drive the conversation. informational and social network interventions can increase uptake and compliance (felsher, 2021). interpersonal communication amplifies the media's effect on awareness, knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and behavior. the impact of effective communication between individuals is substantial. consideration of interpersonal communication in creating and assessing public information campaigns is crucial (solovei, 2020). interpersonal communication strategies such as conversational activities, extended dialogue, and valence (the emotional impact of a message) can be powerful instruments for influencing behavior (hendriks & strick, 2020). leadership factors, like communication, are crucial to affecting change. strong local leadership is essential for putting community initiatives into action where community cohesion and collective efficacy come in (berges puyo, 2022; george et al., 2016). leaders' abilities to bring together different actors and sectors for shared projects and foster cooperation among stakeholders contribute to regional empowerment (irma, 2022). however, the research produces a symbiotic relationship between the empowering actors in the community: (1) between empowering actors, suryono, et al. 269 between empowering actors and beneficiaries, ineffective communication, weak leadership, weak social bonds, and weak community cohesiveness. this study will contribute to the community empowerment science by demonstrating the power of collective empowerment to foster the growth of small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) by fostering individual agency. with this void in mind, the study's objectives are to show how effective communication contributes to the synergy between empowering actors and the beneficiaries they serve and illustrate the leadership of empowering actors. moreover, the study addresses how the synergy of empowering actors affects the autonomy of small and medium-sized enterprises. empowerment practitioners can use this study’s findings to refine the procedure of empowering smes in steps creating synergy to boost smes' autonomy. methods this study used a case study design and qualitative approach to analyze data. yin (2009) describes case studies as empirical investigations into present-day phenomena and the context of actual life. a descriptive qualitative research employing a case study methodology characterizes this study. a case study methodology was selected because the issue being investigated was a program, event, individual activity, or community group at sbs. throughout this research, we utilized a naturalistic approach (as is), indicating that participants in the sbs study did not receive any preferential treatment from the researchers. the framework’s goal was to facilitate effective communication between researchers and their research subjects. according to mikkelsen (2003), a strong connection between the researcher and the subject of the study is crucial to the quality of the results. here, the researcher assumes the role of an instrument or tool for the study (sugiyono, 2016). this study relies heavily on the informants’ words, stories, and body language gestures. information was gathered through in-depth interviews with key informants, main informants, supporters, and document tracing (an observation participatory method) (denzin & guba, 2009). the fourth type, "complete observers," was used in this investigation. when conducting research in the role of a full observer, the researcher is present at the scene, taking notes and making observations without participating in the studied events. the triangulation method is used for data validation, in which multiple data sources, methods, and objects are used to ensure the validity (reliability) of the data and information being validated (sutopo, 2006). the following steps need to be taken to ensure that the qualitative research findings journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 are reliable and consistent with data gathered from the subjects or participants. first, because the researcher is the primary research tool, they should be involved in more parts of the data collection process. researchers should spend more time gathering data to have more faith in the results and watch for social phenomena of interest to learn more about them in their natural habitat. when conducting qualitative studies, observation methods are indispensable. therefore, using both method and source triangulation is essential. moreover, the researchers should have nonparticipating coworkers to discuss, provide input, and critique the research from the outset until the final results are compiled. to that end, double-checking all collected data, categories of analysis, interpretation, and conclusions with research members are also involved in data collection. data analysis involves organizing information and data into a pattern and providing meaningful descriptions for the focus of the goals to be accomplished (sutopo, 2002). data analysis was done in a study, and a logic inductive interactive model was used (miles & huberman, 2012). this data analysis model is predicated on the fundamental idea that the data analysis process must begin with the data collection stage and continue through the stage of drawing the ultimate conclusion. to sum up, the interactive inductive analysis model comprised five different aspects of analysis as follows: (1) data collection, (2) data presentation, (3) data reduction, (4) data verification, and (5) withdrawal conclusion. results communication synergy, empowering actor leadership sragen business school the school's empowering actors are founders, implementers, mentors, alumni, and sponsors of sbs. these agents of change work in tandem to accomplish shared objectives. the term "empowering actor synergy" refers to the mutually beneficial interactions between those in the power position and those standing to benefit from the power position. the term "synergy" refers to the result of a cooperative effort involving multiple relevant factors, such as synergy and cooperation. at sbs, mentoring is emphasized early in the learning process. "we are a collaboration; our association is needed by the community; it is needed by our country and our nation. we must be able to spread good business, spread enthusiasm, spread motivation, and spread inspiration. in order for our distribution to reach its peak, we need to synergize and collaborate. we make collaboration and synergy a spirit; we make it a culture, which is at sbs: amazing collaboration. we have to collaborate, collaborate with fellow businesses. so if you have friends who come with me, it is okay, we will learn suryono, et al. 271 together. this must become a culture in sbs; our associations must synergize and motivate each other. (mentors #3). the mentors said that synergy would be achieved with a few “mutual words” helping achieve the vision and goals. the word mutual is important; care for each other, trust, support, and respect each other. “sbs is a free school; if you have a dream, do not just dream for yourself, but dream for the people, be able to provide benefits, prosper your family, and make your wife and children happy. to achieve this, we must have care, must care. these sbs members must care for each other, have problems contacting each other, support each other, must trust each other, and respect each other. if we are together, united, we will be able to get to the top.” synergy and collaboration to the level of business cooperation (mentor #4). the synergy among mentors, among alumni, between alumni and mentors, can be seen in the following picture structure: figure 1 organizational structure of sragen business school source: interview with mentor #1 the picture depicts that the founders and advisors have many decisive roles, in any case, namely accompanying, advising, motivating, reminding, and being asked for approval. they did that because they wanted to conduct their mission to create independent entrepreneurs. according to the managing director, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 "founders and advisors always encourage and hope that under any circumstances the learning process must continue, for example, like yesterday's pandemic, how come during the pandemic there is no learning, let us do it well (held again), kind of reminding that, because indeed both of them have a vision and mission to create entrepreneurs, for example, 1000 entrepreneurs, they have dreams like that, their goals will be achieved through sbs, so they are indeed the ones who they are very decisive, in any case, i always ask for their approval, worried that later they will not get out of the corridor. once i invited a speaker that did not match the character of sbs, as i was reminded. they continue to accompany, and advise because both are very intense in creating entrepreneurs, always ready at any time to share business, consult, talk about business” (managing director #1). the managing director, as the main cog, has a central position for founders, advisors, sponsors, alumni, and students; he has general duties, communicating and coordinating with founders and advisors, alumni management, sponsors, mentors, and students: “the task of the managing director is to design, make schedules, find students, and organize learning activities. my responsibilities at sbs are carrying out overall activities, responsibilities at the talent center, as a director, and at sbs as well as sbs director. so the one who makes the schedule, for example, material a is mr. a, material b is mr. b, that is all of me, i am the one who coordinates all of that, all stakeholders (executing director #1). "all my mentors are sowani (visit), one by one because if it is only through whatsapp, it is not good; i am sowan (visiting); for example, to mr. bambang gage, i sowan (visited) there, mr. bambang gage and then ready, for mr. agung bh i sowan (to visit) to mr. agung bh, even though i had wa first, so i sowan (visited ) ngene, ngene-ngene (this and this). in addition, it is also equipped with a letter of request from the speaker (managing director #1). in addition to mentors, implementers also conduct communication and coordination activities with main sponsors with a role in funding issues. communication and coordination activities with the main sponsor are usually held in a meeting. “usually, i gather (collect) sponsors. the sponsors are geprek group, putra dadi sejahtera, lazizmu, the indonesian young entrepreneurs association, the indonesian youth national committee, and the talent center. the gathering is usually at a chicken geprek restaurant; i offer a certain amount of budget, please (please) share it (together ), because the school is free, they are the ones who pay for it, okay now, okay, ready, one institution, a few million, the cost of preclass promotions, until closing in tawangmangu” (executing director #1 ). suryono, et al. 273 here are the main sponsor logos: figure 2 logo of the main sponsor of the sragen business school source: interview with managing director #1 in addition to being sponsored by the six institutions, funding for sbs learning operations is also supported by co-sponsors. the accompanying sponsors came from the alumni community and alumni independent businesses: the sbs i batch community: sukowati business association, sbs 3: sragen entrepreneurs community, sbs 4: sbs 4 entrepreneur community (kupat), sbs 5: independent youth association, sbs 6: fast, and sbs 8: business friend eight. independent business alumni: priyo priyayi batik, faiha herbal, solo kip, biohalty herbal drink, obong sausage, fairus convection, and embroidery, kudni property, wury handayani (learning center), le (property agent, obong sausage, fairus convection and embroidery, ampiran friends, orat studio, al mutazam group, bosgie trans (rent a car), taro chips, soto lamongan cak yon, gethuk president, eternal blessings. according to the managing director, the sponsor substantially supports operational activities. "sponsorship provided by alumni helps sbs in funding operational support; one alumni or one alumni community sponsors several hundred thousand, for example, 200 thousand per sponsor, we display their logo." (managing director #1). the following are the logos for co-sponsors from the alumni community and logos for co-sponsors from independent businesses: journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 figure 3 alumni community supporting sponsor logo sragen business school source: interview with managing director #1 figure 4 logo of sponsor for alumni of sragen business school source: interview with managing director #1 in addition to acting as a co-sponsor, the alumni community is tasked with developing alumni's businesses, prospering alumni, and collaborating with institutions needed by alumni. it was conveyed by the managing director. suryono, et al. 275 “after graduating, students will become alumni; now, these alumni will be connected with the alumni management and alumni activities that take care of alumni. the alumni have a place so that i am no longer the ruler, although there is still coordination with me. they have fields that take care of alumni: (1) the field of business development, with activities among alumni visiting each other, communicating, exchanging ideas, and giving each other input; (2) the social sector, which is tasked with collecting funds that are used for social activities, such as visiting sick people and takziah; (3) the field of inter-institutional relations, which is tasked with developing cooperation with the government, for example, in the field of licensing in the form of socializing licensing issues for alumni” (executing director #1 ). alumni feel responsible for other alumni in developing their businesses. one of the ways to support alumni synergies is to invest in trust or social capital as a social bond. it is in the form of cooperating in sales without financial capital. “after graduating from the sragen business school, the alumni have their own businesses and establish a business community; fellow alumni meet each other and work together to improve business development. alumni friends, if you want to do business with minimal losses, you can join him. usually, when the month of ramadan approaches, many want to join him in selling dates. it is because traders can take as many dates as possible, and at the end of ramadan, if the goods are not used up, they can be returned. (alumni #2). the following is the organizational structure of the alumni management: figure 5 organizational structure of sragen business school alumni management source: interview with mentor #1 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 entrepreneurial orientation empowering actors at sragen business school the sbs was chosen as the research location because this school empowered young entrepreneurs. the empowerment was conducted by mentors from successful entrepreneurs in the sragen regency area. mentors conveyed an entrepreneurial orientation having things that entrepreneurs must do. table 1 shows informants, category, theme, and interview transcript of entrepreneurial innovation at the sbs. table 1 informant, category, theme, and interview transcripts informant #1 category theme interview transcript mentor business planning the entrepreneur has data on business planning, finance, sales, and industry growth. planning is important; if we do not plan for success, it is the same as planning for our failure. a business plan is important in any capacity, not only for large companies. the bigger our business, the more complex the planning is. only if our business is still small, the planning will be simpler. mentor #2 entrepreneurial character and mental attitude entrepreneurs must have various kinds of character and mental attitude, namely: venturing, courage to make decisions, diligence, seriousness, totality, discipline, ignoring obstacles, obstacles, and obstacles, with high aspirations. i have been building a business for nine years and have experienced many obstacles, so this nine-year process must be passed immediately. i built a business in 2002. i sell fried rice and cook my own fried rice, cap jay, fuyung hai, and kwetiau. i sold chicken noodles for more than a year, five to seven kilos daily. alhamdulillah, selling chicken noodles closed, selling bread closed, selling fried rice lasted eight months; i had a lot of debt. when i met with ustad yusuf mansyur and bob sadino, bob sadino said, the business must dare to fail; the pain is exceedingly heavy, do not regret yesterday's situation mentor #2 business processes and stages building a business requires processes and stages. business is tough; it needs to be fought for, so if you fail once, do not say you have failed and how many times you have failed. according to the research, building a business after ten years is just a matter of reaping success; from 100 entrepreneurs with the same capital within five years, only 50 people survived, 20 people remained in 8 years, and in the tenth year, only four were able to qualify in person. that means only 4% of 100 people. mentor #3 family interferes in business family involvement inhibits business progress. the obstacle faced by entrepreneurship involves family members in the business. one thing that interferes with doing business when it is professional is the family included in the company. it will interfere with the company's performance, so the family should not be involved if the company is professional. i quit suryono, et al. 277 the first time when my wife served as finance director. #1 mentor becoming an entrepreneur must be creative. entrepreneurs must be creative, innovative, and able to make findings in marketing. in doing business, an entrepreneur must have creativity, be able to find formulas, play an element of buyer psychology, and continually innovate the marketing system. when we sell at the usual price, that person's interest is typical. however, when we use issue 10,000 get 3, it reveals that the buyer's desire is extraordinarily passionate. mentor #3 entrepreneurs must invest entrepreneurs are not taught to live frugally but to invest, be firm in their stance, not change their business, recognize their potential, and have orientation. entrepreneurs are not advised and taught to live frugally. because the entrepreneurial orientation of saving on a rich base is wrong, entrepreneurs must invest. entrepreneurs must know how to earn as much as possible and increase their income as much as possible. the saved asset is money, but savings are realized through trading. mentor #3 entrepreneurs have a clear orientation in order to develop, entrepreneurs must have an orientation. “(1) skill oriented, in doing business, the first thing to do is related to skill, the first skill: (1) skill oriented when talking about batik, entrepreneurs must be good at making batik. when you want to print money, you must at least know how to make money; (2) profit oriented, if the effort does not lead to profit, operational costs will not be covered; (3) expansion-oriented, expansion establishes new branches, to expand market reach in certain locations; (4) balance oriented, entrepreneurs must be able to create a balance of individual, family, spiritual, social circumstances. mentor #5 the focus and totality of an entrepreneur entrepreneurs must focus on one point and enter totally to get optimal results. i started selling online in 2011, and i focused on software until now. why did i use to fail and fail so often? because they are not focused, and usually entrepreneurs, when they start to rise, start to get greedy. if you can focus, strengthen the system, especially in finance, and managerial systems mentor #4 entrepreneurs should not have a low self-image; they must be an agent of change, have the traits of a winner, and be a leader who dares to take control. entrepreneurs should not have a low self-image and feel inferior because they always feel lacking. entrepreneurial attitudes and behavior are determined by self-image, how we can capture the future, and must be able to change destiny. thus, entrepreneurs should not be careless, see themselves as neither bad nor great, and always think ahead. entrepreneurs should not have a low self-image and feel inferior because they constantly feel lacking. smes independence as the impact of synergy and entrepreneurship orientation empowering actors the influence of self-determination through empowering actors and an entrepreneurial mindset is critical. this autonomy takes the form of an internal drive, self-assurance, and the willingness to start on one's own or form strategic alliances to achieve one's business goals. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 sbs alums have taught me much about business theory, business mindset, systems, operating procedures, and service standards. moreover, they have addressed turnover, networking, shilaturohmi, polish, environment, whipped, alms, motivation, gain knowledge, brand, and focus, all without the influence of an entrepreneurial orientation. successful entrepreneurs have a firm grasp of business fundamentals such as theory, mindset, systems, and sops. former workers at a cotton fabric factory out of work for four and a half years have spoken: “before studying at sbs, he did not know about business theory; he only had a trading mindset. “i used to sell for the first time, not knowing what theories are; i was working on fried rice, pushing a cart myself, frying it myself. at that time, my mindset was still a trading mindset. after studying at sbs and meeting great mentors, my mindset changed to a business mindset. an entrepreneur must be able to develop a system; i must have a system. now it is systemized, i do not fry, now there are employees who fry (alumni #3). the closeness between mentors and students, networking, and the environment are vital in business development. it was conveyed by the alumni of mini entrepreneurs markets and cafes, “at the beginning of joining sbs, i did not feel successful; from learning sbs, i felt the greatness of networking and friendship, having new friends, and new relatives. i can meet the coach at any time, the relationship between teacher and student is like a friendship, like there are no boundaries, really care. with a coach, we can discuss, vent business, and learn business. sbs is extraordinary, and the knowledge is extraordinary. besides studying with the coach, i can learn from friends who are more successful. many sbs alumni have increased. sbs is a polisher for our business. if we are pearls, sbs is the place to polish our pearls to make them shinier. at sbs, we get the environment. in business development, the environment is very important. (alumni #2). learning at sbs keeps students motivated, leading to sbs's vision of glorious success. priyo batik entrepreneur alumni from ndalangan village said, “when i took lessons at sbs, i was still an employee at a batik company. after participating in sbs, i felt i was being pushed (motivated) to stand alone, look for orders, and have my own factory. sbs is very useful for mental progress, guided spiritual problems, and spirituality. entrepreneurs must do alms, leading to the world and the hereafter. it is like the sbs tagline, glorious success, success in this world, and glory in the hereafter. with the values of the efforts made, a business can be an intermediary for us to enter heaven (alumni#4). suryono, et al. 279 studying at sbs motivates students to run their businesses, gain knowledge, and increase relationships. the third batch of sbs alumni of data and ticket package entrepreneurs reveal this fact, “the business he does is cellular and wholesaler of data packages. before joining the sragen business school, his business was still small, his kiosk measuring 2x2 meters. however, after participating in sbs, his business has grown rapidly, and he has even opened four branches. the turnover has increased by hundreds of percent, with 15 employees. studying at sbs makes me more enthusiastic about running a business, gaining more knowledge, and increasing friends and relationships. the sragen business school is very influential in my business venture because business people need knowledge. so, friends who are starting a business or starting a business, do not despair and do not be tired of seeking knowledge right now” (alumni #5). entrepreneurs must be able to solve business problems. tamim entrepreneur aqiqoh athaya, an alumnus of sbs 2, said, “before sbs, i had started herding and raising goats, but i had not done aqiqah. the obstacle faced by a farmer is how to sell the livestock. after meeting the mentor at sbs, the problem was solved. after sbs 2, i found mentors who were able to open a business mindset, how to make business leaps, and solve business problems. i began to be able to glance downstream on the farm. livestock is the downstream business of aqiqah. mr. dodok recommended that aqiqah is a business that will continue to grow, so my focus is on aqiqah. i have to keep growing my own brand” (alumni #5). entrepreneurs better focus on one business instead of dealing with many. hasan, an alumnus of sbs 4 duck meat supplier, said, "in my study, i got much knowledge. especially the knowledge to develop the mindset. one of them is the mindset to focus on one type of business. “pak dodok suggested focusing on one area. previously, i was a casual employee, doing odd jobs with duck farming while selling umrah packages. after that, when i joined sbs, my thoughts were conveyed to my mentor, and it was suggested, which one you should focus on, brother; if it is still like this, your situation is still half-hearted. i hesitated whether to open a shop or become a duck supplier. finally, i focused on suppliers” (alumni #6). an entrepreneur must have experienced failure; that failure will create an optimistic attitude. alumni managing the date shop center for hajj umrah souvenirs, sbs 1 alumni said, “the first sbs batch is the pilot batch. one of its beverage business products is called vita drink. initially only sold tea and was named vita tea. his business journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 continues to expand wider with a special flagship product, ice chocolate dates, and the process of blending dates with chocolate. at sbs, the product was just formed and still experimenting; from the lifelong learning process at sbs, the business has been systemized. various failures have been experienced, but we still have to try and be optimistic. it is a business in the field of hajj and souvenirs umrah, already selling several types of dates, egyptian, golden fale, qolas, tunisa honey, azzura dates, and various types of honey” (alumni #7 ). entrepreneurs must have broad insight and friendship, be firm in one business, and advertising. sbs 9 convection entrepreneur alumnus revealed, “studying at sbs has many benefits in developing himself in the business world. the benefits are many; the main thing is to add relatives, in addition to adding brothers to add insight, istiqomah, and friendship. it is easier because we have lots of friends and can share things; what we used to be stuffy with friendship became looser. if it is a business problem, allah is the one who has the right to share. however, we still try as much as possible; the results are in the hands of allah. studying at sbs increases self-confidence and self-confidence, especially after getting to know the science of advertising. at sbs, we learn about advertising, marketing communications, branding, and online business. the lesson increased my confidence. advertise on whatsapp, whatsapp groups, and trade groups, for example, the sbs group, sbs alumni, and sragen sewing smes. it turns out that creating as many workgroups as possible is done. previously never advertised at all. it turns out that the effect of advertising is very good. it is where the initial knowledge of sbs's insights came from. from there, i learned a lot from sbs alumni as well. if we do not study at sbs, maybe we do not have that much insight; the key is partners” (alumni #8). discussion with the motto "we create entrepreneurs," sbs is a non-traditional institution in the sragen neighborhood to inspire the next generation of business leaders. millennial business leaders realize their full potential is a force for good in the world. the success of the youth entrepreneurship training program in developing self-reliant and competent business leaders depends on the participation and cooperation of all involved. after being empowered, these business owners receive ongoing support from financial and non-financial resources and regular monitoring of their operations (omeje et al., 2020). it increased the community’s capacity for active participation, critical analysis, problem-solving, and the development of innovative solutions (george et al., 2016). as an element of institutional development within businesses, synergy makes suryono, et al. 281 collaborations between smes more likely by bolstering community support and cooperation (zhang, 2022). the synergy culture is responsible for the existence and growth of sbs. at sbs, the synergy culture manifests through collaboration, caring for one another, contacting, supporting, trusting, and respecting each other. at sbs, the synergy’s cultural values include commitment, partnership, equality, and transparency among mentors, alumni, students, and mentors, alumni, and students. the environment of synergy that sbs fosters evolves into an ecosystem with social ties mutually supporting each. only by cooperating as an action group will it be possible to realize the vision. according to bousquet, collaborative strategic implementation, partnership, and group action commitment will lead to innovation action, ultimately resulting in a synergistic impact (bousquet et al., 2016). at sbs, the synergy culture evolves into an organizational culture that directs actions. it functions as a marker, something highlighted and interpreted to be completed in collaboration. a system of meaning held by members of an organization and differentiates that organization from other organizations is the organizational culture. when looked at in greater detail, this system of shared meaning reveals itself as a collection of essential qualities an organization treasures. the characteristics of an organizational culture are related to how all organizations perceive those characteristics, regardless of whether they like that culture (fattah, 2017). strategic implementation, partnerships, and action group commitment are conducted through communication activities. the managing director occupies a pivotal position as the organization's primary driver and an active communicator regarding communication and coordination between sbs's founders, advisors, sponsors, alumni, and students. the md personally sowan (visits) potential mentors individually to discuss their interest in the role, rather than relying solely on the widely derided whatsapp with positive results. the purpose of interpersonal communication is to enhance the impact of communication and affect surrounding conditions. according to han, the impact of social media on the environment is powerful because it amplifies the effect of interpersonal communication, effective at respecting, appreciating, and influencing environmental conditions thanks to the use of local language messages and polite language. stronger conditions result from the mutual reinforcement of social media and face-to-face interaction (han, 2020), using social interaction to alter one's behavior (hendriks & strick, 2020). in addition, the managing director is responsible for ensuring that the group communicates effectively with the primary sponsor regarding funding matters. meetings are the typical setting journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 for activities involving communication with the primary sponsor. at the group communication held at the geprek chicken restaurant, attendees included representatives from geprek group, putra dadi sejahtera, lazizmu, the indonesian young entrepreneurs association, the indonesian youth national committee, and the talent center. the attendees discussed the total amount of the budget to be split between the group. this shared budget is a sentence demonstrating the outcomes of the group conversation and discussion. according to dowell, one of the essential ideas for comprehending how people communicate with one another is the concept of the role that group communication plays. whenever group members communicate with one another, they rotate through various roles throughout the conversation. members of a group engage in distinct patterns of behavioral involvement, such as being active or passive, taking the lead, or following others' lead; contributing characteristics, such as providing new information or consuming new information; and socially motivated partiality toward individuals or groups. the combination of individuals fulfilling various roles can ultimately accomplish the same overarching objective. social collaboration on a subject, matter, or problem needs collaborative discussion and dialogue in group communication spaces to produce a common understanding of the subject, matter, or issue (dowell et al., 2019). the ability of communicators and communicants to develop their roles and capabilities can be enhanced through communication in small groups (tilton, 2019). adult human trust can be increased with the appropriate communication strategy, including interpersonal and group communication activities (hastall et al., 2022). the interplay of various leaders is reflected in the interdependence of various partners and networks in synergies. owners, directors, and managers of small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) are managed at sbs by mentors, alumni, and students. the managing director, advisor, and alumni president of sbs all play key leadership roles in the organization's management. the managing director acts as the organization's hub, communicating and coordinating with the board of directors, advisors, sponsors, alumni administrators, mentors, and students. mentors are not the only ones involved in the implementation process; main sponsors also play a role in communicating and coordinating with the funding issues. a meeting is the standard method of communication and coordination between the main sponsor and the project's other participants. regardless, advisors' roles are substantial and decisive, including accompanying, advising, motivating, reminding, and approving. advisors play this role in fulfilling their mandate of helping young entrepreneurs succeed. an example of alumni leadership is provided by the president of the suryono, et al. 283 alumni association, whose responsibilities include fostering the growth and prosperity of the alumni body and cooperative relationships with relevant institutions. the ceo had this message delivered. the mentor leaders, implementers, and alumni want to give sbs a role, and their leadership and synergy show signs of fatigue. the leaders gave sbs essential roles because they trusted sbs to find it open and honest. the kind of visionary leadership fostered at sbs is rare. leadership with a vision is not a one-way street but rather an interactive process. when developing a strategic vision, considering the context of products, markets, issues, processes, and organizations are crucial. the visionary approach is one that can tolerate contrast. according to the experiences of many visionary leaders, visionary leadership is a combination of creator, preacher, idealist, tailor, and fortune teller. it can be seen in style, process, content, and context (westley & mintzberg, 1989). in contrast, adopting a transactional leadership style will result in group members quitting the system. members of the group will struggle ideologically with the system to which they adhere and will no longer want to continue working in their current profession. they are the members of the group who are visionary and creative and desire to participate in decision-making through communication strategies. in contrast to the transactional leadership style, the visionary style accentuates interactive communication and the development of teams (thyer, 2003). transactional leadership is positively related to creative behavior, and the synergy between transformational leadership and financial rewards and between transactional leadership and non-financial rewards leads to employee creativity. xifang ma expressed a favorable opinion of transactional leadership, and transactional leadership is positively related to creative behavior. financial business planning, sales data, hard work, courage to make decisions, diligence, seriousness, totality, discipline, ignoring obstacles, and obstacles are some of the entrepreneurial orientations of the empowering actors at sragen business school. having high aspirations, process and step by step in building a business, not involving a family in business, creativity, innovation, and the capacity to make findings in the marketing field, and not living frugally are also critical. small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) can highly benefit from intangible resources like an entrepreneurial mindset. according to kiyabo & isaga (2020), an entrepreneurial mindset is a process using intangible resources. the resource-based viewpoint demonstrates how an entrepreneur's focus can be grounded in both tangible and intangible assets. the link between an entrepreneurial mindset and small and medium-sized enterprise (sme) growth and success is journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 mediated by a company's level of competitive advantage. smes' learning orientation and performance are connected to the entrepreneurial orientation dimensions of innovation, proactivity, and risk-taking. strategic management places a premium on the entrepreneurial orientation dimension in a highly competitive and volatile market. companies' learning orientation and business strategy can benefit from a small and medium enterprise's (sme) innovative, proactive, and risk-taking nature (meekaewkunchorn et al., 2021). adopting an entrepreneurial mindset is strongly influenced by the internal organizational culture of small and medium-sized businesses and the reorganization of resources (kraus et al., 2018). the synergy, leadership, and entrepreneurial spirit of alumni students are impacted by empowering actors in the form of increased mindset capacity, mental attitude, and marketing and networking like them. therefore, learning about business theory, having a business mindset, developing a system, feeling successful and networking, having their factory, and progress in mental, spiritual, and spiritual business is critical for success in the world and the hereafter. to that end, the business is expanding rapidly by opening new branches; the turnover has increased by hundreds of percent, the number of employees is increasing, the brand is growing, and concentrating on one area. through this effort, the company will learn about advertising, marketing communications, branding, and online business, and become more systemized. the independence of students and alumni as beneficiaries is realized thanks to the synergy and entrepreneurial orientation displayed by these actors empowering others. this independence manifests itself as self-confidence, the willingness to act from within oneself, acting freely in running their business independently and implementing partnerships in realizing their business expectations, and self-assurance. because of the attention, perception, accuracy of the information, and obedience to the mentor, while attending sbs, the student was able to establish their independence. according to murphy (2020), an individual's self-confidence is correlated with their attention, perception, and the precision of their interoceptive information (their capacity to control their feelings). one's ability to develop and increase compliance is directly correlated to their level of self-efficacy. in the social cognitive theory, self-efficacy refers to the degree to which a person has self-confidence and is able to regulate himself while performing his workload. this concept was developed by psychologists. self-construction is connected to one's actions in empowering oneself (fueyo-daz, 2021). suryono, et al. 285 this study has an implication that independent entrepreneurship should be the critical goal of teaching at schools. the way of teaching independent entrepreneurship is through the synergy empowerment and serves social transformation at school levels. conclusion sbs is a non-formal entrepreneurship school in sragen developing young entrepreneurs who spread fruitful business, enthusiasm, and inspiration. sbs's youth entrepreneurship training program requires all parties' support and cooperation. sbs's synergy culture involves collaboration, mutual care, contact, support, trust, and respect. therefore, a synergy culture reflects increased community support and cooperation. communication activities implement sbs's collaborative, partnership, and action group commitments. sbs's communication model is interpersonal and group-wise. interpersonal communication using local language messages; polite language can respect, appreciate, and influence environmental conditions. social media affects environmental conditions, especially by strengthening interpersonal communication. group communication at sbs is critical to understanding implementers, mentors, students, and alumni. in group communication, different roles can produce the same goal. leaders' partnerships and networks show synergy in synergies. mentors, alumni, and students manage smes at sbs. managing director, advisor, and alumni president lead sbs. mentor leaders, implementers, and alumni want to provide sbs with a role. sincerity to share helped leaders give sbs roles. hence, sbs produces visionary leaders. dynamic, interactive visionary leadership is not one-way. the entrepreneurial orientation of the sragen business school empowering actors includes business planning, mental attitude, hard work, courage to make decisions, perseverance, seriousness, totality, discipline, ignoring obstacles, and obstacles. furthermore, having high aspirations, proceeding and gradually building a business, not involving a family in doing business, being creative, innovative, and able to make marketing findings, and living not frugally are other assets. entrepreneurial orientation affects students, alumni, and company performance. this study shows a novelty in that leadership, synergy, and an entrepreneurial spirit of alumni students exposed to empowering actors reported increased levels of independence, including greater self-confidence, greater willingness to act from within, and greater freedom to act in all aspects of running their businesses, whether working alone or in collaboration and linkages. they learn the fundamentals of running a business, acquire a business mindset, and are able to create journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 systems. on top of that, they expand by opening new locations, increasing sales by hundreds of percent, boosting employee numbers, building their brand, concentrating their efforts on a single front, systematizing their operations, learning about advertising, marketing, branding, online business, and beyond. they also experience success, network, make mental and spiritual progress, and create a business leading to this world and the next. this study has a limitation that limited respondents were recruited as this study was done in qualitative paradigm. future research was suggested to extend the number of respondents, developing a quantitative research such as a survey research. references berges puyo, j. (2022). ethical leadership in education: a uniting view through ethics of care, justice, critique, and heartful education. journal of culture and values in education, 5(2), 140-151. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.24 berges puyo, j. (2020). a value and character educational model: repercussions for students, teachers, and families. journal of culture and values in education, 4(1), 100-115. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 bousquet, j., bewick, m., cano, a., eklund, p., fico, g., goswami, n., guldemond, na, henderson, d., hinkema, mj, liotta, g., mair, a., molloy, w., wirnsberger, rer-, somekh, d., visser, f., farrell, j., malva, j., ranberg, ka, camuzat, t., … crepaldi, g. (2016) . building bridges for innovation in aging : synergies between action groups of the eip on aha. the journal of nutrition, health & aging, 21 (1), 92–104. budiharso, t, makruf, i, mujahid, i. (2022). porter’s five forces: evaluating education management practices for the postgraduate program of uin rm said surakarta, indonesia. journal of social studies education research. 13(1), 164-192, https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4035/555 budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 coman, ad, & panchenko, a. (2021). death anxiety , death reflection and interpersonal communication as predictors of social distance towards people infected with covid. denzin, norman k., & lincoln, ys (2009). handbook of qualitative research (2nd edition). sage publication, inc., 2009. https://doi.org/10.2307/3121684 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.24 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 suryono, et al. 287 dodds, r., ali, a., & galaski, k. (2016). mobilizing knowledge: determining key elements for success and pitfalls in developing community-based tourism. 3500 (march). https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1150257 dowell, nmm, nixon, tm, & graesser, ac (2019). group communication analysis : a computational linguistics approach for detecting sociocognitive roles in multiparty interactions. 1007–1041. ezeah, g. (2020). measuring the effect of interpersonal communication on awareness and knowledge of covid-19 among rural communities in eastern nigeria. health education research, 35 (5), 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyaa033 fattah, h. (2017). job satisfaction and employee performance organizational culture, leader behavior, and self-efficacy. elmatera. felsher, m. (2021). motivations for preprelated interpersonal communication among women who inject drugs: a qualitative egocentric network study. qualitative health research, 31 (1), 86–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732320952740 fueyo-díaz, r. (2021). development and validation of a specific self-efficacy scale in adherence to a gluten-free diet. frontiers in psychology, 46 (206), 241–261. https://doi.org/10.15390/eb.2020.8841 george, as, scott, k., mehra, v., & sriram, v. (2016). synergies , strengths and challenges : findings on community capability from a systematic health systems research literature review. bmc health services research, 16 (suppl 7). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1860-1 han, r. (2020). a comparative study of the role of interpersonal communication, traditional media and social media in pro-environmental behavior: a china-based study. international journal of environmental research and public health, 17 (6). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17061883 hastall, mr, koinig, i., kunze, u., meixner, o., sachse, k., & würzner, r. (2022). multidisciplinary expert group : communication measures to increase vaccine compliance in adults. 22–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10354-022-00946-x hendriks, h., & strick, m. (2020). a laughing matter ? how humor in alcohol ads influences interpersonal communication and persuasion a laughing matter ? how humor in alcohol ads influences interpersonal. health communications, 35 (14), 1821–1829. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2019.1663587 iivari, n. (2020). empowering children to make and shape our digital futures – from adults creating technologies to children transforming cultures. 37 (5), 279–293. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijilt-03-2020-0023 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 irma, ps (2022). the contribution of leader to the empowerment of rural areas: the case of the brkini region , slovenia. european countryside, 14 (1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.2478/euco2022-0001 kim, ss (2019). behavior change interventions delivered through interpersonal communication, agricultural activities, community mobilization, and mass media increase complementary feeding practices and reduce child stunting in ethiopia. journal of nutrition, 149 (8), 1470– 1481. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz087 kiyabo, k., & isaga, n. (2020). entrepreneurial orientation, competitive advantage, and smes' performance: application of firm growth and personal wealth measures. journal of innovation and entrepreneurship, 9 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-020-00123-7 kraus, s., burtscher, j., vallaster, c., & angerer, m. (2018). sustainable entrepreneurship orientation: a reflection on status-quo research on factors facilitating responsible managerial practices. sustainability (switzerland), 10 (2). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10020444 larsen, r. (2021). interpersonal communication in transcultural nursing care in india: a descriptive qualitative study. journal of transcultural nursing , 32 (4), 310–317. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659620920693 luguetti, c., oliver, kl, & luguetti, c. (2019). “i became a teacher that respects the kids ” voices': challenges and facilitators pre-service teachers faced in learning an activist approach an activist approach. sport, education and society, 0 (0), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2019.1601620 meekaewkunchorn, n., szczepańska-woszczyna, k., muangmee, c., kassakorn, n., & khalid, b. (2021). entrepreneurial orientation and sm performance: the mediating role of learning orientation. economics and sociology, 14 (2), 294–312. https://doi.org/10.14254/2071789x.2021/14-2/16 mikkelsen, b. (2003). participatory research methods and empowerment efforts . indonesian torch foundation publisher. miles, mb, & huberman, ma (2012). qualitative data analysis: a resource book on new methods. in universitas indonesia_ui press (issue 1, pp. 1–491). uip. murphy, j., brewer, r., plans, d., khalsa, ss, catmur, c., & bird, g. (2020). testing the independence of self-reported interoceptive accuracy and attention. quarterly journal of experimental psychology , 73 (1), 115–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021819879826 omodan, b., & addam, b. (2022). analysis of transformational teaching as a philosophical foundation for effective classrooms. journal of curriculum studies research, 4(2), 15-29. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2022.9 suryono, et al. 289 omeje, an, jideofor, a., & ugwu, mo (2020). youth empowerment and entrepreneurship in nigeria: implication for economic diversification. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020982996 pererson, na, lowe, jd, aquilino, ml, & schneider, je (2005). linking social cohesion and gender to intrapersonal and interactional empowerment: support and new implications for theory. journal of community psychology, 33 (2), 233–244. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20047 regency, c., hatimah, i., hatimah, i., & lutfiansyah, dy (2021). community empowerment synergy model based on parenting programs in reducing numbers of stunting in cirebon regency. international journal of early childhood special education, 13 (2), 1130–1137. https://doi.org/10.9756/int-jecse/v13i2.211158 reilly, l., & rees, s. (2018). fatherhood in australian aboriginal and torres strait islander communities: an examination of barriers and opportunities to strengthen the male parenting role . https://doi.org/10.1177/1557988317735928 report, a., kohonen, s., kosonen, j., & kettunen, s. (2021). evaluation for development: the e . a. s. y . model for empowering actors and stakeholders in curriculum development . 11 (2), 537–544. sibanda, j., & marongwe, n. (2022). projecting the nature of education for the future: implications for current practice. journal of culture and values in education, 5(2), 47-64. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.19 solovei, a. (2020). the effects of five public information campaigns: the role of interpersonal communication. communications, 45 (1), 586–602. https://doi.org/10.1515/commun-20202089 sonnino, r., & griggs-trevarthen, c. (2013). a resilient social economy? insights from the community food sector in the uk. entrepreneurship & regional development, 25 (3-4), 272– 292. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2012.710268 sugiyono. (2016). understanding qualitative research. alphabeta. sung, j. h., & choi, j. (2022). the challenging and transformative implications of education for sustainable development: a case study in south korea. journal of curriculum studies research, 4(2), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2022.8 sutopo, h. (2002). qualitative research methodology (p. 254). uns press. sutopo, hb (2006). qualitative research methodology: theoretical basis and its application in research (pp. 62–63, 118–120). sebelas maret university. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),265-290 thyer, gl (2003). dare to be different: transformational leadership may hold the key to reducing the nursing shortage. journal of nursing management, 11 (2), 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2834.2002.00370.x westley, f., & mintzberg, h. (1989). visionary management and strategic leadership. strategic management journal, 10 (1989), 17–32. weston, h. (2020). the cultural dimensions of information use: a focus on the experience of emirati students in higher education. journal of culture and values in education, 4(1), 116134. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.8 wikantiyoso, r., cahyaningsih, ds, & sulaksono, ag (2021). development of sustainable community-based tourism in kampong grangsil, jambangan village, dampit district, malang regency. 9 (1), 64–77. yin, rk (2009). case study research: design and methods. in sage publication (vol. 4). sage publication, inc., 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/0149-7189(86)90052-2 zhang, y. (2022). exploring interfirm collaboration processes of smalland medium-sized enterprises : an institutional logics perspective. entrepreneurship & regional development, 00 (00), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2022.2103745 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (3),120-149 implementation of total quality management and curriculum on the education quality nur efendi1 abstract this study developed an approach to assess the quality of education in pondok pesantren in indonesia. the study used a descriptive qualitative methodology. the research location is ma’had darullughah wadda’awah, pasuruan city, east java, indonesia. the study results revealed that: 1) the planning of the pondok pesantren-based curriculum is carried out by the structural parties of an institution and the functionaries to synchronize the educational program in ma’had categorized into two classes, namely, internal and external; 2) the curriculum is implemented by the institution through continuous improvement in response to changing times, cultural changes, organization’s quality standards, and harmonious relationships with stakeholders and guardians of students through the development of da’wah media, mastery of arabic language skills, and application of deep islamic values (dirasah al islamiyyah) at both theological normative and ethical levels; 3) pondok pesantren conducts two types of evaluations to measure students’ abilities: structural component evaluations and student learning competency evaluations. the former kind of evaluation aims to examine the curriculum that produces conclusions in the form of data, while the latter refers to the process when curriculum developers obtain the requisite data to revise the curriculum more effectively. it is possible to conclude that implementing total quality management (tqm) in pondok pesantren is one of the key approaches to achieving effective islamic education goals. the government must devote significant attention and resources to tqm for the growth and development of pondok pesantren students in indonesia. keywords: total quality management, curriculum, education quality. introduction educational institutions are the driving force of the education of a nation. improving the quality of educational institutions to achieve educational goals and success is confronted with numerous challenges. involvement of various related elements, such as the government, residents of pondok pesantren, parents of students, and local community leaders, is also essential for improving the quality of educational institutions and the academic system (kurniawan, 2017). in islamic education, the prime goal is to guide children or students to become true muslims, have strong 1dr, universitas islam negeri (uin) sayyid ali rahmatullah tulungagung, indonesia, nureffendiuinsayyid@gmail.com mailto:nureffendiuinsayyid@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 121 faith, do good deeds, and have a noble character that is useful for society, religion, and the state. a previous study noted that in the digital era, islamic educational institutions face challenges and prospects for sustainability that are no less difficult than educational institutions in general (hidayat et al., 2022). recent studies have revealed that the factors behind critical thinking about islamic education in indonesia are self-concept (bashori et al., 2021; anam et al., 2021), tradition and culture (manshur, 2020; musaddad, 2021), curriculum management (ilyas et al., 2019; fatmawati, 2016), leadership (hanafi et al., 2021), and government policies (ismail et al., 2022; sarnoto et al., 2021). pondok pesantren education is an important part of efforts to improve educational quality. the extant literature shows that the development of the times had a major impact on pondok pesantren and faced several socio-cultural changes that were unavoidable due to the impact of advances in information technology and modernization. the cultural climate of the pesantren is wrapped up in the dynamics of society, which raises questions about the resistance, responsibility, ability, and sophistication of the pondok pesantren as well as the ever-changing demands (ihsan et al., 2021; fathurrochman et al., 2020; ilyasin, 2020; krisdiyanto et al., 2019). indonesia’s position and history provide a solid foundation for the development of pondok pesantrenand the religion of islam in general. pondok pesantren play a significant role in improving the quality of human resources. this is based on the needs of an increasingly diverse society, in addition to the demands of scientific and technological development (ma’arif et al., 2022). the literature reveals that pondok pesantren not only teach religious knowledge to instill good moral values in students but also provide formal education such as in junior high schools and equivalent (zakariyah et al., 2022). the existence of pondok pesantren throughout history, combined with the development of modern science, has fostered a strategic response from the pesantren. this response must be formulated through strategic curriculum management in all elements of the pondok pesantren, including management, infrastructure, community relations, and human resource management (rohaeni et al., 2021). pondok pesantren are now important because of their strategic position in public and relevance to the public interest. regarding the importance and function of islamic education, the function and purpose of islamic education are placed more important than the function of general education because the function and purpose of the former are to empower students (manshur, 2020; wekke, 2015). although their operational model must be adjusted, pondok pesantren have efendi survived the development of the government order with the main function of building a civilized and islamic-minded society (muhajir, 2022; hakim & herlina, 2018). previously, everyone viewed pondok pesantren as poorly organized schools that ignored the interests of the existing world. thus perception must change as not all pondok pesantren follow the old tradition of resisting to a new culture. several pondok pesantren, which were originally aimed at only mastering religious knowledge, have shifted their orientation to become more open and accepting of all forms of new knowledge (muzakki & nisa’, 2020). the findings of previous researchers' research. a previous study assessed the quality of pondok pesantren using the fuzzy method to generate a service quality score (faizah et al., 2018). another study has shown that a new model is emerging in schools that is centered on formal education. this model has proven to be effective in implementing management strategies to improve the quality of schools and student (santri) resources. this new model is different as it intends to increase the ability of schools to adapt to the times and respond to public interests without rejecting indonesian traditions and heritage (munifah et al., 2019). this paper discusses the muslim community’s desires in terms of providing teaching concepts in pondok pesantren that are relevant to the community’s needs. the darullughah wadda’awah pondok pesantren in pasuruan always implements the curriculum that strives to achieve success and educational goals. this aligns with the concept of total quality management (tqm), which seeks continuous improvements and changes in culture as well as organization, quality standards, and harmonious relationships between institutions and stakeholders and guardians of students. starting with this thought, the researchers attempted to investigate how the curriculum implementation in pondok pesantren enhanced learning in light of tqm. according to recent studies, global competition has placed a high value on various commercial sectors. in order to compete, businesses must improve their capabilities in terms of quality rather than marketing. the tqm movement emerges, offering hope for progress (lim et al., 2022). the rationale for tqm is straightforward. producing the highest quality is the best way to compete and excel in global competition. as a result, efforts to continuously improve human capabilities, processes, and the environment are required. tqm is the most effective way to improve the capabilities of these components. tqm implementation in a company or organization can provide significant benefits, increasing profits and competitiveness. the company can increase profits. first, improve the marketing channel's competitive position so that the market share is larger and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 123 the selling price is higher. second, through quality improvement efforts, businesses can increase output that is free of damage. this reduces the company's operating costs while increasing profits (van kemenade, 2022). previous literature on how the curriculum is evaluated to determine its quality. however, in general, it focuses on designing, making preliminary preparations, gathering information, conducting analysis, drawing conclusions, making recommendations, and implementing the results of previous evaluations. tqm has the potential to influence educational quality. this is because tqm is a unique concept and practice of change in school management, and it has an impact on measures of success or school quality (glaveli et al., 2021). there are still many schools in its development that are struggling with their daily operations without demonstrating quality development. even though the curriculum has changed, the quality is said to have not improved. quality is said to be declining even though teacher education is improving. furthermore, the quality of education graduates is said to be inadequate in comparison to the needs of today's communities. tqm can, of course, solve this problem with the cooperation of all parties (kadhim & ahmad, 2021; karageorgos et al., 2021). the findings of this study are novel as they show that pondok pesantren bring people into society who are aware of the problems they face so that they can find alternative solutions to these problems. an educational environment that is diverse and complex and grows rapidly requires a high level of professionalism to improve the quality of agency performance. if a pondok pesantren can meet the interests of the community, it can produce various models that focus on the development of the pondok pesantren. the phenomenon of the emergence of various models of pondok pesantren occurs in formal educational institutions. this study was conducted in ma’had darullughah wadda’awah, pasuruan regency. the institution was chosen because there is a strong reception from the pesantren culture of technological developments in this era. in addition, this institute is thick with large institutions of pondok pesantren. research questions this study focuses on the strategies employed for improving the quality of education in the 20th century in pondok pesantren. the following research questions were sought to be answered: 1. how is the educational curriculum planning carried out by the pondok pesantren ma’had darullughah wadda’awah? efendi 2. how is the implementation of total quality management carried out by the pondok pesantren ma’had darullughah wadda’awah? 3. how are the education curriculum and total quality management of the education quality of pondok pesantren ma’had darullughah wadda’awah evaluated by the institution? literature review basic concepts of total quality management within the scope of education integrated tqm is focused on improving the quality of services and products continuously centered on customer needs, improving the process of member involvement to win in the competition and maintain the existence of the organization in a competitive era. implementing tqm can ensure that all departments or employees cooperate in improving the quality of service (tribus, 2010). there are eight main principles in the implementation of tqm, namely: (1) focus on customers; (2) overall employee engagement; (3) focus on defined processes and continuously monitor performance measures; (4) an integrated system connecting critical elements of business improvement to exceed consumers’ and stakeholders’ expectations; (5) a strategic and systematic approach to achieve the vision, mission, and goals; (6) continuous improvement to encourage creativity and analytical attitude; (7) decisions based on facts that can increase accuracy during the decision-making process, reach consensus, and make predictions based on previous events; (8) communication involving strategy, method, and timeliness (tarí, 2005; waychunas, 2020). theoretically, the long-term benefits of tqm are to improve customer satisfaction and experience in addition to improving quality and identifying and analyzing a product so that it can meet consumer expectations. the literature reveals that the productivity framework in the tqm envelope is the main target of educational institutions. this is because the main focus of education and tqm is productivity. thus both have the same vision and mission of improving organizational performance (hackman & wageman, 1995). the implementation of tqm as an effort to improve the quality of education cannot be achieved instantly. this means that the expected innovative changes cannot be realized directly as continuous efforts are required to achieve high productivity (ghobadian & gallear, 1996). in the world of education, tqm is a new framework. tqm can reorient management systems, staff behavior, organizational focus, and service delivery processes. through tqm, educational institutions can organize better, more effective services that meet the learning needs of santri (mukhopadhyay, 2020). ideally, to realize effective tqm, togetherness journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 125 and cooperation of all components of education providers are needed. this is the main reason for tqm as a strategy of improving the quality of education (sherr & lozier, 1991). in their study on tqm in education, owlia and aspinwall (1997) noted that the philosophy of tqm is generally viewed as an alternative to improving quality of competitiveness in the education sector. another study suggested the importance of investigating the correct approach to implement tqm in education to improve competitiveness quality, increase efficiency, and face the increasingly fierce global education competition. despite its efficiency and success, tqm has been found to ignore development and integration. thus, future studies must overcome this limitation (nasim et al., 2020). conceptual analysis must be performed to investigate different cases in relation to the main features of tqm, including strategic planning, an organization for quality, employee engagement and teamwork, and focus on internal customer satisfaction. this is because the different backgrounds of each educational institution also have different tqm practices, including the level of completeness of tqm practices, academic participation or division, the level of employee involvement, and the time span of the evaluation of the tqm program. recent studies have focused on tqm models/frameworks in education, for example, in higher education institutes (alauddin & yamada, 2022; jasti et al., 2021; jermsittiparsert & sommanawat, 2019), primary and secondary education institutes (glaveli et al., 2021), special educational and institutes (tahira et al., 2020). the most recent study to investigate the practice of tqm in islamic boarding schools has focused on the character education process (saifulloh & neoh, 2022). only a few studies have comprehensively investigated tqm practices at pondok pesantren, causing the tqm concept to remain unclear, and there is definitely room for improvement in the level of tqm practices at pondok pesantren. pondok pesantren education quality pondok pesantren, are an educational establishment always striving to optimize students’ talents and potential to achieve excellence in their lives. excellence in an intellectual field requires having essential skills and a graceful moral attitude (öztürk, 2020; puad & ashton, 2021). development of human abilities can be influenced by habituation and academic activities designed by policymakers to manage the pesantren curriculum, which is artistically created and used by anyone for the stated purpose, namely, good habits. in the current context, the process involves a design of activities based on achieving goals. the role of pesantren, in general, cannot be separated from efendi students (thahir, 2014). pondok pesantren education intends to change the behavior of students both regarding the level of progress in the process of intellectual development in particular, as well as the process of psychological development, including development of attitudes, understanding, skills, interests, adjustments. this can be realized through special programs centered on the cultivation of national cultural character values incorporated into the educational curriculum (asifudin, 2017). improving the quality of pondok pesantreneducation is the foundation for the creation of quality education. the quality of pondok pesantren is one of the central issues in education, in addition to other issues such as equity, relevance, and efficiency of pondok pesantren management (widodo, 2018). the development of science and technology and the demands for professionalism in the management of these institutions pose the greatest challenge to the success of da’wah institutions, such as pondok pesantren, in achieving their goals. pesantren have historically been closely linked to the public interest, emphasizing the importance of islamic education. this is due to the fact that pondok pesantren are a type of islamic educational institution (munifah et al., 2019).pesantren have an extraordinary experience in building quality education. they follow the path of developing moral values and religious teachings to educate the nation’s younger generation, helping them develop a noble character and have faith in and fear god almighty (umiarso, 2022). findings of previous studies have revealed that if the quality of pondok pesantren is good, the contribution will be even greater and vice versa. therefore, pondok pesantren are required to provide professional education, character building, and competence. many studies on the development of the education quality of pondok pesantren focus on the practice of quality assurance of education (lathifah et al., 2022; junaidi, 2019), teacher human resource management practices (baso et al., 2018), and integrated education management practices (muhdi, 2018). this study investigated the quality of education of pondok pesantren. the literature explains that pondok pesantren have a different curriculum from public schools. while public schools use the curriculum developed by the government, pondok pesantren use a combination of the curriculum developed by the government and the pondok pesantren’s special curriculum, which focuses on religious education. therefore, pondok pesantren’s quality of education is likely to be different from that of public schools (zahraini et al., 2022). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 127 methods design this study employed a phenomenological research design with a qualitative approach. the underlying reason for conducting qualitative research is to gain a detailed understanding of a particular theme, problem, or meaning through first-hand experience. phenomenological research design is concerned with establishing answers to why and how of a phenomenon. spiegelberg (1971) explained that a phenomenological approach is a scientific approach that aims to examine and describe phenomena as they are experienced directly without any interpretation and abstraction. examining a phenomenon means going through the process of exploring, analyzing, and describing the same to obtain its complete and in-depth picture. therefore, researchers must temporarily store or isolate the assumptions, beliefs, and knowledge that they already have to be able to do the bracketing process. the qualitative approach is suitable because it focuses on developing a complete, accurate, and clear description and understanding of the experiences felt directly by the participants. researchers analyzed the data using a qualitative approach adapted fromcreswell (2009)theory to investigate educational curriculum planning, tqm practice, and evaluation of both in relation to the quality of pondok pesantren education.the researchers also attempted to ascertain how these individuals feel after the program is implemented in the educational institution. the research location is ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan, east java, indonesia. this educational institution was chosen because of its strong acceptance of the pesantren culture in regard to technological developments. this institution has a quality identity as a pesantren, with several students from various corners of the country. the teaching and learning process at this pondok pesantren uses the applicable pondok pesantren curriculum in addition to basic arabic language skills regarding quality and other extracurricular activities. participants twenty-five participants were recruited in this study, including one pesantren builder, one chairperson of the foundation, the members of advisory boards, two deputy chairpersons, five pesantren coordinators, and 13 pesantren teachers. random sampling was used for selecting participants in this study, where participants were selected according to their knowledge regarding the implementation of tqm programs in their educational institutions. this random sampling efendi technique gives everyone from all targets the same chance to be chosen as participants, but the sample is chosen at random rather than sequentially. this technique allows the collection of response data that results in a stronger understanding of the tqm phenomenon in pesantren with more precise results. the participants had special knowledge about this research, which not everyone in the institution had. special knowledge possessed by islamic boarding school managers who have attended training on trainer (tot) training, which is part of the social and environmental responsibility program of bumn (state-owned enterprises) and the pondok pesantren independence program. the criteria for participants in the study were people who were in the management committee of ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan and who played a role in tqm practice from 2020 to date (see table 1) table 1 participant description variable characteristics frequency percentage (%) gender male female 23 2 92 8 age group (in years) 26–35 36–50 51 and above 4 9 12 16 36 48 participant president advisory board member vice chairperson coordinator teacher 1 1 3 2 5 13 4 4 12 8 20 52 data collection technique the study data were collected from the pondok pesantren ma’had darulllughah wadda’awah. there are two sources of data in this study. the primary data were derived from observations and interviews with participants. this study's secondary data includes research materials published in scientific journals that are relevant to the research theme. observations observations were made to collect data through direct observations, including recording and recording activities of pondok pesantren related to educational curriculum planning and tqm practices. the researchers made observations after getting permission from the leadership of the pondok pesantren. the total time required for observations is 14 working days, with 7 days required at the start of the semester and 7 days required at the end of the odd semester of the 2022 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 129 school year.the researchers visited pondok pesantren from monday to sunday. the time required for each observation schedule is seven days. during the observation, the researcher observed the same object, only the time of the visit was different. this was done to find out the planning and evaluation activities carried out by the participants. the aspects observed were the location where the tqm practice took place and the habits of the participants, including how they think, how they work, the language they use, and what they do in their spare time. during the observation, the researchers recorded the data in the observation sheet and recorded the activities of several participants using a video recorder. after getting the results of observations and visits, the researchers compiled the results of the observations in detail in the form of a narrative starting from the introduction (reasons for observing the place/object and the purpose of the observation) and a description of the results obtained from the observations. interview in-depth interviews were used in this study as they are suitable because the discussion of the problems asked can be complex, with varied and possibly contradictory responses. in addition, they can dig up complete and in-depth information about participants’ attitudes, knowledge, and views on research problems. interview data were collected by seeing and hearing explanations and a more detailed understanding of the participants’ views about their experiences of tqm practices. interviews with the administrators of the pondok pesantren were conducted in their respective offices. meanwhile, interviews with teachers were conducted in another room used to teach students. interview data were collected in approximately one week with a single interview duration ranging from 30 to 45 minutes. the president, an advisory board member, a vice-chairperson, a coordinator, and a teacher were among those interviewed. the quality standards of education used, efforts to improve the education quality system, changes in organizational culture/culture, education and training received were among the interview topics that became the focus of tqm.. during the interviews, the researchers recorded the interview so that when compiling the results of an interview, it could be replayed. the interview focused on responding to the research formulation on the phenomenology of the tqm programs at islamic boarding schools. each interview transcript was identified and checked for accuracy with colleagues. the researchers also focused on ethical considerations, including providing information about the nature of the study, efendi voluntary participation, permission to record interviews, participant confidentiality in recordings, transcripts, and full descriptions. the researcher created field notes by recording and writing down all of the necessary information in an interview transcript. the interview transcript contains all of the necessary information, beginning with the names of the participants, the time of the interview, and the outcomes of the interviews. the interview data was then analyzed to create an interview outline based on wellstructured interview topics. the researcher double-checked the interview results and rewrote them as needed without changing the content of the interviews. secondary data were gathered from relevant pesantren manuals and journals. management systems, employee behavior, organizational focus, service delivery, and student learning processes are examples of data sources. data analysis technique data collection is typically followed by data analysis. spiegelberg's (1971) theory is referred to as a qualitative phenomenological data analysis technique. the structured steps taken in this study using phenomenology are as follows. the first step involved performing data reduction and interpretation using bracketing. bracketing, also known as phenomenological reduction, is the initial process of researchers identifying by “postponing” any preconceived beliefs and opinions about the phenomenon under study to reduce the effects of prejudice to focus on experience analysis. bracketing helps researchers understand the phenomenon as it is. in the initial phase, the researchers identified and temporarily stored the assumptions, beliefs, and the existing knowledge of the phenomenon under consideration to concentrate on each aspect of the phenomenon and describe it. in this early stage, the researchers were neutral and open to this phenomenon. bracketing is generally carried out by exploring subjectivity, sorting, and grouping data based on an assessment of which data are the most important from field notes. this allows researchers to separate their personal experience and helps them be more reflexive and critical. at this point, the researcher had gathered all of the data necessary to determine the true picture of tqm practice in islamic boarding schools. phenomenological data in the form of descriptive narratives, collected as transcripts, were then interpreted into each research theme. by interpreting and responding to participants' experiences, data interpretation focuses on deeper subjective aspects. to answer the research question, the researcher describes the overall essence of the phenomenon under study using textual description. the triangulation technique is used to test the data's validity. researchers journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 131 investigate the truth of information about the practice of tqm in education through various data sources such as documents, interviews, and observations, which are thought to have different perspectives and are compared with relevant theoretical perspectives. each of these data sets will generate different evidence and provide different perspectives on the tqm practice under consideration. as a result, it will give birth to the breadth of knowledge required to obtain reliable truth. the results of data reduction that have been simplified were transformed into a summary form representing the entire data that have been obtained. from the summary data, it can be seen that the data category focuses on curriculum practices, tqm, and the quality of pondok pesantren education, which lasts for one semester. in the second stage, after the data were reduced, the results of the data exposure were presented systematically in the form of narrative texts in the pattern of the relationship between curriculum planning on the quality of education and tqm practices on the quality of education. the third stage involved drawing conclusions from the results obtained. drawing conclusions and verifying data essentially aims to find meaning from the data collected by looking for relationships, similarities, or differences to draw conclusions as answers to existing problems. the conclusions drawn by the researchers were found to be supported by valid and credible evidence. results and discussion management-based curriculum planning at pondok pesantren ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan, indonesia the first theme is curriculum management at pondok pesantren. the research findings reveal that the planning process of islamic education curriculum in pondok pesantren is an attempt to determine the activities to be carried out, especially those related to the curriculum, which includes components of objectives, content, learning strategies/methods, learning resources, and curriculum assessment/evaluation strategies. this information is then used for design and learning experiences. pondok pesantren curriculum planning can create a curriculum that can develop all the potential that exists in students. thus, it is expected to improve the quality of pondok pesantren education. this is because the pondok pesantren curriculum is a means to foster students who make religious values a spirit in living life. religious values are life values that reflect the growth and development of religious life which consists of three main elements, namely aqidah, worship, and morals which become behavioral guidelines in accordance with divine rules to achieve efendi prosperity and happiness in life in the world and the hereafter.more deeply, the findings confirm that the practice of curriculum planning in pondok pesantren management at ma'had darullughah wadda'awah is based on theological and normative teachings to respond critically and wisely to the development of the times and the current industrial revolution. pondok pesantren are trying to find solutions that encourage students to have extensive and in-depth knowledge and resilience in the face of modernization changes and preserve their historical identity. the interview results revealed that the planning of teaching and learning in this pesantren makes use of the applicable curriculum as well as basic arabic skills. pondok pesantren extracurricular activities are conducted for santri such as english speeches, da’wah to outermost, underdeveloped, and underdeveloped areas, entrepreneurs, and so on. “ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan has a teaching staff of male teachers (ustad) or female teachers (ustadzah) as well as educators who are competent in their respective fields of study so that they are of high quality and become one of the best pondok pesantrenfor learning arabic in indonesia. there are also various facilities such as comfortable classrooms, comfortable dormitories, practical laboratories, libraries, sports fields, canteens, and mosques. pondok pesantren need to improve themselves to successfully meet the needs of modern society.” data (1) above explains that pondok pesantren are required to build a reliable curriculum planning and are required to provide adequate facilities and offer a modern and universal understanding of islam. in addition to adopting these modernization ideas, pesantren must adhere to the correct application of management processes. the educational objectives explain the orientation chosen by the teachers in guiding their students. selection is an assessment process because when educators make their choice, they prioritize some values over others. thus, crystallization of values is the prime purpose of education. values are the driving force in one’s life that give meaning and legitimacy to their actions. the values developed in pondok pesantren have several dimensions, namely, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual dimensions related to religion (saerozi, 2019). based on education in pondok pesantren, it is difficult for someone to introduce changes in their life from a small scale that begins with a learning process. however, the learning process can provide changes in behavior or personality changes in a person. as per the modern view, behavior in learning is wide-ranging, including physical (structural) and spiritual (functional) terms, both of which are interrelated and interact with each other. the behavior pattern includes skills, habits, emotions, and aspirations, physical and social relations, character, and so on. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 133 planning is very important to achieve a goal. curriculum is essentially a plan of learning activities carried out, in this case, in pondok pesantren, including the development of educational quality. to design the curriculum, of course, it is necessary to hold a meeting to participate together in making decisions. the results of interviews with pesantren administrators are shown in data (2). “curriculum planning at ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan is carried out by holding evaluation workshops and work plans for pondok pesantren, reviewing the curriculum on a holiday, which is not only attended by the internal parties of the pondok pesantrenbut also by involving the pondok pesantren committee to participate in planning the curriculum. as the committee is a representative of the pondok pesantren environment as well as representatives of the guardians of students to convey their aspirations, the planning carried out can enhance the quality of the pondok pesantren, especially the learning process.” data (2) explains that curriculum planning at the beginning of the school year is done by holding a workshop with personnel related to the development of academic learning programs that have been determined by the caregivers. following this socialization, educators put the workshop’s outcomes into action by following the teacher’s guidelines in carrying out the learning process. before planning the curriculum, it is necessary to have an evaluation conducted by pondok pesantren through evaluation workshops and plans for subsequent activities. by evaluating the performance of the pondok pesantren for one year running, various advantages and disadvantages can be identified as a basis for planning the work plan of the pondok pesantren. if deficiencies are identified, it is necessary to follow up or find solutions to overcome these deficiencies in the performance of pondok pesantren. in addition to holding workshops, there is a coordination meeting for all pesantren residents to follow up on unfinished planning activities such as the teacher allocation, preparation of subject matter, viewing the academic calendar, extracurricular coaching. planning something important to achieve educational goals requires a lot of accuracy and time as well as mature decisions, considering the results of the curriculum plan will be realized in the learning process. thus, it is important to design a curriculum that is relevant in the present and future. every subject educator is then required to master the subject matter. a previous study revealed that good curriculum planning in pondok pesantren includes careful curriculum planning including the formulation of quran memorization program (tahfiz) objectives, tahfiz materials, and evaluation (zaini et al., 2020). clearly, it is very important to pay attention to the ability of students, to look at the input of students, to look at the facilities, the pesantren efendi environment, according to the circumstances and curriculum needs in implementing something new while carrying out the provisions of the ministry of religion. ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan’s curriculum planning has been done at the end of each year when its students pondok pesantren have a holiday. curriculum planning begins with evaluation workshops and upcoming work plans. each educator is assigned a subject that is distributed and taught according to the academic calendar and is adjusted to the pondok pesantren’svision and mission and the characteristics of the students so that when the teaching and learning process has been actively started, the educators already have mature readiness. furthermore, the distribution of teaching educators, tutoring educators, extracurricular coaches, and the implementation time, schedule of educator pickets, and so on, are ready to be carried out when the pondok pesantren reopens because it has been meticulously planned. implementation of the tqmat pondok pesantren ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan the second theme of this study is the tqm in pondok pesantren. the findings reveal that the implementation of tqm in pondok pesantren is an effort to create a quality culture of religionbased education that encourages all implementers to be customer-oriented. quality culture is the ultimate goal of reforms that need to be made in the development of education. therefore, implementation is an important part of the tqm concept in pondok pesantren education. the concept in applied tqm focuses on the customer’s need to seek better results by meeting higher standards. the customers referred to in this study are those who make decisions on the quality of education. these high standards are product assurance standards (students are considered a product of education) and standards according to customer perceptions. more deeply, the aspect that has been well implemented is the planning of the educational curriculum. aspects of long-term planning that are clear, structured, and systematic to achieve quality education are the strengths of tqm in education at pondok pesantren. strategic planning allows the formulation of long-term priorities and institutional changes based on rational considerations. other aspects related to tqm implementation that are being improved are aspects of resilience to external pressures, adequate monitoring mechanisms, and demands for staff and teachers to understand the purpose of pondok pesantren. of these three aspects, an adequate monitoring mechanism is the weakest aspect journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 135 because this aspect in its implementation must be monitored directly by stakeholders and requires a large budget. the evidence that the researchers identified in the implementation of tqm can be seen in the activities that have been carried out by pondok pesantren. in terms of teaching, a teacher prepares subject matter and other needs to be coordinated with the management of the pesantren curriculum relevant to the vision and mission of the pondok pesantren. leaders are an important element because they play a role in empowering teachers and giving them broad authority to improve the teaching and learning process. as for academic literacy, pondok pesantren refer to the yellow book as the root of their literacy culture. the results of the interviews revealed that for pondok pesantren, the yellow book is their identity that distinguishes them from other educational institutions. the yellow book contains fiqh, moral creed, sufism, hadith, islamic law, kalam (theology), and arabic interpretation using arabic script produced by scholars, especially from the middle east. however, in its development, the yellow book also has local (regional) languages, such as malay, sundanese, and javanese. islamic boarding schools that are involved in tqm will benefit from having an effective team from all levels from leaders, staff, and teachers who play an active role in fulfilling their respective duties. the most specific implementation of tqm is regarding the planning of teaching curricula to improve the quality of continuing education. this is because the planning of the pesantren teaching curriculum is different from the curriculum in general education. the planning of the pesantren curriculum does not only refer to the curriculum that has been set by the government but also the self-developed religious education curriculum based on theological and normative teachings. according to the study findings, the pondok pesantren curriculum team directed the curriculum implementation at ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan to monitor all curriculum-related activities, such as the learning process. this is done so that the implementation of the curriculum can run smoothly according to what has been previously planned to achieve satisfactory results and expected goals. the implementation of the curriculum at ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan is essentially the same as the equivalent pondok pesantren in general but has its uniqueness that is not shared by other pondok pesantren in curriculum development, namely, the existence of pondok pesantren with nuances like those in the middle east with a strong culture, starting from the language of food, how to dress, as well as guests who are mostly from the middle east region. the results of the interview are further presented in data (3). efendi “educators realize the curriculum in the learning process by mastering learning materials according to the subjects they teach. they also master several models and learning methods as an alternative form if the students’ conditions do not allow them to use the previously planned method. in addition to being competent on the professional side in the field of subject matter, they must also have akhlaq karimah (good morals and credibility) to remain patient and hold emotions when students face difficulty in understanding the material being taught, and the importance of providing role models for students because indirectly students will imitate what has been taught by the teacher.” data (3) reveals that pondok pesantren teachers must have the nature, sincerity, and commitment to work. educators must possess these qualities to develop basic competencies to students. the readiness of educators must be prepared before carrying out the teaching and learning process in the classroom. educators prepare old subject matter before the session begins in pondok pesantren and refine the same while carrying out the learning process. some educators are also actively teaching in the form of learning videos uploaded via youtube media so that students who forget or do not understand the previous material can easily review the learning from the teacher’s explanation. the students who intend to study, as well as the general public, are benefited from this access so that they can participate in learning and reflect on the concepts at any time and place. there is a website from this institution that contains several useful articles and writings from students, alumni, and the asatidz council (educators who are specially appointed with the main task of teaching). this is closely related to digital literacy, which is now being promoted both in past world news columns, islamic articles, and manaqib shalihin (the activity of reading the history of the believer). thus, to determine the readiness of educators, supervision is carried out by the head of the pondok pesantren in relation to the lesson plans that have been made. more depth is shown in data (4). “all activity plans will be checked by the head of the pondok pesantren before being actualized by all educators. then, in its implementation in the classroom, it will be checked whether the learning process is going without obstacles or not. based on the results of observations made by researchers, every day in pondok pesantren, there are picket teachers. when they are on duty, they occupy a chair and a long table in front of the teacher’s room and sit there. however, not all of the pickets gather there but take turns because some of them clash with the teaching schedule.” data (4) explains that basically, a teacher’s responsibility is to condition students to recapitulate the attendance of students from class to class. in addition, a teacher is in charge of recapitulating the absence of educators. the absence of educators is to check the readiness of educators in journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 137 teaching and eventually control the learning process, such as an order for educators to enter class, condition the class for educators who are unable to attend because of personal reasons or other commitments. thus, a picket educator is responsible for giving assignments or acting as a substitute to the absentee teacher. the interaction between educators and students during the learning process must be carried out properly. previous research has shown that this interaction is important for supporting the learning process and building emotional closeness between educators and students so that the former can adjust learning strategies based on the characteristics of students and design the study material easily comprehensible so that the learning process can run smoothly (muhajir, 2022). as per the interview results, the interaction between educators and students has been going very well; good communication has been established, not only in class but also during break time. educators welcome active students and have high curiosity about learning problems that are not understood. the role of pondok pesantren, in general, cannot be separated from students (thahir, 2014). pondok pesantren education intends to actively change the behavior of students, which results in changes in individual students, in the level of progress in the process of intellectual development in particular and the process of psychological development, including development of attitudes, understanding, skills, interests, adjustments (asifudin, 2017). pondok pesantren can optimize students’ talents and potential to achieve excellence in their lives. pondok pesantren can integrate social intelligence, emotions, and spiritual values (ilyasin, 2020). an educator leads the lesson by praying together and motivating before the material is delivered and when the learning is finished, ending the same with a prayer together. thus, the interaction in learning is filled with islamic values and students are taught to glorify educators, tawadhuk (humble attitude) to educators as learning resources, and educators are there to act as good role models for their students. in addition, in the learning process, each educator is given the freedom to determine the method that is adapted to the characteristics of the santri with the supervision under the head of the pondok pesantren. learning activities not only take place in the classroom but also outside the classroom by the material to be delivered. the material for the hajj rituals (visit a great place) of students are invited to practice spaciousness and so on. this learning model aims to improve the ability of educational institutions to adapt to the times and respond to public interests without rejecting indonesian traditions and heritage (munifah et al., 2019). coordination is essential, of course, so that all educators can exchange information efendi about learning materials that are deemed suitable using the right method. coordination also strengthens the ties of brotherhood among educators. conversely, if educators have shortcomings, for example, if their teaching practices are not optimal, teaching methods are less varied and not in agreement with student characteristics, and learning is not going according to what has been planned, the head of the pondok pesantren will follow up to resolve these issues. tqm can reorient the management system, staff behavior, organizational focus, and service provision processes to students (mukhopadhyay, 2020). this way, the pondok pesantren can organize better, more effective services that meet the learning needs of students. ideally, realizing effective tqm requires good cooperation from all components of the pesantren structure. this is the prime reason for tqm to be able to improve the quality of education (sherr & lozier, 1991). evaluation of the management-based curriculum and tqm at pondok pesantren ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan the third research theme describes the education quality in pondok pesantren. the findings reveal that evaluation of strategic curriculum planning and tqm in education are mutually supportive when seeking to improve the quality of education. this is because pondok pesantren integrate tqm principles into strategic planning through a framework designed to achieve the vision, mission, and long-term goals rooted in customer satisfaction. evaluation is carried out by identifying the best quality measures in accordance with customer expectations (internal education customers are teachers and islamic boarding school staff, while external customers are parents, students, and the community). the quality measures in question are the educational services provided, the quality of pondok pesantren graduates, and the education customer experience. the evaluation process leads to the results of improvements to all components of the management of pondok pesantren, consisting of components in the fields of curriculum, student affairs, personnel, facilities and infrastructure, finance, and special services (libraries, health businesses, and so on). in other words, the benefits obtained are that all management components that are owned can be more optimal to improve the relationship between pondok pesantren and “customers.” the findings prove that all components of pondok pesantren management are the main forces in determining whether curriculum planning and tqm practices are implemented properly. these components can carry out curriculum management fairly well in improving the quality of education, both for determining education policy in general and for curriculum decision-making. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 139 this means that aspects of personality development of all management components (especially students) need to be improved. the weakness that the researchers found was the lack of external participation (government supervision) in monitoring the implementation process and evaluating the pondok pesantren curriculum planning and tqm practices that had been carried out. there are three main aspects that the researchers found as improvements, namely (1) continuous improvement of the quality of curriculum management by prioritizing the integration of all elements in educational institutions; (2) determination of the quality standards of curriculum management in a cooperative, comprehensive, systemic, and systematic manner to realize the achievement of curriculum objectives; (3) maintenance of the relationship between students, educators, and leaders by placing educators in teaching through the supervision of the leaders of pondok pesantren, including how to order educators to enter the classroom, and how to apply them in the learning process. in addition, educators are also assessed through their performance by the head of the pesantren. they are assessed in regard to their attitudes and other qualities. if there are educators who are not good at implementing learning, they will receive a letter of warning to make improvements in all matters. curriculum is also evaluated by the community through committees, community organizations, and community leaders. this form of assessment is implemented with data on the time of admission of new students. in addition, there is an unscheduled evaluation of external supervisors. data (5) describes supervisor evaluation practices: “in the morning, the head of the pondok pesantren visits classes with prior information to check the flow of the learning process. this is done to ascertain the performance of educators in carrying out the learning process and to see if their teaching strategy is the same as that planned, and so on. in addition, the head of the pondok pesantren also receives advice from one of the homeroom teachers regarding the learning process that takes place in the latter’s class. from this, the homeroom teacher also indirectly supervises the class he/she guides by checking the presence of educators who teach in his/her class, asking students about the obstacles they face during the learning process and being responsible for finding solutions to problems. this is done so that the learning process yields the desired results. furthermore, based on the results of observations, obstacles to implementing the curriculum in improving the quality of education are that the overall curriculum has not been managed. in the end, the tqm approach to developing the character of pondok pesantren is implemented by incorporating the main elements of tqm, which are focusing on customers, optimizing leadership roles, involving all staff in quality and continuous improvement, using the deming efendi cycle model, namely, plan, do, check, and act. educational management functions have been implemented starting from planning and organization, which can be seen in the delegation of authority derived from the organizational structure, staffing, leading, and controlling. pesantren not only teach religious knowledge to instill the character of students but also formal education, such as in junior high schools and equivalent (zakariyah et al., 2022). they attempt to integrate social intelligence, emotions, and spiritual values (ilyasin, 2020). this study contributes to hackman and wageman's (1995) research on the long-term benefits of tqm in improving consumer satisfaction and experience, improving organization performance, identifying and analyzing a product so that it can meet consumer expectations. the findings reveal that the long-term benefits of implementing tqm are, in fact, not only increasing consumer satisfaction and experience but also the experiences of stakeholders involved in tqm practices, namely, leaders, pondok pesantren supervisors, foundation chairs, advisory boards, deputy chairpersons, school coordinators, and school teachers. the practice of tqm through planning, implementation, and evaluation in these schools has created advantages, disadvantages, and aspects for future improvement to enhance the performance of pesantren. dahlgaard et al. (2008) explained the importance of a continuous tqm process to detect and reduce weaknesses and ensure that all employees attend training properly. this finding is different from the previous study conducted by tribus (2010). the findings explain that tqm is focused on improving service quality continuously centered on customer needs, improving the process of member involvement to win in the competition and maintain the existence of the organization in this competitive era. in fact, the practice of tqm in pondok pesantrenis not only about customer needs but also to be able to ensure people who are in the organizational structure to cooperate with each other in improving the quality of islamic education. a number of studies have examined the practice of tqm in educational institutions. however, there are very few studies that reveal in depth the practice of tqm focusing on curriculum management and evaluation. previous studies have affirmed that tqm practices can reorient management systems, staff behavior, organizational focus, and service procurement processes. educational institutions can organize better, more effective services that meet the learning needs of students (mukhopadhyay, 2020). this study presents novel findings regarding the practice of tqm in pondok pesantren that have the characteristics of educational management, namely aspects of planning, implementation, and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 141 evaluation are guided by the values of the islamic faith; prioritizing strengthening faith; development of science, charity and morals. evaluating pesantren curriculum management has a number of advantages, especially in terms of the ability to cooperate with its existing organizational structure. three important aspects that support the practice of tqm include: (1) improving the quality of curriculum management on an ongoing basis; (2) establishing quality standards for curriculum management in a cooperative, comprehensive, systemic, and systematic manner to realize the achievement of curriculum objectives; (3) and maintaining the relationship between students, teachers/employees, and leaders who are supported by students, parents, community, educators, infrastructure, and technology. in the end, to realize the application of tqm in islamic educational institutions, pondok pesantren must make every effort so that the curriculum can be achieved, produce graduates who have good achievements, and ultimately foster public confidence in sending their children to pondok pesantren. all results of curriculum evaluation should be used as a reference for making further plans to improve the quality of education. the study results imply that the practice of tqm involves the entire organizational structure to maintain the quality of the curriculum and the quality of pesantren-based education. in managerial implications, good leadership is required to overcome the weaknesses of tqm practices in educational institutions, as well as to increase stakeholder participation in overseeing the tqm process to achieve the goals of the pesantren. the tqm process is indispensable in detecting advantages, disadvantages, and aspects of improvement that support organizational performance. thus, it is clear that the pesantren-based education in the era of the fourth industrial revolution cannot succeed instantly but requires a long and sustainable process and persistent efforts. in this study, the quality of the curriculum and the implementation of tqm is considered important for improving the quality of pesantren-based education that can guide the future generations of the nation to become human beings with noble character. this is the first study to investigate tqm in islamic boarding schools as an empirical paradigm using a phenomenological research design that has an impact on educational quality. the researcher refers to chiarini (2020) research, recommends additional research by focusing on four categories of topics that arise in tqm practices in the 4.0 era, including creating customer value; artificial intelligence; quality assurance and control system; and development of quality management skills. furthermore, curriculum management planning and evaluation are tqm elements that are related to educational quality. efendi previous research has found that the practice of tqm in education is most prevalent in primary and secondary schools, which has an impact on teacher job satisfaction. tqm in education also includes teacher participation, assessment systems, and leadership (glaveli et al., 2021). according to another study, tqm practices are most common in the tertiary and secondary sectors (van kemenade, 2022), ensuring the manufacturing industry's long-term viability (zhang et al., 2021; verma et al., 2022), its application in the defense industry (brata & soediantono, 2022), tqm's role in education, particularly in schools and universities (bishnoi, 2018; kigozi & yuen on, 2019). the practical implication is that tqm practice in education must consider proper planning and evaluation design in order to improve educational quality. tqm policies that promote teaching quality and process effectiveness within the education system, as well as motivate teachers for continuous improvement, must be designed and implemented in islamic boarding schools. conclusion the findings reveal three main focuses. first, in planning curriculum management, pesantren are based on developing da’wah media, mastering arabic language skills, and applying deep islamic values culture (dirasah al islamiyyah) both at the theological normative and ethical levels. second, the application of tqm in pondok pesantren has been carried out by identifying student needs and coordinating with management, resulting in well-planned programs.third, the evaluation of the education curriculum included aspects of improving tqm practices in islamic boarding schools, as well as strengths and weaknesses. it can be concluded that the practice of tqm through pesantren-based curriculum management at ma’had darullughah wadda’awah pasuruan has been carried out continuously following the times, cultural changes, as well as organization, quality standards, and harmonious relationships between institutions and stakeholders and students. the study findings are novel as they show that the practice of tqm in islamic educational institutions has a well-organized and critical structure couple with wise planning and implementation of islamic values-based curriculum adapted according to modern times. three important aspects support the practice of tqm in an effort to improve the quality of pesantren-based educationnamely, (1) improving the quality of curriculum management on an ongoing basis; (2) establishing quality standards for curriculum management in a cooperative, comprehensive, systemic, and systematic manner; and (3) maintaining relationships between stakeholders journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 143 (students, teachers/employees, student leaders, parents, and the community). the limitation of this study is related to the object of research, namely, the practice of tqm at the pondok pesantrenma’had darullughah wadda’awah, pasuruan city, east java. the study findings cannot be generalized to pondok pesantrenin other areas. future studies can expand the object of research and incorporate multiple pondok pesantren or educational institutions in indonesia with the same problem but adding other factors and more sophisticated methods. to improve the quality of pesantren-based education, pesantren leaders need to maintain good communication to ensure the involvement of the entire organizational structure and ensure they are able to work well together to support the vision, mission, and goals of the pesantren. the government must support the practice of tqm in pondok pesantrenand other islamic educational institutions by holding training sessions on an ongoing basis so that they are able to make the implementation of tqm successful. references alauddin, n., & yamada, s. (2022). tqm model based on deming prize for schools. international journal of quality and service sciences, 14(3), 1–17. anam, f. k., padil, m., & yahya, m. (2021). building ahlus-sunnah wal-jamaah an-nahdliyah character as the pillar of islamic moderation in islamic boarding school. buletin al-turas, 27(2), 249–264. https://doi.org/10.15408/bat.v27i2.20062 bashori, b., manumanoso prasetyo, m. a., & rahmi, a. (2021). the adiwiyata islamic boarding school management (a study of participatory leadership style). al-ta lim journal, 28(2), 104–116. https://doi.org/10.15548/jt.v28i2.666 baso, b., rasyid, r., & hanafy, s. (2018). human resource management of teachers at madrasah aliyah pesantren: an education quality perspective. international journal on advanced science, education, and religion, 1(2), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.33648/ijoaser.v1i2.12 bishnoi, n. (2018). total quality management (tqm) in education: a revolution. developing quality systems in education, 9(2), 83. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203423660_chapter_5 brata, j. s. h., & soediantono, d. (2022). total quality manufacturing (tqm) and recommendations for its application in the defense industry: a literature review. international journal of socail and management studies (ijosmas), 3(3), 50–62. https://ijosmas.org/index.php/ijosmas/article/view/143/109 efendi chiarini, a. (2020). industry 4.0, quality management and tqm world. a systematic literature review and a proposed agenda for further research. tqm journal, 32(4), 603–616. https://doi.org/10.1108/tqm-04-2020-0082 creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. in sage publications (vol. 8). sage publication, inc. dahlgaard, j. j., khanji, g. k., & kristensen, k. (2008). fundamentals of total quality management. fundamentals of total quality management, august, 4324. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203930021 faizah, a., syafei, w. a., & rizal isnanto, r. (2018). total quality management of information system for quality assessment of pesantren using fuzzy-servqual. e3s web of conferences, 31. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20183110011 fathurrochman, i., ristianti, d. h., & arif, m. a. s. bin m. (2020). revitalization of islamic boarding school management to foster the spirit of islamic moderation in indonesia. jurnal pendidikan islam, 8(2), 239–258. https://doi.org/10.14421/jpi.2019.82.239-258 fatmawati, e. (2016). integration of islamic boarding school and university: typology study and curriculum of university student islamic boarding school. international journal of management and administrative sciences (ijmas), 5(10), 1–17. www.ijmas.orgwww.ijmas.org ghobadian, a., & gallear, d. n. (1996). total quality management in smes. omega, 24(1), 83– 106. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-0483(95)00055-0 glaveli, n., vouzas, f., & roumeliotou, m. (2021). the soft side of tqm and teachers job satisfaction: an empirical investigation in primary and secondary education. tqm journal, 33(2), 293–314. https://doi.org/10.1108/tqm-11-2020-0269 hackman, j. r., & wageman, r. (1995). total quality management: empirical, conceptual, and practical issues. administrative science quarterly, 40(2), 309. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393640 hakim, a., & herlina, n. h. (2018). manajemen kurikulum terpadu di pondok pesantren modern daarul huda banjar. jurnal penelitian pendidikan islam, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.36667/jppi.v6i1.157 hanafi, y., taufiq, a., saefi, m., ikhsan, m. a., diyana, t. n., thoriquttyas, t., & anam, f. k. (2021). the new identity of indonesian islamic boarding schools in the “new normal”: the education leadership response to covid-19. heliyon, 7(3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06549 hidayat, a., fatimah, s., nurul rosidin, d., tinggi ilmu kesehatan cirebon, s., kunci, k., pendidikan islam, l., & digital, e. (2022). challenges and prospects of islamic education journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 145 institutions and sustainability in the digital era. nazhruna: jurnal pendidikan islam, 5(2), 351–366. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31538/nzh.v5i2.2106 ihsan, m. n., ahmad, n., hasanah, a., & ... (2021). islamic boarding school culture climate in forming the religious attitude of islamic students in modern and agrobusiness islamic boarding schools. nazhruna: jurnal pendidikan islam, 4(2), 362–382. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31538/nzh.v4i2.1492 ilyas, m., sibuea, a. m., & zahrila. (2019). leadership transformation; study of islamic boarding school (dayah) in aceh province of indonesia. journal of entrepreneurship education, 22(2), 1–6. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2238485996?pqorigsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true ilyasin, m. (2020). transformation of learning management: integrative study of islamic boarding school curriculum. dinamika ilmu, 20(1), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.21093/di.v20i1.2006 ismail, i., ali, h., & anwar us, k. (2022). factors affecting critical and holistic thinking in islamic education in indonesia: self-concept, system, tradition, culture. (literature review of islamic education management). dinasti international journal of management science, 3(3), 407–437. https://doi.org/10.31933/dijms.v3i3.1088 janan asifudin, a. (2017). manajemen pendidikan untuk pondok pesantren. manageria: jurnal manajemen pendidikan islam, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.14421/manageria.2016.12-10 jasti, n. v. k., venkateswaran, v., kota, s., & sangwan, k. s. (2021). a literature review on total quality management (models, frameworks, and tools and techniques) in higher education. tqm journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/tqm-04-2021-0113 jermsittiparsert, k., & sommanawat, k. (2019). tqm, human oriented elements and organizational performance: a business excellence model for higher education institutes of thailand. international journal of innovation, creativity and change, 5(2), 514–532. junaidi, k. (2019). teaching system, education curriculum, and education quality strategy in pondok pesantren lirboyo kediri city. didaktika religia, 7(2), 349–372. https://doi.org/10.30762/didaktika.v7i2.1550 kadhim, s. a., & ahmad, m. f. bin. (2021). the role of tqm in education: an empirical investigation of preparatory schools of iraq. international journal of services and operations management, 39(1), 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijsom.2021.115189 karageorgos, c., kriemadis, a., travlos, a., & kokaridas, d. (2021). planning and implementing total quality management in education: the case of cyprus. international journal of educational management and innovation, 2(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.12928/ijemi.v2i1.2627 efendi kigozi, e., & yuen on, j. k. (2019). total quality management (tqm) practices applied in education institutions: a systematic review of literature. international journal of innovative business strategies, 5(2), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.20533/ijibs.2046.3626.2019.0045 krisdiyanto, g., muflikha, m., sahara, e. e., & mahfud, c. (2019). sistem pendidikan pesantren dan tantangan modernitas. tarbawi : jurnal ilmu pendidikan, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.32939/tarbawi.v15i1.337 kurniawan, s. (2017). pengembangan manajemen mutu pendidikan islam di madrasah. altanzim : jurnal manajemen pendidikan islam, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.33650/al-tanzim.v1i2.111 lathifah, z. k., setyaningsih, s., & wulandari, d. (2022). development of pesantren internal quality assurance system model based on education unit accreditation instruments 2020. al-tanzim: jurnal manajemen pendidikan islam, 06(04), 983–998. https://doi.org/http://doi.org/10.33650/al-tanzim.v6i4.2246 lim, w. m., ciasullo, m. v., douglas, a., & kumar, s. (2022). environmental social governance (esg) and total quality management (tqm): a multi-study meta-systematic review. total quality management and business excellence, 33(11), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/14783363.2022.2048952 ma’arif, m. a., zuana, m. m. m., & sirojuddin, a. (2022). improving islamic self-motivation for professional development (study in islamic boarding schools). in supporting modern teaching in islamic schools (pp. 123–134). routledge/taylor & francis group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003193432-12 manshur, f. m. (2020). typical literary works of pesantren on righteousness teaching within cultural transformation. journal of social studies education research, 11(4), 114–148. muhajir, a. (2022). inclusion of pluralism character education in the islamic modern boarding schools during the pandemic era as’aril muhajir 1. journal of social studies education research, 13(2), 196–220. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4233/567 muhammad fuad zaini, m. h. p. (2020). curriculum planning in boarding school tahfizil qur’an islamic center foundation. journal of education and teaching learning (jetl), 3(1), 1–9. http://pusdikra-publishing.com/index.php/jetl%0acurriculum muhdi, a. a. (2018). management of integrated education between pesantren and campus in improving the quality of graduates (multisites study in ma’had dalwa bangil and pondok ngalah purwosari pasuruan east-java). didaktika religia, 6(1), 167–190. https://doi.org/10.30762/didaktika.v6i1.1102 mukhopadhyay, m. (2020). total quality management in education. london, united kingdom. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 147 munifah, huda, s., hamida, u. d., subandi, syazali, m., & umam, r. (2019). the use of management strategies to attract the public’s interest in pesantren: a new model for pesantren dynamics study. international journal of innovation, creativity and change, 8(8). musaddad, a. (2021). organizational culture in the islamic boarding school : phenomenology review. al-tanzim: jurnal manajemen pendidikan islam, 5(1), 154–164. https://doi.org/10.33650/al-tanzim.v5i1.1982 muzakki, h., & nisa’, k. m. (2020). basis transformasi tradisi pesantren salaf di era modern (kajian semiotika barthes dan dekonstruksi derrida). qalamuna: jurnal pendidikan, sosial, dan agama, 12(01). https://doi.org/10.37680/qalamuna.v12i01.304 nasim, k., sikander, a., & tian, x. (2020). twenty years of research on total quality management in higher education: a systematic literature review. higher education quarterly, 74(1), 75–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12227 owlia, m. s., & aspinwall, e. m. (1997). tqm in higher education a review. international journal of quality and reliability management, 14(5), 527–543. https://doi.org/10.1108/02656719710170747 öztürk, i̇. (2020). book review. educational leadership and management: developing insights and skills. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 133-137. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.8 puad, l. m. a. z., & ashton, k. (2021). teachers’ views on classroom-based assessment: an exploratory study at an islamic boarding school in indonesia. asia pacific journal of education, 41(2), 253–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2020.1761775 rohaeni, a., wasliman, i., rostini, d., & ... (2021). management of noble moral education for madrasah aliyah students at persatuan islam boarding school. … & management research, 2(4), 154–171. https://www.jiemar.org/index.php/jiemar/article/view/174%0ahttps://www.jiemar.org/inde x.php/jiemar/article/download/174/134 saerozi, i. (2019). evaluation of the development of multicultural education curriculum in modern darul hikmah tulungagung islamic boarding school. istawa: jurnal pendidikan islam, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.24269/ijpi.v4i2.2070 saifulloh, a., & neoh, j. y. (2022). tqm implementation in character education: lessons learned from pesantren gontor. at-ta’dib, 17(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.21111/attadib.v17i1.8047 sarnoto, a. z., shunhaji, a., rahmawati, s. t., hidayat, r., amiroh, a., & hamid, a. (2021). urgency of education crisis management based on islamic boarding schools during the covid-19 pandemic. linguistics and culture review, 5(s3), 1764–1774. efendi https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5ns3.2000 sherr, l. a., & lozier, g. g. (1991). total quality management in higher education. international journal of educational management, 5(5), 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513549110144724 spiegelberg, h. (1971). the essentials of the phenomenological method. springer, dordrecht. tahira, m., slaeem, r., & haider, g. (2020). government special education’s principals’ perceptions about total quality management (tqm in education): a qualitative research. international journal of curriculum and instruction, 12(2), 149–163. http://ijci.wcciinternational.org/index.php/ijci/article/view/61/185 tarí, j. j. (2005). components of successful total quality management. tqm magazine, 17(2), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1108/09544780510583245 thahir, m. (2014). the role and function of islamic boarding school: an indonesian context. tawarikh, 5(2), 197–208. https://journals.mindamas.com/index.php/tawarikh/article/viewfile/574/572 tribus, m. (2010). total quality management in education. in developing quality systems in education. kogan page. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203423660_chapter_5 umiarso. (2022). pesantren and quality of education: a qualitative analytical study of the existence of pesantren in indonesia. transformatif (islamic studies), 6(1), 49–64. https://doi.org/doi.10.23971/tf.v6i1.3944 van kemenade, e. (2022). patterns emerging from the tqm paradigm in relation to the 21st century complex context within tqm journal. tqm journal, 34(3), 494–514. https://doi.org/10.1108/tqm-01-2021-0003 verma, p., kumar, v., mittal, a., gupta, p., & hsu, s. c. (2022). addressing strategic human resource management practices for tqm: the case of an indian tire manufacturing company. tqm journal, 34(1), 29–69. https://doi.org/10.1108/tqm-02-2021-0037 waychunas, w. (2020). where teachers thrive: a book review. research in educational policy and management, 2(2), 129-132. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2020.7 wekke, i. s. (2015). curriculum development in madrasa: exploration from muslim minority of west papua. jurnal pendidikan islam, 1(3), 372–392. https://doi.org/103.55.33.96/index.php/jpi/article/view/683 widodo, h. (2018). revitalisasi sekolah berbasis budaya mutu. ta’dib: jurnal pendidikan islam, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.29313/tjpi.v7i2.4139 zahraini, situmorang, b., & rosnelli. (2022). development of traditional management model journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),120-149 149 of traditional islamic boarding school education based on total quality management in islamic education ( tqm-ie ) in aceh province , indonesia. journal of positive school psychology, 6(5), 7355–7377. https://www.journalppw.com/index.php/jpsp/article/view/8562/5600 zakariyah, z., fauziyah, u., & nur kholis, m. m. (2022). strengthening the value of religious moderation in islamic boarding schools. tafkir: interdisciplinary journal of islamic education, 3(1), 20–39. https://doi.org/10.31538/tijie.v3i1.104 zhang, b., comite, u., yucel, a. g., liu, x., khan, m. a., husain, s., sial, m. s., popp, j., &oláh, j. (2021). unleashing the importance of tqm and knowledge management for organizational sustainability in the age of circular economy. sustainability (switzerland), 13(20), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011514 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 74-90 74 problems of choosing the main language in a bilingual society of national regions daniya salimova1 and aigul sabitova2 abstract the article deals with the problems of bilingual education in the republic of tatarstan and the peculiarities of bilingual students’ linguistic consciousness. on the basis of socio-psycholinguistic experiments, surveys conducted over several years, conclusions were drawn about the language preferences of young students. the authors of the article analyze the causes of the imbalance of tatar-russian bilingualism in the republic and suggest ways of promoting the tatar language as a systemic approach that reflects the specificity of a multicultural mobile multilingual society. systematic and consistent questioning of bilinguals and monolinguals allows saying that the linguistic consciousness of bilingualism in the republic is determined by a complex of linguistic and extralinguistic factors. there are also several factors, which are undoubtedly influenced by factors of a personal nature. thus, the basic constant and variable parameters of the personality (nationality, gender, education, specialty, family traditions, etc.) play a huge role in creating a general picture of linguistic consciousness, and, most importantly, form a behavior model of a bilingual, including speech and not only, in a multicultural society, which is today any state in the essence. language education should meet the challenges of the time and prepare the younger generation for successful socialization and integration. the authors believe that the basis of bilingual education should be an ethno-oriented approach to teaching the language as a non-native (another native) one and the education of a bilingual person from childhood, at school and the development of this system for the university. keywords: language as a native language, non-native language, regional languages, bilingual, main language, linguistic consciousness, interlingual cultural personality, new technologies, ethnocodes. introduction in the context of globalization, which penetrates into the conceptual spheres of society, the issues of functional development of the state language of the russian federation and regional languages require harmonization with the historical linguistic phenomena, traditions, and modern political, socio-cultural and linguistic realities. 1 professor of the department of russian language and literature, kazan federal university, yelabuga institute, russia. e-mail: daniya.salimova@mail.ru 2 phd, senior lecturer of the department of russian language and literature, kazan federal university, yelabuga institute, russia. e-mail: aigul.ibragimova@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 74-90 the authors have repeatedly emphasized: an appeal to the pressing issues of application and functioning of a language in a particular discourse is due to the intensive development of contemporary linguistics. in this context, the specification and improvement of its fundamental theoretical concepts and models are quite natural (alogali, 2018; carothers, & parfitt, 2017; ozfidan & burlbaw, 2016; salimova et al., 2014). it is spoken and written very much about the status of the russian language in the modern world, about violations of norms of the russian language. the well-known saying: "if you want to destroy a people – destroy its language" has a deep meaning, because a language is a means of expressing national thinking. every word in the human brain raises the way. the language forms the carrier's outlook, mentality, national character, and ideology. the axiom: take care, protect the language means, take care of the people and the roots, is fair with respect to both the russian language and other languages of the russian federation. in this article, the authors set a slightly different goal: to analyze the state of national languages in russia by the example of one region, because the authors believe that the current situation of bilingualism in tatarstan is characterized by a violation of the balance of social functions of contacting languages with a legally equal status; the gradual limitation of the use of the tatar language in tatarstan contributed to a decrease in the volume of its function as a means of communication, which led to a decrease in the number of native speakers. many residents of the republic think that it is enough to have only tatar-russian bilingualism. almost all tatars speak russian; if communicating problems do not arise, why then, the conclusion is drawn, the russians have to learn the tatar language. the level of proficiency in the tatar language in the vast majority of russians, despite 10-11 years of language training in schools (and since kindergarten) is extremely low. if the tatars themselves often do not know their native language, why russians should learn the tatar language – it is the opinion of the majority of the russian population of the republic. recent years have shown that the number of children studying in the tatar language is decreasing. no matter how much the education system of the republic works in terms of implementing the law on languages, today it is almost impossible to talk about real bilingualism. in the authors’ view, there are a number of reasons, significant and important in this respect. it should be noted that not "famous russian laziness" (it is said that russians do not want to learn the tatar language, as written by "brave" tatar newspapers in the 1990s), and not "the gap in the chain of generations speaking the tatar language", and not "the amplified hand of moscow authorities", etc. (all these salimova & sabitova quotes are from various national and regional newspapers) occupy the leading position among such reasons. the main reason, in the authors' opinion, was the introduction of the unified state examinations for school graduates in russia. it met interests both of true russian national schools in russia, despite the fact that the introduction of the exam has led to a decline of children's interest in the russian language and literature, and of national schools, for which the russian language is nonnative. thus, the introduction of the unified state exam in russian exclusively for all regions and republics of russia, with undoubted positive trends and factors in education, played a negative role in terms of the real full-fledged functioning of languages. bilingualism in tatarstan can with some justification be attributed to the phenomena at the federal level, and it is observed in all spheres of life: education, health, transport, economic, trade, media, etc. the main burden is on the shoulders of the representatives of the system of science and education (kindergartens, schools, universities, and research institutes). most names of firms, companies, shops, goods, services, legal documents, signs, etc. are brought to the consumer in two languages at the same time. at the same time, it should be recognized that the requirement set out in the law on the use of both state languages in equal volumes in a variety of areas of communication (gampe et al., 2019), primarily in the system of public administration, in the design of external and internal visual symbols, etc., is often performed only formally. the second reason, or rather, a problem associated with the absence of the actual functioning of bilingualism in the republic of tatarstan, lies in the fact that the conditions for the realization of the need for the knowledge of the tatar language have not still been created; it is very rarely used in public spheres of life. it is stated that the reasons for this are lack of a theoretical base and the fact that the methodical level of equipment does not fully meet the modern innovative environment, but the authors suppose that it is the desire to "switch". the republic has created an excellent base – methodical, technical, and instrumental – for those who want to learn the tatar language. these are republican programs, seminars, international conferences on biand multilingualism, dissertations on the tatar language, pedagogics and psychology, tv programs for children, for adults, for example, translation; at kazan federal university, there is an online program "ана теле". there are different educational and cultural-entertainment programcompetitions "татарча сөйләшәбез", "тукай атналыгы", "татар моңы", "татар егете", "нечкәбил" and so on. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 74-90 huge money from the republican budget and funds of sponsors are spent for all this. of course, these events help to maintain interest in learning the tatar language. for example, the authors know a russian girl nastya from the czech republic who studies the tatar language via the internet, in order to participate in the competition "себер чибәре"; a tatar girl, whose family has never spoken in tatar, stubbornly began to study the tatar language. an interactive online tutorial on the tatar language "татар теле онлайн" was formed; video lessons of the tatar language were created (iit, 2019). however, it is impossible not to recognize the fact that all this gives extremely unproductive results: the main obstacle to the implementation of the law on languages of the peoples of the republic of tatarstan is the lack of high motivation in language learning. lack of motivation for a long time could be "interrupted" by the appearance of a natural desire to learn the tatar language: "because it is interesting, useful, through the language i know the people better", "i need it myself". however, the federal state has recognized the fact of equal learning of the tatar language on an equal basis with russian inappropriate in schools of the republic and has taken a number of strict measures, which primarily affected the reduction in the number of teachers of the tatar language in the republic of tatarstan. methods participants the authors have chosen the starting points for the creation of this material and the technologies, which are based on: the practice-oriented analysis of tools and technologies available today for use with biand polylingual audience; conclusion: the materials are not preventive and comprehensive diagnostic in nature; do not implement an individual approach considering specific ontogeny and particular ethnic-cultural combination; competence analysis of the 21st century bi and polylingual individuality, based on works by maslow, torrens, von humboldt, etc. when working on the material, the authors used such methods and techniques of research as the analysis of scientific and bibliographic literature on the topic, observation, and classification. in work, the authors used the methods and techniques of an interview, psycholinguistic polls, partially – sociological and statistical methods to look once again at the real problems of bilingualism in the republic from the point of view of the language identity, language salimova & sabitova consciousness of bilingual and monolingual persons. such interviews and poll questioning were held by the authors within the last five years. the authors were interested in the following questions: 1. what attitude to the russian and tatar languages is among the students who have chosen philology as the sphere of professional interests? (among tatars and non-tatars). what language is the basic (first) for bilinguals of different categories? is the main language always the native one? how do monoand bilinguals estimate the language abilities? the authors were guided by the known position of the psychologist j. marcia that "if you want to learn something about the person, ask him. perhaps, he will also tell something to you" (marcia, 1987). during a psycholinguistic experiment (however, this poll can also be called a technique of sociolingual research), in which more than two thousand people of the republic of tatarstan have taken part: 1000 carriers of each russian and tatar languages (students of the yelabuga institute of kazan federal university, seniors of the cities of yelabuga and naberezhnye chelny have acted in 2014-2016 as respondents), the authors have received interesting results. materials the following biographical questions were offered: 1. what is your nationality? answers: a) tatar; b) russian; c) another. 2. what language do you consider for yourself as native? answers: a) tatar; b) russian; c) another. 3. do you consider that studying the second (russian) state language is necessary for you? answers: a) yes; b) no; c) i do not know. 4. do you speak the second (russian) state language of the republic of tatarstan and how do you estimate the level of proficiency? answers: a) well; b) satisfactory; c) unsatisfactory. 5. what is the reason for the poor command of the second (russian) language? answers: a) i learned the language badly at school; b) poor language abilities; c) i do not consider it necessary to know this language. 6. will you continue studying this language after the termination of school/higher education? answers: a) yes; b) no; c) i do not know. 7. do you have a feeling of irritation/protest when you are taught the second (tatar/russian) language? answers: a) yes; b) no; c) i did not think. 8. can you tell that the native language for you is the basic (first) one? answers: a) yes; b) no; c) i do not know. 9. what language is the first (main) one for you? answers: a) tatar; b) russian; c) another. 10. do you find possible true bilingualism in the republic of tatarstan in the future? answers: a) yes; b) no; c) i do not know. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 74-90 one cannot but rejoice the position of students in relation to the "great and mighty" language: of all tatar students and schoolchildren, 94% believe that the knowledge of the russian language is necessary and that they know the state language of russia well, and only 6 percent of the respondents (tatars) estimate their knowledge of the russian language as unsatisfactory. out of 100 percent of russian respondents, initiatives towards the tatar language are very modest: only 43 percent believe that the tatar language needs to be studied. an even smaller percentage (8 percent) thinks that they have a good command of the tatar language. the reason for such a low level of tatar language proficiency is (on a descending line): lack of the need for knowledge of the language in life, the complexity of the subject, the low level of teaching the tatar language, lack of time, etc. among these non-optimistic moments, there is also an optimistic one – lack of a sense of protest in the participants in the study of the tatar language and their awareness of the need for tatar as the state language of the republic. 70% among the surveyed russian respondents and only 40 – among the tatars consider true bilingualism possible in the future. at the same time, the fact that 100% of russian students recognize their native language as the first, the main language requires a special study; among the tatars, it is only 63 percent. two more questions were added to this list of questions for the survey of 100 high school students in naberezhnye chelny: do you know a foreign language and how do you assess the level of proficiency? answers: yes (language: ________; satisfactory, good, excellent). no. do you consider studying a foreign language important? why? answers: yes: a) without a foreign language, it is difficult to achieve success in a career; b) i plan to go abroad; c) now english is required everywhere. no: a) i will not learn english well anyway; b) i do not intend to leave the country anywhere; c) i have a bad memory for words. against the backdrop of an ambiguous attitude to their native and/or second state language, 100% respondents, regardless of the nationality, consider it extremely important to know a foreign language, primarily for their professional activities in the future. in the status of a foreign language, they see primarily english (only 11 indicated german). only 12% of respondents who study a foreign language at school and additionally with a tutor indicate a good level of command of the language; the remaining 88% at the time of the survey assessed their knowledge as "satisfactory". summing up in brief, it can be emphasized: absolutely all respondents understand that they need to learn a foreign language, but they have very little knowledge of it. the same picture is with the tatar language for tatars and non-tatars: recognizing and understanding the necessity and fairness salimova & sabitova of the introduction of bilingualism in the republic, young respondents cannot boast knowledge of the language. a completely different picture emerges on the base of the survey of students from the russianand tatar-english departments of yelabuga institute of kazan federal university (20142015 academic years, 50 people, 2015-2016 – 20 people). of the entire body of respondents (60% russians, 35% tatars, 5% bashkirs and chuvashes), one hundred percent consider it important to study both the state languages and the english language. to the question: "do you feel irritation/protest when you are taught the second (tatar/russian) language?", absolutely all respondents answered in the negative. at the same time, they assess the second (non-native) language as an average language, recognizing that if desired, one can reach the level of proficiency in all three languages. the russian-english department accepts students who already have good knowledge of at least two languages (russian, english), while some of the students have the tatar language as their mother tongue. so, bi-and trilingual students study in the group, realizing the need for knowledge and skills in other languages (kourtis-kazoullis et al., 2018; lee, 2018). the conclusion is that if at schools of the republic there were true trilinguals (at least bilinguals) working as teachers of tatar or russian, or english/german, the productivity of their work would be much higher. for the pupil, whether he/she studies tatar as a native or non-native language (for example, russian nationality), hearing the impeccable russian speech of a specialist in the tatar language will undoubtedly be respected both for the teacher and for the subject, realizing that the command of several languages is quite realistic. however primitive and common it is, these thoughts are not trivial, but the truth is one: love, respect, and interest in the language largely depend on those who teach this language and what example he/she personally gives. as is known, a language is not only a set of elements but also an effective mechanism for generating speech. any conceptual system reflected in the mind of the individual in the form of a linguistic picture of the world depends on the collective and individual cultural experience and is directly related to it. to try to penetrate "behind the language" of young people, in the course of further experiments, the authors decided to go further, deepen and complicate both the questions themselves and the analysis of the results obtained. procedure in the authors' last experiments (2015 academic year), only two faculties took part: tatar and comparative philology, russian philology and journalism at yelabuga institute of kazan journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 74-90 federal university. of the two hundred students who took part in completing the questionnaires, the authors identified four types of groups: 1. according to the nationality of the respondents, three groups were distinguished from the point of view of this criterion: russians (68), tatars (126), and other nationalities (6, udmurts, mari, bashkirs). 2. two groups were distinguished according to the specifics of the training profile: students of 1) the department of russian philology (80), 2) tatar-english department (52), 3) russianenglish department (68). 3. according to the national specifics of families, that is, the students' parents: 1) students born in the so-called mono-national families: 122 families (87 – purely tatar, 35 – purely russian families); 2) children of mixed marriages, that is, one of the parents is russian, the other is an ethnic tatar (72); 3) families of a different nationality (6). 4. according to the place of residence, respondents were divided into 2 types: urban (134) and rural (66). the term "urban" is adopted conditionally; here, it refers to residents of district urban settlements. 5. by gender: out of 200 participants, there are 176 girls and 24 guys, which is understandable by the profile, the humanitarian orientation of future specialists. in the experiments aimed at identifying the specifics of linguistic consciousness of mono and bilinguals, the authors offered respondents questions of a deeply personal nature, that is, the goal was to find out: 1. what are the prospects for harmonious relations between young people of different nationalities in terms of their language? 2. how do the features of marriages (mononational/multinational) affect the language preferences of monoand bilingual parents of students? in the questionnaires offered to students, other than the above, there were also questions: 1. do you consider yourselves bilingual? 2. a representative of what nationality would you marry (or have already married)? answers: a) my nationality; b) i do not care, if only there is love; c) other. 3. imagine that you are 5 years old, what word will be the first to come to your mind? answers: a) i do not remember; b) this word is ... 4. what language do you speak in a dream? answers: a) in native tatar; b) in native russian; c) in non-native russian; d) i do not see dreams; e) i do not remember; f) i speak both in tatar and in russian. 5. what word do you pronounce when you see your loved one? data analysis salimova & sabitova the answers to the first question were distributed as follows: out of 200 respondents, 148 considered themselves bilinguals, while there is an absolutely natural picture: out of russian students, only 26 people (all of them from the russian-english department) and all 132 nonrussian students consider themselves bilingual. of the two hundred people interviewed, 112 people (80 tatars and 32 russians) answered the second question that they want to marry or have already married a representative of their nationality; 88 chose the second option, and no one chose the answer – another. at first glance, a paradoxical result can be noted: more bilinguals than russian monolinguals want to bind their lives with a representative of their nationality. the prevalent opinion in the press that tatars in the mass perceive interethnic marriages much more painfully than the russians do was partially confirmed. this is substantiated by the fact that students who are children from mixed marriages want to connect life specifically with a representative of one nationality (basically – the father). the authors did not find any serious differences in the answers to these questions between urban and rural residents, perhaps, besides the fact that among villagers the desire to connect life with a representative of one's (tatar) nationality is much stronger. the answers to the third question were interesting: about 30% of the respondents at 5 years old would say "mom", 42 – "eni", 20% "i want to walk!". there were some unexpected (written by future philologists!) and witty but useless for the current studies answers like "i bring to your attention", "i loved you, love still, perhaps ...", etc. the answers to the fourth question, about dreams, were as follows: a) in native tatar – 65 percent of respondents (mostly rural residents); b) in native russian – 96%, these are the answers of russian respondents, including those who consider themselves bilingual; c) in non-native russian – 25%, these are the answers of non-russian bilinguals (urban residents); d) i do not see dreams – 8%; e) i do not remember – only 2%. the fact that the tatars dream in tatar, even those tatars who consider their first (main) language to be russian, is very noteworthy. the answers to the fifth question (let us remind that the respondents are philology students) were the most versatile. the answers along the descending line: dear, dear (ah), altynym, maturam, hello, my sun, not hallar? etc. at the same time, the authors did not find any serious regularity in the distribution of favorite designations among bilinguals and people who speak only one language. a tatar student, bilingual, easily wrote the favorite word for "cat"; a russian student and a tatar student who did not speak her native language chose the word "maturam", apparently, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 74-90 factors that were primarily deeply personal. it is noteworthy that tatars have never been named as a favorite by the word "cat" among rural residents. so, summing up the data of the respondents' poll to the so-called "common denominator", one can state the following: 1. a significant majority of philology students (most of them are ethnic tatars) class themselves as bilinguals. 2. the number of bilinguals is relatively small among russian students. 3. a small percentage of russian students who consider themselves bilinguals are students who study a foreign language as a specialty. 4. the number of urban and rural residents among the respondents affects the main results only in terms of choosing the first (main) language. for natives of the village, the native language (mainly tatar) remains the first (main) language in 90 percent of cases. 5. there are more bilingual future philologists among girls than among boys (by almost three times). 6. the absolute majority of philology students recognize that both state languages – tatar and russian – should function in the republic, and they do not feel a protest when they are taught the second language. the main task of mastering a second language (russian for tatars) is to learn how to speak (or write) the way a native speaker does, or to strive for this high level of mastery of the language. today, young people are beginning to understand that mastering two or three languages is practically a real condition for future specialists. the specificity of the language personality of a new type is a skillful combination of different-structure languages. for example, the world languages (russian, chinese, english, arabic) and the languages of the neighbors of the peoples of russia (tatar, mordovian, chuvash, mari and other languages of russia) or other post-soviet states (for example, ukrainian, kazakh, lithuanian, tajik). in this same combination, the language of the confession is integrated (arabic as the language of islam). the current situation with the flow of specialists from different countries to russia and the republic of tatarstan testifies to the fact that it is quite real to be biand multilingual in different societies (rosselli et al., 2019). "in any case, we can confidently assert that in the bilingual and multilingual community of the twentyfirst century, and specifically in connection with the intensifying momentum of the discovery of borders and mobilization of culture and ethnicity, it is possible for an advanced student to achieve fluent bilingualism, even with domination of the native language (in english) in a relatively short time: 100-120 hours of one-on-one lessons built on a complex methodology enriched with modern elements" (salimova & johnson, 2014). salimova & sabitova results "a man of the beginning of the third millennium can survive and save the world around him only if he understands and hears those who surround him. and the ability to listen and hear must be learned, first of all, through our languages. it is time to rethink the problem of bilingualism in a new way, to deduce it from an exclusively "methodical orbit" (in this respect, basic research is conducted), to expand the range of issues, to direct a bunch of interests into a new vector combining the traditional understanding of the specifics of linguistic systems and new scientific knowledge about language/languages as a cultural code of nations" (salimova & timerkhanov, 2012). nevertheless, one has to admit that regressive phenomena in the language are more dynamic than the progressive ones, and the stock of positive inertia of the development of national languages in russia is running low, regional languages and republics are at risk of losing their accumulated potential. the notorious "human factor" (everything depends on the personality of the teacher, the personality of the trainee) here, quite rightly, becomes the main factor. the authors' long experience of teaching russian in russian and national audiences, conducting the course "theory and practice of translation" (the authors confirmed the thesis that the human brain automatically searches for the equivalent words in the second language in their native language and unknowingly translates these words into the native language) in different groups, and most importantly – a systematic and consistent questioning of bilinguals and monolinguals – all this allows saying that the linguistic consciousness of bilingualism in the republic is determined by a complex of linguistic and extralinguistic factors. there are also several factors, which are undoubtedly influenced by factors of a personal nature. thus, the basic constant and variable parameters of the personality (nationality, gender, education, specialty, family traditions, etc.) play a huge role in creating a general picture of linguistic consciousness, and most importantly, form a behavior model of a bilingual – speech and not only – in a multicultural society, which is today any state in the essence. developing the thought, let us add: "the future, the 21st century is the age of polyglots". the importance and practical novelty of the materials are in the fact that they can be used not only in the immediate practice of teachers-methodologists but also in research activities, training the teachers of the russian and tatar languages in the republic of tatarstan (the rt). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 74-90 the authors would like to hope that true bilingualism in tatarstan is quite possible and real, and the population of tatarstan, as people of the 21st century, will really have a command at least three languages. state structures, executive power, scientific and educational institutions, and, most importantly, the population itself, will make one more attempt to ensure the actual functioning of both state languages. "bulat okudzhava said in one of his poems "to understand each other is a sacred science", and today, this approach to communication becomes a vital necessity in everyday life, in the sphere of science and education, in real space as well as in the virtual one" (koudrjavtseva et al., 2015). according to w. von humboldt, "languages and distinctions between them have to be considered in such a way as a force penetrating all history of mankind; if to leave them without attention or to distinguish their influence not in a pure or limited look, then there is an incomplete understanding of how the mankind reaches mastering of that spiritual weight, if it is possible to be expressed so, which it took out from a thought kingdom in the clear and certain area. in this case, there will be no major as the language enters the action in the most direct way in that point where the generation of objective thought and eminence of subjective force come from each other at a mutual increase" (humboldt, 1964). the basis should be the focus of generations on history and modernity (present and future) and their perception as a measure of actions and perception of the world (kudryavtseva & zhizhko, 2011; salimova & timerkhanov, 2012). by means of training, these personalities (tatar-russian, russian-tatar), which absorbed different ethnocultural codes, are superimposed on each other (natural bilingual with two native languages), forming the so-called international zone of the individual, which is the basis for the perception of a bilingual not as a representative of two separate cultures, but as a "man of the world", ready to accept and understand other ethnocultural layers. "ethnocultural identity is also important for intercultural communication space. it is on the basis of ethnocultural and linguistic identification that each person acquires the skills of communication with other cultures, recognizes "features" and mechanisms for the formation of ethnic attitudes of other peoples" (sabitova, 2017). discussion the republic of tatarstan has not created mechanisms to overcome the situation, including legislative ones, and has left specialists teaching the tatar language in limbo. the tatar and russian languages have the same status, but in practice, there is a real prevalence of russian salimova & sabitova as a language of interethnic communication over tatar. one can imagine the situation: at the meetings of the state council, the supreme court, various conferences, and official meetings, most people speak in russian, someone speaks tatar and requires an answer to the question in russian. legally, this person is right, but it is contrary to moral and ethical standards. not all participants speak the tatar language and there is no need to put them in an awkward position (it is known that any speaker and any person in the republic knows the russian language, and it means that this position is either a political gesture or a kind of protest). the only thing that can be recommended as the main way to preserve the tatar language is to work in the family, at educational institutions. creating a special system of stimulating the knowledge of the tatar language for all professionals (as is customary in a number of states) in the form of an additional allowance to the salary is not a very useful way, because in this case the best russian-speaking specialists (russians, and tatars) can feel infringed on their rights. at the same time, let us present another situation: a tatar grandmother who had worked throughout her life as a milkmaid at a collective farm (it is a real true-life story of the authors’ acquaintance about which the authors have already written in a republican newspaper) got sick and went to the city to see a doctor. the russian therapist who saw her could not understand the patient because she spoke russian badly and could not explain the problems. her first phrase was "i have come to you, sonny, from the village, forty kilometers" (in tatar, the verbs "come" and "arrive" do not differ). the russian therapist began with the words: "how can you, a grandmother at such an age, walk such a long distance? you should take care of yourself", which absolutely confused the grandmother. having come back to the village, the grandmother (әби) told everything: "i won't go anywhere more, i won't be dishonored, i will die directly here, rather than run to "russian" doctors". it is a pity for the grandmother, it is a pity for the system, and it is a pity for not absolutely real bilingualism! however, there is also another truth: it is necessary to look at the problem also through the eyes of the russian expert. healthcare professionals should not be accused, too, as it is a hard time now: the staff is reduced, one person works for two and does a threefold amount of paperwork and reporting. under these conditions, it is impossible to force russian doctors (competent professionals) to study a non-native language. interest in the second language in the regions of tatarstan can be attracted only by beliefs, a personal example, through the heart (though it sounds a bit pathetic) of the pupil. the center of all has to be the impact on the student through ethnolinguocultural codes, tatar symbols, speaking journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 74-90 in a different way. the teacher-methodologist has to seek to attract interest and love for the tatar language, using the images of söyembikä (сөембикә), sabantuy (сабантуй), şüräle (шүрәле), the symbols of the tatar table chak-chak (чәкчәк), belish (бәлеш), echpochmak (өчпочмак), fine tatar folk music in ethnic villages, etc., through all that is pleasant to everyone and unites the people. the way to students' hearts should be laid through the surnames of tatar actors, athletes, scientists (g. tuqay, m. cälil, f. yarullin, s. saydashev), popular and famous in the world; the surnames of famous tatar scientists which are well-known in the world, such as r. sagdeev; the artists popular around the world r. nureyev, s. gubaidulina, etc., who can promote the assimilation of tatar. the student joins, falls in love with the tatar world, spiritual and ethnic culture; therefore, the lessons of tatar become not a burden at all. the so-called "ethnocultural codes" have to become available for not native speakers. if one has become interested in something, has fallen in love, of course, he/she will be interested and study it! here is a simple truth! the most powerful requirement is the teacher's perfect command of tatar and russian speech, an example of a teacher for imitation by pupils. in today's conditions, it is very easy to develop a second language, even in the absence of an opportunity to communicate with carriers: radio, television, audio and video lessons, the internet, electronic dictionaries, online publications, etc., all this makes it possible to consider studying any of the known languages quite real. kazan federal university has taken a new initiative in training in tatar: the already mentioned online program, tatar courses for elderly citizens, regular telecasts where training is carried out in the tatar and english languages at the same time. the teachers also work with foreign student in classes in russian; various methods of training are combined: role-playing games, work in couples (sometimes, pupils become teachers and explain plain material, which they have acquired), short presentations and mini-reports of pupils, a variety of gaming techniques ("understand me"), use of the latest technologies of training, a program with computer applications, experimental training platforms, online training and full immersion in new language elements, evening house lessons. along with classroom training, communication in contact.ru, sms, skype communication and other methods are applied. to make such lessons even more effective, conversations can be accompanied by russian/tatar music. in the world, when studying the second and third language, the highly effective tandem system is actively used: this is real-time, most often – online (via skype) communication of two salimova & sabitova people, carriers of two different languages, each of whom is interested in the improvement of the interlocutor’s language. presently, in a compressed and dynamic time, when each hour has to be spent purposefully for the achievement of a result, undoubtedly, such type of work is the most successful. it should be noted that the technologies of teaching russian as a foreign language (rfl), as well as european innovative tools, can help to develop the most various and interesting program techniques for training in tatar already at preschool age. it is necessary to investigate not only the features of thinking and reaction of bilingual children but also the level of balance of two languages in their consciousness and the impact of this factor on the specifics of attitude, the selfpresentation, and self-identification of bilinguals and also their integration potential in the global and mobile polycultural community. forcing russian children to write tatar dictations, to perform various types of grammatical analysis, to inflect nouns for case and so on – all this gives a protest in the soul of a russianspeaking school student. perhaps, training has to be limited to programs similar to teaching russian as a foreign language: it is necessary to train tatar children only for oral communication and elementary communication situations. in the authors’ opinion, one of the reasons for the lack of real interest in the second language (the first language in the republic, as it should be undoubtedly recognized, is russian) is, apart from the above-mentioned reasons, the lack of complex linguistic, sociological, psychological, and ethnopolitical studies of native speakers in the republic; there is not enough direct work with monoand bilinguals as a subject of deep scientific research. it is known that today, studies making it possible to synthesize the results from different scientific directions (in this case – linguistics, ethnology, psychology, sociology, and history) correspond to the current trends in science, according to which the so-called "boundary" scientific researchers are capable to offer the most reliable scientific results. conclusion the most reliable and tolerant way in the movement towards true bilingualism is to conduct a purposeful and consistent work, to carry out a system of activities aimed at provoking interest in the tatar language, fostering love and respect for it, in short, to ensure that a person consciously and independently (without coercion) comes to the conviction that knowing both languages in the republic of tatarstan is not only interesting and useful but also necessary. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 74-90 acknowledgements the work is carried out according to the russian government's program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. we also express our deep gratitude to the staff of our universities, administration, students who willingly volunteered to participate in the annealing and surveys. references alogali, a. (2018). world englishes: changing the paradigm of linguistic diversity in global academia. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 54-73. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/342 carothers, d., & parfitt, c. m. (2017). disability or language difference: how do we decide?. american journal of qualitative research, 1(1), 1-12. gampe, a., wermelinger, s., & daum, m. m. (2019). bilingual children adapt to the needs of their communication partners, monolinguals do not. child development, 90(1), 98-107. doi:10.1111/cdev.13190 humboldt, w., von. (1964). on the difference between the structure of human language and its influence on the spiritual development of the human race. history of linguistics xix-xx centuries in the essays and extracts, part i, 233-411. interactive internet textbook on the tatar language "tatar body on-line". (2019). http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/interaktivnyy-internet-uchebnik-po-tatarskomu-yazyku-tatartele-online. koudrjavtseva, e. l., salimova, d. a. & snigireva, l. a. (2015). russian as native, non-native, one of natives and foreign languages: questions of terminology and measurement of levels of profi-ciency. asian social science, 11, 124-132. kourtis-kazoullis, v., aravossitas, t., skourtou, e., & trifonas, p. p. (2018). interdisciplinary research approaches to multilingual education. interdisciplinary research approaches to multilingual education (pp. 1-284) doi:10.4324/9781351170086 kudryavtseva, e. & zhizhko, e. (2011). natural bilingualism as a cultural phenomenon and its impact in the cross-border tertiary education. cross-border tertiary education, 11 (55). lee, c. (2018). conflicting ideologies of english in korea: study of bilingual adolescents. linguistics and education, 48, 22-34. doi:10.1016/j.linged.2018.08.006 marcia, j. e. (1987). identity status. this is an approach to the study of ego identity development. self and identity: psychological perspectives. ozfidan, b. & burlbaw, l. (2016). perceptions of bilingual education model in spain: how to implement a bilingual education model in turkey. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 3(1), 49-58. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/342 salimova & sabitova rosselli, m., loewenstein, d. a., curiel, r. e., penate, a., torres, v. l., lang, m., duara, r. (2019). effects of bilingualism on verbal and nonverbal memory measures in mild cognitive impairment. journal of the international neuropsychological society, 25(1), 15-28. doi:10.1017/s135561771800070x sabitova, a. m. (2017). questions of linguistic, ethnic and cultural identity of russians and croats. the world of science, culture, education, 3, 368-370. salimova, d. a. & johnson, h. (2014). difficulties in the teaching of english as a foreign language: the perspectives of an ethnically american student. life science journal, 11 (5s), 219-223. salimova, d. a. & timerkhanov, a. a. (2012). bilingualism and translation: theory and experience of research. monograph. moscow: flint: science, 280. salimova, d. a., timerkhanov, a. a. & minnebaeva, g. i. (2014). oil and the tatar: lexicon (etymological aspect). world applied sciences journal, 30 (11), 1622-1626. salimova, d. a., timerkhanov, a. a. (2012). problems of bi-and poly-linguism in the aspect of modern language education in the republic of tatarstan. humanities and education, 3, 9295. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 31-45 31 examination mafiarisation, and the contradictions of performativity in zimbabwe: a quest for rebalancing pedagogy bekithemba dube1 abstract this theoretical paper taps into ball’ view of the terrors of performativity in order to critique examination mafiarisation in zimbabwe. of late, the education system in this country has experienced a number of trajectories, characterised by examination leaks, cheating, and a decline in confidence in zimbabwean education. i critique examination mafiarisation, using ball’s perspective, and in so doing, i attempt to answer two questions: what are the causes of examination mafiarisation? what can be done to mitigate cheating in examinations? the argument of the paper is that the curriculum faces ambivalence, because of an overemphasis on performativity. consequently, teachers, learners, and parents have resorted to immoral behaviour to ensure performativity is enacted. i also argue for a need to embrace a rebalancing of pedagogy, which is characterised by social justice education, promotion of morality, comprehensive education, and task-based assessment, to regain credibility for what was once perceived to be a thriving educational system. key words: examination mafiarisation; morality; terrors of performativity; rebalancing pedagogy; task based assessment. introduction over the past decade, various studies have indicated that leaking examination papers is a common phenomenon in zimbabwe, and other countries, such zambia and nigeria (chaminuka and ndudzo 2014; joktham 2013; maheka 2015; mashanyare and chinamasa 2014; musarurwa and chimhenga 2011; sigauke 2004). according to these research studies, the zimbabwe examination council (zimsec) has been the main culprit in relation to leakage of examination papers – i consider this to be a minimalistic approach to the problem of examination cheating. given this context, this paper finds space in the ongoing examination cheating by interrogating and expanding ball’s (2003) perspective of the terrors of performativity. in addition, it contributes to the exam 1 dr. bekithemba dube, university of the free state, qwaqwa campus, dubeb@ufs.ac.za journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 31-45 cheating narratives by going further, and arguing that examination cheating involves not only zimsec, but also teachers, learners, parents, principals and other people, and sometimes in a more sophisticated manner than zimsec. i report that parents, learners, teachers and headmasters overemphasise performativity at the expense of other essential elements of education; thus, the need by educational stakeholders to keep up with performance expectations. i problematise an examination system i term mafiarisation, which has established a blueprint for others to follow (levin and fullan 2008, p. 173), in a quest to remain performance relevant, even if it means using unorthodox means to achieve this. due to demands for performativity, dominant goalposts have emerged in modern schooling, which delimit the role of education in relation to outcomes (hennessy and mcnamara 2013). i should not be misunderstood: i don’t negate the importance of performance, but overemphasis on performativity leads to certain trajectories in education. i agree with the observation by burnard and white (2008, p. 668), that performativity has “transformed negatively the culture of educational institutions, the social relations of learning and teaching, and academic identities”. given this context, i leverage problematisation of the curriculum, particularly examination mafiarisation, which i base on the observation of and exhortation by reeder (2005, p. 247), that the present examination arrangement “calls on our ability to question critically not only our own educational experiences but also to question current education practices, constraints, and limitations”, with the aim of proposing sustainable solutions. the paper, thus, engages in a struggle to find solutions for examination mafiarisation. i highlight the theoretical framing of the study, which is ball’s (2003) notion of the terrors of performativity. theoretical framing: terrors of performativity i chose this theory because it locates teachers and their work in the midst of policy, politics, and passion, in contrast with dominant techno-rational discourses of teaching, which reduces teaching to matters of technical efficiency (clarke 2013, p. 229), and ignores other important elements of education. ball (2003,p. 216) explains this theory as follows: performativity is a technology, a culture and a mode of regulation that employs judgments, comparisons and displays as a means of incentive, control, attrition and change – based on regards and sanctions (both material and symbolic). the performances (of individual dube subjects or organizations) serve as measures of productivity or output, or displays of ‘quality’, or ‘moments’ of promotion or inspection. as such they stand for, encapsulate or represent the worth, quality or value of an individual or organization within a field of judgment.” as a result, regarding the need for performativity, ball (2003, p. 220) argues that the soul of the teacher becomes “ontologically insecure: unsure whether we are doing enough, doing the right thing, doing as much as others, or as well as others, constantly looking to improve, to be better, to be excellent”. in this regard, teachers seek ways in which performance can be achieved, so that parents, headmasters, and others are content with their performance. ball (2003) explains the terrors of performativity by arguing that the teacher’s soul suffers. i am of the view that ball was limited in his vision, because the terrors of performativity not only affect teachers, but also educationally significant others, such as parents, headmasters and learners. the quest for performativity by educationally significant others has made education, in particular zimsec, a captured institution, as a result of its quest for performativity. examination mafiarisation in this section, i define what i mean by examination mafiarisation. this is a new term i introduce in curriculum or examination narratives. it refers to the enacting of processes and structures that enable some learners and teachers to gain access to examinations before its schedule date. the world bank group (2001, p. 1) defines it as “a deliberate act of wrongdoing, contrary to official examination rules, and is designed to place a candidate at an unfair advantage or disadvantage”. the process is well oiled and involves teachers, zimsec officials, parents, school principals, item writers who coordinate to ensure that the examination system is cheated. examination mafiarisation occurs when a few are privy to examination material, and are thought to be best teachers and good spotters of examinations. the culprits are often invited to schools to facilitate workshops on examinations, and schools pay them to offer examination consultation services. these teachers are characterised by their refusal to accept promotion or transfer. i problematise examination mafiarisation, because education becomes being artificially obsessed with defined performance indicators (meng 2009), as a result of cheating and capturing the exam journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 31-45 system. it destroys the moral fibre of teachers, captures them, and relegates the role of the teacher to mere performance. in the process, professional standards of educators [are lowed], there is cultivation of unscientific ways of knowing, consequently it diminishes the scientific competence of educational professionals” (meng 2009). ball (2003, p. 225) calls it “fabrications – inauthentic facades which are investment[s] in plasticity”. teachers themselves “become the mechanism for legitimising immorality, marketisation of the skills and codification of their work practices” (hill 2004, p. 512). in short, examination mafiarisation lowers the professional standards of educators, as they limit their aim to the visible and measurable goals captured by the performance criteria (bourke and ryan, 2013), hence, it must be challenged from within the academic space. chronicling examination mafiarisation in zimbabwe in this section, i describe various incidents, which, i believe, represents examination mafiarisation. i do so to expose and unmute the need for an academic engagement, and to eliminate the problem of examination mafiarisation in zimbabwe. while ball (2003) noted the terrors of performativity, one thing he did not foresee was that, in quest for performativity, new, specialised systems emerge to capture the examination system. in this regard, i agree with sigauke (2004), that mafiarisation is a disgrace, not only with regard to the behaviour of the culprits, but because it also reflects similar levels of immorality in wider society. examination mafiarisation captures the system, and controls the field (ball, 2003). in an attempt to control the field performativity and relevance, cheating in examinations becomes a common feature. in 2012, new zimbabwe reported that “zimsec withdraws 13 leaked examination papers”. sijaukwe school in bubi district was suspected to be part of the cheating scam. the replacement of examination cost about usd 850 000. tshuma (2014) reports that headmasters at jeremoto high school and ntute primary school were caught engaging in examination malpractices. in 2017, english, science and mathematics examinations were leaked; zimsec denied being involved and argued that no leaks had occurred (ngorima, 2017). to prevent leaks of exam papers, attempts have been made to introduce technology; zimsec is cited by newsday (mbendera 2017): dube our total solution comprises of a tamper-proof exam box where examination papers are packaged, a compact sensor enabled gps tracker, which is placed in the box, an electronic seal, which locks the box, and a smart key, which is used to lock and unlock the electronic seal.” despite using technology, english, science and mathematics examination papers leaked in 2017. technology failed, because the focus was still on examinations in their printed state. the assumption was that zimsec was responsible for the leaks, however, i am of the view that examination mafiarisation extends beyond zimsec, and includes learners and parents. for example, at regina mundi, it is alleged that one learner sold examination papers for 3 uds; and examination questions were circulated through whatsapp (chronicle, 2018). in some cases, the papers were hand written. this event means that the availability of social media and the internet has increased the chances of examination mafiarisation taking place. drawing my experience as a teacher, i know headmasters, parents and learners have the tendency of hunting down item writers and examiners, who are approached to coach learners for the examination in exchange for money. coaching may not be a bad idea, but what i discovered is that most of the item writers and examiners have a good idea of what the examination will look like. consequently, by students and headmasters gaining confidence in such people there is probability of enacting mafia tendencies. usually, a teacher who is not an examiner, and who is excluded from mafia system, is seen by students, parents and headmasters as useless and irrelevant. consequently, teachers who are not examiners endeavour to become part of the examiner system, so that their performance could also improve. this desire to participant causes the examination mafia system to grow, and presents serious curriculum trajectories in zimbabwe. at the end of the day, a narrow focus on performativity only, as measured by outcomes, rewards undeserving teachers and deprives and ridicules hard working teachers. causes of examination mafiarisation in this section, i analyse the possible causes of examination mafiarisation in zimbabwe. in short, the unremitting focus on standards, rubrics and measurement means that, in many cases, the deeper journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 31-45 problems of schooling go unattended (eisner, 2004). the following section covers some of the causes of examination mafiarisation. reward-associated performance in 2014, incentives were abolished in the education system, because they were thought of as being divisive, evil and unsustainable (banda, 2011). however, today, some schools still offer incentives to educators, under the pretext of promoting performativity. one way of incentivising teachers is rewarding teachers based on the performance of learners on summative evaluation at the ordinary and advanced levels. the implementation of incentives is seen as an “expression of a new culture of competitive performativity, which involves a combination of devolution, targets and incentives, to bring about new forms of sociality and new institutional forms” (ball, 2003, p. 219). while rewarding educators is applauded, this gesture has not been problematised in light of examination mafiarisation. in an attempt to gain rewards, some teachers resort to immoral ways of ensuring they receive the rewards at stake. i am not against teachers getting incentives, but when incentives are prioritised and open a route for examination mafiarisation, instead of professionalism and ethics, then there is a need to problematise the reward system. the quest for performativity, informed with the need for incentives, can lead to “corrosion of character” (sennett 1998). the quest for incentives “through performativity does not simply change what people, as educators, scholars and researchers do, it changes who they are” (ball, 2003, p. 215). this change may include cheating or joining the examination mafia as a way to remain relevant to receive incentives. unfortunately, educational stakeholders send congratulatory messages (meng, 2009) to educators they perceive as performing well, and send stern warnings to non-performing teachers, thereby covertly enhancing examination mafiarisation. accommodation and resistance to change because of the terrors of performativity, there is always resistance to change, which is often equated with upsetting the performativity status quo. teachers involved in examination mafiarisation are usually resistant to change, because the envisaged change can affect performance. often, seemingly well-performing teachers do not seek promotion, despite having the necessary qualifications, or transfer from one school to another. such resistance should be treated with suspicion. resistance may be linked to examination mafiarisation, and involves the dube “possibility of reworking and unsettling forces that attempt to derail performativity” (butler, 1997, p. 105), especially if change is perceived to be associated with negative consequences, as was the case with task-based assessment. cognisant of the existence of mafias in examination, former minister, dr lazarus dokora in 2016, introduced task-based assessment as a neutralising mechanism to combat cheating and overreliance on summative examination. however, his innovation, noble as it may have been, was resisted by teachers, leaners and other stakeholders, because it was considered to cause a disturbance to the teaching and learning process, to be unattainable and unrealistic in relation to the curriculum. consequently, despite the dilemmas related to the new curriculum, i am of the view that accommodation resistance, premised with mafiarisation of examinations, could be a factor that contributes to the removal of task-based assessment in schools. task-based assessment is, arguably, not compatible with the mafia system, since new examiners are brought into picture complicating the well-oiled examination cheating strategies. there is no adequate justification for the suspicions about task-based assessment; the only reason for opposition is that, from the terrors of performativity lens, it makes sense to remove it. consequently, its removal implies that there will be continued good performance by the teachers, learners, parents and significant others, who have captured the examination system in zimbabwe. ranking schools zimbabwe, in recent times, has moved towards ranking performance of schools based on summative evaluation. this ranking system offers major benefit to parents, who are attracted to schools that perform well. the ranking system is used as justification by headmasters why parents should send children to their schools. while, at face value, and using an uncritical approach, it may be a valid argument, i am of the view that ranking schools is part of the cause of mafiarisation of examination. ranking aids, the school in its “fabrication” of identity – a construction of a particular version of the organisation; its “effective” self (ball, 2004). given the influence of parents and other stakeholders in the need for performativity, various challenges have arisen, but not adequately problematised within the academic space. parents, i argue, have played a role in creating the problem of the examination mafiarisation. i agree with bernstein (2000) that, under a regime of performativity, identity depends on the facility for projecting discursive organisation or journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 31-45 practices, themselves driven by external contingencies. i problematise ranking of schools, because, as proposed by clarke (2002), while ranking is a popular method for comparing the relative quality of schools, there is much confusion and debate over which indicators to use and how to present the information in ranked format. in addition, webster (1986) argues that quality rankings are not an effective device for comparing quality. ranking does not take cognisance of other factors that affect performativity, such as the unavailability of teachers and resources at some schools. so, in an attempt to be ranked as one of the best schools, there is a tendency to consider cheating, and joining the examination mafia system. mitigation of examination mafiarisation: towards rebalancing pedagogy in light of the above trajectories, in this section i focus on suggesting solutions that can save the souls of teachers, parents, learners and the captured examination system from the mafia systems. zimbabwean education should rebalance pedagogy to redress examination mafiarisation that is infused by a desire for performativity. the idea of “rebalancing pedagogy offers a way for teachers to navigate and be supported through the opposing demands of performativity and creativity” (burnard and white, 2008, p. 667). in addition, through this pedagogy, there is an attempt to “balance” requirements to meet benchmarks. it is a pedagogy that reasserts ownership of education and develops future learning and teaching practices that embrace, value and foster creativity (burnard and white 2008). this pedagogy does not imply that teachers must negate performativity, but it argues that performativity should not be the sole role of the teachers. instead, teachers should pursue a fully democratic vision of self, which includes self-awareness and personal engagement, global engagement, which includes social awareness and social engagement, universal, content awareness and concept engagement, and transformative (belcastro, 2015; onyalla, 2018). i argue this way, because the role of the teacher transcends a technicist approach to teaching and learning. it is particularly important to promote critical thinking, autonomy and reflexivity (hennessy and mcnamara 2013). this pedagogy offers a way for teachers to navigate, and be supported through, the opposing demands of performativity and creativity (burnard and white, 2008; ortiz, 2018). rebalancing pedagogy will enable learners to engage critically in the human conversation and to seek out the problems that limit and extend our potential as individuals and a nation (belcastro, 2015; calderon berumen, 2019). dube to rebalance pedagogy to succeed in transforming education in zimbabwe, i propose engaging in a quest for social justice and comprehensive education, promoting morality and reprofessionalisation of teachers. through these activities, i hope it will be possible to recover in some teachers, learners, and parents’ vocational values, once cherished, but now displaced by performativity (meng, 2009). comprehensive education approach rebalancing pedagogy’s quest for a holistic approach to curriculum is opposed to singling out one aspect of schooling, such as performativity. the latter approach contradicts the objectives and aims of the curriculum in zimbabwe that attempt to produce learners who appreciate the value of ubuntu, and meet the cognitive, social and spiritual dimensions (ministry of primary and secondary education 2014). the foregoing observation is buttressed by brown (2004, p. 268), who notes that “effective education is education that create[s] effective classroom management which utilises essential research-based pedagogical processes that respond appropriately to the emotional, social, ethnic, cultural and cognitive needs of students”, as opposed to merely focusing on performance. to buttress my observation, burton (2008) believes that schools are generally seen as mechanisms for developing and reinforcing positive citizens with pro-social attitudes, and as sites where individuals are prepared for the roles they are to play in society at large. these roles include to “promote human good, provide basic human needs, guarantee protection of human rights and promote the integral development of the globe” (ogbonnaya, 2012, p. 2). in short, in an attempt to mitigate examination mafiarisation, there is need to return to the fundamental element of education, which is teaching the child for life, as opposed teaching for credits only. engaging rebalancing pedagogy will promote education to produce learners who are able to use education to confront social problems. promotion of morality given the context of examination mafiarisation, it is important that education in zimbabwe revisits its morality discourses among learners, parents, teachers and other educational stakeholders. one of the negative effects of performativity that has not received enough academic problematisation yet, is the corrosion of morality. morality entails the ability to possess self-respect, respecting social standing rules and appreciation of fairness, social justice and equality regarding access to journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 31-45 education, examinations and credits. with an emphasis on performativity, such moral values are negated – hard-working teachers are not rewarded, because they lack a network of connections with examination mafias. historically, schools were “seen as institutions for preparing children for life, both academically and as moral agents in society” (kaur, 2015, p. 21). i agree with the observation by roberts (2013), that when societies are governed by the “imperatives of power and performativity, the needs of the most underprivileged are not met, on principle. the most important assets of a nation are the citizens themselves” (kaur, 2015, p. 22). thus, it is imperative for teachers to incorporate this moral sensitivity in the art of their teaching (veugelers 2008). such morality will produce citizens who are healthy, patriotic, honest, and sincere, and who contribute to sustainable development. hence, rebalancing pedagogy will allow the reinvention of the moral fibre of zimbabwean education, particularly in the examination process. reinstatement of task-based assessment the new curriculum, introduced in 2016, saw the introduction of task-based assessment. this change meant the reworking of task boundaries and confronting new challenges (bennie and newstead, 1999, 1; james 2010). however, in zimbabwe, like many other african countries, there is general disagreement about the best way to implement continuous assessment (nguyen and ahmad, 2017; shilenge, 2004). as a result of various complications in relation to its implementation, task based assessment was removed from the curriculum less than two years after its introduction. however, i am of the view that, in a quest to move towards rebalancing pedagogy, there is need for task-based assessment. task based assessment will reduce over-reliance on summative evaluation, which involves teachers focusing on examination drill, and depriving learners of the ability to engage in critical learning. task-based assessment enables learners to be goal-oriented, achieve real purpose, and to participate in competency grading (bonces and bonces 2010). it gives the learners the opportunity to solve problems that relate the given task critically, and to gain marks from the prototype they develop. such an approach will enable learners without mafia connections to improve their performance. envisaged insights from the article the strength of the article is the bold step it takes to problematise examination mafiarisation in zimbabwe. it has broadened the complexity of examination, from being centred on zimsec, to dube arguing that significant others, such as parents, have joined in the mafiarisation of examination. the paper gives other schools the opportunity to make an empirically based contribution to the nexus of examination, parents and mafiarisation through an analysis of the impact of limiting education to performance. in the same vein, the paper opens up ways in which academics can contribute to ensuring that there is examination credibility, especially by establishing structures to negate examination mafiarisation. the paper is unique in the sense that it expands on ball’s (2003) notion of the terrors of performativity, by arguing that performativity is no longer a struggle faced by teachers only, but which also involves parents, learners and principals, thereby creating and increasing chances of examination mafiarisation in zimbabwe. finally, the paper suggests ways in which examination mafiarisation can be mitigated through rebalancing pedagogy. the weakness of the paper is that it appears that i oppose performativity, which of course, i do not. my argument is that performativity should be premised within morality, social justice, and fairness. the paper appreciates that performance of some teachers is due to hard work and dedication to teaching service. to mitigate the weakness of the paper i take the opportunity to acknowledge the efforts of teachers, parents and learners who have worked hard to ensure that learners perform well. the paper should be understood within the context of bringing credibility to the examination system, hence, the need to unmute examination cheating narratives. conclusion this article highlights various trajectories that result from education being focused solely on performativity. i used ball’s (2003) notion of terrors of performativity as a theoretical lens. i argue that performativity no longer present a terror to teachers only, but that the terror has been extended to significant others involved in education, such as parents, learners and principals. the interests of various players have made the zimbabwean education system volatile and susceptible to abuse. in this regard, i argue that examination has been captured by mafias, who, through immorality, have characteristed examinations by cheating, leaks and corruption. to redress this situation, i argue that zimbabwe needs a rebalancing pedagogy that focuses on the holistic goal of education, as opposed to performativity only. i conclude that there is need to reintroduce tasked-based assessment to neutralise the quest for performativity which has made zimbabwe’s education lose credibility. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 31-45 references ball, s. j. (2003). the teacher’s soul and the terrors of performativity.” journal of educational policy 18 (2), 215-228. ball, s. j. (2004). performativities and fabrications in the education economy: towards the performative society. in the routledge falmer reader in sociology of education, edited by s. j. ball, 143–155. london, england: routledge falmer. belcastro, a. t. (2015). rebalancing quality education in a democratic society.” creativity education 6 (2015), 428-439. banda, i. (2011). zimbabwe parents forced to pay school fees”. retrieved march, 12, 2018 from www.aljazeera.com/indepth/factors bennie, k., & newstead, k. (1999). obstacles to implementing a new curriculum. in proceedings of the national subject didactics symposium, edited by m. j. smit and a. s. jordaan, 150– 157. stellenbosch, south africa: university of stellenbosch. bernstein, b. (2000). official knowledge and pedagogic identities: the politics of recontextualising. in the sociology of education: major themes, edited by s. j. ball. london, england: routledge falmer. bonces, m. r. & bonces, j.r. (2010). tasked based language learning: old approach; new style. a new lesson to learn. profile 12 (2), 165–178. bourke, t. l., & and ryan, m. e. (2013). teachers performing professionalism: a foucauldian archaeology. sage open 3 (4), 1–14. brown, d. f. (2004). urban teachers’ professed classroom management strategies: reflections of culturally responsive teaching. annual editions: multicultural education, 6 (7), 146– 172. burnard, p. & white, j. (2008). creativity and performativity counterpoints in british and australian education. british educational research journal 34(5), 667–682. burton, p. (2008). merchants, skollies and stones: experiences of school violence in south africa. monograph series no. 4. cape town, south africa: centre for justice and crime prevention. butler, j. (1997). the psychic life of power: theories in subjection. stanford, united states of america: stanford university press. calderon berumen, f. (2019). resisting assimilation to the melting pot: journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 81-95. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/25 dube chaminuka, l., & ndudza, d. (2014). student and staff perceptions on examination malpractice and fraud in higher education in zimbabwe. asian journal of humanities and social sciences 2 (2), 78–90. clarke, m. (2002). some guidelines for academic quality ranking. higher education in europe xxvii (4): 443–459. clarke, m. (2013). terror/enjoyment: performativity, resistance and the teacher’s psyche.” london review of education 11(3), 229–238. craft, a. & jeffrey, b. (2008). editorial. creativity and performativity in teaching and learning: tensions, dilemmas, constraints, accommodations and synthesis. british educational research journal 34 (5), 577–584. eisner, e. w. 2004. what does it mean to say a school is doing well? in the curriculum studies reader, edited by d. j. flinders and s. j. thornton, 297–306. new york, united states of america: routledge. hennessy, j & mcnamara, p.m. (2013). at the altar of educational efficiency: performativity and the role of the teacher. english practice and critique 12 (1), 6–22. hill, d. (2004). books, banks and bullets: controlling our minds – the global project of imperialistic and militaristic neo-liberalism and its effect on education policy. policy futures in education 2(3), 504-522. james, c. 2010. the psychodynamics of educational change. in international handbook of educational change, edited by a. hargreaves, a. lieberman, m. fullan and d. hopkins. london, united states of america: springer. joktham, e. t. (2013). curbing examination malpractice in schools: participative advocacy. journal of research in national development 11 (2), 125–131. kaur, s. (2015). moral values in education.” journal of humanities and social science 20(3):21– 26. levin, b., and m. fullan. (2008). “learning about system renewal.” educational management administration and leadership 36 (2): 289–303. maheka, g. (2015). nature and causes of examination malpractices on selected schools in kitwe district, zambia. master’s diss., university of zambia. mashanyare, i., & chinamasa, e. (2014). “school examinations leakage: case of zimbabwe schools examinations council.” journal of humanities and social sciences, 19 (4): 47– 54. meng, j. c. s. (2009). saving the teacher’s soul: exorcising the terrors of performativity.” london review of education 7(2), 159–167. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 31-45 ministry of primary and secondary education. (2014). new curriculum and values. harare, zimbabwe: curriculum development unit. musarurwa, c., & chimhenga, s. 2011. credibility of examinations in zimbabwe. a reflective analysis. academic research international 1(1):173-179. mbendera, p. (2017). can technology stop leaking of zimsec examination papers? newsday november 2, 2017. retrieved march 19, 2018 from www.newsday.co.zw-con/2017/11/can -technology-stop-leaking-zimsec-exam-paper. ngorima, l. (2017). zimsec exam paper ‘leak. the sunday mail october 29, 2017. retrieved march 12, 2018 from www.sundaymail.co.zw/zimsec-exam-paper-leaks/. nguyen, t., & ahmad, z.k. (2017). reviewing the challenges of implementing formative assessment in asia. the need for a professional program. journal of science studies 4 (1), 160–178. ogbonnaya, j. (2012). theology, culture and sustainable development in africa. acuhiam journal, 3 (2012), 1–30. onyalla, d. b. (2018). ethnic influence of colleagues and friends on choices of news media channels: the case of catholic church leaders in nairobi, kenya. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(2), 140-158. ortiz, m. j. (2018). gangs and environment: a comparative analysis of prison and street gangs. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 97-117. reeder, s. (2005). classroom dynamics and emergent curriculum. in chaos, complexity, curriculum, and culture. a conversation, edited by m. j. fleener, w. doll, d. treuit and j. st. julien, 247–260. new york, united states of america: peter lang. roberts, p. (2013). academic dystopia: knowledge performativity and tertiary education. the review of education, pedagogy and cultural studies 35 (1), 1–28. sennett, r. (1998). the corrosion of character: the personal consequences of work in the new capitalism. new york, united states of america: w.w. norton publishers shilenge, v. z. (2004). a case study of implementation of continuous assessment in grade 11 and 12 physical science classroom in 3 secondary schools. med diss., university of kwazulu-natal. sigauke, a. (2004). examination malpractices in schools. views from secondary schools in the harare region: zimbabwe.” the zimbabwe bulletin of teacher education 13 (1), 52–72. sutton, p. (2016). lost souls: the demoralization of academic labour in the measured university.” higher education research & development 36 (3), 625–636. http://www.sundaymail.co.zw/zimsec-exam-paper-leaks/ https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cher20/current dube the world bank group. (2001). public examination system: topics – malpractice. the world bank group. 2001. retrieved february 12, 2006 from http://www.worldbank.org.education/exams/malpractice/asp. tshuma, l. (2014). schools to lose examination status over leakages. retrieved february 20, 2018. from www.nehandaradio2014/09/28/schools-to-lose-exam-status-over-leakages/. veugelers, w. (2008). moral values in teacher education. paper presented at 1st symposium on moral and democratic education, august 24–27, 2008. florida. webster, d. s. (1986). academic quality rankings of american colleges and universities. springfield, south africa: charles c. thomas http://www.worldbank.org.education/exams/malpractice/asp http://www.nehandaradio2014/09/28/schools-to-lose-exam-status-over-leakages/ article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),308-335 contribution of transformational leadership and years of leader experience on the effectiveness of organization efficacy laili komariyah1 abstract during the pandemic, organizational effectiveness remains at a very low level. many universities are underperforming when a pandemic hits a country. when the pandemic subsided, the organization's effectiveness became exciting again this study aims to examine the effect of transformational leadership and years of service or experience of organizational leaders on organizational effectiveness, both directly and through organizational commitment, as intervening variables. the study adopted a quantitative approach and specifically the correlational verification approach. the study was conducted at the public and private smas in samarinda, indonesia, from january to august 2022. the study population consisted of 254 principals, vice principals and teachers, with a sample size of 145 selected through the proportional random sampling technique. the collected data were analyzed using smart pls and spss software. the study findings revealed that there is no significant effect between transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness. the results show that the more experience the leader has, the more effective an organization is. the better the transformational leadership and the longer the experience as a leader, the more effective the institution will be. organizational commitment does not effectively become a moderator variable in mediating the effect of transformational leadership and experience of leadership on organizational effectiveness. keywords: transformational, leadership, work experience, effectiveness, institution introduction educational institutions do not seem to be able to return to normal as before the covid-19 outbreak. various schools in cities use two main learning methods: offline and online. studies showed that the effectiveness of post-pandemic institutions has not reached optimal points which mean there are still many obstacles in the field to match the level of effectiveness as before the pandemic (mutongoza, et. al., 2021). effective schools have been indicated by the role of leadership to which transformational leadership is prominent. in addition, principals, vice principals and teachers are required to have strong leadership (budiharso & tarman, 2020) to make better working in the schools. data from the effectiveness of senior high school (sma) in samarinda, indonesia, show that the effectiveness of new institutions is still low. table 1 shows the level of effectiveness for the last five months. 1dr. mulawarman university, samarinda, email: laili.komariyah@fkip.unmul.ac.id mailto:laili.komariyah@fkip.unmul.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 table 1 organizational effectiveness level during june-october 2022 month score (%) classification june 65,2 moderate july 66,7 moderate august 68,2 moderate september 69,1 moderate october 70,1 moderate-high average 67,86 moderate the data in table 1 show the level of organizational effectiveness has not been maximized until october 2022, only reaching the upper-middle class. this means that the organization's effectiveness in achieving the institution's vision and mission cannot yet approach 100%. this is caused by several conditions, as shown in table 2. table 2 factors causing low organizational effectiveness causative factor f % there are still many campus residents who have been confirmed with covid-xbb 24 12 morale is still low 30 15 carried away by a prolonged pandemic situation 52 26 the organizational culture is still like during the pandemic 28 14 unenthusiastic organizational environment 28 14 less than optimal leadership 38 19 total 200 100 source: pre-survey 2022 the data in table 2 show that some obstacles still cause the post-pandemic situation and conditions to not recover from their pre-pandemic situation. one of the biggest obstacles, for example, is the situations and conditions during a pandemic. this is one of the reasons that triggers low work motivation. organizational effectiveness (budiharso, et. al., 2022) can also be seen from the quality of service, the satisfaction level of the students with the lecturers, the satisfaction level of the students with administrative services, the satisfaction level of the lecturers with management, and the satisfaction level of the lecturers with administrative services. it can be said that all of this is still low. table 3 shows the low condition. komariyah 310 table 3 level of internal stakeholder service satisfaction service type high (%) moderate (%) low (%) service quality 13 33 54 level of student satisfaction with lecturers 12 26 62 the level of student satisfaction with administrative services 16 20 64 level of lecturer satisfaction with management 9 32 59 the level of lecturer satisfaction with administrative services 8 19 73 average 11,6 26 62,4 source: output of pre-survey 2022 the data in table 3 show that the satisfaction level of the majority is still low. as table 4 shows, work experience of the dean, deputy dean, and head of the department can increase organizational effectiveness. however, the average years of the experience of the leaders range between four and eight years. table 4 structural officer leadership experience in the faculty leadership experience f % > 8 years 7 10 4.1 -8.0 12 17,1 1.1-4.0 32 45,7 < 1 year 19 27.2 amount 70 100 source: output of pre-survey 2022 table 4 shows that the majority of the respondents have leadership experience ranging between 1.1 and 4.0 years, with a rate of 45.7%, followed by employees with less than one year of service. table 5 shows that the quality of transformational leadership played by leaders in the faculty environment also seems to be low, as postulated by townsend, (2007). table 5 leadership experience of officials in the faculty environment transformational leadership conditions f % very good 5 7,1 well 14 20.0 currently 31 44,3 not good 13 18,6 not very good 7 10,0 amount 70 100 source: output pre-survey 2022 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 as table 5 shows, the quality of transformational leadership adopted by the management is still not good. previous research findings (burušić et al., 2009; budiharso & tarman, 2020) revealed that when an institution can improve the quality of leadership toward transformational leadership, its organizational effectiveness will increase rapidly. the strategy that institutions can adopt is to improve the quality of leadership with an orientation toward achieving long-term vision and mission, which will simultaneously increase organizational effectiveness (kirk & jones, 2004; bush, 2014). creemers & kyriakides (2006) found that when the work experience of leaders shows good conditions, it will provide valuable lessons for the robustness of an institution from the leadership side. it takes leadership with mature experience and leadership that can take the organization far beyond time and space. all of that is to improve the quality, competitiveness, and effectiveness of the organization in winning a competition in the real world (gortazar et al., 2014). the novelty of this research is evident in the importance of transformational leadership, which can translate various difficulties and challenges into opportunities and hopes that can be achieved easily in accordance with the vision and mission of the institution to become an effective institution and able to win the competition. leadership experience in the field of work is considered to be a novelty in explaining its contribution to the effectiveness of higher education organizations as nonprofit organizations, unlike previous research, which mostly examined profit-oriented organizations. research questions based on the background of the problem and the state of the art of the research, the research questions are as follows. 1. what is the effect of transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness? 2. what is the effect of leadership experience on organizational effectiveness? 3. what is the simultaneous effect of transformational leadership and leadership experience on organizational effectiveness? 4. what is the indirect effect of transformational leadership and leadership experience on organizational effectiveness through organizational commitment as a moderator variable? komariyah 312 study hypothesis h1. there is a significant relationship between transformational leadership and school effectiveness in achieving the vision, mission, and goals of the organization. h2. there is a significant relationship between the experience of being a leader and the effectiveness of school organizations in samarinda. h3. there is a significant simultaneous relationship between transformational leadership and experience as a leader and organizational effectiveness. h4. there is a significant relationship between transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness through organizational commitment. h5. there is a significant relationship between the experience of being a leader and organizational effectiveness through the organizational commitment variable. theoretical review and hypothesis development transformational leadership’s effect on organizational effectiveness there is a positive and significant relationship between transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness (lyle, 2018). effective institutions are marked by the application of transformational leadership. transformational leadership can bring all staff and employees to look at the desired future together with confident (budiharso, et. al., 2022). leadership can bring a change toward the desired future (nyagosia, et al., 2013). leadership that dares to carve togetherness toward the goals has been determined in the vision, mission, and goals through various well-organized and programmed strategies (ayuba, 2018). transformational leadership is characterized by leadership conditions that confidently look to the future with enthusiasm and pride in the belief that they will win the competition (musungu & nasongo, 2008). subordinates will love such leadership because it brings fresh air that can improve the overall welfare of employees. employee trust in the organization becomes stronger. employees have a higher level of commitment to the company, which impacts the company's effectiveness in achieving its goals (cheng, 1996). transformational leadership provides strategies for solving problems easily, quickly, and cheaply. such leadership can also provide various solutions without creating new problems. all efforts to overcome problems are easy without requiring a long time, a lot of money, and excessive effort (ontai-machado, 2016). transformational leadership can also turn obstacles into challenges and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 challenges into opportunities. thus, this type of leadership progressively moves forward, never gives up, and such leaders are always optimistic about winning the competition in this era of free competition (daggett, 2005). thus, the better the transformational leadership adopted by organizational managers, the more likely the organization will be more effective in achieving the organization’s vision, mission, and goals (doran, 2004). concerning this research, when faculty-level leaders from the dean, deputy dean, heads of departments, department secretaries, heads of study programs, and heads of laboratories apply good transformational leadership in leading, the institutions they lead will also be more effective in achieving goals. conversely, when faculty-level leaders cannot apply good transformational leadership, the organizational effectiveness will also be poor (kyriakides, 2004). hypothesis 1. there is a significant relationship between transformational leadership and school effectiveness in achieving the vision, mission, and goals of the organization. leadership experience’s effect on organizational effectiveness experience is very valuable. his existence becomes a teacher above a teacher who deserves the highest respect. experience is like a clue that cannot be denied (özgenel, 2019). he is a reflection of success with a very high level of effectiveness. experience can foster good or bad perceptions. experiences that cause good perceptions will be used as steppingstones to move forward. experiences that cause bad perceptions will always be remembered and not repeated (greenberg & baron, 2000). no learning load weighs more than experience. people flock to seek the expertise of something because its value is so valuable. if experience could be bought, everyone would buy that experience because of its high value (sailer, 1985). smart people will lose compared to experienced people. this is where the need for tenacity to gain the experience needed to meet the necessities of life and solve various life problems. concerning organizational effectiveness, mature leadership experience in the sense of long experience will be more effective when leading an organization (scheerens & creemers, 1989). moreover, the organization being led is an organization that is already complex, already has many divisions, so an experienced leader is needed (kyriakides, 2006). the higher the level of experience the leader has, the higher the possibility of the effectiveness of the organization he leads (hallinger & heck, 2010). komariyah 314 in this study, when faculty-level leaders, from the dean, deputy dean, head of the department, secretary of the department, head of the study program, and head of laboratory, have long experience in leading the institution, they will also lead more effectively in achieving goals. conversely, when faculty-level leaders do not have long enough experience, the effectiveness of the institute is also not good. hypothesis 2. there is a significant relationship between the experience of being a leader and the effectiveness of school organizations in samarinda. effect of transformational leadership and leadership experience on organizational effectiveness organizational effectiveness does not stand alone but is influenced by other highly related variables such as transformational leadership and leader experience. leaders who can apply transformational leadership will affect the effectiveness of leaders, as well as being a leader for a long time, and will gain various experiences that can find strategies to increase organizational effectiveness (hoy, 2019). organizational effectiveness is an endogenous or dependent variable, while many independent or exogenous variables can influence organizational effectiveness (scheerens & stoel, 1988). the results of previous research believe that good transformational leadership will increase organizational effectiveness. the better the transformational leadership, the better the organization's effectiveness in finding various innovations that can be used to improve the speed at which organizational goals are achieved (kirk & jones, 2004). leader experience that is manifested through long work as a leader will provide various strengths in overcoming work, life, and organizational development problems. an invaluable experience cannot be simply forgotten, but an experience that is always remembered. others may forget the experiences they have had. however, a tenacious leader will always remember the various experiences he has experienced in his life (konok, 2011). concerning this research, when faculty-level leaders at tertiary institutions ranging from deans, vice deans, heads of departments, department secretaries, heads of study programs, and heads of laboratories can simultaneously implement good transformational leadership and have sufficient experience in leading, then the institution he leads will also be more effective in achieving goals (wallin, 2003). conversely, when faculty-level leaders at a university cannot apply good journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 transformational leadership and do not have sufficient leadership experience, the institution's effectiveness will also be poor (landis, 1998). hypothesis 3. there is a significant simultaneous relationship between transformational leadership and experience as a leader and organizational effectiveness. the influence of transformational leadership and experience on organizational effectiveness through organizational commitment organizational commitment is the willingness of staff and employees to devote themselves to the organization they participate in with high awareness to advance the organization to beat its competitors. this awareness grows among organizational leaders, staff, and employees to jointly advance the organization to achieve sustainability (lyle, 2018). from the top-level management to all employees working with their respective areas of expertise to contribute dedication and competence to achieve the organization's vision, mission, and goals as determined jointly (kemaca, 2008). in all organizational components, no one is left behind to jointly achieve common goals to improve shared welfare (yusuf & alabi, 2013) to increase commitment, many theories say that the level of employee welfare must be increased. likewise, employee satisfaction must be increased through various incentives, bonuses, health insurance, work facilities, position benefits, family allowances, insurance, transportation assistance, lunch, overtime, recreation, and other benefits (kanmaz & uyar, 2016). all this is done so that their level of satisfaction increases, which will affect increasing commitment to the organization (lezotte et al., 2002). in this study, organizational commitment is placed as a moderator variable that will moderate the effect of transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness and the effect of length of service as a leader on organizational effectiveness (budiharso & tarman, 2020). theoretically, when organizational commitment is included in the influence of these variables, the effect will increase. conversely, when organizational commitment is removed from this influence, the influence effect will decrease. hypothesis 4. there is a significant relationship between transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness through organizational commitment. hypothesis 5. there is a significant relationship between the experience of being a leader and organizational effectiveness through the organizational commitment variable. komariyah 316 methods research design this study is a quantitative, correlational, and verificative study aiming to test study hypotheses based on data originating from research locations explored using surveys (creemers et al., 2010). this study is also a model development research because the theoretical model developed by the researcher is then tested and once accepted as a good model, it can be applied and generalized to a wider population. specifically, the study adopted a quantitative method and aimed to examine the relationship between transformational leadership and years of experience of leadership their effectiveness on the organization efficacy for sma during the covid-19 pandemic. the study has the following three variables: the independent variables (x) are transformational leadership and years of experience, while the dependent variable (y) is organization efficacy to manage school. study sample a proportional random sampling technique was used to select the study sample that was assigned as the respondent of this study. proportionally, the total number of the sample was 154 coming from 6 public schools and 5 private schools. at the time of data collection, 9 individuals were absent so that the final number of the sample as 145. the researchers assigned the 145 sample as the respondents of this study. each school contributed 14 respondents, consisting of 1 principal, 3 vice principals, and 10 teachers. see table 6. table 6 study sample school occupation public school private school total sma 1 principal 1 1 2 vice principal 3 3 6 teacher 10 10 20 sma 2 principal 1 1 2 vice principal 3 3 6 teacher 10 10 20 sma 3 principal 1 1 2 vice principal 3 3 6 teacher 10 10 20 sma 4 principal 1 1 2 vice principal 3 3 6 teacher 10 10 20 sma 5 principal 1 1 2 vice principal 3 3 6 teacher 10 10 20 sma 6 principal 1 1 vice principal 3 3 teacher 10 10 84 70 154 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 research instrument the study used a self-constructed questionnaire developed based on a grid compiled with reference to each variable's theory, dimensions, and indicators. table 7 shows the dimensions and indicators of each variable. table 7 dimensions and indicators of the research instrument variable dimensions indicator item number transformational leadership view of vision understanding of the organization's vision 1 ability to translate vision 2 a view of the organization's mission understanding of the organization's mission 3 ability to translate missions 4 organization goals understanding of organizational goals 5 strategy for achieving vision and mission the strategy used by leaders to achieve the vision 6 the strategy used by the leader to achieve the mission 7 years of experience as a leader long time in the previous position the length of years of office is different from the current position 8 long time in current position years in the last position 9 organizational effectiveness product quantity number of products that have been produced 10 product achievement level 11 output quality quality level 12 level of quality achievement 13 organizational commitment commitment to duties and functions commitment to carry out tasks 14 commitment to perform a function 15 commitment to institutions commitment to advancing the organization 16 commitment to organizational goals 17 loyalty to the leading institution commitment to organization 18 commitment to the leadership of the organization 19 source: relevant theory (carmichael, 2002). instrument calibration instrument calibration includes testing the validity and reliability of the instrument. the validity of the instrument was tested by checking the relationship between the item scores and the total komariyah 318 score (table 8). the reliability of the instrument was tested using cronbach's alpha scores (table 9). table 8 instrument validity test item number r sig. conclusions 1 .784 .000 valid 2 .834 .000 valid 3 .734 .000 valid 4 .751 .000 valid 5 .834 .000 valid 6 .812 .000 valid 7 .781 .000 valid 8 .814 .000 valid 9 .821 .000 valid 10 .832 .000 valid 11 .783 .000 valid 12 .784 .000 valid 13 .817 .000 valid 14 .821 .000 valid 15 .831 .000 valid 16 .772 .000 valid 17 .776 .000 valid 18 .837 .000 valid 19 .851 .000 valid source: 2022 research instrument trial results table 8 shows that all 19 instrument items are valid as they have a correlation coefficient greater than .70 and a significance of <0.05. the instrument reliability test to determine the consistency level of the instrument is shown in table 9. table 9 validity test in terms of loading factor effectiveness of faculty (z) organizational commitment (y) transformational leadership (x1) year of leadership experience (x2) eff1 0,861 eff2 0,942 eff3 0,956 eff4 0,916 oc1 0,943 oc2 0,938 oc3 0,936 oc4 0,942 oc5 0,841 oc6 0,843 tl1 0,976 tl2 0,972 tl3 0,971 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 tl4 0,974 tl5 0,983 tl6 0,977 tl7 0,979 yle1 0,964 yle2 0,970 as table 9 shows, the average of each manifest variable studied has a loading factor value of > 0.7. based on these results, it would be safe to say that overall the manifests used in this study have met the reliability criteria and can be used for further analysis. table 10 presents the data related to ave values, ave roots, and correlations between variables. table 10 ave, akar ave, and latent variable correlation variable ave ave job satisfaction employee performance managerial performance organizational commi job satisfaction 0.795 0.891 1.000 0.346 0.208 0.485 employee performance 0.695 0.834 0.346 1.000 0.793 0.299 managerial performance 0.748 0.865 0.208 0.793 1.000 0.182 organizational commitment 0.794 0.891 0.485 0.299 0.182 1.000 source: data processed by smartpls table 10 shows that all ave roots are higher than the correlation values between constructs and other constructs, which means that all constructs in the estimated model meet the discriminant validity criteria. the cronbach's alpha value is also used to strengthen the reliability test results above. if the cronbach's alpha value is greater than 0.6, it will be safe to say that the variable is reliable. table 11 shows the cronbach's alpha scores of each variable. table 11 cronbach's alpha scores cronbach's alpha rho_a composite reliability (rho_c) average variance extracted (ave) effectiveness of faculty (z) 0,939 0,959 0,956 0,845 organizational commitment (y) 0,957 0,963 0,966 0,825 transformational leadership (x1) 0,992 0,993 0,993 0,953 year of leadership experience (x2) 0,931 0,936 0,966 0,935 source: results of instrument trial 2022 komariyah 320 as table 11 shows, cronbach's alpha coefficient scores for all variables are greater than 0.6, and thus it is safe to say that all variables are reliable. reliable instruments will produce relatively fixed data even though they are used by other researchers, in other places, and at different times. based on the instrument calibration test as described in tables 8 and 9, it can be concluded that the instrument compiled based on reading the theory is feasible for an instrument for collecting primary data in the field (luyten & sammons 2010). data collection the research data were collected from the research location by distributing questionnaires to the respondents (goldstein, 1995). the questionnaire was distributed to 154 respondents from 11 smas. the data were collected in two stages for two weeks. in the first week, the questionnaire was distributed to respondents in the 6 public smas. for this purpose, 84 respondents were assigned to answer the questionnaire. accordingly, in the second week, 70 respondents from 5 private smas were assigned to answer the questionnaire. after the questionnaire was collected, there were identified that 9 respondents were absent, so that the total number of respondents became 145. this way, the initial examination results of n = 145 were complete and eligible for entry. complete data entry into microsoft excel is then transferred to the spss and with the smart pls software. data analysis structural equation modeling (sem) was utilized to analyze the data. descriptive and assumption tests were conducted using spss. descriptive test was used to determine central tendency (mean, median, and mode), minimum, maximum, range, standard deviation, variance, kurtosis, and skewness. assumption tests were utilized to check normality, homogeneity, and linearity of the study data. this assumption test is used to determine whether primary data from the field is appropriate to test the research hypothesis. the process of testing the hypothesis uses smart pls software. in accordance with the sem procedure, before testing the hypothesis, the outer model is tested first, then the inner model is tested, both the direct and indirect models (hox, 2002). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 study results the research results include a descriptive test, an assumption test, and a hypothesis test. descriptive analysis table 12 shows the details of the descriptive test. table 12 descriptive analysis tl yle eff oc n valid 145 145 145 145 missing 0 0 0 0 mean 28.0828 7.7448 15.2483 24.9103 median 28.0000 8.0000 17.0000 26.0000 mode 28.00 8.00 18.00 26.00 std. deviation 7.68522 2.10086 4.30525 5.35661 variance 59.063 4.414 18.535 28.693 skewness -1.299 -1.192 -1.033 -1.633 std. error of skewness .201 .201 .201 .201 kurtosis .718 .515 -.137 2.148 std. error of skewness .400 .400 .400 .400 range 28.00 8.00 16.00 24.00 minimum 7.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 maximum 35.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 source: spss analysis 2022 table 11 shows that the largest mean is on the transformational leadership variable, and the largest variance is on the same variable. the worst slope occurs in the organizational commitment variable, namely -1.633. so, the highest peak point is in the same variable, which is equal to 2.148. the widest range is the transformational leadership variable, with a score of 28.0. testing of assumptions the first assumption test is carried out to check the normality of the data. figure 1 illustrates normality test results using a scatter plot. komariyah 322 figure 1 normality test as figure 1 illustrates, the data for all variables are distributed normally as the point tends to approach the normal line. the second assumption test is the test of linearity. tables 13, 14, and 15 show the intended test results. table 13 tl linearity test for eff sum of squares df mean square f sig. eff * tl between v (combined) 538.947 17 31.703 1.890 .024 linearity 126.445 1 126.445 7.539 .007 deviation from linearity 412.502 16 25.781 1.537 .097 within groups 2130.115 127 16.773 total 2669.062 144 source: spss output 2022 the linearity of the data on transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness is linear with an f of 7.539 with a significance of 0.007 <0.05 (raudenbush & bryk, 2002). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 table 14 yle linearity test on efficiency sum of squares df mean square f sig. eff * yle between groups (combined) 1113.435 8 139.179 12.168 .000 linearity 758.222 1 758.222 66.287 .000 deviation from linearity 355.213 7 50.745 4.436 .000 within groups 1555.628 136 11.438 total 2669.062 144 source: spss output 2022 the primary research data for leadership experience/tenure on organizational effectiveness also shows a linear trend with f = 66.287 and a significant value of 0.00 <0.05. thus, it would be safe to say that the data for these two variables are linear. table 15 linearity test of organizational commitment to efficiency sum of squares df mean square f sig. eff * oc between groups (combined) 692.542 18 38.475 2.453 .002 linearity 261.384 1 261.384 16.663 .000 deviation from linearity 431.158 17 25.362 1.617 .069 within groups 1976.521 126 15.687 total 2669.062 144 source: spss output 2022 the primary data for the variable organizational commitment to organizational effectiveness also shows a linear condition with f = 16.663 and a significant value of 0.00 <0.05, so it can be stated that the two data are linear. the third assumption test is the test of homogeneity. table 16 shows the test results. komariyah 324 table 16 test of homogeneity of variances levene statistic df1 df2 sig. 45.619 3 576 .063 source: spss output 2022 table 16 shows that the variance of each variable shows no significant difference and all variants are homogeneous. the fourth assumption test is the multicollinearity test. table 17 provides evidence that there is no strong relationship between independent variables. table 17 test of multicollinearity effectiveness of faculty (z) organizational commitment (y) transformational leadership (x1) year of leadership experience (x2) effectiveness of faculty (z) transformational leadership (x1) 0,227 0,810 year of leadership experience (x2) 0,573 0,328 0,162 source: smart pls output 2022 table 17 provides evidence that the effect of x1 and x2is only 0.162 <0.60. thus, the transformational leadership variable and length of service as a leader do not have a strong effect or are also called mutually independent. hypothesis testing based on the hypothesis that has been formulated, the research data are inferential statistical data and will be measured using the smart pls application, starting from the measurement model (outer model), structure model (inner model), and hypothesis testing. figure 2 depicts the calculation results of the pls-sem model using the pls-sem algorithm. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 figure 2 pls-sem algorithm figure 2 illustrates that all the path efficiency has been described, and the loading factor for each indicator exceeds 0.7. thus, all dimensions can be used to test the hypothesis. the test results with the bootstrapping method using the smartpls software are shown in figure 3. figure 3 bootstrapping inner model figure 3 illustrates the magnitude of the t-test for each pair of variables. komariyah 326 table 18 research hypothesis test original sample (o) standard deviation (stdev) t statistics (|o/stdev|) p values transformational leadership (x1) -> effectiveness of faculty (z) 0,028 0,083 0,338 0,736 year of leadership experience (x2) -> effectiveness of faculty (z) 0,496 0,092 5,384 0,000 source: output smart pls 3.0 (2022) h1: the effect of transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness testing the first hypothesis showed a path coefficient of 0.028 with a t count of 0.338 <t table 1.96 with a significance of 0.736 > 0.05. thus, h1 is rejected. transformational leadership has no significant effect on the organizational effectiveness. the level of organizational effectiveness is not affected by the transformational leadership that is carried out in the institution. h2: effect of leadership work experience on organizational effectiveness testing the second hypothesis showed a path coefficient of 0.496 with a t count of 5.384 > t table 1.96 with a significance of 0.000 <0.05. thus, h2 is accepted. testing the second hypothesis proves that leadership work experience positively affects organizational effectiveness, meaning that the longer the leadership work experience, the higher the organizational effectiveness. h3: the mutual effect of transformational leadership and leadership work experience on organizational effectiveness table 19 r dan r2 r square r square adjusted effectiveness of faculty (z) 0,323 0,309 source: analysis of smart pls 2022 the results of the third hypothesis test showed an r2 of 0.323. that means that both transformational leadership and leadership work experience positively affect the institution's journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 effectiveness. the contribution of these two variables to the effectiveness of the institution is 32.3%, and the remaining 67.7% is influenced by other variables not included in the model. h4: the effect of transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness through organizational commitment table 20 shows that from the results of the analysis of the total effects. the results showed that the effect of transformational leadership on the effectiveness of the institution through organizational commitment showed a path coefficient of 0.111 with a t of 1.544 <t table 1.98 with a p-value of 0.123 > 0.05, and thus h4 is rejected. thus, it can be concluded that the organizational commitment variable cannot effectively act as a mediating variable. its role is only pseudo or partially mediating. table 20 total effect original sample (o) standard deviation (stdev) t statistics (|o/stdev|) p values transformational leadership (x1) -> organizational commitment (y) -> effectiveness of faculty (z) 0,111 0,072 1,544 0,123 year of leadership experience (x2) -> organizational commitment (y) -> effectiveness of faculty (z) 0,027 0,023 1,198 0,231 source: results of smartpls 3.0 data processing (2022) h5: the effect of leadership work experience on the effectiveness of the institution through the mediation of organizational commitment the results of the analysis of the fifth hypothesis test are shown in table 18. the fifth hypothesis test showed a path coefficient of 0.027, t count 1.198 < t table 1.98, and p-value 0.231 > 0.05 (alpha significance 5%). thus, it can be concluded that h5 is rejected. mediation variables are only pseudo or partially mediating. komariyah 328 discussion the effect of transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness the results of the analysis show that transformational leadership has no significant effect on organizational effectiveness. theoretically, effective organizations should always apply transformational leadership with far-reaching insights into the future (reynolds et al., 2014). leadership that is applied must be able to articulate the vision and mission of the organization to be easily understood by all internal stakeholders of the organization itself. many previous studies have reported this effect. this research is different from previous studies, which conclude that better transformational leadership carried out by organizational leaders will increase organizational effectiveness (bass & riggio, 2006). the results of this study cannot answer that transformational leadership that invites subordinates to be ready to fight for a challenging future makes them prepared to compete and win all competitions. the market is the main target of winning the competition. concerning tertiary institutions, this research is unable to answer that competition among tertiary institutions will be won by those who explicitly apply transformational leadership strictly (bogler, 2001), the results of this study are also not in line with previous research (bush, 2014) in the following context. when transformational leadership can be applied in a strictly disciplined manner, it is expected that internal stakeholders will also be strict in following the wishes of leaders who adopt transformational leadership. in other words, this research is different from previous research, which concluded that the good intentions of the leadership to apply transformational leadership must be fully supported by stakeholders so that the energy that the leadership has expended can produce good results in increasing organizational effectiveness (dinh et al., 2014). all parties must be highly aware of the commitment to support leaders who try to use all their capabilities to implement transformational leadership so that increasing productivity efficiency can be realized quickly, precisely, and according to predetermined goals. the true meaning of this finding is that when leaders want to improve organizational effectiveness in achieving organizational goals, they should always focus on implementing perfect transformational leadership (dowling, 2007). the effect of leadership tenure experience on organizational effectiveness year of experience as an institutional leader has a positive effect on increasing organizational effectiveness. leader experience becomes a determining factor for the effectiveness of an journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 organization in achieving organizational goals. various strategies for achieving organizational goals will not be achieved on time if they are not led by experienced leaders who can translate various obstacles into opportunities. work period and experience as a leader can guide the smooth achievement of goals. experience is the most effective teacher in overcoming various problems faced by staff in the field. experience has the most valuable meaning for a leader in overcoming unexpected problems. experience as a leader is needed for anyone, especially in fields with a high risk of failure (leithwood & jantzi, 2005). organizational effectiveness in capturing various opportunities and taking advantage of opportunities to turn them into golden opportunities will be determined by the experience of their leaders. inexperienced leaders must work hard and make extra adjustments to compensate for the lack of field experience (kurland et al., 2010). a leader who crawls from the bottom to pursue a career sequentially over a long time makes him like a captain who is hit by storms and high waves every time. no captain is tough before he is full of these two precarious situations. likewise, in organizations, leadership that is rich in experience and full of challenges in every way, makes them tough and solid like a rock that doesn't shake because of strong waves and winds (nir & hameiri, 2014). the effect of transformational leadership and leadership experience on organizational effectiveness the results of the hypothesis testing the joint effect of transformational leadership and leadership experience on organizational effectiveness are positive and significant. the effect is far greater than partially. this shows that when organizational leaders want to increase organizational effectiveness, they must take the following two steps: improving the quality of transformational leadership and selecting prospective leaders with proven experience and a good track record. leader experience and experience in applying transformational leadership is needed for organizational effectiveness in achieving organizational goals (eyal & kark, 2004). assuming that organizational goals are dreams, management must be able to persuade leaders at all levels, from top and middle to lower leaders, to always jointly implement transformational leadership that prioritizes long-term orientation and enhances the quality of leaders through komariyah 330 various leadership experiences. this cannot be done in pieces or parts, but it will be stronger and faster when done together (eyal & roth, 2011). this cannot be done piecemeal, but it will be stronger and faster when done together (eyal & roth, 2011). this study's results align with the findings that transformational leadership and leadership experience can jointly affect organizational effectiveness. when working together, these two variables have a greater effect than individually. the implication is, of course, that leaders must apply these findings according to the results of research that previous researchers have conducted by not leaving out one of the variables. simultaneous direct effect is believed to be the best model for increasing organizational effectiveness in achieving the organization's vision, mission, and goals (heck & hallinger, 2014). indirect effect of transformational leadership and experience on effectiveness through organizational commitment the indirect effect test analysis results concluded that the organizational commitment variable could not effectively mediate the influence of transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness and the effect of experience as a leader on organizational effectiveness. the findings revealed that the direct effect has a greater r coefficient than the indirect effect. thus, the moderating variable does not provide significant benefits. therefore, leaders should improve organizational effectiveness directly by increasing the ability to apply transformational leadership rather than through organizational commitment. likewise, institutional leaders can directly increase leadership experience rather than going through organizational commitment (hsiao & chang, 2011). the study results align with previous research, which concluded that transformational leadership could directly affect organizational effectiveness in producing an output. organizational output can be increased by increasing the quality of applied transformational leadership. likewise, organizational effectiveness in improving organizational products can be done through increasing leadership experience in moving the organization (judge & piccolo, 2004). the process of planning, organizing, implementing, and evaluating can be carried out by leaders who adopt transformational leadership and leaders with high experience. organizational commitment is not an intervening or moderating variable but outside these two roles (kark et al., journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 2003). the position of organizational commitment is more effective as an independent variable or exogenous variable than as a moderating variable ((budiharso & tarman, 2020). this research results imply that transformational leadership should be implemented in the vision and mission of an organization thorough leadership practices. experience of work is an effective factor to contribute the effectiveness of higher education organizations. conclusion this study reveals the role of transformational leadership and years of experiences demonstrated by principals, vice principals, and teachers of public and private sma in indonesia. first, there is no significant effect of transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness. institutions that wish to improve their work effectiveness do not need to apply transformational leadership but democratic leadership that can bring all activities towards the organization's mini-vision by prioritizing easy, straightforward problem solving and always referring to standard operating procedures set by the organization. second, there is a significant relationship between leadership experience and organizational effectiveness. leaders with work experience with high working hours will generate effective performance without making many mistakes that render the organization to be ineffective. third, there is a jointly significant relationship between transformational leadership and years of service as a leader and organizational effectiveness. transformational leadership combined with a leader's experience will jointly determine an organization's effectiveness. in other words, an effective organization will not forget the process of implementing transformational leadership and the leadership work experience of officials within the organization. fourth, organizational commitment is not able to play an effective role in mediating the indirect effect of transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness. likewise, organizational commitment cannot play an effective role in mediating the indirect effect of leadership tenure on organizational effectiveness. therefore, the direct effect is more meaningful than the indirect effect. this study has a novelty in that the vision and mission of higher education can be achieved through leadership transformation where leadership experience becomes the effective factor to implement. this study however, has a limitation in that the sample is selected from one university only. future research is suggested to enlarge this sample through for example a survey research involving more than one university and thousand samples. komariyah 332 references ayuba, a. a. (2018). quality control, teacher motivation and effectiveness in kwara state public senior secondary schools. [doctoral dissertation, kwara state university, nigeria]. bass, b. m., & riggio, r. e. (2006). transformational leadership, psychology press.bezirtzoglou, m. (2004). reconsidering school effectiveness research for the needs of the future school. paper presented at the european conference on educational research, university of crete, 22-25 bogler, r. (2001). the influence of leadership style on teacher job satisfaction," educational administration quarterly, v37(5), pp. 662-683. budiharso, t, makruf, i, mujahid, i. (2022). porter’s five forces: evaluating education management practices for the postgraduate program of uin rm said surakarta, indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 13(1), 164-192, https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4035/555 budiharso, t. & tarman, b. (2020). improving quality education through better working conditions of academic institutes, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 7(1), 99-115. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 burušić, j., babarović, t., & šakić, m. (2009). determinants of school effectiveness in primary schools in the republic of croatia: results of empirical investigation. 4-5, 605-624. bush, t. (2014). instructional and transformational leadership: alternative and complementary models?" educational management administration and leadership, 42(4), pp. 443-444. cheng, cheong, y. (1996). total teacher effectiveness: new conception and improvement. international journal of educational management, 10(6), 7-17. creemers, b.p.m., & kyriakides, l. (2006). a critical analysis of the current approaches to modelling educational effectiveness: the importance of establishing a dynamic model. school effectiveness and school improvement, 17, 347–366. creemers, b.p.m., kyriakides, l., & sammons, p. (2010). methodological advances in educational effectiveness research. taylor & francis. daggett, w. r. (2005). successful schools: from research to action plans. paper presented at june 2005 model schools conference. http://www.daggett.com/white_papers.html dinh, j. e., lord, r. g., gardner, w. l., meuser, j. d., liden, r. c., &hu, j. (2014). leadership theory and research in the new millennium: current theoretical trends and changing perspectives. the leadership quarterly, 25(1), 36–62. doran, j. a. (2004). effective school characteristics and student achievement correlates as perceived by teachers in american-style international schools. [doctoral dissertation, university of central florida]. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4035/555 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/306 http://www.daggett.com/white_papers.html journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 dowling, c. m. (2007). a measurement of instructional and transformational leadership of the assistant principal: its relationship to closing the achievement gap, [doctoral dissertation, university of akron]. eyal, o., & kark, r. (2004). how do transformational leaders transform organizations? a study of the relationship between leadership and entrepreneurship, leadership and policy in schools, 3(3), pp. 211235. eyal, o., & roth, g. (2011). “principals’ leadership and teachers’ motivation: selfdetermination theory analysis, journal of educational administration, 49 (3), pp. 256-275. goldstein, h. (1995). multilevel models in educational & social research: a revised edition. edward arnold. gortazar, l., kutner, & d., inoue, k. (2014). education quality and opportunities for skills development in albania: an analysis of pisa 2000-2012 results. washington, dc: world bank group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/ 2012/01/20214469/educationquality-opportunities-skills-development-albania-analysispisa-2000-2012-results. september 11, 2015. greenberg, j., & baron, r. a. (2000). behavior in organizations: managing the human side of work. prentice hall international inc. hallinger, p., & heck, r. h. (2010). collaborative leadership and school improvement: understanding the impact on school capacity and student learning. school leadership and management, 30(20): 95-110. heck, r. h., & hallinger, p. (2014). modeling the longitudinal effects of school leadership on teaching and learning, journal of educational administration, 52 (5), pp. 653-681. hoy, w. k. (2019). school effectiveness index (se-index). https://www.waynekhoy.com/school effectiveness/ hsiao, h. c., & chang, j. c. (2011). the role of organizational learning in transformational leadership and organizational innovation, asia pacific education review, 12 (4), pp. 621631. judge, t. a., & piccolo, r. f. (2004). transformational and transactional leadership: a metaanalytic test of their relative validity, journal of applied psychology, 89 (5), p. 755. kanmaz, a., & uyar, l. (2016). the effect of school efficiency on student achievement. international journal of assessment tools in education, 3(2), 123-136. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.239551 kark, r., shamir, b., & chen, g. (2003). the two faces of transformational leadership: empowerment and dependency, journal of applied psychology, 88(2), pp. 246-255. kemaca. (2008). education management capacity assessment: a pilot in kenya. nairobi: kenya education management capacity assessment. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/ https://www.waynekhoy.com/school-effectiveness/ https://www.waynekhoy.com/school-effectiveness/ https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.239551 komariyah 334 kirk, d. j., & jones, t. l. (2004, september 11). effective schools. pearson assessment report. http://images.pearsonassessments.com/images/tmrs/tmrs_rg/effectiveschools.pdf?wt.mc_ id =tmrs_effective_schools. konok, m. m. i. (2011). sustainable school improvement: a case study of the needs of two bangladeshi schools. [doctoral dissertation, university of saskatchewan]. kurland, h., peretz, h., & hertz-lazarowitz, r. (2010). leadership style and organizational learning: the mediate effect of school vision, journal of educational administration, 48(1), pp. 7-30. kyriakides, l. (2004). differential school effectiveness in relation to sex and social class: some implications for policy evaluation. educational research and evaluation, 10(2), 141–161. kyriakides, l. (2006). introduction: international studies on educational effectiveness. educational research and evaluation, 12 (6), 489–497. leithwood, k., & jantzi, d. (2005). a review of transformational school leadership research 1996– 2005, leadership and policy in schools, 4(3), pp. 177-199. lezotte, l. w., skaife, r. d., & holstead, m. d. (2002). effective schools-only you can make a difference. all star publishing. luyten, h., & sammons p. (2010). multilevel modelling, in b.p.m. creemers, l., kyriakides, & p. sammons (eds.). methodological advances in educational effectiveness. routledge lyle, s. (2018). the relative contribution of transformational leadership, socioeconomic status, and years of principal experience on overall school effectiveness. [doctoral dissertation, the university of alabama at birmingham]. musungu, l. l., & nasongo, j. w. (2008). the head-teacher’s instructional role in academic achievement in secondary schools in vihiga district, kenya. educational research and review, 3(10): 316-323. mutongoza, b.h., olawale, b.e. & mzilikazi, b. (2021). chronicling school principals’ experiences on school management in the context of covid-19 stringency. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 146-162. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.35. nir, a. e., & hameiri, l. (2014)/ school principals' leadership style and school outcomes: the mediating effect of powerbase utilization, journal of educational administration,52(2), pp. 210-227. nyagosia, p. o., waweru, s. n., & njuguna, f. w. (2013). factors influencing academic achievement in public secondary schools in central kenya: an effective schools’ perspective. educational research international, 2(2): 174-184. ontai-machado, d. o. m. (2016). teachers' perceptions of elementary school principals' leadership attributes and their relationship to school effectiveness. [doctorate dissertation, walden university]. http://images.pearsonassessments.com/images/tmrs/tmrs_rg/effectiveschools.pdf?wt.mc_id http://images.pearsonassessments.com/images/tmrs/tmrs_rg/effectiveschools.pdf?wt.mc_id https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.35 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),308-335 özgenel, m. (2019). an antecedent of teacher performance: occupational commitment. international journal of eurasian education and culture, 4(7): 100-126. reynolds, d., sammons, p., de fraine, b., van damme, j., townsend, t., teddlie, c., & stringfield, s. (2014). educational effectiveness research (eer): a state-of-the-art review. school effectiveness and school improvement, 25(2), 197-230. sailer, n. m. (1985). the connecticut school effectiveness project: an analysis of the impact after three years. [doctorate dissertation, bridgeport university]. scheerens, j., & creemers, b. p. (1989). conceptualizing school effectiveness. international journal of educational research, 13(7), 691-706. scheerens, j., & stoel, w. g. (1988). development of theories of school-effectiveness. paper presented at the annual meeting of the american educational research association, april 5-9, new orleans. townsend, t. (ed.). (2007). international handbook of school effectiveness and improvement (vol. 17). springer. wallin, j. (2003). improving school effectiveness. abac journal, 23(1): 61-72. yusuf, l. a., & alabi, c. o. (2013). enhancing school effectiveness in the universal basic education (ube) programme in nigeria: issues and implications. journal of education, arts and humanities, 1(3): 022-026. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 270-289 270 religious education for aliran kebatinan community in contemporary indonesia dahlia lubis1 abstract this paper is a literature review of the fulfillment of the rights of aliran kebatinan/kepercayaan followers, or penghayat kepercayaan, to obtain religious education in indonesia. aliran kebatinan or kebatinan is a religious community that has been discriminated since the independence of indonesia. up to these days, kebatinan has not been recognized as one of the official religions in indonesia. specifically, this study examines two issues, namely; the discrimination experienced by the kebatinan followers in indonesia, and the fulfillment of the rights to religious education in accordance with the beliefs of kebatinan followers. this study revealed two findings; first, kebatinan still becomes a marginalized minority community in indonesia even though the followers of this belief is quite large. the followers of kebatinan had continuously been discriminated until 2017 when the constitutional court of the republic of indonesia recognized their rights. second, since the independence of indonesia until 2016, the aliran kebatinan community was “forced” to learn other religious education such as; islam, christian, hinduism, buddhism or confucianism at schools even though they were not the adherents of one of these six official religions. in 2006, the government of the republic of indonesia through the ministry of education and culture issued a regulation on religious education in formal education institution. finally, the students who are the followers of kebatinan were given religious education named “religious education”. thus, the government of indonesia began to have a commitment to provide religious education services for adherents of kebatinan in indonesia. key words: kebatinan, kepercayaan, educations, rights, indonesia, minority introduction indonesia is a country consisting of various ethnicities, languages, and religions. from the religious aspect, there are six official religions in indonesia, namely; islam, protestant, catholic, hinduism, buddhism and confucianism (crouch, 2014; ibn chifarie, 2018). every religion consists of various schools. islam is a religion adhered by the majority of population in indonesia, and there are various schools within the muslim community. some communities are sunni, which is the majority, and some others are shia and ahmadiyya, which are the minorities. muslims in indonesia are affiliated with certain islamic organizations, such as; al jam’iyatul washliyah, nahdlatul ulama (nu), muhammadiyah, persatuan islam (persis), and persatuan 1dra., m.ag., ph.d., universitas islam negeri sumatera utara medan, dahlialubis.uinsu@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 tarbiyah islamiyah (perti). these organizations are affiliated with sunni schools (ja’far, 2018; niam, 2017; pullungan, 2018; burhani; 2018). shia and ahmadiyya as the minority groups also founded religious organization, such as; ikatan jamaah ahlul bait indonesia and ahlul bait indonesia (abi) for the shia group (zulkifli, 2009; al makin, 2017; ahmad, 2017), jemaat ahmadiyah indonesia (jai) and gerakan ahmadiyah indonesia (gai) for the ahmadiyya group (zulkarnain, 2005; mariani, 2013; soedirgo, 2017). in addition to those two groups of minority, there is another religious community called kebatinan or penghayat kepercayaan which is adopted by a number of indonesia citizens (hefner, 2018). kebatinan is derived from the arabic word batin, meaning "hidden", or "inner self". it is a combination of metaphysics, mysticism and other esoteric doctrines from animistic, hinduistic, buddhist and islamic origins with the aim of a metaphysical search for harmony within one's inner self, connection with the universe, and with an almighty god (choy, 1999). thus, kebatinan have no certain prophet, sacred book, nor distinct religious festivals and rituals. the followers of kebatinan in indonesia are quite large, and this group consists of no less than 83 schools (hadiwijono, 2006; kinasih, 2018). even though islam is adopted by the majority of indonesia’s population, indonesia is not an islamic state. pancasila becomes the basis of this country, democracy is implemented, and this country fights for human rights. in the reformation era, indonesia has been perceived as a modern country which implements a democratic system and respects human rights. however, discrimination still becomes a concern in this country due to the different religions and religious understanding. it cannot be denied that the existence of majority and minority group still becomes a problem in modern indonesia. denny ja (2014) shows that the cases of discrimination in the form of violations of religious freedom and intolerance continue to occur in indonesia. discrimination occurs because of religious differences and understanding, sexual orientation, and gender. within the muslim community, there are three groups that are still discriminated, namely; ahmadiyya, shia, and religious schools which are considered heretical. a number of conflicts in the name of religion also occurred in indonesia. among the minority groups in indonesia, the followers of kebatinan, as the local religion, are still discriminated since this religion is seen as deviant sect and cannot be recognized as one of the official religions (hakiki, 2011; djafar, 2018). this community keeps fighting for their rights so that they can be recognized by indonesian law and have equal rights as other citizens do. even lubis though the indonesian people have entered a reform era where freedom has been given, but the issue of discrimination and intolerance due to differences in religion, ethnicity, belief, social orientation and gender still continues to occur. the majority and the minority groups do not have mutual understanding in which according to the democracy, every citizen has the same rights and obligations. djafar (2018) adds that the followers of kebatinan are among the groups that are still discriminated. among the forms of discrimination experienced by this community are the fulfilment of basic administrative rights, such as the identity cards, family identity and marriage records. despite having a large number of followers, this sec is not considered as a religion, thus it is not managed by the ministry of religion of the republic of indonesia but only facilitated by the ministry of education and culture. although the believers of this group are indonesian citizens, it turns out that they are not treated and facilitated equally by the government. in fact, related to the fulfillment of the rights for religious education in formal education institution, the followers of kebatinan are still discriminated. this study is based on the idea that education is a process of facilitating young people to gain knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits under the guidance of educators so that students can teach themselves (dewey, 1944). basically, education functions as a medium for exploring knowledge, attitudes, and skills (gibbs and blakely; 2000). as a minority group in indonesia, kebatinan has enough followers who still need educational institution in order to gain the knowledge, attitudes, and skilss needed. unfortunately, their rights to obtain religious education has not been accommodated by the government, so formal education institutions have not been able to be a medium for disseminating their knowledge, attitudes, and skills regarding their beliefs. for this reason, through this study, the researchers will examine how this minority groups are able to teach their religious education to the next generation through formal education institutions in indonesia. a number of studies on kebatinan has been carried out with the majority of the researchers examined the teachings, history and the development of kebatinan in indonesia, including indrawardana (2014), wijayanti (2013), syukron (2013), kholid (2013), syafariah widjayanti (2015) and khotimah (2016). some others examined the rights of kebatinan followers as citizens, including the studies conducted by hakiki (2011), mutaqin (2014), budijanto (2016), arifin (2017), hamid (2018), azizah (2018), diah (2018), setiawan (2018), sulfiyah (2018), journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 yuliani (2018), argani (2018) and lukman (2018). however, none of these researchers have examined how the followers of kebatinan group gained their rights of religious education in indonesia. in other words, no studies have been conducted focusing on the fulfillment of the kebatinan followers’ rights for religious education in formal education institution in indonesia. in regards to the gap of the current literature, this study will examine how the followers of kebatinan as a minority group in indonesia get their rights for religious education in formal educational institution. for this reason, it is necessary to reveal the cause of why they did not get religious education in accordance to their beliefs, how they fought for the rights, and how the contemporary developments are related to the fulfillment of their rights. this study aims to analyze the issue of fulfilling the rights of kebatinan followers to obtain religious education in indonesia. this study is important because, first, kebatinan is a phenomenon that cannot be ignored since it has a large number of followers in indonesia. the religious adherents are even less sympathetic to their existence. second, the researchers still leave questions in their academic work about how the followers of kebatinan group get rights for religious education considering they are still discriminated. third, the republic of indonesia, as a democratic country which supports pluralism and human rights, in fact, has not provided equal rights for education to its citizens because of the religious differences and beliefs even though the laws in this country guarantee that equality. methodology and conceptual framework using the historical-philosophical method, this study is a review of literatures which aims to provide a critical, descriptive and analytical review to the rights of religious education for the followers of kebatinan in indonesia. conceptually, rosyada (2017) states that religious education is education that provides students the knowledge, skills, and attitudes in practicing religious teachings on all paths, levels and types of education. the map of religious education in indonesia is divided into three main regions. first, the religious education in public schools, including; islamic education for the adherents of islam or christian education for the adherents of christian. second, the religious education in islamic schools (madrasa). third, religious education that offers in-depth religious education which is usually provided in islamic boarding schools. in this context, the religious education for the followers of mysticism community in lubis indonesia is in public schools, so this study examines how the implementation of religious education for the followers of mysticism in indonesia. this paper is in the form of reviews and documentation about the religious education for the followers of kebatinan in indonesia. this review aims to find the information from the primary sources obtained from the kebatinan community in the form of organizational documents, works, and statements of figures, and various news and information published on the organization’s websites. in addition, this review also underlies its information from the secondary resources in the form of research reports, journal articles, and textbooks written by experts as well as the news related to the kebatinan group both in printed version and online version. this literature review uses the literatures that have succeeded in uncovering the issue of kebatinan yet tries to find and display new and different information from the existing literature. this literature review may contribute in three aspects. first, it produces the latest literature and documentation on kebatinan in indonesia, specifically the followers’ right to get religious education in formal education institutions where this study has not been reviewed by experts in this field. second, it identifies the challenges and achievements of the followers of kebatinan in gaining their rights to obtain religious education in indonesia. third, the findings of this study can be used as a basis in formulating education policies that pay attention to pluralism and multiculturalism. findings aliran kebatinan in indonesia etymologically, the word “kebatinan” in indonesia’s dictionary means “the inner state”; everything about the mind; the teachings or beliefs about the knowledge of truth and divinity which can be achieved by the inner vision; the knowledge that teaches the path to inner perfection; suluk; tasawuf; the knowledge of the inner matter; mysticism”. the attorney general of the republic of indonesia states that “kebatinan is an understanding that recognizes the supreme lord, not from the revelation of god (samawi), but comes from the culture of the nation that consists spiritual values of a legacy of living ancestors and has been cultured in a society as a result of the reasoning of creativity, sense of humor and the will of the human being”. setiawan (2018) describes that kebatinanis all beliefs in the society whether it comes from the religion or outside of the religion. this religious belief holds activities that are mystical, psychological, and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 trust in god the almighty, including various activities that are mystical, kejawen, shamanism, forecasting, paranormal, and metaphysics. however, in this study, kebatinan is defined as the result of national culture that contains spiritual values and is recognized as an ancestral heritage that has become culture in society in indonesia. furthermore, kebatinan is the religious group that is not affiliated with any officially recognized religious groups in indonesia. even if this group is called a religion, they are the followers of the local religion. aliran kebatinan is an adherent of a belief in “religion” outside the adherents of official religions in indonesia. there are six official religions in indonesia, namely; islam, protestant, catholic, hinduism, buddhism and confucianism. some followers of kebatinan had emerged in indonesia before the arrival of these official religions. kebatinan is indeed not religious and is different from any recognized religions as it is a spiritual culture originating from human creation. kebatinan is the belief in god the almighty outside any established and a new one, but rather part of indonesian national culture (ilyas and imam, 1988). nevertheless, kebatinan can be referred to as “local religion” and is a “native religion” of indonesian society. there are numerous published works that provide information about the trends of aliran kebatinan in indonesia. various genres of aliran kebatinan in indonesia are discussed by as’ad (1977), rahnip (1984), subagya (1984), sofwan (1999), kartapradja (1985), muhammad (1985), ilyas and imam (1988), and artawijaya (2010). they exemplify the history and understanding of the sects of aliran kebatinan such as; paguyuban sangkan paraning dumadi sri jayabaya, satriyo mangun mardiko dununge urip, perjalanan, daya daya, sumarah, ngesti tunggal, bratakesaawa, pangestu, paryana suryadipura, and sapta darma. specifically, some studies reveal the teachings of each of the sects of aliran kebatinan. academically, the history and understanding of aliran kebatinan has been thoroughly written by the researchers. for example, stange (2009), melton and bauman (2010) and romano (2013) comment on the teachings of kebatinan sumarah. recent studies about the contemporary development of aliran kebatinan in indonesia have also been carried out by researchers. hamid (2018) reviewed the perjalanan group as one of aliran kebatinan. some researchers, such as; azizah (2018), puspitasari (2018), setiawan (2018), sukoco (2018), and wahyudi reviewed the decision of the constitutional court of the republic of indonesia regarding the aliran kebatinan in 2017 in indonesia. however, there is an interesting side that has not been studied by aliran kebatinan researchers in indonesia, namely; lubis how the followers of aliran kebatinan have the rights to obtain religious education in formal institutions in indonesia. there is no written data on this issue. this issue is very interesting because on one hand, legislation in indonesia states that every citizen in indonesia has the right to get education and the government is obliged to provide education to all citizens without exception. however, on the other hand, the followers of aliran kebatinan had not gotten their right in receiving religious education in accordance with their beliefs in formal education institutions. the government only provides religious education services to followers of official religions in indonesia such as; islam, protestant, catholic, hinduism, buddhism and confucianism. meanwhile, there are many indonesian citizens who are not the adherents of one of those official religions. among them are the followers of aliran kebatinan who can be called as the adherents of local religions in indonesia. the study of aliran kebatinan has attracted the attention of experts because it has a large number of followers. the ministry of home affairs of the republic of indonesia predicts 12 million people as the adherents of religions in indonesia. the ministry of education and culture in indonesia records that there are about 187 groups of faith in indonesia. setiawan (2018) revealed that the directorate of trust in god the almighty recorded 248 central organizations and 980 branch organizations that brought together aliran kebatinan followers. this group is spread in various regions of indonesia such as; north sumatra, riau, lampung, banten, dki jakarta, west java, central java, yogyakarta, east java, bali, west nusa tenggara, east nusa tenggara and north sulawesi. among the aliran kebatinan communities in indonesia are perjalanan, paguyuban sumarah, sapta darma, bratakesawa, pangestu, paryana suryadipura, sunda wiwitan, aluk todolo, parmalim, dan kaharingan. although some aliran kebatinan group existed before the presence of official religions in indonesia and had significant followers, this group is still discriminated by the government. the discrimination toward aliran kebatinan in indonesia the aliran kebatinan is a “religious” group that has long been discriminated in indonesia. even though its number of communities is quite large and had already existed before indonesia’s independence. in the old order era (1945-1966), the aliran kebatinan was not recognized as a religion because according to the ministry of religion of the republic of indonesia, religion is characterized to possess the holy books, prophets and international recognition (attorney journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 general office of the republic of indonesia, 2017) so that the aliran kebatinan is not considered as religion. the government of indonesia in that era did not regard aliran kebatinan as a religion, and for this reason, this sect did not receive services from the government as what official religions did. in 1953, the indonesian government established pengawas aliran kepercayaan (pakem). the basis for the formation of pakem is the findings of the ministry of religion that 360 new religions and aliran kebatinan have emerged in indonesia. this institution is under the ministry of religion with the main function of overseeing new religions and aliran kebatinan group and their activities. in 1961, law no. 15 of 1961 concerning the principal provisions of the prosecutors office of the republic of indonesia was issued in which ione of the articles states that “to give an assignment to the prosecutor’s office to oversee the movement of aliran kebatinan that endangers the community and the state. at this time, pakem was under the supervision of the prosecutor’s office, no longer under the supervision of the ministry of religion (attorney general’s office of the republic of indonesia, 2017). it indicates that the government gave a negative assessment of aliran kebatinan in indonesia. in 1965, the president of the republic indonesia established the pnps 1/1965 law concerning blasphemy. this law was made by the government to protect official religions from desecration by the aliran kebatinan sect. even during the new order era, aliran kebatinan was suspected of being part of communism. to avoid accusations of being communists, a large number of aliran kebatinan adherents decided to convert adherence to certain official religions, even though they adhered to the official religion by force (attorney general’s office of the republic of indonesia, 2017). in 1978, the tap mpr no. 4/1978 concerning the aliran kebatinan is not religion, but culture. this rule even stipulates the obligation to write down the official religion adhered to by the people on their identity cards (ktp). here, the aliran kebatinan followers faced difficulties because they were not followers of one of the official religions in indonesia. in 2006, the government issued law no. 23 of 2006 concerning population administration. in the law, it was confirmed that the trust identity was not recorded in the religious column on the ktp. article 1 paragraph 2 states “for residents whose religion has not been recognized as a religion in accordance with the provisions of the laws or trustees are not filled, but are still served and recorded in the population database.” this law reaffirms that the government does not recognize lubis aliran kebatinan as a religion and as a result of this law, many difficulties are faced by the aliran kebatinan followers in obtaining administrative services to the problem of finding jobs. susanto, et. al. (2011) emphasized that there were two forms of discrimination faced by aliran kebatinan community in indonesia, namely the national identity card (ktp) and marriage certificate/birth certificate. they experienced discrimination as a result of government regulations that were still discriminating. the problems of making ktp among the followers of aliran kebatinan cannot be separated from the rules regarding six official religions in indonesia, namely; islam, protestant, catholic, hinduism, buddhism and confucianism. believers must fill in the religious column on their ktp with one of those six religions. they cannot fill it with the name “belief stream”. if they reject it, then they will not be able to make and have an id card. if they do not have a ktp, as a consequence, it will be difficult for them to get administrative services in various government and private agencies, including finding jobs. another option is that they must choose one of the recognized religions in indonesia even though they are not followers of that religion. this choice has an impact on the issue of depriving them of their identity and giving rise to other forms of discrimination. if the followers of aliran kebatinan refuse to fill in the religious column in their id cards with one of indonesia’s official religions, they will find it difficult to get the administrative services, especially; marriage, education, funeral, and social assistance. in terms of marriage and birth registration, the followers of aliran kebatinan cannot have a marriage certificate, including not being able to get a family card. even though they were married according to their faith, the state did not recognize the marriage. their children will be difficult to get birth certificate. there are many aspects of these problems, especially the difficulty for their children in getting public services and gaining a decent future. this treatment of discrimination against the aliran kebatinan group, according to hakiki (2011), is caused by laws stipulated by the government of indonesia where the law regarding aliran kebatinan is prepared for the interests of the majority religion and denies the minority groups. the major religions in indonesia have committed affair with power. the new era of the rise of the aliran kebatinan community was their success in fighting for their rights before the court of the constitutional court of the republic of indonesia in jakarta. the aliran kebatinan followers from marapu community, parmalim, ugamo batak nation and sapto darmo sued the law to the republic of indonesia constitutional court in 2016 related to the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 article emptying the religious columns for the followers of aliran kebatinan on their family cards and identity cards. the constitutional court’s decision was a new chapter in the life of aliran kebatinan followers in indonesia where they hope that their rights could be fulfilled by the state, including from the aspect of education. however, the decision of the constitutional court above received rejection from religious people in indonesia, especially islamic organizations. the indonesian ulema council (mui) is one of the islamic organizations that questioned the court’s decision. mui considered that the constitutional court’s decision tended to equalize and balance the religion with mysticism. mui proposed that aliran kebatinan to be given special identity card. muhammadiyah as one of the largest islamic organizations in indonesia besides the nahdlatul ulama and al-jam’iyatul washliyah also held a special meeting to review the constitutional court’s decision. this shows that the struggle of the aliran kebatinan community in indonesia in fighting for their rights as citizens in indonesia is not easy. the issue of aliran kebatinan followers’ rights to get religious education the impact of discrimination on the followers of aliran kebatinan in indonesia is that the children of this sect find it difficult to obtain religious education in formal schools. the formal education institutions in indonesia provide religious subjects as compulsory subjects but only offer classes for students who hold official religions in indonesia. therefore, there are no teachers who teach aliran kebatinan. a student who adheres to aliran kebatinan is not likely to take islamic studies or other official religions because he is not an adherent of one of these religions. as a result, he will not be able to go up to the next grade or to graduate because there is no score on his religious subjects. if he studies one of the official religions, he will not be able to follow it, or even if he can, it will be difficult to follow it, let alone to get a good score. some cases show that the school asked the student to be one of the followers of an official religion so that he could go up to the next grade. however, many parents refuse this offer. this problem is often faced by children whose parents are the followers of aliran kebatinan. there are two main problems faced by children adhering aliran kebatinan in indonesia. the first problem is that the government does not pay attention to the teachers of students whose religion is aliran kebatinan. the middle school students in indonesia usually continue their lubis formal education in secular institutions or in religious institutions (madrasa or islamic boarding school). the students who adhere aliran kebatinan cannot go to madrasa or islamic boarding school or educational institutions established by the followers of certain religions. their choice is only studying at secular schools. however, the government in indonesia issued a policy that every student in indonesia should be given religious studies in accordance to their religions. the problem is, schools do not provide religious studies that are in accordance with the beliefs of the students who are the followers of aliran kebatinan because their beliefs are not recognized as one of the official religions in indonesia. for this reason, there are no teachers who are competent to teach aliran kebatinan teachings. the indonesian government has never opened job openings for teacher positions in this field. this problem is also originated from the problem that there is no tertiary institution offers a teacher education study program in the field of aliran kebatinan. therefore, there is no available teacher whose competence is recognized by the state to teach these lessons, including the government that is impossible to employ the teachers and pay their salary. since the independence of indonesia, the government has not provided teachers in the field of aliran kebatinan. in recent years, several schools have collaborated with existing aliran kebatinan communities to provide teachers who are considered capable of teaching these lessons. then, the school must pay the teacher’s salary, and if the teacher is a teacher with the status of a civil servant at the school, then of course he cannot receive a salary. thus, the problem faced by formal education institutions where there are students from among adherents of aliran kebatinan is the absence of scholars and teachers in the field of this belief. the second problem is that the students from mysticism community in indonesia do not get religious subjects. as what has been discussed previously, the government of indonesia only prepares learning devices for religious lessons for followers of official religions in indonesia. aliran kebatinan is considered as a group of religion. at school, the children who are the followers of aliran kebatinan did not receive special guidance in the religious field according to the teachings they believe in. to respond to their interests, several schools decided to replace religious studies with kepenghayatan dan budi pekerti lessons specifically for students who did not adhere to official religions. however, no teacher has specifically taught the lesson. finally, some teachers are asked to teach the subject matter, but they must be recommended from the organization of aliran kebatinan, including the subject matter. not all the students of adhering journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 to the aliran kebatinan have access like this. among the schools that provide services for students from adherents of the aliran kebatinan are smk dinamika pembangunan jakarta, yayasan al-wathoniyah asshodriyah 9, smk karawitan in bandung, sd merdeka bandung, sma negeri 5 bandung, and almost all elementary and junior high schools in jati asih district, bekasi (susanto, et.al, 2011). students of other schools who adhere to aliran kebatinan do not receive religious studies at all. therefore, they may take certain religious lessons, or not all with the risk that they cannot go up to the next grade or graduate from the school. when formal education institutions do not provide religious education teaching aliran kebatinan, the students from these schools cannot explore and live their beliefs. at a certain level, they are “forced” to take other religious lessons and must take exams in other religious studies. if they do not do it, they certainly cannot pass the exam because schools require each student to pass all the lessons, including religious studies. this could be categorized as a form of discrimination that continues to be faced by groups of students from aliran kebatinan group and this case has been going on for a long time. to extend one’s knowledge and appreciation of beliefs, students from the aliran kebatinan community finally usually use the family environment and community /organization of aliran kebatinan as informal and non-formal educational institutions outside their schools. here, the family environment of followers of aliran kebatinan becomes the first educational institution where students recognized and lived their beliefs. aliran kebatinan is inherited from generation to generation and to younger generation. thus, the aliran kebatinan community utilizes family institution as one of the recognized educational institutions that preserve and strengthen the existence of aliran kebatinan. within the family environment, children know and appreciate the teachings of certain schools or beliefs when schools cannot facilitate it. “aliran kebatinan” subject for the mysticism community in terms of education, the law no. 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system confirms the principle of the implementation of national education in indonesia. article 4 states that “education is organized in a democratic and just manner and is not discriminatory by upholding human rights, religious beliefs, cultural values, and national pluralism”. in article 11, it is stated that the government should provide services and facilities, and guarantee the lubis implementation of quality education for every citizen without discrimination. “in article 12, it is stated that “every participant in religious education in an education unit has the rights to: a) obtain religious education in accordance with the religion he adheres to and is taught by religious educators. thus in the context of equality, actually aliran kebatinan followers as indonesian citizens have the right to education. the fact is, until 2017, students from aliran kebatinan community are still discriminated because they do not get the rights for religious education which is in accordance with their beliefs, and “required” to take other religious lessons. for this reason, the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia issued a regulation stipulated in permendikbud no. 27 of 2016 concerning educational services against god the almighty in educational unit. there are three points of this rule. first, students can fulfill religious education through religious belief. secondly, the government including the regional government can cooperate with organisasi penghayat kepercayaan which has been registered in accordance with the laws and regulations. third, educators provide religious education lesson in accordance with the teachings of students’ beliefs. the basic consideration for the emergence of this regulation is that the indonesian government recognizes that students from the aliran kebatinan community have the same rights as other students from other official religious circles to obtain religious education. they have the rights to receive education in accordance with the mandate of human rights. in this regulation, it is increasingly emphasized that students from the aliran kebatinan community are given the rights to obtain religious education by studying the subject entitled “pendidikan kepercayaan” (the religious education) which gives the students an opportunity to learn about the existence of god the almighty. this regulation shows that the followers of aliran kebatinan have been served by the government in the field of education. since this rule issued, legally students at school are no longer discriminated. first, the students may follow the religious subjects that are in accordance with their beliefs. secondly, the students are not required to take religious subjects determined by schools. previously, students were “forced” to learn other religious lessons that were not in accordance with their beliefs. now, this does not happen anymore. third, the school handed over the lessons and grading related the religious education subject to the leaders of komunitas penghayat kepercayaan where students have joined. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 the recent developments show that the students of aliran kebatinan sect have been given the right to obtain religious education. first, the government has held a national standard examination for religious education lessons since 2018. the exam includes theoretical and practical exams. previously, they had to take exams for other religious lessons so they could graduate to go to the next grade or to graduate from school. secondly, the government through the ministry of education and culture of the republic of indonesia has collaborated with the majelis luhur kepercayaan terhadap tuhan yang maha esa (mlki) so that the students of the community can obtain religious education at school according to that belief. one point of the collaboration is to develop standard competency specifically for religious education teachers in accordance with the laws of the teachers and lecturers in indonesia. then, the government needs also to provide opportunity for the teachers as civil servants who teach religious education. third, together with the mkli, the government has compiled a curriculum guide and textbooks for the teachers and students in religious education lessons. from these textbooks, the teachers and students can take part in learning religious education lesson in accordance with the laws and regulations in indonesia. discussion, conclusion and implications based on the discussion above, this study can be concluded as follows. first, the followers of aliran kebatinan have been discriminated in indonesia due to a number of regulations issued by the government of the republic of indonesia. this group has not received official recognition from the government since a long time ago even though some of these groups had emerged and developed before the independence of indonesia. their existence was overseen by the government of indonesia through the ministry of religion and the attorney general’s office, and was considered as a religious community that could undermine the purity of the teachings of official religions in indonesia, even accused of the involvement in the communist movement. various regulations increasingly corner this group. the main problem which is the cause of the emergence of discriminatory behavior towards them is the problem of recording their beliefs in their identity cards and marriage certificate or birth certificate. as a result, they find it difficult to get administrative services, especially marriage, education, funeral and social assistance because religious issues are important in order to get services in various fields. the issue of religious column in the identity card and family certificate raises a new problem where the aliran lubis kebatinan group does not get religious education services in formal school. at least they face two problems. first, the government does not pay attention to the provision of teachers for children of aliran kebatinan followers. secondly, the students of the aliran kebatinan community in indonesia do not get religious subjects in formal schools. during this time, they were “forced” to attend certain religious studies such as; islamic education or christian education even though they were not the adherents of islam and christian. secondly, the aliran kebatinan community was finally able to get out from the issue of administration in which they could fill the religious column on their identity cards with the phrase “penghayat kepercayaan” (trustees), even though all this time they had to vacate or fill with one of the particular religions. in 2016, the government issued permendikbud no. 27 of 2016 concerning educational services against god the almighty in the educational unit. this regulation is the legal basis for the aliran kebatinan followers to get the right of religious education in accordance to their beliefs. based on this regulation, the children who are the adherents of aliran kebatinan learn “pendidikan kepercayaan” (religious education). since the regulation was issued, they began to be learned “pendidikan kepercayaan” (religious education), and the school is collaborated with the aliran kebatinan organization that provided teachers who are competent in the field. even the religious education has become the subject of national exam for the students who are the followers of aliran kebatinan. the government and majelis luhur kepercayaan terhadap tuhan yang maha esa (mlki) has compiled the curriculum guidelines, and textbooks for the teachers and students in religious education class. even though the government has started giving attention to the followers of aliran kebatinan, their existence and the rights they get still get a lawsuit from the religious groups in indonesia. on one hand, the government must fight for the human rights of every citizen in indonesia regardless of their religions, ethnicities, national and racial background, but on the other hand, the government policy towards the aliran kebatinan has been criticized by the majority of religious groups in indonesia. however, as a country that upholds human rights, democracy and pluralism, the government of indonesia must serve every citizen without exception. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 references ahmad, kamaruzzaman-bustamam. (2017). from power to cultural landscapes: rewriting history of shi‘ah in aceh. journal of indonesian islam, 11(2). al makin. (2017). homogenizing indonesian islam: persecution of the shia group in yogyakarta, studia islamika, 24(1). arifin, nur. (2017). motif bergabung dalam aliran sapta darma pengikut ajaran di sanggar agung candi sapta rengga yogyakarta, jurnal sosiologi agama, 11(1). artawijaya. (2010). gerakan theosofi di indonesia. jakarta: al-kaustar. azizah, i. (2018). menakar jaminan implementasi al-daruriyyat al-khams bagi penghayat kepercayaan dalam keputusan mahkamah konstitusi. proceedings of annual conference for muslim scholars, (series 2), 806-817. retrieved from http://proceedings.kopertais4.or.id/index.php/ancoms/article/view/182. burhani, ahmad najib. (2018). pluralism, liberalism, and islamism: religious outlook of muhammadiyah, studia islamika, 25(3). choi, l. k. (1999). a fragile nation: the indonesian crisis. singapore: world scientific. crouch, melissa. (2014). law and religion in indonesia: conflict and the courts in west java. london-new york: routledge. dewey, john. (1944). democracy and education. new york, ny the free press. djafar, alamsyah m. (2018). (in)toleransi: memahami kebencian dan kekerasan atas nama agama. jakarta: elex media komputindo. el hafidy, m. asʻad. (1977). aliran-aliran kepercayaan dan kebatinan di indonesia. jakarta: ghalia indonesia. ghifarie, ibn. (2018). meyakini menghargai: mengenal lebih dekat ragam agama dan kepercayaan di indonesia. jakarta: expose. gibb, patty, and eleanor h. blakely (eds). (2000). gatekeeping in bsw programs. new york: columbia university press. hadiwijono, harun. (2006). kebatinan dan injil. jakarta: gunung mulia. hakiki, kiki muhammad. (2011). aliran kebatinan di indonesia, al-adyan, 6(2), 63-76. http://proceedings.kopertais4.or.id/index.php/ancoms/article/view/182 lubis hakiki, kiki muhammad. (2011). politik identitas agama lokal: studi kasus aliran kebatinan,” 11(1), 159-174. hamid, a. (2018). politik identitas agama lokal: studi tentang aliran kepercayaan perjalanan ciparay bandung. al-afkar, journal for islamic studies, 2(1), 113-130. retrieved from https://al-afkar.com/index.php/afkar_journal/article/view/22. hamid, asep lukman. (2018). politik identitas agama lokal: studi tentang aliran kepercayaan ciparay bandung, afkar: journal for islamic studies, 2(10), 113-130. hefner, robert w. (2018). routledge handbook of contemporary indonesia. london: routledge. ilyas, abd. mutholib and imam, abd. ghofur. (1988). aliran kepercayaan dan kebatinan di indonesia. surabaya: cv. amin. ilyas, abd. mutholib, abd. ghofur imam. (1988). aliran kepercayaan & kebatinan di indonesia. jakarta: amin. ira indrawardana. (2014). berketuhanan dalam perspektif kepercayaan sunda wiwitan,” melintas, 30 (1), pp. ja’far. (2018). al jam’iyatul washliyah: cita-cita keislaman dan keindonesiaan. banda aceh: pena. karomi, kholid. (2013). tuhan dalam mistik islam kejawen: kajian atas pemikiran raden ngabehi ranggawarsita, kalimah: jurnal studi agama dan pemikiran islam, 287-304. kartapradja, kamil. (1985). aliran kebatinan dan kepercayaan di indonesia. jakarta: yayasan masagung. kejaksaan agung republik indonesia. (2017). penguatan peran intelejen kejaksaan dalam pengawasan aliran kepercayaan dan aliran keagamaan dalam masyarakat (pakem) demi ketertiban dan ketentraman umum. jakarta: kejaksaan agung republik indonesia. khotimah, husnul. (2016) nilai-nilai spiritualitas ajaran kerohanian sapta darma di dukuh sepat kelurahan lidah kulon kecamatan lakarsantri kota surabaya. unpublished master’s thesis , uin sunan ampel surabaya, indonesia. kinasih, carolus lwanga tindra. (2018). mistik ketimuran: perjumpaan hinduisme dengan penghayat kebatinan dalam budaya jawa. jakarta: deepublish. https://al-afkar.com/index.php/afkar_journal/article/view/22 https://www.google.co.id/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22abd.+mutholib+ilyas%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=6 https://www.google.co.id/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22abd.+ghofur+imam%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=6 https://www.google.co.id/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22kamil+kartapradja%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=7 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 latif, yudi. (2018). the religiosity, nationality, and sociality of pancasila: toward pancasila through soekarno’s way, studia islamika, 25(8). m., rahnip. (1984). aliran kepercayaan dan kebatinan dalam sorotan. jakarta: pustaka progresif. m., sufa’at. (1985). beberapa pembahasan tentang kebatinan. jakarta: kota kembang. ma’mun, syukron. (2013). relevansi agama dan alam dalam pandangan aliran kebatinan dayak indramayu, kontekstualita, 28(2), 117-126. mariani, nina. (2013). ahmadiyah, conflicts, and violence in contemporary indonesia, indonesian journal of islam and muslim societies, 1(13). melton, j gordon, dan martin baumann. (2010). religions of the world: a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices. california: abc-clio. mutaqin, zezen zaenal (2014). penghayat, orthodoxy and the legal politics of the state: the survival of agama djawa sunda (madraisism) in indonesia, indonesia and the malay world, 42(122), 1-23. niam, khoirun. (2017). nahdlatul ulama and the production of muslim intellectuals in the beginning of 21st century indonesia, journal of indonesian islam, 11(2). noer, deliar. (1963). the rise and development of the modernist muslim movement in indonesia during the dutch colonial period, 1900-1942. unpublished doctorate dissertation, cornell university. pulungan, abbas. (2018). nahdlatul ulama di luar jawa: perkembangan di tanah mandailing, journal of contemporary islam and muslim societies, 2(1). puspitasari, diah. (2018). tinjauan fikih siyasah terhadap putusan mahkamah konstitusi nomor 97/puu-xiv/2016 tentang pencantuman kepercayaan dalam kolom agama di ktp elektronik. undergraduate thesis, uin sunan ampel surabaya. reni tiyu wijayanti. (2013). pola perilaku religius aliran kepercayaan masyarakat kerokhanian sapta darma di desa brengkelan kecamatan purworejo kabupaten purworejo, aditya, 3(3). rifai, mahmud. (2012). konsep tuhan dalam aliran kebatinan pangestu dan sumarah (studi perbandingan). skripsi thesis, universitas muhammadiyah surakarta. https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au%3amelton%2c+j.+gordon.&qt=hot_author https://www.worldcat.org/search?q=au%3abaumann%2c+martin%2c&qt=hot_author lubis rosmaria syafariah widjayanti. (2015). perbandingan shalat dan laku manembah aliran kebatinan pangestu dan sumarah, studia insania, 3(1), 63-78. rumano, laura. (2013). sumarah. north carolina: lulu press. setiawan, adam. (2018). perspektif hukum refleksif terhadap peran mahkamah konstitusi dalam menjamin hak-hak konstitusional penghayat kepercayaan, jurnal hukum ekonomi syariah, 1(1), 2018. soedirgo, jessica. (2017). informal networks and religious intolerance: how clientelism incentivizes the discrimination of the ahmadiyah in indonesia, citizenship, 22(2). sofwan, ridin. (1999). menguak seluk beluk aliran kebatinan: (kepercayaan tuhan yang maha esa). semarang: aneka ilmu-iain walisongo press. stange, paul. (2009). kejawen modern: hakikat dalam penghayatan sumarah. yogyakarta: lkis. subagya, rahmad. (1984). kepercayaan kebatinan kerohanian kejiwaan dan agama. jakarta: yayasan kanisius. sukoco, argani. (2018). implementasi pencantuman aliran kepercayaan dalam ktp dengan adanya putusan mk no.97/puu-xiv/2016 tentang pencantuman aliran kepercayaan di ktp dan kk: studi di dinas kependudukan dan pencatatan sipil kabupaten magelang). unpublished thesis, universitas sebelas maret. sulfiyah, farihatus. (2018). fenomena pengosongan kolom agama: studi tentang pemenuhan hak sipil dan politik penganut sapta darma kabupaten gresik. undergraduate thesis, uin sunan ampel surabaya. susanto, trisno s., et al. (2011). menuntut pemenuhan hak-hak konstitusional penghayat kepercayaan terhadap tuhan yang maha esa. jakarta: human rights working group. wahju budijanto. (2016). penghormatan hak asasi manusia bagi penghayat kepercayaan di kota bandung, jurnal ham, 7(1). wahyudi, m. (2010). analisis masuknya aliran kepercayaan di kolom agama dalam kartu keluarga dan kartu tanda penduduk: studi putusan mahkamah konstitusi nomor 97/puuxiv/2016 tentang yudicial review undang-undang administrasi kependudukan. yogyakarta: universitas islam indonesia. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 270-289 yuliani, eka fitri. (2018). sejarah perkembangan aliran kebatinan perjalanan di desa pakutandang kecamatan ciparay kabupaten bandung pada tahun 1987-2002. unpublished thesis, uin sunan gunung djati. zulkarnain, iskandar. (2005). gerakan ahmadiyah di indonesia. yogyakarta: lkis. zulkifli. (2009). the struggle of the shi’is in indonesia. unpublished doctorate dissertation, leiden university. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 290-307 290 development of students’ knowledge of history: acceptance and rejection of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation narratives leo agung sutimin1 abstract the purpose of this research is to investigate the development of students’ knowledge in the process of learning history. the research questions are as follows: (1) how do students construct their knowledge of history? (2) what main factors affect whether students accept or reject historical information? this research is a qualitative project adopting charmaz’s (2006) grounded theory framework to focus on the position of language use in the development of students’ knowledge of history. in total, 30 postgraduate students of the history education department, sebelas maret university, enrolled in a course on the indonesia-malaysia confrontation, participated in this research. to analyze students’ language use, i used critical discourse analysis focusing on their speech acts and discursive practice. the findings of the research show that students have autonomy to construct their knowledge of history. students could accept or reject the historical information that arose throughout the learning process. two factors affected whether students accepted or rejected the historical information: their prior knowledge and discursive practice. students construct their knowledge of history through a dialectical process in the form of such discursive practice between their ideology, prior knowledge, and historical information. the findings of the research indicate that language use, especially in the form of discursive practice, determines the transmission and development of knowledge of history in the learning process. key words: learning history, knowledge development, knowledge of history introduction learning history is the process of making meaning while reconstructing past events (florovsky, 1969). in general, scholars believe that learning history can develop students’ cognitive and affective dimensions such as knowledge, historical consciousness (counsell, 2002; gunning, 1978), and morality (peterson, 2011). conventionally, these learning outcomes are understood as the result of students’ engagement, understanding, and valuing of past events. in this understanding, learning outcomes are simply derived as an individual process in which the student reconstructs past events without intervention from social factors such as the presence of classmates or the teacher. this understanding stems from booth’s (1994) observation of british schools from 1 doctor/associate professor, history education department, faculty of teacher training and education, sebelas maret univerity, indonesia ,email: leoagung@staff.uns.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 290-307 the 1870s to 1960s. booth exposes the tendency to emphasize rote learning of history because of political interests. in this situation, booth explains that students were placed as passive objects learning history by memorizing information from textbooks. furthermore, in the 1970s, gunning (1978) noted paradigmatic shifts in the framework of history learning. here, three educational frameworks influenced understanding of learning history, namely those of piaget, bruner, and bloom. piaget contributes to the debate of abstraction by problematizing learning history in elementary schools. bruner conceptualized history as a body of information transmitted from teachers to students. meanwhile, bloom developed a hierarchy of students’ development for teachers to set the target of learning history. however, these educational frameworks still perceive students as passive objects and receivers of knowledge or information in the learning process. they posit that historical knowledge is taken for granted without any room for interpretation by students. the problem of students’ knowledge development of history is continuously debated. gunning (1978) and hallden (1986) highlighted another framework from language studies that provided an alternative approach to understanding the process of creative thinking and students’ knowledge development in learning history. this framework was derived from vygotsky’s (1986) concept of socio-cultural constructivism in education. using the concept of socio-constructivism, vygotsky emphasizes language use as a mediator between students and their social environment. by emphasizing language use, vygotsky initiated space for a humanistic approach that considers students an active entity in the learning process (hardcastle, 2009). considering the above discussion, the development of historical understanding should be seen from the perspective of constructionism in which students’ historical knowledge is constructed through the language used as the representation of the dialectical interaction between students and their socio-cultural context and environment. the study of students’ knowledge development of history should be based on an analysis of language use. some scholars already focused their analysis on the dialectical interaction process in history learning. beck and mckeown (1994) investigated students’ engagement and active interchange with texts to examine the dialectical process between the students and texts, but did not discuss language use in history learning. moreover, recent studies have provided an advance perspective by which to understand the process sutimin of learning history through analyzing students’ narratives (rigney, 2013). however, the problem of language use and students’ knowledge development are rarely discussed. therefore, language use and students’ autonomy should be investigated to understand the development of students’ knowledge of history. my focus in this research is on revealing problems with students’ knowledge development in learning history. the research questions addressed in this study are as follows: (1) how do students construct their knowledge about history? (2) what main factors affect whether students accept or reject historical information? theoretical review as mentioned, the development of students’ knowledge can be perceived as the result of the dialectical interaction between students and their socio-cultural context and environment. following the frameworks of blumer (1969) and vygotsky (1986), it is assumed that students’ knowledge of history is constructed from social interaction, which involves language use as a medium of knowledge transmission. some scholars identified the role of language use as a decisive aspect in the representation of past events and historical information. postmodernist historians such as white (1987) mentioned narrative and discourse as two forms of language use that affected the others through spoken or written texts. white (2008) added that the narration and historical discourse presented during the learning process contains information, beliefs, traces of the social relationship, and identities that could influence students’ prior knowledge of history. furthermore, in the case of language use in history education, more attention should be paid to vygotsky’s (1986) notion of language use in education, because the practice of history education is not solely related to history and narrative, but also to social interaction. specifically, vygotsky (1986) believes that the practice of language use contributes to developing students’ knowledge. vygotsky’s idea about language use can be explained based on two concepts related to the development of students’ knowledge and language use: zone of proximal development and scaffolding. the zone of proximal development is the maximum zone of cognitive development students can attain through the process of scaffolding (langford, 2005; vygotsky, 1986). scaffolding is a social process between students and other subjects of learning that contributes to their knowledge development, which they achieve through interaction, communication, and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 290-307 language use (beveridge, 1997; daniel, 2007). implicitly, vygotsky believed that students could reach their zone of proximal development through language use. in the context of language use, students should be regarded as active subjects who accept or reject the historical information presented during the learning process. piaget (2003) discussed this problem, noting the concept of schemata that represents students’ early knowledge and assimilation in the internalization process of learning. piaget believed that these concepts represent the mechanism of students to accept or reject knowledge during the learning process. similarly, van dijk (2011) used the term ideology and mental models, which are similar to the concepts of schemata and assimilation, as two aspects that affect students’ acceptance or rejection. on the other hand, students’ prior knowledge also exists. following piaget (2003) and schunk (1989), students’ prior knowledge is similar to their schemata and includes their assumptions, perceptions, ideas, ideologies, and discourses. prior knowledge dialectically intermingles with information emerging during class activities through any form of discursive practice. considering the mechanism of language use, the development of students’ knowledge of history has become more complex. this means that possibly, students have autonomy to accept or reject information in terms of how they organize, articulate, and transmit their prior knowledge to others. the implication is that students cannot entirely accept all historical information that arises during the learning process. in addition, it is possible for students to construct their knowledge through the dialectical process mediated by the language used in the learning process. method this research was a classroom-based project focusing on the development of students’ knowledge in history learning. this study did not intend to construct a theory of language use, but to understand the concept of students’ knowledge development in learning history. to achieve the research objectives, i used charmaz’s (2006) grounded theory framework, which comprises four phases: (1) gathering rich data by interviewing and observing students’ language use; (2) coding the data; (3) theoretical sampling, saturation, and sorting; and (4) reconstructing the concept of students’ knowledge development in history learning. moreover, i followed the recommendation of glaser and strauss (2017) to implement a series of carefully planned steps in the grounded research in the form of a set of designed learning activities, namely through the activities of a sutimin documentary film study and classroom discussion. based on the designed learning activities, i collected data related to the development of students’ knowledge of history and language use. furthermore, according to my theoretical perspective, i analyzed students’ interaction through a language use analysis of their speech acts (searle, 1969). to examine language use and speech acts, i performed a critical discourse analysis (cda) based on van dijk (2015). here, explicit and implicit information was transmitted as part of the development of students’ knowledge. research participants in total, 30 postgraduate students of the history education department, sebelas maret university, indonesia participated in this study. the students were selected because they had majored in history education for seven years since receiving their undergraduate degrees. therefore, they had essential prior knowledge of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. research scenario to analyze students’ development of knowledge of history, i followed vygotsky, providing students with a complex learning topic and space for dialectical interaction to assist their learning activities (langford, 2005). i used the learning topic of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation from 1963 to 1965, which refers to the political conflict between indonesia and malaysia (poulgrain, 2014). the learning topic was presented in two activities. the first was a documentary film study and the second a classroom discussion. these two activities employed a student-centered approach and discovery model to discuss the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. the documentary film study included films from both the malaysian and indonesian perspectives. the malaysianperspective film produced a discourse in which the students argued that the establishment of the malaysia federation was an internal affair problem related to a nation-building process. on the other hand, the indonesia perspective produced a neo-colonialism discourse, which the students represented as a confrontation against the establishment of the malaysia federation. table 1 provides the lesson plan for the documentary film study. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 290-307 table 1 lesson plan for documentary film study learning section time (minutes) activities 1 5 lecturer proposes an apperception of the recent international issues between indonesia and malaysia 2 20 lecturer shows two versions of the documentary film: indonesia and malaysia perspectives 3 30 students observe and analyze the content of the documentary films 4 20 students complete their written analysis via task sheets 5 10 conclusion 6 5 evaluation after the documentary film study, students participated in the classroom discussion. i designed the classroom discussion by considering a student-centered learning approach and encouraged the students to construct their knowledge. table 2 provides the lesson plan for the classroom discussion. table 2 lesson plan for classroom discussion learning section time (minutes) activities 1 5 lecturer proposes an apperception of the different perceptions of indonesian and malaysian societies of the confrontation 2 20 students read selected learning material and books about the indonesia-malaysia confrontation 3 30 students analyze and discuss the indonesia-malaysia confrontation 4 20 students discuss their analysis and critique other opinions of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation 5 15 students report their findings and provide comments in an open questionnaire 6 5 conclusion 7 5 evaluation the selected learning materials and books used by the students in the classroom discussion were (1) legge (2003) sukarno: a political biography; (2) milne and ratnam (1974) malaysia: new states in a new nation: political development of sarawak and sabah in malaysia; (3) dahm (1987) soekarno and the struggle for indonesian independence; (4) poulgrain (2014) the genesis of kontrontasi malaysia, brunei, and indonesia, 1945–1965; (5) sjamsuddin (1988) soekarno: pemikiran politik dan kenyataan praktek [soekarno: political thoughts and reality practice]; and (6) adams (1966) bung karno penyambung lidah rakyat indonesia [soekarno my friend]. sutimin data collection i collected data via open questionnaires, in-depth interviews, classroom observations, and students’ task analysis. the open questionnaires and interviews were employed to determine students’ prior knowledge of history, including fore-having, fore-sight, and fore-conception (heidegger, 1996: 214). the classroom observation and task analysis were used to examine students’ discursive practices and their production and reproduction of their knowledge of history. furthermore, the task analysis was an empirical source used to identify students’ knowledge development by emphasizing their production and/or reproduction of the historical narrative. the research objects were the communications during the learning process, particularly speech acts as a representation of students’ language use. based on searle’s (1969) framework, i examined perlocutionary speech acts in terms of how students’ discussions affected other students. i transcribed the speech acts from the open questionnaires and classroom observation of the prelearning, learning, and post-learning phases. furthermore, i selected students’ speech acts based on three discursive criteria: (1) representing social practice (fairclough, 1992), (2) expressing ideologies or beliefs (dijk, 1981), and (3) contextualizing units of language use (schriffin, 1994). the results were seven transcriptions of speech acts, which i coded according to student number as follows: student number 1 = sn1, student number 4 = sn4, etc. the remaining codes were as follows: sn7, sn10, sn11, sn22, and sn27. data analysis a cda of the data was conducted following the socio-cognitive approach of van dijk (2015), which comprises three layers of analysis: discourse, cognition, and sociality. cda provides a methodological and practical tool to examine students’ language use and discursive practices to reveal their cognitive structure and production and/or reproduction of knowledge. based on the cda, i analyzed the cognitive aspects of students’ prior historical knowledge, discursive practice, and development of knowledge. the analysis began with a linguistic analysis of students’ texts and speech acts, especially at the pragmatic level of language. the purpose was to analyze knowledge interchange and discursive practices among students through language use. the findings of the linguistic analysis were then triangulated with the educational and historical journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 290-307 analysis to expose the mechanism of students’ development of knowledge. these three layers of analysis explained the development of students' knowledge of history. findings the findings below indicate two important points regarding the development of students’ knowledge of history. the first pertains to students’ prior knowledge of the history of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation as an early depiction of their knowledge. the second is about the empirical findings of students’ language, speech acts, and development of historical knowledge. students’ prior knowledge i analyzed students' prior knowledge of history before they registered for the course on the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. the analysis of students’ prior knowledge was important in understanding the development of their knowledge of history. the interviews revealed that most students had prior knowledge of the history of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation, as confirmed by their ability to articulate the primary and secondary events thereof. the students mentioned the following primary historical events: (1) the malaysia federation consisted of sarawak, sabah, brunei, singapore, and the malay peninsula in 1957; (2) the maphilindo conference: june 10, 1963; (3) u thant announced the voting results: september 14, 1963; (4) indonesia-philippine resistance toward the malaysia federation declaration: september 16, 1963; (5) indonesia severs diplomatic ties with malaysia: september 17, 1963; (6) the attack on the indonesian embassy in kuala lumpur: september 19, 1963; (7) soekarno’s statement “ganyang malaysia” [destroy malaysia]: september 23, 1963; (8) indonesia established dwikora to strengthen its national defense and help the citizens of sabah, sarawak, and brunei in annulling the establishment of the malaysia federation: may 3, 1964; and (9) indonesia exits the united nations: january 7, 1965. furthermore, the students also mentioned secondary historical events such as the following: (1) soekarno visited the white house, but did not receive enough respect from eisenhower: october 6, 1960; (2) soekarno met with john f. kennedy: april 24, 1961; (3) john f. kennedy's assassination: november 22, 1963. the students then connected these events in a multi-cause explanation using transition words. for instance, sn10 used transition words in this sentence: “on september 16, 1963, the malaysia sutimin federation was declared. as a result, soekarno proclaimed ‘ganyang malaysia’.” the transition phrase “as a result” shows that the student understood the connection between historical events. however, the multi-cause explanation was not multidimensional, as the student only focused on the political dimension. for example, students’ understanding of the history of the indonesiamalaysia confrontation is as a political affair connected with imperialism and colonialism. sn7 said, “malaysia claimed that the establishment of the federation is an internal affair problem. yet, soekarno says that malaysia is controlled by english colonialism and imperialism.” likewise, sn4 then stated, “the federation of malaysia aimed to show supremacy through inequality, because malaysia positioned itself as the first leader.” the statements of sn7 and sn4 reveal their prior historical knowledge and logic, as they located malaysia in the shadow of britain’s colonialism and imperialism. students’ language use, speech acts, and knowledge formation after analyzing students’ prior knowledge, i examined their language use and knowledge formation. i noted perlocutionary speech acts, mostly in the form of representative and declarative acts in students’ arguments, which affects the transmission and construction of their historical knowledge. based on their prior knowledge, the students tended to reject the malaysia perspective presented in the documentary film. this is demonstrated in sn27’s statement: “this documentary film gave a new perspective for understanding the indonesia-malaysia confrontation, but the film also has its own political interest.” similarly, sn11 also rejected the information: “this film opened my view that there are two versions when looking at the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. however, we have to understand it chronologically. malaysia broke the maphilindo treaty.” these rejections relate the students’ comprehension of historical information contained in the learning material. in the documentary film study, students’ comprehension was determined according to semantic information in the form of narration in the documentary film scene. therefore, it can be concluded that they only retained the semantic information in their short-term memory. i found a different pattern for students’ knowledge development in the observation of their activities in the classroom discussion. there were more in-depth dialectical interactions and discursive practices among the students and lecturer. the discursive practice enabled students’ to journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 290-307 construct knowledge of history. the process is part of the knowledge they exchanged and shared during the classroom discussion. sn4’s statement represents this exchanging and sharing process: “i agree with [sn11] that malaysia broke the malindo conference agreement. as [sn11] said, indonesia is not the one at fault.” the above quote shows that sn4 agrees with sn11. this represents sharing knowledge processes between sn4 and sn11, in which sn4 intentionally took historical information from sn11, who had greater rhetoric skills and a better knowledge of history. as a result, sn11 tended to share his knowledge of history and opinion with other students. at the same time, sn4 was in the position of receiving knowledge of history from sn11. another pattern of discursive practices was evident when two students with equal rhetorical skills and knowledge of history became involved in a discussion. here, the students were likely to exchange knowledge of history. sn1’s statement represents this exchange process: “i know there is new information after understanding sn11’s statement, but the conflict did not occur because there was a party at fault or not between soekarno and tunku abdurachman. here, we agree there was another factor such as soekarno’s internationalism ideology.” sn1’s statement shows an exchange process directed to discovering new knowledge of the history of the concept of internationalism. therefore, this exchange forced the students to continue exploring and finding new knowledge. the lesson observation showed that students tended to receive or discover new knowledge of history through discursive practices. these processes indicated that they were forming knowledge of history. knowledge formation refers to students’ awareness of a historical subject or object. here, students’ awareness of the internationalism that became a decisive factor in the indonesiamalaysia confrontation represents their knowledge formation. the discussion between sn1, sn4, sn7, and sn27 represents the mechanism of knowledge formation. i noted that in the pre-learning phases, sn4 had not yet acknowledged the existence of the internationalism concept. after going through the learning processes, sn4 realized that internationalism was a determining factor in the history of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. sn4 argued that the concept of internationalism was derived from pancasila (the five principles constituting the indonesian state foundational philosophy): sutimin “the internationalism paradigm became an important element in the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. the international paradigm is a nationality view based on humanity and goodwill. soekarno viewed all states in southeast asia as siblings. that is why when malaysia established a federation, it was seen as a repression of indonesia. indonesia wanted to help malaysian citizenship to be based on humanity or internationalism.” from sn4’s perspective, the internationalism concept pushed indonesia to help the struggle of the citizens of malaysia. sn7 then responded to sn4, stating that internationalism is identical to karl marx’s idea thereof. internationalism can be defined as global solidarity between laborers to fight capitalism. according to sn7, “the concept of internationalism reminded us of the concept of global labor solidarity proposed by karl marx.” in response to sn7, sn27 stated that there is a similarity between the views of soekarno and karl marx. sn27 stated: “the similarity between soekarno’s internationalism and karl marx’s idea is the global idea of fighting capitalism. however, soekarno does not only use marx’s concept. soekarno made adjustments to the spirit of indonesia, positioning it as global solidarity: not a laborer’s network, but a humanity network.” “in the next development, soekarno used nationalism, religion, and communism as a foundation for global solidarity. however, there is a difference between soekarno’s concept of internationalism and that of karl marx. soekarno’s concept of internationalism did not refer to karl marx’s concept of cosmopolitanism, which annulled the role of the state. soekarno was structuring the concept of internationalism by accepting the existence of a nation.” sn7 then responded, “yes, i agree with your opinion. karl marx’s idea regarding global solidarity demanded collective actions to fight the foreign power that enslaved humanity.” furthermore, sn4 responded to the statements of sn7 and sn27, stating that soekarno thought identically to karl marx. sn4 said: “in soekarno’s perspective, solidarity was based on religious power. this is proven when soekarno quotes the verses of the islamic holy book to emphasize his want of unity and refusal of discrimination, intolerance, and domination. this idea was presented in soekarno’s speech during the 1960 united nations conference entitled “to build the world anew.” sn1 then responded to sn4 and sn27, saying that soekarno’s thoughts were based on the principles of the non-alignment movement establishment in 1961: journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 290-307 “the concept of soekarno’s internationalism was constructed by the ten basic principles of the non-alignment movement establishment, which include sovereign equality, respect of human rights, anti-neo-colonialism, and advancement of international cooperation based on equality. this explains why soekarno considered malaysia a threat to indonesia.” following these discussions, the students concluded that the indonesia-malaysia confrontation was not only caused by political reasons. the students’ produced new knowledge that soekarno’s internationalism idea was also an important factor that affected the dynamics of the indonesiamalaysia confrontation. based on these findings, the students either accepted or rejected the historical information presented during the documentary film study and classroom discussion. the factors that most strongly affected students’ acceptance of the historical information were their prior knowledge and discursive practices. this highlights the importance of language use in the development of students’ knowledge of the history of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. discussion this research supports gunning (1978), beck and mckeown (1994), and rigney’s (2013) arguments regarding language studies as an advanced approach in analyzing the development of students’ knowledge of history. it corroborates studies by vygotsky (1986), glasersfeld (1995), and piaget (1959), which highlight the importance of linguistic and language use in the development of students’ knowledge. the development of students’ historical knowledge should be viewed as a dialectical process between students and their socio-cultural environment through language use. students should be considered active subjects who accept or reject the historical information presented during the learning process. this is aligned with the frameworks of piaget (2003) and van dijk (2011), which posit that students have autonomy to accept or reject historical information based on their prior knowledge and discursive practices. specifically, this study extended these previous works by emphasizing the importance of discursive practice in the development of students’ knowledge of history. this research showed the role of language use in the development of students’ knowledge of history. students have autonomy to accept or reject the information based on their discursive practice. students tended to take and share knowledge through language use, in which the discursive practices became important. the discursive practice involved speech act skills and sutimin mastering knowledge of history. this rhetoric and mastering of history affected students’ comprehension and development of new understanding during the class activities, supporting knowledge transmission (sinclair & coulthard, 1975). discursive practices connect students’ schemata and knowledge beyond the student (cunnah, 2000; glasersfeld, 1995; wodak, 1996). in this study, discursive practices linked the transmission of knowledge regarding soekarno’s idea of internationalism. that is, according to kukla (2000), the schemata and discursive practice dialectically construct students’ formation of knowledge. from a theoretical perspective, this discursive practice is part of the scaffolding that forces students to achieve a zone of proximal development through a discourse transfer process (vygotsky, 1986). discursive practice and discourse can be considered exponents of the development of knowledge of history, in this case of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. discourse is a knowledge abstraction that takes place inside narrations, texts, and discursive practices (dijk, 1981) that contain the knowledge, beliefs, identity, social structures, economics, politics, and culture from the subject producing the discourse (dijk, 2015; gumperz, 1977; purwanta, 2017; wodak, 1996). furthermore, the rejection of historical knowledge relates to students’ comprehension of information contained in the learning material. in the documentary film study, i determined students’ comprehension based on semantic information in the form of the narration and scene. the students were only able to receive and retain this semantic information in their short-term memory (dijk, 2012). this supports dijk (2006), who emphasized the relationship between cognitive aspects and mental models. the cognitive aspect develops students’ mental attitude during their process of learning history. this research showed that the mental model could affect students’ discursive practice in the process, forcing them to be more selective of or reject historical information from the malaysianperspective documentary film. as a result, students did not add to their knowledge of history by watching the documentary film with the malaysian perspective. that is, students’ schemata did not significantly change after the learning process based on the documentary film. the discussion above shows the mechanism of discursive practice in historical learning that contributes to the development of students’ knowledge of history. according to the findings of the research, the dialectical interactions among students resulted in the formation of knowledge about internationalism. in the dialectical process, the discussion helped them understand internationalism as an important factor in the history of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. in other words, the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 290-307 students produced new ideas from the learning activity, which differed from the common conversations of the indonesia-malaysia confrontation. based on this, discursive practice becomes essential in the development of students’ knowledge of history. discursive practice can be seen as a space for the adaptation of new knowledge to students’ prior knowledge. in this research, students’ perspectives when explaining their views regarding the 1963 indonesianmalaysian confrontation narrative represent their adaptation. from this viewpoint, students’ perspectives are new pieces of knowledge found and formulated through a dialectical process among them and their social environment. the formulation of new knowledge will be strong, weak, or replaced when it is narrated or critically discussed. the new knowledge strengthens when other students approve and accept it, and weakens if other students disagree with or reject it. on the other hand, the acceptance of knowledge occurs when the critical discussion process brings about new knowledge the student considers more comprehensive and that conforms to a student’s ideology. this mechanism explains how students develop their knowledge of history. conclusion based on the findings and discussion, it is concluded that students have autonomy to construct their knowledge of history. the students could accept or reject the historical information based on their prior knowledge and the discursive practice during the learning process. discursive practices are the main factor affecting whether students accept or reject historical information, because these practices connect their prior knowledge and historical information presented during the learning process. as such, students construct their knowledge of history through the dialectical process between their ideology, prior knowledge, and historical information through discursive practices. overall, i want to highlight that the findings of this study show the importance of language use, especially in the form of discursive practice, which determines the transmission and development of the knowledge of history in the learning process. this study is significant because it analyzed knowledge development through students’ language use. it proposed a new approach to analyzing the learning process by emphasizing language use and discursive practices, demonstrating students’ autonomy in rejecting or accepting the knowledge provided during the learning process. therefore, further research should pay attention to language use, discursive practice, and students’ autonomy. practically, higher education teachers and administrators should promote discursive practice based on its benefits in developing sutimin students’ knowledge of history. however, they should note that obstacles might arise. the most important factor supporting the success of discursive practice is students’ rhetorical ability, especially when delivering statements, constructing arguments, and criticizing their peers’ opinions. students with better rhetorical ability can express their opinions logically, and in so doing, gain approval more easily. on the other hand, peers tend to reject statements from students with lower rhetoric abilities. as a result, students with high rhetoric ability dominate the critical discussion, which teachers should be aware of to avoid such situations references adams, c. (1966). bung karno penyambung lidah rakyat indonesia. jakarta: gunung agung. beveridge, m. (1997). educational implementation and teaching: 'school knowledge' and psychological theory. in l. smith, j. dockrell, & p. tomlinson, piaget, vygotsky and beyond: future issues for developmental psychology and education (pp. 15-26), london & new york: routledge. blumer, h. (1969). symbolic interactionism: perspective and method. berkeley: university of california press counsell, c. (2002). historical knowledge and historical skills: a distracting dichotomy. in j. arthur & r. phillips (eds.), issues in history teaching (pp. 54-71). london & new york: routledge. cunnah, w. (2000). history teaching, literacy and special educational needs. in j. arthur & r. phillips (eds.), issues in history teaching, (pp. 113-124). london & new york: routledge. dahm, b. (1987). soekarno dan perjuangan kemerdekaan. jakarta lp3es. daniel, h. (2007). pedagogy. in h. daniels, m. cole & j. v. wertsch (eds.), the cambridge companion to vygotsky (pp. 307-331). cambridge: cambridge university press. dijk, t. a. v. (1981). discourse studies and education. applied linguistic, 2, 1-26. dijk, t. a. v. (2006). discourse, context, and cognition. discourse & society 8 (1). dijk, t. a. v. (2011). discourse and ideology discourse studies: a multidisiplinary introduction (pp. 379-407). london: sage publisher. dijk, t. a. v. (2012). discourse and knowledge. in j. p. gee & m. handford (eds.), handbook of discourse analysis (pp. 587-603). london: routledge. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 290-307 dijk, t. a. v. (2015). critical discourse studies: a sociocognitive approach (third ed.). london: sage publisher. fairclough, n. (1989). language and power. essex: longman group. fairclough, n. (1992). discourse and social change. cambridge: polity press. florovsky, g. (1969). the study of the past. in r. h. nash (ed.), ideas of history. new york: e.p. dutton & co., inc. gin, o. k. (2009). historical dictionary of malaysia. maryland: the scarecrow press inc.: lanham. glasersfeld, e. v. (1995). radical constructivism: a way of knowing and learning. london & new york: routledge. glaser, b. g., & strauss, a. l. (2017). discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. new york: routledge. gumperz, j. (1977). sociocultural knowledge in conversational inference: georgetown university roundtable on languages and linguistic. washington: georgetown university press. gunning, d. (1978). the theaching of history. london: croom helm ltd. hooker, v. m. (2003). a short history of malaysia. new south wales: allen & unwin. john hardcastle (2009) vygotsky’s enlightenment precursors, educational review, 61:2, 181195, doi: 10.1080/00131910902846890 kathy charmaz, (2006), constructing grounded theory: a practical guide through qualitative analysis, london, thousand oaks, new delhi: sage publication. kukla, a. (2000). social constructivism and the philosophy of science. london & new york: routledge. langford, p. e. (2005). vygotsky`s: developmental and educational psychology. hove & new york: psychology press. legge, j. d. (2003). sukarno: a political biography: editions didier millet. liow, j. c. (2005). the politics of indonesia-malaysia relation, one kin, two nations. london & new york: routledge. maksum, a., & bustami, r. (2014). ketegangan hubungan indonesia-malaysia dalam isu tarian pendet. kajian malaysia 32(2). sutimin martin booth (1994) cognition in history: a british perspective, educational psychologist, 29:2, 61-69, doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2902_1 mckeown, m g , & beck, i l (1994) making sense of accounts of history why young students don’t and how they might in g lemhardt, i l beck, & c stamton (eds ), teackzng and learnzng zn kzstory (pp l-26) hlllsdale, nj erlbaum. milne, r. s., & ratnam, k. j. (1974). malaysia new states in a new nation: political development of serawak and sabah in malaysia. london: frank cass. ola halldén (1986) learning history, oxford review of education, 12:1, 53-66, doi: 10.1080/0305498860120105 peterson, a. (2011). moral learning in history. in i. davies (ed.), debates in history teaching (pp. 161-171). london & new york: routledge. piaget, j. (1959). the language and thought of the child, third edition. london & new york: routledge. piaget, j. (2003). the psychology of intelligence. london & new york: routledge. poulgrain, g. (2014). the genesis of kontrontasi malaysia, brunei and indonesia, 1945-1965. selangor: strategic information and research development centre. purwanta, h. (2017). militaristic discourse in secondary education history textbooks. journal of educational media, memory and society, 9(1), 36–53. doi: 0.3167/jemms.2017.090103 rigney, a. (2013). history as text: narrative theory and fiction, in partner, nancy and foot sarah (eds), the sage handbook of historical theory (pp. 183-201), los angeles: sage publisher. schriffin, d. (1994). approaches to discourse. oxford: blackwell. schunk, d. h. (1989). social cognitive theory and self-regulated learning. in b. j. zimmerman & d. h. schunk (eds.), self-regulated learning and academic achievement (pp. 83-110). new york: springer. searle, j. r. (1969). speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language (vol. 626). cambridge university press. sinclair, j. m., & coulthard, r. m. (1975). towards and analysis of discourse the english used by teacher & pupils. oxford: oxford university press. vygotsky, l. (1986). thought and language. cambridge & london: the mit press. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 290-307 white, h. (1987). the content of the form: narrative discourse and historical representation. batlimore & london: the john hopkins university press. white, h. (2008). the historical event. differences: a journal of feminist cultural studies, 19(2), 9-34. wodak, r. (1996). disorders of discourse. london: longman. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),387-403 387 distance learning at higher education institutions: results of an experiment boris kireev1, aray zhundibayeva2 and aiman aktanova3 abstract one of the most promising forms of implementing active teaching methods is distance learning or elearning. during the last decade, e-learning was most often associated with the so-called mass open online courses, the moocs. at russian and kazakhstan universities, e-learning is often blended with the traditional type of in-class education and is known as "blended learning". a certain lack of research on the use of distance learning at russian universities determined the topic of this paper. the initial assignment was to launch blended learning in 6 groups of students of general engineering at the engineering and technology faculty of elabuga institute of kazan federal university and philology students at the kazakh philology faculty of semey state university named after shakarim and to study the students’ attitude toward distance learning during the 2017-2018 academic year. the methods of research involve a literature review, pedagogical observation, experiment, questioning, and theoretical analysis. the results of the research show some interesting observations on the attitude of students and institute professors toward the use of e-learning. also, the research shows positive results of the use of the blended learning methodology in studying some general technical disciplines during the bachelor’s degree program. keywords: pedagogy, kazakh philology, methodology, electronic, presentation, lecture, experiment, survey. introduction the modern information society is characterized by two patterns. first, most often after classical, formal education (primary school, secondary school, college, etc.), a person has a need to continue education; second, students need timing and a method of education adapted to their daily routine. this creates the need to put educational activities out of time and place. the question is, how can the standard educational process adjust to these requirements (bozhkova et al., 2019). experience shows that it’s possible with the use of modern technological solutions in the learning process. in connection with the rapid development of information technology, which is used in almost all areas 1assoc. prof. of the department of general engineering training, kazan federal university, elabuga institute,russia, centurion05@bk.ru 2 phd, head of the department of kazakh literature, shakarim state university of semey (ssus), (state university named after shakarim of city semey), kazakhstan, arayzhkz@gmail.com 3 candidate of philology, department of kazakh literature, shakarim state university of semey, (ssus) (state university named after shakarim of semey city) kazakhstan, aiman@gmai.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),387-403 of human activity, education exceeds the boundaries of traditional education and becomes independent of time and place (korableva et al., 2019a; 2019b; vasilev et al., 2018). european council meeting in lisbon in 2000 resulted in a "memorandum on lifelong learning" (2000) which affirmed that europe has moved into the knowledge age, with all its implications for the cultural, economic and social life. the european council also concluded that the expansion of continuous education is necessary for a successful transition to a knowledge-based society and economy (popova et al., 2019; mueller et al., 2019; magsumov, 2018; rupeika-apoga et al., 2019; philippova et al., 2018). continuous learning should become the guiding principle of the entire organization of education and training, as well as the main way of development of civil society, social interaction, and employment (biserova and shagivaleeva, 2019; lehoux et al., 2018). in practice, the provisions of the memorandum on lifelong learning led to creation of massive open online course, moocs, beginning in 2008. in russia, issues related to the moocs received the greatest attention in the internet and mass media by the beginning of 2013 (gaebel at al.,2014; danilina, 2013; krause & love, 2014; aziatzeva, 2016; shah, 2018; shaytura et al., 2018; gabidullina et al., 2018; peshkova et al., 2017). theoretical background by this time, higher education institutions are already represented in the market of mass online courses, but the educational community still has a small amount of information about the strategic importance of e-learning at higher education institutions (kuznetsova et al., 2019; thalassinos et al., 2011). this question served as the basis for a study conducted by the european university association, designed to outline the overall picture on the level of introduction of innovative technologies in higher education and to predict future it trends in education (alajmi, 2019; lysytsia et al., 2019; volchik and maslyukova, 2019; batkovskiy et al., 2019; adamczyk et al., 2019). in other words, the study was aimed at understanding which methods were viable and which were not in this new and exciting perspective of e-learning. the results of the study were presented in the commission's report (gaebel at al., 2014). from there it followed that e-learning was used by almost all european universities studied, mostly in the form of so-called blended learning, elearning in conjunction with the classroom activities. many of them were also interested in implementing the moocs. a large number of works were devoted to the use of e-learning in kireev et al. training, both in the form of the moocs and blended learning (porter, 2014; pizzi, 2014; veledinskaya at al., 2015; 2016; mijares, 2017; dunets et al., 2019; kuderova et al., 2018; frolov and frolova, 2018; natolochnaya et al., 2018; gerasimova et al., 2018a,b). in russia, one of the most famous projects on the implementation of moocs into education is called "open education" (open education, 2018; catalog, 2018). the project was organized as a modern informational platform to support non-formal education. it was created by the association called "national platform for open education", established by leading russian universities such as msu, st. petersburg pedagogical university, st. petersburg state university, national university of science and technology (misis), higher school of economics, mipt, ural federal university and itmo university). therefore, most of the presented courses cover the disciplines of the above-mentioned institutions of higher education (kudlaev, 2018; kabuldinov et al., 2016; fayzullina, 2019; nikolaeva et al., 2018). russia's transition to the digital economy, as repeatedly reported at various levels of government, involves the development and implementation of projects related to the digital educational environment (shatunova et al., 2019). over the past two years, a project called "modern digital educational environment in the russian federation" became a priority one (2016). this project assumes creation of online courses and online resources of general education, as well as a system of their quality assessment (2017). the informational portal, accessible to all categories of citizens, should provide each user with the opportunity to use the created online resources for mastering general subjects (shaitura et al., 2018). blended learning still, the attitude of students and teachers toward distance learning at many russian universities is ambiguous (andreev, 2018). as proponents of the introduction of moocs in education note, one of the main criteria for the success of distance learning is motivation of learners. in addition, a significant number of trainees cannot master electronic courses without active support of trainers, which ultimately leads to an insignificant number of enrollees successfully completing the course (balabas, 2017; 2017). if one talks about reforming the traditional educational process at some leading russian universities by means of e-learning, it is primarily introduced in the form of blended learning, combining digital, distance, and traditional, or classroom, forms of education. at the same time, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),387-403 universities create their own frameworks for "blended learning", using various solutions (such as lms moodle, etc.) within individual disciplines of the main educational program. the quality of blended learning is achieved not by the rejection of part of the classroom lessons, but by an active educational interaction in the electronic environment (merzon and ibatullin, 2017; voronkova et al., 2019; smirnova et al., 2014). in june 2018, a message appeared on the internet stating that one of the pioneers of using moocs in education, the higher school of economics (hse), was moving to blended learning within three majors of bachelor training. massive open online courses had failed to provide the effect previously expected (prodanova et al., 2019). at the engineering and technology faculty of the elabuga institute of kazan federal university, we have been engaged for several years in the introduction of digital educational resources into the educational process for bachelors. a description of the used methods and some conclusions can be found in (kireev, 2016; kireev and epaneshnikov, 2015; zhundibayeva, 2013; berdyguzhin, 2016; shamshudinova et al., 2019). the analysis of existing sources on the use of e-learning and blended learning during university bachelor’s programs cannot provide a full picture of the effectiveness of these methods without addressing the issue from the inside. things to be considered are students’ attitude, issues they face while using the electronic sources, motivation to use them and other things which add up to the overall effectiveness. so was determined the subject of this experimental study. subject of the research can be narrowed down to the relationship between students’ willingness to use e-courses and other electronic material offered by blended learning and their academic progress. methods research design this pedagogical research is based on an experiment. at the first (theoretical) stage, the authors put forward a hypothesis that blended learning in preparation for the bachelor’s degree may increase the efficiency of learning material. prior to the start of experiment, electronic content was prepared for several technical courses, internally reviewed by university department of education and posted on the university website; the next stage aimed at choosing participants for the experiment and their familiarization with the conditions and timing of the experiment. in the full-time department, the experiment suggested reduction of classroom activities by 20%, mainly due to reduction of number of lectures. students were supposed to study lecture material kireev et al. and do practical assignments out of class (home or computer class). practical assignments are an important part of the evaluation of students’ learning progress; they typically include testing on the studied topics, reports on solving typical problems, reports on laboratory work, etc. in the part-time department, ratio of self-study to classroom activities was set at 70% to 30% of the time. course website also provided forum for communication on the topics and general q&a. data collection the experiment was designed mostly as a field experiment. it took place at the university where the structure of the educational process did not allow having a control group along with the experimental one or randomly selecting participants. nevertheless, some of the existing programs were chosen as experimental groups – students of pedagogical education with major profiles in transport, the technology of transport processes and vehicle operation. longitudinal observation of the participants’ academic progress together with administering surveys make the experimental design. individual students who fell out of the experiment can’t be attributed to a control group. in our opinion, a classic type of experiment that requires a control group along with an experimental one, is not necessary in a socio pedagogical research since it doesn’t guarantee reliable conclusions and depend on how strictly conditions of the experiment are followed. all factors, except those tested, should be carefully balanced. however, a large number of factors affect the effectiveness of the pedagogical process. teaching experience is characterized by uniqueness and irreversibility, where the researcher has to deal with another “material” when repeated, and the conditions of the experiment are never the same. therefore, a “pure” experiment in pedagogy (unlike, for example, chemistry or physics) is impossible, no matter how carefully it is planned and implemented. the conclusions of a pedagogical experiment are drawn taking into account the experiment conditions as they appear in their averaged or generalized form. an important factor in assessing the findings of the experiment is the personal long-term experience of teachers and their qualification. participants at a significant part of russian institutions of higher education, students are divided into two groups: a) those engaged in full-time education; b) those engaged in part-time education. the ratio of these two groups can be completely different. at kazan federal university, part-time students make up about a third of the total number. at semey state university named after shakarim, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),387-403 students study by the moodle program of distance learning technologies. full-timers are engaged in traditional auditorium lectures most of the time, whereas part-timers spend in class about a third of the total number of credit hours of a particular subject. finals are held twice per academic year and last for 3-4 weeks (usually in january and june, or november and april), according to the established schedule. in-class lectures with the presence of a lecturer are held prior to the tests and examinations. in the intervals between these sessions, part-time students study independently. final papers, tests, examinations, and other evaluation activities are usually held during the next session after the students receive their assignments. this type of training is most favorable for the application of distance learning technologies. during 2017 2018, we conducted an experiment on the use of blended learning in several groups of full-time and part-time students. it should be noted that this is a time-consuming activity which involved a large amount of preliminary work on preparing the necessary electronic content and placing it on the website of distance learning of the university (edu.kpfu.ru). during the last two years all the necessary electronic content was prepared and placed first on the website for creating online courses (do.kpfu.ru) for the 4 subjects of technical disciplines: "hydraulics and hydraulic machines", "fundamentals of hydraulic drive. hydraulic and pneumatic systems”, “transport energy” and “heat engineering”. then, after passing methodological expertise held by kfu department of continuing education, the courses were allowed for use in the educational process and transferred to the e-learning site edu.kpfu.ru. preparation of all the necessary online educational material was greatly assisted by faculty students. at a significant part of russian institutions of higher education, students are divided into two groups: a) those engaged in full-time education; b) those engaged in part-time education. the ratio of these two groups can be completely different. at kazan federal university, part-time students make up about a third of the total number. fulltimers are engaged in traditional auditorium lectures most of the time, whereas part-timers spend in class about a third of the total number of credit hours of a particular subject. finals are held twice per academic year and last for 3-4 weeks (usually in january and june, or november and april), according to the established schedule. inclass lectures with the presence of a lecturer are held prior to the tests and examinations. in the intervals between these sessions, part-time students study independently. final papers, tests, examinations and other evaluation activities are usually held during the next session after the kireev et al. students received their assignments. this type of training is most favorable for the application of distance learning technologies. in the 2017 academic year (september 2017 to june 2018), the authors decided to conduct an experiment on the use of blended learning in several groups of full-time and part-time students. it should be noted that this is a time-consuming activity which involved a large amount of preliminary work on preparing the necessary electronic content and placing it on the website of distance learning of the university (edu.kpfu.ru). during the last two years all the necessary electronic content was prepared and placed first on the website for creating online courses (do.kpfu.ru) for the 4 subjects of technical disciplines: "hydraulics and hydraulic machines", "fundamentals of hydraulic drive. hydraulic and pneumatic systems”, “transport energy” and “heat engineering”. then, after passing methodological expertise held by kfu department of continuing education, the courses were allowed for use in the educational process and transferred to the e-learning site edu.kpfu.ru. preparation of all the necessary online educational material was greatly assisted by faculty students. results kfu distance learning process is based on the learning management system moodle (modular object-oriented dynamic learning environment, 2018). moodle is quite widely represented in the world market of distance learning. it combines flexibility, reliability, and ease of use. in this system, one can create and store electronic learning materials and set the sequence of their study (polyakova et al., 2019). due to the fact that access to moodle is carried out through the internet, students are not bound by a particular place and timing and they can move through the material at their own pace. the content in the lms moodle includes metadata on the subject of study, course framework by hours (lectures, laboratory activities and practice, materials for independent study, finals and other control assignments, launch timing of the course). primary block displays the following information: work program of the course; list of competences mastered by students during the course; a brief summary; instructions for typical tasks and laboratory work; methodological recommendations to students and teachers; lists of sources used, a glossary, news and general forums, etc. then there are blocks on specific topics, including methodological recommendations to students; lecture material; journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),387-403 presentations and videos; assignments for independent work; glossary on the topic; tests, etc. the final block contains control tasks and control questions for the final test or examination. control over the assimilation of educational material is important in the educational process. kazan federal university uses a rating system for assessing students' knowledge. according to the system, the student can score up to 50 points for the current work on each specific subject and up to 50 points for the exam (test). total score is translated into an assessment according to a traditional five-point system: scores 56 to 71 equal to a "satisfactory", scores 72 to 86 equal to a "good" and for scoring over 86 points a student gets an "excellent." a score less than 56 points requires re – examination. students who scored less than 30 points must re-take the course. such an evaluation system is convenient for "blended learning". course teachers shall tailor the scoring system to the framework of their academic subjects. students can use the edu.kpfu.ru website to control their scores and activities using the "evaluation" option on the site. in general, the scoring system is manual. the course lecturer evaluates and scores the tasks completed by students, or makes notes and provides feedback for correction of mistakes. stages of the experiment stage one: survey prior to program start before the experiment, we conducted a survey among the students of the faculty (may and september, 2017 among full-time students and november, 2017, among part-time students). the purpose of the survey was to study the possibility of using distance learning both at the daytime and part-time departments of the faculty. the survey involved 153 students from various majors (pedagogical education, vocational education, technology of transport etc.) and 17 lecturers. the first group of questions evaluated technical possibilities for students to work from distance: "how often do you use the internet? ": 89.5% of respondents answered “daily”, whereas 1.6% do not use the internet. "are you satisfied with the quality of the internet (incl. speed and stability of connection)?": 49.2% chose "satisfied with stability of communication "; 58.7% “satisfied with the speed of information transfer”; 7.0% are not satisfied with either one or the other. mostly, free wi-fi is not available in public places where students can study (classrooms or dormitories). for internet access, respondents mostly use: a) stationary home computer 31.4%; b) laptop -49.7%; c) tablet 22.9%; d) mobile phone 73.2%. kireev et al. the second group of questions concerned the use of e-learning tools. 71.9% answered they used the internet for obtaining additional educational materials. 83.0% confirmed they use the internet mostly for communication in social networks, such as vkontakte (popular russian social network). "in which form do you receive electronic resources from teachers? " a) 66.0% answered "in a text form on usb storage media"; b) only 13.7% answered they use educational information placed on edu.kpfu.ru. at the same time, 10 out of 17 faculty staff employees noted they have 19 courses posted on edu.kpfu.ru, which are nevertheless not used as a part of distance learning and are only recommended for additional information on the subject. one reason for this might be lack of material incentives for teachers for an additional amount of work. to the question: "in your opinion, how can university teachers be motivated to use more electronic resources in blended learning?", 76% of respondents supported the reduction of the academic load by 20%, the rest were undecided. "how do you think the electronic educational resources received from teachers affect mastery of the educational material? ": a) 50.8% answered "positively "; b) 15.6% believe that their influence is insignificant; c) 34% noted that electronic resources increase interest in the subject; d) 11.7% found it difficult to answer. as for the courses posted on the e-learning site edu.kpfu.ru, 36.7% of respondents noted that they provide permanent access to educational materials, 14.8% consider them an additional load, 10.2% do not understand benefits from their use in the educational process, and 38.3% were undecided. "do you consider it possible to use blended learning at the faculty? ": a) 53.1% answered" yes "; b) 18.8% "no"; c) 27.3% found it difficult to answer. asked about the most effective, in their opinion, relationship between in-class and distance learning, 36.7% voted for the proposed ratio of in-class lectures to distance learning as 80/20, 32.8% voted for 60 / 40, 11.7 % were in favor of classroom lectures only, and 1.6% in favor of distance classes only. as for the use of mooc courses in education, only a few of respondents had a vague idea about them. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),387-403 to the question: "do you intend to work on the chosen specialization after graduation?", only 36% of pedagogy students and about 50% of transport technology students answered positively, which also may affect motivation in learning. stage two – blended learning at the second stage of the experiment, a whole semester was devoted to blended learning. at this stage was developed an evaluation system for individual performance of the participants. a cumulative total score was based on the ratings for each assignment, rating logic was posted on the website in the initial block of the e-course, making it available to the participants at any convenient time. another issue in e-learning is related to translating results of laboratory assignments to the electronic form (for example, with the use of ms office programs). providing answers to control questions using mathematical formulas and drawings requires students to develop certain skills in using informational technology and is often considered as time-consuming. given that this could have a negative impact on students' attitudes toward distance learning, the authors widely used a system of templates for typical tasks and laboratory assignments, which allowed copying formulas and drawings from lectures and insert them into the answers to test questions. stage three – data analysis at the end of the experiment, a second survey was administered and the results were processed. students got their grades which qualified for the final examination (excellent, good, fair, poor). discussion 98 students (from 6 groups) took part in the experiment, both full-time and part-time departments. full-time department the experiment on blended learning involved 38 students out of 48 (79.2% of the total number of students in 3 groups). all the 38 students taking part in the experiment scored the appropriate number of points and passed final test, 30.8% receiving an "excellent", 38.5% ended up with a "good" and 30.7% with a "satisfactory". students who did not take part in the experiment continued their education in the traditional in-class form, partly during the winter holidays. part-time department kireev et al. out of three groups, 60 students out of 68 (88.2% of the number who appeared in person for in-class lectures, or 65.9% of the total number of students in groups) took part in the blended learning experiment. in-class participation resulted in a relatively high final score. credit was given to 90% of those who appeared for lectures in person, or 59.3% of the total number of students in all three groups. after the experiment, a second survey was conducted among the participants. 89.8% of the respondents answered they liked blended learning, others reported their attitude hasn’t changed. as for the benefits, 54.1% of the respondents mostly liked the opportunity to work at a convenient time and to work in their home environment; 49.0% liked the opportunity to receive quick feedback on the results of their work and look up their scores at any convenient time; 30.6% answered blended learning helps to develop computer and technology skills; and only 2.7% found it difficult to see any particular benefits. when asked about the most favorable ratio of classroom to distance learning, the majority of responses (85.6%) fell to the figure of 70%/30%. there were other questions aimed at discovering the reasons for missing classes, the time devoted to the study of material, etc. 8.1% of the respondents answered they studied daily; 83.8% addressed the material upon receiving assignments from the lecturer; 2.7% confessed they began to study only a short time prior to the finals. 5.4% believe they can get positive grades without systematic studies. conclusion as the study shows, it is still premature to talk about the vast introduction of moocs into the educational process at full-time departments of russian universities. students are not yet ready for completely independent work and will not be able to learn complicated topics and do assignments without the personal assistance of a teacher. automatic verification of all completed tasks will not provide real information about the level of students’ preparation. as the experiment showed, almost all students obtained the best results in automatic testing for all the subjects listed above. this is doubtful, because results of manually completed assignments might be often different. part-time students often have issues with attending final sessions, which makes it least possible to organize full-value blended learning. in addition, the average level of preparation of this category of students is lower than that of full-time students; thus, personal communication journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),387-403 with the teacher, especially on complex topics, is even more important for them. in the authors’ opinion, which is confirmed by the results of the survey after the end of the experiment, it is necessary to introduce more blended learning and a system of material incentives and motivation is needed to encourage teachers to do it. the current system of quarterly bonus payments yet does not consider this type of workload. one-time bonuses at the end of the academic year are insignificant and do not correspond to the amount of additional workload on teachers involved in blended learning. based on the results of the experiment, we propose the following issues for future discussion: 1. the use of distance learning using electronic educational resources both within full-time and part-time departments of the university allows to activate learning process and improve efficiency of teaching. 2. in our view, blended learning should be considered as the most expedient form of education at the universities of russia. 3. moocs (massive open online courses) currently do not play a significant role in many russian universities. their widespread introduction, which has been intensively advertised at the present time among university staff in russia, in our opinion, will not yield significantly positive results. acknowledgments the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. the work is carried out in order to improve the scientific skills and competitiveness of scientists and to maintain the "law of the republic of kazakhstan on education". references adamczyk, m.; betlej, a.; gondek, j.; ohotina, a. (2019). technology and sustainable development: towards the future?, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 2003-2016. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(32) alajmi, m. a. (2019). the impact of e-portfolio use on the development of professional standards and life skills of students in the faculty of education at princess nourabint abdul rahman university, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4) 1714-1735. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(32) kireev et al. aziatzeva, t.v. (2016). the review of existing foreign courses that use the technology of blended learning. pxxi, 2, 178-182. andreev, i. (2018). theses about digital education. retrieved august 14, 2018 from http://news.ifmo.ru/ru/blog/53/ balabas e. (2017). digital education in russia begins with #edcrunch. retrieved august 22, 2018 from http://misis.ru/university/mediaroom/smi/2017-10/4953 berdyguzhin, l. b. (2016). new insights into the history of the kazakh khanate formation. analele universitatii din craiova seria istorie, 30(2), 17-26. blended learning mastery series. online learning consortium. (2018). retrieved june 02, 2018 from https://onlinelearningconsortium.org/learn/programs-and-courses-for-theinstructional-designer/ biserova, g. k., & shagivaleeva, g. r. (2019). socio-psychological adaptation of international students to learning and professional activities. space and culture, india, 6(5), 99114. doi:10.20896/saci.v6i5.411 bozhkova g.n., shastina e.m., kalimullina o.v., shatunova o.v. (2019) study of literary images of gifted characters in optional activities as a means to develop capable and talented youth. space and culture, india, vol. 7:1, pp. 264273. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1 .463 batkovskiy, a.m.; leonov, a.v.; pronin, a.yu.; semenova, e.g.; fomina, a.v.; balashov, v.m. (2019). sustainable development of industry 4.0: the case of high-tech products system design, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 1823-1838. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(20) conference of the german forum for higher education in the digital age. working paper 18. retrieved may 23, 2018 from https://hochschulforumdigitalisierung.de/sites/default/files/dateien/hfd_ap_nr%2018_discussi on_paper.pdf danilina, a. (2013). massive open online courses become alternative to the traditional educational environment. retrieved april 02, 2018 from http://www.ug.ru/article/654 dhawal sh. (2017). a product at every price: a review of mooc stats and trends in 2017, 2018. retrieved april 16,2018 from digital education is moving around russia (2017). retrieved may 29, 2018 from https://www.metronews.ru/partners/novosti-partnerov112/reviews/cifrovoeobrazovanie-shagaet-po-rossii-1379502/ http:// www.classcentral.com/report/ moocs-statsand-trends-2017/ dunets, a., latysheva, o., bitter, n., vakhrushev, i., shichiyakh, r., & zhuruli, g. (2019). the economic and infrastructural basis for the development of tourist space: the essence, structure http://misis.ru/university/mediaroom/smi/2017-10/4953 https://onlinelearningconsortium.org/learn/programs-and-courses-for-the-instructional-designer/ https://onlinelearningconsortium.org/learn/programs-and-courses-for-the-instructional-designer/ https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1%20.463 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(20) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),387-403 and typology. journal of environmental management and tourism, 10(2), 319-327. doi:10.14505/jemt.v10.2(34).05 fayzullina, o. r. (2019). ways of international students' adaptation: club of international friendship. space and culture, india, 6(5), 87-98. doi:10.20896/saci.v6i5.412 frolov, s.v., frolova, n.h. (2018). incorporation of the blended learning in a number of universities of nizhny novgorod: comparative approach. historical and social-educational idea, 10 (1). retrieved june 06, 2018 from http://www.hist-edu.ru. gaebel, m., kupriyanova v., morais r. & colucci, e. (2014). results of a mapping survey conducted in october-december 2013. retrieved march 22, 2018 from http://www. openeducationeuropa. eu/sites/default/files/news/ e-learning%20survey.pdf gabidullina, f., zhundibayeva, a., makarova, v., galiullin, r., & mubarakshina, i. (2018). the realization of the hermeneutical approach to the text in practical classes in the literature during the work with students of philological faculty. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 226-240. doi:10.17499/jsser.32940 gerasimova, v. g., melamud, m. r., tutaeva, d. r., romanova, y. d., & zhenova, n. a. (2018a). the adoption of e-learning technology at the faculty of distance learning of plekhanov russian university of economics. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 172-188. doi:10.17499/jsser.20153 gerasimova, v. g., romanova, y. d., & zhenova, n. a. (2018b). russian market of lms for higher education. astra salvensis, 6, 757-767. krause s., lowe c. (2014). invasion of the moocs: the promises and perils of massive open online courses. grand valleu state university, parlor press. individual essays. san francisco, usa. http://www.parlorpress.com/pdf/invasion_of_the_moocs.pdf kireev, b.n. (2016). the use of e-learning in training educational graduates. higher education in russia, 2, 148-153. kireev, b.n. (2015). the use of multimedia technologies in the study of engineering disciplines. interdisciplinary behavior and social sciences, edited by ford lumban gaol crc press, 121-124. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019a). studying user satisfaction with the mooc platform interfaces using the example of coursera and open education platforms. paper presented at the acm international conference proceeding series, 26-30. doi:10.1145/3322134.3322139 korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019b). usability testing of mooc: identifying user interface problems. paper presented at the iceis 2019 proceedings of the 21st international conference on enterprise information systems, 2 468-475. http://www.parlorpress.com/pdf/invasion_of_the_moocs.pdf kireev et al. kabuldinov, z., absadykov, a., issenov, o., aitmukhambetov, a., & berdyguzhin, l. (2016). the customs of politeness among russian kazakhs. anthropologist, 26(1-2), 52-56. doi:10.1080/09720073.2016.11892142 kuderova, i. g., ryumshin, a. v., gayazova, s. r., romanova, e. v., & erzinkyan, e. a. (2019). entrepreneurial skills development through distance learning. journal of entrepreneurship education, 22, 1-12. kudlaev, m.s. (2018). the process of digitalization of education in russia. a young scientist, 31. 3-7. retrieved july 08, 2018 from https://moluch.ru/archive/217/52242/ kuznetsova, i. g., bulyga, r. p., rakhmatullina, l. v., titova, s. v., shichiyakh, r. a., & zakirov, r. a. (2019). problems and prospects of human capital development in modern russia. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 164-175. lehoux, l., morozova, t.v., safonova, e.g., kalacheva, o.n. (2018). adaptation of individual taxonomy in financial statements prepared in line with ifrs to xbrl format. proceedings of the 32nd international business information management association conference, ibima 2018 vision 2020: sustainable economic development and application of innovation management from regional expansion to global growth, pp. 2048-2055. lms moodle (2018). retrieved august 28, 2018 from https://docs.moodle.org lysytsia, n.; martynenko, m.; prytychenko, t.; gron o.; us m. (2019). prospects for innovations in marketing of economic educational services in ukraine, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 17711783. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(16) magsumov, t.a. (2018). apprenticeship in secondary vocational schools during the economic modernization in late imperial russia. part 1. european journal of contemporary education, 7(4): 918-926. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2018.4.918 memorandum on lifelong learning. (2000). retrieved march 12, 2018, from http://www.znanie.org/docs/memorandum.html. merzon, e. e., & ibatullin, r. r. (2017). architecture of smart learning courses in higher education. paper presented at the application of information and communication technologies, aict 2016 conference proceedings, doi:10.1109/icaict.2016.7991809 mijares i. (2018). blended learning: are we getting the best from both worlds? literature review edst 561. retrieved may 28, 2018 from http://elk.libraru.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/ mueller, j. e., chikunov, s. o., fedchenko, e. a., & pronskaya, o. n. (2019). innovative technologies in entrepreneurship education: the case of european and asian countries. journal of entrepreneurship education, 22(1) http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(16) https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2018.4.918 http://www.znanie.org/docs/memorandum.html http://elk.libraru.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),387-403 natolochnaya, o.v., miku, n.v., zulfugarzade, t.e., & médico, a. (2018). highland schools in the caucasus: historical background. european journal of contemporary education, 7(3), 608-614. nikolaeva, n. v., aleksandrova, t. n., & elbendari, a. m. (2018). ore strength property evaluation in the design of ore preparation cycles. paper presented at the geomechanics and geodynamics of rock masses, 1 333-338. peshkova, g., antohina, y., & smirnova, n. (2017). measures to improve russian federal strategy of the construction materials industry development. journal of business and retail management research, 11(3), 39-46. philippova, n.v., akhmadeev, r.g., bykanova, o.a., chaykovskaya, l.a. (2018) social equity: a route to progressive taxation of individuals. european research studies journal, 21 (4), pp. 317-330. porter, w.w. (2014). blended learning in higher education: institutional adoption and mplementation. computers & education, 75, 185-195. polyakova, a.g., loginov, m.p., serebrennikova, a.i. & thalassinos, e.i. (2019). design of a socio-economic processes monitoring system based on network analysis and big data. international journal of economics & business administration, 7(1), 130-139. pizzi,m.a. (2014). blended learning pedagogy: the time is now! occupational therapy in health care, 28, 333-338. priority project "modern digital educational environment in the russian federation" (2017). retrieved july 20, 2018 from https:// minobrnauki.rf / projects / modern-digitaleducational-environment. prodanova, n., plaskova, n., popova, l., maslova, i., dmitrieva, i., sitnikova, v., & kharakoz, j. (2019). the role of it tools when introducing integrated reporting in corporate communication. journal of advanced research in dynamical and control systems, 11(8 special issue), 411-415. popova, l. i., demina, i. d., stepanenko, y. s., tran, q. n., meshkova, g. v., & afonasova, m. a. (2019). regional aspects of sectoral digitalization: problems and prospects. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 176-188. rupeika-apoga, r., romanova, i., bule, l. & thalassinos, y. (2019). the impact of population ageing and social stratification: the case of latvia. international journal of economics & business administration, 7(1), 49-63. shamshudinova, g., altybassarova, m., seifullina, g., turlybekova, a., & dyussembekova, g. (2019). state model of interconfessional tolerance in modern multiethnic societies. space and culture, india, 7(1), 117-127. doi:10.20896/saci.v7i1.374 kireev et al. shatunova o., anisimova t., sabirova f., kalimullina o. (2019). steam as an innovative educational technology. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 (2), 131-144. shaytura, s. v., knyazeva, m. d., feoktistova, v. m., vintova, t. a., titov, v. a., & kozhaev, y. p. (2018). philosophy of information fields. international journal of civil engineering and technology, 9(13), 127-136. shaitura, s. v., ordov, k. v., lesnichaya, i. g., romanova, y. d., & khachaturova, s. s. (2018). services and mechanisms of competitive intelligence on the internet. [servicios y mecanismos de inteligencia competitiva en internet] espacios, 39(45) smirnova, n. n., nikolaeva, n. v., brichkin, v. n., & kuskov, v. b. (2014). analytical solutions of some heat transfer problems in mining practice. journal of mining science, 50(1), 8186. doi:10.1134/s1062739114010128 veledinskaya, s., dorofeeva, m., andreev, a. (2015). blended learning: setup of a learning process. open and distance education, 2, 14-21. voronkova, o. y., iakimova, l. a., frolova, i. i., shafranskaya, c. i., kamolov, s. g., & prodanova, n. a. (2019). sustainable development of territories based on the integrated use of industry, resource and environmental potential. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 151-163. 20 theses on digital teaching and learning in higher education. (2016). retrieved october 30, 2018 from https://hochschulforumdigitalisierung.de/en/20-theses-digitalisationhigher-education the educational environment is digitized (2017). retrieved july 28, 2018 from https://ministry of education and science / m / news /11875. thalassinos, i.e., stamatopoulos, v.t. and arvanitis, e.s. (2011). gender wage gap: evidence from the hellenic maritime sector 1995-2002. european research studies journal, 14(1), 91-101 vasilev, v. l., murtazina, d. a., aleynikova, o. s., averianova, t. a., & aleksiuk, i. o. (2018). problems of digitalization of higher education in a small town. paper presented at the proceedings of the 32nd international business information management association conference, ibima 2018 vision 2020: sustainable economic development and application of innovation management from regional expansion to global growth, 1710-1716. volchik, v.; maslyukova, e. (2019). trust and development of education and science, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(3): 1244-1255. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(27) what is blended learning? (2017). retrieved august 24, 2018 from https://www.blendulearning.org./basics https://hochschulforumdigitalisierung.de/en/20-theses-digitalisation-higher-education https://hochschulforumdigitalisierung.de/en/20-theses-digitalisation-higher-education https://www.blendulearning.org./basics www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),225-249 implementation of teaching character education, particularly in environmental care value, in labschool jakarta achmad husen1*, asep rudi casmana2, rinie octaviany hasan3, yosi erfinda4 abstract character education is considered important as it will cause moral degradation when it is not appropriately taught to the students in school. this study aims to investigate the character education program in indonesia, particularly at the secondary school level. this study utilized a descriptive method with a qualitative approach. to obtain the data, 20 people participated in this study, including teachers, students, vice school principals, and the school principals from labschool jakarta. to get valuable data, an in-depth interview, and focus group discussion (fgd), were used. the data was analyzed using cresswell method, which consists of transcribing, coding, triangulation, and data display. the study results show that, firstly, the schools have a wide variety of programs that can help to shape students' characters. for example, there was a trip observation for the newly enrolled students in the school. this character education program helps students understand environmental care values from people living in the countryside, so that they can learn local values that can focus on assisting students character foundation. secondly, labschool jakarta also provide some international events that can help students to have a deep understanding of their worldwide, particularly about how the country manages their cleanliness. finally, the characteristic that is applied in labschool is focused on the environmental care value. this research implies other teachers and schools that can learn how to teach character education to students. this research recommends all teachers and educators educate character for their students in primary school. keywords: character, education, labschool, trip observation, international events, environment education introduction character education is generally considered important. the modern society needs this program because it can shape the future human characteristic. character education can be said as utterly imperative for students in school because it affects the three main aspects, such as cognitive aspect, 1 assoc. prof., department of pancasila and civics education, faculty of social science, universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia, ahusen@unj.ac.id 2 lecturer, department of pancasila and civics education, faculty of social science, universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia, aseprudi@unj.ac.id 3 lecturer, department of travel business, faculty of social science, universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia, rinie.octaviany@unj.ac.id 4 lecturer, department of travel business, faculty of social science, universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia, yosi.erfinda@unj.ac.id mailto:ahusen@unj.ac.id mailto:aseprudi@unj.ac.id mailto:rinie.octaviany@unj.ac.id mailto:yosi.erfinda@unj.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 affective aspect, and psychometric aspects (moffat et al., 2019). in jakarta, the problem relating to the student’s character becomes an issue among the teachers in school. the problem can be seen in students’ attitudes related to cheating during exams, truancy, or dishonesty toward their teachers. some study findings revealed that show that the majority of the students in jakarta schools cheat during middle and final exams (sumadi & casmana, 2020). in addition to supporting the aforementioned finding, based on the data from inspector general of the ministry of education and culture in 2019, the ministry of education and culture republic of indonesia reported that during the national examination taking place, there were 126 cases where students were found to be cheating from other. this data are getting worse as the students' results of the national examination are completely different from the questions asked by the teachers, so students should be struggling to get a high score. these circumstances affect the results of the student’s exams after the teachers realize the score. these issues have become the primary concern of teachers in jakarta, which should be solved by teaching character education (sumadi et al., 2021). in addition to the cheating issue, caring for environment becomes another issue for students in school (casmana et al., 2022). in jakarta, there are various environment-related issues that resulted in the catastrophe. students sometimes throw rubbish all over the place, scatter drawings on public walls, and pollute the rivers by throwing the rubbish into them (sarkadi et al., 2020). the environment-related issue is not only about students, but also about jakarta society. the news during the rainy season shows that flooding has happened almost in all areas of the indonesian capital due to the rubbish everywhere (dobson & dobson, 2021; metcalfe & moulinstożek, 2021). this catastrophe occurs because people are not aware of the concept of cleaning environment. this issue of cleaning the environment has become a major concern for teaching character education in school (francis et al., 2018; waters et al., 2020). although it takes time to teach character, schools play an important role in creating and shaping students' characters in education. the problem of the study can be seen from the character of environmental issues in school. this can be seen when high school students no longer have concern for the environment. for example, during school breaks in the cafeteria, students always draw their trash away and do not throw them in the trash can. this is not an individual case, almost all students do the same thing. so, it can be husen et al. 227 seen that the canteen and school area have become dirty due to the garbage that is scattered and wasted everywhere. in addition, the classroom has also become a less clean place as a result of the lack of discipline toward the environment. high school seniors can be seen littering classrooms by scribbling on walls without cleaning them. if this environmental concern problem is still allowed, students will not have good character and no concern for their school environment. to support the issues relating to the importance of teaching environmental care values, there are some empirical evidences provided by some researchers in indonesia. firstly, casmana (2022) conducted a study relating to environmental care values in subang, west java province, indonesia. by using a qualitative approach and interviewing some teachers in school, the result shows that environmental care values have been utterly important. it reveals that there are a lot of students in schools who are required how to keep the school clean, plant trees, plant flowers in the garden and do other school program activities that can shape students’ characters. this study also shows that there are several students in schools who still do not care about the school environment, such as throwing rubbish everywhere and other negative activities. then, it is clear that teaching environmental care values in school is utterly important (casmana et al., 2022). the second study on teaching character education, particularly on environmental education, is conducted by prasetiyo et al. (2020). prasetiyo et al. (2020) examined how the school teaches students about how to love their environment through school adiwiyata program. in this research, the school adiwiyata program, internationally recognized as a green school program in indonesia, is an effort by school to teach students to love their school environment. students are assigned to plant trees, plant flowers in the garden, and clean their classroom after school activities. such programs conducted by the school help students shape their characters, particularly for loving the school environment. prasetiyo et al. (2020) concluded that to create students’ characters, schools should force and impose the law and sanction when they do not obey the school rules. after imposing the rules, the students are expected to be smart and good citizens by loving their environment. this research has some urgency that can contribute to the school. firstly, as the problem relating to the students' characters in jakarta is getting worse, as mentioned above, the role of character education in school is inevitable. it means that the schools in jakarta are urgently required to take action to tackle this issue. secondly, some schools in jakarta do not have programs for teaching journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 character education. this research can be an inspiration for these schools to promote character education as it aims to describe the character education program. in addition, character education also should be integrated not only into school program but also into the learning module. therefore, it is urgent to integrate some character education into the classroom, and this research provides some examples. based on the three points of urgency, it is necessary to undertake a study about character education. based on the previous studies on teaching character education, there is a wide variety of teaching character education for students either in schools or society. an initial study conducted in labschool showed that these secondary schools have several character education programs that are interesting to be studied. for example, bringing students to the local village in indonesia can help students understand other people’s lives. this school also has some programs that bring students abroad to look for the diversity that has happened across the world. bringing junior high school students to a rural area or a village where it is far away from home is called a “trip observation program.” in labschool jakarta, it has been an annual event that is compulsory for junior students. trip observation means that teachers introduce the way local people live, which is completely different from the current situation of students’ lives. for example, students live in an area with no internet connection, no electricity, and experience living in a village. students are asked to grow the paddy field and garden the flower daily. as the way they live is different, it is expected that character education is taught unconsciously. the trip observation program is needed by junior students because there is a wide range of benefits, and it helps future generation. first, trip observation is not only considered to be a vacation and going to the village, but it is the designed program by the school to educate young generation to understand the lives that are different from their lives. secondly, trip observation is designed to educate young people to know each other. as they are new students in school, the experience of living in the village is completely new for them. so trip observation provides this program so the students know each other. thirdly, trip observation provides character education, particularly in teaching environment. it means that teaching character education can help them learn about environmental issues close to them. therefore, trip observation is needed by students in this era. based on the background that has been previously introduced, the purpose of this study is to be able to describe the learning process of character education for high school students in dki jakarta, husen et al. 229 especially at sma labschool jakarta. more specifically, the purpose of this study is to see how the observation trip program or outing class conducted by sma labschool jakarta, which brings students to rural areas, can carry out the character education process so that they can understand education that teaches to care about their environment, especially school environment. as teaching character education provides more positive impacts, this research will focus on how labschool jakarta teaches character education, particularly in environmental care. research questions: 1. how labschool jakarta teaches character education, particularly in environmental care, through “trip observation” program? 2. how labschool jakarta teaches character education, particularly in environmental care, through an international program? literature review character education the theory of character education is extensive. first, character can be said to be a characteristic that can be seen from a person or group of people with values, ability, moral capacity, and a kink in facing a challenge that occurs. second, the following theory says that a person's character is formed from a habit that has been done, both seen in the form of attitudes and also words and some other things that are often done and seen by others. third, the theory of character also says that character is a trait experienced by the human psyche, which can be said to be a characteristic status of a person when acting and interacting in the family and society. so, it can be said that the name character is a characteristic possessed by a person when acting and trying to be visible to others. character education is a conscious and planned human effort to educate and empower students’ potentials to build their characters so that they can become individuals who are beneficial to themselves and their environment (berges puyo, 2020; bredemeier & shields, 2019). character education is also said to be an educational system that aims to instill certain character values in students in which there are components of knowledge, awareness, or willingness, as well as actions to carry out these values (abassy, 2022; bates, 2019; betawi, 2020; cureton, 2021). character journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 education has various definitions stated by some experts in their fields. according to michael novak, the character is a "compatible mix" of knowing all that religious traditions, literature, sages, and common sense identified within history (sanderse, 2019; waters et al., 2020). meanwhile, masnur muslich stated that character is the values of human behavior related to god almighty, oneself, fellow humans, the environment, and nationality, manifested in thoughts, attitudes, feelings, words, and actions based on religious norms, law, manners, culture, and customs (dobson & dobson, 2021; gunio, 2021; nyamai, 2021; sanderse, 2019; watson, 2019). from the experts' opinions, it can be concluded that character is something that is contained in an individual, which is a characteristic of an individual's personality that is different from others in the form of attitudes, thoughts, and actions. the characteristics of each individual are useful for living and working together within the family, community, nation, and state. one important aspect of the character is environmental care. this character shows how people love their living environment so they can live peacefully. the character of caring for the environment is the embodiment of human attitudes toward the environment (clausen, 2018). this character can be seen from actions in everyday life which are an effort to prevent damage to the surrounding natural environment, as well as trying to repair allnatural damage that has occurred (parker, 2018; tanu & parker, 2018). the character of caring for the environment that students can do are depicted in table 1: table 1 activities relating to environmental care in school and community no character activities 1. environmental care in school do not litter in the school environment clean and tidy up the classroom after the learning process is complete clean the toilet after using it wearing clean school uniforms keeping school facilities clean 2. environmental care in community separating waste by type of material keeping the waterways clean reduce the use of plastic bags for shopping using recycled products don't burn trash carelessly carry out reforestation activities as table 1 depicts, there is a wide range of activities relating to teaching environment. the table shows two different activities relating to cleaning environment in school and the community as husen et al. 231 part of teaching character education. the students are expected to understand such characters relating to teaching character education. the conceptual framework for this study includes teaching high school students about character education carried out by schools in jakarta, specifically character education about caring for the environment for high school students. more specifically, the character education activities carried out by the school are environmental-based character education, so the environmental care values taught to students aim to teach students to care about their environment, especially the environment in the school. teaching character education in addition to academic ability, students’ character is an important target of education. character education in schools aims to build students' characters so that they have the characteristics or characteristics inherent in a person's daily behavior (bredemeier & shields, 2019; chi-kin lee et al., 2021; nagashima & gibbs, 2021). shaping students' characters cannot be accomplished by the teacher alone at the school, so it requires assistance from external parties (hart et al., 2020). the formation of a students’ characters can also be influenced by the environment and the closest people, such as family and the surrounding environment. even a family is a place of learning and the formation of the first character obtained by children. character education is expected to create a generation that is intelligent, moral, has a noble character, and is educated. to make this happen, the teacher must have a way of building student character. the teacher's strategy in forming student character varies. the following is a model or teacher strategy for educating students' character. the first way is to set a good example for students. students should get examples of how to behave properly anytime and anywhere. the predicate of a teacher is attached to the teacher, not only when he is at school. wherever master is, his actions will always be noticed. teachers who are parents of students at school must always behave well and be careful in every word or action to be good role models for students. often a teacher is remembered not only because of the lessons he/she teaches, but also because of his/her qualities, such as patience and firmness (lee, 2021; vaccarezza & niccoli, 2019). the second way is to provide a moral message in each lesson. students' character development can be done by adding a moral message in each lesson and teaching students to take lessons from each lesson learned. thus, students can know that the knowledge they are studying is indeed journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 important for their future. character education can be a part of every subject, including mathematics. in mathematics, the teacher can instill the character of being patient, hardworking, honest, and never giving up on completing the tasks or questions given. thus students will grow and be ready to face life's problems, always think optimistically, and try to solve the problems (kotsonis, 2020; mcgrath et al., 2021). method research design the research design of this study is to use a descriptive method with a qualitative approach. the purpose of a qualitative approach is to see a very detailed and in-depth perspective. this research aims to describe a program that occurs in a particular environment. more specifically, the design of this study is to describe the character education program carried out at sma labschool jakarta, which in this case is to use observation trips to remote areas or villages so that students can experience firsthand how character education learning can be done well, especially about learning the character of environmental conservationists. this research is very appropriate because this study describes several programs carried out to be able to see how character education is carried out in high schools in observation trip activities. to be able to find out more details, the design of this study is depicted in figure 1. figure 1 research design qualitative approach 1. context-dependent finding by evaluating subjects 2. conducting research through descriptive method 3. critical analysis and assessment through the finding from the school 4. displaying the data through the results and discussion about character education husen et al. 233 this study has been considered educational research focusing on teaching character education in school and aims to investigate how school educates their students about character education, particularly on environmental care. therefore, to undertake this study, a descriptive qualitative approach was used for this study (cohen et al., 2002). in addition to the approach, focus group discussion (fgd), and interviews have been used. the purpose of focus group discussion is to see how teachers and committees design the program that can teach students’ characters. it is also to see how students can get the program's main purpose created by the school. in addition to focus group discussion, interview with students, teachers, and school principals was also undertaken for this study. there are three main purposes for in-depth interview that has been done in this study. first, it asks what kind of specific value that is intended from the “trip observation” and “international event” held by labschool jakarta. in this interview purpose, since there are some activities during a weekly program, teachers and students were asked about each purpose on the table. secondly, the purpose of an interview is to see whether the values that teachers have set were well-received by their students. students were asked about evaluating the events and what sort of character or values they got during the event. finally, since this research focuses on environmental care values, researchers ask about several activities that affect their inspiration, particularly on environmental values. the data obtained from this study were then analyzed and incorporated into the results. participants the study about the implementation of teaching character education, particularly on environmental care, in labschool jakarta, collaborated with twenty people coming from different backgrounds. there were several prerequisites for participating in this study; therefore, purposive sampling technique was used in this research (creswell, 2014). there are three main criteria in which participants are able to be involved in this study, such as 1) students who are interested in this research should have participated in “trip observation” program that has been held in the first year of their secondary school. 2) students also have participated in one of the international events, or they have been abroad with the labschool program at least once. 3) thr teachers have participated in either becoming the committee of the “trip observation” program, or they have accompanied students going abroad. to get a great result, the focus group discussion was undertaken four times, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 which lasted approximately 150 minutes in each meeting. also, the details of the research participation are shown in table 2. table 2 characteristics of participants based on gender no gender number of participants 1 male 12 2 female 8 total 20 as seen in table 2, the characteristic of this study is divided into males and females, males are dominant group this research, which accounts for 12 people, and the others are eight females. overall, they are the students, teachers, and school principals from labschool jakarta. table 3 characteristic of participants no categories number of participants 1 students 10 2 teachers 7 3 vice school principal 2 4 school principal 1 total 20 table 3 depicts 20 participants has been divided into four groups: 10 students, seven teachers, two vice school principal and one school principal. these four groups have met the three main criteria that have become the prerequisite for this study. teaching character education in school has become common in an indonesian school; however, when it comes to a particular purpose such as environmental care value, it is uncommon for some schools. as labschool was located in jakarta, the capital city of indonesia, environmental education became the most important value for students in school. therefore, although “trip observation” event and international program held by labschool jakarta has a wide range of purpose, this research would focus only on teaching characters based on environmental care. sampling and data collection the data collection reveals the researcher chose the particular respondent that can be participated in this study. as mentioned in the participants section, this study used a purposive sampling technique in choosing the participants. the purposive sampling is part of the non-random husen et al. 235 sampling technique (creswell, 2014). this data collection technique enables the researcher to opt for some people who meet the criteria for their study. as for this research, there are at least three main requirements in which respondents can be involved, such as those attending “trip observation” and “international events” programs. in addition, teachers also need to be participated in both events either for the committee or for accompanying the students. in addition to the data collection, the method used to collect the data were interview, observation, and focus group discussion. the interview played a very important role because it helped to gain more detailed data from the participants. the interview was conducted about how character education has been implemented for the students and how the students get the environmental values from attending the events. the number of people participating in this interview was about 20 people, and each of them was interviewed for approximately 40 minutes. the observation was also used to see the circumstances during the event of “trip observation.” data analysis the data analysis technique used in this research is following the theory presented by cresswell in 2014. to be able to obtain maximum data in conducting descriptive research, several steps can be taken by researchers (creswell, 2014). first, after performing the data collection process through interviews and focus group discussions, the researcher transcribed the data into complete writing. in this case, it is data related to character education in schools and several programs associated with the process of learning the character of caring for the environment. then, the second data reduction process was conducted. the main topic of research is character education for environmental care through observation trips and international program activities and, thus, it was excluded from the research. outside of the program, the data is not used. the third step is to provide coding per the research topic, namely caring for the environment through observation trips and activities. the last step is data display, which has been analyzed on character education learning, especially those related to environmental care character education (creswell, 2014). findings this section describes the findings of research related to character education at sma labschool jakarta. in this case, it is a character education program that is carried out to be able to educate journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 high school students to care about their school environment so that these students can develop and improve their capacities related to character education. character education has an important role, especially in the school environment, so, with this character education, students can learn and understand not only a theory, but also some charactersor school-related factors. this section of the findings is divided into two main parts: character education programs through observation trip learning and character education learning through international programs. research question 1: how labschool jakarta teaches character education, particularly in environmental care, through “trip observation” program? "trip observation" is a routine activity carried out by labschool jakarta to develop the character of independence, love for the country, modesty with nature, scientific character, and increasing students' faith and caring for the environment. all the objectives of these activities are summarized in various activities during the "observation trip." an "observation trip" was carried out by bringing students from jakarta to remote areas and away from the crowds, so that the students could feel the cool environment and get to know life in the village. the students stayed in the residents' houses and stayed with the residents for several days. students are also required to be able to participate in various community activities. although many character values are taught during the “trip observation,” this research will analyze some environmental care related activities and values. table 4 example of environmental care values in several activities no activities environmental care values 1. students are organized by the local community to learn how to separate some waste into organic and non-organic waste. separating waste by type of material 2. as there are a lot of gardens in front of home, some mandatory activities of students are flowering the garden in the morning. flowering the garden 3. in the village, most people are trying to recycle waste and change it to a shopping bag. students were learning how to use it. reduce the use of plastic bags for shopping 4. after some activities in the common room, students are encouraged to collect their rubbish and put it into the trash bag. collecting the rubbish 5. planting the trees on the huge field and planting the rice in the rice field became students’ favorite activities. planting the tree husen et al. 237 table 4 shows a brief result from the interview and focus group discussion with the teachers and students. it shows some examples of environmental care values as part of teaching character education during “trip observation” activities conducted by labschool jakarta. based on the activities that have been held by labschool jakarta, planting the trees become the major purpose of the events. “when designing the event, all teachers and committee agree that planting the trees in the field become the main purpose of the event. it is because students living in jakarta never try to plant the trees either at home or in school” interview, teacher 5 “students are taught how to plant the trees in the right way, and they also learn the benefits of having a lot of trees. one of the benefits that students understand from planting the trees is to prevent the flood” interview, teachers 1. “we love planting the trees as it really protects the school environment” fgd, students 2, 3, 4, 7. instilling a sense of love for the environment can be started with small things, one of which is planting trees. therefore, teaching love for the environment from an early age is very important. the tree planting activity also aims to teach how to plant trees properly and provide knowledge about the importance of planting trees. when children are educated to know the functions and benefits of planting trees, it will be embedded in them always to preserve and protect the environment around them. in addition, they also learn how to plant trees properly, how transfer tree seedlings to pots, and fertilize plants after transplanting. based on the teacher interview, planting the trees became the main activities of the “trip observation” program. instead of teaching how to plant in the right way, students are also taught about the benefits of having a lot of trees on earth. also, they learn that the disappearance of tress in the capital city of indonesia is the primary source of flooding. during the focus group discussion, some students agree that planting trees provide a lot of benefits from them. it makes them rest from the school activities, so they can see a green view of the school. also, during the focus group discussion, some students loved to plan the three. they argue that planting trees is considered new in their lives as they stay in jakarta, which is a very rare green area. “i will try to create the same program that has been done in school trip observation program, such as planting a tree near my home. i believe that journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 planting a tree at home can make my home looks different and have a fresh look” focus group discussion student 8, 9, 10 “i have asked students to create a follow up program, such as planting the tree at home or other trip observation program that can help to create their character” interview teacher 1 during the focus group discussion, some students are asked to have a follow up program. it is considered a program that they can do at home. surprisingly, in most of the focus group discussion, students argue that they intend to plant the trees at home after following this trip observation program. they will ask their parents to buy some trees that are beneficial for their homes and make the home green. at least three students during the focus group discussion believe that they want to plant the tress after coming home. the teachers also argue that the follow up program has been designed to create students to follow some programs at home. planting trees is one of the excellent activities for students to do. in the school and home environments, the students rarely do tree planting both in the home and in their schools. this happens because of limited land or locations in their respective homes and schools. meanwhile, during the observation trip, planting trees and plants at the research site became a fun activity for the students. so, this is a favorite activity in educating students' character formation. the second activity in the "observation trip" related to environmental care is separating waste into two main groups: organic waste and non-organic waste. garbage is a waste or remnant of one thing that is no longer suitable for use. basically, the types of waste are divided into two groups, namely organic waste and non-organic waste. these two types of waste are recommended to be separated. the most basic difference between these two types of waste is the time it takes to decompose. organic waste is a type of waste that can be decomposed relatively quickly. on the other hand, non-organic waste is difficult to decompose and takes a long time. organic waste can be decomposed even if it is thrown away and will disappear. some examples of waste that fall into the category of organic waste include food scraps, fruit peels, leftovers from the kitchen, and leaves. students mostly do not understand how to separate the waste by organizing it into two main groups, and therefore in these activities, they are taught about grouping the rubbish into two main categories. “grouping the waste into organic waste and non-organic waste becomes difficult when teaching in school. it is because they do not see how to husen et al. 239 recycle the waste after throwing it into the garbage. in the trip observation, students are happy to distinguish the two different types of waste” interview, teacher 7 “when teachers taught me how to differentiate the waste in a classroom, i really do not understand. however, here we are trying to practice how to put the waste in a different place and learn the benefit directly” interview, students 5 how to teach character to students cannot be done with lectures in class. this is because students only listen, and they only imagine based on the story conveyed by the teacher. an example is teaching the character of caring for the environment, which in this case is separating waste into two main groups. although it looks easy to teach it, the students did not separate the waste into the two groups in practice. based on the results of observations and interviews with teachers and students, they feel very happy when they learn directly to distinguish between them. even though the student is already in junior high school, one of the main obstacles is that students do not understand which ones are organic and non-organic wastes. therefore, through the "observation trip," the students, when they returned to jakarta, were able to be able to distinguish the two wastes. “after following trip observation program, i understand the difference between organic waste and non-organic waste” fgd, students 1 and 5 “students are taught how to differentiate two waste, such as organic and non-organic waste” interview, teacher 2 teaching students to separate waste into two main groups has long-term benefits, both for the students themselves and the school environment. in addition to facilitating disposal and reprocessing, separating the disposal of organic and non-organic waste can avoid the accumulation of waste. the reason is that accumulated garbage can become a nest of germs and bacteria, which are the main causes of disease. not only that, but piles of garbage can also, in fact, trigger air pollution. also, air pollution causes health problems, especially those related to the lungs and breathing. piles of garbage can also cause problems in the environment which can lead to health problems as well. not separating waste and allowing it to accumulate can easily trigger flooding. when this happens, the garbage will pollute the water and cause humans to experience skin-related diseases like itching. learning character education caring for the environment is also carried out by doing several things, including distinguishing waste. based on the experience of the results of observation trips made journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 by students and several learning-related items, separating waste into several parts, such as organic and non-organic waste is of importance. in the observation trip activity, students try to be able to separate waste with the aim that the waste can be recycled. the goal is to provide students with an understanding that the waste that has been grouped can be recycled so that it can be reused. when the disposal of organic and non-organic waste is separated, there are many benefits that can be enjoyed such as healthier air, a clean environment, and guaranteed water. disposing of waste based on its type will also facilitate reprocessing. for example, throwing non-organic waste into one container will make it easier for people who want to pick up and recycle the waste. he or she also no longer needs to re-disassemble the trash can, which can actually cause hygiene problems in the home environment. “in the morning, when i wake up, the family i live in always encourages all students to bring water for flowering the garden. it really makes me happy since i never do that at home” interview, student 2 “one of the goals for this trip observation program is to create daily habits that can help students form a new character, particularly on environmental care” interview, teachers 4 in addition to grouping waste as an environmental care activity, the “trip observation” program also helps students develop a new habit that makes them love the environment. in the morning, this program has been designed to form a daily activity that can make students love the garden. one of the activities is flowering the garden. each family host living with the students always asks students to prepare their tools for flowering the garden in front of the home. research question 2: how labschool jakarta teaches character education, particularly in environmental care, through an international program? the second part explains the learning of character education through international activities. international activities are one of the routine activities carried out by sma labschool jakarta students. the main purpose of such activities is to educate and show and introduce foreign cultures to female students. but more specifically, this international activity learning activity aims to provide an understanding of character education abroad, especially those related to character education in caring for the environment. husen et al. 241 student exchange program allows students to experience learning outside the school where they study. this program is usually held as a form of collaboration with schools or other educational institutions abroad. labschool jakarta has collaborated with several schools and universities abroad to provide orientation and new life experiences to its students, so that the program can be carried out in collaboration between the two schools or universities or organized by third parties who provide scholarships or facilities. "i decided to be able to participate in asian student exchange program (asep) activities to be able to find out the environmental differences between indonesia in taiwan. i have seen through youtube that taiwan is one of the countries that can afford to be able to maintain the cleanliness of its environment" interview, student 6 "one of the goals of being able to send students to taiwan is to be able to teach them about caring about the environment. this is because a cleanliving environment can inspire students so that they can follow it" interview, teacher 4 “going abroad can shape students’ understanding of how to deal with the garbage and environmental values” interview teacher 3 the purpose of environmental care programs is to bring students to taiwan. this aims to see one of the cleanliness carried out by the taiwanese government in maintaining environmental cleanliness, especially in urban areas. before leaving for taiwan, students are asked to see some impressions about learning and the environment in several cities in taiwan, so that they can get an idea of the learning. how taiwan can maintain its cleanliness so that this can provide inspiration so that students can also maintain environmental cleanliness. in addition to seeing the situation in several cities, students are invited to one of the schools to see how character education is in maintaining the cleanliness of the school environment. teachers said that teaching how to keep the environment clean can be seen from the program that can bring them abroad. taiwan is one of the countries that can show a student how to keep the cities clean. in asep program, students have arrived in taipei. based on the alumni of asep in previous year, taipei is considered very clean. students can learn how to make the cities clean, how are the peoples’ character and attitude toward the garbage and other cleanliness systems. therefore, visiting taipei is one of the examples that can help students learn how to keep the cities clean. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 "at one of the schools in taiwan i visited, i was amazed that the school was very clean and there was no garbage. the school has educated students on how to maintain cleanliness" interview, student 8 “during the asep event, we visited the school canteen in taipei. we see that all school students are cleaning their plates and putting them into the center point that they can clean by themselves” fgd, students 4,5,6 based on information from one of the students who have participated in the program, the school in taiwan has been very clean because the school has taught about caring character education environment. there are at least three main things that make schools in taiwan very clean. first is the education of environmentally caring character set by teachers and students in the school. character education is one of the good programs in taiwan, and this program is not only the main program but is integrated into every subject in the school. that. for example, before teaching, every teacher always sets a good example of cleanliness, ranging from dressing and sweeping the classroom environment to teaching students not to litter. second, several school programs have required students so they can throw garbage in their place. when students throw garbage carelessly, they have faced some severe sanctions. this shows that the school has been serious in educating character because if sanctions are imposed on students, then the student has violated rules, especially about the cleanliness of the environment. the three schools teach students to distinguish waste into two things, namely organic waste and non-organic waste so that every waste used can be used. in canteen, students are also shown how taiwanese people behave after eating. based on the focus group discussion, they said that most taiwan people bring their plates to the center point that they can put the leftover and garbage. this is the secret point that students cannot see in their home countries. it is undertaken not only by the students, but also by everyone when they come and eat in the school canteen. therefore, cleaning and putting the garbage at the center point has become the main concern and taiwan student behavior. "students are given strict sanctions if they violate the rules, especially when littering" interview, teacher 6 “visiting other countries has been considered one of the programs created by the labschool. it is an annual program that can make students see the different sides of their world. therefore, labschool supports students coming to other nations” interview, the school principal husen et al. 243 one of the things taiwanese schools impose is the severe sanctions that students will receive when they violate the rules. one of the sanctions is that students are asked to be able to clean certain areas in the school until the parent's calls. this is because, with the call of parents, students will get a reprimand from school and their homes. the reprimand hopes to make students unable to do the same when they are in their school environment. the second sanction is to clean certain areas, such as toilets and some other areas. when students are cleaning a certain area, the other students pay attention and watch it. thus, the social sanctions that teachers give to students can make students who break the rules embarrassed and not repeat their mistakes. discussions character education is considered utterly important for the students. it is because the program is a daily routine that can help students to be smart and good in manner. the teaching character can be taught either in school, family or community environment. based on the research created by lee (2021), it shows that school can be one of the places for teaching character to their students. in school, there are a lot of daily routines in which it is compulsory for the students to follow the program. for example, students are required to clean the classroom after school, learn how to communicate with teachers, as well as the attitude toward the environment. lee (2021) also mentioned that the school has a responsibility to teach environmental care values to their students, so schools are required to educate students by providing some program that makes them care about their surrounding environment (lee, 2021). as this research focuses on teaching character education, particularly on how to educate environmental care values, this part discusses the findings and compares them with previous research. two main programs have been found in the school during the interview and focus group discussion with students, teachers and school principal in labschool. it is “trip observation” program and “asep” as an international program when visiting taiwan. environmental care is the character that makes students care about the environment and school surrounding. moffat (2011) showed that there are three main principles relating to environmental values, respecting the environment, having a life principle of non-destructive and living in harmony with the nature. based on that three main principles, labschool jakarta has taught students to learn environmental care values, particularly during a “trip observation program.” journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 based on the finding, respecting the environment can be seen from some activities during this trip observation program, such as flowering the garden, differentiating the garbage, and recycling the waste. flowering the garden can be considered as the attitude of respecting the environment. it is because students, when visiting some villages, they are required to flower all gardens near their homes. as such, the activities relating to the flowering the garbage can be seen as the environmental care values (moffat et al., 2019). planting trees and plants in the school environment is a very important activity in learning character education. various previous studies have emphasized that character education learning can be done in several ways, one of which is by educating and planting trees and plants (sokip et al., 2019). in addition, character education learning has two main benefits related to the environment when students learn about planting trees. first, students will understand and understand how to plant trees well, so they will always be curious about some things related to environmental learning. second, students will have curiosity and interest, so when they return to their respective homes, they will try to grow plants as well (marini et al., 2018; montessori et al., 2021; muhajir, 2022). students during trip observation program are also encouraged to differentiate the garbage. the garbage should be organic and non-organic waste. the purpose of these activities is to make students have a non-destructive principal. when learning how to differentiate the garbage, they respect the environment and learn how to be a non-destructive principle. this activity is in line with the research of kotsonis (2020). this research shows that the character education provided by the school is considered intellectual character education values, so educating young people in line with environmental care values has been considered to be applied in labschool jakarta during a trip observation program (kotsonis, 2020). based on previous research, distinguishing waste can make students more disciplined and concerned about the environments that occur. a simple form of distinguishing waste is to teach students about the differences between organic and non-organic waste. the difference between the two wastes can make students more responsible, so that when students are in the community, students can set a good example (subaidi, 2020; suhartini et al., 2019; zurqoni et al., 2018). in addition, previous studies have also reported that when there is learning related to waste, students will have a very high sense of environmental care. husen et al. 245 in addition to the non-destructive program provided by the trip observation program, students are encouraged to plant trees. non-destructive principle means that students should not destruct the trees or other surrounding living environment, so that they can benefit human activities. in a big city such as jakarta, it is quite rare to find a green area with such a big tree. during the trip observation program, students are encouraged to learn how to plant trees to respect the environment. it is very interesting because not all the school has a trip observation program that can help students visit a rural area to learn about the local people's lives. as such, trip observation has been applied to a character education program, particularly in a living environment. teaching students not to harm the environment has a huge impact on them. previous research has related to how learning to be able to care for and not damage. teaching students not to damage the environment can also have a big impact on their environment (hakam, 2018; ningsih et al., 2021). this impact can be seen when students take care of the school environment, such as watering plants and taking care of some plants in the school environment. with this, character education can be related to these things. the novelty of the finding can be seen in the particular character that can be seen from the school program. most of the research on character education describes the general overview of how teachers educate character education in a classroom. however, in this research, the finding provides information, particularly the practical guide of the program that can help students learn the character. also, there are some particular characters in this finding, such as environmental care values that help students keep the environment clean. therefore, it is hoped that in the future, the character can be used as a tool for teaching character to the students. conclusion it can be concluded that labschool jakarta offers some programs that can educate students’ characters, particularly environmental care values. environmental care values are character that educates students to care for their environment, such as flowering the garden, differentiating the garbage, planting the trees, and other environmental care related activities. in labschool jakarta, at least two main programs can help students learn environmental care values, such as a “trip observation” program and asep. while a trip observation program has been conducted to visit a journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 rural area in indonesia, the asep program brings students to a developed nation such as taiwan to understand how people show attitudes toward their living environment. the trip observation program provides a lot of examples of environmental care values. students are brought to the country's rural area to learn the people’s activities. it helps students go out from the hustle and bustle area to the very rural areas. during a trip observation program, students learn how to plant the trees, differentiate the garbage, flower the garden, and do other activities relating to these programs. such activities can help students be smart and good citizens, as some people argue that bringing students to rural areas can show them how people have different perspectives. references abassy, m. (2022). friendship as a value in academic ethos. journal of culture and values in education, 5(2), 80-98. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.21 bates, a. (2019). character education and the ‘priority of recognition’. cambridge journal of education, 49(6), 695–710. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764x.2019.1590529 berges puyo, j. (2020). a value and character educational model: repercussions for students, teachers, and families. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 betawi, a. (2020). calling for character education: promoting moral integrity in early childhood education in jordan. early child development and care, 190(5), 738–749. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1489383 bredemeier, b. l., & shields, d. l. (2019). social justice, character education, and sport: a position statement. quest, 71(2), 202–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2019.1608270 casmana, a. r., dewantara, j. a., timoera, d. a., kusmawati, a. p., & syafrudin, i. (2022). global citizenship: preparing the younger generation to possess pro-environment behavior, mutual assistance and tolerance awareness through school engagement. globalisation, societies and education, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2021.2013167 chi-kin lee, j., wong, k.-l., & kong, r. h.-m. (2021). secondary school teachers’ self-efficacy for moral and character education and its predictors: a hong kong perspective. teachers and teaching, 27(1–4), 32–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2021.1920907 clausen, s. w. (2018). exploring the pedagogical content knowledge of danish geography teachers: teaching weather formation and climate change. international research in https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 husen et al. 247 geographical and environmental education, 27(3), 267–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2017.1349376 cohen, l, manion, l, & morrison, k. (2002). research methods in education. routledge. creswell. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative and moxed method. sage publication inc. cureton, a. (2021). character education for students with disabilities. journal of moral education, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2021.1903407 dobson, j., & dobson, t. (2021). empowering student voice in a secondary school: character education through project-based learning with students as teachers. teacher development, 25(2), 103–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530.2020.1865442 francis, l. j., pike, m. a., lickona, t., lankshear, d. w., & nesfield, v. (2018). evaluating the pilot narnian virtues character education english curriculum project: a study among 11 to 13-year-old students. journal of beliefs & values, 39(2), 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2018.1434604 gunio, m. (2021). determining the influences of a hidden curriculum on students’ character development using the illuminative evaluation model. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 194-206. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.11 hakam, k. a. (2018). tradition of value education implementation in indonesian primary schools. journal of social studies education research, 9(4), 295–318. hart, p., oliveira, g., & pike, m. (2020). teaching virtues through literature: learning from the ‘narnian virtues’ character education research. journal of beliefs & values, 41(4), 474– 488. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2019.1689544 kotsonis, a. (2020). what can we learn from plato about intellectual character education? educational philosophy and theory, 52(3), 251–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2019.1631157 lee, y.-y. (2021). the narrative of the junzi as an exemplar in classical confucianism and its implications for moral and character education. educational philosophy and theory, 53(6), 634–643. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2020.1806051 marini, a., safitri, d., & muda, i. (2018). managing school based on character building in the context of religious school culture (case in indonesia). journal of social studies education research, 9(4), 274–294. mcgrath, r. e., han, h., brown, m., & meindl, p. (2021). what does character education mean to character education experts? a prototype analysis of expert opinions. journal of moral education, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2020.1862073 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4), 225-249 metcalfe, j., & moulin-stożek, d. (2021). religious education teachers’ perspectives on character education. british journal of religious education, 43(3), 349–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2020.1713049 moffat, a. k., redmond, g., & raghavendra, p. (2019). the impact of social network characteristics and gender on covert bullying in australian students with disability in the middle years. journal of school violence, 18(4), 613–629. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2019.1644180 montessori, m., tiara, m., ambiyar, a., & islami, s. (2021). dialogue method in high school anti-corruption education. journal of social studies education research, 12(4), 1–21. muhajir, a. (2022). inclusion of pluralism character education in the islamic modern boarding schools during the pandemic era. journal of social studies education research, 13(2), 196–220. nagashima, j., & gibbs, n. p. (2021). sensegathering and iteration: the evolution of a character education framework in higher education. journal of moral education, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2021.1909547 ningsih, t., yuwono, d. m., solehuddin, m. s., & suharto, a. w. b. (2021). the significant of e-assessment for indonesian literacy with character education in pandemic era. journal of social studies education research, 12(4), 231–256. nyamai, d. (2021). the secreted curriculum and youth education to become the professionals the world craves for. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 169-193. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.10 parker, l. (2018). environmentalism and education for sustainability in indonesia. indonesia and the malay world, 46(136), 235–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639811.2018.1519994 prasetiyo, w. h., ishak, n. a., basit, a., dewantara, j. a., hidayat, o. t., casmana, a. r., & muhibbin, a. (2020). caring for the environment in an inclusive school: the adiwiyata green school program in indonesia. 18. sanderse, w. (2019). does neo-aristotelian character education maintain the educational status quo? lessons from the 19th-century bildung tradition. ethics and education, 14(4), 399– 414. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449642.2019.1660456 sarkadi, s., syarifa, s., & casmana, a. r. (2020). the policy of education based on character values for the best quality of education ‘an analysis of the zoning system policy imposed by ministry of education and culture in indonesia’. universal journal of educational research, 8(8), 3423–3429. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.080816 husen et al. 249 sokip, s., akhyak, a., soim, s., tanzeh, a., & kojin, k. (2019). character building in islamic society: a case study of muslim families in tulungagung, east java, indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 224–242. subaidi, s. (2020). strengthening character education in indonesia: implementing values from moderate islam and the pancasila. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 120–132. suhartini, s., sekarningrum, b., sulaeman, m. m., & gunawan, w. (2019). social construction of student behavior through character education based on local wisdom. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 276–291. sumadi, t., & casmana, a. r. (2020). the importance of social competences transformation towards early age children in jakarta. universal journal of educational research, 8(5), 1991–1996. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.080536 tanu, d., & parker, l. (2018). fun, ‘family’, and friends: developing pro-environmental behaviour among high school students in indonesia. indonesia and the malay world, 46(136), 303–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639811.2018.1518015 vaccarezza, m. s., & niccoli, a. (2019). the dark side of the exceptional: on moral exemplars, character education, and negative emotions. journal of moral education, 48(3), 332–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2018.1534089 waters, s., russell, w. b., & hensley, m. (2020). cyber bullying, social media, and character education: why it matters for middle school social studies. the clearing house: a journal of educational strategies, issues and ideas, 93(4), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2020.1760770 watson, l. (2019). educating for inquisitiveness: a case against exemplarism for intellectual character education. journal of moral education, 48(3), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2019.1589436 zurqoni, z., retnawati, h., arlinwibowo, j., & apino, e. (2018). strategy and implementation of character education in senior high schools and vocational high schools. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), 370–393. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 193-218 193 raising students’ awareness of social justice through civic literacy adil bentahar1 & jason l. o’brien2 abstract this research study measured the impact of project citizen on moroccan students’ civic literacy. project citizen (pc) is a community problem-solving curriculum which has been implemented in more than 80 countries worldwide. using mixed methodology, the authors examined the extent to which students’ participation in pc had an impact on developing their civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions, and whether it fostered a commitment to social justice in them. results indicated that participation in pc increased perceptions of efficacy regarding students’ impact on policy as well as their ability to think critically about important local issues. students also reported a heightened sense of responsibility to address societal problems as well as a need to respect divergent opinions. in regards to issues of social justice, participants indicated that participation increased their commitment to addressing issues of injustice as well as contributing to positive societal change. key words: social justice, civic literacy, citizenship education, project citizen introduction across the united states social studies teachers are responsible for curriculum that “provides students the content knowledge, intellectual skills, and civic values necessary for fulfilling the duties of citizenship in a participatory democracy” (national council for the social studies, 2005, p. 1). with these important goals in mind, many social studies teachers teach civic education/civic literacy to equip students with knowledge and skills related to participation in democratic processes. civic literacy is the ability to effectively participate in civic life through knowing how to stay informed and understanding governmental processes as well as “the local and global implications of civic decisions” (partnership for 21st century skills, n.d., para. 1). researchers have reported on the positive impact of civic education for students in grades k-12 because it provides them with opportunities to participate and engage actively in civic and civil life (schulz, ainley, fraillon, kerr, & losito, 2010; tovmasyan & thoma, 2008). one of the goals of civic education is to inform students about the importance of sustaining self 1 assistant professor, university of delaware, badil@udel.edu 2 associate professor, university of alabama in huntsville, jlo0005@uah.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 government in a democratic society in an informed, reflective manner (quigley, 1995). in addition, civic education is meant to help students create a better future for their society through informed contributions to their communities (landsman & gorski, 2007). soule (2000) posited that effective civic literacy might favorably affect students’ political knowledge, participatory skills, and dispositions even in areas which have experienced fractured political systems and civil strife. one successful civic literacy program was created in 1995 and is called project citizen. project citizen (pc) is an educational program that began in the united states and has spread to more than eighty countries, including eleven countries in the middle east/north africa (mena) region (glaser consulting group, 2004). participating in project citizen can help equip students with a number of key life skills such as citizenship, problem-solving, research, and oral and written communication (medina-jerez, bryant, & green, 2010). this study was conducted in morocco, where pc has been implemented since 2004 to more than 30,000 students in grades seven through eleven, as well as teachers in training (e. imad, personal communication, july 21, 2017). studying moroccan students’ experiences was chosen because other than middle school, moroccan public school curriculum contains almost no formal civic education components. as a result, the researchers were better able to directly attribute changes in student behavior or knowledge to specific experiences within pc. given the dearth of opportunities for learning about democratic practices in morocco, the present study was then uniquely appropriate for assessing the impact of this curriculum on students’ civic literacy and measuring their commitment to social justice issues. civic literacy and civic education have, at their core, the concept of citizenship to include what citizens should know and be able to do. however, the concept of effective citizenship is subjective and oftentimes implies a wide variety of beliefs and components. to create an operational definition of the concept, westheimer and kahne (2004) identified three distinct citizenship types: personally-responsible citizenship, which focuses on following rules and laws and helping others; participatory citizenship, which requires people to become involved with the democratic process via political events and participation (e.g., voting and campaigning); and finally, the social justice paradigm, which necessitates citizens critically assessing societal problems to identify which aspects need to be improved. one of the goals of the current research is to see the extent to which participation in pc impacts students’ civic bentahar & o’brien behaviors and beliefs beyond the classroom, especially in regards to any adaptation of the social justice orientation toward citizenship. literature review king mohammed vi assumed the throne of the kingdom of morocco in 1999. after events of the arab spring in 2011, the king agreed to allow the moroccan constitution to be amended in response to the international community and moroccans’ calls for “greater transparency and accountability in governance” (madani, maghraoui, & zerhouni, 2012, p. iii). these constitutional changes garnered support from the moroccan populace as well as leaders in the international community (silverstein, 2011). key provisions of these changes included a codification of the judicial branch’s independence from the legislative and executive branch, limits on the king’s power to appoint officials, and the incorporation of input from opposition parties within the government (mfac, 2011). despite the reforms in political power, however, all important educational initiatives and programs are controlled by the ministry of education (llorent-bedmar, 2014). to understand the current state of morocco’s educational system, the impact of colonial rule and policies cannot be understated. until independence in 1956, moroccan society and the educational system had spent more than four decades under french colonial rule. as a result, the current educational system in morocco still contains vestiges of colonial practices implemented by france. most notably is the elevated status granted to the use of the french language in moroccan classrooms. by privileging french over arabic, moroccan graduates are linked to both the culture of france and its language, thus perpetuating class distinctions (kharbouch, 2009); it also means that elite positions were reserved for graduates from francophone schools (hamdaoui, 2013), whether in morocco or france. the imposition of the french language and culture over moroccan culture and moroccan arabic produced several negative consequences in moroccan society, including a distrust of state-provided education available to moroccan students. in the years since independence, morocco has implemented a variety of initiatives to distance itself from french influence while improving both the quality and content of instruction in moroccan schools. one such initiative was called the guide to school life, a document which sets forth the foundation and expectations about what life should look like in school (sahifat al-ustad [teacher’s paper], 2012). important aspects of this reform include the promotion of civic journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 education and respect for learner and citizen rights, and a reaffirmed commitment to the concept of the rule of law, an important goal in any democratic society. despite efforts to improve the educational system, researchers have noted that parents are opting to pay for private lessons and are sending their children to private schools in greater numbers than at any time in moroccan history (boum, 2008; kharbouch, 2009). the potential benefits of civic education cannot be understated in countries such as morocco so that students are well-prepared to partake in the responsibilities of active and engaged citizenship. chapin (2015) posited that civic education is not only beneficial for students, schools, and communities, but it is also “helpful for new immigrants, and necessary for democracy” (p. 228). however, educational policy always exists within particular sociopolitical contexts, and in the case of many mena countries, reaction to educational and civic initiatives has not always been positive. afettat (2012) explained that several governments in north africa view public education as a medium for maintaining the status quo, especially in regards to replicating hegemonic relationships which exist politically, culturally, and economically. others have criticized initiatives in civic education, describing them as tools of the west (specifically, the united states) to maintain economic and political superiority over countries which have less access to resources and power on the international stage (craddock, 2007). it was within this socio-political context that the researchers undertook the current study to measure the impact of pc on moroccan students’ civic literacy and their commitment to social justice. pc was chosen because of its international recognition as a means to improve civic literacy for students who participate. pc is a community problem-solving curriculum that utilizes chapin’s (2015) preferred method of teaching students through outcomeand project-oriented work. this curriculum engages students in identifying and researching a given problem in their local community, and requires them to work in groups to examine solutions, create an action plan, and use primary sources while conducting research (fry & bentahar, 2013; medina-jerez, et al., 2010; vontz, metcalf, & patrick, 2000). in addition, all pc students present their solutions to community members that often include leaders and decision-makers, thus providing them with valuable experience in speaking publicly and advocating for a particular cause. bentahar & o’brien method the purpose of this study was to examine whether engagement with project citizen affected moroccan students’ civic literacy (civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions), and whether the experience fostered a commitment to social justice in them. this study followed a mixed methods design utilizing a survey completed by pc participants, as well as semistructured interviews for teachers, program directors, and one student. by utilizing surveys and interview data, the researchers hoped to gain a more robust understanding of the impacts of pc on moroccan students’ civic development. the two guiding research questions were: 1) does engagement with project citizen affect moroccan students’ civic literacy? if so, how? if not, why not? 2) how does project citizen foster in students a commitment to social justice? to answer these research questions, mixed methodological procedures were employed. in mixed methods, researchers collect, analyze, and mix quantitative and qualitative data in one study or a series of studies (creswell & plano clark, 2007; johnson, onwuegbuzie, & turner, 2007). the researchers chose a mixed methods approach for several reasons. first, the strengths of each method exceed the limitations of the other strand (quantitative and qualitative or vice versa). second, using either quantitative or qualitative method alone may provide insufficient data, hence the benefit of the mixed methods approach. third, mixed methods research can provide a more complete understanding of any phenomenon by using multiple lenses to view it. by utilizing survey data, the researchers were able to gain general information from all participants (including demographic information); the structured interviews allowed the participants to clarify and expand on responses to the research questions. it is noteworthy that in the current study, priority was given to the qualitative data, specifically the open-ended responses provided by the participating students and the responses to the semi-structured interviews. it was hoped that by examining the responses written by students, as well as their views of civic literacy reported in interviews, a much clearer understanding of participants’ views on civic literacy and social justice would be gained. while the survey instrument allowed a larger sample of responses, the main analysis came from comments made by interviewees. these semi-structured interviews provided an opportunity for journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 shareholders to explain their beliefs and experiences more clearly, rather than simply report agreement on a list of pre-determined questions containing likert-type response choices. the theoretical framework employed by the researchers as they interpreted the data is based on the social reconstruction paradigm. social reconstructionists are conscious of the problems existing in any society; they maintain that the primary purpose of education is to “facilitate the construction of a new more just society which offers maximum satisfaction to all of its members” (schiro, 2008, p. 6). this framework was chosen because it aligns with the goals of both citizenship education as well as the tenets of social justice. by viewing the results through this lens, the researchers hoped to discover palpable impacts on students’ civic literacy, as well as their views on the idea of social justice. research design the purpose of this study was to examine whether engagement with project citizen affected moroccan students’ civic literacy (civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions), and whether the experience fostered a commitment to social justice in them. this study followed a mixed methods design utilizing a survey completed by pc participants, as well as semistructured interviews for teachers, program directors, and one student. by utilizing surveys and interview data, the researchers hoped to gain a more robust understanding of the impacts of pc on moroccan students’ civic development. the two guiding research questions were: 1) does engagement with project citizen affect moroccan students’ civic literacy? if so, how? if not, why not? 2) how does project citizen foster in students a commitment to social justice? to answer these research questions, mixed methodological procedures were employed. in mixed methods, researchers collect, analyze, and mix quantitative and qualitative data in one study or a series of studies (creswell & plano clark, 2007; johnson, onwuegbuzie, & turner, 2007). the researchers chose a mixed methods approach for several reasons. first, the strengths of each method exceed the limitations of the other strand (quantitative and qualitative or vice versa). second, using either quantitative or qualitative method alone may provide insufficient data, hence the benefit of the mixed methods approach. third, mixed methods research can provide a more complete understanding of any phenomenon by using multiple lenses to view it. by utilizing survey data, the researchers were able to gain general information from all participants (including demographic information); the structured bentahar & o’brien interviews allowed the participants to clarify and expand on responses to the research questions. it is noteworthy that in the current study, priority was given to the qualitative data, specifically the open-ended responses provided by the participating students and the responses to the semi-structured interviews. it was hoped that by examining the responses written by students, as well as their views of civic literacy reported in interviews, a much clearer understanding of participants’ views on civic literacy and social justice would be gained. while the survey instrument allowed a larger sample of responses, the main analysis came from comments made by interviewees. these semi-structured interviews provided an opportunity for shareholders to explain their beliefs and experiences more clearly, rather than simply report agreement on a list of pre-determined questions containing likert-type response choices. the theoretical framework employed by the researchers as they interpreted the data is based on the social reconstruction paradigm. social reconstructionists are conscious of the problems existing in any society; they maintain that the primary purpose of education is to “facilitate the construction of a new more just society which offers maximum satisfaction to all of its members” (schiro, 2008, p. 6). this framework was chosen because it aligns with the goals of both citizenship education as well as the tenets of social justice. by viewing the results through this lens, the researchers hoped to discover palpable impacts on students’ civic literacy, as well as their views on the idea of social justice. participants after gaining irb approval, invitations to participants in morocco were extended by the moroccan center for civic education (mcce) and the friends for civic education association in morocco. the researchers were unable to employ random sampling procedures; rather, participants consisted of former moroccan project citizen students, teachers, and program directors who were willing and able to participate in the study. the resulting sample size was seventy students and seven stakeholders. the study utilized a survey (appendix a) and interview questions (appendix b) addressing the same topic, namely whether engagement with project citizen affected the development of students’ civic literacy and their commitment to social justice. the parallel questions (i.e., use of different instruments addressing the same topic) helped merge the results of both the quantitative and qualitative data types in the interpretation phase in order to make journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 the comparison of responses more meaningful (see creswell & plano clark, 2011) and examine areas of data convergence and corroboration (bowen, 2009). demographics survey participants in total, 77 people participated in the current study. former pc students (n=70) completed a survey, either online or on paper. additionally, four teachers (n=4), two program directors (n=2), and a student (n=1) participated in interviews. of the 70 students who completed surveys, fifty percent (n=35) were male, and fifty percent were female (n=35). table 1 contains demographic information collected from participants. table 1. demographics for interviewees respondent gender age field teaching position level (pseudonym) (content area) experience _________________________________________________________________________ mounir male 55 teacher ed. 32 pc pd higher ed. mohamed male 54 social studies 26 pc pd m.s. adam male 38 social studies 15 pc t m.s. ahmed male 45 islamic ed. 20 pc t m.s. amal female 56 social studies 30 pc t m.s. ashraf male 53 social studies 27 pc t h.s. sami male 22 web and media n/a pc student college development note: pc = project citizen; pd = program director; t = teacher; m.s. = middle school; h.s. = high school; na = not applicable regarding the disproportionate number of males versus female interviewees in the current study, this is representative neither of the moroccan teaching force in general nor of the stakeholders involved with project citizen in particular. the interviews were conducted during the summer, and only one female teacher was both available and willing to participate. however, her comments were helpful in understanding a teacher’s perspective as we interpreted the results. data collection tools survey the survey portion of the study contained seventeen statements with likert scale responses as well as two open-ended questions. the researchers adapted some items from fry and bentahar’s (2013) survey that compared pc to senior projects in the united states. the bentahar & o’brien seventeen likertscale survey statements were categorized into four target areas: civic knowledge, civic skills, civic dispositions, and social justice. the survey also contained a section asking the students two open-ended questions, which will be explained subsequently. interview the interviews conducted with the seven stakeholders examined the perceived impact of the pc experience on students’ development of civic literacy and a commitment to social justice. the semi-structured interviews contained a corpus of predetermined questions, but follow-up queries were solicited to clarify and elucidate details for various responses, new prompt questions, as well as explanations and elaborations. each interview lasted between 25 and 45 minutes. data collection the researchers utilized a 17 question survey with likert scales that measured students’ views on participation in and results of their experiences with project citizen. participants were asked to answer three questions which gathered demographic data (gender, age range, and highest level of educational attainment). students were also asked two open-ended questions; the first asked what all moroccans need to be responsible citizens, and the second asked participants to report any changes in their commitment to social justice as a direct result of their participation in pc. in all, 70 students responded to the questionnaire, 35 of whom answered question on paper and pencil assessments, while the other 35 provided responses using an online survey. due to the anonymous nature of data collection, it is impossible to know if any systematic bias occurred during data collection utilizing electronic means. participants were given the option to write their short responses in arabic, french, or english, and most chose to write in arabic. the responses were translated with the assistance of a moroccan english language teacher who has a graduate degree in arabic/english translation. data analysis for quantitative studies, analysis procedure(s) and the statistical methods used and their justification for appropriateness for each research question or hypothesis should be explained in detail in this section. data analysis procedures in qualitative studies should also be discussed comprehensively. journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 findings the seventeen survey questions began with the statement “because of my experience in project citizen,” and then students chose from a likert scale provided. for this section, quantitative data regarding research question one will be presented first followed by qualitative findings, then findings related to research question two will be presented using qualitative data. the students’ survey responses about civic literacy revealed a high level of agreement about the development of civic literacy as a learning outcome of their participation in pc. regarding civic knowledge, responses from participants indicated that participation in pc increased perceptions of efficacy regarding their impact on policy and their ability to think critically. table 2 contains means and standard deviations for the four questions related to this concept. table 2. moroccan students’ means and standard deviations on civic knowledge item n m sd because of my experience in project citizen, #1: i learned to support a social cause that i believe in #2: i became aware that elected officials need to be concerned about citizens’ problems #7: i learned that young citizens can also influence policy #10: i can recognize the importance of thinking critically 70 70 70 70 3.50 3.23 3.50 3.54 0.61 0.59 0.56 0.70 note. n=70. the items were measured on the following scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree. the four statements indicate that students learned to support a particular cause, and felt more efficacious at both identifying societal problems as well as influencing policy over them. the highest score in this theme (mean=3.54) indicates that students became better at recognizing the need for critical thinking as they grappled with complex problems affecting their community. three questions on the survey related directly to student perceptions regarding civic dispositions, which in this case involved feeling a sense of responsibility to bentahar & o’brien ameliorate societal ills and to respect divergent beliefs. results in table 3 indicate that the students learned to feel a sense of responsibility toward their communities, as well as the importance of respecting divergent viewpoints. table 3. moroccan students’ means and standard deviations on civic dispositions item n m sd because of my experience in project citizen, #6: i feel the need to fulfill my responsibilities to my community 70 3.34 0.56 #8: i did not learn to be tolerant of difference in opinions 70 1.56 0.86 #11: i learned how to treat other people with respect regardless 70 3.27 0.51 of any differences note. n=70. the items were measured on the following scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree. respecting others’ viewpoints is important in an ethnically diverse society such as morocco. although islam acts as a unifying force in morocco, the existence of distinct ethnic groups (e.g., arab, amazigh, sahrawis) makes the respect for differences extremely important, especially in light of ethnic uprisings in neighboring countries (e.g., algeria and libya). therefore, pc has the potential to help students learn to be more tolerant and respectful of others’ divergent opinions and cultures within and beyond morocco. according to several students, their citizenship and presentation skills also improved as a direct result of their successful efforts in conducting a community improvement project more effectively. table 4 presents findings related to perceived changes in participants’ civic skills. journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 table 4. moroccan students’ means and standard deviations on civic skills item n m sd because of my experience in project citizen, #9: i developed research skills that i can use as an adult 70 3.50 0.61 #12: i did not learn how to present confidently before an audience 70 1.39 0.64 #14: i learned basic skills of conducting a community project 70 3.46 0.67 #16: my social skills did not change at all 70 1.44 0.71 note. n=70 the items were measured on the following scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree. qualitative data research question one asked, “does engagement with project citizen affect moroccan students’ civic literacy? if so, how?” to answer this question, the researchers conducted semistructured interviews with participants to discover their perceptions. initially, all interviewees were asked to define the term “civic education.” the responses from all groups (i.e., directors, teachers, and students) did not vary considerably. mounir (a teacher educator) defined the goals of civic education as knowing one’s “roles and responsibilities” regarding citizenship but added that it should include “an openness to one’s own and other cultures.” he added that the concept embodies heavy involvement “in political participation and community issues.” mohamed (social studies teacher) mentioned the importance of learning about other cultures because, to him, understanding civic education is also related to the ongoing challenges that social justice efforts face, namely the clash of differing values and ideologies, barriers to full citizenship, and the increasing minority oppression and anti-cultural difference movements. responses such as these perhaps indicate that participants are aware of the cultural divisions in moroccan society and also indicate that pc offers one possible solution to bring cohesion to society through the amelioration of suffering and inequality by all groups. for sami (pc student), civic literacy refers to citizens’ awareness of the roles they play in society. he viewed civic education as the knowledge citizens have about their rights and responsibilities, which necessitates educating others about effective citizenship in society. adam (social studies teacher) summarized civic education as all behaviors citizens manifest inside and outside school settings. in contrast, amal, another social studies teacher, thought of it as a host of dispositions and values that citizens practice daily, such as justice, democracy, bentahar & o’brien and civic participation in school and beyond. while participants focused on slightly different aspects of civic literacy, all responses demonstrated that participants understood the importance of civic literacy on students’ behavior as citizens. responses from participants also showed that project citizen offers opportunities for experiencing active citizenship, which the teachers and program directors hope to achieve as a by-product of individual experiences in pc. amal (social studies teacher) noted that her primary goal while implementing the pc curriculum was to help students build strong character and become effective citizens able to access and attain knowledge and overcome community problems. mohammed echoed these beliefs by explaining that, to him, the importance of pc lies in its ability to help build a strong character in students and prepare them as the citizens of tomorrow. these comments indicate that pc has the potential to help students become more civic-minded by strengthening character traits related to citizenship. civic literacy may also embody an understanding of the civic knowledge and dispositions that can be manifested in individuals’ daily lives in areas such as security, education, safety, health, and employment (branson & quigley, 1998). according to mohamed, the experiences gained from participating in pc “made students learn many competences at the level of knowledge and dispositions, which also helped them in their daily lives and academic and professional future.” when examining the goals of civic literacy, it is important to help create a class of citizens who feel both aware of and empowered to exercise influence over the creation of local, regional, or state policies which directly impact their lives. project citizen supported this goal by helping students better understand and practice engagement with public policy. in that regard, ashraf added that educating students about public policies as they are carried out requires “raising [students’] awareness of public policy making and the management of local affairs with respect to everyday life in their community.” mohamed maintained that one of the goals that moroccan center for civic education (mcce) had is to help students reach an understanding of engagement in public policy. he gave an example of his former pc students who “learned how citizens could have the power to identify the making of public policy in society and influence it,” a statement that correlates quantitatively with a mean score of m = 3.50 on a 4-scale point. mounir expressed a similar statement in that project citizen helped create “a dialogue about public policy between [moroccan] citizens [including students] and journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 the government and between the citizens and parliament.” overall, interview results indicated areas of civic literacy where project citizen likely helped students develop a strong character, demonstrate active involvement in the community, and develop an understanding of public policy. project citizen and social justice: quantitative findings survey questions also asked participants four questions related directly to social justice issues. the questions focused on taking action to fight injustice, to work toward helping others to improve society, as well as question fifteen, which asked about the egalitarian nature of changes brought about by addressing issues of social justice. table 5 provides the survey findings from these questions. table 5. moroccan students’ means and standard deviations on social justice ________________________________________________________ item n m sd because of my experience in project citizen, #3: i became more determined in speaking up against wrong doing 70 3.50 0.61 #5: i reinforced my belief in helping anyone in need 70 3.24 0.55 #13: i feel the need to contribute to positive social change in my community 70 3.24 0.62 #15: i believe social services should reach all social classes 70 3.33 0.50 n=70. note. the items were measured on the following scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree. considering the 4-point scale, these scores reflected positive support for the claim that project citizen helped participants develop a commitment to social justice. responses in table 5 indicate that students acknowledged a responsibility to their respective communities as well as the need to treat others with respect, regardless of their divergent opinions or diverse backgrounds. at a time in history when many countries (most notably the united states) are experiencing an increase in nationalistic and isolationist sentiment, curricula such as pc can be one part a larger attempt to find common ground between diverse populations within nations and across the globe. many issues of social justice affect disparate groups of people, so a shared commitment to social justice can act as a unifying force to combat divisions in individual societies and can also help foster a commitment to social justice worldwide. bentahar & o’brien project citizen and social justice—qualitative findings students were asked to respond to the question “how did your experience with project citizen affect your commitment to social justice?” of the 70 students who participated, 51 provided written responses to this question. forty-nine of the 51 students who provided responses to the open-ended prompt emphasized the positive effect of the experience on their views toward social justice. twelve students mentioned the notion of a “responsibility” to work toward social justice in the moroccan society, and another four made similar statements. the other consistent theme that emerged in response to this question was that students experienced a palpable change in skills they learned through pc. specifically, four students mentioned that their social and presentational skills had improved. students must present their solutions to local community leaders as part of the pc experience, and comments related to this experience were overwhelmingly positive. response nine stated, “i benefited greatly from the teachers who helped my self-confidence to be able to present my work before an audience.” concerning his ability to utilize critical thinking as a result of pc, respondent 37 stated, “it was a rich experience. i learned how to use critical thinking skills in dealing with the problems of society.” another wrote, “…[pc] enabled me to acquire many skills through conducting fieldwork, meet[ing] officials, and speak[ing] with them about a community problem.” while not the central focus of this paper, improving students’ critical thinking and presentation skills are nevertheless important outcomes of pc which are closely linked to both civics and social justice. next, the interviewees were asked to examine the possible connections between project citizen and social justice. responses to this question provided information with practical examples of how pc might have contributed to students growing as advocates for social justice. mounir stated, “[t]he good thing about project citizen is that it has contributed to social justice” in morocco. emphasizing the inclusive nature of pc, sami noted that promoting social justice in schools should be “done from a social perspective that does not exclude any party or member of the community and society at large.” according to ahmed, social justice matters help increase students’ awareness of their civic and civil rights and ways for obtaining them, an outcome that should not be achieved through violence, but “through peaceful, civic ways.” when asked whether civic education might have an impact on students’ growth as social justice advocates, mohamed responded that the two concepts cannot be separated when journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 it comes to implementation of pc. he added, “the project citizen curriculum was designed to help students understand and apply principles and basic considerations of dealing with social justice-related problems. it also enables students to decide and choose a just solution... in a sensible, efficient manner.” he went on explaining, “this curriculum helped [our] students develop increasing awareness of the importance of social justice in their lives and its status in modern society.” amal described how she used civic education to help spread awareness of many social injustices. for her, increasing civic awareness was a starting point for her students to better understand social justice, “because these students have rights and responsibilities that they need to strive for and maintain.” she added, “i also seek to convey the idea of equality by helping them reject divisions between the rich and the poor, and among the hardworking and the lazy.” in addition to the positive impact of project citizen on her students’ academic performance, “it also helped them build a strong character [to] ably defend their opinion and advocate for rights.” she said that given the nature of this program as a medium for solving community issues, students had the opportunity to understand social justice in practical ways. sami’s response to the question, “during or after completing project citizen, did you have the chance to be part of initiatives or activities that foster a sense of social justice?” revealed real-life experiences that the student shared. he explained that the issues his school tackled included lack of cleanliness and decent infrastructure. thanks to pc, sami and his peers succeeded in completing projects geared toward clean-up and beautification. for him, this was a way of ensuring all students enjoyed an acceptable condition of public schooling as one of the students’ rights. by seeing the immediate results of their efforts, after the experience, students were more aware of problems, and as importantly, saw that their efforts could result in palpable improvements to their daily experiences. after fixing broken locks and doors to increase student safety, sami remarked that he and his fellow students felt a stronger connection to their community as they looked for solutions to problems all students faced. discussion and implications social justice at stake in morocco project citizen students’ experience resulted in a realization of the perceived reality of social justice in morocco. it was reported in a number of responses how through engagement bentahar & o’brien with project citizen and direct contact with the community, some participants concluded social justice barely existed in morocco. adam, a social studies teacher, made it clear that schools cannot discuss social justice because the concept is not widely understood and rarely debated in the country. one student shared this view, saying: the project citizen experience made me believe that our society is unfair and taught me to start change through myself and try to be a responsible and just citizen as much as i can, and not consider the surfaces of things, but their essence. one student deemed pc an eye-opening experience, yet believed that it was probably too early to talk about social justice in morocco. two students thought pc helped them realize the hidden reality that social justice was still lacking in morocco, a statement shared by another student who “felt that there is social inequity and social justice is hard to achieve in reality.” while these responses indicate a heightened awareness of the difficulties the students faced when trying to achieve a small measure of social justice in morocco, these comments also indicate a heightened awareness of promoting positive change. discussion one of the important requirements of pc is the creation of individual portfolios showcasing the students’ work and proposed solutions. portfolios can be used by teachers to “demonstrate the student’s educational growth over a given time for set learning targets” (brookhart & nitko, 2008, p. 180). by creating these portfolios, students demonstrate how they actively engaged in the public policy process, and they share their proposal with local, regional, and national officials, which is another form of civic engagement (vontz et al., 2000). findings from this investigation indicate that moroccan students and stakeholders believed that participation in pc had a positive impact on both civic skills and knowledge, as well as on beliefs toward social justice. mohamed (teacher) wrote that participation in pc “made students learn many competences at the level of civic knowledge and dispositions, which helped them in their daily lives and academic and professional future.” responses from all interview participants, and from written comments by most students, indicated a strengthened commitment to improving the lives of others in their respective communities. for instance, the students who focused on the problem of high dropout rates in their community, discovered that the statistics are “so appalling that they are hidden by authorities.” by raising awareness of the problem, the students forced local government officials journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 to acknowledge the issue so it could be addressed. anecdotes such as these appear to be an indication of the importance of including community-based problems and solutions in the implementation of curricula of this type, specifically so that students can feel empowered to work for change. results from this study support the claim that young citizens, through experiences with pc, can gain efficacy at impacting policy decisions. this viewpoint is vitally important for social reconstructionists who believe that educational project-based curricula might help connect students with their community in ways that address societal inequality. the authors believe that schools and teachers have the responsibility of helping students understand societal needs and then engage in efforts towards this end. one of the desired learning outcomes of pc is that students learn what is needed in order to influence policy and provide suggestions peacefully and constitutionally. that is, the student group’s proposed solution to a community problem should be one that the law and the constitution support, according to pc guidebooks and center for civic education (cce, 2007). working within legal and constitutional guidelines is important in countries such as morocco, which many consider an “emerging democracy.” after evaluating the effect of pc on more than 1,400 students in three countries, vontz et al. (2000) concluded pc helps promote civic knowledge, skills, and dispositions in many countries around the world and creates opportunities for students to influence existing public policies. the experiences students have gained from participating in pc might potentially contribute to a much needed, well-informed citizenry in moroccan schools. pc’s core components include informed, active, and engaged citizenship and community service learning. the components also reflect the pedagogical best practices and theoretical underpinnings outlined in the civic education research, which makes pc one medium of rendering classrooms “laboratories for democracy” (scheiner-fisher & fine, 2013, p. 7). based on both quantitative and qualitative findings of this study, implementation of the pc curriculum was successful at both improving civic literacy, as well as fostering a commitment to social justice among all who participated. conclusion the results of this study indicate that pc can have a positive impact on students’ civic literacy and citizenship skills; it can also help students develop a commitment to social justice. bentahar & o’brien globally, 12.9% of the world’s population suffers from chronic malnourishment (world hunger education service, 2016), and 844 million lack a stable source of clean drinking water (world health organization, 2016). due to free trade agreements, the international monetary fund (imf), the world trade organization (wto), and neo-colonial economic policies, global economic inequality is growing worse (hickel, 2016). rather than perpetuating the status quo, the authors argue that schools should be places where students are taught to work toward creating a better environment for themselves and others. by asking students to identify and address problems in their local communities, students can begin to become active agents of change with an appreciation of social justice for all. journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 references afettat, n. (2012). performance decline and the reality of educational systems in the maghreb. zawaya. retrieved from http://zawaya.magharebia.com/old_zawaya/en_gb/zawaya/opinion/303.html. banks, j. a. (2007). educating citizens in a multicultural society (2nd ed.). new york: teachers college press. boum, a. (2008). the political coherence of educational incoherence: the consequences of educational specialization in a southern moroccan community. anthropology & education quarterly, 39(2), 205-223. bowen, g. a. (2009). document analysis as a qualitative research method. qualitative research journal, 9(2), 27-40. branson, m. s. & quigley, c. (1998). the role of civic education. the communication network. retrieved march 3, 2014, from http://www.gwu.edu/~ccps/pop_civ.html brookhart, s., & nitko, a. (2008). assessment and grading in classrooms. upper saddle river, new jersey: pearson publishing. center for civic education. (2007). project citizen: level 2. calabasas, ca. chapin, j. r. (2015). a practical guide to middle and secondary social studies (4th ed.). new york, ny: pearson publishing. craddock, a. w. (2007). developing context in international civic education projects. international journal of social education, 21(2), 123-141. creswell, j. w., & plano clark, v. l. (2007). designing and conducting mixed methods research. thousand oaks, ca: sage. fry, s., & bentahar, a. (2013). student attitudes towards and impressions of project citizen. journal of social studies education research, 4(1), 1-23. glaser consulting group. (2004). an independent evaluation of civic education programs in jordan, egypt, and west bank 2002-2003. retrieved july 20, 2013, from http://www.civiced.org/index.php?page=project_citizen_research. hamdaoui, j. (2013). per educational perceptions in morocco: then and now. arrifino. retrieved from http://www.ariffino.net/chronique-nador/. johnson, r. b., onwuegbuzie, a. j., & turner, l. a. (2007). toward a definition of mixed methods research. journal of mixed methods research, 1(2), 112-133. retrieved from http://mmr.sagepub.com/content/1/2/112.full.pdf+html. kharbouch, t. (2009).on the aribization policies of post-independence education. anfass. http://zawaya.magharebia.com/old_zawaya/en_gb/zawaya/opinion/303.html http://zawaya.magharebia.com/old_zawaya/en_gb/zawaya/opinion/303.html http://www.gwu.edu/~ccps/pop_civ.html http://mmr.sagepub.com/content/1/2/112.full.pdf%2bhtml http://www.anfasse.org/index.php/2012-07-03-21-58-09/2010-12-30-15-59-35/3012-2010-07-11-16-55-48 bentahar & o’brien retrieved from http://www.anfasse.org/index.php/2012-07-03-21-58-09/2010-12-30 15-59-35/3012-2010-07-11-16-55-48. landsman, j., & gorski, p. (2007). countering standardization. educational leadership, 64(8), 40-44. llorent-bedmar, v. (2014). educational reforms in morocco: evolution and current status. international education studies, (7)12, 95-105. madani, m., maghraoui, d., & zerhouni, s. (2012). the 2011 moroccan constitution: a critical analysis. international institute for democracy and electoral assistance. isbn: 978-91-86565-66-4. medina-jerez, w., bryant, c., & green, c. (2010). project citizen: students practice democratic principles while conducting community projects. science scope, 33(7), 71-75. moroccan center for civic education [mcce]. (2014). about us. retrieved march 25, 2014, from http://civicmorocco.org/about-us/. ministry of foreign affairs and cooperation [mfac]. (2011). morocco’s democratic reforms. retrieved march 6, 2014, from http://www.diplomatie.ma/en/reformsprocesses/tabid/ 2974/language/enus/default.aspx. national council for the social studies. (2005). mission statement. retrieved from http://www.socialstudies.org/about/. nisan, m. (2002). minorities in the middle east: a history of struggle and self-expression (2nd ed.). jefferson, nc & london: mcfarland. partnership for 21st century skills. (n.d.). civic literacy. retrieved october 27, 2013, from http://www.p21.org/overview/skills-framework/258. quigley, c. (1995). the role of civic education. task force on civic education paper (eric document #403203). retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/ contentdelivery/servlet/ ericservlet?accno=ed403203. sahifat al-ustad [teacher’s paper i’m confused by this being in the author’s name?]. (2012). guide to school climate, moroccan ministry of education. retrieved from http://www.educpress.com/20001.edu. schiro, m. s. (2008). curriculum theory: conflicting visions and enduring concerns. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. http://www.anfasse.org/index.php/2012-07-03-21-58-09/2010-12-30about:blank about:blank http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/%20contentdelivery/servlet/ http://www.eric.ed.gov/ericwebportal/%20contentdelivery/servlet/ http://www.educpress.com/20001.edu journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 scheiner-fisher, c, & fine, t. s. (2013). gauging pre-service teacher perceptions of incorporating project citizen in school curricula as a vehicle for civic education. retrieved from http://www.ejournalofpublicaffairs.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/1632-2-pb.pdf schulz, w., ainley, j., fraillon, j., kerr, d., & losito, b. (2010). initial findings from the iea international civic and citizenship education study. international association for the evaluation of educational achievement. retrieved june 11, 2013, from http://iccs.acer.edu.au/uploads/file/reports/iccs_10_initial_findings.pdf. shurz, c. (1872). remarks on the senate floor. the congressional globe, vol. 45, p. 1287. retrieved from http://www.bartleby.com/73/1641.html. silverstein, p. (2011). weighing morocco's new constitution. middle east research and information project. retrieved from http://www.merip.org/mero/mero070511. soule, s. (2000). beyond communism and war: the effect of civic education on the democratic attitudes and behavior of bosnian and herzegovinian youth. retrieved from http://www.civiced.org/papers/eval_bih.pdf. tovmasyan, t., & thoma, m. (2008). the impact of civic education on schools, students, and communities. caucus research resource centers (crrc). carnegie corporation of new york. retrieved from http://www.crrc.am/hosting/file/_static_content/fellows/ fellowship07/t%20tovmasyan/tigran%20tovmasyan%20_report_draft.pdf. vontz, t. s., metcalf, k. k., & patrick, j. j. (2000). project citizen and the civic development of adolescent students in indiana, latvia, and lithuania. bloominghouse, in: the eric clearinghouse for social studies/social science education. westheimer, j. & kahne, j. (2004). what kind of citizen? the politics of educating for democracy. american educational research journal, 41(2), 237-269. world health organization. (2016). drinking water: key facts. retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/. world hunger education, (2016). 2016 world hunger and poverty facts and statistics. retrieved from https://www.worldhunger.org/2015-world-hunger-and-poverty-facts-and-statistics/. http://iccs.acer.edu.au/uploads/file/reports/iccs_10_initial_findings.pdf http://www.merip.org/author/paul-silverstein http://www.merip.org/mero/mero070511 http://www.civiced.org/papers/eval_bih.pdf http://www.crrc.am/hosting/file/_static_content/fellows/%20fellowship07/t%20tovmasyan/tigran%20tovmasyan%20_report_draft.pdf http://www.crrc.am/hosting/file/_static_content/fellows/%20fellowship07/t%20tovmasyan/tigran%20tovmasyan%20_report_draft.pdf bentahar & o’brien appendix a survey administered to students (n=70) directions: please indicate your level of agreement with each of the following statements by circling your response. circle only one answer; do not circle between numbers. strongly disagree disagree agree strongly agree (sd) (d) (a) (sa) because of my experiences with project citizen,… 1. i learned how to support a social cause i believe in sd d a sa 2. i became aware that elected officials need to be concerned about sd d a sa citizens’ problems. 3. i became more determined to speak up against wrongdoing. sd d a sa 4. i did not learn anything about being a responsible citizen. sd d a sa 5. i reinforced my belief about helping anyone in need. sd d a sa 6. i feel the need to fulfill my responsibilities to my community. sd d a sa 7. i learned that young citizens can influence policy. sd d a sa 8. i did not learn to be tolerant of different opinions. sd d a sa 9. i developed research skills that i can use as an adult. sd d a sa 10. i can recognize the importance of critical thinking. sd d a sa 11. i learned how to treat people with respect regardless of any sd d a sa differences. 12. i did not learn how to present confidently before an audience. sd d a sa journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 13. i feel the need to contribute to positive societal change in my sd d a sa community. 14. i learned basic skills of conducting a community project. sd d a sa 15. i believe social services should reach all social classes. sd d a sa 16. my social skills did not change at all. sd d a sa 17. my experience with project citizen was a waste of time. sd d a sa bentahar & o’brien please tell me about yourself by circling the appropriate answer below: 18) gender a. male b. female 19) what is your age group? a. 18-21 b. 22-25 c. 26-28 20) what is the highest level of education you have completed? a. high school b. undergraduate c. graduate please respond to the following questions: 21) what do moroccan students need to be responsible citizens? ______________________________________________________________________________ _______ ______________________________________________________________________________ _______ ______________________________________________________________________________ _______ ______________________________________________________________________________ _______ 22). how did your experience with project citizen affect your commitment to social justice? ______________________________________________________________________________ _______ ______________________________________________________________________________ _______ ______________________________________________________________________________ _______ ______________________________________________________________________________ _______ thank you for your participation journal of social studies education research 2018: 10 (1), 193-218 appendix b semi-structured interview questions administered to stakeholders teachers (n=4), program directors (n=2), and student (n=1) ● what is civic education/civic literacy? how would you define it? ● why did you participate in project citizen? did you have specific goals for your students? ● what impact did project citizen have on your students? ● tell me more about how you felt after completing project citizen? how do you think the experience was valuable or a waste of time for you? ● how would you define social justice? ● how does project citizen promote social justice? ● were there any challenges for you /and the project citizen students? what were the causes for those challenges? ● how did project citizen help you develop social justice issues? how do you feel about it? any examples? ● do you remember any personal studies or experience of project citizen with your friends/peers where you felt you wanted to or managed to bring about change in the community? ● project citizen works on a community problem. what was the problem that you and your group worked on? and how well did you to solve it? ● overall, how do you think the students did with their projects? why/ why not? ● overall, what do you think went well and why did those things go well? why/ why not? ● any comment? something that you wanted me to ask and i didn’t? please share. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2022:13 (3),150-173 inclusive education curriculum management with modification humanistic design agus zaenul fitri1 abstract inclusive education for children with special needs is considered fundamental for children to adapt more easily to their social environment. the humanistic inclusion education curriculum can be developed through a curriculum modification process that combines the national education curriculum, local content, and the characteristics of children with special needs. al-azhaar islamic primary school is one of the educational institutions that has successfully organized inclusive education to improve students’ abilities academically and socially in a humanist manner. this research uses the field study and case study qualitative methods. data collection techniques involve in-depth interviews, participant observations, and documentation studies. the results of this study show that effective inclusive education is designed and implemented by combining normal children with those with special needs. learning requires adjustment (modification) of teaching materials, methods, media, funds, class management, and the learning environment. teachers find it difficult to carry out learning if the curriculum is not modified; not only do students have to adapt to the situation and the substance of education, but learning must also adjust to the student’s abilities, learning speed, difficulties, and interest in learning. a child with special needs is not forced to master competencies that are beyond his or her ability. children with special learning needs are not asked to keep up with students without learning disabilities but neither are they left waiting for their slower friends. students who fail in one method and learning technique may not necessarily fail in other different methods and techniques. keywords: management, humanistic, modification, inclusive education. introduction education as a right for every child in the world has been enshrined in the international declaration. the universal declaration of human rights of 1948, as described at the international convention on the right of children (crc) (pais & bissell, 2006), contains various agreements by restating the rights of children based on disability, race, belonging to an ethnic minority, gender, and engaging in migrant work (hafen & hafen, 1996). unfortunately, although this recognition does not prevent any description within the scope of the education system in children with disabilities, even the children’s rights committee and the united nations have recognized 50 1 dr. state islamic university (uin) sayyid ali rahmatullah tulungagung, indonesia; email: guszain@uinsatu.ac.id mailto:guszain@uinsatu.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 151 reasons for a description of children. in fact, education is a facility so that humans as an object can be developed (sauvé, 1996); thus, education can fully liberate humans in various aspects of knowledge, humanism, technology, and economy (asante, 2003). in academic circles, the phenomenon of the magnitude of that attention has long been present. since 2014, there have been two special journals that published the results of research on disabilities (khasanah, 2018). noting the amount of research that was carried out related to disabilities and the number of extraordinary schools (slb) became an encouraging development. according to data reported by the ministry of education and culture (kemendikbud, 2017), there are 545 public and 1,525 private special schools throughout indonesia. the total number of slbs is 2,070. meanwhile, the number of new students in 2016 alone was 10,774 (public) and 17,217 (private). the total number of new slb students throughout indonesia is 27,991 students. in east java province, there are 69 public schools with 966 new students and 4,237 old students, as well as 368 private schools with 3,373 new students and 13,179 old students (purbaningrum et al., 2017). the proliferation of special schools, both private and public, has been in serious conflict with theoretical developments about the handling of students with disabilities (al-hamdi, 2017). in theory, the discourse on handling students with disabilities has been very advanced, along with growing demands for equality from the human rights perspective (lukitasari et al., 2017). the initial paradigm was the individual-medical model (hogan, 2019; holden, 2016; smith, 2008), which has the view that disabilities are individual problems and a tangible form of god’s punishment of parents during pregnancy because it violates the taboos of pregnancy; thus, it is not a matter of the state (polat, 2020). the only solution offered is the medical path using doctors and psychiatrists. in this perspective, education for disabled children is nothing but being placed in a special learning environment, as they are considered abnormal, disabled, and with limitations. this is what has become known as the “extraordinary school” (putra et al., 2021). education serves to advance human resources in indonesia. this is written into the text of the proclamation of independence in the preamble to the 1945 constitution; thus, education has become one of the great ideals for indonesia. as a complete basis for the people of pancasila, or indonesia, education is considered a conscious effort and guiding principle (giri et al., 2021). law no. 20 of 2003 concerning the national education system, article 3 (government, 2006), states that “national education functions to develop abilities and shape the character and civilization of a fitri dignified nation to educate the nation’s life. thus, education should not discriminate between one individual and another in all aspects of life” (muhajir, 2022). sadly, many children from poor families and with disabilities do not attend school because of ingrained social prejudices and resistance to change. children with disabilities are always separated in the education system, resulting in discrimination against children more broadly in society (barnes, 1992). furthermore, discrimination has a great effect on learning, which results in many children dropping out of school (nora & cabrera, 1996). because inclusive educational facilities did not previously exist, rebuilding a better education system that incorporates children who have been excluded from access is a significant project (wulandari, 2021). the inclusive education curriculum is needed as a foundation for the implementation of learning, as the curriculum is a fundamental component that has a strategic role in a quality education system (hamalik, 2007). however, the inclusive curriculum in indonesia is still not optimal because its management has not been fully coordinated (ni’mah et al., 2022). evidence of this is that there are still many schools that operate the program less clearly, including the management, implementation, supervision, and assessment aspects of the program. additionally, the management is less professional. schools that offer inclusive curriculum programs can be used as references in government programs (carr & harris, 2001), in the sense that schools can feel what and how people with disabilities feel. therefore, the service facilities for them can be improved as well as provide comfort. according to researchers, this can provide enormous benefits for people with disabilities (hasibuan, 2012). the management of the inclusive curriculum must be conducted properly and professionally so that schools can achieve national education goals while also meeting the goals of the institution itself. the inclusive curriculum must be designed as well as possible to run an effective inclusionbased school program, implement it properly, and conduct the related evaluation (carr & harris, 2001). because it must adapt to changing conditions and situations, it is relevant to understand the development of the school environment with the application of the current curriculum used in educational units. based on the existing literature, several empirical studies have been carried out that investigate the implementation of disability education in east java for the purpose of improving its quality management (aisyah, 2020; sulistyadi, 2014). previous studies have revealed how the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 153 effectiveness of disability education depends on the abilities developed by people with disabilities (ansfridho & setyawan, 2019). thus, good management and understanding of people with disabilities will project that they will have a better future. inclusive education is not just a right but rather an obligation by both formal and non-formal educational institutions (haling et al., 2018). literature review curriculum management in inclusive education curriculum management refers to the set of actions oriented toward the achievement of objectives developed in several areas of educational activity of school organizations, including preparing learning goals, content, methods, and evaluation (bahri, 2022; tirado et al., 2016). curriculum management contains activities in the form of planning, implementation, and assessment (usman & za, 2018). curriculum management is considered a design by schools to improve the quality of learning (clough, 1998). cooperation is established between different parties with the school parties that helps institutions manage procedures for the adequate delivery of education in schools by using certain goals. according to taba (1970), to understand the relationship between the curriculum and education, it is necessary to decipher certain concepts (bhuttah et al., 2019; johnson, 1969). curriculum management also must pay attention to various decisions made at several different levels. according to taba, it is necessary to apply the main objectives of the learning experience in the realm of curriculum design (taba & elzey, 1964, 2022). inclusive education provides opportunities for all students who have disabilities and have the potential for intelligence and/or special talents that enable them to take part in education or learning in an educational environment together with students in general (natalia & mundilarno, 2019). the term inclusion describes the unification of children who have special needs into school programs (thomazet, 2009). inclusion also means that one of the educational goals of inclusive education is for students with challenges to be involved in comprehensive school life and for children who have disabilities to be accepted into the curriculum (fitria, 2012), the environment, social interactions, and the school vision. inclusion education is an educational approach that serves to provide opportunities for all children to receive a public school education with other children (clough, 1998; khasanah, 2018). the education curriculum includes a set of programs, activities, materials, and learning experiences designed for students with special needs to achieve learning objectives as determined fitri (wahyuno et al., 2014). inclusive education is carried out by paying attention to each student’s needs and improving the quality of educational programs for all students (nugroho & mareza, 2016). furthermore, several other definitions of inclusive education were formulated in the agra seminar, which were approved by 55 participants from 23 countries in 1998. these definitions were later adopted in the south africa white paper on inclusive education with almost no change (dalton et al., 2012). from the various opinions above, it can be concluded that inclusive curriculum management entails the planning, implementation and assessment of inclusion education to achieve the goals that have been established. humanistic curriculum the humanistic curriculum grew out of the development of humanist philosophical thinkers. the basis of the curriculum derives from the concept of personalized education developed by john dewey, which is rooted in the theory of progressive education (howlett, 2013), and j. j. rousseau’s theory of romantic education (oelkers, 2002; vaughan, 2018). oelkers (2002) and vaughan (2018) both provide opportunities for students to occupy the main place in the learning process; they have special potential, and can learn, search, and develop on their own. in this approach, the teacher serves as the person in charge of creating situations, fostering opportunities, and providing encouragement so that students can learn. the purpose of learning, according to humanistic theory, is to humanize human beings (zinn et al., 2009). learning is not just memorization and remembering; rather, learning is a process characterized by the presence of changes in the student. changes as a result of the learning process take various forms, such as changes in knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. the main goal of educators is to help students develop themselves and to assist in realizing their unique potential (korthagen, 2004). humanism emphasizes the important role of activities in the form of exploration, puzzling, and natural growth (spontaneity) (ouariachi & wim, 2020). the curriculum should provide a path to solving the main problem (tanner, 1988). many things are thought about but not learned, and many things are explained and felt but not used. the humanistic curriculum provides more primary opportunities for students. starting from the assumption that students are t the center of educational activities (hu & kuh, 2002), they are the subject of potential, ability, and development. humanistic education emphasizes the role of students. education requires an effort to create a permissive, relaxed, and intimate situation (robinson et al., 2000). thanks to this situation, children develop all journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 155 their potential. the new humanist is a self-actualized individual who sees the curriculum as a liberating process that can meet the need for personal growth and integrity (mcneil, 2014). the humanistic curriculum focuses on the students who are the main subject of education. the curriculum serves to provide an instinctive experience and contribute to the development of personal totality. the quality and openness of learners is the main goal of this curriculum model. the position of education is as a facilitator as well as a mediator to develop the potential possessed by students (terpollari, 2014). a humanist curriculum is integral, meaning that there is an integration between its affective and cognitive domains. it combines the values and personality of the learner with his or her intellect (ritchhart, 2004). for the content of the material presented to be effective and efficient, a systemic curriculum is needed as a driving force able to achieve goals in implementing the curriculum. some steps must be observed when implementing a systemic curriculum. the curriculum in question must have clear goals and processes for its implementation. even if there is evaluation and refinement, this is also intended to achieve the curriculum goals (reiser, 2001). there are responsibilities identified by r. linn (linn & baker, 1996) related to designing the curriculum, namely: (1) improving the standard of content and learning outcomes; (2) the school is responsible for measuring the achievement of learners; (3) there is a benchmark for evaluating school performance; and (4) improving performance with rewards, interventions and sanctions or punishments (o’day, 2002). research methods research design this research used qualitative methods with a phenomenological approach (morse, 1994). researchers apply this qualitative method based on several considerations. first, adjusting qualitative methods is easier and more flexible when dealing with existing realities or phenomena. second, this method directly presents the nature of the relationship between the researcher and the respondent. these two methods are more sensitive and more adaptable to the many changes of mutual influence and patterns of values encountered (feldman et al., 2004). this study seeks to collect data based on field facts (becker & geer, 2003). qualitative research methods are often called naturalistic research methods because the research is carried out under natural conditions; likewise, the collected data and their analysis are more qualitative (cresswell, 2010; miles et al., 2014). fitri participants the research participants in this study were the head of the school, the deputy head of the school in the field of curriculum, classroom teachers, regular teachers, and assistant teachers at sdi alazhaar tulungagung, east java. the selection of participants was carried out using a purposive sampling technique, in which participants were selected according to their main characteristics, namely regular teachers, regular teachers, and accompanying teachers who teach in inclusive classes. researchers collected data through interviews, observation, and documentation. the informants include one principal, one deputy head of curriculum, 17 regular teachers (11 female and six male), and six accompanying teachers for special needs with an age range of 25–50 years. data collection techniques data collection techniques are used to obtain the necessary data. the data collected in this study aims to obtain implementation information on the inclusive education curriculum so that researchers have a complete and comprehensive picture. data collection techniques entailed participatory observations, in-depth interviews, and documentation reviews (denzin & lincoln, 2008). table 1 interview instrument component subcomponent question item planning design material person infrastructure 1. how is the curriculum design prepared for students with special needs in a humanistic approach? 2. what materials are prepared for students with special needs in a humanistic approach? 3. how are teachers involved in learning in regular classes with students with special needs in a humanistic approach? 4. what are the support facilities and infrastructure for children with special needs in a humanistic approach? 4 implementing teacher method media assessment 1. what is the teacher’s role in learning in regular classes with children with special needs in a humanistic approach? 2. what problems do you face, and how do you solve them with a humanistic approach? 3. what method does the teacher choose to overcome the learning difficulties of children with special needs? 4. what media do teachers use in regular classroom learning with children with special needs? 5. how do teachers assess students in regular classes against normal children and children with special needs? 4 evaluating monitoring control follow-up impact 1. how do teachers monitor learning activities both inside and outside the classroom in a humanistic approach? 2. what kind of supervision does the teacher do in the learning process outside the classroom? 4 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 157 3. how is the follow-up of the results of teacher monitoring and supervision in learning inside and outside the classroom carried out? 4. what are the impacts resulting from the teacher-chosen curriculum improvement process in humanistic? data analysis the data analysis technique used in this research is a qualitative descriptive analysis that describes and interprets data from the components to be evaluated using qualitative techniques. activities in data analysis include data collection, data presentation, data condensation, verification, and the drawing of conclusions (miles, et. al, 2018). furthermore, the validity of the data is checked through triangulation of data and sources (bryman, 2004). miles, et. al., (2018) define four steps in qualitative data analysis, including (1) data collection: the researcher collects data according to questions related to the research theme regarding humanist modified inclusive education curriculum management; (2) data condensation and categorization: data collection is continued with data selection, which is focused on simplification, abstraction, and transformation of raw data that emerges from field data. after reduction, the researcher categorizes the data according to their needs. the data are grouped according to the characteristics of the participants, gender, and responses from the principal, deputy head of the curriculum, regular teachers, and teachers accompanying students with special needs (miles, at. al 2018). at this stage, a good interpretation of the data is needed so that the data are categorized correctly. research data comprise three components, namely planning (design), implementation, and evaluation. each subcomponent consists of one question, for a total of twelve questions (bryman, 2004); (3) data display: by the research design, the researcher determines the type and form of data entered into the metric box. the data is displayed in the form of a narrative which is grouped into three (miles, et. al., 2018); and (4) conclusion drawing stage: in the last step, the researcher draws meaningful conclusions from the data obtained (bryman, 2004; miles et. al., 2018). results and discussion design and modification of the inclusive curriculum psychologically and personally, it can be observed that children with special needs have key abilities for life in the future. with a note, the preparation of learning models and self-development must be up to standard. the composition used in such models is also distinguished as much as fitri possible. the specific brushing is more based on the character of the child than on the designed curriculum. at sdi al azhaar, the curriculum used is the same as the regular curriculum applied in public schools, which uses the 2013 curriculum (k-13). the curriculum is designed in an integrated manner with thematic principles that no longer require the existence of specific subject names (kadarwati & malawi, 2017). this way of learning is more about students learning how to solve a problem or problems. one of the informants explained it as follows: (1) the curriculum is designed and modified according to the abilities of the students. there is no grouping of material types for inclusion students. for example, in one class, there are one or two inclusive children who are unable to stay in the lesson until the end, so they are allowed to go home early. the preparation of individual learning programs refers to k-13. then, the curriculum is developed according to the needs and goals of the school. waka curriculum and the inclusion group or team do the inclusion curriculum planning and also together with gpk design the curriculum. curriculum design always involves teachers teaching in inclusion classes. before organizing, the curriculum design will be consulted first. the above statement shows that curriculum planning is carried out by identifying problems in learners through information obtained from learners, guardians, and accompanying teachers. from parents, the biodata of students is obtained at the beginning of entering the inclusion class. from educators, information will be obtained about the level of ability of students in the classroom, which includes biodata of children’s abilities and children’s conditions. the curriculum design process is carried out by entering children’s data. the first step is to share the form filled in by the parents, starting from the date of birth, as well as the child’s history. then, the data are made into one file that will be studied by the teacher so that material can be made for the child to use for learning in class. according to mittler, the inclusion curriculum requires a special design, but still follows the child’s ability level (mittler, 2012). so, if the child indeed does not understand anything, then the teacher will change the teaching method. the curriculum planning process begins by entering children’s data, which will be studied by the teacher for the creation of learning materials. the information needed for curriculum design is in addition to information about the child’s condition as well as skills because each gpk is not necessarily able to handle a particular child. the approved curriculum design is simple, complex, and flexible because it adapts to a particular child’s condition. in this context, sdi al-azhaar implements the individual education program (iep); if there are several obstacles, curriculum improvements will be made. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 159 after students learn from existing problems, they are not only high in intellectual ability but also have directed and skilled emotions; this also applies to children with special needs. the same curriculum should still be taught to children with special needs. however, in its application, it needs modification and simplification (horn & banerjee, 2009). the curriculum is designed as much as possible to produce the expected learning objectives. this modification of the curriculum in schools is in line with the theory of curriculum development by hilda taba, which is meant as curriculum development not just establishing boundaries (taba, 1963, 1966), but as thoroughly explaining the concept of curriculum and its impact on education, the implementation of which involves various aspects a series of aspects in the form of decisions are processed based on the vision and mission that have been set by the specific education institution (ben-peretz, 1975). according to the needs and abilities of students, the main content of learning must also be reselected. regarding the curriculum, it is specified in the regulation of the ministry of education and culture that inclusive education uses curriculum standards at the national level like those in other public schools. the alignment or modification of the standard curriculum is solely to narrow the distance and obstacles experienced by students. the school especially designs the curriculum according to the abilities of the children in question. the purpose of this design activity is to plan teaching methods, determine classes, and offer regular choices or inclusions, as explained by katz on the importance of the involvement of various parties (katz, 2013). the parties involved are accompanying teachers, parents, psychologists, and observers. curriculum planning and design are carried out by the inclusion coordinator to meet the objectives of the institution and existing facilities. in addition, facilities, staff, training, and supervision are needed. so far, the school has been working on curriculum design training. the curriculum design involves the class assistant teacher (gpk), the homeroom teacher, the parents, and the principal as the supervisor. one of the accompanying teachers of the class explained as follows: (2) the process of designing the curriculum by entering children’s data, the first is by sharing forms then filled out by parents, starting from the date of birth, as well as the child’s history, then the data is made into one file, then it will be studied by the teacher, then the material will be made for the child and then it will be entered into the class. the information needed in curriculum design is in addition to information about the child’s condition as well as gpk skills because each of them is also not necessarily able to handle a particular child. the fitri approved curriculum design is both simple and complex and also flexible because it adapts to the child’s condition. to modify the curriculum, the school carried out several special identification processes to understand the types of student needs, then carried out a mapping exercise. information can also be obtained from parents about the student’s biodata obtained from the beginning of entering the inclusion class. in addition, the educator provides information about the ability level of learners in the classroom. in addition, psychologists also know the condition of prospective inclusion learners (avramidis & norwich, 2002). because students have different tendencies, the institution classifies and places csn students according to the obstacles experienced so that it is easy to identify the level of needs. the inclusion curriculum in schools is directed at the independence of students, namely on developing life skills and multiple intelligences. this is one of the inclusion learning plans in addition to academic content called self-development. the purpose of this curriculum planning is to develop children’s potential so that students will be able to develop their skills and be equipped to be independent when they have grown up and continue life on their own. the orientation achieved from individual learning is the self-development in each learner (kassymova et al., 2019). based on the observational data, it was found that the curriculum planning used by the school came from a regular curriculum that was modified according to the needs of students. the homeroom teacher and the subject teacher accompany the csn to work together and are directly involved in the process of modifying the curriculum. the approach used is grassroots, namely the preparation of the group to be handed over to the leadership of the institution (carrier & williams, 1995; oloruntegbe, 2011). this grassroots effort begins with the process of assessment and designing individual learning (iep) using a humanist curriculum that produces a modified humanistic curriculum based on the circumstances of the learners. see fig. 1. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 161 figure 1 the concept modification design of inclusion curriculum implementation of the inclusion education curriculum children with special psychological needs actually have a unique ability to handle life in the future. the condition is that the model of self-development and learning is prepared according to the right standards and composition. this particular brushing is more based on the character of the child in the curriculum that has been designed. learning by children with special needs is carried out based on the level of the child’s ability. if the child is unable to attend regular classes, then in the next class some subjects are downgraded or reguided, except for sports and music subjects. as one of the teachers stated: (3) the child can follow in the regular class during the 1st grade, but when in the 2nd, 4th, and 6th grades, some lessons are lowered in levels such as mathematics and language. but for sports, their music can still merge. some lessons are included with regular students such as music, students with special needs (sbk), and sports, but then if the child cannot follow the regular curriculum, it will be handed over to a special accompanying teacher.” learning through problem-solving is expected to be able to help develop students not only in the intellectual aspect but also in all aspects, such as attitudes, emotions, and skills. students with special needs also use the same curriculum, but it is simplified and modified based on the needs national standards identification planning implementation evaluation ▪ goal/objective ▪ material/content ▪ method/strategy ▪ media ▪ evaluation ▪ syllabus ▪ lesson plan modification fitri of learners by different methods (westwood, 2001). the curriculum is designed as much as possible to produce the expected learning objectives. in learning, the curriculum is modified and adapted to the goals or vision, and mission of the school. this curriculum is called the subject-centered curriculum approach; namely, the curriculum materials (content) are arranged in the form of separate subjects (ornstein, 1982). each teacher has his or her duties and responsibilities for the subjects taught and focuses on one subject. however, because students have various characteristics, namely normal students and students with special needs with multiple obstacles, during implementation in the field, the regular curriculum requires modification to meet the diversity of student characteristics, regional conditions, and levels and types of education, ethnicity, culture customs, socioeconomic status, and gender. curriculum modifications will be the direction and basis for developing subject matter, learning activities, and indicators of competency achievement for assessment, taking into account the individual abilities of learners (kelly et al., 2004). the implementation of curriculum activities in schools is in line with the theory of curriculum development expressed by hilda taba; that is, curriculum development not only limits the problem of curriculum development but also outlines a system of concepts that must be used to assess the relationship of the curriculum to education (taba, 1962). in its implementation, curriculum development involves various kinds of decisions, which are made based on the general objectives that the education or (school) wants to specifically achieve. meanwhile, the main areas or subjects in the curriculum must be selected according to the needs and abilities of students. regarding the curriculum used, it is specified in the regulation of the ministry of education that inclusive education uses the national standard curriculum (indonesia, 2009). however, because the various obstacles experienced by different students are quite varied, it is necessary to modify them. curriculum modifications are carried out by a team of curriculum developers in the school consisting of principals, class teachers, subject teachers, special education teachers, counselors, psychologists, and related experts. the role of the psychologist is also important in knowing the condition of prospective learners because schools certainly do not have the expertise to know what types of disabled students there are and what students need help in handling (may et al., 2004). furthermore, learners are identified and classified according to the type and degree of learning challenges within the applicable special education category. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 163 the process of implementing the curriculum by entering children’s data is such that the teacher will study the data to make material in classroom learning. the information needed in curriculum design is in addition to information about the child’s condition as well as skills because each gpk does not have the ability necessarily to deal with certain children. with the implementation of this humanist inclusion curriculum, teachers act as companions and special teams to create individual learning programs. the content of the program is a learning program that suits the needs of different students. every student with special needs has a companion. the school uses an accompanying teacher as the implementer of the learning process. if there are obstacles during implementation, curriculum improvements continue to be carried out so that learning can take place effectively and efficiently. the school has a special consultant to deal with students with special needs who collaborate with psychologists (gilman & medway, 2007). according to hamzah, individual learning is oriented toward the individual and selfdevelopment. this approach focuses on the process by which the individual constructs and organizes himself or herself in a really unique way (uno, 2021). based on researchers' observations, the school's curriculum implementation is taken from the existing education office curriculum and then modified according to the needs and abilities of students. in the design of the curriculum, class teachers and accompanying teachers are involved in the preparation of learning program planning using a grassroots approach, namely, the design starts from the bottom and is then approved by the principal and curriculum waka. the curriculum is chosen by identifying learning objectives, namely that it is necessary to analyze and determine the initial ability of students first, then learning is adjusted to the abilities of those students, after seeing the entire series of implementation of the modified curriculum carried out by the school, the researcher concluded that the activities were implemented almost according to the guidelines issued by the government. the six stages carried out by the school can be categorized into three stages. the stage referral stage in the school has a preparatory stage for the implementation of the inclusion school modification curriculum (mittler, 2012), initial identification at the time of admission of new learners, and profiling of students. meanwhile, according to hilda taba, the general strategy in curriculum implementation is small measurements, the implementation of partial trials, followed by revisions, followed by trials of the whole unit, more revisions, and finally, the release of the curriculum that has been made to be applied in educational institutions in general (fraenkel, 1994). thus, the active role of the teacher is one of fitri the supporters of curriculum improvement because the accompanying teacher understands the condition of the students during the learning process. curriculum evaluation is carried out once a month; if there are curriculum components that need to be improved, there will be a subsequent improvement and curriculum development. furthermore, the school has an advanced identification and assessment stage that is both academic and nonacademic, as well as planning by a special and general team in a forum that produces a modified learning plan. the last stage is the instruction stage, in which the school translates with the curriculum implementation the modification of the inclusion school in the context of learning in the inclusion class or special class. it also includes a periodic evaluation of the implementation of the modified curriculum of the inclusion school. from this research, it can be seen that the curriculum implementation in schools was adopted from the ministry of education and culture, then designed and modified according to the needs of students with special needs. the learning used the grassroots approach, which starts with the assessment and design of the individual education program using humanistic curriculum design modification. evaluation of inclusion curriculum evaluation is a process of systematic data collection and analysis that aims to help educators understand and assess a curriculum, as well as improve learning methods. the evaluation aims to find out and decide whether the predetermined program accomplishes the goals that have been set. in its implementation, the evaluation involves students with special needs in the implementation of tests such as daily tests, midterm exams, and final semester exams. however, the questions and assessment indicators are different than those of regular student standards. the standard assessment is equated with regular indicators, but grades for students with special needs are below regular students, and the assessment indicators are not the same as for regular students; as heller explains, students are placed according to their level of education (heller, 1982). regular classes get a numerical assessment, while students with special needs receive an assessment in the form of a description of student behavior during learning. agar curriculum can be evaluated according to the needs of students; then, supervision is held between special accompanying teachers and students. however, the principal of the school is always in communication with the educators. communication is carried out every two weeks on thursdays through coordination meetings. if necessary, the principal communicates one on one journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 165 with the educators and teachers accompanying the class regarding the implementation of the inclusion curriculum. as stated by the accompanying teacher of the class below: (4) the communication carried out between the principal and the curriculum staff in evaluating the curriculum in the inclusion class of each teacher, but in the communication, a meeting is aimed at all education and accompanying teachers. the principal gave a large amount of encouragement that is expected to directly affect the souls of the teachers, to be able to implement it in the learning process better.” the reason for using the assessment model for students with special needs narratively is because the use of a numerical assessment, such as the benchmark of graduate competency scores, would be very unfair (allen & tanner, 2006). students with special needs will never achieve numerical grades with the required competencies because their condition is not the same as that of other students. because they have special needs, they also have a special assessment, namely in the form of a narrative. every weekend, al-azhaar primary school holds coaching that is attended by all teachers to discuss obstacles to the implementation of the curriculum for that week. the activity discusses the appropriate learning methods for teachers, and in the forum, teachers are allowed to express opinions and obstacles experienced during teaching. special accompanying teachers also carry out evaluations with all special accompanying teachers to provide the best service for students with special needs and to make any improvements necessary regarding the curriculum implementation used. this is in line with taylor, in that curriculum evaluation occurs at least twice, namely at the beginning and end of curriculum improvement, to be able to measure changes in a certain period (helsby, 1995). these evaluations should be carried out successively throughout the process of the curriculum improvement being designed. curriculum improvement is a process that includes activities to carry out evaluation experiments so that the deficiencies found can be corrected for better results (zimmerman, 2002). curriculum valuation is considered necessary to make improvements if students with special needs do not experience development and change. curriculum evaluation is always carried out jointly and continuously to improve learning (guskey, 2000). given that the ability of students with special needs cannot be forced to follow the curriculum reasonably, the flexibility of curriculum development becomes a reference because they have different needs (lau, 2001). this is in line fitri with the position of lerner and johns, who found that this identification and assessment process has several objectives, namely (1) screening, (2) transfer/referral, (3) classification, (4) learning design, and (5) monitoring of learning outcomes (lerner & johns, 2011). some things that can be used in monitoring include starting from formal evaluation, informal measurement, and continuous monitoring procedures as appearing in fig. 2. figure 2 modificative humanistic curriculum this study implies that curriculum management should apply for all students. therefore, this study contributes a novelty in that students with disabilities should receive attention inclusively the curriculum design of which refer to humanistic perspective. inclusive curriculum management: modified humanistic national curriculum institutional curriculum modified curriculum implementation evaluation implication individual approach flexible, individualized and humanistic approach monitoring and assessment journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 167 conclusion it turns out that the management of the modified inclusion education curriculum based on the principles of educational humanism in children with special needs is effective at developing their abilities, interests, and talents. the curriculum design takes place according to modifying the curriculum that adopts national, institutional, and local curricula based on the characteristics of students with disabilities. the curriculum implementation uses a method tailored to the needs of students with special needs using applied behavior analysis therapy for students who are capable of training; learning refers to the student’s program for students who have learning difficulties. curriculum evaluation uses a formative and summative model with the same standards/indicators of student assessment as regular classes, but grades are lower, and there are special qualitative indicators according to their abilities and needs. evaluation is necessary for the improvement of the program and the inference of the results of the program as a whole. this concept emphasizes the role of criteria (absolute and relative). while improving the curriculum, teachers routinely hold workshops on the curriculum and collaborate with curriculum expert consultants. this study has limitation in that theories in inclusive curriculum are not yet comprehensive nor the number of participants are small number. future research is suggested to define the impact of the management of this modified inclusion curriculum gives students with disabilities a space to develop skills, develops mutual respect between learners, reduces bullying, develops appreciation, and helps students get along with other normal learners. additionally, future research is also recommended to enlarge participants to achieve broader inclusion of inclusive education. references aisyah, s. (2020). pelaksanaan pelayanan dan pemenuhan hak-hak penyandang disabilitas dalam bidang pendidikan pada sekolah luar biasa (slb) di kota surabaya. universitas 17 gustus 1945 surabaya. al-hamdi, r. (2017). ketika sekolah menjadi penjara: membongkar dilema pendidikan masyarakat modern. the journal of society and media, 1(1), 11–34. allen, d., & tanner, k. (2006). rubrics: tools for making learning goals and evaluation criteria explicit for both teachers and learners. cbe—life sciences education, 5(3), 197–203. fitri ansfridho, a. x., & setyawan, d. (2019). efektivitas pencapaian kinerja program pelatihan bagi penyandang disabilitas. jisip: jurnal ilmu sosial dan ilmu politik, 8(2), 55–63. ar, m., usman, n., & za, t. (2018). inclusive education management in state primary schools in banda aceh. advanced science letters, 24(11), 8313–8317. asante, m. k. (2003). education for liberation. the black student’s guide to graduate and professional school success, 162. avramidis, e., & norwich, b. (2002). teachers’ attitudes toward integration/inclusion: a review of the literature. european journal of special needs education, 17(2), 129–147. bahri, s. (2022). edukatif: jurnal ilmu pendidikan manajemen pendidikan inklusi di sekolah dasar. jurnal ilmu pendidikan, 4. https://doi.org/10.31004/edukatif.v4i1.1754 barnes, c. (1992). disability and employment. personnel review. becker, h. s., & geer, b. (2003). participant observation: the analysis of qualitative field data. in field research (pp. 376–394). routledge. ben-peretz, m. (1975). the concept of curriculum potential. curriculum theory network, 5(2), 151–159. bhuttah, t. m., xiaoduan, c., ullah, h., & javed, s. (2019). analysis of curriculum development stages from the perspective of tyler, taba and wheeler. european journal of social sciences, 58(1), 14–22. bryman, a. (2004). triangulation and measurement. retrieved from department of social sciences, loughborough university, loughborough, leicestershire: www. referenceworld. com/sage/socialscience/triangulation. pdf. carr, j. f., & harris, d. e. (2001). succeeding with standards: linking curriculum, assessment, and action planning. ascd. carrier, h. n., & williams, d. a. (1995). a grassroots approach to formulating a multicultural, interdisciplinary core curriculum. cassano, r., costa, v., & fornasari, t. (2019). an effective national evaluation system of schools for sustainable development: a comparative european analysis. sustainability, 11(1), 195. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010195 clough, p. (1998). managing inclusive education: from policy to experience. sage. cresswell, j. (2010). research design. yogyakarta: pustaka belajar. dalton, e. m., mckenzie, j. a., & kahonde, c. (2012). the implementation of inclusive education in south africa: reflections arising from a workshop for teachers and therapists to introduce universal design for learning. african journal of disability, 1(1), 1–7. denzin, n. k., & lincoln, y. s. (2008). introduction: the discipline and practice of qualitative research. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 169 edmondson, a. c., & mcmanus, s. e. (2007). methodological fit in management field research. academy of management review, 32(4), 1246–1264. feldman, m. s., bell, j., & berger, m. t. (2004). gaining access: a practical and theoretical guide for qualitative researchers. rowman altamira. fitria, r. (2012). proses pembelajaran dalam setting inklusi di sekolah dasar. jurnal ilmiah pendidikan khusus, 1(1), 90–101. fraenkel, j. r. (1994). the evolution of the taba curriculum development project. the social studies, 85(4), 149–159. gilman, r., & medway, f. j. (2007). teachers’ perceptions of school psychology: a comparison of regular and special education teacher ratings. school psychology quarterly, 22(2), 145. giri, i. p. a. a., ardini, n. l., & kertiani, n. w. (2021). pancasila sebagai landasan filosofis pendidikan nasional. sanjiwani: jurnal filsafat, 12(1), 116–126. guskey, t. r. (2000). evaluating professional development. corwin press. hafen, b. c., & hafen, j. o. (1996). abandoning children to their autonomy: the united nations convention on the rights of the child. harvard international law journal, 37. https://heinonline.org/hol/page?handle=hein.journals/hilj37&id=455&div=&collection= haling, s., halim, p., badruddin, s., & djanggih, h. (2018). perlindungan hak asasi anak jalanan dalam bidang pendidikan menurut hukum nasional dan konvensi internasional. jurnal hukum & pembangunan, 48(2), 361–378. hamalik, o. (2007). manajemen pengembangan kurikulum. hasibuan, k. (2012). pelaksanaan penyelenggaraan fasilitas umum bagi warga difabel di kota yogyakarta. heller, k. a. (1982). placing children in special education: equity through valid educational practices. final report. eric. helsby, g. (1995). teachers’ construction of professionalism in england in the 1990s. journal of education for teaching, 21(3), 317–332. hogan, a. j. (2019). moving away from the” medical model:” the development and revision of the world health organization’s classification of disability. bulletin of the history of medicine, 93(2), 241–269. holden, k. l. (2016). buy the book? evidence on the effect of textbook funding on school-level achievement. american economic journal: applied economics, 8(4), 100–127. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150112 horn, e., & banerjee, r. (2009). understanding curriculum modifications and embedded learning opportunities in the context of supporting all children’s success. fitri howlett, j. (2013). progressive education: a critical introduction. a&c black. indonesia, r. (2009). peraturan menteri pendidikan nasional (permendiknas) nomor 70 tahun 2009 tentang pendidikan inklusif bagi peserta didik yang memiliki kelainan dan memiliki potensi kecerdasan dan/atau bakat istimewa. pub. l. johnson, m. (1969). on the meaning of curriculum design. curriculum theory network, 1(3), 3– 9. kadarwati, a., & malawi, i. (2017). pembelajaran tematik:(konsep dan aplikasi). cv. ae media grafika. kassymova, g. k., yurkova, m. g., zhdanko, t. a., gerasimova, j. r., kravtsov, a. y., egorova, j. v, … larionova, l. a. (2019). personal self-development in the context of global education: the transformation of values and identity. научный журнал «вестник нан рк», (6), 195–207. katz, j. (2013). the three block model of universal design for learning (udl): engaging students in inclusive education. canadian journal of education, 36(1), 153–194. kelly, l. e., kelly, l., & melograno, v. (2004). developing the physical education curriculum: an achievement-based approach. human kinetics. kemendikbud, p. d. (2017). statistik sekolah luar biasa (slb) 2017/2018 [revisi]. khasanah, e. z. (2018). inclusive education: in concepts, policies, and implementation. indonesian journal of disability studies, 5(2), 166–169. korthagen, f. a. j. (2004). in search of the essence of a good teacher: toward a more holistic approach in teacher education. teaching and teacher education, 20(1), 77–97. lau, d. c.-m. (2001). analysing the curriculum development process: three models. pedagogy, culture and society, 9(1), 29–44. lerner, j. w., & johns, b. (2011). learning disabilities and related mild disabilities. cengage learning. linn, r. l., & baker, e. l. (1996). chapter iv: can performance-based student assessments be psychometrically sound? teachers college record, 97(5), 84–103. lukitasari, s. w., sulasmono, b. s., & iriani, a. (2017). evaluasi implementasi kebijakan pendidikan inklusi. kelola: jurnal manajemen pendidikan, 4(2), 121–134. may, d. r., gilson, r. l., & harter, l. m. (2004). the psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. journal of occupational and organizational psychology, 77(1), 11–37. mcneil, j. d. (2014). contemporary curriculum: in thought and action. john wiley & sons. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 171 miles, matthew b., a. michael huberman., j. s. (2014). qualitative data analysis. sage publication. miles, m. b., huberman, a. m., & saldaña, j. (2018). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook. sage publications. mittler, p. (2012). working toward inclusive education: social contexts. david fulton publishers. morse, j. m. (1994). critical issues in qualitative research methods. sage. muhajir, as’aril. (2022). inclusion of pluralism character education in the islamic modern boarding schools during the pandemic era. journal of social studies education research (jsser). 13(2), 196-220. www.jsser.org natalia, k., & mundilarno, m. (2019). manajemen pembelajaran inklusi dalam mewujudkan mutu pendidikan. media manajemen pendidikan, 2(1), 100. ni’mah, n. u., istirohmah, a. n., hamidaturrohmah, h., & widiyono, a. (2022). problematika penyelenggara pendidikan inklusi di sekolah dasar. journal on teacher education, 3(3), 345–353. nora, a., & cabrera, a. f. (1996). the role of perceptions of prejudice and discrimination on the adjustment of minority students to college. the journal of higher education, 67(2), 119– 148. nugroho, a., & mareza, l. (2016). model dan strategi pembelajaran anak berkebutuhan khusus dalam setting pendidikan inklusi. jurnal pendidikan dasar perkhasa, 2(2), 145– 156. o’day, j. (2002). complexity, accountability, and school improvement. harvard educational review, 72(3), 293–329. oelkers, j. (2002). rousseau and the image of’modern education’. journal of curriculum studies, 34(6), 679–698. oloruntegbe, k. o. (2011). teachers’ involvement, commitment and innovativeness in curriculum development and implementation. journal of emerging trends in educational research and policy studies, 2(6), 443–449. ornstein, a. c. (1982). the subject-centered curriculum. phi delta kappan, 404–408. pais, m. s., & bissell, s. (2006). overview and implementation of the un convention on the rights of the child. the lancet, 367(9511), 689–690. pemerintah. (2006). undang-undang republik indonesia nomor 20 tahun 2003 tentang sistem pendidikan nasional. http://www.jsser.org/ fitri polat, s. (2020). multidimensional analysis of the teaching process of the critical thinking skills. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 5(2), 134-157. doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 purbaningrum, e., kurniawan, a., & martarina, f. (2017). profil anak berkebutuhan khusus (abk ) provinsi jawa timur. kementerian pemberdayaan perempuan dan perlindungan anak republik indonesia. putra, p. h., herningrum, i., & alfian, m. (2021). pendidikan islam untuk anak berkebutuhan khusus (kajian tentang konsep, tanggung jawab dan strategi implementasinya). fitrah: journal of islamic education, 2(1), 80–95. reiser, r. a. (2001). a history of instructional design and technology: part ii: a history of instructional design. educational technology research and development, 49(2), 57–67. ritchhart, r. (2004). intellectual character: what it is, why it matters, and how to get it. john wiley & sons. sauvé, l. (1996). environmental education and sustainable development: a further appraisal. canadian journal of environmental education (cjee), 1(1), 7–34. smith, s. r. (2008). social justice and disability: competing interpretations of the medical and social models. in arguing about disability (pp. 23–37). routledge. sulistyadi, h. k. (2014). implementasi kebijakan penyelenggaraan layanan pendidikan inklusif di kabupaten sidoarjo. kebijakan dan manajemen publik, 2(1), 1–10. taba, h. (1962). curriculum development: theory and practice. taba, h. (1963). opportunities for creativity in education for exceptional children. exceptional children, 29(6), 247–257. taba, h. (1966). teaching strategies and cognitive functioning in elementary school children. taba, h. (1970). curriculum development: theory and practice https://books.google.com/books/about/curriculum_development_theory_and_practi.html? id=ftq9aaaayaaj taba, h., & elzey, f. f. (1964). teaching strategies and thought processes. teachers college record, 65(6), 1–13. taba, h., & elzey, f. f. (2022). teaching strategies and thought processes: https://doi.org/10.1177/016146816406500603, 65(6), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146816406500603 terpollari, m. (2014). teachers’ role as mediator and facilitator. european scientific journal, 24(1), 68–74. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(3),150-173 173 thomazet, s. (2009). from integration to inclusive education: does changing the terms improve practice? international journal of inclusive education, 13(6), 553–563. tirado, b., concepción, m., barriga, d., concepción barrón tirado, m., & díaz barriga, f. (2016). curriculum management and the role of curriculum actors. tci (transnational curriculum inquiry), 13(2), 13–33. https://doi.org/10.14288/tci.v13i2.188285 uno, h. b. (2021). teori motivasi dan pengukurannya: analisis di bidang pendidikan. bumi aksara. vaughan, k. (2018). progressive education and racial justice: examining the work of john dewey. education and culture, 34(2), 39–68. wahyuno, e., ruminiati, & sutrisno. (2014). pengembangan kurikulum pendidikan inklusif tingkat sekolah dasar. aekolah dasar, 23(1), 77–84. westwood, p. (2001). differentiation’ as a strategy for inclusive classroom practice: some difficulties identified. australian journal of learning difficulties, 6(1), 5–11. wulandari, d. (2021). kompetensi profesionalisme guru. aksioma ad-diniyah, 9(1). zimmerman, b. j. (2002). becoming a self-regulated learner: an overview. theory into practice, 41(2), 64–70. zinn, d., proteus, k., & keet, a. (2009). mutual vulnerability: a key principle in a humanising pedagogy in post-conflict societies. perspectives in education, 27(2), 109–119. journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2010: 1(1) editörden editorial from editor-in-chief başlarken getting started merhaba, sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği [sbeb/asse: association for social studies educators]‟nin resmî yayın organı olan sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi [sbead/jsser: journal of social studies education research] adlı uluslararası hakemli dergi, bu sayı ile sosyal bilgiler eğitimi literatüründeki tarihî yolculuğuna başlamaktadır. hello, with this first issue, journal of social studies education research (jsser/sbead [sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi]) -as the international refereed journal and the official publication of the association for social studies educators (asse/sbeb [sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği])starts its historic journey in the literature of social studies education. sbeb ailesi olarak, aylardır süren hummalı, ama amatörce ve bir o kadar da heyecan içinde sürdürdüğümüz çalışmaların ürünü olan sbead ile bu yolculuğa çıkarken tarifsiz duygular içindeyiz. zira sevinç, mutluluk ve gurur gibi kelimeler, bugün hissettiklerimizi anlatmaya yetmez. bizi böylesi bir duygusal anafora sürükleyen şey, sbead‟nin yayın hayatına girmesinin bizim için, bu olgusal durumdan çok daha fazla anlam ifade etmesidir. öyle ki türkiye‟nin alandaki ilk ihtisas dergisi olan sbead‟nin yayın hayatına girmesi, henüz bir yaşında bir kuruluş olan sbeb için, elbette gurur verici bir başarıdır; fakat bizim açımızdan bu gelişme, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında uygulamaya koymayı as the asse family members, we now experience feelings really hard to define; because the journey of jsser, which is the product of a hard work done with amateur and excited mood and lasted for months, is just beginning. words such as pleasure, happiness or pride seem quite poor and inadequate compared to our feelings. what drifts us to this sentimental whirlpool is that jsser's publication means much more to us than just a publication of a journal. not only releasing a journal -jsser which is the first specialized journal in its field in turkeyis a great success for the one-year-old asse, but also this development can be considered as the first step of the national and international academic and pedajournal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1) planladığımız ulusal ve uluslararası akademik ve pedagojik projelerden ilkinin hayata geçirilmesi anlamı taşımaktadır. bu önemli projenin gerçekleşmesi, bizi diğer projelerimiz için yüreklendirmektedir. gogical projects that we plan to put into practice within the context of social studies education. the fulfillment of this fundamental project encourages us for upcoming ones. öte yandan sbead‟nin yayın hayatına girmesi, türkiye sosyal bilgiler eğitimi tarihi için de önemli bir dönüm noktası olacaktır. çünkü, 1968 i̇lkokul programı ile başlayan türkiye sosyal bilgiler eğitimi geleneği; böylece, çeyrek asırlık bir batıdan tercüme ve aktarma evresinden sonra 1990‟lı yıllarda girdiği akademik kurumsallaşma sürecinin bir sonucu olarak, alana ilişkin kitap, makale ve bildiri türlerinde yayınlanan sayısız esere ilave olarak, uluslararası hakemli bir ihtisas dergisi çıkarılabilen yeni bir evreye girmiş bulunmaktadır. türkiye üniversitelerinin ve sivil toplum örgütlerinin, ilgili uluslararası kurum ve kuruluşlarla işbirliğine gidebildiği, ortak projeler yürütebildiği ve uluslararası literatüre katkıda bulunabildiği, dahası sosyal bilgiler eğitimi alanında reform sayılabilecek program geliştirme sürecinin başlatıldığı bu evredeki gelişmeler, henüz verimliliğini kanıtlamasa da, bir bütün olarak „türkiye yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi‟ adı verilebilir. moreover, the publication of jsser will be a significant turning point for the history of social studies education as well. by releasing an international refereed journal of specialization, the tradition of social studies education, which started with the 1968 primary school program, has reached a new stage as a result of the academic institutionalization process which has started in the 1990s and the publication of countless books, articles and papers related to this scientific domain after a period of translation and transfer from the west for nearly twenty-five years. in this current stage, turkish universities and non-governmental organizations can cooperate with the related foundations and institutions and run mutual projects and thus contribute to the international literature. moreover, the process of program development which can be considered as a reform in social studies education has started in this stage. even though it has not yet fully proved its efficiency, all the developments at this stage listed above can be called “the new social studies movement in turkey”. türkiye‟de sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin akademik bakımdan bugünkü seviyeye gelmesinde 1990‟lı the pre-service teacher training project developed by the cooperation of the council of higher cemil öztürk, editörden / editorial from editor-in-chief yıllarda dünya bankası yök işbirliği ile gerçekleştirilen hizmet öncesi öğretmen eğitimi projesi önemli rol oynamıştır. çünkü, bu proje kapsamında; eğitim fakültelerinde „sosyal bilgiler eğitimi‟ anabilim dalları kurulmuş, lisans programları açılmış; eğitim bilimleri enstitülerinde yüksek lisans ve doktora programları başlatılmış; bu disiplin doçentlik unvanı alınan bir alan haline getirilmiş; eğitim fakülteleri öğretim elemanlarına yönelik hizmet içi eğitim programları yürütülmüş; öğretim elemanı yetiştirmek üzere yurt dışına öğrenci gönderilmiştir. burada, söz konusu proje kapsamında tanıma ve birlikte çalışma fırsatı bulduğum james l. barth‟ı (abd) saygı ve minnet duygularımla anmak isterim. çünkü benim sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin önemini fark edip bu alana yönelmemi sağlayan kendisidir. fakat şahsî kariyerimin şekillenmesine yaptığı katkının da ötesinde o, yürüttüğü eğiticilerin eğitimi seminerleri ve yaptığı hizmet öncesi öğretmen eğitimine yönelik didaktik yayınlarla türkiye‟deki yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin başlamasına önayak olmuştur. bu hareketin başarıya ulaşmasında, yök yurt içinde ve yurt dışında, millî eğitim bakanlığı [meb] ise yurt dışında öğretim elemanı yetiştirilmesini sağlayarak hayatî rol oynamıştır. meb‟in bu harekete bir başka katkısı da yukarıda kısaca değinildiği gibisosyal bilgiler öğretim programlarını ve öğretim araç gereçlerini eğitimdeki yükselen değerlere education and the world bank in the 1990s played an important role to raise the social studies education to its current level today. within the scope of this project, departments of social studies education have been founded, graduate programs have been opened; postgraduate programs have been initiated within the institutes of educational sciences; the social studies education has been turned into a major academic discipline where the degree of associate professorship could be taken; in-service training programs have been implemented for the instructors of the faculties of education; students have been sent abroad with postgraduate scholarship. at this point, i would like to memorialize with respect and gratitude mr. james l. barth from the usa whom i had the chance to meet and work with within the project aforementioned: he directed me into this major field by making me realize the importance of social studies education. beyond his contribution to my professional career, with the training of instructors‟ seminars that he had conducted and the didactic publications concerning the preservice training of instructors that he had made, he had been the pioneer of the new social studies movement in turkey. thanks to the council of higher education which played a vital role in raining instructors both at home and abroadand the ministry of national education -which also undertook journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1) göre yenilemesidir. gerek son on beş yıldır üniversitelerde gerçekleştirilen söz konusu akademik/bilimsel gelişmenin seyri, gerekse ilköğretimde başlatılan reformun bugünü ve geleceği üzerine yapılacak araştırmalar, dünya için de zengin bir laboratuar işlevi görecek türkiye yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin geleceği bakımından büyük önem taşımaktadır. i̇şte, bu hareketin başarıya ulaşmasını ve böylece ülkede etkili bir sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin gerçekleşmesini isteyen sbeb, sbead‟yi yayın hayatına sokarak, bu tarihî süreçte başat rollerden birini oynamaya aday olmaktadır. an essential role in training instructors abroad-, this social studies movement has reached success. another contribution of the ministry of national education -as mentioned briefly aboveis to update social studies educational programs as well as the instruction equipment according to emerging values. both due to the course of the academic and scientific progress made at universities in the last 15 years and also to the prospective research to be conducted on the present and future of the reform for elementary education, turkey, which can also function as a rich a laboratory for the world, is of high importance for the future of the social studies movement. that‟s why, asse -as an association which aims at the success of this movement in a very effective way to provide a healthy social studies education within the countryhas volunteered to play one of the major roles of this historical process by publishing jsser. bir vatandaşlık eğitimi programı olarak sosyal bilgiler geleneğinin anavatanı olan amerika birleşik devletleri‟ndeki sosyal bilgiler ulusal konseyi [ncss: national council for social studies] örneğine göre kurulan sbeb; gerçekte sbead‟yi neşretmenin ötesinde, türkiye‟de bu kuruluşun ülkesinde gerçekleştirdiklerine benzer faaliyetlerde bulunmayı amaçlamaktadır. bunlardan bazıları şunlardır: in addition to the publication of jsser, asse which was founded according to the national council for social studies (ncss) in the united states of america -as the motherland of the tradition of social studies as a program of the education of citizenshipaims to carry out the same kind of activities as ncss does within its own territory. some of those activities are: türkiye‟de sosyal bilgiler eğitimi üzerine çalışan bilim to create a synergy and union of powers to improve the field cemil öztürk, editörden / editorial from editor-in-chief adamları ile öğretmenleri bir çatı altında buluşturarak, alanın geliştirilmesi için bir güç birliği ve sinerji oluşturmak; gerçekleştirilecek ulusal ve uluslararası bilimsel etkinlikler ve yapılacak yayınlar aracılığıyla alana dair bilgi üretimi ve paylaşımına katkıda bulunmak; alana ilişkin felsefî ve/veya kuramsal yönelimler ile bilimsel gelişmeleri izlemek ve bunları didaktik yayınlar ve çeşitli hizmet içi eğitim yöntemleri ile uygulayıcıların kullanımına sunmak. by bringing together scientists and teachers who work on social studies under the same roof; to contribute to both the production and the share of knowledge about the field by means of national and/or international scientific activities and publications; to follow the philosophical and/or theoretical approaches concerning the field and to offer those approaches in order to be implemented by practitioners by means of various didactic publications or inservice training programs. kuşkusuz, bilgi üretimi ve erişimi bağlamında sbead, bu görevlerin gerçekleştirilmesinde önemli, fakat sınırlı bir rol oynayabilir. onun yanı sıra, kuram uygulama bütünleşmesinin ürünü, iyi örneklerin yayınlandığı popüler bir başka derginin, akademik temel eserler ile öğretmen kılavuzları ve öğrenci çalışma kitapları vb.nin yayınlanması gerekir. sbeb, birkaç yıl içinde bu yayınları gerçekleştirmeyi planlamaktadır. fakat hemen belirtelim ki, sözü edilen yayınlar gerçekleştiğinde de sbead, yakın gelecekte türkiye‟de sosyal bilgiler eğitimine ilişkin literatürün amiral gemisi olmaya adaydır. o, şu özellikleri dolayısıyla bu önemli rolü oynayacak potansiyele sahiptir: no doubt that asse plays an important role -but a limited onein the production of and the access to knowledge. but the need for other publications cannot be denied: another popular journal as a product of the integration of both theory and practice which provides readers good examples from the field such as basic academic works; teachers‟ guides; study books etc. asse is planning to make those publications within a few years. i should also underline that when the publications aforementioned come to be realized, asse will be a candidate for the flagship of the social studies literature. asse is capable of playing this role because of the below mentioned main characteristics: her şeyden önce sbead, uluslararası hakemli bir dergi above all, jsser is a journal of world-wide acceptance. journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1) dir. bu özellik, onun, evrensel kabul görmüş bilimsel araştırma ve yazım ölçütlerini taviz vermeksizin uygulamasını güvence altına alacaktır. sbead, bir e-dergidir. bu özelliği ona, bilgi çağının insanlığa sunmuş olduğu bilişim teknolojisinden faydalanarak, zaman açısından hedef kitleye ulaşmada olağanüstü bir hız, mekân bakımından ise küresel bir genişlik kazandıracaktır. başka bir ifadeyle sbead, zaman ve mekân sınırlaması olmaksızın, okuyucunun yerli ve yabancı bilim adamlarının araştırmaları ile buluşabileceği küresel bir zemin olacaktır. this feature assures its universally accepted scientific research and writing criteria without making compromises. jsser is an e-journal. with this property, it utilizes the information technology laid before us in the information age and gains an extraordinary impetus to reach the target readers in addition to having spread globally. in other words, jsser will be a global ground where readers gain access to native and foreign scientists‟ researches without any restriction of time or place. bu özellikleriyle sbead, sosyal bilgiler eğitimi teorisi, yöntemleri ve uygulamaları üzerine odaklanmaktadır. bu konulara ilişkin yerel, ulusal, uluslararası, ulus üstü ve küresel kapsam/derinlikteki araştırmalar, dergide yayınlanmaya adaydır. yalnız araştırmaların hangi model ve yöntemle yapılırsa yapılsın özgün/birincil teorik ve ampirik araştırma veya uygulama çalışması olması önkoşuldur. with these properties, jsser focuses on both the theory, methodology and the application of social studies education. researches which are related to these topics and which have a local, national, international, transnational and global extent are the potential works to be published in this ejournal. no matter which models and methods are employed in these researches, the prerequisite is the originality of the theoretical and empirical researches or the applied works. sbead, mayıs ve kasım aylarında olmak üzere iki kez yayınlanacaktır. bu sayıda olduğu gibi bazı sayılar farklı konuları içerirken, bazı sayılar da ilgili kurullar ve/veya paydaşlarımızın görüşleri doğrultusunda tematik olarak, tek jsser will be published semi-annually, in may and in november. just like this one, some editions will include different subjects while some will include articles about a specific subject in a thematic way, according to the cemil öztürk, editörden / editorial from editor-in-chief bir konuyu irdeleyen makalelerden oluşacaktır. bu sayımızda yedi makale, belirlenen ölçütleri karşılayarak yayınlanma imkânı bulmuştur. opinions of related commissions and partners. seven articles which meet the specified criteria were published in this issue. bu sayıda yer alan makalelerden ilki, bülent tarman ve i̇smail acun‟un “social studies education and a new social studies movement” adlı makalesi, benim yukarıda sözünü ettiğim türkiye yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin bugünkü durumunu irdelemekte ve 1960‟larda abd‟de gelişen “yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketi” tecrübesinin ışığında onun geleceğini tartışmaktadır. bu makale, türkiye‟de son on beş yılda alanda kaydedilen gelişmeleri kavramsal ve tarihsel bir bağlama oturtması bakımından önemlidir. the first article of this issue entitled “social studies education and a new social studies movement” was contributed by bülent tarman and i̇smail acun. this article investigates the recent conditions of the new social studies movement that i have mentioned above and discusses its future situation in the light of the experience of the “new social studies movement” of the 1960s in the usa. this article is a crucial contribution since it places the developments made in the field in turkey in the last fifteen years in turkey into a conceptual and historical context. erkan dinç‟in “the views of teachers on the new social studies curriculum and its practice” adlı makalesi; bülent tarman ve i̇smail acun‟un türkiye yeni sosyal bilgiler hareketinin bugünkü durumuyla ilgili tespit ve yorumlarını, 2004‟ten itibaren yürürlüğe giren sosyal bilgiler öğretim programı ve onun uygulanmasına ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerini yansıtan bulgular ile karşılaştırma olanağı sunmaktadır. araştırmaya göre, öğretmenler genel olarak yeni programa dair olumlu görüşlere sahiptir. bu durum, hiç kuşkusuz söz konusu hareketin geleceği bakımından son derece olumludur. the article entitled “the views of teachers on the new social studies curriculum and its practice” by erkan dinç provides an opportunity to compare the observations and the evaluations of bülent tarman and i̇smail acun on the recent conditions of the new social studies movement in turkey with the social studies teaching program which has been put into practice since 2004 and the findings which reflect the teachers‟ views on its application. according to the research, teachers have positive evaluation of the new program in general. doubtlessly, this is quite positive with respect to the future of the movement. bu sayıda eğitim teknolojisi there are three articles on journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1) ile ilgili üç makale yer almaktadır. bunların ilki alper kesten‟in eğitimde bilgisayar kullanımı üzerine “computer technology in education and issues of power and equity” adlı çalışmasıdır. i̇kincisi, i̇brahim turan‟ın “student attitudes toward technology enhanced history education: comparison between turkish and american students” adlı, türk ve amerikan öğrencilerinin bilgisayar destekli tarih eğitimine yönelik tutumlarını irdeleyen karşılaştırmalı çalışmasıdır. üçüncüsü ise, ahmet şimşek‟in “an investigation of preservice teachers‟ perception of historical time through the time tables” adlı makalesidir. bu araştırmalar sosyal bilgiler eğitiminin teori ve uygulama boyutlarına ilişkin literatüre kayda değer katkı yapacaktır. education technology in this issue. the first one is entitled “computer technology in education and issues of power and equity” and was written by alper kesten on the use of computer in education. the second one is i̇brahim turan‟s article entitled “student attitudes toward technology enhanced history education: comparison between turkish and american students”. this comparative study investigates the attitudes of turkish and american students towards the computer-aided history education. the third one is ahmet şimşek‟s article entitled “an investigation of pre-service teachers‟ perception of historical time through the time tables”. these researches will contribute a lot to the theoretical and applied dimensions of social studies education. i̇smail acun, metin demir, nur leman göz‟ün eğitim fakültesi birinci sınıf öğrencileri üzerine yaptıkları “the relationships between student teachers‟ citizenship skills and critical thinking skills” başlıklı araştırma, vatandaşlık becerileri ile eleştirel düşünme arasında paralellik bulunduğunu bulgulamaktadır. the research conducted by i̇smail acun, metin demir and nur leman göz on the freshmen of the faculty of education, and entitled “the relationships between student teachers‟ citizenship skills and critical thinking skills” underlines that there are parallelism between citizenship skills and critical thinking. ahmet katılmış, halil ekşi ve cemil öztürk‟ün “the efficiency of being scientific value focused character education programme in social studies course” adlı makalesi, uygulanan bilimsellik değeri odaklı karakter eğitimi programının etkililiğini inceleyen bir araştırmathe article by ahmet katılmış, halil ekşi and cemil öztürk entitled “the efficiency of being scientific value focused character education programme in social studies course” is a research analyzing the efficiency of the conducted character education cemil öztürk, editörden / editorial from editor-in-chief dır. makale, geliştirilen programın değer eğitimi bakımından etkili olduğunu göstererek, ilgili literatüre önemli bir katkı yapmaktadır. program which focuses on the scientific value. the article contributes to the related literature by indicating that the developed program is effective with respect to the value education. bu önemli makalelerle yayın hayatına giren sbead‟nin bu aşamaya gelmesinde pek çok kişinin unutulmaz katkısı bulunmaktadır. fakat en büyük katkıyı, sbeb kurucular ailesinin yaptığını belirtmeliyim. yard. doç. dr. bülent tarman (selçuk üniv.), yard. doç. dr. alper kesten (ondokuz mayıs üniv.), yard. doç. dr. cemalettin ayas (sinop üniv.), yard. doç. dr. i̇smail acun (uşak üniv.), yard. doç. dr. erkan dinç (uşak üniv.) ve yard. doç. dr. ahmet baytak (harran üniv.)‟dan oluşan bu aileye, sbeb‟i kurup, sbead‟yi yayınlayarak, benim sosyal bilgiler eğitimi ile ilgili hayallerimden en önemli ikisini gerçeğe dönüştürdükleri için müteşekkirim. burada, yard. dr. bülent tarman‟ın, sbeb‟in kurulmasından sbead‟nin bu aşamaya gelişine kadarki süreçte, gösterdiği zarif ve akıl dolu iletişim ve yönetim performansı ile bizi sonuca götüren bir güç haline geldiğini vurgulamalıyım. öte yandan dergiye teknik destek veren üç kişiyi de anmak isterim. yard. doç. dr. vesile aykaç (marmara üniv.), sbeb‟in logosunu, yard. doç. dr. i̇brahim turan derginin logosunu, zeynep gökkaya (marmara üniv.) ise derginin kapağını tasarlamıştır; bundan dolayı kendilerine de tethere are many people who have unforgettable contributions to the current stage of jsser which is starting its academic publication with these important articles. however, i have to admit that the greatest contribution was made by the board of founders. i express my gratitude the family members who are namely assist. prof. dr. bülent tarman (selçuk university), assist. prof. dr. alper kesten (ondokuz mayıs university), assist. prof. dr. cemalettin ayas (sinop university), assist. prof. dr. i̇smail acun (uşak university), assist. prof. dr. erkan dinç (uşak university) and assist. prof. dr. ahmet baytak (erciyes university) for realizing the two most important dreams of mine on social studies education real by founding asse and publishing jsser. i have to emphasize here that assist. prof. dr. bülent tarman became an important power figure who made us achieve our goals with his kind and sophisticated administrational and communicational performance during the process of founding jsser and reaching the current stage. moreover, i would like to mention three people who provided technical support for the journal: assist. prof. dr. vesile aykaç (marmara university) designed the logo of asse, journal of social studies education research 2010: 1(1) şekkür ediyorum. nihayet, bu sayının hakemlerine de dergide yer alan makaleleri değerlendirmede gösterdikleri özveri ve hassasiyet için minnettarım. assist. prof. dr. i̇brahim turan designed the logo of jsser and assist. prof. dr. zeynep gökkaya designed the cover of the journal. i offer them my profuse thanks for their contribution. finally, i am grateful to the referees of this issue for their diligence and dedication in the evaluation of the articles. sbead‟nin daha güvenli, daha müreffeh ve daha özgür bir dünya kurma yolunda türkiye ve dünya sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerine katkıda bulunmasını diliyorum. saygılarımla. i hope jsser will contribute to the social studies educators both in turkey and in the world in terms of founding a safer, more free and prosperous world. yours sincerely. prof. dr. cemil öztürk marmara üniversitesi atatürk eğitim fakültesi i̇stanbul – türkiye cemilozturk@yahoo.com prof. dr. cemil öztürk marmara university atatürk faculty of education istanbul – türkiye cemilozturk@yahoo.com www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13(4),188-208 teamworking and concern for standards as part of employability readiness of the uae students’ personality ganka ivanova1, rakan alhrahsheh2, amoura aboutaleb3, ashraf alazab4 abstract in the time of globalization and technological revolution, we often witness that skillset required to go through life demands are changing dramatically; more digital literacy is required and specific soft skills. the last is a growing concern, especially for growing economies and societies, where involving the local workforce is a challenge. in the united arab emirates (uae), the government places a huge emphasis on emiratization and puts conditions on employers to include emirati nationals in the workforce. preparation for work starts with attitude, raised in the family, affected by the educational system, and includes specific personality factors in specific correlation. this study aims to provide light on the status of employability readiness of the uae students, specifically team working and concern for standards as factors correlating with employability and shows its correlations. the last can be considered when updating university programs for preparing the uae youth to take part in the global workforce. results showed a strong relationship at the level of significance (α = 0.05) between concern for standards and employability, in addition, there is no effect of the gender variable (male, female) on the student's personality and the degree of his employability. keywords: employability, personality factors, team working, concern for standards introduction the united arab emirates (uae) has successfully demonstrated a well-working model of integrated foreign workforce with local population, having the ratio of foreign workforce much wider present than that of uae nationals. the population of expats in the uae represents 88.52% of its total population, and the emirati population is 11.48% (uae population statistics report, 2022). however, the uae government makes huge effort to include the local workforce in educational programs and highlight the importance to work. it also reserves specific jobs for the uae nationals and stimulates businesses to employ more local people. in november 2018, the uae government announced its national employment strategy 2031. 1 dr. ganka yordanova ivanova, al ain university,uae, ganka.ivanova@aau.ac.ae 2 dr. rakan alhrahsheh, al ain university, uae, rakan.alhrahsheh@ aau.ac.ae 3 dr. amoura hassan aboutaleb, al ain university, uae,amoura.aboutaleb@aau.ac.ae 4 prof. ashraf mohamed alazab, kafrelsheikh university, egypt, prof.alazab@outlook.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 the strategy-shared goals were to support government efforts for building knowledge based, sustainable economy through different means, including supporting local production and providing national human workforces with skillset required for the labor market, promoting lifelong development and personal growth programs and training workforce to equip the majority of people with future skills needed. the latter resulted in the need to highlight the current status of employability of the local workforce, given that they have unique circumstances in the uae, where the current workforce in the market consists of over 286 nationalities. the latter makes things even more challenging for the uae nationals as they must cope with global competition and work in a multi-cultural environment, with people often very different in regard to skillsets, culture, and preparation to work. some specific skillsets are required to face the requirements of future as well (brewer, 2013). additionally, the uae labor market is a very changing and dynamic environment, which as any dynamic requirement demands a specific employee profile (misra & khurana, 2017). in this regard, this study aims to answer questions related to personality factors as part of employability readiness as well as specific correlations of team working and concern for standards-as factors part of employability readiness as they show predictions for team and organization cohesiveness as well as ability to align to a common standard and goal-very important, when working in a multicultural team as the working in the global environment needs specific understanding of crosscultural competencies (safta, 2015). the study also shows a correlation between employability characteristics and gender, as it is widely noticed in the uae community that women are strongly supported and encouraged to be part of the workforce and become entrepreneurs. the pressure on the uae nationals is high as they are expected to join a globally competitive workforce very soon and perform in high positions, which often include specific technical preparation and readiness and certain soft skills, and behavioral preparation. thus, this study comes to answer important questions associated with the uae nationals’ employability readiness and research questions in that context linked to a correlation of team working and concern of standards -as the latter is very important, when the uae demands to align all employees to international standards and be the leader in setting new standards. ivanova et al. 190 research questions rq1: is there a significant correlation between the readiness of the emirati students’ personalities for employment and the following variables: age, teamwork, and attention to standards separately? rq2: are age, teamwork, and attention to standards determinants of the emirati students’ readiness for employment? rq3: are there significant differences in the average scores of the emirati students’ readiness variable for employment due to the gender variable? hypotheses h01: there is a direct correlation between the emirati students’ readiness for employment of the dependent variable and the independent variables of age, teamwork, and attention to standards separately. h02: the variables of age, teamwork, and attention to standards make a unique moral contribution to explaining part of the discrepancy in the degrees of the emirati students’ readiness for employment variable. h03: there are significant differences in the average degrees of the emirati students’ readiness variable for employment due to the gender variable. theoretical review the united arab emirates is located in the gulf, consisting of seven emirates, including abu dhabi, the capital city of the uae. it has a unique demographic landscape, having expats as the majority of its workforce is now prioritizing the uae nationals as part of its future development. the uae vision 2021 reported that the uae should adapt new economic models and promote sustainable, knowledge-based, and diversified economy, while partnering with global entities to ensure a successful future for the future uae generations (vision, 2021). the vision strategically puts human capital development at its core, linked to participation of emiratis in the workforce and providing them initially more opportunities and support to complete their higher education, where they can practice skills that can align them easier to global economic demands and shape future needs. currently, only 47.6% of the emiratis are employed (federal competitiveness and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 statistics authority, 2018), and the government aims to address this imbalance in various ways. local businesses and entrepreneurship have been strongly encouraged, and expatriate talents are also supported with various new types of visas with the aim of additionally stimulating the economy and generating additional positions and knowledge transfer. it is very important to highlight the role of educational institutions in preparing future employees to join the workforce. as it is well known, universities are places where we expect students to develop specific competencies such as social, communicative, technological, and cultural competencies (gapsalamov et al., 2020; hambali, 2019; shinysherova et al., 2018; tarman, 2012). additionally, the expectations from the uae nationals are high as they are widely supported and expected to join and lead teams in a diverse environment. the latter itself and the demand to perform, when placed very fast in very high positions, includes ability to work in teams and adhere to specific standards and be ready to fit into a continuously changing and dynamic professional environment. the profile of an employee, to begin with, in 2022, is very different from what it was 10 years ago. the challenge in front of universities and competency development programs nowadays is to prepare students now only for today’s expectations but for future demands that are arriving with double faster speed that mankind is used to, than ever before. unemployment is often associated with lack of proper education, motivation, and certain personality factors. to ensure students' future success, we can discuss what personality factors are mostly considered in organizations. the latter is one of the main issues in human resources, organizational psychology and organizational behavior (shaleh et al., 2022). the personality characteristics of employees are associated with employee teamwork skills, ability to adhere to standards van & heijden (2016), consciousnesses, problem solving, ambitiousness, assertiveness, creativity, emotional intelligence, and continuous professional development (dacre, 2017). we used a psychometric assessment tool carrus assessment, developed by aqr international, uk, and screened for validity, reliability, and consistency by british psychological society chartered psychologists. the carrus personality test assesses employability and its components, and we are very pleased to share its findings on some of its aspects. many scholars have argued the employability factors that undergraduate students must have. paredes and rodriguez (2021) examined the employability skills expected of graduates in 14 ivanova et al. 192 metropolitan areas in texas, usa, and found that graduates need more communication skills, especially bilingualism. cabezas-gonzález et al., (2021) also examined the effect of the variables of gender, age, and academic degree on acquiring digital competence by graduates, enabling them to obtain jobs, with a sample of 370 students from the university of salamanca (spain). the main conclusion was that the three variables studied could be considered influencing, though not decisive, in the acquisition of digital proficiency for employment. omar et al. (2020) referred to a malaysian employment agency’s study on the causes of graduate unemployment conducted on 3,300 employees. the results showed that the graduates are well trained but lack soft skills such as communication, problem-solving, interpersonal ability, and flexibility. in their study, singh & sing, (2017) investigated the salient factors in e-learning for the development of specific job skills. the result indicated that, from the student's point of view, in addition to other factors, flexibility in e-learning is the most prominent factor in developing job-specific skills. singh (2017) also explored the antecedents of employability from the employer's perspective of sustainable job creation and the development of a measurement metric. the results emphasized the importance of innovative skills and innovative abilities along with innovative knowledge and abilities, personality factors, career-building traits, emotional intelligence, and effectiveness beliefs. hashim (2015) investigated the practice of teamwork skills for technical employment among students at technical institutions. two hundred twenty-six students in the final semester in the department of electrical engineering participated in this research. the results showed that the level of teamwork, adaptation, interpersonal relations, and communication skills is high among the graduate students. in their study, guilbert et al., (2016) aimed to develop an integrated approach explaining employability through a qualitative approach that examines relevant studies. they reported that the company and its interventions are considered an important source in developing the ability of employees. they also found that companies contribute to this by raising the level of services, informing employees of new vacancies, and improving the work environment. madar and buntat (2011) aimed to determine the elements of employability skills that were incorporated by community college trainers into the teaching process and their importance to employers in malaysia. the study sample consisted of 270 respondents. the results showed a need for awareness of communication skills, workgroup skills, and information and communication technology skills. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 dacre and qualter (2013) examined the association between emotional self-efficacy and employability, through graduates (n = 306, they found emotional self-efficacy to be an important predictor of graduate employability. additionally, they found that graduate employability mediates the relationship between emotional self-efficacy and career satisfaction. in their study fugate, & kinicki (2008), they found that dispositional employability was significantly related to employees' positive emotions and affective commitment related to organizational changes. it was shown that these effects were above and beyond those found for tolerance for ambiguity, work locus of control, self-esteem, and optimism. methods research design this empirical research was conducted to determine employability among students at al ain university. the study specifically examined the relationship and effect of teamwork and attention to attitudes (independent variables) and employability (dependent variable). this research used a descriptive approach through a special employability psychometric assessment questionnaire, used for the first time for such a study. to find the correlation and its effect between the variables, this study utilized the analysis of the multiple correlations, pearson's simple correlation, and ascending stepwise multiple linear regression. the research also used a ttest to analyze the differences between the averages to determine whether the difference in sex affected the readiness of the emirati students’ personalities for employability. study sample this research used a purposive sample of 310 male and female students enrolled at al ain university in the final semester in the department of applied sociology, enrolled in the academic year 2021–2022. table 1 shows the socio-demographic characteristics of the study sample. the participants were females (n = 133, 42. 9%), and males. (n = 177, 57.1%). the ages of the participants ranged between 18 and 42 years, with a mean of 25, a standard deviation of 6.9, and a range of 24 years. ivanova et al. 194 table 1 distribution of the study sample by gender and age student users (n = 310). ـ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ variable n % m sd range ــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ gender male 177 57.1 female 133 42.9 total 310 100 ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــ age (years) 25.6 6.9 24 less than 20 57 18.4 20 to less than 172b 55.5 31 and above 81 26.1 total 310 100 data collection tool the data collection tool is a personal psychological assessment questionnaire called carrus, consisting of 32 questions, designed by aqr international uk and screened by british psychological society uk representative, chartered psychologist for reliability, credibility and consistency that measures employability and its various aspects. the carrus employability test, available in different languages, including arabic, consists of four parts. to ensure questionnaire validity, the questionnaire was reviewed by a group of arbitrators at al ain university and other universities in the uae, and their comments and review were considered. we also used cronbach's alpha test to ensure the questionnaire's internal consistency. its value ranged between 0.721 and 0.888. the high value of this parameter (> .60) indicates a high c. the scale reliability results are shown in table 2. table 2 cronbach's alpha of the reliability of the questionnaire ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ domain no. of items cronbach's alpha face validity ــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ team working 5 0.865 0.930 concern for standards 7 0.721 0.849 employment readiness 20 0.888 0.942 total 32 0.917 0.957 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 the first part of the questionnaire consisted of socio-demographic data. the second part consisted of five questions designed to measure the impact of teamwork on employability that required participants to mark them if relevant, as follows: (1) “working with others gives me more motivation,” (2) “i enjoy being part of a team,” (3) “ i can be more effective if i work in a team,” (4) “i prefer working with others,” and (5) “i love being in a team.” the items were represented through the five-point likert scale; (5) very agree, (4) agree, (3) neutral, (2) disagree, and (1) absolutely disagree. the arithmetic mean value of the sum of the degrees of the five phrases was 19.5 degrees, with a standard deviation of 4.3 degrees. the third part consisted of seven questions, which measured the attention to standards as follows: (1) “just doing a 'good' job isn't enough for me,” (2) “do whatever it takes to get the work done,” (3) “i don't like making the same mistake over and over again,” (4) “i want everything to be perfect,” (5) “working to get the right results is important to me,” (6) “i always work according to clear standards,” and (7) “because that is important i rarely make the same mistake twice.” the items were represented through the five-point likert scale; (5) very agree, (4) agree, (3) neutral, (2) disagree, and (1) absolutely disagree. the arithmetic mean value of the sum of the degrees of the five phrases was 29.0 degrees, with a standard deviation of 3.8 degrees. the fourth section consisted of 20 questions measuring the employability through the following indicators: (1) “i am a good listener” (2) “i find it helpful to ask questions and learn from those around me,” (3) “the “get up and go” style is what i have toward most things,” (4) “i participate in volunteer work to help others,” (5) “when i work with others, i often notice how they can do the job better,” (6) “i learn from my mistakes,” (7) “i keep all my work organized in files,” (8) “ i like to be in charge of something,” (9) “i often find my way to convince others in the group to do what i want,” (10) “i always try to meet task deadlines,” (11) “i work hard to get good results،,” (12) “i understand how important it is to keep up with developments,” (13) “i prefer to stick to the rules,” (14) “i can always figure out how to deal with a problem,” (15) “i am often described as a person with a lot of ideas,” (16) “i feel satisfied by helping others” (17) “i usually plan what to do,” (18) “people usually trust me for advice and support,” (19) “i can influence the opinion of others when they look at things differently from my own,” and (20) “i can see myself being successful in the future.” the items were represented through the five-point likert scale; (5) very agree, (4) agree, (3) neutral, (2) disagree, and (1) absolutely disagree. the arithmetic mean ivanova et al. 196 value of the sum of the degrees of the five phrases was 81.8 degrees, with a standard deviation of 10.5 degrees. data collection process the data collection was performed by the authors through the distribution of the online test described above or during a period of three weeks in feb 2022. initially, the questionnaire was sent through email to 400 randomly selected students. seventy-eight questionnaires were not returned, and 12 were deleted, because they were incomplete and couldn`t be used. the total sample of the questionnaires used for this study was 310. this ensured that a sufficient number of students and a good presentation of them participated, as the latter is important when we are trying to provide an expanded picture of community attitudes toward the topic assessed. data analysis the study used spss-24 software to perform the statistical analysis. this included descriptive statistics, frequency distribution, and percentage of data used to describe the variants. an f-test was utilized to determine the significance of the multiple linear regression analysis model. a t-test was performed to analyze the significance of the relationships between the independent variables and the dependent variable in the regression equation. the approved levels of significance ranged from 0.01 to 0.05. study results the study relied on the central limit theorem, which states that in the case of relying on samples with a sufficient limit greater than 30 or 40, violating the assumption of normality will not represent a major problem, and therefore parametric tests can be used even if the data are not normally distributed (pallant, 2007 .( altman and bland (1995) mentioned that in the case of using samples of hundreds of observations as in the case of the current research the data distribution can be ignored. descriptive results the relative importance of the indicators expressing the independent variables and the dependent variable in the study appears in table 3, table 4, and table 5, respectively. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 table 3 the responses of the study sample individuals to the factors driving the teamworking item mean standard deviation i enjoy being part of a team 4.0 0.99 working with others gives me more motivation 4.1 0.96 i prefer working with others 3.7 1.10 i can be more effective if i work in a team 3.8 1.10 i love being in a team 3.8 1.11 mean 19.5 4.3 table 4 the responses of the study sample individuals to the factor of the concern for standards item mean standard deviation just doing a good job isn't enough for me 3.9 1.0 do whatever it takes to get the work done 4.5 0.74 i don't like making the same mistake repeatedly 4.3 0.95 i want everything to be perfect 4.1 0.91 working to get the right results is important to me 4.4 0.76 i always work according to clear standards because that is important 4.2 0.80 i rarely make the same mistake twice 3.6 1.1 mean 29.0 3.8 table 4 shows the indicators of interest in the standards. it turns out that the item "do whatever it takes to get the work done" got the highest approval from the study sample, with an average score of 4.5 out of 5.0. the item "working to get the right results is important to me" was in the second place in terms of approval from the study sample, with an average score of 4.4, and in the last place in terms of approval from the study sample was the item “i rarely make the same mistake twice” with an average score of 3.6 out of 5.0. table 5 the responses of the study sample individuals to the factor of employment readiness item mean standard deviation i'm a good listener 4.31 0.82 i find it helpful to ask questions and learn from those around me 4.38 0.84 the “get up and go” style is what i have toward most things 3.76 1.00 i participate in volunteer work to help others 3.88 1.00 when i work with others, i often notice how they can do the job better 4.05 0.93 i learn from my mistakes 4.26 0.91 i keep all my work organized in files 3.88 1.06 i like to be in charge of something 4.00 0.97 i often find my way to convince others in the group to do what i want 3.85 0.96 i always try to meet task deadlines 4.17 0.88 i work hard to get good results 4.31 0.78 i understand how important it is to keep up with developments 4.30 0.77 i prefer to stick to the rules 3.95 1.0 i can always figure out how to deal with a problem 3.96 0.96 ivanova et al. 198 i am often described as a person with a lot of “ideas” 3.79 1.06 i feel satisfied by helping others 4.34 0.87 i usually plan what to do 4.04 1.0 people usually trust me for advice and support 4.14 0.84 i can influence the opinion of others when they look at things differently from my own 4.03 0.85 i can see myself being successful in the future 4.35 0.86 mean 81.8 10.5 table 5 shows the indicators of the emirati students’ readiness for employment. it turns out that the item i find it helpful to ask questions about and learn from those around me obtained the highest approval from the study sample, with an average score of 4.38 out of 5.0. the item ‘‘i can see myself being successful in the future’’ came second in terms of approval from the study sample, with an average score of 4.35, and the “get up and go” style is what i have toward most things in the last place in terms of approval, with an average score of 3.76. teamworking table 6 the numerical and relative distribution of the participants according to the teamworking overall score teamworking f % less than 11 (low) 12 3.9 11 to less than 20 (medium) 102 32.9 20 and above (high) 196 63.2 total 310 100 the actual range of degrees of the teamwork variable ranged between 5 and 25 degrees. it is clear from the data in table 6 that the vast majority of the participants (63.2%) have a positive orientation toward teamwork, which may have a positive impact on increasing the personal readiness of the vast majority of them for employment. the results of correlation and regression analysis may confirm or deny these expectations. concern of standards table 7 the numerical and relative distribution of the participants according to the concern of standards overall score concern of standards f % less than 21 (low) 6 1.9 21 to less than 35 (medium) 277 89.4 35 and above (high) 27 8.7 total 310 100 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 the actual range of degrees of interest in the standards ranged between 7 and 49 degrees. table 7 shows that the vast majority of participants (89.4%) were of moderate interest in the standards, which may have a positive impact on increasing the personal readiness of the vast majority of them for employment. the correlation and regression analysis results may confirm or deny these expectations. employment readiness table 8 the numerical and relative distribution of the participants according to the employment readiness overall score employment readiness f % less than 47 (low) 1 0.3 47 to less than 74 (medium) 69 22.2 74 and above (high) 240 77.5 total 310 100 the actual range of degrees of the students’ readiness for employment variable ranged between 20 and 100 degrees. table 8 shows that the vast majority of the participants (77.5%) have a high level of readiness for employment. hypothesis testing rq1: is there a significant correlation between the readiness of the emirati students’ personalities for employment and the variables of age, teamwork, and attention to standards separately? to answer this question, the study attempts to test the first hypothesis, which postulates that there is a direct correlation between the emirati students’ personal readiness for employment as a dependent variable, and the independent variables of age, teamwork, and attention to standards separately. before determining the strength of the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable, the kolmogorov-smirnov test results for moderation of the distribution showed that the variables used in the study don`t follow a normal distribution, where the significant value of the test parameter mentioned for the variables used is less than 0.05. ivanova et al. 200 table 9 matrix of correlations between the three independent variables and the dependent variable ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ employment age teamworking concern of readiness standard ــ ــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ person correlation employment readiness 1.00 .170 .461 .748 age .170 1.000 .195 .207 teamworking .461 .195 1.000 .358 concern of standard .748 .207 .358 1.00 ــ ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ sig. (2-tailed) employment readiness . .003 .000 .000 age .003 . .001 .000 teamworking .000 .001 . .000 concern of standard .000 .000 .000 . ــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــ n = 310 ــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ table 9 shows a direct and significant correlation between the independent variables of age, teamwork, and attention to standards separately and the dependent variable of the emirati students’ personal readiness for employment. it means that any increase in the value of any independent variable is accompanied by an increase in personal readiness of emirati students and their readiness for employment. this finding fully supports the first hypothesis. rq2: are age, teamwork, and attention to standards determinants of the emirati students’ readiness for employment? to answer the second research question, the study attempts to test the second hypothesis, which hypothesizes that the independent variables of age, teamwork, and attention to standards make a unique moral contribution to explaining part of the variance in the degrees of the emirati students’ personal readiness for employment variable. table 10 shows the multiple correlation coefficient and the coefficient of determination model r r square adjusted r square std. error of the estimate 1 .748a .560 .558 6.97032 2 .776b .602 .600 6.63346 a. predictors: (constant), concern for standards b. predictors: (constant), concern_for_standards, teamworking table 10 shows that the independent variables of teamwork and attention to standards only are collectively related to the dependent variable with a multiple correlation coefficient of 0.766. the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 value of “p” calculated to test the morale of the analytical model provided in table 11, including the multiple correlation coefficient model: 232,604, which is a statistically significant value at the 0.005 probability level. the value of the adjusted r2 coefficient of determination indicates that the independent and significant variables, the two variables of teamwork, and attention to the combined criteria, explain 60% of the variance in the dependent variable, while the remaining 40% is attributed to other variables that were not included in the analytical model. this did not prove the existence of any significant effect of the age variable on the readiness of the emirati students’ personalities for employment. table 11 analysis of variance between the dependent variable and the independent variables ــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ model sum of squares df mean square f sig ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 1 regression 20470.4 2 10235.2 232.604 .000c residual 13508.8 307 44.003 total 33979.3 309 ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ــــــــــ dependent variable: employability_readinessa predictors: (constant), concern_for_standards, teamworkingc to identify the unique contribution of the significant variables in explaining part of the variance in the degrees of the emirati students’ readiness for employment variable, the stepwise multiple regression (forward solution) method was used. table 12 shows that there are only two independent and significant variables that have priority in explaining the variance in the dependent variable when controlling for the rest of the independent variables, namely: attention to standards and teamwork. the results show that about 55.8% of the explained variance in the degrees of emirati students’ readiness for employment is attributed to the variable of interest in standards, while the variable of teamwork was responsible for explaining 4.2% of the variance in the dependent variable. these results show that the attention to criteria was solely responsible for explaining about 93% of the total variance explained in the dependent variable by the two significant variables in the analytical model. this result partially supports the second hypothesis. ivanova et al. 202 table 12 shows the results of the stepwise multiple linear regression analysis of the relationship between the independent variables and the employment readiness independent variables b β the percentage of the explained variance in the dependent variable %of the explained variance in the dependent variable t sig. concern of standard 1.817 0.669 0.558 55.8 17.349 0.000 teamworking 0.545 0.222 0.600 4.2 5.751 0.000 rq3: are there significant differences in the mean scores of the emirati students’ personal readiness variable for employment due to the gender variable? to answer the third research question, the study attempts to test the third hypothesis, which is that there are significant differences in the average scores of the emirati students’ personal readiness variable for employment due to the gender variable. a t-test for the difference between the two averages was utilized to test this hypothesis. table 13 shows that the difference between the mean scores of male and female participants with respect to the dependent variable (the emirati students’ readiness for employment) was not significant, as the value of t = 1.135, which is a non-significant value. significant at any hypothesized probability level of 0.05 < sig = 0.257. accordingly, it would be safe to say that gender difference does not affect the readiness of the emirati students’ personalities for employment. this does not support the third hypothesis, and thus it cannot be accepted with a great deal of confidence. table 13 results of the t-test for the differences between the mean scores of the dependent variable according to the gender variable dependent variable mean t sig. male female employment readiness 82.4 81.0 1.135 0.257 discussion this study aims to determine the level of job readiness among uae graduate students by testing the relationship between the independent variables “teamwork and attention to standards” and “job readiness” as a dependent variable. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 with regard to correlations in the study sample between teamwork and its indicators, individuals confirm that working within the team provides them with energy and motivation to achieve common goals. this enhances the personal readiness of the vast majority of them for employment readiness, as shown in the study results. the researchers claim that incentive programs can increase the quality and quantity of performance from 20 to 40 percent, and the study community members have a great interest in teamwork, on average a total of 19.5 and an actual range of 63.2% (clark, 2003). this result is consistent with the study of hashem (2015), confirming that graduate students have a high level of teamwork skills (di & cumbo, 2017). this shows that the emirati society enjoys a different character from several societies. however, the study itself is unique. also, it is challenging to compare with other studies conducted in uae as uae is a 51 years old country, and therefore, it has its own socio-demographic and employment issues involving uae government. it has been getting more attention for the last 10-12 years and many other studies in the same filed are actually conducted in uae and gcc region. hence, we can identify this study as unique, and the study results can be considered novelty, adding value more to understanding current and near future issues in uae society and workforce. the uae society is well-serviced society and its governmental or private institutions are recently presenting a wide range of motivational strategies, striving to support employees and provide them with the best ways to perform their jobs with all activity and vitality and succeed in their careers. uae government also provides good income, comfortable workplaces, and good services, accessible faster to all, in a positive atmosphere and environment. as for the indicator of interest in standards, this research showed that the study population had a high interest in standards, with an average of 29.0 and that the majority of participants (89.4%) showed a moderate interest in standards. thus, individuals emphasized the importance of completing the required work, regardless of the time it takes. in addition, they showed a high level of interest in the criteria, with an average of 81.8. they always seek to learn from others, are highly ambitious, and look toward career performance with passion. this result does not agree with the findings of omar et al. (2020) study, which emphasized that graduates do not have good communication skills, which reduces future employment opportunities. according to guilbert et al. (2016), the elements we must focus on are attitudes toward personal development. the company and its interventions are a basic source in employee development, it provides development ivanova et al. 204 programs to develop the knowledge and goodness of employees and how to manage their professional life, keeping them informed of vacancies, and updating services in the work environment. the results of the research clearly showed that a clear majority of the participants (77.5%) had a high level of willingness to be hired. there is a strong direct relationship between the independent variable: age, teamwork, and interest in standards, individually, and the dependent variable: emirati students' personal readiness for employment. this result can be explained by the fact that the uae government provides students substantial scholarships to support them to complete their undergraduate and postgraduate studies for free. it also significantly raises their income ratio by encouraging them to advance to a higher professional level after they complete their degrees in addition, the results of the study showed that the age variable does not affect the readiness of emirati students for employment. it has been observed that gender difference also does not affect the readiness of emirati students for employment, this result correspond with cabezas-gonzález et al., (2021), in addition, this can be explained by the fact that the state encourages women to work and contributes to empowering women and raising their social status through the participation of women in all jobs without discrimination (coetzee, 2008), her wages are equal to that of men, and she has more leave than males because she is a mother. conclusion as detailed in the previous section, the individuals assessed have a great concern about the standards, and they are keen on teamwork by joining work teams and staying away from individualism, which contributes to raising their degree of employability for them. moreover, the results showed that both males and females pay attention to the criteria of employability, and this indicates that female participants enjoy a good level of social inclusion in the labor market. the result of the first hypothesis showed that the significant value of the test coefficient for the variables used was less than 0.05. this finding fully supports the first hypothesis, which postulates that teamwork and readiness for standards contribute to an increase in employment readiness of emirati students. as a result of the second hypothesis, it appears that attention to criteria was solely responsible for explaining approximately 93% of the total variance explained in the dependent variable by the two journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 important variables in the analytical model, and no significant effect of the age variable on the readiness of emirati students for employment has been observed. the results of the third hypothesis also showed that there were no significant differences between females and males with regard to employability. it means that women and men in the uae have the same preference for employment and are motivated to get the job equally. this study comes as an answer to the local uae labor market, and it arises from the demand to understand more employability, its factors and correlations between them, and the status of the uae nationals, when it comes to certain personality factors, part of employability. the uae government is doing tremendous work to combine local talent with industry, country, regional and global needs and align its workforce to its strategic directions, vision, and goals, made in a way to serve the country and the world at some point. in the light of that study come unique revelations regarding the uae students and their personalities, and this is important, as they are an important part of the uae emiratization process, and such studies have not been conducted yet in uae. the study also provides additional insight into the educational setting in the uae and its connection with the industry’s needs and demands. as the uae work landscape is unique and combines representatives of more than 200 nationalities-the hard skills that one needs to perform the job (technical skills and job knowledge) become as much as important as the soft skills (personality factors). the current study highlighted the importance of different aspects of employability and specifically the correlations with concern of standards and teamwork -as these are very important when an employee is joining multi-cultural environment as well as meeting global standards. one of the key questions all students and employers have always is how close academia to the workforce is needed and is academia equipping students with the sufficient skillset to add value to their future workforce. the latter, as a question deriving from this study, may result in the new research. research limitations in this study, the data were collected by a questionnaire method that could have affected the accuracy of the results. however, the researchers tried to solve this limitation by encouraging the participants to answer the questionnaire during the researchers’ attendance to classes. another thing to consider is that the research is a current representation of the problems in the scope of our research. more insights and trends can be gathered if the research is performed as a longitudinal ivanova et al. 206 one in future, and similar data will be collected every year with a similar socio-demographic sample at the university. as the uae has distinctive features from other societies, it is a society of social welfare, further studies on employment motivation in different societies, especially emerging economies or other gcc countries, is highly recommended to obtain more results. references altman, d. g., & bland, j. m. (1995). statistics notes: the normal distribution. bmj (clinical research ed.), 310(6975), 298. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.310.6975.298 brewer, l. (2013). enhancing youth employability: what? why? and how? guide to core work skills. international labour organization. cabezas-gonzález, m., casillas-martín, s., & garcía-peñalvo, f. j. (2021). the digital competence of pre-service educators: the influence of personal variables. sustainability, 13(4), 2318. mdpi ag. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13042318 clark, r. e. (2003) fostering the work motivation of individuals and teams. performance improvement, 42(3), 21-29. coetzee, m. (2008). psychological career resources of working adults: a south african survey. south african journal of industrial psychology, 34(2), 32–41. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v34i2.491 di fabio, a., & cumbo, t. (2017). career management and employability. counseling. giornale italiano di ricerca e applicazioni, 10(1). doi:10.14605/cs1011701 dacre pool, l. (2017). developing graduate employability: the career edge model and the importance of emotional intelligence. in graduate employability in context (pp. 317– 338). palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57168-7_15 dacre pool, l., & qualter, p. (2013). emotional self-efficacy, graduate employability, and career satisfaction: testing the associations. australian journal of psychology, 65(4), 214–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12023 federal competitiveness and statistics authority. (2018). {online} available https://www.globalmediainsight.com/blog/uae-population-statistics/ fugate, m., & kinicki, a. j. (2008). a dispositional approach to employability: development of a measure and test of implications for employee reactions to organizational change. journal http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13042318 https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v34i2.491 https://doi.org/10.14605/cs1011701 https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57168-7_15 https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12023 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),188-208 of occupational and organizational psychology, 81 (3), 503–527. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317907x241579 gapsalamov, a., bochkareva, t., vasilev, v., akhmetshin, e., & anisimova, t. (2020). comparative analysis of education quality and the level of competitiveness of leader countries under digitalization conditions. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 133–150. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/217549/ guilbert, l., bernaud, j. l., gouvernet, b., & rossier, j. (2016). employability: review and research prospects. international journal for educational and vocational guidance, 16(1), 69-89. hambali, i. (2019). examining the relevance of indonesian vocational high school career outcomes to the labor market, journal of social studies education research, 10 (1), 133– 155. hashim, m. (2015). the practice of employability teamwork skills, international journal for research in vocational education and training, 1(1):16–2 doi: 10.11648/j.ijvetr.20150102.11 madar, a. r., & buntat, y. (2011). elements of employability skills among students from community colleges malaysia. journal of technical, vocational & engineering education, l4, pp 1–11. omar, n. h., mohd, r. h., & kassim, a. c. (2020). graduates’ employability skills based on current job demand through electronic advertisement. current research in education and social studies 3, 58-67. retrieved from https://stm1.bookpi.org/index.php/cressv3/article/view/875 pallant j. spss survival manual, a step by step guide to data analysis using spss for windows. 3 ed. sydney: mcgraw hill; 2007. pp. 179–200. [google scholar] paredes, a. a., & rodriguez, j. r. (2021). employability skills and geographical location, journal of organizational psychology, 21(3),100–118. https://doi.org/10.33423/jop.v21i3.4312 misra, r. k., & khurana, k. (2017). employability skills among information technology professionals: a literature review,’’ procedia computer science,122, 63–70, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.11.342 safta, g. (2015). “cross-curricular competencies access path to professional development,” in procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 203, 348–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.306 sekaran, u. and bougie, r. (2016). research methods for business: a skill-building approach. 7th edition, wiley & sons, west sussex. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317907x241579 https://www.learntechlib.org/p/217549/ https://www.researchgate.net/journal/international-journal-for-research-in-vocational-education-and-training-2197-8646 https://www.researchgate.net/journal/international-journal-for-research-in-vocational-education-and-training-2197-8646 http://dx.doi.org/10.11648/j.ijvetr.20150102.11 https://stm1.bookpi.org/index.php/cress-v3/article/view/875 https://stm1.bookpi.org/index.php/cress-v3/article/view/875 https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=spss+survival+manual,+a+step+by+step+guide+to+data+analysis+using+spss+for+windows.&author=j+pallant&publication_year=2007& https://doi.org/10.33423/jop.v21i3.4312 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.11.342 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.306 ivanova et al. 208 singh & l. b. singh, (2017). “e-learning for employability skills: students perspective,” procedia comput. sci., 122, 400– 406. singh, r., chawla, g., agarwal, s., & desai, a. (2017). employability and innovation: development of a scale, international journal of innovation science, 9(1), 20–37. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijis-10-2016-0041 shaleh, m., awad, f., & rezki, f. (2022). counseling based on local wisdom for conflict settlement in the workplace: a case study in kendari, journal of social studies education research, 13 (1), 125–142. shinysherova, g.b., yessimov, b. k., childibayev j., tuleubayev z., ziyayeva g.k, alpysbaikyzy m. (2018). organizationally-pedagogical aspect of preparation of students to professional activity in the process of educational practice, journal of social studies education research, 9 (1)1–10. tarman, b. (2012). effective leadership in culturally diverse schools. energy education science and technology part b: social and educational studies, 4(2), 1103–1114. vision (2021). united arab emirates and the 2030 agenda for sustainable development, excellence implementation: executive summary {online} available https://www.vision2021.ae van d. h, c. m., & heijden, v. (2006). a competence-based and multidimensional operationalization and measurement of employability. human resource management, 45(3), 449–476. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/hrm.20119 https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=rupali%20singh https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=ginni%20chawla https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=sonal%20agarwal https://www.emerald.com/insight/search?q=avani%20desai https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/1757-2223 https://doi.org/10.1108/ijis-10-2016-0041 https://www.vision2021.ae/ https://doi.org/%20%2010.1002/hrm.20119 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 61-80 61 home visit effectiveness on students’ classroom behavior and academic achievement fatih ilhan1, burhan ozfidan2, & sabit yilmaz3 abstract home visits have a large influence on the academic achievement of students and the relationship between teachers and students. the purpose of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of home visits on students’ academic success and behavior in the classroom. this study investigated the parent involvement of the students who were visited by teachers compared to students who were not visited by teachers. an explanatory mixed research method was used to determine the influence of the home visits on the academic achievement and classroom behavior of students compared to students whose homes were not visited. the first phase of the study was a survey instrument to measure the perspectives of teachers regarding the academic success and behavior of students. the second phase of the study included interviews with teachers to investigate their perceptions of the home visits. the total sample size of the study was 128 for the survey, and 10 of the 128 later participated in interviews. the results of the study indicate that home visits and family engagement have positive impacts on students’ academic achievements and attitudes in school. the results of the study are applicable broadly in education and can assist teachers in improving the academic performance of their students. key words: home visit, academic achievement, parent involvement, classroom behavior, and mixed method. introduction research shows that home visits have been proven to have affirmative impacts on the academic success and behavior of students in the classroom. home-visit programs are key tactics that have been used to improve parenting skills. this study has shown the ability to foster parent skills and resolve information problems can serve a means to improve student success. this current research is part of a more extensive study to investigate the impacts of various educational techniques on the academic performance of students. the purpose of this particular research was to establish the effects of teacher home visits on student success at school. the researchers compared the academic achievement of the students who were visited by teachers compared to 1 dr. fatihilhan2008@hotmail.com 2 dr. postdoctoral research fellow, texas a&m university, b.ozfidan@tamu.edu 3 dr. sabitbetoyilmaz@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 students who were not visited by teachers. they also investigated the parent involvement of students who were visited by teachers compared to students who were not visited. literature review education is the process of the acquisition and mastery of specific skills as well as other vocational training at home, school, or any other institution (grant & ray, 2018; ozfidan & ugurlu, 2015). an ideal learning process should enable learners to relate class theories with practice. besides, this process should impact the values and virtues of humanitarianism, and a good education system must connect an individual with other aspects of society (tyler, burris, & coleman, 2018). currently, education plays a crucial role in the financial and social improvement of any country. considering the significance of schooling, improving student academic accomplishments is of great importance to develop solid foundations for a country's progress (epstein, 2018). academic accomplishment is specifically identified with student development and the advancement of knowledge in an educational environment in which teaching and learning happens (farkas, 2017; lucas, 2017). educational success is characterized by a student's performance in the subjects that he/she learns in school. academic accomplishment defines the status of children in the classroom and provides youngsters with opportunities for developing their talents and improving their grades as well as preparing for future academic challenges (kol, 2013; trumbull, et al. 2017). home is a primary environment of a student, and home exerts tremendous influences on student achievement and is a principal agent for a child's education (marcon, 1999). the way in which a student lives, his/her sustenance, and his/her way of life are affected by the home (trumbull, et al. 2017). the kinds of family framework impact the scholarly accomplishment of a student in school. in a 2002 study, nias investigated the effects of family structure and parenthood on the academic performance of secondary school students. he found a difference between the scholarly prowess of students from families with a single parent and those with a two-parent family structure (nias, 2002). parental contributions and individual experience at home heavily contribute to building a student’s character. as sheldon and epstein (2005) stated, “the more involved a parent is in their child’s education right from the beginning, the more dedicated the child becomes to ilhan, ozfidan, & yilmaz education” (p. 32). students from intact families tend to perform better than their counterparts with single parents (bolu-steve & sanni, 2013). many children fail to reach their ideal level in academics because of the impact of negative variables emerging from home. these negatives include an absence of parental support, an absence of a conducive environment, a lack of finances and housing, poor diets, ill health and a deficiency of interest on the student's part (souto-manning & swick, 2006). students whose school needs, both emotional and physical, are not accommodated at home may always remain underachievers, and this underachievement, in turn, could negatively influence the general advancement of the nation (gestwicki, 2015). the impacts of reduced scholarly performance often continue until adulthood, with a greater likelihood of dropping out of school, behavioral issues and even misconduct. reduced scholarly performance, therefore, has a significant impact on a child's future. home visits have been found to have great influence on the academic achievement of students and the relationship between teachers and students (meyer & mann, 2006; simington, 2003). lin and bates (2010), stated, “home visits are an excellent opportunity for teachers to learn about their students’ diverse backgrounds first-hand while bridging the gap between school and home” (p. 23). according to stetson et al. (2012), home visits produce incredible growth in the work of students, and home visits have affirmative impacts on the attitudes of students at school. stetson et al.’s (2012) study indicated that the students who were visited by teachers showed positive attitudes at school. quintana and warren (2008) stated, “parents, who at first were embarrassed with home visits, later indicated that these visits provided personal parent-teacher time for asking questions and concerns” (p. 119). meyer and mann (2006) stated, “there is a dearth of rigorous evidence on improving parenting skills, and in turn academic achievement, among parents of children in schools” (p. 68). sawchuk (2011) also stated, “teacher home visits are based on a common-sense idea: parents are more likely to be engaged in their son’s or daughter’s progress through school if they feel that they have a real partner” (p. 1). flynn and nolan’s (2008) extensive review of the current literature on parental involvement clearly shows that children whose parents are involved with their schools do better academically, have fewer absences, are more willing to do their homework, have higher graduation rates, and feel more competent about their abilities. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 method explanatory mixed methods were used in this current study to determine the influence of home visits on the academic achievement and classroom behavior of students who received teacher home visits compared to students who did not receive teacher home visits. the first phase of the study was a survey instrument to measure the perspectives of teachers regarding students’ academic success and behavior. the second phase of the study included interviews with teachers to investigate their perceptions of home visits. figure 1 shows the structure of the research design. figure 1: research design (designed by the researchers) ilhan, ozfidan, & yilmaz the researchers analyzed both the quantitative and qualitative data, and the rationale for the use of this mixed method was that, although the quantitative data analysis provides statistical evidence, the qualitative data analysis provides the “why” and “how” information. the quantitative data reflects the statistical perspective of the effectiveness of home visits, and the qualitative data supported the results of the quantitative data by examining the perspectives of the teachers of the home visits. a snowball sampling method was used to identify subjects for the survey and the interviews. participants table 1 shows the composition of the sample. all the 128 participants had been teaching in public schools in the united states. most participants in the study were from core subject teachers such as math and science, and the table indicates that 50% of the participants were math teachers. table 1 participants for the quantitative data collection position frequency % math teacher 64 50 science teacher 28 22 computer teacher 8 6 counselor 4 3 ela 4 3 foreign language teacher 16 13 reading teacher 4 3 total 128 100 procedures teachers who participated the study reflected their perspectives on the home visit both quantitatively and qualitatively. teachers usually make a home visit to have better communication with the parents and students. all of the participants, teachers, who joined the study were trained by an engagement coordinator at school. the school handbook provides detailed information about home visits and all participants must read the instruction on the handbook. the handbook discusses the purposes and benefits to parents and teachers and has discussion of the barriers, assumptions and fears that might prevent both parents and teachers regarding home visits. it also explains the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 different tools that teachers can use to set up home visits, the tools that can be utilized during home visits, and how to organize information adapted from home visits. most students (91%) attending school for this study were hispanic, which meant that spanish was the first language spoken at home. therefore, some teachers were required to get an interpreter for some of the parents who could not speak english. teachers talked with the interpreter prior to the home visit to indicate what they were going to talk during the visit. teachers were reminded to look at a parent when they were speaking, even if they did not understand what was being said. using body language to show that you are listening is very important to maintaining a connection to the family member. before the home visit, the teacher contacted the parents to introduce himself/herself and to discuss the purpose of the home visit and emphasize the importance of the home visits for both parents and children. the teachers asked the parents for days and times that were convenient for a visit. if the parents did not want to meet at their homes, the teachers recommended a more neutral place, for instance, a local public coffee shop or other public area. once the teachers scheduled a day and time, they called and confirmed the day before the visit. the participants, teachers, for this study provided learning materials to parents during the home visits. home visits lasted 30 60 minutes depending on the teacher and the activities involved. these visits enabled the teachers to know the students and their families in depth. students prefer home visits because a home visit helps them to build a good rapport with instructors and even parents. the teachers made at least two home visits in the fall semester in 2018. the first home visit was during the first quarter of the 2018 school year and was designed to provide parents with ways that they could support their child’s learning at home. the first visits were important to interact with the parents and students. the second home visits were important for parents to follow up their children. in the second home visits that were conducted in the second quarter of 2018 school year, most parents reported that their children’s behavior was improved, and they were studying much better than previously at home. in total, the homes of 87 were visited. data collection the researchers used the qualtrics survey platform for the survey instrument to collect the quantitative data. a snowball sampling was used to gather the quantitative data. there were 4 demographic questions and 13 5-point likert-like scale questions in the survey instrument. most ilhan, ozfidan, & yilmaz of the teachers who were participants in the study were contacted via email, although some participants were also given a hard copy of the survey. all these surveys were conducted during the 2018 fall semester. for qualitative data collection, the researchers used an open-ended interview design for interviews that were conducted 10 participants. this format assisted by providing an opportunity to open the interview with sincere discussions and provided a relaxed ambiance (willis, 2007). the open-ended questioning in this research allowed thoughtful and informative responses. because each question was intended to produce specific information from the participants and was basically more conversational and interdependent, this technique provided more flexibility for the participants in answering the questions in the interview. the direct interaction and naturalistic environment during the interviews helped the participants feel comfortable in answering the questions clearly and thus producing a better result. participation in the study was voluntary, and participants could drop out at any phase of the study if they did not want to continue in accordance with the irb guidelines of texas a&m university (reference #054249). the names of the participants do not appear on the transcriptions or the audio recordings. the audio recordings and the transcriptions are not publicly accessible and all information was safely secured. the data were placed in an encrypted folder on the researchers’ personal computers. before starting the interview, the researchers introduced themselves and let the participants know the reason that they had been asked to join in the interview and the purpose of the research. after the basic procedures were laid out, which comprised information about the reporting that came from the data, the length of the interview, and assurances of now the information would be preserved, the interview began. the interview questions came next. it was essential to decide how much time would be devoted to each topic. careful consideration was given to how much time each participant would spend for an interview, and the decision was made that 3 minutes would be devoted to each topic after the introduction to the subject. reliability and validity reliability may be defined as “the ‘truth,’ value, or ‘believability’ of the findings that the researchers have been established” (morse, 1994, p. 116). reliability and validity are accomplished through a confidential, extended, and trusting relationship between informants and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 the investigator, instead of through the establishment of the psychometric properties of the research instruments (denzin, 1978). before the survey was administered, faculty members who were specialists in educational foundations and curriculum development in the united states reviewed and revised the survey questions. the results of the correlation were statistically significant. the correlation (rs = .541, p = .001) is considered to be a moderate/ medium correlation (.40 -.60) (see laerd statistics, n.d.). therefore, this study is validated. table 2 reliability statistics cronbach’s alpha n of items .942 13 the questionnaire piloted with 15 participants to evaluate the feasibility. the researchers used cronbach’s alpha to analyze the reliability of scale. the cronbach’s alpha internal consistency score of the study as shown in table 2 above was considerably high across all 13 items (α = .94). a minimum value of .70 for cronbach’s alpha is considered acceptable (nunnally, 1978). thus, the scale is reliable. findings both the quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed to examine the impact of home visits on the academic success and behavior of the students in school. the quantitative data was collected through a survey instrument. the qualitative data was collected from interviews. quantitative data factor analysis kaiser-meyer-olkin (kmo) was used to specify the suitability of the survey data for factor analysis and is “an assumption that must be met in determining the appropriateness of using factor analysis. values can range between 0 and 1” (ozfidan, burlbaw, & kocabas, 2018, p.176). according to jolliffe, 2002, “the kmo test can be used to determine the overall sampling adequacy of the sample or to measure each individual variable” (p. 96). according to ballesteros’s (2003) guideline, a “value of 0 shows the sum of partial correlations is large relative to the sum of correlations, which indicate diffusion in the correlations pattern; therefore, factor analysis is ilhan, ozfidan, & yilmaz probably inappropriate” (p. 143). he also emphasized “if the value is close to 1, patterns of correlations are quite compact and factor analysis indicates different and reliable factors” (p. 143). according to kaiser (1974), a value higher than .5 is acceptable. he also indicated that “values between 0.5 and 0.7 should be considered mediocre, values between 0.7 and 0.8 should be considered good, values between 0.8 and 0.9 should be considered great, and values of more than 0.9 should be considered superb” (anderson & gerbing, 1984, p. 135-136). table 3 indicates that the kaiser value was 0.92 for this study, which falls into the range of superb. consequently, the data were appropriate for factor analysis. table 3 kmo and bartlett’s test kmo measure of sampling adequacy .923 df 7064.557 sig. .000 an oblique rotation was used for this factor analysis. table 4 shows that two factors extracted from the study. these factors are “teachers-students interaction for home visit” and “teachers-parent interaction for home visit.” each factor represents a different perspective of the home visits. table 4 pattern matrix items 1 2 improve grades .755 prepared more .761 increase attention .618 engage more .491 improve relationship with students .641 improve relationship with parent .604 decrease discipline problems .639 feel comfortable .680 encourage other visits .587 learn school system .532 sharing concerns .559 questions answered .506 benefit from visit .601 eigenvalues 8.41 7.28 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 % of variance 14.76 12.77 table 5 indicates the cronbach’s alpha coefficients scores of each item. according to nunnally (1978), the minimum value of cronbach’s alpha was .70. therefore, the results of the cronbach’s alpha indicate that each item in the scale is reliable. table 5 cronbach’s alpha coefficients for factor-based scales items cronbach’s alpha improve grades .90 prepared more .89 increase attention .92 engage more .91 improve relationship with students .94 improve relationship with parent .93 decrease discipline problems .94 feel comfortable .89 encourage other visits .92 learn school system .88 sharing concerns .90 questions answered .93 benefit from visit .93 table 6 shows that each factor was not highly correlated with another, which means that these two factors represent different perspectives. each factor measured different perspectives of home visits because the factors were highly correlated each other. table 6 inter-factor correlation matrix component 1 2 1 1.000 2 .326 1.000 descriptive analysis table 7 below highlights the mean scores, standard deviation, and scale (1-5) of the each item. the highest mean score of the teachers-students interaction item was 4.50, which is titled “improve relationship with parent.” this score indicates that home visits help to improve the ilhan, ozfidan, & yilmaz relationship between teachers and parents. the lowest mean score of the table below was 3.84, which is labeled “study much better.” this score indicates that students, who were visited by the teachers, study much better than previously. the highest standard deviation of the table was .96, which indicates that a high level of differentiation in the table. according to bland and altman (1996), “a high standard deviation indicates a heterogeneous group” (p. 48). this indicates that students who were visited by the teachers had fewer disciplinary issues in school than those who were noted visited by teachers. the lowest standard deviation was .55, which indicates that a low level of differentiation in the table. table 7 descriptive statistics for teachers-students interaction for home visit survey items mean sd strongly disagreedisagree (%) neutral (%) agree strongly agree (%) improve grades 3.85 .76 6.3 25.0 68.7 study much better 3.84 .92 9.4 21.9 68.7 increase attention 3.93 .84 6.3 40.6 53.1 engage more 4.03 .93 6.3 12.5 81.2 improve relationship with students 4.34 .55 0.0 3.1 96.9 improve relationship with parent 4.50 .57 0.0 3.1 96.9 decrease discipline problems 4.09 .96 6.3 12.5 81.2 note: “1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree.” table 8 below highlights the mean scores, standard deviation, and scale (1-5) of the each item. the highest mean score of the teachers-parents interaction item was 4.53, which is titled “encourage other visits.” this suggests that parents would like to see the other teachers at their home because these visits helped their son or daughter. the lowest mean score of the table below was 3.87, which is labeled “learn school system.” this suggests that parents who were visited by the teachers understand the culture of the school. the highest standard deviation of the table was 1.08, which indicates that a high level of differentiation. according to bland and altman (1996), “a high standard deviation indicates a heterogeneous group” (p. 48). the lowest standard deviation of the table below is .64, which indicates that a low level of differentiation in the table. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 table 8 descriptive statistics for teachers-parent interaction for home visit survey items mean sd strongly disagreedisagree (%) neutral (%) agree strongly agree (%) feel comfortable 4.20 1.08 6.7 6.7 86.6 encourage other visits 4.53 .64 0.0 6.7 93.3 learn school system 3.87 1.06 6.7 20.0 73.3 sharing concerns 4.40 .83 0.0 20.0 80.0 questions answered 4.27 .88 6.7 6.7 86.6 benefit from visit 4.33 .72 0.0 13.3 86.7 note: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. to help in determining whether or how much these home visits helped in academic achievement, aleks was used. aleks is an online resource to measure the academic achievement of students in math and science. aleks uses adaptive questioning to accurately and quickly determine what a student exactly knows and does not know. table 9 shows the before and after scores of 10 students whose homes were visited. table 9 descriptive statistics of academic achievement – aleks scores student before a home visit (%) after a home visit (%) increment (%) 1 54 95 41 2 43 78 35 3 41 67 26 4 17 32 15 5 30 51 21 6 13 22 9 7 37 69 32 8 32 40 8 9 64 82 18 10 11 38 27 note: check of the aleks scores of 10 students before and after a home visit. ilhan, ozfidan, & yilmaz qualitative data the researchers coded the emergent themes of the interviews under three subheadings: 1) academic achievement, 2) classroom behavior, and 3) parent involvement. academic achievement most of the teachers stated that home visits have an affirmative influence on the academic performance of students because the focus or motivation of well-behaved students is much better than others. a respondent reflected that we came away from our children’s home with respect and admiration for families doing the best they could, sometimes under dire circumstances. we began to view all children in our classes more compassionately and with greater understanding. now we know that each child has a unique and special life. our goal is to nourish the skills children do have and appreciate parents and encourage them to be an integrated part of their child’s education. another respondent stated, “a positive affective impact on student academic achievement after completing teacher home visits, which many respondents attributed to the cultivation of important relationships with both students and their parents.” one respondent also said that “there was a slight or temporary positive impact on student achievement after teacher home visits but the changes … [were not] significant or long lasting.” one respondent asserted, “students usually pay attention to class more than they did after the home visits.” he also continued that, “…students took my course more seriously and were motivated to increase grades after teacher home visits ….” overall, students whose homes were visited by the teachers are more successful and well behaved than others. teacher home visits also help to build a strong relationship among teachers, students, and parents. there are definite academic results brought by parental involvement in the educational development of the student from early childhood, adolescence and beyond (lin & bates, 2010). this strong communication, according to comments of respondents, increases the academic achievement of students. one respondent stated, “the students felt more comfortable with the teacher–student relationship once the home visit was conducted,” and “i was able to witness an increase in classroom participation, as the student had more confidence to participate once they knew their teacher personally.” another respondent stated, “our relationship was different in that they [the student] felt special and knew i cared about them.” this respondent continued, “i did my home visits early in the school year, so i could not compare before and after in terms of student academic performance.” journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 classroom behavior the researchers interviewed five different teachers regarding behavioral impact on the classroom behavior of student behavior. one teacher indicated that big differences exists between students who were visited by a teacher compared to students who were not visited by any teachers regarding classroom behaviors within a school system. according to this teacher, the student’s classroom behavior was positively changed after he/she visited the student’s parents. another teacher stated that one impact of the home visit on student behavior was a noted awareness of the teacher and parents’ involvement in the student’s life. the established communication between the teacher and the student’s home helped to foster a respect transcending the classroom environment. the human connection made was a caring bond of respect and interest in the student’s success both in and out of school. to keep this classroom behavior, according to the respondent, the teacher should have a good relationship with the students. however, one teacher responses said that, “home visits help, but one visit does not make a big difference.” some respondents said that they realized “negligible to no impact” on students’ classroom behavior because “the parents who most need the visits will not allow them.” one of the teachers asserted that the students who behaved well in the classroom had parents who welcomed teacher home visits, while those students who were struggling behaviorally in the classroom had parents who were the most reluctant to allow a teacher home visit, if they responded at all to the teacher home visit invitation. therefore, teachers should emphasize the importance of home visits while they are visiting the parents. parent involvement parent involvement in the school system has a big influence on the school achievement and behavior of students. home visits empower parents to support their child’s education, resulting in higher academic success for that child. one respondent stated, “after i made a home visit, i realized that [i had made a visit to] most of the parents who get involved.” he continued, “parents felt comfortable in talking with me and were thankful for the personal approach to their child’s education.” another respondent said that parents who were visited at their home indicated that their sons and daughters studied much better than previously. this respondent also added, “parents seemed more aware but still not knowing how to support a child at home due to lack of resources.” ilhan, ozfidan, & yilmaz therefore, the respondent said that home visits inform the parents a lot. another respondent highlighted that “parents wanted to know how they could better support their child’s education at home and wanted to know more about the techniques the teachers used in the classroom that could be just as easily implemented at home.” one respondent indicated that some of the home visits did not cause any academic change on students’ schooling because the parents of these students are already knew what to do for their children to be academically more successful than others. most respondents reflected that home visits have a positive behavioral influence on students. one respondent stated, “students motivation and attitudes are affirmatively changing a lot.” the respondent also continued that, “ the majority of the students seem to have a more positive attitude and increased motivation in their daily classwork performance.” students whose home was visited have more focus on work and assignments. another participant in the study indicated, “students’ motivation is increased because they are more aware of communication between parent and teacher,” and “students feel that home–school connection and trust that [the school system] is a safe and nurturing environment for them.” a respondent noted, “students were dedicated and worked toward their goals more. the students knew that communication was necessary through home visits, conferences, email, phone, and more. the home visit created an excellent parent– teacher relationship.” the same respondent continued that “the use of home visits is a method that has been proven to be effective in not only creating trusting relationships between the home and school environments, but also in empowering parents to become more active participants in their child’s education.” these all indicated that home visits increased the relationship among parents, teachers, and students. when parent involvement increases, the problematic behaviors in school decrease, academic success increases, and attendance rates increase. discussion and conclusion both quantitative and qualitative data reflected that students who were visited had significant affirmative differences in terms of academic achievement, classroom behavior, motivation, teacher-student-parent relationship compared to students who were not visited. all core courses second quarter grades indicated that the home visits to students had a positive impact on their grades. in addition to academic success of the students, both quantitative and qualitative data reflected that teachers who had conducted home visits recommended that most teachers should visit the parents of students to improve students’ attitudes. both quantitative and qualitative journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 reflected home visits have a positive effect on parent involvement as measured by recorded logins to the parent portal of schools. as wright el al. (2018) stated, “home visits positively influence on students’ academic and behavioral functioning in school. students who have home visits through the school system’s program had significantly higher academic achievement, as well as motivation, when compared to other students who were not visited” (p. 88). furthermore, the parents whose son or daughter were visited at their home were more involved their children’s schooling than parents who were not visited. the concept of home visits is an idea that the head start program in the united states has used wherein every head start teacher is required to makes two visits to each student’s home every school year and to hold parent-teacher conferences at school (spindler, 2014). home visits might vary from school to school and may take many forms. some teachers may prefer to visit the parents in pairs because they might feel more comfortable. sometimes teachers also need a translator and that is why they prefer pairing up. some teachers even prefer to meet one on one with a parent whereas others interact with both the parent and the student. for this study, all teachers visited the parents in pairs. some of the novice teachers who were just started working at school were afraid of home visit because they did not want to go to dangerous neighborhoods. however, they felt more confortable after they did several of home visits and they found that they did not encounter any issues. home visits can work as reconciliation sessions among the student, the parent, and the teacher. this improved the relationship between the teachers and the students. numerous conceivable objectives exist for home visits including bridging specific cultural barriers, giving an account of academic progress, using parental help to build educational success, and ensuring that the parents have the right tools to do so. usually, these home visits take place before the school year starts to enable the teacher to get some answers concerning the requirements and interests of individual students. these visits are crucial because they allows the parent and the student to interact with the teacher in a way that is not intimidating. these visits can likewise enable a teacher to have better comprehension of the different strengths and difficulties faced by a student when meeting a student and his/her family in a casual setting. during the home visits, a teacher documents and records information regarding the students and potential issues that may bring about problems in the future such as family issues, previous ilhan, ozfidan, & yilmaz school problems, and health issues. the teachers for this study planned a subsequent meeting with the parents at some point after the first semester. this enables every interested party to review a student's progress or explore any anxieties that may be present between the student and the parent (walker, 2009). leaving the classroom and going to the homes of students rests in the hands of the parents and families, makes an educator realize that the parents are the first teachers to their children and that they know them better than anyone else. home visits make parents more willing to raise their concerns, and the teachers can also encourage them to continue to keep themselves involved in the child's academic life for a prosperous future. for teachers, home visits provide an opportunity to share information regarding students’ academic success and to show the parents some of the resources available to help and support their child’s schooling at home. test results can be shared with parents to help them improve their children’s classroom performance in subject areas. according to meyer and mann (2006) “knowing how to help their children will empower parents and give them confidence that they can support their child’s learning” (p. 54). home visits are important for teachers to realize the abilities and conditions of their students at home. the researchers in this study found that skills observed in home visits, which may be different from the skills observable in the classroom environment, can catalyze the possibility of new teaching techniques and modes of engagement with students. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 references anderson, j. c., & gerbing, d. w. (1984). the effect of sampling error on convergence, improper solutions, and goodness of fit ındices for maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis. psychometrika, 49, 155-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02294170 ballesteros, r. f. (2003). encyclopedia of psychological assessment. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9780857025753 bolu-steve, f. n., & sanni, w. o. (2013). influence of family background on the academic performance of secondary school students in nigeria. ife psychologia: an international journal, 21(1), 90-100. bland, j. m., & altman, d. g. (1996). statistics notes: measurement error. the bmj, 313, 744. retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc2352111/. denzin, n. k. (1978). the research act: a theoretical introduction to sociological methods. new york, ny: mcgraw-hill. epstein, j. l. (2018). school, family, and community partnerships: preparing educators and improving schools. abingdon, england: routledge. farkas, g. (2017). human capital or cultural capital?: ethnicity and poverty groups in an urban school district. abingdon, england: routledge. flynn, g., & noland, b. (2008). what do school principals think about current school-family relationships? nassp bulletin, 92(3), 173-90. gestwicki, c. (2015). home, school, and community relations. stamford, ct: cengage learning. grant, k. b., & ray, j. a. (eds.). (2018). home, school, and community collaboration: culturally responsive family engagement. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. jolliffe, i. (2002). principal component analysis. hoboken, nj: john wiley & sons, ltd. kaiser, h. f. (1974). an index of factorial simplicity. psychometrika, 39, 31–36. kol, v. (2013). parental involvement in education. laerd statistics, (n.d.). pearson product moment correlation. retrieved from https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/pearson-correlation-coefficient-statisticalguide.php lin, m., & bates, a. b. (2010). home visits: how do they affect teachers’ beliefs about teaching and diversity? early childhood education journal, 38(3), 179–185. lucas, m. a. (2017). bridging the gap between schools and families through teacher home visits (unpublished doctoral dissertation). lindenwood university, st. charles, missouri. retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/openview/f391f0fd0584e52a816caeb63f1e2e26/1?pqorigsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y marcon, r. a. (1999). positive relationships between parent school involvement and public school inner-city preschoolers' development and academic performance. school psychology review, 28(3), 395-412. ilhan, ozfidan, & yilmaz meyer, j. a., & mann, m. b. (2006). teachers’ perceptions of the benefits of home visits for early elementary children. early childhood education journal, 34(1), 93–97. morse, j. m. (1994). critical issues in qualitative research methods. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications inc. nias, j. (2002). primary teachers talking: a study of teaching as work. abingdon, england: routledge. nunnally, j. c. (1978). psychometric theory (2nd ed.). new york, ny: mcgraw-hill. ozfidan, b., burlbaw, l., & kocabas, s. (2018). investigating attitudes towards a bilingual education curriculum: a scale development study. review of research and social intervention. 62, 105-117. ozfidan, b., & burlbaw, l. (2017). development, validation, and application for a bilingual education curriculum in turkey. eurasia journal of mathematics, science & technology education, 13(10), 6559-6569. doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.01092a ozfidan, b., & ugurlu, o. (2015). the idea of race and racial differences. electronic international journal of education, arts, and science, 1(1), 85-98 quintana, a. p., & warren, s. r. (2008). listening to the voices of latino parent volunteers. kappa delta pi record, 44(3), 119–123. sawchuk, s. (2011, december 13). more districts sending teachers into students’ homes. education week. retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2011/12/14/14visit_ ep.h31.html sheldon, s. b., & epstein, j. l. (2005). involvement counts: family and community partnerships and mathematics achievement. journal of educational research, 98(4), 196-206. simington, l. r. (2003). a study of the effects of teacher visits to high school accounting students’ homes on their attitudes and achievement in accounting class. ers spectrum, 21(3), 39–46. stetson, r., stetson, e., sinclair, b., & nix, k. (2012). home visits: teacher reflections about relationships, student behavior, and achievement. issues in teacher education, 21(1), 21–37. spindler, l. (2014). interpretive ethnography of education at home and abroad. hove, uk: psychology press. souto-manning, m., & swick, k. j. (2006). teachers’ beliefs about parent and family involvement: rethinking our family involvement paradigm. early childhood education journal, 34(2), 187-193. tyler, k. m., burris, j. l., & coleman, s. t. (2018). investigating the association between home-school dissonance and disruptive classroom behaviors for urban middle school students. the journal of early adolescence, 38(4), 530-553. trumbull, e., rothstein-fisch, c., greenfield, p. m., & quiroz, b. (2001). bridging cultures between home and school: a guide for teachers. abingdon, uk: routledge. walker, j. m. t. (2009). teacher practices and teacher style: what we can learn from research on parenting. theory into practice, 48, 122–129. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 61-80 willis, j. w. (2007). foundations of qualitative research: interpretive and critical approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage. wright, k. b., shields, s. m., black, k., & waxman, h. c. (2018). the effects of teacher home visits on student behavior, student academic achievement, and parent involvement. school community journal, 28(1), 67-90. the implications of learning management system on education quality in the new normal era: evidence studyon islamic higher education www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2),265-287 a model for improving the competence of education teachers through in-service training in malang sugeng listyo prabowo1 abstract this study was conducted with the objective of analyzing the development of teacher competency accomplished through various stages, namely, training needs analysis; training implementation; training outcomes material and evaluation; and the development of an appropriate model for improving teacher competence with in-service training. qualitative research methods adopted include data collection techniques, namely, documentation and interviews. documentation involved analyzing the model’s role in improving the competence of education teachers and investigating the field’s reality. the findings of this study demonstrated inadequate performance of teaching staff in the field of education. this incompetence is attributable to inadequate career development initiatives that are typically less supported by related elements such as evaluation, training, development, knowledge, reproductive skills, and leadership attitudes. the government must prioritize the improvement in teacher knowledge. furthermore, teachers are personally responsible for their quality, and thus, it is critical for them to expand their knowledge and skills. the study findings are anticipated to be useful for helping educational institutions in developing teacher professionalism, as well as the concept of an appropriate training model for developing pgri competencies. keywords: model development concept, in-service training, competence of education teachers. introduction the government regulations of the republic of indonesia take into consideration the professional development of teachers in the field of education. however, the duties and responsibilities of local governments as guarantors of quality, including the quality of education teachers, have not been fully realized (dewi, 2021; nuryana et al., 2020; rahman, 2019). the control mechanism for the implementation of teacher education and training, as well as a systematic assessment system on a regular basis, can be used to determine in-service training effectiveness and impact during its development. one major issue encountered in jawa timur province is the lack of equal opportunity for all religious education teachers to take part in training. even the opportunity to 1lecturer, universitas islam negeri (uin) malang, indonesia, e-mail: sugenglisuinmalang@gmail.com mailto:%20sugenglisuinmalang@gmail.com mailto:%20sugenglisuinmalang@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 attend training is very limited. this is indicated by the number of teachers who repeatedly participate in training, while there are still many other teachers who actually qualify for the training but are not given the opportunity, and thus, their performance is difficult to improve. therefore, the revitalization of education and training, as well as teacher certification, must aim to improve the performance of professional teachers (de carvalho-filho et al., 2020; kanu, 1996; looney & looney, 2011) there is a pressing need for decentralization in the implementation of competence development initiatives for religious education teachers, including teacher training and career development programs. currently, training sessions are conducted only at the city education office and the ministry of religion, which has resulted in regional responsibility of the district office and schools for increasing teacher professionalism, and thus, such initiatives cannot be implemented properly. the advancement of teacher competence, particularly in regard to their teaching skills and student’s learning outcomes, is determined by initiatives or input from principals and core teachers rather than an analysis of the requirements of the field. the professionalism of education teachers in malang, jawa timur, has not witnessed any improvement over the years. the current training model has a number of shortcomings, such as the inaccurate targeting of training activities and the lack of suitable material delivered to the teachers in schools. it is, therefore, necessary to propose a training model that is more oriented toward the analysis of teacher needs and problems and integrates the elements involved in the overall training (abakah et al., 2022; czerniawski et al., 2017; muguwe & mushoriwa, 2016). the problem of developing the competency of religious education teachers needs to be resolved immediately through the development of an efficacious in-service training model (balta et al., 2015). previous studies have found a positive impact of in-service training programs for teachers on the quality assessment and learning outcomes of children. the findings of egert et al. (2018) show that improving the quality of teacher competence is a key mechanism for accelerating student’s learning development in schools. egert et al. (2020) explained that the implementation of the development of a high-quality in-service training model can increase teacher–student interaction because it supports expression of emotions and adequate classroom organization. successful initiatives include workshops, teaching and learning, and student support programs. thus, effective teacher–student interactions can be accomplished by improving the quality of education prabowo 267 and training that teachers receive during the training. in-service training programs play a vital role in enhancing the professional development of teachers. this program allows teachers to acquire knowledge and awareness of technology that can enhance the efficiency of the teaching and learning process. therefore, the education and training program is part of the government’s efforts to improve teacher skills to positively impact classroom practice. a study by saleem et al. (2019) revealed that teachers experienced significant changes in competence after attending the training. likewise, the latest literature affirms the importance of developing an in-service training model and efforts to improve teacher competence. for example developing an in-service training model, the effect of teacher education and training using on students’ academic practice and sustainable development (kraft et al., 2018; elijah, 2022), development of teacher development based on teaching reforms to maximize learning opportunities in the classroom (kuehnert et al., 2019), improving teacher competence through inclusive education and cross-cultural learning (lee & lee, 2020; pilotti & al mubarak, 2021; soltero lopez & lopez, 2020; warman, 2021), teacher competency development through pedagogical technology (baez zarabanda, 2019; chimbi & jita, 2021; kuanysheva et al., 2019). according to the extant literature, several empirical studies have been conducted to investigate the perceptions of teachers who have participated in the in-service training program at the training center in east java province to build a qualified in-service training model. previous studies have revealed how the effectiveness of in-service training for teachers in schools depends on the training that teachers receive (ashrafuzzaman, 2018; mugarura et al., 2022; ozer, 2004; saiti & saitis, 2006; stylianou & zembylas, 2021; vu et al., 2015). thus, it is hoped that the experience of the education and training teachers can be used as an evaluation material for the government’s education and training center so that the programs implemented in the future align with the national education goals. literature review teacher professionalism the term “professionalism” is derived from the word “profession,” which means a field of work that is based on certain expertise (vocational skills) and education (morrell, 2019). professional development for teachers is essential (hursh, 2017). the demand for the presence of a journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 professional teacher never ceases, because, in the process of human civilization and humanity(carey et al., 2005). professional teachers are masters of their respective fields; they use the appropriate teaching materials, master the right methods, are able to motivate students, and have high skills and broad insight into the world of education. they must have a deep understanding of human nature and society and be devoted to their profession (dowden et al., 2013; nyamai, 2021). furthermore, to implement the teaching and learning process, teachers must be able to create a meaningful classroom corporate culture and a teaching workplace that is creative, dynamic, passionate, dialogical, and fun for students (sturm & quaynor, 2020; winingsih et al., 2019). the teaching profession requires special skills (for example opening and closing lessons, class management skills, and skills to explain subject matter) and thus cannot be successfully practiced by anyone outside the field of education (gendy et al., 2014). a professional teacher is expected to be knowledgeable about the subject matter and has a mature and wise personality (opfer & pedder, 2011). a professional teacher must also be committed, master the subject, be responsible, think systematically, and be a part of the learning process in their professional capacity (curwin & mendler, 1978). the lack of public interest in opting for teaching jobs has contributed to teachers’ low professionalism. another factor contributing to inadequate professionalism is that most teachers have to work outside their working hours to meet their needs. in developing countries, there are no professional standards for teachers as there are in developed countries. universities do not consider the output of professional teacher graduates, and there is a lack of motivation to improve self-quality (suchyadi et al., 2020). the five most common factors that contribute to low teacher professionalism are enumerated as follows. first, there are teachers who do not fully commit to their profession. second, teachers’ lack adherence to the norms and ethics of the teaching profession. third, teacher education and training have not received adequate recognition. fourth, there is a lack of adequate teacher education institutions and professional education personnel. fifth, there is no clear opinion regarding the proportion of teaching materials provided to prospective teachers. because of such factors, the government is forced to seek alternatives to improve the level of professionalism among teachers (harjanto et al., 2018). prabowo 269 principles of teacher professional development teachers, students, and the educational system are the three main components of education. these three components are interdependent and are accountable for achieving academic success (epstein, 2018). the development of teacher professionalism is non-negotiable if the objective is to improve the quality of education. four general aspects worth considering while developing model for improving teacher professionalism are enumerated as follows. 1. increasing teacher professionalism is an effort to help those teachers who do not have professional qualifications. government-initiated programs and activities can help enhance teachers’ professional abilities. 2. increasing teachers’ professional capacity aims to foster aspects of personnel administration while also increasing professional abilities and commitments. according to glickman, professional teachers have two characteristics, namely, a high level of teaching ability and high commitment (glickman, 1981). 3. the deterioration in the status of the teaching profession is partly ascribable to the mindset of our own society, which on the one hand, elevates and on the other casts aside the teaching profession as a respectable profession in society. community commitment and government commitment are not in line with community needs to build a high-quality indonesian society. 4. the gap in the quality of graduates between the center and the regions and between cities and outside cities is still quite high. therefore, the application of education delivery and competency standards both for teachers and national competency standards is essential (dessler, 1976). the meaning of decentralization and regional autonomy that provides opportunities for empowerment of all regional potentials should be implemented in the process of democratization of education (jalal & supriadi, 2001). the concrete goals that should be achieved in decentralizing education include playing a proactive role in financing education and increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of education (parker & raihani, 2011). the regional government has full authority in regulating and managing the education in their area, including the management of teachers (suryadarma & jones, 2013). regional autonomy government can provide a conducive environment for developing an area with a more democratic journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 perspective in the field of education, which includes teacher management (gamage & sooksomchitra, 2006). model for teacher competency development the model essentially describes the relationships between variables that influence each other and shows a system or process, both as a whole and as part of the whole (watad & ospina, 1999). the model can be interpreted as a conceptual framework that is used to determine guidelines for performing an activity. models are often equated with theories because a model is typically used to explain, predict, calculate, and measure something (flippo, 1984). the difference between models and theories is that the information that can be given by a model comes from simplified assumptions. models involve developing new theories, modifying existing theories, giving direction to existing theories, and providing examples of activities that can be replicated or followed. five elements are commonly used to describe the teacher performance model, namely, syntax, social system, reaction principle, support system, and impact. the preparation of a model is carried out through eight steps, which are: 1) explaining the current phenomenon, 2) setting the objectives of the model, 3) describing aspects related to the problem that will be arranged as a model, 4) describing the current situation, 5) grouping data, 6) analyzing the relationship between aspects, circumstances, and phenomena based on the study of supporting theories, 7) preparing a draft model, 8) validating the draft model, and 8) producing a model (glickman, 1981). development of teacher competencies through in-service training adequate training can help develop teacher competencies. torrington and huat defined training as a process of improving knowledge and expertise. this is related to a change in attitude so that the individuals being trained can efficiently perform the tasks assigned to them. training can be implemented at all levels of the organization (torrington & huat, 1994). it is important to conduct training related to activities to increase knowledge, understanding, and skills in certain fields and aspects. wood (1999), asserted that training can help increase knowledge and understanding of the environment as a whole. generally, the purpose of training is to build certain competencies (tennant et al., 2002). however, the objectives to be achieved with in-service training must be stated clearly, in the sense of whether the ultimate goal is to achieve a change in behavior or a prabowo 271 change in knowledge (nura, 2014). the implementation of the training must go through certain steps or procedures. wankel and stoner (2009) suggested four procedures underlying the need for training programs: 1) performance appraisal, meaning that employee performance is measured in accordance with work standards or work objectives, 2) analyzing work requirements, meaning that expertise and knowledge are adjusted according to the needs of the job description, 3) organizational analysis, which is the effectiveness of the organization in achieving organizational goals, 4) a survey of human resources related to problems experienced by employees at work and the actions necessary to overcome these problems. while implementing training sessions, several factors come into play, namely, instructors, participants, materials, methods, objective training, and supporting environment (amirova et al., 2020; sakkoulis et al., 2018). method design a qualitative research design using a phenomenological approach was used to investigate and study the model concerning the development of competencies of education teachers through inservice training. this study was conducted in schools under the ministry of religion, malang, east java province. the location of the school was chosen purposively and took into account the aspect of representation in terms of the type and level of the school. donalek (2004) remarked that a qualitative research design using a phenomenological approach makes an actual lived experience as the basic data of reality. thus, the phenomenological approach was considered suitable as it can explore participants’ experiences in reality and give meaning to a phenomenon. this study focused on studying through participants’ self-reflection in educational activities, namely, the experience of teachers in social situations to improve the rationality and truth, and validity of the practice of their educational activities after receiving in-service training. participants participants in this study were teachers from madrasah aliyah/malang high school in the ministry of religion, east java province. the selection of participants was made using a purposive technique, where participants were selected according to the main characteristics, namely, education teachers who had received in-service training (in office) or training during journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 their service from a training institute of the indonesian government. researchers conducted the process of recruiting participants assisted by cadres to visit the addresses of potential participants. the participants were 26 education teachers (16 female and 10 male) with an age range of 30–50 years. data collection technique in this study, observation and structured interviews were used for data collection. the interviews were conducted at the education and training center of the ministry of religion, malang city. they were conducted between researchers and participants to obtain direct information about the experiences of participants participating in the in-service training program at the training center. the researcher made a time contract and determined the place of the interview with the participants. the duration of the interview was 30–45 minutes for each participant. researchers used the help of recording devices and notebooks to collect interview data. the instruments and subcomponents of data collection consist of four indicators, namely: 1) context (relevance of program content to the needs of participants); 2) input (in-service training program materials, facilities, and infrastructure): 3) process (schedule, participant participation, media, methods, and evaluation of in-service training); 4) and products (benefits of in-service training programs). see table 1. table 1 interview instrument component subcomponent question item context relevance of program content what is the relevance of the content of the in-service training program to your competence as a teacher? 1 input 1. material 2. instructor 3. facilities and infrastructure 1. what are the in-service training materials provided by the authorized training institution? 2. are the instructors able to support the success of the inservice training program? 3. what are the facilities and infrastructure provided by the authorized training institution? 2 process 1. schedule 2. media 3. method 4. evaluation 1. is the in-service training schedule provided by the authorized training institution in accordance with the needs of the school? 2. how is the in-service training media provided by the authorized training institution? 3. what is the method of in-service training provided by the authorized training institution? 4. how is the evaluation of in-service training provided by the authorized training institution? 3 product program benefits what are the benefits of in-service training programs provided by authorized training institution? 4 prabowo 273 data analysis data analysis in qualitative research refers to the process of systematically tracking and arranging field notes that have been obtained from data collection(miles et al., 1994). in this study, data were analyzed in four stages described as follows: (1) data collection: in this stage, the researcher collected data according to the questions that concerned the research theme regarding the development of an in-service training model for enhancing teacher competence. (2) data reduction and categorization: data collection was followed by data selection, which focused on simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the raw data that emerged from the field data. after reduction, the researchers categorized the data according to their needs. the data were grouped according to participant characteristics, gender, and participant responses to the inservice training program. during this stage, a good interpretation of the data was required so that the data did not fall into the wrong category. the study data consisted of four components including context, input, process, and product. each subcomponent consisted of one question, and thus, the total is nine question items. each item of the same question will be asked to participants and recorded using a notebook for each answer they give. (3) data display: in accordance with the study design, researchers determined the type and form of data entered into the metric boxes. the data were displayed in the form of a narrative grouped into four items. (4) conclusion-drawing stage: in the last step, simple and meaningful conclusions were drawn by the researchers from the obtained results. result and discussion this section presents the findings of this study based on data collected from in-service programs for enhancing teacher competence. the findings reveal that training needs, implementation of training and evaluation, as well as materials in in-service training can be used in teacher competency development. one would, however, need to improve the skills of the instructor, pay attention to the material aspects needed by the participants, and require a well-coordinated schedule of activities between the training center and the school. basically, in-service training activities form the basis of a teacher education training curriculum that is intended to provide teachers with the content knowledge, pedagogical skills, and attitudes needed to effectively teach journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 students in schools. this activity is an experience where teachers change the way they teach into a professional classroom practice. this gives students the opportunity to explore, experiment, and reflect on the moral and technical dimensions of teaching. the findings cover three aspects of the in-service training program that were observed and derived from the participants’ experiences, namely, training needs analysis, training implementation, and training concept development. analysis of training needs the study findings regarding the analysis of training needs for the development of education teacher competencies indicate that the needs analysis of activities for this training have not been conducted properly. several respondents stated that training implementation was not always based on an analysis of the existing problems in teacher performance. one of the participants said: (1) “the relevance of the program content is not always based on problems in teacher performance. this is because the ability of each teacher to absorb knowledge varies. inservice training programs should be implemented continuously and must be in accordance with the subjects taught by teachers in schools. education and training always follow the development of science and technology, but such programs also need to pay attention to the abilities of teachers in various fields. this way, it will have a real impact on increasing teacher competence in terms of knowledge and practice, as well as teacher professionalism.” this statement shows that the trainings in question have not been fully based on an analysis of training needs, namely, the need to overcome teacher competency problems such as creative teaching, skills in using information and communication technology, attitude control, and skills to understand teaching materials or learning materials. this study proves that participants in the in-service training program for madrasah aliyah teachers at the education and training center understand the shortcomings of the relevance of program content and the weaknesses of their fellow participants. in addition, according to the participants, the instructors who provided training materials were inadequate or did not meet the requirements to become trainers. some of the participants did not clearly understand the material presented by the instructor and preferred to learn the material by discussing it with their group. the opinions of the respondents regarding the criteria for trainers who still do not meet these requirements were then confirmed from related parties that indeed tried to select academically adequate trainers or resource persons. however, doubtlessly, there are tutors or trainers who do not master the material presented. tennant et al. prabowo 275 (2002) stated that the factor causing the success of the training program in achieving its goals is the availability of good instructors, that is, professional instructors who have adequate competencies according to the program being held. certified professional instructors provide participants with opportunities to broaden personal teaching styles, develop diverse curricula, build their confidence, and gain all that benefits teachers (ahmed & sayed, 2021; langdon & wittenberg, 2019; burns & mintzberg, 2019). thus, the instructor's support for the success of the in-service training program should include the instructor’s academic qualifications, teacher competence, and mastery of the material. the teacher’s opinion on the analysis of training needs based on the development of work implementation techniques and the main tasks of the teacher mentioned above were then confirmed with field data acquired through interviews. according to the respondents, the training was based on an analysis of the need for technical development implementation of work and basic tasks. next, it was confirmed by the information acquired through the interviews that the implementation of training, in particular, had not yet fully led to the fulfillment of the requirements for teacher standardization. however, in general, the implementation of education and training must include the requirements for meeting teacher standardization. one of the participants remarked: (2) “the material provided by the instructor consists of nine main points, namely, appreciation of the soul, work productivity, quality of work, determination of human resource planning, moral attitudes, teacher performance, occupational health and safety, improving job satisfaction, and skills. the facilities and infrastructure provided by the education and training center are quite good. the teachers are very helpful with the support of facilities and infrastructure that are quite good. the facilities and infrastructure provided include theory room, practice room/place, practical equipment, learning resources, and other facilities such as consumption, first-aid kit, a high enough support place to achieve the objectives of the in-service teacher training program.” the above statement proves that the material used in the in-service teacher training program was relevant to the training program, easy to understand, and capable of increasing the knowledge and skills of program participants. the facilities and infrastructure were also adequate. thus, it can be interpreted that the materials and training facilities used provide high enough support for the successful achievement of the in-service training program at the training center. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 training implementation the method used in teacher training is highly influential on the mastery of teachers and training participants on the material presented. the method used is the 5 in (training), 3 on (application) method, and involves the teacher community in each zone. this method is a training model for teachers recommended by the ministry of education and culture (kemendibud). one participant said the following: (3) “the core teacher training process is carried out using the ‘5 in 3 on’ method, which was implemented in 2020. this method is designed to respond to the results of the national exam (un) given to the level of item achievement analysis. this method is useful for diagnosing learning weaknesses in a zone. the in–on scheme training starts from the stage of the teacher exchanging ideas to evaluating class changes. in the past, teachers who participated in the training at the center immediately returned to their respective homes. in the process of training in on, first, national instructors trained core teachers of each subject in all zones. the core teachers are responsible for the implementation of the training. second, the training began by involving the teacher community in each zone, namely, the teacher working group (kkg) for elementary schools and subject teachers’ meetings (mgmp) for secondary schools. thus the training continued until the evaluation stage, which did not exist before. the method used in the training is not appropriate. participants stated that the method used in the training was not appropriate. determination of training participants is not appropriate or does not meet proper procedures. determination of participants who take part in training in developing teacher competencies is still not appropriate/does not meet the proper procedures.” from the above response given by a participant, it can be understood that the lesson plan (rpp) focused on 70% of pedagogic abilities and 30% of content. the reason is, “in and on” only focuses on the learning process and not the material because there are teachers who have very good abilities but cannot teach students well. this evaluation stage is very important because this will provide the government with a picture of the readiness of teachers in educating students. at the end of the participant’s statement regarding the criteria for students, it turns out that they still do not meet the requirements. then it was confirmed through interviews that the relevant parties had actually tried to provide criteria for teachers who could be sent for training. however, these requirements are not absolute, and the final decision is left to each school according to the existing conditions. prabowo 277 development of training model the results concerning the dimensions of in-service training model reveal that both the process and content of training in improving teacher competence require a training model that can really be useful. one participant claimed: (4) “basically, the in-service training program is able to improve the knowledge and skills of teachers and improve the life skills of students. the programs carried out have added and enhanced the quality of knowledge, increased skills and educational experience as capital in carrying out the teaching and learning process. therefore, the teachers provide high enough support for the successful achievement of program objectives. some participants were unable to actively participate in activities owing to official reasons. this happened because of the delay by the education and training center in delivering the notification to the school. the organizers must try to make a schedule that suits the needs of teachers so that program participants can participate actively and take part in activities according to the time allocated.” the above remark shows that the results of the in-service training program depend on the context, inputs, and processes that take place during education and training. by paying attention to all the facts and phenomena that develop in the field related to the less than optimal implementation of education and training as a vehicle for teacher competency development, the researchers developed a training model that can be used for in-service training programs as follows: figure 1 concept of model power training in improving teacher competency journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 figure 1 shows the training model for competency development proposed by the authors, who have named the same as “power training” model. on the basis of the drawing of the training model there is a “training needs analysis,” which means that every training must be based on an analysis of its needs. furthermore, “the implementation of the research” involves series of elements in the training, namely: trainers, participants, facilities and infrastructure, methods, materials, as well as the time and place of the training. the evaluation must be carried out at each stage and line as well as elements in developing teacher competencies through training. in the concept drawing of the model, in general, there are several training components, which can be explained as follows: 1. training participants: the determination of training participants must be accompanied by a variety of mature considerations, which include the principle of equality for all teachers and all schools. in addition, the determination of participants does not have to be complicated as then it will act as an obstacle for teachers to attend training. 2. facilities: training facilities and infrastructure have a major role in the success of the training. in this model, infrastructure refers to and is guided by technological progress while still considering the condition of infrastructure in schools in general. this is intended so that the knowledge acquired by a teacher can be applied at the school in accordance with the existing facilities at each teacher’s school. 3. material: training materials must be provided to teachers in training designed with materials that are able to develop teacher competencies, especially in implementing the learning process. important material that must be presented in training with this model includes material on high touch and high tech. in addition, the material presented must also consider the actual conditions in schools. thus, the material provided must add insight, knowledge, values, and positive attitudes in teachers while implementing the learning process. 4. method: the training methods in this model were designed in accordance with gerontology learning. this is based on the consideration that seminar participants, in general, are adults. the prabowo 279 design of the training method must emphasize cooperative learning and other practical methods. 5. place and time: the place and time of the training affect the training results. in this model, the time and place of training were designed taking into account the free time of the teacher so that they do not leave the main task of implementing the learning process. likewise, the determination of the location of the training activities is crucial. in this training model, training is mostly done at the school level so that it reaches out to teachers at the school, and training is not constrained by distance and time. 6. trainer: training instructors play a vital role in the success of a training program. therefore, it is recommended to select trainer from the pool of senior and experienced teachers who already have more insight and also bring in expert experts in accordance with the field being trained. in addition, in this model, training is emphasized on peer tutors. this is intended to reduce various access to training that participants who take part in the program do not understand. the findings of this study show that a trainer or an instructor must be determined by taking into consideration several factors. for example, instructors must have the ability to relate to others, because as an instructor must be expressive and communicative, intelligent, adaptable to changes, friendly, and have sharpness of observation because instructors who lack hospitality and the ability to play a role inteaching will have difficulty conveying material in class. in addition, in this training program model, assessment was carried out continuously from various aspects, such as: relevance to the needs of the field, effectiveness, usefulness, benefits, obstacles, benefits, administration, and so on, so that it can be seen whether the program was successful, or needs to be improved, or still be maintained. the developed model was effective, efficient and attractive according to the experience of participants. 1. effective: if the developed model can achieve its objectives, it means that after the teachers use the training method, there will be an increase in the professionalism of the education teacher. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 2. efficient: the developed model can help save time, financial resources, and human resources in the learning process because of the increased competence of education teachers. 3. the developed concept model will make it easier for education teachers in applying: (a) macro-organizing strategies (regulating the overall order of the contents of the field of study) and micro-organizing strategies (setting the order of presentation, concept, principle or procedure); (b) delivery strategies, helping teachers choose learning media, learning interactions and forms of learning; and (c) learning management strategies. the findings of this study have answered the research objectives, namely: (1) describing the school’s need for an adequate training model in the development of teacher competence, (2) developing an appropriate training model for enhancing teacher competence. the delivery of the “power training” model is based on the experience of participants who took part in the training program. it is anticipated that the training will succeed effectively and efficiently if all strengths or strengths in each element and stage can really be optimized in achieving the training objectives, that is, the output of the training is really willing and able to apply the results of the training both at the level of theory and practice in performing different tasks, especially in the learning process. so it is hoped that the learning process in the classroom and the implementation of the tasks that are the responsibility of the teacher will be better.the proposed training model is also based on facts and the reality so far in developing teacher competence through training and is not based on a specific training model. training is conducted more incidentally and even planned. the training model is based on the assessment of various training problems that occur in the field or school that have hindered the success of the training program. the novelty of the research can be found in the study findings, which reveal that the experience of the participants is highly important to provide an overview of their readiness in educating students. without understanding how teachers feel while participating in the in-service training program, future training programs will not be effective in improving teacher competence. empirically, this study supports previous studies that show that the effectiveness of in-service training for teachers is dependent on the training received by the teacher (ashrafuzzaman, 2018; mugarura et al., 2022; ozer, 2004; saiti & saitis, 2006; stylianou & zembylas, 2021; vu et al., 2015). likewise, the study conducted by saleem et al. (2019) revealed that teachers experienced a considerable change in competence after attending the training. changes for the better will occur if the four components, namely, context, input, process, and products are well implemented. prabowo 281 this study re-emphasizes the development of an appropriate in-service training model by taking into account the experience of participants for an effective training program in the future with the support of the government. conclusion conclusions derived from the findings of this study are discussed as follows. the analysis of training needs revealed the existence of problems in teacher performance, the requirements for meeting standards, the gaps in performance, the need for career development is still not good or has not been implemented properly. however, the analysis of training needs and the development of work implementation techniques is good enough. the training in developing teacher competencies, in general, is not supported by interrelated elements in the implementation of training, which include, inter alia, trainers, the determination of training participants, infrastructure and media in training, materials, methods, and place/time of training are not adequate. the evaluation of the implementation of training in developing teacher competencies includes aspects of knowledge, aspects of reproductive skills, and aspects of leadership attitudes that are still not good. the “high-tech” material, especially the material concerned with lesson planning, implementation of the learning process, the execution of the learning evaluation, and implementation of enhancement, is still not provided during training in the development of teacher competence. the “high-touch” material, which includes recognition, affection and tenderness, reinforcement, direction, educative assertiveness and role models, is still lacking in training for teacher competency development. the novelty of this study is found in the findings of a qualified in-service training model to improve teacher competence based on the experience of teachers who have participated in in-service training programs at the training center in east java province. the limitation of this study is the scope of the research area, namely madrasah aliyah/malang high school in east java province. future studies can expand research areas throughout indonesia to ascertain the development of an appropriate in-service training model based on regional categorization and supporting factors. the research method adopted in this study is also very simple. therefore, a future study with the same theme can identify this phenomenon based on a more comprehensive research method. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 references abakah, e., widin, j., & ameyaw, e. k. (2022). continuing professional development ( cpd ) practices among basic school teachers in the central region of ghana. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221094597 ahmed, a., & sayed, k. (2021). an extensive model for implementing competency‐based training in technical and vocational education and training teacher training system for assiut‐integrated technical education cluster, egypt. the journal of competency-based education, 6(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbe2.1245 amirova, a., iskakovna, j. m., zakaryanovna, t. g., nurmakhanovna, z. t., & elmira, u. (2020). world journal on educational technology: current issues. world journal on educational technology: current issues, 13(4), 278–289. ashrafuzzaman, m. (2018). impact of in-service training on english teachers ’ classroom practice at primary level. journal of language and linguistic studies, 14(3), 77–103. www.jlls.org journal balta, n., arslan, m., & duru, h. (2015). the effect of in-service training courses on teacher achievement: a meta-analysis study. journal of education and training studies, 3(5). https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v3i5.1037 baez zarabanda, d. (2019). ict and its purpose in the pedagogical practice. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.6 burns, v. f., & mintzberg, s. (2019). co-teaching as teacher training: experiential accounts of two doctoral students. college teaching, 67(2), 94–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/87567555.2018.1558169 carey, g., harrison, a., grayson, d., & ganiel, u. (2005). teaching out of field. in dilemmas of science teaching: perspectives on problems of practice (pp. 217–230). springer international publishing ag. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203996294-23 chimbi, g., & jita, l. (2021). resurgence of large class sizes and pedagogical reform in 21st century secondary school history classrooms. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 45-63. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.24 curwin, r. l., & mendler, a. n. (1978). discipline with dignity. in middle school journal (vol. 9, issue 2). printed by edwards brothers, inc. ascd. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.1978.11495422 czerniawski, g., guberman, a., & macphail, a. (2017). the professional developmental needs of higher education-based teacher educators: an international comparative needs analysis. european journal of teacher education, 40(1), 127–140. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.6 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.24 prabowo 283 https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2016.1246528 de carvalho-filho, m. a., tio, r. a., & steinert, y. (2020). twelve tips for implementing a community of practice for faculty development. medical teacher, 42(2), 143–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159x.2018.1552782 dessler, g. (1976). organization and management: a contingency approach. prentice education, inc. dewi, a. u. (2021). curriculum reform in the decentralization of education in indonesia: effect on students’ achievements. cakrawala pendidikan, 40(1), 158–169. https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v40i1.33821 donalek, j. g. (2004). phenomenology as qualitative resreach method. urologic nursing, 24(desember), 516–517. dowden, t., pittaway, s., yost, h., & mccarthy, r. (2013). students’ perceptions of written feedback in teacher education: ideally feedback is a continuing two-way communication that encourages progress. assessment and evaluation in higher education, 38(3), 349–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2011.632676 egert, f., dederer, v., & fukkink, r. g. (2020). the impact of in-service professional development on the quality of teacher-child interactions in early education and care: a meta-analysis. educational research review, 29, 100309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100309 egert, f., fukkink, r. g., & eckhardt, a. g. (2018). impact of in-service professional development programs for early childhood teachers on quality ratings and child outcomes: a meta-analysis. review of educational research, 88(3), 401–433. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317751918 elijah, o. s. (2022). education and training as a tools for sustainable development among secondary school teachers in southwest nigeria. indonesian journal of contemporary education, 4(2), 89–94. epstein, j. l. (2018). school, family, and community partnerships in teachers’ professional work. journal of education for teaching, 44(3), 397–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2018.1465669 flippo, e. (1984). personnal management. mcgraw-hill book company. gamage, d., & sooksomchitra, p. h. (2006). decentralisation and school-based management in thailand. revue internationale de l’education, 50(1), 289–305. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-3358-2_8 gendy, t., elsalamony, r., ghoneim, s., mohamed, l., ebiad, m., & el-hafiza, d. a. (2014). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 public relations, corporate social responsibility and oil communities in niger delta region, nigeria. chemical and process engineering research, 21(2), 107–117. glickman, c. d. (1981). developmental supervision: alternative practices for helping teachers improve instruction. in eric. the association fut supervision, and curriculum developmen. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed208487 harjanto, i., lie, a., wihardini, d., pryor, l., & wilson, m. (2018). community-based teacher professional development in remote areas in indonesia. journal of education for teaching, 44(2), 212–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2017.1415515 hursh, d. (2017). the end of public schools? the corporate reform agenda to privatize education. policy futures in education, 15(3), 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210317715799 jalal, f., & supriadi, d. (2001). education reform in the context of regional autonomy. ideology. kanu, y. (1996). educating teachers for the improvement of the quality of basic education in developing countries. international journal of educational development, 16(2), 173– 184. https://doi.org/10.1016/0738-0593(95)00040-2 kraft, m. a., blazar, d., & hogan, d. (2018). the effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: a meta-analysis of the causal evidence. review of educational research, 88(4), 547–588. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318759268 kuanysheva, b. t., aubakirova, r. z., pigovayeva, n. i., & fominykh, n. i. (2019). technologization of the pedagogical process as a teacher self-improvement factor. journal of social studies education research sosyal, 10(3), 404–433. kuehnert, e., cason, m., young, j., & pratt, s. (2019). a meta-analysis of reform-based professional development in stem: implications for effective praxis. international journal of technology in education (ijte), 2(1), 60–68. www.ijte.net langdon, j. l., & wittenberg, m. (2019). need supportive instructor training: perspectives from graduate teaching assistants in a college/university physical activity program. physical education and sport pedagogy, 24(1), 16–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2018.1530748 lee, a., & lee, a. (2020). experience with diversity is not enough: a pedagogical framework for teacher candidates that centers critical race consciousness. journal of curriculum studies research, 2(2), 40-59. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.9 looney, j., & looney, j. (2011). developing high-quality teachers : teacher. european journal of education, 46(4), 440–455. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2020.9 prabowo 285 miles, m. b., huberman, a. m., & saldaña, j. (1994). qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook. in 3 (ed.), arizona state university. sage. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315701134-11 morrell, f. (2019). the management of education : perspective. ijo international journal of educational research, 02(07), 104–114. mugarura, p., ssempala, f., & nachuha, s. (2022). role of in-service teacher training as a tool for the student’s performance in selected public secondary schools in kisoro district. international journal of educational policy research and review, 9(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.15739/ijeprr.22.001 muguwe, e., & mushoriwa, t. d. (2016). an analysis of continuing professional development (cpd)provisions which are available to teachers in regular primary schools to ensure the effective teaching of learners with special education needs in zimbabwe. international journal of educational sciences, 13(2), 208–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/09751122.2016.11890455 nura, a. a. (2014). human resource management practices and employee performance management in nigerian higher educational institutions (issue march) [universiti utara malaysia]. https://etd.uum.edu.my/4357/2/s93544_abstract.pdf nuryana, z., nurcahyati, i., rahman, a., setiawan, f., & fadillah, d. (2020). the challenges and solutions of teachers’ problems to achieve education golden era. universal journal of educational research, 8(2), 583–590. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.080230 nyamai, d. (2021). the secreted curriculum and youth education to become the professionals the world craves for. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 169193. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.10 opfer, v. d., & pedder, d. (2011). conceptualizing teacher professional learning. review of educational research, 81(3), 376–407. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311413609 ozer, b. (2004). in-service training of teachers in turkey at the beginning of the 2000s. journal of in-service education, 30(1), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674580400200238 parker, l., & raihani, r. (2011). democratizing indonesia through education? community participation in islamic schooling. educational management administration and leadership, 39(6), 712–732. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143211416389 pilotti, m., & al mubarak, h. (2021). systematic versus informal application of culturally relevant pedagogy: are performance outcomes different? a study of college students. journal of culture and values in education, 4(2), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.10 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.1 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 265-287 rahman, a. a. (2019). decentralised education policy in indonesia. exchanges: the interdisciplinary research journal, 6(2), 30–47. https://doi.org/10.31273/eirj.v6i2.240 saiti, a., & saitis, c. (2006). in-service training for teachers who work in full-day schools. evidence from greece. european journal of teacher education, 29(4), 455–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619760600944779 sakkoulis, d. p., asimaki, a., & vergidis, d. k. (2018). in-service training as a factor in the formation of the teacher’s individual theory of education. international education studies, 11(3), 48. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v11n3p48 saleem, z., ishaq, m., & mahmood, z. (2019). meta-analysis approach towards importance of in-service training in teacher’s professional and social development. global social sciences review, iv(iii), 250–256. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2019(iv-iii).32 soltero lopez, a., & lopez, p. (2020). expanding our reach: cross-institutional collaborations and teacher preparation in hispanic serving institutions. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 120-135. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.8 sturm, e., & quaynor, l. (2020). a window, mirror, and wall: how educators use twitter for professional learning. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 22-44. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.2 stylianou, p., & zembylas, m. (2021). engaging with issues of death, loss, and grief in elementary school: teachers’ perceptions and affective experiences of an in-service training program on death education in cyprus. theory and research in social education, 49(1), 54–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2020.1841700 suchyadi, y., sundari, f. s., sutisna, e., sunardi, o., budiana, s., sukmanasa, e. & windiyani, t. (2020). improving the ability of elementrary school teachers through the development of competency based assessment instruments in teacher working group, north bogor city, journal of community engagement, 02(01), 1–5. https://journal.unpak.ac.id/index.php/jce/article/view/2742 suryadarma, d., & jones, g. w. (2013). education in indonesia. heng mui keng terrace. institute of southeast asian studies. tennant, c., boonkrong, m., & roberts, p. a. b. (2002). the design of a training programme measurement model. journal of european industrial training, 26(5), 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090590210424902 torrington, d., & huat, t. c. (1994). human resource management for south east asia. prentice education, inc. vu, j. a., han, m., & buell, m. j. (2015). the effects of in-service training on teachers’ beliefs and practices in children’s play. european early childhood education research https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.8 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.2 prabowo 287 journal, 23(4), 444–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293x.2015.1087144 wankel, c., & stoner, j. a. (2009). management education for global sustainability. information age publishing, inc. warman. (2021). establishing the governmental policy to promote engagement within the inclusive education system in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 12(1), 124–148. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3077/491 watad, m., & ospina, s. (1999). integrated managerial training: a program for strategic management development. public personnel management, 28(2), 185–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/009102609902800202 winingsih, l. h., agung, i., & sulistiono, a. a. (2019). the influence of government policy, principle leadership, and participation of parents on strengthening teacher organizations (kkg/mgmp) and development of problem solving in students: indonesia case. international journal of education and practice, 7(4), 479–493. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.61.2019.74.479.493 wood, s. (1999). human resource management and performance. international journal of management reviews, 1(4), 367–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2370.00020 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 131-144 steam as an innovative educational technology olga shatunova1, tatyana anisimova2, fairuza sabirova3 and olga kalimullina4 abstract the purpose of this work is to develop a model for the construction of steam-education, which is based on project training in the so-called "creative spaces". "creative spaces" are integration areas of schoolchildren, students and graduate students working in the format of joint work on projects initiated by various structures of a society and business. the authors of the article analyzed the experience of different countries in the implementation of stem and steam-education and identified the effective ways of structuring technical disciplines, art and creative activity into a single integration program. during 2017-2018 years within the framework of informal and nonformal education, an experimental work was carried out with 32 schoolchildren and 34 students, aimed at determining the level of the development of such competences as: the ability to manage projects and processes, system thinking, the ability to art creativity, the ability to work within the teams, groups and individuals, the ability to work in a regime of high uncertainty and a rapid change in the conditions of tasks. analysis of the results of experimental work has shown that the use of "creative spaces" for the implementation of project activities of schoolchildren and students, the inclusion of the category "art" in its content allows students to form skills and competencies necessary for the industry 4.0. key words: stem, steam, art, creative abilities, informal and nonformal, training, project training, industry 4.0. introduction throughout the world, the process of training for the industry 4.0 is an urgent problem, as today the pace of technology development is several times ahead of the pace of changes in the education system. many jobs, that are being taught now will become unnecessary tomorrow, so new educational models are needed to correspond to the changing paradigm of industrial production. the following systemic changes should be the basis of such models (aleksankov, 2017): 1 department of education, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, elabuga, russia, olgashat67@mail.ru 2 department of mathematics and applied informatics, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, elabuga, russia, anistat@mail.ru 3 department of physics, kazan federal university, elabuga institute, elabuga, russia, fmsabir@mail.ru 4 department of management and modeling in socio-economic systems, the bonch-bruevich saint-petersburg state university of telecommunications, saint-petersburg, russia, chemireva@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 131-144 132 1. digitalization of education. in essence, this means the expansion, with the help of digital solutions and informational systems, of students' access to the educational resources of the best universities in the world, to remote data from the results of scientific experiments and research, to the library of engineering tasks and problems, and to the creation of distributed labor, research and educational teams. 2. personalization of training. this means deepening and developing the existing practice of creating an individual educational trajectory with the possibility of returning to the branch points and acquiring additional skills throughout the life. another aspect of personalization is the consideration of the requirements and requests of not only students, but also direct employers. 3. the project approach. it is an integral component of in-depth education, which allows to significantly increase the effectiveness of the educational process from the first stage of understanding and identification of problems to the final stage of practical work. the project approach is inextricably linked with adaptive education, the main component of which is training through practical activities in the subjects of the market, industry and science. 4. integration of formal and non-formal education, which actually means blurring the physical boundaries of the university and shifting the focus from the process of gaining knowledge to its recognition and assessment, regardless of the actual place of obtaining knowledge and skills. 5. making of creative spaces that actually act as integration areas for students of various specialties, real business sector and industry, academic and professional education. a prerequisite for the work of such sites is a joint work on projects initiated by the real sector of the economy. 6. making of inter-university courses (universityhubs) in contrast to the usual network interaction of universities means the creation of real sites in the form of scientific and educational centers created with the participation and under the auspices of various universities. in many advanced countries, such as australia, great britain, israel, canada, china, singapore, the united states, the so-called steam-education is developing, the idea of which has become a continuation of the stem-education concept (science, technology, engineering, mathematics). for example, in the us, stem-education is recognized by the national council for research (national research council) and the national science foundation (nsf) as the technological basis of a developed society. the degree of training in the field of stem is an indicator of the nation's ability to support its development (frolov, 2010). shatunova et al. inclusion in the stem-education of creative disciplines, which can be designated by the term arts art, expands this direction and enriches its creative component. today there is an active movement from stem to steam education (tarnoff, 2011; sousa & pilecki, 2013). the unity of the scientific-technical and arts-directions in education is also explained from the physiological point of view. the so-called "left" side of the brain is responsible for logic: it helps to memorize the facts and draw logical conclusions. the "right" side of the brain is responsible for thinking through direct perception and provides creative, instinctive-intuitive thinking. the work of both hemispheres is important: if one of them does not work, then it, like any muscle of the body, will become atrophied, unclaimed. therefore, it is wrong to make a choice between technical and humanitarian sciences, they should harmoniously combine in the content of education, which fully meets the needs of the economy of the industry 4.0. members of the bipartisan commission for the development of steam education, established in 2013 in the us congress, announced that "only activation of both hemispheres of the brain will teach people to think creatively and innovatively, which will be crucial for the growth of the economy in the 21st century and the creation of highperformance jobs ". according to the head of the personnel service of the medical company rally health tom perrot in the near future, the it-business will be especially acute in steamspecialists, since the robots are about to start coping with the duties for which stem-education is needed, better than people. but machines are unlikely to master the humanities (for example, psychology or art) yet in the foreseeable future. in the nearest future the development of the product design, its aesthetics and philosophy will help it specialists to create new competitive solutions and therefore humanitarian disciplines will be needed here that teach students to understand the human essence and think creatively (perrault, 2016). the idea of using the methods of all-round development in the sphere of education does not have any know-how. for example, there is the concept of sel, which implies the development of social and emotional skills in children, which are placed on a big stake in the education of "people of the future". alternatively, the method of phenomenologically-oriented teaching and teaching of pbl, similar to stem in the sense that here and there attempts are made to combine different disciplines in the study or workup of a topic (estapa & tank, 2017). this pbl methodology and the stem concept largely provide for the reinforcement of technical disciplines by humanitarian ones. therefore, a logical step was an attempt to "legitimize" such an association, to connect the creative aspect of personal development to the purely technical concept of stem. so there were systems journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 131-144 134 where along with science, technology, engineering and mathematics are present art (from english "art") this is the concept of steam, music (english "music") stemm, reading ("reading" along with art) stream. the steam method was the most widely used as a full-fledged, selfsufficient phenomenon (maeda, 2012). in general, if we evaluate the prospects of these two concepts "pure" stem and stem with a creative component, the first of them was more in demand at the end of the last century. at the same time, steam can respond adequately and effectively to the challenges not only of today, but also of the future. here we are talking about the fact that a significant part of the work processes are now being automated, and in the future, as analysts predict, more and more professions will fall into the risk zone, disappearing one after another they will be replaced by artificial intelligence. and so far, among the few skills that in the foreseeable future will not succumb to the pressure of artificial intelligence, there remain empathy and emotional intelligence. theoretical background studies on the implementation of elements of steam education are conducted in many countries: the united states, australia, south korea, canada, thailand, etc. the possibility of including the element "art", used in the abbreviation steam, as shown by the study of experience in the implementation of steam-education, quite diverse, and they expand as the students’ progress through the basic levels of education. for example, in kindergartens and junior classes, such an area of physical knowledge as acoustics can serve as an element linking stem and steam. according to the researchers, acoustics is ideal for steam, since it is closely related to one of the areas of art music (goates, et al., 2017). it is clear that this requires the pedagogical staff training, and there is such an experience of cooperation (training) acoustics research group at brigham young university (byu) with primary school teachers who subsequently successfully integrated art into teaching activities (goates, et al, 2017). a set of activities on increasing of younger schoolchildren’s interest in physical phenomena can be integrated into the system of steam-education (sabirova & deryagin, 2018; mullins, 2019). researchers at the university of ghent argue that by incorporating art into stem programs, educational activities can become more attractive to a wider audience. as a model of such shatunova et al. educational activity they represent the international week of robotics and art for secondary school students (wyffels, et al., 2016). scientists from finland (thuneberg, et al., 2017) point to the need to improve creativity in mathematical education in school. they offer mobile interactive mathematical exhibitions "the art of mathematics." in australia, an educational program has been developed, according to which teachers include in stem programs on the history and culture of aboriginal and torres strait islander peoples, economic and cultural influences of australia and asia (taylor, 2018). since 2011, the initiative "scientist for the future" (sft) has been supported in chicago. the sft initiative is intended to use a training program based on steam, and is a partnership between higher education institutions, out-of-school organizations and providers of non-formal education. the initiative is implemented in all communities during the academic year, within which various learning modules, such as "alternative energies", "physics of sound and mathematics of music", "people and plants", "robotics" "and" astronomy " are studied in the time free from basic studies or work (caplan, 2017). this initiative helped to increase the level of knowledge in the areas that aroused interest and the growth of a positive attitude towards steam. in russia, this problem is also understood the centers for technical education support (tstpo) are being opened, where the tasks of involving students in engineering and robotics are partially being solved. business companies are actively being involved in the implementation of projects for subject-oriented education of children and young people, which confirms the correctness of this strategy in education. "on the way of convergence of engineering, natural science and humanitarian knowledge, it is very important to acquire and develop meta-competence among students, since they determine the success of young people in a post-industrial society, and the design laboratories that unite science, technology and art should become the environment for the emergence of competencies!" , said sergey kuvshinov, director of the international institute for new educational technologies of the russian state university for the humanities and curator of the new steam-center project (leading universities, 2017). the need for an interdisciplinary approach in steam education (inter-, transand crossdisciplinary learning), implemented with the cooperation of subject teachers, the use of creativity in the work of secondary school teachers for the development of critical thinking of students is convincingly justified by the results of an international study where secondary schools australia, the united states, canada and singapore took part (harris & bruin, 2018). the study showed that journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 131-144 136 with establishing a trusting relationship between teachers and students, favorable conditions are created for developing the creative potential of both. in some countries, experiments are being conducted on the use of interdisciplinary strategies for university and high school teachers. the results show that using steam-technologies in studying physical and mathematical disciplines by high school students of colleges and university students (segura, 2017; chanthala et al., 2018) performance and self-esteem improve, and creative abilities are developed. the experience of research in korea in the field of steam education also shows that it is preferable to conduct physical research in connection with the humanities and art (paik et al., 2018; moon & kang, 2015). thus, the implementation of steam-education is feasible at all levels of education, from preschool to professional, often in close cooperation and cooperation between educational and non-academic organizations. method of projects as a basis of steam-education it seems to us that steam teachers can implement training programs based on projects. in the russian pedagogical practice, the technological education of schoolchildren within the subject "technology" can serve as an excellent example of steam-education. the purpose of studying this subject is to form ideas about the components of the techno sphere, about modern production and about the technologies that are common in it. technology as a school subject today contributes to the professional self-determination of schoolchildren in the labor market, it focuses on the use of design, research, project and scientific and technical activities. educational and cognitive activity of students in the subject area "technology" is based on natural scientific, technical, technological, entrepreneurial and humanitarian knowledge. there is no other discipline in the school that would use the material of such a wide range of fundamental and applied sciences for its own purposes. however, the subject "technology" is not taught in russian schools for high school students, and therefore the projects are implemented in the framework of informal and informational education, which is a certain difficulty for technology teachers. the way out of this situation can be the creation and development of interdisciplinary scientific and educational "creative spaces" in the format of scientific and educational centers that are primarily aimed at creating an environment for effective interdisciplinary project work of schoolchildren, students and graduate students on orders initiated by the real industrial sector. one shatunova et al. of the main roles of such sites should be the role of integrators of the scientific, educational, business and industrial environment that provide on their territory a synergy of knowledge and experience from different spheres (dagdilelis, 2018; mallinson, 2018; solas & sutton, 2018). the experience of creating such "creative spaces" is available in foreign universities (for example, design factory in aalto university, finland, fablab network and others). this experience requires separate consideration, but one of the important issues is the degree of integration of such centers into a standardized educational process. a distinctive feature of "creative spaces" should be the free construction of the learning process on the basis of the design method of instruction, with the provision of students' access to the largest possible array of educational materials with the obligatory expertise of the teachers about the reliability and relevance of the teaching materials used. the independence of training should be a prerequisite for training in such research and educational centers (gratchev & jeng, 2018; sebastianelli, 2018; tarman, 2018). method research design the experimental work involved the organization of "creative spaces" for carrying out the project work of schoolchildren and students in working groups that were formed from the number of schoolchildren and students. working groups were formed on the basis of the free choice of students and students of the themes of projects and their interest in carrying out project activities. at the organizational training, invited students and students of the elabuga institute of the kazan federal university discussed the topics of the projects and broke up into working groups of 5-6 people. as objects of design, socially important topics were chosen, relevant both for the level of the school and the university, and for the level of the city and region. to each group was attached a mentor from among university professors, as well as a scientific consultant a specialist in a certain field (museum worker, designer, ecologist, businessman, etc.). participants during 2017-2018 years in the framework of informal and informational education, an experimental work was carried out with 32 schoolchildren and 34 students of the kazan federal university, aimed at determining the level of the formation of such competences as: the ability to manage projects and processes, system thinking, the ability to art creativity, the ability to work with collectives, groups and individuals, the ability to work in a regime of high uncertainty and a journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 131-144 138 rapid change in the conditions of tasks. the project activity for carrying out the experimental work was not chosen by chance. for the modern world of work, the confusion of personal and professional identification and competencies becomes the norm, gradually the standard workplace is replaced by a project work with a multitude of tasks and activities. data collection work on the projects lasted 3 months, students gathered once a week to discuss topical issues and implement the project. then the project works were defended before the tender commission. representatives of business and culture, city administration, teachers of the university and teachers of schools were invited to the commission. scientific advisers and mentors who worked with groups, preliminary estimated the work of each participant on the following criteria (savinova & shubnyakova, 2015): 1. achieving the result and its awareness is the predominance of the desire to get a concrete result over the tendency to unproductive participation in the process. ability to assess the degree of completeness of the case and the adequacy of the result of the goal set earlier. analysis of their own activities, understanding of working situations and problem-solving tools. 2. initiative and independence the degree of intellectual activity of the student in the process of searching and developing ways to solve the set goal. the ability to make independent decisions within the scope of their competence, to take responsibility for the results in complex situations involving uncertainty (in the absence of external guidance). readiness to go beyond the set tasks, independent initiative. independence in the formulation of the objectives of its activities. 3. time planning, self-organization the ability to rationally allocate the time allotted for the project, consistently solve the tasks in the framework of a common goal. 4. communication and cooperation the ability to work in collaboration with other team members, the ability to fulfill their role in the team, the ability to jointly solve the problems encountered. ability to empathy. level of emotional intelligence. 5. integration interest in various fields of activity, openness to the tools of other related areas, readiness to consult with leaders of other projects, to approach the project systematically. 6. creativity the rejection of the cliched mental patterns, the ability to find non-standard solutions to problems. ability to offer an original idea, allowing to bring the project to a new level. high variability of proposed solutions. shatunova et al. data analysis each criterion was evaluated using a 5-point system. based on the identified criteria and indicators, five levels of skills were determined for the industry of industry 4.0: low (0 to 3 points), below average (3 to 3.5 points), medium (3.5 to 4 points), higher average (from 4 to 4.5 points), high (from 4.5 to 5 points). the competitive commission evaluated the performance of the teams on the following criteria: consistency and reasoning of the presentation of the project results, speaking skills of the speakers, ability to interact with the audience, ability to conduct discussions with experts, readiness and ability to answer questions, creative approach to choosing the presentation form of the results of the project work, quality clearance explanatory note. findings analysis of the results of experimental work has shown that the use of "creative spaces" for the implementation of project activities of schoolchildren and students, the inclusion of the category "art" in its content allows students to form skills and competencies necessary for the industry 4.0.at the organizational training, before the start of the projects, the scientific leaders of the groups exhibited scores for each criterion and determined the levels of the assessed skills and competencies. the average scores are shown in table 1. table 1 initial levels of the formation of skills and competencies of the participants in the experiment level low below average average schoolchildren 6,25 % 18,75 % 53,13 % students 2,94 % 20,59 % 44,12 % level low below average average schoolchildren 6,25 % 18,75 % 53,13 % at the last stage of the project implementation, the team leaders conducted an expert evaluation of the levels of skills and competencies of each participant in the experiment. the data are given in table 2. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 131-144 140 table 2 the final levels of the formation of skills and competencies of the participants in the experiment levels low below the average average schoolchildren 0 % 3,12 % 9,38 % students 0 % 0 % 8,82 % levels low below the average average schoolchildren 0 % 3,12 % 9,38 % 88% of schoolchildren and 91% showed the formation of these competencies at a level above the average. the final results are shown in figure 1. fig. 1. levels of formation of skills and competencies of schoolchildren and students before and after the experiment in our opinion, the competencies viewed do not contradict, but only complement the competencies proposed by other researchers. in particular, as the main elements of project activities aimed at developing skills and competencies for the economy of industry 4.0, we propose: design, scientific research, solving non-trivial tasks, developing non-standard thinking, flexible working hours, work experience, working with scientific literature, etc. (formation ..., 2018, p. 642). according to the results of the world economic forum survey, by 2020 the following skills will become critically important: comprehensive problem solving, critical thinking, creativity, people management, coordination with others emotional intelligence, service orientation, assessment and decision making, negotiations, cognitive flexibility. they are also reflected in the proposed model. 0,00% 10,00% 20,00% 30,00% 40,00% 50,00% 60,00% 70,00% 80,00% lo w b e lo w t h e a ve ra g e a v e ra g e a b o ve t h e a ve ra g e h ig h lo w b e lo w t h e a ve ra g e a v e ra g e a b o ve t h e a ve ra g e h ig h before the experiment after the experiment shatunova et al. in a number of scientific studies, the authors highlight other critical competencies necessary for successful operations in the digital economy. their analysis was carried out in the monograph “trends in the development of the economy and industry in the conditions of digitalization” (aletdinova, 2017). among them there is the collective network competence “the ability to apply knowledge based on collective intelligence in the internet environment”. the development of this competence is also ensured in project activities. thus, the proposed model can be considered as a universal tool for the qualitative preparation of schoolchildren and students for professional activity in the context of the economy of the industry. conclusion the future of economic growth largely depends on the availability of qualified engineering personnel, the beginning of which should be established at the secondary school level and continue in colleges and universities through the support and active implementation of steam education. this support should be carried out through the targeted development programs, which, in their turn, should include the active involvement of trainees and their mentors in project activities. project activities in the context of "creative spaces" within the framework of informal and informational education make it possible to form and develop in each of its participants the skills and competencies that are necessary for the person of the digital age. acknowledgements we would like to thank anonymous reviewers for their comments and recommendations. this research is supported by rfbr (grant 16-2912965\18). the work is performed according to the russian government program of competitive growth of kazan federal university. references aleksankov, a. m. (2017). the fourth industrial revolution and modernization of education: international experience. strategic priorities, 1(13), 53-69. aletdinova, a.a. (2017). from the development of cognitive abilities of workers to the formation of network competencies in the digital economy. trends in the economy and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 131-144 142 industry in the context of digitalization. st. petersburg: publishing house of the polytechnic university, 230-246. caplan, m. (2017). scientists for tomorrow a self-sustained initiative to promote stem in outof-school time frameworks in under-served community-based organizations: evaluation and lessons learned (conference paper) . asee annual conference and exposition, conference proceedings volume 2017 june, 24 june 2017124th asee annual conference and exposition; columbus; united states; 25 june 2017 through 28 june 2017; code 129594. chanthala, ch., santiboon, t., ponkham, k. (2018). instructional designing the stem education model for fostering creative thinking abilities in physics laboratory environment classes. aip conference proceedings. vol. 1923, 030010-1–030010-12. dagdilelis, v. (2018). preparing teachers for the use of digital technologies in their teaching practice. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 109-121. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/345 estapa, a.t., tank, k.m. (2017). supporting integrated stem in the elementary classroom: a professional development approach centered on an engineering design challenge. international journal of stem education. vol. 4, issue 1, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-017-0058-3. formation of digital economy and industry: new challenges (2018). st. petersburg: publishing house of the polytechnic university, 660 p. frolov, a.v. (2010). the role of stem education in the "new economy" of the usa. questions of the new economy. 4 (16), 80-90. goates, c.b., whiting. j.k., berardi, m.l., gee, k.l., neilsen, t.b. (2017). the sound of steam: acoustics as the bridge between the arts and stem. proceedings of meetings on acoustics. vol. 26, is. 1, pp. 025002-1–025002-9 gratchev, i., jeng, d.-s. (2018). introducing a project-based assignment in a traditionally taught engineering course. european journal of engineering education. vol. 43, issue 5, 788799. harris, a., de bruin, l.r. (2018). secondary school creativity, teacher practice and steam education: an international study. journal of educational change. vol. 19, issue 2, 153179. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/345 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-017-0058-3 shatunova et al. leading universities have joined forces to create an innovative educational platform “steam academy 2030” url: https://pikabu.ru/story/vedushchie_vuzyi_obedinili_usiliya_po_sozdaniyu_innovatsionno y_obrazovatelnoy_ploshchadki_steam_akademii_2030_4987830 maeda, j. (2012). stem to steam: art in k-12 is key to building a strong economy. edutopia: what works in education. url: http://www.edutopia.org/blog/stem-to-steamstrengthenseconomy-john-maeda. mallinson, c. (2018). technology-enhanced project-based learning: a platform for graduate student research and outreach on campus and in the community. journal of english linguistics. vol. 46, issue 3, 229-245. moon, s., kang, k. (2015). trend of steam education-related domestic studies focusing on physics-related studies. new physics: sae mulli, vol. 65, no. 12, 1199-1208 mullins, r. (2019). using dewey’s conception of democracy to problematize the notion of disability in public education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 1-17. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/24 paik s.-h. kim, s.-w., lee, y. (2018). a study on teachers practices of steam education in korea. international journal of pure and applied mathematics. vol. 118, issue special issue 19b, 2339-2365. perrault, t. (2016). digital companies need more liberal arts majors harvard business review. url: https://hbr.org/2016/01/digital-companies-need-more-liberal-arts-majors sabirova, f.m, deryagin, a.v. (2018). the creation of junior schoolchildren’s interest in the experimental study of physical phenomena using the elements of the technology of problem-based. international journal of engineering & technology. vol. 7 (2.13), 150154. savinova, s., shubnyakova, n. d. (2015). project activity in professional training of bachelorsmanagers. innovative projects and programs in education. no. 5. 46-52. sebastianelli, r. (2018). multiple student learning objectives in basic business statistics: strategies, assessment, and recommendations. journal of education for business, vol. 93, issue 7, 340-351. http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/24 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 131-144 144 segura, w.a. (2017). the use of steam in higher education for high school teachers. wmsci 2017 21st world multi-conference on systemics, cybernetics and informatics, proceedings, vol. 1, 308-312. solas, e., & sutton, f. (2018). incorporating digital technology in the general education classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 1-15. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/338 sousa, d.a., & pilecki, t. (2013). from stem to steam: using brain-compatible strategies to integrate the arts. thousand oaks: corwin press. 280 p. tarman, b. (2018). the awareness of social studies teacher candidates’ regarding special area competencies and the overlap level of these competencies with social studies degree. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(2), 16-28. tarnoff j. (2011). stem to steam. recognizing the value of creative skills in the competitive. huffpost. may 25, 2011. url: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/johntarnoff/stem-to-steam-recognizing_b_756519.html taylor, p.ch. (2018). enriching stem with the arts to better prepare 21st century citizens. aip conference proceedings. vol. 1923, 020002-1–020002-5. thuneberg, h., salmi, h., fenyvesi, k. (2017). hands-on math and art exhibition promoting science attitudes and educational plans. education research international, vol. 2017, 1–13. wyffels, f., van de steene, w., roets, j., ciocci, m., carbajal, j. (2016). building artbots to attract students into stem learning. corr abs/1608.03405. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/john-tarnoff/stem-to-steam-recognizing_b_756519.html http://www.huffingtonpost.com/john-tarnoff/stem-to-steam-recognizing_b_756519.html file://///komp2/мои%20документы/steam-образование/vol.%201923,%20%20no.%201%20 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (1), 164-192 porter’s five forces: evaluating education management practices for the postgraduate program of uin rm said surakarta, indonesia teguh budiharso1, imam makruf 2 , imam mujahid3 abstract this research investigated strategic management in the postgraduate program at the islamic education management school. it concentrated on strategy formulation, implementation, and evaluation to assess the curriculum, operation, and competition. moreover, it used a descriptive design and content analysis to develop swot (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis and porter's five forces model. this study, with 19 participants, gathered information through a questionnaire, a checklist, and document analysis. the results disclosed that curriculum implementation was not satisfactory and the s3 mpi program did not offer adequate curriculum content, and no innovation was well-prepared. based on the swot analysis, curriculum, faculty quality, and marketable content were present posing threats. innovations and strategic management to contest within internal competitors are low, and no consideration has been available to urge and expand s3 mpi in the global market. perceptions of teaching quality, brand image, research sources, and admissions procedures fail to signify proper strategic management implementation. keywords: strategic management, swot analysis, innovation, implementation. introduction this study presents an argument for strategic management and postgraduate curriculum transformation. it has assessed indonesia's state islamic university rm said surakarta’s (from now on: s3 mpi) implementation policy strategies, centering on management as a policy and how curriculum transformation applies throughout the complete program. as it is a higher education (he) institution, s3 mpi will confront inevitable challenges to compete in global markets, demanding attention through strategic management and curriculum transformation (mondkar, 2017; wallace, 1999). education reform has brought unprecedented changes in higher education policy. an extraordinary institution with many aspects like a university is ready for transformation (porter, 1980; speziale, 2012), improving lifetime earnings and productivity by sanctioning citizens to play a critical role 1dr. candidate, uin rm said surakarta, indonesia; email: teguhprof@gmail.com 2dr. uin rm said surakarta, indonesia; email: imam.makruf@iain-surakarta.ac.id 3 dr, uin rm said surakarta, indonesia; email: imammuhajidsolo@gmail.com mailto:imam.makruf@iain-surakarta.ac.id mailto:imammuhajidsolo@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 165 in plummeting poverty and ignorance, inflicting society (quigley, 1994). from this perspective, higher education offers invaluable tools for decreasing income disparity and furthering the global knowledge economy (arif et al., 2013; pringle & huisman, 2011). globally, university graduates have turned into social and knowledge capital, prompting intense competition between public and private institutions (mondkar, 2017; rashid & mustafa, 2022; speziale, 2012). global he policy stimulates competition and innovation by providing students with options (porter, 2008). it has augmented choice and competition within the system. students’ choices will increase (mondkar, 2017), and the publication and teaching quality will accompany their reputation (budiharso, et. al., 2022; rashid & mustafa, 2022;). speziale (2012) suggests that globalization, enlargement, and massification have critical ramifications globally (mahlalela, 2017). higher education essentially depends on student demand. university workloads and student demands have been rising (arif et al., 2013; yacek, 2017). students are both contributors and consumers (rashid & mustafa, 2022). thus, knowledge management enhances performance, innovation, competitive advantage, lesson sharing, organizational integration, unceasing improvement, and resource conservation (budiharso, et. al., 2022; rashid & mustafa, 2022). higher education has grown into a market-supplier of "experienced goods" (qualified graduates) (arif et al., 2013; hubbard & beamish, 2011;). strategic planning helps universities attain their core educational missions, research, and public service. two essential skills include the current precise assessment and planning (hubbard & beamish, 2011). higher education is a strategic government agency (mahlalela, 2017). the decreased public spending and increased resource efficiency have positively affected higher education’s strategic planning (meek & wood, 1977; mondkar, 2017). boyett (1996) has claimed that conventional internal organizations may not respond dynamically, despite the radical changes in the macro-environment. a substantial benefit from the public sector about strategic planning was seriously considered (common et al., 1992). to kotler & fox (1995), annual plans are only beneficial if they partake in a long-term strategy for a company. thus, educational institutions should adopt a more strategic approach. the long-term strategy must take precedence over the short-term one regarding planning (hubbard & beamish, 2011). the long-term goal developed the future. therefore, the long-term strategy’s annual review is required (mahlalela, 2017). a society's production, distribution, and budiharso, et al. consumption rely on economic lifelines. governments must critically reflect on higher education’s role and development in addressing society's needs (meyers & vangronigen, 2019). structure review and relevant programs are among the novel issues in higher education as the need for excellence in teaching and learning. the need to remain competitive with other institutions and funding adjustments for the current economic crisis’ effects are other pressing subjects (carvalho et al., 2021; chang & huang, 2006). it has become increasingly crucial for teachers to stay alert and trained in a contemporary and focused manner thanks to the advancements in information technology. the organizations training teachers must transform or risk being left behind due to rapid technological changes (carvalho et al., 2021). therefore, universities should cooperate with the general public and review their curriculum regularly to ensure that it remains updated and effective for students (meyers & vangronigen, 2019). the way s3 mpi adjusts, the quality assurance center to implement the strategic management policy is relevant. usually, postgraduate programs deal with the curriculum’s quality assurance in islamic universities (justyna, 2016). budiharso, et. al., (2022) has registered curriculum content, innovation, and expertise, not building a foundation of philosophical sciences for the doctorate. the establishment of research and academic publication for an international level is not agreed upon because the needs assessment to set teaching materials is inadequate. thus, this research applies a further analysis to comprehend the policy about strategic management. research questions the research questions were as follows: 1) how can planning on strategic management policy define curriculum quality, staff, and organization in the s3 mpi? 2) how do internal and external factors apply using swot analysis to see the organization strategy implementation in s3 mpi? 3) how is the strategy assessment fulfilled depending on porter’s five force model to see the competitiveness and global needs of s3 mpi customers? journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 167 literature review strategic management david (2011) suggests that strategic management combines art and science and is used to develop, apply, and assess the goals. it has three stages: strategy formulation, implementation, and assessment. moreover, it is at the center of a company’s performance (carvalho et al., 2021). strategic management necessitates three steps: preparation, execution, and follow-up monitoring (chetty et al., 2014). a crucial part of strategic management is a contemporary management model, including the interaction between the organization's internal processes and those with the external environment (dobbs, 2014). each stage is monitored with an assessment and revision. maintaining and improving competitive advantages contains evaluating, planning, and implementing phases. stakeholders’ strategic action is discernible in revenue changes, market share, and profits (chetty et al., 2014; hubbard & beamish, 2011). fig. 1 shows the strategic management’s most fundamental aspects. figure 1 a comprehensive strategic-management model research verified that planning was a critical instrument for the development process (meyers & vangronigen, 2019). the terms “strategy” and “strategic planning” are still broadly mixed up. despite their similarities, strategy and strategic planning have unique concepts in schools (carvalho et al., 2021). presently, it accentuates the need for a comprehensive and holistic business ethics, social responsibility, and environmental sustainability perform external audit develop vision and mission statements establish long-term objectives generate, evaluate, and select strategies implement strategies management issues implement strategies marketing finance, accounting, r&d and ms issues measure and evaluate performance perform internal audit global/international issues budiharso, et al. approach to school planning. school strategy comprises three principal dimensions: vision, mission, and direction; intentional thinking; and articulated decision-making and action (carvalho et al., 2021; eacott, 2011). therefore, school strategic plans should originate from a school's overall strategy. plans must be devised and applied according to the school's global mission. execution quality is linked to planning process quality (meyers & vangronigen, 2019). planning helps a company contest. it requires efficient recruitment (meyers & vangronigen, 2019). strategic management has the pursuing traits: • top-down involvement • vast resources • factors affecting the firm's future • future-oriented • impacts across functions or businesses • non-generative choices the process consists of five stages: setting goals, analyzing data, developing a strategy, implementing, and monitoring it. current objectives and strategies are verified throughout the company. the internal structure is reassessed in a strategic management context (meyers & vangronigen, 2019). educational management is a school administration’s long-term transformation, aiming to improve their quality by monitoring the company's goals and objectives (abel & seng 2018). strategic management subjects students to new and exciting aspects of traditional business. it provides a realistic perspective of business management and helps integrate the most popular subjects (dobbs, 2014; hubbard & beamish, 2011). there exist 15 major strategic management models to select from: 1. a scorecard with a balanced distribution of points 2. a strategy map 3. value chain analysis 4. swot analysis. 5. the pest analysis (political, economic, sociocultural, and technological) 6. preparing for the unexpected 7. the strategy of the red and blue oceans 8. porter's five forces model journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 169 9. the thompson and strickland model 10. the vrio framework (value, rarity, imitability, and organization) 11 glueck's model and andrew's model 12. the schendel and hofer model 13. korey's model 14. schematic model of a system 15. management of competencies goals, aims and objectives the term "goal" denotes something that one expects to accomplish or has started to do. aiming is the act of directing one's thoughts, feelings, and actions toward a predetermined target in mind (edwards, 2012; hole et al., 2019). a goal looks like a long-term action plan you have in mind. goals are commonly subsets of the ultimate goal. short-term goals are those achievable quickly (wallace, 1999). long-term goals take a long time to achieve. if you want to accomplish a thing soon, it develops into a short-term goal (mondkar, 2017). "too many goals" alludes to the last two, not the complete list of objectives. planning for the next four to five years is termed longterm planning, covering many objectives (carvalho et al., 2021; chang & huang, 2006). a long-term strategy assesses a company's current market position, specifies the desired future outcomes, and formulates a plan. short-term goals are like annual goals (mahlalela, 2017). they have commonalities with the goal (timeframe, conditions, behavior, and criterion). goals can be process, performance, or outcome-based. moreover, goals for specific actions or performance "processes" are called process goals (muslim & isa 2011). afternoon study sessions, such as two hours a day, may depict an example. yet, personal standards function as the basis for setting performance objectives. winning is what matters (chang & huang, 2006; edwards, 2012; quigley, 1994; tarman & dev, 2018). an organization's performance goals can be achieved in five or more years (kennedy, 2020; porter, 2008;). the company's image and employee relations are long-term objectives’ illustrations (dobbs, 2014). goals should be consistent with your vision, mission, values, and swot. you should ensure that your management team arranges and constructs goals for your organization (chang & huang, 2006; eacott, 2011). an organization’s vision and mission afford a broad sense of direction. long-term organizational goals dictate smaller, more manageable objectives budiharso, et al. employees can resort to as a guide in their everyday tasks (kennedy, 2020; hill & westbrook, 1997). vision and mission a vision is about the organization's future aspirations. it encapsulates its history and current role in society. organizations establish goals to attain their vision and missions (edwards, 2012; quigley, 1994). thus, a vision statement stipulates the company's purpose, goals, and objectives. most vision statement writers find the process gratifying and stimulating, enabling them to explicate the characteristics outlining its strategy (edwards, 2012; quigley, 1994). your vision has two steps: (1) discover the human value in your work and determine your organization's mission, and (2) evaluate what you, your customers, and other stakeholders rate the most. a good vision improves the company’s publicity. it describes shared values and success, providing all stakeholders with a reason to appreciate the company. a good vision implies a long-term goal to strive for in an organization. therefore, it appraises the strategy for achieving the goal (edwards, 2012; quigley, 1994). a mission statement should be introductory, unique, extraordinary, and t-shirt-worthy (edwards, 2012; carvalho et al., 2021). foundational suggests that it explains your organization's purpose. original implies uniqueness. memorable means motivating employees, prospects, and clients. finally, the mission fits on a tee. if you wish your mission statement on a t-shirt, have it short and sweet (pilotti & almubarak, 2021). a mission statement reviews the organization's raison d'être. it expounds on the organization's mission and vision. the mission statement helps employees, customers, vendors, and other stakeholders comprehend the vision (edwards, 2012; google inc., 2014). besides defining the organization's purpose, the vision and mission statements impart a sense of belonging and identity in its employees (dobbs, 2014). the company's vision and mission statements function as a compass, directing everyone toward a single objective. a company's mission statement is a guide for making decisions and outlining the company's core values (hill & westbrook, 1997). mission statements are invaluable as they reinforce a company's identity and unite its stakeholders and employees. company goals and strategies are outlined in their mission statement. its future is portrayed in a vision statement. the mission and vision statements often specify their purpose, goals, and values (carvalho et al., 2021). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 171 swot analysis swot analysis is a strategic planning method inaugurated by hill & westbrook (1997), assessing a strategy or objective's swot (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) (hill & westbrook, 1997). put differently, swot analyses evaluate the pros and cons of action or initiative. employing these elements, companies can decide a plan’s crucial parts. it's not rare to utilize a four-column swot matrix when strategizing for a company. opportunities and threats are not always linked, while strengths and weaknesses are associated (table 1) (chang & huang, 2006; edwards, 2012; hill & westbrook, 1997). table 1 swot analysis model internal environment strengths (s) weaknesses (w) sales staff with vast experience in existing products good relationships with customers good internal communication plentiful traffic successful marketing strategies a reputation for being innovative are you currently struggling to meet deadlines due to excessive work? overwhelming rental costs obsolete market research data cash flow issues excessive stock holdings inadequate record-keeping external environment opportunities (o) threats (t) competing products on the market are less reliable or more expensive than what you use loyal customers product availability for purchase during the holidays increased customer demand customers have asked sales staff for a similar product. competitors have a similar product competitors have initiated a new advertising campaign competitor opening nearby shop the downturn in the economy may imply people are spending less. you must first determine the project's objectives, and then assess the internal and external factors for their fulfillment before conducting a swot analysis (edwards, 2012; rego & nunes, 2010). specifying external influences affecting a project is the external analysis’ goal in a swot analysis. recognizing outside effects inflicting a company's performance is critical (chang & huang, 2006; rego & nunes, 2010). for the internal analysis, one should seek the project's strategic capacity and ability to adapt to changes (chang & huang, 2006). swot analysis includes three steps: (1) specify the strategy used or to be used, (2) identify the essential changes in the environment influencing the project under consideration, and (3) classify the project's strengths and weaknesses, and validate conclusions (rego & nunes, 2010; chang & huang, 2006). budiharso, et al. swot is beneficial for evaluating an organization's internal and external setting (hill & westbrook, 1997). the external analysis investigates threats to company survival and opportunities for growth (edwards, 2012; quigley, 1994). strength alludes to a company's advantages over competitors, while weakness denotes its disadvantages over competitors, internally and externally. thus, strength and opportunity can maximize by minimizing menaces (chang & huang, 2006). by increasing current assets, addressing potential threats, and examining previously untapped potential, the swot analysis essentially searches for locating a company globally (carvalho et al., 2021). it requires a rationale for each of the four quadrants. each company's issue was verified, grouped, and prioritized depending on its relevance. the complexity of the current problem demands a complete examination of the factors prioritized. a swot analysis can include input from many stakeholders, including customers and employees (hill & westbrook, 1997). the strategic analysis can be considered good if implementation and problem-solving after their identification are possible (carvalho et al., 2021; hill & westbrook, 1997). the information gleaned from a swot analysis should be used appropriately by the company when formulating growth-oriented strategies. internal qualities and goals’ characteristics must fit well with the rapidly changing external business environment (chang & huang, 2006; hill & westbrook, 1997). internal factors internal factors, such as your resources and experience form your strengths (s) and weaknesses (w) (hill & westbrook, 1997; chang & huang, 2006). examples of internal factors include, (1) budgeting (funding, income sources, and investment opportunities), (2) resources (location, facilities, and equipment), (3) human resources (employees, volunteers, and target audiences), (4) trademarks, patents, and intellectual property rights, and (5) procedures (employee programs, department hierarchies, and software systems). external factors each company, organization, and person is influenced by external agents. it is a fact even if it doesn't directly or indirectly correspond to an opportunity (o) or a threat (t) (chang & huang, 2006). the list contains things that you or your business cannot control. it includes (1) new technology and changes in audience needs, (2) financial and economic trends affecting the market journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 173 (local, national, and international financial trends), (3) putting money in (donations, legislature, and other sources), and (4) political and environmental rules. porter’s five forces in 1979, michael e. porter developed his five forces model and published it in the harvard business review. he urged businesses to look beyond their direct competitors and do a complete industry analysis to check if they grow. in 1980, porter penned a book called competitive strategy and changed the way people thought about business (dobbs, 2014; magretta, 2012). porter's description of "five forces" was in the first chapter of the foundational text. these forces served as a source of profitability in an industry (banker & bhal, 2019; porter, 1980; 2008). the five-force model was developed to help companies perform better, solve problems, assess competition, and devise corporate strategies. the porter framework allows people to study the essential factors affecting industry profitability (bothwell, 2018; enders et al., 2009). the original porter's five forces diagram is in fig.2. figure 2 porter’s five forces original model budiharso, et al. competitive rivalry porter's "vital force" concept depicts how fierce the competition is among the industry leaders. if more firms enter the market, prices and profits will be influenced, and as a result, business strategies will shift (baptista & preto, 2010). as there exist many quality products availabl e, customers can readily select the best product from another company. it happens when 1) similar products are in one market; 2) competitors use similar strategies; 3) the products have similar features and benefits; 4) industrial growth is slow; 5) the new entry has low barriers (llusar & mercedes, 2006). supplier power: threat of new entrants existing companies and potential newcomers could pose a menace. having many high-quality suppliers decreases costs. it is not easy to find a long-term low-cost supplier if you do not have enough options to choose from. a company's profits ensnare in new investors. thus, long-term marketing and business strategies are requisite. new players can readily infiltrate an established market if entry barriers are low. industry-specific dynamics restricting a new company entry are identified as "barriers to entry" (martin, 2014). they include (1) patent and proprietary rights; (2) access to cutting-edge infrastructure and technology; (3) government-driven barriers or economies of scale and high initial investment; (4) high switching costs for loyal customers; (5) difficulties in acquiring raw materials and (6) acquisition of effective distribution channels (dobbs, 2014). buyer power: threat of substitutes other industries' products may meet similar requirements. more substitutes for a product mean increased competition and less profit. for a producer of boxed fruit juice, coconut water, fresh juice, and soft drinks are all essential substitutes. substitutes can decrease production costs and profits. alternately, the lower substitute prices can increase sales and appeal to more customers, diminishing existing company sales (pringle & huisman (2011). buyer bargaining power crucially impacts the price you use to sell. your customers’ power improves if you only cope with a few. you can set your terms and keep profits with a broad customer base (dobbs, 2014). threat of substitution: bargaining power of customers when buyers lose bargaining power, the substitution extortions ascend (pringle & huisman, 2011). when will buy-in-power be imposed? sales can be affected by modifications in consumer behavior and purchasing power. you may be able to supplant your product or service. substitutes journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 175 are products or services performing the same function, offered by the industry, with comparable properties. switching costs between substitutes and industry products, or buyer obsession with substitutes, can affect the substitute products’ and services’ threats (hubbard & beamish, 2011; klemperer, 1995). industry and profitability request a low substitute threat, the opposite of what buyers want. when (a) demand’s cross-price elasticity is low or (b) switching costs are high, substitute products and services are less probable (dobbs, 2014). threat of new entry: supplier’s bargaining power many products and services are offered by those supplying raw materials. it exhibits the relevance of maintaining good supplier relations. suppliers have the ability to establish terms, prices, and availability depending on market vigor and dynamics in the current market. a solid supplier can increase raw material costs without decreasing sales volume (dobbs, 2014). it is critical to know how readily new competitors can enter your market. a new entrant can quickly disrupt the competitive environment in your industry if overhead is low and expertise is freely available. pringle & huisman (2011) enhanced the porter fundamental model shown in fig. 3. figure 3 porter's five forces analysis (pringle & huisman, 2011; porter, 2008) there exist five external threats menacing a company's competitiveness and survival, explored by this well-known tool for company analysis. the industry competition is modified by the threat of new entrants, powerful suppliers, buyers/customers, substitute products, and rivalry among existing companies (porter, 2008). fundamentally, the new competition threat corresponds to a budiharso, et al. company's market, being taken over by another company. a supplier can exert influence over the current company if its product is exclusive and few suppliers can supply it. the current company's bargaining power will decrease due to its dependence on that supplier. when purchased in bulk or the products are not unique and can be replaced, buyers or customers will have crucial bargaining power (quigley, 1994). substitute products threaten the company’s current production concerning function and necessity. when two or more businesses compete for customers' business, they're involved in "existing company rivalry" (dobbs, 2014). the specific external threat analysis of a company's competitiveness, the essential focus of this tool, is solid in porter's five forces model. however, the internal environment analysis is weak (croucher et al., 2019). specifying the company's current capacities regarding strength and weakness is critical to overwhelming external threats. a company’s viability and competitiveness relate to how well its management interacts with its internal and external environments (dobbs, 2014). it must use its resources to sustain and improve its competitiveness. moreover, its strengths and weaknesses must be adequately addressed by replying to opportunities and threats within and outside the company (pringle & huisman, 2011). for the education needs, porter’s five forces are amended as in fig. 4. figure 4 rivalry of porter’s model in education potential new entrants • new institutions • inenational institutions • duplicates from exixting player suppliers • faculty • administrators rivalry among existing higher education institutions buyers • parents • students substitutes • online degrees • for profit universities journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 177 method design this study was a descriptive design, using a quantitative approach for the data analysis (creswell, 2014). the research concentrated on implementing strategic management and its transformation in curriculum innovation. the curriculum content, academic personnel, operation strategies, and impacts on market shares were particularized. it used documents as the foundational data making it content analysis (zhang & wildemuth, 2009; 2016). a descriptive approach depending on descriptive statistics with mean and rate percentage is wielded for the data analysis (creswell, 2014). the islamic education management postgraduate program of state islamic university rm said surakarta, indonesia conducted the research. respondents table 2 shows the respondents that included four professors, 12 ph.d. students, and three staff. they all came from the postgraduate programs of s3 mpi. of the 15 respondents, 12 were male, and 3 were male. they participated in the s3 mpi operation so that they were knowledgeable about it. table 2 study respondents no male female total frequency % frequency % 1 professor 4 21 0 0 4 2 students 10 52.6 2 10.5 12 3 staff 2 10.5 1 5.3 3 16 84.2 3 15.8 19 instruments this study collected the data with two methods. the first was a swot and porter's five forces checklist, and the researcher devised this tool utilizing porter's five forces rubrics. the second was an interview guide. before collecting data, the checklist was controlled to see its validity employing the kmo test and its reliability using the cronbach alpha test. the coefficient of kmo was 0.819 and cronbach alpha 0.830, proving that the checklist was usable and dependable. furthermore, the interview guide was developed, with the same procedure: (1) its subject and focus were assessed, via discussions with professors, students, and staff, (2) themes from the discussion were listed appropriately, (3) a professor having expertise in strategic management, checked the budiharso, et al. topic list, (4) the researcher performed an anchor, interviewing to two students and one professor. the result of interview guides the researcher to transcribe the protocols verbatim, identify data, code data, and analyze the themes. the researcher determined the proper duration of the face-toface interview for each participant due to the piloting. data collection the data came from questionnaire’s answers, checklist, and document analysis. a questionnaire and checklist were distributed to 15 participants on three occasions, regulating the faculty group, student group, and staff group. then, the answers were tabulated based on themes, scopes, and categories. data collection was scrutinized to see the curriculum evaluation, staff analysis, and organization objectives. to this end, a swot analysis and checklist of porter’s five forces were employed. documents analysis assessed four types of data sources: s3 mpi curriculum, s3 mpi academic guidance, vision, and mission program, syllabus, and teaching materials for the learning process in the s3 mpi. the data covered strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats, implementing swot analysis. in line with porter’s five forces, data were gathered to support the evidence. data analysis this study covered two basic techniques for data analyses; deriving its design from applied descriptive design (creswell, 2014) and content analysis design (zhang & wildemuth, 2009; 2016). the techniques were descriptive statistics analysis and thematic analysis. thus, descriptive statistics provided tables, diagrams, frequency, and rate percentages. each answer was noted in the questionnaire and checklist, and the rate percentage was specified. moreover, the documents were analyzed using qualitative content analysis by zhang & wildemuth (2009; 2016). the content analysis included: (1) converting numeric values and text into narrative data, (2) determining themes and units of analyses related to the research questions, (3) producing a coding system to all themes and units of analysis, (4) implementing coding system to all data and revising them if imperfect coding appears, and (5) choosing the final theme, fitting to the research questions. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 179 results policy implementation the first research question alludes to implementing strategic policy in applying reform and innovation. policy implementation comes from the curriculum, professors and staff, and swot analysis. curriculum implementation as table 3 suggests, s3 mpi’s curriculum profile is not appropriate. the curriculum has 48 credits for the entire program, but the specification to support the ph.d. level knowledge and expertise is inadequate. table 3 proportion of mk doctoral management at uin raden mas said surakarta no code course credit semester frequency (%) 1 dmpi 201 advanced english 3 1 6.25 2 dmpi 202 management of modern madrasah and islamic boarding schools 3 1 3 dmpi 303 modern education management 3 1 6.25 4 dmpi 304 theory and practice of educational policy formulation 3 1 6.25 5 philosophy of islamic science 3 1 6.25 total credit in semester 1 15 31.25 6 dmpi 305 research in education management 3 2 6.25 7 dmpi 306 strategic management and educational transformation 3 2 6.25 8 dmpi 307 innovation in islamic education management 3 2 6.25 total credit in semester 2 9 9 dmpi 308 journal writing publication 2 3 4.16 10 dmpi 309 dissertation 22 3 total credit in semester 3 23 50 total credit in the whole program 48 matriculation 11 dmpi 012 curriculum management and innovation 0 2 2 12 dmpi 013 basis of supervision and administration of islamic education 0 2 2 13 dmpi 014 education financing management 0 2 2 the curriculum structure has a specific weakness as it offers 50% theories, comprising the expertise program’s courses. yet, it is not specified to show expertise categories and the course content’s fields. moreover, the dissertation course using 50% of the total is not incorporated into budiharso, et al. support content, enriching research craft and academic writing publications from the dissertation. the curriculum structure analysis appears in table 3, and its possible revision is in table 4. table 4 analysis of proportion no course group credit frequency (%) 1 basic science courses 6 12.5 2 courses in science and expertise 18 37.5 3 courses of dissertation group 24 50 a. indexed international journal publications 2 4.2 b. dissertation 22 45.8 total 48 100 table 4 elaborates the s3 mpi curriculum, depicting the proportion of courses and expertise categories. it reveals that three types of expertise are required: (1) basic course (6 credits), (2) science and expertise course (18 credits), and (3) dissertation course (24 credits). this proportion is not acceptable, so a revision is made in table 5. table 5 analysis of s3 curriculum results of various universities no group credit frequency (%) 1 basic course 3 6.8 2 science and expertise course 14 31.8 3 dissertation course group 27 61.4 a. research methods 3 6.8 b. data analysis 3 6.8 c. dissertation proposal 3 6.8 d. indexed journal publication 3 6.8 e. dissertation 15 34.1 total 44 100 as table 5 indicates, the proportion of the curriculum plan has been modified, having 44 credits as the total credit. course proportion contains (1) basic course, three credits, (2) science and expertise, 14 credits, (3) dissertation, 27 credits. this option’s benefit is that the dissertation course group is divided into research methods, data analysis, dissertation proposal, and journal publication. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 181 professor expertise table 6 depicts that the professors’ education properness and teaching fields are not unsatisfactory. the profile indicates that 70.6% are not proper and have potential as the threats, and 29.4% apt, being the opportunity. table 6 properness of lecturers’ education background no initial field of phd course to teach properness status 1 yr social sciences philosophy of sciences fair threat 2 am alquran & hadit modern management of pesantren fair threat 3 mm education public policy theory & practice strong opportunity 4 sb islamic studies islamic management & innovation fair opportunity 5 lu linguistics advanced english content not proper threat 6 imk education strategic management strong opportunity 7 imd islamic studies strategic management strong opportunity 8 ig islamic studies modern pesantren strong opportunity 9 rb linguistics advanced english content not proper threat 10 gt linguistics research methods in education management not proper threat modern management not proper threat 11 bd civic education leadership fair threat 12 md islamic studies modern management fair threat innovation in management fair threat 13 pw evaluation & research research methods in education management strong opportunity 14 sb history educational philosophy fair threat 15 ts islamic studies modern management fair threat table 7reviews the aptness between the professor’s educational background and their expertise in teaching. overall, the properness of expertise demonstrates threats arising from professional academic achievements (70.6%). table 7 summary of the lecturers’ fixed education background no category frequency % status 1 proper 0 threat 2 strong 5 29.4 opportunity 3 fair 8 47.1 threat 4 not proper 4 23.5 threat 17 100 budiharso, et al. swot analysis table 8 shows that strength as an internal factor and threat as an external factor is predominant in swot analysis. yet, it fails to receive planning in an s3 mpi strategic management program. the evidence reveals that program quality, curriculum contents, academic quality, and learning experience assurance are unsatisfactory. table 8 swot analysis results strengths weaknesses i 1. iain increases to uin 1. the curriculum is not standard for a doctorate program n 2. institutional budget increases 2. research course is limited in the number of credits t 3. low tuition fee 3. expertise and skill content course is not defined e 4. loyalty of islamic university graduates 4. low education background of lecturers r 5. flexible teaching process 5. low properness of professors n 6. fast dissertation process 6. objectives of program are not measurable a 7. evaluation process is flexible 7. vision and mission are not updated l 8. accreditation is b 8. objectives are not adequately specified 9. quality assurance is acceptable 9. philosophical course content is not specified 10. easy communication among personnel 10. course contents are not defined in skill groups 11. publication to thesis requisite is easy 11. number of credits is surplus 12. low role of director in managerial 13. dominance of head study program 14. properness lecturer’s expertise (professor) is low opportunities threats e 1. good linkage with islamic religion offices 1. emerging of novel s3 programs x 2. loyalty of iain alumni 2. quality of new emerging s3 program is better t 3. ease in technology use 3. new emerging program’s tuition fee is the same e 4. online education system is accessible 4. other universities’ course content quality is superior r 5. evaluation system is not strict 5. proportion of skilled and expertise courses is unclear n 6. international competitors come a 7. international learning experience is not served l 8. the course contents’ breadth and depth are short 9. syllabi does not depend on proper needs assessment vision and mission analysis further analysis on the quality of vision, mission, and objective is available in table 9. it discloses that the s3 mpi vision is categorized as a threat. of four missions, two were threats, and two journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 183 were opportunities. when combined with the vision, this vision and mission have a low or a threat position. table 9 vision and mission evaluation description foundational original memorable t-shirt status score score score score vision to become an elite study program in producing a modern, interdisciplinary, and multidisciplinary model in solving problems of islamic education management in asean in 2026. 2 2 2 2 threat mission 1. organizing management research-based education and teaching in the concept of modern islamic education 3 2 3 2 threat 2. conducting research depending on the needs of modern islamic educational institutions 2 2 3 3 threat 3. organizing community service relies on modern management, community needs, and research results. 2 2 3 3 threat 4. devise a network of cooperation with educational institutions and others from within and outside the country, especially in the education management 2 2 3 3 threat objectives 1. produce alumni having knowledge and skills in devising and implementing modern islamic education management science with an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach. 3 2 2 3 threat 2. produce islamic education management research products, responsive to the needs of modern islamic educational institution management 3 2 2 3 threat 3. produce alumni contributing substantially to society in the management of modern islamic education, formally and informally 2 2 3 3 opportunity 4. generate a potential network of cooperation for developing islamic education management, in formal, informal institutions, abroad, and domestically 2 2 3 3 opportunity porter’s five forces this section exposes the results of porter’s five forces. table 10 encapsulates porter’s five forces’ results in the strategic management implementation in the s3 mpi. budiharso, et al. table 10 summary of threat and opportunity based on porter’s profile porter’s five factors score status threat opportunity 1. potential entry: rivalry among existing competitors 2 threat 66.6% 33.4% 2. buyer supplier 2 threat 75% 25% 3. buyer power 3 opportunity 100% 0% 4. potential substitutes: bargaining power of supplier 2 threat 100% 0% 5. bargaining power of buyers 2 threat 85.7% 14.3% of the five forces in this study, threats range from 66.6 to 100% and the opportunity is between 0 and 33.3%. it implies that the s3 mpi is not well-developed and making it a better quality university is beyond expectation. table 11 gives the details of porter’s five factors analysis. table 11 porter rivalry analysis competitive force degree of competition level status a. rivalry among existing competitors potential entry 1. number of competitors 3 fair threat 2. diversity of competitors 4 good opportunity 3. vision, mission, and objectives 2 low threat 4. quality of lecturers 2 low threat 5. quality curriculum 2 low threat 6. quality of learning experience 2 low threat 7. quality of academic writing publication 2 low threat 8. accreditation 4 good opportunity 9. tuition fee 4 good opportunity threat = 66.6%; opportunity = 33.4% b. buyer supplier threat of new entrants 1. barriers to entry 3 fair threat 2. economies of scale 3 fair threat 3. brand loyalty 4 good opportunity 4. capital requirements 2 low threat 5. cumulative experience 2 low threat 6. government policy 4 good opportunity 7. access to distribution channels 3 fair threat 8. switching cost 3 fair threat threat = 75%; opportunity = 25% c. bargaining power of buyers the threat of substitute product 1. number of substitute product available 2 low threat 2. buyer tendency to substitute 3 fair threat 3. relative price performance of substitute 2 low threat 4. perceived level of product differences 2 low threat 5. switching cost 2 low threat threat = 100%; opportunity = 0% journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 185 d. buyer power: bargaining power of supplier buyer power 1. number and site of suppliers 2 low threat 2. uniqueness of each supplied product 2 low threat 3. focal company’s ability to substitute 2 low threat threat = 100%; opportunity = 0% e. bargaining power of buyers potential substitute 1. number of customers 2 low threat 2. size of each customer order 2 low threat 3. differences between competitors 2 low threat 4. price sensitivity 2 low threat 5. buyer’s ability to substitute 2 low threat 6. buyer’s information availability 3 fair opportunity 7. switching cost 2 low threat threat = 85.7%; opportunity = 14.3% *score: 1=very low; 2=low; 3=fair; 4=good; 5=very good stakeholders’ perception besides the swot and porter’s five factors, this study also investigates students’ perception (table 12), perception of the institution, and teaching practice. students remark that perception of the institution depends on the educational brand suggested by mondkar (2017). table 12 student perception of a good educational brand no reasons foe enrollment in mpi uin score status 1 industry oriented syllabus 2 threat 2 extracurricular activity 2 threat 3 cost effective fee structure 4 opportunity 4 competent faculty 2 threat 5 excellent placement 3 threat 6 infrastructure and learning resources 2 threat threats: 73.7%; threat: 33.3% reasons for brand image no activity score status 1 strong brand 2 threat 2 affiliated to a strong brand 2 threat 3 course curriculum 2 threat 4 education quality 2 threat 5 location (easily accessible) 4 opportunity 6 good infrastructure 2 threat 7 fine placements 4 threat 8 moderate fee structure 4 opportunity 9 academic quality of incoming students 2 threat 10 extensive students’ extracurricular activities 2 threat threat: 80%; opportunity: 20% summary reasons to enrollment in mpi uin: threats: 73.7%; opportunity: 33.3% reasons for brand image: threat 80%; opportunity: 20% table 12 portrays students’ perception of the s3 mpi’s image and reasons for students’ enrollment in this university. the results disclose that low cost (33.3%) is considered the crucial reason for budiharso, et al. students. the threat of 73% is distributed among oriented syllabus, extracurricular activity, competent faculty, excellent placement, infrastructure, and learning resources. table 13 presents data on teaching practice, satisfaction, and industry interactions. overall, the results affirm that threats are higher than 50%, suggesting that the s3 mpi’s overall quality is below standards and not satisfactory. strategic management as the foundation of quality assurance has yet to be implemented. the curriculum quality, academic personnel, learning process, brand image, and better university quality are the pressing problems. explicitly, problems with teaching practices, satisfaction, and industry interactions signify the low maintenance of the university (table 13). table 13 teaching practice, satisfaction, and industry interactions no activity score status 1 lecture method 2 threat 2 group discussion 4 opportunity 3 case study 2 threat 4 earn while you learn 2 threat 5 on the job training 2 threat 6 students exchange program 2 threat 7 apprenticeship and internship 2 threat 8 virtual studies 4 opportunity 9 conference and seminars 4 opportunity 10 industrial visits 2 threat 11 pen and paperless classroom 4 opportunity 12 peer teaching 2 threat 13 role play, simulation, and games 2 threat teaching practice: threat 69.2%; opportunity: 30.8% satisfaction 1 curriculum aspects 2 threat 2 teaching, learning, and evaluation 2 threat 3 research, consultancy, and resources 2 threat 4 students supports and progression 4 opportunity 5 governance, leadership, and management 2 threat 6 innovation and best practices 2 threat satisfaction: threat: 83.3%; opportunity: 16.7% industry institute interactions 1 guest lectures 2 threat 2 conference 2 threat 3 live projects 2 threat 4 internships 2 threat 5 seminar, webinar 4 opportunity 6 symposia 4 threat 7 industrial visits 2 threat 8 mock interview by industry professionals 2 threat industry institute interactions: threat: 75%; opportunity: 25% summary teaching practice: threat 69.2%; opportunity: 30.8% satisfaction: threat: 83.3%; opportunity: 16.7% industry institute interactions: threat: 75%; opportunity: 25% journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 187 discussion and conclusion this study has investigated the implementation of strategic management in the postgraduate program policy in curriculum and strategic planning. swot analysis has revealed how planning transformed the entire program implementation. the present study’s results are in line with those reported by mondkar (2017) and mahlalela (2017), disclosing that innovation of higher education curriculum is increasingly getting global. the current findings reveal that the curriculum implementation is yet to be described, using the philosophical degree standards. thus, the doctoral degree curriculum should define concepts and capabilities the students need indepth and the breadth for higher education (dobbs, 2014; rego & nunes, 2010). mondkar (2017) champions that higher education curricula should contain conceptual and down-to-earth values. then, they may align with the subject-specific incepted and practical skills, innovative and planned with strategic transformation. it implies that the s3 mpi curriculum is not up-to-date, does not pose challenges and prospects and does not attract students’ interest (banker & bhal, 2019; mahlalela, 2017). regarding the curriculum dimension, this study expresses that lack of quality lies in the four pillars of curriculum: truncated objectives and learning outcomes, unusual teaching materials, inadequate teaching methods, and assessment process (chang & huang, 2006; hill & westbrook, 1997). therefore, the nonconformist curriculum disapproves of the innovation and research quality for students’ academic support, as needs assessment to serve teaching materials is unavailable (edwards, 2012; hole et al., 2019; mondkar, 2017). thus, the curriculum quality, planning, and implementation processes must be explored. research on curriculum innovation and schools’ planning process quality are relevant (edwards, 2012; mondkar, 2017). hence, this study skillfully specifies the indicators used to appraise the curriculum quality and innovation in a strategic management context. the most fundamental problem related to inadequate implementation of strategic management in the s3 mpi is satisfaction. satisfaction indicators include the curriculum aspects, teaching-learning and evaluation, research consultancy and sources, student support, leadership, and innovation (edwards, 2012; hole et al., 2019; mondkar, 2017; mahlalela, 2017). swot analysis has not covered aspects, such as comprehensiveness, evidence-based practices, and data-based decisions in this study (chang & huang, 2006; hill & westbrook, 1997). the plans have a descriptive nature and contain a list of actions instead of being a tool to support a program's budiharso, et al. strategy. thus, their quality and implementation may be conceded (dobbs, 2014; mahlalela, 2017; porter, 2008; quigley, 1994). in education, strategy means thinking and deciding (carvalho et al., 2021; dobbs, 2014; eacott, 2008, 2011). a strategic vision must bring planned outcomes supporting a mission or vision. poster's five forces are critical for the s3 mpi development. yet, plans should align with the mission and vision beyond external requirements (carvalho et al., 2021; meyers & vangronigen, 2019). it is not easy for policymakers and s3 mpi leaders to advance and change. management and s3 mpi, specifically, need improvement (carvalho et al., 2021). moreover, it is crucial to comprehend the meaning and application of strategic planning. in the beginning, decision-making and planning must consider purpose, compromise, and participation. furthermore, the previous model's planning, conditions, and timing should need consideration. strategic management has formulation, implementation, and evaluation stages. a long-term goal is necessary for successful situational analysis (edwards, 2012; pringle & huisman,2011). the long-term goal covers the ambition to enhance the company's competitive stand. it calls for a specific strategy selection (mondkar, 2017). above all, only well-executed strategies bring a competitive advantage. currently, management skills undermine analytical skills (mondkar, 2017; mahlalela, 2017). novel strategies must be upheld throughout the organization to be effective (mahlalela, 2017). thus, monitoring secures success (mondkar, 2017). managers must continually evaluate their environments for new strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (dobbs, 2014; mahlalela, 2017). if new situations arise, managers must act promptly to treat them (mondkar, 2017). in closing, this study urges a novelty that integrating swot analysis in the strategic management has successfully determined the operation of education management employing porter’s five forces model. theoretical novelty suggests that strategic management effectively assesses curriculum innovation, competition, and program review. strategy formulation, implementation, and evaluation are established in an integral phase of swot analysis to outline goals, vision, and mission. additionally, porter’s five forces help map competition for the global market. however, this study has limited data collection. thus, future research should use an ethnography approach or a multisite case study, increasing its scope of implication. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 189 references abel duarte a., & seng k. ( 2018). adapting through learning and knowledge acquisition: the cases of four global family firms. journal of family business management, 8(3), pp. 274–292, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1108/jfbm-01-2018-0005 arif, s., iiya, m., and hameed, a., (2013), student satisfaction and impact of leadership in private universities. the tqm journal, 25(4), pp. 399–416. baptista, r. & preto, m.t. (2010). long-term effects of new firm formation by type of start-up. international journal of entrepreneurship and small business, 11(4), pp. 382–402, 2010. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/rui_baptista2/publication/229050793_long term_effects_of_new_firm_formation_by_type_of_startup/links/004635213bbae395d9000000.pdf banker, d.v., and bhal, k.t., (2019). creating world class universities: roles and responsibilities for academic leaders in india. journal of educational management administration & leadership, pp.1–21. bothwell, e., (2018, november 14). work-life balance survey 2018: long hours take their toll on academics. timehighereducation. www.timehighereducation.com/features/work-lifebalance-survey-2018-long-hours-take-their-toll-academics. boyett, i. (1996). new leader, new culture, ‘old’ university. leadership & organization development journal, 17(5), 24–30. budiharso, t, abdullah, m & subaidi, (2022). curriculum innovation of islamic education management of doctoral program uin rm said surakarta, paper. doctorate program of islamc educational management, uin rm said surakarta. carvalho, m., cabral, i., verdasca, j.l., & alves, j.m. (2021). strategy and strategic leadership in education: a scoping review. frontiers in education. 6(706608), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.706608 chang, h. h & huang, w. c. (2006). application of a quantification swot analytical method.journal of mathematical and computer modelling, 43, pp. 158–169. doi:10.1016/j.mcm.2005.08.016 chetty, raj; john n friedman & jonah e. rockoff. (2014). measuring the impacts of teachers ii: teacher value-added and student outcomes in adulthood. american economic review, 104 (9): 2633–79. creswell, j.w. (2014). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. (4th ed.). sage publications. http://www.researchgate.net/profile/rui_baptista2/publication/229050793_longhttp://www.timehighereducation.com/features/work-life-balance-survey-2018-long-hours-take-their-toll-academics http://www.timehighereducation.com/features/work-life-balance-survey-2018-long-hours-take-their-toll-academics http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcm.2005.08.016 budiharso, et al. croucher, g., wen, w., coates, h., and goedegebuure, l., (2019). framing research into university governance and leadership: formative insights from a case study of australian higher education. journal of educational management administration & leadership, pp.1–22. common, r., flynn, n. & mellon, e. (1992). managing public services: competition and decentralisation. butterworth-heinemann. david, f.r. (2011). strategic management: concepts and cases. 13th ed., pearson prentice-hall. dobbs, e. michael. (2014). guidelines for applying porter’s five forces framework: a set of industry analysis templates. competitiveness review, 24(1), 32–45. eacott, s. (2011) leadership strategies: re-conceptualizing strategy for educational leadership. school leadership & management: formerly school organisation, 31(1), 35–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2010.540559 edwards, a. (2012). mission statements–world’s top 10 brands. http://communicatingasiapacific.com/2012/06/15/mission-statements-worlds-top10-brands/ enders, a, könig, a, hungenberg, h & engelbertz, t. (2009). towards an integrated perspective of strategy: the value process framework. journal of strategy and management, 2(1), pp. 76–96, 2009. ttps://doi.org/10.1108/17554250910948712 google inc. (2014). ten things we know to be true. https://www.google.com.sg/about/company/philosophy/ hill, t. & westbrook, r. (1997) swot analysis: it’s time for a product recall. long range planning, 30, 46–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0024-6301(96)00095-7 hole, yosepth & bhaskar, p. mahesh. (2019). porter’s five forces model: gives you a competitive advantage. journal of advanced research in dynamic & control system , 11(4), 1436–1442. hubbard, g., & beamish, p. (2011). strategic management: thinking, analysis, action. 4th ed. strategic management: pearson education australia. justyna, erin. (2016). creativity in higher education curriculum: a qualitative case study of pedagogical processes and practices. [doctoral dissertation, texas tech university]. kennedy, r. (2020). strategic management. pamplin college of business. http://communicatingasiapacific.com/2012/06/15/mission-statements-worlds-top-10-brands/ http://communicatingasiapacific.com/2012/06/15/mission-statements-worlds-top-10-brands/ https://www.google.com.sg/about/company/philosophy/ journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(1), 164-192 191 klemperer, p. (1995). competition when consumers have switching costs: an overview with applications to industrial organization, macroeconomics, and international trade. the review of economic studies, 62(4), 515–539. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2298073 llusar juan carlos bou, & mercedes segarra ciprés, (2006). strategic knowledge transfer and its implications for competitive advantage: an integrative conceptual framework. journal of knowledge management, 10(4), pp. 100–112, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1108/13673270610679390 mahlalela, m. amos. (2017). a strategic management model for transforming selected swaziland’s teacher training colleges into learning organisations. [doctoral dissertation. university of south africa]. magretta, j. (2012). understanding michael porter: the essential guide to competition and strategy. harvard business review press. martin, (2014). threat of new entrants, porter’s five forces model. https://www.cleverism.com/threat-of-new-entrants-porters-five-forces-model/ meek, v. l. & wood, f.q. (1997). higher education governance and management: an australian study. deetya. meyers, c., & vangronigen, b. (2019). a lack of authentic school improvement plan development: evidence of principal satisficing behavior, journal of educational administration, 57(3), 261–278. https://doi.org/10.1108/jea-09-2018-0154 mondkar, g. p. (2017). a study of strategic management of higher educational institutes and its impact on their brand image with special focus on management colleges in mumbai and pune. [doctoral thesis, d.y. patil university, school of management]. muslim a. & isa zaidi, i. (2011). an examination of the relationship between service quality perception and customer satisfaction, a sem approach towards, malaysian islamic banking. international journal of islamic and middle eastern finance and management, 1(3), 191–209 pilotti, m. & almubarak. h. a. m. (2021). systematic versus informal application of culturally relevant pedagogy: are performance outcomes different? a study of college students. journal of culture and values in education (jcve), 4(2), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.1 porter, m.e. (1980). competitive strategy. the free press. pringle, james & jeroen, huisman, (2011). an industry analysis using porter’s five forces framework. 36, ontario universities analysis, 41(3), 36–58. http://www.cleverism.com/threat-of-new-entrants-porters-five-forces-model/ budiharso, et al. quigley, j. v. (1994). vision: how leaders develop it, share it, and sustain it. business horizons, 37(5), 37–41. rego, guilhermina & nunes, rui. (2010). hospital foundation: a swot analysis. ibusiness, 2, 210–217. doi:10.4236/ib.2010.23026 published online september 2010 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ib) rashid, s., & mustafa, h. (2022). corporate reputation antecedents and stakeholder loyalty in malawi higher education institutions: employees’ and students’ perspectives. tertiary education and management, onlinefirst, 1–17. speziale, t. maria. (2012). differentiating higher education accountability in the global setting: a comparison between boston university and university of bologna. procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 47 (2012) 1153 – 1163. tarman, b., & dev, s. (2018). editorial: learning transformation through innovation and sustainability in educational practices. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 3(1), i-ii. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 wallace, kay, debra. (1999). curriculum development in professional education: a design model for information studies. [doctoral dissertation, university of toronto] yacek, w. douglas. (2017). transformative education: a philosophical inquiry. [doctoral dissertation, the ohio state university]. zhang, y., & wildemuth, b. m. (2009). qualitative analysis of content. in: b. m. wildemuth, ed., applications of social research methods to questions in information and library science. libraries unlimited, 2009. pp. 1–12. zhang, y., & wildemuth, b. (2016, august 2). qualitative analysis of content. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/qualitative-analysis-of-content-by-zhangwildemuth/b269343ab82ba8b7a343b893815a0bae6472fcca. http://www.scirp.org/journal/ib http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/363 https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/qualitative-analysis-of-content-by-zhang-wildemuth/b269343ab82ba8b7a343b893815a0bae6472fcca https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/qualitative-analysis-of-content-by-zhang-wildemuth/b269343ab82ba8b7a343b893815a0bae6472fcca www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 226-245 226 developing creative thinking in future teachers as a topical issue of higher education tatiana borodina1, alfiya sibgatullina2 & anna gizatullina3 abstract the relevance of the problem of the formation of creative thinking among students of pedagogical areas of training is explained by the current contradiction between the society’s need for creative, creatively thinking teachers and the insecurity of the system of professional pedagogical training necessary conditions for organizing the process of forming creative thinking among future teachers. the aim of the article is to study the features of the manifestation of creative thinking among students, as well as to study the dynamics of creativity of future teachers in the process of their professional training. based on testing of 390 respondents using the methods of j. bruner, the authors analyzed the levels of formation of creative thinking in several russian universities. it was revealed that only a third of the students surveyed showed creative thinking at a high level. the study of the dynamics of the manifestation of creative thinking of future teachers was carried out mainly on the basis of kazan federal university. the dependence of the level of students' creativity on the course of their education was revealed. in addition, a questionnaire on the author’s methodology, conducted additionally, confirmed the hypothesis that regular leisure reading of fiction contributes to an increase in the level of creativity of future teachers. key words: higher education, future teacher, creativity, creative thinking, developing. introduction the requirements placed by modern society on a teacher's personality determine the need for bringing vocational pedagogical training to a new level. the crucial normative documents ensuring teachers' training confirm the relevance of a qualitative change in the teacher training system with regard to the formation of their creative thinking. the federal state educational standard (fses) for "pedagogical education" mentions a teacher’s systemic and critical thinking among his/her key universal competencies (order of the ministry of education and science of russia, 2018). noeltsigulskaya notes the impossibility of separating critical thinking from creative thinking (noeltsigulskaya, 2000) since readiness for creative activity can be formed only through the development of critical thinking. 1 senior lecturer, kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russia, tatjanabaschina@yandex.ru 2 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russia, a.sibgatullina@bk.ru 3 assoc. prof., kazan federal university, elabuga institute of kfu, russia, annagiz@rambler.ru borodina et al. the fses of general secondary education focuses on the development of personal characteristics in a school graduate, motivated for creativity and innovation activity. to develop students’ creative abilities, a teacher needs to think creatively, outside the box, and create pedagogical conditions favorable for a student’s creativity. the need for creative teachers is a topical issue throughout the world. in several countries, "there are numerous discussions and movements inside and outside the profession that emphasize the growing need to pay attention to how teachers can be supported in creative learning and promote the creativity of young people" (craft, 1997, p. 84). thus, society needs a creative teacher able to find new ways of addressing professional issues, respond to the needs of students' personality, creatively motivated and capable of non-standard solutions. however, the organization of developing creative thinking in future teachers is not sufficiently supported by professional education, as well as didactic conditions to address this challenge (adams, 2019; gerasimova et al., 2018; grewal et al., 2019; leonteva et al., 2018). the development of teachers’ creative thinking in many respects depends on the quality of their professional training, including the involvement of the formation of creative thinking in the tasks of teacher training (cherkasov and smigel, 2016; kagema, 2018; kotluk & kocakaya, 2018). the formation of creative thinking in future teachers in the context of higher education contributes to the effective fulfillment of their creative potential and achievement of a high level of creativity in their future professional activities. the organization of a purposeful process of forming students’ creative thinking in the educational environment of a higher education institution (hei) involves studying the state of modern education, determining the actual levels of formation of future teachers’ creativity and identifying the conditions and factors affecting its effectiveness (dagdilelis, 2018; rajović, et al., 2018; rizki et al., 2019; taran and kurbanov, 2018; ishchenko and magsumov, 2019; prodanova et al., 2019; peretyatko and zulfugarzade, 2017; shaytura et al., 2018; tarman, 2012; 2016). thus, the goal of this study is to identify the general level of formation of creative thinking in students of pedagogical specializations and to determine the impact on the level of their creativity of such factors as the process of studying at a university and their leisure reading of fiction. the authors have formulated four main research questions: 1. what is the prevailing type of thinking among students of pedagogical fields of study? 2. what is the level of creativity of future teachers? journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 226-245 3. what are the dynamics of the level of creativity of future teachers at different stages of professional training? 4. does leisure reading of fiction affect students' creativity? literature review developed creative thinking is a prerequisite for the success of an individual in the modern world, as evidenced by including such skills as critical thinking and creativity among the twelve most critical soft or supra-professional skills. at the same time, the fses of higher education (fses he) presents the corresponding competence only for critical thinking: the ability to search, conduct critical analysis and synthesis of information, apply a systematic approach to solving the set tasks (uk-1) (order of the ministry of education and science of russia, 2018). as for creativity, understood by gizatullina and shatunova as "the ability for creative search, nonstandard solution of pedagogical tasks, characterized by the following criteria: speed (productivity) and flexibility of thought, originality, curiosity, accuracy and courage", no matches among the competencies mentioned in the fses he have been found (gizatullina and shatunova, 2019). at the same time, 110 interviewed teachers define creativity as one of the most important competencies in pedagogical work. in the most general form, creative thinking is defined as a type of thinking that is characterized by the creation of a subjectively new product and new formations in the very cognitive activity on its creation (general psychology, 2005a). tikhomirov defines creative thinking as a type of thinking that is characterized by the creation of a subjectively new product, which, in turn, implies new formations in the cognitive activity (motives, goals, evaluations, meanings) (tikhomirov, 2005). creative thinking is characterized by the rejection of the use of ready-made knowledge and skills that are common to reproductive thinking (general psychology, 2005b). losev believes that thinking is always creative since the essence of thinking is generally a reflection of reality, which is eternal creativity (losev, 1989). however, the starting point of this study is a thesis on defining creative and non-creative thinking, which is proved in several academic writings (bono, 2005; ilyin, 2009; kalmykova, 1981; guilford, hoepfher, 1971; kambey et al., 2019; chitsaz et al., 2019; magsumov, 2018a, b; gerasimova et al., 2018). borodina et al. many researchers of the creativity issue reduce the essence of creative thinking to the manifestation of certain abilities of an individual: to generate original ideas (dudek et al., 1993), introduce something new (barron, harrington, 1981), understand the contradictions and formulate hypotheses regarding a problem-based situation (torrance, 1979a). however, creative thinking as a complex, integrated phenomenon cannot be determined by one attribute. thus, at different times, domestic and foreign psychologists defined groups of principal characteristics. the significance of developing creative thinking in the pedagogical activity can be explained by characteristics and manifestations typical for this type of thinking. by incorporating into a teacher's personality structure, those contribute to enhancing his or her professional culture and effectiveness of the educational process. guilford, one of the founders of the creativity theory, distinguishes six parameters of creativity, which is the basis of creative thinking – six types of abilities of an individual who thinks and acts creatively: the ability to identify and state problems, generate a large number of problems, quickly produce various ideas, create remote associations and non-standard solutions, improve the object by adding details and the ability to see new object characteristics and new ways of its application (guilford, 1965). according to torrance, thinking and activity of a creative person can be assessed by such criteria as fluency (generating a large number of ideas), flexibility (using different methods or strategies for solving a task or a problem), originality (producing non-standard solutions, ideas), development (detailed elaboration of the idea), closure resistance (rejection of stereotypes, openness to the new) and abstractedness of the name (understanding the source of the problem, bringing images into verbal form) (torrance, 1979b). clarin outlines the following features of creative thinking: the ability to generate new ideas and their combinations to achieve a certain goal; the originality of the final product, which is the result of internal and external creative activities (clarin, 1998). summarizing different approaches to identifying the characteristic features of creative thinking, dmitrieva distinguishes such qualities as freedom from stereotypes, criticality, depth, width, independence, openness, empathy, and anticipation (dmitrieva, 2007). in the studies of the professional development of a teacher, the significance of creative thinking is determined by the need for efficient transformations within the framework of the pedagogical activity. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 226-245 the development of a creative teacher becomes an important task for heis implementing teachertraining programs. unfortunately, one of the major drawbacks of modern vocational pedagogical education is its weak influence on the development of creative potential and creativity in future teachers (martinez and tadeu, 2018; movchan and yakovleva, 2019). some aspects of the formation and development of creative thinking in the context of vocational training require further examination. the works of creativity researchers present the main psychological-pedagogical conditions contributing to the formation and development of students’ creative thinking, which can be divided into two groups: 1) subjective conditions, which constitute a set of personal characteristics that influence the formation of future teachers’ creativity (students’ personal qualities, their positive motivation for the creative activity, orientation to creativity, the professional orientation of an individual, etc.); 2) objective conditions that allow for a targeted pedagogical action, guiding it in accordance with the objectives set (ivanov, 2002). the analysis of psychological-pedagogical literature allows concluding about the versatility and complex nature of creative thinking. the study of the state of the chosen problem in the theory and practice of higher education has led to the conclusion that a high level of creative thinking requires targeted actions on its formation. since the field of application of the general scientific concept of "formation" in pedagogy is undefined, its meaning should be clarified in the context of this research. formation is defined as the gradual creation of operant behavior (behavior characterized by environmental impact, as a result of which changes necessarily occur in it) by reinforcing successive steps that lead to the desired result (kholodnaya, 1997). podlasiy concludes that "formation is the process of personal development under the influence of all factors without exception – environmental, social, economic, pedagogical and other factors. formedness means the level achieved by a person, certain perfection, completeness, the achievement of a level of maturity" (podlasiy, 2013). the formation deepens the phenomenon of development, which, as is known, is determined by the circumstances of a person’s life, his/her activities, targeted upbringing and training processes. in contrast to the purposeful, organized development process, formation also includes many external, objective and internal, subjective factors that spontaneously influence the personality, including the activity of a teacher. borodina et al. as noted by kozubovsky, the formation of thinking in general embraces the process of increasing mental abilities, both as a result of the natural course of a person’s daily life and special exercises. thinking as a process is continuously formed and developed in the course of the changing human interaction with the environment, but it never reaches the completed stage (kozubovskiy, 2008). in accordance with these approaches, the formation of creative thinking of future teachers should be understood as the transition of students’ thinking to the level of creative transformation of the surrounding reality and the creation of the new as a result of a targeted impact on a person. the formation of creative thinking involves personal transformations and contributes to overall personal development. considering the formation of creative thinking as a purposefully organized and controlled process of pedagogical influence, the authors rely on the positions of the systemic and activity approaches. the formation of creative thinking in future teachers is a holistic pedagogical system that is based on a certain goal, operates according to established principles, and includes a number of interrelated components. in terms of the activity approach, creative thinking is formed by involving future teachers in creative activities (in the context of professional activity), in educational situations that require the fulfillment of their creativity, by building the entire learning process on the principles of creative oriented learning (bozhkova et al., 2019). it should be noted that each person has the potential for manifestation of creative thinking. it depends on a number of circumstances whether this potential will be fulfilled. within the framework of vocational training, these circumstances are psychological, pedagogical and organizational conditions. their provision contributes to the achievement of a high level of formedness of creative thinking by students. method research design descriptive case study of the problem of the formation of creative thinking based on two ascertaining experiments (short-term and long-term ones). a short-term ascertaining experiment conducted in 2018 was aimed at identifying the actual levels of formation of creative thinking among students of pedagogical special fields. it included testing respondents according to the methodology of bruner "profile of thinking" and questioning according to the author's methodology "leisure reading and creativity", which involved obtaining journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 226-245 more detailed information about the respondents, the conditions and characteristics of the organization of their professional training. in order to study the dynamics of creativity of future teachers in the process of their training at the university, a longitudinal study was conducted using worthman's questionnaire "what is your creative potential?" the experiment assumed an annual diagnosis of the degree of creativity of future teachers in the process of their training and was conducted in 2014-2017. the experiment involved 11 higher educational institutions of russia among the largest and most authoritative ones in the field of professional training of teaching staff: kazan (volga) federal university and its branch – yelabuga institute, moscow state pedagogical university, v.i. vernadsky taurida national university, ural state pedagogical university, dagestan state pedagogical university, bashkir state pedagogical university, volga state social and humanitarian academy, shadrinsky state pedagogical institute, glazov state pedagogical institute, naberezhnye chelny institute of social-pedagogical technologies and resources. participants the total number of respondents was 390 students aged 17-25, studying in 1-5 courses in the direction of preparation "pedagogical education" at kazan federal university. the strategy for selecting participants was determined by the logic of the study. in accordance with the main goal of the study, the educational institution and the direction of study, the course of study, and the age of students were assigned to the significant characteristics of the respondents to determine the sample. such characteristics as nationality, gender, marital status were not taken into account. most of the respondents were students of the yelabuga institute of kfu. in the process of studying the dynamics of student creativity, the group of respondents was constant (164 students) throughout the study period. the short-term ascertaining experiment involved 390 students of pedagogical specializations of 1st-5th years of study. based on the results of testing and questioning of these students, the actual levels of the formation of creative thinking were determined. in the process of studying the dynamics of manifestation of future teachers’ creativity at different stages of vocational training, 164 students of the 1st-4th years of study were tested. sampling during the longitudinal study was constant, which ensured obtaining reliable data for analyzing the borodina et al. effectiveness of the conditions created at heis for the formation of creative thinking in future teachers. the experiment was conducted at three educational institutions: kazan federal university, naberezhnye chelny institute of social-pedagogical technologies and resources, and yelabuga institute of kazan federal university. instrumentations in the process of studying the levels of formation of students' creativity, as well as its dynamics, such research methods as testing, questioning, and methods of mathematical statistics were used. the j. bruner test, the l. worthman test questionnaire, and also the questionnaire developed by the authors were used. bruner’s method allows determining the basic (dominant) type of thinking and assessing the level of creativity in adults. in accordance with the questionnaire, there are 4 basic types of thinking, each of which has specific characteristics: object, visual, sign-oriented and symbolic thinking. the method of determining creative potential according to wortman ("what is your creative potential?") allows the respondent to evaluate his or her creative abilities. determining the frequency or nature of manifestation of a particular state, attitude or action, concluded in a series of statements, future teachers were assessed as "non-creative" to "highly creative" personalities. the questionnaire was conducted according to the authors’ method developed by a team of authors (borodina, shatunova, shastina) in order to obtain more detailed information about the respondents: their educational profile, self-assessment of creativity, factors of formation of creative thinking (in the students' opinion), the features of their reading activity and the regularity of fiction reading. the questionnaire consisted of 12 questions (including 5 open questions and 7 closed ones). the reliability of the results was ensured by the use of complementary and mutually checking methods (test and questionnaire). data collection students were tested and questioned in two ways: 1) face-to-face, i.e. with the personal participation of authors, 2) remotely using the capabilities of the internet to collect data and their journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 226-245 primary processing. in the first case, the direct interaction of the survey organizer with the respondents was ensured. students received a set of methods for simultaneously filling out forms of creativity and thinking type test and a questionnaire to determine the relationship between fiction reading and creative thinking of future teachers. the remote format involved the use of google forms, reduced to the form of a test and a questionnaire. students participated in the experiment anonymously, providing information only about the program and field of study. to identify the formedness of creative thinking, future teachers passed the test once in 2018. testing of students was carried out mainly remotely, using the capabilities of the internet for data collection and their primary processing. the authors' questionnaire, which was part of the experiment program, was used in parallel with testing. the longitudinal study of the dynamics of creativity levels suggested a gradual study of students’ actual indicators at each of the stages of vocational training over a long time. the groups of students selected for the experiment in three universities were tested annually, in the period of 2014-2017. the selection of groups took place in students’ field of study (pedagogical specializations). the sample was constant (164 participants, with minor changes in the number due to the academic movement of students). in the process of studying the levels of creativity formation, no pedagogical influences on the groups of subjects were carried out, special conditions capable of purposefully influencing the manifestation of students’ creative potential were not created. experimental work involves the collection of quantitative data on the ratio of different levels of creativity from future teachers. data analysis in the process of analyzing the results of experimental work, the methods of quantitative and qualitative data processing were used. the obtained experimental data on the dominant level of creativity were reduced to average values and to the percentage ratio (by the levels of creativity, by the year of study). borodina et al. the choice of methods for analyzing the obtained data was determined by the nature of the research questions, the answer to which had to be obtained. so, to determine the prevailing type of thinking based on the data obtained during testing, the percentages of all these types were calculated. the identification of students' creativity levels suggested the calculation of average data. the study of the dynamics of creativity in the learning process of students was based on a comparison of average data by levels. the influence of reading fiction on the level of creativity was based on calculating average indicators and comparing the percentage ratios of students' creativity levels with the frequency of reading. a qualitative approach to interpreting the results of the survey contributed to obtaining additional data. processing the results of the questionnaire was based on the synthesis, analysis, systematization and generalization of the data obtained, as well as on comparison with the results of students' testing with the use of bruner's questionnaire. the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the empirical data obtained as a result of ascertaining experiments made it possible to formulate the main findings and conclusions of the conducted research. findings the data on the first and second questions of the study are presented in table 1. the study showed a predominance of the iconic type of thinking in the subjects (70%). the analysis of the results of experimental work has shown that the majority of students in pedagogical specialties are characterized by an average level of creativity. high-level creativity was manifested only in 33% of the students surveyed. table 1 determination of the basic type of thinking and the level of creativity in future teachers the level of manifestation in respondents type of thinking creativity objective thinking symbolic thinking iconic thinking figurative thinking low 16% 27% 3% 10% 7% average 45% 52% 27% 33% 60 high 39% 21% 70% 57% 33% the data on the third research question are presented in figure 1. when studying the dynamics of creativity manifestation in future teachers at different stages of vocational training, the authors revealed a significant decrease in the level of students’ creativity by the end of training. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 226-245 figure 1. manifestation of creativity in future teachers (depending on the year of study) figure 2 presents the data obtained in response to the fourth research question. students, who regularly read fiction, including foreign literature and literature in the original language, often have a high level of creativity. in this group of students, the low level of creativity has not been revealed (see figure 2). figure 2. the influence of fiction reading on the creativity of students-future teachers discussion the study confirmed the predominance of the iconic type of thinking, which characterizes people with a humanitarian mindset: 70% of respondents had a high level of the specified formed type of borodina et al. thinking. this can be explained by the fact that students who took part in testing studied in the philological areas of pedagogical training. the results of the experiments indicate the importance of creative thinking for future teachers. however, for most students, the level of formation of creativity is defined as average, while the highest level is optimal for effective creative activities and fulfillment of creative thinking of future teachers. high-level creativity was manifested only in 33% of the students surveyed. an important fact is that in the process of professional training, there is a decrease in the levels of formation of creative thinking from 75% in the first year of study to 30-33% in the last two years of study. these data indicate a rather negative impact of the educational environment of the university on the level of students' creative thinking. the main reason for this decrease is the implementation of standardized tasks, repetitive tasks implying the search for unambiguous solutions, the stereotyped nature of the learning process (korableva et al., 2019 a, b). the data obtained confirm the need to create conditions in the educational environment of heis to increase creativity thinking in future teachers (safiullin, 2019). nevertheless, the study of the role of reading on personal development confirmed that leisure reading of fiction in any language has a positive effect on the level of students’ creativity (shastina et al., 2018). it was found that students who regularly or at least periodically read fiction along with professional literature show a predominantly medium and high level of creativity. the low level among periodically reading students is no more than 9%. the data suggest that future teachers can increase the degree of creative thinking manifestation if they regularly read foreign language literature using the methods and techniques of creativity formation in the analysis and interpretation of what they read. the process of developing students’ creative thinking, as well as training of creativity, which includes strict, structured intellectual processes (watson, 2018), consists in purposeful interaction, teacher-student cooperation in adequate, specially organized conditions with the use of necessary forms and methods of organizing the educational process (černevičiūtė and strazdas, 2018; baubonienė et al., 2018; kireev et al., 2019; belas et al., 2018; mueller et al., 2019). the use of non-traditional forms and methods, innovative technologies, training sessions, conferences, contests, discussions, etc. facilitates the formation of creative thinking in future teachers. implementation of the problem-based learning principles, which is related to the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 226-245 formulation and solution of educational, scientific and professional-pedagogical tasks, also contributes to the effectiveness of the process under consideration. the organization of problembased learning involves teacher-student interaction in the form of problem-based lectures, practical and seminar lessons of a problematic nature (discussions, defense of topic papers, business games, solving professional-pedagogical tasks, etc.). project-oriented learning provides a wide field for the formation of creative thinking and manifestation of creativity (both by students and teachers) (tanggaard, 2011). taking into account that the professional competence of a teacher or a university professor consists of three components – object, psychological-pedagogical and methodical competence, one could speak of the need to improve the methodical aspect, since the use of various methods and technologies allows a teacher to create and develop students’ creative thinking. the whole groups of methods contributing to the formation of students’ creative thinking have been identified. for example, the classification by smirnov presents two large groups of such methods: 1) by the way of organizing educational activities (these include structural-logical, training and game methods) and 2) by formative orientation (it includes methods for developing the experience of creative activity and emotional impact methods) (smirnov, 2005). heuristic training methods are effective at the stage of basic vocational training of future teachers, as they stimulate the development of students’ creative potential and contribute to the development of their qualities (khutorskaya, 2003). the presented methods can be successfully implemented when teaching language disciplines, primarily in foreign language lessons. the practical course of a foreign language has great potential in the process of forming future teachers’ creative thinking, as it implies performing creative tasks, applying well-known information in new (imaginary) situations, solving problematic tasks, etc. in this case, working with the literary text is of particular importance. the author's personal experience in teaching a foreign language (including analytical reading in a foreign language) at the language department of a pedagogical hei allows for conclusions that when analyzing and interpreting a literary text, students mainly perform tasks aimed at achieving subject-specific results of teaching a foreign language: mastering new lexical units, forming dialogic and monologue speech skills and the ability to conduct stylistic analysis of the text, etc. at the same time, tasks related to the implementation of students’ creative potential and their creative thinking account for no more than 10%. with insufficient attention to the problem of borodina et al. developing creative thinking in future teachers, such an approach to organizing education negatively affects students’ development and prevents them from becoming independent creative individuals. conclusion the study showed that professional pedagogical education is characterized by the presence of significant contradictions between the need to prepare creative teachers for pedagogical activities and the insufficient level of creativity among graduates of pedagogical faculties and institutes. when considering creative thinking as a process, creativity as an integral property of an individual, determining his/her capacity for creative search, non-standard solution of pedagogical tasks, etc., acts as a system-forming element. consequently, according to the level of creativity formation, one can judge about the creative thinking of an individual. about a third of students enrolled in the pedagogical field of study have a high level of creativity formation. besides, in the process of learning, their level of creativity gradually decreases. another contradiction directly affects the organization of the process of training teachers: between the need to form creative thinking of future teachers and the lack of didactic conditions for the organization of this process in higher education. the scientific-methodological literature presents some experience of justifying the conditions for the formation of creative thinking in future teachers. the main conditions influencing the increase in the level of students’ creativity are the choice of optimal teaching forms and methods and the use of the possibilities of the educational process for creating a creative environment. the use of pedagogical technologies that require updating students’ creative abilities can increase the level of formation of their creativity. based on the data obtained, it can be concluded that the level of formation of the creative thinking of future teachers is not high enough for the effective implementation of a creative approach to professional activity. however, the results of the experiment indicate that in the educational environment of the university, these opportunities are not fully used, which leads to a decrease in students' creativity in the process of their study. focusing on the goal and main research questions, the authors made the following conclusions: 1. the prevailing type of thinking among students of pedagogical areas of training is the iconic type of thinking. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 226-245 2. for most future teachers (60%), an average level of creativity is characteristic. a high level of creativity is shown only in 33% of the students surveyed. 3. the study of the dynamics of the level of creativity of future teachers at different stages of vocational training showed that the level of students' creativity is characterized by a noticeable decrease by the end of training (from 75% to 33%). 4. leisure reading of fiction in the native and/or foreign languages has a positive effect on the level of students' creativity. the study determines the direction of further scientific research and research activities. the following aspects are important and promising: 1. identification, description and experimental verification of the effectiveness of psychological-pedagogical conditions for the formation of students' creative thinking. 2. creation of methodological recommendations for university teachers on organizing the process of formation of creative thinking in future teachers. 3. the study of the degree of readiness of university teachers for the formation of students' creative thinking. references adams, b. (2019). the far reaching impact of transformative curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 17-32. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/8 bashina, t.f. (2013). creativity as a basis for innovative educational activities. young scientist, 4, 521-525. baubonienė, ž., hahn, k. h., puksas, a., & malinauskienė, e. (2018). factors influencing student entrepreneurship intentions: the case of lithuanian and south korean universities. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 6(2): 854-871. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.6.2(26) barron, i.f. & harrington d. (1981). creativity, intelligence and personality. rev. of psychol, 32, 439-476. belas, j., gavurova, b., cepel, m., & kotaskova, a. (2018). relationship of gender to the position of slovak university students on the socio-economic determinants of the https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/8 borodina et al. business environment and the development of entrepreneurship. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 6(2): 968-978. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.6.2(33) bono, e. de. (2005). thinking development: three five-day courses. minsk, belarus: popourri. bozhkova g.n., shastina e.m., kalimullina o.v., & shatunova o.v. (2019) study of literary images of gifted characters in optional activities as a means to develop capable and talented youth. space and culture, india, vol. 7:1, pp. 264-273. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 cherkasov, a.a., & smigel, m. (2016). public education in the russian empire during the last third of the xix century: parish schools. european journal of contemporary education, 18(4), 418-429. chitsaz, e., tajpour, m., hosseini, e., khorram, h., & zorrieh, s. (2019). the effect of human and social capital on entrepreneurial activities: a case study of iran and implications. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 6(3): 1193-1203. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(24) clarin, m.v. (1998). innovations in world pedagogy: learning based on research, games and discussion. (analysis of foreign experience). riga, latvia. craft a. (1997). identity and creativity: educating teachers for postmodernism? teacher development, 1:1, 83-96. černevičiūtė, j., & strazdas r. (2018). teamwork management in creative industries: factors influencing productivity. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 6(2): 503-516. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.6.2(3) dagdilelis, v. (2018). preparing teachers for the use of digital technologies in their teaching practice. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 109-121. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/345 dmitrieva, n.yu. (2007) general psychology: lecture notes. moscow, russia: eksmo. dudek, s. z., strobel, m. g., & runco, m. a. (1993). cumulative and proximal influences on the social environment and children's creative potential. ii j. genet. psychol, 154(4), 487499. grewal, i., maher, a., watters, h., clemens, d., & webb, k. (2019). rewriting teacher education: food, love, and community. journal of culture and values in http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/345 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 226-245 education, 2(3), 44-60. retrieved from https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/51 kireev, b., zhundibayeva, a., & aktanova, a. (2019). distance learning at higher education institutions: results of an experiment. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 387-403. kotluk, n., & kocakaya, s. (2018). culturally relevant/responsive education: what do teachers think in turkey. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5(2), 98-117. kozubovsky, v.m. (2008). general psychology: cognitive processes. minsk, belarus. ilyin, e.p. (2009). psychology of creativity, creativity, giftedness. st. petersburg, russia: peter. ivanov, i.p. (2002). the development of creative thinking of students in the context of problemactivity learning: phd thesis. stavropol, russia. general psychology. (2005). vocabulary. moscow, russia: karpenko l. a., petrovsky a. v. gerasimova, v. g., melamud, m. r., tutaeva, d. r., romanova, y. d., & zhenova, n. a. (2018). the adoption of e-learning technology at the faculty of distance learning of plekhanov russian university of economics. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 172-188. doi:10.17499/jsser.20153 gerasimova, v. g., romanova, y. d., & zhenova, n. a. (2018). russian market of lms for higher education. astra salvensis, 6, 757-767. gizatullina, a.v. & shatunova o.v. (2019). non-professional skills of teachers: content and relevance. higher education today, 5, 14-20. guilford, j. (1965). three sides of intelligence. psychology of thinking, 1, 124–145. guilford, j. & hoepfher, r. (1971). the analysis of intelligence. new york, usa. ishchenko, o.v., & magsumov, t.a. (2019). siberian students’ material situation in the early 20th century (based on student questionnaires). bylye gody, 51(1), 366-379. kagema, j. (2018). the school curriculum and its influence on teacher motivation in curriculum implementation in kenya. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 9-25. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/3 kalmykova, z.i. (1981). productive thinking as the basis of learning. moscow, russia: pedagogy. https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/51 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/3 borodina et al. kambey, p.j., wuryaningrat, f.n. & kumajas, i.l. (2018). examining leadership and knowledge sharing role on small and medium enterprises innovation capabilities. international journal of economics & business administration, 6(1), 24-38. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019a). studying user satisfaction with the mooc platform interfaces using the example of coursera and open education platforms. paper presented at the acm international conference proceeding series, 2630. doi:10.1145/3322134.3322139 korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019b). usability testing of mooc: identifying user interface problems. paper presented at the iceis 2019 – proceedings of the 21st international conference on enterprise information systems, 2 468-475. kholodnaya, m.a. (1997). the psychology of intelligence: paradoxes of research. moscow, russia: bars. khutorskoy, a.v. (2003). didactic heuristics. theory and technology of creative learning. moscow, russia: moscow state university publishing. leonteva, l. s., maximov, d. a., kurbanov, s. a., afanasyev, i. v., melnikova, t. e., & rezakov, r. g. (2018). information services and development of effective urban management. international journal of civil engineering and technology, 9(11), 25182525. losev, a.f. (1989). daring spirit. moscow, russia: thought. noel-tsigulskaya, t.f. (2000). about critical thinking. moscow, russia: pedagogy. order of the ministry of education and science of russia dated 02.22.2018 n 121. (2018). on approval of the federal state educational standard of higher education – bachelor degree in the direction of training 44.03.01 pedagogical education. retrieved from: http://rulaws.ru/acts/prikaz-minobrnauki-rossii-ot-22.02.2018-n-121/ prodanova, n. a., plaskova, n. s., bochkareva, n. g., babalykova, i. a., gazizyanova, y. y., & zherelina, o. n. (2019). integrated corporate reporting as an innovative business reporting model. international journal of engineering and advanced technology, 8(5), 2075-2078. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 226-245 peretyatko, a.y., & zulfugarzade, t.e. (2017). project of reforms proposed for the don public education in the first half of 1860: a.m. dondukov-korsakov, kh.i. popov, n.i. krasnov. european journal of contemporary education, 6(4), 817-829. magsumov, t.a. (2018a). apprenticeship in secondary vocational schools during the economic modernization in late imperial russia. part 1. european journal of contemporary education, 7(4): 918-926. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2018.4.918 magsumov, t.a. (2018b). vocational school and studying youth in the russian revolution of 1905. terra sebus, 10, 289-313. martinez, i., & tadeu, p. (2018). the impact of pedagogical leadership on pedagogical coordination in secondary schools. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 115. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/373 movchan, i. b., & yakovleva, a. a. (2019). wave analogies for generalized description of geodynamic zones. international journal of innovative technology and exploring engineering, 8(6), 863-868. mueller, j. e., yumashev, a. v., kozachek, a. v., prikhodko, a. n., & safonova, e. e. (2019). acquisition of entrepreneurial skills and competences: curriculum development and evaluation for higher education. journal of entrepreneurship education, 22(1) podlasiy, i.p. (2013). pedagogy. theoretical pedagogy: textbook for bachelors. moscow, russia: yurait. rajović, g., bratanovskii, s. n., vazerova, a. g., & trailovic, m. (2018). development of the secondary-level education in serbia from 1808 to the 1870s. european journal of contemporary education, 7(4), 927-934. doi:10.13187/ejced.2018.4.927 rizki, moch., parashakti, d.r. & saragih, l. (2019). the effect of transformational leadership and organizational culture towards employees’ innovative behaviour and performance. international journal of economics & business administration, 7(1), 227-239. safiullin, m. r. (2019). digital transformation of educational, research and business activity of a university. international journal of engineering and advanced technology, 9(1), 73917394. doi:10.35940/ijeat.a3098.109119 shatunova o., anisimova t., sabirova f., & kalimullina o. (2019) steam as an innovative educational technology. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 (2), 131144. borodina et al. shaytura, s. v., knyazeva, m. d., feoktistova, v. m., vintova, t. a., titov, v. a., & kozhaev, y. p. (2018). philosophy of information fields. international journal of civil engineering and technology, 9(13), 127-136. shastina, e. m., shatunova, o. v., borodina, t. f. (2018). the role of reading in the development of giftedness in the context of globalization and national identity. journal of social studies education research, 9(1), 158-167. smirnov, s.d. (2005). pedagogy and psychology of higher education: from activity to personality. moscow, academy. taran, k., & kurbanov, r. (2018). the armed uprising in the sochi district of the black sea governorate in the russian empire (1905-1906) and its interpretation in the exhibition of the regional museum. brukenthal. acta musei, 13(1), 81-94.orary education, 7(4), 927934. tarman, b. (2016). innovation and education. research in social sciences and technology, 1(1). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/3 tarman, b. (2012) prospective teachers’ beliefs and perceptions about teaching as a profession, educational sciences: theory & practice 12(3), 1-24. tanggaard, l. (2011) stories about creative teaching and productive learning. european journal of teacher education, 34:2, 219-232. tikhomirov, o.k. (2005). psychology of thinking: studies. manual for universities. moscow, russia: academy. torrance, p. (1979). the search for satori and creativity. buffalo, n.y.: creative education foundation. watson, j. (2018). deferred creativity: exploring the impact of an undergraduate learning experience on professional practice. teaching and teacher education, 71, 206-213. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/3 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),332-345 the social responsibility of a scientist: philosophical aspect of contemporary discussions natalya saenko1, olga voronkova2, marina volk 3 and olga voroshilova4 abstract the article is devoted to the analysis of the modern state of ethics of science. the question is raised regarding the possibility and problems of the interference of ethics in scientific rationality. from a philosophical position, preliminary answers are given to the following questions: how is it possible to incorporate ethics into the scientific mind? who is responsible for the destructive impact of scientific discoveries and technical inventions: a scientist or a consumer of technology? how to organize and establish ethical control over experimental science? what ethics can fruitfully interact with technological rationality? the necessity of the essential transformations of modern ethics of science is stated in connection with the global changes in the "social-natural" correlation, the effects of scientific discoveries and technologies on human nature. the solution to these problems in the philosophy of science of the past few decades is reviewed. the opposition of “interference non-interference” ethical criteria in the goalsetting of scientific activity is analyzed. in addition to the well-known concepts of kuhn, lakatos, feyerabend, the attention of the authors of the article dwells on the modern ideas of hans jonas, who argues that the responsibility of a man of science today becomes truly universal. jonas justifies the need for a new ethic by the fact that humanity stands on the verge of death, being unable to control its own power over nature and its own nature. the ethics of science of jonas is revealed in the categories of being and nothingness, of responsibility and fear, it implies first of all responsibility for the existence of humanity and the fear of its non-existence. a preliminary recommendation is given on the consolidation of the scientific community, commercial structures, and political forces, on the basis of which it is possible to form effective, modern, and existing ethical requirements for the responsibility of a scientist and science as such. keywords: philosophy of science, ethics of science, ethos of science, social institute of science, responsibility of a scientist, ethics of responsibility. 1 doctor of science in philosophy, professor of the department of humanities, moscow polytechnic university, moscow, russian federation, rilke@list.ru 2 doctor of economics, professor of management, business organization and innovation department, altai state university, olka2004@yandex.ru 3 peoples friendship university of russia (rudn university), department of social and differential psychology. 4 southwest state university, the dean of the faculty of linguistics and intercultural communication, o_voroshilova@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),332-345 introduction the catalytic impact of the natural sciences on the society became apparent due to their technological application in the 19th and 20th centuries. the influence of science goes far beyond the applied framework, affecting public thinking and behavior. the initial enthusiasm for scientific advances was replaced in the middle of the 20th century by a reassessment phase, which was expressed, among other things, in social concerns such as proliferation of nuclear weapons, the environmental crisis, the material needs of large areas of the planet, biotechnologies and their impact on the genetic fund. any attempt to solve such complex problems should necessarily touch upon the issue of social responsibility of a scientist and the moral dimension of the natural sciences. from a philosophical point of view, the problem of the socio-ethical dimension of the natural sciences can be summarized in the following questions: ˗ how is it possible to incorporate ethics into the scientific mind? ˗ who is responsible for the destructive impact of scientific discoveries and technical inventions: a scientist or a consumer of technologies? ˗ how to organize and establish ethical control over experimental science? ˗ what ethics can fruitfully interact with technological rationality? theoretical background from a socio-political point of view, the main question is whether it is appropriate and to what extent to take into account the factors of social life when determining the direction of scientific research. from a moral point of view, there is the problem of introducing ethical criteria into scientific research, what these criteria may be, as well as the sensitivity of an individual scientist and scientific community as a social group in relation to moral responsibility for the consequences of scientific discoveries and technical inventions (lincényi, 2017; thalassinos et al., 2011; jankalová and jankal, 2017; dobrovolskienė et al., 2017; lafer & tarman, 2019; radwan, 2018; bombiak, 2019; sabitova et al., 2018; laužikas and miliūtė, 2019). the solution to the above-mentioned modern complex problems goes beyond the knowledge of any particular discipline, which means that it is given over to philosophy and should be based on dialogue and the exchange of information and arguments from various scientific and non-scientific points of view. saenko et al. 334 the modern philosophy of science, which analyzes and describes science in the form in which it is practiced, without prescribing norms and goals, considers the acquisition of true knowledge as the main engine of scientific activity. according to popper (1989), the object of science is and should remain the search for truth (popper, 1996). the decisions on how to apply scientific knowledge do not belong to scientific research as such, implying a clear distinction between science as a process of acquiring knowledge and technology as a means of its application. however, kuhn in the historical study of science did not come to the conclusion that scientific progress approached some final object (for example, truth); the history of science reminds him more of a biological evolution: new theories are chosen because they provide the best way for future practice and the survival of science itself; and, although the adoption of new theories definitely means progress in solving problems, this does not mean that each new theory approaches a predetermined final goal (kuhn, 1962). in addition, the ethics of science was traditionally based on the professional ethos of scientific activity and, in particular, on the characteristic principles of the scientific methodology, such as the principle of objectivity, empirical control, measurement accuracy, etc. scientific knowledge is also designed as autonomous and neutral one, since it is considered to be justified solely by empirical and logical criteria and, therefore, is effective for all social systems and useful for various purposes (johnson & hinton, 2019). the ambivalent attitude should also be noted towards the possibilities of scientific knowledge: the coexistence of opportunities and risks is inherent in the nature of scientific research. a part of the study may, despite initial intentions, have negative consequences, and vice versa. for example, the research on fungicides, whatever the original purpose, played a role in the development of poisonous gases, while studies, conducted to unleash biological warfare, can accumulate means of restoring ecological balance (galtung, 1980). philosophy, with its purely logical analysis of science, ignores the social component of its character for a variety of reasons. in modern philosophy and sociology of science, it is stated that traditional analytical philosophy, which focuses on the analysis of final scientific statements, simplifies processes, such as evaluating and choosing alternative theories, or ignores social discourse. the opinion that the evaluation and choice of theories are based (exclusively) on unambiguous logical rules and empirical criteria is contested on the grounds that the development and selection of theories are held under the decisive influence of specific worldviews (for example, the mechanistic worldview). history-oriented philosophers and sociologists of science (for journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),332-345 example, lakatos, 2008, kuhn, 1962, feyerabend, 2010; ahtarieva et al., 2018; ivygina et al., 2018) emphasize the impressive weight of personality-psychological and social factors and aspirations in the development, verification, and selection of scientific data. more radical sociological approaches (for example, social constructivism) assert that scientific theories are entirely based on the personal interests and interaction of a scientist and the society, thus, are exclusively social constructions (abikenov et al., 2019). within the framework of critical philosophy, it is also argued that science is mainly motivated not by striving for truth, but rather by a person's need to find patterns in nature and, therefore, in the safety while making decisions, achievements and leadership in managing things, not to mention greed, arrogance and desire for power. other researchers believe that technological dominance over nature is the motivation for scientific research (habermas, 1968) and that, in addition to searching for truth, the goal of scientific activity should be focused, for example, on preserving life and ecosystems and trying to ensure a decent quality of life for the members of the society. facts and issues the authors believe that the question of responsibility for the critical consequences of the development of science and technology for the environment, including the development of the socalled third world, concerns not only science but also philosophy, economics, politics, and the values of society (for example, consumption). the participation of the scientific community in explaining the risks of modern technological methods is inevitable today, but the decisions regarding the management of these risks require interdisciplinary discussion and interdisciplinary cooperation, despite the arguments, which often seem irreconcilable, put forward by various representatives of politics, economics, and sociology (shatunova et al., 2019; shamshudinova et al., 2019). the complex problems of the era, such as, for example, the environmental crisis, the risks of powerful new technologies, etc., are not limited to one science. their development goes beyond the competence of any particular discipline and requires the synthesis of various types of knowledge. this means that well-designed and viable proposals for solving complex problems should be based on dialogue and the exchange of information from various scientific and nonscientific approaches. however, such discussions, in addition to the inevitable conflicts arising from differences in the interests and aspirations of various parties, also reveal the fundamental saenko et al. 336 difficulties of communication, stemming from the peculiarities and means of thinking that are introduced by representatives of various scientific disciplines. already in 1959, snow wrote about the two cultures that exist in the industrial societies of the west, about those who are engaged in science and technology, on the one hand, and about literature and the humanities, on the other hand, about the lack of understanding and cooperation between them, caused by their one-sided specialization and ignorance of other specializations. he also indicated the negative socio-political consequences of this discrepancy. snow believed that only a well-designed educational reform can help to bridge the gap between the two cultures (snow, 2008). böhler and neuberth published a discussion between scientists, economists, and politicians about the principle of the responsibility of science for the future of human life and the environment. economists referred to prevailing market principles, such as supply and demand, profit maximization and rapid economic success, which simply ignored the environment, as well as more reasonable behavior, including the willingness to pay environmental costs that are not part of the business calculation. politicians noted the reaction of various lobbies with which they had to fight, and the importance of such dialogues, which, however, barely reached the door of state power. scientists, for their part, discussed the ambivalence of research, the risks of technological applications and the tremendous difficulty of communicating with experts from other fields, philosophers, for instance, or sociologists, and even more with non-specialists, given the high level of specialized knowledge, required to understand the processing of natural problems from a point of view of physics, for example. socio-political intervention the above-mentioned philosophical views concern the question of whether and to what degree a socio-political intervention in the field of scientific activity is desirable or feasible. taking into account that scientific methodology itself is rather an endo-scientific issue, the authors believe that the possibility of social and political intervention may relate mainly to the orientation of research directions – the choice of the object of study. proponents of non-interference of social triggers in the scientific process saw the danger that science would develop depending on certain centers of power and would be used to serve various political and commercial goals within the framework of international competition. for example, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),332-345 the position of paul feyerabend is considered quite radical in the philosophical community, since it assumes that philosophy can neither successfully describe science as a whole nor develop a method for separating scientific works from non-scientific entities, such as myths. it also suggests that the "general course" of science developed and recommended by philosophers should be rejected by scientists if it is necessary for further progress. at the same time, advocates of intervention fear that research may be conducted in science that is irrational or simply has no relation to social problems. one of the ideas that was put forward to reduce risks and avoid the use of scientific knowledge in destructive activities, as well as to advance the social orientation of research, was to create control mechanisms with a system of incentives and sanctions (galtung, 1980). there are valid objections based on the opinion that these decisions will create other, equally undesirable problems and that the best guarantee of social orientation of science will not be the creation of additional control mechanisms, but the application of existing ones (state laws, the press and the media, civil initiatives, etc.). kuhn argues that the enormous progress of physics in relation to other sciences is associated, at least partly, with the fact that physics deals with problems dictated by science as such, and not by social requirements (such as in medicine). despite this, there were stages in science when research, experiencing a lack of endo-scientific problems, was supported by the solution of external social problems. while the emergence of a new theory and its further development are based solely on accumulated and vital endo-scientific problems (for example, the problem of ether and the speed of light for the theory of relativity or atomic lines spectra, black-body radiation, photoelectric effect, etc. for quantum theory), these endo-scientific problems may not be sufficient to further expand the applications of the theory after it is substantiated. the examples of this are the evolution of organic chemistry to agricultural chemistry; partial transfer of molecular biology to medical research; quantum theory – to solid-state physics and semiconductor physics. although the question of social interference in the orientation of scientific research remains open at the philosophical and theoretical level, in practice the necessary funding for modern scientific research already indirectly influences the direction of the development of science (korableva et al., 2019; tarman, 2017). scientific research today, on the one hand, is interconnected and interdependent with powerful new technologies, and on the other hand, solves more pressing social problems, such as finding clean, renewable energy sources, maintaining ecological balance, as well as the needs of a significantly increased population of the planet. thus, the need to finance saenko et al. 338 high-tech research indirectly leads to a certain orientation of research priorities, since the state and other institutions provide financial support in order to be able to control specific areas of research. traditionally, the ethics of science is regarded as an area limited by the characteristic principles of the scientific method. however, in addition to these operational principles, the ethics of science today needs to be transformed following the changes in the methods and means of experimental science (for example, negative environmental effects, experiments with animals) that science uses to conduct research. hans jonas rightly believes that the current unprecedented situation requires a revision of traditional ethical categories, the formation of a new ethics of science, a scientist's entry into a new scale of social responsibility: "no previous ethics will teach us the norms of good and evil, which would contain completely new modalities of power and its possible creations. the ground of collective praxis, which we are embarking on with high technology, is still no man's land for ethical theory" (jonas, 1987). if in traditional ethics the zone of moral interaction and influence was limited to the sphere of communication between people, then the new ethics implies the responsibility of a person for the very existence of nature and its integrity. jonas justifies the need for a new ethic by the fact that humanity stands on the verge of death, being unable to control its own power over nature and its own nature. the ethics of science of jonas is revealed in the categories of being and nothingness, of responsibility and fear, it implies first of all responsibility for the existence of humanity and the fear of its non-existence. in addition, having the power to arbitrarily change its own physical appearance and its essential properties, science must take responsibility for the inalterability of human nature and for the very existence of humanity. what factors can enhance social responsibility and the ethical dimension of science? for example, it was proposed that the scientific methodology should include, in addition to the criteria for coordinating scientific theories and natural phenomena, a criterion determining the choice of means and objectives of the study and their compliance with social values, such as the right to save life and health, the right to satisfy basic material and spiritual needs, the right to preserve the ecosystem, etc. (galtung, 1980). however, the proposals regarding external interventions in scientific methodology as such cannot be fully accepted by the scientific community. one of the factors that are essential for strengthening the so-called "moral science" is the personal sense of responsibility of a scientist, which he or she acquired in the process of addressing moral issues, related to the choice of research subjects and the distribution of his or her knowledge for journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),332-345 practical application. another equally important factor is the readiness of the scientific community as a social group to report cases of hazardous research, to raise awareness that society may have to pay for the risks associated with the use of technology. in response to this, undoubtedly, it can be argued that there are always productive and destructive aspects in research and that any attempt to completely separate them will most likely stop the dynamics of scientific research. the questions and dilemmas related to the socio-ethical dimension of science reflect the insufficiency of clarification of the connection between science, technology, and society and, ultimately, between knowledge and action; more specifically, they reflect the conflict between the justified and legitimate right to freedom of research, on the one hand, and the need for external social and political interventions, on the other, arising from equally legitimate rights to protect the environment, life, and health from harmful or unforeseen consequences of modern technologies. given its responsibility, for example, in relation to the development of society in connection with the ecological state of the planet, science must reconsider and redefine its attitude towards politics and publicity. this is not easy and painless, since the scientific spirit is traditionally defined as independent of socio-political norms and interventions (carothers, 2018). the main issues that need to be clarified concern the ambiguous nature of the research (the coexistence of risks and opportunities) and, therefore, the management of risks associated with its technological application. the duality of research creates conflicts and dilemmas. science is involved in solving the problems of experiments without the exact knowledge of their results (experiments, however, can be so large-scale that the changes they make can be irreversible, as, for example, in the case of nuclear testing or the use of genetic technologies in the natural environment). there are no simple answers to the question about the social responsibility of science. scientists' reflections on their social responsibility need feedback and information based on argumentation and analysis, conducted in other areas, such as philosophy or sociology. traditionally, philosophy is committed to directing and orienting, or mediating in times of social crisis or difficulties. philosophy reasonably asks the questions related to the widespread use of new technologies: for example, for the use of new substance in the wide dimensions of the natural environment, people rely on short-term forecasts based on its use in limited laboratory dimensions, or insist on longterm forecasts that attempt to evaluate cumulative effects during long periods of time. scientists recognize that although the results of a limited experiment can be predicted with relative certainty, much more far-reaching predictions, such as, for example, the cumulative environmental impact saenko et al. 340 of applying new technology on dynamically open natural systems, are much more difficult and not subject to the limitations of precise and detailed scientific control. another related question, posed by philosophy, is whether prudence and fear of future catastrophes should dictate a global ban on all dangerous technologies. as some scientists say, prudence and fear will impede the dynamics of scientific research or their acceptance only to the extent that, for example, with a certain degree of certainty, considerable damage to the biosphere could be excluded. scientists say that they are asked to apply their knowledge to solve problems, for example, to find a cure for diseases. they are not ready to abandon genetic experiments and genetic technologies, although this is contrary to the principle of moral responsibility, because it can harm future generations. in such cases, philosophers recommend transparency of research and bringing the results to the public. natural scientists acknowledge that the discussed problems are so complex that they themselves should now take some responsibility in respect of socio-scientific issues as practitioners, whereas traditionally ethics has always been the domain of philosophers and theologians (böhler and neuberth, 1992). discussion despite the conflicts and difficulties associated with communication, an understanding is formed regarding the need for such interdisciplinary discussions to solve complex planetary problems that would make it possible to realistically assess the level of scientific research, market principles, environmental awareness and the needs of a modern person. the society has already practiced such discussions: for example, at the united nations conference on sustainable development (also known as "rio+20"), which took place from june, 20 to june 22, 2012, the development of science and environmental policy were jointly discussed. as it was already stated, the problem of the social responsibility of science and technology comes down to a conflict between the right to freedom of research and the demand for external social and political control. this conflict arises because of the dual approach, which consists in the coexistence of opportunities and risks within the framework of scientific knowledge. considering that the coexistence of opportunities and risks is inherent in the very nature of research, modern technologically advanced societies are obliged to decide how they are going to manage these risks and in the end what their priorities are. such decisions go beyond the perspective and scientific journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),332-345 substantiation of the natural sciences and require interdisciplinary discussions and an exchange of views between science, politics, economics, and sociology. it is hard to imagine that making decisions on complex social and scientific issues with ethical parameters could simply obey the list of unequivocal, transcendent and eternal rules. even in the case of empirical sciences (despite the assumed advantage of empirical data), the philosophy of science does not consider that decisions about choosing a new postulate, theory or model are based on unambiguous logical rules that suggest regulating the relationship between experimental data and accepting or rejecting the theory, although a favorable combination of the experimental data can sometimes facilitate decision making. this decision is ultimately a matter of personal choice for a scientist, a matter of his or her own judgment and the mutual influence of his or her social environment, and, therefore, the subject of the science of cognitive sociopsychology. this epistemological change concerning the choice of scientific theory has raised the question of the criteria of truth and reasoning, for example, in the case of a conflict between scientific opinion and superstition or delusions regarding natural phenomena: how can any attempt to change the subject's understanding – often dictated by culture – beliefs or superstition be justified, if it is believed that truth is not determined on the basis of a reference to reality, but on the basis of what makes sense to people or through social consensus, as in constructivism. in the same way, subjective or relativistic ethical positions have made a positive contribution to the argument in favor of respect for personal beliefs or the development of cultural pluralism. the question of decision-making criteria in controversial issues and those related to conflicts of values needs more attention. in sociology and ethics, there has been a shift in determining moral and responsible behavior from the level of personal moral judgment and its narrow interpersonal and short-term consequences and range to the level of broader social decisions, taking into account their prolongation for the future generation and ecosystems, as well as an accompanying search for rules of judgment and behavior based on moral thinking in the context of "immoral" conflicts of interest and self-affirmation, imposition and power of strategy. natural science education should study and take into account the reflections of philosophy and ethics, if it considers that issues with socio-ethical parameters constitute the content of the teaching of natural science and not only the humanities (yigit, 2018). the essence of the question of the socio-ethical parameters of science lies in the ambivalence of research opportunities and their accompanying risks, as well as in the conflict between the legal saenko et al. 342 right to freedom of research and the requirement of external control to reduce the risk of research that may, for example, threaten the right to life, the quality of life or environmental preservation. the participation of the scientific community in explaining the risks of modern technologies is expected, but decisions regarding the management of these risks require interdisciplinary discussions and the exchange of information and arguments from various scientific and nonscientific approaches. naturalists are indispensable when discussing the responsibilities associated with the future of the planet, due to the highly specialized and complex nature of scientific knowledge associated with modern technology. natural scientists face significant difficulties in communicating with experts from other fields, as well as in transferring their knowledge to the public. interdisciplinarity should not replace special knowledge and basic skills, but the ethics and philosophy of science should be taught to future scientists in such a way as to promote awareness and overcome a specific, but limited point of view of each discipline, and thus provide a solid basis for interdisciplinary synthesis of knowledge and their effective use for understanding and solving the problems of the destructive impact of experimental science on the nature as such and the human nature. conclusion in the interdisciplinary discussion that the authors mentioned earlier, attention should be paid, for example, to the problems arising from the intervention of non-specialists in increasingly complex research work and growing obstacles to the effective functioning of interdisciplinary committees for the approval of scientific and technological projects. when, for example, philosophers and sociologists understand how complex an ordinary problem in physics is and what knowledge is needed to discuss it, they come to the conclusion that such interdisciplinary discussions should be preceded by a physics course for the humanities. otherwise, participants can quickly finish the discussion, as they speak different languages. obviously, with regard to a case that sociologists consider catastrophic, an economist or a physicist may express other views or criticism that shed a completely different light on it. as the scientists noted, this means that communication between experts from different disciplines, as well as between experts and non-specialists, requires much more practice, which the majority of specialists are not ready for. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),332-345 references abikenov, z., gabitov, t., bermakhanov, o., abdiramanova, a., & nassimov, m. (2019). semiotic analysis of the symbolic world of the culture complex. space and culture, india, 6(5), 166-177. doi:10.20896/saci.v6i5.397 ahtarieva, r., ibragimova, e., sattarova, g., turzhanova, g. (2018). integration as a form of acculturation of foreign student – future teacher in the polyethnic educational environment of university. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), pp. 317331. böhler d. (1992). diskursethik und menschenwürdegrundsatz zwischen idealisierung und erfolgsverantwortung. zur anwendung der diskursethik in recht, politik und wissenschaft, hg. von m. kettner und k.-o. apel. frankfurt а. m.: suhrkamp, 1992. s. 201-232. böhler d., neuberth r. (hg.) (1993). herausforderung zukunftsverantwortung: hans jonas zu ehren. münster/hamburg: lit, 2. aufl, 1993.-130s. böhler d., stitzel m. u.a. (2000). zukunftverantwortung in der marktwirtschaft. in memorian hans jonas ii ethik und wirtschaft im dialog. -bd. 3. münster: lit, 2000. s. 230. bombiak, e. (2019). green human resource management – the latest trend or strategic necessity? entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 1647-1662. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(7) carothers, d. (2018). a culture of equality?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(2), 42-57. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 dobrovolskienė, n.; tvaronavičienė, m.; tamošiūnienė, r. (2017). tackling projects on sustainability: a lithuanian case study, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 4(4): 477-488. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.4.4(6) feierabend p.k. (2010). science in a free society.translated from english a. l. nikiforova. m.: ast: ast moscow. galtung j. (1980). the true worlds: transnational perspective. n. y.: the free press, 1980. habermas j. (1968). technik und wissenschaft als «ideologie». frankfurt am main, 1968. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(7) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.4.4(6) saenko et al. 344 ivygina, a., pupysheva, e., mukhametshina, d. (2018). the role of local history texts in implementing the culturological approach to teaching the russian language: the basic general education level. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), pp. 160-171 jankalová, m.; jankal, r. 2017. the assessment of corporate social responsibility: approaches analysis, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 4(4): 441-459. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.4.4(4) jonas h. (1987). das prinzip verantwortung. versuch einer ethik f r die technologische zivilisation. z rich, 1987. johnson, c., & hinton, h. (2019). toward a brillant diversity. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 56-70. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/27 koblyakov v.p. (1986). ethical aspects of global problems of our time. m .: knowledge, 1986.63 p. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). studying user satisfaction with the mooc platform interfaces using the example of coursera and open education platforms. paper presented at the acm international conference proceeding series, 2630. doi:10.1145/3322134.3322139 kozlova, n.p. (2007). the ethics of responsibility in the conditions of technogenic civilization of hans jonas: dissertation dissertation. ... candidate of philosophical sciences. moscow, 2007. 26 p. kuhn t. s. (1962). the structure of scientific revolutions. chicago: university of chicago press, 1962. laužikas, m.; miliūtė, a. (2019). transformational communication via evolving ethical and moral norms of lithuanian civil service organizations, entrepreneurship and sustainability 6(4): 1750-1761. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(14) lafer, s., & tarman, b. (2019). editorial 2019: (2)1, special issue. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), i-v. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 lakatos i. (2008). selected works on the philosophy and methodology of science. m .: academic project, 2008. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.4.4(4) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/27 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/the_structure_of_scientific_revolutions https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=university_of_chicago_press&action=edit&redlink=1 https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=university_of_chicago_press&action=edit&redlink=1 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(14) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),332-345 lincényi, m. (2017).entrepreneurship ecosystem facets: the european migrant crisis and public opinion in slovakia, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 5(2): 357367.http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.5.2(14) popper k. (1996). realism and the goal of science // modern philosophy of science: knowledge, rationality, values in the works of thinkers of the west. reader. m., logos, 1996. 2nd ed. p. 92 105. radwan, a. (2018). science and innovation policies in north african countries: exploring challenges and opportunities, enterpreneurship and sustainability issues 6(1): 268-282. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.6.1(17) sabitova, a., salimova, d., ibragimova, e. (2018). motivated and unmotivated violations from the norm in children's books in organizing extracurricular reading. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), с. 306-316 shatunova o., anisimova t., sabirova f., kalimullina o. (2019). steam as an innovative educational technology. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 (2), 131144. shamshudinova, g., altybassarova, m., seifullina, g., turlybekova, a., & dyussembekova, g. (2019). state model of interconfessional tolerance in modern multiethnic societies. space and culture, india, 7(1), 117-127. doi:10.20896/saci.v7i1.374 snow c. p. (2008). the two cultures. cambridge university press, 2008. tarman, b. (2017). editorial: the future of social sciences. research in social sciences and technology, 2(2). retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/329 thalassinos, i.e., stamatopoulos, v.t. and arvanitis, e.s. (2011). gender wage gap: evidence from the hellenic maritime sector 1995-2002. european research studies journal, 14(1), 91-101 yigit, m. (2018). does higher education change value perceptions?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 1-8. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/5 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.5.2(14) http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.6.1(17) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/5 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (1), 93-115 93 a new approach to preventing corruption in indonesia: a study of the tp4 in central java, indonesia pujiyono,1 fajar a. setiawan,2, david m. t. hutabarat3 abstract this article scrutinises the escorting and safeguarding team to governance and development (tp4), a newly established prosecutor task force in indonesia appointed to supervise government projects. its effects in curbing the corruption that has plagued said projects and boosting the budget absorption of the indonesian government are also explored. the research is conducted as a quantitative case study to the works of the regional tp4 of central java during the period of january 2016 until july 2018. the tp4 was established by the high prosecutor office of central java in 2016. the findings of this study show that the establishment of the tp4 in central java has contributed to the exponential increase in budget absorption rates and has drastically reduced the level of corruption crimes. the research also shows that such achievements are due to the 2 roles played by the tp4: as a legal advisor, it extends exhaustive support mechanisms; as a legal inspectorate, it has exhaustive alternative legal settlement mechanisms. hence, we contend that the tp4 has proven its efficiency in achieving 2 seemingly contradictory goals (i.e., curbing and preventing corruption while enabling bureaucrats to progress with their projects without fearing corruption indictment). however, we also acknowledge the limitations of this study, as only statistical data have measured the progress of the tp4. because of this, we suggest that progress cannot be solely determined by numbers but also by indications of positive behavioural reform within the indonesian bureaucracy. thus, further research is required on this topic. keywords: corruption prevention, budget absorption, government projects, the supervision and security team of governance and development, central java introduction corruption is still an endemic and pervasive practice in indonesia’s public (i.e., government and politics) and private (i.e., business) domains. as indonesia is a developing country, not only in terms of economy but also democratisation (olken, 2010), research shows that this persisting corruption is institutionalised, which results in a fraudulent culture. thus, such corruption practices are inescapable in bureaucratic environments (donato, 2016; olken, 2007; 1 lecturer in criminal law, faculty of law, diponegoro university, indonesia; pujiyono@live.undip.ac.id 2 master of arts in human rights and democratisation, institute of human rights and peace studies, mahidol university, thailand; fajarfajar93@gmail.com 3 bachelor of law, faculty of law, diponegoro university, indonesia; davtri36@gmail.com mailto:pujiyono@live.undip.ac.id mailto:fajarfajar93@gmail.com mailto:davtri36@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 olken & pande, 2012; setiani, huda, pulungan, & winarko, 2017; prabowo, 2014). the latest country report on ‘clean governments’ by transparency international (2017) shows that indonesia ranked considerably low (96th out of 180 states) in terms of clean governments. the most corrupt sectors are the public sectors and include the public procurement, budgetary, and extractive industries (transparency international, 2018). bribery, budget mismanagement, embezzlement, unauthorised collection, and licensing are the most frequent forms of corruption in indonesia, and they have resulted in immense losses in terms of state assets, stagnant or regressive development, and public distrust of the government (ganie-rochman & achwan, 2016; maulana & situngkir, 2013; oecd, 2017). the indonesian government has taken action and adopted policies to combat corruption. at an international level, indonesia had ratified the united nations convention against corruption. at the national level, the primary statutes regarding anti-corruption in indonesia are law no. 31 of 1999 on the eradication of corruption crime, as amended by law no. 20 of 2001; law no. 28 of 1999 on the clean and free state management from corruption, collusion, and nepotism; law no. 30 of 2002 on the corruption eradication commission (kpk); law no. 46 of 2009 on the corruption court; and law no. 8 of 2010 on the prevention and eradication of money laundering. the first law includes a fundamental statute that defines corruption, as stipulated in article 2, paragraph 1: anyone who illegally commits an act to enrich oneself or another person or a corporation, thereby creating losses to state finance or state economy, shall be sentenced to life imprisonment or minimum imprisonment of 4 (four) years and to a maximum of 20 (twenty) years and fined to a minimum of rp 200,000,000.00 (two hundred million rupiahs) and to a maximum of rp 1,000,000,000.00 (one billion rupiahs) (law no. 31 of 1999 on the eradication of corruption crime). moreover, the indonesian government has also established an integrated system between the attorney general of indonesia (agi) and the kpk to form the prosecuting body for corruption cases in the corruption court. this body is supported by the indonesian national police (polri), the financial transactions analysis and report centre (ppatk), the audit board of indonesia pujiyono et al. (bpk), and the financial and development supervisory agency (bpkp). together with the agi and the kpk, these institutions encompass the anti-corruption enforcement system in indonesia. such exhaustive legal and institutional frameworks are proven to have a stellar record in combatting corruption. yet, the corruption perceptions index for indonesia has been increasing steadily for the last 5 years to double that of 1998 (transparency international, 2017). as of 2004, there are 122 parliamentarians, 25 ministers, 17 governors, 51 regents and mayors, 130 highranking bureaucrats, and 14 judges that have been imprisoned for corruption (transparency international, 2017). in addition, 1,834 individuals from the police force, attorney general’s office, and various government institutions have been suspected of illegal levies (transparency international, 2017). it has been reported that the kpk recovered 497.6 billion rupiahs of state assets, and the agi had confiscated 17.6 billion rupiahs of illegal fees (transparency international, 2018). moreover, in spite of the rampant corruption practices in indonesia, research contends that indonesia shows a linear correlation between institutional reforms, high rates of prosecution against corruption, and extensive public support for the repression of corruption crimes (cameron, chaudhuri, erkal, & gangadharan, 2009). however, it has also been suggested that such repressive enforcement may have prompted corruption practices to evolve and adapt and find alternative ways of embezzling public money (olken, 2006; olken & pande, 2012). as corruption has become institutionalised, handling corruption through repressive approaches (i.e., prosecution) may not be sufficient (disch, vigeland, sundet, & gibson, 2009; schütte, 2012). thus, an alternative approach is needed to prevent such corrupt acts from being performed. however, a caveat that the priority of preventing should not undermine the persecution itself should also be applied. in 2015, the agi established a special task force consisting of local prosecutors to supervise the progress of government development projects. the task force was named the escorting and safeguarding team to governance and development (tp4) (tim pengawal dan pengaman pemerintahan dan pembangunan). however, the tp4 was not solely intended as an internal crime and law enforcement team for government projects, even though it consists of prosecutors. rather, the tp4 was also intended as a development accelerator, or precisely, helping the projects to be finished faster, more accountable, and cleaner from fraudulent practices. hence, this indicates the tp4’s dual roles as an inquisitor, which supervises, prevents, and persecutes alleged fraudulent acts, and a legal advisor which provides counsel in legal matters. this article journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 will discuss the tp4 as a breakthrough approach to anti-corruption in indonesian government projects. the discussion is guided by the following research questions: 1) what are the goals, functions, and mechanisms of the tp4? 2) what developments have been made by the tp4 in relation to boosting budget absorption and project realisation? method research design this article is designed as in empirical legal research empirical legal research analyses the implementation and implication of laws (e.g., regulations, policies, court decisions) and their practices (wing, mcconville, & chui, 2007). in so doing, the empirical legal research is subject to methods of social research, such as qualitative and quantitative methods (mccrudden, 2006; suchman & mertz, 2010). thus, the research design of this article is a quantitative study based on numerical data so as to elaborate the analysis in relation to the research questions. specification of research data the data presented in this article are derived from quantitative data and complemented by minor qualitative data. the quantitative data in the research are a recapitulation of the statistical records of the tp4d of central java. these records are presented as charts and tables in the study. the minor quantitative data presented in this article consist of 2 types: literature concerning the topic at hand (e.g., regulations, reports) and interviews with field experts. data collection tools as in all quantitative studies, the data are then sorted into various charts and tables. the data are separated into the following categories: numbers of projects, total expenditure budgets, institutions, and types of institutions that are supervised by the tp4d of central java during the study period. as previously mentioned, this study also used qualitative data gathered from interviews with field experts, including 1) lilik setyawan, chief of division d (security and strategic development) of intelligence prosecutor assistance at the high prosecutor office of central java. pujiyono et al. 2) endeono wahyudi, member of central java tp4 team (tp4d), who also served as leader of the special crime investigation task force at the high prosecutor office of central java. data collection the study was conducted in central java, indonesia, with the tp4d. the team works under the instruction of the high prosecutor office of central java, the central java provincial government, the regional offices of state bodies, and their private affiliates. the data used in this article records the work of the tp4d from january 2016 to july 2018. the study is limited in terms of time, as the tp4d of central java was established in 2015. however, it was not fully functional at this time, as most of the government projects had either been implemented or already completed. data analysis the quantitative data analysis for this study uses descriptive statistics to describe the main findings (larson, 2006; thompson, 2009). the descriptive statistics of this study are intended to display correlations and the periodical progress of the tp4d in terms of boosting the budget absorption of government projects in central java and curbing corruption and corrupt practices in such projects. literature review the fear of corruption indictment in july 2016, president joko widodo of indonesia held a meeting with the attorney general of indonesia, the chief of the indonesian national police, the chiefs of the high prosecutor office (hpo) – a provincial branch of the attorney general – and the regional chiefs of the indonesian national police. in the meeting, president joko widodo criticised the high rate of prosecutions of government officials – especially regional heads and high-ranking bureaucrats – under corruption allegations, which he claimed to be contributing to the declining rate of budget absorption developmental stagnancy. the president then delivered 8 instructions to these lawenforcement officials: journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 1) policy and discretion shall not be penalised per se; 2) an administrative offense must be distinguished from one which explicitly expresses the intention to corrupt, as clearly defined by the regulations of the bpk, to which the prosecution process must be taken in accordance; 3) there is a 60-day delay period given by the bpk to government officials to rectify the error findings; in the meantime, a prosecution should not take place; 4) there must be concrete details regarding the losses of state funds; and 5) any allegation of corruption shall not be exaggeratingly exposed to the media before the prosecution process takes place (indonesian secretary of the cabinet, 2016). this speech is controversial, as it could be perceived as the toleration of possibly corrupt behaviour for the sake of development. however, the president’s complaints do seem to be justified. this is shown by the rate of budget absorption in indonesia, which is shockingly low, as illustrated below. chart 1. the realisation rates of revenues (dark blue), expenditures (light blue), and deficits (grey) of the indonesian state budget, 2016–2017. (source: databoks, 2017: https://databoks.katadata.co.id/) pujiyono et al. budget absorption is determined by the ratio of realised expenditure to realised revenue and deficit. the chart shows that the overall rate of budget absorption in 2017 was even lower than 2016. as for expenditure realisation, the achieved realisation rate for 2017 is only 8.1 percent (168.63 trillion rupiahs) of the total expected rate, which is lower than the rate for 2016 (9.1 percent; 189.41 trillion rupiahs). meanwhile, the rates of realised revenue and deficit for 2017 are 8.4 percent (145.443 trillion rupiahs) and 6.7 percent (22.2 trillion rupiahs), respectively. the rates are much higher than those of 2016: 7.8 percent (136.75 trillion rupiahs) of revenue realisation and 17.1 percent (50.66 trillion rupiahs) of deficit (seregig, suryanto, hartono & rivai, 2018). however, the chart shows a contrast between the 2017 and 2016 levels of budget absorption: the former is lower, yet has a higher amount of reserved money. this shows that the government had performed poorly in terms of maximising the available budget throughout the period in question. the stellar record of combatting corruption by the law enforcement institutions (i.e., kpk, agi, and the indonesian national police) have drawn extensive public support that is unshakeable by political manipulation. the anti-corruption law enforcement institutions are notorious for their unyielding attitudes in investigatory and prosecution processes, reaching 100 percent conviction rates (transparency international, 2018). such approaches have inculcated the deterrent effects of corruption that are both pervasive and assertive. however, the president’s speech bears scrutiny, as he suggests that such an approach could cause a backlash in terms of development. several research findings have suggested that legal factors must be considered in terms of budget realisation, where the frequent persecution of corruption has created doubt and reluctance among project officials in terms of carrying out projects. thus, many projects were hindered or have failed to be implemented (cimpoeru & cimpoeru, 2015; erlina, tarigan, & muda, 2017; husen, ananda, santoso, & khusaini, 2014; juliani & sholihin, 2014; suwanda, 2015; gusti & frinaldi, 2017). this psychological fear and doubt among government officials meant that some avoided their responsibilities as decision-makers and managers. officials are afraid to hold responsibility because they may be persecuted as corruption offenders should there be any mismanagement, even though such errors are amendable if the bpk’s report suggests so. thus, if a bureaucrat is responsible for a project, they tend to perform poorly in cases where the budget cannot be fully absorbed or realised. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 moreover, although corruption is evidently rampant in indonesia, it can be said that such repressive approaches in terms of detection and prosecution would be enough to curb corruption and also hinder development. prabowo (2015; 2014) suggests that corruption in indonesia is ‘an outcome of cumulative decision-making processes by the participants,’ to which the institutionalisation, rationalisation, and socialisation of corruption networks underlie the conditions of inevitability and necessity. quah (2003, 2006) contends that corruption in indonesia has been institutionalised as a ‘way of life.’ as for budgetary management, indonesia is notoriously known to be weak in policing its management. this has meant that corruptive vested interests have seeped into budgeting processes, thus making them inherently felonious (husen et al., 2014; quah, 2007; znoj, 2007). these external preconditions have 2 dire consequences for the curbing of corruption in indonesia: on one hand, such preconditions make corruption more difficult to tackle, as such short-term deterrent effects of repressive law enforcement cannot sever or perish the main problems of corruption. on the other hand, such repressive approaches have prompted government officials’ reluctance in progressing with their projects and realising their budgets due to the untreated inherent legal flaws of the country that could lead to indictment. as such, corruption has been institutionalised and vested into managerial positions, and a repressive approach for persecution following the crime would not be effective, because such an approach cannot curb such pathological behaviour in the first place. instead, a preventive mechanism against corruption is an appropriate strategy for curbing corruption in budget management and boosting budget absorption. the supervision and security team of governance and development in may 6, 2015, president joko widodo issued the presidential instruction no. 7: the 2015 action plan of eradication and prevention of corruption. the plan was intended for the ministers of the working cabinet, the secretary of the cabinet, the attorney general of indonesia, the chiefs of cabinet-level departments, the secretarygenerals of the supreme state institutions, the governors, regents, and the mayors.i essentially, the i in indonesia, the supreme state institutions are the highest constitutionally-mandated institutions by which the country is directly managed. the institutions comprise of the executive branch (the president, the vice president, and the cabinet), the legislative branch (the people’s consultative assembly/mpr, the people’s representative council/dpr, and the regional representative council/dpd), the judicative branch (the supreme court and the constitutional court), and the supreme auditory board or bpk. meanwhile, the secretariat-generals are the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 plan mandated the intended institutions to cooperate in terms of establishing effective eradication and prevention mechanisms against corruption. the action plan will be implemented differently in accordance with the functions of each institution. furthermore, on july 22, 2015, the 55th anniversary of the bhakti adhyaksa (i.e., the birthday of the attorney general of indonesia), president joko widodo asserted in his speech that the attorney general and its prosecutor offices must prioritise anti-corruption law enforcement by safeguarding the development process to ensure that it is legally valid and tangibly beneficial to the people of indonesia. moreover, the president also asserted that the role of the attorney general and the prosecutor offices would not only be one of law enforcement, but also development accelerators. the president contended that this would mean that the attorney general would safeguard and escort development, the progress of which is run by bureaucrats and departments, to be executed in line with the law and untainted by corrupt practices. as for the related presidential instruction no. 7 of 2015, this role of a ‘development accelerator’ became the main task of the attorney general as part of the action plan. in response, the attorney general of indonesia, muhammad prasetyo, issued the decree of the attorney general of indonesia no. 152/a/ja/10/2015 on the establishment of the escorting and safeguarding the team of governance and development (tim pengawal dan pengaman pemerintahan dan pembangunan/tp4). as previously mentioned, the tp4 is a special prosecutor team that is assigned to assist, escort, and support the success of the governance and general development by ensuring development is in line with the law and untainted by corrupt practices. the tp4 was established in each prosecutor’s office, both central and regional, with the latter specifically termed tp4d, with the ‘d’ meaning daerah or local in indonesian. the team consists of 6 members: a prosecutor head of intelligence as the team leader, a prosecutor head of public and administrative law as the deputy, a prosecutor of intelligence affairs as the sub-team leader, a prosecutor of public and administrative law as the team’s secretary, and a prosecutor of special criminal crime as the member. the tp4’s membership format is expandable; thus, the team leader of the tp4 can employ other prosecutors and even outsource independent experts such as lawyers, auditors, and researchers. the tp4d has been working for 3 years, yet there are no internationalscale research studies regarding their work. thus, this article intends to present a preliminary supporting bureaucrats who are tasked with the administrative management of the institution’s affairs. a secretarygeneral is usually an appointed high-ranking civil servant. pujiyono et al. analysis of the effectiveness of the tp4 in terms of its dual role in law enforcement: as a development accelerator, by which a government project can progress free from corruption and fraudulent behaviour, and as a booster of budget absorption. findings and discussion goals, functions, and mechanisms of the tp4 the role of the tp4 is important because it ensures that the clients’ (government bodies) budget realisation in government projects (e.g., construction, procurement) or programmes (e.g., education, social welfare, health) is administered, executed in a legally valid manner, and yields maximum absorption of said budget. the inception of the tp4 is based on a dual and intertwined paradigm of a prosecution institution as both a law enforcer and development accelerator. this paradigm suggests that the realisation of justice is not only based on repressive penalisation but also on its contribution to the development of social welfare. as for the latter role, the prosecution institution must also safeguard and advance the progress of government projects (prasetyo, 2017). the tp4 was established due to the unrest of the central government concerning the exponential decline of budget absorption. this anxiety was caused by the rampantly repressive detention of corruption crime and the psychological fear and doubt of government officials in making decisions and progressing with their projects (erlina et al., 2017; hessami, 2013; husen et al., 2014; susanto & badrudin, n.d.; suwanda, 2015; gusti & frinaldi, 2017; znoj, 2007). this condition is then aggravated by the intricately institutionalised fraudulent and corrupt behaviour of individuals and their lack of legal knowledge regarding good governance and budgetmanagement procedures (seregig, suryanto, hartono & rivai, 2018). this renders the policy-making process of budgeting inherently prone to corruption, fraud, and embezzlement (olken, 2007; quah, 2003; prabowo, 2014; znoj, 2007). the legal cornerstone of the tp4 is stipulated by the decree of the attorney general of indonesia no. 152/a/ja/10/2015 in conjunction with the presidential instruction no. 7 of 2015, no. 10 of 2016, and the presidential decree no. 54 of 2018 in the national strategy of corruption prevention. according to the attorney general’s decree and these regulations, the tp4 has official goals and a desired states of affairs (prasetyo, 2017): 1) to dispense with the reluctance and doubt of government officials in decision-making; 2) to reform the bureaucracy by effectively and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 efficiently hastening nationally strategic government projects; 3) to maximise budget absorption; 4) to create a convenient and economically driven investment climate; and 5) to create an effective law enforcement by prioritising prevention over indictment. in order to achieve the official goals presented above, the tp4 has 4 functions, as elaborated on in table 1: table 1. functions of the tp4. functions concrete actions 1. legal procurement a. providing legal materials (e.g., legislations, jurisprudences, amicus curiae, annotations, research, manuals) related to the planning, auctioning, execution, supervision, permittance, procurement, administrative conduct, and management of state finance in any government institution, state-owned enterprise (bumn), domestic enterprise (bumd), and other parties. b. outsourcing external assistance that requires capability, competency, and relevancy in providing the required legal materials (information and advice) to be addressed to government institutions, bumn, and bumd. 2. providing legal clinics a. providing forums regarding problem identification in the budget absorption and development process for the government institutions, bumn, and bumd. b. providing legal counselling and consultancy on the tp4’s own initiative or as a result of a request from the aforementioned parties. c. giving legal opinions, advice, and recommendations regarding policy implementation, legislation, mechanisms, and procedures with budget management government officials in relation to budget absorption matters in every stage of the development process. 3. legal supervision a. cooperating with the internal supervision apparatus of government (apip) in order to prevent deviations or violations that can hinder, fail, or incur losses of state finance. b. monitoring and evaluating the execution of the project’s development programmes along with corresponding institutions (apip). 4. law enforcement a. imposing repressive enforcement with the cooperation of apip whenever preliminary evidences of corruption and administrative offences are found. pujiyono et al. given the goals and functions above, it can be said that the goals of the tp4 represent the official goals, whereas its functions represent the operative goals. to achieve these expectations, the tp4 must implement approaches that are different to what prosecutors typically implement as law enforcers. it was mentioned in the president’s speech and by prasetyo (2017, 2017a) that the attorney general and its prosecutor offices are given dual roles: to prevent corruption in development strategies by representing development accelerators. given such a dual role, the tp4 resembles both a legal inspectorate and legal advisor. the former manifests the authority of the tp4 as a law enforcer that supervises the execution of government projects or programmes. the latter provides legal assistance to government clients who are in doubt as to the validity and consequences of their actions and decisions, thereby helping them to progress confidently while also avoiding the risks of corruption. the tp4 acts by the request of a managing stakeholder (i.e., the government officials and partners) of a government project/programme. this project/programme can also become the client. however, not all requests will be responded to by the tp4. according to the decree of agi no. 014/a/ja/2016 on the technical and administrative mechanisms of tp4, the tp4 will only respond to a supervision request if the project is categorised as ‘strategic’ and ‘prioritised.’ a project needs 4 preconditions in order to be supervised by the tp4: 1) the project must be in the initial stage of development; 2) the project must cost more than rp 100.000.000,00 (one hundred million rupiahs); and 3) there must be an indication of a lack of a supervisory entity within the applicant’s institution. if the request is approved, the tp4 can administer some of the following activities: 1. preliminary observation and analysis. here, the tp4 cooperates with the apip in order to assemble the preliminary report regarding the problem findings. 2. legal assistance. here, the 3 legal functions of the tp4 (i.e., legal procurement, legal clinics, and legal supervision) are implemented. in practice, this also includes non-legal works that are similar to risk management works (e.g., risk mitigation, lobbying). 3. final report. the report consists of the overall activities, results, and further recommendations. the report will be delivered to the project officials and the hpo. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 4. investigation. this step can only be administered if a preliminary indication of corruption or fraudulent acts is detected. the evidence can be assembled through the report of the apip or other auditory and supervision experts. furthermore, it must be noted that the tp4’s services do not extend to representing client affairs in litigation processes (i.e., investigations and trial defence). instead, given that the tp4 is essentially a team of state prosecutors, it still has the authority to prosecute whenever an indication of corruption or fraudulency is detected. therefore, all of the tp4’s functions (other than its law enforcement functions) are meant for non-litigation affairs. the impact of the tp4 on the progression of government projects: a case study of the tp4d of central java budget absorption in response to the decree of the attorney general of indonesia no. 152/a/ja/10/2015, the hpo of central java established the tp4d of central java in 2015. the tp4d of central java is authorised for government projects and programmes across central java. furthermore, the hpo promoted the tp4d in all government institutions in central java in order to attract clients. the presence of the tp4d has been met with positive response, as the level of supervision has been increasing exponentially since 2016, as shown in chart 2 and chart 3. 45 480 349 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 2016 2017 2018 chart 2. numbers of central java tp4d's supervised project from 2016 until july 2018 projects pujiyono et al. (source: division d of the central java high prosecutor office, august 7, 2018.) (source: division d of the central java high prosecutor office, august 7, 2018.) furthermore, the number of supervised government institutions also fluctuated in the same fashion, as shown in chart 4 and chart 5. (source: division d of the central java high prosecutor office, august 7, 2018.) 27,17 47,87 5,803 0 20 40 60 2016 2017 2018 chart 3. total expenditure budgets supervised by tp4d in central java, 2016-july 2018 budget (in trillion rupiah) 20; 28% 16; 22%12; 16% 12; 17% 5; 7% 7; 10% chart 4. types of gov. institutions applied to tp4d central java, 2016july 2018 transportation land and water management industry and trade health education others journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 charts 1 and 2 show a drastic increase in supervisory activities of government projects by the tp4d of central java. according to an interview with prosecutor lilik setyawan (august 7, 2018), the drastic increase is due to the success of the hpo of central java in promoting the benefits of tp4d to government institutions across central java. this promotion occurred for almost 2 years following the establishment of the central java tp4d. furthermore, the charts show that 2018 has fewer supervised projects and a lower budget than 2017. this is due to 2 factors: 1) the massive success of project execution during 2017 that reduced the burden of overdue and uncompleted projects and 2) the smaller number of new projects in 2018. budget absorption is determined by the proportional percentage of expenditure of a budget that has been realised in opposition to the ceiling expenditure of a budget. the realisation of the expenditure budget is determined by how much budget money is spent for a completed government project/programme from which the outcome must be tangible and immediately usable by the public. based on our research, the central java government has experienced extensive improvements in its budget absorption rate. this is shown in table 2 and chart 6 below. table 2. absorption rate of expenditure budget of the central java government. period ceiling expenditure budget realisation absorption rate (%) 2013 rp 13.694.684.479.000,00 rp 12.724.776.308.434,00 92.99 2014 rp 16.038.948.597.000,00 rp 15.086.065.034.422,00 94.06 2015 rp 19.632.559.656.000,00 rp 17.820.760.485.342,00 90.78 2016 rp 21.155.209.221.000,00 rp 19.354.374.825.983,00 91.94 2017 rp 23.955.179.003.000,00 rp 22.884.713.018.754,00 95.53 (source: division d of the central java high prosecutor office, august 7, 2018.) pujiyono et al. (source: division d of the central java high prosecutor office, august 7, 2018.) as shown in table 2 and chart 6, 2017 saw the highest rate of budget absorption in the previous 5 years. in the same fashion as previous data, 2017 was the peak period for the tp4d in terms of supervising the government projects of central java. in 2015 and 2016, the tp4d had just been established and was in its developmental process. given the linear fashion of the data, it is clear that the presence of tp4d has been responded to positively by government institutions in central java. its supervision has greatly improved the performance of these institutions in terms of executing their projects and boosting budget absorption. preventing corruption: curbing from within although the tp4d is a vital aspect of government institutions in terms of executing and accomplishing projects, the tp4d is still essentially part of a law enforcement institution (i.e., the hpo of central java). however, as mentioned earlier in the study, the repressive approaches of detection and detention by anti-corruption law enforcement have imposed negative consequences on stakeholders – namely, psychological fear and worry about violating the law. thus, an alternative method of law enforcement must be established without inducing such fear and doubt. the tp4d and apip have established an alternative settlement mechanism that prioritises internal administrative processes over litigation and law enforcement. the mechanism is as shown in figure 1. 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 chart 6. budget absorption rate of central java government, 2013-7 budget absorption rate journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 figure 1. alternative legal settlement mechanism by the tp4d. according to the interview conducted with prosecutor endeono wahyudi, this alternative mechanism uses a unique legal formula that changes how corruption is perceived. lilik asserted that this mechanism emphasised the distinction of mens rea (guilty intent) and actus reus (guilty act). as stipulated in the corruption act (law no. 31 of 199), the mens rea of a corruption act or any fraudulent offense is determined by one’s intent to illegally ‘enrich oneself and/or others.’ based on this theory, an administrative error can be distinguished from corruption and treated differently by the law. as stated by wahyudi, this mechanism is appropriate in curbing and preventing corruption whilst keeping government officials assured that they can progress with their projects. as for the data, the number of corruption cases is exponentially decreasing since 2014, as shown in chart 7. stakeholders receive the report/complaint and are immediately processed by the apip. public complaint about indication of corruption. complaint is processed by the tp4d into a report. the apip’s report is received by the tp4d and investigated (nonlitigation) for a period of 30 days. proven to be a criminal offense. proved to be an administrative error that has caused the state finance loss. proved to be an administrative error and does not cause the state finance loss. repressive procedure initiated (i.e., investigation, detention, trial). the stakeholder must fix the error and pay the loss. the responsible stakeholder must fix the error within 10 days. pujiyono et al. (source: investigation task force of special criminal offense, high prosecutor office of central java, august 7, 2018.) given the high rate of budget absorption of the central java government’s expenditure budget, as shown in chart 6, the linear relation of corruption prevention and the project’s guardianship by the tp4d of central java increases the rate of budget absorption. this should be followed by a decreasing rate of corruption cases being processed by law enforcement. as shown in 2017, we can conclude that the tp4d has achieved virtually all of its goals and is thus effective in maximising budget absorption (aim number 3) and ensuring effective law enforcement by prioritising prevention over indictment (aim number 5). unfortunately, this article cannot attest to the effectiveness of the tp4d in terms of its other goals due to the limited data and scope of the research. however, these are matters in which further research can be conducted. conclusion, limitations and implications this article contends that the tp4d has proven to be effective in relation to 2 matters: 1) maximising budget absorption and 2) creating an effective mechanism to curb corruption through preventive approaches. this is shown by the data presented on the budget absorption rate of central java government’s expenditure budget and the amount of indictments for corruption in 2017, a period in which the tp4d was heavily involved in supervising budgets and assisting with the development of projects. moreover, the findings suggest that such positive achievements are caused by 2 factors: 1) the role and function of the tp4 that resemble those of legal advisors and 39 97 62 46 18 40 40 41 49 32 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 2014 2015 2016 2017 tem.18 chart 7. numbers of investigated corruption crimes related to government projects in central java 2014-july 2018 hpo of central java central java police journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 crime inspectorates and 2) the new exhaustive legal settlement mechanism, which helps the tp4 to resolve the intricate problems within corruption and within indonesia’s anti-corruption law. these dual roles are essential to the achievement of 2 seemingly contradictive goals. therefore, the research shows that the tp4d of central java is capable of curbing and preventing corruption whilst improving budget absorption. however, this research is limited to the verification of just 2 goals out of 5 and thus, cannot prove whether the tp4d is effective in: 1) removing the fear and doubt of government officials when progressing with their projects; 2) improving the investment climate; and 3) reforming the bureaucracy. thus, the findings only indicate crude positive progress that is shown in numbers rather than in systematical behavioural change within the indonesian bureaucracy. references cameron, l., chaudhuri, a., erkal, n., & gangadharan, l. (2009). propensities to engage in and punish corrupt behavior: experimental evidence from australia, india, indonesia and singapore. journal of public economics, 93, 843–851. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.03.004 chui, w. h. (2007). quantitative legal research. in m. mcconville and w. h. chui (eds.), research methods for law (pp. 46–68). edinburgh: edinburgh university press. cimpoeru, m. v., & cimpoeru, v. (2015). budgetary transparency – an improving factor for corruption control and economic performance. procedia economics and finance, 27(15), 579–586. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/s2212-5671(15)01036-9 di donato, l. (2016). a behavioral principal-agent theory to study corruption and tax evasion (working paper 34, the school of government). disch, a., vigeland, e., sundet, g., & gibson, s. (2009). anti-corruption approaches: a literature review. oslo: norwegian agency for development cooperation. retrieved august 12, 2018, from http://www.norad.no/en/toolspublications/publications/2009/anticorruption-approaches-a-literature-review/ ganie-rochman, m., & achwan, r. (2016). corruption in indonesia’s emerging democracy. http://www.norad.no/en/toolspublications/publications/2009/anti-corruption-approaches-a-literature-review/ http://www.norad.no/en/toolspublications/publications/2009/anti-corruption-approaches-a-literature-review/ pujiyono et al. journal of developing societies, 32(2), 159–117. doi: 10.1177/0169796x15625246 gusti, w. d., frinaldi, a., & alhadi, z. (2017). the analysis of performance-based budgeting in immigration. in proceedings of advances in social science, education and humanities research volume 84 (pp. 482–485). paris: atlantis press. hessami, z. (2013). corruption, public procurement, and the budget composition: theory and evidence from oecd countries. oecd working paper series. retrieved august 12, 2018, from http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-0-275534 husen, a., ananda, c. f., santoso, d. b., & khusaini, m. (2014). an analysis on corruption indication effect toward development in east indonesia region (education, health, and road infrastructure sectors). journal of economics and sustainable development, 5(8), 7–17. juliani, d., & sholihin, m. (2014). pengaruh faktor-faktor kontekstual terhadap persepsi penyerapan anggaran terkait pengadaan barang/jasa (the implication of contextual factors against the perception of budget absorption related to procurement trans.). jurnal akuntansi dan keuangan indonesia, 11(2), 177–199. doi: 10.21002/jaki.2014.10 katadata.co.id (2017) penyerapan anggaran pemerintah rendah (government’s budget absorption is considerably low trans.) (web log post). retrieved august 12, 2018, from https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2017/02/28/2017-penyerapan-anggaranpemerintah-rendah larson, m. g. (2006). descriptive statistics and graphical displays. circulation, 114(1), 76–81. doi: 10.1161/circulationaha.105.584474 maulana, a., & situngkir, h. (2013). dynamics of the corruption eradication in indonesia. bfi working paper series wp-01-2013. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.2326176. mccrudden, c. (2006). legal research and the social sciences. law quarterly review, 122, 632– 650. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.915302 oecd. (2017). indonesia policy brief: bribery and corruption. retrieved august 12, 2018, from https://www.oecd.org/indonesia/indonesia-ensuring-anti-corruption-strategies-arehttp://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-0-275534 https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2017/02/28/2017-penyerapan-anggaran-pemerintah-rendah https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2017/02/28/2017-penyerapan-anggaran-pemerintah-rendah https://www.oecd.org/indonesia/indonesia-ensuring-anti-corruption-strategies-are-built-to-last.pdf journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 built-to-last.pdf olken, b. a. (2006). corruption and the costs of redistribution. journal of public economics, 90(4), 853–870. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2005.05.004 olken, b. a. (2007). monitoring corruption: evidence from a field experiment in indonesia. journal of political economy, 115(2), 200–249. doi: 10.1086/517935 olken, b. a. (2010). direct democracy and local public goods: evidence from a field experiment in indonesia. american political science review, 104(2), 243–267. doi: 10.1017/s0003055410000079 olken, b. a., & pande, r. (2012). corruption in developing countries. annual review of economics, 4(1), 479–509. doi: 10.1146/annurev-economics-080511-110917 prabowo, h. y. (2014). to be corrupt or not to be corrupt. journal of money laundering control, 17(3), 306–326. doi: 10.1108/jmlc-11-2013-0045 prabowo, h. y. (2015). re-understanding corruption in the indonesian public sector through three behavioral lenses. facilities, 35(6), 925–945. doi: 10.1108/el-01-2014-0022 prasetyo, m. (2017). kejaksaan: lembaga penegakan hukum & akselerator pembangunan (prosecutor: an institution of law enforcement & development accelerator trans.). jakarta: mi publishing prasetyo, m. (2017a). sinergitas pencegahan & pemberantasan tindak pidana korupsi (the synergy of prevention & eradication of corruption crime trans.). jakarta: mi publishing quah, j. s. t. (2003). causes and consequences of corruption in southeast asia: a comparative analysis of indonesia, the philippines and thailand. asian journal of public administration, 25(2), 235–266. doi: 10.1080/02598272.2003.10800416 quah, j. s. t. (2006). curbing corruption: the elusive search for a cure. public administration review, 66(6), 939–943. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00709.x https://www.oecd.org/indonesia/indonesia-ensuring-anti-corruption-strategies-are-built-to-last.pdf pujiyono et al. quah, j. s. t. (2007). combating corruption singapore-style: lessons for other asian countries. maryland series in contemporary asian studies, 2(189), 1–56. schütte, s. a. (2012). against the odds: anti-corruption reform in indonesia. public administration and development, 32(1), 38–48. doi: 10.1002/pad.623 setiani, n., huda, s. n., pulungan, r., & winarko, e. (2017). transformation of fraud activities in procurement system in indonesia. iop conference series: materials science and engineering, 185, 1–8, doi: 10.1088/1757-899x/185/1/012005 seregig, i. k., suryanto, t., hartono, b., rivai, e. (2018). preventing the acts of corruption through legal community education. journal of social science research education, 9(2), 138-159 suchman, m. c., & mertz, e. (2010). toward a new legal empiricism: empirical legal studies and new legal realism. annual review of law and social science, 6, 555–579. doi: 10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.093008.131617 susanto, d., & badrudin, r. (2016). budgeting politic for supporting competitive industry sector. international journal of business and commerce, 5(6), 49–64. suwanda, d. (2015). factors affecting quality of local government financial statements to get unqualified opinion (wtp) of audit board of the republic of indonesia (bpk). research journal of finance and accounting, 6(4), 139–157. tarigan, z. a. e., & muda, i. (2017). antecedents of budget quality: empirical evidence from provincial government in indonesia. international journal of economic research, 14(12), 301–312. thompson, c. b. (2009). descriptive data analysis. air medical journal, 28(2), 56–59. doi: 10.1016/j.amj.2008.12.001 transparency international. (2018). indonesia: overview of corruption and anti-corruption (u4 expert answers report). retrieved august 12, 2018, from https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/helpdesk/country-profile-indonesiahttps://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/helpdesk/country-profile-indonesia-2018_pr.pdf journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (1), 93-115 2018_pr.pdf transparency international. (2017). open data and the fight against corruption in indonesia. retrieved august 12, 2018, from http://files.transparency.org/content/download/2113/13464/file/2017_opendataindonesia_e n.pdf. znoj, h. (2007). deep corruption in indonesia: discourses, practices, histories. in g. anders & m. nuijten (eds.), corruption and the secret of law. london: routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315259208-3 law no. 31 of 1999 on the eradication of corruption crime, as amended by law no. 20 of 2001 (indonesia) law no. 28 of 1999 on the clean and free state management from corruption, collusion, and nepotism (idn.) law no. 30 of 2002 on the corruption eradication commission (idn.) law no. 46 of 2009 on the corruption court (idn.) law no. 8 of 2010 on the prevention and eradication of money laundering (idn.) https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/helpdesk/country-profile-indonesia-2018_pr.pdf http://files.transparency.org/content/download/2113/13464/file/2017_opendataindonesia_en.pdf http://files.transparency.org/content/download/2113/13464/file/2017_opendataindonesia_en.pdf https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315259208-3 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),364-386 364 gaminguistics: proposing a framework on the communication of video game avatars giyoto giyoto1, sf. luthfie arguby purnomo2, lilik untari3, sf. lukfianka sanjaya purnama4 & nur asiyah5 abstract this study attempts to construct a communication framework of video game avatars. employing aarseth’s textonomy, rehak’s avatar’s life cycle, and lury’s prosthetic culture avatar’s theories as the basis of analysis on fifty-five purposively selected games, this study proposes action (avatars, communicators, transmissions, instruments, orientations and navigations). avatars, borrowing aarseth’s terms, are classifiable into interpretive, explorative, configurative, and textonic with four systems and sub classifications for each type. communicators, referring to the participants involved in the communication with the avatars and their relationship, are classifiable into unipolar, bipolar, tripolar, quadripolar, and pentapolar. transmissions, the ways in which communication is transmitted, are classifiable into restrictive verbal and restrictive non-verbal. instruments, the graphical embodiment of communications, are realized into dialogue boxes, non-dialogue boxes, logs, expressions, movements and emoticons. orientations, the methods the game spatiality employs to direct the movement of the avatars, are classifiable into dictative and non-dictative. navigations, the strategies avatars perform regarding with the information saving system of the games, are classifiable into experimental and non-experimental. departing from this action, analysts are able to employ this formula as an approach to reveal how the avatars utilize their own ‘linguistics’ to communicate, out of the linguistics benefited by humans. keywords: framework of communication, game avatars, game studies, video games, prosthetic culture. introduction framework of communication in an avatar context is a multimodal structure (fu, li, huang, and danielsen, 2008) constructed in an immersive telecommunication method (lee, kim, ahn, lim, and kim, 2005) to generate a particular identity for the creator (oyarzun, ortiz, del puy carretero, gelissen, garcia-alonso, and sivan, 2009). multimodal structure of communication framework 1 dr. institut agama islam negeri surakarta, indonesia, p.giyoto@gmail.com 2 dr. institut agama islam negeri surakarta, indonesia, theluthfie@gmail.com 3dr. institut agama islam negeri surakarta, indonesia, nazala.suha@gmail.com 4master, institut agama islam negeri surakarta, indonesia, iaftersmile@gmail.com 5master, institut agama islam negeri surakarta, indonesia, assyong2@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 by avatars is intertwined with gaming elements mechanically and narratively attached to avatars, meaning that the communication of avatars is performed to indicate mechanical messages or the non-verbal aspects and narrative messages or the verbal aspects. these two types of messages generate immersive telecommunication, in which gamers become one with their avatars when traversing the gaming world. this immersion circumnavigates around the relationship between avatars and gamers, avatars and avatars, and avatars and the games. thus, signifying how distinctive fashion of communication is exercised in response to each relationship. this distinctive fashion further indicates an identity building process, where gamers’ identities are virtually projected through the avatars. the presence of this projective identity suggests that the identity virtually projected might reflect the true identity of the creator, a false mask, or a bot. each category exercises a different means and method of communication. thereby, it implies that the communication framework might act as prosthesis to establish the desired identity through avatars. the tripartite relationship between gaming elements, immersion, and identity in constructing the framework of communication of avatars contributes to the emergence of different paradigms on the avatar’s communication framework. the first paradigm is called narratology. this view in the framework of communication claims that communication in a gaming context is language based as the language humans use in real life. proponents of this view like simons (2007) and sicart (2011) maintain that games are not different from conventional works like a novel; thus the framework of communication falls into mimesis perspectives. meanwhile,the second paradigm holds that framework of communication in video games is not like that of human’s. the communication framework in video games as performed by avatars is mechanics-bound, meaning that linguistics, that serves human language, is not of primary concern. aarseth (1997), frasca (2007), and juul (2001) perceive video games as being different from conventional works since their system and function are different. this study holds this second paradigm and thereby the ‘linguistics’ aspects analyzed in this communication framework study are not linguistics in general sense where words, clauses, phrases, and sentences are deemed as the analyzed units. visual, kinetic, motion, and interaction replace those general aspects of linguistics and this prompts the emergence of what we attempt to elaborate as ‘gaminguistics’. several studies have attempted to formulate a framework of communication for avatars, which exclude conventionally and a general sense of linguistics tied communication. rinman et. al. (2003) emphasize the importance of non-verbal communication in articulating the communication giyoto, et al. of avatars. kujanpää and manninen (2003) share a similar idea as that of rinman et. al. with a focus more on the visual elements of the game avatars. jin and park (2009) propose a consideration on a parasocial element in the communication framework of avatar, in which gamers through their avatars have to negotiate between his identity as a human and as a virtual self. a psychological study by trepte and reinecke (2010) signify how the communication of avatars in video game context is heavily influenced by the level of life satisfactory gamers have, thus indicating that avatars might mimic or differ from their creators. aseeri and interrante (2018) claim that the social immersion of avatars in their virtual life holds a significant concern on articulating and shaping their communication. moreover, with linguistics in video game context, mondada (2011) proposes interactional linguistics to investigate and explore the way avatars communicate in the game world. interactions in the game as she claims mostly revolve around action and command, articulated through imperative and directive speech acts. in the perspectives of gamer and avatar relationship, imperative and directive speech acts are realized through ‘speech acts’ in the form of button pressings through the provided interface. meanwhile, in the perspectives of avatar and avatar relationship, imperative and directive speech acts are articulated through dialogues. the way dialogues are articulated, the content of the dialogues, and the graphical representations of the dialogues depend on the types of avatars. this condition generates what is called as knowledge asymmetries (piirainen-marsh and tainio, 2014). in the case of avatars, it results from biased interactions between gamers, avatars and the game world. these biased interactions occur due to the function of language in the games which serves both mimetic and diegetic purposes. languages used in games are the representation of real life languages, which are natural, but they are artificial at the same time. this overlapping function generates this knowledge asymmetry. the novelty of this study lies in its rigid and systemic concept of action. mondada situates the action in a leaning to linguistics more than to the technical aspects of the game. meanwhile, this study addresses both games as mechanical narratives as implied by rinman, kujanpää and manninen, trepte and rein, and aseeri and interrante and games as linguistics products as implied by mondada and piirainen-marsh and tainio. the addressing is vividly articulated through signifying action into avatar types, communication, transmission, instrument, orientation, and navigation. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 research question 1. what types of avatars are classifiable based on their life cycle and textonomy? 2. what communication framework of avatars is constructible from the perspectives of prosthetic culture and textonomy? literature review the communication framework of video game avatars the communication framework of a video game avatar is exercised by the fact that gamers are crossing over from their world to the gaming world involving other gamers, their representations, the games and their machines as the means of crossing over and signifiers for a shift of place, world, and culture. this structural relationship shown by gamers and avatars is prosthetic, a relationship resulting from the process of learning and habituation, which projects the avatars as the extension of the gamers (klevjer, 2006). this structural relationship signifies the presence of a structural communication framework, from which immersion becomes the axis of construction. immersion means that the communication framework has to concur to the fact that avatars live in a virtual world, which draws gamers to merge themselves with their virtual entity. lee, kim, ahn, lim, and kim (2005) call this telecommunication which is prosthetic in nature and evokes a selfconstrual and parasocial interaction (kusumastuti, 2019; jin and park, 2009). this interaction, which relies on non-lingual aspects, is called prosthetic culture, a culture with a belief that a thing, an object or a part has the ability to be taken out of context (lury, 1998). in terms of game avatars, the prosthetic culture attempts to elucidate that avatars own their own cultures, from which they live and communicate with their textual structures to allow the emergence of gamers’ learning and habituation. this mediation requires an engagement act provided by the games and accessed by the gamers. this engagement is called textonomy, the study of how texts are accessed (aarseth, 1997; eskelinen, 2012); it signifies and differentiates how the games feature their avatars. in terms of game avatar creations by the gamers, some avatars are only accessible by the gamers in terms of personalizing the names of the avatars, some allowing a total creation of the avatars including physical and psychological attributes. these different types of avatars require the gamers to perform different types of engagement toward the games, though generally, gamers engage the game avatars through button inputs conforming to the user interface (waggoner, 2009). in relation to the textuality of video games, giyoto, et al. avatars function as accessing tools for the texts and textual structures of video games, comprising of visual, kinetic, motion, and interaction, thereby implying that gaming experience takes place through this framework of communication. engaging the communication framework of avatars signifies the role they have as the gamers’ bodily extension and a tool to access game structures. this role implies that avatars generate social influences in digital domain and these social influences are exercised through a communication framework, which becomes the identity of how avatars communicate. thereby, the ‘linguistics’ of an avatar is different from the ‘linguistics’ of humans, since the elements to identify how avatars communicate are different. the existence of these social influences denotes that social presence in the form of avatars plays crucial roles in the emergence of the influences, constructing the dimensional thresholds of identity, power and representation (vander valk, 2008). this avatar centric communication, as implied by vander valk, indicates that different types of avatars generate different influence. rehak (2003) signifies the importance of addressing an avatar’s life cycle comprising of birth, life, death, and rebirth to point out how this cycle might be used as a basis to identify particular traits, which differentiate each avatar. through this identification, a different degree, level and type influence in communication framework might be noticeable. this condition indicates that a communication framework in a video game context relies on the presence of avatar. interactional linguistics in video games linguistics interactions in digital world are dependent on the interaction not only between addressers and addresses but also medialities and modalities. the combination between these triangular elements between users, media, and modals serves as a necessary repetition for gamers to interact. marsh and tainio (2009) imply that this repetition is what defines the interaction in games. mondada (2011) further indicates the importance of this interaction under the study of interactional linguistics, in which speech acts are designed as such to signifiy action and coordination by gamers through game characters. this statement implies that action and coordination are two major elements in the linguistic aspects of interaction and further signifying the presence of particular framework of communication. in regard to this framework of communication, the interactions in digital world context like video games are fundamentally computer-mediated and thereby any lingual interactions are bound to journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 computer-mediated communication (cmc), which emphasizes that linguistics properties in cmc are different from communication not mediated by computer (herring, stein, virtanen, 2013). this difference leads to an understanding that the languages used in gaming interactions have similar functions to that of real life languages but different in a sense that the languages are artifically designed. thereby, directive and imperative speech acts, as implied by mondada, might have similar functions but differet forms. directive and imperative speech acts in games are related to action and command functions yet their realization is different. gamers express their directive and imperative acts through button pressings not verbal utterances, implying that button pressings through menu interface have similar traits to utterances. actions performed by avatars through gamers influence and affect the spatial and temporal unity of the game world (kirkland, 2009) and thereby speech acts mechanically performed through button pressings share similarities to what is called as illocutionary act. in fact, searle (1976) locates directives as an illocutionary act, implying that avatars are treated as gamers’ agents in influencing the game world the avatars live. it further suggests that the interactions avatars perform are actually similar to that of interactions in real life with real languages. thus, games have their own language properties which define the linguistics of the games. method research approach this study is a game study; therefore, a game research approach was applied. the approaches applied in this qualitative study were ludonarrative by aarseth (2012) and proceduralism by bogost (2008). ludonarrative perceives a video game as a system of mechanics, from which narrative is elicited. to put it simply, mechanical elements like visuals, texts, and kinetics function to identify the narrative of the games, from which communication between games and gamers occurs in an interpretive plane. in this research, ludonarrative was implemented to reveal how avatars display their own narrative in the form of communication framework through the utilization of gaming mechanical elements. treating communication framework for avatars as a narrative indicates that avatars live in a prosthetic environment, in which avatars and gamers are connected to generate a meaning making process. on the other hand, proceduralism was applied to ensure that the theories used to formulate a classification of avatars and their communication framework is integrible to generate a holistic giyoto, et al. meaning of the formulation. thus, it was expected that the classification has taxa. which are vertically and horizontally connected each other. the vertical connection might indicate how the life cycle of avatars influences their types, while horizontal connection might point out how avatar types determine the emergence of particular communication framework elements. to avoid any bias, the research scope is limited on the framework of communication encompassing the communication of avatars to avatars, avatars to gamers, and avatars to games. as stated in the introduction, the communication analyzed is not conventional communication, relying on linguistics aspects as utilized by humans, but gaming functioning elements to transfer information. the consequences foreseen and grasped from this scope were that the proposed framework of communication would only be operative in the gaming domain, but not other domains like social media avatars, digital profile avatars, and platforms with avatar making or controlling features. this study, besides concerning on technical aspects of avatars, also highlights a concern on the linguistics aspects in terms of their user’s functions, how users determine game narratives (aarseth, 1997). four types of user’s functions are existent namely interpretive, explorative, configurative, and textonic. each user’s function is differentiated through their different degree of usability freedom particular games offer to the gamers. interpretive has the most limited freedom of usabilily, meaning that avatars under this type linguistically have limited expressions. explorative functions have a higher degree of usability freedom than interpretive functions in terms of instructions. configurative functions, allowing gamers to decide how avatars react and respond linguistically, have higher freedom than the previous two functions. the last, textonic has the highest freedom since it allows gamers not only to decide how avatars react and respond but modifying the entire game narrative. departing from these user’s functions, it was expected that the result of this study would indicate that the level of freedom usability that the games have influences avatar categorization and how they express themselves in a framework of communication. research procedures fifty-five games were purposively selected and analyzed to classify the avatar types and their framework of communication. three criteria were used to select those fifty-five titles. the first criterion used was the availability of avatar customization features. the second criterion was the game machines the games were played on: pc, console and online games. the third criterion was journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 that the titles were categorized as game franchises. these criteria were employed to display linearity with the structural, proceduralist and textonomic natures of video games. the analysis to classify the avatar types and the framework of communication surrounding them was based on aarseth’s theory on textonomy, rehak’s theory on avatar’s life cycle, lury’s prosthetic culture and klevjer’s avatar theory. the analysis result was employed as a point of departure to reveal the communications the avatars have involving the games, the gamers and, other avatars the communication framework this study attempts to establish circumnavigates around action standing for avatars, communications, transmissions, instruments, orientations, and navigations. avatars in action refer to types of avatars, categorized based on the theory of the avatar life cycle by rehak and the user’s function by aarseth. the combination of this research would show that avatars are classifiable based on their birth, life, death, and rebirth in the games, as well as the freedom gamers have to create and control the avatars. communications refer to the ‘whom’ and ‘what’ the avatars interact to. transmissions deal with how communications are expressed by the avatars. instruments move around the graphical representations of the articulated communication. orientations refer to the geo spatiality games have in serving the presence of communication by the avatars. finally, navigations deal with how the avatars’ communication is linked in a relationship with game genres. data and source of data the sources of data were the avatars taken from fifty five game titles, selected under the guidelines of formal approach to analyze video games as theorized and formulated by lankoski and björk (2015). the data, namely visual, kinetic, motion, and interaction elements, extracted from avatars, were classified based on the second paradigm of communication framework as stated in the introduction. these four elements were analyzed to reveal the ‘linguistics’ of the avatar. visual elements refer to the graphics of the avatars, kinetic to how gamers control the avatars via joysticks or keyboards, motion to how the avatars move in the game, and interaction to what features avatars have to interact with other avatars, gamers, and game environments. these four elements are the ‘linguistics elements’ of game avatars. the following table explains the game titles, criteria of selection, and reasons of selection: giyoto, et al. table 1 game titles and their criteria and reasons of selection no title developer/publisher criteria reasons 1. assassin’s creed ubisoft action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 2. assassin’s creed ii ubisoft action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 3. assassin’s creed iii ubisoft action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 4. assassin’s creed iv: black flag ubisoft action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 5. dig 4 destruction colopl multiplayer self-avatar 6. disgaea nippon ichi software strategy rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 7. disgaea 2: cursed memories nippon ichi software strategy rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 8. dragon age ii bioware action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 9. dragon age: inquisition bioware action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 10. dragon age: origins bioware action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 11. dragon nest eyedentity games massively multiplayer online rpg avatar making 12. elder scrolls v: skyrim bethesda open world rpg extensive and vast features of avatar making 13. eve: valkyrie ccp games shooter self-avatar 14. final fantasy ii square enix traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 15. final fantasy viii square enix traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 16. final fantasy ix square enix traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 17. final fantasy x square enix traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 18. final fantasy xii square enix traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 19. final fantasy xiii square enix traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 20. final fantasy tactics square enix strategy rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 21. legend of mana square enix action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 22. metal gear solid konami stealth action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 23. metal gear solid 2: sons of liberty konami stealth action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 24. metal gear solid 3: snake eater konami stealth action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 25. metal gear solid 4: guns of the patriot konami stealth action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 26. metal gear solid 5: the phantom pain konami stealth action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 27. mighty final fight capcom beat ‘em up with rpg elements limited modification on controlled avatar 28. naruto shippuden ultimate ninja storm 4 bandai namco fighting with rpg elements limited modification on controlled avatar journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 29. ragnarok online gravity massively multiplayer online rpg avatar making 30. ragnarok odyssey gravity massively multiplayer online rpg avatar making 31. red dead redemption rockstar open world rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 32. rhapsody: a musical adventure nippon ichi software strategy rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 33. seal online grigon entertainment massively multiplayer online rpg avatar making 34. suikoden i konami traditional rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 35. suikoden ii konami traditional rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 36. suikoden iii konami traditional rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 37. suikoden iv konami traditional rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 38. suikoden v konami traditional rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 39. tactics ogre square enix strategy rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 40. tales of destiny bandai namco traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 41. tales of eternia bandai namco traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 42. tales of the abyss bandai namco traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 43. tales of vesperia bandai namco traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 44. tales of xillia bandai namco traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 45. valkyria chronicles sega strategy rpg a massive roster of controlled avatars 46. vagrant story square enix action rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 47. wild arm media vision traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 48. wild arms 2nd ignition media vision traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 49. wild arms 3rd advanced media vision traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 50. wild arms 4th detonator media vision traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 51. wild arms 5th vanguard media vision traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 52. xenogears square enix traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 53. xenosaga: der wille zur macht monolith traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 54. xenosaga episode ii: jenseit von gud und bose monolith traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar 55. xenosaga episode iii: also sprach zarathustra monolith traditional rpg limited modification on controlled avatar giyoto, et al. techniques of collecting data in collecting the data, first, the researchers played the games. second, the researchers created or modified avatars for games instructing the gamers to do so. third, the researchers controlled the avatars to incite the emergence of visual, kinetic, motion, and interaction elements attached them, and collected the elements deemed to concur to the data by lankoski and bjök. the fifty-five selected games were played through their respective gaming systems, covering both consoles and pcs. fourth, in collecting the data, while playing the games, the researcher video-captured the avatar making process or the avatar introduction section and their engagement with other characters to create a log consisting of cut-scenes. fifth, after the data were collected, they were coded by referring to the data number, game title, avatar type and their action. 1/sii/exp/b-rv-db-d-e 1: first datum sii: suikoden ii exp: the avatar type is explorative b: the avatar communication type is bipolar rv: the avatar transmission type is restrictive verbal db: the avatar instrument type is dialogue box d: the avatar orientation type is dictative e: the avatar navigation type is experimental techniques of data analysis collecting the data, spradley’s theory (2016) on data analysis technique was applied. this theory was selected since it procedurally enables researchers to indicate how theories used to analyze the data are interplayable and interchangeable. this data analysis technique comprises of four stages, namely domain, taxonomy, componential, and cultural theme. domain analysis deals with the inclusion and exclusion of data and non-data. the data of this study is the controlled avatar. avatars which are not controlled by gamers or called as non-playable characters (npc) are not data. taxonomy circumnavigates around data classification based on the employed theories. componential analysis works on connecting the data, analyzed by aarseth’s textonomy theory, rehak’s avatar life cycle, and lury’s prosthetic culture, to generate a link that connects them as a journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 single component. a cultural theme is exercised to extract the meaning of the link, generated from componential analysis. the detail of each step is discussed below. domain analysis was exercised by classifying avatars and non-avatars based on the theory of klevjer (2006). applying this theory, the researchers were able to spot which characters were categorized into avatars and which ones were not, implying that the separation between data and non-data was clearly cut. after exercising domain analysis, taxonomy analysis was next. in taxonomy analysis, avatars were analyzed by applying the three primary theories that have been discussed in the literature review, namely rehak’s avatar’s life cycle theory (2003), aarseth’s user function theory (1997), and prosthetic culture (lury, 1998). rehak’s avatar’s life cycle theory (2003) was applied to spot how they were classifiable by types in regard to their life cycle. after being classified by types, analyses were done regarding how the avatars interact by applying aarseth’s user function theory (1997). componential analysis requires the taxa, which were avatar types and interactions, to be linked to indicate the presence of a particular formula. in this research, the formula was a framework of communication, specifically designed for video game avatars. in a cultural theme analysis, this formula is further examined to spot how it is implementable to analyze how avatars communicate in various game genres with prosthetic culture (lury, 1998) as the guiding theory. findings video game avatar types the findings show that 483 game avatars, found from fifty-five games, are classifiable in their usability cycle, adapted from rehak’s theory of avatar’s life cycle with birth system being the difference, comprising their birth, life, death, and rebirth system. the cycle is termed usability due to the fact that the communicative nature of video games is trans-diegetic. as a result, the addressers and recipients of this communication, gamers and their avatars, require a system of usability to enable them to interact in communication. due to the necessity of the system to be accessible by the users, namely the gamers and their avatars, textonomy is mandatory to be implemented in the system. each system under the usability cycle is classifiable into sub classifications. borrowing aarseth’s terms of user functions (1997), each sub classification is based on interpretive, explorative, giyoto, et al. configurative, and textonic user functions. in terms of avatar birth system, the avatars are classifiable into requisitive, projective, duplicative, and emulative. table 2 avatar types avatar life cycle system user’s functions birth life death rebirth interpretive requisitive restrictive continuative selective explorative projective distributive calculative transmissive configurative duplicative remunerative appreciative expenditive textonic emulative operative reactive modificative aarseth’s user’s functions are primarily classified based on the degree of usability freedom. interpretive functions have the most limited freedom for users or gamers in this study; thus, linguistically, avatars categorized into this user function communicate their expressions in a different degree of freedom. this different degree of freedom, in interactional linguistics perspectives, is intertwined with the illocutionary act avatars perform. avatars with textonic user functions disclose a wider range of illocutionary act since it has the highest freedom of usability. requisitive avatars are avatars that disallow gamers to make any modifications at the start of the game but allowing the gamers to add equipments, accesories, and other peripherals obtained after meeting certain requirements to interpretively define the gamers through the avatars as the games progress. this type of avatar is graphically categorized into avatars of which the peripherals are visually altering, non-visually altering, and visually altering some parts of the physics of the avatars. examples of requisitive avatar types with non-visual alteration are basically perceived from any rpg titles and their subgenres and other genres with rpg elements. projective avatars permit the gamers to do a limited modification on the avatars like their names and color palletes with some games retaining the accessory customization as featured in interpretive avatars. duplicative avatars open access to the gamers to create the avatars with a wide spectrum of designing tools. emulative avatars open a greater access for the gamers to create their own avatars from their own design and install the avatars on the games, a process termed modding in gaming terms, or with certain design tools to record the gamers’ faces. in term of life system, the focus is on the growth of the avatars commonly mechanized through leveling methods. some games employ experience points (exp) to level up the avatars and some employ non-experience points like the points for the avatars’ weapons or equipment. based on journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 these classifications, avatars, categorized under life system, are classifiable into restrictive, distributive, remunerative and operative avatars. first avatar type, restrictive avatars, refers to levelling-based grown avatars with non-distributive exps. the points acquired automatically grow the levels of the avatars and thereby the players have no control on the distribution of exps for their avatars. once the avatars acquire exp points, their levels will grow. most rpg titles with avatar customization as aforementioned employ this type of avatar. distributive avatars, the second type in this life system, are avatars with distributive exp points to grow their levels. games with this avatar type provide opportunities for the gamers to grow their avatars based on their preferences. final fantasy x’s sphere grid system, elder scrolls v: skyrim’s perk system, and yakuza 4’s soul system are some of the examples. third, remunerative avatars require the avatars not only to defeat some monsters to gain exp points but also to complete quests, to finish minigames, to buy dlc (downloadable contents), or to buy certain items to grow the level. rpgs with online systems commonly have all of these features. the last type, operative avatars, refers to avatars who grow without exp points. their growth is either determined by the equipment, weapons, or accessories they wear or by the skills and abilities they possess. in square enix’s final fantasy ii, for example, the avatars grow based on their proficiency on their weapons and the skills they intend for their mastery; the more frequent the avatars use certain weapons or skills, the more proficient they are with them. in square enix’s legend of mana, a unique combination of exp points and other statistic elements allow the avatars to grow in a complex manner. in the game, the growth of the avatars is influenced by the drops of experience crystals and the weapons they carry. a more complex system on operative avatars is perceivable from square enix’s vagrant story with weapons and armors holding significant growth to the avatars. they require not only upgrading but attribute affinity adjustments to hone the avatar’s battle skills. death in video games are not immersion and empathy triggering narratives; it asks for strategies to win and control the actions (of the avatars) (wenz, 2014) and thereby it implies that the death in video games is not on how the avatars die but how the gamers respond to the death. this response is mechanically embodied through ‘game over’ screen. departing from this mechanical response, in terms of the death system of avatars, the avatars are classifiable into continuative, calculative, appreciative, and reactive avatars. continuative avatars require the gamers to respond their death by clicking numerical counting-continue menu to decide whether the gamers will giyoto, et al. continue using the avatars to engage in the games or not. these avatars are the most common types found in any game genres; they are found in most fighting games, in most all of rpg titles, in most casual games and its derivative spin-off titles. calculative avatars combine the features of continuative avatars with reward based points like exp or in-game currency being calculated and rewarded to the gamers to enhance their avatars. this reward system combination implies that the games mechanically ease the gamers to engage and immerse in the game world. in regard to the death system, the mechanics to ease the gamers in playing the games after the avatars are dead is also of difference in easing the gamers. appreciative avatars, in terms of their death mechanics, are of diversity in providing methods for the gamers to select the helps the games provide for the avatars. in naruto shippuden ultimate ninja storm 4, for instance, when the avatars lose a fight in a story mode, they are presented options to boost the defence or the offense of the avatars so the rematch would be won through this structure of expectation. these options, though being aimed at easing the avatars in engaging the battle, are still constructed to keep the game balanced in the difficulties in order to preserve the gaming replay value and experience. this balance is, to some extent, disrupted by the emergence of the next avatar type under death system namely reactive avatars. this avatar type, as the name implies, is the result of reaction by the gamers for being unable to accomplish the game. games for the seventh and eighth console generations mostly provide downloadable content (dlc), a patch gamer can purchase to ease the game and to deliver a new additional experience to the games. the last, in terms of rebirth system, emphasizes the methods the gamers take influencing the physical and statistical attributes of the avatars after the gamers decide to abandon the previously played avatars. the avatars, in this rebirth system, are classifiable into selective, transmissive, expenditive, and modificative. selective avatars are reborn from the re-selection and the recreation by the gamers via character selection, creation, or customization interface provided by the game. this re-creation shifts into an avatar with a different type when the avatar requires purchasing to modify and re-create the avatar. that avatar is classified into transmissive avatar. these transimissive avatars are avatars whose rebirth system is structured, mechanized, and operated from dlc to which the gamers have to purchase certain items to re-create the avatars. besides dlc, options to re-create avatars occur from the possibilities for the gamers to commercially disseminate the avatars to other gamers. if this type of rebirth system occurs, the avatars are classified into expenditive avatars. in expenditive avatars, due to a different shift of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 ownership, reflect the violation of mimesis paradigm of avatar creation, that avatars tend to mimic their players (rehak, 2003), because the avatars experience a shift of ownership. departing from this functional position, avatars re-created independently by the gamers for both gaming and commercial purposes occur. these avatars are classified into modificative avatars. these avatars are accessible on games with self-development kits (sdk) allowing the gamers not only to create or re-create avatars but the whole game environment and install them into the games. communication framework of video game avatars avatars and the communicators of communication departing from the ‘linguistics’ of video games as implied from aarseth’s and rehak’s theories, comprising of visual, kinetic, motion, and interaction, we propose action (avatars, communicators, transmissions, instruments, orientations, and navigation) as the communication framework for video game avatars. these six elements are the embodiment of the ‘linguistics’ of video games. avatar types, primarily classified into interpretive, explorative, configurative, and textonic, articulate their communication based on participants communicating with the avatars (communicators), the ways the communication is transmitted (transmission), the graphic embodiments of the communication (instruments), the game spatiality methods to direct the avatars in delivering their communication (orientations), and the communication relationship the avatars have with the game genres (navigation). those involved in a communication with avatars, as aforementioned, range from the gamers, the games and other avatars. this involvement in communication generates communicators. examining the communicators, one might comprehend the communicative behaviors the avatars have when they engage in a communication with other gaming-related parties. communicators are classified into five types in terms of the relationship between the communicators, namely unipolar, bipolar, tripolar, quadripolar, and pentapolar. the use of the word ‘polar’ signifies the importance of avatars as the polar in the communication among other communicators. this label conforms to the idea of polarized communication, where one party was able to assume a position of conviction while remaining open to ‘new’ information (arnett, 1986). this polarized communication, in the gaming context, occurs due to competitive giyoto, et al. natured video games. in unipolar communicator, the communication happens on the characters which function as the avatars in virtual reality this seemingly quaint communicator occurs in games with virtual reality (vr) features like eve: valkyrie and dig 4 destruction. in these games, the gamers are directly transforming themselves into avatars once they wear vr kits like oculus rift or google dashboard. the communication occurs as the gamers situate themselves with their physical bodies to adjust in a world of virtual reality. when the communication engagement has shifted into the communication between the avatars and the game worlds, the communicator has become bipolar. in this the second communicator, the gamers who simultaneously become avatars and communicate with a physical turned virtual world where the gamers engage. this bipolar communicator also occurs in game genres with cutscenes, a plot emphasizer presented in a cinematic design, such rpgs. in this bipolar communicator, the gamers have no control of the communication between the avatars and the games, but the fusion between the avatars and the games in the cutscenes projects a bipolar communication between the games-avatars with the gamers that assist them in diving deeper into the games and engage in the gameplay. this absence suggests that avatars have the abilities to segregate themselves to establish their own prosthetic cultures with their own speech community to engage. this speech community experiences an enlargement in the terms of member numbers in tripolar, quadripolar, and pentapolar. in tripolar communicators, the speech community involves the avatars, the gamers, and the games. in quadripolar, the avatars, the gamers, the games, and other avatars are involved in the communication. in pentapolar, the communicators involve the avatars, the gamers, the games, other avatars, and other gamers. avatars and their transmission of communication the third part of action, transmission, is classified into restrictive verbal and restrictive nonverbal. this classification is based on the restrictive nature of video games, consisting of restrictions on the technology, memory, processors, machine code, languages, software and audiences (gazzard, 2013). in restrictive verbal transmission, the avatars execute the communication verbally and in a restricted mechanics. this transmission type is mostly found in explorative, configurative and textonic avatars functioning as silent protagonists. games with these avatars like breath of fire i-iv, suikoden i-v, dragon quest i-viii, elder scrolls v: skyrim and journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 dragon age: inquisition are commonly designed with avatars transmitting the communication through restricted oral based and subtitle based verbal expressions. restricted oral based verbal expressions are mostly displayed in emotives and referentials for battle engagements and talk responses. emotives refer to feelings-related expressions like shouting, sighing and laughing. emotives appear in any game sections where the avatars express their feelings and emotions. meanwhile, referentials refer to expressing the name of battle techniques or expressions synonymous with those used by the avatars. these referentials are found from narrative blended fighting games with configurative and textonic avatars like dragon ball xenoverse and rpgs with explorative avatars like breath of fire series, dragon quest series, and suikoden series. the functions of these referentials are of mechanics and narratives. mechanic functions indicate that the referentials display the mechanics of the avatars when they exercise their battle techniques, while narrative functions denote the relationship between the referentials and the story related to the avatars. the second communication transmission is restrictive non-verbal. this transmission is substantiated through physical movements, emoticons, and the combination of both. fundamentally, any physical movements are restricted by the game mechanics. the freedom of movement is within the line creating the circle, but the circle line itself is a restriction for the freedom. this concept of a sacred circle finds its linearity with the concept of localized communication theory in ethnography. in the video game context, as aforementioned, the polarization in communication between game avatars, gamers, games, other avatars, and other gamers is an indication for connection thematization, constitution, and management. avatars and their instruments of communication the instruments game avatars employ to transmit their communication are inseparable from the screen space of the video games. screen space is a constructed and represented on screen with navigation, interaction, and individual’s game worldview as the determinants (wolf, 2001). the generated communication procedures are visually embodied to indicate the communications of the avatars via window based dialogue boxes, non-window based dialogue boxes and logs for verbal communications and movements, expressions, and emoticons for non-verbal ones. in dialogue boxes, the verbal messages of the avatars are presented on a window with a click-based system, non-click based system, and logs to complete the non-verbal messages delivered through giyoto, et al. graphics based movements, expressions, and emoticons. static information in the games allows the gamers to have a control of the information flow and thereby, in regard to avatars, the status of being static situates a tripolar communicator relationship between the avatars, the games, and the gamers with the avatar suffering from interpretive and explorative user functions. these functions are especially visible from the transient nature of dialogue boxes. transient indicates that the passing of a user’s time causes the scriptons (text) to appear (aarseth, 1997). in the context of dialogue boxes, the control the gamers have determines whether information appears in the boxes or not. this control suggests that the degree of importance the information has contributes to the decisions by the gamers whether to read the information presented on the boxes or not. avatars and their orientations of communication communication from game avatars’ perspectives requires not only transmissions to articulate the information and instruments to facilitate the information transmission, but also orientations to acquire the information. in orientations, the focus is to understand how the game spatiality offers spaces for the avatars to obtain information. in side-scrolling games like megaman x series, the orientation of the games is to dictate the gamers to move the avatars in a side scrolling manner. the spatiality requires the avatars to leap, attack or run; the geospatiality design actually dictates them to move on to a single direction through a single method, side-scrolling. this dictative act geo-spatiality incurs influences the way mechanical and narrative information is acquired and thereby, prompts the avatars to traverse the games in certain orientations in their attempts to acquire information. due to the necessity to explore the game world to acquire information, spatiality comes into concern. spatiality, with its derivative categories, contributes significantly to how the avatars acquire the information since spatiality is a relevant factor of interactivity (gunzel, 2008). in relation to the communications of the avatars, game spatiality constitutes a characteristic of prosthetic culture in which two types of orientations are emergent namely ditactive and nonditactive orientations. in ditactive orientations, the game space dictates the avatars to explore the game world in a procedural manner, while in non-dictative orientations, the avatars dictate the game space. in the first type, the avatars have to explore and accomplish certain requirements per area or stage procedurally to unlock the next stage for the avatars to walk through, but in the second type, the game world is already present for the avatars to explore without any restrictions. dictative journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 orientations control the type and flow of information, as well as the time to acquire the information. thus, it positions game avatars as a passive communicator with the game world to actively and procedurally feed the avatars with information. meanwhile in non-dictative orientations, the game world acts passively, but the game avatars actively act to acquire information. thus, games with dictative orientations are world-centered games while games with non-dictative orientations are avatar centered games. this dichotomy, resulting from the presence of avatars and their communication features, indicates that the communication of the avatars displays navigation to the game genres. avatars and their navigations of communication navigations of communication refer to the strategies the avatars might undertake in response to the information saving system of the games. the saving system records gaming progress by the gamers, allowing the gamers to resume the games from the last saved point. generally, the saving system is classifiable into a save point, check point and the combination of both from which different strategies in acquiring new information are taken by the avatars depending on the saving systems the games offer. as proposed by crawford in newman (2012), saving systems in games generally mechanize the gamers to perform save-die-retry mechanism. crawford, in this response to saving mechanism, does not specifically treat the ‘save-die-retry’ as a strategy, but as a mechanism due to the non-avatar focus he has in eliciting the discussion about the saving system. treating the ‘save-die-retry’ mechanism as a strategy by avatars suggests that the focus lies on the communicative behaviors of the saving system and of the avatars. both the save point and checkpoint systems mechanically and narratively suggest that the information the avatars might experience in the following game sections are of importance; it further suggests that due to the degree of importance, challenges to acquire the information might be of certain difficulty level. thus, certain strategies to accomplish the challenges by the avatars are of necessity to execute. departing from this logical mechanism, the strategies taken by the avatars are assumed to be embodied into certain communicative behaviors by the avatars. in action rpgs, mighty final fight for example, employs a non-save system in the 8-bit nes (nintendo entertainment system), but utilizes a continue system, allowing the gamers to select the avatars to retry engaging the challenges in the game without any enhancement on the avatars to ease the game. the only visible strategies to overcome the challenges are either to carefully examine the gameplays or to refer to giyoto, et al. any external assistance like game guides or cheats. the first strategy is termed experimental and the second is non-experimental. in regard to the avatar types, the employment of the continue system to replace the non-save system indicates that in the death system, the avatars are categorized into continuative avatars. meanwhile, in the rebirth system, due to the presence of avatar selection to fit the game challenges, the avatars are classified into selective avatars. both avatars, categorized under interpretive umbrella, suggest that avatar types have a link to the save system of the games from which communication navigation in the forms of strategies are executed. discussion, conclusion, and implication that video game avatars are different from other digital avatars, since they are designed based on ludification, a process to evoke a playful identity through a set of ludic apparatus (raessens, 2006; frissen, lammes, de lange, de mul, and raessens, 2015), from which a ludic communication, a communication that addresses players as players (domsch, 2017), signifies the strength of action. the framework of communication specifically designed for video game avatars might explain (a) how a playful identity is established by avatars and their relations with other elements of communication in video games and (b) how ludic communication is expressed not only between players, but also from avatars to avatars, avatars to players, avatars to other players, and players to players. moreover, action is theoretically linkable to (1) genette’s theory of transtextual transcendence to reveal how video game avatars and their players exercise transtextuality, (2) diegesis theory to indicate the presence of ludic engagement in the interaction woven by game avatars and players, (3) bateson’s metacommunication to signify how video game avatars, though a limited means of communication, interact with other avatars in massively multiplayer online games (mmog). game designers might also benefit from action to determine the immersion level they plan to evoke from the interaction between the avatars and the players in regard to the game genres. applying action signifies video games as ludic spaces, from which video game avatars and players as ludic communication agents interact in a speech community through a means of specific communication laden with ludic values. the presence of ludic spaces, ludic communication and ludic values that contribute to the emergence of ludification, a playful identity, is user function dependent, from which avatars are classified. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 on the other hand, action exposes weaknesses on its primary focus on rpg. other game genres like fighting, racing, sports games and other genres, which provide an avatar making feature are not considered. thus, action requires a revisit or modification when applied to analyze the mentioned genres. the problems those genres with avatar making features are the fact that employing these features indicates that the genres attempt to incorporate rpg elements. this kind of rpg element embedding triggers an impact on the game categorization as a hybrid product, from which the game focus becomes biased. references aarseth, e. j. (1997). cybertext: perspectives on ergodic literature. jhu press. aarseth, e. (2012, may). a narrative theory of games. in proceedings of the international conference on the foundations of digital games (pp. 129-133). acm. arnett, r. c. (1986). communication and community: implications of martin buber's dialogue. siu press. aseeri, s. a., & interrante, v. (2018, march). the influence of avatar representation and behavior on communication in social immersive virtual environments. in 2018 ieee conference on virtual reality and 3d user interfaces (vr)(pp. 823-824). ieee. bogost, i. (2008). unit operations: an approach to videogame criticism. mit press. domsch, s. (2017). dialogue in video games. dialogue across media, 28, 251. eskelinen, m. (2012). cybertext poetics: the critical landscape of new media literary theory. bloomsbury publishing usa. frasca, g. (2007). play the message: play, game and videogame rhetoric. unpublished phd dissertation. it university of copenhagen, denmark. fu, y., li, r., huang, t. s., & danielsen, m. (2008). real-time multimodal human–avatar interaction. ieee transactions on circuits and systems for video technology, 18(4), 467-477. frissen, v., lammes, s., de lange, m., de mul, j., & raessens, j. (2015). homo ludens 2.0: play, media, and identity. gazzard, a. (2013). the platform and the player: exploring the (hi) stories of elite. game studies, 13(2). günzel, s. (2008). the space-image: interactivity and spatiality of computer games. herring, s., stein, d., & virtanen, t. (eds.). (2013). pragmatics of computer-mediated communication (vol. 9). walter de gruyter. jin, s. a. a., & park, n. (2009). parasocial interaction with my avatar: effects of interdependent self-construal and the mediating role of self-presence in an avatar-based console game, wii. cyber psychology & behavior, 12(6), 723-727. juul, j. (2001). games telling stories. game studies, 1(1), 45. juul, j. (2011). half-real: video games between real rules and fictional worlds. mit press. kirkland, e. (2009, september). horror videogames and the uncanny. in digra conference. klevjer, r. (2006). what is the avatar. fiction and embodiment in avatar-based single player computer games. giyoto, et al. kusumastuti, f. (2019). polysemy in and of the science fiction film arrival (2016). research in social sciences and technology, 4(1), 73-91. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/398 kujanpää, t., & manninen, t. (2003). supporting visual elements of non-verbal communication in computer game avatars. in digra conference. lankoski, p. & björk, s. (2015, january). formal analysis of gameplay. game research methods. etc press. lury, c. (1998). prosthetic culture: photography, memory and identity. psychology press. lee, s. y., kim, i. j., ahn, s. c., lim, m. t., & kim, h. g. (2005, december). toward immersive telecommunication: 3d video avatar with physical interaction. in proceedings of the 2005 international conference on augmented tele-existence(pp. 56-61). acm. manninen, t. (2003). interaction forms and communicative actions in multiplayer games. game studies, 3(1), 2003. marsh, a. p., & tainio, l. (2009). other‐repetition as a resource for participation in the activity of playing a video game. the modern language journal, 93(2), 153-169. mondada, l. (2011). the situated organisation of directives in french: imperatives and action coordination in video games. nottingham french studies, 50(2), 19-50. newman, j. (2012). best before: videogames, supersession and obsolescence. routledge. oyarzun, d., ortiz, a., del puy carretero, m., gelissen, j., garcia-alonso, a., & sivan, y. (2009, june). adml: a framework for representing inhabitants in 3d virtual worlds. in proceedings of the 14th international conference on 3d web technology (pp. 83-90). acm. piirainen–marsh, a., & tainio, l. (2014). asymmetries of knowledge and epistemic change in social gaming interaction. the modern language journal, 98(4), 1022-1038. raessens, j. (2006). playful identities, or the ludification of culture. games and culture, 1(1), 5257. rehak, b. (2003). playing at being. the video game theory reader. routledge: london & new york. rinman, m. l., friberg, a., bendiksen, b., cirotteau, d., dahl, s., kjellmo, i., ... & camurri, a. (2003, april). ghost in the cave–an interactive collaborative game using non-verbal communication. in international gesture workshop (pp. 549-556). springer, berlin, heidelberg. searle, j. r. (1976). a classification of illocutionary acts. language in society, 5(1), 1-23. sicart, m. (2011). against procedurality. game studies, 11(3), 209. simons, j. (2007). narrative, games, and theory. game studies, 7(1). spradley, j. p. (2016). participant observation. waveland press. trepte, s., & reinecke, l. (2010). avatar creation and video game enjoyment. journal of media psychology. vander valk, f. (2008). identity, power, and representation in virtual environments. merlot journal of online learning and teaching, 4(2), 205-211. waggoner, z. (2009). my avatar, my self: identity in video role-playing games. mcfarland. wenz, k. (2014). 38 death. the routledge companion to video game studies. wolf, m. j. (2001). the medium of the video game. university of texas press. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/398 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),364-386 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),160-187 needs and barriers of early career researchers at regional universities of kazakhstan gulzhana kuzembayeva1, bauyrzhan tashmukhambetov2 & zhumagul maydangalieva3* abstract this paper aims to investigate early career researchers’ (ecr) needs and barriers in conducting research at kazakhstani regional universities employing a mixed methods research design with the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data. we surveyed one hundred and twenty university academic staff undertaking the first stages of their research careers at the higher education institutions of west kazakhstan in the cities of aktau, aktobe, atyrau, and oral to understand the needs and challenges faced by this community better. semi-structured interviews were conducted with the research administration of the above-stated institutions to understand the issues under study. understanding these issues is central to developing informed policies for promoting teacher research engagement, as well as taking steps to build the research capacity of university academic staff in their early research career. the study depicts that the university academic staff, in their early research career, face barriers such as the lack of time to conduct research, the difficulty in publishing research, and the lack of research mentorship and university support. the study resulted in the relation of ecrs’ knowledge of languages to their research experience, and the ecrs’ research directions are as well associated with their (1) conducting research for enhancing teaching skills, (2) applying for research grants, and (3) receiving research funding adds to a deeper understanding of the ecrs’ research needs and barriers. kazakhstani regional universities’ ecrs need specifically targeted policies to be undertaken to facilitate their research careers. keywords: early career researchers, higher education and science, kazakhstan, regional universities, research engagement, needs and barriers in doing research. introduction various barriers complicating building a research career in higher education institutions cause difficulties attracting academic staff, especially young specialists (efimova, 2021). all early career researchers (ecrs) face challenges and opportunities to enhance their research – often simultaneously (fenton et al., 2016). the forecast of the nation’s scientific potential in kazakhstan confirms it reflects the loss of the most active young specialists with a higher potential for creative 1 ph.d. in philology, associate professor, k. zhubanov aktobe regional university, kuzembayeva@mail.ru 2 rector, ph.d., baishev university, tashnukhambetov@gmail.com 3 ph.d. in education, associate professor, baishev university, maydangalieva@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 activity in research and the aging of the university research staff (national science report, 2020, pp.167-168). faculty members play a crucial role in higher education institutions (marsh & hattie, 2002; olo et al., 2021), and faculty scholarly projects enhance the research culture in a given institution (bai et al., 2012). to enhance the research culture at higher education institutions and foster the research capacity of ecrs, it is essential to bring their needs and challenges in conducting research to light. a few studies have examined the ecrs’ engagement in research, their reasons for conducting research, and the challenges they encounter in their research careers. moreover, no research addressing these issues in the regional context was found in kazakhstani higher education. problem a stable decrease exists in the number of young scientists in the republic of kazakhstan and the need for building their research capacity, especially relevant to the regional higher education institutions. therefore, the ecrs’ research engagement, needs, and barriers in conducting research should be closely studied in kazakhstani regional universities. objective the objective of this study is to understand the perspectives of the university teachers at the beginning of their research career and the university administration responsible for research at the regional universities in the cities of aktau, aktobe, atyrau, and oral of the republic of kazakhstan on the ecrs’ research engagement specifics and the factors limiting the ecrs’ engagement in research. research questions the present research aims to explore the following research questions: rq 1. what are the research attitudes (research engagement frequency and reasons for doing research) of the academic staff undertaking the first stages of their research careers at the kazakhstani regional universities? rq 2. what are the ecrs’ barriers to their engagement in research? rq 3. to what extent are the ecrs’ language skills, research engagement frequency, and barriers to conducting research interrelated? kuzembayeva et al. 162 rq 4. is there a significant relationship between the research directions and research attitudes of ecrs? the research relevance lies in the in-depth understanding of the ecrs’ research engagement, their needs, and barriers impeding them from conducting the research might contribute to promoting their engagement in research, enhancement of teaching and learning processes, and institutional improvement (jamoom & al-omrani, 2021). figure 1 presents the conceptual model with control, mediating, and moderating variables of the study. figure 1. conceptual model with control, mediating, and moderating variables independent variable language skills dependent variable research engagement frequency dependent variable barriers to research control variable age control variable regional university moderating variable barriers to research independent variable research directions mediating variable barriers to research dependent variable research attitudes moderating variable language skills journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 literature review understanding their theoretical relationships is vital in any study with different variables. thus, it is relevant to define ecrs’ research engagement and barriers to conducting a study in kazakhstani regional universities. the inventory of academic titles, categories, and positions facilitating careers in higher education defines early career researcher also known as early stage researcher (esr). “ecr is someone who is within eight years of the award of the ph.d. and/or within six years of their first academic appointment – the first full or part-time paid employment contract that lists research or teaching as the primary function” (academic pathways across countries). the uk research and innovation also presents the same definition for the ecr (early career researchers: career and skills development, 2022). the definition stated by the model law “on state youth policy” (dated november 23, 2012, no. 38-10, adopted by the inter-parliamentary assembly of the cis countries) is slightly different from that given by the inventory of academic titles, categories, and positions facilitating careers in the higher education sector. it defines the term “young scientist” as “an employee of an educational or scientific institution until he/she reaches the following age: doctor of science – 40 years old, candidate of sciences – 35 years old, specialist without a degree, graduate student – 30 years old (youth and science, 2019). however, 44 years of age was set as the upper limit for youth during the opening ceremony of the year of youth in kazakhstan. nevertheless, being too rigid on these definitions fails to encapsulate diverse research and academic community at the universities of the republic of kazakhstan. many academics at kazakhstani universities are at the level of senior lecturers holding a master’s degree and undertaking the first stages of their research careers. we consider the most relevant definition of the ecr stated by the documentation for participating in the grant projects under the ministry of science and higher education of the republic of kazakhstan and regulations for inclusion into the university board of young scientists. according to them, the ecr is an academic staff of the higher education institution holding a master’s degree under 40 years of age. ecrs constitute a large portion of the academic workforce, and their experiences often reflect the broader culture of the research system (christian et al., 2021). in kazakhstan, the quality training of ecrs within the framework of doctoral programs is mainly concentrated in the top universities of the country’s largest cities. this mechanism is insufficiently effective because the statistics kuzembayeva et al. 164 given in the national science report (2020, p. 168) demonstrate the decrease in the number of young scientists: “in recent years, the influx of young people into science has decreased from 11 to 7% of the total number of academic staff engaged in r&d, and the problem of aging of research staff is still relevant.” it is especially relevant in regional higher education institutions. attention to research is one of the most crucial issues in scientific communities (bahadori et al., 2015). given that research engagement has traditionally been essential for tenure-track faculty to continue in the academy (boyer & cockriel, 1997), staff in institutions primarily focusing on teaching and professional training are actively encouraged to conduct research (bazeley, 2003; cronan & deckard, 2012; tarman & chigisheva, 2017). changes in the higher education system caused a massive increase in the number of academic staff engaged in research and increased pressure to obtain central or external project funding and significant research results (baro et al., 2017; chval & nossaman, 2014; gitlin & lyons, 2004; yaun et al., 2020; strielkowski & chigisheva, 2018a; strielkowski & chigisheva, 2018b; strielkowski & chigisheva, 2019). thus, in the highly competitive research environment, ecrs face challenges competing with those with long-established credentials (bazeley, 2003). the university teachers’ barriers to regularly engaging in research include the low priority of research in tertiary institutions and poor funding of the education sector (baro et al., 2017). moreover, they comprise the impossibility of balancing teaching and research because of an overload of faculty (o’connor et al., 2011), lack of academic writing skills (walden & bryan, 2010), and difficulty for ecrs to establish themselves. furthermore, having been recognized by peer-reviewed journals, longwinded and depressing submissions of papers (conference highlights, 2022), work-life imbalance, insufficient research funds, or job instability are other relevant issues (ranieri et al., 2016). okoduwa et al. (2018) state that the obstacles prevent research activities in nigeria’s tertiary research institutions, including a lack of funding, professional mentorship, and inadequate research facilities. bahadori et al. (2015) classified six challenges of the research system: barriers to the design and development, approval of research projects, the implementation of research projects, administrative and managerial issues, personal problems, publishing articles, and guidelines and recommendations. the main barrier the ecrs faced in kazakhstan was that the status of a “young scientist” and the age limits were not legally defined for a long time. it caused difficulties for ecrs in receiving https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frma.2018.00026/full#b3 https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frma.2018.00026/full#b3 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 research funding, implementing initiatives to support young scientists at universities, and developing and testing mechanisms for ecrs’ motivation. all of these aimed to maintain the interest of young teachers in academic and research activities (teslenko, 2017). as stated by duisenova (2020), the objective difficulties include the lack of research funding in the country – both by the ministry of education and the scientific foundations (mainly “samruk kazyna”), the lack of national funding, low wages for young scientists, insufficient number of grants for doctoral studies, and inability to apply for doctoral studies. subjective difficulties comprise the lack of sufficient research capacity, the lack of young scientists, and undeveloped fundraising activities for students to have an opportunity to participate in competitions arranged by international scientific institutions. more importantly, poor knowledge of a foreign language does not allow using various methodological foreign sources and foreign experience to the full extent. abdirayimova et al. (2019, p. 123) state that the primary factors affecting the ecrs’ working conditions and career prospects such as “a large workload associated with official duties, limited opportunities for career advancement, low awareness of employment alternatives, and possible sources of funding for research projects.” “moreover, ecrs employed in science and higher education are not satisfied with wages, career opportunities, and academic mobility options” (abdirayimova et al., 2019, p. 123). the national report “youth of kazakhstan – 2021: 30 years of independence” (2021, p. 167) states the barriers in kazakhstani science. they include uncompetitive research staff (little or incomplete information about kazakh scientists and their scientific developments in open sources and no single database of researchers), low commercialization of research by ecrs, and weak investment attractiveness of science. moreover, lack of experience in co-financing scientific research and stimulating business through the provision of benefits and preferences, lack of effective incentive mechanisms for the private sector to develop products using scientific achievements exist. other serious issues are poor equipment of scientific organizations and laboratories requiring updating their material and technical equipment and a minimal number of kazakhstani journals in international databases. however, the literature review outlined a gap, such as the lack of understanding of the regional university ecrs’ research engagement, barriers, and needs. the stated research specifics and barriers in kazakhstani science are mainly relevant to the top universities in the biggest cities of kuzembayeva et al. 166 kazakhstan, and no research addressing these issues at the regional universities exists. therefore, this study aims to investigate the ecrs’ research engagement, needs, and barriers to doing research at the regional universities of the republic of kazakhstan. methodology research design in connection with the research problem and the research questions, this study used a mixed methods research design, the best approach for clearly identifiable cases providing an in-depth understanding (creswell, 2013) and offering unique methodological advantages for researchers wishing to address the complexity of these research problems and issues (plano et al., 2018). the study included data collection, measurement, and analysis. it employed the following research methods: (1) a survey of kazakhstani regional universities’ early career researchers and (2) interviews with vice-rectors for research of regional universities of west kazakhstan. the aim was to expand the understanding of the university academic staff’s research engagement specifics, their needs, and barriers to research at the kazakhstani regional universities. the data collection was conducted at ten regional higher education institutions of the republic of kazakhstan located in aktau, aktobe, atyrau, and oral (west kazakhstan) from june to august 2022. the quantitative research data were analyzed through spss statistics software combining several methods such as descriptive statistical analysis, reliability analysis, spearman’s rank correlation analysis, and pearson chi-square test of significance. the qualitative research data were interpreted through content and thematic analysis. based on this, the study results were summarized, and the implications and limitations of the study were presented. sample the survey sample comprised one hundred and twenty people, with an average age of 33.4 (sd = 4.4) in the 23–40 years. the study employed a non-probability sampling technique. convenience sampling was performed through the whatsapp instant mobile messaging. the inclusion criteria were universities’ ecrs ≥40 years of age (96.8%). the rationale for excluding respondents older than 40 years of age is based on the age limit for young researchers in kazakhstan set for the young researchers by the requirements of grant projects under the ministry of science and higher journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 education of the republic of kazakhstan, university boards of young scientists, regulations and other documents. table 1 displays demographic information about the survey participants. table 1 ecrs’ demographic characteristics (n = 120) demographic information frequency percentage regions aktau city and mangystau region 1 0.83 aktobe city and aktobe region 31 25.8 atyrau city and atyrau region 24 20 oral city and western kazakhstan region 64 53.3 gender male 31 25.8 female 89 74.2 specialization humanities and social sciences 66 55 natural sciences 31 25.83 technical 22 18.33 medicine and public health 1 0.83 teaching experience 0-4 years 38 31.7 5-9 years 30 25 10+ years 52 43.3 level of education bachelor’s 2 1.66 master’s 91 75.8 doctorate (ph.d.) 21 17.5 candidate of sciences (ph.d.) 5 4.17 doctor of sciences 1 0.83 source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis purposeful sampling was used for choosing respondents for the interview. as specified by the research questions, the participants of the interview-based study included seven vice-rectors for research of the regional universities of aktau, aktobe, atyrau, and oral, agreeing to be interviewed. the data were anonymized properly, aligning with the ethical guidelines of the kuzembayeva et al. 168 studies, not requiring ethical approval, and informed consent was obtained from the respondents during interviews. research instrument the study used both qualitative and quantitative methods. a descriptive survey was conducted among ecrs from the ten regional universities of aktau, aktobe, atyrau, and oral. the online questionnaire in google forms was shared with the universities’ ecrs through whatsapp groups of university councils of young researchers. the questionnaire included items on the ecrs’ demographics (age, gender, specialization, teaching experience, level of education, research direction, and region), knowledge of languages, ecrs’ publication rate and research engagement frequency, reasons for conducting research and barriers. items on ecrs’ reasons for conducting research and barriers were adapted from the questionnaire used by jamoom & al-omrani (2021). for collecting qualitative data, an exploratory semi-structured interview, an effective method in exploring participant thoughts, feelings and beliefs about a particular topic, was used to introduce more detail and richness due to its open-ended nature. interviews with the university vice-rectors for research were designed to have an in-depth picture of ecrs’ research perspectives in regional universities of west kazakhstan. the interview included questions on stimulation and institutional support of ecrs’ research activities (questions 1-2, 6), ecrs’ barriers (q3), a position of “teacher-researcher” at the university (q4), and measures to be undertaken by the university administration to support ecrs (q5). based on the interview data, the key obstacles impeding ecrs from conducting research at kazakhstani regional universities were identified, and their needs and barriers were classified. in line with ethical considerations, the survey respondents were contacted with the university administration’s permission and signed a letter of consent containing information on the study. the potential interviewees received the consent forms before starting the interview and were informed of the essential information in the study, their rights, and privacy. the concurrent validity of the study was reached by comparing the survey results with the interview. table 2 displays testing scale quality. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 table 2 the quality of the scale with cronbach’s alpha coefficients (n = 120) scale cronbach’s alpha conclusion research engagement specifics 0.836 good barriers to doing research 0.898 good source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis the scale reliability of the variables is of good quality, and cronbach’s alpha coefficient is > 0.8. thus, the scales have good quality, high reliability, and good use. data collection the quantitative data were obtained by sending the invitation to participate in the survey, and the link to the questionnaire in google forms to the regional university ecrs through the whatsapp social media platform. on-site interviews with the regional universities’ vice-rectors for research were conducted to obtain qualitative data on the research topic. being the experts in the field, all interviewees properly answered the questions. the data saturation was achieved, for, according to morgan et al. (2002), the first five to six interviews produce the majority of new information in the dataset, and little new information is gained as the sample size grows. data analysis the quantitative research data were coded in ms excel program and further analyzed using spss descriptive statistics, spearman’s rank correlation analysis, and pearson chi-square test of significance. tables 3-5 present the summaries of statistical analysis in the form of frequencies and frequency distributions. the qualitative research data, that came from the interviews’ transcripts, were analyzed through content and thematic analysis. the purpose of content analysis, which is used to describe the characteristics of the collected data content by systematic coding and categorizing (gbrich, 2007), was to determine trends and patterns of words used, their frequency, their relationships, and the structures and discourses of communication. being “a method for identifying, analysing and reporting themes within data” (braun & clarke, 2006, p. 79), the thematic analysis implied a careful study of the collected data multiple times in order to spot emerging patterns, themes, and sub-themes, and to categorize data into different sections. kuzembayeva et al. 170 results the research attitudes (research engagement frequency, reasons for doing research) of the academic staff undertaking the first stages of their research careers at the kazakhstani regional universities table 3 displays the ecrs’ frequency of conducting research. however, the subjectivity of respondents’ frequency descriptors (often, sometimes, rarely, and never) in executing research should be stated, as they might not refer to the respondents’ research engagement’s accurate frequency (borg, 2009). table 3 the ecrs’ research engagement frequency frequency n % often 76 63.3 sometimes 25 20.8 rarely 15 12.5 never 4 3.3 total 120 100.0 source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis table 3 demonstrates that most ecrs are often engaged in research (76%), and only 3.3% stated that they never conduct research. table 4 presents descriptive statistics of the ecrs’ reasons for conducting research categorized by the total sample of respondents and their gender. table 4 the ecrs’ research engagement reasons i conduct research total sample (n=120) male (n=31) female (n=89) mean sd mean sd mean sd because it is good for my professional development 4.191667 0.802264 4.387097 0.667204 4.123596 0.836935 because it enhances my teaching skill 4.108333 0.848091 4.193548 0.749193 4.078652 0.881949 because it will help me get the promotion 4.100000 0.813747 4.096774 0.943569 4.101124 0.769370 to promote my self-confidence as a teacher 4.108333 0.828036 4.193548 0.703295 4.078652 0.868969 to become more critical and analytical about my teaching practices 4.141667 0.689609 4.000000 0.730297 4.191011 0.672113 to develop my research skills 4.350000 0.589117 4.419355 0.564163 4.325843 0.598773 to raise my awareness of my students’ needs 3.833333 0.853400 3.741935 0.893224 3.865169 0.841954 source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 the ecrs’ overall research engagement is actualized by researching to develop research skills (m = 4.35) because it is good for their professional development (m = 4.19) and makes them more critical and analytical about their teaching practices (m = 4.14). from the ecrs’ gender perspective, men are mainly found to engage in research to develop research skills (m = 4.41) because it is good for professional development (m = 4.38), promotes self-confidence as a teacher (m = 4.19) as it enhances teaching skill (m = 4.19). nonetheless, women usually conduct research to develop research skills (m = 4.33), to become more critical and analytical about teaching practices (m = 4.19) because it is good for professional development (m = 4.12), and it will help them get the promotion (m = 4.10). figure 2 presents ecrs’ publication activity in the last five years, according to which 65.8% of ecrs were published in the journals from the list of the committee for quality assurance in the sphere of education and science of the ministry of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan (cqases). the list has 1-5 papers – 51.7%, 6-10 papers – 12.5%, 11-15 papers – 1.7%; 32.5% of respondents have publications in journals indexed in scopus database (1-5 – 30%, 6-10 – 2.5%,), and 20.8% – in web of science indexed journals (1-5 – 18.3%, 6-10 – 2.5%). however, most ecrs do not have any publications either in the scopus (67%) or in the web of science (79%) indexed journals. 34% of ecrs have not been published in the journals from the cqases list in the last five years. figure 2. ecrs’ publishing rate in the years from 2018 to 2022 (n=120) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 cqases scopus web of science more than 10 from 5 to 10 up to 5 no publications kuzembayeva et al. 172 given that both qualitative and quantitative data contribute to the understanding of the research topic (kuzembayeva et al., 2022), combining them delivers significant benefits, enabling the comparison and contrasting of the results and gaining much deeper insights. quantitative research highlighted the important variations in ecrs’ reasons for doing research and publication trends. qualitative research adds to an in-depth understanding of the ecrs’ research attitudes and coming up with fresh concepts in their research engagement frequency and reasons for doing research. the analysis of the interviews with the vice-rectors for research (s1-s7) from the universities of aktau, aktobe, atyrau, and oral revealed the ecrs’ research specifics at the regional universities of the republic of kazakhstan. when answering the first interview question (q1. does your university have a regulation on stimulating research activities?), more than half of the interviewees (57.2%) stated that a regulation exists to stimulate research activities at their institution. though, as stated by s4, the university provides bonuses to employees, including young scientists, for publishing articles in high-ranking journals with a percentile of at least 35. according to s5, “universities are developing regulations on r&d, but this incentive, especially in private universities, is not considered at all or is “rudimentary,” as it is limited to cash prizes, moral incentives as diplomas, letters of appreciation during the week of science and other university events, and it suggests that there is no system, and it is not documented.” when answering the question on the separate system of support for the r&d of young scientists at universities (q2. is there a separate system of support for the r&d of young scientists and what does it consist of?), most sample (71.4%) stated that no targeted university support exists for ecrs. the following support measures are provided for ecrs: according to s1, “five scientific schools of leading researchers function at the university providing scientific support to ecrs; university seeks for obtaining targeted grants for admission to doctoral programs; the financial assistance is provided during the preparation for the thesis defense; and for the period of study, an ecr retains a job at the university.’’ as stated by s4, “support for ecrs is carried out by allocating part of the extrabudgetary funds of the university for their training in postgraduate studies in the russian federation and doctoral studies in the republic of kazakhstan. the council of young scientists functions at the university”. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 most universities (71.4%) have launched the position of a teacher-researcher, and “the university academic staff would provide only 0.5 teacher workload; the rest would be allocated to research under the labor contract” (s5). ecrs will enter this position according to the requirements (s4) because the position will start on september 1, 2022. due to the innovative character of this procedure for kazakhstani regional universities, it is too early to determine the share of ecrs in this position. while answering the q5 of the interview (what can be done to support ecrs at the university?) the respondents proposed the following: “increase the number of paid science internships in leading domestic and foreign universities; organize creative business trips to research institutes and research centers” (s1); “launch a specific state program to support ecrs” (s2); “foster the ecrs’ general literacy through the real-time practical advanced training on a systematic basis, the exchange of best practices with specialized universities and research centers; involve the academic staff up to forty years old to work in foreign research centers for one or two semesters in their fields; open research centers in each university, with the provision of favorable work for the teacherresearcher – reducing the teaching load in favor of research work” (s3); “introduce a rule of applying for doctoral programs a year before; change the requirements for confirming the english language proficiency (ielts academic, toefl (ibt, pbt, itp): the level of language proficiency should have a minimum value (ielts academic 3.04.0), and upon completion of doctoral studies, it should be developed to 5.5-6.0” (s4); “develop a system for monitoring and supporting ecrs” (s5); “increase interinstitutional research funding” (s6); “reduce the teacher workload, increase the research component following personal achievements; activate the participation in competitions for grant funding; encourage high achievements in science, both at the local level and at other levels (city, region, etc.); motivate for action, stimulate results, and enhance interest in the problems of kazakhstani science” (s7). kuzembayeva et al. 174 while answering the q6 of the interview; can the university, during ecrs’ submitting and implementing scientific projects, afford to take on all the accompanying organizational, legal, and reporting documentation at the stages of applying, concluding a contract, drawing up expenses, and preparing reports so that the ecrs would deal only with research? the university vice-rectors for research stated that the ecrs support preparing research proposals (organizational and legal assistance) at the level of the university science departments (s1 and s6). s4 and s5 state that such kind of university support is possible; it can be provided in case of hiring additional specialists (s2 and s7). the early career researchers’ barriers to their engagement in research table 5 presents barriers of ecrs to conducting research. table 5 barriers to doing research barriers mean sd min max i do not have time to conduct research. 3.583333 1.104485 1.000000 5.000000 i do not have access to the books and journals i need. 2.866667 1.044661 1.000000 5.000000 my employer does not support me in researching. 2.941667 1.117439 1.000000 5.000000 i do not have enough knowledge and skills required to conduct quality research. 2.666667 1.047874 1.000000 5.000000 nothing motivates me to execute research. 2.716667 0.997335 1.000000 5.000000 i need mentoring from professionals having experience in research, yet no one is available. 3.091667 1.045164 1.000000 5.000000 it is difficult to get my research published, so others cannot benefit from its findings. 3.133333 1.028447 1.000000 5.000000 the learners and other teachers would not cooperate if i asked for help. 2.983333 1.045063 1.000000 5.000000 there is nothing worth researching in our work. 2.383333 0.851922 1.000000 5.000000 i am not interested in researching as i believe my job is to teach, not to execute research. 2.333333 0.910567 1.000000 5.000000 source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis the main research challenges that the ecrs confront include the lack of time to conduct research (m = 3.58), the difficulty in publishing research (m = 3.13), and the need for research mentoring from experienced professionals (m = 3.09). the ecrs’ barriers to doing research were also identified due to the interviews with the regional universities’ vice-rectors for research (q3. what barriers do you face in organizing the r&d of journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 ecrs?). as a result of the qualitative analysis of the interview data with the universities’ vicerectors for research, the ecrs’ research barriers include the following: “a low basic training as a specialist” (s2), “a low level of the research culture of ecrs, a weak motivation to improve knowledge and, thus, passivity to research work, practical ignorance of the scientific apparatus and structure of research, weak knowledge of advanced research in the world, in the republic, and the region” (s3); “ecrs’ excessive academic workload, lack of personal motivation and interest, an insufficiently well-developed mechanism for supporting young scientists at the state level” (s7); “social and psychological issues as lack of time (study and additional workload), misunderstanding of the university management (ignoring, unfavorable team environment), difficulties in finding an object and information for research (business entities do not interact with research centers and scientists; therefore, local representative bodies of the region should oblige them to cooperate with universities). moreover, the university itself should probably increase the attractiveness and positioning at the level of the region, republic, as well as take measures to avoid the material and organizational deficits” (s5). the main barrier to capacity building of ecrs, according to s4, is “the requirement of having publications in journals with certain scientometric indicators when applying for research funding of the science committee of the ministry of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan within the framework of the competition for young scientists.” hence, “ecrs’ disbelief in the outcome of the grant applications and indifference” is provoked (s6). for overcoming research barriers, s1 speculates that “it is necessary to create several conditions: (1) introduction of a creative day (library day), (2) reducing the teacher workload of promising ecrs, (3) payment of expenses for the publication of articles in high-ranking peer-reviewed journals.” kuzembayeva et al. 176 the relationship between the early career researchers’ language skills, research engagement frequency, and barriers to conducting research figure 3 displays ecrs’ language (kazakh, russian, and english) proficiency levels. figure 3. ecrs’ language proficiency levels up to 70% of ecrs acquire an advanced level of kazakh and russian. most respondents are fundamental english users (35.8%) and english independent users (40.8%). correlation analysis was conducted to determine the relationships between the ecrs’ knowledge of languages and the research barriers of the respondents. for the non-normal distribution of the research data with the sample size of one hundred and twenty people the spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was selected (mcdonald, 2014); correlations were considered significant at p < 0.05. table 6 spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for the knowledge of languages items kazakh russian english kazakh 1.000000 russian 0.336992 1.000000 english -0.197885 0.067584 1.000000 significant at the p<0.05 level source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis table 6 demonstrates a positive correlation between the ecrs’ knowledge of the kazakh and russian languages and a negative correlation between their level of kazakh and english. it 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 kazakh russian english basic a1, a2 intermediate b1, b2 advanced c1, c2 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 indicates that the kazakhstani regional universities’ ecrs are primarily bilingual (kazakhrussian), and those speaking only the kazakh language have a lower level of english. table 7 reports the findings of spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for the ecrs’ knowledge of languages and their research barriers (lack of knowledge and skills in conducting research, lack of motivation, challenges in publishing, and no interest in researching). table 7 spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for the ecrs’ knowledge of languages and research engagement, and research barriers items ref lack of knowledge & skills lack of motivation challenges in publishing no interest kazakh 0.012643 -0.055632 -0.002966 0.000650 -0.161701 russian 0.194282 -0.367165 -0.313532 -0.110937 -0.353857 english 0.194194 -0.266289 -0.169775 -0.075421 -0.041351 ref – research engagement frequency; significant at the p<0.05 level source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis a statistically significant correlation (p<0.05) exists between the knowledge of english and russian languages and the research engagement frequency, barriers to conducting research, such as the lack of knowledge and skills in executing research, the lack of motivation, and no interest. those speaking russian depict a higher level of interest and motivation for researching and have the required knowledge and skills; the latter is also relevant for the ecrs speaking english. the knowledge of english and russian contributes to the ecrs’ research engagement. table 8 displays spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for the ecrs’ research barriers (lack of knowledge and skills in conducting research, lack of motivation, challenges in publishing, and no interest in researching) and their research engagement frequency. table 8 spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for the ecrs’ research barriers and research engagement frequency items ref lack of knowledge & skills lack of motivation challenges in publishing no interest ref 1.000000 lack of knowledge & skills -0.354921 1.000000 lack of motivation -0.232499 0.612173 1.000000 challenges in publishing -0.090714 0.344432 0.495212 1.000000 no interest -0.213138 0.599286 0.561052 0.306012 1.000000 ref – research engagement frequency; significant at the p<0.05 level source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis kuzembayeva et al. 178 table 8 illustrates a statistically significant correlation (p<0.05) between the ecrs’ research barriers. ecrs’ research engagement frequency is negatively correlated with the research barriers such as lack of knowledge and skills in conducting research, lack of motivation, and no interest in researching. the relationship between the ecrs’ research directions and research attitudes the pearson chi-square test of independence was determined to discover whether a relationship exists between the research directions and research attitudes of ecrs. chi-square analysis hypothesis: ho: ecrs’ research direction and research attitudes are independent. ha: ecrs’ research direction and research attitudes are not independent. decision rule: if the p-value is less than the cut-off point (significance level) of 0.05, reject the null hypothesis. table 9 chi-square test of independence variable degrees of freedom research direction cramer’s v chi-square p-value doing research for enhancing teaching skills 12 22.67130 p=.03065 .2509499 applying for research grants 3 7.955164 p=.04695 .2574743 getting research grants 3 8.438145 p=.03777 .2651752 significance at the level p<0.05 source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis pearson chi-square test demonstrated a significant relationship (p-value < 0.05) between the ecrs’ research directions and their research attitudes, such as conducting research for enhancing teaching skills, applying for research grants from the ministry of education and science of the republic of kazakhstan, and getting research funding. it implies that these variables are not independent, meaning an association exists between them since the p-values are less than 0.05. cramer’s v correlation coefficient (value of 0 = no relationship, 0.2 or less = weak relationship, from 0.21 to 0.3 = moderate, and above 0.3 = strong relationship) was considered. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 table 10 research direction * conducting research for enhancing teaching skills crosstabulation research direction conducting research for enhancing teaching skills total 1* 2* 3* 4* 5* humanities and social sciences 0 5 5 32 24 66 % within rd 0.00% 83.33% 38.46% 54.24% 58.54% % within ets 0.00% 7.58% 7.58% 48.48% 36.36% % of total 0.00% 4.17% 4.17% 26.67% 20.00% 55.00% natural sciences 0 0 1 19 11 31 % within rd 0.00% 0.00% 7.69% 32.20% 26.83% % within ets 0.00% 0.00% 3.23% 61.29% 35.48% % of total 0.00% 0.00% 0.83% 15.83% 9.17% 25.83% technical sciences 1 1 7 8 5 22 % within rd 100.00% 16.67% 53.85% 13.56% 12.20% % within ets 4.55% 4.55% 31.82% 36.36% 22.73% % of total 0.83% 0.83% 5.83% 6.67% 4.17% 18.33% medicine and public health 0 0 0 0 1 1 % within rd 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 2.44% % within ets 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 100.00% % of total 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.83% 0.83% total 1 6 13 59 41 120 % of total 0.83% 5.00% 10.83% 49.17% 34.17% 100.00% rd – research direction; ets – doing research for enhancing teaching skills; 1-5* – 5-point likert scale: 1 – very low; 5 – very high; p-value < 0.05. source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis table 11 research direction * applying for research grants / getting research grants crosstabulation research direction applying for research grants getting research grants did not apply applied total did not get got total humanities and social sciences 46 20 66 61 5 66 % within rd 61.33% 44.44% 56.48% 41.67% % within arg/grg 69.70% 30.30% 92.42% 7.58% % of total 38.33% 16.67% 55.00% 50.83% 4.17% 55.00% natural sciences 13 18 31 24 7 31 % within rd 17.33% 40.00% 22.22% 58.33% % within arg/grg 41.94% 58.06% 77.42% 22.58% % of total 10.83% 15.00% 25.83% 20.00% 5.83% 25.83% technical sciences 15 7 22 22 0 22 % within rd 20.00% 15.56% 20.37% 0.00% % within arg/grg 68.18% 31.82% 100.00% 0.00% % of total 12.50% 5.83% 18.33% 18.33% 0.00% 18.33% medicine and public health 1 0 1 1 0 1 % within rd 1.33% 0.00% 0.93% 0.00% % within arg/grg 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% % of total 0.83% 0.00% 0.83% 0.83% 0.00% 0.83% total 75 45 120 108 12 120 % of total 62.50% 37.50% 100.00% 90.00% 10.00% 100.00% arg – applying for research grants; grg – getting research grants; p-value < 0.05. source: author’s elaboration based on the statistical analysis kuzembayeva et al. 180 discussion the quantitative study results depict the ecrs’ research engagement, their barriers in conducting research (the lack of time to conduct research, the difficulty in publishing research, and the lack of research mentorship and university support), and the relation of ecrs’ knowledge of languages to their research experience and research directions. the qualitative study results indicate that there are no targeted university support policies for the ecrs except scientific schools, financial motivation for publishing in high-ranked journals, and partial sponsorship of postgraduate studies at some universities. this study determined a discrepancy between the ecrs’ attitudes and engagement in research, as well as significant barriers impeding these activities. jahan et al. (2015), hegde et al. (2017), and okoduwa et al. (2018) reported similar findings. the current research is the first study examining the ecrs’ research engagement specifics, needs, barriers, and their interrelation in the regional universities of the republic of kazakhstan. the study revealed that the ecrs are often engaged in research (80%), stating the reasons for conducting research, such as developing research skills, its value for their professional development, and becoming more critical and analytical about their teaching practices. however, most ecrs do not have any publications either in the scopus (67%) or web of science (79%) indexed journals, and 34% of ecrs have not been published in the journals from the cqases list in the last five years. this finding relates to the other result obtained from the interviews held in the research administration at seven universities in west kazakhstan. the interviews identified that no targeted university support exists for ecrs. some universities’ support measures for the ecrs are scientific schools, financial motivation for publishing in high-ranked journals, and partial sponsorship of postgraduate studies. from the gender perspective, the female ecrs’ reasons for research engagement include receiving a career promotion. in contrast, the common reasons among male respondents comprise improving research skills, teaching practices, and professional development. shvetsova (2021) explains this finding, stating that the level of gender culture within the scientific community is heterogeneous, a barrier-forming factor in the professional development of young scientists. ecrs’ research challenges, resulting from the descriptive survey, include the lack of time to conduct research, the difficulty in publishing research, and the need for research mentoring from experienced professionals. this result aligns well with the previous study of o’connor et al. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 (2011), wherein they stated that academic faculty could not balance teaching and research because of an overload situation: the barriers impeding the balance include continually preparing new classes every semester, heavy teaching loads, having a large class size, and having other administrative responsibilities. the findings also reflect the general trends currently observed in scientific publishing and informal discussions with editors from peer-reviewed journals as dealing with long review (or desk rejection) times and poor reviews (hausmann & murphy, 2016; mrowinski et al., 2020). it is consistent with what mackay et al. (2020) have found in that the soft skills of paper writing, communication skills, and grant proposal writing are the most useful for the ecrs’ capacity development and are identified as being best developed through a mix of experiential learning, including adequate mentoring, supervisory support, doctoral research and attendance of conferences and workshops. thus, in line with the ideas of o’connor et al. (2011), one can conclude that “universities need to equip faculty members with support strategies for successful and thoughtful upward movement as opposed to being caught in an unbalanced drift.” according to the interviewed vice-rectors for research at the kazakhstani regional universities, a low level of basic research knowledge and culture of ecrs, lack of motivation, lack of time due to excessive teacher workload, lack of personal motivation, and undeveloped mechanism for supporting ecrs at the state level, difficulties in applying for research funding are among the ecrs’ research challenges. the interviewed vice-rectors for research at the kazakhstani regional universities consider that it is necessary to create several conditions, such as reducing the workload of the ecrs by launching a teacher-researcher position at the university and giving them a day off (“creative” day). moreover, providing financial support schemes for the ecrs’ open-access publishing, ecrs’ research capacity building through training, international science internships, academic mobility, and assistance in applying for research funding are also critical. all will help overcome the ecrs’ research barriers. these points are consistent with the previous research from saudi arabia (alamri et al., 2020), stating that it is necessary to foster the ecrs’ research interest by providing scholarships and research bursaries. another promising finding identified by employing spearman’s rank correlation analysis was that a positive correlation exists between the ecrs’ knowledge of the kazakh and russian languages and a negative correlation between their level of the kazakh and english languages. it indicates that the kazakhstani regional universities’ ecrs are mostly bilingual (kazakh-russian), and those kuzembayeva et al. 182 speaking only the kazakh language have a lower level of english. ecrs’ knowledge of russian and english languages is significantly (p<0.05) correlated with their research engagement frequency. speakers of the russian language experience fewer research challenges, such as a lack of knowledge and skills, lack of motivation, and no interest in research. the knowledge of the english language negatively correlated with the ecrs’ barrier in conducting research as a lack of knowledge and skills. this result directly aligns with previous findings of kuzembayeva et al. (2018) that knowing languages would prepare youth for their future professions and enhance their social experiences. a significance test was conducted using the chi-square method to establish whether the ecrs’ research directions and their research attitudes and barriers in conducting research are independent. the p-value <0.05 indicated that a statistically significant relationship exists between the ecrs’ research directions and the ecrs’ conducting research for enhancing teaching skills, applying for and getting research grants and that these categorical variables are not independent. notably, the ecrs’ research barriers are interrelated. ecrs’ research engagement frequency is negatively (p<0.05) correlated with the research barriers such as lack of knowledge and skills in conducting research, lack of motivation, and no interest in research. pearson chi-square test revealed that the ecrs’ ability to navigate research barriers and use positive openings (applying and getting research funding) appear to differ significantly (p<0.05) related to their research direction. these findings agree with the findings by fenton et al. (2016) that the researchers’ previous experience and particular areas of study influence research success. due to the anonymous nature of this research, the likelihood of bias is reduced. though, this does not sideline the limitation of the current study relying on self-report measures as provided by the respondents. conclusion the study resulted in essential findings in understanding the ecrs’ research engagement and the obstacles impeding them from conducting research. most ecrs are often engaged in research to develop their research skills, become more critical and analytical about their teaching practices, and boost their professional development. interviews with the universities’ research administration highlighted that no targeted university support policies exist for the ecrs. some universities are limited to scientific schools, financial motivation for publishing in high-ranked journals, and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 partial sponsorship of postgraduate studies. the regional university ecrs’ barriers to research are the lack of time to conduct research, the difficulty in publishing research, the need for mentoring by experienced peers, and university support. the study’s results concerning the relation of the ecrs’ knowledge of languages to their research experience highlight the vitality of the policy of trilingualism in kazakhstan, contributing to the successful integration of kazakhstani ecrs into world science. the association of the ecrs’ research directions with their (1) conducting research for enhancing teaching skills, (2) applying for research grants, and (3) getting research funding adds to a deeper understanding of the ecrs’ research needs and barriers. the findings confirm that the kazakhstani regional universities’ ecrs need specifically targeted policies to facilitate their research careers. due to the anonymous nature of this research, the likelihood of bias is reduced. though, this does not sideline the limitation of the current study relying on self-report measures as provided by the respondents. this study’s findings could be the foundation for future research on the needs and barriers of ecrs at the universities of other regions of the republic of kazakhstan that may contribute to developing informed policies for promoting teacher research engagement and fostering the ecrs’ research capacity. funding statement this research is funded by the science committee of the ministry of science and higher education of the republic of kazakhstan (grant no. ар13068325). references abdirayimova g. s., biekenov k. u., burkhanova d. k., & serikzhanova s. s. (2019). young scientists of kazakhstan: the experience of building a scientific career. sociological research, 2, 119–129. https://doi.org/10.31857/s013216250004016-0 academic pathways across countries. an inventory of academic titles, categories and positions for facilitating careers in the higher education sector. url: https://www.academiccareermaps.org/glossary/early-career-researcher-ecr alamri, y, qahwaji, h, saif, s, & abu-zaid, a. (2020). research attitudes, barriers, and prior experience: experience from interns working in jeddah, saudi arabia. avicenna journal of medicine, 10(3), 118–121. https://doi.org/10.4103/ajm.ajm_173_19 https://doi.org/10.31857/s013216250004016-0 https://www.academiccareermaps.org/glossary/early-career-researcher-ecr https://doi.org/10.4103/ajm.ajm_173_19 kuzembayeva et al. 184 bai, l., hudson, p., & millwater, j. (2012). factors that influence chinese tefl academics’ research capacity building: an institutional case study. asia-pacific educational research, 22(2), 119-126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-012-0004-6 bahadori, m., momeni, k., ravangard, r., yaghoubi, m., alimohammadzadeh, k., teymourzadeh, e., & tavana, a. m. (2015). challenges of the health research system in a medical research institute in iran: a qualitative content analysis. global journal of health science, 7(1), 69–78. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v7n1p69 banegas, d. l. (2018). towards understanding efl academic staff’ conceptions of research: findings from argentina. issues in academic staff’s professional development, 20(1), 57– 72. http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/profile.v20n1.61881 baro, e. e., bosah, g. e., & obi, i. c. (2017). research funding opportunities and challenges: a survey of academic staff members in nigerian tertiary institutions. the bottom line, 30(1), 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1108/bl-07-2016-0027 bazeley, p. (2003). defining ‘early career’ in research. higher education, 45, 257–279. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022698529612 braun, v., & clarke, v. (2006). using thematic analysis in psychology. qualitative research in psychology, 3, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa borg, s. (2009). english language teachers’ conceptions of research. applied linguistics, 30(3), 358–388. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp007 chval, k., & nossaman, l. (2014). raising the bar on external research funding: infrastructure and strategies for enhancing faculty productivity. journal of faculty development, 28(1), 41–48. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej1034451 conference highlights early-career research barriers. (2022). research information. retrieved from https://www.researchinformation.info/analysis-opinion/conference-highlights-earlycareer-research-barriers creswell, j. w. (2013). qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. sage. christian, k., johnstone, c., larkins, j., wright, w., & doran, m. r. (2021). research culture: a survey of early-career researchers in australia. elife, 10:e60613. https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.60613 cronan, m., & deckard, l. (2012). new faculty guide to competing for research funding. academic research funding strategies, llc. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-012-0004-6 https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v7n1p69 http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/profile.v20n1.61881 https://doi.org/10.1108/bl-07-2016-0027 https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022698529612 https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp007 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ej1034451 https://www.researchinformation.info/analysis-opinion/conference-highlights-early-career-research-barriers https://www.researchinformation.info/analysis-opinion/conference-highlights-early-career-research-barriers https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.60613 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 duisenova, s. m. (2015). scientific motivation of young scientists of higher educational institutions (engaged in sociological research). mediterranean journal of social sciences, 6(6 s1), 26–33. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n6s1p26 early career researchers: career and skills development. (2022). uk research and innovation. retrieved from https://www.ukri.org/what-we-offer/developing-people-andskills/ahrc/early-career-researchers-career-and-skills-development/ efimova, g. z. (2021). barriers to academic career development for university teachers. universitetskoe upravlenie: praktika i analiz, 25(4), 55–74. https://doi.org/10.15826/umpa.2021.04.036 fenton, a., walsh, k., & macdonald, a. (2016). capacity building of early career researchers through cross-institutional mentoring. in b. g. g. johannessen (ed.), global co-mentoring networks in higher education (pp. 203–227). springer. gbrich, c. (2007). qualitative data analysis: an introduction (1st edn). london: sage publications. gitlin, l., & lyons, k. (2004). successful grant writing: strategies for health and human service professionals (2nd ed.). springer publication. hausmann, l., murphy, s. p. (2016). the challenges for scientific publishing, 60 years on. journal of neurochemistry, 139, 280-287. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.13550 hegde, a., venkataramana, g., kulkarni, s. b., bhaskar, n. n., jacob, j., & gangadharappa, s. k. (2017). attitudes, experiences, and barriers to research and publishing among dental postgraduate students of bengaluru city: a cross-sectional study. journal of indian association of public health dentistry, 15, 157–161. https://doi.org/10.4103/jiaphd.jiaphd_11_17 jahan, f., al-mabali, a., siddiqui, m. a., & al-zadjali, n. m. (2015). attitude and barrier towards research amongst health care professionals working in primary care services of oman. journal of health education research and development, 3(3), 1000144. https://doi.org/10.4172/2380-5439.1000144 jamoom, o. a., & al-omrani, m. (2021). efl university teachers’ engagement in research: reasons and obstacles. international journal of linguistics and translation studies, 2(1), 135–146. https://doi.org/10.36892/ijlts.v2i1.121 kuzembayeva, g., karimsakova, a., & kupenova, a. (2018). trilingualism in kazakhstan. multilingual education, vi(11), 87–90. retrieved from https://www.multilingualeducation.org/storage/uploads/articles/11.pdf kuzembayeva, g., taganova, a. m., spulber, d., & maydangalieva, z. (2022). teachers’ perspectives on using information and communication technology in the secondary school https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n6s1p26 https://www.ukri.org/what-we-offer/developing-people-and-skills/ahrc/early-career-researchers-career-and-skills-development/ https://www.ukri.org/what-we-offer/developing-people-and-skills/ahrc/early-career-researchers-career-and-skills-development/ https://doi.org/10.15826/umpa.2021.04.036 https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.13550 https://doi.org/10.4103/jiaphd.jiaphd_11_17 https://doi.org/10.4172/2380-5439.1000144 https://doi.org/10.36892/ijlts.v2i1.121 https://www.multilingualeducation.org/storage/uploads/articles/11.pdf kuzembayeva et al. 186 practice: a case study. journal of social studies education research, 13(3), 79–97. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4341 mackay, b., roux, j., bouwer, r. (2020). building research capacity in early career researchers. insights from an international climate research programme. retrieved from https://futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/building_research_capacity-inearly-career-researchers_fcfa.pdf marsh, h. w., & hattie, j. (2002). the relation between research productivity and teaching effectiveness: complementary, antagonistic, or independent constructs? the journal of higher education, 73(5), 603–641. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2002.11777170 mcdonald, j.h. (2014). handbook of biological statistics (3rd ed.). baltimore, maryland: sparky house publishing. morgan, m., fischoff, b., bostrom, a., & atman, c. (2002). risk communication: a mental models approach. new york: cambridge university press. mrowinski, m.j., fronczak, a., fronczak, p., nedic, o., & dekanski, a. (2020). the hurdles of academic publishing from the perspective of journal editors: a case study. scientometrics, 125, 115–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03619-x national report «youth of kazakhstan – 2021: 30 years of independence». (2021). elzhastary. retrieved from https://eljastary.kz/en/reports/18762/ national science report (2020). in m. zh. zhurinov (ed.). nur-sultan-almaty. retrieved from https://naukananrk.kz/assets/assets/%d0%94%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4/%d0 %9d%d0%b0%d1%86%d0%b4%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4%2 0%d0%bf%d0%be%20%d0%bd%d0%b0%d1%83%d0%ba%d0%b5__19__10__ 2020.pdf o’connor, k., greene, h. c., good, a. j., & zhang, g. (2011). finding balance: a challenge for untenured faculty. international education studies, 4(4), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v4n4p3 okoduwa s. i. r., abe, j. o., samuel, b. i., chris, a. o., oladimeji, r. a., idowu, o. o., & okoduwa, u. j. (2018). attitudes, perceptions, and barriers to research and publishing among research and teaching staff in a nigerian research institute. frontiers in research metrics and analytics, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/frma.2018.00026 olo, d., correia, l., & rego, c. (2021). higher education institutions and development: missions, models, and challenges. journal of social studies education research, 12(2), 1–25. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/392 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4341 https://futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/building_research_capacity-in-early-career-researchers_fcfa.pdf https://futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/building_research_capacity-in-early-career-researchers_fcfa.pdf https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2002.11777170 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03619-x https://eljastary.kz/en/reports/18762/ https://nauka-nanrk.kz/assets/assets/%d0%94%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4/%d0%9d%d0%b0%d1%86%d0%b4%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4%20%d0%bf%d0%be%20%d0%bd%d0%b0%d1%83%d0%ba%d0%b5__19__10__2020.pdf https://nauka-nanrk.kz/assets/assets/%d0%94%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4/%d0%9d%d0%b0%d1%86%d0%b4%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4%20%d0%bf%d0%be%20%d0%bd%d0%b0%d1%83%d0%ba%d0%b5__19__10__2020.pdf https://nauka-nanrk.kz/assets/assets/%d0%94%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4/%d0%9d%d0%b0%d1%86%d0%b4%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4%20%d0%bf%d0%be%20%d0%bd%d0%b0%d1%83%d0%ba%d0%b5__19__10__2020.pdf https://nauka-nanrk.kz/assets/assets/%d0%94%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4/%d0%9d%d0%b0%d1%86%d0%b4%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4%20%d0%bf%d0%be%20%d0%bd%d0%b0%d1%83%d0%ba%d0%b5__19__10__2020.pdf https://nauka-nanrk.kz/assets/assets/%d0%94%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4/%d0%9d%d0%b0%d1%86%d0%b4%d0%be%d0%ba%d0%bb%d0%b0%d0%b4%20%d0%bf%d0%be%20%d0%bd%d0%b0%d1%83%d0%ba%d0%b5__19__10__2020.pdf https://doi.org/10.3389/frma.2018.00026 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/392 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (4),160-187 ranieri, v., barratt, h., fulop, n., & rees, g. (2016). factors that influence career progression among postdoctoral clinical academics: a scoping review of the literature. bmj open, 6(10), e013523. http://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013523 shvetsova, a. v. (2021). barriers to the professional development of young scientists in the gender-differentiated environment of the scientific community. woman in russian society, 1, 83–93. https://doi.org/10.21064/winrs.2021.1.7 strielkowski, w., & chigisheva, o. (2018a). preface. in w. strielkowski, o. chigisheva (eds.), social, economic, and academic leadership for the future sustainable development of business and education. springer proceedings in business and economics (pp. v–vi). springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74216-8_1 strielkowski, w., & chigisheva, o. (2018b). research functionality and academic publishing: gaming with altmetrics in the digital age. economics and sociology, 11(4), 306–316. https://doi.org/10.14254/2071-789x.2018/11-4/20 strielkowski, w., & chigisheva, o. (2019). research and academic leadership: gaming with altmetrics in the digital age. in sustainable leadership for entrepreneurs and academics. springer proceedings in business and economics (pp. 307–313). springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15495-0 tarman, b., & chigisheva, o. (2017). transformation of educational policy, theory and practice in post-soviet social studies education. journal of social studies education research, 8(2), i–iv. retrieved from https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/196 teslenko, a. n. (2017). a young scientist in kazakhstan: features of social and professional status. gaudeamus psychological and pedagogical journal, 16(1), 16–20. retrieved from http://journals.tsutmb.ru/a8/upload/auto/68/1f/temp.681fc60adca97a91c70af6faece1bb91.p df walden, p. r., & bryan, v. c. (2010). tenured and non-tenured college of education faculty motivators and barriers in grant writing: a public university in the south. journal of research administration, 41(3), 85–98. retrieved from https://www.srainternational.org/higherlogic/system/downloaddocumentfile.ashx?docu mentfilekey=d32ce0ad-2a6e-5949-556c-3dffaf636a8b&forcedialog=0 yaun, k. m., reiser, r. a., walker, r. r., & mesa, m. p. (2020). successful strategies for increasing faculty grant activity. research management review, 24(1). retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1294056.pdf youth and science: potential, commercialization and grants. (2019). strategy 2050. retrieved from https://strategy2050.kz/ru/news/53270/ http://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013523 https://doi.org/10.21064/winrs.2021.1.7 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74216-8_1 https://doi.org/10.14254/2071-789x.2018/11-4/20 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15495-0 https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/196 http://journals.tsutmb.ru/a8/upload/auto/68/1f/temp.681fc60adca97a91c70af6faece1bb91.pdf http://journals.tsutmb.ru/a8/upload/auto/68/1f/temp.681fc60adca97a91c70af6faece1bb91.pdf https://www.srainternational.org/higherlogic/system/downloaddocumentfile.ashx?documentfilekey=d32ce0ad-2a6e-5949-556c-3dffaf636a8b&forcedialog=0 https://www.srainternational.org/higherlogic/system/downloaddocumentfile.ashx?documentfilekey=d32ce0ad-2a6e-5949-556c-3dffaf636a8b&forcedialog=0 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ej1294056.pdf https://strategy2050.kz/ru/news/53270/ article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (4),381-405 collaborative governance on the smart city-based regional development of balikpapan muhammad noor1 abstract there are three challenges in building a smart city: technology, human resources, and government. a collaborative climate must be created to meet these challenges. the policy direction and the application of collaborative governance in developing a smart city in balikpapan city, east kalimantan, indonesia, are described here. this study used the collaborative governance approach to dissect this research. this type of research is qualitative, and descriptive methods are used. information is obtained based on the smart city policy plan adjusted to the regional medium-term development plan and the draft document for the smart city master plan for the city of balikpapan. researchers conducted in-depth interviews with several parties from the local government involved in the smart city implementation council. meanwhile, research supporting data was conducted based on searching various information from online sources, scientific articles, research journals, and several literary sources. the focus of the development of the smart city of balikpapan city is directed at developing a livable city based on a sustainable environment. collaboration with pentahelix, which is interdependent, is a prerequisite for the successful development of a smart city in which the vision of the mission of the city of balikpapan is supported. keywords: collaborative governance, regional development, smart city introduction the implementation of sustainable development is faced with various global problems, such as increasing population growth, reduced availability of residential land, congestion on highways, increased crime rates, swelling levels of energy usage, waste accumulation, and various other social problems (conoras & himmawati, 2018). these problems are triggered by population growth, which is mainly concentrated in urban areas and implies the adaptation process of cities to meet the minimum needs of their residents. experts argue that urban challenges and problems cannot be solved conventionally. smart city policy is considered a solusible approach to realizing a sustainable city (firmanyah et al., 2017) through digital ecosystem collaboration. still, policy development can improve the quality of life of people (deguimarães et al., 2019). in indonesia, the smart city concept was seriously discussed at the e-indonesia initiative (eii) and smart indonesia initiative (sii) conferences held by the ministry of national development planning/national development planning agency (bappenas) in 2015. the direction of smart city 1dr. mulawarman university, samarinda, indonesia; email: muhammad.noor@fisip.unmul.ac.id mailto:muhammad.noor@fisip.unmul.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 382 development is based on national urban area development policies and is scheduled to achieve sustainable development goals. the development of a sustainable smart city includes inclusive socio-cultural environment development, economic growth that prospers the community, and environmental protection and management with the support of political commitment and involvement from various stakeholders (joga, 2017). the trend of smart city development began with the 100 smart city movement by the government through the ministry of communication and information as the leading sector (perdana, 2020). the preparation of the master plan and the quick win of the 100 regencies/cities were conducted over three years. in 2017, 2018, and 2019, a total of 25, 50, and 25 regions were considered, respectively. the 100 selected regencies/cities are expected to become role models for implementing smart cities for other cities/regencies (rizkinaswara, 2020). at the implementation level, the regions that received smart city technical guidance were 24 regencies/cities in 2017 appear in table 1. smart city with 50 regencies/cities in 2018 is table 2, and for 25 regencies/cities in 2019 is seen in table 3 (rizkinaswara, 2018). table 1 regencies/cities receiving smart city technical guidance in 2017 no regency/city no regency/city no regency/city 1 city of samarinda 9 city of bekasi 17 sidoarjo regency 2 city of tangerang 10 city of jambi 18 bojonegoro regency 3 city of south tangerang 11 city of sukabumi 19 badung regency 4 city of makassar 12 lombok timur regency 20 siak regency 5 city of tomohon 13 kutai kartanegara regency 21 mimika regency 6 city of bandung 14 banyuwangi regency 22 gresik regency 7 city of cirebon 15 banyuasin regency 23 sleman regency 8 city of bogor 16 pelalawan regency 24 semarang regency source: https://aptika.kominfo.go.id/2018/11/gerakan-menuju-100-smart-city/ balikpapan is the second-largest city in east kalimantan province and the most significant economic center in borneo. the city has been growing rapidly with the arrival of various multinational companies, thus making it an industrial city. this, in turn, impacts the rapid economic growth of balikpapan. the city was selected in 2019 as one of the regions that participated in the 100 smart city movement. the local government has begun to review various policies to support the program and also explores multiple information regarding regional readiness in implementing smart city development. such support involves human resources, application planning, budgeting, the condition of infrastructure and smart city superstructure, and the commitment of the head of the local government (maulana, 2019). https://aptika.kominfo.go.id/2018/11/gerakan-menuju-100-smart-city/ noor table 2 regencies/cities receiving smart city technical guidance in 2018 no kab/city of no kab/city of no kab/city of 1 jember regency 18 kendal regency 35 pemalang regency 2 jepara regency 19 blora regency 36 city of surabaya regency 3 magelang regency 20 blitar regency 37 indramayu regency 4 city of denpasar 21 city of manado 38 city of medan 5 city of pontianak 22 city of pekalongan 39 bantul regency 6 city of pekanbaru 23 city of sibolga 40 pasuruan regency 7 city of surakarta 24 city of banjarmasin 41 sumenep regency 8 sukoharjo regency 25 city of banjarbaru 42 cirebon regency 9 city of palembang 26 city of padang 43 morowali regency 10 muara enim regency 27 solok regency 44 city of padang panjang 11 city of musi banyuasin 28 bogor regency 45 city of mataram 12 bandung regency 29 city of probolinggo 46 sumbawa regency 13 cimahi regency 30 luwu timur regency 47 kutai timur regency 14 tuban regency 31 city of yogyakarta 48 grobogan regency 15 batang regency 32 lamongan regency 49 kulonprogo regency 16 pati regency 33 deli serdang regency 50 binjai regency 17 boyolali regency 34 langkat regency source: https://aptika.kominfo.go.id/2018/11/gerakan-menuju-100-smart-city/ table 3 regencies/cities receiving smart city technical guidance in 2019 no kab/kota no kab/kota no kab/kota 1 city of ambon 10 city of kediri 19 regency of klaten 2 city of balikpapan 11 city of magelang 20 regency of padang pariaman 3 city of banda aceh 12 city of madiun 21 regency of situbondo 4 city of batu 13 city of tanjung pinang 22 regency of sragen 5 city of bontang 14 regency of banjar 23 regency of tangerang 6 city of cilegon 15 regency of banyumas 24 regency of tabalong 7 city of depok 16 regency of demak 25 regency of wonosobo 8 city of jayapura 17 regency of gunung kidul 9 city of kupang 18 regency of kebumen source: https://www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2019/05/15/memasuki-tahun-ke-3-gerakan-menuju-100-smart-city-pilih-25kotaregency of-untuk-proses-pendampingan the smart city program in balikpapan began with the implementation of a four-stage technical guidance. this activity resulted in the establishment of a smart city council and an implementing team, the formulation of supporting documents (e.g., strategic analysis, master plan, and executive summary of smart city), and the signing of a joint commitment to support smart city implementation by all regional apparatuses in balikpapan. the program-supporting documents were prepared to represent a cross-sectoral analysis, policy modeling and simulation, and the delivery of communication mechanisms to all stakeholders (tan & taeihagh, 2020). the most livable city is the vision of the balikpapan smart city program. its primary mission is to build synergy toward an environmentally friendly smart city (balikpapan smart city preparation, 2019). environmental issues are clearly described in the smart city vision and mission statement, which was adjusted to the rpjmd of balikpapan city (2019). this commitment to https://aptika.kominfo.go.id/2018/11/gerakan-menuju-100-smart-city/ https://www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2019/05/15/memasuki-tahun-ke-3-gerakan-menuju-100-smart-city-pilih-25-kotakabupaten-untuk-proses-pendampingan https://www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2019/05/15/memasuki-tahun-ke-3-gerakan-menuju-100-smart-city-pilih-25-kotakabupaten-untuk-proses-pendampingan journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 384 building an environmentally friendly city plan may be observed in urban spatial planning, dominated mainly by protected areas (figure 1). the figure indicates that the area used for protected areas was 52.28% (26,316.28 ha). meanwhile, 47.41% (24,041.14 ha) of land was used for cultivation areas. residential areas occupied 21.42% (10,779.86 ha), and industrial areas occupied 9.41% of the total area (4,736.99 ha). the other spatial planning was designated as a protected forest area, with a projection of 29.37% (14,781.49 ha). figure 1 balikpapan city spatial planning based on rtrw 2012–2032 at the implementation level, the smart city concept requires communication technology systems in daily governance. however, the success of the smart city program is not only analyzed based on the use of communication technology alone. there are three challenges in implementing the smart city concept: technology, human resources, and the government. therefore, a collaborative climate must be created to face these challenges (sanjaya et al., 2018). following ansell & gash (2007), the collaborative governance approach is used in this study to see the joint efforts between the government and various stakeholders to work together in collective decision making, formal and consensus-oriented, deliberative, and aimed at making and managing development policies or programs (islamy, 2018). in the context of the smart city of balikpapan, a very supportive ecosystem is needed to encourage citizen participation, education on the emergence of various digital-oriented innovations, and encourage a climate of collaboration 52,28 21,42 9,41 29,37 spatial planning protected area housing area industrial area protected forest area noor between the public and private sectors in realizing the smart city vision and mission (tan & taeihagh, 2020). literature research collaborative governance the basis for the transformation of management and governance is provided by globalization and technological advancement, especially in governmental fields. changes regarding a more innovative government in the 21st century are brought about by decentralization, public policy, information, and communication technology (omodan, et. al., 2021). the process of globalization emphasizes increasing the usage of advanced technology, adding more job opportunities and economic integration (espino et al., 2020; hoe et al., 2021; wolhuter & jacobs, 2021). future decentralization is an innovative process marked by the decreasing role of the government as the sole provider of resources and the increasing use of developing economic advancement instruments and private resources (kapucu et al., 2009). in recent decades, experts have observed a reform in the public sector that has shifted from the administrative state toward new governance. this reform has impacted the emergence of new forms of government that replace managerial modes of policymaking and implementation (islamy, 2018). this approach was later referred to as collaborative governance, by which multiple stakeholders were brought together with public bodies to engage in consensus-oriented decision making (ansell & gash, 2007). ansell & gash (2007) argued that collaborative governance is a governance arrangement in which one or more public institutions directly involve non-state stakeholders in a formal decision-making process. such a process is collective, consensus-oriented, and deliberative, aiming to make, implement, and manage public policy. several characteristics can be formulated based on the definition of collaborative governance, such as: (1) the forum is initiated by actors in public institutions, (2) forum participants include non-state (non-public) actors, (3) participants are not only involved in the consultation process but are also directly involved in the decision-making processes, (4) the forum is official, (5) the forum is aimed at reaching a consensus, and (6) the forum is more focused on collaboration in policymaking and public management. the government cannot rely solely on its internal capacity to implement public policies. this is due to limited capabilities, resources, and networks as supporting factors for implementing public policies (budiharso, et. al., 2022). collaborative governance needs to be developed by encouraging journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 386 collaboration among government, private, and community institutions, and the wider community to achieve the objectives of implementing these public policies (purwanti, 2016). the success of collaborative governance is characterized by increased government accountability, great community involvement, consistent downstream implementation, and the success rate of development processes and programs (johnston et al., 2010). purnomo et al. (2018) suggested that the process and structure of public policymaking and governance are challenging to formulate alone. therefore, through a collaborative governance approach, government management is needed as a process of facilitation and implementation by various public, private, ngo, community, and societal institutions to solve public problems that cannot be handled only by government institutions. however, collaborative governance is influenced by creating a climate of deliberation that fosters trust, commitment, accountability, and willingness to share risks (johnston, 2010). as a new form of governance, several values have become the base characteristic of collaborative governance (kurniadi, 2020), as shown below: 1. consensus-oriented: multi-section collaboration-based relationships tend to be more prone to conflict; therefore, a consensus is a basic need that must be executed; 2. collective leadership: in the context of collaboration, leadership is in the form of a network, assuming that each party is in the same position. the position of collaborating actors is structurally the same, and the line of coordination is not vertical. 3. multidirectional communication: communication is the core of a collaborative process and is a subsystem of policy implementation. communication is an indicator for assessing the extent of the collaboration stages (e.g., exploration, formulation, growth, maturity, and ending). 4. sharing resources: the capacity of the collaboration can be seen in the extent to which collaborating actors can share resources (e.g., human resources, finance, etc.). it is expected that collaborating actors can strengthen each other through sharing resources, complimenting their strengths, covering their weaknesses, and being actively involved in acting together. based on the collaborative governance model proposed by ansell & gash (2007), there are several stages in which collaborative governance begins. the process requires initial mapping conditions, institutional design, facilitative leadership, and collaboration. noor the starting condition stage is conducted to identify and analyze power-resources knowledge asymmetry, a high gap in power and strength, knowledge resources or incentives, and obstacles to participation. if the owned resources and strengths are not balanced, there can be a tendency for manipulation conducted by stakeholders with extensive resources and strengths (purnomo, 2018). the institutional design stage is a form of mutual support and commitment to a collaborative process to encourage participation and transparency. the nature of the institution must be open, and attention must be paid to institutional collaboration forums and transparent collaboration processes (islamy, 2018). facilitative leadership is critical to developing stakeholder involvement in one unit, bringing them close, and uniting them in a solid cooperative relationship. facilitative leadership plays an essential role in maintaining the rules of the game in a collaboration process, building trust, facilitating dialogue, and exploring mutual benefits (purnomo, 2018). figure 2 collaborative governance model by ansell & gash (2007) the last stage in the model by ansell & gash (2007) is collaboration. the collaboration process is translated into several features, such as face-to-face dialogue, building mutual trust, a strong commitment to the collaboration process, sharing the same understanding, and obtaining at least minimal achievements from the collaboration process. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 388 smart city the smart city concept arises when population growth and resource scarcity become so critical that finding a solution is urgent. a city is considered “smart” when it is built to achieve strong social capital, improved infrastructure (both traditional and modern), and promote an improved quality of life, sustainable economic growth, and wise resource management through collaborative governance (palacios, 2020) the ministry of national development planning (bappenas) built the concept of a future city through sustainable city development in 2015–2045 based on several pillars: (1) livable, safe, and comfortable cities, (2) a green city that is climate and disaster resilient, and (3) smart and competitive cities based on technology and culture (including economy, governance, infrastructure, environment, community, and housing (djunaidi et al., 2018). there are several pillars in the smart city dimension shown in table 4. table 4 smart city pillars smart city pillar notes smart governance this pillar covers participation in decision-making, public and community services, transparency in governance, public strategy, and policy. smart environment wise usage of natural resources: elements of natural condition attraction, pollution, environmental sustainability, and sustainable resource management. smart economy this pillar focuses on innovation, entrepreneurship, economic branding, image branding, productivity, job market flexibility, international connectivity, and the ability to transform. smart people emphasizing social capital and human resources includes qualification levels, willingness to continue learning, social and ethnic plurality, flexibility, creativity, open-mindedness, and participation in public life. smart mobility this pillar is related to transportation and information and communication technology (ict). it includes elements of accessibility (e.g., local, national, and international), the availability of ict infrastructure, and a sustainable, innovative, and safe transportation system. smart living relates to the quality of life, such as cultural facilities, health conditions, personal safety, housing quality, educational facilities, tourism attractiveness, and social cohesion. source: djunaedi (2018). applying the smart city concept can be challenging to implement as a phenomenon of solving urbanization problems. there are at least three challenges in developing a smart city: technology, government, and human resources. building a smart city requires considerable financial investment and an ict infrastructure. as a driving actor, the government needs a collaborative noor atmosphere to implement a smart city. however, the success of a smart city also depends on the existence of smart people or intelligent communities to support the government and the technology that helps the smart city (sanjaya et al., 2018). it can be said that the smart city phenomenon must be considered in a bottom-up context. the growth path and consolidation of top-down and bottom-up smart city development are described in figure 3. figure 3 smart city development path source: damaeri (2013). based on figure 3, the primary driver of the birth and development of smart cities stated in the smart city development path is technology (especially ict). various collaborative actors in urban areas are connected by technology, which also supplies digital services for collaborating public and private institutions. it is also explained in the figure that universities, research institutes, and different technology-based companies are the main collaborative actors who can develop smart city ideas through their competencies. a solution approach to support an improved urban life in an initiative, work, and program innovation may be designed by collaborating actors. the smart city vision must be defined by considering the strategic vision of the city and the cultural, geographical, and economic characteristics of each city. the smart city vision must be built through a common process involving all stakeholders and based on policies and rules to achieve common goals. the smart city development initiative is focused on technology-based urban management and how technology can create value for the community as a subject in the program. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 390 research methods a descriptive qualitative approach is used in this study, emphasizing several research focuses on describing the direction of the smart city policy in balikpapan. the roles of various collaboration actors and the collaborative governance of smart city-based regional development are highlighted. the researchers chose parties from the city government as informants, considering that the government is the leading sector in the smart city program. a number of 8 research informants were selected with criteria as parties involved in the council and the implementation team for the smart city development program of the city. additionally, the researchers used secondary data by conducting various new research studies regarding the involvement of various external parties to support local governments and conducted a literature review relevant to the theme of the study. the study results are directed to answer the research objectives and are conducted in several stages. content analysis by zhang & wildemuth (2016) was used for data analysis in this study combined with collaborative governance approach from ansell & gash (2007). in the first stage, the researchers described the potential and advantages of balikpapan to become a livable smart city, following the smart city vision to be achieved. in the second stage, researchers explained smart city regulations and policies implemented to support the rpjmd for balikpapan. the strategic analysis of smart city development was based on several smart pillars, such as governance, economy, environment, living, branding, and society. the third stage was smart city collaborative governance, which consisted of the roles of collaborative actors and the smart city collaboration process. this was analyzed based on the collaborative governance approach proposed by ansell & gash (2007). results and discussion balikpapan, the most livable city balikpapan, the second-largest city in east borneo province, has grown rapidly due to the entry of various multinational companies operating in the city. this city was known as the “oil city” (kota minyak) in the past as a reference to the development of its oil production, which reached 26,000 barrels per day. the development of the oil industry has made balikpapan an industrial city. the economy in balikpapan is responsible for 17% of the economy in the east borneo province. balikpapan is the third largest city in the province, after kutai kertanegara and east kutai (figure 4). noor figure 4 grdp contribution of cities/municipal in borneo source: rpjmd of balikpapan city 2021-2026 during its development, this city no longer focused on exploring petroleum products. still, it is more directed as a dynamic, harmonious, and green service city to support its function as a national growth center based on the 2012–2032 balikpapan city spatial plan (rencana tata ruang wilayah; rtrw). the rapid development of the city, which is in the middle of trans-borneo and trans-national transportation networks, allows balikpapan to be in a significant and strategic position internally and externally. balikpapan was elected as the most comfortable and livable city in indonesia with a value above the national average (nawangwulan & sutriadi, 2015) in the results of the indonesian most livable city index survey conducted by the association of indonesian planner (ikatan ahli perencana indonesia, association of indonesian planning expert) (2014). a livable city has a comfortable environment and is a place to live and engage in physical and nonphysical activities (lyzia et al., 2017). several indicators have been studied to achieve the quality of a livable city, such as the availability of basic needs, public facilities, open space for social interaction, environmental security, sanitation, and socio-economic support (nawangwulan & sutriadi, 2015). the level of comfort and quality of life of its citizens are observed through the 24% 19% 6%2%0.45% 17% 11% 9% 7% 5% economic contribution kutai kartanegara east kutai berau penajam northen paser mahakam ulu journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 392 livability index (masterplan smart city balikpapan, 2019). balikpapan can maintain a livability index with an achievement target above the standard of 74.5% (see table 5). table 5 balikpapan livability index 2014-2020 year livability index standard 2014 71.12 74,5% 2015 n/a 2016 n/a 2017 80.81 2018 81.30 2019 77.58 2020 81.69 source: rpjmd of balikpapan 2021-2026 in addition to being based on the livability index survey, balikpapan also received the indonesian smart city index (ikci) award in 2015. the city was in the category of cities with a population of between 200 thousand and 1 million citizens. according to this classification, a city may be classified as a “smart city” if it can meet the needs of its citizens and solve problems related to economic, social, and environmental factors (ilham, 2019). additionally, the development of the livable city concept in balikpapan received international recognition through the iclei world congress in seoul, south korea, as a sustainable city and a livable city in 2015 (nawangwulan & sutriadi, 2015). policy direction and smart city strategic plan the balikpapan city government stipulated various regional policies and regulations based on the 2005–2025 regional long-term development plan (rencana pembangunan jangka panjang daerah; rpjpd, long-term regional development plan) and the 2016–2021 regional mediumterm development plan (rencana pembangunan jangka menengah daerah-rpjmd, longterm regional development plan). the plan was continued in the 2021–2026 rpjmd. these various policies were set as the basis for developing sustainable regional development strategies and programs, including as a direction for smart city development. the focus of smart city development in the long term is directed at developing the region in various fields by emphasizing the competitiveness of the regional economy, which is supported by multiple regional advantages and independence. regional development based on smart cities not only promotes bureaucratic efficiency by prioritizing information and communication noor technology (ict). still, it is also directed at encouraging community participation and empowerment by making ict infrastructure and facilities a supporting factor. the local government designed a development strategy by building a modern interaction mechanism among the government, community, and all stakeholders to achieve the smart city vision when the smart city movement began to be implemented. this was to make balikpapan a comfortable and livable city (the most livable city). however, there has been a gap between the potential, readiness, and real conditions of balikpapan until now. this is a challenge in achieving the pillars of the smart city set by the government (strategic analysis of the smart city of balikpapan city, 2020). swot analysis as a smart city appears in appendix 1. the analysis emphasizes on five factors: (1) smart governance, (2) smart economy, (3) smart environment, (4) smart living, and (5) society, where strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threat are identified. the smart city movement in balikpapan began with the implementation of technical guidance, which was conducted in four stages. one of the activity materials was to formulate a smart city master plan as a robust legal umbrella in smart city planning and development strategies. however, the balikpapan city government has not ratified the smart city master plan document, and the document was still in the evaluation and revision stages when the research took place (the start of balikpapan smart city program). (2019). in planning the development of a smart city, the local government sets several smart pillars, including governance, economy, environment, branding, living, and society. however, it was agreed to replace the two pillars, branding and living, with mobility and people during the evaluation and revision of the smart city master plan (strategic analysis of the smart city of balikpapan city, 2020). the smart people pillar was focused on developing human resources by optimizing the potential for the quality of public education and supporting various creative and innovative communities. meanwhile, the smart mobility pillar was focused on optimizing the condition of the road infrastructure of the city and the strategic location of balikpapan to achieve the target of a city that excels in industry, trade, services, tourism, education, and culture (the start of balikpapan smart city program). (2019). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 394 collaborative governance in smart city-based regional development collaborative actor role the initial stage of the smart city development plan was conducted by producing smart city technical guidance in 2019 (the start of balikpapan smart city program). (2019). the implementation of the technical guidance was conducted in four stages by involving various parties, such as the opd in government, private, academic, community, and media agencies. discussions with various stakeholders through technical guidance resulted in a shared commitment to support the achievement of a sustainable city through the smart city program. this commitment was conducted by forming a council and a smart city implementation team consisting of local government agencies, private companies, organizations, communities, academics, media, and community leaders in the environmental field. the involvement of various stakeholders was the basis for achieving a comprehensive understanding. this was done to reduce the gap between smart city development initiatives and the expectations of stakeholders for the success of the program (strategic analysis of the smart city of balikpapan city, 2020). an interdependent relationship between various collaborating actors was needed to conduct a joint commitment to the program. the government must be the leading sector as an example, role model, and motivator for the community in building a smart city. internal collaboration occurs within a solid and integrated relationship between departments in public organizations. meanwhile, external collaboration involves government and nongovernment parties, such as companies, non-profit organizations, and civil society. information and ict plays a significant role in facilitating collaboration between organizations, both internally and externally, in this context (the start of balikpapan smart city program, 2019). smart city collaboration process the successful process of smart city collaboration is influenced by the collaboration cycle, which starts from communication to building mutual trust and commitment, sharing resources, and mutual understanding to achieve the targeted results. the collaboration process is a dynamic cycle and will continue to rotate as long as a collaborative relationship is established (islamy, 2018). collaboration between the government and various stakeholders existed for several years before balikpapan was chosen to participate in the movement toward a smart city. this type of partnership has several characteristics: it is collaborative, has a high intensity, and is a long-term cooperation. noor the parties have an equal and autonomous position and share risks, benefits, and resources (islamy, 2018). results of analysis in the institutional design in smart city development appear in table 6. table 6 institutional design in smart city development no agency/organization role actions 1 government -leading sector in smart city development -overseeing the planning, developing, and implementing -responsible for implementing smart city development -monitoring and evaluation -providing infrastructure and governance -strengthening the main tasks and functions of each government agency in developing smart cities. -strengthening internal literacy within government agencies in developing smart cities. 2 private -participate in the planning, development and implementation of smart cities implement cooperation agreements smart city programs provide technical support in the field various experts the implementation of the smart city program can support the corporate social responsibility program 3 colleges in the city of balikpapan -participate in the planning, development and implementation of smart cities -strengthening the function and role of universities as part of the smart city council. -provide support in the development of various applications to support the development of smart cities. -human resource support through the involvement of students in internship programs in government agencies to support the development of smart cities. 4 the media -participate in the planning, development, and implementation of smart cities -implementing cooperation agreements between the government and the media regarding the publication -conduct information, education, and control functions on the smart city development -encouraging citizen participation to achieve the vision and mission 5 society -participate in the planning, development and implementation of smart cities -increasing the active role and existence of creative communities periodic updating of community database. -strengthening community literacy to the vision source: research data reduction results journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 396 balikpapan has excellent potential to develop into a sustainable smart city. this was indicated by the results of the livability index from 2014–2020, which is always at an outstanding percentage to see the level of perception of comfort and quality of life of its citizens. meanwhile, balikpapan was also categorized as a smart city in the 2015 index because it could solve urban problems in the economic, social, and environmental fields. based on the results of the consensus made jointly between the collaborating actors, it was agreed that each party would move according to its role in achieving the vision and mission of the smart city. in developing countries, smart city initiatives mostly start with governmental initiatives (tan & taeihagh, 2020). therefore, the government must be able to encourage solid collaboration and participation between sectors and build human resources within the government environment. such human resources are experts in the field of information and communication technology. this follows the research proposed by kencono (2021), in which the government element significantly influences internal collaboration within the scope of smart governance. tan & taeihagh (2020) and kencono (2021) stated that one of the objectives of governments in developing countries to prioritize smart city development is to spread inclusive governance. the participation of all stakeholders in the program development is encouraged with such an initiative, which is conducted through sharing information to achieve proper decision making. joint decisions optimally consider joint actions to create a collaborative spirit to build trust and confidence among community members. the government of the city of balikpapan needs to continue evaluating the process of collaboration and participation, both within the government itself and all other stakeholders, to build a smart city-based area. it was found in the results of this research that there are still many weaknesses in encouraging collaboration and participation to achieve sustainable smart city-based regional development goals. palacios et al. (2020) stated that a multi-stakeholder network requires participation that cannot be made quickly. additionally, investment is needed to support the success of smart and sustainable regional development. this multi-sectoral decision-making process is focused on several factors, one of which is effective multi-way communication. in developing the smart city of balikpapan, the local government acknowledges the lack of publicity and public literacy regarding smart cities. the government relies only on the role of mass media and online media in disseminating information about smart cities. smart city noor communication is critical to building awareness and encouraging the participation of all parties in supporting the progress of smart city-based regional development. see appendix 2 to see the analysis of participation of smart city development. the analysis shows that the smart city pillars consist of six sectors, (1) smart governance, (2) smart branding, (3) smart economy, (4) smart living, (5) smart society, and (6) smart environment. each pillar is examined their problems in terms of development focus, progress development and their weaknesses. this study finds that collaborative to develop smart city educated society in developing the city. in this study development planning that involves social empowerment contributes success in the regional development achievement. the key success on the public communication has aspired how to educate people in the public spaces so that collaboration between government and social parties are well applied. conclusion to conclude, as the leading sector in regional development, the government must become a driving force to create harmonious multi-stakeholder collaboration and encourage the participation of all parties in developing a comfortable and livable balikpapan smart city. therefore, empowering human resources experts in ict is a vital prerequisite for achieving a smart and sustainable city. this study indicates a novel contribution that social empowerment is the key point in the collaboration between government and society to develop regional planning development. however, this study has limitation in that the informants involved are limited and the use of primary data is not provided. future research is suggested to involve more informants including government and social parties to improve the drawback. references ansell, c., & gash, a. (n.d.). (2007). collaborative governance in theory and practice. journal of public administration research and theory, 543–571. budiharso, t, makruf, i, mujahid, i. (2022). porter’s five forces: evaluating education management practices for the postgraduate program of uin rm said surakarta, indonesia. journal of social studies education research. 13(1), 164-192, https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4035/555 conoras, m. e. b., & hikmawati, n. k. (2018). smart city peluang dan tantangan untuk papua bangkit, mandiri dan sejahtera. konferensi nasional sistem informasi (knsi) 2018. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/4035/555 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 398 dameri, r. p. (2013). searching for smart city definition: a comprehensive proposal. international journal of computers & technology, 11(5), 2544–2551. djunaedi, a., permadi, d., nugroho, l. e., rachmawati, r., hidayat, a., achmad, k. a., & egaravanda, s. (2020). membangun kota dan kabupaten cerdas: sebuah panduan bagi pemerintah daerah. ugm press. espino, d., lee, s., van tress, l., baker, t., & hamilton, e. (2020). analysis of u.s., kenyan, and finnish discourse patterns in a cross-cultural digital makerspace learning community through the ibe-unesco global competences framework. research in social sciences and technology, 5(1), 86-100. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.5 firmanyah, h. s., supangkat, s. h., arman, a. a., & adhitya, r. (2017). searching smart city in indonesia through maturity model analysis:(case study in 10 cities). 2017 international conference on ict for smart society (iciss), 1–6. deguimarães, j. c. f., severo, e. a., júnior, l. a. f., da costa, w. p. l. b., & salmoria, f. t. (2020). governance and quality of life in smart cities: towards sustainable development goals. journal of cleaner production, 253, 119926. hoe, l., manja, m. a. z., mathew, v., engkamat, a., ibrahim, z., & anis, a. l. (2021). effectiveness of online training for rural entrepreneurs during a global pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 6(3), 194-212. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.38 ilham, m. (2019). analisis penguatan sumberdaya daerah dalam pelaksanaan smart governance di kota balikpapan, kalimantan timur. jurnal ilmiah wahana bhakti praja, 9(1), 63–74. islamy, la ode syaiful h. (2018). collaborative governance konsep dan aplikasi. deepublish. joga, n. (2017). gerakan kota hijau 2.0: kota cerdas berkelanjutan. gramedia pustaka utama. johnston, e. w., hicks, d., nan, n., & auer, j. c. (2010). managing the inclusion process in collaborative governance. journal of public administration research and theory, 21(4), 699–721. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muq045 kapucu, n., yuldashev, f., & bakiev, e. (2009). collaborative public management and collaborative governance: conceptual similarities and differences. european journal of economic and political studies, 2(1), 39–60. kencono, d. s. (2021). is smart governance internal collaboration works on the implementation of the smart city yogyakarta? iop conference series: earth and environmental science, 717(1), 12028. kurniadi. (2020). collaborative governance dalam penyediaan infrastruktur. penerbit deepublish. yogyakarta. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.01.5 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.38 noor maulana, muhammad. (2019). pemkot balikpapan membangun aplikasi smart city. idn times; idn times. https://kaltim.idntimes.com/news/kaltim/muhammad-maulana-3/pemkotbalikpapan-membangun-aplikasi-ismart-cityi nawangwulan, g., & sutriadi, r. (2015). kajian ketercapaian kota layak huni (liveable city) kota balikpapan. bandung: institut teknologi bandung. omodan, b.i., tsotetsi, c.t. & ige, o.a. (2021). managing the culture of covid-19 "new normal" as a motivation for university students in south africa. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 37-51. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.10 palacios, r. a., callegaro, s., & luciano, e. m. (2020). collaborative governance for decision making on smart cities initiatives. information systems in latin america (isla 2020), 2020. isla 2020 proceedings, 2020. peraturan daerah kota balikpapan nomor 10 tahun 2016 tentang rencana pembangunan jangka menengah daerah (rpjmd) kota balikpapan tahun 2021-2026. (local law of balikpapan no. 10 year 2016 long-term development plan 2021-2016) peraturan daerah kota balikpapan nomor 06 tahun 2021 tentang rencana pembangunan jangka menengah daerah (rpjmd) kota balikpapan tahun 2021-2026. (local law of balikpapan no. 10 year 2016 mid-term development plan 2021-2016). program balikpapan smart city dimulai (the start of balikpapan smart city program). (2019). balikpapan.go.id. http://diskominfo.balikpapan.go.id/detail/berita/19/program-balikpapansmart-city-dimulai purnomo, e. p., ramdani, r., setyadiharja, r., & muzwardi, a. (2018). collaborative governance dalam tata kelola hutan berbasis masyarakat. lembaga penelitian, publikasi, dan pengabdian masyarakat, universitas muhammadiyah yogyakarta purwanti, n. d. (2016). kebijakan publik & pemerintahan kolaboatif: isu-isu kontemporer (colaborative governance). gava media. rizkinaswara, l. (2020). gerakan menuju 100 smart city. ditjen aptika. https://aptika.kominfo.go.id/2020/01/gerakan-menuju-100-smart-city-2/ rizkinaswara, l. (2018). gerakan menuju 100 smart city. ditjen aptika. https://aptika.kominfo.go.id/2018/11/gerakan-menuju-100-smart-city/ sanjaya, a., krisna, s. a., & mursito, t. b. (2018). research trends of smart city in indonesia: where do we go from here? ina rxiv papers, january, 1–7. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 400 smart city kota balikpapan hasil pelaksanaan penyusunan masterplan. (2019). slidetodoc.com. https://slidetodoc.com/smart-city-kota-balikpapan-hasil-pelaksanaan-penyusunanmasterplan/ (masterplan of smart city balikpapan 2019). strategic analysis of the smart city of balikpapan city. (2020). tan, s. y., & taeihagh, a. (2020). smart city governance in developing countries: a systematic literature review. sustainability, 12(3), 899. wolhuter, c., & jacobs, l. (2021). covid-19, the global education project and technology: disrupting priorities towards rethinking education. research in social sciences and technology, 6(2), 96-109. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.13 zhang, yan & wildemuth, barbara. (2016). qualitative analysis of content. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/qualitative-analysis-of-content-by-zhangwildemuth/b269343ab82ba8b7a343b893815a0bae6472fcca. retrieved on 2 august, 2020. https://slidetodoc.com/smart-city-kota-balikpapan-hasil-pelaksanaan-penyusunan-masterplan/ https://slidetodoc.com/smart-city-kota-balikpapan-hasil-pelaksanaan-penyusunan-masterplan/ https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.13 https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/qualitative-analysis-of-content-by-zhang-wildemuth/b269343ab82ba8b7a343b893815a0bae6472fcca https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/qualitative-analysis-of-content-by-zhang-wildemuth/b269343ab82ba8b7a343b893815a0bae6472fcca noor appendix 1 swot analysis based on the smart city pillar balikpapan city smart city pillars strength weakness opportunity threat smart governance 1. infrastructure is available 2. there is government support 3. there are many applications 4. policy already exists 5. the e-governance blueprint already exists 1. many applications from the center are complex and difficult to integrate. 2. applications within the city government have not been integrated 3. infrastructure development is still partial 4. data center is not centralized 5. limited hr 1. internal integration within the city government. 2. integration across other agencies. 3. cooperation with stakeholders in system development for service improvement. 4. acceleration of development with it. 5. improved work culture 6. hdi rises 7. people are more it-literate 1. how to build cooperation with universities. 2. the potential for pad increases, but apbd revenues decrease. 3. enforce employee discipline. 4. synergy between city government agencies. 5. increased competence through it training. smart economy 1. existence of airport infrastructure and international standard passenger and container ports, 2. strategic location as the gateway to east kalimantan and is on the alki it route, 3. availability of modern trade facilities and star hotels 4. office center for foreign companies, regional soes, and vertical agencies 5. having a technology-based state university for the east region 6. center for financial/banking service activities in east kalimantan 7. security is guaranteed with the east kalimantan police and the mulawarman kodam located in balikpapan. 8. the location is relatively protected from disasters 1. the cost of distribution of goods and living costs are expensive 2. the mse costs are relatively higher than other regions 3. goods supply 90% comes from outside balikpapan or east kalimantan 4. limited market due to the small population of balikpapan and east kalimantan 5. the competitiveness of smes is still relatively low. 6. few fintechbased ventures 7. lack of consultant services in balikpapan 8. limited space for regional development 1. there are three national strategic projects in balikpapan 2. east kalimantan as ikn 3. positioning balikpapan as a mice city 4. surrounded by hinterland areas rich in natural resources. 5. fintech development by utilizing the creative economy community 6. development of data centers in industrial areas 7. business center electronics 8. improving the quality of msme hr 1. the economy of east kalimantan is still based on natural resources, which are at risk of commodity price fluctuations. 2. the volatility of commodity prices causes the inflation of goods to be quite high 3. the functioning of the airport in samarinda city as an airport serving national scale flights 4. the number of problems in the legality of land and journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 402 (earthquakes and volcanoes) 9. the number of productive generations is quite high, and the composition of the population is heterogeneous 10. have a national non-cash movement team 9. less competitive land prices 9. distribution network expansion 10. market share expansion smart environment 1. sanitary landfill 2. non-mining 3. perwal no. 8/2018 on reducing the use of plastic bags hospitals, schools, hotels, and offices, some already have waste banks 1. waste transportation is not maximized 2. high operating costs 3. trash has not been selected 1. garbage bank 2. methane gas from waste processing 3. communal wwtp processing into fertilizer 4. tpa  study tour recycle  crafts 1. trigger flooding 2. spread of disease 3. under-ground water pollution 4. landslide smart living 1. it is a clean, conducive city, a heterogeneous society, and free from coal mines. 2. strategic location (as the gateway to east kalimantan-kaltara, crossed by the alki ii route, relatively free from earthquakes) 3. availability of international standard ports (land, air, and sea). 4. availability of complete industrial, educational, health, and tourism service facilities. 5. regional leaders and all stakeholders have a strong will to implement change. 6. have regulations related to egovernment (sk and perwali) and applications in realizing good governance. 7. have an adequate structure, infrastructure, and superstructure. 8. enjoy the demographic bonus (2015: 71% of 1. it does not have a data and command center yet 2. it does not have a smart city masterplan yet 3. some areas are prone to flooding and landslides and are prone to fires. 4. low odf 5. high cost of living 6. limited raw water capacity 7. medium hr capacity 8. small road capacity 9. most of the basic needs, food, and animal needs are supplied from outside balikpapan 1. at the national level: as a super-city, a city that is comfortable to live in, a city for the administration of nugraha, a creative city, a city of ease of starting a business, a city of mice and pkn. 2. community demands better public services. 3. the increase in pad is not based on natural resources. 1. environmental degradation 2. increasing narcotics circulation 3. cultural decline due to the influence of the internet noor productive age and 25% of young people 9. has a balikpapan creative forum institution. smart branding 1. mice city 2. transportation facilities/gateway 3. completeness of hospitality facilities (amenities) 4. political will in sustainable city management 5. quality of human resources 1. there is no strong story telling about the history of the city. 2. branding concept is changing (dynamic) 3. there is no agreement on the value/content that you want to highlight 4. the creative city ecosystem has not been formed systematically 1. there is no consistently scheduled annual event 2. development of the digital age. 3. the number of immigrants with good quality human resources. 4. security factor and minimal conflict 5. coastal potential that has not been worked out properly 1. the economy depends on the surrounding area (sustainable economy) 2. flood disaster and shortage of raw water sources 3. high cost of living smart society 1. there is an awareness of the importance of education in the city of balikpapan. 2. conducive social community 1. the number of schools is not sufficient for the smp and sma zoning system. 2. inadequate human resources in terms of quality and quantity (teachers). 3. low level of ability to access technology (gaptek). 4. unemployment and poverty rates are still high (9.52%). 1. stable population growth rate. 2. the level of information needs quickly and easily. 3. equitable distribution of infrastructure and human resources in each school. 4. increasing digital literacy and e-learning education. 5. need training and capacity building (labor competence). 1. lack of interest in reading books 2. pluralism (communal friction) 3. social impact caused by poverty and unemployment can increase crime, which is quite high. source: balikpapan city smart city strategic analysis, 2020 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(4),381-405 404 appendix 2. participation of smart city development smart city pillars development focus progress weakness smart governance improving the quality of public services and fostering government and community participation to optimize the public service system the government makes various supporting applications to facilitate public services improved ict infrastructure by increasing the internet network by 100 mb many applications are made that are not updated, and many complaints from users (community). smart branding focusing on developing business branding, city appearance branding, and tourism branding launch of city branding logo based on perwal no. 11 year 2020 improving the structure of city roads and transportation cooperating with the association of the indonesian tour and travel agencies (asita) and bankaltimtara in providing tourism buses for the benefit of city tours mobile love balikpapan application development tourism bus stop operating during the covid-19 pandemic the cinta balikpapan mobile application has not been updated since it was first released, and only 50 downloaders for the application. smart economy increasing the competitiveness of the environment-based regional economy (green economy) establishing a public service mall to facilitate one-stop licensing development of small barnacle industrial centers in 2018. the government built 20 production houses for ikm players processing agricultural and forest products. establishing a business incubator by updating ikm, sme, cooperative data, and various entrepreneurship training cooperating with pt. telkom in website development and ecommerce system implementation of the licensing system is still too complicated and must use online, offline systems, and not only done in one location. the barnacle industry centers are less attractive to smes and are reluctant to occupy them. the business incubator program is still running website and e-commerce development is targeted for completion in 2023. smart living focus on improving the quality of community life, comfort in activities, transportation, integrated and efficient facilities, and infrastructure. provision of free internet through the cooperation of the local government with pt. telkom and telkomsel provision of road-based public transportation services and public buses that connect between cities provision of public transportation for the disabled the development of corridors for public transportation facilities has not been optimal. the management of traffic engineering and the development of the city road network has not been optimal. parking facilities and infrastructure are still lacking noor development of smart pju (penerangan jalanan umum) (public street lighting) smart society focus on creating public order and harmony, environmental awareness, easy access to education data, increasing community digital literacy, and easy access to public services the government develops an education information management system integrated with dapodik data. updating data for persons with social welfare problems (pmks) that can be integrated with the integrated referral service system (slrt) local governments develop various applications, such as sit respons, lapor warga, and lapor pak! (layanan pengaduan dan pelaporan) balikpapan school system still low in updating the dapodik system. there is no regulation to regulate the institutions and functions of slrt applications are not updated and tend to be complicated. thereby, the enthusiasm of people to use the application is reduced. smart environment focus on developing good, responsible, and sustainable environmental governance the balikpapan city government received an award in the smart environment category from the ministry of communication and information. the successful results of quick-win smart city in utilizing methane gas at tpa manggar in collaboration with pt. pertamina hulu mahakam. tpa manggar is one of the best performing landfills in indonesia, equipped with 3r (reduce, reuse, recycle) supporting facilities cooperation with abadan balikpapan (guided partner of pt. pertamina tbk) in the field of social enterprise for waste management. cooperation with the garbage community for public education in waste management create a waste tracking application by the environmental service with the garbage community (go garbage application) utilization of methane gas is used as a substitute for lpg and distributed to the community around the tpa (currently, 20–50 families have enjoyed it) the waste tracking application is still not optimal, and therefore, it still needs to be evaluated and redeveloped with a better system. source: research data reduction results. article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2022:13 (2),196-220 inclusion of pluralism character education in the islamic modern boarding schools during the pandemic era as’aril muhajir1 abstract this study aims to investigate the challenges of developing character education based on islamic pluralism in the curriculum of modern islamic boarding schools in the pandemic era. the research location is the modern islamic boarding school gontor in east java province. the qualitative research design with a phenomenological approach examines five central aspects of character education development based on islamic pluralism: religiosity, independence, integrity, mutual cooperation, and nationalism. the findings reveal that the primary challenge in developing character education is the lecturers’ unequal ability to develop an effective character education curriculum. not all lecturers have qualified competencies to integrate character values into their teaching subjects. studies have yet to address character values in the curriculum in the learning process. meanwhile, external challenges minimally affect the development of character education because the modern islamic boarding school in gontor has five aspects of character education development strongly supporting the modern pesantren curriculum. the readiness of the pesantren curriculum can form a strong character to face challenges. pesantren involves aspects of knowledge and habit, continuously practiced while maintaining the health protocols recommended by the government. the expected implication is that stakeholders consistently provide intervention and reinforcement in the long term. thus, character education based on nusantara islamic pluralism in modern islamic boarding schools can realize the ideals of the goals of national education and benefit humanity. keywords: character education, islamic pluralism, curriculum, modern islamic boarding school introduction entering the modern era, education in indonesia confronts many challenges. a shift in culture, morality, and people's behavior existed, not aligning with the pancasila philosophy. it concerns educators, experts, and the government (sutijono, 2010). in the process, teaching reform promotes lasting pedagogical change. character formation is needed to form humans’ understanding of their identity so that they can answer the challenges of today's civilization (allen et al., 2018; aningsih et al., 2022; odularu et al., 2022; subaidi, 2020). the study states a paradigm shift in education in the 21st century, where people tend to focus more on education, stressing academic ability instead of building a solid character. the pandemic era has changed the paradigm where parents have 1dr. uin sayyid ali rahmatullah, tulungagung, indonesia; email: airlmuhajir@gmail.com mailto:airlmuhajir@gmail.com muhajir started to worry about their children’s character. their limited knowledge of the character education values negatively influences students’ attitudes and behavior (rahim et al., 2016). since the beginning of the emergence of character education as a general goal of learning and character education in formal educational institutions, the government's responsibility is growing bigger (jamilah, 2021). mainly it is because indonesia consists of many tribes, races, cultures, and religions besides various traditions. character education through understanding based on local wisdom is a severe concern for the government (budiwibowo & wuryantoro, 2018). the number of differences and diversity, better known as plurality, as in the motto bhineka tunggal ika, impacts the behavior of community pluralism. previous research explained that pluralism-based character education is a strategic step in minimizing social conflicts. pluralism can imply action on the recognition of freedom of religion, thought, and personality maturity beneficial in building the attitudes and behavior of students (suri & chandra, 2021). however, some contradictory studies state that pluralism is not very helpful in solving the problems faced by the legal system in indonesia (fatmawati, 2021). although there are still many pros and cons to religious pluralism, various studies have proven its positive impact on the unitary state of the republic of indonesia (nkri), especially for minorities (pilotti & al mubarak, 2021). contras have also emerged since the issuance of the fatwa of the indonesian ulema council (mui) no. 7 in 2005, firmly rejecting the notion of negative pluralism from an ideological point of view (hasyim, 2015; nasir, 2014; hosen, 2012; basya, 2011). meanwhile, the opposing groups are worried about the negative impact of religious pluralism threatening the purity of islamic teachings from the theological aspect (hefner, 2020). strengthening character education (ppk) is a movement the indonesian government launched through the ministry of education and culture in 2016 in response to the challenges of modernity in the 21st century. it continues to develop until now by building various educational programs based on an integrated and more modern curriculum. one of the formal educational institutions contributing a lot to shaping character education is the modern islamic boarding school. modern boarding schools are islamic educational institutions in indonesia. the inherent characteristic is education as a pedagogical learning foundation integrating science with the art of teaching to shape the nation's character (budiarto, 2022). many parents decide to send their children to modern islamic boarding schools so that their children's character becomes religious. however, they still get general lessons, keep up with the times, and can socialize with the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 198 community (saefudin, 2021). the concerns of muslim parents about the influence of western culture have made modern pesantren chosen as an alternative to protect their children. the modern islamic boarding school gontor is one of the best in indonesia. this islamic boarding school is a pioneer and innovator of modern pesantren inspired by sir syed ahmad khan, the founder of aligarh muslim from the university in india, accomplishing the modernization of islamic education. thanks to the modern islamic boarding school gontor, many other pesantren have adopted the system implemented at the pesantren. its popularity has spread to foreign countries and has increasingly existed by establishing kulliyatul mu'alamin al-islamiah (kmi), equivalent to middle school. the darussalam institute of islamic studies (isid) called darussalam university (unida) gontor provides education up to strata 3 level (zarkasyi, 2020). unida gontor was officially established with the decree of the minister of education and culture darussalam gontor on july 4, 2014. in development, there have been some criticisms of the modern islamic boarding school of gontor. pesantren gontor is considered not to require mastery of the classical yellow book (kutub at-turats) but instead focuses on mastering modern and light arabic (fatihah, 2018). unida gontor has a noble vision, namely to produce a cadre of islamic teachers per the spirit of trimurti, the founder of the gontor modern islamic boarding school, preaching through education (nurmaydha et al., 2018). the pandemic era has substantially modified the world of education. many formal education institutions had to work hard to adapt; some were left behind or even failed, giving rise to many new problems and challenges. studies mention that the challenge of character development is very religious. for example, internal challenges in the form of educational orientation still prioritize success in the cognitive aspect. moreover, educational practices still refer to the philosophy of rationalism; teachers' abilities and character are still low. additionally, unsupportive school culture and culture, educational personnel, and educational software, the character values developed by the school are still weak. thus, schools have been unable to create an effective curriculum (jhon, 2021). in addition, external challenges include globalization, community development, changes in the social environment, and technological developments (abidin et al., 2020; wua et al., 2022). of these various challenges, no previous research has addressed in-depth the challenges of developing nusantara islamic pluralism-based character education in the curriculum of modern islamic boarding schools in the pandemic era. it is critical to reveal the challenges faced by muhajir modern pesantren to outstandingly contribute to the goals of character education with islamic pluralism and its distinctive curriculum to achieve a noble vision. previous research explained that islamic pluralism in the curriculum of modern pesantren in indonesia is a new chapter in islamic educational institutions combining the national education curriculum, local wisdom typical of the archipelago, and the repertoire of modern scholarship (subaidi, 2020). understanding religious pluralism included in the modern pesantren curriculum positively affects students’ behavior. those understanding the vitality of religious harmony and cultural diversity help implement them in everyday life (hidayat & ahmad, 2022; purwanto et al., 2021). the perceived impact disclosed that the issue of religious conflict rarely hits the modern islamic boarding school environment. research question the formulation of the research question follows, using the background of this problem: “how are the challenges of developing character education based on nusantara islamic pluralism in the curriculum of modern islamic boarding schools in the pandemic era in east java?” literature review character building education is a process of learning habits, skills, and knowledge from generation to generation. meanwhile, the character is understood as an accumulation of character, nature, and personality leading to beliefs and habits conducted daily. thus, character education is a planned and directed learning process for the growth and development of all potential learners having good character traits, good morals, and a positive construction effect on nature and society (berges puyo, 2020; lapsley, 2007). character education is integrated into the learning curriculum, and school culture functions to develop self-potential to live a good life (hartono et al., 2018; gunio, 2021; tachie & kariyana, 2022). previous research revealed what ki hajar dewantara conveyed about character education to the extent that people can become strong by increasing the dimensions of thought (literacy), heart (ethics and spiritual), taste (aesthetics), and sports (kinesthetic). these four dimensions work together to face various challenges of a nation’s character shifting (berkowitz & bier, 2004). in a formal environment, character education can shape students’ character to become individuals with a noble character, good morality and behavior, and rigid and tolerant. in this case, three known journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 200 functions of character education are present. first is the function of forming and developing the potential for positive thinking, conscientiousness, good behavior, and noble character. the second is strengthening and improving to fulfill responsibilities, improve, and strengthen the role of individuals, families, educational institutions, and the community together with the government. the third is the filter function covering selecting and sorting out the national culture, filtering other national cultures not aligning with the character and culture of the nation itself (lickona, 2006). the literature reveals five primary characteristics in character education development: religiosity, nationalism, integrity, independence, and mutual cooperation. factors influencing these five characters are instincts, habits, heredity, and social environment (khaironi, 2017). the literature poses that character education needs to involve stakeholders built through routine activities and support for teacher competence. strengthening can be built by integrating co-curricular and extracurricular activities in the formal education environment (supratno et al., 2018). religious pluralism theory pluralism contains at least a fundamental understanding of modern society. first, pluralism is a descriptive expression of de facto religious pluralism. the internal pluralism of religion shows a differentiation within the religion, demanding freedom from that religion in determining its boundaries. second, pluralism also means public acknowledgment of the existence of a particular religion, followed by state or public recognition. religious pluralism in this context rejects freefight liberalism and the religion-free market because religion has limits on social acceptance. third, pluralism is a value similar to the demands of multiculturalism (anam, 2019). pluralism becomes an imperative considered reasonable and guarantees individual freedom where religious freedom is derived (beckford, 2003). pluralism tries to find commitment among particularities that will later become morals creating conditions for a pattern of people living side by side in the existing diversity (grant, 1973). the study states that if someone understands the existence of pluralism, then this attitude can create a calm, peaceful social environment, help each other, and think ahead. from the economic aspect, it can take advantage of plurality as a source of income or the like (chaves & gorski, 2001). in general, people experiencing behavioral changes due to pluralism fall into three groups; (1) affective behavior, namely everything related to attitudes, character, behavior, interests, and emotions arising from the community environment; (2) cognitive behavior, namely behavioral muhajir changes based on their mindset; (3) psychomotor behavior, namely the ability or skill of a person to do something after receiving learning in a particular field (effendy, 2001). when associated with the concept of social conditions, pluralism offers many benefits. first, pluralism builds independence; that is, the readiness and ability of individuals to stand alone with a marked attitude of the initiative. thus, people can show real behavior without feeling pressured, controlled, and watched by others. second, freedom provides the ability to act without coercion, control, and power to choose one's actions in a social and cultural institution. third, pluralism fosters mutual respect for diverse ethnicities, races, and religions. fourth, it also nurtures an attitude of tolerance without discrimination against societal differences. people can get the opportunity to observe cultural traditions and their perspectives according to their culture (ibrahim, 2013; suntana & tresnawaty, 2021). modern islamic boarding school modern islamic boarding schools or referred to as khalafiyah, 'ashriyah or al-haditsiyyah are the opposite of salaf pesantren (salafiyah). although no specific definitions and criteria for modern pesantren exist, they have characteristics differentiating them from salaf pesantren and other educational institutions; (1) learning foreign languages, especially arabic and english, is prioritized; (2) having formal schools under the curriculum of national education ministry and/or mora (ministry of religious affairs) from sd/mi, mts/smp, ma/sma, and tertiary institutions; (3) learning the yellow book is only the basics; (4) not using the traditional recitation system (such as sorogan, wetonan, and bandongan); (5) using contemporary arabic literature (not classics/yellow books); (6) being administratively the same as formal schools with higher financial costs than salaf pesantren; (7) from a scientific perspective, it is more about character education compared to mastering islamic scientific disciplines such as interpretation, hadith science, and fiqh (qomar, 2005). the study explains that each pesantren has a different learning system concerning curriculum, methods, and the books studied. the curriculum in modern pesantren tends to be strong in arabic conversation. that is why islamic boarding schools are educational institutions shaping the character of the muslim community for the better because the curriculum follows the development of islamic civilization (tolib, 2015). the islamic cultural traditions of the archipelago inherent in the character of modern pesantren are the fundamental values that are better (al-ashlah) and keeping the good (al-shalih). previous journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 202 research revealed that the cultural climate of the pesantren impacts the religious attitude of the santri (students). in essence, modern pesantren still adhere to the goals of the afterlife in their way not conflicting with islamic law (pasi et al., 2020). they become more socialist and productive and love their natural surroundings. moral dedication and the decline in religious morals can be minimized by learning methods in modern islamic boarding schools where the cultural climate, including socio-cultural, community, and agribusiness, supports the growth and development of children (ihsan et al., 2021). modern islamic boarding schools are also known as the method of moral or character education. this moral education conveys knowledge about morals depicting good and bad things in human life in the form of physical education and spiritual education (karnaen, 2013). methodology research design the research design was qualitative with a phenomenological approach. qualitative research design uncovers and cognizes something behind the phenomenon that is still minimal or unknown (creswell, 2009). the goal to be achieved was to investigating the challenges of developing character education based on islamic pluralism in the modern islamic boarding school curriculum in the pandemic era in east java. this study sees that reality has its dynamics, constantly changing the participants’ perceptions. therefore, qualitative research uses a phenomenological approach to understand what happened according to the point of view of the person experiencing it (first-hand experience). researchers must learn directly from educators and education staff experiencing it to find the essence of the meaning of character education based on islamic pluralism in the curriculum of modern pesantren. researchers conduct understanding through observation, semi-structured interviews of research subjects, and documentary studies. then, the research location is the modern islamic boarding school darussalam university (unida) gontor in ponorogo district, east java. the research lasted one semester, precisely in the odd semester of the 2021-2022 academic year. participants no standard exists regarding the number of informants in phenomenological research (parse et al., 1985). in this study, the researcher set the number of participants to ten based on the opinion of iii muhajir et al. (2006), stating that for phenomenological research, it is recommended to have between three to 15 participants. participants consisted of educators and unida gontor education staff. the chosen participants were uniform, so we could get informants who had experienced the phenomenon to be studied. hopefully, the uniform informants can produce more natural and valid data. table 1 participant description description number of participants gender male 7 female 3 age >30 year 2 <30 year 8 educators and educational personnel leader of unida gontor 1 undergraduate study program 2 postgraduate 4 academic staff 2 total 10 data collection technique data collection activities aim to obtain in-depth information about an issue or theme in research and are a process of proving information obtained through previous techniques. this study’s data collection techniques included observation, interviews, and documentary studies. direct observation and interviews were conducted to optimize the researcher's abilities concerning motives, beliefs, attention, unconscious behavior, and habits. the following summarizes the data collection procedure in this study. first is the preparation stage. it includes searching for information related to character education, islamic pluralism, and modern islamic boarding school curriculum from literature studies. furthermore, conducting a preliminary study involves using observations and looking for subjects, aligning with the research, and making an interview framework. the second stage covers the implementation of research by meeting participants when the researcher explains the intent and purpose of conducting this research. researchers agreed on a timeframe for the confidentiality of the data obtained. researchers conducted interviews using the framework prepared and determined previously. the third step includes writing a transcript of the recorded interview results and collecting related documents, such as the internal quality assurance system (spmi) guidelines, journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 204 official government regulatory documents, and unida gontor rector's decree related to the higher education curriculum. research data analysis data analysis in this study employed phenomenological analysis from creswell (2009). according to creswell, qualitative data analysis using a phenomenological approach involves six data analysis steps. the first step includes describing personal experiences regarding the phenomenon under study, namely the challenges of developing character education based on islamic pluralism in nusantara in the curriculum of modern islamic boarding schools in the pandemic era. then, developing a list of key statements for observations and interviews pursue. the third stage is taking crucial statements and grouping them into larger units of information called "meaning units" or themes. in the fourth step, a textural description of "what" the participants experienced with the phenomenon occurs. the fifth step includes describing "how" the experience happened structurally. writing a combined description of the phenomenon, joining textural and structural descriptions, is the subject of the sixth step. this part is the "essence" of experience and is the pinnacle aspect of the phenomenology study. thus, the data processing stage is writing a transcript of the recorded interview results. the researcher intervenes in strong statements relevant to the research theme. the researcher breaks down the statements into meanings and groups them into themes. the researcher integrates the themes into the narrative description and makes conclusions and research suggestions. in this study, the researcher tested the validity of the data via a member check, namely a written summary. then respondents were asked to read and justify the researcher's writing and wrong perceptions (member check). it aims to avoid bias and errors in recording data from research subjects. results and discussion the findings reveal that the main challenge in developing character education based on islamic pluralism in the unida gontor curriculum is the uneven ability of lecturers to develop an effective character education curriculum. in addition, the academic position of lecturers is far from inadequate, and implementing the tri darma of higher education is not optimal for some academic communities to realize the vision, mission, and goals of the pesantren. the qualifications of 30 doctoral lecturers out of a total of 224 permanent lecturers have merely given 13%. based on observations and interviews, not all teachers have sufficient competence to integrate character muhajir values into their teaching subjects. lecturers still need training and development of competence and professionalism to support character education based on the pluralism of islam nusantara. the lecturer's understanding of the character education concept has not been comprehensive. character values in the curriculum have not been appropriately studied to develop the learning process. using online learning methods has become necessary, especially in a pandemic that requires teachers and students to implement health protocols and distance learning. e-learning and the tamrin lughoh application (arabic learning) need other features for lecture topics, online discussion rooms, and quizzes. as stated in the official document on the internal quality assurance system (spmi) of the apt, the criteria of the leading performance indicators of the modern islamic boarding school gontor are targeted to improve the quality of lecturers (fadillah, 2015). in 2019, the adequacy ratio of new lecturers and students reached 111%, and the completeness of the curriculum was 100%. consider data 1. (1) “in order to achieve the educational and teaching goals that have been proclaimed, pesantren gontor develops various educational curricula. the curriculum is the result of the integration of higher education systems and islamic boarding schools, as stated in the vision and mission. regulations related to the determination of the education and teaching curriculum which have been regulated in the gontor statute articles 24, 25, 26, and 27. refers to the provisions of applicable laws and regulations and the values of islamic boarding schools. in particular, the curriculum is prepared and developed by each study program in accordance with the national standards and the indonesian national qualifications framework (kkni) and with reference to the values of modern boarding schools. these guidelines include presidential regulation of the republic of indonesia number 08 of 2012 concerning the indonesian national qualifications framework (kkni); regulation of the minister of education and culture of the republic of indonesia no. 73 of 2013 concerning the application of the indonesian national qualifications framework (kkni) in the field of higher education, article 10 paragraph 4 letter b; minister of national education decree no. 232/u/2000 concerning guidelines for preparation of higher education curriculum and assessment of student learning outcomes, decree of the minister of national education no. 045/u/2002 concerning the core curriculum of higher education statute of the university of darussalam gontor ponorogo; unida gontor development master plan 2014-2040; decree of the chancellor of the university of darussalam gontor no. 675/unida/r-e/iv/1437 article 19 regarding the al-quran memorizing program.” after the learning process is complete, the islamic boarding school monitors and evaluates each activity. every week, weekly monitoring and evaluation are held. this monitoring and evaluation discuss the achievement of the rps, the presence of lecturers, students, and the punctuality of lectures. at the end of each semester, an evaluation of study programs and faculties related to the journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 206 learning process and results also occur. students who were banned either because of tahfidz, akpam, or attendance, and uas results, become one of the topics of evaluation discussion. in addition, an evaluation is also held regarding the performance of lecturers per attendance, the content of lecture journals, the suitability of the provision of material with the lesson plans/rps, and the learning outcomes achieved by students. a curriculum review is conducted within a minimum of 3 years and a maximum of 5 years. it develops and updates the existing curriculum. previous studies investigated the implementation of wasathiyatul islam in this pesantren curriculum. they reported that the curriculum was based on considerations of al-khoriyah wa alafdholiyah, proportional, and sharia (yasin, 2019). apart from faculty lecturers, this review also involves internal and external stakeholders, graduates, and graduate users. thus, the curriculum used in learning aims to produce a graduate profile needed by the community. meanwhile, external challenges do not substantially impact the development of existing character education. it is because modern islamic boarding schools have developed a curriculum through five aspects of character education based on indonesian pluralism. the development of islamic pluralism-based character education in the darussalam gontor islamic boarding school (ponpes) curriculum or better known as the gontor modern islamic boarding school in the pandemic era, refers to the movement for strengthening character education (ppk) launched by the ministry of education and culture in 2017 with five primary character values to be a priority, namely; religious values, nationalism, independence, mutual cooperation, and integrity (manshuruddin et al., 2019). consider data 2. (2) “in order to face the challenges of character development based on pluralism, which is shown in the pesantren curriculum. we focus on developing character education in five priorities, namely; religious character values that reflect faith in allah swt, which is manifested in attitudes and behavior; the value of a nationalist character that shows an attitude of concern and high respect for the nation itself; the value of independent character in building work ethic, fighting power, creativity, and courage; the value of the gotong royong character reflects the spirit of cooperation, good communication, and friendship; and the character values of integrity that underlie committed behavior and morality.” pesantren gontor has its distinct curriculum refined from the combination of the curriculum of the ministry of education and culture, the ministry of religion, and the foundation. this combined curriculum comprises compulsory teaching and learning activities (kbm) and extracurricular activities. notably, compulsory boarding school kbm is an activity scheduled according to the level of education. muhajir development of character education from religious aspect the development of character education from the religious aspect manifests in the behavior of conducting religious teachings and beliefs and respecting differences in religions and other beliefs. in building the religious aspect, positive modern values, such as discipline, neatness, punctuality, and hard work, besides modern physical values, are considered. based on observations, modern values from the religious aspect are notably reflected in the neat dress of the gontor students and short hair. amid the covid-19 condition, learning activities are still well-scheduled because islamic boarding schools have an adjusted and standardized curriculum. in addition, the interview also revealed that the pesantren has an additional curriculum of the religious aspect to support students with a memorization program called the special tahfidz al quran. this program targets at least half a juz (ten pages) in one month. previous research has revealed that the modern islamic boarding school in gontor is one of the concrete pieces of evidence of how islamic wasathiyah values are developed to the best possible extent. consider data 3. (3) “santri is the guardian of the islamic wasathiyah, which characterizes indonesia and the life of muslims in the world. the existence of islamic boarding schools is very significant so that the values of islamic wasathiyah are well maintained.” from data 2, islamic boarding schools also aim to realize islamic wasathiyah attitudes, namely, faith and tolerance of the character and personality of students relying on monotheism as the foundation for islamic teachings and upholding balance. it is also why previous studies suggest that many parents send their children to modern boarding schools so that their children's character becomes religious but still gets general lessons, keeps up with the times, and socialize with the community (saefudin, 2021). according to nurmaydha et al. (2018), unida gontor has a noble vision of producing a cadre of islamic teachers under the trimurti spirit of the founder of the gontor modern islamic boarding school, preaching through education. the cultural climate of the pesantren can support the religious attitude of the santri. they become more socialized and productive and engage with their natural surroundings through socio-cultural, community, and agribusiness activities to support children's growth and development (ihsan et al., 2021). islamic boarding school character education from the religious aspect can shape students’ character, helping them become pious individuals. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 208 development of character education from the nationalist aspect character education development from the nationalist aspect relates to the appreciation of the nation's own culture, protecting the environment, obeying the law and discipline, and respecting cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity. although there are pros and cons, modern pesantren are more moderate, namely accepting nationalism as long as it is used per islamic teachings and does not violate the shari'a. nationalism suggests love for the homeland, liberating the country from foreign imperialism, and strengthening the brotherhood ties among fellow compatriots. consider data 4. (4) “the development of character education from the nationalist aspect teaches students about love for the homeland and fighting to defend the interests of the nation and state. in one hadith narrated by bukhari 7/161, it is said that when the prophet migrated to medina, he prayed, 'o allah, make us love medina as we love mecca or more.’ so even though the pesantren does not do that, it will never party, but that does not mean that it does not love its homeland. pesantren gontor fights for independence with the best education, namely nurturing and educating the people.” based on this explanation, islamic boarding schools support the development of nationalist aspects through educational curricula to teach peace and prevent radicalism. nationalism education is also taught through scout extracurricular activities. it characteristically depicts the development of character education from the nationalist aspect of the modern gontor islamic boarding school. what is unique is that if there are children from kyai pesantren staying in gontor, they must be placed as scout administrators. gontor's educational philosophy states, “a good scout must be a good kyai for the people and the nation.” the nationalist aspect can encourage attitudes to place the interests of the nation and state above the interests of themselves and their groups. pesantren has extracurricular activities in social sciences, such as speeches, sermons, and bilal. this activity can also support the nationalist aspect. as explained (darda, 2018), this pesantren has a symbolic relationship-mutualism curriculum, and social reconstruction is prepared based on the needs of students manifested in the practice of character education, including scouts, muhadharah, and muhadatsah. other modern pesantren have broadly adopted the practice of character education from this aspect of nationalism. this nationalism character education is reflected as students habitually sing the muslim subahil march (permana et al., 2021). the various life systems that have become the characteristics of islamic boarding schools are still maintained and standardized. however, they must confront the covid 19 pandemic, namely the muhajir kulliyatul mu'allimin al islamiyah system, the system of leadership, parenting, teaching, education, funding, and regeneration. these systems are very beneficial in character development from the national aspect. according to yuwafik & zuhriyah (2021), the role of interpersonal communication among pesantren leaders urges the spirit of nationalism in pesantren. also, it supports efforts to build relationships related to joint de-radicalization across religious communities to maintain tolerance. however, during the covid 19 pandemic, scouting activities were still limited under the circular letter of the pesantren referring to government policies related to the implementation of physical distancing to break the chain of the coronavirus spread. therefore, the ministry of religion allowed students to return to islamic boarding schools by following the recommendations for health protocols as stated in the east java governor's letter no.188/3344/101.1/2020, dated may 29, 2020. nevertheless, islamic boarding schools have remained cautious in deciding on activities that can be done and cannot be performed for a while until the conditions are really safe and under control. during the 14-day quarantine period, students learn using online learning methods. following the quarantine, they can directly learn according to the existing curriculum. character education development from integrity aspect this aspect includes an attitude of responsibility, consistency of actions and words based on the truth, respect for individual dignity, and being able to set an example. according to gontor's official website, this purely islamic educational institution is not affiliated with any political party or community organization, one of the principles that has been valid up-to-date. for the daily tasks and obligations of the pesantren, an executive body (after the death of the founders of the pondok) oversees, elected by the waqf board every five years. this leader is also obliged to take care of the students per the sunnah of the pmdg education center. islamic boarding schools have integrity that should not be violated. one includes the prohibition of carrying cellphones and gadgets. sanctions for violating these rules are exceedingly solemn because they are considered severe violations in islamic boarding schools. consider data 5. (5) “pesantren has a number of rules that must be obeyed by the students. one of them is the prohibition of using cell phones in islamic boarding schools. this is a form of integrity education to be able to totally implement the rules with full sincerity, sincerity, and high patience for the common good. to have integrity, a deep understanding is required. the pesantren must animate, understanding alone is not enough, and one must have excellent journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 210 sincerity in carrying out the tasks given. in gontor, there are three kinds of loyalty that arise from the aspect of integrity, namely loyalty to the soul, loyalty to the system, and loyalty to the leadership. this means that every member of the boarding school must have the readiness to obey and obey the existing order.” in this case, the integrity aspect is non-negotiable and thus final, written, and unwritten. the five souls of pondok summarizes what is written: sincerity, simplicity, independence, ukhuwah islamiyyah, and freedom. these values are also contained in the motto and philosophy of the pesantren. meanwhile, the orientation of the pesantren is towards the community, as a place for thalabul ilmi and will never party. consider data 6. (6) “totality means thinking as a whole, not sectoral, let alone halfway. nor do you think just to look for the good, just looking for safety, aka nunut kamukten or ride on honor.” thus, totality is the fruit of integrity to the pesantren. during the pandemic, these pesantren apply health protocols as a form of integrity to the applicable rules to show a form of exemplary. pesantren health protocols include (1) prohibiting the visit of guardians of students and guests for an indefinite period of time; (2) if you receive guests, you must check the temperature with a thermometer gun, besides mild sterilization with a hand sanitizer or disinfectant; (3) banning the delivery of packages in any form from the guardian of the santri (if they are received, they must be sterilized); (4) prohibiting students and teachers from traveling outside the pesantren; (5) improving hygiene by maintaining ablution and washing hands with soap; (6) reading a prayer to avoid disease as a form of effort. according to umar et al. (2021), it is why the modern islamic boarding school gontor is a tangible manifestation of the totality of life and teaches about the development of real character education, namely by implementing health protocols under islamic values. that is why gontor is referred to as one of the islamic educational institutions deliberately created, formed, colored, and inspired to educate and foster students. leaders having the integrity to make the pesantren achieve a noble vision, mission, and goals are one of the critical factors supporting this aspect (busyairi, 2017). this aspect of integrity can give birth to a mental revolution that will be reflected in the character of students who can provide the maximum benefit to the community. muhajir character education development from independent aspects character education development from the independent aspect refers to lifelong learners using all energy, thought, and time to realize hopes, dreams, and ideals. character education from the independent aspect is shown by the existence of several training centers and cooperatives, also intended to facilitate the education and teaching process in islamic boarding schools. in addition, four pesantren policies exist to achieve the strategic goal of santri independence. the first involves strengthening the function of pesantren in producing superior human resources, religious knowledge, skills in work, and entrepreneurship. the second is about reinforcing pesantren in managing business units as economic resources. the third encompasses strengthening islamic boarding schools as community economics. next is strengthening the role of the ministry of religion in realizing the pesantren independence program. notably, this policy accentuates the values of inclusiveness, facilitation, collaboration, and transparency. to support the development of character education from an independent aspect, the ministry of religion has also set a roadmap or a road map for islamic boarding school independence for 2021-2024. in 2022, there will be the launch of pesantren-owned enterprises (bum-pes), santripreneurs, the islamic boarding school digital economy platform, and a replication of the independence program. consider data 7. (7) “islamic boarding schools have institutions that were formed in order to facilitate the process of education and teaching. in addition, this institution is also intended to develop the character of students to be independent and able to adapt to the community. the four institutions are; (1) community management and development training center (plmpm); (2) darussalam gontor modern pondok development section (bppmdg); (3) pondok pesantren cooperatives (kopontren), namely business units owned by pondok; (4) santri and community health center (bksm) is a health service unit for students and the community.” from data 4, the modern islamic boarding school of gontor is one of the valuable assets that can develop character education from an independent aspect in various institutional activities and social organizations. the development of the halal restaurant concept is one of the concrete steps taken in shaping aspects of economic independence (nurmaydha et al., 2019). the government appreciates pesantren for their contribution to building the functions of pesantren (education, preaching, and community empowerment) as indicated by the stipulation of october 22 as santiri day. even the president signed presidential decree no. 82/2021 on funding for the implementation of islamic boarding schools, containing points regarding the pesantren journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 212 endowment fund. this pesantren independence policy aims to create a pesantren with strong and sustainable economic resources. character education development from the mutual cooperation aspect the development of character education from the gotong-royong (mutual cooperation) aspect is discernible from the many institutions or organizations under the leadership of the pesantren. these institutions encourage the emergence of aspects of gotong royong developed from the elementary, secondary, tertiary, and alumni levels. pesantren have built at least five institutions. first is the kulliyatul mu'allimin/mu'allimat al-islamiyah, an educational institution at the level of tsanawiyyah and aliyah. the second is darussalam university (unida), an islamic boarding school institution with seven faculties at levels s1, s2, and s3. the third includes the student caregivers overseeing the modern pondok student organization (oppm), the front group coordinator (scout), and the unida student council (dema). the fourth is the pondok modern waqf maintenance & expansion foundation (yppwpm), dealing with fundraising, maintenance, expansion, and asset development institutions. finally, the fifth one involves the pondok modern family association (ikpm), the official organization of gontor alumni. hopefully, with these educational institutions, students can learn to respect others, work together, be inclusive, help each other, have empathy, and have a sense of solidarity within the organization. the theory of lickona (1992) and dimerman (2009) suggests that to become a human with character requires developing moral and emotional aspects. the moral aspect consists of six things: the development of moral awareness, knowing moral values, perspective-taking, moral reasoning, decision making, and self-knowledge. meanwhile, the emotional aspects in question include conscience, respect, justice, self-confidence, empathy for others, being able to control oneself, humility, optimism, and integrity. the system applied by the modern pesantren of gontor is not just jargon and symbols; the pesantren implements essential modern values and remains islamic. the development of learning focuses on students so that they actively develop their interests and potential. students are not required just to memorize the subject matter. however, they try to construct their knowledge and skills according to their capacity and level of thinking development. students are invited to contribute to solving problems in the community. students must be taught to collaborate or cooperate with people from different cultural backgrounds to create an attitude of helping and muhajir respecting others. in doing assignments, students are taught how to appreciate the abilities of others. lecturers develop learning methods connecting students with the real world. to prepare students to become responsible citizens, islamic boarding schools facilitate students to get involved in their social environment. laal & ghodsi (2012) accentuate the main principles of 21stcentury learning, suggesting that instruction should be student-centered in completing assignments. they also suggest that education should be collaborative to solve problems, learning should have contests, and schools should be integrated with society, involving groups of students to work together. suppose you look at what has been stated in the mui fatwa in 2005, firmly rejecting pluralism from an ideological point of view. in that case, this refusal arises due to theological concerns. however, this study underlines that the islamic pluralism of the archipelago in question denotes islamic pluralism in the concept of social conditions or character education based on the typical social conditions of the archipelago in the pesantren education curriculum allowing students to become tolerant of religion and social environment. it needs to be explained by researchers considering that the definition of religious pluralism has its pros and cons and is not a simple term to understand and has different meanings. the literature states that character education is inseparable from the issue of social and political dynamics of the indonesian nation. character education is used as a tool by the authorities to support the status quo of the rulers through politics (husni, 2020). in the end, although the issue of the weakness of the yellow book teaching hit this modern pesantren-based university, its morals were not as good as that of the salaf pesantren, weak in nahwu and sharaf. it was considered to only focus on teaching arabic and english. however, unida gontor could face challenges. development of islamic pluralism-based character education in the curriculum of modern islamic boarding schools in the pandemic era includes religion, independence, integrity, mutual cooperation, and nationalism. the lack of quality lecturers has improved yearly by increasing the supporting factors as in the unida gontor internal quality assurance system 2014–2024. previous studies have revealed hr management strategies for improving the quality of unida gontor through a professionally and spiritually oriented approach (maghfiroh & santosa, 2020). in this context, the indonesian government believes that preparing the younger generation through character education can result in a mighty nation. character education is the best place to prepare agents of national change who will bring journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 214 peace to a pluralist human race (rokhman et al., 2014). previous research has disclosed that character education often serves as a tool by the authorities to support the status quo of rulers through political paths (husni, 2020). however, in the modern pesantren environment, politics fails to apply. the modern islamic boarding school gontor does not enter into politics, suggesting that its integrity cannot be interfered with just like that. thus, modern islamic boarding schools are beyond a place to transfer knowledge and teach the formation of morals, attitudes, behavior, character, and leadership. thus, it is appropriate to reflect some of the fundamental values and character of the indonesian nation and instill them into the entire younger generation to build a national character through islamic boarding schools. conclusion the results of the research and discussion conclude that the challenge of developing islamic pluralism-based character education in the modern islamic boarding school curriculum in the pandemic era depends on the quality of the lecturers who have not been supportive. therefore, the readiness of the pesantren and their all members is critical. the readiness of pesantren is more than qualified and modern facilities and encompasses the readiness of lecturers and students. selfreadiness can form a strong character to face challenges. good character education must involve aspects of knowledge and habit, continuously practiced while maintaining the health protocols recommended by the government. therefore, communities of character must consistently provide intervention and reinforcement in the long term. in the future, it is exceedingly crucial for the development of character education to plan to learn and incorporate elements of higher-order thinking based on islamic values by applying varied, integrated, and more modern approaches and learning models. thus, modern islamic boarding school education can realize the nation's ideals to become a peaceful, just, and prosperous society with a distinct national character. muhajir references abidin, suryanto, t., & utami, p. (2020). beyond muamalah principles in digital payment education and its impacts on corruption prevention in indonesian public sectors. journal of social studies education research, 11(3), 46–64. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2355/460 allen, w., hyde, m., whannel, r., & o’neill, m. (2018). teacher reform in indonesia: can offshore programs create lasting pedagogical shift? asia-pacific journal of teacher education, 46(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866x.2017.1355051 anam, a. m. (2019). konsep pendidikan pluralisme abdurrahman wahid (gus dur). cendekia: jurnal kependidikan dan kemasyarakatan, 17(1), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.21154/cendekia.v17i1.1442 aningsih, zulela, m. s., neolaka, a., iasha, v., & setiawan, b. (2022). how is the education character implemented? the case study in indonesian elementary school. journal of educational and social research, 12(1), 371–380. https://doi.org/10.36941/jesr-2022-0029 beckford, j. a. (2003). social theory and religion. cambridge university press. berges puyo, j. (2020). a value and character educational model: repercussions for students, teachers, and families. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 berkowitz, m., & bier, m. (2004). research-based character education. the annals of the american academy of political and social science, 591(1), 72–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716203260082 budiarto, m. a. (2022). optimizing islamic education towards the golden era of indonesia, 3(1), 1–19. budiwibowo, s., & wuryantoro, a. (2018). character education for young generation through local wisdom culture understanding in global era, (16), 484–487. https://doi.org/10.5220/0007423104840487 busyairi as, m. (2017). education unit transformation for maintain its existence in islamic boarding school (multi-case study on tebuireng islamic boarding school, gading islamic boarding school malang, and sidogiri islamic boarding school pasuruan). journal of education and practice, 8(5), 56–64. retrieved from http://iiste.org/journals/index.php/jep chaves, m., & gorski, p. s. (2001). religious pluralism and religious participation. annual review of sociology, 27(2001), 261–281. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.261 creswell, j. w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. sage publications (vol. 8). thousand oaks, california: sage publication, inc. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.7 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 216 darda, a. (2018). integrative curriculum management model: the relation of symbiosismutualism academic subject curriculum and social reconstruction in modern islamic boarding school of darussalam gontor ponorogo. educan : jurnal pendidikan islam, 2(2), 95. https://doi.org/10.21111/educan.v2i2.3267 dimerman, s. (2009). character is the key how to unlock the best in our children and ourselves. minneapolis, mn: john wiley & sons. effendy, b. (2001). masyarakat agama dan pluralisme keagamaan. galang press. fadillah, m. k. (2015). managemen mutu pendidikan islam di pesantren: studi di pondok modern darussalam gontor. at-ta’dib, 10(1), 115–134. retrieved from https://ejournal.unida.gontor.ac.id/index.php/tadib/article/view/333 fatihah, i. (2018). kepemimpinan kh. imam zarkasyi di pondok modern darussalam gontor. jiem (journal of islamic education management), 2(2), 26. https://doi.org/10.24235/jiem.v2i2.3407 fatmawati, e. (2021). strategies to grow a proud attitude towards iindonesian cultural diversity. linguistics and culture review, 5(1), 810–820. grant, j. w. (1973). at least you knew where you stood with them: reflections on religious pluralism in canada and the united states. studies in religion/sciences religieuses, 2(4), 243–261. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203142233 gunio, m. (2021). determining the influences of a hidden curriculum on students’ character development using the illuminative evaluation model. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(2), 194-206. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.11 hartono, y., haryanto, s., & asrowi, a. (2018). character education in the perspective of humanistic theory: a case study in indonesia. educare, 10(2), 34. retrieved from www.mindamas-journals.com/index.php/educare hasyim, s. (2015). majelis ulama indonesia and pluralism in indonesia. philosophy and social criticism, 41(4–5), 487–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/0191453714566547 hefner, r. w. (2020). islam and covenantal pluralism in indonesia: a critical juncture analysis. review of faith and international affairs, 18(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2020.1753946 hidayat, a. z., & ahmad, m. (2022). the importance of character education to improve the quality of education. journal of curriculum indonesia, 5(1), 1–8. hilaly basya, m. (2011). the concept of religious pluralism in indonesia: a study of the mui’s fatwa and the debate among muslim scholars. indonesian journal of islam and muslim https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.11 muhajir societies, 1(1), 69–93. https://doi.org/10.18326/ijims.v1i1.69-93 hosen, n. (2012). hilal and halal: how to manage islamic pluralism in indonesia? asian journal of comparative law, 7(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1515/1932-0205.1418 husni, h. (2020). character education in indonesia: a historical outlook. educational review: international journal, 17(1), 147–162. retrieved from http://fsshjournal.org/index.php/es/article/view/132 ibrahim, r. (2013). p endidikan multikultural: pengertian , prinsip , dan relevansinya dengan tujuan pendidikan islam. addin, 7(1), 1–26. ihsan, m. n., ahmad, n., hasanah, a., & ... (2021). islamic boarding school culture climate in forming the religious attitude of islamic students in modern and agrobusiness islamic boarding schools. nazhruna: jurnal pendidikan islam, 4(2), 362–382. https://ejournal.ikhac.ac.id/index.php/nazhruna/article/view/1492 iii, l. l. d., waring, s. m., & koorland, m. a. (2006). the blended course delivery method: the not-so-distant education. journal of computing in teacher education, 22(4), 153–158. http://www.mrgibbs.com/tu/research/articles/dukes-etal.blended_learning.pdf jamilah, s. (2021). moderate islamic education to enhance nationalism among indonesian islamic student organizations in the era of society 5.0, journal of social studies education research (jsser), 12(3), 79-100. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3506/514 jhon, w. (2021). challenges in the implementation of character education in elementary school: experience from indonesia. i̇lköğretim online, 20(1), 1351–1363. https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2021.01.130 karnaen, a. (2013). the policy of moral education on kh imam zarkasyi’s thought at gontor modern islamic boarding school. jurnal pendidikan islam, 3(1), 163. https://doi.org/10.14421/jpi.2014.31.163-182 khaironi, m. (2017). pendidikan karakter anak usia dini. golden age universitas hamzanwadi, 01(2), 82–89. laal, m., & ghodsi, s. m. (2012). benefits of collaborative learning. procedia social and behavioral sciences, 31(2011), 486–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.091 lapsley, d. k. (2007). character education. in handbook of child psychology (p. 4). london (u.k): winley online library. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0407 lickona, t. (1992). educating for character: how our school can teach respect and responsibility. new york: bantam books. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 218 lickona, t. (2006). eleven principles of effective character education eleven principles of effective character education. journal of moral education, 25(1), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305724960250110 maghfiroh, & santosa, s. (2020). manajemen sumber daya manusia dalam peningkatan mutu perguruan tinggi universitas darussalam gontor. jurnal bahana manajemen pendidikan, 9(2), 16–23. https://doi.org/10.25078/jpm.v1i2.45 manshuruddin, m., rozana, s., & abrianto, d. (2019). character education in modern islamic boarding schools: a model from indonesia. journal of social sciences studies, 4(4), 174– 183. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3382110 nasir, m. a. (2014). the ʿulamāʾ, fatāwā and challenges to democracy in contemporary indonesia. islam and christian-muslim relations, 25(4), 489–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2014.926598 nurmaydha, a., mustaniroh, s. a., & sucipto, s. (2018). the concept model of halal assurance system in the restaurant (case study in unida inn university of darussalam gontor). jurnal teknologi pertanian, 19(3), 141–152. nurmaydha, a., mustaniroh, s. a., & sucipto, s. (2019). strategi pengembangan restoran halal sebagai penunjang hotel syariah (studi kasus di unida gontor inn, universitas darussalam gontor ponorogo). dinar : jurnal ekonomi dan keuangan islam, 5(2), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.21107/dinar.v5i2.5006 odularu, o., puzi, m., ngqila, k., & olatoye, t. (2022). transformations in higher educational institutions: a review of the post-covid-19 era. journal of culture and values in education, 5(1), 183-194. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2022.13 parse, r., coyne, a. b., & smith, m. j. (1985). nursing research: qualitative methods. research in nursing and health. pasi, k. m., rasyidin, r., & harahap, r. m. (2020). education system of modern islamic boarding school in the postmodern era. nazhruna: jurnal pendidikan islam, 3(3), 311–323. https://doi.org/10.31538/nzh.v3i3.805 permana, r., suhaili, & bakhtiar, a. (2021). pendidikan karakter nasionalisme melalui mars syubbanil muslimin dan tembang syair di pesantren al-khairiyah. adz-zikr: jurnal pendidikan agama islam, 06(2), 35–51. http://ejournal.stitalkhairiyah.ac.id/index.php/adzzikr/article/view/109/75 pilotti, m., & al mubarak, h. (2021). systematic versus informal application of culturally relevant pedagogy: are performance outcomes different? a study of college students. journal of culture and values in education, 4(2), 14-26. muhajir https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.1 purwanto, m. r., mukharrom, t., supriadi, & rahmah, p. j. (2021). optimization of student character education through the pesantren program at the islamic boarding school of the universitas islam indonesia. review of international geographical education online, 11(5), 2829–2837. https://doi.org/10.48047/rigeo.11.05.179 qomar, m. (2005). (2005). pesantren: dari transformasi metodologi menuju demokratisasi institusi. erlangga. rahim, a., raisul, s., & abdoludin, i. (2016). character issues: reality character problems and solutions through education in indonesia. journal of education and practice, 7(17), 158– 165. http://fssh-journal.org/index.php/es/article/view/132 rokhman, f., hum, m., syaifudin, a., & yuliati. (2014). character education for golden generation 2045 (national character building for indonesian golden years). procedia social and behavioral sciences, 141, 1161–1165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.197 saefudin, s. (2021). the shift in the tradition of islamic education in indonesia from the 19th century to the early 21st century. ibda` : jurnal kajian islam dan budaya, 19(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.24090/ibda.v19i1.4391 subaidi. (2020). strengthening character education in indonesia: implementing values from moderate islam and the pancasila. journal of social studies education research, 11(2), 120–132. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/2263/454 suntana, i., & tresnawaty, b. (2021). multidimensional social crisis and religious violence in southeast asia: regional strategic agenda, weak civilian government, triune crime, wealth gaps, and coopted journalism. journal of culture and values in education, 4(2), 113. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2 supratno, h., subandiyah, h., & permata raharjo, r. (2018). character education in islamic boarding school as a medium to prevent student radicalism. in 2nd social sciences, humanities, and education conference (soshec) (vol. 222, pp. 405–410). https://doi.org/10.2991/soshec-18.2018.86 suri, d., & chandra, d. (2021). teacher’s strategy for implementing multiculturalism education based on local cultural values and character building for early childhood education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(4), 271–285. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/937 sutijono. (2010). multicultural education in indonesia: an alternative for national education in global era. sosiohumanika, 3(1), 53–66. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.1 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2021.2 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13(2), 197-221 220 tachie, s. a. & kariyana, i. (2022). time divested or time invested? freshmen’s perspectives and reflective experiences on interactive school learning. research in social sciences and technology (ressat), 7(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.2 tolib, a. (2015). pendidikan di pondok pesantren modern. jurnal risaalah, 1(1), 60–66. retrieved from http:/jurnal.faiunwir.ac.id umar, setyosari, p., kamdi, w., & sulton. (2021). exploration of moral integrity education and superior cadre leadership at madrasah boarding school indonesia. international journal of instruction, 14(4), 753–774. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.14443a wua, t. d., lonto, a. l., & umar, m. (2022). online learning and character education problems during the covid-19 pandemic ( a religious education lecturer ’ s perspective ). in annual civic education conference (acec 2021) (vol. 636, pp. 576–579). yasin, r. (2019). implementation of wasathiyatul islam in the curriculum of modern islamic boarding school darussalam gontor (study of k.h. imam zarkasyi’s thought). at-ta’dib, 14(2), 75–96. yuwafik, m., & zuhriyah, l. f. (2021). peran komunikasi interpersonal kh ali maschan moesa. komunida: media komunikasi dan dakwah volume, 11, 54–62. https://doi.org/10.35905/komunida.v11i01 zarkasyi, h. f. (2020). imam zarkasyi’s modernization of pesantren in indonesia: (a case study of darussalam gontor). qudus international journal of islamic studies, 8(1), 161–200. https://doi.org/10.21043/qijis.v8i1.5760 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (2), 55-82 identification of student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd): experiences of primary school teacher’s assessment in inclusive school asep supena1, adistyana pitaloka kusmawati2 abstract regarding which primary school teachers across the globe face the difficulty of teaching in an inclusive school, a broad range of ways exists to deal with the challenge. the primary characteristic of the students attending inclusive schools is that they experience attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd). this study aims to describe how teachers identify students with adhd using a specific assessment instrument. thus, it can make it easier for teachers to teach in class and provide special attention to students with adhd. the data collection technique included semi-structured interviews with eight people comprising primary school class teachers, vice principals for student affairs, and school principals. the primary school teachers participating in this study have attended a workshop conducted by an expert in the department of special education need, teaching them how to use the assessment instrument in detecting adhd. the data obtained were then analyzed and triangulated using qualitative data analysis techniques. observations were made on teachers when assessing students with special needs having adhd. the results revealed that the assessment conducted manually by the teacher by asking questions and paying attention to student attitudes with the adhd instrument detected three categories: attention deficit disorder, excessive activity disorder, and self-control disorder. this study has implications for the primary school teachers and inclusive schools if they have adhd students. it will help teachers detect students with adhd syndrome. keywords: student disorder, adhd, assessment, hyperactive, inattention, primary school teachers introduction adhd is a medical condition related to brain dysfunction (ewe, 2019a). adhd makes it difficult for the patients to control their activities, impedes behavior, and renders them unable to concentrate for a long time. thus, it can disrupt children's activities, causing learning, behavior, socializing, and other difficulties (ewe, 2019). adhd children need special treatment to contain some of them, and sometimes it becomes hard to distinguish adhd children from typical ones. special skills are 1 dr., department of special education, faculty of education, universitas negeri jakarta, asupena@unj.ac.id 2 m.pd., department of basic education, school of postgraduate studies, universitas negeri jakarta journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 necessary to differentiate people with adhd from others, detecting adhd symptoms (anastopoulos et al., 2018). children with adhd need more attention to forge their skills and personality to integrate into society and they can be successful, provided that they can develop their potential (mochrie et al., 2020). they usually have above-average intelligence, but their parents and families often cannot realize their potential. the role of the family is critical to providing moral and material support for adhd children’s success (prasetiyo et al., 2020). therefore, children with adhd must be detected at the earliest time by the family so that their growth and development can match the expectations of their parents (hart et al., 2020). although all children can display hyperactivity, those with adhd behavior disorders will be more severe and occur at higher incidences than children without adhd (nelson & liebel, 2018). according to the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edition (dsm 5), to test adhd positive, a child must have symptoms for at least six months before the diagnosis; they must have been present for 12 years (chaimaha et al., 2017). to some experts above, children with adhd need to get special attention allowing their behavior control. thus, the role of parents and teachers is critical to give them special attention and help them get the needed medical treatment. although a person may indirectly fall into the category of adhd, they still should have the right to have education, ranging from fundamental education to higher education (casmana et al., 2022). based on law no. 20 of 2003 concerning the indonesian national education system, every citizen needs a twelve-year compulsory education, including those diagnosed with special needs. in indonesia, there is the special school (slb) for all students with special study needs. they cover elementary to secondary education to ensure that students with specific needs can get the proper training. the teachers responsible for teaching at the special school (slb) have a background in special education. therefore, they can understand the condition of their students in detail and teach them accordingly (ragamustari et al., 2021). in indonesia, the government has a new policy for students with special needs. it involves inclusion school. inclusion schools are public formal educational institutions ranging from elementary to high schools (de picker, 2020; everett & oswald, 2018). this inclusion school is an institution where most are typical students, but it can also accept students with special needs, including supena & kusmawati 57 adhd students, deaf, blind, and others. this inclusion school policy raises at least three primary problems for students, teachers, and schools implementing it. the first problem lies with the teacher. the teachers in inclusion schools do not have a “special” education background. thus, they have difficulty in identifying and determining students with special needs. for example, when there is an adhd student in his class, the teacher cannot know from the beginning that the student has this issue. it becomes exceedingly worse because the teacher will have difficulty in the learning process and providing specific care to these students (dineen, 2019; kilpatrick et al., 2017). the second problem relates to the teaching methodology. as inclusion school-teachers do not have a needed education background, they find it hard to determine specific learning media and methods, which can be implemented to teach students with special needs. students with special needs entail a different approach during the learning process in the classroom. therefore, teachers cannot treat them the same as other students (mochrie et al., 2020; sibley, 2021). the third problem includes the students themselves. students having special needs have their world of play and getting along. it makes it exceedingly hard for them to be friends with other students (buchanan & lemoyne, 2020; climie & mitchell, 2017). it is visible when the teacher gives a group assignment in the classroom. students with special needs, including adhd, never want to interact with other students, and vice versa. concurrently, other students have no desire to interplay with them. such circumstances have made teachers uncomfortable in the classroom during teaching. one solution for the teachers in inclusion schools can involve developing special assessment instruments for students with special needs, specifically those with adhd. this assessment instrument becomes remarkably crucial because teachers working in inclusion schools with no “special education” background can use it readily to identify that there are adhd students in the classroom (girli et al., 2016; wilton et al., 2018). hence, knowing the presence of adhd students in the class, teachers can adopt special techniques ranging from the teaching method to effective communication and proper motivation, thus letting these students have the fullest from the class. usually, “special” education teachers, doctors, or specialized psychologists utilize these assessment instruments. they may try using standard tools to teach students with special needs to journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 no avail. however, no inclusion school teacher was able to develop a specific adhd instrument for identifying the issue initially. therefore, the problem became increasingly relevant for teachers in inclusion schools. when teachers in inclusion schools can develop special devices for adhd students, they can early detect students with special needs. therefore, the instrument can have critical implications in other inclusion schools. the assessment process for adhd students is very crucial. previous studies have accentuated it, justifying its relevance to the present study. jarret et al. (2018) were one of the first studies and covered the assessment or identification process for children with adhd. yet, medical personnel, including doctors and nurses with “special” training in adhd, accomplished this assessment (fitzgerald et al., 2020; kilpatrick et al., 2017). it is relevant to the adhd students’ assessment; thus, teachers with “special” education backgrounds can use the same instrument in the class medium. but even so, medical doctors usually have more in-depth diagnoses of adhd students; hence, their assessments would be more accurate (jarrett et al., 2018). lovvet and harrison conducted another relevant research in 2021. it had similarities when identifying students with special needs, namely adhd. however, there were differences in the instruments used to perform and detect students falling into adhd category. however, the complaints and characteristics found in adult and child-anal students with adhd were not the same. therefore, this study would focus on the students with special needs in school (lovett & harrison, 2021). the third relevant research was by hall and his team. they expressed the prominence of assessing how to detect students inflicted by adhd. when a teacher could assess or process early detection of adhd students. then, the teacher would have conveniences in the learning and teaching process in the classroom (hall et al., 2005). based on the three pieces of research relevant to the topic of this article, the focus of this study will be on two primary things. the first includes describing how teachers develop adhd student instruments. it is exceedingly meaningful because detecting students with adhd earlier helps their learning abilities. the second involves how the teacher can use the adhd instrument to determine the problem. supena & kusmawati 59 research questions based on the background above, the way teachers assess adhd students, the research questions are as follows: 1. how can teachers in primary inclusive schools develop informally specific instruments to detect adhd students? 2. how does the teacher use the research instrument for adhd assessment? literature review the history and definition of adhd adhd is not new, but it is a problem occurring in a child and is associated with an overactive character (climie & mitchell, 2017; hall et al., 2005; jarrett et al., 2018). when looking at its history, the term adhd has many versions and sentiments about its characteristics, according to experts. the person who first came up with the concept of adhd was heinrich hoffman in 1845, listing it in a book entitled "children's stories." to heinrich hoffman, children with adhd are those behaving exceptionally overactive in their faithful daily activities (buchanan & lemoyne, 2020; sibley, 2021). in addition to hoffman, there is another opinion saying that the person initiating adhd was a doctor from england named george f. still reported that someone with adhd had an abnormal inability to focus, restless and restless. george f. still also disclosed that a person experiencing adhd had a solemn deficiency concerning willpower derived from biological inheritance. the disorder would be attributable to a childhood experience; thus, an innate illness (chaimaha et al., 2017). other opinions suggested that adhd was due to an encephalitis epidemic or inflammation of the brain, with the idea resonating throughout the world from 1917 to 1926 (sibley, 2021). when people have the epidemic and are still alive, they will experience many primary problems with survival, behavior, irritability, weak attention, and hyperactivity. brain disease may also be related to birth trauma, injuries in parts of the brain, poisoning, or other terms known as "brain-injured child syndrome," sometimes linked to the expression "mental retardation." since the 1950s, a child with adhd has been linked to hyperkinesis visible by the weak filtering of stimuli entering journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 a person's brain. therefore, a person experiencing adhd is hyperactive or has excessive movements as the primary characteristic (sibley, 2021). when checking some literature on the current definition, attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder or adhd is a term applicable to children, adolescents, and adults with a deficiency while paying attention to something. usually, it is discernible when someone is in the learning process in the class, or a teacher is teaching materials in the classroom. additionally, a person diagnosed with adhd is easily confused with agitation and impulsiveness. to the experts, ahdh is not a disease with a specific cause but is a neurobiological disorder. another opinion also discloses that adhd is a problem experienced by someone with issues with attention centering, self-control, and the need to seek continual stimulation (buchanan & lemoyne, 2020). there are several categories of students with adhd, namely attention disorder. to learn more about the characteristics of students with adhd, see the table below: table 1 characteristics of students with adhd disorder no adhd symptoms characteristics character 1. attention disorders attention disorders students have a disability to be able to receive attention from the teacher. have poor concentration students find it hard to concentrate when the teacher delivers the material in class. memory disorders students have difficulty being able to remember the material presented by the teacher. not able to concentrate when talking to the other person students cannot focus when talking to both the teacher and their peers. 2. excessive activity disorder (hyperactivity) hyperactive students are very active and have more than regular activities. students have many “movements” that are not compatible with other students. too much movement students have difficulty being able to control themselves. difficult to control students cannot have the ability to be able to coordinate “movement.” 3. disorders of self-control inability to coordinate movement the emotions of these students are unstable and tend to change. adhd symptoms unstable emotions students have speech disorders and cannot listen to the material presented by the teacher. the character of the student is difficult to control. speech and hearing disorders students with adhd have suboptimal academic abilities. source: (sibley, 2021) supena & kusmawati 61 based on the first table, it is evident that many characteristics or indicators can be used as the primary reference by teachers when analyzing which students fall into the adhd category. based on the previous studies, the character of adhd usually can be seen in emotionally unstable children (chaimaha et al., 2017; ewe, 2019; malmqvist, 2018). adhd is a solemn problem for teachers in schools. teachers will face at least three primary issues when having students with adhd. first, students in the classroom cannot focus on the teacher when the teacher presents the material. it suggests that teachers require specific methods or ways for students having adhd (climie & mitchell, 2017; fitzgerald et al., 2020). in previous studies, adhd students attending the inclusion schools were assisted by a special accompanying teacher (gpk) who was responsible for helping the master teacher in teaching materials to adhd students. the second problem is that adhd students sometimes impact other students in the classroom; hence, the class is not conducive to use in the learning process (buchanan & lemoyne, 2020). previously, it has happened that it becomes more difficult to condition when there are children with special needs. therefore, the teacher's challenge is not only trying to focus attention but also the process of conditioning the class becomes lengthier. the third problem is that sometimes, teachers serving in inclusion schools cannot identify the type of learning disability experienced by a person. it is the most challenging thing in an inclusion school (zid & casmana, 2021). the teacher must detect students with adhd during the first meeting in the classroom. then, he can adjust the material and the specific approaches needed to teach students (sibley, 2021). primary inclusive school teacher and assessment for adhd an inclusive school is a formal educational institution educating not only regular students but also students with special needs (komarudin et al., 2019). at every level, there are at least a few students who can learn and participate in the educational process in the inclusive school. therefore, this school is a milieu where someone can teach students with special needs. teachers serving in inclusion schools require specific characteristics and a high level of patience. teachers working in inclusion schools should have a personal spirit reflecting an excellent personality, stable, mature, wise, noble, and influential character and become role models for students (aburaida, 2020; morales et al., 2020; polat, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 the specific personality competency required for inquisitive school-teachers is being a good friend to students with special needs, including adhd. thus, they feel happy and motivated to study with those teachers and other typical students (zid & casmana, 2021). motivating abk students to learn and utilize learning media, tools, materials, and other means is critical in making teaching preparation and must include various principles. the teaching preparations must explain the goals to be achieved in harmony with the competence of abk students, the characteristics of abk, and the psychological development of abk students. regarding the assessment of adhd students, several previous studies have addressed the assessment of adhd children. however, most are not done by teachers. first, a study conducted by sibley (2021) covered the identification of adhd children. the results showed that students with adhd could be assessed by a psychologist using special instruments. the primary focus included how the child focused on specific objects given by a psychologist. besides psychologists, special-school teachers (slb) also have a crucial role in identifying adhd students. the second research centered on the way special-school teachers diagnosed prospective new students. special-school teachers have specific abilities because they are provided with materials in their undergraduate lectures. even students in the special education study program have special courses for adhd students. hence, research conducted by special-school teachers has involved a lot in evaluating adhd students (jarrett et al., 2018). in indonesia, no research on typical teachers or teachers in inclusion schools not having a “special” education background to develop instruments about adhd exist. therefore, it forms a research gap concerning studies on “special” education about learning and how teachers conduct an initial analysis to identify adhd students. method research design this research uses a qualitative approach with descriptive design. qualitative approaches were used to obtain in-depth data on some of the people involved in the study, particularly those teachers who teach in inclusive elementary schools and have students with special needs of adhd. according to creswell (2004) qualitative approach has made it possible to be able to obtain in supena & kusmawati 63 depth data, because it is able to dig up some questions that cannot be answered with questionnaires, such as questions related to being able to obtain the main reasons regarding the way teachers teach, and some special methods used. so that the qualitative approach can provide maximum results in collecting this data. qualitative approach is one of the ways that can be used when humans become the object of his research or some phenomenon that occurs. in this case, the way teachers identify adhd students becomes the main topic. the main focus in this research is on how teachers develop their research instruments, and how teachers use and apply them. based on both researches focused, descriptive design is the right way to find out both research focuses. to be able to get maximum data, then there are three main events that have been done in this study. the first is to interview inclusion elementary school teachers who have special needs students with adhd classifications in their classrooms, so that teachers who do not have or have never taught adhd students cannot participate in the study. in addition to interviews with teachers, deputy principals and principals are also involved in in-depth interviews to be able to obtain the policies that have been carried out by the school. the second is to conduct training or mentoring of inclusion elementary school teachers who have or have taught adhd students by inviting experts in their fields. third, by analyzing the identification documents that have been made by students. participants this research was conducted at an inclusion elementary school in subang regency, west java province, indonesia. the schools that have participated in the study are public elementary schools that have children with special needs with adhd classifications. the study focused on looking at how teachers identify with adhd students. in this study, there were 8 participants who were interviewed in depth, they are six teachers, one school deputy principal and one school principal. the teachers interviewed in this research are class teachers in grades 3 to 5. they have the shortest teaching experience for 15 years in elementary school and each has an adhd student in his or her class. the school principal and vice school principal were interviewed because they had managerial interests and responsibilities in identification activities and educational services for adhd students at their school. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 table 2 characteristics of research participants no class class of group participants total 1 class 3 2 teacher 2 2 class 4 2 teacher 2 3 class 5 2 teacher 2 4 deputy principal 1 5 principal 1 sum 8 table 2 shows more detailed information about who participated in the study. teachers have a very important role in this research, as they are the main source in this research. the data obtained a lot from teachers, because the teacher is someone who develops instruments to identify adhd, as well as using these instruments. moreover, the duties of the principal and deputy principal also included granting permission to the teacher when identifying adhd students initially. research instrument qualitative research instrument is a tool used to be able to obtain data. in this study, there are interview instruments that are used to obtain in-depth data with teachers through focus group discussion (fgd), and document analysis. the interview instrument used is in the form of several questions that have been prepared by researchers in more detail to be able to answer research questions. some questions are used such as "how do teachers know the characteristics of ad hd students?", "reference sources used by teachers to be able to find out the characteristics of adhd students?", as well as "what school policies have been done to deepen teachers’ knowledge of the characteristics of children with special needs?", as well as some other questions that used by teachers to be able to dig up data regarding the identification of adhd students. the next instrument used is data analysis. in this research instrument, researchers use forms to be able to see whether the documents used by teachers have matched the characteristics of adhd or not, such as forms about the characteristics of adhd students and also the results of analysis of forms that have been used by teachers. data collection data collection techniques used in this study are interviews, focus group discussions (fgd) and analysis documents. interviews are conducted in depth in groups or focus group discussion (fgd) with teachers. in accordance with the information in table 2, there were six teachers who supena & kusmawati 65 participated in the study, and they provided data on how teachers identify adhd students. the data obtained from the results of focus group discussion (fgd) with elementary school teachers’ inclusion is about teachers' understanding of adhd students and how teachers identify adhd students. this is the core data obtained through this study because the main focus in this study is to be able to obtain data on how teachers develop and use adhd student instruments. the time used to be able to conduct focus group discussions is 135 minutes. the second data collection technique is to use in-depth interviews. table 3 shows that in-depth interviews were conducted with principals and vice principals at inclusion elementary schools that have special needs students, particularly adhd. there are at least three main objectives to obtain the data desired by researchers, including the understanding of the deputy principal and principal about adhd students because they have also been teachers before obtaining the current position. next is to be able to obtain data on some policies and regulations in dealing with adhd students in elementary school inclusion. this is very important because teachers are the ones who carry out these policies. the purpose of the next interview is to find out the efforts made by the school in facilitating teachers in understanding adhd students. in addition to the principal, several teachers were also interviewed to obtain data about the teacher's impressions and experiences during the identification of adhd. table 3 briefly shows information about the data collection process as well as the results obtained in this study. table 3 information on the data collection process and the final results obtained no data collection process data collected 1 initial group interview (fgd) with six classroom teachers in grades 3, 4 and 5 of inclusion elementary school teachers' understanding of adhd and their way of identifying adhd students. 2 interviews with the principal and vice principal 1. participants' understanding of adhd 2. policies and regulations in the treatment of adhd 3. efforts are made by schools to facilitate teachers in understanding adhd. 3 final interview with the teacher impressions and experiences of teachers during the identification of adhd students and their results. 4 document analysis adhd identification instruments and their results. the third data collection technique is document analysis. in this technique, the document analyzed is an adhd identification instrument used by elementary school teachers. in addition, the results of document analysis are also taken several sheets that have been used to be able to see how teachers analyze it. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 data analysis the data analysis technique used is to refer to the way done by widodo (widodo, 2014). widodo explained some steps that can be used to be able to analyze qualitative approaches, especially the results of data from focus group discussions (fgd) and also in-depth interviews. first, the process during focus group discussions and in-depth interviews is carried out by recording, so that all conversations that have been done are recorded to the maximum. after the data is recorded, the next step is to turn each recorded conversation into a piece of writing to be analyzed. after the data is converted into a piece of writing, it is then labeled in the form of codes related to the characteristics of adhd students, the adhd identification process, and also the results of adhd identification. the next step after completing the coding process, the data is then interpreted into a result. the data analysis process is assisted by using nvivo software, making it easier for the process to be able to analyze it. to be able to validate data, triangulation is used, so that the results do not become biased. findings research question 1: how can teachers in inclusion schools develop special instruments informally to detect adhd students? participating in training held by the college teachers have a very important role in the educational process. as someone who transfers knowledge to learners, teachers need some special strategies so that the material delivered to the students can be delivered to the maximum. the main challenge of teachers in elementary school inclusion is not only teaching students who fall into normal categories, but also students with special needs such as adhd. students who fall into the category of adhd need special treatment, so that they are able to absorb the material maximally. adhd students as a whole look like normal and do not look characteristics, but when tried to be examined in more detail, this adhd student has very special characteristics, so teachers who teach in inclusion elementary schools need to know specific ways of identifying adhd students. one of the policies made by inclusion supena & kusmawati 67 schools is to encourage teachers to participate in special training on getting to know adhd students. teachers in inclusion primary schools usually do not have a “special” educational background when studying at university. they follow elementary school teacher education curriculum in general, and it may only include a limited emphasis on special education. it makes it hard for elementary school teachers to meet the needs of “special” children with special needs, especially those with adhd. one of the policies conducted by the principal is to hold special training sessions. teachers in elementary schools are included, thus allowing them to develop special assessment instruments to readily identify the adhd students in their classrooms. “i am trying to create a workshop for the teachers in school and inviting some experts from the university lecturer who can help teachers identify students with adhd in the school.” interview, school principal “before assessing the student with adhd, i got some training and workshop on using the instruments. this school’s principals invite an expert who is a university lecturer focusing on special education need.” interview, teacher i training and workshops are critical for the schoolteachers. they help teachers observe how to use adhd instruments. based on the primary school teachers’ interview, they stated that the school principals invited some experts from the university to depict how to understand that a student had a disorder. in the training session, the experts explained to the teachers how to assess precisely that a given had adhd disorder. for example, one of the adhd characteristics is that the students never pay attention to the person either friends or teachers talking to them. the lecturer from the university disclosed that the character was the defining issue as typical students demonstrated the same. therefore, the training had utmost prominence in helping teachers identify the problem. adhd is a mental health disorder. the first assessment done by the teacher focused on attention deficit disorder. the teachers observed the students’ characteristics and behaviors to feel how their daily activities were. however, even though the teacher could detect and follow differences in students’ behaviors in the adhd category, the teacher had to resort to several ways. thus, it was necessary to assess students with mental concentration disorders. this assessment was specifically needed by teachers, especially in inclusive schools, because students with special needs (abk) can attend inclusive schools. journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 “the workshop content that i learn from the expert mainly discusses the characteristic of adhd, assessment for adhd students, the teaching approach used in the classroom, and learning media in the classroom.” interview, teacher 2 “i have learned extensively from the lecture in the workshop, particularly about how to identify the first assessment on students with adhd.” interview, teacher 1 during the workshop, there were three primary points where the expert from the university shared the information about adhd. the first material shared by the expert with the teachers was about the characteristics of adhd students. it was the first essential knowledge that the teachers should know as fundamental. for example, teachers learned about the theory of adhd, its diagnosis, characteristics, and some treatments in the classroom. therefore, teachers in inclusive primary schools could gather the fundamental personalities of adhd students. then, the experts shared knowledge about the adhd assessment. this assessment was the critical point where teachers could learn to detect and assess students with adhd. experts from the university delineated how to use the assessment form and analyzed the results depending on their character. also, the experts explained the teaching approach and learning media to the teachers during the training. for instance, lectures gave some examples such as music and videos that would be beneficial for the students to learn and cope with the materials in the classroom. teacher develops adhd identification instrument training on how to understand the characteristics of adhd students has a very important role for inclusive elementary school teachers. as previously stated in the results of previous studies, that the purpose of the training is to be able to provide teachers with an understanding of the characteristics of adhd students and provide information on how to identify adhd students in elementary school, especially the lower class. during the training process, teachers are given detailed modules and information about adhd students, the learning process, how to handle it, and also learning methods that allow it to be used during the identification process. the result of this training is that teachers can produce identification instruments that have been agreed upon and checked the results by speakers who are experts from universities. supena & kusmawati 69 "the result of the training carried out is that teachers are able to develop personal adhd identification instruments that can be used when conducting adhd assessments in the classroom" interview, principal based on the information from the principal, the main result of the training held is that teachers are able to produce adhd instruments independently and can also use them directly when assessing in the classroom. so, teachers can know the learning methods and media used and special ways that adhd students can also learn optimally in the classroom. training on understanding students with special needs in inclusion elementary schools is carried out regularly every year by the school, so that the knowledge possessed by teachers continues to be upgraded. this is the policy of every elementary school inclusion, so that funds obtained from the government can also be used to increase the scientific capacity and teaching practices of every teacher in the school. "every year, our school always holds training on children with special needs and invites experts from universities. the topic discussed is not only about adhd, but also about some specifications of other student characteristics" principal interviews. although not about adhd, upgrading teachers' knowledge about children with special needs is very important. it aims to be able to improve the teacher's understanding of special needs students. the following are the results of adhd student assessment instruments that have been created by teachers to be used in the process of initial identification of adhd. table 4 early adhd identification instruments that have been created by teachers from training results no adhd characteristics results yes no 1 restless, squirming; tapping hands or feet v 2 feeling restless (child will run around or climb inappropriately) v 3 need to work hard to be able to play quietly or to do activities in silence v 4 always ready, like being driven by a machine v 5 very chatty v 6 explode talk even before the question is asked v 7 you need to work hard to be able to wait until your turn comes v 8 cutting others off, slipping into other people's discussions or games v 9 making mistakes recklessly, not paying attention to details v 10 has trouble paying attention (while doing tasks or playing) v 11 like not paying attention when someone is talking to him v 12 not following up (homework, homework, work); easy to switch v 13 unorganized v 14 avoiding tasks that require prolonged focus (such as schoolwork) v 15 can't remember tracks or often loses keys, glasses, papers, tools, etc. v 16 easily distracted v journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 table 4 is the result of the teacher's understanding when participating in training on the characteristics of adhd students including one of the results of student assessment for adhd. there are 16 characteristics found by teachers based on the results of sources that have been obtained from the training carried out by the school. the sixteen characteristics can be identified during several meetings by the inclusion elementary school teacher. through the results of the assessment of the instrument, it can make it easier for elementary school teachers to be included in the adhd identification process. but even so, this allows for some problems in terms of the level of accuracy of the instrument, as well as the teacher's understanding in identifying adhdh students. therefore, there needs to be validation of the instruments that have been made by the teacher and also further examination both by the teacher and by psychologists who are experts in the field of adhd students. comparing the assessment instruments made by teachers with the other resources people usually assessing the adhd include special needs teachers, medical doctors, and psychologists. special needs teachers learn about disabled students while at the university, thus making them extraordinarily familiar with adhd students. psychologists and medical doctors also have particular instruments to diagnose students with adhd syndrome. the literature has suggested that some devices such as dsm-5 or diagnostic and statistical manual mental disorder exist for this end. medical doctors and psychologists usually use it to assess people with adhd. the present study included a form to make inclusive teachers evaluate students with adhd. then, the result could be compared with that of the medical doctors and psychologists, who also detected adhd. “after training with the experts, teachers had to compare the instruments made by themselves with the psychologists’ and doctors’” interview, the school principal. validating the instrument involves consulting with psychologists and medical doctors who specifically deal with students having adhd. when the teacher follows the training process provided by the expert, the result is that the teacher develops a specific assessment instrument. the instrument is then compared to a psychologist, thus ultimately obtaining validation with the results provided by doctors and psychologists. supena & kusmawati 71 an instrument is valid if it can precisely measure what it should. if teachers want to do a test to see the characteristics of adhd students, then they need to make specific adhd instruments. it is necessary to develop tests per the targeted goals, getting excellent results meaning that they should accurately determine students with adhd. validity for a research instrument involves showing the achievement or success of a tool in measuring what should be measured. the principle of the test instrument is valid but not universal. the degree of validity only applies to one specific group planned to be used by researchers to see the degree of validity in children with special needs adhd. "after being compared to instruments made by psychologists and doctors, i feel more optimistic in using the instruments i have created to be able to identify adhd students" interview, teacher 4 after the validation process, the teacher can use the instrument on the students in the classroom. it can be used by the teacher in the first encounter with students in class, and then while performing instrument validation processes for students. research question 2: how do teachers use instruments of identification on adhd? after getting ready on how to use the instruments, teachers try to identify the adhd students following lectures information on the training. based on the results of interviews with teachers, at least some characters can be used as an initial assessment when detecting students with special needs, especially those classified as adhd students. this characteristic can be used by the teacher when observing the characteristics of students in the classroom. “in the learning process, i try to be able to provide games in learning, such as making airplanes and boats. although most of the students are able to make boats, adhd students feel less focused on the material i convey, so they don't understand” interview, teacher i one of the characteristics of someone having an adhd mental health disorder is that a person cannot focus on the learning material presented by the teacher. based on the interview results with one of the teachers, he stated that his students lacked focus and could not receive learning materials in almost every meeting. it is not the case with other students because the other students can readily refocus even if they cannot focus at first. however, students detected with adhd could not follow the learning process at each meeting. although teachers have tried to provide stimulation as direct journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 practical learning, such as making planes from paper to make students more interesting, adhd students still cannot focus on the material delivered by the teacher. it always happens in almost every learning process. therefore, it is difficult for teachers to provide special treatment if students lose focus during the learning process. the second assessment that was used by the teachers can include inviting adhd students to communicate directly. direct communication with students identified with adhd can make teachers understand that these students are incorporated. according to several previous studies, one way of finding out which students have adhd is that especially those with attention deficit disorder do not seem to pay attention to the person talking to them. “i always try to be able to communicate directly with students personally who i think are adhd students. usually, students who have this type of disability are not paying attention to people who talk to them, including me” interview, teacher ii the students, falling into the adhd category, especially those with attention deficit disorder, have difficulty communicating with other people, including those closest to them, namely their families. based on the results of interviews with teachers, these students are very hard to talk to. in addition, they are not good at challenging and detailed things, such as asking for help to take something. the following characteristic related to concentration is that the student always avoids activities or assignments associated with focusing. in other words, these students have concentration problems when they receive learning materials from the teacher. in this case, the students cannot concentrate on the learning material. it is one of the characteristics of students identified with adhd, and with this character, difficulty in concentration becomes one of the traits of students with adhd. “when i teach the material to students, one of the disabled students in my class is having difficulty concentrating. this can be seen when i explain the material, the student concerned does other activities and does not focus on learning” interview, teacher ii according to the results of interviews with teachers, one of the characteristics of students indicated with adhd is allied to concentration. early concentration implies that students identified with adhd have fundamental differences from other students. one of the problems characterizing the diagnosis of adhd is the difficulty of being able to think and concentrate on teachers delivering learning materials to their students, so according to the interviewed teachers, they need special strategies to be able to teach and identify adhd students in terms of communicating. supena & kusmawati 73 the interview results show that based on the teachers’ experience in identifying adhd, the training workshop in using the instruments is exceedingly helpful in detecting adhd students. the abovementioned characteristic depends on the teachers’ experience when teaching in the classroom. then each student distinguished as adhd was analyzed using the instruments of adhd disorder. after receiving the workshop on the device, teachers can identify and assess students with this disorder. therefore, the assessment of adhd instruments helps teachers to discover attention deficit disorder. assessment of students with excessive activity disorders this part will discuss how school-teachers identify excessive activity disorders using adhd instruments. excessive activity or hyperactivity is the second characteristic of adhd. if a child cannot be silent, always talks a lot while communicating, and moves very actively, it may indicate the issue of adhd. that is why students identified with adhd are more active than typical students. it can be seen from how they behave and convey several messages when communicating with others. it is characteristic hyperactivity associated with somebody having adhd. then, hyperactivity can be remarkably hard to control. the characteristics of hyperactive students relate to continual movement. they have exceedingly accretive behavior and are readily disturbed if they are in a stressful environment. these factors make an adhd-identified student increasingly hard receive learning materials from school. some experts also say that when students have activities increasingly different from usual activities, then these students can be classified as adhd (hsiao, 2020). thus, students identified with adhd exhibit varied activity levels from typical ones. the impact becomes evident when someone identified with adhd has a poor relationship with family or peers. therefore, an accident or injury may occur when someone who is hyperactive meets typical students. it is due to the negative behavior and has a worse impact on peers in the school environment. it is discernible from the statement of the results of interviews with teachers. "students in my class are very easy to get distracted, and their attention is very short, so when the teacher asks for an opinion, the student has difficulty concentrating" interview, teacher iii “my students are always careless in doing things, for example when he is asked for help, he always tries to divert the conversation and refuses in a different way” interview, teachers iv journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 the type of hyperactivity of students identified with adhd was exceedingly different from typical students, based on interview results and discussions with teachers. usually, other students can completely concentrate on the learning process. however, based on the interview of teachers, students with adhd stated that their concentration was less than a minute. it shows that the way adhd communicate both with students and teachers become the main focus in identifying adhd characteristic. the last assessment of students associated with adhd was about hyperactivity. it can involve several things related to motor activity and can be seen when the student moves more and cannot stay still. one of the teacher’s remarks is as follows. “one of the adhd students in my class has a lot of movement. when the other students are quiet in class, adhd students cannot sit still, especially in a quiet environment” interview, class teacher ii. based on information from classroom teachers who have adhd students, students in the class always have excessive and a lot of movement. for example, when they are silent or pray in the morning before class time, adhd students cannot be quiet and always disturb other students. it is one of the assessments of excessive activity disorders for students with adhd. limited concentration, easily getting destructed, and carelessness in doing something are other examples of adhd, specifically excessive activity disorder. when the teachers use the assessment instruments, they need to see and pay attention to the detail of each student’s activities. as mentioned earlier about the teacher training in advance, teachers argued that assessing the adhd should be a repetitive process. it is why the characteristic of adhd needs to be observed at least every six months and done daily. it means that the adhd instrument is used after several months of students coming to the school. discussion the process of identifying adhd students can be done in a variety of ways. the purpose of identifying and diagnosing adhd is to be able to know how the process of educating, as well as learning methods and models that can be used by educators in their classrooms. elementary school students are a condition where their children are very difficult to be able to receive learning materials from teachers, so teachers need a special way in the process of transferring knowledge to students. as for teaching in inclusion elementary schools, the teacher's challenge is not only to supena & kusmawati 75 think about learning models and methods for normal students in general, but also to add how to teach students with special needs (anastopoulos et al., 2018; emmers et al., 2017). therefore, inclusion elementary school teachers need specific ways and strategies in identifying students with special needs, which in this study focused on adhd students (anastopoulos et al., 2018). based on several experts, the main way to be able to identify students with special needs is through special assessments using the dsm-5 form or diagnostic and statistical manual mental disorder (bertills et al., 2018; climie & mitchell, 2017). this form is also used by psychologists as well as outstanding school teachers (slb) in identifying students with special needs (potts et al., 2021). the form can be used as the main reference by doctors and psychologists because in the form there are several characteristics of students with special needs, including those who belong to adhd students. however, as the existence of an inclusion elementary school policy in indonesia, students with special needs including adhd can attend public elementary schools (sarkadi et al., 2020). so this is the main challenge of inclusion elementary school teachers who have students with special needs. to be able to identify adhd students, there are several ways that can be used by teachers and schools. the results of previous studies, mentioned that there are at least some ways done by schools as institutions to be able to make general policies so that teachers know special ways to identify students with special needs, including by improving the understanding of elementary school-teachers inclusion about children with special needs, assigning teachers to conduct special research on children with special needs, and also developing schools. special needs student identification instrument (anastopoulos et al., 2018; berchiatti et al., 2021; ewe, 2019b; kirkland et al., 2020). developing and improving general knowledge and teacher capacity and capability in understanding students with special needs is the most important way (sibley, 2021). this is because inclusion elementary school teachers do not have basic knowledge about children with special needs, so this can be a new knowledge for these teachers. in this study, teachers did not have special knowledge because their educational background was elementary school teacher education, not special education. so schools need to make special policies in order to improve teachers' abilities about adhd students (sibley, 2021). in this study, the school invited experts journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 from the college to be able to provide specialized training on how to identify adhd students and also how to educate and deal with it, so that teachers gain specialized knowledge about the process and how to deal with students with special needs. this is in line with research conducted by lovett and harrison where the results of the study stated that teachers' knowledge of children with special needs becomes a corner stone on teaching students in inclusive schools, so the upgrading process becomes a necessity (lovett & harrison, 2021). the result of training and upgrading such science is the adhd identification instrument. instruments that have been made by teachers need to be validated by comparing with other instruments, as well as consulting with experts. according to jarrett (2018), one way to be able to validate is to compare with common instruments and also consult with experts, in this case doctors and psychologists (jarrett et al., 2018). doctors and psychologists who work in agencies can issue letters legally explaining in more detail about the condition and diagnosis of children belonging to adhd students. in this study, after the teacher carried out the identification process using the instruments he had made, the results obtained were then consulted with experts. the goal is to be able to ensure that the students identified by him are students with special needs adhd, so that in providing judgment, the teacher gains reinforcement. this is in accordance with the results of research conducted by hall (2005) which states that the validation process of students with special needs can be done in consultation with experts, namely doctors and psychologists (hall et al., 2005). after the teacher produces the instrument and validates, the next step is for the teacher to carry out the initial identification process to be able to detect students with special needs, especially adhd students. to be able to identify adhd students, experts in several studies focused on three main characteristics, namely hyperactivity characteristics, student concentration and communication ability (papadopoulos et al., 2002; scott & nimon, 2021). in the first assessment performed by the teacher is the hyperactive characteristic of the student. the results of this study are in accordance with a study conducted by papadopolus (2022) that students are hyperactive, difficult to communicate, and also difficult to focus are the main characteristics about adhd. in table 4 of the instrument developed by the teacher, one of the main focused characteristics is having a trouble in paying attention. so that the difficulty of being able to focus on others, in this case including teachers is also a major characteristic of adhd students (greene, 1995). supena & kusmawati 77 based on many previous studies related to student assessment with adhd, the novelty in the present study is the development of instruments made by elementary school teachers when identifying adhd students in their classrooms. previous studies related to the assessment of adhd students were conducted by psychologists or medical experts who were able to detect adhd. yet, teachers were the ones who assessed adhd in students in this study. moreover, previous studies examined adhd symptoms in adults or college students, while this study centered on identifying adhd in elementary school students. conclusion based on the findings in this study, there are several ways that teachers can use to be able to detect and identify the beginning of students with special needs in elementary school inclusion. an inclusion elementary school is a school where public schools can accept students with special needs. the focus in this study was students with special needs who belonged to adhd. teachers who teach in inclusion elementary schools do not have a qualified educational background about children with special needs, nor adhd students, so the main way that needs to be done by the school is to create a training that aims to be able to improve the understanding and knowledge of the teacher. this training can be done annually and becomes the main policy of the school, so that teachers slowly improve understanding and knowledge about children with special needs, including adhd. because at the research site there are more students with special needs, the focus of the training used is the way teachers develop instruments that can be used to identify adhd students. so, the result is that the teacher makes an instrument that contains the characteristics of adhd students. instruments that have been made by teachers as the outcome of training organized by the school are the final product of training. the instrument can be used by teachers in inclusion elementary schools to be able to identify adhd students early on, particularly in low grades. although teachers have been able to develop such instruments, it is necessary to validate the instrument by comparing it with experts, in this case doctors, outstanding school-teachers and psychologists. doctors and psychologists working in a particular agency can provide legal and written information by letter about a specific diagnosis that a person belongs to adhd, while an inclusion elementary school teacher cannot provide such a diagnosis. so that the instrument developed is journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 only for the personal needs of a teacher in school. after the teacher knows and feels confident about the characteristics of adhd students, the teacher can adjust methods, media, learning models and other special treatments. so that this can be used as an initial reference for teachers in knowing adhd students. the main focus of teachers in using adhd instruments is the ability to communicate, the ability to focus and hyperactive character. the ability to communicate can be seen from the level of focusing of the student. usually, students who fall into the category of adhd cannot focus for a long time on the learning materials delivered by the teacher, so teachers need to study more deeply about the level of focus on a person's focus on the learning path that is being delivered. when students cannot focus, then they are also difficult to be able to communicate seriously, because they have their own world and a way of communicating independently. therefore, after finding several ways that can be used, the teacher can adjust according to the characteristics of adhd. however, some limitations have also occurred in this study. the first is the hawthorn effect., teachers have realized and known that they are under research while interviewed and observed. therefore, they may have overestimated their responses in the interview. the second limitation is that this study has only focused on teachers and principals. thus, future research should include students and parents having adhd issues as respondents. references aburaida, l. m. (2020). obstacles facing rural women development in the palestinian society: nablus governorate as a case study. journal of culture and values in education. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.2020.1 anastopoulos, a. d., dupaul, g. j., weyandt, l. l., morrissey-kane, e., sommer, j. l., rhoads, l. h., murphy, k. r., gormley, m. j., & gudmundsdottir, b. g. (2018). rates and patterns of comorbidity among first-year college students with adhd. journal of clinical child & adolescent psychology, 47(2), 236–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1105137 berchiatti, m., ferrer, a., badenes-ribera, l., & longobardi, c. (2021). school adjustments in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd): peer relationships, the quality of the student-teacher relationship, and children’s academic and behavioral competencies. journal of applied school psychology, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2021.1941471 supena & kusmawati 79 bertills, k., granlund, m., dahlström, ö., & augustine, l. (2018). relationships between physical education (pe) teaching and student self-efficacy, aptitude to participate in pe and functional skills: with a special focus on students with disabilities. physical education and sport pedagogy, 23(4), 387–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2018.1441394 buchanan, t., & lemoyne, t. (2020). helicopter parenting and the moderating impact of gender for university students with adhd. international journal of disability, development and education, 67(1), 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912x.2019.1634794 casmana, a. r., dewantara, j. a., timoera, d. a., kusmawati, a. p., & syafrudin, i. (2022). global citizenship: preparing the younger generation to possess pro-environment behavior, mutual assistance and tolerance awareness through school engagement. globalisation, societies and education, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2021.2013167 chaimaha, n., sriphetcharawut, s., lersilp, s., & chinchai, s. (2017). effectiveness of therapeutic programs for students with adhd with executive function deficits. journal of occupational therapy, schools, & early intervention, 10(4), 436–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243.2017.1359131 climie, e. a., & mitchell, k. (2017). parent-child relationship and behavior problems in children with adhd. international journal of developmental disabilities, 63(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2015.1112498 de picker, m. (2020). rethinking inclusion and disability activism at academic conferences: strategies proposed by a phd student with a physical disability. disability & society, 35(1), 163–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2019.1619234 dineen, k. (2019). kant, emotion and autism: towards an inclusive approach to character education. ethics and education, 14(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449642.2018.1505150 emmers, e., jansen, d., petry, k., van der oord, s., & baeyens, d. (2017). functioning and participation of students with adhd in higher education according to the icfframework. journal of further and higher education, 41(4), 435–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877x.2015.1117600 everett, s., & oswald, g. (2018). engaging and training students in the development of inclusive learning materials for their peers. teaching in higher education, 23(7), 802–817. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2017.1421631 ewe, l. p. (2019a). adhd symptoms and the teacher–student relationship: a systematic literature review. emotional and behavioural difficulties, 24(2), 136–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2019.1597562 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 ewe, l. p. (2019b). adhd symptoms and the teacher–student relationship: a systematic literature review. emotional and behavioural difficulties, 24(2), 136–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2019.1597562 fitzgerald, g., dunne, s., biddulph, n., o’donovan, m.-a., o’rourke, m., ryan, s., mcgilton, s., o’rourke, d., & o’callaghan, h. (2020). improving the university library experience of students with intellectual disabilities: a case study from an irish institution. disability & society, 35(10), 1698–1704. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2020.1781597 girli, a., sarı, h. y., kırkım, g., & narin, s. (2016). university students’ attitudes towards disability and their views on discrimination. international journal of developmental disabilities, 62(2), 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1179/2047387715y.0000000008 greene, r. w. (1995). students with adhd in school classrooms: teacher factors related to compatibility, assessment, and intervention. school psychology review, 24(1), 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1995.12085753 hall, j. d., ashley, d. m., bramlett, r. k., dielmann, k. b., & murphy, j. j. (2005). adhd assessment: a comparison of negative versus positive symptom formats. journal of applied school psychology, 21(1), 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1300/j370v21n01_08 hart, p., oliveira, g., & pike, m. (2020). teaching virtues through literature: learning from the ‘narnian virtues’ character education research. journal of beliefs & values, 41(4), 474– 488. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2019.1689544 jarrett, m. a., meter, a. v., youngstrom, e. a., hilton, d. c., & ollendick, t. h. (2018). evidence-based assessment of adhd in youth using a receiver operating characteristic approach. journal of clinical child & adolescent psychology, 47(5), 808– 820. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1225502 kilpatrick, s., johns, s., barnes, r., fischer, s., mclennan, d., & magnussen, k. (2017). exploring the retention and success of students with disability in australian higher education. international journal of inclusive education, 21(7), 747–762. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2016.1251980 kirkland, a. e., langan, m. t., & holton, k. f. (2020). artificial food coloring affects eeg power and adhd symptoms in college students with adhd: a pilot study. nutritional neuroscience, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415x.2020.1730614 komarudin, k., alkhudri, a. t., ubedilah, u., syaifudin, s., & casmana, a. r. (2019). the nationality education model: the implementation of a score-a training model for youth across different cultures in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 10(2), 308–322. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/796 supena & kusmawati 81 lovett, b. j., & harrison, a. g. (2021). assessing adult adhd: new research and perspectives. journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 43(4), 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2021.1950640 mochrie, k. d., whited, m. c., cellucci, t., freeman, t., & corson, a. t. (2020). adhd, depression, and substance abuse risk among beginning college students. journal of american college health, 68(1), 6–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1515754 morales, d. m., ruggiano, c., carter, c., pfeifer, k. j., & green, k. l. (2020). disrupting to sustain: teacher preparation through innovative teaching and learning practices. journal of culture and values in education, 3(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcve.03.01.1 nelson, j. m., & liebel, s. w. (2018). anxiety and depression among college students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (adhd): cross-informant, sex, and subtype differences. journal of american college health, 66(2), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2017.1382499 papadopoulos, t. c., das, j. p., kodero, h. m. n., & solomon, v. (2002). assessment of attention in school children: teachers’ ratings related to tests of attention. european journal of special needs education, 17(1), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856250110098999 polat, s. (2020). multidimensional analysis of the teaching process of the critical thinking skills. research in social sciences and technology, 5(2), 134–157. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.05.02.8 potts, h. e., lewandowski, l. j., & lovett, b. j. (2021). the multidimensional adhd rating scale: a measure of symptoms, impairment, and symptom validity. journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 43(4), 426–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2021.1942795 prasetiyo, w. h., ishak, n. a., basit, a., dewantara, j. a., hidayat, o. t., casmana, a. r., & muhibbin, a. (2020). caring for the environment in an inclusive school: the adiwiyata green school program in indonesia. 18. ragamustari, s. k., parwanto, n. b., nawir, a. a., & sukara, e. (2021). indonesia’s science and technology capacity evolution dynamics from 1970 to 2018 compared to the republic of korea. innovation and development, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/2157930x.2021.1928820 sarkadi, s., syarifa, s., & casmana, a. r. (2020). the policy of education based on character values for the best quality of education “an analysis of the zoning system policy imposed by ministry of education and culture in indonesia.” universal journal of educational research, 8(8), 3423–3429. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.080816 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (2), 55-82 scott, k. c., & nimon, k. (2021). construct validity of data from a tpack self-assessment instrument in 2-year public college faculty in the united states. journal of research on technology in education, 53(4), 427–445. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2020.1790444 sibley, m. h. (2021). empirically-informed guidelines for first-time adult adhd diagnosis. journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 43(4), 340–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2021.1923665 widodo, h. p. (2014). methodological considerations in interview data transcription. international journal of innovation in english language teaching and research, 3(1), 101. wilton, r., fudge schormans, a., & marquis, n. (2018). shopping, social inclusion and the urban geographies of people with intellectual disability. social & cultural geography, 19(2), 230–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2016.1274773 zid, m., & casmana, a. r. (2021). a learning model for teaching “population geography” course in higher education through case study of international women’s migration. journal of social studies education research, 12(3), 120–143. https://jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/3251/516 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2),344-365 344 transforming learning spaces for elementary school children with special needs baharuddin1, juhriyansyah dalle2 abstract the study aims to develop a prototype elearning system and to gather feedback from teachers on the developed prototype to demonstrate its effectiveness. the study uses a four-phase iterative process to develop and analyze a prototype elearning system: understanding the problem, designing the system, developing the system, and gathering user feedback. seventeen teacher who teach physically disabled children in five schools in banjarmasin south kalimantan indonesia were involved in setting up the operating procedures, working on the development of the school, and involved in the user feedback sessions varied among the schools. results reveal that this prototype significantly helps teachers of children with special needs. it is recommended that the authorized body considers developing a policy for all schools for children with special needs, especially schools that support physically disabled learners, to implement this elearning system. key words: learning space; user experience; interaction design; disability; aqueduct. introduction the advances made in computer technology have impacted every aspect of human life, and they have made it possible for people to communicate in networked computer systems. since 1990 when computers were first networked, human networked communication has become very pervasive (preece, sharp, & rogers, 2015). the evolution has been very swift, especially over the last decade when online videos have become ubiquitous. these advances have gone beyond personal satisfaction, making users expect efficiency and effectiveness in their interactive products (ahmed sheikh, 2017). hence, the way people communicate, learn new things, converse, and enjoy entertainment have all changed and mostly, this change has come from technology (schneiderman, plaisant, cohen, jacobs, elmqvist, & diakopoulos, 2016). change happens everywhere, and while there have been some drawbacks, the 1dr., department of electrical engineering education, universitas negeri medan, indonesia, dr.baharuddin.mpd@gmail.com 2 dr., department of information technology, universitas lambung mangkurat, indonesia, j.dalle@ulm.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 impact of this change has been very beneficial. in particular, technology-based change has allowed more people to participate in society (cooperet al., 2014). in teaching and learning, the technology-based evolution has enabled pedagogy to become more dynamic (mayer, 2011). the definition of the classroom has been revised because now, as long as they have a computer connected to the internet, anyone can learn anything from anywhere. terms such as blended learning, flipped classroom, virtual classroom, and collaborative learning are now frequently used. in such a context, learning content is designed in the form of media-rich presentations by using videos, animation, and simulations and not just graphics and text (mayer, 2011). these are all components of electronic learning (elearning), which goes beyond simply digitizing books (soendari et al., 2010). however, to be effective, elearning must be designed carefully, and it must be appropriate for learners (mayer, heiser, & lonn, 2001; preece, sharp, & rogers, 2015; schneiderman, plaisant, cohen, jacobs, elmqvist, & diakopoulos, 2016). siahaan (2002) underlines that elearning serves three functionalities: it is a supplement, complement, and substitution for conventional learning styles. while, previously, it was generally accepted as a supplement to normal learning processes, its role has progressed along with the advancement of technology into a more complementary and substitutive one, with many institutions of higher learning offering virtual learning at the degree level (efendi & zhuang, 2005). gradually, this will allow the learning ecosystem to move towards more sustainable and environmental practices (alharthi & spichkova, 2017). the actualization of these concepts can be used effectively for learners with special needs. for every learner (either living with or without a disability), their ecosystem for teaching and learning consists of infrastructure and content (zulaiha, 2017). the infrastructure refers to the mechanisms that make it possible to learn, while content refers to the learning objects in the infrastructure. these two components must develop together for them to be effective. many infrastructure technologies have been designed for learners with special needs, including hardware (such as wheelchairs) or software (such as screen readers). however, software-based infrastructure has not developed as quickly or as efficiently (rajapakse, brereton, & sitbon, 2018). efforts to support learners with special needs have been extensively researched. special schools have been established with specific curricula and teaching pedagogies (zulaiha, 2017; baharuddin & dalle nurulnadwan, 2015). in indonesia, the government has been leading this change; for example, law no. 20 year 2003, 5(2) states that people with physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, and social disabilities have the right to receive an education that matches their needs. meanwhile, law no. 23 year 2002, 51 states that children with physical and intellectual disabilities must be provided with similar access to both mainstream and special education. thus, various types of special schools have been designed and developed in indonesia (bandi, 2006). as an example, the elementary school for special education (esse) provides education for children with special needs. it works with children with six categories of disabilities: visual impairments, hearing impairments, intellectual disabilities, aqueduct, dyslexia, and the autism spectrum disorder. in terms of teaching and learning methods, each category is approached individually based on the specific strengths and weaknesses of that disability. for children with visual impairments, as they are not able to see things, they rely mainly on their hearing and touching abilities; hence, lectures are appropriate education tools. these are strengthened with conversations and the question-and-answer technique. they also have access to books in braille, pictures that are produced to be touched, and new technologies such as 3d printing (buehler, comrie, hofmann, mcdonald, &hurst, 2016). meanwhile, children with hearing impairments normally have difficulties studying alone because they mostly learn through social interaction (zatul, nurulnadwan, ariffin, & mohd saifullizam, 2011; abdul mutalib, sobihatun nur, ahmad, mahmuddin, & syarifah nadiya, 2015). without close guidance in learning, they prefer to do other physical activities (norida, nur tahrina, & ariffin, 2012). hence, the most appropriate technique for these students is teacher-centered learning (tcl). in tcl, teachers guide learners closely, ensuring that they focus during the learning process. similar to children with visual impairments, children with an intellectual disability can be taught using the lecture approach, but the use of aids that stimulate and strengthen the learning process is also necessary. in most cases, children with an intellectual disability are not able to attend lectures independently (siti zulaiha & ariffin, 2015). children with autism spectrum disorder have various characteristics and their teachers have to know and understand their specific characteristics and approach these learners accordingly (frauenberger, makhaeva, & spiel, 2017). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 currently, the available means and infrastructure are sufficient for the needs of children with special needs. these include teaching and learning aids and relevant electronic media. however, these tools have not been optimized to ensure that parents are part of the teaching and learning process and, together with the teachers, monitor the children’s progress and performance (tosho, mutalib, & abdul-salam, 2016). as a consequence, to ensure that teaching and learning are optimized for the children with special needs, this study develops a dedicated online system that bridges the gaps among children with special needs, their teachers, and their parents by using ict. the bridging concept allows parents to view their children’s progress and performance at any time. more importantly, teachers can carry out learning activities more conveniently, while at the same time they can engage with the children and communicate with their parents online. consequently, this system will improve the children’s’ productivity in their learning process. while there are various types of disabilities, children with physical disabilities (aqueduct) are the focus in this initial stage. this is because this study asserts that children with hearing impairments (mutalib et al., 2015), visual impairments (aziz, roseli, & mutalib, 2011), dyslexia (kalka& lockiewicz, 2017), intellectual disabilities (murphy & mcferran, 2017), and autism spectrum disorder (ip et al., 2018) require a dedicated specific interface approach. systems for these learners must be designed for their respective needs as each group, and each individual in these groups is unique (preece, sharp, & rogers, 2015). in contrast, physical disabilities are more general, so learning systems for children with physical abilities can share common features. accordingly, the aim of this research is twofold: first, this study aims to develop a prototype elearning system and to gather feedback from teachers on the developed prototype to demonstrate its effectiveness. while this section establishes the background of the study, including a description of the problem and aim of this research, the following section describes the process involved in the development of the prototype and collation of feedback. then, a discussion on the impact of the system follows, and finally, the paper is concluded with a discussion on the way forward. method baharuddin & dalle research design achieving the goals of this study requires a systematic and scientific approach. this is because the aim is to make sure that the new system is effective, efficient, and enjoyed by the users. more importantly, this study realizes that the users are unique. hence, a specific process was chosen, which is illustrated in figure 1. figure 1. methods for achieving the goal figure 1 illustrates the four phases of this study: understanding the problem and gathering the requirements, designing the system, developing system, and collecting user feedback. various techniques are used through the four phases, as described briefly in the following paragraphs. understanding the problem in order to understand the current limitations, and to identify the users’ needs, this study engaged with policymakers, teachers, and physically disabled children. different techniques were used for collecting the information; the policymaker was interviewed, while the teachers and children were interviewed and observed when they were performing tasks. all interviews in this phase were unstructured so that the participants were free to express their thoughts on the current learning practices and the particular needs of the special education. it was done using the quick-and-dirty paradigm to understand the limitations of the current practice and what is necessary to assist the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 physically disabled children. in such a paradigm, interviewing one policymaker, such as a senior national civil servant, is sufficient. such a person has supervised special education in the country for many years, and his or her expertise is highly appreciated. in addition to supervising policymaking for special education, the expert also takes part in motivational programs for students in special needs education. subsequently, for the purpose of understanding the problem space, given his or her expertise, this person was very useful and provided sufficient policy-making information. meanwhile, the teachers were selected among those teaching children living with a disability in banjarmasin, kalimantan. this study selected the city of banjarmasin as the research site because it is the city with the most inclusive education in kalimantan (zainuddin, 2018). a well-established inclusive school, slba fajar harapan, was selected in the city. generally, students at the school have performed well both academically and in their co-curriculum. as interviews provide rich data, interviewing three teachers was sufficient. those three teachers were considered as pioneers in the school, as they have mentored various programs for the students, and established the operational procedures for inclusive learning and for setting up the school. from the students at the school who were living with a disability, eight learners were chosen to participate in the research. in this phase, involving one school in the research was considered sufficient for understanding the common practices and problems because generally primary schools in indonesia are homogeneous. to verify this, before deciding to interview students at slba fajar harapan, the syllabus and learning materials of five other inclusive schools in the city were analyzed. this determined that they used a similar system, syllabus, and learning materials. in the interviews, the policymaker noted that user communication is currently distorted. this is because the communication among teachers, students, and parents is limited to students’ attendance. on days that they are absent, they are not able to receive information. when they miss any important information, this affects their learning process. the policymaker believes that part of the reason for such a scenario is because an online system is not used in primary schools. both the policymakers and teachers said that they would be happy to accept an online system that could bridge this gap. they viewed an elearning system as an investment that could help them face certain challenges in the fourth industrial revolution (ir 4.0). meanwhile, observing the teachers and children completing tasks in the classrooms, this study found that the difficulties that the physically disabled children had with moving limited their baharuddin & dalle learning process. the teachers sometimes had to help the learners move, and in some cases, turning the face was difficult for some children. in such conditions, the teachers had to consider repeating the learning content many times. they also have to attend to each child separately and follow the individual pace of the child, making the teaching process slow. when interviewed, the teachers said that they had not completed their syllabus. however, this was not their main concern, because they do not aim to make the children excel academically. instead, allowing the children to enjoy learning was their main concern. at the same time, having to repeat the learning content many times, was tiring for the teachers. these were some of their concerns, which could affect their professionalism, and further reduce the children’s motivation. as a response to this scenario, they said that they would prefer a system that provides content for their students. at the same time, the system should provide information about each child for them so that they can profile each learner. for the purpose of security, only authorized users would have access to the input function of the system while viewing the information was open. based on these requirements, a system was designed, which is discussed in the following sections design as a web-based system was required by the users, unified modeling language (uml) was used to design the system. three design artifacts were used to visualize the system: a usecase diagram, an activity diagram, and a database design. in addition, the system interface was also designed. in this user-centered design (ucd) approach, the teachers, as the users, were consulted on all of the design artifacts. meanwhile, the user interface design was also presented to the users for their feedback. the involvement of users in the designing phase is part of the strategy to develop an effective interface for the users (schneiderman et al., 2016). usecase diagram there are three user groups in the elearning ecosystem developed for the physically disabled children: the school administrators, parents and students, and teachers. the usecase diagram for each group is illustrated in figures 2 to 4, respectively. figure 2 illustrates how the administrators manage the registration of teachers, children, and parents. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 figure 2. usecase diagram for administrators the tasks teachers can perform in the system include managing content, questions, and students’ grades, as can be seen in figure 3. meanwhile, parents can interact with the teachers and view their children’s grades and test questions, as seen in figure 4. figure 3. usecase diagram for teachers figure 4. usecase diagram for parents and children activity diagram baharuddin & dalle seven activity diagrams were developed for the system: login, administrators, parents, teachers, changing passwords, managing material, and managing test questions. as logging in and changing password are common activities, they are not discussed in this paper. the other five are illustrated in figures 5 to 9 and discussed in the following paragraphs. the administrators’ activity diagram is depicted in figure 5, and they can manage the accounts for all users; other administrators, teachers, parents, and children. figure 5. activity diagram for administrators figure 6 depicts the activity diagram for parents, and they are able to upload material, answer questions, and view and download grades. figure 6. activity diagram for parents journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 almost similar to the tasks parents can do, teachers are allowed to upload material, manage questions, and manage grades, as seen in figure 7. figure 7. activity diagram for teachers managing materials involves uploading and downloading. both teachers and parents are involved in this activity, as seen in figure 8. meanwhile, figure 9 illustrates the activity diagram for managing questions. figure 8. activity diagram for managing materials baharuddin & dalle figure 9. activity diagram for managing questions database design the database for the system is represented using a conceptual data model. this is visualized in figure 10, and 9 tables are used for the system. figure 10. the database designs journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 all the design artifacts (usecase diagram, activity diagram, and database design) were verified by the teachers. for the purpose of verification, this study presented the teachers with the artifacts and described how the system works. when the teachers were clear about the system, their feedback was collected. the process was repeated iteratively until the final design was agreed upon. interface design based on the agreed design artifacts, the interface for the system was designed, in the form of a storyboard. the physically disabled children were involved in designing the interface. similar to the earlier design artifacts, the interface was designed through an iterative process. a sample of the storyboard is illustrated in figure 11. figure 11. the storyboard development based on the storyboard, the system was then developed. the development was carried out primarily using php with css, and the database runs on mysql. similar to the design of the system, the artifacts in the development phase were also iteratively evaluated by the users. user feedback baharuddin & dalle when the prototype was ready, user feedback on the elearning system was collected. as the main users for the system are teachers, this study first collected their feedback, and they were observed and interviewed in their natural setting. both techniques are recommended because they allow the participating teachers to express their views naturally (gill et al., 2008). altogether, five schools with special education for physically disabled children in banjarmasin were involved (slba fajar harapan, sdlbn sungai paring, smplb katon, smalb keraton, and slbn martapura). the number of teachers involved in the user feedback sessions varied among the schools and in total, 17 teachers volunteered to participate. all the teachers that teach physically disabled children, were involved in setting up the operating procedures and working on the development of the school. this was a sufficient sample size because data were collected after they experienced the system, so it was not perceptive. this has been proven to be sufficient by many studies, such as that of nurulnadwan (2015), zulaiha (2017), and sheikh (2017). during the sessions, their interactions with the system and the interview were video recorded. this approach assisted the study because data from these techniques is richer (cohen, manion, & morrison, 2000). later, the video content was analyzed, focusing on their body language and conversation. their answers in the interviews were content-analyzed and coded into themes. results the results discussed in this paper are twofold; the prototype and the feedback gathered from the users (teachers). the prototype having secured the design during the design phase, the system was developed. samples of screenshots for the system are illustrated in figures 12 to 17. figure 12 illustrates the main page. this is how the system welcomes users, and each time they sign in there is a new metaphor on the main page. the menu buttons are provided on the upper right-hand side, close to each other. this requires a minimal amount of cursor movement from the users, which helps the physically disabled children. meanwhile, figure 13 illustrates the page for teachers. the buttons are provided consistently in the left pane, and the main window is for the content. when the teachers manage their learning materials, the menu buttons in the left pane journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 remain consistent and only the content changes, as seen in figure 14. this is similar for managing questions, as seen in figure 15. figure 12. the main page figure 13. menu for teachers figure 14. managing learning materials figure 15. managing tests the interaction style for teachers in managing their materials and questions is very straight forward. the interface is simple and the teachers can focus on the main task only, without anything baharuddin & dalle else appearing on the screen to distract their attention. preparing the answer option is also very straight forward, as seen in figure 16. figure 16. preparing questions with answer options meanwhile, when the test was made available for students to answer, the teachers could monitor the students as they took the test. through the system, teachers could see who was completing the test and who was not, as illustrated in figure 17. figure 17. monitoring students answering the test during the design and development of the system, the main concern was providing signals for the users. the approaches used to provide signals for the users include the use of color, text, tabs, and audio (mayer, heiser, & lonn, 2001). user feedback when the teachers, who are the users of the developed prototype, were allowed to experience the prototype, they cooperated completely. there was no difficulty in ensuring that they behave naturally because they participated actively in the designing and development phases. hence, this study guarantees that the gathered data are free of bias or external influence. through observations, the teachers were seen using the prototype smoothly. their tasks were to upload and manage materials and to upload and manage tests. all of the teachers were able to accomplish these tasks. however, the time they took for the tasks varied but the variation in the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 time taken was not very long. this partly depends on the performance of the machines that they used as well as the speed of their internet. while performing the tasks, the teachers used the cursor less often, unless they had specific objectives. when they were interviewed (after experiencing the prototype), they shared their experiences sincerely. their sincerity was evident in their facial expressions and body language (preece, sharp, & rogers, 2015). in summary, they had no difficulty in using the prototype, and their detailed responses were classified into themes that are detailed in the following paragraphs. the availability of the system helped the teachers to reach their students, as found earlier by sweller, ayres, and kalyuga (2011). they appreciated the system very much because, with the system, the children could repeat the learning content themselves. in teaching and learning, repetition is important to enhance knowledge and understanding (moore, 2012). the teachers could also focus on the learning content, and related activities, rather than repeating similar content for different users. this enabled students with different learning abilities to learn at their respective pace. for the students with disabilities, being unable to attend school is common. however, with the system, they were able to follow the activity and learning content from home or anywhere where they had a computer and internet connection. this is an important innovation in the teaching and learning approach, which could reduce students’ frustration. it is important because, for highly motivated students, they always want to follow the learning process. as the learning materials and tests were available online, and accessible from anywhere, the teachers did not have to worry about whether their students missed the test if they missed the class (because of their disabilities). in addition, the feedback on the tests could be sent to the students and their parents very quickly, so the students could take appropriate action. this type of innovation reduces the amount of work for the teachers in many ways, especially because the system interface was very straightforward and easy to use. subsequently, the teachers’ classroom approach could be innovated by using the system. the teachers could upload the materials beforehand (for example, a day before class), and the students could digest the material before coming to class. hence, during the class hour, they could discuss baharuddin & dalle the uploaded materials. with this approach, the students could be more active, making the class more interesting. regarding the interaction style, they responded that the prototype was easy to use. the use of short instructions and familiar terminologies meant that they did not have to make guesses on how to use the system. as a result, they used the prototype with confidence. when they made an incorrect mouse-click, recovering from the error was very easy, and the left-pane menu helped to make their tasks easier to complete. using the system requires very little effort, and cognitively, they did not have to guess how to use the system because the buttons to click are expressive. while this was a small part of the designed system, it was significant that this was addressed (sweller, ayres, & kalyuga, 2011). the captions on the buttons and the instructions are also very visible, and most clickable items are grouped close to each other. the frequently clicked buttons are mostly in one place, and this is a standard throughout the prototype. moving from one task to another can be completed with just a single click. this eliminates waste in terms of mouse-clicks, cursor movements, and mental effort, as demonstrated by ahmad and mutalib (2017). the system does not have any pop-up windows, and all content appears in the static content window. hence, their attention is not disrupted by any unwanted information or actions. if the content appeared in a different window, they would have to exert an effort to view it, which is a burden (nielsen, 1999; paterno, schiavone, & pitardi, 2016). discussion, conclusion and implications based on the gathered feedback, through the observations and interviews, this study found that this system would be useful for schools offering programs for children with special needs. when learners have limited physical ability, their infrastructure needs to be more advanced. this has to be balanced. students’ physical and intellectual needs should be considered when creating a learning environment to effectively support their learning purposes. their facial expression and body language reflected that the system was very useful. previously, neither had internet technology supported this type of communication approach nor was it sufficient. now that internet technology is advanced, systems like this elearning system will become a common form of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 infrastructure for learning. in fact, a similar system has been used to develop distance learning (tosho, mutalib, & abdul-salam, 2016; dalle et al., 2017). this is in line with the expectation that in the ir 4.0, the use of technology will be absorbed into every aspect of human life. if society does not make use of the internet in learning spaces, because it is now part of everyday life for children, the children will use it for other purposes. schools must create an advanced online learning environment, similar to the online experiences that children have at home. children can use interactive tvs to shop, and this is expected to grow dramatically (mahfuzah et al., 2013). while this has increased and enhances user experience (azizah et al., 2013; dalle et al., 2017), children with disabilities should also be able to benefit. consequently, learning spaces must also develop advanced online experience while paying special attention to usability issues (al-aidaroos & mutalib, 2015; baharuddin & dalle, 2017; dalle et al., 2015). the qualitative data analyzed in this study is sufficient to portray the elearning system. we are gathering quantitative empirical data for further analysis. for quantitative analysis, data will be gathered from more schools, with a larger sample to ensure representativeness. when these data are ready for analysis, the discussion will include feedback from teachers, students, and parents on the impact of the system on their learning process. this will include a more thorough analysis of the differences between a control group and a treatment group. the prototype system developed in this research is in the process of going mobile. in the meantime, we would like to recommend that the authorized body considers developing a policy for all schools for children with special needs, especially schools that support physically disabled learners, to implement this elearning system. as reflected by the users, using the system is very straightforward and requires no technical skills, which means that anyone could use the system without prior experience. although it involves an investment, the outcome in terms of user experience is significant. it eliminates printing and logistics operation costs because feedback to parents and the two-way communication between the school and parents are made possible through the system. references abdul mutalib, a., sobihatun nur, a.s., ahmad, m., & mahmuddin, m., & syarifah nadiya, s.y. (2015). design of assistive video for hearing-impaired (av4hi) based on visual perception baharuddin & dalle theory. proceedings of the 5th international conference on computing and informatics, icoci 2015. 1(1), 229–234. ahmad, s. z., mutalib, a. a. (2017). the ical4la: proposing design principles of navigational and object interaction for low achieving children. advanced sciences letters. 23(5), 4246– 4250. al-aidaroos, a. s., & mutalib, a. a. (2015). design of the usability measurement tool for multimodal mobile applications. jurnal teknologi. 77(29), 41–47. alharthi, a.d., & spichkova, m. (2017). green architecture for sustainable elearning system. in proceedings of the 11th european conference on software architecture: companion proceedings. 199-204 aziz, n., roseli, n. h. m., & mutalib, a. a. (2011). visually impaired children's acceptances on assistive courseware. american journal of applied sciences. 8(10), 1019–1026. azizah, c. o., shiratuddin, n., mahfuzah, s. s., mutalib, a. a., & sabrina, m. r. (2013). identification of research gap: t-commerce impulse purchase for itv advertising. in proceedings of 2013 international conference on informatics and creative multimedia (icicm 2013) (pp. 119–122). baharuddin, & dalle, j. (2017). interactive courseware for supporting learners’ competency in practical skills. turkish online journal of educational technology. 16(3), 88–89. bandi, d. (2006). pembelajaran anak berkebutuhan khusus [the learning for special student needs]. bandung: refika aditama. buehler, e., comrie, n., hofmann, m., mcdonald, s., & hurst, a. (2016). investigating the implications of 3d printing in special education. acm transactions on accessible computing (taccess) special issue (part 2) of papers from assets 2014. 8(3). article 11. cohen, l., manion, l., & morrison, k. (2000). interviews. https://www.shef.ac.uk/lets/strategy/resources/evaluate/general/methodscollection/interviews accessed 9 april 2017. cooper, a., reimann, r. cronin, d., & noessel, c. (2014). about face: the essentials of interaction design. (4th ed.). wiley. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 dalle, j., hadi, s., baharuddin., & hayati, n. (2017). the development of interactive multimedia learning pyramid and prism for junior high school using macromedia authorware. the turkish online journal of educational technology, special issue, november, 714–721. dalle, j., mutalib, a. a., saad, a.l. ayub, m., wahab, a. w. a., & nasralla, a. m. h. (2015). usability considerations make digital interactive book potential for inculcating interpersonal skills. jurnal teknologi, 77(29), 63–68. efendi, e., & zhuang, h. (2005). e-learning, konsep dan aplikasi [e-learning, concept and application]. yogyakarta: andi, yogyakarta. frauenberger, c., makhaeva, j. & spiel, k. (2017). interaction design and autistic children. in proceedings of the 2017 conference on interaction design and children. 743-748 gill, p., stewart, k., treasure, e., & chadwick, b. (2008). methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. http://www.nature.com/bdj/journal/v204/n6/full/bdj.2008.192.html accessed 26 march 2017. ip, h.h.s., wong, s.w.l., chan, d.f.y., byrne, j., li, c., yuan, v.s.n., lau, k.s.y., & wong, j.y.w. (2018). enhance emotional and social adaptation skills for children with autism spectrum disorder: a virtual reality enabled approach. computers and education. 117, 1– 15. doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.09.010 kalka, d., & lockiewicz, m. (2017). happiness, life satisfaction, resiliency and social support in students with dyslexia. international journal of disability, development, and education. 1–16. doi: 10.1080/1034912x.2017.1411582 mahfuzah, s. s., mutalib, a. a., sabrina, m.r., & azizah, c.o. (2013). diffusion of itv advertising in malaysia: the industry players' perspectives. in proceedings of 2013 international conference on informatics and creative multimedia (icicm 2013) (pp. 99– 103). mayer, r. e. (2011). applying the science of learning. upper saddle river, nj: pearson. mayer, r. e., heiser, h., & lonn, s. (2001). cognitive constraints on multimedia learning: when presenting more material results in less understanding. journal of educational psychology, 93, 187–198. moore, k.d. (2012). effective instructional strategies: from theory to practice. sage publication. baharuddin & dalle murphy, m.a.i., & mcferran, k. (2017). exploring the literature on music participation and social connectedness for young people with intellectual disability: a critical interpretive synthesis. journal of intellectual disabilities. 21(4), 297–314. mutalib, a. a., salam, s. n. a., mahmuddin, m., ahmad, m., & yahya, s. n. s. (2015). a concept of assistive courseware for hearing impaired learners. arpn journal of engineering and applied sciences. 10(2), 728–739. nielsen, j. (1999). designing web usability: the practice of simplicity. new riders publishing. norida, m.d., nur tahrina, a., & ariffin, a.m. (2012). imsl: malay sign language for the deaf and hearing-impaired. in proceedings of 6th knowledge management international conference 2012 (kmice2012) (pp. 659–663). nurulnadwan, a. (2015). conceptual model of assistive courseware for low-vision learners. (unpublished ph.d. thesis). paterno, f., schiavone, a.g., & pitardi, p. (2016). timelines for mobile web usability evaluation. in proceedings of the international working conference on advanced visual interfaces. acm. 88-91 preece, j., sharp, h., & rogers, y. (2015). interaction design: beyond human-computer interaction. (4th ed.). wiley. rajapakse, r., brereton, m., & sitbon, l. (2018). design artefacts to support people with a disability to build personal infrastructures. in proceedings of the 2018 designing interactive systems conference (pp. 277–288). schneiderman, b., plaisant, c., cohen, m., jacobs, s., elmqvist, n., & diakopoulos, n. (2016). designing the user interface: strategies for effective human-computer interaction. (6th ed.). the university of maryland. sheikh, a. a. (2017). conceptual model of multi-modal usable mobile assistance during umrah. (unpublished ph.d. thesis). siahaan, s. (2003). e-learning (pembelajaran elektronik) sebagai salah satu alternatif kegiatan pembelajaran [e-learning as one of the alternative learning activities]. jurnal pendidikan dan kebudayaan, 9(42), 303–321. siti zulaiha, a. & ariffin, a.m. (2015). exploring computer assisted learning for low-achieving children: a comparative analysis study. jurnal teknologi (science and engineering). 77(20). 1–7. javascript:void(0) javascript:void(0) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 344-365 soendari, tjutju., astati., & dan sri widati. (2010). creative learning in children's education with special needs. bandung: cv. catur karya mandiri. sweller, j., ayres, p., & kalyuga, s. (2011). cognitive load theory. new york: springer. tosho, a., mutalib, a. a., & abdul-salam, s. n. (2016). conceptual design model of instructional interfaces: courseware for inclusive education system (iid4c) distance learning. international journal of distance education technologies. 14(4), 68–82. zainuddin, h. (2018). banjarmasin harus jadi kota pendidikan inklusif terbaik. https://kalsel.antaranews.com/berita/72816/banjarmasin-harus-jadi-kota-pendidikaninklusif-terbaik accessed 23 march 2019. zatul, a.s., nurulnadwan, a, ariffin, a.m. & mohd saifullizam, j. (2011). assistive courseware for hearing-impaired learners in malaysia based on the theory of multiple intelligence (mi). international journal of computer sciences and emerging technologies. 2(6). 370– 377. e-issn: 2044-6004. zulaiha, s. a. (2017). a conceptual model of interactive courseware assisted learning for low achieving primary school students. (unpublished ph.d. thesis). www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),136-160 investigating principal capacity in literacy instructional leadership at selected primary schools bernadictus plaatjies1 abstract this paper investigates the capacity of primary school principals with regard to literacy instructional leadership. i argue that specific capacities related to literacy instructional leadership include principals’ knowledge of the literacy curriculum, supervision of the literacy instructional programme, empowerment of literacy teachers through professional development activities, the manner in which principals promote print-rich literacy classrooms, and the importance of principals having a vision and mission for literacy instruction. this qualitative study was conducted at six schools in the motheo district, mangaung municipality, free state, south africa. embracing a multiple case study research design, data were collected through individual interviews with each principal. this data were subject to thematic and content analysis. the findings revealed that principals have a poor understanding of the literacy caps curriculum. they also lack an understanding of data-driven decision-making. professional development activities to enhance literacy instruction are neglected and teachers receive little guidance regarding strategies to construct print-rich literacy classrooms. however, principals demonstrated some commendable practices in the monitoring of literacy practices. furthermore, the findings indicate that measures that address the impact of the social context on literacy instruction are insufficient. key words: instructional leadership, literacy leadership, reading, writing, literacy curriculum introduction there are clear parallels between the importance and value of strong literacy skills (reading and writing) and progress in school and life. “the ability to read contributes to success in education, employment and citizenship, while the consequences of bad writing for businesses, professions, educators, consumers and citizens are disastrous” (clark, 2006, p. 3-4). without a doubt, mastery of literacy skills is crucially important for primary school learners, as a report of the department of education and training (det) (2018) states, “students who developed strong literacy skills, are well placed to succeed in all areas of the curriculum” (p. 7). 1 dr. lecturer, university of the free state, plaatjiesbo@ufs.ac.za journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 137 the underperformance of learners in literacy assessments (reading and writing), though, especially in high-poverty south african school contexts, is of great concern (archer, 2010; department of basic education [dbe], 2013; evans, 2011; matomela, 2010; potterton, 2008; spaul, 2012). few would therefore dispute that south african learners have serious literacy incompetencies, as confirmed by their performance, which is also “frequently far below international benchmark standards” (mbhalati, 2017, p. 2). consequently, education authorities in south africa have made considerable efforts to address the challenge of poor literacy performance. however, it does not seem enough. zimmerman (2017) points out that, “despite significant literacy interventions in recent years, including the implementation of policy initiatives and major curriculum changes, the impact on the improvement in literacy still appears to be minimal” (p. 37). statement of the problem the importance of leadership in boosting learner achievement is confirmed by a landmark examination on school leadership. leithwood, anderson and wahlstroom (2004, p. 5) declare that “leadership is second only to classroom instruction among in-school influences that contribute to what students learn at school on student success”. although the major focus of instructional leadership, as stated by jita and mokhele (2014, p. 124), “is to attempt to influence each subject”, unfortunately very little is known about how principals should influence literacy instruction through this form of leadership. in general, research on instructional leadership in the south african context provides us with a generic instead of a subject-specific leadership approach. houck and novak’s research (2017, p. 30) has proven that “little has been done for instance to examine the specific knowledge that principals require in terms of literacy leadership”. i argue that any instructional improvement strategy in a specific subject will not only depend on the specific knowledge set of principals, but also on the appropriate capacities of the principal as instructional leader. given the scarcity and need of research on literacy leadership – especially within the south african context – educationists are hampered in addressing the literacy challenge. to date, the focus in literacy education studies have concentrated predominantly on instructional practices in the plaatjies classroom. the merits of this focus are understandable, given that educational research consistently points to insufficient literacy instruction. providing the magnitude of the literacy challenge, though, plus a dire need for applicable leadership approaches, researchers emphasise the vital role of principals. dowell, bickmore and hoewing (2012, p. 7), and bean and dagen (2012, p. xii), report in this regard, “… the need to achieve a successful turnaround in literacy performance, necessitates that the principal should be the chief mediator of improving student outcomes”. mbhalati (2017, p. v), referring more specifically to instructional literacy leadership, states, “guidance and support to literacy teachers by instructional leaders should be given high priority”. the influence of contextual challenges at some schools seems to be another enormous problem that complicates matters. both zimmerman (2011), and spaul (2012) highlight the presence of formidable contextual barriers, ranging from extreme poverty levels, historic inequalities, low parental literacy levels and support, shortage of educational resources and infrastructure to insufficient pedagogical content knowledge of teachers. within this counterproductive learning milieu, principals may face a mammoth task in leading the literacy instructional programme. day and sammons (2013, p. 16) agree, “principals, whose schools draw their students from socio-economic vastly disadvantaged communities, face a larger range of challenges related to staff commitment and retention, student behaviours, motivation and achievement compared to more privileged groups”. this being said, it can be concluded that instructional leaders should be equipped with an in-depth understanding of diverse contexts and its influences on the teaching and learning process. coleman and goldenberg (in lewis spector, 2011, p. 16), recognising the need for intervention especially in high poverty areas, are adamant that “school leaders should effectively lead diverse groups who have physical, mental or psychological challenges in language instructional programs”. on the issue of how instructional literacy leadership is been exercised in schools, researchers point to several challenges relating to principals’ sense of commitment and lack of expertise. to illustrate this point, taylor, van der bergh and mabogoane (2013) blame principals for not journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 139 prioritising literacy instruction as a key responsibility of their leadership duties. plaatjies (2016, p. 257), on the other hand, claims that “examples of literacy leadership initiatives in some south african primary schools seem to be vague”. routman (2014) contends that although many principals possess solid leadership and organisational abilities in general, they lack expertise in literacy leadership. in line with this argument, dowell et al. (2012, p. 7) point out that “a major concern in providing consistent, high-quality literacy programmes is principals’ inability to understand the essential elements of effective literacy instruction. many are considered generalists in curriculum areas and lack in-depth knowledge of instruction”. plaatjies (2016, p. 257) concludes, “it is subsequently difficult for principals to perform their role as respected instructional leaders when their own literacy knowledge is defective”. thus, in order to keep focus with the research questions of the study, i aligned the theoretical framework and literature discussion with a conjunction of the required capacities of principals, key theories in instructional leadership and literacy leadership theories. elaboration on the study’s theoretical framework and literature review follows. theoretical framework according to the pam document (dbe, 2016, p. 33), instructional core duties of the principal include “to guide, supervise and offer professional advice and to be responsible for the development of staff training programmes, and to assist teachers in developing and achieving educational objectives in accordance with the needs of the school”. the standard on principalship (dbe, 2015, p. 9) requires that principals as instructional leaders “ensure that the school is a professional learning community, lead continuous improvement in curriculum implementation, lead the school into the future through the use of ict, foster the success of all learners, promoting a culture of achievement for all learners by communicating and implementing a shared common vision and mission. principals should develop and implement an instructional framework that is data-driven, research-based and aligned with the national curriculum, empower staff to become instructional leaders and recognise good instructional practices that motivate and increase learner achievement”. plaatjies recent research on instructional leadership highlights the role of the principal as the instructional leader of the school, as well as dealing with approaches associated with this type of leadership. van deventer (2016, p. 342) conceptualises instructional leadership as “a broad term used to describe the leadership and management of aspects of a school that directly influence learner achievement. it covers all the managerial and leadership tasks that are all involved in teaching and learning delivery every day”. for botha, (2016, p. 195) “instructional leadership focuses on the primary role of the principal in the quest for excellence in education”. osborne-lampkin, folsom and herrington (2015, p. 2) acknowledge that instructional leadership aims to “foster a learning climate free of disruption, a system of clear teaching objectives and high teacher expectations for students”. other important elements include principal leadership, a clear mission and opportunities to learn. hallinger and murphy (in botha, 2016, p. 195) mention “three dimensions associated with instructional leadership: defining the school mission, managing the instructional programme and promoting the school climate”. leadership is defined by spillane (2005, p. 11) as something that includes all “activities tied to the core work of the organization designed by organizational members to influence the motivation, knowledge, affects, and practices of other organizational members or that are understood by organizational members as intended to influence their motivations, knowledge, affects, and practices”. although a wealth of literature is available on instructional leadership and leadership as separate constructs, the concept of literacy instructional leadership appears to be a less studied phenomenon. adapted from the definitions and theories as described in the previous paragraphs (instructional leadership and literacy leadership), and guided by the work of bean and dagen (2012), i opted in this study about literacy instructional leadership to focus on principals’ knowledge of the literacy curriculum; their knowledge of teaching and assessment methodologies and to assist teachers in the instruction process; the manner in which they promote the professional development of teachers to improve literacy instruction; how they provide direction towards promoting print-rich classroom environments; and adopting a vision and mission for literacy instruction that is cognisant of contextual challenges. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 141 i was also guided by lewis-spector and jay’s research (2011), which focuses on addressing contextual challenges to meet the needs of all learners in literacy. catering for all learners, according to bomer and maloch (2019, p. 261), “is especially important as teachers often encounter children who are racially, socioeconomically and culturally different from themselves. in these encounters, there may be confusion”. “literacy leaders have to be well versed in literacy instructional practices that work for all students, including struggling as well as gifted readers. teachers also need to know how to help language learners, and how literacy instruction should and can be differentiated to accommodate these diverse learning populations. literacy leaders must be familiar with theory and research that explains such complexities of literacy development as connections between oral and written language and literacy achievement, options for literacy assessment and the contributions technology can make to developing student literacy” (lewis-spector & jay, 2011, p. 5). literature review there is no clear description in the literature on what principal capacity in literacy instructional leadership entails. according to hornby (2009, p. 209) the word capacity can refer to “the ability to understand or to do”. this author also maintains that the term can refer to a “role; the official position or function”. following on this description and aligned with the related literature on principals’ abilities and role as instructional and literacy leaders, the roles and abilities were grouped into six broad categories. these include principals’ knowledge of the literacy curriculum, how they use this knowledge to assist teachers in literacy instruction, and their capacity to provide supervision in the literacy instructional programme. moreover, i focused on principals’ capacities to empower literacy teachers’ instructional skills through professional development activities. finally, i focused on the manner in which principals stimulate a positive, print-rich literacy environment, as well as their capacity to implement a vision and mission – cognisant of contextual challenges – for literacy instruction. plaatjies principals’ knowledge of the literacy-curriculum in order to lead continuous improvement in literacy instruction, principals should possess sufficient knowledge of the literacy curriculum, instructional methods and knowledge of assessment. louis, leithwood, anderson and wahlstroom (2010, p. 39) posit that “an understanding of the tenets of quality instruction and sufficient curriculum knowledge to ensure the appropriate delivery of content to all students, is vital”, because “without an understanding of the knowledge essential for teachers to teach well, school leaders will be unable to perform essential school improvement functions such as monitoring, instruction and supporting teacher development” (day & sammons, 2013, p. 12). this essential knowledge includes, according to khosa (2013, p. 23), a focus on “improvement in subject specialist knowledge, subject-specific content, methodology, assessment methodology and common assessments”. dole and nelson (in bean & dagen, 2012, p. 149) similarly postulate that sufficient knowledge of the literacy curriculum is “what is important to teach in literacy”. the south african curriculum and policy statement (caps) for languages (dbe, 2013) stipulates that the prescribed literature in reading genres include folklore, short stories, drama and poetry with a variety of reading strategies, including pre-reading and post-reading strategies. learners should also be able to understand text, reading comprehension, text structures and text features. writing areas include the writing of words, sentences and paragraphs, with a focus on genres associated with creative and transactional writing and skills. this includes process writing, pre-writing, planning, drafting revising, editing, proofreading and the presentation of the final piece. if principals are to fulfil their role as instructional leaders in literacy instruction in a thorough manner, it is vital that they have a strong knowledge basis of the reading and writing features, as outlined in the caps curriculum. assisting teachers in literacy instruction sufficient knowledge of the aforementioned content of the literacy curriculum will enable principals to assist teachers in the practical side of the process: literacy instruction. dole and nelson (in bean & dagen, 2012, p.152) assert that “literacy leaders know that the instructional delivery of the curriculum is one of the most critically important elements of teaching”, while the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 143 det (2018, p. 25) states that “leaders should work on explicit curriculum documentation and work with teachers to develop processes and protocols to better support targeted teaching”. creativity, frequent engagement and collaboration with teachers appear to be important to support them in their daily practice. proponents of this approach such as lewis-spector and jay (2011, p. 5) argue that “effective literacy leaders must be creative and successful in their approaches to engaging others in school or classroom literacy initiatives”. referring to this engagement, herrera (2010, p. 32) proposes that instructional leaders have “a relentless focus on learning through formal and informal meetings with teachers, classroom observations, mentoring and professional learning, to increase the professional dialogue between teachers”. as dole and nelson (in bean & dagen, 2012, p. 152) put it, this approach will enable principals to “know what is taking place in classrooms”, as “classroom instruction largely remains a black box until leaders make frequent visits to observe the daily instruction in literacy”. as a result of these interventions, principals can provide focused support related to lesson structures, content and lesson planning in the prescribed reading and writing content. this point is confirmed by the det (2018, p. 25), that declare that “teachers and leaders should work collaboratively to ensure that individual lesson structures and unit planning support the development of greater consistency in the ways in which feedback and formative assessment is undertaken across the school”. supervision of literacy instruction principals’ ability to perform rigorous supervision to ensure quality instruction probably forms one of the most important components of his/her instructional leadership responsibilities. as parker and day (in botha, 2015, p. 200) explains, “instructional leaders supervise teaching, that is, ensuring that teachers receive guidance and support to enable them to teach as effectively as possible.” “supervision of instruction includes monitoring and feedback to teachers, the evaluating of instruction, the monitoring of progress and a vision of learning” (osborne-lampkin, folsom & herrington, 2015, p. 9). constant classroom visits are a logical approach to improve literacy teaching and learning. dole and nelson (in bean & dagen, 2012, p. 152) describe this form of supervision as “the most plaatjies effective way to know what is happening in classrooms. through daily observations called ‘walkthroughs’ can principals spend brief, brisk amounts of time in each classroom”. strong management skills of the process appears to be crucial. herrera (2010, p. 30), therefore recommends that “instructional leaders should develop structures and routines to influence classrooms on a regular and timely basis”. the evaluation of the teaching and learning should form part of classroom visits, as “teacher evaluation – focusing on instructional improvement and accountability – holds promise for engendering improvements in academic achievement” (lear, 2017, p. 63). teacher evaluation should form part of the principals’ management focus to improve classroom structures and routines. the issue at stake is, however, whether the content and skills as specified in the literacy caps programme are addressed. hence, dole and nelson (in bean & dagen, p. 152) propose a strategy whereby principals evaluate teaching and learning in classrooms by asking the following questions, “are teachers teaching what they are supposed to be teaching? are they spending their time wisely? are objectives and goals clearly laid out, and do these match important standards at specific levels?” an observation checklist can be used to observe certain aspects. lewis-spector and jay (2011, p. 5) describe this approach as follows, “an observation guide can indicate to both teachers and principals which areas are taught, how they are taught and how students are encouraged to respond to and apply literacy skills.” comprehensive supervision practices should also embrace data-driven, instructional decisionmaking, resulting from assessments and the monitoring of the instruction programme. massey (2017, p. 52; det, 2018, p. 9) highlights the value of “data-driven assessment and instructional decision-making as at the forefront of literacy learning and growth, and that it can provide a more comprehensive view of the status of teaching and learning and creates a shared focus”. lewisspector and jay (2011, p. 16), as well as massey (2017, p. 53) therefore recommend that “leaders – as active participants in data review meetings – can use the results of formal assessments to note patterns of students’ successes and weaknesses for the purpose of improving or customising instruction”. empowering of staff through continuous professional development activities journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 145 effective literacy instructional leadership should also entail a focus on high-quality continuous professional development (cpd) activities for literacy teachers. for van deventer (2015, p. 259), cpd activities should “improve subject and pedagogical knowledge and skills”. principals should promote cpd-activities “for professional growth”, as an instructional management-leadership strategy. this can be in the form of “emphasising the study of teaching and learning, collaboration among educators, the developing of coaching relationships, encouragement and support” (blasé & blasé, in van deventer, 2016, p. 344). other forms of cpd-activities “should include professional learning communities and goals for school practices, workshops, communities of practice and principal forums. in this process principals drive system improvement through a collaborative approach, pursuing a focus on literacy” (espania, 2012, p. 34; det, 2018, p. 9). the national centre for literacy education (ncle) (2015, p. 7) describes cpd activities as “capacity-building leadership” that “finds and protects time for teacher collaboration and provide models and professional learning around how that time can be used most effectively”. in fact, through this close involvement in cpd activities, leaders work together with teachers “maximising the effect of teaching on all students in their care” (hattie, in det, 2018, p. 25). another aspect that requires close scrutiny in cpd programmes is providing leadership in ict activities. in south africa, policy (dbe, 2015, p. 9) requires of principals “to lead schools into the future through the use of ict. lewis-spector and jay (2011, p. 15) state that “principals must lead their schools using a 21st-century mentality about the information age because familiarity with technology is essential to the literacy future of students. effective principals who act as literacy leaders will ensure that their teachers are trained adequately to use technology appropriately in facilitating instruction”. establishing well resourced, print-rich literacy classrooms compelling evidence exists in the literature on the influence of a well-resourced, print-rich literacy environment. sailors and hoffman (in bean & dagen, 2012, p. 186) postulate that “learning to plaatjies read occurs best in classrooms within print-rich environments, and lead to improved achievement”. according to dole and nelson (in bean & dagen, p. 2012, 158), “literacy leaders must understand that leaners need additional and many different books at their appropriate level-both traditional and electronic digital materials”. ensuring a print-rich classroom environment is undoubtedly the responsibility of the teacher, but as the international literacy association (ila) (2019, p.4) states, “… teachers must be supported to provide strong learning environments for every student”. research demonstrates the role of the principal in this facet as well. “principals should provide literacy leadership in the arrangement and monitoring of classroom resources and the physical organisation of the literacy environment to promote student learning and the use of print and/or technology.” (lewis-spector & jay, 2011, p. 15) dole and nelson (in bean & dagen, 2012, p. 156) further explain that, “to be effective instructional literacy leaders need to have expertise in assisting teachers in selecting and implementing high quality and a variety of literacy materials”. a clear vision and mission for effective literacy instruction another element of principals’ repertoire as instructional leaders is to have a clear vision and mission about literacy instruction. this should include clear learning and teaching goals. principals are responsible for implementing teaching and learning goals and developing strategies for evaluating their progress (houck & novak, 2017). osborne-lampkin et al. (2015, p. 2) note that “the enhancement of teaching and learning, and thus establishing a system of clear teaching objectives, should be a priority”. regarding a clear vision and mission for literacy learning, scholars stress various sub-aspects of a vision. day and sammons (2013), as well as francois (2014), for instance, feel that leaders should provide, understand, monitor and communicate a clear instructional vision and a sense of direction for the school. in support of this point, nelson and dunsmore (2018, p. 5) emphasise that “this clear vision of effective literacy instruction should be clearly connected to the classroom”. day and sammons (2013, p. 7) recognise this advantage of principals’ involvement and claim that “principals’ clarity of thought, sense of purpose and knowledge of what is going on means that they can get the best out of their staff, which is key to influencing the work in the classroom and to raising the standards achieved by the learners”. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 147 research questions the central question framing this paper was, “what are the capacities of principals in literacy instructional leadership in selected primary schools”. the following secondary questions framed the study:  how do principals understand their roles as literacy instructional leaders?  what are principals’ capacities to utilise data to improve literacy instruction?  what are principals’ capacities to empower staff through professional development activities?  what are principals’ capacities to transfer their literacy vision and mission into action to respond to contextual challenges?  what are principals’ understanding of the features of literacy instruction? method using a qualitative research approach, i investigated the capacities of six principals in literacy instructional leadership at selected schools in the motheo district of the mangaung area, which falls under the free state education department (fsdoe). for both gast (2010) and kumar (2011, p. 103-104), the primary purpose of qualitative research is “to describe a phenomenon, problem or issue in detail”. research design this article employs data from a multiple case-study design involving six primary schools. rule and vaughn (2011, p. 4) perceive case studies as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context and focused setting”, and afford the opportunity to elaborate on an entire situation or process holistically, allowing for the incorporation of multiple perspectives and viewpoints” (lawrence, 2014, p. 42). i opted for both plaatjies exploratory and descriptive case study designs (yin, 2011), to provide specifics as to “how” and “why” principals demonstrate their capacities in literacy instructional leadership. population and study group the population of the study was schools located in high-poverty areas and my sample consisted of six principals. the participants were selected purposefully, as they were “those best suited to address the research problem” creswell (2009, p. 178). the study met the standards of trustworthiness, which encompass notions of validity, reliability, anonymity and conformability. ethical clearance was granted by the university of the free state (ethics approval number ufshsd2018/1055), while permission to conduct the study was obtained from the free state department of education. informed consent was obtained from all the principals prior to the commencement of the investigation. to ensure anonymity, abbreviations were used to identify the participants (p for principal and the numbers 1-6, which indicate schools one to six). data collection tools data were collected through semi-structured individual interviews. this method enabled me to “deal with flexibility with unstructured questions and to probe for more information if answers are too brief or there is no initial response” (dakwa, in okeke & van wyk 2015, p. 301). to mitigate validity and bias threats, i sent the findings to the participants for review to validate the analysis. reliability was ensured through rigorous documentation of the entire data collection process. data collection due to the small sample size, i was able to conduct in-depth interviews of approximately 45 minutes with each principal. the questions related to their role as instructional leaders in literacy instruction. data analysis all the interviews were recorded and transcribed. the data analysis process was performed during, continuously and immediately after the data collection process, ensuring a good grip on the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 149 process. by adopting this approach, irrelevant data could be discounted, which enabled me to target exact themes related to the research purpose. both content analysis, as explained by leedy and omrod (2001) and thematic analysis, as suggested by teddlie and tashakkori (2009) were employed. the data were coded, themes identified and organised, and followed by interpretations linked to the research questions. they were answered providing in-depth descriptions of principals’ capacities in literacy instructional leadership. findings research question 1: how do principals understand their roles as literacy instructional leaders? the data displayed that principals have a narrow understanding of their roles as instructional leaders. they only regard some aspects like guidance and support to teachers, a “few” class visits, conversations and meetings with educators as part of this role. significantly enough, the participants could not elaborate on how the aforementioned strategies contribute to support in literacy instruction. the findings revealed that principals lack a solid understanding of supervision, and view it mainly as an internal moderation function. moreover, the data affirmed that principals lack a classroom observation programme, nor do they understand other processes related to the observation of literacy instruction. this includes evaluation, the use of observation checklists and feedback on instruction. a pleasing finding, however, is that principals conduct regular, rigorous internal moderation and monitoring. participants (p1, p3 and p5), for instance, alluded to the system of weekly or biweekly internal moderation of workbooks, planning files and programmes of assessment. participants expressed concerns relating to a challenging workload, including time constraints that hamper monitoring. smt members do not have specific roles allocated to them in internal moderation procedures, and do not operating as a united, collective team: “they [smts] are actually trendsetters … if only all smt members can talk the same language to say ultimately we have a common purpose. the smt members are actually plaatjies the trendsetters and if only they could have seen what i try to do with them and not all of them are buying into what i’m trying to do …” (p 3) research question 2: what are principals’ capacities to utilize data to improve literacy instruction? on the subject of the usage of data to strengthen instructional skills in literacy, the findings showed that all schools are obliged to use a compulsory data analysis programme from the fsdoe. apart from this, principals are not leading in-depth data analysis strategies in literacy instruction. some shallow data analysis practices confirms this impression: “we take educators’ work, look at the results and compare and discuss these with the rest of the smt”. (p 6) “we do things like bar graphs whereby we check how many learners for instance passed mathematics and how many failed. we take statistics of the current year and the previous year and evaluate where we did wrong and how we can improve. in english and mathematics, i sat down with the educators and came up with a plan that they must conduct extra classes for those two subjects.” (p 2) research question 3: what are principals’ capacities to empower staff through professional development activities? from the replies assembled, it can be deduced that the participants do not really empower professional development activities amongst staff members in literacy instruction: “we have not started with literacy at the other schools. they name it professional learning communities (plc), we currently have it only for maths, not for literacy. (p2) in addition, “we intend to start with plc groups for literacy as well.” (p3) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 151 the responses further indicate that principals do not provide direction to teachers in cpd activities like the development of exemplars, demonstration lessons, communities of practice, development of coaching and collaboration on instructional practices in literacy. research question 4: what are principals’ capacities to transfer their literacy-vision into action to respond to contextual challenges? responding to the question of what their vision for literacy instruction demands, principals could not share with confidence what their vision entails. additional support to learners that compensate for contextual challenges are present at most of the schools. p 1, 3, 4 and 6 indicated afternoon classes in languages in smaller groups, intervention from a school-based support team, as well as using old papers and homework classes. i could not trace any evidence, however, of a structured, pre-planned intervention literacy programme at any of the participating schools. in addition, the participants do not provide direction to promote a sense of collective efficacy that promotes literacy instruction as a key priority. although some of the participants referred in their responses to strategies such as meetings, videos on motivation and punctuality, it was unclear how these strategies promoted literacy instruction. moreover, the data showed that the shortage of support from education authorities like subject advisors poses a significant threat to improving literacy instruction. research question 5: what are principals’ understanding of the features of literacy instruction? in order to answer this question, i looked at principals’ knowledge of the caps literacy curriculum. principals have a poor understanding of the skills, subject content (reading and writing genres) and strategies of this curriculum, nor do they understand assessment processes. interestingly, the data demonstrated that none of the principals were exposed to literacy instruction themselves as teachers. principals’ understanding on what learning materials and posters are needed in literacy classrooms was lacking as well. they have no understanding of the link between the content and the learning materials required in the classroom. principals are lacking leadership plaatjies skills to improve the print-richness and resources in literacy classrooms. on a constructive note, though, some remarks were indicative of a minimal understanding of a conducive literacy classroom. the principals of schools 2 and 3, for instance, mentioned strategies such as essays that could be placed on the classroom walls, teachers who make their own posters and develop their own learning materials. other strategies relevant to promote a conducive literacy environment include a moveable library, reading clubs and a computerised reading programme. discussion, conclusion and implications the point of departure in this paper was to investigate the capacity of principals in literacy instructional leadership. this study revealed that some south african principals have a poor understanding of instructional leadership. this observation supports a finding by kgatla (2013, p. 54), who claims that “principals have little understanding of instructional leadership”. given the nature of south african primary schools that do not really achieve the mandate of strong subjectspecific instructional leadership knowledge, expertise appears to be even non-existent in literacy instructional leadership. due to this lack of expertise, principals seem to have a tendency to neglect targeted support to teachers in all aspects of supervising literacy instruction. classroom observation, for instance, suggested by francois (2014, p. 591) as “an opportunity to provide targeted support to teachers, and for the principal to assert himself/herself as an instructional leader”, is completely wanting. the study discovered that there is a clear intention from most of the principals to conduct rigorous internal moderation and monitoring of learners’ workbooks and portfolios of evidence. this finding is in line with research conducted by botha (2013, p. 195) and osborne-lampkin et al. (2015, p. 9), who “regard monitoring and feedback as a crucial duty of instructional leaders”. participants expressed concerns relating to a challenging workload and time constraints that may hamper the monitoring of teachers’ work. plaatjies (2016, p. 256) affirms this challenge, adding that “literacy initiatives are difficult to implement due to large numbers of learners with learning impairments”. this finding on the time constraints in principals’ daily conduct is also consistent with research conducted by austin et al. (2018, p. 41) who claim, “principals spend only 10 per journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 153 cent of their day in instruction-related tasks”. if one takes into consideration that the primary school curriculum consists of much more than the literacy component, it justifies the reasons why principals struggle to devote enough attention to literacy supervision. on the issue of smts that do not operate as a united collective unit, it may be ascribed to the fact that the principals do not adopt a distributed/shared leadership approach in literacy leadership. hence, this should be seen as a point of critique concerning the policy documents, as they lack specific roles allocated to smts operating as a collective unit. furthermore, the findings showed that principals display a shallow understanding of what datadriven analysis and decision-making involve. for example, i could not pick up clear indications of how principals provide leadership in data usage relating to the analysis of instruction, assessment, observation and supervision of reading and writing instruction. this finding is in line with naidoo and petersen’s (2015, p. 7) research in which they also found that “principals ignore or underestimate learner assessment data, and that they may not be able to identify where instructional strategies are failing”. for this reason also, principals may struggle to provide teachers with informed support in literacy instruction. my study further revealed that principals do not empower staff through professional development activities. the same sentiments were reflected by mbhalati (2017, p. 58), who confirmed that “professional learning activities in the form of capacity-building strategies for literacy teachers are lacking”. the nature of staff development strategies involves activities such as professional learning communities, further studies and workshop training. this trend is confirmed by kgatla’s study (2013, p. 59) in which “school-based staff participate in development programmes and teachers are encouraged to embark on further studies”. moreover, the findings indicate that it is difficult to for principals to implement formal professional development programmes. bomer and maloch (2019, p. 261) support this challenge by claiming that “getting everyone involved in professional development may be a tricky exercise, as it is difficult to get everyone pulling in one direction”. the shortage of professional development activities are further evident by the fact that principals do not offer leadership in the development of exemplars, demonstration lessons and the sharing of ideas on instructional practices in literacy are absent. this finding is contrary to what francois (2014, p. 583; 591) recommends, namely “that principals should encourage teachers to plaatjies share reflections and ideas about class and school-level instructional practices, as their involvement will provide them with experience and reinforce their role as instructional leaders”. the finding that principals do not pursue a sound vision for literacy instruction calls into question what lewis-spector and jay (2011), day and sammons (2013), osborne-lampkin et al. (2015) and houck and novak (2017) regard as crucial functions of a principal’s instructional leadership responsibilities. interestingly enough, literature displays contradicting opinions by researchers on the idea of the development of a vision and mission statement. in his study, kgatla (2013, p. 55) shows that “principals understand the process of developing a mission statement”, while mbhalati (2017, p. 57), rejects the notion that principals’ possess sufficient capacities to adopt a vision for literacy learning, “school management teams, (including the principal) at some south african schools are not doing enough to support teachers in literacy instruction; a clear indication of the lack of vision and mission.” regarding contextual challenges, the data also affirmed that principals do not operate as a collective to address contextual challenges and their influence on literacy instruction. francois’ (2014, p. 590-591) research demonstrates that “a learning community where learning happened collectively, validated the monitoring of reading instruction”. this research has demonstrated that principals have a clear lack of understanding of the features and content of the caps literacy curriculum. this factor hampers their ability to provide sound support to literacy teachers. this finding is supported by routman (2014, p. 11), who declare “that principals often do not recognise key aspects of literacy in classrooms and struggle to assess the quality of teachers’ work”. plaatjies (2016, p. 256) agrees “that principals’ deficient instructional and assessment knowledge of the literacy curriculum hampers support to teachers, and even leads to feelings of powerlessness”. kgatla (2013, p. 65) ascribes this deficiency to a lack of leadership training regarding the caps curriculum. the fact that most of them were not literacy teachers themselves appears to have a negative impact on their subject knowledge. dowell et al. (2012, p. 8) also discovered that “the prevailing perspective of many administrators is that they do not understand literacy, nor do they know how to lead literacy”. principals’ lack of understanding of the curriculum is also evident in their knowledge on what a print-rich, well-resourced literacy journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 155 classroom constitutes. the findings clearly demonstrate that they have a limited understanding of what a print-rich literacy environment is. it can be concluded that the overall finding in this study is that principals experience immense challenges in leading literacy instructional practices. five major findings arose from the data. firstly, principals have a poor understanding of the caps literacy curriculum. the implication of this finding for practice is that it may currently be an unrealistic expectation for south african school principals to lead the literacy instructional programme effectively. this has a simple implication; principals need training as instructional leaders. secondly, the data demonstrate that work overload prevents principals from gaining a better understanding of literacy instruction. work overload also hampers effective supervision. providing work relief and promoting collective leadership imply that principals should receive training in implementing shared leadership approaches. implications for theory are that studies should be conducted that focus on enhancing leadership in literacy instruction. the fsdoe should take the lead in these training programmes. the third finding from the data suggests that there is an inadequate understanding of data-driven decision-making. consequently, principals struggle to identify and address difficult areas in literacy learning and instruction. training in this aspect appears to be vital. the fourth finding specifies that subject-specific professional development for principals should be promoted. the last finding relates to a lack of collective efficacy amongst smt members and the absence of a vision to address contextual challenges. together with a distributed leadership approach, continuous, intensive training on the influence of the social context is of paramount importance. although the department should be at the forefront of confronting this challenge through postmodern training, principals should develop specific initiatives and greater accountability through professional development of the smt in these areas. as with any study, this study also has its limitations. instructional leadership as well as literacy leadership are very extensive concepts, each in their own right. it was not possible to address all the dimensions of these concepts, given the limited scope of this article. while this paper can contribute to unresolved issues in the field of literacy instructional leadership, these topics are open to further scrutiny. conducting interviews with principals only is definitely not the only way to deal with the challenges in literacy instructional leadership. it would have been interesting to have plaatjies heard the views of the entire smt and other staff. such a study should be conducted to provide even more valuable data on the topic. references archer, d. (2010). call for more attention to reading to boost literacy. the university of the free state: sa media. austin, s., anderson-davis, j., graham, j. & white, m. (2018). instructional leadership teams to the rescue. developing a shared vision is key to success. principal leadership, september 2018. bean, r.m. & dagen, s.w. (2012). best practices of literacy as leaders. keys to school improvement. guilford press. ny: guilford press. bomer, r. & maloch, b. (2019). lessons for leaders on the preparation of literacy educators. journal of literacy research, 51(2), 259-264. botha, r.j. (2013). the effective management of the school. towards quality outcomes. pretoria: van schaik. clark, r.p (2006). writing tools. 50 essential strategies for every writer. ny: little, brown and company. creswell, j.w. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. 3rd ed. california: sage. department of education. (2015). policy on the south african standard for principalship. enhancing the professional image and competencies of school principals. retrieved january 19, 2018 from www.gpwonline.co.za department of education. (2016). personnel administrative measures (pam). retrieved january 19, 2018 from www.gpwonline.co.za department of education and training, 2018. literacy and numeracy strategy phase 2. achieving excellence and equity in literacy and numeracy. retrieved may 19, 2019 from: https:www.education.vic.gov.au…/…school/…literacy numeracy/ literacy_and_numeracy dakwa, f. (in okeke, o. & van wyk, m. 2015). educational research. an african approach. oxford: cape town. day, c. & sammons, p. (2013). successful leadership: a review of the international literature. cfbt education trust. http://www.gpwonline.co.za/ http://www.gpwonline.co.za/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 157 dayson, m.m. (2016). principals’ experiences in managing curriculum in secondary schools in mopani district. unpublished med-dissertation, university of pretoria. donohoo, j. & katz, s. 2017. when teachers believe, students achieve. collaborative inquiry builds teacher efficacy for better student outcomes. the learning professional, 38(6). retrieved june 21, 2018 from http://www.learningforward.org dowell, s. bickmore, d. & hoewing, b. (2012). a framework for defining literacy leadership. journal of reading education, 37(2), winter. edirisingha, p. (2012). interpretivism and positivism (ontological and epistemological perspectives). retrieved november 28, 2018 from https://prabash78.wordpress. com/2012/03/14/interpretivism-and-postivism-ontological-and-epistemologicalperspectives/ espana, d.y. (2012). exploring two classroom teachers’ experiences as they aspire to become literacy instructional leaders. unpublished phd thesis, university of washington. evans, s. (2011). northern cape schools among worst performers in sa. the university of the free state: sa media. francois, c. (2014). getting at the core of literacy improvement: a case study of an urban secondary school. education and urban society, 46(5), pp. 508-605. gast, d.l. (2010). single subject research methodology in behavioral sciences. n.y.: routledge. given, l.m. (2008). the sage encyclopaedia of qualitative research methods. vol i & ii, london: sage. graham, s. & perin, d. (2007). graham, s., & perin, d. (2007). writing next: effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high schools – a report to carnegie corporation of new york. washington, dc: alliance for excellent education. herrera, r. (2010). principal leadership and school effectiveness: perspectives from principals and teachers. dissertations. 568. retrieved april 04, 2018 from http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/568 hornby, a.s oxford advanced learner’s dictionary. international student’s edition. 7th ed. oxford university press: n. y. houck, b. & novak, s. (2017). leading the way in literacy. classroom visits offer a comprehensive view of teaching on learning. the learning professional, 38(5), 30-34. http://www.learningforward.org/ http://scholarworks/ plaatjies international literacy association. (2019). principals as literacy leaders [literacy leadership brief]. newark, de: author. jita, l. & mokhele, m. 2014. when teacher clusters work: selected experiences of south african teachers with the cluster approach to professional development. south african journal of education; 34(2), 1-15. kgatla, m.e. (2013). principal’s perceptions of their instructional leadership role in the improvement of numeracy and literacy in primary schools. dissertation of limited scope in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree magister education is in education leadership. university of pretoria. khosa, g. (2013). systemic school improvement interventions in south africa: some practical lessons from development practitioners. johannesburg: jet education services. kumar, r. (2011). research methodology. a step-by-step guide for beginners. 3rd ed. london: sage. lawrence-neuman, w.l. (2014). social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches. essex: pearson. lear, m.l. (2017). principal perceptions as literacy leaders at high-need elementary schools. electronic theses and dissertations graduate studies. university of denver. leithwood, k., harris, a. & hopkins, d. (2008). seven strong claims about successful school leadership. school leadership and management, 28(1), 27-42. leithwood, k.a., louis, k.s., anderson, s. & wahlstroom, k. 2004. review of research: leadership influences student learning. retrieved june 18, 2018 from http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/20135/1/carei%reviewofresearc h%2%20leadership%20influences.pdf dakwa, f. (in okeke, o. & van wyk, m. 2015). educational research. an african approach. oxford: cape town. louis, k.s., leithwood, k., anderson, s & wahlstroom, k. 2010. investigating the links to improved student learning: final report of research findings. university of minnesota. lewis-spector, j & jay, a.b. 2011. leadership for literacy in the 21st century. white paper. association of literacy educators and researchers. mestry, r. 2017. empowering principals to lead and manage public schools effectively in the 21st century. south african journal of education. 37(1),1-11. massey, s.l. (2017). leadership in reading. illinois reading council journal, 45(3), summer. http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/20135/1/carei%25reviewofresearch%252%20leadership%20influences.pdf http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/20135/1/carei%25reviewofresearch%252%20leadership%20influences.pdf journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),136-160 159 matomela, d. (2010). call for more attention to reading to boost literacy. the university of the free state: sa media. mbhalathi, n.b. (2017). instructional guidance for literacy teaching in limpopo, south africa: a case study of the foundation phase policy and practice. unpublished phd thesis,. university of the free state, bloemfontein. naidoo, p. & petersen, n. (2015). towards a leadership programme for primary principals as instructional leaders. south african journal of childhood education, 5(3), 1-8. national centre for literacy education. (2015). building literacy capacity. the conditions for effective standards implementation. retrieved may 19, 2019 from www.literacylearning.org nelson, c. & dunsmore, k. (2018). literacy organizational capacity initiative. a leader’s guide to building instructional capacity. literacy organizational capacity initiative. www.literacycapacity.org. okeke, o. & van wyk, m. 2015. educational research. an african approach. oxford: cape town. osborne-lampkin, l., folsom, j. s., & herrington, c. d. (2015). a systematic review of the relationships between principal characteristics and student achievement (rel 2016– 091). washington, dc: u.s. department of education, institute of education sciences, national center for education evaluation and regional assistance, ott. otto, b. (2014). language development in early childhood education. 4th ed. n. j.: pearson. palloway, e.a., patton, j.r., serna, l. & bailey, j.w. (2013). strategies for teaching learners with special needs. 10th ed. n. y.: pearson. plaatjies, b.o. (2016). ’n ondersoek na onderrigpraktyke in skryfvaardighede aan milieugeremde leerders by plattelandse skole in die wes-kaap. unpublished doctoral thesis, university of south africa, pretoria. potterton, m. 2008. the reasons for inequality. the university of the free state: sa media. reutzel, d.r & clarke, s. (2011). organizing literacy classrooms for effective instruction: a survival guide. the reading teacher, 65(2), 96-109. roskos, k, & neuman, s.b. 2011. the classroom environment: first, last, and always. the reading teacher, 65(2), 110-114. routman, r. (2014). read, write, lead. breakthrough strategies for schoolwide literacy success. alexandria: ascd. http://www.literacylearning.org/ plaatjies rule, p. & vaughn, j. 2011. your guide to case study research. cape town: van schaik publishers. rushton, s.p., eitelgeorge, j. & zuckafoose, r. (2003). connecting brian cambourne’s conditions of learning theory to brain/mind principles: implications for early childhood educators. early childhood education journal, 31(1), 11-21. south africa. department of basic education. (2013a). annual national assessment. 2013 diagnostic report and 2014 framework for improvement. pretoria: government printer. south africa. department of basic education. (2013b). report on the annual national assessment of 2013. grade 1 to 6 & 9. pretoria: government printer. south africa. department of basic education. (2013c). curriculum news. improving the quality of learning and teaching. strengthening curriculum implementation from 2010 and beyond. pretoria: government printer. spaul, n. (2012). the inequalities that lead to pupils’ poor performance. the university of the free state: sa media. spillane, j.p. (2005). distributed leadership. san francisco, ca: jossey-bass. taylor, n., van der berg, s. & mabogoane, t. (2013). creating effective schools. cape town: pearson. van deventer, i. (2016). an educator’s guide to school management skills. 2nd ed. pretoria: van schaik. yin, r.k. (2011). qualitative research from start to finish. new york: guilford press. the views of teachers on the upper primary social studies curriculum and its practice www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi i from the editor… on being a citizen in the changing middle east and north africa and on social studies education hello. as sbeb/asse (association for social studies educators) we are glad to meet you in the second issue (may 2011) of journal of social studies education research (sbead/ jsser). we are presenting this issue as a journal which is scanned by these two indexes: asos and ebsco. having met the minimum requirements of being international by getting many members from different countries in our advisory board and scientific board in our first issue, we have started to reach the point we anticipated at the very beginning by presenting the two articles sent from abroad in this issue. our biggest ideal is becoming a global platform where the newest knowledge produced on social studies/citizenship education is shared by making this development to continue consistently. while we were preparing for the second edition, people’s movements in the middle east and north africa had serious political and economic consequences and also triggered the urge of scientists studying in different areas to rediscover this ex-ottoman region. without any doubt, this region has a special meaning and importance for editörden… deği̇şen ortadoğu ve kuzey afri̇ka’da yurttaş olmak ve sosyal bi̇lgi̇ler eği̇ti̇mi̇ üzeri̇ne merhaba. sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri birliği (sbeb/asse) olarak sizleri sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi (sbead/ jsser)’nin 2’inci (mayıs 2011) sayısı ile buluşturmanın mutluluğu içerisindeyiz. bu sayımızı sizlere iki indeks tarafından taranan bir dergi olarak sunuyoruz: asos ve ebsco. ayrıca ilk sayımızda birçok ülkeden bilim adamının danışma kurulu ve bilim kurulu’na üye olmasıyla asgarî koşulunu sağlayabildiğimiz uluslararası olma niteliğimiz; türkiye dışından gönderilen ve bu sayıda ikisine yer verdiğimiz makalelerle başlangıçta öngördüğümüz boyutlara ulaşmaya başlamıştır. en büyük idealimiz, bu gelişmenin istikrarlı bir biçimde sürmesini sağlayarak, sosyal bilgiler/vatandaşlık eğitimi alanında üretilen en son bilgilerin paylaşıldığı küresel bir platform haline gelmektir. biz ikinci sayının hazırlıklarını sürdürürken ortadoğu ve kuzey afrika’da meydana gelen halk hareketleri, bir yandan küreselleşen dünyada ciddî siyasî ve ekonomik sonuçlar doğururken, diğer yandan da farklı alanlarda çalışan bilim adamlarının bu eski osmanlı journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1) ii scientists whose ancestors built the paxotomana (ottoman peace) and lived in peace together with the ancestors of those people who resist to death against the present autocratic rules in egypt, tunisia, libya, yemen and syria. apart from sharing a common history, another equally important reason of this is the fact that those people belong to the same religion with the majority of turkish people. this closeness brings important advantages to turkey which has the only secular democratic rule in the islamic world; but it also increases the possibility of the country to be affected by these movements in different ways. for example, the damned attack done by el kaide in new york on september 11, 2001 resulted in a negative perspective of all muslim people including the turkish people in the western public opinion. therefore, as huntington states, it is impossible for turkey, who has been going through a continuous modernization movement in the western sense for the last 150 years, to isolate herself from the middle eastern and north african countries because of historical, geographical and cultural reasons. admittedly, turkish scientists have neglected this region for a long time. it is important to emphasize that the movements in the countries in question concerns scientists who work on social studies/citizenship education much more than the others. the reason for this is that approximately 1.5 million egyptian people -who managed to overthrow hüsnü mübarek who had been coğrafyasını yeniden keşfetme dürtüsünü tetiklemiştir. hiç kuşkusuz bu coğrafya; ataları 19. yüzyıla kadar, yaklaşık 500 yıl tunus, libya, mısır, yemen ve suriye’de mevcut otokratik rejimlere karşı ölümüne direnen insanların atalarıyla pax-otomana yani osmanlı barışını inşa edip kardeşçe yaşayan türk bilim adamları için ayrı bir anlam ve önem taşımaktadır. bunun ortak bir tarihe sahip olmak kadar önemli bir başka nedeni, bu halklar ile türk halkının büyük bir kesiminin aynı dine de mensup olmasıdır. bu yakınlık, i̇slâm dünyasında tek laik demokrasiye sahip bir ülke olan türkiye için ciddî avantajlar sağladığı gibi, ülkenin bu hareketlerden farklı biçimlerde etkilenme olasılığını da arttırmaktadır. örneğin 11 eylül 2011’de new york’ta el kaide terör örgütü tarafından gerçekleştirilen menfur saldırı, batı kamuoyunda türk halkı da dâhil tüm müslümanlara yönelik olumsuz bir algının oluşmasına sebep olmuştur. dolayısıyla huntington’un da belirttiği gibi son 150 yıldır batı modelinde sürekli bir modernleşme hareketi içinde olan türkiye’nin tarihî, coğrafî ve kültürel nedenlerle kendisini ortadoğu ve kuzey afrika ülkelerinden soyutlaması mümkün değildir. i̇tiraf etmek gerekir ki, türk bilim adamları uzun yıllar bu coğrafyayı ihmal etmiştir. burada şunu özellikle vurgulamak gerekir ki söz konusu ülkelerdeki halk hareketleri, sosyal bilgiler/vatandaşlık eğitimi üzerine çalışan bilim insanlarını diğerlerinden çok daha fazla ilgilendirmektedir. zira çok yakın cemil öztürk iii ruling the country as a single man for decades until recentlyused the concepts and values we have been trying to develop by social studies education as they were shouting slogans in tahrir square in cairo: justice, equality, freedom, national sovereignty, human rights… in syria, thousands of people are fighting to death in order to take their basic human rights from the minority oligarchy that has been ruling the country for nearly a century. it is not easy to estimate which political structure the grandchildren of the subjects of the ottoman empire will construct in their countries. nevertheless, scientists can make theoretical projections related to the future with internal consistency by using the reliable data they have. when we think according to the progressive approaches, we can say that these countries will maintain their developments/transformations despite some possible pauses and deviations in the following years. in this process, it is hoped that the countries in question reconstitute their political systems. meanwhile, the mission of social studies educators is to support the construction of democratic society in these countries where an appropriate background is formed. as autocratic and/or oligarchic rules do not let people to become citizens in the modern sense, it is the mission of social studies educators to raise active citizens in order to have a democratic society. these citizens should be people who can decide according to their knowledge, who can solve problems, who take geçmişte on yıllarca ülkeyi tek adam olarak yöneten hüsnü mübarek’i devirmeyi başaran 1,5 milyona yakın mısırlı, kahire’nin tahrir meydanı’nda attıkları sloganlarda sosyal bilgiler eğitimi aracılığıyla geliştirmeye çalıştığımız kavram ve değerleri kullanıyorlardı: adalet, eşitlik, özgürlük, millî egemenlik, insan hakları… suriye’de binlerce insan en temel insan haklarını ülkeyi yarım yüzyıla yakın süredir sıkıyönetim ile yöneten azınlık oligarşisinin elinden almak için ölüm pahasına mücadele etmektedir. osmanlı uyruklarının torunlarının ülkelerini hangi siyasî yapıya kavuşturacaklarını şimdiden kestirmek mümkün değildir. bununla beraber bilim insanları, eldeki sağlam verilerden hareketle, geleceğe dair kuramsal iç tutarlılığa sahip projeksiyonlar oluşturabilirler. i̇lerlemeci [progressive] yaklaşımla düşünüldüğünde önümüzdeki yıllarda olabilecek duraklama ve sapmalara karşın bu ülkeler kendi gelişim/dönüşümlerini sürdürecektir. bu süreçte ümit edilen söz konusu ülkelerde siyasî sistemlerin yeniden yapılandırılmasıdır. bu yapılırken sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerine düşen görev, uygun bir zeminin oluştuğu ülkelerde demokratik toplum inşasına destek vermektir. otokratik ve/veya oligarşik rejimlerin çağdaş anlamda birer yurttaş olmalarına izin vermedikleri demokratik bir toplum için etkin yurttaşlar yetiştirmektir. bu yurttaşlar, bilgiye dayalı karar veren, problem çözebilen, farklılıkları zenginlik gören, insan, doğa ve çevre sorunlarının çözümünde ve journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1) iv variety as richness, who can take an active role in the solution of problems related to human beings, nature and environment and in political processes. in the following months, it is estimated that the social studies educators in turkey and all around the world will be much more willing to study in this field both individually and institutionally. as a civil society organization sbeb/ asse will conduct scientific conferences and publications which guarantee human rights and freedom and support the construction of the political systems in which justice and equality are protected within the ex-ottoman regions which are associated with people’s movements. thus we are planning to take this issue as a subheading for the scientific conference “international social education symposium: human rights and citizenship education” which will be held in april 2012 in collaboration with atatürk education faculty of marmara university. it is also expected to (be able to) have more publications related to the developments in the ex-ottoman region in the next issues of sbead/jsser. two articles in this issue are related to the theme of this humble preface. the article entitled “elementary education students’ perceptions of ‘good’ citizenship” written by jason l. o’brien and jason m. smith deals with the change in the concept of “good citizenship”. “our journeys: paths toward social education” written by cameron white, sbrina marsh and susan mccormack discusses the role and siyasî süreçlerde aktif rol alabilen kimseler olmalıdır. önümüzdeki aylarda türkiye ve dünya sosyal bilgiler eğitimi uzmanlarının bireysel ve kurumsal olarak bu alan üzerine çalışma konusunda daha istekli olacakları öngörülmektedir. bir sivil toplum kuruluşu olarak sbeb/ asse, yapacağı bilimsel toplantılar ve yayınlar ile eski osmanlı coğrafyasında yer alan bugün geniş halk hareketleri ile anılan ülkelerinde insan hak ve özgürlüklerinin güvence altına alındığı, adalet ve eşitliğin gözetildiği demokratik sistemlerin kurulmasını destekleyen çalışmaların içinde olacaktır. nitekim nisan 2012’de marmara üniversitesi atatürk eğitim fakültesi ile işbirliği içinde gerçekleştirilecek “uluslararası soysal bilgiler eğitimi sempozyumu: i̇nsan hakları ve vatandaşlık eğitimi” adlı bilimsel toplantının alt konularından biri olması planlanmaktadır. ayrıca sbead/ jsser’nin gelecek sayılarında eski osmanlı coğrafyasındaki bu gelişmelere ilişkin daha fazla yayına yer veril(ebil)mesi beklenmektedir. bu sayıda yer alan iki makale bu mütevazı sunuş yazısının temasıyla ilgilidir. jason l. o'brien ve jason m. smith’in "elementary education students' perceptions of 'good' citizenship" adlı makalesi, “iyi vatandaşlık” anlayışındaki değişimi irdelemektedir. cameron white, sbrina marsh ve susan mccormack’un "our journeys: paths toward social education" adlı makalesi ise birey ve toplumların dönüştürülmesinde “sosyal cemil öztürk v efficiency of “social education” in the transformation of individuals and emphasizes that this is a life-long journey for social studies educators. “a critical examination of education reforms implemented in the early years of the turkish republic” written by kaya yılmaz discusses the political, social and cultural consequences of the language reform which is one of the most essential components of the kemalist revolution. social studies/citizenship education literature which will become richer with this kind of articles is very important for the spread and empowerment of democratic regimes worldwide. other three articles in this issue are related to curriculum and instruction. i̇brahim hakkı öztürk’s article “problem of anachronism in history teaching: an analysis of fictional texts in social studies and history textbooks” deals with the problem of anachronism in literary texts that take place in social sciences and history course books. in her article “local community studies in social studies course: an action research”, handan deveci explores the effectiveness of local community studies in terms of citizenship education. and in their article "sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanma" [making use of films in social studies education] tuba cengelci ve erdoğan kaya discuss the effect of using films on students’ attitudes towards their lessons and their academic achievement. the evidence put forward in these articles can help to increase the quality of curriculum and eğitim”in rol ve etkililiğini tartışmakta, sosyal bilgiler eğitimcileri için bu işin yaşam boyu süren yolculuk olduğu vurgulamaktadır. kaya yılmaz’ın "a critical examination of education reforms implemented in the early years of the turkish republic" adlı makalesi, kemalist devrim’in en önemli bileşenlerinden biri olan dil devrimi’nin siyasî, sosyal ve kültürel sonuçlarını tartışmaktadır. bu tür makalelerle zenginleşecek sosyal bilgiler/vatandaşlık eğitimi literatürü, dünyada demokratik rejimlerin yaygınlaşması ve güçlenmesi bakımından büyük önem taşımaktadır. bu sayıda yer alan diğer üç makale sosyal bilgilerde program ve öğretim alanıyla ilgilidir. i̇brahim hakkı öztürk’ün “problem of anachronism in history teaching: an analysis of fictional texts in social studies and history textbooks” adlı makalesi, sosyal bilgiler ve tarih ders kitaplarındaki edebî metinlerde anakronizm sorununu irdelemektedir. handan deveci “local community studies in social studies course: an action research” adlı makalesinde sosyal bilgiler derslerinde yerel toplum çalışmalarının vatandaşlık eğitimi bakımından etkililiğini araştırmaktadır. tuba cengelci ve erdoğan kaya "sosyal bilgiler eğitiminde filmlerden yararlanma" adlı makalede derslerde filmlerden faydalanmanın öğrencilerin derse yönelik tutumu ve akademik başarısı üzerindeki etkilerini tartışmaktadır. bu makalelerde ortaya konan bulgular, sosyal bilgiler/vatandaşlık eğitimi programları ve öğretim uygulamalarının journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1) vi instruction in the social studies/citizenship education. for a world where peace and tolerance prevail and people are happier… best regards… cemil öztürk niteliğinin artmasına katkıda bulunacak niteliktedir. barış ve hoşgörünün egemen, insanların daha mutlu olduğu bir dünya için… saygılarımla… cemil öztürk article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (1),116-132 116 the effect of analogy variations on academic writing: how indonesian efl students perform with different cognitive styles sujito1, teguh budiharso2, imroatus solikhah3 & wildan mahir muttaqin4 abstract this study examines the effects of applying two different forms of analogy, namely written and oral analogy, while also considering learners’ cognitive styles, on students learning outcomes for a research course in english as a foreign language. the cognitive style was used in this study as a moderator variable. this study used an experimental design with a 2x3 factorial design. two classes of slower learners each comprised 30 students, who were assigned into three smaller groups according to their cognitive styles (i.e. field-independent, neutral, and fielddependent cognitive styles). the six groups were delivered teaching over four meetings. anova was used to analyse the data and test the hypotheses. the results show that subjects given oral analogy achieved better learning outcomes than those who received written analogy. in addition, subjects with the field-independent cognitive style exhibited greater learning achievement that those with the neutral and field-dependent cognitive styles. there was no significant interaction between the different analogy types and subjects’ cognitive styles in the results of the research course. keywords: analogy variation, cognitive style, slow learners, academic writing. introduction the cognitive style and analogy thinking approach in academic writing attainments are the focus of this study. the way how academic performance is developed in cognitive perspective by comparing notions that use an analogy as the main characteristics of university learning is described in this study. girgensohn (2016, p.73) asserts university learning is usually based on research that use high level thinking order and analogy to perceive the content based on cognitive style. characteristics of university learning include features that are similar to features of research, such as studying academic literature, developing critical questions or writing reports. some approaches to university teaching therefore explicitly stress students’ own research experiences. they use research as a tool for learning. 1dr. state islamic institute (iain) of surakarta, indonesia; email:sujitodoktor@gmail.com 2prof. dr. state islamic institue (iain) of surakarta indonesia; email: tbudiharso18@gmail.com 3dr. state islamic institute (iain) of surakarta, indonesia; email: iimquuenoslo@gmail.com 4master. state islamic institute (iain) of surakarta, indonesia journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 116-132 analogies according to orgill & george (2004, p.15) is powerful teaching tools to make new material intelligible to students by comparing it to material that is already familiar. in the simplest sense, an analogy is a comparison between two domains of knowledge — one that is familiar and one that is not. the familiar domain is often referred to as the “analog” domain; the domain that needs to be learned is usually referred to as the “target” domain. as a part of cognitive style, analogy has been specified as one strategy for organizing macro-level content theory (reigeluth & stein, 1983), which describes ways to organize the content of learning material. it is widely accepted that these aspects are very important and need to be integrated in any complete theory or learning model (reigeluth & stein, 1983 in degeng, 1997, p. 13). this theory integrates seven components of strategy, namely (1) the elaborative sequence, (2) the sequence of learning prerequisites, (3) a summary, (4) the synthesizer, (5) an analogy, (6) cognitive strategies, and (7) learning control. cognitive style approaches that individuals possess habitual ways of approaching tasks and situations associated with particular patterns in cognitive processes including decision making, problem solving, perception, and attention (bendall, galpin, marrow & cassidy, 2016)). introduced by allport almost eight decades ago a cognitive style is defined as an individual’s typical or habitual mode of problem solving, thinking, perceiving, and remembering (allport, 1937). cognitive style focuses on the tradition of identification of styles based on individual differences in cognitive and perceptual functioning (grigorenko and sternberg, 1995). cognitive style is the relatively stable strategies, preferences and attitudes. it determines an individual’s “typical modes of perceiving, remembering and problems’ solving” (messick, 1976, p. 5), the modes how learners approach, acquire, process information, and the consistent ways an individual memorises and retrieves information (witkin & goodenough, 1981). the way cognitive styles are performed influences the degree of academic writing. drawing upon the background, this study is directed by the following two research questions: 1) do students who receive oral analogy achieve better performance on academic writing than those who receive written analogy? 2) do students having field dependent cognitive style achieve better performance on academic writing than of students having field-independent cognitive style? sujito, et. al. review of literature analogy according to gentner (1989), an analogy is a mapping of knowledge between two domains that holds among the objects in the analog domain and among the objects in the target domain. the purpose of an analogy is to transfer a system of relationships from a familiar domain to one that is less familiar (mason & sorzio, 1996). the strength of an analogy, therefore, lies less in the number of features the analog and target domains have in common than in the overlap of relational structure between the two domains (gentner, 1983; orgill & george, 2004). orgill & george (2004, p.15) admit analogies are mostly used to help students understand new information in terms of already familiar information and to help them relate that new information to their already existing knowledge structure. it has been argued that “knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner” (bodner, 1986, p. 873). as they construct knowledge, learners seek to give meaning to the information they are learning, and the comparative nature of analogies promotes such meaningful learning. “to learn meaningfully, individuals must choose to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts and propositions they already know” (bodner, 1986, p. 877). scholars identify some benefits of analogy as the meaningful learning. analogy help learners organize information or view information from a new perspective (orgill & george, 2004, p. 16), h el p to arrange existing memory and prepare it for new information (thiele & treagust, 1991), give structure to information being learned by drawing attention to significant features of the target domain (simons, 1984), give particular differences between the analog and target domains (gentner & markman, 1997). in addition, analogies can be useful to present concrete reference when students thinking about challanging, abstract information (simons, 1984), play a motivational role in meaningful learning and help students visualize abstract concepts, orders of magnitude, or unobservable phenomena (orgill & george, 2004, p. 17). poespoprodjo and gilarso (1989, p. 185) and copi (1982, p. 391) suggest that as a way of thinking, analogies are a comparison through similarities between concepts and other concepts in an attempt to make a difficult concept or idea become clear. mundiri (1994, p. 139–142) explains that the analogy is sometimes called the inductive analogy, and this is the reasoning process from journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 116-132 one phenomenon to another similar phenomenon, concluding that what happens to the first phenomenon will occur also in the other phenomena. it is further explained that in each analogous inference, there are three elements, namely the fundamental events on which the analogy is based, the principal equation as the binder, and the three phenomena we want to analogize. however, according to mundiri, the analogy is also used as explanation, and this is called a declarative analogy or explanatory analogy. the use of analogies can result in better student engagement and interaction with a topic. lemke (1990) asserts that students are three to four times more likely to pay attention to the familiar language of an analogy than to unfamiliar scientific language. the familiar language of an analogy can also give students who are unfamiliar or uncomfortable with scientific terms a way to express their understanding of and interact with a target concept. degeng (1997, p. 30) states that an analogy illustrates the equation between new knowledge and knowledge that is beyond the scope of what is being studied. this is very helpful in understanding knowledge that is difficult for students to learn. the closer the relationship between the new knowledge and the analogous knowledge, the more effective the analogy becomes. wong (1993, p. 367-380) conducted research on self-formed analogies by students to understand the phenomenon of depth and facilitate the development of concepts. according to him, teaching through analogy can be done, among other ways, by (1) creating a new situation that is easily recognized by learners, (2) providing an overview of the problem in parts formed in accordance with the learners’ background knowledge, and (3) giving stimulation for abstract thinking about the structure or shape being emphasized. furthermore, degeng (1987, p. 77) explains that in the context of learning, analogical knowledge is similar to the knowledge of coordinates (level of knowledge), but it also goes beyond the context of the content being studied. if analogies are used in learning, then the analogical knowledge and the new knowledge being learned are linked in some respects. first, they both exist at the same level of publicity and second, they have essential similarities. third, examples of analogical knowledge are not included in examples of new knowledge. the power of analogy to facilitate learning lies precisely in the attribution (in the form of comparison) of new knowledge to the analogous knowledge that learners already have. such attribution helps to integrate separate knowledge structures and thus organize them into a more complete cognitive structure. sujito, et. al. the reasoning for choosing a content-organization strategy with analogy can be explained by how analogy illustrates similarities between the new knowledge being learned and learners’ existing knowledge. in short, the power of analogy in facilitating learning lies in associating the new knowledge being studied with the analogous knowledge of learners. such an attachment helps to organize separate knowledge structures into a cognitive structure, so the learning process can be conducted in a more meaningful and easy way with greater opportunities to achieve optimal results and the expected learning achievement with analogies. according reigeluth (1983), learning outcomes directly relate to the use of analogy. this still needs more in-depth review to obtain reliable information, however. as with any other teaching technique, the use of analogies in a classroom can have a negative effect, even when teachers follow guidelines that have been suggested for teaching with analogies (see zeitoun, 1984; glynn, 1991; treagust, 1993). for example, although both teacher and student may consider an analogy useful for learning new information, the analogy might be superfluous information if the student already has an understanding of the target concept being taught (venville & treagust, 1997). students may resort to using an analogy mechanically, without considering the information the analogy was meant to convey (arber, 1964; gentner & gentner, 1983; venville & treagust, 1997). for example, a student may answer an exam question with an analogy (question: “what is the function of the mitochondrion?” answer: “the mitochondrion is the power plant of the cell.”). part of the mechanical use of analogy may be due to the students' not being willing to invest time to learn a concept if they can simply remember a familiar analogy for that concept, since familiar analogies can often provide students with correct answers to exam questions —even when those analogies are not understood (treagust, harrison, & venville, 1996). the mechanical use of an analogy may also be due to students' inability to differentiate the analogy from reality. an analogy never completely describes a target concept. each analogy has limitations. unfortunately, students usually do not know enough about the target concept to understand those limitations. for this reason, they may either accept the analogical explanation as a statement of reality about the target concept or incorrectly apply the analogy by taking it too far (treagust, harrison, & venville, 1996). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 116-132 cognitive style cognitive style is defined as an individual’s typical or habitual mode of problem solving, thinking, perceiving, and remembering (allport, 1937). the focus is the identification of styles based on individual differences in cognitive and perceptual functioning (grigorenko and sternberg, 1995). the cognitive style is classified based on the cognitive processes of perception, memory and thought, emphasizing subset of cognitive style into ‘field dependence-field independence’, two constructs basically reflect the way pattern recognition is processed and retained in memory. the whole approach involves an individual’s ability to perform perceptual analytic type tasks. in a field dependent mode, an individual’s pattern recognition is strongly dominated by the holistic organization of the total perceptual field with its parts being perceived as ‘fused’. in contrast, in the field independence mode, of perceiving, the individual is likely to see the parts of the field as distinct from the organized ground (witkin et al, 1971, p. 4). the individual who performs in a relatively field-dependent way tends to follow the presented visual field structure. on the other hand, the field-independent individual tends to be able to break up a given field’s organizational structure and locate a nominated structural part. cognitive style is an individual characteristic of learning that is often confused with learning style. the nassp (national association of secondary school principals) defines learning styles as characteristics of cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviours that show a relatively fixed indication of how learners feel, interact, and respond to their learning environment. the concept of learning style is therefore broader than cognitive style. cognitive style reflects a relatively fixed habit of acting when a person receives, considers, and remembers information and uses it to solve problems (keefe, 1987). every individual therefore has his or her own unique cognitive style. keefe (1987, p. 7 & 16) explains that cognitive style is an innate trait associated with the reception, organization, and storing of information. this shows a relatively stable and consistent indication of how learners receive, interact, and respond to their learning environment. it is also surmised that while learning styles (which include cognitive styles) are related to intellectual ability, there are substantial differences between them. if a style describes the cognitive process for processing information, then intellectual ability refers to the content of that cognition. sujito, et. al. witkin, et al. (1971, p. 3) describes cognitive style as one’s self-characteristic fixed way of functioning as shown in the acceptance of intellectual activity. diptoadi (1990, p. 54), meanwhile, posits that cognitive style is a learners’ relatively fixed habit of acting in considering, remembering, receiving, and processing information. in his description, schmeck (1987, p. 327), explains that one’s cognitive style has two different sides (e.g. field dependent vs. field independent , holist vs. serialist, and global vs. analytic). in this case, even if a person occupies a certain position on these sides, everyone has different levels. furthermore, witkin et al. (1977) describe four characteristics of cognitive style. firstly, more attention is given to the form rather than the content of cognitive activity. it refers to individual differences in how learners feel, solve problems, learn, and connect with others. secondly, cognitive style is the penetrating dimension, and it cuts across traditional boundaries used to categorize the human psyche, helping to restore the soul to its proper status as a whole. thirdly, cognitive style is fixed, although this does not mean it cannot change. fourthly, taking into account its value, cognitive style is bipolar. this characteristic is important for distinguishing between intellectual ability and other abilities. methods design this research is an experimental type of research. it seeks to reveal the causal relationship between variables, where the researcher manipulates the independent variables and then observes the dependent variables to find the subsequent variations that manifest as a result. the design model employs a 2x3 factorial design involving two or more independent variables, called factors, in a single design. the cells of the design are determined by the level of the combined independent variables (wiersma 1991, p. 115). this study examines three variables: (1) an independent variable, namely the learning strategy, which comprises learning strategies when using written analogy (wa) and oral analogy (oa); (2) a dependent variable, namely the subjects’ learning outcomes (lo), specifically their understanding of the scientific concepts of academic performance; and (3) a moderator variable, namely the fielddependent (fd), neutral (n) and field-independent (fi) cognitive styles. each variable, or more precisely factors, comprise two or three levels. the analogy factor has two levels, represented by written analogy and oral analogy. the cognitive factor, meanwhile, has three levels, namely the fd, n, and fi levels listed above. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 116-132 procedures a total 90 students was involved in this study as sample. they were the seventh semester students of english department in kanjuruhan university malang. the activities undertaken in the implementation of this study included identifying the cognitive style, applying learning strategies using written and oral analogy, and administering tests to measure the subjects’ learning achievements. the test for cognitive style was administered at the first meeting after the two experimental groups were formed. the two experimental classes were then each subdivided into three groups to represent the fd, n, and fi cognitive styles. this cognitive style grouping was achieved through cognitive-style tests using the embedded group test (geft) of witkin et al. (1971). data analysis techniques the data-collection method used in this study involved tests, namely the cognitive style test and a learning results test. this data were analysed using descriptive statistical analysis and parametric inferential statistical analysis (anova) (ary, et al., 1985; hinkle, et al., 1988; kerlinger, 1990; ardhana, 1987). the descriptive analysis in this study shows the learning acquisition data for both learning methods across the various cognitive style groups. variant analysis intends to consider the questions and hypotheses proposed in this study. three hypotheses are tested, each being relevant to the research variables, namely (1) the influence of the independent variable (i.e. written analogy and oral analogy) on learning outcomes, (2) the influence of the moderator variable (i.e. the fd, n, and fi cognitive styles) on learning outcomes, and (3) the interaction between the independent variable and the moderator variable and how this affects the dependent variable. a prerequisite test including a homogeneity test and normality test was also performed. results and discussion the research tested the effect of oral analogy and written analogy on subjects’ learning achievements. the purpose of the analysis in this section is to determine whether applying analogy variation affects the subjects’ learning achievements across different cognitive styles. sujito, et. al. oral and written analogy our findings evidently show that oral analogy gives better results that written analogy both for slow learners and fast learners in the academic performance and academic writing. table 1 shows that the f-ratio for teaching technique is 6.326 with 2 degrees of freedom. the pvalue is .002. this research uses a significance level of .05 (α = .05). it can therefore be interpreted that there are significant differences in the mean scores for students’ learning outcomes after being taught with written analogy and oral analogy. table 1. tests of between-subjects effects source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. corrected model 5688.285(a) 8 738.814 10.235 .000 intercept 1167055.33 1 1278166.404 17062.092 .000 analogy variation 853.391 2 482.195 5.326 .002 cognitive style 433.163 3 289.581 3.514 .028 analogy variation * cognitive style 4191.743 5 1211.861 17.660 .000 error 18442.100 261 74.913 total 1203418.000 270 corrected total 25251.596 255 a r squared = .258 (adjusted r squared = .235) it can therefore be concluded that when applying different forms of analogy, there is a significantly different effect on the achievement of slower learners in understanding scientific concepts. from the analysis of estimated marginal means, as shown in table 2, the rank of the two groups is known. the highest mean score for learning achievement was seen in the group of students that were delivered oral rather than written analogy. table 2. estimated marginal means of analogy variation teaching analogy variation mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound 1=oral analogy 65.700 .812 63.704 66.386 2=oral analogy 70.173 .812 67.376 72.080 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 116-132 field dependent and field-independent cognitive style table 3 reveals that students’ average achievement with an fi cognitive style was 69.045, while the mean for the n cognitive style group was 68.300. the mean for the fd cognitive style student group was 65.733. the best performance was therefore achieved by the fi cognitive style students, with the neutral cognitive style coming a relatively close second, and the fd cognitive style student group coming third. table 3. estimated marginal means of cognitive style cognitive style mean std. error 95% confidence interval lower bound upper bound 1=field independent 69.045 .801 67.248 70.841 2=neutral 68.300 .801 66.504 70.107 3 = field dependent 65.733 .801 64.037 67.532 the result of this study reflects the findings of mundiri (1994), who revealed that oral analogy was more beneficial than written analogy, especially for proficient learners. oral analogy can trigger spontaneous response, so a suggestion given with analogy can be immediately responded to by students, resulting in a quicker revision of errors. in addition, oral analogy brings the possibility for rapid clarification, because a given analogy is not always easily understood. direct analogy therefore eliminates any lead time between needing confirmation and making a revision. direct oral analogy therefore really can bring many advantages and be regarded as an effective teaching method. moreover, the researcher also found four advantages to implementing direct oral analogy in teaching and learning: building a learning community in the classroom, the possibility of discussion, the building of greater accountability, and the identification of different perspectives. as poespoprodjo and gilarso (1989) propose, oral analogy can build a learning community in the classroom. when students exchange and share their ideas with each other sujito, et. al. while discussing a given analogy, the students can learn from each other and build a greater level of accountability for submitting a well-written product to the teacher. as shown in table 2, the learning outcomes of students instructed with oral analogy was better than those taught with written analogy, although this is still better than the learning outcomes of students taught without analogy. the findings of this study confirm those of poespoprodjo and gilarso (1989), who propose that direct oral analogy helps students become more critical. it is also in line with the findings of mundiri (1994), who states that oral analogy not only helps students improve their learning skills—it also enhances their critical thinking and reading while also motivating them to write. another advantage of applying direct oral analogy in learning concerns the comfort and ease of students in engaging in mutual criticism and reciprocating information. as proposed by mundiri (1994), students like, and feel comfortable with, receiving analogies from their peers, indicating that it is easier to talk with friends than a teacher. to their friends, they can say whatever they want. although this seems a psychological reason, it really can affect their learning performances. indeed, the data expressed in table 2 empirically shows that direct oral analogy had a positive effect on the social aspect, hence increasing students’ learning performances. another reason for why direct oral analogy brings advantages to students, and hence significantly increases their learning performances, concerns becoming aware of errors, learning from peers, and engaging in self-reflection. these three benefits affect not only the psychological but also the empirical experiences of students. as proposed by poespoprodjo and gilarso (1989), oral analogy helps students to become aware of the common errors in their learning and learn from their peers’ learning. it also raises the audience’s level of awareness and enhances their learning quality, triggers self-reflection, and promotes interest and motivation for learning. direct oral analogy also reduces the teacher’s workload in providing analogy. this can save the teacher time by avoiding students providing analogies based on their peers’ learning products. using direct oral analogy in teaching learning helped the researcher, as a teacher, to correct students’ learning products quickly without requiring extra time and energy. using direct oral analogy was therefore not only effective in promoting learning—it was also efficient. in this study, the dominant analogy providers were the students, although the researcher, as a teacher, still played a big role in the learning process. considering the teacher’s reduced journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 116-132 workload, there was enough time to evaluate students’ learning products and take stock of why students made mistakes. the researcher then discussed these mistakes with the students during the subsequent meeting in order to avoid the same mistakes recurring. william, cited by degeng (1997), mentions that analogy without explanation or discussion from teacher to students, or between them, does not bring any significant benefits to students’ learning. in this study, it was proven that students did not repeat the same mistakes, as can be seen in their post-test scores, which increased. in short, direct oral analogy was an effective method to use in teaching and learning. it not only increased the students’ learning scores but also brought some advantages to the students themselves and aided the teacher in teaching. as described previously, cognitive style is a relatively fixed habit of acting by a person when thinking, solving problems, and receiving and remembering information (messick, in keefe, 1987), so every individual has a unique cognitive style, which in turn influences learning outcomes. keefe (1987, p. 7 & 16) explains that cognitive styling is an innate trait associated with receiving, organizing, and storing information. this gives a relatively stable and consistent indication of how learners receive information, interact, and respond to the learning environment. it was also pointed out that learning styles (which includes cognitive styles) are related to intellectual ability, but they are in themselves quite different. while the cognitive style describes the process for processing information, intellectual ability reflects the content of the cognition. in this study, students with the fi cognitive style showed the greatest learning ability, thus showing they had superior cognitive characteristics. cognition is an activity of thought, and it involves problem-solving activities. such activity requires a response. the cognitive process model represents the internal process of the mind as a complex problem-solving activity. it is clear that students with the field-independent cognitive style can separate concepts and perceptions from the surrounding context, resulting in a clearer acceptance of information. students with the fi cognitive style also have the ability to see components that can be used to help solve problems quickly. they have a tendency to be able to restructure the context. they also have strong analytic abilities. they easily separate the details, something that is needed in good scientific analysis, so they achieve a very good understanding of the scientific concept. sujito, et. al. the participants with field-dependent cognitive styles, in contrast, did not separate information from the environment. those with the fd cognitive style rely on the field, and they have a tendency to follow the environment or context, so they experience difficulty in separating concepts or perceptions from the context. this results in an unclear reception of information. they tend to see the concept or problem as a whole, so they understand something as one big, confusing problem. they experience more challenges in understanding the scientific concept, as reflected in their lower scores for learning achievement. conclusion, limitation and implications in summary, our findings show evidences that students who received oral analogy perform better achievement on academic writing compared to those who received written analogy. oral analogy provides simple and practical identification because it directly relates to individual style of learning strategies. in addition, students with field-independent cognitive style tend to achieve better outcomes than those with a field-dependent cognitive style. it indicates that self-reliance students will work better in academic writing than those who are dependent. this finding however, promotes limitation in that the academic writing is not assessed using complex traits of indicators, and the learning strategies involving the cognitive styles used by the students are not elaborated in details in accordance with the cognitive style taxonomy. to this end, future researchers are suggested to consider analogy and cognitive style of learning as the primary entry points when researching academic performance. specifically, oral analogy is suggested to use at enhancing students’ understanding of scientific concepts when they have the field-independent cognitive style. written analogy is not recommended for students with this cognitive style. teaching with written analogy is more suited to learners with field-dependent or neutral cognitive styles. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 116-132 references allport, g. w. (1937). personality: a psychological interpretation. new york, ny: holt & co. arber, a. (1964). the mind and the eye: a study of the biologist's standpoint. cambridge, ma: cambridge university press. ardhana, w. (1987). selected reading in educational research methods. jakarta: p2lptk depdikbud. ary, d., jakobs, l. c., razavich, a. (1985). introduction to research and education. new york: reinehart and winston. bendall, r; galpin a; marrow l & cassidy s. (2016). cognitive style: time to experiment, fronlers in psychology. opinion, november 2016. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01786 bodner, g. m. (1986). constructivism: a theory of knowledge. journal of chemical education, 63, 873 877. copi, i. m. (1985). introduction to logic (6th ed.). new york: macmillan publishing co., inc. dardiri, ha. (1986). humanities, philosophy and logic. jakarta: cv. eagle. degeng, ins. (1988). organizing teaching based on elaboration theory and its influence on acquisition of learning verbal information and concepts (doctoral dissertation). malang: ikip malang. degeng, ins. (1997). learning strategy: organizing content with elaboration model. malang: ikip malang with publishing bureau professional association of education technology indonesia. diptoadi, vl. (1990). the influence of the way of delivering the reading by using the advance organizers and the glossary list of the acquisition of reading students of english department with different characteristics (doctoral dissertation). malang: ikip malang. gentner, d. (1989). the mechanisms of analogical learning. in s. vosniadou & a. ortony (eds.), similarity and analogical reasoning, pp. 199 241. cambridge, ma: cambridge university press. gentner, d. & gentner, d. r. (1983). flowing waters or teeming crowds: mental models of electricity. in d. gentner & a. l. stevens (eds.), mental models, pp. 99129. hillsdale, nj: lawrence erlbaum. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01786 sujito, et. al. gentner, d. & markman, a. b. (1997). structure mapping in analogy and similarity. american psychologist, 52, 45-56. girgensohn, katrin. (2016). students’ writing research as a tool for learning: insights into a seminar with research-based learning. journal of academic writing, 6(1), 73-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.18552/joaw.v6i1.281 grigorenko, e. l., and sternberg, r. j. (1995). “thinking styles,” in international handbook of personality and intelligence, eds d. saklofske and m. zeidner (new york, ny: plenum), 205–229. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4757-5571-8_11 hinkle, d. e., wiersma, w., & jurs, s. g. (1988). applied statistics for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). boston: new jersey. keefe, j. w. (1987). learning style: theory and practice. resto, va: nassp. kerlinger, f. n. (1990). behavioral research principles. yogyakarta: gajah mada university. lemke, j. l. (1990). talking science: language, learning, and values. norwood, new jersey: ablex publishing corporation. messick, s. (1976). personality consistencies in cognition and creativity, in s. messick & associates (eds) individuality and learning. san francisco: jossey-bass. mason, l., & sorzio, p. (1996). analogical reasoning in restructuring scientific knowledge. european journal of psychology of education, 11, 3-23. mundiri (2002). logic. jakarta: pt raja grafindo persada. orgill, marykay & bodner, goerge. (2004). what research tells us about using analogies to teach chemistry. chemistry education: research and practice. 5(1), 15-32. pithers r. t. (2002) cognitive learning style: a review of the field dependentfield independent approach, journal of vocational education and training, 54:1, 117-132, doi: 10.1080/13636820200200191 poespoprodjo & gilarso, t. (1989). logic of the science of reasoning, fundamentals of logical thinking, critical, analytical, dialectical, independent and orderly. bandung: adolescent work cv. reigeluth, c. m. (1983). meaningfulness and instruction: relating what is being learned to what a students knows. instructional science, 12, 197–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.18552/ https://www.tandfonline.com/action/showcitformats?doi=10.1080/13636820200200191 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(1), 116-132 reigeluth, c. m., merrill, m. d., wilson, b. g., & spiller, r. t. (1978). the elaboration theory of instruction: a model for sequencing and synthesizing instruction. instructional science, 9 (2), 195–219. reigeluth, c. m. & stein, f. s. (1983). the elaboration theory of instruction. in c. m. reigeluth (ed.), instructional design theories and models: an overview of their current status. london: lawrence erlbaum ass. publ. sanders, g. w., wise, k. c., & golden, t. s. (1995). visual learning. the science teacher, 62 (2): 42–45. santoso, s. (2001). processing professional statistics data. jakarta: gramedia. simons, p. r. j. (1984). instructing with analogies. journal of educational psychology, 76, 513527. schmeck, r. r. (1987). learning strategy and learning style. new york: plemon press. wiersma, w. (1991). research methods in education: an introduction (5th ed.). boston: allyn and bacon. thiele, r. and treagust, d. (1991). using analogies in secondary chemistry teaching. australian science teachers journal, 37, 10-14. treagust, d. f. (1993). the evolution of an approach for using analogies in teaching and learning science. research in science education, 23, 293-301. treagust, d. f., harrison, a. g., & venville, g. j. (1996). using an analogical teaching approach to engender conceptual change. international journal of science education, 18, 213-229. venville, g. j. & treagust, d. f. (1996). the role of analogies in promoting conceptual change in biology. instructional science, 24, 295-320. venville, g. j. & treagust, d. f. (1997). analogies in biology education: a contentious issue. the american biology teacher, 59, 282-287. wilson, b. g. & merrill, m. d. (1980). general-to-detailed sequencing of concepts in a taxonomy is in general agreement with learning hierarchy analysis. nspi journal, 19 (10), 11–14. witkin, h. a., oltman, p. k., raskin, e., & karp, s. a. (1971). a manual for the embedded figures test. palo alto: consulting psychologist press, inc. sujito, et. al. witkin, h.a. & goodenough, d.r. (1981) cognitive styles: essence and origins, field dependence and field independence, psychological issues, 14, whole issue no. 51. wong, e. d. (1993). self-generated analogies as a tool for constructing and evaluation of scientific phenomena. journal of research in science teaching, 30 (4), 357–380. zeitoun, h. h. (1984). teaching scientific analogies: a proposed model. research in science and technological education, 2, 107-125. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3), 1-16 1 field trips among secondary social studies teachers in florida joshua l. kenna1 abstract social studies teachers have long utilized field trips; yet in the 21st century, scholars are describing a bleak future for those who attempt to utilize the practice. the common reasons being cited, among others, include a slumping economy, an increase in accountability due to high-stakes testing, and rising fuel costs. while obstacles have always existed, this investigation surveyed 70 secondary social studies teachers from florida to see if they described any new obstacles or motivations. furthermore, the investigation sought to determine the percentage of teachers who utilize field trips and establish the average number of field trips they used. the findings reported here are exploratory in nature and focus specifically on identifying the status of field trips among secondary social studies teachers. key words: social studies, field trips, museums introduction each year, teachers from across the united states take millions of elementary and secondary students on what is often a vivid experience, the school field trip (association of science and technology centers, 2010; 2011). these experiences are no doubt memorable for a myriad of reasons. for many, it is the simple diversion from the normal schedule that makes it stand out. for others, it is the opportunity to experience sights and sounds not afforded to them in their lives outside of school. and still, for more, it is the chance to visit and see the abstract ideas typically only viewed in a textbook or discussed in a class. while these points are accurate for most school disciplines, it rings particularly true among those teaching social studies. social studies teachers have long utilized field trips as a teaching pedagogy of “lived learning” whereby “students actively learn through the field experience and the interaction generated among the students as well as between teachers and students” (coughlin, 2010, p. 200). in fact, teachers used field trips extensively during the early progressive period in education in order to emphasis pedagogies of constructivism (muse, chiarelott, & davidman, 1 asst. prof., university of tennessee, jkenna@utk.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 1-16 1982; windschitl, 2002). furthermore, the experiences provided to students by field trip sites, such as museums, support the broader goal of social studies—to help students develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world (national council for the social studies, 1994). yet in the 21st century, scholars are describing a bleak future for those who attempt to utilize field trips (blachowicz & obrochta, 2005; brugar; 2012; coughlin, 2010; gillett, 2011; nabors, edwards, & murray, 2009; schatz, 2004; stoddard, 2009). in my own experience, i found my pre-service teachers consider field trips to be an antiquated pedagogical practice. therefore, in an effort to better understand this dilemma, i sent out a survey in an attempt to establish the current state of field trip utilization among secondary social studies teachers. literature review although there are a variety of reasons provided for the decline of field trips as a pedagogical practice including economic, liability, and testing concerns; the literature suggests teachers have long addressed obstacles. scholars in the early 1980s for example cited the following obstacles: (a) logistical concerns of transportation and cost, (b) the disparity of teachers’ skills, (c) time constraints with school schedules, (d) lack of support from school administration, (e) curriculum inflexibility, (f) poor student behavior, and (g) an inadequacy of resources or venues (boutelier, 2019; fido & gayford, 1982; kenna & russell, 2018; kisiel, 2005; muse et al., 1982). moreover, field trips were never a universally adopted practice. in fact, in 1981, krepel and duvall estimated that only about 10% of teachers used field trips. while muse, chiarelott, and davidman (1982) found that approximately 64% of the teachers they surveyed (n = 195) utilized a field trip in the previous academic year. specifically, they found 74% of elementary teachers (n = 101) and 54% of secondary teachers (n = 94) used a field trip. more recently, marcus, levine, and grenier (2012) found that 60% of the secondary history teachers they surveyed (n = 94) utilized a field trip during the previous academic year. whereas, kenna and russell (2015; 2016) found, using a random sample of teachers, that 85% of elementary teachers (n = 92) and 46% of the secondary teachers they surveyed (n = 282) utilized a field trip in the previous academic year. thus it appears there is some consistency among the percentage of teachers utilizing field trips in the past 30 years. the frequency of field trips, however, tells another story. the available data suggests elementary and secondary teachers are utilizing field trips about half as many times as they did 30 years ago—a drop from kenna four to two for elementary teachers and two to one for secondary teachers (kenna & russell, 2015; 2016). as noted earlier, field trips became a prevalent practice and were promoted by progressive educators, perhaps none as prominent as john dewey (1899/1952; 1938). early researchers further encouraged the use of field trips due to the favorable findings on how field trips facilitated the acquisition of student learning outcomes (anderson & lucas, 1997; bamberger & tal, 2008a; 2008b; dewitt & storksdieck, 2008; falk, & dierking, 1992; gottfried, 1980; mason, 1980). more recently, researchers have begun to examine the retention rates of students after visiting field trip sites. for example, strum and borgner (2010) compared the learning outcomes of sixth grade students (n = 190) who experienced the same educational activity but in two different learning environments, one at a field trip site and the other in a classroom. using a pre-, post-, and retention-test, strum and borgner concluded both the field trip-group and the classroom-group experienced cognitive gains from the pre-test to the post-test; however, “…the museum-group outperformed the classroom-group in the post-test and in the retention-test” (p. 17). thus, students who attended a field trip to a museum not only experience short-term but also long-term cognitive gains equal to or greater than those who did not attend the field trip. interestingly, the bulk of teachers’ motivations for utilizing field trips are in line with non-cognitive learning goals, such as affective and social learning outcomes. kisiel (2005) found eight reasons why elementary teachers’ (n = 115) wanted to use field trips: (a) connect with curriculum, (b) provide learning experiences, (c) promote lifelong learning, (d) foster interest and motivation, (e) expose students to new experiences, (f) provide a change of setting, (g) provide enjoyment or reward, and (h) satisfy school expectations. while in another study, marcus et al. (2012) found that the secondary history teachers they surveyed (n = 82) “…value museums as a means of promoting aspects of historical thinking even more highly than as a means of teaching specific content” (p. 78). given the documented motivations of teachers, it should come as no surprise that researchers would examine non-cognitive learning outcomes associated with field trips. for instance, a year after a group of middle school students (n = 30) had experienced a field trip to the great smoky mountains they were not only able to recall cognitive facts about plant species they had seen but they also expressed a new perceived pro-environmental attitude (farmer, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 1-16 knapp, & benton, 2007). another study found that a group of adults (n = 8) often recalled several positive aspects to field trips particularly the ability to socialize as well as being exposed to new careers and cultures (pace & tesi, 2004). finally, in a survey of university science majors, salmi (2003) found that 20% credited a k-12 field trip as a substantial reason why they choose to major in a science discipline. field trips alone, however, may not be as educationally productive as once believed. in fact, cox-petersen, marsh, kisiel, and melber (2003) discovered, after observing 30 visiting school groups at a natural history museum and interviewing a select number of students (n = 85), that students learned only low levels of science as a result of their field trip. additionally, students are often unaware of the specific learning goals, or objectives, associated with their field trip (kisiel, 2005). worse yet, teachers often did not establish obvious learning goals for their field trips, as they struggled to connect it to the school curriculum. storksdieck (2001) found teachers were unaware of the role they played in shaping their students’ experiences while attending a field trip. that is, aside from scheduling the experience, teachers believed it was the responsibility of the staff at the site to lead the experience. interestingly, 90% of those teachers still acknowledged the field trip as a highly valuable educational experience, yet a majority of them admitted they thought the experience would have been better if they had completed some sort of preparation, follow up, or both with the students. purpose of the study this investigation grew out of a larger study that examined teachers from a variety of disciplines and their practices with field trips. the findings reported here are exploratory in nature and focus specifically on identifying the state field trip utilization among secondary social studies teachers. the hope is that this information will serve as a discussion point for social studies teachers and teacher educators. namely, by shining a light on current and past trends so teachers will find encouragement in their current practices, as well as inspiration for improvement with the practice of using field trips. the following questions guided this investigation: 1. what percentage of secondary social studies teachers utilized field trips, and how frequently did they utilize them? 2. does school locale or title i status have an influence on whether secondary social studies teachers would utilized a field trip or not? kenna 3. what type of sites did secondary social studies visit, and what was the average amount of time and cost associated with those visits? 4. do secondary social studies teachers express any new motivations or obstacles to the practice of utilizing field trips? method population and sample for this investigation, i used select data collected for a larger study that examined florida k-12 teachers’ utilization of field trips. i selected participants using a multi-stage cluster sampling technique. this involved first selecting clusters (i.e. schools) and then selecting individuals (i.e. teachers) (gall, gall, & borg, 2003). since the intended population for the original study included teachers who taught grades k-12 there were four types of clusters: elementary (i.e. grades k-5), middle (i.e. grades 6-8), high (i.e. grades 9-12), and intermittent schools (i.e. grades k-6, k-8, 8-12). employing the national center for educational statistic’s (nces) common core of data, i randomly selected 65 schools from each cluster. then utilizing each school’s public website i randomly selected 12 teachers from each school, for secondary schools that included three from the following subject areas: social studies, science, mathematics, and language arts. i utilized the tailored-design method (dillman, smyth, & christian, 2009) and contacted 2,902 secondary teachers via email a total of five times between october and december of 2013. in total, 374 secondary teachers responded. the response rate then was about 13%, which i anticipated given the survey method (lefever, dal, & matthiasdottir, 2007). out of the 374 responders, 70 self-identified themselves as secondary social studies teachers; this is the data i analyzed for this investigation. i conducted an additional analysis of the sample in order to see to what extent it was comparable to the larger population of secondary teachers in the state of florida. given that some of the most often mentioned obstacles to utilizing field trips is time and money, both of which can be attached to transportation, i decided to compare the following variables: school locale and title i status. using the nces’s common core of data i was able to calculate the number of secondary teachers for the two variables and compare it to similar data the participants self-reported. while it is difficult to say conclusively how the secondary social studies teachers in the sample differ or relate to those from the intended population, this analysis journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 1-16 suggests the school locale of the sample is representative of the population. however, the title i status the participants self-reported differs significantly from the population (see table 1). table 1 comparison of demographics between study sample and population demographic information population sample title i school: yes 81.9% 35.7% no 18.1% 55.7% unsure — 8.6% school locale: rural 15.8% 10% small town 18.7% 15.7% suburban 50.8% 52.9% urban 14.7% 21.4% instrumentation and analysis i developed a questionnaire (appendix a) to obtain descriptive data using both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. the survey asked secondary social studies teachers to identify: the total number of field trips they lead, the type of sites they visited, the average time —including transportation— it took to complete the field trip, the average cost associated with the field trip, and what their motivations were for utilizing or not utilizing field trips. i calculated the quantifiable data using frequencies and descriptive statistics, and the following non-parametric tests — kruskal-wallis and mann-whitney u — because it was not normally distributed (stevens, 2007). while i used open coding to analysis open-ended responses to identify important concepts and themes (strauss & corbin, 1998). limitations as is the case with any research study, there are several limitations within this study. first, the data is reflective of secondary (i.e. grades 6 through 12) public school social studies teachers from florida. therefore, the results of this study may not be generalizable to teachers outside of florida. also, the results are not generalizable to teachers outside of social studies, even within the state. second, the questionnaire was only concerned with teachers’ utilization of field trips during the 2012-13 academic year. thus, no calculations can be made with regards to teachers’ utilization of fields prior to or after that time frame. third, this study was concerned with academic field trips and provided a definition to the participants for clarification purposes; however, some teachers expressed they used field trips for recreational purposes (e.g. rewards). kenna therefore, some of the numbers regarding the number of field trips utilized may be inflated. finally, all of the data used in this study is self-reported. for that reason, all the results were limited by the honesty and reliability of the participants who provided information for this study. findings percentage and frequency the descriptive statistics revealed that 51% of the secondary social studies teachers utilized at least one field trip in the previous academic year. table 2 shows the break down of the number of field trips the participants self-reported. further examination revealed nonparametric data, and so while the calculated mean came to 1.39, the median was one. additionally, after removing two outliers of 10 and 12, the mean and median number of field trips dropped to 1.1 and .5, respectfully. table 2 break down of field trips use number of field trips utilized number of teachers total attended zero 34 0 one 11 11 two 9 18 three 10 30 four 4 16 ten 1 10 twelve 1 12 total 70 97 school locale and title i status a kruskal-wallis test showed there was no significant difference in the number of field trips secondary social studies teachers used based on their self-reported school locale (x2 = 2.35, df = 3, p > .05). while a mann-whitney u test revealed there was no significant difference in the number of field trips secondary social studies teachers used based on their self-reported title i status (mwu = 455.5; z = -.437; df = 64; p > .05). sites and average time and cost secondary social studies teachers identified visiting a variety of sites, 18 in all (see table 3). while there is no way of knowing exactly how social studies utilized these sites to teach their disciplines, the bulk of the sites seem appropriate. yet, there are a few that seem a bit out of place for social studies teachers (i.e. aquarium, science center, and zoo). a closer examination journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 1-16 showed middle school teachers (i.e. grades 6-8) visited all of the aforementioned sites. a mannwhitney u found a significant difference between the number of field trips middle school and high school social studies teachers utilized (mwu = 383; z = -2.8; df = 70; p < .05). in fact, middle school teachers in this study accounted for approximately three-fourths of the field trips, and they had a mean rank of 41.2 while high school teachers had a mean rank of 28.4. there were only two sites high school social studies teachers used exclusively, business and monument/memorial. table 3 sites used by secondary social studies teachers type of site number of times used by teachers museum 15 theater 10 amusement park 8 government building 8 locale, state, or national park 8 monument or memorial 7 business 5 science center 5 college or university 4 reenactment 4 festival 3 space center 3 zoo 3 competition 2 historical city 2 aquarium 1 k-12 school 1 nature 1 total 90* *note: 7 sites were not reported for the average cost, 32 secondary social studies teachers were able to recall the cost for 53 of the 97 field trips. the average costs ranged from $0 to $2,900 with a mean of $170.49, median of $10, and mode of $0. however, after removing nine outliers (i.e. $200, $350, $550, $700, $800, $850, $900, $1,200, and $2,900), the new range was $0 to $55, with a mean of $13.32, median of $7, and mode of $0. kenna for the average time, 36 secondary social studies teachers were able to recall the times for 47 of the 97 field trips. the average time was displayed in hours, and ranged from two hours to 144 hours with a mean of 25.47 hours, median of seven hours, and mode of seven hours. given there was a positive correlation (r = .85, n = 32, p < .01) between the average cost and average time; that is, a higher cost equals more time, i again removed nine outliers (i.e. 144, 144, 144, 120, 96, 96, 96, 84, and 48 hours). the new range was two hours to 11 hours, with a mean of 5.92 hours, median of 5.75 hours, and mode of seven. motivations and obstacles i asked secondary social studies teachers two open-ended questions: “why do you utilize field trips” and “why do you not utilize field trips”. in total, 68 participants provided 36 responses to the first question and 40 responses to the second question. after coding, i found little difference in the motivations they expressed towards field trips and those i found in the literature. actually, secondary social studies teachers’ motivations were similar to the elementary teachers’ in kisiel’s 2005 study. the lone exception came with the idea of promoting lifelong learners, as no teacher described this as a motivation. in all, they described seven motivations listed in table 4. these teachers often expressed multiple motivations and so the motivations are not mutually exclusive. table 4 sites used by secondary social studies teachers motivation description teachers identified with motivation (n =36) connect with the curriculum teachers see a field trip as an opportunity to support or enhance the content taught in the classroom 42% provide a general learning experience teachers see a field trip as an opportunity to provide students with a memorable learning experience 25% provide a reward or incentive teachers see a field trip as an enjoyable experience, and as such, an opportunity to reward student behavior or effort 17% expose to new life experience teachers see a field trip as an opportunity to provide students with a new learning experience they may not have other wise 11% foster interest with content teachers see a field trip as an opportunity to foster student interest with the content. 11% provide a change of setting teachers see a field trip as an opportunity to get out of the classroom and change the routine 6% satisfy school expectations teachers are expected to conduct a field trip per school policy or tradition 6% journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 1-16 as with the motivations, there was little difference between the obstacles described in the literature and those described by secondary social studies teachers in this study. eight obstacles were coded and ranked (see table 5). again, teachers expressed multiple obstacles. it is also important to note the similarity between several of these categories. for instance, there is often a positive correlation between the funds or time and the level of administrative support provided. while, curriculum inflexibility can relate to a lack of resources or a teacher’s skill level. table 5 obstacles identified by secondary social studies teachers obstacle description teachers identified with obstacle (n =34) lack of funds teachers feel field trips cost too much for schools and students 53% lack of time teachers feel field trips take too much time to plan field trips and there are too many scheduling conflicts 44% lack of support from school or district teachers feel their administration does not support their use of field trips 21% curriculum inflexibility teachers feel the demands of their curriculum are not supported by field trips 18% teacher’s skill level teachers feel they lack the knowledge to plan and conduct field trips 18% poor student behavior and liability teachers feel poor student behavior and the liability associated with taking students off-campus out weigh the benefits of going on a field trip 15% paperwork and other logistics teachers feel the paperwork and other logistic concerns associated with field trips are too cumbersome 12% lack of resources or venues teachers feel there is little to no resources or venues available to them 3% discussion the initial research question sought to determine the percentage of secondary social studies teachers who utilized field trips and the frequency they utilized them. comparison to previous studies reveals several similarities. first, the percentage of secondary teachers utilizing field trips has changed little over the years. while the frequency has decreased from the studies completed in the early 1980s (muse et al., 1982), it is in line with more recent studies (kenna & russell, 2016). finally, like the muse et al. study, i found a small sample of secondary social studies teachers utilized a high volume of field trips, which i consider four or more field trips a year. thus, six teachers (17%) accounted for nearly 40% of the total number of reported field trips. overall, these findings suggest a large number of secondary social studies teachers still value field trips as a pedagogical tool. plus, they provided no new obstacles or motivations. kenna therefore, teachers today must weigh the motivations and obstacles differently then in previous years. for instance, a top motivation to using field trips identified both in this study and in previous studies was connecting the resource to the curriculum. yet, thanks to the internet teachers today can simply connect students to outside primary and secondary sources, perhaps lessening the push of this motivation. conversely, a frequent obstacle has long been time, however, the demands of testing has intensified its pull. additionally, the data demonstrated there was no significant difference in the number of field trips a secondary social studies teacher would utilize based on their school locale or title i status. while a common held belief might be that suburban or urban teachers utilize field trips more often due to a greater abundance of resources and venues, such as museums, the data suggests rural and small town social studies teachers are able to attend field trips with a similar frequency. the wide variety of field trip sites identified by the teachers may help explain these particular results. for instance, in the top half of the list is sites available in nearly all school locales (i.e. government buildings, parks, monuments, and businesses). not to mention the resourcefulness of teachers in identifying 18 different types of sites. still, because 18 different sites were identified it does not mean the average teacher is aware of so many sites. i believe these results present an opportunity to those who might want to advocate for field trips. namely, generating awareness of potential field trip sites available to secondary social studies teachers and identifying how each site might connect to social studies content. perhaps a curriculum specialist could create such a list for their district by surveying their teachers and compiling their responses. once compiled, the list should be easily accessible, often referenced, and occasionally updated. furthermore, given there was no significant difference in the number of field trips social studies teachers used based on school locale, this resource should be completed by both rural and urban school districts. another key research question sought to determine the average amount of time and cost associated with the field trips. this information is important because the literature has identified it as the two most important obstacles teachers face when deciding to utilize a field trip, which the participants reaffirmed in this study. although teachers reported weeklong field trips that cost students thousands of dollars, after controlling for those outliers, the majority of the field trips cost students less than $15. additionally, field trips took students roughly 6 hours to complete, which suggests students are able to take their usual transportation to and from school. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 1-16 another encouraging finding is that the mode for the average cost was zero dollars. it is important to note, though, several teachers reported receiving a grant or completing fundraising in order to keep the cost to students low. so while monetary cost may have been low for students, it may have come at the expensive of a teacher’s time. moreover, several participants reported taking small groups of students on a field trip requiring schools to pay for a substitute teacher to attend to the students who do not go on the field trip. finally, some participants stated they had to take field trips on weekends or during school breaks in order to circumvent the issue of paying for substitutes. this again brings about the issue of the cost of time to teachers, not too mention the question of monetary compensation for directly working with students during nontraditional contact hours. ultimately, it should come as no surprise that teachers identified time and money as the main obstacles; however, it communicates several ways they need help. first, teachers described time as a scheduling problem. teachers had to make sure their schedule, their intended site’s schedule, and their school’s schedule all aligned. given the personal experiences and school contexts of each teacher, there might be little an advocate can do to aide a teacher with this matter. however, the description of time as energy had more to do with the planning and organizing of field trips. thus, in addition to providing teachers a greater awareness of potential sites and helping them build a rationale for those sites, districts can make sure teachers have access to the necessary paperwork, including completed examples. additionally, a district can provide teachers a list of approved vendors to use for transportation and links to potential revenue sources (e.g. grants and fundraising ideas). while few participants of this study cited paperwork and logistics as an obstacle, it is perhaps one of the easier obstacles to address. plus, addressing planning and organization directly affects the time component that teachers put into field trips. conclusion a field trip is an educational tool and practice, and like other tools and practices, i do not expect every teacher to use it. while the literature on field trips is not as rich as other areas, historically about 50% of secondary teachers used field trips with a two-trip average, which hardly seems like a lot. nonetheless, the findings of this study confirm recent commentaries about the decline of the practice, at least to some degree. yes, the frequency of teachers who use field trips has decreased but the percentage of teachers who utilize the practice has remained kenna consistent. although the teachers in this study did not identify any new motivations or obstacles, their descriptions indicated that the motivations and obstacles were weighed differently than in previous years. this study also affirmed that large populations of teachers who desire to use field trips still exist. however, if the frequency is ever to return to previous levels then teachers will need assistance in two ways. first, teachers need a list of potential field trip sites with a corresponding rationale for each site. given the average time associated with field trips, districts or local advocates may be best suited to generate a list of this nature. second, teachers need clearer directions from districts regarding the early planning and logistical aspects of field trips such as, completed examples of paperwork, help with transportation, and links to grant and fundraising opportunities. references anderson, d., & lucas, k. b. (1997). the effectiveness of orienting students to the physical features of a science museum prior to visitation. research in science education, 27, 485– 495. association of science and technology centers, (2010). science center and museum statistics. retrieved from http://www.astc.org/about/pdf/backgrounders/2010%20science%20center%20statistics. pdf association of science and technology centers, (2011). science center and museum statistics. retrieved from http://www.astc.org/about/pdf/backgrounders/2011%20science%20center%20statistics. pdf bamberger, y. & tal, t. (2008a). an experience for lifelong journey: the long-term effect of a class visit to a science center. visitor studies, 11(2), 198-212. bamberger, y. & tal, t. (2008b). multiple outcomes of class visits to natural history museums: the students' view. journal of science education and technology, 17(3), 274-284. blachowicz, c. l. z. & obrochta, c. (2005). vocabulary visits: virtual field trips for content vocabulary development. reading teacher, 59(3), 262-268. http://www.astc.org/about/pdf/backgrounders/2010%20science%20center%20statistics.pdf http://www.astc.org/about/pdf/backgrounders/2010%20science%20center%20statistics.pdf http://www.astc.org/about/pdf/backgrounders/2011%20science%20center%20statistics.pdf http://www.astc.org/about/pdf/backgrounders/2011%20science%20center%20statistics.pdf journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 1-16 boutelier, s. (2019). limiting learning environments through domestication. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 45-55. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 brugar, k. a. (2012). thinking beyond field trips: an analysis of museums and social studies learners. social studies research and practice, 7(2), 32-49. coughlin, p. k. (2010). making field trips count: collaborating for meaningful experiences. social studies, 101(5), 200-210. cox-petersen, a., marsh, d., kisiel, j., & melber, l., (2003) investigation of guided school tours, student learning, and science reform recommendations at a museum of natural history. journal of research in science teaching. 40(2), 200-218. dewey, j. (1899/1952). the school and society. rev. ed. chicago: university of chicago press. dewey, j. (1938), experience and education, ny. macmillan. dewitt, j., & storksdieck, m. (2008). a short review of school field trips: key findings from the past and implications for the future. visitor studies, 11(2), 181-197. dillman, d. a., smyth, j. d., & christian, l. m. (2009). internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: the tailored-design method. hoboken, nj: wiley & sons. falk, j. h., & dierking, l. d. (1992). the museum experience. washington, dc: whalesback books. farmer, j., knapp, d., & benton, g. m. (2007). an elementary school environmental education field trip: long-term effects on ecological and environmental knowledge and attitude development. journal of environmental education, 38(3), 33-42. fido, h. s. a., & gayford, c. g. (1982). field work and the biology teacher: a survey in secondary schools in england and wales. journal of biological education, 16(1), 27-34. gall, m. d., gall, j. p., & borg, w. r. (2003). educational research: an introduction. boston, ma: allyn & bacon. gillett, j. (2011). the use of experiential education and field trips for learning. journal of educational multimedia and hypermedia, 20(2), 173-177. gottfried, j. (1980). do children learn on school field trips? curator, 23, 165–174. kenna, j., & russell iii, w. (2018). the culture and history of standards-based educational reform and social studies in america. journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 26-49. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/2 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/29 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/2 kenna kenna, j. l. & russell, w. (2015). elementary teacher’s utilization of field trips in an era of accountability: a research study. curriculum and teaching, 30(1), 51-66. kenna, j. l. & russell, w. b. (2016). secondary teachers’ utilization of field trips in era of highstakes testing: a research study. journal of social studies education, 5(1), 1-20. kisiel, j. f. (2005). understanding elementary teacher motivations for science field trips. science education, 89(6), 936-955. krepel, w. j., & duvall, c. r. (1981). field trips: a guide for planning and conducting educational experiences. washington, d. c.: national education association. lefever, s., dal, m., & matthiasdottir, a. (2007) online data collection in academic research: advantages and limitations. british journal of educational technology, 38(4), 574-582. marcus, a. s., levine, t. h., & grenier, r. s. (2012). how secondary history teachers use and think about museums: current practices and untapped promise for promoting historical understanding. theory and research in social education, 40(1), 66-97. mason, j. l. (1980). annotated bibliography of field trip research. school science and mathematics, 155–166. muse, c., chairelott, l., & davidman, l. (1982). teachers’ utilization of field trips: prospects and problems. the clearing house, 56(3), 122-126. nabors, m. l., edwards, l. c., & murray, r. k. (2009). making the case for field trips: what research tells us and what site coordinators have to say. education, 129(4), 661-667. national council for the social studies. (1994). expectations of excellence: curriculum standards for social studies. washington, dc: national council for the social studies. pace, s. & tesi, r. (2004). adult’s perception of field trips taken within grades k-12: eight case studies in the new york metropolitan area. education, 125(1), 30-40. salmi, h. (2003). science centres as learning laboratories: experiences of heureka, the finnish science centre. international journal of technology management, 25, 460–476. schatz, d. (2004). the field trip challenge: finding common ground. astc dimensions, september/october, 3(5). stevens, j. p. (2007). intermediate statistics: a modern approach. ny: routledge. stoddard, j. (2009). toward a virtual field trip model for the social studies. contemporary issues in technology and teacher education, 9(4), 412-438. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 1-16 storksdieck, m. (2001). differences in teachers’ and students’ museum field-trip experiences. visitor studies today!, 4(1), 8-12. strauss, a. l. & corbin, j. m. (1998). basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications inc. sturm, h., & bogner, f. x. (2010). learning at workstations in two different environments: a museum and a classroom. studies in educational evaluation, 36(1-2), 14-19. windschitl, m. (2002). framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: an analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. review of educational research, 72(2), 131-175. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 91-110 91 the problems of gender equality: a reconstruction of islamic doctrine tedi supriyadi1, j. julia2 & endis firdaus3 abstract women are born to be leaders, yet there still have been many disputations which grounding their arguments based on al-qur’an and sunnah. however, the study on women’s leadership needs to be reconstructed arguing that the traditional interpretations are no longer suitable in this changing times. hence, this paper aims at advocating women position and their leadership in islam. in addition, this paper also serves as a re-actualisation of the concept of islam and also interpretation and re-understanding of the qur'an and al-hadith to provide opportunities for women associated with the concept of their equality with men. furthermore, this paper attempts to reconstruct the islamic doctrine of women's leadership seen from the perspectives of the qur’an, al-hadith, fiqh, tasawwuf, siyasah, and history. the consideration of hermeneutical aspect of normativity and historicity is a necessity in the contextual, comprehensive, and holistic interpretation of the text, since it can be stated that there is no compelling reason or argument that can reject women's leadership. thus, it is found that principally there was no strict prohibition in islam that could reject women's leadership in various fields. . key words: reconstruction, islamic doctrine, women's leadership, gender equality. introduction claim: women are leaders women are natural-born leaders. their position in family play indirect role on society evolution (bakhtyar & rezaei, 2012). throughout the history, women have proven their leadership ability in moslem society. the prophet’s wives, khadijah and aisha, his daughter fatima, and granddaughter zaynab are the earliest examples of muslim women leaders (abbott, 1942; mernissi, 1996; wadud, 1999, ahmad, 2006; in peshkova, (2009). another success women leader is queen balqis. in an-naml: 23-43, al-qur’an describes the story of queen balqis who successfully led a large kingdom in a country named saba (now the capital of yemen). she could 1 master of religious studies, universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, indonesia, tedisupriyadi@upi.edu 2 doctor, universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, indonesia, juli@upi.edu 3 professor, universitas pendidikan indonesia, bandung, indonesia, endisf@upi.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 lead the kingdom well and made the people prosper (mernissi, 1997, pp. 218–228). even the phrase in saba: 15 states baldatun thayyibatun wa rabbun ghafur (meaning: “a good land [have you], and a forgiving lord", is a form of congratulations on the success of queen balqis. indonesia, as one of the populous moslem countries, had been led once by female president. megawati soekarnoputri served as the president of the republic of indonesia from 2001 to 2004 and previously served as vice president from 1999 to 2001. however, many indonesian people still think that sharia law does not allow women to be leaders (rohman, 2013). some religious doctrines still weaken women's position in various aspects of life. therefore, the prohibition of women’s leadership has hurt the spirit of islamic teachings that uphold the values of justice and gender equality, and forgotten the mission of islam carried by the prophet muhammad pbuh. islam has positioned women equals to men. western historian, will durant, acknowledges muhammad’s merit in improving women's rights and highly recognises the position of women in islam (rahmat, 1999, p. 125). islam carried by the prophet muhammad pbuh was a mission of liberation religion. it came to end discriminative practices towards women, hence, it sought to free women from any kinds of oppression, rights inequality, male arbitrariness due to nation’s or society’s culture. the lack of understanding and interpretation of islamic teaching sources cause gender inequality. women are seen unable to lead. meanwhile, al-qur’an and hadiths justify that leadership is not only the domain of men. instead, islam recognises the equality of male and female dignity, since both have equal rights and obligations in various fields. the concept of parallels that reflects justice is normatively confirmed in al-ahzab: 33 and 73, ali imran: 195 and al-baqarah: 187. in the other word, gender in society requires an egalitarian social order and eliminates an unfair social order, which can be done by acknowledging women’s leadership ability. evidence: al-qur’an and sunnah on women’ rights al-quran and sunnah, as the resources of islamic learning, (supriyadi & julia, 2019; supriyadi et al., in press), have elaborated the noble position of women in islam. women has been portrayed tenderly by allah swt in al-quran, as it discusses women’s rights more than men’s obligation. the word ‘an-nisa’ is mentioned 57 times in the al-qur’an, two times more than the word ‘rijal’. it mostly discusses the rights of women as social responses toward women’s condition during jahiliyyah, in which women’s rights were often neglected. during jahiliyyah, women did not have any rights on inheritance, but then al-qur’an establishes women’s inheritance rights. interestingly, the name of allah is never attached to any creature, but women. the name is arrahim that is one of anatomies of women (supriyadi, 2018) women’s physical beauty is not an important aspect in islam, hence, beautiful women never becomes a character in al-quran. however, al-qur’an describes physical issues on the sharia implementation of women and men using good words, such as “you have contacted women” (annisa: 43); “…go to your wives” (al-baqoroh: 187); “come to your place of cultivation however you wish and put forth [righteousness] for yourselves” (al-baqoroh: 223) (rakhmat, 2008, p. 339). prophet muhammad pbuh had shown his honour toward women. he sought to educate people to respect women to shift the paradigm of jahiliyyah people who demeaning women (misogyny). he manifested the values through his words and behaviours towards women. prophet muhammad pbuh stated: ُ اْلَجنهةَ –قَاَل: يَْعنِي الذُُّكوَر –ْنَها، َولَْم يُْؤثِْر َولَدَهُ َعلَْيَها، َمْن َكانَْت لَهُ أُْنثَى فَلَْم يَئِدَْها، َولَْم يُهِ أَدَْخلَهُ َّللاه meaning: “if anyone has a female child, and does not bury her alive, or slight her, or prefer his children (i.e. the male ones) to her, allah will bring him into paradise.” (dawud, 1994 no. 5146) another hadith states: ِأُْصبُعَْيِه السهبهابَِة َواْلُوْسَطى meaning: “if a person provides for and looks after two or three daughters, or two or three sisters, until they separate from him (by getting married or by dying) or until they die and leaves them behind, then he and i will be like these two in paradise. what he (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) meant by “these two”, he (ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص) pointed to his index and middle finger” (hanbal, 2001 no. 12498). the other hadith reveals: َمِن اْبتُِلَي ِمْن َهِذِه البَنَاِت بَِشْيٍء ُكنه لَهُ ِستًْرا ِمَن النهارِ meaning: who is tested with the presence of a girl, then the child will be a shield for them in hell (bukhori, 1992 no. 1418; hanbal, 2001 no. 12498) three hadiths above expose that islam elevates the rank of women. in other words, women and men should be treated equally, by not favouring male over female. in addition to these hadiths, supriyadi, julia & firdaus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 there are several stories of the prophet showing his honour to women. at the other time, a woman came to the prophet pbuh complaining about his father asking her to marry to a man he did not like. the prophet forbade forced marriage by saying “go, marry the person you want”. however, after getting an answer from the prophet the young woman said “in fact i have given up my father’s deeds, i only want to teach women that their fathers are not entitled to them at all”. from this hadith, the fuqoha (the guardians of the islamic conscience) concludes that one of the pillars of marriage is the willingness of both parties (rakhmat, 2004). in another case, a woman complained to the prophet because she could no longer live with her husband and was afraid that she would not serve her husband properly. the prophet told her to return her dowry and divorce him. from this incident, it can be inferred that women also have the rights to divorce their husbands, in which this act is regulated in legal provisions named khulu (afifi, 1988). when umar bin khatab issued a legal on the limits of female dowry due too very high dowry set by women, someone protested and warned umar about a verse in the qur’an, umar then revoked the regulation while saying “woman is right and umar is wrong” (as-suyuthi, 2015, p. 237). this provides learning for muslim women that they have the rights to carry out political actions, in scholarship about hadith, by quoting ibn asakir’s opinion that there are at least eighty women who are hadith experts (rakhmat, 2004). since women’s position is still considered inferior than men, many contemporary scholars have conducted studies on women’s leadership. their studies show the importance of reinvestigation of the interpretation of women’s leadership in islam, since the discussion was mostly the results of ijtihad that are considered gender-biased and biased patriarchal values (ma’shumah, 2012). a study of mutalib et al. (2017) signifies the values of islamic leadership behaviour that are practical to be applied by women managers across different level of age, management posts, and seniority. the findings revealed that women managers practise islamic leadership behaviour. bakhtyar & rezaei (2012) investigated female leadership in islam by evaluating women’s participation rate in hierarchy of power in society.(hamzah et al. (2016) conducted study on the impact of islamic values on the leadership style of muslim women academics in malaysia. peshkova’s (2009) study was a two-year of ethnographic fieldwork on women leadership in ferghana valley, uzbekistan. a case study on women and leadership in islam in indonesia was conducted by rohman (2013), which suggests that women should be allowed to leaders and have the same opportunities to interpret islam. other studies on women’s leadership and gender issues in islam were also done by as elius (2012), abraham (2017), eidoo (2016), golkowska (2014), kottakkunnummal (2015), mahallati (2010), rezai-rashti (2015), thompson (2002); and a study in islamic country (bakhtyar & rezaei, 2012). the above research findings suggest the importance of allowing women to be leaders. this is to support the elaboration of women’s position in islam as presented in al-quran and muhamad’s egalitarian spirit as presented in hadiths, which have significantly changed the treatment of women. 2. counter-claim: men’s superiority ulemas’ view on prohibition of women’s leadership is not without arguments. they refer to an-nisa: 34 stating that men are leaders of women. thus, it became a justification that leadership issues are male domains. this justification is reinforced by the hadith about the prohibition of women's leadership, namely: لَْن يُْفِلح قَْوٌم َولهْوا أَْمَرُهْم إِْمَرئَةٍ meaning: "such people as ruled by a lady will never be successful" (bukhori, 1992 no. 4073 those ulemas believe that the best place for women is house, since there would be harms outside of house. as the condition in arab that the vivid image of a typical arab woman seems to be a veiled lady cut from social life (sidani, 2005). the issue of gender theology in islam lies on the issue of the origin of women's events that have an impact on women's functions and roles. hadiths understanding and interpretation explain that prophet adam was the first man created by allah swt, while his wife, eve, was created from his ribs. this refers to the literal understanding of an-nisa: 1 that implies its social implications that women can be discriminated and subordinated. women are not the main human being but only as a complement to men. consequently, women may not be in the front or become leaders (ma’shumah, 2012; mulia, 2007). that aforementioned insight shows that the position and role of women is lower than men. as a result, women experience gender inequality caused by patriarchal culture and gender-biased understanding of religious teachings. the issue of women's leadership is still within the disputed area (debatable: khilafiyah). the fact that the leader must be male is supported by the justification of the an-nisa: 34 stating: supriyadi, julia & firdaus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 ُ بَْعَضُهمْ اُموَن َعلَى الن َِساِء بَِما َفضهَل َّللاه َجاُل قَوه َعلَٰى بَْعٍض َوبَِما أَْنفَقُوا ِمْن أَْمَواِلِهم...الر ِ meaning: “"men are in charge of women by [right of] what allah has given one over the other and what they spend [for maintenance] from their wealth…". interpreters state that qawwam means leader, protector, regulator, etc. the reason men must lead women, according to some interpreters, because of the advantages that god has given to men than women. the superiority of men, according to al-razi, is due to the superiority and physicality reasons (al-razi, 1990). in accordance, the superiority of men over women is because their reasoning, firmness, determination, strength, physical strength, literacy and courage (alzamakhsyari, 1998). furthermore, the superiority of men is because of their ability to create souls of courage, strength and ability to overcome difficulties, otherwise, women are more sensitive and emotional (al-tabataba’i, 1973). the issue on women's leadership, according to the hadith, has a nuance that is in line with women's leadership according to the interpretation of the qur'an. the hadith that are usually used to justify the inability of women to be leader is: َعْن أَبِي بَْكَرةَ، قَاَل النَّبِيُّ َصلَّى هللاُ َعلَْيِه َوَسلَّمَ لَْن يُْفِلح قَْوٌم َولَّْوا أَْمَرُهْم اْمَرئَة meaning: from abi bakrah, the prophet pbuh said "such people as ruled by a lady will never be successful" (al-nasa’i, 1991 no 5293; bukhori, 1992 no 4425, 7099; hanbal, 2001 no 19507, 19547, 19556, 19573, 19603, 19612; tirmidzi, 1994 no 2188). the hadith is understood by several scholars as a sign that women are not allowed to be leaders in government or political affairs, since women are only given the responsibility to guard their husband’s property (ali, 2003). this kind of interpretations indicate that the hadith was understood textually and ignored its context, which indicated that the reader failed to capture the islamic weltanschauung, especially on the prophet muhammad’s mission to liberate women from the gender injustices. whereas, the previous scholars have formulated a method in understanding and practicing hadith in three aspects; (1) the quality of the hadith, (2) the matan hadith, and (3) the historical review underlying the hadith (asbabul wurud). this is important considering that hadith is basically a social response, thus, historical information is needed to help the readers capture the social settings that occur when the hadith is spoken by the prophet muhammad. the concept of qawwam in an-nisa: 34 is the concept of male leadership over female in the household sphere. this is reinforced by the continuation of the verse, ""allah has given one over the other and what they spend [for maintenance] from their wealth" (bima fadhdhalallahu ba'dhuhum 'ala ba'di wa bima anfaqu). this is also stated by ibn katsir (2000) and al-maraghi, (2001) who have similar perspectives related to the excellence of men over women who are able to make living for women (novianti, 2008). considering that fragment of the verse, there are at least two reasons why male leadership occurred: 1) because men make living, and 2) because men at that time had wider access to the public world than women the above two reasons are very sociological and historical, not normative. in meaning that if the sociological and historical conditions change and cause women to have the capacity to provide income and also have wider access in the political field, then women are able to take positions as leaders, not only in the family domain but a more general domains like seen today (faisal, 2002). therefore, an-nisa: 34 cannot be used to justify the prohibition of women’s leadership in any field. in line with that, al-razi narrated the origins of the creation of women as follows: فبقي فيها وحده وما كان عن ابن عباس وابن مسعود وناس من الصحابة أن هللا تعالى لما أخرج إبليس من الجنة وأسكن آدم الجنة معه من يستأنس به فألقى هللا تعالى عليه النوم ثم أخذ ضلعاً من أضالعه من شقه األيسر ووضع مكانه لحماً وخلق حواء منه ، : ما فلما استيقظ وجد عند رأسه امرأة قاعدة فسألها من أنت؟ قالت : امرأة . قال : ولم خلقت؟ قالت : لتسكن إلي ، فقالت المالئكة اسمها؟ قالوا : حواء ، ولم سميت حواء ، قال : ألنها خلقت من شيء حي meaning: “iblis (satan) was expelled from paradise and adam was made to dwell in it. he wandered through it alone as he had no partner in whom he could seek his comfort. however, once he slept and when he woke up, he found a woman sitting near his head, whom allah had created from his rib. adam asked her: “what are you?” she replied: “a woman.” he asked her again: “what are you created for?” she answered: “so you could seek comfort in me.” angels who were well aware of the extent of the knowledge of adam asked: “what is her name o adam?” he said: “eve” they asked him: “why is it eve?” adam replied: “because she was created from something living.” (fakhrurazi, 2001 juz 2, p. 23) supriyadi, julia & firdaus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 an understanding of the origin of women creation has implications on women's functions. god created eve (women) to complement one of adam's desires, which theologically impressed the position of women, not only as a subordinate man, but also giving an inferior position in society. therefore, according to nasr hamid abu zaid (2002), feeling sufficient with the results of the first generation's interpretation of the text and limiting the role of modern interpreter (mufassir) by narrating it from ancient scholars will lead to dangerous consequences in social life. this condition is considered as a phenomenon of muslim decline, where muslims only follow and reproduce the intellectual products of the older generation—which was certainly suitable for their time—without wanting to create products that are relevant to contemporary demands. regarding the origin of human creation, classic interpreters such as ibn katsir (2000) and al-zamakhsyari, (1998) interpret the word nafs in an-nisa:1 as adam. then, ibn kathir interprets the word zaujaha (literally means partner) as eve. ibn kathir reinforced his statement by quoting the hadith "in fact women were created from the top crooked ribs. if you want to straighten it, it will break it, and if you want to get benefits, and then do it while it is crooked (katsir, 2000). findings upholding women’s leadership until now, especially in the indonesian community, which is predominantly muslim, women's leadership in any levels has often become a problem since the tendency of islamic normativity that is considered impeding women's movement in society; hence, women are not even allowed to become leaders such as presidents, ministers, prime ministers, and equals, opinions like this were raised by al-bassam (1994), ibn qudamah (1963),yusuf al-qordhawi (1994), musthafa al-sibaiy (1996), and abdul hakim bin amir abdat (2002) the above opinion shows a bias spirit of partnership between men and women in islam, hence, women's access to the public sphere in most muslim societies is still considered an anomaly. such an assumption is basically not separated from the theological issues of gender that are understood and believed to be religious doctrines because they are sourced from teaching sources. the implication of belief in the doctrine is manifested in a behaviour, since the way a person thinks, behaves, reacts and behaves is inseparable from his/her beliefs (ramayulis, 2004, p. 1). basically, the above interpretation is inseparable from the issues on gender theology that place women as inferior, and label them as the owners of negative traits, thus, impossible in possessing intellectual abilities (al-bahi, 1988). in addition, in said agil munawar's view, the interpretation of the al-qur'an by the previous ulemas was influenced by the situation and climate of the patriarchal politics, hence, the produced interpretation contained gender bias (novianti, 2008). furthermore, in wadud's view, the interpretation of traditional models does seem exclusive; it was written only by men, so that, it only accommodated the awareness and experience of men. whereas, the experience, vision and perspective of women should also be included to avoid patriarchal bias that can trigger gender inequality. whether it is realized or not, a person often uses ‘religion’ to validate his behaviour and actions (muqoyyidin, 2013; wadud et al., 1999). to dispute the classical interpretation, amina wadud muhsin, gave her views on the creation of women. she discussed an-nisa: 1 by looking at the words composition and analysing it word-by-word. she stated that al-qur'an does not explain that allah created humans from men or shows that the origin of man is adam. it is seen from the word nafs in the form of muannas. conceptually, the word nafs has a neutral meaning, which can refer to men and can also refer to women (muhsin, 1994, p. 25) in line with amina wadud, rif’at hassan, (1995, p. 45) said that women (eve) were not created from men (adam). he explained that the word nafs did not refer to adam because the word was neutral, and so the word zauj does not mean women, since the language of the word zauj means women were only known among the hijaz people, while in other areas the word zaujah is used. in terms of the women creation, riffat concluded that adam and eve were created from the same substance and method, there was no difference between the two. moreover, he states that the hadiths stating eve was created from adam's ribs must be rejected because it contradicts the qur'an (ma’shumah, 2012; rif’at hassan, 1995). this classical interpretation is based on three aspects. first, the abundance of classical islamic literature compiled and produced in the culture perspective of androcentric society. until now, the literature is still used as guidance and becomes a very strong dogma. second, there is a public assumption that equates jurisprudence with sharia, even though these two things are different, they still have relevance. jurisprudence is a product of scholars' ijtihad whose truth is relative and has its own mechanism to adapt to the existing environment, this is reflected in the rules of fiqih la yunkaru taghayyirul ahkam bitaghayyir al-zaman (meaning: it is legal changes occur because of changing times) (nadawi & ahmed, 1991; zahra, 1997). meanwhile, sharia is the command of allah that has absolute truth and is timeless (syarifudin, 2014). interpretations of supriyadi, julia & firdaus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 verse texts and hadith related to women are ijtihadi (fiqh) products, which can actually change based on conditions. third, the times and thoughts and intellectuals of women have changed, so it is appropriate for re-interpretation and re-review. there is no religious interpretation and doctrine that is very authoritarian when it comes to ijtihadi problems. according to the indonesian interpreter, quraish shihab, "forcing a generation to follow the overall results of past generations causes difficulties for them" (shihab, 2007), in meaning that an egalitarian spirit echoed by islam must always be campaigned throughout the ages as a prophetic mission partner. from the perspective of fiqh, the issue of female leadership is also still on khilafiyah territory between which ones may and may not. the prohibition of women to become leaders in the perspective of fiqh was derived from the following verses of al-qur'an and al-hadith, and also about their permission not only to lead in the field of politics but also to lead a prayer of a man is described also in a hadith from ummi waraqah, ِ نًا يُؤَ -صلى هللا عليه وسلم-َوَكاَن َرُسوُل َّللاه ُن لََها َوأََمَرَها أَْن تَُؤمه أَْهَل دَاِرَها. قَاَل َعْبدُ يَُزوُرَها فِى َبْيتَِها َوَجعََل لََها ُمَؤذ ِ ذ ِ نََها َشْيًخا َكبِيًرا ْحَمِن فَأَنَا َرأَْيُت ُمَؤذ ِ الره meaning: the prophet had visited the residence of ummi waraqah, then appointed a person to recite the adhan, and ordered ummi waraqah to lead her family in the prayer. then, abdurrahman said, i saw an old man became the muezzin (dawud, 1994 no. 502). among the people in ummi waraqah's residence were syaikhun kabîr wa ghulâmuhâ wajâriyatahâ or an elderly man and male and female slaves. the interesting point here is the command of the prophet to a woman to lead men in a prayer. in this gender issue, the practice of a woman who led a male in a prayer was performed by amina wadud who became the preacher and imam of friday prayer on 18 march 2005. based on the above hadith, there are some fiqh ulemas who allow women to be imams of prayer among the fiqh experts who allow women to become imams of prayers, according to muhammad (1999), ilyas (2005), khairin (2002), and fauziyah (2010) are imam ibn jarîr althabarî abu tsaur, imam mazni qâdhi abu tayyib, and al-'abdar women are not only allowed to become leaders in the political field but also in prayer. in addition, as mentioned earlier, it is clear that the verses and hadiths used as tools for the justification of the prohibition of women to be leaders, either explicitly or implicitly, do not in any way indicate the prohibition of female leadership. in fiqh, women's leadership—especially in politics—is permissible. the proof is there are fiqh experts such as al-tabari, al-muzani and ibnu tsaur, who allow women to become leaders in both public and domestic affairs. as an islamic discipline, fiqh has always been known to be very patriarchal. however, the fiqh is the result of human’s ijtihad, which is not free from deficiency. therefore, the view of fiqh that tends not to support women’s leadership is very open to be reinterpreted. unlike fiqh, tasawuf has another view of women's leadership. the level of tasawuf shows that women actually have a very respectable position because what seen in tasawuf is not the masculine and feminine aspect, but rather the sanctity of the heart. it is very possible that a woman's heart is sometimes more sacred than a man's heart. thus, in the world of tasawuf, there is a possibility of a woman to reach the highest position. it has been proved by many female shaykhah and mursyidah of sufi. sururin, (2010) mentions several sufi names of women who are very famous in the world including rabi'ah al-adawiyah sya'wanah, nafisyah, fatima of nishapur. al-sulâmî’s works express the awareness of women identity of women as sufis who play a role in many ways, learn together, support financially, and even exceed men in knowledge. in addition, al-sulâmî also shows that during the time of tasawuf formation, women were not often excluded from the public aspects of spiritual life. women are described as equal to men in terms of religion and intelligence, and in their knowledge of sufi teachings and practices (as-sulami, 2004). van bruinessen, as cited by sururin, (2010), mentions one female figure who became a murshid (a spiritual guide who initiates into a mystical order a postulant wishing to follow the sufi path to god) in the naqsabandiyah mazhariyah madura congregation in indonesia. some of the female murshids not only acted as assistants to their dominant husbands, but they were truly independent. among the female murshidah was nyai thobibah who received a full diploma from kyai ali wafa and syarifah fathimah in sumenep. the female murshidah had many followers, according to van bruinessen, even not only in the madura region, but even in the areas of west kalimantan and south malang. syarifah fathimah was the daughter of habib muhammad. she was entrusted to enter the congregation by kyai sirajuddin and received a diploma from kyai supriyadi, julia & firdaus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 syamsuddin umbul. another popular female mursyidah, named syarifah nor in gondanglegi was known as pah nong. it shows that female leaders were not only found in naqsabandiyah, but also in the tijaniyah congregation in madura, in which there was a muqaddam (a term leading the tijaniyah congregation (van bruinessen, 1992). in a political-religious perspective (siyasah), women's position also seems to be a little constrained. however, in political practice, actually, not a few women who have held important positions even become heads of government in countries of muslim majority. for example, in pakistan, benazir bhutto ruled between 1988-1990 and 1993-1996; former turkish prime minister tansu ciller ruled from 1993 to 1995; former prime minister of senegal, named mame madior boye, led the republic of senegal from 2001 to 2002; cissé mariam kaïdama sidibé, who was elected president of the republic of mali from 2011 to 2012; then atifete jahjaga who was the former president of kosovo in 2011 to 2016; then two former prime ministers of bangladesh were muslim women named begum khaleda zia who led bangladesh from 19911996 and 2001-2006 and sheikh hasina wajed who served between 1996 and 2001 and in 2009 until now; and then former iranian vice president masoumeh ebtekar who led in 1997 to 2005. in indonesia, the law no. 2 of 2008, one of the articles requires that management in each political party must cover 30% of women, which became the first step in the openness of thinking of indonesian people to make more room for women in political life. the facts show that the thinking of muslim societies and social settings has changed so that efforts to continue to perpetuate the hegemony of men over women based on ijtihad products of ulema living in androcentric cultures is a mistake. it is apart from the reason that the results of ijtihad can change due to changes in time, place and situation as in the rules of la yunkaru tagayyirul fatwa bi taghayiirul azminah wal amkinah wal ahwal (meaning: change in law occurs because of change in time, space and social situation) (nadawi & ahmed, 1991; zahra, 1997), and because al-qur’an and hadith do not specifically prohibit women’s leadership. the aforementioned elaboration has presented the supporting the notion of women’s leadership. even though the tendency of islamic normativity in the society seems impeding women's movement, however, islam says the contrary. islam does not only as women as noble creature, but also elevates their position. furthermore, the traditional interpretation on women leadership of previous ulemas should also be re-constructed since it is considered conservative, which may result in harmful consequences in the struggle for democracy in islamic worlds and the struggle of women’s rights (moghissi 1999, in rohman 2013). this reconstruction is intended to justify the spirit of parallelism between men and women as a mission of islamic teaching. it is believed that careful examination will result in some evidences that demonstrate islam's recognition of women's leadership in various perspectives. men and women equality the relationship between men and women is not superior and inferior, but rather as an equal partner. hence, the concept of parallel partnership that reflects justice is normatively affirmed in the qur'an. al-qur’an often adds genetic pronouns to the words nisa, such as nisa akum, nisa ahum, nisa ahunna to assert women as members of a wider community. the word ‘male’ (mudzakkar) and the word ‘women’ (muannas) are mentioned together in the qur’an, this shows no treatment difference in men or women in islam. for example, it can be seen in an-nisa: 124, al-mu’min: 40, an-nahl: 97, ali imran: 195, al-ahzab: 36, at-taubah: 71, and al-ahzab: 35. the repetition of the words male and female in these verses show that there are no discrimination between men and women in relation to work, charity and actions. however, the most important thing is that there is no characteristic difference between men and women. what distinguishes the two is not sex but charity. nasution (2002) classifies the verses of the qur'an, which talk about the relations between women and men. these verses explain that male and female gave equal relationship in various ways (novianti, 2008). 1. general statement on equality of women and men (2:187, 2:228) 2. equality of origin (4:1, 49:13) 3. equality of aural rewards (3:195, 4:32, 9:72) 4. equality to care and love one another (17:24, 30:21, 46:15) 5. justice and equality (2:228, 16:97) 6. alignment in social security (2:177) 7. mutual help (9:71) 8. opportunities for education (8:11, 39: 9) however, ideal islamic teachings on gender relations have not been implemented properly. the practices of the islamic community on gender are still very distorted and biased due to literal supriyadi, julia & firdaus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 understanding of religious texts. lots of religious texts on gender relations contain bias (ma’shumah, 2012; mulia, 2007). for example, an understanding of the creation of women and men is inseparable from the interpretation of the ulemas that tend to be biased on men. the scholars consider eve (adam's wife) created from adam's ribs as an understanding of the an-nisa: 1 based on the muslim hadith stating that women (eve) are created from male (m. hajjaj, 1972 no. 1468) below: ت تقيمها كسرتها وكسرها إن المرأة خلقت من ضلع لن تستقيم لك على طريقة فإن استمتعت بها استمتعت بها وبها عوج وإن ذهب .طالقها in terms of quality, according to hadith experts, that hadith is included in the ahad category since it is sourced from only one narrator, abi bakrah. therefore, the hadith category does not have a definite meaning (qath'iy) to become a basis in determining a legal decision. this hadith is still a presumption (zhanny), then as stated by shihab (2000), it is very possible to be reinterpreted, even to reject its applicability. fatimah, a moroccan feminist figure, tends to reject the application of the hadith, since her research shows that the figure of the narrator of the hadith, abi bakrah, had personal weaknesses. mernissi saw two weaknesses in abi bakrah: first, abi bakrah had been convicted and whipped by umar for giving false testimony in the case of allegations of adultery against a prominent friend and politician, named mughirah ibn syu'bah; second, abi bakrah was seen coming from a less-respected family and the family tree is not clearly known (mernissi, 2001, p. 170). in reading the aforementioned hadith prohibiting women’s leadership, hussein muhammad considered that the hadith was expressed as a notification framework, in meaning as that it is information conveyed only by the prophet and not within the framework of legal legitimacy. strictly speaking, the hadith has no legal relevance (husein muhammad, 1999, p. 150). seen from its historicity (asbab al-wurd) aspect, the hadith began with the story of abdullah ibn hudzaifah, the messenger of allah who delivered a letter of invitation to convert to islam to kisra anusyirwan, the persian leader of the majus religion. however, the invitation was considered cynical, so he tore up the letter. not for a long time, kisra and his son were killed and finally the daughter of kisra, buwaran bint syairawaih replaced kisra's position as a leader in persia. knowing the weak of the persian state's leadership that led by a woman, and since at that time the degree of women was under men, so that, women were not trusted to take care of public interests, moreover, the state's problems and this view did not only occur in persia, but throughout the arabian peninsula, hence, with such social settings it was common that the prophet who possessed high wisdom stated the hadith above (al-asqalani, 2008). the prophet's statement was not based on being a woman, but rather based on the incompetence of the woman in taking control of the government. it was possible that if the leader was not the daughter of the persian kisra, the prophet would not say that hadith, which demeaning women's leadership rights. strictly speaking, the hadith is casuistic and conditional (ma’shumah, 2012), so that it cannot be generalized to all women. besides, the content is only news or information only, and the hadith also has no legal impact as expressed by hussein muhammad (1999, p. 150). therefore, the prohibition of women’s leadership by justifying that hadith is considered as a mistake. in the other words, the women's leadership are not prohibited in any hadith. in a historical perspective, female leadership does not appear because of our writing style tends to be is androcentric. whereas, the role of women in various fields, especially science, is significant. the role in the science field is not only as a student but as a professor. imam syafi'i once studied about the science of hadith to female ulema named sayyidah nafisyah (borhany, 2014) ibn hajar al-asqalani and many others were great religious leaders who derived some of their knowledge from female teachers. therefore, to see women's leadership in the science field, it is necessary to change the writing of history from the androcentric style to the equal style. whatever the gender is, if they have an achievement, then they are worth to get a respectable place in human history. conclusion there is no reason in any perspective that can reject the women’s leadership in various fields. if the interpretation of an-nisa: 34 is used as a justification that the leader must be from men, then this interpretation has ignored historical facts and scientific evidence about women's leadership in islamic teachings (al-qur’an, hadith, or scientific disciplines in islam such as jurisprudence or sufism). in addition, this form of interpretation has neglected the contextual aspects, because basically the male leadership in an-nisa: 43, is not about public leadership, but domestic leadership in domestic affairs where the men’s role should also be done properly, hence, if it is not done well, then the leadership position can be transferred to women. the hadith stating people will be unfortunate to have female leader is casuistic in nature and does not have an impact on the law, which tends to be rejected due to the flaw of hadith narrators. even if the hadith is accepted, the affirmation of the hadith should not connect leadership with supriyadi, julia & firdaus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 gender, but to question one's abilities in leadership. thus, gender is not a determinant of leadership. leadership is closely related to expertise and ability. this can be interpreted if a woman has the ability and loyalty and high intelligence, so there should be no prohibition for women to advance on the political stage by acting as leaders to provide valuable contributions to the interests of religion, nation and state. the results of this research simultaneously deconstructed the theological understanding of women, which had been rooted and entrenched in the practice of muslim communities that always position women as inferior. the causative factor is a misunderstanding in comprehending texts relating to origin of the women creation. this mistake has led to the birth of gender injustice in social life. this research produced findings from contemporary muslim thinkers such as rif'at hasan and amina wadudthat men and women were created from the same substance and method, thus, the hadiths stating that women were created from men's ribs as a justification of an-nisa: 1 must be rejected as it contradicts the meaning and spirit of the qur'an itself that recognizes equality between men and women. in the other word, it can be interpreted that women have positions, functions and roles that are equal to men in their work in the public space. therefore, any forms of interpretation of the sources of islamic teachings that are contrary to the principles of justice and ignores the spirit of islamic teachings that uphold the equality between men and women need to be reconstructed references abdat, a. h. a. (2002). menanti buah hati dan hadiah untuk yang dinanti. darul qolam. abraham, j. (2017). setting sail for lakshadweep: leela dube and the study of matrilineal kinship. indian journal of gender studies, 24(3), 438–454. afifi, m. s. (1988). al-mar’ah wa huququha fil-islam. cairo: maktabat al-nahdhah. al-asqalani, i. h. (2008). fathul bari. riyadh: maktaba al-salfiyah. al-bahi, m. (1988). al-islam wa al-ijtijahat al-marah. kairo: dar al-itisam. al-bassam, a. bin a. (1994). taudhih al-ahkam min bulugh al-maram. lubnan: muassasah al-khidamat al-thibaiyyah. al-nasa’i, a. al. (1991). sunan al-nasa’i. cet. ii. halab. maktab al-matbu ‘at al-islamiyah, 1406. al-razi, f. al-d. (1990). al-tafsir al-kabir. madinah: dar ihya’al-turat al-arabi. al-sibaiy, m. (1996). wanita di antara hukum islam dan perundang-undangan. terj. chadijah nasution. jakarta: bulan bintang. al-tabataba’i, m. h. (1973). al-mizan fi tafsir al-qur’an. mu’assasah matbuati ismailiyyan. al-zamakhsyari. (1998). tafsir al-kasysyaf. beirut: dar al-fikr. ali, n. (2003). kepemimpinan perempuan dalam dunia politik” dalam hamim ilyas perempuan tertindas. kajian hadis misoginis. yogyakarta: tp. as-sulami, a. a. (2004). sufi-sufi wanita : tradisi yang tercadari. pustaka hidayah. as-suyuthi. (2015). ad-durul mansur fi tafsir al ma’tsur jilid 2. beirut: dar al-kotob al-ilmiyah. bakhtyar, m., & rezaei, a. (2012). female leadership in islam. international journal of humanities and social science, 2(17), 259–267. borhany, s. a. (2014). sayyidah nafisah : shimmering star of bani hashim. retrieved july 18, 2017, from http://www.durrenajaf.com/upload/5418f0ea10ccf.pdf bukhori, m. bin i. bin m. al. (1992). shahih al bukhari. beirut libanon: darul qurub. bukhori, m. bin i. bin m. a. (1992). shahih al bukhari. beirut libanon: darul qurub. dawud, a. (1994). sunan abi daud. beirut: maktabah al-’asriyyah. eidoo, s. (2016). pedagogies of muslim feminisms: reflections on faith, space and citizenship. gender and education, 1–17. elius, m. (2012). islamic view of women leadership as head of the state: a critical analysis. arts faculty journal, 4, 195–205. faisal, a. (2002). konsep qawwam di dalam al-qur’an” dalam nashrudin baidan, relasi jender dalam islam. yogyakarta: tp. fakhrurazi. (n.d.). tafsir al-kabir (iv). beirut: dar al-fikr. fauziyah, y. (2010). ulama perempuan dan dekonstruksi fiqih patriarkis. islamica, 5, 161–174. golkowska, k. u. (2014). bahraini women at the crossroads: muslim women and islamic resurgence: religion, education and identity politics in bahrain. hajjaj, m. bin. (n.d.). shahih muslim. beirut: dar al-ji. hamzah, s. r., hamzah, a., othman, j., & devi, s. (2016). impact of islamic values on the leadership style of muslim women academics in malaysia. advances in developing human resources, 18(2), 187–203. hanbal, a i. (2001). musnad al-imam ahmad ibn hanbal. beirut: mu’assasah al-risalah. hanbal, ahmad ibn. (2001). musnad al-imam ahmad ibn hanbal. beirut: mu’assasah al-risalah. ibn qudamah, a. (1963). al-mughni. cairo: maktabah al-qahirah. ilyas, h. (2005). rekonstruksi fiqh ibadah perempuan. in wacana fiqh perempuan dalam supriyadi, julia & firdaus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 perspektif muhammadiyah (pp. 6–7). yogyakarta: majelis tarjih dan uhamka. katsir, i. (2000). tafsir ibnu katsir. mesir: dar al kutub. khairin, n. (2002). perempuan sebagai imam shalat. in pemahaman islam dan tantangan keadilan jender (p. 103). yogyakarta: gama media. kottakkunnummal, m. (2015). making up pious women: politics, charity and gender among muslims of kerala. indian journal of gender studies, 22(3), 358–386. ma’shumah, l. a. (2012). teks-teks keislaman dalam kajian feminisme muslim: telaah metodologis atas pandangan feminis muslim terhadap penciptaan dan kepemimpinan perempuan. sawwa: jurnal studi gender, 7(2), 67–90. mahallati, a. (2010). women in traditional sharīʾa: a list of differences between men and women in islamic tradition. journal of islamic law and culture, 12(1), 1–9. maraghi, s. a. m. (2001). tafsir al-maraghi. dar al-fikr. mernissi, f. (1997). ratu-ratu islam: yang terlupakan. penerbit mizan. mernissi, f. (2001). penafsiran feminis tentang hak-hak perempuan dalam islam. dalam charles kurzman (ed.)., wacana islam liberal, pemikiran islam kontemporer tentang isu-isu global, terj. bahrul ulum dan heri junaidi, jakarta: paramadina, cet. i. muhammad, h. (1999). membongkar konsepsi fikih tentang perempuan, dalam buku kepemimpinan perempuan dalam islam. jakarta: jppr. muhammad, husein. (1999). membongkar konsepsi fikih tentang perempuan, dalam buku kepemimpinan perempuan dalam islam. jakarta: jppr. muhsin, a. w. (1994). wanita di dalam al-qur’an, terj. yaziar radianti, bandung: pustaka. mulia, m. (2007). islam & inspirasi kesetaraan gender. kibar press. muqoyyidin, a. w. (2013). wacana kesetaraan gender: pemikiran islam kontemporer tentang gerakan feminisme islam. al-ulum, 13(2), 490–511. mutalib, m. a., hussin, s. a., mohd, n., sukor, k. m. n., wan, w. m. f. a., & razali, r. a. (2017). islamic leadership behaviour practices among muslim women managers, 18(2), 187–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422316641402 nadawi, a. a. al., & ahmed, a. (1991). al-qawâ’id al-fiqhiyyah. damaskus: dâr al-qalam. nasution, k. (2002). fazlur rahman tentang wanita. tazzafa. novianti, i. (2008). dilema kepemimpinan perempuan dalam islam. yin yang, 3(2), 255–261. peshkova, s. (2009). muslim women leaders in the ferghana valley: whose leadership is it anyway? journal of international women’s studies, 11(1), 5–24. qordhawi, y. (1994). hadyu al-islam: fatawa mu’ashirah terj. hamid al-husain, “fatwa-fatwa mutakhir,.” jakarta: yayasan al-hamidy. rahmat, j. (1999). islam alternatif: ceramah-ceramah di kampus. mizan. rakhmat, j. (2004). islam alternatif, ceramah-ceramah di kampus, cet. ketiga. (vol. 26). jakarta: mizan. rakhmat, j. (2008). meraih cinta ilahi, belajar menjadi kekasih allah. depok: pustaka iman. ramayulis. (2004). psikologi agama. jakarta: kalam mulia. rezai-rashti, g. m. (2015). the politics of gender segregation and women’s access to higher education in the islamic republic of iran: the interplay of repression and resistance. gender and education, 27(5), 469–486. rif’at hassan, f. m. (1995). setara di hadapan allah, relasi laki-laki dan perempuan dalam tradisi islam pasca patriarki, terj. oleh tim lsppa. yogyakarta: media gama offset. rohman, a. (2013). women and leadership in islam: a case study in indonesia. the international journal of social sciences, 16(1), 46–51. shihab, m. q. (2000). membongkar hadits-hadits bias gender” dalam shafiq hasyim." kepemimpinan perempuan dalam islam. shihab, m. q. (2007). “membumikan” al-quran: fungsi dan peran wahyu dalam kehidupan masyarakat. mizan pustaka. sidani, y. (2005). women, work, and islam in arab societies. women in management review, 20(7), 498–512. supriyadi, t. (2018). perempuan dalam timbangan al-quran dan sunnah: wacana perempuan dalam perspektif pendidikan islam. jurnal sosio religi, 16(1). supriyadi, t., & julia, j. (2019). the problem of students in reading the quran: a reflectivecritical treatment through action research. international journal of instruction, 12(1), 311-326. supriyadi, t., julia, j., iswara, p. d., & aeni, a. n. (in press). eradicating al-quran iliteracy of prospective primary school teachers. mimbar sekolah dasar. sururin, s. (2010). perempuan dalam lintasan sejarah tasawuf. ulumuna, 14(2), 299–322. syarifudin, h. a. (2014). ushul fiqih jilid i (vol. 1). prenada media. thompson, m. r. (2002). female leadership of democratic transitions in asia. pacific affairs, supriyadi, julia & firdaus journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 91-110 75(4), 535–555. tirmidzi, m. bin i. at. (1994). sunan at-tirmidzi. beirut: dar al-fikr. van bruinessen, m. (1992). tarekat naqsyabandiyah di indonesia. bandung: mizan. wadud, a., & others. (1999). qur’an and woman: rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective. oxford university press, usa. zahra, m. a. (1997). usul al-fiqh. al-qahirah. dar al-fikr al-arabi. zaid, n. h. a. (2002). tekstualitas al-qur’an. pt lkis pelangi aksara. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 308-322 308 the nationality education model: the implementation of a score-a training model for youth across different cultures in indonesia komarudin1 ahmad tarmiji alkhudri2 ubedilah3 syaifudin4 asep rudi casmana5 abstract this paper aimed to analyse to analyze the implementation of nationality education model for youth across different cultures through the score-a model. the score-a model stands for spatial awareness (sa); cultural awareness (ca); organization awareness (oa); religion awareness (ra); and economic awareness (ea). this model is probably effective to educate the youth coming from different backgrounds such as religion, race language and others. the qualitative study was conducted using document analysis, literature review, interviews, and questionnaire. the teaching model was constructed with literature review analyses and interviews with experts. in model implementation, the researchers worked with 22 youths living in dki jakarta over a six month period. the results revealed that the score-a model or treatment during observation are appropriate for improving the nationalism in loving their own country even though the youths come from different backgrounds of religion, ethic, and language. in addition to this, the youths also developed their critical and creative thinking skills, although there are some limitations in applying the score-a model such as variation in participants background. therefore, it is suggested that the model can be implemented in other areas. key words: nationalism education, youth, cross culture, score-a training model introduction the study of nationality education is related to three main issues of history of political nationalism, multiculturalism, and criticism of indoctrination. several strategies are used to develop the nationalism by promoting through mass media and national training. for instance, in the united states, poland, china and japan, they promoted nationalism by using offline and online mass media, films and structured teaching materials (davies, mizuyama, & thompson, 2010; nucci, narvaez, & krettenauer, 2014; dedominicis, 2014; qian, xu, & chen, 2017; jaskulowski 1 assoc. prof, pancasila and civic education, universitas negeri jakarta, komarudin@unj.ac.id 2 lecturer, education sociology, universitas negeri jakarta, alkhudri47@gmail.com 3 lecturer, education sociology, universitas negeri jakarta, ubedilah.badrun@gmail.com 4 lecturer, education sociology, universitas negeri jakarta, syaifudin@unj.ac.id 5 lecturer, pancasila and civic education, universitas negeri jakarta, aseprudi@unj.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 308-322 & surmiak, 2017). in addition to this, the nationality education is also related to the multiculturalism issue, especially in relation to countries which consist of society with different background of ethic group, religion, language and others. those countries which recognised as multicultural states have developed the similar model to improve their nationalism. for example, the united states, france, finland, india, china and hong kong, iraq, and malaysia have the similar nationality education to improve the love of their countries. in addressing the issue of multi ethnicity, race, and heterogeneity, these countries designed a complex national education curriculum adapted to the context of the community. the significance of this nationality education is designed to create the social change in some communities. it is very common that the difference can cause a tension or conflict in communities, such as different culture, race, religion, language and others. by using a socio-ethnic approach, the purpose of nationality education is to create harmonization, establish democratization and social tolerance. this nationality education is carried out through educational program, learning programs and political simulations (jaffrelot, 2003; utz, 2005; levinson, schugurensky, & gonzález, 2007; kennedy, 2012; berry & candis, 2013; lin, 2005; ismail, 2015; wintersteiner, grobbauer, & diendorfer, 2015; bawa & bhatnagar, 2016; bonikowski, 2016) (sánchez & noblit, 2016; danju, 2015; banks, 2017) having a closer look to the school program, the nationality education emphasized the issue of indoctrination. it probably means that this model is created to educate youths and students in school to live in harmony, reduce the tension between different ethnic groups, and discussing about the future which can improve the feeling of loving their country. therefore, it is important for the teachers to understand clearly about diversity of race, religion, culture, language and others since it will be used for teaching students in school. as a result, teachers no longer carry their ethnic background which can be presented in the values of social tolerance, multiculturalism, and democracy (coenders & scheepers, 2013; leung, 2004) in the indonesian context, national problems relating to the huge tension between ethnic groups have been challenging to the government since the early days of independence. separatist issues, stability, and social conflict are still threating that can disrupt the integrity of the nation (morgenthau, 1997; mufid, 2001; setara institute, 2008). various efforts have been made to overcome this problem, such as the enactment of a nationality education. meanwhile, in the reform era which stood from 1998 until now the efforts to foster nationalism education were not only komarudin et al. carried out by the state (ministry of home affair, 2012), but also involved the participation of civil society (asriati, 2013; cefil, 2013; triyanto, 2015; chamami, 2015). however the nationality education model remains fragmented which is not sustainable, and not integrated. therefore, it is necessary to look for other models that are more focused, and comprehensive. in this context, the score-a nationality education model is presented as an alternative to solve the government challenge mentioned above. the implementation of the model is created to reduce the tension among ethnic groups, remove the separatist groups, and other challenge. the national score-a education model rests on "five core insights"; spatial awareness (sa); cultural awareness (ca); organization awareness (oa); religion awareness (ra); economic awareness (ea). this research was conducted in indonesia which known as multicultural country. therefore, it will focus on how to teach diverse youths such as different race, religion, language and other backgrounds by using score-a nationality education model to make them live in harmony in country. although there are a lot of limitations, it probably can help some group of communities which have differences among them. literature review score-a nationality education model score-a stands for spatial awareness (sa); cultural awareness (ca); organization awareness (oa); religion awareness (ra); economic awareness (ea). the five concepts generated from score-a can be the main concern of this research and it would be the core of nationality education model for youth. when teaching nationality education model using score-a, it probably can produce the new insight and reflective views from youths about nationality and identity. this part would discuss about five main principles from score-a nationality education model, which are spatial awareness, cultural awareness, organization awareness, religion awareness and economic awareness. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 308-322 figure 1 score-a model (komarudin, ubedilah, & syaifudin, 2017) the first concept of score-a is spatial awareness. this awareness is described that the youth is designed to analyse the object and something which can think of the world. having a closer look to this, the spatial is a social construction in which it describes about the intensity and meaning about social friendship in society. in addition to this, the spatial create the relationship between knowledge and the god (gardner, 2003; giaquinto, 2007; shearer, 2004; zielniec , 2007). the second concept of score-a model is cultural awareness. this concept aims to introduce the youth to understand that people living in this world come from different culture. the appearance of culture in some community can create a different colour in life, so that people can teach one another. instead of becoming the source of conflict due to diverse ways of live, it probably would be better to preserve it. some expert argue that involving of culture especially some ways of live in culture can create better future life and it is very important (ang & dyne, 2008). in addition to this, the youths are also designed to join some organisation or communities, so that they can learn how to adapt and cope with new situation because organisation or community have a lot of member from different background. these sort of concept can be called as cultural awareness. the third concept of score-a model is religious. this concept is slightly similar with spatial awareness. while spatial awareness focus on the concept of god, this religious awareness focus on how to get deep knowledge and applied it in day-to-day activities. this probably means that komarudin et al. the youths are not only expected to know and have the knowledge, but they also should apply these religious concepts every day. this is what is called as religious awareness in score-a. at the end, the concept of score-a focus on the economic awareness. this concept is developed to create and develop financial awareness, since the youths are intended to be independent financially. these are some five principles for developing the youths through score-a nationality education model. method the study used a qualitative methodology with document analysis, a literature review, interview and questionnaire as data collection. and also has strategy such as participant observation. based on miles and huberman (1994) qualitative data analysis consists of three procedures such as data reduction, data display and conclusion. data reduction is process whereby the mass qualitative data obtained such as observation and interview. these case study research questions are: 1. how does score-a training model increasing nationalism? 2. how does score-a training model develop critical and creative thinking skills? based on the research questions, this case study focused on how score-a training model was being implemented and what the implications were on participants. the model was developed through the steps of model development based on document analyses (curriculum and literature review), followed by experts’ judgement. the researchers explore the experts’ judgement through questionnaire and interviews. after model revisions, the model was implemented in selected group to understanding the feasibility and impacts of the model. then followed by implementation in the extended groups to get comprehensive feedback on final model. during the training the participants was completed the questionnaire regarding their feedback and impact on the training, followed by deep interviews to understand their feelings and opinions. this study has three procedures such pre training, substance of training, and coaching methodology. on pre training, authors asked questions about participants experience on nationality education training. after that, substance of training by score-a training model, as follows: part i introduction journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 308-322 in this introduction, authors collaboration with participants for 60 minutes to introduction about score-a training model. participants knew and understood the intent and purpose of developing national insight by games. and then the opening was done by creation of interaction, communication and atmosphere of activities that are full of collaboration through meta card. the assessment results shows by enthusiasm and participant level. coaching activity contract was done by identified goals, expectations and follow-up of coaching activities use pleno to agree on the rules to guide completion and the assessment results shows by willingness of participants to sign an activity contract. insight of nationality and national development in this procedure, need 480 minutes. the first subject about dynamics of indonesian nationalism, participants must understood the dynamics of indonesian national development based on spatial, cultural, organizational, religious and economic aspects. analyzed the dynamics of indonesian contemporary insights. the procedure used short film, critical analysis and cross experience. the second subject is problems of contemporary nationality. understand the main roots of contemporary national problems used short film screening and analysis method. identified triggers for national conflict used game star power and identified realities that support national integration used critical analysis method. the third subject is conflict management and structuring of community institutions. map conflicts that occur in the community used critical analysis and participants are able to provide solutions to conflicts used brainstorming through tool problem tree and participants are able to manage conflicts through outbound method. the last is nationalism based social development such as determine the program’s target community used cross experience, formulate a community development strategy based on five core national insights (score-a) and able to design a harmonious and intensive community structure used community design simulation. part ii strengthening of community assessment skills in this part, participants need 300 minutes to implementation. first, empower and educated the public such as translated harmonious and integral community development designs by cross experience. able to socialize harmonious and integral community design through scriptorium method. develop then analyze the challenges and future design harmonious by fgd method. second, organizing the community such as carried out community organizing activities, identified komarudin et al. the potential role of stakeholders to realize harmonious and integrative community design by contextual learning design. third building communication and cooperation with the community, participants able to establish intense communication with the community and able to encourage good by contextual learning method. workshop of nationality these procedures need 460 minutes. the first is cross-cultural youth engagement strategy in national development with nationality insight. participants are able to form the type of activity as an entry point by group work. after that development of national insight by group presentation. and then formulate strategies for implementing an effective national insight development program by pleno. the second is standard assessment of nationality insight development programs. participants know the techniques and aspects in the assessment of national insight development program. and the third program development and national pledge. participants are able to design and translate a variety of national insight training program and bind themselves through national pledges by moment of ceremonial. part iii coaching evaluation in this part, test the results of training management assessment and training follow up. participants are able to review the results discussed in training, obtained assessment from participants about the effectiveness of the implementation of training and re charge training and also establishing communication for 60 minutes. based on substance of training, the research used case study to participant and followed every part. the study was conducted in jakarta over a period of 6 months in 2018. in this research, observation has done during training session. authors worked together with 22 youths from 14 ethnic in indonesia as participants and two education experts. participants have different religion one buddhist, one hindu, 16 islam, one catholic and three protestant. semi-structured interviewed conducted and transcribed outside of training model time. in each part, the data collected as part of the score-a training model of consisted of content, deep-interview, participants experience, training methodology, observation of participants presentation and various religion and ethnic. interview was conducted with education expert consisted originality; score-a model, practicality and excellence of the model and also use of the model. based on yin in (tannebaum, 2018) data for the present study was analyzed in two ways and initially, individual case reports journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 308-322 were generated for each participant. it were transcribed and analyzed by data reduction and triangulation. interview transcripts were made of tables containing the participant labels p1-p22 and e1-e2. the authors also read articles from journals that helped in the analysis of the transcript. findings design model of nationalist education score-a the score-a nationality education model was developed from the thinking of social scientists (komarudin, ubedilah, & syaifudin, 2017). this model prioritizes the process of internalization or processing of inner attitudes, spirituality, and the mentality participants. the model provides the opportunity for reflection, personal processing, and sharing gets an important portion in the design of the score-a education model. the score-a model relies on a combination of methods such as lectures, documentary media, games, meta cards (some cards which are used during the treatment to the respondents), critical analysis, cross experience, case studies, scriptorium, simulations, group work, and focus group discussion. the approach used relies on resources-based learning, contextual learning, and workbased learning. through these three approaches the participants are expected to be able to actively engagein each activity (komarudin, ubedilah, & syaifudin, 2017). picture 1. material national education model score-a source: private document based on the picture 1, documentary media is one of training method. the material of insight of nationality and national development used short film to help the participants to understand the context of the problems. movie is one of media promoted positive characteristic komarudin et al. and effective (smithikrai, 2016). the aim of the score-a model as a national education curriculum is to develop national awareness and to reinforce a national commitment to the crosscultural coaching of participants so that in their daily lives, indonesian youth can contribute to national unity. the specific objectives of the model implementation, there are providing national knowledge and understanding, identifying and finding solutions to current national problems, changing the mindset, behavior, and awareness of participants about the importance of their involvement in the development process, and gathering ideas about the model of the development of a nation-oriented society that is a version of the young generation across cultures (komarudin, et al 2017). these specific objectives have guided the learning process within the nationality education model. nationalism development training is one of a systematic process to foster attitudes. (milkovich & boudreay, 1994). the model of national education score-a represented five core intelligence that can lead to national understanding and awareness. there are curriculum, teaching materials, and evaluation models that are presented in a systemic, integrated, and contextual manner; we are delivered to alternative methods of implementing national insights. “….in this training, i felt different experience like previous training” (participant 1, 2018). “....i thought the training was done with academic”(participant 2, 2018). “….after i followed the training, i knew how to keep culture diverse and unity”(participant 3, 2018). “…i felt the training reminded us of national insights and fosters a sense of love for homeland of indonesia”(participant 4, 2018). “….previous training just only focused on four pillars of nationality but in this score-a training model my nationalism was increased by leadership training” (participant 5, 2018). “the different thing about this score-a training model is presented participants from different ethnic, it helped us to increased nationalism with know each other ethnic and have a communication”(participant 6, 2018). based on that interview, most participants agree that score-a training model helped them to increasing nationalism. that is can be strengthen the spirit of nationalism by revitalizing it for improving the nation competitiveness of globalization era (sulistiyono, 2018). “….i felt score-a training model made participants increasing their nationalism because even though we are different in language and tradition but we have one purpose.”( participant 7, 2018). “score-a training model is one of the innovation to united indonesian youth”(expert 1, 2018). “most of training only focused on trainer center. but in this training, the subject that we got about problems of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 308-322 contemporary nationality made me understood how to increasing our nationalism” (participant 8, 2018). because nationalism is typically linked to structure of feeling and emotion more than to the world of rationality (aspinall, 2015). according to data participants through interview, the advantage of score-a training model are making their self-aware of the importance unity in diversity and exercise their mindset and nationality with different perspective. critical and creative thinking skills development according to greenstein (2012) human resources in order to compete nationally and internationally in the 21st century include critical thinking. the implementation of the score-a national education model was carried out in 3 stages; planning, implementation, and evaluation. the planning phase included three activities; the fixation of coaching devices, improvement of materials, and analysis of criteria for coaching participants. in order to improve the quality of instruments such some materials, the researchers have contributed to revise and provide some materials based on their education background. “…i felt the development my critical thinking because score-a training model.”(participant 9, 2018). “…this training encourages me to creative thinking about identify triggers for national conflict and also realities that support national integration. ” (participant 10, 2018). “this national education training was develop my critical thinking through created a community social development proposal” (participant 11, 2018). “as a participant, i ever followed the training about national education. previous training only prioritized four national pillars without making a proposal so i felt score-a training model helped me to developed critical thinking.”(participant 12, 2018). “i felt this training very educative and the training used varies of method such as video and games and also critical analysed. that is made me as a participant can develop critical and creative thinking.”(participant 13, 2018). “material of score-a training model really interesting. created proposal to build our region make me challenged and gave experience to built critical and creative thinking.”(participant 14, 2018). “score-a training model is the formulation to find solutions to existing national problems and effective to develop critical analysed participant”(expert 2, 2018). collaboration in group work can improve the critical thinking skills and developing their thinking process (valdez, 2015). according to bleedorn in (alghafri & ismail, 2014) the critical and creative thinking are important for the individuals. according to respondents the coaching of the score-a model brings benefits, both in perspective and feeling of nationalism or loving their own country however, for improvements to more comprehensive coaching in all regions of indonesia, participants provided komarudin et al. feedback that the coaching engaged them in the nationality education, however, all province in indonesia need to be represented. the participants engaged in critical and creative thinking processes as they were challenged by complex issues which helped them explore their values. discussion and implications the finding of the study about score-a nationality education has improved nationalism among youths and develop critical and creative thinking skills. as seen on the figure 1 with regard to the score-a model, the main basic of this nationality education is pancasila (the indonesian five principles), nkri (the republic of indonesia), bhineka tunggal ika (unity in diversity), and uud 1945 (indonesian basic constitution 1945) (komarudin, ubedilah, & syaifudin, 2017). these four basic score-a nationality education teaching model was implemented towards the youths. based on the previous concept of nationality education, the main purpose of this model is to change youth’s attitude and perspective to have the feeling of nationalism or loving their country, as well as developing critical and creative thinking skills. at the first glance when teachers gave the content about case-based in classroom, the participants do not have any idea and they think that this training could be similar with other workshop that they attended. however, as the purpose of nationality education is to develop the feeling of loving their country or nationalism, they interested to follow the process and know deep knowledge about their own country. the meta cards and the movie are the most powerful weapon to teach youth during developing their nationalism. it is similar with the work by researchers in which he said that movie provide new imagination for students to develop their soft-skills (smithikrai, 2016). in indonesian context, nationalism is considered to be very important. it is probably the country is very diverse in terms of ethnic, race and religion (raihani, 2014). while diversity provides some colorful life and brings a wide range of idea, it also creates negative impact if the country never treat or educate their people to love their country and live in harmony. what is more, in other part of the world, nationalism is imperative especially in the place where the people come from different background. in africa for example, nationalism is very crucial because some countries in african continent should fight with other nations (olasupo, oladeji, & ijeoma, 2017). this feeling of nationalism cannot appear or emerge by themselves, but it needs the process by using education context. as seen on the interview results, the score-a nationality education journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 308-322 training can increase the love of their homeland country. other respondents said that they increased the insight that the country is diverse. having a closer look to the nationalism, it seems that in indonesian context, it is important and schools or other educational institutions needs to provide and develop it. for example in score-a nationality education in which the treatment is developed towards movie and meta cards. however, it does not mean that nationalism has always positive development. to some extent, it has some limitation towards the society, especially in the political party context. the nationalist argue that nationalism should always focus on their group only, apart from other political groups (yazici, 2018). in the second benefits, after the treatment of score-a nationality education training model, the youths were expected to develop their critical and collaborative thinking skills. these two skills are being promoted by the united nations, since it is considered to be 21st century skill (ridwan, rahmawati, & hadinugrahaningsih, 2017). critical thinking is the skill which create youths to read and get a deep analysis before they decide what would they do and share information towards others (longmore, grant, & golnaraghi, 2017). other experts also argue that the critical thinking skills should be implemented and applied towards youths in schools (papadourakis, 2016). in this study, during the respondents were given some national conflict and they are required to give their opinion about the case. the general interview report seen that score-a nationality education model can develop their critical thinking skills, as well as the collaborative skill. the youths were asked to discuss and communicate and collaborate with other group of people to give some solution. it is similar with the results by some expert, in which they said that academic collaboration can increase and develop collaborative and critical thinking skills (spies & xu, 1-9). since collaborative and creative thinking skill are of important skills which should be taught towards students. score-a nationality education model have provided it towards the youths. in addition to the participants need to be encouraged to engage the learning experiences in order to reflect on their values and beliefs. the development of critical and contextual issues and time allocation are important to engage the participants. conclusion komarudin et al. the nationality education model, score-a, represents "five core nationalism insights"; spatial awareness (sa); cultural awareness (ca); organization awareness (oa); religion awareness (ra); economic awareness (ea). judging from the design, the score-a model is focused, elaborative and comprehensive, and can be an alternative to existing models. an important aspect of the score-a model is that, during implementation, various media such as lectures, documentary film media, games meta cards, critical analysis, cross experience, case studies, scriptorium, simulations, group work, and fgd, can be used. based on the results of expert validation, the national model of score-a education was declared to be a feasible tool to apply to cross-cultural youth as an alternative to the existing model, with a score of 82.82%. this result is in line with the results of the implementation of the model with the 22 research participants, of which 91% rated the score-a model substance very appropriate for fostering the nationality of cross-cultural youth. for this reason, given the importance of implementing this model to a broader scope, the correctional of the score-a model also needs to be carried out by government institutions, civil society, and especially educational institutions as an important model for national development. references ang, s., & dyne, l. v. (2008). conceptualization of cultural intelligence: definition, distinctiveness and nomological network. dalam s. ang, & l. v. dyne, handbook of cultural intelligence: theory, measurement and applications. new york: sharpe.inc. asriati, n. (2013). pengembangan model pendidikan menengah “sekolah kebangsaan” di daerah terpencil, tertinggal, terluar dan perbatasan kalimantan barat-serawak malaysia. prosiding seminar nasional 2013 menuju masyarakat madani dan lestari. jakarta. banks, j. a. (2017). failed citizenship and transformative civic education. educational researcher, 46(7), 366-377. bawa, g., & bhatnagar, m. (2016). the promotion of nationalism & internationalism among higher secondary students in district yamuna nagar. international journal of advanced education and research, 1(11), 23-28. berry, t. r., & candis, m. r. (2013). cultural identity and education: a critical race perspective. educational foundations, 27, 43-64. bonikowski, b. (2016). nationalism in settled times. annual review of sociology, 42, 427-449. cefil. (2013). civic education for future indonesian leaders (cefil). yogyakarta: satu nama dan konrad adenauer stiftung. chamami, m. r. (2015). pesantren berwawasan kebangsaan. jawa tengah: jateng pos. coenders, m., & scheepers, p. (2013). the effect of education on nationalism and ethnic exclusionism: an international comparison. political psychology, 24(2), 313-343. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 308-322 creswell, j. (2017). research design, qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (fourth). sage publication. crotty, m. (1998). the foundations of social research: meaning and perspective in the research process. st. leonards: allen and unwinn. danju, i. (2015). a content analysis of citizenship education. global journal on humanites & social sciences, 4(1), 167-173. davies, i., mizuyama, m., & thompson, g. h. (2010). citizenship education in japan. citizenship, social and economics education, 9(3), 170-178. dedominicis, b. (2014). nationalism and international relations education ‘international relations’ as a political actor. management education an international journal, 13(2), 13-28. denzin, n. k., & lincoln , y. s. (2009). handbook of qualitative research, 2thedition. thousand oaks: sage publ. inc. gardner, h. (2003). multiple intelligences: kecerdasan majemuk teori dalam praktek. batam: inter aksara. giaquinto. (2007). visual thinking in mathematics an epistemological study. new york: oxford university press. grammes, t., & açıkalın, m. (2016). qualitative data collection and interpretation : a turkish social studies lesson nitel veri toplama ve yorumlama : türkiye ’ den bir sosyal bilgiler dersi. journal of social studies education research, 7(1), 1-40. ismail, s. h. (2015). pembangunan insan dalam falsafah pendidikan kebangsaan (human development in national education philosophy). journal of human capital development (jhcd), 8(2), 83-100. jaffrelot, c. (2003). for a theory of nationalism” in questions de recherche/research in question. dipetik january 5, 2019, dari https://hal-sciencespo.archives-outvertes.fr/hal01065058 jaskulowski, k., & surmiak, a. (2017). teaching history, teaching nationalism: a qualitative study of history teachers in a polish post-industrial town. critical studies in education, 36(51), 36-51. joubish, m. f., khurram, m. a., ahmed, a., fatima, s. t., & haider, k. (2011). paradigms and characteristics of a good qualitative research. world applied sciences journal, 12(11), 2082-2087. kennedy, k. j. (2012). global trends in civic and citizenship education: what are the lessons for nation states? education sciences, 2(3), 121-135. komarudin, k., ubedilah, u., & syaifudin, s. (2017). the development of nationality education model for crosscultural youth. adri international journal of social science education, 1(1), 8-15. leung, y. w. (2004). nationalistic education and indoctrination. citizenship, social and economics education, 6(2), 116-130. levinson, b. a., schugurensky, d., & gonzález, r. (2007). democratic citizenship education: a new imperative for the americas. inter-american journal of education for democracy, 1(1), 1-8. komarudin et al. lin, a. (2005). citizenship education in american schools and its role in developing civic engagement: a review of the research. educational review, 67(1), 35-63. miles, m. b., & huberman, a. m. (1994). qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. ca: sage publication. miles, m., & huberman, a. m. (1992). analisis data kualitatif: buku sumber tantang metodemetode baru. jakarta: ui press. ministry of home affair. (2012). peraturan menteri dalam negeri republik indonesia nomor 71 tahun 2012 tentang pedoman pendidikan wawasan kebangsaan. jakarta: ministry of home affair. morgenthau, h. j. (1997). politik antar bangsa. jakarta: bina cipta. mufid, a. s. (2001). dialog agama dan kebangsaan. jakarta: zikrul hakim. newman, w. l. (2013). metodologi penelitian sosial: pendekatan kualitatif dan kuantitatif. jakarta: indeks. nucci, l., narvaez, d., & krettenauer, t. (2014). citizenship education in the united states: regime type, foundational questions, and classroom practice. dalam w. c. parker, handbook of moral and character education (hal. 363-383). new york: routledge. qian, l., xu, b., & chen, d. (2017). does history education promote nationalism in china? a ‘limited effect’explanation. journal of contemporary china, 26(104), 199-212. sánchez, m., & noblit, g. w. (2016). education without nationalism: locating leadership when borders no longer hold. dalam r. papa, & w. f, educational leaders without borders (hal. 39-62). switzerland: springer. setara institute. (2008). kebebasan beragama di indonesia. laporan penelitian. jakarta: wahid institute, setara institute, dan crsc-ugm. shearer, c. b. (2004). multiple intelligences after 20 years. teachers college record, 106(1), 2-16. stake, r. (1995). the art of case study research. ca: sage. tannebaum, r. p. (2018). teaching about religion within early childhood and elementary social studies: exploring how preservice teachers perceive their rights and responsibilities as educators rory p. tannebaum 1. journal of social studies education research, 9(4), 30-48. triyanto, k. r. (2015). merancang pelatihan pengembangan wawasan kebangsaan berbasis partisipasif di daerah perbatasan. denpasar: upt-p balatrans. utz, r. (2005). nations, nation-building, and cultural intervention: a social science perspective. max planck yearbook of united nations law online, 9(1), 615-647. wintersteiner, w., grobbauer, h., & diendorfer, g. (2015). global citizenship education: citizenship for global societies. klagenfurt, salzburg, vienna: unesco. zielniec , a. (2007). space and social theory. london: sage publication. www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2022:13 (3), 79-97 teachers’ perspectives on using information and communication technology in the secondary school practice: a case study gulzhana kuzembayeva1, aru m. taganova2, diana spulber3 & zhumagul maydangalieva4* abstract information and communication technology (ict) is used in all spheres of life, including education. educators are encouraged to use ict in the classroom, and their technology is constantly improving. the relevance of the study lies in the fact that ict has become an essential issue and a powerful tool in the educational process. the ict is applied from the preschool to the university level, facilitating the educational process, changes, and reforms in the field, especially under the influence of the covid-19 pandemic. the ict use causes crucial changes in education, visible in the very structure of the educational process and the roles of its stakeholders – students and teachers. the importance of specific requirements for ict use is proved by the necessity to adapt to a changing reality in secondary education according to modern requirements, especially for elderly educators. this fact is also critical for the school administration concerning the professional development of teachers. our study aims to explore teachers’ perspectives on using ict in secondary school education and the relationship between teachers’ age, education, work experience and the aptitude for using ict in teaching practice. the primary research approach is an exploratory-descriptive research based on qualitative and quantitative methods for collecting information from secondary school teachers using a survey and on-site observations. the study’s results depict that the technology used in the educational process affects the growth of teachers’ professional competence and contributes to high motivation of students, valuable results in teaching, and a substantial improvement in the quality of education. however, it causes particular challenges for teachers and the school’s administration. the research data provide possible solutions for refining the ict use in education and offer insights into effective teaching using technology in secondary schools. keywords: information and communication technology, ict, technology, secondary education, school, teachers’ perspectives introduction information and communication technology (ict) has become one of the most critical parts of curricula in the world education system (chubakumzuk & moameren, 2021). the active use of 1 ph.d. in philology, associate professor, k. zhubanov aktobe regional university, kuzembayeva@mail.ru 2 candidate of education, associate professor, k. zhubanov aktobe regional university, aru73@mail.ru 3 ph.d., professor of the department of theory and history of journalism, peoples’ friendship university of russia (rudn university); professor of the department of education, university of genoa, 22spulber@gmail.com 4 ph.d. in education, associate professor, baishev university, maydangalieva@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 79-97 80 ict in teaching is associated with the process of informatization, and it is the most crucial factor in updating the education system following the requirements of modern society (nazarova, 2016). the emergence of ict in education changes the precise structure of the educational process, and the roles of its stakeholders (students and teachers) are changing substantially (yamaletdinova, 2016). in line with the theory of generations people aged up to 25 years perceive the digitalization of education in a natural way, as most of them were born in the period of rapid development of gadgets (papadakis, 2018). the emergence of new technologies is fraught with the need for continuous advanced professional training of teachers. this forces them to adjust themselves and rebuild their methodologies and approaches to the new learning paradigms (bates & bates, 2015). as reported by previous researchers (ul haq & akhtar, 2013; moalosi, 2013), there is a disparity between teachers’ age, experience, and teacher effectiveness. in view of the dynamic introduction of digital educational environments and e-learning (kalimullina et al., 2020), as already mentioned, the issue of using ict in secondary school education, and teachers’ perception of its integration into teaching process related to their age, level of education and work experience is raised. this article provides the analysis of teachers’ perspectives on using ict in secondary school teaching practice. the study results offer insights into effective teachers’ practices using technology in a secondary school. research questions the present research aims to explore the following research questions: rq1: what is the teachers’ perception about the effect of using ict in the classroom on students learning process? this research question investigates what secondary school teachers feel about using ict during classes. rq2: what is the correlation between teachers’ age, level of education and experience and the aptitude for using ict during the classes? this research question comprises the correlation analysis between teachers’ age, education, work experience, and their predisposition to use ict during the teaching process. kuzembayeva et al. hypothesis there is no statistically significant relationship between the secondary school teachers’ age, level of education, and work experience in relation to their ict skills, integration of ict into the teaching practice, and their barriers to using ict. literature review the use of ict has a long history, and one can state that ict has changed traditional approaches to learning and led to reforms in the education system. historically the use of ict in education was introduced in 1924 by sidney l. pressey, a professor at ohio university, who invented a “roteand-drill” learning machine; later, this experiment was performed by skinner in 1954 (spulber, 2021). technical and scientific progress has created various tools and resources for teaching and learning through ict. therefore, almost all educational institutions use very effective ict tools for teachers and students (davis & ellison, 2003; tadeu et al., 2019) to raise their digital literacy at all educational levels (chigisheva et al., 2021; soltovets et al., 2020). using ict in education is understood as “the organization and management of the educational process and cognitive activity of students using computer technology, software and methodological support, communication educational environment to obtain certain, obviously expected results” (kiselyov, 2014). it is considered from the position of the educational process representing specific goals and objectives, in which the process of informatization or the development of ict is connected with the development of “information epochs” (manako & voronkin, 2014). technology has grown concerning quality and efficiency perspectives. the need for technological innovation has led to a communication revolution and the rapid development of technology use in teaching. ict is a potentially powerful tool for educational changes and reforms (davis & ellison, 2003). teachers are encouraged to use ict in the classroom, and the applications they use in the classroom, are constantly improving (badaru & adu, 2022; hartoyo, 2008). technology plays a crucial role in learning. it seems especially relevant in situations of forced isolation (kuzembayeva et al., 2022; soltovets et al., 2021) or geographic remoteness. it is “a tool and environment that makes it easier for people to learn, but the effectiveness of learning depends entirely on the users” (hartoyo, 2008). therefore, one of the main goals of using ict in education is to increase motivation to learn (shoimqulova, 2020). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 79-97 82 three factors influence the profitable use of technology in teaching. two of them are connected directly with teacher feelings on the ict use, and mainly: 1) the pedagogical approach of teachers that can contribute to the appropriate ict use – the plurality of tools and resources, especially online, present in the didactic scenario makes it possible to meet a plurality of learning needs. the teacher must assess their technical characteristics, degree of accessibility, and relevance to the established didactic path; 2) the knowledge of technology and skill in its use – the ict devices and the web programs are in a vertiginous change, contributing to the continuous and indefinite multiplication of content available to users. teachers must continuously update and improve their skills in ict use in teaching. the school administration must provide advanced training in the use of technology during the teaching process to avoid the teacher facing a demanding challenge; 3) the third factor relates to the student’s motivation and competencies. the student’s motivation can be endorsed through a relationship of trust with the teacher and the content of a different variety, meeting the students’ interests (caon, 2012). the student’s competencies can be increased through methodologies activating the learners’ cognitive processes through materials and environments (physical and virtual) offering enjoyable stimuli: content methodologies, materials, and environments through ict (ghafur, 2021). experts and educational practitioners recommend using ict in secondary school practice to increase learning effectiveness and improve the quality of understanding and assimilation of the topic under study. ict can form interaction and improve communicative competence by offering original material for the class or engaging in self-education (hartoyo, 2008). each lesson in a secondary school setting should be aimed at practical results (mashbitz, 1986). ict has tools for teaching, learning, research, information and interaction for pupils and educators (cener et al., 2015). for ict-assisted learning to be as effective as possible, the physical and psychological environment, didactic materials, and teaching methods should be considered (chapelle, 1998). the peculiarity of the lesson using modern ict is that the student finds himself in the center of the activity. in such a situation, the teacher activates the student’s activity and becomes a motivator. most students agree that ict use in the classroom changes the overall atmosphere and fosters learning (bogdanova, 2015). it diversifies the learning process and presents the educational material in a visual and accessible way to students. any diagram, illustration, animation, or sound recording used in the organization of the educational process becomes beyond kuzembayeva et al. a decoration of the lesson, making it more meaningful (mashbitz, 1986). moreover, ict provides diverse options for encompassing and processing information, making sense of ideas, and expressing learning for students with different learning styles. over 87% of students learn best through visual and tactile modalities, and ict can help them “experience” the information instead of just reading and hearing it (kenney, 2011; tileston, 2003). it is one of the most critical aspects in preparing students for work and life according to modern requirements. informatization in school education ensures the students’ computer literacy and information culture (zagainov & blinova, 2014). therefore, ict can impact student learning when teachers are digitally literate and understand how to integrate it into the curriculum (information, 2021). bogdanova (2015) highlights the vitality of specific requirements for ict use and support from the school administration per professional development, contributing to high motivation of students and good results. the increasing growth of ict in education has prompted studies on “the impact of technology on learners’ motivation, performance, and engagement” (christopoulos et al., 2018), “the need to help school principals and teachers orchestrate available digital learning resources” (mayer, 2019; zhu & urhahne, 2018). moreover, it deals with the integration of ict into the classroom, stating its challenges (christopoulos, 2021) as “an inability of teacher education programs to build technical knowledge and skills” (fishman & davis, 2006). it also covers “a lack of funding and resources” (nikolopoulou & gialamas, 2015), “an absence of direction related to e-course design and delivery” (vongkulluksn et al., 2018), and “limited motivational incentives” (scherer et al., 2019). methodology research design research questions and a hypothesis guided the study. the study used an exploratory-descriptive research design to connect with the research problem and the research questions. the research design included data collection, measurement, and analysis. data collection was conducted through an online questionnaire. the questionnaire was constructed ad hoc considering the regional peculiarities and historical period. the latter is implicit in the covid-19 pandemic period, during which the educational process had to be modified, and the role of ict in teaching was accentuated. teachers faced the challenge of changing teaching methodology, whereas students had to respond to increasing their responsibility for self-management in the learning journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 79-97 84 process (spulber, 2021). the sampling was accomplished using the snowball method. the data analysis utilized descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. sample the snowball sampling was conducted by considering the possibility of mathematically formalizing the sample construction process based on social ties as a markovian chain. most social networks have been found to have a giant component, covering most populations. from the perspective of state inference, the generalization of the results will have to be limited to the giant component in case a massive distortion is reduced (vitalini, 2010). the giant component, in this case, was the matter of teaching at secondary school. the sample was designed through the whatsapp social media platform. the participants were 104 teachers from 40 secondary schools in aktobe city, the republic of kazakhstan. table 1 depicts the demographic information of the survey respondents. table 1 the participants’ demographics gender n % male 5 4.8 female 99 95.2 place of work n % primary school secondary school 40 100 high school experience n % 0-3 years 21 20.2 3-5 years 7 6.7 5-10 years 21 20.2 10-20 years 30 28.8 20< years 25 24 education n % college 2 1.9 specialist degree 49 47.1 bachelor’s degree 41 39.4 master’s degree 12 11.5 ph.d. source: author's elaboration based on statistical analysis research instrument the research aims to investigate the teachers’ perspectives on using ict in secondary school education. the primary research method is surveying the teachers in secondary schools. the survey was administered through an online questionnaire in google forms. the developed questionnaire included participants’ demographics (gender, place of work, work experience, and kuzembayeva et al. education), benefits and barriers to using ict at school, specifics, and perspectives on integrating ict into secondary school education. the research instrument’s reliability was established using cronbach’s alpha in spss statistics. the overall cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the questionnaire was .722, proving that the scale employed in this study is a reliable measurement of the secondary school teachers’ perspectives on using ict (table 2). table 2 reliability results of secondary schools’ efl teachers’ perspectives on using ict item scale mean if item deleted scale variance if item deleted sd if item deleted corrected item-total correlation cronbach's alpha if an item deleted q1 30.76923 36.50444 6.041890 -0.060658 0.727362 q2 29.57692 34.32101 5.858413 0.061966 0.743318 q3 30.03846 35.55621 5.962903 0.030672 0.733765 q4 29.20192 36.27653 6.023000 -0.098536 0.772116 q5 30.66346 36.26174 6.021772 0.000085 0.727586 q6 30.10577 34.24843 5.852216 0.196881 0.719093 q7 29.18269 30.53393 5.525752 0.534537 0.684744 q8 29.33654 29.99251 5.476542 0.623080 0.675967 q9 29.32692 30.66235 5.537360 0.507360 0.687368 q10 29.41346 29.87712 5.465997 0.589359 0.677728 q11 29.50000 30.23077 5.498251 0.588098 0.679526 q12 29.46154 29.99852 5.477090 0.595083 0.677892 q13 29.59615 30.14460 5.490410 0.670810 0.674120 q14 29.41346 29.93482 5.471272 0.601643 0.677110 q15 29.86539 34.36649 5.862294 0.056573 0.744352 q16 30.36539 32.36650 5.689156 0.418607 0.699632 source: author's elaboration based on statistical analysis the validity of measurement was estimated based on the criterion type of evidence showing the extent to which the result of a measure corresponds to other valid measures of the same concept. the survey findings predicted the results of the on-site observation indicating the research instrument’s high criterion validity. for the validity of the scale, we performed kaiser–meyer–olkin measure of sampling adequacy (kmo) (table 3). journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 79-97 86 table 3 the results of the kaiser–meyer–olkin test kaiser-meyer-olkin measure of sampling adequacy .752 bartlett's test of sphericity approx. chi-square df sig. 812,124 210 .000 source: author’s elaboration based on statistical analysis the kaiser–meyer–olkin test measures the proportion of variance in the variables that might be caused by underlying factors. the results showed that kmo was 0.752, which is good (cerny & kaiser, 1977; gravetter & wallnau, 2008). all the coefficient values are above 0.722, which indicate that the items have relatively high internal consistency. data collection the quantitative data were obtained by sending the invitation to participate in the survey and the link to the questionnaire in google forms to secondary school teachers through the whatsapp social media platform. for obtaining qualitative data on the research topic, on-site observation of the ict integrated lesson was conducted at sh. ualikhanov no. 62 secondary school (aktobe, the republic of kazakhstan). descriptive data and inferential data are both important to describe the setting and the mood in a detailed manner. data analysis the data collected from the questionnaires were processed using the statistical package for social sciences (spss) version 25. descriptive statistics and correlation analysis were employed to analyze the survey data. descriptive statistics of the major variables under study were used to display their frequencies and percentages in tables and figures to answer rq 1. spearman’s rank correlation coefficient investigated the possible relationship between secondary school teachers’ age, level of education, work experience, ict skills, ict integration into the teaching practice, and their barriers to using ict to answer rq 2. kuzembayeva et al. results and discussion the perception of teachers about the effect of using ict in the classroom on students’ learning process the study results revealed that most teachers (92.3%) consider using ict in secondary school education to foster students’ critical thinking and increase their interest in a lesson. regarding the frequency of using ict in the classroom, some teachers (5.77%) refer to the technology-integrated methodology only while introducing a new topic due to a lack of computer equipment or the unavailability of the internet at school. other responses (0.96%) suggest that using technology depends on the topic and the lesson plan. however, it is overall rare. figure 1 demonstrates teachers’ proficiency in using ict. figure 1. teachers using ict more than 90% of the respondents actively use ict daily, and nearly half (49%) state that they also use technology in the educational process. the rapid development of modern technology creates challenges for elderly teachers, and integrating ict into the lesson can be challenging because of their health status. 1.9% 7.7% 41.3% 49.0% i have heard, but i practically do not use it i use it in everyday life i actively use it in everyday life, and sometimes in the process of work i actively use both in everyday life and in the educational process journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 79-97 88 figure 2. teachers’ ict skills more than 90% of the teacher-respondents evaluate their ict skills as excellent and good. at the same time, less than 2% state unsatisfactory competency in technology use. figure 3 presents the stages of the technology-integrated lessons and the benefits of using ict. figure 3. benefits of using ict according to the teachers, ict is mainly used when introducing a new topic (51%) as it makes the process quick (76.9%) and easy (13.5%). the barriers to using ict in lessons at school can be traced from table 4. a four-point likert scale was offered for the response where the following values of strongly disagree – 1, disagree – 2, agree – 3, and strongly agree – 4 were assigned to each response. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 excellent good satisfactory unsatisfactory lesson stages when ict is used all stages introducing a new topic conclusion feedback warm-up undefined benefits of using ict quick introduction of a new topic understanding a new topic easily recreational activities no benefits kuzembayeva et al. table 4 barriers to ict integration at school source: author’s elaboration based on statistical analysis these results indicate that the barriers to ict integration into secondary school teachers’ classroom practices include insufficient electronic educational resources, computer equipment, and slow or unstable internet connection. currently, innovative technologies are renewing exceedingly quickly, and the functional literacy of some teachers is low or inadequately developed. thus, ict in the learning process is not a priority for them. on-site observation of the ict integrated lesson was conducted in the 5th grade of the sh. ualikhanov no. 62 secondary school (aktobe, the republic of kazakhstan). observation field notes included descriptive as well as inferential data for describing the setting and the mood in a detailed manner. a new topic was introduced during the lesson, and its overview was conducted via a multimedia presentation. the teacher explained the topic, and the students took notes. this finding aligns with the survey results indicating that ict is mainly used when introducing a new topic making the process quick and easy. item mean min max std. dev. ict in the learning process is not a priority. 2.538462 1.000000 4.000000 0.869361 my school does not have enough computer equipment. 2.384615 1.000000 4.000000 0.839645 not enough electronic educational resources exist in my school. 2.394231 1.000000 4.000000 0.885901 my school has limited internet access (slow or unstable connection). 2.307692 1.000000 4.000000 0.893090 in our school, the computer equipment is outdated. 2.221154 1.000000 4.000000 0.847117 not enough time exists to prepare for technologyintegrated classes. 2.259615 1.000000 4.000000 0.870166 i do not have enough opportunities/conditions to develop professional skills in the use of ict. 2.125000 1.000000 4.000000 0.771929 it is not enough to provide technical assistance to ensure the means of ict in the working environment. 2.307692 1.000000 4.000000 0.871077 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 79-97 90 the teacher used the wordwall platform to practice the lesson and took the feedback through the mentimeter.com platform. analyzing the data obtained, we noted a high level of student learning activity. thus, introducing ict in the educational process contributes to students’ motivation. this observation was predicted by the survey that most teachers consider using ict in secondary school education to foster students’ critical thinking and increase their interest in a lesson. it indicates the research design’s high criterion validity. the relationship between the teachers’ age, level of education, work experience, and the aptitude for using ict during classes at school spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used as a hypothesis test to study the relationship between secondary school teachers’ age, level of education, work experience, and their ict skills, integration of ict into the teaching practice, their barriers to using ict. tables 5–6 present correlations based on the collected data. table 5 correlation of the teachers’ age, level of education, work experience and the aptitude for using ict during teaching process items age level of education work experience r p-value r p-value r p-value need for ict integration into the teaching practice -.1363 .168 -.1086 .272 -.0856 .388 ict skills -.0389 .695 -.0665 .502 .0187 .850 barriers to using ict -.049 .621 -.157 .110 -.184 .050 correlation is significant at p < 0.05 level (2-tailed) source: author’s elaboration based on statistical analysis no significant correlation exists between the secondary school teachers’ age, level of education, work experience and their ict skills, need for integration of ict into teaching practice as a result of the correlation analysis. however, an almost negligible relationship exists between the teachers’ work experience and the barriers of using ict in secondary school education. the weak negative relationship indicates that experienced teachers face less barriers in integration of ict into teaching practice. table 6 presents the correlation between the teachers’ age, level of education, work experience, and the barriers to using ict in their teaching practice. kuzembayeva et al. table 6 correlation of the teachers’ age, level of education, work experience, and barriers to using ict during teaching process items age level of education work experience r p-value r p-value r p-value ict in the learning process is not a priority. -.048 .632 .065 .512 .025 .803 my school does not have enough computer equipment. -.029 .772 -.087 .380 -.203 .038 not enough electronic educational resources exist in my school. -.052 .598 -.151 .126 -.226 .021 my school has limited internet access (slow or unstable connection). -.003 .978 -.130 .187 -.166 .093 in our school, the computer equipment is outdated. -.055 .582 -.171 .083 -.201 .041 not enough time exists to prepare for technology-integrated classes. -.150 .128 -.138 .161 -.143 .148 i do not have enough opportunities/conditions to develop professional skills in the use of ict. -.079 .428 -.184 .061 -.157 .111 it is not enough to provide technical assistance to ensure the means of ict in the working environment. -.120 .225 -.116 .241 -.187 .058 correlation is significant at p < 0.05 level (2-tailed) source: author’s elaboration based on statistical analysis the spearman’s rank correlation test resulted in a weak negative relationship between the secondary school teachers’ work experience and the lack of computer equipment, the lack of electronic educational resources, and the outdated computer equipment at school (table 6). this implies that experienced teachers do not perceive the outdated computer equipment, the lack of computer equipment and electronic educational resources at school as barriers to using ict in their teaching practice. the research aimed to investigate the teachers’ perspectives on using ict in secondary school education. as in any research, some limitations also exist in this research. because the teachers of secondary schools are mainly women, our sample included only five male respondents. the gender gap in our research limits the understanding of the difference between the women’s and men’s perceptions of using ict at school or their technology skills (baytak, 2022). however, the novelty of the research lies in the fact that this study investigated the relationship between secondary school journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 79-97 92 teachers’ age, education, work experience, ict skills, integration of ict into the teaching practice, and their barriers to using ict. this research proved that integration of ict into secondary school education contributes to a substantial improvement in the quality of education leading to the solution of the main task of educational policy. moreover, it also indicated that ict is not a priority for kazakhstani secondary school teachers. this finding contradicts the findings of the previous studies stating the teachers’ perception of using technology as a primary tool for pedagogical use (evans-amalu & claravall, 2021; kabel et al., 2021; kim et al., 2021; oguilve et al., 2021). contradicting the findings of ul haq & akhtar (2013) and maolosi (2013) that years of teaching experience can affect teacher effectiveness as they can become less motivated due to many years in the service and fatigue, this study shows no relationship between the teachers’ age, level of education, work experience with their ict skills and their interest in the integration of ict in education. moreover, the correlation analysis confirmed that teaching experience is associated with less barriers to using ict during teaching practice. this study’s findings provide possible solutions for refining the ict use in education and offering insights into the effective teaching using technology in secondary schools. to improve the classroom environment at any level, we encourage that educators promote ict integration into the educational process by ensuring that using ict increases technological pedagogical content knowledge of learners in line with the previous research of erbilgin and şahin (2021). conclusion the analysis of the secondary school teachers’ perceptions about ict use during classes demonstrated that ict allows teachers to implement their teaching plans and keep the lesson upto-date. integrating technology into the educational process affects the growth of teachers’ professional competence. in addition, it contributes to high student motivation, achieving beneficial results in teaching and a substantial improvement in the quality of education, even though it causes specific challenges for teachers and schools’ administration. most teachers actively use ict during their classes and in everyday life. however, for senior teachers, ict integration into the classroom may be challenging due to health reasons and the rapid development of ict. kuzembayeva et al. barriers to ict integration into schoolteachers’ practices include a limited number of classrooms equipped with computers at school, outdated equipment, and inadequate functioning of the internet. most schools are not satisfactorily supplied with appropriate educational technologies. the analysis of the possible relationship between the teachers’ age, level of education, work experience, and their aptitude for using ict during the classes showed no significant correlation. however, the study proved that experienced teachers are less associated with the barriers to using ict during teaching practice such as the outdated computer equipment, the lack of computer equipment and electronic educational resources. one can conclude that experienced teachers have more opportunities to benefit from using ict in secondary school education. references badaru, k., & adu, e. (2022). platformisation of education: an analysis of south african universities’ learning management systems. research in social sciences and technology, 7(2), 66-86. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.10 bates, a. t., & bates, a. w. (2015). teaching in a digital age. retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/ baytak, a. (2022). the health students’ perception of online education amid the pandemic. research in social sciences and technology, 7(2), 49–65. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.9 bogdanova, d. a. (2015). on the use of ict at schools. new information technology in education (pp. 31–36). yekaterinburg: russian state vocational pedagogical university. caon f., & serragiotto g. (2012). tecnologie e didattica delle lingue, teorie, risorse, sperimentazioni. milano: utet. cener, e., acun, i., & demirhan g. (2015). the impact of ict on pupils’ achievement and attitudes in social studies. journal of social studies education research, 6(1), 190–207. cerny, c. a., & kaiser, h. f. (1977). a study of a measure of sampling adequacy for factoranalytic correlation matrices. multivariate behavioural research, 12, 43–47. chapelle, c. a. (1998). multimedia call: lessons to be learned from research on instructed sla, language learning and technology, 2, 22–34. chigisheva, o., soltovets, e., dmitrova, a., akhtyan a. g., litvinova, s. n., & chelysheva, y. v. (2021). digital literacy and its relevance to comparative education researchers: outcomes https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.10 https://opentextbc.ca/teachinginadigitalage/ https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2022.9 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 79-97 94 of scival analytics. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 17(10), p. 1–12. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/11183 christopoulos, a., sprangers, p., & wang, sh. (2021). integration of educational technology during the covid-19 pandemic: an analysis of teacher and student receptions. cogent education, 8(1), 1964690. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2021.1964690 chubakumzuk j., & moameren, p. (2021). the role of information and communication technologies in improving teaching and learning processes in higher education: bridging the gaps. research review journal, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.31305/rrijm.2021.v06.i04.008 christopoulos, a., conrad, m., & shukla, m. (2018). increasing student engagement through virtual interactions: how? virtual reality, 22(4), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055017-0330-3 davis, b., & ellison, l. (2003). the new strategic direction and development of the school. key frameworks for school improvement planning. 2nd edition. london: routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203428184 erbilgin, e., & şahin, b. (2021). the effects of a professional development program for technology integrated algebra teaching. research in educational policy and management, 3(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.46303/repam evans-amalu, k., & claravall, e. b. (2021). inclusive online teaching and digital learning: lessons learned in the time of pandemic and beyond. editorial. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 fishman, b., & davis, e. (2006). teacher learning research and the learning sciences. in r. k. sawyer (ed.), the cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 535550). cambridge university press. ghafur, h. s. (2021). analysis of ict development supporting the e-learning implementation on nadhatul ulama universities in indonesia. journal of social studies education research, 12(4), 121–143. gravetter, f. j., & wallnau, l. b. (2008). statistics for behavioral science (7th ed.). belmont: thomson wadsworth. hartoyo (2008). individual differences in computer-assisted language learning. semarang: pelita insani semarang. information and communication technology (ict) in education (2021). learning portal. retrieved from https://learningportal.iiep.unesco.org/en/issue-briefs/improve-learning/informationand-communication-technology-ict-in-education https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/11183 https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2021.1964690 https://doi.org/10.31305/rrijm.2021.v06.i04.008 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-017-0330-3 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-017-0330-3 https://doi.org/10.4324/978020342818 https://doi.org/10.46303/repam https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.4 https://learningportal.iiep.unesco.org/en/issue-briefs/improve-learning/information-and-communication-technology-ict-in-education https://learningportal.iiep.unesco.org/en/issue-briefs/improve-learning/information-and-communication-technology-ict-in-education kuzembayeva et al. kabel, m., hwang, j., & hwang, j. (2021). lessons learned from a rural classroom study: transitioning from concrete to virtual manipulatives to teach math fact fluency to students with learning disabilities. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 42–68. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.7 kalimullina, o., tarman, b., & stepanova, i. (2020). education in the context of digitalization and culture: evolution of the teacher’s role, pre-pandemic overview. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 8(1), 226–238. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 kenney, l. (2011). elementary education, there’s an app for that. communication technology in the elementary school classroom. the elon journal of undergraduate research in communications, 2(1), 67–75. kim, d., coenraad, m., & park, h. r. (2021). digital storytelling as a tool for reflection in virtual reality projects. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 101–121. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.9 kiselyev, g. m. (2014). information technologies in pedagogical education. dashkov and co. kuzembayeva, g., umarova, a., maydangalieva, z., gorbatenko, o., kalashnikova e., kalmazova, n., & chigisheva, o. (2022). content and language integrated learning practices in kazakhstan secondary schools during covid-19 pandemic. contemporary educational technology, 14(2), ep362. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/11733 manako, a. f., & voronkin, a. s. (2014). ict in education: evolution, convergence and innovations. educational technologies and society, 1, 487–521. mashbitz, ye. i. (1986). computerization of education: problems and perspectives. znaniye. mayer, r. e. (2019). computer games in education. annual review of psychology, 70(1), 531– 549. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102744 moalosi, s. w. t. (2013). teachers’ self-efficacy: is reporting non-significant results essential? journal of international education research, 9 (4), 397-405. nazarova, ye. b. (2016). using ict in secondary school. asian-pacific region: history and reality, х, 324–326. nikolopoulou, k., & gialamas, v. (2015). barriers to the integration of computers in early childhood settings: teachers’ perceptions. east, 20(2), 285–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-013-9281-9 oguilve, v., wen, w., bowen, e., abourehab, y., bermudez, a., gaxiola, e. & castek, j. (2021). community making: an expansive view of curriculum. journal of curriculum studies research, 3(1), 69–100. https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.8 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.7 https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/629 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.9 https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/11733 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102744 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-013-9281-9 https://doi.org/10.46303/jcsr.2021.8 journal of social studies education research 2022: 13 (3), 79-97 96 papadakis, s. (2018). evaluating pre-service teachers' acceptance of mobile devices with regards to their age and gender: a case study in greece. international journal of mobile learning & organization, 12(4), 336-352. shoimqulova, m. sh. (2020). use of information technologies in foreign language lessons. journal nx, 6(11), 349–353. scherer, r., siddiq, f., & tondeur, j. (2019). the technology acceptance model (tam): a metaanalytic structural equation modeling approach to explaining teachers’ adoption of digital technology in education. computers & education, 128, 13–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.009 soltovets, e., chigisheva, o., & dmitrova, a. (2020). the role of mentoring in digital literacy development of doctoral students at british universities. eurasia journal of mathematics, science and technology education, 16(4), em1839. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/117782 soltovets, e., chigisheva, o., dubover, d., & dmitrova, a. (2021). russian digital education landscape during the current pandemic: is the impact felt? e3s web of conferences, 273, 12026. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202127312026 spulber, d., (2021) e-learning box. in r. s. feldmann, g. amoretti, m. r. cicceri (eds.), psicologia generale quarta edizione. new york: mcgraw-hill education. tadeu, p., fernandez batanero, j., & tarman, b. (2019). ict in a global world. research in social sciences and technology, 4(2), i-ii. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed tileston, d. w. (2003). what every teacher should know about technology. corwin: corwin press. ul haq, m., & akhtar, m. (2013). do school level and years of teaching experience really matter? an investigation of pakistani teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. middle-east journal of scientific research,18 (7), 950-957. vitallini, a. (2010). l'uso delle reti sociali per la costruzione di campioni probabilistici: possibilità e limiti per lo studio di popolazioni senza lista di campionamento, studi di sociologia, 48(3/4), 383–398. retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23005335 vongkulluksn, v.w., xie, k., & bowman, m. a. (2018). the role of value on teachers’ internalization of external barriers and externalization of personal beliefs for classroom technology integration. computers & education, 118(3), 70–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.11.009 yamaletdinova, a. m. (2016). modern information and communication technologies in the educational process. bulletin of bashkir university, 4, 1134–1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.009 https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/117782 https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202127312026 https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.04.02.ed http://www.jstor.org/stable/23005335 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.11.009 kuzembayeva et al. zagainov, i. a., & blinova, m. l. (2014). modern conditions of education: informatization of the learning process. psychological support of education: theory and practice (pp. 263-269). yoshkarola: mosi llc "string". zhu, c., & urhahne, d. (2018). the use of learner response systems in the classroom enhances teachers’ judgment accuracy. learning and instruction, 58, 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.07.011 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.07.011 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3),236-248 236 ethical problems concerning dialectic interaction of culture and civilization liudmyla pavlyshyn1, olga voronkova2, marina yakutina3 and elena tesleva4 abstract the idea of regarding consistency in the nature and society originated in ancient philosophy in the form of a general concept of livability and integrity of being. the problem of consistency of social life was the focus of such thinkers of xix-xx centuries, as auguste comte, herbert spencer, karl marx, emile durkheim, max weber, pitirim sorokin, talcott parsons. philosophers always try to figure out the specifics of social phenomenon, mechanisms of social integration that provide social order despite the diverse interests of people who live in a community. emile durkheim considered society as a solidarity and combination of different ideas and positions. society is not limited only to the life of its people. society appears in the form of the creativity of people in various spheres of public life, the creation of material and spiritual values, development of nature and formation of new qualities of any person. an idea of society as a single structure is the result of a long development of philosophical thought. while living in a society people take real human qualities and a society exists only thanks to a man. society is a center of moral life, a kind of deity and a place of all values. key words: nature, life, crisis of culture, society, civilization, freedom, system. introduction the dialectic interaction between the notions of “culture” and “civilization” shows that philosophical analysis of essential links, scientific research of this problem is not studied fully today. national cultures of the western european countries implement themselves not only in their own cultural field but in the culture of the united europe too (laužikas and miliūtė, 2019; schouten, 2019; tarman, 2010). a significant place in the cultural studies has the problem of correlation between culture and civilization (suvittawat, 2019; chitsaz et al., 2019; bozhkova et al., 2019; baldacchino et al., 2019; ivygina et al., 2018; shaytura et al., 2018). the term “culture” 1 prof., ternopil volodymyr hnatyuk national pedagogical university, ukraine, lyudpavl@gmail.com 2 prof., altai state university, barnaul, russia, olka2004@yandex.ru 3 assoc. prof. financial university under the government of the russian federation, moscow, russia, maryak30@yandex.ru 4 assoc. prof. national research tomsk polytechnic university, tomsk, russia, tesleva@mail.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),236-248 is a latin origin of the world “cultus”, that refers to cultivating or refining something, in such a way that it provides admiration and respect. so, culture is the way of our life style, it expresses the manner in which one thinks and do things. we can say that culture is the set of knowledge, experiences and behaviours and commonly shared by a group of people. it includes art, knowledge, belief, customs, traditions, morals, festivals, values, attitudes, habits and soon which are inherited by a personas a member of society and so on (ahmed, 2016; rupeika-apoga et al., 2019; ibragimova and tarasova, 2018; gerasimova et al., 2018; shaitura et al., 2018). the adoption of e-learning technology at the faculty of distance learning of plekhanov russian university of economics. different cultures can be found in different places, as it varies from region to region. civilization is described as a process of civilizing or state of human society. the term “civilization” is derived from a latin term “civis” which indicates “someone who resides in a town”. the term “civilization” is not confined to town; rather it talks about adopting better ways of living and making best possible use of nature’s resources. so, civilization tries to satisfy the needs of the group of people. further, it stresses on systematising society into various groups that work collectively and constantly to improve the quality of life, regarding food, education, dress, communication, transportation and so on. “culture” in general can be divided into two main groups : material culture – all the concrete things that we create, such as houses, clothes, instruments etc.; non-material culture– the quality concerning human mind, concept, emotion, philosophy, religion etc. the term “civilization” has still an other meaning. since each culture has peculiar features and since some cultures are more highly developed than others, we can say that a civilizationis a superior culture. a culture deserves to be called a “civilization” when it has reached a stage of advancement in which writing has come to be used to a considerable extent (korableva, 2019). some progress made in the art and science, political, social and economic institutions developed according to some problems of order, security and so on. oswald spengler, the german philosopher, viewed “civilizations” as a decadent phases of highly developed cultures. when some empire was in its prime, he characterized its social pattern and intellectual patternas as a “culture”. when it passed its prime (time) and became ossified or fixed, he called it as a “civilization”. the notion of “culture” is difficult to understand on a scientific level and it is outlined by other concepts on the everyday level. but the concept of “civilization” in scientific terms and on the level of perception is the most ambiguous among allconceptual apparatus of cultural studies. pavlyshyn et al. culture is the creative principle in the life of individual and society. the combination of material and spiritual values, as well as methods of their creation, the ability to use them for the progress of mankind, transfer them from generation to generation and make up the essence of culture. “human beings and humanity in general in their biological development are lucky: the nature has gifted them the highest ability to self-management by providing them with an appropriate management tool — the brain that has the desired biological and social information to perform administrative actions” (gaievska, 2015). it is impossible for culture to be without a man. so, we can not stay without culture also. according to immanuel kant, no one born a cultural person so every one learns to be like this every day.” social scientists decide that factors of geography are the most important concerning the rise of civilization. others say about economic resources, food supply, contact with older civilizations, and so on. ellsworth huntington, an american geographer, insisted that no nation rose to the highest cultural status except under the influence of a climatic stimulus. related to the climatic hypothesis is the soil-exhaustion theory. this theory believes that the majestic civilizations that once flourished in mesopotamia, palestine, greece, italy, china, and mexico were ultimately doomed by the simple fact that their soil would no longer provide sufficient food for the population. according to arnold j. toynbee, a british historian, those conditions of hardship or adversity are the real causes that have brought into existence superior cultures. such conditions make a man to overcome himself and to generate additional energy for new achievements. this challenge may be in the form of a desert, a jungle area, rugged topography, or a grudging soil. civilizations have some kind of urban settlements and are not nomadic. with support from the other people living in the settlement, labor is divided up into specific jobs (called the division of labor). it is not easy to focus on growing their own food. from this specialization comes class structure and government, both aspects of a civilization. another criterion for civilization is a surplus of food, which comes from having tools to aid in growing crops. writing, trading, development of science and so on are all aspects of civilizations.there are many societies that scholars consider civilizations that do not meet all of the criteria above. for example, the incan empire was a large civilization with a government and social hierarchy. it left behind a wealth of art, and had highly developed architecture—but no written language. as s result the concept of “civilization” is hard to define; it is still a helpful framework with which to view how humans come together and form a society (mullakhmetov et al., 2018a). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),236-248 the genesis of civilizations cannot be explained except on the basis of complex causes or combination of factors, such as geographic and economic elements of favorable climate, fertile soil, access to good harbors, and an abundance of mineral resources; opportunities for interchange of ideas with other people of a comparable level of advancement. civilizations do not develop in isolated corners of the world (shatunova et al., 2019; strunc, 2019; magsumov, 2019; gabidullina and khaliullina, 2017; tirigulova et al., 2015; mullakhmetov et al., 2018b; gabidullina et al., 2018; makulov et al., 2017). this paper claims that culture and civilization are dialectic interaction that makes the mankind adapts their environment and the socio-cultural development. the focus of this review involves the study of the interaction of culture and civilization, some causes concerning this fact, their impact on our life and many differences between these concepts. this problem occurs due to the examination of history of philosophy. the aim of the article is to identify ways of overcoming the negative impact of civilization on human essence. civilization without culture is devoid of its essence, devoid of the soul. technocratic orientation of civilization turns development down to ossification, creativity – to routine and sublime aspiration – to needs. such civilization characterizes by supremacy of intellect, with no heart and no soul. today, the mankind suffers from many negative traits of civilization non-spiritualized by culture; such traits manifest themselves in tendency to standardized thinking, in implanting of unified truths and values (mainly western ones), and in formation of socially loyal and law-abiding member of society content with the welfare he is provided. if we consider the problem of correlation between culture and civilization from the synergetic point of view, culture seems to be an open complex system able to receive energies from without and to redistribute them. this manifests in its interaction and dialogue with other cultures and that very system is able to open up to divine. civilization closed up on itself and having lost connection with the divine spiritual levels turns into closed system that one day will come to the end. culture and civilization exist together because they are not two parallel processes that go independently. material resources of the modern civilization provide for individual's comfortable everyday life, so the person gets better opportunities for creative work, spiritual growth and cultural perfection (sabitova et al., 2018; husnutdinov et al., 2018; ahtarieva et al., 2018). but these opportunities must be used reasonably. only the broad-minded person can see that modern society is in the bifurcation point, and there are only two ways from that point: one of them leads pavlyshyn et al. to life, and another one – to self-annihilation. we must admit: great responsibility lies on us. science, culture, education and so on fulfil our creative potential and comprehension of the highest meaning of existence of a man on the planet. discussion the first claim of this review that we will argue is that culture is the result of human activity. the first objects of culture were tools. gradually the most ancient forms of spiritual activity– morality, art, religion – started their development. the ancient greeks understood: human existence is impossible outside the culture. it defines of human being, specificity of its activity, the material and the spiritual world. social relations depend on the social interactions of the individual and social systems. culture implemented in a system of personality that formed a stable social system. the system of public relations boils down to personal relationships between people. for example, talcott parsons treats these relationships as psychological. the actions of certain individuals can unite. as a result, some associations (a group, society) were formed. through the analysis of various approaches to social, public and consequently, of society, we make conclusion: 1. society is a system of links and relationships where people can realize their activities during interaction between themselves and the nature; 2. society acts as a form of integration of the life of individuals in integrity as a reality. its successful operation depends on the spiritual values of every citizen in a society. human society faces a real social group, where all necessary functions for the existence of people are present: from the production of things to the upbringing of the young generation, from political regulation to the spiritual creation. culture is a historical level of social development, creative abilities and human force, which expresses through the types and forms of organized life and a human activity. in a narrow sense, culture is a spiritual sphere of human life. culture may contain results of physical activity: machines, various buildings, works of art, moral and legal norms, the results of human cognition and may also include the strength and ability of the person who is observed in the implementation of any actions (such as knowledge, skills, abilities, intellectual activity, moral and aesthetic development, outlook, method and form of human communication). so “a person gets today that, until recently, it was ... a dream, subjective ideal, utopian” (solovyov, 1989). civilization is its natural and necessary extension; it allows to replicate cultural patterns and to create conditions for further creation in the form of stabilization of social relations for future journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),236-248 generations. civilization is a sustainable socio-cultural formation realizes various functions. if we compare functional features of civilization, peculiarities of culture and civilization we can come to the conclusion that civilization influences on the person externally. in civilization a person is an object, an individual, one among many people. culture influences on a person also, but a person here is not only an object in it, it’s a subject who creates by means of his internal potential and contrary to existing civilizational norms. a struggle between external influence on a person expressed in various regulations and his internal potential promotes the development of a man. so, civilization is a necessary condition for development of culture and our development. the second claim concerns with freedom and society. every society has the ability to provide normal living conditions for its people because loneliness makes us vulnerable before the elements of nature, unworthy deeds of other people. our society limits personal freedom but in the same time these restrictions exist for the sake of people in the community. economy, policy, moral do not exist without a society and people. we live in a society not only because this way of being is convenient for us but also because the essence of man is a social being. jean-jacques rousseau pointed out that “man is born free, but everywhere we are in a net” (rousseau, 1998). he expressed the opinion: although a society imposes on a person negative imprint but only in a society can guarantee our development. reflecting on the society of the future, he argues that it is necessary to find a form of association that protects and prevents all total force of personality and property of each person. philosophy of culture started to differentiate “culture” and “civilization” in xx century. civilization is often identified as a urbanization, the tyranny of machines. as a synonym of material culture, civilization, of course, promotes the development of science, technology and provides a variety of material goods. however, technical progress and material maintenance do not guarantee spiritual and cultural prosperity yet. the value of culture depends on how humanely were used inventions of civilization. science and civilization are not able to provide spiritual progress because spiritual culture includes moral, aesthetic and intellectual achievements of humanity. according to pierre teilhard de chardin, a man in the process of cognition comes to self-knowledge, becomes the center of the universe but “the more people want to be a real people, the less they will agree with something else besides the infinite movement to a new” (teilhard de chardin, 1965). spiritual and material culture are in a harmony. sometimes we can say that civilizationis is a synonym for culture. “civilizational” and “cultural” present as a notion of a single order but pavlyshyn et al. “civilization” and “culture” are not synonymous. very often in marxists literature civilization is refered as a material culture. while it is understood as a level of social development of material and spiritual culture (for example, antique, roman, modern civilization). better to say that civilization is a combination of material and spiritual achievements of the historical development of the society, the level of social development and material culture. this level we can achieve in a community. so, civilization is a level of the development of culture. the term “civilization” comes from the latin word “civis” that means “the citizen”. according to local investigators, civilization represents a culture that goes after the barbarous menace and gradually teaches people to aim their target, order their own actions.we can realize civilizations like self-contained, unique culture that hold a cycle of development. such opinion concerning the concept of civilization have russian philosopher nikolai danilevsky and english researcher arnold toynbee. civilization defined by religious signs. for example, arnold toynbee believes that a religion is the primary key of defining characteristic of civilization. religion discovers the effect on the structure of the spiritual world of man, art, literature and psychology, public life. civilization chooses religion, adaps it to spiritual and material needs. according oswald spengler civilization is slightly different. he claimes that the culture is reduced to the level of civilization and can die moving towards civilization. in terms of the problem of “crisis of culture” we argue that two approaches will appear. two main approaches to the concept of «crisis of culture» deserve a special attention: the concept of oswald spengler, nikolai danilewsky, pitirim sorokin. oswald spengler believed that culture is a totally unique body with its internal structure. any culture gradually weakened, turning into a civilization that leads to the disharmony of life, its intellectualization, a series of world wars, the aim of which is global domination over the world. as for pitirim sorokin, he claimes that cultural systems change each other because each of them is incomplete and limited. at the initial stage of its development culture corresponds to reality, it is deep and vigorous. it covers only a small part of society. sometimes culture exhausts its stock of forces, becomes superficial, falls into disrepair. this process can be observed by studying the fate of individual religions and political ideologies. so, for example, christianity at the beginning of our era was energetic and effective, then it became common place and familiar. pitirim sorokin attemptes to prove that until the system of value is still new, it evokes enthusiasm and confidence that guarantee its victory, but the victory day is the beginning of its demise. people lose their faith in the ability of sensual way because they realize: even knowledge is limited. so “people limite themselves and they can see all things journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),236-248 through the narrow slit of their cave”(blake,1993). in this regard interest to transcendental and mystical things increased. pitirim sorokin argues that excessive of sensual knowledge in everyday life, empiricism in science, materialism in philosophy is a cause of a crisis of culture. interaction between civilization and spiritual culture is essential and the nature of their interaction determines the development of the society(progress, regress, crisis, etc.). for example, according to immanuel kant, civilization evolves much faster than culture. the problem of crisis of culture is one of the leading in the philosophy of culture. jose ortega gaset, karl jaspers, albert schweitzer focused their attention to that problem. for erich fromm, some people operate only on the biological level and emotionally they are dead. they try to seem happy and contented but they are in a state of despair and misery. all their attempts to be like all people and in the same time to preserve their own individuality are useless. “modern people need a real life but they are like a robot. so, life does not mean for them as a spontaneous activity and they want to satisfy themselves by any false excitation: alcohol, sport or experience strange and imaginative passions on screen” (fromm, 1989). sometimes people are not able to formulate their own goals clearly so they begin to doubt concerning the sense of life. people can be strong when they are active. at the beginning of the xxth century oswald spengler in the work “the decline of europe” expressed an opinion about the fall of high culture and the gradual replacement of the spiritual values of the culture for the material values of civilization. “study on the circumstances of individual and social ways of human existence, laws of its development, self-realization and adaptation to a new social ties have led to overall conclusion investigate and absurdity of the human entity. that fact was reflected by philosophical and anthropological in early twentieth century” (pavlyshyn, 2013). in the xxth century the direct connection of man, nature and other people was lost .this situation led to the estrangement of a person. jacques derrida, richard rorty, michel foucault, georges bataille and others) expressed their opinion concerning decline of the culture. they denied traditional views concerning a person, society, culture and basic principles and forms of cultural existence of a man. they believed that all values in the culture and society were repression elements and have no facilities. so, “nowadays in the troubling period of changes and transformations the image of the future human being draws particular attention (carothers, 2018). not only does mere interest lie in the basis of such attention, but objective people’s needs, hopes for the future as well as the people’s fear of expected changes. motivated activity and constant adjustment of their directions to pavlyshyn et al. immediate result and remote consequences of their activity are common to humans” (matusevych, 2012). we know that culture is passed on from one generation to the other and it is safe to say that the culture does not have an end or it is rather unending. while culture is somewhat eternal, civilization is actually bound to a certain time period. this fact means that one culture could be comprised of multiple levels of civilizations or, at least, different phases of one civilization. this only means that the culture can be unique while one civilization may or may not have anything that would be unique enough to be added to the already existing culture. for example, the remaining cultural findings of the ancient egyptian empire are the only proof we have that civilization ever existed. that is why one culture far exceeds both the society and civilization. our life is impossible without a culture as a form of being and different cultures of the past, present and future. culture is not only the result of human activity but also historically formed the ways of work, human behavior, etiquette, the level of thinking. spiritual culture is the main indicator of the level of development of civilization. simon frank and simon lurje were also interested in a problem of culture. ukrainian researcher gennadii aliaiev is sure that simon frank and simon lurje “represent the movement from the idea of culture as personal spiritual activity towards religious justification of the idea of culture and the idea of personality, and eventually towards the religiously conscious perception of life” (alyaev, 2016). it is impossible to fulfill all our desires because not all of them will be consistent with public opinion (according to nicolai berdyaev). only art is the area where all impossible things become real, where we can realize all dreams. according to nicolai berdyaev “creativity is something that comes from within, from immeasurable depth… freedom is not a kingdom of wilfulness... those people who do not understand the mystery of freedom consider it only as a specific form of spiritual determination…they believe that freedom is in a human spirit” (berdyaev, 1989). culture deals with the social and economic accomplishments of society and determines the forms of life, the nature of the implementation of many laws of social development, affects the degree of humanization of public relations. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),236-248 references ahmed, m. (2016). ethnicity, identity and group vitality: a study of burushos of srinagar. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 3(1), 1-10. ahtarieva, r., ibragimova, e., sattarova, g., turzhanova, g. (2018). integration as a form of acculturation of foreign student – future teacher in the polyethnic educational environment of university. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), pp. 317-331. alyaev, g. (2016) religious foundations of culture (the controversy between simon frank and simon lurje on vekhi. in philosophy and cosmology. vol. 16. kyiv: ispc: 190-198. baldacchino, j.p., gauci, a. & grima, s. (2019). family influence in maltese listed companies: the implications on corporate governance. international journal of economics & business administration, 7(1), 85-112. berdyaev, nikolai. (1989). the philosophy of freedom. moscow: pravda. blake, william. (1993). marriage of heaven and hell. songs innocence and experience. st.petersburg. bozhkova g.n., shastina e.m., kalimullina o.v., shatunova o.v. (2019). study of literary images of gifted characters in optional activities as a means to develop capable and talented youth. space and culture, india, vol. 7:1, pp. 264273. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 carothers, d. (2018). a culture of equality?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(2),4257. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 chitsaz, e.; tajpour, m.; hosseini, e.; khorram, h.; zorrieh, s. (2019). the effect of human and social capital on entrepreneurial activities: a case study of iran and implications, entrepreneurship and sustainebelity issues, 6(3): 1193-1203. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(24). fromm, erich. (1989). escape from freedom. мoscow: progress. gabidullina, f.i., khaliullina, a.g. (2017). islam motives in sagit suncheley's works. man in india, 97(10), pp. 311-316. gabidullina, f., zhundibayeva, a., makarova, v., galiullin, r., mubarakshina, i. (2018). the realization of the hermeneutical approach to the text in practical classes in the literature during the work with students of philological faculty. journal of social studies education research, 9(3), pp. 226-240. http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 pavlyshyn et al. gaievska, o. (2015). generally civilized context of governing the social organization of the world. in philosophy and cosmology. vol. 15. kyiv: ispc: 182-197. gerasimova, v. g., melamud, m. r., tutaeva, d. r., romanova, y. d., & zhenova, n. a. (2018). the adoption of e-learning technology at the faculty of distance learning of plekhanov russian university of economics. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 172188. doi:10.17499/jsser.20153 husnutdinov, d.h., sagdieva, r.k., sayfulina, f.s., gatin, r.g., timerkhanov, a.a. (2019). phraseological units in the tatar language containing the component of can (küñel) (soul). xlinguae, 12(2), pp. 41-50. ibragimova, e.r., tarasova, a.n. (2018) language-related problems of international students of elabuga institute of kazan federal university. espacios, 39(2),18. ivygina, a., pupysheva, e., mukhametshina, d. (2018). the role of local history texts in implementing the culturological approach to teaching the russian language: the basic general education level. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), pp. 160-171. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). studying user satisfaction with the mooc platform interfaces using the example of coursera and open education platforms. paper presented at the acm international conference proceeding series, 2630. doi:10.1145/3322134.3322139 laužikas, m.; miliūtė, a. (2019). transformational communication via evolving ethical and moral norms of lithuanian civil service organizations, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 1750-1761. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(14) magsumov, t.a. (2019). gender re(e)volution of commercial schools in russia in the early xx century. woman in russian society, 1, 133-144. doi: 10.21064/winrs.2019.1.12 matusevych, tetiana. (2012). the future human being – what is it like? in philosophy and cosmology. vol.11. kyiv: ispc: 161-170. makulov, s. i., talysheva, i. a., fedorova, s. y., & gubarkov, s. (2017). overcoming of intercultural barriers in the educational environment. man in india, 97(15), 281-288. mullakhmetov, k. s., sadriev, r. d., bikulov, r. a., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2018a). sociocultural factors of transforming administration and control in the management of economic and social systems under modern conditions. paper presented at the proceedings of the 31st http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(14) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3),236-248 international business information management association conference, ibima 2018: innovation management and education excellence through vision 2020, 3573-3581. mullakhmetov, k. s., sadriev, r. d., & akhmetshin, e. m. (2018b). corporate culture in management systems. european research studies journal, 21(1), 519-528. pavlyshyn, l. (2013). volodymyr vynnychenko: the experience of nonclassical thinking in the history of ukrainian philosophy. ternopil: tnpu. 2013. rousseau, j.j. (1998). the social contract. мoscow: canon-press. rupeika-apoga, r., romanova, i., bule, l. & thalassinos, y. (2019). the impact of population ageing and social stratification: the case of latvia. international journal of economics & business administration, 7(1), 49-63. sabitova, a., salimova, d., ibragimova, e. (2018). motivated and unmotivated violations from the norm in children's books in organizing extracurricular reading. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), с. 306-316 shatunova o., anisimova t., sabirova f., kalimullina o. (2019). steam as an innovative educational technology. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 (2), 131144. schouten, m.j. (2019). undoing gender inequalities: insights from the portuguese perspective, insights into regional development (2): 85-98. https://doi.org/10.9770/ird.2019.1.2(1) shaitura, s. v., ordov, k. v., lesnichaya, i. g., romanova, y. d., & khachaturova, s. s. (2018). services and mechanisms of competitive intelligence on the internet. [servicios y mecanismos de inteligencia competitiva en internet] espacios, 39(45). shaytura, s. v., knyazeva, m. d., feoktistova, v. m., vintova, t. a., titov, v. a., & kozhaev, y. p. (2018). philosophy of information fields. international journal of civil engineering and technology, 9(13), 127-136. strunc, a. (2019). the politics of culture. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1),7180. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/26 solovyov, vladimir. (1989). works in 2 vоlumes. мoscow: pravda. suvittawat, a. (2019). passions and enthusiasm of small and medium enterprises (smes): a case study of nakorn ratchasima province, thailand, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(3): 1169-1179. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(22) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/26 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(22) pavlyshyn et al. tarman, b. (2010). socio-cultural transformation: western-oriented modernization of turkey, vdm publishing house. (isbn: 978-3-639-19096-0). teilhard de chardin, pierre. (1965) the phenomenon of man. мoscow: progress. tirigulova, r.h., zakirova, o.v., ibragimova, e.r., pupysheva, e.l. (2015) linguo-didactic foundations of teaching emotional and evaluative lexics of the russian language to the turkic-speaking audience. asian social science, 11(19), pp. 229-236 article title (size 12; bold; times new roman) www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyalbilgilereğitimiaraştırmalarıdergisi 2019:10 (2),224-242 224 character building in islamic society: a case study of muslim families in tulungagung, east java, indonesia sokip1, akhyak2, soim,3 ahmad tanzeh4 & kojin5 abstract this study seeks to identify the position, goals, and role of parents in tulungagung, east java, indonesia with regards to character building. it takes the form of descriptive-qualitative research and employs data triangulation during data collection. the data analysis involved organizing data and sorting it into manageable units that could be managed, synthesized, and searched to find out what was important and useful to convey. it was found that parents need the necessary skills to educate their children to have a good personality, with the goal of this character building being to create well-rounded adults who will make good citizens. it was further found that parents play an important role in influencing a child to adopt an islamic character in life. this study adds to the existing knowledge by showing how the integration of islamic and global values can, when parents have the necessary skills, build characters for adults who are pious (salihah), good servants of allah, and responsible for their thought and speech according to islam while also being honorable, creative, tolerant, hardworking, responsible, trustworthy, respectful of nature, disciplined, brave, efficient, effective, diligent, skillful, helpful, consistent, and affectionate to other human beings, as well as being able to make shared decisions. key-words: character building, global era, islamic perspectives, parent reeducation, education. introduction character building in the islamic world does not always yield optimal results, as evidenced by the widespread social behaviors that indicate a lack of character in many muslim countries. bandial (2011), for example, expressed in the brunei times: statistics from the royal brunei police force (rbpf) showed that in 2009, 126 offenders aged 18 and under were arrested for a variety of offences including assault, theft and vandalism. the latest figures from rbpf also showed that between january and march 1 assoc. prof., state islamic institute of tulungagung, indonesia; irdan6000@gmail.com 2 prof., state islamic istitute of tulungagung, indonesia; akhyak67@gmail.com 3 senior lecturer, pangeran diponegoro islamic istitute of nganjuk, indonesia; soim_alkassi@yahoo.com 4 assoc. prof., state islamic istitute of tulungagung, indonesia; tanzeh@yahoo.co.id 5 assoc. prof., state islamic istitute of tulungagung, indonesia; khozin.mashudi@yahoo.com mailto:akhyak67@gmail.com journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 224-242 225 2010, 39 minors were arrested in a three-month period, a 19 per cent increase from the same time period in the previous year (bandial, 2011). for qatar, winslow (2013) wrote that according to interpol data, the murder rate increased from 1.52 to 2.11 per 100,000 people between 1995 and 1999, an increase of 38.8 percent. the incidence of rape decreased from 5.23 to 1.72, a decrease of 67.1 percent, while the rate of robbery increased from .67 to 1.34, an increase of 100 percent. the rate for aggravated assault increased from 4.05 to 7.09, an increase of 75.1 percent, while the burglary rate decreased from 58.18 to 34.10, a decrease of 41.4 percent. the rate of larceny increased from 78.58 to 136.01, an increase of 73.1 percent. the rate of motor vehicle theft increased from 10.12 to 11.49, an increase of 13.5%. the rate of total offenses increased from 158.35 to 193.86 per 100,000 people, an increase of 22.4 percent, with larceny accounting for the bulk of this increase (winslow, 2013). the problem of violent youth groups has escalated in indonesia following economic recession, unemployment, and weakened state institutions. young people have been affected by a lack of income and broken expectations. consequently, youth gangs have emerged and sought to generate economic revenue for their members, as well as create identity and confidence. drianyanto (2011) expresses how juvenile delinquency in indonesia has led to many underage children becoming smokers, using narcotics, engaging in casual sex, and committing crimes. he adds that the more violent activities, including murder, are often related to drugs and/or gangs, and he mentions media reports of female gangs clashing in high school (drianyanto, 2011). muslims can feel a little proud, however, because egypt seems to have succeeded in character building. souryal’s (1992) research, which was published in the international journal of comparative and applied criminal justice and entitled juvenile delinquency in the crosscultural context: the egyptian experience, describes this. he expresses how juvenile delinquency in egypt remains remarkably benign and relatively stable. he attributes this to three main factors: (a) an orthodox religion-based value system where the daily moral behavior of juveniles is heavily influenced by islamic institutions; (b) a family structure that is closely connected and where children are routinely taught how to behave in a socially acceptable manner and shamed if they commit a crime; (c) a progressive juvenile justice system that rather than treating delinquency as a crime, regards it as a social phenomenon instead (souryal, 1992). in turkey, whose most cohesive and lively population takes part in pilgrimage, character-building education issues have apparently received enough attention through youth education (bailleau & sokip, et. al. cartuyvels, 2011). in the u.s.a., lickona (1992) identified 10 signs of moral degradation that could damage the character of the nation. he states that a number of factors have adversely affected young people, and there is a new impetus to revive character education. these factors include poor parenting (even in unbroken families); inappropriate adult role models; mass media’s portrayal of materialism, sex, and violence; and peer pressure. he adds that the effects of this unfriendly environment on youth character can be seen in 10 areas, namely increasing youth violence; mounting disrespect for authority; growing dishonesty (e.g., cheating, lying, and stealing); cruelty to peers; bigotry within schools, starting in preschool and continuing through to higher education; sex at earlier ages; dropping work ethics; an increasing selfishness and declining regard for civic responsibility; more self-destructive behavior; and a lack of ethical competence (lickona, 1992). important research into the importance of character education has been published by the character education partnership. the results of a study by berkowitz (2012) from the university of missouri–st. louis showed that the motivation of school students increased in schools with character education. indeed, those classes that were thoroughly engaged in character education saw negative student behavior, which would normally affect academic progress, drop significantly (berkowitz, 2012). literature review the term “character education” the implementation of character education for students in islamic countries is still a thorny issue, with it often being a formality, normative, stuck in superficiality, lacking priority for substantial aspects, and overlooking the depth and meaning of students’ lives. based on this, educators around the world are starting to realize that the study of moral education needs to be revived (karatas & oral, 2015). three considerations underline the importance of a moral education: i) weak family ties; ii) the negative tendencies in modern teenagers’ lives; and iii) a revival of the need for ethical values, morals, and manners in modern times (nurul zuriah, 2007). malaysia has also experienced many problems related to character education. jeremah (2012) explains that violent crime rates in malaysia are reaching worrying levels. in practice, malaysia seems serious about strengthening character education through islamic and moral education. balakrishnan (2010) states that moral education is a compulsory formal subject in the malaysian school system. this is taught to non-muslim pupils, while muslim pupils are taught islamic education. the pupils study this subject from their first year of primary/elementary school to form journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 224-242 227 five in high school (about age 17), culminating with a formal centralized public examination conducted at the end of form five by the examination board of the ministry of education (balakrishnan, 2010). the general aim of moral education (me) is to develop individuals with good characters, so they will be responsible and contribute to harmony and stability in the nation, as well as global society. the main objectives are to enable pupils to (i) understand and internalize the noble values necessary for good character, (ii) learn and accept the importance of harmony between people and the environment and strive to sustain it, (iii) enhance understanding and cooperation by sustaining a peaceful and harmonious life in a democratic malaysia, (iv) develop mature thinking based on moral and spiritual values to be used when making moral decisions and solving problems, (v) develop a commitment to act morally based on justice and altruism in line with the noble values of malaysian society (ministry of education, 2000). based on the above descriptions, parents who pay more attention to the future of the coming generations are certainly concerned about the current condition of child morality. moral decadence has occurred in muslim countries, and it is the responsibility of all muslims in the world to correct this, especially parents as family educators, teachers as school educators, and other scholars as educators in society. the term character education is simply the current term for a millennia-old concept. for our purposes here, we define it as the deliberate development, usually in schools, of young people’s tendency and capacity to be responsible, social, and respectful democratic citizens in society. character education is by nature complex—it truly is like rocket science. developing a varied set of psychological character components (e.g., conscience, empathy, moral reasoning, values, moral identity, etc.) requires a diverse and multi-faceted implementation strategy. at its most molecular level, character education entails building a network of positive pro-social relationships (e.g., among students, among staff, between staff and students, between staff and parents, between administrators and staff, and so on). at a more macro level, it involves comprehensive school reform and encompasses all aspects of a school’s functioning, from its academic curricula to its disciplinary policies, from its mission statement to its governance structures, the adult culture of the school, and so on (berkowitz, 2012). character (akhlaq) is a set of internal states, traits, qualities, and abilities that individuals possess, leading them to behave without thought and deliberation having developed into habits whose sokip, et. al. values lay in the teachings of islam. it includes both inward qualities and outward human behavior, and it is based on the view that behaviors are closely related to the soul and its intentions. aside from the home, school is another significant place where character can be inculcated (izfanna & hisyam, 2012). character education seeks to develop virtue, or human excellence, as the foundation of a purposeful, productive, and fulfilling life and a just, compassionate, and flourishing society. character education takes deliberate steps to cultivate moral and intellectual virtues through every phase of school life, such as the example set by adults, the relationships among peers, the handling of discipline, the resolution of conflicts, the content of the curriculum, the instruction process, the rigor of academic standards, the environment of the school, the conduct in extracurricular activities, and the involvement of parents. everything that happens in a school is a form of character education, because everything affects character.6 thomas lickona (1992), author of educating for character, states: “moral education is not a new idea. it is, in fact, as old as education itself. down through history, in countries all over the world, education has had two great goals: to help young people become smart and to help them become good.” good character is not formed automatically but rather developed over time through a sustained process of teaching, setting examples, learning, and practicing (i.e., character education). the deliberate teaching of good character is particularly important in today’s society because the youth face many opportunities and dangers that were unbeknown to earlier generations. character education encompasses a broad range of concepts, such as a positive school culture, moral education, just communities, caring school communities, social emotional learning, positive youth development, civic education, and service learning. all of these approaches promote the intellectual, social, emotional, and ethical development of young people and encourage them to share a commitment, thus helping young people become responsible, caring, and contributive citizens (lickona, 1991). character building in the global era in the current global era, muslims need a strong handle, so they can select and sort the many values they are offered. in general, there have been three educational focuses, namely to build knowledge, 6 see http://www.gobookee.net/character-education. http://www/ journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 224-242 229 skills, and character. education in muslim countries has apparently been successful enough in building knowledge and skills, but it still fails to build character. based on this situation, it can be said that comprehensively realizing character education in muslim countries is needed. this should be oriented to the strong philosophical foundation of islamic principles, strong educational management, educational democracy and empowerment, the preparation of qualified and professional educational human resources, and quality, as well as character-based education development. the above new educational paradigm indicates that the responsibility for giving an education is no longer merely that of school leaders. in fact, control has been given back to the community in that schools and communities have the same responsibilities and deliver education together hand in hand. character education is the intentional effort to develop in young people core ethical and performance values that are widely affirmed across all cultures. to be effective, character education must include all the stakeholders in a school’s community and must permeate the school’s climate and curriculum (deroche, 2000). azra (2000) has put forward the thought that islamic education—whether in school, in the family, or in society—should be interconnected and harmoniously cooperate, as well as be a common step in the educational process of students. all of these three things should complement each other and support each other in achieving the goals of an islamic education that truly forms individual students according to the teachings of islam (azra, 2000). failed character development in the education of muslim countries has arisen due to a lack of an optimal focus. josephson (2006) states that the need for character education in school settings becomes more apparent with the passing of each day. young people almost unanimously say that ethics and character are important on both a personal level and in business, but they express very cynical attitudes about whether a person can be ethical and still succeed (josephson, 2006). when reforming character education in muslim countries, an important factor we need to consider is the need to build commitment within the muslim community. without a strong commitment to a character-education program, we will have difficulties implementing it. the teaching of islamic education should not just focus on theoretical aspects but also emphasize the practical application of islamic knowledge (tamuri et al., 2013). a teacher of islamic education needs to educate and develop students’ character by infusing them with knowledge, providing supportive conditions and environment, and then giving chances to practice and form character https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/halim+tamuri%2c+ab sokip, et. al. (izfanna & hisyam, 2012). character development requires behavioral change as well as knowledge acquisition, and incorporating such behavioral change into university administrator preparation programs requires a faculty to consider recent findings in neuroscience on how the brain learns and then incorporate these findings into program design and instruction (calabrese & roberts, 2002). muslims need to build an earnest commitment to conduct islamic character education around the world. starting from the paradigm of becker et al. (2012), which is embodied in the document building character education in your community: a resource guide for communities, it is time for muslims around the world to promptly implement a macro-level character-education movement. it should begin with (i) determining who must be involved to gain the commitment needed to begin the character-education initiative and (ii) determining the community’s needs. these needs could be determined through (i) focus groups, (ii) surveys, and (iii) one-on-one interviews. a coalition including key community leaders could then be built by considering using an existing network focused on community needs and/or forming a new coalition with character education as its primary mission (becker et al., 2012). in america, the character education partnership (cep) is a national organization for the advancement of character education. it provides the following eleven principles of character education:  effective character education promotes core ethical values as well as supportive performance values as the foundation of good character.  effective character education comprehensively defines “character” as including thinking, feeling, and behaving.  effective character education uses a comprehensive, intentional, and proactive approach to character development.  effective character education creates a caring school community.  effective character education provides students with opportunities for moral action.  effective character education includes a meaningful and challenging academic curriculum that respects all learners, develops their character, and helps them to succeed.  effective character education strives to develop students’ self-motivation. https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/izfanna%2c+duna https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/hisyam%2c+nik+ahmad https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/calabrese%2c+raymond+l https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/roberts%2c+brian journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 224-242 231  effective character education engages the school staff as learning and moral community that shares responsibility for character education and attempts to adhere to the same core values that guide the education of the students.  effective character education fosters shared leadership and long-range support of the character education initiative.  effective character education engages families and community members as partners in the character-building effort.  effective character education assesses the character of the school, the school staff’s functioning as character educators, and the extent to which students manifest good character (eleven principles of character education, 2004). these eleven principles provide guidance for local school districts as they begin to develop their character-education programs. the character education quality standards self-assessment tool is used in this study to quantify the overall effectiveness, or lack thereof, of a character-education program. character education includes a broad range of concepts, such as a positive school culture, moral education, a just community, a caring school environment, social emotional learning, positive youth development, civic education, and service learning. all of these promote the intellectual, social, emotional, and ethical development of young people and express a commitment to help young people become responsible, caring, and contributing citizens (lickona, 1991). but which virtues are most important for a strong character? here are ten that are recognized and taught by nearly all philosophical, religious, and cultural traditions: (i) wisdom, (ii) justice, (iii) fortitude, (iv) self-control, (v) love, (vi) positive attitude, (vii) hard work, (viii) integrity, (ix) gratitude, and (x) humility (lickona, 1991). character education from an islamic perspective the character education of learners becomes a task that must be done seriously, systematically, and in a programmed manner due to its interconnection with the lives of children. kupperman (2005) states that character (or moral) education is “a complicated business” (kupperman, 2005, p. 216). a character-education program needs to develop moral literacy in teachers and showcase effective methods for integrating moral literacy across existing curricula (zdenek & schochor, 2007). character education has existed since ancient times, but the primary task of an educator is to optimize this character education in order to succeed. the character-education https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/zdenek%2c+brad https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/schochor%2c+daniel sokip, et. al. movement in the united states, for example, has been around since the first years of the 21st century, and there is actually an awareness movement among educators, as revealed by elkind and sweet (2004) in their article character education is not new. it was in fact included as an important objective for the first u.s. public schools. it is even legislatively mandated or at least encouraged in most states. in reality, the current movement is simply a reminder of education’s long history of stressing core values—such as respect, integrity, and working hard—to help students become creative, capable people and good citizens. character education provides effective solutions to ethical and academic issues that are of growing concern (elkind & sweet, 2004; lafer & tarman, 2019). from the islamic perspective, aqidah can establish and oversee the actions and human behavior that stem from the formation of the self, the family, and community life. if people are aware of the responsibility of what must be done, they will not become involved in unhelpful, harmful, or sinful behavior. the faith within themselves will yield positive results, because they will always feel the presence of allah, the most well-known of human deeds. with faith, human beings tend to do good deeds in line with islamic values. islamic aqidah enables human beings to think openly, oversee the future, and be optimistic about life. the nature of the here and now and what will come later makes human beings able to consider the future and take actions for the present and the future in a balanced manner. all actions, behaviors, and deeds are therefore confidently performed based on the principles of aqidah and acceptance of all allah’s revelations. this establishes a harmonious community and secures it. it encourages people to respect other people’s rights, whether they be family members, neighbors, guests, or whomever. this also educates human beings to mutually respect one another and be mutually affectionate (fatmi, hidayat, huzairi, bahti & ahmad, 2010). islam views manners, morality, and a religious soul education as always being needed for children and learners and therefore takes them seriously. ibn miskawayh (n.d.) suggests that character is original and can be changed slowly or quickly. he rejects the opinion that character cannot be changed, because if it cannot be changed, the power or differentiation in power (tamyiz) and thinking (al ‘aql) will not be considered, so all forms of norms, guidance, and education will have no benefits. human beings would therefore become wild and uncontrolled (miskawayh, n.d.). changes in human character occur on several levels, as can be seen in how children grow and develop from birth. among children, some easily accept character improvement and education, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 224-242 233 while others reject them. these are often hardheaded, covetous, and envious of others. if such characteristics are ignored and not corrected, children will tend to act in accordance with their natural tendencies. education prompts further thinking about that nature, so these human beings will be educated. maskawaih argues that newborn babies are naturally good, not cruel, and without sin. their thoughts are clean like a blank sheet of paper. soon, however, they are influenced by their environment at certain levels (jalaludin & said, 1994). when describing a method of education that is relevant to children, al ghazali (1936) mentions practices and habituation. according to maskawaih (n.d.), shariah religion is a decisive factor for a straight character, because it accustoms people to perform commendable deeds and makes the soul ready to receive wisdom, so people can achieve happiness. changing the human character needs better systematic guidance and education. this can be achieved with knowledge of the human soul and an understanding of what the human soul was created for, including its real aims and its inherent power. if the soul is guided properly, human beings follow lofty and noble aims (maskawaih, n.d.). therefore, religious rules and the human soul are the main foundations of children’s character education. child education must be done in accordance with religious rules for correcting children’s characters. if knowledge about the soul is not included in the process of childhood education, however, the effort will be worthless. this concept is mirrored in educational psychology by contemporary thinkers. methods research design this study is descriptive-qualitative research that involves data that was collected and expressed in the form of words and images and words arranged in sentences, such as the result of interviews between researchers and informants. the presence of the researcher is a measure of success or understanding in several cases. the researcher acted, with the help of other people, as the main instrument in collecting data from people in tulungagung, east java, indonesia. this research used a sampling technique commonly employed in qualitative research, namely purposive sampling, which was implemented using the chimney technique. data were first collected broadly and then were narrowed down and focused based on the research. over an eight-month period, this research was conducted in three areas of tulungagung, east java, indonesia: (i) kendal gondang, (ii) kutoanyar, and (iii) mangunsari kedungwaru tulungagung. sokip, et. al. data and sources of data the sources of data were classified into three groups: informants, documents, and places of evidence. in qualitative research, data sources are also divided into two groups, namely primary and secondary data. the primary data were obtained directly from parents in tulungagung, east java, indonesia, while the secondary data had already been obtained by other parties. the roles and functions of these two data were mutually complementary and supportive. the techniques for the data collection were data triangulation, which involves combining various methods of data collection and in this case included (a) in-depth interviews, (b) participant observation, and (c) documentation. data-analysis techniques the techniques for data analysis involved working with data, organizing data, sorting them into units that could be managed, synthesizing them, and then searching for what was important and deciding what would be of use for others. at this stage, the data analysis was performed and utilized in such a way to successfully derive the truths that could be used to answer the questions and issues raised in the study. an inductive method was used to manage the qualitative data of this study. the inductive method allows for set of specific facts to inform generalizations with common properties. this line of thought has been used to obtain an opinion consisting of several special opinions. by connecting these opinions, the researchers generalized them. checking the validity of data the validity of the data in this study was determined using the criteria of credibility (degree of confidence). the credibility of the data was intended to prove that the data accorded with the reality that exists in the study. to establish the validity of the data, the researcher used the inspection technique as follows: 1) the extended research participation allowed an increased degree of confidence in the data collected. with extended participation, the researcher could examine the accuracy of information introduced by distortion and build confidence in the subject. therefore, a limited participation was not performed in a short time. instead, the researcher extended the participation that took place on the study background. 2) perseverance observations meant that the researchers found the characteristics and elements in situations that were very relevant to the issue being studied and then concentrated on such matters in detail. 3) triangulation helped data journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 224-242 235 checking by comparing it with something else. this involved a significant source of triangulation to compare and check that the degree of confidence in information gained over time with different tools. this involved (a) comparing the observed data with the interview data; (b) comparing what people say in public with what they say in private; (c) comparing the state and perspective of someone with different opinions and the views of the principal, teachers, students, guardians, and chairman of the board of education; and (d) comparing what people say about the research situation with what they have said previously. results and discussion parents teaching good character to their children parents need to have optimal skills to educate their children about having a good character. it is therefore important for parents to have a mastery of educational methodology and the appropriate materials, as well as the ability to provide guidance, direction, and motivation. parents first need to look inwards and decide whether they themselves are mature in their lives. if they find they are not, they need to engage in self-education by seeking out information from people with the capacity to educate young people, because parents themselves should have a mature character. when educating themselves, parents should understand the indicators of personal maturity, such as having healthy thoughts and being able to be independent rather than relying on other people. they should be able to make decisions about their attitudes to life without hesitation while also considering others and accepting their views. they should be responsible for their attitudes, behaviors, and actions and be able to accept, give, and feel friendship and real affection. what is more, a mature person is able to balance emotion and intelligence in all aspects of physical and spiritual fulfillment and manifest it in his or her behavior. indeed, mature people can balance their personal needs with the demands of society and their obligation to their chosen deity to serve their social milieu. they should have a social conscience, which enables them to become mature, useful citizens in society (hashim, 1983). our personalities result from an interaction between our genes and our social environments, so every person is unique with his or her own personality. even when individuals have a similar genetic makeup and social environment, this interaction can produce widely different personalities. ahmad (2012) states that the significance of personality development lies in producing a wellbalanced person physically, spiritually, and mentally, so he or she can face challenges in any sokip, et. al. circumstances. furthermore, in line with mahmud (2000), ahmad (2012) explains that the balanced growth of an individual should occur within the physical, mental, and spiritual being of the individual. personality can therefore be developed through methods that correspond to those aspects, namely spiritual training (tarbiyah ruhiyyah), physical training (tarbiyah jismiyyah), and intellectual training (tarbiyah fikriyyah) (ahmad, 2012). in accordance with the demands of these fast-moving times, parents need reeducating in the broadest sense. guidance and counseling, the delivery of information, and/or training is often needed for parents. both developed and developing countries commonly implement non-formal adult education programs. adult education, in a specific and systematic form, seems to have been missed by education practitioners in muslim countries, however. it is the researcher’s belief that the paradigm of adult education should receive the attention of education researchers and practitioners. this should be studied and developed in order to develop more competence in character education for muslim children. the concept of family education needs to be continuously reaffirmed, because family is the first and foremost institution for learners, namely children of today who live in an everchanging era. the goal of character building for children the goal of character building for children in muslim families is to shape them into perfect adults who are pious (salihah), good servants of allah, and responsible for their own thoughts and speech. they should also be honorable, creative, tolerant, hardworking, responsible, trustworthy, respectful of nature, and affectionate to other human beings. they should also be capable of making shared decisions and be disciplined, brave, efficient, effective, diligent and skillful, helpful, and consistent. in other words, they should be good citizens. maturity is a basic foundation and an aim of education, so if education is to succeed, it must be administered by a professional adult, because if they themselves have chosen norms and values and act with their own responsibility, their students will also become self-sufficient citizens when they become adults. we need to accept that the main goal of islam is the establishment of a moral and character education that can develop people, both men and women, with clean souls, willpower, the right ideals, and a high degree of morality. such people know the meaning of duty and respect human rights. they know the difference between good and bad and choose to avoid a journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 224-242 237 reprehensible act because they know it would be disgraceful, instead remembering the supreme being in everything they do (al-abrasyi, 1970). in the modern context, efforts to educate children need to be conducted in the steady and creative environment of the muslim family. chauhan (1979) asserts the characteristics of a creative child: 1) courageous in convictions: a creative child shows strong conviction in his or her beliefs and values, going beyond socially conformist behavior. 2) curious: a creative child is eager to learn more and more about his environment. 3) independent judgment: a creative child can judge crucial matters independently. 4) independent thinking: a creative child thinks independently when faced with various problems. 5) a creative child becomes easily absorbed in tasks. 6) a creative child applies intuition in problem solving. 7) a creative child does not always accept the established solution to a problem and does not always conform. 8) a creative child is willing to take risks. 9) a creative child can develop a vision for future problems. (chauhan, 1979) in muslim families, for parents as educators in the family, it is necessary to understand the concepts, tasks, functions, and properties of muslim educators and how they seek to develop children into creative people. according to tafsir (1992), islamic educators are responsible for developing students by achieving their full potential, whether it be their affective, cognitive, or psychomotor potential (tafsir, 1992). the role of parents in character building in relation to character building in the children of muslim families, parents play important roles in influencing their children to develop good characters in life. parental knowledge about the theory of islamic education, islamic guidance and counseling, developmental psychology, education, and personality is very important, especially in the daily education activities of a family. nichols (1974) proposed that there are three main factors that likely have an important influence on children’s ability and school achievement: (a) the school or other education institution; (b) the family and other social influences; and (c) the child’s genetic makeup. in addition, one might also want to consider nutritional factors, community influences, and so on (nichols, 1974). nichols’ theory insists on that the second factor (i.e., family and other social influences) greatly affects a child’s ability. as it is effectively an informal educational institution, the family offers the first learning environment to a child. in this environment, children receive their first guidance from their parents. in reality, islam positions muhammad the last prophet and his apostles as sokip, et. al. exemplary muslims for character education in children. prophet muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) is an ideal role model for all of humanity. among his various outstanding virtues and characteristics, he was an extraordinary husband, a perfect father, and a unique grandfather. he was also a great statesman, judge, and spiritual leader. his most distinctive quality, however, was the fact that he brought blessings to all in both words and deeds. he infused justice, love, and dignity in all those around him. he spread the power of goodwill to the extent that he became exceptional in human history (mansouri, 2011). in this context, it is necessary to raise the awareness of a new paradigm to all parents engaged in the philosophical concept of children’s character education from an islamic perspective. this new paradigm should emphasize the following: 1) educate a child according to his or her psychological development. 2) educate a child to build character and create a perfect adult. 3) reinforce the urgency of reeducating parents as character builders. 4) teach islamic religious education. 5) create educational facilities. 6) create a favorable environment. the material for islamic character building is the character of prophet muhammad as a good example for humanity. the approach to character building from an islamic perspective is systemic, ethical, personal, and contextual. character building in the islamic world has not always enjoyed optimal results. from a philosophical perspective, character building has lacked the power of a philosophical foundation that is understood and followed by all parties. the purpose of islamic education is to teach learners to face their futures independently, intelligently, and with a moral beauty, but in reality, moral issues have become the subject of public apprehension. in addressing such issues, the family plays a highly important role. the family environment provides the very first education for learners, so in islamic countries, the strengthening of character building in the family environment is highly needed as the basis for further education. the researcher has offered new ideas about the philosophical concept of parents’ need for a greater awareness of educating character for children in the muslim family environment, and in the modern global era, parents themselves may need reeducating according to the islamic perspective. conclusion and recommendations in summary, this study concludes that parents must have the necessary skills to educate their children for them to have good personalities. specifically, this study asserts that in muslim journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 224-242 239 families, character building in children aims to develop them into perfect adults who are pious (salihah), good servants of allah, and responsible for their own thoughts and speech according to islam. such people are honorable, creative, tolerant, hardworking, responsible, trustworthy, respectful of nature, and affectionate to other human beings. they are also capable of making shared decisions and are disciplined, brave, efficient, effective, diligent, skillful, helpful, and consistent. in short, they are good citizens. in addition, parents play an important role in influencing a child to develop an islamic character in later life. parental knowledge about islamic education theory, islamic guidance and counseling, developmental psychology, education, and personality are especially important for the daily education activities in the family area. references ahmad, s. (2012). generic skills from qur’anic perspective. international journal of islamic thought. 1(june), 43–53. al-ghazali, a. h. (1936). ihya’ ̀ ulum al-din. misr: matba’ah lajnah nashr thaqafah islamiyyah. al-abrashi, m. a. (1943). al-ittijahat al-haditsah fi al-tarbiyyah. cairo: isa al-babi al-halabi, azra, a. (2000). pendidikan islam tradisi dan modernisasi menuju millenium baru. jakarta: yayasan wacana ilmu. bailleau, f. & cartuyvels, y. (2011). the criminalization of youth: juvenile justice in europe, turkey and canada. brussels: vubpress. balakrishnan, v. (2010). the development of moral education in malaysia. asia pacific journal of educators and education, 25, 89–101. bandial, q. a. (2011, january 15). rise in juvenile delinquents explained. the brunei times. barnadib, i. (1991). pendidikan perbandingan buku 1dasar-dasar. yogykarta: andi offset. becker, j., jobst, r., mcknight, p., roberts, b., simmmons, d., & campbell, a. (2012). building character education in your communitya resource guide for communities. retrieved from https://my.extension.illinois.edu/documents/8100703100310/character-coalition.pdf. berkowitz, m. w. (2002). the science of character education. hoover press: damon. berkowitz, m. w. (2011). understanding effective character education, st. louis: csee connections the center for spiritual and ethical education. http://books.google.co.id/books?id=knqu10de2pmc&printsec=frontcover&dq=juvenile+delinquency+in+turkey+2012&hl=id&sa=x&ei=0hfgudtncsil0awa3ocyaq&ved=0ccwq6aewaa http://books.google.co.id/books?id=knqu10de2pmc&printsec=frontcover&dq=juvenile+delinquency+in+turkey+2012&hl=id&sa=x&ei=0hfgudtncsil0awa3ocyaq&ved=0ccwq6aewaa sokip, et. al. character education informational handbook & guide for support and implementation of the student citizen act of 2001. (2000). north carolina: state board of education department of public instruction division of instructional services character education. chauhan, s. (1979). advanced educational psychology. new delhi bangalore calcutta hampur: vikas publishing house pvt. ltd. deroche, e. f. (2000). leadership for character education programs. journal of humanistic counseling education development, 39, 41–46. eleven principles of character education. 2013. http://www.character.org/ principles. accessed on june 20, 2013. elkind, d. & sweet, f. (2004). you are a character educator. today’s school. peter li education group. fatmi, n. h. b. t., hidayat, b. h. b. m. s., huzairi, m. b. a., bahti, h. h. b. z. n. b. k., & ahmad, j. b. (2010). proceedings of the 4th, international conference on teacher education; joint conference upi & upsi-bandung, indonesia, 8-10 november 2010. pembangunan negara melalui pendidikan kemahiran insaniah. hasyim, u. (1983). cara mendidk anak dalam islam. surabaya: bina ilmu. hoon, c. l. (2010). an appraisal on the implementation of moral education for schools in malaysia. proceedings of the 4 th, international conference on teacher education; joint conference upi & upsi bandung, indonesia, 8-10 november 2010. izfanna, d. & hisyam, n. a. (2012). a comprehensive approach in developing akhlaq: a case study on the implementation of character education at pondok pesantren darunnajah. multicultural education & technology journal, 6(2), 77–86. jeremah, dawn. (2012). violent crime rates in malaysia are reaching worrying levels. retrieved from http://thestar.com.my/metro/story.asp?file. josephson, m. (2006). making ethical decisions. los angeles ca: josephson institute of ethics. karatas, k. & oral, b. (2015). teachers’ perceptions on culturally responsiveness in education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 2(2), 47-57. kupperman, j. j. (2005). how not to educate character. in lapsley, d. k. & power, f. c. (eds.) character psychology and character education. notre dame indiana: university of notre dame press. http://www.character.org/%20principles.%20accessed%20on%20june%2020 http://www.character.org/%20principles.%20accessed%20on%20june%2020 http://thestar.com.my/metro/story.asp?file=/2012/6/16/central/11483630 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10(2), 224-242 241 lafer, s., & tarman, b. (2019). editorial 2019: (2)1, special issue. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), i-v. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 lengrand, p. (1989). introduction to live long education, terj. lsik dengan judul pengantar pendidikan sepanjang hayat. jakarta: cv. masagung. lickona, t. (2013). character education. retrieved from www.cortland.edu/character/aboutus.html on june 13, 2013 lickona, t. (1992). educating for character, how our schools can teach respect and responsibility. new york: bantam books. mahmud, a. a. h. (2000). perangkat-perangkat tarbiyyah ikhwanul muslimin (5th ed.). wahid ahmadi et al. (trans.). solo: era intermedia mansouri, m. (2011, may 8). character education in marocco. marocco world news fez. miskawayh , ibn. (n. d.). tahdzib al akhlaq wa tathir al a’raq. mesir: maktabah al ma’arif. mehlig, l. m. & milson, a. j. (2002). elementary school teachers’ sense of efficacy for character education. journal of educational research, 96(1), 47–53. ministry of education in malaysia. (2000). moral education syllabus for secondary school malaysia. kuala lumpur: curriculum development centre. napitupulu, w. p. (2001). universitas yang kudambakan. unesco. nichols, r. c. (1974). heredity, environment and school achievement. contemporary issues in educational psychology. overdorf, j. (2011). crime and punishment for india’s youth. global post. accessed january 20, 2013. souryal, s. (1992). juvenile delinquency in the cross-cultural context: the egyptian experience. international journal of comparative and applied criminal justice, 16(1–2), 329–352. tafsir, a. (1992). ilmu pendidikan dalam perspektif islam. bandung: remaja rosda karya. tamuri. a. h., othman, m. y., dakir, j., ismail, a. m., & stapa z. (2013). religious education and ethical attitude of muslim adolescents in malaysia. multicultural education & technology journal, 7(4), 257–274. winslow, r. (2013). a comparative criminology tour of the world. retrieved from http://wwwrohan.sdsu.edu /faculty/rwinslow/asia_pacific/qatar.html on june 20, 2013 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 http://www.cortland.edu/character/aboutus.html http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcac20?open=16#vol_16 https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/halim+tamuri%2c+ab https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/yusof+othman%2c+mohd https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/dakir%2c+jawiah https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/munawar+ismail%2c+ahmad https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/stapa%2c+zakaria sokip, et. al. zdenek, b. & schochor, d. (2007). developing moral literacy in the classroom. journal of educational administration, 45(4), 514–532. zuriah, n. (2007). pendidikan moral & budi pekerti dalam perspektif perubahan. jakarta: pt. bumi aksara. https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/zdenek%2c+brad https://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/schochor%2c+daniel www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 145-167 145 technowellness and its relationship with happiness and optimism among university of jordan students baha’ shawaqfeh1 & abdallah almahaireh2 abstract the purpose of this study is to investigate the levels of technowellness, happiness and optimism among bachelor’s degree students at the university of jordan, possible relationships between these factors, and possible differences according to gender and university faculty. using a quantitative approach, 450 participants were selected by stratified random sampling from undergraduate students registered in the 2017/2018 academic year at the university of jordan and measured on scales of technowellness, happiness and optimism. their levels of technowellness and happiness were found to be average and their level of optimism high, with a statistically significant positive correlation between the variables. the results also revealed a statistically significant difference according to gender in technowellness levels but not in happiness or optimism levels. finally, there were no statistically significant differences according to faculty for any of the three variables. key words: technowellness, technology, wellness, happiness, optimism. introduction technology is essential to modern life. there were 8.4 billion devices connected to the internet in 2017 in a world containing 7 billion people (köhn, 2018), revealing large and rapid technological developments with an enormous impact on human life. studies have found that using this new technology can improve wellness by increasing social communication (valkenburg & peter, 2007), positive emotions such as happiness and optimism (botella et al., 2012) and physical health (duncan et al., 2013). other studies have revealed more negative effects of technology use, such as technostress (brosnan et al., 2012). such findings suggest that when technology is used in a positive way, it develops positive emotions, such as happiness and optimism, among students, improving their academic achievement and giving them healthier perceptions, beliefs, and communication strategies (bottela 1 doctorate candidate, jordan ministry of education, shawaqfehbahaa@gmail.com. orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1254-7671 2 assistant professor, school of education science, university of jordan, a.mahaere@ju.edu.jo. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1254-7671 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 et al., 2012). these effects may contribute to their overall wellness and ultimately help them to live healthier and more enjoyable lives, particularly from the perspective of enjoyment of life as a set of social processes (reade, 2005). happiness is typically associated with positive mood. positive thoughts improve an individual’s ability to remember happy events and develop creative ideas. technology can help the individual to apply these ideas in a more organized way, leading to increased satisfaction with life and optimism about the continuation of happiness in the future (bahaas, 2009). joudah and abu grad (2017) found a positive relationship between happiness and optimism, with optimism linked to positivity and hopefulness about the future and influenced by levels of optimism in the community culture (johnson & hinton, 2019). the impact of technology on human beings is very complex. in order to gain a clearer understanding of it, its effects on well-being, happiness, and optimism must be studied in all their many aspects, both positive and negative. there is a particular need for the study of new psychology topics such as technowellness in the context of the arab world. research problem this study focuses on the technowellness of students at the university of jordan and its relationship to happiness and optimism, two key factors in human wellness. study of technowellness can help shed light on how the spread of technology in all aspects of modern life has affected mental wellbeing in a population in this case, a higher education student population. universities are one type of environments greatly impacted by modern technology, and students require academic and social adjustment to successfully engage in their education and relationships, which in turn leads to increased happiness and optimism (friedlander et al., 2007). this study will help shed light on whether technology helps or hinders these positive psychological states by investigating the following questions: 1. what is the level of technowellness among university of jordan students? 2. what is the level of happiness among university of jordan students? 3. what is the level of optimism among university of jordan students? 4. is there a statistically significant relationship at the level of significance (α = 0.05) between technowellness, happiness and optimism among university of jordan students? 5. are there differences in the levels of technowellness, happiness and optimism according to gender and university faculty? shawaqfeh & almahaireh literature review negative effects of technology previous research has found that modern technology negatively affects humans in many ways, including increases in anxiety, tension, stress, and frustration. in one study on techno anxiety, brosnan et al. (2012) found 5.6% of university student participants who used technology regularly experienced high levels of anxiety. another study found that rumours and gossip, such as those spread in an instant with modern technology, lead to distracting thoughts that trigger negative behaviours (difonzo & bordia, 2007). technology can also create ethical issues, spreading inaccurate information, encouraging pornography addiction, and exposing users to images they did not wish to view (solas & sutton, 2018). a quarter of internet users report having seen pornographic images online, with 8% viewing such images intentionally (hijazi, 2005). some users become addicted to the internet itself; according to young (2004), such people use the internet for more than eight hours per day. positive effects of technology some research, however, suggests more positive effects of technology. according to these studies, modern technology enhances entertainment, control, life satisfaction, wellness and social connection. pomputius (2018) identified three main technologies that may advance wellness: smart apps, health tracking apps, and virtual reality (vr) apps. smart apps help users relax their bodies and minds and eliminate negative thoughts, which can potentially improve overall wellness and decrease stress (culbert, 2017). technology can also be used to track physical activity, heart rate, sleep time and other body data through wearable devices connected to smartphone apps (sivan, 2016). previously limited to use in training facilities for simulations of situations too dangerous to undertake in real life, vr devices and programmes are increasingly being used to decrease anxiety (rizzo et al., 2008), and tension and increase awareness (navarro-hero et al., 2017). positive psychology positive psychology research investigates ways to improve the quality of human life by identifying the emotions, personality traits and other factors that encourage wellness (seligman & csikszentmihalyi, 2000). wellness is the healthy balancing of an individual’s life by combining the mind, soul and body and unlocking the individual’s full potential to make positive decisions (myers & sweeney, 2008). it is more than physical health alone; in fact, the world health journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 organization (who) defines ‘health’ as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (1948). positive psychology has an important role in the educational process. it aims to develop motivation and self-confidence among students, as well as help them to be optimistic and flexible in their studies and demonstrate their creativity in various fields. it also helps teachers to develop strong relationships with their students, which positively affects both parties, increasing their psychological wellness (jenson et al., 2004). wellness sweeney & witmer (2008) were the first to develop a wellness model, which they named the ‘wheel of wellness’ (wow) and based on the adler theory to reflect the indivisible self model. it distinguishes between a range of aspects of the self, such as the adaptive self, creative self, spiritual self, physical self, social self. technowellness use of modern technology affects every aspect of the indivisible self. kennedy & baker (2016) investigated the impact of technology on human wellness based on kennedy’s (2014) idea of ‘technowellness’. he defines technowellness as ‘a mode of interacting with technology that maximises its potential to enhance health and wellbeing’ (2004). it contains five factors: using technology for leisure, using technology for vocational purposes, technostress, using technology for physical health and excess use of technology. kennedy (2014) used these factors to create the technowellness inventory (twi) found a positive relationship between technowellness inventory and the five factors wellness inventory. human behaviours and beliefs are the product of the individual’s interaction with the environment. this includes sending messages on whatsapp, listening to songs through youtube, using google maps to go to unknown places and the many other ways in which humans use modern technology to achieve their goals as easily and quickly as possible; all have an effect on human behaviour and beliefs (amichai-hamburger & barak, 2009). studies such as those of hughes and burke (2018) and rozgonjuk et al. (2018) suggest that technology has a role in increasing wellness, happiness and quality of life and that there is an inverse relationship between technology use with depression and anxiety. botella et al. (2012) noted that technology use has the potential to impact the psyche either positively or negatively. when used in a positive way, it increases emotions such as happiness and optimism, which, if shawaqfeh & almahaireh channelled appropriately, can help university students improve their academic performance and form healthy beliefs and communication habits. however, if used in a negative way, it may cause students to underachieve, damage relationships, and abandon their society traditions responsibilities. using technology to increase wellness requires increases in happiness and optimism, both of which ultimately contribute to enjoyment of, and therefore satisfaction with, life. enjoyment of life also requires awareness, acceptance, and a lack of past regrets, which lead to a life of satisfaction and resilience (reade, 2005). happiness happiness is one of the most important aspects of positive psychology. seligman (2002), a leading positive psychologist, defines happiness as a psychological state or feeling that includes satisfaction, love, benefit and pleasure toward the self, others and life. happiness is related to positive mood, which leads to positive thoughts that improve the ability to recall happy events. happiness consists of three aspects: a pleasant life, a good life, and a meaningful life. ‘happiness’ as an indicator of wellness may denote positive emotions, positive qualities and characteristics, positive relationships and social institutions. to be happy, university students must engage in work, create positive memories and form good social relationships (singh, 2009). gorsy and panwar (2016) found a positive relationship between happiness and optimism, as looking to the future with feelings of satisfaction and hope contributes to happiness in the present. optimism optimism is influenced by culture, personality, and attitudes toward failure (an optimist believes that failure is temporary) and success (an optimist believes that success can be maintained despite changing circumstances) (seligman, 2006). who (2004) defines optimism as ‘a psychological process that generates thoughts and feelings of satisfaction and endurance, hope and confidence, and distances thoughts and feelings of despair and defeatism and impotence’. there are many social factors that influence in optimism, such as family, school, society and media (karawi, 2012). optimistic individuals exhibit distinguishing characteristics, such as self-confidence, risk taking, and flexibility in their goals. they do not succumb failure by giving up and adapt to stressful life situations using problem solving techniques (seligman, 2006). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 method research design this study uses a quantitative approach to investigate the levels of technowellness, happiness and optimism in university of jordan students and possible relationships among these three variables. participants the participants in this study are a stratified random sample of 450 undergraduate students at the university of jordan in the 2017/2018 academic year, they included 206 humanities students, 147 science students, and 97 health students, with 301 females and 149 males. data collection tools technowellness scale the researchers conducting this study adapted the technowellness scale from kennedy (2014) and oweida and tannos (2017). the inventory is comprised of 30 items, each of which participants rated on a four-point scale, from 1 (‘strongly disagree’) to 4 (‘strongly agree’). higher scores reflect a higher level of technowellness. the researchers extracted the validity and reliability and found that the discriminate evidences ranged between 0.30 and 0.73. cronbach’s alpha was 0.84, then 0.87 at the retest three weeks later. happiness scale the researchers developed an inventory of 20 items from al matarneh, (2015) and alminshawy, 2009). participants rated each item on a four-point scale, from 1 (‘strongly disagree’) to 4 (‘strongly agree’). higher scores reflect a higher level of happiness. the researchers extracted the validity and reliability and found that the discriminate evidences ranged between 0.33 and 0.76. cronbach’s alpha was 0.90, then 0.73 at the retest three weeks later. optimism scale the researchers developed the inventory from darawshe (2014) and al-qubaisi (2010). participants rated each of the 18 items on a four-point scale, from 1 (‘strongly disagree’) to 4 (‘strongly agree’). higher scores reflect a higher level of optimism. the researchers extracted the validity and reliability and found that the discriminate evidences ranged between 0.44 and 0.78. cronbach’s alpha was 0.89, then 0.79 at the retest three weeks later. shawaqfeh & almahaireh data collection the researchers obtained approval for this study from the institutional review board. data was collected in the form of online questionnaires on three measures: technowellness, happiness and optimism. data analysis the researchers used spss to analyse the data. for the first three questions that is, the level questions average and standard deviations were calculated, while for the correlation questions, the pearson correlation coefficient was used to find relationships between the variables. finally, for the last question, a two-way anova test was used. findings level of technowellness among university of jordan students the arithmetical averages and standard deviations of the data were calculated on the technowellness measure and the total score of the scale. table 1 displays the results. table 1 averages and standard deviations of the technowellness measures items mean std. dev. value my internet use can improve and develop my academic and cultural knowledge. 3.28 .637 high i search the internet for ways to stimulate my thinking and improve my education 3.12 .737 high using technology and computers helps me to be more productivity in my studies. 3.03 .853 high i love taking online university courses. 3.01 .864 high i feel self-satisfaction when i keep abreast of new technological developments. 2.99 .677 moderate i use technology to improve my relationships. 2.98 .729 moderate i use technology to share my happy experiences with university friends. 2.95 .708 moderate my technology use helps me find innovative solutions to my problems. 2.95 .714 moderate i can deal with abuse i face on social media. 2.94 .696 moderate i can find innovative solutions to complex problems through the internet. 2.94 .738 moderate i share information about my cultural identity through the internet. 2.88 .695 moderate my activities on internet don’t distract me from my classwork. 2.82 .825 moderate i use the internet to collect information about my religion. 2.77 .806 moderate i feel satisfied even if i can’t check my social media. 2.72 .807 moderate using technology makes me more confident in my abilities. 2.69 .744 moderate journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 participants’ responses to the technowellness measure items averaged between 2.24 and 3.28. responses to the highest-scoring item (‘my use of the internet helps me develop academic and cultural knowledge.’) averaged 3.28, a high-level score, while the responses to the lowestscoring item (‘my internet use doesn’t affect my sleep.’) averaged 2.24, a moderate level. the arithmetic average of the technowellness standard score was a moderate 2.69, with a standard deviation of 0.34. while there have been no studies specifically investigating technowellness, there have been studies of some technowellness factors, including internet use for convenience, technology anxiety, use of the internet to promote physical health, how to use technology, use of technology for professional goals. while some of these studies indicated that internet use has a positive relationship with wellness and happiness, which are aspects of individual comfort (hughes & burke, 2018; mitchell et al., 2011), others found that using the internet inappropriately is related i feel satisfied when engaging in entertaining activities with university friends on the internet. 2.68 .760 moderate i believe that communicating with university friends through internet is easier than communicating face to face. 2.60 .839 moderate i use websites about finding innovative solutions to environmental problems. 2.60 .776 moderate technology use helps me to manage stress. 2.54 .784 moderate using technology helps me to relax and reduce stress. 2.53 .828 moderate i can balance internet use and a sufficient and healthy diet. 2.51 .850 moderate i express my positive and negative feelings with friends through social media. 2.48 .807 moderate i feel valued when i deal with university friends on social media. 2.43 .765 moderate i feel proud when i get involved in groups on social media. 2.41 .774 moderate using smart apps helps me maintain a healthy diet. 2.37 .829 moderate i use technology to connect with others in my university to improve my physical health. 2.36 .798 moderate i feel less lonely because of my friends on internet. 2.36 .844 moderate i use smart apps to encourage me to practice sports. 2.31 .833 moderate i don’t feel guilty about the time i spend using internet. 2.28 .921 moderate my internet use doesn’t affect my sleep. 2.24 .962 moderate technowellness 2.692 .34301 moderate shawaqfeh & almahaireh to techno-anxiety (rozgonjuk et al., 2018). still others revealed that heavy technology can be connected to problems with sleep and social and psychological effects (nasaescu et al., 2018; mitchell et al., 2011). the results of the inventory may have indicated a moderate level of technowellness due to the participants’ use of social media to build and strengthen relationships by communicating with one another and sharing their enjoyable experiences of university life. in addition, they likely use technology for many of their university assignments, which means that technology helps them to increase their cultural and academic knowledge, remain abreast of current events and complete their projects creativity using various software programmes. the lowest-scoring item reveals that students’ technology use sometimes affects their sleep. they appear to experience some guilt about their technology use, but this guilt may be useful in helping them to avoid misuse. it is also clear that some students do not use technology to help them increase their physical health and fitness through diet or exercise. level of happiness among university of jordan students of the university of jordan the averages and standard deviations of the sample responses were calculated for the happiness scale and total scores. table 2 displays the results. table 2 averages and standard deviations of the happiness scale items mean std. dev. value i’m beautiful. 3.18 .718 high i make myself and others happy with the little things. 3.16 .715 high i respect myself despite my flaws. 3.16 .673 high i have a lot of good relationships. 3.15 .697 high my health is good. 3.12 .721 high i feel that i’m lovable to others. 3.11 .672 high i’m a positive person. 3.08 .812 high i think positively about the present. 3.01 .757 high i can cope with the demands of university life. 2.99 .684 moderate i believe that my life is beautiful. 2.92 .832 moderate i feel satisfied with my material standard of living. 2.91 .810 moderate i believe that life is generous to me. 2.91 .804 moderate i’m happy. 2.89 .770 moderate i feel exciting about most things i do. 2.89 .760 moderate i am motivated to face my studies. 2.88 .809 moderate journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 my life is happy. 2.82 .800 moderate my mood is moderate. 2.75 .802 moderate i feel satisfied about my achievement in my university studies. 2.63 .866 moderate i feel strong and healthy when i wake up in the morning to go to university. 2.54 .922 moderate i’m happy with my university average. 2.44 .962 moderate happiness 2.9277 .47033 moderate table 2 shows that the mathematical averages of the responses to the happiness scale ranged between 3.18 and 2.44. the highest-scoring item (‘i see myself beautiful.’) averaged 3.18, a high level, while the lowest-scoring item (‘i am happy with my university.’) averaged 2.44, a moderate level. the mean total happiness score was a moderate 2.93, with a standard deviation 0.47. previous research has indicated an average to high level of happiness among university students in jordan (al mattarneh, 2015; zu’bi, 2014; abu thweb, 2010; qadoumi, 2018), in line with the findings of this study. the result of this inventory can be attributed to the students’ position in an environment that offers many opportunities and their desirable place in jordanian society. in addition, they are nearing completion one of their life’s great tasks. argyle (2002) indicates that levels of happiness are high during university education and interpreted this period of students’ lives as a stage when they feel positively about their achievements and ambitions. the university of jordan offers a community of diverse civilisations and cultures, with many opportunities for students to establish good relationships with like-minded peers. there are also many places on and around the campus that provide enjoyable and affordable experiences. though the student participants in this study reported only moderate levels of happiness on average, it is worth noting that the score was very close to the threshold of the high level. there are several factors that may have prevented the sample population as a whole from reaching that threshold. university students often aspire to achievements higher than their past successes and, while optimistic about the future, can be frustrated with their present situation. many also sleep too little, which leads to difficulty waking up in the morning and to low mood and energy levels throughout the day. shawaqfeh & almahaireh level of optimism among university of jordan students the averages and standard deviations of the sample responses were calculated for the measure of optimism. table 3 shows the results. table 3 averages and standard deviations of the optimism scale items mean std. deviation value i believe that there will always be relief after hardship. 3.40 .674 high i believe that if you hope for good things, they will come. 3.38 .738 high i believe in my ability to succeed at university. 3.28 .655 high i believe that i can achieve my goals and ambitions. 3.27 .630 high i believe that my future brings good things and delights. 3.24 .725 high i believe i can persevere through difficult life situations. 3.23 .661 high i feel that my life has purpose and meaning. 3.20 .803 high i have a feeling that i will live to achieve my goals. 3.18 .703 high i expect a happy ending to my problems. 3.15 .738 high i believe that tomorrow will be more beautiful. 3.13 .817 high i think of the future in an optimistic way. 3.12 .744 high the future will be a pleasant surprise. 3.10 .757 high failure challenges me and makes me more determined to succeed. 3.08 .764 high i stay optimistic despite the pessimists around me. 3.07 .799 high i expect to find work after graduation. 3.05 .809 high i feel that i will graduate with a high average. 2.96 .838 moderate my worries make me stronger. 2.85 .839 moderate i feel that i’m lucky. 2.75 .825 moderate optimism 3.1359 .49433 high the averages of the responses for the optimism measure ranged from 3.40 to 2.75. the highest-averaging item (‘i believe in near post-hardship relief’) averaged 3.40, and the lowestscoring item (‘i feel that i’m lucky’) averaged 2.75. the mean for optimism was a high 3.14, with a standard deviation of 0.49. previous studies have suggested that the level of optimism among university students is high or between intermediate and high levels (hammodeh, 2015; khalil, 2009; darawshe, 2014; qaddoumi, 2018) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 the high level of student optimism can be attributed to the fact that the students of the university of jordan are more likely to secure work in the private sector compared to those of other universities in order to that they have a better chance to work. the influence of their family and community may also play a role. as students of a highly desirable university in their country, they are likely to be confident about their future prospects. these students may also have a high degree of confidence in their ability to achieve high marks in their academic courses and feel that they are close to achieving a major life goal in graduating university. intellectual maturity and independence in decision-making and responsibility may also play a role, as well as peers who encourage them to move forward. their teachers may also motivate them in both direct and indirect ways. relationships between technowellness, happiness and optimism among university of jordan students the pearson correlation coefficient was used to detect relationships between the variables. table 4 displays the results of this analysis. table 4 pearson correlation coefficient values between technowellness, happiness and optimism happiness optimism technowellnes pearson correlation .534** .440** sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 happiness pearson correlation 1 .734** sig. (2-tailed) .000 **. correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). table 4 shows a statistically significant correlation between technowellness and happiness and optimism in this study. this correlation indicates that the higher the level of technowellness, the higher the levels of happiness and optimism in the individual. the highest coefficient of correlation was found between happiness and optimism (0.734, 54%), and the lowest was between technowellness and optimism (0.44, 19%). between happiness and technowellness was the coefficient of correlation 0.534 (29%), and all values are statistically significant at an indication level α = 0.05. in previous studies, researchers have pointed to a strong positive correlation between happiness and optimism among university students (ben-zur, 2003; abdel-khalek, 2005). shawaqfeh & almahaireh the reason is the interdependence of the two concepts. happiness requires a sense of optimism, and a sense of optimism requires a certain level of happiness. both are positive emotions. schueller and seligman (2008) demonstrated that optimists have a higher rate of happiness, while pessimistic individuals are generally less happy. researchers have also noted a positive correlation between technology use and high happiness (hughes & burke, 2018; graham & nikolova, 2013; conner & reid, 2012). technowellness can be attributed to the use of technology in ways that satisfy their needs and preferences. modern technology provides almost everything that an individual might desire: communication, health information, entertainment and even opportunities to work or find work. some indicate that students’ optimism can be increased by using technology (enrique et al., 2018; chen et al., 2017; brissette et al., 2002). this finding can be attributed to the fact that websites such as akhtaboot make it easier for university students to find work after graduation and others, such as freelancer provide online work in various disciplines, thus making young people more hopeful about their future prospects. technology can also help young people to develop in their professional skills through video and online courses, thus increasing their self-confidence and the quality of their work and giving them high expectations of themselves and their abilities. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 differences in the levels of technowellness, happiness and optimism according to gender and university faculty the averages and standard deviations were calculated for the technowellness, happiness and optimism scores according to gender and university faculty. table 5 displayed the results. table 5 averages and standard deviations according to the study variables gender\faculty humanity scientific health total technowellness male mean 2.82 2.73 2.69 2.75 std. 0.37 0.37 0.29 0.35 female mean 2.68 2.66 2.63 2.66 std. 0.33 0.37 0.30 0.33 total mean 2.71 2.69 2.65 2.69 std. 0.35 0.37 0.30 0.34 happiness male mean 3.02 2.94 3.00 2.98 std. 0.43 0.54 0.38 0.47 female mean 2.93 2.93 2.80 2.90 std. 0.46 0.52 0.40 0.47 total mean 2.95 2.94 2.86 2.93 std. 0.45 0.53 0.40 0.47 optimism male mean 3.15 3.16 3.28 3.18 std. 0.47 0.50 0.44 0.48 female mean 3.16 3.17 2.94 3.11 std. 0.50 0.54 0.41 0.50 total mean 3.16 3.17 3.04 3.14 std. 0.49 0.52 0.45 0.49 table 5 shows that responses on the technowellness measure were lowest among females in studying in the health faculty, with a average of 2.63. the highest average was 3.28, the score for optimism among the males in health faculty. to find out if these differences were statistically significant, the two-way anova test was used, and the results are shown in table 6. shawaqfeh & almahaireh table (6) results of two-way anova analysis according to the study variables source dependent variable type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. gender technowellness .678 1 .678 5.835 .016 happiness .884 1 .884 4.018 .046 optimism .991 1 .991 4.138 .043 faculty technowellness .433 2 .217 1.866 .156 happiness .286 2 .143 .650 .522 optimism .179 2 .090 .374 .688 gender* faculty technowellness .143 2 .072 .617 .540 happiness .473 2 .237 1.076 .342 optimism 1.950 2 .975 4.073 .018 error technowellness 51.564 444 .116 happiness 97.639 444 .220 optimism 106.287 444 .239 total technowellness 52.827 449 happiness 99.323 449 optimism 109.721 449 a. r squared = .024; b. r squared = .017; c. r squared = .031 table 6 indicates that there are statistically significant differences at the level of (α = 0.05) in the levels of technowellness, happiness and optimism according to the gender variable, with the male participants scoring higher on average, but no statistically significant differences at the level of (α = 0.05) in any level according to university faculty. however, there are statistically significant differences at the level of (α = 0.05) in the level of optimism due to interactions between the gender and faculty variables. since women tend to be more emotional than men, they may be more likely to use technology to communicate with friends and family or search for a romantic relationship. men, on the other hand, tend to be more reserved, only using technology to communicate when necessary and have more responsibilities. men are also likely to seek novelty, which reduces their fear of using new technology. women are more organised than men, which can increase their concern about their technology use (boniel-nissim & sasson, 2018; nasascu et al., 2018; wong & mcbride, 2018). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 as for the measure of happiness, the studies of al-nour (2013) and zu’bi (2014) indicated significantly higher levels for men, though this result may be related to the recent emancipation of women from the social constraints imposed on them in the past. men have more access to opportunities for education and employment. the high levels of optimism can be attributed to the economic, political and social conditions of university students, which leads them to similar aspirations in life. a university degree offers greater access to work opportunities, particularly for women: while the males can engage in work that does not require a university degree, such as taxi driving or gas station jobs, women often do not have this option (al-yahfoufi, 2002; maqaldeh, 2014; darawshe, 2014). furthermore, it should be noted that all faculties at the university of jordan have increased the use of technology in their courses, including the integration of e-learning tools that allow student to send and receive their work through an online university portal. thus, regardless of gender or university faculty, the students experience positive technology use during this positive period in their lives in which they are studying subjects that interest them and are optimistic about their future employment prospects. it is also likely that all students are subject to similar academic attention from faculty and administration regardless of area of study (al-jamal, 2013; duffy et.al. 2018; maqaldah, 2014; katalo, 2015). conclusion this study found a moderate level of technowellness in undergraduate students at the university of jordan. they may require specialised training in order to use technology in ways that increase their level of technowellness, as well as of happiness, which was also found to be moderate, while maintaining their high levels of optimism. the search for relationships among these three measures revealed a positive relationship between them, indicating that technowellness helps them to use technology in ways that promote wellness factors such as happiness and optimism. future research may reveal how scores on all three measures can be improved. furthermore, regarding the gender variable, the results of this study revealed differences among men and women on the measures of technowellness, happiness, and optimism. thus, future research on these topics should consider gender as a potentially important variable. shawaqfeh & almahaireh limitations and future directions this study was conducted with a sample of undergraduate students enrolled in the summer semester of the 2017/2018 academic year at the university of jordan. the results of the study were interpreted from the participants’ responses to the technowellness inventory, the happiness scale and the optimism scale. there was a reluctance to apply the scales among the male students, particularly in the humanities faculty, and some of the responses to the items were ambiguous. the researchers recommend further research on the technowellness variable, as it will only increase in importance as modern becomes ever more pervasive and diverse. future research might also relate technowellness to variables such as age, time of technology use, personality types, vocational development, marital compatibility and self-efficacy. the creation of counselling and guidance programs to improve and maintain students’ technowellness, particularly that of female students, might also be considered. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 references abdel-khalek, a. m. (2005). happiness and death distress: two separate factors. death studies, 29(10), 949-958.https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180500299394 abu thweb, ahmad (2010). happiness and its relation to cognitive and emotional intelligence among yarmouk university students, unpublished doctorate dissertation, yarmouk university, jordan. al mattarneh, ehda (2015). happiness and its relationship to social support and self-esteem for mu'tah university students, unpublished master's thesis, mutah university, jordan. al-jamal, somayah (2013). the psycological well-being and its relationship with academic achievement and the trend towards university study of students at the univesity of tabuk, educational and psychological studies: educational fucilty in zaqazeq jornal, 28 (78), 165. alminshawy. s. )2009(. the relationship between happiness and emotional intelligence among of a sample from jordanian teenagers, unpublished master’s thesis, arabian amman university, jordan. al-nour, ahmed (2013). self-efficacy and its relationship with happiness and academic achievement, journal of the education faculty (banha university), 24 (94), 151-178. al-qubaisi, ali bin khalil bin adwan (2010). the future concern and its relationship with optimal optimism and pessimism: a field study of first level students in king khalid university, abha, unpublished doctorate thesis, umm al durman university, sudan. al-yahfoufi, najwa (2002). optimism, pessimism and its relationship with some sociodemographic variables among university students, psychology, 16 (62), 132-151. amichai-hamburger, y., & barak, a. (2009). internet and well-being. technology and psychological well-being, 34-76. argyle, m., & hills, p. (2000). religious experiences and their relations with happiness and personality. international journal for the psychology of religion, 10, 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr1003_02 https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180500299394 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr1003_02 shawaqfeh & almahaireh benzur, h. (2003). happy adolescents: the link between subjective well-being, internal resources, and parental factors. jornal of youth and adolescense, 32 (2) 2, 67-79, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021864432505 boniel-nissim, m., & sasson, h. (2018). bullying victimization and poor relationships with parents as risk factors of problematic internet use in adolescence. computers in human behavior, 88, 176-183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.041 botella, c., riva, g., gaggioli, a., wiederhold, b. k., alcaniz, m., & banos, r. m. (2012). the present and future ofpositive technologies.cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, 15(2), 78-84. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0140 brissette, i., scheier, m. f., & carver, c. s. (2002). the role of optimism in social network development, coping, and psychological adjustment during a life transition. journal of personality and social psychology, 82(1), 102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.102 brosnan, m., joiner, r., gavin, j., crook, c., maras, p., guiller, j., & scott, a. j. (2012). the impact of pathological levels of internet-related anxiety on internetusage. journal of educational computing research, 46(4), 341-356. https://doi.org/10.2190/ec.46.4.b chen, y., zhou, x., yang, g., bao, j., & wang, g. (2017). social networks as mediator in entrepreneurial optimism and new venture performance. social behavior and personality: an international journal, 45(4), 551-562.https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.5924 conner, t. s., & reid, k. a. (2012). effects of intensive mobile happiness reporting in daily life. social psychological and personality science, 3(3), 315323.https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611419677 culbert, t. (2017). perspectives on technology-assisted relaxation approaches to support mindbody skills practice in children and teens: clinical experience and commentary. children, 4(4), 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/children4040020 darawshe, rana (2014). psychological security and its relation to optimism and pessimism among of adolescents in the district of naserah, unpublished master’s thesis, yarmouk university, jordan. difonzo, n., & bordia, p. (2007). rumors influence: toward a dynamic social impact theory of rumor (doctoral dissertation, psychology press). https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021864432505 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.041 https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0140 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.102 https://doi.org/10.2190/ec.46.4.b https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.5924 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f1948550611419677 https://dx.doi.org/10.3390%2fchildren4040020 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 duffy, j., wickersham-fish, l., rademaker, l., & wetzler, b. (2018). using collaborative autoethnography to explore online doctoral mentoring: finding empathy in mentor/protégé relationships. american journal of qualitative research, 2(1), 57-76. enrique, á., bretón-lópez, j., molinari, g., baños, r. m., & botella, c. (2018). efficacy of an adaptation of the best possible self intervention implemented through positive technology: a randomized control trial. applied research in quality of life, 13(3),671689.http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11482-017-9552-5 friedlander, l. j., reid, g. j., shupak, n., &cribbie, r. (2007). social support, self-esteem, and stress as predictors of adjustment to university among first-year undergraduates. journal of college student development, 48(3), 259-274. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2007.0024 gorsy, c., & panwar, n. (2016). optimism as a correlate of happiness among working women. the international journal of indian psychology, 3(2), 20-29. http://oaji.net/articles/2016/11701459010672.pdf graham, c., & nikolova, m. (2013). does access to information technology make people happier? insights from well-being surveys from around the world. the journal of socioeconomics, 44, 126-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2013.02.025 hammodeh, mona & daki, wasemah (2015). the prevailing thinking styeles and their relationship with optimism and pessimism among students of the faculty of education qassim university, educational and psychological studies, ksa, (61), 384-359. hijazi, moustafa (2005). useless human, beirut: arab resources center. hughes, n., & burke, j. (2018). sleeping with the frenemy: how restricting ‘bedroom use’of smartphones impacts happiness and wellbeing. computers in human behavior, 85, 236-244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.047 johnson, c., & hinton, h. (2019). toward a brillant diversity. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 56-70. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/27 jenson, w. r., olympia, d., farley, m., & clark, e. (2004). positive psychology and externalizing students in a sea of negativity. psychology in the schools, 41(1), 67-79. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10139 karawi, salam and ali, saeed (2012). optimism and pessimism among students of the faculty of physical education phase iv, journal of physical education sciences, 5 (4), 93-112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11482-017-9552-5 https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2007.0024 http://oaji.net/articles/2016/1170-1459010672.pdf http://oaji.net/articles/2016/1170-1459010672.pdf https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2013.02.025 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.047 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/27 https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10139 shawaqfeh & almahaireh katalo, kamel (2015), happiness and its relation to both religiosity and life-satisfaction and love among of a sample of married university students, studies. educational sciences, 2 (42), 661679. kennedy, s. d. (2014). technowellness: a new wellness construct in the 21st century. journal of counselor leadership and advocacy, 1(2), 113-127. https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716x.2014.902759 kennedy, s. d., & baker, s. b. (2016). using the technowellness inventory (twi) to examine and apply a new wellness construct. journal of counselor leadership and advocacy, 3(1), 41-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716x.2016.1145559 khalil, afra (2009). emotional intelligence and its relation to optimism pessimism among a sample of the faculty of education and science students for girls, journal of educational and psychological research, (20), 1-33. köhn, von rüdiger (2018), retrieval date: 3/10/2018. konzerne verbünden sich gegen hacker, franffurter allgemeine, http://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/diginomics/grosseinternationale-allianz-gegen-cyber-attacken-15451953-p2.html? printpagedarticle=true#pageindex_1, maqaldeh, tamer (2014). moral thinking and its relationship with the level of optimism and pessimism among yarmouk university students, unpublished master’s thesis, yarmouk university, jordan. mitchell, m., lebow, j., uribe, r., grathouse, h., & shoger, w. (2011). internet use, happiness, social support and introversion: a more fine grained analysis of person variables and internet activity. computers in human behavior, 27(5), 1857-1861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.04.008 myers, j. e., & sweeney, t. j. (2008).wellness counseling: the evidence base for practice. journal of counseling & development, 86(4), 482-493. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.15566678.2008.tb00536.x nasaescu, e., marín-lópez, i., llorent, v. j., ortega-ruiz, r., & zych, i. (2018). abuse of technology in adolescence and its relation to social and emotional competencies, emotions in online communication, and bullying. computers in human behavior, 88, 114-120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.06.036 https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716x.2014.902759 https://doi.org/10.1080/2326716x.2016.1145559 http://www.faz.net/redaktion/ruediger-koehn-11104161.html http://www.faz.net/aktuell%20/wirtschaft/diginomics/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.04.008 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00536.x https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00536.x https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.06.036 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 145-167 navarro-haro, m. v., lópez-del-hoyo, y., campos, d., linehan, m. m., hoffman, h. g., garcíapalacios, a., ... & garcía-campayo, j. (2017). meditation experts try virtual reality mindfulness: a pilot study evaluation of the feasibility and acceptability of virtual reality to facilitate mindfulness practice in people attending a mindfulness conference. plos one, 12(11), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187777 oweidah, shaima & tannous, adel (2017). the effectiveness of counseling program based on indivisible self model in improving wellness and social interest among female patients with chronic illness in jordan, unpublished doctorate dissertation, jordan university, jordan. pomputius, a. f. (2018). mind over matter: using technology to improve wellness. medical reference services quarterly, 37(2), 177-183. https://doi.org/10.1080/02763869.2018.1439222 qaddoumi, abdel nasser (2018). optimism, quality of life and happiness among students of police, military and security sciences: a field study in positive psychology on students of the independence university in palestine, arab journal of security studies, riyadh, saudi arabia, 33 (71), 191-223. reade. r. (2005): maintaining enjoyment of life in the process of living with high cholesterol: a grounded theory study. m.a thesis, auckland university of technology. http://hdl.handle.net/10292/303 rizzo, a., reger, g., perlman, k., rothbaum, b., difede, j., mclay, r., ... & pair, j. (2008). virtual reality post traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) exposure therapy results with active duty iraq war combatants. icdvrat 2008. rozgonjuk, d., levine, j. c., hall, b. j., & elhai, j. d. (2018). the association between problematic smartphone use, depression and anxiety symptom severity, and objectively measured smartphone use over one week. computers in human behavior, 87, 10-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.019 schueller, s. m., & seligman, m. e. p. (2008). optimism and pessimism. in risk factors in depression (pp. 171-194). usa: elsevier inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-0450780.00008-3 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187777 https://doi.org/10.1080/02763869.2018.1439222 http://hdl.handle.net/10292/303 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.019 https://doi.org/%2010.1016/ shawaqfeh & almahaireh seligman, m. e. (2002). positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. handbook of positive psychology, 2, 3-12. seligman, m. e. (2006). learned optimism: how to change your mind and your life. new york, usa: vintage. seligman, m. e., & csikszentmihalyi, m. (2000). positive psychology: an introduction, american psychological association, 55 (1), 5-14. solas, e., & sutton, f. (2018). incorporating digital technology in the general education classroom. research in social sciences and technology, 3(1), 1-15. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/338 singh, j. (2009). happiness: gain and retain, viva books sivan, z. (2016). the wellbe–the world’s first stress therapy bracelet. new york, usa: kickstarter. wong, n., & mcbride, c. (2018). fun over conscience: fun-seeking tendencies in cyberbullying perpetration. computers in human behavior, 86, 319-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.009 world health organization. (1948). preamble to the constitution of the world health organization as adopted by the international health conference, new york, 19-22 june, 1946; signed on 22 july 1946 by the representatives of 61 states (official records of the world health organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 april 1948. http://www. who. int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en. pdf. world health organization. (2004). international statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (vol. 1). world health organization. young, k. s. (2004). internet addiction: a new clinical phenomenon and its consequences. american behavioral scientist, 48(4), 402-415. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764204270278 zu’bi, ahmed (2014), feeling in happy and its relation to the self-concept among a sample of damascus university students, journal of social sciences, 4 (42), 34-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.009 https://doi.org/10.1177%2f0002764204270278 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (2), 46-73 46 how could management of school environment improve organizational citizenship behaviors for the environment? (case study at schools for specifics purposes) eliana sari 1* , rekha koul 2, siti rochanah 3 , wahyu sri ambar arum 4 & iskandar muda 5 abstract organization citizenship behavior for the environment is needed in schools for specifics purposes in order to provide a safe and comfortable learning environment with the same quality of education as in regular schools. this study aims to estimate the effect of school environment, work engagement, and job satisfaction on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. the sample of this study was 306 teachers from 24 school for specifics purposes spread across 5 regions of indonesia capital, jakarta, which were taken a proportionally random sampling. this research design using structural equation modeling (sem) with seven hypotheses developed. data was collected through questionnaires with a likert scale, and processed using wrap pls 6.0 and the sobel test. the results of this study show that there are a positive effect school environment, work engagement, and job satisfaction on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. the school environment was found to have the strongest positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. the results of this study show that work engagement and job satisfaction are the important factors that must be considered in improving organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. we discuss the findings of this study and we convey the managerial implications that are beneficial for the managers of schools for specifics purposes. keywords: management the school environment, organizational citizenship behavior for the environment, the schools for specifics purposes introduction organizational citizenship behavior for the environment at schools for specifics purposes in indonesia is very much needed, because the majority of schools for specifics purposes have many shortcomings, both in terms of infrastructure and teaching staff. meanwhile, the learning process in the schools for specifics purposes requires the school environments are safe, comfortable and quality for long time period (ghavifekr and pillai, 2016). however, creating a conducive school environment for students with special needs is not easy in indonesia. the number of schools for 1 dr., faculty of education, universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia. corresponding author: elianasari@unj.ac.id 2 dr., school of education, curtin university, kent st, bentley western australia, 6102. r.koul@curtin.edu.au 3 dr., faculty of education, universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia. siti-rochanah@unj.ac.id 4 dr., faculty of education, universitas negeri jakarta, indonesia. wahyusri@unj.ac.id 5 dr., faculty of economics and business, universitas sumatera utara, indonesia. iskandar1@usu.ac.id mailto:desysafitri@unj.ac.id journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 specifics purposes are still far from the standard required by the government. the condition of infrastructure and teaching staff at schools for specifics purposes in indonesia capital, jakarta, can be seen in table 1 below table 1 data of human resource and infrastructure conditions of schools for specific purposes in indonesia capital, jakarta region number of school for specifics purposes total number of teachers total number of students total number of infrastructures public private good lightly damaged moderately damaged heavily damaged west jakarta 2 19 254 1167 79 167 0 1 central jakarta 1 6 98 470 101 6 3 2 south jakarta 3 24 428 2074 214 227 18 5 east jakarta 1 23 268 1566 124 140 12 0 north jakarta 2 6 94 512 61 29 0 2 total 9 78 1141 5789 579 569 33 10 sources: takola.pklk.kemdikbud.go.id (2018). because of these limitations, many communities in the society establishing and managing a school for specifics purposes independently. management the schools for specifics purposes independently have a lot of problems. the most common problems are limitations in infrastructure and the lack of competent and highly committed teachers. the limitations of infrastructure and teaching staff make it difficult for students to obtain special education services that are safe, comfortable and of the same quality as a regular education. learning activities tend to be less conducive to learning because of inadequate infrastructure and the difficulty in controlling student behavior. the conditions require teachers have a creative and innovative mindset to take discretionary actions in sustaining the conduciveness of the learning process voluntary. implementation of schools for specifics purposes in indonesia based on the 2013 curriculum focuses on building 18 positive characters, namely: 1) religiosity, 2) honesty, 3) tolerance, 4) discipline, 5) hard work, 6) creativity, 6) independence, 7) democratic, 9) curiosity, 10) nationalism, 11) patriotism, 12) achievement appreciation, 13) friendship, 14) love of peace, 15) fondness of reading, 16) environmental awareness, 17) social care, and 18) responsibility. the character of environmental awareness in the 2013 curriculum is intended to sari et al. ensure that students have the knowledge, awareness, and ability to develop a clean and healthy lifestyle both inside and outside the school environment (machali, 2014; rahayu, 2013). in realizing this purpose, the schools for specifics purposes need teachers who are willing to contribute to the school, ready to help students and coworkers voluntarily so that the school can develop over a longer period of time. in recent years, organizational citizenship behavior for the environment has gained alot of attention because it has a positive effect on the school environment and plays a very significant role in the success of educational organizations (selamat, samsu & kamalu, 2013; fantuzzo, leboeuf & rouse, 2014). research about organizational citizenship behavior for the environment at schools shows that teachers who have high organizational citizenship behavior for the environment will provide support and assistance to fellow teachers and students in need voluntarily, so that activities at the school can run smoothly (zeinabadi and salehi, 2011). developing organizational citizenship behavior for the environment of teachers is one of the strategic goals of school human resources management which must be done, because it can be added value for the schools. high organizational citizenship behavior for the environment encourages teachers to actively participate in various school activities and willing to give innovative suggestions for the sustainability of school activities (mahdiuon, ghahramani & rezaii, 2010; esnard and jouffre, 2008). various studies on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment use work motivation, job satisfaction, work commitment, and school environment as antecedent variables (supriyanto, 2013; zeinabadi and salehi, 2011). high organizational citizenship behavior for the environment is important for teachers in schools for specific purposes because children with special needs have conditions that are different to regular children's conditions, in terms of physical, mental, and social behavior (wang et al., 2018). children with special needs are children who have problems in the ability to think, see, hear, socialize and move. therefore, the teacher serving children with special needs must be creative in the classroom, more tolerant and volunteer to do jobs outside of their normal duties. teachers with high organizational citizenship behavior for the environment are able to provide a sense of security and comfort for students with special needs to get the same quality learning environment as regular schools over a long period of time journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 theoretical background organizational citizenship behavior for the environment organizational citizenship behavioral for the environment can be defined as discretionary behavior carried out by an individual voluntarily beyond the main task that aims to maintain the long-term survival of the organization (priyankara et al., 2018; mahdiuon, ghahramani & rezaii, 2010; pawar, 2015). organizational citizenship behavioral for the environment is a volunteer action because of the awareness to support the organization's social and psychosocial environment in maintaining the health of the organization on an ongoing basis (tosti-kharas, lamm & thomas, 2016; wang, et al., 2018). organizational citizenship behavioral for the environment is not directly recognized by the formal reward system although it supports task performance and plays a major role in maintaining and improving the smooth activities of the organization. organizational citizenship behavioral for the environment plays an important role in supporting the effectiveness and well-being of the organization (tuan, 2018). organizational citizenship behavioral for environment makes individuals willing to cooperate, be reliable and have spontaneous and innovative behavior, therefore employees who have organizational citizenship behavior for the environment should be given awards. organizational citizenship behavior for the environment is a voluntary behavior, so that employees who don't do it, can't be intimidated or punished. organizational citizenship behavior for the environment will help other people voluntarily so that organizations can develop healthier even without getting compensation. all activities of organizational citizenship behavior for the environment can improve overall organizational functions, increase productivity, ensure sustainable organizational performance and enhance the ability of organizations to adapt to changes in the environment (neves et al., 2015; podsakof et al., 2009). organizational citizenship behavior for the environment is strongly influenced by the management of the organizational environment carried out by the leader (kudryavtsev, stedman & krasny, 2012). leaders are responsible for delivering information about environment maintenance goals clearly and encourage employees to integrate environment maintenance into their work. the leader must also transform the positive values of the organization through interactive communication with its employees so that employees can accept and internalize these values into their behavior. social learning theory explains that an individual can be influenced through observation and imitation of a person's behavior. several studies show that leadership factor in organization have a significant effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the sari et al. environment, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and ethical behavior (bogler and somech, 2004). employess hope the leader of organizations are willing to identify factors that can enhance organizational citizenship behavior for the environment and incorporated into the organization's management policies (priyankara et al., 2018; gati, mukhtar, & sujanto, 2018; testa et al., 2018). this explains why various studies on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment focus on potential antecedents from organizational citizenship behavior such as personality traits (zellars and tepper, 2002; podsakof et al., 2000), employee attitudes, employee's perception of justice and various task characteristics (liu and onwuegbuzie, 2014; dussault, 2006; iiies, nahrgang & morgeson, 2007; wang et al., 2005). school environment school environments can be defined as a set of internal features that distinguish between school organizations and other organizations, which affect the behavior of all members in schools and play an important role in school activities (doppelt and schunn, 2008; khine et al., 2018). the school environment also refers to a system of values, beliefs, norms and regulations that are accepted and implemented with full awareness by all school members (bronfman et al., 2015; fu et al., 2018). moore defines the school environment as a hierarchical system with many subsystems such as school leadership, drainage, classrooms, blackboards, school complexes, sanitation, toilets, teacher rooms, sitting facilities, teaching and learning materials, leadership style of principals, monitoring and evaluation, and then community (kigenyi, kakuru & ziwa, 2017; moore, 2012). the school environment has long been understood can influence teacher self-efficacy in the classroom, teacher enthusiasm, professional development, teacher commitment, and retention (fisher, fraser & cresswell, 1995; watt, carmichael & callingham, 2017). other aspects of the school climate, such as school security and the close emotional connection between teachers and students, are also seen as important factors in understanding work engagement and performance (gage et al., 2016; yang et al., 2016). elements in the school environment such as administrative support, autonomy, and collegiality have a relationship with professionalism and a teacher's commitment to the organization (konovsky and pugh, 1994; martinez and tadeu, 2018). the organizational environment which consists of social, cultural, size and organizational structure elements influence job satisfaction. social elements such as work relationships, interactions, and relationships with colleagues. culture elements such as beliefs, attitudes, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 values, and religion. size and organizational structure elements such as organizational policy and leadership are elements of the organizational environment that affect job satisfaction (johnson and stevens, 2001; karpov, 2017; rea et. al., 2017). some elements in the school environment that are directly related to teacher satisfaction, among them are facilities for learning, school hygiene and comfort, the relationship between teacher colleagues, principals and students, tribal and socio-economic of students also influence on teacher's job satisfaction (lee and quek, 2018; okeke, 2013; ko et al., 2018; tian, cai & jiang, 2018). work engagement employee work engagement is the willingness and ability of employees to help the success of the organization by providing discretionary efforts on an ongoing basis (skaalvik and skaalvik, 2018). work engagement is a positive psychological condition of an individual related to their work, which is characterized by vigor, dedication and high absorption in work, making it difficult to escape from the work being done. according to kahn (tosti-kharas, lamm & thomas, 2016), the engagement of an individual in an organization is a dedication in the form of cognitive, emotional, and physical energy in doing duties enthusiastically and with high endurance. employee work engagement is also called commitment or motivation because it refers to consistent and fully concentrated allocation and use of resources. employees who have high work engagement will have an energetic and effective relationship to their work activities and see themselves as able to handle the demands of their work well (matteuci, guglielmi & lauermann, 2017; van den berg et al., 2018). engagement is a condition of effective fulfillment and persistent and positive motivation in a person, which is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption (cropanzano and rupp, 2014; ko, et al., 2018). vigor is high energy, resilience, ability, perseverance and willingness to invest greater effort on the job (kirkpatrick and johnson, 2014). while dedication is a strong engagement in work, enthusiasm, and a sense of pride and inspiration at work. meanwhile, absorption is described as a pleasant condition for an employee when doing work so that they cannot escape from the job; even feeling that time passes quickly (federici and skaalvik, 2011; elffers, 2013). employee work engagement is a positive attitude held by employees towards the organization and its value. work engagement takes the form of employee willingness to dedicate physical, cognitive, and emotional resources to focus on their work (esnard and jouffre, 2008). work engagement makes employees more focused, full of confidence, energized, and creative about doing extra tasks and taking on higher roles. work engagement is the emotional attitude sari et al. of the employee to his work which is influenced by the condition or the environment of the organization where he works (elffers, 2013; supriyanto, 2013; sun, aryee & law, 2007). employee work engagement in an organization will lead them to organizational citizenship behavior (basak and ghosh, 2011; sun, aryee & law, 2007). high work engagement makes employees better understand the various activities that will benefit the organization and to be willing to carry out these activities voluntarily (canrinus et al., 2012). job satisfaction almost all definitions of job satisfaction refer to locke’s (1976) concept which defines job satisfaction as a pleasant or positive emotional state of one's work or work experience (liu and onwuegbuzie, 2014; zembylas and papanastasiou, 2004). job satisfaction is an employee's emotional response to their work and the situation in which they work (guillen-gamez, mayorga-fernandez, & alvarez-garcia, 2018; suriansyah and aslamiah, 2018). job satisfaction is a reflection of a positive mood that is shown in a person's positive attitude towards work. positive moods increase the frequency of helpfulness and spontaneous prosocial behavior. positive moods and helpful behavior reinforce each other because helping others usually makes people feel happier. however, job satisfaction also depends on feelings, attitudes, and enthusiasm related to work (lavy and bocker, 2018). regarding teaching, teacher job satisfaction is defined as a series of affective reactions that explain how they feel about their work and their role (skaalvik and skaalvik, 2013; chen, 2010). teacher job satisfaction is also defined as the teacher's emotions relationship with the teaching role and the benefits of teaching (zembylas and papanastasiou, 2004). teacher job satisfaction has an important influence on students, teachers, and schools. highly satisfied teachers have more positive relationships with students and are more likely to help them achieve higher academic results (chen, 2010; rahayu et al., 2018). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 theoretical framework and hypothesis figure 1 shows a picture of theoretical framework based on theoretical background figure 1. theoretical framework note: es : school environment ss : student support sf : staff freedom pd : participation on decision making ra : resource adequacy js : job satisfaction su : supervision wc : working conditions pa : pay re : recognition wi : work it self we : work engagement vig : vigor ded : dedication abs : absorption ocbe : organizational citizenship behavior for environment alt : altruism con : conscientiousness cou : courtessy civ : civic participation sari et al. the hypotheses in this study are: 1) school environment positively effects on organizational citizenship behavior for environment; 2) work engagement positively effects on organizational citizenship behavior for environment; 3) school environment positively effects on work engagement; 4) work engagement mediates positively effects school environment and organizational citizenship behavior for environment; 5) job satisfaction positively effects on organizational citizenship behavior for environment; 6) school environment positively effects on job satisfaction; 7) job satisfaction mediates the positively affects school environment on organizational citizenship behavior for environment. methods this study aims to estimate the effects of the school environment, work engagement, and job satisfaction on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. this study uses a descriptive causal method with hypothesis testing using structural equation models (sem). data analysis techniques using wrap partial least square (pls) 6.0 for direct testing, while indirect testing is done using the sobel test. the selection of sem in this study because it has many advantages, such as flexibility in developing the model, so that researchers can make modifications in accordance with supporting theories. testing with sem can also be done comprehensively. sem is also able to overcome the problem of distribution abnormalities (with several conditions) so that even though it uses an ordinal scale to collect data about feelings and perceptions (likert scale), with several items and indicators removed or censored, sem is still able to provide accurate estimation results (hair et al., 2017). measurement of all variables is done through a questionnaire to all respondents using a likert scale. organizational citizenship behavior for the environment was collected using a questionnaire consisting of 4 indicators with 24 items, namely: 1) altruism (6 items), 2) conscientiousness (7 items), 3) courtesy (5 items) and 4) civic participation (7 items). measurement of organizational citizenship behavior for the environment is carried out using a likert scale starting from points 1 (never) to 5 (very often). organizational citizenship behavior for environment questionnaire was adapted from the concept of spector and paille (tosti-kharas, lamm & thomas, 2016; testa et al., 2018), which links researchers with adjustments to the situation of the respondent. school environment was measured using a questionnaire consisting of 4 indicators with 25 items, namely: student support (7 items), staff freedom (8 items), participation decision-making (6 items) and adequacy of resources (4 items). school environment questionnaire was adapted from the school level environmental questionnaire journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 (sleq) developed by fisher & fraser and johnson & zvoch (johnson, stevens & zvoch, 2007; johnson and stevens, 2006; aldridge, laugksch & fraser, 2006), which was later modified by researchers to adapt to the situation. job satisfaction was measured using a questionnaire consisting of 5 indicators with 27 items, namely: supervision (4 items), working conditions (7 items), salary (4 items), work itself (8 items), and recognition (4 items). job satisfaction questionnaire was adapted from the concept of lester and weiss (adil, owais & qamar, 2018; federici and skaalvik, 2011). which is then modified by researchers by adjusting to the situation of the respondent's condition. work engagement is measured using a questionnaire consisting of 3 indicators with 17 items, namely: vigor (6 items), dedication (5 items) and absorption (6 items). the job satisfaction questionnaire was adapted from the concept of the utrecht work engagement scale (utrecht) and schaufeli which were later modified by researchers (matteucci, guglielmi & lauermann, 2017; federici and skaalvik, 2011) by adjusting to the situation of the respondents. all questionnaires used to measure school environment, job satisfaction and work engagement use a likert scale starting from point 1 (disagree) to point 5 (strongly agree). the participants in this research were 306 teachers from 24 schools for specifics purposes across 5 indonesia capital, jakarta, regions whose distribution data and profiles can be seen in table 2 below. table 2 sample of research region total number of teachers total number of schools gender teaching experience (years) male female < 5 6 –15 > 15 west jakarta 56 4 11 45 7 26 23 central jakarta 39 4 8 31 8 13 18 south jakarta 113 8 29 84 12 39 62 east jakarta 60 5 14 46 10 19 31 north jakarta 38 3 7 31 5 13 20 total 306 24 69 237 42 86 178 sources: summary from researchers the data analysis technique in this study uses wrap pls 6.0 for direct testing and the sobel test for indirect testing. the use of wrap pls 6.0 because partial least square 6.0 software has many advantages, including: can simultaneously test measurement models and structural models at sari et al. once, can identify and estimate linear and non-linear relationships both for variables with reflective models and formative models. pls 6.0 can also calculate probability values, fit models, and other quality indicators can calculate the effect size and q-square as a validity coefficient and can calculate indirect effects (hair et al., 2017). several stages of testing carried out in this study include: first, testing the suitability of the research model by using the goodness of fit model (gof) which aims to examine the existence of a model that is built with data and the quality of the model under study. model suitability testing is done by using four measurements, namely average path coefficient (apc), average r-square (ars), average adjusted r-squared (aars) and average block vif (avif). the model has categorized accordingly and can be accepted if it has apc, ars and aars values <= 5 and has an avif value <= 3.3. second, testing the convergent validity of items, indicators, and variables aimed at ensuring the suitability of each item, indicator, and variable in this study. testing for convergent validity using loading factor and p-value, with criteria if the loading factor ≥ 0.4 and p-value <0.05, then the items, indicators, and variables meet convergent requirements. third, the composite reliability testing phase 1 of items and indicators, then continued with composite reliability testing stage 2 on indicators and variables. the purpose of this test is to ensure that the items, indicators and research variables that will be used can present the measurement of the concept consistently without any bias. composite reliability items, indicators, and variables are said to be reliable if they have a value of ≥ 0.6. fourth, testing hypotheses to test the relationships between variables that have a positive effect. this test uses standardized path coefficients (β) and p-value, with hypothesis criteria accepted if it has a standardized path coefficient value (β) greater than 0 and has a p-value below 0.01. fifth, testing the hypothesis of school environment variables on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment with mediating variables of job satisfaction and work engagement. this test uses the sobel test with calculator tools, with hypothesis criteria accepted if it has a standardized path coefficient (β) greater than 0 and has p-value below 0.01. results and discussion results the following are the results of testing the questionnaire data that was collected from respondents and presented in accordance with the stages of data analysis as described in the research methodology above. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 test results for the suitability of the model the model of research was tested with the goodness of fit (gof) technique, using four test sizes, namely apc, ars, aars, and avif. the test results are presented in table 3. table 3 testing of goodness of fit model statistic indices p-value criteria average path coefficient (apc) 0,373 <0,001 fit average r-squared (ars) 0,340 <0,001 fit average adjusted r-squared (aars) 0,336 <0,001 fit average block vif (avif) 1,607 acceptable /ideal source: results of wrappls 6.0 the results from table 3 about testing the goodness of fit model show that all the assessments used meet the requirements, namely apc, ars and aars have values below 5 with p values below 0.001 and avif has a value below 3. thus the model used in the research this can be accepted accordingly, ideally, and can be accepted for use in this research. test results of convergent validity on items, indicators and variables table 4 testing validity based on loading and p-value items indicators p-value ss sf pdm ra su wc pa re vig ded abs se7 0,66 <0,001 se8 0,72 <0,001 se14 0,41 <0,001 se20 0,61 <0,001 se21 0,74 <0,001 se10 0,78 <0,001 se15 0,57 <0,001 se17 0,75 <0,001 se3 0,71 <0,001 se16 0,75 <0,001 se22 0,61 <0,001 se6 0,65 <0,001 se18 0,61 <0,001 se24 0,72 <0,001 kk4 0,76 <0,001 kk5 0,80 <0,001 kk22 0,70 <0,001 kk26 0,67 0,90 <0,001 kk8 0,79 0,88 <0,001 kk9 0,78 0,88 <0,001 kk21 0,63 0,91 <0,001 kk25 0,54 <0,001 kk1 0,78 <0,001 kk6 0,56 <0,001 sari et al. kk18 0,80 <0,001 kk27 0,76 <0,001 kk7 0,63 <0,001 kk11 0,74 <0,001 kk24 0,74 <0,001 we1 0,75 <0,001 we4 0,71 <0,001 we8 0,64 <0,001 we12 0,48 <0,001 we15 0,71 <0,001 we17 0,44 <0,001 we2 0,74 <0,001 we5 0,74 <0,001 we7 0,72 <0,001 we10 0,54 <0,001 we13 0,60 <0,001 we3 0,64 <0,001 we9 0,63 <0,001 we11 0,65 <0,001 we14 0,60 <0,001 we16 0,70 <0,001 items indicators variables p-value alt con cov civ se js we ocbe ocbe1 0,75 ocbe2 0,65 <0,001 0cbe8 0,66 <0,001 ocbe11 0,72 <0,001 ocbe17 0,80 <0,001 ocbe22 0,60 <0,001 0cbe9 0,73 <0,001 ocbe13 0,62 <0,001 ocbe14 0,65 <0,001 ocbe18 0,66 <0,001 ocbe23 0,66 <0,001 ocbe25 0,60 <0,001 ocbe4 0,66 <0,001 ocbe7 0,69 <0,001 ocbe12 0,65 <0,001 ocbe15 0,61 <0,001 ocbe24 0,58 <0,001 ocbe5 0,71 <0,001 ocbe6 0,72 <0,001 ocbe10 0,58 <0,001 ocbe19 0,57 <0,001 ocbe20 0,64 <0,001 ocbe21 0,71 <0,001 indicators <0,001 ss 0,82 <0,001 sf 0,85 <0,001 pdm 0,78 <0,001 ra 0,65 <0,001 su 0.80 <0,001 wc 0.88 <0,001 pa 0,71 <0,001 re 0,73 <0,001 vig 0,89 <0,001 ded 0,89 <0,001 abs 0,83 <0,001 alt 0,90 <0,001 con 0,88 <0,001 cov 0,89 <0,001 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 civ 0,91 <0,001 source: results of warp pls 6.0 the results of table 4 about testing convergent validity based on loading factors and p-values on items, indicators and variables indicate that each factor loading value has reached above 0.4 with p-value below 0.001, thus according to the validity test convergent has been fulfilled. this result is obtained after the wi indicator is deleted, because this indicator is rated below 0.4. test results of composite reliability first order the results of reliability testing on the indicators and dimensions of the first stage are presented in table 5, as follows. table 5 composite reliability testing for first order indicators composite reliability number of indicators ss 0,769 4 sf 0,747 3 pdm 0,729 3 ra 0,699 3 su 0,826 4 wc 0,782 4 pa 0,821 4 re 0,745 3 vig 0,795 6 ded 0,802 5 abs 0,779 5 alt 0,850 6 con 0,816 6 cov 0,777 5 civ 0,818 6 sources: results of warppls 6.0 the results of table 5 about composite reliability testing first order for items and indicators show the composite reliability value of all indicators above 0.6. thus all indicators can be said to be reliable to use in this study. test results of composite reliability second order the results of reliability testing on indicators and dimensions of the second stage are presented in table 6, as follows. table 6 composite reliability testing for second order sari et al. variable composite reliability number of indicators school enviroment 0,869 4 job satisfaction 0,862 4 work engagement 0,904 3 organizational citizenship behavior for the environment 0,940 4 sources: results of warppls 6.0 the results of table 6 about the composite reliability testing second order of indicators and variables shows the composite reliability value of all variables above 0.6. therefore all variables can be said to be reliable to use in this research. test results for standardized path coefficients (β) and p-value for total effects table 7 test results for standardized path coefficients (β) and p-value for total effects variable school environment job satisfaction work engagement (β) p-value (β) p-value (β) p-value job satisfaction 0,659 < 0,001 work engagement 0,491 < 0,001 organizational citizenship behavior for enviroment 0,482 < 0,001 0,163 0,002 0,345 < 0,001 sources warppls 6.0 processed products table 8 test results of the standardized path coefficient (β) and p-value for the effect of the school environment on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment through mediating variables mediating variables (β) p-value job satisfaction 0,106 0,003 work engagement 0,167 < 0,0001 source: processed warppls 6.0 and sobel test calculator results table 7 and table 8 show the testing of standardized path coefficients (β) and p-values for the total direct effect between variables and influences between variables through mediating variables. table 7 shows that the standardized path coefficient (β) for all direct effects between variables has a value above 0 with a p-value below 0.01, meaning that all direct effects between variables can be said to have a positive effect. table 8 shows the results of testing the effect of journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 school environment on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment through mediation job satisfaction and work engagement shows the β value above 0 and p-value below 0.01. the school environment is proven to have a positive indirect effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment through job satisfaction and work engagement. in detail, tables 7 and 8 show that: 1) the school environment is proven to have a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment; 2) work engagement is proven to have a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment; 3) the school environment is proven to have a positive effect on work engagement; 4) work engagement is proven to mediate a positive effect between the school environment and organizational citizenship behavior for the environment; 5) job satisfaction is proven to have a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment; 6) the school environment is proven to have a positive effect on job satisfaction, and 7) job satisfaction mediates a positive effect between the school environment and the organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. table 9 summary of the hypothesis test results hypothesis β result h1: school environment has positive effect on ocbe h2: work engagement has a positive effect on ocbe h3: school environment has a positive effect on work engagement h4: work engagement mediates has a positive effect school environment on ocbe h5: job satisfaction has a positive effect on ocbe h6: school environment has a positive effect on job satisfaction h7: job satisfaction mediates has a positive effect school environment on ocbe 0,21*** 0,34*** 0,49*** 0,17*** 0,16** 0,66*** 0,11*** supported supported supported supported supported supported supported total effect β result school environment to ocbe 0,48*** supported note: n = 306; unstandardized path coefficients are reported *** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01 table 9 displays a summary of the results of testing all hypotheses indicating that all relationships between variables predicted to have a positive effect are proven. in detail the results of testing the validity, reliability and testing of influences between variables can be seen in figure 3 below. sari et al. figure 3. structural model figure 3 shows that all indicators of the school environment, work engagement and organizational citizenship behavior for the environment are valid and reliable, but in the job satisfaction, there was 1 indicator that was invalid and not reliable, namely the work itself indicator (wi). in addition, figure 3 also shows that the school environment proved to have a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment, work engagement and job satisfaction. work engagement and job satisfaction proved to have a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. furthermore, it is shown that the school environment is the strongest positive effect on the organizational citizenship behavior for the environment, which is equal to 0.48. discussion the results of this study indicate that estimates about positive effects of the school environment, work engagement and job satisfaction on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment were proven. school environment has the strongest positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment compared to work engagement and job satisfaction. in detail, the results of this study indicate that: 1) there are positively effects of school environment on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. it reinforces the results of research that the school environment can improve a teacher's discretionary behavior to connect more closely with students, with peer teachers, and with principals through various activities outside of their main tasks (dussault, 2006). teachers give support for student learning by providing additional journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 material in class and teaching new skills that students will need after they graduate. teachers preparing special assignments to the highest and lowest class students so that they can more easily understand the material. teachers voluntarily helping school committees, helping absent teachers by giving learning assignments to their classes, and working collaboratively with other teacher colleagues (ko et al., 2018). 2) the research findings show that work engagement has a positive effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment, in accordance with various findings that indicate that high work engagement can encourage teachers to do organizational citizenship actions for the environment higher (hudson et al., 2010). teachers who have high engagement make a variety of creative efforts to prevent student dropouts, even use innovative ways in the learning process to maximize student achievement (kirkpatrick and johnson, 2014). the teacher is also willing to cooperate with students in extracurricular activities that make students happy to be in school (wang and holcombe, 2010). 3) further findings show a positive effect of school environment on teacher's work engagement which reinforced research conducted with spanish teachers showing that a school's environment positively supports teacher's work engagement. the work engagement also made teachers want to contribute to various school activities so that the school environment becomes more positive (guglielmi et al., 2016). previous research also shows that being engaged will increase a teacher’s participation in academic and non-academic activities (elffers, 2013). 4) work engagement mediates a positive effect between school environment and organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. it is in accordance with the result of research of teacher in malaysia about the relationship between the dimension of schools environment with commitment and engagement of teachers (yusof, 2012). teachers who have high work engagement strive to make the classroom learning process more effective and interesting. the teacher will introduce new ways of learning, update presentation material that is more relevant and up to date, and modify learning models and techniques so that learning activities are more enjoyable. this finding further recommends that principals take the initiative to collaborate more with teachers in creating a positive school environment to improve job satisfaction and work engagement (ghavifekr and pillai, 2016). 5) job satisfaction has a positive effect on teacher's organizational citizenship behavior for the environment that correlates with the results that explain that teacher job satisfaction is positively related to professionalism, teacher innovation and collegiality. when teachers are satisfied, the sari et al. level of friction decreases, collegiality is increased, and job performance increases (basak and ghosh, 2011). organizational citizenship behavior for the environment directs the teacher's actions to issued extra effort to carry out administrative duties, devote more energy with innovative approaches to solving problems related to learning and then engage in many collaborative activities with students (rahayu et al., 2018). 6) another finding from this study shows the school environment has a positive effect on job satisfaction that reinforce about the domain of the school environment is a determinant of teacher job satisfaction. job dissatisfaction cause teachers to leave their positions and create a teaching crisis (liu and onwuegbuzie, 2014; sak, 2018). furthermore, teacher job satisfaction has been identified as determining teacher behavior, teacher retention, teacher commitment, teacher performance, school effectiveness and student success (chen, 2010). a similar result was reported from into the source of teachers' job satisfaction in cyprus, cina dan amerika (liu and onwuegbuzie, 2014; sak, 2018; federici and skaalvik, 2012), where teachers reported that they like to work with children, see them grow, contributing to society, and to be a professional person. 7) job satisfaction mediates a positive effect between school environment and organizational citizenship behavior for environment. it is correlates with the results that explain that components of the school environment such as class size, school learning environment, support from parents, and the availability of school resources are important factors for teachers in terms of job satisfaction (kigenyi, kakuru & ziwa, 2017; moore, 2012). the relationships with students and witnessing their emotional development are the main factors that cause teachers to feel satisfaction in carrying out their duties (lavy and bocker, 2018; chen, 2010). organizational citizenship behavior for the environment also can make teachers take more responsibilities, able to persevere, and be resilient in teaching. all of that are intended to higher student achievement, and create a good atmosphere that enables of all members schools can interaction as a big family for a long time (lauermann and konig, 2016). organizational citizenship behavior for the environment aims to make the learning process in the classroom more active, innovative, creative, effective and fun. manajerial implications in increasing the organizational citizenship behavior for the environment of teachers in schools for specifics purposes, the factors of the school environment, work engagement, and job satisfaction of teachers plays a big role that must be prioritized by school management. efforts journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 to improve organizational citizenship behavior for the environment for teachers in schools for specifics purposes should do formally and programmed. the principal should be developing programs and activities that have a direct or indirect effect on both work engagement and job satisfaction of teachers. the principals should build teachers' positive attitude through giving teachers greater trust to do their duties independently and building a conducive school environment creatively to improve organizational citizenship behavior for the environment (yang et al., 2016; van den berg et al., 2018). the principals should be motivating of teachers to work more effectively through school's policies that provide the necessary work facilities, adequate learning administration support, and facilitate teachers to develop a safe and comfortable school environment. principals must formally reward organizational citizenship behavior for the environment that teachers have done and support teacher's initiatives in maintaining the school environment. the principal should create school programs that focus on increasing teacher organizational citizenship behavior for the environment through training activities that are scheduled regularly. the principals must be able to manage organizational citizenship behavior for the environment in accordance with the vision and mission of a school for specifics purposes in creating a sustainable school environment. organizational citizenship behavior for the environment must be conducted based on the school's beliefs and values, communication between the principal and the teacher, and cooperation between all school members. the principal must be able to control the organizational citizenship behavior for the environment of the teachers so that discretionary behavior is not excessive and become counterproductive towards the vision and mission of the school environment. organizational citizenship behavior for the environment is not a culturefree action, therefore, organizational citizenship behavior for the environment is expected in accordance with the culture that exists in each school for specifics purposes. this can be facilitated by developing a meaningful vision and mission for the school organization, and by showing concern for the school environment. the vision, mission, and strategy must then be clearly communicated to the whole school community to ensure appropriate with reality. the principal can become a role model who can influence the lives and attitudes of the teachers. the principal can maximize organizational citizenship behavior for the environment of teachers by giving an example and practicing of the organizational citizenship behavior for the environment at school. principals should try to make organizational citizenship behavior for the environment a lifestyle factor for all school residents by building awareness, sari et al. care, and a sense of responsibility to create a sustainable school environment (sari, 2016). organizational citizenship behavior for the environment can be conducted based on the principles: first, it must be voluntary, so it does not always have to be a role or part of a formal task; second, can provide broad benefits from an organizational perspective; third, it should be multidimensional and include aspects of curriculum implementation and student development (bogler and somech, 2004; podsakof et al., 2000). the principal must be able to encourage teachers to integrate all the components related to the school environment into each learning activities and shape it as a potential way to express and negotiate opportunities that lead to high organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. the principal should engage parents and school committees to improve organizational citizenship behavior for the environment with maintaining school environment sustainability. principals are advised to implement shared leadership in decision making and communicate regularly and effectively with teachers. in managing a sustainable school environment in school for specifics purposes, principals must choose the right strategy to empower teachers through collaboration, providing opportunities to improve their profession and encourage engagement that can produce reliable and responsible teacher. effective supervision of activities in maintaining the school environment and the enforcement of regulations from a violation in schools is the responsibility of the principal (clark, kotchen & moore, 2003). conclusions this research was conducted in schools for specifics purposes in indonesia capital, jakarta. this research shows that school environment, work engagement, and job satisfaction have positive effects on a teacher's organizational citizenship behaviors for the environment. school environment has the strongest effect on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment. the research findings show that all indicators are confirmed valid and reliable for each of the variables, except the indicator of the work itself, which it is not valid and not reliable of the job satisfaction variable. efforts to improve organizational citizenship behavior for the environment of teachers will be more effective through the right management of the school environment. strategy of the school environment management can do by optimizing student support, giving teachers the freedom to creative and innovate, involving teachers in school decision making process and providing adequate school infrastructure. teachers' organizational citizenship behavior for the environment can also be improved through more effective academic supervision activities, creating conducive conditions for work, making fair and competitive payment systems journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 and providing recognition to outstanding teachers. efforts to increase organizational citizenship behavior for the environment of teachers can also be conducted through work engagement and job satisfaction of teachers. teachers should be given greater freedom, trust and opportunity to be more independent and innovative in conducting learning activities in the classroom. freedom to innovate will make teachers more enthusiastic and dedicated in carrying out their duties. the process of sustainable school environment management for the schools for specifics purposes should focus more on making policies, program structures and school activities that are more flexible, participatory, creative and innovative by still referring to the school's vision, mission, and culture. improvements of the quality of school environment management will automatically improve the organizational citizenship behavior for the environment of teachers. teacher who have high organizational citizenship behavior for the environment will determine the success of school for specifics purposes in providing a safe and comfortable learning environment with the same quality education process as regular schools. sari et al. references adil, m.s., owais, m. & qamar, a. (2018). impact of occupational stress, interpersonal trust, and organizational commitment on valence, ocb and job satisfaction: a variance-based sem analysis. journal of management sciences, 5(1). 38–61, retrieved from: https://geistscience.com/papers/jms/5/1 aldridge, j.m., laugksch, r.c. & fraser, b.j. (2006). school-level environment and outcomesbased education in south africa. learning environments research,9(2), 123–147, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10984-006-9009-5. basak, r. & ghosh, a. (2011). school environment and locus of control in relation to job satisfaction among school teachersa study from indian perspective. procediasocial behavior sciences,29(1). 1199–1208, retrieved from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/s1877042811028151. bogler, r. & somech. (2004). a. influence of teacher empowerment on teachers ’organizational commitment, professional commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in schools. teaching and teacher education, 20(3). 277-289. retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222396910_influence_of_teacher_empowermen t_on_teachers%27_organizational_commitment_professional_commitment_and_organi zational_citizenship_behavior_in_schools bronfman, n.c., cisternas, p.c., lópez-vázquez, e., maza, c. de. & oyanedel, j.c. (2015). understanding attitudes and pro-environmental behaviors in a chilean community. sustainability,7(10), 14133–14152, retrieved from: http://www.mdpi.com/20711050/7/10/14133 canrinus, e.t., helms-lorenz, m., beijaard, d., buitink, j. & hofman, a. (2012). self-efficacy, job satisfaction, motivation and commitment: exploring the relationships between indicators of teachers’ professional identity. european journal of psychology education, 27(1), 115– 132, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10212-011-0069-2. chen, j. (2010). chinese middle school teacher job satisfaction and its relationships with teacher moving. asia pacific education review,11(3), 263–272, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12564-010-9085-1. clark, c.f., kotchen, m.j. & moore, m.r. (2003).internal and external influences on proenvironmental behavior : participation in a green electricity program. journal of environmental psycholology, 23(3), 237–246, retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0272494402001056. cropanzano, r. & rupp, d.e. (2003). the relationship of emotional exhaustion to job performance ratings and organizational citizenship behavior the relationship of emotional exhaustion to work attitudes , job performance , and organizational citizenship behaviors. journal of applied psychology, 88(1), 160–169, retrieved from:https://www.researchgate.net/profile/russell_cropanzano/publication/10822964_ doppelt, y. & schunn, c.d. (2008). identifying students’ perceptions of the important classroom features affecting learning aspects of a design-based learning environment. learning environments research, 11(3), 195–209, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10984-008-9047-2. dussault, m. (2006). teachers’ self-efficacy and organizational citizenship behaviors, psychological reports, 98(2), 427–432, retrieved from: http//:journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2466/pr0.98.2.427-432. https://geistscience.com/papers/jms/5/1 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10984-006-9009-5 https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/s1877042811028151 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222396910_influence_of_teacher_empowerment_on_teachers%27_organizational_commitment_professional_commitment_and_organizational_citizenship_behavior_in_schools https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222396910_influence_of_teacher_empowerment_on_teachers%27_organizational_commitment_professional_commitment_and_organizational_citizenship_behavior_in_schools https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222396910_influence_of_teacher_empowerment_on_teachers%27_organizational_commitment_professional_commitment_and_organizational_citizenship_behavior_in_schools http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/10/14133 http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/10/14133 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10212-011-0069-2 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12564-010-9085-1 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s0272494402001056 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/russell_cropanzano/publication/10822964_the_relationship_of_emotional_exhaustion_to_job_performance_ratings_and_organizational_citizenship_behavior/links/00b49533aedc5e63d5000000 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10984-008-9047-2 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 elffers, l. (2013). staying on track: behavioral engagement of at-risk and non-at-risk students in post-secondary vocational education. european journal of psychology of education, 28(2) , 545–562, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10212-012-0128-3 esnard, c. & jouffre, .s. (2008).organizational citizenship behavior : social valorization among pupils and the effect on teachers ’ judgments. european journal of psychology of education, 23(3), 255–274, retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/bf03172999. fantuzzo, j.w., leboeuf, w.a. & rouse, h.l. (2014). an investigation of the relations between school concentrations of student risk factors and student educational well-being. educational researcher, 43(1), 25–36, retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/stoken/rbtfl/nehwph3kvvhau/full federici, r.a. & skaalvik, e.m. (2011). principal self-efficacy and work engagement: assessing a norwegian principal self-efficacy scale. social psychology of education, 14(4), 576600, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11218-011-9160-4. fisher, d.l. & fraser, b.j. (2003). emergence of learning environment research in south africa: editors’ introduction.learning environments research, 6 (3) 229–230, retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2fa%3a1027391819710 fisher, d., fraser, b. & cresswell, j. (1995). using the " questionnaire on teacher interaction in the professional development of teachers australian journal of teacher education, 20(1). 8–18, retrieved from: https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://id.search.yahoo.com/&httpsredir= 1&article=1269&context=ajte gage, n.a., larson, a., sugai, g.& chafouleas, s.m. (2016). student perceptions of school climate as predictors of office discipline referrals. american education research journal, 20(1). 1–24, retrieved from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/0002831216637349. gati, k., mukhtar, m. & sujanto, b. (2018). the influence of self efficacy, job satisfaction and organizational commitment toward organizational citizenship behavior (ocb) of teachers of private vocational schools in south jakarta. international journal scientific research and managemet, 6(1). 406–414, retrieved from: https://ijsrm.in/index.php/ijsrm/article/view/1527 ghavifekr, s. & pillai, n.s. (2016).the relationship between school’s organizational climate and teacher’s job satisfaction: malaysian experience. asia pacific education review, 17(1). 87– 106, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12564-015-9411-8. guglielmi, d., bruni, i., simbula, s., fraccaroli, f.& depolo, m. (2016). what drives teacher engagement: a study of different age cohorts. european journal of psychology of education, 31(3),323–340, retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs10212-015-0263-8 guillén-gámez, f.d., mayorga-fernández, m.j. &álvarez-garcía, f.j. (2018). a study on the actual use of digital competence in the practicum of education degree. technology, knowledge and learning, 23(2), 1–18, retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10758-018-9390-z hair, j. f., hult, g. t. m., ringle, c. m., and sarstedt, m. (2017). a primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (pls-sem), 2^nd^ ed., sage: thousand oaks, retrieved from: https://www.smartpls.com/documentation/literature/books hudson, p., usak, m., fančovičová, j., erdoǧan, m. & prokop, p. (2010). preservice teachers’ memories of their secondary science education experiences. journal of science education and technology, 19(6), 546–552, retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs10956-010-9221-z http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10212-012-0128-3 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/bf03172999 https://journals.sagepub.com/stoken/rbtfl/nehwph3kvvhau/full https://link.springer.com/journal/11218 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11218-011-9160-4 https://link.springer.com/journal/10984 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2fa%3a1027391819710 https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://id.search.yahoo.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1269&context=ajte https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://id.search.yahoo.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1269&context=ajte http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/0002831216637349 https://ijsrm.in/index.php/ijsrm/article/view/1527 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12564-015-9411-8 https://link.springer.com/journal/10212 https://link.springer.com/journal/10212 https://link.springer.com/journal/10758 https://link.springer.com/journal/10758 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10758-018-9390-z http://www.pls-sem.com/ http://www.pls-sem.com/ https://link.springer.com/journal/10956 https://link.springer.com/journal/10956 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs10956-010-9221-z sari et al. ilies, r., nahrgang, j.d. & morgeson, f.p. (2007). leader-member exchange and citizenship behaviors: a meta-analysis. journal of applied psychology,92(1). 269–277, retrieved from: https://psycnet.apa.org/doilanding?doi=10.1037%2f0021-9010.92.1.269. johnson, b., stevens, j.j. & zvoch, k. (2007). teachers' perceptions of school climate: a validity study of scores from the revised school level environment questionnaire. educational and psychological measurement, 67(5), 833-844, retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0013164406299102 johnson, b. & stevens, j.j. (2006). student achievement and elementary teachers’ perceptions of school climate. learning environments research, 9(2). 111–122, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10984-006-9007-7. karpov, a.o.(2017). education for knowledge society: learning and scientific innovation environment. journal of social studies education research, 8(3), 201-214, http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/211/204 khine, m.s., fraser, b.j., afari, e., oo, z.& kyaw, t.t. (2018). students’ perceptions of the learning environment in tertiary science classrooms in myanmar. learning environments research, 21(1), 135–152, retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs10984-017-9250-0 kigenyi, e.m., kakuru, d. & ziwa, g.(2017). school environment and performance of public primary school teachers in uganda. international journal of technology and management, 2(1), 1–14, retrieved from: https://ijotm.utamu.ac.ug/index.php/ijotm/article/view/26 kirkpatrick, c.l. & johnson, s.m. (2014).ensuring the ongoing engagement of second-stage teachers. journal of educational change, 15(3), 231–252, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10833-014-9231-3. ko, s-h., choi, y., rhee, s-y. & moon, t.w.(2018). social capital and organizational citizenship behavior : double-mediation of emotional regulation and job engagement. sustainability, 10 (3600), 1–15, retrieved from: https://www.mdpi.com/search?q konovsky, m. a. & pugh, s.d. (1994). citizenship behavior and social exchange. the academy of management journal, 37(3), 656–669, retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/256704?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents kudryavtsev, a., stedman, r.c. & krasny, m.e. (2012). sense of place in environmental education. enviromental education research,18(2), 229–250, retrieved from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/citedby/10.1080/13504622.2011.609615?scroll=top&nee daccess=true lauermann, f.& könig, j. (2016). teachers’ professional competence and wellbeing: understanding the links between general pedagogical knowledge, self-efficacy and burnout. learning and instruction45(2), 9–19, retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0959475216300639?via%3dihub lavy, s.and bocker, s. (2018). path to teacher happiness? a sense of meaning affects teacher–student relationships, which affect job satisfaction. journal of happiness studies, 19(5), 1485–1503, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10902-0179883-9. lee, p.m.j. & quek, c.l. (2018). preschool teachers’ perceptions of school learning environment and job satisfaction. learning environments research, 21(3), 369-386, retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10984-017-9256-7#citeas liu, s. & onwuegbuzie, a.j. (2014). teachers’ motivation for entering the teaching profession and their job satisfaction: a cross-cultural comparison of china and other countries. learning environments research, 17(1), 75–94, retrieved from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10984-013-9155-5. https://psycnet.apa.org/doilanding?doi=10.1037%2f0021-9010.92.1.269 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0013164406299102 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10984-006-9007-7 http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/211/204 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs10984-017-9250-0 https://ijotm.utamu.ac.ug/index.php/ijotm/article/view/26 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10833-014-9231-3 https://www.jstor.org/stable/256704?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0959475216300639?via%3dihub http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10902-017-9883-9 http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10902-017-9883-9 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10984-017-9256-7#citeas http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10984-013-9155-5 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 machali, i. (2014). 2013 curriculum change policy in welcoming indonesia gold in 2045. journal of islamic education, 3(1), 71-94, retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280902180_kebijakan_perubahan_kurikulum_2 013_dalam_menyongsong_indonesia_emas_tahun_2045 mahdiuon, r., ghahramanib, m. & sharif, a. r. (2010). explanation of organizational citizenship behavior with personality. procedia social and behavioral sciences,5(2), 178– 184, retrieved from: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82225116.pdf martinez, i., & tadeu, p. (2018). the impact of pedagogical leadership on pedagogical coordination in secondary schools. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 1-15. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/373 matteucci, m.c., guglielmi, d. & lauermann, f. (2017). teachers’ sense of responsibility for educational outcomes and its associations with teachers’ instructional approaches and professional wellbeing. social psychologyof education, 20(2), 275–298, retrieved https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs11218-017-9369-y moore, c.m. (2012). the role of school environment in teacher dissatisfaction among u. s public school teachers. sage open, 2(1), 1–16, retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2158244012438888# neves, c. p., paixao. r, alarcao. m. & gomes, a.d. (2014). organizational citizenship behavior in schools : validation of a questionnaire. the spanish journal of psychology, 17(e17), 1-8,retrieved from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/spanish-journal-ofpsychology/article/organizational-citizenship-behavior-in-schools-validation-of-aquestionnaire/ae4fe0e4af65997787f1286569d0186b okeke, f.n. (2013). management of facilities in the classroom. journal of emerging trends in educational researchand policy studies4(1), 100–104, retrieved from: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.301.7759&rep=rep1&type=pdf paillé, p., raineri, n. & boiral, o. (2017). environmental behavior on and off the job : a configurational approach. journal of business ethics, 146, 1-16. retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs10551-017-3758-1#citeas pawar, b.s. (2015). some features of organizational behavior knowledge and the resulting issues in teaching organizational behavior. the international journal management of education, 13(3), 289–301, retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/s1472811715000373?via%3dihub podsakoff, p.m., mackenzie, s.b., paine, j.b. & bachrach, d.g. (2000). organizational citizenship behaviors : a critical review of the theoretical and future research. journal of management, 26(3), 513–563, retrieved from: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.458.7073&rep=rep1&type=pdf podsakoff, n.p., whiting, s.w., podsakoff, p.m. & blume, b.d. (2009). individualand organizational-level consequences of organizational citizenship behaviors: a metaanalysis. journal of applied psychology, 94(1), 122–141, retrieved from: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-00697-003 priyankara. h.p.r., luo. f., saeed. a., nubuor. s.a., jayasuria. m.p.f., (2018). how does leader’s support for environment promnubuorote organizational citizenship behaviour for environment ? a multi-theory perspective. sustainability, 10(1), 1-20, retrieved from: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/1/271/htm rahayu, s.m. (2013). meeting the rights of children with special needs for early childhood through inclusive education. journal educators child, 2(1). 355–363, retrieved from: https://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/jpa/article/view/3048. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82225116.pdf http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/373 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2fs11218-017-9369-y https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2158244012438888 https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/spanish-journal-of-psychology/article/organizational-citizenship-behavior-in-schools-validation-of-a-questionnaire/ae4fe0e4af65997787f1286569d0186b https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/spanish-journal-of-psychology/article/organizational-citizenship-behavior-in-schools-validation-of-a-questionnaire/ae4fe0e4af65997787f1286569d0186b https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/spanish-journal-of-psychology/article/organizational-citizenship-behavior-in-schools-validation-of-a-questionnaire/ae4fe0e4af65997787f1286569d0186b http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.301.7759&rep=rep1&type=pdf http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.458.7073&rep=rep1&type=pdf https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-00697-003 https://journal.uny.ac.id/index.php/jpa/article/view/3048 sari et al. rahayu, s., ulfatin, n., wiyono, b.b., imron, a. & wajdi, m.b.n. (2018). the professional competency teachers mediate the influence of teacher innovation and emotional intelligence on school security. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 210227, retrieved from: http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/266/259 rea, d. c., carter, c. f., parfitt, c. m., wilkerson, j. r., & valesky, t. c. (2017). using dispositional surveys to improve individual and program quality in educational leadership. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(2), 81-87. sak, r. (2018). gender differences in turkish early childhood teachers’ job satisfaction, job burnout and organizational cynicism. early chilhood education journal, 46(6). 643–653, retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10643-018-0895-9. sari. e., (2016). information system in educational environments management influences against the student motivation on public universities in jakarta, indonesia. international journal of scientific & technology research, 5(9), 93-98, retrieved from: http://www.ijstr.org/paper-references.php?ref=ijstr-0916-15284 selamat, n., samsu, n.z. & kamalu, n.s.m. (2013). the impact of organizational climate on teachers’ job performance. educational research,2(1). 71–82, retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271049648_the_impact_of_organizational_clim ate_on_teachers'_job_performance. skaalvik, e.m. & skaalvik, s. (2013). teachers ’ perceptions of the school goal structure : relations with teachers’ goal orientations, work engagement, and job satisfaction. international journal of educational research, 62(3), 199–209, retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/international-journal-of-educational-research skaalvik, e.m. & skaalvik, s. (2018). job demands and job resources as predictors of teacher motivation and well-being. social psychology of education, 21(5). 1251–1275, retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11218-018-9464-8. sun, l-y., aryee, s. & law, k.s. (2007). high-performance human resource practices, citizenship behavior, and organizational performance : a relational perspective. academyof management journal,50(2). 558–577, retrieved from: https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/amj.2007.25525821?journalcode=amj supriyanto, a. (2013). role of procedural justice, organizational commitment and job satisfaction on job performance: the mediating effects of organizational citizenship behavior. international journal of business and management, 8(15), 57–67, retrieved from: http://ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijbm/article/view/26939. suriansyah, a. & aslamiah. (2018). teacher’s job satisfaction on elementary school: relation to learning environment. open psychology journal, 11, 123–130, retrieved from: http://benthamopen.com/fulltext/topsyj-11-123. testa, f., corsini, f., gusmerotti, n.m. & iraldo, f. (2018). predictors of organizational citizenship behavior in relation to environmental and health & safety issues. international journalof human resource management, 3(1), 1–34, retrieved from: https://www.iris.sssup.it/handle/11382/520474?_ tian, g., cai, h. & jiang, y. (2018). a study of the effects of organizational support on organizational learning based on knowledge management. eurasia journal mathematics, science technology education, 14(5), 1979–1986, retrieved from: http://www.ejmste.com/a-study-of-the-effects-of-organizational-support-onorganizational-learning-based,83652,0,2.html tosti-kharas, j., lamm, e. & thomas, t.e. (2016). organization or environment? disentangling employees ’ rationales behind organizational citizenship behavior for the http://www.jsser.org/index.php/jsser/article/view/266/259 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10643-018-0895-9 http://www.ijstr.org/paper-references.php?ref=ijstr-0916-15284 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271049648_the_impact_of_organizational_climate_on_teachers'_job_performance https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271049648_the_impact_of_organizational_climate_on_teachers'_job_performance https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11218-018-9464-8 https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/amj.2007.25525821?journalcode=amj http://ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijbm/article/view/26939 http://benthamopen.com/fulltext/topsyj-11-123 https://www.iris.sssup.it/handle/11382/520474?_ga=2.63274543.1676641038.1551271560-876650091.1551271560#.xhahvnaa_iu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (2), 46-73 environment. organization &environment, 30(3) 187–210, retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1086026616668381?journalcode=oaec tuan, l.t. (2018). activating tourists’ citizenship behavior for the environment: the roles of csr and frontline employees’ citizenship behavior for the environment. journal of sustainable tourism, 26(7), 1178–1203, retrieved from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2017.1330337 wang, g., he, q., xia, b., meng, x. & wu, p. (2018).impact of institutional pressures on organizational citizenship behaviors for the environment : evidence from megaprojects. journal of management in engineering, 34(5), 1–11, retrieved from: https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/(asce)me.1943-5479.0000628. wang, h., law, k.s., hackett, r.d., wang, d.&chen, z. x.(2005). leader-member exchange as a mediator of the relationship between transformational leadership and followers' performance and organizational citizenship behavior, the academy of management journal, 48(3), 420–432, retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20159668. wang, m.t. & holcombe, r. (2010). adolescents’ perceptions of school environment, engagement, and academic achievement in middle school, american educational research journal, 47(3), 633–662, retrieved from:http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/0002831209361209. watt, h.m.g., carmichael, c. & callingham, r. (2017). students’ engagement profiles in mathematics according to learning environment dimensions: developing an evidence base for best practice in mathematics education. school psychology international, 38(2), 166– 183, retrieved from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0143034316688373. yang, g., badri, m., rashedi, a.a., almazroui, k., qalyaubi, r. & nai, p. (2016). the effects of classroom and school environments on student engagement : the case of high school students in abu dhabi public schools. comparative: a journal of comparative and international education, 47(2), 223–239, retrieved from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03057925.2016.1230833 yusof, n. (2012). school climate and teachers’ commitment: a case study of malaysia. international journal of economics business and management studies, 1(2), 65-75, retrieved from: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2151470 zeinabadi, h. & salehi, k. (2011). role of procedural justice, trust, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment in organizational citizenship behavior (oc ) of teachers : proposing a modified social exchange model. procedia social behavioral sciences, 29(1), 1472-1481, retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.38729. zellars, k.l. & tepper, b.j. (2002). abusive supervision and subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior. journal of applied psychology, 87(6), 1068–1076, retrieved from: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/apl-8761068.pdf zembylas, m. & papanastasiou, e. (2004). job satisfaction among school teachers in cyprus. journal of educational administration, 42(3), 357–374, retrieved from: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/10.1108/09578230410534676.. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1086026616668381?journalcode=oaec https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2017.1330337 https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/(asce)me.1943-5479.0000628 http://www.jstor.org/stable/20159668 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/0002831209361209 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0143034316688373 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03057925.2016.1230833 https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/absbyauth.cfm?per_id=1901624 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.38729. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/10.1108/09578230410534676 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 288-314 288 formation of sociocultural competence among foreign students alyona ivygina1, evgeniya pupysheva2 and dinara mukhametshina3 abstract the objective of the current study is to experimentally test the pedagogical conditions aimed at ensuring the efficient formation of sociocultural competence in foreign students by using local history texts in the lessons of russian as a foreign language (rfl). the efficiency of the formation of sociocultural competence by including linguistic and local history information was revealed by means of an experiment using the methods of observing students during the educational process, questionnaires, testing and conversations between students and teachers. the results of the experiment conducted in two groups, a control group (cg) and an experimental group (eg), show that the inclusion of local history texts in the process of studying russian as a foreign language significantly increases students' interest in intercultural contacts, develops respect for the customs of another culture, fluent speech, deepens the knowledge of norms and values of one's native culture and other cultures. it was revealed that after conducting the experiment, the number of students with an advanced level of language proficiency in the experimental group increased from 8.8% to 23.5%, while in the control group it decreased from 11.8% to 8.8%. the results obtained during the experimental work make it possible to conclude that the level of sociocultural competence in the experimental group, consisting of preparatory course students who were trained with the use of local history texts, is higher by all the components than in the control group of students who studied russian without using local history texts. these results are indicative of the positive experience of the formation of linguistic competence as part of sociocultural competence in the lessons of russian as a foreign language at the yelabuga institute of kazan federal university and the possibility of its further use. key words: russian as a foreign language, sociocultural competence, cultural and linguistic competence, linguistic and local history competence, local history. introduction the most important goal of teaching a foreign language is the formation of communicative competence (billig, 1997), which includes both linguistic and sociocultural competence, because 1 phd in philology, assoc. prof., department of russian language and literature, yelabuga institute of kazan federal university, russia, linguistika@mail.ru 2 phd in pedagogical, assoc. prof., department of russian language and literature, yelabuga institute of kazan federal university, russia, evpupysheva@yandex.ru 3 assistant, department of russian language and literature, yelabuga institute of kazan federal university, russia, nurievadinara@yandex.ru mailto:linguistika@mail.ru mailto:evpupysheva@yandex.ru mailto:nurievadinara@yandex.ru journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 communicative competence cannot be formed without the knowledge of the sociocultural characteristics of the country of the studied language. having initially emerged in the works of n. chomcky, the notion of "communicative competence" initially received the following definition: "... mental representations of language rules acting as the internal grammar of an ideal speaker and a listener" (chomcky, 2002). over time, it was expanded and differentiated. the elements of communicative competence, which implies the ability of people to "understand, generate foreign language expressions in a variety of socially determined situations, taking into account the linguistic and social rules, that native speakers adhere to" (galskova, 2003), include linguistic (language), sociolinguistic, pragmatic, sociocultural and strategic competence (shatunova et al., 2019). the term "sociocultural competence" in russian methodological science emerged in connection with the works of van dyck and the "council of europe on cultural cooperation", according to which the examined term is defined as "the ability to interact adequately in situations of everyday life, to establish and maintain social contacts using a foreign language" (muraveva, 2011). the problem of forming sociocultural competence, in particular, of students who study a foreign language, the methods used to solve it, attracted the attention of many scientists. the works of n.g. bragina (bragina, 2013), yu. e. prokhorov (prokhorov, 2017) et al. are devoted to studying sociocultural stereotypes; the questions of the interaction of language and culture are covered in the works of e. m. vereshchagin, v.g. kostomarov (e.m. vereshchagin, v.g. kostomarov, 2005) v.i. karasik (karasik, 2002), et al.;the works of a group of foreign scientists led by a spanish researcher m. celce-murcia (celce-murcia, 1995) are devoted to the study of the structure and content of sociocultural competence, as well as the issues of its formation. the cultural component is the determining factor in order to form sociocultural competence, since it is responsible for the perception and mastering of foreign language culture. it is not by chance that the researcher s.g. ter-minasova calls a foreign language lesson a crossroads of cultures. continuing this idea in her textbook "languages and intercultural communication", she expresses the idea regarding the need to learn a new language inextricably from the world and the culture of the people who speak it (ter-minasova, 2008). foreign students, studying the russian language, are faced with moments that can later lead not only to problems with the mastering of the language, but also cause difficulties in adaptation. ivygina et al. linguistic and cultural competence is designed to facilitate and accelerate the process of the adaptation of a foreign speaker in new cultural and linguistic conditions. i.n. savchenkova states that "the comprehension of russian culture by foreigners studying in russia occurs through the prism of "local color", expressed in the cultural and historical identity of the region where the educational institution is located ..." (savchenkova, 2012). the method of incorporating local texts, through which a foreign speaker gets acquainted with the cultural heritage of a particular region, will not only create a situation of a dialogue between two different cultures, but will also facilitate the fastest familiarization of students to the culture and traditions of russia, which will help to shape the idea of the russian mentality, without which it is impossible nowadays to fully master the russian language. therefore, it is quite important for the formation of sociocultural competence to use various forms and methods for introducing regional and cultural information. kostomarov and vereshchagin (1990), akishina (2002), kulibina (1987), zavadskaya and yudina (2012) and a number of other russian scientists underline an important role of linguistics and local history in classes for learning russian as a foreign language in their studies. the inclusion of local history material that reflects the realities of national life and represents the cultural heritage captured in folklore and works of outstanding writers is one of the most important conditions for the most successful mastering the russian language by a foreign student in rfl classes. the important role of using local history in rfl classes is marked in scientific articles by such scientists as otmenitova (1996), nekipelova (2001), anisimova (2015), basharova and farhetdinova (2008), shalkevich (2002), etc. the key role of culture in language teaching is highlighted in the studies by foreign scientists such as byram (1989), collings (2007), broger (1992), hyde (1998), kaikkonen (2001), kramsh (1993), etc. for instance, cross, referring to culture as a collective experience of a group of people, which includes their thoughts, feelings, values, behavior, communication and interpretation of sensory stimuli, notes that living in a culture environment is probably the best way to realize the problems and difficulties of intercultural communication (addai-mununkum, 2019; cross, 2000; strunc, 2018). therefore, immersion of a foreign student into the language environment can be a prerequisite for better language acquisition through cultural values and categories and the formation of intercultural competence. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 in his turn, byram considers intercultural competence as a hierarchical structure, which also includes a sociocultural component, involving the ability to gain new knowledge about a foreign culture and the ability to operate with knowledge, skills, and relations in real intercultural communication practice (byram, 1997). according to sandra j. savignon, "culture is recognized as instrumental in shaping speakers’ communicative competence, in both their first and subsequent languages". she considers the model of studying language and culture within the framework of a wider historical spectrum of methods or approaches to teaching a language, drawing attention to the fact that multicultural education should primarily represent the variability of cultures of both a country, a region, a city of a studied language, as well as represent a native country's culture. this contributes to the formation of ideas about the diversity of cultures as the norm of coexistence and mutual development of cultures in modern multicultural communities among students (savignon, 2002). kramsh draws attention to the relationship between language and the context in which it is used, emphasizing: a) the culture of texts, including oral and written ones; b) the attitude of students to these texts; c) the culture of a group of students in which the relationship between a teacher and students takes place (kramsch, 1998). in recent years, the teachers of yelabuga institute of kfu have also been closely studying issues related to the training of foreign citizens and their most comfortable immersion into the new language environment. in particular, zakirova et al. note that "most of the foreign undergraduate students of yelabuga institute of kazan federal university do not possess common cultural and professional competences, what indicates a low level of adaptedness of students in a social and educational environment of a small city" (zakirova et al., 2017). kazakova and shastina, studying the issue of the impact of sociocultural differences on the formation of students' internal motivation, conclude that "foreign students coming to study from different countries (uzbekistan, tadzhikistan, and turkmenistan) tend to experience mental and even physical discomfort, which strengthens their general belief in achieving their goal" (kazakova & shastina, 2019; girdzijauskaite et al., 2019; trofimova et al., 2019; grakhova et al., 2019; kosorukov and maksimov, 2016). in this article, we turn our close attention to the consideration of the sociocultural competence, which, undoubtedly, being the key competence in studying any subject area, acquires particular importance in teaching language to a non-native speaker learner, since the teaching of russian as ivygina et al. a foreign language at a university is intended to realize the interconnected communicative, cognitive, and sociocultural development of students by linguistic means. mastering the sociocultural competence by foreign students should form certain sociocultural knowledge, abilities, and skills (hereinafter referred to as kas). the sociocultural competence maturity implies mastering the following kas: the knowledge of sociocultural types including the regional one; the knowledge of key term meanings that reveal the content of the sociocultural competence; the ability to perceive an unfamiliar culture, to understand the specifics of its bearers' worldview, to communicate with its representatives; the ability to perceive and understand sociocultural features and respect the sociocultural diversity of the foreign language culture under study and its representatives. thus, the purpose of this paper is to carry out an experimental study of pedagogical conditions aimed at revealing the effectiveness of using local history texts and its possible impact on the level of formation of linguistic competence as part of sociocultural competence in the foreign student audience of the yelabuga institute of kazan federal university (hereinafter referred to as yei kfu). despite the great interest in the culture-oriented linguistic component of teaching rfl in scientific and methodological literature, there remains a need to create educational materials on local material in each region of russia (dominova, 2013). this is caused not only by methodical necessity but also by the state policy in the field of education. state educational standards of higher vocational education, denoting levels of proficiency in foreign languages, provide linguistic and cultural knowledge and linguistic and local history knowledge, including the idea of the main stages of the country's history of the language being studied, cultural monuments preserved on its territory, linguistic realities associated with the most important historical events, cultural-historical and social associations (order, 2018). methods research design to solve the tasks of the study, the following methods were used: – theoretical methods of research: analysis of psychological, pedagogical, and sociological literature; synthesis, involving the comprehensive examination and study of the development of sociocultural competence on the basis of sociocultural (safonova, 1992; ter-minasova, 2008; byram, 1989, etc.) and culture-oriented linguistic approach (vereshchagin, & kostomarov, 1990, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 etc.) in order to determine the content and specifics of the formation of sociocultural competence in foreign students; – empirical methods: questionnaires, developed by soikina (2003), pakhotina (2014), gerasimova (2001), which allowed identifying 4 levels of formation of sociocultural competence (advanced, high, intermediate, and low) on the basis of three components: motivational as a leading characteristic of cognitive activity, cognitive, and axiological. the choice of these components is determined by the structure of sociocultural competence and correlates with the structural parts conventionally distinguished in it: linguistic and cultural, sociolinguistic, and socio-psychological (pakhotina, 2014; ter-minasova, 2008; frolova et al., 2019); – specially developed and adapted authentic texts with tasks, containing country-specific information on the republic of tatarstan, its cultural constituent and historical heritage. the content of texts, including specially developed tasks of subtests "reading", "listening", "speaking", "writing", is aimed at specifying the content of techniques of formation of linguistic and local history competence as part of sociocultural competence in foreign students in the regional conditions on the basis of yei kfu. participants the study participants were 68 turkmen students from the preparatory department of the yei kfu at the age of 18 to 24, who study russian as a foreign language for full-fledged communicative interaction to obtain a state certificate as a mandatory document guaranteeing admission to higher educational institutions of russia (leonteva, et al., 2018). at the initial stage of language learning at a higher educational institution, the possession of the communicative competence at a basic level (a2) is typical for the students of this department, which allows that only the key communicative needs are met in a limited number of situations within the social and domestic as well as social and cultural spheres of communication. in this regard, the students have only fragmentary knowledge about the national and cultural characteristics of the country and the region of the language being studied and are not able to adequately interpret the sociocultural information. ivygina et al. instrumentations thetesting and assessment materials of the conducted study included the data of the ascertaining experiment based on the questionnaires developed by i. v. soikina (soikina, 2003), s. v. pakhotina (pakhotina, 2014), m. g. gerasimova (gerasimova, 2001), which made it possible to identify 4 levels of sc formation (advanced, high, intermediate, and low) according to three components: motivational, cognitive, and axiological. the questionnaire developed by soikina (14 questions with answer options and 2 questions, the answers to which had to be ranked) allowed revealing the motives for studying the russian language and the levels of formation of the motivational component. this questionnaire is useful for the current study, as it makes it possible to identify the external (passing the exam, getting a good grade, receiving an education) and internal motives (the need and willingness to carry out professional communication in the russian language). the level of correct answers was determined in the aggregate: low – 0-5 points; intermediate – 6-10 points; high – 7-12 points; advanced – 8-16 points. the analysis of the results and the levels of formation of this component are presented in table 1 (the column "motivational component"). the sociocultural questionnaire by pakhotina, consisting of three parts and aimed at identifying the levels of formation of the cognitive component, contained tasks for understanding the nonverbal and verbal forms of speech (the 1st and 2nd parts), the knowledge of mentality, the geographical, economic, and cultural features of the country of the language being studied (the 3rd part). the level of knowledge was determined in the aggregate: low level of knowledge – from 1 to 32 points, intermediate – from 33 to 66 points, high – from 66 to 86 points, advanced – from 87 points and above. the results of the analysis are given in column 2 "cognitive component". the level of cultural polycentrism (axiological component) was identified using the questionnaire by gerasimova. students were offered a set of 26 statements, with which they had to agree or disagree. each statement concerned a certain side of inter-ethnic relations. each ethnocentric statement was rated by one point: 0-5 points – a low level of ethnocentrism; 6-12 points – intermediate; 13-20 points – high; 21-26 points – advanced level. the analysis of the data of questionnaires is represented in the column "axiological component"). in the experimental group, the didactic material selected by the authors of the article was tested on the basis of local history texts and specially composed assignments, each of which was aimed at mastering certain linguistic competencies (grammar, vocabulary, and speaking) for the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 corresponding pre-determined levels of language skills of a group of students enrolled in the preparatory courses of yei kfu for the 2017-2018 academic year (a1, a2, b1). in accordance with the methodology of organizing an experimental study, the diagnostic sections were made at the beginning and at the end of the training experiment aimed at determining the level of formation of sociocultural competence in students. in order to establish the reliability of coincidences and differences in the results of the diagnostics of students from the experimental and control groups, student's t-criterion was used, which is shown in table 3. data collection at the first stage (2017-2018), the study of scientific and methodological literature on the topic of research was carried out, the participants of the experiment were identified, the material was selected (3 questionnaires) to conduct the ascertaining experiment in order to identify the levels of sociocultural competence. these questionnaires are easy to use, understandable for perception by foreign students, do not take much time for the implementation and processing of data. at the second stage (2018), the groups of students from the preparatory department were determined to participate in the control and experimental groups with the relatively equal indicators detected at the initial stage by the results of a survey. in the experimental group (34 students), the didactic material included the local history materials, such as specially selected texts containing regional geographic information about the region of study. the training was conducted without violating the curriculum and study program (mueller et al., 2019). the control checks (assignments, tests), a conversation with students, and checking the background knowledge of students in a specific linguistic social environment, showed the effectiveness of the work, which was confirmed by the method of statistical data processing – student'st-criterion. data analysis techniques the experimental study was carried out according to the following plan: 1) the objectives and tasks of the experimental study were adjusted; 2) a questionnaire survey was conducted; statistical processing of the data allowed identifying the levels of formation of sociocultural competence at the initial stage of the experiment: advanced, high, intermediate, or low by three components (motivational, cognitive, and axiological); 3) groups of students of the preparatory department studying rfl were identified for the ivygina et al. control and experimental groups, with relatively equal initial indicators revealed by the survey results; 4) the authentic local history texts with tasks, developed by the authors of this paper, were tested in the experimental group; 5) statistical processing of the data based on the questionnaire survey allowed calculating the arithmetic mean before and after the experiment on the basis of student's t-test. research design the linguacultural methodology of modern language education developed in russian (vereshchagin, kostomarov, 1990) and foreign (cross, 2000; byram, 1989) methodical science is represented by the synthesis of two learning models "language as a purpose, culture as a means" and "culture as a purpose, language as a means". passov notes: "culture is values, and they determine everything, not "knowledge and skill" (passov, 2000). analysis of the current state of the formation of sociocultural competence (sc) shows that a special role in the implementation of the idea of sociocultural adaptation belongs to the languages with which the direct and indirect "dialogue of cultures" is carried out. this competence was diagnosed in accordance with three components: motivational, cognitive, and axiological. the motivational component assumed the elucidation of the motives for studying the russian language and value orientations. for this purpose, the questionnaire by i.v. soikina (soikina, 2003) was used, which includes 14 questions with possible answers and 2 questions, the answers to which needed to be ranked. this allowed identifying low, intermediate, and high levels. the low level is characterized by the fact that the need for the formation of sc is not realized. motivation has an external character (higher education, career, etc.). cognitive interest is slightly expressed. at the intermediate level, the need for the formation of sc is still not fully realized and accepted by an individual (gabidullina et al., 2019). motives have both external (higher education, career, etc.), and internal character (the need for communication, knowledge of the culture of the country of the studied language, etc.). at the high level, awareness and personal acceptance of the goal of forming sc are combined with highly expressed motivation, a high level of cognitive activity and readiness to communicate with people from other cultures (korableva et al., 2019a, 2019b). the advanced level is characterized by stable motivation, the pronounced cognitive activity, and the ability to carry out intercultural communication. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 the cognitive component, for the identification of which the sociocultural questionnaire by s.v. pakhotina (pakhotina, 2014) was used, revealed the knowledge of sociocultural characteristics and realia of the country of the studied language. the analysis of the data also revealed low, intermediate, high, and advanced levels of knowledge in the field of sociocultural knowledge (shevchenko et al., 2018; gerasimova et al., 2018a, b; laužikas and miliūtė, 2019; lorincová et al., 2019; mullakhmetov et al., 2018). the axiological component assumed to reveal the level of cultural polycentrism with the help of the questionnaire by m.g. gerasimova (gerasimova, 2001). the low level of cultural polycentrism is characterized by the fact that the understanding of another culture proceeds from the position of values and norms of a person's own culture. the student does not show interest in learning the traditions and customs of the country of the studied language (kuznetsova et al., 2019). the intermediate level is characterized by the fact that the student tries to perceive cultural diversity as the norm, realizes that the assessment of another culture from the position of values and norms of his or her own culture is wrong. the high level is characteristic of those students who perceive cultural diversity as the norm of the coexistence of cultures. the advanced level of cultural polycentrism is characteristic of those students who show the ability to realize their place and role in modern society throughout the dialogue/polylogue of cultures (tarman, 2018; bozhkova et al., 2019; caplinska and ohotina, 2019; ishchenko and magsumov, 2019a,b). sample the experiment involved 2 groups of students — one control group (34) and one experimental group (34). the selection criteria for this group are as follows: poor command of the russian language, low level of motivation and cognitive interest, poor formation of sociocultural knowledge and skills, and the minimal level of positive experience of interacting with people from different cultures. the results of the experiment are presented in table 1. the results of the formation of sociocultural competence among foreign students. ivygina et al. table 1 the results of the formation of sociocultural competence among foreign students of the yei kfu. level motivational component cognitive component axiological component advanced 5 (7.35%) 3 (4.42%) 3 (4.42%) high 4 (5.88%) 4 (5.88%) 5 (7.35%) intermediate 8 (11.77%) 7 (10.29%) 10 (14.7%) low 51 (75%) 54 (79.41%) 50 (73.53%) data collection tools this article attempts to present the practical side of the formation of linguistic and local history competence as a component of sociocultural competence during the lesson of russian as a foreign language. one of the possible ways of its formation in the framework of mastering russian language by foreign students in preparatory courses is the introduction to language and culture through a local history text reflecting the historical and cultural heritage of the republic of tatarstan, which also includes the yelabuga district with its richest millennial history. the linguistics and local history education of foreign students of russian universities are also relevant for teaching the russian language. this includes the regional component in the educational process, such as language realities reflecting the specificity of a particular region, including local history texts that contribute not only to the development of linguistic competence but the needs of linguistic and cultural adaptation of foreign students (dominova, 2013; nekipelova, 2001; masood et al., 2019).an effective means of forming linguistic and local studies competence of foreign students can only be achieved by systematic work, involving, according to the authors of the article, working under this methodology, the use of a set of adapted local history texts and tasks to them. data collection the materials of this article present the data of an experimental study that reveals the motives for learning a language, especially the formation of linguistic and local history competence, taking into account pre-identified levels of language proficiency. the means for data collection were the tasks to local history texts, prepared by the authors and used in classes with foreign students with an appropriate level of language skills. completing assignments based on these texts, in the authors' opinion, will facilitate the introduction of foreign students to various forms of national journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 culture, embodying the foundations of the people's world view, understanding of which will allow them to immerse themselves in the language environment. the experimental work, preceded with the local history text, was conducted from 2017 to 2018 and included three stages (ascertaining, forming and controlling). the experiment covered 68 students, including 34 students from an experimental group and 34 students from a control group. data analysis the authors applied the following data analysis procedures: at the ascertaining stage, using a set of diagnostic procedures (questioning, observation, interviewing), the motives for studying the russian language were identified; when evaluating linguistic and cultural competence, the main diagnostic tool for students was the test tasks developed by the authors (the objects of control were knowledge of sociocultural stereotypes, regional studies knowledge); at the final stage, a specially developed assessment-level complex (including local history texts) was used, indicating the dynamics of the formation of linguistic and local history competence after the inclusion of local texts in the rfl training system. findings the purpose of this study is to identify, theoretically substantiate and experimentally approbate the pedagogical conditions that ensure the effective formation of the sociocultural competence in foreign students through the use of local history texts in the classroom. in the authors' opinion, the acquaintance with regional texts and the linguistic work therewith allow the formation of the phonetic, grammatical, lexical, and communicative skills as a whole, the formation of an idea of the russian mentality, mastering of the russian language, and as a result the increase in the level of the sociocultural competence of the yei kfu foreign students. in the course of the study, four levels of the sociocultural competence of students were formed at the initial stage of the experiment.  the low level of the sociocultural competence development is different in that the knowledge of the culture and realities of the country of a foreign language being studied are rather superficial while the learners are able to communicate in a foreign language in far from all situations and have certain difficulties in choosing adequate forms of verbal communication regarding the interlocutor's replicas. the implementation of the ivygina et al. communicative process is difficult due to insufficient mastering of the “background knowledge.” in the end, students are not able to meet their cognitive needs, have a low level of motivation to master the sociocultural competence.  the intermediate level demonstrates a sufficient amount of acquired knowledge of a sociocultural nature while the students as a whole are able to apply speech behaviour patterns corresponding to situations of authentic communication in the professional sphere. the necessary “background knowledge,” which is inherent in a particular linguistic social environment, is often not very accurate and requires correction. in general, they actively communicate with native speakers without any difficulties, sometimes feel the need to adapt to the “original” speech of the interlocutor. openness, tolerance and respect for the representatives of a foreign language culture are not sufficiently formed among students.  the high level implies the deep knowledge of the culture and realities of the country of the language being studied applied competently and systematically, which helps students express their thoughts at a fairly fast pace in communication with representatives of another culture in various fields and industries. they confidently feel when communicating in almost all situations, have a wide range of language tools, and do not feel the need in adapting foreign language speech. they easily find the common and the different in the historically formed cultural patterns of development.  the advanced level is characterized by the constant and creative use of the nationally specified characteristics of the country of the language being studied in speech. the nonverbal techniques and paralinguistic means that are characteristic of this society are freely applied. they freely feel themselves within a new communicative reality. they are fluent in idiomatic and colloquial expressions, tolerant, have a positive attitude to the world, partners in communication (in professional communication within the economic sphere). they know how to analyze the world culture. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 table 2 the level of the sociocultural competence formation before and after the experiment the time of controlcheck training group number of students, % advanced level high level intermediate level low level before the experiment 34 people (eg) 3 (8.8%) 8 (23.5%) 11 (32.4%) 12 (35.3%) 34 people (cg) 4 (11.8%) 7 (20.6%) 10 (29.4%) 13 (38.2%) after the experiment 34 people (eg) 8 (23.5%) 14 (41.1%) 12 (35.3%) 0 (0%) 34 people (cg) 3 (8.8%) 10 (29.4%) 11 (32.4%) 10 (29.4%) the results of the experiment (table 2) show that the creation and implementation of these conditions at a pedagogical university stimulates an increase in the level of students' sociocultural competence in the process of teaching a foreign language. it is evidenced by an increase in the level of sociocultural competence of the majority of students from the experimental groups, the development of students' cognitive abilities, their motivation and tolerance towards representatives of a foreign culture, the effective implementation of innovative forms, methods and means of teaching a foreign language. the results of the pedagogical experiment conducted show that the level of students' sociocultural knowledge significantly increased; their motivation for learning activities increased during the study of russian as a foreign language at the preparatory courses of yei kfu; the relationship between students and teachers started being based on the position of cooperation (especially as part of the mutual development of creative tasks and projects); and the communication skills and the willingness of students to cooperate enhanced. at the final stage of the learning experiment, the final testing was conducted to check the effectiveness of teaching using local history texts in the experimental group, which included assignments supplemented by a studied topic. to summarize the essence and value of the feature studied in the aggregate, the arithmetic mean value was calculated before and after the experiment. the data was introduced in table 3 and figure 1. ivygina et al. table 3 the average value of the levels of competence formation before and after the experiment the time of controlcheck training group number of students, % advanced level high level intermediate level low level before the experiment 34 + 34 persons 10.3% 22% 30.9% 36.8% after the experiment 34 + 34 persons 16.15% 35.25% 33.85% 14.7% figure 1. the average value of the levels of competence formation before and after the experiment the demonstrated results show that for the majority of students, the indicator of the sociocultural knowledge formation moved to the high and intermediate levels. many students mastered vocabulary, grammar, and knowledge of the norms and rules of behaviour within the non-native environment. advanced level high level intermediate level low level 0 10 20 30 40 50 eg before experiment cg before experiment eg after experiment cg after experiment 8,8 11,8 23,5 8,8 23,5 20,6 41,1 29,4 32,4 29,4 35,3 32,4 35,3 38,2 0 29,4 the level of the sociocultural competence formation before and after the experiment advanced level high level intermediate level low level journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 thus, the above data testifies to the effectiveness of the experimental impact. however, without creating special organizational and pedagogical conditions for the formation of the sociocultural competence intended to actively involve an individual in the process of mastering knowledge and skills, mastering of the sociocultural competence was much more difficult for foreigners. the efficiency of the sociocultural competence formation in students was determined by the number of tasks performed by them and the level of assimilation of the cultural and social information provided. the demonstrated results confirmed the effectiveness of the experiment. in order to establish the reliability of coincidences and differences in the results of the diagnostics of students from the experimental and control groups, the student's t-criterion was used. the calculations showed the statistical reliability of the apparent difference in the indicators of the sociocultural competence formation in students with a probability of a permissible error of 0.05 and a calculation accuracy of 95% (3.47 > 1.96). discussion when developing tasks on the basis of local texts, the authors took into account the difficulties of the students from the preparatory russian language courses at the yi kfu. the solution of such difficulties will later most effectively fill the gaps in the language mastering. the developed set of tasks develops the ability to carry out intercultural communication, based on knowledge of the semantics of lexical units with a national-cultural component, which will allow a foreign student to fully immerse in the language environment. the experiments, anticipating the work with local history texts, was conducted from 2017 to 2018 and included three stages (ascertaining, shaping and controlling). 68 students participated in the experiment, including 34 (eg – experimental group) and 34 (cg – control group). at the ascertaining stage, with the help of a complex of diagnostic procedures (questioning, observation, interviewing), motives for learning russian were revealed. the analysis of experimental data showed that approximately 44.9% of students from the eg and 49.27% from the cg study the russian language because it is connected with further educational activities and forms communicative competence; 24.4% from ec students and 22.8% from cg indicated the importance of the russian language for the future profession and career. only 13.34% of respondents from ec and 11.28% from the cg noted that they are interested in this subject in terms of the formation and/or development of intercultural competence. ivygina et al. the conducted study made it possible to assert that a third of the students have the lack the motivation to learn the language as a means of promoting the dialogue of cultures; thus, the cognitive interest is minimal. the observations showed that the students took about 30 minutes to complete all the test tasks. after completing all the tasks of the received testing and assessment variant, the students delivered their works. based on the results of checking the test tasks completed by foreign students, the results of the testing and assessment assignment approbation were monitored to determine the level of their sociocultural competence. the test results lead to the following conclusions: 8 (23.5%) students coped almost fully with the task by selecting 39 correct answers out of 40 possible (advanced level); 14 (41.1%) students completed 38 tasks correctly (high level); 12 (35.3%) students chose 37 correct answers (medium level); and 0 students chose less than 30 correct answers (low level). it is not by chance that the researcher s. g. ter-minasova calls a foreign language lesson the crossroads of cultures. continuing this idea, in her textbook "languages and intercultural communication," she talks about the need to learn a new language inextricably from the world and the culture of the people who speak it (ter-minasova).during the experiment, it was revealed that students increased their interest in intercultural contacts, respect for the customs of another culture, a positive attitude to contact, speech relaxedness, recognition of cultural differences, knowledge of norms and values of native culture and other cultures, tolerance, etc. accordingly, the results obtained in the course of experimental work make it possible to state that the level of the formed sociocultural competence in foreign students from the preparatory courses in all components is higher than before, which emphasizes the effectiveness of the formative experiment. in the conditions of pedagogically organized communication in classes in the russian language as a foreign language, the students are familiarized with the sociocultural characteristics of the countries of the language being studied. the secondary socialization of students is carried out. during the interaction of students of different cultures, a personality is formed at the turn of cultures, the characteristic feature of which is the interaction of the common to humanity and the national aspects. i. n. savchenkova argues that "the comprehension of russian culture by foreigners studying in russia occurs through the prism of "local colouring" expressed in the cultural and historical journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 identity of the region where the educational institution is located..." (savchenkova).the use of local history texts during the lessons of russian as a foreign language affects the socialization process of a foreigner in a new country because it gives the opportunity to include a foreigner in the culture of the language being studied (magsumov, 2019, 2018; kireev et al., 2019; martinez and tadeu, 2018; molchanova et al., 2018).e. cross, speaking of culture as a collective experience of a group of people, which includes their thoughts, feelings, values, behavior, communication, and interpretation of sensory stimuli, notes that living in a culture is probably the best way to fully appreciate the problems and difficulties of intercultural communication (cross, 2000). therefore, the immersion of a foreign student in the linguistic environment can be a prerequisite for better language acquisition through cultural values and categories and the formation of the intercultural competence. the main task at the final stage was the formation of background knowledge and skills in the field of regional culture on the basis of local history texts (mamadaliev et al., 2018). the dynamics of the process was monitored based on a specially developed assessment complex (including local history texts), the implementation of which was carried out by means of current, intermediate, final control, implemented after the inclusion of local history texts in the system of teaching russian as a foreign language and analyzing the results of the study. the results of the control stage of experimental work indicate a positive dynamics of the formation of linguistic and local studies competence after the inclusion of local texts in the system of teaching students in the direction of 44.03.05 – pedagogical education (with two majors), "russian language. foreign language". prospects for the development of this study may manifest themselves in further testing of the materials obtained in the practice of teaching foreign students with a major in russian as a foreign language at yei kfu, preparing a textbook for specialists who teach russian as a foreign language with the inclusion of local texts in their classes. conclusion conducting a study on the formation of sociocultural competence in the process of teaching russian as a foreign language made it possible to come to the following conclusions: 1. the formation of the sociocultural competence in the process of teaching russian as a foreign language, ensuring the ability of students to intercultural communication, the ability to enter into an equal dialogue with native speakers, the ability to formulate and communicate their thoughts in ivygina et al. a foreign language during the intercultural interaction within the professional sphere, is considered one of the key tasks in teaching russian as a foreign language. in this regard, there are several psychological and pedagogical approaches to the understanding of sociocultural competence. such a diversity of views is quite justified since the structure of the competence considered is flexible and depends on the changes in social life conditions. 2. as a result of the study, the authors achieved the goal consisting in the identification and theoretical and experimental substantiation of pedagogical conditions for the successful formation of the sociocultural competence of students in the process of teaching the russian language. 3. the essence and content of the sociocultural competence, its role in teaching foreign students were determined. the content of the sociocultural competence generated by students includes sociocultural knowledge, behavioural patterns, attitudes and qualities of the linguistic personality. 4. when developing a model for the formation of the sociocultural competence, the criteria and indicators of the sociocultural competence formation in students were singled out — valuemotivational, cognitive, behavioral. in accordance with the listed criteria, it was supposed to evaluate the initial and final levels of the sociocultural competence formation. 5. the main components of the model and the sociocultural competence formation include the goal that can be achieved in solving established tasks, observance of general pedagogical and characteristic for sociocultural education principles of learning by using innovative forms, methods and means aimed at forming the above competence within the learning process. the periodic diagnostics and monitoring of the sociocultural competence formation in students revealed the positive dynamics of the levels of sociocultural competence formation in students during the russian as a foreign language courses. thus, after conducting the experimental work, the number of students who reached the high and intermediate levels of the sociocultural competence formation has significantly increased in the experimental groups. consequently, the achieved results of the experimental work make it possible to assert that the level of the sociocultural competence formation in students according to all main indicators is higher in the experimental groups than in the control group, which indicates the effectiveness of the work carried out at the formative stage of the experiment. thus, the development and introduction of a model of the sociocultural competence formation in students within the higher education environment and the implementation of pedagogical conditions allowed an increase in the level of motivation, empathy and tolerance of students in journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 communication with the representatives of the foreign language culture. in addition, students' knowledge of the values of native culture and the ability to compare them with a foreign language culture increased. in the course of the experiment, it was also possible to introduce the innovative forms, methods and means of training into the learning process. having studied the mentioned problem in the scientific works of russian and foreign scientists, testing the assembled corpus of local history texts with students studying russian as a foreign language, the authors came to the conclusion that it is necessary to include the national-regional component in the process of learning russian as a foreign language with local history texts connected with a specific region of the russian federation. the inclusion of a regional component in the learning process helps teachers to form communicative, linguistic and local studies and intercultural competencies. experimental work showed the need for the formation of linguistic and local history competence as an integral part of sociocultural one based on a regional component, implemented, for instance, through local history texts. in addition, the proposed options for working with local history texts in the lessons of reading and speaking allow revealing their didactic potential and introducing them to the cultural context. the proposed recommendations should undoubtedly help an rfl teacher in the practical implementation of the cultural approach and the formation of the cultural competence of foreign students through local history texts. references addai-mununkum, r. (2019). students’ representation of “other” religions. journal of curriculum studies research, 1(1), 1-16. retrieved from https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/2 alajmi, m.a. (2019). the impact of e-portfolio use on the development of professional standards and life skills of students in the faculty of education at princess nourabint abdul rahman university. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4) 1714-1735. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) akishina, a.a. (2002). learning to teach: for the teacher of russian as a foreign language. moscow: russian language. https://curriculumstudies.org/index.php/cs/article/view/2 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) ivygina et al. anisimova, i.n., petrova, o.a. (2015). on the importance of local lore knowledge in teaching russian as a foreign language (from the experience of using elementary linguistic material in teaching russian to students of the preparatory department of chuvash state university). bulletin of the chuvash university. philology. linguistics, 4, 223-227. arslan, c., & tanis, b. m. (2018). building english vocabulary schema retention using review value calculation for esl students. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 116-134. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/374 billig, m. (1997). the dialogic unconscious: discourse analysis, psychoanalysis and repression. discourse and society, 10, 139-159. bragina, n. g. (2013). sociocultural constructs in language. moscow: flint. broger, f. ch. (1992). culture, language, text: culture studies within the study of english as a foreign language. oslo: scandinavian university press. byram, m. (1997). teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. clevedon: multilingual matters. byram, m. (1989). cultural studies in foreign language education. philadelphia: multilingual matters ltd. basharova, n.f., & farhetdinova, g.d. (2008). regional component in teaching russian as a foreign language. kazan pedagogical journal, 1, 99-102. bozhkova g. n., shastina e. m., kalimullina o. v., & shatunova o. v. (2019). study of literary images of gifted characters in optional activities as a means to develop capable and talented youth. space and culture, india, vol. 7:1, pp. 264273. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 caplinska, a., & ohotina, a. (2019). analysis of financial literacy tendencies with young people. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 6(4) 1736-1749. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(13) celce–murcia, m., dorney, z. & thurrell, s. (1995). communicative competence: a pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. applied linguistics, 6/2, 535. chomcky, n. (2002). syntactic structures. second edition (first edition published in 1957). berlin new york: mouton de gruyter. http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/374 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(13) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 collings, n. y. (2007). cultural learning in the absence of culture? a study of how students learn foreign language and culture in a tertiary classroom. learning and teaching across cultures in higher education, 55-73. cross, e. y. (2000). managing diversity – the courage to lead. westport, ct: quorum books. dominova, t. n. (2013). formation of linguistic competence based on the material of the historical and cultural space of st. petersburg among foreign students in the process of pre-university training. dis. cand. ped. sciences, st. petersburg. general information and a brief history of yelabuga. retrieved from http://nesiditsa.ru/city/elabuga frolova, i., voronkova, o., alekhina, n., kovaleva, i., prodanova, n., & kashirskaya, l. (2019). corruption as an obstacle to sustainable development: a regional example. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues, 7(1), 674-689. doi:10.9770/jesi.2019.7.1(48) gabidullina, f. i., korganbekov, b. s., makarova, v. f., zakirov, r. a., & kayumova, g. f. (2019). concept «teacher» in language consciousness of students of philological faculty. xlinguae, 12(3), 45-54. doi:10.18355/xl.2019.12.03.04 galskova, n. d. (2003). modern methods of teaching foreign languages. moscow: arkti. gerasimova, m. g. (2001). ethnic tolerance and ethnic stereotypes of adolescents. moscow: canon-press. gerasimova, v. g., romanova, y. d., & zhenova, n. a. (2018a). russian market of lms for higher education. astra salvensis, 6, 757-767. gerasimova, v. g., melamud, m. r., tutaeva, d. r., romanova, y. d., & zhenova, n. a. (2018b). the adoption of e-learning technology at the faculty of distance learning of plekhanov russian university of economics. journal of social studies education research, 9(2), 172-188. doi:10.17499/jsser.20153 girdzijauskaite, e., radzeviciene, a., jakubavicius, a. (2019). impact of international branch campus kpis on the university competitiveness: fare method. insights into regional development, 1(2): 171-180. https://doi.org/10.9770/ird.2019.1.2(7) grakhova, s., fayzrakhmanov, i., zhundibayeva, a., yakutina, m., sharipov, r., & stepykin, n. (2019). information, pedagogical and facilitation technologies in teaching a special philology class at non-specialized faculties of higher education institutions. international http://nesiditsa.ru/city/elabuga https://doi.org/10.9770/ird.2019.1.2(7) ivygina et al. journal of innovative technology and exploring engineering, 8(12), 1613-1620. doi:10.35940/ijitee.l3154.1081219 hyde, m. (1998). intercultural competence in english language education. modern english teacher, 7, 7-11. ilyin a. g., zakirova o. v., ibatova a. z. (2018). interaction of different language cultures in teaching educational disciplines in foreign and native languages. revista publicando, 5, 300-307. ishchenko, o. v., & magsumov, t. a. (2019). siberian students’ material situation in the early 20th century (based on student questionnaires). bylye gody, 51(1), 366-379. kaikkonen p. (2001). intercultural learning through foreign language education. candin c.n. (ed.) experiential learning in foreign language education. london. new york, etc.: longman, 61-105. kazakova, j.k., shastina e.m. (2019). the impact of sociocultural differences on formation of intrinsic motivation: the case of local and foreign students. learning and motivation, 65, 1-9. karasik, v.i. (2002). language circle: personality, concepts, discourse. volgograd: change. kramsch, c. (1998). the privilege of the intercultural speaker. language learning in intercultural perspective: approach through drama and ethnography. cambridge: cambridge university press, 16-31. kramsh, cl. (1993). context and culture in language teaching. oxford: oup. korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019a). studying user satisfaction with the mooc platform interfaces using the example of coursera and open education platforms. paper presented at the acm international conference proceeding series, 26-30. doi:10.1145/3322134.3322139 korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019b). usability testing of mooc: identifying user interface problems. paper presented at the iceis 2019 proceedings of the 21st international conference on enterprise information systems, 2 468-475. kosorukov, o. a., & maksimov, d. a. (2016). methods of assessing efficiency of wildfire monitoring systems functioning. research journal of pharmaceutical, biological and chemical sciences, 7(6), 517-529. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 kireev, b., zhundibayeva, a., & aktanova, a. (2019). distance learning at higher education institutions: results of an experiment. journal of social studies education research, 10(3), 387-403. kulibina, n.v. (1987). methodology of linguistic work on artistic text. moscow: russian language. kuznetsova, i. g., bulyga, r. p., rakhmatullina, l. v., titova, s. v., shichiyakh, r. a., & zakirov, r. a. (2019). problems and prospects of human capital development in modern russia. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 164-175. laužikas, m., & miliūtė, a. (2019). transformational communication via evolving ethical and moral norms of lithuanian civil service organizations. entrepreneurship and sustainability, 6(4): 1750-1761.http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(14) leonteva, l. s., maximov, d. a., kurbanov, s. a., afanasyev, i. v., melnikova, t. e., & rezakov, r. g. (2018). information services and development of effective urban management. international journal of civil engineering and technology, 9(11), 2518-2525. lorincová, s., hitka, m., bajzíková, ľ, & weberová, d. (2019). are the motivational preferences of employees working in small enterprises in slovakia changing in time. entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4): 1618-1635. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(5) magsumov, t.a. (2018). vocational school and studying youth in the russian revolution of 1905. terra sebus, 10, 289-313. magsumov, t.a. (2019a). gender re(e)volution of commercial schools in russia in the early xx century. woman in russian society, 1, 133-144. doi: 10.21064/winrs.2019.1.12 magsumov, t.a. (2019b). apprenticeship in secondary vocational schools during the economic modernization in late imperial russia. part 2. european journal of contemporary education, 8(1), 215-221. doi: 10.13187/ejced.2019.1.215 mamadaliev, a.m., gordeev, i., miku, n.v., & médico, a. (2018). teacher training for the system of primary education in switzerland in the mid-nineteenth century. european journal of contemporary education, 8(1), 222-228. martinez, i., & tadeu, p. (2018). the impact of pedagogical leadership on pedagogical coordination in secondary schools. research in social sciences and technology, 3(3), 115. retrieved from http://ressat.org/index.php/ressat/article/view/373 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(14) https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(5) https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2019.1.215 ivygina et al. masood, o., tvaronavičienė, m., & javaria, k. (2019). impact of oil prices on stock return: evidence from g7 countries. insights into regional development, 1(2): 129-137. https://doi.org/10.9770/ird.2019.1.2(4) molchanova, v.s., artemova, s.f., & balaniuk, l.l. (2018). teaching singing in the russian empire educational institutions: importance and results. european journal of contemporary education, 7(1), 220-225. mueller, j. e., yumashev, a. v., kozachek, a. v., prikhodko, a. n., & safonova, e. e. (2019). acquisition of entrepreneurial skills and competences: curriculum development and evaluation for higher education. journal of entrepreneurship education, 22(1) mullakhmetov, k. s., sadriev, r. d., & bikulov, r. a. (2018). sociocultural factors of transforming administration and control in the management of economic and social systems under modern conditions. paper presented at the proceedings of the 31st international business information management association conference, ibima 2018: innovation management and education excellence through vision 2020, 3573-3581. muravyova, n.g. (2011). the concept of sociocultural competence in modern science and educational practice. bulletin of tyumen state university, 9, 36-143. nekipelova, g.o. (2001). linguistic studies in teaching russian as a foreign language. dis. cand. ped. sciences, st. petersburg. nikitina, t.g. (2015). idiom as a means of forming the linguistic and local studies competence of foreign-language students. steady phrases in the paradigms of science: materials of the intern. nauk.konf., dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of vladimir leonidovich arkhangelsky, 3, 498-501. order of the ministry of education and science of russia dated april 1, 2014 no. 255 “on approval of the levels of proficiency in russian as a foreign language and requirements for them”. retrieved from https: //minobrnauki.rf/documents/4384 otmenitova, o.m. (1996). formation of linguistic competence of foreign students of the preparatory faculty in the process of their independent work. author. dis. cand. ped. sciences, st. petersburg. passes, e.i. (2000). program concept of communicative foreign language education. the development of individuality in the dialogue of cultures. moscow: academicproject. https://doi.org/10.9770/ird.2019.1.2(4) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4), 288-314 pahotina, s.v. (2014). formation of the sociocultural competence of students (for example, the faculty of physical culture). saarbrucken: laplambertacademicpublishing. prokhorov, yu. e. (2017). national sociocultural stereotypes of speech and their role in teaching russian to foreigners. moscow: book house "librokom". prodanova, n. a., plaskova, n. s., bochkareva, n. g., babalykova, i. a., gazizyanova, y. y., & zherelina, o. n. (2019). integrated corporate reporting as an innovative business reporting model. international journal of engineering and advanced technology, 8(5), 2075-2078. rajović, g., zuev, m., vazerova, a.g., & trailovic, m. (2018). development of primary public education system in serbia in 1832-1882. european journal of contemporary education, 7(3), 623-629. savifnon, j. s. (2002). interpreting communicative language teaching: contexts and concerns in teacher education. publishedby: yaleuniversitypress. savchenkova, i.n. (2012). locally oriented educational dictionary of the russian language for foreigners: principles of construction and structure. thesis ... cand. filol. sciences, rostovon-don. shatunova o., anisimova t., sabirova f., & kalimullina o. (2019). steam as an innovative educational technology. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 (2), 131144. shevchenko, n.a., kucherkov, i.a., shirev, d.a., & miku, n.v. (2018). public education in the russian empire at the end of the 19th century. european journal of contemporary education, 7(1), 226-231. soikina, i.v. (2003) formation of interest in learning a foreign language among students ped. high school non-linguistic specialties. thesis ... cand. ped. sciences, bryansk. safonova, v.v. (1992) sociocultural approach to teaching a foreign language as a major. thesis... by doctor of pedagogical sciences, moscow. shalkevich, l. (2002) the use of local history material in foreign language lessons. technology pedagogical work, 4, 20-23. strunc, a. (2019). the politics of culture. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 7180. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/26 http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/26 ivygina et al. tarman, b. (2018). the awareness of social studies teacher candidates’ regarding special area competencies and the overlap level of these competencies with social studies degree, journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 5 (2), 16-28 ter-minasova, s.g. (2008) languages and intercultural communication. moscow: slovo. trofimova, l., prodanova, n., korshunova, l., savina, n., ulianova, n., karpova, t., & shilova, l. (2019). public sector entities’ reporting and accounting information system. journal of advanced research in dynamical and control systems, 11(8 special issue), 416-424. timoshenkova, g. yu., & sadovskaya, e. yu. (2013). formation of the linguoculturological competence of the foreign phone in classes on rcts. retrieved from https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/formirovanvaningvokulturologicheskoy-kompetentsiiinofona-na-zanyatiyah-po-rki vereshchagin e.m. (1980). linguistic and cultural theory of words. moscow: russian language. vereshchagin, e.m. & kostomarov, v.g. (1990). language and culture: linguistic country studies in teaching russian as a foreign language. moscow: russian language. vereshchagin, e.m., & kostomarov, v.g. (2005). language and culture. moscow: indrik. yemelyanov, v. a., fatkulin, a. r., nedelkin, a. a., titov, v. a., & degtyarev, a. v. (2019). software for weight estimation of the transported liquid iron. paper presented at the proceedings of the 2019 ieee conference of russian young researchers in electrical and electronic engineering, elconrus 2019, 381-384. doi:10.1109/eiconrus.2019.8657011 zakirova, o. v., gapsalamov a. r., & gallyamova z. v. (2017). foreign student’s tolerance formation as condition of safe integration into russian reality. ifte 2017 – 3rd international forum on teacher education, 29, 890-896. zavadskaya, a. v., yudina, t. a. (2012). use of local history material in russian language classes in a foreign language audience (using the example of reading and speaking lessons). problems of teaching philological disciplines to foreign students, 2, 286-293. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/formirovanvaningvokulturologicheskoy-kompetentsii-inofona-na-zanyatiyah-po-rki https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/formirovanvaningvokulturologicheskoy-kompetentsii-inofona-na-zanyatiyah-po-rki www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (4), 97-126 97 citizenship and civic education in costa rica, myanmar, and the united states amy roberts1, lydiah nganga2 & joanie james3 abstract educators everywhere consider how best to prepare students with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors to be informed, engaged, and caring 21st century citizens. this article provides a report of an ethnographic transnational field study examining how 30 educators located in costa rica, myanmar, and the united states, conceive of citizenship and civic education based on textbook use, classroom materials, pedagogical practices, and instructional strategies. data sources included field logs, debriefing sessions, one-toone interviews, focus group discussions, classroom observations, textbook evaluations, and review of media documents. participants in the united states network emphasized multiple perspectives applied as a lens to the study of contemporary global issues. costa rican participants mirrored this description but with emphasis on nationalistic goals to equip students with skills to work for tangible improvements in the lives of costa rican citizens. in the myanmar context, participants relied almost exclusively on textbooks; in this case, context and culture informed the aims and approaches of civic and citizenship education. implications contribute to transnational discourse addressing the practice of civic and citizenship education globally. this study expands dominant definitions and the importance of an ethnographic transnational framework to examine citizenship and civic education between diverse systems. keywords: civic education, citizenship education, curriculum, 21-century citizens, transnational field study introduction on a global scale citizenship and civics k-12 education is a core component of public schooling. scholars and practitioners argue that one of the primary responsibilities of public education is to mentor students with knowledge, values, and skills in preparation for social, economic, and political opportunities inherent on local, national, and global levels. yet the traditional notion of citizenship as a legal status conferred by individual nations for those residing within the respective borders has shifted to conceptions of citizenship as unfixed and changeable in response to events occurring everywhere —often beyond national borders. if the notion of citizenship is shifting, it follows that traditional definitions of civic and citizenship education are also in flux. many countries have 1 prof. dr. university of wyoming, laramie wyoming, usa, aroberts@uwyo.edu 2 prof dr. university of wyoming, laramie wyoming, usa, lnganga@uwyo.edu 3 dr. university of wyoming, laramie wyoming, usa, joaniejames@hotmail.com mailto:lnganga@uwyo.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 98 responded with a deeper emphasis of civic and citizenship education in school programs but a standard approach internationally is nonexistent. that said, scholars note the importance of a global lens as the world’s economies, politics, cultures, and environments are increasingly interconnected (banks et al., 2005; giddens, 2002; held & mcgrew, 2003). in response this article details transnational field research contributing to understanding of citizenship and civic education in costa rica, myanmar, and the united states. beginning research questions included: 1. how do educators perceive the role of preparing students for civic and citizenship education? 2. what do educators consider as the challenges and opportunities of citizenship and civic education? the research was centered on transnational alliances to examine how educators conceive of citizenship and civic education based on school materials, textbooks, teaching practices, and accepted classroom strategies. selection of research sites was based in part on varying characteristics of the respective national political systems; the aim was to examine citizenship and civic education in different cultural and national contexts through the voices of educators on local levels; this was accomplished by engaging with individuals in the respective nations who self-identified as teachers with experience in public schools and with development, implementation, or evaluation of education programs. field site descriptions on the surface it may appear that costa rica, myanmar, and the united states have little in common. the respective cultures, languages, histories, and political debates are diverse; as well the colonial histories and postcolonial realities of each nation are unique with distinct physical, political, economic, and cultural markers. to begin, costa rica has a history of democracy, along with commitment to environmental protection and human rights that serve as a global model to examine practices of democracy and citizenship education. the spanish name costa rica translates in english to rich coast. in 1502 christopher columbus and spanish colonizers donned this name, which led to costa rica’s first spanish colony founded in 1524. roberts et al. 99 in 1949, the costa rican constitution abolished its military and reallocated funding to health and education (palmer, palmer, jimenez & molina, 2004); public schooling has since become a government priority with investment of 20 percent of the national budget (world bank, 2017). themes of peace and respect represent the hallmark of the education system. all levels of schooling are shaped by national goals to develop civic competencies, including a love of country, recognition of the duties, rights and liberties of citizenship, and care for the environment. education reform in the 1980s made the study of environmental education a priority (ministerio de educacion publica, 2001). years later costa rica was recognized as a global leader in biodiversity and conservation education (gamez, 1991) and green policies that promote grass roots responsibility and pride for the natural environment (martin, 2004). criticism of the public school system stems from overreliance on national standards for testing that encourages rote memorization and direct instruction at all grade levels. the east asia country, myanmar, is emerging from a long history of colonization, isolation, natural disaster, civil conflict, and classification as one of the world’s poorest nations. in 2015 the national league for democracy party won national elections that initiated transition from military rule to a parliamentary democracy. as a nation myanmar is represented by distinct ethnic groups, religions, and languages. myanmar grapples with human rights violations and citizenship issues that stem in part from ethnic and religious conflict. the rohingya, a muslim minority group from rakhine state myanmar is a case in point; the rohingya have endured discrimination and persecution, violence, denial of citizenship, and restrictions by the myanmar government. other ethnic minorities located in various regions have also been denied citizenship under myanmar law. myanmar government restrictions are also evident in the education arena. the education system is centralized; mandatory government education curriculum is required in all public education. myanmar students remain accustomed to teacher-centered classrooms with limited participation. educators are required to implement and rely on government curricula due to strict high school and university entrance exams based on government textbooks. recently there has been tremendous effort for reform of the public education system; learner-centered approaches have been introduced but challenges such as large journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 100 class size, limited materials, and strict expectations for curriculum coverage inhibit teachers’ capacity to transition away from traditional teacher-centered pedagogy. the educational system of the united states (us) emerged as the country was colonized in 1607. historically schools were the vehicle for americanization; immigrant children attending public schools acquired the english language, traditions, and beliefs reflective of white anglo-saxon protestants. in the contemporary era there is much debate about the culture of violence that directly impacts children, schools, families, and communities. the safety and education of students is challenged as conditions in the national landscape increasingly permeate schools in all areas of the us. unlike costa rica and myanmar, the us does not follow a centralized education system. as such there are significant differences between schools in the various parts of the country but nationwide the education of children provokes conflicting debate. the every student succeeds act, a us law passed in 2015 governs k–12 public education policy. it replaced the no child left behind act but retained mandatory standardized testing. the 2015 legislation purports that all students need high-quality, effective teachers and curriculum standards to progress optimally and to demonstrate achievement through test scores. the wyoming state school districts follow national common core standards for english language arts and math. these standards outline learning expectations for teachers and district leaders to develop curricula. they represent academic expectations for all students with intent to improve achievement and college readiness. critics argue that expectation for all states to share one set of standards is unrealistic and undermines teachers’ creativity to tailor instruction. review of literature school programs citizenship and civic curricula were defined with awareness for national and international interest in 21-century education (schulz, ainley, fraillo, kerr, & losito, 2010). educators worldwide meld the notion of 21st century education with student opportunities to develop the skills, knowledge and mindset (davies, 2006) for understanding of world interdependency, cultural diversity, multiple perspectives, and access to resources (bruce, north, & fitzpatrick, 2019). in close alignment, the national council for the social roberts et al. 101 studies’ position statement on global education (2016, p. 1) encourages k-12 teachers to “develop the skills, knowledge, and attitudes needed for responsible participation in a democratic society and in a global community in the twenty-first century.” this statement recognizes education that integrates traditional school subjects with interdisciplinary strands of civics, global awareness, financial literacy, health literacy, and environmental literacy. the study of civic and citizenship education varies across nations given that school programs are developed around local histories, societal characteristics, and cultural contexts. civic education can be defined as the study of history, traditions, and culture along with the national form of government processes (etzioni, berkowitz, & wilcox, 1995). citizenship education encompasses the skills, attitudes, beliefs, and values that encourage students’ disposition toward participation and engagement in their communities, nation, and the world. citizenship education embodies a set of understandings, based on civic knowledge, along with opportunities to practice civic competencies (hahn, 1998; schulz et al., 2010). school subjects such as math, science, and language arts are often organized as core areas with defined units of instruction. variation is common with subjects such as history, geography, social studies, physical education, the arts, and health education. in many school systems civic education is a component of the social studies curriculum with topics such as government, law, and citizenship. at secondary levels separate courses in civics and government are often required for graduation. inclusion of citizenship and civic education as either stand-alone courses or strands embedded across school programs fosters global perspectives (held & mcgrew, 2003) and provides context for the study of global dilemmas and challenges (banks et al., 2005). civic and citizenship education can be a policy initiated by a government, a school program, a lesson taught by a teacher or student activities. the point of commonality across all examples is alignment with goals to educate students as engaged citizens in a world profoundly different from previous generations. as such civic and citizenship education is interdependent, providing students with core knowledge, attitudes, values, experiences and practice defined by societal goals and values (banks, 2007). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 102 kennedy (2008) outlined 4 approaches for inclusion of civic education in school programs: (1) as a single subject; (2) integrated with specific subjects such as history and geography; (3) as a strand embedded in all core subjects; or (4) as an extra curricular activity. fairbrother and kennedy (2012) suggest that single subject civic education courses produce the highest results in terms of student achievement. they reported that outcome measures of single subject civic education courses were statistically stronger compared to the other approaches. a group of researchers representing, the international association for the evaluation of educational achievement (iea), conducted the 30-nation civic education study (torneypurta, lehmann, oswald, & schulz, 2001) and the 38-nation international civic and citizenship study (iccs) (schulz et al., 2010). this research provided comparatives of students in homes, schools, and communities as encased in wider social and political environments. researchers explained that the foundation of civics was based on students’ interactions with peers, family members, teachers, and processes of socialization, such as the media, to construct meaning of social, political, and economic concepts. researchers of the iccs (schulz et al., 2010) reported that eighty percent of the 38 participating nations identified civic education topics that were national in scope. less than 30 percent of nations selected leading topics with a global focus. the civic mission of schools report (2003) outlined civic knowledge as an essential component of civic education, but noted that instructional processes are as much a part of civic education as content knowledge. students encouraged to discuss public issues in open classroom environments were more likely to have higher levels of civic knowledge, political efficacy, political interest, sense of civic duty, and expectations for voting (hahn 1998; torney-purta et al., 2001). in the us students exposed to interactive discussionbased civic education had the highest scores on measures of twenty-first century competencies, including economic knowledge, skill in interpreting media, and positive attitudes toward diverse groups (torney-purta & wilkenfeld, 2009). teacher roles, perceptions, and goals the roles of teachers as they shape opportunities for students to interact with civic and citizenship education were included in the iea studies. when asked 4 questions about roberts et al. 103 organization of civic and citizenship education, teachers endorsed integration with social sciences. a few exceptions included teachers in the czech republic, romania, and the slovak republic who reported preference for civic education as a separate subject. across all participating nations teachers noted the need for better quality materials, additional training in associated content areas, and extended instructional time. the iea researchers examined teacher perceptions regarding goals for civic education. across countries, teachers noted that students should value knowledge of national history and respect laws (losito & mintrop, 2001). protecting the environment and promoting human rights were the next most frequently cited goals. danish and english teachers were less likely to report using textbooks, recitation, and lectures for civic instruction. danish teachers used group work and projects and were more likely to report that knowledge development and critical thinking were emphasized in the civic education curricula. all groups agreed civic education lacked emphasis in school curriculum. lee and fouts (2005) conducted a cross-national study of teachers’ conception of citizenship education in australia, england, the united states, russia, and china. they noted that teachers did not rate the political roles of citizens as important, particularly as compared to social roles of students as future adult citizens. drawing on survey and interview data researchers noted that across countries teachers emphasized the social dimensions of citizenship over the intellectual and political dimensions with emphasis on concepts such as morality and sense of duty. teachers rated skills to help students negotiate world issues and dilemmas as a priority. zong (2009) noted that the call to prepare teachers with a foundation for 21st education is well-supported; there is limited research examining best practices for global citizenship education yet scholars stress the importance of teacher knowledge for current issues and dilemmas along with pedagogical skill to provide opportunities for student engagement (duckworth, levy, & levy, 2005; yamashita, 2006). methods research design and theoretical framework transnational research is conceptualized within a range of approaches and disciplines. brown and gaventa (2009) suggest that various combinations of methodologies, strategies, and methods should be equally considered. in this study transnational research journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 104 in education was defined as studies that systematically utilize field data from two or more nations. a multi-sited ethnographic design was used with multi-perspective methods to gain understanding of teachers’ pedagogical practices (simon, 1992) and classroom practices in terms of social visions and power structures. the stance of critical pedagogy shaped by education theorists, freire (1990), giroux (1992), grant and sleeter (2011), and mclaren (1989) was used as a theoretical framework. these scholars emphasize issues of power in developing critical pedagogies as well as the everyday life experiences of communities and institutions. researchers considered the political and economic issues and dilemmas in each field site to explore the intertwined connection between social visions and supported pedagogical practices. this also included attention to the ways in which the wider societies (local, national, and global) might impact classroom practices and the relationships and activities of classrooms. consideration of critical perspectives in diverse field sites meant that researchers relied on critical pedagogy to investigate ways that social relationships unfolded within boundaries of formal learning. the work of freire (1990) was used to construct and inform the research process. freire rejected traditionally defined objects of investigation. he involved participants as partners in the research process. moreover friere was committed to understanding and being immersed in the ways of knowing shared by participants. he encouraged participants to ponder their own thinking. in this study participants were included in the process of investigation, examination, criticism, and reinvestigation. researchers and participants considered ways of knowing as a practice constructed by how participants understood themselves, their social spaces, histories, and future possibilities. the framework policy as practice (sutton & levinson, 2001) was also used as a lens to examine how and why participants interacted with curriculum in specific ways (levinson, sutton, & winstead, 2009). in educational settings the concept policy is associated with formal mandates, rules, and documents. sutton and levinson explain that the formal conception of policy should include the taken for granted patterns and principles representative of decision-making processes in classrooms and schools. the policy-aspractice lens spotlights the automatic and routine norms, practices, and choices that are endorsed without consideration of formal mandates, rules, and documents. the agency of roberts et al. 105 teachers and legitimacy for their patterns of engagement and interpretation, as well as resistance of standard policies was considered. the policy as practice lens offered a glimpse of the how and why participants engaged with citizenship and civic education curricula within defined structures (sutton & levinson, 2001). participants volunteer participants were identified using the snowball strategy (biernacki & waldof, 1981) emanating from professional and social network contacts as well as collaborative education projects. participant selection included 30 educators ranging in age from 25 to 59 with varying teaching experience from 1 to 21 years. all participants shared a commitment to teaching and learning about various concepts, values, skills, and knowledge associated with civics and citizenship education. data collection the organization of each research site as a network was a strategy for data collection and analysis (maxwell & stone, 2005). convenience sampling was used to develop networks labeled as: jaco costa rica, mandalay myanmar, and laramie wyoming. the intent was to facilitate understanding of the cultural dynamics of civic and citizenship education in each site as well as across networks. organization by network provided a reference to operate from a common platform with mutual influence for data collection and analysis (wenger, mcdermott & snyder, 2002). a cornerstone of the transnational connections was inclusion of collaborating investigators (cis) to negotiate geographic, cultural, and political borders inherent to field research. the cis were individuals in the costa rican and myanmar networks; they spoke english as a second language and self-identified as teachers in their respective communities. the underlying premise was that cis were located in the field sites and could accomplish more than principal researchers working independently. primary data sources included upkeep of a field log, ongoing debriefing sessions, transcriptions of one-to-one interviews, some focus group sessions, multiple classroom observations, textbook evaluations, and ongoing review of media documents along with weekly summaries of local and national current events. interviews were the central data journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 106 source across networks that represented standardization. classroom observations by outsiders were not allowed in the myanmar school system and textbook evaluation was not an option in the laramie wyoming network because teachers did not use them. data collection tools development of the interview guide followed the funnel approach (stewart & shamdasani, 1990). unstructured, open-ended questions were ordered from general to specific as a strategy to engage interest of participants. this protocol contained 4 broad questions designed to encourage general discussions as well as those related to civic and citizenship education. the use of non-leading questions was a validity technique; participants were given flexibility for topics to discuss and selection of experiences to share. member checks were used to help ensure validity of interview data. this consisted of sharing emerging themes with participants in the later stages of data collection. prepared interview questions included: 1) tell me about yourself. 2) what is it like to be a teacher in ___________________? 3) please describe a typical day in school. 4) what and how do/did you teach about citizenship and civics education? describe as much as possible, including resources and others involved in classroom processes. the intent was to avoid leading the interviews in a specific direction and to allow researchers to be viewed as facilitators, encouraging participants to share experiences and opinions in their own words. the interviews were defined as ethnographic because participants explored the culture of schooling. participants shared their lives and schooling experiences in great detail with a narrative quality. the interview setting was created as a comfortable and safe space for participants. researchers positioned themselves as learners who valued and respected participant knowledge and ideas. the majority of the interviews were conducted in english and transcribed in english. in the case of myanmar participants, a bilingual ci facilitated some interviews; she gave participants the option of using english or burmese but transcribed all interviews in english. one of the principal investigators in the myanmar network often roberts et al. 107 suggested that participants invite another participant to be close by during interviews to provide support with vocabulary and/or to help clarify ideas in english. a similar framework was used with the costa rica network. important to note that in the myanmar and costa rica networks english was considered a language of instruction and subject of mandatory testing; teachers were expected to have a foundation of english. data analysis the patton (2002) categorization style of case data was used for analysis. to begin a case record was established for each network. maintaining individual case records was a strategy to compare and cross reference themes between cases. this approach limited the loss of potential contributions of each case (stenhouse, 1988). primary themes were determined after all data were transcribed as case records. topics and emerging themes were recorded and a master list was generated. a reexamination of case records was completed followed by member checks. findings this section is organized as 3 case scenarios, beginning with the jaco costa rica network followed with case scenarios representing the mandalay myanmar and laramie wyoming networks. each case scenario represents a detailed analysis of individual case records. the case scenarios are written as first person accounts to represent the voices of participants. each scenario can be viewed as the themes within each network rather than the model by which all educators in a particular national jurisdiction are understood. case scenario one: teaching for the greatest country in the world the most important theme for us is that costa rica is connected to the world with a patriotic history and popular image as a democratic and peaceful nation without an army. teaching about citizenship and democratic values is an important part of our social studies curriculum. the purpose of textbooks is to unify students with patriotism, loyalty and the belief that costa rica is the greatest country in the world. we teach students that the costa rican government is a result of the peacefulness of the nation and democratic system that commits money to education not weapons. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 108 in my community these themes and images are easily extended beyond the classroom as demonstrated by government funding for the first costa rican civic center for peace. our new civic center opened in 2014 and is part of a national project by the ministry of peace. the goal of the civic center is to symbolize that peace is worth keeping and also worth teaching. i tell my students, next time at the civic center, think about what it represents for us. i always hope that students will come back to the classroom after thinking deeply about and asking adults the purpose of the new civic center. many share ideas about the civic center as a symbol of a peaceful way of living. because it’s a place for families they understand that it means peace starts in the family. we study patriotism through national symbols such as the flag, national hymn, tree, seal, and 3 historical events: 1) the independence of costa rica from spain in 1821; 2) the annexation of costa rica's northern province, guanacaste, in 1824; and 3) the defeat of william walker and the nicaraguan army in 1856 battles. in fifth grade we study the crusades, the rise of mercantilism, and european exploration as events that led to the colonial period. the political and social histories of colonial central america are examined but the key focus is the colonial period of costa rica. all the facts of these events are emphasized with memorization of names, dates, places, and events. an annual reenactment of the battle of rivas is a student-centered learning experience but mostly we rely on textbook-centered direct instruction, supplemented by questions for students to answer in workbooks. in sixth grade we focus on protecting our democracy with historical study of events from independence to the civil war in 1948. we teach about the struggles and citizens fighting for democracy with the method of story telling. we tell the story of the november 7, 1889 event when workers armed with machetes protested the suspension of elections by president bernardo soto after the constitutional party's candidate josé joaquín rodriguez won the election. students know this story as the night of the machete. civics is very important. yes of course we use the textbook for civics but we also involve students with lots of activities that extend beyond the classroom. we encourage full participation and students are committed to working together as a large group whether it’s to perform a national dance, compete with football tournaments, or help with community events. these are opportunities for students to actively engage as citizens, to show roberts et al. 109 themselves, their friends, families and communities that we are all committed to and able to be part of something bigger and to improve our daily lives along the way. we teach students to embrace the rules necessary for community cohesiveness and improvements as well as for social justice. we expect students to respect and follow the rules, but we don’t use much instructional time to discuss the rules or the consequence of not respecting social norms. students know the rules from their families and communities. i can say too that discussion of local and national events is often missing in the classroom when we study government topics in the textbooks. we mostly rely on rote memorization and testing to cover textbook material. emphasis is on teaching for retention of facts and information. our methods include rote memorization, recitation, and directing students to copy from the board or from social studies textbooks into their notebooks. at home students memorize the lessons copied from the board. summary. the jaco costa rica participants reported the importance of equipping students with the foundation for peace and tangible improvements in the lives of costa rican citizens. the cycle two textbooks (upper elementary grades) mirror this focus; they are streamlined around the study of costa rican nationalism. key areas include costa rican care of the surrounding environment, geography, culture, and history (table 1: curriculum for social studies cycle two). table 1 curriculum for social studies cycle two fourth grade fifth grade sixth grade 1) national:  map/globe skills  cultures  geography  preservation of natural resources 2) evolution & human development 1) national:  political history  exploration and conquest  colonization & independence  culture 2) citizenship 1) national:  political history  culture  economics  society note: ministerio de educacion publica. (2013b) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 110 participants did not have the freedom to develop emergent curriculum and instructional styles; nor did they deviate from the prescribed curriculum. yet the overarching aim toward nonviolent and peace education dovetailed with citizenship and civics curricula— across all aspects of the school environment. the primary goal was to cultivate positive interactions among students and to follow respectful policies that extend beyond school environments. participants expected this goal to permeate students’ homes and local communities. their overarching message to students was to value tranquility and respect—to model peace daily in family and community settings. while it appeared that the costa rica network focused most exclusively on a nationalistic curriculum, the overarching focus on a peaceful coexistence had a direct link to the importance of peace as a global issue. patriotism is a key concept that is both noted by participants as very important and used in the textbooks via a focus on the identification of the national symbols. the curriculum for social studies cycle one (primary grades) uses a story format to convey key historical events that further showcase the importance of patriotism. participants explained that their curricula expanded sequentially, beginning with concepts that were tangible and led to abstract ideas in upper grades. participants reported that they did not challenge textbooks in response to marginalization of minority groups. the textbook study of costa rican cultural heritage emphasizes pluralism and the melting pot to study a variety of cultures within costa rica, including the history and plight of indigenous cultures. these cultures are cited as contributing diversity while the spanish are credited with contributing language and customs. in sum, an overarching idea conveyed by all participants was the reference of “exceptional” to describe costa rica as a remarkable nation and one that is committed to teaching civics and citizenship at the primary and elementary levels. this stance promoted the personal identities of participants as educators responsible for teaching and modeling the national values of costa rica as a peaceful and democratic nation. case scenario two: learning from the heart nowadays we teachers have good discussions about civic education, which previously did not have much awareness in myanmar. apart from global current events, most myanmar roberts et al. 111 citizens, sometimes-even teachers, are not aware of basic issues and ethics of how to proceed in community settings. it’s new for us. we really do not have the names or labels for ideas such as multiculturalism, civics, and globalization but these ideas are embedded as part of our teaching. in the myanmar system, learning from the heart, meaning rote memorization of facts is important, much more than methods of critical and reflective thinking. wherever we are, home, school, work or in the community the emphasis is on happiness, harmony, tolerance and kindness. so we are guided by the confucian ways of operating from peace, understanding and tranquility. i think this can be contrasted with the us system of creativity and critical thinking. besides, in the classroom, the common ratio of 1 teacher to 100 students makes interactive critical reflective learning difficult. in the classroom we use the authorized textbooks and bring them to life. accepted topics of civic education in other systems—such as political literacy and critical pedagogy do not exist anywhere in our textbooks. however, coming together we teachers are drawn to citizenship and civics and are encouraged to reflect on our practices. together we are teaching ourselves to think critically, to analyze situations and to be careful to do no harm. we follow a moral education curriculum with textbooks that very briefly address components of civic education such as multicultural education and historical literacy. but we do not specifically teach students about human rights, how to critique power structures and tools of critical thinking. yes of course our students represent different ethnic nationalities but cultural awareness and respect for inclusion of personal learning are not emphasized. as a country we cannot identify ourselves as buddhist, christian, and chinese, rich, poor, and so forth—we are myanmar people. this means we follow the moral concepts in the textbooks: (1) respect to elders, (2) responsibility for our duties and (3) to live in unity with our communities. these concepts are more important than a focus on different cultures. i can say that we teachers convey these ideas using the same methods in the textbooks that prescribe learning with stories. in addition, like the textbooks, we are supposed to teach these concepts as moral absolutes that all myanmar people must adhere to at all times, under all circumstances. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 112 we provide students with information and skills to stay safe and we observe their ability to put this into practice in daily life. when students make mistakes we help them. we have convictions separate from the textbooks. for example we might cover a moral teaching from the textbook, such as fulfilling our duties, but we might also discourage following it in a blind, absolute way. so the point is that we want students to think carefully about when and where to follow the moral concepts in the textbooks and when not to. the government determines the authorized policy in the textbooks and changes are not allowed. sometimes teachers follow it exactly but commonly we use the textbooks to shape what we believe is most important for students to learn. of course this starts with respecting elders, fulfilling duties, and living together in the community. we teach our students stories that include themes of citizenship and civics education without ever using the labels citizenship and civics. we expand the range of topics addressed in the textbooks to include topics like critical thinking and the importance of participation. we do not participate in public activities that could be internationally defined as freedom rights or human rights. the bottom line is that as teachers we are responsible for protecting students from harm. therefore we instruct students to follow the rules. summary. the mandalay myanmar network was textbook-centric; myanmar participants reported that teaching was impossible without textbooks. at first glance this evoked the direct transmission model, noted by freire (1990) as the banking model of education in which knowledge was deposited into the minds of passive students and could be recited instantly in original format. yet through teaching participants were able to create and convey a sense of purpose for themselves and their students. participants reported that the textbooks and rules of conformity represented the core curriculum; yet they were committed to fostering something more than classrooms full of passive students. case scenario three: make believe to real world teaching i immerse students in real-life learning via collaborative research examining multiple perspectives of contemporary local and global dilemmas. when teaching this way, you trip over from a make believe world into the real world. it’s not teaching like we were taught to teach–here’s my nice neat lesson plan and clear objectives. students are not roberts et al. 113 going to be able to thrive in their future life, work, and democratic citizenship unless they can do the things outlined in the framework for 21st century learning skills: 1. demonstrate ability to work effectively with diverse teams; 2. demonstrate flexibility to communicate ideas, listen actively and keep an open mind when considering different perspectives; 3. demonstrate ability to stand firm or to compromise when necessary; 4. demonstrate the ability to be self-directed and set tangible goals; 5. enter collaborative discussions; become comfortable with complexity and ambiguity of complex, convoluted issues; 6. be willing to challenge assumptions; 7. come to discussions prepared; 8. engage effectively in collaborative groups; 9. follow rules for decision making; 10. track progress toward specific goals and deadlines. making the learning engaging, meaningful, authentic, and relevant to students’ lives is so far away from traditional, old-fashioned social studies teaching. if you’re going to do this work, it’s not going to feel good all the time and it’s not going to be conflict free. your students will encounter failure, problems, and conflict, and as the teacher, you facilitate as they negotiate and manage their way through it. it’s messy as hell. the learning is engaging for students because it has a real-life connection and impact. i don’t want the kids to be bored or waste their time. i do my best to design work that is worth doing. one project called a taxi for farai was fraught with conflict. on a trip to benin, west africa, two laramie wyoming middle school teachers were transported from place to place by a local taxi driver named farai. they learned that, although farai charged $60 a day for his taxi service, he only got to keep $3.00. the rest of the money went to the owner of the taxi. farai was attempting to support his immediate and extended family on $3.00 a day. the teachers brought this real-life scenario back to the school’s students, who almost immediately expressed a desire to buy farai his own taxi. with his own taxi he would make $60 a day instead of three. through various initiatives and a lot of hard work on the part of the students over a year’s time, the necessary $12,000 was raised and a small group of teachers and middle-school students planned another trip journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 114 to benin to gift farai with the $12,000 and help him acquire his own taxi. the kids were extremely excited and could not wait to see farai’s reaction when they handed him this generous check. they were extremely shocked when farai was not happy about being given a taxi. having his own taxi changed his status. overnight he went from being poor and happy to being rich and less happy. the people in this west african culture do not like to accept charity–their value system involves working hard to make a living even when it is a daily struggle. much more important than growing his business and being financially successful is being connected with family and friends and being able to truly help others in the community. through this experience, the students learned they did not have adequate cultural understanding of the situation to prevent this disappointing outcome. in essence, they were forcing a capitalist mindset onto a person living in a culture that is far removed from capitalism. the kids were so disappointed; they were all exclaiming, ‘this whole thing is a failure!" this is awful! we should just quit!” it was mind blowing for the kids! in learning like this you cannot predict what will happen and the students learn to deal with the unexpected. this situation actually resulted in much more effective learning than teaching in a makebelieve, textbook-driven manner. this is as real as it gets. following this extremely discrepant event, i facilitated as my students analyzed ferai’s unexpected response. they talked to an expert in west african culture and to a person who grew up in the culture to try to better understand the cultural perspective. as a result of this experience, these kids’ ideas about what is effective international aid did 180s and so did mine. these kids now have a healthy skepticism of the efficacy of american aid in foreign countries and it will actually make them better able to serve other countries in the future. summary. the laramie wyoming participants created space for students to adopt active steps towards practice that were just and equitable through a social action lens (friere, 2000). they engaged students in real life situations based on the framework for 21st century learning skills (partnership for 21st century skills, n. d.). these participants were committed to providing real-life connections and experiential learning for students. inevitably this focus included exposure to global social inequalities through active participation with the project, a taxi for farai. as well students in this case were exposed roberts et al. 115 to a cultural perspective that was different than theirs, perhaps creating some cognitive dissonance regarding how they viewed an african nation. cross national comparisons. unlike the format of the costa rican textbooks, the myanmar government issued textbooks had defined values, skills, and knowledge interwoven throughout all grade levels but never referred to the labels civics and citizenship; the myanmar textbooks encouraged teachers to practice civic values, skills, and knowledge with full integration in daily classroom experiences. textbook examples included in table 2 illustrate this point. table 2 values, skills, and knowledge embedded in myanmar government issued textbooks values skills knowledge  fulfill duties—family school community, nation  respect elders  peace, unity, harmony  commitment  good health/hygiene  economic growth  importance of knowledge  being a good person/ citizen  team work  remaining disciplined with all activities  being systematic with all responsibilities  service to family, school, community, nation  government union of myanmar  independence from british rule  government leaders such as aung san  geography of myanmar regions  national holidays such as “national day”  occupations (doctor, farmer, teacher, nurse)  symbols note: basic education curriculum and textbook committee. 2015a-c distinct from other systems in which civic education is taught as a stand alone subject or series of curriculum units, myanmar civic concepts are not presented in isolation. these concepts are integrated throughout the school day and embedded in nearly all textbooks. as such it appears that the myanmar participants navigated within a highly structured system. they altered policy and developed modifications. small adjustments but with tremendous implications were evident. participants altered policy in ways that were not obvious; in reference to sutton and levinson's (2001) 'policy as practice' framework, the focus was on teaching students how to participate in civic life. the myanmar civic journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 116 education policy prioritized teaching of moral education and values of discipline, obedience and loyalty. educators were urged to teach students to memorize and accept the legitimacy of moral concepts without question. close reliance on the textbooks suggested that students would automatically become good citizens based on memorization. in this case becoming good citizens was defined by an authoritarian setting. yet participants served as both instigators and moderators, allowing students to contribute their own ideas. they specifically created safe and somewhat open environments to encourage students. similar to the costa rica network but on a very different level, participants were committed to teaching citizenship vith a balance of political and social unity. the laramie wyoming participants, however, relied on a 21-century education framework to engage students with global visions. as teachers they were risk takers. at the level of the intended curriculum, diversity and global citizenship were important concepts. participants used the concept of multiple perspectives as a lens for the study of global issues; students and participants engaged in experiential learning, authentic simulations, and problem-based learning to deliberate solutions to global dilemmas and issues endemic to developing a stance for citizenship and civics. at the classroom level planning was developed with a broad brush, allowing for maximum input and participation from both teachers and students. unlike the jaco costa rica and mandalay myanmar cases, the laramie wyoming case was not constrained by use of textbooks, thus more flexibility for teacher creativity was expected. discussion, conclusion and implications discussion current reform efforts in the education systems of costa rica and myanmar aim for alignment of school programs with a 21-century education framework; at the same time, the us education system is cycling back into a more traditional, separate-disciplineapproach to instruction. although the laramie wyoming participants were accountable for teaching the common core standards, they had autonomy with implementation of the curriculum and instruction to address standards. important to note that k-12 teachers in laramie wyoming generally follow a prescribed curriculum with fidelity and are accountable to teach all subtopics related to core subjects. in this case school subjects roberts et al. 117 were taught in isolation using traditional practices. teachers from diverse subject areas rarely collaborated to plan and teach interdisciplinary units. similar to the jaco costa rica network, the laramie wyoming network mirrors parker’s (2003) notion that schools steeped in curricular and civic spaces can realize purposeful citizenship; such schools serve as genuine markers of citizenship education; amplified by their “social significance” for “community life” (dewey, 1900, p. 14). from western perspectives, interactive classrooms that encourage students to express, respect, and understand different sides of social issues, are viewed as beneficial for 21st century skills and competencies. the challenge-based projects illustrated in the laramie wyoming network provide examples of teacher-facilitated, learner-centered, authentic, and challenge-based curriculum to engage students in civic and citizenship education. participants developed curriculum that effectively immersed students in learning about and finding solutions to real-world issues. throughout the process there were no easy answers to local and global dilemmas. participants reported that researching and considering multiple perspectives surrounding real-world dilemmas, and brainstorming viable solutions seemed easy and straightforward at first but fraught with multiple dilemmas. implications this study does not offer a single definition of citizenship and civic education or advocate particular approaches. rather it expands dominant definitions and provides understanding of different bodies of knowledge, values, skills, and pedagogical mindsets. each network had distinct vocabulary and labels for overarching concepts that represent civic and citizenship education; across the 3 networks is understanding that schools have responsibility to provide the knowledge, skills, and virtues of civics and citizenship within national, regional, and local contexts. teachers create the space for students to practice regardless of political structures. as such teachers represent the apex of change, new ideas, and the anchor for both sustainability and stability. scholars suggest that individuals schooled within a regime such as the emerging democracy of myanmar do not qualify as citizens, as they have not been granted the rights commonly associated with democratic citizenship. as well myanmar, as a democratic journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 118 system, suffers from questions of legitimacy due to the role of the state with human rights violations. perhaps myanmar students do not have the same models and opportunities to practice citizenship as evident in the established democratic systems of costa rica and the us. that said it appears that participants considered the tension between competing goals of democratic citizenship from one respect and social conformity on the other hand to be their responsibility as myanmar educators. in response they conveyed messages of democratic citizenship as stories that included skill with decision-making. these classroom experiences provided students with opportunities to practice democratic citizenship as a component embedded with other subjects. at first glance it seems practical to recommend that myanmar participants work toward the model of classrooms exemplified by the jaco costa rica and laramie wyoming networks. in this regard costa rica is the better model given that as a nation it has a more conventional stance of citizenship and unlike the us is not characterized as a culture of violence. costa rica has had problems but remains a healthy and more central referent for citizenship. meaning that nations worldwide have different histories with various citizenship violations that influence civics and citizenship curricula. individual nations can tailor or edit curricula for citizenship to their national contexts, but the basic contours of change are rooted in broader global patterns. if this is the case, then citizenship education throughout the world ceases to be just a national enterprise. in the case of myanmar, national elements do not disappear, but civic education might lose some national and homogeneous boundaries. notions of diversity and culture could become more prominent. at some future point myanmar civic education could extend beyond national borders. the future promise of civic and citizenship education in the myanmar context depends in part on two provisions. first myanmar teachers need professional development of research-based pedagogies. myanmar participants relied on teacher directed and textbook teaching. mandating pedagogies that are shaped by methods to actively engage students with key concepts, skills, and foundations of civic knowledge will mean very little because teachers cannot teach what they don’t know. students' foundation of civic and citizenship will continue to suffer if teachers are not trained in pedagogy and content. rather teachers might revert to traditional methods inclusive of page-by-page reliance of textbooks as the central source of knowledge, skills, and values. roberts et al. 119 secondly, myanmar teachers should have active roles with reform efforts currently in progress. a recommendation for individuals and organizations involved with the current reform efforts in the myanmar education system is to encourage a bottom up curriculum strategy. the bottom up strategy provides a common ground for teachers to reflect on their practices, to experiment with innovation and to speculate on ideas as theories of teaching. teachers take on the role of curriculum developers, rather than curriculum users. while the first position speaks to issues of empowerment and social justice, the latter suggests issues of control and dependency. affirmation of teachers as curriculum developers challenges the traditional hierarchical order that generally locates them at the bottom of the professional ladder. as well, the focus of control over what counts as valid educational knowledge is shifted from external agencies to the schools and teachers’ classrooms. this shift encourages teachers to search for new insights in the dynamic situations they face in classrooms (stenhouse, 1978). the bottom-up strategy also provides insight for the impact of curricular materials on school curriculum in developing countries. because education expenditures are often limited in developing countries, textbooks are accepted as the primary curricular material (pinar et al, 1996). educational stakeholders of developing nations oftentimes view textbooks as a viable option for the core school curricular material. as such the inherent dilemmas associated with the myanmar participants’ dependency on textbooks as the primary curricular material are not limited to the myanmar case. to a lesser extent the same issues are prevalent in the costa rican context. critics at both national and international levels argue that a heavy reliance on textbooks means that cultures other than those represented in textbooks are silenced. this is certainly the case in both the jaco costa rica and mandalay myanmar networks. conclusion conducting this study afforded researchers opportunity to interpret their own national context through the perspectives of outsiders and to glimpse other countries through the eyes of insiders. in so doing researchers experienced what it means to understand the thought processes of other cultures and to consider diverse viewpoints, while also recognizing personal country contexts from the perspectives of external observers. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 120 with this it is important to note limitations of the study. the problem of standardization across the 3 networks was underestimated. the degree of variation in meanings, practices, and contexts was not considered in the early planning stages. for example, access to myanmar classrooms for observational purposes was not an option because the myanmar government does not allow it. secondly, review of required textbooks was easily available for the jaco costa rica and mandalay myanmar networks but not for the laramie wyoming network. the laramie wyoming participants did not use textbooks, but relied on dynamic resources, guest speakers, and class trips. lastly, completion of the field research was dependent on where researchers were physically located over a 4-year period. challenges included meeting institutional demands that ultimately disrupted the flow of data collection. the fieldwork process was full of negotiation and compromise between fieldwork dynamics and the restraints and realities of researching across time and space. in conclusion this study offers a reference for understanding how educators in costa rica, myanmar, and the us conceive of citizenship and civic education based on educational materials, textbooks, teaching practices, and accepted classroom strategies. overarching takeaways include understanding that while there are many different roads to the same ends, all should be considered by the extent to which they demonstrate potential for students and teachers. that said more research is needed to examine how teachers navigate cultural and political structures through their pedagogy and across national contexts. there is a strong rationale for follow up, perhaps by way of detailed interview studies for a deeper understanding of what civic and citizenship education means within diverse national histories and within a global context. roberts et al. 121 references abu el-haj t. (2009). becoming citizens in an era of globalization and transnational migration: re-imagining citizenship as critical practice. theory into practice. 48, 274–282. almond, g., & verba, s. (1963). the civic culture: political attitudes and democracy in five nations. boston: little brown. asia foundation. (2005). civic education support for the afghan elections. san francisco: asia foundation. avery, p. (2002). political tolerance, democracy and adolescents. in w. parker (ed.), education for democracy: contexts, curricula, assessments, (pp.113-130). information age publishing. banks, j., banks, c., cortes, c., hahn, c., merryfield, m., moodley, k., parker, w. (2005). democracy and diversity: principles and concepts for educating citizens in a global age. seattle: university of washington, center for multicultural education. banks, j. (2007). educating citizens in a multicultural society. new york: teachers college press. banks j. (2008). diversity, group identity, and citizenship education in a global age. educational researcher. 37, 129–139. basic education curriculum and textbook committee. (2015a). reader two grade 3. myanmar: the government of the republic of the union of myanmar ministry of education. basic education curriculum and textbook committee. (2015b). reader three grade 4. myanmar: the government of the republic of the union of myanmar ministry of education. basic education curriculum and textbook committee. (2015c). reader four grade 5. myanmar: the government of the republic of the union of myanmar ministry of education. biernacki, p., & waldorf, d. (1981). snowball sampling: problems and techniques of chain referral sampling. sociological methods & research, 10(2), 141-163. brown, l., & gaventa, j. (2009). constructing transnational research networks: reflections on the citizenship development research centre. action research. 8, 528. bruce, j., north, c., & fitzpatrick, j. (2019) preservice teachers’ views of global citizenship and implications for global citizenship education. globalization, societies and education 17(2), 161-176. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14767724.2018.1558049 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14767724.2018.1558049 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 122 carnegie corporation of new york, (2003). the center for information and research on civic learning and engagement (circle). the civic mission of schools. carnegie corporation of new york and circle. college park, md, usa. center for civic education. (2012, january 27). civitas impact retrieved from http://new.civiced.org/civitas-programs/impact. civic mission of schools report (2003). the center for information and research on civic learning and engagement. davies, l. (2006). global citizenship: abstraction or framework for action? educational review, 58(1), 5-25. de tocqueville, a. (1969). democracy in america. new york: doubleday, anchor books. dewey, j. (1900). the school and society. chicago il: university of chicago press. duckworth, r., levy, l. w., & levy, j. (2005). present and future teachers of the world's children: how internationally-minded are they? journal of research in international education, 4, 279. etzioni, a., berkowitz, m., & wilcox, w. (1995). character building for a democratic, civil society. alexandria, va: character education partnership. fairbrother, g., & kennedy, k., (2012). civic education curriculum reform in hong kong: what should be the direction under chinese sovereignty? cambridge journal of education, 41(4), 425-443. foley, d., & putu, m. (2007). developing citizen leaders for democratic governance in south africa. in e. stevick & b. levinson (eds.), reimagining civic education (pp. 173192). new york: rowman & littlefield publishers, inc. freire, p. (2000). pedagogy of the oppressed. london: the continuum international publishing group. freire, p. (1990). pedagogy of the oppressed. new york: the continuum international publishing group. gamez, r. (1991). biodiversity conservation through facilitation of its sustainable use: costa rica’s national biodiversity institute. trends in ecology and evolution, 377– 378. giddens, a. (2002). runaway world: how globalization is reshaping our lives. new york: routledge. giroux, h. (1992). border crossings: cultural workers and the politics of education. new york: routledge. gould, j. (2003). guardian of democracy: the civic mission of schools; the center for information and research on civic learning and engagement: college park, md. grant, c. & sleeter, c. (2011). doing multicultural education for achievement and equity ( 2th ed.). new york: routledge. greene, b. (1995). meeting higher education needs in the 21st century. asia-pacific exchange journal, 2(1), 2. http://new.civiced.org/civitas-programs/impact http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0826412769?ie=utf8&linkcode=as2&camp=1634&creative=6738&tag=theeducationi-20&creativeasin=0826412769 roberts et al. 123 hahn, c. (1998). becoming political: comparative perspectives on citizenship education. albany, ny: state university of new york press. hannerz, u. (1996). transnational connections: culture, people, places. london: routledge. held, d., & mcgrew, a. (eds.). (2003). the global transformations reader: an introduction to the globalization debate. cambridge: polity press. kennedy, k., (2008). the citizenship curriculum: ideology, content and organization. in j. author, i. davies, and c. hahn (eds.), the handbook of education for citizenship and democracy (483-491). los angeles, ca: sage. kohn, m. (1987). cross-national research as an analytics strategy. american sociological review, 52(6), 713-731. kymicka, w. (2003). two dilemmas of citizenship education in pluralist societies. in a. lockyer, b. crick & j. annette (eds.), education of democratic citizenship: issues of theory and practice. burlington, vt: ashgate publishing. lee w., & fouts j., (2005). education for social citizenship: perceptions of teachers in the usa, australia, england, russia, and china. hong kong: hong kong university press. levine, d. & bishai, l. (2010). civic education and peacebuilding: examples from iraq and sudan. special report 254. washington d.c.: united states institute of peace. levinson, b., sutton, m., & winstead, t. (2009). education policy as a practice of power: theoretical tools, ethnographic methods, democratic options. educational policy, 23(6), 767-795. losito b., & mintrop h., (2001). the teaching of civic education. in j. torney-purta, r. lehmann, h oswald (eds.), citizenship education in twenty-eight countries: civic knowledge and engagement at age fourteen (pp. 157-174). amsterdam: the international association for the evaluation of educational achievement. martin, e. (2004). sustainable development, postmodern capitalism, and environmental policy and management in costa rica. contemporary justice review, 7, 153–169. maxwell, s., & stone, d. (2005). global knowledge networks and international development: bridges across boundaries. in d. stone & s. maxwell (eds.), global knowledge networks and international development, (pp. 1-17). london: routledge. merryfield, m. (1997). a framework for teacher education in global perspectives. in m. merryfield, e. jarchow, & s. pickert (eds.), preparing teachers to teach global perspectives, (pp. 1-24). los angeles, ca: corwin press, inc. ministerio de educacio ́n publica. (2001). programa de estudios ciencias: ciclo i. san jose ́, costa rica: costa rican ministerio de educatio ́n pu ́blica. ministerio de educacion publica. (2013a). estudios sociales: 1 ciclo, programa de estudios. san jose, costa rica. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 124 ministerio de educacion publica. (2013b). estudios sociales: 2 ciclo, programa de estudios. san jose, costa rica. national council for social studies (ncss). (2016). global and international education in social studies. retrieved from https://www.socialstudies.org/positions/global_and_international_education nonini, d., & ong, a. (1997). chinese transnationalism as an alternative modernity. in a. ong & d. nonini (eds), ungrounded empires: the cultural politics of modern chinese transnationalism, (pp. 3-33). london: routledge. palmer, s., palmer, s., jiménez, i., & molina, i. (eds.). (2004). the costa rica reader: history, culture, politics. durum nc: duke university press. palys, t. (2008). purposive sampling. in l. given (ed.), the sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods (pp. 697-698). los angeles ca: sage publications. parker, w. (2003). teaching democracy: unity and diversity in public life. new york, ny: teachers college press. partnership for 21st century skills. (n.d.). framework for 21st century learning skills. retrieved from https://wvde.state.wv.us/counselors/links/initiatives/21st-centuryframework.pdf. patton, m. (2002). qualitative research and evaluation methods. london, sage publications. roberts, a. (1999). taming the monsters: practical intimacies in a costa rican classroom. international education: an action research journal, 7 (3), 345-363. schulz, w., ainley, j., fraillon, j., kerr, d., & losito, b. (2010). iccs 2009 international report: civic knowledge, attitudes, and engagement among lower-secondary school students in 38 countries (pp. 312). amsterdam: international association for the evaluation of educational achievement (iea). simon, r. (1992). teaching against the grain: texts for a pedagogy of possibility. new york: bergen & garvey. stenhouse, l. (1978). case study and case records: toward a contemporary history of education. british education research journal, 4, 231-234. stenhouse, l. (1988). case study methods. in j. keeves (ed.), educational research, methodology, and measurement: an international handbook. sydney: pergamum press. stewart, d., & shamdasani, p. (1990). focus groups theory and practice. newbury park, ca: sage publications. sutton, m., & levinson, b., (2001). policy as practice: toward a comparative sociocultural analysis of educational policy. westport, ct: greenwood press. torney-purta, j., & barber, c., (2005). democratic school engagement and civic participation among european adolescents; iea: amsterdam, the netherlands. available online: (http:// www.jsse.org/2005/2005-3/judith-torney-purta-carolynhttps://www.socialstudies.org/positions/global_and_international_education https://wvde.state.wv.us/counselors/links/initiatives/21st-century-framework.pdf https://wvde.state.wv.us/counselors/links/initiatives/21st-century-framework.pdf roberts et al. 125 barber-democratic-school-engagementand-civic-participation-among-europeanadolescents (accessed on 15 june 2012). torney-purta, j., lehmann, r., oswald, h., & schulz, w., (2001). citizenship and education in twenty-eight countries: civic knowledge and engagement at age fourteen. delft, netherlands: the international association for the evaluation of educational achievement.. torney-purta, j. & wilkenfeld, b., (2009). paths to 21st century competencies through civic education classrooms: an analysis of survey results from ninth-graders. chicago, il: american bar association division for public education. wenger, e., mcdermott, r., & snyder, w., (2002). cultivating communities of practice. boston, ma: harvard business school press. world bank (2017). government expenditure on education, total (% of government expenditure). washington, dc: world bank. retrieved october 22, 2017, from https://data .worldbank.org/indicator/se.xpd.totl.gb.zs. yamashita, h. (2006). global citizenship education and war: the needs of teachers and learners. educational review, 27(13), 27-39. yin, r. (2014). case study research: design and methods. newbury park, ny: sage publications. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (4),97-126 126 appendix one: list of participants mandalay myanmar pseudonym gender interview date 1 yamin chit f july18 2018 2 sai hein m july 15 2018 3 myat noe f july 15 2018 4 pann f may 25 2018 5 cherry f may 25 2018 6 seng f march 16 2015 7 yupar f march 15 2015 8 moe moe f march 15 2015 9 kyu kyu f march 12 2015 10 khaing f march 12 2015 jaco costa rica pseudonym gender interview date 1 katia f august 15 2016 2 ana f august 15 2016 3 myra f august 1 2016 4 gabriela f august 1 2016 5 vanessa f july 2 2016 6 daniela f july 1 2016 7 alejandra f june 17 2016 8 mercedes f june 16 2016 9 juanita f june 15 2016 10 cata f june 15 2016 laramie wyoming pseudonym gender interview date 1 nancy f may 1 2017 2 thomas m april 1 2017 3 jane f april 1 2017 4 jeff m march 28 2017 5 katrina f march 28 2017 6 sarah f february 13 2017 7 shannon f february 12 2017 8 beth f february 5 2017 9 leslie f february 3 2017 10 lynn f february 3 2017 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3), 82-102 dynamics of acculturation processes among foreign students in the multi-ethnic educational environment of the higher educational establishment raziya akhtarieva1, elmira ibragimova2 and aiziryak tarasova3 abstract the relevance of the integration process of a foreign student-future teacher is determined by the need for their further effective education in the multinational structure of tatarstan republic in the multi-ethnic educational environment of the university. the purpose of the article is to study the dynamics of acculturation processes among foreign students in the multi-ethnic educational environment of the university. based on the observation and questioning of 145 respondents, the authors analysed topical issues of training foreign students with the major pedagogical education in russian universities. the authors studied the factors affecting the effectiveness of the educational process. the features of organizing this process are considered by the example of elabuga institute of kazan federal university. its strengths and weaknesses are formulated, as well as a course to improve the process of teaching foreign students in high school. key words: acculturation, foreign students, multi-ethnic educational environment, globalization, migration, integration. introduction nowadays russia experiences rapid development of intercultural contacts, therefore, we are witnessing subsequent changes resulting from cultural exchanges, which proves the viability of the acculturation processes theory in the contemporary world. modern globalization processes and technological progress encompass not only business entities, but also the system of education. currently, elabuga institute of kazan federal university (ei kfu) is rapidly developing the international field of activity, recruiting foreign students to master the profession of a teacher. today, more than 700 students from five countries of the world study in ei kfu. 1 phd in pedagogy, associate professor, elabuga institute (branch) of kazan federal university, elabuga, russia, e-mail: raziya-a@yandex.ru 2 ph.d. in philology, associate professor, elabuga institute (branch) of kazan federal university, elabuga, russia, e-mail: elmira915@mail.ru 3 senior teacher, elabuga institute (branch) of kazan federal university, elabuga, russia, e-mail: tarasova.aiza@yandex.ru akhtarieva et al. we assume that the process of foreign students’ training in a russian university cannot be isolated from the socio-cultural environment. therefore, one of the main factors influencing the effectiveness of foreign students’ training is their successful acculturation to the new conditions of the educational environment. acculturation serves a condition of their psychological and social readiness to integrate into the society and culture of russia, including tatarstan. due to globalization, the process of cross-cultural interaction attracts researchers from all over the world. the anthropologists r. redfield, r. linton and m. herskovits were the first to use the term “acculturation” instead of the concept “cross-cultural interaction” in their book “memorandum on the study of acculturation” (1936). they were unanimous with some other foreign researchers of the 19th 20th centuries and understood this term as the result of direct and long-term cultural contact of two groups of individuals and changes in cultural paradigms of both groups. since the second half of the 20th century, the term “acculturation” has been treated in a broader sense: as a process of interaction between cultures. for the contemporary russian scientific world, the term “acculturation” is a relatively new concept. it was used for the first time in the late 1990s in works on ethno-psychology [see, for example, krys’ko (1999); lebedeva (1997, 1999); stefanenko (2000) and others]. moreover, this researching was not only descriptive, but also investigative. for instance, lebedeva (1997) studied acculturation of the russian inhabitants in the former soviet republics. acculturation in the russian ethno-psychology is treated as “the process of mutual influence of people with a particular culture on each other, as well as the result of this influence” (krys’ko, 1999). this definition is borrowed from the works of western scientists, engaged in the problems of adaptation to a new cultural environment since the late 30s of the 20th century. socio-cultural adaptation, as well as acculturation of students, is in the focus of study of a sufficiently large number of scientists abroad, such as searle and ward (1990), ward and kennedy (1996), kim and gugykunst (1988). others pay special attention to the adaptation of foreign students in educational institutions (jarrah, 2019; shamshudinova, 2019; kosov et al., 2016; bykanova et al., 2017; yigit, 2018). in the 1960s, the canadian psychologist george berry, who conducted research in the field of acculturation, determined the factors, underlying acculturation strategies (assimilation, integration, separation and marginalization), which are also possible consequences of cross-cultural contacts for the individual: the maintenance and development of the individual’s ethnic identity in the journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 84 society and his desire to contact with other ethnic groups (berry and annis, 1974; abikenov et al., 2019; biserova and shagivaleeva, 2019). contemporary scientists understand cross-cultural adaptation as an individual’s adjustment to the conditions of a new socio-cultural environment, in other words, to new values, behavioral norms, traditions, rituals (kabuldinov et al., 2016; monni et al., 2017; bozhkova et al., 2019; shatunova et al., 2019; lafer & tarman, 2019). adaptation can be considered successful if its methods and techniques are correctly defined, and they let someone achieve social and psychological integration with another culture without losing the value/richness of someone’s own culture. the relevance of the integration process of a foreign student-future teacher is determined by the need for their further effective education in the multinational structure of tatarstan, in the multiethnic educational environment of the university. the ethno-cultural socialization of students in a multinational environment of an educational institution is in the focus of attention for scientists of elabuga institute of kfu (2011). the goal of the research work is to identify the dynamics of acculturation processes* among foreign students in the multi-ethnic educational environment of the higher educational establishment. the concept of “polycultural education” is defined by modern science as “... education that meets not only the interests of the ethnos, but also the interests of the state, the whole world community” (emel’anov, 2001). identical to this concept is the concept of “multicultural education”, which is understood as education, which reflects “understanding and adequate appreciation of different cultures and which is adapted to the needs of children from different groups of the population” (ivanova & titkova, 1993). the concept of “multi-ethnic educational environment of the university”, is part of the educational environment, which is a set of conditions that affect the formation of a personality, ready for effective interethnic interaction, preserving its ethnic identity and striving to understand other ethnic cultures (carothers, 2018; kutbiddinova & eromasova, 2009). the issues of education and upbringing in a multicultural and multi-ethnic environment from the standpoint of multiculturalism is in the focus of many russian scientists. in terms of global trends in the development of multicultural education, a.n. dzhurinsky (2018) considers relevant aspects of school policy, pedagogical theory and practice in foreign countries, such as the usa, canada and australia. akhtarieva et al. the concepts of multicultural education (notions, goals, content models of multicultural education, techniques and methods of teaching in a multi-ethnic environment, etc.) are considered by such scholars as novikova (2019, asaliev et al., 2014; zhuravlev et al., 2018; voronkova et al., 2019). in russian science, the problems of students’ adaptation is of particular interest (bykanova et al., 2018). i.v. shir’aeva (1980) believes that the acculturation of foreign students is “the formation of a stable system of relations to all components of the pedagogical system, ensuring adequate behavior that contributes to the achievement of educational goals”. their adaptation differs from overcoming the didactic barrier by russian students and changes with each year of study (houdyshell, 2017; korableva et al., 2019). at first, they become part of the student environment, learn the norms of the international social group, and work out their own behavioral style. on senior courses, they form strong positive attitude towards their future profession, demonstrating stronger skills in the non-native language, and develop the sense of academic equality. consequently, the positive dynamics of acculturation processes in the educational environment of the university manifests itself. according to m.a. ivanova and n.a. titkova, the psychological atmosphere in the study group and the socio-metric status of a high school teacher are among the factors that determine the success of a foreign student’s adaptation. they developed a set of tools to assess the problems of foreign students’ acculturation to new socio-cultural conditions. they include: 1) the semi-structured interview “your life and study at the pre-university courses” (to determine the factors influencing the involvement of a foreign student into the academic process); 2) the patterned interview “man among the people” (to study the factors of intergroup and interpersonal communication in educational and extracurricular activities); 3) the questionnaire “learning is your present that will ensure your future” (to evaluate the effectiveness of the educational process, identify the factors hindering successful training, and to determine the degree of readiness of students to continue their training). foreign scientists are mainly interested in cultural adaptation, in the importance of religious and cultural factors in adapting to the new environment. thus, studies on the adaptation of foreign students are mainly aimed at identifying the difficulties that they overcome when living and studying in another state (alajmi, 2019). in this paper, an attempt is made to understand the dynamics of acculturation processes and how the model of pedagogical support of adaptation of foreign students in the educational environment of the elabuga institute of kfu is practically implemented. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 86 the answer to this question is obtained via the use of research materials of foreign students and observation. method research design the authors of the work used a set of complementary research methods reflecting the content of the research problem, the goal, the subject of the study, and the objectives formulated: analysis (interdisciplinary, comparative, semantic) of psychological and pedagogical, philosophical and sociological literature on the outlined issues; theoretical generalization and systematization of scientific-theoretical and experimental data; survey method; observation (direct and indirect, longterm and short-term); methods of mathematical statistics. as part of the study of foreign students’ acculturation processes in a multi-ethnic educational environment of the university, foreign students of elabuga institute of kazan federal university were asked to answer a set of questions in november 2017 and november 2018. the authors of the article monitored foreign students throughout the entire period of training. the participation in the experiment of respondents with different periods of training at the university and diagnostics with an annual interval between measurements made it possible to investigate the dynamics of acculturation processes. participants the total sample number of respondents is 145 people, aged 18-27 years old, with experience of study in russia from 1.5 to 5 years. there are three married couples. the majority of respondents (91%) live in the dormitory. these 145 students make over 20% of the total number of foreign students (700 people) studying at elabuga institute of kfu and they are enrolled in the training programme “pedagogical education”, with the major “russian and english”. most of the respondents are students from turkmenistan. the educational program mastered by them is aimed at developing acculturation processes by foreign students in the poly-ethnic educational environment of the university. instrumentations the research is based on a survey questionnaire. the theoretical basis for developing the methodology for evaluating and analyzing the dynamics are system-activity, activity-personal and competence-based approaches to assessing the effectiveness of educational practice. in the process of evaluating acculturation processes in akhtarieva et al. foreign students, the authors used such research methods as observation of students’ behavior, questioning, comparative analysis, methods of mathematical statistics. the authors worked out a questionnaire including 9 questions in 2017 and tried it out to obtain primary data. in the process of assessing the effectiveness of acculturation processes among foreign students in a multi-ethnic educational environment of a higher educational establishment, three levels of formation of a culture of interethnic communication (high, intermediate and low) are specified. to determine the peculiarities of acculturation processes, the research group also conducted an interview, which included questions concerning the background of the student, the motives of their arrival in tatarstan, accommodation, training, communication, and culture. the interview was carried out in the russian and english languages. in the course of tailoring up the tools, the authors took into account the possibility of considering the experience of living and training of foreign students in the new environment. data collection the students’ survey questionnaire for identifying opinions on integration issues was conducted at elabuga institute of kazan federal university. during the procedure for processing the received data, the main stages of the work were as follows: a) analyzing levels of formation of interethnic communication levels in the respondents’ first and subsequent years of training; b) analyzing changes in the process of formation of intercultural competence throughout the academic year; c) identifying factors of educational and extracurricular activities that determine the nature and dynamics of acculturation processes in foreign students in the educational environment of the university. the assessment involved observing students in the process of their studies and participation in university activities aimed at developing the culture of interethnic communication, and using the questionnaire worked out as part of this research aimed at checking the formation of the culture of interethnic communication. in order to test the formation of the culture of interethnic communication, the students were asked to answer the following questions: how important do you find a person’s national identity in personal communication? representatives of different nationalities study at elabuga institute of kazan federal university. do you dislike them? why? what nationalities do you dislike? do they live in a different way of life / speak an incomprehensible language? journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 88 do they offend people of your nationality? do they treat customs and traditions of other nations disrespectfully? are they people of a religion alien to me? determine the state and nature of interethnic relations in elabuga institute. would you like to learn more about the customs, traditions, history of those peoples whose representatives study at ei kfu? in the result of the ascertaining experiment, the results were analyzed and interpreted. processing of the obtained data during the experiment consisted of four stages. at the first stage questionnaire forms with answers of students were studied. at the second stage, the authors analyzed the response data in each proposed situation, and composed a summary table for the group. at the third stage, the percentage of adaptation level of both (first, second, and subsequent years of study) experimental groups was calculated. at the fourth and final stage, the analysis of educational and extracurricular work with foreign students was carried out, which are aimed at increasing the positive dynamics of acculturation processes in students-inophones in the multiethnic educational environment of the university. data analysis techniques in the current study, the authors applied a qualitative analysis using a comparative method, since this analysis allows us to determine the dynamics of acculturation processes by observing, talking and comparing the answers to questionnaire questions of foreign students in the first, second, and subsequent years of study. findings in november 2018, we interviewed 145 respondents of the second and subsequent years of study and obtained results that allow tracing the dynamics of acculturation processes among foreign students in the multi-ethnic educational environment of the university. in the first year of study, in november 2017, 169 students took part in the survey; therefore, the data reflect the percentage of the total number participating in the survey. the results of the study, aimed at identifying the developmental level of these processes, are presented in table 1. akhtarieva et al. table 1 developmental levels of interethnic communication standards in the years of study developmental levels of interethnic communication standards in the first year of study (%) in the second and subsequent years of study (%) 1 representatives of a high level of interethnic communication standards 11,2 % 15,5% 2 representatives of an intermediate level of interethnic communication standards 59,3 % 65,2% 3 representatives of a low level of interethnic communication standards 29,5 % 19,3% developmental levels of interethnic communication standards in the years of study in the first year of study (%) in the second and subsequent years of study (%) the attitude to the outlined issue was based on receiving the information that determines the respondents’ readiness for a cultural dialogue, their interest in interethnic interaction, which makes it possible to identify problems, preventing an interethnic dialogue. the information was obtained from the questionnaire compiled at the previous stage of the study, which, in our opinion, helps to trace the dynamics of the cross-cultural competence of senior foreign students in the educational environment of the university. the results of assessing the level of interethnic communication standards between second-year students and first-year students show the following differences: the number of representatives of a high level of interethnic communication standards increased from 11, 2% to 15, 5%, i.e. the indicator increased by 4, 3%; the number of representatives of an intermediate level of interethnic communication standards rose from 59.3% to 65.2%, i.e. the increase indicator is 5.9%; the number of representatives of a low level of interethnic communication standards decreased from 29, 5% to 19, 3%. the factual material analyzed at this stage allows us to state the following: in general, respondents show great interest in various issues of an ethnic nature. more than half of foreign students have a desire to establish cross-cultural contacts, not only in the educational environment of the university, but also in everyday life. 86.7% of respondents are interested in the cultures of other nations, so they willingly get in touch with them. in everyday communication, for 67.3% of foreign students the national identity of the interlocutor plays a large role, 27% of respondents believe that the nationality of the interlocutor is not important, i.e. they do not differentiate the latter by his journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 90 nationality. despite the fact that 82% of respondents closely communicate with representatives of other nationalities in everyday life and consider them to be friends, yet they do not hide the fact that they determine their attitude towards a person by his belonging to one or another nationality. this point of view is explained by the majority of interviewed students (72%) being proud of their ethnicity. the dynamics of cross-cultural contacts can be traced in table 2. table 2 how important is an individual’s national identity in personal contacts for you? first year of study second and subsequent years of study very important 11,2 % 10,1% sometimes important, sometimes not 50,1 % 57,2% unimportant 27, 1 % 27% not sure 11,6 % 5,7% according to 44% of foreign students, interethnic relations in most cases generate political conflicts, and 56% of respondents, on the contrary, are convinced that most interethnic conflicts are created artificially to achieve certain political goals. the results are presented in the following table 3. table 3 representatives of various nationalities study at elabuga institute of kfu. do you dislike them? why? first year of study second and subsequent years of study yes 49,4 % 46,3% no 51,6 % 53,7% as at the previous stage of the study, the proportions of respondents who like and dislike representatives of other nationalities turned out to be almost equal, since half of them continue to divide the surrounding people into “us” and “them”, despite the fact that senior foreign students have lived in the foreign-language environment for more than a year. for example, for turkmens “us” are their compatriots (their nationality isn’t very important: it can be both a turkmen, an uzbek) or representatives of the turkic language group. as it can be seen, respondents do not choose people for communication according to their nationality. the respondents’ answers to the question “which nationalities do you dislike?” are presented in table 4. akhtarieva et al. table 4 what nationalities do you dislike? first year of study second and subsequent years of study peoples representing external migrants to russia (the overwhelming majority are peoples of the former central asian republics of the ussr) 68,2 % 3,4 % internal migrants from the republics of the north caucasus federal district (ncfd) 27,8 % other peoples-autochthons of russia and abroad 4,0 % 3,4 % it can be seen from the table, at the previous stage of the investigation, the majority of respondents indicate external migrants from the north caucasian republics of the russian federation as the object of hostility, and a small number of respondents feel hostility towards other peoples of russia and foreigners. but students of the second and subsequent years of study lose this hostility. only 3.4% of respondents considered tajiks and iranians, by the way, representatives of the same, iranian, language group, as objects of hostility. the respondents explained that they have a feeling of hostility towards specific nationalities by saying that the listed people, though having a linguistic and ethnic affinity, are perceived by them as “them”, because they have a different way of life and a different religion. by agreeing to the statement “they are people of a religion that is strange, unfamiliar, foreign to me,” respondents probably mean, that most iranians are adherents of another islamic movement: shia islam. the negative attitude of some students from turkmenistan to this nation is not clear enough, since these countries have a common border, to which four of the five regions of turkmenistan adjoin, as well as the centuries-old historical, confessional and civilizational affinity. the territory of present-day turkmenistan became a part of historical iran several times, and the capital of the legendary iranian-speaking parthia, nisa, was located close to the current capital of turkmenistan, ashgabat. table 5 presents the results obtained from the answers to questions no. 4-7, in comparison with the answers obtained at the previous stage of the study. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 92 table 5 degree of agreement degree of agreement questions 4. “they have a different way of life, speak an incomprehensible language” 5. “they insult people of your nationality” 6. “they do not respect the customs and traditions of other nations” 7. “they are people of a religion unfamiliar, strange to me” i agree first year of study 42,2 % 41,1 % 9,5 % 7,2 % second and subsequent years of study 3,4 % i rather agree first year of study 49,9 % 37,2 % 10,4 % 2,4 % second and subsequent years of study i rather disagree first year of study 42,7 % 42 % 12,2 % 2,8 % second and subsequent years of study i disagree first year of study 32,5 % 20,7 % 22,6 % 24,7 % second and subsequent years of study question no. 5, proposed to the respondents at the first stage of the research work to determine the state and nature of interethnic relations at elabuga institute, was asked again at its second stage. we received the following answers (presented in table 6). table 6 determine the state and nature of interethnic relations in elabuga institute opinion first year of study second and subsequent years of study the situation is calm, peaceful 31,8 % 41,2% the situation seems calm, but there is some tension 44,3 % 42,8% the situation is tense, conflicts are possible 12,3 % 9,9% not sure 11,6 % 6,1% the analysis of the results shows that the dominant opinion of the interethnic situation at the university as a whole and for students of the second and subsequent years of study (according to the data of the second phase of the research work) is the average opinion. although the attitude to the situation as a tense one is also high, which directly reflects the previously described discontent. the number of students assessing the situation as “the situation seems calm, but there is some tension” has increased only by 1.5%, while the number of students assessing the situation “as calm akhtarieva et al. and peaceful” has increased by 10%. if students have a certain, “normal” level of anxiety about interethnic relations, it indicates not only that there are “threats” to interethnic amity, but also a certain sense of responsibility for the fact that students with different cultural traditions study at the university and their ethno-cultural needs should be taken into account. this point must be considered by all means. we obtained the following results to question no. 6 “would you like to know more about the customs, traditions, history of the nationalities whose representatives study in ei kfu?” (table 7 shows the results in comparison with the previous stage of the study). table 7 would you like to know more about the customs, traditions, history of the nationalities whose representatives study in ei kfu? answers first year of study second and subsequent years of study yes, i would like to 77,9 % 86,7% no, i do not want to 4,9 % 3,6% not sure 17,2 % 9,7% the answers show that students are interested in something new, the customs and traditions, the history of those peoples whose representatives study in elabuga institute. considering the data obtained, the understanding that character-building work in a higher educational institution influences the formation of the future teacher’s readiness to perform the function of an instructor, educator, a large educational and character-building work aimed at expanding the students’ horizons is carried out in our institute. this comparison revealed the positive dynamics of acculturation, which was affected by: the task-oriented work at the university to create conditions for the integration of the foreign student-future teacher into the multi-ethnic educational environment, which is ensured by the effective character-building work of the institute; the desire of foreign students-future teachers not only to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment, but also to maintain their own cultural identity; which is manifested in their desire to introduce representatives of other ethnic groups to their cultural values; students mostly use acculturation integration strategy, the essence of which is identification with their own culture and with the cultural values and norms of a new socio-cultural space in which a person needs to be involved. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 94 discussion studying and analyzing the answers to the questionnaire, understanding the observation and the results of the interviews with students allowed us to find the most effective forms of developing the standards of interethnic communication in students and to determine the specific content of this work. the education in elabuga institute of kazan federal university is based on a dialogue of cultures. the dialogue approach contributes to the study of the unique essence of the most diverse cultures (russian, tatar, kazakh, tajik, uzbek, turkmen), thereby demonstrating that bearers of these cultures cannot think and feel absolutely the same. thus, intercultural dialogue promotes the growth of tolerance (interethnic tolerance). the teachers of basic and various general theoretical disciplines from the departments of elabuga institute of kfu pay special attention to the dialogue of cultures between representatives of different nationalities. such interaction is observed not only during the educational, but also during the character-building process. to harmonise interethnic communication and facilitate the process of acculturation, the teacher-training staff of ei kfu includes new training courses into the curriculum; they reflect the cultural heritage and traditions of different peoples. teaching these disciplines involves modern educational technologies. thus, the university implements work programs in the following training courses: “ethnology” for foreign students, “international management” for foreign students, “marketing”, “conflictology”, “sociology”, which complement the traditional system of education, focus on the formation and development of interethnic communication standards and conflict-related competence. our teachers published various study guides on the russian language for foreign students training in teacher educatio. the above-mentioned study manuals are based on the linguo-cognitive approach to their content and structure. their authors pay special attention to foreign-culture texts. culture-oriented texts are rich in culturally valuable information in cognitive, educational and character-building terms; these facts reveal the way of life of different nationalities living on the territory of tatarstan. since 2016, foreign students from elabuga institute of kfu have been participating in online friendship festivals, organized by the department of vocational guidance and work with talented youth of the m.v. lomonosov moscow state university. the russian language department hosts these events for foreign students of faculty of sciences, the faculty of philology with the technical support of the center for the development of electronic educational resources for akhtarieva et al. students, undergraduates, graduate students, interns, studying russian as a foreign or non-native language. the events in question have various names: the eighth online friendship festival “folklore as confession of the people” (2019), the seventh online friendship festival “beauty of the native land” (2018), the sixth online friendship festival “love for cinema, love for russia” (2017), the fifth online friendship festival “in the world of russian literature...” (2016). every year foreign students from our institute participate in these festivals and become their winners and laureates. each year, the institute holds the olympiad in russian for foreign students, organized by the association of foreign students. the purpose of this event is developing and strengthening of foreign students’ interest to the in-depth study of the russian language. up to 50 people from the countries of the near abroad (kyrgyzstan, turkmenistan, tajikistan and uzbekistan) take part in the competition annually. with the aim of forming high interethnic communication standards and developing the integration process elabuga institute hosts various extracurricular activities: national holidays (“christmas”, “national new-year show”, “nowruz”, “sabantuy”, “slavic writing day”, “mother language day”), projects dedicated to historically memorable dates (“victory marked the end of the war” , “immortal regiment”, commencement days), jubilees of prominent figures in the sphere of culture, literature, science and popular heroes (the stakheev readings, the makhmutov readings, the khlebnikov readings, the creative work of razil valeev), public lectures (public lecture for students on the topic “lev tolstoy’s moral lessons” within the framework of the l.n. tolstoy’s year in 2018), festivals (festival of friendship), contests (a competition of readers, dedicated to the mother language day, a creative competition “kaury kalum”, a photo-reports contest “one day at ei kfu”), meetings of the literary club “planet of the writer” (within the framework of the year of l.n. tolstoy in 2018), meetings of the cinema club, different meetings (“poetic meeting” within the framework of the 7th international poetic festival “ladomir”, literary drawing-room “the thread connecting times” (meeting with the member of the russian association of writers tatiana rolich)), “rite of passage to the profession” for the 1st year students, student teaching school “start”, “total dictation” and many others. the events mentioned above also fulfills educational and character-building tasks: training students of universal, civic-patriotic, and national feelings of consciousness and behavioral norms in a higher educational institution. they are aimed at shaping in students not only ideas about culture and traditions of people of different https://www.multitran.ru/c/m.exe?t=6863895_1_2&s1=%e0%ea%f2%ee%e2%fb%e9%20%e4%e5%ed%fc journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 96 nationalities, but also forming their ability to comply with universal moral norms and behavior, the willingness to correctly perceive national values, their desire to enrich themselves with knowledge of these values. active participation of the foreign students themselves in the process of organizing and holding of these events contributes to the elimination of students’ negative feelings towards people of other nationalities (volchik and maslyukova, 2019). the creation of the association of foreign students of elabuga institute of kfu, the cinema club, and the international friendship club also had the goal of raising a respectful attitude towards all the peoples, whose representatives study at kazan federal university. the association of foreign students plays an important role in creating favorable conditions for studying and living for foreign students. it provides them with legal assistance and other kind of support, reveals their creative potential. the international friendship club aims at developing and maintaining a sense of tolerance among students, increasing their interest in intercultural and international dialogue, and creating favorable conditions for the adaptation of foreign students of elabuga institute of kfu. the club hosts various master classes, discussions, round tables, brain-rings, projects, such as: #followme (when club guests “travel” to different countries), #madeinchina (events aimed at studying the chinese language and culture, etc.). thus, in february 2019, the head of the elabuga branch of the youth assembly of the peoples of tatarstan was invited to a regular meeting of the club. together with the new members of the club, they held a training on team building, during which the students not only got to know each other, but also became much closer and more united. after a little warmup, the members of the club discussed the club’s development plan. it is also worth noting that members the international friendship club of elabuga institute of kfu are always pleased to see new faces and guests. the thematic film club “films from the treasury of soviet cinema” aims at watching and analyzing different uzbek, turkmen, kazakh, kyrgyz, tajik, azerbaijani, ukrainian films in russian. the film club of elabuga institute of kfu began its work in september 2013. this is a special cultural space. the main idea of the club is to watch and discuss the film, which got the maximum votes from its members. voting takes place in the group “cinema club of elabuga institute of kfu” in the social network “vkontakte”. the list of films submitted for voting is formed by the administration of the group. the cinema club is held once a month in the institute. akhtarieva et al. comprehension and assimilation of a culture unknown to foreign students doesn’t only expand their outlook and cultural horizons, but also makes them look at their native culture from the outside and draw parallels, compare, find the general and the specific things. the results of our study show (and students mentioned it in personal conversations) that extracurricular activities of an entertaining character also contribute to the integration formation: they are the freshmen viewing contest, the festival of friendship, the imperial ball, “student spring talent show”. the annual festival of friendship of nations is aimed at familiarizing students with the history, folklore, peculiarities of life of peoples of different nationalities, raising a tolerant attitude towards representatives of different nationalities, and forming a national identity in the framework of civil-patriotic education. the beautiful tradition the imperial ball on commencement days of the elabuga institute, is held to draw attention to the traditions, morality and spirituality of the russians, to foster the young people’s patriotic spirit and pride in their country. foreign students attend sports clubs and take part in various competitions in national sports, which also creates favorable conditions for increasing interethnic communication standards. as part of celebrating the day of national unity, an international futsal tournament is organized, where students of different nationalities join the same team. foreign students participate in the ancient tajik national wrestling “gushtingiri”, the turkmen national wrestling goresh; representatives of other nationalities attend these competitions with pleasure. it should be stressed that many of the foreign students win prizes not only in the tournaments of the institute, the city, but also of the republican level. some students are engaged in the international theater-studio “friendship of nations”. thus, the culture of interethnic communication, formed through integration, is considered by us, teachers of elabuga institute of kfu, training future teachers, as the leading personal and professional characteristics of the student today, and of the teacher in future. pedagogical activity is a way of “adapting” by students the system of values of their native culture and other people’s culture, the possibility of “introducing” them into the world of global culture. the research work revealed the desire of foreign students-future teachers not only to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment, but also to maintain their own cultural identity, as well as the tendencies, that have arisen during the acculturation processes, which require correcting. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 98 conclusion the results of the study indicate an increase in the indices of the level of interethnic communication standards between second-year students and first-year students. in the process of studying at the university, within a year, foreign students demonstrate a positive dynamics of acculturation processes. one of the key factors in the dynamics of acculturation processes in the university educational environment is the duration of foreign students’ training. at the same time, in the second and subsequent years of being in another culture, in another country, indicators of both acculturation and their positive, tolerant attitude towards representatives of another nationality and culture increase. elements of different cultures are gradually transformed and reflected in the educational environment of the university. while studying at a university, young people interact with people from different cultures. this interaction requires certain attitude of each individual to this fact, developing their acculturation strategy, certain forms of adaptation to the conditions of living in a new multicultural environment, which can result in a change in the individual’s identity, value orientations, role-playing behavior. in the process of training in a multicultural environment of a modern university, students mostly use the acculturation integration strategy, the essence of which is identification with their culture and cultural values and norms of a new socio-cultural space, which should be involved into. all the forms of educational and extracurricular activities carried out in elabuga institute of kfu follow this aim. the results of the study suggest that the process of acculturation of foreign students at the university is more successful and faster in the implementation of the program of pedagogical support of adaptation. this is also indicated by the active involvement of foreign students in interaction with russian students and teachers, their participation in extracurricular life of the university. but the problem requires further research to achieve the best results of the acculturation process of foreign students at the university and the expansion of educational boundaries between the countries. akhtarieva et al. references abikenov, z., gabitov, t., bermakhanov, o., abdiramanova, a., & nassimov, m. (2019). semiotic analysis of the symbolic world of the culture complex. space and culture, india, 6(5), 166-177. doi:10.20896/saci.v6i5.397 alajmi, m. a. 2019. the impact of e-portfolio use on the development of professional standards and life skills of students in the faculty of education at princess nourabint abdul rahman university, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(4) 1714-1735. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) asaliev, a. m., zhuravlev, p. v., & alkhimenko, o. n. (2014). intellectual capital management as the aspect of upgrading of modern companies management. life science journal, 11(spec. issue 11), 363-366. berry, j. w., annis, r. c. (1974). acculturative stress: the role of ecology, culture and differentiation. journal of cross-cultural psychology, 5, 382-406. biserova, g. k., & shagivaleeva, g. r. (2019). socio-psychological adaptation of international students to learning and professional activities. space and culture, india, 6(5), 99-114. doi:10.20896/saci.v6i5.411 bozhkova g.n., shastina e.m., kalimullina o.v., shatunova o.v. (2019) study of literary images of gifted characters in optional activities as a means to develop capable and talented youth. space and culture, india, vol. 7:1, pp. 264273. https://doi.org/10.20896/saci.v7i1.463 buda’eva, z. a. (2014, june). acculturation as the dominant theoretical marker of the globalization processes manifestation. bulletin of the bur’at state university: philosophy. sociology. political science. culturology, 6(2), 91-95. bykanova, o.a., akhmadeev, r.g., glubokova, n.y., kravchuk, i.s. (2018) the global market of roundwood: financial aspects. bulgarian journal of agricultural science, 24 (1), pp. 816. bykanova, o.a., akhmadeev, r.g., kosov, m.e., ponkratov, v.v., osipov, v.s., ragulina, y.v. (2017) assessment of the economic potential of sovereign wealth funds. journal of applied economic sciences, 12 (1), pp. 70-84. carothers, d. (2018). a culture of equality?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(2), 42-57. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.4(12) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 100 dzhurinsky a.n. (2018) what schoolchildren in russia and the usa teach: comparative analysis. science and school. no. 4 p. 25-35. emel’anov, v. v. (2001, september). students about adaptation to university life. socis, 9. 78-83. graves, t. d. (1967, winter). psychological acculturation in a tri-ethnic community. southwesternjournalofanthropology, 23(4), 229-243. houdyshell, m. (2017). academic integrity in an emerging democracy: how university students in a former soviet republic balance achievement and success in education. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 4(1), 14-25. ivanova, m. a., titkova, n. a. (1993). socio-psychological adaptation of foreign students of the first year of study at the university.st. petersburg. ionin, l. g. (1998). cultural shock: the conflict of ethnic stereotypes.in: yu. v. chern’anska’a (ed.), psychology of national intolerance. minsk, 104-114. jarrah, h. y. (2019). six thinking hats: an analysis of the skill level of jordanian vocational education teachers and the extent of skill application. space and culture, india, 7(1), 170185. doi:10.20896/saci.v7i1.470 kim, y. y., gugykunst, w. b. (1988). cross-cultural adaptation: current approaches. newburypark, ca: sage. kabuldinov, z., absadykov, a., issenov, o., aitmukhambetov, a., & berdyguzhin, l. (2016). the customs of politeness among russian kazakhs. anthropologist, 26(1-2), 52-56. doi:10.1080/09720073.2016.11892142 korableva, o., durand, t., kalimullina, o., & stepanova, i. (2019). usability testing of mooc: identifying user interface problems. paper presented at the iceis 2019 proceedings of the 21st international conference on enterprise information systems, 2 468-475. kosov, m.e., akhmadeev, r.g., osipov, v.s., kharakoz, y.k., smotritskaya, i.i. (2016) socioeconomic planning of the economy. indian journal of science and technology, 9 (36), p. 102008 krupets, ya. n. (2003, december) social well-being as an integral indicator of adaptability. socis, 4, 141-148. krysko, v. g. (ed.) (1999). ethno-psychological dictionary. moscow: moscow psychological and social institute. akhtarieva et al. kutbiddinova, r.a., eromasova, a.a. (2009). poly-ethnic educational environment of the university as an object of psychological and pedagogical research. tomsk state university bulletin: general periodical journal, 326, 174–179. lafer, s., & tarman, b. (2019). editorial 2019: (2)1, special issue. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), i-v. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 lebedeva, n. m. (1999). introduction to ethnic and cross-cultural psychology. moscow: kl’uchs. londadzhim, thierry (2012). socio-cultural adaptation of foreign students studying in russian universities: dis. ... cand. sociol. sciences. nizhny novgorod, 2012. monni, s.; palumbo, tvaronavičienė, m. 2017. cluster performance: an attempt to evaluate the lithuanian case, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 5(1): 43-57. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.5.1(4) national character and personality in a multinational socio-cultural environment (by the example of the nations of tatarstan republic) (2011). elabuga: egpu publishing house. oberg, k. (1960). cultural shock: adjustment to new cultural environments. practical anthropology, 7, 177-82. voronkova, o. y., iakimova, l. a., frolova, i. i., shafranskaya, c. i., kamolov, s. g., & prodanova, n. a. (2019). sustainable development of territories based on the integrated use of industry, resource and environmental potential. international journal of economics and business administration, 7(2), 151-163. redfield, r., linton, r., herskovits, m. h. (1936). memorandum on the study of acculturation. american anthropologist, 38, 149-152 shamshudinova, g., altybassarova, m., seifullina, g., turlybekova, a., & dyussembekova, g. (2019). state model of interconfessional tolerance in modern multiethnic societies. space and culture, india, 7(1), 117-127. doi:10.20896/saci.v7i1.374 shatunova o., anisimova t., sabirova f., kalimullina o. (2019). steam as an innovative educational technology. journal of social studies education research. vol. 10 (2), 131144. http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/34 http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2017.5.1(4) journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 82-102 102 searle, w., ward, c. (1990). the prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-cultural transitions. international journal of intercultural relations, 14, 449-464. shiryaeva, i.v. (1980). specific features of foreign students’ adaptation to the educational process in a soviet university. leningrad. social science research council (1954). stefanenko, t. g. (2000). ethno-psychology. moscow: ip ras, academic project. thomas, w., znaniecki, f. (1918-1920). the polish peasant in europe and america: monograph of an immigrant group. chicago, ill., university of chicago press. retrieved from http://www.archive.org/details/polishpeasantine01thomuoft. volchik, v.; maslyukova, e. 2019. trust and development of education and science, entrepreneurship and sustainability issues 6(3): 1244-1255. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(27) ward, c. (1996). acculturation. in liandis, d. and bhagat, r. (eds.) handbook of intercultural training. thousands oaks, ca: sage, 124-147. ward, c., rana-deuba, a. (1999). acculturation and adaptation revisited. journal of crosscultural psychology,30(4), 422-442. ward, c., kennedy, a. (1996). crossing cultures: the relationship between psychological and sociocultural dimesions of cross-cultural settings. in pandey, j., sinha, d. & bhawuk, d.p.s. (eds.), asian contributions in cross-cultural psychology. newdehli, india: sage, 289-306. yigit, m. (2018). does higher education change value perceptions? journal of culture and values in education, 1(1), 1-8. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/5 zhuravlev, p. v., poltarykhin, a. l., alkhimenko, o. n., & kuksova, o. d. (2018). human capital and its efficiency in the knowledge economy: the role of continuing education. espacios, 39(46) http://www.archive.org/details/polishpeasantine01thomuoft http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2019.6.3(27) http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/5 akhtarieva et al. the impact of school–family collaboration on pupils’ performance----9121 www.jsser.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2019:10 (3), 17-38 17 factors that influence the level of the academic performance of the students grevista s. sadiku1 & vlora sylaj2 abstract this study identifies various approaches to optimizing school-family collaboration to enhance pupils’ performance. the main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship and potential influences regarding the dimensions of: i) family functioning, ii) parent-teacher relationship, and iii) various parent involvement approaches to improve pupils’ performance outcome. the study used a quantitative method approach. the data was obtained from a questionnaire that comprised four parts: pupils’ demographic characteristics, teacher-parent relationship (cooperation and communication), parent-teacher relationship (cooperation and communication), and several other aspects of parental involvement. the data were analysed using the spss statistical package (version 21). the results of this study showed that schoolfamily collaboration influences pupils’ performance. the results also showed the strengths and weaknesses of this cooperation, highlighting the difficulties faced by these two subjects. therefore, it has been recommended that the collaboration between schools and families needs to be planned in order to achieve the desired level of interaction towards enhancing pupils performance. key words: teacher-parent relationship, parent-teacher relationship, performance, academic achievement, cooperation, communication. introduction at the beginning of the 21st century, many countries underwent educational reforms. similarly, kosovo, an emerging economy in europe, underwent educational reforms oriented towards the curriculum and quality of teaching. however, an important component to achieve quality schooling and enhancing student performance, such as: school-family collaboration has remained on the margins. while school-family collaboration is considered an important aspect of school reform, this aspect is not organised at the desired level in kosovo. elementary school students are expected to complete basic tasks, one of which is school progress. students around the age of ten need the support of the family and school that facilitates a leaner-friendly environment (bronfenbrenner, 1976). as such, the research has 1 pedagogue in elementary school “naim frasheri”, ferizaj, kosovo. grevistasi@hotmail.com 2 prof.ass. dr., department of pedagogy at faculty of education, university of prishtina “hasan prishtina”, prishtina, kosovo. vlora.sylaj@uni-pr.edu mailto:grevistasi@hotmail.com mailto:vlora.sylaj@uni-pr.edu journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 pointed out the importance of family members interacting with teachers to aid student success. furthermore, scholars have considered high academic achievement as a protective factor for student development and well-being (maddox & prinz, 2003). these are two of the main reasons policymakers are increasingly focusing on research findings that focus on academic achievement and indicators of student academic success, to enable policies to benefit students' quality education. the conducted research for more than a decade shows that when schools, families, and communities work together as partners, students benefit. partnerships between schools, families and communities can create safe school environments, strengthen parenting skills, improve academic skills and achieve other desired goals that benefit students at all ages and grade levels (epstein, 1992; rutherford, anderson, & billig, 1997). the need for higher academic achievement has led education science scholars to undertake a series of studies over the years to empirically validate the hypothesis that parental engagement and involvement in child education positively influences child development and particular in academic achievement. after several years of work, a large number of studies validated this hypothesis (fan & chen, 2001; henderson & mapp, 2002). researchers hoover-dempsey & sandler (2009) consider parents that have developed a sense of self-efficacy are more inclined to participate in their children’s education. they argue that parent engage in such participation because a) they have confidence that with their skills they will be able to help children and b) they are assertive that with their abilities will be able to help children to achieve the desired results. however, eccles and harold (1999) have noted that once children get older, parents interest to participate in children’s education falls. in addition, this is true for patents coming from a background of lower levels of education (hoover dempsey & sandler,1995). nonetheless, to ensure parents participation in their children’s education, it is not enough for them to receive an invitation or be subject to an external requirement for parents to engage in involvement, as this partnership must been encouraged through multiple channels (hoover-dempsey & sandler, 1995). our study focuses on the variables of family functioning as well as its demographic characteristics, in the teacher co-operation with parents, and in some aspects of parent involvement in pupils’ education, which according to the reviewed literature is related to academic achievement of pupils. so, the purpose of the study is to seek ways of optimization of school collaboration with the family in boosting student performance. the main objectives of this study were: to determine the level of performance of students, to investigate the influence of level of education of parents on performance of pupils, to establish the influence sadiku & sylaj of family discipline on performance of pupils, to establish the level of parent support with teachers and vice versa, to establish the level of parent-teacher communication, to establish the level of parent-teacher safety, and to investigate the level of parents' expectations and emotions with teachers. while, the questions asked in this study are: a) which is the level of the academic performance of students?; b) what is the relationship between contextual factors (level of education of parents, family discipline, parent`s support with teachers, parent-teacher communication, parent-teacher safety, parents' expectation and emotions with teachers) and academic performance of the students? literature review the theoretical model of providing opportunities and empowering the families, helps us to understand that cooperation between family and school as we have subjects of the same importance, both subject aim of achieving pupils success and finding ways to make this cooperation and this bilateral relationship function (deslandes, 2001). there are numerous studies on family functioning and academic achievement of pupils. while there is lack of research on the importance of family-school collaboration on student achievement, the limited research concerning studies (see: floyd, 1997; martini, 1995; masselam, marcus & stunkard, 1990; meier, 2019) have confirmed a positive correlation between the two important variables. for instance, the study of floyd (1997) has shown that the high academic achievement of pupils results from the dedication of family and the warm home environment. also, masselam &marcus (1990) concluded that not functional families are probably less able to provide family cohesion to adolescents, stability and emotional support, which can be associated with their failure at school. family cohesion was found to indirectly influence academic achievements through self-regulation. these discoveries provide us with a support to understand how family cohesion and school achievement indicate an association (brody, stoneman & flor, 1995). research in the field of education has found that several different aspects of parent involvement in education have positive relationships with students’ academic achievement. some of these are the teacher-parent relationship, the parent-child discussion of school-related problems, and the family environment that supports learning (allen, 2007; blankstein, 2010; carothers, 2018; seginer, 2006). academic achievement is positively influenced by the existence of healthy parent-child relationships, which generates a kind of supportive discussion (ysseldyke & christenson 2002). parental expectations and aspirations are, according to hoover-dempsey's journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 and sandler's (1995), why parents are involved in child education and why all this involvement is so important to academic achievement. the impact of parental expectations and aspirations has also been examined by other studies (goldenberg et.al., 2001; yan & lin, 2005; aldous, 2006; fan & chen, 2001; henderson & mapp, 2002), and the results prove that parents expectations and aspirations are losely linked to academic achievement and show consistency in these findings. it is noted that the more students are academically encouraged, the longer they stay in school, but the more encouraged they are, the higher the grade average and completion rate to end of homework (martinez, degarmo, & eddy, 2004). school and family have a common duty to educate the child (adams & christenson, 2000). teachers and parents should collaborate to advance children’s education goals through shared planning strategies and responsibilities, in order to deliver the educational program to the child (friend and cook, 2007). since parents are the child’s first teachers, and perhaps the best, they should make active efforts to help teachers achieve educational goals with their children (dunst, 2002). in order to ensure such a goal, an intensive cooperation between parents and school should transpire, considering that the two stakeholders cannot work in isolation (christenson, 2004). one of the ways of cooperation between teacher and parent is where the teacher leads all interaction by showing his/her dominance in the relationship, based on the fact that the teacher is a specialist and can provide professional information about the child's progress (osher & osher, 2002). however, sometimes this way of communication makes parents and children feel victimized because it gives the impression that in front of them is someone providing the expertise to solve the problems caused by them. teacher domination can work for a short time, but it cannot create the desired relationships that are needed in school today (galil, et al., 2006). family-focused practices ensure that the teacher and parent have same and equal status, which means sharing values, ideas and gratitude through this partnership (christenson, 2004; friend & cook, 2007). parents’ commitment to facilitating learning activities at home is a strong predictor of their children’s achievement in reading and math (izzo, weissberg, kasprow, & fendrich, 1999). organizing and setting the daily routine and completing school assignments is a very important family support factor that has an impact on high academic achievement for students (ysseldyke & christenson, 2002). desforges and abouchaar (2003), which aimed to explore the relationship between students’ academic achievement and home learning, found that there is a significant relationship where parents are involved in home learning and this effect is greater than the effect of a quality education. this study described parental involvement as a “good parenting at home”, including; conditions of a stable and safe environment, intellectual sadiku & sylaj stimulation, parent-child discussion, model of educational and social values, high expectations for personal achievement, and contact with the school for information exchange and participation in school life (desforges & abouchaar, 2003). a supportive family environment, where parental behaviour is encouraging, provides physical affection and expresses warmth and positivity, contributes to the academic achievement of pupils (gonzales, cauce, friedman & mason, 1996; wenz-gross, siperstein, untch & widaman, 1997). research in the field of education has revealed that there are different aspects of parent’s involvement in education that have positive relationship with pupils’ academic achievements. some of them are the teacherparent relationship, the parent-child discussion about problems that are related with school, family environment that supports learning (allen, 2007; blankstein, 2010; fan & chen, 2001; hill & chao, 2009; seginer, 2006; izzo, weissberg, kasprow & fendrich, 1999), parents' beliefs and attitudes regarding the importance of special subjects, as well as self-assessment of their abilities to support learning of their children (catsambis, 1998). these aspects of parental involvement are linked to high academic achievements, not only in standardized tests, but also in grades that pupils benefit in specific subjects (catsambis, 2002; fan & chen, 2001). interactions between children and parents help in their emotional, physical and intellectual development (brazelton & cramer, 1990). families can engage in daily learning activities even with very young children to help them develop lifelong motivation, perseverance, and love to learn (dunst, bruder, trivette & hamby, 2006; hall & quinn, 2014). considering that children spend more time out of school strengthens the argument of parents’ influence on their children education. studies show that there are some very important variables that are related to school achievement and, in particular, achievements in standardized tests of reading, which are out of school control, such as: family checking on school attendance by children, the amount of study and daily reading at home, and the time spent watching tv (barton & coley, 2007). these facts constitute a rationale base for thinking even more about the cooperation of parents with teachers and vice versa. trust between parents and a teacher is a vital element in building and maintaining a familyschool relationship. a study conducted by izzo et al (1999) investigated parents (n=1234) and teachers (n=209) from a peripheral schools on matters of trust regarding family-school relationship. the study found that trust of parents and teachers was greater at elementary school level than middle school, indicating differences in levels of trust reported by teachers and parents. parental trust was statistically higher than that of teacher’s improving parent-teacher communication was found to be the primary approach to increasing trust, also the quality of teacher-parent interaction was a better predictor for trust than the frequency of contacts or journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 demographic variables. hence, the commitment of parents in organizing learning activities is a strong predictor for their children’s reading and math achievements (izzo et al., 1999). as such, when parents impose learning activities, such as children’s fulfilment of school duties, as a rule, it has shown a tremendous impact on their children academic achievement (ysseldyke & christenson, 2002). methods research design in this study, here was used the quantitative approach while having within a mix of designs, starting from the descriptive continuing later on at the predictive correlation. the study had predictive variables and criterion variables (mills & airasian, 2012). predictive variables: demographic variables, parent support with teachers, education of parents, family discipline, parent-teacher safety, parent-teacher communication, parents' expectation and emotions with teachers and the criterion variable: academic performance of students. the performance of pupils is investigated in both subjects, albanian language and mathematics. except of data description, there was also correlative analysis done in regards to understanding the relationship between variables and predictive of the criterion variable based on the understanding of the predictive variables. through the study, we understand which of the variables will be the most predictive one for a higher academic level of the students. the study was ex post facto, which means that the variables were under our control as researchers. participants the population of this study were pupils of the 4th grade, of the elementary schools of the municipality of ferizaj, parents and their teachers. the population is taken from the urban and rural parts of this city. our sample consists of three layers: family (n=150), teachers (n=15), and pupils (n=500).the study included 500 students, out of which 259 (51.8%) male and 241 (48.2%) female. of the 500 respondents, 265 pupils; or 53.0% of them are 8 years old, 200 pupils or 40.0% are 9 years old and 35 or 7.0% are aged 10 years. while as far as parents' marital status is concerned, out of 500 families, 421 or 84.2% are married, 31 or 6.2% are separated (in distance), 18 or 3.6% are married twice, 20 or 4.0% live only with one parent, 8 or 1.6% are without any parent, 2 or 0.4% have chosen the option “other”. regarding parents education, 87 or 17.4% of fathers have completed elementary school, 272 or 54.4% have completed high school, 100 or 20% have completed bachelor’s degree, and 41 or 8.2% have sadiku & sylaj finished postgraduate studies. in addition, 123 or 24.6% of mothers have completed elementary school, 248 or 49.6% have completed high school, 99 or 19.8% have completed bachelor’s degree, and 30 or 6.0% have finished postgraduate studies. table 1. sample of research participants n % students 500 62.5% the gender of the students female male 241 259 48.2% 51.8% the age of the students 8 years 9 years 10 years 265 200 35 53.0% 40% 7% teacher 150 18.7% parents 150 18.7% marital status of parents married separated (in distance) married twice live with only one parent others 421 31 18 20 2 84.2% 6.2% 3.6% 4.0% 0.4% the measuring instrument of study during this study, a four-part measuring instrument was used, through which the following measurements: a) demographic characteristics of pupils and family functioning (cohesion and flexibility), b) teacher-parent relationship (cooperation and communication) c) parent-teacher relationship (co-operation and communication), d) some other aspects of parental involvement (parent involvement in home learning activity, and beliefs and attitudes). the first part was aimed at collecting data on demographic characteristics such as gender, date of birth, classroom, family status of parents, and parent education. the rest was the adapted instrument from faces ii literature (olson et al., 1992) titled “my family”, which consists of 30 questions. the instrument was of likert scale, where 1 means that what is described has never occurred in the family, and 5 means that what is described in the family happens very often. through this self-reporting tool (with 30 items) that has been deemed appropriate for fourth grade pupils, two dimensions of family functioning were measured: family cohesion (16 items) and family flexibility (14 items). the second part was the instrument (a 5-degree likert, 1-not agree to 5-fully agree scale) adapted by literature (vickers, & minke, 1995). the instrument was translated and adapted to albanian language to ensure full comprehension by sample representatives. this instrument was discussed with specialists in the field of education, but also with teachers. the teacher-parent relationship was measured through two dimensions, journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 cooperation and communication. the instrument had 24articles organized on two sub-branches and respectively cooperation (19 articles) and communication (5 articles). the relationship level was studied in two dimensions: co-operation and communication. the teacher's cooperation with the parent and vice versa is measured by the following items:  the relationship between the parties (e.g. we cooperate with each other; we understand each other, etc.)  the support provided by the parties (e.g. we agree with the responsibilities and the division of work that each of us should do regarding this child). when there is a problem with the child, the parent only communicates and does not take any action, etc.) (e.g. we trust each other, this parent respects me, etc.)  availability (e.g. when a child has a problem in behaviour, i have to resolve it myself without the help of parent. this parent keeps the promises that make me work with the child, etc.)  sharing common expectations for the child (e.g. from this parent, i expect to work harder than current engagement with the child. we have similar expectations for this child, etc.)  communication between the parties is measured through items such as; i tell my parents when i am happy. i tell my parent when i am worried, etc. the third part was a literature-based instrument (5 likert scale, 1 strongly disagree, up to 5 strongly agree) with self-reporting by parents “parent-teacher relationship review” (vickers & minke, 1995) in order to measure the parent-teacher relationship. the relationship level was studied in two dimensions; cooperation and communication. the teacher's cooperation with the parent is measured through articles that show:  the relationship between the parties (e.g. we cooperate with each other; we understand each other, etc.)  support provided by the parties (e.g we agree with the responsibilities and the division of work that each of us should do about this child. when there is a problem with the child, the teacher only speaks and does not take any action, etc.)  security, trust in mutual relationships (e.g. we have faith in one another; this teacher respects me, etc.) sadiku & sylaj  the availability (e.g. when a child has a behavioural problem i have to solve it myself, without the help of the teacher. this teacher keeps the promises to work with the child etc.)  the separation of common expectation for the child (e.g. i expect more work from this teacher than he / she is doing with the child. we have similar expectations for this child etc.)  communication between the parties is measured through items such as; i tell the teacher when i'm happy, i tell the teacher when i'm worried, etc. the reliability of the parent questionnaire, according to cronbach alpha=.727, indicates that the entries in this questionnaire are very reliable. moreover, the reliability analysis of the student questionnaire, according to cronbach alpha=.474, shows that reliability is low but not unreliable. in addition, the teacher questionnaire, according to cronbach alpha=.544, shows that the reliability of the questionnaire is low but not unbelievable. lastly, the reliability analysis regarding the parent’s questionnaire on their relationship with the teacher showed a cronbach alpha of.750, indicating that the questionnaire is very reliable. procedures the data collection process was coordinated with the permission obtained from the directorate of education as well as the principals of the schools involved in the research. questionnaires were distributed to primary and secondary schools in both urban and rural areas to ensure a more heterogeneous and representative sample. during the school visits, we have ensured full confidentiality on data processing and presentation only for scientific purposes. it should be noted that throughout the process of data collection, we have not encountered any hesitation for neither parents nor school teachers to participate in the study. data analysis techniques there were two parts of the quantitative analysis in this study. on the first part, we found/discovered the academic performance of the students/its level. while, on the second part of the study the findings of these predictive variables were analysed: the level of the education of parents, family discipline, support of the parents by teachers, parentteacher communication, arent-teacher safety, parents' expectation and emotions with teachers. in regards of achieving the objectives of the study, there were used some statistical analysis, such as: reliability analysis, descriptive analysis and correlation. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 descriptive statistics, such as the mean, standard deviation and frequencies were used on all variables, for the demographic ones, for the predictive ones and criterion. on the study, the mean and the standard deviation were used to understand the middle point of the data and the distribution of the data from the mean. this way, these statistics offered a reflection on the level of the development of the variables reported by the participants. while, in our case, the frequencies were used to understand the distribution of the participants in particular levels of the variables and the data are expressed through percentages. later, there the correlation was used as an inferential analysis. in our research, based on the coefficient of the correlation, the relationship between the predictive variables and the criterion variable was understood. results and discussion the analyses and outcomes are organized by observing the objectives of the study purpose to archieve them. in addition, the results correspond to the questions of the study. table 2 the pupils’ performance frequencies percentage valid percentage high performance 104 69.3 69.3 medium 30 20.0 20.0 low 16 10.7 10.7 total 150 100.0 100.0 pupils’ grades were classified on the basis of three levels. the data on table 2 show hat out of 150 respondents, 104 pupils or 69.3% fall in the category of pupils with high performance level, 30 pupils or 20.0% belong the middle level, and 16 pupils or 10.7% are in the category of pupils with low level (sd .53109, m2.1786). table 3 the interrelation between pupils’ performance and mother's level of education _______________________________________________________________ mother's level of education and pupils’ performance _______________________________________________________________ r .819 sig. .019 _______________________________________________________________ the correlation between pupils performance and mother’s education (r = .019, p = .819) is statistically insignificant. sadiku & sylaj table 4 the pupils’ performance and father’s level of education ___________________________________________________________ father's level of education and pupils’ performance ________________________________________________________________ r .086 sig .293 _________________________________________________________________ the correlation between pupils performance and father’s level of education (r = .086, p = .293) is statistically insignificant. table 5 the level of parent-teacher cooperation frequencies percentage valid percentage high 17 11.3 11.3 secondary 122 81.3 81.3 low 11 7.3 7.3 total 150 100.0 100.0 the data presented in the table 5 reflect on the perceptions of a total of 150 parents regarding the level of co-operation between them and teachers. the results have shown that 17 parents or 11.3% perceive cooperation with teacher in high-level, 122 parents or 81.3% of them consider this cooperation to be of average level, and 11 parents or 7.3% consider the cooperation with teachers as low (sd .80443 , m 3.2554). table 6 the level of parent support with the teachers and vice-versa frequency percentage valid percentage high 94 62.7 62.7 low 56 37.3 37.3 total 150 100.0 100.0 the data regarding the level of parents support with the teachers and vice-versa are resented in table 6). out of the 150 respondents, 94 parents or 62.7% consider support with teachers at a high-level, while 56 of parents or 37.3% consider support with teachers at a low-level (sd .66742, m3.8742). journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 table 7 the communication level of parents with teachers frequencies percentage valid percentage high 6 4.0 4.0 secondary 41 27.3 27.3 low 103 68.7 68.7 total 150 100.0 100.0 the table 7 reveals data regarding the level of communication of parents with the teachers. out of 150 surveyed parents, 6 parents or 4.0% have stated that communication is at a low level, 41 parents or 27.3% consider that communication with teachers is at middle level, and 103 parents or 68.7% consider communication with teachers being at a high level (sd 1.39421, m3.1167). table 8 the parent-teacher safety frequencies percentage valid percentage high 8 5.3 5.3 secondary 42 28.0 28.0 low 100 66.7 66.7 total 150 100.0 100.0 based on data from table 8, we can identify the level of safety felt between parents and teachers. from the following data, we can observe that 8 or 5.3% of parents have declared safety as being at a low-level, 42 parents or 28.0% declared safety as being at a middle-level security, and 100 parents or 66.7% declared safety with teachers at a high-level (sd .67865, m4.0743). table 9 the level of expectations and emotions of parents with teachers frequencies percentage valid percentage high 5 3.3 3.3 secondary 69 46.0 46.0 low 76 50.7 50.7 total 150 100.0 100.0 sadiku & sylaj the study of the data in table 9 reveal the expectations and emotions of parents with teachers. out of the 150 respondents, 5 or 3.3 % of parents’ expectations and emotions with teachers were determined at a low level, 69 or 46 % of them in the middle and 76 or 50.7 % of their expectations and emotions with teachers were determined at a high level (sd .89786, m3.56795). table 10 the parent-child discussion level and correlation with pupils’ performance frequencies percentage valid percentage low 32 21.3 21.3 high 118 78.7 78.7 total 150 100.0 100.0 the output in table 10 shows the level of parent-child discussion. out of 150 parents, 32 or 21.3%, report their level of discussion with children being at a low level, while 118 or 78.7% of parents considered the discussion with their children to be at a high level (sd 1.115644, m 1.8795). after the level of parent-child discussion (see table 10), the correlation analysis between parent-child discussion and pupils performance was computed. the correlation between parent-child discussion and student performance is (r = -.14, p = .865) is weak and statistically insignificant. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 table 11 the level of parent's ability to help their children in homework frequencies percentage valid percentage low 39 26.0 26.0 high 111 74.0 74.0 total 150 100.0 100.0 table 11 shows parents’ ability to help their children with their homework. from the table output, we can observe that 39 parents or 26.0% stated that their ability to assist children with their homework is considered low, while 111 parents or 74.0% stated that their ability to help their children in their homework is high (sd 3.0146 , m 1.45653). table 12 the level of family discipline and its correlation with pupils’ performance frequencies percentage valid percentage high 146 97.3 97.3 secondary 2 1.3 1.3 low 2 1.3 1.3 total 150 100.0 100.0 the data in table 12 show the level of family discipline. from 150 respondents, 146 pupils or 97.3% have considered the family discipline as high, 2 pupils or 1.3% have considered this at a secondary level, and 2 pupils or 1.3% have considered the level of family discipline as being low (sd .53109 , m2.1786). correlation analysis is conducted to see if is a relationship between family discipline and pupils performance. the relation of family discipline to pupils performance is statistically significant (r = .356, p = .000). table 13 the relation of family discipline to pupils’ performance _______________________________________________________________ family discipline and pupils’ performance ________________________________________________________________ r .356 sig .000 sadiku & sylaj the study sought to achieve the following objectives, namely: to determine the level of performance of students, to investigate the influence of parents education level on pupils’ performance, to establish the influence of family discipline on performance of pupils, to establish the level of parent support with teachers and vice versa, to establish the level of parent-teacher communication and vice versa, to establish the level of parent-teacher safety, and to investigate the level of parents' expectations and emotions with teachers. the findings that derived from this study have confirmed that the performance of fourth grade pupils is at a high level. various studies show that during the xx century, there were concerns about gender differences in education, which are focused on girls' lower achievement versus academic achievement of boys (pisa, 2009, vol i, p.55). while recently, we have another view that comes from the pisa 2009 report, showing that the academic achievement ratio has changed in some cases in favour of girls. in our country, the performance of pupils highly depends on cultural factors, one of which is gender stereotypes. for girls’ achievement, there is a higher expectation and demand, compared to boys. parents are more cautious to create the suitable conditions to learn, to enable more cooperation and communication with teachers and better relationships, in general, as well as pay more attention to helping them with their lessons. as a consequence, girls are expected to be more responsive and more systematic, which has an impact on increasing their outcomes. in our study, the number of male and female pupils is approximately the same and the result of their performance is quite high, which means that there is not much difference between the achievement of girls and boys. from the general data from our study, it turns out that the performance of fourth grade pupils is at a satisfactory level. the correlation analysis makes us understand that the level of mother’s education does not affect the performance of the pupils. in this case, we do not reject the null hypothesis stating that the level of mother’s education does not affect the performance of the pupils. on the other hand, studies that are related to pupils’ academic achievements (performance) consistently have shown that parent’s education is considered an important predictor to explain pupils’ achievement (smith, brooks-gunn, & klebanov, 1997). based on such findings, many researchers have analysed how parents’ education influences the structuring of the family environment (yeung, linver, & brooks-gunn, 2002) and the variety of parenting styles (conger et al., 2002). the characteristics of mothers have been considered as another factor that affect pupils’ academic achievements (eamon, 2005; jeynes, 2001; majoribanks 1996). mothers with a high level of education have self-esteem, which makes them to be more willing to cooperate with teachers. as such, this category of mothers has children who achieve higher scores in the tests. journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 also, becoming a mother at a relatively mature age has shown they are more capable to create stimulating cognitive environments and a more supportive family environment, thus, positively influencing their children’s academic achievement (eamon, 2005).the mothers’ educational level has strong positive link to the behaviour and attitudes they hold regarding their children’s education. empirical findings have confirmed that mothers who have continued education beyond compulsory education are more inclined to monitor their children and be more cautious about creating conditions for their continuing education (feinstein & sabates, 2006). according to yonezawa (2000), mothers with higher level of education have more chances to actively enable their children to participate in different courses, to manage their achievements more actively, and to have more information about schooling, as compared to mothers with lower levels of education. another study from faize & dahar (2011) showed that pupils who have illiterate mothers have performed at a significantly lower level than pupils with educated mothers. with the growth of mothers’ level of education, pupils’ performance also improves. in addition to results concerning the relationship between mother’s level of education and the performance of the pupils, the study has also examined the possible correlation between father's level of education and the performance of their pupils. in this case, we do not reject the null hypothesis indicating that there is no statistical significant relationship between father’s education and their pupils’ performance. the findings presented by bitrus (2016) in his study “the level of parent’s education as a pupil’s performance predictor in northeaster colleges of nigeria”. the results of this study confirm that the level of education of parents and mothers is not an important predictor of pupils’ performance (bitrus, 2016). another study conducted by the researcher kashahu (2013) points towards the conclusion that the level of father’s education has significant links with pupils’ academic achievements. according to her, fathers who have a university degree or postgraduate degree have better results in the two main subjects. in addition, the data derived from this study show that the level of parent-teacher cooperation is on an unsatisfactory level. from this study, turns out that parents’ cooperation is not at the right level. the researcher marques (2001) in his study has shown that when parents work in partnership with schools, teachers benefit because collaboration positively influences pupils learning. the study has also pointed about the existence of other forms of co-operation, such as “communication and home-based study support, which have a significant impact on improving learning” (marques, 2001). at the descriptive level, the results have shown the level of support of parents with teachers and vice-versa. from this group of data, we understand that 62.7% of parents have confirmed sadiku & sylaj a high level support for teachers. this has shown a poor satisfactory level of parent and teacher support. from the results, we understand that parents’ communication with teachers is at a high level. however, considering that communication is considered an imperative aspect of this age of societal development, still the result in percentage is not satisfactory. according to parents’ reports, it is noted that the level of parent-teacher safety is at a high level. from the statistical output, 5.3% of parents have indicated that the level of safety with the teachers is low, 28% stated that they have an average level, and 66.7% of parents stated that the level of parent-teacher safety is at the high level. this shows that the level of safety is high, but not at a satisfactory level. in addition, we also have teachers’ data. data from descriptive analyses showed that parentteacher safety is at an average level. the data specified that 9.3% of teachers state that the security level is low, 66% at medium level, and 24.7% at high level. similar with other results, the level of parent-teacher safety is not at the right level. regarding the level of parents’ expectations and emotions with the teachers, the results showed that half of the parents have presented this level as high level but this percentage is not at a satisfactory level. findings regarding the level of parent-child discussion will be discussed considering the correlation with the performance of pupils. descriptive and correlational statistics are used for this question. descriptive analysis of parent-child discussion showed to be at a high level. the analysis of parent discussion variables with their children shows the impact on the pupils’ performance. according to the results (r = -0.14, p = .865), we understand that there is a weak relationship and statistically insignificant linkage. from this finding, we can conclude that the parent-child discussion does not affect the performance of the pupils. additionally, the study findings on the level of parental ability to help their children in homework will be discussed. while, 74% of parents have stated a high level of ability to help their children in homework, the level of parenting ability to help their children in homework is on a satisfactory level. however, there are contradictory findings with regard to homework. some studies show that parents’ involvement in homework is important for pupils’ academic outcomes (hoover-dempsey et al, 2009). based on our results, most of the pupils or 97.3% have stated that the level of family discipline is at a high level. moreover, according to the correlation analysis, the results have shown that the level of family discipline and pupils’ performance is statistically significant. from these data, we can confirm that family discipline affects the pupils’ performance. hence, based on journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 our results, we reject the null hypothesis, opening another window of discussion regarding the statistical significant importance of family discipline in affecting the pupils’ performance. conclusion, limitation and implications the issues raised in this study relate to the discovery of the impact of collaboration between school and family on pupils performance. findings from descriptive data aid our conclusion that male participation in this research is greater than female participation. the fourth grade pupils were the representatives of the study. more than half of the pupils were younger that the one presented by the pre-university curriculum framework of kosovo. based on these findings, the education directorates are recommended to be more openly concerned with the age of the students during student initial enrolment proves. fourth grade children also differed in terms of the level of education of their parents. the study provided enough evidence to conclude that fathers have a slightly higher level of education than mothers. however, the education of the two parents is not considered at the proper level, considering that this can directly affect the performance of the pupils. the performance of pupils was examined in the main subjects of the curriculum, namely, albanian language and mathematics. the survey data have confirmed a high performance of fourth grade pupils. concerning the relationship between pupils’ performance and parents’ education, the results have shown an insignificant correlation between the two. accordingly, there is enough evidence to suggest that the level of mother’s and father’s education does not influence the performance of pupils. furthermore, the study findings have pointed towards a worrisome outcome in relation to parent-teacher collaboration. while the average level of parent-teacher collaboration does not determine the quality of the relationship, it is a relevant indicator that should be taken into consideration for further empirical research. therefore, it has been recommended that the collaboration between schools and families needs to be planned in order to achieve the desired level of interaction towards enhancing pupils performance. in light of this, the family involvement in schools ought to be based on a collaborative schoolfamily program. it is noteworthy that such a program to have an inclusive approach, not limited to the individual level collaboration. to ensure the sustainability of the school-family partnership, schools should take the lead on the inception and implementation phase. lastly, while the study has delivered very strong conclusions supported by a well-though plan, certain limitations need the reader’s attention. first, the data collection depended on a selfreporting mechanisms requested to respondents. in consequence, the accuracy and, more importantly, the truthfulness of the data hinge on respondents’ discretion towards the survey sadiku & sylaj items. second, regarding the methodology, there are limited studies using the same subject and instruments, inhibiting the option to engage in comparisons. third, the study recognises the potential subjectivity of parents’ responses concerning their children. that is mainly due to the fact that parents’ assessing their children often is considered a subtle area. references adams, k. s., & christenson, s. l. (2000). trust and the family-school relationship: examination of parent-teacher differences in elementary and secondary grades. journal of school psychology, 38(5), 477-497. aldous, j. (2006). family, ethnicity, and immigrant youths' educational achievements. journal of family issues, 27(12), 1633-1667. allen, j. (2007). creating welcoming schools: a practical guide to home–school partnerships with diverse families. new york: teachers college press. barton, p. e. & coley, r. j. (2007). the family: america's smallest school. princeton, nj: educational testing services. bitrus, a and domiya, a (2016). parents’ level of education as predictors of academic performance of nce students of colleges of education in the northeastern states of nigeria. education department, university of maiduguri, borno state, nigeria, pp. 45. blankstein, a. m., & noguera, p. a. (2010). gaining active engagement from family and community. in a. m. blankstein (ed.), failure is not an option (2nd ed., pp. 191–207). thousand oaks, ca: corwin. brazelton, t. b. and cramer, b. g. (1990). the earliest relationship: parents, infants, and the drama of early attachment. cambridge, ma: perseus books. brody, g.h., stoneman,z., & flor,d.(1995). linking family processes and academic kompetence ampng rural african american youth. journal of marriage and the family, 57, 567-579. bronfenbrenner, u. (1976). the ecology of human development. cambridge, mass.: harvard university press. carothers, d. (2018). a culture of equality?. journal of culture and values in education, 1(2), 42-57. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 catsambis, s. (2002). expanding knowledge of parental involvement in children’s secondary education: connections with high school seniors’ academic success. social psychology of education, 5, 149–177. http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/13 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 christenson, s. (2004). the family-school partnership: an opportunity to promote the learning competence of all students. school psychology review, 33, 83-104. conger, r. d., ebert-wallace, l., sun, y., simons, r. l., mcloyd, v. c., & brody, g. h. (2002). economic pressure in african american families: a replication and extension of the family stress model. developmental psychology, 38, 179–193. desforges, c., & abouchaar, a. (2003). the impact of parental involvement, parental support and family education on pupil achievements and adjustment: a literature review. london: department for education and skills, research report 433. deslandes, r. (2001). a vision of home-school partnership: three complementary conceptuall frameworks. retrieved from: url:http://www.its.kun.nl/web/publikaties/pdf dunst, c. j., bruder, m. b., trivette, c. m., & hamby, d. w. (2006). everyday activity settings, natural learning environments, and early intervention practices. journal of policy and practice in intellectual disabilities, 3 (1), 3-10. dunst, c.j. (2002). family-centered practices: birth through high schools. the journal of special education, 36 (3), 139-147. eamon, m. k.(2005). social-demographic, school, neighborhood, and parenting influences on academic achievement of latino young adolescents. journal of youth and adolescence, 34(2), 163-175. eccles, j. s., & harold, r. d. (1999). parent-school involvement during early adolescent years. teachers college record, 94(3), 568-587.education. washington, dc: u.s. department of education, educational research, 6th edition, pp. 1139-1151. new york: macmillan. epstein, j. l. (1992). school and family partnership. in m. alkin (ed.),encyclopedia of educational research, pp. 1139–1151. new york: macmillan, 6th ed. faize, f. a. & dahar, m. a. (2011). effect of mother’s level of education on secondary grade science students in pakistan. research journal of international studies, 19, 13-19. fan, x., & chen, m. (2001). parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: a meta-analysis. educational psychology, 13(1), 1–22. feinstein, l. and sabates, r. (2006). does education have an impact on mothers' educational attitudes and behaviours. research brief rcb01-06, dfes. friend, m. & cook, l. (2007). interactions: collaboration skills for school professionals. (5th ed.) boston, ma: pearson allyn & bacon. galil, a., bachner, y.g., merrick, j., flusser, h., lubetzky, h., heiman, n. & carmel,s. (2006). physician-parent communication as predictor of parent satisfaction with child development services. research in developmental disabilities, 27,(3), 233-242. http://www.its.kun.nl/web/publikaties/pdf sadiku & sylaj gay, l. r., mills, g. e., & airasian, p. w. (2012). educational research: competencies for analysis and applications. 10th ed. boston: pearson. goldenberg, c., gallimore, r., reese, l., & garnier, h. (2001). cause and effect? a longitudinal study of immigrant latino parents' aspirations and expectations, and their children's school performance. american educational research journal, 38(3), 547-582. hall, n. & quinn, r. (2014). parental involvement at the high school level: parents’ perspectives. journal of ethnic and cultural studies, 1(1), 13-21. henderson, a. t. & mapp, k. l. (2002). a new wave of evidence: the impact of school, family, and community connections on student achievement. austin, tx: southwest educational development laboratory. hill, n &chao rk. (2009). families, schools, and the adolescent: connecting research, policy, and practice. teachers college press; new york. hoover-dempsey, k. v., & sandler, h. m. (1995). parental involvement in children’s education: why does it make a difference? teachers college record, 95, 310-331. hoover-dempsey, k.v., whitaker, m.c, & ice, c.l. (2009). motivation and commitment to family-school partnerships. in s.l. christenson & a.l. reschly (eds.). handbook of school-family partnerships (pp.30-60). new york: routledge. international journal about parents in education, 2007, vol..1, no. 0, 59-62. involvement in children’s education: considerations for school counsellors. izzo, c.v., weissberg, r.p., kasprow, w.j, & fendrich, m. (1999). a longitudinal assessment of teacher perceptions of parent involvement in children’s education and school performance. american journal of community psychology ,27(6), 817-839. jeynes, w. h. (2001, august). parental involvement and the academic achievement of adolescents. paper presented at the annual conference of the american psychological association in san francisco. kashahu, l. (2013). impact of family functioning and family –school cooperation in adolescent progress (unbpublished doctoral thesis), university of tirana, tirana. maddox, s.j., &prinz,r. j. (2003).school bonding in children and adolescents: conceptualization, assessment, and associated variables. clin. child and fam. psychol. rev. 6: 31–49. meier, l. (2019). questioning the problematic nature of school culture in elementary teacher education. journal of culture and values in education, 2(1), 34-44. retrieved from http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/30 majoribanks, k.(1996). family learning environments and students’ outcome: a review. journal of comparative family studies, 27(2), 373-394. marques, r. (2001). professores, família e projecto educativo. porto, pt: asa editores. http://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/jcv/article/view/30 journal of social studies education research 2019: 10 (3), 17-38 martinez, c. r., degarmo, d. s., & eddy, j. m. (2004). promoting academic success among latino youths. hispanic journal of behavioural sciences, 26, 128–151. martini, m. (1995). features of home environments associated with children’s school success. early child development and care,111, 49-68. masselam, v. s., & marcus, r. f. (1990). parent-adolescent communication, family functioning, and school performance. adolescence, 25(99), 725-738. olson d. h., portner, j., bell, r. & filsinger, e. e. (1983). marriage and family assessment: a sourcebook for family therapy. beverly hill, ca: sage. osher, t.w. & osher, d.m. (2002). the paradigm shift to true collaboration with families. journal of child and family studies, 11 (1), 47-60. pisa 2009 results: what students know and can do – student performance in reading, mathematics and science (volume i) http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264091450-en seginer, r. (2006). parents’ educational involvement: a developmental ecological perspective.parenting, science and practice; 6: 1–48. smith, j. r., brooks-gunn, j., & klebanov, p. k. (1997). consequences of living in poverty for young children’s cognitive and verbal ability and early school achievement. in g. j. duncan & j. brooks-gunn (eds.), consequences of growing up poor (pp. 132–189). new york: russell sage foundation. vickers hs, minke km. (1995). exploring parent–teacher relationships: joining and communication to others. school psychology quarterly;10:133–150. wenz-gross, m., siperstein, g. n., untch, a. s., &widaman, k. f. (1997). stress, social support, and adjustment of adolescents in middle-school. journal of early adolescence, 17, 129–151. yan, w., & lin, q. (2005). parent involvement and mathematics achievement: contrast across racial and ethnic groups. journal of educational research, 99(2), 116-127. yeung, w. j., linver, m. r., & brooks-gunn, j. (2002). how money matters for young children’s development: parental investment and family processes. child development, 73, 1861– 1879. yonezawa s. (2000). unpacking the black box of tracking decisions: critical tales of families navigating the course of placement process. in: sanders mg, editor. schooling students placed at risk: research, policy, practice in the education of poor and minority adolescents.mahwah, nj: erlbaum. pp. 109–140. ysseldyke, j. e., & christenson, s. l. (2002). faab: functional assessment of academic behavior. longmont, co: sopris west. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264091450-en kaya www.sosyalbilgiler.org journal of social studies education research sosyal bilgiler eğitimi araştırmaları dergisi 2011: 2(1), 59-82 © 2011 journal of social studies education research issn: 1309-9108 critical examination of the alphabet and language reforms implemented in the early years of the turkish republic türkiye cumhuriyeti’nin i̇lk yıllarında yapılan alfabe ve dil devrimlerinin eleştirel açıdan i̇ncelenmesi kaya yılmaz1 abstract: a wide variety of fundamental reforms in different spheres of turkey’s institutions were swiftly implemented in a top-down manner in the early years of the turkish republic under atatürk’s leadership. the purpose of this article is to critically examine the alphabet and language reforms put into practice in the years between the 1920s and 1930s. since an analysis of socio-cultural and socio-political context is fundamental to understanding any reform initiatives, the article examines the alphabet and language reforms within the larger social, cultural, and political context within which they were carried out. in order to evaluate these reforms from a broader perspective, the article also scrutinizes the assumptions, beliefs, ideologies, and goals of those politicians or reformers who implemented them. key words: alphabet reform, language reform, education policy, turkish republic, mustafa kemal atatürk geniş özet osmanlı i̇mparatorluğu’nun yıkılması üzerine mustafa kemal atatürk liderliğinde anadolu’da kurulan türkiye cumhuriyeti’nin ilk yıllarında devletin çeşitli kurumlarında, sosyal ve kültürel alanda birçok inkılâp ve reform yapılmıştır. bu çalışma, eğitim alanında yapılan en önemli reformlardan olan dil ve yazı devrimlerini çeşitli açılardan ulusal ve uluslararası literatüre dayalı olarak eleştirel bir bakış açısıyla incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. türkiye cumhuriyeti’nin kuruluş yıllarından itibaren çok hızlı ve seri bir şekilde gerçekleştirilen devrimler, devletin kurucusu mustafa kemal atatürk’ün önderliğinde yapılmıştır. bu nedenle, devrimlerin altında yatan gerçek etmenleri ve motifleri anlamak atatürk’ün arka planının incelenmesini gerektirir. atatürk, seküler, pozitivist ve batı’ya dönük bir eğitim veren askeri okullarda öğrenim görmüştür. atatürk’ün batı stilinde bir eğitim alması, kendisinin dünya görüşünün şekillenmesinde en önemli bir rol oynamıştır. batı’yı veya avrupa medeniyetini çağdaş uygarlık olarak algılayan ve türk milletinin bu uygarlık düzeyini yakalamasını hedefleyen atatürk, bu amacını gerçekleştirmek için birçok devrim ve reform yapmıştır. bu devrimler neticesinde osmanlı i̇mparatorluğu’ndan kalan kurumlar kaldırılarak 1 doç. dr., marmara üniversitesi, kaya1999@gmail.com mailto:kaya1999@gmail.com� journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 60 yerlerine avrupa ülkelerindeki muadilleri kurulmuştur. türk milletinin ataları osmanlı’dan devraldığı yaşam tarzını, dünyayı algılama biçimini, düşünce yapısını ve değer yargılarını değiştirerek avrupa standartlarında yeni bir sosyal yapı oluşturmayı hedefleyen atatürk, bu amacını gerçekleştirmek için eğitimi bir araç olarak kullanmıştır. atatürk’ün batı yönelimli, sekülerist ve milliyetçi bir toplum oluşturma hedefini gerçekleşmek için eğitim alanında yaptığı en önemli reformlardan ikisi harf ve dil devrimleridir. atatürk’e göre, çağdaş uygarlık düzeyine çıkmanın ön şartlarından birisi yeni yetişen kuşağa doğu değil, batı tarzında bir eğitim vermekten ve eğitime milli ve seküler bir yapı kazandırmaktan geçiyordu. bu amaç doğrultusunda ilk önce tevhid-i tedrisat kanunu çıkarılarak dini eğitim veren tüm okullar kapatıldı, halifelik ilga edildi ve din ve devlet işleri birbirinden ayrılarak devlete seküler bir yapı kazandırıldı. daha sonra, seküler ve batı tarzındaki eğitimin önündeki en önemli engellerden birisi olarak görülen, asırlardır doğu kültürünün ve i̇slam’ın evrensel sembolü olan arap alfabesinin kaldırılarak yerine latin alfabesinin alınması ve yeni türk alfabesi olarak adlandırılması kararlaştırıldı. çok hızlı bir şekilde uygulamaya konulan yeni alfabenin halk tarafından öğrenilmesini kolaylaştırmak amacıyla millet mektepleri açılarak atatürk’ün başöğretmenliğinde okuma-yazma seferberliği başlatıldı. daha sonra dil devrimi yapılarak dilin türkçeleştirilmesi ve sadeleştirilmesi hareketi başlatılmış, osmanlıca ve farsça kökenli kelimeler dilden atılarak yerine yeni kelimeler türetilmiştir. alfabe ve dil devrimlerinin sebepleri ve türk toplumu üzerindeki etkileri konusunda farklı görüşler ileri sürülmüştür. alfabe devrimini koşulsuz olarak destekleyenlere ve kemalistlere göre, daha çok sessiz harflerden oluşan arap harfleri sesli harf gerektiren türkçe’nin ses yapısına uymuyordu ve öğrenilmesi zordu. fakat latin harflerini okumak, yazmak, öğrenmek ve öğretmek oldukça kolaydı. bu nedenle, türk halkını cehâlleten kurtarmak ve okur-yazarlık oranını yükseltmek amacıyla alfabe devrimi yapıldı. bu görüşte olanlara göre, harf i̇nkılâbının diğer önemli sebebi türk milletinin batı toplumuyla bütünleşmesini sağlayarak türkiye cumhuriyeti’ni çağdaş batı medeniyetinin saygın bir üyesi yapmaktı. kemalistlerin devrime bakış açılarında dikkat çeken en önemli ortak nokta, devrimleri artı ve eksileri ile objektif olarak değerlendirmekten kaçınmaları ve devrimlerin yeni yetişen kuşak üzerindeki olumsuz etkilerini görmezden gelmeleridir. devrimleri tarafsız olarak değerlendiren yazarlara ve türk tarihinde ihtisas yapmış yabancı akademisyenlere göre ise bu devrimlerin altında yatan temel etmen, okuma yazmayı kolaylaştırmak ve okur-yazarlık oranını arttırmak gibi pedagojik kökenli endişelerden değil, kültürel, sosyo-politik ve ideolojik sebeplerden kaynaklanmıştır. bu devrimlerin asıl yapılış amacı, yeni yetişen türk neslinin i̇slami mirasla, i̇slam dünyası ile ve doğu kültürünü temsil eden ataları osmanlı ile olan tarihi ve kültürel bağlarını koparmak ve böylece onların yüzünü zorla batı kültür ve medeniyetine döndürmektir. kısaca, bu devrimler batı’nın değerleri üzerine kurulu yeni bir sosyal düzen oluşturmayı hedefleyen batılılaştırma projesinin bir parçası olarak uygulamaya konulmuştur. bu proje ile geçmişi ile bağı koparılmış, doğu kültüründen arındırılmış batı tipinde bir türk kimliği oluşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. i̇şte bu sebeple, kemalistler gibi batı medyası da yeni bir türk kimliği oluşturma çabalarının bir yansıması olan harf ve dil devrimlerinden övgüyle söz etmiş ve desteklemiştir. anahtar kelimeler: alfabe devrimi, dil devrimi, eğitim politikası, türkiye cumhuriyeti, mustafa kemak atatürk kaya yilmaz 61 introduction the purpose of this article is to critically examine the alphabet and language reforms implemented by mustafa kemal atatürk, the first president of the turkish republic, in the years between the 1920s and 1930s. to that end and to help the reader make better sense of these reforms, the article first begins with a brief introduction about the historical roots of turkey and some information about mustafa kemal’s background. it then moves on to discussing the divergent perspectives on the alphabet and language reforms by drawing on the national and international literature. the republic of turkey was founded in 1923 in asia minor or anatolia subsequent to the demise of the ottoman empire, which collapsed after war world i. it was founded by mustafa kemal after the “war of independence” by the whole public against the western powers’ imperialistic attempts to usurp and exploit anatolia’s resources. even though modern turkey was first established on the cultural, social, economic, political, and educational remnants of the ottoman empire, those institutions were abolished by rapidly implemented successive reform movements. this huge task was carried out by mustafa kemal, the founder of the republic of turkey. given that it was mustafa kemal who was the main figure in initiating reforms, some information about his background such as his identity, thinking, and world view is needed to gain insight into both the impetus behind his motives and the nature, scope and purposes of the reforms implemented. born in 1881 in the ottoman city of salonika (thessaloniki in greece), mustafa kemal attended the military school at monastir in macedonia. during his years in this school as a cadet, his thinking was shaped by a zealous turkish nationalism. having graduated from the military academy in istanbul with the rank of captain, mustafa kemal held various staff positions, served in garrisons, took part in the young turk revolution, and became involved in nationalist movements. when the western powers, the allies, invaded anatolia after war world i, mustafa kemal resigned from his official task to derive them back by recruiting a nationalist army. under his leadership, the turkish nationalist forces successfully fought against the invaders, expelling them from the country in 1922. having ejected the western powers from the country, he proceeded to journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 62 get rid of the sultanate and caliphate. he then established the grand national assembly and proclaimed turkey’s regime republican in 1923. consequently, mustafa kemal and his comrades launched on large scale reforms aimed at replacing the ottoman institutions with the western ones (metz, 1996; milton-edwards, 2005; zürcher, 2003). why did atatürk attempt to replace the ottoman institutions with the western ones? the answer lies in his world view. atatürk was educated in secular, westernoriented military schools with a positivist outlook (goldschmidt & davidson, 2006; korkmaz, 2009). through his western style education, atatürk developed unfavorable attitude toward all institutions of the ottoman empire that he thought were needed to be replaced with those of european states. his primary aim was to westernize not only the institutional structure and organization of the newly established republican, but also the structure of turkish society at large; i.e., creating a new social order by reconstructing every aspect of the society (lewis, 1968). he judged it essential that the way the turks constructed knowledge and viewed the world be fundamentally altered and changed. he wanted to instill in turkish people a new way of thinking, reasoning, acting, and living through sweeping reforms as noted by lewis (1999): even though contemporary reform-oriented people of authority and high position believed that the act of political reform was the key to progress, ataturk’s belief was that progress could never be achieved within the multi-racial ottoman empire. to him, for progress to occur, it is essential for reformers not to combine the old with the new. reforms were to aim at changing radically all aspects of turkish society abolishing its traditional beliefs and institutions (p. 51). thus, a wide range of fundamental changes and reforms were experienced by turkish people in different aspects of their life. to convince the public to embrace reforms, atatürk and his fellows argued that what the public was undergoing was to their best interest. if the newly emerged modern turkish state was to survive and compete successfully with the rest of the world, atatürk judged, its institutions would be compatible with those of western states or european civilization. atatürk and his reform kaya yilmaz 63 associates further asserted that the ottoman empire couldn’t take on the characteristics of modern civilization, so it deserved to be abolished together with its institutions. why reforms in education? as should be clear from the preceding paragraphs, atatürk looked upon education as a means to change and transform the structure of society from eastern to western type by designing and implementing educational reforms and policies that would guide the public to embrace the values, beliefs, ideas, and behaviors of western people. structuring a type of nationalist, secularist, and western-oriented society was what atatürk had in mind when attempting to reform schools and other social institutions. secularization, nationalization, and westernization constituted the underlying character of the reforms in education. these three movements are called “modernization that was composed of four processes that were anti-islamic secularization, de-otomanization, pro-westernization, and re-turkification…” (basak, 1986, p. 99). the most salient and fundamental aspect of atatürk’s assumption was that secularism was a necessary component of modernization and social change. in order to promote westernization, atatürk believed, religion and state had to be separated (lewis, 1999). since educational reforms replaced the educational system of the ottoman empire with that of western states, how education was conducted during the ottoman centuries needs to be briefly summarized. the ottoman empire was founded by turkish people, but it had a heterogeneous mixture of diverse ethnic groups and religious creeds. ethnicity of the people was determined by their religious affiliation. non-muslims communities such as armenians, greeks, and jews were called millets and were granted communal autonomy. such groups were entitled to take charge of their own schools, religious affairs, and court issues according to their own religious beliefs or customary law (pitman, 1987). therefore, it was the policy of the empire to allow her subjects to conduct their own education. christians and jews were free to choose the type of education they wanted for their youth. muslims were usually educated in the medrese, part of mosque complex called külliye, through not only koranic instruction, but also modern sciences such as mathematics, astronomy, history and so on. but, in general, schools were mainly structured in three main channels as horizontal institutions closed to each other. the first and most common ones were local schools and medreses explained journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 64 above. the second ones were reformist schools of tanzimat called idadî and sultanî and the third ones were schools educating in foreign language like colleges and minority schools (wolf-gazo, 1996). in short, education was neither national nor secular during the ottoman rule because of the cosmopolitan and multicultural nature of the empire. to keep a variety of nations who differed from each other in terms of their race, ethnicity, culture, religion and so on under the ottoman roof, it was necessary for the ottoman administrators to permit their subjects to enjoy flexibility in their education endeavor. but, atatürk and reformers believed that the ottoman system of education gave rise to different opinions and life styles among people. what they wanted was not diversity of opinions and world views but uniformity. their aim was to assimilate these different people into one type of personality that would fit into the system; i.e., citizens who did not differ from one another in terms of their values, beliefs, thinking, opinions, and life styles. to that end, they thought that whatever was associated with islamic civilization, be them beliefs, habits, practices, would be replaced by those of the western. therefore, after the declaration of the republic, the first task for atatürk and his fellows to do was to get rid of what seemed to be an obstacle in establishing secular and western schools. it was the caliphate as the head of all muslims in the world that the reformers judged needed to be exterminated. some kemalists even went so far as to describe the caliphate as a black bird, “a crow, which as an evil omen has hovered over the turks for centuries” (ersanlı, 2002, p. 145). thus, on march 3, 1924 the grand national assembly passed a law that abolished the caliphate and banished all members of the house of the ottoman from the country, paving the way for the separation of the state and religion. the same law called the unification of education also abolished the religious schools, the medreses and mekteps, and put all schools including private ones under the ministry of public instruction. the ministry of evkaf, which administrated the pious foundations, was terminated and its functions transferred to an office directly under prime minister (davison, 1998). in contrast to the american concept of separation of church and state, which protects religion from government control, this law placed the religious schools under the control of the government. the religious schools steadily lost students under the state control (and in 1933 they were completely closed). in the end, the educational kaya yilmaz 65 system was completely secularized through this law (shaw & shaw, 1977; zürcher, 2003). even though secularism was vehemently implemented by the government, “society at large preserved its traditional way of life and customs, rooted directly in islam” (karpat, 1970, p.534). the majority of turkish citizens who were dedicated to islamic tradition and values were opposed to and resisted the reform movements. when some representatives in the grand national assembly joined their resistance, atatürk formed and maintained an authoritarian one-party regime to accomplish his aim and objectives, enhancing his position as the president (zürcher, 2003). the republican people’s party (cumhuriyet halk partisi-chp) that atatürk founded had established a power monopoly in support of his reform program. ultimately, the political system of turkey was declared as a one-party state (zürcher, 2003), which helped atatürk govern the national assembly through a sort of personal rule during his presidency. this personal authoritarian rule enabled atatürk to secure his reforms successfully even in the face of strong resistance by the public (metz, 1996). “as president of the republic, kemal was authoritarian.... kemal admired democracy in theory, but he ruled as a stern father and teacher to his people, who he felt were not yet ready to govern themselves” (goldschmidt & davidson, 2006, p. 229). eventually, atatürk was able to found “a modern turkey that eradicated ottoman political and social systems and ottoman literature and culture, effectively erasing the historical memory of the ottomans in the culture of modern turks” (cuthell, 2009, p. 56). the alphabet and language reforms having seized a great and insurmountable power through his party, atatürk was dedicated himself to exterminating whatever was associated with islamic civilization and symbols of islam. when the disestablishment of islam and the ottoman institutions was done with the last law (in 1928) that stated and still states that turkey is legally and constitutionally a secular state, it was time to do away with another important and universal symbol of islam, the arabic script, which set turkey apart from the western community. understanding why the arabic script was exterminated or what beliefs and assumptions were instrumental in paving the way for the abolition of the arabic script journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 66 necessitates looking into the issue within its historical and socio-cultural context along with the examination of the basic characteristics of ottoman turkish. ottoman turkish was written with the arabic script. as such, it was composed of the elements of arabic, persian, and turkish language. ottoman vocabulary was basically based on arabic that constituted the primary language of religion and religious law (metz, 1996; römer, 2009). the contact between turkish language and arabic was started soon after turkish people began to convert to islam around the tenth century (korkmaz, 2009). therefore, “it was religious factors more than anything else that facilitated the spread of arabic and persian among turks” (dogancay, 1995, p. 224). as a result, ottoman turkish borrowed large amounts of vocabulary along with expressions and syntactic structures which were integrated into the ottoman idiom (metz, 1996). the use of arabic alphabet, the holy book of islam, the koran, which was written in arabic, exerted a great cultural influence on ottoman turkish. the arabic script was also one of the defining characteristics and elements of muslim identity. in other words, ottoman turkish was strongly connected with islamic civilization and the eastern societies through its mixed language. but, atatürk thought that if turkish people were to have a secular and national identity, their language with its strong ties with islamic tradition ought to be abolished. that is, ottoman turkish had to be jettisoned if nationalism, secularization, and westernization were realized in turkey. as akural (1984) noted, “atatürk’s languagereform theory presupposed that the influence of arabic and persian on turkish was detrimental to progress” (p. 133). viewing the arabic script as an undesirable feature of the culture that tied turkish people to islam and deprived them of developing a national identity, atatürk decided that it was essential to make ottoman language obsolete by removing it from turkish people’s memory (lewis, 1999; toprak, 1981). hence, atatürk looked upon the alphabet reform as a tool to cut off turkish people’s ties with their islamic past and the muslim world. so, to accomplish that aim, in may 1928, numbers written in arabic were jettisoned and their western equivalents were welcome. in the summer of 1928, a commission under the personal direction of atatürk worked on the alphabet reform trying to decide the best way to introduce the new reform to the citizens. some proposed kaya yilmaz 67 modification in the arabic script to make it more compatible with turkish phonology. a good number of members of the assembly favored gradually introducing the new letters over a period lasting up to five years. other suggested that the latin alphabet be adapted gradually over ten years. so, perspectives on how language was to be reformed can be categorized into three sections (dogancay, 1995): (1) radical purists in favor of eliminating all foreign rules and words from the language, (2) conservatives wishing to maintain the language without change, (3) moderates arguing for the elimination of foreign rules and lexical items that were felt to be alien, but maintaining words accepted and used by the people in everyday communication. these moderates argued that language could not be changed by decree in a revolutionary fashion. atatürk, on the other hand, demanded that the alphabet reform be introduced in a few months. his view on this matter was well expressed in his saying that “the turkish nation, who rescued their country from foreign invasion and imperialism, and thus secured their independence, should also protect their language from dominance and influence of foreign languages” (dogancay, 1995, p. 230). as a matter of fact, long before the turkish republic was founded, atatürk revealed his perspective on this issue. when he met ivan monolof, a bulgarian turkologist, in 1906, he put forward this viewpoint: we have to select the latin alphabet, getting rid of the language that prevents us from entering western civilization [so to speak, the arabic script]. we should resemble the west in all respects including our outfits (albayrak, 1989; şimşir, 1992, 2006). the new turkish alphabet was first accepted by the alphabet commision. it was consisted of 29 letters. the three letters q, x, and w of the latin alphabet were not accepted for the reasons that they did not fit the turkish language. the letters ç, ğ, j, ş, i̇, ö, and ü which were not among the latin alphabet were addeded to the turkish alphabet (kayıran & metintaş, 2009). consequently, in november 1, 1928 the grand national assembly approved the new latin alphabet that had been devised by the abovementioned committee under atatürk’s guidance and leadership. this law called the acceptance and implimentation of the turkish letters (türk harflerinin kabulü ve tatbiki hakkındaki kanun) made the use of the new alphabet in public communications compulsory as of january 1, 1929 (aydemir, 1995). later on, the letter campaign was embarked on in order to teach the newly adopted language to the public. every journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 68 representative of the grand national assembly was to go to his region to illuminate the people there about the new alphabet. to that end, the reformers also established the nation schools (millet mektepleri). atatürk then traveled throughout the country with chalk and a portable blackboard, explaining the new turkish alphabet to the public almost in every setting such as schools, village squares, and other public places (metz, 1996). he appeared before public as schoolmaster to explain and justify the new reform, giving such speeches as follows: my friends, our rich and harmonious language will now be able to display itself with new turkish letter. we must free ourselves from these incomprehensible signs, which for centuries have held our minds in an iron vice. you must learn new turkish letter quickly. teach them to your compatriots, to women, and to men, to porters and to boatman. regard it as a patriotic and national duty….it is those who failed to understand the character of the turk and bound his mind in chains. now is the time to eradicate the errors of the past. we shall repair these errors…. our nation will show with its script and with its mind that its place is with the civilized world. (lewis, 1968, p. 278) with this law, it immediately became unlawful to write turkish with the arabic letters (metz, 1996). within a year, by the middle of 1929, the new script was used to print all publications. the books printed with arabic and persian scripts were strictly prohibited even for religious purposes. the old script could only be used for scholarly purposes (bosworth, 1965). teachers were also required to quit instructing in these languages in the schools (shaw & shaw, 1977). arabic and persian were no longer taught in schools as foreign languages, (dogancay, 1995) thereby drying up a formidable source for perpetuating arabic and persian influences (basak, 1986). with the introduction of the alphabet reform, discrimination against people of different world views and minorities was practiced in every field of education. for example, when the old darulfunun in istanbul was given a new charter and reconstituted as the university of istanbul, two-thirds of its teaching staff, over 100 scholars, lost their tenure and only the most dependable followers of reforms and kemalist line were able to keep their position (zürcher, 2003). it was just the beginning of many purges the turkish universities were to experience in the following years. the same process still continues to disadvantage some citizens who are critical of these reforms. kaya yilmaz 69 one of the most important reasons given by reformers for the adoption of the latin alphabet was that it was easier to read, write, and learn for illiterates, so it had potential to raise the literacy rate. the aim, hence, was to rescue the nation from ignorance by helping them become literate (tongul, 2004). it is argued that the alphabet reform made it easy for turkish people to read and write, boasting the literacy rate (metz, 1996; tseng, 2009). supporters of the alphabet reform have asserted that the arab alphabet whose voice structure is mostly based on not consonants but vowels is suitable to the structure and usage of the arabic language but it is not as such for the turkish language in that it does not meet the requirements of the turkish language, the voice structure of which demands more vowels. it is further argued that the alphabet reform like all other reforms initiated by atatürk stemmed directly from the historical, social, and cultural needs of turkish people and was capable of addressing these needs (korkmaz, 2009). other important reason given by reformers for the alphabet reform had to do with the need for the newly established turkish republic to become a respected member of the civilized nations; i.e., western civilization (çalık & baltaoğlu, 2001). focusing on the consequences of the alphabet reform, korkmaz (2009) noted that the alphabet reform helped the process of removing words of foreign origin, especially arabic and persian ones, from the turkish language, thereby paving the way for the turkification of the turkish language. some also claimed that the acceptance of the latin alphabet was very beneficial to foreigners living in turkey in that they especially businessmen were able to learn the language more easily after the change in alphabet çalık & baltaoğlu, 2001). it helped the republic of turkey, korkmaz (2009) asserted, get integrated with the western world, modifying the political image of the turkish state in terms of social and cultural factors in the eyes of the west. to her, it served as a means to facilitate the social, cultural, and economic development of the state (pp. 1477-1478). but, the author did not support her last assertion with evidence. like this author, those who put forward similar perspectives fail to support their position with sound evidence or rational argument. as a matter of fact, there is so much convincing evidence that refutes their perspectives as will be shown in the subsequent paragraphs. academicians of the era such as prof. mehmet fuat köprülü and prof. zeki velidi togan raised objections to the adoption of the latin alphabet in place of the journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 70 arabic script. the former put forward his perspective on the issue as follows: “those who favor the latin alphabet assume that it is the way that quickens our entrance to western civilization. but, that cannot be done with a change in our alphabet via the acceptance of the latin alphabet” (köprülü, 1926, as cited in albayrak, 1989, p. 481). köprülü later changed his negative view of the alphabet reform, writing positive comments about it. but, he attested that the motive behind this reform movement basically stemmed from the desire to westernize the turkish society and its culture. in his article entitled the alphabet reform, köprülü argued that “under atatürk’s leadership this revolution [the alphabet reform] reflected the will to escape from eastern culture and to enter the circle of the contemporary western culture. this fact was understood later by the opponents” (köprülü, 1938, as cited in korkmaz, 2009, p. 1477). the western press at that time also made comments on the alphabet reform. for instance, in november 2, 1928 under the heading “turks forbid writing” appleton postcrescent, an american newspaper, reported that the alphabet reform was part of mustafa kemal’s reform package that aimed to cut off the turks’ ties with eastern culture and to urge them to enter western civilization. other american newspapers such as nebraska state journal and middletown times herald made similar comments on the alphabet reform, praising mustafa kemal for his efforts to westernize turkish society and its culture (sarıkoyuncu, 2008). these newspapers implicitly stated that the alphabet reform was forcefully imposed upon the public. the change from the arabic script to the latin alphabet can be evaluated in light of theories of linguistic and language reform. to some theorists of linguistic, language reform can be defined as the deliberate manipulation of language triggered by the need to facilitate language use as well as to serve the underlying political, socio-economical, cultural, and ideological tendencies of the community at that time (nahir, 1984). in fact, “language itself is a microcosm of the social engineering (and violence) inflicted by the state on national identity” (göknar, 2008, p. 474). according to perry (2004), language reform is primarily not a linguistic and cultural but a sociopolitical process, the effects of which color the speech and literature of succeeding generations. as such, it is practiced mainly not by linguists but by generals, politicians, social ideologues, and other amateurs (p.238-239). according to these scholars, the turkish alphabet reform can safely be said kaya yilmaz 71 a sociopolitical and ideological undertaking in that it was carried out under the leadership of kemal atatürk as part of his modernization, westernization, secularization, and nationalization movements. as fishman (1971) forcefully argued, “seeking a new turkish identity (in contrast with its old ottoman-islamic identity) governmentally sponsored language planning conscientiously and vigorously moved to attain script from roman in place of arabic script to attain europeanization…” (p. 11). bingol (2009) also stated that aiming to build a western type nation-state, kemalists or reformers “sought a western identity for the new turkish republic” and therefore “favored two western concepts, secularization and nationalization, as important norms of the new turkish identity.... thus, they favored the adoption of western numerals and of the latin alphabet...” (p. 41). like these authors, a large number of scholars acknowledge that the most important reason for the alphabet reform was undoubtedly sociopolitical, ideological, and also psychological in intent. atatürk actually hoped to disconnect the cultural ties between future turkish generations and their ottoman islamic traditions (akural, 1984). he and his comrades favored the forceful exposure of turkish society to western cultural influences. so, his language policy functioned as an adjunct to the mental manipulation of the younger generation, by severing its cultural ties with the ottoman past (akural, 1984). it aimed to break turkey’s ties with the islamic east while simultaneously facilitating communication with the western world by pushing the nation toward the west (davison, 1998; katoğlu, 2007; lewis, 1999; şavkay, 2002). by abolishing the arabic script that was claimed to be unsuitable for turkish phonology, atatürk did irrevocably turn turkey toward the west, breaking a major link with its islamic heritage and its ties with the islamic world (ahmad, 1993; metz, 1996), “thereby inserting and enhancing a cultural and historical distance between the turkish republic and the ottoman empire” (çınar, 2005, p.148). the new nationalized generations were effectively prevented from the opportunity to learn arabic letters, “having little or no textual access to the recent ottoman-islamic past” (göknar, 2008, p. 488). turkish children educated after the alphabet reform couldn’t read the books their ancestors had written in ottoman turkish, unless they were transcribed or republished in latin alphabet (davison, 1998; cuthell, 2009). in the end, those who could read ottoman turkish journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 72 gradually decreased to the point where not the public but only historians can read thousands of centuries old documents in the ottoman archives. today, many scholars in the history departments do not have a strong command of ottoman turkish, which poses a great threat to the effort to understand the ottoman past (öztürk, 2004). accepting the sociopolitical character of the alphabet reform, bernard lewis, who is a renowned historian on the middle east history, agrees with the above scholars’ interpretations by acknowledging that “the basic purpose of the change in alphabet was not so much practical and pedagogical, as social and culturaland mustafa kemal, in forcing his people to accept it, was slamming a door on the past as well as opening a door to the future” (lewis, 1968, p. 273). lewis (1999) also noted that “the purpose of the change of alphabet was to break turkey’s ties with the islamic east” (p. 27). goldschmidt and davidson (2006) also made similar comments on atatürk’s reform efforts as follows: mustafa kemal devoted the last fifteen years of his life to changing turkey from the bastion of islam into a secular nation-state. islam, the lifestyle and basis of government for the turks since their conversion a thousand years earlier, was now to be replaced by western ways of behavior, administration, and justice. if persuasion failed, then the changes would be imposed by force. twice opposition parties arose within the grand national assembly, but in both cases kemal suppressed them (p. 229). likewise, zürcher (2003) pointed out the ideological motives behind the alphabet reform by stating that “it [the adoption of the latin alphabet] was yet another way to cut off turkish society from its ottoman and middle eastern islamic traditions and to reorient it towards the west” (p.189). seeing the alphabet reform as ideological, zürcher (2003) argued that the alphabet and language reforms together with educational institutions were exploited and mobilized to spread the kemalist message or the six principles of kemalism consisting of (1) republicanism, (2) nationalism, (3) populism, (4) statism (5) revolutionism or reformism and (6) secularism or laicism. “kemalizm remained a flexible concept and people with widely differing world views have been able to call themselves kemalist” (zürcher, 2003, p. 181) for the purposes of securing socioeconomic benefits for themselves under the guise of being a kemalist. implicit in the efforts to reform the alphabet was the impetus to attract the european community’ acceptance of turkey as a civilized nation. so-called intellectuals kaya yilmaz 73 of the west prejudicially described the ottomans or turkish as predatory barbarians. “the new republic under atatürk leadership felt that it could expiate the alleged sins of its predecessors only by renouncing its modern ottoman heritage, forgetting that neither the modern scandinavians nor english have ever been ashamed of their plundering ancestors, namely vikings and anglo-saxons, who wrested the british isles away from its celtic inhabitants” (basak, 1986, p. 100). the alphabet reform didn’t stop with the acceptance of the latin script, but kept going further. it was followed by the language reform that was aimed at turkification of the language. because preaching turkish nationalism in the denationalized and polyglot ottoman turkish would be a contradiction in terms, eliminating foreign words from ottoman language were regarded to be necessary. the language reform and the creation of a pure turkish were to be a symbol of nationalism (dogancay, 1995). so, a new phase of language reform emerged in the form of simplification and purification of the turkish language that was involved the expurgation of arabic and persian accretions. they were to be replaced by lexical items of turkic origin with neologisms based on turkish roots and suffixes. this second phase in the form of expurgation would be performed in two stages. the first stage was the simplification of the style in general, and the grammatical features in particular; and the second was the purification of the dispensable elements, only to be replaced by elements from native sources (basak, 1986). to promote a deeper sense of national identity among turkish people, kemal atatürk established the “turkish linguistic society”, later turned into the turkish language association (tdk) in 1932, that would discuss ways of simplifying and purifying the language. atatürk was quite aware of the influence of language on people’s worldviews and its role in the transmission of culture from the old generation to the young one. because reality is viewed in varying ways in different languages and linguistic terms or concepts are closely linked to social values, atatürk judged it essential that the turkish language be purified from arabic and persian influences. atatürk also hoped to see the emergence of a different worldview among turkish-speaking people through tdk (akural, 1993). tdk was initially vested with the task of language planning. in line with the ideologies of atatürk and his ruling party, the political process of authoritative decision making was seen in works in language planning (fishman, 1971). the goal for language journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 74 planning was the development of the turkish vernacular into a standardized national language that would be the vehicle of modernization and the tool for national unification. the main emphasis of the turkish language planning was on corpus cultivation, that is, the purification and renovation of the language as mentioned above through the production and dissemination of technical and scientific vocabulary and other neologisms (dogancay, 1995). it is further argued that the goal of corpus cultivation under the aegis of the turkish language association was twofold: (1) lexical modernization, enrichment of the language and the lexicon so that it would permit the developing language to fulfill new communication functions; and (2) renovation via simplification of the style in general and purification of the lexicon in particular (dogancay, 1995). to these ends, literary styles of arabic and persian were abandoned and the foreign borrowings were expurgated. what constituted the bulk of language planning were lexical renovation and modernization as well as attempted authentification, consisting mainly of the following processes: • collecting and publishing turkish words from the spoken everyday language of the anatolian people to replace arabic and persian borrowings. • researching old texts from the pre-islamic turkish era to find words that led fallen out of use and using other turkic languages as resources to borrow from. • compounding existing turkish words to make up new ones. • deriving new words via derivative suffices. • creating neologisms similar in sound to their european counterparts. (dogancay, 1995, p. 233) the main processes involved in this effort were collecting words from folk vernacular (derleme), from old texts (tarama), and deriving neologism (birleştirme). the outcome of this planning process was then codified and presented to the public through newspaper, grammars, dictionaries, and exemplary oral and written texts. arabic and persian grammatical forms were attacked and discouraged by reformers. lexicographers began to drop arabic and persian words from dictionaries, and collected words from dialects, ancient literary sources and even turkic languages from central asia to replace kaya yilmaz 75 the ottoman vocabulary (zürcher, 2003). whereas new words were coined from western words, arabic and persian words were removed from the school curriculum. new turkish words began to be published in 1934 and appeared in newspapers in 1935 (metz, 1996). the language reform movement further resulted in the sun-language theory (güneş-dil teorisi) in 1935. this theory stipulated that all languages could be etymologized back to an initial sound emitted when first man, a turk, looked at the sun and registered his vocal reaction. accordingly, turkish was not only the source of all languages but also the language of the oldest cultures, dating back to the stone and iron ages, then spreading via migration to other places. many words in french, german, and english whose origins were unknown could be traced back to old turkish words (dogancay, 1995; katoğlu, 2007). thus, “turkish was the first language on the earth and that all other languages developed from it; that turks were the first people and that all human achievement had essentially turkish origins” (shaw & shaw, 1977, p. 376). even though this theory didn’t gain much support in the face of the modern world, the process of simplifying and turkifying the language continued and still keeps going on in turkey. critical evaluation of the reforms a review of the critiques on the alphabet and language reforms shows that not every scholar blindly supports the efforts at language reform. shaw and shaw (1977) detect several drawbacks associated with the language reform movement. one is related to securing teacher for teaching the new language. they say, “the old problems of securing sufficient teachers for the more distant rural areas continued to limit the extension of the higher levels as rapidly as they were needed” (p. 386). there was also the perennial problem of finding teachers from the towns who were willing to serve in the primitive villages of anatolia. the schools continued to provide a kind of literary and classical education which failed to meet the needs of many citizens, especially in the rural areas. the gap or disparity in literacy level or educational attainment between urban and rural residents and man and women kept continuing. the majority of village children were not able to pursue their education beyond elementary school (shaw and shaw, 1977). the effect of language reform on the struggle against illiteracy was disappointing journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 76 as well. as opposed to the reformers’ claim that literacy rate would increase sharply with the advent of new language, illiteracy has remained relatively high, even compared with other developing countries (zürcher, 2003). the other ostensible reason given by reformers for the abandonment of the arabic alphabet is inconsistent with the results of scientific research as well. reformers asserted that the arabic alphabet had got inadequate vowel presentation and that it created irregularities in ottoman turkish spelling. the letter/sound relationship that the latin alphabet provided would facilitate the teaching of reading in the public schools. they regarded the phonic method as the only viable way to teach reading. the lack of fit between arabic letters and turkish phonology was considered to be the major reason for the very low rate of literacy. however, psycholinguistic researchers and reading specialist conclude that letter/sound correspondence is not a serious obstacle to the successful learning and reading (akural, 1984). so, the arabic alphabet was not a major obstacle in teaching reading, nor was it a determining cause of the widespread illiteracy in the turkish republic (p. 136). those scholars who cite the language reform as a forward step toward westernization and progress do not raise any questions concerning the actual efficacy of the latin alphabet for teaching reading. when evaluating the language reform, several questions need to be asked and answered in relation to democratic principles that atatürk and his reform associates claimed to have established. for the sake of westernizing the society, was it necessary to destroy and eliminate peoples’ cultural heritage by exposing them to swiftly implemented reforms that they didn’t want to embrace? can these forceful reform efforts be justifiable? does democracy justify the actions done against the will of people? was it pragmatic and justifiable to transform a traditional society with a cultural background far removed from europe by replacing those cultural elements with those of western society in an autocrat and authoritarian way? another important question concerns whether the turkish language reform succeeded in achieving its goal of national unity and whether it defeated its own purpose by creating styles which are an obvious indication of political separation. plenty of people, not just conservatives and religious groups, had been opposed to what they called the violence done to the language under the assumption of purification, and objected to the manipulation of the language as a tool of politics kaya yilmaz 77 (dogancay, 1995). language eventually became the reflection of one’s political position on the left-right spectrum. whereas the leftist groups used the language as an indication of their detachment from the past, the rightist ones were quite content with the language, viewing it as a comprehensible national language (dogancay, 1995). language purifiers whose work failed to comply with democratic values and principles tended to disregard the changing attitudes, interests, and the needs of the people whose language was reformed. in their attempts to create a pure language, members of the turkish language association were sometimes proposing new words in an arbitrary fashion, hence creating occasions, whereby people didn’t understand each other’s writings. the turkish language was not only impoverished under the language purification movement but also distorted as was the case in deriving new words via suffixes of western origin such as utilizing men/man to make öğretmen “teacher” from the verb öğret “to teach”, göçmen “refugee”, yazman, “clerk”, and the like (dogancay, 1995). many of these derivations were not compatible with the goals of language reform explained in previous sections on the grounds that they were not productive derivational suffixes of turkish but those of the english/german –man. another example showing the failure of language reformers to meet their goals was the creation of neologisms similar in sound to their european counterparts such as okul from “ecole” in french (school in english), komutan from “commandant”, teori from “theory” or “théorie” and so on (bosworth, 1965; dogancay, 1995). it is argued that tdk was defeating its own purpose of purifying the language from arabic/persian influences by adapting these european words instead. through the expurgation of the language, many shades of meaning were irretrievably lost, thereby impoverishing the language by forcing it into the straitjacket of monotonous, tedious repetitions. the result was an artificial language which turkish people cannot understand. it is also noted that with the new purified turkish, the gap between the language of the people and the elite minority was widening again and history was repeating itself (dogancay, 1995). as political scientists argue, the debate over the gap between the elite language and the language of the masses can be related to the fact that the neologism are mostly accepted and used by the left wing liberal sectors of the population who are usually the intellectuals in turkey, whereas the more journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 78 conservatives and religious sectors accept and use only some of the neologisms (dogancay, 1995; göknar, 2008). cuceloglu and slobin’s (1976) study which involved the participation of university students lucidly illustrates the above assertion. these scholars’ study have revealed that while traditional vocabulary is preferred by the right-wing, traditionalist, and the more religious sectors of the population, the reformed terms (the neologisms) are used by the left-wing, modernist, and secular sectors. they have stressed that the choice of terminology communicates important messages about the political and social ideology of the speaker, and these messages are interpreted differently on the basis of the political and social ideology of the listener (cuceloglu & slobin, 1976). their conclusion is that the language reform became political. this study clearly showed that university students attributed social and political attitudes and values to individuals on the basis of the style of turkish that they tended to use. sabuncuoglu (1985) also supports the above findings by arguing that there is a positive correlation between the use of neologisms within the turkish media, educational and other institutions and the political attitudes of the rulers of the time and the ideologies of individuals (as cited in dogancay, 1995). as a matter of fact, the language reform contributed to political partisanship by promoting the ideologies of certain political groups. conclusion in the light of the arguments and scholarly studies cited in this article, it can safely be concluded that the alphabet and language reforms were put into practice in a social, political, and cultural atmosphere that was characterized by conflicting assumptions, beliefs, visions, interests, values, and dispositions of the people of the two different worlds; i.e., western vs. eastern. these reform movements did not come from the down, so to speak the public, but from the top. turkish people wanted to protect their ancestors’ cultural heritage without feeling ashamed of their past. but, the reformers imposed the reforms on the public against their will. as part of a vide range of socio-cultural reforms, the alphabet and language reforms constituted an important step toward the transformation of turkish identity from eastern type to western one. they were also manipulated for disseminating nationalism and other ideologies. as a result of top-down reform movements, turkish society now experiences a sort of cultural identity crisis. kaya yilmaz 79 neither western nor eastern societies see and accept the people of turkey as those whose cultural background is similar to theirs. there are divergent perspectives on the alphabet and language reforms with respect to their causes and effects on turkish people. those who devalue traditional turkish culture with its strong ties with the eastern world and islamic heritage, like kemalists or vociferous proponents of atatürk’s reforms, usually make favorable comments on the alphabet and language reforms, tending to ignore and de-emphasize the actual reasons for these reforms and their destructive effects on the young generation. the alphabet reform did increase the literacy rate but at the expense of preventing the young generation from the opportunity to read their ancestors’ language. as acknowledged by respected historians who specialized in turkish history like b. lewis and j. s. shaw, there is an undeniable fact that the actual motive behind the alphabet and language reforms was not pedagogical or educational such as raising the literacy rate of the public but ideological and socio-political in character. the foremost aim of these reform movements was to cut off turkish people’s ties with both the ottoman past and the islamic world and to enter western civilization. these reforms were part of the westernization project geared toward creating a new social order or a secular nation-state on the basis of western values. for this very reason, the western world also viewed the reforms favorably as they constituted a further step toward the westernization of the turks. that is why it is not surprising to observe that the viewpoints of the advocates of the language reform are consistent with those of western states that have historically been the enemy of the turks and turkish states. there is a striking resemblance between the perspectives of kemalists and those of the western media on the issue. given that the west that has almost always viewed the turks and the islamic world as their traditional enemy and despised their culture applauded these reform movements, a conscious person needs to ponder over the question of whether the alphabet and language reforms in their entirety served to the interests of the west or the turks in the long run (it should be noted that kemalists or the elites who willingly embraced western values do not represent the majority of turkish society). this is the burning question to which kemalists and uncritical supporters of the reforms purposefully avoid giving objective answers. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 80 lastly, the alphabet reform also failed to accomplish one of its most important aims, catching up with the civilized world or developed nations in today’s words. 83 years have passed since the alphabet reform was put into practice, almost a century, but the turkish republic has not been able to reach the socio-economic standards, industrial and technological levels of developed countries. turkey is still categorized as a developing country. but, even though japanese like koreans did not change their traditional language which is difficult to learn (nor did they blindly imitate or embrace western values), they are among the top developed nations in the world today. as it stands, this fact constitutes compelling evidence against the superficial argument of kemalists and their followers that the alphabet reform and the acceptance of western values were necessary to catch up with the civilized world. therefore, it is time for educational policy makers to revive ottoman turkish as a means to help the young generation to return to their cultural roots, to preserve traditional turkish values rather than western ones, and to eradicate western identity forcefully imposed upon turkish people by reformers. to that end, ottoman turkish like other foreign languages needs to be offered in school curricula as a compulsory or an elective course at different levels of schooling from secondary to tertiary education. alternatively, to teach ottoman turkish to the young generation, the ministry of education can establish nation schools, launching on a sort of the letter campaign that was embarked on in the late 1920s following the alphabet reform. surely, putting this project into practice will take substantial amount of time and effort as it first requires raising teachers who can read and write ottoman turkish. but, if the past mistakes made by kemalists against the language are to be remedied, every effort should be made to initiate and successfully carry out that project. references / kaynakça ahmad, f. (1993). the making of modern turkey. london: routledge. akural, s. m. (1984). kemalist views on social change. in landau, j. m. (ed.), atatürk and the modernization of turkey (pp.125-152). colorado: westview press. albayrak, m. (1989). yeni türk harfleri’nin kabulü öncesinde, halk eğitimi ve yazı değişimi konusunda türk kamuoyunda bazı tartışmalar ve millet mektepleri’nin açılması (1862-1928). türk i̇nkılap tarihi enstitüsü atatürk yolu dergisi, 4, 463495. kaya yilmaz 81 aydemir, ş. s. (1995). tek adam mustafa kemal (1922-1938), cilt iii (12. basım). i̇stanbul: remzi kitabevi. basak, o. (1986). turkish language reform. in renda, g., & kortepeter, c. m. (eds.), the transformation of turkish culture: the ataturk legacy (pp. 95-111). princeton: the kingston press. bingol, y. (2009). language, identity and politics in turkey: nationalist discourse on creating a common turkic language. alternatives: turkish journal of international relations, 8(2), 40-52. bosworth, c. e. (1965). language reform and nationalism in modem turkey: a brief conspectus (second installment). the muslim world 55(2), 117-24. cuceloglu, d., & slobin, d. i. (1976). effects of the turkish language reform on person perception. berkeley: university of california language-behavior research laboratory. cuthell, d. c. (2009). atatürk, kemal (mustafa kemal). in g. ágoston and b. masters (eds.), encyclopedia of the ottoman empire (pp.56-60). new york: facts on file, inc. çalık, r., & baltaoğlu, a.g. (2001). alman kaynaklarında türk harf i̇nkılâbı ve yankıları (elçilik raporları-basın ve diğer kaynaklar). ankara üniversitesi türk i̇nkılâp tarihi enstitüsü atatürk yolu dergisi, 27-28, 263-283. çınar, a. (2005). modernity, islam, and secularism in turkey: bodies, places, and time. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. davison, r. h. (1998). turkey: a short history. huntingdon: the eothen press. dogancay, s. a. (1995). an evaluation of the turkish language reform after 60 years. language problems and language planning, 19(3), 221-249. ersanlı, b. (2002). the ottoman empire in the historiography of the kemalist era: a theory of fatal decline. in f. adanır and s. faroqhi (eds.), the ottomans and the balkans: a discussion of historiography (pp.115-154). leiden: brill. fishman, j. a. (1971). the impact of nationalism on language planning. in rubin, j. and jernudd, b (eds.), can language be planned? (pp.3-20). honolulu: university press of hawaii. goldschmidt, a. & davidson, l. (2006). a concise history of the middle east (8th edition). boulder, colorado: westview press. göknar, e. (2008). the novel in turkish: narrative tradition to nobel prize. in r. kasaba (ed.), the cambridge history of turkey, volume iv: turkey in the modern world (pp.472-503). new york: cambridge university press. karpat, k. h. (1970). modern turkey. in p. m. holt, ann k. s. lambton, and b. lewis (eds.), the cambridge history of islam, volume ib the central islamic lands since 1918 (pp.527-565). new york: cambridge university press. katoğlu, m. (2007). cumhuriyet türkiyesi’nde eğitim, kültür, sanat. in sina akşin (ed.), türkiye tarihi 4: çağdaş türkiye 1908-1980 (pp.393-504) (9. basım). i̇stanbul: cem yayınevi. kayıran, m., & metintaş, m. y. (2009). latin kökenli yeni türk alfabesine geçiş süreci ve millet mektepleri. dumlupınar üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi, 24, 191206. korkmaz, z. (2009). alfabe devriminin türk toplumu üzerindeki sosyal ve kültürel etkileri. turkish studies, 4/3, 1469-1480. köprülü, m. f. (1926). harf meselesi. millî mecmua, 75. journal of social studies education research 2011: 2(1), 59-82 82 köprülü, m. f. (1938). alfabe i̇nkılâbı. ülkü dergisi, 12(67), 1-2. lewis, b. (1968). the emergence of modern turkey. new york: oxford university press. lewis, g. (1999). the turkish language reform: a catastrophic success. oxford: oxford university press. metz, h. c. (1996). turkey: a country study. washington, dc: federal research division of the library of congress. milton-edwards, b. (2005). politics and religion. in youssef m. choueiri (ed.), a companion to the history of the middle east (pp.444-461). oxford: blackwell. nahir, m. (1984). language planning goals: a classification. language problems and language planning, 8, 294-327. öztürk, i̇. (2004). harf devrimi ve sonuçları. i̇stanbul: adam yayınları. perry, j. r. (2004). language reform in turkey and iran. in t. atabaki and e. j. zürcher (eds.), men of order: authoritarian modernization under atatürk and reza shah (pp. 238-259). new york: i.b. tauris & co. pitman, p. m. (1987). turkey: a country study. washington, dc: federal research division of the library of congress. römer, c. (2009). language and script. in g. ágoston and b. masters (eds.), encyclopedia of the ottoman empire (pp.322-323). new york: facts on file, inc. sarıkoyuncu, e. (2008). amerikan basınında türk harf ve dil devrimi. 80. yılında türk harf i̇nkılabı uluslararası sempozyumu, yeditepe üniversitesi, 10-11 kasım 2008. shaw, j.s. & shaw, e.k. (1977). history of the ottoman empire and modern turkey: volume ii reform, revolution, and republic. new york: cambridge university press. şavkay, t. (2002). dil devrimi. i̇stanbul: gelenek yayıncılık. şimşir, b. n. (1992). türk yazı devrimi. ankara: türk tarih kurumu yayınevi. şimşir, b. n. (2006). türk harf devrimi üzerine incelemeler. ankara: atam yayınları. tongul, n. (2004). türk harf i̇nkılâbı. ankara üniversitesi türk i̇nkılâp tarihi enstitüsü atatürk yolu dergisi, 33/34,103-130. toprak, b. (1981). islam and politica1 development in turkey. leiden: e. j. brill. tseng, l. (2009). harf i̇nkılabından bugüne kadar türkçe kelimelerin imlası üzerine bir değerlendirme. turkish studies: international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic, 4/3, 2190-2204. wolf-gazo, e. (1996). john dewey in turkey: an educational mission. journal of american studies of turkey, 3, 15-42. zürcher, e.j. (2003). turkey: a modern history (3rd edition). new york: i.b. tauris.